id	source	type	language	description
9		conservation	eng	Life history and population research are needed. Research is needed into population and habitat trends.
9		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mekong River basin, occurring from Lao PDR to northern Cambodia. It was described from a specimen taken from the Mekong at the entrance to the Mun River, Thailand.<br/><br/>The Mekong Giant Salmon Carp once occurred from the Lower Mekong, through the Khorat Plateau to Phnom Penh, but has recently been seen from Chiang Rai in northern Thailand (unconfirmed record). Its current distribution is northeastern Thailand and central Lao PDR, restricted to larger parts of rivers.
9		habitat	eng	The species mainly inhabits mainstreams, and frequently enter large tributaries. Breeds in summer, in clear water around rocky rapids in the Thai-Lao border. Breeds in faster flowing water/rapids.
9		population	eng	The species was once widespread in the mainstream Mekong River, but naturally rare and has been much reduced in recent years (Rainboth 1996). Its range has reduced and now larger individuals are very rarely found. It is rare in Lao PDR, and has likely disappeared from Thailand. Its population has reduced over the last decade by more than 90% (C.  Vidthayanon, pers. comm.) as a result of overfishing and habitat degradation.
9		threats	eng	Local overfishing (especially through drift gill nets), illegal fishing (explosives) impact its populations, and hydrographic change due to mainstream dams and climate change threaten its survival and recruitment. There are three further dams planned in the Thai part of the Mekong, within the species current distribution.
16		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in Parque Rio Doce, Minas Gerais State (Stallings <em>et al.</em>, 1998), and in Bananal Ecological Station in Sao Paulo State (Percequillo pers. comm.). It is found in Iguazu National Park (Argentina).
16		distribution	eng	This species is known from type locality (Espirito Santo, southeastern Brazil - Musser and Carleton 2005) and it has been collected more recently in a few more localities in Misiones province (Argentina) and others close to Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina. The known distribution is from Espirito Santo State, Brazil south along coast and inland to Misiones province in Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 1993, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999, Stallings <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Percequillo and Paglia pers. comm.).
16		habitat	eng	This rodent has been recorded in bamboo and secondary forest habitat (Percequillo pers. comm.). Specimens have also been collected from lowland rainforest.
16		population	eng	It is considered a rare species but there is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species. All localities determined by single specimens so as yet cannot estimate population or range.
16		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, habitat destruction and wood extraction (Percequillo pers. comm.).
18		conservation	eng	This rodent is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect the distinct area of Comarapa. Further research is needed in this area to try to find additional populations.
18		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality: Comarapa, Province Manuel M. Caballero, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It may range more widely, although it may also be restricted to the currently known range, which covers an area less than 100 km². It has been found at an elevation of 1,800 m asl.
18		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky areas within cloud forest. It is not known from outside of cloud forest, and may be specialized to rocky areas in this habitat. This rodent is vegetarian and lives in burrows. In common with other hystricognath rodents, it gives birth to precocial young after presumably a lengthy gestation period (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992).
18		population	eng	It is a rare species (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
18		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include clearance of cloud forest for cattle pasture. The range of the species is divided by a road, along which human colonization is taking place, further fragmenting the habitat. <em>Abrocoma</em> species have previously been collected for their fur, although it does not seem that this species was affected by the fur trade.
43		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
43		distribution	eng	Australian endemic. Found in coastal north-eastern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland.
43		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal swamps.
43		population	eng	Current population size is not known.
43		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is draining of the coastal swamps urban and rural development.
59		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population, distribution, ecology and threats to this species.
59		distribution	eng	This species is currently known to occur on Tenerife and La Palma islands. However, the scarcity of shells and paucity of sampling means that the range is uncertain and that the species might be present on more islands.
59		habitat	eng	This species is thought to occur in natural forests and their edges (Fayal-Brezal).
59		population	eng	There are no population trends available for this species. The species is very rare, but also very small and therefore not so easy to detect.
59		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the clearing of natural forest and wildfires.
73		distribution	eng	This species was restricted to the Hula basin (lake Huleh) in northern Israel.
73		habitat	eng	<em>A. hulensis</em> lived in Lake Hula and its adjacent marshes. It reached 230 mm total length, spawned from February to April.
73		population	eng	Now extinct. The fish was last recorded in 1975.
73		threats	eng	The Hula swamp was artificially drained by 1957 in order to obtain good agricultural land. Such agricultural development led to massive reduction in the number and size of aquatic ecosystems, due to the diversion and exploitation of their sources.
74		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
75		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
76		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - slow moving waters.
78		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - slow moving waters.
81		conservation	eng	Existing fisheries regulations should be helping to protect the species but they are seldom enforced
81		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Lake Ohrid in Albania and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
81		habitat	eng	It is a lacustrine species living at depth 40 to 60 m. Spawning occurs in December to February in the coastal areas. It is commercially exploited and also reared in fish farms.
81		population	eng	No data.
81		threats	eng	Intentional hybridization with <em>Salmo letnica</em> in fish farms during the last 50 years. The long-term impacts of this hybridization are however, unclear (Rakaj and Flloko 1995). Also subject to heavy fishing but it is still abundant. Future threats include water pollution due to agriculture and tourism.
137		conservation	eng	It is probably found in a few protected areas. In some areas (such as Watansoppeng in South Sulawesi) they are protected because they believe this bat brings good fortune, particularly with rains. More studies on the impact of the bushmeat trade on populations is needed.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
137		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sulawesi subregion, on Sulawesi, Butan, only recorded from Talenge (but likely from all of the Togeran Islands), Mangole, Sanana, Siau, Sangihe, and Selayar, in Indonesia. It is primarily a lowland species, occurring from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
137		habitat	eng	It roosts in trees in villages, and also in bamboo. It is commonly found along the coast and shows a medium tolerance of human disturbance. It is common near villages on Sula Islands (Flannery 1995). Individuals are commonly seen feeding on breadfruit trees and coconut (Flannery 1995). Neither of two adult females examined by Flannery in November 1991 were pregnant or lactating, but suggested seasonal breeding, with births occurring in February to March.
137		population	eng	The population status and trend are unknown but it is conspicuous where it occurs.
137		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging and agriculture is a major threat for this species. It is commonly hunted and found in bushmeat markets for local and regional trade.
138		conservation	eng	There is a protected area in the species range (Karekalang Selatan Hunting Park). Community education should be a priority in conservation efforts for this species. The impact of local hunting of this species needs to be determined.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
138		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Salebabu (95 km²) and Karekaleng (976 km²) in the Talaud group, in Indonesia. It was described in 1909 from three specimens and no further specimens had been recorded until Riley (2002) found the bat alive on the Talaud Islands. The type locality for this species is Lirong, Talaud Islands, Indonesia.
138		habitat	eng	This seems to be a forest-dependent species, but little information is available. This species is thought to be conspicuous due to its roosting habit. It is surprising that they have not been more commonly recorded. Forest habitat on Karakelang is in forest blocks protected under a newly established protected area and the edges of the island are used for agriculture, while on Salebabu there is predominantly agriculture with remnant forest in the low hills (Riley 2001).
138		population	eng	The population status and trend are unknown.
138		threats	eng	Known threats include hunting and habitat loss due to logging (Riley 2001).
139		conservation	eng	The species is protected under the Philippine Wildlife Act (Republic Act No. 9147, 2001). <em>A. jubatus</em> has been included in Appendix I of CITES since 1995 (the species had previously been included in Appendix II since 1990). Whilst the majority of the species' roosts are within formally designated protected areas, most receive very little protection (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Although officially afforded protection against hunting throughout most of its range in the Philippines (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006), there is little enforcement of the legislation. Three roosts, located on Boracay (off Panay Island), Subic (Luzon), Mambukal (Negros Occidental), are exempt from hunting pressure as much as these lie within popular tourist areas in which hunting is minimal and the bats are often used as an attraction (T.L. Mildenstein pers. comm. 2006). It remains uncertain whether effective enforcement of legislation is occurring at the Davao colony (Mindanao) (A.B. Cariño and N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006). On Boracay, developers have agreed not to build in the vicinity of roosts (Lorica pers. comm. 2006), although, the construction of a road within the roost site might adversely affect them. Community education and awareness efforts are being undertaken at Subic and Calinawan, and these efforts include addressing problems caused by hunting pressure (A.B. Cariño pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>There is a need for much great, and more focused, conservation efforts throughout its range, including the establishment and management of protected areas, and the control of hunting. A captive-breeding project is underway, but well-established captive-breeding facilities are needed.
139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread with the exception of in the Palawan faunal region and on the Batanes and Babuyan island groups (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It generally occurs at an altitude range of 0-1,100 m asl. It is only found in large roosts with <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em>. <em>P. vampyrus</em> roosts have been, and are often still assumed to have, <em>A. jubatus</em> present, but the presence of <em>A. jubatus</em> at many roosts has not been confirmed. Historic confirmed records exist for the following islands: Basilan, Biliran (forgaging from a roost on Maripipi - Rickart <em>et al</em>. (1993)), Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Cabo (in Igat Bay, in Zamboanga del Sur Province, off Mindanao), Cebu, Dinagat, Jolo, Leyte, Luzon, Marinduque, Maripipi, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Panay (formerly regarded as <em>Acerdon lucifer</em>, now extinct, though animals from Boracay (not <em>A. lucifer</em>) visit the north of the island to feed), Polillo, Sibutu and Siquijor. <br/><br/>Recent surveys by the Bat Count Project (source Bat Count Project 2002 and 2003 - T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007 - unless alternative source given) on the presence and absence of <em>A. jubatus</em> at various bat colonies on islands in the Philippines report its presence at the following sites in which it was found roosting together with larger numbers of <em>P. vampyrus</em>: 1) Bohol Island: Raja Sikatuna Protected Landscape, Bilar; 2) Boracay Island: a colony that feeds on nearby Panay; 3) Cebu: a possible roost at Dalaguete (Pangutalan pers. comm. 2006); 4) Leyte: a colony occurs on Mount Pangasugan; 5) Luzon: Subic Forest Watershed Reserve, Subic Bay; Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Divilacan; Ilocos Norte province, Pangasinan province, Baler in Aurora province, and Calamba in Laguna province (P. Alviola pers. obs. 2005); and a possible roost on Mount Banahaw (D. Balete pers. obs. 2003); 6) Mindanao: Occidental Mindoro (Bilog na Sapa); Mutia, Calamba and Mount Malindang, Misamis Occidenta (Ramayla pers. obs.); Mount Hamguitan, Eastern Mindanao (D. Balete pers. obs. 2005); Malagos Forest Watershed Reserve, Davao (N.R. Ingle pers. obs. 2004; Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007; and Bat Count Project 2002 and 2003); and possible roost sites, where the presence of the species requires confirmation, in: Magum and Mati, Davao Oriental; Malita, Davao del Sur; and Mount Hilong-hilong, in the lowland dipterocarp forest of Cantilan and Carrascal, Surigao del Sur (Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007); 7) Mindoro: a roost occurs at Sablayan and possibly on the eastern side of the island (Saulog and Garcia 2005); 8) Negros: Calinawan, Enrique Villanueva and Sibulan, Negros Oriental; Mambukal, Minoyan, Murcia and Mount Patag, Negros Occidental; and a possible roost in the Manlukahoc area (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006); and 9) Polillo: a roost occurs on privately owned land (Alviola pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The Bat Count Project has surveyed the following colonies of <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> and did not find any <em>A. jubatus</em> (though it is unclear that the species occurred in any of these roosts historically (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006)): 1) Cebu: Tabunan and Dalaguete; 2) Mindanao: Bongo Island, Maguindanao Province; and Pinol and Maitum, Sarangani Province; 3) Negros Oriental (southeast Negros): Sagay, Vallehermosa and San Jose; and 4) Panay: Batbatan Island and Culasi, Antique Province. The Siquijor populations are possibly extinct (Lepiten 1995); this species has been reported absent from there recently (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</>. 2007).
139		habitat	eng	This is amongst the heaviest of the world's bats at up to 2.6 pounds (1.2 kg). Currently, it is always found roosting with <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> (and sometimes <em>Pteropus hypomelanus</em>), but it is uncertain if it has always occurred in mixed roosts). It typically roosts in trees, but also in mangroves, usually on small islands (Hoogstraal 1951, Rabor 1986, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is generally high roost site fidelity (T.L. Mildenstein pers. comm. 2006), and roost sites are often located on steep slopes and cliff edges in areas that are difficult to access by humans. A. jubatus is commonly found in trees on the periphery of the roost in areas that are less likely to be disturbed (Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006).<br/> <br/>Foraging occurs in primary and high-quality second-growth forest (Stier and Mildenstein 2005, Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species may occasionally leave this type of habitat, using streams where fig trees grow on banks; they rarely forage in orchards on agricultural trees (Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005). On Mindanao, farmers believe that <em>A. jubatus</em> is a pest in fruit orchards, but it is possible that these individuals are misidentified <em>P. vampyrus</em> which are known to use orchards regularly (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>In captivity young are produced only once every two years (Cariño 2004). This may not reflect productivity in the wild, which in other species has been found to be quite different to productivity in captivity (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006), and is probably higher in captivity than in the wild.
139		population	eng	During the late 1800s and early 1900s there were many anecdotal reports of 100,000 bats in presumed mixed species colonies. Although there are a few mixed colonies that number between 10,000 and 30,000 individuals (from Bat Count surveys - T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006), generally, recent observations of mixed colonies have reported maximum sizes of 5,000 and fewer individuals, generally, recent observations have been of colonies with a maximum of 5,000 individuals of mixed species, and usually much smaller numbers have been reported (Heaney and Heideman 1987; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Mudar and Allen 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Utzurrum 1992). There are, however, several colonies that exceed 5,000 individuals of mixed species. <br/><br/>Historically,  most colonies of large fruit bats have been assumed to include <em>Acerodon jubatus</em>, but the actual presence of <em>A. jubatus</em> in many colonies has not been confirmed. Current surveys have shown that many fruit bat colonies do not have any <em>A. jubatus</em> at all, and when <em>A. jubatus</em> is present, it has only been found in mixed colonies roosts with <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> (and sometimes also with <em>Pteropus hypomelanus</em>). Since most mixed colonies are known only through observation, it it has not been determined what proportion of animals in these many colonies are <em>A. jubatus</em> (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <em>A. jubatus</em> numbers in a current colony are a small proportion of the total colony size, rarely approaching 20% of the individuals in the roost and in most cases around 5% (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Based on species composition of sites that are hunted, only 5% of animals are <em>A. jubatus</em> - T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is known to be forest-dependent (Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005; Stier and Mildenstein 2005), and it has been determined that 90% of the Philippines original old-growth forest cover has been destroyed (Kummer 1992), although roughly 10-15% secondary forest is estimated to remain. Much of this extant forest occurs above 1,000 m asl, where <em>A. jubatus</em> is unlikely to occur. In a mixed roost of <em>A. jubatus</em> and <em>P. vampyrus</em> on Mindanao, <em>A. jubatus</em> was observed in the forest (away from the forest edge), whereas <em>P. vampyrus</em> were at the periphery, and this might reflect a sensitivity of <em>A. jubatus</em> to disturbance (Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Work by the Bat Count Project has shown that populations are small and the number of remaining populations is fewer than were thought to exist historically. Bat Count has also shown that the total colony size (for both <em>A. jubatus</em> and <em>P. vampyrus</em>) correlates closely with available natural forest cover within a foraging range of 15 km², indicating roosting populations are habitat-limited (T.L. Mildenstein, S.C. Stier and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Of the 23 roosts sampled by Bat Count, only nine of these were found to contain <em>A. jubatus</em> during several survey days for each roost. For most other roosts surveyed by Bat Count Philippines, the presence of the species was not documented, (and repeat visits are necessary to confirm absence), but it is not known whether <em>A. jubatus</em> occurred in these roosts historically (T.L. Mildenstein, S.C. Stier and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>L. Heaney (pers. comm. 2006) estimates the total population of <em>A. jubatus</em> to be around one or two percent of what it was 200 years ago and that, if current trends continue, no old-growth lowland forest will remain by 2030. Thus, much of the future population trend for this species will depend on: 1) the extent of regenerating secondary forest; and 2) the ability of A jubatus to persist in secondary forest. A rough estimate of the total population of A. jubatus is around 10,000 individuals (and probably no more than 20,000) (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Carino <em>in litt</em>. 2007).
139		threats	eng	<em>Acerodon jubatus</em> is a known forest specialist (Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stier and Mildenstein 2005) and it has been determined that more than 90% of the Philippines’ original old-growth forest cover has been destroyed (Kummer 1992). The species is threatened by severe habitat loss and hunting throughout its range (including within protected areas). Remaining total forest cover in the Philippines is roughly in the region of 16-20%, possibly slightly higher - including high-elevation mossy forest and secondary forest (L. Heaney <em>in litt</em>. 2007). However, the area of good quality lowland forest, upon which the species depends, is much less than this.<br/><br/>In Samar and Pangasinan (Luzon), open-cast mines are removing forest cover (M. Pedregosa pers. comm. 2006) and in southwestern Negros, a roost of this species occurs in a copper and gold mining claim area (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006). The roost on Polillo which occurs on privately owned land is also under threat from human disturbance (P. Alviola pers. comm. 2006) and the population on Boracay is threatened by infrastructure development for tourism (M. Lorica pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Many flying fox colonies have moved from their original roosting sites due to hunting pressure (Mildenstein and Cariño in litt. 2007). A colony which may include A. jubatus in Davao Oriental (Mindanao) has transferred from its original roost due to hunting pressure by loggers who take flying foxes for food (information from a guide during an interview by the Philippine Eagle Foundation (Gomez in litt. 2007)). <br/><br/>This species is hunted throughout its range. Three roost sites (Boracay; Subic Bay, Luzon; and Mambukal, Negros) are formally protected from hunting by local government, while at most other roost sites, A. jubatus experiences regular hunting pressure (Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Whether or not the roost site is protected from hunting, a large amount of hunting occurs away from the roosts during night-time foraging, which commonly occurs in unprotected forests kilometres from the roost. Generally <em>A. jubatus</em> looks similar to the species with which it roosts, and hunters are not aware of which species they are taking (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Hunters use lines with hooks (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006), shot guns, rifles, and air guns (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In Mindanao, Muslim communities are not known to hunt bats and there may be more roosts in this region that do not experience heavy hunting pressure (T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007), but most of the roosts surveyed in this region are of <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> only (T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>An ethnobiological survey of wildlife hunters on Negros Island (Cariño <em>et al.</em> 2006) found that from a total of 150 respondents, 20 reported hunting bats and birds using traditional traps, and 60 reported using air guns. Hunting and eating bats as ‘pulutan’ (any snack eaten while consuming alcohol) is enjoyed. Individual bats can be sold on Negros for 15-30 pesos (0.30-0.60US$) depending on seasonal demand for pulutan. In 2004, the species was reported for sale in Davao in Calinan province (Mindanao) (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2004). <em>A. jubatus</em>, along with other species, is reportedly harvested for food from the mixed species roost at the prison at Sablayan (Mindoro) (H. Garcia pers. comm. 2006); this species is also consumed by locals and enters commercial trade. In general, hunters and fruit bat buyers think of <em>A. jubatus</em> as quite odourous compared to <em>P. vampyrus</em>. In Bataan province (Luzon), <em>A. jubatus</em> is not usually sold because of this (T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>International trade data showed that previously thousands of individuals of fruit bats were exported annually (Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. 1992), but it is not clear that many of these were <em>A. jubatus</em>. In any case, even if this was a threat, because of CITES listing, better enforcement of legislation, and increased efforts by customs in both Guam and the Philippines, international trade in Philippines fruit bats to Guam has now ceased.
140		conservation	eng	<em>A. leucotis</em> has been listed in Appendix II of CITES since 1990 and has been recorded in a number of protected areas. Stricter habitat protection, and control of hunding, are both important conservation measures that need to be implemented. Appropriate survey techniques should be identified for this species and futher surveys undertaken.
140		distribution	eng	The Palawan fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Palawan Faunal Region (Palawan, Basuanga, Balabac, and Bat Islands (the latter a tiny island in Honda bay) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998)). The species has been recorded at sea level, but its upper altitudinal limit is not known. Appropriate sampling methods for <em>A. leucotis</em> have not yet been identified (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006), and because it  does not form large colonies it might be overlooked during surveys (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). A survey using mist nets in the canopy of secondary forest in San Vicente, Dumuran, in the north east of the Palawan Island did not record any individuals of the species (P. Widman pers. comm. 2006). The Bat Count Project survey failed to locate the species on Rasa and Bat island (A. Carino pers. comm. 2006)
140		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and dense secondary forest in inconspicuous locations, making small tents in the tree tops. It has also been found roosting in degraded secondary forest/grassland mosaic at around eight-12 m in the canopy (P. Widman pers. comm. 2006). The species may live for at least five years, possibly up to six to eight years, and so this would lead to a roughly estimated generation time of three years, possibly four to five years (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).
140		population	eng	<em>A. leucotis</em> might be moderately common in primary and secondary forest (Hoogstraal 1951; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, appropriate survey methods have not been identified for this species of flying fox which does not usually form large colonies, and as a result it might not be recorded in surveys of places where it does occur (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). Overall, this species is believed to be in significant decline, and it now longer roosts in large colonies in southern Palawan.
140		threats	eng	In southern Palawan, <em>A. leucotis</em> seems to have declined due to hunting (P. Widman pers. comm. 2006), and it is no longer found in large roosting colonies in rattan, probably in part due to over-hunting for food. It is likely that much of the remaining secondary forest will be converted to palm and rubber plantations in the future.
142		conservation	eng	The species may occur in protected areas. Surveys for this species are required on the island of Komodo.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
142		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Indonesia in Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Alor, Sumba, Moyo and Timor islands.
142		habitat	eng	It is a coastal species occurring from sea level up to 450 m asl, and roosts in colonies of 300-500 individuals. It has been observed roosting in a mango tree together with <em>Pteropus vampiris</em> and is most often caught in gardens and secondary forests (U. Sinaga pers. comm.).
142		population	eng	The population status and trend are unknown. It is believed to be uncommon (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
142		threats	eng	Threats to this species include hunting (at roosts, and they are often seen in markets), and massive forest loss due to logging in Nusa Tenggara.
212		conservation	eng	Not in a formal protected area and no measures have been taken for the species conservation.
212		distribution	eng	Endemic to Dianchi Lake (surface area 292.6 km²), Yunnan Province, China. This species occurs only in the inshore areas of the lake, giving a total range area of around 58 km².
212		habitat	eng	Clear water usually with indigenous macrophytes.This species is a small fish. Female fishes have an ovipositor which is used to deposit eggs inside bivalves, juveniles hatch and remain in the bivalve until they can swim.
212		population	eng	Only ever known from the Lake, the population is unknown.
212		threats	eng	The population has badly declined in Lake Dianchi due to introduced fishes,  especially closely related species, e.g., <em>Acheilognathus macropterus</em>,  <em>A. taenianalis</em>, <em>A. chankaensis</em> and <em>Rhodeus ocellatus</em>. These  species share the same habitat with <em>Acheilognathus elongates</em> and have  competed with it. Water pollution has also caused the loss of breeding sites due  to the local extinction of many bivalves which are the host of the young  <em>Acheilognathus elongates</em>.
214		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution, ecology, habitat requirements is required.
214		distribution	eng	Globally, the species is known from only the type locality in Lunda in eastern Angola (Congo River basin) and one other doubtful record at Mkushi River in central Zambia (Zambezi River Basin), close to the type locality.
214		habitat	eng	Swampy rivers (Pinhey 1984).
214		population	eng	Current population size is not known.
214		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are not known.
215		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, however there are plans in place for some of the habitats.&#160; Menez (2011) provided data on this species for the Gibraltar Biodiversity Plan (Menez in: Perez, CE. 2006. Biodiversity Action Plan: Planning for Nature. The Gibraltar Ornithological and&#160; Natural History Society. Gibraltar) One locations on the The Upper Rock is fully protected.
215		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gibraltar and Spain. In Gibraltar, it is only known from four locations: Windmill Hill Flats, Mediterranean Steps, the slopes around Little Bay and the Europa Foreshore (Menez 2005). In Spain, there is a recent record of a dead shell from have reported a shell from in Genalguacil, in the valley of the Genal river (Malaga) (Gavira Romero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).&#160; As this record comes from floodline debris from the river, the exact location is uncertain, however this would extend the range, if the site can be found.
215		habitat	eng	This species is found in soil in rock crevices, scree and steppe (often with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Acanthus mollis</span>  growing nearby) (Menez, pers. comm., 2010).
215		population	eng	Menez (2005) provides information on populations in Gibraltar. No living specimens have yet been found, however recent shells found at all four sites, indicating that the species are extant,&#160; but living in subterranean habitats, so only found in litter and soil detritus. More work is needed to accurately assess population etc. of this species, as well as (indeed) to find live material (see above). Menez (2011, pers. comm., plans further research in 2011-2).
215		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known on the Upper Rock, as it lies within a protected area, however the location on Windmill Flats was formerly liable to disturbance from the military for target practice resulting in trampling, vegetation being disturbed, and hence subject to frequent disturbance (Menez, pers. comm., 2011). Future plans for this site, provides new threats, as planning permission has been approved for major development near Windmill Hill (a power station) and this will possibly impact on land mollusc and other faunas in the vicinity (Menez, pers. comm., 2011).
217		conservation	eng	<p>The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern (Legakis&#160;and&#160;Maraghou 2009). &#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species. Due to there only being five locations known of this species it is recommended that there is more research into the population size, distribution and trends of this species.</p>
217		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, located in Ipirus and the Ionian Islands of Kefallonia and Lefkada (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989).
217		habitat	eng	This species is found in shaded, humid environments such as woodlands. It is usually found in the leaf litter.
217		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is&#160;known only from a few localities.&#160;There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
217		threats	eng	Destruction of this species' woodland habitat can&#160;reduce localised populations of the species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
219		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and is protected under national legislation throughout most of its extant and some of its former range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996. However, a number of countries permit cheetahs to be killed in defence of life and livestock (Purchase <em>et al.</em>, 2007).  In Namibia, for example, one is permitted to retain the skin as long as the killing is reported  (Nowell, 1996).  Such policies may at least permit cheetah killing to be monitored.<br/><br/>Promotion of livestock management regimes which minimize conflict with cheetahs are an important conservation measure, pioneered by the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia (Marker <em>et al.</em>, 2003) but now being applied more widely.  Elements of successful conservation management include availability of wild prey and more intensive livestock herd protection, especially using guard dogs.<br/><br/>The Asiatic Cheetah is protected in Iran. The main protected areas for this species include Kavir National Park, Khar Touran National Park and Naybandan Wildlife Refuge, Bafgh P.A., and Dar Anjir Wildlife Refuge. A radio-telemetry study in Iran is providing the first detailed data on cheetahs in Iran (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>  In 2009, the Afghan Government placed this species on the country’s Protected Species List, meaning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan is now illegal.<br/><br/>Several countries, including Namibia and Kenya, have developed national action plans or conservation strategies for cheetahs (Nowell, 1996; Durant, 2007); regional conservation strategies have been developed for Southern (Dickman <em>et al.</em>, 2006; Anon., 2008) and Eastern Africa (Anon., 2007); and there is also a global strategy (Bartels <em>et al.</em>, 2002).  These plans call for a number of improvements in monitoring, surveys and information exchange (to better understand cheetah distribution and status); promotion of human-cheetah coexistence (to reduce conflict and develop incentives to conserve cheetahs); national land use planning (to ensure viable national cheetah populations); capacity building (to improve management); policy and legislation (to ensure legal consistency and remove loopholes) and advocacy (to raise awareness of and political commitment to cheetah conservation needs).<br/><br/>Several specialist networks of cheetah conservationists have been established, including the Global Cheetah Forum (affiliated with the IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group) and the North African Regional Cheetah Action Group (NARCAG/OGRAN).  The IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group maintains a Cheetah Conservation Compendium with a reference library and detailed country information (www.catsg.org)<br/><br/>Important protected areas that represent strongholds for Cheetah populations in Africa include the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa, Botswana), Nxai Pan and Chobe National Parks, and Okavango Delta (Botswana), Etosha N.P. (Namibia), Liuwa Plains N.P. (Zambia), and, of course, the Serengeti N.P. (Tanzania, Kenya) (Caro in press). In West Africa, the major remaining stronghold for the species is the WAPO protected areas complex. There is a surviving population of Cheetah in the Ahaggar National Park in Algeria (Wacher <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>However, most cheetah occur outside of protected areas (where they are often persecuted as pests), and given their need for large areas they require conservation action on a landscape scale (for example, human-wildlife conflict mitigation, zoning for land-use to maintain habitat connectivity, and wild prey restoration) (Marker, 2002; Anon., 2007).
219		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and is protected under national legislation throughout most of its extant and some of its former range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996. However, a number of countries permit cheetahs to be killed in defence of life and livestock (Purchase <em>et al.</em>, 2007).  In Namibia, for example, one is permitted to retain the skin as long as the killing is reported  (Nowell, 1996).  Such policies may at least permit cheetah killing to be monitored.<br/><br/>Promotion of livestock management regimes which minimize conflict with cheetahs are an important conservation measure, pioneered by the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia (Marker <em>et al.</em>, 2003) but now being applied more widely.  Elements of successful conservation management include availability of wild prey and more intensive livestock herd protection, especially using guard dogs.<br/><br/>The Asiatic Cheetah is protected in Iran. The main protected areas for this species include Kavir National Park, Khar Touran National Park and Naybandan Wildlife Refuge, Bafgh P.A., and Dar Anjir Wildlife Refuge. A radio-telemetry study in Iran is providing the first detailed data on cheetahs in Iran (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Several countries, including Namibia and Kenya, have developed national action plans or conservation strategies for cheetahs (Nowell, 1996; Durant, 2007); regional conservation strategies have been developed for Southern (Dickman <em>et al.</em>, 2006; Anon., 2008) and Eastern Africa (Anon., 2007); and there is also a global strategy (Bartels <em>et al.</em>, 2002).  These plans call for a number of improvements in monitoring, surveys and information exchange (to better understand cheetah distribution and status); promotion of human-cheetah coexistence (to reduce conflict and develop incentives to conserve cheetahs); national land use planning (to ensure viable national cheetah populations); capacity building (to improve management); policy and legislation (to ensure legal consistency and remove loopholes) and advocacy (to raise awareness of and political commitment to cheetah conservation needs).<br/><br/>Several specialist networks of cheetah conservationists have been established, including the Global Cheetah Forum (affiliated with the IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group) and the North African Regional Cheetah Action Group (NARCAG/OGRAN).  The IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group maintains a Cheetah Conservation Compendium with a reference library and detailed country information (www.catsg.org)<br/><br/>Important protected areas that represent strongholds for Cheetah populations in Africa include the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa, Botswana), Nxai Pan and Chobe National Parks, and Okavango Delta (Botswana), Etosha N.P. (Namibia), Liuwa Plains N.P. (Zambia), and, of course, the Serengeti N.P. (Tanzania, Kenya) (Caro in press). In West Africa, the major remaining stronghold for the species is the WAPO protected areas complex. There is a surviving population of Cheetah in the Ahaggar National Park in Algeria (Wacher <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>However, most cheetah occur outside of protected areas (where they are often persecuted as pests), and given their need for large areas they require conservation action on a landscape scale (for example, human-wildlife conflict mitigation, zoning for land-use to maintain habitat connectivity, and wild prey restoration) (Marker, 2002; Anon., 2007).
219		distribution	eng	Cheetahs have disappeared from huge areas of their historic range.  They still occur widely, but sparsely, in Africa, but Ray <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimate that the cheetahs have disappeared from 76% of their historic range on the continent.<br/><br/>In Asia, the cheetah has lost almost all its vast historic range, which within the last century extended from the shores of the Mediterranean and the Arabian peninsula, north to the northern shores of the Caspian and Aral Seas, and west through Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan into central India (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Habibi 2004; Mallon 2007).  Part of the reason for their disappearance in Asia is live captures of cheetahs, which were trained to hunt for the aristocracy (Divyabhanusingh, 1995).  The main cause, however, was likely depletion of the wild prey base, especially gazelles, as well as direct killing of cheetahs and development of their habitat (Mallon, 2007).  The Asiatic cheetah (A. j. venaticus) is now known to survive only in Iran, where it is Critically Endangered.  Persistence in Pakistan is unlikely (Husain 2001).  While Habibi (2004) considers it extinct in Afghanistan, a cheetah skin of unknown origin was found in a marketplace in western Afghanistan in 2007 (L. Hunter pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Southern and Eastern Africa are the species strongholds, although there has been significant range loss in parts of these regions.  Cheetahs are known to occur only in 6% of their historical range in Eastern Africa (310,586 km²), and possibly occur in another 892,658 km² (Anon. 2007).  Current distribution in several countries remains largely unknown (Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Angola, Mozambique and Zambia).  Cheetahs are known to be extirpated from large areas in Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Malawi (Anon. 2007, 2008).  In some parts of southern Africa they occur extensively outside protected areas on commercial ranch land where other large predators (lions and hyenas) have been extirpated (Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe) (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs have declined most drastically in northern and western Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  The subspecies (<em>A. j. heckii</em>) is listed as Critically Endangered; see subspecies account for detailed information on northwest Africa.  <br/><br/>Cheetah persistence in the eastern Sahara is unlikely.<br/><br/>Cheetahs are possibly extinct in Libya. Specimens were previously collected near the Egyptian border (northeastern part of the country), in Dahra, Sirtica (north-central), Bir Ghazal and Hamada-el-Homra (northwestern). Other records include Fezzan, Khor-el-Gifa, Gikherra (eastern), El Ftaia (near coastal area) and Mizda (Hufnagl 1972). Myers (1975) mentioned that cheetahs were noted in Niger/Libyan borders as well as Niger/Algerian borders. An inquiry with local Tuaregs suggested that the species might not longer be present in Akoukas Mountains (J.-L. Bernezat pers. comm. 2007).  <br/><br/>In Tunisia, cheetahs were formerly reported to roam in sandy expanses south of Chott-el-Djerid, the desert areas south of Foum Tatahouine and the Grand Erg Occidental and its surroundings (Schomber and Kock 1960). There are no recent records on the species in the country which make it presumably extinct. The El-Borma region, near the Algerian boundaries, was probably among the areas where cheetahs have last been seen in 1974 and documented (Louis 1979).  <br/><br/>As far as Egypt is concerned, data collated during the last few decades suggest that cheetahs are extremely rare, if not extinct, in the country. Osborn and Helmy (1980) provided original and literature-based records from the Matrouh Governorate and Sinai. According to Saleh <em>et al</em>. (2001), cheetahs became extinct from most of the Mediterranean coastal region and easily accessible inland habitats of El-Maghra and Siwa oases one decade after being widely distributed in the northern Egyptian Western Desert until the 1970s. The main reasons explaining cheetah extirpation have been attributed to extensive and uncontrolled hunting and the development of coastal lands (Saleh <em>et al</em>. 2001). If not completely vanished, the species is believed to be confined, with a very low density, to the Western Desert and around the Qattara Depression (Saleh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Hoath, 2003). Recent records from North Sinai, including one female and three cubs killed by Bedouin hunters in 1993, as well as one female seen with two cubs in November 1994, have not been verified (Hoath 2003). <br/><br/>In the eastern Sahel and central Africa, there is little current information:<br/><br/>Current cheetah distribution in most of its historic range in Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia are unknown (Anon. 1997).  In Chad, although cheetahs were still present and seen occasionally in Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim in the 1970s (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008). A recent wildlife survey in western and central Chad, including Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve, conducted by the Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group in 2001, failed to detect any cheetah presence in the region (Monfort <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the Central Saharan (northern) part of the country, cheetahs still occur, in very low density, in and around the Ennedi Massif (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008 based on Rava?s pers. comm.). There is no information on previously reported populations in the Tibesti Mountains (Central Sahara). In southeastern Chad, cheetahs may still survive to date in Zakouma National Park (population still present in the protected area as of 2006 [N. Vanherle pers. comm. 2008]). <br/><br/>In central Africa, current cheetah distribution in the savanna regions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo is unknown (Marker 2002).  It is considered extinct in Rwanda and Burundi, and possibly extinct in Nigeria.  Rosevear (1974) underlined the paucity of positive records for Nigeria and mentioned Lake Chad, Yan Tumaki (Katsina Division) and possibly Bauchi Plateau as localities for three specimens kept in the British Museum. Happold (1987) raised the possibility of their occurrence near Cameroonian boundaries, and also in the Yankari Game Reserve (Happold 1987). Recent reports from protected area managers and wildlife traders indicate that a threatened small cheetah population may still range in restricted areas in north-centre and northeastern parts of the country (R. Ikemeh pers. comm. 2008).
219		distribution	eng	Cheetahs have disappeared from huge areas of their historic range.  They still occur widely, but sparsely, in Africa, but Ray <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimate that the cheetahs have disappeared from 76% of their historic range on the continent.<br/><br/>In Asia, the cheetah has lost almost all its vast historic range, which within the last century extended from the shores of the Mediterranean and the Arabian peninsula, north to the northern shores of the Caspian and Aral Seas, and west through Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan into central India (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Habibi 2004; Mallon 2007).  Part of the reason for their disappearance in Asia is live captures of cheetahs, which were trained to hunt for the aristocracy (Divyabhanusingh, 1995).  The main cause, however, was likely depletion of the wild prey base, especially gazelles, as well as direct killing of cheetahs and development of their habitat (Mallon, 2007).  The Asiatic cheetah (A. j. venaticus) is now known to survive only in Iran, where it is Critically Endangered.  Persistence in Pakistan is unlikely (Husain 2001).  While Habibi (2004) considers it extinct in Afghanistan, a cheetah skin of unknown origin was found in a marketplace in western Afghanistan in 2007 (L. Hunter pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Southern and Eastern Africa are the species strongholds, although there has been significant range loss in parts of these regions.  Cheetahs are known to occur only in 6% of their historical range in Eastern Africa (310,586 km²), and possibly occur in another 892,658 km² (Anon. 2007).  Current distribution in several countries remains largely unknown (Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Angola, Mozambique and Zambia).  Cheetahs are known to be extirpated from large areas in Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Malawi (Anon. 2007, 2008).  In some parts of southern Africa they occur extensively outside protected areas on commercial ranch land where other large predators (lions and hyenas) have been extirpated (Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe) (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs have declined most drastically in northern and western Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  The subspecies (<em>A. j. heckii</em>) is listed as Critically Endangered; see subspecies account for detailed information on northwest Africa.  <br/><br/>Cheetah persistence in the eastern Sahara is unlikely.<br/><br/>Cheetahs are possibly extinct in Libya. Specimens were previously collected near the Egyptian border (northeastern part of the country), in Dahra, Sirtica (north-central), Bir Ghazal and Hamada-el-Homra (northwestern). Other records include Fezzan, Khor-el-Gifa, Gikherra (eastern), El Ftaia (near coastal area) and Mizda (Hufnagl 1972). Myers (1975) mentioned that cheetahs were noted in Niger/Libyan borders as well as Niger/Algerian borders. An inquiry with local Tuaregs suggested that the species might not longer be present in Akoukas Mountains (J.-L. Bernezat pers. comm. 2007).  <br/><br/>In Tunisia, cheetahs were formerly reported to roam in sandy expanses south of Chott-el-Djerid, the desert areas south of Foum Tatahouine and the Grand Erg Occidental and its surroundings (Schomber and Kock 1960). There are no recent records on the species in the country which make it presumably extinct. The El-Borma region, near the Algerian boundaries, was probably among the areas where cheetahs have last been seen in 1974 and documented (Louis 1979).  <br/><br/>As far as Egypt is concerned, data collated during the last few decades suggest that cheetahs are extremely rare, if not extinct, in the country. Osborn and Helmy (1980) provided original and literature-based records from the Matrouh Governorate and Sinai. According to Saleh <em>et al</em>. (2001), cheetahs became extinct from most of the Mediterranean coastal region and easily accessible inland habitats of El-Maghra and Siwa oases one decade after being widely distributed in the northern Egyptian Western Desert until the 1970s. The main reasons explaining cheetah extirpation have been attributed to extensive and uncontrolled hunting and the development of coastal lands (Saleh <em>et al</em>. 2001). If not completely vanished, the species is believed to be confined, with a very low density, to the Western Desert and around the Qattara Depression (Saleh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Hoath, 2003). Recent records from North Sinai, including one female and three cubs killed by Bedouin hunters in 1993, as well as one female seen with two cubs in November 1994, have not been verified (Hoath 2003). <br/><br/>In the eastern Sahel and central Africa, there is little current information:<br/><br/>Current cheetah distribution in most of its historic range in Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia are unknown (Anon. 1997).  In Chad, although cheetahs were still present and seen occasionally in Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim in the 1970s (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008). A recent wildlife survey in western and central Chad, including Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve, conducted by the Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group in 2001, failed to detect any cheetah presence in the region (Monfort <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the Central Saharan (northern) part of the country, cheetahs still occur, in very low density, in and around the Ennedi Massif (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008 based on Rava’s pers. comm.). There is no information on previously reported populations in the Tibesti Mountains (Central Sahara). In southeastern Chad, cheetahs may still survive to date in Zakouma National Park (population still present in the protected area as of 2006 [N. Vanherle pers. comm. 2008]). <br/><br/>In central Africa, current cheetah distribution in the savanna regions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo is unknown (Marker 2002).  It is considered extinct in Rwanda and Burundi, and possibly extinct in Nigeria.  Rosevear (1974) underlined the paucity of positive records for Nigeria and mentioned Lake Chad, Yan Tumaki (Katsina Division) and possibly Bauchi Plateau as localities for three specimens kept in the British Museum. Happold (1987) raised the possibility of their occurrence near Cameroonian boundaries, and also in the Yankari Game Reserve (Happold 1987). Recent reports from protected area managers and wildlife traders indicate that a threatened small cheetah population may still range in restricted areas in north-centre and northeastern parts of the country (R. Ikemeh pers. comm. 2008).
219		habitat	eng	Cheetahs are the fastest land mammals, and catch their prey, principally small- to mid-sized ungulates, especially gazelles, in high speed chases up to 103 km per hour (29 meters per second) (Sharp 1997), over distances of hundreds of metres.  Other prey include ground-dwelling birds and small mammals, such as hares.  Cheetahs, unlike other African predators, rarely scavenge and do not remain long with their kills, many of which are stolen by other carnivores.  Cheetahs are primarily active during the day, unlike other predators, a strategy that may help to reduce competition (Caro 1994).<br/><br/>Cheetahs are primarily found in open grassy habitats, but also make use of dry forest, savanna woodland, semi-desert and scrub, being absent from tropical rainforest.  There are reports of cheetah at altitudes of 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). In the central Sahara, cheetahs occur in high mountain habitat - the Saharan mountains are hyper-arid, but still receive slightly higher rainfall than the surrounding desert.  They are thus better vegetated and support small permanent waterholes and antelope populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Cheetah habitat in Iran consists of desert, much of it with precipitation of fewer than 100 mm per year. The terrain ranges from plains and saltpans to eroded foothills, and rugged desert ranges that rise to an elevation of up to 2,000-3,000 m. The vegetation, if any, consists of a sparse cover of shrubs, most less than one meter tall, of the genera <em>Salsola</em>, <em>Artemisia</em>, <em>Zygophyllum</em>, <em>Astragulus</em>, <em>Aphaxis</em>, and others. Gazelles <em>Gazella subgutturosa</em> and <em>G. bennetti</em> were preferred prey, but they have now become scarce through over-hunting and replacement by livestock (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Opportunistic recovery of cheetah kills suggests that wild sheep <em>Ovis orientalis</em>, Persian ibex <em>Capra aegagrus</em> and Cape hares <em>Lepus capensis</em> are the key prey species today though none are considered optimal for cheetahs (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Cheetahs have a social organization that is unique among the felids.  Females are solitary or accompanied by dependent young, and males are either solitary or live in stable coalitions of two or three.  Some coalitions consist of brothers, but unrelated males may also be members of the group.  Unlike the coalitions formed by male lions, which remain attached to and mate with the females in a single pride, cheetah male coalitions mate with as many females as possible (Caro 1994), and females show no mate fidelity (Gottelli <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Female cheetahs in areas where prey is migratory (such as the Serengeti Plains) follow the herds, while male coalitions establish small territories (average 30 km²) and attempt to mate with females passing through (Durant <em>et al</em>. 1988; Caro 1994).  However, in areas where prey is non-migratory, male and females have smaller, overlapping ranges that are similar in size (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  On Namibian farmlands, where prey is non-migratory, both cheetah sexes have very large home ranges (average 1,642 km²); however, intensively used core areas were just 14% of the total home range.  The reasons for such large home ranges were unclear, and were apparently not the result of reduced prey availability (Marker 2002).   <br/><br/>In comparison with other big cats, cheetahs occur at relatively low densities (10-30% of typical densities for lions, leopards, tigers and jaguars in prime habitat: Durant, 2007).  On the Serengeti plains, cheetah densities range from 0.8-1.0 per 100 km², but seasonally cheetahs can congregate at densities up to 40 per 100 km² (Caro 1994).  Caro (1994) attributes lower cheetah densities to interspecific competition (especially with larger species such as lions and hyenas that can kill cheetah cubs), but on Namibian farmlands, where lions and hyenas have been eradicated, cheetahs still occur at low densities (0.2 per 100 km²) (Marker 2002).
219		population	eng	Southern Africa is the cheetah?s regional stronghold, with a "roughly" estimated population of at least 4,500 adults (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).  This regional estimate breaks down as follows:  Angola ? present but unknown; Botswana ? 1,800; Malawi - <25 (and probably extirpated: Purchase and Purchase 2007); Mozambique: <50; Namibia ? 2,000; South Africa ? 550; Zambia ? 100; Zimbabwe ? 400.  A large proportion of the estimated population lives outside protected areas, in lands ranched primarily for livestock but also for wild game, and where lions and hyenas have been extirpated.<br/><br/>The number of known resident cheetahs in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 2,572 adults and independent adolescents.  Most population estimates were derived from applying a density estimate of one adult per 100 km² to mapped resident range areas during a conservation strategy workshop, although a few are based on research.  Only four of the 15 known populations were estimated to number >200 animals; the largest population (Serengeti/Maro/Tsavo in Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 710.  It would be much smaller if unprotected lands were included.  Overall, less than half of the estimated cheetah population inhabits protected areas.  In addition, approximately half lives in habitat blocks which are trans-boundary, requiring international cooperation for conservation of the population.  Cheetahs possibly occur over an area which is several times as large as the range of the known population (Anon. 2007).  <br/><br/>These estimates can be compared with previous population estimates based on extensive field interviews and application of density estimates.  There is rough accord for Kenya at 793 (Gros 1998) and Tanzania at 569-1,007 (Gros 2002).  However, in Uganda, Gros and Rejmanek (1999) estimated 40-295 with a wider range in the Karamoja region, whereas now cheetahs have been extirpated and just 12 are estimated to persist in Kidepo National Park and surroundings (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In the remainder of Africa, there are few reliable population estimates.  Cheetahs are considered extinct or possibly extinct in many countries (Marker 2002).  In northwest Africa the population is probably fewer than 250 mature individuals and the subspecies A. j. heckii is listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>In Asia cheetahs are now known to exist only in Iran, where the subspecies A. j. venaticus is estimated at 60-100 (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007) and listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>The known cheetah population is not much greater than 7,000, and the total population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, thus meeting the criteria for Vulnerable.  The current known population is half the 15,000 estimated by Myers (1975) from his continental status assessment.  The effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population contributing to the gene pool through reproductive success) could be less than half of the total population (Kelly 2001). <br/><br/>While the current rate of population decline is of most concern, and the historical rate of decline has been severe (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005), attention has also focused on the cheetah's having perhaps suffered even more extreme losses in the distant past.  The cheetah species exhibits remarkably low levels of genetic diversity in comparison to other felids (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1986) (but not compared to carnivores in general: Merola 1994).  This is consistent with inbreeding among a very few individuals surviving one or more catastrophic population bottlenecks in the past, with the first possibly occurring during the late Pleistocene extinctions, around 10,000 years ago, according to analysis of mitochondrial DNA (Menotti-Raymond and O'Brien 1995).  <br/><br/>It is unclear what sort of agent could have caused such an extreme population decline in a wide-ranging species, and alternative explanations have been explored.  Hedrick (1996) suggested the low levels of genetic variation could result from a very low effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population that is actually passing on its genes), and Kelly's (2001) calculations of effective population size in cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains were quite low (44% or less of the actual population).  She found that only a few females contributed disproportionately to future generations by raising offspring which survived and reproduced (Kelly 2001).  Genetic analysis by Gottelli <em>et al.</em> (2007) showed that male cheetahs, on the other hand, passed on their genes more successfully than expected.  Female cheetahs mated with multiple males, many non-resident, with 43% of litters having mixed paternity.  This indicates that rates of genetic loss should be lower than anticipated by Kelly (2001), and underscores the importance of cheetah mobility in their ecology and conservation.   <br/><br/>While the causes of the cheetah's low levels of genetic variation are unclear, what is clear is that large populations are necessary to conserve it.  Since cheetahs are a low density species, conservation areas need to be quite large, larger than most protected areas.
219		population	eng	Southern Africa is the cheetah’s regional stronghold, with a "roughly" estimated population of at least 4,500 adults (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).  This regional estimate breaks down as follows:  Angola – present but unknown; Botswana – 1,800; Malawi - <25 (and probably extirpated: Purchase and Purchase 2007); Mozambique: <50; Namibia – 2,000; South Africa – 550; Zambia – 100; Zimbabwe – 400.  A large proportion of the estimated population lives outside protected areas, in lands ranched primarily for livestock but also for wild game, and where lions and hyenas have been extirpated.<br/><br/>The number of known resident cheetahs in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 2,572 adults and independent adolescents.  Most population estimates were derived from applying a density estimate of one adult per 100 km² to mapped resident range areas during a conservation strategy workshop, although a few are based on research.  Only four of the 15 known populations were estimated to number >200 animals; the largest population (Serengeti/Maro/Tsavo in Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 710.  It would be much smaller if unprotected lands were included.  Overall, less than half of the estimated cheetah population inhabits protected areas.  In addition, approximately half lives in habitat blocks which are trans-boundary, requiring international cooperation for conservation of the population.  Cheetahs possibly occur over an area which is several times as large as the range of the known population (Anon. 2007).  <br/><br/>These estimates can be compared with previous population estimates based on extensive field interviews and application of density estimates.  There is rough accord for Kenya at 793 (Gros 1998) and Tanzania at 569-1,007 (Gros 2002).  However, in Uganda, Gros and Rejmanek (1999) estimated 40-295 with a wider range in the Karamoja region, whereas now cheetahs have been extirpated and just 12 are estimated to persist in Kidepo National Park and surroundings (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In the remainder of Africa, there are few reliable population estimates.  Cheetahs are considered extinct or possibly extinct in many countries (Marker 2002).  In northwest Africa the population is probably fewer than 250 mature individuals and the subspecies A. j. heckii is listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>In Asia cheetahs are now known to exist only in Iran, where the subspecies A. j. venaticus is estimated at 60-100 (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007) and listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>The known cheetah population is not much greater than 7,000, and the total population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, thus meeting the criteria for Vulnerable.  The current known population is half the 15,000 estimated by Myers (1975) from his continental status assessment.  The effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population contributing to the gene pool through reproductive success) could be less than half of the total population (Kelly 2001). <br/><br/>While the current rate of population decline is of most concern, and the historical rate of decline has been severe (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005), attention has also focused on the cheetah's having perhaps suffered even more extreme losses in the distant past.  The cheetah species exhibits remarkably low levels of genetic diversity in comparison to other felids (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1986) (but not compared to carnivores in general: Merola 1994).  This is consistent with inbreeding among a very few individuals surviving one or more catastrophic population bottlenecks in the past, with the first possibly occurring during the late Pleistocene extinctions, around 10,000 years ago, according to analysis of mitochondrial DNA (Menotti-Raymond and O'Brien 1995).  <br/><br/>It is unclear what sort of agent could have caused such an extreme population decline in a wide-ranging species, and alternative explanations have been explored.  Hedrick (1996) suggested the low levels of genetic variation could result from a very low effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population that is actually passing on its genes), and Kelly's (2001) calculations of effective population size in cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains were quite low (44% or less of the actual population).  She found that only a few females contributed disproportionately to future generations by raising offspring which survived and reproduced (Kelly 2001).  Genetic analysis by Gottelli <em>et al.</em> (2007) showed that male cheetahs, on the other hand, passed on their genes more successfully than expected.  Female cheetahs mated with multiple males, many non-resident, with 43% of litters having mixed paternity.  This indicates that rates of genetic loss should be lower than anticipated by Kelly (2001), and underscores the importance of cheetah mobility in their ecology and conservation.   <br/><br/>While the causes of the cheetah's low levels of genetic variation are unclear, what is clear is that large populations are necessary to conserve it.  Since cheetahs are a low density species, conservation areas need to be quite large, larger than most protected areas.
219		threats	eng	In Eastern Africa, habitat loss and fragmentation was identified as the primary threat during a conservation strategy workshop (Anon. 2007).   Because cheetahs occur at low densities, conservation of viable populations requires large scale land management planning; most existing protected areas are not large enough to ensure the long term survival of cheetahs (Durant 2007).<br/><br/>A depleted wild ungulate prey base is of serious concern in northern Africa (Berzins and Belbachir 2006).  Cheetahs which turn to livestock are killed as pests (Claro 2003; Hamdine <em>et al</em>. 2003; Wacher <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Conflict with farmers and depletion of the wild prey base are also considered significant threats in parts of Eastern Africa (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In Iran, the Asiatic Cheetah <em>A. j. venaticus</em> is threatened indirectly by loss of prey base through human hunting activities. In addition, most protected areas are open to seasonal livestock grazing, which potentially places huge pressure on the resident ungulate populations through disturbance and potential competition (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007). Additionally, domestic dogs accompanying the herds present a likely threat to both cheetahs and their prey (H. Ziaie pers. comm. 2008)  An emerging threat is the possibility of fragmentation into discontinuous subpopulations as a result of increasing developmental pressures (mining, oil, roads, railways); this is particularly the case in Kavir N.P., currently the north-western limit of the Asiatic Cheetah's range (L. Hunter and L. Marker pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conflict with farmers and ranchers is the major threat to cheetahs in southern Africa (Purchase <em>et al</em>. 2007).  Cheetah are often killed or persecuted because they are a perceived threat to livestock, despite the fact that they cause relatively little damage. In Namibia, very large numbers of cheetahs have been live-trapped and removed by ranchers seeking to protect their livestock (from government permit records, Nowell [1996] calculated that over 9,500 cheetahs were removed from 1978-1995).  While removal rates have fallen, in part due to intensified conservation and education efforts, many ranchers still view cheetahs as a problem animal, despite research showing that cheetahs were only responsible for 3% of livestock losses to predators (Marke, 2002). Although cheetah in Iran have been killed because of predation on livestock, since 2003, there has been no direct evidence of killing cheetahs (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007), though it is likely most incidents go unreported. <br/><br/>Cheetahs are also vulnerable to being caught in snares set for other species (Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005; Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>Another threat to the cheetah is interspecific competition with other large predators, especially lions. On the open, short-grass plains of the Serengeti, juvenile mortality can be as high as 95%, largely due to predation by lions (Laurenson 1994). However, mortality rates are lower in more closed habitats (Caro in press). <br/><br/>CITES allows legal trade in live animals and hunting trophies under an Appendix I quota system (annual quotas: Namibia - 150; Zimbabwe - 50; Botswana - 5).  This was accepted by CITES as a way to enhance the economic value of cheetahs on private lands and provide an economic incentive for their conservation (Nowell 1996).  The global captive cheetah population is not self-sustaining; cheetahs breed poorly in captivity and in 2001 30% of the captive population was wild-caught (Marker 2002).  While analysis of trade records in the CITES database shows that these countries have reported almost no live exports since the late 1990s, Purchase <em>et al.</em> (2007) are concerned that there is a substantial illegal cross-border trade in live animals.  There is also concern about illegal trade in skins, as well as capture of live cubs for trade to the Middle East (Anon. 2007).  There is an increasing trade in cubs from north-east Africa into the Middle East (Amir 2005),  but there is currently little trade in cubs from the Sahel region, where it was previously considered a major problem (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs are active during the daytime and there is concern that they can be driven off their kills by tourist cars crowding around, or mothers separated from their cubs.  Burney (1980) conducted a study and concluded that tourist cars did not seem to harm cheetahs, and in fact sometimes helped, as cheetah chases more often ended in a kill when there were cars around, distracting prey, providing cover from which to stalk, or otherwise waking cheetahs up to notice prey in the area.  However, tourist numbers have risen sharply by then, and its potential impact on cheetahs remains a concern (Caro 1994; Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>The Eastern African cheetah conservation strategy (Anon. 2007) identified four sets of constraints to mitigating these threats across a large spatial scale.  Political constraints include lack of land use planning, insecurity and political instability in some ecologically important areas, and lack of political will to foster cheetah conservation.  Economic constraints include lack of financial resources to support conservation, and lack of incentives for local people to conserve wildlife.  Social constraints include negative conceptions of cheetahs, lack of capacity to achieve  conservation, lack of environmental awareness, rising human populations, and social changes leading to subdivision of land and subsequent habitat fragmentation.  These potentially mutable human constraints contrast with several biological constraints which are characteristic of cheetahs and cannot be changed, including wide-ranging behaviour, negative interactions with other large carnivores, and potential susceptibility to disease.<br/><br/>Disease is a potential threat to the cheetah (Anon. 2007), as its reduced genetic diversity can increase a population's susceptibility  (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1983).  However, the most serious disease mortality thus far documented in wild cheetahs was from naturally occurring anthrax in Namibia's Etosha National Park; cheetahs, unlike other predators, do not scavenge carcasses of ungulates killed by anthrax, and thus had no built-up immunity when they preyed upon springbok sick with the disease (Lindeque <em>et al</em>. 1998).  The cheetah's low density may offer some measure of protection against infectious disease; for example, cheetahs were not affected by an outbreak of Canine Distemper Virus in the Serengeti National Park which killed over 1/3 of the lion population.  Serological surveys of cheetahs on Namibian farmland indicate some exposure and survival of the disease (Marker 2002).
222		conservation	eng	The shortnose sturgeon was listed as endangered under the inaugural U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1967. At that time, very little information was available regarding life history and behavior of this species. Since then, considerable work has been accomplished to determine habitats and migrations important to each life stage, population status, genetic assessment, use of fish passage and fish protection structures, and fish culture. The Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery and Management Plan (NMFS 1998) identifies recovery actions that would help to establish population levels that would allow de-listing of the shortnose sturgeon. <br/> <br/>Captive broodstock and several generations of progeny are currently being held at federal fish hatcheries operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and at a research laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey. Additionally, several years of research on spawning has produced larvae from natural mate selection and spawning of adults in an artificial spawning stream, a process that appears to produce superior young fish for conservation stocking.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
222		distribution	eng	Shortnose sturgeons occur in many of the large coastal rivers of eastern North America. From survey and tagging data, the National Marine Fisheries Service now recognizes 19 distinct population segments. The Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery Team considered sturgeon populations from two general regions, northern rivers and southern rivers. The largest populations in the northern region appear to be in the Saint John, NB, Canada (Dadswell 1979), Delaware, NJ-PA (Hastings <em>et al</em>. 1987), Kennebec, ME (Squiers <em>et al</em>. 1982), and Hudson, NY rivers (Bain <em>et al</em>. 1995).  <br/> <br/>See the <a href="%E2%80%9Dhttp://www.natureserve.org/explorer/%E2%80%9C">NatureServe Explorer</a> database for a more detailed description of this species’ range.
222		habitat	eng	Shortnose sturgeon use of saltwater is generally amphidromous throughout most of the species' range, although far northern populations are anadromous (Kynard 1997). Spawning takes place in upper freshwater areas, while feeding (summering) and wintering occurs in both fresh and saline environments. This species typically spends its entire life history in the natal river and estuary and only rarely moves any great distance in near-coastal marine waters. There are no naturally land-locked populations of the species, but two rivers have populations that are segmented by dams. <br/> <br/>This species typically attains an adult size of 75–100 cm total length, though the maximum recorded size for a Canadian-caught female was 1.43 m and 23.6 kg (Dadswell <em>et al</em>. 1984).  Maximum ages determined for female and male shortnose sturgeon (again in Canada) were 67 and 32 years, respectively (Vladykov and Greeley 1963).  Prespawning migrations in northern populations are triggered by increasing water temperatures of 7–10°C, and during spawning, males are attracted to females by a female pheromone (Kynard and Horgan 2002a).  Spawning occurs at water temperatures of 7–15°C.  Spawning habitat is a substrate of rock or large gravel (usually rubble), and water depth during spawning is highly variable. Spawning suitability windows follow day length of 13.9–14.9 h, water temperature of 6.5–15°C, and river discharge that provides 30–120 cm/sec (mean 70 cm/sec) bottom velocity. All spawning windows must be open simultaneously for spawning to occur. Yearling shortnose sturgeon initiate the major dispersal that moves young fish to join older juveniles and adults in fresh or salt water foraging concentration areas. Yearling and older juveniles use the same summering and wintering habitats as adults (Kynard <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>In southern waters, shortnose males may mature in 2-3 years and females in 4-6 years. In northern portions of the range, maturation may not occur for 10-15 years (maximum). Spawning periodicity is poorly understood but in the northern part of the range, females are highly variable (2-9 years) and males spawn at 1-5 year intervals depending on fish age and foraging conditions. Some males in northern populations spawn annually.
222		population	eng	The estimate of the total current population size for the Hudson River indicates a 95% confidence interval of 26,000 to 55,000 individuals. The Saint John, Kennebec, and Delaware subpopulations appear to be on the order of 5,000 to 15,000 fish each. Estimates of other northern populations are the Connecticut River (CT-MA) — about 1,200 fish, and the Merrimack River (MA) of less than 100 individuals (Kieffer and Kynard 1993, Kynard 1997, Savoy 2004). Though many rivers in the southern region have been documented to contain shortnose sturgeon, few have had population estimates conducted. Only abundance in the Ogeechee and Altamaha rivers of Georgia have been estimated and both appear to be on the order of 1,000 fish each (Rogers and Weber 1994). Shortnose sturgeon occur only rarely in Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries and no breeding population has been confirmed here. <br/> <br/>Walsh <em>et al</em>. (2001) analyzed shortnose sturgeon populations from two drainages in Maine and the Hudson River for genetic diversity. They noted significant differences between the Kennebec and Androscoggin stocks and even greater separation when compared to the Hudson stock. These data support the putative stock structure and distinct population segment designation adopted for shortnose sturgeon.
222		threats	eng	Although some shortnose sturgeon may be harvested incidental to Atlantic sturgeon in Canada, there are no legal fisheries or by-catch allowances in U.S. waters. Principal threats to the survival of this species are blockage of up- and downstream migrations at dams, habitat loss or degradation due to dams and dam operations, river channel dredging, and pollution. Southern populations are particularly at risk due to water withdrawal from rivers and groundwaters and from eutrophication that directly degrades river water quality causing loss of habitat. Direct mortality is known to occur from impingement on cooling water intake screens, dredging, and incidental capture in other fisheries (NMFS 1998).
223		conservation	eng	Commercial harvest of lake sturgeon is prohibited in all U.S. waters and strictly managed in Canadian waters with closed seasons, size limits and gear restrictions.  <br/> <br/>Angling in some waters of Michigan is allowed with several restrictions as to season, fish sizes and gear. In Wisconsin, harvest is limited to two separate sportfishing seasons. Spear fishermen must purchase a one-fish sturgeon spear tag and they are allowed to spear a fish from early February until a specified quota is reached. In Lake Winnebago, the 2000 quota was set at 400 adult females, 400 juvenile females and 2,150 males. Once 80% of the quota is reached the fishery is closed after the next day. Typical spear fishing harvest in recent years produced 1,500 to 2,500 fish. Wisconsin’s hook and line fishery allows the catch of one fish per angler per season with a minimum size range of 127–178 cm, depending on location, during early September through 15 October. All anglers must apply for and use a free tag and the fishery produces about 300–400 fish per season.  <br/> <br/>Sport fishing for lake sturgeon is currently prohibited in the Mississippi River but is allowed in some tributaries in Wisconsin and Minnesota (e.g., Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix rivers) during a short hook and line season in the fall.  Angling in Minnesota has several restrictions as to season, fish sizes and gear and the reported annual sport catch was 2,200–4,200 kg in 1998–2000.  Harvest is not allowed in Iowa, Ohio, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois and South Dakota. <br/> <br/>According to the CITES Management Authority of Canada (CMAC 2000) sturgeon harvest in Canada consists of aboriginal, commercial and recreational fisheries. The entire North American commercial harvest of lake sturgeon comes from Canada where in 1997, 223 mt were caught in New Brunswick and Quebec, with 90% (200 mt) being taken from the St. Lawrence River. Catch in Ontario during the late 1990s ranged from 5–8 mt. Most of this came from Lake Huron with a small amount from Lake St. Clair. In 1998, international trade in lake sturgeon meat was reported to be 18.2 mt exported from Canada to the U.S. (mostly New York). No caviar exports are reported and no export quotas have been established by range states. Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans reported that in recent years total recreational catch from the North and South Saskatchewan rivers in Alberta and Saskatchewan amounted to about 1,000 fish. <br/> <br/><em>Acipenser fulvescens</em> is not listed as a species at risk by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Most subpopulations are thought to be capable of sustaining well-regulated fisheries. Although the species is managed and protected in Canada under the Federal Fisheries Act, regulations differ between provinces and are revised annually. This species is listed under provincial legislation as "threatened" in Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Ontario, Quebec and Saskatchewan (CMAC 2000). <br/> <br/>In recent years, interest in the restoration of lake sturgeon has increased greatly. Partnerships have been developed throughout the Great Lakes basin between state and federal natural resource agencies, commercial and sport fishers and other water users. Numerous management and recovery plans have been completed for select waters within the lake sturgeon range and are being implemented as resources allow. Their goals include conservation, rehabilitation and enhancement of sturgeon populations, completion of status assessments, harvest restrictions, identification and restoration of critical habitats and elimination of negative effects of dams.  <br/> <br/>Construction of spawning habitats using coarse stone rip-rapping has been undertaken in some states (particularly Wisconsin) and appears to be highly successful. Artificial culture and restocking of lake sturgeon is under development in Minnesota using wild broodstock. In New York, sturgeon eggs are taken from wild stocks in the St. Lawrence River and cultured fingerlings have been reared and released in several locations since 1995. Survival has been high and populations appear to be recovering. In Missouri over 210,000 lake sturgeon fingerlings have been stocked in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri rivers since 1986. Survival of stocked fish is considered excellent as tagged lake sturgeon have been recaptured in the Mississippi, Missouri, Gasconade and Osage rivers and commercial fishermen have reported incidental catches reaching nuisance proportions (Hesse and Carreiro 1997).  Artificial culture and restocking of lake sturgeon is also under development in Minnesota using wild broodstock. Wisconsin DNR propagates some lake sturgeon for restocking purposes with cultured fish only being placed into the same basins from which broodstock were taken. The Tennessee Valley Authority has stocked thousands of young lake sturgeon within the Ohio River Basin.   <br/> <br/>A Lake Sturgeon Management Plan has been implemented in Alberta since 1997. This involves a zero catch limit on the North Saskatchewan River; and on the South Saskatchewan, a closed season during the 1 April to 15 June spawning period with a one fish limit (greater than 130 cm) outside that restricted season. There is no aboriginal fishery in Alberta. In Saskatchewan, a self-imposed moratorium on commercial catch of lake sturgeon has been in place since 1996 and sport angling has not been allowed since 1999. A multi-agency study of habitat, fish migration and abundance is currently underway (CMAC 2000). Manitoba reduced its possession limit of lake sturgeon to zero in 1995. The remaining few commercial fisheries closed down during the 1990s but catch and release angling is still allowed in addition to aboriginal subsistence fishing in most rivers. Lake sturgeon population management has been initiated in several Manitoba rivers with involvement of First Nations communities. <br/> <br/>In Ontario, a Lake Sturgeon Assessment Program has been implemented for Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair, including population abundance estimation and tagging to identify movements and verify ages. As enough information is developed a management plan for the species will be drafted. Commercial catch quotas of lake sturgeon were established in 1984 and were adjusted periodically - through never achieved. In 1997, the catch quotas amounted to 1,500 kg in Lake St. Clair and 13,124 kg in Lake Huron. Huron catch that year was 5,471 kg, the highest of the previous several years. <br/> <br/>Quebec allows the harvest of lake sturgeon with 19–20.3 cm mesh gill nets only during an open season of 14 June through 31 October. A minimum fish length is in effect and quotas are enforced by the requirement that all fish for market must be tagged, and the tag must stay with the fish until it is processed. Quebec sport fishermen may catch and keep one fish per day.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
223		distribution	eng	Lake sturgeon spend their entire life cycle in freshwater and are widely distributed in North America. They currently range throughout much of the drainages of the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River, Hudson Bay-James Bay, and the Saskatchewan River (Pflieger 1975, Becker 1983, Ferguson and Duckworth 1997). In the Mississippi basin this species occurs from the headwaters in Minnesota to the northern portion of the state of Louisiana and up the Missouri River into southern South Dakota. There is no known natural exchange of stocks between the Great Lakes and western Canadian provinces and those of the Mississippi River basin, though some stockings in the Mississippi have included lake sturgeon of Great Lakes Basin origin.  <br/> <br/>For a more detailed description of this species’ range, see <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.
223		habitat	eng	Based on pectoral fin ray sections it has been determined that lake sturgeon can live to be over 100 years old. One individual caught in Lake of the Woods, Ontario in 1953 was estimated to be 152 years old (Priegel and Wirth 1971). Lake sturgeon can reach lengths of 1.9 m, and weigh 91 kg. However, a 141 kg lake sturgeon was reportedly caught in Lake Superior in 1922 and a fish of equal weight was caught in Lake Michigan in 1943. Most fish reported in the literature were less than 35 years old. <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon from Black Lake in Michigan measured 75–193 cm total length (TL) and were 9–64 years old, with most fish less than 20 years old (Baker and Borgeson 1999). In the Lake Winnebago system of Wisconsin, female lake sturgeon reach sexual maturity between 24–26 years of age when they are about 140 cm long. Females spawn only every 3–6 years and can produce up to 700,000 eggs each time. Few male lake sturgeon mature before they are 114 cm long or 14–16 years old. Males spawn every one or two years (Priegel and Wirth 1971, Lyons and Kempinger 1992). In the Sturgeon River of Upper Michigan, male spawning intervals of two, three and four years were observed while females returned to spawn every three to seven years (Auer 1999). In Canadian rivers and lakes, mature male lake sturgeon range in size from 76–98 cm and females 84–117 cm (Houston 1987). Compared to sturgeon from Lake Winnebago and the Great Lakes, relatively little information is available regarding age, growth, maturity and spawning periodicity of lake sturgeon in the Mississippi River basin. <br/> <br/>During the spring season, lake sturgeon spawning occurs when water temperatures rise and reach 9–15 °C (Priegel and Wirth 1971, Kempinger 1988).  Spawning sturgeon will select shallow areas over hard clean substrate with relatively strong current velocities (Kempinger 1988). <br/> <br/>Usual lake sturgeon habitat is the highly productive shoal areas of larger lakes and rivers. They require moderate to swift currents and large rough substrates for spawning and embryo development. Lake sturgeon in the Upper Mississippi River prefer habitat in or adjacent to flow, but with relatively low to moderate current velocity (Knights, B. C., USGS, unpublished data).  They are rarely found in backwater habitats without flow. In the Mississippi basin habitat that is in or adjacent to current is generally depositional and has relatively compact silt or silt-sand substrates with presumed high densities of benthic invertebrates. These areas occur at the lower end of navigation pools near the main channel, the mouths of tributaries and large secondary channels, and at some channel border areas. While migrating, presumably en-route to spawning habitats or high use (feeding/home) areas, lake sturgeon will use areas of the river with relatively high current velocities including tailwaters, the main channel in the upper and mid reaches of navigation pools, and tributaries. <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon are known to move great distances to spawning and feeding habitats (Auer 1996). Wisconsin DNR recently reported that a sturgeon originally tagged in Lake Winnebago in October 1978 was recovered almost 19 years later at Locust Point Reef in Lake Erie, a minimum travel distance of almost 1,100 km (R. Bruch, WI DNR, news release).
223		population	eng	Lake sturgeon were, and in some cases continue to be, an important component of Native American diet and culture. Up until about 1870, lake sturgeon were primarily considered a nuisance by commercial fisherman and were stacked on the shores to rot (Milner 1874 cited in Becker 1983). Within the next 30 years the value of sturgeon for flesh and the use of roe for caviar became economically important. During heavy fishing years in the late 1800s lake sturgeon harvest from the Great Lakes averaged over 1,814 metric tons (mt) per year. In the peak harvest year of 1885, 4,901 mt were reported of which 2,359 tons came from Lake Erie alone. Sturgeon populations declined dramatically after 1900 and although some incidental harvest was reported until 1977, numbers were extremely low after 1956. <br/> <br/>Although lake sturgeon populations in the Great Lakes were greatly reduced due to overfishing during the last several decades of the nineteenth century they appear to be on the rebound throughout the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence basins with spawning populations being documented from 63 locations and spawning size estimates calculated for 17 of these sites.  The current status of lake sturgeon populations in most of the Great Lakes Basin, the St. Lawrence River and in Wisconsin’s Lake Winnebago system is stable or increasing.  <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon were generally considered to be rare to uncommon in most waters of the Mississippi River basin since the late 1800s. In 1989, this species was declared as threatened by the American Fisheries Society in all Mississippi River states except Louisiana where they are believed to be extirpated (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1989). The Department of Natural Resources in Iowa and Illinois and the Missouri Department of Conservation list the lake sturgeon as endangered in their respective states, and in Minnesota, the lake sturgeon is listed as a species of special concern. The species appears to be extirpated from its former range in Alabama and Arkansas. <br/> <br/>The current status of lake sturgeon throughout the Mississippi basin is considered to be severely depressed from historical abundance levels. However, modern population assessment studies are lacking and rate of stock decline or growth is unknown. Native stocks were extremely depressed prior to the stocking program undertaken by the Missouri Department of Conservation. Following the first releases into Mark Twain Lake (Salt River, a Pool 24 tributary) in 1984, then at Louisiana on Pool 24 of the Mississippi River and at several Missouri River locations in 1988, increasing reports of incidental catch in commercial gear and by recreational anglers has been occurring.
223		threats	eng	The life history characteristics of slow growth, late maturation, and irregular spawning periodicity make lake sturgeon subpopulations particularly vulnerable to over-exploitation. Anthropogenic effects such as industrial and municipal pollution, blockage of access to habitats by dykes and dams, channeliszation and elimination of backwater areas, dewatering and water level fluctuations, physical destruction of spawning habitat, and inundation of habitat by reservoirs are known to threaten sturgeon subpopulations (Rochard <em>et al</em>. 1990, Auer 1996, Beamesderfer and Farr 1997, Noakes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Direct mortality of lake sturgeon due to impacts with commercial and/or recreational navigation vessels has been documented.  <br/> <br/>Dams may be the greatest impediment to lake sturgeon rehabilitation in the Great Lakes. Although there are numerous recorded instances of tagged sturgeon passing through navigation locks, many fish are precluded or delayed from reaching spawning or preferred feeding waters. Dams without locks completely block sturgeon passage and serve as severe impediments to lake sturgeon recovery in the Mississippi basin. Spawning and nursery areas are further degraded from land use problems such as erosion, sedimentation, and adverse discharges from point and non-point sources. Other concerns in the Great Lakes include stream channelization, over-exploitation and/or illegal harvest, lack of public concern and potential adverse impacts of lampricides on sensitive life stages.  <br/> <br/>Although lake sturgeon harvest from the Mississippi River is prohibited, financial incentive to collect roe for caviar remains. Small population sizes may limit poachers from targeting this species but it is likely that incidental captures are utilized and end up in the black market. With the first stocking of lake sturgeon by Missouri DOC now at age 17, there is increasing concern that poachers will target them as the females reach maturity within the next few years.
224		conservation	eng	The species <span style="font-style: italic;">A. naccarii</span> is listed in Annex 2 of the Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation. This species was also listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Together with other sturgeon species that once were present in Italy (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sturio</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Huso huso</span>), the capture of the species is forbidden by law in the regions of the Padana valley, Lombardia, Emilia Romagna and Veneto.<br/><br/>Artificial reproduction in fish farm (<span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span>) is effective and has been successful since 1988, from an original population caught from the wild in the 1970s and from F1, and the species is continuously restocked in Italy. However, there is no evidence to confirm continuing reproduction in the wild.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for this species has been carried out by several public administrations since the early 1990s, with scientific research and restocking actions of about a total of half millions of specimens of different size reintroduced in the public waters (rivers Adda, Oglio, Piave, Po). The last part of the plan was supported also by a Life project. <br/><br/>A project for a fish passage allowing to the fish to overcome the Isola Serafini's dam is under evaluation by the public authority. This project was proposed in occasion of the building of a new and bigger navigation lock close by the old one on the Po river, in the Province of Piacenza.
224		distribution	eng	This sturgeon was present exclusively in the southern part of Europe. Apparently it is restricted to the Adriatic Sea area, and in particular to the fresh waters of the northern part of Italy and the eastern coasts of the Adriatic Sea.<br/><br/>Historically the species was present in the sea from Venice and Trieste, to Greece and Corfù (Berg 1932); and in the Venetian lagoons during fall (Faber 1883). It was recorded in the rivers Adige, Brenta, Bacchiglione, Livenza, Piave, Tagliamento, and Po (and its affluents); once it was recorded up to Turin (Festa 1892); at Carignano and Carmagnola (Delmastro 1982); and in the Po delta (Tortonese 1989, Paccagnella 1948, D'Ancona 1924, Pavesi 1907); in the Ticino and Adda rivers (Bernini and Nardi 1989, 1990); along the Albanian coasts (Filipini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1956); and Croatia (Mrakovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro (Lake Skadar). It was last recorded from Albania in 1997 in the Buna River (Ludwig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). There is evidence that the species was previously found in Greece (Economidis 1973) but it is no longer known there. It was reintroduced to Greece (Pascos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) but there is no evidence that it has established a viable population. There have been conflicting opinions regarding its presence in Spain.<br/><br/>At present, as a consequence of a recovery plan carried out by several public institutions from 1990 to 2007, specimens have been recorded in the Po River and its inflow rivers (Ticino, Adda, Oglio, Mincio), and in the rivers Adige, Livenza, Piave, Tagliamento. The Isola Serafini Dam on the middle of the Po River, prevents the migratory movements of the downstream populations into the upstream part of the river. There is no evidence available for natural spawning of wild or released individuals.
224		habitat	eng	The Adriatic Sturgeon lives in large rivers where, in the past, reproduction occurred from May to July. It is a long-lived, anadromous species, living mainly in the rivers. It spawns in freshwater after a marine period of growth during which it remains near the shore (at the mouths of the rivers) at a depth of 10–40 m. The upstream migration into Italian rivers occurs during the first months of the year (Paccagnella 1948, D'Ancona 1924). It occurs over sandy or muddy bottoms. The only remaining suitable spawning areas for this species are at the confluence between the Po River and its tributaries (Adda, Ticino etc).
224		population	eng	Artificial reproduction in fish farms has been effective and successful since 1988 (Arlati <em>et al</em>. 1988), and the species is continuously restocked in Italy. However, there is no evidence to confirm successful reproduction in the wild. The presence of natural populations in Italy cannot be excluded completely because of some sporadic catches of individuals of possible wild origin. Spawning has not been recorded at suspected spawning grounds over the past 15 years.&#160;A land-locked population seems to be present in the river <st1:place w:st="on">Ticino </st1:place>  but it remains unclear whether the occasionally caught individuals originate from escapees or stockings<st1:place w:st="on">.</st1:place><br/><br/>A genetic comparison between Italian and Albanian samples collected some decades ago showed a high level of diversification and suggested that the different populations should be considered as distinct conservation units (Ludwig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>The species was reintroduced to Greece (Pascos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), but there is no evidence that it has established a viable population. It is considered as regionally extinct in Croatia, Albania and Montenegro.<br/><br/>Of approximately 2,000 specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. naccarii</span> fished in the Po River and sold at the fish market between 1981 and 1988, more than 80% of the specimens weighed less than 3.5 kg, having been taken before the reproductive phase (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991).
224		threats	eng	Overfishing (both legal and illegal), and in particular of pre-reproductive sized fish, threatens this species. It is also threatened by the creation of barriers to its migratory routes, which reduce its reproductive success; and fragmentation of populations, particularly by dams for hydropower on the Po River (Isola Serafini's Dam, Piacenza). Water pollution, the Allee effect, and competition for habitats with allochthonous species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Silurus glanis</span>) also threaten the future survival of this sturgeon.
225		conservation	eng	There is a zero quota of exporting of Caviar (CAB) but there is still a catch for domestic use. Iran and Russia have established gene bank conservation for this species for both live specimens and cryopreservation with DNA and tissue samples. The 2004 progeny have been produced from captive bred individuals - juveniles were released into the Don and Kuban rivers - and there are between 15 and 20 'farms' in Russia (Chebenov pers comm.). In Iran 80,000-1 million fingerlings (3-5 g each) (from ranched individuals) are released annually to the Caspian Sea (Pourkazemi pers comm.). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.
225		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas, and some rivers (Danube up to Bratislava, Volga up to Kazan, Ural up to Chkalov, Don and Kuban, Rioni). It was introduced to Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan), to the upper Illi River in China, and to River Syr-Darya (Aral basin) in the 1960s.
225		habitat	eng	Habitat : At sea, close to shores and estuaries. In freshwater, deep stretches of large rivers. Juveniles in shallow riverine habitats. This species spawns in strong-current habitats in main courses of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom.<br/><br/>Biology: Anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed), with some non-migratory freshwater populations. Males reproduce for the first time at 6-15 years, females at 12-22, with an average generation length of 15 years (but in the Danube, the average population age has now increased and in the Caspian Sea, the average population age is decreasing because of overharvesting). In most drainages, there are two migration runs, in spring and autumn. Individuals migrating in autumn remain in the river until the following spring to spawn. Females reproduce every 2-3 and males every 1-2 years in March-May and at temperatures above 10°C. Most juveniles move to sea in their first summer and remain there until maturity. Some individuals remain in freshwater for a longer period. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic fishes, molluscs and crustaceans.<br/><br/>This species has the highest relative fecundity for any sturgeon species (Chebanov pers. comm.).
225		population	eng	It is currently known from the Caspian Sea, where it ascends only the Ural river (where it naturally reproduces) and the Sefid Rud River (where there is no natural reproduction), where 5 fish were caught in 2002 (Parandavar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In the Black Sea,&#160; it ascends the Rioni (last recorded 1997 through bycatch (Zarkua pers. comm.)). In the Danube it was last recorded in 2003 in Serbia at Apatin (released alive) and in 2005 in Mura in Hungary (killed); both these caught fish were males (Simonovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Streibel pers. comm.). In Romania, according to a fisherman survey carried out between 1996-2001, 15 individuals were caught by Romanian fishermen (last scientifically recorded in 1950s) (Suciu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) .<br/><br/>Little catch data is available. It has not been caught in Ukraine for the past 30 years. In Kasakhstan 12 tonnes were caught in 1990, 26 tonnes in 1999; in Iran 1.9 tonnes were caught in 1990, 21 tonnes in 1999 (CITES Doc. AC.16.7.2), and 1 ton in 2005/6, with 0.5-1% of total sturgeon catch in Iran belonging to this species (in past 20 years) (Pourkazemi pers. comm.). According to Caspian Aquatic Bioresource Commission (CAB), since 2001/2 export quota for caviar is zero for all Caspian range states.
225		threats	eng	Over harvesting, bycatch and illegal fishing (poaching) along with dams, water abstraction and drought has led to the loss of spawning habitats/ground and has caused massive population declines. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES Doc. AC.16.7.2).<br/><br/>Transfers of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> from the Caspian Sea, carrying a nematode parasite, were introduced to the Aral sea in the late 1960s and along with increasing salinity, helped cause the extirpation of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nudiventris</span> in the Aral sea within a few years (Gessner, J. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species (Gessner, J. pers comm.).<br/><br/>Hybridisation between this species and all sturgeons and especially <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> occurs in freshwater naturally (Chebanov pers. Com.).
227		conservation	eng	Most range states have legislation regulating or banning the catch of the species, and there are stocking programmes for the Danube and Drava rivers. Restocking of the species is reported in Bulgaria, Hungary, the former Yugoslavia and Russian Federation. In 2009 Romania stocked <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ruthenus</span> for the first time in the Danube (Suciu pers. comm.). The majority of international trade is taken from aquaculture in the form of live juveniles (CITES 2000). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Better fisheries monitoring is needed along with enforcement to ban illegal catches.<br/><br/>Many populations of this species are undergoing a serious and dramatic decline in recent years and need immediate conservation action. Individual stock Red List assessments are needed for this species.
227		distribution	eng	This species is known from rivers draining to Black, Azov and Caspian Seas; Siberia from Ob eastward to Yenisei drainages. Its current strong holds are the Volga, Ural and Danube systems. It was introduced in Pechora drainage in 1928-1950 and in Lake Ladoga basin (most likely not self-sustaining). Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe, without formation of self-sustaining populations. This species has formed self sustaining populations in reservoirs in Russia.
227		habitat	eng	The Sterlet is found in large rivers, usually in the current and in deep water. As water level rises, it moves to flooded areas to feed. It spawns on gravel in strong-current habitats.<br/><br/>It is a freshwater species; anadromous populations have been extirpated. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-5 years, females at 5-8 (Siberian populations mature later: males at 7-9 years, females at 9-12 years). The average reproductive age is about 10 years, but in the Danube this is lower (seven years) due to intensive fisheries. Females reproduce every 1-2 years and males every year in April-June when the temperature rises above 10°C. This species is largely sedentary; undertaking only short spawning migrations (322 km reported from Danube). There was a migratory population with large-growing individuals in Volga until end of 19th century, feeding in the northern Caspian Sea and moving upriver in autumn. The Sterlet feeds on a wide variety of benthic insect larvae and molluscs.
227		population	eng	Comprehensive catch data are not currently available but recorded catches in the Russian Federation decreased by nearly 40% between 1990 (116 tonnes) and 1996 (80.6 tonnes) (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>In the Danube drainage, the only available catch data is from 1958 to 1981, where catches ranged from 117 tonnes in 1963 to 36 tonnes in 1979, with an average catch of 63.5 tonnes per year (CITES 2000). In the mid and lower Danube catches are not often reported as it is a small species so catch data is suspect. Surveys (Juvenile Production Index) show that there is good current spawning in the Danube in Romania, Hungary and Serbia upstream of dams (Paraschiv <em>et al</em>. 2006; Knight <em>et al.</em> 2010). In the mid Danube the species supported large scale fisheries at the end of the 19th century, though currently this is much smaller. Over the past 21 years (estimated three generations in the Danube), a decline has happened but it is unknown to exactly what extent. The population has shown some recovery since the 1980s as the pollution from agriculture has been reduced. Hungary has had a re-stocking programme but its success is in question due to lack of brood fish used in the stocking (Guti pers. comm. 2007, to Suciu).
227		threats	eng	Overfishing, mostly for their meat, is the major threat to the species. However, in the year 2000 the Russian Federation established an export quota for 300 kg caviar, possibly from aquaculture. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). International trade is mostly made up of live individuals (juveniles) for the aquaculture and aquarium trade, almost exclusively sourced from aquaculture.<br/><br/>Dam construction, which began in the 1930s, led to the loss of spawning grounds across the species' range. Now spawning success is reliant upon the correct level of water being released by hydroelectric power stations; lowered water levels in rivers can cause mass death of fingerlings (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Pollution, including oil products, phenols, PCB's and mercury has threatened the species in the Volga system and Siberian rivers.<br/><br/>Hybrids (artificially produced with <span style="font-style: italic;">Huso huso</span>) released in the beginning of the 1980s in Don, are now possibly breeding with native populations (Chebanov pers. comm.)
228		conservation	eng	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically were directed to control local and national fisheries. Commercial sturgeon fishing was prohibited in the Soviet Union during the periods 1923-1930, 1958-1976 and from 1984 to the present (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).&#160; The Amur Sturgeon was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1998.
228		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the entire Amur River basin from the estuary to the river's upper reaches. It occurs in tributaries - the Shilka, Onon, Argun, Nerch, Sungari, Nonni and Ussuri Rivers (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997) - and extremely rarely occurs in Lake Khanka (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997).
228		habitat	eng	Habitat: All types of benthic habitats (on or near the bottom) in large rivers and lakes.<br/><br/>Biology: Freshwater. The Amur Sturgeon spawns in lower reaches of the Amur River in strong-current habitats in the main stream of the river, on gravel or sandy-gravel bottom. Spawning peaks from the end of May to July. Adults spawn many times during their life cycle. Spawning periodicity is 4-5 years in females and 3-4 years in males. The generation length of the species ranges from 12 to more than 45 years (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997; Berg 1948), with an estimated average 3 generation period of ~50 years.
228		population	eng	Currently, complete population data based on results of direct counts and fishery statistics do not exist for this species. A decline of catches has been observed since the end of the 19th century (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). Russian catches of the Amur Sturgeon in the Amur River Basin declined from 607 tonnes in 1891 to about 14 tonnes in 2006 (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).
228		threats	eng	The causes of the population declines are still overfishing, both legal and poaching (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).<br/><br/>Recently, environmental pollution in the Amur River basin threatens the habitat and reproduction of this species (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Chen 2007).
229		conservation	eng	Conservation action priorities within the EU 27 are the implementation of Danube Sturgeon Action Plan (supportive stocking will be continued for 5 to 6 years) to help restore breeding individuals.<br/><br/>Restocking measures are ongoing. However, although aquaculture contributes considerably to the maintenance of the stocks, it cannot compensate for the damage caused to natural reproduction by overfishing (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>It is not fully protected in any range state apart from Moldova. A license is required for fishing in most countries and private sturgeon fisheries are banned in Iran. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>According to 2007 Caspian Sea Bioresource Commission, 8.1 million fingerlings of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> were released into Caspian Sea by Khazakstan, Iran and Azerbaijan. Russia released 45 million (all sturgeon species) in 2007, but not specified how many were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> - but this is not less than 12 million (Ruban pers. comm.). <br/><br/>To preserve the commercial importance of Stellate Sturgeon population it is necessary to protect the recruitment from natural spawning and increase the industrial sturgeon aquaculture. Considering the state of stocks of the Caspian Sea it is necessary for all Caspian Sea states to suspend its harvest for commercial purposes (in Russia, the ban on Stellate Sturgeon commercial harvesting has been introduced since 2005). <br/><br/>Stellate sturgeon has no commercial value in the basins of the Black and Azov Seas.
229		conservation	eng	Restocking measures are ongoing. However, although aquaculture contributes considerably to the maintenance of the stocks, it cannot compensate for the damage caused to natural reproduction by overfishing (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>It is not fully protected in any range state apart from Moldova. A licence is required for fishing in most countries and private sturgeon fisheries are banned in Iran. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>According to 2007 Caspian Sea Bioresource Commission, 8.1 million fingerlings of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> were released into Caspian Sea by Khazakstan, Iran and Azerbaijan. Russia released 45 million (all sturgeon species) in 2007, but not specified how many were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> - but this is not less than 12 million (Ruban pers. comm.). <br/><br/>To preserve the commercial importance of Stellate Sturgeon population it is necessary to protect the recruitment from natural spawning and increase the industrial sturgeon aquaculture. Considering the state of stocks of the Caspian Sea it is necessary for all Caspian Sea states to suspend its harvest for commercial purposes (in Russia, the ban on Stellate Sturgeon commercial harvesting has been introduced since 2005). <br/><br/>Stellate Sturgeon has no commercial value in the basins of the Black and Azov Seas.
229		distribution	eng	Stellate Sturgeon inhabits in the Caspian, Black and Azov Seas, and rarely in the Aegan Sea. The Volga, Ural, Terek, Sulak, Kura, Don, Danube, Kuban Rivers are the major spawning rivers. The length of the spawning migration route of the Volga to the cascade of dams is up to Rybinsk, in the Ural - to Uralsk, in the Don - to Pavlovsk, in the Kuban - to Armavir. The highest abundance and biomass of natural population remained in the Caspian Sea. <br/><br/>The feeding area in the Caspian Sea of Stellate Sturgeon extended from the shallow water area of the northern part of the sea to the Iranian coast. An intensive migration of Stellate Sturgeon began in spring (March-May) to the shallow water area, in the Northern Caspian where the largest concentrations of fish were observed at the western coast of this part of the sea, as well as in the pre-mouth areas in the eastern part of the Volga River Delta (Belinskii and Igolkinskii Banks&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009)).<br/><br/><br/><sup></sup>
229		distribution	eng	Stellate sturgeon inhabits in the Caspian, Black and Azov Seas, and rarely in the north-eastern Aegan Sea. The Volga, Ural, Terek, Sulak, Kura, Don, Danube, Kuban Rivers are the major spawning rivers. The length of the spawning migration route of the Volga to the cascade of dams is up to Rybinsk, in the Ural - to Uralsk, in the Don - to Pavlovsk, in the Kuban - to Armavir. The highest abundance and biomass of natural population remained in the Caspian Sea. <br/><br/>The feeding area in the Caspian Sea of Stellate Sturgeon extended from the shallow water area of the northern part of the sea to the Iranian coast. An intensive migration of Stellate Sturgeon began in spring (March-May) to the shallow water area, in the Northern Caspian where the largest concentrations of fish were observed at the western coast of this part of the sea, as well as in the pre-mouth areas in the eastern part of the Volga River Delta (Belinskii and Igolkinskii Banks&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009)).<br/><br/><br/><sup></sup>
229		habitat	eng	This species is found at sea, coastal and estuarine zones, where it forages on clayey sand bottoms, as well as intensively in middle and upper water layers. It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers, on stone or gravel bottoms. It is also known to spawn on flooded river banks, on sand or sandy clay. Juveniles inhabit shallow riverine habitats during their first summer&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Caspian fish first mature at 6-7 years for males, and 7-8 years for females, with a generation length not less than 10 years. Females reproduce every 3-4 years and males every 2-3 years in April-September. It spawns only under relatively constant hydrological conditions, as fluctuating hydrological conditions lead to high egg mortality. This species migrates upriver at higher temperatures and therefore later than other sturgeons, with two peaks, in spring and in autumn. Males remain at spawning sites no longer than six weeks and females only 10-12 days. Spent individuals migrate directly back to sea. Yolk-sac larvae are pelagic for 2-3 days and drift with current. Juveniles migrate to sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. At sea, this species feeds on a wide variety of crustaceans, molluscs and benthic as well as pelagic fish&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>The main habitat in the Caspian Sea of the Stellate Sturgeon in the winter is the middle part of the sea (Legeza 1970). In the spring they migrate to the north, with its maximum density being observed off the mid-west coast in shallow water rich in food organisms (Legeza 1970). In late spring they move to the north-west coast. In autumn Stellate Sturgeons begin migrating to the south of the Caspian Sea (earlier than other species), concentrating at the mid-western coast and the south-eastern coast (Legeza 1970). <br/><br/>The spawning migration starts in April. Spawning occurs at temperatures from 9 to 16 °C in the channel and spring flooded spawning grounds at the current speed of 0.8-1.2 m / sec. The greatest number of Stellate Sturgeon migrate to the Ural River (Peseridi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Dovgopol <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). Stellate Sturgeon stop eating after the beginning of the spawning migration. After spawning, they return downstream into the sea, where they begin actively feeding. The juveniles of Stellate Sturgeon also do not delay in the river and migrate for feeding into the sea.
229		population	eng	In the early 1990s it was estimated that nearly 100% of the Sea of Azov population and 30% of the Caspian Sea population were from stocking. Recent estimations are that more than 50% of the Caspian Sea populations are from stocking (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Global catches show that in 1992, 2,730 tonnes were caught, falling to a low of 38 tonnes in 2004, and 50 tonnes in 2007 (a decline of over 98% in 15 years). The average catch between 1992-1999 was 1,063 tonnes, and between 2000 and 2007 it was 132 tonnes, a decline of 87% (FAO 2009). The decline in commercial catch for the species is believed to reflect a decline in the species population (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>For the whole Caspian basin, catch peaked in 1977 with 13,700 tonnes; this has shown an almost continuous decline to 305 tonnes in 2003 (most recent data) (over 97% decline in 32 years) (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In 2008 the agreed catch quota for <span style="font-style: italic;">A.stellatus</span> for all Caspian Sea countries in 2008 was set at 240 tonnes, including commercial and scientific catch; the quota has not been met (Pourkazemi pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) shows that the average numbers of spawners entering the lower Volga per year has fallen from a peak of 230,000 (between 1986-90) to just 50,000 (between 1998-2002), a decline of 78%. It is expected that the decline has continued at a similar rate to the present time (though data does not exist) and will continue. In the Ural the estimated number of migrating individuals per year has also shown a decline, in 1970: 1,100,000; 1979: 1,050,000; 1990: 300,000 migrating individuals (Veschev 1995); 1998: 103,600; 2001: 87,400 (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This shows a 92% decline from 1979 to 2001 (also from 1970 to 2001, as migrating individuals per year remained relatively stable between 1970 and 1979).<br/><br/>Distribution of Stellate Sturgeon in the Caspian Sea has declined (based on CPUE distribution data) from the 1970s to 2004 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In summer, Stellate Sturgeon feed in the warmer waters, forming the densest concentration, more than 0.6 specimens per 10,000 m<sup>3</sup> in the western region of the Caspian sea; this is four times higher than was recorded in 1994 (Khodorevskaya <em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). Concentration of all species of sturgeons and in particular, of Stellate Sturgeon, remains high in the area off the island of Ogurchinskii in the southern part of the Caspian Sea off the Turkmenian coast, but its abundance has declined 3.4 times compared to 1991&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>The total population size in the investigated water in 2008 was between 6.7-9.5 million specimens, this has fallen from 83 million in 1988&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>Over recent decades, Stellate Sturgeon abundance in the Caspian Sea has reduced. Evidence of this is shown in the decrease of the average catch per unit effort during trawl surveys between 1978-1999. These showed a three-fold decrease in the northern Caspian Sea, a 2.7-fold decline in the middle part of the Caspian Sea and a six-fold decline off the Dagestan coast (Vlasenko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Decrease of CPUE has been more apparent in the southern part of the sea. The Stellate Sturgeon population has declined from 69.7 million specimens in 1978 to 15.6 million in 2002, and 7.6 million specimens in 2008. Commercial stock decreased by 12 times during this period&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea, in Romania, from 2002-2005 the catches of wild individuals (stocking only started in 2006 in the Danube) dropped from 12.427 tonnes to 3.43 tonnes (72.5% in 4 years); in 2006 commercial catch was stopped (Suciu pers comm.). In Azov Sea, no wild mature females have been caught [for a stocking programme] since 2004 (Chebanov pers. comm.).
229		population	eng	In the early 1990s it was estimated that nearly 100% of the Sea of Azov population and 30% of the Caspian Sea population were from stocking. Recent estimations are that more than 50% of the Caspian Sea populations are from stocking (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Global catches show that in 1992, 2,730 tonnes were caught, falling to a low of 38 tonnes in 2004, and 50 tonnes in 2007 (a decline of over 98% in 15 years). The average catch between 1992-1999 was 1,063 tonnes, and between 2000 and 2007 it was 132 tonnes, a decline of 87% (FAO 2009). The decline in commercial catch for the species is believed to reflect a decline in the species population (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>For the whole Caspian basin, catch peaked in 1977 with 13,700 tonnes; this has shown an almost continuous decline to 305 tonnes in 2003 (most recent data) (over 97% decline in 32 years) (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In 2008 the agreed catch quota for <span style="font-style: italic;">A.stellatus</span> for all Caspian Sea countries in 2008 was set at 240 tonnes, including commercial and scientific catch; the quota has not been met (Pourkazemi pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) shows that the average numbers of spawners entering the lower Volga per year has fallen from a peak of 230,000 (between 1986-90) to just 50,000 (between 1998-2002), a decline of 78%. It is expected that the decline has continued at a similar rate to the present time (though data does not exist) and will continue. In the Ural the estimated number of migrating individuals per year has also shown a decline, in 1970: 1,100,000; 1979: 1,050,000; 1990: 300,000 migrating individuals (Veschev 1995); 1998: 103,600; 2001: 87,400 (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This shows a 92% decline from 1979 to 2001 (also from 1970 to 2001, as migrating individuals per year remained relatively stable between 1970 and 1979).<br/><br/>Distribution of Stellate Sturgeon in the Caspian Sea has declined (based on CPUE distribution data) from the 1970s to 2004 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In summer, Stellate Sturgeon feed in the warmer waters, forming the densest concentration, more than 0.6 specimens per 10,000 m<sup>3</sup> in the western region of the Caspian sea; this is four times higher than was recorded in 1994 (Khodorevskaya <em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). Concentration of all species of sturgeons and in particular, of Stellate Sturgeon, remains high in the area off the island of Ogurchinskii in the southern part of the Caspian Sea off the Turkmenian coast, but its abundance has declined 3.4 times compared to 1991&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>The total population size in the investigated water in 2008 was between 6.7-9.5 million specimens, this has fallen from 83 million in 1988&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). Massive stocking levels will also mask declines in the wild populations.<br/><br/>Over recent decades, Stellate Sturgeon abundance in the Caspian Sea has reduced. Evidence of this is shown in the decrease of the average catch per unit effort during trawl surveys between 1978-1999. These showed a three-fold decrease in the northern Caspian Sea, a 2.7-fold decline in the middle part of the Caspian Sea and a six-fold decline off the Dagestan coast (Vlasenko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Decrease of CPUE has been more apparent in the southern part of the sea. The Stellate Sturgeon population has declined from 69.7 million specimens in 1978 to 15.6 million in 2002, and 7.6 million specimens in 2008. Commercial stock decreased by 12 times during this period&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea, in Romania, from 2002-2005 the catches of wild individuals (stocking only started in 2006 in the Danube) dropped from 12.427 tonnes to 3.43 tonnes (72.5% in 4 years); in 2006 commercial catch was stopped. The Juvenile Production Index for this species (JPI = number of young of the year (number of >1 years olds caught) from natural recruitment at Danube River Km 118) shows that there is still some recruitment as in 2000 the CPUE was 1.4, 2001 0.2, 2002-4 <0.2, 2005 1.3, 2006-7 0 and 2008 >0.4. In Azov Sea, no mature females have been caught [for a stocking programme] since 2004 (Chebanov pers. comm.).
229		threats	eng	The reason for Stellate Sturgeon abundance decrease is primarily due to marine fishing and a sharp increase of poaching, seizing the largest and mature fish and nullifying the natural reproduction of sturgeon. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Single specimens of Stellate Sturgeon were harvested at the Azerbaijan coast during a trawl survey in 1994; this is most likely due to heavy illegal fishing (large number of poaching gears were observed).<br/><br/>Overfishing has prevented hatcheries catching enough mature individuals to maintain the necessary broodstock (Artyukhin 1997 in CITES 2000), and stocking has severely decreased in the Caspian Sea as the stocking process relies upon wild individuals (unlike other sturgeon species they are difficult to keep mature individuals in ponds, Nikolai pers. comm.). The annual release (over the past 10 years) of sturgeon juveniles from sturgeon hatcheries in Russia amounts to from 3 to 20 million specimens; in Kazakhstan - from 2.5 to 4.1 million specimens; in Azerbaijan - from 2.5 to 6.8 million specimens; in Islamic Republic of Iran - from 0.2 to 1.3 million specimens. This quantity of stocks recruitment of Stellate Sturgeon from industrial sturgeon culture is not enough to supply the population at an optimum level&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>Dams have also led to the loss of many spawning grounds. For example the Volgograd dam (built in 1955) led to loss of 40% of spawning sites formally available in the Volga (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species is also considered extirpated from the upper and middle Danube since the building of the Djerdap Dams (Iron Gate Dams). The Don River dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban led to the loss of 140,000 ha of spawning grounds.<br/><br/>Pollution is a threat to the species. In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species (Gessner, J. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Introduced Mnemiopsis (from US) which impacts the species food source (pelagic fishes) has impacted the Black Sea population (impacts now reduced in Black Sea) and is now impacting the Caspian Sea populations.<br/><br/>Introduction of fertilized eggs (from before 1986 and again 2003/4, and it may continue) from the Caspian Sea into the Azov Sea may impact the genetic integrity of Azov Sea population (Chebanov pers. comm.).
229		threats	eng	The reason for Stellate Sturgeon abundance decrease is primarily due to marine fishing and a sharp increase of poaching, seizing the largest and mature fish and nullifying the natural reproduction of sturgeon.   This also is now the most serious problem for Stellate sturgeons spawning within the EU-27. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Single specimens of Stellate Sturgeon were harvested at the Azerbaijan coast during a trawl survey in 1994; this is most likely due to heavy illegal fishing (large number of poaching gears were observed).<br/><br/>Overfishing has prevented hatcheries catching enough mature individuals to maintain the necessary broodstock (Artyukhin 1997 in CITES 2000), and stocking has severely decreased in the Caspian Sea as the stocking process relies upon wild individuals (unlike other sturgeon species they are difficult to keep mature individuals in ponds, Nikolai pers. comm.). The annual release (over the past 10 years) of sturgeon juveniles from sturgeon hatcheries in Russia amounts to from 3 to 20 million specimens; in Kazakhstan - from 2.5 to 4.1 million specimens; in Azerbaijan - from 2.5 to 6.8 million specimens; in Islamic Republic of Iran - from 0.2 to 1.3 million specimens. This quantity of stocks recruitment of Stellate Sturgeon from industrial sturgeon culture is not enough to supply the population at an optimum level&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>Dams have also led to the loss of many spawning grounds. For example the Volgograd dam (built in 1955) led to loss of 40% of spawning sites formally available in the Volga (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species is also considered extirpated from the upper and middle Danube since the building of the Djerdap Dams (Iron Gate Dams). The Don River dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban led to the loss of 140,000 ha of spawning grounds.<br/><br/>Pollution is a threat to the species. In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species (Gessner, J. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Introduced Mnemiopsis (from US) which impacts the species food source (pelagic fishes) has impacted the Black Sea population (impacts now reduced in Black Sea) and is now impacting the Caspian Sea populations.<br/><br/>Introduction of fertilized eggs (from before 1986 and again 2003/4, and it may continue) from the Caspian Sea into the Azov Sea may impact the genetic integrity of Azov Sea population (Chebanov pers. comm.).
230		conservation	eng	An ongoing in situ conservation programme is in place. Ex-situ conservation is carried out in France and Germany. Bern Convention Action Plans have been developed, while National Action Plans are to come.<br/><br/>Restocking was initiated in 1995 and later in 2007 until 2009. Survival rate for the 1995 stocking is 3-5%; the survival rate for recent releases is unknown. For the first time in 2007, progenies were obtained from farmed specimen (Williot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>There is a fisheries awareness programme co-ordinated between National Fishermen Associations in Atlantic North Sea and WWF.<br/><br/>This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1975, and moved to Appendix I in 1983.
230		distribution	eng	This species was once known from the North and Baltic Seas, English channel, European coasts of Atlantic, northern Mediterranean west of Rhodos, and western and southern Black Sea. It was occasionally recorded in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. The last record from the Rioni (Georgia) was in 1991, although further surveys have failed to find the species (J. Gessner, pers comm.). Today this species is restricted only to the Garonne River (France).
230		habitat	eng	Biology: Anadromous (spends at least part of its life in salt water and returns to rivers to breed). <br/><br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 10-12 years, females at 14-18. There are indications for a reproduction at two year intervals for males and 3-4 years for females in April-July. Adults do not eat during migration and spawning. The distance of the spawning migration seems to be positively correlated with water level, and a distance of 1000 km or more may be covered during years of high water. Spent fishes immediately return to the sea (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>Potential spawning grounds have been mapped. Juveniles migrate downstream and are present in upper estuary at one year old. They continue a slow downstream migration and penetrate the sea at 2-3 years. For the next 4-6 years, they leave the sea to enter the lower estuary at summer time where movements and feeding were determined. At sea, this species feeds on a variety of molluscs, crustaceans and small fish. Atlantic population feed benthically.
230		population	eng	The sturgeon was an important commercial fish until the beginning of the 20th century (Debus 2007). The last natural reproduction was in 1994 (previous reproduction in 1988). A population assessment in 2005 estimated 2,000 individuals remain. It is estimated that bycatch took around 200 fish per year (gill net and trawling at sea) (Rochard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<br/><br/>The size of the population today is much smaller (approximately 20-750 native wild adult fish, based on an assessment of the size the cohort before they leave the estuary). There are more individuals from stocking (7,000 in 2007; 80,000 in 2008; and 46,000 in 2009) (Rouault <em>et al.</em> 2008; Rochard 2010). These have not yet bred in the wild and first breeding (from the releases of 1995) is expected by 2014, F1 generation of 2007 and later releases around 2021. The limiting factor is the availability of females which won't reproduce until ~2016 (Rochard, pers. comm).
230		threats	eng	Bycatch is the major threat and the extraction of gravel in the Garonne is a potential threat to the species. Dam construction, pollution and river regulation have led to loss and degradation of spawning sites.
231		conservation	eng	A three month seasonal fishing ban between February and April was introduced in 2002 in the upper Yangtze River.<br/><br/>This species has been listed as a First Class Protected Animal of the State since 1988, and has received the same effective protection as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acipenser sinensis</span>. This species was also listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Artificial propagation was first carried out in 1976. Since 2007 more than 5000 juveniles have been released into the upper Yangtze River for stock rehabilitation, but these species are not thought to be breeding in the wild and no larvae have been seen in recent years.<br/><br/>It is considered that the survival of this species is entirely reliant on restocking efforts, without which this species would possibly become extinct (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Since the 1970s, the Institute of Aquatic Products of Sichuan Province have increased efforts regarding raising and breeding of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span>. For example young <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span> from the Yangtze River have been introduced into the Changshou City reservoir for culturing (The Changjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988).<br/><br/>In 2000 the first national nature reserve was created in the upper Yangzte river. The area of this reserve was extended in 2005 to mitigate the conflict between hydroelectric projects and the maintenance of the functionality of the ecosystem. The reserve is now the largest aquatic reserve in China, which has a total length of 1162.6 km (including 436.5 km of the main river) (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
231		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and is restricted to the Yangtze River system. Historically, under the natural, unaltered conditions that existed until the middle of the 20th century, this species inhabited the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River and its large tributaries, including the Ming, Tuo, Jialing, Xiang and Han rivers, as well as the large lakes linking attached to the Yangtze River. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span> has recently (possibly since 1995) been extirpated from the lower river and is restricted to the upper main stream of the Yangtze River in the Sichuan Province. It also enters major tributaries, including the Ming, Tuo, and Jialing rivers. (Zhuang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
231		habitat	eng	This is a small sturgeon species that is permanently resident in freshwater. It usually inhabits the middle and lower layers of the water and prefers slow moving water that is rich in humus, and feeds on demersal organisms (those that live at or near the bottom of a body of water).<br/><br/>This species spawns in upper reaches of the Yangtze River, in the spring (March-April) and the autumn (October-December). Its key spawning reach is between Maoshui and Heijang, a stretch of 321.7 km (The Chanjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988).
231		population	eng	The natural population of this species was not considered to be large. Historically, this was an important species in commercial fisheries of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River (Chen 2007). In the late 20th century population numbers declined drastically because of overfishing and habitat degradation. Incidental catch data between 1982 and 2008 indicate that since 1982 only tens of specimens are being captured annually and there have been no capture records below the Gezhouba Dam since 1995. The stock has dropped markedly during the past 20 to 30 years and now the production is so small and scattered, that no exact account of total production is reported. Artificial propagation began in 1976 by the Changjianq Fisheries Institute, China. Since 2007, more than 5,000 individuals have been released into the upper reaches of the Yangtze River for stock rehabilitation (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
231		threats	eng	This species has historically experienced unsustainable levels of fishing. Furthermore, mesh sizes of fishing nets have reduced, thereby capturing young, especially during the periods when many juveniles concentrate to feed.<br/><br/>Fishing effort and intensity has also increased in the past, for example in the Neijiang reach of the Tuo River there were only 500 fishing boats in 1950s, but this number increased to about 2000 by 1985. In the Leshan Reach of the Ming River, drift gill nets are crowded together from day to night.<br/><br/>The primary traditional fishing season in the main stream of Yangzte River is between March and August, with more than 30% of the catch processed between April and May. However, this is also spawning season of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span>, therefore spawning stock are particularly vulnerable to capture.<br/><br/>Furthermore, the construction of the Gezhouba Dam in 1981 and the Three Gorges Dam in 2003 have caused major adverse effects to the habitat of this species and have resulted in a reduction in the area of occurrence of this species, which is now restricted to the upstream river, above the dams. More recently, the construction of the Xiangjiaba Dam in 2008 is situated in the middle of this species spawning reach and therefore is expected to adversely affect the population through habitat fragmentation and associated habitat degradation.<br/><br/>Additionally pollution from increasing human development affects the entire Yangtze basin. Much untreated waste water discharges into the river each year. Water quality is also affected by run-off caused by deforestation of the the upper Yangtze Valley (Zhuang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).
232		conservation	eng	Restocking measures are ongoing, however stocks are continuing to decline. In the early 1990s, between 30-55% of the Caspian stock reportedly originated from hatcheries (Barannikova 1995 in CITES 2000, Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). In Russia, between 1991 and 1998, 70 million fry of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gueldenstaedtii</span> were released in the Volga river and just over 32 million fry into the Sea of Azov.<br/><br/>The species is not fully protected in any range state, though licenses are required in most countries and Iran has banned private sturgeon fisheries. Overall, however, enforcement measures seem to be lacking. Fish lifts and artificial spawning grounds have been introduced to parts of the Caspian region (CITES 2000) without much success. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Gene bank of live specimens and cryopreservation is ongoing in Russia and Iran.
232		distribution	eng	EU 27 - Black Sea, where spawning occurs in the lower Danube<br/><br/>This species is known from the Caspian, Black and Azov Sea basins. Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe.<br/><br/>It is currently only known from the Caspian Sea, where it still spawns in the rivers Ural and Volga, and the Black Sea where spawning occurs in the lower Danube and Rioni rivers (last recorded in the Rioni in 1999 (Kolman & Zarkua 2002)). There is no native spawning population remaining in the Sea of Azov, only introduced (stocked) individuals. The species reproduction within the Kura is debated (Vecsei 2001).
232		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Caspian, Black and Azov Sea basins. Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe.<br/><br/>It is currently only known from the Caspian Sea, where it spawns in the rivers Ural and Volga, and the Black Sea where spawning occurs in the lower Danube and Rioni rivers (last recorded in the Rioni in 1999 (Kolman & Zarkua 2002)). There is no native spawning population remaining in the Sea of Azov, only introduced (stocked) individuals. The species reproduction within the Kura is debated (Vecsei 2001).
232		habitat	eng	Habitat: At sea, shallow coastal and estuarine zones. In freshwaters, in deep parts of large rivers with moderate to swift current. Spawns in strong current (1-1.5 m/s) in large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. <br/><br/>Biology: Anadromous and freshwater populations (freshwater populations existed in the Danube and Volga - both are now extinct). A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes spring and autumn runs. Individuals migrating in spring enter freshwater just before spawning; they tend to spawn in lower reaches of rivers (320-650 km in the unregulated Ural). Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter in rivers and spawn the following spring further upstream (900-1200 km in the Ural). <br/><br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 8-13 years, females at 10-16. Generation length (average age of parents of current cohort) is estimated to be 15 years under natural circumstances, but due to the impacts this species is facing the generation length ranges from between 12 years in the Caspian Sea to over 20 in the Danube. Females reproduce every 4-6 years and males every 2-3 years in April-June, when the temperature rises above 10°C. Larvae drift on currents; juveniles then move towards shallower habitats, before migrating to the sea during their first summer. They remain at sea until maturity. The Russian Sturgeon feeds on a wide variety of benthic molluscs, crustaceans and small fish.
232		population	eng	The species wild native population has undergone major decline which is currently occurring. But due to the large levels of stocking (particularly Russia and Iran) the exact levels are unknown. According to CITES (2000) Russia released 25 million fingerlings into the Vologa between 1979-80, 35 million between 1981-85, 40.8 million between 1986-90, 42 million between 1991-95 and 28 million 1996-98; Iran released 300,000 fingerlings in 1994 which has risen nearly every year to 960,000 in 1999.<br/><br/>Despite this level of stocking, fisheries catches have fallen, particularly from the early 1990s in the Caspian. According to FAO fisheries statistics (FAO 2009) global catches fell from 4,250 tonnes in 1992 (first available catch data) to 67 tonnes in 2007 (last available catch data), a decline of 98% in 15 years. The average catch from 1992-1999 (8 year period) was 1,531.75 tonnes, whereas the average catch from 2000-2007 (8 year period) was 175.37 tonnes, a decline of 88.5%.<br/><br/>Data from the Caspian Sea (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) shows similar declines: catches were between 6,000 and 9,000 tonnes per year in the 1960s to a peak of around 14,500 tonnes in the late 1970s early 1980s to less than 1,000 per year from 2000 to 2008. The estimated spawning stock biomass in the Volga has also drastically declined, from 13,200 tonnes (1961-65) and 22,200 tonnes (1966-70) to 1,000 tonnes (1996-97) and 1,000 tonnes (1998-2002). Average number of spawners (1,000 individuals) passing fishery zones to the spawning grounds in the lower Volga (per year) has declined by 88% from the 1962-75 average to the 1992-2002 average.<br/><br/>Romanian catch data (Danube) shows that in 2002, 3,726 kg was caught; in 2003, 1,499 kg; in 2004, 440 kg; and in 2005, 37 kg, showing a 99% decline in just four years (Paraschiv <em>et al</em>. 2006). A Juvenile Production Index (evidence of breeding) for the Danube (Romania) also shows a decline: CPUE was just over 0.7 in 2000, < 0.2 in 2001, 0.3 in 2002, 0 in 2003, < 0.1 in 2004, 0.1 in 2005, 0 in 2006, < 0.05 in 2007 and 0 in 2008. (CPUE = number of Young of the Year - number of < 1 year olds caught - from natural recruitment captured in one netting (Suciu 2008, pers. comm.;&#160;Paraschiv&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2006; Knight <em>et al</em>. 2010).
232		threats	eng	Most spawning sites have been lost due to dam construction. The Caspian basin lost 70% of spawning grounds since the 1950s, mainly due to the construction of hydroelectric power stations; the Ural is now the only river in the basin with unregulated flow. Flow regulation of the Kuban River has led to the loss of 140,000 ha, and damming of the river Don has removed 68,000 ha spawning ground. For example, in the Yugoslavian section of the Danube, the annual catch dropped from 14,636 kg in 1983 to 1,636 kg in 1985 (a decline of just under 90%), this is believed to be due to the construction of the Djerdap (Irongate) II dam which was constructed in 1984, leaving no accessible spawning grounds for the species in the upstream reaches and in former Yugoslavia (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Poaching and illegal fishing, which appears to be increasing, is also a threat to the species. Enforcement of legislation regulating the fishery for the species appear to be lacking. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species (in both marine and freshwater).<br/><br/>High levels of pollution (from oil and industrial waste), in both the Black and Caspian Sea basins have altered hormonal balance, and increased the number of hermaphroditic fish. Pollution levels are now decreasing since the break up of the Soviet Union (Levin, 1977 in CITES 2000). In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.<br/><br/>Genetic pollution is also a potential threat as stocks are moved to different locations (e.g. Caspian stocks moved to Sea of Azov).<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.
233		conservation	eng	Fishery managers in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia have recognized the sensitivity of Green Sturgeon to fishing and have actively restricted commercial and sport fisheries everywhere Green Sturgeon occur. None of the reviews examined mentioned any legal, regional, national or international trade in Green Sturgeon products. This species is not considered as good to eat as White Sturgeon and markets for their flesh are limited. <br/> <br/>Due to life history characteristics that make it particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events Green Sturgeon has a designation of "Special Concern" in Canada (Houston 1988, Davies 2004), and no harvest is allowed in Canadian waters. <br/> <br/>In response to a petition to list Green Sturgeon under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) completed a status review for this species (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). NMFS determined that the species is comprised of two distinct population segments (DPS) but that neither warrants listing as a threatened or endangered species at this time (NMFS 2003). However, because of remaining uncertainties about their population structure and status, both DPS populations were added to the agency's list of candidate species and will be reevaluated in five years provided sufficient new information becomes available.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
233		distribution	eng	Green Sturgeon is an anadromous species that spend most of their life in near-shore marine and estuarine waters from Mexico to southeast Alaska (Houston 1988, Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995, Davies 2004). <br/> <br/>Large concentrations of Green Sturgeon are still found in coastal estuaries, but their range in freshwater has been restricted by damming in some rivers. For example, Green Sturgeon were historically observed hundreds of kilometers upstream in the Sacramento and Columbia rivers, but are currently restricted in the Columbia River to the lower 60 km downstream of the Bonneville Dam (Moyle 2002). Spawning is presently known to occur in only three rivers in North America, all of which are in the United States: the Rogue River in Oregon (Erickson <em>et al</em>. 2001, Rien <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the Klamath and Sacramento river systems in California (EPIC 2001, Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002, CDFG 2002, Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1992,1994).  Spawning populations have been extirpated from the San Joaquin, Eel, South Fork, and Trinity rivers, and possibly the Umpqua River (EPIC 2001, NMFS 2002). Seasonal concentrations occur in several estuaries including the Sacramento-San Joaquin, Eel, Columbia, Willapa Bay, Grays Harbor and the Fraser River (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002).
233		habitat	eng	The Green Sturgeon is among the most marine oriented and widespread of the sturgeons. Like most sturgeons, the Green Sturgeon is characterized by large size, longevity, delayed maturation, high fecundity, and far-ranging movements. Green Sturgeon reach sizes up to 2.7 m and have been aged to over 50 years (Nakamoto <em>et al</em>. 1995, Farr <em>et al</em>. 2002). Mortality rates of subadults and adults are low and probably do not exceed 10% per year from natural causes based on age frequency analysis.  Males typically mature at about 15–17 years and 1.5–1.8 m, while females typically mature at 20–25 years and 1.8–2.1 m (Van Eenennaam and Doroshov  2001a). Similarly aged males are generally smaller than females with males from the northern DPS achieving a maximum size of 168 cm, while sexually mature males and females from the southern DPS range in size from 139 to199 cm and 157 to 223 cm, respectively (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Spawning is believed to occur every 3-5 years and the generation time is 27–33 years (Davies 2004). <br/> <br/>Green Sturgeon are oviparious broadcast spawners and adult Green Sturgeon typically migrate into freshwater beginning in late February and spawning occurs in April to June in deep, turbulent river mainstems (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995). Klamath and Rogue River populations appear to spawn within 160 km of the ocean while the Sacramento population may travel over 320 km upriver. Green Sturgeon eggs and larvae are comparatively larger than those of other sturgeon species. For example, Cech <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a egg diameter of 4.34, 3.40 and 2.62 mm for green, white, and Atlantic Sturgeon (<em>A. oxyrinchus</em>) respectfully indicating that Green Sturgeon have eggs which have a volume twice that of white and over four times that of Atlantic Sturgeon. Consequently, Green Sturgeon have a relatively lower fecundity in comparison to other similar sized sturgeon species as reproductive energy is more heavily invested in egg size rather than egg number (Van Eenennaam <em>et al</em>. 2001b, Cech <em>et al</em>. 2000). Fecundity varies with age and size, but has been estimated to be in the order of  2,800 eggs per kilogram bodyweight; approximately half that of White Sturgeon (<em>Acipenser transmontanus</em>) at 5,648 eggs per kilogram bodyweight (Moyle 2002). <br/> <br/>The eggs do not form a thick jelly coat as do those of other North American sturgeon and exhibit poor adhesion to substrate (Deng 2000, Cech <em>et al</em>. 2000), which would indicate sensitivity to turbidity loading  (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1994, Moyle 2002). Furthermore, the larger eggs and higher growth rates of developing Green Sturgeon in comparison to other North American sturgeons suggests that a higher oxygen demand may be required for proper embryonic development; thus Green Sturgeon may require colder, cleaner water for spawning. (USFWS 1995). <br/> <br/>Eggs hatch in 7 to 9 days at 15°C (Van Eenennaam <em>et al</em>. 2001). Cech <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported that temperatures above 20°C are lethal to embryos and temperatures above 24°C significantly reduce five-day larval growth rates. Larvae begin to feed at 10 days post hatch and complete metamorphosis into juveniles at 45 days (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Juvenile Green Sturgeon grow rapidly reaching 60 cm within 2–3 years and they spend 1–4 years in fresh and estuarine waters before dispersal to saltwater (Beamsesderfer and Webb 2002). Green Sturgeon are commonly observed in bays and estuaries up and down the coast and large concentrations enter the Columbia River estuary, and Washington's Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay during late summer (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995). Limited tagging studies show that tagged individuals from the Columbia River have been recaptured off the west coast of Vancouver Island (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>During the 1 to 4 years of freshwater residence, juveniles gradually move to deeper and more saline areas as they grow (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002). As juveniles grow, they exhibit greater tolerance to salinity and achieve seawater tolerance at seven months or sooner (Allen and Cech 2003). Adults return to freshwater to spawn, and Green Sturgeon have been reported to spawn up to 160 km upstream in the Klamath and Rogue rivers, and over 300 km upstream in the Sacramento River (Beamesderder and Webb 2002). After spawning, they to sea in late autumn to early winter when temperatures drop below 10°C and flows increased above 100 m<sup>3</sup>s<sup>-1</sup> (Erickson <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Juveniles are opportunistic benthic feeders with a diet consisting of various invertebrates and fish (EPIC 2001, Moyle 2002).  Stomach content analysis indicates that adult Green Sturgeon have a marine diet consisting of various benthic invertebrates including shrimp, crabs, worms, amphioids, and isopods (EPIC 2001), but have also been observed feeding on sand lances (<em>Ammodytes hexapterus</em>) and other fish.
233		population	eng	Preliminary population genetics results suggest that Green Sturgeon from the Klamath and Rogue rivers are similar to each other but distinct from fish from San Pablo Bay. Green Sturgeon commonly occur in the lower Columbia River (Oregon–Washington) and genetic samples taken there appear to be a mixture of the other populations (Israel <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS 2003) has determined that, based on genetic evidence of discreteness, there are two Distinct Population Segments (DPS's) for Green Sturgeon. The northern population ranges from the Eel River, California, to at least the Rogue River, Oregon. The southern population is principally comprised of the Sacramento River spawning stock. <br/> <br/>Their wide distribution, large numbers observed seasonally in some areas, and projections based on demographic rates suggest that total Green Sturgeon numbers are at least in the tens of thousands (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002). The largest known spawning stock of Green Sturgeon is that of the Klamath River and its tributary, the Trinity River. The Klamath River population is estimated to number up to 66,000 individuals of which 3,000 would be mature adults. Actual spawner numbers in the Klamath were estimated at 760–1,500 females per year based on average harvest and total mortality rates (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002). <br/> <br/>Based on a review of recent tagging studies, harvest analyses, and stock assessments from many locations, Beamesderfer and Webb (2002) estimated that the total adult and subadult population size of Green Sturgeon is within the range of 34,000 to 160,000 fish. Of these, greatest abundance was recorded for the Columbia River estuary, and ocean and bay waters of Oregon and Washington. <br/> <br/>Attempts to determine trends in sturgeon abundance in the northern DPS have been inconclusive regarding the status of Green Sturgeon, and the status of the northern Green Sturgeon population is unknown (NMFS 2002, Davies 2004). <br/> <br/>Similar attempts to determine the status of Green Sturgeon in the southern DPS were also inconclusive, and with the exception of anecdotal evidence of a reduction of Green Sturgeon entrainment at water export facilities indicative of a population decline, the status of the southern DPS is also unknown (NMFS 2002, Davies 2004).
233		threats	eng	Sturgeon exhibit a combination of morphology, life history and habitat requirements that make them highly susceptible to negative impacts from human activities (Boreman 1997).  Anthropogenic activities known to impact sturgeon include: exploitation   blockage of available freshwater spawning habitat through diking, damming causing inadequate flow regimes, channelization, elimination of backwater areas, dewatering of streams, destruction of thermal refugia, loss of deep pools, inundation of habitat by reservoirs, and exposure to bioaccumulating industrial and municipal pollution, (Boreman 1997, EPIC 2001, Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The long life span and late age of maturity makes sturgeon vulnerable to chronic and acute effects of bioaccumulation. White Sturgeon, for example have been found to have the greatest contaminant concentrations compared to salmonids, suckers, Walleye (<em>Sander vitreus</em>), Pacific Lamprey (<em>Lampetra tridentata</em>), and Eulachon (<em>Thaleichthys pacificus</em>), [USEPA 1999]. Whole body concentrations of hexachlorobenzene (19 ųg/kg), DDT (787 ųg/kg), p,p’DDE (620 ųg/kg), Aroclors (173 ųg/kg), and dioxins were an order of magnitude higher in concentration than all other species tested.  Although Green Sturgeon are less exposed to anthropogenic contaminants due to their marine migratory phase, there is the potential for exposure when entering freshwater to spawn and during estuarine concentrations. <br/> <br/>Marine and estuarine environments in Canada are of concern as they are heavily impacted by a number of activities including logging, aquaculture, agriculture and urbanization, and can be the eventual sinks to freshwater pollutants. However, a 1994 assessment of the quality of the lower Fraser River ecosystem indicated that no dramatic changes in species assemblages were determined to have occurred since the previous study in 1974 (Healey <em>et al</em>. 1994) despite an increase in usage. Area managed for conservation also increased from 23 to 69% over the same time period with 80% of the increase being accounted for by conservation efforts on the Fraser River estuary (MWLAP 2002). The increase in estuary protection and the results from Healey <em>et al</em>. (1994) suggests that estuarine habitat loss that may effect Green Sturgeon is likely not substantial in Canada. <br/> <br/>In the US, where all known spawning populations occur, Green Sturgeon have lost spawning habitat to poor land use practices and habitat alteration through water management projects (EPIC 2001). This has caused a decline in general water quality in some areas through increased sedimentation as well as the loss of deep pools which Green Sturgeon are known to prefer. Furthermore, damming of river systems can block previously available spawning habitat, affect natural flow regimes, potentially reduce areas of thermal refugia, and change sediment transport characteristics of the river which may cascade and impact sturgeon by modifying ecosystem community structure (EPIC 2001). For example, Green Sturgeon were historically observed hundreds of kilometers upstream in the Sacramento and Columbia rivers, but are currently restricted in the Columbia River to the lower 60 km downstream of the Bonneville Dam (Moyle 2002). <br/> <br/>Beamesderfer and Webb (2002 suggest that habitat conditions throughout the Green Sturgeon range have stabilized or are improving, but the results of spawning surveys have yet to substantiate that (NMFS 2002). Most of the northern population segment spawns in the Klamath River. Potential threats to this population include concentration of spawning, harvest (especially in mixed-stock estuarine fisheries), and loss of spawning habitat such as the Columbia River, and the Eel and South Fork, and Trinity Rrivers in California (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The southern population segment (south of the Eel River) is more of a concern because it has fewer spawners (limited to the Sacramento-San Joaquin system), which makes it more susceptible to catastrophic events. These fish also face potentially lethal temperature limits, entrainment by water projects, and may be adversely affected by pesticides and other toxic substances and exotic species (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is probable that Green Sturgeon spawning habitat has been lost behind dams and water diversions throughout the Central Valley (e.g., Red Bluff Diversion Dam and Glenn-Colusa Irrigation District pumping plant). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Green Sturgeon harvest is all bycatch in Green Sturgeon harvest is all bycatch in two three fisheries. The smaller bycatch occurs in Klamath River Tribal salmon gill net fisheries while the larger portion is in the White Sturgeon commercial and sport fisheries (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). Total annual harvest of Green Sturgeon declined substantially to 1,192 fish in 1999–2001 from 6,871 fish in 1985–1989. Most of this earlier harvest came from the Columbia River (51%) and Washington coastal fisheries (28%). In recent years, Columbia and Washington coastal harvest was substantially reduced and in 2001 these two bycatch fisheries and that of the Klamath River tribes were about equal in number. Catch reduction in the Columbia River is a result of increasingly restrictive regulations. For the sturgeon sport fishery, slot limits prohibit retention of fish (white or green) less than 107 cm (42 inches) or more than 152 cm (60 inches). Green Sturgeon retained as bycatch in the commercial fishery must be between 122 and 168 cm (48-66 inches). <br/> <br/>Klamath Tribal fisheries (Yurok and Hoopa) accounted for an average 266 adult fish annually from 1986–2001 with no apparent trend. This fishery is monitored but not regulated. California sport catch of Green Sturgeon, primarily in San Pablo Bay, is not monitored, but is thought to be only a few fish each year (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). California slot size limits for both sturgeon species is 117–183 cm (46–72 inches). <br/> <br/>There is also a bycatch in the domestic trawl fishing industry in B.C., which takes about 171 Green Sturgeon annually (Davis 2004). <br/> <br/>There is no information on the extent of illegal exploitation of Green Sturgeon, but poaching activity on White Sturgeon in the lower Fraser River is a concern (Ptolemy and Vennesland 2003).
234		conservation	eng	<strong>Kootenai River subpopulation</strong> <br/>The Kootenai River population of white sturgeon was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act on September 6, 1994 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  Subsequently, a recovery team composed of two Canadians and eight Americans was formed in January 1995. The team completed a final recovery plan for the Kootenai River white sturgeon in 1998 which was subsequently approved by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in late 1999 (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). The recovery plan describes a series of 46 specific conservation measures in the United States and Canada that are believed necessary to recover the endangered white sturgeon. Recovery objectives are to re-establish successful reproduction in the wild by increasing Kootenai River flows and producing hatchery-reared juveniles over the next 10 years to prevent extinction.<br/><br/>The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.
234		distribution	eng	The largest component of the white sturgeon population occurs along the west coast of the United States and comprises subpopulations occurring in several river systems and rearing primarily within the Sacramento-San Joaquin and Columbia-Snake River basins. The species is also found in the Kootenai River (United States and Canada), the Fraser River drainage (Canada), and the Columbia River between Hugh Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border. <br/> <br/>There is evidence of emigration from the Sacramento and Columbia river systems based on out-of-system tag studies (PSMFC 1992). These included Chadwick (1959) who cited the recovery of a fish tagged in San Pablo Bay in 1954 and recovered in the Columbia River, and Kohlhorst <em>et al</em>. (1991) who noted that 11 white sturgeon tagged in San Pablo Bay (Sacramento River system) were caught in six river systems north of California, primarily the Umpqua River, Oregon (five tags recovered) and the Chehalis River, Washington (three tags). Also in this study, one tag return each was received from the Columbia River, Yaquina River and Tillamook Bay, Oregon and the Willapa River, Washington. More recently a fish originally tagged in the lower Columbia River was re-captured in the Sacramento River in 1997 (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999a). Population estimates of legal-sized and adult white sturgeon can vary dramatically (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999a, Schaffter and Kohlhorst 1999) but for the most part, this stock is generally believed to be healthy and stable. <br/> <br/>The upper Columbia River white sturgeon subpopulation inhabits the Columbia River mainstem upstream from Grand Coulee Dam. In this area, the largest documented group of the species resides in the area between Hugh Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border. Other remnant subpopulations occur, or are suspected, throughout the remainder of the drainage. <br/> <br/>White sturgeon are found in the Fraser River mainstem from the estuary upstream at least as far as the Torpy River, a distance of over 1,000 km (R.L.&amp;L. Environmental Services Ltd. 2000). They are also found in a major tributary of the Fraser, the Nechako River and it’s tributary the Stuart River (these two have a combined stream length of about 400 km). However, sturgeon are not evenly dispersed throughout this length of river, but are clustered in suitable habitat.The Kootenai River subpopulation inhabits and migrates freely in the Kootenai River from Kootenai Falls in Montana (United States) downstream into Kootenay Lake, British Columbia (Canada). It is restricted to approximately 270 km of the Kootenai River and Kootenay Lake.
234		habitat	eng	Generally anadromous, but some subpopulations are landlocked and spend their entire life cycle in freshwater. <em>Acipenser transmontanus</em> is the largest freshwater fish species in North America. The largest white sturgeon on record weighed approximately 682 kg and was taken from the Snake River, Idaho in 1898. Individuals from landlocked subpopulations tend to be smaller.
234		population	eng	<strong>Sacramento-San Joaquin River subpopulations</strong> <br/>The California Department of Fish and Game periodically monitors the status of white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system to estimate abundance and mortality rates. The most recent survey completed in 1997 estimated nearly 140,000 white sturgeon (> 40 inches) in the Sacramento River (Shaffter and Kohlhorst 1999). The number of adult white sturgeon fluctuates annually and is largely the result highly variable year classes affecting adult recruitment. For example, strong year classes from the early 1980s recruited large numbers of adult white sturgeon to the fishery beginning around 1994; conversely subsequent severe drought conditions across California from 1987 to 1992 are expected to affect the size of the adult white sturgeon population since reproduction was generally poor during those years (Schaffter and Kohlhorst 1999). As recruitment basically ceases and growth and general mortality reduce the number of legal-sized fish, the adult population should decline the next few years. However, the subsequent series of wet years beginning in 1993 should contribute to another cycle of strong recruitment producing fish that will enter the fishery late in the next decade. The California Department of Fish and Game believes the current low exploitation rates, the ability for white sturgeon to successfully reproduce and recover rapidly from reduced adult populations during wet cycles, and fishing size limits that protect the most productive (i.e., fecund) female white sturgeon suggest that current fishing regulations are adequate to conserve white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River basin. <br/> <br/><strong>Columbia-Snake River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Today, the white sturgeon population residing in the lower, free-flowing reach of the Columbia River is considered the most productive in the species’ range (Devore <em>et al</em>. 1999a). The recreational and commercial harvest in the lower Columbia river has recently averaged over 42,000 annually through 1997. Estimated abundance for legal-sized (42-60 inches) white sturgeon in the lower Columbia River in 1997 was nearly 157,000 fish, a decline from the estimated 227,700 fish in 1995. It appears that the decline was primarily a result of a decrease in the recruitment to the legal-sized population and emigration from the Columbia River system, and not over-harvest. <br/> <br/>Upstream in the first three impounded reaches of the Columbia River the estimated abundance of white sturgeon in 1997 increased from a general population crash in the mid 1980's (North <em>et al</em>. 1999). Generally, white sturgeon increased in all size classes sampled. Researchers suspect that more restrictive harvest guidelines along with some relatively strong year classes in recent years are contributing to increasing populations in recent years. These landlocked populations continue to sustain limited harvest and consumption fisheries. <br/> <br/>Historically within the Snake River, white sturgeon could range from its confluence with the Columbia River upstream nearly 615 river miles to Shoshone Falls, a natural barrier for sturgeon. Twelve dams were constructed along the Snake River between 1901 and 1975 that fragmented white sturgeon populations from the confluence to Shoshone Falls. The abundance of land-locked white sturgeon in the Snake River varies considerably from river reaches with reproducing populations to other reaches containing few individuals and no detectable recruitment. Reaches with reproducing populations currently provide catch and release sport fisheries only. <br/> <br/><strong>Upper Columbia River subpopulation</strong> <br/>The abundance of white sturgeon from the Columbia River mainstem between Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border was most recently assessed in 1995, when a population of 1,120 individuals (95% CI = 980 to 1,300) was estimated (RL&L 1996a). This figure does not include sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, and thus represents a minimum estimate of the total subpopulation. A smaller group of white sturgeon, considered part of the same subpopulation, has been identified at the upper end of Arrow Lakes Reservoir, located upstream from Keenleyside Dam. Estimates place the size of this group at 38 individuals (95% CI = 23 to 78) based on the results of 2000 studies (RL&L 2001). <br/> <br/><strong>Kootenai River subpopulation</strong> <br/>The Kootenai River subpopulation has been in general decline since the mid-1960's (Apperson and Anders 1991, Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). The remaining wild population is comprised primarily of adult sturgeon older than 25 years, with very little recruitment observed in the wild population since the mid-1970's (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999, Ireland <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1997, there were an estimated 1,468 adults (95% CI: 740 to 2,197) and 17 juvenile white sturgeon (Paragamian <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/><strong>Fraser River and Nechako River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Mark recapture estimates for subpopulations in the Nechako and lower Fraser Rivers (R.L. & L Environmental Services Ltd. 2000), plus the preliminary estimate from work being done by the Lheidli T’enneh First Nation (Yarmish and Toth 2001) for subpopulation in the Upper Fraser River show the following population sizes: <br/> <br/>Fraser Regional subpopulation:  22,000 (95% CI = 9,800–70,700) <br/>Upper Fraser subpopulation: 255 (95% CI = 158–352)  <br/>Nechako River subpopulation: 571 (95% CI = 421–890) <br/> <br/>The preliminary population estimate for the Upper Fraser River may be skewed by the high recapture rate of individuals found in known areas of congregation. The fish tend to congregate in areas of preferred habitat but can also be found at very low densities in other areas of the mainstem. However, after extensive sampling, investigators do not believe the population can be larger than a few hundred individuals >50 cm in length (Yarmish, pers. comm).
234		threats	eng	<strong>Sacramento-San Joaquin River subpopulations</strong> <br/>In California, white sturgeon reside mainly within the Sacramento River and its combined estuary with the San Joaquin River. Historical spawning habitat has been lost primarily due to dam construction and water diversions. In the Sacramento River, white sturgeon previously spawned upstream of Shasta Dam prior to its construction in the 1940s. It is also believed the San Joaquin River may have supported white sturgeon spawning prior to the development and implementation of large water diversions for agriculture (Moyle 1976). Results from a recent white sturgeon spawning habitat study reveal that most spawning occurs in a 55 river mile reach of the Sacramento River from Knights Landing to upstream of Colusa (Schaffter 1997). <br/> <br/><strong>Columbia and Snake River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Historically, white sturgeon were abundant in the unimpounded Columbia River (Oregon and Washington) and in the late 1800's supported an intense commercial fishery (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1993). Intensive sturgeon fishing began in 1889 and peaked in 1892 with about 2,700,000 kg of sturgeon landed. The stock was depleted by 1899 after a ten year period of excessive harvest (Craig and Hacker 1940).  Season, gear and minimum size restrictions failed to restore the population. Only after maximum size regulations designed to protect sexually mature sturgeon were enacted in 1950 did white sturgeon rebound in the Columbia River. <br/> <br/>Hydroelectric development within the Columbia River basin beginning in 1933 began to isolate white sturgeon above dams. Today there are 17 landlocked subpopulations upstream of Bonneville Dam (the furthest downstream dam in the Columbia River) including the tributary Snake River (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1993). Productivity appears to vary among the landlocked subpopulations as some support high populations and sustainable fisheries (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999b, North <em>et al</em>. 1999) while others sustain no exploitation due to low recruitment and productivity (PSMFC 1992). <br/> <br/><strong>Upper Columbia River subpopulation</strong> <br/>Extensive study has confirmed spawning by upper Columbia white sturgeon at two locations. The vast majority of spawning occurs at the Pend d'Oreille-Columbia confluence (Waneta tailrace) area near the Canada-U.S. border (e.g., RL&L 1995). Spawning at this site has occurred annually since 1993 - the first year spawning studies were initiated. In 1999, a second spawning area was documented in the upper Columbia River just upstream from Arrow Lakes Reservoir (RL&L 2000). Spawning did not occur at this site in 2000. <br/> <br/>Despite the regularity of spawning events, age structure analyses show that recruitment began to decline in 1969, and has failed entirely since 1985 (RL&L 1995). Changes in length-frequency distribution follow a similar pattern, with a dramatic reduction in representation by smaller fish in ongoing sampling programs (RL&L 1996a, BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file). Sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, although less intensive, shows a similar recruitment failure (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999, Spokane Tribe, data on file). Thus, recruitment of upper Columbia white sturgeon has failed completely, to the point where continued existence of the subpopulation is at risk. <br/> <br/><strong>Kootenai River subpopulation</strong> <br/>For more than the last 100 years, human development has modified the natural hydrograph of the Kootenai River through such activities as Libby dam construction and operation, dyke construction and lowered Kootenai Lake levels. These activities have altered white sturgeon spawning, egg incubation, nursery and rearing habitats, and reduced overall biological productivity.  Although these factors may have contributed to a general lack of recruitment of this unique population of white sturgeon during the last century, the operation of Libby Dam in 1974 is considered to be a primary reason for the population’s continued decline (Apperson and Anders 1991). When Libby Dam began regulating the Kootenai River, average spring peak flows were reduced by more than 50% and winter flows increased by more than 300%. <br/> <br/><strong>Fraser River and Nechako River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Area of occupancy has no doubt been reduced in the lower mainstem due to the alienation of side channels from dyking activity, the infolding of sloughs and wetlands, development and industrial activity. The loss of sloughs, side channels and other low velocity backwater areas has decreased available juvenile rearing habitat. Loss of side channels may reduce spawning habitat availability as well. In the Nechako, flow reduction has reduced depth and the amount of habitat available in side channels and backwaters.
235		conservation	eng	Restocking (since 1969) of the species occurs in Iran. Live gene bank and cryopreservation, DNA and tissue preservation exists in Iran and Russia (cryopreservation and tissue samples only).<br/><br/>There is strict national and international regulation of fishing and trading of caviar and meat, but there is still illegal trade. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>A large scale study (joint between Iran and Russia) on the genetic and morpometric differences between these two species is needed. This was identified as a priority in the World Bank sponsored Regional Workshop on Sturgeon Genetics, June 2009. A national action plan is being developed for conservation and sustainable use of this species in Iran. Public awareness raising is an ongoing project  in Iran.
235		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Caspian basin, being most abundant in southern part. In its past distribution, the Persian Sturgeon ascended all rivers around the Caspian Sea. It currently now only ascends lower courses of Iranian rivers, the Volga and Ural, and may enter the Terek and Kura. It is not currently stocked in Russia. More than 80% of total sturgeon stocking in Iran is for this species&#160;(Pourkazemi pers. comm.). In 1998, 24.5 million fingerlings were released&#160;(Abdolhay and Baradaran Tahouri 2006), but in 2008 only 10 million fingerlings were released.
235		habitat	eng	Habitat: At sea, coastal and estuarine zones. Spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. Juveniles are found in riverine habitats during their first summer. <br/><br/>Biology: Anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Males reproduce for the first time at 8-15 years, females at 12-18. Age range for mature females is 6-40 years; 85% are between 14-18 years, and 80% of males are between 12-16yrs (Moghim 2003). Average generation length is 14 years. This species does not spawn every year. Spawning takes place in June-August when temperature rises above 16°C. In the southern Caspian basin, the Persian Sturgeon spawns in April-September but reproduction is interrupted from June to August when temperature rises above 25°C. Most individuals migrate upriver in April-May, but some may enter rivers at other times of the year. In the southern Caspian basin, there is a second run in September-October. Juveniles migrate to the sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. At sea, the Persian Sturgeon feeds on a wide variety of benthic molluscs, crustaceans and small fish.<br/><br/>This species has different ecological biological requirements to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gueldenstaedtii</span>, as it prefers warmer water for spawning and has a shorter migration run.
235		population	eng	The only legal commercial exploitation of this species is in Iran (mainly from hatchery stock). Restocking in Iran started in 1969. It is estimated that 80% of catch originates from stocked individuals (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Iranian catch data shows that there has been between 54-56% decline from 1960/65 to 2006; the catch has continued to decline since 2006 but data is not yet available for this time period. The decline in catch does reflect a decline in abundance even though there are fisheries regulations and a reduction in catch effort (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Russia, commercial catch in the Caspian Sea has been banned since 2000. The 2007 Quota for scientific catch was 8 tonnes; it is unknown if this was met. &#160;<br/><br/>The following Iranian catch data (Pourkazemi 2006) shows the total sturgeon catch from Iran (it is estimated that approximately 40% of the catch from 1960 to 1989 and 50% of the catch between 1990 and 2007 was of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus,</span> Pourkazemi pers. comm.):<br/><br/>1960 - 2,000 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 440 tonnes)<br/>1965 - 2,100 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 462 tonnes)<br/>1970 - 3,000 tonnes  (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 750 tonnes)<br/>1975 - 1,675 tonnes  (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 302 tonnes)<br/>1980 - 1,429 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 372 tonnes)<br/>1985 - 1,650 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 297 tonnes)<br/>1990 - 2,645 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 582 tonnes)<br/>1995 - 1,500 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 480 tonnes)<br/>1997 - 1,300 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 559 tonnes)<br/>1998 - 1,200 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 588 tonnes)<br/>1999 - 1,000 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 480 tonnes)<br/>2000 - 1,000 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 540 tonnes)<br/>2001 - 870 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 557 tonnes)<br/>2002 - 643 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 418 tonnes)<br/>2003 - 463 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 315 tonnes)<br/>2004 - 500 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 345 tonnes)<br/>2006 - 330 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 201 tonnes)<br/>2007 - 225 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 137 tonnes)
235		threats	eng	Dams across the region have led to the blocking of access to almost all spawning grounds. Illegal fishing/poaching across the Caspian region is the principle threat. In the Caspian Sea, the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species in both rivers and the Caspian Sea. In 1996, fish inspection authorities filed 8,000 citations for violations committed by individuals, mainly in the Astrakhan region along the Volga (Vecsei and Artyukhin 2001).<br/><br/>In Iran, pollution from agriculture and domestic waste causes loss and degradation of spawning sites. In Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, oil and industrial pollution has led to the loss of suitable feeding grounds. In Russia, oil pollution is a potential threat.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.<br/><br/>The lack of ability to genetically identify the species in international trade is a potential threat, as Russian and Persian Sturgeon (caviar) can be mixed.
235		threats	eng	Illegal fishing/poaching across the Caspian region is the principle threat. In the Caspian Sea, the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species in both rivers and the Caspian Sea. In 1996, fish inspection authorities filed 8,000 citations for violations committed by individuals, mainly in the Astrakhan region along the Volga (Vecsei and Artyukhin 2001).<br/><br/>In Iran, pollution from agriculture and domestic waste causes loss and degradation of spawning sites. In Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, oil and industrial pollution has led to the loss of suitable feeding grounds. In Russia, oil pollution is a potential threat. Dams across the region have also led to the blocking of access to spawning grounds.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.<br/><br/>The lack of ability to genetically identify the species in international trade is a potential threat, as Russian and Persian Sturgeon (caviar) can be mixed.
236		conservation	eng	Current conservation measures in the Yangtze River include the strict limitation of harvest, the establishment of protected areas and the ongoing restocking programmes.<br/><br/>Commercial fishing has been closed since 1983, and now just small numbers (less than 40 individuals in recent years) are caught for scientific or propagation purposes.<br/><br/>In 1988, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinensis</span> was listed a Class I State protected animal. In 1996, Yichang Chinese Sturgeon Nature Reserve was established, protecting the spawning population. In 2002, a Chinese Sturgeon Nature Reserve in the Yangtze River estuary was established to protect&#160; juvenile sturgeons gathering there. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>In 1983, the Yangtze River Fisheries Institute artificially spawned this species (Fu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). From 1983 to 2007, more than 9 million Chinese Sturgeon (including larvae) were released into Yangtze River to increase the stock (Xiao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Chen 2007).<br/><br/>Currently, adult sturgeons are captured on spawning ground to be used for artificial breeding . Efforts are being made to rear and breed this species in captivity so that captive adults can be used for stocking in the future.
236		distribution	eng	The Chinese Sturgeon is the most southerly distributed of the Acipenseriformes. It was historically recorded in southwestern Korea and in western Kyushu, Japan. In China this species was historically found in the Yellow, Yangtze, Pearl, Mingjiang, and Qingtang rivers. However, it is now considered extirpated in the Yellow, Mingjiang, Qingtang and Pearl rivers (Chen 2008). This species has also recently been extirpated from the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, above the Three Gorges dam, and currently occurs in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze river and close to shore in the Yellow and East China Sea (The Changjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988, Chen 2008).
236		habitat	eng	This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Young of this species live in estuarine and nearshore habitats. When the species becomes sexually mature, it migrates up-river. Nearly mature adults (early stage III) arrive at the mouth of the Yangtze River in June or July. The adults do not feed while in the river. <br/><br/>Adults reach the middle sections of the river in September or October, where they overwinter. Ripe individuals were formerly found as far inland as the Jingsha River during the following October and November, where they spawned. Prior to construction of the Gezhouba Dam, the migration distance was as long as 2,500 to 3,300 km. Spawning sites often occur in turbulent sections of the river with rocky substrate and steep cliffs on both banks.<br/><br/>The roe is very large and it sinks and sticks to gravel until hatching. The hatched fries descend from the river to sea near the coast where they grow. They feed mainly on zoobenthos and other bottom invertebrates.<br/><br/>Juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinensis</span> of 7 to 38 cm tail length occur in the Yangtze River estuary from the middle of April through early October. These are presumably one-year-old individuals. Juveniles weighing a few kilograms can be found in coastal waters near the river mouth. Individuals from 25 to 250 kg in weight were registered in some fishing grounds of East China Sea and Yellow Sea. This species attains a length of more than 3 metres.
236		population	eng	In the 1960s, this stock supported a major commercial fishery, but catches in the late 1970s had declined to about 500 fish per year (The Changjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988).<br/><br/>In the 1970s, the total spawning population of this species was estimated at 10,000 individuals. In 1981, the construction of the Gezhouba dam isolated the upper reaches of the Yangtze river. In 1983 and 1984, the mean spawning stock size was estimated at 2,176 individuals (946 and 4,169 as 95% confidence intervals). Available data from acoustic surveys show that between 2005 and 2007, the total spawning stock of Chinese Sturgeon was 203-257. This data indicates a 97.5% reduction in the total spawning population over a 37 year period.<br/><br/>During 1996-2001, studies using tag-recapture methods, population structure analysis and sonar counting indicated that the spawning stock in the Yichang spawning area (mid-lower reaches of the Yangtze river) had decreased since the completion of the Gezhouba Dam. Annual estimates of spawning adults within the 40 km (including the 4km long spawning area) ranged from 199 to 473 (Chang 1999, Wei 2003).<br/><br/>Between 1983 and 2007, more than 9 million juveniles were released into Yangtze River to increase wild stocks. Prior to 1996, only the larvae were released as techniques had not been developed to cultivate fry, so survivability is expected to be very low (Wei 200, Chen 2008). After 1999, improvement in hatchery techniques allowed juveniles to be raised and the released, but the contribution to wild stocks is considered to be less than 10% (Wei 2003, Zhu 2003).
236		threats	eng	This species has been historically overfished. In the 1970s, fishing was unlimited, but seasonal (occurring mostly between October and November). Gear types include gill nets (upper reach) and row hooks (middle reach).&#160; Due to its life history characteristics, once depleted, stocks of this species take a long time to recover. Fry are also captured by traditional Chinese fishing methods (drift nets in the river and set nets at the river mouth).<br/><br/>Habitat fragmentation, alteration, destruction and changes to hydrological conditions also significantly impacts this species. The construction of the Gezhouba dam in 1981 blocked the migration routes of this species, making it impossible for it to reach&#160; spawning sites in the upper reaches of the river. Currently, there is just one remaining spawning ground, which is situated below the Gezhouba dam.<br/><br/>In 2003, the Three Gorges dam was constructed 40 km upstream of the Gezhouba dam. This has changed the hydrological regime (lowering the water level of the river in autumn and winter) and affected the water temperature. <br/><br/>Additionally, an increase in the amount of shipping traffic in the Yangtze river could be detrimental to the Chinese Sturgeon.<br/><br/>New evidence shows that water pollution is a potential factor lead to the decline of Chinese Sturgeon. Synthetic chemicals in water could contribute to the population decline of this species by significantly decreasing both the quality and quantity of eggs and spawning frequency of fish (Hu 2009).
241		conservation	eng	More research is needed, particularly on the migration, feeding ecology, the productivity of natural reproduction and life history (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Population monitoring is also required.<br/><br/>Considering the low abundance of this species, research should focus on investigating potential environmental limiting factors (especially estuarine conditions), determining survival rates of the age stages and fecundity (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Conservation aquaculture techniques have been developed since 1995.<br/><br/>Public education, applied management research, and experimental research are necessary to develop better plans for protecting these species from extinction.<br/><br/>International trade is restricted (CITES II, since 1998; CMS Appendix II). Commercially cultured in Japan, and there is a large stock in Sakhalin which has originated from Tumnin spawners.
241		distribution	eng	This species ascends small coastal rivers of the Russian Federation (Suchan (Partizanskaya), Adzemi, Koppi, Tumnin, Viakhtu, and Tym rivers) and Japan (Ishikari and Teshio rivers of Hokkaido). It is found at sea, throughout the Sea of Okhotsk, in the Sea of Japan as far east as the eastern shore of Hokkaido, Japan, along the Asian coast as far south as Wonsan, North Korea, and to the Bering Strait on the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>It is currently only known to spawn persistently in the Tumnin River (not further than 100 km upstream from the estuary), where only a single spawning site is known. It has also rarely been found in the Koppi River. This population may be functionally dependent on the Tumnin River or simply ephemeral (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
241		habitat	eng	Sakhalin Sturgeon spawn in June-July in the Tumnin River and April and May (historically) in the rivers of Hokkaido (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Estuaries are thought to be the nursery grounds for the species. They are mainly benthic feeding and feed in higher salinity waters (than Amur and Kaluga which share range), where food resources are more abundant than in temperate coastal watersheds (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The species generation length is estimated to be 15 years, with first maturation around 8-10 years (based on similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. medirostris</span>).
241		population	eng	Although never abundant, the species was common in the 1950s in the market in Hokaido, Japan, but has been continually declining over the past century (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)<br/><br/>Current population estimates range from ten to thirty adults entering the Tumnin River for spawning annually. In 2005 only three specimens were caught and two specimens in 2008 - these were used for the establishment of aquaculture stocks.
241		threats	eng	Illegal poaching (during spawning migration) is greatly affecting the viability of the species in the Tunmin river and this population could vanish within the next 10-15 years (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Bycatch is a threat to the species as there is a lot of trawling off the coast. Pollution and the potential construction of dams is also a threat to the species.
242		conservation	eng	In 1991, the Gulf sturgeon was listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Since then considerable work has been accomplished to better define life history and behavior and to determine habitats important to each life stage, population status, genetic assessment and fish culture. A recovery and management plan for Gulf sturgeon was completed in 1995 (USFWS and GSMFC 1995). This plan identifies state and federal actions necessary to rebuild populations to levels that would allow delisting of the subspecies. In 2002, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service officially designated "critical habitat" for this species which includes 2,783 river kilometers and 6,042 km² of estuarine and marine habitat.
242		distribution	eng	Gulf Sturgeon were first described as a subspecies to <em>A. oxyrinchus</em> (Atlantic sturgeon) in 1955. They occur in most major river systems from the Mississippi River to the Suwannee River in Florida and in marine waters of the Central and Eastern Gulf of Mexico south to Florida Bay. Though the species was previously listed as also occurring in Mexico, a review of the literature fails to support that contention. A single "sturgeon" was reported seen (but not captured) in the Rio Grande River which separates Texas and Mexico. The Gulf sturgeon’s current area of occupancy is spread over 2,500+ river km and 1,500+ km of coastline. However, construction of dams, sills and other water control structures throughout the 20th century severely restricted inland migrations of Gulf sturgeon in many waterways from St. Andrew Bay, FL to the Bogue Chitto River, LA.
242		population	eng	Gulf sturgeon population estimates have been completed for the Apalachicola, Suwannee, Yellow and Choctawhatchee rivers in Florida, Pascagoula River in Mississippi, and the Pearl and Bogue Chitto rivers in Louisiana and Mississippi. The Suwannee River supports the most viable population among coastal rivers of the Gulf of Mexico and was estimated at 7,650 individuals older than age two (Sulak and Clugston 1999). The subpopulation estimate for Gulf sturgeon older than age two in the Choctawhatchee River ranges from 1,700–3,000 fish, while subpopulation estimates in the Apalachicola, Pascagoula and Pearl rivers range from 50–350 fish (Lorio 2000). The number of mature individuals in this range wide population were not estimated but most likely number less than 10,000. Eggs and larvae of Gulf sturgeon have been collected in the Bouie, Escambia/Conecuh, Choctawatchee, Apalachicola and Suwanee rivers (Critical Habitat Ruling). <br/> <br/>Stabile <em>et al</em>. (1996) analyzed Gulf sturgeon populations from eight drainages along the Gulf of Mexico for genetic diversity. They noted significant differences among Gulf sturgeon stocks and suggested they displayed region-specific affinities and may exhibit river-specific fidelity. These authors identified five regional or river-specific stocks: (1) Lake Ponchartrain and Pearl River; (2) Pascagoula River; (3) Escambia and Yellow rivers; (4) Choctawhatchee River; and (5) Apalachicola, Ochlockonee, and Suwannee rivers.
242		threats	eng	Most North American sturgeons were heavily fished for meat and caviar at the turn of the last century.  Gulf sturgeon supported fisheries (up to 7 mt) in Alabama during 1927–1964, but the most persistent fisheries occurred in Florida. Records for the period 1887–1985 indicated that peak Florida harvest occurred in 1900–1902 (124 mt/year) followed by precipitous decline into the 1920s. From 1923–1971 harvest was fairly stable at about 7 mt per year; declined to 2.3 mt through the 1970s; and fell further to only 0.3 mt until fisheries were closed in 1986 (Barkuloo 1988). <br/> <br/>Gulf sturgeon continue to be threatened by habitat disturbances such as dam construction, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, groundwater extraction, irrigation and other surface water withdrawals, and flow alterations. Contaminants, primarily from industrial sources, also contribute adversely to individual fish health and population declines. Tissue and egg samples of Gulf sturgeon have shown elevated levels of pesticides and heavy metals. Organochlorines such as DDT and its derivatives DDD and/or DDE and toxaphene appear in most samples, sometime in concentrations exceeding U.S. Federal Drug Administration action levels for human consumption. High concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aliphatic hydrocarbons (both from petroleum products) were detected in most Gulf sturgeon samples from numerous Florida rivers. Arsenic and mercury were detected in 92% and 87% of sturgeon samples and cadmium occurred in 42% of samples (Bateman and Brim 1994).
243		conservation	eng	All U.S. Atlantic sturgeon fisheries have been closed since 1997. Canada maintains active commercial fisheries in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec) for subadults of <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em>, and in the Saint John River (New Brunswick) for larger fish. Also, a single fisherman is licensed on the Shubenacadie River in Nova Scotia. The St. Lawrence fishery was limited in 1997 to a quota of 6,015 fish - about 60 tons (Caron and Trembly 1997). Other regulations here include a maximum size limit of 1.5 m during a season extending from 1 May to 30 September. <br/> <br/>Peak landings on the Saint John River were 44 metric tones (mt) in 1988 but have declined in recent years to 10–14 mt. Only nine licensed fishermen remained in the St. John fishery in 1997. They were authorized to fish no more than 2,800 m of gill net with minimum mesh size of 33 cm. Minimum allowable size of sturgeon on the St. John is 120 cm and the season is closed during 1–30 June to protect spawners. Canadian authorities have expressed to U.S. authorities that these harvest levels are sustainable and do not damage the stocks (USFWS and NMFS 1998). A private aquaculture activity also occurs in New Brunswick with eggs and progeny produced from wild-caught adult sturgeon. Except for a few hundred live juveniles, most international trade in <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> in the late 1990s has been meat (2–34 mt/year) from Canada to the U.S. (CITES data).  <br/> <br/>No commercial or sport fishing for Atlantic sturgeon is allowed in territorial waters of the U.S. Atlantic Coast. The management authority for this species is the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission and their amendment to the 1990 Fishery Management Plan (ASMFC 1998) requires (1) no possession allowed in the 15 Atlantic states until at least 20 year-classes reach breeding age (30–40 years); (2) annual reporting of by-catch and by-catch mortality; (3) urges habitat monitoring and improvements as well as research and genetics analysis; and (4) places certain restrictions on sturgeon culture for market production and restocking. In addition to the ASMFC action, the Secretary of Commerce has closed all U.S. Atlantic coastal EEZ waters to harvest of Atlantic sturgeon. <br/> <br/>The recent USFWS-NMFS joint status review for Atlantic sturgeon determined that listing this species as threatened or endangered under the U.S. ESA is not warranted at this time. Atlantic sturgeon are widespread and several subpopulations could be considered relatively abundant. However, because of uncertainties about overall stock health and the lengthy time required for population recovery, USFWS has designated Atlantic sturgeon as a "candidate species" for possible future ESA listing and NMFS lists it as a "species of concern".
243		distribution	eng	<em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> historically ranged along the Canadian and U.S. Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida. Though populations are currently depressed from historic levels, breeding populations still exist in at least 14 Atlantic Coast rivers in the U.S. (Maine to Georgia) and several more in Canada (St. Lawrence, St. John).
243		habitat	eng	The Atlantic sturgeon (<em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em>) is a large anadromous species that historically ranged along the Canadian and U.S. Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida. This subspecies is recorded to live for up to 60 years and reach a size of 4.3 m and 368 kg (Vladykov and Greely 1963), though most mature fish are considerably smaller. Spawning occurs in fresh or slightly brackish water when water temperatures reached 13–18˚C. Migrations into coastal tidal rivers begin as early as February in the southern portion of the range and continue through June and July in northernmost waters. In the mid-Atlantic area, Atlantic sturgeon males mature at 6–10 years and females at 10–20 years (ASMFC 1990). Maturation occurs earlier in southern waters and later in Canada. Spawning periodicity ranges from 2–6 years. Based on tagging studies ocean migrations of up to 1,450 km have been recorded (Dovel and Berggren 1983).
243		population	eng	Atlantic sturgeon were an important item of commerce to early American and Canadian colonists and large quantities of meat, roe, oil and isinglass were exported to Europe late 17th and 18th centuries. As flesh and roe (caviar) gained popularity in North American, the species was heavily exploited, particularly during several decades of the late nineteenth century. The largest fishery was in the Delaware River and Bay which by 1890 supported over 1,000 fishermen and produced 2,300 metric tons of sturgeon product. Several dozen other rivers supported sturgeon fisheries and by the late 1890s, total Atlantic Coast U.S. landings reached 3,200 mt. Severe over-fishing of mature sturgeon in the U.S. led to a crash of the stocks and harvest was reduced by over 90% by the early 1900s and 99% by the 1920s. Throughout the 1970s to mid-1980s, prior to declaration of fishing moratoria, annual U.S. harvest of Atlantic sturgeon ranged from 50–100 mt with most fish being taken from the Hudson River (NY), coastal New Jersey and the Carolinas (ASMFC 1990). <br/> <br/>The number of mature individuals in the current population most likely numbers considerably more than 10,000.
243		threats	eng	Competition, predation, diseases and parasites were evaluated in the 1998 status review by USFWS-NMFS and determined not to be limiting factors for Atlantic sturgeon stocks. Throughout the 20th century, sturgeon breeding habitats have been adversely impacted by dams, siltation, channel maintenance (dredging) and water pollution. Although habitat and water quality concerns still occur in several locations, the vast majority of formerly occupied habitats remain available to this species.  Continued application of existing U.S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, etc.) should result in improvements sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats. With management measures in place the current population trend for Atlantic sturgeon is increasing.
244		conservation	eng	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically in place for the Siberian Sturgeon were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels. The Ob River and Baikal Lake populations of the sturgeon are included in Red Data Book of Russian Federation. This means that commercial fishing of these populations is now prohibited. <br/><br/>The Siberian Sturgeon was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1998.&#160; An export permit can only be issued if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species.<br/><br/>For the last 10 years, eggs of this species (originating from Russia) are being reared in Chinese hatcheries and young are being released into the upper reaches of the Irtysh River, in the northwest part of Xin jiang province, China. No information is currently available on population numbers. This is being undertaken by the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture (Chen 2008).
244		distribution	eng	This species is known from all Siberian rivers draining to the Kara, Laptev and East Siberian seas: basins of the Ob, Taz, Yenisei, Pyasina, Khatanga, Anabar, Olenyek, Lena, Yana, Indigirka, Alazeya (rarely) and Kolyma rivers, Lake Baikal (the Yenisei River basin) and rivers flowing to the lake – the Selenga, Barguzin and Upper Angara. It is most abundant in the Ob, Yenisei and Lena rivers.<br/><br/>This species is also native to the the Irtysh River, in the northwest of Xin jiang province, China. However, wild populations were extirpated from here in the 1950s; the small population that remains here is from stocking (Chen 2007).
244		habitat	eng	This species can be found in all types of freshwater benthic habitats in large rivers and lakes. It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main stream of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. Numerous spawning sites are located in lower and middle reaches of rivers. Spawning peaks at beginning of June, continuing until end of July. <br/><br/>Spawning periodicity is 3-5 years in females and 2-3 years in males. The generation length of the species ranges from 25-30 years (Chen 2007, Ruban 2005). In northeastern populations, females are twice the age of males (Ruban 2005). The average age at maturity for females is 11 (in Lena River) to 22 (in Lake Baikal), and 9-19 years for males.
244		population	eng	The total population of Siberian Sturgeon is unknown. Direct counts and fishery statistics exist but are incomplete. However, a decline in catches of sturgeons within the main rivers of Siberia has been observed from the 1930s (Ruban 2005).<br/><br/>Based on commercial catch data, it is estimated that the Ob River basin contains more than 80% of the global population of this species (Chen 2007). In the Ob River basin, catches declined by ~99.5% from 1410 tonnes in 1935 to 6.7 tonnes  in 1996. In the Yenisei River catches declined from 504 tonnes  in 1934 to 10-12 tonnes in 2000s (a ~97.5% decline). In the Lena River catches declined from 190 tonnes in 1943 to about 10 tonnes in recent years (a ~94.5% decline) (Ruban 2005). <br/><br/>This species was extirpated from the northwest parts of Xin jiang province, China in the 1950s. The small population that remains here exists through stocking (Chen 2007).
244		threats	eng	The population decline all over the species range is a result of overfishing, damming (Ob, Yenisei, Angara) and poaching. Currently commercial fisheries are banned in the basins of the Ob and Yenisei rivers and the Lake Baikal. A decline in area of occupancy was observed in upper reaches of the Ob, Yenisei and Lena rivers (Ruban 2005). Dam construction at the Ob River resulted in 40% of sturgeon spawning grounds being lost (Gundrizer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983). At the main sturgeon rivers of Siberia (Ob and Yenisei) the high level of poaching was noted (Krokhalevskii and Mikhalev pers. com.). At the Ob River, natural reproduction of the sturgeon has also declined due to a high level of abnormalities in development and functioning of reproductive system caused by water pollution (Ruban 2005).
245		conservation	eng	All U.S. Atlantic sturgeon fisheries have been closed since 1997. Canada maintains active commercial fisheries in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec) for subadults of <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em>, and in the Saint John River (New Brunswick) for larger fish. Also, a single fisherman is licensed on the Shubenacadie River in Nova Scotia. The St. Lawrence fishery was limited in 1997 to a quota of 6,015 fish - about 60 tons (Caron and Trembly 1997). Other regulations here include a maximum size limit of 1.5 m during a season extending from 1 May to 30 September. <br/> <br/>Peak landings on the Saint John River were 44 metric tones (mt) in 1988 but have declined in recent years to 10–14 mt. Only nine licensed fishermen remained in the St. John fishery in 1997. They were authorized to fish no more than 2,800 m of gill net with minimum mesh size of 33 cm. Minimum allowable size of sturgeon on the St. John is 120 cm and the season is closed during 1–30 June to protect spawners. Canadian authorities have expressed to U.S. authorities that these harvest levels are sustainable and do not damage the stocks (USFWS and NMFS 1998). A private aquaculture activity also occurs in New Brunswick with eggs and progeny produced from wild-caught adult sturgeon. Except for a few hundred live juveniles, most international trade in <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> in the late 1990s has been meat (2–34 mt/year) from Canada to the U.S. (CITES data). <br/> <br/>No commercial or sport fishing for Atlantic sturgeon is allowed in territorial waters of the U.S. Atlantic Coast. The management authority for this species is the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission and their amendment to the 1990 Fishery Management Plan (ASMFC 1998) requires (1) no possession allowed in the 15 Atlantic states until at least 20 year-classes reach breeding age (30–40 years); (2) annual reporting of by-catch and by-catch mortality; (3) urges habitat monitoring and improvements as well as research and genetics analysis; and (4) places certain restrictions on sturgeon culture for market production and restocking.  In addition to the ASMFC action, the Secretary of Commerce has closed all U.S. Atlantic coastal EEZ waters to harvest of Atlantic sturgeon. <br/> <br/>The recent USFWS-NMFS joint status review for Atlantic sturgeon determined that listing this species as threatened or endangered under the U.S. ESA is not warranted at this time. Atlantic sturgeon are widespread and several subpopulations could be considered relatively abundant. However, because of uncertainties about overall stock health and the lengthy time required for population recovery, USFWS has designated Atlantic sturgeon as a "candidate species" for possible future ESA listing and NMFS lists it as a "species of concern". <br/> <br/>In 1991, <em>A. o. desotoi</em> was listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Since then considerable work has been accomplished to better define life history and behavior and to determine habitats important to each life stage, population status, genetic assessment and fish culture. A recovery and management plan for Gulf sturgeon was completed in 1995 (USFWS and GSMFC 1995). This plan identifies state and federal actions necessary to rebuild populations to levels that would allow de-listing of the subspecies. In 2002, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service officially designated "critical habitat" for this species, including 2,783 river kilometers and 6,042 square km of estuarine and marine habitat. <br/> <br/>With federal protection under the ESA and intensive permitting and consultation requirements for all water-related projects and discharges - especially in areas designated to be critical habitat - it is believed that <em>A. o. desotoi</em> population declines will be halted and reversed.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.
245		distribution	eng	<em>A. oxyrinchus</em> occurs in the Atlantic coastal waters of Canada and the United States with spawning rivers in both countries.  <br/> <br/><em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> historically ranged along the Canadian and U.S. Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida. Though Atlantic sturgeon populations are currently depressed from historic levels, breeding populations still exist in at least 14 Atlantic Coast rivers in the U. S. (Maine to Georgia) and several more in Canada (St. Lawrence, St. John). <br/> <br/><em>A. o. desotoi occurs</em> in most major river systems from the Mississippi River to the Suwannee River in Florida and in marine waters of the Central and Eastern Gulf of Mexico south to Florida Bay. Though the subspecies was previously listed as also occurring in Mexico, a review of the literature fails to support that contention. A single "sturgeon" was reported seen (but not captured) in the Rio Grande River which separates Texas and Mexico. The Gulf sturgeon’s current area of occupancy is spread over 2,500+ river km and 1,500+ km of coastline. However, construction of dams, sills and other water control structures throughout the 20th century severely restricted inland migrations of Gulf sturgeon in many waterways from St. Andrew Bay to the Bogue Chitto River. <br/> <br/>For more information see <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.
245		habitat	eng	The Atlantic sturgeon is a large anadromous species. <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> is recorded to live for up to 60 years and reach a size of 4.3 m and 368 kg (Vladykov and Greely 1963), though most mature fish are considerably smaller. Spawning occurs in fresh or slightly brackish water when water temperatures reached 13–18˚C. Migrations into coastal tidal rivers begin as early as February in the southern portion of the range and continue through June and July in northernmost waters. In the mid-Atlantic area, Atlantic sturgeon males mature at 6–10 years and females at 10–20 years (ASMFC 1990). Maturation occurs earlier in southern waters and later in Canada. Spawning periodicity ranges from 2–6 years. Based on tagging studies ocean migrations of up to 1,450 km have been recorded (Dovel and Berggren 1983).
245		population	eng	Atlantic sturgeon were an important item of commerce to early American and Canadian colonists and large quantities of meat, roe, oil and isinglass were exported to Europe late 17th and 18th centuries. As flesh and roe (caviar) gained popularity in North American, the species was heavily exploited, particularly during several decades of the late nineteenth century. The largest fishery was in the Delaware River and Bay which by 1890 supported over 1,000 fishermen and produced 2,300 metric tons of sturgeon product. Several dozen other rivers supported sturgeon fisheries and by the late 1890s, total Atlantic Coast U.S. landings reached 3,200 mt. Severe over-fishing of mature sturgeon in the U.S. led to a crash of the stocks and harvest was reduced by over 90% by the early 1900s and 99% by the 1920s. Throughout the 1970s to mid-1980s, prior to declaration of fishing moratoria, annual U.S. harvest of Atlantic sturgeon ranged from 50–100 mt with most fish being taken from the Hudson River (NY), coastal New Jersey and the Carolinas (ASMFC 1990). <br/> <br/>In 1998, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) completed a comprehensive "Status Review of Atlantic Sturgeon" in response to a petition to list this species as threatened or endangered under the U. S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The assessment found that, though Atlantic sturgeon populations are currently depressed from historic levels, breeding populations still exist in at least 14 Atlantic Coast rivers in the U. S. (Maine to Georgia) and several more in Canada (St. Lawrence, St. John). The number of mature individuals in this range-wide population was not estimated but most likely it numbers considerably more than 10,000. Area of occupancy is very large (> 1,500 river km spread over 3,000 km of coastline).  Substantial subpopulation mixing may occur, particularly as sub-adults, and recolonization of seriously depleted stocks may occur from adjacent healthy populations.   <br/> <br/><em>A. o. desotoi</em> population estimates have been completed for the Apalachicola, Suwannee, Yellow and Choctawhatchee rivers in Florida, Pascagoula River in Mississippi, and the Pearl and Bogue Chitto rivers in Louisiana and Mississippi. The Suwannee River supports the most viable subpopulation among coastal rivers of the Gulf of Mexico and was estimated at 7,650 individuals older than age two (Sulak and Clugston 1999). The subpopulation estimate for Gulf sturgeon older than age two in the Choctawhatchee River ranges from 1,700–3,000 fish, while subpopulation estimates  in the Apalachicola, Pascagoula and Pearl rivers range from 50–350 fish (Lorio 2000). The number of mature individuals in this range wide population were not estimated but most likely number less than 10,000. Eggs and larvae of Gulf sturgeon have been collected in the Bouie, Escambia/Conecuh, Choctawatchee, Apalachicola and Suwanee rivers (Critical Habitat Ruling). <br/> <br/>Stabile <em>et al</em>. (1996) analyzed <em>A. o. desotoi</em> subpopulations from eight drainages along the Gulf of Mexico for genetic diversity. They noted significant differences among Gulf sturgeon stocks and suggested they displayed region-specific affinities and may exhibit river-specific fidelity. These authors identified five regional or river-specific stocks: (1) Lake Ponchartrain and Pearl River; (2) Pascagoula River; (3) Escambia and Yellow rivers; (4) Choctawhatchee River; and (5) Apalachicola, Ochlockonee, and Suwannee rivers.
245		threats	eng	Atlantic sturgeon were an important item of commerce to early American and Canadian colonists and large quantities of meat, roe, oil and isinglass were exported to Europe late 17th and 18th centuries. As flesh and roe (caviar) gained popularity in North American, the species was heavily exploited, particularly during several decades of the late nineteenth century. <br/> <br/>Competition, predation, diseases and parasites were evaluated in the 1998 status review by USFWS-NMFS and determined not to be limiting factors for Atlantic sturgeon stocks. Throughout the 20th century, sturgeon breeding habitats have been adversely impacted by dams, siltation, channel maintenance (dredging) and water pollution. Although habitat and water quality concerns still occur in several locations, the vast majority of formerly occupied habitats remain available to this species. Continued application of existing U.S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, etc.) should result in improvements sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats. With management measures in place the current population trend for Atlantic sturgeon is increasing. <br/> <br/><em>A. o. desotoi</em> continues to be threatened by habitat disturbances such as dam construction, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, groundwater extraction, irrigation and other surface water withdrawals, and flow alterations. Contaminants, primarily from industrial sources, also contribute adversely to individual fish health and population declines. Tissue and egg samples of Gulf sturgeon have shown elevated levels of pesticides and heavy metals. Organochlorines such as DDT and its derivatives DDD and/or DDE and toxaphene appear in most samples, sometime in concentrations exceeding U.S. Federal Drug Administration action levels for human consumption. High concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aliphatic hydrocarbons (both from petroleum products) were detected in most Gulf sturgeon samples from numerous Florida rivers. Arsenic and mercury were detected in 92% and 87% of sturgeon samples and cadmium occurred in 42% of samples (Bateman and Brim 1994).
251		conservation	eng	Fish were taken from the Aral Sea and introduced into Lake Balkash, where it still forms a very important part of the commercial fishery.
251		distribution	eng	Was in the Aral Sea.
257		conservation	eng	On September 6, 1994, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the Kootenai River population of white sturgeon as endangered under the Endangered Species Act (Act). Subsequently, a recovery team composed of two Canadians and eight Americans was formed in January 1995. The team completed a final recovery plan (Plan) for the Kootenai River white sturgeon in 1998, which was subsequently approved by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in late 1999 (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999).
257		distribution	eng	The Kootenai River subpopulation is a land-locked subpopulation restricted to approximately 270 km of the Kootenai River in Idaho and Montana (United States), and Kootenay Lake in British Columbia (Canada), primarily upstream from Cora Linn Dam at the outflow from Kootenay Lake.
257		habitat	eng	This subpopulation is land-locked and is restricted to freshwater habitats.
257		population	eng	The Kootenai River subpopulation of white sturgeon has been in general decline since the mid-1960's (Apperson and Anders 1991, Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). The remaining wild population is comprised primarily of adult sturgeon older than 25 years, with very little recruitment observed in the wild population since the mid-1970's (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999, Ireland <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1997, there were an estimated 1,468 adults (95% CI: 740 to 2,197) and 17 juvenile white sturgeon (Paragamian <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Beginning in 1991 prior to official action under the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Bonneville Power Administration provided Kootenai River flows from Libby Dam to aid Kootenai River white sturgeon recruitment. These flows, considered experimental from 1991 through 1995, were intended to identify various factors limiting successful reproduction of Kootenai River white sturgeon and help achieve recovery. Beginning in 1995, there was acknowledgment that an adaptive approach was needed since the precise relationship between annual timing, magnitude, temperature, and duration of flows downstream of Libby Dam necessary for successful sturgeon reproduction had not been demonstrated. Since that time, the operation of Libby Dam has included a spring refill period depending upon runoff forecasts, for conservation storage following drafting during the winter flood control season in an attempt to better mimic natural flow regime more closely (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). To date, the increased Kootenai River flows provided through the flow augmentation program has resulted in documented spawning each year but not survival beyond the egg stage. Consequently natural recruitment has not been significantly restored. Only a total of 18 wild juvenile white sturgeon have been collected since 1993, with the largest year class appearing to be 1991 with ten wild recruits. It is currently unknown whether flow augmentation will be effective in restoring successful natural reproduction in the near future, consequently it is projected that the wild adult Kootenai River white sturgeon subpopulation will decline well into the future.
257		threats	eng	For more than the last 100 years, human development has modified the natural hydrograph of the Kootenai River through such activities as Libby dam construction and operation, dyke construction and lowered Kootenai Lake levels. These activities have altered white sturgeon spawning, egg incubation, nursery and rearing habitats, and reduced overall biological productivity. Although these factors may have contributed to a general lack of recruitment of this unique population of white sturgeon during the last century, the operation of Libby Dam in 1974 is considered to be a primary reason for the population’s continued decline (Apperson and Anders 1991). When Libby Dam began regulating the Kootenai River, average spring peak flows were reduced by more than 50% and winter flows increased by more than 300%.
263		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed. It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
263		distribution	eng	Endemic to Africa. Known from Western Sahara, Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Egypt (including Sinai), Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Ethiopia. Limits in C and S Sudan, and in Ethiopia are uncertain.
263		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in rocky areas (Jebels), cliffs, and rocky canyons; not in sandy desert areas (although may sometimes be found in sandy habitats with date palms). Also found in gravel plains with low shrubs in the Sahel. Some populations are commensal, occupying crevices in buildings.
263		population	eng	It is common and widespread, and is commensal with people especially in gardens and date groves.
263		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
264		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas.
264		distribution	eng	<em>Acomys cilicicus</em> is only known from its type locality on the southern coast of Turkey (GMA Turkey 2006).
264		habitat	eng	Unknown.
264		population	eng	Population size and trends have not been quantified.
264		threats	eng	There is high tourism development in the only known locality for this species.
265		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
265		distribution	eng	This speciess is primarily found in central and southern Sudan but it extends into Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. It occurs well below 2,000 m asl, and it is not found in the highlands of Ethiopia. It is not present in the Gambela area of Ethiopia which is too low lying and very wet. There are outlying records from Jebel Mara, the base of the jebels in eastern Sudan, Bahr el Ghazal and the Immatongs in Uganda. The occurrence of this species in Djibouti requires confirmation.
265		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky habitats and semi-desert areas. It is an insectivorous species. It appears that the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
265		population	eng	There is a large population of this species east of the Nile, and it is not so common in the west. It is locally common in appropriate habitats in Western Nile province of Sudan. This can be a human commensal species.
265		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
266		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Tsavo National Park and Amboseli, both in Kenya.
266		distribution	eng	This species is found from northeastern Tanzania (Usambara Mountains), and southern Kenya. It is found at lower altitudes (below 700 to 1,000 m asl).
266		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky habitats in dry savannas. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
266		population	eng	It is fairly widespread and common, especially in gravel plain areas (former <em>Brachystegia</em> Woodland).
266		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
267		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Meru National Park, Tsavo (both in Kenya) and probably others.
267		distribution	eng	This species is found from Tanzania northwards to Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia. It does not occur on the coast south of Malindi (Shimba Hills). It occurs westwards into the Rift Valley. This species is not found in highland areas, and probably is not found higher than 700 m asl.
267		habitat	eng	This species is found in similar habitat to <em>Acomys. ignitus</em>, <em>A. loiusae</em> and <em>A. wilson</em>i - on gravel substrates in dry savanna. It is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
267		population	eng	It is fairly widespread and common in the dry lowlands. It is considered to be very common along the Tana River and Samburu.
267		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
268		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any major protected areas.
268		distribution	eng	This is a lowland species occurring in the 'Horn of Africa' from Djibouti southwards into northeastern Kenya. It occurs below 500 m asl.
268		habitat	eng	Where they co-occur, it is found in similar habitat as <em>Acomys ignitus</em>, <em>A. kempi</em> and <em>A. wilsoni</em> - on gravel places in dry savanna, but in the north it is found in short grassland. It is an insectivorous species. This species has very distinctive teeth quite different to the other species. It can probably persist in modified or degraded habitats.
268		population	eng	It is widespread and common in the habitats where it occurs.
268		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
269		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is required to clarify its taxonomic status and determine population trends.
269		distribution	eng	<em>Acomys minous</em> is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece, where it occurs from sea level to 1,000 m (P. Lymperakis unpublished data). More taxonomic research is required to clarify whether <em>A. minous</em> is a valid species, or whether it should be considered as part of <em>A. cahirinus</em>. There is no fossil or subfossil record of <em>Acomys</em> species on Crete (Dieterlen 1978), suggesting that this taxon is the result of a relatively recent human introduction.
269		habitat	eng	It is found in arid areas, including scrubby hillsides and rocky slopes. It may be found in close proximity to human habitation, and sometimes enters houses, especially during the winter. Its diet is predominantly herbivorous, supplemented by some animal items (Zima 1999).
269		population	eng	Little is known about the status and population trends of this species. It may be common in suitable habitats, and there are no reports of population declines (Zima 1999).
269		threats	eng	It is not believed to face any major threats at present (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).
270		conservation	eng	There are no major protected areas in this region.
270		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. It occurs below 1,000 m asl, but mostly below 100 m and even below sea level in the Danakil Depression (= Afar Depression).
270		habitat	eng	It occurs in very barren or sparsely vegetated habitat (shrubs and grasses) on rocky plains and salt flats. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
270		population	eng	There are very few specimens reported in the literature, and not many in museums as few people have worked in this area due to security reasons. There is no information on population size.
270		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the habitat of this species. Only stochastic impacts such as extended drought periods might affect the species.
271		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. Taxonomic research is required to clarify whether or not this is a valid species. Surveys are needed to determine population size, distribution and trends.
271		distribution	eng	<em>Acomys nesiotes</em> is endemic to Cyprus, where available evidence suggests that it was possibly introduced by humans, and therefore may represent a non-native population of <em>Acomys cahirinus</em>.
271		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas.
271		population	eng	There were no records of this species between 1980 and 2007. In 2007, four individuals were captured by M. Sozen and colleagues around Lefkoşa (Nicosia) area at an altitude of about 600 meters asl in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, confirming that this species persists (M. Sozen pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is expected to have two disjunct populations in the rocky areas of the island: the Troodos massiv in the South and the Kyrenia hills in the North, which are separated by the non-rocky Mesaoria lowlands.
271		threats	eng	Attempts were made in the 1980s and 1990s to trap this species at sites where it was recorded in the 1970s; these were always unsuccessful, and instead of spiny mice, black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> were found at the sites (P. Boye pers. comm. 2007). Habitat at some of these site has been destroyed as a result of road and building construction (P. Boye pers. comm. 2007). This suggests that the Cyprus Spiny Mouse may have suffered significant declines as a result of competition with invasive black rats and habitat loss due to development.
272		conservation	eng	It is found in Samburu and Buffalo Springs in northern Kenya (the type locality), and Omo Reserve in Ethiopia.
272		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Sudan (east of the White Nile River), northeastern Uganda, southwestern Ethiopia and from Kenya. It occurs down the Rift Valley. This is a lowland species found below 1,000 m asl (it does not occur in the Immatong Mountains of Sudan).
272		habitat	eng	It occurs on lava strewn rocky plains, in sparse to bare areas. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
272		population	eng	It is a common species, that has cyclic population fluctuations.
272		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Much of its range is only occupied by pastoralists and there is a low human density.
273		conservation	eng	The species is found in many protected areas. A survey on the status of this species in the eastern desert of Egypt and in Wadi Hof is needed.
273		distribution	eng	The type locality is located within a major Egyptian Military base (Wadi Hof), but there is no current information about the species from this area. Beer Kasib is the only other known locality in Egypt outside of the Sinai, but it no longer occurs here. The species was widespread and common in Egypt up to 50 years ago. It has either been extirpated or is very close to extirpation within much of Egypt. It is still common on the Sinai Peninsula (e.g., at St. Catherine's) and in the Middle East (Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, northern Yemen and Oman). This species occurs up to 2,000 m asl. The range of the form <em>A. russatus lewisi</em> may extend into Syria but may be a separate species.
273		habitat	eng	It occurred strictly in rocky habitats, at the edges of wadis, at the base of jebels, or on mountain summits. This is a diurnal, insectivorous species.
273		population	eng	This species was once very common in Egypt but has declined by more than 90% in the last 50 years. It is still common elsewhere in its range (e.g. Jordan: Amr 2000).
273		threats	eng	The reasons for the species decline in Egypt are unknown. Elsewhere in its range it is not considered to be seriously threatened. The golden spiny mouse has become a pest in agricultural fields that use drip irrigation as they eat seeds and destroy certain crops. They sometimes are the focus of public health concern because flea populations on these mice may host Rickettsia, the organism which causes typhus.
274		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a large number of protected areas in all the countries of its range. However, it is apparently not in the Selous Reserve in Tanzania.
274		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northeastern Tanzania (Amani) and east central Tanzania (Kilosa and Morogoro regions), southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Malawi (on the Nyika Plateau), Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana, central Mozambique and northern and northwestern South Africa (Limpopo Province, North-West province, Gauteng and Mpumalanga).  It occurs up to 1,800 m asl.
274		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky outcrops in savanna woodland (<em>Brachystegia</em>, Mopane, Miombo, <em>Terminalia</em>, etc.). It is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
274		population	eng	It is very common in the southern parts of the range, but less common further north.
274		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
275		conservation	eng	Research recommended into this species includes surveys, genetic research, and further research into the species' life history. It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
275		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to the Western Cape Province of South Africa; its range just extends into the Eastern and Northern Cape Provinces. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km². This species occurs up to about 1,000 m asl.
275		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky areas on mountain slopes in Fynbos vegetation. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
275		population	eng	The current population numbers greater than 10,000 mature individuals.
275		threats	eng	the Fynbos habitat is impacted in parts by alien invasives, but this is thought to be unlikely to impact this species. Animals in lower lying areas have been impacted by habitat loss due to crops and expanding urbanization. Overall the species is secure.
276		conservation	eng	This species is found throughout Tsavo, Amboseli (rocky areas only), Samburu (all in Kenya) plus many other protected areas.
276		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Sudan, southern Ethiopia, southern Somalia, northeastern Uganda, most of Kenya, and south to east central Tanzania. It occurs below 1,000 m asl.
276		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky habitats on sparsely vegetated gravel plains. It commonly occurs in dense <em>Sanseviera</em> patches, and in holes on termite mounds. It is an insectivorous species. This is the smallest of all the spiny mice. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
276		population	eng	It is very common in the Rift Valley.
276		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
278		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known to be in place to protect this species. None are thought to be needed.
278		distribution	eng	This species occurs between 33° and 41°S in the High Andes of Chile and Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It may be found up to 4,000 m asl (Bidau pers. comm.).
278		habitat	eng	It only occurs in cool, moist forest isolated from other forests by more than 1,000 km of pampa or desert. The dominant trees at any one place are usually one or more species of southern beech (Nothofagus).
278		population	eng	Locally abundant (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
278		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
279		conservation	eng	Listed as Vulnerable in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz, 2000); it occurs in the Lanin National Park.
279		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Neuquén Province, Pampa de Hui Hui in areas near Lago Quillén and Lago Hui Hui  (1050 m asl.) (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is thought that the species also occurs in Chile in Malleco Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005; Ojeda and Bidau pers. comm.).
279		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest (Ojeda pers. comm.).
279		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but may have a very limited distribution (Wilson and Reeder, 2005).
279		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a major threat for this species (Ojeda pers. comm.).
282		conservation	eng	This species is on Appendix I of CITES and all international trade in live animals, or body parts, is prohibited. It has been recorded in most of the protected areas within its range. More information on its ecology in the wild is needed, in addition to a taxonomic assessment of populations in the southeast and north.
282		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the south and southwest of the island, occurring from near Bemaraha in the north, to Morondava and Toliara on the west coast and Sainte Luce on the east coast (Glaw and Vences 2007). The snake's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 242,716 km²<sup></sup>, and it has been reported from between sea level and 1,300 m.
282		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits intact and disturbed dry forest and thorn bush at low and mid-elevations (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is also found in savanna settings on the central highlands. It can be encountered in disturbed habitats such as eucalyptus forests and villages. It is usually terrestrial and larger specimens are cathemeral whilst juveniles are mostly nocturnal. It is viviparous and litters consist of 6-13 small juveniles. It feeds on wild terrestrial vertebrates as well as domestic poultry.</p>
282		population	eng	This species is relatively common in southern and central Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007).
282		threats	eng	This species appears to withstand forest degradation and no major threats have been identified. It is killed by local people as it is considered bad luck and likely predates domestic chickens.
283		conservation	eng	<p>This species is on Appendix I of CITES and all international trade in live animals, or body parts, is prohibited; more information on domestic use is necessary to assess whether this represents a threat. It is has been recorded from most of the protected areas within its range and its habitats are therefore well conserved, although its distributional extent and population trends should be clarified, especially in areas where hybridization is possible with Dumeril's Ground Boa.<br/></p>
283		distribution	eng	The Malagasy Ground Boa is endemic to Madagascar where it known from a number of localities in the north and west of the island between sea level and 800 m (Vences and Glaw 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007). It occurs from Antsiranana in the north to Mahajunga on the west coast and to Tampolo on the east coast, with possible records as far south as Kirindy near Morondava. The snake's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 127,743 km².
283		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits intact and disturbed humid and dry forest at mainly low to mid-elevations (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is present in disturbed habitats, including arable areas around villages. It is usually terrestrial and larger specimens are cathemeral whilst juveniles are mostly nocturnal. It is viviparous and litters consist of 2-6 large juveniles. It feeds on rodents, bats (<em>Pteropus rufus</em>), tenrecs (<em>Echinops telfari</em>), lemurs (e.g. <em>Eulemur fulvus, Propithecus coquereli</em>) and ducks.</p>
283		population	eng	<p>This species is relatively common in northern Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
283		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present. This species may be threatened locally by the demand for snake-skin products and snake bushmeat but there is currently insufficient information available to assess these threats. It is killed by local people as it is considered bad luck and likely predates domestic chickens.
499		conservation	eng	The species lies in two protected areas, and would benefit from habitat monitoring on Desertas and in the coastal zone of Madeira.
499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Actinella actinophora </span>is endemic to the Madeiran Archipelago, where it is found on Madeira and Desertas. <span style="font-style: italic;">Actinella actinophora </span><span style="font-style: italic;">actinophora</span> is found on the main island of Madeira where it is known from 7 locations, several very closely located in the laurisilva zone below Pico Arreiro and Pico Ruivo and three isolated localities on the North Coast of Madeira (Seddon 2008<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>p.72, 173<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>Map 94<span style="font-style: italic;">). </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Actinella actinophora </span><span style="font-style: italic;">descendens</span> is found on Deserta Grande where it is known from 2 locations;&#160; there are fossil records from the island of Bugio (Seddon 2008<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>p.72<span style="font-style: italic;">).</span>
499		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Actinella actinophora</span> is found in leaf-litter in deep ravines in the laurisilva zone, in rocky areas at high elevations or grassland by the coast. The critical condition is a moist microhabitat with deep leaf-litter.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
499		population	eng	There are no data on population trends.
499		threats	eng	The threats vary depending on the island locations. On Deserte Grande the habitats were changed radically in the 1900's with the introduction of goats to the island.&#160; Although this island is no longer inhabitated, the goats remained, and the level of grazing has changed the vegetation, leading to considerable soil erosion of the steep slopes.&#160; Until the goats have been eradicated and the vegetation reestablished stablising the slopes, these sub-populations are viewed as extremely vulnerable.<br/>On the north coast of Madeira, the three subpopulations are vulnerable as these lie in areas close of human habitation and roads, with impact of disturbance and change in habitats from non-native plants, grazing and road widening schemes.&#160; <br/>On the summit slopes, the laurisilva region lies within a protected area, and so is less suspectible to habitat degradation, however, the small gullies and ravines lie along popular walking paths, and so sites maybe disturbed by 'cleaning' of the sides of the paths to maintain and upgrade the footpaths.
500		conservation	eng	The species has benefited from conservation actions targeted at other species with the aim to control and then remove the goats from Chao. &#160;This programme has been running for 10 years and has seen large reductions in the goat populations, and hence the habitats are stabilising. Further monitoring is required to review the population levels and recovery of this species.
500		distribution	eng	<em>Actinella anaglyptica</em> is endemic to the Madeiran Islands where it is restricted to the small island of Islas&#160;Desertas, where it is found in Chao (Cameron and Cook 1999, Seddon 2008).
500		habitat	eng	This species is found in grass tussocks amongst rocks and herbs.
500		population	eng	There is little recent data on population trends for this species.
500		threats	eng	The habitat degradation on Chao, originally caused by overgrazing leading to soil erosion, with a subsequent decline in quality of habitats and decline in extent of vegetated cover has now been halted. &#160;However the species remains vulnerable to any changes to the land-area in centre of the island, for example construction or grazing, and as such the threats have declined, and are now subject to land management within the protected areas.
501		conservation	eng	This species is mainly found in protected area. Further survey work is required to confirm the current distribution along the ridge.
501		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Actinella armitageana</span> is endemic to the Madeiran Archipelago, where it is found on the island of Madeira. It is only found on the summit ridges around Pico Areiro and Pico Ruivo where it is uncommon (Seddon 2008, p.75, 174, Map 101).
501		habitat	eng	This species is found in grass tussocks around small crags and amongst scree on the high parts of the summit ridges.
501		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, but this species is always found to be rare and localised in surveys between 1981 and 2000 (Seddon, pers. comm., 2009 , based on data from Robert Cameron and Laurence Cook, National Museum of Wales surveys and Brian Coles)
501		threats	eng	This species is found in high elevation grasslands with limited habitats close of crags and screes, where the major threats are changes in grazing regimes and potential disturbance from recreational activities such as path construction, litter, grass fires.
502		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, however it is considered to be poorly known, with a need for further research on the population status, distribution and threats.
502		distribution	eng	<p>This species is considered to be endemic to Madeira, the taxa is rare, with most records from a single valley in the northeast of Madeira (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) (Estreito de Camera de Lobos), although Walden (1983) lists one locality from southern Madeira.<br/></p>
502		habitat	eng	This species is found in grass tussocks, amongst rocks and leaf-litter.
502		population	eng	The taxa is rare, with few records, and as such there is insufficient data for population trends.
502		threats	eng	There is a possible decline in the habitat due to presence of roads through the habitat (litter, pollution, dust, non-native plants), as well as encroaching urbanization and occasional fires.
503		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least one protected area. Given&#160;that the species occurs within a small part of the island and on one offshore islet and the threats include changes in land-use from agriculture, loss of grassland for urbanisation and tourism and possible impact of competition with&#160;<em>Theba pisana </em>recommended conservation actions include management of the protected areas for maintenance of the species and monitoring of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat and subpopulations<em>.</em>
503		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is only found on Porto Santo and on one offshore islet (Seddon 2008). The species is locally distributed over the eastern part of the island and on the Ilheu de Baixo, with a total area of occupancy of 12 km<sup>2</sup> in four hillslope areas (Seddon 2008).
503		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species which is usually found on grassland areas, under stones and in rocky places.
503		population	eng	This species has a localised distribution, but can be frequently encountered at sites. However, it is never abundant.
503		threats	eng	Seddon (2008) lists the major threats as habitat disturbance as the species occurs within a small part of the island and on one offshore islet. The potential causes are changes in land-use from agriculture, loss of grassland for urbanisation and tourism and possible impact of competition with <em>Theba pisana</em>.
504		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however no specific actions are required.
504		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is an endemic to the main island of Madeira, where it is widespread living in the valleys on the northern part of the island. &#160;Most of the sites are close to the coast, with some sites further inland up the valleys (Seddon 2008).
504		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal scrub, vegetated gullies and wooded valleys.
504		population	eng	This species is usually rare in samples, and so is apparently living in low density (Seddon 2008).
504		threats	eng	This species is mainly found in undisturbed habitats on the north side of the island, with main threats from road improvement schemes and other activities that reduce the area of the occupied sites.
505		conservation	eng	The habitat does not lie within a protected area and has been subject to changing land-use practice for the last 50 years as result  of hotel developments and increasing urbanisation&#160; (Seddon 2008). Habitat monitoring and population monitoring are required to establish the species limits and check the long-term trends for the species.
505		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madeira where it is restricted from Cabo Girao inland within this valley (Seddon 2008).&#160;</p>
505		habitat	eng	The species is found in grassland, open scrubby vegetation and rocky slopes (Seddon 2008) .
505		population	eng	This is a large helicid which is easily collected and is frequent in samples taken within the right area (Seddon 2008).
505		threats	eng	The habitat has been subject to changing land-use practice as a result of hotel developments and increasing urbanisation and as such the quality of the habitat has declined (Seddon 2008).
506		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions specifically for this species. Conservation actions have included a goat eradication  programmes over the last 10 years for other species on the island, which should have benefited this species, as the species is vulnerable to habitat change.&#160; Research actions  include population monitoring and habitat monitoring, especially for  the next five years whilst habitat restoration projects are ongoing on the island.
506		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is found on the Desertas (known from Ilheu Chao and near the north end of Deserta Grande). (Paiva's record from Ilheu de Ferro off Porto Santo is discounted as erroneous by Wollaston 1878, p. 121). It has been recorded by Cameron and Cook (1999) from each survey site on Chao, but was not recorded on Deserta Grande.</p>
506		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found on dry hillslopes with heather and grasses.</p>
506		population	eng	There is insufficient recent survey data to establish the population trend.
506		threats	eng	The habitats were impacted in the past by overgrazing due to introduced rabbits and goats, to habitat degradation and widespread soil erosion (Cameron and Cook 1999, Seddon 2008).
507		conservation	eng	There are been very few records of the&#160;<em>Actinella fausta</em> group of species&#160;(<em>A. robusta, A. obserata, A. carinofausta, A. fausta</em>)&#160;on the southern coast of Madeira, since Walden (1983) published his checklist where he suggested that there were several taxa with '<em>A. fausta</em>'. &#160;Research is needed to establish the taxonomy and distribution of this species on the island and to make a revised conservation assessment with suggested conservation actions.
507		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madeira. It is recorded from a single site on the south side of the island, close to Funchal (Seddon 2008). &#160;There are been very few records of the <em>Actinella fausta</em> group of species&#160;(<em>A. robusta, A. obserata, A. carinofausta, A. fausta</em>)&#160;on the southern coast of Madeira, since Walden (1983) published his checklist where he suggested that there were several taxa with '<em>A. fausta</em>'.</p>
507		habitat	eng	It is believed to be present on ground and under stones in shrubby/grassland areas, but further research required to confirm the habitats.
507		population	eng	There are no data on population trends, although the species is believed to be rare.
507		threats	eng	The major threat in this part of Madeira is encroaching urbanisation, as well as the construction of an infrastructure to service these towns and villages.&#160; The region had been extensively modified with agriculture, hotel construction and urbanisation since Wollaston visited the island in the 1870's.
508		conservation	eng	Further research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution before a conservation assessment can be made for this species.
508		distribution	eng	This was listed as&#160;<em>Actinella</em>&#160;Form III in Waldén (1983), from the island of Madeira. &#160;Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) listed it as a valid species. Seddon (2008) noted that the distribution was uncertain, and may lie within the distribution of <em>Actinella fausta.</em>
508		habitat	eng	The distribution is uncertain, and hence the habitats are not known.
508		population	eng	There is no recent population trend data on this species.
508		threats	eng	The distribution is uncertain, and hence the threats are not known.
512		conservation	eng	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is protected under national legislation in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; in Libya and Egypt hunting of all gazelles is forbidden by law.<br/><br/>Although massive reserves, such as the Ahaggar and Tasilli in Algeria, the Aïr/Ténéré in Niger, the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim in Chad, and the newly established Wadi Howar N.P. in Sudan cover areas where Addax previously occurred, some are under-resourced and all no longer harbour Addax (Newby in press). Continued support for gazetted reserves in Chad and Niger, together with the establishment of new protected areas, especially along the Mali/Mauritania frontier (Majabat), Niger (Termit/Tin Toumma) and Chad (Bodélé, Egueï), is essential, but must be supported and combined with programmes to create incentives for the local people to protect wildlife wherever it is found (Newby in press).<br/><br/>Addax have been reintroduced to fenced sectors of protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma NP) and Morocco (Souss-Massa: 70 animals released 1994-97, increased to c. 550 by 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). The first reintroduction in the wild is underway in Jebil National Park, Tunisia, in the Great Eastern Erg and another is planned in southern Morocco.<br/><br/>There are over 600 Addax in Europe, Libya (Sabratha), Egypt (Giza Zoo), North America, Japan and Australia in managed breeding programmes, and at least 1,000 more individuals are held in private collections and ranches in the United States and the Middle East (Newby in press, T. Jdeidi pers. comm.).
512		conservation	eng	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is protected under national legislation in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; in Libya and Egypt hunting of all gazelles is forbidden by law.<br/><br/>Although massive reserves, such as the Ahaggar and Tasilli in Algeria, the Aïr/Ténéré in Niger, the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim in Chad, and the newly established Wadi Howar N.P. in Sudan cover areas where Addax previously occurred, some are under-resourced and all no longer harbour Addax (Newby in press). Continued support for gazetted reserves in Chad and Niger, together with the establishment of new protected areas, especially along the Mali/Mauritania frontier (Majabat), Niger (Termit/Tin Toumma) and Chad (Bodélé, Egueï), is essential, but must be supported and combined with programmes to create incentives for the local people to protect wildlife wherever it is found (Newby in press).<br/><br/>Addax have been reintroduced to fenced sectors of protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma NP) and Morocco (Souss-Massa: 70 animals released 1994-97, increased to c. 550 by 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). The first reintroduction in the wild is underway in Jebil National Park, Tunisia, in the Great Eastern Erg and another is planned in southern Morocco.<br/><br/>There are over 600 Addax in Europe, Libya (Sabratha), Egypt (Giza Zoo), North America, Japan and Australia in managed breeding programmes, and at least 1,000 more individuals are held in private collections and ranches in the United States and the Middle East (Newby in press, T. Jdeidi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix I.
512		distribution	eng	Addax were formerly widespread in the Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley, and present in suitable habitats in all countries sharing the Sahara Desert (Newby in press). As with other ungulates of the Sahelo-Saharan fauna, the Addax has undergone an unprecedented reduction in geographical range over the past century. Today, the only known remaining population survives in the Termit/Tin Toumma region of Niger. However, there are sporadic records of small isolated groups and individuals from eastern Air Mountains/Western Ténéré desert in Niger, and from the Equey region of western Chad (Newby in press). Possible rare vagrants from these areas may be seen in north Niger, southern Algeria and Libya (Newby in press). There are continued rumours of Addax along the Mali/Mauritania border (Majabat Al Koubra), but no confirmed sightings for several years. However, in early March, 2007, the fresh tracks of about 15 Addax were seen in central Mauritania, in an area where they had not been reported for over 20 years (R. Vernet in Newby in press).
512		habitat	eng	The most desert-loving large ungulate, occurring in areas of extreme temperature and aridity (less than 100 mm annually) (Newby in press). With the exception of truly mountainous areas, Addax have been recorded from all major habitat types in the Sahara, from gravelly and sandy plains, to dune fields, sandy basins and depressions, pans and wadi systems; their preference is for harder, packed sands and flatter areas within and between dune fields that support perennial vegetation (Newby in press; and references therein). <br/><br/>Addax are nomadic, wandering over large areas in search of grazing. In the Sahel, movements tend to be north-south in direction, i.e., from the more arid desert to the less arid sub-desert and Sahel (Gillet 1965; Newby 1978). In central Niger, movement may also be east-west, i.e., from the open desert towards the better-wooded and more varied habitats of the Aïr and Termit mountains (Hue 1960).
512		population	eng	Although long extinct in North Africa, Addax were still present in fair numbers in Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Chad up until the late 1960s and early 1970s (Newby in press). Today, the total global population is estimated at probably less than 300 animals surviving in the wild, distributed unevenly along a narrow, 600-km-long band lying between Termit/Tin Toumma in Niger and the Bodélé Depression in Chad (Newby in press). Ground and aerial surveys of Termit/Tin Toumma carried out in 2004 (Wacher <em>et al.</em> 2004) indicate a population of between 100 and 200 head. A total count carried out by SOS Faune du Niger in October 2004 returned a figure of 128 Addax for a little under 10,000 km² of prime habitat in Termit, Niger (see Newby in press). Otherwise, Addax seem to retain a highly fragmented distribution, based on sightings of individuals and small groups.
512		threats	eng	The primary factors in the decline of Addax are uncontrolled hunting and harassment. Drought and the extension of pastoralism into desert lands, thanks to the increase in wells, have also taken a heavy toll (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005; Newby in press). Demographic factors (very small size of subpopulations, extreme fragmentation) are also expected to have an adverse effect.
520		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Research into the spread of chytrid fungus and education on methods of minimizing and preventing its spread is also needed as a conservation measure.
520		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic has a disjunctive distribution, occurring in the Clarke Range (mid-eastern Queensland), then from Shoalwater Bay (mid-eastern Queensland) south along the coast to Moss Vale (mid-eastern New South Wales), and inland to Blackdown Tableland and Carnarvon Gorge. It was formerly common across a broad altitudinal range but at present it is common only at altitudes of less than 400m asl.
520		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet forest and dry forest environs usually along streams, but also around dams. See Katsikaros and Shine (1997) for studies on diet, habitat use, mating systems and sexual dimorphism. Breeding takes place in streams and ponds. Unpigmented eggs are laid in a foam nest hidden from the light, and development is usually complete within 71 days.
520		population	eng	There is no information on the status of inland populations of this species. Elswhere, it is now absent from some areas of apparently suitable habitat. For example, it has not been recorded along the Great Dividing Range in recent surveys. Upland populations in northern New South Wales have also declined, and the species is listed as threatened in the region. There is no published information on its overall population size, structure, genetics or dynamics.
520		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss and degradation of its habitat through agricultural and urban development. Other significant threats are the introduced predatory fish <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>, and the spread of weeds. Dead frogs that have suffered from chytridiomycosis have been found in south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.
523		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.
547		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tatama and Farallones de Cali National Parks (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
547		distribution	eng	Possibly narrowly endemic, this species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental, 1,700 to 2,580 m, western Colombia, in the Valle del Cauca and Risaralda Departments (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
547		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial. It occurs in primary premontane wet forest, secondary forest, croplands and pasture may also be suitable (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
547		population	eng	This species appear to be abundant (or at least easily trapped) at most places where they have been found to date (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
547		threats	eng	Major threat to this species is general deforestation.
548		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Venezuela. More collections are required.
548		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mérida State, in the Andes of Venezuela (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Ochoa <em>et al</em>. 2001). It has an elevational range of about 2,000 to 3,000 m (Soriano <em>et al</em>. 1999).
548		habitat	eng	It is present in cloud forest and paramo (J. Ochoa pers. comm.) and breeds in the wet season. It is likely to be omnivorous and is entirely terrestrial and nocturnal (Aagaard, 1982).
548		population	eng	This species is locally common (J. Ochoa and M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
548		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss although this is not currently a threat.
550		conservation	eng	The Common Impala is one of the most abundant antelopes in Africa, with about one-quarter of the population occurring in protected areas. The largest numbers occurring in areas such as the Mara and Kajiado (Kenya), Serengeti, Ruaha and Selous (Tanzania), Luangwa Valley (Zambia), Okavango (Botswana), Hwange, Sebungwe and the Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe), Kruger (South Africa) and on private farms and conservancies (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia) (East 1999). Its future is secure as long as it continues to occur in large, adequately protected and managed populations in protected areas and private farms and conservancies. <br/><br/>The main surviving populations of the Black-faced Impala occur in Etosha National Park and private farms in Namibia. The numbers of the Black-faced Impala should continue to increase in protected areas and on private land, although it remains at risk from hybridization with the Common Impala (East 1999). The Namibian government has a management plan to eliminate hybridization with Common Impala and strictly regulate harvests. The Namibian Professional Hunters Association has a Black-faced Impala committee and the NGO Conservation Force has a long-term involvement in all aspects of its conservation including funding of the management plan. Good management practices make the future of the taxon secure for now (John J. Jackson III, in litt. to ASG, August 2007).
550		distribution	eng	The Impala formerly occurred widely in southern and East Africa, from central and southern Kenya and north-east Uganda to northern KwaZulu-Natal, west to Namibia and southern Angola. Their current distribution range remains largely unchanged from their historical range, although it has been eliminated from parts by hunting for meat and the spread of settlement (for example, they now only occur in south-west Uganda, and have been extirpated from Burundi) (East 1999; Fritz and Bourgarel in press).<br/><br/>In Namibia, the Black-faced Impala is naturally confined to the Kaokoland in the north-west, and neighbouring south-western Angola. Kaokoland was set aside as a protected area in 1928, when it formed part of Etosha N.P., but lost its protection status in 1970. To guard against its extinction, Black-faced Impala were translocated to south-western Etosha on the edge of the historic Black-faced Impala range (Green and Rothstein 1998). Today, this subspecies occurs between the Otjimborombonga area (ca 12°45'E) and Swartbooisdrift on the Cunene R., southward to the Kaoko Otavi area in the south-western part of the Etosha N.P., and the Kamanjab District just south of the Park (Fritz and Bourgarel in press). There is no information on the current status of this subspecies in Angola (Crawford-Cabral and Veríssimo 2005)<br/><br/>Common Impala have been introduced to numerous privately owned game ranches and small reserves throughout southern Africa. Impala have also been introduced in two protected areas in Gabon (P. Chardonnet pers. comm.).
550		habitat	eng	The Impala is a water-dependent and typical ecotone species, associated with light woodlands and savannas, selecting open Acacia savannas with nutrient-rich soils providing good-quality grass, and high-quality browse in the dry season (Fritz and Bourgarel in press). In their semi-arid environment, Black-faced Impala also select the interface between wooded savanna and open grassy vleis (Joubert 1971; Matson <em>et al.</em> 2005).
550		population	eng	Population estimates are available for most of the Impala’s current range. East (1999) summed these estimates to produce a total population of 1,584,000 Common Impala and 2,200 Black-faced Impala, but the former does not allow for undercounting in aerial surveys or those areas for which population estimates are unavailable. Correcting for undercounting biases, East (1999) estimated the total numbers of Common Impala at ~2 million.<br/><br/>East's estimate of 2,200 for Black-faced Impala is slightly lower than that estimated by Green and Rothstein (1998), who estimated numbers in Etosha at around 1,500 individuals, with an additional 1,200 on private land, and the total population in Kaokoland at around 500. As of 2007, numbers in Etosha and private ranches are estimated at about 3,200 with a further 50-100 on conservancies (all stable and increasing); numbers in the north-west (the original native range) may number approximately 1,000 (J. Jackson in litt to ASG 2007).<br/><br/>As noted by Fritz and Bourgarel (in press), actual recorded densities of Impala vary substantially, from less than 1/km² in Mkomazi National Park (Tanzania) to as many as 135/km² on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe (Bourgarel 1998). In the wooded savanna of Akagera N.P. in Rwanda, where Monfort (1972) recorded densities of 214/km², total numbers declined by about 75-80% between 1990 and 1998 (Williams and Ntayombya 1999).
550		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species. Poaching, livestock development and severe drought were the main factors contributing to the decline of Black-faced Impala. The reintroduction of 180 individuals from Kaokoland to the west of Etosha National Park between 1968 and 1971 helped promote the conservation of the subspecies, and a few were translocated from Etosha to private game farms in Namibia (Fritz and Bourgarel in press).<br/><br/>However, the introduction of Common Impala to ranches and conservancies neighbouring Etosha National Park may represent a threat to the Black-faced subspecies through hybridization. Green and Rothstein (1998) earlier estimated that about one-quarter of all privately owned Black-faced Impala occur in mixed herds with Common Impala. In a recent study, Lorenzen and Siegismund (2004) analysed 127 Black-faced Impala individuals from five subpopulations in Etosha National Park to determine whether any hybridization had taken place within the park, but could not find any evidence for hybridization between the two subspecies having taken place.
555		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered A1ac (Wang and Xie 2004).
555		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in Sichuan, Gansu, Hebei (Smith and Xie 2008), and Beijing (CSIS 2008). It exists as two isolated populations; <em>Aeretes melanopterus melanopterus</em> in Hebei and <em>A. m. szechuanensis</em> in northeastern Sichuan and southern Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations lower than 3,000 m asl (Wang 1998).
555		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mountainous forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
555		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species, but it is inferred that it is declining as a result of habitat loss.
555		threats	eng	Deforestation and overharvesting are major threats to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).
556		conservation	eng	It likely occurs in protected areas across its range. However, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
556		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Penang island, Sumatra and Borneo (Medway 1983). The "typical form" of this species occurs in southernmost provinces of Thailand. Reports from northern Thailand in Lekagul and MacNeely (1977) have not been confirmed, nor have those in Tizard <em>et al</em>. (1997) from northern Lao PDR. However, flying squirrels in these areas remain very poorly known so it is unclear whether these dark animals are melanistic <em>Petaurista</em> sp. or <em>Aeromys tephromelas</em>.
556		habitat	eng	This nocturnal flying squirrel inhabits primary and secondary forests, foothills of the ranges in Borneo and Malaysia. It is also found in gardens where it uses tree hollows. It is relatively adaptable.<br/>This species eats fruits, nuts, and other vegetable matter (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
556		population	eng	This is possibly a naturally uncommon species.
556		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, as it is adaptable and is likely to persist unless forest is lost completely.
557		conservation	eng	This species is found within several protected areas on Borneo.
557		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Borneo, except of the southern east portion.
557		habitat	eng	It species is found from lowland to mid-montane forest. It is a nocturnal squirrel, feeding mainly on fruits.
557		population	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is common in suitable habitat.
557		threats	eng	The species is threatened by anthropogenic habitat loss.
561		conservation	eng	No information available.
561		conservation	eng	Research and habitat protection.
561		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the eastern Branch of the Rift Valley from Mt. Moroto to Mt. Meru (Uganda, Kenya and north Tanzania), Bwindi National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has not recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, but from the highlands of the Bwindi National Park in south-western Uganda, thus occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is likely.
561		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is common in Kenya's Rift Valley area. Northern boundary is not known.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the eastern Branch of the Rift Valley from Mt. Moroto to Mt. Meru (Uganda, Kenya and north Tanzania), Bwindi National Park (Uganda).
561		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the eastern Branch of the Rift Valley from Mount Moroto to Mount Meru (Uganda, Kenya and north Tanzania), Bwindi National Park (Uganda). Common in Kenya's Rift Valley area. northern boundary is not known. Not recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, but from the highlands of the Bwindi National Park in south-western Uganda, thus occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is likely.
561		habitat	eng	Streams in savanna and bush along Rift Valley.
561		habitat	eng	Streams in savanna and bush along the Rift Valley and suitable habitat elsewhere within the species range.
561		habitat	eng	Streams in savannah and bush along Rift Valley.
561		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
561		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
561		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are water pollution and water extraction.
561		threats	eng	Water pollution and water extraction.
562		distribution	eng	Found in the United States (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah) and Mexico (Nayarit and Chihuahua).
562		habitat	eng	Desert canyons along shaded streams.
562		population	eng	Population size is not known.
562		threats	eng	No known threats in a range of low human population (see Bick 2003). However, streams in arid areas are subject to flood scouring and overgrazing; little consideration of the species is likely in Mexico.
563		conservation	eng	FHH–species, protected in all countries within the European Union. There is also a species action plan in the Netherlands.
563		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Habitats Directive and the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Especially for populations dependent on man-made habitats management plans are needed. For many areas in the Netherlands these are already in place (De Jong <em>et al.</em> 2001). Especially the isolated populations in Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Austria deserve attention.<br/>In some areas, management in which the vegetation of Water Soldier is removed every few years is needed in order to maintain the habitat. This management should however be done in a rotation model in such a way that there is always habitat available.
563		distribution	eng	Northern, Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia.
563		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the western part of the Palaearctic and is found from the Netherlands in the west to the Central Siberian lowland. Its European range is largely confined to parts of Northeast Europe. It is relatively widespread in the northern parts of European Russia, Poland and the Baltic states. In the Ukraine it is only found in the northeast while in Finland and Sweden it is confined to the southern half. In West Europe it is found in the Netherlands, parts of Denmark and the north of Germany. More isolated occurrences are known from Austria, Hungary and Croatia.
563		habitat	eng	In the European part of its range, <em>Aeshna viridis</em> is almost completely confined to habitats with large fields or Water Soldier. These fields are found in standing or slowly flowing, largely unshaded waters with a mesotrophic to moderately eutrophic status. Natural habitats where this species can occur are lakes or oxbows. In Western Europe occurrences in more natural habitats have become rare and there it is mainly found in man-made waters like large ditches and channels in low peat areas.
563		habitat	eng	Mostly in still waters populated by the plant <em>Stratiotes aloïdes</em>. The species has also been reported from a few odd lakes without this plant present.
563		population	eng	Although this species has a relatively wide range, it is only locally common. Densities at the reproduction sites can be high.
563		population	eng	Current population size is unknown, but is very large.
563		threats	eng	<em>Aeshna viridis</em> is almost completely dependent on the presence of fields of WaterSoldier. This species quickly disappears when water becomes polluted, especially when the amount of phosphate rises. The decrease of water-quality due to poor water management is the main threat for this species on European scale. At least in Western Europe relatively many populations are found in agricultural areas. Here the increase of maize production is a specific threat. All throughout its range, but especially in Western Europe this species occurs in man-made waters like ditches and channels. In these habitats natural succession of the vegetation will eventually end with the Water-soldier being replaced by other plants. The species is dependent on open areas around the smaller reproduction sites and overgrowth with trees and shrubs could outshade the species and eliminate the population.
563		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance/change, foremost in the western parts of the distribution.
564		conservation	eng	The species is probably more widespread than known due to scarce sampling in the area. Urgent studies are needed to determine habitat, area of occurrence, biology and ecology of this species.
564		distribution	eng	Known from Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. Also likely to occur in Honduras.
564		habitat	eng	Found above 1,500 m asl. Otherwise habitat is unknown. It probably occupies highland forest streams.
564		population	eng	Population size is unknown but the species must be relatively rare as it is very infrequently encountered.
564		threats	eng	Montane habitat is threatened everywhere by deforestation for coffee groves and cattle ranching.
565		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas within its range. There is a current campaign to protect habitats in central Borneo, especially the key watersheds.
565		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, central Borneo (in Indonesian and Malaysian Borneo), Sumatra, Java (Mt. Gede), Bali, and Lombok in Indonesia. It has not yet been found in southern Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
565		habitat	eng	It occurs in hill and montane forests (probably restricted to forest) from 1,000 m up to 2,700 m asl. In Eastern Malaysia the species is found up to 1,700 m. It roosts singly or in small groups of 2-3. A single female collected on Lombok had a large foetus. In the Malay Peninsula, pregnant females were reported from February and May and February to June. It is not known whether it can adapt to human disturbance.
565		population	eng	This species is widespread but uncommon.
565		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture, plantations and logging is a major threat in lowland areas, as is coal mining in central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo.
567		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.
567		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in eastern Zimbabwe (Mount Selinda; Ngorima Reserve; Stapleford), and possibly in the Manica Province of Mozambique. The specimens from Stapleford were collected at approximately 700 m asl.
567		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane dry forest. It has been recorded from tangled vegetation in a rocky area (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
567		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well known.
567		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The restricted range of the species may indicate small population size.
568		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
568		distribution	eng	The range of this species covers at least all of northern coastal Angola, including the Cabinda enclave, and the adjacent Escarpment Zone, extending southwards to the vicinity of Lobito (Hanha Estate). It is also known to occur east of latitude 17°E, in the Cassange lowland. This species is probably distributed throughout northwestern Angola as it is largely associated with savannas interspersed with forest.
568		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savannas, and also savanna interspersed with forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
568		population	eng	It is a common species.
568		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
569		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
569		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Kenya to northern South Africa, and eastwards to Namibia and southern Angola.<br/>It is found on plains and high plateau, but it is not found in montane areas.
569		habitat	eng	This is typically a savanna species, but it is also found in cropland and secondary forests.
569		population	eng	The population density of this species is variable, it can be locally abundant.
569		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
570		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
570		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to karoo areas in south central South Africa. It occurs over a wide area.
570		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shrubland and rocky areas on mountain slopes. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
570		population	eng	The abundance and population size is not known.
570		threats	eng	The species habitat does not appear to be fragmented and there are no known threats.
571		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
571		distribution	eng	This species ranges on plains and mountain slopes from Cameroon, eastwards through Central Africa, to Kenya in the east.
571		habitat	eng	This species mostly inhabits moist habitats, although it is occasionally found in drier areas. It feeds on insects and plant material. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
571		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
571		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
572		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
572		distribution	eng	This species is found from Kenya westwards to Angola. It is not present in central lowlands of Tanzania where years of intensive trapping have failed to find evidence of this species.
572		habitat	eng	It is found in dry and moist woodlands, in the sub-tropical and tropical forests of the Congo, and in sparsely wooded savanna. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
572		population	eng	This is a common species.
572		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
573		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
573		distribution	eng	This species is generally found south of the Caprivi Strip throughout most of the southern cone of Africa, excluding southern parts of Mozambique.
573		habitat	eng	In northern parts of the range (Namibia), it is only found areas of shifting sand, otherwise it is found in most habitat types. This species shelters in rocky crevices, hollow trees or in burrows constructed under logs or dense shrubs. Nests of this species have been found in trees up to 2 metres. It is a nocturnal and communal species. It is a human commensal, and is found houses and huts.
573		population	eng	This species is widespread and common.
573		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
574		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.
574		distribution	eng	This species is present in Malawi and northern Zambia, and has a scattered distribution in northern Angola. It is probably also present in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, but this is unverified.
574		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly known. It is present in dry tropical forest.
574		population	eng	It is a common species.
574		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this species.
575		conservation	eng	Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
575		distribution	eng	This species of bush rat is generally found in northern Nigeria. There is one record from a locality in western Cameroon.
575		habitat	eng	Bush rats generally inhabit areas of grassland, savanna, open scrub habitats, cultivated areas and forest edges.
575		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
575		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
576		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Plateau of Angola.
576		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry shrubland in the highlands of the Central Plateau of Angola. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
576		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
576		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
592		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
592		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone: this species is known only from a single locality in Sierra Leone, and is therefore endemic to that country and in this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone.
592		habitat	eng	Not known.
592		population	eng	This species is known only from three specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
592		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases and deforestation which are ongoing in large areas of Sierra Leone.
593		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
593		distribution	eng	Guinea: this species is known only from a single locality in Guinea, and is therefore endemic to that country in this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone.
593		habitat	eng	Not known. The Upper Guinea forest in the region of Kindia, Guinea has been cleared and has been replaced by slash and burn agriculture and industrial encroachment. The impact of this on the populations of <em>A. gerhildae</em> is not known, but may be expected to cause a decline.
593		population	eng	This species is known only from three specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
593		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases and deforestation which are ongoing in large areas of Guinea.
594		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
594		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone: this species is known only from a single locality in Sierra Leone, and is therefore endemic to that country.
594		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known because the collection locality is vague, and is listed only as "Sierra Leone".
594		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
594		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases, more intensive agriculture, deforestation and political unrest which are ongoing in large areas of Sierra Leone.
595		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
595		distribution	eng	Guinea: this species is known only from two localities in Guinea and is therefore endemic to that country.
595		habitat	eng	This species lives in swamps and year-round wetland habitats in the Guinea savannah zone of northwestern Guinea. The original vegetation cover found at the farmland near the village of Sarabaya where this species was recently collected lies in southern guinea savannah in the semi-deciduous moist forest zone&#160; (Cumberlidge 2006). Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodosus</span> were collected from cultivated land from burrows dug into permanently moist soil each with a shallow pool of water at the bottom. At the end of the dry season after a six-month period without rain the soil in this area nevertheless remains wet year round, so this locality either has an underground water table close to the surface, or a nearby spring. The natural habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodosus</span> is still unknown but presumably this cultivated land was originally a permanent freshwater marsh. There were no nearby sources of surface water and it is clear that these crabs do not need to be immersed in water (as do their relatives that live in streams and rivers), and that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodosus</span> can meet its water requirements (such as keeping its respiratory membranes moist and osmoregulation of body fluids) with the small amount of muddy water that collects at the bottom of their burrow. This species is clearly a competent air-breather and has a pair of well-developed pseudolungs similar to those seen in the related West African endemic genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Globonautes</span>.
595		population	eng	This species is known from less than 20 specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
595		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases, deforestation, and associated increased agriculture in northwest Guinea.
596		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kruger National Park and in several protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal.
596		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Mhlatuze Valley in northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) through Swaziland and eastern Mpumalanga (South Africa) to southern Mozambique. An apparently isolated population in extreme northeastern South Africa is probably connected though Mozambique. It occurs up to 300m asl.
596		habitat	eng	It is a species of the lowland coastal plain, inhabiting savannah, bush land and grassland. It lives in leaf axils during the dry season. It breeds in perennial and ephemeral standing pools and marshes, and in dense grass at the edges of shallow semi permanent pans.
596		population	eng	It is very abundant at its breeding sites, and high-density choruses are common.
596		threats	eng	It is not believed to be seriously threatened, but some populations might be impacted by coastal development, including sugar cane farming, and the spread of eucalyptus (drying up seasonal pans). Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations.
694		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Jackson in Florida.
699		conservation	eng	The species in included in Annex C of the Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein. Honduras is included the species in CITES Appendix III in 1987. CITES Export Quotas have been issued for certain countries since 1997.
699		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed. It occurs from Mexico south to eastern Paraguay, northern Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999), and Uruguay (Mones <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has marginal distribution in Uruguay.
699		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range of forest types in moist areas. It is frequently found in gallery forests near rivers and standing waters, where it builds its own burrow, or it can occupy that of another animal. Its diet is frugivorous and it may an important seed distributor (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
699		population	eng	Widespread and locally common in the northern part of its range; scarce in the south of its distribution. Local extinctions of the species have occurred due to habitat destruction in the southeast of its range (Quierolo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This rodent occurs at population densities of 84 to 93 individuals per square kilometer in suitable habitat in Colombia (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
699		threats	eng	This rodent is an important game animal throughout its range, and is frequently taken as bush meat.
700		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
700		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mountains of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and northwest Venezuela (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found in several departments in the Andes region of Colombia from 1,500-3,700 m asl (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). There is one record from San Juanito (14°48'16"S, 68°44'8"W) Bolivia (Ríos-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2004).
700		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountain forests of the Andes. Its diet is unknown (Lord, 1999). Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuniculus paca.</span> The record and observations in Bolivia are from montane forest in Yungas (Ríos-Uzeda <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
700		population	eng	It is rare (Lord, 1999; Tirira, in prep.).
700		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and fragmentation (D. Tirira pers. comm.). This species is considered an agricultural pest and is hunted for its meat.
701		conservation	eng	Protected areas have been identified and established. The species now occurs only in protected areas. In the future, these areas must be well managed. Future research on the distribution and population trend will be needed. The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, targeted ecological research must determine what conservation actions should be untertaken to safeguard the species.
701		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra Nevada in Southern Spain, between 2,500-3,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
701		habitat	eng	In the Sierra Nevada, these butterflies are found in sheltered depressions in an otherwise open landscape, where the foodplant <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace vitaliana</span> grows abundantly. The female lays its eggs among fresh leaves inside the rosettes of the foodplant and the young larvae feed on the parenchyma of the leaves, then overwinter as third instar larvae and use the flowers and developing seeds as food in the next spring. Habitat: plant communities growing on screes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>grasses. It lives in dry and exposed areas such as hilltops where the vegetation is scarce and the foodplant grows close to the ground in the crevices or rocky areas.
701		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the Sierra Nevada, Spain. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The species is showing large populations fluctuations (M. Munguira, pers. comm.)
701		threats	eng	The main threat comes from the construction of infrastructure for ski-tourism. Regarding its limited distribution, it might become threatened in the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.
712		conservation	eng	Giant pandas are considered a threatened and precious species in China.  They are listed under Category 1 (maximum level of protection) of the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law of 1988 and on Appendix I of CITES.  In 1989 the Chinese Ministry of Forestry (now SFA) and WWF drafted a joint national conservation plan for the giant panda, which was eventually adopted by the Chinese government in 1992.  This plan now guides conservation initiatives for this species.<br/><br/>Since poaching of pandas has been largely controlled, the major conservation issue is restoring their habitat (Reid and Gong 1999, Lü <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Previous considerations to clone pandas have been largely abandoned.  There are still plans to release captive animals (experimental tests of this are presently occurring), but this effort addresses mainly a problem of overcrowding in captivity (due to enormous success in captive breeding) rather than the wild situation.  Reintroduction of captive animals may be limited by lack of suitable release sites with adequate habitat but few or no pandas, which are necessary conditions to avoid possible transmission of disease and social disruption of the wild population.<br/><br/>A concerted effort has been made to increase both the quantity and quality of panda habitat.  Beginning in 1963, forest reserves were established specifically for the conservation of giant pandas.  By 1990, 13 panda reserves had been established — presently there are nearly 60 (under either federal or provincial jurisdiction).  Increasing linkages among these reserves is a conservation priority (Loucks <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In addition to creating new reserves, China has worked to increase and improve forested area outside reserves.  Following extensive flooding in 1998, tied directly to deforestation, China implemented the Natural Forest Conservation Program to enhance forest cover throughout major river basins; this included a ban on logging in natural forests. Additionally, a “Grain-to-Green” policy has forced farmers to abandon agricultural fields on steep slopes and replant these areas with trees (for which they are given grain and cash subsidies).  As a result of these policies, China has become first in the world in terms of forest area gained per year (FAO 2006).  The suitability of many of these newly forested areas for pandas, though, is still questionable.  Additionally, the rising pace of economic development, particularly in presently undeveloped areas, has created more road and hydro-power construction, causing more forest fragmentation.
712		distribution	eng	The giant panda is confined to south-central China. Currently, it occurs in portions of six isolated mountain ranges (Minshan, Qinling, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, and Xiaoxiangling) in Gansu, Shaanxi and Sichuan Provinces (about 75% of the population inhabits Sichuan Province). The panda's total range encompasses approximately 30,000 sq km between 102–108.3° E longitude and 28.2–34.1° N latitude.  This range highly overlaps that of the Asiatic black bear (<em>Ursus thibetanus</em>), although the ecological requirements of these species differ appreciably (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Significant climatic changes combined with thousands of years of cultivation of lower and flatter habitats and hunting by humans caused the giant pandas’ range to shrink to a remnant at the rugged western fringe of a once more expansive area (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1985). This species previously ranged throughout most of southern and eastern China, with fossils indicating presence as far south as northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam and stretching north nearly to Beijing.  Another related species, the pygmy giant panda (<em>A. microta</em>), now extinct, also once existed in this area.  As recently as 1850, giant pandas existed in eastern Sichuan and Hubei and Hunan Provinces.  By 1900, they occurred only in the Qinling Mountains and along the edge of the Tibetan plateau.  Soon after 1900, the expansion of agriculture upstream along principal river valleys separated this distribution into separate regions in the six mountain ranges.
712		habitat	eng	Giant pandas occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1,200–4,100 m asl (more typically 1,500–3,000 m asl; Hu and Wei 2004). Habitat use depends both on the type and density of bamboo, the overstory (which influences the growth of bamboo), and the hillslope (Reid and Hu 1991). Giant pandas do not hibernate but they generally descend to lower elevations in the winter (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2002), and may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices and caves. <br/><br/>Giant pandas spend about 55% of the day (both daytime and night-time) feeding, mainly on bamboo (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1985, 1989).  Bamboo comprises 99% of their diet.  They utilize over 60 species of bamboo, but 35 species comprise their main food source (Hu and Wei 2004).  They often use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying use with the seasons (Pan <em>et al</em>. 2001, Loucks <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/><br/>Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders, an impression rooted in the previous disappointing reproductive performance of captive animals (Lü <em>et al</em>. 2000). Studies of wild pandas, however, indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to those of some other species of bears (Garshelis 2004, Harris 2004, Wang <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Moreover, captive populations in China are now reproducing well.<br/><br/>Giant pandas are usually solitary, except during the mating season and while rearing a cub. During the March–May breeding season, females may breed with multiple males.  Birthing, often in rock dens or hollow trees, occurs in August–September (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1985, Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2001).  One or two cubs are born, but the mother raises only one.
712		population	eng	Three range-wide surveys have been conducted, in the mid-1970s, mid-late1980s, and 2000–2002.  All surveys were based on incidence of sign, but techniques varied, so results are not directly comparable.  Present best estimates indicate a total wild population between 1,000–2,000.  Greater protection of forests and from poaching in recent years suggest that panda populations should be increasing, but this has not been confirmed empirically.<br/><br/>Results from the most recent survey, coordinated by the State Forestry Administration (SFA) of China and World Wildlife Fund (WWF), indicated a total population of ~1600 individuals. This is over 40% higher than previous estimates.  It is believed that the increase in the estimated number of pandas is due largely to differences in survey methodology and a larger search area, as well as possibly an actual increase in panda population size in some areas.  Conversely, in other areas, habitat conditions were deemed to be worse and panda numbers lower in 2000–2002 than in the 1980s survey.<br/><br/>The most recent population estimate was based on differentiating individual pandas from measurements of bamboo fragments in scats.  It is known that different age classes of pandas have different bite-sizes of bamboo (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 1985), but the validity of differentiating individuals of the same age class based on bite-sizes has not been well tested.  Recent information on DNA-identified scats suggests that the bite-size method may underestimate population size in some cases (e.g., dense populations; Zhan <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Many surviving wild giant panda subpopulations have fewer than 50 individuals (Loucks <em>et al</em>. 2001).  No major reductions in the genetic diversity of these populations is apparent, although they likely experienced modest genetic losses from a much larger ancestral population (Lü 2001).  Some controversial research suggests that the Qinling (Shaanxi Province) population is a genetically isolated and distinct subspecies (Wan <em>et al</em>. 2005)
712		threats	eng	Restricted and degraded habitat is the greatest threat to giant pandas.  Population fragmentation exists on two scales — six mountain ranges separated by agriculture, and within these, fragments of bamboo forest separated by patches of cleared lands and forest without a bamboo understory. The giant panda's range contracted as trees were removed in logging operations and land was cleared for farming.  Populations of pandas thereby became small and isolated, and confined to high ridges, hemmed in by cultivation.  <br/><br/>Chinese authorities have established a network of panda reserves, and linkages now exist among some of these, but small population size and small total range remains a threat to the viability of this species.  Moreover, in some reserves, and especially in panda range outside reserves, habitat has become degraded by intensive human use (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2001).   <br/><br/>A further threat to pandas relates to their reliance on bamboo for food.  Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous (and hence large-scale) flowering and die-off (at intervals of 15–120 years). Before significant human encroachment of their habitat, pandas could move to areas with healthy bamboo when a die-off occurred.  Studies following the latest major bamboo die-off in the early 1980s indicated that pandas were still able to survive by finding patches that had not flowered, and also by moving to alternate habitats and feeding on less-favoured species of bamboo (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 1988, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Poaching of pandas was a serious problem in the past, but it has greatly diminished, and is no longer considered a major threat. Markets for panda skins have virtually disappeared, and penalties for poaching pandas have become far more severe (including death sentences in some cases).  Panda parts are not used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. However, giant pandas are still sometimes killed in snares set for musk deer and other species.
714		conservation	eng	The Red Panda is covered under CITES Appendix I (Duckworth <em>et a</em>l. 1999), and Schedule I of the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972, the highest protection possible for a species in India (Choudhury 2001). It is also legally protected in Bhutan, China (where it is classed as a category II species under the Wild Animal Protection Law (Wei <em>et a</em>l. 1999a), and Nepal (Glatston 1994). In China, the species is Red Listed as Vulnerable A2ace. The species is protected in Myanmar by the Wildlife Act of 1994 and is found in at least one, probably several, protected areas (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>There are 20 protected areas in India that have known or possible populations of this species, yet these protected areas cover only about one-third of the total potential habitat for this species (Choudhury 2001). Protection of this species is more or less adequate in the protected areas of India, due more to their remoteness and difficulty of terrain, rather than actual enforcement of laws (Choudhury 2001). Enforcement of protective legislation, especially outside of protected areas, is virtually non-existent (Choudhury, 2001). Outside of India, China has 35 protected areas (Wei <em>et al.</em> 1998) covering about 42.4% of this species habitat in China, Nepal has eight, and Bhutan has five that support known or reported populations of this species (Choudhury 2001). The red panda has been recorded from Singalila National Park (Bahuguna <em>et al</em>. 1998), and Langtang National Park in Nepal (Yonzon and Hunter 1991).<br/><br/>Choudhury (2001) provides the following conservation recommendations: expansion and strengthening of the protected area network, prevention of illegal felling, control of jhum cultivation and overgrazing, regulation of tourism, public awareness of threatened status of this species, and enforcement of existing legal protections. The population of the species, reported at 200 m, is a research priority in order to study how a temperate species has survived in a subtropical habitat.
714		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Ailurus fulgens</em> in the wild is poorly known, but its range is known to include Nepal, India, Bhutan, Myanmar, and southern China, with a disjunct population on the Meghalaya Plateau of northeastern India (Choudhury 2001). The westernmost limit of this species is from the Annapurana Range in Nepal, and the easternmost is from the Qing Ling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China. The distribution range of this species should be considered disjunct, rather than continuous (Roberts and Gittleman 1984). It is found from the southern part of the Gaoligong Shan on the Myanmar-China border (25ºN), to Minshan Mountains and upper Min Valley, Sichuan (33ºN) (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966, Macdonald 1984, Corbet and Hill 1992, Choudhury 1997). Although Roberts and Gittleman (1984) record it as occurring only above 2,200 m, it can be found from 1,500 to 4,800 m, and on the Meghalaya Plateau it is found from 700 to 1,400 m (Choudhury 1997), sometimes as low as 200 m (Surajit Roy pers. comm.). Pradhan <em>et al.</em> (2001) found that this species' preferred altitudinal range in Singhalila National Park in eastern Himalayas was 2,800 to 3,100 m, and it was relatively more abundant between 2,800 to 3,600 m. <br/><br/>In China, the Red Panda is found in the Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Bigger Xiangling, and Lesser Xiangling Mountains in western Sichuan, China (Wei <em>et al</em>.1999a, 1999b, 2000), but former assertions of occurrence in far southern Yunnan, in Xishuangbanna (e.g. Wang Yingxiang 1987) have not been corroborated (e.g. Wei Fuwen <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is believed to have gone extinct from the rest of its historical range in China, e.g. Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghai provinces (Wei <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Myanmar it is known only from the northernmost state, Kachin, and is locally distributed even there (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>The red panda was reported as occurring in northern Lao PDR by Deuve (1972) (citing Cheminaud 1942), though recent village interviews around Phongsali in 1996 and 2003–2004 yielded no positive indication of its occurrence. Additionally, re-examination of the historical basis for occurrence reveals significant internal inconsistencies and flaws. Hence, there is no evidence that red panda has ever occurred in Lao PDR, although it may still be found to occur there is future surveys (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999; in prep).
714		habitat	eng	The Red Panda is found closely associated with temperate forest having bamboo-thicket understories (Roberts and Gittleman 1984). This species is sympatric with the Giant Panda in the Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Bigger Xiangling, and Lesser Xiangling Mountains in western Sichuan, China (Wei <em>et al</em>.1999a, 1999b, 2000). In a study of microhabitat use by this species in Sichuan Province, China, it was found that this species spends most of its time in <em>Bashania faberi</em> bamboo forest, and prefers microhabitats containing higher densities of fallen logs and tree stumps (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2006). "Bamboo leaves are the main winter food resource for red pandas (Wei <em>et al</em>. 1999c, 2000). Because of their small body size, red pandas may utilize fallen logs and tree stumps to gain access to bamboo leaves (Zhang <em>et a</em>l. 2006). It is found in tropical and subtropical forests on the Meghalaya Plateau of India, while elsewhere it is found in subtropical and temperate forests (Choudhury 2001). Red panda diet is largely vegetarian, and consists chiefly of young leaves and shoots of bamboo, yet also includes fruit, roots, succulent grasses, acorns, lichens, bird eggs, insects, and grubs (Choudhury 2001). This species is largely arboreal (Choudhury 2001). Pradhan <em>et a</em>l. (2001) found 79% of records to be 0 to 100 m from the presence of water bodies, indicating that the presence of water may be an important habitat requisite for this species. <br/><br/>The mean gestation in captivity is reported by Roberts and Gittleman (1984) as 134.2 days, with litter sizes ranging from one to four, and young are sexually mature at 18 month.
714		population	eng	“It is estimated to be more common in the eastern part of its range, especially along the Myanmar-Yunnan border, yet it cannot be considered a common species” (Roberts and Gittleman 1984).  An estimate based on the lowest recorded average density (one individual per 4.4 km²) and the total area of potential habitat (142,000 km², with only about half of this actually being used by the species) suggests that the global population of this species is about 10,000 individuals (Choudhury and Yonzon pers. comm.) Observation of this species is difficult due to its shy and secretive nature, and its largely nocturnal habits (Choudhury 2001). There is an estimate of one animal per 3.9 km² for Singalila National Park and adjacent areas (Bahuguna <em>et al.</em> 1998). Yonzon and Hunter (1991) estimate a density of one animal per 2.0 to 11.0 km², with averages of 2.8 in 1986 and 4.4 in 1987, in Langtang National Park in Nepal. Choudhury (2001) reports a lower population density in the western part of its distribution in Nepal, as compared areas in the east such as Arunachal Pradesh. Anecdotal evidence based on local villager captures suggests the species may be common in the northernmost parts of Myanmar, especially in the Hkakaborazi National Park, however, recent camera-trapping surveys did not capture any red pandas in the area (Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998, Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in prep.) Pradhan <em>et al.</em> (2001) reports a crude density of 1 individual per 1.67 km² in Singhalila National Park in India. It has been found to be relatively common in Tawang and northern West Kameng Districts and in Mishmi Hills, especially Dibang Valley and Lohit Districts (Choudhury 2001). It is estimated that their numbers may have decreased by as much as 40% over the last 50 years due to massive habitat loss, increased human activity and poaching (Wei <em>et al.</em> 1999 which?). Wei <em>et al.</em> (1999) estimated 3,000 to 7,000 total individuals in China, while Choudhury (2001) estimates 5,000-6,000 in India.
714		threats	eng	The Red Panda is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression (Wei <em>et al.</em> 1998). Habitat loss is considered to be the biggest threat to this species, while poaching is the next biggest threat in the Indian portion of its range and some localized areas (Choudhury 2001), whereas poaching and hunting pose a greater threat in areas of China and Myanmar, particularly in Hkakaborazi and adjacent areas. The ultimate cause of these threats to the red panda is the high growth rate in human populations within the species' range and in surrounding nearby areas (Choudhury 2001). The growth rate of the local human population has almost doubled between 1971 and 1991, causing increased pressure on land for both housing and farming, as well as increased demand for firewood (Choudhury 2001). <br/><br/>The major causes of habitat loss are commercial logging, demand for firewood (especially in the cold Himalaya), clearing for habitation and farming, jhum (slash-and-burn shifting cultivation) by hill tribes, grazing of domestic stock, monoculture forest plantation, and various developmental activities (Choudhury 2001). Due to human encroachment in suitable forest habitat and the unusual biology of bamboos, the red panda may be near extinction in the western part of its range, especially in Nepal (Roberts and Gittleman 1984). Both legal and illegal felling of old-growth trees is occurring throughout its range in India, and in the Khast Hills of Meghalaya some of the best habitat is privately owned, potentially making conservation efforts difficult (Choudhury 2001). <br/><br/>Deforestation, which causes fragmentation, is the fundamental threat to this species long-term survival (Wei <em>et al</em>. 1999 ). Between 1980 and 1995 the number of tourists visiting Sikkim annually rose from 1000 to 100,000 (Mahapatra 1998), causing increased pressure on this species due to accelerating habitat loss for firewood (for cooking and heating) (Choudhury 2001). Similar threats are occurring in the Singalila area of Darjeeling and in Nepal (Choudhury 2001). Habitat is effectively stable in northernmost Myanmar (Renner <em>et al</em>. 2007), but elsewhere in Kachin where the panda might occur there are indications of rapid habitat degradation through deforestation in this area (B.F. King pers. comm. 1998, cited in Collar <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>Road construction in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh over the past two decades has led to large-scale felling of trees and erosion, and sometimes landslides, also opening up formerly inaccessible areas for both legal and illegal logging (Choudhury 2001). Increased fragmentation of habitat leads to inbreeding and loss of genetic variation, which may significantly impact localized populations, as well as possible increased pressure from hunting (Choudhury 2001). <br/><br/>Hunting does not appear to be as serious a threat to the Red Panda as habitat loss, since hunters do not appear to deliberately hunt this species, but rather is shot opportunistically and caught accidentally in snares during hunting for wild pig, deer, goat-antelopes (serow, goral, and takin) and primates (Choudhury 2001). In Bhutan, the red panda is hunted for making fur caps or hats (Yonten, 2004). In China, Red Panda pelts can be found in many local markets (Glatson 1994). Wei <em>et a</em>l (1998) report data which indicate that hunting and poaching pressures are severe in China, especially to a declining population, which has led to increased declines, and extinctions in some areas. Poaching is considered one of the most serious threats in China (Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Cub mortality of the species is high in areas surrounding cattle grazing activities, estimated at up to 74% (Yonzon pers. comm.).
723		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
723		distribution	eng	This species occurs in upper montane forests along east Andean slopes, 1,000 to 2,250 m (Patterson <em>et al.</em> in review), in Ecuador, Peru, and central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; Patton and Smith, 1992).
723		habitat	eng	This mouse is terrestrial, and mostly diurnal. It probably feeds on insects, seeds, and vegetation. It nests in burrows and travels in tunnels under leaf litter. It is found in evergreen forest, and in montane habitats, grassy areas, especially with tall grass, young second growth, gardens, and clearings.
723		population	eng	It is a common species.
723		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
724		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Farallones de Cali, Tatamá, Las Orquideas in the Cordillera Occidental, and in Los Nevados National Parks and other protected areas.
724		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental of western Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005); it also occurs in the Cordillera Central, Colombia (Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,300 to 3,000 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
724		habitat	eng	It has been found in dense forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002). This mouse is terrestrial, and mostly diurnal and crepuscular. It probably feeds on insects, seeds, and vegetation (Quiceno, 1993).
724		population	eng	This species is common, in special in secondary and alterated areas (R. Anderson and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). Voss <em>et al.</em> (2002) captured 10 specimens of this species in the valley of the Rio Siato, Departamento Risaralda, Municipio Pueblo Rico, Vereda Siato, at 1,520-1,620 m, with 405 trap-nights.
724		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
725		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. In Peru it is known only from a single protected area. There are no immediate conservation measures needed for this species.
725		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeast Peru, through southwest Bolivia, to north Argentina and extreme northeast Chile (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It ranges from 2,400 m in Salta, Argentina in the south of its range to well over 5,000 m in Peru. In Bolivia it occurs above 3,200 m.
725		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary species. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates. It is present in open grassland, at high elevations, as well as disturbed and cultivated areas.
725		population	eng	It is a common species. In Peru densities ranged from 3.53 per hectare in quenua forest (<em>Polylepis spp.</em>) to 0.14 in tola habitat (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
725		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
726		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (at least 15 in Buenos Aires Province).
726		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern and east-central Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and extreme southern Brazil. (Musser and Carleton 2005).
726		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane habitats, in scrub meadows and along the edges of glens (Gonzalez 2001). Gestation period is 24-25 days with 3-7 young per litter, and births between October and May (Gonzalez 2001).
726		population	eng	It's a common species and very well studied in the Buenos Aires Province.
726		threats	eng	No threats for this species affecting their survival.
727		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas including Chingaza National Park in Colombia, Sierra Nevada in Venezuela.
727		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of northwest Venezuela, east and central Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005); it also occurs in south Colombia to Huila Department (Gómez-Laverde, com. pers.). It has an elevational range of 2,600 to 3,900 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
727		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary species. It feeds on insects, other invertebrates, seeds and vegetation. It is present in open grassland, Polylepis forest, and Paramo/Espeletia areas, at high elevations, as well as disturbed and cultivated areas (Linares, 1998).
727		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range and rare in others (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).
727		threats	eng	The major threats are paramo and cloud forest destruction.
728		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
728		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano of southeast Peru to south central Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found at elevations of 3,700 to around 5,000 m. Recently found in Argentina at 3,000 m.
728		habitat	eng	It is present in grassland, shrubland, disturbed habitats and cultivated areas. It typically lives in holes at the base of shrubs.
728		population	eng	It is a very common species.
728		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
729		conservation	eng	It is found in at least two national parks and other protected areas.
729		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mountain ranges in northwestern Argentina and south central Bolivia (Emmons 1997).
729		habitat	eng	Yungas (Andean forests) at elevations between 800 - 2500 m.
729		population	eng	It is a common species but there are not information on abundance of this species.
729		threats	eng	Timber exploitation and cattle farming.
730		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range (Geise pers. comm.). More taxonomic studies are required for the Akodon cursor complex. At present the only method of identifying species is using karyotyping (2n=14,15,16) (Fagundes <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
730		distribution	eng	Limits are uncertain but species occurs in Atlantic Forest habitat in southeastern Brazil (Bahia to Paraná) (Musser and Carleton 2005) and in Misiones Province of northeastern Argentina approximately 680 km from the Brazilian populations (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species occurs in Atlantic Forest formations in southeast Brazil (Bahia to Paraná States) and perhaps northeast Argentina (Misiones Province, see Pardiñas <em>et al.</em>, 2003); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
730		habitat	eng	Species occurs from sea level to 800 m asl in wet evergreen forests (Lara <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Rio de Janeiro State up to 900 m (Geise pers. comm.). In southeastern Brazil the species occurs mainly in dense rainforest.
730		population	eng	This is one of the most common species in forests and forest grasslands throughout its distribution. Population numbers are subject to large fluctuations (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
730		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest habitat is declining; however, this is not a major threat to this species (Geise pers. comm.).
731		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from at least eight protected areas. At present no direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
731		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland to intermediate elevations (up to 2,450 m), south Pando to west central Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found in the Amazonia, Chiquitano, Campos Cerrados and Yungas ecoregions (Vargas and Gonzales, 2005).
731		habitat	eng	This species is found in grassy areas, especially with tall grass, young second growth, gardens, and clearings, but also sometimes in Yungas evergreen forest, and in montane habitats (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Pregnant females have been found in March, June and July (Anderson, 1997).
731		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a common species.
731		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
732		conservation	eng	It is found in at least one protected area in Argentina.
732		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-central Argentina (Catamarca, Córdoba, and Santiago del Estero Provinces) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
732		habitat	eng	The species is found in shrubs but not in highlands grasslands.
732		population	eng	It is a common species.
732		threats	eng	There are no major threats for the species.
733		conservation	eng	It is present in at least four protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for the species at present, other than the general protection of the Yungas and Bosque Tucumano Boliviano habitat.
733		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the east Andean slopes, about 1,000 to 3,500 m, of southeast Peru, west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), and northwest Argentina (Jujuy Province, see Díaz and Barquez, 1999) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
733		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to Yungas forest and moist grassland-elfin habitat. Northern populations appear to inhabit the lower reaches of paramo grasslands to cloud forest; while the southernmost population was found in a wet, relictual Podocarpus forest (Myers and Patton, 1989; Myers <em>et al.</em>, 1990). It has been found in both primary and disturbed forest. Pregnant females have been collected in November and October.
733		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not well-known, although it may be locally common.
733		threats	eng	It may be locally threatened by severe habitat loss, but it can generally persist in secondary forest habitats.
734		conservation	eng	The whole range is including in a protected area.
734		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur only on Aracena Captain Island (Isla Capitan Aracena) and could also be on the outer islands of the Chilean Archipelago (Musser and Carleton 2005).
734		habitat	eng	Moorlands above coastal forests in Magellanic cape.
734		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
734		threats	eng	There is no information on threats for this species.
735		conservation	eng	The range of the species is included in at least one national park and one reserve.
735		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina, in Tucumán and Catamarca Provinces (Díaz 1999; Mares <em>et al.</em> 1997).
735		habitat	eng	Species occurs in humid, montane pine forests of <em>Podocarpus parlatorei </em>(Capllonch <em>et al.</em> 1997).
735		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
735		threats	eng	Intentional fires and cattle activities affect the survival of the species (comm. Pers. Jayat, J.P)
736		conservation	eng	It is found in at least 4 proteceted areas in Argentina.
736		distribution	eng	This species occurs from western to eastern central Argentina (Pardiñas and Galliari 1999) until the Chilean border, and there is a recent record in Chile (comm pers Pardiñas, U) (Buenos Aires Province south to northern Santa Cruz Province, includes La Pampa and southern Mendoza provinces) (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2004).
736		habitat	eng	Species occurs in temperate wooded grasslands and pastures (Patagonian Steppe), usually dominated by Atriplex sp. and Cyclolepis sp. (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2004)
736		population	eng	This is a very abundant species.
736		threats	eng	No major threats exist for this species, however, some populations are threatened locally by habitat disturbance related to overgrazing, which is common for all species of rodents in Patagonia area.
737		conservation	eng	It is present in at least seven protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
737		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern and western slopes of the Andes, above 2,700 m, of central Peru, south along west slopes to the Department of Ayacucho (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
737		habitat	eng	It is found in Puna grassland habitat. It can be found in primary habitat and also disturbed habitats, such as traditional crop fields (e.g. potatoes).
737		population	eng	It is a very common species.
737		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
738		conservation	eng	In Argentina D. kempi is protected at the Reserva Provincial Punta Lara and the Reserva Natural Estricta Otamendi in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Gonzalez and Pardinas 2002). In Uruguay, populations of D. k. langguthi are protected at Parque Lecocq in the Department of Montevideo and at Area Protegida Laguna de Castillos in the Department of Rocha (Gonzalez and Pardinas 2002). The status of Brazilian populations has not been assessed (Gonzalez and Pardinas 2002).
738		distribution	eng	This species occurs along Atlantic Coast of South America, from northeast Buenos Aires and south Entre Rios Provinces, Argentina, through Uruguay to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Gonzalez and Pardinas, 2002).
738		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marsh environments, favoring  edges of wetlands, flood grasslands, and places with reed and straw vegetation, usually without trees (Gonzales and Massoia 2002, Gonzalez and Pardinas, 2002). The species has been found in gallery forest in Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Bianchini and Delupi 1994). It feeds on insects and plants and is itself preyed upon by barn owls.
738		population	eng	It is an abundant species in Uruguay but less common in Argentina. The status of Brazilian populations has not been assessed (Gonzalez and Pardinas, 2002), but it is locally abundant. The species is very rare in some localites Argentina whilst in others it is common; it accounts for around 10% of the small mammal prey of the barn owl in the Delta del Parana, whereas on the Islas de Ibicuy, Entre Rıos Province, it was the 3rd most common prey of the barn owl, approximately 20% of 2,367 individuals taken.
738		threats	eng	Part of its range is under severe threat by rice plantations in Brazil and Uruguay which destroy its wetland habitat, however, the species is abundant to the north and south of this area. Another important threat is urbanization in northern habitat range.
739		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the ecology and distribution of this species, especially with regards to its relationship with other Akodon species.
739		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Departments of Cusco and Puno, southeast Peru, 2,750 to 2,900 m, through Cochabamba Department, central Bolivia, 1,833-3,700 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
739		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species. This species occupies moist bunch grass and disturbed shrub habitats at the upper edge of the elfin forest. It occurs in primary and secondary upper and lower Yungas forest habitat, Polylepis woodland, and high elevation elfin forest. It is very common along rock walls of old terraces and buildings and in thick clumps of grass and shrubs in the relatively more open and disturbed areas (Myers and Patton, 1989; Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It has not been recorded yet from agricultural land.
739		population	eng	It may be a rare species, but it has been misidentified with similar specie (<em>A. mimu</em>s and <em>A. fumeus</em>) in the past, therefore the abundance is not well known.
739		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however, in lower parts of its range it appears to be threatened by ongoing general habitat loss through conversion of natural habitat to agricultural land.
740		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in Argentina and Chile.
740		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southernmost Chile and Argentina, as far north as northwestern Santa Cruz Province, Argentina (Galliari and Pardiñas 1999).
740		habitat	eng	Occurs in forests and shrublands in southern Patagonia.
740		population	eng	This is not a commom species.
740		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
741		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas (Tirira, D. pers. comm.).
741		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few localities and is suspected to occur in the Cordillera Oriental, 2,400 to 3,840 m, in north central Ecuador (Pichincha, Napo and Tungurahua Provinces) (Musser and Carleton, 2005; Voss, 2003). It could occur in southern Colombia, but has not been yet recorded (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
741		habitat	eng	This rodent is present in the shrubby paramo/forest ecotone, in subalpine Rain Forest, in grassy glades surrounded by subalpine Rain Forest, and in grassy paramo. All recorded captures were on the ground: in runways under dense bunch grass, among mixed grasses, and mossy shrubs, and under moss mats or low herbs. Several individuals of A. latebricola were captured in broad daylight, between the time when traps were checked just after dawn and when they were rebaited in the late afternoon (Voss, 2003).
741		population	eng	It is rare and poorly known (Tirira, D. pers. comm.).
741		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation, due to conversion of its native high elevation grassland habitat to agriculture.
742		conservation	eng	The species occurs in National Park of Brasilia and Serra da Canastra National Park. Further studies are required on the taxonomy and range of this species.
742		distribution	eng	The type locality for <em>Akodon lindberghi</em> is from the National Park of Brasilia, Brazil. It has also been recorded in Serra da Canastra; and Juiz de Fora and Simao Pereira in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.
742		habitat	eng	The species prefers humid grassland areas. Little else is known on the biology of this species.
742		population	eng	This species is known only from three sites, intervening areas have been studied although further specimens have not been found, although it is common where it occurs. The population of the National Park of Brasilia is restricted to appropriate habitat, although it is also a common species there.
742		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species; the two populations occurring in the National Parks are not likely to have threats in operation.
743		conservation	eng	It is included in several protected areas in Chile and Argentina.
743		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central to southern Chile and Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). Teta <em>et al.</em> (2002) give easternmost records in Río Negro and Chubut Provinces of Patagonian Argentina.
743		habitat	eng	This species is omnivorous and inhabits a range of habitats from dense forest to bushy steppe and marsh (Guthmann <em>et al.</em> 1997). Typically occurs in Andean forests and western Patagonia piedmont (Jayat <em>et al.</em> 2006).
743		population	eng	Is an abundant species.
743		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
745		conservation	eng	The whole species occurs in a protected area.
745		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Isla Wellington in southern Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005).
745		habitat	eng	Forests in Chilean Patagonia.
745		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
745		threats	eng	No major threats for the species.
746		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from at least four protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the status of this species in Peru.
746		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper east Andean slopes, about 2,000-3,700 m, from southeast Peru (Puno Department; Patton and Smith, 1992) to west central Bolivia (Cochabamba Department; Anderson, 1997) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
746		habitat	eng	This species is present in humid parts of primary Yungas habitat (Anderson, 1997), and also in areas modified for agriculture such as potato crops and pastoral areas with sheep. It is an omnivorous species, but feeds a lot on invertebrates (Vargas <em>et al.</em>, in preparation).
746		population	eng	It is generally a very common species in Bolivia; it is poorly known in Peru.
746		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species in Bolivia. The threats to the species in Peru are poorly known.
747		conservation	eng	It is included in several protected areas.
747		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Argentina: from Mendoza to Buenos Aires Provinces south to Chubut Province (Musser and Carleton 2005).
747		habitat	eng	This species occurs in jarillal or creosote shrublands dominated by <em>Larrea divaricata</em> and <em>L. cuneifolia</em> (Corbalan and Ojeda 2005). It is also found in pasturelands and rocky fields from 500 m asl (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2004).
747		population	eng	It is a common species.
747		threats	eng	Species uses dense vegetative cover as refuge and increased grazing of livestock has led to declines in local abundances (Tabeni and Ojeda 2005).
748		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Ecuador; and three in Peru. Further taxonomic research is needed for this species complex.
748		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands and adjoining montane regions of north Ecuador to west central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs from close to sea level to around 3,600 m. In Ecuador it has an altitudinal range of 2,200 to 4,160 m (Tirira, in prep.).
748		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of humid and dry grassland and shrubland habitats. It can be found in secondary habitats, and has been recorded from traditionally cultivated areas.
748		population	eng	It is the most common mouse in many places of its geographical range (Barnett, 1999). It is generally rarer in lowland areas, such as at the coast.
748		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
749		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas.
749		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western, central Argentina, but exact limits of its range are unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005). Records are known only from Neuquen and Rio Negro Provinces.
749		habitat	eng	Shrubs in montane habitat, southern Argentina.
749		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
749		threats	eng	No major threats for the species.
750		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Caparao National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002), Itatiaia National Park, Estacao Biologica de Boraceia, Serra dos Orgaos National Park, Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, and several other protected areas.
750		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil (Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul States) in Argentina (it found in Misiones Province) and the eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
750		habitat	eng	This speciesd occurs from premontane to higher altitude humid habitats and has been reported from mountain fields, mountain scrub, primary and secondary forest (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is a widespread species inhabiting conserved and altered vegetation but appears to have a restricted habitat use. The species is not limited in distribution by vegetation or elevation in Caparao National Park. It is a terrestrial insectivore (Bergallo pers. comm.), and typically a lowland species except for the Bahian range where it is found at higher altitudes (Leite pers. comm.).
750		population	eng	This species is considered rare (not easy to capture) and not abundant (not caught in numbers) (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Their population varies according to geographic range but generally uncommon.
750		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
751		conservation	eng	It is included in several protected areas along Chile and Argentina coastal areas and Patagonia.
751		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern to central Chile, and borders along westernmost Argentina, to Patagonian region of S Chile and Argentina, including Tierra del Fuego (Musser and Carleton 2005).
751		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shrub and herbaceous steppe habitats as well as in humid plains and <em>Northofagu</em>s forests (Pearson 1995). Inhabits steppe habitat in northern Patagonia (Pearson and Smith 1999).
751		population	eng	It is an abundant species in many places including forests and shrubs.
751		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
752		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
752		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the upper east Andean slopes, central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Barnett (1999) and Moreno and Albuja (2005) recorded this species in Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 1,800 to 3,700 m.
752		habitat	eng	It is present in primary and secondary humid montane forest habitats, humid shrubland and grassland. It can be found in modified areas such as traditional cropland.
752		population	eng	It is a common species.
752		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
753		conservation	eng	It is present in at least two protected areas in Peru. Further taxonomic research is needed into this species.
753		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the high Altiplano of central Peru (Puno Department), through west Bolivia, to northwest Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found in a restricted elevational range of 3,800 to 3,900 m in Peru, and from 3,600 to 4,500 m in Bolivia.
753		habitat	eng	It is found in open grassland, disturbed sites, cultivated areas and in Yungas between in foggy grasslands (comm. Pers. Jayat, J.P).
753		population	eng	There is an abundant species, however, there is no information available on the population of this species.
753		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however, populations associated with Yungas forest are threatened by deforestation and agricultural activities.
754		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas in the range of the species.
754		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Chile and the range is thought to extend into adjacent Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). The species has been noted at Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapí in Argentina but never confirmed (Cabrera 1961; Galliari <em>et al.</em> 1996).
754		habitat	eng	Coastal rainforest (Valdivian forest) until around 800 m. The species is not found on any inshore islands (B. Patterson pers. comm.)
754		population	eng	There is information on decreasing of collected specimens (Murua <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is evidence of decreasing of population in some localities (G. D'elia pers. comm.).
754		threats	eng	Deforestation of the coastal forest for timber activities.
755		conservation	eng	More surveys are required as the species is known only from a few specimens. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
755		distribution	eng	<em>Akodon sanctipaulensis </em> occurs in Serra do Mar, Sao Paulo State, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
755		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in open vegetation areas.
755		population	eng	There is no information is available.
755		threats	eng	The species occurs in an agricultural area; it is suspected to be threatened by habitat destruction, however, further research is necessary on the effects of habitat conversion.
756		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (Geise and Christoff pers. comm.).
756		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil; distributional limits are uncertain. The type locality is Paraná State, Serra do Mar, Roca Nova, 1000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
756		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mixed rainforest (Geise <em>et al.</em> 2001). In the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiquiera provinces of Brazil, this species is only found above 2000 m (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 1997; Geise pers. comm.). The species was found at all elevations sampled between 1,000 m and 2,700 m in a study in Caparao National Park, Brazil. It was most common at intermediate elevations. In the southern part of its range at it occurs at a lower elevation range (Christoff pers. comm.).
756		population	eng	This is a common species throughout the range.
756		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest habitat is affected by habitat destruction (Geise pers. comm.).
757		conservation	eng	It may be marginally present in Amboro and Carrasco National Parks. There is a need to prevent further degradation of the species habitat.
757		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality and adjacent cloud forest areas in Cochabamba and west Santa Cruz Departments, central Bolivia. It has been recorded from about 1,833 to 3,075 m (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
757		habitat	eng	This species appears to be largely restricted to primary cloud forest habitat. It is not believed to occur, or persist, in modified habitat.
757		population	eng	It is localized, but is probably not especially rare.
757		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include clearance of cloud forest for cattle pasture. The range of the species is divided by a major road, along which human colonization is taking place, further fragmenting the habitat.
758		conservation	eng	There are at least 5 protecetd areas in the range.
758		distribution	eng	This species occurs on eastern, lower Andean slopes, 650-2400 m, from south central Bolivia (Tarija Province; Anderson, 1997) to northwestern Argentina (Jujuy to Catamarca Provinces: Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1997, Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 2000a; Tucumann and Salta provinces: Musser and Carleton 2005).
758		habitat	eng	Yungas and cloud/foggy grasslands at elevations around 400 m and 2,500 m (J.P. Jayat pers. comm.)
758		population	eng	There is no information available on populations.
758		threats	eng	No major threats for the species.
759		conservation	eng	It is found in at least 4 provincial protected areas and tow national parks.
759		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina on the eastern Andean slopes (Musser and Carleton 2005) from 400 to 3600 m.
759		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grasslands (Capllonch <em>et al.</em> 1997) in Yungas and highland grasslands.
759		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
759		threats	eng	No major threats for the species.
760		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, including six in Peru.
760		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Andean upper slopes from south central Peru (Puno Department) to west central Bolivia (Cochabamba Department) (Anderson, 1997; Patton and Smith, 1992; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs between about 1,900 and 4,500 m.
760		habitat	eng	It is found in open grassland, cloud forest, elfin forest, Polylepis forest and cultivated areas. It is present in secondary and disturbed habitats.
760		population	eng	It is a very common species.
760		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
761		conservation	eng	A small part of the range may be included into a protected area. Conservation of areas of suitable forest habitat are needed to preserve this species. Further research is needed into the population abundance of this species.
761		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cusco Department in the east Andes of southeast Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
761		habitat	eng	It is generally restricted to primary humid montane forest, and will persist in selectively logged areas but no clearcut. It is not found outside of forest habitats.
761		population	eng	The population abundance is not known, but it does not appear to be common.
761		threats	eng	It is threatened by commercial clearcut logging, and clearance of forest habitat through conversion to cropland and pasture.
762		conservation	eng	The species is found in Baritu National Park.
762		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005), in Salta and Jujuy provinces. The possible distribution in Bolivia is unconfirmed and needs to be reviewed.
762		habitat	eng	Yungas and foggy grasslands until 2,000 m.
762		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
762		threats	eng	Some populations are suspected at to threatened by logging and agricultural activities.
763		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in its range.
763		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chaco of western Paraguay, southeastern Bolivia, and contiguous northern Argentina. (Musser and Carleton 2005).
763		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry Chaco areas.
763		population	eng	It is a common species in the Paraguay Chaco.
763		threats	eng	No major threats for the species, but the Chaco habitat has many pressures because of loss of habitat due to cattle and agriculture.
764		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least four protected areas including Manu and Yanachaga National Parks. Further research is needed into the morphology of this species.
764		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Andean cloud forest, between 2,000 to 3,500 m, southeast Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
764		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary montane humid forest, elfin forest, and grassland and cultivated areas close to forest habitat.
764		population	eng	It is a very common species.
764		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by severe habitat loss, although the species can persist in secondary habitats.
765		conservation	eng	It occurs in several national parks in Venezuela. In Colombia it is found only in the piedmont area, which is narrow and under threat.
765		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highlands of north and south Venezuela, east Colombia, north Brazil, and Trinidad and Tobago (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found at from 240 to 2,232 m asl in elevation in northern Venezuela.
765		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that prefers moist habitats. Though it is predominantly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest; it tolerates second-growth forest and man-made clearings. It feeds on succulent vegetation and seeds (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
765		population	eng	It is uncommon.
765		threats	eng	Some species in the complex may be tolerant to habitat loss whilst others will be threatened.
766		conservation	eng	It is unclear as to whether the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed into the taxonomy, habitat, ecology, distribution and threats of this group.
766		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and lowlands in western Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It ranges from 400 to 3,000 m.
766		habitat	eng	Animals allocated to <em>A. varius</em> have been collected in a wide variety of habitats ranging from Inter-Andean valleys to the Chaco.
766		population	eng	Animals identified as <em>A. varius</em> are commonly collected, but these collections may refer to different species.
766		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
773		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 - Imperilled (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened (1 Jan 1993), and a previous IUCN Red List Category of Endangered (2000 ver 2.3) (Bogan and Seddon 2000). In 2010 it was classified with an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable&#160;(Williams<em> et al</em>. 2010).&#160;<br/><br/>The distribution of this species coincides with protected areas. These include Moody Forest Natural Area, Griffin Ridge Wildlife Management Area (WMA), Big Hammock WMA, Bullard Creek WMA, Horse Creek WMA, and Flat Tub WMA. However, the occurrence of an aquatic species on state or federal lands may not eliminate habitat degradation due to the influences of upstream and downstream disturbances (Wisniewski 2008).<br/><br/>Examination of the basic life history was identified as a top research priority needed for the conservation of this species during the 2005 Georgia Wildlife Action Plan. Recommended conservation priorities for this species include identifying the host fish species, continued monitoring of known populations to determine if they are viable, the protection of riparian buffers to prevent bank erosion, and the minimization of the impact of all-terrain vehicles near waterways (Wisniewski 2008).
773		distribution	eng	Historically, this species is known from about twelve occurrences from the Ocmulgee, Little Ocmulgee, Ohoopee, and Altamaha Rivers of Georgia (Clarke 1981). However, it is currently known from only one river system in Georgia where it occurs in three tributaries of the Altamaha River system: Ocmulgee (two sites); Altamaha (three sites); and Ohoopee (one site) (NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/>Recent genetic and conchological analyses of specimens collected from the Ogeechee River in 2004 suggest that this species is also present but is rare. Savannah River specimens are still awaiting ID confirmation. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of just over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but taking discontinuities within the species range into account, this is more likely to be 5,000-10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
773		habitat	eng	This species is found in large creeks and rivers with silt, mud, and/or sand substrates. A 2007 survey of the Altamaha River found individuals most frequently occupying areas with gently sloping banks with low hanging willows and soft mud. Individuals were less frequently encountered in other habitats, but were sometimes found in coarse sand and gravel substrates in pools of 2 - 3 metres deep (Wisniewski 2008).<br/><br/>The Mosquitofish (<em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) has been identified as a potential host, although Wisniewski (2008) does not consider the Mosquitofish to be a primary host as he found it unlikely that these species would interact under natural rather than laboratory conditions.<br/><br/>Generation length for Anodontini (tribe) species is thought to vary from four to five years (Heino and Kaitala 1997). This is calculated from age at maturity (one to five years) and maximum age of reproducing individuals (12 years).
773		population	eng	Wisniewski <em>et al.</em> (2005) surveyed the Altamaha River Basin, including the Ocmulgee, Oconee, and Ohoopee rivers between 1967 and 2004; all analyses were based on live individuals. They measured a decline in occupancy from 22% site occupancy in pre-2000 surveys (52 out of 241 sites sampled) to 16% post-2000 (19 out of 120 sites sampled). They also found that this species was present at 27 out of 39 sample sites from 1990-1995; when these same sites were sampled from 2000-2004, one new site was ‘colonised’, but the species was absent from 22 of the original 27 sites. This demonstrates a decrease of 78% over 14 years, if the species is taken to be present at six sites (including the newly ‘colonised’ site).<br/><br/>Bogan <em>et al.</em> (2008) state that this species is no longer an Altamaha River endemic, because specimens identified as <em>Alasmidonta triangulata</em> from the Ogeechee River (North Georgia) are in fact a northern population of this species. Two live <em>Alasmidonta</em> species were collected during a 2006 survey of the Savannah River downstream of the city of Augusta. These individuals strongly resemble this species and are awaiting confirmation through genetic analysis (Wisniewski 2008). If these new occurrences are proved, then the species would be present in the Altamaha River drainage and the Savannah River drainage to the north, therefore slightly decreasing the species' vulnerability to localised threat processes (NatureServe 2009).
773		threats	eng	This species is under threat from loss of habitat and deterioration in water quality. There is a potential impact from the Asiatic Clam (<em>Corbicula fluminea</em>) which occupies the same streams, but the effects from this invasive species are unknown. There is less than 500 km length of river system available to this species, and the adjacent land is being cleared for agriculture (Bogan and Seddon 2000).<br/><br/>Wisniewski (2008) identifies a threat to this species as direct and indirect competition by the introduced Flathead Catfish (<em>Pylodictis olivaris</em>) which may be reducing native mussel populations through direct consumption of mussels and their host fishes. All-terrain vehicles may also impact this species within the Ohoopee River.
774		distribution	eng	Known from one river system in Georgia where it occurs on three tributaries: Ocamulgee (two sites); Altamaha (three sites); and Ohoopee (one site).
774		habitat	eng	This mollusc occurs in sandy mud below sand bars in sluggish water.
774		threats	eng	<em>A. atropurpurea</em> is under threat from loss of habitat and deterioration in water quality from cotton farming.  There is a potential impact from <em>Corbicula</em>, present in the streams, but the effects of this are unknown. There is less than 500 km length of river system and adjacent land is being cleared for agriculture.
775		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2 - critically imperiled to imperiled (NatureServe 2009); an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered (1 Jan 1993); and a previous IUCN Red List Category of EN (2000 ver 2.3). The American Fisheries Society (2010) lists the species as threatened (Williams <em>et al</em>. in press, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011). Under the U.S. Endangered Species Act it is listed as LE: Listed endangered (14 Mar 1990) and it was assigned a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lead Region of R5 for the Northeast. In Canada, it has been given a Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) Schedule 1/Annexe 1 Status of XT: Extirpated (5 Jun 2003) and under the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) it is listed as Extirpated (1 May 2000).<br/><br/>This species is listed as a U.S. Federally Endangered species, although no sites are adequately protected. The Nature Conservancy has a management agreement at sites in Vermont, New Hampshire and Maryland. The Nature Conservancy negotiated with the Army Corps of Engineers for the removal of the Cuddebackville Dam in the summer of 2003 in order to restore natural flow patterns to the lower Neversink and is working to reduce alterations to the natural flow caused by the upstream Neversink Reservoir Dam (NatureServe 2009). However, the outcome of this management strategy on the mussel populations has not been evaluated.<br/><br/>A recovery plan has been drafted for this species (USFWS 1993). The five year review (USFWS 2007) has determined that certain criteria from the recovery plan (USFWS 1993) have been partially met as viable populations have been found in the mainstem Connecticut River and Ashuelot River.<br/><br/>Further research is recommended to monitor existing populations of this species, and determine their long term viability. Research is also needed to resolve outstanding taxonomic questions. Conservation planning and protection is necessary to avoid the extirpation of this species.
775		distribution	eng	In the United States, NatureServe (2009) have classified this species as Critically Imperilled in Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Vermont; and Possibly Extirpated in District of Columbia and Delaware. The U.S Fish and Wildlife Service found this species to be declining in Virginia and North Carolina. They found small populations remaining in Maryland, while large populations were found in New Hampshire, and additional populations were discovered in the Delaware River watershed in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York (USFWS 2007). Since the publication of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service report, new populations have been reported in North Carolina (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In Canada, this species is extirpated in New Brunswick. This population was geographically isolated from U.S. populations (possibly for as long as 50,000 years) and may have developed unique genetic characteristics (Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans 2007).<br/><br/>Because of its severely fragmented distribution, the area of occupancy for this species is estimated as between 500 and 2,000 km²<sup></sup>.
775		habitat	eng	This species occurs in medium or slow-flowing creeks or rivers of varying size. It can be found on gravel, sand or muddy sand bottoms and sometimes among submersed aquatic plants (Clarke 1981). Where it occurs, this species forms distinct, widely separate patches (USFWS 1993, NatureServe 2009). To survive, this species needs a silt-free, stable stream bed and well oxygenated water free of pollutants (USFWS 2007).<br/><br/>The fish hosts of this species are the Tessellated Darter (<em>Etheostoma olmsted</em>); the Slimy Sculpin (<em>Cottus congatus</em>); juvenile and parr of the Atlantic Salmon (<em>Salmo salar</em>); and probably the Johnny Darter (<em>Etheostoma nigrum</em>), and Mottled Sculpin (<em>Cottus bairdi</em>) (Michaelson and Neves 1995, McLain and Ross 2005, USFWS 2007). However McLain and Ross (2005) postulate that storm-assisted dispersal could be a more important dispersal mechanism for this species than its host fish.
775		population	eng	Historically, this species occurred from the Neuse River basin, North Carolina, in the south, north to the Petitcodiac River Basin, New Brunswick, Canada, with sporadic distribution in the river basins in between (Bogan <em>et al.</em> 2008). No historical population estimates exist, but findings by Strayer <em>et al.</em> (1996) are similar to observations by Clark (1981) that the species forms sparse populations and was never numerous.<br/><br/>However, the species has experienced significant declines including regional extirpations (e.g., the last remaining population in Canada) and there are only a small number of extant occurrences remaining (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Viability is questionable at most (nearly all) sites. One hundred years ago the species was known from about 70 Atlantic seaboard river systems, but now from only fifteen major drainages (USFWS 2007). Of the 70–80 known sites in 2007 (one site may have multiple occurrences) only 16 were believed to support reproducing populations, while at least 45 were based on observations of five or fewer individuals, or solely on spent shells (USFWS 2007, NatureServe 2009). However, it is important to note that because a portion of the population is always found below the substrate, population estimates must take into account undetected mussels (USFWS 2007).<br/><br/>Strayer <em>et al.</em> (1996) studied thirteen streams throughout the species' range and concluded that all populations had low densities, although five to six of the populations were large (1,000 to 100,000 animals). Three linked patch sites on the Connecticut River on the Vermont/New Hampshire border were found to have decent viability and these are likely to present the largest population of this species (perhaps a few hundred thousand in a 75 km stretch in three patches) (USFWS 2007).
775		threats	eng	Water pollution and impoundments are the primary threats to this species. This species requires a low silt environment with a slow to moderate current, a situation that dams alter both upstream and downstream of the impoundment (USFWS 1993). It has been speculated that the reason this species disappeared from the Petticodiac River in Canada was the building of a large causeway near the river's mouth, blocking the fish host of this species (USFWS 2007). In addition, a wide array of industrial, agricultural and domestic pollutants have been responsible for this species' disappearance from much of its historical range and this continues to be a problem in most of its habitat (USFWS 1993, Strayer <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The low densities (<0.5 per square metre) in which this species occurs and the small ranges they occupy could be problematic since successful reproduction is density dependent (Strayer <em>et al.</em> 1996, USFWS 2007). This species is sensitive to disappearance or decline of its host fishes which are known to be largely sedentary with very poor dispersal capability limited to only their immediate vicinity with a narrow window of host infection time during each year (McLain and Ross 2005).
780		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of GX - presumed extinct (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Possibly Extinct (1 Jan 1993), and a previous IUCN Red List Category of EX (2000 ver 2.3).
780		distribution	eng	This species was known only from a single specimen collected from the Coosa River in St. Clair County, Alabama, prior to its impoundment (Athearn 1964, Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is currently believed to be extinct (Bogan <em>et al.</em> 2008).
780		habitat	eng	The only known specimen of this species was collected alive from shallow, swift water in sand and gravel substrate in an area thickly strewn with rock debris (Athearn 1964).
780		population	eng	There are no individuals known to be extant (NatureServe 2009).
780		threats	eng	This species is now considered to be Extinct. Impoundment of the Coosa River is thought to have caused the extinction of this species.
787		conservation	eng	None in place.
787		distribution	eng	This species was restricted to the Lake Beysehir in Central Anatolia, Turkey.
787		habitat	eng	This was a short-lived species, growing to 13–16 cm long.
787		population	eng	Extinct. The fish was last seen in 1998 (F. Erk'akan, F. pers. comm.).
787		threats	eng	The introduction of Pikeperch <em>Sander lucioperca</em> (in 1955) appears to be the main reason for the extinction of this species. Over fishing also contributed to declines.
788		conservation	eng	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Annex III of the Bern Convention.
788		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Italy. On the Tyrrhenian side it's natural range includes the area form the Voltumo to Alento rivers. Introduced sub-populations are found in the Mingardo, Bussento, Lao, and Savuto rivers. On the Adriatic side its natural range is from the Trigno to Basento rivers. It has not been introduced to this area.
788		habitat	eng	Ubiquitous throughout rivers, streams, and dams.
788		population	eng	Abundant and widespread within its range but has declined by 50% in the past 10 years due to introduction of <em>Rutilus rubilio</em> (Picariello <em>et al</em>. 2004).
788		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, introduced species (<em>Rutilus rubilio</em>, in particular), and hybridization with <em>Leuciscus cephalus</em>.
789		conservation	eng	No information.
789		distribution	eng	Most of Europe north of Caucasus, Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Emba. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic and Aegean basins (except Evros drainage), Italy, Ireland, Great Britain (except southeast), Norway and Scandinavia north of 67°N, Caspian basin south of Volga. Locally introduced in Spain and Italy, in Lake Abrau (Black Sea coast of Russia) and in the Irtysh River.
789		distribution	eng	Most of Europe north of Caucasus, Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Emba. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic and Aegean basins (except Evros drainage), Italy, Ireland, Great Britain (except southeast), Norway and Scandinavia north of 67°N, Caspian basin south of Volga. Locally introduced in Spain, Portugal and Italy, in Lake Abrau (Black Sea coast of Russia) and in the Irtysh River.
789		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of large lakes and medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. In winter forms large aggregations in backwaters and other still waters. Spawns in shallow riffles or along stony shores of lakes, occasionally above submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Usually spawns only one or two seasons. Spawns in May-August at temperatures above 15°C, 2-4 times at 1-2 week intervals, in early morning. Larvae inhabit littoral zone of rivers and lakes, juveniles leave shores and occupy a pelagic habitat, feeding on plankton, drifting insects or invertebrates fallen on the water surface. Scales were earlier used to make Essence d'Orient, a coating for artificial pearls.
789		population	eng	Abundant.
789		threats	eng	No major threats known.
811		conservation	eng	The largest numbers of the more abundant subspecies occur in the following areas: Western Hartebeest: Niokolo-Koba (Senegal) - although this population declined by half in the 1990s alone, Comoé N. P. (Côte d?Ivoire) - although as noted this population also declined by 60% between 1984 and 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001), Nazinga and Diefoula (Burkina Faso), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin) and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon); Lelwel: Zakouma and eastern Salamat (Chad), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris and Sangba (Central African Republic), Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa), Mago-Murule (Ethiopia) and Murchison Falls (Uganda); Coke?s Hartebeest: Tsavo, Masai Mara, Kajiado and coastal hinterland (Kenya) and Serengeti, Tarangire and Sadani (Tanzania); Lichtenstein's Hartebeest: Selous ecosystem, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Ugalla River, Katavi-Rukwa and Ruaha-Rungwa-Kisigo (Tanzania) and in Kafue National Park and the Luangwa Valley (Zambia); Red Hartebeest: private farmland (Namibia), central and south-western protected areas and adjoining rangelands (Botswana) and protected areas and private farmland (South Africa) (East 1999; Gosling and Capellini in press)<br/><br/>Swayne's Hartebeest are now confined entirely to four protected areas: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005; Gosling and Capellini in press); the survival of Swayne?s in Ethiopia depends on improved protection of these remaining populations. Surveys are urgently required to determine the distribution and status of the Tora Hartebeest in areas such as western Eritrea, as a precursor to the development and implementation of protective measures.<br/><br/>Although Hartebeest are present in captivity, no individuals of the Swayne?s and Tora Hartebeests are held in captivity .
811		conservation	eng	The largest numbers of the more abundant subspecies occur in the following areas: Western Hartebeest: Niokolo-Koba (Senegal) - although this population declined by half in the 1990s alone, Comoé N. P. (Côte d’Ivoire) - although as noted this population also declined by 60% between 1984 and 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001), Nazinga and Diefoula (Burkina Faso), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin) and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon); Lelwel: Zakouma and eastern Salamat (Chad), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris and Sangba (Central African Republic), Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa), Mago-Murule (Ethiopia) and Murchison Falls (Uganda); Coke’s Hartebeest: Tsavo, Masai Mara, Kajiado and coastal hinterland (Kenya) and Serengeti, Tarangire and Sadani (Tanzania); Lichtenstein's Hartebeest: Selous ecosystem, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Ugalla River, Katavi-Rukwa and Ruaha-Rungwa-Kisigo (Tanzania) and in Kafue National Park and the Luangwa Valley (Zambia); Red Hartebeest: private farmland (Namibia), central and south-western protected areas and adjoining rangelands (Botswana) and protected areas and private farmland (South Africa) (East 1999; Gosling and Capellini in press)<br/><br/>Swayne's Hartebeest are now confined entirely to four protected areas: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005; Gosling and Capellini in press); the survival of Swayne’s in Ethiopia depends on improved protection of these remaining populations. Surveys are urgently required to determine the distribution and status of the Tora Hartebeest in areas such as western Eritrea, as a precursor to the development and implementation of protective measures.<br/><br/>Although Hartebeest are present in captivity, no individuals of the Swayne’s and Tora Hartebeests are held in captivity .
811		distribution	eng	Hartebeest formerly ranged from North Africa and the Middle East throughout the savannas and grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa and the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa down to the tip of southern Africa; they are absent only from desert and forest, notably the Sahara and the western rainforest (Gosling and Capellini in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, the Bubal Hartebeest occurred in Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunisia, Libya, and parts of the Western Desert in Egypt (the precise southern limits of distribution are not known). Bubal Hartebeest are now Extinct, the last animals having been shot between 1945 and 1954 in Algeria (De Smet 1989). The last report from south-eastern Morocco was in 1945 (Panouse 1957).<br/><br/>The historical and current ranges of the remaining subspecies can be summarized as follows (after East 1999 and Gosling and Capellini in press):<br/><br/>Western Hartebeest ranged from Senegal eastwards to western Central African Republic and south-west Chad, although they have always been marginal in these last two countries. They have disappeared from much of their former range in this region, surviving mainly in and around protected areas; they no longer occur in The Gambia (though migrants may enter from Senegal).<br/><br/>Tora Hartebeest formerly occurred in western and southwestern Eritrea, north-western Ethiopia and the adjacent border regions of Sudan; they may survive in low numbers in the savannas of Eritrea and some inaccessible parts of Ethiopia, but are probably extinct in Sudan.<br/><br/>Swayne?s Hartebeest occurred throughout the Rift Valley in Ethiopia into northwest Somalia, but now survive in four isolated localities: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). They are otherwise extinct outside Ethiopia. <br/><br/>Lelwel Hartebeest ranged from southern Chad through Central African Republic, southern Sudan, northern and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south-western Ethiopia, north-west Kenya, northern Uganda and extreme north-western Tanzania. They have undergone dramatic reductions in numbers particularly in Uganda and Central African Republic, where they are now reduced to a few protected areas. <br/><br/>Coke?s Hartebeest occurred widely throughout southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They have lost much of their range, but populations still occur in the Serengeti and Tarangire in Tanzania and Tsavo, and the Mara in Kenya.<br/><br/>Lichtenstein?s Hartebeest formerly occurred widely in the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa (probably as far south as KwaZulu-Natal), but now occur mainly in wildlife areas in Tanzania, Mozambique and Zambia; they are extinct in Burundi. <br/><br/>Red Hartebeest occurred throughout much of southern Africa (and marginally into Angola near the Namibian border), and although much reduced by European colonists, they are now expanding their range again as they have been reintroduced into many protected areas and private game farms (and widely introduced outside their former range).
811		distribution	eng	Hartebeest formerly ranged from North Africa and the Middle East throughout the savannas and grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa and the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa down to the tip of southern Africa; they are absent only from desert and forest, notably the Sahara and the western rainforest (Gosling and Capellini in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, the Bubal Hartebeest occurred in Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunisia, Libya, and parts of the Western Desert in Egypt (the precise southern limits of distribution are not known). Bubal Hartebeest are now Extinct, the last animals having been shot between 1945 and 1954 in Algeria (De Smet 1989). The last report from south-eastern Morocco was in 1945 (Panouse 1957).<br/><br/>The historical and current ranges of the remaining subspecies can be summarized as follows (after East 1999 and Gosling and Capellini in press):<br/><br/>Western Hartebeest ranged from Senegal eastwards to western Central African Republic and south-west Chad, although they have always been marginal in these last two countries. They have disappeared from much of their former range in this region, surviving mainly in and around protected areas; they no longer occur in The Gambia (though migrants may enter from Senegal).<br/><br/>Tora Hartebeest formerly occurred in western and southwestern Eritrea, north-western Ethiopia and the adjacent border regions of Sudan; they may survive in low numbers in the savannas of Eritrea and some inaccessible parts of Ethiopia, but are probably extinct in Sudan.<br/><br/>Swayne’s Hartebeest occurred throughout the Rift Valley in Ethiopia into northwest Somalia, but now survive in four isolated localities: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). They are otherwise extinct outside Ethiopia. <br/><br/>Lelwel Hartebeest ranged from southern Chad through Central African Republic, southern Sudan, northern and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south-western Ethiopia, north-west Kenya, northern Uganda and extreme north-western Tanzania. They have undergone dramatic reductions in numbers particularly in Uganda and Central African Republic, where they are now reduced to a few protected areas. <br/><br/>Coke’s Hartebeest occurred widely throughout southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They have lost much of their range, but populations still occur in the Serengeti and Tarangire in Tanzania and Tsavo, and the Mara in Kenya.<br/><br/>Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest formerly occurred widely in the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa (probably as far south as KwaZulu-Natal), but now occur mainly in wildlife areas in Tanzania, Mozambique and Zambia; they are extinct in Burundi. <br/><br/>Red Hartebeest occurred throughout much of southern Africa (and marginally into Angola near the Namibian border), and although much reduced by European colonists, they are now expanding their range again as they have been reintroduced into many protected areas and private game farms (and widely introduced outside their former range).
811		habitat	eng	More tolerant of woodland areas and high grass than other alcelaphines, Hartebeest prefer the edge to the middle of open plains; for example, in open areas such as the grassland of the Serengeti N.P. in Tanzania, they are typically found around the edge of woodland (Estes 1991; Gosling and Capellini in press). They have been recorded to 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). Almost exclusively grazers, Hartebeests feed selectively in medium-height grassland; they are less water dependant than other alcelaphines, but nonetheless dependent on the availability of surface drinking water.
811		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total populations of Hartebeest at about 362,000 animals (including Lichtenstein's). However, this total is clearly influenced by the number of surviving Red Hartebeest in southern Africa, which East (1999) estimated to number about 130,000 (with 40% on private land and 25% in protected areas). In contrast, less than 600 Swayne?s Hartebeest survive in Ethiopia, with the overwhelming majority of the population in the Senkelle sanctuary and Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). Estimates of population size for the remaining subspecies are: 36,000 Western Hartebeest (>95% in and around protected areas); 70,000 Lelwel (about 40% in protected areas); 3,500 Kenya hartebeest (6% in protected areas and most of the rest on ranchland); 82,000 Lichtenstein's Hartebeest; and 42,000 Coke?s Hartebeest (about 70% in protected areas). The surviving number of Tora Hartebeest is unknown, but is unlikely to be more than a few hundred individuals. <br/><br/>The Lelwel Hartebeest may have undergone a major decline since the 1980s, when its total numbers were estimated to be >285,000, mainly in CAR and southern Sudan (East 1999). Recent survey work conducted in the dry season estimated totals of 1070 and 115 animals for Southern N. P. and Boma N.P., respectively (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007); the latter is a significant decline from the more than 50,000 animals estimated in the dry season in 1980 by Fryxell (1980).
811		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total populations of Hartebeest at about 362,000 animals (including Lichtenstein's). However, this total is clearly influenced by the number of surviving Red Hartebeest in southern Africa, which East (1999) estimated to number about 130,000 (with 40% on private land and 25% in protected areas). In contrast, less than 600 Swayne’s Hartebeest survive in Ethiopia, with the overwhelming majority of the population in the Senkelle sanctuary and Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). Estimates of population size for the remaining subspecies are: 36,000 Western Hartebeest (>95% in and around protected areas); 70,000 Lelwel (about 40% in protected areas); 3,500 Kenya hartebeest (6% in protected areas and most of the rest on ranchland); 82,000 Lichtenstein's Hartebeest; and 42,000 Coke’s Hartebeest (about 70% in protected areas). The surviving number of Tora Hartebeest is unknown, but is unlikely to be more than a few hundred individuals. <br/><br/>The Lelwel Hartebeest may have undergone a major decline since the 1980s, when its total numbers were estimated to be >285,000, mainly in CAR and southern Sudan (East 1999). Recent survey work conducted in the dry season estimated totals of 1070 and 115 animals for Southern N. P. and Boma N.P., respectively (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007); the latter is a significant decline from the more than 50,000 animals estimated in the dry season in 1980 by Fryxell (1980).
811		threats	eng	Hartebeest have decreased markedly in numbers across their range, and their distribution has been increasingly fragmented, as a result of over-hunting for meat and the expansion of settlement and livestock. As has already occurred over much of the rest of the species? former range, some key populations are currently decreasing because of poaching, and/or other factors such as drought and disease in some cases. In Comoé N.P., for example, numbers declined by 60% from 18,300 in 1984 to an estimated 5,200 in 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). The distributions of most Hartebeest subspecies are likely to become increasingly fragmented until they are confined to those areas where there is effective control of poaching and encroachment by livestock and settlement.
811		threats	eng	Hartebeest have decreased markedly in numbers across their range, and their distribution has been increasingly fragmented, as a result of over-hunting for meat and the expansion of settlement and livestock. As has already occurred over much of the rest of the species’ former range, some key populations are currently decreasing because of poaching, and/or other factors such as drought and disease in some cases. In Comoé N.P., for example, numbers declined by 60% from 18,300 in 1984 to an estimated 5,200 in 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). The distributions of most Hartebeest subspecies are likely to become increasingly fragmented until they are confined to those areas where there is effective control of poaching and encroachment by livestock and settlement.
818		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. Human harvesting is generally managed in a sustainable manner throughout most of the sub-species range. The major conservation concern is extensive regional and landscape scale habitat change. Although Ferguson <em>et al.</em> (2000) did not analyze populations considered to be at risk, they identified populations occurring in areas with low primary productivity and low natural predation show the least persistence and require the greatest conservation effort. Both low primary productivity and predation usually occur where humans have caused extensive habitat disturbance. This species thrives where protected from overkill by humans or predators.
818		distribution	eng	Alaska and Canada south through the Rocky Mountains, northern Great Lakes, and New England; Russia, east of the Yenisei  River, east to Anadyr region (eastern Siberia) and south to northern Mongolia and northern China; introduced but now extirpated in New Zealand (Nugent <em>et al.</em> 2001; Boyeskorov 1999; Grubb, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). The species is estimated to have arrived in North America from Asia about 11,000-14,000 years ago, shortly before flooding of the Bering land bridge (Hundertmark <em>et al</em>. 2003). Moose range has decreased over the past 100 years in the southern boreal forest regions in the eastern provinces of Canada (e.g., Beazley <em>et al</em>. 2006), but has expanded in other areas. In recent decades, moose have expanded their range westward into the coastal temperate rainforests of British Columbia and some coastal islands (Darimont <em>et al</em>. 2005). These changes have been due to habitat changes caused by humans in boreal and rainforest ecosystems.
818		habitat	eng	This species prefers mosaic of second-growth boreal forest, openings, swamps, lakes, wetlands. Requires water bodies for foraging and hardwood-conifer forests for winter cover. Avoids hot summer conditions by utilizing dense shade or bodies of water. Mineral licks may be important sodium source, used in early summer in Canada and Alaska. It feeds on vegetative parts of various broadleaf trees, preferring birch, ashes and willow in the spring and summer and the twigs of these species as well as of fir, alpine, and juniper in the autumn and winter.  It also eats shrubs, such as blueberry and heather, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants. Moose can be a pest of agriculture and forestry in at least parts of its range (Ma Yiqing pers. comm.). In the search for food, some populations migrate during the year - covering up to 180 km (110 miles) in North America and 300 km (180 miles) in Asia.  Whether sedentary or migratory, moose utilize specific home ranges, varying in size from 3.6 to >259 km² (Huntermark 1997).<br/><br/>They may become sexually mature after one year (Schwartz 1997), and the maximum life span is about 20 years (Peterson 1977). The moose is active throughout the day and night, although there are peaks at dawn and especially at dusk. Depending on habitat, home range may be up to 20 or 30 km² (Lawson and Rodgers 1997). Populations cohabiting ecosystems with predators, like wolves (Canis lupus)   and bears (Ursus spp.) usually reach densities of <0.5 animals/km² (Messier 1994), while in the absence of such predators or hunting, moose populations can exceed 2.0/km² (Peterson 1955, Crete 1989, Cederlund and Sand 1991). Population density has been reported as up to 1-3 per sq mile (= 11.6/km²) (Peterson 1955), but 18-20 per 10/km² in unhunted area in eastern Quebec (Crete 1989). May yard in winter under deep snow conditions.<br/><br/>Moose populations can be limited or regulated by complex interactions of ecological factors that vary from population to population, or ecosystem to ecosystem. Winter weather (snow accumulation) may strongly affect populations, even more so than wolf density (Mech <em>et al.</em> 1987); however, Messier (1991) found that competition for food, but not wolf predation and snow, had a regulatory impact on moose. Van Ballenberghie and Ballard (1994) found that in some naturally regulated ecosystems, predation by bears and wolves often is limiting and may be regulating under certain conditions. Messier (1994) developed for population models of moose-wolf interactions. Under favourable conditions, moose populations are capable of large annual increases (20-25%) in population size; large populations may degrade habitat. In the presence of relatively few predators, Albright and Keith (1987) documented high calf-survival despite poor physical conditions during winter in a study of population dynamics of introduced populations in Newfoundland. <br/><br/>See Nudds (1990) for discussion of relation between white-tailed deer, moose, and meningeal (brain) worms. Brain worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) may limit moose populations in areas where white-tailed deer are common (Nudds 1990). Deer are not negatively impacted by the brain worm, the larval stage of which is passed in deer faeces. Snails, often inadvertently ingested by moose feeding on vegetation, are the intermediate host for the worm. Deer, through worm-mediated impacts, commonly are believed to exclude moose and caribou from areas where deer occur; however, an analysis by Schmitz and Nudds (1994) concluded that moose may be able to coexist with deer, albeit at lower densities, even in the absence of habitat refuges from the disease. Whitlaw and Lankester (1994) found that the evidence that brain worm has caused moose declines is weak. Moose are also severely impacted by another parasite of white-tailed deer, the winter tick (Samuel <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/><br/>Where there is no human, wolf or bear predation, moose may alter the structure and dynamics of boreal forest ecosystems. At Isle Royale, Michigan, moose browsing prevented saplings of preferred species from growing into the tree canopy, resulting in a forest with fewer canopy trees and a well-developed understory of shrubs and herbs; also, browsing may have caused an increase in spruce and a decrease in balsam fir (McInnes <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Ferguson <em>et al</em>. (2000) reviewed the dynamics of 15 Canadian moose populations, and reconciled some major factors that influence various populations differently. Populations that live in greater forest cover (i.e., greater primary productivity) and with greater natural predation had more predictable population trends from year to year. Populations living in areas with low primary productivity and with low natural predation experienced more density-independent population change with lower predictability in population size.
818		population	eng	This species is extremely rare and of limited distribution in China, but common in Siberia and North America (Piao <em>et al.</em> 1995; Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993; Yu <em>et al.</em> 1993). In 2003, the species was declared endangered in Nova Scotia, Canada (Beazley <em>et al</em>. 2006). Populations have expanded and increased in western British Colombia since the mid-1900s (Darimont <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population densities average 0.1-1.1 animals per square kilometer, although local densities may be higher.
818		threats	eng	Threats to the status of moose populations are primarily human-caused habitat alteration. Forestry and agricultural practices in the southern range of the species have caused massive and extensive reductions in the extent of boreal forest in southern Canada. In these areas white-tailed deer have occupied modified boreal forests that are increasingly open agricultural fields and extensive deciduous forests. With the deer has come the brain worm which is a significant mortality factor for moose. <br/><br/>In Nova Scotia, Canada, where moose have been declared endangered, recovery issues have been listed as: genetic structure, health, illegal harvest, habitat suitability and fragmentation, and potential climate-related habitat change (Beazley <em>et al.</em> 2006).  <br/><br/>Human-caused habitat change is also the major force causing westward expansion into non-typical habitats (i.e., rainforest ecosystems) in British Columbia. The expansion occurred concomitant with extensive logging in the Coastal Mountain Range. This has led to concerns about the future of native deer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Odocoileus hemionus</span>) with the introduction of this new alternate prey species for predators and the potential introduction of diseases (Diarmont <em>et al</em>. 2005).
840		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation. It occurs in some protected areas.
840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeast Spain, where it is largely restricted to the Alcaraz, Cazorla and Segura mountain ranges. It exists in a number of isolated subpopulations. This species occurs from 700 up to 1,700m asl.
840		habitat	eng	It is a generally a species of rocky places, in or close to woodland. It is often found in shady places, and is regularly encountered close to streams. The females lay clutches of one to five eggs.
840		population	eng	It can be locally common in good habitat, but it is in decline. Some populations have been extirpated.
840		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation, development of forestry tracks, erosion of stream banks, water abstraction, forest fires and predation by cats and rats.
843		conservation	eng	<em>A. paucidentata</em> occurs in a protected area. Surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it occurs more widely at high elevations in central Mindanao.
843		distribution	eng	The Mindanao pygmy fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to Mindanao on Mounts Kitanglad (Bukidnon province) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and Kalatungan (D. Warguez pers. comm. 2006) where it occupies an elevational range of 1,500-2,250 m asl. As there have not been sufficient surveys for this species elsewhere in relevant habitat on Mindanao, it has not been confirmed whether the species is more widespread there, though it is expected to occur in the central mountains of the island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006), such as on Mount Ragang.
843		habitat	eng	Most records are from primary montane mossy forest, it is also present in secondary and primary montane forest but absent in lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006). During surveys on Mount Kitanglad <em>A. paucidentata</em> always occurred with <em>Haplonycteris fischeri</em> (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).
843		population	eng	<em>A. paucidentata</em> has not been recorded below 1,500 m, is relatively uncommon at 1,500-1,900 m and abundant at 2,250 m and potentially higher (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006). This is the most abundant bat in mossy forest on Mount Kitanglad (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006).
843		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <em>A. paucidentata</em>, as it is recorded only from higher elevation forests which have not been deforested as much as lowland forests.
850		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
850		distribution	eng	This jeroba species is found in a restricted area of coastal gravel plains within northern Egypt and eastern Libya.
850		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in vegetation on salt marshes and clay desert areas of the coastal plains. Much of the daylight hours are spent in underground burrows, with the species emerging at night to forage.
850		population	eng	The species is considered to be very uncommon.
850		threats	eng	In North Africa, early researchers remarked on the small numbers of this species and its ecological limitations, and that it had disappeared from certain coastal valleys near Alexandria, Egypt (from where it was originally taken). The species may be threatened by desert reclamation.
851		conservation	eng	This species may be present in protected areas in China. Approximately 43% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). In Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
851		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from the Balikun region of Xinjiang. In Mongolia, it is known from the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, Alashani Gobi Desert, and eastern parts of Eastern Gobi. It is parapatric in southern Mongolia with <em>A. bullata</em> (Holden and Musser 2005).
851		habitat	eng	This species inhabits desert and semi-desert habitats. It feeds on roots, tubers, insects and larvae.  It exhibits nocturnal behaviour (Smith and Xie 2008). It may produce two litters per year, reproduction possibly occurring in May, with a litter size of 1-3 (Smith and Xie 2008).
851		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
851		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
852		conservation	eng	Approximately 21% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may be present in protected areas in China. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004), and in Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
852		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and Gansu provinces (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia it is known from the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, Dzungarian Gobi Desert, Trans Altai Gobi Desert and Alashani Gobi Desert (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is sympatric with <em>A. balikunica</em> (Wilson and Reeder 1993).
852		habitat	eng	The species occurs in desert and steppe habitats, particularly well vegetated areas. In China these areas are characterized by saltworts, ephedra, and desert bushes (Smith and Xie 2008). Primarily it is a nocturnal rodent spending much of the daylight hours in burrows. Burrows are simple and easily detected with well-defined nest chambers without bedding (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>This species feeds on seeds, roots, tubers, insects and larvae. It has litter sizes of 1-3 young, 1-2 times per year (Smith and Xie 2008). Parturition occurs between May and August (Smith and Xie 2008).
852		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
852		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
853		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas. Up to now no special conservation measures have been taken. The north Caspian population might need protection in the near future as natural habitats are declining.
853		conservation	eng	Up to now no special conservation measures have been taken, although the species occurs in several protected areas. The north Caspian population might need protection in the near future as natural habitats are declining.
853		distribution	eng	Distributed in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in SE Europe, N Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to S Siberia, to NE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and N Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes SW Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
853		distribution	eng	<em>Allactaga  elater</em> is a  widespread species that occurs from Turkey, the Caucasus, west to the Russia and China. This species is more specifically found in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in SE Europe, N Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to S Siberia, to NE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and N Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes SW Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
853		distribution	eng	<em>Allactaga  elater</em> is a  widespread species that occurs from Turkey, the Caucasus, west to the Russia and China. This species is more specifically found in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in southeastern Europe, northern Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to southern Siberia, to northeast Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and northern Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes southwestern Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
853		habitat	eng	Inhabits various biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). Feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. Solitary, active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. Reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-4 young per litter.
853		habitat	eng	The smallest species of its genus, the small five-toed jerboa has a body mass of 44-73 g (Ognev, 1962-1964). Coloration varies from sandy or buff coloured to dark russet or black, with pale underparts and a white stripe on the hip (Nowak, 1991). Its feet have five digits. The species is well adapted for moving in large leaps if startled, and has been recorded moving at speeds of up to 48 km/hour (Roberts, 1977).<br/><br/>It inhabits different biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species occurs in some degraded habitats and along the edges of agricultural areas.<br/><br/>It feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. It is solitary, and active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range it hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. The reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-6 young per litter.
853		habitat	eng	The smallest species of its genus, the small five-toed jerboa has a body mass of 44-73 g (Ognev, 1962-1964). Coloration varies from sandy or buff coloured to dark russet or black, with pale underparts and a white stripe on the hip (Nowak, 1991). Its feet have five digits. The species is well adapted for moving in large leaps if startled, and has been recorded moving at speeds of up to 48 km/hour (Roberts, 1977).<br><br>It inhabits different biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot <i>et al.</i> 1995). This species occurs in some degraded habitats and along the edges of agricultural areas.<br><br>It feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. It is solitary, and active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range it hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. The reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-6 young per litter.
853		population	eng	A common and abundant species across most of the range. The isolated population in northern Caspian Sea region is currently declining due to rapid transformation of the species' habitats. Population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, so in favourable years the population may increase even though the overall trend is of decline in the northern Caspian Sea region. Population density may fluctuate ninefold between different years (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
853		population	eng	Common and abundant species across most of the range. The isolated population in northern Caspian Sea region is currently declining due to rapid transformation of the species' habitats. Population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, so in favourable years the population may increase even though the overall trend is of decline in the northern Caspian Sea region. Population density may fluctuate ninefold between different years (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
853		threats	eng	In the European part of the range it is not abundant and the population is declining due to rapid transformation of semideserts into steppes. Also land development reduces natural habitats and causes population decline.
853		threats	eng	Relatively secure in most of the range; there are no major threats, although locally there may be negative impacts from desertification and habitat conversion. In Mongolia, drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. A small population in Turkey occurs in an semi-desert area with increasing irrigation pressure (Eken pers. comm.). In the European Russian part of the range it is not abundant and the population is declining due to rapid transformation of semideserts into steppes. Also land development reduces natural habitats and causes population decline.
854		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least several protected areas in Jordan.
854		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allactaga euphratica </span>is recorded from Turkey, Syria, and eastern Jordan, through northern Saudi Arabia and Iraq to Kuwait and Iran. It has recently been recorded in Lebanon (Abi-Said 2004). The southern and eastern limits of the range are poorly defined. The species occurs up to 2,660 m in Lebanon.
854		habitat	eng	The species occurs in steppe and semi-desert habitats. There are some records from cultivated plains (Misonne 1957). Like all Allactaga species, this species is not found in loose sands. Primarily, jerboas are nocturnal rodents spending most of the daylight hours in underground burrows emerging at night to forage. Most species have a vegetarian diet. Females may give birth to up to nine young. March to July is the breeding season in Turkey, February to May in Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991). There may be more than three litters per year (Çolak and Yigit 1998).
854		population	eng	When found together with <em>Jaculus jaculus</em>, <em>A. euphratica</em> is always less common (Qumsiyeh 1996). Amr (2000) reported this species to be common in Jordan, although in 2005 the species was described as relatively rare in Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey (SW Asia Workshop 2005). The populations in Iraq are unknown, as there have been no recent studies. In Jordan surveys have shown a decline in the species, in 2005 the species was very infrequently encountered in areas where it was previously considered common; the situation in Syria is similar with surveys from 2000-2003 showing a marked decrease in the population (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2006).
854		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is agricultural expansion in Jordan and Syria. In Jordan, the species has declined by approximately 50% over the past 20 years owing to agricultural expansion; its population there continues to decline (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). The species' range is threatened by irrigation for cotton in Turkey. Considered edible by several tribes of Bedouin in Jordan (Qumsiyeh 1996). Also, the species is hunted in some areas of Turkey. In Syria, there is massive capture (using spotlights at night) of the species which is sold to falconers for food (Serra pers. comm.).
855		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its taxonomic validity and geographic distribution.
855		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, 29 km south of Shah Reza (Qomisheh), in Isfahan Province, Iran, at 2,253 m asl (Womochel, 1978). It presumably occurs more widely, but there is no further information on its distribution.
855		habitat	eng	It is known only from the type locality, which is a flat plain with a gravel substrate and sparse, mountain steppe vegetation (Womochel, 1978).
855		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
855		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
856		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from at least one protected area in Iran, Kavir National Park. In South Asia, it is present in Hazar Ganji National Park, Baluchistan, Pakistan (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
856		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in eastern Iran and western South Asia. In Iran, it is found in Kerman, Khorasan and Sistan and Baluchistan Provinces. In South Asia, this species has been recorded in Afghanistan and Pakistan, at altitudes between 200 to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
856		habitat	eng	In Iran, this species is associated with gravel and stony deserts in flat plains with a gravel substrate and sparse, mountain steppe vegetation. In South Asia it occurs in hot desert, though avoids steeper slopes in montane areas and also temperate deserts, and has been found to occupy gravel plains, stony peneplains, barren desert areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a nocturnal species emerging from underground burrows at night to forage.
856		population	eng	The species abundance is relatively low for jerboa rodents, on average less than one animal per hectare (Shenbrot pers. comm.).
856		threats	eng	Very little is known about the threats to the species, however, the known habitat of the species is not suitable for agriculture.
857		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Moscow regional Red Data Book as Extinct in the Wild, but it is not listed in the Russian national Red Data Book due to abundance elsewhere in the range. In the Red Data Book of Ukraine it is listed as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population).
857		distribution	eng	Distributed from forest-steppes to northern parts of deserts from Ukraine and European Russia through Kazakhstan and N Uzbekistan to W Siberia and W Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
857		distribution	eng	Distributed from forest-steppes to northern parts of deserts from W Ukraine and European Russia (S) through Kazakhstan and N Uzbekistan to W Siberia and W Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
857		habitat	eng	One of the most ecologically plastic jerboa species. Inhabits various habitats; in the northern part of the range the main limiting factor is grass density, and the species is restricted to areas with sparse vegetation. In steppe zone often inhabits roadsides, field edges, pastures and flat slopes of ravines. In deserts and semideserts occurs in all habitats except moving sands. Prefers areas with loamy soils, with absinth and succulent vegetation. Feeds on underground and green parts of plants, also on seeds and occasionally on insect and molluscs. Has three types of burrows: permanent summer and winter, and temporary. Enters hibernation in autumn with the first frost. Exits hibernation in March-April. Reproductive period is prolonged. Pregnant females may be found from March to July. During the reproductive period females may have two litters. Litter size ranges from 1 to 8 young, usually 3-6.
857		population	eng	Widespread across most of its range, but distributed irregularily because of fragmentation of suitable habitats and human-caused landscape change. In Ukraine west of the Dnepr the species was common until the mid 1920s (Bilsky 1929), but there are no recent records of the species there (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
857		population	eng	Widespread across most of its range, but distributed irregularly because of fragmentation of suitable habitats and human-caused landscape change. In Ukraine west of the Dnepr the species was common until the mid 1920s (Bilsky 1929), but there are no recent records of the species there (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
857		threats	eng	Declining very rapidly in the northern part of its range. Has disappeared from Moscow, Kursk regions. The main threat is land use change. The species needs large continuous habitats and fragmentation has strong impact on populations. In the Moscow region, habitat destruction due to building of dachas has caused the species to disappear.
857		threats	eng	Declining very rapidly in the northwestern part of its range. Has disappeared from Moscow, Kursk regions. The main threat is land use change. The species needs large continuous habitats – fragmentation has strong impact on populations. In the Moscow region, habitat destruction due to building of dachas has caused the species to disappear.
858		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
858		distribution	eng	Deserts in Kazakhstan and Middle Asia to the north till Central Usturt, lower Syrdarya, Sarysu and Chu rivers, and southern Balkhash. To south till SW Turkmenistan, Uzboi, along Amudarya basin to Termez, SW Tadjikistan, western part of Fergana valley and piedmonts of PamirAlai and Tien Shan (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
858		habitat	eng	Inhabit usually sand, clay, rarely rubbly, and lime (S Kazakhstan) deserts. Avoid moving sands and takyrs. Ecology is poorly studied, but generally similar to that of <em>Allactaga major</em>. Burrows are simple; wintering nests are at 50-85 cm blow ground. Reproduction occurs in March, but in favourable years females can give two litters (in March and in summer). Embryo number is 3-7 in Usturt and 3-4 in Kyzylkum.
858		population	eng	No data available.
858		threats	eng	Unknown.
859		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas around the range (approximately 12% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research is recommended.
859		distribution	eng	Distributed in deserts (excluding sand deserts) and dry plane and mountain steppes (up to 3500 m asl) in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, N China, Mongolia, Tuva and Transbaikalia (Russia).
859		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppe, forest-steppe, semi-desert and desert habitats, preferentially with clay, sandy gravel and stones. Solitary and nocturnal, although it may be crepuscular in spring and autumn.  Reported to jump in bounds of up to 2 m.  Its permanent burrows are less complex than those of A. major.  Burrows extend approximately 5 m in length at a depth of 35-65 cm with no branches. Temporary burrows, in contrast, are shorter (60-120 cm long) and shallower (20-30 cm deep).  In southern parts of the area hibernates from September to April in soft nests constructed in its burrow. In northern parts of the area hibernation starts later, after first snow. In spring it is reported to live primarily off of bulbs of Gagea uniflora, although it is also reported to be the most carnivorous of jerboas, eating insects, locusts, and beetles.  It also includes leaves, stems and seeds in its diet.  Breeding begins in April or May and 1-2 litters may be born in an extended breeding season.  Litters normally consist of 2-5 young, although litters of 8-9 have been reported.
859		population	eng	No data are available at present.
859		threats	eng	No available data.
860		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas.
860		distribution	eng	Semi-desert piedmonts in S Kazakhstan, NW Kyrgyzstan and S Uzbekistan. Range consist of two isolated areas. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan area is about 38,000 km sq.; in Uzbekistan is about 7,200 km sq.
860		habitat	eng	Stenobiont, inhabit incult areas of piedmont semidesert with light vegetation (wormwood, ephemeras, and saltworts). Prefers clay and argil sand grounds, avoid rubbly areas. In mountains found up to 1000-1200 m. Omnivorous. In spring feed on green sprouts, in summer mainly on seeds. In second part of summer, because of drought, diet changes to underground plant parts. Animals are present in the diet, but never as a main part (Yanushevich <em>et al.</em>, 1975; Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>In eastern part of the range hibernation may last from beginning of October till end of February (Chuya valley), or from end of October to mid-March (Karatau). In western part of the range (Nuratau) hibernation occurs from second half of October till mid-February - beginning of March (Pavlenko and Gubaidulina, 1970). Use three types of burrows: permanent summer, wintering and temporary shelters. <br/><br/>Permanent summer burrows are simple, main passage leads to nest. Two-three passages bifurcate from the main path and lead to surface, but do not end with an exit. Nest is 7-15 cm in diameter. Wintering burrows are without additional exits and deeper under ground (61-89 cm). Passage length is 161-178 cm (Shenbrot, 1995). <br/>Nocturnal, most probably obligatory solitary. Reproduction occurs twice per season, in March - June and August - September. Litter size is 1 to 6 (usually 3-5) young.
860		population	eng	Rare species, in Talass valley (Kyrgyzstan) used to be common, but population is rapidly declining due to ploughing incult areas. In different part of the range population density differs: in Chuya valley is 0,5-16 individuals per ha (Yanushevich <em>et al.</em>, 1972); in Talass valley is 4-5 individuals per km of walking calculation (Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995); in Nuratau 0,5-0,6 individuals per ha (Pavlenko and Gubaidulina, 1970).
860		threats	eng	Rare species with relatively small range. Population is rapidly declining due to ploughing of previously uncultivated areas.
861		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
861		distribution	eng	Distributed in Karakum and Kyzylkum deserts from Nukus latitude in the north to Bukhara oasis in the south, from Uzboi dry bed (Turkmenistan) in the west to central Kyzylkum in the east.
861		habitat	eng	Inhabit clay-sandy, clay-rubbly and clay-pebble areas of deserts, and avoid sand deserts. Hibernation is shallow, animals become active during partial thaws. Feed mostly on green parts of plants, rarely on seeds. Insects are significant part of the diet in spring. Over wintered females give up to 3 litters per season, with 2-8 (most often 3-4) young.
861		population	eng	In Kyzylkum, 4-5 individuals per 1 km of observation track were registered (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
861		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
865		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and in Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo and also Lake Tumba National Park; marginally present in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in Congo. Studies are needed into the impact of hunting on this species.
865		distribution	eng	The distribution of Allen’s Swamp Monkey, is centred on the lowland forests of the central Congolian basin - Democratic Republic of the Congo (both sides of the Congo River), Cameroon and Congo (Kingdon 2001; Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2006). Allen’s Swamp Monkeys are recorded on two islands in the Sangha River near the village of Bomassa (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 2006). The known limits of its east-west distribution are from about 16°E to about 26º–27°E, and its north-south distribution from about 3°N to 6°30′ S (Kingdon 2001). It may be present in north-eastern Angola, although this requires confirmation.
865		habitat	eng	This little-known species inhabits swamp forest and riverine habitat (Kingdon 2001). It largely forages on the ground and has been reported to raid crops. Groups of this species may consist of up to 40 individuals. The females give birth to a single young.
865		population	eng	Although the abundance of this species throughout its range is not known, it has been reported at high densities in Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
865		threats	eng	It is threatened by hunting for subsistence and commercial purposes. There is no evidence of threat from habitat loss, although research is needed to assess the degree of pressure from hunting.
867		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
867		distribution	eng	Distributed in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in the southern part of Anhui Province and in some parts of the neighbouring provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu.
867		habitat	eng	Found in the Yangtzee River and adjoining swamps, but also has terrestial nest sites, extensive underground burrows and basking areas.
868		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is known to occur in five national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, and Zahamena), the Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve, and three special reserves (Analamazaotra, Marotandrano and Anjanaharibe-Sud). Additional survey work to determine density and biology and ecology would be highly desirable.
868		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. By 1989, there had only been sightings on both sides of the Mananara River (Meier and Albignac 1991), and the species was thought to be restricted to lowland rainforests of that area. Since 1994, however, its presence has been documented in Marojejy National Park, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Masoala National Park, Mananara-Nord National Park, Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Maromizaha Forest, Forêt de Vohidrazana, the Vohimana Forest, 12 km east of Andisebe (N. Garbutt pers. comm.), and Marotandrano Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Recorded from near sea-level to 1,600 m.
868		habitat	eng	Allocebus is typically found in intact moist forest, though it seems to tolerate moderate levels of human activity (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Relatively little is known about the behaviour and ecology of the Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur. It is nocturnal and has been observed in pairs (presumably male/female), with offspring, and singly.  Groups of two to six nest in holes of larger trees and prefer to complement the nest with straw, even covering themselves with it in captivity (Meier and Albignac 1991). Spotted often in tangles of brush or lianas, it appears to forage in these areas at lower levels of the forest
868		population	eng	Until 1989, known only from five museum specimens, three collected in the 19th century. Appears to be extremely rare and elusive, though it may be overlooked and confused with <em>Microcebus</em>; recent records have shown it to be more widely distributed than previously known.
868		threats	eng	Threats to the survival of <em>A. trichotis</em> include destruction of its eastern rain forest habitat, primarily due to slash-and-burn agriculture, as well as some localized hunting and trapping (Yoder 1996).
872		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
872		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
872		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral and sub-littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a scale eater (piscivore <em>sensu lato</em>).
872		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 19% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed.
872		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
875		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures applied to this species.
875		distribution	eng	Distributed from eastern bank of the Volga river through the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan to northern Xinjiang (China).
875		distribution	eng	Distributed from eastern bank of the Volga river through the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan to Xinjiang (China).
875		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry steppe and semi-deserts, but is occasionally found in agricultural fields and the surroundings of settlements. According to Vinogradov and Gromov (1952) it is found near human settlements in Siberia further north than its original distribution. In the northern part of the range it is also found in forest-steppe (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In the Pleistocene it also occurred west of the Volga (Don basin, Crimea: Nechay 2000). Does not hibernate, however daily activity is lower in winter. Feeds on vegetative parts and seeds of different wild and cultivated plants. Also eats insects and molluscs on a regular basis, there are record of feeding on lizards, voles, small birds' nestlings and young ground squirrels (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). Gives birth to 2-3 litters per year in northern parts of the range and 3-4 in southern. Litter size is 4-6 young.
875		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry steppe and semi-deserts, but is occasionally found in agricultural fields and the surroundings of settlements. According to Vinogradov and Gromov (1952) it is found near human settlements in Siberia further north than its original distribution. In the northern part of the range it is also found in forest-steppe (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In the Pleistocene it also occurred west of the Volga (Don basin, Crimea: Nechay 2000). Does not hibernate, however, daily activity is lower in winter. Feeds on vegetative parts and seeds of different wild and cultivated plants. Also eats insects and molluscs on a regular basis, there are record of feeding on lizards, voles, small birds' nestlings and young ground squirrels (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). Gives birth to 2-3 litters per year in northern parts of the range and 3-4 in southern. Litter size is 4-6 young.
875		population	eng	Common and relatively abundant throughout the range. In the Ural region the species is expanding its range to the north by occupying agricultural lands.
875		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Eversmann's hamster is a pest of cereal crops, melons and gourds.
877		conservation	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box">This species is protected by a resolution of the Balear Department of Environment which includes it in the Balear <span class="long_text" id="result_box">Endangered Species List<span class="long_text" id="result_box"> (BOIB, no. 66, 15/05/2008) with the category of species of special concern. An important extension of its range is within areas included in the Natura 2000 networking programme. The main conservation action should be focused to the habitat preservation, and to better delimitate its range. Studies about population and biology are also needed.</span>
877		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, being restricted to the north slope of Sierra de Tramuntana in Mallorca island (Baleares).
877		habitat	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span title="" closure_uid_mlb5qy="33" wc="Allognathus graellsianus es una especie rupícola que vive en las grietas de rocas y de muros y que sale a la superficie sólo en tiempo de lluvia (Gasull, 1963a)." xc="Allognathus rupícola graellsianus is a species that lives in the crevices of rocks and walls and surfacing only in time of rain (Gasull, 1963a.) "><span style="font-style: italic;">Allognathus graellsianus</span> is a species that lives in the crevices of rocks and walls, being active only when it rains (Gasull 1963). According  to Pons and Palmer (1996), it lives in the less degraded areas of its range.</span>
877		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.&#160;Gasull (1963) and Pons and Palmer (1996) indicated that it is locally abundant.
877		threats	eng	Threats to this species are changes in land-use, particularly by the increase of tourist pressure and road construction. Fire is another possible threat.
883		conservation	eng	The Ruimsig colony was protected by the establishment of South Africa's first butterfly reserve in 1985.
883		distribution	eng	Aside from an old 1907 from Waterval Onder, Mpumalanga, all recent records are from Gauteng and Free State: Ruimsig, Roodepoort; Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve; Pretoria; Springs; Alberton; Boons; Ladybrand and Heilbron. Also recorded from Maseru, Lesotho.
883		habitat	eng	Habitat is grassland. Flight period August to April, peaking October to December. Larval food plants for <em>A. d. dentatis</em> are: <em>Hermannia depressa</em> (Sterculiaceae) and <em>Lotononis erianthe</em> (Fabaceae); and for <em>A. d. maseruna</em> are: <em>Hermannia jacobifolia</em> (Sterculiaceae). Adults feed on a variety of flowers. An ant-associated species, larvae sheltering in the nest of the ant <em>Acantholepis capensis</em> Mayr. The larvae seem to produce a pheromone which mimics the brood pheromone of the ant, thereby deceiving the ant into treating the larva as it would toward an ant brood. The larvae do not prey upon the ant brood. At night the larvae emerge from the ant nest to feed on the food plants.
884		conservation	eng	This species' distribution now falls almost entirely within nature reserves (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and so it is protected against the major threats facing the South African lycaenids. Some work is required to establish the identity of the food plants for this species.
884		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa’sWestern Cape Province, where it has been recorded only from scattered localities (Woodhall 2005). These localities include Red Hill above Simon's Town, near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Philadelphia</st1:city></st1:place> on the road to Mamre, the Katzenberg Hill area, Piketberg/Piquetberg near Struisbaai (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994), Lambert’s Bay and Karwyderskraal (Woodhall 2005). However, recently this species has been recorded from a number of new localities including near Vredenberg and near Struis Bay (Animal Demography Unit 2010). Its extent of occurrence has been estimated as between 20,000 - 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
884		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs in sandy, coastal fynbos, although the type locality is Red Hill which is a more hilly habitat. The flight period is from October to April and the larval food plants are unknown. Males establish territories in open sandy patches (Woodhall 2005).
884		population	eng	This species is rare and localized in suitable coastal fynbos habitats (Woodhall 2005). However, virtually all populations are now protected in nature reserves (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and so can be considered stable.
884		threats	eng	Much of the habitat in the area where this species occurs has been affected by housing, industry and farming in the past and some of the localities where this species was previously found have been destroyed (Henning and Henning 1989). However, it has recently been recorded from some new localities and now occurs primarily in nature reserves (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It therefore no longer faces any major threats.
885		distribution	eng	Recorded from around Brandvlei Dam, near Worcester and Rodeberg, near Robertson, Western Cape.
885		habitat	eng	Inhabits lower hill slopes in dry sandy fynbos or renosterveld. Flight period October to March. Larval food plant unknown but probably <em>Aspalathus</em> sp. (Fabaceae). Flight swift, erratic and of short duration.
885		threats	eng	Building of the dam at Brandvlei may have resulted in the loss of habitat.
886		distribution	eng	Only known from Slanghoek Valley, Goudini, near Worcester, Western Cape.
886		habitat	eng	Occurs in hilly fynbos with open rocky spaces. Flight period is November to March. Larval food plant probably an <em>Aspalathus</em> sp. Flight rapid, butterfly often settling after a short spurt on vegetation or the ground. Only discovered in 1980.
887		distribution	eng	Only definitely known from Swaarweerberg, Roggeveld escarpment, southwest of Sutherland, Western Cape. May also be in the Northern Cape.
887		habitat	eng	Occupies flat areas high on karooid mountain slopes. Flight period from October. Larval food plant unknown. Males are territorial; females fly at random through the area. Only discovered in 1977.
888		distribution	eng	Only known from Wakkerstroom district, south-eastern Mpumalanga and Majuba, north-western KwaZulu-Natal.
888		habitat	eng	Habitat is hilly grassland at ca. 2,000 m. Flight period October to November. Larval food plant unknown, perhaps an <em>Aspalathus</em> sp. (Fabaceae). Flight low, swift and elusive. Only discovered in 1984.
889		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species. It would benefit from further research to better identify its distribution as well as host ant and plant species.
889		distribution	eng	This species was described from McDougall’s Bay near Port Nolloth in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa and was also collected further south in Hondeklip Bay. According to Woodhall (2005) it has subsequently been found in other coastal localities stretching south almost to Lambert’s Bay. The species has also been collected in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Namibia</st1:country-region></st1:place> between Aus and Rosh Pinah. The known EOO is in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but it is likely that the species is found in additional localities in this poorly surveyed region.
889		habitat	eng	Woodhall (2005) lists the habitats as coastal dunes and flats in succulent <st1:place w:st="on">Karoo</st1:place> (west coast strandveld). It does not stretch more than a few kilometres inland, but these habitats are found in remote parts of northern South Africa and southern Namibia (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It may also be found in dry coastal scrub. Its flight period is from September to January. The larval food plant and host ant species are unknown.
889		population	eng	This species occurs in small, localized populations in association with its host ant species.
889		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.
890		conservation	eng	This butterfly is found in the Sterkspruit Nature Reserve and near the Mount Sheba Nature Reserve, but no species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Henning <em>et al.</em> (2009) suggest the following conservation measures: "Population levels and habitat quality should be monitored regularly. There should be no further habitat encroachment due to either plantation forestry or infestation of alien trees. The latter should be removed. Plantation forestry should be subject to environmental impact assessments. Autecological studies are needed."
890		distribution	eng	<p>This species is narrowly restricted to Mpumulanga Province in South Africa where it is known from only a few small colonies. These are located in Klipbankspruit near Sabie, Mount Sheba Nature Reserve, and in the Morgenzon Forestry area at the top of Robber’s Pass near Pilgrim’s Rest. It was also recorded from Sterkspruit Nature Reserve (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994, Woodhall 2005, Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated as no more than 400 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy is considerably smaller (estimated as less than 50 km<sup>2</sup>) since the species&#160;only inhabits rocky areas in montane grasslands and forests within the EOO.</p><p><br/></p>
890		habitat	eng	The habitat is primarily low rocky ridges in mistbelt montane grassland interspersed with Afromontane forest (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Woodhall 2005). This habitat only occurs above 1,800 m (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).   Males establish territories on flat areas above rocky ridges. Females are usually found below the ridges and spend a great deal of time walking on the ground or basking in the sun (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). The larval food plant is thought to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Rotheca hirsuta</span> (Lamiaceae) (Henning<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009).
890		population	eng	The Cloud Copper is rare and extremely localized within its restricted distribution. Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) state that you cannot expect to encounter more than 20 specimens flying on any one day and that the colony at Robber's Pass consists of about 200 specimens emerging annually. The population is suspected to be reduced by more than 50% in the future as a result of the decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), habitat quality, and the introduction of an invasive tree species which is further reducing the extent of the species' habitat (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
890		threats	eng	The tiny, several hundred metre long Robbers Pass colony is limited to a ridge with an infestation of the invasive tree species <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia mearnsii</span> (Fabaceae). This is also not far from the Trout Hideaway colony. The vegetation in the habitat of this species is classed as Endangered (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
896		habitat	eng	An aquatic crustacean found in subterranean caves (i.e., a stygobiont).
897		habitat	eng	An aquatic crustacean found in subterranean caves (i.e., a stygobiont).
898		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Ohrid.
898		habitat	eng	An aquatic crustacean found in subterranean caves (i.e., a stygobiont).
899		conservation	eng	<strong>Occurrence in protected areas</strong><br/>Good information is available for Norway, Sweden and Finland. For Iceland, Arctic foxes could potentially appear in most protected areas (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Norway: The National Parks Blåfjell-Skjækerfjella, Børgefjell, Saltfjellet, Øvre Dividal, Reisa. On Svalbard Arctic foxes are found in most protected areas.<br/>Sweden: The National Parks Sarek, Padjelanta, and Stora Sjöfallet, in the county of Norrbotten; the Nature Reserves Vindelfjällen, Marsfjället, and Gitsfjället, in the county of Västerbotten; the Nature Reserves Hamrafjället, Henvålen-Aloppan, Vålådalen, Gråberget-Hotagsfjällen, Frostvikenfjällen, Sösjöfjällen and Skäckerfjällen, in the county of Jämtland.<br/>Finland: Malla, Käsivarren erämaa, Iiton palsasuot, Saanan luonnonsuojelualue, Muotkatunturin erämaa, Hanhijänkä Pierkivaaran jänka, Pieran Marin jänkä, Kevo, Kaldoaivin erämaa, Paistunturin erämaa, Pulmankijärvi.<br/><br/>There appear to be no significant protected areas in the the Kola peninsula that contain arctic foxes.<br/><br/><strong>Legislation</strong><br/>It is strictly protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II), and is listed on Annex II* and Annes IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. In most of its range, the arctic fox is not protected under national legislation. However, the species and its dens have had total legal protection in Sweden since 1928, in Norway since 1930, and in Finland since 1940. In Europe, the arctic fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE). <br/><br/><strong>Conservation measures taken</strong><br/>Action plans based on status reports have been developed for arctic foxes in Sweden (Löfgren and Angerbjörn 1998) and Norway (Direktoratet for Naturforvaltning 2003), and a status report has also been published for Finland (Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Sweden and Finland, a species-specific conservation project has been completed (SEFALO), and a second is under way (SEFALO+), the latter also involving work in Norway (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005). Measures taken include den monitoring (and protection of den sites by excluding ptarmigan hunting in Sweden only), supplementary feeding, red fox control, disease research, as well as building public awareness and education work (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Norway a captive breeding programme on arctic foxes was started in 2000 and extended in 2007. The first successful captive reproduction and release of foxes happened in 2006 (A. Landa pers. comm. 2006). A research programme on red fox control was started in northern Norway in 2004. Programmes to build public awareness have also been started in Norway by non-governmental organizations (www.fjellrev.no). A number of research projects on the arctic fox are underway, of which further details can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004).
899		conservation	eng	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have had total legal protection in Sweden since 1928, in Norway since 1930, and in Finland since 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE). It is therefore to be given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining Arctic Fox population has currently no legal protection. In Norway (Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of these laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves.<br/><br/>For occurrence in protected areas, good information is available only for Sweden and Finland. For Iceland, Arctic Foxes could potentially appear in most protected areas. <br/><br/>An action plan has been developed for Arctic Foxes in Sweden (Löfgren and Angerbjörn 1998) and status reports have been published for Norway (Frafjord and Rofstad 1998) and Finland (Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Sweden and Finland, a conservation project is under way (SEFALO). In 1993, Mednyi Island gained protected status as a Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>The Arctic Fox occurs widely in captivity on fur farms and has been bred for fur production for over 70 years. The present captive population originates from a number of wild populations and has been bred for characteristics different from those found in the wild, including large size. Escaped "blue" foxes may already be a problem in Fennoscandia (and to a lesser extent in Iceland) due to gene swamping (Hersteinsson <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>The following gaps still exist in knowledge of the Arctic Fox:<br/><br/>1) Little is known concerning the impact of diseases introduced by humans on fox populations. Allied to this is our lack of knowledge of the epidemiology of Arctic rabies.<br/><br/>2) Considering the northward spread of the red fox in certain areas, studies are necessary to determine the effects of competition between red foxes and Arctic foxes on various population parameters and Arctic fox life-history patterns.<br/><br/>3) The non-recovery of the Fennoscandian population is a cause for concern, and requires specific attention, especially in terms of disease and genetics.
899		distribution	eng	Arctic foxes have a circumpolar distribution (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990, Pulliainen 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999), occurring in three distinct ecological situations. Arctic foxes are found throughout the area of <strong>continental tundra</strong> that covers the northern coasts of Alaska, Canada and Siberia. They occur on most of the <strong>arctic islands</strong> including all islands of the Canadian high arctic, Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard, Jan Mayen, Bjørnøya, Novaya Zemlja, Wrangel Island, and the Komandor Islands (in addition, they have been introduced to some of the Aleutian Islands: Bailey 1992). Thirdly, they occur on the <strong>alpine tundra</strong> that occurs on the mountain ranges found along the spine of the Scandinavian peninsula (including the Kola region). Arctic foxes are also observed in the open drift ice. In a pan-European context arctic foxes occur in four geographic areas that represent all three ecological situations – continental tundra in western Siberia (Russia), arctic islands in Svalbard (Norway) and Iceland, and alpine tundra in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Kola peninsula of Russia). Southern and altitudinal limitations on its global distribution is most probably set by intraguild competition with the larger red fox (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1992). In Europe Arctic foxes occur from sea level to 1,500 m (N.E. Eide pers. comm. 2007).
899		distribution	eng	The Arctic Fox has a circumpolar distribution in all Arctic tundra habitats. It breeds north of and above the tree line on the Arctic tundra in North America and Eurasia and on the alpine tundra in Fennoscandia, ranging from northern Greenland at 88°N to the southern tip of Hudson Bay, Canada, 53°N. The southern edge of the species' distribution range may have moved somewhat north during the 20th century resulting in a smaller total range (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1992). The species inhabits most Arctic islands but only some islands in the Bering Strait. The Arctic Fox was also introduced to previously isolated islands in the Aleutian chain at the end of the 19th century by fur industry (Bailey 1992). It has also been observed on the sea ice up to the North Pole. <br/><br/>During the last glaciation, the Arctic Fox had a distribution along the ice edge, and Arctic Fox remains have been found in a number of Pleistocene deposits over most of Europe and large parts of Siberia (Chesemore 1975).
899		habitat	eng	Arctic and alpine tundra on the continents of Eurasia, North America and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland and Svalbard. Subarctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands and coastal Iceland. <br/><br/>The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger but in most inland areas, the species is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. The species' main prey items include lemmings, both <em>Lemmus</em> spp. and <em>Dicrostonyx</em> spp. (Macpherson 1969; Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Fennoscandia, <em>Lemmus lemmus</em> was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in faeces) followed by birds (Passeriformes, Galliformes and Caridriiformes, 34%) and reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>) (21%; Elmhagen <em>et al</em>. 2000). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (<em>Lagopus</em> spp.) are common prey in addition to rodents and reindeer (Kaikusalo and Angerbjörn 1995). Changes in fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles (Macpherson 1969; Angerbjörn <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Foxes living near ice-free coasts have access to both inland prey and sea birds, seal carcasses, fish and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996). In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Iceland feed on seabirds (<em>Uria aalge</em>, <em>U. lomvia</em>), seal carcasses and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996). In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of Arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally (Samelius and Lee 1998).
899		habitat	eng	The species is confined to arctic and alpine tundra, above or north of the treeline. The arctic fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger, but in most inland areas the species is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. In Fennoscandia, the Norwegian lemming <em>Lemmus lemmus</em> was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in faeces) followed by birds and reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>) (Frafjord 1995, Elmhagen <em>et al.</em> 2000). Changes in fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1995, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1999). The typical response to lemming peak-years is an increase in both the number of litters and litter size (Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996).  Foxes living near ice-free coasts have access to both inland prey and sea birds, seal carcasses, fish and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy especially in areas without cyclic rodent populations (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996, Dalerum and Angerbjörn 2000, Eide <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Iceland, lamb carcasses frequently are found among prey remains at dens resulting in the species being considered a pest. Although individual foxes may indeed prey on lambs, it is more likely that a large proportion of the lambs have been scavenged (Hersteinsson 1996). Arctic foxes are known to prey on wildfowl (Eide <em>et al.</em> 2005) and occasionally kill reindeer calves (Prestrud 1992a). <br/><br/>Foxes reach sexual maturity at 10 months, and the average lifespan for animals that reach adulthood is approximately three years (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2004). In more stable coastal environments the average age is probably higher (Prestrud 1992a). Arctic fox life history traits reflect adaptations to differing constraints in resource availability. Arctic foxes in unstable environments (e.g., habitats dominated by cyclic prey) have higher litter size but do not reproduce every year, whereas arctic foxes in stable environments (e.g., coastal habitats with bird cliffs), have a smaller litter size but reproduce every year (Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2004). Social organization (home range size and territoriality) and hence local density of arctic fox is also highly influenced by resource availability; home range sizes range from 10 km<sup>2</sup> in stable coastal habitats up to 52 km<sup>2</sup> in more fluctuating environments (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1997, Strand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Eide <em>et al.</em> 2004). Hence predictable coastal habitats support a denser population of foxes compared to more unpredictable habitats. Arctic foxes tend to be territorial, with a mated pair occupying a common territory (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1986, Prestrud 1992b, Landa <em>et al.</em> 1998, Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996, Eide <em>et al.</em> 2004). Additional, but non-reproductive adults may also be present within the territory even though their function as “helpers” may be somewhat limited. In some rare cases it has been observed that two adult females will reproduce within the same territory (Strand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bodil Elmhagen pers. comm.). As a result of these home range sizes and territorial social organisation typical densities can vary from 20 adults per 100 km<sup>2</sup> to 2-4 per 100 km<sup>2</sup>. A noticeable feature of arctic fox ecology is dependence on and year round use of dens. These dens are normally excavated in sandy soil and can reach a considerable size (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Dalerum <em>et al.</em> 2002, Frafjord 2003). After several decades, or even centuries, of use they can acquire many tens of openings. In areas without sandy deposits foxes use crevices in cliffs or moraines as dens (Prestrud 1992b).
899		population	eng	The world population of Arctic Foxes is in the order of several hundred thousand animals. Most populations fluctuate widely in numbers between years in response to varying lemming numbers. Only a few populations have been studied directly. In most areas, however, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra areas of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia) and Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations are now low and appear to be declining further. Vagrant Arctic Foxes are common over the northern sea-ice where they follow polar bears as scavengers.
899		population	eng	The world population of arctic foxes is in the order of several hundred thousand animals (see Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004 for specific details). Most populations fluctuate widely in numbers between years in response to varying lemming numbers. The species is common in the tundra areas of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Komandor Islands, Russia) and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>The situation in Europe varies between areas. It is most realistic to consider the four geographic areas of occurrence separately:<br/><br/><strong>Western Siberia (from the White Sea to Novaya Zemlya).</strong> There are no reliable data about arctic fox numbers from this region, although Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate that the total Russian population (including eastern Siberia) could potentially be in the order of 200,000-800,000 animals. In general in Western Russia, the species is sparse on the mainland but common on the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, where some thousands of animals can be estimated on the each island (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Although the hunting pressure on this species is now very low all over Russia, mainland populations may not have recovered from historical overhunting (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Svalbard.</strong> There has been no total census of arctic foxes on this archipelago, but the population is known to be numerous and stable. The arctic fox went extinct on the island Bjørnøya (part of the Svalbard archipelago) and on Jan Mayen (an isolated island further south between Svalbard and Iceland). The two populations were severely depleted following early 20th century extermination efforts (Fuglei <em>et al.</em> 1998). On  Bjørnøya  the arctic fox population has re-established by immigration over sea ice in recent years, and breeding is again documented, while no foxes have been observed on Jan Mayen since before 1998 (E. Fuglei pers. comm. 2007). <br/><br/><strong>Iceland.</strong> Numbers of arctic foxes on Iceland have fluctuated as a result of differing management practices. From a low point in the 1970s of around 1,300 individuals, the population reached 8,000 individuals in 2003 and is still increasing (Hersteinsson 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fennoscandia.</strong> Arctic foxes were once very abundant throughout the alpine tundra habitats of Fennoscandia, but were greatly reduced due to over-harvesting in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They have basically never recovered, despite having been protected for over 75 years (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Hersteinsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). The most recent estimate is 120 adults in Norway, Sweden and Finland, around 50 of which are found in Sweden (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1995, Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005), 50 in Norway (Frafjord and Rofstad 1998, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999), and 5-15 in Finland (Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population on the Kola peninsula has not been accurately censused. Estimates range from c.40 individuals (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005), and less than 100 individuals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006), to 1,000-2,000 animals (Potansky 1993). The latter figure is considered likely to be an overestimate (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). Genetic research showed that the Arctic fox in Scandinavia presently is subdivided into four subpopulations, and that the Kola Peninsula and northwest Russia together form a large fifth subpopulation. Current dispersal between the subpopulations seems to be very low (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2006). The population trend in Norway and Sweden is stable, but in Finland the population can be assumed to be decreasing as there has been no breeding documented since 2000 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
899		threats	eng	Globally the large populations on the continental tundra of Alaska, Canada and Siberia (except Kola) and the island of Greenland are all harvested by trapping or shooting. The main motivation is for fur, although they are killed around settlements in parts of Greenland to reduce the risk of rabies being spread to sled dogs and humans. There is nothing that indicates that these populations are currently threatened by overharvest. The small population on the Komandor islands is threatened by a form of mange (<em>Otodectes cynotis</em>: Goltsman <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>In Europe the threats vary between regions.<br/><br/>The animals occupying <strong>western Siberia</strong> are exposed to trapping, but nothing indicates that this is representing an immediate threat. There is no other information available about threats to this population.<br/><br/>On <strong>Svalbard</strong> arctic foxes are trapped, but the extent of this trapping is limited to areas close to settlements, and it is therefore not regarded as a threat (Fuglei <em>et al.</em> 1998). Possible threats include accumulation of long distance transported pollutants and climate change, which may influence sea ice conditions in the future. The arctic fox on Svalbard (Norway) has higher levels of  persistent organic pollutants (POPs)  than foxes in other parts of the arctic (Norheim 1978, Wang-Andersen <em>et al.</em> 1993, Fuglei <em>et al.</em> 2007). The levels are similar to those found in polar bears from Svalbard and Greenland (Verreault <em>et al.</em> 2005). Such high concentrations of contaminants may have possible toxic health effects. The island Bjørnøya holds a small, recently re-established population of arctic foxes, while no foxes have been reported on Jan Mayen since before 1998 (E. Fuglei pers comm. 2007). Arctic foxes on these islands are protected and the main threat appears to be lack of influx of new animals and the extremely small population size. These islands were part of the Svalbard metapopulation, as sea ice allowed connectivity. Climate change through reduction in the extent of the sea ice might in fact explain why the arctic fox has not re-established on Jan Mayen (E. Fuglei pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/><br/>On <strong>Iceland</strong> the status of arctic fox has changed. Historically they were heavily persecuted because of the belief that they were involved in depredation on livestock. Recent legislation has restricted harvest and the population is increasing (Hersteinsson 2006), although in many areas they are still hunted year round.<br/><br/>In <strong>Fennoscandia</strong> arctic foxes are scattered along the peninsula in very small populations that are relatively isolated from each other. The alpine tundra habitat is naturally fragmented, but the degree of population fragmentation has increased due to the extinction of local populations. The populations have not increased despite over 75 years of protection. <br/><br/>Overexploitation due to hunting and trapping was most probably the originate threat and the reason behind the dramatic decline of arctic foxes in Fennoscandia (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Hersteinsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1995, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). The value of arctic fox fur together with high grants for killing foxes gave motivation for this strong persecution. In 1924 Norwegian trappers could get 25% more than an average year's salary for a peasant for only one skin (Østbye and Pedersen 1990). Establishment of the fox farm industry at the beginning of 1900 probably also forced the decline further. Live trapping of foxes also continued also after protection. Arctic fox den sites are easy to spot and several dens were dug out during the sixties to catch cubs to bring in to fur farms (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978).     <br/><br/>The exact reason why the population in not responding to protection is not understood, but a range of factors are believed to be involved, including:<br/><br/>Intraguild competition with red foxes. Red fox populations have increased and expanded in range throughout the 20th century, both in the boreal region and above the treeline to alpine tundra habitat (Selås and Vik 2006, Elmhagen <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is known that they have occupied former arctic fox dens in the most productive, low lying areas (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Frafjord 2003, Tannerfeldt <em>et al.</em> 2002, Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). Red foxes occupy the same niche and eat the same prey as arctic foxes (Elmhagen <em>et al.</em> 2002), they can kill arctic fox pups and adults (Frafjord <em>et al.</em> 1989, Tannerfeldt <em>et al.</em> 2002), and arctic foxes avoid breeding close to red foxes (Tannerfeldt <em>et al.</em> 2002). Therefore the potential for a negative effect is clearly present.<br/><br/>Genetics. The remaining arctic fox populations are all very small and relatively isolated from each other. Today the population consists of four genetically distinct subpopulations with very little exchange of dispersing animals (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2002, Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2006). Therefore the potential for inbreeding is high. So far there are no obvious signs of inbreeding depression but individual genetic variation was negatively associated with fitness (Dalén <em>et al.</em> unpublished). Although there is still a surprisingly high degree of variation, by comparison with historical samples it is clear that 25% of the variation has been lost (Nyström <em>et al.</em> 2006). Hybridization with arctic foxes that have escaped from fur farms has also been documented.  Genetic mapping revealed hybridization of genotypes originating from escaped farm foxes (Norén <em>et al.</em> 2005), mixing in haplotypes not found in the wild Fennoscandian arctic fox (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2005). The amount of reported escapes of farm foxes has increased in recent years and even breeding has been observed (N.E. Eide pers. comm. 2006). However at present demographic stochasticity probably remains a greater threat than inbreeding.<br/><br/>Small population size. The small size of populations directly increases their individual risks of extinction, especially when they occupy a fluctuating environment with strong year to year variation in the probability of reproducing (Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Loison <em>et al.</em> 2001). Extinction risk is further increased by fragmentation, which reduces the chance of rescue effects occurring (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Climate change. Projected climate change would intensify fragmentation of the Fennoscandian mountain plateau even further, and may exclude the arctic fox from lower lying alpine tundra areas. For a review of the potential impacts of climate change on arctic foxes see Ims and Fuglei (2005).
899		threats	eng	Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox. With the decline of the fur hunting industry, the threat of over-exploitation is lowered for most Arctic Fox populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred blue foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution (as on St. Paul Island for example). Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.<br/><br/>The Arctic Fox remains the single most important terrestrial game species in the Arctic. Indigenous peoples have always utilized its exceptional fur; and with the advent of the fur industry, the Arctic Fox quickly became an important source of income. Today, leg-hold traps and shooting are the main hunting methods. Because of their large reproductive capacity, Arctic foxes can maintain population levels under high hunting pressure. In some areas, up to 50% of the total population has been harvested on a sustainable basis (Nasimovic and Isakov 1985). However, this does not allow for hunting during population lows, as shown by the situation in Fennoscandia. The Arctic Fox has nevertheless survived high fur prices better than most other Arctic mammals. Hunting has declined considerably in the last decades, as a result of low fur prices and alternative sources of income. In the Yukon, for example, the total value of all fur production decreased from $1.3 million in 1988 to less than $300,000 in 1994.<br/><br/>The Arctic Fox occurs widely in captivity on fur farms and has been bred for fur production for over 70 years. The present captive population originates from a number of wild populations and has been bred for characteristics different from those found in the wild, including large size. Escaped "blue" foxes may already be a problem in Fennoscandia (and to a lesser extent in Iceland) due to gene swamping (Hersteinsson <em>et al.</em> 1989).
903		conservation	eng	Fish passes and elevators in France allow access to spawning sites. It is a  (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.
903		conservation	eng	It is present in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention. In Morocco, Aliss shad fishing is prohibited.
903		distribution	eng	Baltic, North and western Mediterranean Seas, Atlantic coast of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal and Morocco from where adults ascend rivers, migrating far upstream to spawn. Earlier ascended Rhine for about 850 km up to Basel (Switzerland). Now, nearly extirpated east of Rhine, most abundant in Loire and Garonne drainages (France). Landlocked populations in some man-made lakes in Morocco and Portugal.
903		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Alosa alosa</em>used to be caught from Sebou, Bou Regreg, Oum-er-Rbia, Sous, Massa, Loukkos and Moulouya rivers (Morocco), Algeria and Tunisia.<br/><br/>At local level it is present at the Atlantic coasts, Mediterranean coasts and the North Sea.
903		habitat	eng	<em>Alosa alosa</em> is an amphihaline, anadromous, pelagic and shoaling fish, strongly migratory penetrates a long distance up rivers but not into small tributaries (some purely freshwater populations in Lakes). It enters rivers to spawn in May, usually at night and where the current is swift. Migrating adults do not feed and return to sea after spawning (many die after spawning) while the juveniles move down to the sea in autumn. They feed on small fishes, euphausiids, mysids and isopod. Reproduction is mostly anadromous, and during the breeding season (from May to June) adults used to ascend the Nile for the purpose of breeding (its distribution don't reach the Nile). Maximum weight of  5 kg; maximum length of 80 cm.
903		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deep water down to 300 m. Juveniles remain close to shore and to estuaries. Migrates from sea upriver, spawning in main river or entering large and warm tributaries. Spawning sites often situated near a confluence. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-9 years. Females first reproduce 1-3 years later than males. Adults start approaching coasts at end of February and enter rivers when temperatures reach 10-12°C, usually in May. Spawning commences when temperature reaches 15°C. Optimal temperatures 22-24°C. Spawns in large, very noisy schools near surface at night. Eggs sink to bottom. Spent fish migrate back to sea, but most die after reproduction, having mated only once. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth during first summer and remain at sea until they mature. Individual fish are thought to return to their natal spawning site. At sea, feeds predominantly on plankton. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on insect larvae.
903		population	eng	Currently large populations in France. Has declined outside France, mainly in the early 1900s, almost extirpated in Germany due to pollution in the 1920's (Freyhof pers comm.).
903		population	eng	Medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).
903		threats	eng	Overfishing, pollution and dam constructions (cutting off access to spawning sites). Gravel extraction in France is a current threat to the species.
903		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
904		conservation	eng	It is a (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.
904		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
904		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Alosa fallax</em> It is originally a Mediterranean species and used to be caught from Nile Delta, Cairo and Lake Menzala (Egypt) before the Aswan High Dam construction and from Sebou, Loukkos, Oum-er-Rbia and Moulouya Rivers (Morocco), Tunisia and Algeria.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Atlantic coasts, Gulf of Bothnia and Finland, the Mediterranean coasts and the North Sea.
904		distribution	eng	Southern shore of Baltic, North Sea northward to Bergen, Atlantic coasts from Scotland and Ireland to Morocco, northern Mediterranean (and Nile) and rarely in northern Black Sea occasionally east to Crimea, from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn. Ascended Drin to Lake Ohrid. Earlier ascended Rhône for 600 km.
904		habitat	eng	<em>Alosa fallax</em> is a amphihaline species, anadromous, pelagic, also penetrating a long distance up rivers and entering tidal parts of rivers in May -June to spawn (but some purely freshwater populations in Lakes), shoaling, strongly migratory. It feeds on small fishes, euphausiids, mysids and isopod; Reproduction is mostly anadromous, during the breeding season (May - June) adults used to ascend the Nile for the purpose of breeding as far up as Cairo. It has a maximal length of 50 cm.
904		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic. Juveniles remain close to shore and estuaries. Migrates from sea to rivers, spawns in main river often only few kilometres above limit of brackish water. Spawning also reported from small rivers over gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Many individuals spawn 3-4 seasons. Adults congregate near estuaries in April and enter rivers when temperatures reach 10-12°C, mainly in May-June. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C or more, in May-June. Spawns in large, very noisy schools near surface after midnight. Eggs sink to bottom or are pelagic. Spent fish migrate back to sea. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth during first summer and move to sea at end of second year, where most shads remain until they mature. Individual fish are thought to return to their natal spawning site. At sea, feeds predominantly on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed. Juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.
904		population	eng	Quite common in north sea basins and French Atlantic coast. Populations increasing in the Baltic
904		population	eng	There is no information available.
904		threats	eng	Dams blocking spawning sites, pollution.
904		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
905		conservation	eng	On paper it is protected by Greek laws on fishery management, but in practice it receives little protection. It is listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive.
905		distribution	eng	Its range is limited to Lake Volvi in northern Greece. It was previously present in Lake Koronia but in 1995 the lake dried up killing all the fish (G. Barbieri pers. comm).
905		habitat	eng	A lake species, non-migratory. Maximum age: 10 years. It is a predominantly zooplantivorous fish, but the oldest fish are able to eat small fish.
905		population	eng	A large <em>A. macedonica</em> population was established in the lake in recent years, principally due to overfishing of its predators (Zarfdjian <em>et al</em>. 1996). A further field survey in 1996 indicated the population to be increasing (M. Kottelat pers. comm.).
905		threats	eng	In the past the fishery was uncontrolled and overfishing was common. Today the fishermen are disappearing and the fishing pressure is low. Ongoing eutrophication of the lake and water extraction for irrigation might be threats in a near future.
906		conservation	eng	No information.
906		distribution	eng	Sea of Azov and northern and western part of Black Sea, from where adults enter coastal lagoons to spawn.
906		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic in deep water, entering brackish lagoons to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns first at two years. Many individuals spawn 2-4 seasons. In Romania, spawners enter Lake Razelm when temperature reaches about 7°C, in March. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C, in late April-June. Eggs sink to bottom. Spent fish return to sea to feed. In autumn, migrates to southern Black Sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea or remain in estuaries during first summer. Feeds predominantly on small fish and crustaceans.
906		population	eng	Common within the species range.
906		threats	eng	Water abstraction leading to increasing salinity of the limans (coastal lagoons) where the species spawns is a potential threat to the species.
907		conservation	eng	No information.
907		distribution	eng	Black and Azov Seas from where adults ascend rivers, migrating far upstream to spawn. Historically ascended Danube for about 1,600 km to Mohacs (Hungary), Don for 900 km to Oust-Medveditskaya, Dniepr up to Kiev, Dniestr up to Yampol and South Bug up to Voznessensks. A landlocked population in Don.<br/>Currently migrates up the Danube, Dneiper, Dneister, Pivdenny Bug, Don and Kuban (not previously used by the species until 1993) where they still spawn below dams.
907		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deep water. Migrates to middle reaches of large rivers, spawning where current is strongest, close to surface, usually at 2-3 m depth in main channel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, migrating upriver to spawn at three years, rarely earlier. Only few individuals spawn two seasons. Appears along coast in March-April, enters rivers when temperatures reach about 6-9°C, between late March and late April. Migration usually peaks in May. Spawning starts when temperature rises above 15°C, in April-August. Spawns usually between 1 and 8 p.m. Eggs are pelagic. Spent individuals migrate back to sea to feed. Juveniles inhabit floodplain and shallow riverine habitats, migrate to the sea or estuarine habitats during first summer; in autumn, they move to the sea, remaining there until they mature. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (especially crustaceans) and small fish.
907		population	eng	No information.
907		threats	eng	Overfishing is the major current threat to the species. It is caught both at sea and in the lower courses of rivers during the migration. Dam construction in the Black Sea basin (over 10 years ago) has led to the loss of large areas of spawning grounds.
908		conservation	eng	State and Federal Agencies are working with conservation groups and researchers to restore passage of Alabama shad to their historic range upstream of Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam in the Apalachicola basin. Efforts to pass shad through the lock by altering lock operation schedules and providing attractant flows have resulted in the passage of shad through Lake Seminole and into the Chattahoochee and Flint River systems in Georgia. A population estimate in 2007 suggested that over 1,000 shad migrated all the way to Albany during that year (Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources 2008). <br/><br/>This species is recognized as a species of concern by the National Marine Fisheries Service and is state protected or listed as a species of concern in many U.S. states within its range. Research into effective fish passages, restoration of hydrologic regimes, migrations, feeding, bycatch, spawning, rearing, and other habitat needs should be carried out (Meadows, Adams and Shaefer 2008).
908		distribution	eng	The historical range of <em>Alosa alabamae</em> included the Gulf Coast from the Suwannee River in Florida, to the Mississippi River, westward in the Ouachita River system to eastern Oklahoma. The largest remaining population is in the Apalachicola River system below Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam. Populations also persist in the Pascagoula River drainage of Mississippi (Ross 2001), the Conecuh and Choctawhatchee rivers in southcentral and southeastern Alabama (Robison and Buchanan 1988, Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996), and the Mobile River drainage of Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004, Mettee in Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Recent Mobile Basin records are limited to single adults found in the Black Warrior River in 1998 (the first record from that river in more than 100 years) and in the Alabama River in 1993 and 1995 (Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996). In the Mississippi River basin, this species is known from old records from as far north as Keokuk, Iowa (Coker 1930), the Ohio River at Louisville (Evermann 1902), and eastern Oklahoma (Moore 1957, Miller and Robison 2004). This species has been found more recently in the Cumberland, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, Ouachita, and Red rivers. <br/><br/>The species is sporatic and now depleted in the Mississippi River basin (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980, Page and Burr 1991). Missouri has some of the last spawning populations in the Mississippi river system (Pflieger 1997). "Since 1988, 88 juveniles and eight adults of this uncommon species have been recorded in 14 Missouri collections from the lower Mississippi, Missouri, Meramec, Gasconade, and Osage rivers" (Pflieger 1997). Surveys in the Arkansas River (Buchanan 1976; Sanders <em>et al</em>. 1985) and Mississippi River (Carter 1984; Pennington <em>et al.</em> 1980, 1983; Beckett and Pennington 1986) did not yield any specimens. Mel Warren (pers. comm.) reported that only two known spawning runs exist in the Mississippi River system (Meramec River, Missouri, and Ouachita River, Arkansas). This shad is known in Oklahoma from "only a handful of specimens and records from the Poteau and Illinois river drainages and from the Little River in McCurtain County" (Miller and Robison 2004). Miller and Robison were uncertain as to whether the species still occurs in Oklahoma. Historically it occurred in the Clinch and Stones rivers in Tennessee, and apparently it was widespread in Tennessee in pre-impoundment days, but Etnier and Starnes (1993) reported no recent records in Tennessee. Etnier and Starnes (1993) mentioned a large adult from the Tennessee River just below Kentucky Dam in Marshall County, Kentucky, collected in July 1986.
908		habitat	eng	<em>Alosa alabamae</em> is an anadromous species. Adults live in saltwater and migrates into medium to large coastal rivers to spawn. Mettee <em>et al</em>. (1996) stated that actual spawning has not been observed but probably occurs in open, flowing water over sand bars in late afternoon or at night. In northwestern Florida, spawning occurs at 19–22°<sup></sup>C in moderate current over coarse sand and gravel (Laurence and Yerger 1966, Mills 1972). In Missouri, young have been captured in swift water about rock wing dikes in the Osage River and over rocky shoals with a noticeable current in the Gasconade River.
908		population	eng	Only two known spawning runs exist in the Mississippi River system. Additional spawning runs occur in the Florida panhandle (M. Warren 1999 pers. comm.) and in southern Alabama (Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>The total adult population size of <em>Alosa alabamae</em> is unknown. Populations of this species are small and are now very rare in the entire Mississippi River basin (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980, Robison and Buchanan 1988, Etnier and Starnes 1993, Pflieger 1997).<br/><br/>Distribution and abundance of the Alabama Shad has greatly diminished over the past 20–50 years. The species has been eliminated from much of its former inland distribution, especially in the Mobile Basin and the Mississippi River Valley (M. Warren 1999 pers. comm., Boschung and Mayden 2004). It is now rare or extirpated in much of its former range in Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004). It may have been extirpated from the upper Tombigbee, Cahaba, Coosa, and upper Alabama rivers in Alabama (Mettee in Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). As of around 1990, this shad evidently was still declining in the Pearl River system of Louisiana and Mississippi (Gunning and Suttkus 1990). Ross (2001) reported that this species may be extirpated in the Pearl River.<br/><br/>Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.<br/><br/>Population estimates of migrating Alabama shad near Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam varied considerably from year to year between 2005 and 2007, ranging from greater than 3,000 to less than 25,000 fish (Georgia Department of Natural Resources 2008).
908		threats	eng	Locks and dams built for navigation, hydroelectric generation, and flood control have effectively blocked migration routes to many historical upstream spawning areas for <em>Alosa alabamae</em> (Robison and Buchanan 1988, Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). High-lift navigation dams on the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers have blocked spawning migrations in the Mobile basin. Streams have been degraded by siltation and pollution, and commercial and navigational dredging of sand bars has degraded or eliminated some spawning habitats. Major threats to the remaining populations in Alabama include increased sedimentation, pesticide runoff from agricultural operations, prolonged drought, and possible reservoir construction for water supply on major tributaries (Mettee in Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the past, harvesting in the Ohio River was considered a major threat to this species.
914		conservation	eng	This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Belize<br/>Guanacaste National Park (32,512 ha) (R. Horwich pers. comm. to Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Blue Hole National Park (300 ha) (in range)<br/>Mountain Pine Ridge (51,500 ha) (Dahl, 1987)<br/>Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary (40,000 ha) (Horwich <em>et al.</em> 1993; Horwich 1994; Koontz <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Community Baboon Sanctuary (Horwich and Lyon 1990; Horwich 1994; Pavón 1994; Brockett <em>et al.</em> 1999, 2000; Horwich <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2001)<br/>Upper Bladen (35,000 ha) (R. Horwich pers. comm. to Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Caracol Archeological Reserve (20,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Monkey Bay Wildlife Sanctuary (Private Reserve) (443 ha) (in range)<br/>Monkey Bay National Park (911 ha) (<em>A. pigra</em> reintroduced) (extinguished by yellow fever and hurricanes (1961 and 1978) (Clark and Brocket 1999)<br/>Manatee Forest Reserve (in range)<br/>Chiquibul National Park (107,607 ha) (Dahl 1987)<br/>Bladen Branch Nature Reserve  (39,256 ha) (Dahl 1987)<br/>Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area  (61,513 ha) (Silva-López and Rumiz 1995)<br/><br/>Guatemala<br/>Rio Dulce National Park (9,610 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995; Silva-López 1998)<br/>El Rosario National Park (1,105 ha) (in range)<br/>Bahia Santo Tomas (1,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Santa Rosalia (1,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Miramundo (902 ha) (in range)<br/>Las Victorias (82 ha) (in range)<br/>El Reformador (60 ha) (in range)<br/>Grutas Lanquin (in range)<br/>Cuevas de Silvino (8 ha) (in range)<br/>Laguna Lachua National Park (10,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera Quetzal (1,153 ha) (<em>A. pigra</em> according to Curdts (1993) and Silva-López 1998; but <em>A. palliata</em> according to Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo de Chocon Machacas (7,000 ha) (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Silva-López 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Biotopo San Miguel La Palotada (49,300 ha) (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Matamoros and Seal 2001; possible occurrence Silva-López 1998)<br/>Rio Escondido – Biotopo Laguna del Tigre (45,900 ha) (in range)<br/>Dos Lagunas (45,950 ha) (in range)<br/>Tikal National Park (57,600 ha) (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 1976; Schlichte 1978; Estrada <em>et al.</em> 2004)<br/>Aguateca Cultural Monument (1,700 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995; Silva-López 1998)<br/>Ceibal Cultural Monument (1,700 ha) (in range)<br/>Dos Pilas Cultural Monument (3,100 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Silva-López 1998)<br/>Rio Azul (28,900 ha) (in range)<br/>Uaxactún (3,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Ucanal (2,200 ha) (in range)<br/>Xutilha (2,689 ha) (in range)<br/>Ixcun Cultural Monument (400 ha)<br/>El Peru (8,000 ha)<br/>Biotopo San Miguel – El Zotz (42,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Nakum (8,000 ha) (in range)<br/>G48 Naranjo (1,200 ha)<br/>Machaquilla Cultural Monument (2,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Yaxha (9,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve (236,300 ha) (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995; Silva-López 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Polochic (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sierra Lacandon National Park (200,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Mirador / Dos Lagunas –Rio Azul National Park (147,000 ha) (in range)<br/>El Tigre National Park (350,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Trifinito National Park (4,000 ha)<br/><br/>Mexico<br/>Palenque National Park (1,771 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984; Mexico, SEDUE, 1989; Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2000; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Tulum National Park 664 ha) (in range)<br/>Ria Lagartos Special Biosphere Reserve (47,840 ha) (in range)<br/>Pantanos de Centla (290,397 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (Mexico, SEDUE, 1989;  Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2004; Serio-Silva <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/>Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (Selva Lacandona) (331,200 ha) (Mexico SEDUE, 1989;  Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve (528,147 ha) (Serio-Silva <em>et al</em>. 2006; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Chan-kin Protection Area for Wild Flora and Fauna (12,184 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Yaxchilán Natural Monument (2,621 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984; Estrada <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2004; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Bonampak Natural Monument (4,357 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Metzaboc (Hernández-Yãnez pers. comm., in Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al.</em> 1996a)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
914		distribution	eng	<em>Alouatta pigra</em> occurs in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico and Belize, extending into northern and central Guatemela. The westernmost locality given by Hall (1981) is at Frontera, in the Mexican state of Tabasco; <em>A. palliata</em> has been recorded just west of there along the coast, 6 miles south of Cárdenas. Further localities which define the western and southern limits to its range include 5 miles south-east of Macuspana, Tabasco, and San Mateo Ixtatán (c. 11,000 ft) in Guatemala. Smith (1970) identified the southern limits to its range in the east with three localities along the Río Motagua basin in Guatemala, including Quirigua and Zacapa (right bank of the river). Curdts (1993), on the other hand, found that the southern and south-western limits to the range of <em>A. pigra</em> in Guatemala were defined by the Lago de Izabal, El Golfete and the Río Dulce. He noted large numbers of <em>A. pigra</em> in the Río Polochic delta, entering the west end of the Lago de Izabal. These are just to the north of the Río Motagua, where Curdts (1993) identified <em>A. palliata</em>. Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) found <em>A. pigra</em> in the northern margin of Rio Dulce and Lago Izabal, and to the West of Lago Izabal. This marks the southernmost locality for <em>A. pigra</em> in the Sierra de las Minas. <br/><br/>Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) provide the most recent review of the limits of the distributions of <em>Alouatta palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em> in Central America and Mexico. They found that the highland massif of northern Central America (including the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and central highland of Guatemala) and its associated coniferous and subalpine vegetation forms a geographic barrier separating <em>A. pigra</em> from <em>A. palliata</em>, and defines the southern limit of <em>A. pigra</em>. They discussed the two contact zones between them: the broad range of overlap north of the highland massif in Mexico over the lowlands of the states of Tabasco and Campeche, and a narrow area of contiguous, non-overlapping ranges in eastern Guatemala where the highlands extend almost the Caribbean. In the first, the localities where parapatry has been observed include Macuspana, Tabasco (Smith 1970; Horwich and Johnson 1986), around Zapata, Tabasco (Horwich and Johnson 1986) and the northern point of the Laguna de Términos in Campeche (Serio-Silva <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no geographical barrier separating the species, both occur in the same forests and on both sides of the Rio Usamacinta, for example (Cortés-Ortiz <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the second, the ranges are narrowly parapatric, separated by the Río Dulce and the Lago Izabal: <em>A. palliata</em> to the south and <em>A. pigra</em> to the north and west. South-west of Lake Izabal, <em>A. pigra</em> occurs in the highlands of the Sierra de las Minas, but not in the lowlands, occupied by <em>A. palliata</em>. Any past range overlap in this region will have been lost by the extensive oss of forest; the area is heavily farmed.  Baumgarten (2006) found no evidence to support sympatry supposed previously by Horwich and Johnson (1986), Curdts (1993) and Silva-López <em>et al.</em> (1998).<br/><br/>Serio-Silva <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported on a detailed survey of the occurrence of <em>A. pigra</em> in the Yucatán Peninsula.
914		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary <em>terra firma</em> rain forest, riparian forest, seasonally flooded riparian areas, and swamps. However, it can be also found in primary and secondary forest. In areas where suitable habitat does not exist they in some cases be found in marginal habitat surrounded by pastures and urban areas (Cuarón 1991, 1997; Marsh, 1999, 2001, 2002). In Calakmul, Mexico and Tikal, Guatemala, they occur in semideciduous tropical forest, but in Yaxchilán in tall evergreen rain forest (Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is mainly found in areas below 900 m, but more commonly below 400 m. However, Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) found them in locations up to 3,350 m asl. Reid (1997) reported that it is found in evergreen and semideciduous forest, remnant forest along rivers and tall second growth.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. Silver <em>et al.</em> (1998, 2000) have studied the diet and feeding ecology of <em>A. pigra</em> in Belize.<br/><br/><em>Alouatta pigra</em> lives in smaller groups than <em>A. palliata</em>: 2-10 individuals per group compared with 2-45 for <em>A. palliata</em> (mean of 12.3) (Crockett and Eisenberg 1986; Chapman and Balcomb 1998; Pavelka and Chapman 2006). Estrada <em>et al</em>. (2004) recorded a mean group size of 7.5±1.9 individuals (range 4-9, n=8) at Calakmul, Campeche; 6.6±2.1 individuals (range 4-10, n=8) at Yaxchilán, Chiapas; and 8.7±2.2 individuals (range 6-12, n=10) at Tikal, Guatemala. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. In Suriname, newborn infants have been seen in March, April, and November, and January (Mittermeier 1977). Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). The llanos forests are more seasonal, however, than in the Guianas, and it is possible that this is not the case elsewhere. Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 11.1-11.6 kg (mean 11.35 kg, n=2), adult female weight 6.3-6.6 kg (mean 6.4 kg, n=4) (Ford and Davis 1992)<br/>Adult male weight 11.4 kg (n=2) (Peres 1994)<br/>Adult female weight 6.43 kg (n=4) (Peres 1994).
914		population	eng	<em>Alouatta pigra</em> is locally common across its range, but mainly in protected areas. In Belize, this species has been recorded at densities of up to 250 individuals/km² in some areas.<br/><br/>Estrada <em>et al</em>. (2004, 2006) carried out surveys of <em>A. pigra</em> populations in a number of areas in Guatemala and Mexico: Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Campeche, 15.2 individuals/km²; Yaxchilán Natural Monument, Chiapas, 12.8 individuals/km²; and Tikal National Park, Guatemala, 17.8 individuals/km²; Palenque, Chiapas 23 individuals/km². At 13 sites where Estrada <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated densities of <em>A. pigra</em>, the mean density was 10.8±5.7 individuals/km² (range 3.5-23 individuals/km²).
914		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are deforestation, hunting (for food and for capture as pets) and disease (yellow fever epidemics) (Reid 1997; Pavelka and Chapman 2006).
918		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Lençois Maranhenses National Park, Maranhão (157,261 ha), Ubajara National Park, Ceará (6,288 ha) (in range, but possibly extirpated) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Serra da Ibiapaba Environmental Protection Area (1,592,550 ha), Piauí/Ceará.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>There is no captive breeding programme. More surveys are required to establish the status of the surviving populations and to evaluate possibilities and alternatives for conservation action.
918		distribution	eng	A poorly known howler monkey, its range has been elucidated recently through the efforts of the Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros of the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Paraíba (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2004). It occurs along coastal north-east Brazil in three states: Maranhão, Piauí and Ceará. The type locality is Miritiba, now called Humberto de Campos, on the coast of Maranhão, which it would seem marks the western limit to the range, just east of Rio Itapecurú. Besides the type locality, Bonvicino <em>et al</em>. (1989) mapped Boa Vista, just east of the lower Rio Parnaíba in Maranhão (locality 9, map Figure 2, Table 2); Goiabeira, Granja (locality 5) near the coast on the left (west) bank of the mouth of the Rio Coreaú in Ceará, and Bom Jardim, São Benedito (locality 4) in the Serra da Ibiapaba. Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004) indicated the Serra da Ibiapaba as the eastern limit to the species’ range. Guedes <em>et al.</em> (2000) registred two further localities in the Serra da Ibiapaba in the municipality Ibiapina. Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004; pers. comm.) have found that it occurs further south than was previously recognized, extending at least to the Rio Poti in Piauí.
918		habitat	eng	In Maranhão, they are found in open, transitional <em>babaçu</em> palm forest (Gregorin 2006). The Serra da Ibiapaba,  a humid forest enclave (<em>brejo nordestino</em>), has humid forest on its eastern slopes (that remains only because the terrain is so steep). Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004) report that in Ceará (Viçosa do Ceará and Coreaú) they are also found in areas of semideciduous and dry forest.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surrounds the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). <em>Alouatta ululata</em> groups generally comprise four or five or up to 11 or so individuals.<br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).
918		population	eng	There is no information available on population densities, but total population size is undoubtedly small due to the extreme destruction and fragmentation of its forests in a very restricted geographic range.
918		threats	eng	Very few populations still survive in a region which has a long history of human occupation, and resulting high levels of forest loss and hunting. The species survives only on hill tops and steep slopes, where they are inaccessible to hunters and where the forest is protected by law (Areas of Permanent Preservation according to the Brazilian Forest Code (Law 4.771, 15 September 1965).
922		conservation	eng	This species occurs, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Jau National Park (2,378,410 ha)<br/>Serra do Divisor National  Park (846,408 ha) (Lopes and Rehg 2003)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha)<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha)<br/>Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha)<br/>Amanã State Sustainable Development Reserve (2,350,000 ha)<br/>Cujubim State Sustainable Development Reserve (2,450,381 ha)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a) <br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh, 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a) <br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
922		distribution	eng	Gregorin (2006) indicated that this species occurs throughout the upper Amazon in Brazil in the states of Acre and Amazonas, to the south of the Rio Solimões. If <em>A. seniculus amazonica</em> is a junior synonym of <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. juara</em> would be the species to the north of the Rio Solimões, west of the Rio Negro, extending into Colombia and the large part of the Peruvian Amazon, perhaps north of the Rio Inuya (<em>A. puruensis</em> to the south of the Río Inuya).<br/><br/>There is no information concerning the limits of the ranges of  <em>A. juara</em> with <em>A. seniculus</em> of the Colombian Andes and Venezuela (type locality: Cartagena, Bolivar, Colombia), so they have been mapped together.<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>A. seniculus</em> is absent from the Pacific and the desert of the Guajira Peninsula, and has not been reported from the Department of Nariño (Defler 2004). Otherwise, it is present throughout the country, except in non-forested areas and mountainous regions above about 3,000 m above sea level (though it has been reported at 3,200 m in the Central Andes. In Venezuela, Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicate that the howler monkey north of the Rio Orinoco and west through Apure basin north of the Rio Meta the is a distinct, as yet undescribed, form of red howler, but Linares (1998) labeled it as <em>A. arctoidea</em>, otherwise also occurring along the north coast of Venezuela.<br/><br/>In summary, <em>Alouatta juara-seniculus</em> occurs west of the of the rios Juruá and Envira through the Peruvian Amazon north (say) of the Rio Inuya, north along the Andean Cordillera into Ecuador and in Colombia including the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental into Venezuela around Lake Maracaibo, west of the Serra de Merida. It is possible that either an undescribed red howler (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) or <em>A. arctoidea</em> (Linares 1998) occurs north of the Rio Meta in Colombia.
922		habitat	eng	This species is found in evergreen rain forest. Along the Rio Juruá, and undoubtedly elsewhere in its range, it tends to be more common in seasonally flooded forest (<em>várzea</em>) than in <em>terra firma</em> forest (Peres 1997; Queiroz 1995).<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Fourteen is a large group for the red howler monkeys; they usually number four or five or up to 11 or so individuals.  In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. <br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic [1982], considered here to be <em>A. arctoidea</em>).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Brazil<br/>Adult male 7.62 kg (n=28) (Ayres 1986)<br/>Adult female 6.02 kg (n=34) (Ayres 1986).
922		population	eng	Peres (1997) estimated the following population densities in <em>terra firma</em> forest in the Brazilian Amazon: Kaxinawá Reserve 9.2 individuals/km²; Altamira 4.6 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho I 1.0 individuals/km²; Fortuna 5.3 individuals/km²; Vira Volta 4.7 individuals/km²; Riozinho 8.4 individuals/km². In <em>várzea</em> (white-water flooded forest), the densities tend to be higher: Sacado do Condor 24.7 individuals/km²; Nova Empresa 35.7 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho II 15,6 individuals/km²; Lago da Fortuna 35.7 individuals/km². Queiroz (1995) estimated a density of 38 individuals/km² at Lago Mamirauá, between the rios Japurá and Solimões.
922		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats across the range, although Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) reported that populations of red howlers have declined in the lower parts of the <em>selva alta</em> (high forest) in the Peruvian Amazon as a result of colonization by humans, hunting and deforestation, noting particularly the valley of Chanchamayo (Department of Junín) where they have been extirpated. Although hunted throughout its range, they are less susceptible to hunting pressure than are other atelids.
928		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta.
928		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta, Estero Cabrería, Provincia de Malleco, Chile (37° 50'S; 73° 00' W). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,500m asl.
928		habitat	eng	It occurs under logs or stones close to mountain streams, and the surrounding vegetation mainly comprises <em>Nothofagus dombeyi</em> and <em>Araucaria araucana</em>. Breeding takes place in streams.
928		population	eng	The species is relatively abundant at the type locality. During breeding periods, it is possible to find large numbers of tadpoles in streams.
928		threats	eng	The main threat is the afforestation of the watershed where this species occurs with an introduced pine. When the pine is harvested, the effect on the surrounding breeding streams could be catastrophic.
929		conservation	eng	Protection and maintenance of its existing habitat is a priority for this species, since it is not currently known from any protected area.
929		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Farellones (33° 32'S; 70° 19'W), in central Chile, 35km north-east of Santiago, at 2,300-3,000m asl. The exact location of the type locality is uncertain, though it is somewhere on the western slopes of the Andes in central Chile.
929		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species has been found under stones, close to mountain streams, where the surrounding vegetation comprises grasses and shrubs of cold Andean areas. It has free-swimming tadpoles.
929		population	eng	The current known population comprises only a few adults. It was last collected in 2003, and the population is known to have declined substantially in recent years. Areas in which the species has been known to reproduce were found to have been completely destroyed in February 2002.
929		threats	eng	Currently, the primary threat to this species is from recreational skiing and tourist infrastructure development, since the only known locality where the species is found is in a ski resort.
930		conservation	eng	It has been included in the Chilean national legislation as near threatened and it occurs in Parque Nacional Cerro La Campana.
930		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central Chile from 150-1,500m asl. Voucher specimens do not support records from Argentina.
930		habitat	eng	It can be found in temperate shrubland and seasonal and permanent streams, in which it reproduces. It is not tolerant of habitat destruction.
930		population	eng	It is locally common.
930		threats	eng	Urban sprawl is rapidly destroying available habitat for this species, and some populations close to the main cities (such as Santiago) have disappeared.
932		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected area, and protection and maintenance of its remaining native habitat is an urgent priority. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range.
932		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western slopes of the Nahuelbuta Range, Arauco Province (37° 59'S; 73° 22'W), Chile, at 50m asl.
932		habitat	eng	This species can be found in small patches of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and is not tolerant of habitat modification. It reproduces in pools within permanent streams and has free-swimming tadpoles.
932		population	eng	The most recent collection was of tadpoles in 2002 which were found in the only pool in the area.
932		threats	eng	It is highly threatened by habitat destruction due to expanding pine plantations and human settlement. In the last 10 years, in particular, the range of this species has been nearly completely destroyed as a result of afforestation with pine plantations.
939		conservation	eng	A reintroduction plan was established in 1999 by the Antiguan Racer Conservation Project, which focussed on the subspecies on Great Bird Island. Since then, the Antiguan Racer Conservation Project has eradicated alien mammals  from 12 islands and successfully reintroduced the racer to three islands: Rabbit  (1999), Green (2002) and York (2008). At present, there are no individuals of this species in captivity (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010). Continued conservation management, population monitoring and invasive species control are needed to guarantee the species persistence.
939		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island bank of Antigua and Barbuda, where it once ranged over most of the islands; however only subfossil remains (tentatively attributed to this species) have been found  on Barbuda, and the species went extinct from the main island of Antigua shortly  after the Asian mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em> or <em>H. auropunctatus</em>)  was introduced at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Daltry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The area of distribution for this species has been increased from 8.4 ha to 65 ha (0.1% of its natural range). The snake can be found at all elevations of its current distribution range (up to approximately 30m), but was probably also found at higher elevations on Antigua prior to its extinction on the island (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010).
939		habitat	eng	This species is found in habitats with dense canopy cover, dense undergrowth and a layer of leaf litter.
939		population	eng	In 1995, J. Daltry demonstrated the population on Great Bird Island numbered 50 +/- 7 individuals. &#160;Since reintroductions on to Rabbit, Green and York Islands the population now exceeds 300 (Daltry <em>et al.</em> in press).
939		threats	eng	Invasive mammals, in particular Black Rats and mongooses, are a major threat to this species and are responsible for its dramatic historical decline in abundance. Although the islands now inhabited have been cleared of invasive predators, re-invasions are a threat. Rats re-invaded Great Bird Island in 2001, but were eradicated the same year (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010). In late 2005, rats reappeared on Green Island (Daltry 2006), probably transported by visitor boats, but these were successfully eradicated in 2006. <br/><br/>This species is threatened by loss of genetic variation due to its small population size: Genetic studies by Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust have confirmed the  species to be critically inbred, and fertility is low.<br/><br/>Hurricanes can cause flooding on the lowland areas of the island. J. Daltry (pers. comm.) observed a 20% population decline on Great Bird Island after Hurricane Georges in 1998, the storm surges of which flooded more than 10% of the island.<br/><br/>Visitors to the islands may disturb snakes and could affect feeding and mating behaviour. Incidents of visitors killing snakes have also been reported. In addition, activities such as mowing, trampling, and allowing camp fires to burn out of control may pose threats to the viability of the very small population of this species. Visitor numbers on Great Bird Island have gone up to over 40,000 visitors per year, which has gone up dramatically from only 17,000 visitors per year during the mid 1990s (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010).There are also well-substantiated reports of snakes being taken as pets (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010).
948		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
948		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from Himalayan portions of Baltistan (Braldu Valley, Nahr Nulla) and Ladakh (Phyang Nulla), in the disputed Kashmir region (Rossolimo and Pavlinov 1992; Rossolimo <em>et al.</em> 1994; Musser and Carleton 2005). The map of this species range is provisional. The type locality is in a disputed area where not many wildlife surveys have been organised or conducted (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
948		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. As with other members of this genus, it is probably found in rocky areas with brushy vegetation.
948		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
948		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
949		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any of the protected areas within South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
949		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species has been recorded from the mountainous areas of Central Asia (eastern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan), western China (northern Xinjiang and Gansu), northern Afghanistan, North West Frontier Province in Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir (Rossolimo 1989; Rossolimo and Pavlinov 1992; Rossolimo <em>et al</em>. 1994; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded from 1,500 to 3,600 m asl.
949		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is associated with rocky outcrops in alpine grasslands and shrublands (Smith and Xie 2008). It breeds twice each year, with an average litter size of between four and five young (Smith and Xie 2008).
949		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
949		threats	eng	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing of the species habitat by domestic livestock (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005)
950		conservation	eng	Approximately 20% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In the China Red List is listed as Not Applicable; in the Russia Red List is listed as Least Concern. Further research is recommended.
950		distribution	eng	Occurs at low to middle altitudes throughout the Gobi and Mongol Altai of S Mongolia and the Tuva region of Russia. One record from E Tian Shan, Xinjiang.  Occurs at elevations of 900 to 2,500 m.<br/><br/>In Mongolia occurs in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Trans Altai Govi Desert, Govi Altai Mountain Range and parts of Dzungarian Govi Desert (Bannikov, 1954).
950		habitat	eng	Inhabits mountain-steppe habitats, associated with juniper, honey suckle, currant, cornel, goose berry, dog-rose, willow and wormwood bushes. This species lives between the roots of bushes. Herbivorous.  A female captured in June was lactating and had six placental scars.
950		population	eng	No population data are available at present.
950		threats	eng	No available data.
951		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures are required.
951		distribution	eng	Mountains in NE Siberia from Lena River to Bering Strait. Absent in Kamchatka. Found from sea level to 1,500-2,000 m asl.
951		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky habitats from sea coast to mountains. In Chukotka inhabits bald mountains and  river valleys where rocky areas combined with grass vegetation. In southern part of the area found in subalpine belt. Feeds mostly on mosses and lichens, less on shrubs and grasses. Reproduces only once per summer, with exception of Southern Yakutia, where two litters per summer have been registered (Revin, 1989).
951		population	eng	Population size is usually low. In Chukotka population density was 7-12 individuals per ha (Chernyavskii, 1984).
951		threats	eng	No major threats to the species. Distribution is fragmented and some of isolates might need protection.
952		conservation	eng	Approximately 15% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In the Red Lists of China and Russia is listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
952		distribution	eng	Distributed in mountains from Altai (Southern Siberia) to Trans-Baikal region, Mongolia and China (N Xinjiang). <br/><br/>In Mongolia found in rocky fields of alpine and sub-alpine habitats around Munkhkhairkhan Mountain in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Tarvagatai Mountain in Hangai Mountain Range (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), and Munkh Saridag Mountain in Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Litvinov, 1982; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).
952		habitat	eng	Lives in conifer forest and mixed deciduous/conifer forest on rocky mountain slopes. Inhabits rocky alpine habitats at elevations of around 2,450 m, often found around cereal vegetation in the mountainous regions.
952		population	eng	No data are available at present.
952		threats	eng	Natural wildfires are believed to be a potential threat to local populations, although little is known about this species at present.
953		conservation	eng	It is not known from any of the protected areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
953		distribution	eng	This species appears to be limited to a few locations in India and Pakistan. It has been recorded from locations in Jammu and Kashmir and two locations from North West Frontier Province (Agrawal 2000; Ellerman 1961). It has been recorded from 2,600 m to 4,300 m asl.
953		habitat	eng	This species is associated with temperate montane forests, where it can be encountered in rocky areas, on cliffs, in caves and among sparse forested areas (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
953		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
953		threats	eng	War, civil unrest and loss of habitat due to human encroachment are the major threats faced by the species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
954		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Nanda Devi National Park. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
954		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern India, where it is distributed in the western Himalayas from Kulu Valley in Himachal Pradesh to Kumaon in Uttarakhand (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It has been recorded from 2,500 to 4,300 m asl.
954		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal, colonial and herbivorous. It lives in subtropical and temperate montane rocky areas (including cliffs and peaks), extending from the coniferous treeline to the snowline (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
954		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
954		threats	eng	Major threats are from overgrazing by livestock of the species habitat, human settlement and general disturbance (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
955		conservation	eng	Approximately 10% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
955		distribution	eng	Distributed in lowland dry rocky steppes from Tuva, through Mongolia (with the exception of western and north-eastern parts of the country) and N China.
955		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid and semiarid grassland and scrubland between the upper limits of coniferous forest and the edge of snow line. Found in forest-steppe, steppe and mountain-steppe habitats associated with juniper and alpine meadows and rocky meadow outcrops.
955		population	eng	No data are available at present.
955		threats	eng	No available data.
956		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Makalu Barun National Park and Saga Matha National Park in Nepal. In South Asia, general field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
956		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from northern South Asia and western and central China. In South Asia it has been recorded from Jammu and Kashmir, central Nepal and probably occurs in Bhutan (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). The records for this species from the Baltistan and Gilgit areas, as reported by Roberts (1997), need to be examined and could probably be <em>Alticola roylei</em>. It is inferred to be widely distributed in areas above 4,000 m asl in the Himalayas although only a few records exist in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been widely recorded from Xizang, southern Xinjiang, Qinghai and Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008).
956		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane areas, where it inhabits temperate forest, upper limits of coniferous forest, scrubland, semi-arid and arid grassland, rocky areas to the edge of the snow line (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). It breeds twice a year with a litter size of four or five young (Smith and Xie 2008).
956		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
956		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.
958		conservation	eng	Approximately 15% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China, Russia and Kazakhstan listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
958		distribution	eng	Dry steppes of lower and middle mountain belts (400 to 3000 m asl) in E Kazakhstan, Altai Mts (Russia), NW Mongolia and China( N Xinjiang) (Ma <em>et al.</em>, 1987; Musser and Carleton, 2005; Pavlinov and Rossolimo, 1987). Found at Hovd in Mongol Altai Mountain Range in the north-western corner of Mongolia (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).
958		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky slopes and eroding outcrops with narrow cavities and crevices. Constructs piles of stone and debris at the entrance to its crevice.  Diurnal.  Feeds on grass stems and seeds, rarely small animals. Constructs big wintering nests and stores vegetation in crevices for consumption through winter. Colonial. In China has at least three litters per breeding season, in northern part of the area (Russia and Kazakhstan) two litters recorded. Specimens with between 7-11 embryos have been reported, in northern part 5-7 young per litter.
958		population	eng	No data are available at present.
958		threats	eng	No available data.
959		conservation	eng	In Russia and Mongolia (approximately 40% of the species’ range) occurs within protected areas. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
959		distribution	eng	The Altai Mtns and Tuva region, N Khubsugul Lake Valley, S Bailkal Lake Valley, and nearby regions in NW Mongolia.<br/>In Mongolia north-western Mongol Altai Mountain Range, northern Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl Mountain Range, and northern Hangai Mountain Range (Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).
959		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky parts of mountain steppe habitats, associated with juniper and alpine meadows. This species feeds on green parts of plants, storing hay as a winter food source.
959		population	eng	No data are available at present.
959		threats	eng	No available data.
977		conservation	eng	The species is protected by sub-national and national legislation. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and on the national and sub-national Red Data Books. It is present in the protected areas of the Tramuntana mountains. The Balearic Government and Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust have undertaken captive-breeding, re-introduction and other conservation initiatives. At least 10 populations have been successfully reintroduced. Re-introductions of animals from the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust stopped in 2002, but a new captive-breeding facility now exists on Mallorca, and re-introductions are expected to resume. However, as a result of the recent discovery of disease, a recommendation was made in 2004 to the Balearic Government to halt the re-introduction programme. A new recovery programme for the species is now being developed. There is a need to closely monitor populations of this species, especially with regard to the recent detection of the chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in introduced animals (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008). A systematic programme is in place to remove <em>Natrix maura</em> from the range of the species.
977		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra Tramuntana of northern Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. The present altitudinal range is from 10-850 m asl. Its area of occupancy is less than 10km², but slowly increasing as a result of intensive conservation action.
977		habitat	eng	It is currently found only in small streams deeply carved into limestone mountains. The presence of the species is positively associated with steep slopes. Breeding takes place in the small streams that persist as pools in summer. A few populations occur by man-made water sources (cattle troughs, containers, rain tanks etc.) in open mountainous country; these are within the river basins of nearby canyon-living populations. Animals are generally found in rock crevices and under stones. This species does not tolerate serious habitat degradation. The distribution of predators on the species is negatively associated with elevation, and reproductive success is positively associated with elevation.
977		population	eng	The population is approximately 500-1,500 adult pairs (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997; Arnold 2003). There are approximately 25, mostly isolated, populations. The total population is slowly increasing following coordinated recovery efforts, following a long period of decline and near extinction. The current increase, which probably started around the time that the first re-introductions were made in 1989, has been maintained even during years of drought, notably in 1999-2000. The population trend in this species is monitored through annual tadpole counts, the counts for 2004 (over 30,000 tadpoles) being the highest on record. The increase in numbers in established populations is not dependent upon continued re-introductions. However, it is unlikely that new populations would be established without re-introductions.
977		threats	eng	The major threats are predation by the introduced Viperine Snake (<em>Natrix maura</em>), and competition for space with Perez's Frog (<em>Rana perezi</em>). Development of tourism and human settlements, specifically the increased need for water resources (including damming and canalization of streams), is an additional threat. The threats are not likely to decrease, and so the current recovery programme needs to be continued more or less indefinitely. One isolated re-introduced population was impacted by an unidentified non-fungal disease in 2002 which killed some tadpoles. This disease did not recur in 2003 and 2004. Chytridiomycosis has been identified in the wild population, with the source of this chytrid infection traced to reintroduced captive-bred animals from Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, UK (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008).
979		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>obstetricans</em>). It is listed in regional Red Data Books and is present in the protected areas of Parque Nacional Sierra Morena, Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, and the Natural Park of Cazorla, Segura y las Villas. Protection measures in Castilla-La Mancha, Andalusia, such as restoration and construction of new breeding habitats, are under way.
979		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of south-eastern Spain. It occurs at altitudes of 700-2,140m asl (Sierra Nevada, Almería).
979		habitat	eng	The species is present in pine and oak forests, most often on calciferous substrate, in open, very rocky landscapes. Adults occur in rock fissures and on stones next to water sources. Reproduction and larval development takes place in permanent mountain streams, man-made reservoirs and cattle troughs, and the larvae may take a long time to mature. Almost all known breeding habitats are human-modified water bodies.
979		population	eng	Populations of this species are very fragmented, many of them confined to isolated mountains and valleys. It is relatively common in the Alcaraz, Segura, and Cazorla mountains, but it is rare in drier mountains (Filabres, Baza, Gádor), where it is associated with springs. Populations in drier areas can consist of only a few adults.
979		threats	eng	The species is threatened by loss of suitable breeding habitat as a result of excessive water withdrawal, droughts, and modernization of agricultural practices leading to the abandonment of cattle troughs and other man-made water sources. A potential future threat is the fungal disease chytridiomycosis, which has already impacted the related <em>Alytes obstetricans</em> in Spain.
980		conservation	eng	The species is considered to be Near Threatened in Austria, but was previously listed as Category A2, a category equivalent to Endangered (Glöer 2002). Its habitat should be protected and communication actions launched to raise awareness on the existence of this species. More research on the population and habitat trends is needed.
980		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Austria, where it was originally known from a single locality, a spring near Kalter Brunnen, Kleinzell, NÖ, Austria. It is now recorded from scattered locations in the northern limestone alps (Reischütz and Reischütz, 2007).
980		habitat	eng	The species is probably present in subterranean waters of this karst region where it has been recorded from 12 springs.
980		population	eng	Usually found as dead shells in outflow from springs, the species can easily be overlooked.
980		threats	eng	The major threats to the subterranean waters are pollution and overabstraction of water from the springs, however these threats are localised, so the species is less threatened than other taxa, but subpopulations can easily be destroyed through activities affecting the groundwater.
984		conservation	eng	Policy-based actions needed as well as increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
984		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Sigi Forest in east Usambara Mts in Tanzania.
984		habitat	eng	Small forest streams, closed canopy.
984		population	eng	Its known geographic range is very small, and it is estimated that there are less than 500 individuals left within declining populations.
984		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a potential threat to the species. No immediate threats are known to be affecting the main population of this species known within the Amani-Sigi Forest Reserve. Other populations in the vicinity are already extinct or on the border of extinction due to forest destruction and water pollution (see Clausnitzer 2003).
1079		habitat	eng	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.
1080		habitat	eng	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.
1086		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the species include: further surveys of the islands, taxonomic and genetic research, and monitoring of the population. <br/> <br/>The seven marine iguana subspecies described to date have been based on morphology. The taxonomic status of the ten subpopulations of <em>A. cristatus</em> is unclear. Taxonomic/genetic research is recommended for the different island subpopulations to establish whether any of them should be reclassified. Additionally, the status of seven of the ten subpopulations is unknown. Populations on different islands face different threats and should be included in future surveys.
1086		distribution	eng	The marine iguana occurs on the Galápagos Islands of Baltra, Daphne, Darwin, Marchena, Pinzon, Rabida, Santa Fe, Seymor, Sin Nombre and Wolf. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 500 km². Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males.
1086		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
1086		population	eng	The global population size is currently unknown. Although the island subpopulations listed below are currently classified as <em>A. cristatus</em>, there has been no attempt to evaluate these subpopulations for subspecific status (i.e., they may not all be <em>A. cristatus</em>). Seven of these islands with supposed <em>A. cristatus</em> subpopulations have never been surveyed or studied. Numbers of iguanas in each of the subpopulations are estimated at: <br/> <br/>Marchena = 4,000–10,000; Rabida = 1,000–2,000; Santa Fe = 15,000–30,000; Baltra = unknown; Daphne = unknown; Darwin = unknown; Pinzon = unknown; Seymor = 300? Sin Nombre = unknown; Wolf = unknown.
1086		threats	eng	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality. The 2001 "Jessica" oil spill had a particularly severe immediate effect on the Santa Fe subpopulation, comparable to the 85% mortality caused by el Niño events. Introduced predators may be having a negative effect on the Baltra subpopulation,
1087		conservation	eng	Protected in the De Hoek, New Agatha and Woodbush Forest Reserves. Research needed to document the natural history of this species.
1087		distribution	eng	Woodbush Forest and New Agatha Forest Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Recorded only from the far northern Drakensberg escarpment, between Haenertsburg, New Agatha and Tzaneen (South Africa).
1087		habitat	eng	Afromontane forest and adjacent grasslands in Northeastern Mountain Grassland of Limpopo Province (Savanna biome). Also occurs in cultivated lands and young pine plantations, where it coexists with Common Molerats (<em>Cryptomys hottentotus</em>). Little is known about the ecology of this species.
1087		population	eng	Locally common; most numerous in moist soils near watercourses and ponds.
1087		threats	eng	The distribution of populations is highly-localized and the preferred habitats of the species are threatened by commercial forestry operations. In the former Transvaal Province, this species was given the highest regional priority score for mammals (Freitag and van Jaarsveld 1997).
1089		conservation	eng	Two of the three known populations are protected within the Kruger National Park and the Nylsvley Nature Reserve.
1089		distribution	eng	Recorded from three isolated subpopulations: the Willows (type locality), Shere and Tierpoort in Tshwane (Pretoria), Gauteng (here assessed also as a distinct subpopulation); Nylsvley Provincial Nature Reserve in Limpopo Province; and Numbi Gate, Pretoriuskop and Matjulwana districts of Kruger National Park, in the lowveld of Mpumalanga. Skulls from owl pellets at Witkoppen Cave, ca. 25 km east of Nyslvley Nature Reserve, represent this species, suggesting that it may occur more widely throughout the sandy Sprinkbok Flats. A specimen that may be this species was recently (March 2003) caught at Malelane in Mpumalanga, but genetic data are required to confirm this (analyses currently underway). If this specimen is indeed a <em>N. julianae</em>, this species' range in the lowveld may also be more extensive than previously thought.
1089		habitat	eng	This species is confined to sandy soils, often pockets of weathered sandstone associated with rocky ridges, in the savanna biome of South Africa, and marginally into the grassland biome in the Pretoria district. The population on Nylsvlei floodplain occurs in Clay Thorn Bushveld and the population at Pretoria in Rocky Highveld Grassland, whereas in the Kruger National Park this species occurs in Sour Lowveld Bushveld. Common in well-irrigated gardens. Absent from grasslands on the heavier soils of the Mpumalanga escarpment where the larger-sized <em>A. septentrionalis</em> and <em>A. robustus</em> instead occur.
1089		population	eng	Locally common, with 2–3 individuals/ha in prime habitat. However, dispersion is patchy and clumped owing to specialized habitat requirements.
1089		threats	eng	The type population on Bronberg ridge outside Tshwane (Pretoria) is being severely impacted by intensive urbanization and a mining operation, and is here treated as a distinct subpopulation. While the other two subpopulations occur within protected areas, there are no intermediate distribution records suggesting gene flow between them, and the Nylsvley subpopulation also occurs in farmlands (adjoining the Nylsvley Nature Reserve) that are subject to habitat alteration and potential degradation, though the impact thereof on this subpopulation is unknown.
1093		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species in the wild, before implementing the appropriate conservation and restoration measures, which might include captive breeding. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
1093		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded in the central highlands of the State of Mexico, near the city of Toluca, in the Río Lerma and the Lerma Lake, and around Almolya, at 2,800-3,000m asl. It is possible that this taxon is more widespread that current records indicate, but more work is needed to confirm this.
1093		habitat	eng	It is a variable species, with individuals capable of reaching sexual maturity either in the metamorphosed or larval stage. Metamorphosed individuals spend most of the time on land in grassland habitat. It breeds in streams, lakes and moderately deep-water reservoirs.
1093		population	eng	While believed to be extinct in Lerma Lake, there is no recent information on the populations around Almoyo, and the species might persist in wetlands in the general area.
1093		threats	eng	The extremely high degree of pollution of the rivers and pools where this species breeds has contributed to its decline. There is also a serious problem of habitat loss due to urban expansion. In addition, animals have been captured for food consumption, while introduced predatory fish might also be a threat.
1095		conservation	eng	Conservation action is focusing on raising the profile of Lake Xochimilco through conservation education and a nature tourism initiative, coupled with work on habitat restoration and bioremediation. A species action plan has been drafted. There are several captive colonies around the world, since the species is used in physiological and biomedical research, as well as in the pet trade, but the re-introduction of captive-bred axolotls is not recommended until threats can be mitigated, and disease and genetic risks to the wild populations assessed. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico and is in process of being amended to a higher risk category. Although this species is currently on CITES Appendix II, it is currently under the process of "Periodic Review of species included in CITES Appendices".
1095		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Mexico, on the southern edge of Mexico City, in canals and wetlands in the general vicinity of Xochimilco (including outside the Xochimilco city limits, around the Chalco wetland). The animals are not homogeneously distributed through their range, and congregate in particular places. Records from close to downtown Mexico City in the Chapultepec Lake could refer to either this species or <em>Ambystoma velasci</em>, and require confirmation. It was originally found in Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco (and presumably in the connecting lakes Texcoco and Zumpango), but it has disappeared from most of its range.
1095		habitat	eng	This species is native to the ancient system of water channels and lakes in Mexico City. It requires deep-water lakes (both natural and artificial canals) with abundant aquatic vegetation. Structures such as plants are needed to lay eggs. It is a paedomorphic species, living permanently in water, and does not undergo complete metamorphosis.
1095		population	eng	The surviving wild population is very small. Although populations are difficult to assess, recent surveys covering almost all of its known distribution range have usually captured fewer than 100 individuals (e.g., during 2002 and 2003, more than 1,800 net casts were made along Xochimilco canals covering 39,173m² and this resulted in a catch of only 42 specimens). In a study covering a span of six years (from 1998 to 2004), axolotl density had reduced from 0.006-org/ m2 to 0.001-org/ m2, although it is thought that this reduction could also be due to its own population dynamics (Zambrano 2006). A recent scientific survey revealed no axolotls, although wild-caught animals are still found in the local market, which indicates that fishermen still know where to find them. There has not been a density study of the Chalco population, but evidence suggests that the population there is small and, furthermore, Chalco is a highly unstable system that runs the risk of disappearing in the near future.
1095		threats	eng	The desiccation and pollution of the canal system and lakes in Xochimilco and Chalco, as a result of urbanization, as well as the traditional consumption of the species by local people, is threatening the survival of this species. Increased tourist activity is poorly regulated and adds further pollution (Zambrano, 2006). The species is also captured for medicinal purposes. The harvesting is targeted at animals that are less than one year old. It was formerly also captured for the international pet trade, although probably all animals in the international trade are now of captive origin. Introduced fishes (tilapia and carp) have increased to high abundances (a recent study collected 600kg of tilapia in one small channel using a 100m net) and have also impacted axolotls through competition and predation. The animals are also being affected by disease, probably spread by invasive species, and as a result of poor water quality. Although the water regime has changed in the last 10 years, and it is reported that pollution levels are decreasing, factors such as very high levels of bacterial contamination could still pose a serious threat.
1098		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several state and regional parks and other at least semi-protected areas. Most populations are on private land; an estimated 5% of known populations occur on government-owned lands. In Santa Barbara County, all of the known and potential habitat is largely on unprotected private land (USFWS 2000). As of August 2005, the California Tiger Salamander is protected by California law as a threatened species.
1098		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution in west-central California, USA: coast ranges between Sonoma and Santa Barbara counties, Central Valley and surrounding foothills from southern Colusa County to north-western Kern County on the west side of the valley and southern Butte County to northern Tulare County on the east side. It has been eliminated from much of its former range in the Central Valley as a result of agricultural and urban development (Stebbins 1985b), but still occurs throughout most of its overall historical range and can be locally common (Trenham <em>et al.</em> 2000). About 80% of all extant occurrences are in Alameda, Contra Costa, Madera, Merced, Monterey, San Benito, and Santa Clara counties, with 30% of all occurrences in Alameda County. It has recently been rediscovered on the San Francisco Peninsula (Lagunita Lake, Stanford University) (Barry and Shaffer 1994). Jennings (1996; Herpetological Review 27:147) provides an old record from San Mateo County. It ranges from near sea level to 1,054m asl.
1098		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland or open woodland habitats, where it lives in vacant or mammal-occupied burrows (e.g., California Ground Squirrel, Valley Pocker Gopher) (Trenham 2001), and occasionally in other underground retreats, throughout most of the year. Eggs are laid on submerged stems and leaves, usually in shallow ephemeral or semi permanent pools and ponds that fill during heavy winter rains, sometimes in permanent ponds; adults spend little time in breeding sites.
1098		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown, but certainly exceeds 10,000. However, it appears to be in decline due to habitat loss. It has been eliminated from 55-58% of historic breeding sites, and reportedly about 75% of the historical vernal pool-breeding habitat has been lost (Holland 1998) (though some question the reliability of this estimate). Barry and Shaffer (1994) stated that this salamander soon would be in danger of extinction throughout its range, and they noted that it already is gravely threatened in the San Francisco Bay Area and in the San Joaquin Valley. But Trenham <em>et al.</em> (2000) noted that the species still occurs in most of the historical range and can be locally common. In Santa Barbara County, of 14 documented breeding sites, half have been destroyed or have suffered severe degradation since mid-1999 (USFWS 2000).
1098		threats	eng	Most of the remaining range, including population strongholds in eastern Alameda and Contra Costa counties and areas south and west of Millerton Lake in Madera and Fresno counties, is imminently threatened by urban development, conversion of natural habitat to agriculture, introduction of exotic predatory animals (bullfrogs, crayfish, various fishes) that temporarily may occupy salamander breeding habitat, and/or other anthropogenic factors (e.g., rodent control programs, vehicle-related mortality). Reduced ground squirrel populations might reduce the availability of burrows, which are important habitats during the dry season. The use of pesticides for mosquito abatement might reduce food resources for salamanders. Introduction of non-native tiger salamanders might harm populations through hybridization and/or competition. Contaminated runoff from roads might adversely affect salamanders in breeding sites. Localities in the Diablo Range, inner Coast Ranges, and Sierra Nevada foothills are not significantly threatened at present, and there are still a relatively large number of remaining breeding localities. In Santa Barbara County, plans to convert remaining breeding areas from grazing to intensive agriculture are being developed and implemented (USFWS 2000). Five of the six existing habitat complexes supporting this population suffered moderate to severe levels of habitat destruction or degradation between 1996 and 2000 (USFWS 2000). See USFWS (2000) for further information on threats to the Santa Barbara County population.
1099		conservation	eng	This species occurs on several managed areas (see USFWS 1997). A substantial number of populations are on public land (USFWS 1997). Sites include Apalachicola and Osceola national forests and St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge in Florida, Fort Stewart in Georgia, and Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina. Outlook on private lands is poor.<br/><br/>Activities aimed at restoring/maintaining the ecological integrity of mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and associated ephemeral wetlands are needed to preserve extant populations of flatwoods salamanders.<br/><br/>Recovery is directly linked with the ability to preserve existing habitat and restore degraded habitat. Given the drastic decline in the extent of longleaf pine-dominated communities (Ware et al. 1993), elevation of flatwoods salamander populations above present levels is unlikely. Restoration of degraded mesic, seasonally inundated longleaf pine flatwoods and savannas has not been attempted, and may only be feasible in cases where soil disturbance is minimal. The effectiveness of reintroduction into areas where extirpated is unknown.<br/><br/>High quality occurrences include several wetlands within a matrix of pine flatwoods and savanna. Based on the maximum distance adults are known to travel between reproductive and nonreproductive habitat (1.7 km), each breeding site should be surrounded by at least 10 sq km of terrestrial habitat. Longterm perpetuation of a viable population of flatwoods salamanders will presumably require protection of a larger area of terrestrial habitat encompassing a suite of alternative breeding sites (Travis 1994). A suite of wetlands guards against extirpation at any one breeding site, since animals can immigrate from nearby wetlands. The minimum viable population size needed to sustain a population longterm is not known. Preliminary drift fence data at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, suggests that breeding population sizes are low relative to other Ambystoma (Palis, unpubl. data). However, this may be a site specific observation as larger breeding migrations have been observed elsewhere in the range (R. Moulis, pers. comm.). Presently, there is no method of assessing an occurrence based on the number of animals captured at a drift fence or the number of larvae inhabiting a breeding site.<br/><br/>Maintenance of intact mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and ephemeral wetlands by mimicking natural forces, such as lightning-season fire, is the most appropriate form of management. On sites where timber extraction is practiced, several precautions should be taken to limit the impact to flatwoods salamanders. Tree harvest should be restricted to dry periods to prevent soil compaction and rutting. Clearcutting should be replaced with selective timber harvest and natural regeneration enhanced by fire, particularly lightning-season fire. If off-site species such as slash pine have been planted, they should be removed and replaced with longleaf pine at densities found in nature. Mechanical preparation of the soil should be avoided. If a site supports mature, closed-canopy pine plantations, they should be thinned with as little disturbance to the soil and remaining groundcover as possible. The natural hydrology and fire regime of terrestrial and aquatic habitats should be restored on sites where altered. <br/><br/>The wetland/upland ecotone appears to be critical to successful flatwoods salamander reproduction. Some areas are in need of periodic burning to clear encroaching shrubby vegetation that shades out herbaceous ground cover (Palis and Jensen 1995). Maintenance of a graminaceous ecotone and breeding site will require burning in the lightning-season when wetlands are dry or nearly dry (Huffman and Blanchard 1990) . Bury et al. (1980) recommended that wiregrass not be burned in winter (destructive to wiregrass [used for egg attachment] and possibly to salamanders directly). Palis and Jensen (1995) stated that winter burns may be needed to avoid catastrophic fires when warm-season burning is initiated. <br/><br/>Mechanical disturbance of the wetland-upland ecotone should be avoided. The practice of "protecting" wetlands by encircling them with plow line should be abandoned. Where present, berms should be removed and drainage ditches filled. <br/><br/>Breeding ponds should not be dredged or stocked with fishes.<br/><br/>Demographic data are needed to better understand the natural history and, in particular, factors that limit population size (e.g., egg, larval, and metamorph survivorship; competition with other species). <br/><br/>Longterm drift-fence studies are needed at several nearby sites to examine inter-pond salamander movement and to delineate the range of natural population fluctuations. <br/><br/>More information is needed on the extent of upland habitat required to support a population breeding in a particular pond. Radiotelemetry or radioactive tagging of adults could be used to address this need. <br/><br/>Effects on salamander populations of different forms of resource management and of anthropogenic habitat disturbance need to be examined (Palis and Jensen 1995).
1099		distribution	eng	Range includes the lower southeastern Coastal Plain of the United States from southern South Carolina southward to Marion County (north-central Florida) and disjunctly westward to the Apalachicola and Flint rivers (mid-Panhandle of Florida and northward) (Pauly et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Based on 37 occurrences, and assuming 4 square kilometers per occurrence (actual value is unknown), area of occupancy would be 148 square kilometers; area of occupancy likely is larger than this.
1099		habitat	eng	The following information pertains to the Ambystoma cingulatum/bishopi complex as a whole.<br/><br/>Post-larval individuals inhabit mesic longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)-wiregrass (Aristida stricta) flatwoods and savannas. The terrestrial habitat is best described as a topographically flat or slightly rolling wiregrass-dominated grassland having little to no midstory and an open overstory of widely scattered longleaf pine. Low-growing shrubs, such as saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), gallberry (Ilex glabra) and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), co-exist with grasses and forbs in the groundcover. Groundcover plant diversity is usually very high. The underlying soil is typically poorly drained sand that becomes seasonally inundated. <br/><br/>Slash pine flatwoods is often cited as the preferred terrestrial habitat of the flatwoods salamander (e.g., Conant and Collins 1991). This may be the result of an error made by Martof (1968) in which he referred to longleaf pine as slash pine (Pinus elliottii). In addition, slash pine now dominates or co-occurs with longleaf pine in many pine flatwoods communities as a result of fire suppression and preferential harvest of longleaf pine (Avers and Bracy 1975). Historically, however, fire-tolerant longleaf pine dominated the flatwoods, whereas slash pine was confined principally to wetlands (Harper 1914, Avers and Bracy 1975). Post-larval individuals are fossorial (live underground) and occupy burrows (Goin 1950, Neill 1951, Mount 1975, Ashton 1992). Presumably, they remain underground during the lightning-season (May through September). Adults are rarely encountered under cover objects at or near breeding sites (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in acidic (pH 3.6-5.6 (Palis, unpubl. data)), tannin-stained ephemeral wetlands (swamps or graminoid-dominated depressions) that range in size from 0.02 to 9.5 ha, and are usually not more than 0.5 m deep (Palis, unpubl. data). The overstory is typically dominated by pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora) and slash pine, but can also include red maple (Acer rubrum), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus). Canopy coverage ranges from near zero to almost 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The midstory, which is often very dense, is most often composed of young of the aforementioned species, myrtle-leaved holly (Ilex myrtifolia), Chapman's St. John's-wort (Hypericum chapmanii), sandweed (Hypericum fasciculatum), titi (Cyrilla racemiflora), storax (Styrax americana), popash (Fraxinus caroliniana), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), vine-wicky (Pieris phillyreifolia), and bamboo-vine (Smilax laurifolia). Depending on closure of the canopy and midstory, the herbaceous groundcover of breeding sites can range from about 5% to nearly 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The groundcover is dominated by graminaceous species, including beakrushes (Rhynchospora spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), panic grasses (Panicum spp.), bluestems (Andropogon spp.), jointtails (Manisurus spp.), three-awned grass (Aristida affinis), plumegrass (Erianthus giganteus), nutrush (Sclera baldwinii) and yellow-eyed grasses (Xyris spp.). The floor of breeding sites is riddled with the burrows of crayfish (genus Procambarus). Breeding sites are typically encircled by a wiregrass-dominated graminaceous ecotone. Breeding sites can include roadside ditches (Anderson and Williamson 1976; Palis, pers. obs.) and borrow pits (D. Stevenson, pers. comm.). Breeding sites often harbor fishes, the most typical species include pygmy sunfishes (Elassoma spp.), mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrookii), and banded sunfish (Enneacanthus obesus) (Palis, unpubl. data). Favorable breeding habitat lacks large predatory fishes. <br/><br/>Before breeding sites fill with water, eggs are deposited singly or in small groups on the ground beneath leaf litter, under logs and Sphagnum mats, at the base of grasses, shrubs or trees, or at the entrance to crayfish burrows (Anderson and Williamson 1976). In wetlands that fill incrementally, eggs are deposited amid graminaceous vegetation at the edge (J. Palis, pers. obs.). Egg deposition in shallow water also has been reported (Ashton 1992). Larvae hide amid inundated graminaceous vegetation by day, but will enter the water column at night (J. Palis, pers. obs.).
1099		population	eng	Surveys completed since 1990 indicate that 37 populations are known from across the historical range, with 6 in Georgia, 3 in South Carolina, and the remainder in Florida (USFWS 2005).<br/><br/>Secretive habits of adults make population estimates difficult. Total adult population size likely is at least several thousand, but actual number is unknown.<br/><br/>During extensive surveys of historical (pre-1990) breeding ponds, researchers recorded the species at only a small minority of formerly inhabited sites. The salamander has lost much of its former habitat in Georgia and South Carolina. Currently, the species presumably is declining in concert with continued loss of remaining intact pine flatwoods community (particularly degradation of groundcover). The rate of decline is unknown.
1099		threats	eng	Potential threats include conversion of pine flatwoods habitat for agriculture, silviculture, or commercial/residential development; drainage or enlargement (with subsequent introduction of predatory fishes) of breeding ponds; habitat alteration resulting from suppression of fire; mortality and collecting losses associated with crayfish harvest; and highway mortality during migration.  <br/><br/>The principal threat is habitat destruction as a result of agriculture, silviculture, and residential and commercial development. Modern silvicultural methods rely on altering soil hydrology, suppressing fire, shortening timber rotations, and replacing widely-spaced longleaf pine with dense plantations of slash pine. Loss of groundcover vegetation due to mechanical soil preparation, fire suppression, and shading by overstories of slash pine have been implicated in the decline in north Florida (Means et al. 1994, 1996).<br/><br/>Larvae are threatened in some wetlands by the harvest of crayfish as bait. Bait harvesters drag large hardware cloth buckets through inundated vegetation, dump the contents of the bucket on the ground, and then sort out the crayfish. Flatwoods salamander larvae taken in this manner are left to die or are collected as bait (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>The effect of herbicide or fertilization application on flatwoods salamanders is unknown. However, fertilization of plantations often results in eutrophication of wetlands, promoting algal blooms. Larval flatwoods salamanders have not been observed in algal-choked wetlands (J. Palis, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Ditching or berming of small, isolated pond-cypress wetlands, a common practice when establishing slash pine plantations on mesic sites, results in lowered water levels and shortened hydroperiods (Marois and Ewel 1983). These hydrologic perturbations could prevent successful flatwoods salamander reproduction by preventing egg inundation or stranding larvae before they are capable of metamorphosis. Altered hydrology, in association with fire exclusion, results in a shift in dominance from pond-cypress to broad-leaved hardwoods that reduce herbaceous groundcover vegetation through shading (Marois and Ewel 1983). This may be detrimental since A. cingulatum larvae take shelter in herbaceous vegetation during the day.<br/><br/>Ephemeral pond-cypress depressions are sometimes converted into permanent water bodies, rendering them unsuitable for flatwoods salamander reproduction (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>A constant winter-burn fire plan could be detrimental (Ashton 1992). <br/><br/>See USFWS (1999) for additional information.
1137		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forest habitats.
1137		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This bat occurs from Amazonian Brazil, Guianas, Panama, Venezuela, Trinidad, Bonaire Isl (Netherlands Antilles)(Simmons 2005). In Venezuela, the species occurs from lowlands to 2,100 m, but in Venezuela most have been taken below 1,500 m (Handley, 1976).
1137		habitat	eng	Ecology and habits are poorly known; usually found in lowland, evergreen forest near streams or moist areas, occasionally in clearings, second growth, or deciduous forest (Reid, 1997). They are frugivores. Occasionally can feed on nectar.
1137		population	eng	Relatively common and patchily distributed. Can be locally common.
1137		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species range.
1140		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
1140		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few records in Somalia and eastern Ethiopia.
1140		habitat	eng	It is found in open, dry short grassland and also in areas with scattered shrubs. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
1140		population	eng	Historical records suggest that this species may be uncommon.
1140		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by severe overgrazing by domestic goats, sheep and cattle.
1141		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within its range. Establishment of a captive- breeding population has been proposed. There is urgency in initiating conservation action in those parts of its range where this is feasible, e.g., the southern Ogaden. Negative factors continue to impact on the species and its status is likely to deteriorate unless these can be mitigated.
1141		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ogaden region of SE Ethiopia and adjoining areas of N and C Somalia.<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, dibatag formerly occurred widely in the vast plains of the Ogaden region in the eastern lowlands. An extensive ground survey revealed that the dibatag is now rare or absent in the northern Ogaden but still occurs locally within a reasonably large area in the southern Ogaden, where it appears to be quite common in some localities (Wilhelmi 1997). In contrast to the northern Ogaden, which has a relatively high density of settlements and concentrations of armed pastoralists and their herds, the southern Ogaden has lower human densities and extensive areas where the natural flora and fauna appear to be largely intact.<br/><br/>It once occurred widely in central Somalia and on the Haud Plateau. By the early 1980s it had disappeared from large parts of its former range but still occurred locally in reasonable numbers in parts of the central coastal hinterland. Local people indicated that it was still present in this region in the late 1980s, but no more recent information is available. This area has been affected by 20 years of civil and military conflict as well as drought and overgrazing and its status is widely considered to have deteriorated, along with that of other antelope species such as <em>Nanger soemmerringii</em> and <em>Oryx beisa</em> that are easier to monitor (Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. 2006).
1141		habitat	eng	Dibatag inhabit semi-arid, dense to scattered bush, low- to medium-height thornbush savanna and plains with thicket/grassland mosaics. They prefer sandy to moderately gravelled, ferrous oxide rich red soils, characterized by numerous termite mounds (Wilhelmi, in press). Their altitudinal range is approximately 200 to 1,200 m (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1986).
1141		population	eng	Based on the results of Scott’s expedition in 1959, the population size was estimated at approximately 12,000 individuals with an average density of one animal per km² (Schomber 1966). After three decades of political unrest and armed conflicts a cautious estimate assumed a total population in the very low thousands (East 1999).<br/><br/>The results of recent field surveys in the Ogaden region are better than expected and the finding that this species still occurs in a large area is encouraging. Estimates based on observations and counts suggest a population of about 1,500 in the Ogaden (Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. 2006). The total surviving population of the Dibatag is unknown, but is clearly not large. Assuming a total remaining range of 10,000 km² and an average population density of 0.1 to 0.3 per km² would suggest a total population in the low thousands. Since Dibatag are very secretive, it is likely that more accurate and even higher population estimates will be found, once thorough field work is possible.
1141		threats	eng	Drought and habitat degradation due to overgrazing affect the whole range. In Somalia, extreme political instability and periodic civil and military conflicts over the past 20 years (and continuing), and lack of any central government control have resulted in a prevalence of weapons, over-exploitation of wildlife, and lack of protection for wildlife. Uncontrolled exploitation of trees and scrub for charcoal, exported in huge quantities to the Gulf states is likely to be negatively affecting the habitat.<br/><br/>Hunting is also a factor in Ethiopia, but the dibatag’s alertness and the difficulty in hunting it in dense bush have enabled it to survive locally in viable numbers. Local people consider that it is very shy and more alert than any other antelope species, and that it is almost impossible to hunt dibatag intentionally, even though its meat is preferred because of its excellent taste.
1149		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed as Threatened by the California Fish and Game Commission and it is a federal C2 candidate taxon. <br/><br/>Significant populations occur on the Carrizo Plain National Monument (encompasses most of the Carrizo Plain and Elkhorn Plain). The national monument designation applies only to public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management. Existing private lands within the monument boundaries are not affected by the designation. The overall Carrizo Plain, which includes some state owned land, will continue to be jointly managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the California Department of Fish and Game, and The Nature Conservancy. <br/><br/>Small populations are also found within two preserves in Kern County owned by The Nature Conservancy, and two reserves owned by the California Department of Fish and Game (in Kern County and Tulare County). See California Department of Fish and Game (1990) for brief comments on protected areas inhabited by this species (e.g., Elkhorn Plain Ecological Preserve, Carrizo Plain, and others).<br/><br/>The California Department of Fish and Game is involved in several conservation efforts, including the Metropolitan Bakersfield Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP), the California Department of Corrections Electric Fence HCP, the Coles Levee area 2081 Agreement, and the Arco Western Energy HCP.<br/><br/>Acquisition and protection of lands with extant populations of antelope squirrels in the Panoche and Kettleman Hills and on the San Joaquin Valley floor should be the highest priority for this species (Harris and Stearns 1991). Also need to determine the population density for the range of habitats occupied; additional inventories are needed, mostly on private land, and also to monitor populations, and obtain data on demography, dispersal, and reproduction.<br/><br/>USFWS (1998) stated that the actions required to conserve the San Joaquin antelope squirrel, in approximate order of importance, are: 1. Determine habitat management prescriptions on the southern San Joaquin Valley floor. 2. Inventory potential habitat in the Allensworth, Semitropic Ridge, and Kettleman Hills natural areas, and along the western edge of the Valley between Pleasant Valley, Fresno County, and McKittrick Valley-Lokern Area, Kern County. 3. Protect additional habitat in the Pixley National Wildlife Refuge-Allensworth Natural Area. 4. Develop and implement a population monitoring program at sites representative of their existing geographic range. 5. Protect additional habitat in the Panoche Region of western Fresno and eastern San Benito Counties. 6. Protect additional habitat in western Kern County. 7. Protect additional habitat in the Semitropic Ridge Natural Area. 8. Reevaluate the status of San Joaquin antelope squirrels within three years of recovery plan approval.<br/><br/>Management Requirements: Protect habitat from overgrazing and loss of shrub cover; maintain sparse shrub cover and associated species; avoid unnecessary rodenticide use. Care should be taken not to destroy burrows near man-made structures in previously disturbed sites (Biosystems Analysis 1989).
1149		distribution	eng	The species' range is restricted to the central and western San Joaquin Valley and neighbouring areas to the west in the inner Coast Ranges of California in the United States (e.g., Cuyama Valley, Panoche Valley, Carrizo Plain, Elkhorn Plain) (Best <em>et al.</em> 1990). Its elevational range extends from about 50 m asl on the floor of the San Joaquin Valley to around 1,100 m asl in the Temblor Range, but antelope squirrels are not common above about 800 m asl on the ridges and plains west of the San Joaquin Valley proper (Williams 1980; D.F. Williams, unpubl. data). Populations now exist primarily in marginal habitats of low foothills and mountains on the western edge of the San Joaquin Valley; significant populations occur only in western Kern County at Elk Hills and on portions of the Carrizo and Elkhorn plains. In the northern part of the range, low density populations occur in the Panoche and Kettleman hills (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Harris and Stearns 1991).
1149		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of dry flat or rolling terrain, with slopes less than 10-14 degrees, on alluvial and loamy soils, soils with sandy or gravelly texture, or fine-grained soils that are nearly brick-hard when dry. The species inhabits grassy, sparsely shrubby ground (shrubs include saltbush, ephedra, bladder pod, goldenbush, snakeweed, etc.); it also occurs in areas lacking shrubs where giant kangaroo rats are present. <br/><br/>Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) xerophytic stage of alkali desert scrub with shrubs sparsely distributed and with friable soils, at elevations greater than 4,000 feet, (2) annual grassland with less than six inches annual precipitation, friable soils, and abundance of <em>Dipodomys ingens</em>, (3) halophytic stage of alkali desert scrub with shrubs sparsely distributed and with friable soils, at elevations above 2,200 feet, and (4) annual grassland with 7-9 inches annual precipitation and abundance of <em>Dipodomys heermanni</em>. Habitats that are avoided included valley floor areas of alkaline soils, iodine bush, and spring saltbush, probably due to high water tables (Biosystems Analysis 1989). See also Best <em>et al.</em> (1990) for habitat synopsis. These squirrels seldom dig their own burrows; most often they use burrows made by other small mammals. Preferred burrow locations are under shrubs, in the banks of arroyos at the base of alluvial fans, and along roadcuts, pipelines, and drilling platforms (Biosystems Analysis 1989).<br/><br/>Breeding season coincides with availability of green vegetation. Young are born in March, first seen above ground about the first week of April, at which time they gather food. Gestation lasts 26 days. One breeding season per year. Litter size is 6-12 (average nine). May live five plus years, though usual life span is less than one year.<br/><br/>Half of the remaining habitat supports fewer than one animal per hectare, 15% of the remaining habitat supports 3-10 animals per hectare (generally four or fewer per hectare, California Department of Fish and Game 1990). <Spermophilus beecheyi</em>  reportedly may restrict the range of <em>A. nelsoni</em> (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1990). Among several predators, badger is most important. Lives in small groups.<br/><br/>It is omnivorous, and the diet is mainly green vegetation, grass and forb seeds, and insects. It feeds on insects during the dry season, from mid-April to December. Green vegetation is important December-April. Generally stays underground when air temperature is less than 10C (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Little activity in hot weather, when most active in morning and late afternoon. No evidence of hibernation or aestivation, yet reported to become fat in late spring and disappear during hot months (Best <em>et al.</em> 1990).
1149		population	eng	The total population size is unknown. Based on 3-10 squirrels per hectare on 41,300 hectares of the best remaining habitat (Williams 1980), population size would be at least 124,000-413,000. The species is common within the Carrizo Plain National Monument.<br/><br/>This species is represented by several dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations. It occurs at scattered sites in low density throughout much of the historical range. Moderate efforts have been made at locating populations.<br/><br/>The current trend is not well known but, since 1979, populations have disappeared from many of the smaller habitat clusters on the floor of the San Joaquin Valley (Williams 1980, USFWS 1998). However, recent protection efforts in the southwestern San Joaquin Valley likely have slowed the rate of decline, and the species remains common in some protected areas. Probably the rate of decline is less than 30% over the past 10 years.<br/><br/>Prior to cultivation, the area within which this species was distributed was approximately 3.5 million acres (about 14,000 square kilometres = historical extent of occurrence). The species is presently extant in less than 20% of its former range. In 1979, extant, uncultivated habitat (but including land occupied by towns, roads, canals, pipelines, strip mines, airports, oil wells, and other developments) for the species was estimated at 275,200 hectares (680,000 acres, 2,752 sqkm) (Williams 1980). None of the best historical habitat remained. <br/><br/>One study indicated that densities in open Ephedra plots and shrubless plots ranged from 0.8 to 8.0 squirrels per hectare, but all but two sites had densities of four or less per hectare.  Densities on shrubless, grassy dominated sites were equal to or higher than those on shrubby sites (Harris and Stearns, 1991).
1149		threats	eng	The decline is a result of loss of habitat due to agricultural and urban development as well as oil and gas exploration practices. Primary existing threats include loss of habitat due to agricultural development, urbanization, and petroleum extraction, and the use of rodenticides for ground squirrel control. Overgrazing and associated loss of shrub cover is a concern in some areas. These threats will be alleviated by the implementation of the San Joaquin Endangered Species Recovery Plan.
1151		conservation	eng	Algeria<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Algeria:  Belezma, Tassili n?Ajjer, and Ahaggar National Parks, and in Djebel Aissa State Forest (De Smet 1997).<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) Establishing more reserves in the north if the species is to survive in the Saharan Atlas range; 2) Reintroducing Aoudad into Djelfa Hunting Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1974) located in the Haut Plateau (34°40?N, 3°15'E), and into Tlemcen Hunting Reserve (400 ha) in north-west Algeria between Oran and Oujda (34°52'N, l°15'E). <br/><br/>Chad<br/><br/>In Chad, Aoudad are present in the Fada-Archei Faunal Reserve (La Reserve de Faune de Fada Archei) in north-eastern Chad. This was established to preserve Aoudad and other desert species in 1967. Unfortunately, conditions have been difficult in this region since 1972, as a result of political instability and the conflict with Libya. Poaching in the reserve probably takes place and there are military personnel stationed at the nearby town of Fada (Mekonlaou and Daboulaye 1997). <br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) carrying out surveys in the Tibesti and Ennedi mountains, and elsewhere to determine current numbers and actual distributions; 2) consider establishing a protected area, preferably a national park or at least a faunal reserve, in the Tibesti mountains; and 3) improve the levels of protection, especially anti-poaching efforts, staffing and support for Fada-Archei Fauna1 Reserve, as with other protected areas in the country.<br/><br/>Egypt<br/><br/>Aoudad have recently been confirmed as occurring in Gebel Elba Conservation Area (48,000 ha; est. 1986). Assiut University Protected Area was originally set aside in the 1930s to protect Aoudad, but there are no recent reports of the species? presence (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) survey areas previously known to be inhabited by the species; and 2) evaluate the habitat along with the potential for re-introductions.<br/><br/>Libya<br/><br/>It is not known whether Aoudad are protected by law. The species was introduced into Tripoli Nature Reserve (870 ha; est. 1978). It may also occur in Jabel Nefhusa Nature Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1978) in northern Libya in the Jebel Tarabulus range of the Jebel Nefhusa mountains (Tripolitania Region 32°N, 12°50'E), although this reserve does not appear to fall within the suspected distribution of the species (Shackleton and De Smet 1997).  There are captive populations in Sabratha, Surman and the Zoological Garden of Tripoli (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). The latter definitely belongs to the subspecies <em>A. l. fassini</em>.<br/><br/>A population survey is needed to determine the current distribution and status of Aoudad in Libya.<br/><br/>Mali<br/><br/>Aoudad receive no protection nor occur in any protected areas in Mali (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include: 1) conduct censuses and surveys to determine population numbers and distribution within the Adrar des Iforas; and 2) consider the feasibility of establishing a protected area for Aoudad in this region. <br/><br/>Mauritania<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in one protected area in Adrar Mouflon Partial Faunal Reserve (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include censuses to determine current numbers and distribution.<br/><br/>Morocco<br/><br/>Since 1958, the annual ministerial order regulating hunting has severely restricted taking Aoudad. For example, in 1961 the species could be hunted for only three days, and only one day in 1966. Since 1966, the species is fully and permanently protected. Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Morocco, including Eastern High Atlas National Park, Toubkal National Park, and the adjacent Takherkhort Hunting Reserve (1,230 ha). The latter, situated in the western High Atlas mountains, was established in 1967 to preserve the species. Although around 350 to 475 animals occupy the hunting reserve (Mokhtari 2006), grazing by livestock is a serious threat. Animals from the reserve have been used for re-introductions to other areas, including Sochatour?s Tiradine Hunting Reserve. The native vegetation is evergreen oak forest, and the Aoudad is reported to be reproducing, and numbered around 70 animals in 1990. Aoudad also inhabit a number of other hunting reserves, most of which are so small that they are occupied only seasonally and have little significance for conservation of the species (Aulagnier and Thevenot 1997). <br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine the status and distribution of Aoudad in Morocco; 2) Increasing the number of protected areas. Among the most valuable and interesting natural places where Aoudad need protection, three or four national parks or permanent reserves can be proposed: Jbel Grouz and Jbel Maiz (arid hills near Figuig), Jbel Bou Iblane or Jbel Bou Nasser (eastern Middle Atlas), and some areas of rocky argan bush in the Anti-Atlas (between Igherm and Tata); and 3) Hunting and grazing should be strictly forbidden in protected areas.<br/><br/>Niger<br/><br/>All hunting has been banned since 1964 and though this law is enforced by the Nigerien Forest Service, the vast range occupied by the Aoudad, together with manpower limitations and political unrest, limit the effectiveness of anti-poaching efforts. Aoudad only occur in one protected area in Niger, in the vast Reserve Naturelle Nationale de L?Air et du Tenere, in north-central Niger. Created in January 1988, the reserve covers 7,737,000 ha of Saharan desert and Sahara-montane habitat. The reserve may harbor as much as 70% of the total population of Aoudad in Niger (Magin and Newby 1997)<br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Aoudad fall under Schedule II as a protected species, though up to two can be shot by anyone with a class A or D license. None occur in any protected area in the Sudan (Nimir 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) move Aoudad to Schedule I so that it is completely protected; and 2) re-introduction of Aoudad to remaining areas and habitats which are suitable.<br/><br/>Tunisia<br/><br/>In Tunisia, Aoudad has been protected by law since 1966. A re-introduction of Aoudad into the Djebel Chambi National Park began in 1987, when ten animals, originally from Kasserine, were released into a one ha enclosure for later release into the rest of the park. Some of these animals escaped in 1988, and the wild population now numbers 100 animals (DGF 2005). A few animals are held in captivity in the Djebel Bou Hedma National Park, in the Bou Hedma ranges of the Atlas Saharien. Animals are also believed to occur in the proposed Dghoumes National Park (De Smet 1997), and the species was also released in the Oued Dekouk Nature Reserve, south of Tataouine.<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) ensuring the establishment of the new desert national park 50 km east of Tozeur at Dghoumes (this area and the rest of the mountain chain north of the Chott El Fedjadj and Chott El Djerid, are considered good Aoudad habitat); and 2) reconsider the suggestion to release Aoudad into Sidi Toui National Park because the topography is probably too flat to be suitable for them.<br/><br/>Western Sahara<br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine whether or not this species surivives in Western Sahara, and if so, to ascertain its status and distribution; 2) Establishing a protected area for the species if there is a surviving population (for example, in Oued Ed Dahab Province); and 3) Strict control of hunting and of grazing where this species survives.
1151		conservation	eng	Algeria<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Algeria:  Belezma, Tassili n’Ajjer, and Ahaggar National Parks, and in Djebel Aissa State Forest (De Smet 1997).<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) Establishing more reserves in the north if the species is to survive in the Saharan Atlas range; 2) Reintroducing Aoudad into Djelfa Hunting Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1974) located in the Haut Plateau (34°40’N, 3°15'E), and into Tlemcen Hunting Reserve (400 ha) in north-west Algeria between Oran and Oujda (34°52'N, l°15'E). <br/><br/>Chad<br/><br/>In Chad, Aoudad are present in the Fada-Archei Faunal Reserve (La Reserve de Faune de Fada Archei) in north-eastern Chad. This was established to preserve Aoudad and other desert species in 1967. Unfortunately, conditions have been difficult in this region since 1972, as a result of political instability and the conflict with Libya. Poaching in the reserve probably takes place and there are military personnel stationed at the nearby town of Fada (Mekonlaou and Daboulaye 1997). <br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) carrying out surveys in the Tibesti and Ennedi mountains, and elsewhere to determine current numbers and actual distributions; 2) consider establishing a protected area, preferably a national park or at least a faunal reserve, in the Tibesti mountains; and 3) improve the levels of protection, especially anti-poaching efforts, staffing and support for Fada-Archei Fauna1 Reserve, as with other protected areas in the country.<br/><br/>Egypt<br/><br/>Aoudad have recently been confirmed as occurring in Gebel Elba Conservation Area (48,000 ha; est. 1986). Assiut University Protected Area was originally set aside in the 1930s to protect Aoudad, but there are no recent reports of the species’ presence (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) survey areas previously known to be inhabited by the species; and 2) evaluate the habitat along with the potential for re-introductions.<br/><br/>Libya<br/><br/>It is not known whether Aoudad are protected by law. The species was introduced into Tripoli Nature Reserve (870 ha; est. 1978). It may also occur in Jabel Nefhusa Nature Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1978) in northern Libya in the Jebel Tarabulus range of the Jebel Nefhusa mountains (Tripolitania Region 32°N, 12°50'E), although this reserve does not appear to fall within the suspected distribution of the species (Shackleton and De Smet 1997).  There are captive populations in Sabratha, Surman and the Zoological Garden of Tripoli (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). The latter definitely belongs to the subspecies <em>A. l. fassini</em>.<br/><br/>A population survey is needed to determine the current distribution and status of Aoudad in Libya.<br/><br/>Mali<br/><br/>Aoudad receive no protection nor occur in any protected areas in Mali (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include: 1) conduct censuses and surveys to determine population numbers and distribution within the Adrar des Iforas; and 2) consider the feasibility of establishing a protected area for Aoudad in this region. <br/><br/>Mauritania<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in one protected area in Adrar Mouflon Partial Faunal Reserve (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include censuses to determine current numbers and distribution.<br/><br/>Morocco<br/><br/>Since 1958, the annual ministerial order regulating hunting has severely restricted taking Aoudad. For example, in 1961 the species could be hunted for only three days, and only one day in 1966. Since 1966, the species is fully and permanently protected. Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Morocco, including Eastern High Atlas National Park, Toubkal National Park, and the adjacent Takherkhort Hunting Reserve (1,230 ha). The latter, situated in the western High Atlas mountains, was established in 1967 to preserve the species. Although around 350 to 475 animals occupy the hunting reserve (Mokhtari 2006), grazing by livestock is a serious threat. Animals from the reserve have been used for re-introductions to other areas, including Sochatour’s Tiradine Hunting Reserve. The native vegetation is evergreen oak forest, and the Aoudad is reported to be reproducing, and numbered around 70 animals in 1990. Aoudad also inhabit a number of other hunting reserves, most of which are so small that they are occupied only seasonally and have little significance for conservation of the species (Aulagnier and Thevenot 1997). <br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine the status and distribution of Aoudad in Morocco; 2) Increasing the number of protected areas. Among the most valuable and interesting natural places where Aoudad need protection, three or four national parks or permanent reserves can be proposed: Jbel Grouz and Jbel Maiz (arid hills near Figuig), Jbel Bou Iblane or Jbel Bou Nasser (eastern Middle Atlas), and some areas of rocky argan bush in the Anti-Atlas (between Igherm and Tata); and 3) Hunting and grazing should be strictly forbidden in protected areas.<br/><br/>Niger<br/><br/>All hunting has been banned since 1964 and though this law is enforced by the Nigerien Forest Service, the vast range occupied by the Aoudad, together with manpower limitations and political unrest, limit the effectiveness of anti-poaching efforts. Aoudad only occur in one protected area in Niger, in the vast Reserve Naturelle Nationale de L’Air et du Tenere, in north-central Niger. Created in January 1988, the reserve covers 7,737,000 ha of Saharan desert and Sahara-montane habitat. The reserve may harbor as much as 70% of the total population of Aoudad in Niger (Magin and Newby 1997)<br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Aoudad fall under Schedule II as a protected species, though up to two can be shot by anyone with a class A or D license. None occur in any protected area in the Sudan (Nimir 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) move Aoudad to Schedule I so that it is completely protected; and 2) re-introduction of Aoudad to remaining areas and habitats which are suitable.<br/><br/>Tunisia<br/><br/>In Tunisia, Aoudad has been protected by law since 1966. A re-introduction of Aoudad into the Djebel Chambi National Park began in 1987, when ten animals, originally from Kasserine, were released into a one ha enclosure for later release into the rest of the park. Some of these animals escaped in 1988, and the wild population now numbers 100 animals (DGF 2005). A few animals are held in captivity in the Djebel Bou Hedma National Park, in the Bou Hedma ranges of the Atlas Saharien. Animals are also believed to occur in the proposed Dghoumes National Park (De Smet 1997), and the species was also released in the Oued Dekouk Nature Reserve, south of Tataouine.<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) ensuring the establishment of the new desert national park 50 km east of Tozeur at Dghoumes (this area and the rest of the mountain chain north of the Chott El Fedjadj and Chott El Djerid, are considered good Aoudad habitat); and 2) reconsider the suggestion to release Aoudad into Sidi Toui National Park because the topography is probably too flat to be suitable for them.<br/><br/>Western Sahara<br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine whether or not this species surivives in Western Sahara, and if so, to ascertain its status and distribution; 2) Establishing a protected area for the species if there is a surviving population (for example, in Oued Ed Dahab Province); and 3) Strict control of hunting and of grazing where this species survives.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix II.
1151		distribution	eng	The Auodad was formerly widespread in rugged and mountainous terrain from deserts and semi-deserts to open forests in North Africa, but has suffered a strong decline due to poaching and competition from domestic stock. The ranges of the six supposed subspecies can be summarized as follows (following Cassinello in press, and references therein):<br/><br/><em>Ammotragus lervia lervia</em> (Atlas Aoudad) occurs in the mountains of Morocco, except the western half of the Rif, and in northern Algeria and northern Tunisia.<br/><br/><em>A. l. ornata</em> (Egyptian Aoudad) was formerly quite widespread throughout the Eastern and Western Desert of Egypt and was actually thought extinct (see Amer 1997). However, Wacher <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported evidence of the presence of Aoudad in both the Elba Protected Area and the Western Desert between 1997 and 2000 (and see Manlius <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>A. l. blainei</em> (Kordofan Aoudad) were once relatively widespread from west Sudan to the Red Sea coast, but currently are probably restricted to the Red Sea hills of east Sudan (Nimir 1997). Contrary to Mekonlau and Daboulaye (1997), this is the subspecies that may occur in the Ennedi and Uweinat mountains in northeast Chad (Alados <em>et al</em>. 1988). It may also be present in southeastern Libya.<br/><br/><em>A. l. fassini</em> (Libyan Aoudad) is found only in extreme southern Tunisia and in Libya.<br/><br/><em>A. l. angusi</em> (Aïr Aoudad) inhabit the Aïr Massif (Niger) and Termit Massif (Niger).<br/><br/><em>A. l. sahariensis</em> (Saharan Aoudad) has the largest range of the subspecies, including southern Morocco and Western Sahara, southern Algeria, south-west Libya, Sudan, the mountains of the Adrar de Iforas in Mali, Niger, Mauritania, and the Tibesti Massif. There were no reliable reports of the species in the Western Sahara since the surveys of Valverde (1957), but the possibility of their survival in the Oued El Dahab was noted by Aulagnier and Thévenot (1997), and the species was recently rediscovered in this country (Cuzin 2003; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>Auodad have been introduced into the United States, northern Mexico, Spain (mainland and the Canary Islands (La Palma)) (Gray and Simpson 1980; Grubb 2005). These introduced populations are not mapped.<br/><br/>The species occurs from 200 to 4,100 m asl (Cuzin 2003).
1151		habitat	eng	Aoudads tend to inhabit rocky and often precipitous areas, from near sea level up to snow-free areas at about 4,100 m (such as the Moroccan Atlas). They also require rocks or sparse tree cover for shade, and might wander far from water sources for long periods of time. This species is a generalist herbivore combining grazing with browsing, and can survive without drinking water for long periods (even years), eating succulent forbs. They probably make small migratory movements in relation to food availability (Cassinello in press).
1151		population	eng	There are no total estimates of population size, but overall indications are that the population is in the order of 5,000-10,000 individuals.<br/><br/>The total population in Morocco is estimated to be between 800 and 2,000 animals (Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press), and there are several thousand animals in Algeria. Low numbers survive in Chad, Mauritania and Adrar des Iforas in Mali; there are no estimates in Libya, Western Sahara, or Tunisia. In Niger, estimates are available for the Air and Tenere National Nature Reserve (3,500 animals) and outside the reserve (700). These populations in the Air mountains appear to be increasing, but for the country as a whole the population trend is overall downward. There are no population estimates available for Sudan, but the species is generally regarded as very rare and almost certainly declining (Shackleton 1997; and references therein). Once regarded as extinct, Aoudads seem to be locally numerous in the Eastern and Western Deserts of Egypt (M.A. Saleh, in Cassinello in press).
1151		threats	eng	The major threats across the range include poaching and habitat destruction, mainly from livestock grazing, fuelwood collection, and from drought and desertification. In the Western Sahara, hunting by soldiers has been a serious threat, and here the species might already be extinct (Valverde 1968). The decline of Egyptian Barbary Sheep has no doubt been accelerated by competition with livestock and feral camels. The availability and distribution of waterholes would likely be a major factor in the condition of populations, and both may fluctuate from year to year.
1154		conservation	eng	The most important coservation issue is the protection of the caves where these species occur.
1154		distribution	eng	Western Peru, western Ecuador, Puna Island (Ecuador), northern Chile (Simmons 2005). Limited to coastal zone. Species distribution is limited, but it is not much known.
1154		habitat	eng	Found in forests, arid regions and in cultivated areas; caves and abandoned buildings. <em>A. schnablii</em> mainly eat moths and butterflies (Blessing 2002). It likes big roosts (Solari pers. comm.).
1154		population	eng	Found in small groups up to 300 individuals (Blessing 2002). Found in 3 sites (2 reduced population, 1 colony) (Solari,  pers. comm.).
1154		threats	eng	Severe population reduction was observed in two to three places of occurrence.
1169		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to determine extent of occurrence, biology, population density and trends, and possible threats to the species. This is especially important because of isolated taxonomic status. Describing unnamed species is a high priority.
1169		distribution	eng	Highlands of Chiapas (El Rayón) south to Comayagua province in Honduras. Described from 'Colombia' but never collected in the intermediate areas of Panama and Costa Rica which are fairly well known.
1169		habitat	eng	Small forested highland streams with moderate current. Larvae found among tangles of leaf trash at the lip of small waterfalls in Guatemala.
1169		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
1169		threats	eng	Deforestation along highland streams for coffee groves and cattle ranching is the main threat to the species.
1181		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
1181		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
1190		conservation	eng	The lake is closed for fishing for five months every year and seven no-fishing protected bay areas were set up, providing feeding grounds for a part of the fish population in the lake.
1190		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Dianchi and possibly in Songhuaba reservior, Yunnan Province, China.
1190		habitat	eng	It lives in the middle and upper layers of waters and feeds mainly on aquatic  insects, plankton and fragments of plants. It turns sexually mature after one  winter and lays sticky eggs. The reproduction season is in March, earlier than  <em>Anabarilius alburnops</em>.
1190		population	eng	It is now difficult to catch the species at Dianchi Lake and population size is unknown
1190		threats	eng	Its decline in the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, decreasing water quality, the loss of macrophytes (in part due to grass carp), over-fishing and the loss of breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.
1199		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
1199		distribution	eng	An endemic fish to the Iberic Peninsula. Most of the distribution is within Spain and some in Portugal (Guadiana river basin) (extent of occurrence <5,000 km²).
1199		habitat	eng	This species lives most of the time in small intermittent streams of the Guadiana River basin with high dissolved oxygen concentrations, coarse substratum, shallow depth and water temperature below 25°C. It is a short-lived species (maximum three years old) achieving a small size (< 60 mm). Reproduction takes place in April–May. It is a species with limited dispersal. (Doadrio 2001).
1199		population	eng	Very fragmented, declining 50% in the last 10 years (Doadrio 2001).
1199		threats	eng	Alteration of habitat, reduced flow regime due to water extraction, and river regulation (dams), pollution and introduced species.
1256		conservation	eng	No specific measures known but probably benefits from general conservation measures implemented for Lake Tanganyika.
1256		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on all shores. Locality information in West <em>et al.</em> (2003).
1256		habitat	eng	It is confined to hard substrates, cobbles, boulders and stromatolites in moderate to deep waters (5-100 m).
1256		population	eng	No information available.
1256		threats	eng	There is a possible threat from sedimentation in Tanzania. It thrives up to 100 m deep, a level least influenced by most wetland threats like pollution and anthropogenic disturbances.
1257		conservation	eng	No information available.
1257		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality in Lake Tanganyika, it is known from two empty shells. No locality information in West <em>et al.</em> (2003). Recent survey work has failed to find this species. The map cannot be plotted due to a lack of distribution information.
1257		habitat	eng	No information available.
1257		population	eng	No information available.
1257		threats	eng	There is a possible threat from sedimentation in Tanzania due to deforestation in the surrounding terrestrial environments.
1258		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
1258		habitat	eng	Rivers (< 800 m asl).
1258		threats	eng	Most likely threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
1259		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
1259		habitat	eng	Rivers (<800 m asl).
1259		threats	eng	Most likely threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
1262		conservation	eng	Changes in agricultural practices within the region have resulted in increased water abstraction and pollution of the lake with agro-chemicals (Birdlife 2009). Education and training are required to change farming practices and protect water quality. The lake is also an IBA (ET004).
1262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Ashangi (surface: ca. 20 - 27 km²), Ethiopia.
1262		habitat	eng	"The lake and its surrounding area occupy an old volcanic crater between the Ambalagie range to the north and the Alamata mountains to the south. The altitude at the lake is 2,400 m while the mountains to the north rise to over 3,000 m. The lake is fed by a number of small streams from the surrounding areas, and as far as is known there is no drainage out of it. [...]The lake has a surface area around 14,000 ha [140 km<sup>2</sup>], a mean depth of c.14 m and a maximum depth of 25.5 m. The water is slightly saline." (Birdlife 2009).&#160; However, most sources site the surface area of the lake as 20 km<sup>2</sup> (e.g. Vanden Bossch and Bernacsek).
1262		population	eng	No data available.
1262		threats	eng	There is declining ground water level due to water extraction for agriculture (Alemayehu 2006). Lake Ashenge is a closed ecosystem. Recent efforts to increase crop production through the use of high-yielding varieties, which require high doses of fertilizers and pesticides, have targeted Ofla Woreda, as its main crops, maize and wheat, respond well to such a system. The resulting accumulation of chemical residues in the lake could have a serious negative impact on the productivity of this wetland. Thus, appropriate monitoring schemes should be initiated to track the situation closely (Birdlife 2009).
1263		conservation	eng	No information available.
1263		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to small streams of the districts of Jimma and Lekemti and near Dilla and near Lake Langano (Ethiopia).
1263		habitat	eng	This species is found in small streams in highlands.
1263		population	eng	No information available.
1263		threats	eng	No information available.
1264		conservation	eng	It is found in one protecetd area.
1264		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north central Argentina from Catamarca province south to San Luis province (Mares <em>et al.</em> 1997), and in the vicinity of Catamarca Province, west bank Río Amanao, considering the type locality of A. roigi  (Musser and Carleton 2005).
1264		habitat	eng	Species at type locality was taken from semiarid thorn scrub bordering saline flats, a narrow ecotone between the Chaco and Monte extending from Catamarca to Rio Negro provinces (Mares and Braun 1996).
1264		population	eng	It is cosidered a rare species.
1264		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
1265		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from at least four protected areas in Bolivia and at least 3 in Paraguay. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
1265		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chaco of west Paraguay and southeast Bolivia (Santa Cruz Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs at elevations up to 400 m.
1265		habitat	eng	This mouse inhabits dry grasslands that occur as islands in the Chaco of western Paraguay and southeastern Bolivia. The surrounding thorn scrub is inhabited by <em>Graomys griseoflavus</em> (see Myers, 1977; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is not known if it can occur in modified habitats. It has been studied as part of disease control measures.
1265		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known, but it is thought not to be common.
1265		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The habitat that the species has been recorded from is largely undisturbed.
1271		conservation	eng	It is known from one protected area in Peru and possibly two protected areas in Bolivia and in several in Argentina.
1271		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano of extreme south Peru (Puno Department) and north Chile (Pine <em>et al.</em>, 1979; Spotorno, 1976), through west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), to northwest Argentina (Jujuy to Catamarca Provinces; Díaz and Barquez, 1999; Mares <em>et al</em>. 1997; Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 2000; Musser and Carleton, 2005).  This is a high-altitude rodent, having been caught at between 1,500 and 5,100 m, with most localities above 3,000 m.
1271		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that may be scansorial as well. In Peru it has been recorded from Polylepis woodland and high Andean areas with trees and high shrubs. In Bolivia it has been recorded from Puna grassland and shrubland. Throughout this range it appears to be found mainly in dense vegetation along water courses, although it has also been trapped in rocky terrain (Fonollat, 1984; Orlog, 1979; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It has not been recorded from the most arid parts of the Altiplano. Around Lake Titicaca it has been recorded in cultivated areas with trees (H. Zeballos pers. comm.). In southern Peru, one female was trapped with three embryos (Pearson, 1951).
1271		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
1271		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
1272		conservation	eng	In China, this species is listed as a Class II state major protected wildlife species. It occurs, or at least used to occur, in many nature reserves within its range, and some nature reserves even use the species as their main conservation target, such as Zhangjiajie Giant Salamander Nature Reserve. Captive rearing of animals has achieved some success, but these projects are mainly to meet the market demand. It is not clear whether or not animals are actually being bred in captivity. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
1272		distribution	eng	The largest of all amphibian species (sometimes growing to more than one metre in length) this species is widespread in central, south-western and southern China, although its range is now very fragmented. It occurs from 100-1,500m asl. Records of the species in Taiwan, Province of China, might be the result of introductions.
1272		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in large hill streams, usually in forested areas. Females lay approximately 500 eggs in a string in an underwater burrow or cavity that is occupied by a male. Eggs are fertilized externally and are guarded by the male until they hatch after 50-60 days. Larvae then develop in the streams, taking food after about 30 days (Haker 1997).
1272		population	eng	This species was once reasonably common but has declined catastrophically over the last 30 years, principally due to over-exploitation, and it is now very rare, with few surviving populations known.
1272		threats	eng	Commercial over-exploitation for human consumption is the main threat to this species. It has also suffered from habitat destruction (e.g., from the construction of dams) and habitat degradation (e.g., water pollution from mines). Although there is commercial farming of this species, the vast majority of Chinese Giant Salamanders being traded are believed to originate from the wild.
1273		conservation	eng	It has been designated as a special natural monument in Japan and is totally protected, and its habitats are protected in some areas. Asa Zoo has been breeding this species in captivity since 1979 (although no re-introductions have been performed), and it also rescues individuals from degraded habitats. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
1273		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan and is distributed in western Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu.
1273		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in small to large rivers, preferring clear water, usually in forested areas. It has occasionally been found in rivers in urban areas. The adults can tolerate a wide variety of habitats, but are not necessarily able to breed in these habitats. Females lay their eggs in a string underwater and the larvae then develop in the streams. It is estimated to take at least five years for the young to reach maturity.
1273		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
1273		threats	eng	This species is threatened by dam construction, the construction of artificial concrete riverbanks, and the alteration of river courses. Suitable habitats are therefore becoming increasingly fragmented. It might also be facing competition from the introduced Chinese Giant Salamander (<em>Andrias davidianus</em>). Genetic uniformity in this species is high, which increases its vulnerability to threatening processes.
1282		conservation	eng	To assist its conservation, better information on its current status is needed, as is information on the threats that it faces. The extent to which logging of old growth forest has reduced gene flow among rock outcrop populations should be studied (Petranka 1998), and whenever feasible a forested buffer of at least 100m should be left around occupied rock outcrops (Petranka 1998).
1282		distribution	eng	This species can be found from 140-1,350m asl in the Appalachian region, USA. Its range therefore includes extreme south-western Pennsylvania, extreme western Maryland, and southern Ohio to northern Alabama and extreme north-eastern Mississippi, with a disjunctive area in south-western North Carolina and adjacent South Carolina and Georgia, and additional isolated populations in central Tennessee and north-eastern West Virginia (Conant and Collins 1991). It was recently also recorded in Crawford County, Indiana (Madej 1998).
1282		habitat	eng	This species can be found in damp (but not wet) crevices in shaded rock outcrops and ledges, or beneath loose bark and in cracks of standing or fallen trees (in cove hardwoods, for example). It can sometimes also be found in or under logs on the ground. It sometimes reaches high population densities in logged areas where the tree canopies are left. Eggs are laid in rock crevices, rotting stumps, or similar dark, damp places.
1282		population	eng	It is patchily distributed and generally uncommon throughout most of the range (Petranka 1998). The disjunctive Blue Ridge Escarpment populations exhibited dramatic declines in abundance after the early 1970s (Corser 2001). Snyder (1991) reported that these populations appeared to be recovering, but Corser (2001) determined that three out of six populations first discovered in 1991 crashed in 1996-1997. Populations in the main range appear to have remained stable (Snyder 1991).
1282		threats	eng	The threats to this species that have caused it to decline in some areas are habitat loss (arising from development of the land and watershed areas) and possibly over-collecting and epidemic disease (Corser 2001). Severe drought might exacerbate other threats or cause temporary declines.
1291		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Targeted surveys are recommended in order to determine its present distribution and population status in the South Pine River. It is also critical to protect and monitor the remaining habitat sheltering this species, particularly for signs of pollution, as any deterioration (e.g. in water quality) has the potential to wipe out all remaining populations.
1291		distribution	eng	This Australian species is only known from the upper South Pine River at Mount Glorious, Queensland (Environmental Services Department 2007). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 400 km²<sup></sup>.
1291		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the headwaters of the South Pine River (Environmental Services Department 2007), where it is found under rocks in small streams (Miller <em>et al. </em>1999).
1291		population	eng	This tiny species (2 mm in length) is extremely rare. Despite extensive sampling effort in the South Pine River area, only a few specimens are known (Environmental Services Department 2007).
1291		threats	eng	The streams inhabited by this species are presently clean and largely pristine (Environmental Services Department 2007). However, due to its highly restricted distribution this snail is vulnerable to slight deteriorations in its habitat. Haase and Nolte (2008) gave this species a high S<sub>10</sub> score of 9.0 (out of 10), meaning that it is restricted to undisturbed sites and cannot tolerate any level of pollution, such as agricultural run-off (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
1295		conservation	eng	This species’ range falls within Grampians National Park, Victoria (Parks Victoria 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat. It was previously assessed as Critically Endangered B1+2c in 1996 (version 2.3). Furthermore, it was assigned the conservation status of Critically Endangered according to the Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment's Advisory List of Threatened Invertebrate Fauna in Victoria (Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009a) and has been listed as a Threatened species in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009b).&#160;Further research is required to establish its population size and to identify potential threats and conservation actions.
1295		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Victoria, Australia (Gabriel 1939, Smith 1992, Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from two small creeks in the Grampians (Gabriel 1939, Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). The extent of occurrence is less than 70 km²<sup></sup>.
1295		habitat	eng	This species is known from two small creeks in western Victoria and is often found on leaves, weeds, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
1295		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it has been described as common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
1295		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
1296		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but the known distribution falls within a small public park/nature reserve, 'Rotary Park', although whether this offers the species any tangible protection is unknown. Protection of the area is recommended. Monitoring of the known population, and further sampling in the Albert River is also suggested.
1296		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single stream in the Lismore region of New South Wales, Australia (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and Arts 2009). Many surveys have been made for this species within the Richmond River, but have been unsuccessful. Much of the available habitat for this species has been heavily degraded by urban pollution sources. No specimens are known from the Albert River but this may be an artefact of poor sampling effort. The reserve in which this species is found is 0.1 km²<sup></sup> (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
1296		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter and under stones in one small stream in a small rainforest reserve (Miller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Surveys in the local area have not found any additional populations of this species (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
1296		population	eng	This species is relatively common although it has an extremely localised distribution (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
1296		threats	eng	The upper reaches of the stream in which this species is found run through an urban area. Therefore water quality is likely to be reduced as a result of domestic pollution. The absence of this species from surrounding sites may be a result of localised extinctions as many of the surrounding rivers are heavily degraded (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
1301		conservation	eng	It occurs in several state forests and nature reserves, including Hogsback Indigenous Forest, Katberg Forest, and Stutterheim Nature Reserve.
1301		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Amotola, Katberg and Keiskammahoek Mountains in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. There is a record from near Patensie, some 200km south-west of the main range, but it has not been found in this area since it was discovered in 1961. It occurs above 1,100m asl.
1301		habitat	eng	It inhabits the leaf-litter of montane forest and lives on the forest edge, being particularly associated with the grassland-forest ecotone, and with small patches of grass and wetland inside forest. However, it is not found outside forest. It makes a terrestrial nest, and lays 11-20 eggs, which develop directly, without a larval stage.
1301		population	eng	It can be common in suitable places.
1301		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to human settlement, afforestation, invasive plants and fire. Pines are often planted right up to the natural forests, destroying the grassland-forest ecotone. Its remaining habitat is very restricted and patchy.
1307		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas. It is legally hunted in some of the protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
1307		distribution	eng	This species occurs along both sides of the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995). It has an altitudinal range of between 1,200 and 3,500 m asl.
1307		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest, and in secondary habitats and garden areas. It makes a terrestrial nest of foliage under ground cover (Flannery 1995).
1307		population	eng	It is a naturally uncommon species.
1307		threats	eng	This species is threatened by competition, and possibly pathogen and parasite transmission, from the introduced species, <em>Rattus rattus</em>. <br/><br/>It is also hunted by local people for food and for its teeth, with the pelt taken as a by-product of this hunting, but this is not viewed as a major threat. It is adversely affected in parts of its range by conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land.
1311		conservation	eng	This species breaks into eight conservation units based on available genetic&#160;data. These subclades can be considered evolutionarily significant units and all populations (with the exception&#160;of AOC and APR) could be considered distinct management units (Mock <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, no specific conservation actions have been undertaken. Some conservation units would potentially require careful monitoring (A.Bogan pers. comm. 2010). Further research is necessary regarding this species' taxonomy, population trends, ecology and impacting threats. Future monitoring of population trends and the implementation of conservation policies are required in order to protect this species from future declines. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ</span> conservation could play a part in species recovery.
1311		distribution	eng	The range of this species is unclear due to taxonomic uncertainty with the Pacific Drainage members of this genus. In the broadest view, it once ranged from southern British Columbia south to northernmost Baja California, eastward to western Wyoming, eastern Arizona and Chihuahua (Mexico), but this distribution probably includes records for other species (Taylor 1981, Nedeau <em>et al. </em>2005) such as<em> Anodonta nuttalliana</em>.  Taylor (1987) lists the species in 4 inch or greater depth pools in a spring complex above the North Fork of the East Fork of the Black River, Apache Co., Arizona.  Clarke and Hovingh (1993) state that "as presently understood this species occurs in California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona." and that the closely related <em>Anodonta nuttalliana</em> occurs in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia.  Preliminary analysis (K. Mock pers. comm. 2010) indicates Utah <em>Anodonta </em>are distinct from <em>Anodonta oregonensis</em> of the Pacific northwest and should tentatively be assigned to <em>Anodonta californiensis </em>pending future taxonomic work.  Presently, Frest and Johannes (1995) report&#160; that the range has been reduced and extant populations are currently found in the following areas: the Middle Snake River in Idaho; the Fall and Pit rivers in Shasta County, California; the Okanogan river in Chelan County, Washington; and Roosevelt and Curlew lakes in Ferry County, Washington. No living specimens were found in the Willamette and lower Columbia rivers in searches by Frest and Johannes conducted from 1988-1990. Taylor (1981) reports that most of the natural populations in California have been eradicated and it is probably extinct in most of the Central Valley of southern California. In Utah, the only recent records are in two widely-spaced locations, Big Creek and Reddin Spring pond, but it may still be extant in the Raft River and portions of the Bear River drainage (Clarke and Hovingh 1993). It is extirpated from Utah Lake.  Hovingh (2004) found it widely distributed in the Humboldt River drainage (Lahontan Basin) in northern Nevada, in the Bonneville Basin in Utah, Nevada, and Wyoming, and in the Malheur and Warner Basins in Oregon.  Mock <em>et al</em>. (2005) list six sites in the Bonneville basin of Utah tentatively assigned to this species.
1311		habitat	eng	This is a low elevation species that is found in both lakes and lake-like stream environments (Frest and Johannes 1995).
1311		population	eng	Due to taxonomic uncertainty, it is difficult to determine the number of occurrences for this species (probably more than twenty but less than 100). Beetle (1989) lists the Bear River in Uinta Co., Wyoming. In Utah, occurrences (between two and six) are known from Utah, Millard, Rich, Tooele, and Box Elder Cos. (Oliver and Bosworth 1999).  These sites were resurveyed recently and extant populations (tentatively <em>Anodonta californiensis</em>) were found in Bear River, Redden Spring, Pruess Lake, Piute Reservoir, Otter Creek Reservoir, and Burriston Ponds, all in Utah (Mock <em>et al. </em>2004).  Mock <em>et al.</em> (2004) also cite specimens tentatively identified as <em>A. californiensis</em> from the Black River, Apache, Arizona. Frest and Johannes (1995) report that the range has been reduced and extant populations are found in: the Middle Snake River in Idaho; the Fall and Pit Rivers in Shasta Co., California; the Okanogan river in Chelan Co., Washington; and Roosevelt and Curlew Lakes in Ferry Co., Washington. No living specimens were found in the Willamette and lower Columbia rivers in searches by Frest and Johannes from 1988-1990. Frest and Johannes (2000) list it as common locally in the Snake River and major tributaries. Taylor (1981) reports most California populations as eradicated and the species is probably extinct in most of the Central Valley. It was once distributed throughout six major drainages in Arizona (including Lake Mead, Grand Canyon, Lower Colorado-Marble Canyon, Lower Lake Powell), but today is only in portions of the Black River drainage and Little Colorado River (Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In Utah, the only recent records are widely spaced, in Big Creek and Reddin Spring Pond, but it may still be extant in the Raft River and portions of the Bear River drainage (Clarke and Hovingh 1993).  Hovingh (2004) found it widely distributed in the Humboldt River drainage (Lahontan Basin) in northern Nevada, the Bonneville Basin in Utah, Nevada, and Wyoming, and the Malheur and Warner Basins in Oregon. Other Nevada occurrences are in the Great Salt Lake, North Fork Humboldt, Truckee, and Carson Desert basins (NV NHP pers. comm. 2007).  Mock <em>et al. </em>(2004), in an analysis of genetic diversity, found the Bonneville Basin (Utah) population cluster with <em>Anodonta oregonensis</em> from the adjacent Lahontan Basin (surveyed in Elko, Nevada) and the Middle Snake/Powder basin (Baker Co., Oregon).  Mock et al. (2004) further differentiated Glenn and Solano Co., California, specimens as <em>Anodonta wahlamatensis</em>, thereby limiting <em>Anodonta californiensis</em> populations to Utah (see above) and Arizona (Black River in Apache). In Oregon, several populations were recently found in the Middle Fork John Day River and the lower main stem Umatilla River, but due to taxonomic confusion, identification beyond genus was not possible (Brim Box <em>et al</em>. 2006); however, preliminary evidence indicates the John Day River population includes the <em>A. californiensis/nuttalliana</em> clade and the Umatilla River population include both <em>A. oregonensis/kennerlyi</em> and <em>A. californiensis/nuttalliana</em> clades in sympatry (K. Mock, Utah State University, pers. comm. 2007).  Chong<em> et al.</em> (2008) utilized specimens from  the East Fork Black River, Arizona, in their phylogenetic study. Recent Washington records are mainly from the Columbia and Okanogan Rivers and some ponds adjacent to the Columbia River (Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In Arizona, Bequaert and Miller (1973) list the Lower Colorado, San Pedro-Wilcox, Chevelon, and Little Colorado drainages as historical with the only recent occurrence in the Black River drainage. Historically in Arizona, it was found in most drainages including the Black, Salt, Santa Cruz, Verde, Gila and Colorado Rivers, but today it is only found in the upper Black River in the the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest to at least the White Mountain Apache Reservation (AZ NHP pers. comm. 2007).  A population may be extant on Chevelon Creek according to Landye (1981).<br/><br/>In a survey of streams in California, approximately 8,000 individuals were found in the upper reaches of the Eel River (none in Ten Mile, Elder, or Fox Creeks), restricted to the lower 2 km of the upper portion of the river (Cuffey 2002).<br/><br/>Frest and Johannes (1995) report that the species is declining in terms of area occupied and the number of sites and individuals, and local declines have been observed throughout the range (Mock <em>et al</em>. 2010).  It is generally widely distributed, though scarce; it is likely extirpated from the Colorado River basin in Arizona and Death Valley Basin, Los Angeles Basin, and Central Valley in Caifornia (Hovingh 2004).  A recent survey of 115 sites in the Plumas, Tahoe, and Eldorado National Forests plus Lake Tahoe Basin management unit found no <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta</span> specimens (in 70+ streams) except a few whole shells at 15 m depth in Donner Lake despite historical occurrences there (Howard 2008). The species is declining (possibly extirpated) in Utah with historic populations only in the Raft River (Box Elder Co.), Utah Lake (Utah Co.), and Bear Lake (Rich Co.) (Oliver and Bosworth, 1999).  It is nearly extirpated from Arizona and has disappeared from the Sacramento River system.  In Canada, this species occurs in British Columbia where it is declining (Metcalfe-Smith and Cudmore-Vokey 2004).  Regardless of the taxonomic outcome of analysis of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta</span> molecular phylogeny, it is widely recognized that <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta </span>in the western U.S. are in decline (Mock <em>et al</em>. 2004).
1311		threats	eng	Threats to this species includes pollution; diversion of rivers for irrigation, hydroelectric, and water supply projects; elimination of natural fish hosts; eutrophication due to agricultural run-off and urbanization; impoundments. The species can tolerate some water pollution, but not heavy nutrient enhancement (Frest and Johannes 1995).<br/><br/>Mock <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that populations of <em>Anodonta</em> (tentatively <em>Anodonta californiensis</em> but further taxonomic study could reveal them to be <em>Anodonta oregonensis</em> or <em>Anodonta wahlamatensis</em>) from the Bonneville Basin of Utah were strongly structured with little or no recent gene flow among extant populations which are currently hydrologically separated. This fragmentation makes the populations vulnerable to threats.
1312		conservation	eng	Williams <em>et al.</em>&#160;(2008) stated that <em>Anodontoides radiatus</em> was listed as a species of special concern throughout its range by William<em>s et al. </em>(1993) and in Alabama by Lydeard<em> et al.</em> (1999). Garner <em>et al.</em> (2004) designated <em>A. radiatus </em>a species of high conservation concern in the state. In the updated AFS (American Fisheries Society) assessment, the species is listed as "vulnerable" (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011). Further research is required in order to clarify the taxonomy, population status, ecology and threats impacting this species. Site and habitat protection, species recovery plans, conservation management policies and site management is necessary in order to prevent declines in global population numbers.
1312		distribution	eng	<em>Anodontoides radiatus</em> is extant in widespread isolated populations in much of its historical range (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species occurs in most Gulf Coast drainages from the Apalachicola Basin, Alabama, Florida and Georgia (Brim Box and Williams 2000), west to the Amite River system, Lake Pontchartrain drainage, Louisiana (Vidrine 1993), including the Mobile Basin, where it is widespread below the Fall Line.  There are also a few records from above the Fall Line. East of Mobile Basin,  it is found in the Escambia, Choctawhatchee, Chipola and Chattahoochee  River drainages. <em></em><br/><br/>A disjunct population is found in the upper reaches of the Yazoo River drainage of the Mississippi Basin in Mississippi (Haag <em>et al</em>. 2002, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).  It occurs in the Tombigbee-Alabama River system in Alabama and Mississippi, and the Conecuh-Escambia system in Alabama (Heard 1975), although there are no known records of its occurrence from the latter drainage in Florida.  Johnson (1967) claimed it was absent from the intervening Choctawhatchee River system and the Chipola River of the Apalachicola River system. Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> (2005) confirm this distribution gap in the Choctawhatchee River drainage based on historical literature, but also found twelve new sites (eleven in Alabama, one in Florida) during recent survey efforts, mostly in small tributaries.<br/><br/><em></em><em><br/></em>
1312		habitat	eng	Although the Rayed Creekshell is known from large rivers, most collections are from small to medium-sized creeks where it occurs in mud, sand, or gravel substrates in slow to medium currents (Clench and Turner 1956, Jenkinson 1973, Heard 1979, Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Although the lifespan of the species is not known, Harrigan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) found the lifespan of the related <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ferussacianus</span> to be 3-16 years, with an average lifespan of 9 years. As such it is reasonable to assume a generation length of around ten years and assess any population declines over a period of three generations, i.e. 30 years.
1312		population	eng	While its range covers portions of five southeastern states (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi), this species' occurrence is sporadic. In the ACF Basin this species was historically known from 21 occurrences, but in a recent survey it was found at only four of 324 sites surveyed (Brim Box and Williams 2000). Historical sites cited by Johnson (1967) include: ALABAMA-COOSA RIVER SYSTEM - Tombigbee River drainage: Mississippi, Alabama;  Coosa River drainage: Alabama; Alabama River drainage: Alabama; ESCAMBIA RIVER SYSTEM- Conecuh River drainage: Alabama; Chattahoochee and Flint River drainages: Georgia; Apalachicola River drainage: Florida.  In the Escambia River drainage, it was historically collected at ten occurrences from the main stem and tributaries of the Conecuh River. During a recent survey of the Escambia and Yellow rivers, it was found at six sites, but was not collected at any of the historical localities resurveyed, and now appears to be confined to small, isolated tributaries in Alabama (Brim Box and Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>2000). The authors therefore consider this species to be threatened in the Escambia River drainage (see also Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In another recent survey of the Pea River system (Choctawhatchee River system), it was found at one of approximately 50 sites surveyed (Blalock <em>et al.</em> 1998).  Blalock-Herod <em>et al</em>. (2005) confirmed the distribution gap in the Choctawhatchee River drainage based on historical literature, but did find twelve new sites (eleven in Alabama, one in Florida) there during recent survey efforts, mostly in small tributaries.  Recent historical data reports exist for the Choctawhatchee River drainage in Alabama/Florida, but Pilarczyk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) surveyed 24 sites in 2004 and did not find this species.  In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, the species is known historically from the Etowah and Oostanaula River, drainages but has not been collected live recently (Williams and Hughes 1998).  Vidrine (1993) cited Louisiana distribution as western Louisiana as well as the Taucipano River in eastern Louisiana, among other scattered locations. Brown and Banks (2001) list 1990s eastern Louisiana records for the Amite and Tangipahoa Rivers. In the Alabama and Mobile basin, it is widespread in the Mobile Basin below the Fall Line with a few records from above; east of Mobile Basin it is found in the Escambia Choctawhatchee, Chipola, and Chattahoochee River drainages. (Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008), although surveys in the Chipola River, reported on in Brim Box and Williams (2000; the species was mistakenly listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Strophites subvexus</span>) have not reported any specimens.<br/><br/>There is little known about the historical abundance of this species. Museum records suggest that historically it was seldom collected in large numbers and that its occurrence was sporadic throughout its current range. Today, it is unusual to find more than a few individuals at a site. Clench and Turner (1956) noted that <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodontoides radiatus</span> was "exceedingly rare" in the ACF Basin; based on the results of a recent survey, it was assigned a conservation  status of endangered in the basin (Brim Box and Williams 2000). Heard (1975) listed <span style="font-style: italic;">A. radiatus</span> among species he considered to have a reduced range or abundance (i.e., are now very rare or extinct in part of their present or past range, respectively). Williams <em>et al.</em> (1993) considered the species to be of  special concern throughout its range, indicating that it should be  carefully monitored. One of the largest collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. radiatus </span>was made by H. H. Smith on 25 June 1915 in Uchee Creek (Russell County, Alabama). The collection totalled 24 individuals (Brim Box and Williams 2000). In a recent survey of the Escambia River drainage, fifteen live individuals were collected from six sites in upper tributaries (Brim Box and Williams 2000), while a single live individual was found in the Pea River watershed (Blalock <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Given its sporadic historical occurrence and what is known about declines over the past 30 years (i.e., likely to equate three generations), as well as using a precautionary approach, a 20-25% decline has been inferred in the population of this species.
1312		threats	eng	Sedimentation as a result of bank destabilization, run-off from agricultural areas, and pollutants (from point and non-point sources) are major threats. Overall stream modifications also threaten survival of this species.
1319		conservation	eng	The species has been listed as Endangered by the USFWS since 1977. The Culebra National Wildlife Refuge and the recently established (2001; greatly&#160;expanded 2003) Vieques National Wildlife Refuge include potential past or current areas of occupancy for the species. The Vieques refuge is an especially&#160;promising place to search for the species, due to its size, and because of its low level of development consequent upon it having formerly been a U.S. Navy base.&#160;The transfer of most of the Navy land to USFWS has protected this area from potential development. That there was a gap of some 70 years in collections of the species between the 1860s and 1930s gives some hope that the current long gap since the last collection might not indicate the species is extinct.&#160;Further research is needed into the populations of this species to determine whether this species is extinct in the wild.
1319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the smaller islands of the eastern portion of the Puerto Rican Bank, and is known historically from Vieques and Culebra (part of Puerto Rico), St. John (part of the US Virgin Islands), and Tortola (part of the British Virgin Islands) (Mayer 1989). Eight specimens are known to have been collected, six of them around the early 1860s, one in 1931, and the last in 1932. Both of the 1930s specimens came from Culebra (Mayer 1989). The area of the four inhabited islands totals approximately 290 km<sup>2</sup>; the portion of this area historically inhabited by the species is unknown.
1319		habitat	eng	This species is reported on branches high in trees in <em>Bursera</em> and <em>Ficus</em> forest, most commonly when they were feeding on the ripe fig fruits (Dodd and Campbell 1982). These reports are consistent with the species being an ecological analogue of Puerto Rican <em>A. cuvieri</em>, i.e. a "crown-giant" ecomorph, but occurring in a dryer area with a more xeric-adapted vegetation (Mayer 1989).
1319		population	eng	No specimens have been collected since 1932. Dumas, who is supposed to have collected the holotype, reported seeing this species as recently as 1978 (Dodd and Campbell 1982). Several searches on Culebra have been unsuccessful, and some verbal reports of giant anoles have turned out to refer to green iguanas (Dodd and Campbell 1982, Campbell and Dodd 1982, USFWS 1986, Gaa Ojeda Kessler 2010, R. Thomas, K. de Queiroz). Unsuccessful searches have also been made on Vieques (R. Crombie, J.B. Losos, K. de Queiroz) and Tortola (G.C. Mayer, J.D. Lazell, K. de Queiroz). Some (e.g., Williams 1983) consider the species probably extinct, although further investigation is warranted on some smaller islands (Gaa Ojeda Kessler 2010).
1319		threats	eng	The reasons for the species' decline and possible extinction are unknown. Deforestation, suggested as a reason by Campbell and Dodd (1982), has occurred on all four islands, and no primary forests remain (Gaa Ojeda Kessler 2010). Livestock grazing was widespread on Culebra before the island was turned into a military zone; after the departure of the military, housing and tourism development took over, often infringing on potential habitat for the species (Gaa Ojeda Kessler 2010). However, on some of the islands the amount of land under cultivation peaked prior to the second half of the 19th Century (Mayer 1989).
1550		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. Further research into population trends and abundance are needed.
1550		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread in Subsaharan Africa. It ranges in West Africa from Sierra Leone eastwards to the Dahomey Gap, and then from Nigeria into West Africa, where it ranges from Cameroon, southwards as far as central Angola, and eastwards as far as eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi and Rwanda. In East Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda, western Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia (though not yet recorded from Katanga Province). It is likely to occur in Benin, although there are no specimen records from this country. It has been recorded on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. It has been recorded up to 2,400 m asl.
1550		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, nocturnal species that is generally found in closed-canopy forest, although it parts of its range it also occurs in Miombo woodland (for example in Zambia). It is largely considered to be a solitary species, although it may also be found in small groups.
1550		population	eng	It is probably not uncommon, and seems likely to be overlooked. In a 75 ha area in central Gabon, Julliot <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated a population density of 27-54/km² for this species.
1550		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range it is threatened by general deforestation. It has been recorded in traditional medicine (M. Ekue pers. comm.).
1551		conservation	eng	This species likely occurs within a number of protected areas, including Loffa-Mano, Cestos Sankwan and Sapo in Liberia, Tai and Azagny in Côte d'Ivoire, and Nini-Suhien and Bia in Ghana. Further research on population trends, abundance and threats is needed.
1551		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Upper Guinea Rainforest Zone from Ghana (west of the River Volta) to eastern Liberia. In Liberia, the species is apparently limited to the vicinity of the River Cavalla, with only one record from further west in Deaple (at about 07°04’N, 08°33’W) (Kuhn 1966). There are no records of the species from Sierra Leone (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998, Schunke and Hutterer 2005), and, likewise, the species has not been recorded east of the Dahomey Gap.
1551		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species of moist, low-altitude tropical moist forests with an annual rainfall of 1,400 to 3,900 mm. The species prefers high primary forest with numerous tall emergents and palm trees. Animals are usually in pairs, although as many as six individuals have been found together.
1551		population	eng	It was formerly regarded as quite common in rainforest, but the strictly nocturnal habits and shyness of this species make any assessment of relative abundance very difficult. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability of tree holes.
1551		threats	eng	Deforestation in the Upper Guinea forests, mainly through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations, has removed much of the species' preferred habitat. Animals are also found in bushmeat markets.
1553		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Further research into population trends and abundance is needed.
1553		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from isolated, dispersed localities in Liberia, and then in southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and throughout much of Gabon to the northern border with Congo. It has also been recorded within the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, with the species ranging as far east as the western borders of Uganda. A single specimen (form '<em>batesi</em>') has been recorded from undisturbed forest on the Du River, western Liberia (Allen and Coolidge 1930), and two additional specimens have been reported from Mount Nimba in northern Liberia (Coe 1975). It is not known if the Liberian specimens represent an isolated population, or if the species ranges more widely in West Africa than is currently known (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Rahm and Christiansen (1963) recorded a specimen from 2,200 m asl at Mugaba in the Kahuzi region.
1553		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, and strictly nocturnal species mainly found in lowland equatorial tropical moist forest. Within the Gabon and Central Rainforest regions, the species has been recorded only from the central parts, and has not been reported from the margins or mosaics.
1553		population	eng	This species is possibly very localized. After many years of collecting in eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rahm (1969) listed data for only three specimens, although he does list specimens from other localities in subsequent publications.
1553		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation of suitable habitat, through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. Hunting for wild meat is a threat in some areas, but it is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the species.
1555		conservation	eng	The species was reported from Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve, and Kuala Tahan is a part of Taman Negara (National Park). There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
1555		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Pahang and Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia, where it was originally known from two individuals in each state; the records are from Ulu Gombak (220 m asl.) and Kuala Tahan at 500 m asl. (Smith, 1940, Lim and Kamarudin, 1975). Yaakob (2003) found two specimens from Kepong, raising the number of known specimens to six, but did not extend its range. It is very likely that this species is more widely distributed, but given its semi-fossorial habit is seldom seen.<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00276.x/full#b5" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-width: 0px; outline-style: none; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: baseline; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 126, 138);"><span class="Apple-converted-space"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00276.x/full#b5" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-width: 0px; outline-style: none; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: baseline; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 126, 138);"></a>
1555		habitat	eng	The two specimens from Selangor and Pahang were collected near a stream or river in forested regions of Ulu Gombak and Kuala Tahan at moderate altitude. All specimens have been located accidentally rather than during systematic searches.<br/><br/>This species is semi-fossorial and occurs in primary and old secondary dipterocarp forest.
1555		population	eng	The species is only known from six specimens in two states of Peninsular Malaysia, so nothing can be inferred about the population status or trends.
1555		threats	eng	Threats are not known as the records are from Forested Park area.
1559		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Habitat maintenance, conservation are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
1559		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Mindoro, where it is known only from Ilong Peak, Halcon Range in the Philippines. Although the species is known only from its type locality, there are other specimens from Mindoro that may represent this species (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
1559		habitat	eng	The only known locality was from forest at 1,400 m (Musser 1981). It is inferred to be an arboreal species based on its morphology.
1559		population	eng	The species population status is unknown. The species is known only for certain from the type series, other reports are highly speculative (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1559		threats	eng	The species is restricted to an island which has been heavily deforested. It is vulnerable to further deforestation (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991).
1564		conservation	eng	There are no records into any protected area. Papallacta area is close to two ecological reserves: Antisana y Cayambe-Coca (C. Boada pers. comm.).
1564		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005), at high elevations between 2,860 and 4,000 m (Voss 1988).
1564		habitat	eng	This rodent is poorly known. It inhabits along swift, cold, turbulent streams bordered by subalpine rainforest or grassy paramo (Voss 1988). It may be nocturnal.
1564		population	eng	This is a rare species (Tirira in prep.). In the Papallacta area (Napo Province), Voss (2003) collected 12 specimens between 1978 and 1980. In the same area, C. Boada (pers. comm.) in 2002 did not collect any specimens over a nine day period working with 400 traps.
1564		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss and water pollution. In 2003, the Papallacta Lake was seriously contaminated by a huge oil spill. There is no information on how this affected wildlife (C. Boada pers. comm.).
1565		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat lost.
1565		distribution	eng	Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Surinam, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
1565		habitat	eng	In the tropical region they are found in big colonies, but they are rare in the south. They are very important pollinators.
1565		population	eng	Rare in Argentina and abundance decreases as we move south. Difficult to capture. (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)
1565		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
1566		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
1566		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid high montane cloud forest in Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Simmons, 2005).
1566		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with humid montane cloud forest (minimum 1,000 m throughout most of the Andes, but can occur lower where this habitat is present) (Mantilla pers. comm.). It feeds on nectar, pollen occasionally insects and fruit. It roosts in small groups in caves, commonly found with other species in the genus. It also roosts in tunnels or tree hollows.
1566		population	eng	The species is rare in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. Locally common in Costa Rica and Panama.
1566		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
1567		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Protect the caves.
1567		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peru, Bolivia, southeast Brazil, the Guianas, Suriname, and Ecuador to Tamaulipas and Sinaloa (Mexico); It is also found on Trinidad, and on Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005). In Nicaragua it only occurs in central and northern regions, in high areas (Medina pers. comm.).
1567		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with streams within tropical evergreen forest. It feeds on nectar, fruit, and pollen, and may visit flowers primarily to obtain insects. Plant species visited in Mexico include Agave, Ceiba, Calliandra, Eucalyptus, Ipomoea, Pinus, and various composites. It roosts in small groups in caves, tunnels or tree hollows and is found in lowland rainforest, deciduous forest, gardens, and plantations. A colony of about 75 was found in a tunnel in Peru, grouped into several small clusters and hanging from the ceiling. Although common only where there are caves or rock crevices, and they are rare or perhaps absent from lowland Amazonian forests lacking high ground, rocks, and caves. A single birth peak occurs each year, late in the wet season (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997; Tuttle, 1970; Wilson, 1979).
1567		population	eng	It is common and widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
1567		threats	eng	No major threats. Cave mining and tourism can be a threat. Habitat loss in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
1568		conservation	eng	Occurs in national parks throughout its range.
1568		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous range - Venezuela, Guyana, Colombia, and Peru (Simmons, 2005). Elevation range 50 to 2,100 m in Venezuela (Linares 1998).
1568		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). It feeds on nectar, insects, fruit, and pollen. It roosts in small groups in caves or tree hollows and is found in lowland rainforest, deciduous forest, gardens, and plantations. Although common only where there are caves or rock crevices, and they are rare or perhaps absent from lowland Amazonian forests lacking high ground, rocks, and caves (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
1568		population	eng	In Venezuela and Colombia it is not common (Linares, 1998 and Mantilla pers. comm.).
1568		threats	eng	No major threats though habitat is under threat in some areas (Molinari pers. comm.).
1569		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas in Venezuela (Molinari pers. comm.).
1569		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of Venezuela and the eastern slope of the Cordillera orientale from 1,100 to 2,300 m (Simmons, 2005 and Mantilla pers. comm.).
1569		habitat	eng	Nectar feeding forest dwelling species occurring in non mountainous or hilly terrain in cloud forest, roosts in caves (Molinari 1994).
1569		population	eng	This species is relatively rare throughout its range (Molinari and Mantilla pers. comm.).
1569		threats	eng	No major threats (Mantilla pers. comm.) however, affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range (Molinari pers. comm.)
1581		conservation	eng	There is a need to develop trapping techniques to permit effective survey and monitoring of the species. Other conservation measures should include implementing long-term monitoring to validate adequacy of conservation measures; collate distribution data; identify and determine the status of the species across its range; construct habitat model to more accurately determine extent of source and sink habitat available to the Kultarr, identify patches and allow monitoring of the changes in habitat quality, particularly due to excessive flooding and grazing. There is a need to study home range, movement, habitat and food requirements in the field if a population can be located for a 3-5 year population study. Also, measures should include establishing adequate reserves and appropriate management inside and outside the reserve system (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
1581		distribution	eng	This Kultarr is endemic to Australia. It was previously distributed in arid and semi-arid zone mallee, shrubland, floodplain and gibber of Western Australia, Northern Territory, western Queensland, New South Wales, possibly Victoria (no evidence) and South Australia.<br/><br/>The species now appears to have disappeared from some parts of western New South Wales (Riverina and the northwest) and Queensland (Sandringham). Occurs in the southern Wheatbelt of Western Australia, western Goldfields, Ashburton and Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia, where apparent scarcity may be a trapping artefact (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Recent records from north-east South Australia (most common recent records), Yellabinna Regional Reserve, western South Australia, south of Lake Frome and at a rare rodent monitoring site on Macumba Station in the stony desert area of northern South Australia. At the latter site Kultarrs were trapped on every visit between July 1992 and mid-1996 and drier conditions and increasing cattle degradation did not lead to any noticeable drop in numbers (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
1581		habitat	eng	Kultarrs inhabit: open shrubland, mallee woodland, acacia shrubland with sparse ground cover, hummock grassland, gibber, flood plains, and stony areas with sparse ground cover. The species generally prefers heavier soil types (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Kultarrs have been recorded on severely degraded cattle country in central and western Australia but this may reflect the previous relatively high productivity of these landscape types rather than any benign effect of cattle (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
1581		population	eng	Kultarrs appear to undergo fluctuations in population size. It is considered rare and scattered (Valente 2008). This species is very difficult to trap using standard trapping techniques.
1581		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by sheep and cattle, and predation by cats and foxes are major threats to this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Also, habitat alteration due to changes in fire regimes since European settlement (Dickman and Read 1992).
1583		conservation	eng	Present in the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.
1583		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atherton uplands above 650 m (and up to 1,650 m) in north-eastern Queensland, Australia.
1583		habitat	eng	The species appears to be limited to the narrow band (<30 km wide) of upland rainforest above 650 m elevation south of Cairns; it occurs in all major rainforest types (Burnett 2008). It is found in selectively logged forest areas. The species does not survive in fragments of less than 100 ha (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 1996).
1583		population	eng	It is sparse, but locally common. It has a fragmented distribution (Burnett 2008).
1583		threats	eng	There is habitat fragmentation of the species' range. 1080 baiting to control pigs and wild dogs may be resulting in incidental poisoning of some animals, but this is not considered a major threat. In the future, climate change could be a very severe threat, and over the next 30-50 years it is suspected that much of its range will be lost (Burnett 2008).
1584		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas, including the Iron Range National Park; there are negotiations underway to declare additional national parks in the McIlwraith area.
1584		distribution	eng	This species is known from the east coast of the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia, occurring from the McIlwraith Range to the Iron Range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Leung 2008). The elevational range is sea level to 800 m.
1584		habitat	eng	The species occurs in semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest, particularly where there is a lot of ground cover. It can be found both in mature and secondary forest, but in the latter it only occurs when adjacent to mature rainforest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species is semi-arboreal and insectivorous, nesting in hollows.
1584		population	eng	It is locally common within its limited range (Menkhorst 2001; Leung 2008).
1584		threats	eng	No current threats to the species are apparent; however, timber cutting (selective logging) has been proposed in the Lockhart River area, and this could result in declines. 1080 baiting to control pigs and wild dogs may be resulting in incidental poisoning of some animals.
1587		conservation	eng	Long-nosed Dasyures occur in several protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.
1587		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It occurs between 1,400 m and 2,800 m asl.
1587		habitat	eng	The Long-nosed Dasyure is found in rainforest, mid-montane forest, beech forest, pandanus forest, and mossy forest (Van Dyck 2002). In the wild it appears that this species may breed at any time of the year and females carry up to four young in the pouch (Woolley 2003).
1587		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
1587		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
1589		conservation	eng	The Habbema Dasyure is present in several protected areas. Further studies of the species' taxonomy, distribution, and natural history are needed.
1589		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is known from scattered localities throughout its range. The Habbema Dasyure's elevational range is 1,600-3,660 m asl (Van Dyck 2002).
1589		habitat	eng	The Habbema Dasyure is present in montane primary forest, mid-montane forest, beech forest, mossy forest, and subalpine grasslands (Van Dyck 2002). It occurs in disturbed primary forest, but is not present in secondary forest habitats. This species is nocturnal (Woolley <em>et al.</1> 1991) and probably largely terrestrial. Animals have been found to nest in burrow systems in the ground (Woolley 1989). Females of this species may carry up to four young in the pouch and breeding appears to be aseasonal (Woolley 2003).
1589		population	eng	The species is relatively common throughout its range.
1589		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, largely because of the high elevations at which it occurs. The montane grasslands are burned periodically but this is not seen as a major threat.
1590		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas.
1590		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in Victoria and southeast New South Wales. It has an elevational range of sea level to around 2,000 m.
1590		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of forest and heathland habitats. The females give birth to a litter of between six and ten young (Dickman 2008).
1590		population	eng	Locally common.
1590		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some local declines may have occurred through clearing of native vegetation, afforestation with exotic pine trees, changes in fire regimes and predation by owls, and non-native foxes and feral cats (Dickman 2008). Although the species has been known to decline drastically in numbers in some study sites (e.g., Nadgee Nature Reserve), populations can quickly recover.
1591		conservation	eng	Black-tailed Dasyures occur in several protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of the species are needed.
1591		distribution	eng	The Black-tailed Dasyure has a wide distribution across the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) (Van Dyck 2002). It is also present in the Arfak (Indonesia) and Torricelli (Papua New Guinea) mountain ranges (Van Dyck 2002). This species is found from sea level to mid-montane areas up to 2,800 m (Van Dyck 2002).
1591		habitat	eng	It is found in rainforest, mid-montane forest, beech forest, pandanus forest, and mossy forest (Van Dyck 2002). The Black-tailed Dasyure breeds throughout the year; females have up to four young (Woolley 2003).
1591		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant.
1591		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
1620		conservation	eng	A possible conservation measure for this species would be the protection of known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.
1620		distribution	eng	Flower-faced bats are restricted to Bougainville and possibly Buka islands in North Solomons Province of Papua New Guinea, and to the islands of Florida, Choisel, Santa Isabel, and Guadacanal in the Solomons Islands (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). The species ranges from sea level up to 200 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).
1620		habitat	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from tropical moist forest, and flying around village houses. It is believed to be a foliage-gleaning insectivore (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).
1620		population	eng	It is a rare species (Bonaccorso 1998).
1620		threats	eng	The threats to flower-faced bats are not well-known. This species is present on a few medium-sized islands (Bonaccorso 1998).
1676		conservation	eng	Springbok are well represented in protected areas throughout their range, including Etosha National Park and Namib-Naukluft Park (Namibia), Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan National Park (Botswana), the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park between Botswana and South Africa, and Vaalbos and Karoo National Parks and a number of provincial reserves in South Africa. The current status of the population in Iona National Park in Angola, where a population of 2,500 was estimated in 1975, is unknown. Springbok also are well present in private lands, where they are actively managed. East (1999) estimated that about 60% of the total population occurs on private land and 12% in protected areas.<br/><br/>Springbok are amongst the most valued species in the expanding game ranching industry in southern Africa due to the excellent quality of their venison (Skinner in press).
1676		distribution	eng	Historically, the Springbok's range covered the central and western regions of southern Africa, with a marginal extension into southwestern Angola. The species still occurs very widely within its historical range, but in Angola it survives in greatly reduced numbers (East 1999, Skinner in press). <br/><br/>In South Africa, the Springbok was exterminated over much of its natural range during the course of the late 1800s as a result of hunting and the effects of rinderpest. However, it has subsequently been reintroduced widely to private land and protected areas throughout its former range. The largest numbers occur on private game farms, mainly in the highveld of the Free State and Gauteng provinces and the Karoo and Kalahari thornveld of the Western, Eastern and Northern Cape provinces.<br/><br/>Smaller, introduced populations occur widely in extralimital areas, e.g., on private land and provincial reserves in parts of KwaZulu-Natal and the northern bushveld (East 1999).
1676		habitat	eng	The Springbok formerly occurred in huge numbers in the dry grasslands, bushland and shrubland of south-western and southern Africa, migrating sporadically in vast herds (treckbokken) in some of the southern parts of its range. These migrations or treks no longer occur, but some indication of the species’ former abundance can still be seen in seasonal concentrations on the areas of short vegetation which it prefers, e.g., in parts of the section of the Kalahari which lies in central and southern Botswana (East 1999). Springbok are primarily browsers, but do also take grass, favouring young succulent grass before it begins to lignify (Skinner in press).
1676		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population in southern Africa at more than 670,000, noting that it was probably an underestimate. Recent estimates for Namibia alone put the population at 730,000, itself an underestimate (P. Lindeque, in Skinner in press). Elsewhere in the range, Skinner (in press) has estimated that numbers are probably in the order of 10,000 for Angola, 40,000 in the Botswana side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (and an additional 60,000 at least in the rest of the country), 75,000 in the Free State, 75,000 in the former Transvaal provinces, 1,000,000 in the Karoo and about 100,000 in the Cape provinces outside of the Karoo. Based on these figures the total population size in southern Africa is estimated at ca. 2,000,000 - 2,500,000 animals (Skinner in press).
1676		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the long-term survival of the species. They do not occur in woodland savanna almost certainly due to the presence of heartwater to which they show no resistance (Neitz 1944).
1677		conservation	eng	Populations of the Sonoran Pronghorn in Arizona and Mexico are protected under the US Endangered Species Act (since 1967), and a recovery plan for this subspecies has been prepared by USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). Mexican animals are listed on CITES Appendix I. Pronghorns have game-animal status in all of the western states of the United States, and permits are required to trap or shoot pronghorns. <br/><br/>This species occurs in a number of large and well-managed protected areas, including Yellowstone National Park.
1677		distribution	eng	The Pronghorn occurs in western North America, from the southern Prairie Provinces of Canada (southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan) south through the western U.S. to northern Mexico (Baja California, Sonora, Hidalgo). <br/><br/>It was introduced on Lanai Island (Hawaii) in 1959, where it reached a population of about 250 in the mid-1960s; however, there were less than 12 in 1983 and it seems headed for extinction (Tomich 1986).
1677		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of grasslands, sagebrush plains, deserts, and foothills. They range from near sea-level to 3,350 m (O'Gara 1999). Their need for free water varies with the succulence of the vegetation in their diet. Some populations undertake seasonal movements, sometimes moving as much as 160 km from their summering area (O'Gara 1978). They usually occur in small bands, but large winter herds disperse in spring. Forms separate bachelor and female-kid groups in spring and summer. Males associate with females in late summer and early fall. Breeding takes place mid-September to early October in the north, and from late July to early October in south.<br/><br/>In winter, northern populations depend heavily on browse, especially sagebrush; forbs are most important in summer. Southern populations use more forbs and less browse. They also take grasses, and, in some areas, cacti.
1677		population	eng	In the early 1800s, there were probably in the order of more than 35 million Pronghorn. By 1924, they were believed to be near extinction with only about 20,000 animals remaining. From 1924 to 1964 the population increased ten-fold  (O'Gara 1978). Today, numbers are estimated at about 700,000. They are generally declining in Mexico, although more stable in the remainder of the range; however, numbers do fluctuate depending on the severity of droughts and winters (O'Gara 1999). <br/><br/>It is estimated that there are fewer than 300 individuals of the Sonoran Pronghorn in the United States and 200-500 individuals in Sonora, Mexico (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998).
1677		threats	eng	The original decline in numbers of Pronghorn was most likely due to hunting, combined with a drastic reduction of available habitat due to habitat loss from agricultural, urban, and mining expansion onto historic lands; fencing across routes of seasonal movements; removal of native vegetation by rangeland rehabilitation projects; and heavy livestock grazing (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). However, effective law enforcement, and habitat and wildlife management techniques during the mid-1900s helped Pronghorn stage a remarkable recovery (Yoakum 1968).<br/><br/>Today, there are no major range-wide threats, although localized declines are taking place, particularly to the Sonoran Pronghorn, mainly as a result of, among others, livestock grazing, the construction of roads, fences and other barriers that pose barriers to historical habitat, illegal hunting (mainly in Mexico), insufficient forage and water, and lack of recruitment (see U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998 for review). Pronghorn usually inhabit large expanses of contiguous habitat and once such regions become fragmented beyond some threshold, use by Pronghorn generally decreases.
1681		conservation	eng	Fully protected by law in India. Occurs in many protected areas, including Velavadar Blackbuck Sanctuary and Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix III (Nepal).
1681		distribution	eng	The Blackbuck formerly occurred across almost the whole of the Indian subcontinent. Their range decreased sharply during the 20th century and they are now extinct in Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan. Attempted reintroductions have taken place in Pakistan and Nepal.
1681		habitat	eng	The species inhabits grassland and lightly-wooded country. They require water daily, which restricts distribution to areas where surface water is available for the greater part of the year. Blackbuck are primarily grazers. And mainly sedentary, but in summer may move long distances in search of water and forage (Rahmani 2001).
1681		population	eng	The population has increased from an estimated 22,000-24,000 in the 1970s to an estimated 50,000. The largest numbers are found in the states of Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujurat (Rahmani 2001). Introduced populations in Argentina and the USA may number 8,600 and 35,000, respectively (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).
1681		threats	eng	Although Blackbuck have disappeared from many areas due to habitat destruction through conversion to agricultural use, they are increasing in many protected areas and areas dominated by Vishnoi communities in Rajasthan and Haryana (Rahmani 2001). In some areas, the population has increased so much that the Blackbuck has become a pest in agricultural crops. Some Blackbuck are shot illegally, especially in areas where it shares the same habitat with Nilgai.
1781		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Zealand.
1781		habitat	eng	Found in forest habitat.
1781		population	eng	Current population size is unknown
1781		threats	eng	None currently known.
1783		distribution	eng	Confined to a single locality near menzies Bay, Banks Peninsula.
1783		habitat	eng	Found in open bush.
1783		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to shrub clearance.
1784		distribution	eng	All specimens collected in Roadside Cave (Walsingham Tract), Hamilton Parish (Fosshagen and Iliffe 1985).
1784		habitat	eng	Found in a (marine) limestone cave located 110 m inland from Harrington Sound. It has no visible connection with the sea or other caves. Tides in the pool are 57% of those in the open ocean with a lag time of 80 min. The water in the pool is very clear with no visible particles. The cave may serve as a refugium for rare and less competitive species.
1784		population	eng	Known only from five mature specimens.
1789		conservation	eng	Found in private protected areas in Belize. Found in protected areas in Mexico.
1789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Jalisco, Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas (Mexico); Guatemala; Belize; Honduras (Simmons 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,300 m (usually below 1,300 m). Northern of Nicaragua in Jinotega (Medina <em>et al</em>. in press).
1789		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a variety of forested habitats from lowland deciduous to montane pine-oak and cloud forest (Reid, 1997; Engstron <em>et al.</em>, 1987). Little is known of the roosting habitats of this species, except for one individual that was caught in a building. It is active within an hour of sunset and lies low to the ground along forest trails. Its anatomy suggests that this bat may feed by gleaning insects from the ground or vegetation. In captivity, it readily consumes large insect such as cockroaches and katydids (Engstrom <em>et al</em>. 1987; Reid, 1997). In Mexico it has been reported in deciduous forest (Coates-Estrada and Coates, 1986).
1789		population	eng	This bat is apparently uncommon and local (Reid, 1997).
1789		threats	eng	Habitat loss, restricted to intact forests. In Mexico it does not have important habitat loss (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).
1790		conservation	eng	Managing habitat and avoid disturbance.
1790		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Queretaro and Baja California (Mexico) to Kansas (USA) and British Columbia (Canada); also in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).
1790		habitat	eng	It frequents arid or semi-arid locations. The pallid bat is usually found in rocky, mountainous areas and near water. They are also found over more open, sparsely vegetated grasslands, and they seem to prefer to forage in the open. The pallid bat has three different roosts. The day roost is usually in a warm, horizontal opening such as in attics or rock cracks; the night roost is usually in the open, near foliage; and the hibernation roost, which is often in buildings, caves, or cracks in rocks (Miller 2002).The diet of this bat includes a significant proportion of beetles, grasshoppers, and moths; also it consumes scorpions and flightless arthropods such as crickets. Lizards have also been reported as prey items. Mating takes place in late autumn or early winter. Female pallid bats store sperm in the reproductive tract until ovulation takes place in the spring. Births generally occur in large maternity colonies in May and Junes. Males are generally absent from these maternity colonies. Yearling females have single offspring, whereas older females may have twins annually (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
1790		population	eng	It is locally common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). This species is gregarious; generally it occurs in groups larger than 20 individuals.
1790		threats	eng	The pallid bat may be in trouble because it is very sensitive to disturbance. Any disturbance, even hiking, can cause the bat to abandon a roosting area completely. Human disturbance of foraging areas has also decreased prey availability and diversity. Also, the use of pesticides has had a serious impact on pallid bat populations (Miller 2002).
1793		conservation	eng	African Clawless Otters are present in a number of protected areas across their range. The populations of Cameroon and Nigeria are listed on CITES Appendix I ( as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aonyx capensis microdon</span>). All other populations are included in CITES Appendix II.
1793		distribution	eng	The African Clawless Otter is the most widely distributed otter species in Africa, with a range stretching from Senegal and Mali throughout most of West Africa to Sudan and Ethiopia, and then southwards throughout East Africa to the Western Cape of South Africa. They are absent from the Congo basin, where they are replaced by the Congo Clawless Otter <em>Aonyx congicus</em>, the two species being sympatric in Uganda and Rwanda (Somers and Nel in press).
1793		habitat	eng	African Clawless Otters are predominantly aquatic and seldom found far from water. Freshwater is an essential habitat requirement, and they only occur in marine habitats provided there is access to fresh water. In marine habitats, rocky shores are preferred (Van Niekerk <em>et al.</em> 1998). Elsewhere, they are found in diverse habitats, from impoundments, estuaries, and mangroves to desert conditions of the upper Doring River in the Western Cape and the Fish River in southern Namibia (Nel and Somers 2007; Somers and Nel in press); they are also found in many seasonal or episodic rivers in the Karoo, such as the Sak, Vis, Riet and Gamka Rivers, provided suitable-sized pools persist (Nel and Somers 2007; Somers and Nel in press). They have been recorded up to 3,000 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996). African Clawless Otters have been found in towns and cities, and can occupy rivers with high pollution and eutrophication levels (Somers and Nel in press).
1793		population	eng	African Clawless Otters are fairly common to rare, with populations thought to be stable in 29 of the 35 countries from which they have been recorded (Rowe-Rowe 1990, 1995; Nel and Somers 2002). Abundance appears to be dependent on the availability of crabs (Rowe-Rowe and Somers 1998). <br/><br/>Density estimates from various studies in southern Africa are summarized by Somers and Nel (in press). Based on the recovery of radioactive scats, Somers (2001) gives an estimate of 1.53 otters per km of river; assuming there are two otters per km of river, the total population in South Africa alone is estimated at around 21,500 individuals (Somers and Nel in press).
1793		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species; however, in some parts of their range, their habitat has been either drastically changed or lost, following bush clearing, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands or water extraction or denudation of riparian vegetation (Rowe-Rowe 1995; Nel and Somers 1998).<br/><br/>In parts of their range, African Clawless Otters may be killed for skins and other body parts (e.g., Cunningham and Zondi 1991; De Luca and Mpunga 2005), or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income, or where they are believed to be responsible for poultry losses (Rowe-Rowe 1995). Fisheries managers of the Kairezi River Protected Area in Zimbabwe blamed trout declines on otter predation and competition with trout for food, even though scat analysis revealed that only 1% of otter faeces contained the remains of trout and their diets overlapped only 17% (Butler 1994; Butler and Marshall 1996). Occasionally, they are accidentally caught and drowned in gill nets and fish traps (Rowe-Rowe 1990).<br/><br/>.
1794		conservation	eng	They are present in several protected areas across their range, including Dzanga-Sangha N.P. in Central African Republic, the Lopé reserve in Gabon, and Nouabalé-Ndoki and Odzala National Parks in Congo Republic (Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press). There is a need for a detailed study on the biology, ecology, and distribution of this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aonyx capensis</span>).
1794		distribution	eng	The Congo Clawless Otter occurs in the rainforests of the Congo basin including Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, as well as southern Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, northern Angola, and extending eastward to the forests and the wetlands of Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda (Larivière 2001; Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press). The limits of the species’ distribution range are still unclear, partly due to the species’ possible confusion with the African Clawless Otter; there are, as yet, no confirmed records from Nigeria (Jacques <em>et al</em>. in press).
1794		habitat	eng	The Congo Clawless Otter occurs in rain forests and lowland swamps of the Congo River basin (Lariviere 2001; Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press). They are frequently observed in swampy forest clearings (bais), for example, at Langoué Bai in Gabon, and Mbeli Bai in Nouabalé-Ndoki N.P. in Congo Republic (Jacques <em>et al</em>. in press). Recorded to 2,200 m on the Kahuzi Massif (Rahm and Christiaensen 1963). The Congo Clawless Otter is the least well known of the three African otter species, and no detailed ecological study on this species has been conducted. The current state of knowledge has been summarized by Lariviere (2001) and Jacques <em>et al</em>. (in press).
1794		population	eng	This is a very poorly known species. It may be common in certain undisturbed rainforest locations, but is otherwise thought to be rare (Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press).
1794		threats	eng	Although there are probably no major threats to the species, hunting for bushmeat and skins, habitat loss and degradation, and over-fishing are likely localized threats in many areas. According to Carpaneto and Germi (1989), Mbuti pygmies in northeastern DR Congo use the skins of Congo Clawless Otters to make hats.
1802		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Abiseo National Park (274,500 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Cordillera de Colán (Butchart <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo (in range, F. Cornejo unpubl.).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
1802		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus miconax</em> is endemic to the Peruvian Andes, occurring south and east of the Río Marañón and west of the Río Huallaga (Hershkovitz 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). Butchart <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded the species in the Cordillera de Colán, south of the Río Chiriaco, at altitudes from 1,730 to 2,400 m above sea level. In the south, it occurs along the left bank of the Río Huallaga in the Department of Huanaco, from the region of the Río Aguaytia (tributary of the Ucayali), north through San Martín into the Department of Amazonas, just south the Maranón (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). This species has been recorded at elevations from 800 to 2,400 m asl.
1802		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid and very humid lower montane cloud forests of eastern central Peru, where sympatric with <em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> (Butchart <em>et al</em>. 1995). Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes, above 800 m to 3,200 m above sea level (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). Their sleeping sites include vine tangles and tree cavities like other species in the genus. This species can live in altered and secondary habitat. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco) , leaves, and small animals prey such as insects.<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult.  In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em>shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).
1802		population	eng	Little is known about the population characteristics, but they are believed to be fairly common in remaining patches of forest. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
1802		threats	eng	Butchart <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported that their main threat is deforestation in their restricted range. Threats include colonisation projects, road-building (the carretera central through the cloud forests of the region and new construction throughout their distribution), selective logging, deforestation, and forest fragmentation. Recently, mining companies have been granted concessions in areas where this species occurs and these growing mining operations including open pit mining represent an increasing threat to its habitat and habitat quality.  They are not hunted for food, although Butchart <em>et al</em>. (1995) found one being kept as a pet.
1807		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park (383,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Iguaque Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (6,750 ha) (Colombia, INDERENA, 1989; Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Tayrona Natural National Park (15,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Catatumbo-Barí Natural National Reserve (158,125 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (23,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
1807		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus griseimembra</em> is the night monkey of the Río Magdelena and the valleys of the ríos Cauca and São Jorge in northern Colombia (Hernandez-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). It extends north to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, partly up the Guajira Peninsula and east across the Sierra de Perija to Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela (Hernandez-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linhares 1998; Defler 2003, 2004).
1807		habitat	eng	night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level (the specifically montane forms are <em>Aotus lemurinus</em> and <em>Aotus miconax</em>) (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco) , leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).  <em>Aotus azarae</em> has been observed to include a significant portion of leaves in its diet (Ganzhorn and Wright 1994; Wright 1985; Arditi and Placci 1990; Giménez and Fernandez-Duque 2003), as has <em>Aotus zonalis</em> on Barro Colorado Island in an early study by Hladik and Hladik (1969).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 1.0±0.2 kg (n=20), adult female weight 0.923±0.063 kg (n=16) (Dixson 1983)
1807		population	eng	No information available. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
1807		threats	eng	This night monkey is evidently highly threatened in Colombia, in part due to habitat loss but also because of its capture in the late 1960s and 1970s as an important model for malaria research. Barranquilla was a major port for this commerce. Censuses carried out by Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> (1976) found it to be very scarce, while Green (1978) identified populations in the Sierra San Lucas. This area remains unprotected and could easily be destroyed should the local problems of civil unrest be solved, allowing for colonization.
1808		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Puracé Natural National Park (83,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Tama National Natural Park (48,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Llanganates National Park (219,707 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Most urgent is the protection of any forests that provide habitat for populations in northern Colombia. Censuses of populations and habitat are needed to better assess the population status of this species.
1808		distribution	eng	A montane night monkey, occurring in the Cordilleras Central and Oriental, from about 1,000 to 1,500 m upward to the treeline at 3,000 to 3,200 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1986). Following the range map in Defler (2003, 2004), it extends south as far as region of the headwaters of the rios Caquetá and Orteguaza. Tirira (2007) provisionally regards the montane night monkeys occurring in the subtropical humid forest along the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes (altitudes 940-1,800 m) as belonging to this species, although he points out (p.160) that its identity has yet to be confirmed. There are few records and all are based on sightings in the wild; the few museum specimens have yet to be studied in this regard. The possibility remains that it may be a variant of <em>A. vociferans</em> occurring otherwise throughout eastern Ecuador and adjacent northern Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a), or even an as yet unrecognized, distinct species.
1808		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), submontane and montane (cloud forests) in the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level in Colombia, and possibly Ecuador (altitudes of 940 to 1,800 m) (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004; Tirira 2007). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flowers, leaves, and small animal prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.920±0.075 kg (n=7, range 0.608-1.15 kg), adult female weight 0.859±0.088 kg (n=6, range 0.578-1.05 kg) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985). NB: This could refer to <em>griseimembra</em>, considered by Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1985) to be a subspecies of <em>A. lemurinus</em>.
1808		population	eng	No information available. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
1808		threats	eng	Much of the habitat of this night monkey is congruent with human disturbance, including deforestation, expanding illicit crops, coffee and armed conflict.<br/><br/>Many <em>Aotus</em> in Colombia have been released from captivity outside of their range and could be hybridizing; however, very little is known of the effects of this practice.
1843		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Further taxonomic research is needed.
1843		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Tuzgölü basin, to the Büyük-Menderes catchment, to the lake district region in Central Anatolia (Lake Egirdir) and to the south-western region according to Hrbek <em>et al</em>. 2002.
1843		habitat	eng	Lives in clear, well-oxygenated running freshwaters and springs.
1843		population	eng	No population information available.
1843		threats	eng	Water pollution and water extraction are the main threats to the species. Introduction of predatory species (such as <em>Gambusia</em> species) is a potential threat. No utilization of the species is known at present, but collection for the aquarium trade may be a future threat.
1846		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in the Appendix II and III of the Bern Convention.
1846		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Mediterranean coast of Spain and north-western Algeria. It is believed that the Algerian population is a separate species, but not yet described.
1846		habitat	eng	It is a ubiquitous and short-lived species that can withstand wide salinity and temperature ranges. It lives mainly in salty lagoons where <em>Gambusia</em> and <em>Fundulus</em> are absent
1846		population	eng	Decreasing.
1846		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, drought, water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species.
1847		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.
1847		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the Habitat Directive of EU and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.
1847		distribution	eng	It is distributed in all countries of the Mediterranean region to the exception of the Iberic Peninsula. It is restricted to coastal waters including islands. It is found in several Mediterranean islands, except Crete (Bianco <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species is also found in the Suez Canal (Lotan and Ben-Tuvia 1996).
1847		distribution	eng	It is distributed in all countries of the Mediterranean region to the exception of the Iberic Peninsula. It is restricted to coastal waters including islands. It is found in several Mediterranean islands, except Crete (Bianco <em>et al</em>. 1996). The Species is also found in the Suez Canal (Lotan and Ben-Tuvia 1996).
1847		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in brackish and salty waters, mainly in lagoons.
1847		population	eng	Abundant.
1847		population	eng	It is abundant within its range.
1847		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and eutrophication may be threats at a local scale.
1849		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
1849		distribution	eng	It was believed that this species was restricted to Lake Burdur in Central Anatolia. However, recent research indicates that it has a wider distribution (Hrbek <em>et al</em>. 2002,  Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has been recorded from Lake Egirdir to Lake Kovada and Lake Beysehir outlet into the Konya plains).
1849		habitat	eng	It lives in the littoral zone.
1849		population	eng	No data are currently available.
1849		threats	eng	Water pollution is the main threat to the species. Not known to be utilised at present, but collection for the aquarium trade is a potential future threat.
1858		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (version 2.3 1996) under criterion D2 (very small or restricted population) (IUCN 2009). It has a Global Heritage Status of G1 (Critically Imperilled) (NatureServe 2009). The one known locality of this species is inside a National Forest (Ocala National Forest). The level of protection this awards to snails and freshwater habitats in general is unknown (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further work is needed to verify the second population recorded by Shelton (2005) at Silver Glen Springs, as this could be important for the long-term viability of this species. In addition, research is recommended to determine the status of the stream and surrounding habitat (e.g., riparian, forest) in which this species is found. The species and its habitat should also be incoporated into the National Forest management plans, and considered for State/Federal listing (NatureServe 2009). The US government considered listing this species in 1984, but it was never listed.
1858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Alexander Spring Run, Ocala National Forest, Lake County in Florida (Thompson 2004, NatureServe 2009). Shelton (2005) states that this species also occurs in Silver Glen Springs, around 20 km north of Alexander Springs. This record should be verified as it may constitute an important, and previously unknown, population of this species.
1858		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to forest springs.
1858		population	eng	This species is known only from one locality, and it is not known whether this represents a single or several populations (NatureServe 2009). Recent claims of a second location north of Alexander Springs require verification.
1858		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this species. However, plausible future threats to this species are an increased frequency of drought events impacting the recharge of the groundwaters  feeding the system, change in National Forest  legislation with reduced protection to the  location and nutrient loading from  agricultural and urban runoff. Each of these has the potential to rapidly lead to significant declines in the population, ultimately leading to extinction of the species, within 10 to 15 years unless actions are taken to safeguard the species. <br/><br/>Other potential future threats might stem from tourism as the species occurs inside a National Forest. The US Forest Service website states that Alexander Springs is a "popular recreation area" (US Forest Service 2010). Melhop and Vaughn (1994) reported that swimmers temporarily displaced a related species, <em>Aphaostracon monas</em>, from a spring in Florida, although the snails repopulated the spring following the swimming season. <br/><br/>Vehicle pollution from Route 445, adjacent to Alexander Springs, may also be a threat. This species is likely to be vulnerable to small changes in water quality to its currently pristine habitat, similar to other hydrobiids (Melhop and Vaughn 1994).
1869		conservation	eng	In California relictual populations are protected in National Park Service land or through state endangered species listing. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) have the mountain beaver listed as; Special Concern (01 Nov 2001). The subspecies <em>nigra</em> of northern California is protected nationally under the United States Endangered Species Act as of 1991.
1869		distribution	eng	The mountain beaver (<em>Aplodontia rufa</em>) occurs along the Pacific coast of western North America, from southwestern British Columbia, Canada, south to central California in the United States. It ranges from near Merritt, British Columbia, south along the Cascade, Olympic, Coast, and Siskiyou ranges to Rio Dell, California; Mt Shasta, California, southeastward through the Sierra Nevada of eastern California and west-central Nevada; Point Arena, Mendocino County, California; and near Pt. Reyes, Marin County, California (Carraway and Verts 1993). <br/><br/>The subspecies  <em>nigra</em> has the most restricted distribution of all subspecies, it is known only from an area of 60 km² in the vicinity of Point Arena, Mendocino County, California. The subspecies <em>phaea</em> is known primarily from an area of approximately 285 km² within the Point Reyes National Seashore, Marin County, California, with a few populations occurring on privately owned land immediately adjacent to the Park.
1869		habitat	eng	In the main portion of their range, mountain beavers occur in moist forests and forest openings, where they prefer cool, moist environments such as overgrown thickets and seepage areas. They are most abundant near water courses in early to mid-seral stages vegetated by a tangle of secondary growth tree species, shrubs and forbs, and containing debris left from earlier forests (Carraway and Verts 1993). It prefers damp soils, digging networks of tunnels along stream banks. Tunnels generally are just below the ground surface, usually on north slopes in California, and on south slopes in British Columbia. It is primarily fossorial but can climb trees and swims well (but not arboreal or aquatic), and stays mostly underground in winter. Oval nests are constructed with leaves, twigs and grasses in a chamber that may be about two feet below the surface of the ground. <br/><br/><em>A. r. nigra</em> occurs only in sheltered gulches, steep north facing slopes, and in a few old dune systems, where it requires soil conditions that allow easy excavation and abundant succulent plant food. <em>A. r. phaea</em> requires north-facing slopes with dense thickets of brush typically composed of coyote brush, sword fern, blackberry, and poison oak. Openings within Bishop pine forest with dense herbaceous understorey of sword fern and blackberries are also occupied (Carraway and Verts 1999).<br/><br/>Mountain beavers feed on a wide variety of vegetation. They consume ferns, forbs, and deciduous plants in summer and conifer foliage in fall/winter if other plants are unavailable (Banfield 1974). It forages mainly above the ground (Epple <em>et al.</em> 1993). They require free surface water or succulent vegetation on a daily basis and caches grasses and forbs for winter food. They are active during winter. Throughout the 24-hour day in summer, five to seven periods of activity alternate with periods of rest. They are more active at night than during daylight hours.<br/><br/>Mountain beavers have a low rate of reproduction and are monoestrous. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. One litter of two to four altricial young are born March-April, sometimes as late as early May in the north. Young are weaned in about six to eight weeks. Females are sexually mature in about two years; yearling females may ovulate but do not breed (Carraway and Verts 1993). A few live up to five to six years. They are usually solitary but may live in loose colonies. Population density estimates generally range from four to eight per hectare, but up to 15-20 per ha (Carraway and Verts 1993). The home range of ten adults radio tracked for three to 19 months was 0.03-0.20 ha, with a mean of 0.12 ha (Carraway and Verts 1993). Significant predators of mountain beavers include coyote and bobcat.
1869		population	eng	Except for two small relictual populations in California, the mountain beaver is widespread and common in the Pacific Northwest. Global abundance estimates are from 10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals. For the subspecies <em>nigra</em> there are thought to be 10 populations within its known geographic range, totalling 100 individuals. Prior to a wildfire in 1995 that killed an estimated 98 percent of Reyes Point mountain beavers (subspecies <em>phaea</em>), the population was estimated at 5000 individuals.
1869		threats	eng	This species is common and considered a pest throughout much of its range in coastal areas of Northern California, Oregon, Washington and southern British Columbia. The areas inhabited are generally not visited frequently by humans. The mountain beaver is only rare in some relictual populations in California.<br/><br/>Threats to the disjunct subspecies <em>nigra</em> and <em>phaea</em> include wildfire, livestock grazing, expansion of exotic plant species, rodent control measures, alteration of natural stream flow, housing development, highway construction, predation by cats and dogs as well as the general uncertainties associated with small population sizes (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).
1888		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas throughout its range. It is often considered to be an agricultural pest. The population on Uotsuri Island is listed in the Japanese Red List as Critically Endangered.
1888		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas throughout its range. It tends to be considered an agricultural pest species.
1888		distribution	eng	The striped field mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva <em>et al.</em> 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrghyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia). The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, China, the Korean peninsula, and Taiwan. It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m in southern Europe (e.g. Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).
1888		distribution	eng	The Striped Field Mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva <em>et al.</em> 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Krystufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the north, and northwest Xinjiang Province in China in the south. The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, Mongolia (distributed in the extreme east of the country along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968; Dulamtseren, 1970), China (from west Yunnan to north Heilongjiang), northern Myanmar, the Korean peninsula, Taiwan, and Uotsuri Island (Senkaku Islands) in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m asl in southern Europe (e.g., Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Krystufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).
1888		distribution	eng	The striped field mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva <em>et al.</em> 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the north, and northwest Xinjiang Province in China in the south. The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, Mongolia (distributed in the extreme east of the country along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968; Dulamtseren, 1970), China (from west Yunnan to north Heilongjiang), northern Myanmar, the Korean peninsula, Taiwan, and Uotsuri Island (Senkaku Islands) in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m asl in southern Europe (e.g. Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).
1888		habitat	eng	A diurnal species found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred. It feeds on roots, grains, seeds, berries, nuts and insects.
1888		habitat	eng	A diurnal species found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kry?tufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred. It feeds on roots, grains, seeds, berries, nuts and insects.
1888		habitat	eng	It is found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred.
1888		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
1888		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is a very common species in the Far East. In Mongolia little information is available, but out of 80 traps placed on the Nomrog River Bank, only 2 or 3 individuals were caught. In Japan, there were two individuals captured in 1979 in open grassland on Mount Narahara, western Uotsuri Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). There is no recent information on the status of the populations on this island, but the habitat is severely degraded by introduced goats and the population is considered to be seriously threatened.
1888		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kry?tufek  1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kry?tufek 1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is a very common species in the Far East. In Mongolia little information is available, but out of 80 traps placed on the Nomrog River Bank, only 2 or 3 individuals were caught. In Japan, there were two individuals captured in 1979 in open grassland on Mount Narahara, western Uotsuri Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). There is no recent information on the status of the populations on this island, but the habitat is severely degraded by introduced goats and the population is considered to be seriously threatened.
1888		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
1888		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
1890		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Tangjiaha Nature Reserve, as well as Leigongshan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Nujiang, Tongbiguan, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is probably present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
1890		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan, Chongqing, Sichuan, Guizhou, western Hubei, southern Shaanxi, and southern Gansu, and one record from Hunan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations between 1,800-2,300 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
1890		habitat	eng	This species occurs in agricultural areas, grassy fields, and open woodland habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>Its diet consists primarily of seeds and sometimes insects (Smith and Xie 2008). It is diurnal (Smith and Xie 2008).
1890		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
1890		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
1891		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas in Myanmar, but the Mount Victoria record may occur in Nat Ma Taung National Park. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
1891		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern, central and eastern China (eastern Xizang and Yunnan, extending east to Fujian and northeast to Hebei) (Smith and Xie 2008), north and east-central Myanmar (Kachin and Chin states, respectively), and north-eastern India (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Myanmar, recorded from 1,335-3,816 m asl in Kachin; in Chin state, it was recorded only from Mount Victoria at 2,200-2,800 m asl (Musser <em>et al. </em>1996).
1891		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest heath habitat, and likely to occur in modified habitats. In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurs in tropical evergreen and montane rainforest, where it is seen at high altitude along the streams (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
1891		population	eng	Common through much of the range. Several large series were collected in Kachin state in Myanmar.
1891		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall. In South Asia, jhum (shifting) agriculture is a threat to the species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
1892		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas across its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.
1892		distribution	eng	The Yellow-necked Field Mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found occurs through Turkey east to western Armenia, the Zagros Mountains of Iran and south to Syria, Lebanon and Israel.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).
1892		distribution	eng	The yellow-necked mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found in parts of the Near and Middle East and the Caucasus (Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).
1892		distribution	eng	The yellow-necked mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found occurs through Turkey east to W Armenia, the Zagros Mountains of Iran and south to Syria, Lebanon and Israel.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).
1892		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of woodland habitats. It tends to be a forest edge species, but in the Alps it lives within forests (F. Spitzenberger <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Also occurs in open shrublands and secondary habitats. Its spatial distribution in large forest areas is related to the productivity and spatial distribution of forest trees with heavy seeds, mainly oak and hazel (Juškaitis 2002).
1892		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of woodland habitats. It tends to be a forest edge species, but in the Alps it lives within forests (F. Spitzenberger <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Its spatial distribution in large forest areas is related to the productivity and spatial distribution of forest trees with heavy seeds, mainly oak and hazel (Juškaitis 2002).
1892		population	eng	It is a common species throughout much of its range. Populations appear generally stable (natural fluctuations occur). Densities of more than 100 individuals per hectare have been recorded in eastern Europe (Montgomery 1999).
1892		threats	eng	Globally there are no major threats. In the UK, the species occupied a wider distribution in historic times and has undergone a range contraction associated with the conversion of ancient woodland to agricultural land (Battersby 2005).
1892		threats	eng	Globally there are no major threats. Locally, habitat degradation due to agriculture may cause population declines. In the UK, the species occupied a wider distribution in historic times and has undergone a range contraction associated with the conversion of ancient woodland to agricultural land (Battersby 2005).
1894		conservation	eng	The species is not protected under legislation in Nepal. It is not known from any protected areas in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further surveys and ecological studies are recommended.
1894		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nepal, where it is known only from seven locations (Gurkha, Maharigaon, Gorapani, Takucha, Larjung, Chitare and Upper Ulleri) in Central Nepal (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It occupies an altitudinal range of 2,400 to 3,500 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
1894		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species, occurs in temperate highlands where it occurs in Rhododendron and coniferous forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
1894		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
1894		threats	eng	The threats to the species include loss of habitat and collection of animals for local consumption (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
1896		conservation	eng	There are no known records from protected areas, however, there are protected areas within this range. Considered Data Deficient in Azerbaijan.
1896		distribution	eng	East Caucasus, where it is found in the low mountain broadleaf forests of the Talysh region of southeast Azerbaijan. Then ranges eastward along the coast of the Caspian Sea through Iran and possibly into SW Turkmenistan. Altitudinal range is from sea level up to c.2,000 m. Restricted to lowlands around the southern border of the Caspian Sea.
1896		habitat	eng	Low mountain broadleaf forests.
1896		population	eng	The species is common in suitable habitats, specifically in mesic forests.
1896		threats	eng	The lowland belt along the Southern Caspian Sea has been deforested for agriculture; approximately 50% deforested in last 30 years.
1897		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wolong, Changshanerhai (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is likely to be present in several other protected areas. Further research is needed to determine the southern limit of its distribution in Myanmar and within India. In India, it was listed under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it was regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
1897		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). There are a few historical records of its presence in India (Arunachal Pradesh) (Sarker <em>et al.</i. 2005), but its current distribution there is unknown. In China, it is known from the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Qinghai, and Tibet (Smith and Xie 2008). The southern limit in Myanmar requires review, as there is uncertainty regarding its extent within the northern highlands. This species has sympatric distribution with <em>A. draco</em> in Sichuan, Yunnan, and north-east Myanmar (Musser <em>et al.</em> 1966).  It occupies an elevational range of 2,700-4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
1897		habitat	eng	In China, this species occupies alpine forests and adjacent meadows (Smith and Xie 2008). In Myanmar, it is presumably present in a variety of lower montane habitats. This species has low tolerance to human disturbance (Lunde <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is nocturnal (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005).
1897		population	eng	In Myanmar, it is probably a common species. There are no data regarding the population status in China or India.
1897		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
1898		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.
1898		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.
1898		distribution	eng	<em>Apodemus mystacinus </em>occurs on some Aegean and Ionian islands eastward through Turkey to Israel, Lebanon, north-west Jordan, Syria, and northern Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,700 m.
1898		distribution	eng	<em>Apodemus mystacinus </em>occurs on some Aegean islands eastward through Turkey and Georgia to Israel, Lebanon, north-west Jordan, Syria, and northern Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,700 m.
1898		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest with rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs. Rocky areas are important for this species (Storch 1999).
1898		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest with rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs. Rocky areas are important for this species (Storch 1999). This nocturnal species feeds on grains, pine seeds, acorns, carob pods, snails and insects (Qumsiyeh 1996).
1898		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitats (Qumsiyeh 1996, Amr 2000). The population trend is stable (Storch 1999).
1898		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitats. The population trend is stable (Storch 1999).
1898		threats	eng	No major threats.
1899		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
1899		distribution	eng	This species occurs across much of China except the drier regions to the west and the lowlands in the southeast (Smith and Xie, in press), northwards throughout Korea, northern Mongolia (Mongol Altai, Hövsgöl, Hangai, Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, Dzungarian Govi Desert and Mongol Daguur Steppe (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989)), extending to southern Siberia and the Russian Far East including the islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan).  See Wang (2003) for the distributions of the various subspecies in China.
1899		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of riparian forest, mixed forests, forest-steppe, grassy fields, cultivated areas and woodlands up to alpine zone in mountains (4000 m). Most abundant in mixed forests and bushy growth. Often found in dwellings. In summer active in dusk and night, in autumn and winter also diurnal. Used natural roosts or makes burrows up to 3,5 m long and 30-40 cm deep. Burrows have several cells and 1-2 exits. Feed on roots, grains, seeds, berries, nuts and insects. Stores nuts and acorns. Reproduce starting from snow melting and lasts till freeze. Usually have about 3 litters, with 5-6 young.
1899		population	eng	It is a relatively common species. It is not common on Hokkaido, Japan, where A. speciosus is more dominant.
1899		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall.
1900		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas.
1900		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Caucasus (S Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan).
1900		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology are similar to those of Apodemus flavicollis. Inhabit mixed forests, forest-steppe, grassy fields, and bushy growth. Mostly nocturnal. Used natural roosts or makes burrows with nest and supply cells. Feed on seeds, grains, nuts and insects. Stores nuts and other food. Reproduce during warm time of the year, litter size is 5-6 young.
1900		population	eng	Common species on the majority of the range.
1900		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
1901		conservation	eng	It is classified as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. Surveys, ecological and population studies are recommended.
1901		distribution	eng	This species is endemic but widely distributed in the Himalaya of northeastern Pakistan (Baltistan and Hazara districts) and northwestern India (Jammu and Kashmir) at an altitudinal range of 1,980 to 3,350 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005).
1901		habitat	eng	A nocturnal and terrestrial animal, it lives in montane forests, scrublands and grasslands in hilly and rocky mountains, sub alpine scrub and meadow, and coniferous forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005 as <em>A. sylvaticus</em>).
1901		population	eng	Population information not well known.
1901		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known.
1902		conservation	eng	This species is present in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
1902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations between 1,800-3,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
1902		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats including grasslands, broad-leaved and coniferous forests, bamboo, and subalpine shrubs (Smith and Xie 2008). It is characterized as a habitat generalist (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>Reproductive period is year round for this species, with peaks occurring in April-May and September-October (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter sizes range from two to six (Smith and Xie 2008).
1902		population	eng	In a survey conducted from 1989-1990, this species was found to be abundant and ubiquitous in Yushan National Park (Yu 1993).
1902		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
1903		conservation	eng	The species is recorded in numerous protected areas.
1903		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is widespread. It is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku, as well as many smaller islands. These include Kunashir, Rishiri, and Okushiri off of Hokkaido, Notojima, Sado, the Izu Islands (Oshima, Niijima, Shikine, Kozu and Miyake), Toshijima (Mie Prefecture), the Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishino, Nakano and Chiburi), Oshima (Wakayama Prefecture), Awaji, Shodo and Teshima (Kagawa Prefecture); Miyajima, Kurahashi, Nouke, and Eda (Hiroshima Prefecture); Geiyo Islands (Oshima, Hakata, Omi, Ikuchi, Inno, Mukai, Takane and Osaki-Kamishima); Yashiro, Oshima, and Nagashim (Yamaguchi Prefecture); Iki, Hirato, the Goto Islands (Fukue and Nakadori), Tsushima; Otoko (Nagasaki Prefecture); Amakusa Islands (Kami, Shimo, Oyano); Yaku; Tane; Shimokoshiki; Tokara Islands (Kuchinoerabu, Kuchino, Nakano) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
1903		habitat	eng	The species occurs from sea level to montane areas. It is a ground dweller found in forests, grasslands, and cultivated fields (including rice paddies).
1903		population	eng	It is a very common species.
1903		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
1904		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.
1904		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.
1904		distribution	eng	The wood mouse has a large range that extends throughout Europe (with the exception of Finland and northern parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic and Russia) and parts of North Africa (Panteleyev 1998, Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). <br/><br/>In Europe, the species occurs from southern Europe northwards to Scandinavia; eastwards to northwest Turkey (Thrace and northwestern Anatolia), central Belarus, eastern Ukraine, and closely adjacent parts of the western Russian Federation (the easternmost limit of the species). <br/><br/>In Africa, it occurs in the Atlas Mountains and north of them along the entire coastal plain. It is present on the majority of offshore islands including the British Isles, Iceland and numerous Mediterranean islands: for example the Aegean islands, Greece, some islands in the Tuscan Archipelago, Sardinia and Corsica, Italy. <br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in the High Atlas mountains.
1904		distribution	eng	The wood mouse has a large range that extends throughout Europe (with the exception of Finland and northern parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic and Russia) and parts of North Africa (Panteleyev 1998, Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is present on the majority of offshore islands including the British Isles and Iceland. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
1904		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable species, inhabiting a wide variety of semi-natural habitats including all types of woodland, moorland, steppe, arid Mediterranean shrubland, and sand dunes. It is also found in many man-made habitats including suburban and urban parks, gardens and wasteland, pastures and arable fields, and forestry plantations. It has an omnivorous diet including seeds and invertebrates. Although it can cause occasional damage, it is not generally considered an agricultural pest (Montgomery 1999).
1904		population	eng	It is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, and populations appear to be stable. Population density may fluctuate more than tenfold between years of maximum and minimum abundance, but there are no regular cycles (Montgomery 1999).
1904		population	eng	It is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, and populations appear to be stable. Population density may fluctuate more than tenfold between years of maximum and minimum abundance, but there are no regular cycles (Montgomery 1999). It is very abundant and in places it is considered to be a pest species.
1904		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although pollution by lead and agrochemicals may have localised negative impacts.
1904		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although pollution by lead and agrochemicals may have localized negative impacts.
1905		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas within its range.
1905		distribution	eng	<em>Apodemus uralensis </em>occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mo?ansky 1962). From east Europe and Turkey, the species range extends east to the Altai mountains and northwest China (Xinjiang), south to the Caucasus. The southern and eastern limits of the species' range in Central Asia are poorly defined (Musser and Carleton 2005).
1905		distribution	eng	<em>Apodemus uralensis </em>occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mošansky 1962).
1905		distribution	eng	<em>Apodemus uralensis </em>occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mošansky 1962). From east Europe and Turkey, the species range extends east to the Altai mountains and northwest China (Xinjiang), south to the Caucasus. The southern and eastern limits of the species' range in Central Asia are poorly defined (Musser and Carleton 2005).
1905		habitat	eng	In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Juškaitis 2003). In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999).
1905		habitat	eng	It prefers forest edge and open habitats adjacent to woodland. In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999). In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Ju?kaitis 2003).
1905		habitat	eng	It prefers forest edge and open habitats adjacent to woodland. In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999). In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Juškaitis 2003).
1905		population	eng	Little is known about the status of this species. Its distribution is patchy in at least parts of its European range (Storch 1999).
1905		population	eng	Relatively little is known about the status of this species, but it is apparently common in suitable habitat in at least parts of its range (e.g. Caucasus and Anatolia). Its distribution is patchy in at least parts of its European range (Storch 1999).
1905		threats	eng	No major threats.
1906		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
1906		distribution	eng	This species largely ranges through the Pamirs and adjacent mountain ranges of Central Asia and South Asia. It is distributed from southern Kyrgyzstan in the north, ranging through much of Tajikistan, to Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, northwestern India and central Nepal, with a single record from southwestern Xizang in China (Musser and Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, Carlton 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). It is found at altitudes of 1,465 to 3,965 m asl.
1906		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from high elevation coniferous and rhododendron forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
1906		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
1906		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats overall to this widespread species.
1907		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas in its range.
1907		distribution	eng	The Alpine mouse is endemic to the Alps (France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Austria), where it occurs from 550-2,100 m (Storch 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It probably occurs in suitable habitat throughout the Alps, although records are patchy.
1907		habitat	eng	It typically occurs in montane woodland, where it favours areas with rocks and patches of grass (Storch 1999).
1907		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitats (Storch 1999).
1907		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
1910		conservation	eng	The species as currently defined occurs in protected areas. There is a need for further research on taxonomy and to determine its range limits.
1910		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Central Cordillera in north central of Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Current studies indicate that previous reports from 760 m to 1,650 m in the Sierra Madre (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994; Mallari and Jensen 1993) do not belong to <em>A. datae</em> (Heaney <em>et al</em>. in prep).
1910		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in montane mossy forest from 1,600 m to 2,700 m in the Central Cordillera (Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952). It also occurs in secondary scrubby forest and there are a few records from high elevation agricultural areas and degraded forest areas.
1910		population	eng	This is an extremely abundant animal, perhaps the most common small mammal in the Philippines (L. Heaney pers. comm.). This species reaches its highest density in old growth montane and mossy forests, and has stable populations in scrubby areas and secondary growth (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1910		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to this species, there are threats to local populations particularly at lower elevations due to deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture (L. Heaney pers. comm.).<br/>The type locality on Mt. Data has been largely converted to farm land with high value vegetable crops. However, there is still extensive suitable habitat in the area (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1911		conservation	eng	This species is known from three National Parks: Mount Kitanglad, Mount Apo and Mount Kalatungan Range.
1911		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines and is restricted to the island of Mindanao where it is known from Bukidnon province in the Mt. Kitanglad range and Davao del Sur province in the Mt. Apo mountain range, at an elevation range from 1,900 to 2,800 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is probably more widespread than this, occurring in appropriate habitat across the Kamangkil-Lumut Mountain range (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1911		habitat	eng	This omnivorous species (L. Heaney pers. comm.) is uncommon in primary montane forest at 1,900 m and abundant in primary mossy forest from 2,250 m to 2,800 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data; Musser 1982). The species does naturally occur in disturbed forest such as in landslides areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1911		population	eng	The species is abundant in the known habitats, the second most common small mammal in its habitat and the most common <em>Muridae</em> in these habitats (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1911		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, as deforestation is not occurring at the elevation range at which the species inhabits. Fires have occurred on Mt. Kitanglad and are potentially a threat here and on other peaks.
1912		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.), but management of these areas is needed.
1912		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and restricted to the Mindanao Faunal Region, Mindanao and Dinagat islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs from sea level to 2,800 m and is widely documented throughout Mindanao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It does not on occur on Bohol, Leyte, Samar, and Biliran islands, the individuals there represent another undescribed <em>Apomys</em> species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1912		habitat	eng	This species is no longer common in lowland forest. It reaches its largest abundance in montane areas preferring primary forest, but also occurring in disturbed forest (e.g., by low-level logging and natural disturbances such as landslides). It probably does not occur in human dominated areas such as agricultural areas and grasslands (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1912		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in sparsely dispersed populations in montane forest, and formerly occurred in lowland forest, but these populations have declined due to habitat loss and are now not considered common (L. Heaney pers. comm.)
1912		threats	eng	Today, there are no major threats to this species. Deforestation and habitat conversion in the lowlands in the 70s and 90s has led to a decline of lowland populations, and deforestation at middle elevations has certainly affected their habitat ranges. However, since this is a principally montane species, this disturbance is relatively minor to the overall population (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1913		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
1913		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Mindanao Faunal Region (Philippines), where it has been recorded from Mindanao island (Lanao del Sur, and Maguindanao provinces) (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Specimens from Leyte, Biliran, and Bohol were tentatively referred to this species. Formerly recorded also from Negros (Musser 1982), but that sample represents an undescribed species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
1913		habitat	eng	The holotype was taken on the coastal plain of Maguindanao province. An additional specimen taken at about 1,400 m in Lanao del Sur was tentatively referred to this species (Musser 1982).
1913		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are uncertain, because of taxonomic uncertainty.
1913		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
1914		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas.
1914		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is found only on Luzon and Catanduanes islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Luzon it is widespread and occurs from near sea level to 2,150 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
1914		habitat	eng	This species is mainly arboreal occurring in lowland, montane, and mossy primary and secondary forest (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). Specimens have also been taken from forest near sea level in Isabela Province (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994) and on Catanduanes (Hollister 1913). There are no records from outside of forest (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm.).
1914		population	eng	This is a moderately common species locally (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1914		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species as the highlands, where a significant part of the species range occurs, is not affected by deforestation. However, the lowland parts of its range have experienced severe deforestation (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1915		conservation	eng	The species is in need of taxonomic revision and the conservation status must be reassessed.
1915		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines in Dinagat, Luzon (Benguet, Camarines Sur, Isabela, and Kalinga provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Mindoro islands, occurring from 300-2,000 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
1915		habitat	eng	This is mostly an arboreal species (L. Heaney pers. comm.) found to be abundant in primary montane forest (1,125-1,350 m), uncommon in mossy forest (1,550-1,750 m), and absent in disturbed lowland forest (475-900 m) on Mt. Isarog, southern Luzon (Balete and Heaney 1997; Heaney <em>et al</em>. in press; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991). This species has been recorded in disturbed lowland forest at 300 m in northeastern Luzon (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994) and at 1,500 m in Benguet (Miller 1910), and in ridgetop mossy forest at 750 m on Dinagat (Tabaranza unpubl. data).
1915		population	eng	This is a moderately common species particularly at middle elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are several scattered specimens from Mindoro and one known record from Dinagat, neither of these islands have had recent or adequate surveys undertaken (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).
1915		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The lowland forested areas throughout its range have experienced significant deforestation, and there is continued deforestation ongoing, but the impact is minor to the overall population given the majority of the population is at higher elevations (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.). The local population of Dinagat Island is particularly threatened by mining (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).
1916		conservation	eng	The species is taxonomically valid, but there is a need to determine the species' exact distribution (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1916		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Luzon Island, Philippines (Musser and Carleton 2005). The holotype is from Saccobia River, Clark Air Base, central Luzon at around 100-200 m (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1916		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology information is unknown. The holotype was from lowland secondary forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1916		population	eng	The only specimen that is certainly this species is the holotype. There have not been any subsequent surveys n the area, so population trends are unknown (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1916		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The area of the type locality was impacted by the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1917		conservation	eng	The species would benefit from further research on its distribution and threats.
1917		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the northern highlands on Mindoro from 1,255-1,900 m (Ruedas 1995), but the elevational limits are poorly known. The area has not been surveyed more widely, so there is a possibility that it may be found in other highland areas.
1917		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary montane forest, including natural bamboo thickets, which occur in landslide or burned areas within the forest (Ruedas 1995), and is potentially moderately tolerant to some stages of forest disturbance (D. Balete and L. Heaney pers. comm.).
1917		population	eng	This species is apparently relatively common locally (Ruedas 1995).
1917		threats	eng	The species is restricted to an island that has been heavily deforested and is vulnerable to further deforestation (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991). There is also habitat destruction caused by cattle grazing at higher altitudes (Ruedas 1995) and forest fires on Mt. Halcon (J. Gonzalez pers. comm.).
1920		conservation	eng	In Australia this species has protected status and is classed as Endangered. Management and conservation plans have been developed and the only known remaining populations of this species is within protected land. The expansion of protected areas is needed, they will act as a buffer for the species in the case of stochastic events threatening its habitat. Further research into conservation measures, threats, habitat and population trends of the species are suggested, as is population and habitat monitoring. Conservation actions need to be put in place to ensure the survival of this species.
1920		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the region between Woomelang and Ouyen, northwestern Victoria, Australia (Backhouse and Robertson 2003). The last remaining population is thought to inhabit the Wathe State Reserve where it is recorded from four localities (Cogger <em>et al</em>. 1993). This reserve is known to have an area of approximately 60 km²<sup></sup>.
1920		habitat	eng	This species is only found in temperate mallee woodlands and shrublands on sandy soils (Wells 2007) that have not been burned for at least forty years (Cogger <em>et al</em>. 1993).
1920		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
1920		threats	eng	Large areas of this species' former range have been cleared for agricultural use and development. This species is particularly susceptible to the burning of its habitat by both wild and managed fires and in 1991 an uncontrolled wildfire destroyed two of the four areas known to support the species (Cogger <em>et al</em>. 1993). Invasive plant and animal species may also threaten this species' habitat.
1933		conservation	eng	The Luplupwintem cave is currently unprotected and protection of this site is an immediate conservation priority, perhaps through reapplication of local taboos as has happened near Herowana. Local awareness programmes and enforced prohibition of hunting are needed to allow the only known population to recover. Areas of suitable habitat in adjacent areas of Papua Province, Indonesia, or to the east of Luplupwintem should be surveyed to locate any remaining populations of this species. A captive-breeding programme should be considered. Research is ongoing to assess habitat requirements of this species (D. Wright pers. comm.).
1933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). It was first described from 12,000 year old fossil remains. In 1975, living animals were discovered at the Luplupwintem cave, close to the edge of the Hindenburg Wall, in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. Later surveys suggested that the species had been extirpated from the Luplupwintem site, and visits to the roost over the course of a decade did not record any bats. In 1992, Flannery and Seri (1993) counted 137 bats leaving this cave, and subsequently, in 1993, 160 bats were recorded leaving the roost. In the 1980s and 1990s the species was recorded from two sites in the Star Mountains region where the species is no longer known, and recently hunted remains were collected in Eastern Highlands Province in 1995 at the  locality of Huavegemu Cave near the village of Herowana, and nearby two more individuals have been recently recorded (D. Wright pers. comm.). It is possible that additional populations of this species are present in eastern Papua Province, Indonesia, where there is suitable habitat and a low human population density (Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded as living and fossil populations between 1,400 and 2,400 m asl (Bonaccorso 1998).
1933		habitat	eng	It is a cave roosting, mid-montane mixed tropical forest species, apparently tied to limestone areas. The species is frugivorous and has been recorded feeding on ficus in an old garden at Taman Village (Flannery 1995). An adult female collected at Luplupwintem in May 1992 was carrying a single dependent young.
1933		population	eng	This species is reported to have once been abundant at Luplupwintem. The population here was decimated by hunting in the late 1970s. The only known colony of this species consists of about 160 individuals.
1933		threats	eng	This is a large bat that has been severely hunted for meat at the known sites. The population at Luplupwintem was apparently decimated by groups of hunters with shotguns in the late 1970s. The species also appears to be very sensitive to disturbance of its cave roosts. The elevational range of this species overlaps with areas of high human population density. A large bushfire had swept just north of the Luplupwintem area just prior to 2001 (T. Flannery pers. comm.), and these alpine grasslands are very vulnerable to fire impacts (L. Seri pers. comm.). The population has a restricted range.
1991		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
2017		conservation	eng	It is not known whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed. Basic biology and the extent to which this species can tolerate usual forest practices (i.e., cutting and burning) needs to be established.
2017		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from the Columbia River south through the Coast Range of Oregon to Humboldt County, California in the United States, and also includes areas on the west slope of the Cascade Range in Lane and Douglas counties, Oregon, eastward to Vida. Its elevational range extends from sea level up to around 1,067 m asl (Verts and Carraway 1995; Manning <em>et al.</em> 2003). Most specimens are from coastal sites.
2017		habitat	eng	This vole has been found along small, alder-lined streams in redwood forest. Very small clearings, created by fallen timber, and supporting herbaceous growth may be important habitat. In the southern Cascade Range of western Oregon, encounters with this species were correlated less with distance to water than with basal area and density of alder (<em>Alnus rubra</em>) and percent cover of hazel (<em>Corylus cornuta</em> v. <em>californica</em>) (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>This is a nocturnal, terrestrial species, and its morphology suggests a burrowing habit. It breeds throughout the year, and the litter size is two to four, usually three. Typical gestation for the genus is 28 days with a prolonged weaning period of 30-35 days. It will eat a variety of green herbaceous plants. One study found finely chewed roots in the stomach (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981).
2017		population	eng	This species may be common within its highly restricted habitat. The actual distribution and density of the species still needs to be determined. The total population size is unknown but surely is at least several thousand. This species, sometimes reported as the rarest of North American voles, probably is more common than it appears to be (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981). Verts and Carraway (1998) noted an accelerating rate of specimen acquisition in recent years. Manning <em>et al.</em> (2003) captured nine individuals in pitfall traps in October-November over three years in the Cascade Range of Oregon. They also reported four additional recent specimens from the Cascade Range.<br/><br/>Manning <em>et al</em>. (2003) mapped 46 collection sites across the range (three in California, the remainder in Oregon). Some of these represented newly discovered populations in the Cascade Range. This vole likely occurs in additional areas not yet documented.
2017		threats	eng	Major threats include loss of habitat due to human activity. This vole is sometimes found in disturbed forests and early successional habitats (E. Gaines pers. comm. 1997), so it may have some compatibility with usual forest practices (Special Report 364, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University). In reality, habitat requirements are poorly known, and hence specific threats are difficult to identify.
2018		conservation	eng	This vole occurs on a few protected sites. Less than 5% of known sites are protected (Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998). The Survey and Manage program required the U.S. Forest Service to survey for certain logging-sensitive species (including the tree vole) throughout areas subject to timber sale and to provide adequate no-logging buffers if such species are found. Some vole protection was eliminated in March 2004 when the Survey and Manage provisions of the Northwest Forest Plan were withdrawn. Subsequent litigation may affect the ultimate outcome of this situation.<br/><br/>It is necessary to determine the total extent of range and abundance of this species, and to monitor populations to determine trends and further investigate the effect of fragmentation. This species may benefit from existing/proposed conservation measures for the spotted owl (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993).
2018		distribution	eng	This vole inhabits northwestern California, from Freestone, Sonoma County, north through Mendocino, Humboldt, and western Trinity counties to the South Fork of the Smith River, Del Norte County (Johnson and George 1991). There is some disagreement over the specific identity (<em>pomo</em> versus <em>longicaudus</em>) of tree voles at the northern extent of the range in northern California (see Hayes 1996).
2018		habitat	eng	The species' habitat consists of mixed evergreen forests; optimum habitat appears to be wet and mesic old-growth Douglas-fir forest, but this species also occurs in younger forests (e.g., Douglas-fir 47 years old). This vole is primarily arboreal but exhibits some terrestrial activity. It nests in trees, 2-50 m above ground; it may use old nests of birds, squirrels, or woodrats. Nests usually are in Douglas-fir trees but sometimes may be in other conifer or in Pacific madrone (Meiselman and Doyle 1996, Vrieze 1980; all as cited in Adam and Hayes 1998). Meiselman and Doyle (1996) found that nests were most abundant in old-growth forests; the species was associated with large-diameter Douglas-fir, high percentage canopy cover, high stump density, low snag density, shorter snags and logs, and lower elevation; all nests were in Douglas-fir, mostly adjacent to the trunk on the south side.<br/><br/>It breeds throughout the year. Ovulation is induced by copulation (Adam and Hayes 1998). Females may breed within 24 hours of giving birth. It sometimes exhibits delayed implantation. Gestation period is 27 to 48 days, with an average of 31 days (Hamilton 1962). Litter size usually is two, with a range of one to five (Adam and Hayes 1998). Newborns are altricial, weaned at 25 to 46 days (Hamilton 1962).<br/><br/>This species is thought to have very limited dispersal capability (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). Predators include Spotted Owls (<em>A. longicaudus</em> made up almost 50% of prey items of Spotted Owls in Oregon), and probably other owls, Raccoons, and Fishers (Adam and Hayes 1998). This vole feeds primarily on Douglas-fir needles. It also eats needles of Grand or Lowland White Fir, Sitka Spruce, and Western Hemlock. It may eat inner bark of twigs as well (Benson and Borell 1931). Usually feeds inside or on top of its nest.
2018		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is relatively common in some areas, but the number of nests found can vary greatly by location and appears to be highest closer to the coast (up to several nests per acre); farther inland toward drier slopes the density drops off dramatically (Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998). According to Brylski (1990), this species is reported to be rare to uncommon throughout the range, but the difficulty of locating nests and capturing individuals makes abundance hard to assess.<br/><br/>According to Gordon Gould (California Department of Game and Fish), there are currently 900 observations of nests or animals. Approximately 875 of these observations are from the mid-to-late 1990s and the remainder are from the early 1990s. Observations are mapped by the California Department of Game and Fish into occupied legal sections. These data probably will result in the mapping of about 325 occupied sections in California. Gould also stated that most surveys were completed at the request of the timber industry. This species does occupy areas that are not of interest to the timber industry. As a result, there are gaps in distributional information, and many more sections may be occupied than currently indicated (Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998).<br/><br/>Information on current population trend is not unavailable, but area of occupancy and habitat quality probably are declining (likely at less than 30% over 10 years or three generations). The area of occupancy and abundance probably have declined compared to the historical situation. Evidence of persistence was poor in a Del Norte County population revisited in 1985 (Johnson and George 1991).
2018		threats	eng	Threats include forest fragmentation and habitat loss (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981; Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1993; Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998). Although the species is locally common in the foothills of mountains on the east edge of the coastal plain in Humboldt County, loss and fragmentation of habitat has been extensive everywhere within the range (Williams 1986). Timber harvest and clearing of trees for agriculture and home sites have significantly reduced available habitat and fragmented populations (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981). Construction of roads and power lines has also contributed to the loss of habitat and fragmentation and isolation of populations. Furthermore, these trends are likely to continue at an accelerated pace in the future (Williams 1986).<br/><br/>Previously it was believed that this vole requires old-growth mesic forest and, according to Gould (1987), projections were that all old-growth forests capable of sustaining a commercial harvest in California would be cut within 25 years. Obviously such a situation would be a grave threat to the tree vole. However, recent surveys have found many nests in secondary forest and on drier inland slopes. The vast majority of recent observations come from secondary growth forest, some of which is 70-80 years old and fairly well developed (Gordon Gould pers. comm., 1998). A 1984-1985 study conducted nest surveys in nine 20-hectare sites of young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir forests in northern California. A total of 79 nests were found with 39 nests occurring in old-growth forest, 22 nests in mature forest, and 18 nests in young forest (Meiselman 1987). Thus this species appears to be more adaptable and probably better able to disperse through various habitats than was previously believed.<br/><br/>This vole may have limited dispersal capabilities and thus may be vulnerable to habitat loss or fragmentation (Huff <em>et al</em>. 1992, cited by Adam and Hayes (1998).
2045		conservation	eng	The known range is entirely within Mt. Isarog National Park. The protection level in the park is variable, with the lower elevations, especially below 1,000 m, heavily impacted by small scale farming and illegal logging. Population surveys should be done on Mt. Malinao and other peaks on the southern peninsula of Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
2045		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Mt. Isarog, Camarines Sur province, Luzon island (Philippines) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1999; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991).
2045		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary montane and mossy forest. Most records of this species are from 1,350 m to 1,750 m (Balete and Heaney 1997; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1999; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991). The holotype is recorded as being from approximately 750 m, which is in upper lowland forest (Musser 1982). The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally, and feeds predominantly on earthworms and soft-bodied invertebrates (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm.).
2045		population	eng	It is a moderately common species (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2006).
2045		threats	eng	The population is restricted to a small area, but relatively stable. It is threatened by habitat destruction (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991) and human disturbance due to rebels activities. The situation has improved somewhat since the 1980s, and the forest is regenerating. But at lower elevations, especially below 1,000 m the area heavily impacted by small scale farming and illegal logging. The upper elevational range of the species is only barely affected by human activities (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
2053		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Gabon. It is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It is presumably in a number of the new National Parks in Gabon. This is a poorly known species in need of further research.
2053		distribution	eng	This species may occur from the Sanaga River to the Congo River/Ubangi River, but with a very localized and patchy distribution. The range limits of this species are poorly known.
2053		habitat	eng	Confined to vine tangles and areas with abundant young (or slow-growing) leafy stems in the understorey of moist evergreen, lowland rainforests. Large vertical branches are never climbed because the small, narrow hands and feet of this species are adapted only to close around stems less than 6 cm in diameter. This species avoids climbing higher than 15 m (it mostly lives below 5 m) due to heightened competition from birds, less consistent insect resources, more exposure to wind, sun, and predators, and fewer thin-branched tangles to shelter in. It frequently descends to the forest floor for fallen fruits and invertebrates. Caterpillars of all species are eaten, including hairy and distasteful species that are avoided by other insect-predators. The females give birth to one infant twice per year.
2053		population	eng	This cryptic species is considered rare in Gabon, where densities of 2 individuals/km² were found in dense primary forest and 7/km² in thickets in secondary forest. Normal census methods are impossible because it hides its head and eyes at the least disturbance.
2053		threats	eng	This species is too small and cryptic to face much danger from human predation. Clear-felling and large-scale clearances are the only major threat to their habitat.
2054		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It is known to occur in Cross River National Park (Nigeria) and Korup National Park (Cameroon). It probably occurs in a few others in the area, although its presence is not confirmed. Further surveys are needed to determine its true conservation status.
2054		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Equatorial Africa, with a very patchy and localised distribution within the lowland rainforest block between the Niger River and the Sanaga River in Nigeria and Cameroon.
2054		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of very dense, low undergrowth with abundant lianas and vines within the understorey of primary, secondary, and coastal rainforest. This species particularly favours the growth that springs up in clearings, trees falls, and along forest edges. Wherever it is already established, small-scale clearances, selective tree-felling, and road-making probably favour this species. In such areas it is likely to become abundant in thickets and patches of dense secondary growth. It feeds mainly on caterpillars (which are found by smell), and also on beetles and fruits. This species is able to produce two young in a year.
2054		population	eng	A cryptic species that is thought to be locally abundant within its patchy distribution. Originally, they were particularly adapted to clearings in the forest and towards the forest edge.
2054		threats	eng	Major threats are habitat destruction from forestry and clearance for cultivation, as well as some hunting for meat in Nigeria. This species will not be affected by low-level habitat disturbance, since it is able to inhabit secondary forests as long as dense undergrowth remains and inter-tree distance are not too great. However, broader clearances (e.g. those made for plantations, clear-felling, and agriculture) are likely to eliminate it because of its weak capacity to disperse.
2055		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II. South American Fur Seals are protected and managed by laws in most of the countries where they occur. In Chile, the status of total protection was given to all <em>Arctocephalus</em> species in 1978 (Torres 1987, Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). In Argentina, marine mammals are under the administration of the various provinces. At the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) fur seals are protected by British law. South American Fur Seals have also been afforded protection by the establishment of numerous reserves and protected areas, including privately owned sites.<br/><br/>Particular attention should be paid to local populations in the Pacific. It is possible that the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations are a different stock that may qualify for a threatened status.
2055		distribution	eng	South American Fur Seals are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific sides of South America, from Isla Marco (Uruguay) to Isla Mayorca (Peru). Most of the population is concentrated in the Atlantic side of the distribution, especially in the Uruguayan islands. Colonies are often difficult to access and are not regularly dispersed. Along the coast of continental Argentina, 12 rookeries have been described, all on islands. Some of these locales are only used as wintering places. Ten colonies are recorded where reproduction takes place within the Falkland-Malvinas. In the Pacific, animals concentrate in southern (Magellanic region) and northern Chile and in central Peru. The species has a discontinuous distribution and it is absent in the coast of Chile from 28-43°S.<br/><br/>Distribution at sea is poorly known. These seals are thought to forage primarily in continental shelf and slope waters. However, there are records of this species occurring more than 600 km offshore. Vagrants have been reported from the Pacific coast of Colombia and the Juan Fernandez Islands, and the species visits southern Brazil regularly.
2055		habitat	eng	South American Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic. Adult males are approximately 1.3 times longer and 3.3 times heavier than adult females. Adult males reach 1.9 m and 120–160, and possibly 200 kg; females are about 1.4 m long and weigh 40-50 kg. Newborns are 60-65 cm and 3.5-5.5 kg. Most females give birth for the first time when they are 4 years old. Pups are born shortly after females return to the colonies. Oestrous occurs 7–10 days later, and following mating, a female begins to make foraging trips punctuated by time attending the pup ashore. Pups are weaned at 8 months to 2 years of age. Females will nurse a yearling and newborn pup at the same time.<br/><br/>Breeding takes place from mid-October through mid-January. The timing of breeding may differ in the Peruvian and Chilean-Atlantic colonies. Colonies are generally found along rocky coasts, on ledges above the shoreline or in boulder strewn areas. Most areas utilized have some source of shade such as at the base of cliffs or under boulders and easy access to the ocean or tidal pools. Males are polygymous and territorial, and fighting can result in dramatic wounds and scars. Individual bulls can occupy territories for up to 60 days and have up to 13 females on their territories at Uruguayan colonies. Male vocalizations include a bark or whimper, a guttural threat, and a submissive call. Females growl and have a pup-attraction call that is a high-pitched wail.<br/><br/>Time spent on trips and attending the pup likely varies with location and changes in marine productivity; El Niño years have a negative impact on animals in Peru and during them females must spend much more time attempting to forage. Female attendance in Uruguay is affected by weather with females spending less time ashore during the day when ground temperature exceeds 36ºC and more time ashore during storms. Survival rates of pups can be quite low when marine productivity is low and storm surges can sweep large numbers of pups off colonies. Locally, pup morality inflicted via predation by adult male South American sea lions can be significant at some colonies. Data collected on adult female South American fur seals during an El Niño event resulted in mean dives to 29 m, with a maximum of 170 m and mean duration of 2.5 minutes and maximum dive length of 7 minutes.<br/><br/>The population along the coast of Patagonia is linked to the Uruguayan colonies. Very few births occur in the Patagonian population, so the recent increases in numbers in this area are almost certainly due to a migration from the Uruguayan islands. It is possible that a similar movement occurs between the Staten Island colony and the Chilean colonies via the Beagle Channel.<br/><br/>At sea, these fur seals may be seen travelling or rafting at the surface in groups. South American Fur Seals will "porpoise,” or leap clear of the water when moving rapidly at sea, sometimes travelling like this in large groups. While resting at the surface they spend considerable time grooming and assume many poses typical of southern fur seals, including waving both hind flippers in the air while the head is submerged. Groups often form in the water at the base of a colony. They are frequently seen grooming while resting at the surface.<br/><br/>Demersal and pelagic fishes make up the majority of the diet in Uruguay and include: Anchoveta, weakfish, cutlassfish, and anchovy. Cephalopods, lamellibranchs and gastropods are also taken. Additional prey taken in other areas includes sardines, mackerel, hakes and crustaceans such as lobster krill in southern Chile and the Falkland Islands where squid is also a common prey item.
2055		population	eng	Most of the global population of South American Fur Seals is concentrated in Uruguay (200,000-250,000 animals). About 55% of the fur seals in Uruguayan waters are found at Isla de Lobos (ca. 180,000 animals; ca. 35,000 pups born per year). The remaining animals are distributed in the area of Cabo Polonio and Islas de la Coronilla. An additional 15-20 000 animals are found in the Malvinas-Falklands. The population along the Argentine Patagonian coast is about 20 000 animals (the largest colony is in Isla Rasa with 12 000 fur seals). The Chilean population is estimated to be 30 000 fur seals. The Peruvian population was estimated to be 11,400 during an El Niño year (Arias-Schreiber 1998). Therefore, the population global population is roughly 250-300 000 fur seals. The population of coastal Patagonia is increasing at about 8% per year. A decrease from 102,000 to 30.000 has been reported for the Chilean population (Sielfeld 1999, Venegas <em>et al</em>. 2002). El Niño years have dramatic effects on the Peruvian population.
2055		threats	eng	Human subsistence hunting of South American Fur Seals undoubtedly began with first contact and continues today. Commercial exploitation began after the discovery of South American Fur Seals by Europeans in the 18th century. Harvest levels declined in the 20th century bringing about the cessation of hunting at many locations. A managed harvest of adult males continued in Uruguay until recent times (Vaz-Ferreira and Ponce de Leon 1987). Small numbers of fur seals are taken for subsistence and poached for human food in Chile in Peru. Animals are often shot in the coastal areas of Peru and an estimate yielded that up to 35% of the dead seals found on beaches have been shot.<br/><br/>Extensive development of large-scale commercial fisheries and ongoing, numerous small-scale coastal fisheries have had an unknown effect on the amount of food available to South American Fur Seals. These fisheries are also a source of entanglements and direct mortality.<br/><br/>In southern Chile, seals were illegally exploited some time ago as a source of free bait for the king crab fishery. Because this fishery is decreasing due to overexploitation, hunting pressure on the fur seal is being reduced, although incidental captures in shark nets have been reported for Uruguay (Scialabba 1989). Small numbers of fur seals are also caught in the Chilean trawl-fisheries.<br/><br/>Survival rates of pups can be quite low when marine productivity is low and storm surges can sweep large numbers of pups off colonies. During El Niño years, mortalities of 100% of pups born have been recorded. Also, high mortality rates of pups occur in dense colonies.<br/><br/>The limited number of large, dense breeding aggregations could make this species particularly sensitive to the effects of oil spills and disease epidemics. Like all fur seals, South American Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation.
2057		conservation	eng	Fur seals were protected under Ecuadorian law in the 1930s, and since 1959 with the establishment of the Galápagos National Park, by the Administration of the Park. The waters around the islands are also protected by a 40 nautical mile no fishing zone. Tourism is regulated and most visitors are escorted by a trained Park Naturalist. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
2057		distribution	eng	Galápagos Fur Seals are observed throughout the Galápagos Archipelago. Lactating females make trips of relatively short duration, suggesting they do not go far from their colonies. Foraging by males outside the breeding season is unknown. Most breeding colonies are located in the western and northern parts of the Archipelago, close to productive upwelling areas offshore. Vagrants are occasionally observed and pups have been reported to be born on the coast of mainland Ecuador, but these reports have not been confirmed.
2057		habitat	eng	Galápagos Fur Seals are the smallest and the least sexually dimorphic otariid species. Adult males are 1.1?1.3 times longer and 2-2.3 times heavier than adult females. Galápagos Fur Seals are small and compact, and adult males are stocky in build. Pups are blackish brown, sometimes with grayish to whitish margins around the mouth and nose. Pups molt this natal coat for one that resembles that of the adult female.<br/><br/>The few adult males measured to date have been 1.5?1.6 m and weighed 60-68 kg. Adult females have curvilinear lengths of 1.1-1.3 m and an average weight of about 27.3 kg, with a maximum of 33 kg. Pups are 3?4 kg at birth and an average of 11.3 kg when they are 12 months old. Galápagos Fur Seals mature at an age of about 5 years, from which time females usually produce one pup a year but usually rear a pup only every other year for most of the rest of their lives.<br/><br/>Males do not become physically mature, and large enough to compete for a territory that will be used by females until they are considerably older than the average age of maturity of females. Males hold territories that average 200 m², which is large compared to the average size of territories held by of other otariid males; this is particularly notable given the Galápagos Fur Seal?s small size.<br/><br/>The behaviour of the Galápagos Fur Seal has been extensively studied. They occasionally occur on nearly all of the islands in the Archipelago, and prefer to haul-out on rocky coasts with large boulders and ledges that provide shade and the opportunity to rest in crevices and spaces between the rocks. Galápagos Fur Seals have a fairly long pupping and breeding season, lasting from mid-August to mid-November. The peak of pupping shifts little from year to year and usually occurs between the last week of September and the first week of October.<br/><br/>Colonies are located close to foraging areas and the average length of female trips is the shortest for a fur seal with a mean trip length of 1.5 days in the cold season (May to November and up to 4 days in the warm season (December to April). Most foraging occurs at night and the mean depth of foraging dives is 26 m with duration of less than 2 minutes. The maximum dive depth recorded is 115 m, and the longest duration is 5 minutes. Pups are visited around 300 times before weaning, with attendance periods lasting 0.5-1.3 days. Weaning occurs at 18-36 months, with most pups being weaned in their third year. Pups born prior to the weaning of an older sibling rarely survive, with most starving to death and a small percentage being killed by the older pup. Females will allow multiple pups to nurse but this rarely lasts long enough for the youngest pup to get strong enough to survive. In exceptional cases offspring were allowed to nurse when they were 4-5 years old.<br/><br/>In the water, particularly near haul-outs, Galápagos fur seals raft in postures typical of many of the southern fur seal species. There is no evidence for migration, and they do not seem to spend prolonged periods of time at sea, except for males immediately before the period of territory tenure.<br/><br/>Galápagos fur seals consume a variety of small squids including <em>Onychoteuthis banksi</em>, and a number of species of omastrephids. A variety of fish species are also taken mostly myctophids and bathylagids. They feed mostly at night, possibly exploiting vertically migrating species when they come closer to the surface.<br/><br/>Predators of Galápagos fur seals include sharks and killer whales. On land feral dogs on Isabela Island decimated colonies on the south-western end of the island, killing pups and adults.
2057		population	eng	A census conducted in 1978 yielded an estimate of 30,000-40,000 animals (Trillmich 1987). However, there was high mortality, especially of pups and yearlings during the 1982-1983 El Niño, and the amount of recovery since this time is unknown. The population appears to be fluctuating and population size is thought to be diminished markedly compared to the seventies (Alava and Salazar 2006), and current abundance is estimated to be around 10,000-15,000 animals. Methodological differences might exist in survey methods, but the suggestion of a decline in excess of 50% over this period is very concerning.
2057		threats	eng	Similar to all southern fur seals there was a severe population decline as a result of 19th century exploitation by sealers and whalers. The species was near extinction early in the 20th century and has since recovered. El Niño events dramatically elevate mortality rates of all age classes and cause population declines; this is due to the dramatic declines in productivity around the Archipelago during these events.<br/><br/>Tourism in the Galápagos, which is an Ecuadorian National Park, is heavy but regulated, and fur seals are protected. Episodes of entanglement in local net fisheries have been reported and are thought to be increasing over the last years. Feral dogs on Isabela Island which killed fur seals of all ages have been exterminated. This problem could erupt again if other feral dogs find their way to colony sites. The most serious threat at present is transmission of diseases from dogs to pinnipeds.<br/><br/>Like all fur seals, Galápagos Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation. Although there is limited large vessel traffic in the Galápagos Archipelago, numerous small and medium sized vessels operate in the area that could release moderate quantities of oils, fuels, and lubricants if involved in a marine accident.<br/><br/>Galápagos Fur Seals have experienced declines from El Niño-caused ocean warming and associated reduced marine productivity (Trillmich and Dellinger 1991) estimated of up to 80% (Salazar 2002; Alava and Salazar 2006), but the exact extent of population reduction is not clear. Therefore, although the effects of global climate change on this species and its habitat are uncertain at this time, it is possible that any change related disruption of present day ocean currents, levels of marine productivity, or increased air temperatures at haul out sites would adversely affect this species.<br/><br/>Despite their population size, the Galápagos Fur Seal population will always be vulnerable to a variety of threats because of the species? restricted distribution to a relatively small Archipelago of islands.
2058		conservation	eng	The Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals protect populations of this species of fur seal below 60ºS. North of the Antarctic Treaty area, Antarctic Fur Seals are protected by the nations that govern the islands on which they breed. The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance provides protection for Antarctic fur seals on South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Seals on the Prince Edward Islands are protected by virtue of these islands status as a special nature reserve and also by the South African Seabirds and Seals Protection Act (PEIMC 1996). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
2058		distribution	eng	Antarctic Fur Seals are widely-distributed in waters south, and in some areas slightly north, of the Antarctic Convergence (Bonner 1968). While most Antarctic Fur Seal breed at South Georgia (Boyd 1993) colonies are also found on the South Shetland Islands (Goebel <em>et al</em>. 2003), the South Orkney Islands (Boyd 1993), the South Sandwich Islands (Holdgate 1962), the Prince Edward Islands (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2003, Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006), Îles Crozet (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), Îles Kerguelen (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 2000), Heard Island (Page <em>et al</em>. 2003), McDonald Island (Johnston 1982), Macquarie Island (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 1999) and Bouvetøya (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2005). Vagrants have been recorded at Gough Island (Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2006) and on the coasts of Antarctica (Shaughnessy and Burton 1986), southern South America (Drehmer and De Oliviera 2000) and Australia (Stewardson 2007). Antarctic Fur Seals disperse widely when at sea. Distribution and movements are, however, not well known (Boyd <em>et al</em>. 1998).
2058		habitat	eng	Antarctic Fur Seals are a strongly sexually dimorphic species. Adult males are approximately 1.8 m long and weigh between 130 and 2,000 kg. Adult females are 1.2 - 1.4 m and 22 - 50 kg. Newborns weigh 6 - 7 kg (Laws 1993). Age of first reproduction is 3 years for females (Lunn <em>et al</em>. 1994) and 7 years for males (McCann and Doidge 1987). <br/><br/>Antarctic Fur Seals are highly polygynous. Males arrive at the colonies in late October, some 2-3 weeks before the first females arrive and establish territories. Males continue to arrive and challenge one another for territories through much of the season. Territories are acquired and held by use of vocalizations, threat postures and fighting (Bonner 1968). Females begin to arrive in mid-November and most pupping and breeding occurs from late November to late December. They give birth 1-2 days after arrival at the colony and subsequently attend their pup for 6-7 days. They come into oestrous, mate and then depart shortly afterwards for their first foraging trip of the season (Doidge <em>et al</em>. 1986, Payne 1977). Foraging trip and attendance periods vary by year depending on the availability of the lactating female’s chief prey, adult krill, but generally last 4-5 days at sea followed by 2-3 days attendance on shore (Boyd 1999, Costa <em>et al</em>. 1989, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Antarctic fur seals undertake short shallow dives, primarily at night (Boyd and Croxall 1992, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Mean dive depth and duration increase during the lactation period (Boyd 1999, Costa <em>et al</em>. 1989, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Pups are weaned at about four months of age. After the pups are weaned, females are thought to disperse widely and are seldom seen at the colonies before the next breeding season. Breeding bulls also depart the rookery, but subadults and some adult males can be seen at rookeries on South Georgia all year (Bonner 1968, Payne 1977).<br/><br/>The diet of Antarctic Fur Seals varies by season and location. At South Georgia and Bouvet Island Antarctic Fur Seals feed primarily on krill (Bonner 1968, Klages <em>et al</em>. 1998, North <em>et al</em>. 1983). At Heard Island, Macquarie Island and the Prince Edward Islands krill is not available and lactating females prey primarily on cephalopods and fish such as myctophids and notothenids (Green <em>et al</em>. 1989, Green <em>et al</em>. 1991, Klages and Bester 1998, Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Antarctic Fur Seals have also been known to eat penguins at a number of sites (Bonner 1968, Green <em>et al</em>. 1989, Hofmeyr and Bester 1993) <br/><br/>Antarctic Fur Seals are sympatric with other species of fur seals at three sites. Hybridization with Subantarctic Fur Seals occurs at the Prince Edward Islands (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006) and the Îles Crozet (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994) and with both Subantarctic Fur Seals and New Zealand Fur Seals at Macquarie Island (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 1999).
2058		population	eng	The island of South Georgia supports approximately 95% of all Antarctic Fur Seals. The total population of this site in 1999/2000 was estimated to be between 4.5 and 6.2 million and is believed to have increased by between 6 and 14 % since the 1990/91 season (Boyd pers. comm. in SCAR EGS 2004). The second largest population, at Bouvetøya supported some 66,000 individuals in the 2001/02 season (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2005). Other populations range in size from a few hundred to a few thousand (SCAR EGS 2004). All populations are believed to be either increasing or stable (SCAR EGS 2004).
2058		threats	eng	Commercial sealing drove this species to the brink of extinction by the late 19th century. It is now believed that this species survived this period of over-exploitation in very small numbers at three sites: South Georgia, Bouvetøya and the Îles Kerguelen (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2005, Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species has probably lost considerable genetic diversity due to the historical population bottleneck (Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000) and may now be at increased risk from disease outbreaks and environmental change.<br/><br/>Waters inhabited by Antarctic Fur Seals are exploited by few fisheries, but these may expand in the future (Hanchet <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species has been recorded entangled in marine debris such as discarded fishing line, nets, packing bands and other objects. The numbers of Antarctic Fur Seals entangled in anthropogenic debris annually has been estimated to be as high as 1% of the total population. The majority of entangled animals are juvenile and subadult seals. In approximately 30% of cases recorded, the debris caused injury. Most entangled seals are expected to die as a result of their entanglement (Bonner and McCann 1982, Croxall <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>Leopard Seals have been noted to take as many as a third of pups born at sites in the South Shetland Islands (Hiruki <em>et al</em>. 1989). Levels of predation may be high enough to cause a population decline at this site (Boveng <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The risk of transfer of diseases, such as morbillivirus from other pinnipeds or terrestrial animals to Antarctic Fur Seals is unknown. Antarctic fur seals are considered to be one of several pinnipeds at high risk of future disease outbreaks because of their rapidly expanding population, tendency for most animals to congregate in large dense aggregations, and effect of environmental changes associated with global warming on the spread of diseases (Lavigne and Schmitz 1990). Tourism takes place at several locations, but due to the isolation of haulout sites, visits by tourists are rare (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2003) <br/><br/>The effect of global climate change on Antarctic Fur Seals is unknown, but it has been suggested that warming may result in population declines (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
2059		conservation	eng	Poaching has been prohibited since 1965 (Aguayo 1979). The status of total protection was given to all <em>Arctocephalus</em> species in Chile in 1978 (Torres 1987b, Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Listed on CITES Appendix II.
2059		distribution	eng	The Juan Fernandez Fur Seal is only found ashore regularly in the Juan Fernandez Archipelago in the eastern South Pacific, west of Chile. The Archipelago includes the Juan Fernandez Island group, and the San Felix Islands, approximately 600 km to the north. Vagrant Juan Fernandez fur seals have been found on the west coast of South America from southern Peru to southern Chile.
2059		habitat	eng	Juan Fernandez Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic, with males about 1.4 times longer and approximately 3 times heavier than adult females. Adult males are estimated to be 2 m long and weigh 140 kg. Lactating females are on average 1.42 m long and weigh an average of 48.1 kg. Newborn pups are approximately 65-68 cm and 6.2-6.9 kg, and are born in a black coat.<br/><br/>The Juan Fernandez Fur Seal is a polygynous species. The breeding season lasts from mid-November to the end of January, and the colonies are essentially vacated by early September (based on the observations of sealers from the late 18th century), and no later than mid-October.<br/><br/>Males defend territories on land that are typically around 36 m² in size and that include an average of four females, but sometimes males hold territories in the water that are much larger. Most adult females give birth within a few days of arriving at the rookery. Mean time from birth to departure on the first foraging trip, post mating, is 11.3 days. Although females can be gone for as little as 1 day, the mean is 12.3 days per foraging trip and the longest trip recorded lasted 25 days. Mean length of pup attendance between foraging trips is 5.3 days with a range of 0.3–15.8 days. Based on the onset of pupping and the observations of vacant colonies in early September, it has been suggested that pups are weaned in 7-10 months. This species prefers to haulout and breed on rocky shorelines with boulders, grottos, overhangs, and caves.<br/><br/>Juan Fernandez Fur Seal females travel long distances to find adequate quantities of prey and, on average, have the longest lasting foraging trips of any otariid. Based on geolocating time-depth recorders, the mean distance travelled away from the breeding colony is 653 km, and all tagged females travelled at least 550 km to forage. Most trips were southwest and west of the Juan Fernandez Islands, far offshore to deep oceanic areas. Despite this, the mean depth of dive is only 12.3 m and the mean duration of dives is 51 seconds; these values are shallow and short even for an otariid and clearly indicate surface feeding. The deepest dives are made to 90–100 m and the longest dives recorded are just over 6 minutes. Nearly all foraging-type dives occur at night.<br/><br/>Juan Fernandez Fur Seals feed extensively on vertically-migrating prey at night. Their diet is one of the least diverse of any otariid, and along with the long foraging trips made by lactating females reflects the low productivity of their oceanic feeding areas. Foraging varies between years and probably reflects abundance and availability of prey. Myctophids are the most important fishes in the diet and onychoteuthid squid are the most important cephalopods.<br/><br/>At sea, these fur seals can be quite animated as they groom at the surface. They also rest at the surface, assuming a number of postures including: head down with hind flippers elevated and swaying in the air, as is typical of many southern fur seals; asleep at the surface with both hind flippers tucked under a fore flipper in a "jug-handle" position; and with both fore flippers or all 4 flippers held in the air.<br/><br/>Little is known about predators of Juan Fernandez Fur Seals but blue and Great White Sharks are suspected predators, as are Killer Whales, and possibly the Leopard Seals that infrequently visit the islands.
2059		population	eng	This species was hunted alomost to extinction, but was rediscovered in the mid twentieth century. Since that time, numbers have increased. Following the 1990-91 breeding season the total population was estimated to number 12,000 animals; it appears still to be increasing.
2059		threats	eng	Juan Fernandez Fur Seals were hunted to the brink of extinction by commercial sealers trading pelts in China. Intensive sealing began in the late 18th century and ended in the late 19th century, when few could be found. It is likely that several million Juan Fernandez Fur Seals were killed during this period. Small numbers were seen in the early 20th century, but the species was thought to have gone extinct shortly thereafter. The species was rediscovered in the middle of the 20th century and has since been making a slow comeback.<br/><br/>The limited size of the population and the fact that the species passed through a genetic bottleneck makes this species vulnerable to catastrophic events and stress from disease outbreaks, oil spills, environmental regime shift, disturbance, and fisheries conflicts. No fisheries conflicts have been identified to date. Individual seals have been seen with plastic bands around their necks since 1982, but the level of mortality from these entanglements is unknown.<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on this species are uncertain; however, any negative disruption of the ecosystem of this species, that already undertakes some of the longest foraging trips during the pup dependency period, would likely be a threat.
2060		conservation	eng	Australian Fur Seals are protected nationally by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). They are also protected in all states in which they occur by state-specific legislation (Stewardson 2007). Australian Fur Seals are included in national strategies on seals published in 1999 (Shaughnessy 1999) and 2007 (DAFF 2007). <br/><br/>Although Cape Fur Seals have been protected in South Africa since 1893, they were still subject to government run or government authorized commercial harvests to 1990 (Butterworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wickens <em>et al</em>. 1991). The Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act of 1973 (SBSPA), provides broad protection for seals in South Africa, but also provides for a harvest if it is deemed desirable. While the conservation and harvesting of seals in Namibia was previously controlled by the SBSPA this has been replaced by the Marine Resources Act (2000) which relaxed restrictions aimed at ensuring a humane harvest (Kirkman 2006).<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
2060		distribution	eng	Cape Fur Seals haul out along the mainland and coastal islands of southwestern and southern Africa, from Ilha dos Tigres in Angola to Algoa Bay in South Africa (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Vagrants have been sighted on the coasts of Gabon (Thibault 1999) and the Prince Edward Islands (Kerley 1983). Australian Fur Seals breed on islands of the Bass Strait (Warnecke 1995) but range the waters off the coasts of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales (Pemberton and Gales 2004). While both subspecies do not travel far from their continental shelves, Cape Fur Seals have been recorded up to 220 km offshore (Shaughnessy 1979).
2060		habitat	eng	These two subspecies are the largest of all fur seals. They are also highly sexually dimorphic. Adult male Australian Fur Seals average 2.16 m in length and 279 kg in mass, while adult females are 1.36 –1.71 m in length and attain an average weight of 78 kg. Newborns are 60-80 cm in length and weigh between 5 and 12 kg (Warnecke 1995). Adult male Cape Fur Seals are 2–2.3 m long and average 247 kg in weight. Adult females are 1.2–1.6 cm long and weigh an average of 57 kg. At birth they weigh around 6 kg (Shaughnessy 1979).<br/><br/>Females of this species become sexually mature at 3-6 years and males at 9- 12 years. The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is 71 % for Cape Fur Seals (Wickens and York 1997) and 73 % in Australian Fur Seals (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Gestation lasts 51 weeks, including a three-month delay of implantation. Longevity and adult mortality are unknown (Arnould <em>et al</em>. 2003, Butterworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Both subspecies are highly polygynous. Adult males arrive at the colonies first. Breeding is from late October to the beginning of January. Females give birth 1.5–2 days after arrival ashore. The peak of pupping for both subspecies is in the first week of December, although there is some variation between colonies (De Villiers and Roux 1992, Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Females attend the pup for 8-9 days before coming into oestrous, mating, and departing on their first foraging trip (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Foraging trips get longer as the season progresses from summer to winter, changing from a mean of 3.71 to 6.77 days for Australian Fur Seals. Periods of attendance stay the same from birth to weaning and have a mean length of 1.7 days (Arnould and Hindell 2001). Foraging intervals are shorter for Cape Fur Seals, probably reflecting greater availability of food (Gamel <em>et al</em>. 2005). Pups are usually weaned at 10–12 months even though some pups begin to forage at 7 months, and others are nursed for 2–3 years (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). <br/><br/>Foraging dives by lactating Australian Fur Seal females are usually to 65–85 m with a maximum depth of 164 m, and dives usually last from 2–3.7 minutes, with a maximum duration of 8.9 minutes (Arnould and Hindell 2001). At sea, these seals are found alone or in small groups of up to 15 animals, but they often gather in huge rafts adjacent to rookeries. Neither of the populations is migratory; they tend to move locally within their restricted ranges (Arnould 2002, Oosthuisen 1991, Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985).<br/><br/>Both subspecies are opportunistic feeders that take a wide variety of prey, including pelagic, mid-water and benthic animals. Australian fur seals feed benthically and take a variety of species of fish, squid, octopus and rock lobsters (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Cape Fur Seals are principally pelagic foragers. They take cape hake, horse mackerel, pelagic goby, pilchards, anchovy, squid of the genus <em>Loligo</em>, rock lobster, shrimp, prawns, and amphipods (David 1987a, De Bruyn <em>et al</em>. 2003, Mecenero 2006).  Cape Fur Seals have also been reported to occasionally take African Penguins and several species of flying seabirds (Crawford <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Predators of the Cape and Australian Fur Seals include Killer Whales and Great White Sharks at sea (Compagno 1989, Pemberton and Kirkwood 1994). The Cape Fur Seal is also preyed upon on shore by Black-backed Jackals and Brown Hyenas in southern Africa (Skinner <em>et al</em>. 1995).
2060		population	eng	Estimates indicate that of some 2 million Cape Fur Seals presently breed at some 23 rookeries or rookery groups in 2004 (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). The population size of this subspecies is believed to have been relatively stable since 1993 (Butterworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Some 75% of Cape Fur Seals breed at three of these sites: the Atlas Bay-Wolf Bay-Long Islands Group, Kleinzee and Cape Cross. Most other rookeries are estimated to contain more than a 1,000 adults (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). While the abundances of the larger rookeries are relatively stable, they do experience fluctuations. These fluctuations are greater in Namibian rookeries which have experienced major mortality events due to the impact of poor environmental conditions on prey populations (Roux 1998). Smaller rookeries tend to experience greater fluctuations than larger rookeries (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Some 92,000 Australian Fur Seals were estimated to breed at nine rookeries in 2003 and the population is believed to be increasing. More than half of the population (55%) breed at two of these sites: Lady Julia Percy Island and Seal Rocks. Five other rookeries are estimated to contain more than a 1000 adults. Inter-annual fluctuations are experienced at some rookeries (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).
2060		threats	eng	Cape and Australian Fur Seals were hunted heavily during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries and both populations were reduced to low levels (David 1987b, Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Under protection, both have recovered, although the Cape subspecies to a much greater extent than the Australian subspecies, which has not rebounded to estimated pre-exploitation levels (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Levels of exploitation of Cape Fur Seals were not as severe as that experienced by other species of fur seals and genetic variation remains high (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Seal harvests in South Africa were first controlled in 1893 and were suspended in 1990. They continue in Namibia at the mainland colonies of Cape Cross and Wolf and Atlas Bays. The 2006 annual harvest in Namibia was set at 85 000 animals which is made up primarily of pups, but also includes a small percentage of bulls. This high harvest level has been retained despite several years with very high mortality levels for pups along with many thousands of adult deaths in Namibia (Kirkman 2006). This mortality has been attributed to a scarcity of fish and poor marine productivity along the coast of Namibia, which occurs at intervals (Roux 1998). <br/><br/>Cape Fur Seals are sometimes reported to be detrimental to commercial fisheries, both via direct competition and operational interactions. Some seals are taken incidentally in fishing operations every year. A number are also shot illegally during fishing operations (Wickens <em>et al</em>. 1992). More significantly, Cape Fur Seals are known to become entangled in marine debris such as packing bands, discarded lines and nets and other material that can become a collar around an animal’s neck. Rates of entanglement vary by colony, but have been estimated to be between 0.12–0.66 % (Shaughnessy 1980). Conflicts between Australian Fur Seals and local fisheries include seals damaging gear and stealing catch, and becoming entangled in nets and traps (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 2003, Pemberton <em>et al</em>. 1992, Stewardson 2007). While the shooting of seals during fishing operations does occur, it is illegal (Stewardson 2007).<br/> <br/>Like all fur seals, Cape and Australian Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation (Bonner 1978). Cape Fur Seals come in regular contact with a number of species of terrestrial carnivores, and both subspecies are at risk of exposure to viruses and other disease types that could lead to epidemics (Kirkman 2006, Lavigne and Schmitz 1990).<br/><br/>Both subspecies are visited by tourists at a number of colonies. Disturbance is believed to be minimal (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2003)
2061		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. The Guadalupe Fur Seal and its habitat are protected by the Mexican government and tourist visits to breeding islands are regulated and very limited. In the United States the species is protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Fish and Game Code of the State of California. The Guadalupe Fur Seal was listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1985, which automatically brought the species the status of Depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act to the species.
2061		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Guadalupe Fur Seal has been expanding in recent years. The majority of the population, with around 12-15 thousand individuals, is centred on Guadalupe Island, where nearly all pups are born. In 1997 a small colony was discovered at the San Benitos Islands, southwest of Guadalupe Island, near the Baja California coast; this site was a former rookery. A census in 2007 recorded a population of 1,566 animals and the first pups on San Benitos. A pup was also born on San Miguel Island in the Channel Islands in 1997. Guadalupe Fur Seals have been reported on other southern California islands, and the Farallon Islands off northern California with increasing regularity since the 1980s. They have been sighted in the Sea of Cortez, and as far south as 17°39'N at Zihuatanejo Guerrero, Mexico. The distribution at sea is poorly known, but records from a few satellite-tracked adult females suggest they travel several hundred kilometres during feeding trips.
2061		habitat	eng	Guadalupe Fur Seal are sexually dimorphic, with males 1.5-2 times longer and approximately 3–4 times heavier than adult females. Adult males may reach 2 m. Two adult males that were measured were approximately 1.8 and 1.9 m in length. The 1.9 m male was estimated to weigh 160-170 kg. Adult females average 1.2 m and reach approximately 1.4 m, and weigh 40-50 kg. Pups are estimated to be 50–60 cm long, weigh around 6 kg at birth and are weaned when 9-11 months.<br/><br/>Guadalupe Fur Seals are polygynous, with males establishing territories that are occupied by an average of six females. Pups are born from mid-June to August with a median birth date of 21 June. Male tenure on territories lasts at least as long as 31 days. Males defend territories with vocalizations, displays, and mutual displays with neighbouring bulls. Fighting between males is rare once territories are established. Females select only male territories that provide cover and shade from the sun and all territories occupied by females are fronted by water and include tidal pools. Adult females enter the water daily, presumably for cooling, while otherwise “ashore” attending their pups. Most animals breed in small caves, grottos, and cliff and boulder areas on the rugged east coast of volcanic Guadalupe Island. A small breeding colony was discovered on the east side of the easternmost parts of the San Benitos Islands in 1997, and it appears to be growing annually. During the breeding season of 2007, Guadalupe Fur Seals were seen on the three islands of San Benito.<br/><br/>Females returning to the rookery for the first time usually arrive at night or early in the morning. Estrous occurs 5-10 days after a female gives birth, and females can leave for their first foraging trip right after mating, or stay on the colony for another few days before departing. Foraging and attendance patterns are not well-known but the limited information indicates that females may travel from 700 to 4,000 km during feeding trips lasting from 4 to 24 days. Pups are weaned at 9–11 months, and females with pups can be seen on or around the island throughout the winter and into the spring.<br/><br/>Knowledge of activities and behaviour at sea, away from Guadalupe Island, are limited to a handful of records. At sea, they appear to be mostly solitary. In recent years they have been reported in small numbers throughout the summer in waters off Southern California and northern Baja California by long range sport fishing boats pursuing albacore. Observations of animals in captivity suggest that they spend a considerable amount of time grooming while floating at the surface. They often rest at the surface in the characteristic southern fur seal, head-down posture. They also float with one or more flippers extended out of the water. When travelling rapidly, they have been observed to “porpoise.” <br/><br/>Prey preference and foraging activity are poorly known. Feeding habits based on scat analysis at San Benito Islands indicated that 95% of the prey items were squid species dominated by the market squid (<em>Loligo opalescens</em>) which made up 65% of the identifiable prey. Stomach contents retrieved from stranded animals included a variety of squid, bony fishes, and crustaceans, including vertically-migrating species.<br/><br/>Killer whales and sharks, particularly Great White Sharks which are regularly seen at Guadalupe Island in the summer, are undoubtedly predators of Guadalupe Fur Seals, although there is no evidence in the literature to support this assumption. A wound on a male from a Cookie-cutter Shark bite has been reported.
2061		population	eng	Since the 1950s, the species has recovered from an estimated population of 200-500 animals to an estimated level of 15-17 thousands at present, and is growing at about 13.7% per year.
2061		threats	eng	Guadalupe Fur Seals have a long and mostly unfortunate history of association with humans. Hunted to the brink of extinction by the late 19th century, they were not reported again until 1926. Following this “rediscovery” all animals that could be found were taken and once again the species was thought to be extinct. Guadalupe Fur Seals were suspected to have survived, because of scattered unconfirmed reports in the 1930s, and were rediscovered once again with the sighting of a bull on San Nicholas Island in Southern California in 1949. An expedition to Guadalupe Island in 1954 confirmed the survival of the species.<br/><br/>Although the Guadalupe Fur Seal population is steadily growing, the species is still at risk because the total population remains low and nearly all pup production occurs at only one island. Also, since the species passed through a genetic bottleneck and probably recovered from a very small number of individuals, there may be a lack of genetic diversity within the surviving population (Weber <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The feeding ground of the species occupies the region around Guadalupe and San Benito Islands and the lower part of the California Current. This region is influenced by human population centres with contaminant runoff, extensive oil tanker traffic and offshore oil extraction activity from southern California. Like all fur seals, Guadalupe Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation. Guadalupe Fur Seals share most of their haulout and breeding sites with California Sea Lions, which have suffered from viral disease outbreaks in the past, and which could be a vector for transmission of diseases from terrestrial sources to Guadalupe Fur Seals, because of their extensive use of coastal areas. <br/><br/>No conflicts with commercial fisheries are known to exist at the present time, although gillnet and set-net fisheries probably take some animals, as is probably also the case for entanglement in marine debris. There is a possibility of negative interactions between Guadalupe Fur Seals and lobster fishermen when the seals occupy inshore areas to breed and out, particularly if the population continues to increase.
2062		conservation	eng	Subantarctic Fur Seals live in some of the most remote oceanic areas and breed on many of the most isolated islands on earth. All of the breeding islands are managed as protected areas or parks by the governments that claim these territories. Seals on the Prince Edward Islands are protected by the South African Sea Bird and Seal Protection Act of 1973 and also inhabit a special nature reserve (PEIMC 1996). Seals on Gough and Tristan Islands are protected by the Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance of 1976. Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands are regulated by the French Chamber of Deputies, while at Macquarie Island, the fur seals are protected by the Tasmanian Department of Parks, Wildlife, and Heritage (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Listed on CITES Appendix II.
2062		distribution	eng	Subantarctic Fur Seals are widely-distributed in the southern Hemisphere. They breed on sub-Antarctic islands north of the Antarctic Polar Front, including Amsterdam (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), the Crozets (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), Gough (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2006), Macquarie (Shaughnessy 1993), the Prince Edward Islands (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2003, Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006a), Saint Paul (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994) and Tristan da Cunha (C. Glass pers. comm. in SCAR EGS 2004). They have also been recorded breeding on Heard Island (Goldsworthy and Shaughnessy 1989). Vagrants have been recorded on the coasts of Antarctica (Shaughnessy and Burton 1986), southern South America (Aguiar-dos Santos and Haimovici 2001, Bastida <em>et al</em>. 1999), southern Africa (Bester 1989, Shaughnessy and Ross 1980), Madagascar (Garrigue and Ross 1996), Australia (Gales <em>et al</em>. 1992), and New Zealand (Taylor 1990), and on Bouvetøya (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006b), the Comores (David <em>et al</em>. 1993), the Juan Fernandez Islands (Torres and Aguayo 1984), Îles Kerguelen (Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000), Mauritius (David and Salmon 2003) and South Georgia (Payne 1979).
2062		habitat	eng	Subantarctic Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic, with adult males being up to 1.8 m long and weighing 70-165 kg; adult females are 1.19–1.52 m long and weigh 25-67 kg, with a mean of around 50 kg. Newborns weigh 4-4.4 kg (Laws 1993). Females attain maturity at 5 years of age (Bester 1995). Gestation lasts 51 weeks. Longevity is unknown (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Subantarctic Fur Seals are polygynous; males defend territories with vocal and postural displays and fighting (Bester 1981, Kerley 1983). They prefer rough rocky or boulder beaches with sources of shade or exposure to prevailing winds (Bester 1982). Pups are born from late October to early January, with a peak in mid-December. Females give birth within 6 days of arriving at the colony with oestrous and mating occurring 8-12 days later. Females spend the time between the births of their pups and oestrous, with their newborn before mating and departing for the first of a series of foraging trips they will make before weaning their pup at approximately 11 months of age (Bester 1981, Kerley 1983). Trip durations of mothers increase over the course of lactation from 6-10 days to 23-28 days (Georges and Guinet 2000, Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2002). Dives become deeper and slightly longer over the summer, starting at a mean depth of 16.6 m and increasing to 19 m. Dives are seldom deeper than 100 m or longer than 4 minutes (Georges <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Subantarctic Fur Seals are sympatric with other species of fur seals at three sites. Hybridization with Antarctic Fur Seals occurs at the Prince Edward Islands (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006a) and the Îles Crozet (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), and with both Antarctic Fur Seals and New Zealand Fur Seals at Macquarie Island (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Subantarctic Fur Seals are opportunistic and pelagic foragers. They feed on myctophid and notothenid fish, cephalopods, and small numbers of crustaceans at the Prince Edward Islands (Klages and Bester 1998) and at Macquarie Island (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2002). At Amsterdam Island they are know to take Rockhopper Penguins (Paulian 1964).
2062		population	eng	The total population was estimated to be greater than 310,000 animals in 1987 and all indications are that it has been steadily growing since that time (SCAR EGS 2004). Subantarctic fur seals breed at numerous sites on eight islands or island groups. Some 95% of Subantarctic Fur Seals breed at three of these sites: Gough Island, the Prince Edward Islands and Amsterdam Island (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bester <em>et al.</em> 2006, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Two other subpopulations are estimated to contain more than 1,000 adults (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994). All subpopulations are either stable or increasing (SCAR EGS 2004).
2062		threats	eng	Similar to all of the other southern fur seals, Subantarctic Fur Seals were over-exploited by sealers in the 18th and 19th century and were reduced to the brink of extinction at the beginning of the 20th century. Since then their population has increased rapidly and they have reoccupied much of their former range. This population bottleneck has reduced their genetic variation and may render this species vulnerable to disease or climate change (Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/><br/>Tourist visits at Subantarctic Fur Seal haulout sites are rare and thought to cause minimal disturbance (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2003, Shirihai 2002). Few fisheries take place in waters occupied by this species (Hanchet <em>et al</em>. 2003). Entanglement in marine debris occurs at the Prince Edward Islands, but with incidences of less than 1% (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>While the impact of climate change on fur seals is unknown, it is potentially detrimental (Chown <em>et al</em>. 1998, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fur seals are also at risk of mass mortality from infectious diseases, though breeding on isolated islands affords some species a higher degree of protection from disease (Chown <em>et al</em>. 1998, Lavigne and Schmitz 1990).
2068		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Burdur.
2070		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Zelonoe.
2071		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Alapathar and Lake Marsar in Jammu and Kashmir.
2089		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
2089		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lesser Antilles, from St. Eustatius to St. Vincent (Simmons, 2005).
2089		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It roosts exclusively in trees and other types of arborescent vegetation. It has been taken in forest, in trail bordered by tree and in cacao groves, often over streams. Six females collected in spring were reproductively active; one taken in April was lactating. Other females captured in March and April were carrying a single embryo (Jones and Genoways, 1973).
2089		population	eng	This bat is found only in the northern Lesser Antilles and is relatively common, having been mist-netted in rain forest, dry scrubby forest as well as in banana plantations, cacao groves, and botanical gardens.
2089		threats	eng	Vulnerable to hurricanes (Davalos pers. comm.)
2092		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the French law (under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Arganiella exilis</span>). More research on the population and the main threats is needed.
2092		distribution	eng	<em>Heraultiella exilis</em> is endemic to France, and believed to be restricted to the Hérault départment in southern France.
2092		habitat	eng	This species lives in the water flowing under the river beds; it has never been found in truly subterranean habitats.
2092		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. However, a decline can be inferred from decline of habitat quality and the extirpation of some of the population known in the past (including type locality).
2092		threats	eng	Hyporheic habitats (i.e. habitat beneath and lateral to a stream bed, where there is mixing of shallow groundwater and surface water) are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Habitat degradation resulting from over-exploitation of the aquifer feeding the streams is another important threat for small streams that may become completely dried out in summer, thus directly affecting the species. Occasional droughts, possibly resulting from climate change, are also a potential threat.
2093		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy would be valuable.
2093		distribution	eng	The species is only known from holotype from Sierra Leone, which is of dubious taxonomic status.
2093		habitat	eng	No information available.
2093		population	eng	No information available.
2093		threats	eng	No information available.
2094		conservation	eng	Unknown.
2094		distribution	eng	<em>Argiocnemis solitaria</em> occurs on Rodrigues.
2094		habitat	eng	Unknown.
2094		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
2094		threats	eng	Unknown.
2097		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of national parks.
2097		distribution	eng	Known only from east of the crest of the Great Dividing Range in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland.
2097		habitat	eng	Found in damp woodlands, dry sclerophyll forests and tropical/subtropical rain forest. Found at greater altitudes and in drier conditions than other terrestrial nemertines.
2098		conservation	eng	Occurs in the New England National Park.
2098		distribution	eng	Known only from one specimen found in 1972 at Point Look Out, New South wales (80 km east of Armidale).
2098		habitat	eng	The single specimen was found in dry sclerophyll forest.
2098		population	eng	Unknown.
2110		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Windsor protected area.
2110		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jamaica (Simmons, 2005). Up to 1,500 m above sea level (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
2110		habitat	eng	This bat is a tree-roosting species. Little information has been recorded about its natural history. It can be found in natural forest and cultivated fruit trees. Its diet has not been documented, extensively but it is frugivorous and has been known to eat naseberries. A pregnant female was caught in April; lactating females have been found in June (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
2110		population	eng	This bat can be frequently captured in the appropriate habitat (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
2110		threats	eng	Hurricanes. Restricted range.
2113		distribution	eng	Found on the western coast of Madagascar. Also found in Mozambique (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990) and Tanzania (Eccles 1992).
2113		habitat	eng	Common in rivers and lakes (Taylor 1986), also found in estuaries (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990).
2113		threats	eng	No major, widespread threats are known.
2114		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - critically imperiled (NatureServe 2009), an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered (1 Jan 1993), (Williams <em>et al. </em>in press) and a previous IUCN Red List Category of Critically Endangered (1996 ver 2.3). This species was assigned a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lead Region of R2 – Southwest, and is Listed Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.<br/><br/>The Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation amended its regulations to designate the Kiamichi River a mussel sanctuary (effective 1 January 1993). As such, the river is closed to all commercial mussel harvest. In 1992-1993, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department designated both Pine and Sanders creeks as mussel sanctuaries, in which no harvest is permitted. In 1997 and 2000, the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission designated the Ouachita River upstream from U.S. Highway 79B at Camden as a mussel sanctuary, in which no harvest is permitted (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has a Recovery Plan in place for this species. The USFWS Refuges in which this species is known to occur are Little River National Wildlife Refuge and Pond Creek National Wildlife Refuge (USFWS 2004). <br/><br/>It is recommended that measures be taken to protect the health of the mussel beds in both the Kiamichi and the Little Rivers. This includes taking measures to protect riparian habitat around and upstream of mussel beds, along with regulating human activity that could be detrimental to the health of the beds. It is also suggested that measures be taken to maintain water levels over mussel beds during periods of low flow and high temperature. Finally, it is recommended that there is regular monitoring of the known populations of this species.
2114		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas. NatureServe (2009) have classified it as Critically Imperilled in all of these states. It occurs at five locations and has an estimated extent of occurrence of between 1,000 and 5,000 km².
2114		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pools, backwaters, and side channels of rivers and large creeks, occupying stable substrates containing gravel, sand, and other materials (USFWS 2004). However, juveniles can be found in shallow waters both on sand bars and muddy bottoms, preferring the oozy mud of the river margins where there is little or no current (Clarke 1981). This species always occurs within large mussel beds containing a diversity of mussel species (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>The fish host of this species is not known (Clarke 1981, USFWS 2004).
2114		population	eng	Only one substantially viable population of this species remains among four or five extant populations that are completely isolated from each other (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>This species is currently known to exist in approximately 252 km of the Red River system, Texas/Oklahoma, and 179 km of the Ouachita River system, Arkansas. The only known substantial population—fewer than 1,800 individuals—inhabits a 141 km section of the Kiamichi River, Oklahoma. A smaller, attenuated population—less than 100 individuals—inhabits approximately 111 km of the Little River in Oklahoma and Arkansas, although quality habitat for the species prevails in only a 24 km stretch above the Mountain Fork River. Recent observations of the species in the Ouachita River, Arkansas, are rare and widely separated. The only other recent evidence of the species consists of single shells recovered from Pine and Sanders creeks, Texas, which enter the Red River near the Kiamichi River (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>The Kiamichi River population is thought to be the only remaining viable population of this species (Vaughn <em>et al.</em> 1996, USFWS 2004). However, extensive declines in the number of sites and abundance in the Kiamichi River have been documented (Galbraith <em>et al.</em> 2008) with most occurrences represented by relict shells or single to few mature adults (NatureServe 2009). Approximately 43 % of historically known populations in the Kiamichi River (below the inflow from Sardis Reservoir) have apparently been extirpated; this is in contrast to above the impoundment where 75 % of historical subpopulations are still extant and five new subpopulations were located in 1994 (Vaughn and Pyron 1995). In 1995, Vaughn and Pyron noted that the youngest mussel they found in their surveys (estimated at 12 years of age) indicated that no recruitment had occurred since the Sardis Reservoir was filled in 1983. Galbraith <em>et al.</em> (2005) found that mean mussel density for the entire river decreased by 65% from 1991 to 2003–2005. In their 2003–2005 surveys, they did not find the species at any of its previously recorded locations, but did find three individuals at a new mussel bed near Moyers, Oklahoma. Galbraith <em>et al.</em> (2005) found live individuals of this species at only a single site in the Little River.<br/><br/>The small, closely situated Red River tributary populations are completely isolated from each other (in terms of larval dispersal between populations), and are regarded here as part of a single area of occurrence, in that they are inhabited by a single metapopulation (USFWS 2004).
2114		threats	eng	Impoundment, channelization, and water quality degradation have been identified as principal factors causing the decline of this species (USFWS 2004).&#160; Continued growth and activity of human populations portend that these major factors will continue and expand in influence. Within portions of this species' range, recent proposals to withdraw and transport large quantities of water for human consumption have raised an additional threat (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Galbraith <em>et al.</em> (2005) identified that the Kiamichi River has been impacted by logging and construction in the riparian region along with off-road vehicles driving through the river and damaging the mussel bed. They also identified siltation from gravel mining, habitat degradation for tourism purposes, and low water levels as substantial threats to this species. <br/><br/>The Kiamichi River appears to be especially susceptible to low water conditions, particularly during drought years. Galbraith <em>et al.</em> (2005) found several sites devastated during the 2005 drought with mussel beds completely exposed and thousands of mussels found to be dead. These conditions do not appear to be improving as water levels in the Kiamichi River are still very low (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>The threats posed to the Little River populations include low water conditions and the associated algal blooms, and human disturbance from fishing and swimming. Additionally, several locals apparently witnessed mussel harvesters removing huge numbers of mussels from the Little River between 2003-2004 (Galbraith <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It can be assumed that the threats faced by the Red River and Ouachita River populations are similar to those described above.
2119		conservation	eng	The type locality, which is not very precise, might be inside, or very close to the Mount Elgon National Park, although its presence there has not been confirmed. Further survey work is needed to determine the status of this species in the wild.
2119		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Elgon, Kenya, at around 2,100-2,200m asl. It was last recorded in 1962, and four attempts to locate the species (in wet and dry seasons) since 2001 have been unsuccessful. There have been no records from the Ugandan side of Mount Elgon.
2119		habitat	eng	It is associated with seeps and fast-flowing streams in montane forest. Breeding is presumably as with other species in genus, with eggs laid on wet rocks close to torrential streams and waterfalls, and the larvae developing on the rocks, out of the water.
2119		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and it has been suggested that it might be extinct.
2119		threats	eng	The habitat of this species appears to be generally in good condition, although it might be adversely impacted by logging and general encroachment of the forest on Mount Elgon. However, the species cannot now be found at its type locality, or in other streams on Mount Elgon. In view of the disappearance of other montane stream-dwelling species elsewhere in the humid tropics, the impact of disease, such as chytridiomycosis, cannot be ruled out.
2121		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas - conservation of caves important. Reduce habitat loss and degradation.
2121		distribution	eng	Northern Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela. This species occurs in Guyana, Venezuela and north Colombia (Simmons, 2005). Found between 25 - 2,000 m asl but is associated with mountains or areas of some topographic relief, possible where caves are more common.
2121		habitat	eng	This species is strongly frugivorous, especially eating figs (Ficus), nectar, and insects. This species is associates with caves of many kinds, but mostly smaller caves (Molinari pers. comm.). This species is poorly known. This species is the least well known of the genus. Inferences about habitat and ecology are based on congeners. It is found primarily in forest habitats, both lowland and highland rainforest. It is a frugivore.
2121		population	eng	In Venezuela it is uncommon (Linares, 1998), but may be locally common in areas where there are caves and appropriate habitat (Molinari pers. comm.). The least common large <em>Artibeus</em> sp.
2121		threats	eng	Sporadic distribution, associated with caves makes them susceptible to cave destruction. Habitat loss, in particular loss of large trees and general reduction in tree species diversity.
2122		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss.
2122		distribution	eng	This bat is found from western Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru (Simmons 2005) and Colombia (Cuervo <em>et al.</em>, 1986). It has been found up to 1,300 m.
2122		habitat	eng	Feeds on fruit, mainly from large trees. Roosts under banana-like leaves, and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994) This species is poorly known, but the genus is generally found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
2122		population	eng	This species is always represented by only a few records at each locality. It is a canopy frugivore and as such is probably undersampled in surveys due to methodology problems, it may well be more common than currenly suggested.
2122		threats	eng	Affected by habitat loss although this is not a major threat.
2123		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
2123		distribution	eng	Michoacan and Oaxaca to Nuevo León and Sinaloa (Mexico), south to western Panama (Simmons 2005). Cerro Campana in Central Panama (Reid and Pino pers. comm.).
2123		habitat	eng	According to Davis (1969), appears to be associated with cloud forests rather than a particular floral assemblage because individuals have been captured in mist nets set in conifer, evergreen forests, mangos and bananas groves, and in a relatively dry valley near Comayagua, Honduras. Jones (1964) collected specimens from abandoned mines surrounded by tropical deciduous forest in narrow valleys that approached the broader of oak and pine-oak forests.<br/>Pregnant females, each having one embryo, have been collected in March, April, July and August and a lactating female was captured in September (Wilson 1979).
2123		population	eng	Is common.
2123		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
2124		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
2124		distribution	eng	This bat occurs from Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, Northern Brazil, Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Also Bolivia, Peru, and Suriname (Sampaio pers. comm.). In Brazil, it is found as far south as Sao Paulo state (Sampaio pers. comm.).
2124		habitat	eng	Given challenges in species identification, its distribution is not well known, but the genus is generally found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). There are records from the Cerrado (Bredt and Uieda, 1996; Goncalves and Gregorin, 2004). These bats roost in small groups, usually in trees such as palms (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). They prefer multistratal tropical evergreen forest and feed on small fruits and insects. They roost under banana-like leaves and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves  (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994). The species is relatively tolerant of habitat disturbance (Faria pers. comm.)
2124		population	eng	Relatively common.
2124		threats	eng	Habitat loss in some parts of the range, although this is not a major threat.
2125		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
2125		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, and northern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Tirira, 1999). It has been caught in moist areas from 100 to 1000 m elevation, but in Venezuela, the vast majority has been taken below 500 m (Handley, 1976).Also in Bolivia.
2125		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical moist forest, including fragmented forest.. Although also taken in the dry deciduous forests of Brazil, the species may be closely tied to more mesic riverine habitats. It is assumed to be primarily frugivorous (Acosta and Owen, 1993).
2125		population	eng	A locally common species.
2125		threats	eng	Habitat loss is affecting the species although this is not a major threat.
2126		conservation	eng	Research actions.
2126		distribution	eng	Southern Brazil, Paraguay (Simmons 2005). Argentina (Barquez 2006)
2126		habitat	eng	Frugivores. Forest areas. The biology is poorly known (Barquez - pers. comm.)
2126		population	eng	Abundant.
2126		threats	eng	Deforestation is a localised threat.
2127		conservation	eng	None.
2127		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west Ecuador, and northwest and central Peru (Simmons, 2005).
2127		habitat	eng	This species is strongly frugivorous. The species is common in dry deserts and arid zones (Burneo pers. comm.)
2127		population	eng	In Ecuador this bat is locally common (Tirira, in prep.) as in Peru (Solari pers. comm.). Sometimes a pest to crops.
2127		threats	eng	None.
2128		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
2128		distribution	eng	Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Suriname, and Southern Brazil; Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons 2005). Not in Mexico and Central America.
2128		habitat	eng	The species feeds on small fruits and insects. It roosts under banana leaves and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994) The species if poorly known but the genus is generally found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
2128		population	eng	It is found in small numbers at localities, but as a canopy frugivore it is probably under-sampled. It can be confused in the field with other small <em>Dermanura</em> spp. including <em>D. cinerea</em> and <em>D. bogotensis</em>.
2128		threats	eng	Habitat loss, although not a major threat.
2129		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss.
2129		distribution	eng	Venezuela, Guianas, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru (Handley 1987; Simmons and Voss 1998). Also Colombia (Rivas-Pava <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Bolivia (Anderson, 1997). Within Brazil, the known distribution has expanded south to Espirito Santo state (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 1995). It has been found up to 800 m in Mato Grosso (Lim 2000; Handley 1987).
2129		habitat	eng	The ecology of the species is poorly known, but the genus generally feeds on small fruits and insects and roosts under banana-like leaves, and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves  (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994). The genus is found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).  Together with <em>A. anderseni</em>, it is one of the smallest species in the genus.
2129		population	eng	Apparently rare but as a canopy frugivore it may be undersampled, and it may be misindentified in the field. As a result it may be more abundant than indicated by current records.
2129		threats	eng	Habitat loss in some parts of its range, although this is not a major threat.
2130		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
2130		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Bolivia and Venezuela north to Michoacan, Jalisco, and Tamaulipas (Mexico); it is also found in Trinidad. There is a limitable record from Tucson, Arizona (Irwin and Baker, 1967) (Simmons, 2005). Occurs from 500-2,250 m, although registers occurs at sea-level and up to 2,400 m  in Venezuela (Lew pers. comm.)
2130		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. Occurs in montane forests.
2130		population	eng	Its populations are unknown. It is not common but may be locally common (in some areas). Rare in Costa Rica - middle and high areas (Rodriguez pers. comm.). Locally common in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.).
2130		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range. Present in highly fragile ecosystems in Bolivia (Nationally listed as near threatened by Aguirre 1998). Deforestation.
2131		conservation	eng	Inside its range it is found some protected areas such as the Chamela-Cuixmala Reserve and the Sierra de Manantlan Reserve (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
2131		distribution	eng	This species is known on the Pacific versant from Sonora to Guerrero (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
2131		habitat	eng	This species has been collected most frequently in mist nets over ponds and streams, and in mango and fig orchards. Recorded daytime roosts include abandoned mines, small caves, buildings, and beneath boulders. It has been collected in arid upland zones. Pregnant females have been collected from February to September, except March; and lactating females and scroted males have been taken in June, August, and September (Webster and Jones, 1983). <br/>It has been estimated a habitat loss of 6-13% over the last ten years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).
2131		population	eng	Is a uncommon species (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005)
2131		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
2132		conservation	eng	May be found in protected areas. Research actions.
2132		distribution	eng	This species is known from El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,100 m (Dolan and Carter, 1979). Found in Guatemala (Cajas pers. comm.).
2132		habitat	eng	This species usually is found in dry thornscrub, also in deciduous forest and bananas groves (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. A small group (one male, 8 females, and 5 young) was found roosting in a building. Individuals have also been caught over streams and in banana groves. A birth peak may occur in June-July (Reid, 1997).
2132		population	eng	This bat is uncommon (Reid, 1997).
2132		threats	eng	Habitat loss, burning.
2133		conservation	eng	Research actions are a priority.
2133		distribution	eng	Known only from type locality in Panama. It is an island endemic species (McCarthy pers. comm.).
2133		habitat	eng	Frugivorous. Probably similar to other lowlands <em>Artibeus</em>.
2133		population	eng	Found only in a 3.4 km² island.
2133		threats	eng	Not a protected area. Habitat loss (Pino pers. comm.)
2135		conservation	eng	It is found in Protected areas.
2135		distribution	eng	Michoacan, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Ecuador, Peru, west of the Andes only; Greater and Lesser Antilles (south to Granada), S Bahamas (Larsen <em>et al.</em> 2007).
2135		habitat	eng	Jamaican fruit bats roost in a very wide range of structures, including caves, rock overhangs, rock fissures, hollow trees, foliage, and even man-made structures such as buildings. These bats have been observed to eat pollen, nectar, fruit, and insects though they are most commonly associated with large cultivated and wild fruits (Mango, Papaya, but never citrus fruits). <br/>This species normally gives birth twice a year. Pregnant females have been found during February and July, while nursing mothers have been found April-July and as late as September. Births are timed to coincide with the rains/times when most food (flowers or fruit) is available.
2135		population	eng	These bats are widely distributed.
2135		threats	eng	None.
2136		conservation	eng	Avoid deforestation. Found in protected areas.
2136		distribution	eng	Michoacan, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas (Mexico) south to Southern Brazil, Northern Argentina, and Bolivia; Trinidad and Tobago; Southern Lesser Antilles; Trés Marías Isls (Simmons 2005).
2136		habitat	eng	Found in forests and natural areas. Good seed disperser (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)
2136		population	eng	Abundant.
2136		threats	eng	Deforestation, but not a major threat.
2137		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat destruction and fragmentation.
2137		distribution	eng	The species is found east of the Andes in southern Colombia and Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and into the adjacent portions of the Guyanas and most of Brazil even to Santa Catarina state (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Most specimens have been taken below 500 m elevation in Venezuela (Handley, 1976).
2137		habitat	eng	This species is not well known compared to congeners. In Venezuela the species is associated with moist habitats and multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). It is also found in savanna, cerrado and caatinga vegetation. Roosts in hollow trees, foliage, and palm trees. The diet includes figs and Cecropia seeds. Fruits are plucked by mouth and taken to feeding roosts. Its habitat may be more specialized in the eastern part of its range.
2137		population	eng	Common. It presents some phylogeographic structure (Ditchfield pers. comm.). In Cabruca (in Brazil), it is only found in association with mature forest (Faria pers. comm.).
2137		threats	eng	No major threats. It is found at lower densities in small fragments.
2138		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
2138		distribution	eng	Veracruz, Sinaloa, and Michoacan (Mexico) south to Ecuador and Guyana (Simmons 2005).
2138		habitat	eng	Difficult to distinguish in the field from <em>Artibeus watsoni</em> (Reid, 1997). Found in lowland evergreen and deciduous forests up to 1,200 m. Highly Cluttered Space/Gleaning Frugivores (Kalko <em>et al.</em>, 1996). Frugivorous, but occasionally consumes pollen and insects. May modify leaves to form tent roosts. Reproduction is seasonally polyestrus, with birth peaks around April and September. Found in secondary forests, and disturbed habitats.
2138		population	eng	Locally common.
2138		threats	eng	None.
2139		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation. Needs taxonomic review.
2139		distribution	eng	This species if found from northern Argentina through Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay,  Peru, Venezuela, and Suriname.
2139		habitat	eng	Found in rural areas. Frugivore. Good seed disperser.
2139		population	eng	This species is abundant.
2139		threats	eng	No major threats. Deforestation and habitat fragmentation in Argentina (Barquez and Diaz, pers. comm.)
2140		conservation	eng	Found in Protected areas.
2140		distribution	eng	Panama to Nuevo León and Sinaloa (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).
2140		habitat	eng	This bat has been collected from caves and buildings (Jones 1966), and under banana leaves (Davis 1944). It is also captured in mist nets in subtropical and tropical evergreen forests, particularly over water or in the vicinity of fruit groves, including the semi-arids parts of interior of Mexico (Lukens and Davis 1957). Fruits are the major dietary item, especially figs and <em>Cecropia</em> (Gardner 1977).<br/>Pregnant females have been captured in each month from January to August and in October; lactating females are known from January, May and June, through September (Wilson 1979).
2140		population	eng	Its common (Rodriguez and Cajas pers. comm.)
2140		threats	eng	None known.
2141		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
2141		distribution	eng	Southern Mexico to Southwestern Colombia (Simmons 2005). There is no record for El Salvador.
2141		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen and semideciduous lowland forests, tolerates second growth and disturbed habitats.<br/>Highly Cluttered Space/Gleaning Frugivores (Kalko <em>et al.</em>, 1996). Feeds on small figs, Cecropia fruits, etc. Roosts in small colonies in leaf tents. Reproduction seems to involve bimodal polyestry.
2141		population	eng	<em>Artibeus watsoni</em> is usually found below 800 m above sea level, in semideciduous and evergreen lowland forests, second growth, and fruit groves (Reid 1997). It feeds primarily on fruits, although to a lesser extent may consume insects and pollen (LaVal and Rodrıguez-H 2002).<br/>Abundant.
2141		threats	eng	None.
2144		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
2144		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eritrea and Ethiopia, although it has not been trapped in the Bale Region (Lavrenchenko and Corti pers. comm.). It is found in all other mountain ranges above 1,600 m asl.
2144		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid and high-altitude grasslands, and it also occurs in cropland. It is a human commensal species and tolerates disturbance.
2144		population	eng	It is common and abundant.
2144		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
2145		conservation	eng	Much of the species range is within the Bale Mountains National Park, and the conservation status of this species is largely dependent on the management of this protected area. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed to the management of the protected area for the conservation of this species.
2145		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the plateau on the eastern side of the Ethiopian Rift Valley at elevations of 2,500 to 4,050 m asl (Yalden 1976; Yalden 1996; M. Corti pers. comm.). The range of this species is less than 20,000 km²
2145		habitat	eng	This species inhabits alpine grassland. It is not found among human habitations. This is a prey species of the Ethiopian Wolf (<em>Canis simus</em>).
2145		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
2145		threats	eng	This species has a relatively restricted range, and could be adversely affected by changes in the management of grazing and hunting.
2146		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
2146		distribution	eng	This species is found below 2,000 m asl, in northern Tanzania and central-southern Kenya. Records of its occurrence in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia are doubtful and require further investigation.
2146		habitat	eng	This is a savanna species, that can be found as a human commensal. It is a recognised reservoir of the plague.
2146		population	eng	It is a common species.
2146		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
2147		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
2147		distribution	eng	The species is mostly a sub-Saharan Africa species although it does occur in the Arabian Peninsula, where it may have been introduced by man, and has been recorded across the Sahara, but it is mostly extinct there. This species is widespread in savannahs in Africa, found from Senegal across the Sahel to Sudan and Ethiopia, from here it ranges southwards to Uganda and central Kenya. Its presence in central Tanzania and Zambia is uncertain. The species is found along the Nile Valley where its distribution is restricted to a narrow strip of flooded plain. It has additionally been recorded from at least three isolated Saharan mountain ranges. In Ethiopia it is not found above 1,600 m asl.
2147		distribution	eng	The species is mostly a sub-Saharan species although it occurs in the Arabian Peninsula, where it may have been introduced by man, and has been recorded across the Sahara, but it is mostly extinct there. This species is widespread in savannas in Africa, found from Senegal across the Sahel to Sudan and Ethiopia, from here it ranges southwards to Uganda and central Kenya. Its presence in central Tanzania and Zambia is uncertain. The species is found along the Nile Valley where its distribution is restricted to a narrow strip of flooded plain. It has additionally been recorded from at least three isolated Saharan mountain ranges. In Ethiopia it is not found above 1,600 m asl.
2147		habitat	eng	This species favours grasslands, savanna, and shrublands. It is highly commensal species that is very common close to villages and other modified areas.
2147		population	eng	It is very common. It is considered a pest species where it occurs in Egypt.
2147		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
2148		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
2148		distribution	eng	There are two disjunct distribution areas for this species: one in Somalia and Ethiopia and a second in northern Tanzania. It is found below 1,000 m asl.
2148		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry savanna habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
2148		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
2148		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
2149		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas but is frequently considered a pest species. The UK is the only part of Europe where the species is currently protected under national legislation.
2149		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas but is frequently considered a pest species.
2149		distribution	eng	<em>Arvicola amphibius </em>has a large range extending from Portugal and Great Britain in the west, through much of continental Europe and Russia, as far as the Lena Basin and Lake Baikal in Siberia (Russia). Its range extends north of the Arctic circle and south into Iran and the Near East (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, it is widespread in central and northern parts of the continent, but it is absent from southern Iberia and southern and western France, and occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. The species occurs as two distinct ecological forms: aquatic and fossorial (burrow-dwelling). Aquatic forms are widely distributed, whereas fossorial forms are restricted to mountainous areas in southern and central Europe (Saucy 1999). In the French Alps it occurs to 2,400 m (Reichstein 1982).
2149		distribution	eng	There is much confusion between <em>Arvicola amphibius</em> and <em>A. scherman</em> and the distribution of both taxa should be considered tentative. <em>Arvicola amphibius</em>, as understood here, has a large range extending from France and the United Kingdom in the west, through much of continental Europe and Russia, as far as the Lena Basin and Lake Baikal in Siberia (Russia). Its range extends north of the Arctic circle and south into Iran and the Near East (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).
2149		habitat	eng	Aquatic forms inhabit a variety of freshwater habitats in the lowlands and the mountains, including rivers, streams, lakes and marshes. In Fennoscandia, the aquatic form becomes fossorial during winter months. Steep riverbanks with lush grass and vegetation are preferred. Fossorial forms are restricted to the uplands, where they construct extensive underground burrows in grasslands (including pastures) or, less frequently, in woodlands. Both forms have a herbivorous diet, feeding predominantly on vegetation in the summer and on roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Reichstein 1982, Saucy 1999).
2149		habitat	eng	This large vole is adaptable and survives in a range of habitats around rivers, streams and marshes in the lowlands and the mountains (Harrison and Bates 1991). It is a strong swimmer and climber (Harrison and Bates 1991). It occurs around streams and irrigation ditches. In Fennoscandia and locally in the Balkans, they live fossorial life during winter months. Steep riverbanks with lush grass and vegetation are preferred. May be active at any time, but are most active at dawn and dusk. Mainly vegetarian, feeding primarily on succulent vegetation, but also consumes some insects, mollusks, and small fish; roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Reichstein 1982, Harrison and Bates 1991). Reproduction occurs during the warmer months of the year and may begin as early as February in mild years. Gestation period is 21 days. Females produce 2-4 litters per year. Average litter size between 4-6 young.
2149		population	eng	Population declines are evident in some European countries (e.g., United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However, in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank)(Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species. At high population densities, large scale damages on rice fields have been reported in Macedonia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007). The water vole is thought to have been a common species in the Hula swamps of Israel until the area was drained in 1957 (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Azerbaijan, considered to be common in semi deserts, lowland and riparian forests, mountain forests and mountain grasslands and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes. The species is locally abundant in lush banks.
2149		population	eng	Population declines are evident in some European countries (e.g., United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However, in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank)(Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species. At high population densities, large scale damages on rice fields have been reported in Macedonia (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2007). The water vole is thought to have been a common species in the Hula swamps of Israel until the area was drained in 1957 (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Azerbaijan, considered to be common in semi deserts, lowland and riparian forests, mountain forests and mountain grasslands and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes. The species is locally abundant in lush banks.
2149		population	eng	Population declines in the aquatic form are evident in some European countries (e.g. Great Britain, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank), whereas fossorial forms may occur at such high densities that they become agricultural pests. Fossorial forms undergo pronounced cyclic population fluctuations every 5-8 years, with densities ranging between 0 and 1,000 individuals per hectare (Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species.
2149		threats	eng	Declines in aquatic populations in parts of western Europe have been attributed to habitat loss, water pollution, predation by introduced American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> and competition by the introduced muskrat <em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>.
2149		threats	eng	Declines in aquatic populations in parts of western Europe have been attributed to habitat loss, water pollution, predation by introduced American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> and competition by the introduced muskrat <em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>. Population fragmentation is more pronounced in Mediterranean populations due to increased aridity. In Israel it was a common species in the Hula swamps until the area was drained in 1957; a very limited area of the original swamp habitat remains (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Anatolia and Iran, pressure on aquatic habitat for water resources and localized competition with <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (i.e., Georgia). Local population extinctions and reductions have occurred in Turkey, Georgia and other parts of this range due to drainage of swamp habitat (Qumsiyeh 1996). It is considered an agricultural pest and extensive control measures in rice fields were carried out in Macedonia in the 1980s.
2150		conservation	eng	The water vole occurs in some protected areas within its range, although this does not particularly improve the status of this species (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006). As yet, the water vole receives no legal protection under EU legislation (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), nor under national legislation in any of the three countries where it occurs. Further research and monitoring is urgently needed to supervise the population trend, and the aquatic habitats where the water vole occurs require protection.<br/><br/>Nature et Humanisme and the SFEPM recommend the following methods for protecting the water vole (J.F. Noblet pers. comm.):<br/>-Prevention of the use of rodenticides in the habitats occupied by the water vole.<br/>Alternative methods of combating the proliferation of the Muskrat, Coypu and American Mink, by more selective means (live cage traps, etc.).<br/>-Forbidding the raising, import, transport or release of these three animals.<br/>-Legislative protection of the water vole, under Annexes I or II of the EU Habitats Directive, the Bern Convention, as well as in national legislation,Legislative protection of the water vole?s habitat. <br/>-Information campaigns directed at the concerned parties (local elected officials, waterway engineers, waterway management bodies, etc.).<br/>-Regulation of management techniques of water ways and their shores, such as forbidding dredging and paving of water vole habitat and destruction of riverside vegetation.<br/>-Forbidding destructive agricultural practices and associated water pollution.<br/>-International cooperation between France, Spain and Portugal in protecting the water vole and coordinating research in cross-border areas where the water vole may occur.<br/>-An ongoing research programme, in order to thoroughly map and monitor the remnant populations and their trends and to analyse the reasons for their ongoing decline.<br/>-A captive breeding programme and eventual reintroduction of the water vole in suitable protected habitat.
2150		distribution	eng	The Southwestern Water Vole, <em>Arvicola sapidus</em>, occurs only in freshwater habitats in parts of France, Spain and Portugal, where it is found from sea level to a maximum of about 2,300 m in the Pyrenees (Le Louarn and Quéré, 2003).<br/><br/>In France, the water vole remains relatively common in only three regions: Charente-Maritime, Brittany and southwest France (Pyrenees), though its distribution is still patchy in these areas.  In the French départements of Drôme, Var, Alpes-Maritimes, Hautes-Alpes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Loire, Rhône and Ain, the water vole has become rare, with a maximum of only 10 locations per département.  In the Ain there is only one location, two in the Rhône and no more than 6 or 7 in the Hautes-Alpes.<br/><br/>In Spain, the water vole is now restricted to the northern and eastern parts of the country, and has disappeared from central Spain, where it was formerly common. <br/><br/>Locations of the water vole in Portugal are not well-documented but, as in other parts of its range, the water vole seems to be restricted to fairly isolated subpopulations in only a few parts of the country.
2150		habitat	eng	The water vole is almost always found near to water, preferring small (under 8 ha) freshwater lakes, ponds and slow-moving rivers and streams with dense riparian vegetation (Saucy 1999, Fedriani 2002). It sometimes occurs in drainage ditches and wet fields.  Abundant hydrophilic vegetation and shorelines suitable for water vole burrowing activity seem to be essential characteristics of water vole habitat.  Its diet consists mainly of aquatic plants, grasses, and herbs, although small animal prey are occasionally taken (insects, fish, tadpoles, freshwater shrimp). The burrows of the water vole typically have two entrances ? one primary entrance above water level and one underwater entrance. The water vole is mainly active during the day, with two peaks in activity in late morning and early afternoon, as well some nocturnal activity.  It is active throughout the year, with no period of hibernation.<br/><br/>Reproduction occurs between March and October, with 3 to 4 litters of 2 to 8 young per litter, with the average reported as 3.5 to 6 young.  The gestation period is 3 weeks.  Sexual maturity is reached at 5 weeks old and the life span of the water vole varies from 2 to 4 years. The water vole lives in small family groups and, under optimal conditions, its density may reach 5 individuals for every 100 meters of riverbank (Saucy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). There have never been any records of damage to human activity or agriculture by the water vole.
2150		population	eng	The water vole is declining in most parts of its range. In France it is much less common than it was 10-15 years ago (S. Aulagnier, 2006), and in the Iberian Peninsula it is considered to be declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), although it is not currently classified as threatened in Portugal (Cabral, 2005). Several studies have shown that, in optimal habitat, water vole density can reach five individuals per 100 m of river bank, but that it is unlikely to exceed this figure (Saucy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Population fluctuations are not known (Saucy 1999).<br/><br/><strong>France</strong><br/>A recurring problem with accurately determining the full extent of water vole population decline is that the species has been poorly documented in the past, with older information on water vole population being anecdotal and patchy.  For example, an atlas of mammals of France (1984, Société Française de l?Etude et Protection des Mammifères - SFEPM) mentioned no threat to the water vole, and reported a nation-wide distribution of the species, with the exception of Corsica, the North, North-East and the Alps. There were no national surveys on the water vole and the vole was not even mentioned in the Action Programme for wild fauna and flora, a wide-ranging survey published in 1996 by the French Ministry for the Environment.  In contrast, over the last 10 years there has been increasing attention on the water vole, mainly owing to its apparent disappearance from many areas, a great cause for concern in a species with a normally high reproductive potential (3 to 4 litters per year, averaging 3.5 young per litter). These recent observations and studies all point to its rapid decline.<br/><br/><strong>Spain</strong><br/>The water vole has previously been little known and studied in Spain, yet it is probable that its numbers have suffered drastic declines in recent years, making it crucial to carry out further research and monitoring of the species (J. Román pers. comm., 2007).  Experts in Spain seem to agree that the water vole is facing similar threats in the Iberian Peninsula as those in France (M. Delibes pers. comm., 2007).  The water vole is not currently classified as a threatened species in any part of its range in the Iberian Peninsula, yet its subpopulations in this region exhibit a marked reduction, due to human-induced habitat degradation, destruction or modification, such as cementing over of riverbanks, canal-building, destruction of vegetation along waterways, draining of wetlands and water pollution (Álvarez, 1985; Garde, 1992).<br/><br/><strong>Portugal</strong><br/>The water vole faces a situation similar in Portugal to that confronting its subpopulations in France and Spain, though its status in this country is perhaps the least well-documented of the three.  Research conducted in several locations in Portugal where the water vole is present leads to the conclusion that it is scarce and under threat principally from habitat disturbance and predation, as well as isolation of subpopulations owing to the scattered nature of suitable habitat in Portugal.
2150		threats	eng	Since the water vole is restricted to wetland areas, it faces all the usual threats associated with this habitat.  The water vole only flourishes where the banks and vegetation have not been significantly altered by human activity. Consequently, habitat loss and degradation (as a result of drainage, dredging, canal-building, infrastructure development, intensive agriculture, and so on) are major threats. Competition with the introduced Coypu and Muskrat for food and dens is also a threat. In Spain, water vole decline is attributed primarily to anthropogenic habitat modification, but competition from the Norway rat may be an additional factor threatening the water vole (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Efforts to control invasive species by poisoning have resulted in accidental water vole deaths.<br/><br/>In descending order of importance, the principal threats are:<br/>Secondary poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides (Bromadiolone and Chlorophacinone) intended for the Norway Rat, Coypu and Muskrat, <br/>Competition for habitat and food sources with the Muskrat and Coypu,<br/>Predation by the American Mink, Polecat and Norway Rat, as well as domestic dogs and cats,<br/>Trapping and shooting of ?vermin?,<br/>Habitat modification, including draining of suitable wetlands, dredging, canal-building, disturbance by human activity and livestock, etc.,<br/>Drastic variations in water level caused by dams or seasonal droughts,<br/>Pollution and possibly disease and parasites.
2153		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Awash National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution of this species, both in northeastern Africa and in the Arabian peninsula.
2153		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted known range in northeastern Africa, from central Ethiopia north to Eritrea, and also from islands in the Red Sea including Farasan Island and Segid Island (=As-Saqid) of southwestern Saudi Arabia. It probably occurs more widely in this poorly explored region.
2153		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves and buildings and in dry open terrain such as the semi-desert grassland of the Awash National Park (Hill and Morris 1971). It flies close to the ground catching insects.
2153		population	eng	It is a poorly known species, but it appears to be rare with small roosts. There is a possibility that it will be found in larger roosts, but to date none have been found.
2153		threats	eng	There is very little information, but roost disturbance is a possible threat. However, the species is associated with habitats that are not under significant threat, and has been found in buildings, and so can adapt to human presence.
2154		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Underground roost management is needed in some places. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
2154		distribution	eng	Geoffroy's trident leaf-nosed bat ranges widely in the Sahara, through the Arabian peninsula and the Middle East, to Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is absent from the northern parts of Morocco and Algeria, and Tunisia, and occurs south to Ethiopia and Somalia.
2154		habitat	eng	This is a gregarious and colonial species which occurs in crevices or in cliffs in arid and semi-desert habitats. It roosts in temples, caves, mines, open-wells, underground irrigation tunnels and old tombs and buildings. Forages over desert and semi-desert vegetation zones, mainly in oases. Forages by slow hawking, has been observed foraging around palm trees and buildings, and over water.
2154		population	eng	It is a very common species, found in colonies of up to several hundred in North Africa, and in its Asian distribution it has been found in groups up to 5,000 animals.
2154		threats	eng	The main threat is the widespread use of pesticides against locusts. Human disturbance in caves and old buildings is affecting some populations.
2155		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas in Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
2155		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Myanmar (Struebig <em>et al.</em> 2005) and southern China (Yunnan, Guangxi and Guizhou) (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008), south to the Malay Peninsula.
2155		habitat	eng	The species occurs in limestone areas and is known to roost in caves (C. Francis and P. Bates pers. comm.). The species is not dependent on primary habitat and can survive in degraded areas and extends into agricultural zones and shares roosts with other species (P. Bates pers. comm.). A colony in Thailand roosted in loose association in limestone caves, with individuals at least 30 cm from one another.  Reproductively active females have been collected in May and June in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
2155		population	eng	It is locally common in limestone areas.
2155		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to disturbance of cave roosts by tourism and also the destruction of caves through limestone extraction (P. Bates pers. comm.).
2156		conservation	eng	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification and protection of additional important roosting sites. It has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).
2156		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present on many islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia (e.g., Halmahera, Ambon, Seram and Morotai); Biak and Yapen Islands (Indonesia); much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); the Bismark Archipelago (Papua New Guinea); the Trobriand Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Lousiade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea); Bougainville and Buka Islands (Papua New Guinea); throughout most of the Solomon Islands; and Vanuatu (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a,b). It appears to be a lowland species, occurring from sea level to 600 m asl.
2156		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded roosting in many caves and tunnels. Animals form groups of 40 to 50 individuals and several hundred bats may occur at a single roost. Females are presumed to give birth to one or two young annually. The foraging habitats of this species are not known.
2156		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range (e.g., New Ireland), but uncommon in other areas (e.g., the Moluccas) (Flannery 1995b).
2156		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be threatened in parts of its range by collection for food or cave disturbance.
2173		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
2173		distribution	eng	This species is only known to exist in an artificial pond (Baizid Bostami shrine) near Chittagong, Bangladesh. In 1912, its distribution was given as in between the Brahmaputra river system and the Arakan streams, but this may have been an incorrect assumption based on the distributions of <em>A. gangenticus, A. leithi,</em> and <em>A. hurum</em> (Asmat, pers. comm).
2173		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
2174		distribution	eng	Leith's Soft Shell Turtle is endemic to peninsular India.
2174		habitat	eng	This is an omnivorous, freshwater species occurring in rivers, reservoirs, and ponds.
2174		threats	eng	Although once common, this species has disappeared from much of its former range, mainly due to siltation and drying up of rivers during the summer.  Trade up to the mid 1970s also took its toll on <em>A. leithii</em>.
2176		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
2178		conservation	eng	It is a (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.
2178		distribution	eng	Large rivers draining to North Sea (Weser, Elbe), Baltic Sea (southern tributaries, Norway east of Oslo, southern Sweden, Kokemären drainage in southern Finland), Black Sea, Sea of Azov and Caspian Seas; Aegean Sea, from Maritza to Lake Volvi drainages. Absent in Black Sea basin south of Danube and Rioni (Georgia) drainages, but present in Turkey west of Ankara. Introduced in Rhine, Northern Dvina and Lake Balkhash (Asia). Identity of populations of Aral Sea remains uncertain.
2178		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open water of large and mid-sized lowland rivers and large lakes. Spawns on gravel or submerged vegetation in fast-flowing water. Lake populations migrate to tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Reproductive success seems to be associated with low water level and high spring temperatures. Spawns more than one season, in March-early April (mid-May in Volga), when temperatures rise above 8°C (Rhine) or even less (4-6°C in Terek), at places with strong current. Spawning lasts about two weeks. Eggs adhere to gravel or submerged plants. Semi-anadromous individuals or populations (Terek) forage predominantly in estuaries and freshened parts of the sea, migrating to rivers only for spawning. Starts spawning migration in second half of October (Terek) and overwinters in lower part of river. Juveniles are gregarious predators; adults hunt in small groups or are solitary. Juveniles and adults feed predominantly on fish, especially on <em>Alburnus alburnus</em> or <em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>. Juveniles grow rapidly, reaching about 80-100 mm SL during first year. Regularly hybridizes with <em>L. idus</em>.
2178		population	eng	Unknown.
2178		threats	eng	Locally threatened by river engineering projects.
2178		threats	eng	No major threats known. However, locally threatened by river engineering projects.
2183		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.
2183		distribution	eng	<em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> is endemic to Madagascar, and extends a little further north than that of any other Malagasy crayfishes. The distribution of this species lies at latitudes 18° to 21° S, longitudes 47° to 49° E. Type specimens were probably collected in the vicinity of Tananarive (Hobbs 1987). This species is found in the Toamasina and Antananarivo provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,697 km<sup>2</sup>.
2183		habitat	eng	<p><em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> is widespread in lotic habitats in the eastern rainforests. It is very s<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ilar to <em>A. granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> and essentially appears to fill the same niche as this common species but with a range shifted to the north (J.P.G. Jones pers. comm. 2009).</p>
2183		population	eng	<p><em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> is a relatively common and species where it is found (J.P.G. Jones pers. comm. 2009).</p>
2183		threats	eng	In common with other similar species in the genus (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007), habitat loss due to the conversion of forest to agricultural land is likely to threaten <em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> (J.P.G. Jones pers. comm. 2009). This species is also heavily harvested throughout its range. Although no studies have looked specifically at the sustainability of this harvest, the species is very similar to <em>A. granulimanus</em> which suggests the harvest may be sustainable under current conditions (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Introduced fish species, such as the Asian Snakehead (<em>Channa maculata</em>) represent a new and growing threat (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Crayfish from the genus <em>Procambarus</em> have recently been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, Antananarivo (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a) though the true distribution may in fact extend further. There is concern that <em>Procambarus</em> may eventually out compete native <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species due to higher fecundity and growth rates or may act as a vector for crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a).
2184		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides caldwelli</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/> <br/>Monitoring of this species range and abundance is required to better  understand the rate at which it is being lost. However, establishing a  community led monitoring program may prove difficult as it is understood  that time lost monitoring is time lost harvesting. Contribution to  monitoring is likely and therefore have little statistical power  (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).  Monitoring of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span>  is also needed. Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals  caught per day at a given site could provide useful information to both  resource managers and external conservation bodies (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Jones <em>et al.</em>  2006, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c).
2184		distribution	eng	<em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it is found between latitudes 20° and 22° S, longitude 47° and 48° E. This species is widespread in the Fianarantsoa province (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005; Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,214 km<sup>2</sup>. It is found at an elevational range of 500 - 1,000 m above sea level (Jones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
2184		habitat	eng	<p><em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is commonly found in swampy areas within natural forest, however it may also be found in forest streams and occasionally in rice fields and canals (Dixon 1992, Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). Eggs are laid in June to July, then carried for 4 months, hatching in October/ November. This is the smallest of the MalagasyMalagasy crayfish species, growing to 53 mm carapace length (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005) and reaching sexual maturity at 31 mm carapace length (CL).<span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1"></a> </p>
2184		population	eng	<p>During the study by Jones <em>et al</em>. (2007), this species was found to be locally abundant: a maximum of 90 individuals were found during a 2 hour search period.</p>
2184		threats	eng	<p><em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is threatened by habitat loss, as the swampy areas utilised by this species are rapidly being converted into rice fields. This species is usually extirpated within 5 to 10 years following habitat conversion (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). It was once described as abundant within natural swamp systems close to forest or within the forest. Some reports cla<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname> that this species has been extirpated from part of its range as there is no remaining suitable habitat. In addition, this species sensitivity to threats is exacerbated by a slow growth rate (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). <em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is not usually targeted by fisheries due to its muddy taste, and the difficulty in accessing its swampy habitat (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006) however it is harvested in some areas and a high proportion of harvested individuals will not have reproduced prior to harvesting (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/> <br/> Malagasy crayfish are subject to heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko<em> et al</em>. 2005). The survival of native Malagasy crayfish species is further compromised by the introduction of non-native crayfish species. Species of <em>Procambarus</em> have been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008). Life history strategies such as higher fecundity and growth rates of <em>Procambarus</em>, give these species a competitive advantage (Jones<em> et al. </em>2008). <em>Procambarus</em> may also act as a carrier of crayfish plague, <em>Aphanomyces astaci</em>.</p>
2185		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides petiti</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/><br/>Further surveys for this species are needed to determine true range.
2185		distribution	eng	<em>Astacoides petiti</em> is endemic to Madagascar, and known from only five localities all of which are situated on the eastern versant of the island between latitudes 22° and 25° S, longitude 46° and 48° E. This species is found in the Fianarantsoa and Toliara provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005).This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,045 km<sup>2</sup>.
2185		habitat	eng	<em>Astacoides petiti</em> is found in lotic habitats and swampy areas.
2185		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Astacoides petiti</em>.
2185		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to the conversion of forest to rice fields is likely to threaten <em>Astacoides petiti</em>. In addition this species is likely to be harvested by subsistence fisheries. Introduced fish species, such as the Asian Snakehead (<em>Channa maculata</em>) represent a new and growing threat (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Crayfish from the genus <em>Procambarus</em> have recently been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, Antananarivo (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a) though the true distribution may in fact extend further. There is concern that <em>Procambarus</em> may eventually out compete native <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species due to higher fecundity and growth rates or may act as a vector for crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a). However, the precise threats to this species are not well understood.
2186		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but there is a national size limit for harvesting crayfish of 10 cm total length under Malagasy regulations. Many local level and traditional rules exist to govern the harvest of this species (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b). <br/><br/>Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals caught per day at a given site could be useful information to both resource managers and external conservation bodies (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2006; Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c). Control of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span> is required.
2186		distribution	eng	<p><em>Astacoides granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place>, along with <em>A. madagascarensis</em>, it has the most widespread distribution within this genus (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species occurs in watersheds draining to the east and west between latitudes 18° to 24° S and longitudes 46° to 48° E (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1987). This species is found in the Toamasina, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> and Fianarantsoa provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has a relatively broad altitude range of 600 and 1,300 m (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). This species has an est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated extent of occurrence of 3,826 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
2186		habitat	eng	<p><em>Astacoides granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> is a generalist species in terms of its habitat requirements, occupying forest streams, slow flowing rivers and occasionally swampy areas and rice fields/ canals. It is most commonly found in areas of natural vegetation but has been recorded from pine or Eucalyptus plantations, although the river banks retained their natural vegetation (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/> <br/> Eggs are laid during June to July and carried for 4 months, hatching in October to November. Fifty percent of individuals become reproductive at 50 mm carapace length (approx<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 6 years old), and an grow up to 75 mm carapace length (CL), living up to 20 years old (Jones and Coulson 2006).<br/> <br/> Like other <em>Astacoides</em> species (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007), this species exhibits an exceptionally slow growth rate (Jones and <a style="">Coulson 2006), taking approx</a><st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 62.4 months to reach 40 g (Jones, Andriahajaina and Hockley <span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>2007).</p>          <a name="_msocom_1"></a>
2186		population	eng	<p>During the study by Jones <em>et al</em>. (2007), this species was locally abundant with up to 85 individuals found during a 2 hour search period.</p>
2186		threats	eng	<em>Astacoides granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> is <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacted by deforestation; it was almost never found in streams whose banks had been completely cleared for agriculture (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). However it appears to have a broader habitat tolerance than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. betsileoensis.</span><br/> <br/> The species is heavily harvested throughout its range (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). Most crayfish harvesters (both commercial and subsistence) admit to taking individuals bearing eggs as they are fatter and tastier (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). The crayfish reproductive period also overlaps with the hungry season of when food is scarce from July to December (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). However, although over-harvesting may be a threat in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007), a detailed study in one part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> where harvesting is a major economic activity found the current harvest to be sustainable (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2005). Studies looking into the suitability of this species for aquaculture, <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ply that poor tolerance for low oxygen conditions and slow growth rates make it a bad candidate (Jones, Andriahajaina and Hockley 2007).<br/> <br/> Crayfishes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> are subjected to a heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (such as eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko <em>et al.</em> 2005). Introduced fish species, such as the Asian Snakehead (<em>Channa maculata</em>) represent a new and growing threat (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Crayfish from the genus <em>Procambarus</em> have recently been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a) though the true distribution may in fact extend further. There is concern that <em>Procambarus</em> may eventually out compete native <em>Astacoides</em> species due to higher fecundity and growth rates or may act as a vector for crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a). Action is needed to prevent the translocation of this species around the island.
2187		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides caldwelli</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/> <br/> Monitoring of this species range and abundance is required to better  understand the rate at which it is being lost. However, establishing a  community led monitoring program may prove difficult as it is understood  that time lost monitoring is time lost harvesting. Contribution to  monitoring is likely and therefore have little statistical power  (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).  Monitoring of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span>  is also needed. Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals  caught per day at a given site could provide useful information to both  resource managers and external conservation bodies (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Jones <em>et al.</em>  2006, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c).</p>
2187		distribution	eng	<p><em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is endemic to the eastern highlands of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and is largely found between the latitudes 18° to 21° S, longitudes 46° <a style="">to</a> 48° E (Hobbs 1987). This is a rare species found only at low altitudes (600-800 m) in rivers draining forested catchments (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007) in the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:place></st1:city> and Fianarantsoa provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has an est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated extent of occurrence <a style="">of 2,700 km<sup>2</sup></a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2">.</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2"> It is found at an elevational range of 600 - 800 m above sea level (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</a><span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2"></a> </p>
2187		habitat	eng	<p><em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is only found in large rivers draining forested catchments, at low elevations between 600 - 800m above sea level on the eastern side of the escarpment (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Most localities where this species is known from are in relatively recently deforestated areas abutting natural forest (Jones et al. 2007). <em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is a tertiary burrower (Jones et al 2007. Eggs are laid in June or July and carried for approx<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 4 months, hatching in October or November (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>
2187		population	eng	<p>In the study by Jones <em>et al.</em> in 2007, this species was found to be the rarest of all Malagasy crayfish sampled (<a style="font-style: italic;">granumilanus</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1">, </a><span style="font-style: italic;">crosnieri, betsileoensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">caldwelli</span>). At none of the sample localities, was this species abundant. A max<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>um of nine individuals were found in a 2 hr search.</p>
2187		threats	eng	<em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is currently under threat from rapid habitat loss due to conversion of low elevation forest to paddy fields. While this species is not targeted specifically by commercial fisheries, it is taken incidentally and by subsistence fishers (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2006). Due to the low abundance of this species, harvesting is likely to pose a significant threat in areas of intense fishing pressure. This species was once described as abundant, however local people have reported a significant decline in abundance (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition, Malagasy crayfish are subject to heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko<em> et al</em>. 2005).<br/> <br/> The survival of native Malagasy crayfish species is further compromised by the introduction of non-native species. Species of <em>Procambarus</em> have been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008). Life history strategies such as higher fecundity and growth rates of <em>Procambarus</em> give these species a competitive advantage (Jones<em> et al. </em>2008). <em>Procambarus</em> may also act as a carrier of crayfish plague, <em>Aphanomyces astaci</em>.
2188		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the imposed minimum size limit for harvesting <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species is 10 cm total length (TL) according to Malagasy regulations. Local rules and taboos control harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2008b). <br/><br/>Monitoring of this species range and abundance is required to better understand the rate at which it is being lost. However, establishing a community led monitoring program may prove difficult as it is understood that time lost monitoring is time lost harvesting. Contribution to monitoring is likely and therefore have little statistical power (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Monitoring of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span> is also needed. Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals caught per day at a given site could provide useful information to both resource managers and external conservation bodies (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c).
2188		distribution	eng	<em>Astacoides betsileosensis</em> is endemic to the eastern highlands of Madagascar. It is found between latitudes 18° to 20° S, longitudes 46° to 49° E (Hobbs 1987) in the Toamasina, Antananarivo and Fianarantsoa provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005) at an elevation range of 1,000-2,000 m aboce sea level (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,040 km<sup>2</sup>.
2188		habitat	eng	<em>Astacoides betsileosensis</em> is typically found to occur in the deeper-water of slow-flowing rivers at altitudes greater than 1,000m above sea level (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). It can also been found in smaller rivers with deep pools. Individuals are normally collected in areas of natural vegetation, although a single specimen has been collected from an irrigation channel in a rice field, and a number of specimens from a pine plantation (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). This is a burrowing species (Hobbs 1942) and in the study by Jones<em> et al</em>. (2007) it was found in burrows in sandy banks, up to a meter long with galleries running parallel to the bank.<br/><br/>This is the largest of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species, and can reach up to 79 mm carapace length (CL) (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Eggs are laid in June or July, and carried for approximately 4 months, hatching in October or November. Relative to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> it appears to withhold reproduction until it reaches a larger size, however in this study it was found to be the fastest growing species (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). During this same study 50% of females were found to be reproductive at 65mm carapace length.
2188		population	eng	During the study by Jones <em>et al</em>. (2007), this species was never found to be particularly abundant: a maximum of 16 individuals were&#160; found during a 2 hour search period.
2188		threats	eng	This species' large size means it is a valued crayfish and is harvested throughout its range (Jones <em>et al </em>2007). Due to the large size at 1st reproduction, this species is at serious threat from recruitment overfishing with only 10% of females likely to have bred before harvesting (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). Interviews with locals supported the suggestion that <em>Astacoides betsileoensis</em> may be particularly vulnerable to over-harvesting with more than 90% of interviewees reporting a decline in this species in their area and 90% of those attributing the decline to over-harvesting (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). In this same study this species was also found to have a very low abundance. Crayfish harvesters (both commercial and subsistence), admit to taking individuals bearing eggs, stating they are fatter and tastier. The crayfish reproductive period also overlaps with the hungry season in which food becomes scarce (July to December) (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species is also threatened by habitat loss (land conversion for rice paddies) as it appears to be dependent on forested habitat. Due its association with large river systems, it is more at threat from water pollution than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species which are typically found in headwater streams. Malagasy crayfish are also subject to heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (such as eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko<em> et al</em>. 2005). Villages in Vohiparara attributed a reduction in the range of <em>A. betsileosensis</em>, to the Asian snakehead <em>Channa maculata</em> (local name: Fibata). The Asian snakehead is commonly found in large river systems, making this species of crayfish the most susceptible to predation pressure (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Crayfish from the taxa <em>Procambarus</em> have been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, Antananarivo. The range of this invasive species may in fact extend further but there has been very little sampling. There is concern that <em>Procambarus </em>may eventually out compete native <em>Astacoides </em>species due to higher fecundity and growth rates, and through spreading the crayfish plague (Jones <em>et al. </em>2008). Action is needed to prevent the translocation of this species around the island.
2190		conservation	eng	<p>This species<em> </em>has received much attention as a species of conservation concern. In 1995 it was listed as 'Vulnerable' under the Commonwealth <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 </em>(and preceding legislation) and also under the Tasmanian <em>Threatened Species Protection Act 1995</em> (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Under the Tasmanian regional assessment process, it was identified as a category three fauna species i.e. requiring conservation through management plans (PLUC 1997). It was then subsequently listed as a 'priority species requiring consideration' under the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><em>Tasmanian</em></st1:placename><em> <st1:placename w:st="on">Regional</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></em></st1:place><em> Agreement 1997</em> and thereby protected through the Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative (CAR) Reserve System. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">However, after 11 years there has not been one area specifically reserved for this species, even though there have been at least three reports, documenting the stable population areas remaining (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). It has been calculated that 30,000 ha would be sufficient to protect the best remaining tracts of habitat (T.Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></strong></p>             <p>Management of this species is primarily governed by the Threatened Species Unit, which introduced the ban upon the harvesting, trade or keeping of this species without a permit since the 1<sup>st</sup> of January 1998 (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).&#160;&#160;<em></em>A large portion of the range of this species falls within the South West Wilderness World Heritage Area, and so the species is free of many of the other land use pressures (and a lot of poaching) over a lot of its range (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<span lang="EN-AU"> Though, in this species' northeastern range, there still is no protection other than a 10 m machinery exclusion zone for and waterways above 250 m. The Recovery Plan has an attachment stating what can be classified as suitable habitat, though only below 250 m above sea level. Most forest operations would occur above 250 m, as below this altitude the forests have predominately been cleared (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). However, due to stream classification requirements, small streams are not protected by buffer zones and headwater areas are not given buffers because not many crayfish are located in there (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p><p>  Recovery is primarily occurring in the northwest of Tasmania, while populations in the northeast appear to have been too badly fragmented and subject to substantial pressures: i.e. broadscale plantation establishment and severe drying of streams (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span lang="EN-AU"></span></p><p><span lang="EN-AU">In response to the widespread dramatic declines seen in this species' population abundance, a recovery plan has been developed to see the species down listed from 'Vulnerable' within the next 14 years. The following strategies have been proposed: 1) reduction in fishing pressure, 2) prevention and amelioration of the effects of habitat disturbance, 3) monitoring of population recovery, and identification and protection of core populations, 4) increasing knowledge of the species' biology and habitat requirements and 5) overall coordination of the recovery process. Integration of local communities within the recovery strategies is   going to be necessary, to ensure the success of the project (Threatened Species Section 2006). Protection and rehabilitation of riparian buffer strips adjacent to high habitat suitability sites (Davies and Cook 2004) is imperative to ensure the continued viability of these populations.<br/></p>
2190		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is found in Tasmanian rivers flowing north into the Bass Strait (with the exception of the Tamar) between 20-300 m above sea level (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Originally, populations were present in the Arthur River and all rivers flowing into Bass Strait, except those of the Tamar, but today the distribution is more broken (Inland Fisheries Service 2008). It has been introduced into two catchments: the North Esk catchment (St Patrick's River) and the Derwent catchment (Clyde River) (Threatened Species Section 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated at 14,221 km².<br/><br/>Approximately 54% of the species' range occurs on unreserved private land, 24% on state forest (couped and uncouped), and 2% on other public land (e.g. unallocated Crown land, local council, etc). Approximately 19% of the species' range comprises either formal or informal reserves (Threatened Species Section 2006). It must be noted that the majority of this range held privately has been extensively modified (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2009). The best remaining habitat for this species is state forest and crown land (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2009).
2190		habitat	eng	<p>This species<em> </em>can be found in rivers and streams of all sizes, but shows a preference for pristine habitats. It is most commonly found sheltering under decaying logs and undercut banks within deep pools, but is also seen moving through shallow riffle zones (Lynch 1967, Hamr 1990, Inland Fisheries Service 2008). Presence of relatively undisturbed riparian vegetation is another important factor determining the distribution of this species. Streams will also have excellent water quality and low turbidity (T. Walsh pers. comms. 2008). Absence of sediment has a massive influence on populations, and areas which have large amounts or increased levels of sedimentation are avoided by this species (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Sites which had been completely cleared of riparian vegetation for agricultural land etc, showed an absence of this species<em>.</em> While the presence of native riparian vegetation is important to this species, it has also been occasionally found within pine plantations (Threatened Species Section 2006, T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p><p>In terms of water chemistry, there is a noted preference for sites with a high oxygen content and little suspended sediment (Forteath 1987). This species has been found show a range of water temperatures from 5.2°C to 21°C (Hamr 1990, Lynch and Blühdorn 1997, Webb 2001), although relatively low temperatures are preferred (Threatened Species Section 2006). This species displays a shift in dietary preferences with age and typically feeds on decaying wood, rotting flesh, and small fish (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>      <p>Furthermore, this species displays a high degree of site fidelity. Studies in which mark and re-capture techniques have been applied, tracked this species moving distances of 500 m (Forteath 1987, Growns 1995) and 1650 m. (Webb 2001). Webb (2001) also noted the species returning to its home stream after movement.</p>      <p>Juvenile&#160;<em></em>densities of this species are higher in wider streams at intermediate catchment sizes, typically 2 to 30 km²; streams with low levels of silt substrate (0-2%); streams with high proportions of moss cover (10% and above) and with higher proportions of boulder substrate (Davies and Cook 2004). These particular habitat requirements could have severe consequences for reproductivity if altered, as there could be a scenario where no juveniles are created due to poor habitat quality, resulting in a prolonged period of reduced population growth, until habitat conditions are improved (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).</p><p> Mating and spawning typically occurs in the autumn months post-summer moult, with females breeding every two years (Hamr 1990, 1992). However, recent studies have shown that females can release young and moult in the same year, meaning that they can potentially breed each year (Threatened Species Section 2006, Inland Fisheries Service 2008, T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Juveniles are released in the late summer and remain attached until February (T. Walsh pers. comms. 2008), and the number of eggs produced by a single female is said to be relative to body size (Hamr 1996). Males reach sexual maturity at nine years (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>
2190		population	eng	<p>Based on condition of habitat, historical records and anecdotal reports, localized extinctions or large declines in numbers are thought to have occurred in the Welcome, Montagu, Rubicon, Don, Brid, Boobyalla, Pipers, Ringarooma, Duck, Little and Great Forester Rivers and Claytons Rivulet (Horwitz 1994). <br/></p><p>Recent surveys in the north-east of this species' range indicated that massive population declines have occurred in these north-east catchments (Little Forester, Boobyalla-Tomahawk and &#160;Ringarooma) and major population declines have occurred in Pipers and Great Forester/Brid catchments (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Within this range, two small areas within these two catchments appear to have a stable population (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). These north-eastern populations have been&#160;too badly fragmented and are subject to substantial pressures such as broadscale plantation establishment and severe drying of streams (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This reduction of north-eastern ranges may equate to approximately one third of the total for this species.&#160;Recovery is, however, occurring in the north-west of the state (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>At sites that are relatively accessible to humans (close to roads), the proportion of mature individuals can be as low as 5% compared to 40% in relatively inaccessible sites (Hamr 1990). Walsh (pers. comm. 2008) estimates that there has been more than an 80% decline in this species abundance in the last 50 years, and has undergone a dramatic decline in 70% of its range. It has also been postulated that there may be increases in population abundance in catchment areas with relatively good habitat conditions, namely West to East Black Detention, Inglis, Cam, Emu, Blythe and Leven (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
2190		threats	eng	<p>The most significant threats facing this species is past fishing pressure, present illegal fishing, and habitat loss and degradation (Lynch 1967, Hamr 1990, Horwitz 1994, Growns 1995, Lynch and Blühdorn 1997). Under the <em>Inland Fisheries Act 1995</em>, the legal fishing of this species ceased as of January 1<sup>st</sup> 1998. While the relationship between fishing pressure and population dynamics, and structure, is not fully understood, decreases in average body size and the proportion of mature individuals present at accessible sites versus inaccessible sites, might indicate the negative impact that intense fishing pressure has had upon the population (Lynch and Blühdorn 1997, Hamr 1990). Of note is the effect which can be had by removing larger males who can, by their physical size, mate with large mature females (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Since this fishing ban has been imposed, a notable increase in size has been observed in the population (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008) The effects of fishing pressure on this species are further exacerbated by the slow maturation, low fecundity and biennially breeding cycle of this species. Furthermore, it has been suggested that it would take at least 15 years for juveniles to attain a size where the recruitment levels escalate considerably after the termination of fishing for this species (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Despite an imposed law preventing the legal harvesting of this species, illegal fishing activity is still occurring throughout this species range as evidenced by baitlines, anecdotal reports and prosecutions (Threatened Species Section 2006). However, fishing pressure has decreased considerably, but due to this species' cumbersome size it is easy to catch and major damage can be inflicted by a few poachers in a short space of time (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>Habitat loss and degradation is also a significant threat to this species. Due to its preference for relatively pristine sites, changes in land use and alterations to the hydrological regime of a river system are all likely to impact this species. Walsh (pers. comm. 2008) suggests that logging poses a greater risk to this species than harvesting. Large-scale, industrial logging activity throughout <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state></st1:place> has been implicated in sedimentation of waterways through the loss of sediment stability, resulting in increased turbidity and lower dissolved oxygen concentrations, along with unfavourable habitat for juveniles (Davies and Cook 2004). Loss of riparian zones can also result in increased run-off from surrounding land, decreased shading resulting in increased water temperatures, and decreased allochthonous material providing an important food source (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p><p>The Northwest region of this species' range is heavily impacted by agriculture and industry especially in areas 200 m and lower (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<span lang="EN-AU"> A massive old tin mine sits on the headwaters of Arthur River, where it is estimated that the population of this species has been extirpated for up to 20 km, due to heavy metals still flushing from the mine. A large creek pours from the mine into the Arthur River with a pH of less than 3 (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Other threats associated with forestry activities include: chemical spraying, roading and culverts, with the latter presenting a barrier to effective dispersal. This species is also potentially impacted by the effects of climate change by increased aridity causing streams to dry up and by farmers increasing water extraction for irrigation especially in the northeastern region (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>  <span lang="EN-AU"><p>      </p></span>
2191		conservation	eng	<em>Astacus astacus</em> has been previously assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List Index of Threatened Species (Version 2.3 of the Categories and Criteria), and is listed as Critically Endangered on the 2010 Red List of Swedish Species. This species is currently listed on the Danish Red List as "at risk from eradication due to crayfish plague" (S. Berg pers. comm. 2009). This species is also listed under a number of directives including the EU Habitats Directive Appendix V, and directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. It therefore requires the designation of special areas of conservation for its protection. It is also listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. There has been wide-scale development of species action plans for <em>A. astacus</em>. At present, there is wide-scale re-stocking of this species into lakes from which it was formerly known. <br/><br/>The import of live crayfish into Sweden from abroad is now prohibited.  Restrictions on catch levels, gear-type use and minimum landing size exist in several countries (Taugbøl <em>et al.</em> 2004). Restocking in Sweden is taking place but is met with little success (L. Edsman pers. comm. 2010). Given the continuing population decline, several species protection programmes have been initiated (including re-stocking and re-introduction activities) in various parts of Austria (Füreder 2009).
2191		distribution	eng	The Noble Crayfish<span style="font-style: italic;">, Astacus astacus</span>, is indigenous and widespread throughout Europe. This species range extends from Russia and the Ukraine in the east, to Finland, Sweden, Norway in the north, to Greece in the south, and the United Kingdom and France in the west. A few recently introduced subpopulations are found outside Europe, for example Morocco. The occurrence of this species within Andorra, Cyprus, the UK, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Morocco and possibly Montenegro and Italy, is via introductions from neighbouring countries.<br/><p></p>
2191		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, in both lowlands and hills, where shelter availability is high (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160; 2006). This includes stones, logs, roots and aquatic and marginal vegetation. This species prefers soft bottoms with some sand and is not usually found in water bodies with a muddy substrate. In addition, it prefers soft banks where it constructs simple burrows. The oxygen demands of this species can be quite high, leading to high mortality in shallow, eutrophic ponds during summer months (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Habitat of this species is shared by the introduced <em style="background-color: white;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>, which is known to competitively exclude this species after a period of establishment (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).</p>    <p>This species is capable of tolerating lower calcium levels, as low as 2 - 3 mgl<sup>-1</sup> Ca, where other species of crayfish may be excluded. The optimum temperature for best growth is between 16 and 24 <sup>o </sup>C, although up to 28 <sup>o</sup> C can generally be tolerated. In addition, oxygen content below 3 - 4 mgl<sup>-1</sup> is deemed unsuitable for this species. </p>      <p>This species is mainly predated upon by the common eel, in addition to small scale predation by mink, perch, otter and wading birds (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), although predation risk also includes cannibalism. This competition, along with temperature gradients and shelter availability, is the major determinant of this species range (Abrahamsson 1966, Skurdal and Taugbol 2002). </p>    <p>Anecdotal measures of longevity indicate this species may live for up to 20 years. At maturation, males normally mate every year, while female reproductive activity is usually restricted to a single year between periods of sexual inactivity. Thus numbers of sexually active females may vary greatly depending on locality and year (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). </p>        <p>Studies have shown (Jensen 1996) that this species of crayfish is particularly susceptible to increased levels of nitrite in aquatic systems, meaning input of excess amounts of this compound, particularly through agricultural fertilizer run-off, may pose a serious risk to this species.</p><p>    </p><p>It is known that noble crayfish females reach sexual maturity at a size which ranges from 6.2 cm total length in localities with early maturity or slow growth to 8.5 cm total length in localities with late maturity or fast growth. Males become mature at a size of 6.0-7.0 cm total length (Skurdal & Taugbøl 2002).</p><p>    </p><p>Declines in this keystone species are said to negatively <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact both ecosystem structure and function within freshwater environments through loss of: a) provisioning services – food production from fisheries, recreational fishing, b) regulatory and support services – trophic cascades, water purification, nutrient cycling, pr<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ary productivity, c) cultural value – recreational fishing, education, heritage. Crayfish are also an <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant food source to a range of species including otters, salmonids, and birds such as kingfishers (Kettunen and ten Brink 2006).</p>  <p></p><p></p><p></p>
2191		population	eng	<p>Natural subpopulations of the Noble Crayfish have been declining across Europe since the introduction of crayfish plague in the mid nineteenth century (Holdich 2002).&#160; This species used to be the main target of crayfish trapping in Europe, but this industry is now much reduced in central, eastern and southern Europe (Ackefors and Lindqvist 1994).&#160; Current harvest levels are only about 10% of those before the spread of the disease, despite restocking of affected lakes from aquaculture fisheries (Holdich 2002).&#160; The largest remaining subpopulations of this species are in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark (Ackefors and Lindqvist 1994). Note that rates of decline have been calculated over a 22.5 year period (3 generation lengths). </p>  <p>Andorra: There are currently three known subpopulations at an elevation range of 800-1,000m above sea level (T. Changeux pers. comm. 2001 cited in Holdich 2002). The presence of this species within Andorra is doubted and is thought to in fact be <em>Austropotamobius fulcisianus</em> (a soon to be described species) which resulted from introductions from Spain or France (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). This species is known from 115 sites, 71 of which are ponds (Collas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). There is a continual loss of natural populations: many occurrences are due to introductions (C. Souty-Grosset pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>  <p>Austria: Historical records of the Noble Crayfish in Austria data back to 1321 and indicate yields of up to 10 kg ha-1yr-1 in some lakes (Pöckl 1999).&#160; Outbreaks of crayfish plague were first recorded in Austria in 1878, and between 1879 and 1904, approximately 75% of Noble Crayfish subpopulations were devastated (Pöckl 1999). Although the Noble Crayfish is still widespread throughout Austria, most subpopulations are considered unstable and stocks in major rivers have been reduced (Pöckl 1999, Füreder & Souty-Grosset 2005). Often, only single specimens can be found during sampling (Pöckl 1999).&#160;</p>  <p>Belgium: This species is now extirpated from Flanders, but can still be found in Wallonia. Over the last decade, the Noble Crayfish has disappeared from approximately 20% of the sites from which it was previously known (R. Cammaerts pers. comm. 2008). Arrignon <em>et al.</em> (1999) have reported a 67% reduction in this species between 1989 and 1999.</p>  <p>Bulgaria: This species is economically important but population numbers are significantly diminished (Zaikov and Hubenova 2007). This is attributed to inefficient management of the wild fisheries. </p>  <p>Belarus: Population numbers of this species are thought to be on the increase as it spreads up small rivers (Kulesh et al. 1999). It is currently known from 32 waterbodies.</p>  <p>Bosnia: There is no available up to date information on this species within Bosnia. The last report of this species comes from a single locality in Tuzla by Entz in 1909.</p>  <p>Croatia: Subpopulations of this species within Croatia appear to be relatively stable at present, although non-native crayfish species (including carriers of crayfish plague) have only been recently introduced to this area (I. Maguire and G. Klobu?ar pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Future declines are expected.</p>  <p>Czech Republic: There is also an apparent decline in Noble Crayfish numbers in the Czech Republic, with only one third of recorded localities from the 1980s being confirmed during more recent surveys. However, these studies have also identified a number of new localities, not previously surveyed (E. Kozubikova, P. Kozak and A. Petrusek pers. comm. 2008). This is the most common crayfish species in the Czech Republic.</p>  <p>Denmark: This species is known from the Jutland Peninsula and the islands of Zealand and Funen, though its range is in decline due to habitat degradation (Skurdal <em>et al.</em> 1999). The status of the Danish subpopulation is currently unknown as no attempt, as of yet, has been made to document the crayfish species, distribution and abundance (S. Berg pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p>Estonia: This species is the only crayfish species present within this country, and is widespread. Declines in the population numbers and range of this species have been noted (Skurdal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). However attempts are being made to reintroduce this species into former areas of its range through translocations and hatchery reared juveniles (Skurdal<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999). <br/></p>  <p><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">Finland: <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus astacus</span> population is at a very low level compared to historical (pre-1900) levels. The current rate of the decline of the separate <span style="font-style: italic;">A. astacus</span> populations is low (probably less than 5 % per 20 years), but the decline of the <span style="font-style: italic;">A. astacus</span> population size in the whole country is continually declining 20 % or even more every 20 years (M. Pursiainen pers. comm. 2010).<br/></span></span></p>  <p>France: This species is said to be close to extinction in Lorraine and Morvan, however restocking has been attempted. It is also present within other regions of France, including Alsace. In south and southwestern France it has been extending its range, it is an introduced species (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>Georgia: There does not appear to be any recent accounts of this species within Georgia.</p>  <p>Germany: This species was once widespread and abundant throughout Germany, but over the last century it has become restricted to more upland regions due to habitat degradation, competition, predation and disease (Schulz 2000).&#160; In the district of Lower Saxony in northwest Germany, this species was reported from 155 sites in 1920 (after the introduction of crayfish plague), but by 1990 it was only present at 12 sites (Schulz 2000), a decline in range of 56% over a period of 22.5 years.</p>  <p>Greece: The distribution of the Noble Crayfish in Greece is now much more restricted and fragmented than in previous decades (Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p>Hungary: The Noble Crayfish is the most widespread crayfish species within Hungary, and certainly the most common within northern regions (Puky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Data from the commercial harvest of <em>A. astacus</em> indicate that there has been a decline in the abundance of approximately 95% over the last 22.5 years, from an annual catch of 13,000 kg for export in 1961 and only 1,000 kg in 1980 (Puky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species is still considered to be declining owing to habitat degradation and loss, and crayfish plague (Puky and Schád 2006).&#160;<span style="background-color: red;"></span></p>  <p>Latvia: There is little available data on the current status of the population within Latvia. It is known to be widespread (T. Taugbøl pers. comm. cited in Holdich 2002).</p>  <p>Lithuania: In 2008, a study to look at sites from which this species was previously known found this species at 3 of 6 rivers (only one of these 3 rivers in fact had an abundant populations, while the others contained <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span>). Out of 14 lakes that were looked at, only 9 contained this species (7 lakes were estimated as having quite abundant populations) and 5 lakes were devoid of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus </span>(though 2 of these have been reported to contain crayfish by local people). The conclusion is, despite healthy <span style="font-style: italic;">A. astacus</span> populations still being present, there is a decline in the abundance of this species as a result of the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span> (K. Arbaciauskas pers. comm. 2010). </p><p>Macedonia: This species is known from the Vardar drainage system as well as from the Ohrid Lake - Drin drainage system (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). Within Lake Ohrid this species is showing a steep decline in population numbers possibly as a result of pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). <em>Austropotamobius torrentium</em> is already thought to have gone extinct in a tributary of Lake Ohrid (Koselska Brook) below Reica as a result of pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>  <p>Moldova: There is no available data on the current population trends for this species within Moldova.</p>  <p>Montenegro: It is the opinion of Y. Machino that <defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PostalCode"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="City"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceType"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceName"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype> <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus astacus </span>is native in the  Danubian drainage. Then on the  Mediterranean side, it is exotic, and&#160;people have introduced with success.</p>  <p></p>  <p>Netherlands: This species is indigenous to the Netherlands, however it is thought to be close to extinction. Surveys of this species presence/absence in rivers and brooks throughout the Netherlands, indicate a rapid decline with it being known from a single river in 2001 (Niewold 2002). Prior to 1920 it was known from 44 localities, 1921 - 1940 = 32 localities, 1941 - 1960 = 28 localities, 1961 - 1980 = 15 localities, 1981 - 2000 = 4 localities, and in 2001 = 1 locality (Niewold 2002). Over the last 22.5 years this equates to a decline of ~86%.</p>  <p>Norway: The Noble Crayfish, the only crayfish species in Norway, has undergone significant declines since the introduction of crayfish plague in the late 1970s to the Glomma, Halden, Veksa and Store Le watercourses (Taugbøl 2004). Since the late 1980s there have been reintroductions of crayfish adults and juveniles into both the Glomma and Halden watercourses. These subpopulations are developing at varying rates (site habitat characteristics are thought to be largely responsible) however population densities are still significantly below pre-plague densities (Taugbøl 2004). This species has also been reintroduced to the Veksa watercourse. This is believed to have been as a result of fishermen, however the population is much reduced compared to pre-plague densities (Taugbøl 2004). This is thought to be due to declining water quality conditions (Taugbøl 2004). This species is estimated to have undergone &#160;<strong style="font-weight: normal;">~61%</strong> decline over the last 22.5 years from a 40 tonnes yield in 1966, to 10 tonnes in 1999 (Skurdal <em>et al</em>. 1999).<span style="background-color: red;"></span>   However, in Lake Steinsfjorden in south east Norway, CPUE (individuals per trap night) data indicates a recent increase in abundance, though there is no recent data for the period 2000 to present (1979 - 1.1; 1980 - 1.1; 1981 - 0.8; 1982 - 0.8; 1983 - 1.3; 1984 - 1.4; 1985 - 1.3; 1985 - 1.3; 1986 - 1.3; 1987 - 0.7; 1988 - 0.6; 1989 - 0.5; 1990 - 0.7; 1991 - 0.8; 1992 - 0.6; 1993 - 0.9; 1994 - 0.7; 1995 - 0.6; 1996 - 0.5; 1997 - 0.6; 1998 - 0.9; 1999 - 1.0; 2000 - 1.0). This lake is the most important crayfish locality in Norway and accounts for approximately 25% of the annual harvest (Taugbøl and Eriksen 1991, Skurdal,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>G  årnas and   Taugbøl 2002).<strong><strong><a name="bcor1"></a></strong></strong></p><p>Poland: This species is widespread within Poland, but is in decline. Approximately 1 subpopulation is lost every two years (1998 - 98 subpopulations, 2008 - 89 subpopulations) as a result of the introduced species <em>Orconectes limosus</em> Spiny-cheek Crayfish. The range expansion of this introduced species is attributed to the growing tourism industry within Poland, and hence growing interest in angling. Anglers are said to be responsible for moving this species around as it is often taken for bait (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). Other possible reasons for these declines may also be due crayfish plague and pollution (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). Restocking of this species in former parts of its range is underway. New subpopulations are also still being discovered, although numbers are low. These subpopulations are thought two have always existed, but have only recently been discovered due to the expansion in survey area (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). The listing of Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book is thought to be suitable to the current situation (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). </p>  <p>Romania: This species is known from the Carpathian region and an area in the north east of Romania, however it is possible that it is in fact more widespread (L. Miron pers. comm. 2008). Moderate declines in this species have been observed in Romania (L. Miron pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p>Russian Federation: This species is widespread within Russia, although it is declining in areas of its range. This species is known from Vologda district, Novgorod district, Kaliningrad district, Pskov district and Leningrad district (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998). The population status is not known within Vologda district, however it is said to be found within most lakes and rivers. It is occasionally taken as by-catch by fishers, but is not sold in markets (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998). Kaliningrad is a small district within Russia with a very high population density. The waterbodies are said to be badly polluted (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998). This species is now absent from a large number of the water bodies in which it was previously found. The Pskov district is said to have a lot of suitable habitat for this species and produces an annual catch of 10,980 kg (Perminov 1995).</p>  <p>Serbia: This species was once found all over Serbia but now is only known from a few very restricted localities (Simic <em>et al</em>. 2008; Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>Slovenia: This species is native to Slovenia and is found in the Danube River basin, however subpopulations in the northeast of the country have been introduced (Budhina 1989). </p>  <p>Slovakia: This species is thought to be the most abundant crayfish throughout Slovakia (P. Manko pers. comm. 2008). It occurs within eastern and northern Slovakia. Subpopulations are thought to be currently stable (P. Manko pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p>Sweden: It is estimated that at the beginning of the 20th century, there were some 30,000 subpopulations of this species in Sweden alone (Bohman <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; However, by 1960, only 50% of these remained (Bohman <em>et al</em>. 2006).&#160; In 1994, just 1,724 subpopulations were recorded and numbers continued to decline to 1,597 subpopulations by 1997 and approximately 1,000 subpopulations in 2002 (Bohman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is estimated that the current rate of crayfish plague outbreaks has increased by 90% (L. Edsman pers. comm. 2008). Over the last 22.5 years there has been an estimated decline of <strong style="font-weight: normal;">~78%</strong> based on a decline from 1,724 known subpopulations in 1994, to 1,000 subpopulations in 2002 (Fiskeriverket and Naturvårdsverket 1998; Database of Crayfish Occurrences 2005). However, this country still has one of the largest capture fisheries (Souty-Grosset <em>et al.</em> 2006).   This species is now regarded as Critically Endangered in the new 2010 Red List of Swedish Species (It was Endangered in the red list from 2005). This is based on the heavy decline but also on the fact that the crayfish plague has increased 10 fold in the last few years and the disease has now spread to parts of the country that still had Noble Crayfish (the north and middle west parts of the country) and never had crayfish plague before. This is due to illegal introductions of the introduced plague carrying signal crayfish. The species is more or less gone from lakes and rivers in the south and middle east parts of the country where the best habitats are cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate wise and the best possibilities for good noble crayfish populations (Edsman and   Schröder 2009,   Gärdenfors 2010).  <defanghtml_span class="normal"><defanghtml_span style=""></defanghtml_span></defanghtml_span></p>  <p>Switzerland: Within Switzerland this species is considered to be in a state of decline largely due to <em>Aphanomyces astaci</em> and is considered to be 'threatened' or 'endangered' by the Swiss National Legislation on Fisheries (D. Hefti pers. comm. 2008, Füreder & Souty-Grosset 2005).&#160; </p>    <p></p>
2191		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">An outbreak of crayfish plague </span><em style="background-color: white;">Aphanomyces astaci</em><span style="background-color: white;"> carried by the Signal Crayfish </span><em style="background-color: white;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</em><span style="background-color: white;"> has had an impact upon all of Europe's </span><em style="background-color: white;">Astacus</em> species. Since the 1960s, the Signal Crayfish has been introduced into more than 20 countries in Europe (Kataria 2004, Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The Signal Crayfish grows faster, reaches sexual maturity earlier, is more aggressive, and has the ability to dominate the use of many important factors like food and refugia</span> (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)<span style="background-color: white;">. The Signal Crayfish have also been shown to have a relatively higher population growth time than the Noble Crayfish. Even in watercourses where the Signal Crayfish is free from plague, it seems likely that the Signal Crayfish will out compete the Noble Crayfish, in the long term (Kataria 2004). This species produces fewer young that the Signal Crayfish and so is quickly out-competed in terms of population numbers.</span> This species is also outcompeted by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span>.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The annual catch of this species has dropped to a fraction of what it was prior to the introduction of crayfish plague (Westman 2002; Bohman Nordwall and Edsman 2006). This species was extensively produced but the plague has caused a significant decline of more than 95% during a period of nearly 150 years (Skurdal and Taugbøl 2002). The range of this species remains compromised by the crayfish plague (Holdich and Pockl 2007).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Dredging of waterways in localised areas has further threatened this species as it leaves the water cloudy and disturbs the habitat</span> (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)<span style="background-color: white;">. Acid rain, also causing a decrease in water quality, is thought to be responsible for a decline in breeding success, as the egg cases of young crayfish are unable to form properly (Collins </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 1983). Low calcium concentrations may be a factor limiting the distribution and production of this species in soft-water lakes (Rukke 2002).</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/>    <p>In Sweden, this species is estimated to have undergone a decline of ~78% over the last 22.5 years based on a decline from 1,724 known subpopulations in 1994, to 1,000 subpopulations in 2002 (Fiskeriverket and Naturvårdsverket 1998; Database of Crayfish Occurrences 2005). In Finland, the rate of decline is currently at about 20% every 20 years, though it may be greater (M. Pursiainen pers. comm. 2010). In Norway, this species is estimated to have undergone &#160;~61% decline over the last 22.5 years from a 40 tonnes yield in 1966, to 10 tonnes in 1999 (Skurdal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). While there is no available quantifiable data on the trends in Denmark, the situation is likely to be similar. Rates of decline in other countries are similar to that of the Scandinavian countries: ~67% decline over 10 years in Belgium (Arrignon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999), ~56% decline in Germany over 22.5 years, ~95% decline over 22.5 years in Hungary, and ~86% decline in the Netherlands over 22.5 years. Notable declines are reported for most of the other countries, other than Belarus where numbers are said to be increasing; Croatia where numbers are stable but non-native species have recently been introduced so future declines are expected; &#160;Slovakia where numbers are thought to be stable. These figures indicate that this species is likely undergoing a rate of decline of around 50-80% over a 22.5 year period. However, there are a number of large-scale re-stocking programs for this species and in some areas of its range, numbers are stable so the true rate of decline is likely closer to 30-50% globally.<br/></p>  <br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/></span><br/><p><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>&#160;</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></p>
2193		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
2193		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
2193		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). <em>H. barbarae</em> is an egg snatcher (paedophage).
2193		population	eng	No information available.
2193		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
2194		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
2194		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
2194		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
2194		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.
2194		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
2195		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Kyoga and the adjoining Lake Nawampasa (all part of the greater Victoria system)
2196		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
2196		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
2196		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
2196		population	eng	No information available.
2196		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
2197		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
2197		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
2197		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone, occurring over sand and mud. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
2197		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 90% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95, and less than 1% for 2006/08.
2197		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
2199		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.
2199		habitat	eng	Found both close inshore and some distance out, over muddy and sandy bottoms in bays, and over clear sandy beaches.
2201		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Kanyaboli, a satellite lake of Lake Victoria.
2202		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Kyoga and the adjoining Lake Nawampasa.
2274		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
2274		distribution	eng	This southern African species ranges from southwestern Angola in the west, through northwestern and central Namibia, eastern Botswana, much of South Africa (throughout Gauteng and North West Province, western Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga, and throughout Free State; in the Northern Cape they occur in the northeast and southwards towards the Grahamstown district in Eastern Cape), western Zimbabwe, and perhaps occurring marginally in Lesotho (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
2274		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of semi-arid and subtemperate habitats. Animals have generally been recorded from scrub brush, western Karoo, grassland and suburban gardens (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
2274		population	eng	This is generally a common species.
2274		threats	eng	There are no major threats as a whole to this widespread and adaptable species.
2275		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species
2275		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Somalia, where it ranges throughout most of the country.
2275		habitat	eng	It is a savanna species, presumably also occurring in grasslands and similar open habitats.
2275		population	eng	Little is known about the population abundance of this species.
2275		threats	eng	Although the species is poorly known, there are not believed to be any major threats to the habitat of this species.
2276		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of  protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pico da Neblina National Park (2,298,154 ha)<br/>Maracá Ecological Station (103,995 ha) (Nunes <em>et al</em>. 1988))<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra da Mocidade National Park (373,130 ha) (in range)<br/>Niquiá Ecological Station (282,830 ha) (in range)<br/>Amazonas National Forest (1,573,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Roraima National Forest (2,664,685 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (possibly in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (possibly in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (Defler 2004)<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park  (9,000 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (possibly in range: Defler 2004; reported by interview Palanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1999)<br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (Defler 2004)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (Ahumada 1989, 1992)<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Podocarpus National Park (146,280 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Pozo 2001; Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,100 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (in range: Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) informed that it exists in low numbers in the Pacaya-Samiria basin. Neville <em>et al</em>. (1976) reported one sighting of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in the reserve.<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Serrania de la Neblina National Park (1,360,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Parima Tapirapecó National Park (3,420,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Duida-Marahuaca National Park (210,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Jauá-Sarisarinama National Park (330,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Yapacana National Park (320,000 ha) (in range).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
2276		distribution	eng	Ranges in north-eastern Peru, eastern Ecuador, lowland Colombia, east of the Cordillera Oriental, southern Venezuela, and north-western Brazil, west as far as the Rio Branco. The distribution of this species is not well known, and defies easy description. In Colombia, Defler (2003, 2004) informed that it has been recorded in the piedmont and Cordillera Oriental only as far north as the Río Upía drainage in the department of Boyacá. It occurs in the region of the Sierra de La Macarena, eastern Caquetá and the Coehmaní rapids in the south-east of the department of Caquetá. It is rare west of the Río Yarí. It has been seen on the upper Río Mesay, and recorded opposite the mouth of the Río Pirá-Paraná on the right bank of the Río Apaporis, and on the lower right bank of the Apaporis at a <em>salado </em>(clay-lick) site near the Estrella rapids (Defler 2003, 2004). According to Defler (2003, 2004), there is no evidence for its occurrence between the ríos Caquetá and Putumayo, except in the most westerly, upper reaches. <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> extends south along the piedmont into Ecuador, but is evidently absent south of the middle and lower Putumayo (Province of Sucumbíos) and is restricted to the south of Río Napo (de la Torre 2000; Tirira 2007). From there it occurs throughout the Ecuadorian Amazon into northern Peru. The distribution map of Aquino and Encarnación (1994a, p.120) shows the occurrence of <em>A. belzebuth</em> throughout northern Peru, between the Río Putumayo and Amazonas and along the left bank of the Río Ucayali, and including the basins of the ríos Napo, Tigre, Marañón, Pastaza, Pacaya and Samiria, south as far as the Río Cushabatay, a tributary pf the Río Ucayali (<em>Ateles chamek</em> replacing it south of the Cushabatay). The range in Peru extends right through the Putumayo/Napo interfluvium up to the Ecuadorian border, but it would seem ends near the mouth of the Río Aguarico, and not extending into Ecuador between these rivers (Tirira 2007). Its occurrence between the Rios Putumayo and Amazonas in Peru would indicate that it occurs in the Colombian trapezium, but there is no evidence that this is so (Defler 2003, 2004). In Brazil, it is believed to occur north of the Rio Solimões as far as the mouth of the Rio Japurá, east to the Rio Negro and west (right) bank of the Rio Branco. It is absent from the interfluvium of the Rios Solimões and Negro, east of the mouth of the Rio Japurá and south from opposite the mouth of the Rio Branco. <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> occurs throughout the region north of the Rio Negro and west of the Rio Branco in Brazil, extending into Venezuela north towards the Río Orinoco (limited by the llanos/forest interface) and in the east to the left bank of the Río Caura (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987). It would seem that there are no known localities which connect the Brazilian/Venezuelan populations with those of south-western Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru. The occurrence of this species between the Ríos Putumayo and Amazonas-Napo requires further field research. The species has been observed at altitudes up to 1,300 m on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976).
2276		habitat	eng	This species is dependent on high primary forest. Generally associated with <em>terra firma</em> clay soil forests.<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata, but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition, the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Izawa <em>et al.</em> (1979) reported on subgroup sizes of <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> in La Macarena, Colombia. Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Subgroups observed by Klein and Klein (1976) were most frequently of 1-4 individuals. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. Castellanos (1997) estimated a home range of 148 ha on the Río Tawadu in the Río Caura basin, Venezuela. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>Field studies of the behaviour and ecology of this species have been carried put by Klein and Klein (1975, 1976, 1977) and Ahumada (1989, 1992) in La Macarena, Colombia, Nunes (1988, 1996) in the Maracá Ecological Station, Brazil, and Pozo (2001, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c) in the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador. Castellanos (1995, 1997; Castellanos and Chanin 1996) studied the feeding ecology of <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> along the middle and lower reaches of the Río Tawadu, a tributary of the Río Nichare, a tributary of the Rio Caura.<br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1972; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.<br/><br/>Size<br/>H&B 46-50 cm; TL 74-81 cm.<br/>Adult male weight mean 8.3 kg (n=10), adult female weight mean 7.9 kg (Smith and Jungers 1997).<br/>Adult male weight 7.3-9.8 kg (mean 8.5 kg, n=12), adult female weight 5.8-10.4 kg (mean 8.1 kg, n=15) (Ford and Davis 1992).
2276		population	eng	Still common within protected areas. Klein and Klein (1976) estimated a population density of 15-18 individuals/km² in La Macarena, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> population densities in various species and study sites are discussed by McFarland Symington (1988), who concluded that the main factors involve the abundance and productivity of certain key plant resources.
2276		threats	eng	The major threat is heavy subsistence and market hunting for food (to the point of local extirpation). There is also some mining taking place within its range resulting in localized habitat loss. In south-eastern Colombia, habitat loss takes place due to clearance of forest for coca plantations, accompanied by fumigation of coca plantations in south-eastern Colombia that results in defoliation of contiguous forests.<br/><br/>In Peru, Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) indicated that it is extinct in large areas of its distributional range, and reported that "small remnant populations, subject to a strong hunting pressure, are known from the Río Alto Curaray, an affluent if the Río Napo" (p.40). <br/><br/>In Ecuador, Tirira (2007) recorded that it is rare near human settlements, it is hunted, and in demand for pets, but can be common in undisturbed forests where it is not molested. Defler <em>et al.</em> (2003; Defler 2003, 2004) consider it to be the most endangered of any of the Colombian Amazonian primates, its range being coincident with the most heavily colonized parts of the region.
2279		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of protected areas across its range, including:<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Arenal National Park (2,000 ha)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi azuerensis</em><br/><br/>Panama<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>La Tronosa Forest Reserve (13,040 ha) (in range)<br/>Estero Bahia de Muertos (in range)<br/>Estero Ríos Tabasara – Bubi (in range)<br/>Estero Río La Villa (in range)<br/>Peñon de la Honda (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Isla de Cañas (25,433 ha) (in range)<br/>El Montuoso Forest Reserve (10,375 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi frontatus</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Santa Rosa National Park (21,913 ha) (Freese 1976; Fedigan and Rose 1995; Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Rincón La Vieja National Park (14,083 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Palo Verde National Park (5,704 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Barra Honda National Park (2,295 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Guanacaste National Park (33,786 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve (14,258 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Lippold 1989; Matamoros and Seal 2001. Lippold reported that spider monkeys were extinct in the reserve)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi grisescens</em><br/><br/>Panama<br/>Canglón National Park (31,650 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi ornatus</em><br/><br/>Panama <br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (in range) <br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad International Park (in range)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (in range)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Baru National Park (14,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Altos de Campaña National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>La Fortuna Water Production Reserve (26,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7,090 ha) (in range)<br/>Estero Rio San Juan (in range)<br/>Cerre Cerrezuela – Rio Grande (in range)<br/>Cienega (Cenegón) del Mangle (1,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Palo Seco Protection Forest (244,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha)<br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Tortuguero National Park (18,946 ha) (Boza 1987; Matamoros<em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Poás National Park 5,317 ha) (in range)<br/>Braulio Carrillo National Park (44,898 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Irazú National Park (2,309 ha) (in range)<br/>Cahuita National Park (1,067 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad (Talamanca) International Park (193,929 ha) <br/>Chirripó National Park (50,150 ha) (in range)<br/>Manuel Antonio National Park (682 ha) (in range)<br/>Corcovado National Park (41,788 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>., 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Tenorio National Park (12,819 ha) (in range)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha) (in range<br/>La Selva Protection Zone (2,815 ha) (Fishkind and Sussman 1987; Campbell and Sussman 1994)<br/>El Zota Biological Field Station (1,000 ha) (Pruetz and LaDuke 2001)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus</em><br/><br/>Mexico <br/>Palenque National Park (1,771 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984)<br/>Volcán de San Martin Special Biosphere Reserve (1,500 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984)<br/>Sierra de Santa Marta Special Biosphere Reserve (20,000 ha) (Silva-López 1982)<br/>Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (Selva Lacandona) (331,200 ha) (Mexico, SEDUE 1989<br/>El Triunfo National Biosphere Reserve (119,595 ha)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis</em><br/><br/>Belize<br/>Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary (40,000 ha) (Horwich <em>et al.</em> 1993; Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996a,b)<br/>Upper Bladen (35,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/>Guatemala<br/>Rio Dulce National Park (9,610 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Tikal National Park (57,600 ha) (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 1976)<br/>Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve (236,300 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/><br/>Mexico<br/>Cañon del Sumidero National Park (21,789 ha) (Castilleja <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Tulum National Park (664 ha) (in range)<br/>Ria Celestun Special Biosphere Reserve (59,130 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Ria Lagartos Special Biosphere Reserve (47,840 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (723,185 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (except for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. g. frontatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. g. panamensis</span>, which are listed on Appendix I).
2279		distribution	eng	There are seven recognized subspecies:<br/><br/>The distribution of <em>Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi</em>is given by Kellogg and Goldman (1944) as the coastal region around San Juan del Norte or Martina Bay, southeastern Nicaragua; probably ranging across the lowlands to the vicinity of Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua on the Pacific coast. It possibly extends into northern Costa Rica, although the true distribution of this species is unknown. Specimens examined by Kellogg and Goldman (1944) were from Managua, Nicaragua.<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi azuerensis</em> is definitely known only from the western (Veraguas) side of the forested mountains of the Azuero peninsula in the vicinity of Ponuga, where it appears to be isolated. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) indicated that it may occur to the west along the Pacific coast to the Burica Peninsula, near the Panama-Costa Rica border. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) tentatively attributed a series of skulls 25 skulls from the collection of Adolph H. Schultz (no skins, but reported to have been light coloured) from Río La Vaca, near Puerto Armmuelles, Burica Peninsula to <em>A. g. azuerensis</em>. Baldwin and Baldwin (1976) found no evidence that spider monkeys ever occurred in the Province of Chiriquí. Konstant <em>et al</em>. (1985) reported that the Azuero Pensinula was widely deforested and that subspecies is likely to be surviving only in western parts.  <br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi frontatus</em> is believed to range through northwestern Costa Rica and extreme western and northern Nicaragua (Kellogg and Goldman 1944). Specimens from Nicaragua examined by Kellogg and Goldman (1944) were from the following localities: Lavala; Peña Blanca; Río Siquia; Río Yoya, a tributary of the Río Princapolca; Tuma and Uluce. Allen (1908, 1910) recorded <em>Ateles geoffroyi</em>from the east slope of the Nicaraguan highlands, Savala (800 ft), Tuma (1,000 ft), Peña Blanca (high point in low Atlantic coast forests, 1,500 ft) and Uluce (about 1,000 ft), and in the highlands of northern Nicaragua at Matagalpa (2,000 ft).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi grisescens</em> is a subspecies of doubtful validity. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) presumed that it occurred in the valley of the Río Tuyra and probably south-eastward through the Serranía del Sapo of extreme south-eastern Panama and the Cordillera de Baudó of north-western Colombia. Matamoros and Seal (2001) indicate its occurrence in the basin of the lower Río Tuira in Panama and the frontier zone with Colombia. Heltne and Kunkel (1975) indicated Cerro Pirre or Río Tucutí as marking the limits of its range with <em>A. f. rufiventris </em>to the north. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) indicated that <em>grisescens</em> occurs in Colombia: “…[it] is known only from the vicinity of Juradó very near the Panamanian border on the Pacific coast. It is undoubtedly restricted by the Baudó Mountains to a narrow coastal strip that may extend as far south as Cabo Corrientes.” (p.66). Defler <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded that there is no recent information regarding its presence or otherwise along the Panamanian border, but that colonists near the northern parts of the Serranía de Baudó region talk of two “types” of <em>Ateles</em>, one in the lowlands (definitely <em>A. fusciceps</em>) and another form above 500–600 m altitude (J. V. Rodríguez-M. unpubl.), the only real suggestion that this taxon might actually be present in Colombia. <em>A. fusciceps</em> in the central part of the Sierra de Baudó would indicate that the occurrence of <em>grisescens</em> therefore would be limited to the portion immediately abutting Panama, and not the entire mountain range (Defler <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi ornatus</em> is found in forested regions of Panama, east of the Canal Zone (Cordillera San Blas), and west through Chiriquí to central western Costa Rica. Heltne and Kunkel (1975) give the following localities as marking the eastern limit of its range: San Juan, Cerro Brujo, Cerro Azul and Río Pequeñi—all on or within the boundary line of the Madden Lake watershed, and nowhere more than 30 miles east of the Panama Canal. The Río Bayano basin just to the east is occupied by <em>A. fusciceps rufiventris</em> (see Handley 1966; Heltne and Kunkel 1975). This is the spider monkey of the Osa Peninsula, Corcovado National Park and Carara Biological Reserve in Costa Rica (Matamoros and Seal 2001). The population on the Island of Barro Colorado is introduced (Carpenter 1935; J. F. Eisenberg pers. comm. in Konstant <em>et al</em>. 1985). Crockett <em>et al</em>. (1997; see also Cody 1994; Querol <em>et al</em>. 1996) observed spider monkeys in the Refugio Bartola / Reserva Indio-Maíz (300,000 ha), along the Río Bartola, north of the Río San Juan along the frontier with Costa Rica. They were unable to identify the subspecies but said that, unlike <em>A. g. geoffroyi</em>, they were “distinctly reddish on the back and on the top of the tail; the ends of the limbs were dark” (p.73). <br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus</em> occurs in the forests of Veracruz and eastern San Luis Potosí and south-eastward through Tabasco, across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca, including the highlands of Guatemala (thought by Kellogg and Goldman [1944] to have been occupied by <em>A. g. pan</em>, here considered a synonym) through El Salvador and Honduras, including the north coast to the lowlands of the Mosquitia in the Department of Gracias a Dios.<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis</em> occurs in the forests of the Yucatán peninsula, north-eastern Guatemala, and adjoining parts of Belize, intergrading to the south in Mexico (Campeche) and Guatemela with <em>vellerosus</em>.  Parra Lara and Jorgenson (1998) reported on a survey of 36 localities in the state of Quintana Roo. They confirmed the presence of spider monkeys in 11 of them, and received reports of their occurrence in a further 19, extending from the Ejido Tres Garantias in the south to locations way in the north, near Cancún, at Cenote Notnozot. Ramos-Fernández and Ayala-Orozco (2003) have studied the population size and habitat use of <em>A. g. yucatanensis</em> around the Punta Laguna, Quintana Roo.
2279		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary lowland rain forest, evergreen and semideciduous, and will enter deciduous forest (Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica: Freese 1976; Ortiz-Martínez and Rico-Gray 2007)<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group sizes of <em>A. geoffroyi</em> can range from 16-24 (Di Fiore and Campbell 2007). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>Freese (1976) recorded high numbers of infants in the dry season (December-May) in the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976).  They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976; see also Milton 1981; Chapman and Chapman 1990). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male weight 7.42-9.00 kg (mean 8.26 kg, n=56), adult female weight 6.0-9.4 kg (mean 7.7 kg, n = >100) (Ford and Davis 1992).
2279		population	eng	<em>Ateles geoffroyi azuerensis</em><br/>A total of 112 - 116 individuals has been estimated for this subspecies (Mendez-Carvajal, Ruiz-Bernard, Franco and Silva, in prep.).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis</em><br/>Cant (1978) estimated 24.5 individuals/km² at Tikal, Guatemala. Coelho <em>et al.</em> (1976) estimated a higher density of 45 individuals/km². Populaions of this species can be very high in well prtoected areas: Ramos-Fernández and Ayala-Orozco, 2003) recorded 89.5 individuals/km² in what they refer to as "relatively undisturbed semi-evergreen medium forest [as opposed to successional forest] with trees up to 20 m in height" at Punta Laguna, Quintana Roo.  The estimated a toital population of 648 individuals in the 7.7-km² Punta Laguna Sanctuary. <br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi frontatus</em><br/>A rough estimate of the population the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, given by Freese (1976) was 110-160  individuals (6-9 individuals/km²).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi grisescens</em><br/>This subspecies likely does not exist. The two subspecies descriptions do not match, it has never been observed in the wild, and there is only one poor account from a zoo (A. L. Morales pers. comm, 2004).
2279		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, with several subspecies having been subject to very high rates of loss (see, for example, Cuarón 1997; Sánchez-Azofeifa <em>et al</em>. 2001; Velázquez and Estrada 2002). However, there remain several large areas of relatively continuous habitat in the Selva Maya (Mexico, Guatemala and Belize), in the Atlantic zone of Nicaragua and Honduras, and along the Atlantic coast and the Darien in Panama. The species is also subject to exploitation in pet trafficking in some areas and is hunted in some regions.
2282		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of national forests in Brazil, including Tapajós National Forest (545,000 ha), Xingu National Forest (252,790 ha), Alatmira National Forest (689,012 ha), Itaituba I National Forest (220,034 ha), and Itaituba II National Forest (440,500 ha). More strictly protected areas are needed for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>Surveys are currently ongoing throughout the range of the species (Ravetta 2005; A. L. Ravetta pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
2282		distribution	eng	<em>Ateles marginatus</em> is endemic to the Brazilian Amazon, occurring between the Rio Tapajós (right bank) and its tributary, the Rio Teles Pires (right bank) and the Rio Xingu (left bank), south of the Rio Amazonas (Kellogg and Goldman 1944; Ravetta 2005). This is the least known of the Amazonian spider monkeys.
2282		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.   <br/><br/>Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.
2282		population	eng	There are no published population densities available.
2282		threats	eng	Although it occurs south as far as the north of the state of Mato Grosso, its range is relatively small, cut by major highways such as the Transamazon and the Cuiabá-Santarém, and in many parts subject to active and widespread deforestation (especially in the south), and, as in all spider monkeys, <em>A. marginatus</em> is particularly susceptible to hunting. Accelerated expansion of the agricultural frontier in northern Mato Grosso, with the ongoing establishment of enormous areas of soy bean plantations accompanying the paving of the Cuiabá-Santarém highway are additional and major threats.
2283		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in its range, some of them very large.<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Anavilhanas Ecological Station (343,897 ha)<br/>Jari Ecolopical Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/>Nhamundá State Park (28,370 ha)<br/>Monte Alegre State Park (5,800 ha)<br/>Rio Negro Setor Sul State Park (257,422 ha)<br/>Maicuru State Biological Reserve (1,509,300 ha)<br/>Grão Pará State Ecological Station (4,250,000 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000 ha) (Kessler 1998; Zhang and Wang 1995a)<br/>Kaw Reserved Area (76,800 ha) <br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaietur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (possible; Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (present: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; rare: Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
2283		distribution	eng	<em>Ateles pansicus</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazon, east of the Rios Negro and Branco. In Guyana, it is known from the far south and from the east of the River Essequibo (Sussmann and Phillips-Conroy 1995), and east from there through Suriname and French Guiana, excluding the lowland coastal plains, but throughout adequate habitat and into the states of Amapá, Pará (north of the Rio Amazonas), and Amazonas, Brazil. Its occurrence in Venezuela and west of the Essequibo, as proposed by Linares (1998), is doubtful.
2283		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary high forest, and seldom found in edge or degraded forest. In Suriname, <em>A. paniscus</em> is almost entirely restricted to high forests in the interior, and, like <em>Chiropotes</em> and <em>Cebus olivaceus</em>, it enters the old coastal plain only in the western part of the country. Although Sanderson (1949) mentioned that <em>Ateles</em> is met with "over certain good areas along a belt 8-15 miles from the coast", this is evidently not the case today. In Guyana, it is also restricted in its habitat, occurring mainly in high forest (Muckenhirn <em>et al</em>. 1975; Sussman and Phillips-Conroy 1995). In Suriname, it rarely enters river edge forest, but Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) made several observations of <em>A. paniscus</em> while surveying by canoe along the Berbice River. Van Roosmalen (1980, 1985) argued that this may due to differences in hunting pressure between the areas. To what degree <em>A. paniscus</em> extends to the coastal region of French Guiana is unknown. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) listed three localities for French Guiana: the Camopi River, and two on the coast, Cayenne and the Lunier River. Due to forest destruction and development, the high forest preference of the species, and its susceptibility to hunting, it is reasonable to suppose that if it occurred there in the past it is rare or absent today through large parts at least of the coastal forests. In Brazil, it occurs in lowland, submontane and montane (Serra da Pacaraima) forest.<br/><br/><em>Ateles paniscus</em> is very much a canopy species. Nearly three-quarters of all first sightings of <em>A. paniscus</em> during a three-year field study carried out by Marc van Roosmalen (1980, 1985) in the Voltzberg-Raleighvallen Nature Reserve were of animals in the emergent trees (above 30 m) or upper part of the canopy (25-30 m). They also enter the middle and lower parts of the canopy, but were very rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours (Fleagle and Mittermeier 1980). <em>Ateles paniscus</em>, like all spider monkeys, is highly frugivorous and feeds largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly (77% of its feeding time) in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (van Roosmalen 1980, 1985; Zhang and Wang 1995a). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. Guillotin <em>et al.</em> (1993) and Simmen and Sabatier (1996) obtained a similar picture for <em>A. paniscus</em> in French Guiana. The pulp of ripe fruits accounted for 85% of their diet. They also recorded the occasional consumption of fungi and mature seeds. Many even quite large fruits are swallowed whole. Swallowing the entire fruit is characteristic of nearly 40% of the fruit species they eat, and in a further 45% of the fruits they bite off the outer layer and swallow the aril or mesocarp along with the seed or seeds.<br/><br/>Due to their specialization on ripe fruits, and the fact that they tend to swallow whole fruits and intact seeds, <em>Ateles</em> are very important seed dispersers for many trees and lianes. Van Roosmalen (1980, 1985; van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus</em> was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory).  In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groupings of varying size and composition, the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. In Guyana, Muckenhirn <em>et al</em>. (1975) reported an average sub-group size of 2.4 individuals. In Suriname, Van Roosmalen’s (1980, 1985) study group consisted of 18 animals (three adult males, eight adult females, one subadult female, four juveniles and two infants), but the largest subgroup he observed was of nine individuals.<br/><br/>Only van Roosmalen’s (1980, 1985) study has provided an estimate of the home range size for <em>A. paniscus</em>.  His study group covered approximately 255 ha (220 ha with suitable habitat), most of it in high forest and a small portion in high mountain savanna forest. He believes that they maintain discrete, non-overlapping ranges with clearly-defined borders defended by the males, although only a single intergroup encounter was observed at one of these borders. Home range sizes may be bigger in other areas, depending on the distribution and year-round availability of food sources. Within their ranges, subgroups may travel distances from 500 to 5,000 m a day, depending on subgroup size and composition, weather, season, and the distribution of their current food sources (van Roosmalen 1980, 1985). During the dry season, they tend to travel less, especially when leaves have become a more significant component of their diet. Their day typically has two resting periods, one between 08h00 and 10h00 hours, and the other between 12h00 and 14h30. They spend more time resting during the dry season when fruit is scarce. Feeding activity is highest for the first two hours of the morning, and likewise the last two hours before entering their sleeping trees. Van Roosmalen (1980, 1985) recorded 43 different sleeping trees over the three years of his study, but just a few of them were frequently used. They are always tall, emergent trees, well free of the canopy, with a broad, open crown, either small-leaved, leafless or in leaf flush, horizontally branched, and located strategically near the next days feeding site, or better still are the next days feeding site.<br/><br/><em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees. <br/><br/>Although Husson (1957) mentions seeing young animals throughout the year, <em>Ateles</em> have a clearly defined birth season in Suriname. Newborn infants are seen only in November, December and January, indicating that they are born at the end of the long dry season and during the short wet season. However, the few data available from other areas indicate the a lack of a breeding season. Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em> were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1972; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). However, for <em>A. paniscus</em>, van Roosmalen (1980) estimated an interbirth interval of 46-50 months for females successfully rearing their young. They show lactational anoestrus for about three years. When in oestrus, females tend to manipulate, inspect and rub their clitoris. Sexual receptivity lasts 8-10 days, with an interestrus of 15-17 days (van Roosmalen 1980). Copulation is generally preceded by much place sniffing and urine licking on the part of the male, who consorts the female during her oestrus, although van Roosmalen (1980) observed that receptive females appeared to choose their mate. It is the receptive female which initiates sexual activity by rushing towards a male and sitting in his lap. If he does not respond she leaves and then returns to repeat the action some minutes later. Behaviour prior to copulation resembles play, involving head-shaking, heavy panting, and even growling and wrestling. Copulation takes place with both monkeys sitting, the male behind the female, grasping the female around her chest and with his legs over and between the females thighs (van Roosmalen 1980). The female copulates three or four times a day during oestrus.<br/><br/>When two individuals meet after a period of separation, they may show a ritualized form of greeting behaviour that includes embracing and pectoral (chest) sniffing (<em>Ateles</em> have olfactory skin glands in this region, but in the wild at least they have never been observed to rub them on branches as has been seen for <em>A. belzebuth</em> for example). Each put their arms around each other and their nose to the others chest which they may lick or sniff. In <em>A. paniscus</em> this may be accompanied by grunting vocalizations, and the embrace is usually initiated by the lower ranking animal of the two (van Roosmalen 1980). It is often followed by genital sniffing. Klein (1971) suggested that the hypertrophied clitoris is for depositing drops of urine as scent marks, and rubbing of the anogenital region also undoubtedly serves in olfactory communication. Communicative tactile signals include also grooming, and wrapping the tail and limbs around other individuals, which often follows embraces. Other behaviours shown in varying contexts, many of them aggressive or agonistic, include head-shaking, chest-scratching, pilo-erection, hopping and bounding, vigorous arm swaying, and branch shaking and dropping, and, when highly aroused, defecation. In agonistic displays the tail may be held up and curled at the tip. Detailed studies of their behaviours and their possible social meanings are described in Eisenberg (1976: see also van Roosmalen and Klein 1988).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Three males in the British Museum had a mean H&B length of 545 mm (range: 515-580) and a mean TL of 807 mm (range: 720-852); 10 females had a mean H&B length of 540 mm (range: 490-620) and a mean TL of 814 mm (range: 640-930) (Napier 1976). Four females cited in Kellogg and Goldman (1944) had the following measurements: H&B length: 460, 418, 570 and 660; TL 870, 920, 880 and 753. Male <em>A. paniscus</em> are more robust and larger than females. There has been some controversy concerning the possibility that the reverse is true (Ford and Davis 1992; Peres 1994), but a review by Smith (1996) specifically examining this problem points out this supposition was based on statistical error. Body mass for <em>A. paniscus </em> is estimated at 9.11 kg for males and 8.44 kg for females (Mittermeier 1977; Ayres 1986; Smith 1996).
2283		population	eng	In the Voltzberg Study Area, spider monkeys were found to occur at a density of approximately 8.2 individuals/km² (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981). At Nourague, French Guiana, Guillotin <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated a density of 14.0 individuals/km², with a biomass of 132.3 kg/km², the second highest in the primate community after the howling monkeys (144.6 kg/km²). Kessler (1998) estimated a slightly lower density in Nouragues: 7-10 individuals/km². Figures from other areas are usually in the same range. Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) estimated lower densities of 2.4-6.2/km² for three areas in Guyana. Factors determining different <em>Ateles</em> population densities in various species and study sites are discussed by McFarland Symington (1988), who concluded that the main factors involve the abundance and productivity of certain key plant resources. Hunting  is a major factor affecting primate population densities in French Guiana (Roussilhon 1988).
2283		threats	eng	Spider monkeys are heavily hunted because of their large size, and along with their highly eclectic diet, their need for an enormous variety of fruiting trees, and the fact that they breed rather slowly (a female has one offspring about every three to four years), this renders them the first of the primates to suffer from hunting pressure and logging and other forms of degradation of the tall forests where they live. Although habitat loss is not as severe in the more northerly part of the range of <em>A. paniscus</em>, hunting remains a threat across the range and is taking place even within protected areas.
2295		conservation	eng	In Chile this species is listed as "Rare" (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998).
2295		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Puerto Eden, Wellington Island, Chile (49° 10'S; 74° 28'W). Its altitudinal range is up to 50m asl.
2295		habitat	eng	Its habitat is Magellanic tundra, with a mosaic of small patches of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and bogs. Reproduction probably occurs in the bogs.
2295		population	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen collected more than 25 years ago.
2295		threats	eng	This species is probably not threatened because the habitat on Wellington Island is not under any significant threats.
2296		conservation	eng	The entire known population is in the reserve area of the Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is known from only a single location.
2296		distribution	eng	This species occurs only at the type locality (Laguna Verde on Cerro Challhuanco) and in neighbouring areas in Argentina. Its altitudinal range is between 1,300 and 1,550m asl.
2296		habitat	eng	This species can be found in permanent and temporary ponds and humid areas of caducifolius forest (<em>Nothofagus pumilio</em>); breeding takes place in permanent ponds. It is not known from modified habitats.
2296		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range. The minimum population size is estimated at around 1,000 individuals (Ubeda <em>et al.</em> 1999).
2296		threats	eng	Potential major threats include fires (both natural and human initiated) and increasing touristic activities.
2297		conservation	eng	The entire population of this species is included within the Somuncura Provincial Reserve; however, this Reserve requires better management, since it affords no real protection for the area. Further surveys are needed throughout the Somuncura Plateau area to better establish the population status of this species.
2297		distribution	eng	This species is known from five lagoons on the Somuncura Plateau, an isolated basaltic plateau in Río Negro Province, Argentinean Patagonia, at an altitude of 1,000-1,200m asl.
2297		habitat	eng	The species inhabits steppe tablelands that contain a number of temporary shallow lagoons scattered over the volcanic plateau. Breeding takes place in permanent pools. It is not present in modified habitats.
2297		population	eng	It is a rare species.
2297		threats	eng	It is threatened by eutrophication of its aquatic habitat, and the trampling of the shallow ponds by livestock (sheep and goats).
2298		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to obtain more information on the population status and range of this poorly known species.
2298		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Las Bayas Creek, 48km south of Pilcaniyeu, Río Negro Province, Argentina. It is believed to have a restricted range, but further surveys are needed to confirm this. It has been collected at an altitude of 900m asl.
2298		habitat	eng	The species’ habitat includes rocky ravines along creeks in the wasted volcanic landscape of the Pilcaniyeu steppe and tableland. The breeding habitat is not known.
2298		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
2298		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to this species. There is only some grazing of sheep in the area, though it is unclear what impact this might be having on the species.
2346		conservation	eng	The recommended conservation actions for this species are the protection of its habitat and of the known populations, accompanied with habitat and population monitoring.
2346		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iberia where it is distributed in the coastal mountains of Catalonia and the Valencian Community.
2346		habitat	eng	This is a light-avoiding (lucifugous) species. Shells have been collected in pine forests, rocky areas, ruderal areas and caves. This species may have an association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedera helix</span>, Bech (1990) suggesting that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. helix</span> widens the cracks on rocks with its roots, producing a suitable environment for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. quadrasi</span>. However, it may be that the association between <span style="font-style: italic;">H. helix</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A,quadrasi</span> corresponds to them sharing the same biogeographical topology and bioclimatic requirements, such as the presence of two characteristic dry periods and the calcareous substrate that retains water carried with winds from the Mediterranean sea.
2346		population	eng	It is difficult to find live specimens of this species due to its way of life. Since its description in the 1960s, living specimens have been known from&#160; three populations only.
2346		threats	eng	The potential threats to this species are fires, quarrying, encroachment of urban areas and the extension of roads.
2352		conservation	eng	No information.
2352		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Appropriate management and habitat protection is required for this species, especially for freshwater and brackish water populations.
2352		distribution	eng	Along coast of Mediterranean, Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Atlantic coast northward to Loire estuary (France). Isolated populations along costs of southern England and the Netherlands (some might actually be the marine A. mochon). Permanent freshwater resident populations in Guadalquivir and Tagus (now extirpated) drainages, Santo André lagoon (Portugal) and Lake Trichonis (Greece). Introduced in Aral Sea, Lake Trasimeno (Italy) and perhaps other lakes in Italy.
2352		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterranean Sea near-endemic species (including the Black Sea and Sea of Azov), but is also present in the eastern Atlantic in southern Portugal and northern Morocco, including Madeira and Mauritania. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is widespread. Its distribution includes: Spain, recorded in La Vega River (Clavero <em>et al.</em> 2006), Mar Menor (Andreu-Soler<em> et al.</em> 2003, Perez-Ruzafa <em>et al.</em> 2004) and the Balearic Islands (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1995); France (Rosecchi and Crivelli 1992; Focant <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000; Trabelsi <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2004; Persic <em>et al.</em> 2004; Mouillot <em>et al.</em>2007); Corsica and Tunisia (Trabelsi <em>et al.</em> 2002); Ligurian Sea (Congiu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005); Tyrrhenian sea (Congiu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Brando <em>et al.</em> 2004); Sicily (Stagnone di Marsala) (Vizzini and Mazzola 2002, 2005, 2006); Ionian Sea (Congiu <em>et al.</em> 2002); Adriatic Sea (Tutman <em>et al.</em> 2000; Bortoli <em>et al.</em> 2003; Libralato <em>et al.</em> 2004; Malavasi<em> et al. </em>2004; Burtalovic <em>et al.</em> 2004a,b; Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006); Aegean Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, Leonardos and Sinis 2000, Leonardos 2001, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Koutrakis et al. 2004, Koutrakis et al. 2005, Mogias and Kevrekidis 2005, Tarakan et al. 2006, Chrisafi et al. 2007, Gokce and Metin 2007); Lebanese waters (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005); Egyptian lagoons in the Sinai peninsula (Gon and Ben-Tuvia 1983). It is also in the Black Sea. Two subspecies are recognized in Russian waters: <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherina boyeri pontica</span> (Eichwald 1838) from the Black Sea and the sea of Azov and <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherina boyeri caspia</span> (Eichwald 1838) from the Caspian Sea (Reshetnikov <em>et al.</em> 1997).
2352		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, estuaries, coastal lakes and sea. Freshwater populations prefer still or slow-flowing waters. Pelagic in lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Usually lives 1-2 years, rarely up to four. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Freshwater populations spawn in April-June in Guadalquivir, in March-October in Lake Trichonis. Short spawning migrations into estuaries in some populations. Fractional spawner, larger individuals spawn for a longer period. Eggs with long hairy appendages attaching them to filamentous algae, deposited at 2-6 m depth. Larvae are pelagic but often form schools close to the shores. In lakes and estuaries, feeds mainly on small planktonic invertebrates, often on benthos in rivers.
2352		habitat	eng	This is an amphidromous, semipelagic, euryhaline species, which is frequently found in brackish waters and more sporadically in freshwater (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). There are some landlocked freshwater populations (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is a carnivorous species occurs in large schools and feeds on small crustaceans (Vizzini and Mazzola 2002, Burlatovic <em>et al.</em> 2004), worms, molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986, Chrisafi <em>et al.</em> 2007) and fish larvae (Gon and Ben-Tuvia 1983, Muus and Nielsen 1999). <br/><br/>Gon and Ben-Tuvia (1983) reported a study on this species that was conducted on the basis of specimens collected between 1973 and 1974 in the Bardawil lagoon, along the Mediterranean Sea coast of Sinai peninsula, caught with a small mesh experimental beach seine. The maximum length was 6.3 cm SL.<em> A. boyeri</em> was mature at 3.4 cm SL. Spawning occurred between March and September. This species feeds on amphipods and copepods but also on polychaetes, mysids, insects and fishes.<br/><br/>The maximum lengths were 94 mm (FL, fork length) in females and 87 mm (FL) in males. Age determination based on scale readings and validated by length frequency analysis shows that the population has a 3-year life cycle. Females were significantly longer than males in each of the age classes. Both sexes of the sand smelt grow allometrically (b = 3.113 males, b = 3.043 females) and attain approximately 56.2% of their maximum fork length in their immature first year, after which the annual growth rate drops quickly. The highest growth rate was observed from winter to spring (GL = 16.01 males 1+, GL = 11.25 males 2+, GL = 17.18 females 1+, GL = 9.62 females 2+). The condition cycles were similar for both sexes, with a minimum in June–July and two maximums in April and November (Andreu-Soler <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>According to Trabelsi <em>et al.</em> (2002), a discriminative canonical analysis of 87 biometric parameters in the marine and lagoon atherinids of the <em>A. boyeri</em> complex from Gulf of Lion, Corse and Tunisia helps define three distinct atherinid groups: marine punctuated, marine unpunctuated and lagoon atherinids (<em>Atherina lagunae</em> - see also Trabelsi <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>This species occurs from the surface to depths of at least 5 m (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
2352		population	eng	Common.
2352		population	eng	This is a very common species in the Mediterranean Sea. Catch statistics from the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea show a very large population reduction during the 1980s, from annual catches of 6-10,000 mt, stabilizing since then at around 600 mt per annum (Food and Agriculture Organization Fishstat).<br/><br/>According to Focant <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999), 222 specimens with length varied from 1.3 and 9.5 cm TL were captured during spring (breeding time) and fall in the Camargue lagoons.<br/><br/>Leonardos and Sinis (2000) mentioned that 4,269 specimens with length from 1.4-10.3 cm TL were collected in the Mesolongi and Etolikon lagoons (Aegean Sea) during the period from April 1989 to June 1990, using a beach seine having mesh size 2.5 mm, length of 15 m, height of 1.5 m at the edges and 2 m in the centre, which terminated in a sac with a diameter of 1.5 m and length of 3 m.<br/><br/>According to Leonardos (2001), 503 specimens were collected from the catches of commercial fishing boats from April 1992 to January 1993 in the Lake Trichonis (Greece).<br/><br/>Tutman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000) reported that 1,479 specimens were caught with a beach seine net (50 m length, 1-5 m depth) during July and August 1998 and February and March 1999 in the estuary of the Neretva River (east and central Adriatic coast).<br/><br/>According to Persic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004), 41 specimens with length varied from 4.0 and 10.0 cm TL, were collected in the Camargue lagoons. They were sampled with fixed fishing nets.<br/><br/>Clavero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) mentioned that 4,831 specimens were collected in the La Vega River in the south Spain using traps.<br/><br/>According to Andreu-Soler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) 1,936 specimens with maximum length of 9.4 cm (female) and 8.7 cm (male), were collected in the Mar Menor (Spain) from commercial catches taken between November 1997 and September 1998, using a fyke net (11mm mesh size, 100m length, called chirretera).<br/><br/>Koutrakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) reported that 1,056 specimens, with length varied from 1.3cm and 10.5cm, were collected in the Vistonis estuary system (Aegean Sea), from February 1989 to August 1990 with a bag seine net (mesh size 3mm knot to knot, 10 m length, 1.2 m height). Each haul covered an area of approximately 250 m<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>According to Burlatovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), 1,200 specimens, with length varied from 3.1 and 11.6 cm, were collected from February 2001 to February 2002 close to the dam at the mouth of the Mala Neretva River (south-east Adriatic coast of Croatia), using a small lift net (5 mm mesh size) locally used for the send smelt fishery.<br/><br/>Chrisafi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) mentioned that 240 specimens, with length varied from 3.5 and 11.2 cm were collected monthly by purse seine (mesh size 22 mm) from January to December 1997 from various Lake Trichonis locations (west Greece).<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 1,280 specimens with length varied from 2.5 and 15.7 cm TL, were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).<br/><br/>Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) reported that 950 specimens, with length varied from 1.1 and 11.5cm TL, were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (north-east Aegean Sea), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>According to Perez-Ruzafa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004), 536 fish larvae were collected in the Mar Menor (south Spain).<br/><br/>Tarkan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) mentioned that 457 specimens, with length varied from 3.9 and 12.9 cm were collected from six locations in the Marmara Region, Turkey using various type of fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets and electrofishing). Iznik and Sapanca lakes were sampled from October 2003 to August 2004 and from January 2002 to May 2003, respectively. Buyukcekmece, Omerli and Terkos dam lakes were sampled from May 1995 to October 1995 and in April 2004, and from January 2002 to August 2004 and from September 2000 to June 2002 respectively. Finally, Kucukcekmece, a shallow lagoon was sampled from November 1971 to October 1974 and from May 1981 to June 1981.<br/><br/>According to Gokce and Metin (2007), six specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.
2352		threats	eng	No major threats known.
2352		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. Tutman <em>et al.</em> (2000) report a remarkable percentage of specimens with spinal deformity (3.58%, whole number of catches 1,479). As a coastal species it may be vulnerable to various human impacts.<br/><br/>Freshwater and brackish water populations may be negatively impacted by a number of anthropogenic threats (development, water abstraction, drainage, pollution, etc.).
2353		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Comoe National Park in Côte d'Ivoire and National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea. There has been extensive research into harvest levels (see Jori <em>et al.</em> 1998), as well as an investigation into the feasibility of farming these animals in Gabon (Jori <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, the low reproductive rates in captivity pose a problem.
2353		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Guinea, Sierra Leone and The Gambia in West Africa eastwards in forested regions to Kenya. It has been recorded from sea level to the Cameroon Highlands. The species is also found on Bioko Island. A record from east of Lake Tanganyika (Kingdon 1974) is not shown in Swynnerton and Hayman (1951) or Kingdon 1997. It has been recorded up to 3,000 m asl.
2353		habitat	eng	It is found in rainforest and in forest along the edge waterways. It lives in holes in the roots of large trees, hollow logs, fallen branches, rock crevices, termite mounds and other similar places. It does not dig its own burrows. The species is a nocturnal, and solitary forager, although it dens communally in parties of two to six (sometimes more) animals.<br/>It has a gestation length of 100 to 110 days, with a single young born (though Haltenorth and Diller [1980] mention up to four), in two to three litters per year. This species has a longevity of 15 years.
2353		population	eng	This species is not uncommon, but it is nocturnal and is rarely seen.
2353		threats	eng	As with other African porcupines, this species can cause damage to crops and agricultural fields, favouring a number of cultivated roots and fruits, such as cassava, sweet potatoes, bananas and other fruits. It is subject to extensive exploitation for human consumption in much of its range (being a ground-dwelling, large-sized rodent, capable of producing up to 2 kg of meat), and in Gabon, Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo this is a favoured species in wild meat markets. (Jori <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Equatorial Guinea, a survey showed that the wild meat trade relied heavily on the Brush-tailed Porcupine and the Blue Duiker (<em>Cephalophus monticola</em>), with these two species accounting for more than one half of all carcasses brought to markets (Fa <em>et al</em>. 1995). Jori <em>et al</em>. (1998) report that the meat of this species is also often the most expensive meat in many African cities
2354		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, though not listed in CITES. It has been recorded from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is present in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia.
2354		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northeastern South Asia, through much of central and southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has been recorded in Assam, India and probably also occurs in Bangladesh. It has been recorded up to 750 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from Hainan Island, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Hubei, Hunnan and Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is widely recorded in Myanmar, Thailand (including the island of Tarutau), Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia (including the islands of Aor, Pemanggil and Tioman). It is recorded from Sumatra (Indonesia) by Woods and Kilpatrick (2005), but this requires verification.
2354		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species occurring in subtropical and tropical montane forests. It is found on the forest floor, often in areas with profuse undergrowth interspersed with cane and bamboo brakes and palms (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It constructs burrows, which may be occupied by up to three animals. Two litters of a single young are born after a gestation period of 100 to 110 days (Smith and Xie 2008).
2354		population	eng	This is a widespread species.
2354		threats	eng	In its limited South Asian range, it is threatened by habitat loss due to jhum (shifting) agriculture, small-scale logging, subsistence harvesting for food, and accidental mortality (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
2358		conservation	eng	Occurs in Toubkal National Park in Morocco and probably in other protected areas, too.
2358		distribution	eng	Endemic to the most western part of North Africa, in Western Sahara, Morocco and a small area of northwestern Algeria (Ksours Mountains). Ranges from the coastal zone up to 4,165 m mainly in the Middle and High Atlas south to Agadir, in the Anti Atlas and in the northern edge of the western Sahara, south to Sequiat el Hamra.  Introduced to Fuenteventura (Canary Islands) in 1965.
2358		habitat	eng	Inhabit stony regions and open habitats from mountain slopes to desert. Avoiding bare areas and forests, they are common in open country with scattered trees and bushes of Juniper (<em>Juniperus</em> spp.), Thuya (<em>Tetraclinis articulata</em>) and Argan (<em>Argania spinosa</em>). Shelter in burrows excavated under rocks or among stones in screes consolidated by vegetation. Also present in various agricultural habitats, favoured by stone walls where they can seek refuge. Even though they require permanent water in the south, they never enter irrigated fields. Diurnal, and social, with the most simple family unit composed of a single female with her young. Litter size: at least four. Capable of producing two litters per year.
2358		population	eng	Abundant in the lower slopes and valleys, they are still very common up to 2,000 m in the Grand Atlas; above this, densities decrease with increasing altitude. Densities also decrease dramatically in the eastern part of the range. Some local patches can be numerous in desert region. Population fluctuations are suspected to occur.
2358		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Widespread within its range, and uses poor agricultural habitats. On Fuenteventura (where they are introduced), they are regarded as a pest; it is forbidden to transport animals from one island to another as they prey on the endemic invertebrates, such as snails.
2395		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
2395		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano from south Peru (Arequipa Department) to extreme northeast Chile and west central Bolivia (3,450 to 4,770 m) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
2395		habitat	eng	It lives is open areas and is commonly found on boulder-strewn slopes with sparse vegetation, rock slides, and stone walls, as well as in Ctenomys burrows and viscacha colonies. It is also found in boggy areas. It is diurnal and has a varied diet. In Peru females have three to four embryos. In captivity females will produce three litters a year with three to five young per litter (Pearson, 1951; Pine <em>et al.</em>, 1979; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
2395		population	eng	It is a common species.
2395		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
2396		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
2396		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina, from about 38°S latitude to Straits of Magellan (Musser and Carleton 2005).
2396		habitat	eng	Shrubs in south Andes.
2396		population	eng	It is a common species.
2396		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
2397		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
2397		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the high Andes from central Peru (Ancash Department) to northwest Bolivia (La Paz Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It may occur further south in Bolivia than is currently known. It has an altitudinal range of 3,400 to 4,900 m.
2397		habitat	eng	It can be found in a variety of humid and dry montane habitats including grassland, shrubland and rocky areas. It can be found in traditionally grazed areas.
2397		population	eng	It is considered to be a common species.
2397		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
2398		conservation	eng	It is present in three protected areas in Peru and several highland protected areas in Bolivia. Its biology needs further study.
2398		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano from south Peru (Ayacucho Department), through west Bolivia (3,800 to 4,740 m) and adjacent Chile, to northwest Argentina (Jujuy and Salta Provinces) (Díaz and Barquez, 1999; Musser and Carleton, 2005). This species is found at high altitudes from 3,800 to 4,740 in Bolivia; and up to 4,000 to 5,500 in Peru.
2398		habitat	eng	It is an animal of open habitats, preferring areas with bunchgrass and rocks. It also is found in abandoned tuco-tuco burrows. It shelters under rocks or rock walls or in often caught together with other individuals of the same species.
2398		population	eng	It is a common species. There are seasonal fluctuations of this species population, especially between June and August.
2398		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
2420		conservation	eng	This species' only habitat falls within the Fitzgerald Biosphere Reserve (FBR), the largest of six sub-regions on the South Coast of Western Australia, and within that the Fitzgerald River National Park (WRC 2001).<br/><br/>It is listed as a Schedule 1 species under the Australian Wildlife Conservation Act 1950, which formally recognises its restricted distribution (last updated 13th March 2008) (EPA 2009). It is also listed as Endangered in Western Australia under State legislation (Fukuda and Ponder 2003).<br/><br/>It is recommended that each of the known populations are protected to ensure no further declines from external anthropogenic activities (e.g., development, agrictulture), and these sites are managed in such a way that where suitable habitat has declined over the past <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 25 years it is restored. It may be necessary to control introduced competitors and predators at Ellenbrook, which appear to be causing local declines. Ex-situ propagation and benign reintroductions are also recommended to counteract population declines.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine whether these are the only known populations of this species, or whether its range extends into other areas of suitable habitat not yet surveyed. Population trends at existing sites must continue to be monitored to assess the beneficial impact of site/habitat protection.
2420		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Australia, restricted to a few isolated localities between Cape Leeuwin and Cape Naturaliste. As a result, the species is found along a very narrow strip of coastline south of Perth (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011). Populations are known from five locations: the Cape Leeuwin swamp, Ellen Brook (two isolated sub-populations), Turner Brook, Deepdene Cliffs and Cosy Corner (Solem <em>et al. </em>1982, Ponder <em>et al. </em>1999). The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,000 km²<sup></sup>.
2420		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat specialist, relying on natural seepages from limestone or lime sands (Solem <em>et al.</em> 1982, Ponder <em>et al.</em> 1999).
2420		population	eng	Solem <em>et al.</em> (1982) considered this species "both rare and endangered". The largest known population occurs at the Cape Leeuwin Wetland System, adjacent to the waterwheel on Cape Leeuwin (Limbourn and Westera 2006).<br/><br/>The fossil record indicates that this species was once much more widespread (three of six known occurrences are fossils only). It is now restricted to just a few localities, each several square metres in area, where it is "relatively abundant" (Solem <em>et al. </em>1982). <br/><br/>Since the 1980s almost all populations have shown declines, particularly at Cape Leeuwin Swamp where suitable habitat has decreased, and at Ellen Brook where one population has almost disappeared with the introduction of several invasive snail species (S. Slack-Smith 2009 pers. comm.). A former locality at Gnoocardup was washed into the sea by strong wave action (S. Slack-Smith 2009 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A second isolated population at Ellen Brook appears to be stable, and a previously unknown population - although small in size - was recently discovered along the Leeuwin-Naturaliste coast (S. Slack-Smith 2009 pers. comm.)
2420		threats	eng	According to Solem <em>et al.</em> (1982) "each of the three known living populations is small and in danger of destruction from agricultural or other human activity". These threats include weed invasion, sedimentation, erosion, salinity and loss of riparian vegetation (WRC 2001).<br/><br/>The Turner Brook population was previously impacted by chemical spraying and fertiliser application in surrounding agricultural areas. Although the effect of such activities on this species was unknown, Solem <em>et al.</em> (1982) state that "they are highly unlikely to be beneficial, and probably are quite harmful".<br/><br/>Due to their reliance on rain-fed springs and limited aestivation ability, these snails are also severely impacted by recent and predicted reduced rainfall in southwestern Australia. This is already evident in the population at Cape Leeuwin Swamp, where suitable habitat has reduced in size due to lower rainfall and prior use of the spring as a water supply to the nearby town of Augusta (S. Slack-Smith 2009 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A former locality at Gnoocardup, halfway between Capes Leeuwin and Naturaliste, was located just two metres above intertidal boulders and was washed into the sea by strong wave action (S. Slack-Smith 2009 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Another population - at Ellen Brook - has declined with the introduction of several species of snails since redevelopment in the area. These include competitive herbivores and a predator species of <em>Oxychilus</em> (S. Slack-Smith 2009 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The above threats are compounded by the isolated nature of the known populations, as well as the snails' small size, both of which make it unlikely that a dwindling population in one locality will be 'rescued' by immigration and recruitment from neighbouring populations.
2424		conservation	eng	The species is currently being listed by NSW Fisheries.
2424		distribution	eng	Southern Sydney Basin, Australia. Only two subpopulations are known.
2424		habitat	eng	Streams.
2424		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
2424		threats	eng	River regulation, vegetation clearing, and urban expansion are the main threats.
2426		conservation	eng	No conservation measures specifically designed for the recovery of this species has been established. Plans are underway to do river rehabilitation for other species elsewhere in the Cederberg Mountains, and if successful it can be attempted for tributary streams where this species occurs.
2426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to three tributary streams of the Olifants branch of the Olifants River system that drains the Cederberg Mountains (Bills 1999). They have been recorded in recent times in the mainstream of the mainstream of the Olifants River, but unsustainable water extraction has caused these areas to dry up several times in the last few years, suggesting that this area is recolonized from the Heks population.
2426		habitat	eng	Prefers fast flowing, rocky habitats of headwater streams. They seem to be restricted to cobble zones of the lower gradient sections of tributary streams (Bills 1999).
2426		population	eng	Although the range of this species is reasonably well understood, information about population trends is lacking. There has probably been a loss of mainstream habitats in the last ten years, and the distribution range in the Noordhoeks tributary has fluctuated depending on where water extraction occurs. However, more accurate information is needed to study long-term trends.
2426		threats	eng	Alien invasive species has severely fragmented populations of this species in the past. Especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>, must have caused a major reduction in population size just after their introduction in the 1940's. Unsustainable water extraction is a major threat, especially the low gradient sections of tributary streams that this species seems to prefer. All the water of all four tributary streams is being used during summer months, with the result that this species only survives above extraction points. The effect of insecticides has not been quantified, but all the tributary streams has orchards before they reach the Olifants River (Bills 1999).
2427		conservation	eng	A river rehabilitation program plans to rehabilitate lower sections of the Rondegat and Krom Rivers that would significantly increase the size of those populations and hopefully secure them against re-invasion by alien fishes.
2427		distribution	eng	<em>A. gilli</em> is endemic to the Olifants River system in the Western Cape, South Africa. It occurs in tributaries of the Olifants (Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boontjies, Boskloof, Heks, Rondegat, Jan Dissels, Dwars) and Doring (Biedouw, Tra Tra, Eselbank, Matjies, Krom and Breekkrans) basins of the Olifants River system in the Cederberg Mountains and occurs in the mainstream Olifants River near the Heks tributary (Bills 1999).
2427		habitat	eng	Common in both lower and headwater sections of tributary streams. They prefer larger pools and deep water within tributary streams associated with cobble and boulder habitat. As juveniles they probably prefer cobble regions, but as they mature they are found in a wide variety of habitats preferring complex structure especially deep cobble and boulder areas (Bills 1999).
2427		population	eng	There are large populations (possibly more than 1,000 mature individuals)  in the Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boskloof, Heks (including the mainstream Olifants nearby), Rondegat, Jan Dissels, Dwars, Breekkrans and Krom tributaries and smaller populations (possibly less than 1,000 mature individuals) in the Boontjies, Biedouw, Tra Tra, Eselbank and Matjies tributaries (Bills 1999).
2427		threats	eng	The introduction of alien fishes, particularly <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>, has caused a major reduction in their range soon after their introduction in the 1940's. Since, then the decline due to alien fishes has become slower due to the inability of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> to move above some barriers in tributary streams. Unsustainable water extraction is a major threat that affects almost all the tributary streams and mainstream areas. The effect of insecticides has not been quantified, but could have an increasing impact in the future as more orchards are being established (Bills 1999).
2428		conservation	eng	Conservation of mainstream habitats through South Africa's river health programme needs to be developed further. Some reserves and parks exist that were primarily proclaimed for terrestrial fauna and flora or for scenery, and are therefore ineffective to secure populations of this species.
2428		distribution	eng	Occurs in the major tributaries and the mainstream of the Orange River system and it has been translocated through inter-basin transfer schemes to the Great Fish River system and the Olifants catchment of the Limpopo River system (Skelton 2001, Skelton and Cambray 1981, Cambray 1984, Laurenson and Hocutt 1984), and may also establish in other river systems that have been connected.
2428		habitat	eng	Prefers rocky habitat in mainstream areas of major rivers. Omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates especially from rock surfaces with larger specimens also feeding on small fish (Skelton 2001)
2428		population	eng	No estimate of population size is available. Despite reports of being caught by fisherman, they appear to occur in relatively lower numbers compared to other angling species.
2428		threats	eng	Sedimentation, particularly because of erosion in the upper Orange, Caledon and some Vaal catchments is a major threat to their rocky habitats. Dams and weirs probably affected the species negatively in the past, but the current influence is unsure. Pollution in Gauteng Province may have caused extinction in some small tributaries of the Vaal River
2430		conservation	eng	This species has been listed under the EU Habitats Directive Annex II and V and therefore requires the designation of special areas of conservation for its protection. It has also been listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Ireland, this species is protected by the European Union (Natural Habitats) Regulations 1997. Under this regulation, Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) are designated where there are good populations of this species. This applies to all European countries.<br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>Within the United Kingdom, a Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) has been developed for this species: this seeks to maintain the current distribution of the species through a combination of restricting the spread of non-native crayfish and crayfish plague, as well as providing suitable habitat features (UK Biodiversity Group 1995).   <span lang="EN-GB">Eradication      of non-native crayfish in large bodies of water and rivers is difficult,      if not impossible (Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999), although control may be achieved      through trapping. Some success has, however, been achieved in enclosed      waters in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Scotland</st1:place></st1:country-region>      using natural biocides (Peay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).   It is an offence under Schedule 9 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act to keep without licence or release five of the introduced species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus, Procambarus clarkii, Orconectes limosus, Astacus leptodactylus and Astacus astacus</span>) of crayfish into the wild, a sixth (<em>O. virilis</em>) has yet to be added to this act (Holdich and Sibley 2009).<span lang="EN-GB"> This species is also indirectly affected by the EU Water Framework Directive which seeks to achieve good ecological status of aquatic systems. There are a number of local community education programs that aim to inform local communities on identification of native and non-native species and the legal implications of removing these species from the wild.   It is also protected by the Wildlife Acts (since 1975) in Ireland. Non-native crayfish are prohibited by the Fisheries Acts within Ireland (J. Reynolds pers. comm. 2010).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/>This species has been reintroduced (using hatchery reared individuals) into a number of sites at which it was previously found (Rogers and Watson 2007). Methodological approaches for re-introductions have been recently reviewed by Souty-Grosset and Reynolds (2009).   The suitability of the target habitat, the stocking material and the stocking procedure itself are paramount during any reintroduction measure: apart from general water quality and structural parameters, a suitable habitat is ideally geographically isolated from other surface waters and human activities such as intensive fishing pressure and agricultural practices. Genetics of stocking material must be considered. However, it is first essential to make sure that the target habitat is free of crayfish plague. Analyses of experience gathered in various European countries indicate how difficult it is to get the best information as a basis for successful restocking and consequently the discussions recently conducted among European researchers and managers were aimed at achieving consensus and common strategies <span lang="EN-GB">(Souty-Grosset and Reynolds 2009).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>Within Switzerland this species is regulated by the National Swiss Fisheries Legislation and is deemed 'highly endangered'. There is a closed fishing season of 40 weeks per year and minimum harvest size limit of 9 cm (Hefti and Stucki 2006).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span><br/>Population monitoring within countries for which trend information is lacking, is needed. Further research within these countries, on the main drivers of decline is also required.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
2430		distribution	eng	<em>Austropotamobius pallipes</em> has a wide distribution throughout Europe. It was previously thought that the western limit of the species range was in Portugal (though it is now thought to be Extinct there), but is now northwestern Spain. Montenegro is the easterly limit, whilst Spain and Scotland are the southerly and northerly limits respectively. Its distribution is restricted in Austria, Corsica, Germany, Lichtenstein and Montenegro (Souty-Grosset <em>et al.</em> 2006).
2430		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species which can be found under submerged cobbles, rocks, logs, tree roots, and amongst fallen leaves in permanent water bodies such as canals, streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs and water-filled quarries (Holdich 2003).   Recently it has been found that <em>A. pallipes</em> can tolerate muddy habitats if tree roots or other woody habitats are available (Holdich<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). Vertical banks and overhanging vegetation have been highlighted as important features in determining crayfish abundance (Naura and Robinson 1998). It may also be found in large numbers in waters dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> sp. (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This species is intolerant to pollution and hydrological change. Waters containing<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species tend to be in the pH range 7-9, with calcium levels above 5 mg l<sup>-1</sup>. This species occurs in areas with relatively hard, mineral-rich waters on calcareous and rapidly weathering rocks. A study from Western France (Trouilhé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) found the site harbouring the largest <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes</span> population had a dissolved oxygen concentration as low as 4.93 mg/L, while water temperature rose above 20°C for several consecutive days during summer. Nitrate concentrations were always found to be above 30mg/L. Principal component analyses (PCA) suggested that an increase of organic matter was a discriminant factor for the presence or absence of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Trouilhé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><br/>It can live for more than 10 years, and usually reaches sexual maturity after three to four years. It will carry 20-160 eggs, but usually less than 100 (Holdich 2003).<br/><br/>Declines in this keystone species are said to negatively <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact both ecosystem structure and function  within freshwater environments through loss of: a) provisioning services – food  production from fisheries, recreational fishing, b) regulatory and support services  – trophic cascades, water purification, nutrient cycling, pr<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ary productivity, c) cultural value –  recreational fishing, education, heritage. Crayfish are also an <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant food source to a range of species including otters, salmonids, and birds  such as kingfishers (Kettunen and ten Brink 2006).
2430		population	eng	England, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy once held the greatest abundance of this species, however over the last 10-20 years this species has undergone significant declines in these countries and the greatest subpopulation is now found in Ireland which is still free from the Signal Crayfish. The status of this species has recently been reviewed by Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>: This species was recorded as present in Livno and in Boracko Lake in the Neretva drainage in 1895 and from Gacko (Herzegovina) and Ljuta (Croatia) in 1961 (Entz 1909, Karaman 1961). These drainage systems are part of the Adriatic drainage system.<br/>    <p>    </p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>: This species is reported from several localities including: Vransko Lake (Island of Cres), near the towns of vica and Gornjit Kosinj, Zrmanja, Krupa, Centina and Krka Rivers (Grube 1864, Bruina 1907). This species has been eliminated from the main stem of the River Nereta due to intensive draining and pollution (Gottstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). It has been described as native to Croatia in the rivers belonging to the Adriatic Sea drainage (I. Maguire and G. Klobu?ar pers. comm. 2009). Some populations on the south have disappeared (the Ljuta River, Vrljika  River) but due to the enthusiasm of local people, before it became extinct, some crayfish were transferred to surrounding tributaries. It has not been detected in the Krka and Zrmanja Rivers, but has been seen in some of the smaller tributaries. The main causes of disappearance are regulation of river banks and intensive agriculture (pollution) on the river banks (I. Maguire and G. Klobu?ar pers. comm. 2009).<br/>  <p>  </p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>: Groombridge (1993) reports this species within the country, however Machino says this report is a mistake (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">England</span>: There has been much debate over the origin of this species within England. This species is now considered indigenous within this country following the recent work of Holdich, Palmer and Sibley (2009) in which they found a number of records to suggest that this  species has been present for at least 500 years and was certainly widespread  and abundant prior to the introduction of signal crayfish and crayfish  plague (Thomas and Ingle 1971, Holdich and Reeve  1991). However, since the 1970s with the introduction of the Signal Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</span>), this species has been undergoing significant declines in its range (Sibley 2003, 2004). This species is suspected to have undergone a 95% decline within Hampshire since the 1970s (A. Hutchings pers. comm. 2009). Data collected by the Environment Agency on presence/absence in southwest England, indicates that this species has undergone a decline of 31% in 10 years (occurred in 87 Water Framework Directive subcatchments prior to 1975, but was only found in 26 of these by the end of 2008) (Sibley, Holdich and Lane 2009). Rates of decline for the South West region were determined by mapping presence/ absence in sub-catchment units, and provides greater resolution than that provided by mapping presence/ absence in 10 km² grid cells (P. Sibley pers. comm. 2009); however this estimate is likely to underestimate true decline as many once dense subpopulations are rapidly disappearing (P. Sibley pers. comm. 2009). A decline of greater than 95% is suspected for the Thames region (G. Scholey and A. Ellis pers. comm. 2009); it was once present in all the major Thames tributaries but now only eight of  the 55 sub-catchments (97.9% decline over a ten year period) have any records for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>since  2004 (J. Foster pers. comm. 2009). East and West Sussex are suspected to have undergone a 100% loss of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes</span>, although a few small populations still exist in Kent (J. Foster pers. comm. 2009).&#160; East Anglia has also undergone significant losses since the 1970s with a range contraction from 384 km of occupied river (between 1970 - 2000), to just 84 km post 2000 (M. Pugh pers. comm. 2009). The situation in Britain has recently been reviewed by Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) and Holdich and Sibley (2009).<br/></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: This species is widespread within France and is known to occur in the majority of departments (Laurent 1988, Vigneux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Changeux 1996). Attempts have been made to restock waterways which have been affected by the plague. The population numbers of this species are said to be declining significantly (Vigneux et al. 1993, Vigneux 1997, Changeux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). A survey from   Poitou-Charentes indicates a decline of 40% over the period 1997–2003 (52% decline since 1995) with a decline from 137 subpopulations in 1978, to 120 in 1988, to 81 in 1995, and to 45 populations in 2003 (Bramard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This situation is similar to what is happening across much of France: In Jura 60% of known subpopulations have disappeared since 1989 (~37% decline over a ten year period). Numerous subpopulations have disappeared in 14 departments, with declines are occurring in 26 of the 92 departments (C. Souty-Grosset pers. comm. 2009) </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: This species was first discovered in Germany in 1989 where it is restricted to the south-west of the country (Holdich 2002). The population numbers are declining (H. Schulz pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ireland</span>: O'Keeffe (1986) estimated a population density of approximately 37,000 adults in White Lake (32 ha). Matthews <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1993) estimated a population density of over one million adults in Lough Lene (430 ha); both these subpopulations have since disappeared. Reintroductions have taken place and have been successful within White Lake (Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), however the Lough Lene subpopulation has since disappeared. Crayfish plague is suspected to have caused these declines. Matthews and Reynolds (1995) estimated populations in Blessington Reservoir, Co. Wicklow, at 500 adults per 100 m of rocky shoreline, and O'Keeffe (1986) noted dense populations in Lisheen streams nearby; stream densities were up to 6.5 per m².   Outbreaks of the plague in the 1980s caused losses in two catchments. Since then, slow declines are suspected to be occurring in some parts of Ireland (J. Reynolds pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p>  <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>:   The species is native to Italy where it is the most widespread species, except for Sicily and Sardinia (Gherardi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus </span>in 1981 from Austria in the South Tyrol region of Italy, may have led to the disappearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>in that area (Füreder and Machino 1999a). A significant decline in the number of populations within Liguria, Piedmont, and Tuscany has also been observed (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Gherardi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002c), 12 populations were reported within South  Tyrol; in 2003 (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) only seven of these populations remained representing an annual change of 58%, or 99.5% over 10 years. South Tyrol is thought to be exhibiting some of the greatest declines in the abundance of this species.<br/> </p><p> </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span>: This species is both native and introduced within this country. In the Danubian  drainage it is said to be native (its presence needs to be  proved), but on the Mediterranean side it is thought to be introduced (Y.  Machino pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>: <span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius pallipes </span>is native to Slovenia. This species' subpopulations are low due to the impacts of the crayfish plague (Budhina 1989, B. Sket pers. comm. 2009)   </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>: The origin of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>is uncertain. Albrecht (1983) considers that it is not native to Spain, due to a reference stating that this species was absent in 1642. Grandjean <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001a) and   Trontelj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005)  found low genetic variability in the Spanish subpopulation, but with similarities to a subpopulation in Italy. Grandjean <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001a) suggest that this could be due to anthropogenic introductions. Alternatively, this could be due to a bottleneck during the Pleistocene, and current subpopulations have arisen from a single refugium. Spanish and Italian subpopulations could be descended from an extinct intermediate population in France. However, Gutiérrez-Yurrita <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1999) considers <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>to be indigenous to Spain. According to records, it was abundant in the 1960s, but had become scarce and restricted to northern Spain in the 1990s. Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000, 2001) state that less than 1,000 small subpopulations exist in northern and north-eastern Spain. To attempt to reinstate this species, some areas are being subject to restocking. Garcia-Arberas and Rallo (2000) state that this species is still located in areas of the Basque Country where it was thought to have gone extinct  </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>: This species is native to Switzerland, but is currently experiencing a strong recession (D. Hefti pers. comm. 2009). It is typically found in western regions and alpine valleys, although its presence in montane lakes is thought to be as a result of introductions (Holdich 2002). It is highly  sensitive to crayfish plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>). This species is considered as 'highly  endangered' (Stucki and Zaugg 2006).</p>
2430		threats	eng	This species is affected by a range of threats, however the most widespread threat is that of the invasive   alien crayfish species such as  Signal Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus lenisculus</span>)   and Red Swamp Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>) and Crayfish Plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci) </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Invasive crayfish are aggressive predators for food and habitat, and often prey upon the White-clawed Crayfish. This species is also threatened by <span style="font-style: italic;">Thelohania contejeani</span> or Porcelain Disease. It may be present in 10% of a population without apparent harm, but problems may occur if a higher prevalence is reached (Holdich 2003). <br/><br/>  Localised declines can occur as a result of alteration to the hydrological regime of rivers (damming, water abstraction, and channelisation), pollution from agriculture, domestic pollution, sedimentation, eutrophication, loss of in-stream cover such as tree roots and pebbles, droughts, changes in land-use activities (agriculture and urbanisation) and non-indigenous crayfish species (Red swamp Crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>, Spiny-cheek Crayfish <em>Orconectes limosus</em>, Virile Crayfish <em>Orconectes virilis</em>, Signal Crayfish <em>Pacifastacus lenisculus</em>, and Turkish Crayfish <em>Astacus leptodactylus</em>).<br/> <br/>Significant declines are occurring across much of this species range: approximately ~52% decline over 10 years in England, ~52% decline between 1995 and 2003 within France, and a 99.5% decline estimated for a ten year period in the South Tyrol region of Italy. These countries once held the greatest abundance of this species (Thomas and Ingle 1971, Holdich and Reeve 1991<span style="background-color: white;">)</span>. While information on the rate of decline is not available for all the countries in this species range, the situation is likely to be similar to that seen in England, France and Italy as the main threats (alien crayfish and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>) are present throughout much of this species range. The situation in Ireland is slightly less serious in that Signal Crayfish are not yet reported from here, however <span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci </span>is present and already driving slow declines. This species is estimated to have undergone a 50 - 80% decline over a 10 year period over its global range. Sibley (2002) has suggested that should the current trend in the decline of this species continue, it faces possible extinction in Britain within 30 years.<br/><br/>It is important to note that though this species may appear to be numerous in areas,<st1:personname w:st="on"></st1:personname> the degree of genetic variability may in fact be low. Low intra-population genetic variability has been observed in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region>,&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> (Gouin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> (Bertocchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; Diéguez-Uribeondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In some populations (e.g. in the&#160;basin of the River Sieve in&#160; <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>) the absence of heterozygotes and a high level of inbreeding has been observed (Bertocchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><em></em>
2431		conservation	eng	This species is listed under the Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive as a species requiring special conservation measures (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is also listed on the German Red List (RL3, Appendix 1), and within a number of other countries as threatened (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This species is also listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Rates of population decline are needed through long-term population monitoring.<br/><br/><em><br/></em>
2431		distribution	eng	This species is mainly confined to Central Europe where it is known from France and western Germany in the west of its range, to Turkey in the east of its range (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/>.
2431		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in headwater streams with plenty of riparian and instream cover, however it has occasionally been found in lowland rivers (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Female size at maturity has been observed at 4.61 cm (total length) (I. Maguire pers. comm. 2010. Recorded sizes for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. torrentium</span> ranged from 6 to 9 cm (females) and from 8 to 10.5 cm (males) (Laurent 1988).<br/><br/>          <p>The ovigerous females carried external eggs from early November until mid-June the following year (Maguire <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region>, stone crayfish females may incubate 40 to 70 eggs (LAURENT, 1988). The max<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>al number of eggs per female (in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) we found was 104 (an average value was 53.56) (Maguire<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002).</p>  <p>In populations studied in Austria, a maximum of 86 eggs per female was found, while in Croatian populations the number of eggs per female was max<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ally 117 (Maguire <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p><p>Declines in this keystone species are said to negatively <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact both ecosystem structure and function  within freshwater environments through loss of: a) provisioning services – food  production from fisheries, recreational fishing, b) regulatory and support services  – trophic cascades, water purification, nutrient cycling, pr<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ary productivity, c) cultural value –  recreational fishing, education, heritage. Crayfish are also an <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant food source to a range of species including otters, salmonids, and birds  such as kingfishers (Kettunen and ten Brink 2006).</p>
2431		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Albania:</span> There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Austria: The Signal Crayfish is driving rapid declines in the population numbers of this species (Holdich </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009).</span> This species is most abundant in Austria and Germany. In Austria, there are 534 localities which are said to account for 46% of all crayfish populations (Pöckl 1999). <br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Bosnia-Herzogovina: There have been mass mortalities of this species (Holdich </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Bulgaria: There are only a few small subpopulations of this species (Zaikov and Hubenova 2007). Nothing is known on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Croatia: </span>This species is thought to be reasonably well preserved in this country, however anthropogenic pressure on this species habitat is increasing and likely to be driving some declines in abundance. Some parts of the population have also been significantly impacted by drought which has caused 95% mortality in some streams (I. Maguire pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius  torrentium</span> is a native species and occurs in springs and streams at higher elevations. Even a co-existance of this species with <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus astacus</span> and with <span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius pallipes</span> is recorded (Meguire 2009).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Czech Republic: It is unclear whether this species is native or introduced to this country. It has been found at varying densities in streams, but in a study by Kozak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) they found it at a density of 12 individuals/ km<sup>2</sup> in Klabava Brook.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">France: This species is considered to be close to extinction within this country (Collas, Julien and Monnier 2007) <br/><br/>Germany: This species is undergoing a decline however there no trend information is available (H. Schulz pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Greece: This species can be found in 11 out of the 50 prefectures (Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2007). Compared to the other 2 crayfish species found in Greece, this species is believed to have undergone the greatest decline. However there is indication of recovery in some areas (Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Hungary: This species is threatened by organic pollution and the spread of non-native crayfish species which has resulted in a decline in the population numbers (P. Miklós pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Italy: </span>  The species is fragmented in its distribution. In the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Udine</st1:placename></st1:place>, 2 of the 3 populations recorded in 1995 have gone extinct in 2005 (Machino and Füreder 2005). There has been a strong decline in this species in Northern Italy (Füreder 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Macedonia: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Montenegro: </span>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius torrentium</span> is already thought to have gone extinct in a tributary of Lake Ohrid (Koselska Brook) below Rečica as a result of pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Romania: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Serbia: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Slovakia: This species is rare in this country, but population numbers are thought to be stable at present (P. Manko pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Slovenia: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Switzerland: This species is known from the eastern parts of Switzerland where it is known to be in severe decline. It is considered to be 'highly endangered' by the Swiss National Legislation on Fisheries (D. Hefti pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Turkey: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.</span></span></span>
2431		threats	eng	This species is most threatened by the presence of non-native species such as the Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>) and the Spiny-cheek Crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">(Orconectes limosus), </span>crayfish plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>), and habitat loss and degradation (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species is not tolerant of environmental change, so threats such as domestic and industrial pollution, agriculture, sedimentation, eutrophication, damming, water abstraction, and channelisation have all negatively impacted this species  (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species is reported to be undergoing significant population declines in most of the countries in which it is known from, however no quantitative data on the rate of decline is available.
2434		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported from five national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Zahamena, Marojejy, and Masoala), and two special reserves (Ambatovaky, Anjanaharibé-Sud) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The taxonomic status of the <em>Avahi</em> species in Ankarana and also in the Kalambatritra Special Reserve requires further investigation.
2434		distribution	eng	The range of this species is now somewhat unclear in the wake of recent genetic studies that have described several new species of <em>Avahi</em>. The species was formerly considered to range almost the entire length of Madagascar’s eastern rain forests from the Tolagnaro region in the extreme south to the Ankarana Massif in the extreme north, although the taxonomic status of the forms in Ankarana and Kalambatritra remained uncertain. However, Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> (2007) presented a distribution that shows the species ranging from Mantadia in the south to about Anjanharibe-Sud in the north.
2434		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical moist lowland and montane forests, as well as secondary forest formations. Population densities appear higher in secondary growth and disturbed habitats. During the day, they typically sleep in clumps of dense foliage, sometimes fairly close to the ground, where group members huddle together. Single births take place in August and September (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
2434		population	eng	Fairly common. At the Analamazaotra Special Reserve, estimates of densities reach 72-100 individuals/km² (Ganzhorn 1988).
2434		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Localized declines are no doubt taking place from habitat destruction due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture. Being nocturnal, it is less subject to hunting than many diurnal lemurs, but may be captured opportunistically at its daytime sleeping sites. In Makira and Mananara-Nord, the species is actively hunted by people with spears and slingshots. They are not commonly caught in snares as they don't eat bananas, which are usually used to bait traps, and because they are vertical clingers and leapers and don't venture onto horizontal surfaces.
2435		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species occurs in the Ankarafantsika National Park, and in Mariarano Classified Forest. Further research on population numbers and distribution is requireds. Consideration should be given to improving the protected areas status of Mariarano Classified Forest, which is already very well protected by the local people.
2435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. According to Thalmann and Geissmann (2000), the core distribution is to the north and east of the Betsiboka River as far as Bay of Narindra, and this is the species present in Ankarafantsika National Park. They consider that the isolated population much farther north in the Ankarana region also represents this species, but that in between <em>A. unicolor</em> inhabits both the Ampasindava Peninsula and the Sambirano region, including the Manongarivo Special Reserve. Also recorded from Mariarano Classified Forest (E. Louis pers. comm.).
2435		habitat	eng	It is found in dry deciduous forests, including secondary forest. They are specialized folivores, active at night, and living in family groups.
2435		population	eng	Locally found at high densities. Ganzhorn (1988) estimated population densities in Ankarafantsika at 67 individuals/km².
2435		threats	eng	The major threat is forest destruction due to annual burning that creates new cattle pasture. There may be some localized hunting, but this is probably not a major threat.
2436		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in France.
2436		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Avenionia brevis</span> is widespread in eastern France (Ain, Doub, Jura, Rhône, Côte d'Or Departments) (Prie, 2009, pers. comm).
2436		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs and probably in subterranean habitats.
2436		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species.
2436		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
2446		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Calauit Island Game Preserve and Wildlife Sanctuary (37.4 km²), which was established in 1976 to protect a collection of free-ranging African ungulates. Protection is inadequate and there are no management plans (Oliver, 1993). Several hundred local people were evicted at that time it was established, but many of these have since returned to settle illegally (Oliver and Villamor, 1993). Thirty animals were introduced to Calauit in 1977 to supplement a small relict population (Orig and Rosell, 1994).<br/><br/>The following conservation actions are recommended:<br/>1. Monitor current status on all the three islands and determine population trends. Evaluate levels of hunting and habitat loss.<br/>2. Strengthen existing protected area system via establishment of new (additional) reserves and development and implementation of properly structured conservation management plan for Calauit that includes improved infrastructure, and measures to combat poaching.<br/>3. Agree and establish a zoning system within Calauit in collaboration with all relevant stakeholders, which enforces strict protection of the core area.<br/>4. Establish protected areas on Culion and Busuanga, based on habitat and deer status surveys.<br/>5. Undertake behavioral and ecological research of Calauit deer to determine management requirements. Conduct<br/>more detailed studies in selected areas.<br/>6. Initiate a conservation education program using Calamian deer as a flagship species to promote a wide variety of related conservation activities, including combatting the bushmeat trade.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. There is a captive population of 54 individuals in the San Diego Zoo (as of March 2008).
2446		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Calamian Islands in the Palawan faunal region. The species occurs on three of the four larger islands in Calamians, i.e. Busuanga, Calauit and Culion, but is absent from Coron (Oliver, 1993; Oliver and Villamor, 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998; Grubb 2005). The species is also reported to have occurred on at least nine other smaller islands, including three islands where small numbers of individuals translocated from Calauit were released in the late 1980’s (Oliver and Villamor, 1993). However, it was reported to be extinct on at least 7 (78%) of these islands; (Bacbac, Capari, Panlaitan, Galoc, Apo, Alava and Dicabaito), and to survive on only two of these islands, namely Marily and Dimaquiat (Rico and Oliver, in prep.). It is not known from anywhere else in the region, including mainland Palawan, nor the larger and intervening of island of Linacapan.
2446		habitat	eng	The species occurs in grasslands, open woodlands and second-growth forest (Hoogstraal, 1951). It has a gestation length of approximately 180 days, with typically one young, and rarely twins. Age at sexual maturity is 8-12 months, with a life span of 12-20 years. This species is diurnal, browses on leaves, and lives in small herds (Wemmer, 1998). This species has a group size up to 27 individuals, but usually 7–14 (with much smaller groups reported in heavily hunted areas; Oliver and Villamor, 1992).
2446		population	eng	The species was reputedly common in all suitable localities throughout the main islands islands of Busuanga and Culion in the 1940s, but to have drastically declined in numbers on all parts of these islands, except in the extreme south of Culion, by the mid-1970s (Grimwood, 1976). A small population of deer surviving on Calauit Island at that time was supplemented by a further 30 translocated individuals in 1977 (J. Gapuz pers. comm.), following the creation of the ‘Calauit Island Game Preserve and Wildlife Sanctuary’ in 1976, and the eviction and resettlement of the islands former residents (Oliver, 1993; Oliver and Villamor, 1993). By April 1994, Calauit was reported to hold an estimated population of 1,123 ± 236 individuals (Orig and Rosell, 1994); though more recent estimates indicate significant reductions in the numbers of these animals numbers following resettlement of the island by former residents and resurgence of hunting pressure. A survey in 2006 (Rico and Oliver, in prep.) showed the species still to be widespread on Calauit, Busuanga and Culion. though densities remain low in many areas (W. Oliver pers. comm.). It was also found still to be present on the islands of Marily and Dimaquiat.
2446		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to hunting pressure and human settlement and agricultural expansion over its very limited range, coupled by the evident lack of effective and sustained enforcement of the strong local protective legislation (W. Oliver pers. comm. and unpubl.). Hunting was particularly severe during the mid-1970s (Grimwood, 1976), but seemingly declined in most areas during the 1980’ and 1990’s, except on Calauit where hunting pressure increased dramatically following the resettlement of the island by former residents under the auspices of the ‘Balik (Back to) Calauit Movement’. In 1986, 51 out of the 256 families evicted from the island ten years earlier had re-settled on the island, and by 1992 the settlers numbered nearly 500 people (Oliver, 1993; pers. comm.). Much of the hunting of the species is recreational, and also to provide venison to the local markets (W. Oliver pers. comm.). On Calauit, introduced African ungulate populations are increasing but are probably not competing with Calamian deer. A presidential proclamation that precluded removal or control of exotic species, and the movement or management of Calamian deer on Calauit Island was recently amended, thereby also potentially enabling the better future control of the exotic ungulate populations, though in fact many of these populations have also been seriously reduced by poaching. While relatively large parts of Busuanga and Culion Islands are still undeveloped and sparsely inhabited, there are no proper reserves on either.
2447		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (CITES 2000). It is protected from hunting not just on paper, but effectively in practice (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). It inhabits Bawean Island Nature Reserve (5,000 ha; the island is 200 km² in size), established in 1979 for which a management plan prepared in 1979 (WWF 1979; Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987) warrants revision. Management activities have included termination of hunting, controlled burning of grassy areas within forests, and thinning of teak plantations to encourage understory development (Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987). Since 2000 a captive breeding programme has been operative on Bawean; as of 2006 it involved two stags and five hinds, while about 300–350 animals are held in zoos and private captive breeding facilities off the island (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions, which should proceed through appropriate revisions to the management plan, include:<br/><br/>1) Increase the populations and if possible expand the area used by the deer. While the population seems to be stable, its small size and insular nature leave it susceptible to chance events (e.g. weather-related disasters or earthquakes or disease), to any resumption of hunting and probably to inbreeding. Increasing <em>Eupatorium</em> will result in time in population decrease. There is thus a major role for active management of habitat through control of <em>Eupatorium</em>, so as to increase population density within the protected area, and thus total population. This species, a problem plant throughout much of South and South-east Asia, is very difficult to control and review of international successes and failures is needed to inform management of the weed on Bawean. Full security would come only through an increase of the range on the island, requiring some deer-centred management for areas outside the protected area.<br/><br/>2) Assess the impact of deer on crops as this may have become a problem if effective protection has allowed the population to increase substantially, or the invasion of <em>Eupatorium</em> is pushing deer to eat more crops. If so, community-based mediation with local conservation officials may be required to find solutions and mitigate conflict.<br/><br/>3) Initiate a co-ordinated breeding programme to evaluate and if necessary address possible inbreeding deficiencies in the captive population.
2447		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bawean Island (= Pulau Bawean), in the Javan Sea off the northern coast of Java, Indonesia (Lachenmeier and Melisch 1996; Grubb 2005). Two main parts of the island are used, the central mountain range, and Mount Bulu in the south-west (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978, 1987). Tanjung Cina (= Cina Cape), an area of 950 m x 300 m, which has hilly topography in its centre and no resident human population, lies at the north-west of Bawean Island and is often cut off from the main island by a sea level of 20–150 m; it has been much used by Bawean Deer since at least the 1990s (Semiadi 2004).<br/><br/>Today’s restriction to Bawean is a relict from occurrence on Java, probably into the Holocene (van den Brink 1982), its disappearance from Java perhaps being caused by competition with Javan Rusa <em>Rusa timorensis</em> and Southern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus muntjak</em> (Meijaard and Groves 2004).<br/><br/>A specimen in the Institute of Zoology, Beijing, is labelled from Bangka Island, which lies off Sumatra (Indonesia); this is presumably in error (Grubb 2005). The species was supposedly discovered by Salomon Müller in 1836 in Tuban, a small town on the northern coast of Java, where the local governor kept a small herd in his garden, and the native range was discovered only after the name was proposed (Sitwell 1970). The species presumably evolved from a Pleistocene Javan <em>Axis</em> species (perhaps <em>Axis lydekkeri</em>) at a time when Bawean was connected to Java via a land bridge (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; Meijaard and Groves 2004). Suggestions that the genus was introduced to Bawean by early European settlers seem unlikely (Sitwell 1970) because of the wealth of fossil material (reviewed in Meijaard and Groves 2004), and were not ever referred to by Grubb (2005).
2447		habitat	eng	Bawean Deer is found in primary and secondary forest, reaching higher densities in the latter (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978; G. Semiadi and S. Pudyatmoko pers. comm. 2006). The species occurs up to 500 m asl (G. Semiadi and S. Pudyatmoko< pers. comm. 2006), typically in hill forests rather than the marshy grasslands where Hog Deer is most numerous (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987), despite the close taxonomic relationship of these two species. Bawean Deer uses forests with dense undergrowth for refuge while they rest during the day (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978). It enters croplands, feeding on corn and cassava leaves, as well as grasses among the crops (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; G. Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006). The species is found mainly in secondary forest, but enters burned grassy openings during the dry season (Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987). The most recent assessments are in Semiadi (2004).<br/><br/>Bawean Deer primarily grazes on herbs and grasses, but also browses young leaves and twigs (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). An individual deer produces 13 faecal pellet groups per day, a number which has been used to estimate population numbers (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978). The seasonal rut is in September and October, although males may be found in breeding condition (i.e. with hard antlers) throughout the year (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; Whitehead 1993). The gestation period is 225–230 days, after which a single fawn is born, very rarely twins (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; Whitehead 1993). Most births occur from February to June; they occasionally occur in other months (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). In captivity, breeding occurs year round with females maintaining an interbirth interval of 9 months (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978).<br/><br/>Bawean Deer are primarily nocturnal, active intermittently through the night. They are very wary, and appear to avoid contact with people; where human activity is heavy, the deer spend the day in forests on steep slopes that are inaccessible to teak loggers. Individuals are occasionally seen on the beach in the southwest of the island, but otherwise are rarely seen directly (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978, 1987). It is typically solitary, although duos made up of a doe and fawn or a buck following a doe sometimes occur (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978).
2447		population	eng	Bawean Deer was reported as 'plentiful' during the 19th century. The population increased in the 1950s in response to forest protection, declined during the 1960s–1970s (Grimwood 1976), although no estimates are available, and in the 1980s was thought to number around 300 animals and to be increasing once again (Blouch 1980; Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). Through a 1991 survey the deer was suspected to be in decline (Gunawan and Kustanto 1994) In 2006, the wild population was estimated (based on field-work in 1998–2003) to be stable at 250–300 animals (Semiadi 2004; G. Semiadi and S. Pudyatmoko pers. comm. 2006), but there has been no systematic survey; 500 would be an absolute maximum (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Secondary forest seems to be the ideal habitat, supporting up to 19.2 deer per km² (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978). Teak <em>Tectona grandis</em> forests with understorey, primary forest, and areas with teak and lalang support densities of 3.3 to 7.4 deer per km², while regions dominated by <em>Melastoma polyanthum</em> and <em>Eurya nitida</em> brush, Rombok <em>Merremia peltata</em>, disturbed primary forest, and teak without understorey support only 0.9-2.2 deer per km² (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). The most recent assessment is in Semiadi (2004), who drew attention to the wet-season densities of 11.8 animals per km² on Tanjung Cina (= Cina Cape).
2447		threats	eng	Bawean Deer has been subject to uncontrolled hunting, probably since human settlement took place some 500 years ago. During the 1960s much forest on Bawean was replaced by teak plantations; coupled with increased hunting pressure, this probably caused the species to decline in numbers. Hunting ceased in 1977, and the population increased during the next few years (Anonymous 1978; Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). The hunting of pigs <em>Sus scrofa</em> with dogs persists, and leads to inadvertent death of deer (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006), but at the population level hunting is no longer a threat (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Presently, fewer than five deer die per year through direct human influence, chiefly in traffic accidents and when being chased by local dogs during pig hunts (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Maturation of teak (including coppicing from cut stumps) and invasion by the American herb <em>Eupatorium odoratum</em> (= <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>; Compositae) constitute the only significant predictable threat to this deer, through reducing the grazing areas and this carrying capacity (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). For a population at best on the edge of the oft-quoted, though somewhat arbitrary, minimum figure for a population viable into the long term (500), such a further reduction (on top of the major contraction in available habitat for the species over past centuries) should be seen as a major threat despite recent population stability.
2461		conservation	eng	The babirusa was accorded full protection under Indonesian law in 1931 (Dammerman, 1950; Setyodirwiryo, 1959). The species has been included on Appendix I of CITES since 1982, although international trade in this species is not thought to be have been an important issue in recent times (Macdonald 1993).<br/><br/>There are two protected areas in the remaining Buru rainforest, Gunung Kelpat Muda (1380 km²) and Waeapo (50 km²), and one on Taliabu, Pulau Taliabu (700 km²) (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001).  Gunung Kelpat Muda, to the west-central part of the island. has the additional advantage of continuing to be an animal sanctuary according to local custom (Macdonald unpublished, 2008).
2461		distribution	eng	<em>>B. babyrussa</em> occurs on two of the Sula Islands (Mangole and Taliabu) and on Buru (Macdonald, 1993) in Indonesia. The species is reported to be extinct on Sulabesi (formerly Sanana) (Sol unpublished, 1986).
2461		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of the <em>B. babyrussa</em> specifically, but it is assumed that this is very similar than that of B. celebensis. Babirusa inhabit tropical rain forest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. In common with most of the other suids, babirusa are omnivorous and both wild and captive individuals consume a wide variety of leaf, root, fruit and animal matter (invertebrates and small vertebrates). At least on Sulawesi they visit volcanic salt licks and drink the water and ingest the soil (Clayton, 1996; Leus <em>et al</em>., 2002), so this might also be the case with <em>B. babyrussa</em>. Although detailed studies of their diet in the wild still need to be carried out, a review of the available information from the wild combined with studies on the stomachs and digestive abilities of captive animals suggest that from an anatomical/digestive point of view, they are most likely non-ruminant forestomach fermenting frugivores/concentrate selectors (Leus <em>et al</em>., 2004). Their jaws and teeth are reported to be strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. However, babirusa do not exhibit the rooting behaviour typical of other suids because of the absence of a rostral bone in the nose.  They will probe soft sand as well as wet, muddy places for food.<br/><br/>Specific data are lacking for <em>B. babyrussa</em>, but in northern Sulawesi groups or troops of up to 13 individuals of <em>B. celebensis</em> have been observed in rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas and salt licks (Patry <em>et al</em>., 1995; Clayton, 1996). Older adult males were often observed singly and most groups were composed of five or fewer animals, the majority of which were females with young animals.
2461		population	eng	The current population status of <em>B. babyrussa</em> is unknown. Although the forests in the northern portions of Buru have been degraded and cleared in the coastal lowlands, two large, contiguous, remaining forest blocks remain and current threats to the forest appear low (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001). Most of Taliabu, the largest of the Sula Islands, is still forested, but there has been large-scale logging in the lowlands. Mangole, the other Sula island with babirusa, has been heavily degraded (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001). Babirusa continue to be hunted for meat by local non-muslim village communities in some areas.
2461		threats	eng	Large-scale commercial logging operations have posed a major threat to this species (Smiet 1982). Current threats to the remaining Buru rainforests are low and the conservation outlook is relatively stable, but remains vulnerable - commercial logging and shifting cultivation are the primary threats (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001). Babirusa continue to be hunted for meat in some places by local non-Muslim village communities.
2465		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas.
2465		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Nayarit and central Veracruz, México, to northwestern Nicaragua, excluding the Yucatán Peninsula and Caribbean tropical lowlands (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species occurs from lowlands to 2,000 m (Reid 1997; Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
2465		habitat	eng	This mouse is found in tropical deciduous forest, dry shrublands and thickets,  grasslands and coastal dunes, pastureland, and in cultivated lands (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). It prefers dense grass and weedy fields. It is usually found in seasonally dry areas, often near rocks, fence rows, and along streams (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>It is active by day or in the early evening. The presence of this mouse is often indicated by tiny runways through grass and weeds, littered with piles of small, green droppings. Underground burrows are used in grassy areas; rocks provide shelter in more open, arid regions. In Chiapas, Mexico, the diet consist of about 50% insects, 25% seeds (including <em>Solanaceae</em>), and 25% green plant material (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984). A nest of finely chewed plant material was found under a large kapok (<em>Ceiba</em>) tree (Packard and Montgomery 1978). This species appears to be social and may nest communally. Breeding may occur year-round, and litter size is 1 to 4 young, averaging 2.9 (Packard 1960).
2465		population	eng	It is fairly common (Reid 1997). It can be abundant in pastures and cultivated areas (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
2465		threats	eng	None known.
2466		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
2466		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends northward from Michoacán, central Hidalgo, and central Veracruz, México in central Mexico in three prongs, with the central and eastern prongs reaching the southwestern United States. The western prong extents to southern Sonora (Mexico), the middle projection extends to southeastern Arizona and southwest New Mexico (USA) and the eastern projection extends to northern and eastern Texas southwest Oklahoma (USA) (Musser and Carleton 2005).  It is known from lowlands to 2,438 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
2466		habitat	eng	This mouse occurs in a variety of habitats including coastal prairie, midgrass prairie, mixed-grass prairie, mixed-desert shrub, prickly pear-short grass communities, post oak savanna, pine-oak forest, and oak-hickory associations. Dense ground cover is a common denominator of occupied habitats. This species does well in disturbed habitats.<br/><br/>It eats the stems and fruit of prickly pear cactus, grass seeds, grass leaves, mesquite beans, and granjero berries.  It breeds year-round with peaks in late fall and early spring. Gestation lasts 20 to 23 days, the litter size averages 2.5 (range 1 to 5). The mouse’s median life span is 23 weeks, with a maximum record life span of 170 weeks for laboratory-reared animals (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
2466		population	eng	This rodent is not in general common, but it can be locally common and it is expanding its range. It is sometimes considered a pest in agriculture. Population density ranges from 2 to 84 per hectare, and is lowest during summer and highest during autumn and winter (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Densities are highest in areas of dense ground cover.
2466		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
2467		conservation	eng	The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946. All range states except Canada are members of the IWC. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is allowed by the IWC on bowhead whales from the BCB stock on the basis of scientific advice.  Indigenous hunting in Canada is co-managed by the national government and regional bodies created under land-claim agreements.
2467		conservation	eng	The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946; all range states except Canada are members of the IWC. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is allowed by the IWC on bowhead whales from the BCB stock on the basis of scientific advice (see above). Aboriginal hunting in Canada is co-managed by the national government and regional bodies created under land-claim agreements. This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975; Canada had a reservation against this listing until 1978. The species is listed in CMS Appendix I.
2467		distribution	eng	Bowhead whales are found only in Arctic and subarctic regions. They spend much of their lives in and near the pack ice, migrating to the high Arctic in summer, and retreating southward in winter with the advancing ice edge (Moore and Reeves 1993).<br/><br/>The International Whaling Commission recognises five stocks: Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (US (Alaska), Canada, and Russian Federation); Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin (Canada); Davis Strait-Baffin Bay (Denmark (Greenland) and Canada); Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) (Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and Russian Federation); and the Okhotsk Sea (Russian Federation and Japan) (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas stock occurs from Chaunskaya Guba (Russian Federation) in the western Chukchi Sea east to Amundsen Gulf (Canada), and the northern Bering Sea south to Karaginskiy Zaliv (Russian Federation), St. Matthew Island, and Norton Sound (US (Alaska)) (Rice 1998). <br/><br/>Recent evidence of movements of tagged whales indicating overlapping ranges, and inconclusive analyses of genetic differences, have called into doubt the traditional distinction between the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and the Davis Strait-Baffin Bay stocks (Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al.</em> 2006, IWC 2007). <br/><br/>The range of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin stock was traditionally taken to include northern Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Foxe Channel and Foxe Basin. Tracking of satellite-tagged whales in 2002 and 2003 confirm movement from Foxe Basin through Fury and Hecla Strait into the Gulf of Boothia and Prince Regent Inlet (Cosens 2004). <br/><br/>The Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stock is centred in summer in the eastern Canadian High Arctic archipelago and along eastern Baffin Island. The whales move out of the summering areas as ice forms in autumn to wintering areas in polynyas (Holst and Stirling 1999), unconsolidated pack ice, and open water near the ice edge off West Greenland (Reeves and Heide-Jørgensen 1996) and eastern Baffin Island. The summering grounds include Cumberland Sound, the well-studied late summer and autumn feeding ground in Isabella Bay (Finley 1990), Lancaster Sound, Admiralty Inlet, and Eclipse Sound. <br/><br/>Animals satellite-tagged in Cumberland Sound in southeast Baffin Island in 2004 and 2005 moved into Prince Regent Inlet and the Gulf of Boothia and also into Foxe Basin and the Hudson Strait (Dueck <em>et al.</em> 2006). Animals tagged in West Greenland also moved to Prince Regent Inlet and Hudson Strait. There is thus no clear geographical division between the two putative stocks. The genetic evidence is inconclusive, and the IWC Scientific Committee currently regards the stock identity question as open (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>The Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) stock (see separate listing) occurs from the east coast of Greenland across the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea as far as Severnaya Zemlya (Russian Federation), and as far south as the ice front, exceptionally reaching Iceland and the coast of Finnmark (Norway).<br/><br/>The Okhotsk Sea stock (see separate listing) occurs in the Sea of Okhotsk from Shantarskiye Zaliv east to Zaliv Shelikova, Gizhiginskaya Guba and Penzhinskaya Guba (Moore and Reeves 1993, Rice 1998).
2467		distribution	eng	Bowhead whales are found only in Arctic and subarctic regions. They spend much of their lives in and near the pack ice, migrating to the high arctic in summer, and retreating southward in winter with the advancing ice edge (Moore and Reeves 1993). The IWC recognises five stocks:  Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea; Hudson Bay-Fox Basin; Davis Strait-Baffin Bay; Spitsbergen; and the Okhotsk Sea (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2003). The Spitsbergen stock extends from the east coast of Greenland across the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea as far as Severnaya Zemlya, and going as far south as the ice front, exceptionally reaching Iceland and the coast of Finnmark (Norway).
2467		habitat	eng	The seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter bowhead whales occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al.</em> 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do.
2467		habitat	eng	The seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter they occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al.</em> 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do. During surface skim feeding, coordinated group patterns have been observed, including whales feeding in echelon (V-shaped) formation.
2467		population	eng	Current population size<br/>The range-wide abundance is not known with precision but numbers over 10,000 individuals, with 10,500 (8,200-13,500) (in 2001) in the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (Zeh and Punt 2005), and a provisional estimate of 7,300 (3,100-16,900) for a part of the range of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks (Cosens <em>et al.</em> 2006). There are no reliable abundance estimates for the small Okhotsk Sea and Spitsbergen stocks.<br/><br/>Population trends<br/>The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) population has been monitored for more than 30 years and has been increasing over this period at an estimated rate of 3.4% (1.7%-5%) per year in the presence of subsistence hunting (Zeh and Punt 2005). No quantitative estimates of trends in the other bowhead populations are available, but Inuit hunters and elders report that they are observing more bowheads in the eastern Canadian Arctic than they did in the 1960s-1970s, and that the geographic distribution of the whales has expanded in recent years. No estimates of population trend are available for the Svalbard-Barents Sea and Okhotsk Sea stocks.<br/><br/>Pre-whaling population sizes<br/>All bowhead populations were severely depleted by commercial whaling, which was established in the north-eastern Atlantic by 1611 (Ross 1993).  Basque whalers took bowheads in the north-west Atlantic (Labrador) in the 16th century, but ambiguities over the species identity of whales taken in early commercial whaling make pre-1600 catch records difficult to interpret. Minimum pre-whaling stock sizes are estimated to have been 24,000 for the Svalbard-Barents Sea stock, 12,000 for the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks, and 3,000 for the Okhotsk Sea stock (Woodby and Botkin 1993). The Spitsbergen and Okhotsk Sea stocks are at a small fraction of their pre-whaling levels.<br/><br/>Demographic parameters<br/>A high longevity (>100 years) is suggested by biochemical methods and the finding of old-fashioned stone harpoon heads in harvested animals (George <em>et al.</em> 1999). If this high longevity is confirmed, it would be among the longest known for a mammal.
2467		population	eng	<em>Current Population sizes</em><br/> The range-wide abundance is not known with precision but numbers over 10,000 individuals, with 10,500 (8,200–13,500) (in 2001) in the Bering- Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (Zeh and Punt 2005), and provisional estimates of 3,633 (1,382-9,550) (Koski <em>et al.</em> 2006) and 7,300 (3,100–16,900) for parts of the range of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks (Cosens <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>There are no reliable abundance estimates for the small Okhotsk Sea and Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) stocks (see separate listings).<br/><br/><em>Population trends</em><br/>The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) subpopulation has been monitored for more than 30 years and has been increasing over this period at an estimated rate of 3.4% (1.7–5%) per year in the presence of subsistence hunting (Zeh and Punt 2005). No quantitative estimates of trends in the other bowhead populations are available, but Inuit hunters and elders report that they are observing more bowheads in the eastern Canadian Arctic and West Greenland than they did in the 1960s–1970s, and that the geographic distribution of the whales has expanded in recent years (Koski <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>No estimates of subpopulation trend are available for the Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) and Okhotsk Sea stocks (see separate listing).<br/><br/><em>Pre-whaling population sizes</em><br/>All bowhead subpopulations were severely depleted by commercial whaling, which had begun in the northeastern Atlantic by 1611 (Ross 1993). Basque whalers took bowheads in the northwest Atlantic (Labrador in Canada) in the 16th century, but ambiguities over the species identity of whales taken in early commercial whaling make pre-1600 catch records difficult to interpret. <br/><br/>Minimum pre-whaling subpopulation sizes are estimated to have been 24,000 for the Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) stock, 12,000 for the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait subpopulation(s), and 3,000 for the Okhotsk Sea stock (Woodby and Botkin 1993). Brandon and Wade (2004) estimate the initial abundance of the BCB subpopulation at 10–20,000. <br/><br/>The BCB stock may be approaching its pre-whaling levels (IWC 2005). The Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) and Okhotsk Sea stocks are each at a small fraction of their pre-whaling levels (see separate listings), while the status of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait animals relative to pre-whaling levels is unclear.<br/><br/><em>Demographic parameters</em><br/>A high longevity (>100 years) is suggested by biochemical methods and the finding of old-fashioned stone harpoon heads in hunter-killed animals (George <em>et al.</em> 1999). If this high longevity is confirmed, it would be among the longest known for a mammal.<br/><br/>For the BCB subpopulation, an estimated 44% (SE 1%) of the total population consists of reproductively mature animals, given that the age at maturity is at least 20 years (Koksi <em>et al.</em> 2004). The calving interval is 3–4 years (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 1992). No specific data are available for other subpopulations.<br/><br/>Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimate the generation time for bowhead whales to be around 52 years.
2467		threats	eng	Heavy commercial hunting, beginning in the 1500s, depleted all populations of bowheads. The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas stock has recovered substantially since the end of commercial whaling in the early 20th century, while recent provisional estimates of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks also suggest significant recovery. There is no reliable evidence of recovery of the Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) and Okhotsk Sea stocks. <br/><br/>Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling on the BCB stock (by native peoples of Alaska, and the Russian Federation (Chukotka) is permitted by the IWC on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee (most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure). These takes have not impeded the recovery of the stock. Very small takes by aboriginal hunters are allowed in Canadian waters. So far these have been too few to impede recovery of the stocks, but there will be pressure to increase take levels given the recent, higher population estimates in the eastern Canadian Arctic. <br/><br/>There has been concern since the 1970s that disturbance from oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in the Arctic region might affect bowhead whales. There is also evidence of incidental mortality and serious injury caused by entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes (Philo <em>et al.</em> 1992, 1993; Finley 2000). Environmental threats, such as pollution (Bratton <em>et al.</em> 1993) and disturbance from tourist traffic (Finley 2000), may affect bowhead whales but the impacts have not yet been well characterized or quantified. <br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Arctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Anonymous 2005). The implications of this for bowhead whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.
2467		threats	eng	Heavy commercial hunting, beginning in the 1500s, depleted all populations of bowheads.  The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea stock has recovered substantially since the end of commercial hunting in the early 20th century to around 10,000 animals, while recent provisional estimates of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks suggest that a significant recovery has probably occurred. There is no reliable evidence of recovery of the Svalbard-Barents Sea and Okhotsk Sea stocks.  <br/><br/>Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling on the BCB stock (by native peoples of Alaska and Chukotka) is permitted by the IWC on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee (most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure). These takes have not impeded the recovery of the stock. Very small takes by indigenous hunters are allowed in Canadian waters, so far too few to seriously impede recovery of the stocks, but there will be pressure to increase these takes given the recent, higher population estimates for the eastern Canadian Arctic. <br/><br/>There has been concern since the 1970s that disturbance from oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in the Arctic region might affect bowhead whales. There is also evidence of incidental mortality and serious injury caused by entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes (Philo <em>et al.</em> 1992, 1993; Finley 2000). Environmental threats, such as pollution (Bratton <em>et al.</em> 1993), and disturbance from tourist traffic (Finley 2000) may affect bowhead whales but the impacts have not yet been well characterized or quantified. <br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Arctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Anonymous 2005).   The implications of this for bowhead whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.
2469		conservation	eng	<p>The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946 and there is no aboriginal subsistence whaling exemption for <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> bowhead whales. The species, including this population, is protected under Russian law through its inclusion on the Russian national Red List. This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975.&#160; The species listed in Appendix I of CMS.</p>
2469		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename></st1:place> from Shantarskiye Zaliv east to Zaliv Shelikova, Gizhiginskaya Guba and Penzhinskaya Guba (Moore and Reeves 1993, Rice 1998). The absence of bowhead sightings on any of the Japanese-Russian systematic surveys of cetaceans in the Okhotsk Sea conducted in 1989, 1990, 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2003 (Miyashita and Dorosehnko 1990; Miyahsita and Berzin 1991; Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2001; Miyashita 1999, 2004) tends to confirm that animals from this subpopulation are rarely found outside those four known areas of concentration.</p>
2469		habitat	eng	<p>Little is known about the specific ecology of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> bowhead whale subpopulation. Unlike other bowhead whale subpopulations, this one inhabits an area that is ice-free in summer. </p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>The seasonal distribution of bowhead whales in general is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter bowhead whales occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al.</em> 1998).&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do.</span>
2469		population	eng	<p>Bowhead whales have been seen regularly during Russian surveys in the northeast and southwest <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename></st1:place>. Berzin <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported bowhead sightings every year from 1982 through 1990, except 1985, with up to 72 whales apparently seen on one day. Doroshenko and Ivannikov (2003) reported 48 bowhead whales sighted during a not especially intensive survey conducted in 2001.&#160; </p>    <p>However, there are no reliable estimates of abundance. Berzin <em>et al</em>. (1990) believed the individuals in the southwest <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> to number at least 250–300 animals, while Vladimirov (1994) estimated the subpopulation at 300–400 whales for the entire <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place>. These values appear to be based primarily on the numbers seen, without evaluation of effective search effort. <span lang="EN-US">The proportion of the subpopulation that comprises mature animals is unknown. A value of 44% has been estimated for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> stock of bowhead whales. The absence of bowhead sightings on any of the Japanese-Russian systematic surveys of cetaceans in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (referred to above) tends to suggest that the subpopulation is small. </p>    The subpopulation was subject to intensive commercial whaling during the short period 1852–1860 and apparently had been depleted by 1860, although some catching continued until 1900. Woodby and Botkin (1993) estimated a minimum initial subpopulation size of about 3,000 based on catch records. In the late 1960s, Soviet ship-based whalers took an unknown number of bowheads in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> illegally (Doroshenko 1996). The subpopulation thus appears to still be at a small fraction of its pre-whaling abundance, and there is no direct information to assess whether or not the subpopulation is increasing.
2469		threats	eng	This population is not currently subject to hunting. At least one case of fatal entrapment of an <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> bowhead whale in fishing gear has been documented (Brownell 1999).
2472		conservation	eng	The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946 and there is no aboriginal subsistence whaling exemption for <st1:place w:st="on">Spitsbergen</st1:place> bowhead whales. No specific mechanisms are currently in place to protect bowhead habitat or to prevent incidental mortality in fishing gear. More general measures taken for environmental protection of the waters off northeast Greenland, <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> and Franz Joseph Land may have some beneficial effects on the habitat of bowheads.&#160; </span>The species is listed in CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix I.
2472		distribution	eng	<p>East coast of Greenland (Denmark) across the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea, and the Kara Sea to Severnaya Zemlya (Russian Federation), and south at least occasionally to northern Iceland and the coast of Finnmark (Norway) and Jan Mayen (Norway) (Rice 1998).</p>
2472		habitat	eng	<p>The seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter bowhead whales occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al</em>. 1998). </p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do.</p>
2472		population	eng	<p><em>Pre-whaling subpopulation size:</em></p>  <p>This subpopulation was originally by far the most abundant of the bowhead whale subpopulations, but was heavily depleted by pre-modern commercial whaling from 1611 to the last recorded capture in 1911 (Ross 1993). The only record of catches by modern whaling refers to four taken by modern whaling near <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> in 1932 (Ruud 1937). Based on the catch record, a minimum initial subpopulation size was estimated by Woodby and Botkin (1993) at 24,000 whales. A modeling exercise (Allen and Keay 2006) resulted in an estimate of 52,000 but this may be too high given it assumed a net reproductive rate considerably lower than that currently observed in the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas subpopulation (see global assessment for this species).&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p><em>Current subpopulation size</em></span></p>  <p>There is no quantitative estimate of current subpopulation size, but the available evidence suggests that it is small. Jonsgård (1982) reported no live sightings on surveys between Greenland and Svalbard and around <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> in 1980, but one dead probable bowhead. Based on post-war sightings of only seven individuals in Norwegian and adjacent waters up to 1990, Christensen <em>et al</em>. (1992) suggested that the subpopulation numbered “in the tens”. However, the Norwegian record may have given a somewhat exaggerated impression of rarity, due to lack of coverage within the pack ice.</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>Moore and Reeves (1993) list 37 sightings between 1940 and 1990, mainly near Svalbard and Franz Josef Land (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:place></st1:country-region>). The records include two sightings (Belikov <em>et al</em>. 1989) of apparently quite large winter aggregations near Franz Josef Land in 1981 (“several tens of individuals”) and 1983 (“about 66 animals”). Gilg and Born (2005) list 23 definite and probable sightings off <st1:place w:st="on">East Greenland</st1:place> during 1940–2004, including a probable sighting of ten individuals in 2003. <a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">Seven sightings</a></span> totalling about 20 individuals were reported in the <st1:place w:st="on">Greenland Sea</st1:place> in April 2006 (Wiig <em>et al</em>. 2007). </span></span>While the number of sightings records has increased over time this may reflect increased effort rather than increasing abundance. Among the recently reported observations, no calves or small individuals have been reported. <span lang="EN-US">The proportion of the subpopulation that comprises mature animals is unknown. A value of 44% has been estimated for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype></st1:place> stock. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  Anecdotal evidence from historical whaling accounts suggests the possibility of whales from a stock to the east, possibly the <st1:placename w:st="on">Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype> stock, entering into these waters at times (Shelden <em>et al</em>. 1995), which would complicate the interpretation of the sightings data with respect to the size of the remnant <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> stock. Whether the current subpopulation is a remnant of the original <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> stock, a recolonization, or a mixture of both, is currently unclear, but ongoing analyses of DNA from old bones might throw light on this question (Borge <em>et al</em>. 2005).
2472		threats	eng	This subpopulation is not hunted. Incidental mortality or serious injury from entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes has not been reported. There are no known specific threats to this subpopulation. For a discussion of general threats see the global assessment for this species.
2474		conservation	eng	Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. IWC members are allowed to issue permits for whaling for scientific research, and Japan makes substantial use of this provision. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for common minke whales off Greenland. Takes of dwarf minke whales have been excluded from the Japanese scientific whaling programme in the Antarctic (JARPA) since summer 1992/93 (Nishiwaki <em>et al.</em> 2005). Minke whales, including <em>B. acutorostrata</em>, are included in Appendix I of CITES, with the exception of the population from Greenland which is included in Appendix II. This implies prohibition of commercial international trade in products, but such prohibition does not apply to Iceland, Norway or Japan, who hold reservations on the species.
2474		conservation	eng	Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. IWC members are allowed to issue permits for whaling for scientific research. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for common minke whales off Greenland. Takes of dwarf minke whales have been excluded from the Japanese scientific whaling programme in the Antarctic (JARPA) since summer 1992/93 (Nishiwaki <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Minke whales, including <em>B. acutorostrata</em>, are listed on Appendix I of CITES, with the exception of the population from Greenland which is included in Appendix II. This implies prohibition of commercial international trade in its products, but that does not apply to Iceland, Norway or Japan, who hold reservations on the species. Common minke whales benefit from national protection measures implemented in several range countries.
2474		distribution	eng	The common minke whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all oceans and in virtually all latitudes, from 65°S to 80°N.  In parts of its range it is very abundant, in other parts much less so.  Its migration patterns are poorly known.  It occurs in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and the Southern Hemisphere, but is not known in the northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>North Atlantic<br/>In summer, minke whales are common throughout the northern North Atlantic as far north as Baffin Bay, Greenland Sea, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, and as far south as 40°N (New Jersey) on the US east coast (Anon. 2005),  and as far south as the Hebrides (northwest British Isles) and the central North Sea in the east.  In mid-Atlantic the southern limit of summer abundance is at least as far south as 50°N (Sigurjónsson <em>et al.</em> 1991).  It is likely that at least a part of the minke whale population overwinters in the summer range, but there has been very little observation effort in winter to confirm this.<br/><br/>Minke whales also occur south of this range in the southeastern North Atlantic, but with no obvious seasonality, and are not common, with the exception of the Canary Islands, where they appear to be frequent year-round (van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 1999).  There have been occasional sightings (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 1983) and strandings (van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 1999) off Spain and Portugal, Western Sahara, Mauritania and Senegal. Minke whales are rare in the Azores and not recorded from Madeira. The minke whale is considered a “visitor species” in the Mediterranean (average <1 record per year) with one vagrant recorded in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).  <br/><br/>There are very few winter records, but a summary by Mitchell (1991) indicates that they do occur in winter near Bermuda, the Bahamas and the Antilles, and the US coast south of 40°N. Ten strandings have been recorded in the Gulf of Mexico (Jefferson and Schiro 1997) but hardly any live sightings. A Norwegian winter expedition sent to the tropical Atlantic in 1989/90 to “find the breeding grounds of the minke whale” encountered just two minke whales, at 20°N and 10°N off West Africa in December (Folklow and Blix 1991).
2474		distribution	eng	The Common Minke Whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all oceans and in virtually all latitudes, from 65°S to 80°N. In parts of its range it is very abundant, in other parts much less so. Its migration patterns are poorly known. It occurs in the North Atlantic, the North Pacific, and the Southern Hemisphere, but is not known from the northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">North Atlantic</em><br/>In summer, Minke Whales are common throughout the northern North Atlantic as far north as Baffin Bay, Greenland Sea, Svalbard (Norway), Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya (Russian Federation), and as far south as 40°N (New Jersey) on the US east coast (Anon. 2005a), and as far south as the Hebrides (northwest British Isles) and the central North Sea in the east. In the mid-Atlantic summer concentrations of minke whales occur to at least as far south as 50°N (Sigurjónsson <em>et al</em>. 1991). It is likely that at least a part of the Minke Whale population over-winters in the summer range, but there has been very little observation effort in winter to confirm this.<br/><br/>Minke Whales also occur south of this range in the southeastern North Atlantic, but with no obvious seasonality, and are not common, with the exception of the Canary Islands, where they appear to be frequent year-round (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999). There have been occasional sightings (Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 1983) and strandings (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999) off Spain and Portugal, Western Sahara, Mauritania and Senegal. Minke whales are rare in the Azores and not recorded from Madeira. The minke whale is considered a “visitor species” in the Mediterranean (average &lt;1 record per year) with one vagrant recorded in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>There are very few winter records, but a summary by Mitchell (1991) indicates that they do occur in winter near Bermuda, the Bahamas and the Antilles, and the US coast south of 40°N. Ten strandings have been recorded in the Gulf of Mexico (Jefferson and Schiro 1997) but hardly any live sightings. A Norwegian winter expedition sent to the tropical Atlantic in 1989/90 to “find the breeding grounds of the minke whale” encountered just two minke whales, at 20°N and 10°N off West Africa in December (Folklow and Blix 1991). <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">North Pacific</em><br/>Minke whales occur in summer right across the North Pacific north of about 30°N in summer, with a tendency for the distribution to shift northward in high summer. They are particularly abundant in the Okhotsk Sea in August (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1995), and also occur in the Bering Sea, around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2002, Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006) and the Chukchi Sea (Ivashin and Votrogov 1981). In the eastern North Pacific, there appears to be a year-round population off California and Baja California and in the Gulf of California, and minke whales occur in summer off Oregon, Washington and British Columbia (Anon. 2003). They have been seen off Hawaii but are not common there (Anon. 2005b).<br/><br/>In the western North Pacific, there are at least two distinct subpopulations: the so-called “J stock,” an autumn-breeding population that occurs in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea and Sea of Japan, with some penetration into the Okhotsk Sea in summer; and the O-stock which, like most baleen whales, breeds in winter, and occurs in summer in the northwestern Pacific, including the northeastern coasts of Japan, and in the Okhotsk Sea (Omura and Sakiura 1956, Kato 1992). <br/><br/>The winter distribution is poorly known. Japanese expeditions to look for wintering grounds in the southwestern North Pacific during 1993-95 failed to locate any minke whales (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1996). The timing of the arrival of minke whales in Korean and western Japanese waters is suggestive of migration from the south in spring and return in autumn (Ohsumi 1983). The wintering area in the eastern North Pacific has been identified acoustically to be primarily between 15 and 35 degrees N latitude (Rankin and Barlow 2005).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Southern hemisphere</em><br/>Much of the data on the occurrence of minke whales in the Southern Hemisphere is ambiguous with respect to identification as <em>B. acutorostrata</em> or <em>B. bonaerensis</em>, because the two species are partially sympatric. Japanese scouting vessel data indicated high abundance of minke whales in November between 10°-30°S in the central South Pacific and in much of the eastern and southern Indian Ocean down to 50°S (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1995), but their species identity is unclear. The limited information available from surveys in low and middle latitudes from the 1987/88 season onwards, when the two species were reliably distinguished, indicates that most of the minke whales are <em>B. bonaerensis</em> (Nishiwaki <em>et al</em>. 1991), probably on route to the Antarctic from (as yet unknown) low-latitude breeding grounds, but also that <em>B. acutorostrata</em> is present in these latitudes.<br/><br/>Dwarf minke whales occur at higher latitudes but are much less common than <em>B. bonaerensis</em>. Of more than 1,700 minke whales taken by Antarctic pelagic whaling from the 1987/88 to the 1992/93 season (when the two species have been reliably distinguished), only 16 were dwarf minke whales (Nishiwaki <em>et al</em>. 2005). One was taken at 65°S and the remainder at between 55-62°S, the northern limit of whaling operations.<br/><br/>In coastal waters, dwarf minke whales have been recorded off most of the South Atlantic coast of South America (Baldas and Castello 1986, Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 1996), in the Beagle Channel (Chile/Argentina) (Acevedo <em>et al</em>. 2005), off South Africa (Best 1985), Australia (Arnold <em>et al</em>. 1987, Bannister <em>et al</em>. 1996, Arnold 1997), New Zealand (Dawson and Slooten 1990), and New Caledonia (Garrigue and Greaves 2001). The most northerly confirmed Southern Hemisphere record is from 2°S, off the northern coast of Brazil (Magalhães <em>et al</em>. 2007). Three dwarf minke whales were caught in whaling operations off Costinha, Brazil in 1980 (along with 900 Antarctic minke whales) (da Rocha and Braga 1982).
2474		habitat	eng	The common minke whale occurs in both coastal and offshore waters and exploits a variety of prey species in different areas according to availability.  In the Northern Hemisphere some populations migrate to higher latitudes in summer, but it is also found year-round in some areas.  With the exception of the Sea of Japan – Yellow Sea- East China Sea population, conception and birth occur in winter.  Most animals occur singly, and few in groups of more than two.  <br/><br/>In the North Atlantic, studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas show that minke whale diet varies greatly between areas and years, being dominated by krill in the northern areas, but by herring or capelin in other areas according to what is most abundant that year, with gadoids being taken when herring and capelin were scarce (Lindstrøm and Haug 2002).  In the North Sea the diet consisted almost exclusively of sandeel (data from one year only).  Minke whales taken off Iceland in 2003-04 contained mainly sandeel, with some capelin and gadoids (Víkingsson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Minke whales caught off Newfoundland during 1966-72 contained mainly capelin (<em>Mallotus villotus</em>) (Mitchell 1974).<br/><br/>The overlap of the diet of this species with the targets of commercial fisheries poses difficult questions in ecosystem management. The question of whether minke whales should be culled to reduce their fish consumption is a particularly controversial issue.
2474		habitat	eng	The Common Minke Whale occurs in both coastal and offshore waters and exploits a variety of prey species in different areas according to availability. In the Northern Hemisphere some populations migrate to higher latitudes in summer, but minke whales are also found year-round in some areas. With the exception of the Sea of Japan – Yellow Sea – East China Sea population, conception and birth occur in winter. Most animals occur singly, and few in groups of more than two. <br/><br/>In the North Atlantic, studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas showed that minke whale diet varied greatly between areas and years, being dominated by krill in the northern areas, but by herring or capelin in other areas according to what was most abundant that year, with gadoids being taken when herring and capelin were scarce (Lindstrøm and Haug 2002). In the North Sea the diet consisted almost exclusively of sandeel (data from one year only). Minke whales taken off Iceland in 2003-04 contained mainly sandeel, with some capelin and gadoids (Víkingsson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Minke whales caught off Newfoundland during 1966-72 contained mainly capelin (Mallotus villosus) (Mitchell 1974).<br/><br/>In the Northwest Pacific, Lindstrøm <em>et al.</em> (1998) found that krill <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphausia pacifica</span> dominated the diet in coastal areas and in the Okhotsk Sea, while in the offshore Pacific, Pacific saury Cololabis saira dominated.<br/><br/>Feeding habits of the Dwarf Minke Whale are poorly known. The stomach contents of an individual collected in Brazil contained exclusively <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphausia similis (</span>Secchi <em>et al.</em> 2003). Whales taken in the Antarctic (n=16) ingested mostly myctophid fishes (Kato and Fujise 2000).
2474		population	eng	<strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>The IWC recognizes four stocks of minke whales in the North Atlantic: Northeast Atlantic, Central North Atlantic, West Greenland, and Canadian East Coast. The latter includes the US east coast.  Population estimates were last reviewed by the IWC SC in 2003 (IWC 2004), but a new estimate for West Greenland was accepted in 2006 (IWC 2007).  The best/most recent available estimates for the whole North Atlantic total about 182,000, and the Northeast Atlantic stock was estimated at c.80,000 individuals.<br/><br/>Minke whales have been exploited in the North Atlantic, mainly since the 1940s, and recorded catches total about 140,000 (IWC 2006).  The largest catches have been by Norwegian “small-type” whalers who have taken about 120,000 since 1948, mainly in the Northeast Atlantic.  Annual catches peaked at over 4,000 in the late 1950s, declining to about 2,000 annually in the early 1980s. Catches were phased out from 1984 to 1987. Commercial minke whaling resumed in 1993 at a lower level and continues to the present.  <br/><br/>About 4,000 minke whales were taken off Iceland during 1941-85, but recent abundance estimates imply that this would have had no discernible effect on the population.  About 8,000 common minke whales have been caught by small-type whaling off West Greenland, mainly since 1960. The present catch limits (up to 175 annually for the years 2003-7) were set by the IWC in the absence of advice from its Scientific Committee. Some concerns have been expressed by the IWC Scientific Committee over the sustainability of the catch levels given the uncertainty over the size of the population available to the hunters off West Greenland (IWC 2007) although sex ratio information suggests that the population may not have been significantly impacted by the catches (Witting 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong><br/>No satisfactory method of age determination has been developed for this species to date. Therefore the value of Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was used. Unlike Antarctic minke whales, common minke whales tend not to develop ear plugs with readable layering (Lockyer 1984).  A method based on layer counts in tympanic bullae (Christensen 1981) could not be reproduced by later workers.  Other aging methods are being researched, but none is yet at the stage where it can be reliably applied to this species (Olsen and Øien 2002).
2474		population	eng	The IWC recognizes four stocks of Minke Whales in the North Atlantic: Northeast Atlantic, Central North Atlantic, West Greenland, and Canadian East Coast. The last includes the US east coast. Population estimates were last reviewed by the IWC SC in 2003 (IWC 2004a), but a new estimate for West Greenland was accepted in 2006 (IWC 2007a). The best/most recent available estimates are listed in Table 1 in the linked PDF document (which constitutes an integral part of this assessment). These total about 182,000. <br/><br/>No abundance estimate is available for the Newfoundland area where there was a small-scale fishery for Minke Whales during 1948-72 (Mitchell 1974). <br/><br/>Minke Whales have been exploited in the North Atlantic, mainly since the 1940s, and recorded catches total about 140,000 (IWC 2006a). The largest catches have been by Norwegian “small-type” whalers who have taken about 120,000 since 1948, mainly in the Northeast Atlantic. Annual catches peaked at over 4,000 in the late 1950s, declining to about 2,000 annually in the early 1980s. Catches were phased out from 1984 to 1987. Commercial minke whaling resumed in 1993 at a lower level and continues to the present. <br/><br/>About 4,000 Minke Whales were taken off Iceland during 1941-85, but recent abundance estimates imply that this would have had no discernible effect on the population. About 8,000 Common Minke Whales have been caught by small-type whaling off West Greenland, mainly since 1960. The present catch limits (up to 175 annually for the years 2003-7) were set by the IWC in the absence of advice from its SC. Some concerns have been expressed by the IWC SC over the sustainability of the catch levels given the uncertainty over the size of the population available to the hunters off West Greenland (IWC 2007a) although sex ratio information suggests that the population has not been significantly reduced by the catches (Witting 2006).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">North Pacific</em><br/>The IWC recognizes three management stocks in the North Pacific: Sea of Japan – Yellow Sea – East China Sea; Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific (west of 180°); and “Remainder” (east of 180°). Considerable research has been undertaken since the IWC designation indicating the potential for further stock structure both within the Okhotsk Sea - West Pacific area and in the "Remainder" area.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific</em><br/>The IWC SC conducted an assessment of the Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific stock in 1991. Surveys in the summers of 1989 and 1990 yielded an abundance estimate of 25,049 (CV 0.316) of which the bulk (19,209; CV 0.339) was in the Okhotsk Sea (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1992). Although the Okhotsk Sea was surveyed again in 1992 and 2003 (Miyashita 2004), an abundance estimate from the last of these surveys has yet to be presented.<br/><br/>About 13,000 Minke Whales have been recorded caught by Japanese coastal whaling during 1948-87 (IWC 2006a), of which probably all but about 1,000 were from the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific stock. Annual catches peaked at over 500 in 1973, declining to 300 in 1987 when commercial whaling was suspended. Catches resumed in 1994 under scientific permits issued by the Government of Japan and have increased since then. The catch in 2006 was 195 from a permit for 220 (Miyashita and Kato 2007).<br/><br/>The above catch figures do not include net catches, which are not subject to whaling regulations. Reported net catches of minke whales off Japanese coasts averaged only about five per year in the 1980s, but Tobayama <em>et al</em>. (1992) estimated that the true level in 1989 was about 100. Based on genetic analysis of samples of whale products collected in commercial markets during 1993-1999, Baker <em>et al</em>. (2000) also estimated the net catch to be about 100 per year. During the 1990s, reported net catches averaged about 20 per year. After new regulations were introduced in 2001 that provided an incentive to report (only those catches that are reported and genetically sampled can be legally marketed), reported net catches have averaged 127 per year (Japan 2002-2006). About 55% of the reported net catches during 2001-05 have been on the Sea of Japan and East China Sea coasts (IWC 2007b), and would be mainly from the “J stock” (see below), with the remainder from the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific Stock.<br/><br/>The issue of subpopulation structure within the Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific Stock has been discussed extensively by the IWC SC in the context of preparations for implementing the Revised Management Procedure (RMP) for western North Pacific Minke Whales, but with inconclusive results (IWC 2004b).<br/><br/>Although population models suggest that, when considered as a single biological unit, the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific stock has declined little under the influence of past or present catches (IWC 2004c), the situation should be kept under review; in particular, the more recent 2003 survey data should be analyzed to update the 1990 and 1992 abundance estimates for the Okhotsk Sea.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Sea of Japan (East Sea) – Yellow Sea – East China Sea stock (“J stock”)</em><br/>The reproductive cycle of this stock, usually referred to by biologists as the “J stock”, appears to be four months out of phase with other Northern Hemisphere minke whales, with conceptions occurring in October-November instead of February-March for the Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific stock (Omura and Sakiura 1956, Kato 1992). This is the only known case of breeding asynchrony in Baleen Whale populations from the same hemisphere. A degree of reproductive isolation between the two stocks is also suggested by frequency differences at selected allozyme loci (Wada 1984). A segregation of maternal lineages is indicated by marked differences in the frequencies of mtDNA haplotypes (Goto and Pastene 1997; Baker <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>About 16,000 whales are recorded to have been taken from this stock by commercial whaling based in South Korea during 1940-86, in addition to about 1,000 from western Japan (IWC 2006a). Catches peaked at 1,033 in 1977. Catches were phased out with a complete moratorium to take effect from 1986 (IWC 1984). <br/><br/>However, net catches (which are not subject to whaling regulations) began in Korea in the late 1980s (Kim 1999). From 1996 onwards, a regulation has been in effect that requires the reporting of such catches. During 1996-2005, reported catches averaged 90 per year. However, a genetic analysis of samples of whale products on Korean commercial markets yielded an estimate of 827 (SE 164) whales entering the market in the period 1999-2003, as compared with a reported catch of only 458 whales (Baker <em>et al</em>. In press). This suggests that reporting is still far from complete, and that the total J-stock catch from South Korea and Japan (see above) has exceeded 200 per year over the last 10 years. Minke Whales are also reported to be a common bycatch in China, but no figures are available (IWC 2006c).<br/><br/>Surveys in the range of the J-stock have been conducted from 1999 in the waters of the Republic of Korea (Sohn <em>et al</em>. 2005) and from 2002 in Japanese waters (Miyashita 2004), but no estimate of total population size is available. The IWC in 2005 (IWC 2006b) endorsed plans for joint research by the range states (Republic of Korea, China, Japan, Russian Federation), and a comprehensive survey in the waters of all four countries is planned for 2007. <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern North Pacific</em><span style="font-weight: bold;"> (east of 180°E)</span><br/>Population estimates are available only for parts of the eastern North Pacific, <em>e.g.</em> 1,015 (CV 0.73) for the west coast of the US during 1991-2001 (Anon. 2003) and 810 (CV 0.36) and 1003 (CV=0.26) respectively in the central and southeastern Bering Sea (Moore <em>et al.</em> 2002), and 1,232 (CV=0.34) for coastal waters of the northern Gulf of Alaska and the eastern and central Aleutian Islands (Zerbini <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Minke Whales are apparently quite abundant in the offshore Gulf of Alaska (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995) but no abundance estimate is available for that region.<br/><br/>Differences in vocalizations during the breeding season strongly suggest further population structure within this area. Different calls are found on either side of about 135 degrees W longitude (Rankin and Barlow 2005).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>It is not possible at this time to estimate the abundance of <em>B. acutorostrata</em> in the Southern Hemisphere, because most of the available quantitative sighting data do not distinguish it from the much more numerous <em>B. bonaerensis</em> with which it is partially sympatric. <em>B. acutorostrata</em> has not been subject to significant exploitation in the Southern Hemisphere.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Generation time</em><br/>No satisfactory method of age determination has been developed for this species to date. Therefore the value of 22 years from Taylor <em>et al</em>. (2007) was used. Unlike Antarctic Minke Whales, common minke whales tend not to develop ear plugs with readable layering (Lockyer 1984). A method based on layer counts in tympanic bullae (Christensen 1981) could not be reproduced by later workers. Other age-estimation methods are being investigated, but none is yet at the stage where it can be applied reliably to this species (Olsen and Øien 2002).
2474		threats	eng	Whaling on this species has been intensive in the Northeast Atlantic, and it reduced the population over the period 1952-83. Catches were phased out by 1987, but whaling resumed, at a lower level, in 1993. Norway sets national catch limits based on the IWC’s Revised Management Procedure, a formula for setting safe catch limits (IWC 1999). In presenting the RMP to the IWC for approval, the IWC SC offered three variants that it believed were acceptable and the IWC chose the most conservative option. Up until 2000, Norway used this option to set its national catch limits. It is now using the least conservative option presented by the SC. The national catch limit for 2006 was 1,052 whales, but only 521 were taken.<br/><br/>Coastal catches averaged about 200 per year off Iceland until 1985 when the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling came into effect. Small (a total of 100 expected for the period 2003-2006) “experimental” catches resumed in 2003. Catches off West Greenland continue, under an IWC catch limit of 175 whales annually, valid through 2007. As discussed above the IWC SC has expressed concern at its inability to provide scientific advice on an appropriate catch limit (IWC 2007a).<br/><br/>Catches resumed in the North Pacific in 1994 under scientific permit issued by the Government of Japan, and have increased since. The catch in 2006 was 195 from a permit for 220 (Miyashita and Kato 2007). <br/><br/>Minke whales are subject to some level of incidental catch in fishing gear throughout much of their range, but in most areas the numbers involved are probably not significant. The exceptions are the coasts of Japan and Korea, and possibly China. In particular, the high level of net catches of the Sea of Japan-Yellow Sea-East China Sea population, likely over 200 per year, is a source of concern, which has prompted the IWC SC to conduct an in-depth assessment of this stock. A multinational survey involving the four range states is planned for 2007.<br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Arctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Anonymous 2005c). The implications of this for minke whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.
2474		threats	eng	Whaling on this species has been intensive in the Northeast Atlantic, and reduced the population over the period 1952-83.  Catches were phased out by 1987, but whaling resumed, at a lower level, in 1993. Norway sets national catch limits based on the IWC’s Revised Management Procedure, a formula for setting safe catch limits (Hammond and Donovan in press). In presenting the RMP to the IWC for approval, the IWC SC offered three variants that it believed were acceptable and the IWC chose the most conservative option. Up until 2000, Norway used this option to set its national catch limits. It is now using the least conservative option presented by the SC. The national catch limit for 2006 was 1,052 whales, but only 521 were taken.<br/><br/>Coastal catches averaging about 200 per year were taken off Iceland until 1985 when the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling came into effect. Small (a total of 100 expected for the period 2003-2006) experimental catches resumed in 2003.  Catches off West Greenland continue, under an IWC catch limit of 175 whales annually, valid through 2007.  As discussed above the IWC Scientific Committee has expressed concern at its inability to provide scientific advice on an appropriate catch limit (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>Minke whales are subject to some level of incidental catch in fishing gear throughout much of their range, but in most areas the numbers involved are probably not significant.
2475		conservation	eng	Sei whales have been specifically protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission since 1975 in the North Pacific and 1979 in the Southern Hemisphere.  They have also been protected by the general moratorium on commercial whaling since 1986, although this does not cover catches taken under scientific permit.  No other specific conservation measures for sei whales are reported, but the species benefits from general whale protection laws in several countries.
2475		conservation	eng	Sei Whales have been specifically protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission since 1975 in the North Pacific and 1979 in the southern hemisphere. They have also been protected by the general moratorium on commercial whaling since 1986, although this does not cover catches taken under scientific permit. This species is included in CITES Appendix I although Iceland has held a reservation against this listing since 2000. The species is listed in Appendix II of CMS.
2475		distribution	eng	The sei whale is a cosmopolitan species, with a mainly offshore distribution, occurring in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, but probably not in the Northern Indian Ocean (Rice 1998). It is an occasional visitor to the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006). Sei whales undertake migrations between tropical and subtropical latitudes in winter to temperate and subpolar latitudes in summer, mainly in water temperatures of 8°-18°C, and tend not to penetrate to such high latitudes as other rorquals. Their winter distribution seems to be widely dispersed and is not fully mapped (Horwood 1987, 2002).<br/><br/>In the North Atlantic the summer distribution seems to be quite variable from year to year; however, sei whales typically occur north of an arc running from south of Nova Scotia in the west, to the northwest British Isles and on to Trondheim in Norway, as far as the Davis Strait and the northern end of the Denmark Strait in the north.  Occasional incursions into other areas have been noted (e.g. the Gulf of Maine, Schilling <em>et al.</em> 1993). Peaks of catch rates in early and late summer suggested a northward and southward migration through the former Nova Scotia whaling ground (Mitchell 1975).  Sei whales have been scarce in Norwegian waters in recent years despite significant catches there in the past.  Sei whales were caught in limited numbers, mainly in late summer, off northwestern Spain (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982), and have been recorded in winter as far south as the Caribbean and Cap Blanc, Mauritania (Rice 1998).
2475		distribution	eng	The Sei Whale is a cosmopolitan species, with a mainly offshore distribution, occurring in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, but probably not in the Northern Indian Ocean (Rice 1998); it is an occasional visitor to the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Sei Whales migrate between tropical and subtropical latitudes in winter and temperate and subpolar latitudes in summer, staying mainly in water temperatures of 8-–18°C, and tend not to penetrate to such high latitudes as other rorquals. Their winter distribution seems to be widely dispersed and is not fully mapped (Horwood 1987, 2002).<br/><br/>In the North Pacific, Sei Whales in summer are distributed mainly north of 40°N, including the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands (US), and to some extent into the Bering Sea, but not into the Okhotsk Sea. The wintering grounds are poorly known, but Sei Whales were formerly caught in winter off the Bonin Islands (Japan) (IWC 2006); animals tagged there have been recaptured throughout the summer range (Masaki 1977).<br/><br/>In the North Atlantic the summer distribution seems to be quite variable from year to year; however, Sei Whales typically occur north of an arc running from south of Nova Scotia in the west, to the northwestern British Isles and Trondheim (Norway) in the east. They occur as far north as the Davis Strait and the northern end of the Denmark Strait. Occasional incursions into other areas have been noted (e.g. the Gulf of Maine, Schilling <em>et al.</em> 1993). Peaks of catch rates in early and late summer suggested a northward and southward migration through the former Nova Scotia whaling ground (Mitchell 1975). Sei Whales have been scarce in Norwegian waters in recent years despite significant catches there in the past. Sei Whales were caught in limited numbers, mainly in late summer, off northwestern Spain (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982), and have been recorded in winter as far south as the Caribbean Sea and Cap Blanc, Mauritania (Rice 1998).<br/><br/>The summer (Jan–Feb) distribution in the southern hemisphere is mainly in the zone 40–50°S in the South Atlantic and southern Indian oceans, and 45–60°S in the South Pacific (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995). Known wintering grounds include a number of former low–latitude whaling grounds, including northeastern Brazil at 7°S (da Rocha 1983), Peru at 6°S (Valdivia <em>et al.</em> 1982), and in earlier years off Angola and the Congo (IWC 2006). Catches off western South Africa (Donkergat) and eastern South Africa (Durban) showed peaks in spring and autumn, suggestive of populations on migration routes (Horwood 1987). <br/><br/>Chilean whaling records (32–38°S) show catches and sightings of “Sei” Whales throughout the year including summer until the early 1980s, but some of these may have been Bryde’s Whales. However, some Sei Whales have been observed feeding in summer at around 42°S off Chile in recent years (Galletti <em>et al.</em> 2005).
2475		habitat	eng	Sei whales exhibit a greater variety in diet than, say, blue whales, but tend to feed on only one type of prey at a time.  Of 21,713 stomachs examined in the North Pacific, 82.7% contained copepods only, and 12.6% contained euphausiids only; of 31,494 stomachs examined in the Southern Hemisphere, 54.3% contained euphausiids only, 30.5% contained copepods only, and 14.4% contained amphipods only (Nemoto and Kawamura 1977). Sei whale stomachs examined in the Northeast Atlantic contained copepods and euphausiids (Jonsgård and Darling 1977).  Sei whale stomachs analysed in the North Pacific off California contained euphausiids and anchovies (Rice 1977).  Sei whales are noted for their erratic appearance in specific feeding grounds, being plentiful in some years and absent (sometimes for years or even decades) in others (Horwood 1987).
2475		habitat	eng	Sei Whales exhibit a greater variety in diet than, say, Blue Whales, but tend to feed on only one type of prey at a time. Of 21,713 stomachs examined in the North Pacific, 82.7% contained copepods only, and 12.6% contained euphausiids only; of 31,494 stomachs examined in the southern hemisphere, 54.3% contained euphausiids only, 30.5% contained copepods only, and 14.4% contained amphipods only (Nemoto and Kawamura 1977). Sei whale stomachs examined in the Northeast Atlantic contained copepods and euphausiids (Jonsgård and Darling 1977). Sei Whale stomachs analysed in the North Pacific off California contained euphausiids and anchovies (Rice 1977). Sei Whales are noted for their erratic appearance in specific feeding grounds, being plentiful in some years and absent (sometimes for years or even decades) in others (Horwood 1987).
2475		population	eng	<em><span style="font-weight: bold;">North Atlantic</span>.</em> The International Whaling Commission (IWC) recognizes three stock divisions for sei whales in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Iceland-Denmark Strait; and Eastern (including the waters of Spain, Portugal, British Isles, Faeroes and Norway), but the divisions were chosen on largely arbitrary grounds (Donovan 1991). <br/><br/>About 14,000 Sei Whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Atlantic. In addition, an unknown proportion of the approximately 30,000 unspecified large whales caught in the North Atlantic in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were Sei Whales. <br/><br/>Sei Whales appear to have been depleted in the eastern North Atlantic, with over 7,500 recorded taken in Norwegian and British waters prior to World War II (not counting the unspecified whales), but fewer than 200 since then. The species seems to be virtually absent there now: Norwegian surveys of northeast Atlantic waters in 1987, 1989, and annually from 1995–2005 have yielded only one Sei Whale sighting in the Eastern stock area. Small numbers of sei whales were caught during 1957–80 off northwestern Spain, mainly in late summer/autumn (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982); the stock identity of these animals is unclear.<br/><br/>By contrast, Sei Whales are still abundant in the central North Atlantic (Iceland-Denmark Strait IWC stock area), especially southwest of Iceland south to 50°N in summer. The only survey with reasonably complete coverage, designed specifically for the purpose of estimating sei whale abundance, was in 1989, and yielded a population estimate of 10,300 whales (CV 0.27) (Cattanach <em>et al.</em> 1993). Areas of Sei Whale abundance seem to shift markedly between years relative to the northern extent of the distribution, more so than for other baleen whale species (Gunnlaugsson <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>No recent abundance estimates are available for the western North Atlantic. The population size during 1966–69 was estimated at 2,078 (Mitchell and Chapman 1977) from sightings surveys, using strip transect methodology. About 1,200 Sei Whales were taken off Nova Scotia during 1962–72. <br/><br/><em><span style="font-weight: bold;">North Pacific</span>.</em> The last assessment of North Pacific Sei Whales by the IWC Scientific Committee was in 1974 (IWC 1977). The exploitable population (animals of legally catchable size) was estimated to have declined from 42,000 in 1963 to 8,600 in 1974 (Tillman 1977). Over 40,000 Sei Whales were caught during this period (IWC 2006). A 75% reduction in Sei Whale catch rates of Californian whaling stations during the 1960s is consistent with an ocean-wide decline (Rice 1977). Exploitation ceased in 1975. The extent to which the population has recovered since then is unclear.<br/> <br/>Hakamada <em>et al.</em> (2004) gave an estimate of 4,100 animals from one area of the western North Pacific, but attempts to extrapolate this to produce an estimate for the entire western North Pacific have not been accepted. It is likely that there has been some increase in the population since the end of exploitation, but given the tendency for sei whale distribution to change from year to year, it is hard to interpret the limited survey data that currently exist. <br/><br/>Sei Whales appear not to have formerly been uncommon in the eastern North Pacific. However, a preliminary estimate for the US west coast based on surveys in 1996 and 2001 is only 56 whales (Barlow 2003). In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, all potential sei/Bryde’s whales that could be specifically identified were found to be Bryde’s, suggesting that Sei Whales are now rare (Wade and Gerrodette 1993).<br/><br/><em><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Hemisphere</span>.</em> Over 200,000 Sei Whales are recorded taken by modern whaling in the southern hemisphere during 1905–1979. The IWC arbitrarily divides southern hemisphere Sei Whales, along with other southern hemisphere baleen whales, into six longitudinally defined management Areas. Sei Whales in all of the six Areas have been classified as Protection Stocks by the IWC since 1978. The greatest catches were during 1960–72, when they exceeded 5,000 in every year, topping at nearly 20,000 in 1964 alone. Most catches were taken in summer by pelagic fleets operating south of 40°S, but winter catches were also taken from land stations in Brazil, Peru and South Africa (and smaller numbers in Chile, where there is ambiguity with Bryde’s Whales).<br/><br/>The last assessment of southern hemisphere Sei Whales by the IWC Scientific Committee was conducted in 1979 (IWC 1980). Some extra information on these assessments is given by Horwood (1987). Based on catches/sightings per unit effort from Japanese catch and scouting vessels respectively, the “exploitable” stock size (Sei Whales of legal size, approximately 2/3 of total population), excluding Area II (South Atlantic sector), was estimated to have declined from about 64,000 in 1960 to about 11,000 by 1979. The population model used failed to produce an estimate for Area II, because nearly all the catch for this area was taken in just the two seasons 1964/65 and 1965/66, with nearly 30,000 Sei Whales being taken in these two years, yet the abundance indices suggested a more continuous decline during the 1960s and 1970s (IWC 1980). This suggests that the management Areas do not correspond to biological populations.<br/><br/>Other available evidence also suggests a severe and rapid decline in Sei Whale stocks during the 1960s and 1970s. The catch and sighting rates from winter whaling operations off Brazil and South Africa show even sharper declines. Abundance indices from the Brazilian whaling ground for Sei Whales during 1966–81 (da Rocha 1983) declined by ca. 90% during 1966–72. <br/><br/>No recovery of sei whales in Brazilian waters has been detected since that time (Zerbini <em>et al.</em> 1997, Andriolo <em>et al.</em> 2001). Catch and sightings indices off Durban, South Africa for 1965–74 (Best 1976) declined by over 95%. Tag-recapture data from pelagic whaling suggested an approximately 6-fold decline between 1962–76 (IWC 1980, Fig. 1).<br/><br/>IWC (1996, Table 2) gives a total population estimate for Sei Whales south of 30°S of about 10,000 based on a combination of IDCR and Japanese Scout Vessel (JSV) sightings data. It is difficult to know how much reliance to place on this estimate, because no variance is given, but it is consistent with a severe decline. No more recent summer data are available, except for the area south of 60°S, which is outside the main summer range of Sei Whales. In the absence of dedicated surveys in Sei Whale habitat, and resulting abundance estimates, it is not possible to assess whether there has been any increase in southern hemisphere sei whales since the cessation of whaling.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Generation time and maximum rate of increase.</em> The generation time is estimated to be 23.3 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The 3-generation time window for applying the decline criterion (A) is 1937–2007. <br/><br/>For assessment purposes, the IWC Scientific Committee has used a natural mortality rate of 0.06, an age at first reproduction declining (with stock depletion) from 12-13 years to 10-11 years, and an annual pregnancy rate increasing (with stock depletion) from 0.27 to 0.37-0.39 (IWC 1980; Horwood 1980). Assuming a maximum annual pregnancy rate of 0.40, a minimum age of first reproduction of 10 years, and no juvenile mortality, the maximum rate of increase is 2.7% p.a. Horwood and Millward (1987) also conclude that the maximum rate of increase for sei whale populations is less than 3% per year.<br/><br/><em><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population assessment</span>.</em> Because the available published assessments for this species are not up to date, an updated population assessment is conducted here to enable assessment of the population reduction over the period 1937-2007 relative to the A criterion. While the available data do not permit a scientifically rigorous estimation of the extent of population reduction, it is reasonable to use conventional population assessment methods to provide a crude indication of the extent of possible reduction relative to the criteria. A conventional deterministic age-structured model with an age at first capture (“recruitment”) (<em>ar</em>) and an age at first reproduction (am), and linear density-dependence was applied to the North Pacific, North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere regions separately. The results are provided in the linked PDF document, and constitutes an integral part of this assessment.
2475		population	eng	<strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>The IWC recognizes three stock divisions for sei whales in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Iceland-Denmark Strait; and Eastern (including the waters of Spain, Portugal, British Isles, Faeroes and Norway), but the divisions were chosen on largely arbitrary grounds (Donovan 1991). <br/><br/>About 14,000 sei whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Atlantic.  In addition, an unknown proportion of the approximately 30,000 unspecified large whales caught in the North Atlantic in the late 19th and early 20th century were sei whales.  <br/><br/>Sei whales appear to have been depleted in the eastern North Atlantic, with over 7,500 recorded taken in Norwegian and British waters prior to WWII (not counting the unspecified whales), but fewer than 200 since then.  The species seems to be virtually absent there now: Norwegian surveys of northeast Atlantic waters in 1987, 1989, and annually from 1995-2005 have yielded only one sei whale sighting in the Eastern stock area.  Small numbers of sei whales were caught during 1957-80 off northwestern Spain, mainly in late summer/autumn (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982); the stock identity of these animals is unclear.<br/><br/>By contrast, sei whales are still abundant in the central North Atlantic (Iceland-Denmark Strait IWC stock area), especially southwest of Iceland south to 50°N in summer.  The only survey with reasonably complete coverage, designed specifically for the purpose of estimating sei whale abundance, was in 1989, and yielded a population estimate of 10,300 whales (CV 0.27) (Cattanach <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Areas of sei whale abundance seems to shift markedly between years relative to the northern extent of the distribution, more so than for other baleen whale species (Gunnlaugsson <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>No recent abundance estimates are available for the western North Atlantic. The population size during 1966-69 was estimated at 2,078 (Mitchell and Chapman 1977) from sightings surveys, using strip transect methodology. About 1,200 sei whales were taken off Nova Scotia during 1962-72.<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong><br/>The default value of 23.3 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species.
2475		threats	eng	Sei Whale exploitation by modern whalers was particularly intensive in the southern hemisphere and the North Pacific from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s, following the depletion of Blue, Fin and Humpback Whales. Sei Whale stocks were seriously depleted during this period. Exploitation in the North Atlantic occurred over a longer period and was less intensive, except in the eastern North Atlantic, where the population appears not to have recovered from early modern whaling. Commercial exploitation ceased in the North Pacific in 1975, in the southern hemisphere in 1979 and in the North Atlantic in 1989. Catches by Japan under scientific permit resumed in the North Pacific in 2002: since 2004, the annual take has been 100 animals.<br/><br/>Reports of other human-caused deaths of Sei Whales are rare. Two fatal ship strikes (Sei Whales found dead on the bows of ships) were reported on the US East Coast during 2000–2004 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is hard to extrapolate from known cases to an estimated total, but Sei Whales appear to be at relatively low risk of human impacts, probably because of their largely offshore distribution.<br/><br/>Rice (1961, 1974) reported a pathological condition in several North Pacific sei whales which resulted in deterioration or loss of baleen; however, the current frequency of this condition, and its impact (if any) on the population, are unknown.
2475		threats	eng	Sei whale exploitation by modern whalers was particularly intensive in the Southern Hemisphere and the North Pacific from the late 1950s to the mid 1970s, following the depletion of the larger blue, fin and humpback whales. Sei whale stocks were seriously depleted during this period. Exploitation in the North Atlantic occurred over a longer period and was less intensive, except in the eastern North Atlantic, where the population appears not to have recovered from early modern whaling. Commercial exploitation ceased in the North Pacific in 1975, in the Southern Hemisphere in 1979 and in the North Atlantic in 1989. Catches by Japan under scientific permit resumed in the North Pacific in 2002: since 2004, the annual take has been 100 animals.<br/><br/>Reports of other human-caused mortalities of sei whales are rare. Two fatal ship strikes (sei whales found dead on the bows of ships) have been reported on the US East Coast during 2000-2004 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is hard to extrapolate from known cases to an estimated total, but sei whales appear to be at relatively low risk of human impacts, probably because of their largely offshore distribution.<br/><br/>Rice (1961, 1974) reported a pathological condition in several North Pacific sei whales which resulted in deterioration or loss of baleen; however, the current frequency of this condition, and its impact (if any) on the population, are unknown.
2476		conservation	eng	The Bryde’s whale was the incidental beneficiary of IWC area restrictions on factory ship whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species, at a time when the Bryde’s whale was not yet recognised as a distinct species by the whaling industry (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The Bryde’s whale is included in Appendix I of CITES although Japan has held a reservation against this listing since 1983. The species (as <em>B. edeni</em>) is listed in Appendix II of CMS.
2476		distribution	eng	Because the number of species or subspecies is still unresolved, and because the different forms are not readily distinguishable at sea, considerable uncertainty remains with regard to the geographic range of each form. <br/><br/><em>Ordinary Bryde’s whales</em><br/>“Ordinary” large-type Bryde’s whales occur in the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans between about 40°N and 40°S or in waters warmer than 16.3°C (Kato 2002). Migration to equatorial waters in winter is documented for the southeast Atlantic population (Best 1996) and for the northwest Pacific population (Kishiro 1996). Migration patterns of other populations are poorly known<br/><br/>They are relatively common in the western North Pacific, mainly north of 20°N in summer and south of 20°N in winter. In the eastern North Pacific, they do not venture north of southern California (US), but there appears to be a resident population in the northern Gulf of California (Urbán and Flores 1996), and they occur throughout the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). They occur throughout the tropical Pacific, and across the South Pacific down to about 35°S, but with shifts in distributions between seasons (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995). They occur off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador but not during July to September (Valdivia <em>et al.</em> 1981), and off Chile in an upwelling area between 35°-37°S (Gallardo <em>et al.</em> 1983). In the southwestern Pacific, their distribution extends as far south as the North Island of New Zealand (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Bryde’s whales occur throughout the Indian Ocean north of about 35°S. Those in the southern Indian Ocean appear to be large-type animals (Ohsumi 1980b), as are the Bryde’s whales of the northwest Indian Ocean, which were taken illegally by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s (Mikhalev 1997), and those around the Maldives (Anderson 2005). <br/><br/>In the South Atlantic, there is a population that summers off the western coast of southern Africa, and migrates to West African equatorial waters in winter (Best 2001). Elsewhere in the Atlantic the distribution of Bryde’s whales is not well known. The Bryde’s whale appears to occur year-round throughout Brazilian waters (Zerbini <em>et al.</em> 1997). Bryde’s whales occur in the Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2004) and throughout the wider Caribbean (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2001). They do not occur in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006). They have been recorded as far north as Cape Hatteras in the northwest Atlantic (Rice 1998). <br/><br/><em>East China Sea</em><br/>Bryde’s whales which occur off southern and southwestern Japan are now considered to belong to an East China Sea population, having earlier been thought to be a local resident population (Kato and Kishiro 1999). Phylogenetic analyses suggest that they are a subspecies of Bryde’s whales (Yoshida and Kato 1999) or belong to the separate species <em>B. edeni</em> (Sasaki <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>South African inshore form</em><br/>There is a resident inshore population of Bryde’s whales off South Africa which shows some morphological differences from ordinary Bryde’s whales (Best 1977, 2001). Its main distribution is between Cape Recife and Saldanha Bay (Best 2001). It may simply be a local form of ordinary Bryde’s whale, but its taxonomic status has yet to be investigated genetically. <br/><br/><em>Other small forms</em><br/>Small-type “Bryde’s” whales that appear to be mature at small sizes have been found in various Asian waters and off Australia. <br/><br/>The <em>B. edeni</em> holotype (Anderson 1879) was found in the Gulf of Martaban, Andaman Sea. Further specimens were found on the Bay of Bengal coast of Myanmar (Anderson 1879) and in Bangladesh (Andrews 1918). The Junge (1950) specimen, used in recent studies as the genetic representative of <em>B. edeni</em>, is from Sugi Island, Sumatra (Indonesia) (close to Singapore). <br/><br/>A stranding from Hong Kong (China) and a rescued river-trapped individual in eastern Australian (Priddel and Wheeler 1998) have been found to be closely related phylogenetically to the “<em>B. edeni</em>” clade represented by the Junge (1950) specimen and the southwestern Japan whales (Sasaki <em>et al.</em> 2006, LeDuc and Dizon 2002). <br/><br/>Phylogenetic analyses reveal that at least some of the small “Bryde’s whales” taken in the Philippines artisanal fisheries (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996) were in fact <em>B. omurai</em> (Sasaki <em>et al</em>. 2006, LeDuc and Dizon 2002).<br/><br/>The identity of “Bryde’s whales” maturing at a small size (11-12 m) caught off western Australia (Bannister 1964) is unclear. They may be a local form, or related to small forms found elsewhere, or they may even have been <em>B. omurai. </em><br/><br/>The identity of eight small “Bryde’s whales” stranded in Thai waters (Andersen and Kinze 1993) is also unclear.
2476		habitat	eng	A long- standing prohibition on the operation of factory ships north of 40°S except in the North Pacific north of 20°N meant that Bryde’s whale populations largely escaped the consequences of whaling suffered by baleen whale species that feed in higher latitudes, although this regulation was not respected by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s, nor by the pirate whaling ship <em>Sierra</em> in the 1970s (see above). However, some populations such as the East China Sea and South African Inshore stocks may have been reduced by whaling. <br/><br/>Pelagic whaling for Bryde’s whales was suspended in the North Pacific from 1980 following a ban by the IWC on most factory ship whaling, but catches continued from the coast of Japan and the Bonin Islands until 1987. Pelagic whaling resumed in the western North Pacific in 2000 under special permits issued by the Japanese authorities, but to date catches have been limited to 50 per year (IWC 2006a). Like most cetaceans, Bryde’s whales are occasionally by-caught in fishing gear, but they do not appear to be especially susceptible. Records of vessel strikes are also rare.<br/><br/>There are ongoing (or at least recent) artisanal fisheries in the Philippines and Indonesia taking small “Bryde’s whales” (Dolar <em>et al.</em> 1994, Perrin <em>et al. </em>1996, Reeves 2002), but the catches include at least some specimens of <em>B. omurai</em> (LeDuc and Dizon 2002). It is unclear whether one or more forms of Bryde’s whale are also involved. In the absence of better information on the identity of the catches, it is not possible to judge whether these fisheries constitute a conservation threat.
2476		population	eng	<em>Catch statistics</em><br/>Prior to 1972, Bryde’s whales were not distinguished from sei whales in International Whaling Statistics, but in some cases the pre-1972 species breakdown of “sei” whale catches can be determined from original records, or approximated, based on current knowledge of the geographical and seasonal occurrence of sei and Bryde’s whales, or from the compositions of later catches in the same area and season (IWC 1997, 2006b). Bryde’s whales are distinguished from sei whales in Japanese national catch statistics from 1962, but in sighting records only from 1972 (Ohsumi 1978a).<br/><br/><em>Stock divisions</em><br/>In the North Pacific region, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee (SC) recognises the following stocks: Western North Pacific Stock (west of 150°W, down to 2°S), Eastern Tropical (east of 150°W down to 10°S), East China Sea, and Gulf of California (IWC 1996). The region of the South China Sea, and the Philippines and Indonesian and Solomon archipelagos are considered habitat of small-type Bryde’s whales and Omura’s whale, and not included in any putative stocks for ordinary Bryde’s whales, although the latter probably also occurs there (see above). <br/><br/>The IWC SC has not assessed Southern Hemisphere Bryde’s whales in recent times, but the IWC Schedule lists the following stocks, based on recommendations from the IWC Scientific Committee in 1980: western South Pacific (west of 150°W, but excluding Solomon Islands area), eastern South Pacific (south of 10°S), southern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, South African Inshore, and South Atlantic.<br/><br/><em>Western North Pacific</em><br/>The currently accepted abundance estimate for the western North Pacific is 26,000 (CV=24%) based on surveys conducted during 1998-2002. Catches of Bryde’s whales from coastal stations in Japan are thought to have begun in 1906 and continued uninterrupted until 1987 when Japan adhered to the IWC’s commercial whaling moratorium. Pelagic catches were taken by Japanese fleets during 1971-79 and by Soviet fleets during 1966-79. Bryde’s whales were also caught from Taiwan during 1976-80 from the Bonin islands (Japan) during 1946-52 and 1981-87, and offshore whaling from the Philippines during 1983-1985 (IWC 2006a). Japanese pelagic catches resumed in 2000 under scientific permit (50 per year). <br/><br/>An annual catch series totalling over 20,000 whales for the period 1911-87 was estimated by the IWC SC in 1996 (IWC 1997). Since then, some new information has come to light: for example, Kondo and Kasuya (2002) reported that catches of Bryde’s whales by Japanese operations in the Bonin Islands during 1981-87 had been falsely reported as 2,659, in order to keep within catch limits, but that the true total was 4,162. According to a 1995 population assessment by the IWC SC, the population was reduced, in the worst case, by 49% during 1911-96 (IWC 1996). Work on a revised catch series and assessment is in progress (IWC 2007). <br/><br/><em>Eastern tropical Pacific</em><br/>Wade and Gerrodette (1993) estimated 13,000 (CV= 20%) Bryde’s whales for the eastern tropical Pacific (in an irregularly-shaped area of 19 million km² between about 15°S and 25°N) from data collected during 1986-90. <br/><br/>An IWC/International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) —later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research (SOWER) — survey of the eastern equatorial Pacific (10°S-10°N, 80°-110°W) in December 1982 yielded an estimate of 17,000 (CV=32%) Bryde’s whales (IWC 1984), but the estimate should be recalculated using current methodology. <br/><br/>Bryde’s whales were distinguished from sei whales in Peruvian catch statistics from 1973, and 3,589 are recorded caught during 1973-83 (IWC 2006a). Of the “sei” whales reported caught during 1968-72, an estimated 1,953 were Bryde’s whales, to give a total Bryde’s catch of 5,542 during 1968-83. <br/><br/><em>Other North Pacific stocks</em><br/>The most recent accepted estimate for the East China Sea Stock is 137 (variance not calculated), and for the Gulf of California stock 235 (173-327) (IWC 1996). The East China Stock was subject to whaling in southwestern Japan until the early 1970s, and may have been depleted (Omura 1977).<br/><br/><em>Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>The Southern Hemisphere stocks of Bryde’s whales have not been re-assessed during the past 25 years, but the abundance estimates accepted at the time were: southern Indian Ocean − 13,854; western South Pacific − 16,585; and eastern South Pacific – 13,194 (IWC 1981). These were not based on what are currently accepted methods of survey design and analysis. Based on a majority recommendation of the Scientific Committee, the IWC subsequently reset the classification of these stocks to “zero catch limit pending a satisfactory estimate of stock size” (IWC 1983).<br/><br/>Of 1,705 “sei” whales reported taken off Chile during 1932-79 (IWC 2006a), an unknown proportion were Bryde’s whales (Gallardo <em>et al.</em> 1983).<br/><br/>The South African Inshore stock was estimated at 582 (±184) in 1983 (Best <em>et al.</em> 1984). Over 2,000 Bryde’s whales are recorded caught by modern whaling during 1911-67 in Cape Province, South Africa, including 1,300 during 1947-67 (IWC 2006a) of which most were from the inshore stock (IWC 1980). <br/><br/>No population estimates are available for the remainder of the South Atlantic. Of 2,536 “sei” whales taken by the pirate whaling ship Sierra in the South Atlantic during 1969-76, the majority are believed to be Bryde’s whales (IWC 1980). Of the over 5,000 “sei” whales recorded caught off Brazil during 1948-77, at least some were Bryde’s whales, but possibly only 8% (Omura 1962, Williamson 1975).<br/><br/><em>North Atlantic</em><br/>Apart from a population estimate for the Southern Gulf of Mexico of 40 (13-129) animals (Mullin and Fulling 2004) there are no abundance estimates for the North Atlantic. Some of the “sei” whales recorded around the Straits of Gibraltar in the first half of the 20th century may have been Bryde’s whales (Aguilar 1984).<br/><br/><em>Small-type Bryde’s whales</em><br/>No population estimates exist, and are unlikely to become available until methods are developed to identify them at sea and their range is better known.
2476		threats	eng	The Bryde’s whale was the incidental beneficiary of IWC area restrictions on factory ship whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species, at a time when the Bryde’s whale was not yet recognised as a distinct species by the whaling industry (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The Bryde’s whale is included in Appendix I of CITES although Japan has held a reservation against this listing since 1983. The species (as <em>B. edeni</em>) is listed in Appendix II of CMS.
2477		conservation	eng	The International Whaling Commission had granted protection to blue whales by 1966. Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. No blue whales have been recorded deliberately caught since 1978. They are protected by national regulations in many range states. Local measures may be required to protect the habitat of specific local populations in order to ensure their long-term viability in the face of increasing human impacts, e.g. see Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> (2005).
2477		conservation	eng	The IWC had granted protection to blue whales by 1966. Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation, which have objected to this provision. No blue whales have been recorded deliberately caught since 1978. The species is on Appendix I of both CITES and CMS. <br/><br/>Local measures may be required to protect the habitat of specific local populations in order to ensure their long-term viability in the face of increasing human impacts, e.g. see Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2005.
2477		distribution	eng	The blue whale is a cosmopolitan species, found in all oceans except the Arctic, but absent from some regional seas such as the Mediterranean, Okhotsk and Bering seas.<br/><br/>The Antarctic form <em>B. m. intermedia,</em> which used to be by far the most abundant form of blue whale, occurs in the Antarctic in summer, from the Antarctic Polar Front up to and into the ice (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006), including (in the past) the South Georgia area. Its winter distribution is poorly known, but the presumption has been that animals migrate in winter to lower latitudes, largely because blue whales were caught off Namibia, South Africa and Chile in winter (Best 1998, Mackintosh 1965). <br/><br/>Pygmy blue whales (<em>B. m. brevicauda</em>) are confined mainly to the area north of 55°S even in summer, but with one record at 56°15'S (Ichihara 1966). They are most abundant in the southern Indian Ocean on the Madagascar plateau, and off South Australia and Western Australia, where they form part of a more or less continuous distribution from Tasmania to Indonesia. Blue whales are found year round in the northern and equatorial Indian Ocean, especially around Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, and at least seasonally near the Seychelles and in the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>Blue whales occur in the eastern Pacific from around 44°S in southern Chile (Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2005) as far as the Costa Rica Dome where they are present year-round (Reilly and Thayer 1990). There may be a gap from there to Baja California where they are quite common as also off the Californian coast (Calambokidis and Barlow 2004) but tracking of a tagged whale suggests that some of the Californian whales may migrate to the Costa Rica Dome in winter (Mate <em>et al.</em> 1999). North of 40°N, blue whales occur across the North Pacific from the coast of Oregon to the Kurile Islands (Russian Federation), and north to the Aleutian Islands (US -Alaska) but not far into the Bering Sea. In the past blue whales were caught off southern Japan and the Korean peninsula, but none have been seen there in recent years.<br/><br/>In the North Atlantic the summer distribution of blue whales extends in the west from the Scotian Shelf to the Davis Strait (Canada) (NMFS 1998). Blue whales occur in the Denmark Strait, around Iceland and north to the ice edge, and in the northeast to Svalbard (Norway). Historically, blue whales were commonly caught along the coasts of North and West Norway, the Faeroes and the NW British Isles. They also occur in low numbers off NW Spain (Bérubé and Aguilar 1998) and in the past near the Strait of Gibraltar, but not in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). The winter distribution is poorly known but it appears that in the past blue whales were widely distributed in the southern half of the North Atlantic in winter (Reeves <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/><br/>McDonald <em>et al.</em> (2006) use song to suggest nine different groupings of blue whales. They argue that because song is used in mating, that these different song types, five of which have data spanning over 30 years and showing stability, should form the basis for population structure hypotheses. Although some of the geographic locations correspond to IWC stocks, for example the northern Indian Ocean, others do not. Thus, the population structure in this account likely underestimates the true number of discreet groups of blue whales.
2477		distribution	eng	The blue whale is a cosmopolitan species, found in all oceans except the Arctic, but absent from some regional seas such as the Mediterranean, Okhotsk and Bering seas. In the North Atlantic the summer distribution of blue whales extends in the west from the Scotian Shelf to the Davis Strait (NMFS 1998).  Blue whales occur in the Denmark Strait, around Iceland and north to the ice edge, and in the northeast to Svalbard.  Historically, blue whales were commonly caught along the coasts of North and West Norway, the Faeroes and the NW British Isles. They also occur in low numbers off NW Spain (Bérubé and Aguilar 1998) and in the past near the Strait of Gibraltar, but not in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).  The winter distribution is poorly known but it appears that in the past blue whales were widely distributed in the southern half of the North Atlantic in winter (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2004).
2477		habitat	eng	Blue whales feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (krill), with a variety of species being taken by different blue whale populations, such as <em>Euphausia superba</em> in the Antarctic, <em>Nyctiphanes australis</em> off southern Australia (Gill 2002), <em>Euphausia recurva</em> off Western Australia (Bannister pers comm.) and <em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em> off the Galapagos (Palacios 1999). They feed both at the surface and also at depth, following the diurnal vertical migrations of their prey to at least 100m (Sears 1999).  The migration patterns of blue whales are not well understood, but appear to be highly diverse.  Some populations appear to be resident year-round in habitats of year-round high productivity, while others undertake long migrations to high-latitude feeding grounds (see above), but the extent of migrations and the components of the populations that undertake them are poorly known.
2477		habitat	eng	Blue whales feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (krill), with a variety of species being taken by different blue whale populations, such as <em>Euphausia superba</em> in the Antarctic, <em>Nyctiphanes australis</em> off southern Australia (Gill 2002), <em>Euphausia recurva</em> off Western Australia (J. Bannister <em>pers. comm.</em> 2007) and <em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em> off the Galápagos (Palacios 1999). They feed both at the surface and also at depth, following the diurnal vertical migrations of their prey to at least 100 m (Sears 2002). <br/><br/>The migration patterns of blue whales are not well understood, but appear to be highly diverse. Some populations appear to be resident year-round in habitats of year-round high productivity, while others undertake long migrations to high-latitude feeding grounds (see above), but the extent of migrations and the components of the populations that undertake them are poorly known.
2477		population	eng	<em>Generation time. </em><br/>The inferred value of 31 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al. </em>(2007) is considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species. That implies that the three generation time window for applying the A (past reduction) criterion is 1914-2007.<br/><br/><em>North Atlantic</em><br/>In the North Atlantic, about 400 whales have been photo-identified in the Gulf of St Lawrence (Ramp <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Pike <em>et al. </em>(2004) estimate 1,000-2,000 in the central North Atlantic (Iceland, Denmark Strait, East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Faeroes and the British Isles). Sightings of blue whales are still very rare in areas where substantial catches were made in the past e.g. off Norway and especially in northern Norway (Christensen <em>et al.</em> 1992, Norwegian sighting surveys 1995-2006), Svalbard and the British Isles. Approximately 8,000 blue whales are specifically recorded in whaling statistics since the start of modern whaling in northern Norway in 1868, but an additional 30,000 unspecified large whales were recorded caught in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of which perhaps as many as 25% could have been blue whales (IWC 2006). However, only about 1,600 blue whales were caught after 1914, hence the main decline occurred primarily before the time window of interest (three generations). The population is estimated to have been recovering at 5.2% p.a. (SE 1.1%) in the Iceland/Denmark Strait area during 1969-88, after catching had ceased (Sigurjónsson and Gunnlaugsson 1990). Taken together this all suggests that the North Atlantic population was very low when whaling ceased in the mid-1960s (apart from a very few pirate whaling catches up to 1978) and may now be at or above the 1911 level but still well below the pre-whaling level.<br/><br/><em>Antarctic</em><br/>The Antarctic blue whale <em>B. m. intermedia</em> was extremely abundant in the past: about 341,830 blue whales have been recorded caught in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic (IWC 2006) in the 20th century, of which 12,618 were identified as pygmy blue whales or are assumed to have been so from their location (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2004). About 40,000 of these were taken around South Georgia. In addition, the majority of the over 17,000 blue whales caught off southern Africa were probably Antarctic blue whales (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). Ignoring these and other catches north of 40°S, Branch <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimated the pre-exploitation (1905) abundance to be 239,000 (202,000-311,000). The current population size in 1996, based primarily on data from the IWC-sponsored whale sightings cruises conducted during 1978-2001, was estimated to be 1,700 (860-2,900) and to be increasing at the rate of 7.3% (1.4-11.6%) p.a. Branch <em>et al.</em>'s initial (1905) population estimate can be taken as a conservative proxy for the 1911 population size, because few (<br/><em>Southern Indian Ocean</em><br/>No precise estimates are available of the population of pygmy blue whales (<em>B. m. brevicauda</em>) in the southern Indian Ocean. From a survey in December 1996, Best <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated the abundance of pygmy blue whales in a survey area south of Madagascar to be 424 with wide confidence limits (about 190-930) and suggested, based on the distribution of past catches, that the total population in the southwestern Indian Ocean may be about 3 times that in the survey area. Blue whales appear to be rare in the central southern Indian Ocean (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). They occur in the southeastern Indian Ocean off western and southern Australia but are abundant only in quite small areas (Kato <em>et al.</em> 1996, Bannister <em>et al.</em> 2007, Gill 2002), suggesting a population only in the hundreds. The catch of at least 12,618 pygmy blue whales in the southern Indian Ocean in a rather short period during 1960-71 (Branch <em>et al.</em>, 2004) suggests that the initial population was at least this size, and hence that the current population is still depleted, but not as severely as the Antarctic blue whale.<br/><br/><em>Northern Indian Ocean</em><br/>No population estimates are available but blue whales are regularly observed off Sri Lanka (Alling <em>et al.</em> 1991) and the Maldives (Anderson 2005). Mikhalev (1996) reports 1,294 pygmy blue whales caught illegally by Soviet fleets during 1963-66, mainly off the Seychelles, the Maldives, in the Gulf of Aden, and west of southern India and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/><em>Western North Pacific</em><br/>No quantitative abundance estimates for western North Pacific blue whales are available. Japanese scouting surveys recorded 183 blue whales during about 165,000 nmi of search effort in the North Pacific north of 40°N in summer, 1974-2005, spread fairly uniformly throughout the area, although none were observed in coastal waters off Japan where they were hunted historically (Japanese Progress Reports to the IWC, 1975-2006; Clapham <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/><br/>The IWC data tables list 7,300 blue whales caught in the North Pacific in the 20th Century (western and eastern), but to these should be added about 700 blue whales caught by Soviet fleets in the 1960s that were not reported at the time (Doroshenko 2000). In addition, about 20,000 unspecified large whales were caught during 1900-1930, of which an unknown proportion would have been blue whales (IWC 2006). About 1,500 were taken during the first half of the 20th  century off southern Japan to Taiwan and Korea where no blue whales have been seen in recent times (Clapham <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/><br/><em>Eastern North Pacific</em><br/>For blue whales in the eastern North Pacific (sub-specific identity uncertain), available population estimates are ~3,000 for the area off California and Baja California (Calambokidis and Barlow 2004). Some proportion of ~1,400 whales from a study that spans the equator and runs from late July through early December are from the North Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993), although there may have been some double counting of whales censused off California and Baja California (Calamblokidis and Barlow 2004). The locations of the American pelagic catches are not all recorded, but up to 2,000 of the recorded blue whale catches and an unknown proportion of the unspecified catches could have been from the California-Mexican blue whale population.<br/><br/><em>Eastern South Pacific</em> <br/><br/>Some proportion of ~1,400 whales from a study that spans the equator and runs from late July through early December are from the South Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). Donovan (1984) does not provide an abundance estimate from a survey of Peruvian and Ecuadorian waters, but on the assumption of a similar effective sighting distance to that calculated by Best <em>et al.</em> (2003) using the same vessel and similar procedures, an abundance of the order of ~1,000 whales is implied. No abundance estimates for Chile are available, but the fact that a blue whale fishery catching several hundred animals per year continued until its closure in 1967 without obvious signs of decline (371 blue whales being taken in 1965 alone) suggests a population in the thousands. No abundance estimate has yet been calculated from the IWC Blue Whale Survey in Chilean waters (Findlay <em>et al.</em>1998) but their sighting rate (~5 blue whales per 1,000 km) is consistent with a population in the low thousands. The survey missed a newly discovered blue whale summer feeding and nursery ground around Chiloé Island (41°-44°S) (Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2005), which appears to contain a population at least in the hundreds.<br/><br/><em>Other areas</em><br/>Recent records of blue whales are very rare from the South Atlantic. A stranding at 34°S in southern Brazil could not be diagnosed unambiguously as a pygmy or "true" blue whale (Dalla Rosa and Secchi 1997). There are no records for the offshore central South Pacific outside the Antarctic, although data for this area are sparse (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/><em>Global</em><br/>The global population of blue whales is uncertain, but based on the above information, the global total for the species is plausibly in the range 10,000-25,000, corresponding to about 3-11% of the 1911 population size.
2477		population	eng	North Atlantic<br/>In the North Atlantic, about 400 whales have been photo-identified in the Gulf of St Lawrence (Ramp <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Pike <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate 1,000-2,000 in the central North Atlantic (Iceland, Denmark Strait, East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Faeroes and the British Isles). Sightings of blue whales are still very rare off Norway, Svalbard and the British Isles despite substantial past catches, especially in northern Norway (Christensen <em>et al.</em> 1992, Norwegian sighting surveys 1995-2006).  Approximately 8,000 blue whales are specifically recorded caught in whaling statistics since the start of modern whaling in northern Norway in 1868, but an additional 30,000 unspecified large whales were recorded caught in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of which perhaps as much as  25% could have been blue whales (IWC 2006). However, only about 1,600 blue whales were caught after 1917, hence the main decline occurred primarily before this time. The population is estimated to have been recovering at 5.2% p.a. (SE 1.1%) in the Iceland/Denmark Strait area during 1969-88, after catching had ceased (Sigurjónsson and Gunnlaugsson 1990). Taken together this all suggests that the North Atlantic population was very low when whaling ceased in the mid 1960s (apart from a very few pirate whaling catches up to 1978), and may now be at or above the 1911 level, but still well below the pre-whaling level.<br/><br/>Generation time. <br/>The default value of 32 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species.
2477		threats	eng	The main threat in the past was direct exploitation, which only became possible in the modern era using deck-mounted harpoon cannons. Blue whale hunting started in the North Atlantic in 1868 and spread to other regions around 1900 after the northeastern Atlantic populations had been severely reduced. The Antarctic and North Atlantic populations were probably depleted to the low hundreds by the time whaling ceased, but are increasing. Blue whales have been protected worldwide since 1966, although they continued to be caught illegally by USSR fleets until 1972.  The last recorded deliberate catches were off Spain in 1978 (IWC, 2006). <br/><br/>Blue whales are subject to some ship strikes and entanglements (NMFS 1998) but reported cases are few. The remote distribution of some blue whale populations probably makes them less vulnerable to human impacts than some other cetacean species, but local populations that inhabit waters with significant levels of human activity may be subject to some threat, such as disturbance from vessel traffic, including ship noise (e.g. Gulf of St Lawrence population, NMFS 1998).  Globally, there appear to be no major threats to blue whales at present.
2477		threats	eng	The main threat in the past was direct exploitation, which only became possible in the modern era using deck-mounted harpoon cannons. Blue whale hunting started in the North Atlantic in 1868 and spread to other regions around 1900 after the northeastern Atlantic populations had been severely reduced. The Antarctic and North Atlantic populations were probably depleted to the low hundreds by the time whaling ceased, but are increasing (see above). Blue whales have been protected worldwide since 1966, although they continued to be caught illegally by former USSR fleets until 1972. The last recorded deliberate catches were off Spain in 1978 (IWC 2006). <br/><br/>Blue whales are subject to some ship strikes and entanglements (NMFS 1998) but reported cases are few. The remote distribution of some blue whale populations probably makes them less vulnerable to human impacts than some other cetacean species, but local populations that inhabit waters with significant levels of human activity may be subject to some threat, such as disturbance from vessel traffic, including ship noise (<em>e.g.</em> Gulf of St Lawrence population, NMFS 1998). Globally, there appear to be no major threats to blue whales at present.<br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Antarctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Antarctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2006). The implications of this for blue whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.<br/><br/>Small populations such as the surviving Antarctic population can have a number of interacting effects that accelerate overall risk (Gilpin and Soule, 1986). Among those effects are demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and density dispensation (Allee effects). Although the expectation is that these threats could be serious because cetaceans are social animals with low reproductive output, the fact that the Antarctic population is increasing is encouraging.
2478		conservation	eng	A large international protected area (approx. 90,000 km²), the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals, was recently established and listed among Special Areas of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMIs) (Barcelona Convention SPA Protocol) and encompasses a key Fin Whale feeding area in portions of the Provençal, Corsican, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian and northern Sardinian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2008). Whale-watching regulations are likely to be incorporated into national legislation in the near future.<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of CMS, in Appendix II of the Bern Convention, in Appendix I of CITES, and in Annex 2 of the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and the Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean of the Barcelona Convention. For the present at least, Mediterranean Fin Whales are protected by the International Whaling Commission’s moratorium on commercial whaling that came into force in 1986.
2478		conservation	eng	<p>The IWC set catch limits at zero for fin whales in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere from 1976. The IWC adopted a provision (popularly known as the commercial whaling moratorium) in 1982 to set all catch limits for commercial whaling to zero from1986. This provision does not apply to Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. Iceland also considers itself not bound by the provision, based on a reservation attached to its adherence to the treaty governing the IWC. Limited “aboriginal subsistence” whaling is permitted by the IWC for Fin Whales in Greenland.</p>  Fin Whales are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but this does not apply to Iceland, Norway and Japan, who hold reservations. Fin whales are also listed on Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). Under the Agreement for Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black and Mediterranean Seas (ACCOBAMS), fin whales in the Mediterranean, along with other cetaceans, are protected from deliberate killing by signatories to the agreement.
2478		conservation	eng	The IWC set catch limits to zero for fin whales in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere in 1976. Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for fin whales taken off West Greenland.  Fin whales are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but this does not apply to Iceland, Norway and Japan, who hold reservations. Fin whales are also listed on Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).  Under the Agreement for Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black and Mediterranean Seas (ACCOBAMS), fin whales in the Mediterranean, along with other cetaceans, are protected from deliberate killing by signatories to the agreement.
2478		distribution	eng	Fin Whales are regularly encountered throughout the western and central  Mediterranean basins, with seasonal summer concentrations in highly productive  portions of the Corsican, Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas, where they  apparently feed on a single euphausiid species, <em>Meganyctiphanes norvegica</em> (Orsi Relini <em>et al</em>. 1998). Limited evidence exists of similar feeding activities in the eastern Ionian  Sea (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em>  2003). Seasonal (late winter) feeding aggregations of Fin Whales have  also been observed recently in the Sicily Channel (Canese <em>et al.</em> 2006). Photo-identification data imply a high degree of site fidelity in fin whales summering in the Ligurian Sea (Zanardelli <em>et al.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1998). Breeding and calving grounds have yet to be identified (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2003). Fin Whales are extremely rare in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas and in the Levantine Basin.
2478		distribution	eng	Fin whales occur worldwide, mainly but not exclusively further offshore. They are rare in the tropics, except in certain cooler-water areas such as off Peru.  <br/><br/><strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>In the North Atlantic, the fin whale's range extends as far as Svalbard in the northeast (but rarely far into the Barents Sea), to the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in the northwest (but rarely into the inner Canadian Arctic), to the Canary Islands in the southeast, and to the Antilles in the southwest (Rice 1998, Perry <em>et al.</em> 1999), but it is rare in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2001). Their main summer range in the northwest Atlantic extends from Cape Hatteras (39°N) northward (Anon. 2005). In former times, fin whales were caught year-round near the Straits of Gibraltar. While there may be some north-south migration between summer and winter, it does not necessarily involve the entire population, and North Atlantic fin whales may occur to some extent throughout the year in all of their range, as suggested by acoustic data (Clark 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>There is a resident population in the central and western Mediterranean which is genetically distinct from that of the North Atlantic (Bérubé <em>et al.</em> 1998).  The species also occurs, but rarely, in the eastern Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
2478		distribution	eng	Fin Whales occur worldwide, mainly, but not exclusively, in offshore waters. They are rare in the tropics, except in certain cool-water areas, such as off Peru. <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">North Atlantic</em><br/>In the North Atlantic, the Fin Whale’s range extends as far as Svalbard (Norway) in the northeast (but rarely far into the Barents Sea), to the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay (Canada and Denmark (Greenland)) in the northwest (but rarely into the inner Canadian Arctic), to the Canary Islands (Spain) in the southeast, and to the Antilles in the southwest (Rice 1998, Perry <em>et al.</em> 1999), but it is rare in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2001). Their main summer range in the Northwest Atlantic extends from Cape Hatteras (39°N) (US) northward (Anon. 2005a). In former times, Fin Whales were caught year-round near the Straits of Gibraltar. While there may be some north-south migration between summer and winter, it does not necessarily involve the entire population, and North Atlantic Fin Whales may occur to some extent throughout the year in all of their range, as suggested by acoustic data (Clark 1995).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean</em><br/>There is a resident subpopulation in the central and western Mediterranean which is genetically distinct from that of the North Atlantic (Bérubé <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species also occurs rarely in the eastern Mediterranean (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">North Pacific</em><br/>In the eastern North Pacific, Fin Whales occur year-round off the central and southern California coast (Anon. 2003). They occur in summer off the entire coast of western North America from California into the Gulf of Alaska. Fin Whales marked off California in winter were recaptured in summer by whaling operations along the entire coast, suggesting migration. Offshore, Fin Whales occur across the North Pacific north of 40°N, at least from May to September in summer, with some tendency for a northward shift in distribution in high summer, when they also enter the Okhotsk Sea (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1995). They occur in the Bering Sea and some have been seen in the Chuckchi Sea, but rarely in the Beaufort Sea (Angliss and Outlaw 2004). <br/><br/>Fin Whales occur, albeit in small numbers, in Hawaiian waters in both summer and winter (Anon 2005b). They are rare or absent throughout the tropical North Pacific. <br/><br/>While there appears to be some migration, acoustic data suggests that overall there is no marked seasonality in distribution in the North Pacific (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 2000), in contrast to the traditional view of the Fin Whale as a migratory species.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Gulf of California</em><br/>The Fin Whales inhabiting the Gulf of California constitute a resident, genetically isolated subpopulation (Bérubé <em>et al.</em> 2002). Telemetry information has shown year-round residency in this area, with seasonal latitudinal movements (Urbán <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">East China Sea</em><br/>Fin Whales in the East China Sea are generally recognized as being a distinct subpopulation from those of the North Pacific (Fujino 1960). Fin Whales appear to be rare today off the Korean peninsula and southern and central Japan, but large numbers were caught there in the 20th century (IWC 2006); it is not clear whether these animals were part of the East China Sea population or a separate grouping. <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>While some Fin Whales do penetrate into the high Antarctic, along with Blue, Minke and Humpback Whales, the bulk of the Fin Whale summer distribution is in middle latitudes, mainly 40°S-60°S in the southern Indian and South Atlantic oceans, but 50°-65°S in the South Pacific, as evidenced by both sightings data and past catches (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995, IWC 2006a).<br/><br/>The winter distribution is poorly known, but based on catch results Fin Whales were formerly common off southern Africa in winter and became scarce there following depletion of the species in the Southern Ocean, consistent with this being a wintering area of a migratory population (Best 2003). Catches were mainly off South Africa, but in the early 20th century there were also catches off Angola, Congo and Mozambique (Best 1994).<br/><br/>Recent sighting were made in the mid-latitude region (between 55°S and 61°S) by the IWC/SOWER (Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research Program). A high density area of Fin Whales was observed between 0°E and 5°E in the south of Bouvet Island (Ensor <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Large numbers of Fin Whales were caught off South Georgia in the past, but the species is not common there now (Moore <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is assumed that animals caught at South Georgia were migratory (Mackintosh 1965), but the location of their wintering grounds is unknown. Fin Whales are now rare in Brazilian waters, but there is virtually no information from the period before the depletion of the whales around South Georgia (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 1997). A few were taken in a brief period of whaling in southern Brazil in the early 1960s.<br/><br/>Winter catches of Fin Whales off Chile, which also declined from the 1950s onwards in line with declining Southern Ocean stocks, are also suggestive of a wintering ground. Fin Whales were caught off Peru for only a few years from 1965 (prior to that the industry had focused on sperm whales), and catches petered out in the early 1970s.
2478		habitat	eng	Fin whales are often portrayed in the secondary literature as eating fish including juvenile herring (e.g. NAMMCO undated). However, the available quantitative evidence suggests that the fin whale's reputation as a fish-eater is largely overstated. In Icelandic catches, 96% contained krill only, 2.5% a mixture of krill and fish, and 1.6% fish only (Sigurjónsson and Víkingsson 1997), while only one of  267 fin whales caught in the northeast Pacific off British Columbia, Canada,  contained fish (Flinn <em>et al.</em> 2002), and over 99% of stomachs with food in the Antarctic contained krill (Kawamura 1994). On the other hand, Overholtz and Nicolas (1979) report apparent feeding of fin whales on American sand lance (sand eel) <em>Ammodytes americanus</em> in the northwest Atlantic, and Mitchell (1975) found that capelin comprised 80-90% of prey in fin whales caught off Newfoundland.  Capelin abundance is extremely variable over time, and fin whales may feed opportunistically on capelin in high-capelin years. In summary, although the fin whale is more flexible in its diet than the blue whale (<em>B. musculus</em>), its consumption of fish is not necessarily a significant problem.
2478		habitat	eng	Fin Whales in the Mediterranean are most common in deep waters (400–2,500 m), but they can occur in slope and shelf waters as well, depending on the distribution of their prey (Gannier <em>et al.</em> 2002; Laran and Gannier 2008; Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em> 2003; Panigada <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2008). They favour upwelling and frontal zones with high zooplankton concentrations, their main prey in the region. Habitat-use results show that cetacean distribution in the western Ligurian Sea may change in response to climate variability, with fin whales avoiding areas with extreme sea-surface temperature (SST) values (different from the monthly average) (Azzellino <em>et al. </em>2008).
2478		habitat	eng	The available quantitative evidence suggests that the fin whale is a catholic feeder, sometimes preying heavily on fish but mostly on crustaceans. In Icelandic catches, 96% contained krill only, 2.5% a mixture of krill and fish, and 1.6% fish only (Sigurjónsson and Víkingsson 1997), while only one of 267 fin whales caught in the northeast Pacific off British Columbia, Canada, contained fish (Flinn<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2002), and over 99% of stomachs with food in the Antarctic contained krill (Kawamura 1994). On the other hand, Overholtz and Nicolas (1979) reported apparent feeding by fin whales on American sand lance (sand eel) <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammodytes americanus</span> in the northwest Atlantic, and Mitchell (1975) found that capelin comprised 80-90% of prey in fin whales caught off Newfoundland. Capelin abundance is extremely variable over time, and Fin Whales may feed opportunistically on capelin in high-capelin years.
2478		population	eng	<em style="font-weight: bold;">North Atlantic</em><br/>North Atlantic Fin Whales were comprehensively assessed by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee (SC) in 1991 (IWC 1992), and an update for the northern part of the region was undertaken in 2006 in a joint workshop with the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO) (IWC 2007a). North Atlantic Fin Whale stocks had previously been assessed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1976 (IWC 1977). <br/><br/>Based mainly on past whaling operations, the IWC recognizes seven management areas in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Newfoundland-Labrador; West Greenland; East Greenland-Iceland; North Norway; West Norway-Faeroe Islands; British Isles-Spain-Portugal. Based on genetic evidence, it is now considered more likely that there are from two to four breeding stocks, which use these seven management areas in different proportions (IWC 2007a).<br/><br/>The best available estimates of recent abundance accepted by the IWC Scientific Committee (IWC 2007c) are: 25,800 (CV 0.125) in 2001 for the central North Atlantic (East Greenland-Iceland, Jan Mayen (Norway) and the Faeroes (Denmark)); 4,100 (CV 0.21) in 1996-2001 for the northeastern North Atlantic (North and West Norway); 17,355 (CV 0.27) in 1989 for the Spain-Portugal-British Isles area (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992); and 1,722 (CV 0.37) for West Greenland in 2005 (IWC 2007b) There are no complete estimates for the western North Atlantic , but partial estimates are 1,013 (95% CI 459-2,654) for Newfoundland in 2002-3 (IWC 2007a), and 2,814 (CV 0.21) for the east coast of North America from the Gulf of St Lawrence southward (Anon. 2005a). <br/><br/>Subject to a caveat concerning the different dates of the surveys, these figures can be summed to provide a rough total estimate of about 53,000 around the year 2000.<br/><br/>No significant trends were found in the total abundance for any of the above areas, but when the area west and southwest of Iceland was singled out, a significant increasing trend was found (IWC 2007a).<br/><br/>Fin Whales were heavily exploited in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, starting in 1876, particularly off Norway, Iceland, the Faeroes and British Isles. Whaling then spread to Spain, Greenland and eastern Canada, and exploitation continued at a lower level until the 1980s. <br/><br/>Catch statistics for the early years are probably incomplete, and a large number of whales were killed but lost, due to lines breaking, etc., perhaps up to one-half in the first 20-25 years and one-third in the next 15-20 years (Tønnessen 1967). The IWC Scientific Committee added 50% to recorded catches up to 1915 to allow for this (IWC 2007a): recorded catches up to 1915 total 15,315 Fin Whales plus 29,024 unspecified whales of which about half may have been Fin Whales, thus the total kill may have been about 45,000 up to 1915. The total recorded catch post-1915 has been about 55,000 Fin Whales. The approximate figures by area are: Canada 12,000; Norway 10,000; Iceland 10,000; Faeroes 5,000; Greenland 1,000; British Isles 3,000; Spain and Portugal 11,000; and pelagic operations 3,000.<br/><br/>The behaviour evident for the various North Atlantic Fin Whale populations following earlier reductions by whaling differs. It ranges from clear evidence of recovery to no firm indications of any increase. An estimated 14,000 Fin Whales were killed off northern Norway during 1876-1904, and a further 1,500 during 1948-71, but Fin Whales are rare there now (although quite abundant off western Spitsbergen, where about 1,500 whales had been killed during 1904-11) (Øien 2003, 2004). An estimated 12,000 Fin Whales were killed off Iceland during 1890-1915, until whaling was suspended partly due to concerns about the reductions in the stocks, but the modern abundance data suggest that the there has been a recovery in the population that may still be continuing, particularly west of Iceland, despite catches during 1948-89 averaging about 220 per year (Branch and Butterworth 2006). An estimated 10,000 Fin Whales were taken from the Faeroes, but about 25% of these were actually caught off eastern Iceland (IWC 2007a). Whaling from the Faeroes and West Norway petered out during the 1960s as whales became scarce (IWC 1977), but catches had apparently been mainly of migrating whales rather than whales belonging to local populations. The impact of catches on the fin whale stocks in the Northwest Atlantic is unclear (Mitchell 1972).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean</em><br/>Catches of about 7,000 Fin Whales taken near the Straits of Gibraltar in the 1920s apparently reduced the local abundance, and Fin Whales are still rare there today, but this did not seem to affect the abundance of Fin Whales off northern Spain, where catches continued until 1985. Within the Mediterranean, the population was estimated in 1991 from surveys covering much of the western basin at 3,583 (CV 0.27) (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is likely, but not certain, that the historical catches near the Strait of Gibraltar were from the North Atlantic rather than from this population (Sanpera and Aguilar 1992). Palsbøll <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that Mediterranean Fin Whales probably have a small but non-zero genetic exchange with Fin Whales elsewhere in the North Atlantic. The Mediterranean subpopulation contains fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and is subject to ongoing threats that may be causing a decline, but data on trend in abundance are insufficient to determine this (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">North Pacific</em><br/>North Pacific Fin Whale stocks have not been assessed in depth by the IWC Scientific Committee since 1973, when the assessment by Ohsumi and Wada (1974) was accepted, and that was updated by Allen (1977). The stock in the western North Pacific was estimated to have declined from an “initial level” of 44,000, to 17,000 in 1975. The figures refer to the “exploitable” population, above the minimum allowed size at capture. However, these assessments were based on indices of catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) and sightings-per-unit-effort (SPUE) that did not meet modern requirements for the analysis of such data (e.g. IWC 1989), although there is no doubt that the populations had declined to some unknown extent. <br/><br/>The current abundance of Fin Whales in the North Pacific is not well known, because survey coverage has been patchy, and not all available data have been analysed. Current estimates indicate a population of 5,700 whales in the Bering Sea, coastal Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska (Moore <em>et al.</em>2002, Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006). Zerbini <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated a trend in abundance of 4.8%/year with a nominal CV of 0.15 for Fin Whales in the northern Gulf of Alaska from 1987 to 2003, but recalculation of the variance from the data indicates low precision (95% confidence limits -1.6-11.1%). <br/><br/>Based on surveys conducted in 1996 and 2001, an estimated 3,300 (CV 0.31) fin whales occur in summer/autumn off the west coast of the US (Barlow 2003a). Apart from a small population in Hawaiian waters (estimated 174 animals, CV 0.72; Barlow 2003b), there are no recent estimates of Fin Whale abundance in the remainder of the North Pacific. Some relevant data exist, including data collected under the Japanese Research Programme in the North Pacific (JARPN) (Tamura <em>et al.</em> 2005), but these do not appear to have been analysed with respect to Fin Whale abundance. Fin Whales seem to be abundant in the central offshore part of the Okhotsk Sea, based on Japanese surveys conducted in 1989, 1990, 1992, 1999, 2000 and 2003, but no abundance estimate has been calculated (Miyashita 2004). <br/><br/>Given the lack of a comprehensive recent estimate, the estimate of 17,000 in 1975 from the earlier assessment is used for this assessment, but the global assessment is not particularly sensitive to the figure used for the North Pacific.<br/><br/>Over 74,000 Fin Whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Pacific during 1910-75, plus about 20,000 unspecified whales during 1900-30, of which a substantial proportion may have been Fin Whales. Fin Whales were protected by the IWC from whaling in the North Pacific from 1976 onwards, but small Korean catches continued until the early 1980s.<br/><br/>As to whether Fin Whales recovered from exploitation in the North Pacific, the evidence is, as for the North Atlantic, mixed. Over 24,000 Fin Whales are recorded caught off coastal Japan and the Korean peninsula from 1910 onwards; annual catches peaked at over 1,000 whales in 1915 and declined steadily thereafter. Fin Whales appear to be rare there now (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kim <em>et al.</em> 2004). Similar patterns of apparent exhaustion of stocks occurred elsewhere. For example, about 4,000 fin whales were taken by stations in British Columbia, western Canada, until catches ceased in 1967, with signs of rapid decline in the last 10 years of operation (Gregr <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Gulf of California</em><br/>This genetically isolated subpopulation was estimated in 2004 from a mark-recapture analysis of photo-identification data at 613 (CI 426-970) (Díaz-Guzman 2006). There are no data on population trend for this subpopulation. Telemetry information shows an all-year residency in the Gulf of California with seasonal latitudinal movements by these whales (Urbán <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">East China Sea</em><br/>There do not appear to be any current or historical estimates of abundance for fin whales in the East China Sea.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>Along with other baleen whales, the IWC has traditionally managed Southern Hemisphere Fin Whales on the basis of six management areas, Areas I through VI, which are longitudinal pie slices 50°-70° wide. The areas were originally chosen as putative management stocks for humpback whales, and later used for all baleen whales, with little or no biological support (Donovan 1991).<br/><br/>Over 725,000 Fin Whales have been recorded caught in the Southern Hemisphere during 1905-76 (IWC 2006b). There was a series of assessments in the 1970s, including a synthesis by Chapman (1976) which was reassessed by Breiwick (1977), and updated (for Areas II-VI) by Allen (1977). A reassessment of Area VI Fin Whales was inconclusive (IWC, 1980). <br/><br/>These assessments were based on a combination of evidence, including trends in CPUE by whaling fleets, sighting rates by Japanese scouting vessels, and inferences on recruitment and mortality rates from age and length data. Their reliability is questionable on various grounds. For example, the IWC Scientific Committee subsequently determined that CPUE data should only be used for stock assessments when the nature of the whaling operations is fully described (IWC 1989). A reanalysis of the historical data using modern methods and insights is warranted.<br/><br/>Less indirect estimates are available from sightings data for more recent times. IWC (1995) gives estimates of 18,000 (CV 0.47) using data from 1966-79 and 15,000 (CV 0.61) using data from 1979-88 for the total population of Fin Whales south of 30°S in summer. These are obtained by extrapolating abundance estimates for the area south of 60°S from the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) international surveys, to the area south of 30°S using Japanese scouting vessel data. A slightly finer stratification of the same data yielded estimates of 8,387 for 1966-79 and 15,178 for 1979-88 (IWC 1996; no variances given). Despite their low precision, these estimates suggest that the previous assessments of the populations were seriously over-optimistic. Best (2003) suggested a similar conclusion, based on declines of fin whale catch and sighting rates of 89-97% on the former South African winter whaling grounds during 1954-75.<br/><br/>The most recent estimate of 15,178 for 1979-88 is used for the purpose of this assessment and referred to the year 1983, the middle of the period to which it refers. Use of updated results from subsequent IDCR surveys (Branch and Butterworth 2001) would lead to an estimate of 38,185 referenced to the year 1997 (Mori and Butterworth 2006), but use of this for the population trajectory computation would hardly affect the results because the predicted trajectory passes close to this value anyway. (The trajectory shown in Fig.1. is for the mature population, and hence not directly comparable). <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Biological parameters and assessment</em><br/>The generation time for a non-depleted fin whale population is estimated to be 25.9 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The time period of three generations is 1929-2007.<br/><br/>Estimates of age at sexual maturity for female fin whales, based on observed proportions mature by age, are 6-7 years in the Southern Hemisphere from British catches in the 1960s (Lockyer 1972) and Japanese catches in the 1960s and early 1970s (Mizroch 1981), but these values are likely negatively biased due to selection against smaller animals. For the North Atlantic, Gunnlaugsson and Víkingsson (2006) estimated an average of 8.9 years from catches off Iceland during 1967-89, but with some indication of an increase over time from 7.5 years during 1967-78 to 9.25 years during 1979-89. Aguilar <em>et al</em>. (1988) estimated 7.9 years using the same method from catches off Spain during 1979-84. Slightly different values are obtained using alternative methods. There do not seem to be any precise values for the North Pacific, but Kimura <em>et al</em>. (1958) estimated 8-12 years. For the purpose of this assessment, an age at maturity of eight years is assumed, corresponding to an age at first reproduction of nine years. The values of other biological parameters (age at first capture, net recruitment rate, and natural mortality rate) were taken from the previous Scientific Committee assessments (Allen 1977).<br/><br/>Because the available published assessments for this species are not up to date, an updated population assessment is conducted here to enable assessment of the population reduction over the period 1929-2007 relative to the A criterion. While the available data do not permit a scientifically rigorous estimation of the extent of population reduction, it is reasonable to use conventional population assessment methods to provide a crude indication of the extent of possible reduction relative to the criteria. A conventional deterministic age-structured model with an age at first capture (“recruitment”) (<em>ar</em>) and an age at first reproduction (<em>am</em>), and linear density-dependence was applied to the North Pacific, North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere regions separately. The parameter values are listed in Table 1 in the attached PDF document (which forms an integral part of this assessment). The starting year was 1874 in the North Atlantic and 1900 in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere. The sex ratio of the population and catches is assumed to be 50:50. The results of this population assessments can be found in the linked PDF document, which forms an integral part of this assessment.
2478		population	eng	Forcada <em>et al</em>. (1996) estimated 3,583 fin whales (S.E. 967, 95% C.I. 2,130–6,027) in a large portion of the western Mediterranean in 1991, and Forcada <em>et al</em>. (1995) estimated 901 individuals (S.E. 196.1, %CV 21.77, 95% C.I. 591–1,374) in the Corsican-Ligurian-Provençal  Basin in 1992. A survey carried out in the entire Pelagos Sanctuary area yielded an estimate of 715 individuals (%CV 31.2, 95% C.I. 421–1,215), with highest values in the Ligurian-Provencal area (Gannier 2006). Two aerial surveys organized in winter and summer 2009 in the whole Pelagos Sanctuary area yielded 0 and 17 fin whale sightings respectively, resulting in an estimate of Fin Whale abundance for the summer of 147 individuals (%CV=27.04; 95% CI=86–250) (Panigada and Lauriano, pers. comm.). This indicates that Fin Whales in this area may be less abundant than previously reported (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gannier 2006).<br/><br/>A sharp decrease in fin whale abundance has been observed in the Pelagos Sanctuary over the last decade, with estimates of 900 individuals reported from the western Ligurian Sea in 1992 (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1995), declining to significantly lower numbers (N=147; CV=27.04%; 95% CI=86–250) in 2009 (Panigada and Lauriano pers. comm.). While the sharp decrease of Fin Whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary may be due to whales relocating elsewhere within the Mediterranean, their decrease in prime Fin Whale habitat must be addressed with precaution, and a population decline in the Mediterranean cannot be discounted at this time.<br/><br/>Genetic analyses based on both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA indicated  differences between the Mediterranean population, which is thought to be  resident, and Fin Whales in Atlantic coastal waters of Canada,  Greenland, Iceland and Spain (Bérubé <em>et al</em>. 1998). Further genetic analyses (Palsbøll <em>et al.</em>  2004) predicted that Mediterranean Fin Whales would prove to be largely  resident in the basin, although limited but recurrent gene flow was  detected in the data. Palsbøll <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated the  effective number of female migrants between the Mediterranean Sea and  the Eastern North Atlantic to be 0.33 migrant/year, a value that is  consistent with the IUCN definition for subpopulation (i.e., IUCN 2001) and  fatty acid analysis, suggesting that Fin Whales summering in the Ligurian Sea may spend the winter in Spanish Atlantic waters, returning  during spring and summer to the Mediterranean Sea (Ruchonnet <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>No population estimates exist for the entire region. However, line-transect surveys yielded estimates of 3,583 Fin Whales (S.E. 967, 95% C.I. 2,130–6,027) over a large portion of the western Mediterranean in 1991 (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1996) and 901 (S.E. 196.1, 95% C.I. 591–1,374) in the Corsican-Ligurian-Provençal Basin in 1992 (Forcada <em>et al</em>.<em> </em>1995). Further line-transect survey effort in the same area yielded a strikingly consistent density estimate of 0.015 individuals km<sup>-2</sup> (Gannier 1997).
2478		population	eng	<strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>North Atlantic fin whales were comprehensively assessed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1991 (IWC 1992), and an update for the northern part of the region was undertaken in 2006 in a joint workshop with NAMMCO (IWC 2007).  North Atlantic fin whale stocks had previously been assessed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1976 (IWC 1977). Based mainly on past whaling operations, the IWC recognizes seven management areas in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Newfoundland-Labrador; West Greenland; East Greenland-Iceland; North Norway; West Norway-Faeroe Islands; British Isles-Spain-Portugal.  Based on genetic evidence, it is now considered more likely that there are from two to four breeding stocks, which utilize these seven management areas in different proportions (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>The best available estimates of recent abundance accepted by the IWC Scientific Committee (IWC 2007) are: 25,800 (CV 0.125) in 2001 for the central North Atlantic (East Greenland-Iceland, Jan Mayen and the Faeroes);  4,100 (CV 0.21) in 1996-2001 for the northeastern North Atlantic (North and West Norway); and 17,355 (CV 0.27) in 1989 for the Spain-Portugal-British Isles area (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). The only accepted estimate for West Greenland is 1,046 (CV 0.35) in 1988 (IWC 1992); a newer estimate from a 2005 survey could not be accepted due to methodological problems. There are no complete estimates for the western North Atlantic Northwest Atlantic, but partial estimates are 1,013 (95% CI 459-2,654) for Newfoundland in 2003-3 (IWC 2007), and 2,814 (CV 0.21) for the east coast of North America from the Gulf of St Lawrence southward (Anon. 2005).  <br/>  <br/>No significant trends were found in the total abundance for any of the above areas, but when the area west and southwest of Iceland was singled out, a significant increasing trend was found (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>Fin whales were heavily exploited in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, starting in 1876, particularly off Norway, Iceland, the Faeroes and British Isles.  Whaling then spread to Spain, Greenland and eastern Canada, and exploitation continued at a lower level until the 1980s. Catch statistics for the early years are probably incomplete, and a large number of whales were killed but lost, due to lines breaking, etc., perhaps up to one-half in the first 20-25 years and one-third in the next 15-20 years (Tønnessen 1967).  The IWC Scientific Committee added 50% to recorded catches up to 1915 to allow for this (IWC 2007): recorded catches up to 1915 total 15,315 fin whales plus 29,024 unspecified whales of which about half may have been fin whales, thus the total kill may have been about 45,000 up to 1915.  The total recorded catch post-1915 has been about 55,000 fin whales.  The approximate figures by area are:  Canada 12,000; Norway 10,000; Iceland 10,000; Faeroes 5,000; Greenland 1,000; British Isles 3,000; Spain and Portugal 11,000; and pelagic operations 3,000. <br/><br/>The behaviour evident for the various North Atlantic fin whale populations following earlier reductions through whaling differs. It ranges from clear evidence of recovery to no firm indications of any increase. An estimated 14,000 fin whales were killed off North Norway during 1876-1904, and a further 1,500 during 1948-71, but fin whales are rare there now (although quite abundant off western Spitsbergen, where about 1,500 whales had been killed during 1904-11) (Øien 2003, 2004). An estimated 12,000 fin whales were killed off Iceland during 1890-1915, until whaling was suspended partly due to concerns about the reductions in the stocks, but the modern abundance data suggest that the there has been a recovery in the population that may still be continuing, particularly west of Iceland, despite catches during 1948-89 averaging about 220 per year (Branch and Butterworth 2006).  An estimated 10,000 fin whales were taken from the Faeroes, but about 25% of these were actually caught off eastern Iceland (IWC 2007).  Whaling from the Faeroes and West Norway petered out during the 1960s as whales became scarce (IWC 1977), but catches had apparently been mainly of migrating whales rather than local populations.  <br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Catches of about 7,000 fin whales taken near the Straits of Gibraltar in the 1920s apparently depleted the local abundance, and fin whales are still rare there today, but this did not seem to affect the abundance of fin whales off northern Spain, where catches continued until 1985. The impact of catches on the fin whale stocks in the Northwest Atlantic is unclear (Mitchell 1972). The population was estimated in 1991 from surveys covering much of the western Mediterranean at 3,583 (CV 0.27) (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1996).  It is likely, but not certain, that the historical catches near the Strait of Gibraltar were from the North Atlantic rather than from this population (Sanpera and Aguilar 1992).  Palsbøll <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that Mediterranean fin whales probably have a small but non-zero genetic exchange with fin whales elsewhere in the North Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong> <br/>The default value of 27 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species.
2478		threats	eng	Although each impacting factor may not be seen as a major threat when considered alone, the cumulative effects of these in a semi-enclosed basin heavily affected by human presence (such as the Mediterranean) is interpreted in a precautionary manner to amount to potentially large and detrimental effects on both birth and death rates and might explain the observed localized decline.<br/><br/>Incidental mortality of Fin Whales in fishing gear (pelagic driftnets) is uncommon (Podestà and Magnaghi 1989) and its effect on the population is therefore considered low but not negligible (International Whaling Commission 1994).<br/><br/>Ship strikes also cause mortality and are a concern particularly in areas of heavy vessel traffic (Cagnolaro and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1992, Panigada <em>et al.</em> 2006, Weinrich <em>et al.</em> 2006). The increasing use of high-speed ferries requires further investigation in this regard.<br/><br/>Shipping noise and vessel disturbance, particularly from the unregulated whale watching that has recently begun in the area (Airoldi <em>et al</em>. 1999), is another source of concern. Other vessel traffic may cause additional acoustic stress. Seismic airguns can deter Fin Whales from feeding or breeding grounds (Castellote <em>et al.</em> 2009), with potential detrimental effects on the population.<br/><br/>There is no competition between Fin Whales and fisheries in the Mediterranean because in this region fin whales are almost exclusively planktophagous (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2002, 2003) described high levels of contamination by organochlorines, trace elements and DDT metabolite values in Mediterranean Fin Whales, and suggested that their estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects may negatively influence the population. Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2007) presented evidence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in Fin Whale biopsy samples from the western Ligurian Sea, which may adversely affect the reproductive functions of these whales.<br/><br/>This subpopulation is largely dependent on euphausiids species, such as <em>M. norvegica, N. couchii</em>, for food (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2003), which possibly are susceptible to climate changes. Therefore the potential effects of global climate change or ocean acidification on Fin Whales in the Mediterranean currently are unknown, but cannot be neglected and need further investigation.
2478		threats	eng	Prior to the advent of modern whaling in the late 19th century, Fin Whales were largely immune from human predation because they were too hard to catch. Fin Whales were depleted worldwide by commercial whaling in the 20th century. Fin Whales have been protected in the Southern Hemisphere and North Pacific since 1975, and catches ceased in the North Atlantic by 1990, except for small “aboriginal subsistence” catches off Greenland. Commercial catches resumed off Iceland in 2006, with nine fin whales being taken that year. A Japanese fleet resumed experimental catches of Fin Whales in the Antarctic in 2005, taking 10 whales each during 2005/06 and 2006/07, with plans to take 50 per year from the 2007/08 season (IWC 2006a). It seems unlikely that catching of fin whales will return to the high levels of previous years, not least due to the limited market demand for whale products.<br/><br/>Fin Whales are one of the more commonly recorded species of large whale reported in vessel collisions (Laist <em>et al</em>. 2001). Five fatal collisions were recorded off the US east coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006). Collisions with vessels appear to be a significant, but not necessarily unsustainable, source of mortality for the Mediterranean population (Panigada <em>et al.</em> 2006, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Fin Whales are occasionally caught in fishing gear as a by-catch. Four deaths and serious injuries from this source were reported from the eastern US coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006); recent Japanese Progress Reports to the IWC (www.iwcoffice.org/sci_com/scprogress.htm) reported about one Fin Whale by-caught per year on average.
2478		threats	eng	Prior to the advent of modern whaling in the late 19th century, fin whales were largely immune from human predation because they were too hard to catch.  Fin whales were depleted worldwide by commercial whaling in the 20th century. Fin whales have been protected in the Southern Hemisphere and North Pacific since 1975, and catches ceased in the North Atlantic by 1990, except for small aboriginal subsistence catches off West Greenland. Commercial catches resumed off Iceland in 2006, with nine fin whales being taken that year.  A Japanese fleet resumed experimental catches of fin whales in the Antarctic in 2005, taking 10 whales each during 2005/06 and 2006/07, with plans to take 50 per year from the 2007/08 season (IWC 2006).  It seems unlikely that catching of fin whales will return to the high levels of previous years, not least due to the limited market demand for whale products.<br/><br/>Fin whales are one of the more commonly recorded species of large whale in vessel collisions (Laist<em> et al.</em> 2001). Five fatal collisions are recorded off the US east coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Collisions with vessels appear to be a significant, but not necessarily unsustainable, source of mortality for the Mediterranean population (Weinrich <em>et al.</em> 2005, Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).  <br/><br/>Fin whales are occasionally caught in fishing gear as bycatch: four deaths and serious injuries from this source are reported from the eastern US coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006); recent Japanese Progress Reports to the IWC (www.iwcoffice.org/sci_com/scprogress.htm) report about one fin whale by-caught per year on average.
2479		distribution	eng	Centered in the Sub-Antarctic Zone of the Indian Ocean between 0°E and 80°E, especially around Prince Edward Island, and the islands of Crozet and Kerguelen. May also range westwards into the southeastern South Atlantic and eastwards into the Tasman Sea. A population along the coast of Chile may also be this species. The winter range is virtually unknown, with scattered records from South Africa and Australia (Rice 1998).
2480		conservation	eng	Catches of Antarctic Minke Whales were subject to IWC catch limits soon after exploitation started. Catch limits for commercial whaling became zero from 1986 with the coming into effect of the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling. The summer range of Antarctic Minke Whales is also nominally protected by the IWC Southern Ocean Sanctuary, adopted in 1994, which prohibits catches south of a boundary located mainly at 40°S. Neither the moratorium nor the sanctuary’s proscription applies to taking under scientific permits issued by IWC member governments, which have been ongoing from 1987 to the present. Antarctic Minke Whales are listed on Appendix I of CITES, but Japan has held a reservation against this listing since July 2000. Japan also holds a reservation on the Sanctuary provision and therefore is not bound by it. The species is listed in Appendix II of CMS. The species is covered by generic wildlife conservation measures adopted under international treaties.
2480		distribution	eng	<em>Balaenoptera bonaerensis</em> is considered a southern hemisphere species, although there is a single record from Suriname (60°N) (Rice 1998). In summer they are abundant throughout the Antarctic south of 60°S, occurring in greatest densities near the ice edge, and to some extent within the pack ice and in polynyas. Particularly high densities have been observed in some years in high Antarctic areas such as Prydz Bay, the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea (Kasamatsu <em>et al</em>. 1997). Although <em>B. acutorostrata</em> has been found in the Antarctic as far south as 65°S it is much less common there than <em>B. bonaerensis</em> (Pastene 2006a), such that all “minke whale” abundance estimates south of 60°S can for practical purposes be treated as referring to <em>B. bonaerensis</em>.<br/><br/>Minke whales are seen outside the Antarctic in summer (Kasamatsu and Miyashita 1983) but much of the summer data is ambiguous with respect to identification as <em>B. acutorostrata</em> or <em>B. bonaerensis</em>, such that it remains unclear whether significant numbers of <em>B. bonaerensis</em> occur outside the Antarctic in summer. <br/><br/>The winter distribution is less well known. There is a wintering area off Costinha, Brazil (7°S), where minke whales, almost exclusively <em>B. bonaerensis</em>, were the target of a whaling operation during 1964–85, with the peak abundance in October (da Rocha and Braga 1982, Holt, de la Mare and van Beek 1982). The recovery in this fishery of two whales marked in the Antarctic in Area II at 62° and 69°S (Buckland and Duff 1989) demonstrates that at least some individuals from the Brazilian population migrate to the Antarctic. Minke whales were also seen (and small numbers caught) off Durban, South Africa: the seasonal distribution was bimodal, with peaks in April/May and September/October, suggestive of migration past the area (Best 1982). There are occasional records from Peru (VanWaerebeek and Reyes 1994). <br/><br/>Japanese scouting vessel data indicated high abundance of minke whales (species ambiguous) in November between 10°–30°S in the central South Pacific and in much of the eastern and southern Indian Ocean from the tropics southwards to 50°S (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995). The limited information available from low-latitude surveys from the 1987/88 season onwards, when the two minke whale species were reliably distinguished, indicates that most of the minke whales were <em>B. bonaerensis</em> (Nishiwaki <em>et al.</em> 1991), probably on route from (as yet unknown) low-latitude breeding grounds to the Antarctic. The lack of any known areas of high concentration in winter suggests that the breeding distribution is rather dispersed and largely offshore (Kasamatsu <em>et al.</em> 1995). The species identity of minke whales seen in Indonesian waters in November (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995) is unclear.<br/><br/>At least some of the Antarctic minke whale population remains in the Antarctic in winter (Ensor 1989), but the proportion has not been quantified.
2480		habitat	eng	While in the Antarctic, minke whales feed almost exclusively on krill, primarily <em>Euphausia superba</em>, but also <em>E. crystallorophias</em> (ice krill), <em>E. frigida,</em> and <em>Thysanoessa macrura</em> (Tamura and Konishi 2006). Observed densities of minkes are highest near the edge of the pack ice, but these whales also occur within the pack ice (Shimada and Kato 2006). It is not known whether Antarctic Minke Whales also feed to any significant extent while outside the Antarctic on their wintering grounds or migration routes. Best (1982) found a very low level of feeding, almost entirely on euphausiids, by Antarctic minke whales taken in winter off Durban, South Africa. Antarctic minke whales may themselves be an important prey for type-A Killer Whales <em>Orcinus orca</em> (Pitman and Ensor 2003).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Generation time</em><br/>The generation time is estimated to be 22 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).
2480		population	eng	As for other baleen whales, the IWC’s management of Antarctic Minke Whales has been based on six Areas, I through VI, which are longitudinal pie slices 50°–70° wide. The population structure is poorly known, but recent analyses suggest a genetic distinction between whales in the Indian Ocean sector of the Antarctic (west of 165°E) and the Pacific Ocean sector (east of this line) with presumably some overlap (Pastene 2006b). With the exception of the two marked whales mentioned above, the relationship between the Antarctic distribution and putative breeding areas is largely unknown.<br/><br/>Ship-based summer surveys of the area south of 60°S have been conducted each summer since 1978/79, under the auspices of the IWC SC, under the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) —later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research (SOWER) — programme, and covering a different Area (or part Area) each year (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 2001). These have been used to estimate minke whale population sizes, on the assumption that the bulk of the population is found south of 60°S in the survey season (Branch and Butterworth 2001). The survey vessels do not enter the pack ice, where minke whales are known to occur to some extent (Shimada and Kato 2006).<br/><br/>The IWC SC conducted a major assessment of Antarctic Minke Whales in 1990, and a population estimate of 760,000 was adopted, based on results of the IDCR surveys conducted in the seasons 1982/83 through 1988/89 (IWC 1991). Results of subsequent surveys indicated lower abundances (see Table 1 in linked PDF document, which constitutes an integral part of this assessment), leading the Committee to conclude in 2000 that the estimate of 760,000 was no longer a valid estimate of current abundance (IWC 2001, p. 31). The Committee has not yet adopted a new current estimate, pending the development, testing and implementation of improved analysis methods. Estimates calculated using the standard methodology for comparative purposes (Branch 2006, IWC 2007) were:<br/><br/>After adjusting for the different coverage of the three sets of surveys (which is not simply a multiplication, because the areas unsurveyed in the earlier years tended to be further north), the ratio of the three abundance estimates for the three periods was 0.97:1.00:0.39 (see Table 1 in attached PDF document). <br/><br/>The Committee has to date (January 2007) been unable to determine whether the apparent decline was real or artifactual. The Committee considered the two most likely confounding factors to be: (i) a reduction in sighting efficiency (e.g., due to smaller school sizes and possibly less experienced observers) and (ii) changes in ice extent, such that fewer whales occurred in surveyable open water.<br/><br/>Two additional points were noted (IWC 2007):<br/>(i) The decline was specific to minke whales; estimates for other species (blue, fin, killer, humpback) increased over the period; an explanation for the decline would need to account for this. <br/>(ii) Abundance estimates for Areas IV and V obtained by the Japanese scientific permit whaling programme (JARPA) for the seasons 1989/90 through 2004/05 showed no statistically significant trend.<br/>Further work on the issues of sighting efficiency and whale/ice distribution is underway. The Committee expects to adopt revised abundance estimates in the near future (2008) and to determine whether and to what extent the apparent decline is real.<br/><br/>Some authors have proposed that the population of Antarctic Minke Whales had been increasing up to the late 1960s (e.g. Mori and Butterworth 2006), but this is controversial.
2480		threats	eng	Whaling on this species has not been as intensive as on the larger baleen whales. Substantial catches of Antarctic Minke Whales, apart from some experimental catches in the late 1960s, have been made by pelagic expeditions only since 1971, following depletion of the larger baleen whales (IWC 2006). Nearly 100,000 minke whales have been taken by pelagic whaling expeditions in the Antarctic, in addition to over 14,000 taken from the Brazilian land station at Costinha during 1964–85. Since 1987, pelagic catching has continued under scientific permit – at a much reduced, but increasing, level. The catch in the 2005/2006 season was 853 (Miyashita and Kato 2006). Otherwise, Antarctic minke whales are not subject to any substantially known direct anthropogenic threats. Bycatches in fishing gear have been recorded (<em>e.g.</em> van Waerebeek and Reyes 1994) but there is no indication that the numbers are significant. <br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Antarctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Antarctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2006). The implications of this for Minke Whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.
2482		distribution	eng	Range "..during the summer in the immediate offshore waters from the Sanriku coast of Honshu, northward and eastward along the Kurilskiye Ostrova (but not into the Sea of Okhotsk) and the southern side of the Aleutian Islands, around the Gulf of Alaska, and southeastward as far as central Baja California. They do not go north of the Aleutian Islands, except rarely in the far southeastern corner of the Bering Sea. In the winter they are found regularly from southern Honshu south to Ogasawara Gunto [=Bonin Islands], Ryukyu Retto, and Taiwan, in the western Pacific, and south at least to Nayarit, Mexico, on the eastern side; there are a few records that season in the tropical mid-ocean waters." (Rice 1998)
2483		distribution	eng	The summer range extends from Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, the waters north of Svalbard as far north as 80°N, and the Barents Sea south to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, and the Bay of Biscay. The winter range remains almost unknown (Rice 1998). Some occur at that season around the islands of Cape Verde and along the African mainland from Ras Nouadhibou, Mauritania, south to Cap Vert, Senegal (Rice 1998).
2531		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in protected areas within its range (Davalo pers. comm.).
2531		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west Ecuador and Colombia (Simmons, 2005). The species has been recorded from four localities, however, it is presumed to occur within appropriate habitat been these localities. There is only one locality for the species in Colombia: Southern Choco long  3.93333 lat -76.5167 locality data (Mantilla pers. comm.; Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
2531		habitat	eng	This species natural history is poorly known. At the genus level it is found in rainforests and feeds aerially on tiny insects. It roosts in small to large colonies in well-lighted caves, rock crevices, culverts, or tree hollows. It is found in rainforest (Emmons and Feer 1997). Narrowly endemic to small area of Choco in Pacific rainforest (Davalos pers. comm.). In Ecuador the species has been found at 510 m (Albuja 1999). The only record from Colombia is at 1,200 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).
2531		population	eng	In Ecuador it is rare and known only from three localities (Albuja 1999; McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2000). Known from only one locality in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).
2531		threats	eng	Habitat may be under threat due to deforestation (Davalos pers. comm.). Legal and illegal crops are grown in and outside protected areas, reducing habitat (Alvarez, 2002; Alvarez, 2003). In Ecuador the habitat is severely fragmented and facing a high risk of destruction in the near future because of the lack of control to illegal logging. The situation in Colombia, the situation is better than in Ecuador (Burneo pers. comm.).
2532		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat destruction. It is found in some protected areas in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
2532		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from southern Veracruz and Oaxaca (Mexico) to east central Guatemala and Belize (Simmons 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 500 m (Reid 1997).
2532		habitat	eng	This species can be found in semideciduous or evergreen forest. It roosts in rather dark recesses of large, limestone caves. Groups may number 50 or more, with individuals widely and evenly spaced, often roosting in crevices on the ceiling of high chambers. Activity starts well after sunset, later than related species, and, as a result, flight and foraging behaviour are difficult to observe. Pregnant females have been recorded between March and July (Arroyo-Cabrales and Jones 1988; Reid 1997).
2532		population	eng	This bat is locally common (Reid 1997). The population is declining. In the Maya Mountains (Bladden Drainage), in Belize, colonies were observed in continuous forest setting (McCarthy pers. comm.).
2532		threats	eng	Habitat loss and vandalism in the caves. Tourism in caves in Belize (800 people by day) and Yucatan (Miller pers. comm.).<br/>Very threatened in Belize (Miller pers. comm.). In Mexico it has been evaluated as vulnerable because of 45% habitat loss in the last 10 years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).
2533		conservation	eng	Can be found in protected areas.
2533		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the pacific slope in Costa Rica to central Sonora and southern Baja California (Mexico); also northern Colombia (Simmons 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).
2533		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deciduous forest, dry thorn scrub, and evergreen forest (Reid 1997). It roosts near the entrances of caves and mines or in tree hollows and buildings. Groups may use a separate night roost, such as under a bridge. Group size is usually greater than 50, with a sex ratio of about 75% males to 25% females. Activity begins immediately before sunset; individuals fly above the canopy and forage with long, straight sallies and rapidly dives after flying insects. This early flight above the relatively low, open canopy of deciduous forest can be easily observed. Young are born in late June in Costa Rica, well into the rainy season (Bradbury and Vehrencamp 1976; Reid 1997).
2533		population	eng	This bat is common (in dry habitats) to rare (in rainforests) (Reid 1997).
2533		threats	eng	Habitat loss and vandalism and fire induced by humans in the caves. No threats reported for Costa Rica (Rodriguez pers. comm.)
2538		conservation	eng	On the Malay Peninsula and Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and western Kalimantan), this species occurs within several reserves and protected areas, including production forests (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006).
2538		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Malay Peninsula, northern and western Borneo (Brunei, West Kalimantan, Sabah, and Sarawak), the Riau Archipelago (on the islands of Durian and Galang), and southern Thailand (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006). In Thailand, it is known only from Khao Phu Pah, in Trang Province (Corbet and Hill 1992; Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It also has been recorded in the Tigapuluh Hills on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, on the Riau–Jambi provincial border (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent surveys have confirmed its presence also in more southern localities in central and east Kalimantan (Suyanto and Struebig 2007).
2538		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary lowland rainforest from sea level up to 1,500 m asl, and is also found in mangroves (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006). In Kalimantan it inhabits secondary and primary forest. It roosts in ferns in rubber trees and excavated termite nests. It usually forms small harem groups. It has also been reported from rubber plantations managed by villagers which retain vegatative structure (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).
2538		population	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia it is common in primary lowland rain forest (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
2538		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened throughout much of its distribution by deforestation for agriculture, logging and plantations, and as a result of fire. Scattered populations in southern Thailand, Sumatra, and the Riau Archipelago may be particularly vulnerable (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006).
2540		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in numerous protected areas; it has been reported from more than 25 protected areas in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
2540		distribution	eng	This species naturally occurs from northern and southeastern Pakistan throughout much of India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and is present in much of Myanmar. It has been introduced to Aceh in northern Sumatra and Java (both Indonesia), and there are populations on Penang Island (Malaysia) and Phuket Island (Thailand), also close to Jeddah in Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991), and may be possibly present in Kenya (not mapped here). It occurs from sea level to well over 3,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
2540		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in agricultural landscapes, such as rice paddies, and can occur in urban areas. Its broad range of natural habitat include swampy open areas, subtropical and tropical dry deciduous forests and mangroves.
2540		population	eng	A common and increasing species.
2540		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species which is often considered to be a pest.
2541		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas; it has been reported from more than 15 protected areas in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
2541		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, the lowlands of Nepal through Myanmar, southern China (recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Fujian and Guangdong) (Smith and Xie 2008), Taiwan, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam; also on Cat Ba Island, off the coast of northern Viet Nam. Introduced into Kedah and Perlis regions of Malay Peninsula as well as Java (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its spotty distribution may reflect other geographic introductions (Taiwan for example) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Sea level to about 1,500 m asl.
2541		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in fields, villages and cities. It naturally is found in swampy areas, and is especially common in lowland rice fields. Animals construct burrows in stream banks, paddy dikes and the edges of fields. The typical litter size between five and sevemn young.
2541		population	eng	Common, and even extremely abundant; it has increased in abundance with agricultural expansion.
2541		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
2542		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
2542		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mainland South East Asia: central Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam (Dang <em>et al</em>. 1994), and Cambodia (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is probably present in lowland areas of Lao PDR, within the valley of the Mekong River (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is sympatric in much of its range with <em>B. indica</em>.
2542		habitat	eng	This is an adaptable species, present primarily in degraded habitats and regarded as a major agricultural pest in certain areas, being commonly found in rain fed paddy fields and corn fields. They are excluded from southerly inundated parts of mainland South East Asia, and appear to be absent from forested environments.
2542		population	eng	<em>B. savilei</em> is locally abundant across its range.
2542		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, it is hunted and sold for food, and they are also poisoned extensively as an agricultural pest.
2553		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (as well as Annex IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Research is underway to establish conservation requirements for this species. Recommendations include adopting forestry practices that maintain old trees in sufficient numbers.
2553		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Research is underway to establish conservation requirements for this species. Recommendations include adopting forestry practices that maintain old trees in sufficient numbers.
2553		distribution	eng	<em>Barbastella barbastellus </em>is largely restricted to central and southern Europe, although its range extends into north Africa. It is widely but patchily distributed from England and probably Ireland, Iberia to the Caucasus and from the Mediterranean coast to southern Scandinavia, and it also found in Morocco and the Canary islands. It occurs to 1,800 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002), 1,900 m in the Caucasus and 2,260 m in the Pyrenees (Urbańczyk 1999, K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).
2553		distribution	eng	<em>Barbastella barbastellus </em>is largely restricted to central and southern Europe, although its range extends into the Caucasus, Anatolia, Morocco (North Africa) and the Canary Islands (La Gomera and Tenerife only). It occurs to 1,800 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002), 1,900 m in the Caucasus and 2,260 m in the Pyrenees (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999, K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).
2553		habitat	eng	Forages in mature woodland, woodland edge (and agricultural edge). Feeds on small moths. Summer roosts: usually older mature woodland with maternity sites in trees (occasionally older buildings). Depends on a large number of old trees to roost in a large part of its range, because individuals change their roosts very frequently and colonies need a large number of roost sites for this reason. Winter: Hibernation may start in trees, but later underground sites are preferred. Usually in smaller numbers (up to 50) in natural caves, but in regions where these are missing in large groups in mines and bunkers. Underground habitats may be of any type, but usually very cold sites. Recorded in old mines in winter in the Caucasus (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Movements up to 290 km in Austria (Kepka 1960).
2553		habitat	eng	Forages in mature woodland, woodland edge (and agricultural edge). Feeds on small moths. Summer roosts: usually older mature woodland with maternity sites in trees (occasionally older buildings). Depends on a large number of old trees to roost in a large part of its range, because individuals change their roosts very frequently and colonies need a large number of roost sites for this reason. Winter: Hibernation may start in trees, but later underground sites are preferred. Usually in smaller numbers (up to 50) in natural caves, but in regions where these are missing in large groups in mines and bunkers. Underground habitats maybe of any type, but usually very cold sites. Recorded in old mines in winter in the Caucasus (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Movements up to 290 km in Austria (Kepka 1960).
2553		population	eng	A rare or infrequent species. Summer colonies, usually c. 30. Winter clusters usually small (often solitary), but can reach 500 and, rarely, up to 1,000 in France, Poland and over 7,000 in Slovakia (Schober 2004). Extinct in the Netherlands since 1984. Last recorded in Norway in 1949, and possibly extinct there (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006). Decreases widely reported. Considered threatened in many range states. Very small numbers in large part of the range with large temporary aggregations in areas without natural caves. Populations increasing in the last 5 years in Germany now that insecticide use has been reduced (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Relatively frequent in woodlands in western part of Caucasus and without reported decline; rare in Ukraine (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). In Africa, population size and trends are unknown.
2553		population	eng	A rare or infrequent species. Summer colonies, usually c. 30. Winter clusters usually small (often solitary), but can reach 500 and, rarely, up to 1,000 in France, Poland and over 7,000 in Slovakia (Schober 2004). Up to 10 in Caucasus (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Extinct in the Netherlands since 1984. Last recorded in Norway in 1949, and possibly extinct (J. van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006). Decreases widely reported. Considered threatened in many range states. Very small numbers in large part of the range with large temporary aggregations in areas without natural caves. Populations increasing in the last 5 years in Germany now that insecticide use has been reduced (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Relatively frequent in woodlands in western part of Caucasus and without reported decline; rare in Ukraine (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005).
2553		threats	eng	Loss of old mature woodland and ancient trees with loose bark or wood crevices (reforested areas are not suitable for this species); disturbance and loss of underground habitats, disturbance and loss of roost sites in older buildings. In Germany, habitat loss and fragmentation (caused by <em>inter alia</em> infrastructure development, forestry, and the renovation or demolition of old buildings used as roost sites), and disturbance (e.g. from cave tourism) are major threats (Schulenberg 2005); accidental mortality (roadkill) is also a problem (Rudolph <em>et al.</em> 2003).
2553		threats	eng	Loss of old mature woodland and ancient trees with loose bark or wood crevices (reforested areas are not suitable for this species); disturbance and loss of underground habitats, disturbance and loss of roost sites in older buildings. In Germany, habitat loss and fragmentation (caused by <i>inter alia</i> infrastructure development, forestry, and the renovation or demolition of old buildings used as roost sites), and disturbance (e.g. from cave tourism) are major threats (Schulenberg 2005); accidental mortality (roadkill) is also a problem (Rudolph <i>et al.</i> 2003).
2553		threats	eng	Loss of old mature woodland and ancient trees with loose bark or wood crevices (reforested areas are not suitable for this species: K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005); disturbance and loss of underground habitats, disturbance and loss of roost sites in older buildings. In Germany, habitat loss and fragmentation (caused by <em>inter alia</em> infrastructure development, forestry, and the renovation or demolition of old buildings used as roost sites), and disturbance (e.g. from cave tourism) are major threats (Schulenberg 2005); accidental mortality (roadkill) is also a problem (Rudolph <em>et al.</em> 2003).
2554		conservation	eng	Further surveys and monitoring are needed for this species to determine the current population status, range and major threats. It is included in Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and so should be protected in party range states (e.g. Georgia). It probably occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
2554		distribution	eng	This is a very widespread species. The main distribution occurs from the Caucasus eastwards including Iran, Afghanistan and India, and onwards to China where it is known from the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Shanxi, Qinghai, Nei Mongol, Xinjiang and Taiwan (Smith and Xie, in press). It is also widespread in Japan. There are isolated populations also known from Sinai (Egypt) and the southern tip of Israel, as well as Eritrea in North Africa. It occurs up to 2,500 m asl.
2554		habitat	eng	A solitary, nocturnal species found in Himalayan moist temperate forest and dry coniferous forest areas in Asia. It roosts in caves, tunnels, crevices, old buildings, mines, tree hollows, and can be found beneath bark. It is a sedentary insectivore, with 3-8 females in nursery colonies, with females normally living separately to males.
2554		population	eng	Considering its wide range there seems to be little information available about the population of this species. Within its range in Africa the population size and trends are currently unknown. In Southwest Asia it is considered to be rare and is poorly known. In 2005, the species was found in Sinai (Egypt) in surveys for the first time in 180 years (D. Kock pers. comm.). For the former Soviet Union the species is listed in the second edition of the Red Book of the USSR (1984) as Rare but was considered to be "least concern" (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). In Japan, it has been observed only rarely except in Hokkaido. In the past 30 years there have also been records from the prefectures of Iwate, Saitama, Gifu and Ehime (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
2554		threats	eng	More information is needed regarding threats to this species throughout its range. In South Asia (India, Nepal, and Pakistan) deforestation has decreased the area and quality of the species' habitat. Activities associated with war may be a threat to this species in all parts of its western Palaearctic range (damage and disturbance to caves and old buildings, disruption to habitat).
2560		conservation	eng	The species is listed as “endangered” by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance making capture and kill illegal. Unfortunately, less than 1% of its preferred habitat is inside protected areas. <em>B. andrewi</em> has been successfully cultured (Smith 1987, Bok and Immelman 1989) for re-stocking purposes and to stock suitable impoundments.  CapeNature, the provincial conservation agency, has established a dedicated whitefish fund to capacitate recovery efforts. These efforts involve angler awareness, riparian land-owner education and promoting this species as an angling alternative to bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) and trout (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em>) within its distribution range. <em>Barbus andrewi</em> have been stocked into several farm dams to create “safe” populations for later recovery efforts. Such efforts will involve the eradication of alien fish species from rivers with suitable <em>Barbus andrewi</em> habitat.
2560		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Berg and Breede River Systems of the Western Cape Province, South Africa (Skelton 2001). Originally widespread in both systems, it is now common in less than 5% of its original range and it seems to have gone extinct in the Berg River system.
2560		habitat	eng	Habitat has not been studied well. Adults prefer deep pools of larger rivers, where rock or overhanging vegetation cover is present. Juveniles are common in riffles. They also thrive in impoundments (Impson 2001). Biology is also poorly studied. Adults are omnivorous, feeding on bottom dwelling invertebrates and algae (Skelton 2001). Juveniles feed on zooplankton and small aquatic invertebrates. Breeds in late spring, when water temperatures exceed 20°C, and schools of adults migrate to deep (1 to 1.5 m) riffles and spawn. Spawning was observed in late morning. Fecundity is high with 2.5 kg captive females yielding about 100,000 eggs (Smith 1987). Spawns successfully in impoundments, with spawning occurring over gravel and rocky beds in shallow water (Impson 2001). A genetic study based on mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b of the Berg and Breede populations indicated little variation between these two river systems (Impson and Bloomer 1999).
2560		population	eng	<em>Barbus andrewi</em> was originally abundant in both the Berg and Breede river systems (Harrison 1952). The introduction of <em>Microterus dolomieu</em> in the 1940s into both systems led to a slow collapse of recruitment of this long lived species. CapeNature, the provincial conservation agency for the Western Cape Province, considered the species extinct in the Berg System by 2000 (Impson 2003). The Breede system is characterised by very low numbers of whitefish in lotic environments, due to bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) invasion and habitat degradation. The Hex River is the only known lotic population that has good recruitment. Brandvlei and Sandrif dams in the Breede catchment have very large <em>Barbus andrewi</em> populations. Six farm dams have been stocked with this species, but not enough time has passed to evaluate whether these transplantations have been successful.
2560		threats	eng	Major threats are invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation, with experts agreeing that the predatory impacts of smallmouth bass (<em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>) are the most significant factor driving this species to extinction. Bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) species dominate preferred <em>Barbus andrewi</em> habitat and now halt their recruitment. The Berg and Breede catchments are characterised by intensive agricultural development, culminating in over-abstracted and polluted rivers that have become a haven for other alien fish species such as <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> and <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em>. These two species are competitors to <em>Barbus andrewi</em>.
2561		conservation	eng	No information available.
2561		distribution	eng	North of the Pyrénées and Alps, from Adour (France) eastward to Neman (Lithuania, Russia) drainages, in rivers draining to Atlantic, North Sea and southern Baltic Sea; Danube to Dniepr drainages in northern Black Sea basin; southeastern England north to Yorkshire. In almost all Mediterranean drainages of France. Locally introduced in northern and central Italy, rivers Wear, Tees and Medway and most western drainages of England.
2561		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From premontane to lowland reaches of clear, warm, medium sized to large rivers with fast current and gravel bottom. Occasionally in lakes. Spawns usually in very shallow, fast-flowing waters, in riffles. Overwinters often in large aggregations inactive or active in slow-flowing river habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Adults often shoal, hiding under overhanging trees or bridges during day. Most active during dusk and dawn. Lives up to 15 years. Males usually spawn for the first time at 2-5 years, females 1-2 years later. Spawns in May-July, rarely until September when temperature reaches 15°C. Females spawn several times, usually at intervals of 10-15 days each season. Adults often undertake considerable spawning migrations. Lake populations migrate to tributaries. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Males may exhibit courting or sneaking tactics in spawning sites. Courting males follow females to spawning site and, during the spawning act, one male swims head to head with the female. Sneaking males, waiting in the spawning site, then join the couple and try to fertilize eggs. Up to 130 males have been reported to be involved in a single spawning act. Females deposit 2-3 portions of non-sticky eggs into excavations made in the gravel. Feeding larvae drift a short distance from spawning site to shallow shoreline habitats. Larvae and juveniles are benthic, in very shallow shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for faster-flowing waters as they grow. Larvae and juveniles active during both day and night. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates, small fish and sometimes on algae.
2561		population	eng	Abundant.
2561		threats	eng	Water pollution, dams, river regulation.
2562		conservation	eng	The distribution range of <em>Barbus calidus</em> fortunately includes proclaimed protected areas, but most is within privately owned land. The upper reaches of the Boskloof, Jan Dissels, Noorhoek and Rondegat rivers are within the Cederberg Wilderness Area whereas the middle Matjies River is within the Matjies River Nature Reserve. Although these rivers may be within protected areas, this does imply that they are free of invasive alien fishes or from future invasion. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, preventing capture of the species. Several of the above rivers have been identified as a priority freshwater environment for fish conservation (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). Conservation staff and researchers have increased awareness of the uniqueness of the Rondegat river. Awareness of the species has been enhanced by displays at prominent public aquaria in Clanwilliam, Cape Town and Jonkershoek.
2562		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Olifants River System in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Skelton 2001). It has been recorded in the mainstream of the Upper Olifants branch of this system near Clanwilliam and Keerom. It is currently found in the Ratels, Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boontjies, Boskloof, Rondegat, Jan Dissels and Dwars tributaries of the Upper Olifants branch and the Biedou, Tra Tra, Eselbank, Driehoeks and Breekkrans tributaries of the Doring River. Its distribution range has thus shrunk substantially, primarily due to alien fish invasion.
2562		habitat	eng	Favours pools and runs in clear, acidic, perennial mountain streams (Impson and Swartz 2002). Feeds almost exclusively on Baetidae, Chironomidae and Formicidae and has an extended breeding season with ripe gonads from November to January (Nthimo 1997). Forms breeding aggregations in shallow slow-flowing pools with spawning occurring in rock crevices and amongst boulders (Impson and Swartz 2002).
2562		population	eng	It is relatively abundant in good habitat where alien fishes are absent.
2562		threats	eng	The most important threat is the introduction of invasive alien fishes. The introduction of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> into the system in the 1930’s for angling purposes is regarded as the most severe threat, with predatory impacts also from <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>. <em>Tilapia sparrmani</em> is a competitor for food. The other major threat is habitat degradation caused primarily by intensive farming of deciduous fruit and citrus. The major impacts are over-abstraction of water during the dry summer months and the planting of orchards within the 1:1 yr floodline of the river. The absence of a natural riparian zone, and hence buffer area between the river and intensive agriculture allows fertilisers and copper- based pesticides easy access to the aquatic environment.
2564		conservation	eng	The distribution range of <em>Barbus erubescens</em> is entirely within privately owned land. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, preventing capture of the species. The Twee River system has been identified as a priority freshwater environment for fish conservation (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). Conservation staff and researchers have made riparian land-owners in the Twee catchment aware of the uniqueness of the river. <em>Barbus erubescens</em> from the highly restricted Suurvlei sub-population have been stocked in off-stream dams in the Suurvlei catchment as recommended by Swartz (2000) and have been moved above a small waterfall on the upper Suurvlei River to hopefully substantially increase the size of this currently small population. A conservation plan for the Twee River is being developed by CapeNature and the South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity and captive breeding studies at the University of Johannesburg are currently being undertaken.
2564		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Twee River and its tributaries, part of the Olifants River System in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Skelton 1974). It is found in the Heks, Suurvlei and Middeldeur Rivers, and the Twee River to just before its confluence with the Leeu River. Its distribution range has shrunk substantially in the Suurvlei and Twee rivers due to alien fish invasion and habitat degradation (Marriot 1998).
2564		habitat	eng	Adults prefer sheltered areas in pools, particularly near overhanging vegetation and caves formed by boulders. Juveniles are usually found in pools, forming schools in the upper water column, near palmiet (<em>Prionium serratum</em>) beds or beneath overhanging vegetation. Adults reach a maximum age of six years, maturing after two at an average size of 45 mm in males and 42 mm in females (Marriot 1998). Spawns in late spring (October) to early summer (December), with an asynchronous, iteroparous pattern of egg development (Marriot 1998). Females contain up to 400 ova at various stages of development (Marriot 1998). The body and fin bases of both sexes develop an overall reddish hue during the breeding season, with males also characterised by having small nuptial tubercles on the head (Skelton 1988). The diet of <em>Barbus erubescens</em> is dominated by benthic invertebrates although adults frequently feed on drift material and terrestrial insects floating on the water surface (Marriot 1998).
2564		population	eng	The species is relatively abundant in good habitat where alien fishes are absent (e.g., upper Suurvlei and Middeldeur rivers). It is absent or uncommon elsewhere in its range because of predation by alien <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> and competition with alien <em>Sandelia capensis</em>. A recent population estimate is 4,100 adult fish (Marriot 1998).
2564		threats	eng	The biggest threat is invasive alien fishes. Several species of fish have been introduced into the Twee River for a variety of purposes. The first introduction was <em>Sandelia capensis</em>, alien to the Olifants River System, but indigenous to most rivers of the Western Cape. A local farmer introduced <em>Sandelia capensis</em> to an off-stream dam in the early 1980’s in a misguided attempt to use an “indigenous” fish for mosquito control (Hamman <em>et al</em>. 1984). <em>Sandelia capensis</em> is now common and widespread in the Suurvlei River where it competes with <em>Barbus erubescens</em> for food; with adult <em>Sandelia capensis</em> also a likely predator on juvenile <em>Barbus erubescens</em> (Marriot 1998). In the late 1970s <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> was introduced above its natural range above three waterfall barriers into the upper and middle Twee River by the Cape Department of Nature Conservation in another misguided attempt to create a sanctuary for an "indigenous" fish. This species is common and widespread, particularly in the Twee River. <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> were illegally stocked into the catchment in the 1990s, and have invaded the Twee river, where they appear to be present in low numbers due to high summer water temperatures (26°C, a deterrent to trout) and strong winter flows (a deterrent to <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em>). The other major threat is habitat degradation caused primarily by intensive farming of deciduous fruit and citrus. There is over-abstraction of water during the dry summer months and orchards are planted within the 1:1 yr floodline of the river. The use of pesticides is not well understood, but the absence of a natural riparian zone, and hence buffer area between the river and intensive agriculture allows fertilisers and copper- based pesticides easy access to the aquatic environment.
2566		conservation	eng	The Ai-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier National Park and Augrabies National Park were primarily proclaimed for terrestrial fauna and flora and scenery and relatively ineffective to secure populations of this species due to upstream impacts.
2566		distribution	eng	Orange River below Augrabies falls, including the lower Fish River in Namibia (Skelton 2001).
2566		habitat	eng	Open water in mainstream and backwater areas over sand and rocks (Skelton and Cambray 1981, Cambray 1984). Feeds on zooplankton and aquatic insects (Skelton 2001). They reach maturity in their first year and seem to breed throughout spring and summer till early autumn (September to March). A skewed sex ration of 0.55:1 male to female has been recorded and length frequency distributions suggests that two spawning events may occur in one breeding season (Cambray 1984).
2566		population	eng	Not assessed, but the regulation of the flow of the lower Orange River by large reservoirs in the Orange and Vaal catchments may have favoured this species (Cambray 1984, Skelton 1987).
2566		threats	eng	Due to its restricted distribution in mostly the lower Orange River, any threat from the rest of the Orange River system can affect this species. Pollution, especially sudden spills, from industrial and mining areas in Mpumalanga, Gauteng, North-west and Freestate provinces can pose a serious threat.
2567		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
2567		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the southern part of the Rhône river basin and to several coastal streams in France, and to few coastal streams in northern Catalonia, Spain.
2567		habitat	eng	It is a small size barbel (<220 mm). It occurs in the upper and middle courses of mountainous rivers with clear, flowing and well oxygenated waters. Sensitive to pollution. Reproduction takes place between May and July. It can hybridize with <em>Barbus barbus</em> and <em>Barbus haasi</em>.
2567		population	eng	Declining.
2567		threats	eng	Habitat alteration, dams, water extraction and pollution are the main factors threatening this species.
2568		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
2568		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Po river basin (including the southern part of Switzerland), all river basins in northern Italy, the Soca-Isonzo river basin (Slovenia-Italy), Reba basin, the Dragonia River, and in Croatian rivers as far as Krka river. It also occurs in lakes. It has been introduced in many rivers of central Italy for angling.
2568		habitat	eng	It is large size barbel (<550 mm) preferring gravel or sandy substrate and rivers with moderately deep, well oxygenated flowing water on foothill regions. Reproduction takes place from late April to early July.
2568		population	eng	In the middle and lower main course of the Po basin the species is suspected to have disappeared due to introduced species <em>Barbus barbus</em> and <em>Silurus glanis</em> (Bianco, G. pers. obs).
2568		threats	eng	Dams, organic pollution, drought, introduced species and habitat loss.
2569		conservation	eng	Good populations within the Cederberg Wilderness Area, Matjies River and Oorlogskloof Nature reserves. However, several rivers in these protected areas that have <em>Barbus serra</em>, are invaded by alien fishes, including <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance making catch and release compulsory for anglers. <em>Barbus serra</em> has been successfully cultured at the Clanwilliam Yellowfish station, although few fish were produced and stocked compared to the Clanwilliam yellowfish. The Greater Cederberg Biodiversity Corridor (GCBC) was established in 2004 to promote partnerships between CapeNature, the provincial conservation agency, and private land-owners with highly conservation worthy land. Ecologically sustainable use of rivers and associated fauna is an important component of the GCBC, and considerable resources are allocated annually to remove alien vegetation that is invading and degrading rivers.
2569		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Olifants River System, Western Cape Province, South Africa (Skelton 2001). The species was originally widespread in the system, inhabiting both mainstream and tributary areas (van Rensburg 1966, Gaigher 1973, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 2002). The introduction of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> in the 1940s, and its subsequent dominance of mainstream environments, caused recruitment collapse of <em>Barbus serra</em> and localised extinctions in the middle and lower Olifants River and from several tributaries.
2569		habitat	eng	Common in rivers of variable size with good habitat and an absence of alien fishes. Juveniles are primarily pool dwellers (Gore <em>et al</em>. 1991) of foothill river zones whereas adults prefer larger, deeper pools in transitional zones of rivers. The Clanwilliam sawfin is omnivorous, feeding primarily on aquatic insects (van Rensburg 1966). It is a relatively large cyprinid attaining  3.04 kg (Skelton 2001). It is a slow growing species with 1,3 and 10 year old fish attaining 90, 200 and 390 mm SL respectively (van Rensburg 1966). Breeds from late spring (October) to summer (December), with gathering small schools of adults over cobble beds in shallow riffles.
2569		population	eng	Currently healthy populations of <em>Barbus serra</em> are characterised by good recruitment and large numbers of fish (e.g., upper Olifants, Ratels and Oorlogskloof populations). Where alien fish, especially bass (<em>Miropterus</em>) predominate, this species is present in very low numbers of adult fish (e.g., Doring River), or is locally extinct.
2569		threats	eng	Co-exists with <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> and faces the same threats, namely predation by and competition with invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation by ecologically unsustainable agricultural development. <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> are regarded as the most serious invader.
2572		conservation	eng	Reintroduced successfully into the Treur River (type locality). Both areas of occupancy have been proclaimed National Hertiage sites to protect the species.
2572		distribution	eng	Upper Blyde River - only remaining natural population is above a waterfall in the upper Blyde River. Reintroduced to the Treur River (part of its natural distribution).
2572		habitat	eng	Deeper rocky pools and runs in medium sized streams. Prefers main channels areas.
2572		threats	eng	Alien fish predators are the major impact on this species particularly small mouth bass (<em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>). Extirpated from the type locality.
2573		conservation	eng	None known. Efforts are needed to thoroughly investigate the current distribution of this species in relation to invasions of its habitat by largemouth and smallmouth bass. The possibility for benign introductions within its native  range should be considered where alien invasives are absent.
2573		distribution	eng	Keiskamma and Buffalo Rivers, Eastern Cape, South Africa (Skelton 2001).
2573		habitat	eng	Occurs in pools and riffles in clear rocky streams running through forests. When stream opens up with little riparian cover there are few fish. Feeds on aquatic and terrestrial insects, chiefly mayfly nymphs, as well as seeds and algae. Breeds in spring and early summer.
2573		population	eng	The species has a very limited distribution, is impacted by aliens and thus has a small population.
2573		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and alien invasive fish species.
2574		conservation	eng	Eradication of trout from certain key conservation catchments may help. Discussions with forestry companies and riparian land owners to attempt to reduce sedimentation impacts may also help e.g., increasing riparian buffer zones.
2574		distribution	eng	The main subpopulations exist in the Sabie-Sand River in Mpumalanga, the Shelangubu River tributaries in Swaziland and southern Phongolo tributaries in both Swaziland and Kwazulu-Natal provinces, South Africa.
2574		habitat	eng	Occurs in headwater streams. Typically found associated with banks, root stocks and marginal vegetation. Not abundant where encountered in Swaziland. In the Sabie River system it can be common.
2574		threats	eng	Threatened by varied impacts in upland catchments - sedimentation caused by forestry activities, predation by alien trout, affects of dams and water abstraction.
2575		conservation	eng	Listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive, and in the Appendix III of Bern Convention.
2575		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Tagus and Guadiana river basins in Spain and Portugal.
2575		habitat	eng	It prefers the middle and lower reaches of rivers, in deep and slow waters with abundant submerged vegetation. It occurs also in reservoirs. It is a large size barbel (>500mm).
2575		population	eng	Not very abundant.
2575		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction, habitat destruction and introduction of exotic fish predators.
2576		conservation	eng	This species is protected by a special Greek law, but the law is not enforced.
2576		distribution	eng	Endemic to streams of the central/eastern part of Euboea Island in Greece where it is restricted to a single stream named Manikiotikos.
2576		habitat	eng	It lives in a small stream system with great seasonal variations in the water flow. In summer, parts of this stream may dry out and the fish find refuge in deep pools in which they spend the summer until the next rain in autumn. It is a small size barbel (<250 mm) that reproduces in June in gravel beds.
2576		population	eng	Rare to scarce.
2576		threats	eng	Extreme levels of water extraction.
2577		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex III of the Berne Convention and V of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>B. capito</em>.
2577		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the river systems between Mijares river and Serpis river in the Mediterranean area of Spain. It is also found in the upper part of the Guadiana river basin. It occurs also in lakes and reservoirs.
2577		habitat	eng	It is a large size barbel.
2577		population	eng	No data.
2577		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat destruction and introduction of exotic fish species. Future dam construction and inter-catchment water transfer will seriously impact upon the species.
2578		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex V of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>B. copito</em>.
2578		distribution	eng	It is restricted to headwaters of streams belonging to the Ebro river basin and to several coastal river basins in Spain.
2578		habitat	eng	It is a small size barbel (<220 mm), living in the upper part of rivers with cold, rapidly running waters and gravel stony substrate. Reproduction takes place between April and June. Life span is 5–6 years.
2578		population	eng	No data.
2578		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction and invasive species have been the main threats. Dam construction is also destroyng some of the species habitat. Desiccation is seen as a major future threat to the species.
2580		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>B. capito</em>.
2580		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Guadiana river basin in Portugal and Spain. It occurs also in a small reach of the Tajo river, where it is probably introduced there.
2580		habitat	eng	It is a small size barbel (<260 mm). It lives in the middle and lower reaches of rivers with deep and slow water. It is absent from the headwaters. It can be found also within reservoirs.
2580		population	eng	Declining.
2580		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction. Habitat alteration (dams) and introductions of exotic fish species.
2581		conservation	eng	Maintenance of flows in key streams is needed. Land and aquatic habitat conservation. Preventing stockings of alien fishes.
2581		distribution	eng	Limited to the upper catchments of the Marico and Crocodile Rivers in North-West and Gauteng Provinces, South Africa.
2581		habitat	eng	In slow flowing sections and shallow pools of small streams. Associated with banks and vegetation.
2581		threats	eng	Water abstraction and general habitat degradation.
2582		conservation	eng	None known.
2582		distribution	eng	Known from the Shkumbini river to the Dukati river including the Greek part of Vjosa (Aoos) and the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
2582		habitat	eng	It is a small size barbel (<300 mm) that spends most of its life in the lakes except during reproduction (late April-July) when it migrates into tributaries to spawn. It is a commercial species.
2582		population	eng	Stable.
2582		threats	eng	There is a threat from water pollution, overfishing, and water extraction resulting in a reduction in water levels due to karstic nature of these lakes.
2584		conservation	eng	No information.
2584		distribution	eng	Atlantic slope of Spain and Portugal, from Lima to Sado drainages.
2584		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Middle and lower reaches of streams, with slow current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at three years (70 mm), females at 6-8 years (180-200 mm). Lives up to 11 years. Moves to areas of faster current for spawning, mainly in May-June. Feeds on detritus and benthic invertebrates.
2584		population	eng	Abundant.
2584		threats	eng	No major threats known.
2585		conservation	eng	None, except for a special law for protection of <em>Barbus cyclolepis cholorematicus</em> but this is not enforced.
2585		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the Cholorema, Strymon, Evros, Nestos, Axios, Pinios and Sperchios river basins as well as in the northern part of Eboia Island in Greece. Recently the subspecies <em>B. c. pergamonensis</em> was found in the Evergetoulas river basin in Lesbos Island. It is also found in the Menderes river and Gediz river basins in Western Turkey.
2585		habitat	eng	It is a small sized, riverine, barbel (<250 mm).
2585		population	eng	Abundant but locally depressed.
2585		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction. Drought.
2587		conservation	eng	No information.
2587		distribution	eng	Spain: from Ebro to Ter drainages on Mediterranean slope and westward to Ason drainage on Atlantic slope. Introduced to Fiora, Ombrone and Albegna drainages (central Italy) around 1998.
2587		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower and middle reaches of rivers, with slow current. Prefers areas with vegetation and shore cover, migrates to upstream areas with faster current and gravel or stone bottom for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 16 years. Spawns for the first time at 4 years, 150-200 mm SL. Spawns in May-August. Generally feeds on algae and aquatic macro-invertebrates.
2587		population	eng	Abundant.
2587		threats	eng	No major threats known.
2588		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention as <em>Barbus peloponesis</em>.
2588		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Peloponnesus and western Greece, from Kalamas to Parmissos.
2588		habitat	eng	A small size barbel <230 mm) which lives mainly in the upper reaches of rivers with stony substrate, cold and well-oxygenated water, and fast current. Also found in oligotrophic to eutrophic lakes.
2588		population	eng	Generally abundant, but locally decreasing in a few intermittent streams.
2588		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water extraction.
2589		conservation	eng	No information.
2589		distribution	eng	Southern Spain and Portugal: from Segura to Mira drainages.
2589		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Occurs in a variety of habitats; most abundant in large rivers and streams with slow to moderate current. Avoids upper, cold water streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to about 18 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-4 years (7-9 cm), females at 6-7 years (11-16 cm). Spawns in May-June.
2589		population	eng	Abundant.
2589		threats	eng	No major threats known.
2590		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
2590		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Tagus and Guadiana River basins in Spain and Portugal.
2590		habitat	eng	It is a large size barbel (<500mm). It prefers the middle and lower reaches, in deep and slow waters, with abundant submerged vegetation. It occurs also in reservoirs.
2590		population	eng	Not very abundant.
2590		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction, habitat destruction and introduction of exotic fish predators.
2591		conservation	eng	No information is available on conservation measures in place.
2591		distribution	eng	This species is known from Italy, where it occurs in the Tyrrhenian Sea basin, between rivers at Genova and Sele drainage; Adriatic basin, from Essino to Ofanto drainages. It has been introduced at several other locations in Italy.
2591		habitat	eng	It is found in piedmont rivers and lakes. Preferential rheophile (prefers to live in fast-flowing waters). It can occur in moderate flowing waters of warm rivers and streams. This is a pioneer species, polyandric (females mate with more than one male in a single breeding season), polygynic (males mate with more than one female in a single mating season), multi-spawner, and warm-water adapted. It is adapted to survive in extreme environmental conditions and, as for the chub, is the last to leave and the first to colonize intermittent rivers.
2591		population	eng	In the main courses of the Tuscano latium ichthyogeographic district (rivers Arno, Ombrone, Albegna, Tiber), the species is in decline due to the introduction of alien species (<em>Barbus plebejus</em>, <em>B. graellsii</em>, <em>B. barbus</em>). The population is now mostly restricted to the brooks, rivulets and upper courses of the main rivers (Bianco and Ketmaier 2001). Within central Italy it is likely that the population has declined significantly, certainly over 30% and possibly over 50%, in the last 10 to 20 years due to introduced species (P.G. Bianco pers. comm.). However declines are less severe in southern Italy, and it is not thought that the decline across the global population would quite meet a 30% decline over the last 10 years or three generations.
2591		threats	eng	It is threatened by loss of habitat as a result of water abstraction, habitat alteration, climate change and hybridisation with introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">B. barbus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. plebejus</span>.
2592		conservation	eng	None.
2592		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Po river basin (including that part extending into southern Switzerland) and northern Italy. It was also native to the Isonzo river but due to the impact of introduced species it is now not clear if it remains there.
2592		habitat	eng	It lives in the upper hill zone of the mountainous area, up to 800–1000 a.s.l. It is a small-size barbel (< 250 mm) that requires rapidly flowing, clear water at temperature of 14–18°C. Spawning occurs between May and July. It is a multiple spawner, and is both polyandric and polygymnic.
2592		population	eng	Formerly abundant, but now declining (Bianco and Delmastro 2004).
2592		threats	eng	Alteration of the habitat, dam construction, flow regulation, pollution and extraction of water. It is also threatened by the introduction of the non-native <em>Barbus barbus</em> and <em>B. graellsii</em>.
2593		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the distribution and threats to this species is needed.
2593		distribution	eng	This species is found in Orissa, India. It has been documented from only two locations, the type locality of Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, Ganjam District and adjacent Nandan Kanan Biological Park, Cuttak District (Das 1999).
2593		habitat	eng	This species lives in the semi-evergreen forests of the low hills in Orissa. It burrows in loose earth around the roots of trees and is insectivorous and nocturnal (Sharma 2002).
2593		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2593		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats, however, it may be affected by habitat loss. The forests in Orissa are very fragmented, as there has been extensive deforestation for fuel-wood and to clear land for agriculture and settlements (WWF 2001).
2609		conservation	eng	The species has no specific protection in Nicaragua or Panama but they are protected under Colombian legislation. The situation in Ecuador is unclear (Glatston 1994). The species' distribution overlap with a number of protected areas in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador. In addition, the species is locally protected under Colombian legislation and listed on Appendix III of CITES in Costa Rica.
2609		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in west Colombia, Costa Rica, northern Ecuador, central Nicaragua and Panama.
2609		habitat	eng	Occurs near water in evergreen forests and forest edges, preferring upper canopy than ground from sea levels to 2000 meters (Nowak, 2005; Pontes and Chivers, 2002). Some authorities maintain that it is almost never encountered where there is human development, while other reports indicate the bushy-tailed olingo can adapt, to secondary vegetation or plantations in much the same way as kinkajous (Glatston, 1994). Its primarily frugivore but occasionally feeds on insects and small vertebrates (Kays, 2000; Nowak, 2005; Pontes and Chivers, 2002).
2609		population	eng	Generally unknown, possibly rare depending on the authority. Is said to be quite rare in Ecuador (Albuja pers. comm.). Some people maintain that olingos are not threatened but are common throughout western Amazonia (L. Emmons pers. comm.). However, confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).
2609		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted, the young are caught for pets (Glatston, 1994).
2610		conservation	eng	This species is suspected to occur in a several protected areas.
2610		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Brazil, Guyana and Venezuela.
2610		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. The species is found amongst the numerous tepui and granitic outcrop mountains of the Guiana Shield region. Members of this genus are nocturnal, arboreal and solitary - feeding on fruits and insects and are restricted to humid forests (Emmons 1990).
2610		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).
2610		threats	eng	Members of this genus are arboreal and are suspected to be threatened by expanding settlements and habitat fragmentation. Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted, the young are caught for pets (Glatston, 1994).
2611		conservation	eng	This speciesoccurs in several protected areas.
2611		distribution	eng	Harris's Olingo is only known from the type locality near the source of the Rio Estrella in southern Cartago, Costa Rica, at an altitude of approximately 1,500 m (Glaston 1994). It is presumed to occur across the Cordillera Central north of the capitol, San Jose.
2611		habitat	eng	Though presumed to occur in montane forests based on the type specimen, noting is know of the habitat and ecology of this species.
2611		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).
2611		threats	eng	The areas surrounding the type locality faces a number of threats including human conversion of habitat for agriculture and settlement - however, the extent of these threats remains unclear until taxonomic uncertainty is clarified.
2612		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a several protected areas.
2612		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution between Rio Chriqui Viejo and Rio Colorado in the Chiriqui area of Panama (Glatston 1994) and is suspected to occur in south-eastern Costa Rica (Cordilelra Talamanca).
2612		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Members of this genus are nocturnal, arboreal and solitary - feeding on fruits and insects and are restricted to humid forests (Emmons 1990).
2612		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).
2612		threats	eng	Members of this genus are arboreal and are suspected to be threatened by expanding settlements and habitat fragmentation. Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted, the young are caught for pets (Glatston, 1994).
2613		conservation	eng	The cacomistle is listed in CITES Appendix III by Costa Rica, and it is also listed as an endangered species in Costa Rica. In Belize it is covered by the Wildlife Protection Act. It is not protected by law in Panama. Elsewhere the situation is unknown. Cacomistles are known to occur in the proposed Volcano Baro National Park in Panama, in the Monte Cristo National Park in El Salvador and in the Cockscomb Basin Reserve in Belize and may be living in a number of protected areas where there is suitable habitat (Glatston, 1994).
2613		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Mexico (Guerrero and south Veracruz) through Mesoamerica to central Panama (Lake Bayano). Its occurrence is unknown in Nicaragua.
2613		habitat	eng	The cacomistle is nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary. It feeds on fruits, insects, and probably small vertebrates. Cacomistles use the middle and upper levels of tropical forests. It is found in both montane and lowland rain forest, in wet evergreen forest as well as seasonally dry forest, scrub, and secondary forest (Glatston, 1994).
2613		population	eng	The status of its population is unknown. It is suspected to be uncommon over much of its range (Glatston, 1994), however, it can be locally common. It is common in the remnant forests of Veracruz, but it is rare in Panama (Emmons, 1990). It is suspected to be fairly common in some portions of Belize, El Salvador and Honduras and patchily distributed in Guatemala and Mexico (Poglayen-Neuwall pers. comm.).
2613		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to deforestation is a major threat. In Mexico the rate of forest clearance is tremendously high and forest fragmentation is also a major problem. In addition, it is hunted in Honduras and Mexico for its fur and for meat by indigenous people (Nowak, 2005).
2614		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites (sandbars and riverbanks). Also tidal areas of large river estuaries.
2614		threats	eng	Illegally exported from Indonesia and traded in substantial numbers in China despite a CITES I listing. It occurs in small populations over its range.
2615		conservation	eng	No information available.
2615		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tanganyika. This species occurs on the southern shores near Melroes in Tanzania.
2615		habitat	eng	This species is documented to thrive from approx. 45 meters - 200 meters.
2615		population	eng	No information available.
2615		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
2616		conservation	eng	No information available.
2616		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found only on the southern shores of DRC, Tanzania and Zambia.
2616		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy-muddy substrates, 20 - 80 meters in depth.
2616		population	eng	No information available. Although collections rarely recover more than one individual, thus populations are not dense (E. Michel, pers. comm.).
2616		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
2619		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Sperrgebiet (Namibia), which, while lacking government protection, has a very high level of protection. Long-term population monitoring of this species is needed.
2619		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Namibia and western South Africa. There are three isolated populations, one from Alexander Bay, Orange River, the second from Port Nolloth to Groen Rivier, and the third from Steinkopf to Kamieskroon and the Kamiesberg (South Africa). The species rarely occurs above 300 m asl.
2619		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of coastal sand dunes, and consolidated alluvial soils with mean annual rainfall less than 400 mm. It is a subterranean and largely solitary species. Between two and seven young are born after a gestation period of 52 days. The species has a generation length of two years.
2619		population	eng	Population densities of this species are greater inland, with up to 44 individuals per sq km.
2619		threats	eng	The species is threatened by some loss of habitat through diamond mining operations in the coastal range. Although mining is a threat, public access to these regions is entirely restricted.
2620		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas.
2620		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. It ranges through the Western Cape province from Knysna to the area around Lamberts Bay. In addition there is a record from Rondawel near Groenrivier, Northern Cape province, (where it occurs in sympatry with <em>B. janetta</em>). It is not known whether the species range along the west coast of South Africa is continuous. It is found below 300 m asl.
2620		habitat	eng	This subterranean species is associated with loose coastal sands, sandy loam along coasts, and alluvial sand along river banks. It tends to favour areas with sandveld vegetation. The species appears to adapt well to human-modified landscapes, and it may be encountered in wheatfields and other agricultural lands. It is considered to be a pest species on golf courses, bowling greens and tennis courts and in the wheat growing areas, as their mounds can cause heavy wear to reaping machine blades. It is generally a solitary species, with a litter size of one to six young and a generation length of two years.
2620		population	eng	It is not known how many subpopulations there are, but the species can be locally abundant. Population densities may reach more than 300 individuals per ha in grasslands and wheat fields.
2620		threats	eng	It is considered to be a pest species in South Africa, and active pest control efforts are conducted. There is some human consumption, as the flesh of this species is considered a delicacy. In parts of the species range, De Graaff (1981) recorded that four or five were caught weekly by some families, this being their only source of protein apart from fish.
2636		conservation	eng	None in place for this species. More research is required on this and other poorly known deep-sea species to fully determine their threatened status (Raschi <em>et al</em>. 1994).
2636		distribution	eng	Its range is continuous in the northern Pacific from Bishop Rock, West Cortes Basin, California through the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk to Choshi on the Pacific central coast of Honshu, Japan (Dolganov 1983; Nakaya 1983; Ishihara and Ishiyama 1985, 1986; Zorzi and Anderson 1988, 1990; Zorzi and Martin, unpubl. data). Until the past few years there were fewer than a dozen known specimens of this skate in collections, attesting to the infrequency with which it was taken in deep-set research collecting gear.
2636		habitat	eng	The rare deepsea skate was and remains the deepest occurring known rajid species, being recorded from depths of 396?2,904 m (Grinols 1965; Miller and Lea 1972; Eschmeyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983; Zorzi and Anderson 1988, 1990). Due to the depths it inhabits and paucity of collection of this species little is known about its biology. Like all skates it is oviparous, but the number of eggs produced per reproductive cycle and the length of embryonic development are unknown. Size at maturity is estimated by Zorzi and Anderson (1988) as 1.1 m for males, although no specimens in the 0.75?1.0 m range occurred in the sample they examined so no closer estimate of minimum mature size could be made. Information on stomach contents and food habits of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. abyssicola</span> are generally lacking. Some of the 145 specimens observed by Cook (1979) from 1,000?1,200 m depth curves of the continental slope south-west of the Pribilofs, central Bering Sea, were examined and found to hold remains of molluscs (sea snails) and lesser amounts of bony fishes (grenadiers, snailfishes, eelpouts and flatnoses (codlings)).
2636		population	eng	A rare, deepsea skate.
2636		threats	eng	Due to the rarity of this species and the depths at which it occurs, it is only taken in extreme deep-set gear (>400 m depth). It has been taken in bottom (otter) trawls. It is not common enough to be sought commercially, but it is apparently regularly taken by deep commercial trawling gear set for flatfishes in the Bering Sea. As commercial fisheries operations in other portions of its range move to trawl deeper waters (i.e., Oregon, where trawling for Thornyheads (<em>Sebastolobus</em> spp.) is currently being conducted down to the 1,300 m isobath (J. Griffith pers. comm.)), we can expect to see many more of this species taken incidentally. Due to the number of this species observed by Cook (1979) in Japanese deep trawls in the Bering Sea, it may be more commonly harvested than once believed. Due to its apparent rarity, it may be heavily impacted by increasing bathybenthic commercial fishery efforts. One record exists of this species being taken in a commercial blackcod (sablefish) trap (Zorzi pers. comm.).
2641		conservation	eng	All three known localities are within protected areas, one is moderately small and well managed, the second is well managed and the third although poorly managed has areas of good quality habitat adjacent to it (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
2641		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Luzon faunal region from three localities Mt. Data, Benguet province, and Mt. Isarog, Camarines Sur province, and Mt. Balbalasang (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, it is likely to be distributed at similar elevations and habitats through the central Cordillera, Caraballos Mts., and the Sierra Madre (L. Heaney pers. comm.) but surveys to look for the species have not yet been undertaken in its elevation range from 1,350-2,150 m.
2641		habitat	eng	The species occurs in high elevation primary or naturally disturbed mossy forest and upper ranges of montane forest, there are no records from outside forest habitats (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
2641		population	eng	Populations, particularly in the southern part of the range, have undergone declines due to habitat loss. This species is poorly known, but is probably widespread and moderately common at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been reported as uncommon in montane and mossy forest at 1,600-2,150 m elevation in Balbalasang, Kalinga province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004), on Mt. Isarog (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991), and in thick vegetation on the ground at 2,100 m in the Central Cordillera (Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952; Thomas 1898).
2641		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species however, it is affected by habitat loss through conversion of forest to vegetable farms,  particularly in the southern portion of the Central Cordillera. While this species is moderately tolerant of habitat disturbances, an increase in unregulated vegetable farms could be problematic (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
2642		conservation	eng	There is a need for further surveys of the areas around the type locality.
2642		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, this species is only known from the type specimen Haights-in-the-Oaks at 2,134 m, Benguet province on north Luzon island (Musser and Carleton 2005). A biological inventory undertaken between 2001 and 2003 north of the type locality did not find this species. However, the actual survey technique required for this species is not known (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
2642		habitat	eng	The only record was from upper montane forest (Miller 1910).
2642		population	eng	Population trend is unknown, species is known only from the holotype from around 1907 (Musser and Carleton 2005).
2642		threats	eng	There is deforestation in the area, but the affect on the species is unknown.
2643		conservation	eng	There are records from protected areas.
2643		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Philippines and  is restricted to the Mindanao faunal region occuring on Dinagat, Mindanao (Bukidnon province) from 1,200 to 2,400 m, Leyte and Biliran islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its elevation range starts at 1,200 m upwards on Mindanao with highest densities occurring at 1,600 m. It is thought to be widespread on Mindanao and other islands.
2643		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane and mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
2643		population	eng	It is a species that is probably common in primary montane and mossy forest, but has declined in the lowlands of Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). On Leyte, the species is common in montane and ridgetop mossy primary forest from 700 m to 950 m and uncommon at 500 m in lowland forest there (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1989; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993); on Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao it is moderately common in montane and mossy forest from 1,600 m to 2,375 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
2643		threats	eng	On Mindanao, the species habitat is being encroached on for vegetable farming from mid to high elevations. On Dinagat island it is particularly threatened by mining and deforestation. Lowland forest has been deforested, but since this species occurs primarily at higher elevations, this is less of a concern (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
2645		conservation	eng	Based on its known habitat preferences and distribution, this species occurs in the Reserva Nacional de Junin and may also occur in the Santuario Nacional Huayllay and the Santuario Historico Chacamarca. Measures are urgently required to control and manage the offtake of this species from the wild.
2645		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Junin and Pasco Departments in Peru; it has also been introduced into the upper valley of the Río Mantaro, in the central Andes of Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 3,200-4,300m asl.
2645		habitat	eng	It is an exclusively aquatic species and can be found in marshy lakes such as Lake Junin and smaller, deep, isolated lakes.
2645		population	eng	Previously common, this species has undergone a noticeable decline over the last twenty years.
2645		threats	eng	The species is threatened by introduction of trout into lakes in the high Andes, by uncontrolled exploitation as a food source, and potentially through the loss of habitat quality due to water pollution.
2647		conservation	eng	Nearly all the known populations occur on public lands administered by the Sequoia National Forest. Kern Canyon slender salamanders are listed as Threatened by the State of California and are a Federal Species of Concern.
2647		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of sites in the lower Kern River Canyon, Kern County, California, at the southern end of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the USA. It occurs in isolated colonies, and probably occurs in many densely wooded canyons in the lower Kern River Canyon. They have been recorded from 450-1,220m asl. Populations in the vicinity of Fairview, Tulare County, have been allied with <em>B. simatus</em>, but probably represent a distinct species.
2647		habitat	eng	It favours north-facing slopes and small wooded tributary canyons. It also inhabits oak-pine communities on slopes; willow and cottonwood communities along streams; chaparral; and may range into grassland adjacent to woods. It is often found in crevices in talus slopes or under rocks and logs. It is a terrestrial breeder.
2647		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown, although individual population sizes are presumably quite small. It is locally abundant (Bury, Dodd and Fellers, 1980).
2647		threats	eng	At present there do not appear to be any significant threats. Potential future threats include cattle grazing, highway construction, and the proposed development of water storage facilities within the Kern River Canyon.
2648		conservation	eng	Within Caliente Canyon, much of the known salamander habitat occurs on public lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Much of the Tehachapi Mountains and adjoining areas are inaccessible owing to a combination of rugged terrain and private ownership. Needed conservation measures include the protection of public lands from logging and other alterations, and the acquisition of private lands, especially in the Tehachapi Mountains.
2648		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas in Kern County, California, USA: scattered sites in the Caliente Creek drainage, Piute Mountains, southern Sierra Nevada, at 550-790m asl; and scattered populations in the Tehachapi Mountains from Tejon Canyon to Fort Tejon, recorded at 945-1,430m asl, which have tentatively have been assigned to this species (Hansen and Wake, 2005).
2648		habitat	eng	It can be found in seasonally shaded, north-facing slopes of canyons located in arid to semi-arid terrain. In the Caliente Canyon, they are associated with granitic or limestone talus and scattered rocks, where the vegetation consists of pine, oak, cottonwood, sycamore, and California buckeye. In the Tehachapi Mountains, salamanders occur in areas of downed wood or talus. It is a terrestrial breeder.
2648		population	eng	Individual populations are small and localized, but all populations are believed to be extant.
2648		threats	eng	At present there do not appear to be any significant threats. Potential threats include the development of Tejon Ranch for housing communities, and logging which might cause extirpation of populations. Some sites in Caliente Creek have been affected by road construction, mining, and cattle grazing, and potentially by flood control projects (Hansen and Wake, 2005).
2649		conservation	eng	All populations occur on federal lands managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management or USDA Forest Service, but the level of protection is questionable. There is clearly a need for immediate effective protection of remaining habitat from any alteration. Protection of all populations is necessary to maintain diversity, since each population is genetically isolated and unique. This species is registered as a Species of Special Concern by the California Department of Fish and Game.
2649		distribution	eng	This species is known only from about 15 localities in the Inyo Mountains, Inyo County, California, USA. It has an elevational range of 490-2,950m asl (Hansen and Wake 2005a). It is quite likely that there are other populations, but while there have been efforts to locate other populations, much of the area surrounding the known inhabited localities are relatively inaccessible and inhospitable.
2649		habitat	eng	It occurs along small permanent desert springs and seeps with riparian vegetation, and is generally found under stones, wood, or in holes or crevices in moist soil near spring seepages and pools. Vegetation along watercourses consists of willows and wild rose. Surrounding slopes are arid, and the vegetation includes sagebrush, buckwheat, rabbit brush, and cactus (Stebbins 1985). It probably breeds by direct development, and the eggs are probably laid in moist crevices within rocky outcrops.
2649		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown, but each of the known populations encompasses a very small area and hence is probably represented by a small population. Some populations were declining in the recent past due to spring alterations related to mining.
2649		threats	eng	Threats include habitat alteration from flash floods, mining, water diversion, and vegetation damage by cattle and feral burros (Jennings and Hayes 1994).
2650		conservation	eng	Better information is needed on abundance, trends, and threats.
2650		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slope of the southern Sierra Nevada, California, USA. It is found from the lower Kern River canyon in Kern County to highlands drained by Tule River and Kern River in central Tulare County, and from one site on the western margin of the Kern plateau (east of Kern River; Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). The type locality is at 730m asl, and other populations in the lower Kern Canyon have previously been found as low as 500m asl. Outside the canyon populations occur at substantially higher altitudes (1,200-2,500m asl; Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its distribution is probably poorly known.
2650		habitat	eng	At higher altitudes, this species occurs mainly in heavily forested areas in mixed pine-fir-incense cedar forest, sometimes with substantial numbers of deciduous oaks. In lower Kern Canyon, the tree cover is sparse and consists mainly of deciduous and live oaks with scattered pines and buckeyes and a few sycamores in the bottoms of the creeks (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). This species is often found under logs and rocks at the edge of springs and seepages, and is sometimes in the film of water, although on other occasions it can be found at some distance from water. It breeds on land, and eggs of this species have been found under objects along the banks of a shallow stream (Stebbins 1972).
2650		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably is at least a few thousand.
2650		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
2664		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas, this species will be a priority for survey work as soon as the situation in Afghanistan permits.<br/><br/>  Considering the species' endemism, isolation and the number of threats it faces, <em>P. mustersi</em> was listed by the Afghan Government as a legally <strong>protected</strong> species in 2009.
2664		distribution	eng	This species is known from the three tributaries of the Paghman stream drainage approximately 4km above the town of Paghman in the Hindu Kush of Kabul Province, Afghanistan. The stream is about 4km in length and is fed by melting glaciers; the mid-point in the stream is at 34° 36'N; 68° 55'E. The salamanders are found at an altitude of 2,440-3,750m asl.
2664		habitat	eng	This species is fully aquatic and only occurs within cold fast-flowing waters of the Paghman stream drainage. In drier years animals are restricted to the more constant environments of the three tributary sources. Adults are found under flat rocks, crawling through submerged talus or feeding in the stream bed; larvae are usually found in deeper pools than the adults, out of the main flow of the current shaded by vegetation, or under beds of submerged vegetation. The eggs of this species are attached to the underside of rocks in the stream; between 15 and 25 eggs have been found in single egg cases, although the total number of cases deposited by females is not known. The vegetation surrounding the stream in which the salamanders occur is arid scrub without trees. This species is very sensitive to habitat disturbance.
2664		population	eng	Although the species was previously reported to be common between 2,750 and 3,050m asl, it now appears to be uncommon in the lower elevations of this range. The population is estimated to contain 1,000-2,000 adults.
2664		threats	eng	There is some evidence to suggest that there has been a constriction in range and a decline in population, probably caused by irrigated cultivation close to the streams thereby reducing stream flow. Additionally, grazing by livestock has removed stream edge vegetation causing an increase in temperature in the streams (high water temperature might be an important factor limiting their local distribution). The habitat is also impacted by the physical disturbance of pedestrian and livestock traffic in and along the stream. The impact of the recent war in Afghanistan on this species remains to be determined (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.). A potential threat is the damming of the stream to provide a water source for the city of Kabul (T. Pappenfuss pers. comm.)
2665		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the protected Hyrcanian forest region. In general, more information on the natural history of this little known species is needed. Additional field surveys are needed to identify more populations of this species. More details are needed into the ecological requirements of the larvae to better inform conservation activities. Further research is needed into the little known adults of this species.
2665		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Caspian slope of the Talesh and Alborz Mountains of Iran, from 0-1,500m asl.
2665		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species known only from mountain streams surrounded by a few trees, in high rainfall Hyrcanian-type forest. The adults are rarely seen, but have been found in holes under rocks. The caves where the adults are presumed to occur have yet to be found, and the stream-dwelling larvae are more frequently encountered. It is believed to be very susceptible to habitat change (for example, stream pollution).
2665		population	eng	It is locally common to rare.
2665		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss arising from urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation), and logging (with associated siltation of streams and possible changes of temperatures), and also by aquatic pollution and in some parts of its range by increasing light pollution. Some populations might also be affected by extended periods of drought. Collection for the pet trade is a potential though not confirmed threat to this species (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September, 2008).
2666		conservation	eng	Nearly all the Hyrcanian forests of Iran are conserved within protected areas, including the range of this species (N. Rastegar-Pouyani pers. comm.). Shir-Abad Cave and the surrounding area was designated a Natural National Monument by the Department of Environment of Gorgan and Gonbad-e-Kavous in 1998.
2666		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Shir-Abad Cave and the stream flowing from it, 60km east of Gorgan (36° 57'N; 55° 01'E), in the eastern part of the Elburz Mountains, Golestan Province, northern Iran. The cave is at an elevation of 310m asl.
2666		habitat	eng	It is an almost fully aquatic species. The adults are only known from a single pool in the cave that measures 100m by 10m at its widest point. The larvae of the species are only found outside the cave in the stream flowing from it. Its breeding biology is not well known, but eggs are deposited by the female and fertilized by the male. The forest surrounding the cave and stream is a temperate Hyrcanian forest.
2666		population	eng	There are estimated to be about 100 breeding adults within its extremely localized range.
2666		threats	eng	The Shir-Abad Cave is now significantly impacted by the activities of people visiting the cave (N. Rastegar-Pouyani pers. comm.). However, the forest surrounding both the cave and stream does not appear to have been logged, since the area is generally considered to be too rugged for development. Collection for the pet trade is a potential though not confirmed threat to this species (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008).
2675		conservation	eng	In Kenya, Jackson’s Mongoose is confirmed in the Aberdare N.P. and Mt. Kenya N.P., and is also likely to occur in Mt. Elgon N.P. (Van Rompaey and Kingdon in press). In Tanzania, all confirmed localities lie within protected areas, including the Udzungwa Mountains N.P. De Luca and Rovero (2006) recommend full protection of forests adjacent to the Udzungwa Mountains N.P., and that other East African groundwater-dependant forests (including those near Matundu and Nambiga Forest Reserves) be surveyed for the presence of Jackson’s Mongoose.
2675		distribution	eng	Known only from central and southern Kenya, south-eastern Uganda, and from the Udzungwa Mountains (900 km to the south) in Tanzania (Van Rompaey and Kingdon in press). The Tanzanian population seems to be highly localized: camera-trapping conducted over three years in 76 sites throughout the Udzungwa Mountains recorded Jackson’s mongoose in only five sites, all within Matundu Forest (De Luca and Rovero 2006). It is possible that this species occurs in and around other massifs within the Eastern Arc Mountains, including the Ulugurus, Ngurus and Usambaras. Recorded to montane elevations in the Aberdares, Mt. Kenya and Mt Elgon up to 3,300 m asl.
2675		habitat	eng	Recorded from lowland forest as well as in montane forests and bamboo zones. Kingdon (1997) suggested that the presence of remains of rodents of the genera <em>Dasymus</em> and <em>Otomys</em> in stomachs suggests that they hunt frequently in the thick herbaceous growth around swamps.
2675		population	eng	There is no reliable information, but they are believed to be rare.
2675		threats	eng	Given its apparent dependence on forest habitat, the main threat to this species is likely to be ongoing forest loss in its range (Van Rompaey and Kingdon in press).
2676		conservation	eng	The species is found in the Udzungwa National Park, and also occurs in some forest reserves. It occurs in a few protected areas in Malawi. Research is needed into: population numbers, range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures. This species needs to be monitored. Protected area management is also required.
2676		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal forest of southeastern Kenya, throughout eastern and southern highlands of Tanzania and west to the Udzungwa montains (FitzGibbon <em>et al.</em> 1995), south to southern Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988), and west to northern and north-eastern Zambia (Ansell 1978). There is a possible occurrence in the Zambezia District, Mozambique (Smithers and Tello 1976). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,000 m asl.
2676		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from primary or selectively logged forest, and riparian forest, and can tolerate quite a degree of forest disturbance. However, It has not been found outside of forest habitat.
2676		population	eng	The species is not particularly rare or common, and its abundance appears to vary between countries.
2676		threats	eng	The species' forest habitat is being selectively logged heavily in Kenya and Tanzania, causing habitat loss and fragmentation. Mining is a future threat in Tanzania in Pugu Forest Reserve. In Malawi the species is threatened by agricultural development.
2681		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). Further research is recommended to provide an abundance estimate for this species. In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is recommended that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, and an area-based management plan should be drawn up.
2681		distribution	eng	This species is found in three locations in tributaries of the Rapid River in northwest Tasmania, Australia (Ponder 1996). It is possible that with further survey work this species may be found in other localities in the area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is approximately 280 km².
2681		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and can be found on the upper and lower surfaces of stones (Ponder 1996).
2681		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2681		threats	eng	The area encompassing the Rapid River tributaries is used for forestry (Ponder 1996), and therefore this species is likely to be impacted upon by threat processes such as habitat degradation, increased sedimentation and soil erosion, and pesticide and fertiliser effluent.
2686		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3). This species is classified as Endangered under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). It is recommended that the locality of this species and the waters upstream are protected to maintain stability of the habitat and water quality, and an appropriate area-based management plan needs to be drawn up. Establishment and maintenance of stream side vegetation is advised in order to prevent stream bank erosion and to provide shade and protection from livestock (Ponder 1996). Further field work is recommended to establish the distribution limits of this species and to ascertain an estimate of abundance.
2686		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the tributaries of the Cam River on the mid-north coast of Tasmania, Australia. The known distribution of this species may be enlarged upon closer study of similar specimens currently unclassified from the same area (Ponder 1996). However, this species currently has an extent of occurrence of less than 20 km²<sup></sup>.
2686		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and tributaries, and can be found under large, stable rocks in areas of slow current (Ponder 1996).
2686		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2686		threats	eng	The localised distribution of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes. The area around this species’ habitat has been subjected to land clearing (Ponder 1996) and therefore it may be impacted by increased sedimentation, habitat disturbance and soil erosion, the effects of which are likely to become more severe in the future.
2690		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, and an appropriate area-based management plan should be drawn up. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known.
2690		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Frankland River at Balfour, north Tasmania, Australia (Ponder 1996). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as 165 km²<sup></sup>.
2690		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, and was originally collected fom a small side flow of the Frankland River along with two unnamed <span style="font-style: italic;">Beddomeia</span> species similar to <em>B. petterdi</em> and <em>B. wiseae</em> (Ponder 1996).
2690		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2690		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so if these threats do arise in the future, this species may be experiencing significant declines over a relatively short time period.
2693		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, and an appropriate area-based management plan should be drawn up. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known.
2693		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality: a small seepage near to the Salmon River in northwest Tasmania, Australia (Ponder 1996). With further survey work this species is likely to be found in other nearby locations (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 100 km².
2693		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seepages and can be found on small sedges and in muddy areas (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
2693		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2693		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). Although it is unknown to what extent these threats are impacting upon this species, its localised distribution renders it especially vulnerable. Habitat degradation as a result of forestry activities also pose major threats to this species (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
2694		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Endangered under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management plan. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known.
2694		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location, Buttons Rivulet in Tasmania, Australia (Ponder 1996). As a result, its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 80 km²<sup></sup>.
2694		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and can be found in weed and under rocks and stones (Ponder 1996).
2694		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2694		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently  impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species  makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so if  these threats do arise in the future, this species may be experiencing  significant declines over a relatively short time period.
2697		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management plan. Further field work may be beneficial to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known, although this may be unlikely considering the surrounding areas are mainly rural and degraded (Ponder 1996).
2697		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location, Heathcote Creek near Upper Castra on the north coast of Tasmania (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).With further survey work this species may be found in other areas nearby (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 35 km²<sup></sup>.
2697		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and creeks in an area of weedy cleared land, and can be found under stones. This species most closely resembles <em>B. tumida</em> and <em>B. wilmotensis</em>, and lives sympatrically with <em>B. fallax</em> (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
2697		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2697		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently   impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species   makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so if   these threats do arise in the future, this species may be experiencing   significant declines over a relatively short time period.
2702		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Vulnerable under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management plan. Further field work is recommended to determine whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known, and to ascertain to what extent the beech reserve is impacting upon the species habitat.
2702		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location, a stream flowing into the Castra Rivulet in Tasmania, Australia (Ponder 1996). Further surveying work may find this species in similar habitat in the surrounding area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 130 km².
2702		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams (Ponder 1996).
2702		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2702		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently    impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species    makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so  if   these threats do arise in the future, this species may be  experiencing   significant declines over a relatively short time period.<br/><br/>The only known location of this species is a small stream in a small beech reserve (Ponder 1996). In the original species description a second location was mentioned – Deep Creek near to the Duck River. Recent expeditions have failed to obtain any specimens from this area which has been much altered due to agricultural activity (Ponder 1996).
2703		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management plan.<br/><br/>Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known and to provide an abundance estimate.
2703		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location, a small stream south of the Arthur River in northwest Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 85 km².
2703		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams where it lives in roots and leaves (Ponder 1996, S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
2703		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for this species. It is possible that other known populations of an unclassified species in the vicinity may be this species or a related taxon (Ponder 1996).
2703		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently     impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species     makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so   if   these threats do arise in the future, this species may be   experiencing   significant declines over a relatively short time period.
2704		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Endangered A1c in 1996 (version 2.3) and Vulnerable in 1994, and it is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management plan. Further research is recommended to clarify the taxonomic status of this species and similar species found in the same area to determine whether or not this species is extinct. Field work should be undertaken to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known.
2704		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location in the Scottsdale area in northeast Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). It potentially occurs in similar habitat in the surrounding area (Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 170 km²<sup></sup>.
2704		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and can be found on and under stones, pieces of wood, and on leaves and roots (Ponder 1996).
2704		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. The typical form of this species has not been recollected and it may be extinct (Ponder 1996).
2704		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). The area surrounding the habitat of this species is a mixture of urban settlements and farmland (Ponder 1996), and therefore it is likely that this species is or will be strongly affected by these threat processes. The localised distribution of this species     makes it especially  vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so   if   these threats do  arise in the future, this species may be   experiencing   significant  declines over a relatively short time period.
2711		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management plan. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known.
2711		distribution	eng	This species is found in a single location, a small tributary of Williamsons Creek, south of the Roger River in northwest Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>It may potentially occur in similar habitat in the surrounding area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 60 km²<sup></sup>.
2711		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams where it lives in roots and leaves (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993, S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
2711		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2711		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently      impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species      makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), so    if   these threats do arise in the future, this species may be    experiencing   significant declines over a relatively short time period.
2712		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). Parts of the distribution of this species coincide with Savage River National Park, one of the few remaining temperate wilderness areas in the world, which remains inaccessible to vehicles with no facilities, roads or mechanised access (Parks and Wildlife Service 2009). It is recommended that the locality of this species and the waters upstream are monitored in order to maintain stability of the habitat and water quality and that an area-based management strategy is drawn up. Maintenance of stream side vegetation is advised in order to prevent stream bank erosion and to provide shade and protection from livestock (Ponder 1996). The known distribution of this species may be extended upon further investigation of a species with similar shell morphology in the same area (Ponder 1996).
2712		distribution	eng	This species can be found in a single location, in a tributary of the Savage River in northwest Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). It potentially occurs in similar habitat in the surrounding area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as 115 km<sup>2</sup>.
2712		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and creeks and can be found under stones. This species occurs sympatrically with <em>B. bowryensis</em> (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
2712		population	eng	This species was described as very common in 1996 (Ponder 1996), but a more recent indication of the species' abundance is unavailable.
2712		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). Although it is unknown to what extent these threats are impacting upon this species, its localised distribution renders it especially vulnerable. However, the temperate wilderness area surrounding Savage River has been described as pristine (Parks and Wildlife Service 2009) and in reasonable areas of forest (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011), so this species may in fact only be impacted on a small scale.
2713		conservation	eng	This species was previously assessed as Extinct in 1996 (version 2.3), and currently it is classified as Endangered under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). Further investigations are needed to establish if this species is still surviving (Ponder 1996).
2713		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the Great Lake in Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993, W. Ponder pers. comm. 2011). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 465 km².
2713		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, and is morphologically similar to <em>B. inflata</em> and <em>B. wilmotensis</em> (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
2713		population	eng	This species has not been collected in the lake or surrounding areas since it was dammed and flooded for hydroelectric work in the 1920s (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). Attempts to collect this species on the margins of the lake and in streams flowing into it have failed to locate it and it may now be Extinct, unless it still survives in the sublittoral areas (Ponder 1996).
2713		threats	eng	The greatest threat experienced by this species was the flooding of the Great Lake for hydroelectric work in the 1920s. This may have caused the extinction of this species (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
2715		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Endangered under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, via an appropriate area-based management strategy. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known
2715		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location, a small tributary of Little Claytons Rivulet on the north coast of Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). It potentially occurs in similar habitat in the surrounding area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 50 km².
2715		habitat	eng	This species was found in a small, rather muddy stream in a treefern gully, on leaves and stones. This species most closely resembles <em>B. hermansi</em> (Ponder 1996).
2715		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
2715		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently       impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species       makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996),  so    if   these threats do arise in the future, this species may be     experiencing   significant declines over a relatively short time period.
2719		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
2719		habitat	eng	Known only from the Mananjary drainage.
2719		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and pressure from exotic predators and competitors.
2720		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
2720		habitat	eng	Rivers.
2720		threats	eng	None known at present. The introduction of <em>Channidae</em> spp. may be a future threat.
2721		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
2721		habitat	eng	Rivers and lakes.
2721		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
2722		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
2722		habitat	eng	Known only from one tributary of the Faraony River.
2722		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation; and competition and predation by alien invasive species.
2724		conservation	eng	This species is listed by Verdú and Galente (2009) as Data Deficient for Spain and by Bouchet (in Baillie and Groombridge 1996) as Vulnerable D2 in France.&#160; Further data is required to determine distribution and status of populations, and the relationship between the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella pyrenaica</span>&#160; and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella iberopyrenaica</span>.
2724		distribution	eng	Although this species is considered to be endemic to French Pyrenees, further survey is needed.&#160; The species may well extend to Spain, in the region across the border, but due to confusion with other species, now separated as <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella iberopyrenaica</span>, the distribution details are uncertain.
2724		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
2724		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
2724		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella pyrenaica</span> is considered to be a spring species, and thus potentially threatened by the disturbance of the springs, through habitat degradation (to improve the spring for exploitation), overexploitation of the spring (leading to drying during summer periods) and from pollution of the groundwaters feeding the spring.&#160; However detailed threats to the species are unknown, given the current uncertainty about the range.
2725		conservation	eng	This species is not protected by law and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR).
2725		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandiella austriana</em> is endemic to southeastern Austria, where it is recorded from&#160;<span id="result_box" class="short_text">Andrtiz-Ursprung, north of Graz. This species is only known from the type locality and believed to be restricted to this site.
2725		habitat	eng	This species only exists in one freshwater spring.
2725		population	eng	The population of this species exists at very low densities compared to the other spring-snails at the same site (one specimen of&#160;<em>Belgrandiella austriana</em> to 1,000 of the other spring snail) (P. Reischütz pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/></p>
2725		threats	eng	This species is only known from a single site, where it lives in low abundance compared to the other species found at the site. The spring is not in a protected area; it lies on private land and is therefore vulnerable to disturbance and to pollution from agricultural practices. It is also threatened by introduced species and the lowering of groundwater levels.
2726		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR).&#160;It is protected by Lower Regulation in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
2726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. It is known from the northern limestone Alps region. Specifically it is known from Salzerbad in Halbachtal and Turnitztal at Gstettenhofer. It is found between 430 and 560 metres above sea level.
2726		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs.
2726		population	eng	The type locality where this species was found was heavily disturbed around 1979 and just before disturbance the species could be collected in abundance&#160;(P. Reischutz 2009). &#160;Since the disturbance/loss of part of the habitat at this site, the species has only been seen in low numbers, and recent surveys in 2006 confirm that it is still present at the site and still in low abundance (P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2010).
2726		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation and the lowering of groundwater levels. The type locality of this species was destroyed in 1979.
2728		conservation	eng	The site where this species is found is a protected specifically for this species (Haase 1994).&#160;This species is protected by law in Austria, but there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of its habitat should be conducted, along with research into the species' population trend.<p></p>
2728		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella parreyssii</span> is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the thermal springs at Bad Vöslau, south of Vienna.
2728		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to thermal springs, where it may withstand temperatures of up to 23.5°C (Boeters 1998).
2728		population	eng	Although population data for this species are not available, it is known to have declined considerably in abundance at its only known site over the last 50 years. In the 1960s, stones at the site were encrusted with this species, whereas now it is considered very rare (P. Reischütz, pers. comm. 2009).
2728		threats	eng	The only site of occurrence of this species is exploited for human recreational activities, and the management (cleaning) of the site for recreational use is known to impact the population levels.
2729		conservation	eng	<p>This species is conserved in the Styrian region and features on the&#160;Austrian National Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that habitat monitoring should be conducted, along with research into the species' population trends.</p>
2729		distribution	eng	This species is found in the limestone Alps region of Austria, in the Styria and Lower Austria provinces. It is only known from the type locality, an intermittent stream at Bärenloch near Mixntiz, west of Vienna (Glöer 2002).
2729		habitat	eng	<p>This freshwater species lives in an intermittent stream and is also found in springs. </p>
2729		population	eng	This species was once found in every spring, however it is now considered to be 'rare'.
2729		threats	eng	<p>Its main threats are habitat degradation, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution, mainly by fertilizers from agricultural practices.</p>     <em></em>
2732		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>     .
2732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is known from the northern limestone Alps in the Upper Austrian province. It is restricted to a single spring in the Kirchbichlbach area, south of Weyer (Haase 1993). The estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 4 km² for the extant subpopulation, based on the buffer zone around the spring. It was&#160;found only at a single spring measuring around 1 m², although there were several springs in the immediate vicinity on the same slope (M. Haase pers. comm. 2009). At all the other springs in this area, another species, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. austriaca</span>, was recorded while<em> B. ganslmayri</em> was absent.&#160;Museum samples with empty dead&#160;shells of this species are known from the wider area around this site, including floodline debris from the Gaflenz River, although there are no data to confirm that these populations are still extant. Haase (1993) notes that it is possible this species would be found at other springs.
2732		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cold, freshwater springs.
2732		population	eng	This species was previously abundant but is now considered to be 'rare'.
2732		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater for drinking water and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.
2734		conservation	eng	<p>This species is currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
2734		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella mimula</span> is endemic to Austria. It is found in a single spring in the Wiener Becker south of Vienna.
2734		habitat	eng	This freshwater species inhabits a thermal spring.
2734		population	eng	This species has experienced a population decline and is now considered to be 'rare'.
2734		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices that pose a threat to this species. Some localities are also under pressure from tourism activities.</p>
2735		conservation	eng	<p>The species is protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). However, it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
2735		distribution	eng	<p><em></em>This species is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is found in the 'Pannonian flat and hill regions'. It is only known from the left spring of the Fischa River, near Haschendorf and one spring in the Wiener Becken, south of Vienna. Originally there were two locations however in the Austrian Red List (2008) it is stated that this species can no longer be found in one of these locations.</p>  <p><em></em></p>
2735		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a freshwater species that is found in springs (Gloer 2002).
2735		population	eng	This species is noted to be abundant at the one remaining site, but overall is experiencing a population decline and is therefore&#160;considered to be 'rare'.
2735		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to the species is habitat degradation, as a result of water abstraction resulting in the lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, which also pose a threat to this species.&#160;</p>
2737		conservation	eng	This species is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (Reischütz and&#160;Reischütz 2007).&#160;It is protected under law in Lower Austria&#160;(Reischütz and Reischütz, 2007). This valley is also a protected water catchment area (Haase 1996), so it does exist in a protected area but there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
2737		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. The type locality is a small spring on the left bank of the Further Bach, west of Furth, Lower Austria (Haase 1996). It only occurs in two springs in the Further Bach valley, at 490 meters above sea level and higher (Reischütz ﻿& Reischütz 2007). This valley is also a protected water catchment area (Haase 1996).
2737		habitat	eng	This species inhabits two freshwater springs (Haase 1996). The volume of the springs water is reduced after the spring flush event, and these springs are thus possibly subject to drying out in the late Autumn (P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2009).
2737		population	eng	The population has experienced a significant decline, with only a 'dozen or so' living specimens found (Haase 1996). It is thought that with further sampling, more individuals can be found in the surrounding area of the two inhabited springs.
2737		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution&#160;(Reischütz and&#160;Reischütz 2007).</p>
2738		conservation	eng	No information available.
2738		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. Lake Victoria and Upper Nile (Uganda and Kenya). No detailed distributional data from Uganda but found below Owen Falls dam in Nile river near Lake. Brown (1994) recorded from Winum Gulf. Lange (2003) has recorded the species from his survey work.
2738		habitat	eng	Most of the lake habitats but mostly on sandy shores.
2738		population	eng	Not fully understood but there is presently an ongoing study on gastropods diversity in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Over 3,000 specimens just like the species description in Keys were recorded (Lange unpublished data) from a short survey.
2738		threats	eng	Undocumented. However in a short survey (Lange, unpublished data) the species did not appear threatened.
2739		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
2739		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya contracta</span> is endemic to central Africa, recorded from southeastern DRC. Three locations are known; two on the Lufra stream (Kiubu Rapids) and one in the Kiala district (Mwadingusha) in upper Katanga.
2739		habitat	eng	It is found in streams.
2739		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
2739		threats	eng	Wide scale copper mining in the area producing acidic and copper-based run-off is the main threat to this species.
2740		conservation	eng	No information available.
2740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. In Tanzania it could be present over much of the southern shores of the lake It is known from Mywanza to Bukoba. In Kenya known around Mbita Point (Rusingi Island). Data from Survey work by Lange (2003) suggests that this species is common and abundant in the Mbita area, present at 70% of sites. This species occurs on exposed shores rather than within Gulfs.
2740		habitat	eng	Not published. In the short survey of the gastropods of the Lake in the Kenyan side, they appeared to be associated with course sandy sections with clear water, though they were recorded from most of the lake substrata.
2740		population	eng	Not fully assessed but in a short survey of the gastropods of Lake Victoria, Kenya, in 2002/2003 over 4,000 specimens of the species were recorded at Mbita point, Kenya. The study also found clues that the species is abundant at the lake open waters.
2740		threats	eng	No information available.
2741		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.
2741		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya crawshayi</span> is endemic to Lake Mweru (Zambia and DRC) where several collection sites are known. The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but this is declining.
2741		habitat	eng	It is known from Lake Mweru, and sand and mud substrate.
2741		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. Currently the population is considered to be stable; it is widespread in the lake.
2741		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to increased salinity and lower oxygen levels. The genus is known to have gone extinct in other lakes as a result of changes in salinity and oxygen levels. In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
2742		conservation	eng	A small portion of the species range is covered by a National Park. Within the park all fishing activities are prohibited.
2742		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.
2742		habitat	eng	No information available.
2742		population	eng	No information available.
2742		threats	eng	Fishing villages on Lake Malawi threaten this species. Deforestation near Lake Malawi may increase sedimentation through soil erosion.
2743		conservation	eng	A small area of Lake Malawi is protected by National Park status. Recommended actions include urgent species-specific survey work.
2743		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi (maximum 21 m depth).
2744		conservation	eng	No information available.
2744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. Lake Victoria and Upper Nile (Kenya and Uganda). Brown (1994) recorded the species from Winum Gulf. No detailed distributional data from Uganda but found below Owen Falls dam in Nile river near the Lake.
2744		habitat	eng	This species is found on mud amongst papyrus at Winum Gulf but on the bottom sediments of the open lake (Brown 1994).
2744		population	eng	No information available.
2744		threats	eng	No information available. There is a possible threat from sedimentation, pollution and anthropogenic disturbances.
2745		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
2745		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya leopoldvillensis</span> is endemic to central Africa, where it occurs in DRC. The species is known from the lower Zaire River at Stanley Pool and Kinshasa (Brown 1994). It has been collected from Matadi and Kinshasa It is known from the Ngilima basin to Matadi.
2745		habitat	eng	The species was collected from deeper waters in the Congo rivers.
2745		population	eng	No information available. Very few specimens have been located and Mandahl-Barth suspects that this may be a deep-water species.
2745		threats	eng	No information available.
2746		conservation	eng	This species has already been assessed but we have no more information than for the previous assessment in 1996. Therefore further surveys are urgently needed to check whether this species is still extant.  No conservation measures are known to be in place. Further information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution would also be valuable.
2746		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Africa. Reported only from the type locality: on rocks in the St. Paul's River near Bavia.
2746		habitat	eng	<em>B. liberiana</em> has been recorded on rocks in St. Paul's River, otherwise unknown.
2746		population	eng	This species is regarded as rare within its currently known range.
2746		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.
2747		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
2747		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. Southern Angola and northern Namibia; It is known from the Kunene River where it has been found at Ruacana Falls and a little Upstream and in the Okavango River between Rundu and Popa Falls (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species may occur in the upper Kunene and the upper Okavango rivers as these two systems used to be connected, however this needs to be confirmed. It has been looked for in Botswana but not found (Curtis pers. comm.).
2747		habitat	eng	This is a riverine and benthic species, on sand and preferably rock substrata.
2747		population	eng	Even though there has been considerable collecting effort within the species known range, it has been recorded only rarely (Curtis pers. comm.).
2747		threats	eng	The species known population in the Kunene is above the proposed dam so that even if the dam were to be built upstream, the impacts are unlikely to be severe as the species favours standing water.
2748		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys and monitoring are essential for this species.
2748		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya mweruensis</span> is endemic to Lake Mweru (Zambia, DRC), where it was most recently recorded at two sites (out of 20 sampling sites in the lake) (A. Jørgensen, pers. comm.).
2748		habitat	eng	It is found in Lake Mweru. Juveniles live buried in sediment.
2748		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. The species is certainly rare within the lake and seems to be in decline; in the 1920s it was considered much more abundant than it was reported as in the 1950s and from current data.
2748		threats	eng	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
2749		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys and monitoring are essential for this species. A potential conservation action to help this, and other species in the lake, is to dredge deeper areas in the lake.
2749		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya pagodiformis</span> is endemic to Lake Mweru (Zambia, DRC), where it was most recently recorded at two sites (out of 20 sampling sites in the lake) (A. Jørgensen, pers. comm.).
2749		habitat	eng	It is found in Lake Mweru. Juveniles live buried in sediment.
2749		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. The species is certainly rare within the lake and seems to be in decline; in the 1920s it was considered much more abundant than it was reported as in the 1950s and from current data.
2749		threats	eng	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
2750		conservation	eng	No information available.
2750		distribution	eng	This species occurs in deep waters of Lake Victoria at about 33m. It is only known from the type locality at the southwestern side of the lake at Nyamgosto. It is believed to exist in the lake sections of Tanzania and probably Uganda. During the short survey of freshwater gastropods of Lake Victoria, Kenyan side, the species was not recorded even on the open deep waters.
2750		habitat	eng	It is found in deep waters of Lake Victoria.
2750		population	eng	No information available.
2750		threats	eng	By catch from trawling, and sedimentation threaten this species.
2751		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Malawi.
2752		conservation	eng	No information available.
2752		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Albert, Uganda.
2752		habitat	eng	Occurring down to 18 m in depth.
2752		population	eng	No information available.
2752		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
2753		conservation	eng	No information available.
2753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria occurring in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania sections. It is found in near shore to depths of 30 m. The species identity from <span style="font-style: italic;">B. constricta</span> is unclear and hence its actual distribution may have been confused with this very similar species.
2753		habitat	eng	No information available.
2753		population	eng	No information available.
2753		threats	eng	No information available. Possibly affected by pollution, sedimentation and other types of human disturbances.
2756		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia - Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh and Nengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram in India; Royal Chitwan National Park in Central Nepal. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
2756		distribution	eng	This poorly known species appears to have a wide, but patchy distribution, in northeastern South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Nepal, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal) and possibly Bhutan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan and Guangdong (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present on the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, there are recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and possibly Cambodia although there are no records from this country (Walmart pers. comm.). This species occurs at elevations of 800 to 2,400 m asl.
2756		habitat	eng	It is a mostly nocturnal and arboreal species. It occurs in temperate and subtropical dry deciduous forests. It has been found to occupy tree hollows of dense broadleaved forest patches and also in rock crevices (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It appears to be limited to primary forest habitat. The generation time is thought to be relatively long, and might be five or six years, with a litter size of one or two young.
2756		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is poorly known, however, it is believed to be significantly declining, or at least very rare, in some areas.
2756		threats	eng	Major threats to this species over most of its range include general habitat loss (often through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use) and significant levels of hunting for food. In South Asia, it is threatened by shifting (jhum) cultivation, forest fires, monoculture plantations and hunting for local consumption (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
2761		conservation	eng	No information.
2761		distribution	eng	Only known from one doubtful specimen from the Caspian basin, one specimen from the Danube basin, in the lower Dneiper river and recorded from near Kiev, Lake Shabla in Bulgaria.
2761		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Very rarely observed. Estuaries, coastal lakes and lower part of rivers, at depths up to 15 m, in still, fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives only one year. Spawns in July-August, possibly only a small batch of about 20-30 eggs. Feeds on small crustaceans, gastropods and insect larvae.
2761		population	eng	Its population is unknown as it is very rarely recorded. It may only be extant in the lower Dneiper, or cold be wide spread across the Black sea.
2761		population	eng	Its population is unknown as it is very rarely recorded. It may only be extant in the lower Dneiper, or could be wide spread across the Black sea.
2761		threats	eng	Suspected that the narrowing of the brackish zone due water abstraction and flow regulation (Bogutskya, N. pers comm.). Also climate change is predicted to increase the severity of drought.
2762		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
2762		distribution	eng	Arnoux's beaked whales are found in a circumpolar pattern in the southern Hemisphere from the Antarctic continent and ice edges (ca. 78°S) north to about 34°S in the South Pacific (Kasuya 2002). They may even reach as far north as 24°N in the South Atlantic off South America. Nowhere within this range are they very well known or considered common. Most of the reported sightings are from the Tasman Sea and around the Albatross Cordillera in the South Pacific. The overwhelming majority of strandings have been from around New Zealand (Balcomb 1989, Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). The northernmost records are strandings from Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, and Australia (Paterson and Parker 1994, Culik 2004).
2762		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs in deep, cold temperate and subpolar waters, especially in areas with steep-bottomed slopes beyond the continental shelf edge (Kasuya 2002). However, some sightings have been associated with shallower regions, coastal waters, continental slopes or seamounts (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Hobson and Martin (1996) observed groups of Arnoux’s beaked whales near the Antarctic Peninsula and found that their breath-holding capabilities make this species one of the most accomplished mammalian divers, capable of swimming up to an estimated 7 km between breathing sites in sea ice. The species seems well-adapted to life in ice-covered waters and may be able to exploit food resources inaccessible to other predators in the region (Ponganis <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Little is known of the feeding habits of Arnoux's beaked whales but they are assumed to be similar to those of their Northern Hemisphere relatives, Baird's beaked whales, consisting of benthic and pelagic fishes and cephalopods (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Culik 2004). Squids are probably the main dietary items.
2762		population	eng	There are no abundance estimates available for this species (Kasuya 2002), but in comparison with the sympatric southern bottlenose whale, Arnoux’s beaked whale is considered uncommon. In general, the species may be naturally rare. However, Arnoux's beaked whales seem to be relatively abundant in Cook Strait, at least during summer, and are also concentrated south of New Zealand and South America.<br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
2762		threats	eng	Arnoux’s beaked whale has never been hunted to any significant degree, and direct anthropogenic threats are not known. However, a few whales have been taken for scientific study (see Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Considering that some beaked whale species are known to be vulnerable to large-mesh pelagic driftnets (e.g. Californian drift-netting for swordfish and sharks (Barlow and Cameron 2003)), it is highly likely that Arnoux’s beaked whales were caught in the large-scale drift-netting in the Tasman sea. Although current levels of bycatch are unknown, they are likely to be low due to adoption in 1989 of resolution 44/225 of the UN General Assembly, which called for effective conservation and management measures of living marine resources in areas of high seas drift-netting. Developing high-latitude fisheries, such as that for Antarctic toothfish, a significant proportion of which is illegal and unregulated, have the potential to reduce food available for large predators.<br/><br/>Arnoux's beaked whales have been reported trapped in sea ice, which may contribute to natural mortality. In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of a number of beaked whales including several Mesoplodon species and Indopacetus pacificus (Balcomb and Claridge 2001, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006, Wang and Yang 2006). Sound impacts may be important for all ziphiid species. However, this species’ range probably puts it largely outside the major areas of such impacts.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, given its cool-temperate to sub-Antarctic habitat, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
2763		conservation	eng	There has been no agreement in the IWC on whether or not it has the competence to classify or set catch limits for this species, even though it is included in the IWC definition of "bottlenose whale" (the only species so regulated is the northern bottlenose whale, <em>Hyperoodon ampullatus</em>). At the 2000 annual meeting of the IWC Scientific Committee, Japan explicitly expressed its unwillingness to subject its research and management program for this species to international scrutiny (IWC 2001). <br/><br/>Although the IWC does not control the annual quota of Baird's beaked whales, it is assumed that the present catch levels over a short period would not seriously affect the subpopulation, but research is needed to obtain information that will allow a full assessment of its status.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
2763		distribution	eng	Baird's beaked whales are found in deep oceanic waters of the North Pacific Ocean and the adjacent Japan, Okhotsk, and Bering Seas. Their range extends to the southern Gulf of California in the eastern Pacific, and to the island of Honshu, Japan in the western Pacific. They may occur in the vicinity of drift ice in the northern Sea of Okhotsk. Off the Pacific coast of Japan, they migrate into waters over the continental slope from May to October, but where they go in winter is not known. They also occur in the Sea of Japan. Their distributional limits in oceanic waters of the mid-Pacific are also not well known (Balcomb 1989; Kasuya 2002).
2763		habitat	eng	Though they may be seen close to shore where deep water approaches the coast, Baird's beaked whales' primary habitats appear to be over or near the continental slope and near oceanic seamounts (Kasuya 2002) in temperate oceanic waters 1,000 to 3,000 m deep. Off the Pacific coast of Japan, these whales have been recorded in waters ranging between 23°C and 29°C, with a southern limit lying at the 15°C isotherm at a depth of 100 m. In the northern Okhotsk Sea the species has been recorded in waters less than 500 m deep, which could be explained by the availability of prey species in shallower waters at higher latitudes (Reyes 1991). <br/><br/>Baird's beaked whales feed mainly on deepwater and bottom-dwelling gadiform fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans (Balcomb 1989; Kasuya 2002), as well as some pelagic fish, such as mackerel, sardines, and saury. The diet off the Pacific coast of Japan consists of 82% fish and 18% cephalopods, while in the southern Sea of Okhotsk the proportions are 13% and 87%, respectively. They may do much of their feeding at depths of 800-1,200 m.
2763		population	eng	Three subpopulations of Baird’s beaked whales are recognized in the western North Pacific (Sea of Japan, Okhotsk Sea, and Pacific Ocean), where these whales have been exploited for centuries. There are an estimated 1,100 Baird’s beaked whales in the eastern North Pacific, including about 228 (CV=51%) off the US west coast (Barlow <em>et al</em>. 2006, Caretta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Abundance in Japanese waters has been estimated at about 7,000 individuals (5,029 off the Pacific coast, 1,260 in the eastern Sea of Japan, and 660 for the southern Okhotsk Sea – Miyashita 1986; Kasuya 2002; Barlow <em>et al</em>. 2006). These are likely underestimates because visual survey methods often do not account for the fact that the whales dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
2763		threats	eng	Baird’s beaked whales are one of the few species of ziphiids to be commercially hunted (Kasuya 2002; Kasuya and Ohsumi 1984). Small numbers have been hunted by the Soviets, Canadians and Americans, whereas hunts by Japan have been major. The Japanese fishery started in the early 1600s and underwent several expansions and declines. At its peak, after World War II, over 300 whales were killed annually. Now the industry operates with a quota of 8 for the Sea of Japan, 2 for the southern Okhotsk Sea and 52 for the Pacific coasts (Kasuya 2002). <br/><br/>Incidental catches have been recorded, but are generally not common. Some Baird's beaked whales have been caught in Japanese salmon driftnets (Reeves and Mitchell 1993). <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006) <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, given its cool-temperate to sub-polar habitat, although the nature of likely impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
2767		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas within its wide range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
2767		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Myanmar, and southern China (southern Yunnan) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), through Thailand (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 1995), Lao PDR and Cambodia (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 2003), to southern Viet Nam (Dang <em>et al</em>. 1994; Kuznetsov 2000). It roughly occurs from around 200 to 2,000 m.
2767		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests from near sea level to at least 1,400 m, but most common in upland areas where it is reported to favour swampy areas. Occasionally an agricultural pest, but generally avoids human habitations. It is nocturnal, spending the day in their burrows.
2767		population	eng	Although the species occurs at low densities, it can be locally abundant.
2767		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is considered to be a pest species in parts of its range.
2768		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in several protected areas.  It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further taxonomic work is required to determine whether populations on the Malay peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra may be a separate species. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
2768		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from China (Yunnan and Sichuan to Zhejiang and Fujian [Smith and Xie 2008]), north-east India (Agrawal, 2000), north and central Myanmar, northern and peninsular Thailand, northern Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Malay Peninsula, and Medan in north-west Sumatra, Indonesia (see Musser and Carleton 2005). Appears to have a wide elevational range 600-1,800 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
2768		habitat	eng	In general this species is present in a wide variety of habitats where there is suitable continuous tree cover, from forest to plantations. In South Asia, it occurs in temperate and subtropical montane forests, and is found in burrows in cultivated fields, disturbed primary and secondary forests, abandoned jhum (shifting agriculture), scrub, moist deciduous and evergreen patches (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
2768		population	eng	Common and locally abundant, albeit patchily distributed.
2768		threats	eng	It might possibly be threatened in some parts of its range where there has been extensive forest loss.
2769		conservation	eng	It  is recorded from Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Southeast Asia, it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
2769		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been reported from Assam in northeast India, adjacent northern Myanmar, and is additionally known from isolated, apparently disjunct, records in southern China (Sichuan Province), southern Myanmar and southern Viet Nam. There has be some sampling over parts of the potential range, and it appears to be possible that this is present only as patchy isolated populations, that may represent distinct undescribed taxa. It is an upland species that has a rough altitudinal range of 1,200 to 3,000 m asl.
2769		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species occurring in subtropical montane evergreen and moist deciduous forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
2769		population	eng	It appears to be a locally abundant species in Assam, India, inferred from the number of specimens collected.
2769		threats	eng	The threats to this poorly-known species in Southeast Asia are not known. In South Asia, the major threats include habitat loss, fragmentation, logging, fires and encroachment (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
2770		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas in Myanmar, although it probably does occur in some. It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
2770		distribution	eng	This species is present in India in Assam (Golaghat), Nagaland (Kekrima and Naga Hills), and Manipur (Bishenpur, Senapati, and Imphal); north and central Myanmar, and southern China (Yunnan W of the Salween river) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).
2770		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from evergreen rainforest, oak-scrub associations (with or without tall grass), riverine meadow, riverine scrub, never trapped in human habitations or cultivated fields (Musser and Newcomb 1983) In South Asia, it occurs in subtropical montane forests, high altitude scrublands and grasslands where it is seen among patches with oak scrub and bamboo (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
2770		population	eng	In central Myanmar, it is fairly common in forests; most available information comes from India from the early 1900s (Musser and Newcomb 1983).
2770		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be forest loss, since it is dependent on forest habitats much of which has been extensively deforested due to logging and expanding human settlement in the region. It is probably hunted for food in India as an incentive to keep rodent populations down during bamboo flowering in 2007-2008 (S. Molur pers. comm.).
2772		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/burdigala.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2773		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/chlorophaynx.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2774		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/hipposideros.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2775		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/livida.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2776		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/spilotogena.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2777		conservation	eng	This species is regularly bred in captivity by aquarists. Research and monitoring of populations in its habitat is needed to develop a management plan.
2777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Krabi Province, peninsular Thailand, where it occurs in small areas of karst spring and wetlands near Khao Thong village. It has only been recorded from one location.
2777		habitat	eng	It inhabits small karst pools, springs and streams in lowland.
2777		population	eng	The species is locally uncommon throughout its known range.
2777		threats	eng	Overfishing for bait fish may threaten this species. Also habitat degradation of karst wetlands from agrochemical contamination as well as conversion for farmlands significantly threaten this species.
2778		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/tomi.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2779		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/persephone.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2780		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/miniopinna.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2781		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/chini.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2782		distribution	eng	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/macrostoma.html">International Betta Congress</a>
2783		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in some protected areas. Recommended conservation actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: reserve suitable dry sclerophyll habitats; maintain open habitat through appropriate fire management; continue monitoring abundance at selected sites throughout range; identify populations vulnerable to 1080 and implement measures to reduce its use in those districts; educate landowners on minimal use of 1080 and land clearing.
2783		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. There are two subspecies recognised: <br/><br/><em>Bettongia gaimardi gaimardi</em> is presumed to be extinct. It was formerly distributed throughout much of the south-eastern Australian mainland, as far north as south-eastern Queensland, but disappeared around the 1920s.<br/><br/><em>B. g. cuniculus</em> is widespread in eastern Tasmania from sea level up to 1,000 m (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
2783		habitat	eng	It is found in well drained, open eucalypt or Casuarina forests and woodlands with grassy or heathy ground cover. Breeding is continuous and the females may produce two or three young per year (Rose and Johnson 2008).
2783		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct on the Australian mainland, but it is common on Tasmania (Rose and Johnson 2008).
2783		threats	eng	This species is threatened by land clearing (through timber harvesting) and excessive grazing of stock. Repeated use of 1080 poison for wallaby control on private land and the recent introduction of foxes both adversely affect the species.
2784		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Bernier, Dorre, and Barrow Islands are all protected areas, as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced. Studies are underway into the taxonomic identity of remaining populations. There is a need to actively manage and monitor populations. This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005-2010 period (Richards 2005). Recommendations in this plan include: protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations; maintain captive populations (currently there are captive breeding populations at Yookamurra Wildlife Sanctuary, Scotia Wildlife Sanctuary, and Return to Dryandra Field Breeding Facility); use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild, current and potential reintroduced populations, and; enhance community participation and education. <br/><br/>The recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period (2005-2010) (Richards 2005). There have been reintroduction attempts in the past. Many of these failed do to the presence of introduced predators, and it is clear that success of reintroductions requires sites to be free from cats and foxes. There is a proposed reintroduction to Dirk Hartog Island, which is not possible unless feral cats there have been eradicated (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
2784		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it was formerly widespread in central, southern, and south-western parts of the country. While it is now presumed to be extinct on the Australian mainland, it persists in insular populations on Bernier and Dorre Islands in Shark Bay (Western Australia) and on Barrow Island off the Pilbara coast (Western Australia) (Richards 2005; Burbidge and Short 2008). <br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations on Faure Island in Shark Bay and Boodie Island (both Western Australia), as well as on the mainland in Scotia Wildlife Sanctuary (New South Wales), Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs (South Australia), and Heirisson Prong (Western Australia) (all three mainland sites are fenced reserves within the historical range of the species).
2784		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid and semi-arid areas of shrubland and woodland, on sandy or loose soils. Currently it is found in areas with calcrete rock and sandy areas. It is nocturnal and omnivorous, and lives as loose colonies in a complex warren of underground burrows. The females breed throughout the year and usually give birth to a single young three times a year (J. Richards pers. comm.).
2784		population	eng	It is abundant on Barrow (total 3,400 individuals), Bernier (total of 650 individuals), and Dorre (1,000 individuals). These populations appear to be stable (Richards 2005). The populations on Bernier and Dorre Islands (and presumably Barrow Island and possibly mainland populations) are known to undergo extreme fluctuations in response to rainfall and drought (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Estimates for the reintroduced island populations are as follows: Boodie (few hundred), Faure Island (150 individuals); it is extinct on Dirk Hartog Island (Burbidge and Short 2008). Reintroduced mainland populations include: Arid Recovery (500), Scotia (300); Heirisson Prong (20). Populations are increasing where reintroduced.
2784		threats	eng	The current major threats to the natural populations of the species include: the accidental introduction of predators (introduced cats and foxes), fire, and disease (Richards 2005). Introduced rats and mice are also a concern, but to a lesser degree than introduced predators. These same threats apply to varying degrees to the reintroduced populations. Extreme fluctuations in populations on islands are a threat, but this threat is seen as minor relative to the risk exotic predators being introduced (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is also unclear to what extent population fluctuations occur at the reintroduction sites on the mainland. This species would likely qualify as having "extreme fluctuations" in population in terms of the IUCN criteria (IUCN 2001) if it were still restricted to the islands off of Western Australia. This is because these fluctuations are tied to climatic extremes that are likely to be synchronous in these locations, but unlikely to be in synchrony with fluctuations (should they occur) in reintroduced populations in South Australia and New South Wales.<br/><br/>Presumably, overgrazing of suitable habitat by cattle and rabbits, loss of wooded areas to agriculture, as well as changes to the fire regime contributed to the decline of the species on mainland Australia. Introduced species, particularly feral cats and foxes, are thought also to have led to its mainland demise (Richards 2005). Feral cats are a proven threat to this species, as they predated on all animals in a trial reintroduction in the Gibson Desert, Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). It is believed to have been extirpated from Dirk Hartog Island by foxes and/or feral cats (Burbidge and Short 2008). The role of disease unclear, but may have been a historical threat.<br/><br/>Black rats were a historical threat to the species on Boodie Island. It suffered greater losses, however, due to a rat-baiting program that accidentally eradicated the species from island in 1985. In 1993 the species was reintroduced to Boodie Island from Barrow Island (Morris 2002).
2785		conservation	eng	Since 2005 the Woylie Conservation Research Project has been intensively investigating the causes of the recent rapid and substantial declines with a focus in the Upper Warren region. Lead by DEC (Department of Environment and Conservation, Western Australia) in collaboration with Murdoch University, Perth Zoo, and Australian Wildlife Conservancy, the project is investigating the roles of predation, food resources, and disease (A. Wayne pers. comm.). There is also a DEC research program focused on the predators and Woylie populations at Dryandra and Tutanning. Possible new translocation sites are being investigated. Ongoing fox control is important for the management of the species. There is a need to understand role of cats in population declines.<br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
2785		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. The two subspecies, <em>Bettongia penicillata penicillata</em> and <em>B. p. ogilbyi</em>, formerly occurred in suitable habitat over much of the mainland south of the tropics. Recorded from south-west Western Australia, across southern Australia (including St. Francis Island near Ceduna) to the Great Dividing Range (Finlayson 1958). Oral history research involving Aboriginal people has confirmed that the species also ranged over much of the Great Sandy and Gibson Deserts in Western Australia and into the Tanami Desert of the Northern Territory (Burbidge and Fuller 1984; Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>B. p. penicillata</em> occurred in south-eastern Australia and is now considered to be extinct. <em>B. p. ogilbyi</em> currently occurs as natural populations at Dryandra Woodland, Perup Nature Reserve (and adjacent areas within the Upper Warren River Catchment, as far west as Kingston Forest and south near Lake Muir), and at Tutanning Nature Reserve. Sightings in Fitzgerald River National Park have not been confirmed, despite extensive trapping. <em>B. p. ogilbyi</em> has been translocated to 46 sites in Western Australia, notably Batalling Forest, Boyagin Nature Reserve, Julimar CP, two privately-owned sanctuaries (Karakamia and Paruna), and multiple sites in the northern jarrah forest as part of research into the effectiveness of different rates of aerial fox baiting (Operation Foxglove). There have also been three translocation sites in New South Wales (including Scotia Sanctuary) and 12 in South Australia, including Venus Bay Island A, Wedge Island, St. Peter Island, mainland Venus Bay CP, and Yookamurra Sanctuary. These translocations have met with mixed success, although some are too recent for their success to be measured.
2785		habitat	eng	This species formerly inhabited a wide range of habitats from desert spinifex grasslands to forests. It is now restricted to forests and open woodlands in Western Australia and mallee shrublands in South Australia with clumped low understorey of tussock grasses or low woody scrub (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
2785		population	eng	This species suffered localized extinctions throughout its range, and by the 1970s occurred at only three locations in the wild, Dryandra Woodland, Upper Warren (Perup Nature Reserve), and Tutanning Nature Reserve (K. Morris pers. comm.). With the commencement of broad-scale fox control in 1996, the existing populations increased significantly from approximately 5-10% trap success to around 60% (K. Morris and A. Wayne pers. comm.). Populations also expanded either through natural spread as at Kingston near Perup, or via translocations such as with Batalling, Boyagin, and Tutanning (K. Morris pers. comm.). As a result the Woylie was removed from State and Commonwealth threatened species lists in 1996. However, since 2001 original and translocated populations have declined at a rate of 25-95% per annum to <10% trap success. Examples of the magnitude of population declines to date include Dryandra (93%), Upper Warren (95%), Batalling (97%) (A. Wayne pers. comm.). In some cases, such as Lake Magenta, Woylies have declined to extinction (K. Morris pers. comm.). None of the Western Australia forest populations are increasing (K. Morris pers. comm.). Venus Bay CP (South Australia) has also underwent >90% decline between 2005 and 2007. South Australian Island populations remain apparently stable. Between 2001 and 2006 it is estimated that the species had declined by 70-80% (approximately 8,000-15,000 individuals). The declines have continued and there are no clear signs of population recovery. <br/><br/>The population of this species at the following locations is currently estimated as: Wedge Island - 1,500; St. Peter Island - 2,000; Venus Bay Peninsula - 1,500; Dryandra - low hundreds; Peron - 100; Upper Warren - low thousands; Tutanning Nature Reserve - 100; Julimar - 200; Boyagin - 100. There are now fewer than 50 in Lincoln National Park, and fewer than 50 in Venus Bay Island A.
2785		threats	eng	The species is believed to have historically declined through fox and cat predation and habitat destruction and alteration, including changes to fire regimes, competition with domestic and feral introduced herbivores. Disease is also possibly responsible for historical declines (Abbott 2006). Relict populations survived where shrubs of Gastrolobium containing fluoroacetate (1080 poison) provide suitable shelter, presumably reducing the impact of foxes, and possibly also reducing competition from rabbits and stock. <br/><br/>The cause of the dramatic population decline since 2001 is a mystery. Although some small populations have declined or even disappeared, large declines have occurred in all large populations, and the declines appear to exhibit density dependence (A. Wayne pers. comm.). For this reason, there is some hope that in a couple of years declines will stabilize allowing the species to persist at lower densities. However, within a year or two there may only be about 1,000 individuals left in the three most important (original) populations combined (A. Wayne pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Some of the smaller, translocated populations have failed, some appear to have met with success, and for others it is too early to know whether they have succeeded. Because the translocated populations are small they are subject to stochastic events. In addition, many of these populations were started with few individuals and there are likely to be issues of genetic viability. For example, the population on Wedge Island (1,500 individuals) was founded with as few as four individuals (A. Wayne pers. comm.).
2787		conservation	eng	The Northern Bettong is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Part of its range occurs within the Lamb Range State Forest, Davies Creek National Park, and Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. A detailed recovery plan has been developed for the species within Queensland (Dennis 2001)  . It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.  <br/><br/>Existing conservation measures include: surveys to determine the species’ distribution, relative population abundances, and habitat associations, research into fire related ecology, population genetics, and mating systems, surveys of fox distribution and abundance and the partial development of a fox control plan, and liaison with government agencies to manage state forests containing bettong populations for their conservation (Dennis 2001).<br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended by the recovery plan include: manage the habitat of the four known populations of Northern Bettong (monitor populations, map distribution and predicted distribution, survey potential habitat; fire and grazing management and research, negotiate for protection across land tenures at Lamb Range, and protect and manage other significant areas), monitor and control exotic predators and competitors, rehabilitate degraded habitat and re-introduce Northern Bettongs to their former range, and encourage community participation (Dennis 2001).
2787		distribution	eng	The Northern Bettong is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia. There are currently three localities with extant populations: the western side of the Lamb Range (includes Davies Creek, Emu Creek and Tinaroo subpopulations), Mt. Carbine Tableland, and the Coane Range (Paluma). One other locality, Mt. Windsor Tableland, may have an extant population. A population in the vicinity of Ravenshoe has not been seen since the 1920s; presumably, the Northern Bettong has been extirpated from this area and it is not mapped. A single individual was recorded from the Dawson Valley (near Rockhampton) in 1884; no Northern Bettongs have been seen in this area since that year (also not mapped) (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has been recorded at elevations between 800 m and 1,200 m asl (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).
2787		habitat	eng	The Northern Bettong is found in a range of eucalypt forest types associated with granite soils, from tall and wet forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus grandis</em> and tall forest dominated by <em>E. resinifera</em>, abutting the rainforest, to medium height and drier woodlands dominated by <em>Corymbia citriodora</em> and <em>C. platyphylla</em> (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/> <br/>This species is solitary and nocturnal. Home ranges are typically 50 – 70 hectares, but may be as large as 120 hectares (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). Northern Bettongs are heavily dependent on truffles (the underground fruiting bodies of fungi) as a food source throughout the year. The more than 35 species eaten comprise over 45% of their diet, depending on location and season. They also eat roots, tubers, the underground parts of grasses, small invertebrates, and seeds (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Northern Bettongs reproduce year-round. Typically, a single young is born and remains in pouch about 100 days. Under optimal conditions, this animal can produce up to three young per year (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).
2787		population	eng	It is considered rare and limited (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). Of the three localities with confirmed extant populations, only the Lamb Range has a substantial number of individuals over a broad area (densities of 4 to 7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>). Mt. Carbine Tableland and the Coane Range both have small and restricted populations occurring at low densities (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>No Northern Bettongs have been seen at Mt. Windsor Tableland since 2003, despite considerable effort, and the status of this population is unknown (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).
2787		threats	eng	The small size of extant populations and a fragmented, isolated distribution across a limited geographic extent makes the Northern Bettong susceptible to stochastic events, inbreeding depression, and predation should even a few individuals of predators be introduced to their range (Dennis 2001). <br/><br/>This species is also threatened by habitat transformation, particularly at the wetter end of its habitat range. In these areas a lack of fire has led to invasion of rainforest species and ultimately to loss of habitat suitable for the Northern Bettong (Dennis 2001).
2801		conservation	eng	There is in at least 5 protected areas in Misiones province (Argentina) and Paraguay.
2801		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005), in province of Misiones (D'Elia, <em>et al.</em>, 2005) and Southeast of Paraguay (D'Elia <em>et al</em>. in prep.)
2801		habitat	eng	Wet Chaco in grasslands close to the jungle.
2801		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
2801		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
2802		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in several protected areas.
2802		distribution	eng	The species is found in Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Several point localities in Minas Gerais, Brazil south to Misiones province in Argentina, excluding the state of Rio de Janeiro, inland from coastline (Percequillo and Leite pers. comm.).
2802		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits forest areas (Leite pers. comm.).
2802		population	eng	The populations of this species are severely fragmented.
2802		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
2803		conservation	eng	It is included in one Reserve (Protected Area).
2803		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005), in Provinces of Buenos Aires and Entre rios (D'Elia <em>et al.</em>, 2005)
2803		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Parana delta.
2803		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
2803		threats	eng	Populations of this species are declining due to habitat loss for urbanization.
2807		conservation	eng	No information available.
2807		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Iringa Region, Lake Ingeuzi (Brooke Bond Estates) and Ruaha River in central Tanzania. Also It is known from north of Salima-Mchiji, Hara River, Dwanga Wovwe River, Papa River and Namando River in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Species is known from Little Ruaha swamps, Kalenga and Lake Ngwazi in Tanzania. In Zambia it is known from the Chambezi River near Wantipa and Chozi River (tributaries of the Zambesi). In Malawi the species is known from swamps north of Nkota-kota. The species has been searched for as it is susceptible to infection by <em>Schistosoma mansoni </em>.
2807		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> Found in the Iringa Region, Lake Ingeuzi (Brooke Bond Estates) and Ruaha River in central Tanzania. Also from north of Salima-Mchiji, Hara River, Dwanga Wovwe River, Papa River and Namando River in Malawi.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.
2807		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes and swamps.
2807		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes and swamps.
2807		population	eng	No information available.
2807		threats	eng	No information available.
2808		conservation	eng	No information available.
2808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern Africa. This species is known only from empty (subfossil?) shells collected in the Lower Awash basin near Assaita and near Lake Zwai (Ethiopia) (Brown 194). It may possibly be extinct.
2808		habitat	eng	No information available.
2808		population	eng	No information available.
2808		threats	eng	No information available.
2809		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
2809		distribution	eng	The species has never definitively been found from Namibia and previously recorded specimens are possibly misidentified <em>B. pfeiffer</em> (Curtis pers. comm.). The species has been recorded from Angola near Dongo and near Malange (type locality) and between Cangadala and Vila Artur de Paiva.
2809		habitat	eng	No information available. Similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Biomphalaria</span> spp. which occur in a wide variety of permanent freshwater habitats.
2809		population	eng	No information available.
2809		threats	eng	No information available.
2810		conservation	eng	Supporting any measures to reduce the drying up of Lake Chad; e.g. diverting water into lake (but beware unforeseen impacts on local fauna from exotic species coming in); abstraction control schemes.<br/>It would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
2810		distribution	eng	This species is only in Lake Chad; recorded from Kouri Archipelago and Malamfatori.
2810		habitat	eng	This species probably acts as a host for Schistosomiasis.
2810		population	eng	No information available.
2810		threats	eng	The entire lake is drying out. There has been a 63% decline in the area of Lake Chad between 1962 and 1985 (Fishpool <em>et al.</em> 2001), which was continuing at least until 2001 (Vital Water Graphics, http://www.unep.org/vitalwater/27/htm). Over this period, irrigation water use has increased 4-fold. Habitat quality has also declined through the invasion of species such as water hyacinth to Lake Chad, which now covers 50% of the remaining area. If any water translocation schemes are carried out, there could be a threat from incoming species (e.g. competitors, predators). Snail control measures if carried out.
2811		conservation	eng	The coconut crab is protected in some areas, with minimum sizes for taking and a protected breeding period.
2811		distribution	eng	Coconut crabs live in areas throughout the Indian and western Pacific oceans.
2811		habitat	eng	Coconut crabs live alone in underground burrows and rock crevices. They dig their own burrows in sand or loose soil. During the day, the animal stays hidden, to protect itself from predators and reduce water loss from heat. They live almost exclusively on land, and some have been found up to 6 km from the ocean. <br/> <br/>Mating occurs near the sea. After this the female lives within 100 metres of the sea to regularly moisten herself with seawater. The young (as zoea) are spawned from the eggs into the water. The zoea takes 3-6 weeks to go through 4-5 zoea stages and form an ampbibious stage called a glaucothoe. The benthic, shrimplike glaucothoe finds a minute shell and after 3-4 weeks it migrates ashore. After about 4 weeks of living around the high tide mark, it transforms into a juvenile crab, which continues to use a gastropod shell for 1-2 years, and lives very secretively in burrows. <br/> <br/>They are solitary and usually nocturnal, especially where human activity is frequent. They are omnivorous, commonly eating the fallen fruit of Pandanus and the Coconut Palm.
2811		population	eng	The populations are reportedly quite large, with one of the largest populations being on Caroline Island. It is believed that the coconut crab is quite common on some islands, but rather rare on others.
2811		threats	eng	The Coconut Crab is esteemed as food. Unfortunately, it is easily over-harvested, because of its complex life-cycle and slow growth rate. Coastal development on many islands also reduces the natural habitat of the crab. <br/> <br/>The juvenile coconut crab is vulnerable to introduced carnivores such as rats and pigs, and ants such as the yellow crazy ant.
2812		distribution	eng	There are now nine sites recorded for this species. There are likely to be very many more (hundreds) but species is cryptic, small, occurs in very variable population densities, lives mainly in fairly remote areas and hence is rarely seen. Extent of occurrence estimated as 5,000 km², but this is likely to be an understimate. It is impossible to estimate area of occupancy with any accuracy because species is of inconsistent population density; it is probably abundant and consistent in some areas but very scattered in others. One record of a single specimen is 60 km away from the other records despite considerable searching in the intervening area. Breaking the species’ range into “reliable” and “unreliable” sections and using estimates of suitable forest cover based with success rates from sampling, a figure of 800 km² can be estimated, but this is an extremely unreliable guesstimate (K. Bonham. pers. comm). There is no information on any range decline.
2812		habitat	eng	Rainforest, mixed forest, wet eucalypt forest. Nothing is known of life history parameters (age at maturity, life span (although this is suspected to be short), etc).
2812		population	eng	Number of subpoulations is unknown. The species is capable of occurring densely (perhaps several hundred live adults per hectare) but there is not enough information to estimate total populatio size. Probably millions exist. <br/> <br/>It is unknown whether any population decline has occurred or is occurring. Clearing (agricultural and forestry) in some parts of the range may have caused a reduction of a few percent in the past 200 years.
2812		threats	eng	No known threats.
2814		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix III (protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. The European Bison Pedigree Book has been developed, which registers and publishes lists of European bison, enabling the genetic purity of the species to be maintained. A Conservation Action Plan for the species has been published (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004), and most countries in which the species occurs have national management plans. The European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for zoos was established by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) in 1996, and now a third of the captive population is participating in this programme. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended in the 2004 Action Plan (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004) include the following:<br/>1. Continue captive breeding, following a coordinated programme that focuses on maintaining genetic variability. Hybridisation between existing breeding lines (Lowland and Lowland-Caucasian) should be avoided, as should hybridization between European bison and American bison <em>Bison bison</em>.<br/>2. Establish a Gene Resource Bank (semen collection in the first phase) to serve as a safeguard against loss of important genetic diversity.<br/>3. Continue reintroductions and benign introductions, into forests and other ecosystems (including large tracts of land where human activities are abandoned, such as former farmland or military training grounds). A target of 3,000 free ranging animals of each genetic line is recommended as a management goal. It will be necessary to link isolated subpopulations (e.g., by creating habitat corridors) and restore metapopulation function to enable the population to be self-sustaining in the long term.<br/>4. Regulate bison populations by culling, when necessary, to prevent populations exceeding the carrying capacity of remaining habitat.<br/>5. Manage habitat appropriately, for example by creating watering places, and cultivated meadows or feeding glades for use by other ungulates. <br/>6. Implement and enforce stricter regulations to control poaching.<br/>7. Continue producing the European Bison Pedigree Book, and expand its scope.<br/>8. Establish an International Bison Breeding Centre, to coordinate reintroductions, monitoring of captive and free-ranging herds, and genetic management of particular herds.<br/>9. To promote protection of the species, upgrade it to Appendix II (strictly protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Further details, as well as recommended research activities, can be found in Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004.
2814		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix III (protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. The European Bison Pedigree Book has been developed, which registers and publishes lists of European bison, enabling the genetic purity of the species to be maintained. A Conservation Action Plan for the species has been published (Pucek <em>et al. </em>2004), and most countries in which the species occurs have national management plans. The European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for zoos was established by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) in 1996, and now a third of the captive population is participating in this programme. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended in the 2004 Action Plan (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004) include the following:<br/>1. Continue captive breeding, following a coordinated programme that focuses on maintaining genetic variability. Hybridization between existing breeding lines (Lowland and Lowland-Caucasian) should be avoided, as should hybridization between European bison and American bison <em>Bison bison</em>.<br/>2. Establish a Gene Resource Bank (semen collection in the first phase) to serve as a safeguard against loss of important genetic diversity.<br/>3. Continue reintroductions and benign introductions, into forests and other ecosystems (including large tracts of land where human activities are abandoned, such as former farmland or military training grounds). A target of 3,000 free ranging animals of each genetic line is recommended as a management goal. It will be necessary to link isolated subpopulations (e.g. by creating habitat corridors) and restore metapopulation function to enable the population to be self-sustaining in the long term.<br/>4. Regulate bison populations by culling, when necessary, to prevent populations exceeding the carrying capacity of remaining habitat.<br/>5. Manage habitat appropriately, for example by creating watering places, and cultivated meadows or feeding glades for use by other ungulates. <br/>6. Implement and enforce stricter regulations to control poaching.<br/>7. Continue producing the European Bison Pedigree Book, and expand its scope.<br/>8. Establish an International Bison Breeding Centre, to coordinate reintroductions, monitoring of captive and free-ranging herds, and genetic management of particular herds.<br/>9. To promote protection of the species, upgrade it to Appendix II (strictly protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Further details, as well as recommended research activities, can be found in Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004.
2814		distribution	eng	European bison <em>Bison bonasus</em> is the largest herbivore in Europe. Historically it was distributed throughout western, central, and south-eastern Europe and the Caucasus. By the end of the 19th century, there were only two populations of European bison left in the wild: in Białowieża Forest <em>B. b. bonasus</em> and in the western Caucasus mountains <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>. <em>B. b. bonasus</em> was finally driven extinct in the wild in 1919, and <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> had been extirpated by 1927. Subsequently, the species survived only in a few European zoological gardens (Sztolcman 1924). As a result of reintroductions and introductions, it now occurs in free-ranging and semi-free herds in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Russian Federation, Ukraine, and Slovakia. The introduced Kyrgyzstan subpopulation has recently gone extinct (EBPB 1996, Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Captive populations are well distributed in 30 different countries worldwide (see Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004 for details). It occurred from sea level to 2,100 m in the Caucasus (Pucek 1986), and in the Carpathians it is presently found at alitutudes of up to 800 m (K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006).
2814		distribution	eng	European bison <em>Bison bonasus</em> is the largest herbivore in Europe. Historically it was distributed throughout western, central, and south-eastern Europe and the Caucasus. By the end of the 19th century, there were only two populations of European bison left in the wild: in Bia?owie?a Forest <em>B. b. bonasus</em> and in the western Caucasus mountains <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>. <em>B. b. bonasus</em> was finally driven Extinct in the Wild in 1919, and <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> had been extirpated by 1927. Subsequently, the species survived only in a few European zoological gardens (Sztolcman 1924). As a result of reintroductions and introductions, it now occurs in free-ranging and semi-free herds in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Russian Federation, Ukraine, and Slovakia. The introduced Kyrgyzstan subpopulation has recently gone extinct (EBPB 1996, Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Captive populations are well distributed in 30 different countries worldwide (see Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004 for details). It occurred from sea level to 2,100 m in the Caucasus (Pucek 1986), and in the Carpathians it is presently found at alitutudes of up to 800 m (K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006).
2814		habitat	eng	Optimal habitats for the European bison are deciduous and mixed forests, but the range should include about 20% of grassland habitats (meadows) (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004, K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006). In Białowieża Forest (Poland) they primarily forage in moist deciduous forests, and then in mixed coniferous forests (Krasińska <em>et al.</em> 1987, Krasiński and Krasińska 1994). Forest complexes with a mosaic-like forest type arrangement (such as Białowieża and Borecka Forests, Poland) are most favourable. In fresh deciduous forest, European bison find food throughout the vegetative season. In the Caucasus region, European bison prefer foothill forests; in summer, they feed on alpine meadows (Kazmin and Smirnov 1992, Kazmin <em>et al.</em> 1992). However, considerable plasticity of European bison with regard to food means they also forage in habitats where coniferous forests predominate (Krasiński <em>et al.</em> 1999). All European bison populations inhabit ranges that include open areas, such as mown meadows, deforested feeding glades covered with grass, clear cuts and young plantations up to 10 years old (Dzięciołowski 1991, Krasińska and Krasiński 1994, Krasiński <em>et al.</em> 1999). The attraction of open areas results from the fact that meadows and glades provide ungulates with much more food than the same area of the forest herb layer and food is more easily available there (Korochkina and Bunevich 1980, Kazmin <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species had an important role in the formation of the prehistoric European broad-leaf forest and forested steppe ecosystems (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).
2814		habitat	eng	Optimal habitats for the European bison are deciduous and mixed forests, but the range should include about 20% of grassland habitats (meadows) (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004, K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006). In Bia?owie?a Forest (Poland) they primarily forage in moist deciduous forests, and then in mixed coniferous forests (Krasi?ska <em>et al</em>. 1987, Krasi?ski and Krasi?ska 1994). Forest complexes with a mosaic-like forest type arrangement (such as Bia?owie?a and Borecka Forests, Poland) are most favourable. In fresh deciduous forest, European bison find food throughout the vegetative season. In the Caucasus region, European bison prefer foothill forests; in summer, they feed on alpine meadows (Kazmin and Smirnov 1992, Kazmin <em>et al</em>. 1992). However, considerable plasticity of European bison with regard to food means they also forage in habitats where coniferous forests predominate (Krasi?ski <em>et al</em>. 1999). All European bison populations inhabit ranges that include open areas, such as, mown meadows, deforested feeding glades covered with grass, clear cuts and young plantations up to 10 years old (Dzi?cio?owski 1991, Krasi?ska and Krasi?ski 1994, Krasi?ski <em>et al</em>. 1999). The attraction of open areas results from the fact that exploited meadows and glades provide ungulates with much more food than the same area of the forest herb layer and food is more easily available there (Korochkina and Bunevich 1980, Kazmin <em>et al</em>. 1992). The species had an important role in the formation of the prehistoric European broad-leaf forest and forested steppe ecosystems (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004).
2814		population	eng	In historical times, the European bison was widespread and presumably abundant in its native range. However, by the end of the 19th century it was close to extinction, with only two wild populations remaining (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shortly after World War I the species was extinct in the wild, and the captive population consisted of just 54 (29 males; 25 females) European bison with proved pedigrees (Raczyński 1978, Pucek 1991), originating from 12 founder animals (Slatis 1960). The captive population subsequently increased slowly until World War II, when the species again suffered a steep decline, with the population dropping from 160 animals in 1943 to 93 in 1946 (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>As a result of captive breeding, reintroductions, benign introductions, and intensive conservation management, the total population of free-ranging bison now stands at c.1,800. A further c.1,400 individuals live in captivity (EBPB 2004). Some captive animals are not recorded in the European Bison Pedigree Book, so this is likely to be an underestimate (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Population structure is such that approximately 60% of individuals are sexually mature (Krasiński 1978, Krasińska and Krasiński 2004). The effective population size is smaller than the total population size, because European bison are a polygynous species, so not all males have the opportunity to breed (Krasiński and Raczyński 1967, Krasinska and Krasiński 1995, Krasińska and Krasiński 2004). The free-living population increased more or less steadily from the mid-1960s to a peak of c.2000 in the early 1990s (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Following a period of decline in the mid to late 1990s, the population is once again expanding (W. Olech pers. comm. 2006), although the potential for ongoing growth is limited by a number of factors (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Two genetic lines are distinguished in recent populations: the Lowland line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em>) and the Lowland-Caucasian line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em> x <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>). There are no surviving pure-bred populations of <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).
2814		population	eng	In historical times, the European bison was widespread and presumably abundant in its native range. However, by the end of the 19th century it was close to extinction, with only two wild populations remaining (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shortly after World War I the species was Extinct in the Wild, and the captive population consisted of just 54 (29 males; 25 females) European bison with proved pedigrees (Raczy?ski 1978, Pucek 1991), originating from 12 founder animals (Slatis 1960). The captive population subsequently increased slowly until World War II, when the species again suffered a steep decline, with the population dropping from 160 animals in 1943 to 93 in 1946 (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>As a result of captive breeding, reintroductions, benign introductions, and intensive conservation management, the total population of free-ranging bison now stands at c. 1,800. A further c. 1,400 individuals live in captivity (EBPB 2004). Some captive animals are not recorded in the European Bison Pedigree Book, so this is likely to be an underestimate (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Population structure is such that approximately 60% of individuals are sexually mature (Krasi?ski 1978, Krasi?ska and Krasi?ski 2004). The effective population size is smaller than the total population size, because European bison are a polygynous species, so not all males have the opportunity to breed (Krasi?ski and Raczy?ski 1967, Krasinska and Krasi?ski 1995, Krasi?ska and Krasi?ski 2004). The free-living population increased more or less steadily from the mid-1960s to a peak of c. 2000 in the early 1990s (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Following a period of decline in the mid to late 1990s, the population is once again expanding (W. Olech pers. comm. 2006), although the potential for ongoing growth is limited by a number of factors (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Two genetic lines are distinguished in recent populations: the Lowland line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em>) and the Lowland-Caucasian line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em> and <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>). There are no surviving pure-bred populations of <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004).
2814		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to agricultural activity, forest logging, and unlimited hunting and poaching were the primary reasons for the decrease and extinction of European bison populations. Pucek (1991, 1994) has summarized the history of their extinction. Among the primary reasons for the rapid decrease of the European bison population in Bia?owie?a Primeval Forest at the beginning of 19th century was the over-population of deer species, and the drastic reduction of natural food resources for herbivores which followed (Wróblewski 1927). During the period of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, conflict and heavy poaching exacted a severe toll on remaining populations (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Conflict and political instability continues to be a threat to the species in the Caucasus, where reintroduced free-living herds have suffered very severe losses (leading to extinctions) in recent years (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Other current threats include lack of appropriate habitat, fragmentation of populations (and concomitant loss of genetic diversity), inbreeding depression, disease, hybridisation, and poaching. There is little space for a large herbivore such as the European bison in Europe?s contemporary ecosystems, especially in the west. The most significant limit for the enlargement of European bison populations is human population density; forestry and agricultural activity is not a limiting factor. Fragmentation and isolation of free-ranging (and captive) herds result in little or no exchange of genetic material. Small isolated populations quickly lose their genetic heterogeneity and are more vulnerable to extinction (Franklin 1980). As yet, the opportunity to reconstruct a more compact geographic range to facilitate migration of bison between herds does not exist. As a consequence of passing a dramatic bottleneck (the current population descends from just 12 founder animals), the gene pool is limited and animals are highly inbred. The average inbreeding coefficient is very high compared to other large mammals, and is equal to 44% in the Lowland line and 26% in the Lowland-Caucasian line for individuals with a full pedigree (Olech 1998). The negative effects of inbreeding, manifested in the decline in reproduction rate, are more strongly pronounced in the Lowland-Caucasian line than in the Lowland line (Olech 1987, 1989, 1998). Inbreeding exerts a harmful effect on skeleton growth, particularly in females (Kobry?czuk 1985), and possibly lowers the resistance of bison to disease and pathologies.<br/><br/>Diseases appearing in European bison populations can bring serious threats to the whole species. It is not certain whether the species has always shown a weak resistance to disease or if immunity has declined, due to limited genetic heterogeneity.  The most important disease affects the male reproductive organs and is manifested in the inflammation of the penis and prepuce, leading to diphtheroid-necrotic lesions, diagnosed as balanoposthitis. This disease was discovered at the beginning of the 1980s in Bia?owie?a Forest (Kita <em>et al</em>. 1995, Piusi?ski <em>et al</em>. 1997, Jakob <em>et al</em>. 2000); although similar symptoms had been reported earlier (Korochkina and Kochko 1982) in Russia and Ukraine (Krasochko <em>et al</em>. 1997). Despite many years of study, its pathogenesis has not yet been elucidated. Other diseases that are potentially major threats to herds include foot-and-mouth disease<span style="font-style: italic;"> Aphte epizooticae</span> (to which the species is known to be sensitive) (Podgurniak 1967), and tuberculosis (?órawski and Lipiec 1997, Welz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>A particular problem concerning the management of extant populations of European bison is the existence of hybrid herds, especially European × American bison hybrids living in the Caucasus. Two free-living hybrid herds have been established in the Caucasus Mountains, in close proximity to reintroduced free-living herds of the pure blood Lowland-Caucasian line. There are fears that all these animals will crossbreed, creating a mixture of various genotypes. According to Russian authors, the distances between herds are not so great, but the configuration of mountain ridges and valleys make it impossible for contact between them. There are also two small semi-free herds of European and American bison hybrids in Toksove Forest Park (St Petersburg) and the Mordovia Wildlife Reserve (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Finally, poaching as a result of administrative disorders and a failure to enforce nature conservancy law threatens free-living herds of European bison in many countries.
2814		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to agricultural activity, forest logging, and unlimited hunting and poaching were the primary reasons for the decrease and extinction of European bison populations. Pucek (1991) has summarised the history of their extinction. Among the primary reasons for the rapid decrease of the European bison population in Białowieża Primeval Forest at the beginning of 19th century was the over-population of deer species, and the drastic reduction of natural food resources for herbivores which resulted (Wróblewski 1927). During the period of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, conflict and heavy poaching exacted a severe toll on remaining populations (Pucek <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/><br/>Conflict and political instability continues to be a threat to the species in the Caucasus, where reintroduced free-living herds have suffered very severe losses (leading to extinctions) in recent years (Pucek <em>et al. </em>2004). Other current threats include lack of appropriate habitat, fragmentation of populations (and concomitant loss of genetic diversity), inbreeding depression, disease, hybridization, and poaching. There is little space for a large herbivore such as the European bison in Europe's contemporary ecosystems, especially in the west. The most significant limit for the enlargement of European bison populations is human population density; forestry and agricultural activity is not a limiting factor. Fragmentation and isolation of free-ranging (and captive) herds result in little or no exchange of genetic material. Small isolated populations quickly lose their genetic heterogeneity and are more vulnerable to extinction (Franklin 1980). As yet, the opportunity to reconstruct a more compact geographic range to facilitate migration of bison between herds does not exist. As a consequence of passing a dramatic bottleneck (the current population descends from just 12 founder animals), the gene pool is limited and animals are highly inbred. The average inbreeding coefficient is very high compared to other large mammals, and is equal to 44% in the Lowland line and 26% in the Lowland-Caucasian line for individuals with a full pedigree (Olech 1998). The negative effects of inbreeding, manifested in the decline in reproduction rate, are more strongly pronounced in the Lowland-Caucasian line than in the Lowland line (Olech 1987, 1989, 1998). Inbreeding exerts a harmful effect on skeleton growth, particularly in females (Kobryńczuk 1985), and possibly lowers the resistance of bison to disease and pathologies.<br/><br/>Diseases appearing in European bison populations can bring serious threats to the whole species. It is not certain whether the species has always shown a weak resistance to disease or if immunity has declined, due to limited genetic heterogeneity.  The most important disease affects the male reproductive organs and is manifested in the inflammation of the penis and prepuce, leading to diphtheroid-necrotic lesions, diagnosed as balanoposthitis. This disease was discovered at the beginning of the 1980s in Białowieża Forest (Kita<em> et al.</em> 1995, Piusiński <em>et al. </em>1997, Jakob <em>et al.</em> 2000); although similar symptoms had been reported earlier (Korochkina and Kochko 1982) in Russia and Ukraine (Krasochko<em> et al.</em> 1997). Despite many years of study, its pathogenesis has not yet been elucidated. Other diseases that are potentially major threats to herds include foot-and-mouth disease <em>Aphte epizooticae</em> (to which the species is known to be sensitive) (Podgurniak 1967), and tuberculosis (Żórawski and Lipiec 1997, Welz <em>et al.</em> 2005) .<br/><br/>A particular problem concerning the management of extant populations of European bison is the existence of hybrid herds, especially European × American bison hybrids living in the Caucasus. Two free-living hybrid herds have been established in the Caucasus Mountains, in close proximity to reintroduced free-living herds of the pure blood Lowland-Caucasian line. There are fears that all these animals will crossbreed, creating a mixture of various genotypes. According to Russian authors, the distances between herds are not so great, but the configuration of mountain ridges and valleys make it impossible for contact between them. There are also two small semi-free herds of European × American bison hybrids in Toksove Forest Park (St Petersburg) and the Mordovia Wildlife Reserve (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Finally, poaching as a result of administrative disorders and a failure to enforce nature conservancy law threatens free-living herds of European bison in many countries.
2815		conservation	eng	A recovery program for wood bison has existed in Canada since the early 1960s where the subspecies was designated as 'Threatened' by the Committee on Endangered Species of Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). In May 2004 COSEWIC assessed the status of plains bison and recommended listing them as 'Threatened' in Canada.  National Refuges and Parks and State parks play an important role in maintaining conservation herds in Canada and the United States. Wild free-ranging herds are managed by government agencies. The Nature Conservancy manages 8 captive herds and the American Prairie Foundation (World Wildlife Fund) manages one herd primarily for conservation objectives. Restoration of large populations of plains bison are being planned in southern Colorado and northern Montana. The State of Alaska is at an advanced stage in planning to reintroduce wood bison to the wild. There are no coordinated federal initiatives for plains bison conservation in any nation in North American, although there is some discussion of a coordinated strategy by the US Department of the Interior at the time of writing (January 2007). <br/><br/>The Bison Specialist Group (North America) is developing a bison conservation assessment and action plan that will provide support and guidance for policy development and conservation planning and management for public and private sector projects, including: numeric, geographic and genetic status of North American bison, including public and private herds; a review of legislation and policies of individual range states regarding bison conservation; geographic assessment of priority conservation areas in North America (Wildlife Conservation Society lead); enhancing the capacity of members of the Bison Specialist Group and organizations they represent to provide timely, innovative and practical solutions to conservation challenges; guidelines for management in support of species’ conservation and ecological restoration. <br/><br/>There are potential opportunities for ecological restoration of herds managed primarily for conservation on federal, state, provincial lands in some jurisdictions (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2008). There may be opportunities for establishing herds on Native-owned lands that are managed for combined conservation and socio-economic purposes. However, there are significant challenges in integrating western science-based conservation into such community-based initiatives.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Bison bison athabascae</span> is listed in CITES Appendix II.
2815		distribution	eng	Original North American range extended from northern Mexico to Alaska. Plains bison occurred from Northern Mexico to central Alberta. Wood bison occurred from central Alberta to Alaska. Current range is restricted by land use and wildlife management policies in the southern area and by wildlife and reportable disease management policies in the north. Bison in conservation herds currently occupy less than 1% of their original range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2008).
2815		habitat	eng	North American bison are primarily grazers and forage primarily in grassland and meadow communities. They had the widest natural range of any North American herbivore, from the arid grasslands of Chihuahua State in northern Mexico, through the grasslands of the Great Plains, to the riparian meadows of interior Alaska. They can persist in arid regions (Mexico and New Mexico) and in areas experiencing deep snow cover (Yellowstone National Park). Grasses and sedges form the mainstay of the annual diet in all regions. However, summer and fall diets may be broader, including flowering plants, woody plant leaves, and lichens, in addition to grasses and sedges, depending on local availability. Bison excavate snow at foraging sites by sweeping it away using side to side motions of their muzzle. The plains bison undertook seasonal migrations when it was abundant prior to European settlement of the continent. It no longer migrates owing to land use change and depopulation. The wood bison was not migratory and remains so. Both subspecies exhibit strong seasonal aggregation during the calving through breeding seasons (May through August).
2815		population	eng	There are approximately 19,000 total plains bison in 54 conservation herds (herds managed in the public interest by governments and environmental organizations), and 11,000 total wood bison in 11 conservation herds. The proportion of mature individuals is difficult to calculate as even wild herd are often intentionally managed with skewed sex ratios. An optimistic estimate of the total number mature individuals for both subspecies (breeding adults including subadult males) is 23,000 (75% of total), while a more realistic estimate (breeding females and mature males only) is 21,000 (70% of total). Populations are considered viable in the long term if they exceed 1000 individuals. There are 5 plains bison conservation herds and 3 wood bison conservation herds each exceeding 1000 - therefore the total number of viable populations is only 8.<br/><br/>Six wild (free-ranging, not confined primarily by fencing) herds of plains bison occur in the natural range of this subspecies: two in Canada, three in the United States and one in Mexico. There are ten wild populations of wood bison within the natural range of the sub-species; all are in Canada. Wood bison are extirpated in the wild in Alaska, a natural range state. There are approximately 500,000 bison in captive commercial populations (mostly plains bison) on about 4000 privately owned ranches. <br/><br/>Under the IUCN Red List Guidelines, commercial herds are not eligible for consideration in determining a Red List designation therefore we have calculated the total population of bison in conservation herds to be approximately 30,000 individuals and the mature population to be approximately 20,000 individuals. Of the total number presented only 15,000 total individuals are considered wild bison in the natural range within North America (free-ranging, not confined primarily by fencing). Of the wild populations, only 11,250 (75% see above) are mature individuals using the most conservative estimate.
2815		threats	eng	In the 19th Century, market, subsistence and recreational hunting nearly eliminated the bison throughout its range in North America. Conservation measures have brought about limited recovery in the wild and in captive conservation herds.  Private commercial production of bison has resulted in significant numerical recovery, but does not provide for conservation of the bison as wildlife in the sense used for Red List designation. Existing threats include: habitat loss; genetic manipulation of commercial bison for market traits; small population effects in most conservation herds; few herds are exposed to a full range of natural limiting factors; cattle gene introgression; loss of genetic non-exchangeability through hybridization between bison subspecies; and the threat of depopulation as a management response to infection of some wild populations hosting reportable cattle diseases. Canada, the United States and Mexico list bison nationally as both wildlife and domestic livestock. Legal status varies among State and Provincial jurisdictions. In Canada, four provinces and two territories list bison as both wildlife and livestock. Bison are listed by 20 states in the United Sates; 10 states list bison as wildlife and all 20 list them as livestock. An additional threat to populations of this species is culling to prevent the spread of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis.
2816		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is known from Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a need to maintain suitable areas of habitat for this species, and to undertake detailed field surveys to determine whether the species still persists and to determine the current distribution range (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
2816		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from a single specimen collected in Namdapha National Park (at altitudes of 100-350 m asl), Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Saha 1981). The surrounding area has been well surveyed but there have been no verified sightings of the species since (S.S. Saha pers. comm. 2005). It might be restricted to the area of a single valley within the park (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
2816		habitat	eng	It is a mostly crepuscular and arboreal species. It occurs in dry deciduous montane forests occupying moist forest tracts along streams (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
2816		population	eng	This appears to be a rare species, and is thought to have a very small population. Nothing known about population trends. It is known only from the holotype specimen collected in 1981, although informal sightings occurred in 2002 near Halidibari and Deban (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
2816		threats	eng	Poaching of animals for food within the park has been observed to be the major threat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species appears to have a restricted range, with presumably some general habitat loss and degradation taking place. Additional important threats include habitat loss through landslides and flooding (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
2823		conservation	eng	It is found in the periphery of Tandoureh National Park in the Kopet-dag Mountains of Iran (Siahsarvie <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this little known species.
2823		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in semi-desert, steppes, and mountainous areas of southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, central Afghanistan and northeastern Iran (Habibi 2003; Musser and Carleton 2005; Siahsarvie <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Afghanistan, it has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,400 m asl.
2823		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with semi-desert and steppe habitats. It has been recorded from areas of clay and loess substrate, and can be found close to watercourses (Habibi 2003). It is a colonial species that lives in an extensive system of interconnected burrows (Habibi 2003).
2823		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
2823		threats	eng	In view of the distribution over a wide area of suitable habitat, there seem to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
2824		conservation	eng	None known.
2824		distribution	eng	Northern ranges of Pamir-Alay, namely Zeravshan, Gissar and Nuratau Ranges (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), and Badakhshan Range (Afghanistan). Distributed up to at least 1500 m asl, in Afghanistan probably up to 3000 m (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995)
2824		habitat	eng	Habitat characteristic to the species are matted loess soils, sometimes found in loess-sandy semideserts in mountains. Diurnal, colonial. Makes complex burrows, on ground exits connected by pathways. Reproduces whole year round with 2-3 months break in summer.
2824		population	eng	Unknown. Ecology of the species is similar to that of <em>Blanfordimys afganus</em>, which usually undergo periodical population fluctuations.
2824		threats	eng	No known major threats.
2825		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
2825		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Myanmar and western and northwestern Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Jiang <em>et al</em>. (2003) located the species at high elevations in both north east Myanmar and adjacent China, where it is thought to be endemic. In Myanmar, the species can be found as high as 2,400 m, and in China it has been found between 1,600 and 3,000 m asl.
2825		habitat	eng	The species occurs in temperate forests at high elevations, including openings and edges. It forages in cool, damp ground cover (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
2825		population	eng	This species is apparently not uncommon in suitable habitats, judging from large collections of specimens in museums.
2825		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species at present. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range.
2827		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
2827		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil (Bahia to São Paulo States; Silva <em>et al.</em>, 2003) and northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province; Massoia, 1993).
2827		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical and subtropical moist forests. This species is primarily insectivorous (dos Reis <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species forages in soil for invertebrates, and the scant information available suggests it breeds from September to January, producing a litter of one or two (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It inhabits forest over a range of elevations (Moura and Paglia pers. comm.).
2827		population	eng	The species distribution is fragmented and it is known only from a few specimens per locality.
2827		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
2828		conservation	eng	The species is included on CITES Appendix I. The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. A management plan for this endangered deer is urgently needed to assure the survival of populations closely related with the major basin in South America (Mauro 1995). Recommended conservation actions include further population surveys, ecological research, strengthening of existing management of protected areas, creation of new protected areas, establishment of a collaborative captive breeding programme, and enlisting the co-operation of local landowners in maintaining this species.
2828		distribution	eng	The Marsh Deer, <em>Blastocerus dichotomus</em>, is the largest South American deer. Originally much more widely distributed throughout present range (Nowak and Paradiso 1983), it now occurs in east-central and northeastern Argentina, west-central and southern Brazil, Paraguay, southeastern Peru, and eastern Bolivia. The species has been extirpated from Uruguay.
2828		habitat	eng	This species is found in the marshy habitats south of the Amazon River into northern Argentina (Pinder and Grosse 1991), with water depth as much as 0.0 m (Tomas <em>et al.</em> 1997). Diet is generally grasses, reeds and aquatic plants, but may include shrubs and vines during prolonged flooding (Nowak and Paradiso 1983). The marsh deer is generally solitary or found in small groups of 2–3. Aggregations of up to six animals have been reported on islands during floods (Schaller and Vasconcelos 1978). The marsh deer is the largest cervid species of South America. Male animals can reach up to 150 kg and the females up to 100 kg (Duarte and Merino 1997).
2828		population	eng	The species is declining throughout much of its range (Nowak and Paradiso 1983) although recent surveys in Brazil have revealed higher populations than had been previously recorded (Mauro 1995). Information gathered at a PHVA workshop indicates that approximately 41,000 Marsh Deer still survive in Brazil (Pinder 1995). In Argentina, population estimates are around 2,000 animals in Iberá marshes, other important populations are known from Formosa and the Paraná River Delta (Varela <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Bolivia, several populations are known from the  Beni savannas and Noel Kempff National Park, and a recent population survey in Pampas Heath estimates 700 deer in the north of Madidi National Park (Gomez and Ríos-Uzeda 2004).<br/><br/>The principal population in Paraguay is in the Yacyretá region where density is low. Most populations in Paraguay were reported to be declining in the 1970s (Jungius 1974, 1976).  In Peru the species occurred in small numbers in Pampas del Heath (Hofmann <em>et al.</em> 1976, Montanbault 2002, Escamilo pers. comm.). The last record of the species in Uruguay dates back to 1958 (Ximenez <em>et al.</em> 1972, González 1994).
2828		threats	eng	The species is declining throughout its range due to excessive hunting and wetland conversion for agriculture, tree plantations, and dams. In Brazil and Argentina, hydroelectric projects have eliminated floodplain habitat along many large rivers, including the Tiete, Paraná, and Rio Grande (DSG 1991), and cattle ranching has severely reduced and fragmented habitats. Competition with domestic livestock may be a major threat (Schaller and Vasconcelos 1978) and pollution of waterways associated with gold mining is a serious threat in the Pantanal. Accidental introduction of bovine diseases may account for large losses reported in Bolivia during the 1970s when reproductive failure was reportedly common (Mann and Schuerholz 1977). Beccaceci (1994) also mentioned disease, hunting, and competition with livestock as possible limiting factors in the Ibera Natural Reserve, Argentina. In the Paraná River Delta, the conversion of marshes for exotic tree plantation and hunting threaten the population in Argentina (Varela 2003). In Brazil, tick infestation was one of the most important causes of death after habitat loss in the Parana River basin (Szabo, <em>et al.</em> 2003).
2857		conservation	eng	It is present in three protected areas in Peru; it has not been recorded from protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.
2857		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the altiplano grasslands of southeast Peru and west Bolivia, as far south as Tarija Department in Bolivia (Anderson, 1993; Musser and Carleton, 2005), and Salta Province in Argentina. It has an elevational range of 3,200 to 4,300 m.
2857		habitat	eng	It is found in open puna grasslands and <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands. It has been recorded from cultivated areas in Bolivia.
2857		population	eng	It is a generally rare species, though can be locally common. It is known in Argentina only form one locality, there is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
2857		threats	eng	Overgrazing probably affecting the survival of the species in some areas, however, there does not appear to be any major threats to this species overall.
2858		conservation	eng	It may occur in a number of protected areas, although the presence in these needs to be confirmed. No immediate conservation measures are needed for this species.
2858		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Andean highlands of south central Bolivia (see Anderson and Olds, 1989) and northwest Argentina (Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, and Tucumán Provinces; see Ortiz <em>et al.</em>, 2000) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of about 2,000 to 4,000 m in Bolivia, being found down to 1,500 m in Argentina.
2858		habitat	eng	The species is present in puna habitat and dry valleys of the eastern slopes of the Andes; it can be found in disturbed habitats, but not heavily modified areas such as cropland.
2858		population	eng	It is a common species.
2858		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its dry valley range through conversion of land to agricultural use (cattle and crops).
2859		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
2859		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Brazil south of the Amazon River, extreme southeast Peru (as per Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995), and northeast Argentina (see Galliari <em>et al</em>. 1996); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It also occurs in Paraguay and Bolivia.
2859		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in open areas, grasslands, forest borders, and in cerrado enclaves within the Amazon. It is a diurnal and nocturnal species. It feeds on insects and fruits.
2859		population	eng	This species is abundant to very common.
2859		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
2860		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least one protected area.
2860		distribution	eng	This species occurs in isolated populations along coastal areas of southern Uruguay (ssp. obscurus) and Buenos Aires Province, east-central Argentina (ssp. scagliarum). (Musser and Carleton 2005).
2860		habitat	eng	This species occurs at the edge of marshes and meadows (Gonzalez 2001).
2860		population	eng	The populations are very fragmented and restricted, however, where they occur they could be considered common.
2860		threats	eng	Agricultural activities affect the survival of the species.
2861		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species.
2861		distribution	eng	This species occurred in an indeterminate area of Ecuador and perhaps Colombia (Voss, 1991; Musser and Carleton, 2005). The enigmatic distribution of the few fragmentary specimens assignable to punctulatus, which originate from a region outside of the core geographic range of Bolomys (= Necromys), is discussed by Voss (1991).
2861		habitat	eng	Unknown.
2861		population	eng	Unknown. This species was listed as extinct in the Red Book of Mammasl of Ecuador (Tirira, 2001).
2861		threats	eng	Unknown.
2862		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several proteced areas.
2862		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Misiones, Corrientes, Formosa, and Chaco Provs.; see Contreras, 1982). (Musser and Carleton 2005).
2862		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in open areas, grasslands, forest borders.
2862		population	eng	It is a very common species.
2862		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
2864		distribution	eng	<em>Bolyeria multocarinata</em> was formerly restricted to Round Island, a 151 ha volcanic islet approximately 0.25 ha NNE of Mauritius.
2864		habitat	eng	This fossorial Boa was found in the palm groves of mid-altitude top-soil layers on volcanic slopes.
2864		population	eng	It was last recorded in 1975.
2864		threats	eng	The introduction of rabbits and goats to the island in 1840 resulted in damage to the vegetation, consequently causing soil erosion on the volcanic slopes and deterioration of palm forest habitat.  This decline in habitat quality is thought to have been the main reason for the extinction of the Round Island Burrowing Boa.
2865		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries, occurs in many protected areas, and is listed in many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. This species has been successfully reintroduced to some sites in Sweden (Arnold, 2002), as of 2008 there are 10,000 adults in 3,000 breeding ponds. In other parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
2865		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Europe ranging from Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany eastwards to the Ural Mountains of Russia, southwards to the Danube floodplain, Turkey (Thrace and the vicinity of Adapazari <em>B. b. arifiyensis</em> in north-western Anatolia), and the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom (one colony in Surrey). It is a lowland species that occurs from sea level up to a maximum of 730m asl (in western Bohemia).
2865		habitat	eng	Within Europe this species is associated with lowland areas of marshy or grassy wetlands, often along river valleys, with small, shallow, often-temporary lakes and ponds. In the former Soviet Union it has been reported from steppe, forest steppe, broad-leaved and mixed leafed coniferous forests, but it also inhabits open landscapes, using drainage channels as pathways for dispersal. At the southeastern margin of its distribution, the species lives in permanent freshwater bodies in river valleys surrounded by an arid saline landscape (solonetz-solonchak complex). It is primarily an aquatic animal living in shallow (less than 50-70cm depth) stagnant lakes, ponds, pools, swamps, peat bogs, ditches, flooded rice fields and quarries. It may occasionally be found in semi-flowing waters: springs, irrigation channels, rivers and stream pools and the water must generally be clear (for example in the Carpathian region, B. bombina lives in wetlands with clearer water than the congeneric Bombina variegata); however, near the southern margin of the range (such as southeastern Ukraine and the Krasnodar Region) the species often occurs in waters that have been polluted with industrial and agricultural chemicals such as settling and sedimentation reservoirs, rice fields, polluted ponds in rural and urban areas. The species breeds by larval development in pools with a good growth of sub-aquatic vegetation. Hybrid populations of this species with <em>B. variegata</em> have been recorded.
2865		population	eng	This species remains fairly abundant over much of its range (for example it is extremely common to the north and west of the Danube floodplain where it has benefited from increased irrigation), although many northern populations have declined (e.g., in Poland and Germany). The populations of this species in both Denmark and Sweden are low. Individual populations of this species can show significant fluctuations in numbers. There are no recent records from Greece, but its range in this country has not been surveyed for many years. The species is common in parts of European Russia, Ukraine and Moldavia, and while it is unlikely to be declining on this territory in general, many local populations are declining.
2865		threats	eng	In western and northern Europe the species is threatened by the loss of habitat through modernisation of agricultural methods, most significantly the drainage and/or pollution of suitable wetland areas. Recent declines in northwestern Europe might also be related to climate change. In Turkey it is threatened by urban development and agricultural development. Within the former Soviet Union destruction of wetlands is also the most serious threat, although industrial pollution and recreational activities also impact populations. Additional localized threats to this species include mortality on roads, entrapment in open wells with vertical walls, hybridization and replacement by <em>Bombina variegata</em> and collection for the pet trade. However, at a global scale this species is not significantly threatened.
2884		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Manguao, Palawan, Philippines.
2884		habitat	eng	A benthic carnivore that feeds on crustaceans and fish.
2885		conservation	eng	None.
2885		distribution	eng	This species was known from Cuba.
2885		habitat	eng	Not known.
2885		population	eng	Extinct.
2885		threats	eng	Not known, but the extinction was possibly due to rats.
2886		conservation	eng	None
2886		distribution	eng	This species was known from Cuba.
2886		population	eng	Extinct.
2886		threats	eng	Unknown, but the extinction likely followed the introduction of rats.
2888		conservation	eng	This species is legally protected in all range states. The species is not listed on CITES, although a proposal was submitted to include it on Appendix 1 (Hedges 1996).<br/><br/>The most significant known Banteng populations remaining in Southeast Asia are in Java, Cambodia and perhaps Thailand and Borneo, and it is in these countries and around these populations that conservation efforts should be focused.<br/><br/>Banteng is mainly confined to protected areas throughout Southeast Asia (see Population), with the probable exception of Cambodia (and the situation in Myanmar is unknown), where significant number may still occur outside them (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Presence in Lao protected areas is currently uncertain but there are at least 10 large forested protected areas in the south which may still support the species as well as three to four areas in the north, but any populations are certainly not large. In Viet Nam, the species probably now occurs in only a few protected areas (see Population). <br/><br/>In Cambodia, most of the large forested protected areas, of which there are more than 15, are likely to retain at least residual Banteng populations. Unfortunately, in most protected areas of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia which still retain Banteng, protected status offers little if any protection to the species (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Exceptions are Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam (although Banteng is not confirmed still extant), and the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia; in the latter two areas there are now even signs of population recovery (WCS unpublished data; WWF unpublished data). The immediate conservation needs for the large Mondulkiri-centred Cambodian population are to continue strengthening site-based conservation management, in particular of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, and laying the necessary groundwork to ensure that such management can be continued indefinitely.<br/><br/>Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of national parks and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' national parks and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "nature reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other offtake, but the national parks of Java (several of which contain ideal habitat for Banteng and, at least into the mid 1990s, large populations) remained remarkably intact for much of the period. During the 1980s and early to mid 1990s guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. The strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some small game, through various forms of trapping, including snaring. Thus there was relatively little hunting of Banteng and populations were stable or even increasing. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the peoples' resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ‘tragedy of the commons’, has indeed led to increased destruction and poaching in the past decade. Banteng, as a large ungulate, is particularly threatened by this rapid rise in illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) and also by expansion of agriculture on Java and other forms of encroachment (G. Semiadi pers. comm.; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008.). The decentralisation of conservation management decisions and actions, macro-economic fluctuations and reduced authority of The Law impedes control of illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Thailand there are two populations thought to contain over 50 individuals, in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Kaeng Krachan National Park. Both areas are under active conservation management. <br/><br/>A large captive population exists (in addition to the large global population of the domesticated form which is believed to have hybridized widely with other oxen species) and a large introduced feral population, derived from Bali cattle, occurs in the northern territories of Australia (Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006).
2888		distribution	eng	The species historically occurred from southern China (Yunnan) throughout mainland Southeast Asia, through Peninsular Malaysia to the islands of Borneo, Java, and probably Bali (see below). <br/><br/>No fossil evidence is known from Bali, and Grubb (2005) stated that Banteng was introduced to the island; Corbet and Hill (1992) did not include Bali in the range of wild Banteng and various other sources simply state that it occurs as domestic animals. Nevertheless, it does not seem unreasonable to suggest that Banteng should be included among the native fauna of Bali since several Indo-Malayan animal species are known to have penetrated eastwards as far as Flores and Timor during times of lowered sea-levels in the Pleistocene (Hooijer 1975). Ashby and Santiapillai (1988) treated the small number of free-living Bantengs which in occur in west Bali as wild animals as did Watling (1991); although Watling noted that interbreeding with domestic Bali cattle is a problem and the population is unlikely to consist solely of pure-bred animals. Wind and Amir (1977) had earlier raised similar fears.<br/><br/>Domestic Banteng has been introduced to several of the islands of eastern Indonesia including Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Sumba (Van der Maarel 1932; Rollinson 1984). Feral Banteng occur in Kalimantan (National Research Council 1983). Introduced Banteng (probably feral animals) occurs on the Indonesian islands of Enggano (off Sumatra) and Sangihe (off Sulawesi) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Grubb 2005). Domestic Banteng has also been introduced to New Guinea and Australia and there are now large feral herds in the Northern Territory (Kirby 1979; Bowman 1993; Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Wild Banteng currently occurs on Java and possibly Bali, in Kalimantan [Indonesian Borneo], Sabah [part of Malaysian Borneo], Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. A few may remain in Sarawak [Malaysian Borneo] (D. Labang, cited in Caldecott 1988) but it is thought to be extinct in Brunei (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). Banteng is extinct in Bangladesh (Gittins and Akonda 1982; Md Anwarul Islam in litt. 2008), and in India (Prater 1971; IUCN 1978), if it ever occurred there: Groves (2003) stated that “there have been constant reports from Manipur, but there is as yet no confirmation”. In West Malaysia it has probably been extinct since at least the 1950s (Hislop 1961). Medway (1983) thought that Banteng may have still occurred in parts of Kedah and Kelantan after that time, but there have been no recent records. In China, Banteng has been reported to occur in one area of southeast Yunnan around Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, along the border with Myanmar; however, the source for this is unclear; and presence in China should be considered tentative at best. <br/><br/>In Cambodia the species is still likely to be widespread in the northern and eastern forests and as well as parts of the Cardamoms Mountain range, with the bulk of the population remaining in the eastern forests, centred on Mondulkiri Province (see Population). On Borneo, the species occurs in parts of eastern Sabah (Malaysia), including Tabin Wildlife Reserve, and in Kalimantan (Indonesia), it occurs along the border with Sarawak (Malaysia), as well as in the south central region and two isolates in the eastern parts of the province (in and around Kutai National Park and Hutan Kapur Sangkulirang Nature Reserve). Distribution is other countries is detailed under Population.
2888		habitat	eng	Wharton (1968) summarized information about Banteng habitat from throughout its range and he concluded that on the Asian mainland it avoids evergreen rainforest and is usually within more open dry deciduous forests; but within the more humid areas of Java and Borneo it occupies secondary forest formations resulting from logging and fires, and enters tracts of sub-humid forest on occasion. However, on mainland Southeast Asia, human use of these preferred areas has increased, may have forced surviving Banteng to retreat to relatively closed formations where consequently they now overlap more with Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em>; although good evidence for such an assertion is lacking. In Myanmar, Banteng is reported to prefer flat or undulating terrain with light deciduous (particularly indaing forest) or mixed deciduous and evergreen forest, with grassy glades which burn annually, and patches of bamboo; but it has retreated to denser hill forest in the face of advancing cultivation (Peacock 1933; Wharton 1968; Tun Yin 1967; Prater 1971). Similarly in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Lao PDR Banteng occur(red) in open mainly deciduous forest with glades, parklands, and dense forest patches; and ‘it is claimed by some that they prefer rocky, slightly hilly country, but they are certainly at home wherever the Kouprey [<em>Bos sauveli</em>] is found. Their range in Cambodia [and elsewhere in South-east Asia] suggests that Banting [sic] are more adaptable than Kouprey and perhaps less exacting in their habitat requirements’ (Wharton 1957: 46; Wharton 1968). Recently the attachment to open, more deciduous forest types was reported in Xe Pian National Protected Area, Lao PDR (Steinmetz 2004). In Borneo Banteng is ‘locally common in logged forest on flatland...[and occur] in dipterocarp, swamp and beach forests’ particularly along river courses (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Java Banteng occurs in semi-deciduous monsoon forest with small clearings, more open grassland-monsoon forest mosaics, and ‘parkland’ formations (Halder 1976; Hommel 1987; S. Hedges pers. comm., based on unpubl. data 1991–2002).<br/><br/>Banteng generally occurs from sea level up to at least 2,100 m asl (Hoogerwerf 1970; National Research Council 1983; Pudyatmoko 2004; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 base on unpubl. data 1991–2002).<br/><br/>Banteng reportedly drinks large quantities of water and prefers feeding grounds near a permanent water supply (Hoogerwerf 1970). When conditions are favourable it drinks daily, preferring standing water; but during droughts animals can survive several days without drinking (National Research Council 1983). Mineral licks are also an important feature of Banteng habitat; in coastal regions which lack mineral licks animals seem to meet their mineral requirements by occasionally drinking seawater (Halder 1976; Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; Alikodra 1987; S. Hedges pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Although probably a grazer by preference Banteng should perhaps be considered an intermediate feeder since it can and does consume a lot of browse and fruits depending on season and local food availability. It eats grasses, sedges, herbs, bamboo, as well as the leaves, fruits, flowers, bark, and young branches of woody shrubs and trees including palms. The young shoots of alang-alang grass (<em>Imperata cylindrical</em>) are apparently a favoured food source (Hoogerwerf 1970). Lists of food plants are provided by Wharton (1957), Hoogerwerf (1970), Halder (1976), Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977), Djaja <em>et al</em>. (1982), Alikodra (1983), Prayurasiddhi and Smith (1993), and Hedges (in prep.). However, very little is known about the Banteng’s nutritional requirements, seasonal and annual variation in their dietary preferences, or the composition and quality of their diet. Hoogerwerf was of the opinion that Banteng were largely dependent on grasses and sedges and, with reference to Ujung Kulon in West Java, he stated that ‘there were no proofs that browse formed a substantial part of the diet.’ However, Schenkel and Schenkel-Hulliger (1969) reported that Banteng and deer in Ujung Kulon are forced to travel widely in the dry season and ‘feed on bamboo, young palm leaves, bush, and saplings as well.’ And the stomachs of a number of bulls which were shot in the South Tjiandur region of Java were almost completely full of non-graminaceous species. In Pananjung-Pangandaran Reserve in West Java Banteng were observed to graze on a variety of plants but appeared to prefer the grasses <em>Ischaemum muticum</em>, <em>Axonopus compressus</em>, <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em>, and <em>Cynodon dactylon</em>; and a woody forest shrub ,i>Psychotria malayana. Grazing intensity was lower in the forest than in the open fields where it was inversely proportional to the amount of <em>Eupatorium odoratum</em> and <em>Imperata cylindrical</em> although they did eat these species (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977).<br/><br/>When undisturbed, Banteng displays a more or less fixed diurnal pattern of behaviour with periods (usually two to three hours long) of feeding alternating with rest periods of a similar length during which the animals ruminate. In areas which are subject to frequent human disturbance it becomes rather nocturnal and generally enters open areas only at night, although in especially attractive localities it will tolerate human presence to a certain extent (Halder 1976). In undisturbed areas Bantengs ‘do not differentiate much in their activities between day and night, but...really large assemblages on open plains occur almost exclusively by day...This round the clock activity (which is, however, interrupted countless times to rest and/or ruminate) may not be regarded as abnormal’ (Hoogerwerf 1970: 211-212).<br/><br/>The basic social group appears to be female–juvenile unit (as in the other large Asian Bovini) with larger groups tending to be more-or-less temporary assemblages. Maternal herds containing several adult cows, juveniles, and calves occur; these groups can often contain one or more subadult and adult males. Groups of cows without calves are also seen. For much of the year (adult) Bantengs are largely sexually segregated and all-male groups are frequently encountered at this time. Solitary animals tend to be mature bulls or sometimes old cows. The composition of small groups of cows with calves or juveniles, and the solitary state of old individuals may remain the same for months or even years. The composition of other small groups, particularly the unisex groups, usually varies from day to day. During the mating season the male groups disband and dominant males compete for access to receptive females (Hoogerwerf 1970; Halder 1976; S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991-2002).<br/><br/>In open areas large herds of more than 100 animals have been reported but these herds appear to be temporary associations formed when smaller groups and solitary animals arrive in an area to feed and the animals tend to reform into smaller groups when they leave the feeding areas. The composition of these groups often varies on a daily basis although there may be a stable nucleus of animals which returns to the same clearing day after day. The large herds may have an established dominance hierarchy but it seems to vary depending on the habitat. In more densely vegetated areas solitary animals or small groups, generally with fewer than eight animals, are more typical (Halder 1973, 1976; S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002).<br/><br/>In Thailand the mating season is in May and June (Lekagul and McNeely 1977); while breeding reportedly occurs the whole year round in Myanmar (Peacock 1933). Wharton (1957) collected information from Cambodians living within Banteng habitat which suggested that the majority of births occurred in December and January which, assuming a gestation period of about 10 months, suggests that most conceptions take place in March and April. However, Hermanns (cited in Hoogerwerf 1970) was of the opinion that Banteng in mainland Asia mate from September to October. Hoogerwerf (1970) recorded mating taking place all year round in West Java but there was a peak of activity in October; and he thought that those cows which mated outside the peak period were probably exceptional. He was of the opinion that Bantengs in both East and West Java generally calved in July and August which would suggest that mating generally took place from October to December; more recent observations in East Java have also revealed evidence of year-round matings (neonates have been seen in all months) but with an apparent peak of births between June and September (S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002).
2888		population	eng	The world population of Banteng is unlikely to be more than 8,000 and is quite possibly fewer than 5,000 animals. No subpopulations of more than 500, and only 6–8 subpopulations of more than 50 animals, are known, with 4–5 on Java and 1–2 in Thailand (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000; Pudyatmoko 2004). A once fairly widely distributed species, it is now largely reduced to small isolated populations, most of which are still in decline.<br/><br/>In Cambodia, Banteng probably declined by 90% or more between the late 1960s and the early 1990s. At this latter time they still remained widespread, although in generally low numbers, in the lowland forests of the north and east, and also, probably somewhat more sporadically, in the south and west including the Cardamom Mountain range (Daltry and Momberg 2000; Heng Kimchhay <em>et al</em>. 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). From at least this time onwards the most substantial Banteng population has been centred on Mondulkiri Province where in the late 1990s at least several hundred to a perhaps over a thousand Banteng survived in a forested landscape of over 15,000 km² (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Further declines took place from the early 1990s to the present, with quite probably more than a 50% decline in this time period, and the resultant loss of Banteng populations from significant parts of the still forested landscape (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; Timmins 2006; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). As of 2007 the most significant population by far in Cambodia remained that in Mondulkiri Province, still thought to be hundreds of animals (WCS unpublished data; WWF unpublished data; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Protection efforts in parts of this landscape have probably stabilised declines locally, although for the area as a whole the trend is still likely to be a significant decrease (WCS unpublished data; WWF unpublished data; T. Clements pers. comm. 2007; T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2007; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Banteng’s other present-day stronghold is Java, where six large subpopulations (those with more than 50 animals) occurred in 1990, but these declined to only 4–5 by 2004 (Pudyatmoko 2004). Pudyatmoko (2004) estimated: Ujung Kulon National Park (300–800 individuals in 2003), Cikepuh-Cibanteng Nature Reserve (25–65 individuals in 2003), Bonjonglarang-Jayanti Region (a small stable population of unknown size in 1988, with no recent data available), Cimapag Region (occurrence recorded until 1970, with current status unknown), Leuweng Sancang Nature Reserve (10 individuals in 2000, extinct in 2003), Cikamurang Region (occurrence recorded until 1970, with current status unknown), Pangandaran Nature Reserve (25–65 individuals in 2003), Kediri Region (occurrence recorded until 1970, with current status unknown), Coast of Blitar (10 individuals in 1988, with current status unknown), Coast of Malang (6 individuals in 1988, with current status unknown), Meru Betiri National Park (200 individuals in 2000, with at least 57 individuals in 2002), Alas Purwo National Park (with at least 80 individuals in 2002), and Baluran National Park (around 206 individuals in 2002). Number in all areas are declining (Hedges and Tyson 1996; S. Hedges unpub. data. 1991–2002; Pudyatmoko 2004).<br/><br/>Population numbers and even trends are difficult to quantify for Borneo but there have been declines, especially in Kalimantan (S. Pudyatmoko pers. comm. 2006; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006), and in Sabah (Han pers. comm.). The Bornean population is thought to have been particularly negatively affected by interbreeding with domestic and/or feral oxen of types other than pure-bred ‘Bali cattle’. Banteng occurs in Kutai National Park and Hutan Kapur Sangkulirang Nature Reserve, Kalimantan (Indonesia). A small population was reported from Belantikan Hulu in Central Kalimantan in November 2007 (tracks found) and April 2008 (local reports of capture of cow and calf); the population is believed to be small (Togu Simorangkir, Chair of Yayorin pers. comm. 2008). Populations in Sabah are now confined in protected areas scattered mostly in the east coast of the state. Current reports include the Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Danum Valley Conservation, Ulu Kalumpang Forest Reserve, Ulu Segama-Malua Forest Reserve, Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, and Deramakot Forest Reserve. Over 100 individuals live in Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, and the state-wide gross estimation of the population size is 300–500 individuals. However, this is only based on presence–non-detection surveys and the figure should be regarded as a crude approximation (Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008). The biggest decline happened during the intensive and extensive timber operation and transformation of lowland forests large-scale plantations (palm oil, cocoa and other crops) late in the twentieth century (Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008). The declines are over 50% in Sabah and Borneo as a whole (Belden Giman pers. comm.).<br/>In Thailand, the only subpopulations with more than 50 animals are Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and perhaps Kaeng Krachan National Park; smaller numbers do or may persist in Mae Ping National Park, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary, Thap Lan National Park, Khwo Ang Ru Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, and Khao Sok National Park. Banteng range probably declined by approximately 85% in Thailand from 1980 to 2000 (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000). The Banteng population in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary is reported to have increased over the past 10 years (per R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008).<br/>Numbers in Lao PDR are now likely to be very low, with probably no area supporting more than 50 animals (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Evidence of Banteng was found for a number of areas in the 1990s (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Steinmetz 2004), but there has been very little survey effort since 1998. Confirmation of presence after the mid-1990s, when populations were in steep decline (Duckworth and Hedges 1998), is lacking. Most areas have received little if any protection: so it is quite likely that Banteng has been hunted out from several, perhaps most, conceivably all, of them (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The most likely areas for continued presence are in the southern half of the country. A similar scenario is likely in Viet Nam, with little recent evidence of continued presence in most areas (M. Pedrono pers. comm. 2008), and perhaps only one region (the Yok Don National Park area along the Cambodian border) has a population that might exceed 50 animals; current presence is also possible elsewhere in the western border areas from Kontum Province to Dak Lak Province and in Krong Trai Nature Reserve, Rung Kho Phan Rang Nature Reserve, and Cat Tien National Park (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2004; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; M. Pedrono pers. comm. 2008; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Little recent information has been traced from Myanmar: a national camera-trapping survey aimed at Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, which will not necessarily have covered all, or even the best, areas for Banteng, recorded it in and around Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, Mahamyaing Reserve Forest, and the central Bago (= Pegu) Yoma (Lynam 2003). Current numbers are unknown but are sure to be declining, given general trends in ungulates in better-studied parts of the country. There are no quantitative data available on remaining populations in China (Smith and Xie Yan 2008), but these are clearly small.<br/><br/>A domesticated form of Banteng, often called ‘Bali cattle’, and considered to be the same species (contrasting with general taxonomic treatment for several other oxen) occurs widely in Indonesia and has been introduced to other areas of the world. However, few if any populations of this form are now likely to be pure-bred, due to interbreeding with domestic oxen derived from other <em>Bos</em> species (Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006). One population of approximately 6000 animals, which appears now to be superficially indistinguishable from wild Banteng, thrives in Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, on the Cobourg Peninsula in Northern Territory, Australia. These animals derive from approximately 20 domesticated ‘Banteng’ taken from Denpasar, Bali in 1849, and they have recently been shown to be genetically identical to wild Banteng, at least to the extent of the molecular sequences analysed. This suggests that they have not been cross-bred previously to any significant extent with other domestic cattle (Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006). Some domestic oxen lineages in mainland Southeast Asia, for instance in Cambodia, may have at least partial Banteng ancestry (e.g. Timmins and Ou 2001).
2888		threats	eng	The major threats to Banteng are hunting and habitat loss (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Pudyatmoko 2004; Steinmetz 2004; S. Hedges unpub. data 1991–2002). In Sabah habitat loss to permanent agriculture is a serious threat, although hunting is equally significant and the species has been rapidly exterminated from many areas there (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008). Habitat loss has also been serious in Java since 1998. Elsewhere, hunting is the most widespread and significant threat, and is exacerbated especially in mainland Southeast Asia by human repopulation of lowland forest areas and associated habitat fragmentation, that is, the very areas where most Bantengs occur (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Although huge tracts of suitable habitat were lost in the twentieth century, and continue to be converted, this has probably largely occurred after Banteng have been hunted out (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Thus, the hunting is the proximate cause of decline, but habitat loss is continually reducing the maximum population possible if hunting issues were to be controlled.<br/><br/>The magnitude of the threat posed to Banteng by international trade in trophy horns is difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, given the small size of the remaining Banteng population and the number of trophies found for sale in Cambodia, the Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam, during what were essentially opportunistic surveys, it is clearly a major threat on the Asian mainland (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Baird 1993; Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994, 1995; Martin and Phipps 1996; Srifa La-Ong <em>et al</em>. 1997; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001). The threat posed by use of traditional medicinal substances derived from wild oxen is even harder to determine in the case of Banteng and essentially remains unknown, although it is thought to be a source of significant threat to Gaur (see 2008 Red List account). <br/><br/>The most important population in Cambodia is scattered through a forest landscape that encompasses four provinces (Mondulkiri, Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri) and five conservation areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Protection Forest (including the Srepok Wilderness Area) and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary) (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is still rife in much of this area, and forest fragmentation is rapidly accelerating with human population in-migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, although perhaps less than 20% of this area is well protected from the aforementioned threats and protected area management is only close to effective in two areas, the most significant issue concerning the area is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area. Although conservation efforts for Banteng and many other species have been, in both areas, extremely encouraging for the last few years, both areas face an uncertain future with the possibility of de-gazettment of conservation status of parts of them, the possible loss of adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the possible loss of political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff.<br/><br/>On Java some populations are potentially threatened by heavy predation from Dholes <em>Cuon alphinus</em> (Hedges and Tyson 1996; Pudyatmoko 2004). All populations are also threatened by poaching and some, perhaps most, are threatened by habitat loss and degradation (S. Hedges unpub. data 1991–2002). During the 1980s–1990s, when poaching and land conversion were relatively well under control in Javan national parks, the chief threat to the large population of Banteng in Baluran National Park was loss of grazing area to invasion by the introduced tree <em>Acacia nilotica</em> (Leguminosae) that converts open grassland to dense thorny scrub-forest. This plant was introduced (without adequate risk assessment) as part of an attempt to create a living fire-break around the park's grasslands, wild fire then being adjudged the major threat to the park’s monsoon forests. Since that introduction, repeated cutting of the acacia has led to coppicing into very dense thickets that contain little or no grass or other herbs and are difficult for the cattle to penetrate. Thus habitat loss and poaching are now serious limiting factors in Baluran National Park, and habitat loss/degradation remains a severe long-term threat to be addressed (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). <em>Lantana camara</em> (Verbenaceae) is also a problem in Banteng habitat in Baluran National Park and elsewhere on Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Bali cattle have long been interbred with other cattle: Banteng and Bali cattle can interbreed with both common cattle and mithan (<em>Bos frontalis</em>) (Fischer 1980; National Research Council 1983). Hybrids between Banteng and common cattle (<em>Bos Taurus</em>) of the zebu type are fully fertile; in hybrids between Banteng and <em>Bos Taurus</em> of the European type the males are sterile (Jellinek <em>et al</em>. 1980; National Research Council 1983). Domestic and feral livestock are thus a potential threat to the genetic integrity of wild Banteng populations and a number of reports suggest that wild Banteng does interbreed with domestic cattle. For example, Hoogerwerf (1970) referred to several sources from the 1930s and 1940s which mention that many groups of Banteng in Kalimantan (particularly East Kalimantan) were no longer pure-bred having interbred with stray domestic cattle. Wharton (1957) also found evidence of interbreeding with domestic cattle in Cambodia; and reports from Myanmar mention that Banteng feed alongside village cattle and occasionally interbreed with them (Tun Yin 1967; Salter 1983). In addition to the genetic threat, domestic livestock are a potential source of diseases and parasites. This can have very serious consequences for Banteng which appear to be particularly susceptible to a number of cattle diseases; for example, Banteng populations in Myanmar have been very badly affected by diseases from domestic cattle (Hundley cited in Wharton 1968). <br/><br/>Introgression with domestic cattle is not presently an issue in Sabah; there have been imports of Bali cattle mostly by large cattle farms who house animals in feedlots away from wild populations. Ahmad AH (pers. comm. 2008) is unaware of any instances of deliberate introduction of Bali cattle or other domestic oxen into forest areas, or of any plantation holders that have deliberately introduced their cattle into the range of wild Banteng. Although integration of livestock into oil palm plantation has been discussed for many years, this has not yet been put into practice (Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008).
2890		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I, and is legally protected in all range states. If the species is still extant it is most likely to be in eastern Cambodia in one of four protected areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Mondulkiri Protection Forest and or Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area) (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There are no kouprey in captivity. There have been suggestions that domesticated kouprey may survive in Cambodia (Hassanin <em>et al</em>. 2006), but this seems very unlikely (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), although domestic oxen in Cambodia may well carry kouprey genes (Hassanin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>It is unlikely that specific survey work for kouprey would produce any better evidence than has already been documented, and the best conservation measures for the species now would be to concentrate on <em>in situ</em> protection activities for large mammal communities in eastern Cambodia, especially building upon and strengthening the existing projects within the Srepok Wilderness Area of the Mondulkiri Protection Forest and the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area.
2890		distribution	eng	The historical distribution of this species was Cambodia, southern Lao PDR, southeast Thailand, and western Viet Nam (Grubb 2005). However, due to significant declines, this species is now thought to be possibly exinct.
2890		habitat	eng	Little is known of its biology and ecology, the only significant work being that of Wharton (1957). The species travels in small herds, primarily of females and calves, of up to 20 animals, which commonly associate with banteng. Mature males form bachelor herds. The diet was grasses, sedges, and some browse.<br/><br/>The kouprey was primarily an animal of open deciduous dipterocarp forests, especially those areas with extensive grasslands. Although deciduous dipterocarp forests are extensive in Cambodia, and also in parts of adjoining countries (especially Lao PDR and Viet Nam), the preferred facies of kouprey, are much more localised, and perhaps account for less than 30% of the total area of the lowland mosaic forests dominated by deciduous dipterocarp forest (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species appeared to use patches of mixed deciduous and semi-evergreen forest which also occur in such landscapes. Most of the kouprey's range lies in a highly seasonal area receiving less than 2,000 mm of precipitation per annum. The terrain in this area is generally flat or undulating lowlands. The presence of pools and mineral licks were certainly important.
2890		population	eng	At an international workshop, held in Viet Nam in January 1988, reports were presented which suggested that there were about 27 kouprey in Viet Nam, possibly 40?100 in the Lao PDR, and up to 200 in Cambodia, with perhaps a seasonal presence of a few animals in Thailand. These figures, which were little more than guesses, suggested that a total of about 100?300 kouprey still existed in the late-1980s. Unfortunately, it now seems that these figures were too optimistic, especially for Lao and Viet Nam where surveys in the 1990s were unable to document even significant populations of other species of wild oxen (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1999; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Cox <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1992; Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997). Numbers of wild oxen were, however, much higher in Cambodia, even though, within the vast extents of habitat, their densities were already low as documented during an aerial survey of a large part of eastern Cambodia in 1994 (Olivier and Woodford 1994).<br/><br/>The last published records of kouprey are those of C. Wharton, who lead an expedition to capture kouprey in 1963/64 (Wharton 1966). In 1969, J. Mellon saw two female kouprey in the Chhep/Melouprey area of Cambodia, and in 1993 he was of the opinion that there may still be kouprey in the area (J. Mellon <em>in litt</em> to D. Ashwell 1993). Later reports were also received by Pfeffer (1974 <em>in litt</em>. to IUCN/CMC). In the 1964?1970 period, Pfeffer undertook five expeditions to Indochina (each three months long) during which he collected information about kouprey and ?took the only reasonable photograph of a wild kouprey? (Kemf 1988; see Pfeffer and Ou Kim-San 1967; Pfeffer 1969). None of the evidence for kouprey since Mellon?s time, based on second-hand reports, hearsay, equivocal track identification or trophy horns (found in villages or wildlife markets and which could plausibly date back to Wharton's era) (e.g. MacKinnon and Stuart 1989, Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001, Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003), has been particularly convincing in suggesting that viable populations of kouprey remain; rather it suggests that a very rapid demise occurred. Wharton (1957) observed kouprey to occur, even in what was considered optimal habitat, in lower numbers than banteng (his figures and other observations suggest a ratio of somewhere between 1:2 ? 1:10), and suggested that, because of their restricted range and habitat specificity, they were at elevated risk of extinction compared with the other wild cattle. Extensive survey work has now documented where significant wild cattle populations remain within the historical range of kouprey, and in no area other than eastern Cambodia are wild cattle numbers high (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In most areas wild cattle numbers are so low (low dozens of individuals scattered through hundreds of square kilometers of habitat) that it is no longer conceivable that kouprey could survive (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997, Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; RJ. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Although it will, at least for the foreseeable future, be impossible to identify every remaining individual wild ox to species in such areas, there are no defensible grounds for considering the population of kouprey to be anything other than negligible in such areas, primarily because of the naturally lower densities of kouprey compared with banteng, the habitat specificity of kouprey and its exceptional value in trade (Wharton 1957; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). This trade value pre-dates the meteoric rise in volume and financial value of wildlife trade out of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia during the 1990s and 2000s. Salter <em>et al</em>. (1990) found three sets of male and two sets of female kouprey horns (all reportedly from Cambodia) in a village in southern Champasak Province (southern Lao PDR). The male horns were valued by the owner at USD4,000 and the female horns at USD1,600 per set. During a trip to Amphoe Muang (Mukdahan Province, on the border with Lao) on 29 March 1991, kouprey parts were found to be available at one vendor. Horns were not on display but customers could examine photographs in an album: female kouprey horns were offered at USD6,000?8,000 per pair and male horns at USD2,000 per pair. The male horns were polished so that the shredded ends could not be seen. During a second visit (in July 1991) the same vendor?s stall was less active and no kouprey trophies were on offer (although gaur and banteng could still be ordered). Wild cattle trophies were on offer at other vendors but no kouprey horns or skulls were for sale at these stalls (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992). During a visit to Ban Mai (Thai/Lao border) by Srikosamatara and his colleagues in April 1993 a vendor of wildlife products claimed to have sold a pair of kouprey horns to a Thai buyer for USD800 two years before. He also claimed to have two more sets of kouprey horns (both old males) for sale at USD2,800 and USD12,000 respectively. Three months later (July 1993) another survey (by I. Baird) found no kouprey trophies for sale at the same vendors (Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994).] In eastern Cambodia there has now been substantial survey work (including observation-based field surveys and camera-trapping) which has documented hundreds of both banteng and gaur and even small numbers of wild water buffalo (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. based on WCS and WWF unpublished data; T. D. Evans and T. Clements pers. comm. 2008). This, in addition to suggesting kouprey really has been hunted out, gives good numerical grounds to be confident that kouprey (historically the rarer species) no longer occurs in the ratio found by Wharton and that kouprey declined significantly faster and was almost certainly less resilient to hunting than are the other species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Certainly fewer than 2,000 wild cattle now survive within the historical range of kouprey, 90% or more of those within Cambodia and the majority of those within the eastern provinces (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). If kouprey still survives, it is certainly only as individuals (not functional groups) in very low numbers; its extinction, if not yet upon us, is certainly sealed.
2890		threats	eng	Hunting, both for local consumption and for trade (meat and body parts, especially horns and skulls), is (or, if the species is extinct, was) the major threat throughout the kouprey's range (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). Diseases from domestic and/or free-ranging livestock could have disastrous consequences given the already severely reduced kouprey population. Habitat loss as a result of the rapidly increasing land clearance for cultivation (local and commercial), mining and logging, as well as increasing levels of other human disturbances, are also threats, but are insignificant compared with hunting (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; see also 2008 account for Banteng). Many wildlife species of high monetary value still remain widespread and, relative to neighbouring countries, abundant in the extensive lowland forests of Cambodia, and with the fall of the Khmer Rouge and a rapidly growing free market economy there has been a surge of hunting to supply bushmeat, trophy antler/horn and medicinal markets, which is leading in many cases to very rapid declines in large quarry species (e.g. macaques have declined in some areas by over 90% in as little as five years; Timmins 2006; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), thus, however, rare kouprey becomes it will continually be at risk because, unlike in a single-quarry species system where at certain levels it becomes uneconomic to seek out the last few individuals, hunting levels will remain high, fuelled by returns from the more common species (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Wild oxen in Cambodia are now low in number and in most areas now rare or already hunted out (see 2008 IUCN Red List accounts for banteng, gaur and wild water buffalo). Knowledge of the kouprey is widespread among rural people in Cambodia, concerning its rarity and the value of trophies and perhaps other body parts; as such it is a more desirable target than most in Cambodia.
2891		conservation	eng	Gaur is listed in CITES Appendix I, and is legally protected in all range states. It occurs in many protected areas, although in north-east India, Myanmar, China, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Malaysia many such areas retain only tiny populations or have already lost the species.<br/><br/>South and central India have a well established network of wildlife refuges and protection activities, to a large extent, are effective in many of them (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). However, conservation-oriented research and interventions on Gaur are limited and seem unlikely to expand much in the short-term, meaning that the species benefits largely through general protection activities (particularly those focused around Tiger and Asian Elephant), while species-specific negative factors or worrying long-term trends are likely to go unmanaged and even unnoticed (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). The chief of these seems to be competitive interaction with grazing stock: Gaur densities were the most depressed of all ungulates surveyed by Madhusudan (2004), perhaps reflecting higher niche overlap with domestic cattle than shown by the others (chiefly deer). There is long-term monitoring of some Gaur populations, for instance Mudumalai, Bandipur, Bhadra and Nagarahole (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Rinderpest has reportedly been eradicated from India (Choudhury 2002). Choudhury (2002) listed proposed aspects of protected area expansion and consolidation to slow further fragmentation of Gaur populations in southern and central India.<br/><br/>In some protected areas (recent examples being Bhadra and Kudremukh in Karnataka), formerly forest-dwelling human communities have resettled closer to markets, clinics, school and other services (Karanth and Karanth 2007). This expands habitat available to Gaur (that which was formerly fields and houses) but more significant is the removal of a source of hunters and the cessation of grazing competition with domestic stock (see Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2006). Such conservation interventions have helped recovery of Gaur populations in this region. Increasing development aspirations mean that out migration is likely from further areas, e.g. Mudumalai (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>As the majority of the Gaur population is in South Asia, conservation activities are important there. It is also important that populations are maintained at least in several areas in Southeast Asia, to maintain Gaur presence through its historical range, to preserve Gaur genetic diversity and through its importance to the ecosystems within which it lives. Given the regional pattern of threats and current successes to date, implementing effective conservation interventions is considerably more challenging, and therefore a higher priority in the Southeast Asian region.<br/><br/>Gaur occurs mainly in protected areas in Southeast Asia, although Cambodia and Myanmar may both have large populations outside them and some may persist is such areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth 1996; Hansel 2004). In most protected areas of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia which still retain Gaur, protected status offers little, if any, real protection to the species, exceptions being Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam, the Srepok Wilderness Area and the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia; in the latter two Cambodian areas, there are now even signs of population recovery (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), as there are at Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, with effective tackling of poaching (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary form part of Thailand’s ‘Western Forest Complex’ which if these recent gains are consolidated will, in the long term, hold the largest functional Gaur population in Thailand and perhaps South-east Asia.<br/><br/>The most important conservation measure for the species in Cambodia is the continued strengthening and support of conservation efforts in Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area and the Srepok Wilderness Area, and to a lesser extent support of protected area conservation management in the northern plains and central Cardamoms. Likewise in Viet Nam, the most important conservation measure is the continued support of protection efforts within Cat Tien National Park, in Thailand it is to continue the consolidation of the ‘Western Forest Complex’ and to continue the high-intensity protection of the rebuilt herd in Khao Paeng Ma reforestation site, adjacent to Khao Yai National Park. In Myanmar the Hukaung Valley is an exceptional area of lowland plains forest, grassland, and wetlands. Part lies within the Wildlife Sanctuary and some of the rest of the outstanding plains habitat is within an enormous proposed extension. Through its size and mostly little-encroached condition, this is the most outstanding remaining landscape-level floodplains habitat for very large mammals remaining in tropical Asia, and although wildlife populations are highly depleted, warrants the strongest effort to conserve it. It faces a number of daunting challenges (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). In Lao PDR, any of a large number of areas could become key Gaur conservation sites, but there is as yet no precedent in the country for effective conservation of high-trade-value large mammals. Xe Pian, Nam Et–Phou Louey, and Nakai–Nam Theun NPAs could all be highly significant areas for the species (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Steinmetz 2004; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2006) but so could almost any other NPA; the reality is that the most success with Gaur conservation is likely to come through identifying areas with positive underlying situations to achieve conservation, rather than identifying the area with the most intrinsic importance for Gaur as the focus for efforts. Choudhury (2002) listed aspects of protected area expansion and consolidation to slow further fragmentation of Gaur populations in north-east India, Nepal, and Bhutan, and perhaps allow repopulation of Bangladesh.<br/><br/>The most important actions in Malaysia are to determine if any viable population remains in the country and, if so, to implement effective anti-poaching measures and to work at the policy level to allow effective control of large mammal hunting and trading. Under the current circumstances, any site-based activities are likely to require the sort of 24-hour security employed at the reforestation site adjacent to Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, which has allowed a rapid population growth of Gaur. It may also require reintroduction. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks have a breeding population of captive Gaur in enclosures in the Jenderak ranger station (within Krau Wildlife Reserve), for captive release.<br/><br/>A large captive population exists of wild-type Gaur (as well as of Mythun); given the complexity of field conservation of large ungulates, particularly in South-east Asia, it is clearly in resolving issues of hunting, trade, and protected area effectiveness that conservation interventions must focus.
2891		distribution	eng	Gaur historically occurred throughout mainland south and southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. It currently occurs in scattered areas in the following range states: Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Lao PDR, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia only), Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Viet Nam, but is extinct in Sri Lanka and also, as a resident, apparently in Bangladesh (Grubb 2005; Md Anwarul Islam in litt. 2008; Hedges in prep.). The species is now seriously fragmented within its range, and the mapped distribution is generalised, especially in India, Myanmar, China and Malaysia.<br/><br/>The domesticated form of Gaur, considered by IUCN a separate species (Bos frontalis; Mythun, Mithan or Gayal), occurs in parts of India, China, and Myanmar as feral, semi-feral, and domestic animals. This animal is excluded from the red-listing considerations for Gaur.
2891		habitat	eng	The Gaur occurs from sea level up to at least 2,800 m asl (Wood 1937; Wharton 1968; Choudhury 2002). Despite the many reports that call it an animal of hill-country, low-lying areas seem to comprise optimal habitat (Choudhury 2002): in Conry’s (1989) study area, elevations ranged from 46 to 1,079 m asl but the three radio-tracked Gaur only used areas below 381 m. Elevations below 61 m were used most intensively and all three animals selected these low-lying areas; elevations above 61 m were selected against or used in proportion to availability (Conry 1989). Similarly, in the Tenasserim–Dawna mountains, Thailand, signs of Gaur were more abundant in the lowlands than in the hills, noting that this was the opposite of the patterns that would be predicted if hunting (itself concentrated heavily in the lowlands) was the chief determinant of population densities, although solitary animals were found mainly in the hills (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008). Schaller (1967) compared vegetation maps of India with the (mid-20th century) distribution of Gaur and concluded that the species was largely confined to evergreen, semi-evergreen, and moist deciduous forest but it also occurred in dry deciduous forest areas at the periphery of its range. He considered Gaur habitat to be "characterized by (1) large, relatively undisturbed forest tracts, (2) hilly terrain below an altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 ft (1,500–1,800 m asl), (3) availability of water, and (4) an abundance of forage in the form of coarse grasses (including bamboo), shrubs, and trees". However, He cautioned that the apparent preference of Gaur for hilly terrain may be partly due to the earlier conversion of most of the plains and other low lying areas to croplands and pastures. Similarly, Wharton (1968) concluded that Gaur appeared to avoid evergreen rainforest, "preferring foothill tracts of sub-humid or deciduous forest adjacent to savanna forest, glades or other open terrain affected by man and fire thus co-existing with and exploiting low human populations in hill zones with moderate to heavy rainfall". Throughout the range of Gaur, habitat destruction and human presence is usually higher in lowlands than in hills, meaning that differential human pressures may have caused the apparent preference of Gaur for hills. Gaur occurs in many forest types in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia including truly evergreen and montane forest, but populations in closed canopy forests especially those at higher elevations might naturally be at much lower densities than those in lowland areas with a mosaic of open and closed forest types, and in closed canopy forests areas the species appears to frequent grassy openings (Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1999; Greiser Johns 2000; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). No significant difference was found in Gaur densities in moist compared with in dry deciduous forests in Nagarahole, India (Karanth and Sunquist 1992). Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) considered that Gaur herds in an expanding population were consistently concentrated in mixed deciduous forest rather than semi-evergreen forest, although the total area of study, that was safe from poaching, was only 20 km².<br/><br/>Gaur can persist in fragmented areas with some habitat disturbance and hunting, including in landscapes dominated by plantations (such as on parts of the Valparai plateau, south India), but in Southeast Asia it has been too heavily hunted in such areas to survive in them. Gaur can better tolerate rugged terrain and denser forest than other wild and domestic cattle, provided that there are adequate water sources (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008.; Smith and Xie Yan in press). In Thailand it uses former cultivation amid forest, and populations in such areas can recover well if not hunted (Anak Pattanavipool pers. comm. 2006; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Gaur only in those coffee areas within 1 km of the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Gaur both grazes and browses, reportedly eating mostly young green grasses but also leaves, fruit, twigs, and bark of various woody species, as well as coarse dry grasses, and bamboo. It seems able to maintain good condition on relatively low quality feed. At least 180–190 species of plants have been recorded in the diet (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). More information is given about Gaur’s diet in Dunbar Brander (1923), Hubback (1937), Schaller (1967), Wharton (1968), Krishnan (1972), Khan (1973), Conry (1981), Ebil Yusof (1982), Ramachandran <em>et al</em>. (1986), Prayurasiddhi and Smith (1993) and Sankar <em>et al</em>. (2000). Captive Gaur are reported to eat about 20 kg of green fodder per day (Ramachandran <em>et al</em>. 1986). During the cool season (November–February) the Gaur that Schaller (1967) studied in central India ate various herbs, large quantities of the leaves and seeds of bamboo, various other grasses, and the leaves of a number of tree species; but by the beginning of the hot season (March–June) coarse dry and semi-dry grasses made up the bulk of their diet, averaging 85% by volume (range 66–100%; four rumen samples), with browse only making up about 10%. Gaur also feeds on crops including corn, cassava, and young rubber trees, sometimes causing great damage (Wharton 1968; National Research Council 1983). Schaller (1967) reported that Gaur in Kanha National Park drank at least once per day during the hot season, usually in the evening. Sahai (1972) stated that Gaur drink at least twice in a 24-hour period but there appears to be no fixed time for drinking.<br/><br/>In undisturbed areas, Gaur is mainly diurnal, but in areas of high human disturbance, it is reported to become mainly nocturnal. <br/><br/>The basic social group appears to be a female–juvenile unit with larger groups tending to be more-or-less temporary assemblages (as in the other large species of Asian Bovini). Maternal herds containing several adult cows, juveniles, and calves frequently occur but their composition is somewhat fluid, particularly during the rut; these herds can often contain several subadult and adult males. The number of bulls in a herd changes with the time of year. Mature males associate with cows primarily during the rut: during Schaller’s study in Kanha National Park 65% of herds were accompanied by a mature male during April (the peak of the rut) but during the second half of the year the proportion dropped to 31% (Schaller 1967). Neither Schaller (1967) nor Sahai (1972) found any evidence to support Powell’s (1964) statement that young bulls usually live apart from the maternal herds; nor did Schaller’s observations support Dunbar Brander’s (1923) statement that the ‘master bull’ drives all other males from the herd. Males not associating with mixed herds either live in all-male groups or are solitary. The bull herds are generally unstable, although sometimes two or more animals may frequently associate. The typical herd size appears to be in the range of 5–12 animals and herds are rarely larger than 20 (Dunbar Brander 1923; Hubback 1937; Hislop 1961a; Schaller 1967; Prater 1971; Sahai 1972; Pal and Guin 1986). Large groups of 20, 40, or even 100 animals are probably temporary aggregations of smaller groups (Pal and Guin 1986).<br/><br/>The majority of the 125–150 Gaur studied by Schaller (1967) in Kanha National Park (India) ranged over an area of at least 78 km²; and the herds he studied travelled on average 2–3 miles (3.2–4.8 km) a day, although on occasion the distance could be much less. In West Malaysia Gaur home ranges have been estimated to be: approximately 13 km² (the Kuala Tahan herd in Taman Negara National Park) (Weigum 1972); and 29.9 km² for a yearling male, 52.1 km² for a yearling female, and 137.3 km² for an adult male in Pahang (Conry 1989). The large differences between the two studies probably reflect the different methods employed by the two workers (see Conry 1989: 60). Home ranges that can be as large as 137 km² hinder the setting aside of conservation areas for Gaur, particularly as Gaur often occurs in those areas where the pressures for economic development are highest.<br/><br/>In central India, most Gaur mate in December and January, and calves are born in August and September according to Dunbar Brander (1923); Stebbing (1911) and Sanderson (1912) generally agreed with Dunbar Brander but noted that calves may also be born in April, May, and June. In Kanha National Park (central India) Schaller (1967) recorded rutting bulls from December to June, with an apparent peak of sexual behaviour in March and April; however, the occurrence of a few new-born animals throughout the year indicated that some mating must occur in every month. In southern India the majority of matings reportedly take place between November and March (Morris 1937). In Cambodia the majority of Gaur births occur in December and January (Wharton 1957). In Myanmar, calves are born throughout the year (Evans 1912; Peacock 1933); and in West Malaysia young Gaur are seen in all months except October to December (Hubback 1937).<br/><br/>The gestation period of Gaur is reported to be nine months by Hubback (1937) and Crandall (1964) and 270 days, ‘a little shorter than for Banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak and Kouprey’, by National Research Council (1983: 49). Only one calf is born to a cow per pregnancy; there are no records of twins (Hubback 1937; Schaller 1967). Females probably first mate when about two years old and thus have their first calf at three years old (Schaller 1967). If the food supply is favourable, most adult females probably calve every year. In Kanha National Park, approximately 90% of adult cows bore young during a year but calf mortality was high, with about 50% of the calves dying before reaching one year old; the main cause of death was predation by Tigers <em>Panthera tigris</em> (Schaller 1967).<br/><br/>Rarely, bulls kill each other when fighting, and occasionally they are severely injured while fighting. Predation is by far the major cause of Gaur mortality, perhaps followed by disease (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). For example in Bandipur, Gaur is the most important prey in terms of the biomass taken by Tiger (42%) and Leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em> (15%) (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Bandipur, Gaur remains were found in about 24% of Tiger faeces and 9% of Leopard faeces (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In adjoining Nagarahole, the proportion of Gaur in Tiger’s diet was about 45% in kills, 17% in scats (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In Tadoba-Andhari, Gaur together with Sambar contributed to nearly 70% of the prey biomass consumed by Tiger, whereas in Pench-Maharashtra it was 80% (Karanth and Kumar 2005). In well protected forest reserves where different body-sized ungulates are abundantly available, Gaur is selectively predated by Tiger (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).
2891		population	eng	The global population is estimated to lie within 13,000–30,000 animals. Field data suggest that the proportion of mature individuals in the population is likely to be 0.4–0.6, indicating a total of 5,200–18,000 mature individuals, with no population known to have over 1,000 individuals (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000). Most population figures given for numbers of Gaur are little more than guesses.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, Gaur is probably extinct (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). A few were thought still to occur in the Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Sylhet, and Mymensingh areas in the early 1980s (Sarker and Sarker 1984), but none had been seen in Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary in the Hill Tracts since the early 1970s (Khan 1985). Choudhury (2002) stated that Gaur individuals from Mizoram and Tripura (India) still cross into Bangladesh, although the records on which this was based were not given.<br/><br/>In Bhutan, Gaur apparently persists all over the southern foot-hill zone, notably in Royal Manas National Park, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary (Choudhury 2002).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, Gaur probably declined by 90% or more in the period from the late 1960s to the early 1990s, at which time it still remained widespread, outside the lower Mekong and Tonle Sap lowlands, although in generally low numbers (Heng Kimchhay <em>et al</em>. 1998; Daltry and Momberg 2000; Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). By far the most substantial Gaur population of the country remained in eastern Cambodia centred on Mondulkiri province, where in the late 1990s potentially several hundred to a thousand may have survived in a forested landscape of over 15,000 km² (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Further declines, of about 50%, took place from the early 1990s to the present (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). As of 2007 the most significant population by far in Cambodia still remained within Mondulkiri Province (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS and WWF unpublished data; T. Clements pers. comm. 2007; T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2007). Protection efforts in part of this landscape have probably stabilised the population there (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS and WWF unpublished data; T. Clements pers. comm. 2007; T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2007). Protection outside these two areas is limited and for Cambodia as a whole the trend is still a significant decrease (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In China, Gaur occurs in Yunnan and southeast Tibet (Ma Yiqing and Wang Yingxiang 1995). All sites in Yunnan (except Yingjiang) formed, until the 1950s–1960s, one large contiguous population, but this is now heavily fragmented. By the 1980s, the species was extinct in Lancang county, and the remaining animals were split into two populations: Xishuangbanna–Simao and Cangyuan (Wang Yingxiang verbally 1998 to Duckworth and Hedges 1998). Some sources suggest that a population of 600–800 existed in Yunnan Province in the mid-1990s, with the majority occurring in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve (Ma Yiqing and Wang Yingxiang 1995); other sources suggest that only small numbers of Gaur remain in Yunnan (along the border with Myanmar) and that hunting had led to the local extinction of Gaur in Xishuangbanna (Xiang and Santiapillai 1993).<br/><br/>In India, three major (Western Ghats, Central India and North-East) and two minor (Bihar and West Bengal) “Gaur conservation areas” have been identified, reflecting the remaining distribution (Sankar <em>et al</em>. 2000; Choudhury 2002). The Western Ghats and their outflanking hills in south India constitute one of the most extensive extant strongholds of Gaur, with good numbers in Wynaad – Nagarahole – Mudumalai – Bandipur complex (Ranjitsinh 1997). Recent distributional assessment surveys in the Karnataka part of the Western Ghats showed the presence of Gaur in more than 60% of the 22,000 km² landscape (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). Ranjitsinh (1997) estimated 12,000–22,000 in India, while Choudhury (2002) suggested that there were about 23,000–34,000 Gaur in India, Bhutan, and Bangladesh; but the true number is simply not known, as shown by the wide ranges. Major populations have been reported in Nagarahole National Park (probably over 2,000), Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (not known; may not be large), Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary (over 800), Melghat Tiger Reserve (perhaps 500), Bandipur National Park (over 2,000), Kanha National Park (probably under 200), Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary (not known; may not be large), Tadoba–Andhari Tiger Reserve (over 1,000), Periyar Tiger Reserve and adjoining forest complex (500–1000), Annamalai range complex (Parambikulum, Valparai, and Grass Hills) (500–700), Silent Valley and adjoining forest complex (500–1000), Agastyamalai forest complex (about 500), Biligirirangangswamy Wildlife Sanctuary and Malemahadeswara Hill range (over 1000), Anshi–Dandeli Tiger Reserve and adjoining forest mosaic (perhaps about 400), Kudremukh National Park and Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary (about 200–400), Brahmagiri–Pushpagiri–Talakaveri Sanctuary, Mukurti National Park, Pench Tiger Reserve, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (‘a large population’), Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary (‘a large population’), and Gorumara Wildlife Sanctuary (‘a large population’). Many other areas are known or suspected to hold small populations, but in many sites such small numbers are unlikely to be viable (Choudhury 2002). The foregoing figures were assigned by N.S. Kumar (pers. comm. 2008) and are based on a variety of sources and methods, and from most areas are for guidance only. An increasing rigour is being applied to large mammal population estimation in India and some of the figures here will warrant modification and future changes to the quoted populations should not necessarily be seen as indicating that a real change in numbers has occurred. In recent years Gaur has reportedly been exterminated from three protected areas, Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Bhandhavgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Kanger Valley National Park (Madhya Pradesh) (Pasha <em>et al</em>. 2004). Information on population status from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and North-East is limited (Choudhury 2002); there are demonstrably very few Gaur in Kaziranga (Karanth and Nicholls 2000). Recent population trends appear to have been stable in well protected areas. The following densities have been estimated: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 1.48 +/- 0.63 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Pench (Madhya Pradesh) dry deciduous forest, 0.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 9.6 animals per km², making it the second-most abundant ungulate there (Karanth and Sunquist 1992); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 7.0 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 1.8 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Melghat dry deciduous forest, 1.0 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Pench (Maharashtra) dry deciduous forest, 0.8 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005). No densities could be estimated, despite the use of suitable survey methodology, at Kanha or Namdapha, implying relatively low populations, and none was found during such surveys at Kaziranga or Ranthambore (Karanth and Nichols 2000); only small numbers persist in Kaziranga (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). The Bhadra density is low, reflecting poaching (using snares, dogs and shotguns) and livestock grazing. However, the Gaur population there is now steadily increasing with successful conservation interventions (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). A study at Nagarahole National Park compared the fauna of an area which was only moderately hunted with a heavily hunted site: this found respective densities of six and two Gaurs per km² (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, Byers <em>et al</em>. (1995) stated that the national population was approximately 1,000. This number is perhaps possible (field records exist from many areas), but animals would have been widely dispersed and at very low density in the extensive forest tracts across the country, with perhaps fewer than six sites holding more than 50 animals (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Steinmetz 2004; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). A large population of Gaur was found in Nakai–Nam Theun NPA and the adjoining Nakai Plateau in the mid 1990s, when signs were readily found and even the animals themselves seen directly (Duckworth 1998; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). Resurveys of both areas, although using comparable methodology only on the plateau, indicate massive declines in the subsequent decade, with, for example, fairly intensive camera-trapping not recording the species at all (Dersu 2007; Johnson and Johnston 2007). The last decade has seen major reductions (in general, probably of well over 50%), in many large mammal populations across Lao PDR and it is now likely that many of the populations listed in Duckworth and Hedges (1998) have become locally extinct (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Malaysia, in 1994 the population was stated to be less than 500 individuals and it was thought to be declining (J. Brennan pers. comm. to Read <em>et al</em>. 1994; a number of other stated numbers from around that time, all of the same general order of a few hundred, and none derived allowing a quantification of error margin, are presented in Hedges in prep.), with then confirmed records from various sites, e.g. the Sungai Singgor area of Temenggor Forest Reserve, Hulu Perak (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995). In the subsequent few years, the population collapsed, despite optimism through relatively stronger control of guns in Malaysia than elsewhere on the southeast Asian mainland, and a perception (e.g. Nash 1993) of relatively strict control of wildlife trade in Malaysia. Densities in Taman Negara were crudely estimated from surveys during 1999–2001 as 0, 3 and 22 Gaurs per 100 km² in three study sites (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Although these authors adjudged large mammal poaching to be negligible in Taman Negara, high levels were confirmed there by Wan Shahruddin (1998) and camera-trapping (suitable in methodology and intensity to find Gaur if any significant numbers were present) did not record Gaur at a fourth sector of Taman Negara in 1999 (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). No Gaur was photographed at all in eight other potential Tiger areas surveyed by Lynam <em>et al</em>. (2007) during 1997–1999, including Temenggor (see Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995); because these were selected as the areas most likely to support Tigers and as Tiger-oriented camera-trapping elsewhere in South-east Asia usually yields photographs of Gaur, this study proves that only very low numbers of Gaur remain in Malaysia, no doubt way below the estimate in Read <em>et al</em>. (1994). Further supporting this, none was found in the Jerangau Forest Reserve, from which it was suspected to have been eradicated by hunting (Azlan 2006). Gaur was found in only two of 14 sites (seven virgin jungle reserves and seven adjacent logged areas), making it among the most localised mammal species which was detected in a study assessing the importance of virgin jungle reserves. The two occupied sites were a contiguous pair in each management class, and among the biggest sites surveyed (over 100 km²); the virgin jungle reserves themselves rarely exceed 3 km² (Laidlaw 2000). In the 1960s, there were estimated to be approximately 40 Gaur in Krau Wildlife Reserve, a figure deemed optimistic at the time; in the 1980s there were thought to be 22–31; in 1995 the estimate was only seven. When surveying the reserve in 2000 (see DWNP/DANCED 2002), R. Dunlop (pers. comm. 2008) covered the whole reserve (about 440 km²) with camera-traps in 119 one km-grid squares. Out of a total of 6,918 periods of 24-hour trapping, 61 species were recorded in 1,804 photographs of wildlife, yet only one photograph was of a Gaur. In almost 100 days of field searching for signs, Gaur tracks were recorded only on eight days, on each occasion as prints of isolated animals. The photograph, the sole sighting, and the eight track records were all in the south-east lowland area of the reserve, moving between an area of salt-licks and grazing just outside the reserve. This survey corroborated the 1995 estimate of seven animals, and the 2000–2001 figure could be even lower. Sumatran Rhinoceros <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em> and Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em> have both disappeared from Krau, and Gaur may be the next species to go. R. Dunlop (pers. comm. 2008) considers there no reason to expect this recent history not to typify that of Gaur populations at all sites in Malaysia. There are very recent records from: Tanjong Mentong in Taman Negara, where tracks were found during elephant surveys in late 2006 (Nurul Huda, WCS Malaysia pers. comm. 2008); Belum, in 2007, where animals were camera-trapped at salt-licks several times, including a herd of seven (Ahmad Zafir, WWF Malaysia pers. comm. 2008); and Temenggor, where individual animals (no herds) were camera-trapped nine times (never at salt licks, always on logging roads) in 2,364 trap-nights in 25 locations (Mark Darmaraj, WWF Malaysia pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, the status of Gaur is poorly known (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). A March 1994 survey of Taminthi Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar's largest protected area, guessed that 100–200 Gaur remained, and that they were in danger of being extirpated from the area if current levels of poaching continued (Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. 1995). A national Tiger survey camera-trapped Gaur in 11 of 15 camera-trapped sites, commonly in several (Lynam 2003); these sites were selected for their chances of holding Tigers, so, because the two species face similar threats, it may present the most positive picture of Gaur occurrence in the country.<br/><br/>In Nepal, the Gaur population was estimated to be 250–350 in the mid-1990s, with the majority in Chitwan National Park and Parsa Wildlife Reserve; population trends appeared to be relatively stable (J. Heinen pers. comm. to S. Hedges 1995). A few other areas hold small numbers (Choudhury 2002).<br/><br/>In Thailand, an estimated total of 920 Gaur remained in 1994. Only 6–7 populations were thought to contain 50 or more animals and there were no Gaur outside protected areas. The most important protected areas for Gaur were Khao Yai National Park, Tap Lan National Park and Pang Sida National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaeng Krachan National Park and Mae Nam Phachi Wildlife Sanctuary, the Khlong Nakha complex, and possibly Om Koi and Mae Tuen Wildlife Sanctuaries. Even in protected areas with much suitable habitat Gaur densities were very low, for example in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary the population density was less than 50% of the estimated carrying capacity of the area (Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1995; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000). Gaur populations are probably now increasing in several sites in Thailand, notably in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, with effective tackling of poaching. In Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, sign monitoring in one small area (20 km²) over six years since poaching absolutely ceased indicated an annual population growth rate there of 0.31, although the relative contributions of birth and immigration could not be distinguished. Breeding herds became much more common, compared with the situation 10–15 years previously at the height of poaching (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. in prep.). In the Khao Paeng Ma reforestation site adjacent to Khao Yai National Park  the population apparently expanded from two to 100 Gaur in less than 10 years, initially reflecting recolonization but apparently mostly from reproduction among animals at the site, all within a 10 km² area of secondary forest. The population stabilized at about 100 animals during 2004–2007 (based on counts from hilltops). As the forest grows and browse and grass diminish, reproduction is likely to decline (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). This herd has flourished only by dint of the provision of 24-hour security (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). Numbers also seem to be expanding rapidly in Kuiburi National Park in southern Thailand, again from an artificially lowered population and again within a secondary forest area adjacent to semi-evergreen forest. In early 2008, a (temporary) herd of almost 50 animals was spotted by elephant-watchers in a tree hide; only a few years previously, there were probably far fewer than this in the whole area (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). By contrast, Gaur is largely gone from southern Thailand forest remnants, although it may be safe on the Malaysian border, reflecting tight control of illegal access and activities by the Border Patrol Police, and the danger of operations because of insurgency (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, the current status of Gaur is poorly known. Several areas in Dak Lak Province (the Easo and Easup areas and Yok Don National Park) were known to contain Gaur in 1997 (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997) but very little reliable information was traced for other parts of the country by Duckworth and Hedges (1998). Several herds of Gaur persist in Cat Tien National Park and in adjacent state forest enterprises (Polet and Ling 2004). There seems little room for doubt that the Gaur population is in serious decline, and many of the sites reported in Duckworth and Hedges (1998) may now have lost the species.
2891		threats	eng	The set of threats and the gravity of each threat to Gaur differs greatly between south and central India, and Southeast Asia; China and most of northeast India are more similar to Southeast Asia in this respect (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008), and are so treated in the following discussion.<br/><br/>In Indochina, Myanmar, and northeast India, hunting is the major problem, compounded by loss of suitable habitat: large tracts of suitable habitat hold few or no Guar. Ongoing habitat degradation and conversion is continually reducing the potential population, should hunting be brought under control (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Choudhury 2002; Steinmetz 2004; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; R.J Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is often for meat and a variety of methods is used (Choudhury 2002). There is also a flourishing international trade in Gaur parts, both horns (decorative) and internal organs (for medicinal purposes). Given the small size of the remaining Southeast Asian subpopulations and the number of trophies found for sale in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Myanmar during essentially opportunistic surveys, trade is clearly a major threat (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Baird 1993; Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994, 1995; Martin and Phipps 1996; Srifa La-Ong <em>et al</em>. 1997; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). The most important population in Cambodia is scattered through a forest landscape that encompasses four provinces (Mondulkiri, Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri) and five conservation areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Protection Forest (including the Srepok Wilderness area) and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary). Hunting is still rife in much of this area, and forest fragmentation is rapidly accelerating with human population immigration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction. However, although perhaps less than 20% of this area is well protected from the aforementioned threats and protected area management is only close to effective in two areas, the most significant constraint to the area’s Gaur is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area. Although conservation efforts for Gaur and many other species are, in both these areas, extremely encouraging, both face an uncertain future with the possibility of degazettement of conservation status of parts of them, the possible loss of adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the possible loss of political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated well trained staff. Almost throughout Southeast Asia, protected areas are not yet stalling declines in mammals with commercial value, such as Gaur. Areas with stabilized populations (in addition to the two Cambodian areas, perhaps only a few areas in Thailand (see Population) and Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam) are exceptional (R. Steimetz pers. comm. 2008; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Surprisingly, given its retention of healthy populations of other high-value very large mammals (Tiger and Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em>; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 for elephants), Malaysia has among the most rapidly declining populations of Gaur. This reflects targeted hunting for large mammals of high commercial value, even within protected areas (Abdul Kadir 1998; Wan Shahruddin 1998; Lynam 1999; DWNP/Danced 2002; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). Given the rapid decline within the 1990s and the lack of information traced since 2002, the exact current situation of Gaur in Malaysia is unclear. Kemasul Forest Reserve, where the species was found in Laidlaw’s (2000) survey of virgin jungle reserves, probably no longer exists as such. Even at the time of survey, most of the Forest Reserve was due to be converted into an <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantation, although still nominally a Forest Reserve. Kemasul was, long ago, part of a massive block of lowland forest which included the famous Jengka Triangle and Krau "Game" Reserve. Only Krau remains, albeit much reduced (R. Dunlop pers. comm. 2008). Even Krau, which was set up (in 1923) principally for the protection of Gaur, numerous in the area then, faces multiple threats (R. Dunlop pers. comm. 2008). In the surveys for DWNP/DANCED (2002), evidence of hunting, including cartridges, was found within the reserve, particularly in the easily accessible lowland areas; there were plenty of hunting stories by and about all of the different local communities, without exception, although their preferred target species differed. Conversion from natural forest to other land-uses of adjacent state-land combined with new ease of access has undoubtedly made Krau more of a focal point for such activity. There is a new (metalled) road and land conversion right up to the boundaries, facilitating access and easing the use of hunting methods such as spotlighting, as well as reducing habitat. The salt licks (for which Krau used to be famous) increasingly fall outside the forest (reflecting shrinking reserve boundaries and farmland encroachment into the reserve) and are now mostly in zones of high human activity of one sort or another. Temporary grasslands generated through traditional indigenous farming, which were often fairly difficult to get to and thus relatively free from hunting, were previously important Gaur habitat. A forester who used to work in Malaysia in the 1940s said that Gaur herds used to follow the Orang Asli settlements, moving in when they moved out, and Weigum (1972) even recommended "...to maintain herds in the park it is recommended that 45 acres of land be clear-cut preferably in 15 acre plots ½ mile apart and be recut every three years". Gaur meat is, or at least was being, sold at restaurants in placed like Cameron and Grik.<br/><br/>In south and central India, densities are likely to be widely below ecological carrying capacity, through hunting and competition with domestic livestock, although this conclusion is based on rather few empirical studies and there are some outstanding populations in well-secured protected areas. Substantial declines and local extinctions of Gaur were driven by hunting (for meat), competition with livestock, and habitat conversion, particularly during the first half of the twentieth century, resulting in a drastically reduced and fragmented distributional range, especially outside the protected area network (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is much less prevalent than in Southeast Asia, reflecting the general enforcement of wildlife protection laws (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Nonetheless, even in high-profile reserves, it is still suppressing densities significantly. For example, densities in Bhadra Tiger Reserve are very low, because of poaching, by comparison with what the habitat should support (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the measured density in a heavily hunted area of Nagarahole National Park was only a third of that in a well secured area (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). Even though all hunting is illegal in this protected area, preventive measures are uneven across it, and Gaur is still poached, at least sporadically, wherever protection effectiveness is low (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). In recent years Gaur, has reportedly been exterminated from three Indian protected areas, Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Bhandhavgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Kanger Valley National Park (Madhya Pradesh) (Pasha <em>et al</em>. 2004). Interaction with domestic stock is greatly under-appreciated as a threat to Gaur, but is probably the main factor which currently limits populations in south and central India: livestock are widely grazed even in otherwise well-managed protected areas. Mean densities of Gaur were fully 132 times higher in livestock-free areas than in adjacent livestock-grazed areas of Bandipur, and in shared grazing areas Gaur densities declined sharply with increasing livestock densities; in the grazed area studied, halving the livestock density allowed increases of Gaur by a factor of 57 (Madhusudan 2004). Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Parthenium</em> spp. and <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>, and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but the effects of these on Gaur populations warrant further study. Killing of Gaur in retaliation to crop damage (through consumption and trampling) occurs, but is of limited significance to conservation (Choudhury 2002; Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Some animals also die from ingestion of agrochemicals, and human response when wandering into farmland and villages; these could be significant for already isolated and reduced populations (Choudhury 2002).<br/><br/>Throughout the range, diseases, particularly rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease, transmitted by domestic cattle are a potentially serious threat. Foot-and-mouth is the most frequent, but rinderpest has had a particularly dramatic impact in India and several sub-populations of Gaur were nearly destroyed as a result of the disease in 1968 (Krishnan 1972; Pal and Guin 1986; Choudhury 2002), while in Bhadra, it nearly wiped out Gaur populations in 1988–1989, when nearly 800 individuals died (Girish D.V. pers. comm. 2008). In north and central Myanmar anthrax was a major factor in the decline of the species (Salter 1983). Pasha <em>et al</em>. (2004) considered that “in fact no wild animal in India [is] so profoundly influenced by transmitted infections from domestic livestock as Gaur”. There is little research or other evidence to determine impacts of introgression with domestic oxen on Gaur populations, although such factors might be expected to be most serious in India, given the wide overlap of domestic stock with Gaur. Farshid Ahrestani (pers. comm. 2008) saw a Gaur herd of 20 individuals far from human habitation with one domestic ox in the Palni Hills, so it seems likely that introgression occurs to at least some extent.<br/><br/>Srikosamtara and Suteethorn (1995) drew attention to the pressing threats facing Gaur, placing it in the same league of trade-driven threat as better-known species such as Tiger and Asian Elephant, and emphasising the international dimension of trade. Subsequently, the population collapse in Malaysia seems to have been driven by hunting teams from Lao PDR and Thailand (as proven by language at hunting camps in Temenggor), co-opting local Malaysian associates (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). It is reasonable to expect that when returns in Malaysia drop (as they probably have done already) these teams may turn their attention to other countries’ Gaur populations.
2892		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. Wild Yak have been protected in China since 1962, and are currently listed as a Class I protected animal, which means that they are totally protected by the central government. Within China, wild yaks exist in a number of large nature reserves, including the Arjin Shan, Chang Tang, Kekexili, Sanjiangyuan, and Yanchiwan Nature Reserves, although none of these reserves provide complete protection from habitat loss or occasional poaching.<br/><br/>In India, the species receives total protection under The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (IUCN-ELC in litt. to Hedges 1991).
2892		distribution	eng	Historically, this species occurred throughout the Tibetan Plateau, including China (Gansu, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai), northern India (Ladak), and Nepal (Schaller and Liu, 1996). According to Smith and Xie (2008), the species apparently occurred in Kazakhstan, Mongolia and southern Russia until the 13th-18th centuries, although these countries are not included on the IUCN Red List country list or range map, given the uncertainty surrounding the dates of extinction, and whether they occurred in these places after the year 1500, the cutoff date for recording extinctions on the IUCN Red List.<br/><br/>The species is considered extinct in both Nepal and Bhutan. Until recent decades wild yak penetrated northern Nepal (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1994), but there is no evidence that the species still occurs in Nepal and is considered extinct in the country. In India, the species is currently known from Ladakh region of Kashmir (Schaller and Liu 1996, Ul-Haq 2003).<br/><br/>In China, the species occurs in scattered populations on the Tibetan Plateau (Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet), with the main populations remaining in the Chang Tang Reserve, covering 284,000 km² between in northern Tibet (Schaller and Liu, 1996, Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004), as well as in the Arjin Shan area of southeastern Xinjiang, and  Kekexili Nature Reserve in Qinghai and adjacent areas of the Kunlun Mountains (Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999; Harris and Loggers 2004, Schaller <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are also isolated populations north and south of the main population, in the west central Tibet, south-central Qinghai, and western Gansu.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) mentions the existence of feral populations in a few places within China, but these do not appear to have conservation significance.
2892		habitat	eng	Wild yaks live in the alpine tundra, grasslands, and cold desert regions of the northern Tibetan plateau (Wiener <em>et al</em>. 2003). These mountainous areas range from 4,000 to 6,100 m elevation. In the Chang Tang Reserve in northwestern Tibet, the average annual precipitation is only 100–300 mm, much of it falling as hail and snow; lakes are generally saline and surface water is scarce. Temperatures can fall below -40°C. Vegetation is sparse, and is dominated by grasses, sedges, forbs, and low or procumbent shrubs; much of it can be classed as alpine, or high cold steppe (Schaller and Gu 1994). The species moves seasonally, descending into lower valleys in the winter (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1994, Smith and Xie 2008). It feeds mostly on grasses and sedges, with some forbs. Yaks are gregarious, often aggregating into groups of > 100 individuals, although smaller groups of 10-20 are also common. Adult males often travel with females and young, although older males will often form small groups of 2-5, and travel separately from maternal herds.
2892		population	eng	Schaller and Liu (1996) estimated  8,000–8,500 wild yaks in Tibet, of which about 7,000–7,500 were in the Chang Tang Reserve (284,000 km²), plus about 3,200–3,700 in Qinghai Province, and about 2,000–2,500 in Xinjiang. These figures were, of necessity, a combination of estimates and inferences, but they suggest that the world population of wild yak was probably about 15,000 in 1995 (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1994, Schaller 1998). The population trend is downward in many areas: wild yak in the southern 24% of Chang Tang have been almost exterminated with the arrival of pastoralists since the 1960s. The Arjin Shan Reserve (Xinjiang Uygur) had a substantial subpopulation in the late-1980s, but the subpopulation declined precipitously in the early-1990s (Achuff and Petocz 1988; Schaller and Liu 1996). However, at least one area in Qinghai, locally termed “Wild Yak Valley”,  has retained a high abundance of wild yaks (approximately 1,700 counted in 2002), with no evidence of decline (and possibly an increase) from the early 1990s through at least 2007 (Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999; Harris and Loggers 2004; Harris 2007; Harris, unpublished data, 2007). Schaller <em>et al</em>. (2007) tallied 977 wild yaks during a winter-time transect through the northern Chang Tang and Kekexili Nature Reserves into the western-most part of the Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>In India, only a very few Wild Yak remain, with some individuals moving seasonally into the Ladakh region of Kashmir from areas controlled by China (Schaller and Liu 1996; Ul-Haq 2003).
2892		threats	eng	Poaching, including commercial poaching for meat, has been seen as the most serious threat to wild yaks (Schaller and Gu 1994; Miller and Schaller 1997; Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999). Males tend to be more vulnerable to hunting, especially by motorized hunters, because they tend to disperse away from the hill bases and high ridges apparently preferred by females (Schaller and Gu 1994). However, with the confiscation of weapons in most of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, poaching has declined as a threat to yak populations. However, wild yaks have limited tolerance for disturbance from people and their livestock; they tend to move away from areas where livestock are herded. Increasing livestock herds and increased intensity of pasture use displaces wild yaks and ultimately reduces availability of wild yak habitat (Harris 2007).<br/><br/>Interbreeding between domestic and wild yaks also presents a threat to the remaining Wild Yak populations (NRC 1983; Khan 1984; Schaller and Liu 1996; Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999; Smith and Xie 2008). Diseases transmitted from domestic livestock, either directly or via other wild species, may be an additional threat, although this has not yet been documented. Schaller and Gu (1994) documented low recruitment in a wild yak population in the Chang Tang Reserve in 1990. Only 6.7% of the total population sample (n=586) in the Aru basin of Chang Tang Reserve were young of that year; in the nearby Yalung basin the figure was only 5.3% (n=114). Even fewer young were recorded in 1992: only 1.0% of the population (n=315) comprised young animals and only one yearling was seen (n=225) in the Aru basin. It is unknown whether this reproductive failure was due to disease - e.g., brucellosis, which can cause spontaneous abortion - or to high levels of postpartum mortality (Schaller and Gu 1994).<br/><br/>Where wild yaks have held on or increased in numbers, interactions and conflicts with domestic pastoralists have recently increased (including abducting domestic yaks into wild herds, and in some cases, damage to humans or their property; Tsering <em>et al</em>. 2006). This has the potential to increase retaliatory killing (although it presently appears to be rare).<br/><br/>If domestic livestock can be kept out of the large nature reserves containing wild yaks, their persistence is likely. However, the geographic range of wild yaks has evidently continued to contract toward the west, with herds east of the Golmud-Lhasa highway increasingly small and isolated (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007).
2893		conservation	eng	Occur in numerous National Parks and other Protected Areas in India (particularly Gir N.P., Ranthambore N.P., Sariska N.P. and Kumbhalgarh Sanctuary), although most of the population occurs outside of protected areas (Rahmani 2001). Considered sacred by Hindus because of resemblance to the cow so rarely persecuted.
2893		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in India and in the lowland zone of Nepal, extending into border areas of Pakistan where it is rare. Now extinct in Bangladesh.
2893		habitat	eng	Occur in arid areas, scrub, dry deciduous forests and agricultural areas, but avoid dense forest and deserts. They are both browsers and grazers (Rahmani 2001).
2893		population	eng	Rahmani (2001) estimated that the Indian population could exceed 100,000. Locally common to abundant in agricultural areas in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. No figures are available for Nepal. Numbers are very low in Pakistan. About 37,000 feral nilgai are established on Texas ranches.
2893		threats	eng	Considered an agricultural pest in parts of India and, although legally protected in India, legislation has been amended to permit hunting when crop damage becomes excessive. Hunting and habitat destruction have had an adverse effect in Pakistan and Bangladesh (Rahmani 2001).
2917		distribution	eng	<em>Bothrops insularis</em> is known only from Queimada Grande Island, off the coast of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil (Campbell and Lamar 1989).
2917		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland rainforest areas.
2917		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the destruction of habitat.  Large areas of the island have been destroyed through repeated burning.  The continuation of such activities threaten the survival of the species.
2953		conservation	eng	Research and further survey work to confirm the current distribution and population status of the species. Protected by law in Thailand.
2953		distribution	eng	The species was described from Loom District, Yom River, Chao Phraya basin, northern Thailand. <span><span>It was present in the Chao Phraya and Mae Klong basins, Thailand. It was recorded from the Mekong <span><span>(a single record; Taki 1974) <span><span>but this record requires confirmation. This fish has been lost from most of its range and now it is known from <span><span>only <span><span>two streams above the Mae Klong <span><span>dam reservoir (Kwae Noi and the Songalia stream). <span><span>It has been extirpated from almost all of its documented  range, with only a few locations in Kanchanaburi Province in  Thailand  remaining.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
2953		habitat	eng	The species occurs in small to large lowland and submontane forested streams, with moderately strong currents and sandy and rocky bottoms.
2953		population	eng	The species has been extirpated from almost all of its documented range by dams constructed 20-25 years ago. It now occurs in only a few locations in Kancanaburi Province in Thailand. In the aquarium trade wild-caught specimens are rarely recorded. Formerly it was numerous in the Kwai Yai, Kwai Noi and Mae Klong Rivers, but no recent confirmed catches of this species have been made. It was said to have been introduced to the Philippines during the 1970s, but there is no confirmation as to whether the species established itself there.
2953		threats	eng	Overfishing for aquarium trade was a major cause of population loss in the past, together with habitat loss as a result of pollution and dam construction (20-25 years ago).
2957		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
2957		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the arid regions of the country (Smith and Xie 2008). This includes deserts from northern Xinjiang through northern Gansu to western Nei Mongol north of the Tien Shan (Musser and Carleton 2005).
2957		habitat	eng	It occupies semi-permanent sand dunes with heavy shrub cover or dunes that lie close to wooded areas (Smith and Xie 2008). It constructs relatively simple burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).
2957		population	eng	This species is characterized as occurring at lower densities than other species of gerbil (Smith and Xie 2008).
2957		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
2963		conservation	eng	General: Greater sage-grouse range overlaps with <em>B. idahoensis</em> range. Conservation of sage-grouse is a big issue and a federal listing may occur. Conservation of sage-grouse will likely benefit <em>B. idahoensis</em> to a significant degree. However, fire is being used to restore shrub-steppe and sage-grouse range in places, and although agencies are starting to include <em>B. idahoensis</em> in planning, it does not always happen (Hays 2004).<br/><br/>Washington: <em>B. idahoensis</em> from the Columbia Basin are federally listed as endangered. A recovery plan is being prepared, a captive breeding program is in place, habitat acquisition is proceeding, habitat management has changed, surveys have proceeded, reintroduction sites have been selected, and reintroduction techniques have been developed (Hays 2004). The reintroduction plan involves intercross breeding of <em>B. idahoensis</em> from the Columbia Basin with intraspecific rabbits from Idaho because of the bottleneck of genetic diversity caused by an extremely small population size (Sayler <em>et al.</em> 2007). The plan outlines reintroductions in 2007, followed by monitoring through the year for survival, dispersal, and reproductive success, and then a second reintroduction in early 2008 to augment the established population (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007). In March 2007, the first reintroduction of 20 rabbits bred by the Oregon Zoo were released in Douglas county, Washington, eight of which will be tracked by radio collar (Oregon Zoo 2007). <br/><br/>Wyoming: In Wyoming, <em>B. idahoensis</em> occurs on Fossil Butte National Monument; small population segments may extend onto Seedskadee and Bear River Meadows National Wildlife Refuges. These are all rather small and isolated protected areas. The vast majority of <em>B. idahoensis</em> populations in Wyoming occur on surfaces managed for multiple uses by the USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM). A lesser amount of state and private land within the BLM matrix also supports rabbits. The USDA Forest Service may manage some small population segments at the high-elevation periphery of the species distribution. B. idahoensis is on the Sensitive Species list of the Wyoming State Office of the BLM, which requires that agency to consider the effects of management actions on <em>B. idahoensis</em> (Beauvais 2004). <br/><br/>Nevada: There is increased awareness but otherwise no conservation actions for <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Nevada. B. idahoensis populations are located in the Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge, as well as in the Great Basin National Park (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>California: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is located at Mono Lake and Bodie State Historic Park and receive protection in these areas (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: Surveys are being conducted throughout the historic range of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Oregon and additional surveys are planned for fall 2004 and 2005. A Master's student is studying habitat at Sheldon NWR. Also, a small telemetry project is underway. The BLM and Hart Mountain National Wildlife Refuge are now surveying for <em>B. idahoensis</em> prior to management activities such as road work and controlled burns (Carey <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Oregon Zoo has provided a source population for reintroductions of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in the Columbia Basin, Washington (Oregon Zoo 2007). <br/><br/>Utah: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is listed in Utah as a Species of Special Concern, and has been the focus of three ambitious grants designed to assess the effects of current land treatment practices on B. idahoensis, to examine historical trends in habitat loss, and to develop a statewide habitat model to increase management efficiency of the species (Kozlowski 2004).<br/><br/>Idaho: Current actions include increased survey efforts to document the occurrence of <em>B. idahoensis</em> within its range, and research into its ecology and habitat requirements. Captive breeding has been established for the Columbian Basin DPS and experimental reintroductions have been initiated for the species. Loss and/or modification of habitat include agricultural and urban development, invasive weeds, and changes in fire frequencies (Rachlow 2004). In 2004, 42 captive-bred rabbits were released into the wild at the Idaho National Laboratory for a study intended to evaluate techniques to be used for future Columbia Basin, Washington population reintroductions. Less than half survived more than 18 days, but survival may have been more successful if release pens were more protected from predators and if the rabbits had been released farther apart (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Montana: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is listed as a species of special concern by Montana Natural Heritage Program (Rauscher 1997).
2963		distribution	eng	General: <em>B. idahoensis</em> occurs throughout the Great Basin and neighbouring intermountain areas, in sagebrush habitat from southwestern Montana and western Wyoming in the east to southwestern Utah in the southeast and an isolated population in central Washington. The range also includes central Nevada to northeastern California, to the north in eastern Oregon and southern Idaho (Dobler and Dixon 1990). Within this wide range, it occurs in patches correlating positively to the density of sagebrush (Dobler and Dixon 1990). <br/><br/>Washington:  <em>B. idahoensis</em> historically occurred in many areas of the Columbia Basin, but the sagebrush habitat has been heavily overgrazed and cleared completely for agriculture in many places.  The population in Washington is now isolated from other populations (Dobler and Dixon 1990). <br/><br/>Idaho: Known populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> are patchy but locally abundant in some areas within the valleys of the east-central region (Lemhi, Birch Creek, Big and Little Lost, and Pahsimeroi Valleys). Recently, isolated populations have been located in Owyhee County in the southwest of the state. Isolated populations also have been documented in the south-central region on the Camas Prairie (Rachlow 2004a).<br/><br/>An understanding of the current status and distribution of populations is limited by sampling effort; intensive surveys for populations have not been conducted in most areas. Within Idaho, agricultural and urban development of the Snake River Plains likely represents a significant barrier dividing populations north and south of the Snake River. Some populations north of the Snake River connect to those in southwestern Montana (including populations on the Continental Divide). South of the Snake River, populations likely connect to those in neighboring states (Oregon, Nevada, and Wyoming). The Idaho Conservation Data Center (IDCDC) has approximately 180 records of the species in the program's geospatial database, comprising both recent and historical records of occurrence. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) recommends that the area of occupancy be computed by overlaying the distribution of known occurrences with a uniform grid and tallying the area of occupied grid cells. Using a 2-km grid, we calculated the area of occupancy to be 748 km² using IDCDC records. Two important sites are the Idaho National Environmental and Engineering Laboratory (INEEL) and the Lemhi Valley, BLM lands south of Salmon, Idaho. Both areas have received significant research currently or in the past, and both support large populations of pygmy rabbits (Dixon and Bosworth 2004).<br/><br/>Wyoming: <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Wyoming appears to be widespread throughout the sagebrush-dominated portions of the Bear and Green River Basins.  In the Bear River, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is consistently found in good numbers at Fossil Butte National Monument. In the Green River, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is consistently found to the south and west of the towns of Pinedale and Boulder. B. idahoensis appears to be widespread in the western quarter of the Great Divide Basin as well. The Jack Morrow Hills are known to support several occurrences. There is a single occurrence in the Sweetwater River Basin, just across the divide from the Great Divide Basin, documented in 2003; this signals the need for more sampling in the Sweetwater to determine the actual distribution there. This is the only known occurrence of the species on the east side of the Continental Divide in Wyoming (Beauvais 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: The range of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Oregon has not been determined. Recent surveys have found rabbits in Lake, Harney, Malheur, and Deschutes counties. Known areas include Foster Flat, Warner Valley, and north of Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) (Carey <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Utah: Occurrences of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Utah listed in Oliver (2004) have been augmented since the document's printing. Initial survey efforts have focused on the determining of presence or absence, but systematic searches in suitable habitat over large geographic ranges have given us a measure of relative densities. The top three most populous areas include the Western Box Elder County, Northern Rich County, and the Piute/North-western Garfield County. Within these areas, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is considered relatively common. The most notable absence of rabbits occurs throughout the central portion of Utah's Great Basin, which was included in historical estimates of the rabbit's statewide range (Kozlowski 2004).<br/><br/>California:  They occur in Mono County California and are abundant from the Bodie Hills to south of Mono Lake.  No pygmy rabbits have been relocated to northern California but surveys are on going (Sequin 2004).  A recent survey found <em>B. idahoensis</em> present throughout the southern portion of its historic range in California, but did not find active sites in Modoc and Lassen counties in northern California (Larrucea and Brussard 2008).  <br/><br/>Nevada: B. idahoensis is found from the state border in the north to the northern end of Nye and Lincoln Counties in the south and from the state border in the east to Vya, Nevada in the west.  The pygmy rabbit is still found in most of the higher intermountain regions in the Great Basin Desert of Nevada (Sequin 2004).  A recent survey found <em>B. idahoensis</em> present throughout the entire extent of its historic range in Nevada (Larrucea and Brussard 2008).<br/><br/>Montana: They are known from the extreme southwest corner of Montana (Dillon south to Idaho border) (Hays 2004).
2963		habitat	eng	General: <em>B. idahoensis</em> mainly occupies big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), especially where the vegetation is very dense. It forms burrows in soft, deep soils, in areas such as alluvial fans, often burrowing into a slope or rise in land elevation (Dobler and Dixon 1990).<br/><br/>As observed in captivity, free-ranging females construct natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. The natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often are located at the base of shrubs (Rachlow <em>et al.</em> in prep). Preliminary observations based on radio-telemetry in the Lemhi Valley, Idaho, suggest that <em>B. idahoensis</em> moves longer distances than previously documented (more than 7 km for adults, and more than 6 km for juvenile rabbits) (Rachlow <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/><br/><em>B. idahoensis</em> is preyed upon by coyotes (<em>Canis latrans</em>), badgers (<em>Taxidea taxus</em>), weasels (<em>Mustela frenata</em>), bobcats (<em>Lynx rufus</em>), great horned owls (<em>Bubo virginianus</em>), long-eared owls (<em>Asio otus</em>), northern harriers (<em>Circus cyaneus</em>) (Dobler and Dixon 1990) and red foxes (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) (Green and Flinders 1980).<br/><br/>Wyoming: In Wyoming, <em>B. idahoensis</em> appears to follow the general accepted patterns of habitat use: an affinity for tall and dense sagebrush growing on friable soils. A few documented observations are from areas with only short and sparse sagebrush; there is some speculation (and only speculation) that <em>B. idahoensis</em> can occupy this type of habitat when wind is persistent enough to keep even short sagebrush exposed in the winter (i.e. the true habitat requirement is sagebrush exposed in winter, which in most areas is tall sagebrush, but in a few windy sites may be otherwise). Alternatively, these observations may represent juveniles dispersing through non-typical environments. In landscapes where short and sparse sagebrush is the matrix surrounding island patches of tall and dense sagebrush, <em>B. idahoensis</em> can be reliably found in the islands. Several field workers in south-west Wyoming have independently remarked that <em>B. idahoensis</em> tends to be most frequently found in an elevation band from approximately 6,500-7,500 ft (Beauvais 2004).<br/><br/>Nevada: <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Nevada seems to have similar habitat preferences as rabbits found in other states. They require loamy soils with big sagebrush. They can be located throughout entire valleys, but when not, they generally tend to be found in the largest, most dense clumps of sagebrush on appropriate soils. They have been located in areas with practically no understory (example: Reese Valley) as well as in areas with a heavy understory of forbs and bunch grasses (Sheldon Preserve). There may be competition between <em>B. idahoensis</em> and cottontail rabbits. Areas with high understory often have both rabbit types while areas with moderate understory only have cottontails. These cottontails have been found to be living in burrows that may have originally been made by <em>B. idahoensis</em>. In areas with practically no understory, <em>B. idahoensis</em> has been found with no cottontails (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>California: <em>B. idahoensis</em> in California has similar habitat requirements to those in Nevada. However, the rabbits around Mono Lake are found in soils that have a higher sand content than populations found in Nevada. They are often found in "loamier" inclusions in stabilized sand dunes. Also, the rabbits in the Bodie area live at very high elevations (8,400+ ft). These rabbits are found in loamy soils in relatively low sagebrush (about 2-3 ft). They are still more likely to be found in the largest and densest sagebrush in the area (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Utah: Habitat use by <em>B. idahoensis</em> as inferred from burrow placement and distribution of pellets indicates preferential use of the densest patches of sagebrush available on the landscape. Use of sagebrush species (<em>Artemisia tridentata tridentata, A. t.vaseyana, A. t. wyomingensis</em>, and <em>Artemisia arbuscula</em>) and heights (30 -160 cm) varies considerably with elevation and latitude. It should also be noted that numerous sites considered by range specialists to be "overgrazed" (maintains its sagebrush over story, but exhibits substantial loss of grass and forb understory) contained large numbers of <em>B. idahoensis</em>. This, combined with their use of roadsides and disturbed edge, indicated that rabbits in Utah seem relatively flexible in their use of habitat, given sagebrush maintains proper canopy cover. Extensive snow tracking has been conducted in populations of the Wyoming Basin (Rich County). Initial analysis of non-dispersal movements indicated regular movements of 0.5-1.0 km within the first six hours after a fresh snowfall (Kozlowski 2004).
2963		population	eng	Washington: The Columbia Basin population of <em>B. idahoensis</em> was extirpated as of 2004 (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007), and is federally listed as endangered. A captive population exists with 21 Columbia Basin specimens of <em>B. idahoensis</em> and 26 rabbits crossed and backcrossed with <em>B. idahoensis</em> from Idaho (Hays 2004). Specimens taken to establish founding population for reintroduction had low reproductivity and high disease susceptibility, probably as a result of inbreeding depression. Intercrossing with <em>B. idahoensis</em> from Idaho was successful in restoring genetic diversity and increasing reproductive levels (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007). In March 2007, 20 rabbits were released as part of a reintroduction program in Douglas County, Washington (Oregon Zoo 2007). <br/><br/>Wyoming: The Wyoming Natural Diversity Database (WYNDD; University of Wyoming) has on file 93 records of B. idahoensis observations documented in Wyoming. Very few populations have been studied enough to draw reliable conclusions as to size or trend. The population at Fossil Butte National Monument as been studied at various times in the past, and appears to be rather abundant and persistent. In general, field biologists with good knowledge of <em>B. idahoensis</em> habitat can find individuals with relative ease within the known range of the species in Wyoming. In 2003, WYNDD biologists surveyed two areas outside of known range in the state; <em>B. idahoensis</em> was documented at one of these sites (Sweetwater River watershed, described above). Appropriate habitat is rather abundant and contiguous in southwest Wyoming; cheatgrass has not impacted this area to any great degree (yet) (Beauvais 2004). <br/><br/>Nevada and California: Sizes of populations and abundances of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in an area vary. Certain populations in Nevada are composed of vast expanses of burrows. Other populations may include only one burrow system with only about two rabbits photographed at the site. However, we do not know how far these rabbits can disperse and so do not know what constitutes a single population. Once an area is found to contain <em>B. idahoensis</em>, they are often located throughout the valley in reasonable numbers. Fragmentation of populations is largely unknown since we do not know much about dispersal potential. I have photographed juvenile rabbits in areas with no burrows, a long way from any known burrow sites. These rabbits may potentially be able to travel farther than we think as long as cover is provided. Fragmentation is a serious issue when fires or agricultural fields remove cover from vast areas (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: In 2000, a survey was conducted at 17 historical sites active in 1995 in southeast Oregon and only three sites contained evidence of current use by <em>B. idahoensis</em>. A 2001-2002 survey of 38 historical sites found evidence of recent use at only one location. However, recent surveys at new sites with habitat attributes preferred by <em>B. idahoensis</em> found evidence of rabbit use. On the Burns BLM district, 54 sites were surveyed and 12 sites showed signs of occupied rabbit use and undetermined use at 8 sites (Carey <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Utah: The more surveys that are conducted, the more rabbits are found. Populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in the Wyoming Basin, Great Basin, Colorado Basin, and Wasatch Mountains all appear to sustain habitat with robust numbers. It should be noted that to date, little to no attention has been paid to analyzing the density, genetic isolation, or trends of these populations (although surveys to increase our knowledge of these three issues are currently underway). It appears that the habitat that has remained intact since the last statewide examination of B. idahoensis in the 1940s also continues to maintain populations. Although it is clear that significant populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> (both in terms of area and numbers) still inhabit Utah, overall loss of habitat has occurred since the 1950s, rendering large portions of their historical range unsuitable (Eastern Box Elder County, Central Great Basin, Southwestern Utah) (Kozlowski 2004).<br/><br/>Montana: Rauscher (1997) includes Horse Prairie, Big Sheep Creek, Sage Creek, Centennial Valley, the Sweetwater Basin, The Blacktail Wildlife Management Area, Antelope Flats, and the White Rocks as <em>B. idahoensis</em> range.<br/><br/>Idaho: In Idaho, known populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> are highly fragmented, with the exception of the east-central valley region (Rachlow 2004b).
2963		threats	eng	General: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is dependent on big sagebrush (<em>Artemisia tridentata</em>), it is particularly sensitive to habitat loss. Fires that are more frequent due to the increase of invasive cheatgrass, conversion to cropland and rangeland are contributors to loss of sagebrush habitat. Isolation of populations due to fragmentation of suitable habitat cause bottlenecks that threaten subpopulations. Dispersal is limited in fragmented populations, because <em>B. idahoensis</em> will not cross large open areas (Dobler and Dixon 1990).<br/><br/>Washington: In Washington, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is threatened by loss of deep soil shrub-steppe habitat, increase in fire frequencies due to cheatgrass invasion. Fires have the potential to remove sagebrush from vast areas. A recent fire in Washington State burned 66,000 hectares just outside the historic range of <em>B. idahoensis</em>. There are 417,000 hectares within the historic range of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Washington with soil types where rabbits have been located. Of that amount, 27,000 acres remain in shrub-steppe today, and much of that has been degraded through fire and agricultural practices. Change in abundance and foraging of native predators due to habitat change are potential threats range wide that are largely unstudied (Hays 2004).<br/><br/>Wyoming: Although cheatgrass is not yet a major problem in southwest Wyoming, it is thought to be only a matter of time before it begins to dominate here as it has in states to the west. Also petroleum exploration and development is expected to increase markedly here, with consequent increase in sagebrush removal, alteration of fire cycles, increased road density, and increased potential for cheatgrass and other noxious weed establishment. Habitat managers appear to support more prescribed burning of tall and dense sagebrush, primarily to increase forage for big game and improve habitat for sage grouse. There is only occasional attention being paid to how this might harm <em>B. idahoensis</em>, as well as other vertebrates with similar habitat affinities (e.g. sage thrashers, sage sparrows). Heavy livestock grazing has the potential to reduce habitat quality for <em>B. idahoensis</em>, but it is important to recognize that southwest Wyoming was historically grazed by bison and white-tailed prairie dogs (<em>Cynomys leucurus</em>) with the latter species persisting into the present. Grazing by domestic sheep, cattle, horses, and feral horses occurs today, but was probably more intense and pervasive in the early 20th century and <em>B. idahoensis</em> are presumed to have persisted through that period. Disturbance of habitat in the vicinity of Bear Lake (ID) may reduce the already tentative connectivity between Wyoming populations and those to the west (Beauvais 2004). <br/><br/>Nevada and California: The main threat to <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Nevada and California is fragmentation due to vast fires. (These fires have extirpated populations from entire valleys and without leaving any cover behind may not allow rabbits to repopulate the area.) This is a severe problem that will most likely become greater with increasing cheatgrass invasion across Nevada. Agricultural fields are also a threat. Not only are they usually placed on the same loamy soils  the rabbits prefer, but they also create a potentially impassable barrier and may increase the habitat suitability for cottontails. Road systems may also be a larger barrier to dispersal that we may think. In nighttimes road transect surveys in areas with known ratios of jackrabbits/cottontails/ <em>B. idahoensis</em>, <em>B. idahoensis</em> was consistently significantly underrepresented. This may be due to their reluctance to cross open areas (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: Threats to <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Oregon include fire (natural and managed), flooding, conversion to agriculture, exotic plants, decadence and overgrazing. The accumulative effects of the threats have contributed to habitat fragmentation and the isolation of populations (Carey <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Utah: The primary threat to <em>B. idahoensis</em> at this time is habitat loss. Loss occurs as a result of human development (historic losses: Wasatch Front north of Salt Lake; current losses: southwestern portion of the state in the vicinity of Cedar City), conversion to cultivated agriculture (northwestern portion of the Great Basin), degradation of plant communities due to overgrazing (widespread), increased fire frequency due to invasive weed understory (Great Basin), and large scale range improvement projects favouring the creation of large openings in mature sagebrush (Wyoming Basin, Lower Wasatch Range). As populations get smaller and more isolated, predators and disease may play more prominent roles as threats (Kozlowski 2004). <br/><br/>Idaho: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is threatened in Idaho by loss and/or modification of habitat including agricultural and urban development, invasive weeds, and changes in fire frequencies (Rachlow 2004b).<br/><br/>Montana: Rauscher (1997) mentions fragmentation of <em>B. idahoensis</em> habitat resulting from projects to improve rangeland for cattle as a threat (sagebrush is removed). He qualified that by stating that the rabbit is somewhat resilient and has the ability to use sites that were previously disturbed.
2964		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
2965		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
2982		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
2982		distribution	eng	This species is known from Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and throughout Lesser Antilles south to St. Vincent and Barbados (Simmons, 2005).
2982		habitat	eng	The biology of this bat is poorly known. Individuals have been observed in a variety of habitats ranging from the xeric Guanica State Forest to the mesic Luquillo Experimental Forest, in Puerto Rico. It roost in caves; however, it is present in some habitats where cave are absent, indicates that it can uses other roosts. Its diet consists of insects, pollen, and especially fruit (like mango, papaya, and sapodilla). It forages in the canopy or take fruit that has to fallen to the ground. Information about it reproductive patters are fragmentary (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Twelve females from the Island of Caicos carried similar-sized fetuses in March (Buden, 1977), and on St. Croix from one colony gave birth during a three-week period in late May and early June (Bond and Seaman, 1958; Nellis and Ehle, 1977 in Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005). They have also been found roosting in buildings and other man-made structures (Allen, 1939).
2982		population	eng	It is one of the most commons fruit-eating bats in some Caribbean Islands (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
2982		threats	eng	There are no major threats at present.
2983		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
2983		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica (extinct, known only from fossils), Grand Cayman (Cayman Islands, UK), and Middle Caicos (Simmons, 2005).
2983		habitat	eng	This species is highly gregarious and large colonies are found in caves (Silva-Taboada, 1979). This bat can occur in the same cave together with other species (Brachyphylla, Erophylla and Phyllonycteris). On Cuba, this species was found to be carrying embryos from December through May, with lactation occurring from May to August (Silvia-Taboada, 1979). Twelve females collected in March on Middle Caicos were pregnant; and one female captured on August was lactating. Its diet includes fruit, pollen, nectar, and insects; however, in captivity it can feed on banana. It species leave the caves last after sunset (Swanepoel and Genoways, 1983).
2983		population	eng	It is among the most common and widespread bats of Cuba and the Isle of Pines (Silva-Taboada, 1979). In Haiti it is rare (Klingener <em>et al.</em>, 1978 in Swanepoel and Genoways, 1983).
2983		threats	eng	In Middle Caicos is known from only one cave (Davalos pers. comm.). Population in Hispaniola and Middle Caicos are small (Davalos pers. comm.).
2991		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Analamazaotra Special Reserve, the Mantadia National Park and the Ranomafana National Park. It may be present in the Andohahela National Park. There is a need to protect the forest habitat of this species, including adding more protected areas.
2991		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar, where it ranges from the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud Massifs south to Vinanitelo, south of Fianarantsoa and may range as far south as the Parc National d'Andohahela. The records of this species are patchy across the presumed distribution. It occurs at elevations of between 450 and 1,600 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
2991		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, arboreal species of the eastern humid forest. This species is strictly forest dependent. The nests are made in tree holes and hollowed portions of standing tree trunks within 2.5 m of the ground (Carleton and Goodman 2003). Individuals in captivity have produced litters of up to six young (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
2991		population	eng	This species is not commonly recorded, because of its nocturnal, arboreal habits. One of the poorest known rodents in Madagascar (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
2991		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat caused by shifting agriculture, charcoal production and wildfires. Additionally, this species is hunted, unlike other rodents, as local people consider it to be analogous to a lemur (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
2993		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Itatiaia National Park, Rio de Janeiro (28,267 ha) (Câmara 1995; Marroig and Sant`Anna 2001)<br/>Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Rio de Janeiro (11,800 ha) (Garcia and Andrade Filho 2002; Cunha 2003, 2004)<br/>Desengano State Park, Rio de Janeiro (22,400 ha) (Garcia 2005)<br/>Carlos Botelho State Park, São Paulo (37,432 ha) (Pacaganella 1991; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1987; Talebi and Soares 2005)<br/>Intervales State Park, São Paulo (45,000 ha) (Petroni 2000)<br/>Alto Ribeira State Park (55,000 ha) (UNESCO 1999)<br/>Lauráceas State Park, Paraná (23,000 ha) (possibly: Koehler <em>et al</em>. 2005)<br/>Xitué Ecological Station (3,095 ha) (Gonzalez-Solis <em>et al</em>. 2001)<br/>Paraiso Ecological Station, Rio de Janeiro (5,000 ha) (Garcia 2005)<br/>Cairuçú Environmetal Protection Area (APA), Rio de Janeiro (33,800 ha) (Vaz 1998; Garcia 2005)<br/>Guaraqueçaba Environmental Protection Area, Paraná (283,014 ha) (Martuscelli <em>et al</em>. 1994; Koehler <em>et al</em>. 2005<br/><br/>A long-term research site was set up in the Carlos Botelho State Park in 1986 and the NGO Associação Pró-Muriqui was set up in 2000 to ensure continued research activities in the park and elsewhere in São Paulo (Talebi and Soares 2005)<br/><br/>A Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) was held for both species of <em>Brachyteles</em> in 1998 (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1998), which sparked a series of surveys in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and Bahia. In 2002, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) set up the Committee for the Conservation and Management of the Muriqui (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>There is a small, but promising, captive breeding programme for the species (Coimbra- Filho <em>et al.</em> 1993; Pissinatti <em>et al</em>. 1998; Pissinatti 2005). Captive breeding has been problematic due to low levels of reproduction and poor infant survival. Some zoos in São Paulo (for example, Sorocaba and Santos) receive wild-born muriqui pets every year, originating mostly from palm-harvesters and hunters who have killed the mother. Investment in a well-managed breeding programme helps greatly enhance our understanding of the primates and provides a backstop for population extinctions in the wild.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
2993		distribution	eng	According to Aguirre (1971), <em>Brachyteles arachnoides</em> was to be found in climax montane forests at altitudes of 600 to 1,800 m above sea level, in well-preserved remnants of seasonal and evergreen forests in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Paraná. It occurs north as far as the southern slopes of the Serra da Mantiqueira, running approximately east-west in southern Minas Gerais, northern São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993). Its stronghold today is in the montane forests of the Serra de Paranapiacaba (Talebi and Soares 2005). Based on a reference of Krieg, cited by Hill (1962, pp.252–356), Aguirre (1971) considered the southern limit of the range of the species to be about 25ºS, in the region of the Rio Ribeira in Paraná. Martuscelli <em>et al</em>. (1994) informed of two localities where they found muriquis in Paraná. One was in the municipality of Jaguariaíva, the other in the Guaraqueçaba Environmental Protection Area, near to 25ºS, corroborating the southern limit of Aguirre (1971). The first locality is in the municipality of Sengés, on the banks of the Rio Jaguaricatu, and the second is in the south of the state of São Paulo (Koehler <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Koehler <em>et al</em>. (2005) provide details of its known range on northern Paraná. These authors carried out surveys for <em>B. arachnoides</em> along the rios Açungui, Ribeira, Turvo, Santana and Ponta Grossa and, farther east, on the rios Grande and São Sebastião (all affluents of the Rio Ribeira marking the state limits of Paraná with São Paulo). Throughout the region, the only remnant forest of any considerable size is that of the Lauráceas State Park of 23,000 ha, in a montane region of the municipalities of Adrianópolis and Tunas do Paraná. It is quite probable that muriquis will be found there.
2993		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane and montane evergreen tropical forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil.<br/><br/>Studies of feeding ecology have been made in the Carlos Botelho State Park (Moraes 1992a,b; Talebi <em>et al</em>. 2005), the Fazenda Barreiro Rico by Milton (1984) and Martins (2003a,b, 2005b, 2006) and the Intervales State Park (Petroni 1993, 2000).<br/><br/>Size<br/>Adult male weight  10.2 kg (n=1) (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)<br/>Adult female weight 8.5 kg (n=1) (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)
2993		population	eng	The estimated total population is 1,300 individuals (Melo and Dias 2005). The largest single population of muriquis is evidently that in the Carlos Botelho State Park.
2993		threats	eng	The geographical distribution and status of the southern muriqui populations in São Paulo are still poorly known. Hunting (Lane 1990) and habitat loss and fragmentation are the main threats. The southern muriqui has been extirpated throughout the lowland (plateau) forests of São Paulo, Paraná and Rio de Janeiro, except at one site: the Fazenda Barreiro Rico in Sao Paulo (Milton and de Lucca 1984; Martins 2005b). Today, its populations can only otherwise be found in remote montane forests of the Serra do Mar in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Although occurring in relatively large expanses of protected forest, it seems they occur naturally at lower densities in these areas than in smaller, fragmented forests. All wild muriqui populations are declining.<br/><br/>The following are the current principal threats to the southern muriqui as outlined by Talebi and Soares (2005):<br/><br/>Forest loss. Less than 7% of the muriqui’s forests remain, and much of what does is highly fragmented. Deforestation has occurred as a result of logging, intensive land-use for subsistence and commercial farming (for example, coffee), timber plantations (eucalyptus and pine) and cattle ranching, through urban expansion, and highway construction and general infrastructure development, both regional and national, such as dams and the leisure industry. Despite its protected status, the Paranapiacaba Ecological Continuum will always be under threat from developmental pressures such as these.<br/><br/>Hunting for sport. Historically, and even today in some areas, the muriqui is hunted for sport, a cultural trait that has remained from the earliest days of the colonization of São Paulo State by Europeans.<br/> <br/>Mining in the buffer zones of protected areas. This refers particularly to bauxite, sand, clay, and granite. These activities result in deforestation, erosion, flooding, and the silting and pollution of rivers and streams.<br/><br/>Illegal palm-harvesting in large areas of forest. The palm tree, <em>Euterpe edulis</em>, is endemic to the Atlantic Forest, and an economically important forest product. Palm tree harvesters (<em>palmiteiros</em>) camp in the forest and transport and process the palm hearts in glass jars, while still in the forest. Thousands of palm trees can be felled in just a few days. Populations of <em>E. edulis</em> are declining everywhere in areas where they used to be the dominant understorey tree. <em>Palmiteiros</em> hunt game, including muriquis, during their sojourns in the forest.<br/><br/>Most of these threats are repeated by Garcia (2005), who summarizes threats to this species in Rio de Janeiro as follows:<br/><br/>Although occurring in a number of protected areas, muriquis are under pressure from hunting, habitat loss and degradation, and disturbance from human activities everywhere they occur. In the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, for example, both adventure tourism (perhaps restricting the area that the muriquis will use) and hunting were evidently serious enough to be prejudicial to the small number of muriquis surviving there (Cunha 2005). There is hunting throughout the park. In the APA Cairuçú, the Paraíso Ecological Station, and in the region of Macaé de Cima hunting is also the key factor (Silva 1987; Martuscelli <em>et al</em>. 1994). Garcia (2005) found that both hunting and deforestation by squatters are threats in the Desengano State Park. The Itatiaia National Park would seem to be comparatively free of hunting, and habitat loss is probably the key issue with the constant presence of people living in the park, of tourists, the threat of fires, and the illegal exploitation of plants such as palms for palm hearts (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2003).
2994		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Caparaó National Park, Espírito Santo (31,853 ha) (Gomes and Melo 2005)<br/>Itatiaia National Park, southern Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro (28,155 ha)<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Espírito Santo (3,573 ha) (Pinto <em>et al.</em> 1993)<br/>Mata Escura Biological Reserve, Minas Gerais (50,890 ha)<br/>Ibitipoca State Park, Minas Gerais (1,488 ha) (Fontes <em>et al.</em> 1996; Moreira <em>et al.</em> 2003; Ferraz <em>et al.</em> 2005)<br/>Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais, (35,976 ha)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park, Minas Gerais (13,210 ha) (Moreira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/>RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (Caratinga Biological Station), Minas Gerais (957 ha)<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego, Minas Gerais (180 ha)<br/><br/>A Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) was held for both species of <em>Brachyteles</em> in 1998 (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1998). This has now resulted in a series of surveys in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and Bahia. As from 1983, the Caratinga Biological Station was the only long-term field for research on this species (Strier and Boubli 2006), but following the PHVA workshop long-term research was also initiated in Espírito Santo, Santa Maria do Jetibá by the Instituto de Pesquisas da Mata Atlântica – IPEMA and the Federal University of Espírito Santo. The use of population viability modeling has been continued since then as a tool for conservation planning for muriquis (Strier 1993/1994; Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a; Brito and Grelle 2006).<br/><br/>In 2002, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) set up the Committee for the Conservation and Management of the Muriqui (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>From 2001 to 2003 the Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Brazilian Biological Diversity (Projeto de Conservação e Utilização Sustentável da Diversidade Biológica Brasileira – PROBIO), of the Ministry of the Environment (MMA), approved financing for three projects for the conservation and management of the northern muriqui. They are coordinated by three NGOs, the Instituto de Pesquisas da Mata Atlântica – IPEMA, the Fundação Biodiversitas, and the Instituto Dríades. Two important meetings resulted from this, the first in January 2003 in Santa Maria de Jetibá, Espírito Santo, and the second in March 2004 in Belo Horizonte. They provided the information and directives for the elaboration of a management plan for the species (in prep., see Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a).<br/><br/>Currently there are research programmes on, and conservation initiatives for, muriquis being carried out in six locations, four in Minas Gerais (RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala, RPPN Mata do Sossego, and Serra do Brigadeiro and Rio Doce state parks) and two in Espírito Santo (Caparaó National Park and Santa Maria de Jetibá). These studies and initiatives cover about 90% of the entire population of <em>B. hypoxanthus </em>(see Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a). Besides population monitoring and ecologicall/behavioural studies, research is being carried on population genetics (Fagundes 2005; Chaves <em>et al.</em> 2006), parasite incidence and ecology (Stuart and Strier 1995; Pissinatti 2005), and captive breeding, veterinary aspects, nutrition, husbandry and management (Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a; Pissinatti 2005).<br/><br/>There is a small but promising captive breeding programme for the species (Coimbra- Filho <em>et al.</em> 1993; Pissinatti <em>et al.</em> 1998; Pissinatti 2005).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
2994		distribution	eng	The range of the northern muriqui (<em>B. hypoxanthus</em>) covers the Atlantic forest of the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Bahia, excluding the lowland forests in the extreme south of Bahia and northern Espírito Santo. According to Aguirre (1971), the northern limit to its range was probably the Rio Jequiriçá basin, which flows into the Baía de Todos os Santos, and including the forests of the right bank of the Rio Paraguaçu. The southern limit is more poorly defined, but it probably extended to the Serra da Mantiqueira, in southern Minas Gerais, near to the state boundaries with Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo (Aguirre 1971; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1987; Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993; Strier and Fonseca 1996–1997).
2994		habitat	eng	Inhabits the humid coastal forests of the Serra do Mar to the semideciduous forests inland in the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais.<br/><br/>Almost all of the information available on the ecology, behaviour, reproduction and demography of the northern muriqui comes from a single population at the Caratinga Biological Station (Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Feliciano Miguel Abdala), Minas Gerais. There, muriquis have been systematically monitored and researched since 1982 (Fonseca 1985; Strier 1987a,b, 1993/1994, 1999, 2000; Strier <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2006).<br/><br/>Size<br/>Adult male weight 9.25-9.6 kg (mean 9.4 kg, n=3)  (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)<br/>Adult female weight 6.9-9.3 kg (mean 8.33 kg, n=3) (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)
2994		population	eng	The minimum known population in 2005 was 855 individuals (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a), broken down as follows:<br/><br/>Caparaó National Park (Espírito Santo), Federal protected area (31,853 ha) – minimum population 82<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve and vicinity (Espírito Santo), Federal protected area (3,573 ha) 14 (Pinto <em>et al</em>. 1993; Vieira and Mendes 2005).<br/>Mata Escura Biological Reserve (Minas Gerais), Federal protected area (50,890 ha – minimum population 28 (Melo <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2004; Melo 2004)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (Minas Gerais) State protected area (35,976 ha) – minimum population 124 (Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a,c)<br/>Ibitipoca State Park (Minas Gerais), State protected area (1,488 ha) – minimum population 7 (the muriqui population is largely in forest fragments outside the state park) (Moreira <em>et al</em>. 2003; Oliveira 2003; Ferraz <em>et al</em>. 2005)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (Minas Gerais), State protected area (13,210 ha) – minimum population 226 (Moreira <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Alto Cariri (Minas Gerais/Bahia), privately-owned (18,000 ha) – minimum population 7 (Melo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2004; Melo 2004).<br/>Fazenda Córrego de Areia (Minas Gerais), privately-owned (494 ha) – minimum population 13 (Hirsch <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station (RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala) (Minas Gerais), privately-owned (957 ha) – minimum population 226 (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a,c)<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego (Minas Gerais), Fundação Biodiversitas (180 ha) – minimum population 41 (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a,c)<br/>Santa Maria de Jetibá (Espírito Santo), privately owned (+2,000 ha, encompasses a group of 13 partially isolated forest fragments) – minimum population 84 (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005b)<br/>Fazenda Esmeralda (Minas Gerais), privately owned (44 ha) – minimum population 3 (Melo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<br/><br/>In summary, the northern muriqui can be found in 12 sites, six on private land, three in state protected, and three in federal protected areas. Combined, these areas total about 158,665 ha and a minimum known number of 855 individuals (Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a).
2994		threats	eng	This species survives in much reduced and isolated populations – none of which alone are believed to be viable in the long term—none exceed 500 individuals, and the largest known is that in the RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (about 230 individuals).<br/><br/>The main threats to the species have been hunting for food and sport accompanied by the widespread destruction of its forests, but although hunting is relatively infrequent today, the rarity and small size of the populations of these animals means that even the loss of a few individuals can have serious impacts. As the number of protected areas increases, hunting will have less of an impact. The remnant populations in the fragmented forests of the montane region of Espírito Santo (Santa Maria do Jetibá) have survived only because hunting has long been discouraged by the local communities there. Despite some fairly extensive remaining forests in the north of its range, very few muriquis survive today, and those in only the remotest areas, because of the predisposition of the local people (in Bahia particularly), to hunting.
2995		conservation	eng	Control of pollution and ecological management of wet areas are needed.
2995		distribution	eng	Iran to the south coast and center-east of Turkey. About 35 localities are now known for this species.
2995		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps, gravel pits, barrage lakes, and slow flowing streams.
2995		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
2995		threats	eng	Pesticide and other pollution, drainage and destruction of swamps.
2997		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Ranomafana National Park (Jansa and Carleton 2003). Further studies into the natural history, population, and distribution of this species are needed.
2997		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern-central highlands of Madagascar. The northern limit of its range appears to be southeast of Lac Alaotra, the southern limit seems to be the Andringitra Massif. However, it may range further north of Lac Alaotra (Jansa and Carleton 2003). The elevational range is from 1900 to around 2,600 m asl.
2997		habitat	eng	It is associated with heathland, lush wet meadows, marshy wetland areas, grasslands and scherophylous forest. Animals can be found in abandoned rice fields (Jansa and Carleton 2003). The females are suspected to have a maximum of two young.
2997		population	eng	There are no good abundance data, but even in some areas outside of forest it is remarkably common. In some open grassland pseudo-steppe habitat, the species is common (Langrand and Goodman 1997).
2997		threats	eng	In some of the areas where this species occurs, there is habitat loss through conversion to cultivated land, fires and fragmentation of habitat. Some areas of habitat conversion may be beneficial for the local abundance of this species. This species may be suffering competition in abandoned rice fields from the introduced black rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) although further studies are needed to confirm this (Jansa and Carleton 2003).There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
2998		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Andringitra National Park. There is a need to further research the distribution, population and natural history of this species. There is an importance for conserving the Marolambo-Fandriana forest corridor.
2998		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it has been recorded from three sites in the south-eastern lowlands (the type locality of Ampitambe, Amboasary, and the Andringitra Massif) and most recently the Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif, near Andapa. Additional collections are needed to better establish the extent of the species' range between the former three localities and the much more northerly Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif, since there have been inadequate surveys for this species in the areas between the known localities. For example, it has recently been found in the forest of Marolambo (D. Rakotondravony and M. Raherisehena, unpubl.). It has been recorded at elevations of between 900 and 1,960 m asl (Jansa and Carleton, 2003).
2998		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both montane and sclerophyllous forest. Animals have been caught on the ground close to extensive tunnel networks associated with tangled roots (Jansa and Carleton 2003). As far as currently known, this is a forest dependent species.
2998		population	eng	This species appears to be hard to capture, so there are no reliable estimates of abundance.
2998		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from agriculture and fire. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
3009		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
3012		conservation	eng	This species was listed in the 1988 South African Red Data Book as Restricted (Haagner 1989). A global assessment by IUCN in 1996 categorized it as EN (B1+2c) under the version 2.3 criteria. This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Much of its distribution is protected (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010). Further research is required into the threats affecting the species and to confirm its area of occupancy.
3012		distribution	eng	This species has a fairly continuous distribution along the coast from St. Lucia estuary, northwards into southern Mozambique (Tolley and Burger 2007).&#160;&#160;It is found from 0 to 100 m above sea level. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,600 km², within which it has an estimated area of occupancy of 4,400 km²<sup></sup> (Tolley and Burger 2007).
3012		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal dune forest where it can be found amongst the undergrowth (Haagner 1989) and in trees (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010). It has been found on tall grass stems along a small stream running through a suburb (Haagner 1989) as well as in urban gardens (Branch 1998), indicating that this species may be able to tolerate moderately anthropogenic environments.
3012		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
3012		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of coastal dune forest due to land use change for crops, plantations, and livestock. Mining takes place north of Richards Bay, however, it is unknown if this poses a major threat to the species.
3017		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
3023		conservation	eng	Part of this species' distribution coincides with protected areas, and all species of this genus are listed on CITES Appendix II. This species has been previously assessed as Critically Endangered under B1+2c by IUCN in 1996, using version 2.3 criteria.<br/><br/>Research into the population status and monitoring of the populations is recommended to determine if this species may qualify for a higher or lower threat category in the future.
3023		distribution	eng	This species is native to South Africa. The type locality is near Algoa Bay (Tolley and Burger 2007). The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is approximately 5,850 km²<sup></sup>, within which its area of occupancy is estimated as 400 km²<sup> </sup>(K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).
3023		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain fynbos habitat (Branch 1998), where it is often found on fine-leaved and fine-structured vegetation, particularly members of the family Restionaceae (Tolley and Burger 2007).
3023		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
3023		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats to this species. Figures for fynbos habitat in general suggest that around 7.5% of the mountain fynbos habitat is currently under agricultural land uses (Rouget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), with pine plantations driving much of the conversion (Branch 1998). Invasive alien plants also threaten this montane habitat, as 89.9% of the mountain fynbos has been invaded at low densities, with 2.3% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). However, within this species restricted range the remaining fynbos habitat does not appear to be under threat, and in some areas of plantation there is slow conversion back to fynbos (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><br/>This species does not feature significantly in the national and international pet trade.
3036		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus torquatus</span> is present in a number of protected areas, such as the Biological Reserves of Una (Bahia), Augusto Ruschi (Espirito Santo) and Poço das Antas (Rio de Janeiro), among others. The low genetic diversity within fragmented populations indicates a need to develop corridors of suitable habitat between these populations. Confiscated animals should be genetically characterized to determine the most appropriate release site. Data on dispersal ability, sex ratio, mating system, and population density are virtually unknown but important for conservation planning and monitoring.
3036		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus torquatus</span> is restricted to the Atlantic coastal forests of eastern Brazil. Historically, it possibly occurred throughout the coastal forest of Bahia through to the state of Pernambuco (footnote by O. Pinto in Wied's 19th century account, Coimbra-Filho 1972). At present, the southern part of the state of Bahia is the primary stronghold for the species. A recent record of the species is in the state of Sergipe (Chagas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) but thus far no records have been collected in the adjacent state of Alagoas. The extensive deforestation of suitable habitat in this state suggests that it is unlikely to survive there. A natural biogeographic gap occurs in northern Espírito Santo, perhaps due to a higher degree of deciduity in the forests of this region (Hirsh and Chiarello in press). The species does not occur from the left bank of Doce River to the vicinity of Mucuri River. It has been reported from extreme northern Minais Gerais on the left bank of Jequitinhonha River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus torquatus</span> has been introduced to some National Parks in Espírito Santo (Caparaó National Park) and Rio de Janeiro (Tijuca National Park), among other areas, although it is not known if the species is still present at these sites. It ranges from sea level to 1,290 m asl.<br/><p>  </p>  <p></p>
3036		habitat	eng	<span class="MsoCommentReference">This largely arboreal species is found in wet tropical forest, most typically in areas with an annual precipitation of 1,200 mm or higher and lacking a dry season. Most records are from evergreen forests, and just a handful of sightings are from semi-deciduous forests (Hirsch and Chiarello in press). It can be found in secondary forest habitats, including cabrucas (cocoa plantation under native forest in southern Bahia; Cassano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). Some animals have been sighted in forest fragments as small as 20 ha, although the long-term persistence of populations at these sites is unknown. It is a strict folivore that feeds on a relatively small number of food plants; Chiarello (1998) found that leaves from 21 species formed 99% of the diet of 3 animals. Like other congeneric sloths, animals descend from trees periodically to urinate and defecate. The females give birth to one young annually, predominantly at the end of the wet season and beginning of the dry season (February-April) and copulation concentrates in the late dry and early wet seasons (August-October; Dias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Sexual maturity is probably reached between the second and third year and longevity in the wild is over 12 years (Lara-Ruiz and Chiarello 2005).
3036		population	eng	<p>    </p>In some parts of Bahia and Espírito Santo, the animals are locally abundant in forest fragments (Chiarello pers. comm. 2010) although the population density is not well known. Studies of population genetics indicate no gene flow between the populations of southern Bahia (Ilhéus) and Espiríto Santo (Santa Teresa), and those of Poço das Antas (Rio de Janeiro). It appears that these populations have been isolated before the anthropogenic fragmentation of habitat, possibly beginning in the Pleistocene (Moraes-Barros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Lara-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In general, little genetic diversity is exhibited within individual populations, but the northernmost population (Bahia) is the genetically more diverse (Moraes-Barros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Lara-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Overall, the global population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus torquatus</span> is assumed to be decreasing in response to the continuing loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat, the Atlantic Forest (Ribeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/>  <p></p>
3036		threats	eng	<p>The rate of deforestation in the Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil has decreased dramatically in the last three decades but has not stopped (Ribeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), so the pressure on habitat continues. In southern Bahia the economic crisis of the cocoa plantation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Theobroma cacao</span>) puts a pressure on farmers of this product to clear their forest to make room for other economic alternatives, mainly pastures. In other areas, native forests are cleared for other reasons, including coal production, agriculture and city sprawl. The genetic integrity of distinct populations is threatened by the release of confiscated animals at different sites without knowledge or understanding of their origins. Additional threats include subsistence hunting and accidental mortality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus torquatus</span> on roads.</p>
3037		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus tridactylus</span> has been recorded from many protected areas.
3037		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. tridactylus</span> occurs in the Guyana Shield region, from Venezuela south of the Orinoco (although its distribution crosses at the delta region) into northern Brazil (south to the Amazonas/Solimões), through to Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. It does not occur south of the Amazon river.
3037		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus tridactylus</span> is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It has been recorded on tepuis (table-top mountains). Adult sloths are dark coloured with black spots on shoulders, back and haunches. The head and throat are yellow. Males can be distinguished from females by their dorsal orange-yellow patch with a broad black central line (Hayssen 2009). Both males and females reach reproductive age at three to six years. A single young is born after a gestation of six months (Taube <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
3037		population	eng	Population density estimates vary from 1.7 animals per km² in French Guiana (Taube <em>et al.</em> 1999) to 221 animals per km² in Manaus, Brazil (Chiarello 2008).
3037		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this sloth species.
3038		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> is present in many protected areas. It is included in CITES Appendix II.
3038		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> ranges from Honduras in the north, through southern Central America. In South America, it ranges from Colombia into western and southern Venezuela, and south into Ecuador, eastern Peru and Bolivia, into Brazil and northern Argentina (where it is now considered to be extirpated). Its distribution overlaps with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. torquatus</span> in the central part  of the Atlantic forest (Hirsch and Chiarello unpublished data). In Brazil, the species currently occurs in forested areas of the Amazon, Atlantic forest, and Cerrado biomes. There are historical records of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> in the Caatinga biome (Moraes-Barros unpublished data 2010).<br/>There are no confirmed records for <span style="font-style: italic;">B.  variegatus </span>in the Pantanal biome of  Brazil, but the species might occur in the contact zones between this biome and the Amazon forest to the north. Additional field studies are necessary in order to properly define the current species distribution in the Cerrado, Caatinga and Pantanal. <br/>The southernmost distribution of this sloth in Brazil was reported by Cabrera (1957) as the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which could, however, not be confirmed (Gardner 2007). It is historically absent from the state of Santa Catarina (Brazil) and northeastern Argentina; the southernmost confirmed record of the species is near Londrina, in the state of Paraná, Brazil, but today it is considered extinct in this state (Mikich and Bernils 2004). The last record from Argentina, was collected in Jujuy province and dates back to 1916 (Vizcaíno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), but field studies specifically aiming at this species are lacking from this country. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> is found from sea level to at least 2,400 m asl (Ureña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>
3038		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> has been recorded from a number of forest types including seasonal mesic tropical forest, semi-deciduous forest (inland Atlantic Forest), cloud forest, and lowland tropical forest. It inhabits cacao (<span style="font-style: italic;">Theobroma cacao</span>) plantations in Costa Rica (Vaughan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This sloth species produces one litter of one infant at intervals of at least 19 months (T. Plese pers. comm. 2010). Mating period varies depending on the year and geographical region, but occurs mainly in spring (i.e., from July to November in South America and from February to May in Central America).
3038		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Population densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> have been estimated at 2.2 to 6.7 animals per hectare in the Brazilian Amazon (Queiroz 1995), 8.5 animals per hectare in Panama (Montgomery and Sunquist 1975), and 0.6 to 4.5 animals per hectare in the tropical dry forest of Colombia (Acevedo and Sanchez 2007). No demographic information is available from the remaining area of distribution. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> is commonly found in public squares, where densities can reach 12.5 animals per hectare (Manchester and Jorge 2009).
3038		threats	eng	It appears that there are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. variegatus</span> at  the global level. Nevertheless, some populations, especially in Colombia and Brazil, are declining due  to deforestation leading to severe habitat degradation and fragmentation. Furthermore, they are  hunted by local indigenous communities. Wild-caught individuals,  especially offspring, are sold as pets to tourists in Colombia (Moreno  and Plese 2006). This illegal trade is increasing and represents a cause  of concern due to its impact on the wild populations.
3069		conservation	eng	No research or conservation actions are currently&#160;prioritised&#160;for this species. However, it would be important to discover the influence of pollution from pesticides on this and other species in the genus. Population estimates are required in order to conduct monitoring, especially in areas of land transformation. It occurs in several protected areas, including Cape Peninsula National Park, Helderberg Nature Reserve, and Paarl Mountain Nature Reserve.
3069		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-western Western Cape Province of South Africa, where it ranges from the central Cape Peninsula in the south, to west of Citrusdal in the north. There is a distribution gap in the Swartland. It ranges from sea level up to 1,000 m asl. Its Extent of Occurrence is 6,700 km<sup>2</sup>, with an Area of Occupancy estimated to be 10% of its Extent of Occurrence.
3069		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing frog of renosterveld fynbos heathland. It also occurs in disturbed habitats, such as pine plantations and gardens and there is ongoing decline in its habitat over much of its range. It breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests with up to 22 froglets recorded for this species (Minter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), and is not associated with water.
3069		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It can be relatively common in parts of its range. Its distribution is not considered to be severely fragmented (as less than half of the individuals can be found in isolated patches) and it is estimated to occur in over 10 locations.</span>
3069		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, its habitat&#160;has been severely reduced and fragmented by&#160;agricultural expansion in much of its range and urban development in parts of its range. It is possibly impacted by the use of pesticides, and herbicides, and this might account for the apparent absence of the species from most renosterveld fragments in the Swartland, north of Cape Town.
3070		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to establish conservation areas within the range of the species.
3070		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Namaqualand coast of South Africa, north to Lüderitz in coastal south-western Namibia. It ranges from close to the high-water mark to 10km from the coast.
3070		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that lives in sand dunes vegetated with low, succulent shrubs and other xerophytic vegetation in the fog belt. Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not associated with water.
3070		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
3070		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is loss of its habitat as a result of coastal opencast diamond mining. Development of roads, increasing pressure from human settlement, and changing land-use (e.g. increased grazing) pose additional threats.
3083		conservation	eng	The majority of this lizard's range is within a protected area complex, and is thus afforded nominal protection. The  status of the deciduous forest in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Bemaraha is  poorly documented because, although this is a protected area, the security  situation is unfavourable for park agents to perform regular patrols. Research is needed into population trends and the effects of any illegal harvest for the pet trade, and the species' presence and the extent of its distribution in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Bemaraha should be established when this becomes feasible. Efforts should be made to improve the security of the protected areas to allow proper enforcement of conservation measures.
3083		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is only known from the Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in the west (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has not been recorded from the southern part of the national park and its distribution may be limited by rivers that bisect the limestone formations (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008).&#160;It probably occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Bemaraha, which lies to the north of Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha, because it has been found on the shared boundary of the two protected areas (Randrianantoandro<em>&#160;</em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It ranges from 100 to 430 m asl., and has a presumed extent of occurrence of 401 km²<sup></sup>.</p>
3083		habitat	eng	<p>There is some evidence to suggest that the Antsingy leaf chameleon<em> </em>prefers relatively intact forest with high cover of leaf litter and a relatively well developed understorey (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). However, other factors such as historic collection pressure and altitude may influence current patterns of abundance. Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> (2008) found no evidence of this lizard<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>in the highly disturbed Ankazomanga forest to the east of the national park boundary. The Antsingy leaf chameleon is sympatric with <em>B. exarmata </em>and <em>B. brygooi </em>throughout its known range (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008). All three species use low lying vegetation for roosting on at night, and <em>B. brygooi </em>has been found to consistently use higher perch sites than <em>B. perarmata </em>or <em>B. exarmata</em> (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<em> </em>2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>Antsingy leaf chameleons usually roosted on green stems, with females making more use of leaves than males (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>. </em>2007).</p>
3083		population	eng	<p>Based on nocturnal transects at four sites in the north of Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha, population density varies between 1.4 ha<sup>-1</sup> <a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7">(0.57-3.17 95% confidence interval) </a>and 98.9<sup>-1 </sup>ha (51.9-188.36 95% confidence interval) with highest densities in the eastern forest of Bendrao (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008). Expressed as abundance per 100 m, estimates ranged from 0.2 ± 0.07 to 3.4 ± 0.79 (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008).</p>
3083		threats	eng	<p>Threats in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha are mainly from habitat alteration as a result of timber extraction (charcoal and construction), overgrazing and fire (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008).&#160;Accounts of illegal animal collection continue to come from the park and <em>B. perarmata </em>is&#160;still taken, but on current evidence this is not a major threat to the species (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008).</p>
3121		conservation	eng	None.
3121		distribution	eng	This species was known from Hispaniola. The only report of this species is from Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdez who lived on the island from 1536 to 1546 and documented an animal called the Mohuy that matches the description of living spiny rats.
3121		habitat	eng	Not known.
3121		population	eng	Extinct.
3121		threats	eng	Driven to extinction by introduced rats. Was hunted by Arawak Indians prior to European arrival.
3126		conservation	eng	The species is listed on CITES Appendix I and fully protected under Indonesian law (Jahja 1987). Lowland Anoa occur in a number of protected areas (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are several key protected areas thought to hold significant populations of this species, including Lore Lindu National Park, Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve on Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005), as well as Lambu Sango Wildlife Reserve on Buton Island (Burton 2001). There is an ongoing status survey, as well as genetic and morphological research that aims to clarify the confusion that surrounds anoa systematics. A number of Lowland Anoa are in captivity, but the breeding program has been greatly hindered by the difficulties of assigning captive anoa to appropriate taxa. The captive population doubled in size in the 1990s, with around 125 individuals in zoos as of 1998. Of these, a small number are thought to be Mountain Anoa, although the taxonomic status of most individuals remains unconfirmed (Nötzold 1999).<br/><br/>According to Burton <em>et al</em>. (2005) this species requires the following conservation actions: (1) protection from hunting, (2) prevention of habitat loss at key sites, (3) complete genetic studies to better determine the taxonomy of this species, and (4) determination of the status of remaining populations. This species, as it is confined mainly to lowland areas, requires well established protected areas with protection from hunting a major priority. Law enforcement combined with education should be employed to reduce hunting pressure.
3126		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it is found only on Sulawesi and Buton Island off the southeast coast, with no records of either species of Anoas from other small neighbouring islands adjacent to Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005), where it is found up to 1,000 m (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). It remains uncertain whether the two putative species, <em>Bubalus depressicornis</em> and <em>Bubalus quarlesi</em>, are sympatric or parapatric in their distribution (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Across the island, local distribution of anoa species remains unclear, as they may occur in forest patches at different altitudes or sympatrically (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records of skulls and morphological descriptions of this species suggest it is present in the northern peninsular, as far east as the Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park. It is also found across the central region and ranging to the tip of the eastern and southeastern peninsulars, but no longer present in the south peninsular. The lowland anoa is also present in the central and north of Buton Island (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Historically, anoa of one species or other were present throughout the majority of the island’s forests (Weber 1890, Sarasin and Sarasin 1901, Mohr 1921, Harper 1945, Groves 1969, Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3126		habitat	eng	There is very little is known about the ecology and life history of the Anoas (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Overall population densities were estimated to be 0.9 and 1.1 anoas/km² in Tanjung Peropa and Tanjung Amolengo Wildlife Reserves, southeast Sulawesi, respectively (Mustari 2003). This species is found in both primary and secondary lowland forest, as well as swamp and mangrove forest (A. Priyono and G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006, Mustari 2003). Riverine and lowland forests were preferred by anoa compared to rocky-cliffs forest in Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve due to the availability of water sources, known food plants and fruit-bearing trees (Mustari 2003). In the past the species was reportedly common along coasts. Lowland Anoa are also found at high elevations in mountainous areas. Like other wild buffalo, Anoas wallow and bathe in pools of water and/or mud. It is probable that mineral springs or licks are also required, although Anoa are reported to drink seawater, which might fulfil their mineral needs in areas without licks or springs.<br/><br/>The species is solitary and is a browser, feeding on vegetation (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987, Foead 1992). The typical life span in captivity is reported to be 20 to 30 years, with age at sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years old (in captivity), with typically one offspring per year (NRC, 1983; Jahja, 1987), though in wild conditions this may be less.
3126		population	eng	There are to few data exist to accurately quantify the species' current abundance, nevertheless, they still appear to be distributed relatively widely within their known historical range on Sulawesi. There have been declines of this species throughout Sulawesi, especially in the southern and northeastern peninsulas, with the decline attributed to hunting for meat and habitat loss (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). The range is extremely fragmented, especially in the southern, northeastern and the south of the southeastern peninsulas of the island (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005, B. Mannullang pers. comm. 2006). These declines probably began at the turn of the nineteenth century, with an increased decline rate from the 1980 to 2005 period (<em>circa</em> three generations), precipitously in some areas. The population size is unknown because there have been no island-wide surveys to estimate this, even for the largest populations. Estimating the population size is further complicated by the uncertain distribution of the two <em>Anoa</em> species. It is thought that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals. Most populations are becoming rapidly fragmented, suggesting that conservation of viable populations may soon require management of subpopulations (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is thought no subpopulation exceeds 250 mature individuals. The threats to this species, and thus the declines, are more serious for this species than for the Mountain Anoa.<br/><br/>The Lowland Anoa populations in small reserves (e.g., Tanjung Amolengu Wildlife Reserve) and other forest fragments are threatened with local extinction. Even the populations in large protected areas and other large forest blocks are reported to be in decline as a result of heavy hunting pressure. O'Brien and Kinnaird (1996) report a 50 to 95% decline of this species in Tangkoko Nature Reserve in Northern Sulawesi in a 10-year period, with more recent surveys suggesting it is now locally extinct. The rate of population decline across their range is thought to be 20% over two generations (generation length of 7 to 9 years). The species’ ecology was studied recently in the Tanjung Peropa and Tanjung Amolengo Wildlife Reserves in southeastern Sulawesi.
3126		threats	eng	Land conversion to agriculture and hunting, mainly for food, are the two major threats to this species (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005), as well as gold mining and other activities related to the collection of non-timber forest product (A. Priyono pers. comm. 2006). Recent reports indicate that hunting is by far the more serious threat. International trade in live animals or body parts is not thought to present a serious threat.
3127		conservation	eng	The Tamaraw is listed on CITES Appendix I. Tamaraw receive total protection under Philippine law. The largest of the three known subpopulations occurs in Mount Iglit-Baco National Park. A small number of Tamaraw are held in captivity in the Philippines, but the captive breeding program has had no success. Of the 21 individuals captured around 1982, there were nine individuals remaining in 1997. As of  2006, two individuals remained, one of which is from the original population and one which was bred in captivity, and there are no further plans for captive breeding. The original captive breeding programme consisted of placing the animals in a semi-natural "gene pool" on Mindoro, but these animals were not intensively managed, nor were the husbandry techniques focused on building a large captive population.<br/><br/>Required research for this species includes an island wide population survey to determine if there are any additional extant populations. There is also a need for improved habitat conservation through effective management. In addition, the feasibility and need for a new captive breeding programme should be assessed.
3127		distribution	eng	The Tamaraw is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro (9,735 km² in area), where it was formerly widespread across the island (Hedges and Duckworth pers. comm. 2000, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, the current range is estimated to cover less than 300 km², in only two or three areas: Mount Iglit-Baco National Park (within the Iglit mountain range), Mount Aruyan/Sablayan, and Mount Calavite Tamaraw Preserve (Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996, de Leon <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species was more widespread prehistorically in the Philippines, with Pleistocene epoch records from Luzon (Beyer 1957, in Kuehn 1986).
3127		habitat	eng	Formerly Tamaraw were found across the whole of Mindoro from sea level to the high peaks (to over 1,800 m), inhabiting open grassland or forest glades, thick bamboo-jungle, marshy river valleys, and low to mid-elevation forests (Rabor 1977). The species is currently confined to a few remote areas over 200 m, and is most often recorded in secondary forest and mixed forest/grassland (Kuehn 1986, Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Tamaraw are largely solitary, although females occur with offspring (Talbot and Talbot 1966). Males and females occasionally associate temporarily throughout the year (Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996), which is similar to other bovines species, such as African buffalo, banteng and gaur. The solitary nature of the species is probably an adaptation to forest habitats, where large groups would prove to be a hindrance (Eisenberg 1966, in Kuehn 1986). Tamaraw feed primarily on grasses, as well as young bamboo shoots, in open grasslands, resting within tall grasses or dense forest (Talbot and Talbot 1966). Although formerly diurnal, Tamaraw have become largely nocturnal due to human encroachment and disturbance (Talbot and Talbot 1966).
3127		population	eng	In 2006, three separate populations were known. Population estimates undertaken have increased in frequency and have benefited from improved techniques over time. The estimate of numbers of individuals has increased subsequently, but it is almost certain that these increases are a reflection of improved estimates rather than an actual increase in numbers of individuals. Based on recent surveys, the minimum total population is estimated at around 300 individuals with 60 to 70% of these mature individuals (de Leon pers. comm. 2006).  However, earlier field data suggested that the percentage of mature individuals was 35 to 59% (Oliver 1994, Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).The population on Mount Iglit-Baco, as of April 2005 was estimated to number approximately 269 individuals (the actual number might be slightly higher). The population on Mount Calavite (the most northerly site) in 2004 had an estimated 15 individuals based on faecal matter and animal tracks; there has been only one confirmed sighting. The population in Aruyan has an estimated 15 to 20 individuals, with six confirmed recent sightings (de Leon pers. comm. 2006). The population size is therefore around 300 animals, and the number of mature individuals is 105-210, depending on the percentage of mature animals in the overall population. An estimated continuing decline of 25% over the next three generations (approximately 30 years) does not seem unreasonable given that the number of subpopulations reportedly declined from five or six to three between 1990 and 2006.
3127		threats	eng	The main current threat to the Tamaraw is habitat loss due to farming by resettled and local people, with a high human population growth rates in and around its remaining habitat. In some areas, fires set for agriculture are a threat to the species' habitat. Cattle ranching and farming activities pose a number of threats, including the risk of diseases spreading to the Tamaraw from livestock and burning of pastures leading to a reduced number of palatable grass species. Historically, Tamaraw were hunted for both subsistence and sport, which led to a period of drastic decline in numbers of individuals and populations (Rabor 1977). Hunting was carefully regulated prior to World War II, but since then a growing human population, logging operations, ranching, and widespread availability of firearms on Mindoro have caused a dramatic decline in numbers (Talbot and Talbot 1966). Since the 1980s, sport hunting has reduced due to a decline in the Tamaraw population, closure of nearby ranches, and more intensive patrolling and awareness activities since the establishment of the protected area. International trade in this species or its derivatives has not been reported. Although protected by law, the illegal capture and killing of this species continues.
3128		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES under Appendix I, and fully protected under Indonesian law (Jahja 1987, Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Mountain Anoa occur in a number of protected areas. There are several key protected areas thought to hold significant populations of this species, including Lore Lindu National Park, Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve on Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). There is an on-going status survey, as well as genetic and morphological research that aims to clarify the confusion that surrounds anoa systematics. A small number of Mountain Anoa are in captivity, but the breeding program has been greatly hindered by the difficulties of assigning captive anoa to appropriate taxa. The captive population has around five individuals in a Mountain Anoa breed line (J. Burton pers. comm.), although the taxonomic status of most individuals remains uncertain (Nötzold 1999).<br/><br/>According to Burton <em>et al</em>. (2005) this species requires the following conservation actions: (1) protection from hunting, (2) prevention of habitat loss at key sites, (3) complete genetic studies to better determine the taxonomy of this species, and (4) determination of the status of remaining populations. Law enforcement combined with education should be employed to reduce hunting pressure.
3128		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it is found only on Sulawesi and Buton Island off the southeast coast, with no records of either species of Anoas from other small neighbouring islands adjacent to Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has been typically recorded from 1,000 to 2,300 m, but can be found at near sea level (National Research Council 1983, Sugiharta 1994, G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). It remains uncertain whether the two putative species, <em>Bubalus depressicornis</em> and <em>Bubalus quarlesi</em>, are sympatric or parapatric in their distribution (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Across the island, local distribution of anoa species remains unclear, as they may occur in forest patches at different altitudes or sympatrically (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records of skulls and morphological descriptions of this species recently could only confirm that it was present across most of the Central region of Sulawesi and in the north of Buton Island (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, slightly earlier reports suggest the Mountain Anoa also occurs in the north peninsular and part way along the southeastern peninsular (Groves 1969). Both of these areas still sustain anoa populations, so these may include populations of Mountain Anoa. Identifying Mountain Anoa, and therefore their range, is made difficult by the fact that they cannot be differentiated from young Lowland Anoa. Historically, anoas of one species or other were present throughout the majority of the island’s forests (Weber 1890, Sarasin and Sarasin 1901, Mohr 1921, Harper 1945, Groves 1969, Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3128		habitat	eng	There is very little is known about the ecology and life history of the Anoas (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is typically found in dense forest as opposed to more open subalpine habitats, and prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation (Foead 1992, Sugiharta 1994, G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). Mountain Anoas typically live near abundant water sources in areas with low human activity (Sugiharta 1994), and in the past there are records at sea level. Like other wild buffalo, Anoas wallow and bathe in pools of water and/or mud. It is probable that mineral springs or licks are also required, although Anoa are reported to drink seawater, which might fulfil their mineral needs in areas without licks or springs. The species is solitary and is a browser, feeding on grasses and other vegetation (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987, Foead 1992). The typical life span in captivity is reported to be 20 to 30 years, with age at sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years old (in captivity), with typically one offspring per year (NRC 1983, Jahja 1987), though in wild conditions this may be less.
3128		population	eng	Too few data exist to precisely quantify the current abundance of Mountain Anoa. Nevertheless, they still appear to be distributed relatively widely within their known historical range on Sulawesi. However, there is little doubt that they have been in decline (i.e., there has been a decrease in their range and abundance) since the end of the 19th century. They have declined over the 1980 to 2000 period (ca. three generations), precipitously in some areas. The population size is unknown because there have been no island-wide surveys to estimate this, even for the largest populations. Estimating the population size is further complicated by the uncertain distribution of the two anoa species. It is thought that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals. There have been declines of this species throughout Sulawesi, especially in the southern and northeastern peninsulas, with the decline attributed to hunting for meat and habitat loss (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Most populations are becoming rapidly fragmented, suggesting that conservation of viable populations may soon require management of metapopulations (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is thought no subpopulation exceeds 250 mature individuals. The current status of the species is consequently a matter for concern because even the subpopulations in large protected areas (e.g., Lore Lindu National Park) and other large forest blocks are reported to be in decline as a result of heavy hunting pressure. There are two areas where the declines have been most serious, Gorontalo and Buol Toli-Toli (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). Overall, the decline rate is not well known, however, based on distribution surveys and questionnaires, the range of this species is retreating to the central parts of forested areas. The rate of population decline across their range is thought to be 20% over two generations (generation length of 7 to 9 years).
3128		threats	eng	The two major threats to this species are hunting, for food, and habitat degradation (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005) due to agriculture, mining (gold mining) (G. Semiadi and D. Gunaryadi pers. comm. 2006). Illegal international trade in live animals or body parts is not thought to present a serious threat.
3129		conservation	eng	Wild Water Buffalo is included in CITES under Appendix III (Nepal). It is legally protected in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Thailand. The Cambodia population was a major factor in the decision to place further protection on the area, now designated as Mondulkiri Protection Forest, and a significant factor in the decision to establish the Srepok Wilderness Area Project of the Cambodian Department of Forestry and WWF (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2003; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Most of the known populations are within protected areas. In Myanmar, which retains true lowland floodplains in near-natural state in the Hukaung Valley, the protected area system originally almost entirely excluded floodplain grasslands. The inclusion of some areas is now under consideration, and would benefit this species. However, the outcome is far from certain (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Most remaining populations still require protection from hunting (especially those in Thailand and Cambodia, and Myanmar if still extant), but probably the greater threat in South Asia is protection from contact with other domestic bovines, especially Domestic Water Buffalo. <br/><br/>There is an urgent need to evaluate the integrity of wild-living buffalo populations, including those generally taken as being truly wild and those living as wild animals within the native range, using habitat typical of wild animals, and which have lived outside even occasional husbandry for a long time, in order to determine populations of conservation priority. This should involve the assessment of the relationship of such populations in the context of obvious domestic lineages, especially those in close proximity to wild populations. Such an approach should use multiple genetic markers in addition to an assessment of morphological characteristics. <br/><br/>Surveys to investigate current status of wild-living populations are needed in Myanmar and perhaps the Satay district of Viet Nam.
3129		distribution	eng	During the Pleistocene epoch the genus <em>Bubalus</em> was widely distributed throughout Europe and southern Asia and contained forms conspecific with <em>B. arnee</em>. When the climate became drier the genus was restricted to the Indian subcontinent, mainland South-East Asia, and some of the South-East Asian islands. In historical times <em>B. arnee</em> ranged across South and South-East Asia, occurring from Mesopotamia to Indochina (Epstein 1971; Mason 1974; Cockrill 1984). <br/><br/>Remnant populations of Wild Water Buffalo are thought to occur at single sites in each of southern Nepal, southern Bhutan, western Thailand, eastern Cambodia, and northern Myanmar, and at several sites in India: in the Bastar region of Madhya Pradesh, in Assam, in Arunachal Pradesh, and possibly in Meghalaya, Orissa and Maharashtra.<br/><br/>Wild Water Buffalo is believed to be extinct in Bangladesh, Peninsular Malaysia, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The domestic form (considered by IUCN as <em>B. bubalis</em>) occurs as feral and domesticated populations worldwide (Grubb 2005).<br/><br/>The situation in Indochina is less certain. Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam were not included within the range of Wild Water Buffalo given in Corbet and Hill (1992). Free-living buffalo of unknown pedigree occur throughout the region (e.g. Sayer 1983; Laurie <em>et al</em>. 1989; Salter <em>et al</em>. 1990; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) but Wild Water Buffalo is probably extinct in Viet Nam and almost certainly in Lao PDR (Groves 1996; Grubb 2005; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The origin and current genetic status of the herds of apparently wild buffaloes in Sri Lanka is uncertain but it is thought unlikely that any true wild buffaloes remain there today. Corbet and Hill (1992) included Sri Lanka within the historical range of wild buffalo, although Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951), Gee (1964), and Maia (1970) thought that the Sri Lankan buffaloes were descended from introduced domestic stock. Certain ancient texts seem to support this view (Ashby and Santiapillai 1983). The fact that no buffaloes occur south of the Godavari river in India has also been taken to suggest that Sri Lanka possesses only feral buffaloes descended from introduced animals. However, Deraniyagala (1953), considered that the occurrence of fossil buffalo teeth in the gem sands of the Ratnapura area disproved this view, although it is not clear how old these buffalo teeth are (and Gaur remains found at similar depths in the same area were less than 1,000 years old). Moreover, morphometrics suggest that there was an ancestral population of animals on that island closer to Wild Water Buffalo than to Domestic Water Buffalo (Groves and Jayantha Jayawardene unpublished). Nevertheless, even if the Water Buffalo is indigenous to Sri Lanka the question of whether the free-living herds found there today should be treated as wild <em>B. arnee</em> still arises. In the nineteenth-century, free-ranging herds were common over much of the island’s dry low country but they were nearly eliminated by an outbreak of rinderpest at the end of the century, and for a time their survival was in doubt (Phillips 1935). Phillips reported that small populations might have survived in the hill country but the subsequent intensification of agriculture probably led to their demise (Ashby and Santiapillai 1983). After the rinderpest outbreak buffalo recolonized much of the dry zone but most of them had apparently interbred with domestic stock and in 1953 Deraniyagala wrote ‘[the] relatively purest herds are restricted to Yala Game Sanctuary, but much vigilance will be necessary if this remnant is to be kept free from domestic animals which are now encroaching upon this once inaccessible area’. Woodford (1979) also suggested that the genetic integrity of the wild form has already been lost in Ruhuna. To conclude, even if it is assumed that Wild Water Buffalo once occurred on Sri Lanka it seems unlikely that they survived the rinderpest outbreak and the subsequent genetic swamping by feral and domestic buffalo: consequently all free-living buffalo populations on Sri Lanka almost certainly contain genetic input from domestic or feral stock.<br/><br/>Neither Java nor Sumatra are included within the original range of wild <em>Bubalus arnee</em> as presented in many accounts. Nevertheless Stremme (1911) thought that the occurrence of the fossil <em>B. palaeokerabau</em> in Java made it probable that the buffaloes there belonged to the original fauna of the island (as Cuvier believed). Merkens (1927) also doubted, on historical grounds, the domestic origin of all free-living buffaloes on the island as did Mason (1974) who stated that domestic buffalo were present on Sumatra and Java long before the Hindus arrived almost 2,000 years ago. Moreover Van der Maarel (1932) provisionally regarded the fossil specimens which he obtained from Java (and indeed <em>B. palaeokerabau</em>) as specifically indistinct from modern buffaloes, pointing to a Pleistocene presence of the species on the island (<em>cf</em>. Medway 1972). Corbet and Hill (1992) also thought it probable that wild buffaloes occur on Java and Sumatra. Despite the doubts raised by Van der Maarel and Dammerman there is in fact little doubt that all the apparently wild buffaloes now living on Java and Sumatra are descended from domestic animals, or from Wild Water Buffaloes that have interbred with domestic and/or feral buffaloes (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Opinion is divided over whether to include Borneo within the historic range of the species. Corbet and Hill (1992) did not list it, and neither Mason (1974) nor Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) considered it likely that Water Buffalo was part of the indigenous fauna. Lydekker (1898), by contrast, described the small buffalo of Sarawak as a separate subspecies (<em>B. b. hosei</em>), although Mason (1974) thought that Lydekker was probably describing the feral animals which were common there. Cockrill (1968) suggested that traders from the Hindu empire in Sumatra may have introduced the buffalo in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and he did not think that there was any convincing evidence that would suggest that it was an indigenous species. Nevertheless, animal remains from the Niah caves indicate a Stone Age presence of buffalo in Sarawak (Harrisson 1961). Van Strien (1986) also considered it probable that <em>Bubalus bubalis</em> was part of the original fauna of the island and gave north-west Borneo as its current distribution. Harrisson, however, thought that the wild form was extinct. Feral (and semi-feral) buffaloes were formerly numerous throughout Borneo but the current status of the island’s feral population is poorly known. What does seem certain, however, is that even if the species is indigenous to the island (as seems to be the case) no true wild <em>B. arnee</em> occur there today since they would have been genetically swamped by the numerous feral animals some of which were descended from buffaloes introduced from outside Borneo (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).
3129		habitat	eng	Wild buffaloes are tied to the availability of water: historically their preferred habitats were low-lying alluvial grasslands and their surrounds, with riparian forests and woodlands also used (Lydekker 1926; Prater 1971; Choudhury 1994). In Indochina the species frequented the lowlands dominated by deciduous forests and with a marked dry season, where it apparently used small pools and marshes, in addition to permanently flowing rivers (Wharton 1957). Free-ranging domestic animals continue to live like this today; in such areas buffalo retreat to the vicinities of larger more permanent waterbodies during the height of the dry season, but move widely through the forests at other times of the year (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Before their major population decline, wild buffaloes were known to make long-distance movements with season, such that when an undoubted wild buffalo turned up in Panna district, India, some 225 km northwest of its nearest known present-day occurrence in Raipur district, this was not an unprecedented movement (Hasan 1980; Arun Singh 1980).<br/><br/>The upper elevational limit is difficult to determine, although animals certainly occur down at sea level; it possibly relates to a need for level land rather than preference for lower elevations, thus allowing for plateaux, and wild-living feral buffaloes live up to at least 1,000 m asl in East Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Little has been published on the diet of wild (or feral) Water Buffaloes. They are probably grazers by preference, feeding mainly on grasses when available, but they also eat herbs, fruits, and bark as well as browsing trees and shrubs. Daniel and Grubh (1966) listed <em>Cynodon dactylon</em>, <em>Themeda quadrivalvis</em>, and <em>Coix</em> sp., as grasses known to be eaten by wild buffaloes in India. They also saw them feeding on the sedge <em>Cyperus corymbosus</em>. Dahmer (1978), Shrestha (1981), and Hiralal Prasad Kushwaha (1986) provided a little information about the diet in Nepal. Wild Buffalo also feeds on crops, including rice, sugar cane, and jute, sometimes causing considerable damage (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Hiralal Prasad Kushwaha 1986; Bauer 1987b).<br/><br/>Wild Water Buffalo can be both diurnal and nocturnal. Typically, it forms maternal groups of loosely structured herds, typically containing 10–20, but up to 100, individuals, year round. Adult males form bachelor herds of up to 10 individuals, with older males often solitary. The species exhibits a polygynous mating system, with females typically giving birth to single offspring, although twins are possible. It is a seasonal breeder in most of its range, typically in October and November, however, some populations breed year round. Its gestation lasts 10-11 months, with an interbirth interval of one year. Age at sexual maturity is 18 months for males, and three years for females. The maximum known lifespan is 25 years in the wild (Nowak 1999).
3129		population	eng	The total world population of Wild Water Buffalo is almost certainly less than 4,000 animals and may well be less than 200, occupying an area of less than 20,000 km². Indeed it is possible that no pure-bred Wild Water Buffaloes remain. However, these figures are little more than informed guesses, since any assessment of buffalo numbers is hampered by the difficulty of distinguishing between free-ranging domestic buffaloes, feral buffaloes, truly wild buffaloes, and hybrids between wild and other buffaloes. Individuals of Wild Water Buffalo and Domestic Water Buffalo are difficult to distinguish in some areas, and some domestic populations may be very closely related to (perhaps identical to) Wild Water Buffalo, as in Cambodia, where traditional forms of buffalo husbandry allow herds to range freely in forest areas (Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There have been few detailed analyses of the purity of the presumed remaining Wild Water Buffalo populations, nor in many cases is it obvious how such an assessment would be made. The Domestic Water Buffalo occurs as feral and domesticated populations worldwide, including in sympatry with most remaining populations of Wild Water Buffalo (Grubb 2005; S. Hedges pers comm. 2008). Some feral and domestic populations may well have conservation significance, retaining some of the genetic stock of the wild populations for that particular region, this may be especially true in Indochina due to traditional methods of Water Buffalo husbandry (S. Hedges pers comm. 1994, 2008; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In India, Wild Water Buffalo is now largely restricted to Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. In Assam, the species is found in and around Manas Sanctuary, Laokhowa Sanctuary, Kaziranga National Park, and Dibru Sanctuary. In Arunachal Pradesh, the species occurs in and around Namdapha Sanctuary. There are two populations in Madhya Pradesh (Bastar district), one in Indravati National Park, and another in Udanti Sanctuary, which might extend into adjacent parts of Orissa. However, most, if not all, surviving populations are believed to have interbred with domesticated and/or feral Domestic Water Buffalo. In the late 1980s, Divekar suggested that there were fewer than 100 truly wild buffaloes left in India (in Madhya Pradesh); and by 1992 the numbers had dropped even further to an estimated 50 animals. However, Choudhury (1994) reported that in the early 1990s there may still have been about 3,300–3,500 wild buffaloes in Assam and the adjacent states of northeast India, plus a small number in Madhya Pradesh. A 1997 CAMP workshop assessed the number of mature individuals in India to be less than 1,500 (S. Hedges pers. comm. 1995). The population data suggest a decline of about 80% between 1966 and 1992 in central India. In northeast India, insufficient data exist to enable trends to be calculated but there is little doubt that the number of true wild buffalo has declined and is continuing to decline as a result of interbreeding with domestic and/or feral buffalo, hunting, and habitat loss (S. Hedges and J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2000).<br/><br/>An unknown number of Wild Water Buffaloes, believed to include truly wild individuals, occurs in and around Bhutan's Royal Manas National Park. This is the only subpopulation in Bhutan and is contiguous with that in Manas Tiger Reserve in India. <br/><br/>Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve contains the only population in Nepal, where there were 159 wild Asian Buffalo in 2004 but this sole Nepali population is currently seriously threatened (Heinen and Kandel 2006). <br/><br/>There are no population estimates for Myanmar, reflecting a paucity of recent surveys. The extent of suitable habitat means the species could be still extant, and a few wild-living animals independent of human husbandry live in the Hukaung Valley of Kachin state (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2006; A.W. Tordoff pers. comm. 2006 to J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008 ). Pending further information, these should be seen as likely to be genuinely wild stock or at least if feral, of archaic origin, and so, in either case, of conservation significance.<br/><br/>In Thailand, 40–50 wild buffaloes are reported to occur in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary; this is the only population remaining in Thailand (Rattanawat Chairat <em>in litt</em>. to Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006). This population may be interbreeding with Domestic Water Buffalo, although individuals can often be distinguished in the field (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, wild buffalo numbers have apparently been relatively stable since the mid-1980s (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The population in Cambodia, which is confined to a small area of easternmost Mondulkiri and possibly Ratanakiri Provinces is very small, with perhaps a few dozen individuals remaining (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). There has not been any thorough analysis of the purity of these animals (i.e. whether they are truly wild, rather than some mix or perhaps just feral domestic animals), as is the case with most other putative populations of the species (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Before 1999, there was reportedly a population in Mom Ray, Viet Nam, but this population no longer exists (Dang Huy Huynh <em>in litt</em>.; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). Rumours still persist of presence in other areas, for example the Satay region (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Wild buffaloes of the Cambodian population may wander into western Dak Lak province, but no recent records in Viet Nam have been confirmed to represent wild Water Buffalo (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2004; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species was thought to formerly occur in Lao PDR, but the date of extinction is not known (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).
3129		threats	eng	The most important threats to Wild Water Buffalo are interbreeding with feral and domestic buffalo, hunting, and habitat loss/degradation. Diseases and parasites (transmitted by domestic livestock) and interspecific competition for food and water between wild buffalo and domestic stock are also serious threats. The scale of the threat posed to Wild Water Buffalo by the trade in wildlife products is difficult to quantify, not least because it is unclear how many of the trophies from reportedly wild buffalo are in fact from wild buffalo rather than from feral or hybrid animals (Divekar and Bharat Bhusan 1988; Heinen 1993; Choudhury 1994; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000).<br/><br/>Most of the species' former lowland habitat has been lost to agriculture, and what remains is highly fragmented. However, especially in countries such as Cambodia and Lao PDR, vast tracts of suitable lowland forest remain from which the species has long since been hunted out, and certainly there are several viable tracts of habitat in which the species could be re-introduced (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Cambodian population is under severe threat from hunting for trophy horns both by Cambodians and Viet Namese hunters crossing the border (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). This threat is currently somewhat alleviated through to an active protected area management project, but hunting is still rife in much of the surrounding area, as is forest fragmentation due to human population in migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, the most significant threat to the area is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area. This area faces an uncertain future. with part already degazetted from conservation status and the possibility that more would be excised in the future, the lack of long-term security of external funding adequate to maintain high standards of management, the uncertainty of long-term political support to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, the population of wild-ranging buffaloes either truly wild or at least living outside human custody for a long time in and around the proposed Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve faces a very uncertain future. The seasonally-flooded plains, a matrix of grass and scrub, lies largely outside the already-established Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary and the areas of highest conservation significance lie south of the boundary even for a vast proposed extension to form the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve. All level areas in this region are under very high threat for conversion to agriculture, both rice and industrial-scale plantations of cash-crops. There is also an active hunting system for wild meat to feed hundreds of thousands of itinerant labourers in this area (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The invasive <em>Mikania</em> sp. also potentially threatens wetlands in the South Asian range of wild Water Buffaloes (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Hydropower development and resulting changes in water flow and level conditions downstream also threaten the ecological maintenance of floodplain areas (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Disease epidemics spreading from domestic livestock presumably pose a threat, especially given the close overlap of Wild Water Buffalo populations and domestic livestock in South Asia, the high densities especially of the latter, and the small and localised nature of Wild Water Buffalo populations.
3160		conservation	eng	In China, all subspecies are protected from direct exploitation by their inclusion under Category I of the  National Wildlife Law of 1988, although a small number are taken yearly in trophy hunts. They are not legally hunted in India or Bhutan. Their legal status in Myanmar is uncertain. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>The subspecies is currently protected by legal statute (the National Wildlife Protection Law of 1988) and nature reserves in Shaanxi, and both distribution and number seem to have increased in recent years.  As of 2003, fourteen nature reserves, occupying about 3,250 km² have been established for protection of takin and their habitat. Logging bans established in the late 1990s greatly improved the habitat conditions and security for <em>B. t. bedfordi</em>.  <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>In the remote areas where this subspecies lives in China, local people may not be aware of its legal status. It occurs in Nujiang Nature Reserve, located in the northern mountains of Yunnan, which was established in 1981 to protect this takin along with other endangered species. Herds of greater than 100 animals have been seen in this nature reserve (Lu, 1987). It also occurs in Gaoligongshan in Yunnan. It ocurrs in Cibagou Nature Reserve (Wu and Zhang 2006) and Dong Jiu Nature Reserve (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 1996) in Tibet. It occurs mainly within protected areas in Myanmar, (Than Zaw pers comm. 2006). In Arunachel Pradesh, India, it occurs in Namdapha National Park, Mouling National Park, Dibang Willdife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve (Singh 2002). Conservation measures proposed are: 1) complete a population census of the Mishmi takin, beginning in the Nujiang Nature Reserve, before moving to other parts of its range; 2) develop a co-operative program between Chinese and Myanmar authorities to strictly forbid hunting of this animal; and 3) locate potential protected areas. <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>Between 1963 and 1978, a total of 10 nature reserves were established in Sichuan to protect endangered animals such as the giant panda and golden monkey, but most also provided protection for Sichuan takin.  Protected areas with this subspecies include: Baishuijiang (Gansu); Baihe, Fengtongzhai, Jiuzhaigou, Labahe, Mabian Dafending, Tangjiahe, Wanglong, Wolong and Xiaozhaizigou (Sichuan). Since that time, the nature reserve system with habitat for the taxon has continued to expand, including Huanglongsi and Meigudanfengding (Sichuan), and Jianshan and Tou’ersantan (Gansu; MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 1996),  Captive breeding has been successful in Chengdu Zoo since 1978 (Hu <em>et al</em>. 1984). The primary conservation measure proposed is further scientific study on the ecology and management of this subspecies is necessary for its long term conservation.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>This taxon is currently listed in Schedule I of Bhutan’s Forest and Nature Conservation Act (1995). In China, it is found in Nujiang (Yunnan) and Muotua (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986) Nature Reserves. In Bhutan, the species is known to inhabit Jigme Dorji National Park. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) educate local people to make them aware of conservation legislation; 2) develop co-operative conservation measures between countries; 3) undertake a survey to census numbers and delineate distributions; 4) special emphasis should be given to determining and preserving its migration routes between seasonal ranges to protect takin habitat (Wollenhaupt, 1990); 5) in India, establish the proposed biosphere reserve that encompasses the Namdapha National Park and several additional protected areas in northeastern Arunachal Pradesh (if adequately protected, these areas would significantly increase the number and size of effective conservation areas for takin); and 6) continually reassess human populations and their increased access in the takin distribution area since the species is commonly hunted by locals.
3160		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bhutan, China (southeastern Gansu, Sichuan, Shaanxi, southeast Tibet, and northwestern Yunnan), and northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim; Singh 2002) and northern Myanmar (Salter 1997).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>This golden takin is confined to the Qinling mountains in southern Shaanxi, China where distribution records of its occurrence have been collected throughout mountain ranges between elevations of 1,500 to 3,600 m. The area covers 17 counties of Shaanxi Province, west from Mount Ziboshan in Liuba County, as far east as Niubeiliang in Zashui County (Ge 1990; Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1986; Wu <em>et al</em>. 1991). The current distribution region covers 18 counties of Shaanxi province: Foping, Yangxian, Ningqiang, Liuba, Mianxian, Chenggu, Ningshan, Shiquan, Fengxian, Zashui, Zhen’an, Danfeng, Taibai, Meixian, Zhouzhi, Liantian, Chang’an, and Huxian (Forestry Bureau of Shaanxi Province 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>The Mishmi takin is found in the southeast of Tibet and northwestern Yunnan, but its distribution in China is split into two sections by the extreme northeast tip of India and northern Myanmar. In Tibet, the western boundary is formed by the great bend of the Yarlung Zangbo (Tsangpo) river, where it occurs south of Medog on the mountain slopes on the border with Arunachal Pradesh (India). It enters China again southeast of here in northern Yunnan, where it inhabits the Gaoligongshan range which lies between the west side of the Salween (Nu) river and the Sino-Myanmar border. This eastern section of its distribution extends from around Gongshan in the north, south to include Fugong, Lushui, Tengchong, Baoshan and at least as far as Longling (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986; Wu <em>et al</em>, 1987). In Myanmar, it occupies the high mountain slopes above 2,750 m in Kachin State, northern Myanmar, to the border with China (Blower, 1985, Salter 1997). However, there is no recent distribution data. The geographic boundary between <em>B. t. taxicolor</em> and <em>B. t. whitei</em> is evidently uncertain.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>Sichuan takin is found along the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau. Here, its distribution runs from the Min mountains along the Sichuan-Gansu provincial border, south through the Qionglai mountains west of Chengdu to the border with Yunnan Province. Records of this takin have been found from more than 50 counties in Minshan in the north, Xianling in the west, as well as in the Qionglai Shan in the centre, and the Liang Shan in the south.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>In Tibet, China, this subspecies is known to occur south of the Yarlung Zangbo river, from Gyaca, Nangxian. Mainling, Myingchi, Cona and Lhunze, on the southern flank of the eastern Himalaya, to the west side of the big bend of the Yarlung Zangbo river. In Bhutan, no censuses have been carried out, but it is believed the species occurs in scattered populations throughout the forested and unforested mountain slopes along Bhutan’s northern border. One or two populations are known to occur on both sides of the upper catchment of the Mo Chu (Wollenhaupt, 1990). Within Bhutan, Jigme Dorji National Park is the main stronghold, but they are also found in northern Wangdue and Bumthang districts (Tshewang Wangchuk pers. comm., 2008); these populations appear to be separated from those in Tibet. Within India, takin is found in Arunachal Pradesh (both along its western border with Bhutan and its northeastern border with China and Myanmar), and in Sikkim. There it inhabits sub-tropical to subalpine forests, mainly between 2,000 and 3,500 m, but sometimes entering as low as 1,500 m, or up to areas above timberline (Fox and Johnsingh 1997, Singh 2002).
3160		habitat	eng	This species is found in eastern Himalayan pine shrub, subtropical forest, and possibly temperate forest in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). <em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em> inhabits sub-tropical to subalpine forests, mainly between 2,000 and 3,500 m, but sometimes entering as low as 1,500 m, or moving up to areas above the timberline. In summer, Takin feed in alpine meadows up to 4,000 m.  In winter they descend into the valleys and forests to as low as 1,000 m.  They feed on a variety of grasses, bamboo shoots, forbs and leaves of shrubs and trees.  Takin forage in early morning and late afternoon, and regularly visit salt-licks which renders them very vulnerable to poachers who lay in ambush.  Takins seasonally migrate to preferred habitats.  During spring and early summer months, they begin to gather in large herds of up to 100 animals at the uppermost limits of treeline.  During cooler autumn months, when food is less plentiful at higher elevations, herds disband into smaller groups of up to 20 individuals, and move to forested valleys at lower elevations.  Groups mainly comprise females, subadults, young and some adult males.  Older males usually remain solitary throughout most of the year, but gather with females during the rutting season.  Sexually mature at about 3.5 years of age. Rutting occurs in late summer, followed by a gestation of 200 to 220 days.  Single young are born in March or April.  Longevity is about 16-18 years.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em> inhabits in temperate forest and coniferous forest from 1,300 to 2,800 m in the Foping Nature Reserve, and make seasonal vertical movement (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2008). They feed on 163 species of plant, including grasses, bamboo shoots, forbs and leaves of shrubs and trees (Zeng and Song 2001). Breeding season starts in early June and lasts to the end of July with a peak from middle of June to middle of July (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2005). Newborn calves are observed in February and March.  Mean group size was 10.84 (n=96), the male:female ratio was0.49:1 (Zeng <em>et a</em>l. 2002). Solitary males were observed during the breeding season; most solitary, old males were seen during winter in lower elevation. Sexually maturity occurs at 4.5 years of age for female and 5.5 for males in wild populations of <em>B.t. bedfordi</em>.
3160		population	eng	<em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>The total population size in China was estimated as 21,200 individuals by Ge (1990), but a later effort by provincial officials in Shaanxi estimated 5,069 (range: 4,418-5,720; Forestry Bureau of Shaanxi Province 2001).  Three centers of relatively high population density occur in Taibai, Ningshan and Zhouzhi, where they are restricted to the upper catchments areas of several rivers (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1987). In 1974, a field survey of five areas gave the following numbers of takin: Fuping - 104; Taibai - 191; Yangxian - 225; Zhouzhi - 587; and Ningshan - 135 (Total 1,242) (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1987).  A census by counting individuals in Foping Nature Reserve from April to July 1996, there were 435-527 individuals there with a ratio of adult females: subadults: calves of 1:0.99: 0.35 (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>No rigorous estimate has been made of the total population in China, but Wang (1998) estimated about 3,500, mostly in Tibet. In Myanmar populations are decreasing because of hunting for bushmeat (by trapping and crossbow), and is now rare (Than Zaw pers comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>No total population estimate in China has been made, but several thousand animals are believed to inhabit the Qionglai and Min mountains. A survey of Sichuan takin populations carried out in 1975 in the Wolong and Tangjiahe Nature Reserves (Qingchuan county), estimated 191 (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1987) and 370 to 410 (Ge <em>et al</em>., 1989) animals, respectively. Large herds numbering as many as 45 to 100 individuals have been seen occasionally in Tianguan, Baoxing, Pingwu and Qingchuan. Other population observations estimate the young to account for 17.8%, the sub-adults for 13.3% and the adults 68.9%, while the adult male to female sex ratio is 2:1 (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; see also Schaller <em>et al</em>., 1986).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>There is no known estimate of population size or trend for B. taxicolor whitei within China, Bhutan, or India.
3160		threats	eng	<em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>Deforestation, hunting, disturbance, and habitat fragmentation are continuing concerns (Wang 1998).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>In Tibet, China, hunting is the main threat, but habitat destruction caused by deforestation is also serious (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1997, Wang 1998). In Myanmar populations are threatened by for bushmeat (by trapping and crossbow; Salter 1997). <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>Overhunting has resulted in local extirpation of this takin in some areas of its range, and recovery has been slow despite legal protection measures. Habitat loss and disturbance from tourism are also significant threats. <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>With almost no management or protection in the remote border areas of China, over-hunting by local people is hard to control, and hunting of large herds in winter is reported to be a serious problem (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). In Bhutan, threats include competition and disease transmission from domestic livestock, habitat loss (pasture burning), and loss or disruption of migration routes. In India, major threats come primarily from habitat loss resulting from activities such as timber harvesting, cane and bamboo cutting and road construction, all associated with human populations that continue to encroach on areas occupied by takin. Local people are also known to hunt takin regularly, both within and outside protected areas. Recent surveys of takin found evidence of hunting in the Siang Valley and Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary but only limited sign of the animals themselves, whereas in Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, considerable numbers of takin tracks and droppings, and evidence of hunting were found (Katti <em>et al</em>., 1990). Current levels of hunting by local residents may not represent a significant influence on takin populations (Katti <em>et al</em>., 1990).
3169		conservation	eng	The Department of Fish and Game has purchased 719 acres to protect the habitat at Deep Springs; Deep Spring College (owner of property at Buckhorn and Antelope springs) has fenced an area to exclude livestock and is manipulating irrigation water to minimize impacts on breeding toads, eggs, and larvae (California DF&G 1990). Other sites are on BLM land, but the level of protection is uncertain.
3169		distribution	eng	This species' range includes several springs feeding Deep Springs Lake, in Deep Springs Valley, Inyo County, California, USA: Buckhorn Spring, Corral Spring and adjacent ponds, and Bog Mound Springs at about 1,520m; also Antelope Springs at about 1,710m (Murphy, Simandle and Becker 2003, Stebbins 2003). Apparently, this species was introduced to a flowing well in Saline Valley, Death Valley National Park, Inyo County, California (Murphy, Simandle and Becker 2003), and also introduced at Batchelder Spring, Westgard Pass, Inyo County, but is possibly extirpated there.
3169		habitat	eng	Its primary habitat is watercourses/marshes (grass, sedge, dwarf bulrush, and watercress), formed by water flow from springs, and surrounded by desert with low bushes. Adults are more aquatic than other toad species in California. Adults prefer habitats with short plant cover and unobstructed access to still or slowly flowing water (Schuierer and Anderson 1990). It retreats to rodent burrows or other refuges in winter. It breeds in shallow marsh and pond waters (Schuierer and Anderson 1990).
3169		population	eng	The population of this species was regarded as more or less stable in the early 1970s (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980), and no significant change was reported in 1990 (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Schuierer and Anderson 1990). The population at Antelope Springs (apparently introduced) was reported to have died out (Stebbins 1985b), but is still referred to by both Murphy, Simandle and Becker (2003) and Stebbins (2003). Historical population data is as follows: over 4,000 individuals (1971 survey), more than 80,000 individuals (1977 estimate). The population at Corral Spring(s) was reported in 1980 as more than 22,000 (Sherman 1980).
3169		threats	eng	At present, there do not appear to be any major threats to this species. However, potential future threats include habitat destruction from irrigation schemes or other factors resulting in water table alteration, recreational vehicle use, cattle overgrazing, and predation by carp.
3170		conservation	eng	The Houston toad was the first amphibian granted protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. A critical habitat was designated in 1978 in Bastrop and Burleson counties, in areas supporting the largest populations known at that time. However, the population within critical habitat in Burleson County has not been seen since 1983. In the 1970s, the state of Texas acquired land within designated critical habitat in Bastrop County adjacent to Buescher and Bastrop state parks to aid in conservation. Additionally, an effort was started in 1978 by the Houston Zoo to identify remaining Houston toad populations and supplement them or establish new populations in protected areas using wild-caught adults, naturally deposited eggs, or captive-reared juveniles and adults. However, new populations were not established in spite of introducing over 500,000 individuals (adults, juveniles, larvae) into sites at the Attwater Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge. Research is urgently needed to determine the status of Houston toad populations outside Bastrop County and promote conservation efforts in these areas. Research is also critical to determine which management practices are most conducive to the Houston toad and the ecosystem on which it depends. The Houston Toad Recovery Plan was published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1984. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and the USFWS have jointly prepared a brochure for private landowners who wish to implement their agricultural practices in ways that are compatible with the needs of the Houston toad and the Texas Forest Service has formed a committee to develop management practices that protect the Houston toad and its habitat. Additionally, the USFWS is working with community leaders, private landowners, and conservation organizations to develop and implement a regional Habitat Conservation Plan for Bastrop County, which would provide for the issuance of endangered species permits that allow development to proceed while ensuring permanent habitat protection. The USFWS also has established a fund with the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to assist in local habitat protection efforts for the Houston toad.
3170		distribution	eng	Historically, this species ranged across the central coastal region of Texas. Houston toads disappeared from the Houston area (Harris, Fort Bend and Liberty counties) during the 1960s following an extended drought and the rapid urban expansion of the city of Houston. Although this species has been found in nine additional counties (Austin, Bastrop, Burleson, Colorado, Lavaca, Lee, Leon, Milam, Robertson) as recently as the 1990s, several of these populations have not been seen since they were first discovered. Of the few remaining populations, the largest is in Bastrop County.
3170		habitat	eng	Houston toads are restricted to areas with sandy, friable soil such as loblolly pine forest, mixed deciduous forest, post oak savannah, and coastal prairie. Breeding may occur from late January to late June, but usually earlier than May, in rain pools, flooded fields, roadside ditches, and natural or man-made ponds. Optimal habitats are non-flowing, fishless pools that persist for at least 60 days (long enough for larvae to metamorphose). Houston toads are nocturnal, spending daylight hours in burrows, buried in sand, or under leaf-litter, pine duff, or surface objects.
3170		population	eng	At least 2000 adults occur in Bastrop County; unknown numbers probably persist in seven other counties (http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/nature/endang/htoad.htm; Seal 1994). Recent trend analyses suggest that Houston toads are declining in Bastrop State Park, which lies near the centre of its critical habitat in Bastrop County.
3170		threats	eng	Habitat conversion poses the most serious threat to the Houston toad. Several populations were eliminated with the expansion of Houston, and the largest remaining population in Bastrop County is also under intense and immediate threat from urbanization and recreational over-development. Many Houston toads are killed each year by automobiles. Roadway mortality will increase as human populations continue to increase within the species’ habitat and as the habitat continues to be dissected by more roads. Road construction further isolates populations and disrupts or prevents the movement of individual toads between populations. This movement of toads is necessary to maintain gene flow, and thus genetic diversity, and to supplement small or declining local populations. It is possible to build roads with underpasses or other structures that allow toads and other wildlife to pass safely beneath the roads. While converting woodlands to pastures or ploughed fields destroys Houston toad habitat and favours the proliferation of other toad species, certain agricultural practices can be beneficial to Houston toads. These include maintaining low to moderate numbers of livestock to avoid overgrazing, protecting pond habitat from livestock and predatory fish, planting native bunchgrasses instead of sod-forming grasses such as Bermuda grass (which are difficult for the toads to move through), and conserving large blocks of woodlands. Certain forestry practices may benefit the Houston toad, while others, such as clear cutting, are harmful. Thinning and burning have been shown to benefit some species of amphibians and reptiles by opening up the forest canopy and allowing more sunlight to reach the forest floor. This practice encourages the growth of vegetation and, in turn, increases insect numbers. This may be beneficial to the Houston toad. Other threats that often appear in conjunction with the factors outlined above include prolonged drought and the presence of fire ants, an unwelcome species from Brazil. Fire ants have been observed preying on toadlets as they leave their breeding pond. Fire ants thrive in open, sunny areas where the soil has been disturbed and woody vegetation uprooted, as in agricultural fields and urban areas. Protecting large forested areas is one of the most effective deterrents to fire ants. Where fire ant control with pesticides is necessary, mounds should be treated individually, rather than broadcasting the chemicals, to avoid impacting other invertebrates that the Houston toad eats (see http://ifw2es.fws.gov/HoustonToad).
3172		conservation	eng	Its entire range was protected by the Reserva Biológica Monteverde.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo periglenes</span>).
3172		distribution	eng	This species was known only from the Reserva Biológica Monteverde, Costa Rica, at elevations of 1,500-1,620m asl.
3172		habitat	eng	It lived in cloud and elfin forest, and was recorded breeding in temporary pools at the beginning of the rainy season.
3172		population	eng	Formerly a common species, no specimen has been seen since 1989. It last bred in normal numbers in 1987, and its breeding sites were well known. In 1988, only eight males and two females could be located. In 1989, a single male was found, and was the last record of the species. Extensive searches since this time have failed to produce any more records (as of August, 2007).
3172		threats	eng	Its restricted range, global warming, chytridiomycosis and airborne pollution probably contributed to this species' extinction.
3173		conservation	eng	Protected at Sonoran Desert and Organ Pipe Cactus National Monuments and the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge. Sonoran green toads are ranked at G3G4 and S4 by the State of Arizona meaning the species is apparently secure, but is uncommon in parts of its range. Collection of Sonoran green toads in Arizona is limited to 10 toads/yr with a fishing license. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
3173		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-central Arizona in the USA (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996), south to south-central Sonora, Mexico. Known from elevations from 150-900m asl (Bogert, 1962; Stebbins, 1985; Sullivan <em>et al.</em>, 1996). In Arizona, it is known from Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument east across the Tohono O'odham Reservation to San Xavier Mission, throughout Pima County and north to Waterman Wash near Mobile, Arizona. It also occurs in Vekol Valley (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1992, Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1983). Occurs on forty documented sites in Arizona (Schwartz pers. comm., 1997). Hulse (1978) mapped 17 collection sites in Mexico. Sullivan <em>et al.</em> (1996) mapped 51 historical collection locations. During a 1993-1994 Arizona survey, the species was relocated at or near all historical locations surveyed and at additional new sites for a total of 25 collection localities (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
3173		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-arid plains, mesquite grassland and creosote bush desert. Well drilling and irrigation may create suitable habitat (Hulse 1978). Breeding has been observed in temporary pools formed in roadside ditches, rainwater sumps, cattle tanks, and wash bottoms (Hulse, 1978; Stebbins, 1985; Sullivan <em>et al.</em>, 1996). Inactive for more than 10 months each year, emerging only following intense rainfall events during the summer monsoon season (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
3173		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but fairly common and probably stable. It is less common on the periphery of its range, near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in the west, near Mobile in the north, and in the Altar Valley in the east (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species is difficult to survey due to limited property access (most of Arizona range on Tohono O'odham Reservation, access denied), secretive nature (B. Sullivan pers. comm., 1997), and long inactive period. Ashton (1976) reported that Arizona populations were stable (see Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). Recent documentation (1993-1994) at most historical sites and additional new localities in Arizona suggests no widespread declines (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, there is no solid population information available to assess trends (B. Sullivan pers. comm., 1997). No information available for Mexico.
3173		threats	eng	Stebbins (1975) considered over collecting the chief threat (see Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). It occurs in large aggregations during breeding events. Over collecting of females (for the pet trade or research) at this time could be detrimental but is not currently a problem (B. Sullivan pers. comm., 1997). It naturally hybridises with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. punctatus</span> but given the apparent rareness of hybrids, it is unlikely that this presents a significant concern for the population status (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996). The effects of grazing practices or agriculture are unknown.
3176		conservation	eng	The key research action required is to relocate this species and determine its phenology. There is a possibility that after 11 years without being seen, this species may be already extinct. Other priorities are to identify management units and assess perceived threats. If populations can be located,&#160;the population size should be determined and the site protected. If the specific requirements of this species can be determined, this may lead to restoration of appropriate habitat.
3176		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Winterberg and Amatola Mountains, between Katberg and Keiskammahoek, in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, at 1,400-1,800 m asl.
3176		habitat	eng	It lays strings of eggs in shallow temporary pools and seepages in high-altitude moist grasslands, and is absent from forests and plantations. Tadpoles are free living and metamorphose before leaving the aquatic environment.
3176		population	eng	About ten visits to suitable sites over 11 years (1998-2009) have not turned up any frogs of this species and it is possible that this species is already extinct. Prior to the disappearance, it was known to congregate in large numbers to breed.&#160;The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented based on historical data as no one site holds >50% of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.
3176		threats	eng	The main threats are&#160;loss of grassland through&#160;afforestation affecting the majority of the distribution, overgrazing, and fires; over the last 20 years about 20% of its habitat has been lost to plantations. Overgrazing and frequent fires may be responsible for disappearance from remaining appropriate sites in the last 11 years.
3177		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the subpopulations is needed. It occurs in the Pan de Azucar National Park and the Paposo Reserve.
3177		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the desert Pacific coastal region with Mediterranean influences from Antofagasta (25° 00'S) to Vallenar (Huasco River 28° 28'S), Chile. It occurs from 0-800m asl.
3177		habitat	eng	It occurs in and near oases and streams year-round. Reproduction takes place in permanent pools (including livestock water tanks), streams and rivers. The eggs are laid in long strings, and the larvae develop where these were laid. It is somewhat tolerant of habitat disturbances.
3177		population	eng	It is abundant; many were seen in 2002.
3177		threats	eng	Extensive droughts and water pollution in rivers threaten local populations of this species, but it is not seriously at risk.
3179		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas in the US where habitat destruction is not a major threat. In Mexico, it is found within Parque Nacional Sierra de San Pedro Martir. It is listed as an endangered species in the state of Colorado and is warranted but precluded from US federal endangered species status.
3179		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific Coast of North America from southern Alaska (Wiedmer and Hodge 1996) to Baja California, and ranges eastward to the Rocky Mountains in west-central Alberta, Montana, Wyoming, Utah (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1995), Colorado (Hammerson 1999), and (formerly) northern New Mexico (Degenhardt, Painter and Price 1996). It is absent from most of the desert south-west (Stebbins 1985b). Its altitudinal range extends from sea level to at least 3,640m asl.
3179		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats including desert springs and streams, meadows and woodlands and mountain wetlands. It is also known from around ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and slow-moving rivers and streams. It digs its own burrow in loose soil or uses those of small mammals, or shelters under logs or rocks. The eggs and larvae develop in shallow areas of ponds, lakes, or reservoirs, or in pools of slow-moving streams.
3179		population	eng	The total adult population size of the species is unknown but is likely to exceed 100,000. It is still common in much of its range. The Rocky Mountain populations in Colorado and Wyoming have undergone a drastic decline since the 1970s (Corn, Stolzenburg and Bury 1989; Hammerson 1989, 1992, 1999; Carey 1993; Muths <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has also declined greatly in the Yosemite area of the Sierra Nevada, California (Drost and Fellers 1996). It is apparently undergoing localized declines in Yellowstone National Park (Peterson, Koch and Corn 1992), Montana (Reichel and Flath 1995), and elsewhere (Olson 1989).
3179		threats	eng	The extent of threat across the species' range is not known with certainty. The decline in the Southern Rocky Mountains is not due to acidification of breeding habitats (Corn and Vertucci 1992). Carey (1993) hypothesized that some environmental factor or synergistic effects of more than one factor might stress the toads, causing suppression of the immune system or indirectly causing immunosuppression by causing elevated secretion of adrenal cortical hormones; immunosuppression, coupled with the apparent effect of cold body temperatures on the ability of the immune system to fight disease, might lead to infection by <em>Aeromonas hydrophila</em> bacteria (which causes "red-leg") or other infectious agents and subsequently to death of individuals and the extirpation of populations. Die-offs in the southern Rockies have been associated with chytrid fungus infections (Muths <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eggs are highly susceptible to the pathogenic fungus <em>Saprolegnia ferax</em>, which might be introduced during fish stocking (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997). Another possibility is that declines are related to the sensitivity of eggs to increased levels of ultraviolet radiation (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994), but see Corn and Muths (2002) for an alternative viewpoint. In the Cascade Range of Oregon, persistent predation of adults by ravens during the toad breeding season appears to have contributed significantly to some population declines (Olson 1992). Possibly significant predation by birds has also been observed in Colorado and Idaho. The decline might be related, at least in part, to habitat destruction and degradation, water retention projects, predation by, and competition with, native and non-native species, fishery management activities, or other factors, but these factors have not been adequately assessed.
3180		conservation	eng	Most of the habitat of this species is confined within protected areas including: Yosemite National Park, Kings Canyon National Park, wilderness areas of Eldorado, Inyo, Stanislaus, and Sierra National Forest, with the highest number of populations recorded in Sierra National Forest followed by Stanislaus National Forest. Off-highway vehicle use, pack stock and cattle grazing still occur in National Forests, as well as protected wilderness areas; only pack stock use continues in Yosemite National Park and Kings Canyon National Park. Because declines have occurred in pristine areas in parks, no occurrences can be regarded as adequately protected. This species has been federally petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act in March 2000 by the Pacific Rivers Council and Centre for Biological Diversity. In December 2002 the US Fish and Wildlife Service published a decision in the Federal Register that placed the toad on the "warranted-but-precluded" list due to higher priority listings. Further taxonomic work is required to determine the status of this species relative to <em>B. exsul</em>.
3180		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the state of California, USA. It is found only in the high sierra from the Blue Lakes region north of Ebbets Pass (Alpine County) south to Spanish Mountain area (Fresno County), and is found at elevations of 1,460-3,630m asl.
3180		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet mountain meadows and borders of forests, and obtains shelter in rodent burrows as well as in dense vegetation. This species breeds in shallow edges of snowmelt pools and ponds or along edges of lakes and slow-moving streams. Some breeding sites dry up before larvae metamorphose. Females may breed every other year or once every three years. It persists in meadow habitats degraded by cattle as well as in lakes stocked with non-native trout.
3180		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least a few thousand. Declines, some in seemingly pristine environments, occurred in the eastern Sierra Nevada between the early 1970s and early 1990s (Kagarise Sherman and Morton 1993). Although still distributed over most of its original range, and many populations have active breeding and recruitment (Shaffer <em>et al.</em> 2000), the species has declined or disappeared from more than 50% of the sites from which it has been recorded (Jennings and Hayes 1994; Drost and Fellers 1996). USFWS (2000) reviewed additional evidence of declines in distribution and abundance.
3180		threats	eng	Leading hypotheses for the declines are disease (chytridiomycosis), airborne contaminants, and livestock grazing. An examination of preserved specimens from a 1970 die-off found multiple pathogens, but no single pathogen was present in more than 25% of the specimens, suggesting that the animals suffered from suppressed immune systems (Green and Kagarise Sherman 2001). Davidson, Shaffer and Jennings (2002) found a weak pattern between declines at sites and amount of agricultural land upwind (suggesting that windborne agrochemicals may have contributed to declines). Livestock grazing may have detrimental impacts on Yosemite Toads through trampling, alteration of meadow habitat, and possible lowered water quality (D. Martin pers. comm.). Other factors that may have contributed to declines are the 1980s California drought, and predation by introduced trout. Ultraviolet radiation is not suspected to be a major contributor to declines based on fieldwork by Sadinski (pers. comm.).
3181		conservation	eng	The majority of available habitat is on private property. BLM has initiated protection (Area of Critical Environmental Concern) for all occupied sites under their jurisdiction. TNC purchased a 60-ha ranch near Beatty for experimental habitat management (Burroughs 1999). Nye County is a co-operator with state and federal agencies in a conservation agreement (Burroughs 1999).
3181		distribution	eng	This species occurs in riparian habitats associated with the Amargosa River, tributary springs of the Amargosa River in Oasis Valley, and isolated spring systems near Beatty, Nye County, Nevada, USA (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996).
3181		habitat	eng	Usually found near water at desert springs and outflow. Vegetation bordering water consists of cottonwood trees, cattails, and sedges. May congregate at streetlights to feed on attracted insects (Burroughs 1999). Eggs and larvae develop in spring waters (open areas with little vegetation at LaFleur).
3181		population	eng	The total adult population size is uncertain but is likely to be at least several hundred. Thousands were reported in 1958; estimates of the size of the metamorphosed population at 10 sites in 1993 and 1994 ranged from 30-130, but some sites that were probably occupied have not been surveyed in recent years (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996). Surveys at 20 sites since 1990 yielded the following results: apparently extirpated from one spring, decreased abundance at four springs, fluctuating but relatively constant populations at 15 sites (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996; see also unpublished 1993 and 1994 reports by Hoff, prepared for the USFWS, Reno, Nevada). Over the past few decades, the species reportedly has declined greatly from its former range and abundance (Altig and Dodd 1987), but more recent surveys found that distribution and abundance were greater than previously known (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996).
3181		threats	eng	Factors that may be adversely affecting the toad and its habitat include the effects of variable rainfall on small populations, livestock and feral burro grazing and trampling, off-road vehicle use, grading for flood control, activities related to commercial development, non-native predators (catfish, crayfish, bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>)), water pollution, and water diversion (Froglog, December 1994). Trampling of larvae by cattle may be negatively affecting the LaFleur population, which also may be threatened by road widening (of Route 95). Expansion of non-native salt cedar may degrade habitat (Burroughs 1999).
3282		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus adelphus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).
3282		habitat	eng	Arid zone of Santa Cruz Island.
3282		population	eng	The species has not been found alive over the past three years and it is thought that it may now be extinct.
3282		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes of population decline. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
3287		threats	eng	The introduction of fire ants to the area is thought to form the main threat to the species.
3289		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus darwini</em> is endemic to The Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). Total range area is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².
3289		habitat	eng	Humid and pampa zones. Found mainly on shrubs and small trees (<em>Tournefortia</em> spp., <em>Psychotria rufipes</em>, <em>Zanthoxylum fagara</em>) and ferns.
3289		population	eng	Five subpopulations are known on the island.
3289		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>) and destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats and donkeys.  The wild pig population has now been removed from the island and vegetation on the island is beginning to recover.
3290		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus eos</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Range of suitable habitat available is less than 100 km².
3290		habitat	eng	Transition zone.
3290		population	eng	It has not been found recently and it may already be extinct.
3290		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
3291		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus eschariferus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of San Cristóbal. It is known only from one location with a range of 3 km².
3291		habitat	eng	Arid to transition zones. Found under lava rocks.
3291		threats	eng	The reason for population decline is probably habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).
3292		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus hirsutus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). The species has a very narrow range, probably less than 2 km². The range of total suitable habitat available for this species is likely to be less than 100 km².
3292		habitat	eng	Arid zone. Found under lava rocks.
3292		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.
3293		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus jacobi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). It is known only from two subpopulations, with a total range area of less than 10 km².
3293		habitat	eng	Arid to transition zones. Found under lava rocks.
3293		threats	eng	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>), destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats.
3294		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus lycodus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).
3294		habitat	eng	Possibly the arid or transition zones.
3294		population	eng	It was not found alive over the past three years of collecting on Santa Cruz Island and may already be extinct.
3294		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
3295		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus nesioticus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). The range of suitable habitat for the species is less than 200 km².
3295		habitat	eng	Humid and pampa zones. Found on shrubs and ferns, under lava rocks and on trunks of trees (mainly <em>Zanthoxylum fagara, Tournefortia</em> spp. and <em>Psychotria rufipes</em>).
3295		population	eng	Population size is seen to fluctuate widely from year to year.
3295		threats	eng	Destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats is the main threat to the species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).
3296		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus nux</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana (558 km² and 173 km² respectively). It is known from four subpopulations with a total area of occupancy less than 20 km².
3296		habitat	eng	Found in humid zone on Floreana and San Cristóbal Islands, in <em>Scalesia</em> forest on Floreana Island. Specimens mainly found on trunks (often under bark) or in leaf litter.
3296		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or alteration and/or fragmentation by human activities and introduced species. There are established populations of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on these islands (Silberglied 1972).
3297		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus ochsneri</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). It is known from one population with a range less than 10 km².
3297		habitat	eng	Arid to transition zones. Found under rocks or on tree trunks (mostly <em>Zanthoxylum fagara</em> and <em>Bursera graveolens</em>).
3297		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
3298		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus reibischi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). It is known from one population with a total range of no more than 10 km².
3298		habitat	eng	Arid to transition zones. Found on shrubs and on tree trunks (<em>Croton scouleri</em> and <em>Bursera graveolens</em>).
3298		threats	eng	The range of suitable habitat for land snails on Santa Cruz Island has declined because of human activities (farming, road and house construction, etc.) and because of destruction or alteration by introduced species.
3299		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus rugiferus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Santa Cruz and Santiago.
3299		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
3299		population	eng	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither Santa Cruz nor Santiago Islands were surveyed extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
3299		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.
3300		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus saeronius</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz. Less than 100 km² of suitable habitat remains.
3300		population	eng	It has not been recorded during recent surveys of the island and may already be extinct.
3300		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The introduction of fire ants to the area is thought to form the main threat to this species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
3301		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus sculpturatus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). It is known from only one population with a very restricted range (<1 km²).
3301		habitat	eng	Humid zone. Found under lava rocks.
3301		population	eng	There are probably no more than 200 individuals.
3301		threats	eng	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>) and destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats
3307		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus tanneri</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Suitable available habitat is likely to be less than 100 km².
3307		habitat	eng	Possibly the humid zone.
3307		population	eng	It has not been recorded in recent surveys on the island and it may already be extinct.
3307		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species.
3308		threats	eng	The introduction of fire ants to the area is thought to form the main threat to this species.
3310		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus wolfi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).
3310		habitat	eng	Arid to transition zones. Found under lava rocks.
3310		population	eng	It is known from one population of no more than 500 individuals with a very restricted range (less than 2 km²).
3310		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
3311		conservation	eng	No information available.
3311		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is documented as occurring in the Kenyan and Tanzania coastal strip.
3311		habitat	eng	It lives in ponds, swamps and dams.
3311		population	eng	No information available.
3311		threats	eng	This group of snails are known to be very adaptive to the regional wetlands and most changes affecting them.
3312		conservation	eng	No information available.
3312		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kano plains and central Kenya. The type locality is at Obuso.
3312		habitat	eng	This species is recorded in drains briefly filled with rainwater.
3312		population	eng	No information available.
3312		threats	eng	The Kano plains region is fast being reclaimed by commercial sugarcane and rice plantations. The impact of this on the species is unknown and needs to be investigated.
3313		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
3313		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus camerunensis</em> is known only from western Cameroon, where it has been recorded from two crater lakes; Barombi Koto and Debundsha (Brown 1994), (approximately 2 km² each). This species is only mollusc found in Lake Debundscha.
3313		habitat	eng	This species is known only from crater lakes, occurring down to 1 m depth (Brown 1994).
3313		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
3313		threats	eng	The species' very limited distribution makes it susceptible to habitat changes. Explosions and release of poisonous gas venting from beneath the lakes is known to occur in crater lakes in Cameroon, and this is likely to be the biggest threat to the species. Other potential threats come from human induced disturbance and habitat pollution (the species occurs in the margins of the lakes, to 1 m depth), and potential for molluscicides.
3314		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
3314		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
3314		distribution	eng	In central Africa, <em>Bulinus canescens</em> occurs in southeast Democratic Republic of Congo (lower Luapula region and Mulonde). Most of the species' range falls outside of the region, but it is not known how much of the range is within the region.
3314		distribution	eng	This species is known from Angola, DRC, and possdibly Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bulinus canescens</em> occurs in southeast DRC (lower Luapula region and Mulonde). Most of the species' range falls outside of the region, but it is not known how much of the range is within the region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is only known from one location in Angola (marshes near Bengo River the type locality), possibly also Zambia (Brown 1994).
3314		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshes and wetland areas.
3314		habitat	eng	It is found in marshes and wetland areas.
3314		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
3314		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
3314		threats	eng	Although there are major threats from mining in the region, the effects on the species are not known.
3314		threats	eng	No information available.
3316		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.
3316		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
3316		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Only known from type locality (Quiapose river near Sange) and Salazar area, both in northern Angola. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Northern Angola and Southern Gabon. Possibly present in between (Kristensen pers. comm.).
3316		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the type locality (Quiapose river near Sange) and Salazar area, both in northern Angola. It is also present in southern Gabon (Gamba).
3316		habitat	eng	Found in slowly flowing streams and irrigation canals.
3316		habitat	eng	It is found in slowly flowing streams and irrigation canals.
3316		population	eng	No information.
3316		population	eng	No information available.
3316		threats	eng	None known.
3316		threats	eng	Unknown.
3317		conservation	eng	No information available.
3317		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ethiopian highland plateau north of Addis Ababa (Brown 1994).
3317		habitat	eng	It is found in streams on the Ethiopian Highland flowing through grasslands with abundant vegetation in the residual pools.
3317		population	eng	No information available.
3317		threats	eng	No information available.
3318		conservation	eng	No information available.
3318		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from southwest shores in water 1.5 to 15m deep (and at 95m (Gray 1981)), and is also found at Monkey Bay and Cape Maclear.
3318		habitat	eng	It is found in soft substrates from shallow to potentially very deep (5-95 m).
3318		population	eng	At Cape Maclear studies found 90 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> in soft sediment at 5-10m depth (Genner and Michel, 2003) and 1.6 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (Louda <em>et al.</em> 1983).
3318		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fishing activities, especially where submerged plants are removed by fishing gears e.g. seine nets. A number of distribution centres of fishing have been set close to the shore.
3320		conservation	eng	No information available.
3320		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is only known from four locations restricted to Monkey Bay and the south west shores. The species may occur in between.
3320		habitat	eng	It has a restricted habitat in the crown of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vallisneria aethiopica</span>, a short grass-like plant growing submerged in Lake Malawi.
3320		population	eng	No information available.
3320		threats	eng	Submerged <em>Vallisneria aethiopica</em> plants of Lake Malawi are being destroyed due to the use of seine nets. Most of the shoreline has been cleared of plants due to construction of resorts.
3321		conservation	eng	No information available.
3321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the shores of Lake Victoria. It occurs at Bukoba, Kisumu and the first part of Victoria Nile.
3321		habitat	eng	This species is recorded by Brown from stony beaches in Kisumu.
3321		population	eng	No information available.
3321		threats	eng	No information available.
3322		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas throughout its range.
3322		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in Mindanao Faunal Region, with records from Bucas Grande, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Maripipi, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Samar, and Siargao islands, in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It occurs at an elevation range on Mindanao from 200 to 1,800 m.
3322		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest, occasionally into mossy forest (Sanborn 1952), from 300 m to 500 m in lowland forest on Leyte, and in montane forest at 740 m on Maripipi (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993), including secondary forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There are no records of the species from outside of forest.
3322		population	eng	This species is very abundant, especially in secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002) and is likely to have been widespread in lower elevation forest and it is still common in montane forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
3322		threats	eng	There are no major threats however, there is some habitat loss caused by conversion to agriculture. In the past this species lost significant parts of its habitat at lower elevations and there was most likely a decline in population size. Now that all forest has been converted, the population has stabilized. Additionally, the population of Dinagat island is particularly threatened by mining and by the negative local politics activities (corruption surrounding the mining and vegetable farming).
3323		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas. Taxonomic studies are needed as there is geographic variation throughout the range.
3323		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is occurs on Luzon at an elevation range from 200 to 2,400 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from scattered locations from Aurora, Benguet and Camarines Sur provinces. In Balbalasang, Kalinga province, the species was recorded at 1,050-1,950 m elevation (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
3323		habitat	eng	This species seems to be a habitat generalist with respect to habitat and elevation. The species has been found in   lowland as well as montane primary and secondary forest, including regenerating logged forest, as well as scrubby second growth and mixed agriculture (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
3323		population	eng	This species is widespread on Luzon and occurs from lowland areas up to high elevations. More common in slightly disturbed areas, although it is present in primary forest as well as badly degraded forest.
3323		threats	eng	There are no major threats but complete loss of primary or secondary forest would be a problem for this species. There is widespread burning in the area to meet minimum requirements for land ownership and this in turn promotes the growth of pine trees (wood for building and firewood). But given that this species is a habitat generalist and seems to do well in secondary habitat, this is not assumed to be a threat to the species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
3326		conservation	eng	<em>Bunolagus monticularis</em> is listed as Endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book, and there is a genetic study of the species underway.  At the CBSG CAMP South Africa workshop, conservation actions recommended included further research into the life history of this species, management of habitat, wild population management, limiting factors, captive breeding/cultivation, and increased public awareness. The captive breeding/cultivation recommendations include plans for species recovery, education, reintroduction, research, and a management plan workshop. There is currently a coordinated species management program in South Africa.
3326		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to the central Karoo region of South Africa.  The extent of occurrence is 101-5,000 km² and area of occupancy is 11-500 km².
3326		habitat	eng	The Riverine Rabbit inhabits dense riparian growth along the seasonal rivers in the central Karoo (Nama-Karoo - shrubland). Occurs specifically in riverine vegetation on alluvial soils adjacent to seasonal rivers. The habitat is highly fragmented and transformed.  Studies show the habitat to be 67% fragmented in certain areas that can be considered representative of the entire distribution.<br/><br/>STATE OF HABITAT: Fragmented. <br/>CHANGE IN HABITAT SIZE: Decreasing in area. <br/>RECENT CHANGE: 51%-80%. <br/>DURING HOW MANY YEARS? 100. <br/>PREDICTED DECLINE IN HABITAT <20%. <br/>PREDICTED DURATION OF DECLINE: 100. <br/>PRIMARY CAUSE OF CHANGE: Cultivation and livestock farming. <br/>CHANGES IN QUALITY: Decrease in quality. <br/>NOTES ON QUALITY: livestock and cultivation. <br/>HABITAT NOTES: Habitat not being minimally transformed at present. subpopulations isolated from each other by jackal-proof fencing and severe land transformation through agricultural practices.<br/><br/>Generation length for this species is two years (Collins <em>et al.</em> 2004).  This species has a single litter per year with 1-2 young per litter (Duthie 1989).  Reproductive periodicity occurs from August through May (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Gestation time is 35-36 days (Duthie 1989).  Longevity in captivity is five years (Collins <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Home range is 12 ha (Duthie 1989).  Total length ranges from 33.7-47.0 cm (Nowak 1991).
3326		population	eng	Ref: (Collins <em>et al.</em> 2004). There are less than 90% of mature individuals in one subpopulation.  There are 10 subpopulations.  There has been a rapid decline of population due to loss of 50-60% of habitat in the past 70 years, this decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservancies.  The current population is estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs and is declining.  It is estimated that over the last 70 years the population has declined by 60%  or more.  Population decline of 10% or more is predicted to occur between 2002 and 2022.  The population is fragmented, with no subpopulation containing more than 50 individuals.  Population densities were estimated at 0.064-0.166/ha (Duthie <em>et al.</em> 1989).
3326		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat are the main threats to the species.  Over the last century, 50-80% of habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (mostly in the past) and livestock farming (ongoing).  Other threats to the species include hunting (the rabbit is hunted for sport and by farm workers), and accidental mortality in traps set for pest animals on farmlands.
3327		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park in Sulawesi. Further research in general is needed into this species. Conservation of suitable forested habitat, especially in the lowlands, is needed.
3327		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout central Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the southeast and southwest peninsulas (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from Buton Island (Indonesia) to the southeast of Sulawesi. It occurs from lowland areas to possibly around 1,400 m.
3327		habitat	eng	This is primarily a lowland tropical evergreen rainforest species but can reach lower montane rainforest in parts of its range (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded in secondary forest and scrubby areas close to relatively undisturbed forest, but has not been recorded from cultivated areas. It is sympatric with other <em>Bunomys</em> species in parts of its range.
3327		population	eng	Although population densities are not known, it can be locally common in some areas of primary forest. The abundance of this species varies greatly and in some parts of tis range it is generally uncommon.
3327		threats	eng	This species is threatened in lowland parts of its range by a general loss of forest habitat through logging and conversion to cultivated land.
3328		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park.
3328		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (Indonesia), and is found throughout the island generally between 200 and 1,500 m, although reaching 2,200 m in some regions (Musser and Carleton 2005).
3328		habitat	eng	It has been collected in primary rainforest, although a few specimens have been collected from slightly degraded forest. They are most common along ravines and rocky stream terraces in mesic shaded areas. It is strictly terrestrial and feeds primarily on small vertebrates (e.g., small frogs and lizards), fruit and earthworms.
3328		population	eng	It is known to be abundant in some parts of its range, but uncommon elsewhere such as in the north east.
3328		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be loss of habitat due to clearance of habitat for agriculture and logging. No extant specimens have been collected from the lowlands of the south west peninsula, partly because most of the original forest has been removed (the species once occurred in the deforested areas as represented by subfossils) but also because remaining tracts of forest in the region have not been adequately surveyed.
3329		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Gunung Lampobatang Protection Forest. Further dedicated surveys to study the habitats and ecology of this species are needed. There is a need to protect any remaining suitable habitat. Further studies are also needed to review the taxonomic relationship between this species and <em>Bunomys crysocomus</em>.
3329		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the slopes of Gunung Lampobatang at the southwest tip of Sulawesi (Indonesia), at elevations  between 1,800 and 2,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). The record of this species from Tanko Salocco is incorrect, and refers to a specimen of <em>Bunomys chrysocomus</em> (G. Musser pers. comm.).
3329		habitat	eng	It is found in primary montane forest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005), and has not been recorded outside of this habitat.
3329		population	eng	It can be common where it occurs.
3329		threats	eng	The species has a very restricted distribution, and is threatened by conversion of forest to agricultural use (such as passion flower cultivation), and small-scale logging. It is also considered to be threatened by competition from <em>Rattus</em> spp.
3330		conservation	eng	It is present in Bogani Nani Watarbone National Park, although there is a need for improved management of this area.
3330		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the north east region of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality, Rurukan, is at 1,067 m.
3330		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical evergreen rainforest formations from lowlands to high elevations up to 1,800 (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if it survives in degraded or disturbed habitats.
3330		population	eng	Based on early collections, this species is believed to have been common, and they probably remain so where suitable habitat exists.
3330		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss mainly due to expanding agriculture; this is also a region where there have been recent gold-mining activities. This species is also hunted for food.
3332		conservation	eng	It is common in Lore Lindu National Park. Field surveys are needed to determine if the species can persist in modified habitats outside of forest.
3332		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to montane forest formations in the central core and southeast peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is only found above 1,400 m.
3332		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is known from evergreen rainforest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has not been recorded outside of forested areas, however, no trapping has taken place outside of primary forest.
3332		population	eng	It is abundant in montane evergreen forests (Musser 1991).
3332		threats	eng	There is clear-cut logging of forest and conversion of land to cultivated gardens over much of the species range. Loss of forest at lower elevations may also be impacting the montane habitat of the species by leading to increased desiccation of montane regions.
3333		conservation	eng	The only known locality is apparently in a protected area (Morowali Nature Reserve), although it is possible that it also occurs outside this protected area.
3333		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 1,830 m on Gunung Tambusisi, Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Although it is not impossible it may be shown to occur more widely with additional survey work in neighbouring ranges, the species is more than likely restricted to Tambusisi.
3333		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest, in short and very mossy areas (Musser 1991).
3333		population	eng	It was reported to be common (Musser 1991), although the type series collected is small. There is no information on current population status.
3333		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and logging activities.
3334		conservation	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is possibly Extinct in many countries and it is likely to struggle unless conditions change. Monitoring of the remaining sites and action plans based on this monitoring are recommended.<br/><br/>In Romania, the only known population is well preserved in one protected area; the place is difficult to access (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy, one of the localities is in a national park.</strong><strong></strong>
3334		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be scattered across Europe ranging from Russia to central and western Europe, and from south-eastern Europe to northern Europe; but is absent from Britain and Ireland.<br/><br/>In Italy it has been recorded from two Apennines sites in Basilicata Region (southern Italy) (Curletti 2006). In Romania, it has been recorded from the south-western part of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span> It is known from three localities in Spain. Its status in Greece is not known.<br/><br/>It formerly occurred in central Europe and the forest zone in Ukraine, however its has not been found there for many decades. In Germany, Austria and Sweden this species is Extinct.<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>
3334		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in relict old growth <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests.Larval development takes place in the dead wood of large diameter trunks (above 40 cm) and in the higher portion of the tree. Host trees have to be sun-exposed. In Romania, the newly reported population is in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> relict forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
3334		population	eng	This species is very rare across its European range, and its populations are severely fragmented and declining. It might be extinct in Ukraine and Spain, and it is already extinct in Germany, Austria and Sweden. At present the species occurs only in a minor part of its original range with small and widely separated relict populations (Luce 1996).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, this species is very rare. It was known from one specimen collected near Kiev 60 years ago (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Spain, it is only known from three specimens collected in the last 50 years. There is only one old record from Bavaria from before 1900 in Germany <br/><br/>There is one recent record in Poland. In the Balkans, there is little information about the remaining populations. In Romania, a new specimen was reported a few years ago from the south-western Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
3334		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is commercial and illegal logging, affecting age structures and tree density. Several subpopulations which are not subject to this threat are endangered by slow regrowth and are therefore vulnerable to single threatening events such as fires. Remaining populations can be threatened by commercial collection of specimens. In Romania, the threats to this species are unknown, possibly the loss of populations is due to removal of dead and dying trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p></p>
3338		conservation	eng	Further data are needed on this species before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for expert searches to be made across the known range of the species.
3338		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from West Bengal (Hasimara) and Uttaranchal (Dehra Dun), but is likely to be more widespread than this.
3338		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat requirements of this species, although it is very likely to breed in streams.
3338		population	eng	No specific information is available. There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.
3338		threats	eng	Without further data it is not possible to do more than guess at the threats that might be faced by this species.
3339		conservation	eng	The entire extent of the species' range is in protected areas, though important parts (and all of the Mt. Buller population) are in ski-resort lease areas. Government-endorsed management plans exists in Victoria (Mansergh <em>et al.</em> 1989) and New South Wales (NSW 2002), and a national recovery plan is being prepared. The recovery objectives for this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; NSW 2002), include: conserve all remaining habitat and maintain it in a condition to support existing population levels; restore or re-create habitat in areas of disturbance; define habitat and population levels in Buller-Stirling area (Victoria) and reassess total population size and distribution of habitat in New South Wales; control feral predators and exotic species; monitor populations and habitat; define source and sink populations, understand genetic interrelationships and produce a metapopulation dynamics model; review threatening processes and predict the probability of long-term persistence in the wild; determine the feasibility of a viable captive breeding program; promote community awareness.<br/><br/>Recovery actions completed or underway include: distribution and abundance is well defined, general ecology and population dynamics have been studied at five sites over the last 20 years and additional sites over the last 10 years. Monitoring of populations, diet, food supply (Bogong moths and seeds) and habitat in ski resorts and control areas and consequent on-ground protection and planning is ongoing; protocols that provide protection to populations have been developed within some ski resorts, legislative and operational protection of all habitat needs to be finalised. Habitat restoration is occurring in fragmented, burnt, and disturbed areas in ski resorts. Feral cat, fox, rabbit, and weed control has been initiated in some areas; genetic studies are nearing completion; establishment of a captive colony of the Mt. Buller population is under consideration.<br/><br/>Studies required include: determine effects of the ski industry (notably use of snow-grooming equipment over habitat) and loss of snow cover on hibernation and over-winter survival; investigate Bogong moth population dynamics and pesticide residues, the possibility of competition or predation by co-occuring small mammal species, social dynamics, reproductive success, and captive husbandry techniques; continue research aimed at producing reliable metapopulation dynamics and viability models.
3339		distribution	eng	The Mountain Pygmy Possum is endemic to south-eastern Australia where it occurs as three isolated, genetically distinct populations: 1) between Mt. Bogong and Mt. Higginbotham, Victoria 2) at Mt. Buller, Victoria and 3) in the Kosciuszko region of New South Wales (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its range is much smaller than the mapped distribution, and its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 6 or 7 km² (Heinze <em>et al.</em> 2004; Broome 2008). This species ranges in elevation from 1,300 to 2,228 m asl (Broome 2008).
3339		habitat	eng	This is the only Australian mammal species confined to alpine environments (Broome 2008). They occur in periglacial boulder fields (basalt, granite, granodiorites) overlain with mountain plum-pine <em>Podocarpus lawrenceii</em> heathland and adjacent alpine communities. The basalt boulderfields have the greatest population density. Mountain Pygmy Possums are nocturnal and terrestrial, but they are also adept climbers. It has a spring-summer diet composed predominantly of Bogong moths <em>Agrotis infusa</em> and other invertebrates with seeds and fruits important in late summer and autumn (Mansergh and Broome 1994). Females normally have one litter of 4 young following snowmelt in spring. All individuals accumulate subcutaneous fat during late summer and autumn and spend the winter in hibernation (about 7 months for adults and 5 months for juveniles; Geiser and Broome (1991)). Snow cover provides important insulation and protection to hibernating animals.
3339		population	eng	Common where they occur, but declining. The total population is estimated to number approximately 1,700 adult females and 550 adult males (Broome 2008).
3339		threats	eng	The extremely restricted habitat has been fragmented or destroyed by road construction, dam/aqueduct construction, and development of infrastructure for the downhill skiing industry. Approximately 50% of the habitat supporting the Mt. Bogong-Mt. Higginbotham population and 20% of the Kosciuszko habitat was burned in bushfires in January 2003, killing <em>Podocarpus</em> heathland aged from 50-400 years (L. Broome pers. comm.). The population at Mt. Buller suffers from fragmentation and subpopulations here and around ski resorts in the Kosciuszko area have declined severely since 2000 due to: habitat destruction, predation by feral cats, and possibly low snow cover. Predation by the introduced red fox is also a threat and the habitat is subject to weed invasion (e.g., willow <em>Salix</em> species). Bogong moths are migratory and have been found to carry arsenic from their breeding grounds in the Murray-Darling Basin to the mountains where it accumulates in food chains. Arsenic has been found in the scats of <em>B. parvus</em> and other small mammals, but the implications of this are as yet unknown (Green <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>Marginalisation and loss of habitat and the severity of predation are predicted to increase with global warming. A recent trend of second litters following early snow melt has been observed at Mt. Buller (D. Heinze pers. comm.). Neither second litters nor their mothers are known to survive the winter because they are unable to accumulate the fat reserves necessary for successful hibernation through winter.
3381		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on local and global populations, and monitoring of harvest levels are recommended.
3381		distribution	eng	<p>This species has a wide geographic range from East Africa, including Madagascar and the Comoros in the Indian Ocean (Keith <em>et al.</em> 2006); across to Sri Lanka and Bangladesh (Rahman 1989); north to the South China Sea; south through the Indo-West Pacific region as far as Australia and New Caledonia (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002) and as far east as <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Fiji (Ryan 1981).&#160;In&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam this s</st1:country-region>pecies lives in downstream <st1:placetype w:st="on">rivers</st1:placetype>, estuaries and lagoons of&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype>&#160;of&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Tonkin.</st1:placename></st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>
3381		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">This tropical species is found in brackish habitat and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams, usually on mud bottoms (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).&#160;<span class="sheader51">It is usually found in lagoons, estuaries, and mangrove swamps; particularly where there is vegetation. Occasionally this species ascends rivers.&#160;<span class="sheader51"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename></st1:place><br/><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><br/><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51">This species feeds mainly on small fishes and crustaceans.<br/><br/><p>Specimens described by Nguyen Nhat Thi, 1991 and Mai Dinh Yen.  Results were:&#160;L = 69-155 mm; Lo = 57-125 mm;&#160;D1 = V-VI; D2 = I, 7-8; A =  I, 8; P = 18-20; V = I, 5; C = 20;&#160;Lo = 4,29-4,69 H = 2,88-3,11 T. T =  5,59-6,10 O = 3,40-4,81 OO.</p>  Long and flat side body. Dorsal edge  curved. Draw band and long head. Long and sharply snout. Large mouth.  Lower jaw is longer than upper jaw. Has two nostrils on each side. Has  many sharply teeth rows on two jaws. Two dorsal fins distincted. First  dorsal fin is lower than second ones. Large pectoral fin, strong&#160; origin  ones. Large caudal fin, back edge&#160; ones round. Large scales on body.  Black body. Almost scales on side body has a white point. First dorsal  fin has many black veins. Second dorsal fin has white upper area and ash  in lower area, four to six mottles on dorsal fin rays. Anal and dorsal  fins has black colour. Has a large black point in the middle two white  points on pectoral fin origin. Has many brown veins cross on ash caudal  fin.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
3381		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is said to be reasonably abundant in parts of its range.
3381		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Possible localized threats associated with this species' habitats include: destruction of mangrove forest, and coastal development.&#160;Current and future climate change may threaten this species as a result of extreme weather such as flooding and droughts, or as a consequence of habitat shifts and degradation.
3385		conservation	eng	This species has no known conservation actions in France. Conservation actions recommended include habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity
3385		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Departement of Côte d'Or in France where it is known from 5 locations.
3385		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
3385		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
3385		threats	eng	Spring sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over&#160; or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
3386		conservation	eng	This species is protected in France, and listed as Category 4, Near Threatened in Switzerland. Further research is required to establish the taxonomic status in light of recent work on this species group by Bichain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) and Benke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009).
3386		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France (Ain and possibly Haute-Savoie and Jura departements) and Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2002). There is no recent information available on this species in France, although in Switzerland it is recorded from springs around Lake Geneva and in the Jura (19 different squares).
3386		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
3386		population	eng	There is no population data available.
3386		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water.
3387		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although it is present in two ZNIEFF (Zone naturelle d'intérêt écologique, faunistique et floristique) designated sites, one in Gard (possibly a different species/subspecies) and one in the French Pyrenees (main range).
3387		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella reyniesii</span> is known from the Pyrennees where it is recorded in Andorra, France and Spain (Prie pers. comm. 2009). The map by Inventaire national du Patrimoine naturel (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle [Ed] 2003-2010) for France shows that it has been recorded from Haute Pyrenees, Ariege, Aude, Pyrennee-Orientale and possibly from Gard. Prie (pers. comm. 2009) suggests that we need to be cautious in evaluating this range, as it is possible that this species maybe conspecific with others, and Bichain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) have placed other taxon from the Dordogne and Germany as possibly conspecific with this species. Hence the range given on the 1996 Red List is erroneous as the species is known from other countries in the Pyrenees (Prie pers. comm. 2009).
3387		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
3387		population	eng	There is no data on the population status of this species.
3387		threats	eng	<p>No specific threats are known to the sites where this species occurs, however many spring sites in Ariege and Aude are used to supply small settlements with water, and as such maybe ‘improved’ by concreting the sides to provide a cleaner extraction point. There are also changes to the water levels throughout the year as water is pumped from the groundwater supply, sometimes to the point of temporary drying of the spring-site during the late summer, prior to groundwater recharge in the winter.</p>
3390		conservation	eng	This species is given Category 3 status in the state <a href="http://www.fachdokumente.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/servlet/is/50035/pasw01.pdf?command=downloadContent&filename=pasw01.pdf&FIS=107">Red List for Bayern (2005)</a>. Falkner and Niederhof (2008) also listed it as Category 3 for Germany and Baden-Württemberg.&#160; There are no known specific-species conservations actions in place for this species and habitat monitoring is recommended to detect future changes in the status of this species.<span lang="EN-US">
3390		distribution	eng	This species is nearly endemic to Germany, largely in&#160;Baden-Württemberg&#160;where it is found in the catchment areas for Elz and Kinfour (southern Kinzigtal). It is also found in Austria and a presence in Switzerland cannot be excluded (Turner <em>et al.</em> 1998).&#160; <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><br/><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="gt-icon gt-icon-listen-off"><span class="gt-icon-text"><span class="gt-icon gt-icon-roman-off"><span class="gt-icon-text"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
3390		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
3390		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends of this species.
3390		threats	eng	The major threat to the species comes from pollution from nitrates seeping into groundwaters, changing the water quality of the springs, as well as possible disturbance and loss of springs due to water abstraction.
3391		conservation	eng	It is not likely that this species is present in protected areas within Austria or Germany. It is not part of any species specific recovery plan. It is not currently protected by law. It is suggested that monitoring of this species' habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.
3391		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella bavarica </span>occurs in Austria and Germany. It is localised, within an small area of the northern Alps, including the mountains southeast of Munich 'Mangfallgebiet' in the east to west into the Upper Swabian area (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008), and the southern limits was the Austrian border (Inn Valley). Geyer (1894) recorded shells from five sites (Leutkirch, Andrazhofen, Schussengenist, linden village pond near Essen,  in Krummbachquellen in Ochsenhausen). Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) noted that the number of known sites in this region is low, and most records are based on individual shells, so in their view it is extremely rare. At Lebendfunde it has been recorded most frequently in 1977, 1978, 1987, 1994, and 2000 (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008). In a species-specific survey of springs in Ravensburg new records were obtained from 20 sites, but occurrences are individuals and are possibly nearing extinction.
3391		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater environments, specifically springs and possibly groundwaters.
3391		population	eng	The species is described as 'very rare' and a declining population trend has recently been observed.
3391		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the potential drying up of springs, abstraction of water for drinking water and subsequent lowering of ground water levels. There is also a threat from pollution, which is mostly due to the over-use of fertilisers from agricultural practices.
3392		conservation	eng	Further research is urgently needed to confirm that all of the populations currently placed as <span style="font-style: italic;">B. compressa</span>, should be regarded as synonymous with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. reynesii</span> (Bichain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). At present this species is considered to be a threatened species in Bavaria (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), with current ongoing surveys for the range and distribution (Stratz 2006).
3392		distribution	eng	This species is still currently regarded as endemic to Germany, where it is known from Rhön and Vogelsberg mountains in Bavaria, Hesse and  Thuringia<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> (Stratz 2006). Recent research has shown that it is present in five of the six forest reserves of  the Rhone (Eisgraben, Kalkberg, Lösershag, Elsbach, Platzer Kuppe), and within the NWR Schlossberg it is missing, because there are no suitable  habitats present (Butler 2007).
3392		habitat	eng	This species lives in cold water springs. The Rhön spring snail needs constantly cold and unpolluted water with a temperature of around 7 - 8 °C. It feeds on bacteria  growing on stones and leaves, as well as on decaying organic matter (detritus),  which is grazed from stones, water plants, fallen leaves and dead wood  lying in the water.
3392		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown, however more populations have been found in Bavaria <span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Stratz 2006).
3392		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is water pollution from agricultural sources.
3393		conservation	eng	This species is possibly present in a Nautra 2000 protected area but there is no species specific recovery plan in place. However, it is strictly protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.
3393		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella cylindrica</span> is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is known from the eastern Alps in the Lower Austria province, in the Triesting valley.
3393		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mainly freshwater springs, but during dry phases of the spring it can withdraw for a short periods of time into the deeper 'groundwater' zones of the spring.
3393		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is described as 'rare'. It has also experienced a significant decline in the population. The last known living population was significantly reduced (from millions of individuals down to tens of living specimens) due to the reconstruction of a chapel.</p>
3393		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The main current threats to this species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of water for drinking purposes and pollution, arising mostly from the over-use of fertilizers in agricultural practices.&#160;</p>
3394		conservation	eng	The species needs further taxonomic review in light of the recent research showing that it maybe conspecific with other species.
3394		distribution	eng	This species is now known to range from France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. In 1996 it was considered to have a range of Belgium and Germany. Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) list it for France.
3394		habitat	eng	This species is found in small streams, rivers and springs, and is one of the most widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species in terms of its habitat requirements.
3394		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, but as it is widespread it is assumed to be stable.
3394		threats	eng	Originally viewed as a restricted range species threatened by water pollution (mainly from nitrates and pesticides from agricultural sources and some domestic pollution), the threats still apply, although the species is now known from a wider range.
3396		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
3396		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, and is restricted to the Padirac River catchment, in Department Lot, in the region of Midi-Pyrenees. As such, it is found in one location with an area of occupancy of&#160; 92km<sup>2</sup>.
3396		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater mollusc restricted to the groundwaters of a river catchment.
3396		population	eng	No detailed information on population status, but considered stable (Prie pers. comm 2009).
3396		threats	eng	The threats to this species, lie in the vulnerability of the single location, to pollution events.&#160; The species requires clean, unpolluted waters, and as such any degradation of the water (road run-off, pesticides and herbicides from agricultural sources and domestic sewage) could impact the species in the future.
3397		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the French law. Its habitat is listed in the annex of the Habitat directive (8310-4).
3397		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum articense i</span>s a French endemic, known from the Ardèche and Gard departments, and it is considered to be widespread in Gard (V. Prie, pers. comm, 2009).
3397		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
3397		population	eng	There is no data on the population trends for this species.
3397		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of groundwater levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
3398		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the French law. It's habitat is listed in the annex II of the Habitat directive (8310-4).
3398		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum bressanum</em> is endemic to France, where it is currently found in the&#160;départements of&#160;Jura, Ain and Isère.
3398		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
3398		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.
3398		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Groundwater levels may become lowered if the aquifers are overexploited, causing habitat degradation, and hence threatening this species.
3399		conservation	eng	This is a nationally protected species.
3399		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum diaphanu</em><em>m</em> is endemic to France, and is restricted to a few locations in the south of the Jura mountains.
3399		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean freshwater habitats.
3399		population	eng	There is no population trend data available.
3399		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption may be another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
3400		conservation	eng	No conservation actions.
3400		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum garnieri </span>is endemic to France, where it is found in throughout the lower Rhone drainage systems in Departments Ardeche and Rhone.
3400		habitat	eng	This small freshwater gastropod lives in subterranean waters.
3400		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
3400		threats	eng	As this species is widespread, it is only locally threatened.&#160;                  <p><span lang="EN-US">Species that live in subterranean habitats&#160; are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.</p>
3401		conservation	eng	It is listed in several regional Red Lists: in Bavaria (Strongly Threatened -Category 2) and in Baden-Wurttembergs (CR, Possibly Extinct). A taxonomic review of the species is required, along with further monitoring on the habitats where the species is recorded.
3401		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum acicula</em> is restricted to Germany, but although the type locality of the species was not given in the original description, the range is given as Isar river, near Munich (Munchen) and in the adjacent northern Alps region within Germany (Falkner and Niederhofer 2008).
3401		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring-snail, living in interstitial and subterranean waters.
3401		population	eng	The population trend for this species is unknown.
3401		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are unknown.
3402		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed in Switzerland as Category 4 "potentially threatened" (Federal Office for the Environment 2010), mainly as it's a rare species. It is only known from groundwater systems, so further data on the species' range is advised as well as monitoring of habitat trends as the species could be vulnerable if any threats were to exist.
3402		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Switzerland where it is known from a small area in central Switzerland, north of where it has been found in groundwater system, at the north of the Lake of Thun (Thunersee),&#160; between the villages of Eriz and Habkern, in Schrattenfluh-Sieben Hengste-Hohgant, a cave system which is one of the deepest in Europe.
3402		habitat	eng	The species has been found from the subterranean waters of the karstic system 'Schrattenfluh-Sieben Hengste-Hohgant' in the Swiss alps (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). <br/><br/><h1><br/></h1>
3402		population	eng	There is no information on population trends.
3402		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are unknown.
3403		conservation	eng	This species is strictly protected in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). However, it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
3403		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum cisterciensorum </span>is endemic to the north-eastern Alps in Lower Austria. It is only known from the type locality, which is discharge from the spring Siebenbrunn, besides the river Türnitz, north of Annaberg.
3403		habitat	eng	This freshwater species inhabits groundwater and water found in rock fissures.
3403		population	eng	This species was previously considered 'very common' in occurrence. However, a population decrease has been recently observed and is now thought of as 'rare'.
3403		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.
3404		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum elseri&#160; </span>is protected by law in Lower Austria. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is currently listed on the Red List of Austria as Critically Endangered (CR) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007) and in the past has been listed as Endangered and Near Threatened (Wells and Chatfield 1992, Baille and Groombridge 1996). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
3404		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum elseri</span> is <span class="inlink">endemic to <span class="inlink">Austria. It is found in the northern limestone Alps region of upper Austria, where it is currently known from only one locality, where it was recorded in                 floodline debris of the river Traun near Wels. Reischutz & Reischutz (2009) noted that it might be expected <span id="result_box" class="long_text">to be found in the sources of Nebenbäche.</span>
3404		habitat	eng	This is a very small freshwater species, living in springs and groundwater. It is seldom found in river deposits.
3404		population	eng	There have been no living specimens of this species recorded. However, the ecology of this species may be the main reason for the lack of collecting of live individuals, as the shells were retrieved from floodline debris, flushed from karst fissures. It is difficult to sample these groundwaters effectively, and as such the species, like many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum</span>, will appear rare.
3404		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by habitat degradation due to the abstraction of groundwater and subsequent lowering of groundwater levels.
3405		conservation	eng	This species is placed on the Austrian Red List as Endangered (EN) and is strictly protected by law in Lower Austria.&#160;It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
3405		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum geyeri</span> is endemic to Austria. It is known from the border zone of the northern granite and gneiss highlands and the Pannonian flat and hill countries. Specifically it is found in the sand and gravel plains of&#160;Schoenbuehel&#160;Bay (Dunkelsteiner forest) and the&#160;River Danube, between 154 and 226 metres above sea level.</p>
3405		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found underground in gravel deposits.                This is the only species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum </span>which also lived in the deeper parts of a spring in Schönbuehel, from where living specimens could be obtained. Approximately up to the 1980's. Since then living specimens were not found again.<u></u>
3405		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
3405		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are habitat destruction, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution.</p>
3406		conservation	eng	This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.
3406		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern limestone Alps in eastern Upper Austria. The exact distribution is not known, as the type description was based on shells from floodline debris of <span id="result_box" class="long_text">alluvial deposits (Gaflenz Weyer, Oberösterreich), consequently the groundwater source is uncertain.
3406		habitat	eng	The species occurs in groundwaters and rock fissures. It is rarely found, usually in floodline debris from rivers.
3406		population	eng	There are no comprehensive data about population trend available.
3406		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat degradation as a result of water pollution and the abstraction of groundwater lowering the water table.
3407		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status and the distributional data require review and this is currently underway. This species is listed as Category 2 (Highly Endangered) in Germany (Falker and Niederhöfer 2008).
3407		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is under review in Germany and is considered to be one of the few taxa within the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum</span> that is less problematic (M. Haase pers. comm. 2010). It may be more widespread, as some of the other species are possibly conspecific with the species and as such the range maybe greater than previously believed (M. Haase pers. comm. 2010). Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) regarded this as more restricted, with four subspecies with several locations.
3407		habitat	eng	This species is present in interstitial and groundwaters.
3407		population	eng	The species is widespread and hence believed to be stable.
3407		threats	eng	There are localised threats as                 subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
3408		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). However it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.
3408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north-eastern Alps in Lower Austria, where it is recorded from a small area (area of occupancy of 600 km<sup>2</sup>). It was first described from "Kalter Brunnen" in Kleinzell im Halbachtal, springs ca. 200 m NW of Haus Nr. 114 (Gendarmerie) at 475 m ASL.&#160; It is known from another 5 springs in Niederösterreich.
3408		habitat	eng	The species occurs in groundwater. It is occasionally found in the water in rock fissures and in outflow from groundwater at springs.
3408		population	eng	This species was considered 'common'. However, a decline in the population has meant this is now described as 'rare'.
3408		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the abstraction of underground water and the lowering of ground water levels. It is also affected by pollution mainly from the over-use of fertilizers due to agricultural practices.
3409		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species. The species distribution requires review, as does the taxonomic and nomenclatural status. Monitoring of known habitats is required to determine if the species is indeed in decline due to groundwater pollution.
3409		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Germany. However, the current distribution is uncertain, as most of the synonyms of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum sandbergeri</span>,  have now been segregated as distinct species since 2005.
3409		habitat	eng	This species is known from groundwater and interstitial waters.
3409		population	eng	This species could be declining due to groundwater pollution.
3409		threats	eng	The main threats lie in groundwater pollution or over-abstraction of groundwater. However, it is uncertain whether this impacts the species, as the current distribution is uncertain.
3410		conservation	eng	This species is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered.&#160;This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
3410		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Bythiospeum pfeifferi </span><span style="background-color: white;">is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is known from&#160;Kremsmünster in the Northern Alps, between 340 and 380 metres above sea level where it's known from a spring which feeds a pipeline (</span>Reischütz & Reischütz, 2009)<span style="background-color: white;">.</span>&#160; According to Reischütz & Reischütz (2009) the  species was first found around 1887 from the area of  Kremsmünster , but no precise location. It was then lost for decades until it was rediscovered in 1949 by F. Mahler, but again no exact location is given (Reischütz 1994a). It was not until 1993 when it was found alive in a spring at <span style="background-color: white;">Kremsmünster</span> (Reischütz 1995).
3410		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found in subterranean environments such as caves, where it inhabits groundwater and rock fissures.
3410		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
3410		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat destruction, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution in the form of eutrophication.</p>
3411		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
3411		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is found in the calcareous Alps region near Graz, Styria, but has not been recorded since the 1980's. The type locality was 'Höhle bei St. Martin am Fuße des Bruchkogels [sic]) bei Graz, Steiermark'.
3411		habitat	eng	This freshwater species inhabits ground water sources and rock fissures. It is rarely found in the mouths of springs.
3411		population	eng	The population trend for this species is currently unknown. However it is suggested that this species may be extinct due to the building of a road highway in the species locality.
3411		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, the building of a road is thought to have destroyed this species locality.
3412		conservation	eng	This armadillo species has been recorded from a number of protected areas, such as Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve, Manglares Cayapas-Mataje Ecological Reserve and Bilsa Protected Forest in Ecuador. There is a need to determine the population status of the species throughout its range, as well as potential threats.
3412		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> ranges from Chiapas state in Mexico, through Central America, to western Colombia, north-western Ecuador and north-western Venezuela (Gardner 2005, Tirira 2007). It occurs from sea level to around 3,000 m asl.
3412		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> occurs in dry, to moderately moist (mesic), deciduous and semi-deciduous forests, at forest edges in rocky terrain and in open habitats such as dry savanna (Reid 1997). It has also been recorded in tropical moist montane forests, as well as in the subparamo of the Colombian Central Andean highlands (Díaz-N. and Sánchez-Giraldo 2008). It can be found in secondary forest habitat, and also tolerates a moderate mix of forest and agricultural land. It is a solitary, insectivorous species, partly adapted to digging and life underground.
3412		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> is apparently rare and patchily distributed. Individuals are not commonly seen or captured, which may be due to its secretive habits. The population trend is unknown.
3412		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Throughout most of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> is not hunted for food because of its pungent odour and local beliefs. The species is, however, indistinctively hunted along its known Andean distribution. Some Andean populations are facing severe impacts due to urbanization of their natural habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> is distributed throughout the Tropical Dry Forest, one of the most threatened habitats of northwestern South America, which in Colombia has been reduced to 1.5% of its original area (Etter 1993). Although its sensitivity to habitat loss is not known and the species seems to tolerate some degree of habitat degradation, it seems to prefer primary, well-preserved forests. The severe habitat  transformations are therefore likely to have a negative impact on the species.
3413		conservation	eng	&#160;This armadillo species has been recorded in several Argentinean national and provincial parks.
3413		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. chacoensis</span> has been recorded from the Gran Chaco of western Paraguay and center Argentina (Gardner 2005). It has not been recorded in Bolivia.
3413		habitat	eng	This largely fossorial species is restricted to chaco-seco (thorn forest) habitats (Meritt 1985). It is not present in cultivated areas. There is little available information on its life history and other biological characteristics<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
3413		population	eng	The abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chacoensis</span> is not known. In general it is rarely sighted.
3413		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation from agricultural activity, subsistence hunting for food by local people, as well as predation by dogs.
3414		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. It listed on Appendix III of CITES (Uruguay).
3414		distribution	eng	This armadillo species is present in eastern and southern Brazil, north-eastern Uruguay, north-eastern Argentina and south-eastern Paraguay. Records from Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, are erroneous (Abba and Vizcaíno 2008).
3414		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. tatouay</span> inhabits tropical lowland and submontane forest, as well as open areas (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It is also found in agricultural areas, and it may possibly occur in secondary forest (Mikich and Bernils 2004, Aguiar and Fonseca 2008). The species is highly fossorial.
3414		population	eng	It is not uncommon and can be regularly encountered within suitable habitat.
3414		threats	eng	There is extensive habitat loss in much of its range, including in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest. In addition, the species is hunted locally.
3415		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas.
3415		distribution	eng	This South American species is found east of the Andes from northern Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, through to Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana and Suriname in the north, to the state of Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil) in the south (Gardner 2005). Its presence in northeastern Brazil is doubtful and needs to be confirmed (Anacleto and Diniz 2006).
3415		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. unicinctus</span> inhabits tropical lowland and submontane forest. Although it is not found in agricultural areas, it possibly occurs in secondary forest.
3415		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
3415		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Populations in the south of the range are subject to a degree of hunting and habitat loss (e.g., Machado <em>et al.</em> 1998, Aguiar and Fonseca 2008).
3416		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. The Primate Protection Centre (Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros: ICM/CPB <http: www.ibama.gov.br="" cpb="">), of the Federal Environmental Protection Institute (Instituto Chico Mendes), supports and coordinates primate conservation programmes throughout Brazil. An international committee (Comitê Internacional para Conservação e Manejo dos Primatas Amazônicos) was established by the the CPB and Instituto Chico Mendes (ICM) to discuss and define actions for the conservation of Amazonian primate taxa, and together with the members of the Pitheciine Action Group (PAG), is currently developing Conservation Action Plans for each of the four subspecies in Brazil. <br/><br/>A decree (No. 34-2004-AG) was published by the Peruvian government in 2004 that approves the categorization of threatened Peruvian wildlife and prohibits hunting, capturing, owning, transporting, and exportation for commercial purposes. It is hoped that this will help in conservation actions and stimulate research on threatened Peruvian wildlife (Heymann 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em>:<br/>This subspecies  is protected within the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Ayres <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/> <br/><em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em>:<br/>Afforded some protection within two extractive reserves, the Middle Juruá and the Upper Juruá, where hunting and the exploitation of natural resources are permitted.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em>:<br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em> should be relatively well protected as it occurs within the Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (284,285 ha), south of the rio Solimões (Nogueira-Neto 1992).<br/><br/><em>Cacjao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>Until recently, the only protected area known to contain <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em> was the regional Tamshiyacu Tahuayo Communal Reserve (TTCR). The TTCR extends over an area of 322,500 ha, and is situated close to the city of Iquitos in upland forests between the Amazon and the Yavarí (Newing and Bodmer 2004). The reserve was created as a result of a strong alliance between local people and conservationists. The presence of <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em> has become part of the justification for three areas either under proposal or newly created. These are the Sierra del Divisor Reserved Zone, the Lago Preto Conservation Concession (LPCC) and the proposed Greater Yavarí Reserve. Community conservation work is conducted by WCS-Peru and the Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology on the Yavari and Yavari-Mirin Rivers in Peru. This project aims to reduce the hunting of <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em> in this area (Bowler 2007).
3416		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil and Peru. The distribution of the Bald-headed Uacari is poorly known and field surveys are needed to resolve a series of issues related to the distribution and taxonomy of these taxa. Available data suggest that there is no range overlap among the subspecies of <em>Cacajao calvus</em>, although there may be a contact zone between <em>Cacajao calvus calvus</em> and <em>Cacajao calvus rubicundus</em> (Ayres 1986).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em> has a restricted range, from the confluence of the rios Japurá and Solimões north-west between the two rivers connecting to either the Paraná Yaula, or the Furo or Paraná da Aranapa in Brazil (Hershkovitz 1987). Until recently, the White Bald-headed Uacari was considered endemic to Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, but observations indicate the presence of this taxon in the region of the lower Juruá (Vira Volta), south of the Solimões (Silva Jr. pers. comm.). A new population of white uacaris was recorded from the Rio Jurupari, a tributary of the Rio Envira in the state of Amazons, about 750 km to south-west of the current range (Silva Jr. pers. comm.), and another sighting along the Alto Jurupari south of the town Feijó in the state of Acre (L. Veiga pers. comm.), but it has not yet been confirmed whether or not these are the same or distinct taxa (see Figueiredo 2006). Unlike most other Amazonian platyrrhines, uacaris tend to range along rivers rather than within interfluvia; várzea forests connect the two populations along the rivers between these two areas. No field data are available to determine if these populations are allopatric. The subspecies <em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em> occurs in the middle of these two populations (Silva, Jr. and Martins 1999). <br/><br/>The geographic range of <em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em> has been updated since first described by Hershkoivitz (1987) when it was thought to occur only on the south bank of the upper rio Juruá between the Rios Tarauacá and Eirú. Peres (1988, 1997) extended its range north-east of the range described by Hershkovitz (1987), on the left bank of the Juruá and at Lago da Fortuna, Carauari to the north. Populations of <em>Cacajao calvus</em> observed by Peres on the upper Juruá, and unconfirmed reports by Fernandes (1990) in the Brazilian state of Acre on the upper Juruá and Purus, are either of <em>Cacajao calvus novaesi</em> or <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em>, which would extend the known ranges of either of these subspecies (Bowler 2007).<br/> <br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em> occurs in Brazil, with a relatively restricted (poorly known) range. It presents an apparent disjunct geographic distribution, known from an area situated in the Iça-Solimões interfluve in Amazonas (type locality: opposite the town of São Paulo de Olivença, north bank of the Solimões [Hershkovitz 1987]), and another near the mouth of the Auati-Paraná. <em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em> also occurs south of the Solimões, west of the Jutaí River at the Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (Nogueira-Neto 1992). It may have formerly occurred in the Trapezium of Colombia, but if they did they are now believed to be extirpated.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em> is found south of the Amazon River in Peru between the Ucayali and Yavarí Rivers. In the past, its range probably extended as far as the Urubamba River (Hershkovitz 1987), but surveys undertaken in the 1980s suggest that the southern limit is now the Sheshea River (Aquino 1988). Hershkovitz (1987) claimed this taxon also occurs on the east bank of the lower Yavarí in Brazil. The subspecies has a patchy distribution. It may no longer be present on the Brazilian side of the Yavarí, and is absent from a long stretch on the Peruvian side, upriver from the mouth of the Yavarí-Mirín perhaps as far as Quebrada Curacinha close to the town of Colonia Angamos (Salovaara <em>et al.</em> 2003). On the Yavarí-Mirín, the species is present on a large of the North bank, but is absent from the south side of the river, except in the upper reaches. As noted earlier, populations of <em>Cacajao calvus</em> observed by Peres on the upper Juruá and unconfirmed reports by Fernandes (1990) in the Brazilian state of Acre on the upper Juruá and Purus, may be either of <em>Cacajao calvus novaesi</em> or <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em>, which would extend the known ranges of either of these subspecies (Silva Jr.and Martins 1999).
3416		habitat	eng	Bald-headed Uacaris are habitat specialists that are limited primarily to white-water várzea habitats. In addition to their ecological range restrictions, their distribution along rivers makes them relatively more vulnerable to human impact. They are highly specialized seed predators, with immature seeds and fruits comprising the bulk of the diet. Uacaris live in large multi-male, multi-female groups with a fission-fusion social organization. Specialist habitat and feeding requirements may mean greater sensitivity to habitat modification. While other pitheciines (<em>Chiropotes</em> and <em>Pithecia</em>) have demonstrated a degree of tolerance and adaptability in the face of habitat disturbance, the capacity of uacaris to cope with anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em>:<br/>This taxon is a habitat specialist that is primarily limited to flooded forests such as the lower Rio Juruá or the white-water várzea habitats of the low Rio Japurú. The White Bald-headed Uacari is a highly specialized seed predator, fruits and seeds are the most important food item and just a handful of tree species made up the bulk of the diet (Ayres 1986).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em>:<br/>No field data on ecology are available for this subspecies.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>Occurs in flooded forests, low to medium hill and high terrace forests, and palm swamps. As with other Bald Uacaris, Red Uacaris are specialized for the predation of seeds, with fruits and immature seeds making up the bulk of the diet. <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> palm fruit was also the most important species in the diet of this taxon at Lago Preto, accounting for 20% of the annual diet (Bowler 2007).
3416		population	eng	Uacaris generally tend to occur at low densities.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao. c. calvus</em>:<br/>Average population densities in the region surrounding Mamirauá and Teiu Lakes (Mamirauá Reserve) were 10 individuals/km² (5 sites) in 1984/5 (Ayres 1986) and 17/km² (6 sites) in 2004/5 (Paim 2005).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>In surveys undertaken in the Sierras de Contamana, part of the Sierra del Divisor located on the right margin of the Ucayali River, near the frontier with Brazil, this subspecies was recorded at an abundance of 479 individuals/100 km (Aquino 2005). Sites on the Yavarí and Yavarí-Mirín have some of the highest densities of (Puertas and Bodmer 1993; Salovaara <em>et al.</em> 2003). Jorge and Velazco (2006) discovered some new populations on the upper Tapiche River and on the Divisor ridges in the Zona Reservada Sierra del Divisor.
3416		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include forest loss and hunting. The distribution along rivers may make this taxon relatively more vulnerable to human impact, while specialist habitat and feeding requirements may result in greater sensitivity to habitat disturbance. <br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em>:<br/>Although this subspecies is rarely hunted in its range because its appearance is considered too human-like (Ayres 1986), the main threat facing this primate is the reduction and transformation of its flooded forest habitat. The main forms of deforestation in the area, are small-scale agriculture and logging (Ayres and Johns 1987). Current data indicate that almost the entire (confirmed) population are included within the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve and population densities appear to have increased in the 20 years up to 2005 (Ayres 1986; Paim 2005).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em>:<br/>This species is hunted for food. It may be affected by habitat loss due to logging and forest loss especially along the main stream of the Amazon. <br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>Surveys conducted between 1979 and 1986 (Aquino 1988) showed that the range was much reduced, hunting having exterminated the species in several areas. Aquino (1988) suggests that populations close to the Ucayali and Amazon Rivers have been greatly reduced and in some areas exterminated, caused by hunting and habitat disturbance. The Yavarí River and its tributary the Yaquerana represent the stronghold for remaining populations. Close to Iquitos, <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> is extracted in large quantities by felling the palms (Bodmer <em>et al.</em> 1999; Meyer and Penn 2003); the unsustainable extraction of this resource may have an impact on <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em> in some areas (Bowler 2007). Logging concessions designated in 2004 cover around one-third of the geographic range of <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>. While the selective removal of low-density, high-value timber species does not appear likely to have a great impact on populations of <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>, the logging operations increase human populations and bushmeat hunting in remote parts of the range (Bowler 2007). Hunting levels on the Yavarí-Mirín and Yavarí have increased since 2004, when human populations increased due to logging activities. Bodmer <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that more wild meat was consumed per capita in a commercial forest concession on the Yavarí than in the nearby rural communities.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em>:<br/>This subspecies is affected to some degree by hunting and the exploitation of natural resources within the two extractive reserves where it occurs.
3417		conservation	eng	Presently, several large parks and reserves protect parts of the range of this species. In Colombia, they are protected by two large natural reserves: Nukak (855,000 ha) and Puinawai (1,280,000 ha). In Brazil, the species is protected in several areas including the 2,270,000-ha Jaú National Park and the Amanã Extractive Reserve. However, the species continues to be hunted for meat in areas, including some that are officially protected. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
3417		distribution	eng	The range of <em>C. melanocephalus</em> is delimited to the south by the Solimões and Japurá rivers in Brazil, to the west by the Apaporis and La Macarena mountains in Colombia, to the north by the Guaviari River in Colombia and the Negro River in Brazil. Boubli <em>et al.</em> (2008) suggest a range extension to include the region between the Canal Cassiquiari (north) and the Orinoco River in Venezuela. The extension could mean that the species would be sympatric with <em>Chiropotes</em>, as previously reported elsewhere within the range of the genus by Boubli (2002).
3417		habitat	eng	Golden-backed Black Uakaris are habitat specialists, spending the majority of the year in igapó forests, although animals may migrate seasonally to <em>terra firme</em> forest when fruit resource availability is at its lowest (Barnett and da Cunha 1991; Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2005). They appear to avoid degraded igapó (Hernandez-Camacho and Cooper 1977; Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2002; A. Barnett pers. comm.), and have not been reported from either secondary forest or low shrubby white sand habitats.<br/><br/>In igapó forests, they spend by far the greatest amount of their time in the canopy, though they may forage at all levels from the water level upwards. They have been observed descending to the ground to consume germinating seeds in the period when the igapo is unflooded (Barnett 2008). Like other uakaris, golden-backeds are specialized seed predators and the majority of their diet is made up of immature seeds (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Barnett 2008). In months when immature seed availability is low, the diet may be supplemented by fruit pulp, young leaves, pith and arthropods. The majority of food species are from tall canopy trees. In addition, emergents are often used as sleeping trees (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2008). Hard fruits are bitten along points of weakness, such as sutures, to open them economically (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2007b). <br/><br/>Groups range in size from 5-40 individuals, but groups with >100 individuals have been seen – probably as a result of a congregation of several groups. As groups with 1-10 individuals have been found more frequently at times when fruits are scarce, it is possible that group size is positively correlated with fruit availability (Defler 2001; Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2007a, 2008). Though the species may be sympatric with bearded sakis in some parts of its range, competition may be limited by the super-abundance of some of their diet items (see Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3417		population	eng	There are no precise data concerning total population numbers. Golden-backed black Uakaris have been found to be abundant during periods of high fruit availability in igapó (the seasonally flooded forest that occurs along the margins of blackwater rivers in north-west Amazonia) (Barnett 2005; Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2005). Defler (2001) estimated a crude density of 4.15 animals/km² at the landscape level and an ecological density (in terms of food abundance) of 12 animals/km².
3417		threats	eng	In Colombia, there is some habitat loss due to the planting of illegal crops and human settlement, but only in the northern portion of the range. In Brazil, there is some occasional hunting for food or bait (A. Barnett pers. comm.). The Golden-backed Black Uakari may become threatened if climatic changes provoked by global warming reduce the present extent of its flooded forest habitats (Queiroz and Valsecchi 2007). A number of the species eaten by golden-backeds are also used by the commercial timber industry (Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2008).
3441		conservation	eng	No research or conservation priorities are assigned to this species. Knowledge of the biology and ecology of the species, together with how these are affected by habitat changes and different land uses, and in particular agrochemicals, are needed to better evaluate its status.&#160;It is known to occur in three protected areas: J.N. Briers-Louw Provincial Nature Reserve (near Paarl), Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve (near Hermon) and the adjoining Voëlvlei Provincial Nature Reserve.
3441		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape lowlands (below 280 m asl) west of the Cape Fold Mountains, in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. It occurs from the Cape Flats, through the wheat-growing region known as the Swartland, northwards for approximately 200 km to Graafwater, with two relictual populations occurring in the Olifants and Breede River valleys. Its extent of occurrence (19 500 km² with an area of occupancy of around 1%) appears to have contracted over the last few decades, in tandem with increased urbanization, and it is now extirpated from the urban areas and immediate surrounds of Cape Town. However, this process has slowed in recent years.
3441		habitat	eng	It lives in undulating low-lying areas with poorly drained loamy to clay soils, although it is known from some shallow sand habitats. The dominant vegetation in which it historically occurred was Renosterveld heath land, which can leach and acidify the surface water. However, its contemporary presence in disturbed agricultural land indicates that acidic water is not a prerequisite for this species. It breeds in vleis and depressions in flat low-lying areas.&#160;The eggs are laid in numerous small clusters (20-50) attached to submerged vegetation in temporary water, with up to 400 eggs from a single female. It can tolerate some disturbance, and survives in many regularly ploughed wheat fields, possibly due to its burrowing to depths below the reach of conventional ploughs (they aestivate in burrows during the dry season).
3441		population	eng	Subpopulations are widely scattered and densities (as assessed by chorus intensity) can be high but do not normally reach historical levels. Most of the populations that were close to regions of heavy urbanization have been lost.
3441		threats	eng	This species occurs in a habitat that is in high demand for urbanization and agriculture, and over 90% of its former habitat has been transformed by agriculture or urbanization. These same areas are under pressure from alien invasive plants which threaten to dry the breeding habitats. The long-term viability of populations living in disturbed agricultural fields, which contain high levels of agro-chemicals, is uncertain.
3442		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
3442		distribution	eng	Assuming that this is a valid species, it is known only from the type locality,Town Bush Valley, in Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.
3442		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, the only specimen of which was found in a beer bottle at a plant nursery.
3442		population	eng	It is known only from a single female specimen collected in 1954, and numerous subsequent searches by various herpetologists have failed to find this form again. If it ever existed, it will probably have to be considered extinct.
3442		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
3449		conservation	eng	None known.
3449		distribution	eng	<em>Caecobarbus geertsi</em> is only known from the Mbanzagungu caves (Thysville) (circa 5°S, 15°E), Lower Congo River basin (Lévêque and Daget 1984). The international trade is restricted (<strong>CITES</strong> II, since 6.6.1981).
3449		habitat	eng	<em>Caecobarbus geertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a blind fish which lives in caves (700 m above sea-level) (Lévêque and Daget 1984) and feeds on small crustaceans living in the caves and also on animals washed into the caves (Wheeler 1977). <em>Caecobarbus geertsi</em> is not closely related to any extant epigean species of the Congo region. It is classified as `textbook and popular press fish' in Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991. Eggs are expelled in a more or less haphazard fashion, the substrate on which the species spawns must have crevices and pores into which the adhesive eggs can roll and be hidden so to prevent predation by its parents or other cave inhabitants.
3449		population	eng	No information available.
3449		threats	eng	Natural and agricultural sedimentation, toxicity and habitat destruction (caves that collapse) form threats for this species. Sedimentation flowing into the caves poses the main threat to the species. At least one cave is known to be used as a quarry.
3450		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
3519		conservation	eng	Its cryptic nature allows it to coexist successfully with humans. <em>C. o. chrysillus</em> is adequately protected in KwaZulu-Natal at Ndumu Game Reserve, Tembe Elephant Park, Kosi Bay Nature Reserve, Lake Sibaya Nature Reserve, and the Maputaland Coastal Forest Reserve. In Mozambique, this subspecies occurs in the Maputo Elephant Reserve. <em>C. o. obtusirostris</em> has been recorded from the Kruger National Park in South Africa, and Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe. It may also occur in the Gorongoza National Park of Mozambique. <em>C. o. limpopoensis</em> has not, however, been recorded from any conservation area.
3519		distribution	eng	Largely restricted to the Mozambique sand plain. Ranges from Inhambane in Mozambique southwards to northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and inland to the eastern slopes of the Lebombo Mountains and the southeastern lowveld of Zimbabwe.
3519		habitat	eng	Restricted to sandy soils in southern African savanna. <em>C. o. chrysillus</em> occurs in Coastal Bushveld-Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. <em>C. o. limpopoensis</em> inhabits miombo savanna of eastern Mozambique. <em>C. o. obtusirostris</em> occurs in Acacia and Mopane savanna in Mozambique and adjacent parts of Zimbabwe. Occur in close proximity to human settlements, thrive in gardens.
3519		population	eng	Common in suitable habitats.
3519		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
3549		conservation	eng	This species is present in Caitutu and Kaxaraari Amerindian Reserves. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
3549		distribution	eng	<em>Callicebus dubius</em> has a relatively large, but poorly known, range that includes parts of northern Bolivia, south-eastern Peru and three Brazilian states. It occurs south of the Rio Ituxí, or perhaps Rio Mucuím, both right bank tributaries of the Rio Purús, west to the Rio Purús; the southern limit is unknown. Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) placed <em>C. dubius</em> in northern Bolivia, but Rowe and Martinez (2003) found no evidence to support this supposition, and <em>C. brunneus</em> is the species in the Pando, north and south of the Río Madre de Dios (R. Wallace pers. comm.)
3549		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
3549		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
3549		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote isolated region of the Amazon, and is not considered to be under any immediate threat.
3553		conservation	eng	<p>Very little attention has been given to forest conservation in this region. This species’ range may include the Bosque de Protección de Alto Mayo, which extends from the town of Rioja north along the border between the departments of San Martín and Amazonas, however more surveys are needed to confirm this as there species was registered once in a buffer zone of this protected area. During short surveys of the Reserve, no titis were detected in the high-altitude areas which make up most of the reserve. It is likely that the species only occurs in the low-altitude areas on the edges of the reserve (<1%) (Rowe and Martinez 2003, DeLuycker 2006). Other protected areas in this species’ range include, Tarangue (74 ha), which belongs to a conservation organization called IKAMA Peru. The species also occurs in the Pabloyacu Reserve (640 ha) of the Universidad de San Martín, but despite its name this is not a protected area.</p>  <p>Mark (2003) and DeLuycker (2006) have emphasized the potential importance of both privately owned reserves and Amerindian reservations for the long-term conservation of this species. There are 14 indigenous Aguaruna communities located throughout the Alto Mayo region. The large tracts of forested land allocated to these well-organized communities could play a key role in conservation initiatives (Mark 2003). <br/> <br/> A team of scientists from NatureServe, Conservation Data Center - Peru/UNALM, and the Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP) have recently completed part of a a project financed by the Moore foundation “Endemic Species and Ecological Systems of the Eastern Andean Slope and the Amazon Basin in Peru and Bolivia”. The objectives were to develop conservation baseline maps for the Andes-Amazon regions of Peru and Bolivia to inform planning and effective conservation action at regional and local scales and build local and regional capacity for developing and using biodiversity information.<br/> ( see at <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/aboutUs/latinamerica/andes_amazon.jsp">http://www.natureserve.org/aboutUs/latinamerica/andes_amazon.jsp</a>)<br/> Together with regional leaders the project identified sustainable ways to regulate land use while also protecting the region’s natural species and habitats. Biodiversity information generated by the project was analysed together with existing land use data to identify areas of high conservation concern and develop scenarios of land uses for agriculture, infrastructure and forestry that have lower impact and help support biodiversity conservation.</p>  <p>Proyecto Mono Tocón, started in 2007 as an initiative of Le Conservatoire pour la Protection des Primates, French foundation created by the park primates La Vallée des Singes. The main objective of this project is the conservation of San Martin Titi Monkey (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. oenanthe</span>) and its habitat. This local NGO has launched a long-term project which has three well-defined lines of work: Conservation, Research and Environmental Education. The Proyecto Mono Tocón works directly with local people, local governments and other NGOs in establishing community conservation areas.</p>  <p>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.</p>
3553		distribution	eng	<p>Until 2007, this species was thought to be endemic to the upper Rio Mayo valley or Alto Mayo (Hershkovitz 1990). However, a recent study by Bóveda-Penalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, undertaken over six months at 96 localities, revealed that its distribution extends much further to the south of the Department of San Martin, extending into the Bajo Mayo and Huallaga Central, almost reaching the Rio Huallabamba (known locally as the rio Huayabamba). This area is heavily deforested, and to date only one area was found where a viable population might live, although further research is needed to confirm this.</p>    <p>Mark (2003) and DeLuycker (2006) suggested that the species’ altitudinal range may be restricted to below 1,000 m. The study undertaken by Bóveda-Penalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) registered the species between 252 and 1,053 metres asl. Results from research undertaken in the Proyecto Mono Tocón show that at least 60% of the species’ original habitat has already been lost. </p>    <p>There is an urgent need for additional surveys of all potential habitats in San Martin, and larger tracts of forest. Mark (2003) notes that subpopulations near the banks of the Rio Mayo differ in colour from those in the Aguaruna territory in the north-east. DeLuycker (2006) reported a marked difference in pelage colour between a group she studied in a fragment near Moyobamba and those photographed by Noel Rowe. During surveys, attention should be given to the distributions of the different colour morphs (Mark 2003). Bóveda-Penalba<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2009) detected little difference in colour in individuals of the Alto Mayo, they argue that pelage colour varies depending on the lighting conditions. Some darker animals appeared much lighter when their bodies were turned in a different direction, making it difficult to determine differences in colour between Alto Mayo populations and the same was true for the quantity of white hair on the face. However, animals in the southern part of San Martin appear to be somewhat greyer than animals near Alto Mayo and usually do not have a a white mask (Tello-Alvarado J. C. pers comm). Bóveda-Penalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) claim that the species lives in sympatry with another, undescribed species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Callicebus</span> in the southern part of its range. Recent research carried out by the same team suggests it is just a morphological variation of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. oenanthe</span> (A.J. Bóveda-Penalba pers. comm).</p>  <p></p>
3553		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known to occur in low secondary forests and remnant forest and has been seen in bamboo stands, viney thickets, fruit crops and palm-dominated semi-flooded forests (“aguajales” and “renacales”) (DeLuycker 2006, 2007). Mark (2003) noted that occurrence records (both sightings and calls) were frequently located near rivers and streams (distance of et al. (2009), also found the species in forests located far away from rivers and claim that the&#160; species does not seem to be bound to a specific habitat,&#160; and confirmed their presence in inundated areas with aguajales (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mauritia flexuosa</span>) and renacales (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus trigona</span>), but also drier zones with ojés (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus anthelmintica</span>), tangaranas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Triplaris</span> sp.), zapotes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ponteria mimosa</span>), and ceticos (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span> sp.).These Titi Monkeys appear to be able to survive (at least in the short term in the absence of hunting) in forest fragments and relatively large groups have been registered in fragments of  <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Callicebus oenanthe</span> occurs in the same region as another threatened primate, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreonax flavicauda</span>. The former occupies the valleys to the south-east of the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. flavicauda</span> and there no known area of sympatry. <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreonax flavicauda</span> is only present above 1,500 m (A. DeLuycker and J. Vermeer pers. comm.) in the mountains bordering the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. oenanthe</span>; the same is probably true for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aotus miconax</span> (J. Vermeer pers. comm.). <br/> <br/> Titi Monkeys are known to be monogamous and live in small family groups. In the first long-term study of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. oenanthe</span> (undertaken in an isolated fragment), a group of five monkeys (an adult male and female and their three offspring) used an area of 2.5 ha (DeLuycker 2007). This group’s diet consisted mainly of insects (45%) and fruits (39%), although young seeds, flowers and non-reproductive plant parts such as leaves, shoots and tendrils and new meristem were also eaten (DeLuycker 2007). Liana species were particularly important in the diet, as were fruits from stem-parasitic plants from the mistletoe family, and the group spent a considerable amount of time foraging for insects (DeLuycker 2006). In contrast with Titi Monkeys at other sites, the group used only three sleeping sites during the entire study. They shared the fragment with saddleback tamarins [Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys] (DeLuycker 2006).</p>
3553		population	eng	<p>A few short surveys were undertaken (Rowe and Martinez 2003, Mark 2003, DeLuycker 2006) and interviews conducted with communities of Aguaruna Amerindians to confirm the presence or absence of the species in different parts of its range.</p>  <p>Aldrich (2006) undertook a song-based survey of a population at Tarangue (a 74 ha private reserve near Moyobamba) and estimated a population density of 1.4 individuals per ha. Group sizes were unusually large for Titi Monkeys, with 20% of groups containing six to eight individuals. Rowe and Martinez (2003) carried out a four-day survey, and although they did not observe the species in the wild, they heard several groups of Titi Monkeys (presumed to be <span style="font-style: italic;">C. oenanthe</span>) vocalizing in a forest remnant at 925 m. They photographed a family being sold at a local market that had been captured near Rioja. Mark (2003) carried out surveys at five sites and observed monkeys in fragments as small as 2 ha (804 m asl).</p>
3553		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation, and hunting pressure. The region has suffered intense human colonization over the last 30 years because of a major agrarian programme, which has attracted huge numbers of immigrants. Agricultural activities include the cultivation of rice and coffee; cattle ranching and selective timber extraction also occur. The region is characterized by rapid rates of deforestation (estimates vary from 40,000 to 100,000 ha per year) and fragmentation, and has lost at least 40% of its forest cover, mainly from the low-altitude river basins (the preferred habitat of this species) over the last 20 years (Mark 2003, DeLuycker 2006). The construction of a two-lane all-weather road, which was asphalted in 2003 - La Carretera Marginal, Via Marginal, or Carretera Fernando Belaunde Terry - which runs all the way to the coast (Chiclayo) and past Tarapoto has contributed to the influx of immigrants and a change from subsistence to small-scale farming. It has also altered the spatial distribution of human settlers, who now follow the highway far into the valley and high forests, and the lack planning or state-regulated land occupation and use puts protected areas and remaining forests at risk (DeLuycker 2006).<br/> <br/> The species is not found in any large protected areas of San Martin. Recent studies (Bóveda-Penalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) determined that an estimated 60% of the species original range has already been lost, and its current range comprises only small fragments of secondary forest. All groups encountered live in small highly degraded remnants of forest, isolated from other populations. The species is being hunted for its meat, both the Aguarunas and recent immigrants hunt this species (Mark 2003, DeLuycker 2006, Bóveda-Penalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). While Titis Monkeys may not be a particularly lucrative source of protein, hunting pressure is likely to increase as preferred game become scarce and fragmentation facilitates access. These Titi Monkeys are popular as pets (Mark 2003, DeLuycker 2006, Bóveda-Penalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and have been found for sale at markets (Rowe and Martinez 2003, Mark 2003) and encountered along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Aotus miconax</span> at tourist centres in the upper Mayo valley (Mark 2003).</p>
3554		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>Conservation programmes in the region include: the Greater Madidi Landscape Conservation Program in northern La Paz and south-western Beni Departments and Kaa-Iya Landscape Conservation Program in Santa Cruz Department of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Asociación Boliviana para la Conservación and Conservation International in the south-western Beni Department.
3554		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bolivia with very restricted range estimated to be 400 km² (Martinez and Wallace 2007). Recent surveys have revealed that <em>C. olallae</em> is apparently confined to gallery forest and adjacent forest islands of the Yacuma River, with just one other locality in gallery forest of the Manique River (Martinez and Wallace 2007), both in south-western Beni Department. In contrast to the geographic distribution proposed by van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002), Felton <em>et al</em>. (2006) argue that the species only occurs to the east of the Río Beni. Extensive surveys in the region have since confirmed this to be the case (Martinez and Wallace 2007). The geographical range of <em>Callicebus olallae</em> overlaps with <em>Callicebus modestus</em>, although transitional zones between the two taxa have yet to be confirmed and each seems to specialize on different habitat types (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007). Found below 400 m a.s.l.
3554		habitat	eng	This taxon occurs in relatively dry forest patches within a forest-savanna mosaic, apparently restricted to gallery forest and immediately adjacent forest islands (Lonnberg 1939; Anderson 1997; Felton <em>et al.</em> 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007).<br/><br/>Titis are frugivores, monogamous primates that generally live in small family groups. Three groups, each with two members, were encountered at Puerto Santa Cruz, to the north of the Rio Yacuma. Aggressive displays were directed towards the researchers. Martinez and Wallace (2007) and Lopez-Strauss (2007) details average group sizes of 2.7 and 2 individuals respectively.
3554		population	eng	The species was formerly only known from the type locality (La Laguna, 5 km from Santa Rosa, [upper río] Beni, Bolivia, altitude about 200 m; Patterson 1992, Tarifa 1996; Anderson 1997). In 2002, Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) conducted titi monkey surveys and interviewed local residents at four locations: Puerto Santa Cruz on the Río Yacuma; the type locality of La Laguna; Petaca; and Naranjal. Titis were relatively abundant in Naranjal, not encountered in Petaca (although local residents claim they occur there), and are no longer present in La Laguna (probably exterminated through hunting). Examination of holotypes indicates that groups encountered in Rio Yacuma were <em>C. olallae</em>, while two of three groups found in Naranjal were <em>Callicebus modestus</em> (the third appeared to combine characters from both species).<br/><br/>Lopez-Strauss (2007) estimated density for both <em>C. olallae</em> and <em>C. modestus</em>s using calling behavior and an adapted point-count methodology. <em>C. olallae</em> presented conservative density estimates of between 1.8 and 11.5 groups per km² (Lopez-Strauss 2007).
3554		threats	eng	There is some forest loss and habitat fragmentation within its range. Groups surveyed by Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) occurred in fragments surrounded by cattle ranches. A farmer in Naranjal reported seeing groups crossing grassland gaps (300–400 m) between patches of forest (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006) and this behaviour has since been confirmed (J. Martinez and Lopez pers. comm.). Uncontrolled grassland fires are also a major threat especially if they jump to forest patches (J. Martinez pers. comm.). Critically, the proposed major improvement to a regional road will exacerbate deforestation and is likely to increase hunting pressure (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The disappearance of the species from the type locality - La Laguna - indicates that they may be threatened locally by hunting (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006). They are used as bait for fishing and cat hunting and some are captured for pets. Apparently the presence of sympatric primates such as <em>Saimiri</em> may also be a threat to <em>C. olallae</em> (J. Martinez pers. comm.).
3555		conservation	eng	The largest remaining population is in the Reserva Biológica de Sooretama and the Reserva Natural de Linhares.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
3555		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic forest of south-eastern Brazil in the state of Espírito Santo, north-western Minas Gerais and northern Rio de Janeiro (Kinzey 1982; M. C. M. Kierulff in Rylands 1988; Oliver and Santos 1991; van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em>Callicebus personatus</em> occurs further inland into north-western Minas Gerais, east at least as far as Teófilo Otoni (Kinzey 1982; Hershkovitz 1990) and the east (right) bank of the Rio Jequitinhonha (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988). The Rio Mucurí, to the north of the Rio Itaúnas, was identified as the northern limit by Hershkovitz (1990), but Oliver and Santos (1991) reported that <em>C. melanochir</em> may occur south of the lower Itaúnas as far as Barra Nova (18º54’S, 39º47’W). Oliver and Santos (1991) indicated that the region of the Rios Itaunas and Mucurí might be a zone of intergradation between <em>personatus</em> (to the south) and <em>melanochir</em> (to the north). <em>Callicebus personatus</em> occurs on the right bank of the Rio Jequitinhonha, but it remains unclear whether this, or another species of titi, occurs to the north-west of this river (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). The range of this species extends westwards along the Rio Doce valley into Minas Gerais as far as the Mantiqueira Mountains (Cosenza 1993). Hershkovitz (in litt. A. B. Rylands, January 1988) listed Buenópolis, near the Serra do Cabral (17º54’S, 44º11’W), north-western Minas Gerais, as a locality for <em>C. personatus</em>, but it was not included as a locality in his publication in 1990 (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is possible that the distribution of <em>C. personatus</em> is more restricted that previously supposed, since <em>C. nigrifrons</em> and not <em>C. personatus</em> was recorded at the frontier between Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, an area formerly considered to be within the range of <em>C. personatus</em> (Hirsch <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3555		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Brazil's Atlantic forest. <br/><br/>Titis are small primates, weighing from 800 to 1,300 g (Norconk 2007). Diet comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. A home range size of 10.7 to 12.3 km² and mean day range of approximately 1 km was reported for this species (Price and Piedade 2001a).
3555		population	eng	Chiarello and Melo (2001) report a mean density of 15.67 ± 6.51 (±SE) individuals/km².
3555		threats	eng	This species has a relatively small geographic range that coincides with the most densely populated region of Brazil, which has the longest history of European colonization. This has resulted in widespread deforestation and fragmentation, with very little remaining forest cover (estimated from between 5 to 10%). The reduction of available habitat for the eastern Brazilian titis is ongoing, mainly due to pressures for cattle ranching and agriculture. These economic activities, together with urbanization, are driven by the developmental goals of local governments. The resulting small, isolated populations of titis are exposed to demographic and genetic risks, although hunting pressure is probably negligible to moderate in most cases, given their small body size. Titis are also rarely kept as pets, in comparison with the larger-bodied capuchins (<em>Cebus</em> spp.) and the much smaller marmosets (<em>Callithrix</em> spp.) from the same region.
3564		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (Calouro 1999; Lopes and Rehg 2003)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) Within presumed range (Defler 1994, 2003, 2004)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) Within presumed range (Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989; Palanco-Ochoa <em>et al</em>. 1999) Within presumed range (Defler 2003, 2004).<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (Terborgh 1983).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
3564		distribution	eng	<em>Callimico goeldii</em> occurs in the upper Amazon from the Rio Caquetá in Colombia, south through the Peruvian Amazon and the extreme western Amazon of Brazil into the Pando region of northern Bolivia (Hernández-Camacho and Barriga-Bonilla 1966; Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977). Hershkovitz (1977) predicted that it should occur in the Ecuadorian Amazon, but it has not been found there to date. Despite its wide range, <em>Callimico</em> is notoriously patchy in its distribution and is evidently absent over a large part of it. In Colombia, it occurs from the base of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in the Department of Putumayo between the Ríos Putumayo and Caquetá east at least to the mouth of the Río Cahuinarí, a right bank affluent of the Caquetá. It is not known to occur in the Colombian trapezius (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). In Peru, it is evidently limited largely to the eastern Amazon. Hershkovitz (1977) mapped numerous localities south of the Río Napo, along the lower and middle Río Ucayali and the Río Tapiche. The westernmost locality given by Hershkovitz (1977, map p.864) is on the Rio Marañon, but it is listed in the gazetteer as “Apaga (Rio), enters Río Putumayo from south at approximately 4º42'S, 77º10'W, P. Soini, April 1970, sight record”. The coordinates would  seem to be right, but the description of the locality wrong, and the Rio Marañon is excluded from the distribution map of Aquino and Encarnación (1994a). These authors have <em>Callimico</em> only definitely occurring south of the lower Ucayali (from the mouth of the Rio Blanco), extending to both sides of the Ucayali at about 6ºS and south along the Andean foothills to the Río Pachitea and the Madre de Dios. It occurs in the Manu National Park (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). From there it extends east into extreme northern Bolivia, north of the Río Tahuamanu (Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000; Christen and Geismann 1994). Christen and Geismann (1994) reported seeing <em>Callimico</em> south of the Río Nareuda, indicating it occurs south as far as the Rio Muyumanu. Buchanan-Smith <em>et al.</em> (2000) found no evidence of its occurrence south of the Tahuamanu-Nareuda. <em>Callimico</em> occurs in a small part of the south-west Brazilian Amazon in the state of Acre, through the Serra do Divisor south of the upper Rio Juruá to the Rio Gregório (state of Amazonas), to the Rio Iaco (above the Rio Acre) on the south (right) bank of the upper Purus, and into the Madeira basin along the Rio Abunã in the state of Rondônia (Hershkovitz 1977; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999; Lopes and Rehg 2003).
3564		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest mixed with bamboo, and in <em>varillales</em> (large stands of thin, straight trees). Izawa (1979), Buchanan-Smith (1991a), and Ferrari <em>et al.</em> (1999) have indicated that it is a habitat specialist concentrating on bamboo forests and disturbed forests (secondary growth) related to their tendency to spend much of their time in the lowest parts the forest understorey in dense vegetation. They can also be found in more open, mature forest (Christen and Geissmann 1994; Christen 1998, 1999). Porter (2007) quantified the time a group spent in different habitat types during the course of a year: primary forest with dense understorey 76%; bamboo forest 10%; secondary forest 3%. The group used bamboo forest more than the sympatric tamarins (<em>S. fuscicollis</em> and <em>S. labiatus</em>). Its preference for dense vegetation is related to its extraordinary inclusion of fungi in its diet and to its insect foraging behaviour. Bamboo, stream edge, and tree falls are where they are able to find the jelly fungi and bamboo fungi that they appreciate (Pook and Pook 1981; Porter and Christen 2002; Porte, 2007; Porter <em>et al</em>, 2007). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>Callimico</em> includes fruit, arthropods (especially orthopterans and stick insects), fungi, and exudates. Porter (2007; Porter and Christen 2002; see also Hanson <em>et al.</em> 2006) found that fungi were an essential and considerable component of the diet. Two types were eaten: jelly fungi (<em>Auricularia</em>, 3 species) and bamboo fungi (<em>Ascopolyporous</em>, 2 species). In some months (May-July, dry season) fungi accounted for 48-63% of the feeding records. <em>Callimico</em> forages for arthropods in the understorey and beneath the leaf litter on the forest floor. They are understorey specialists spending 84% of their time foraging below 5 m above the ground (saddleback tamarins tend to forage more a little higher, up to 10 m above the ground, and the moustached tamarins forage even higher up, mostly in the middle and lower canopy - above 10 m (Yoneda 1981; Buchanan-Smith 1999; Porter 2007). <em>Callimico</em> tends to eat more vertebrates (frogs and lizards) than the tamarins. For a review see Heltne <em>et al</em>. (1981). <br/><br/>In her long-term study of <em>Callimico</em>, Porter found that one group used an area of 114 ha, covering the entire home ranges of six tamarin groups (Porter 2007; Porter <em>et al</em>. 2007). Rehg (2003, 2007) on the other found her <em>Callimico</em> group using a range of about 59 ha; similar in size to the <em>Saguinus labiatus</em> group which they travelled with for about 67% of the time. Group size 7 (six adults and subadults and an infant). <em>Callimico</em> groups can be as large as 12 (Encarnación and Heymann 1998) and unlike other callitrichids can have more than one breeding female (Masataka 1981a, 1981b). Copulations occur as soon as 10 days after the female gives birth indicating post-partum oestrus. They produce single offspring. Other members of the group help carry the young (communal breeding), with the first transfer from the mother a few days (4-11) after birth. <br/><br/><em>Callimico</em> travels  and forages with saddleback tamarins <em>(Saguinus fuscicollis</em>) and moustached tamarins (<em>Saguinus mystax</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>Saguinus imperator</em>) (Pook and Pook 1979a,b, 1981, 1982a). Lopes and Rehg (2003) recorded <em>Callimico</em> associating with <em>S. imperator</em> in the Serra do Divisor National Park, Brazil. Rehg (2003, 2006) and Porter (2001, 2007) studied the associations between <em>Callimico</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>S. fuscicollis weddelli</em> in south-eastern Acre, Brazil, and north-western Pando, Bolivia, respectively. Porter (2007) reviews in detail the different specializations of <em>Callimico</em>, saddleback tamarins and moustached tamarins that allow for their sympatry.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult males 366 g (n=3) (Encarnación and Heymann 1998)<br/>Adult females 355 g (n=5)  (Encarnación and Heymann 1998)<br/>These are wild specimens. In captivity, weights are rather higher: 450-600 g.<br/><br/>Female H&B 24.5 cm, TL 35.5 cm (n=1) (Hernández-Camacho and Barriga-Bonilla 1966)<br/>Make H&B 19.0 cm, TL 25.5 cm (n=1) Holotype (Hernández-Camacho and Barriga-Bonilla 1966, <em>fide</em> Thomas)<br/><br/>Females reach sexual maturity at 57 weeks (median, range 48-70 weeks). Median body weight 473 g (n=10, range 420-543 g) (Dettling and Pryce 1999).
3564		population	eng	Very localized and patchy distribution. Always rare and difficult to observe. Groups are generally widely separated, determined by the availability of the right mix/mosaic of habitats and food availability. Key habitat such as stream edge, bamboo forest and secondary growth patches are needed due to their predilection for certain species of fungus.<br/><br/>Recorded population density estimates in Bolivia, include: 0.29 groups/km² (Izawa and Yoneda 1981); 0.25 groups/km² (Pook and Pook 1981); 9.6 individuals/km² (Cameron <em>et al.</em> 1989); and 6.1 individuals/km² (Porter 2007).<br/><br/>Rehg (2003, 2007) recorded 0.8-1.2 groups/km² in an 820-ha forest patch in Acre, Brazil. This is higher than density estimates recorded from Bolivia, and Rehg (2007) believed it might be related to habitat heterogeneity, including disturbance associated with tree falls.<br/><br/>Porter (2007) combined all group counts reported in the literature and calculated an average group size of 6.4 individuals, and a general population density of 5.6 individuals/km² where they occur. At one site  in the far north-west of Bolivia, Porter (2007) estimated 37 individuals/km².
3564		threats	eng	Although there are probably no major threats at present, the species is at risk of becoming threatened very quickly depending on proposed development projects, and logging in areas where it is known to occur. <br/><br/>Bamboo often reforests areas that have been cleared for agriculture or pasture. Studies are needed to determine  <em>Callimico</em>'s degree of tolerance for habitat disturbance in its range (Porter 2007).
3570		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/>Brazil – Federal <br/>Serra da Bocaina National Park (110,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro/ São Paulo (Coimbra-Filho 1991)<br/>Serra dos Orgãos National Park (11,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro (Coimbra-Filho 1991) <br/>Itatiaia National Park (30,000 ha), Minas Gerais / Rio de Janeiro (?) (See Ávila-Pires and Gouveia 1977; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1982; Coimbra-Filho 1986b, 1991; Loretto and Rajão 2005)<br/>Piraí Ecological Station (4,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro (?)<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (32,500 ha) (Cosenza and Melo 1998)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (36,000 ha) (Stallings and Robinson 1991)<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego (221 ha) (privately owned)<br/>Fazenda Monte Alegre Reserve (<em>c.</em>150 ha) (privately owned)<br/><br/>Rio de Janeiro<br/>Desengano State Park (22,400 ha)<br/>Pedra Branca State Park (12,500 ha)<br/><br/>São Paulo<br/>Jureia Ecological Station (24,065 ha)*<br/>Serra do Mar State Park (esp. Núcleo Cunha) (315,000 ha) (Corrêa 1995; Coutinho 1996)<br/>Cantareira State Park (7,000 ha)<br/>Alto Ribeira State Park (36,712 ha)<br/>Campos do Jordão State Park (8,342 ha)<br/>Vassununga State Park (1,676 ha)<br/>Mogi-Guaçú State Biological Reserve (469 ha)<br/>Mogi-Guaçú State Ecological Station (981 ha)<br/>Bauru State Ecological Station (288 ha)<br/>Bananal State Ecological Station (884 ha)<br/>Jureia-Itatins State Ecological Station (79,270 ha)<br/>Itapeti State Ecological Station (89 ha)<br/><br/>Brazil – Private Reserves<br/>Fazenda Monte Alegre Reserve (<em>c.</em>150 ha) (privately owned) Minas Gerais (Muskin 1984a,b)<br/>Fazenda Barreiro Rico Reserve (3,259 ha) (privately owned), São Paulo (Milton and De Lucca 1984).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
3570		distribution	eng	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> occurs in the montane rain forests of south-eastern Brazil, in the southern part of the state of Minas Gerais, the state of Rio de Janeiro, and the east and north-east of the state of São Paulo (see Coimbra-Filho 1986b; Olmos and Martuscelli 1995; Brandão and Develey 1998; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1996). Hershkovitz (1977) marks the northern limit in Minas Gerais as the Rio Muriaé, but it occurs to the north in the Rio Doce State Park in Minas Gerais (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1982), and hybrids (with <em>C. flaviceps</em>) have been recorded at Carangola in the Serra do Brigadeiro, Minas Gerais (Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Mendes 1997a,d; Cosenza and Melo 1998). Hershkovitz (1977) indicated the south-easternmost locality to be the Rio Ribeira de Iguapé in São Paulo. However, Olmos and Martuscelli (1995) failed to find evidence for this. They reported that extensive fieldwork (1982-1995) in such localities as the Fazenda Intervales State Park, Alto Ribeira State Park, Ilha do Cardoso and Carlos Botelho, and the Jureia Ecological Station and the muncipalities of Juquitiba amd Miracatú in the Serra da Paranapicaba consistently failed to find <em>C. aurita</em>. They proposed the southern limit to be near the city of São Paulo, north of the junction of the Rios Pinheiros and Tietê. The Rio Tieté forms the southernmost boundary and the most southerly record is close to Ipanema (23º26’S, 47º36’W), today Araçoiaba da Serra (the type locality for <em>Leontopithecus chrysopygus</em>). From there it extends west between the upper reaches of the Rios Tieté/Piracicaba. Again the exact limits are unclear, but believed by Olmos and Martusecelli (1995) to be the junction of these two rivers.<br/><br/>Brandão and Develey (1998) carried out surveys to understand better the range of <em>C. aurita</em>. Although generally believed to be largely montane in its range (600-1,200 m according to Olmos and Martuscelli (1995) and 500-800 m according to Rylands (1994)) museum specimens have been collected in the foothills of the Serra do Mar, south of Rio de Janeiro: Pedra Blanca, municipality of Paratí at 80 m, and Mambucaba, municipality of Angra dos Reis at 100 m (Brandão and Develey 1998). Coimbra-Filho (1991) and Mendes (1993) also indicated that it occurred elsewhere in lowland Rio de Janeiro, including the north-east, but is probably today extinct there. All recent records are montane. Brandão and Develey (1998) carried out extensive surveys of the lowland coastal forests of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and were unable to obtain evidence of the species’ existence anywhere except at Mambucaba where they found one in captivity and observed a group at 165 m.<br/><br/>This marmoset has been recorded north of the Rio Paraíba do Sul at the following sites: Mogi-Guaçú (Rio Mogi-Guaçú) by R. A. Mittermeier (unpubl.) and Muskin (1984); Alfenas, upper Rio Grande, in Minas Gerais (Hershkovitz 1977; Muskin 1984a); Vargem Grande, São Paulo (Muskin 1984a); Fazenda Monte Alegre, Monte Belo, Minas Gerais (Muskin 1984a) and in the vicinity of Viçosa, Minas Gerais (Mendes 1993); Serra do Capanema, Rio de Janeiro (21º03’S, 42º03’W) (Mendes 1993), Fazenda João Abdo, Rio de Janeiro (21º27’S, 41º56’W) (Mendes 1993). The westernmost locality shown by Hershkovitz (1977, p.490) is Boracéia, north-east of Bauru, on the upper Rio Tieté (22°10'S, 48°45'W), but Olmos and Martuscelli (1995) found this to be an outlier and suggested that locality really refers to the Boracéia Biological Station near the headwaters of the Rio Tietê.
3570		habitat	eng	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> occurs in the montane rain forests and forests of the inland plateau, at altitudes up to 1,300 m,  where dry season temperatures can fall close to freezing (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996; Brandão and Develey 1998). <em>Callithrix aurita</em> and <em>C. flaviceps</em> are the southernmost forms of marmosets in terms of the natural range of the genus (<em>C. jacchus</em>, <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em> have been introduced further south in Paraná, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Argentina). There is what would appear to be a natural hybrid zone with <em>Callithrix flaviceps</em>, at the Serra do Brigadeiro, Carangola, in south-eastern Minas Gerais (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1993; Cosenza 1993; Cosenza and Melo 1998).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging tree trunks and branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Brandão (1999) recorded a home range of 39.9 ha (extending as high as 1,350 m above sea level) for one group at the Bananal Ecological Station, São Paulo.<br/><br/>The ecology and behaviour of <em>C. aurita</em> has been studied by Muskin (1984a,b) and Martins (1998a,b; Martins and Setz 2000; Santos and Martins 2000) in southern Minas Gerais, Brandão (1999; Brandão and Devely 1998) at the Bananal State Ecological Station, and by Corrêa (1995; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996; Corrêa <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Coutinho (1996; Coutinho and Corrêa 1995) at the Núcleo Cunha of the Serra do Mar State Park in São Paulo, Brazil. Coutinho (1996) studied particularly the social and reproductive behaviour. <br/><br/>The dentition of <em>Callithrix aurita</em> is less specialized for tree-gouging to obtain gum than it is in <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata (see</em> Natori 1986). Despite this, gum is an important part of the diet year round, and largely obtained from sites where it is available without requiring gouging (Muskin 1984a,b; Coimbra-Filho 1991; Corrêa 1995; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996; Martins and Setz 2000). Martins (2000) recorded them foraging for prey over army ant (<em>Eciton burchelli</em>) swarms. Notable for this species is its consumption of fungi, otherwise recorded only in <em>Callimico goeldii</em>. They find the fruiting bodies of these fungi on the stems of bamboos <em>Merostachys</em> sp. and the South American mountain bamboo <em>Chusquea</em> sp., both of the family Poaceae.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Average weight male: 429 g (Muskin 1984a,b).
3570		population	eng	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> is nowhere common, and populations in the National Parks of Bocaina and Serra dos Orgãos are minimal (Coimbra-Filho 1984). Nine months of surveys in the Carlos Botelho State Park in the Serra do Paranapiacaba, in the south of its range, failed to provide any evidence for populations of this marmoset (Paccagnella 1991; see also Torres de Assumpção 1983). Although recorded as rare in the Itatiaia National Park by Ávila-Pires and Gouveia (1977), Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> (1982) reported it extinct there, although it may still occur in very reduced numbers (Coimbra-Filho 1986b). It is extremely rare in the private reserve of the Fazenda Barreiro Rico (3,259 ha of forest), São Paulo. Milton and Lucca (1984) estimated no more than 8–12 animals in the entire area. <br/><br/>Other recorded density estimates include: 15 individuals/km² at the Fazenda Barreiro Rico, São Paulo (Torres de Assumpção 1983); 0.02-0.08 individuals/km² in the Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais (Stallings and Robinson 1991); and 20-23 individuals/km² in the Serra do Mar State Park (esp. Núcleo Cunha), São Paulo (Corrêa 1995).
3570		threats	eng	The widespread destruction of the forests within its range, especially, for example, along the valley of the Rio Paraiba, and in the lowlands is a major threat to this species (Coimbra-Filho 1986b; Brandão and Develey 1998). It might still remain in some areas of the lowland forests of Rio de Janeiro (e.g., Mambucaba, Angra dos Reis), but is believed extinct from lowland forest in the state of São Paulo (Brandão and Develey 1998). <br/><br/>These animals are sometimes hunted for pets. It is possible that introduced <em>Callithrix jacchus</em> and <em>Callithrix penicillata</em> have competed, and still are competing, with and displacing this species in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo particularly. Many non-native <em>Callithrix</em> are also interbreeding with <em>C. aurita</em> resulting in hybridization, although the extent of this threat needs further investigation.
3571		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Caparaó National Park (31,853 ha) (part Espírito Santo)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station / RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (900 ha) (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1981).<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego Biological Station (221 ha) (privately owned)<br/><br/>Espírito Santo<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (4,492 ha) (Pinto <em>et al</em>. 1993)<br/>Pedra Azul State Reserve (993 ha) (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)<br/>Forno Grande State Reserve (340 ha) (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)<br/>São Lourenço Biological Station (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)  <br/>Santa Lucia Biological Station (350 ha) (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)<br/><br/>Attempts to establish a captive breeding program have to date been unsuccessful (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
3571		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>C. flaviceps</em> is described by Hershkovitz (1977), Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1981), and Coimbra-Filho (1986a). It occurs in the Serra da Mantiqueira in southern Espírito Santo, south of the Rio Doce at least to the state boundary with Rio de Janeiro (and in the past possibly in the north of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in the municipalities of Natividade, Porciuncula and the north of Bom Jesus do Itabapoãna when they were forested). It extends west into eastern Minas Gerais in scattered localities in the highly fragmented forests of the Rio Manhuaçu basin as far as Manhuaçú (40°02’W), as noted by Coimbra-Filho (1986a) Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1981) and Mendes and Melo (2007). Ferrari and Mendes (1991) and Mendes (1993) reviewed the distribution of <em>C. flaviceps</em>. Hirsch (2003; Hirsch <em>et al.</em> in prep.) obtained records in Minas Gerais which have extended its known range somewhat north and west, towards the east (right bank) of the Rio Doce (Fazenda Saet [19º43'S, 42º26'] and the Fazenda do Eraldo A. Alves [19º45'S, 42º25'] both at an altitiude of 270 m and about 10 km from the east bank of the Rio Doce, in the municipality of Pingo d’Água). Hirsch (2003) also refers to two localities which would extend the range a little further south in Minas Gerais, but they have still to be confirmed and may be hybrids with <em>C. aurita</em> (the left bank of the Rio Matipó, municipality of Abre Campo, and the Córrego Jurumirim, left bank of the Rio Casca, municipality of Rio Casca).
3571		habitat	eng	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> and <em>C. flaviceps</em> are the southernmost forms of marmosets in terms of the natural range of the genus (<em>C. jacchus</em>, <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em> have been introduced further south in Paraná, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Argentina). They occur in the montane Atlantic coastal forest and forests of the inland plateau, at altitudes up to 1,200 m where dry season temperatures can fall close to freezing (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996). They show a preference for disturbed forest, being rare in old growth forest with sparse understoreys (Ferrari 1988; Ferrari and Mendes 1991). There is a natural hybrid zone, with <em>Callithrix aurita</em>, at the Serra do Brigadeiro, Carangola, in south-eastern Minas Gerais (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1993; Cosenza 1993; Mendes 1997a; Cosenza and Melo 1998).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects) (see Ferrari 1988, 1991; Corrêa <em>et al</em>. 2000). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals.  Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>The ecology and behaviour of <em>C. flaviceps</em> has been studied by Ferrari (1988, 1991, Ferrari and Diego 1992) at the 880 ha Caratinga Biological Station in Minas Gerais. The home range of the group he studied was 35.5 ha. Guimarães (1998a, 1998b) also studied the same marmoset group at Caratinga.<br/><br/>The dentition of <em>Callithrix flaviceps</em> is less specialized for tree-gouging to obtain gum than it is in <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata (see</em> Natori 1986). Nevertheless, gum is an important part of the diet year round, and largely obtained from sites where it is available without requiring gouging (Ferrari 1988, 1991; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Average weight: 406 g (Rosenberger 1992).
3571		population	eng	Their distribution is locally patchy, being abundant in some areas, but rare or absent in others close by. <br/><br/>In Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Espírito Santo, Pinto <em>et al.</em> (1993) recorded a mean density of 7.1 individuals/km² (range = 3.4 - 18 injdividuals/km²). At the Caratinga Biological Station, Minas Gerais, the recorded density was 40 individuals/km² (Ferrari 1988).
3571		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range in an area where the forest is extremely fragmented through agriculture, cattle ranching, tree plantations (Eucalyptus), urbanization, and mining (Coimbra-Filho 1986a; 1990; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Mendes and Melo 2007). They are hunted for pets.<br/><br/>Mendes and Melo (2007) surveyed forest fragments in the Zona da Mata of the state of Minas Gerais, and recorded the presence of introduced populations of <em>Callithrix jacchus</em>, <em>C. peniciilata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em>, which they believe are displacing <em>C. flaviceps</em>. They recommended awareness campaigns to reduce the habit of releasing marmosets willy nilly, in the region centred on the town of Manhuaçú.
3572		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Serra do Cipo National Park (33,800 ha), Minas Gerais (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Fazenda Córrego de Areia Reserve (60 ha) (privately owned)<br/><br/>Espirito Santo<br/>Córrego Grande Biological Reserve (1,504 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999)<br/>Córrego do Veado Biological Reserve (2,392 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999)<br/>Sooretama Biological Reserve (27,943 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999)<br/>Comboios Biological Reserve (833 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Duas Bocas State Reserve (2,910 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Linhares Forest Reserve (21,787 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999))<br/>Goitacazes Forest Reserve (1,400 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Santa Lucia Biological Station (350 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Fazenda São Joaquim Reserve (Klabin Reserve) (1,505 ha)(Mendes 1991)<br/>Its occurrence in the Monte Pascoal National Park is in some doubt, and Oliver and Santos (1991) reported that <em>C. jacchus</em> had possibly been introduced there.<br/><br/>Bahia<br/>Porto Seguro Forest Reserve (6,069 ha)<br/>Pau Brasil Experimental Station (900 ha)<br/>Gregório Bondar Experimental Station (710 ha)<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
3572		distribution	eng	Geoffroy’s Marmoset occurs in the state of Espírito Santo and the forested eastern and north-eastern part of Minas Gerais, north as far as the Rios Jequitinhonha and Araçuaí and south to near the state border of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro (Ávila-Pires 1969; Hershkovitz 1977; Coimbra-Filho 1984; Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988). The populations just south of the Rio Jequitinhonha resulted from animals released near its mouth, at Belmonte, around 1975 (Coimbra-Filho 1986c). From there it spread eastward, and today also occurs in gallery forests throughout the region of dry thorn scrub (<em>caatinga</em>) of the middle reaches of the river (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988). Vivo (1991) limits it to the east of the Serra do Espinhaço in Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from the eastern slopes of Serra do Cipó, a southerly section of the Serra do Espinhaço range, at an altitude of 1,274 m (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hybrid populations of <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em> have been observed in some parts of the Serra da Piedade along the Rio Piracicaba, affluent of the upper Rio Doce, where the Atlantic coastal forest gives way to the cerrado (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1993; Passamani <em>et al.</em> 1997). The range of <em>C. geoffroyi</em> overlaps with <em>C. flaviceps</em> (see below) in southern Espírito Santo (south of the Rio Doce) and south-eastern Minas Gerais. However, <em>C. geoffroyi</em> is generally restricted to lowland areas, below 500–700 m, and <em>C. flaviceps</em> to altitudes above 400–500 m (Coimbra-Filho 1971; Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1981). Hershkovitz (1977) asserted that the highest recorded locality for <em>C. geoffroyi</em> is Santa Teresa, 659 m above sea level, but Mendes (1993, 1997a) has observed mixed bands of <em>C. geoffroyi</em> and <em>C. flaviceps</em> at altitudes of 800 m. Hybrid populations have been recorded for intermediate elevations (Mendes 1993, 1997a).
3572		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and sub-montane forest, and dry forest patches in desert scrub (the north of its range in the Jequitinonha valley) (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988; Passamani 1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. Passamani and Rylands (2000b) recorded a home range of 23.3 ha, in a forest fragment of 119 ha surrounded by a Eucalyptus plantation, in the state of Espírito Santo.<br/><br/>Passamani (1996, 1998; Passamani and Rylands 2000a,b) studied the behaviour and ecology of a group of five <em>C. geoffroyi</em> in a forest fragment amongst <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations of Aracruz Cellulose Cia., in Espirito Santo.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Males 359 g (n=46) (Rosenberger 1992).
3572		population	eng	Chiarello (1995) recorded a density of 10.5 groups/km² and a total population of about 1,644 individuals in the Linhares Forest Reserve (21,800 ha) of the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, in northern Espírito Santo, Brazil. Subsequently, Chiarello (1999) surveyed <em>Callithrix geoffroyi</em> in a number of areas in the state of Espírito Santo. In the Sooretama Biological Reserve (24,250 ha) he recorded encounter rates of 1.81 groups/10 km, and in the Linhares Forest Reserve, 2.16 groups/10 km. Densities were lower in the smaller forests of the Córrego do Veado Biological reserve (2,400 ha) and Córrego Grande Biological Reserve (1,504 ha), at 1.05 groups/10 km and 0.15 groups/10 km, respectively.
3572		threats	eng	Although considered an adaptable species, populations are declining because of widespread destruction of the Atlantic forest in the states of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Less than 6.8% of the original area of Atlantic forest remains in the state of Minas Gerais (Fonseca 1985). Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> (1982) and Coimbra-Filho (1986c) recommended that this species be considered endangered, but Oliver and Santos (1991) found that although it was patchily distributed, it remained locally abundant, and concluded that the species is not seriously threatened at the present time. It is occasionally hunted for pets.
3575		conservation	eng	Occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Una Biological Reserve (18,500 ha)<br/>Serra do Conduru State Park (8,941 ha)<br/>Serra das Lontras National Park (16,800 ha)<br/>Una Wildlife Refuge (23,000 ha)<br/>Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (495 ha) <br/>Canavieiras Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (500 ha)<br/><br/>The expansion of the Una Bioloigcal Reserve is ongoing and of importance for this species as well as <em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> and <em>Leontopithecus chrysomelas</em>.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
3575		distribution	eng	<em>Callithrix kuhlii</em> occurs between the Rio de Contas and Rio Jequitinhonha in southern Bahia, just entering the north-easternmost tip of the state of Minas Gerais (Santos <em>et al.</em> 1987; Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988). The western boundary is not well known, but undoubtedly defined by the inland limits of the Atlantic coastal forest. I. B. Santos (in Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988) observed hybrids of <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. kuhlii</em> in the region of Almenara, Minas Gerais, left bank of the Rio Jequitinhonha (16°41’S, 40°51’W). Its range is largely coincident with that of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin <em>Leontopithecus chrysomelas</em>. These two callitrichids are broadly sympatric.<br/><br/>Surveys in 1986/1987 by Oliver and Santos (1991) demonstrated the presence of forms intermediate in appearance between <em>C. kuhlii</em> and <em>C. penicillata </em>north from the Rio de Contas, along the coast up to the regions of Valença and Nazaré, just south of the city of Salvador (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1988). Individuals observed by Rylands near to Nazaré, just south of the city of Salvador lacked the white frontal blaze, and, although retaining the pale cheek patches typical of <em>kuhlii</em>, were paler grey. A photograph of the marmoset from Valença, Bahia, north of the Rio de Contas, is shown in Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. (1988, p.19). The variation in pelage colour of the marmosets in this region is considerable, but Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. (1991/1992), showed that true <em>C. kuhlii</em> extended north through coastal Bahia into the state of Sergipe as far as the Rio São Francisco in the recent past. The present-day confusion has arisen from the widespread forest destruction, most marked and nearly total in Sergipe, and the introductions and invasions of <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em>.
3575		habitat	eng	An Atlantic forest species occurring in lowland and sub-montane humid forest, seasonal (mesophytic) rain forest, <em>restinga</em> and white sand piaçava forest. Also known to use <em>cabruca</em> - cacao plantations which are shaded with some native trees remaining from the original forest. They have been observed in secondary growth forest in abandoned rubber plantations. <em>Callithix kuhlii</em> is an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites. Near the coast, in the cocoa growing region, there is no distinct dry season with rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm a year (the heaviest rains are from March to June), but in the west of their range the forests are mesophytic with a distinct dry season, and in some areas the forests are semideciduous, with rainfall as low as 1,000 mm a year (Rylands 1989; Pinto and Rylands 1997). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Rylands (1982) observed groups sizes of 5 to 9 individuals (mean 6.56 ±1.33, n=8). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. Rylands (1982, 1989) recorded a home range of 12 ha for a group of 5 individuals.<br/><br/>Rylands (1982, 1984, 1989) studied the behaviour and ecology of <em>C. kuhliii</em> at the Lemos Maia Experimental Station, Una, Bahia.  B. Raboy and G. Canale are also studying this species in the Una Biological Reserve (Raboy and Dietz 2000; Raboy <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Males 482 g (n=55) (Smith and Jungers 1997).
3575		population	eng	Population densities recorded from the Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC), Una, Bahia were 8.70-9.09 groups/km² or 50.00-68.06 individuals/km², along three trails of 1 km, 1 km and 1.5 km (Rylands 1982).
3575		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is forest loss and fragmentation, most particularly in the west of their range where cattle ranches predominate and forest fragmentation is most severe. They are also hunted for pets.
3590		conservation	eng	Following the termination of the Interim Convention on the Conservation of the North Pacific Fur Seal in 1984, the Northern Fur Seal is now managed on land independently by the Commonwealth of Independent States and the United States. The eastern north Pacific stock of the Northern Fur Seal was listed as depleted under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1988, and a final conservation plan was completed in December 2007.
3590		distribution	eng	Northern Fur Seals are a widely-distributed pelagic species in the waters of the North Pacific Ocean and the adjacent Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan. They range from Northern Baja California, Mexico north and offshore across the North Pacific to Northern Honshu, Japan. The southern limit of their distribution at sea is approximately 35° N.  Vagrants reach the Yellow Sea in the west and eastern Beaufort Sea in the Arctic. The vast majority of the population breeds on the Pribilof Islands, with substantial numbers on the Commander Islands as well. Still other sites are used, including San Miguel Island in California, Bogoslof Island in the Bering Sea, and Robben Island off Sakhalin Island in Russia. Many animals, especially juveniles, migrate from the Bering Sea south to southern California or the waters off Japan, to spend the winter feeding.
3590		habitat	eng	Northern Fur Seals exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism, with males being 30-40% longer and more than 4.5 times heavier than adult females. Males can be as large as 2.1 m and 270 kg. Females can be up to 1.5 m and 50 kg or more. Newborns weigh 5.4-6 kg, and are 60-65 cm long. Pups are blackish at birth, with variable oval areas of buff on the sides, in the axillary area and on the chin and sides of the muzzle. After 3-4 months, pups moult to the colour of adult females and subadults. Northern Fur Seals become sexually mature at 3-5 years old, at which time females usually produce one pup a year for most of the rest of their lives. Gestation lasts 51 weeks, which includes a delay of implantation of 3.5 to 4 months. Longevity of this species is 25 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Males do not become physically mature, and large enough to compete for a territory that will be used by females, until they are 8-9 years old. The generation time for females is approximately 12-15 years depending on the determination methods used.<br/><br/>Breeding on the Pribilof Islands occurs from mid-June through August, with a peak in early July (the median date in southern California is approximately 2 weeks earlier than at the Pribilofs). This is a highly polygynous species. Males arrive at the rookeries up to one month before females and vocalize, display and fight to establish and maintain territories.<br/><br/>Northern Fur Seals usually give birth a day after arrival at the rookery. Mean time from birth to oestrous is 5.3 days, followed by a departure for a mean of 8.3 days for the first feeding trip. Females breeding at the Pribilof Islands are located relatively far from the foraging areas, which are concentrated at the edge of the continental shelf and hence females in this population consistently make longer foraging trips than most other female otariids, with a mean trip length of 6.9 days. Once foraging begins the mean depth of dives is 68 m and average duration is 2.2 minutes with maximum depth recorded of 207 m and maximum duration of 7.6 minutes. Pups are visited 8-12 times over the lactation period and attended for a mean of 2.1 days during each visit, before being abruptly weaned at 4 months old.<br/><br/>Northern Fur Seals are one of the most pelagic pinnipeds. They spend most of the year at sea, rarely (if ever) returning to land between one breeding season and the next. Thus, males spend an average of only 45 days ashore a year and females only 35 days a year. Once weaned, juveniles go to sea and do not haul-out until they return, usually to the island of their birth, 2-3 years later. At sea, Northern Fur Seals are most likely to be encountered alone or in pairs, with groups of 3 or more being uncommon. They forage relatively far from shore, over the edge of the continental shelf and slope. Diving is concentrated around dawn and dusk. Northern fur seals spend quite a bit of time rafting at the surface, either asleep or grooming. They employ a wide variety of resting postures, including raising one or more flippers into the air, and draping one of their fore flippers over both of the rear flippers to form a posture known as the "jug handle" position.<br/><br/>Many animals, especially juveniles, migrate from the Bering Sea south to California or the waters off Japan, to spend the winter feeding.<br/><br/>The diet varies by location and season and includes many varieties of epipelagic and vertically-migrating mesopelagic schooling and non-schooling fish and squid. Prey species of importance in the waters off California and Washington include anchovy, hake, saury, several species of squid and rockfish, and salmon. In Alaskan waters, Walleye Pollock, Capelin, Sand Lance, Herring, Atka Mackerel, and several species of squid are important prey.<br/><br/>Predators include Killer Whales, sharks, and Steller Sea Lions.
3590		population	eng	The current global population was estimated to be approximately 1.1 million in 2004-2005. Abundance is declining. The overall decline is not proportional with the regions where the greatest decreases are occurring - in the Pribilof Islands – in fact, the small populations in the Kuril Islands and on Bogoslof Island in the Aleutians have increased. Approximate individual site population sizes are estimated as follows: Pribilof Islands: 688,028: Commander Islands: 225,000-230,000; Robben Island: 88,000; Kuril Islands: 45,000-50,000; San Miguel Island: 7,784 (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). The Pribilof Islands population declined at 6.2% annually on St. Paul Island and 4.5% annually on St. George Island between 1998 – 2004 (Towell <em>et al</em>. 2006). Pup production on St. Paul again dropped, by 10.5% between 2004 and 2006. Once containing approximately 75% of the world population of northern fur seals, the Pribilofs currently have approximately 50%. Estimated pup production on St. Paul Island in 2004 was at a level equal to that observed in 1918, which was a time when the population was growing at a rate of 8% annually following cessation of the pelagic harvests (Towell <em>et al</em>. 2006), so the current declines are quite perplexing.
3590		threats	eng	Northern Fur Seals have one of the longest and most complex histories of commercial harvesting, which began when the main breeding colonies were discovered in the late 18th century; exploitation continued through until 1984. Numerous international treaties and agreements were put in force over time in efforts to manage this species. There were many periods of decline and recovery over this long period. It is estimated that the population numbered up to 2.5 million animals in the 1950s. They may have been considerably more numerous than this level back when there were many more active rookeries, before the onset of exploitation by Europeans and Americans.<br/><br/>Northern Fur Seals compete for Walleye Pollock with one of the largest commercial fisheries world. Measurable annual mortality, especially for juveniles and subadults, is caused by entanglements in derelict and discarded fishing gear, marine debris and direct interactions with commercial fisheries. This mortality was highest during the period of active high seas drift net fishing in the North Pacific in the 1980s. But, entanglement in debris is an ongoing problem. Long-term ecosystem regime change in the North Pacific and possible changes in the foraging patterns of a key predator (the Killer Whale), may be working synergistically with the fisheries related issues to cause the current population decline.<br/><br/>Like all fur seals, Northern Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation. The small colonies at San Miguel Island in the California Channel Islands and on the Farallon Island may be at greatest risk due to proximity to major harbours, shipping lanes and offshore oil extraction facilities.<br/><br/>The effect of global climate change on this species is uncertain. However, any further negative disruption of the ecosystem of the northern fur seal should be considered a threat.<br/><br/>Small numbers of Northern Fur Seals are taken annually by Alaska Natives in a subsistence harvest on the Pribilof Islands. For the period 1999-2003, the average annual harvest was 869 animals; all animals taken were juvenile and sub-adult males. Subsistence harvest has declined in recent years to the level of 478 taken in 2007 on both Pribilof Islands (Lestenkoff and Zavadil 2007, Malavansky 2007).
3591		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas across its range.
3591		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the lowlands and hills in Sabah and Sarawak, Borneo, below the altitudinal range of <em>Callosciurus orestes</em> (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
3591		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dipterocarp forest (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
3591		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
3591		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
3592		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
3592		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northern Sumatra (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
3592		habitat	eng	These squirrels are found in primary forests in lowland and riparian and regularly flooded areas, as well as degraded, secondary forest and scrub.
3592		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
3592		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
3593		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas across its range, including Kinabalu National Park.
3593		distribution	eng	This species has been found above 300 m elevation in Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia.
3593		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary forest, but also occurs in secondary forest and agricultural lands.
3593		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
3593		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
3594		conservation	eng	Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
3594		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, peninsular Myanmar and Malaysia, and small adjacent islands including Langkawi in the west (Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is found west of the Mekong and east of the Salween (Moore and Tate 1965). It is likely to occur in the small parts of Lao PDR west of the Mekong but thes have not been surveyed adequately yet (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has also been recorded from Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
3594		habitat	eng	This squirrel is well adapted to the presence of people. It may be found in plantations, cultivated areas, second growth and gardens, as well as forest. In natural habitats it seems to prefer dense dipterocarp forests with thick brushy vegetation. It may be found up to 2,500 m, but is usually found at lower elevations (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/>The Gray-bellied Squirrel is normally diurnal and arboreal (Saiful and Nordin 2004), although it sometimes descends to the ground to pick up food, which it then carries into a tree and eats. The diet consists of fruit and some insects. The spherical nest is built on the upper branches of a bush or small tree. The home range is small compared with other arboreal squirrels, and does not change in size seasonally.<br/>It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004).
3594		population	eng	This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment). It is common in Kuala Lumpur Parks (W. Duckworth pers. comm.) and in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand (W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
3594		threats	eng	The are no major threats to this species.
3595		conservation	eng	It is known from the following protected areas in India: Eagle’s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Sessa Orchid Sanctuary and Tale Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It Ispresumably present in many protected areas in China and Southeast Asia.
3595		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northeastern South Asia, much of central and southern China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is known to occur in Bangladesh and northeastern India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is widely distributed in the region. In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Yunnan, Guandong, Guangxi, Hunan, Guizhou, Hainan Island, Xizang, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan and Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded from the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it is present in Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, eastern Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia.
3595		habitat	eng	It is diurnal and arboreal species typically occurring in subtropical montane evergreen and broadleaved forests, although in China it is also present in subalpine coniferous forests or in a mix of conifers and broadleaf trees at altitudes above 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy. Very flexible in terms of habitat; Duckworth and Robichaud (2005) found in heavily degraded scrub landscapes with small degraded forest patches in far northern Lao PDR, It has a generation time of two to three years.
3595		population	eng	This is generally a locally common species. During a survey of Lao PDR in 1994-95, Evans <em>et al.</em> (2000) found this species to be common and widespread as did Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1994.
3595		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Hunting for consumption has depleted some South Asian populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3596		conservation	eng	A major structured program of collecting is required to clarify the complex taxonomy of this species in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are many named and still unnamed forms in Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam some of which have small ranges.
3596		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in central Indochina from central Myanmar southeast through much of Thailand and Lao PDR and Cambodia to the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam (Moore and Tate 1965; Corbet and Hill 1992; Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/>An apparently undescribed form of this species was found in the limestone mountains of central Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). A small introduced population exists in Singapore (B. Lee pers. comm.).
3596		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, found in many habitats including open woods, coconut plantations, and dense forest (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). It is very tolerant of degradation and fragmentation (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). Ecological overlap with <em>C. erythraeus</em> seems to be extremely restricted but is know from parts of Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).
3596		population	eng	It is common across at least its Lao range living at very high densities in large blocks of habitat. Small numbers are found in fragmented and degraded patches (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). The introduced population on Singapore is less than 20 individuals (B. Lee pers. comm.).
3596		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
3597		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It probably occurs in protected areas in China. It has been regionally Red Listed, in China, as Vulnerable A1cd; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
3597		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Yunnan, China (Smith and Xie 2008), Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000), and Viet Nam (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
3597		habitat	eng	This species has been found in secondary and disturbed forest in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has also been found in both wet and dry evergreen forest (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). Observations in Viet Nam and Lao PDR suggest that this is actually an edge and disturbed forest species (Lunde, Timmins, Duckworth pers. comm.).
3597		population	eng	This species is relatively common and abundant in Viet Nam (Timmins and Lunde pers. comm.). In Lao PDR, it is found sporadically and at low density in large forest blocks (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000), but large populations occur in secondary forest and scrub in north Lao PDR (Duckworth and Robichaud 2005) and probably central Lao PDR (Duckworth pers. comm.).
3597		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species is hunted in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). Large populations persist close to villages in Phongsali, and there is no evidence that hunting is a threat (Duckworth pers. comm.). Habitat loss may not be a threat as the species may actually benefit from the shifting cultivation system (Duckworth pers. comm.).
3598		conservation	eng	This species is present in Siberut National Park.
3598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mentawai Archipelago, Indonesia. It occurs on Siberut, Sipura, and North Pagai islands (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
3598		habitat	eng	This species lives in lowland primary and secondary forest.
3598		population	eng	Population of this species has been much reduced due to forest loss on all three islands.
3598		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
3599		conservation	eng	Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
3599		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern part of Malaysia, on Sumatra and Java, and on the islands of Tioman and Tambelan (Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is also found in southern Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
3599		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal squirrel, living in primary and secondary forest, from lowlands to montane areas; occurring also in<br/>mixed areas with cropland and tree cover. This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004).
3599		population	eng	The population of this species is stable. This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment).
3599		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
3600		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range and there are no conservation measures needed for this species (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.).
3600		distribution	eng	This species is found from Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand to Java, Bali, Lombok, and Borneo (Lekagul and McNeely 1988; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is also widespread on smaller islands. The population on Salajar island, south of Sulawesi, has been introduced possibly from Java (Musser 1987). This species is found from lowland up to 1,500 m.
3600		habitat	eng	<em>C. notatus</em> is a very adaptable species, as it is found in secondary forests, plantations, and all kinds of habitats, though not so common in pristine forest (Han pers. comm.). Ancestral habitats appear to be mangroves and major natural disturbances along big rivers (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005). Now it is very common in towns, scrub, secondary forest, forest edge and urban parks (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em> pers. comm.).<br/>This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), though it dies descend to the ground to forage (Han pers. comm.). The diet of this species consists of fruit (42%) and bark 40% (A. Saiful pers. comm.), as well as insects and rubber tree latex (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
3600		population	eng	This species is abundant and widespread. It was the most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of 5.35 ± 1.73 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. Evidently it has greatly expanded with human encroachment on Sundaic forests (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). This species is very common in oil palm plantation in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia to the extent of becoming a pest.
3600		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
3601		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
3601		distribution	eng	This species is found in north east Borneo at middle elevations (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
3601		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to lower montane forest and to upper dipterocarp forest. It is active in small and<br/>medium-sized trees, feeding on fruits and black ants.
3601		population	eng	The population appears to be stable.
3601		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
3602		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
3602		distribution	eng	This species is found in China, western Yunnan, extending into Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
3602		habitat	eng	This species appears to inhabit the rain forest vegetation area from the mouth of the Salween river northward. It occurs in primary and secondary broadleaved forest, but it is found also in mixed areas with cropland and tree cover. Phayre’s Squirrel is apparently the medium-sized tree squirrel in these tropical deciduous forests.
3602		population	eng	The population seems to be stable.
3602		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
3603		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
3603		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern part of Thailand, throughout Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, and on many smaller islands of Southeast Asia and Peninsular Malaysia (Corbett and Hill 1992; Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001). Also found in northern Sulawesi where it has been introduced Musser (1987).
3603		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), descending only occasionally to ground to forage (Han pers. comm.). This species can tolerate secondary forest, and often enters fruit orchards (Han pers. comm.). <br/>This species is found in the dense rainforests of the southern Thai peninsula, eating mostly fruit, but also some arthropods, and is considered a pest of oil palm and coconut plantations (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
3603		population	eng	This species was the second most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a denisty of 3.29 ± 1.54 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malayasia: in Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 7.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al</em>. (1996) found 2.98 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak. In general, throughout its range it is fairly common (Han pers. comm.) and stable.
3603		threats	eng	The remaining habitat of this lowland species is very small. A substantial part of its native range has been replaced by plantations. In parts of Sarawak it is very heavily hunted for pets (Giman and Han pers. comm.).
3604		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia - Namdapha National Park and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh, and Gorumara National Park and Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal in India; Royal Chitwan National Park in Central Nepal  (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey and monitoring are recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
3604		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species is present in northeastern South Asia, southern China and western Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is widely distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal at elevations of 500 to 1,560 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from southern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is largely confined to western and central Myanmar.
3604		habitat	eng	In general, this is a diurnal and arboreal species that occupies mid canopy temperate, tropical and subtropical moist forest with thick to moderate evergreen forest patches (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Nepal, it has been reported from riverine woodland (Shrestha pers. comm.). It appear to be tolerant of some habitat modification. In Bangladesh and China the species has been recorded from gardens, plantations (including bananas) and cane shrubs (Sarkar pers. comm. and Smith and Xie 2008). The species reproduces once each year, with a litter size averaging three to four young (Smith and Xie 2008).
3604		population	eng	The species is rare in Nepal (Shrestha pers. comm.), fairly common in Bangladesh (Sarker pers.comm.), and stable in Myanmar (Lunde, Duckworth, Lee and Tizard pers. comm.). In Chillapat forest, West Bengal, India, the density was estimated at 0.05 individuals per hectare in 1983. However, a similar study in 2002 revealed the density to be 0.03 individuals per hectare due to the decrease in canopy cover from 65 to 40 percent (S. Chakraborty pers. comm. 2005).
3604		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from shifting agriculture, small-scale and selective logging, clear cutting of forest, the establishment of human settlements, forest fires, and hunting for local consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is generally threatened by habitat loss (Wang, Zheng, and Kobayashi 1989). The species is used for medicinal purposes in Nepal (Sarker pers. comm.). The threats in Southeast Asia are not known.
3605		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance in Myanmar and adjacent Yunnan.
3605		distribution	eng	This species is found in a small part of north eastern Myanmar and adjacent western Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
3605		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in mountain forests above about 1,000 m, but can also be found in the lowlands.  It lives alone or in small family groups. Nests are built of twigs, and placed on the outer branches of small trees. The diet consists of vegetation and a fair proportion of insects.
3605		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
3605		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
3609		conservation	eng	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
3609		distribution	eng	This species occurs in yungas areas on the eastern slopes of the Andes in western Bolivia, from 1,000 to 2,700 m. The species has not been recorded from Peru, but occurs close to the Peruvian border in Bolivia and may occur further north. In Argentina it is found in Salta, Jujuy and Tucuman provinces.
3609		habitat	eng	It is found in yungas habitat.
3609		population	eng	It is a common species.
3609		threats	eng	No major threats. The species is often treated as a pest species.
3610		conservation	eng	It is in two national parks in Argentina.
3610		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina in Entrerios, Corrientes, Chaco y Santa Fe.
3610		habitat	eng	This species has been found in dry shrublands/Espinal.
3610		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
3610		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
3611		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. The species occurs in Cerro Cora National Park, Paraguay (Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em> 2002) and in several protected areas in Brazil (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
3611		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east Bolivia, north Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, Jujuy, Salta y Santiago provinces), Paraguay, and contiguous west central Brazil; isolated records in southeast and east Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul States) (see Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It is present from lowland to 2,050 m.
3611		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry and subhumid areas. <em>Calomys callosus</em> is a species of open vegetation formations (Cerrado and Pantanal), especially common in areas disturbed by humans. In Paraguay it was trapped in palm savannas in bunchgrass meadows, and in dry marshes. In the Brazilian caatinga it is found in the later seral stages of old field succession and in low thorn scrub, whereas in central Brazil it is most common where forest has been cleared and grass planted. Animals from central Brazilian population have a gestation period averaging 21.8 days (range 20-23, n = 43), a litter size averaging 4.5 (range 2 to 9, n = 13), and an average neonatal weight of 2.3 g (n = 42). Young open their eyes on the sixth or seventh day, and lactation lasts fifteen to seventeen gays.
3611		population	eng	It is a common and very abundant species (Bonvicino pers. comm.). The species experiences large population fluctuations (G. D'Elia pers. comm.).
3611		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There are threats in Brazil from habitat destruction and fragmentation, mainly in the Cerrado region (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
3612		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
3612		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the llanos of northeast Colombia (La Guajira), north, central, and south Venezuela, the continental shelf islands, Curaçao and Aruba (Linares 1998, Musser and Carleton 2005), and Brazil (one specimen).
3612		habitat	eng	This primarily herbivorous and nocturnal mouse is found in sandy grassland habitats. It occurs in lowlands, pastures and very sandy floors; in low vegetation and in primary zones (J. Ochoa and B. Rivas pers. comm).<br/><br/>The gestation is believed to be less than twenty-five days, and five young have been reported as the typical litter. It was the first described in the Dutch West Indies from the islands of Curaçao and Aruba. It is unknown how it became distributed in the Dutch West Indies (Hershkovitz 1962). That <em>Calomys</em> has a scattered distribution in the semiarid portions of Colombia and Venezuela suggests this is a natural, relictual distribution (Eisenberg 1989).
3612		population	eng	It is a rare species (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
3612		threats	eng	The major threats are degradation and loss of savanna habitats, including by conversion to pasture and pine and eucalyptus plantations, and by fires induced by humans.
3613		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (Christoff pers. comm.).
3613		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south central Bolivia (Chaco), north and east central Argentina, west Paraguay, west central and extreme south Brazil and Uruguay (González <em>et al.</em>, 1995).
3613		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in dry biotopes (González <em>et al.</em>, 1995), agricultural areas, open vegetation (Christoff pers. comm.), meadows, mountain ranges and coastal sandbanks (Gonzalez 2001). Gestation is 25 days and produces litters of 4-8 young (Gonzalez 2001)
3613		population	eng	This species is relatively common in Rio Grande do Sul; also common in agricultural areas and open vegetation throughout the range (Christoff pers. comm.).
3613		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species (Christoff pers. comm.).
3614		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
3614		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano of central Peru, through western Bolivia, to northeast Chile and northwest Argentina (Jujuy, Salta and Tucuman Provinces) (Díaz, 1999; Ortiz <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,600 to 5,000 m.
3614		habitat	eng	This is a species of the high-altitude grasslands; it can be found in stone walls and rocky areas.
3614		population	eng	It is a very common species.
3614		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
3615		conservation	eng	The range includes several protected areas.
3615		distribution	eng	This species occurs in arid habitats over wide elevations in west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), western Paraguay, and Argentina (Jujuy and Salta provinces as far south as Chubut; Díaz 2000; Mares <em>et al.</em> 1997; Ortiz <em>et al.</em> 2000; Pearson 1995); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005). Pocasi <em>et al.</em> (2005) predict that the range extends to parts of Peru and Uruguay and Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em> (2001) suggest the range may extend as far as central Brazil - but no records have been found to validate these inferences.
3615		habitat	eng	This species is seasonally reproductive, breeding during the longer photoperiods from spring to the beginning of autumn (Buzzio and Castro-Vasquez 2002). It is a highland species typically found at middle elevations above 1,000 m (Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em> 2001).This species occurs in lower abundances in disturbed areas and favours shrubland creosotebush habitats (Tabeni and Ojeda 2005). Found strongly associated with croplands in Argentine agroecosystems (Yahnke 2006).
3615		population	eng	This species is abundant.
3615		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
3616		conservation	eng	It is present in at least 14 protected areas. Other than further taxonomic studies of this species complex, no further direct conservation measures are needed.
3616		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Peruvian Andes, from Libertad Department, in the north, to Puno Department, in the south (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 4,600 m.
3616		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of montane habitats including <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, shrubland, grassland, pasture and cropland.
3616		population	eng	It is a common species.
3616		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
3617		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout the range (Marihno-Filho pers. comm.).
3617		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region and habitats bordering the Cerrado, south east Brazil (south Goiás, Minas Gerais, São Paulo States), in northeast Argentina (Misiones Province; Massoia, 1988) and east Bolivia (Anderson, 1997); range limits need refinement (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
3617		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in cerrado; it is also found in Atlantic forest borders (Bonvicino pers. comm.) and thrives in disturbed habitats (Marihno-Filho pers. comm.).
3617		population	eng	This rodent is relatively common in Brazil (Bonvicino and Reis pers. comm.) and there are no reasons to suggest that it would not be relatively common through the rest of the range (Weksler pers. comm.).
3617		threats	eng	Although habitat destruction occurs throughout the range, it is not considered to be a serious threat to this species (Marihno-Filho pers. comm.).
3618		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in protected areas. More information is needed on distribution, population status and trends.
3618		distribution	eng	The species is found in Iran. A single specimen collected in southeastern Turkey may belong to this species, but this requires taxonomic confirmation.
3618		habitat	eng	Relatively little is known about its ecology. The species is found in barren, dry and rocky mountainsides with little vegetation. The breeding season is long with early pregnancy observed from October to November, two litters per year is usual (Harrison and Bates 1991).
3618		population	eng	Unknown.
3618		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
3619		conservation	eng	The species is protected in the following protected areas within Pakistan such as Hazar Ganji National Park (Baluchistan), Dureji Game Reserve and Kirthar National Park (Sindh) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ecological, population and distribution studies are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3619		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Afghanistan and Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Roberts 1997; Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has been recorded from sea level to around 600 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
3619		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid areas where it inhabits rocky places with scattered scrub. It is a loosely colonial species which lives under rocks and burrows. It is nocturnal, fossorial and gregarious animal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Norris <em>et al</em>. (2008) report that it 'inhabits rocky terrain often sparsely covered with pistachio (<em>Pistacia cabulica</em>) or juniper (<em>Juniperus excelsa</em>) trees'.
3619		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
3619		threats	eng	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.
3620		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas within its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3620		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southeastern Iran and southwestern Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Norris <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has been recorded between 67 and 1,890 m asl (Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008).
3620		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid rocky habitats in association with dwarf palms (<em>Nannorrhops ritchieana</em>), and dry, rocky mountain tops with sparse shrubby vegetation at elevations of up to 1,890 m asl (Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008).
3620		population	eng	It varies in population density from a 0.6% trap success rate at some localities to 4-8% success in other sites (Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008).
3620		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In Pakistan, the species is reported to be threatened by expansion of agriculture and settlements (Mike Jordan pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3621		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas in Turkmenia.
3621		distribution	eng	Distributed in S Turkmenia (Kopetdag, Great and Lesser Balkhan, south-western Badkhyz), Transcaucasia (south of Nakhichevan Republic), Northern Iran and possibly NW Afghanistan. In Transcaucasia found up to 1650 m, in Iran up to 3000 m. The distribution map shows the approximate distribution of the species, but that this needs verification.
3621		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky mountain steppe, especially cliff openings and rock deposits, including those with shrubs or rare cereal and wormwood vegetation. Also was found in juniper stang boscage. Lives in groups or solitarily. In summer active only at night, in spring and autumn also diurnal. Feeds mainly on seeds, also to a lesser extent on leaves and shoots of grasses and shrubs. In captivity they have occasionally been observed to consume insects, their larvae and small spiders. Reproduces from end of March till beginning of May. Litter size is usually 3-5, maximally up to 7. Some females have second litter at the beginning of summer.
3621		population	eng	Abundance depends on the local availability of suitable habitats. In areas with high number of shelters it is abundant, in less suitable habitats it is rare. There are no population fluctuations, and in suitable habitats it is always abundant. Population trend is stable (Malikov pers. comm.).
3621		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
3622		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place. More research is needed to gather data on the distribution of this species, its habitat, ecology and major threats.
3622		distribution	eng	<em>Calomyscus tsolovi</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region, known only from the Derra district in southwest Syria (Harrison and Bates 1991). This locality likely does not represent where the species was actually recorded. Only the type series is known (around 15 specimens). Surveys have failed to locate the species in northern Jordan (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). The range limits for the species are unknown.
3622		habitat	eng	This species probably occupies similar habitats to other members of its genus (rocky desert and semi-desert).
3622		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series; there is no information available on population size or trend.
3622		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
3623		conservation	eng	Need research on distribution, habitat ecology and threats.
3623		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to extreme southern Transcaucasus (Azerbaijan) and far northwestern Iran (northwestern Azarbaijan Province).
3623		habitat	eng	Poorly known species. Inhabits rocky mountain steppe, including stone placer with shrubs and light grass and wormwood vegetation. Lives in groups or solitary. In summer only nocturnal, in spring and autumn also diurnal. Feed mainly on seeds, rarely on leaves and sprouts. Reproduce from end of March till beginning of June. Litter size is 3-5 young.
3623		population	eng	Unknown.
3623		threats	eng	No major threats identified based on similar habitat types for conspecifics.
3626		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
3626		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to central Australia. There have been no reliable records of the species since 1935, but there were unconfirmed sightings in Queensland following periods of rain in 1956-1957 and 1974-1975 (Carr and Robinson 1997).
3626		habitat	eng	The desert rat-kangaroo was found on gibber plains, clay pans, and sandridges. Individual animals formed shallow nests under a bush or in the open (Smith and Johnson 2008).
3626		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct. It was apparently never abundant (Smith and Johnson 2008).
3626		threats	eng	Direct habitat alteration by humans and introduced predators (cats and foxes) contributed to the extinction of this species.
3627		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States.
3627		habitat	eng	Rapid riffles of larger streams (Westfall and May 1996). Small rivers and large streams, particularly at rapids and riffles (Lam 2004).
3627		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
3627		threats	eng	None currently known.
3628		conservation	eng	Protection of pristine river sections in nature reserves or protected areas. <em>Calopteryx syriaca</em> is found in protected areas.
3628		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx syriaca</em> is an endemic of the southern Levant with a restricted distribution along the river systems of the Levant: upper course of the Orontes (not beyond 35°N), Litani, Jordan, coastal rivers between 35°N and 32°N. Populations in the Wadis of the Dead Sea Valley do no longer exist (Schneider 1982). Egyptian and Turkish records are misidentifications. From a zoogeographical point of view the species is postglacially expanding northwards although this movement is now stopped due to habitat destruction.
3628		habitat	eng	<em>Calopteryx syriaca</em> needs perennial running waters but does survive in intermittent coastal rivers with flowing sections and riparian vegetation (emergent vegetation, submergent vegetation, roots).
3628		population	eng	No information is available for this species. It is not common in the Mediterranean region.
3628		threats	eng	As for its congener <em>C. hyalina</em>, the major threat is water extraction for agriculture and human consumption over its entire range. Drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change is another future threat.
3648		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas.
3648		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern and central Colombia, northwestern and southern Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, eastern and southern Paraguay, northern Argentina (Misiones), and western and southern Brazil. This species is replaced by <em>Caluromys derbianu</em>s to the west of the Andes (Eisenberg, 1989). This species is found up to an altitude of 2,000 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1999) or 2,500 m (Bangs, 1898). This species is sympatic with <em>C. philander</em> (Patton and Costa, 2003)
3648		habitat	eng	Nocturnal; arboreal; solitary. This species is typical of rainforest and is at the extreme portion of its range in southern South America. Feeds on fruit, probably a few invertebrates, and in the dry season drinks flower nectar. Found in tropical multistratal mature and secondary evergreen rainforest, disturbed forest, gallery forest. A specimen from Paraguay was obtained on a branch 10 m above the ground, and all indications are that this species is highly arboreal (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976) and occurs to at least 1,000 m elevation (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
3648		population	eng	Locally common to rare; formerly hunted for its fur, which in no longer demand (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
3648		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Locally, habitat loss may be a threat to this species. It was formerly hunted for its fur (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Some populations are threatened by deforestation.
3649		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
3649		distribution	eng	The species ranges from northern Venezuela to northeastern and southcentral Brazil, inlcuding Margarita Island, Trinidad, Guyana, French Guiana, and Surinam. It can be found up to 1,800 m in elevation (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). In Venezuela, it is found from sea level to 1200 m (Lew pers. comm.).
3649		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arboreal strata in rain forest, subtropical forest, and marginal forest, as well as semi-natural areas such as plantations, secondary vegetation, and abandoned human settlement areas. It seems to prefer thick, closed vegetation, although it is also found in the upper, open canopy area of the trees. <br/><br/>Nocturnal and solitary, C. philander is the best field studied species of its genus. It is highly arboreal; it is rarely taken on the ground and is strongly associated with moist habitats. Although most specimens have been taken in multistratal evergreen forests, the species is adaptable, and has been caught in orchards. Populations can become isolated with habitat destruction, as it can not cross open areas of more than a few hundred metres (Brito pers. comm.). It often shelters in tree cavities, where it constructs a nest of dead leaves. Although its diet is primarily fruit, it also includes gum, nectar, small vertebrates, and invertebrates. It is not known to exhibit torpor (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). <br/><br/>Litter size is four to six, and gestation is assumed to be about 14 days. The young remain in the mother’s pouch for approximately eighty days, then enter a nest phase for another thirty days. During the nest phase the mother returns from her nocturnal forays to nurse. Young disperse from the natal nest at about 130 days of age. The female does not breed until she is approximately one year old. Maternal care is prolonged. Females can produce three litters a year, but if there is a seasonal scarcity of food she will probably not rear more than one litter each year (Atramentowicz, 1982; O’Connell, 1979).
3649		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout its extensive range. It thrives in disturbed vegetation, although it requires forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Nowak, 1999).
3649		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, habitat loss may affect the species locally.
3650		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
3650		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Mexico (Veracruz) to western Ecuador and the Cauca Valley of Colombia (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is found from sea level to 2,600 m in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). To the east, this species is replaced by C. lanatus (Eisenberg, 1989), and it apparently does not pass over the eastern cordillera of the Andes. This species is decreasing in number in the northern parts of its range (Mexico and Ecuador).
3650		habitat	eng	This species generally inhabits forested areas (evergreen and deciduous), and is predominantly arboreal. It is found in mature and disturbed evergreen rainforest, dry forest, and gardens and plantations (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It has an omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, seeds, leaves, soft vegetables, insects, other small invertebrates and possibly carrion. It is nocturnal and solitary. The average litter size is three (Eisenberg, 1989).
3650		population	eng	The woolly opossum is fairly common throughout its extensive range. This species appears to be locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species is very common in Central Panama, Monteverde in Costa Rica, but locally common in Mexico.
3650		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The species may be locally threatened by deforestation. It was trapped in the past for its fur, but this is no longer in demand.
3651		conservation	eng	The species is known from at least several protected areas in Peru.
3651		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Peru and western Brazil (the upper Jarú River). Specimens were also captured in Leticia (extreme southeast of Colombia) and Iquitos, Peru (lzor and Pine, 1987), although these were probably examples of introduced individuals. It is found up to an altitude of 700 m, and is known for certain from around five scattered localities. There has been little sampling in the intervening habitat in Bolivia, however, likely occurs there.
3651		habitat	eng	This species is known from humid forests where it leads an arboreal and nocturnal lifestyle. There are records from bamboo adjacent to forest (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 1998). In the dry season it feeds on the nectar of flowers, and it presumably also eats fruit. It is known only from mature rainforest. This species uses mostly the upper levels of the forest, and rarely seems to descend even to the middle levels (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Specimens in captivity have been known to eat small rodents in addition to a wide range of fruits (Eisenberg, 1989).
3651		population	eng	This species is generally extremely rare and patchy in distribution, but in some years it can be locally common. It is known from fewer than 30 specimens (Emmons and Feer, 1997). The apparent rarity of this species is likely due to its arboreal lifestyle.
3651		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The Peru part of its range is relatively secure, as its within several large protected areas. The range within Brazil is subject to intense habitat loss, which likely is a threat to the species.
3669		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This is due to existing or potential destruction, modification, or reduction of a species' habitat or range, and restricted range (Criteria 1, 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).
3669		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations: the type locality, which is a pond at Oak Grove, Escambia County, and in the floodplain of the Escambia River near McDavid Florida, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1980, P. Moler pers. obs. 2010).
3669		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits ponds (Hobbs 1980).
3669		population	eng	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species.
3669		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting this species. However, if the range of this species is truly restricted to two single locations then it is at risk from threats relating to having such a small range, such as one-time catastrophic events (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). In addition it has been noted that the type locality of this species is now surrounded by soybean, cotton and peanut farmland (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
3670		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G3 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine this species' population status, in addition to the effect had by current threats.
3670		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in Mobile County, Alabama, and George and Jackson counties, Mississippi, USA (Hobbs 1945), from fewer than 15 different localities and with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 8,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(R. L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). Within this area, this&#160;species&#160;is regarded as neither widely nor&#160;uniformly&#160;distributed (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).
3670		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in pools, sluggish portions of permanent streams and ditches. Along the Gulf coast in Mississippi, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in some oxbow lakes, which are slow moving, warm and heavily vegetated with litter-covered substrate (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1996). These conditions provide enhanced protection for this species (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1996). Hobbs (1945) recorded this species from pools with filamentous algae, decaying leaves, and sticks.
3670		population	eng	Although not regarded as common, this species is known to be abundant at sites where it occurs (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).
3670		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, Mobile County is the third most populated in the Southern USA, consisting of a large dockland area, which is intensively used, creating substantial water pollution in this area and surrounding streams and ponds. The<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>use of oxbow lakes by this species is useful for protection against predation, however, these are ephemeral habitats and, therefore, alternative habitat is also necessary (Peterson<em> et al.</em> 1996). In addition, this species is tolerant of differing water and habitat qualities (Hobbs 1945), though, with continued expansion of the Mobile docklands and intensive agriculture within the area, it is unknown how long these habitats will remain suitable (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is known to be threatened by siltation from logging and construction, and stream alteration (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).
3671		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Threatened, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, vulnerable to extirpation (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). The Mississippi Species of Greatest Conservation Need (2005) has categorized this species as a species that is "in need of timely conservation action and/or research because of rarity, restricted distribution, unknown or decreasing population trend, specialised habitat needs or habitat vulnerability or significant threats." Further research is needed on the abundance of this species, as well as the impact that current threats are having.
3671		distribution	eng	This species is known from Baldwin, Mobile and Washington counties in Alabama and George County, Mississippi (Hobbs 1989). This species has been collected from the Alabama, Mobile and Tombigbee rivers, though Mobile Bay is considered to be the main part of its range  (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species is believed to be known from fewer than 25 locations (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).<br/>The extent of&#160;occurrence&#160;is 11,187km<sup>2</sup>.
3671		habitat	eng	This species can be found at the bottom of permanent pools and streams where submerged vegetation occurs (Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, it is known from standing water and ditches, and in Pascagoula from sluggish streams (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
3671		population	eng	This species is reasonably abundant and known from a number of records, though it is believed to be rare in Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).&#160;&#160;More recently one of two locations in George County has been in decline; 82 specimens were collected from this site in 1989 while only six individuals were found in 2008 (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>There is no indication of either increase or decline in populations (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2010).
3671		threats	eng	Mobile Bay is impacted upon by urbanization, shipping traffic and water management, however these are not thought to pose a major threat to this species at present (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Some declines in George County, Alabama, have been attributed to increased siltation, making the habitat much less suitable for this species (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). This&#160;appears&#160;to be localized, however.
3672		conservation	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and is considered vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007). This species is currently contained within a Wildlife Management Area (i.e. Central Kentucky Wildlife Management Area)   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
3672		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known from four counties in Kentucky, USA (Burch 1990). Here, it is endemic and is known from the outer Blue Grass Region in the Kentucky River drainage in Estill, Garrand, Madison, and Rockcastle counties (Taylor and Schuster 2004). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 972 km².
3672		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower; and spends almost its entire life in burrows near permanent ponds in areas of poor drainage. It constructs complex burrows ranging from 0.3 - 1.5 m in depth, while the surrounding vegetation is usually dense and covers the burrow entrances (Schuster 1976, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Burrows are found in ditch areas where water collects and the water table is approximately 1.5 m below the surface (Schuster 1976). Furthermore this species inhabits areas disturbed by human activities such as farming and mowing   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
3672		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although Burch (1990) found the species to occur in dense numbers in a three-county area.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
3672		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting this species. However, as this species is only known from one location it may be at risk from stochastic disturbance. This species inhabits areas disturbed by human activities such as farming and mowing (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
3673		conservation	eng	<p><em></em>This species has been listed as endangered by the American Fisheries Society and has been given a heritage rank of G2 (imperiled) (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). There are some conservation goals outlined for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>, but it has been stated that these are not being met for crayfishes and snails (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2002). Monitoring is needed to ensure that future degradation does not result in significant declines of the global population of this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
3673		distribution	eng	This species is believed to have several subpopulations throughout, and around 22 recorded localities, some of which may be connected (O'Bara 1988).&#160; In Kentucky, it is restricted to Roaring Paunch Creek proper in McCreary County (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; In Tennessee it occurs in the Cumberland Plateau province, from three localities in the Big South Fork Cumberland River including Perkins Creek and Roaring Paunch Creek in Scott County (Williams and Bivens 2001).&#160; Recently in a survey of Tennessee (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), it was found in Perkins Creek (type locality), a headwater tributary to Perkins Creek, and Roaring Paunch Creek, but also from 3 new stream localities: Isham Creek, Jones Branch, and Otter Creek. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is just under 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
3673		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species has been collected from streams. Perkins Creek has a rocky substrate, and is susceptible to flooding, making the water cloudy (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970). Furthermore, individuals are found among vegetation, in heavily silted pools, and among boulders (O'Bara 1988). This species displays plasticity in its habitat requirements, also being found in streams with no vegetation or boulders. This allows it to exist in severely degraded parts of the Roaring Punch Creek System (O'Bara 1988).
3673		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
3673		threats	eng	Within the Roaring Punch Creek System, coal mining has adversely affected most of the tributaries. This species appears to be able to tolerate these adverse conditions and has persisted in the area (O'Bara 1988).&#160; In addition, non-point urban run-off has caused a decline in habitat quality with potential for decline in suitability (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009), and acid mine drainage is deleterious to habitat quality in the Kentucky populations (G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).
3674		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society due to the existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of this species habitat (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Some occurrences of this species are on state lands.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.
3674		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Piedmont in the PeeDee and Cape Fear River drainages in Guilford, Randolph, Montgomery, and Davidson counties, North Carolina, USA   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). It has a disjunct occurrence&#160;across this distribution, which is possible evidence of fragmentation (J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated at 6,487 km<sup>2</sup>.
3674		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species dwells in sandy-clay soils of river basins where the water table depth is between 5 and 60 cm. This species is a primary burrower   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). This species is also known to occur in metropolitan areas   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
3674		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. Surveys have, however, revealed abundant burrowing activity at the locations where it was surveyed   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). In addition, populations are reported to be disjunct and occur through the Greenville metropolitan area   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
3674		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although continued urban development could have long term effects on the species (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The habitat of this species is in decline (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010), however it is unclear how this is affecting the population.
3676		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends and threats of this species are needed.
3676		distribution	eng	This species is known from the South Chickamauga Creek basin (Tennessee River drainage) in Catoosa, Walker, and Whitfield counties, Georgia, and in the same basin in Hamilton County, Tennessee, USA (Bouchard 1972,&#160; Hobbs 1981). The northern range of this species extends into southeastern Kentucky (Rhoades 1944). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to exceed 2,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
3676		habitat	eng	<em></em> This species is found in large streams with moderate flow and small, shallow rock-littered streams (Rhoades 1944, Fetzner 2008). Futhermore, this species can be found in association with <em>Cambarus bartoni </em>(Rhoades 1944). This species is also found among trapped leaf litter   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
3676		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. There is anecdotal evidence that populations within Chattanooga have declined (D. Withers pers. comm. 2009).</p>
3676		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Several subpopulations are, however, located in or near the Chattanooga  metropolitan area   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009.), so are likely to be impacted by pollution and urbanization.
3677		conservation	eng	<p><em></em>This species was assessed as endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and was given a heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe      (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>Monitoring of the population trends and range of this species is needed.<br/></p>
3677		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was first found in Big Hurricane Creek at the Putnam-Cumberland County Line in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA </st1:state></st1:place>(Hobbs and Shoup 1947). This creek is a head water stream, which flows into the East Fork of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Obey</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in the Cumberland Drainage, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state>. It is now known only from three localities within these headwaters in Fentress, Putnam and Overton counties. However, the known distribution suggests that this species is restricted to  the upper reaches of streams that remain on the table rock portion of  the Cumberland Plateau, upstream of where the streams have began to cut  through the Pennsylvanian Sandstone caps (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as 86 km<sup>2</sup> (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).
3677		habitat	eng	This species is found in small to large streams where they are found beneath large rocks in moderate to slow current (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). These streams are known to dry periodically   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
3677		population	eng	In 2004 and 2005, catch per unit effort (CPUE) values were highest on Little Piney Creek and Hurricane Creek site 2 with catch rates of 13.0 and 9.6 specimens per hour respectively. Hurricane Creek site 1 and Little Hurricane Creek were somewhat lower with 6.7 and 6.0 specimens per hour, which can most likely be attributed to a reduction of the preferred habitat (large flat rocks in moderate to slow current). Interestingly, this species was always the most common species encountered where it occurred during surveys (Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006), although one population may have been lost in Dripping Springs Creek (more surveys are needed to confirm this   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). All historical occurrences have recently been confirmed to be extant and viable (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160; However, in 2008, most of the streams dried completely; in the dried stream reaches numerous dead  specimens were observed. This drying event causes fluctuations in population numbers, and may have resulted in a loss of over  50% of the species' population (T. Jones, R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
3677		threats	eng	Habitat loss and poor water quality issues from point and non-point source pollution have plagued aquatic organisms within these streams for many decades   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). While efforts are currently underway to improve water quality in a few streams, much of the watershed continues to suffer from historical surface coal mining practices   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Although much of the East Fork Obey River system remains forested, increasing residential development, logging, and agricultural practices pose continuing threats. Note there is the potential (not realized) threat of a large sand mine being considered for construction in the heart of the range of this species (R. Thoma to C. Taylor pers. comm. 2008).
3678		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/> The US Fish and Wildlife Service compiled a species recovery plan for this species in 1988, citing limiting factors and stating that there should be regular surveys of the population and analyses of habitat quality (Graening <em>et al</em>. 2006). As a result of this action plan, cave gates and fencing have been installed at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hells</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Creek</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place>, although trespassing and vandalism continue to occur (Graening <em>et al</em>. 2006). The land adjacent to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hells</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Creek</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place> is protected as part of the Hells Creek Natural Area (Graening <em>et al</em>. 2006). Protection of the cave and its recharge zone is being implemented largely through the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission and The Nature Conservancy. The groundwater recharge area was defined as a 906 ha zone.&#160; Lands adjacent to the cave are protected within a Natural Area and attempts to expand that area are underway.&#160; A site conservation and management plan has been prepared and installation of cave gates, fencing, and monitoring has secured the entrances to the cave although trespass and vandalism continue to occur (Graening <em>et al.</em> 2006, USFWS 1988).</p>  There are no conservation measures present at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Nesbitt</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and the groundwater recharge zone has not been defined.&#160; No conservation activities have occurred at this cave or within the watershed but the landowner remains dedicated to the protection of the groundwater resource (Graening <em>et al.</em> 2006, USFWS 1988). No measures have been put in place to reduce groundwater pollution, however.
3678		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in Hell Creek Cave and has recently expanded to Nesbitt Spring Cave, Stone County, Arkansas, USA (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Surveys have been initiated at 170 other caves; no additional populations have been located. This species has an inferred area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>.
3678		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in subterranean streams, between one and two meters wide and one to eight meters deep (Hobbs and Bedinger 1964). The water temperature was 14.5<sup>o</sup>C.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is found both on the rock sides and mud bottom of the streams (Hobbs and Bedinger 1964). This species dislikes turbid water and will crawl up the sides of the stream to clearer water or move to deeper areas (Hobbs and Bedinger 1964). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is reliant on nutrients from Grey Bat guano, which use the caves to roost, and from leaf litter which enters the caves by floodwaters (Natural Heritage 2009). The caves are situated in an area of sinking streams which supply groundwater (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The groundwater recharge area is 9 km<sup>2 </sup>(Natural Heritage 2009).
3678		population	eng	This species was previously known from one pool, at one cave.&#160; Recent survey work has located an additional population, also in Stone County, Arkansas (Graening<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). An additional 29 cave streams in Stone County revealed no additional populations beyond this one and it was also not found in another 50 caves outside this area.<br/><br/>Up until recently, the total population of this species had been estimated at fewer than 50 individuals (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1988) from a single cave at the type locality. Historically published observed specimens from this locality include 5 specimens in 1961, two in 1972, 15 in 1983, 13 in 1990, 6 in 2000 (two in the first pool and four more in non-submerged passages), 8 in 2001 (most upstream to 300 m in unmapped passages), and 6 in 2003 (Graening<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).&#160; In 1992, several stygobitic crayfish were reported from the second locality and later censuses confirmed the identity of two specimens in 2002 and 14 in 2005 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
3678		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by groundwater contamination, vandalism, collectors, trespassing, and the removal of the Grey Bat population. The two caves where<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is located are in an area characterized by sinking streams. These streams are vital for the transition of nutrients to the caves. However, these also cause pollutants to be easily introduced to the groundwater system through the recharge zone (Natural Heritage 2009). The caves are downstream from Mountain View City and a major highway resulting in the introduction of sewage, siltation from construction, and chemicals from spills into the recharge system (Natural Heritage 2009). Illegal refuse dumping, salvage yards and malfunctioning septic tanks are also polluting the groundwater system (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). An electrical transmission line also crosses the recharge area, and herbicides have been used to clear the right-of-way (Natural Heritage 2009). Vandalism, trespassing and collectors are also major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. zophonastes. </span>Due to its sensitivity to water disturbance and turbidity, and due to its low population numbers, it is susceptible to the removal of individuals and human disturbance (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Once, 16,000 grey bats roosted in the caves, but for several years they have not been recorded. The loss of nutrients from the guano may have limited the population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. zophonastes</span> and is now reliant on leaf litter nutrients which are brought in from floodwaters. <br/><br/>The federal recovery plan (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1988) cited limiting factors such as destruction of habitat, scientific collection, disturbance by amateur cavers, and lack of reproduction. Updated threat information can be found in Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006). Although over-collection may have been a significant mortality factor in the past, scientific collection has ceased and no amateur collection is known.&#160; Recreational caving impacts and habitat destruction continue to be potential factors threatening the viability of this species.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
3679		conservation	eng	<em></em> This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007) and was given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to find the abundance of this species and ensure it is not being affected by some unknown threat process. Its limited range means it could be susceptible to severe declines if a new threat process appears within its range.
3679		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in Anderson and Roane counties, Tennessee (Clinch and Emory River drainages) and is widespread in eastern Kentucky, (Cumberland and Licking River drainages), USA.&#160; Until recently, it was thought to have a restricted range in the Clinch and Emory River drainages of northwest Tennessee, but in recent years has been widely but sporadically collected in central and southeastern Kentucky (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; There is some question as to whether these new populations represent a continuous distribution or isolated disjunct distribution (G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
3679		habitat	eng	The type locality of<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> this species is a floodplain in the east of Poplar Creek. The soils consist of clays and fragments of shale. This species is a primary burrower, with complex and variable burrows, the openings of which are well concealed by vegetation (Bouchard and Etnier 1979). These usually occur in open areas with high water tables.
3679		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3679		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em> this species. However, in the late seventies there was some filling near the type locality, but this did not seem to have a major impact on this species and it was still said to be thriving. Much of the area of the type locality has been incorporated into a golfcourse (Bouchard and Etnier 1979). However, burrowing crayfish are typically able to withstand this kind of distrubance and so the continued survival of this species was not affected   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)  .
3680		conservation	eng	<p>The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as endangered (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Taylor</st1:city></st1:place> <em>et  al</em>. 2007) and it has been given a Heritage Status Rank of G2 using Criteria 5 (restricted range) by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), meaning this species is considered imperiled.</p><p>Further research is needed to determine the full range of this species, its abundance, and the threats that impact it.</p>
3680		distribution	eng	This species maintains a disjunct distribution within the upper tributaries of the Caney Fork River drainage, in Cumberland, Bledsoe, White and Van Buren counties, Tennessee (Rohrbach and Withers 2006). In Tennessee it occurs in the Cumberland Plateau province in  tributaries of the upper Caney Fork River system in Cumberland and  Bledsoe counties, and Sequatchie River system in Sequatchie County  (Williams and Bivens 2001). This species has recently been discovered  in several additional localities (approximately 15 localities newly  discovered since 2004) and is now known from 19 streams in Cumberland,  Van Buren, White and Bledsoe counties, Tennessee (Rohrbach and Withers  2006). Wither and McCoy (2005) have recently noted an expansion of this species range, including an increased number of locations in Cumberland County in 6 additional streams.&#160;<br/>    <p>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is approximately 4,100 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
3680		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is known to inhabit rivers (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970).
3680		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3680		threats	eng	This species is noted to be threatened by siltation from nearby silviculture operations (Withers and McCoy 2005), while residential development pressure in the area is thought to be minimal.
3681		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range under Critera 5 (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2007). Several inhabited stream systems are included within lands managed by the state of Florida (Torreya State Park) or The Nature Conservancy (Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines Preserve and Travelers Tract). Much of the remaining habitat is on the state's land acquisition list (Apalachicola River CARL project) (FL NHP pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on possible threats affecting this species.
3681		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the steephead stream region, roughly from Torreya State Park to Alum Bluff, along the eastern bank of the Apalachicola River, in Liberty and Gadsden counties, Florida, USA (FL NHP pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009). This species is expected to occur in most of the seepage stream systems  along the upper Apalachicola River; this includes more than a dozen  systems. As of 2000, this species has been documented from five of these  systems. Lack of records from others probably reflects limited  collection effort and difficulty of collection, although the species may  be absent from some systems   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 815 km<sup>2</sup>.
3681		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower. It occurs in saturated soils along the banks of small steephead creeks and burrows among roots   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
3681		population	eng	There is estimated to be more than 10,000 individuals at several of the known sites; this species is abundant, based on the number of burrows observed. Populations at sites surveyed in 1999 and 2000 appear relatively large despite the past abuse of surrounding uplands (NatureServe 2009).
3681		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
3682		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). All habitats known to harbor the species are receiving some conservation attention.&#160; The groundwater basin boundaries have been delineated for two of the caves, and some environmental quality assessments have been performed in the first main cave (Graening and Fenolio 2005). The Nature Conservancy's Oklahoma Field Office purchased 10 ha of land, including the entrances to the first main cave, and created a preserve (Graening and Fenolio 2005). The Nature Conservancy and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service have management agreements with the landowners at Jail Cave and Star Cave for periodic monitoring of the habitats (Graening and Fenolio 2005).
3682		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from three caves which occur in a very small area of Delaware County, within the Neosho River watershed,  Oklahoma, USA (Hobbs 1993). Within these three localities,  two of the caves consist of one pool each, 20 and five meters  respectively, and in the third cave it is found in six pools which are a  maximum of three meters wide (Graening and Fenolio 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 9 km².
3682		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit cave streams and pools, on clay covered with silt at a maximum depth of 3 - 4 m. It can also be found on mud-bottomed pools, and gravel and mud pools rarely deeper than 1 m (Hobbs 1993).
3682		population	eng	At present only 34 specimens are known (Graening and Fenolio 2005). Graening and Fenolio (2005) assessed a further 50 caves in the region and no <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>individuals of this species were found. Subsequent assessments of Oklahoma crayfish (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) have not revealed any additional localities.
3682		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation. The most important threat to<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is the disposal of untreated animal wastes from surrounding large hog farms and poultry houses which are seeping into the groundwater, polluting subterranean waters (Hobbs 1993). This is further amplified by the pollution of the Nesho River, through excessive nutrient loading and the presence of toxic organic compounds and metals (Graening and Fenolio 2005).
3683		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range, and existing or potential destruction of habitat (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  Conservation actions have been implemented at these two caves. The land surrounding the cave entrances have been acquired, and cave gates have been installed (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The first cave and the 24 ha surrounding it, were donated by the Looney Family to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, creating the Mary Looney Unit of the Ozark Plateau National Wildlife Refuge (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The Long Family sold 61 ha containing the second cave to The Nature Conservancy in 1997, which now manages the caves within the Eucha Nature Preserve (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Groundwater recharge zone delineations and hazard assessments have been performed for the second cave, but have still yet to be implemented at the first cave (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
3683		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species was, until 2006, only found in one cave, but it has now expanded to a second cave in the Spavinaw Creek watershed (which also includes the Neosho River), north of Colcord, Delaware County, Oklahoma, USA (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The caves are 10.8 km apart from each other (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated as less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
3683		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in subterranean streams in two caves. These caves are not physically connected, but their groundwater recharge zones are contiguous&#160; (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The conduit at the first cave is 1,800 m long and the passage in the second cave is 350 m long.
3683		population	eng	This species has been found in two caves. The first cave contained 17 individuals, with 63 in the second cave (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is a now a total of 80 individuals, which has increased from the six that Hobbs and Cooper recorded in 1972.
3683		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by declines in water quality. Spavinaw Creek is an impaired water body due to excessive nutrient loading caused by the numerous confined animal feeding operations upstream, and the city of Colcord, which discharges its treated municipal sewage into the watershed (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Additionally, these caves also encompass the Neosho River, which has a low dissolved oxygen content, altered pH and contains toxic organic compounds, metals and pesticides (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is vulnerable to changes in water quality conditions, because it is highly adapted to stable subterranean environments. Due to this being a cave dwelling species, it is late to reach reproductive maturity, and has increased longevity. As a result of this, it is susceptible to the accumulation of toxins in the water over a period of many years causing long term impacts (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
3684		conservation	eng	<p><em></em> This species has been assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and given a Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to investigate what impact the habitat alterations of 1980 had on<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>this species. Research is also needed to determine its full range, as it is possible that it inhabits seasonally flooded areas   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).</p>
3684		distribution	eng	This species has a limited range in the upper East Fork Stones River drainage in Cannon County, Tennessee, USA (Rohrbach and Withers 2006, Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). Although originally known only from the type locality at  Brawley's Fork (East Fork of Stones River), Cannon County, it has been  discovered since 2004 in several new localities (including the East Fork  Stones River proper), bringing the total distribution to 18 streams in  Cannon County (Rohrbach and Withers 2006). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 223 km².
3684		habitat	eng	This species primarily burrows into gravel substrates in fast to moderately rapidly flowing water, but has also been found under rocks at the shoreline and in the water (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). It may be found in small burrows, at or near the surface of cobble substrates, both in areas of uniform cobble distribution and in more isolated pockets of such material in streams with more prevalent bedrock (Rohrbach and Withers 2006).
3684		population	eng	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3684		threats	eng	<p>In 1971, the stream in which<em></em> this species is found was clear, and about 3 m wide. It had moderate current flow, a cherty gravel substrate, and there was water cress growing on the stream margins. By 1980, this stream was dramatically altered as a result of stream bed restructuring and the construction of a larger bridge (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). The stream bed had also been broadened, straightened and the bottom made shallower with extensive silt and sand cover. Upstream, the creek was fed by a large spring and the creek bed upstream of this was dry (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). However, the impact these habitat modifications may have had on <em></em>this species is unknown. Rohrbach and Withers (2006) noted the primary threat to this species appears to be sedimentation which is increasing due to urban development and increases in construction, particularly in the Woodbury area. During 2004 and 2005, the installation of a gas pipeline along the East Fork Stones River, combined with poor erosion control and several stream crossings, caused a significant amount of unconsolidated material to enter the uppermost part of the watershed.&#160; The impacts of this activity on this species have not yet been determined. Outside Woodbury, the large rural agricultural areas often provided cattle access to creeks and were devoid of crayfish. However, this species is apparently secure in its limited range of the upper East Fork Stones River drainage in Cannon County (Rohrbach and Withers 2006).<br/></p>
3685		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species. One population is on the Beaverdam Wildlife Management Area (GA DNR pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).<br/></p>
3685		distribution	eng	This species was known only from four localities in the Fall Line Hills District in the Oconee Basin of Laurens and Wilkinson counties, Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1981). Recently a few other localities were found including one in Washington County, giving a total of 11 known localities (GA NHP pers. comm. 2008 cited in NatureServe 2009). The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 228 km².
3685		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing species found in complex burrows in sandy clay soil (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
3685		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3685		threats	eng	Within and just north of the known range of this species, the landscape is pock marked with mining pits from kaolin mining. This deposit is strongly associated with the fall line area of the eastern Appalachian Mountains. Since the mines are encroaching on the range of this species, this should be considered a threat. It appears that mining could be extended in a southeastern direction which would put the activity fully within the species range. The nearest mine pit is approximately 4 miles away from the type locality. It is the sandy clay soils that this species is known from, that are being mined. While the precise effects of these impacts are not yet well understood, they are believed to be having a significant impact on habitat quality and population size (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).
3686		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
3686		distribution	eng	This species is confined to streams on Lookout and Sand Mountains of the Tennessee River system in extreme northwestern Georgia and northeastern Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1989). This species is also known from Little River system of the upper Coosa River in Georgia (Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, Hobbs (1981) reported the species from nine localities in two counties of Georgia. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at under 788 km<sup>2</sup>. It si not thought that this species will be found at many more localities with further studies (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).
3686		habitat	eng	This species lives in streams under rocks (Schuster and Taylor 2004) in permanent rocky streams (Hobbs and Hall 1969). According to the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GA DNR), this species is found in medium-sized mountain streams from beneath rocks in moderate to swift current (GA DNR pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).
3686		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
3686		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The area from which it is known in Georgia is underdeveloped, isolated and there are no immediate plans to develop on it (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).
3687		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009); the American Fisheries Society assessed it as 'threatened' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
3687		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Guyandotte River and Bluestone River drainages of West Virginia; the upper Big Sandy drainage in Buchanan and Dickerson counties, Virginia; in Floyd and Pike counties, Kentucky, USA. Occurrences in Levisa Fork and Knox Creek on the Tug Fork River are disjunct from the remaining populations (T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). Special efforts have been made to collect this species from adjacent streams in neighbouring counties but to no avail (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). The species has lost half of its distribution in Virginia, is near  extirpation in West Virginia, and occupies a small portion of the  Russell Fork mainstem in Kentucky (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is approximately 3,300 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/>This species has been searched for every year since 2000 in West Virginia without success, including  intensive survey effort based on habitat suitability modeling (Channell 2004). In Kentucky, it is known only from the upper portions of the Big Sandy River  drainage in Floyd and Pike counties and a single collection from the Red River in  Estill County (Kentucky River drainage) exists in the EKU Crayfish Collection, although subsequent surveys have not found the species here (Taylor and Schuster, 2004). Recent field work in Kentucky found the species to occur in both Tug Fork  (Pike County) and Levisa Fork (Floyd County) of the Big Sandy drainage; this now  makes only seven confirmed sites in Kentucky, however, more field work may find  more (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). This species has lost half of its distribution in Virginia, is near extirpation in  West Virginia, and still occupies a small portion of the Russell Fork mainstem  in Kentucky (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009).
3687		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent, fast-flowing streams with a width of 10 - 20 m and a substrate composed of bedrock, cobble, boulder and sand (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).
3687		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found in low numbers at each of the sites at which it is found (Channell 2004). Recent field work in Kentucky found the species to be sporadic in distribution and uncommon at sites   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). In West Virginia this species has been found at three locations, one in the Guyandotte River basin and two in the Tug Fork basin, though historically 13 locations were reported for this species in West Virginia. In Kentucky it has been documented from 11 locations, and in Virginia from 17. The largest subpopulation is found in Russel Fork and associated Levisa Fork, though this species remains in only one stream of the Levisa Fork basin. All of the Tug Fork subpopulations are isolated as the mainstream Tug Fork is severely polluted and devoid of the species, resulting in disjunct subpopulations at the mouths of tributaries large enough to support the species. At present the Guyandotte River and Tug Fork populations are likely to become extirpated. In these two basins this species occurs in very low numbers and observed individuals appear stressed and unhealthy (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).
3687		threats	eng	The <st1:place w:st="on">Upper  Guyandotte</st1:place> is severely affected by the extractive industry, logging and road construction. This has caused fragmentation and degradation of habitat that has historically been used by this species. Attempts to locate&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in other areas with suitable habitat have been unsuccessful (Channell 2004). Continued coal mining, road construction and logging all occur extensively in the range of this species. Jezerinac <em>et al</em>. (1995) report that the species is absent from streams polluted with organic material from septic tanks and coal dust. There are major mining threats in the area, in addition to plans for large road construction. (Channell, 2004, J. Wykle, WV DNR pers. comm. 2005 cited in NatureServe 2009).
3688		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a recovery plan in place for the protection of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> compiled by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (Jacobson 1996). This plan has seen the implementation of cave gates on two sites<st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>, and three caves have surrounding land recovered and septic tanks are being upgraded to prevent leakages (NatureServe 2009). One of the localities has been designated as a<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> National Wildlife Refuge (Jacobson 1996).  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species h<span lang="EN-GB">as been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by the American Fisheries Society&#160;(Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">. It also qualifies as endangered under the Federal Environmental Species Act of 1973 (Jacobson 1996).<em><em><em><em> </em></em></em></em></span></span></p><p></p>
3688		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from two caves in Benton County, Arkansas, USA (Hobbs 1989, Robison and Allen 1995) and just into Missouri (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). With all of the effort to look for cave organisms based out of Fayetteville, a great deal of search has been focused in the area to find further specimens of this species. It has long seemed confined to the original caves, yet recent discoveries have added 2 additional sites nearby - both based on one or two specimens. In Missouri, expert survey work has been carried out with no further discoveries of the species in that state (Brian Wagner, AR Game and Fish, to Cindy Osborne, AR Heritage, pers. comm. 2002). The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be less than 4 km². <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p>
3688		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a cave dwelling species inhabiting subterranean streams and pools (Jacobson 1996). One of the caves from which this species is known is an Ozarkian solution channel, within which this species has been observed along the side walls of a pool or at the stream margin (Robison and Allen 1995). Cave streams in which this species lives are generally less than 50 cm deep.<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></span></span></p>
3688		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">was surveyed thoroughly between 1985 and 2006, at all four caves, and a total of 40 individuals were collected (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Two of the four sites are considered viable, one with decent viability (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160; Probably < 200 adults are extant. Numbers of crayfish observed vary dramatically between cave visits. The greatest number observed at one time in one cave is nine and in the other cave 21 (USFWS, 1996).&#160; The current total observed population size is 40 individuals, based on the latest complete visual census of the second largest occurrence (n=6), largest occurrence (n=31), small occurrence (n=2), and the smallest creek pool discharge occurrence (n=1) (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The maximum historical count (irrespective of date) is 56 (47 in the largest cave occurrence, 9 in the second largest cave occurrence) (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/></span></p>
3688		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS 1996) recovery plan listed the following factors causing decline of the species: habitat destruction, disturbance by cavers or trespassers, specimen collection, low reproductive potential, and competition and predation by non-stygobitic species, Banded Sculpin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cottus carolinae</span>)<span lang="EN-GB">.&#160; Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) have assessed continuing threats since the recovery plan. Among these, habitat degradation from groundwater pollution is the primary reason for federal listing of the species and remains a serious threat.&#160; Organic pollutants are present in the groundwater basins of the two initial caves.&#160; Mean concentrations of nitrate, phosphorous, and faecal bacteria consistently equals or exceeds those of regional surface waters monitored by the National Water Quality Assessment Program for the Springfield Plateau Aquifer. Over 100 confined animal feeding operations (poultry and swine) and cattle ranching operations as well as over 60 residences on septic systems are within the recharge zone of one cave and two confined feeding operations, and at least 200 residences on septic systems are within the discharge zone of the second cave (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160; As for human disturbance, both caves with the largest populations were both formerly popular recreational destinations.&#160; Vandalism and trespassing continue to be serious management issues at both sites, even after erection of steel channel gates.&#160; Trampling was formerly considered a threat at all sites but has been alleviated at one cave when a fixed line was bolted to a canyon ledge 3 m above the stream in 2001 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160; Another historical threat was overcollection but scientific collection has ceased and no amateur collection has been reported, probably due to federal listing in 1993 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). More specifically, hog and poultry operations, fertilization of nearby pasture lands, regional airport expansion, and residential development threaten the water quality of the second cave. Residential development is the primary threat to water quality in the largest cave occurrence (USFWS 1996).<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><em><span lang="EN-GB"><em><em><em><em><em> </em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></span></span></p>
3689		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been listed as Special Concern in North Carolina (Fullerton 2009). Most of its range falls within the Chattahoochie National Forest in Georgia, the Sumter National Forest in South Carolina, and Nantahala National Forest in North Carolina. It has also been considered as 'endangered' through its range by Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1996). Since then Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) have modified it to threatened. NatureServe has assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 due to its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is suggested on threats within the range of this species and the impacts of river management for trout fishing, on the persistence of this species.<br/><br/>    <p>It is estimated that close to 50% of this species range may occur in national parkland (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
3689		distribution	eng	This species is known from   Oconee and Pickens counties in South Carolina, USA (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). It is also known from Rabun County, Georgia (Hobbs 1981). LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) also cite streams in the Savannah drainage in Jackson, Macon, and Transylvania counties, North Carolina. The Extent of Occurrence of this species is estimated at 5,426 km<sup>2</sup>. The number of sites from which this species is known has been extended over the last 10 years, though actual range extent has not (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
3689		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small to moderately sized streams with rocky substrate (Clamp 1999). Substrate type is of importance to the standing crop biomass of this species; this species requires   medium to large substrate for adequate shelter from predators and water velocity   (Eversole and Foltz 1993). Streams where this species is found, were characterised by alternating rapids/runs and pools.<br/><br/>Preliminary data suggests this species lives to 4 - 5 years and is faster growing than the primary burrowers   (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). Hobbs (1981) records for the smallest ovigerous female and form I male, I expect <em>C. chaugaensis</em> to achieve reproductive size (age) in 3 years; of course the faster growers in the population may achieve reproductive size in 2 years.
3689		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3689		threats	eng	NatureServe has stated that there are no immediate threats to this species   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). It is likely that the industrial pollution occurring at the Savannah River site is having an impact on the crayfish habitat even though it is downstream   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). No major urban areas are close to the Savannah River although urban and industrial development are occurring. Furthermore the creation of Hartwell Lake has likely eliminated significant amounts of potential habitat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). It is thought that any activity that increases sedimentation (owing to the habitat preferences of this species) would negatively impact the population (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).   At the present the streams in South Carolina appear in good shape and portions are in national forest. Also some the streams (e.g. the type locality) are trout streams and managed for sport fishing (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species has been searched for in Gold Mine Creek (only known Georgia locality according to Chris Skelton) as well as surrounding tribs and it has not been found; these were high quality creeks (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010), however Georgia is at the edge of this species range (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
3690		conservation	eng	<em></em> This species has been given the heritage rank of G2 NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In addition, several populations occur in the Chattahoochee National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is needed.
3690		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known only from the Coosawattee watershed (<st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype>) in <st1:city w:st="on">Gilmer  County</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as approximately 1,284 km².
3690		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species has been found in clear streams and riffles with sandy, rock-littered bottoms and is known to use rocks as cover (Hobbs 1981). This species has close affinities with <em>Cambarus longirostris</em> and <em>Cambarus fasciatus</em> (Hobbs 1981).
3690		population	eng	Populations of this species seem stable across its range, despite some farming and development in the vicinity of the stream (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
3690		threats	eng	<p>The range of this species may be fragmented by reservoir construction (Carters Lake) in the one river where it occurs. The Coosawattee watershed area has experienced a large increase in residential development in recent years. Furthermore, 47,064 ha of forest have been allocated for residential building to be completed by 2030 (White 2009). The watershed contains many confined animal feed operations scattered in the headwaters above Carters Lake that can potentially impact habitat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). &#160;</p>
3691		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given the heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (NatureServe 2009)   and threatened by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). One site at Florida Caverns State Park is gated; Marianna Bat Cave (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009),&#160;purchased by the state of Florida (GFC) and TNC, is fenced.
3691		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the aquifer of the Dougherty Plain (Marianna Lowlands), from Decatur County, Georgia, to Jackson County, Florida, USA. All sites lie within the Apalachicola River basin. (Hobbs 1981, Hobbs 1989). The estimated extent of occurrence of this species is 21,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Recent collections of this species have greatly extended the range southwestward in Florida, and northward in Georgia. The additional Florida records are all from spring caves, but the Georgia records, especially, suggest that the species may be widespread within the aquifer, independent of surface caves (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
3691		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits subterranean freshwaters (Hobbs 1989). These are usually low energy caves in carbonate rocks. This species has been taken from wells, sinks, shallow caves, and spring caves. Furthermore, it is able to tolerate low oxygen levels ranging from 3.6 - 6.6 mg/L<sup>-1</sup> (Purvis and Opsahl 2005).
3691		population	eng	This species is widespread within its range.
3691		threats	eng	Excessive water withdrawals from the Floridian Aquifer are known to reduce the amount of habitat for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Furthermore, agricultural pesticide and nutrient run-off are also considered a threat to this species (Skelton 2008). Given this species broad range, these threats are likely driving localised declines.
3692		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007) due exclusively to restricted range. Further research on the distribution of this species is needed. Site protection is needed.
3692		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Murray County, Georgia, and a seepage area along Mill Creek in Bradley County, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1981, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). These localities are within 15 miles of each other. Recently new occurrences were found in Coahulla Creek in Whitfield County, Georgia, and the Coahulla River and South Chestuee Creek (Hiawassee River drainage) in Bradley County, Tennessee (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated at 1,790 km<sup>2</sup>. It is presently only known from 4 locations (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010). Due to the burrowing nature of this species, and the difficulty in collecting it, it is possible further sites may be found (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).
3692		habitat	eng	This species is found in elaborate burrows in open grassy areas with a high water table, commonly burrowing around houses and flower gardens. Females have more complex burrows than males, both with crude chimneys (Hobbs 1970).
3692		population	eng	This species was known from two localities, within 15 miles of each other (Hobbs 1981). In Tennessee it occurs in the Ridge and Valley province in a seep area adjacent to Mill Creek (Conasauga River system) in Bradley County, and Red Clay State Historic Park (Williams and Bivens 2001, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Recently three new locations were found in Coahulla Creek in Whitfield County, Georgia, and the Coahulla River and South Chestuee Creek (Hiawassee River drainage) in Bradley County, Tennessee, USA (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
3692		threats	eng	Of the 4 known locations, 3 of them are threatened: one site is in the yard of a homeowner in a city neighborhood; one has been partially paved over; the other is currently being used for cattle grazing and is in bad condition. This last site has been visited twice and no specimens have been found (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).   The species is somewhat tolerant of disturbance (can live in road rightaways, lawns, and ditches). It seems to prefer spring-like seeps (often in elaborate burrows in open grassy areas with a high water table, commonly burrowing around houses and flower gardens) and many of these seeps have been drained by landowners. This type of activity will likely continue unabated, and although this is not a large scale effort, it is having a large scale <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on populations of all burrowing species in the area (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2010).
3693		conservation	eng	<em></em> This species has been assessed as Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Furthermore, it was given a heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), due to existing or potential habitat destruction, modification, or reduction and this species restricted range.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to ascertain the abundance of this species, and the full extent of its range.
3693		distribution	eng	The type locality of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is the Laurel Fork of the Left Fork of the Holly River, West Virginia, USA. More recently, this species has only been recorded from the upper Elk River above Sutton Lake, and in the Holly and Birch rivers in Webster, Nicholas, and Pocahontas counties, West Virginia (Jezerinac<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995). This species is known from fewer than 10 locations and is estimated to have an extent of occurrence of 4,387 km<sup>2</sup>.
3693		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in streams and rivers. The type locality was a 10 m wide stream, that was 0.5 m deep. The substrate was sand, gravel, sandstone boulders and cobbles. Specimens where found where there was a strong current, under rocks and cobbles. The vegetation in the banks included alder, birch, hemlock and rhododendron (Jezerinac and Stocker 1993). This species is not found in small head water streams. This species was found with other members of the subgenus <em>Hiaticambarus</em> (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
3693		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3693		threats	eng	It is currently known that coal mining, siltation, logging and other impacts to water quality are affecting this species (Forests for Watersheds and Wildlife 2005). The Elk River Watershed is dominated by agricultural lands. Furthermore, coal mining, and oil and gas extraction are common (T. Jones pers. comm. 2009). This is causing acidic discharge into the river which is having an extremely negative impact on the river system (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2001).&#160; As a coldwater stream with a reservoir at one end, the opportunity for the introduction of a recently identified exotic competitor,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Orconectes virilis</span>, is high.
3694		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, range and threats.
3694		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Etowah River drainage in northwest Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1981), corresponding to a 6 county area. Most populations are located near the rapidly expanding Atlanta  metropolitan area   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).  The Extent of Occurrence of this species has been estimated as exceeding 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
3694		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in fast flowing streams with sandy bottoms littered with rocks. Adults have been found sheltering under rocks, while young have been found in leaf litter (Hobbs 1981).
3694		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3694		threats	eng	This species is located close to the Atlanta metropolitan area and is thus exposed to associated distubance   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). In addition the range of this species has been fragmented by a reservoir (Allatoona Lake)   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Mining, agriculture and other human activities have caused the degradation of water quality in the Etowah&#160; River basin in recent years (Walters&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). However, it is unknown if this is impacting upon this species, which maintains its entire global population within one river basin.
3695		conservation	eng	<em></em>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species has been given the heritage Global rank of G2G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species range extent and abundance is needed.
3695		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rabun County, Georgia and Macon County, North Carolina, USA (equating to 80 km of the Little Tennessee River drainage)   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Similarly, LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) cite the upper Little Tennessee drainage in Jackson and Macon counties, North Carolina. The extent of occurrence is approximately 3,100 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is known from 31 occurrences (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).<br/><strong><defanghtml_span style="color: rgb(254, 38, 23);"></defanghtml_span></strong>
3695		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been found in fast flowing streams with sandy bottoms of a depth of no more than 1 m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). It is associated with debris in slower parts of swift streams and areas lacking other crayfish competitors   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Species was absent in the most polluted areas of its range (McLarney 1993).<br/></p>
3695		population	eng	An intensive survey for the species collected 302 individuals from 37 sites. Hobbs (1981) cites 51 specimens from a single site on the Little Tennessee River in Rabun County, Georgia and Macon County, North Carolina. It was collected at one of 13 sites surveyed recently (but not sites known to have historical occurrences) (Simmons and Fraley 2008). Hobbs (1981) notes some decline, especially at the type locality, based upon competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus bartonii</span>.
3695		threats	eng	<p>Declines have been noted at some localities and are thought to be as a result of competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus bartonii</span>. In the Georgia part of its range it is affected bu extensive agriculture, stream channelisation and heavy sedimentation (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010). However, this is only a small portion of this species range and it still appears to be widespread and reasonably secure.<br/></p><defanghtml_span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';"></defanghtml_span>
3696		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to describe this species range and to characterize threats posed to its continued survival.
3696		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two sites in the Piedmont of the Flint and Chattahoochee River systems, in Meriwether County, Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1981).   The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to be 680 km².
3696		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing species that is found in ponds and streams (Herrig and Shute 2001).
3696		population	eng	This species is known only from 16 specimens, collected by an experienced collector. The actual population size is not known. Recent surveys have found more populations of this crayfish, but its distribution is still limited to one county (GA NHP pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).
3696		threats	eng	High levels of agriculture in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chattahoochee</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> area has increased sedimentation, decreased stream depth and has resulted in a change to river bed substrates. These threats are known to have had an adverse effect on species living in this river (Walser and Bart 2006). However, it is unknown how these threats may be impacting upon this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is only known from two sites in one county and has never been documented elsewhere. It is therefore intrinsically vulnerable to stochastic events causing extirpation.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
3697		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Critera 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed into the abundance and threats of this species. Some populations of this species occur in the Chattahoochee National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
3697		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper Hiwassee River basin, Blue Ridge Province in northeastern Georgia and southwestern North Carolina (Hobbs 1981) and in Tennessee in Polk County, USA (Williams and Bivens 2001). It has been collected from 39 localities (18 in Georgia and 21 in North Carolina). LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) cite streams in the Hiwassee drainage in North Carolina. Cooper (2006) similarly found it in the Hiwassee basin in North Carolina. In Tennessee it occurs in the Blue Ridge Province in Brushy Creek, Hiwassee River in Polk County, near the state line (Williams and Bivens 2001). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated in the region of 4,100 km².
3697		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in clear, fast flowing streams with a rocky substrate (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981, R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).</p>
3697		population	eng	In an intensive state-wide survey Hobbs (1981) reported 395 specimens of this species. In a distributional study of the species in North Carolina, recently conducted, this species is reported to be common in the basin. Recent data indicates it is highly stable in North Carolina but recent development in the area might warrant further monitoring in the area (Simmons and Fraley 2008).
3697		threats	eng	The range of this species is fragmented by several large reservoirs (Simmons and Fraley 2008), though this species is presently thought to be stable. There is no compelling evidence for continuing decline or fluctuations and it is fairly common within the basin (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
3698		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/>Further research on this species is required to determine abundance, ecology, distribution and major threats. Furthermore, work is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species.
3698		distribution	eng	<p>According to <st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city> (1981), this species ranges from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Chattahoochee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> to Halawakee Creek (as far as <st1:city w:st="on">Auburn</st1:city>, <st1:placename w:st="on">Lee</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename> and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Chattahoochee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> system, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state></st1:place> (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, populations in North and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South   Carolina</st1:place></st1:state> have been tentatively identified as this species. Possible identifications of this species have been made in the Saluda and <st1:placename w:st="on">Enoree</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basins</st1:placetype> in <st1:city w:st="on">Greenville</st1:city> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Anderson</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Counties</st1:placetype> as well as the upper <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Broad</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It is necessary to conduct taxonomic work on previously collected species in order to determine the identity and status of these populations (J. Cooper, pers. comm. 2006).&#160; Also, populations in the upper Piedmont regions of northwestern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:place></st1:state> may be this species (Eversole and Jones 2004).&#160; Recently it was possibly found at several sites in the Catawba River and tributaries in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:place></st1:state> (Alderman 2005).    The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be just under 62,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;   </p>
3698		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams, primarily in riffle areas (Hobbs 1989).
3698		population	eng	This species has been collected from 18 sites in Georgia (Hobbs 1981). Known from Alabama only from nine records from the Chattahootchee River system (Mirarchi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
3698		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is threatened by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water quality   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The type locality in Sope Creek is heavily polluted from storm sewers and effluent from a sewage treatment plant (Hobbs 1981), however the species is still thriving there (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009).
3699		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). However, recent surveys have indicated it is much more common than previously expected   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required to determine abundance and major threats.
3699		distribution	eng	This species is known from a limited portion of the Escambia River drainage in extreme southern Alabama and western Florida (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). Schuster and Taylor (2008) recently documented several dozen new occurrences in Alabama and Florida. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in one site in Baldwin County, Alabama (Fitzpatrick 1978) 6 records near the type locality in Baldwin County, Alabama, 2 records from Covington County and further records from Corn Branch and Negro Creek in Baldwin County (Fitzpatrick 1991, Mirarchi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In April 2007, according to the Florida Natural Heritage Program (FL NHP) a small female was collected in McDavid Creek, Escambia County, Florida (D. Jackson, FL NHP, pers. comm. 2007 cited in NatureServe 2009). Schuster and Taylor (2008) reported this species from 31 sites, in 10 basins (including Mobile Bay, Perdido River, Perdido Bay, Blackwater River,&#160; Pascagoula Bay, Mississippi Sound, Fish River, Choctawhatchee Bay, and Choctawhatchee Bay) in Covington and Mobile counties, Alabama, and Escambia, Holmes, and Washington counties, Florida. <br/>    <p>The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 17,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
3699		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower (Fitzpatrick 1978). It lives within 50 m of flowing water but is intolerant of saline intrusion into groundwater.
3699		population	eng	The population in Daphne's D'Olive Creek, south Baldwin County, Alabama, is healthy and is estimated to equal hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals (Raines 2007). This species has recently been shown to be much more common than previously thought (Schuster and Taylor 2008).
3699		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, it is unlikely to be undergoing any significant threat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
3700		conservation	eng	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Endangered (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007) and it was given a heritage rank of G2 by NatureServe using criteria 5 (restricted range)   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).   </p><p>Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.<em> </em></p>
3700		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was first found in Matt's <st1:placename w:st="on">Black</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype> in <st1:city w:st="on">Greenbrier  County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">West Virginia</st1:state>, USA (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1964). It has since been found in 11 caves in the Greenbrier River drainage, <st1:placename w:st="on">Greenbrier</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype> and in one cave in the Elk River Drainage in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pocahontas</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> (VanLuik 1981).   The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 2,296 km<sup>2</sup>.
3700		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in streams in caves. The most studied caves (i.e., Bransford and McLaughlin-Unus caves) are fed by surface streams, and are prone to extreme water level fluctuations. The stream substrate ranges from larger rocks, to small gravel and silt, with some vegetative debris   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
3700		population	eng	<p>There is some population information available for sub-populations of <em></em>this species found in the Bransford and McLaughlin-Unus caves. Nine stations within these caves were sampled monthly from October 1978 through to November 1979, using baited, modified minnow traps. In total, 198 individuals were processed, suggesting a much larger sub-population than originally thought. In 1978, Lincoln-Peterson estimated, using data from that autumn, a sub-population size of 181 (VanLuik 1981). One crayfish per 2.4 square meters of habitat from cave 219 (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).<br/></p>
3700		threats	eng	<p>The caves in which this species is found are a restricted environment and present a number of potential threats. Caves are often subject to surface run-off and can easily bring in contaminants such as sewage or fecal contamination, pesticides or herbicides, and hazardous materials via accidental spills or deliberate dumping such as road salting (Lewis 2001). Sedimentation resulting in habitat alteration is a common threat caused by construction, farming, logging, and other development that disturbs the groundcover. It can block recharge sites in caves and alter flow velocity and volume (Lewis 2001). Flooding can be a serious threat to cave dwelling species as it changes stream flow. Stream back-flowing is another source of contamination introduction into cave habitats, as is local exploration for oil, water or gas, which may encounter cave passages (Lewis 2001).     Approx<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 40 caves were surveyed and most did not harbor the species. Many of the uninhabited caves were being used (at the mouth) by cattle as a heat refuge in the summer and large quantities of manure was entering the cave system. It was believed the excess manure had destroyed the habitat for the species. Many of the uninhabited caves looked to be suitable <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nerterius </span>habitat. Populations have apparently been lost but having populations in separate environs provides some protection (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p>Despite all these potential threats to <em></em>this species, it is unknown how significant their impact on the global population of this species may be.</p>
3701		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Almost the entire range of this species occurs in U. S. Forest Service land   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Further research on this species is required to clarify its range, abundance and threats. <br/></p>
3701		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is only known from a few headwater tributaries of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Hiwassee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Towns County</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, and Clay County, North Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1981, Copper 2006). Ten years of intensive searching has found a total of 11 locations.  Hobbs (1981) described the species from the headwaters of the Hiwassee  River in Towns County, Georgia, and Clay County, North Carolina.&#160; The North Carolina and Georgia populations are  separated from one another by Chatuge Lake.&#160; LeGrand et al. (2006) cite  streams in the Hiwassee  drainage in Cherokee and Clay Counties, in far western North  Carolina. Cooper (2006) also found this species in the Hiwassee basin  in North Carolina and sites 5 localities in Towns County, Georgia, and 2&#160; in Clay County, North Carolina.
3701		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found beneath rocks in the rocky stretches and riffle areas of clear streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
3701		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3701		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
3702		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   due to its limited range and threat of disturbance due to urbanization. It has been assessed as 'currently stable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In addition, several sites occur in the Nantahala National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).Further monitoring of this species populations is advised.
3702		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has its type locality and tributaries in the French Broad River in Buncombe, Henderson, Jackson, Madison, and Transylvania counties, North Carolina, USA. Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) also believe <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species may be found in Tennessee, as the French Broad River originates in this county but it has not been found there yet.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species can also be found in the headwaters of the Savannah River and an introduced population was described in a small tributary of Horsepasture River from Sapphire Lake east of Cashiers, Jackson County, North Carolina <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Prins and Hobbs 1972). Cooper and Braswell (1998) report a new record for the species in a  lower reach of the French Broad drainage (Madison County) and two new  locations in the Savannah drainage (Transylvania County).&#160; LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) cite streams in the  upper portions of the French Broad drainage, and in one stream in the  Savannah drainage in Buncombe, Henderson, Jackson, Madison, and  Transylvania counties, North Carolina. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at  just under 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
3702		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits slow to moderately flowing permanent freshwater streams, often occurring in the headwaters (Cooper and Braswell 1995). It has also been found inhabiting small freshwater lakes (under 8 ha).
3702		population	eng	Cooper and Braswell (1995) believe this species to be fairly common and widespread in its limited range. In 2004 and 2005 this species was collected at 3 of 15 sites and 0 of 23 sites, respectively, and some decline from historic sites was noted (Simmons and Fraley 2008). However, it was found in new sites near to historical occurrences (Simmons and Fraley 2008).
3702		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is under threat from expanding urban development from Asheville, North Carolina, USA (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species may also be affected by domestic pollution from the towns upstream of the French Broad River. The French Broad River is widely used as a white water rafting site and also for many anglers   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). However these threats are not thought to pose a significant problem to this species at present.
3703		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/>Further research is required on this species to determine abundance, more precise distribution information and whether it is impacted by any major threats   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
3703		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Chattooga River basin in Chattooga and Walker Counties in Georgia and Cherokee County, Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1981). The Alabama specimens are assigned to this species, but do not share all characters (Hobbs 1981), although it is listed as occurring in Alabama (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) lists this species in Alabama from 9 records in the upper Coosa River system (Chattooga River).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 24,300 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
3703		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams of 0.5 m deep, with swiftly flowing water over a rock-littered substrate (Hobbs 1981). It is most abundant, however, in areas with swift water and rocks (Hobbs 1981).
3703		population	eng	Where collected in Alabama recently, this species was found to be common where found (G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
3703		threats	eng	It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
3704		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Heritage Status Rank of G2   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of species habitat or range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research on the abundance, range and effect of present threats is needed   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
3704		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a small segment of the Coosawattee River basin in Gilmer, Murray and Pickens counties, Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989). This equates to an extent of occurrence of 2,267 km².
3704		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in clear or slightly cloudy, moderately to swiftly flowing streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981) under rocks on a rock-littered substrate and has never been found in a burrow (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>
3704		population	eng	A very experienced collector found this species at only 9 sites in over a decade of study (Hobbs 1981). Schuster (2001), however, documented it at five additional sites where it is common and appears unthreatened.
3704		threats	eng	The threats to this species include Carter's Dam & other regulation dams, which have already fragmented and destroyed portions of the habitat of other crayfish species, and is believed to be destroying the habitat of this species and fragmenting the population into disjunct occurrences (Hobbs 1981). The small range of this species, and the intense development within its range are significant threats. Heavy sedimentation resulting from poor development and land management practices may cover substrates and other daytime hiding places, upon which crayfishes rely to avoid predation. However, this species is believed to be currently stable at this time (Schuster 2001). The introduction of non-native crayfishes may pose a threat to this species in the future, according the the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).
3705		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society, which has been assigned due to the restricted range of this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>  Further surveys of this species are needed along with research on life history parameters and abundance estimates in determining the status of <em>C. spicatus </em>(A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
3705		distribution	eng	This species is known from North and South Carolina, USA, in the Broad River basin. In South Carolina it is known from <st1:city w:st="on">Spartanburg</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Fairfield</st1:city> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Richland</st1:city></st1:place> counties but may also occur in Union County, North Carolina and Laurens and Newberry counties, South Carolina (A.G. Eversole, pers. comm. 2009). In North Carolina this species is also reported from Cleveland County and Polk County (Cooper and Braswell 1995, Le Grand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<br/><span class="copy"><br/><p></p>
3705		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams (Fetzner 2008).   Most of the <em>C. spicatus</em> collected by Arnie Eversole, have been taken in debris (leaf litter etc.) along the margins of the streams. The streams were <em>C. spicatus</em> were collected exhibited the classic signs of flash floods (sand deposits and wood jams) (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
3705		population	eng	This is not an abundant species and is described as rare in North Carolina   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). It is not known from many collections and most of these have been made around the Little River area in Fairfield and Richland counties (A.G. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
3705		threats	eng	While trends are not clear, this narrowly distributed species may be declining. &#160;Many streams within its range in North Carolina carry heavy sediment loads that can degrade habitat for this species (Simmons and Fraley 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, an non-native invasive species of crayfish, has been collected within the range of this species which may pose a future threat (Simmons and Fraley 2008). It is also likely to be impacted by <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>, the Red Swamp Crayfish, which has also been found in the Broad River basin (Fullerton and Watson 2001). There is human population expansion occurring in the river basin inhabited by this species and therefore urban development is likely to be impacting this species by reducing the area of available habitat, while causing pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).   It is thought there is sufficient habitat within the species home range, but it is not clear if these streams are in good condition.&#160; It is noted that there has not been a lot of development in this part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:state></st1:place> and some the streams course through national forest lands (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).  <p>&#160;</p>
3706		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species.</p>
3706		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from only ten localities in the Broad and Little River basins, and in tributaries of the Savannah River in Elbert, Oglethorpe, and Wilkes counties, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia, USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981; GA DNR, pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,169 km<sup>2</sup>.
3706		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Adult<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>s of this species are found in complex burrows in sandy-clay soils near streams or in areas with a high water table. The burrows of this species are built in soil that is rich in organic matter. The openings of the burrow are usually marked with chimneys (mounds of sand or mud placed around openings above ground). Occasionally it leaves the general safety of its burrow to search for food or a mate at night (Hobbs 1981).
3706		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
3706		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting upon<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
3721		conservation	eng	This species is classified as Endangered (EN)/ Critically Endangered (CR) in Japan's Red Data Book. It is most highly endangered in Tokyo and Kanagawa (Red Data Book of Japan). Further research is recommended on population trends and the true extent of the threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
3721		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Japan and Russia.&#160;In Japan, it is found in the Kizaki-ko wetlands in Nagano Prefecture (Lakes Aoki, Kizaki, Nakatsuna, and Nogu-gawa); Lake Toyanogata in Niigata Prefecture; the Shimokita Peninsula in Aomori Prefecture; Tokyo, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Fukui, Shiga, Osaka, and Saitama Prefectures (Ministry of the Environment 2002). In Kyoto and Gunma Prefectures, it has not been recorded in recent years. In Russia, it is known from the Primorsky region (except for the northeast) and the Amur basin (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
3721		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wetlands and "shallow permanent water bodies", including fens, lakes and marshes (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). It is usually found in the littoral zone in reed beds and even in rice fields, and associates with submerged plants such as <em>Elodea spp.</em>, attaching to the top of the plant or submerging in muddy substrate (Red Data Book of Japan).
3721		population	eng	Populations in many Japanese Prefectures, for example Kyoto, have declined to record lows recently (Red Data Book of Japan). This species is listed as Extinct in Gunma Prefecture (Natural Environment Division of Environment and Forests 2001). There is no further population information available.
3721		threats	eng	Threats to this species include water pollution, river modification, habitat degradation, agriculture, and the decline in associated aquatic plant species.
3736		conservation	eng	The habitat requires conservation, management and restoration in order to protect the species. This species is listed as 'Sensitive to habitat disturbance' on the Spanish Red List by Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001), but is not on the register of Endangered Species for Canary Islands, nor the Spanish Red List (Verdu and Galante 2006) and there is no legal protection. Actions recommended include the provision of a protected area for this area of Anaga mountains.
3736		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary islands where it is restricted to Tenerife, known only on the northern slopes of the Anaga Mountains. Only known from northern slopes so restricted to this area.
3736		habitat	eng	This species lives in the edges of the laurisilva forest degraded with small bushes of tree heather (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>). It is restricted to this vegetation on steep slopes.
3736		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable, as it mostly occurs in protected area of Laurisilva and Fayal-Brezal in the Anaga mountains.
3736		threats	eng	Impact of forest management on the laurisilva zone over less than 50% of the area leads to some decline of the habitat.
3737		conservation	eng	The species is only present in the northern Teno Mountains on Tenerife in the Canary Islands where Moliner Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) suggested it was sensitive to the alteration of the habitat. Its habitat should be protected.
3737		distribution	eng	The species is only present in the northern Teno Mountains on Tenerife in the Canary Islands (Groh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994), but maybe more widespread between the sites (Groh, pers. comm., 2010) because of presence of habitats of laurisiliva forest, which potentially could be colonised.
3737		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Laurisilva forest where it is ground-dwelling in leaf-litter and under stones.
3737		population	eng	This species is difficult to detect because of low population density. Living animals have only been once detected at one site, so trends cannot be given
3737		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the disturbance due to the extraction of timber for agriculture use of laurisiliva forest which could cause fluctuations in the populations.
3739		conservation	eng	All the populations are included in the protected area the  Serra da Arrabida, however there is still a need for a conservation plan. This area is a Biogenetic Reserve established by the Council of Europe. It is  classified as a Site of Special Interest for Nature Conservation. New  sampling efforts are needed to determine the population size as  well as measure the effects of human disturbances on the populations.
3739		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal where it is only known from the Serra da Arrabida near Setúbal, on the right bank of the Sado river estuary.
3739		habitat	eng	This species is found on Sclerophyllous shrubs higher than 3 m and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus faginea</span> (Oak), <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span> (Olive), <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> (Carob), <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer monspessulanum</span>&#160; (Maple) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span> (Pine) forests, as well as rocky outcrops.
3739		population	eng	There are no population studies of this species but because of the serious fire in the Serra da Arrabida park in 2004, the population is thought to be severely affected.
3739		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fire and disturbance from human activities. The impacts of these threats are compounded by the limited number of localities, the fragility of the habitat, and the limited dispersion of this species.
3744		conservation	eng	Golden jackals are present in all protected areas of India except for those in the high elevation regions of the Himalayas. In East Africa, they occur in the Serengeti-Masai Mara-Ngorongoro complex, as well as numerous other conservation units. Thus they have a wide coverage in terms of protected populations. <br/>The species is included in CITES Appendix III (in India). Jackals feature on Schedule III of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) of India and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. The golden jackal could be considered as a "species requiring no immediate protection" with caution and knowledge that populations throughout its range are likely declining.<br/><br/>Besides being represented in a wide array of protected areas covering several landscapes, no special species targeted conservation efforts have been undertaken. Almost all zoos in India have golden jackals.<br/><br/>Current or planned research projects include ongoing, long-term studies in the Serengeti, Tanzania; ongoing studies on wolves, jackals, and striped hyaenas in Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India; and investigation into crop damage, densities and ranging patterns of golden jackals in Bangladesh. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Little quantitative information is available on jackal densities, habitat use, and ranging patterns in relation to food availability. Information on dispersal, survival and mortality factors of adults, pups and dispersing individuals is needed. Jackal ecology needs to be studied in forested ecosystems of Southeast Asia where a different set of factors are likely to operate affecting food availability, ranging patterns and survival. Aspects of canid diseases in relation to population dynamics of jackals and transmission need to be better understood.
3744		conservation	eng	The jackal is not considered a priority species for the European Union (it is included in the Annex V of the Habitats Directive, 92/43 EC). In Bulgaria, Croatia and Hungary it is a game species, and in Greece it is not classified. An Action Plan has recently been produced for jackals in Greece (Giannatos 2004), which suggested the following conservation measures: preservation and restoration of safe and good quality habitat; scientific research and monitoring to develop a database in order to improve management decisions for jackal conservation and promote co-operation of the jackal hosting countries in the region;  legislation improvement; and public awareness, education and information to improve the animal's public image.
3744		distribution	eng	The golden jackal has a large global distribution extending from north and east Africa and south-eastern and central Europe eastwards through the Middle East, the Caucasus and central and and southern Asia to Burma and Thailand (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is the only jackal species that occurs outside subsaharan Africa. In Europe, it is resident in the Balkans and, since recent times, in Hungary and southwestern Ukraine. It has a very patchy distribution in Europe. It is regularly found as a vagrant in Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and northeastern Italy (Kryštufek 1999). It is generally found between sea level and 600 m, and occasionally up to 1,000 m in the Peloponnese (Greece) (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).
3744		distribution	eng	The Golden Jackal is widespread in North and north-east Africa, occurring from Senegal on the west coast of Africa to Egypt in the east, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, and Libya in the north to Nigeria, Chad and Tanzania in the south. They also occur in the Arabian Peninsula and have expanded their range into Europe, where they have a patchy distribution, being resident in the Balkans and, since recent times, in Hungary and south-western Ukraine. It is regularly found as a vagrant in Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and north-eastern Italy (Krystufek 1999). Eastwards they range into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then east and south to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and parts of Indo-China.
3744		distribution	eng	The Golden Jackal is widespread in North and north-east Africa, occurring from Senegal on the west coast of Africa to Egypt in the east, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, and Libya in the north to Nigeria, Chad and Tanzania in the south. They also occur in the Arabian Peninsula and have expanded their range into Europe, where they have a patchy distribution, being resident in the Balkans and, since recent times, in Hungary and south-western Ukraine. It is regularly found as a vagrant in Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and north-eastern Italy (Kryštufek 1999). Eastwards they range into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then east and south to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and parts of Indo-China.
3744		habitat	eng	Due to their tolerance of dry habitats and their omnivorous diet, the Golden Jackal can live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel Desert to the evergreen forests of Myanmar and Thailand. They occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannas in Africa; and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural and semi-urban habitats in India and Bangladesh (Clutton-Brock <em>et al.</em> 1976; Poche <em>et al</em>. 1987; Y. Jhala, pers. obs.). Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. Jackals have been recorded at elevations of 3,800 m in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996) and are well established around hill stations at 2,000 m in India (Prater 1980).
3744		habitat	eng	Globally, it occupies a wide range of habitats, from the Sahel desert to the evergreen forests of south-east Asia (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Europe, it prefers cultivated areas and wetlands in lower elevations, with adequate cover to be used for hiding and breeding. Dense continuous forests and large intensively cultivated areas without cover are not suitable. Moderate human activity may benefit the jackal, as it tends to increase availability of food (carrion, refuse, and animal dung) (Giannatos 2004). In Central Europe (Hungary) the dominant food of golden jackal is small mammals, and the trophic niche overlap with red foxes is usually high, although the jackal seems to be more carnivorous and more specialist than the fox (Lanski and Heltai 2002, Lanski <em>et al.</em> 2006).
3744		population	eng	In Europe, the jackal occurs in small and scattered populations, mainly along the Mediterranean and Black Sea coast of the Balkan Peninsula and in southern parts of Hungary. Over the last century, its distributional border has fluctuated, and there have been both local colonisations and extinctions (Kryštufek 1999). In Greece, one of its European strongholds, its range and population have declined over the last 25 years, and it is by far the most rare canid species (Giannatos 2004, Giannatos <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is now stable in northeastern Greece (and may even be increasing) but in parts of southern Greece is still declining. The largest population in Europe is found in Bulgaria where the species has increased 33-fold in the last 20-30 years (Kryštufek and Tvrtkovic 1990). In Hungary, the jackal went extinct in 1942, but it has naturally recolonised over the last few decades, and now has a rapidly expanding population of c.1,000 individuals (Heltai <em>et al.</em> 2000, Heltai <em>et al.</em> 2004). Other population estimates for the jackal include 5,000 individuals (Bulgaria), >1,000 adults and sub-adults (Greece), and 40-50 animals in 7-8 groups (Ukraine) (Giannatos 2004, Giannatos <em>et al.</em> 2005). The global population is large, with a minimum of 80,000 individuals estimated for the Indian sub-continent (population estimates for Africa are not available), but it may be declining as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004).
3744		population	eng	The Golden Jackal is fairly common throughout its range. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. In several parts of India, high densities of low-quality cattle are maintained. Due to religious beliefs, most people do not consume beef, and cattle carcasses are freely available for scavenging. <br/><br/>In India, jackal populations achieve high densities in pastoral areas such as Kutch, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Haryana. Based on intensive observations on breeding pack units and radio-collared individuals, jackal densities in the semi-arid Velavadar National Park were estimated between one and two jackals per km² (Y. Jhala <em>et al.</em>, unpubl.); see Sharma (1998) for densities quoted for the Thar Desert in India. On the African continent, in the Serengeti National Park, densities can range as high as four adults per km² (Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989).<br/><br/>Based on known density estimates for parts of India and considering that about 19% (i.e., about 637,000 km²) of the geographical area of India has forest cover with jackal populations (and that jackals are also found outside forested habitats), a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals would not be unreasonable for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available.
3744		population	eng	The Golden Jackal is fairly common throughout its range. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. In several parts of India, high densities of low-quality cattle are maintained. Due to religious beliefs, most people do not consume beef, and cattle carcasses are freely available for scavenging. <br/><br/>In India, jackal populations achieve high densities in pastoral areas such as Kutch, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Haryana. Based on intensive observations on breeding pack units and radio-collared individuals, jackal densities in the semi-arid Velavadar National Park were estimated between one and two jackals per km² (Y. Jhala <em>et al.</em>, unpubl.); see Sharma (1998) for densities quoted for the Thar Desert in India. On the African continent, in the Serengeti National Park, densities can range as high as four adults per km² (Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989).<br/><br/>Based on known density estimates for parts of India and considering that about 19% (i.e., about 637,000 km²) of the geographical area of India has forest cover with jackal populations (and that jackals are also found outside forested habitats), a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals would not be unreasonable for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available.<br/><br/>    <p>In the Mediterranean region, population trends vary in different areas. In Morocco and Libya the species is declining but in other parts of North Africa (Tunisia and Algeria) it is expanding. In recent decades the species has expanded its range into south-eastern Europe. </p>
3744		threats	eng	In Greece, population declines have been linked to loss of suitable habitat caused by changes in agricultural practices (intensification), specifically the loss of scrubby patches used as cover (Giannatos 2004). Changes in animal husbandry may have reduced the food base. Throughout its range, the species is widely persecuted as a pest.
3744		threats	eng	Over its entire range, except in protected areas like National Parks and Sanctuaries, the jackal population is steadily declining. Traditional land use practices, like livestock rearing and dry farming that were conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to this change and may persist for a while, but eventually disappear from such areas like other wildlife. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning (for example, Israel and Morocco). Jackals may occasionally be hunted as a game species and eaten, as has been recorded in Morocco (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). There is no significant trade in jackal products, although skins and tails are occasionally sold.
3745		conservation	eng	The species is not included on the CITES Appendices, and there is no legal protection of the species. Restrictions on harvest and method of harvest depend upon state or provincial regulations.<br/><br/>The Coyote occurs in almost all protected areas across its range.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Occurrence in captivity</span><br/>Over 2,000 Coyotes occur in captivity in zoos, wildlife centres, etc., throughout their range. They readily reproduce in captivity and survival is high.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Gaps in knowledge</span><br/>Several gaps in knowledge still remain: coyote reproductive physiology and possible modes of fertility control; selective management of problem animals; effects of control; genetic differentiation from other canids (particularly the red wolf); development of non-lethal depredation techniques; interactions of coyotes and other predators; coyote-prey interactions; human-coyote interactions and conflicts at the urban interface; factors influencing prey selection; communication; adaptations in urban and rural environments; and interactions with threatened and endangered species.
3745		distribution	eng	Coyotes were believed to have been restricted to the south-west and plains regions of the U.S. and Canada, and northern and central Mexico, prior to European settlement (Moore and Parker 1992). During the 19th century, coyotes are thought to have expanded north and west. With land conversion and removal of wolves after 1900, coyotes expanded into all of the U.S. and Mexico, southward into Central America, and northward into most of Canada and Alaska (Moore and Parker 1992).<br/><br/>Coyotes continue to expand their distribution and occupy most areas between 8°N (Panama) and 70°N (northern Alaska). They are found throughout the continental United States and Alaska, almost all of Canada (except the far north-eastern regions), south through Mexico and into Central America (Bekoff 1982; Reid 1997; Bekoff and Gese 2003).
3745		habitat	eng	Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats including prairie, forest, desert, mountain and tropical ecosystems. The ability of coyotes to exploit human resources allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit Coyote distribution in some desert environments.<br/><br/>Coyotes are opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a variety of food items, typically consuming items in relation to changes in availability. Coyotes eat foods ranging from fruit and insects to large ungulates and livestock. Livestock and wild ungulates may often be represented in coyote stomachs and scats as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur (Andelt 1987). Predation by Coyotes on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning (Andelt 1987). Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume dog food or other human-related items.
3745		population	eng	Coyotes are abundant throughout their range and are increasing in distribution as humans continue to modify the landscape. Elimination of wolves may also have assisted Coyote expansion. Coyote density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality and changes in pack structure and food abundance. Local control temporarily reduces numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations generally are stable in most areas.<br/>Coyote densities in different geographic areas and seasons vary from 0.01–0.09 coyotes/km² in the winter in the Yukon (O'Donoghue <em>et al.</em> 1997) to 0.9/km² in the fall and 2.3/km² during the summer (post-whelping) in Texas (Knowlton 1972, Andelt 1985). Density in different geographic areas and seasons are listed in Sillero-Zubiri (2004).
3745		threats	eng	There are no current threats to Coyote populations throughout their range. Local reductions are temporary and their range has been expanding. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environs and occupy most habitats, including urban areas. Hybridization with dogs may be a threat near urban areas. Genetic contamination between dogs, Coyotes, and Grey Wolves may be occurring in north-eastern U.S. Hybridization between Coyotes and Red Wolves is problematic for Red Wolf recovery in south-eastern U.S.<br/><br/>Coyote fur is still sought by trappers throughout its range, with harvest levels depending upon fur prices, local and state regulations, and traditional uses and practices. Many states and provinces consider Coyotes a furbearing species with varying regulations on method of take, bag limit, and seasons.
3746		conservation	eng	The species is included in CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. There is extensive legal protection in many European countries; however, enforcement is variable and often non-existent. <br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range. <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>The species lives and breeds well in captivity and is common in many zoological gardens.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>One of the most important questions still remaining about wolves involves the nature of their interaction with prey populations. The conditions under which wolves limit, regulate, or control their population is still open and important (Mech and Boitani 2003). Of more academic interest are questions involving wolf genetics, scent-marking behaviour, pseudo pregnancy and diseases (Mech 1995).
3746		conservation	eng	The species is included in CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. There is extensive legal protection in many European countries; however, enforcement is variable and often non-existent. <br/><br/>  The species now receives legal protection in Afghanistan, having been listed by the Afghan Government on the country's 2009 Protected Species List. This prohibits all hunting and trade of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lupus</span> within Afghanistan.<br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Occurrence in captivity:</span><br/>The species lives and breeds well in captivity and is common in many zoological gardens.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Gaps in knowledge:</span><br/>One of the most important questions still remaining about wolves involves the nature of their interaction with prey populations. The conditions under which wolves limit, regulate, or control their population is still open and important (Mech and Boitani 2003). Of more academic interest are questions involving wolf genetics, scent-marking behaviour, pseudo pregnancy and diseases (Mech 1995).
3746		conservation	eng	The species is strictly protected by the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and is in Appendix II of CITES. In the European Union the species is protected by the Habitats Directive but there are several exceptions:<br/>1) in Spain, wolves north of the Duero river are not protected<br/>2) in Greece, wolves north of 39°N are not protected<br/>3) in Finland, wolves occurring in the reindeer herding area in northern Finland fall under Annex V of the Habitats Directive; wolves outside the reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV<br/>4) in the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) wolves are harvested (HD Appendix V)<br/><br/>In general, habitat restoration is required in key areas to increase a healthy prey base and encourage wolves to move back into their former territory where appropriate. Corridors of land between small populations need to be established to allow movement of animals and prevent local extinctions. Conflict with humans needs to be addressed by involving local people in wolf management plans and through education programmes to increase people' s understanding of wolf biology and behaviour. Problems resulting from wolves preying on domestic animals need to be tackled by livestock protection schemes and compensation systems. Details of specific conservation measures for European wolf populations are given below: <br/><br/>1. Iberia<br/>Wolves are fully protected in Portugal and south of the Duero river in Spain. North of the Duero, wolves are game species under various management regimes depending on legislation of 8 autonomous regional governments. Asturias has a wolf management plan and Galicia and Castilla y León are about to approve their plans. The autonomous regions are gradually approving their action plans. However, management coordination among the regional governments and between Spain and Portugal is very limited. The sub-population of Sierra Morena require ad-hoc management to ensure its viability (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005).<br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>The population is fully protected under the French, Italian and Swiss law. In France and Switzerland the national Action Plans include provisions for legal take of few wolves under strict conditions of damages on livestock.  The three countries have recently (2006) signed a formal agreement of cooperation for the management of the entire population, marking an innovative procedure based on the recognition that the biological population needs to be managed through a common and accepted approach.  <br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>Fully protected by a national law, while damage compensation is provided by 14 different regional laws. Compensation paid per wolf has been estimated to be the highest among European countries, but the effectiveness of compensation programs has never been assessed and it is increasingly questioned. Apart from formal protection the population is not actively managed. The species occur in several protected areas throughout its range but the size of these areas is far too small to protect a viable population. In spite of formal protection, illegal killings are estimated to take a substantial portion of the population every year (up to 15-20%). A national Action Plan sets the broad strategic ground for management but is not being implemented by the national and regional governments (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003). <br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>Management is fragmented by several national laws. It is a game species in almost all countries, except for Slovenia, Croatia and Greece south of 39° latitude where wolves are fully protected. In Croatia, an effective Action Plan is in place and implemented (Štrbenac <em>et al.</em> 2005). In general, law enforcement is weak or totally absent even in protected populations.<br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>In Slovakia wolves are game species with hunting season 1.11-15.1 and no quotas per season; in the Czech Republic they are protected game species, but hunting is prohibited; in Poland they are protected and in Romania they are protected game species with hunting quotas decided yearly; in Ukraine wolves are not game species nor protected (often treated as “pest” species, with bounties of c.20 Euro per individual) (Salvatori <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>The standard management practice for most of the 20th century was open harvest, often with bounty incentives, all with the view of exterminating wolves, or at least seriously reducing their numbers. This situation persisted until the 1990s, when restrictions on their harvest gradually came into place in all countries They are currently protected in Poland, but harvested in the three Baltic States (EU Habitats & Species Directive Appendix V) and in Belorussia and Ukraine. The sub-population of western Poland and Germany requires ad-hoc management to ensure its viability. There is an action plan for the conservation of the wolf in Latvia (Ozolins and Andersone 2001).<br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>In Finland, wolves occurring in the reindeer herding area fall under Annex V of the Habitats Directive; those outside the reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV. Finland has recently approved a National Management Plan that include removal of some wolves under controlled circumstances. In Russian Karelia, wolves are killed throughout the range and at any time. In spite of the small number of wolves, Finland has approved a plan to maintain the population within the current size (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2006). Discontinuous flow of dispersing wolves from Russia allow a reasonable but cautiously positive forecast on the conservation of this population.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>it is fully protected in Sweden and Norway; however, Norway applies a zoning system that includes culling of wolf numbers in the areas where damages are considered unacceptable. Both Norway and Sweden provide full compensation of damages; Sweden applies a preventive compensation system to reindeer breeders that operate in areas where wolves live.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>Wolves are protected in both countries, but the extent to which protection is enforced in western Poland is questionable.
3746		distribution	eng	Originally, the Grey Wolf was the world's most widely distributed mammal, living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15°N latitude in North America and 12°N in India. It has become extinct in much of Western Europe (Boitani 1995), in Mexico and much of the USA (Mech 1970). Their present distribution is more restricted: wolves occur primarily in wilderness and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and northern USA, Europe, and Asia from about 75°N to 12°N.
3746		distribution	eng	Originally, the wolf was the world's most widely distributed mammal, living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15°N latitude in North America and 12°N in India. It is distributed worldwide under domestication (as the domestic dog <em>Canis familiaris</em>). It has become extinct in much of Western Europe (Boitani 1995), in Mexico and much of the USA (Mech 1970). Present distribution is more restricted; wolves occur primarily in wilderness and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and northern USA, Europe, and Asia from about 75°N to 12°N (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Europe wolves are found from sea level to 2,400 m, although in central and southern areas they tend to occur in mountainous areas above 600 m, as a result of persecution (Sulkava and Pulliainen 1999). The European wolf population is a large metapopulation with several distinct fragments, which can be described as follows (LCIE 2007):<br/><br/>1. Iberia <br/>Wolves are found in the north-western quadrant of Iberia including the western Basque country. Not in the Pyrenees, but south as far as Ávila. A very small number of wolves is isolated in the Sierra Morena mountains in southern Spain (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005).<br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>The population occupies an area that includes most of the Western Alps in France and Italy, many wolf packs territories being transboundary along the French-Italian border south of Valle d’Aosta. Isolated animals are dispersing regularly into Switzerland as far as Grisons but failed, until now, to establish a permanent pack (Boitani 2003, Marucco <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tropini <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>Wolves occur in the whole Apennines range from Liguria to Calabria (Aspromonte) and extending into northern Lazio and central western Tuscany (provinces of Siena, Grosseto and Pisa) (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003).<br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>The population cover a vast area from Slovenia to north-central Greece and it includes the whole Dinaric mountain range through Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, western Serbia and Kosovo, Montenegro, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia, Albania, western and southern Bulgaria. <br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>The central Carpathian mountains in Romania are home of one of the healthiest and more numerous wolf population in Europe. This population extends across several countries, from Northern Bulgaria to Eastern Serbia, Romania, south-western Ukraine, Slovakia and southern Poland. Wolves are rarely reported in the Czech Republic.<br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>This population covers eastern Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, northern Ukraine and the Russian oblasts of Kaliningrad, Lenningrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Smolensk, Bryansk, Moscow, Kursk, Belgorod and Orel.<br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>Wolves occur in Finland (mainly in the south) and Russian Karelia. The Finnish wolf population is a fringe population of a large Russian population.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The distribution range of the population is in central Sweden and, to a lesser extent, in south-eastern Norway. It is spreading slowly toward southern and northern Sweden and into southern Norway.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>This population consists of scattered packs living in eastern Germany (Saxony) and western Poland.
3746		habitat	eng	Ranges in all northern habitats where there is suitable food (Mech 1970), densities being highest where prey biomass is highest (Fuller 1989). Food is extremely variable, but the majority comprises large ungulates (moose, caribou, deer, elk, wild boar, etc.). Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage.
3746		habitat	eng	Wolves live in diverse habitat types and their broad distribution ranges show the species' adaptability to the most extreme habitat conditions. The wolf's habitat has been described as everywhere where humans do not kill it and where there is something to eat.  Where wolves depend on wild ungulate prey, their habitat is that of their prey. Habitat quality should thus be interpreted in terms of human disturbance, prey densities and range size. In general, large forest areas are particularly suitable for wolves in Europe, although wolves are not primarily a forest species. The wolf has a very diversified diet and is a true generalist that feeds opportunistically on what is most available in its habitat. The wolf diet may include large prey, such as moose, deer and wild boar, or small vertebrates, invertebrates, vegetables and carcasses. Diet composition throughout the geographic range and seasonal variations depends on the relative abundance of potential prey, as well as accessibility and availability. A wolf typically requires 3-5 kg of meat per day, although it can fast for several days when food is not readily available.
3746		population	eng	Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement and development of wolf range, wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Wolf densities vary from about one/12 km² to one/120 km².<br/><br/>Sillero <em>et al.</em> (2004) provide details, for each range country, on subspecies present, population status, approximate numbers, the percentage of former range occupied at present, main prey (where known), legal status, and cause of decline.
3746		population	eng	Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement and development of wolf range, wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Wolf densities vary from about one per 12 km² to one per 120 km². Sillero <em>et al.</em> (2004) provide details, for each range country in the world, on subspecies present, population status, approximate numbers, the percentage of former range occupied at present, main prey (where known), legal status, and cause of decline. The European wolf population is a large metapopulation with several distinct fragments, although dispersal could theoretically connect almost all fragments. Following the bottleneck of the 1960s and 1970s, the European wolf population is generally increasing in number and expanding the distribution range. However, most European populations are still small and only a few have more than 1,000 animals (see below for specific details). Dispersing animals can be found anywhere in Europe. The total number of wolves in the EU 25 is likely to be in the order of 4-5,000; some of the populations are in continuity with wolf populations living in countries not yet part of the EU. The number of wolves in geographic Europe is likely to exceed 10,000.<br/><br/><br/>1. Iberia<br/>Population size: 2,500 wolves (including c.50 in the Sierra Morena). The Iberian wolf (<em>Canis lupus signatus</em>) may be a distinct subspecies. After the population reduction up to the 1960s, it is currently increasing in numbers and expanding its range across central Spain. The northwestern population is expanding, having recently crossed the Duero river in Spain. There are three distinct population segments within this population. The largest is that north of the river Duero in both countries. South of the Duero in Portugal there is a small segment of around 50 wolves which has only limited exchange of animals with the segments north of the Duero in Portugal and east to the Spanish segment south of the Duero. The isolated population in the Sierra Morena numbers c.50 individuals and appears to be stable. <br/><br/>The nearest wolf population is in the Western Alps and connections between the two are nonexistent or limited to exceptional cases. In Cataluña, there are currently 2-3 wolves that have been genetically identified as members of the Alpine population from where they are assumed to have dispersed naturally (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005). <br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>Population size: 100-120 wolves. This population is of Italian origin and all wolves share the same Italian genetic haplotype. Individual wolves dispersing from the Apennines first colonized the Alps in 1992 and succeeded in establishing a permanent and expanding population which shows a highly dynamic spatial pattern spreading towards the west and north. The total number is estimated to be 100-120 wolves, increasing on average by 10% per year. The genetic continuity with the Apennines population has been recently assessed at 2.5 individuals per generation, all of them moving from the Apennines to the Alpine population. In 2005, a young radio-marked wolf dispersed more than 1000 km from Parma to Nice, providing evidence of the natural dispersal along the northern Apennines range. In spite of the continuity between the two populations, their ecological and socio-economic contexts are sufficiently different to justify a separation for management purposes (Boitani 2003, Marucco <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tropini <em>et al.</em> 2005, LCIE 2007).<br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>Population size: 500-800 wolves. The population has been described in 1921 (Altobello 1921) and confirmed in 1999 (Nowak 1999) as a distinct subspecies (<em>Canis lupus italicus</em>). It is genetically recognized by the presence of a unique mtDNA haplotype. After the population bottleneck of the 1960s, when total numbers were estimated to be about 100 animals, the population has steadily recovered and expanded into the western Alps. In 2006, the population was estimated to be 500-800 wolves. The nearest population (apart that in the Western Alps, see above) is in Slovenia (Dinaric-Balkan population). However, a large portion of the central Alps and the agricultural Po river valley effectively separate the Italian and the Dinaric populations (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003).<br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>Population size: 5,000 wolves.There is continuity of the population and suitable habitats throughout the range although the population might be significantly structured within the elongated range. The population is estimated to number c.5,000 individuals, although locally the densities may vary greatly and its overall demographic trend is unknown. In Croatia and Slovenia, the population has recovered significantly following active management started in the 1990s. To the north, the population has no contact with the nearest population in Italy, although dispersing animals are reported in Austria and eastern Italy. To the east, the population may exchange individuals with the large wolf population of the Carpathians which extends into northern Bulgaria (Iliopoulos 1999, Kusak <em>et al.</em> 2005, Štrbenac <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>This population is estimated to number c.5,000 animals, the majority of them living in Romania and Ukraine. Slovakia hosts about 400-500 wolves and southern Poland contributes with good wolf habitat in the areas along the south-eastern borders (wolf population in Polish Carpathians is about 180-220 individuals). In the past, there was natural continuity with wolves living in northern Poland and Belarus but the link is now constrained by large areas where wolves have been exterminated. Nevertheless, it is likely that some level of genetic exchange still occurs with the Dinaric-Balkan population in western Bulgaria and with the Belarusian population in eastern-central Poland (Okarma 1993, CLCP 1997-98, 2000, 2001, 2002; Smietana and Wajda 1997, Okarma et al. 2000). <br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>Population size: 3,600 wolves. The trend throughout the region appears to have been very consistent. At the start of the 20th century populations were reduced, but still widely present, these increased during and after World War 1. In the period between the wars, populations were greatly reduced again, but recovered to peak levels during and after Word War 2, only to be heavily persecuted in the 1950s such that they again reached very low levels in the 1960s and early 1970s. The populations appear to have then increased, peaking in the early 1990s – before being shot down again in the late 1990s. There are about 1,000 wolves in Poland and the Baltic States, about 1,000 in Belarus and 1,600 in the neighbouring Russian oblasts. This population is the westernmost portion of the large Russian population and it connects with the wolf range of Russian Karelia. In Poland, although the distribution is not continuous, it is highly likely that dispersal is still possible between the northern and southern populations (Carpathian), and dispersal towards west (Germany) is still observed (Bluzma 2000, Ozolins and Andersone 2001, Valdmann 2001, Sidorovich <em>et al.</em> 2003, Linnell <em>et al. </em>2006). <br/><br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>Population size: 750 wolves. Following widespread control of the population in the first part of 20th century, the population recovered after the 1980s and 1990s. The current estimates are based on counts of family groups in Finland (about 200 wolves in Finland) and the population is expanding. In Karelia wolf numbers appear to be stable.<br/><br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>Population size: 130-150 wolves. The population derives from a pair that immigrated from Finland and first reproduced in Sweden in 1983. A third immigrant in 1991 boosted the reproduction and the population is now estimated to be 130-150 wolves (about 20% in Norway), with as many as 15 litters produced in 2006. The population has been steadily increasing from 1983-2001, then slightly decreased in 2002-3, and is currently increasing again. There is evidence of no genetic exchanges with the Finnish/Russian wolf population after 1991. Immigration from Finland is the only possible mechanism to increase the genetic variability of the population.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>Population size: <50 wolves. Wolves were exterminated in Germany during the 19th century, but individuals that were dispersing from Poland were shot occasionally throughout the 20th century. In the mid 1990s a pack began breeding in Saxony, and there are currently two packs breeding regularly. Wolves in western Poland have had a dynamic history, but presently there are only a few widely scattered packs throughout the region. This population is extremely fragmented internally. Potential connections exist to both the Baltic and Carpathian populations, but the distances are in the order of several hundred kilometers.
3746		threats	eng	Human intolerance is perhaps the greatest threat facing wolves in Europe today. Fear, misunderstanding and the fact that wolves do kill livestock have prompted an uneasy relationship with people in many areas, leading to direct conflict and persecution. In some countries unrestricted hunting of wolves poses a threat, while in others, licenses for killing wolves are issued irrespective of biological understanding. Poaching is widespread and probably represents the most important mortality factor for the wolf in Europe. Wolves preying on domestic animals have been a problem since man progressed from hunter/gatherer to farmer, and although the numbers of sheep or cattle taken are, as a percentage very low, livestock depredation remains the primary reason for exterminating wolves. Human encroachment is the most significant threat to wolf habitat. Wolves can live close to humans but they require safe areas in which to retreat. This is not considered in land planning in wolf areas and the small, fragmented populations in Western Europe can result in animals moving into unsuitable habitat. Specific threats to different European wolf populations are as follows:<br/><br/>1. Iberia<br/>Illegal killing is still common (estimated to account for 50% of the total mortality) and poison baits are used (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005). <br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>Documented causes of mortality include primarily car or train accidents and poaching events. Several cases of illegal killings have been reported in France and Italy, and conflicts with hunters and farmers are constantly reported. Both France and the Regional Government of Piemonte have been carrying out extensive and continuous research and monitoring of the wolf population and the damages to livestock and excellent data is available for management purposes. The number of livestock depredations in the Italian Alps is decreasing, despite the increase in wolf numbers, due to the high efforts in the implementation of preventive practices promoted by the Regional Government of Piemonte. Also if the wolf presence is still far from being accepted by local farmers and livestock breeders, the general attitude is improving (Boitani 2003, Marucco <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tropini <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>The population is protected on paper but the law is poorly enforced and unpersecuted illegal killing is very common throughout the range. Poison baits are increasingly used against dogs, foxes and wolves.  Hybridization with dogs has been found and it appears to account for at least 5% of the total wolf population (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003, Verardi <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>Legal hunting and illegal killing are taking an unknown number of wolves throughout most of the range. Other pressures are commonly reported: widespread use of poisons, habitat fragmentation due to construction of fenced highways and shortage of wild preys (Huber <em>et al.</em> 2002, Iliopoulos 2005).<br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>Poison baits and illegal killing are widespread throughout the range. In Ukraine, wolves are often treated as a pest species.<br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>The Latvian population appears to be on the way to being divided into two, with the area south of Riga starting to appears as a carnivore free area. This development will greatly increase the vulnerability of carnivore populations in western Latvia. <br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>The main threat to wolves in this region is killing by humans. In Finland, wolves cause very limited damage to livestock; predation on domestic dogs is the most frequent damage that cause strong resentment from the public. <br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The inbreeding coefficient is very high, on average higher than for full siblings mating (Liberg <em>et al.</em> 2005). Predation on domestic dogs, sheep and reindeer are the most frequent damages that cause continuing debate on wolf conservation.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>The main risk for this population is its very small size, highly fragmented internal structure, and long distance from any other source. Coordination between Germany and western Poland is crucial. A single litter of wolf-dog hybrid pups was born in 2003.
3746		threats	eng	Their original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the United States by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to depredation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the United States, and reintroduction in the western United States. Continued threats include competition with humans for livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated concern by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small for populations with long-term viability. There is sustainable utilization of the species' fur in Canada, Alaska, and the former Soviet Union and Mongolia.
3747		conservation	eng	The species is not included on the CITES Appendices. The Red Wolf is listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) (United States Public Law No. 93-205; United States Code Title 16 Section 1531 et seq.). The reintroduced animals and their progeny in north-eastern North Carolina are considered members of an experimental non-essential population. This designation was promulgated under Section 10(j) of the ESA and permits the USFWS to manage the population and promote recovery in a manner that is respectful of the needs and concerns of local citizens (Parker and Phillips 1991). Hunting of Red Wolves is prohibited by the ESA. To date, federal protection of the Red Wolf has been adequate to successfully reintroduce and promote recovery of the species in North Carolina.<br/><br/>The only free-ranging population of Red Wolves exists in north-eastern North Carolina in an area comprised of 60% private land and 40% public land. This area contains three national wildlife refuges (Alligator River NWR, Pocosin Lakes NWR, and Mattamuskeet NWR) which provide important protection to the wolves. Red Wolves or a very closely related taxon may also occupy Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. <br/><br/>A very active recovery programme for the Red Wolf has been in existence since the mid-1970s (USFWS 1990; Phillips <em>et al.</em> 2003), with some measures from as early as the mid-1960s (USFWS, unpubl.). By 1976, a captive breeding programme was established using 17 animals captured in Texas and Louisiana (Carley 1975; USFWS 1990). Of these, 14 became the founders of the current captive breeding programme. In 1977, the first pups were born in the captive programme, and by 1985, the captive population had grown to 65 individuals in six zoological facilities (Parker 1986).<br/><br/>With the species reasonably secure in captivity, the USFWS began reintroducing Red Wolves at the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in north-eastern North Carolina in 1987. As of September 2002, 102 animals have been released with a minimum of 281 descendants produced in the wild since 1987. As of September 2002, there is a minimum population of 66 wild Red Wolves in north-eastern North Carolina, with a total wild population believed to be at least 100 individuals. Likewise, at this same time, there is a minimum population of 17 hybrid canids present in north-eastern North Carolina. The 17 known hybrids are sterilized and radio-collared (USFWS, unpubl.).<br/><br/>During 1991 a second reintroduction project was initiated at the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee (Lucash <em>et al</em>. 1999). Thirty-seven Red Wolves were released from 1992 to 1998. Of these, 26 either died or were recaptured after straying onto private lands outside the Park (Henry 1998). Moreover, only five of the 32 pups known to have been born in the wild survived but were removed from the wild during their first year (USFWS, unpubl.). Biologists suspect that disease, predation, malnutrition, and parasites contributed to the high rate of pup mortality (USFWS, unpubl.). Primarily because of the poor survival of wild-born offspring, the USFWS terminated the Tennessee restoration effort in 1998 (Henry 1998). <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>As of September 2002, there are approximately 175 Red Wolves in captivity at 33 facilities throughout the United States and Canada (USFWS, unpubl.). The purpose of the captive population is to safeguard the genetic integrity of the species and to provide animals for reintroduction. In addition, there are propagation projects on two small islands off the South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the U.S. which, through reintroduction of known breeding individuals and capture of their offspring, provide wild-born pups for release into mainland reintroduction projects (USFWS 1990).
3747		distribution	eng	As recently as 1979, the Red Wolf was believed to have a historical distribution limited to the south-eastern United States (Nowak 1979). However, Nowak (1995) later described the Red Wolf's historic range as extending northward into central Pennsylvania and more recently has redefined the Red Wolf's range as extending even further north into the north-eastern USA and extreme eastern Canada (Nowak 2002). Recent genetic evidence supports a similar but even greater extension of historic range into Algonquin Provincial Park in southern Ontario, Canada.
3747		habitat	eng	Very little is known about Red Wolf habitat because the species' range was severely reduced by the time scientific investigations began. Given their wide historical distribution, Red Wolves probably utilized a large suite of habitat types at one time. The last naturally occurring population utilized the coastal prairie marshes of south-west Louisiana and south-east Texas (Carley 1975; Shaw 1975). However, many agree that this environment probably does not typify preferred Red Wolf habitat. There is evidence that the species was found in highest numbers in the once extensive bottomland river forests and swamps of the south-east (Paradiso and Nowak 1971, 1972; Riley and McBride 1972). Red Wolves reintroduced into north-eastern North Carolina and their descendants have made extensive use of habitat types ranging from agricultural lands to pocosins. Pocosins are forest/wetland mosaics characterized by an overstory of loblolly and pond pine (<em>Pinus taeda</em> and <em>Pinus serotina</em>, respectively) and an understory of evergreen shrubs (Christensen <em>et al.</em> 1981). This suggests that Red Wolves are habitat generalists and can thrive in most settings where prey populations are adequate and persecution by humans is slight. The findings of Hahn (2002) seem to support this generalization in that low human density, wetland soil type, and distance from roads were the most important predictor of potential wolf habitat in eastern North Carolina.
3747		population	eng	Red Wolves exist only in a reintroduced population in eastern North Carolina, USA. The current extant population of Red Wolves occupies the peninsula in eastern North Carolina between the Albermarle and Pamilico Sounds.<br/>Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the Red Wolf was reintroduced by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1987 into eastern North Carolina. The Red Wolf is now common within the reintroduction area of roughly 6,000 km². However, the species' abundance outside the reintroduction area is unknown.
3747		threats	eng	Hybridization with Coyotes or Red Wolf x Coyote hybrids is the primary threat to the species' persistence in the wild (Kelly <em>et al.</em> 1999). While hybridization with Coyotes was a factor in the Red Wolf's initial demise in the wild, it was not detected as a problem in north-eastern North Carolina until approximately 1992 (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1995). Indeed, northeastern North Carolina was determined to be ideal for Red Wolf reintroductions because of a purported absence of coyotes (Parker 1986). However, during the 1990s, the Coyote population apparently became well established in the area (P. Sumner pers. comm.; USFWS, unpubl.).<br/><br/>It has been estimated that the Red Wolf population in North Carolina can sustain only one hybrid litter out of every 59 litters (1.7%) to maintain 90% of its genetic diversity for the next 100 years (Kelly <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, prior to learning of this acceptable introgression rate, the introgression rate noted in the reintroduced population was minimally 15% (Kelly <em>et al</em>. 1999) or approximately 900% more than the population can sustain to maintain 90% of its genetic diversity for 100 years. If such levels of hybridization continued beyond 1999, non-hybridized Red Wolves could disappear within 12?24 years (3?6 generations). An adaptive management plan designed to test whether hybridization can be reduced to acceptable levels was initiated in 1999 (Kelly 2000). Initial results from this plan suggest that the intensive management specified in the plan may be effective in reducing introgression rates to acceptable levels (B. Fazio pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In the absence of hybridization, recovery of the Red Wolf and subsequent removal of the species from the U.S. Endangered Species List is deemed possible. It is noteworthy that similar hybridization has been observed in the population of suspected Red Wolf-type wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. If these wolves are ultimately shown to be Red Wolf-type wolves, this will enhance the conservation status of the species and nearly triple the known number of Red Wolf-type wolves surviving in the wild.<br/><br/>Human induced mortality (vehicles and gunshot) can be significant. However, the threat this mortality represents to the population is unclear. Most vehicle deaths occurred early in the reintroduction and were likely due to naive animals. Nonetheless, the overall impact of these mortality factors will depend on the proportion of the losses attributable to the breeding segment of the population (effective population (Ne) and what proportion of the overall population is lost due to these human factors (both N and Ne)).
3748		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not included on the CITES Appendices. It has full official protection under Ethiopia's Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of up to two years.<br/> <br/> The Ethiopian Wolf occurs in several protected areas: Bale Mountains National Park; Simien Mountains National Park; Borena Saiynt Regional Park (South Wollo); Guassa Community Conservation Area (North Shoa); Arsi Mountains Regional Park. As a result of boundary extensions (Simien) and new parks created (Arsi) the area of suitable wolf habitat within protected areas increased to 87%. </p>  <p>A number of important steps have been taken in the interests of conserving this endemic species, including: 1) a dog vaccination campaign in Bale, and vaccination campaigns&#160; in response to rabies outbreaks in dogs close to wolves in Menz and Simien; 2) sterilization programme for hybrids in Bale; 3) vaccination of wolves in response to rabies epizootics in parts of Bale; 4) community and school education programme in Bale and Wollo; 5) strengthening the capacity of the Bale Mountains National Park – funding patrolling, maintenance of infrastructure, etc.; 6) surveys to determine the persistence and status of all populations of wolves; 7) monitoring of all wolf populations; 8) A Strategic Planning workshop for Ethiopian wolf conservation held in Lalibela, February 2011, resulting in a National Action Plan for the next 10 years (IUCN/SSC Canid specialist Group 2011). </p>  <p>In 1983, the Wildlife Conservation Society established the Bale Mountains Research Project, which publicized the wolf's plight and started a regular monitoring programme for the species. A detailed four-year field study followed (Sillero-Zubiri 1994). Based on its findings, the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group produced an action plan for the Ethiopian Wolf (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1997), which provided a detailed strategy for the conservation and management of remaining wolf populations. This plan advocated immediate action on three fronts – education, wolf population monitoring, and rabies control in domestic dogs – to conserve the Afroalpine ecosystem and its top predator. As a result, the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) was established in 1995 by Oxford University with financial support from the Born Free Foundation, Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS), the Wildlife Conservation Network&#160; and other donors. The Programme’s overall aim is to protect the Afroalpine ecosystem and many of its rare highland endemic plants and animals through better management in Bale and the establishment of other conservation areas in Menz and Wollo. The EWCP currently monitors the demography of the Bale and selected populations in South and North Wollo, supports park patrols within the wolf range, undertakes domestic dog control and the removal of dog-wolf hybrids. Additionally, the EWCP carries out a community conservation education campaign that targets people living inside the wolf's range and is aimed at improving dog husbandry and combating disease in the park and surroundings. A large-scale dog vaccination programme (targeting up to 5,000 dogs a year) seeks to reduce the occurrence of rabies and distemper within the Ethiopian wolf range and is backed up by further epidemiological and demographic studies. The EWCP is also active elsewhere in Ethiopia, with representatives surveying and monitoring all wolf ranges and implementing education campaigns about the plight of the species. Zelealem Tefera Ashenafi set up the Guassa Biodiversity Project in 1996, looking at the relationships between pastoralists and wildlife in the highlands of Menz. FZS and partners are working in North Ethiopia to protect the Afrolapine ecosystem, supporting the Simien Mountains National Park and creation of a new community conservation area in North Wollo. </p>  There are no animals maintained in captivity.<br/><br/>Although the behavioural ecology of the species is well known, research has focused largely in the optimal habitats in the Bale Mountains. Additional information on dispersal distance and survival would be useful. Investigation into the role of the species in the epidemiology of canid-related diseases is necessary. Studies on wolf-prey relationships and prey availability in the high risk populations of northern Ethiopia are also needed.
3748		distribution	eng	<p>Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands, above the tree line at about 3,200 m. There are no recent records of the species at altitudes below 3,000 m, although specimens were collected at 2,500 m from Gojjam and north-western Shoa at the beginning of the century (references in Yalden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980). Reported in the Simien Mountains since the species was first described in 1835, but scattered and irregular sightings suggest numbers have been declining. Reported on the Gojjam plateau until the early 1900s (Powell-Cotton 1902, Maydon 1932). South of the Rift Valley, wolves have been reported in the Arsi Mountains since the 1920s, and, more recently (1959), in the Bale Mountains. Reports of small populations in North Sidamo (Haltenorth and Diller 1980) may be in error. There is no evidence that the Ethiopian Wolf ever occurred in Eritrea (Coetzee 1977).<br/> <br/> The species currently is confined to seven isolated mountain ranges of the Ethiopian highlands, at altitudes of 3,000–4,500 m (Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1992, Marino 2003a). In the northern highlands wolves are restricted to land above 3,500–3,800 m by increasing agricultural pressure (Yalden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980, Marino 2003a). Wolf populations occur north of the Rift Valley in the Simien Mountains, Mount Guna, North Wollo and South Wollo highlands, and Menz. Recently extinct in Gosh Meda (North Shoa), and absent from Mt Choke, Gojjam, for a few decades. South-east of the Rift Valley there are populations in the Arsi Mountains (Mt Kaka, Mt Chilalo and Galama range) and in the Bale Mountains, including the Somkaru-Korduro range (Marino 2003a).</p>
3748		habitat	eng	<p>A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afroalpine grasslands and heathlands where they prey on Afroalpine rodents. Suitable habitats extend from above treeline at about 3,200 m up to 4,500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3,000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3,500–3,800 m in many areas, restricting wolves to higher ranges (Marino 2003a). Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1,000 and 2,000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March.<br/> <br/> Wolves utilize all Afroalpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alchemilla</span> spp.) and grasses and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of molerat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tachyoryctes macrocephalus</span>) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis</span> spp.), high-altitude scrubs dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Helichrysum</span> spp. and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of 'guassa' tussock grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span> spp.), 'cherenfi' bushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euryops pinifolius</span>) and giant lobelias (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lobelia rhynchopetalum</span>) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phillipia</span> spp.) at 3,200–3,600 m are of marginal value, with open moorlands having patches of herbs and grasses which are relatively good habitat.</p>
3748		population	eng	<p>More than half of the species' population lives in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore of its size, and positively correlated with density of rodent prey and negatively with vegetation height (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995). Highest wolf densities are found in short Afroalpine herbaceous communities (1.0–1.2 adults/km²); lower densities are found in Helichrysum dwarf-scrub (0.2/km²), and in ericaceous heathlands and barren peaks (0.1/km²). Wolves are also present at low density (0.1–0.2/km²) in montane grasslands at lower altitudes.</p>  <p>Elsewhere, overall wolf density is relatively lower. In Menz, wolf density was estimated at 0.2 animals/km² using transect data (Ashenafi 2001). Comparison of census transect data from recent comprehensive surveys (Marino 2003a) indicates higher abundance in North Wollo (0.20 ± 0.20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0.10 ± 0.11 and 0.10 ± 0.14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0.08 ± 0.13 and 0.06 ± 0.11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (i.e., diggings and droppings) and interview results. <br/> <br/> A summary of population abundance and status in each region can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004), with the most recent information on population status found in IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group (2011), and summarized above. Time series from long-term monitoring of wolves in the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia, spanning over 20 years, indicated marked variation in wolf abundance in association to rabies epizootics affecting high-density populations in 1991, 2003 and 2008 (Marino 2003b, Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group 2011). Population numbers returned to previous levels after the first two disruptions, evidencing resilience to catastrophes, but at very low density population growth was unexpectedly low, due to delays in the formation of new breeding packs (Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in review). Canine distemper (CDV) appears to be more important than previously thought, with CDV outbreaks affecting wolves across subpopulations in the Bale Mountains in 2005, 2006 (Malcolm 2006), and 2010 (Gordon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p>
3748		threats	eng	<p>Continuous loss of habitat due to high-altitude subsistence agriculture represents the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3,200 m has been converted into farmland, and all populations below 3,700 m are particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially if the areas are small and of relatively flat relief (Marino 2003a). Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered by political instability in the past is currently less severe and associated with conflicts over livestock losses (Marino 2003a). Recent population decline in Bale has been mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shooting as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threat to all populations, with canine distemper also a concern in Bale. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves' specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem.</p>  <p>In Bale, the Ethiopian wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Canis familiaris</span>). Gottelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1994) used mitochondrial DNA restriction fragments and microsatellite alleles to conclude that hybridization was relatively common in western Bale as a result of crosses between female wolves and male domestic dogs. Hybrids have shorter muzzles, heavier-built bodies and different coat patterns. Although hybrids are confined to the Web Valley in western Bale they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. Currently there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside western Bale.<br/> <br/> There is no exploitation of the species for furs, body parts or other purposes.</p>
3753		conservation	eng	The species is not listed on the CITES Appendices, and jackals have no legal protection outside protected areas.<br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range, including Niokola-Koba National Park (NP) in Senegal, Comoe NP in Ivory Coast, Queen Elizabeth NP in Uganda, Serengeti NP in Tanzania, Hwange NP in Zimbabwe, and Kruger NP in South Africa. <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>The species has been kept and bred in zoos, but it is not a common zoo exhibit and there are none currently listed on ISIS. Captive animals have been used in experiments testing rabies vaccine efficacy (Bingham <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>For many years the only major studies on the species' ecology remained those of Kingdon (1977) and Smithers and Wilson (1979), with additional observations by other authors. In the last five years, studies conducted in Zimbabwe by the authors have gone some way to increasing our understanding of this jackal species, particularly as concerns their role in rabies transmission. However, in comparison with the better-known black-backed jackal, the side-striped jackal has a much wider distribution, such that there are large parts of their range for which no information on populations or status is available.
3753		distribution	eng	The Side-striped Jackal occurs in West, Central and southern Africa (excluding the southernmost part), being replaced in the arid south-west and north-west of the continent by the Black-backed Jackal <em>Canis mesomelas</em> and in North Africa by the Golden Jackal <em>Canis aureus</em>.
3753		habitat	eng	Side-striped Jackals occupy a range of habitats, from game areas through farmland to towns within the broad-leaved savanna zones, including wooded habitats, bush, grassland, abandoned cultivation, marshes and montane habitats up to 2,700 m (Kingdon 1977, 1997; Estes 1991). The species tends to avoid very open savanna (although Rowe-Rowe (1992) mentions they occur in open grassland in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal), thickly wooded areas and arid zones (Stuart and Stuart 1988; Skinner and Smithers 1990; Kingdon 1997), but Kingdon (1997) states that it enters the equatorial forest belt in the wake of human settlement. Side-striped Jackals frequently occur near rural dwellings and farm buildings (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Kingdon 1997), and penetrate peri-urban and urban areas (Liebenberg 1990; Skinner and Smithers 1990). In Botswana, Smithers (1971) recorded them where mean annual rainfall was 400–700 mm, and many authors note that the species occurs in well-watered areas (e.g., Kingdon 1977; Skinner and Smithers 1990). Where Side-striped Jackals occur sympatrically with other jackal species, they may avoid competition by ecological segregation (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1989). In such areas of sympatry, Side-striped Jackals usually occupy areas of denser vegetation, while Black-backed and Golden Jackals dominate in the more open areas (Loveridge 1999; Loveridge and Macdonald 2003).
3753		population	eng	Regional estimates of abundance are not available, but from work undertaken in two diverse habitats in Zimbabwe, it seems reasonable to assume the species is common and to estimate a total population in excess of three million. It is likely that the population is at least stable. Jackal densities are estimated at around 1/km² in highveld commercial farmland in Zimbabwe (Rhodes <em>et al.</em> 1998), where rural density is probably highest; density estimates from western Zimbabwe were between 0.5–0.8 individuals/km². In Senegal's Sahel, jackal density was estimated at 0.07/km² (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>This species' dietary flexibility and ability to co-exist with humans on the periphery of settlements and towns suggests that populations are only vulnerable in cases of extreme habitat modification or intense disease epidemics.
3753		threats	eng	Side-striped Jackals are persecuted for their role in rabies transmission and their putative role as stock killers. It is unlikely that this persecution has an effect on the overall population, but indiscriminate culling through poisoning could affect local abundance. Side-striped Jackals appear well capable of exploiting urban and suburban habitats, a factor which may help to ensure their persistent occurrence. There appears to be little or no trade in jackal products.
3755		conservation	eng	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices and has no legal protection outside protected areas. It is known to occur in protected areas throughout its range (see Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004) for a summary).<br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>Black-backed Jackals have been maintained in captivity for use in experiments testing rabies vaccine (Bingham <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>A large amount of research focusing on the behaviour and ecology of this species has been undertaken, particularly in the last 25 years. In the last decade, however, the emphasis has generally shifted to the role that the animal plays as a vector of rabies, and as a problem animal. The study of Loveridge (1999) may provide a model for future research, whereby funds and efforts are directed towards better understanding their role, for example, in disease transmission and livestock predation, and ecological, behavioural and other data are gathered concurrently. In many settled areas this species, together with the caracal Caracal caracal, represent the top predators in many ecosystems, yet their roles are poorly understood.
3755		distribution	eng	The Black-backed Jackal is endemic to Africa. This species has a disjunct distribution range, and is found in two separate populations, one in East Africa, and the other in southern Africa. Ansell (1960) notes that this species is entirely absent from Zambia and it is absent through much of central and equatorial Africa. The disjunct distribution of this species is similar to that of other endemic African species adapted to dry conditions (e.g., Aardwolf <em>Proteles cristatus</em> and Bat-eared Fox <em>Otocyon megalotis</em>). The two Black-backed Jackal ranges are separated by as much as 1,000 km and their discontinuous distribution suggests that regions of dry Acacia bush and savanna, the preferred habitat of this species, once connected south-west Africa and the Horn of Africa.<br/><br/>Fossils of Black-backed Jackals have been found in deposits in South Africa dating to at least two million years ago (Hendey 1974), but fossil remains have never been found north of Ethiopia suggesting that they have always been restricted to sub-Saharan Africa.
3755		habitat	eng	Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert (Dreyer and Nel 1990), montane grassland (Rowe-Rowe 1982), arid savanna and scrubland (Skinner and Smithers 1990), open savanna (Wyman 1967; Kingdon 1977; Lamprecht 1978; Moehlman 1983; Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1989; Estes 1991), woodland savanna mosaics (Smithers 1971; Loveridge and Macdonald 2002) and farmland. In general, Black-backed Jackals show a preference for open habitats tending to avoid dense vegetation (Pienaar 1969). In KwaZulu-Natal, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3,000 m asl. in the Drakensberg, and in localities receiving more than 2,000 mm of rainfall (Rowe-Rowe 1982, 1992). Where more than one jackal species occur in sympatry the habitat is partitioned. The trend is for Black-backed Jackals to use preferentially either the open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal; Loveridge 1999) or wooded savanna (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1989). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Black-backed Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats (Loveridge 1999).
3755		population	eng	Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread and, in Namibia and South Africa, they are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. They occur in many livestock producing areas, where they are considered vermin, but despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa this species is still relatively abundant.<br/><br/>In the Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa, Rowe-Rowe (1982) found densities of one jackal/2.5–2.9 km², while J.A.J. Nel <em>et al.</em> (unpubl.) recorded linear densities along the Namib Desert Coast of Namibia that varied from 0.1–0.53 jackal/km² along food-scarce beaches along the Skeleton Coast, to 7.0–9.0/km² at the food-rich seal rookery at Cape Cross, reaching a maximum of 16.0–32.0/km² along the centre of the seal rookery.
3755		threats	eng	Black-backed Jackals are persecuted for their role as livestock killers and as rabies vectors. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers. There is no significant trade in jackal products, although body parts are used in traditional African medicine.
3759		conservation	eng	In general, animals are presumably found in a number of protected areas. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Nepal - India: Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram; Nepal: Royal Chitwan National Park, Central Nepal and Makalu Barun National Park, Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species is included in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to these poorly-known taxa.
3759		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Nepal (up to 2,000 m asl [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]), through northeast India (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and West Bengal), Bhutan, southeastern Bangladesh, Myanmar, south China, northwest Viet Nam, Thailand and Cambodia (Musser and Carleton 2005). Species within this complex have generally been recorded from roughly sea level to around 4,000 m asl. This is an unresolved species complex, with some taxa restricted to certain elevations, the altitudinal range is not constant throughout the known range.
3759		habitat	eng	This species complex has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from bamboo forest to cultivated land, and other disturbed areas (although it is not present in rice paddies). In South Asia it occurs in montane temperate forest and bamboo forests in subtropical forest tracts; with animals found under bamboo clumps (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). They are long-lived species that have only one or two young in a litter.
3759		population	eng	It can be locally very abundant in some areas.
3759		threats	eng	In general the species is quite heavily exploited in some areas for food, and isolated populations in particular may be declining through overharvesting. It is also killed as a pest of rubber plantations in parts of its range (such as Myanmar), and may occur in densities of up to 600 animals per  hectare (Ken Aplin pers. comm.). In South Asia, it is locally threatened by habitat loss due to jhum (shifting) cultivation, forest fires and harvesting for subsistence use (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
3760		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. This species has been regionally Red Listed in China as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
3760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), and Sichuan (CSIS 2008). It generally occupies elevations between 1,000-1,400 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
3760		habitat	eng	Unlike other hamsters, this is an arboreal species, that occurs in deciduous forests of the mountainous habitats within its range (Smith and Xie 2008). It is nocturnal, and primarily active in spring and summer (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a herbivore, feeding on leaves and grasses (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Litter size is 6-8 (Smith and Xie 2008).
3760		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
3760		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
3776		conservation	eng	Taxonomy, understanding ecology, threats and population size and trends are all high priority areas for research in conserving this species. Known sites need active management to reduce influence by alien vegetation.&#160;Much of the range of this species is within protected areas.
3776		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in south-western South Africa, where it is restricted to the mountains south-west of the Breede River, including the Cape Peninsula (an Extent of&#160;Occurrence&#160;of 6,526 km<sup>2</sup> with and Area of Occupancy estimated to be 2% of its Extent of Occurrence). Its&#160;altitudinal&#160;range is 60 to 1,600 m asl, with more than 80% of localities being above 400 m asl.
3776		habitat	eng	It is a species of mountain fynbos heathland, and does not survive in altered habitats. Adults congregate to breed in temporary pools, where they lay around 100 eggs in long strings of amber jelly.
3776		population	eng	It is locally common at breeding sites, and large breeding aggregations can sometimes be found. However, it is absent from some apparently suitable sites and can no longer be found at some historically recorded sites on the Cape peninsula.
3776		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of its fynbos habitat, mainly because of the spread of alien vegetation and frequent burning. No explanation or threat has been deduced for historical populations now missing from the Cape Peninsula.
3778		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures exist for this rarely sighted species, but it is covered by generic whale protection measures both internationally and in the known range states. It is listed in Appendix I of CITES and Appendix II of CMS.
3778		distribution	eng	The pygmy right whale probably has a circumpolar distribution in temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere between about 30°S and 55°S (extending to 20°S in at least the Benguela system (southwestern African continental shelf) (Hoffmann and Best 2005). There are only a few confirmed records of live whales at sea, but strandings have been reported from Argentina, Falkland Islands (Malvinas), Namibia, South Africa, Chile, western, southern and eastern coasts of Australia, and North and South Islands of New Zealand (Cabrera <em>et al.</em> 2005; Hoffman and Best 2005; Kemper 2002a,b; Rice 1998; Ross <em>et al.</em> 1975). Two individuals were taken by a whaling vessel in the South Atlantic between 34°-35°S (Ivashin <em>et al.</em> 1972). An unusual sighting was made in 1992 of an aggregation of about 80 individuals 320 nm southwest of Cape Leeuwin, southwest Australia (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 1996). A group of 14 individuals was sighted in 2001 at 46°S in the South Pacific 450 km southeast of New Zealand (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 2005).
3778		habitat	eng	The stomachs of the two individuals taken in Russian whaling operations (Ivashin 1972) and a juvenile immature stranded individual (Sekiguchi <em>et al.</em> 1992) contained mainly calanoid copepods.
3778		population	eng	The pygmy right whale is one of the least known baleen whale species, and there are too few records to attempt an estimate of population size, even to an order of magnitude. The single sighting of about 80 whales in the southeast Indian Ocean (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 1996) represents over half of the recorded sightings of live individuals. Apart from the two large schools mentioned above, most sightings have been of one or two individuals, sometimes in association with other species of whales and dolphins. The inconspicuous, small blow and quick, shallow surfacing of pygmy right whales make them difficult to spot and observe at sea. They are unlikely to be correctly identified by non-experts.
3778		threats	eng	This poorly known species has never been hunted commercially. There is no evidence of any direct anthropogenic threats. The species may be naturally rare throughout its range, or simply difficult to detect or identify, or perhaps its areas of concentration have not yet been discovered.
3784		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
3784		distribution	eng	It is restricted to southwest Turkey (Aksu and Kopru streams).
3784		habitat	eng	Riverine species.
3784		population	eng	No data.
3784		threats	eng	Dams and restricted range are the main threats (restricted to two streams only).
3785		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
3785		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Lakes Beysehir and Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. But now absent in Egirdir Lake as a result of over fishing and introduction of Pikeperch <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in 1955. Now only occurs in one small pond near Beysehir lake.
3785		habitat	eng	It is large size fish (<500 mm). It was an important commercial species for the inhabitants of the watersheds of these lakes.
3785		population	eng	Very small population remains in one pond only. Population size currently estimated to be less than 50 mature individuals (Erk'akan, F. pers. comm).
3785		threats	eng	Overfishing and the introduction of Pikeperch <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in 1955 are the main reasons attributed to the decline of this fish.
3786		conservation	eng	Afghanistan<br/>Reconnaissance surveys were conducted to evaluate the species? distribution patterns in the mid 1970s. The work was discontinued after the start of the civil war. Surveys to determine the current status and distribution of the species in the country and to develop conservation strategies.<br/><br/>Former Soviet Union<br/><em>C. a. aegagrus</em> is protected by law, and was included in Category II in the Red Data Book of the USSR (Borodin 1984), Georgia (1982) and Russia (1983). No more than 200 occur in at least three protected areas. The wild goat is found in Tushetian Reserve in the Greater Caucasus, and in the Caucasus Minor, in the Geigel (Azerbaijan) and the Khosrov (Armenia) Nature Reserves (Sokolov and Syroyechkovsky 1990). It also occurs in Ordubad  Sanctuary (Nakhichevan), and periodically in ShikakhokhNature Reserve (Armenia). Turkmen wild goat (<em>C. a. blythi</em> [= <em>turcmenica</em>]) is also protected. It was included in Class II in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). Kopet Dagh Nature Reserve is the only protected area with this subspecies. The Turkmenistan Government planned to allow hunts for 20 goats in 1993-94; the current licensed hunting situation is not clear. Throughout its range in the former Societ Union, more strict and effective measures are needed to control of poaching. Most local people in the Caucasus consider wild goats and other species as a source of meat, hides and horns, so stricter prohibition measures alone will not be sufficient. Public awareness programmes are also needed. It is essential to protect the forest habitat of this in Daghestan and elsewhere in the Caucaus. An Ordubad National Park has been established on the southern flank of Zangezur Ridge in Nakhichevan (Caucasus Minor) in an important site for the species. At least two new protected areas are needed, one in western Daghestan, and the other in the Large Balkhan. In Turkmenistan, the wild goat should be re-introduced into the Siunt-Khasardag Nature Reserve in the western Kopet Dagh, and into the Badkhyz Nature Reserve in the Gyaz-Gedyk range.<br/><br/>Iran<br/>The wild goat occurs in several protected areas where hunting is prohibited and livestock grazing is strictly controlled. It is found in seven National Parks, 11 Wildlife Refuges, and 34 Protected Areas throughout the country. They can be hunted under licence outside protected areas between September and February each year, but more strict enforcement of hunting regulations is needed. <br/><br/>Iraq<br/>Surveys are needed to determine the status and distribution of this species, and in particular whether or not any populations remain in the country.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/>A captive breeding plan and subsequent re-introduction program has been proposed, in conjunction with one in Syria.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>In addition to the Kirthar and Hazarganji-Chiltan National Parks, there are several reserves providing different levels of protection to wild goats in the country, but for many, no management plans have been developed and most lack even supervisory staff (Virk 1991). Protected areas with Sind wild goat include: Baluchistan - Las Bela District: Hingol National Park, Dureji Wildlife Sanctuary, Khurkhera Wildlife Sanctuary (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990); Khuzdar District: Dhrun National Park (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990); Chorani Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Gwadar District: Buzi Makola Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Kharan District: Ragai Rakshan Wildlife Sanctuary, Ras Koh Wildlife Sanctuary (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990); Ras Koh Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Chagae District: Gut Wildlife Sanctuary (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990). Kalat District: Koh-Egish Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Dadu District: Kirthar National Park, Sumbak-Surjan-Eri-Hothiano Game Reserve (Mirza and Asghar 1980). A wildlife management plan for Kirthar National  Park (Holloway and Khan 1973) recommended: 1) no extension of irrigated cultivation, 2) reduction of livestock grazing by the locals and immigrants, and 3) prohibition of tree felling, cutting branches for livestock fodder, poaching, stone quarrying and honey collection within the park. This plan is currently being revised. The world?s last remaining population of Chiltan goat is restricted to Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park (Quetta District; Zoological Survey Department, no date) where <em>ca</em>. 480 animals lived in 1990 (Forest Service reports cited in Virk 1991). Previous efforts to protect this Park included more administrative staff, control of livestock grazing, wood cutting, poaching, and construction of <em>ca</em>. 30 km boundary fence. This resulted in a marked recovery of the vegetation and an increase in the Chiltan goat population prior to 1990 (Baluchistan Forest Department Records, cited in Virk 1991). However, there are reports that conditions have recently deteriorated in this National Park. Conservation measures proposed for the species as a whole in Pakistan are as follows: 1) Implement the management ecommendations for Kirthar National Park. 2) Consider alternative livelihoods for the people who would be displaced by implementation Kirthar National Park?s management plan. 3) Develop a range management program for the Park based upon a system of zones of varying use-intensity by humans and livestock. 4) Implementation of such restrictions on the human population, must be accompanied not only by some form of compensation, but also include responsible involvement of the local community in conservation and agricultural programs. Virk (1991) emphasised the importance of participation of the local communities in the wildlife conservation process and gave a list of objectives for a local participatory approach, as well as a list of management goals. 5) Determine the current distribution and status of this species, and assess the remaining habitat before launching any further wild goat conservation projects in the Province of Baluchistan. 6) Consider implementing Virk?s (1991) three proposals for Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park: a) Enlarge the area of Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park by including the adjacent Kerkhasa State Forest (Ahmad 1988, cited in Virk 1991) to support any increase in the Chiltan goat population. b) Reintroduce and manage at least one herd of Chiltan goat in a formerly inhabited mountain range (e.g. Murdar, Koh-i-Maran). Such re-introductions would provide ways of presenting wildlife conservation to the public, and involve the local people in the conservation program. Natural dispersal from Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park to neighbouring mountain areas can be expected only over the long term and even then only with a high population density within the Park. c) Stop allowing hunters to take animals from the last population of Chiltan goat. Only when viable populations have been built up outside the National Park, could a trophy hunting program be considered as a possible means of generating funds for further conservation efforts. If conditions have deteriorated and the Park?s effectiveness has declined since 1990, obviously steps should be taken immediately to deal with the problems.<br/><br/>Syria<br/>The proposed joint re-introduction project with Lebanon should be implemented.<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>Much stricter conservation measures are needed to control hunting, and especially to secure the future of the larger populations.
3786		distribution	eng	The wild goat ranges discontinuously from central Afghanistan and southern Pakistan, west through Iran, western Turkmenistan, northern Iraq, the Caucasus region (Armenia, Azerbaijan, northeastern Georgia, and southern Russia), as far as southwestern Turkey. It once occurred in Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, but is now extinct in these countries (Grubb, 2005). It also occurred in Israel before 10,000 ago (Dayan <em>et al</em>. 1986).<br/><br/>Its range in particular countries and regions is as follows:<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>It is probably confined to the Hazarajat and Uruzgan mountains in central Afghanistan, including the arid Feroz Koh and Siyah Koh in the headwaters of the Hari Rud, Farah Rud, Helmand and Arghandab rivers. However, no animals were observed by FAO or WWF survey teams in the 1970s, but horns and skulls were occasionally seen at shrines and grave sites. One captive animal seen in 1975 in a private zoo in Kandahar, was reputedly caught in the nearby mountains. The species had probably been reduced to a small portion of its former range by the late 1970s (Habibi 1977). Its current status in the country is unknown.<br/><br/>Caucasus<br/>One subspecies of the wild goat is recognised in the Caucasus. The distribution of <em>C. a. aegagrus</em> is in two separate parts. It occurs in forested areas along northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains from the Upper Argun river, in Chechen-Ingushetia and in Georgia, up to the headwaters of the Jurmut river (around 42°30?N, 46°E) in Daghestan, with an isolated population on the southern slopes of Mount Babadagh, Azerbaijan. It also occurs in the drier, more open habitats in the Caucasus Minor mountains in both Azerbaijan and Armenia, south and east of Sevang lake, namely the Shakhdagh, Mrovdagh, Karabakh, Gegam, Vardenis and Zangezur ranges, and on the Delidagh massif between 39° to 40°30?N and 45° to 46°39?E.<br/><br/>Iran<br/>The wild goat is widely distributed throughout Iran wherever large areas of rocky terrain are available. This includes not only mountainous areas, but also cliffs along the seashore, in deciduous forested areas of the north, and in areas of the central desert.<br/><br/>Iraq<br/>If it still occurs in Iraq, it would most likely be found in the Zagros mountains in the extreme north and along the northeastern border with Iran. Nothing is known of current distributions.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/>The wild goat used to be relatively common in Barouk, the Ammiq mountains and on Mount Harmon, northern Lebanon. However, by the early 1900s it was extinct in Lebanon (Kumerloeve 1975; Harrison 1968).<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>The present range of Sind wild goat (<em>C. a. blythi</em>) is the Baluchistan plateau and its foothills in south-western Pakistan. Populations are scattered on arid mountain ranges that are isolated by lowlands of southern Baluchistan and Sind. The range includes the low Mekran coastal range (District Gwadar), areas up to 3,250 m asl in the Koh-i-Maran range south of Quetta (District Kalat), and also the Kirthar range (Districts of Dadu and Las Bela) (Roberts 1977, Schaller 1977, Bollmann 1989). A second subspecies, the Chiltan goat (<em>C. a. chialtanensis</em>) was restricted in the early 1970s to four or five populations in the accessible mountain ranges (Chiltan, Murdar, Koh-i-Maran and Koh-i-Gishk ranges) south of Quetta (Roberts 1977, Schaller 1977). Today, these have been reduced, principally by uncontrolled hunting, to only one surviving population in the Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park (Districts of Quetta and Kalat).<br/><br/>Syria<br/>Wild goat was reported in northern Syria, in the mountains north of Dimasq, and must once have occurred in the western mountains as well. However, it is now believed to be extinct (Harrison 1968).<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>The wild goat ranges widely in Turkey, east from the Datca peninsula, through the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains in the mountainous regions of southeastern, eastern and northeastern Anatolia (Kence 1987).<br/><br/>Turkmenistan<br/>The Turkmen wild goat (<em>C. a. blythi</em> [= <em>turcmenica</em>]), occurs in scattered populations in the central Kopet Dagh along the border between Turkmenistan and Iran between about 37°20?N, 55°20?E and 38°N, 57°20?E, and in the Large Balkhan (Bolshye) north of Nebit Dagh about 39°30?N, 50°30?E. It is not known whether this subspecies still inhabits the Small Balkhan (Malye).
3786		habitat	eng	The wild goat inhabits mountainous areas, where there is a mixture of rocky outcrops (including scree slopes) and vegetation (shrubby thickets (maquis) or conifer forests).  It tends to be found in relatively arid habitats, though it is a forest species in the Caucasus. It is herbivorous, feeding on grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs.
3786		population	eng	The global population of wild goat has not been estimated. Although the species ranges very widely, it is probably extremely rare or absent in much of its mapped range. In some places it is clearly decreasing rapidly. However, there is also evidence of localised population recovery when adequate protection is in place. The population trend across its range is likely to be a significant decrease, perhaps as much as 30% over three generations. There is an urgent need for updated information on the status of this species. Specific information on country-level abundance is as follows:<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>No estimate of numbers available, but the species is probably now very rare in this country.<br/><br/>Caucasus<br/>It inhabits mainly forested habitat, so accurate censuses are difficult to make. The total population estimate for wild goat was between 3,500 and 4,000 individuals in the late 1980s, with 1,500 in the Greater Caucasus (Arabuli 1989; Bathiyev 1989; Prilutskaya and Pishvanov 1989) and the rest in the Caucasus Minor, where more than half (1,000 to 1,250) lived in the southern half of the Zangezur range (Kuliyev 1981). At the end of 1990s, 2,500 animals were estimated for Daghestan alone (Nasrulayev, 2003), but numbers were declining rapidly, by 50% in three years (Magomedov, Omarov, Nasrulayev, 2001).  The overall population trend for this subspecies is negative, and in recent years the rate of decline has increased. <br/><br/>Iran<br/>No estimates of total numbers are currently available. However, 1991 estimates are available for Golestan National Park - 2,500 animals, and for Alborz-Markazy Protected Area - 4,000 animals.<br/><br/>Iraq<br/>There are no population estimates, but the species is probably extremely rare, if it survives at all.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>For <em>C. a. blythi</em> there is no overall population estimate. Most survive in small inaccessible areas in isolated populations (Virk 1991). However, reasonable numbers are reported for the Dhrun and Hingol areas (Ahmad and Beg 1989). Kirthar National Park probably contains the largest population of Sind wild goat in the country. In the Karchat Mountains, which are withinf Kirthar National Park, the population has increased from between 400 and 500 when the establishment park was established in 1973 (Schaller and Laurie 1974) to around 950 to 1,050 (Bollmann 1989). For the whole Park, Mirza and Asghar (1980) estimated a total of 1,480 goats, while Kermani and Khan (1985) gave an optimistic number of 4,000 animals. According to Bollmann?s (unpubl. data) observations in 1987, the total population inhabiting the Park was between 1,500 and 2,000 goats. The adjacent Surjan-Sumbak-Eri-Hothiano Game Reserve contained another 900 to 1,100 (Mirza and Asghar 1980), resulting in a total estimate of 2,400 to 3,100 wild goat for Sind Province. Depending on the study area, densities ranged between 0.5 to 0.65 animals/km² (over 3,087 km² in Kirthar National Park; Bollmann, unpubl. data) and 11.8 to 16.3 animals/km² (over 60 km² in Karchat Mountains; Edge and Olsen-Edge 1990). However, the overall density within the species? distribution area in Pakistan is probably well below 0.5 wild goat/km². For <em>C. a. chialtanensis</em> the single population totalled ca. 168 animals in 1975 (Mirza 1975). Due to rigid protection following establishment of the National Park in 1980, the population had increased to 480 animals by 1990 (Baluchistan Forest Dept. Records, cited in Virk 1991) but this improvement may not have continued. There is an urgent need to updated information on the abundance of the wild goat in Pakistan.<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>It is declining in Turkey throughout its range, and the total population is believed to be less than 10,000 mature individuals, with no subpopulation larger than 1,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/>Turkmenistan<br/>Korshunov (1986), whose data are the most reliable, estimated that the total population was up to 7,000 animals.
3786		population	eng	The global population of wild goat has not been estimated. Although the species ranges very widely, it is probably extremely rare or absent in much of its mapped range. In some places it is clearly decreasing rapidly. However, there is also evidence of localised population recovery when adequate protection is in place. The population trend across its range is likely to be a significant decrease, perhaps as much as 30% over three generations. There is an urgent need for updated information on the status of this species. Specific information on country-level abundance is as follows:<br><br>Afghanistan<br>No estimate of numbers available, but the species is probably now very rare in this country.<br><br>Caucasus<br>It inhabits mainly forested habitat, so accurate censuses are difficult to make. The total population estimate for wild goat was between 3,500 and 4,000 individuals in the late 1980s, with 1,500 in the Greater Caucasus (Arabuli 1989; Bathiyev 1989; Prilutskaya and Pishvanov 1989) and the rest in the Caucasus Minor, where more than half (1,000 to 1,250) lived in the southern half of the Zangezur range (Kuliyev 1981). At the end of 1990s, 2,500 animals were estimated for Daghestan alone (Nasrulayev, 2003), but numbers were declining rapidly, by 50% in three years (Magomedov, Omarov, Nasrulayev, 2001).  The overall population trend for this subspecies is negative, and in recent years the rate of decline has increased. <br><br>Iran<br>No estimates of total numbers are currently available. However, 1991 estimates are available for Golestan National Park - 2,500 animals, and for Alborz-Markazy Protected Area - 4,000 animals.<br><br>Iraq<br>There are no population estimates, but the species is probably extremely rare, if it survives at all.<br><br>Pakistan<br>For <i>C. a. blythi</i> there is no overall population estimate. Most survive in small inaccessible areas in isolated populations (Virk 1991). However, reasonable numbers are reported for the Dhrun and Hingol areas (Ahmad and Beg 1989). Kirthar National Park probably contains the largest population of Sind wild goat in the country. In the Karchat Mountains, which are withinf Kirthar National Park, the population has increased from between 400 and 500 when the establishment park was established in 1973 (Schaller and Laurie 1974) to around 950 to 1,050 (Bollmann 1989). For the whole Park, Mirza and Asghar (1980) estimated a total of 1,480 goats, while Kermani and Khan (1985) gave an optimistic number of 4,000 animals. According to Bollmann?s (unpubl. data) observations in 1987, the total population inhabiting the Park was between 1,500 and 2,000 goats. The adjacent Surjan-Sumbak-Eri-Hothiano Game Reserve contained another 900 to 1,100 (Mirza and Asghar 1980), resulting in a total estimate of 2,400 to 3,100 wild goat for Sind Province. Depending on the study area, densities ranged between 0.5 to 0.65 animals/km² (over 3,087 km² in Kirthar National Park; Bollmann, unpubl. data) and 11.8 to 16.3 animals/km² (over 60 km² in Karchat Mountains; Edge and Olsen-Edge 1990). However, the overall density within the species? distribution area in Pakistan is probably well below 0.5 wild goat/km². For <i>C. a. chialtanensis</i> the single population totalled ca. 168 animals in 1975 (Mirza 1975). Due to rigid protection following establishment of the National Park in 1980, the population had increased to 480 animals by 1990 (Baluchistan Forest Dept. Records, cited in Virk 1991) but this improvement may not have continued. There is an urgent need to updated information on the abundance of the wild goat in Pakistan.<br><br>Turkey<br>It is declining in Turkey throughout its range, and the total population is believed to be less than 10,000 mature individuals, with no subpopulation larger than 1,000 mature individuals.<br><br>Turkmenistan<br>Korshunov (1986), whose data are the most reliable, estimated that the total population was up to 7,000 animals.
3786		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are poaching, competition for food with domestic livestock, and disturbance and habitat loss from logging and land clearing.<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>Overhunting and colonisation of their habitat by livestock resulted in depleted numbers prior to 1979, with small bands of wild goats forced into the most inaccessible parts of the mountain ranges.<br/><br/>Caucasus<br/>Main threats in the Greater Caucasus are poaching and logging, since animals are mostly confined to forested areas. In the Caucasus Minor, there is also competition with livestock. The state of war between Azerbaijan and Armenia has a negative impact upon the main local populations of the wild goat.<br/><br/>Iran<br/>Poaching, competition for food with domestic livestock, and disturbance and habitat loss from logging and land clearing, are major threats.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/>The extinction of wild goat in Lebanon was caused by large scale habitat destruction and the disregard of hunting regulations.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Within its range, the species is only locally abundant and under successful protection only in a few areas (e.g., in Sind Province). Most of the animals are in scattered populations on mountain ranges isolated from each other by lowlands. Consequently, they are at risk, especially because local people and nomadic tribes graze their domestic stock on most of the mountain ranges used by wild goats, and because hunting is still widespread. <br/><br/>Syria<br/>Extinction was probably caused by habitat destruction and hunting.<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>It is declining in Turkey principally due to over-hunting.
3787		conservation	eng	<em>Capra falconeri</em> is listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES. Within Afghanistan, the species was protected nominally by a nationwide presidential decree banning hunting, but this ban was not generally enforced.   In 2009 the species as a whole was listed on Afghanistan’s Protected Species List, making any hunting or trade of this species within the country illegal. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) census current population numbers, productivity and distributions; 2) re-assess conservation potentials after population surveys have been made; and, based on these data 3) consider a series of hunting reserves that have full support of the local people. This is probably the best chance for the flare-horned markhor’s survival. It will be critical to the success of such a program that the local people receive a substantial benefit from the operation of such reserves. Nuristan and Laghman are home to some of the toughest tribes in the country, with non-integrated societies that are frequently at odds with each other. <br/><br/>In India, it is a fully protected (Schedule I) species in Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar, 1979). Currently, markhor in India occurs in only three small protected areas: the Limber Game Reserve and the Lachipora and Hirapora Wildlife Sanctuaries. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) A new survey, with subsequent monitoring, is urgently needed to reassess the current status of the Astor markhor in India. However, this will have to await the easing of political tension and violence in the area. 2) Consider future re-introductions to previously inhabited ranges in the Pir Panjal mountains. <br/><br/>In Pakistan, the markhor is completely protected by federal law (Rao, 1986). A trophy hunting program for markhor was initiated in 1998, with a total of 7 animals legally taken through 2001 (Shackleton 2001). The quota was increased by CITES in 2002 from 6 to 12 animals due to the success of the program with the purpose of encouraging local communities for conservation of markhor through economic incentives from trophy hunting program. The central government issues permits only to areas in which a community-based trophy hunting program has been established; as of 2000, 80% of hunter fees were mandated to go to the community (although inter-community, as well as provincial-federal disputes over receipts and permitting have occurred). The program has continued through 2007 with trophy price for markhor increasing from US $18,000 to about US $57,000. According of official records, approximately US $830,000 has been distributed to communities within Northwest Frontier Province since 1998 from hunter remittances from the 17 markhor taken since 1998 (A. Khan, unpublished data, Northwest Frontier Province Wildlife Management, 2008). <br/><br/>Several protected areas contain flare-horned markhor: NWFP - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP, Drosh Gol GR, Gahirat Gol GR, Goleem Gol GR, Goleen Gol GR, Purit Gol- Chinar Gol GR, Tushi GR (NWFP, 1992); Swat District: Totalai GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987). Northwn Areas - Gilgit District: Kargah WS, Naltar WS, Danyore GR, Sherqillah GR. (Rasool, no date); Diamir District: Astor WS, Tangir GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Baltistan WS, Askor Nallah GR (Rasool, no date). Azad Jammu and Kashmir - Muzaffarabad: Mauji CR, Qazi Nag GR, Hillan CR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1986); Poonch District: Phala GR (Qayyum, 1986, 47). Despite containing only about 200 animals, Chitral Gol NP may still protect the largest population of flare-horned markhor in the world—an indication of how critical the status of this subspecies is. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) stop allowing foreign hunters to take animals in Chitral Gol National Park; 2) treat Kargah GS as a focal area for markhor and enforce protection measures (Kargah is probably the best place for markhor in the Gilgit District, and like the Chitral Gol, should be rather easy to control because it is a traditional wildlife sanctuary and is close to Gilgit); 3) adopt a similar procedure for the area around Bagheecha in the Indus valley, which is one of the best places in Baltistan for markhor and also relatively easy to control; and 4) do not lift the hunting ban (which is excepted for approved community-based trophy hunts), as is currently being considered for the Northern Areas, because no single area contains greater than 50 animals.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in three Nature Reserves: Kugitang (Turkmensitan), Surkhan (Uzbekistan), and Dashti Jum (Tajikistan). Hunting by foreigners is currently permitted (at least two markhor/ year) in Tajikistan, with the government planning to allow more to be hunted in 1993-94, but the current status of hunting is uncertain. In Uzbekistan, two markhor were taken in 1994, and “Glavbiocontrol” of the State Committee for Nature Protection planned for two markhor licenses to be issued in 1995 (Anon., 1995b). A captive herd of markhor is reported in Dashti Jum NR, and a captive breeding program is apparently underway in Ramit Nature Reserve in the Gissar range (Tajikistan), with about 10 animals released by 1989. All markhor currently held in western zoos are considered to belong to this subspecies. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) stop poaching as soon as possible; 2) halt trophy hunting until professional biologists have completed adequate population surveys and thoroughly assessed the suitability of such programs; and 3) enlarge the size of the Kugitang Nature Reserve (Turkmenistan) on the western slopes of the Kugitangtau, because it protects only the high elevation summer habitat of markhor and the currently unprotected lower winter ranges are grazed by livestock. In Afghanistan, no measures were taken in the country and the species occurs in no protected areas.  Much needed are surveys to determine if the taxon occurs in Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES. In Afghanistan, no measures were taken in the country and the species occurs in no protected areas. Status within country is Indeterminate (probably Endangered). Drastic measures will be required if the Kabul markhor is still alive today. It is necessary to carry out surveys to assess numbers and distribution as soon as possible.  Public support for its conservation is essential if it is to survive, but this will be difficult to obtain.<br/><br/>Only one protected area is known to contain straight-horned markhor in Pakistan: Sheikh Buddin NP (previously a Wildlife Sanctuary) in Dera Ismail Khan District of NWFP (Zoological Survey Dept., 1987). The status of the subspecies in protected areas in Baluchistan is uncertain. Its occurrence is not confirmed in Chiltan-Hazarganji NP, and there is no reliable information for either Sasnamana or Ziarat Juniper WS’s. There are no reports of any in protected areas in Punjab. Due to recent protective measures in Koh-i-Sulaiman area, the population may be increasing slowly, but poaching still occurs in Takatu. <br/><br/>The Torghar Conservation Project in Baluchistan however, appears to have had success in reducing poaching and competition by livestock (Johnson 1997); the markhor population in this area is reported to have increased steadily since initiation of the program Torghar (Rosser <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Additional conservation measures proposed are: 1) immediately develop a conservation and management plan that includes information on the status and distribution of the subspecies in the areas it still inhabits; 2) include participatory management in the tribal areas in this plan; 3) besides the Torghar hills, consider the area of Koh-i-Sulaiman and the Takatu hills as a focal area for conservation efforts; and 4) if feasible, establish a captive population.
3787		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan, northern India (southwest Jammu and Kashmir), northern and central Pakistan, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan (Grubb, 2005).  It ranges in elevation from 600 to 3,600 m asl.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/>Within Afghanistan, it is historically been limited to the east in the high mountainous, monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. Within India, markhor is restricted to part of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir (Ranjitsinh <em>et al</em>. 2005, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Populations are scattered throughout this range starting from just east of the Banihal pass (50 km from the Chenab river) on the Jammu-Srinagar highway westward to the disputed border with Pakistan. Populations are known from recent surveys still to occur in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, Schaller and Khan (1975) considered the former Astor markhor (<em>C. f. falconeri</em>) and Kashmir markhor (<em>C. f cashmiriensis</em>) to be one subspecies – the flare-horned markhor. The distribution map given by Schaller and Khan (1975) seems still valid for this markhor, though the populations within the large range along the Indus have probably since decreased. Markhor is mainly confined to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) river and its tributaries. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (District Kohistan) upstream to near the Tungas village (District Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit river, Chalt up the Hunza river, and the Parishing valley up the Astor river (Schaller and Khan, 1975). The occurrence of this markhor on the right side of the Yasin valley (Gilgit District) in the recent past (Schaller and Kahn, 1975) was also reported to R. Hess in 1986, but could not be confirmed. The flare-horned markhor is also found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar river (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho river, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj river (Schaller and Khan, 1975).<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>This subspecies previously occupied most of the mountains lying along the north banks of the Upper Amu Darya and the Pyanj rivers from Turkmenistan to Tajikistan. Today it is found in only about two to three scattered populations in a greatly reduced distribution. It is limited to the region between lower Pyanj and the Vakhsh rivers near Kulyab in Tajikistan (about 70”E and 37’40’ to 38”N), and in the Kugitangtau range in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (around 66’40’E and 37’30’N) (Weinberg <em>et al</em>.1997).  This subspecies may possibly exist in the Darwaz peninsula of northern Afghanistan near the border with Tajikistan. Almost nothing was known of this subspecies or its distribution in Afghanistan before 1979 (Habibi, 1977), and no new information has been developed in Afghanistan since that time.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>In Afghanistan, at least until 1978, this markhor survived only in the Kabul Gorge and the Kohe Safi area of Kapissa, and in some isolated pockets in between. Intensive hunting pressure had forced it into the most inaccessible regions of its once wider range in the mountains of Kapissa and Kabul Provinces. In Pakistan, the most comprehensive study of the distribution and status of the straight-horned markhor comes from Schaller and Khan (1975). They showed a huge recent past range for this subspecies, but the present range in Pakistan consists only of small isolated areas in Baluchistan, a small area in NWFP, and one unconfirmed occurrence in Dera Ghazi Khan District (Punjab Province). Virk (1991) summarized the actual information for Baluchistan Province and confirmed the subspecies’ presence in the area of the Koh-i-Sulaiman (District Zhob) and the Takatu hills (District Quetta), both according to Ahmad (1989), and in the Torghar hills of the Toba Kakar range (District Zhob) (Tareen, 1990). The NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1987) considered that the areas of Mardan and Sheikh Buddin were still inhabited by the subspecies. There is no actual information about the Safed Koh range (Districts of Kurram and Khyber) where, according to Schaller and Khan (1975), probably at least 100 animals lived on the Pakistan side of the border at the time of their survey.
3787		habitat	eng	<em>Capra falconeri</em> is adapted to mountainous terrain between 600 m and 3,600 m elevation. The species is typically found in scrub forests made up primarily of oaks (<em>Quercus ilex</em>), pines (<em>Pinus gerardiana</em>), and junipers (<em>Juniperus macropoda</em>). This species is diurnal but most active in the early morning and late afternoon. The species alternates seasonally between grazing (summer) and browsing (winter).  It eats grasses and leaves.  Females gestate for 135-170 days and give birth typically to 1-2 kids.  Animals are sexually mature at 18-30 months, and live 12-13 years.  Predators include the wolf, snow leopards, and lynx.
3787		population	eng	The global population is estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals, although recent data are lacking for most parts of its range.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/><br/>In Afghanistan, some 350 markhor were counted in western Nuristan (Petocz, 1972), which was considered a small proportion of the animals present. The population was believed to be declining steeply 10 years ago. Camera and hunter surveys conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society in Nuristan during 2006-07 suggest that the species is now quite rare, and remaining individuals continue to be of interest to poachers. <br/><br/>In 1975, markhor were estimated to total 250 to 300 animals in India (Schaller and Khan, 1975). In 2005, Ranjitsinh <em>et al</em>. (2005) conducted surveys in most of the historical range of markhor in the Pir Panjal mountains of Jammu and Kashmir, observing 155 markhor within 2 of the 7 blocks surveyed. They guessed the total population within the surveyed area of Jammu and Kashmir to be some 280-330 markhor (although stressed that they did not believe this represented a true population increase from previous estimates). Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. (2007) estimated 63 ±16 in the Limber catchment of this area. <br/><br/>In Pakistan, there are comparable population numbers over the last 20 years for three areas. 1) In 1970, the Chitral Gol, a valley of 77.5 km² in the Chitral District, and at that time the private hunting reserve of the Mehtar of Chitral, was estimated to harbor 100 to 125 animals (Schaller and Mirza, 1971). In 1984, this area was declared a National Park, and by 1985-86, it contained 160 (census) to 300 (estimated) animals. In addition, the proportion of males 24.5 years old increased during the same period (Hess, 1986). Within this time span, Aleem (1979) registered a maximum of 520 animals in Chitral Gol in 1979. The increase was attributed to better protection from poaching and to other improvement efforts in the Park (Malik, 1985). However, according to the latest official census (Ahmad, unpubl. data), the population in Chitral Gol NP was reduced to 195 markhor in 1987. 2) For the Tushi GR in the Chitral District, Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated 125 animals, a number similar to that estimated in 1985-86 (anonymous 1986, Hess in press). 3) The population of markhor in the Kargah GS (Gilgit District) was estimated by Roberts (1969) as not less than 500 to 600 animals; by Schaller and Khan (1975) as 50; by Rasool (no date, probably 1976) as 109; by Hess (1986) as 50 to 75; and by Rasool (unpubl. data) in 1991 as 40-50. In 1983, Rasool (unpubl. data) estimated that this area was the best area for markhor within the Gilgit District. Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated a total of at least 5,250 flare-horned markhor living in Pakistan, in the border areas with Afghanistan, and in India. The official census for Chitral District gave 6 17 markhor for 1985-86, and the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1992) estimated 1,075 for the whole province (619 - Chitral, 109 - Dir, 58 - Swat, 221 - Kohistan, 50 - Mansehra; NWFP, 1992). The Wildlife Wing (Northern Areas Forest Dept., unpubl. data) estimated a total of 1,000 to 1,500 markhor in the Northern Areas in 1993 (Districts Gilgit, Diamir and Baltistan), though there may be no more than a maximum of 40 to 50 animals for a single area. Hence the population of this subspecies appears to have decreased since 1975. Today, less than 2,500 to 3,000 flare-horned markhor are estimated to survive in Pakistan.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>In the ex-Soviet republics, the total population was estimated to be about 700 animals, and numbers generally decreasing in the 1990s (Shackleton <em>et al</em>. 1997), although Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997), based on reports from game wardens and local inhabitants,  believed the population in Kugitang Nature Reserve in eastern Turkmenistan was increasing during the mid-1990s. In the Khozratisho range and in Kushvoristone (Tajikistan) there were around 350 markhor (Sokov, 1989), but nothing is known about current population numbers in Tajikistan. A recent survey in Kugitang revealed that its western (Turkmenistan) slopes harbor over 250 markhor (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997, Fedosenko <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the early 1980s there were 400 in the whole of Uzbekistan according to the Uzbek Red Data Book (1983), but in 1994 there were only 290 estimated in this Republic, with only 86 counted in the Surkhan Nature Reserve in May 1993 (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995). There is no estimate for Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>In Afghanistan, very few animals survived even 10 years ago, perhaps 50-80 in the Kohe Safi region, with a few in other isolated pockets. In Pakistan, Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated that more than 2,000 individuals remained throughout the entire range of straight-horned markhor. Roberts (1969) estimated that the total population of the former subspecies <em>C. f. jerdoni</em>, restricted mainly to the Province of Baluchistan, may have exceeded 1,000 animals, but that it was severely threatened because it survived in discontinuous and isolated pockets. For this same area, Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated less than 1,000 animals. Roberts (1969) believed that the main concentration of this former subspecies was in the Toba Kakar and Torghar hills and numbers could have been less than 500. Johnson (1997) estimated there were 695 Sulaiman markhor in the Torghar Hills in 1994.  However, Rosser <em>et al</em>. (2005) summarized results from more recent surveys that suggested markhor in the Torghar Hills had increased to over 1,600 by the year 2000. Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated 150 straight-horned markhor living in the Takatu hills in 1971, but later Ahmad (1989) reported that only 50 still existed in these hills, and only 100 in the area of Koh-i-Sulaiman. The NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1992) gave a total of only 24 animals for the whole province: 12 for the Mardan area, and 12 for the Sheikh Buddin NP. There is no recent estimate for the total number of straight-horned markhor in Pakistan.
3787		threats	eng	<em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/>Within Afghanistan, markhor have been traditionally hunted in Nuristan and Laghman, and this may have intensified during the war. Domestic livestock were also increasing 10 years ago, creating competition for forage.  According to surveys conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society in Nuristan during 2007, markhor continue to be attractive for local hunters (despite a nominal ban on hunting nationwide). The continued existence of markhor in India is threatened by hunting and some habitat alteration. The small population of markhor in India justifies its Endangered status. The primary current threat related to hunting is increasing in association with the civil unrest and armed conflict present in the region of its habitat along India’s border with Pakistan. Thus, the main threat to markhor in India is their value as food within areas of armed conflict, although their high value as a trophy species also makes them sought after by hunters. Flare-horned markhor generally occur only in small (<100), scattered populations and at low densities throughout most of northern Pakistan. Control of poaching in Chitral Gol NP has been successful (Malik, 1985), and similar protection should be afforded other populations. Such actions alone may not be sufficient, however. Despite less poaching, markhor numbers have decreased and no more than 200 are believed to remain in Chitral Gol NP (Ahmad, unpubl. data).<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>In Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, markhor are reportedly poached for meat and for horns which are used for medicinal purposes in the large Asian market. Animals are also threatened by habitat loss, disturbance and forage competition from domestic livestock. <br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>In Afghanistan, excessive hunting by local people and forage competition with livestock were pushing markhor to the periphery of its range. Such severe pressure was endangering the population towards a slow demise, and its status is unlikely to have improved since. In Pakistan, hunting and livestock competition, as well as significant habitat loss caused by logging in the Suleiman range, which is the most important area of straight-horned markhor’s distribution.
3794		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Karachai-Circassia Red Data Book (1988). This tur is protected in the Caucasus Nature Reserve (Russia), which has played a major part in its conservation (Bannikov, 1977). It also occurs in the Teberda Nature Reserve (Karachai-Circassia, Russia). It has been reported from Pskhu-Gumista and Ritsa Nature Reserves in Georgia, but recent surveys indicate that it is no longer present there (P. Weinberg pers. comm.). Hunting under license is permitted in some areas. The most useful conservation measure at present would be to increase the level and effectiveness of protection in existing reserves, because organization of new ones seems improbable for the time being.
3794		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western part of the Great Caucasus Mountains in Georgia and Russia. Its range stretches in a narrow stripe from Tchugush Mountain massif (apprroximately 44ºN, 39º45?E) to the Balkar Cherek River headwaters on the north slope and Inguri River headwaters on the south slope (appr. 43ºN, 42º50?E), just east of the Mount Elbrus massif (Dinnik, 1910; Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961; Kotov, 1966; Tsalkin, 1955; Vereshchagin, 1959). The present length of the range hardly exceeds 250 km. The distribution reaches its maximal width near Mount. Elbrus ? up to 70 km. Thus, the range of the West Caucasian tur is the smallest one among all the genus <em>Capra</em>.
3794		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of western and eastern tur do not differ noticeably. Western tur are more influenced by high precipitation and heavy snow cover. They mostly inhabit subalpine and alpine zones between 800 and 4,000 m asl. They rarely live in forests outside snowy season, probably because forest in the West Caucasus is composed predominantly of fir and spruce and forms closed stands. Where pine are more abundant, Western tur stay more readily in forests (Bobyr, 2002). During the region's harsh winters, tur concentrate on sunny slopes, with 30 to 80% of the animals staying below timberline; during  the summer, tur expand their distribution to slopes of different exposures (Kotov, 1968; Bobyr, 2002).<br/><br/>At high population densities, summer herd size average 11.7 animals, while in winter this rises to 20.3 individuals (Kotov, 1968). Population densities in summer may reach 13 animals/km², more than tripling in wintering areas to 44 animals/km² (Kotov, 1968). The sex ratio usually favors females (Kotov, 1968; Bobyr, 2002; Romashin, 2001).<br/><br/>The rut lasts from mid-November until the beginning of January; birthing season takes place in May-July. Only one kid is born. One month after parturition, average proportion of kids is 13%, but yearlings only 5-9% (Bobyr, 2002; Kotov, 1968; Romashin, 2001; Zalikhanov, 1967). Western tur are preyed upon by wolf (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and lynx (<em>Lynx lynx</em>), but snow avalanches cause most natural deaths (Bobyr, 2002; Kotov, 1968; Zalikhanov, 1967). The leopard (<em>Panthera pardus</em>), while formerly a major predator of <em>C. caucasica</em>, is now very rare in the Caucasus.<br/><br/>Western tur coexist with chamois (<em>Rupicapra rupicapra</em>), dominating the latter throughout the year (Kotov, 1968; Romashin, 2001). The proportions of kids in the populations are mutually negatively correlated in both species, but more markedly so in chamois (Romashin, 2001). The diet of <em>C. caucasica</em> contains over a hundred recorded species of plants, especially grasses. In winter, animals often browse on pine, spruce and willow. Salt licks are visited mostly in the end of spring ? beginning of summer (Bobyr, 2002; Kotov, 1968; Zalikhanov, 1967).
3794		population	eng	The total population estimate in the late 1980s was ca. 12,000 animals (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997), but in recent years numbers have been declining significantly (P. Weinberg, unpubl. data). In 2001, numbers were estimated at 6,000-10,000 (Krever <em>et al</em>., 2001), but the latest available data indicate about 2,500 in the Caucasus Nature Reserve (Romashin, 2001), up to 1,000 animals in Teberda Nature Reserve, with probably few animals outside it (Bobyr, 2002), and approximately 1,000 tur in Svaneti region in Georgia (NACRES, 2006). The total population was given at 5,000-6,000 animals by Weinberg (2004), and might now be lower.
3794		threats	eng	Livestock grazing and poaching are the major threats to the western tur, combined with the impacts of severe winters. Poaching is probably the most significant cause of the recently observed serious declines. Livestock grazing results in competition for resources, especially with domestic sheep and goats. The species is also impacted by habitat loss and degradation (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997).
3795		conservation	eng	It is included in Category III in the Georgian Red Data Book (1982). Hunting, including hard currency foreign trophy hunting, is forbidden in Georgia, but is permitted under license in Azerbaijan and Russia. This species of tur is found in several Nature Reserves: 5,200 in Kabardin-Balkarian (Russia), 800 in North-Ossetian (Russia), 700 in Lagodekhi (Georgia), and 2,000 in Zakatala (Azerbaijan). Other protected areas with this species include Tushetian and Kazbegi Nature Reserve (Georgia), and Ilisu Nature Reserve with Kakh sanctuary and Ismailly Nature Reserve together with a sanctuary of the same name, and the newly founded Shakhdagh National Park (Azerbaijan). Of these, tur receive effective protection in Kabardin-Balkarian, North-Ossetian, Lagodekhi and Zakatala Nature Reserves. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) create new reserves, particularly in Daghestan on the border with Georgia and Azerbaijan neighboring with Lagodekhi and Zakatala Nature Reserve respectively; 2) strictly enforce protection measures outside the four-month hunting season; if controls are successful and the population responds, then 3) consider the possibility of increasing the annual hunting quota.
3795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern part of the Great Caucasus along the borders of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan between 800 and 4,000 m asl. Its range begins around the headwaters of the Baksan river east of Mount Elbrus (about 43ºN, 43ºE) and stretches for some 600 km eastward along both slopes of the Greater Caucasus to Babadagh mountain (41ºN, 48ºE) (Kuliyev, 1981; Tsalkin, 1955). The distribution is widest (up to 70 km)  in Daghestan (Magomedov, Akhmedov and Yarovenko, 2001), being most narrow in North Ossetia (ca. 12 km) (Weinberg, 2002).
3795		habitat	eng	Eastern tur inhabit elevations between 1,000 and 4,000 m asl. Although the mountains in their range can reach 5,000 m asl, tur seldom rise above 3,500 m asl. They live in forests found up to 2,600 meters, and in subalpine and alpine meadows and rocky talus slopes at higher elevations. Animals avoid thick forests on gentle slopes, but stay readily in open forests growing on steep precipitous slopes. In winters, proportion of animals dwelling below timberline increases (Veinberg, 1984). On average, 34% of eastern tur lived in the forest throughout the year in Georgia (Ekvtimishvili, 1952). Some forest-dwelling populations in Azerbaijan are completely isolated from subalpine and alpine zones (Vereshchagin, 1938; P. Weinberg pers. comm.) In summer, adult males typically inhabit higher altitudes than females and young (Veinberg, 1984). During the region's harsh winters, tur concentrate on sunny slopes; during the summer, animals expand their distribution to slopes of different exposures (Veinberg, 1984; Zalikhanov, 1967; Magomedov, Akhmedov, Yarovenko, 2001). Seasonal migrations rarely exceed 5 km (Veinberg, 1984; Zalikhanov, 1967).<br/><br/>Animals form mixed, adult male-female groups in November, just prior to rut. These disband by mid-January or the beginning of February at the latest, and adult males and females live separately until the next rutting season (Veinberg, 1984). Females give birth predominantly to just one kid (Veinberg, 1984). Proportion of kids may exceed 20% in Azerbaijan (Kuliev, 1981) and Daghestan (Magomedov, Akhmedov, Yarovenko, 2001), but reach only 16,5% in North Ossetia, while yearlings make above 7% there (Veinberg, 1984). Sex ratio favours males in protected populations (Weinberg, 2002). Yearly changes of overall group size depends on the reproductive cycle. Rugged and precipitous terrain reduces group size (Veinberg, 1984; Weinberg, 2002). Mean group size also correlates with population density (Magomedov, Akhmedov, Yarovenko, 2001). Overall mean group size is below 10 in North Ossetia (Veinberg, 1984), but reached ca. 78 in Azerbaijan (Kuliev, 1981). Average population density varies from 0.15 to 17 animals/km² (Weinberg, 2002). Eastern tur consume 256 plant species in Daghestan (Abdurakhamanov, 1977). Eastern tur coexist with chamois (<em>Rupicapra rupicapra</em>) on the northern slope in the Central Caucasus and on the southern slope in the Eastern Caucasus (mainly Azerbaijan), but the latter is much less numerous; in Daghestan and Chechnya, it is sympatric with the wild goat (<em>Capra aegagrus</em>) which dominates in the forest but seldom rises above timberline (Weinberg, 2002).
3795		population	eng	Following a period of increase between the 1940s and 1960s numbers have since declined. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the total number was estimated to be between 25,000 to 30,000 animals (Kuliyev, 1981; Ravkin, 1975), but by the late 1980s had declined by >30% to between 18,000 and 20,000 head, of which <em>ca</em>. 2,000 occurred in Georgia (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997). Magomedov, Akhmedov and Yarovenko (2001) suggest that there are up to 20,000 tur in Daghestan alone, but this may be optimistic. The latest data suggest that there are no less than 4,000 animals in three Georgian Nature Reserves alone: Kazbegi, Tusheti and Lagodekhi (NACRES, 2006), probably with few tur remaining outside. An estimate of 3,000 tur reported in Kazbegi Nature Reserve might be twice too much (P. Weinberg pers. comm.). In Russia, besides Daghestan, there are about 800 tur in North-Ossetian Nature Reserve (Mallon, Weinberg and Kopaliani, 2007), and about 7,000 animals in Kabardin-Balkaria (Akkiyev and Pkhitikov, 2007) (though the taxonomic status of this latter population remains unclear).
3795		threats	eng	Livestock grazing and poaching are the major threats to the eastern tur, combined with the impacts of severe winters. Poaching is probably the most significant cause of the recently observed serious declines. Livestock grazing results in competition for resources, especially with domestic sheep and goats. The species is also impacted by habitat loss and degradation (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997).
3796		conservation	eng	Egypt<br/><br/>The Nubian Ibex is protected by Agricultural Law No. 53/l 966 and amendment 1012 July 1992. Hunting of this species is totally forbidden, as mentioned in article 117 of the Agricultural Law. Nubian Ibex occur in several protected areas in Egypt: Gebel Elba Conservation Area; Assiut University Protected Area, where it was rediscovered in 1984 (Krausman and Shaw 1986); and in Jabal (Gebel) Musa and Jabal Katrina Wildlife Reserve in southern Central Sinai. The Gebel Elba Conservation Area falls into the disputed Sudan Government Area in the extreme south-east corner of Egypt, along the border with Sudan. With both Egypt and Sudan claiming the area, any legislation requires the agreement of both parties for it to be realized. Hunting, although banned in the protected area, does take place in at least one part of this area, because neither government claims authority over this section (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Amer (1997) proposed a number of conservation measures, including: considering government control for Assiut University Protected Area to ensure full protection because it is one of the few remaining areas where Nubian Ibex definitely still survive outside the Sinai and Egypt has full control (the site is in the Eastern desert and includes the Wadi El Assiuti and its junction with the Wadi Habib; reactivating the proposal to make Gebel Elba a National Park in co-operation with the Egyptian and Sudanese governments. <br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Between 1980 and 1985, 10 to 44 hunting licenses were issued annually for hunters to kill Nubian Ibex in the Red Sea region. Licenses continued to be issued until 1989, despite a three-year hunting ban introduced in 1988. Due to prior commitments with foreign hunters, hunting Nubian Ibex was exempted from the ban in 1989. Neither the number of licenses issued, nor the areas open for hunting, were based on any scientific surveys to determine if hunting could be sustained by the populations. Poaching is also practiced by nomads who hunt with dogs and traditional weapons. According to the Wildlife Laws, both sheep and ibex can be hunted with an ordinary hunting license. Since January 1992, Nubian Ibex are included as a Schedule II species under the Wildlife Conservation Act; however, this allows the species to be legally hunted with a special hunting permit (Nimir 1997). Nubian Ibex occur in three protected areas along the Red Sea coast: in the Erkawit and Sinkat Sanctuaries, and in the Tokar Game Reserve. As in Egypt, the Gebel Elba Conservation Area is an important site for the conservation of this species, but falls into the disputed Sudan Government Administration Area along the border between the extreme south-east corner of Egypt and the north-east part of the Sudan. Sudan and Egypt are currently negotiating the future of this area, and settlement of this dispute will be required before any form of legislation is realized (Nimir 1997).<br/><br/>Nimir (1997) proposed the following conservation measurees: 1) Increasing protection to effective levels, especially in the protected areas; 2) Placing the species in Schedule I to ensure its full legal protection; and 3) carrying out the Sudan Government?s proposed population estimate and ecological studies, so that a comprehensive conservation management plan for Nubian Ibex can be developed.<br/><br/>Eritrea<br/><br/>The Yob Reserve was legally established under the Italian post-World War II administration in 1959 (Gazetta Eritrea No. 4, p. 3 1,16 March 1959), primarily for the conservation of Nubian Ibex (where the species is believed to have occurred) and other desert wildlife species. However, no formal development occurred, and little is known of this area since that time. Nubian Ibex were never recorded in either of the other two protected areas established in Eritrea in 1959: the Nakfa and Gash-Setit Wildlife Reserves (Hillman and Yohannes 1997).<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hillman and Yohannes 1997) include: 1) carrying out detailed surveys for Nubian ibex in northern Eritrea from the ground and from the air as soon as resources are available; and 2) based on these data, develop a conservation strategy for the species.<br/><br/>Israel<br/><br/>The Israel Nature Reserve Authority designates the species as ?vulnerable? within their principal arid-zone range, and as ?rare? in Mediterranean parts of the country (i.e., Golan Heights). In Israel, it is fully protected and the law is effectively enforced. At least 80% of ibex range is within 15 officially or designated protected areas, most of which are administered by the Nature Reserves Authority. Designated Nature Reserves await formal establishment, but are effectively managed as Nature Reserves. Most established Nature Reserves had tenures of various durations as ?designated? reserves prior to their final establishment. Recent and current management involves annual, autumn 1-day ground surveys of ibex in all major ranges (except Golan), protection of populations and habitats, and encouraging research. A management plan has been developed for Avdat Canyon National Park which supports a large population of ibex in the northern Negev highlands (Ayal 1992). Artificial food patches have been maintained at the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert, but are subject to increasing conflicts with agriculture for irrigation water (Alkon 1997)<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Alkon 1997) include: 1) Develop formal management programs or conservation biology plans for ibex. Up to the present, conservation measures have emphasized the protection of ibex populations and their habitats, and monitoring the species? status. It is recommended that these include considerations of population dynamics, population genetics, habitat requirements and human disturbance. This would involve development and implementation of a more active management/conservation program that would include specific goals and objectives, accurate monitoring of the numerical and genetic statuses and dynamics of ibex populations, management of water resources and other key habitat components (e.g. nutritional ecology and habitat requirements; population dynamics and genetics; effects of human disturbances on ibex behavior and habitat quality). 2) Consider augmenting natural water sources for ibex habitat improvement. Nubian ibex are highly dependent on water, and the lush vegetation around desert springs and other water sources may be important food sources. Present ibex ranges are centered around permanent water sources, and their protection and quality should be a paramount management objective. Conflicts of water allocation between wildlife needs and agricultural uses have arisen in the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert. 3) Initiate a study of the dynamics of the large populations in the Judean desert (~800 animals) and the Negev highlands (~400 animals) that presently appear secure but which are poorly understood. Preliminary analyses indicate that recent annual fluctuations are around 30% density dependent and 70% related to stochastic environmental variation. Due to the small size of the populations, the Eilat mountains and Golan populations may be especially vulnerable to extirpation, but nothing is known of their demography. One study (Alkon and Kohlmann 1990) commissioned by the Nature Reserves Authority indicates that the current annual ibex surveys may be deficient in accurately estimating densities and structure of ibex populations, and recommends that alternative monitoring methods be considered. 4) Launch a research program on the genetic diversity among populations. This will be essential for planning appropriate population management programs. The Sede Boqer segment of the Negev highlands population contains substantial genetic diversity (Stiiwe <em>et al</em>. 1992), but nothing is known of the genetics of other populations, or the extent of gene transfer among populations. Present data indicate some movement and possible interchange among elements of the Judean desert and Negev highlands populations, but the Golan and Elat mountains populations are probably genetically isolated. 5) Evaluate the effects of visitors on ibex ecology. Tourism and nature study are intense at several nature reserves and parks in the Judean desert and Negev highlands which are important for ibex. Studies of other wild animals and of Nubian ibex in the Negev highlands (Hakham 1985; Stone 1989) suggest that park visitors may disrupt ibex behavior and movement patterns, and exclude ibex from desired sites. The biological and management consequences of human-ibex interactions are complex. On one hand, Nubian ibex appear to have adapted well to some human activities, and their presence has enhanced the value of the parks and reserves for human visitors, thus promoting public awareness and support of natural values. Conversely, the threshold levels at which human disturbance may adversely impact habitat carrying capacity are unknown, and are likely to vary seasonally, temporally, by location, and with the type of human activity.<br/><br/>Jordan<br/><br/>Until 1978, the ibex was legally hunted in Jordan, but since then it has received full protection and a total ban on hunting this species was put into effect indefinitely. Ibex occur in three protected areas: Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve (212 km²), which includes the escarpment area of the Rift valley desert and extends as far as the Dead sea to 400 m below sea level; Dana Wildlife Reserve protecting 150 km² in the Rift valley mountains; and Wadi Rum Reserve extending over 570 km² of the precipitous rocky outcrops of the Rum mountains in southern Jordan (though the continued presence of the species in this area needs confirmation).  It is also present in the proposed Jebel Masadi Wildlife Reserve, which covers 460 km² from the mountainous plateau and escarpment, down to the Rift valley desert (Hays and Bandak 1997).<br/><br/>The San Diego Wild Animal Park sent 22 young ibex to Jordan in July 1989, to which was added a locally captured juvenile. These animals were housed in a 0.25-0.4 km² enclosure on the slopes of Wadi Mujib. They reproduced well and by 1992, there were 34 individuals, increasing to 68 adults in 1995, when 24 births raised the total captive population to 90. The RSCN began releasing surplus animals into the wild in 1998 and continued until 2006 when the program was terminated becaused the wild population in Wadi Mujib Nature Reserve was judged stable at about 200 animals (L. Harding pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hays and Bandak 1997): 1) Maintain the current strict measures of hunting control to ensure the survival of the species in Jordan. 2) Conduct field studies to assess the status of existing populations and to determine factors controlling their demography. 3) Census the population in Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve, annually, or preferably seasonally, to evaluate the results of the supplemental release into the Reserve. If Jordan?s wildlife reserves are to effectively protect the remaining ibex populations, the support of local people is essential and their community grazing rights must be adequately addressed. To these ends, it would be desirable to initiate a study to determine sustainable levels of domestic livestock grazing within potential ibex habitat. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for trained personnel, together with continued support from international conservation organizations and donor agencies.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/><br/>In Lebanon, where the species is now extinct, a re-introduction programme has been proposed. The Ministry of State for the Environment is establishing a system of protected areas in which to place the offspring from captive breeding units. These areas include Mashgara National Park (3,500 ha) to be in the western Beqaa Valley, and the Barouk multiple use area in central Lebanon. Both these areas are very suitable for Caprinae re-introductions, but both species should not be released into the same reserve to avoid possible interbreeding. However, none of these proposals will be feasible until the armed political unrest ceases or declines significantly (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Oman<br/><br/>Fully protected by law (Ministry of Diwan Affairs, Ministerial Decision No. 4 1976) throughout the country, but the actual level of protection varies somewhat, in part due to the rugged and isolated terrain, and also to local conditions. Nubian Ibex occur in no guarded areas, but in central Oman, notably on the Huquf escarpment, ibex are protected by the guards of the Arabian Oryx Re-introduction Project based at Yalooni in the Governorate of the Central Region. Around the Huqf escarpment, the local Harasis tribes are more amenable to conservation and poaching is minimal. In the Governorate of Dhofar, there is no active enforcement system of the law protecting the ibex, although local individuals make voluntary reports of poaching activities from time to time, some of which are followed up by the local authorities. Both the Huquf escarpment and the main portions of the Jabal Samhan (Dhofar mountains) were included in a 1987 proposal for a national system of Nature Conservation Areas (IUCN 1986). Research is currently being conducted in the central region on the Huquf escarpment and is planned to continue for several years (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed by Daly <em>et al</em>. (1997) include: 1) Determine numbers and distributions throughout the taxon?s range. The first priority area is the eastern range of the Dhofar mountains, the Jabal Samhan, where large concentrations of ibex, as well as conservation problems, have been reported (e.g., Sale 1980). A survey of this area should also include identification of conservation and research needs. Second, the Huquf escarpment study should be continued, focusing particularly on population dynamics, because this population is probably the easiest to study due to its proximity to the oryx project; 2) Surveys for ibex should also be conducted in the Hajr mountains in conjunction with work on Arabian tahr, to determine if it occurs in these northern ranges; 3) Initiate ecological studies throughout the ibex?s range to enable appropriate conservation plans to be developed for this species. These should also include a study of the level of competition between ibex and feral donkeys; 4) Give priority to the establishment of the six protected areas recommended in the 1986 IUCN proposal which would provide protection for ibex populations and their habitat. The proposed protected areas with ibex are: Central Region - Janabah Hills National Nature Reserve (290,000 ha), Janabah Coast National Scenic Reserve (69,000 ha) AZ Zahr National Scenic Reserve (225,000 ha); Southern Region - Arkad National Resource Reserve (264,000 ha) Jabal Samhan National Nature Reserve (346,000 ha) and Shuwaymiyah National Resource Reserve (60,000 ha). <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia<br/><br/>Legally protected by a hunting by-law passed in 1979 which, along with gazelles, gives the species total protection. This law, however, can be difficult to enforce in some remote areas. In Saudi Arabia, it occurs in two official reserves; At Tubayq Reserve in the north, and the Ibex Reserve in Hawtat bani Tamim in the east-central region. Ibex also inhabit the Ahmadi tribal hema (Hemah Fiqrah) in the Western Mountain chain which may become an officially delineated reserve in the future (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include (Habibi and Tatwany 1997): 1)  Vigorously enforce the hunting ban and create legislation banning the movement of Bedouins and ?hunters into protected areas, to halt the indiscriminate poaching of ibex; 2) Launch an education programme in the school system in an effort to inform the public about the merits of conservation, and of the role which wildlife plays in the stability of fragile ecosystems; 3) The current priority of NCWCD must be to establish contiguous protected areas in the mountain chain of western Saudi Arabia, which constitute the major habitats of Nubian ibex. In Syria, Legislative Decree No. 152 (1970) covers hunting regulations and the provision of hunting councils. In 1979, Legislative Decree No. 50 banned all hunting for a 5-year period. Whether this is still in effect is unknown. <br/><br/>Syria<br/><br/>Syria has no protected areas and hunting regulations are not enforced. It was believed that two areas, each about 20,000 ha, had been set aside one in 1968 the other in 1983, as areas for ?le patrimoine animal? (Serhal 1997).<br/><br/>Yemen<br/><br/>Nubian Ibex reportedly occur in proposed Jabal al-Ara?is Reserve, in Abin Province (Mahir Abu Ja?far 1984).
3796		conservation	eng	Egypt<br/><br/>The Nubian Ibex is protected by Agricultural Law No. 53/l 966 and amendment 1012 July 1992. Hunting of this species is totally forbidden, as mentioned in article 117 of the Agricultural Law. Nubian Ibex occur in several protected areas in Egypt: Gebel Elba Conservation Area; Assiut University Protected Area, where it was rediscovered in 1984 (Krausman and Shaw 1986); and in Jabal (Gebel) Musa and Jabal Katrina Wildlife Reserve in southern Central Sinai. The Gebel Elba Conservation Area falls into the disputed Sudan Government Area in the extreme south-east corner of Egypt, along the border with Sudan. With both Egypt and Sudan claiming the area, any legislation requires the agreement of both parties for it to be realized. Hunting, although banned in the protected area, does take place in at least one part of this area, because neither government claims authority over this section (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Amer (1997) proposed a number of conservation measures, including: considering government control for Assiut University Protected Area to ensure full protection because it is one of the few remaining areas where Nubian Ibex definitely still survive outside the Sinai and Egypt has full control (the site is in the Eastern desert and includes the Wadi El Assiuti and its junction with the Wadi Habib; reactivating the proposal to make Gebel Elba a National Park in co-operation with the Egyptian and Sudanese governments. <br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Between 1980 and 1985, 10 to 44 hunting licenses were issued annually for hunters to kill Nubian Ibex in the Red Sea region. Licenses continued to be issued until 1989, despite a three-year hunting ban introduced in 1988. Due to prior commitments with foreign hunters, hunting Nubian Ibex was exempted from the ban in 1989. Neither the number of licenses issued, nor the areas open for hunting, were based on any scientific surveys to determine if hunting could be sustained by the populations. Poaching is also practiced by nomads who hunt with dogs and traditional weapons. According to the Wildlife Laws, both sheep and ibex can be hunted with an ordinary hunting license. Since January 1992, Nubian Ibex are included as a Schedule II species under the Wildlife Conservation Act; however, this allows the species to be legally hunted with a special hunting permit (Nimir 1997). Nubian Ibex occur in three protected areas along the Red Sea coast: in the Erkawit and Sinkat Sanctuaries, and in the Tokar Game Reserve. As in Egypt, the Gebel Elba Conservation Area is an important site for the conservation of this species, but falls into the disputed Sudan Government Administration Area along the border between the extreme south-east corner of Egypt and the north-east part of the Sudan. Sudan and Egypt are currently negotiating the future of this area, and settlement of this dispute will be required before any form of legislation is realized (Nimir 1997).<br/><br/>Nimir (1997) proposed the following conservation measurees: 1) Increasing protection to effective levels, especially in the protected areas; 2) Placing the species in Schedule I to ensure its full legal protection; and 3) carrying out the Sudan Government’s proposed population estimate and ecological studies, so that a comprehensive conservation management plan for Nubian Ibex can be developed.<br/><br/>Eritrea<br/><br/>The Yob Reserve was legally established under the Italian post-World War II administration in 1959 (Gazetta Eritrea No. 4, p. 3 1,16 March 1959), primarily for the conservation of Nubian Ibex (where the species is believed to have occurred) and other desert wildlife species. However, no formal development occurred, and little is known of this area since that time. Nubian Ibex were never recorded in either of the other two protected areas established in Eritrea in 1959: the Nakfa and Gash-Setit Wildlife Reserves (Hillman and Yohannes 1997).<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hillman and Yohannes 1997) include: 1) carrying out detailed surveys for Nubian ibex in northern Eritrea from the ground and from the air as soon as resources are available; and 2) based on these data, develop a conservation strategy for the species.<br/><br/>Israel<br/><br/>The Israel Nature Reserve Authority designates the species as “vulnerable” within their principal arid-zone range, and as “rare” in Mediterranean parts of the country (i.e., Golan Heights). In Israel, it is fully protected and the law is effectively enforced. At least 80% of ibex range is within 15 officially or designated protected areas, most of which are administered by the Nature Reserves Authority. Designated Nature Reserves await formal establishment, but are effectively managed as Nature Reserves. Most established Nature Reserves had tenures of various durations as “designated” reserves prior to their final establishment. Recent and current management involves annual, autumn 1-day ground surveys of ibex in all major ranges (except Golan), protection of populations and habitats, and encouraging research. A management plan has been developed for Avdat Canyon National Park which supports a large population of ibex in the northern Negev highlands (Ayal 1992). Artificial food patches have been maintained at the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert, but are subject to increasing conflicts with agriculture for irrigation water (Alkon 1997)<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Alkon 1997) include: 1) Develop formal management programs or conservation biology plans for ibex. Up to the present, conservation measures have emphasized the protection of ibex populations and their habitats, and monitoring the species’ status. It is recommended that these include considerations of population dynamics, population genetics, habitat requirements and human disturbance. This would involve development and implementation of a more active management/conservation program that would include specific goals and objectives, accurate monitoring of the numerical and genetic statuses and dynamics of ibex populations, management of water resources and other key habitat components (e.g. nutritional ecology and habitat requirements; population dynamics and genetics; effects of human disturbances on ibex behavior and habitat quality). 2) Consider augmenting natural water sources for ibex habitat improvement. Nubian ibex are highly dependent on water, and the lush vegetation around desert springs and other water sources may be important food sources. Present ibex ranges are centered around permanent water sources, and their protection and quality should be a paramount management objective. Conflicts of water allocation between wildlife needs and agricultural uses have arisen in the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert. 3) Initiate a study of the dynamics of the large populations in the Judean desert (~800 animals) and the Negev highlands (~400 animals) that presently appear secure but which are poorly understood. Preliminary analyses indicate that recent annual fluctuations are around 30% density dependent and 70% related to stochastic environmental variation. Due to the small size of the populations, the Eilat mountains and Golan populations may be especially vulnerable to extirpation, but nothing is known of their demography. One study (Alkon and Kohlmann 1990) commissioned by the Nature Reserves Authority indicates that the current annual ibex surveys may be deficient in accurately estimating densities and structure of ibex populations, and recommends that alternative monitoring methods be considered. 4) Launch a research program on the genetic diversity among populations. This will be essential for planning appropriate population management programs. The Sede Boqer segment of the Negev highlands population contains substantial genetic diversity (Stiiwe <em>et al</em>. 1992), but nothing is known of the genetics of other populations, or the extent of gene transfer among populations. Present data indicate some movement and possible interchange among elements of the Judean desert and Negev highlands populations, but the Golan and Elat mountains populations are probably genetically isolated. 5) Evaluate the effects of visitors on ibex ecology. Tourism and nature study are intense at several nature reserves and parks in the Judean desert and Negev highlands which are important for ibex. Studies of other wild animals and of Nubian ibex in the Negev highlands (Hakham 1985; Stone 1989) suggest that park visitors may disrupt ibex behavior and movement patterns, and exclude ibex from desired sites. The biological and management consequences of human-ibex interactions are complex. On one hand, Nubian ibex appear to have adapted well to some human activities, and their presence has enhanced the value of the parks and reserves for human visitors, thus promoting public awareness and support of natural values. Conversely, the threshold levels at which human disturbance may adversely impact habitat carrying capacity are unknown, and are likely to vary seasonally, temporally, by location, and with the type of human activity.<br/><br/>Jordan<br/><br/>Until 1978, the ibex was legally hunted in Jordan, but since then it has received full protection and a total ban on hunting this species was put into effect indefinitely. Ibex occur in three protected areas: Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve (212 km²), which includes the escarpment area of the Rift valley desert and extends as far as the Dead sea to 400 m below sea level; Dana Wildlife Reserve protecting 150 km² in the Rift valley mountains; and Wadi Rum Reserve extending over 570 km² of the precipitous rocky outcrops of the Rum mountains in southern Jordan (though the continued presence of the species in this area needs confirmation).  It is also present in the proposed Jebel Masadi Wildlife Reserve, which covers 460 km² from the mountainous plateau and escarpment, down to the Rift valley desert (Hays and Bandak 1997).<br/><br/>The San Diego Wild Animal Park sent 22 young ibex to Jordan in July 1989, to which was added a locally captured juvenile. These animals were housed in a 0.25-0.4 km² enclosure on the slopes of Wadi Mujib. They reproduced well and by 1992, there were 34 individuals, increasing to 68 adults in 1995, when 24 births raised the total captive population to 90. The RSCN began releasing surplus animals into the wild in 1998 and continued until 2006 when the program was terminated becaused the wild population in Wadi Mujib Nature Reserve was judged stable at about 200 animals (L. Harding pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hays and Bandak 1997): 1) Maintain the current strict measures of hunting control to ensure the survival of the species in Jordan. 2) Conduct field studies to assess the status of existing populations and to determine factors controlling their demography. 3) Census the population in Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve, annually, or preferably seasonally, to evaluate the results of the supplemental release into the Reserve. If Jordan’s wildlife reserves are to effectively protect the remaining ibex populations, the support of local people is essential and their community grazing rights must be adequately addressed. To these ends, it would be desirable to initiate a study to determine sustainable levels of domestic livestock grazing within potential ibex habitat. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for trained personnel, together with continued support from international conservation organizations and donor agencies.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/><br/>In Lebanon, where the species is now extinct, a re-introduction programme has been proposed. The Ministry of State for the Environment is establishing a system of protected areas in which to place the offspring from captive breeding units. These areas include Mashgara National Park (3,500 ha) to be in the western Beqaa Valley, and the Barouk multiple use area in central Lebanon. Both these areas are very suitable for Caprinae re-introductions, but both species should not be released into the same reserve to avoid possible interbreeding. However, none of these proposals will be feasible until the armed political unrest ceases or declines significantly (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Oman<br/><br/>Fully protected by law (Ministry of Diwan Affairs, Ministerial Decision No. 4 1976) throughout the country, but the actual level of protection varies somewhat, in part due to the rugged and isolated terrain, and also to local conditions. Nubian Ibex occur in no guarded areas, but in central Oman, notably on the Huquf escarpment, ibex are protected by the guards of the Arabian Oryx Re-introduction Project based at Yalooni in the Governorate of the Central Region. Around the Huqf escarpment, the local Harasis tribes are more amenable to conservation and poaching is minimal. In the Governorate of Dhofar, there is no active enforcement system of the law protecting the ibex, although local individuals make voluntary reports of poaching activities from time to time, some of which are followed up by the local authorities. Both the Huquf escarpment and the main portions of the Jabal Samhan (Dhofar mountains) were included in a 1987 proposal for a national system of Nature Conservation Areas (IUCN 1986). Research is currently being conducted in the central region on the Huquf escarpment and is planned to continue for several years (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed by Daly <em>et al</em>. (1997) include: 1) Determine numbers and distributions throughout the taxon’s range. The first priority area is the eastern range of the Dhofar mountains, the Jabal Samhan, where large concentrations of ibex, as well as conservation problems, have been reported (e.g., Sale 1980). A survey of this area should also include identification of conservation and research needs. Second, the Huquf escarpment study should be continued, focusing particularly on population dynamics, because this population is probably the easiest to study due to its proximity to the oryx project; 2) Surveys for ibex should also be conducted in the Hajr mountains in conjunction with work on Arabian tahr, to determine if it occurs in these northern ranges; 3) Initiate ecological studies throughout the ibex’s range to enable appropriate conservation plans to be developed for this species. These should also include a study of the level of competition between ibex and feral donkeys; 4) Give priority to the establishment of the six protected areas recommended in the 1986 IUCN proposal which would provide protection for ibex populations and their habitat. The proposed protected areas with ibex are: Central Region - Janabah Hills National Nature Reserve (290,000 ha), Janabah Coast National Scenic Reserve (69,000 ha) AZ Zahr National Scenic Reserve (225,000 ha); Southern Region - Arkad National Resource Reserve (264,000 ha) Jabal Samhan National Nature Reserve (346,000 ha) and Shuwaymiyah National Resource Reserve (60,000 ha). <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia<br/><br/>Legally protected by a hunting by-law passed in 1979 which, along with gazelles, gives the species total protection. This law, however, can be difficult to enforce in some remote areas. In Saudi Arabia, it occurs in two official reserves; At Tubayq Reserve in the north, and the Ibex Reserve in Hawtat bani Tamim in the east-central region. Ibex also inhabit the Ahmadi tribal hema (Hemah Fiqrah) in the Western Mountain chain which may become an officially delineated reserve in the future (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include (Habibi and Tatwany 1997): 1)  Vigorously enforce the hunting ban and create legislation banning the movement of Bedouins and ‘hunters into protected areas, to halt the indiscriminate poaching of ibex; 2) Launch an education programme in the school system in an effort to inform the public about the merits of conservation, and of the role which wildlife plays in the stability of fragile ecosystems; 3) The current priority of NCWCD must be to establish contiguous protected areas in the mountain chain of western Saudi Arabia, which constitute the major habitats of Nubian ibex. In Syria, Legislative Decree No. 152 (1970) covers hunting regulations and the provision of hunting councils. In 1979, Legislative Decree No. 50 banned all hunting for a 5-year period. Whether this is still in effect is unknown. <br/><br/>Syria<br/><br/>Syria has no protected areas and hunting regulations are not enforced. It was believed that two areas, each about 20,000 ha, had been set aside one in 1968 the other in 1983, as areas for “le patrimoine animal” (Serhal 1997).<br/><br/>Yemen<br/><br/>Nubian Ibex reportedly occur in proposed Jabal al-Ara’is Reserve, in Abin Province (Mahir Abu Ja’far 1984).
3796		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Egypt east of the Nile, north-east Sudan, northern Ethiopia and western Eritrea, Israel, west Jordan, scattered locations in western and central Saudi Arabia, scattered locations in Yemen, and in southern Oman (Grubb 2005). It is extinct in Lebanon (not mapped) and Syria (not mapped; however, there is one introduced population).<br/><br/>In Africa, Nubian Ibex exist as small isolated populations in the Eastern Desert and Red Sea Mountains of Egypt. Confirmed ibex occurrences in Egypt?s Eastern Desert are: Moattum/Qattamiya hills, Gabal Attaqa, El Galala El Bahariya Plateau, and El Galala El Quiblia Plateau (Saleh, in Alkon in press). Ibex also occur throughout the Red Sea Mountains of Egypt, from Gabal Gharib in the north to Elba near the Sudan border (Alkon in press). Recent records in Egypt?s Sinai Peninsula come from Gabal El Maghara, Gabal El Halal and Gabal Yalag in north Sinai, the El Tih Plateau in central Sinai, and at many sites in the south Sinai mountains (Saleh and Basuony 1998). A discussion of the historical ecology and biogeography of the Nubian Ibex in Egypt from 1800 to the present day is given by Manlius (2001).<br/><br/>In Sudan, small Nubian Ibex populations were observed at Erkawit, Jebel Ashat and Sherik Gebel during a 1990 survey (Nimir 1997), and the species likely occurs elsewhere in the country?s Red Sea hills (I.M. Hashim, in Alkon in press).<br/><br/>Although previously recorded near the Sudan border, there are no confirmed recent records available for Eritrea (Hillman and Yohannes 1997, D. Zinner pers. comm.). Nubian Ibex had been reported in extreme northern Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984), but the only recent record is an unconfirmed report from the Tendaho Estates area in east-central Ethiopia near the Djibouti border (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Israel, its former range is believed to approximate the present natural distribution of ibex, although populations were probably smaller prior to the 1960s. Today, ibex naturally occur in three major centers comprising mountainous and steep terrain in eastern and southern Israel: Judean desert, Negev, and Elat mountains. Substantial interchange of animals is likely within each of the major ranges, and is also likely between portions of the Judean desert and Negev populations. Ibex inhabiting the Elat mountains may be separated from other ibex in Israel, but more research is required to define connections among ibex populations in the country (Shkedy and Saltz 2000). The small, population of the Golan (Israeli occupied Syria) represents re-introduction.<br/><br/>In Jordan, ibex is currently confined to remote areas of rugged, mountainous terrain from the north-eastern escarpment of the Dead Sea, south along the Rift valley to Wadi Araba, and further south-east in the mountains of Wadi Rum (Hays and Bandak 1997). It is also recorded from Wadi Zerqa Main and Aqaba (Harrison 1968a). <br/><br/>In Lebanon, ibex were previously found in Barouk, the Ammiq mountains and on Mount Harmon, northern Lebanon until the early 1900s; they are now extinct (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Nubian Ibex may have occurred in the western Hajr mountains in northern Oman (Harrison 1967, 1968a; Harrison and Bates 1991), but as this was a single observation and there have been none since, it is possible that they are now absent or never existed as a viable population in this region. Currently, its known distribution is patchy and extends along the coastline in rugged terrain, south from the Huquf escarpment (approximately 21?N) to the border with Yemen. Five populations are known within this region, based on isolated sightings: Huquf Janaba Hills, Ra?s Madrakah, Jabal Samhan, and Jabal al Qamr. Recent evidence from radio-tracked individuals caught and released on the Huquf escarpment indicates that there is some movement of animals between the Huquf and Janaba Hills populations (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>In Saudi Arabia, few systematic censuses have been made. Most data come from brief aerial and ground reconnaissance surveys made to locate populations. Among the 15 sites where ibex have been found, major concentrations occur in the western mountains of the Arabian shield, with isolated populations located in the north, north-central and central regions. Only scattered observations have been made in the south. The highest densities appear to be in Jabal Qaraqar, Hemah Fiqrah and Hawtat bani Tamim Ibex Reserve (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Based on records provided in Harrison (1968), Nubian Ibex was found in Syria in the Jabal ash-Sharqi mountain ranges north of Dimasq which run southwest-northeast, as far as Halab (Aleppo) and to just south of Tadmur (Palmyra), presumably in the Jabal al Khunayzir. There are apparently no recent records of the species in Syria (Masseti 2004), and it is believed to be extinct (Serhal 1997), apart from the re-introduced population in the Golan Heights. A female from the mountains east of El Qaryatein was collected in 1905 (Masseti 2004), and the last published record of a sighting is that of Maydon (1930) who recorded the species in the Jabal el Abtar, southwest of Tadmor (Harrison 1968a, Harrison and Bates 1991), although according to recent interviews with local people at Palmyra the species may have survived in the Tadmor region into the second half of the 1900s (G. Serra pers. comm. in Masseti 2004).<br/><br/>This ibex was also previously reported from the mountains in south-east Yemen which join with the Dhofar mountains of Oman (Harrison 1968). No recent surveys of current distributions have been made; however, it appears to still exist in greatly reduced numbers in the remotest regions of the dry mountains of the Hadramawt in the east (C. Stuart, in Shackleton 1997).
3796		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Egypt east of the Nile, north-east Sudan, northern Ethiopia and western Eritrea, Israel, west Jordan, scattered locations in western and central Saudi Arabia, scattered locations in Yemen, and in southern Oman (Grubb 2005). It is extinct in Lebanon (not mapped) and Syria (not mapped; however, there is one introduced population).<br/><br/>In Africa, Nubian Ibex exist as small isolated populations in the Eastern Desert and Red Sea Mountains of Egypt. Confirmed ibex occurrences in Egypt’s Eastern Desert are: Moattum/Qattamiya hills, Gabal Attaqa, El Galala El Bahariya Plateau, and El Galala El Quiblia Plateau (Saleh, in Alkon in press). Ibex also occur throughout the Red Sea Mountains of Egypt, from Gabal Gharib in the north to Elba near the Sudan border (Alkon in press). Recent records in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula come from Gabal El Maghara, Gabal El Halal and Gabal Yalag in north Sinai, the El Tih Plateau in central Sinai, and at many sites in the south Sinai mountains (Saleh and Basuony 1998). A discussion of the historical ecology and biogeography of the Nubian Ibex in Egypt from 1800 to the present day is given by Manlius (2001).<br/><br/>In Sudan, small Nubian Ibex populations were observed at Erkawit, Jebel Ashat and Sherik Gebel during a 1990 survey (Nimir 1997), and the species likely occurs elsewhere in the country’s Red Sea hills (I.M. Hashim, in Alkon in press).<br/><br/>Although previously recorded near the Sudan border, there are no confirmed recent records available for Eritrea (Hillman and Yohannes 1997, D. Zinner pers. comm.). Nubian Ibex had been reported in extreme northern Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984), but the only recent record is an unconfirmed report from the Tendaho Estates area in east-central Ethiopia near the Djibouti border (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Israel, its former range is believed to approximate the present natural distribution of ibex, although populations were probably smaller prior to the 1960s. Today, ibex naturally occur in three major centers comprising mountainous and steep terrain in eastern and southern Israel: Judean desert, Negev, and Elat mountains. Substantial interchange of animals is likely within each of the major ranges, and is also likely between portions of the Judean desert and Negev populations. Ibex inhabiting the Elat mountains may be separated from other ibex in Israel, but more research is required to define connections among ibex populations in the country (Shkedy and Saltz 2000). The small, population of the Golan (Israeli occupied Syria) represents re-introduction.<br/><br/>In Jordan, ibex is currently confined to remote areas of rugged, mountainous terrain from the north-eastern escarpment of the Dead Sea, south along the Rift valley to Wadi Araba, and further south-east in the mountains of Wadi Rum (Hays and Bandak 1997). It is also recorded from Wadi Zerqa Main and Aqaba (Harrison 1968a). <br/><br/>In Lebanon, ibex were previously found in Barouk, the Ammiq mountains and on Mount Harmon, northern Lebanon until the early 1900s; they are now extinct (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Nubian Ibex may have occurred in the western Hajr mountains in northern Oman (Harrison 1967, 1968a; Harrison and Bates 1991), but as this was a single observation and there have been none since, it is possible that they are now absent or never existed as a viable population in this region. Currently, its known distribution is patchy and extends along the coastline in rugged terrain, south from the Huquf escarpment (approximately 21”N) to the border with Yemen. Five populations are known within this region, based on isolated sightings: Huquf Janaba Hills, Ra’s Madrakah, Jabal Samhan, and Jabal al Qamr. Recent evidence from radio-tracked individuals caught and released on the Huquf escarpment indicates that there is some movement of animals between the Huquf and Janaba Hills populations (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>In Saudi Arabia, few systematic censuses have been made. Most data come from brief aerial and ground reconnaissance surveys made to locate populations. Among the 15 sites where ibex have been found, major concentrations occur in the western mountains of the Arabian shield, with isolated populations located in the north, north-central and central regions. Only scattered observations have been made in the south. The highest densities appear to be in Jabal Qaraqar, Hemah Fiqrah and Hawtat bani Tamim Ibex Reserve (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Based on records provided in Harrison (1968), Nubian Ibex was found in Syria in the Jabal ash-Sharqi mountain ranges north of Dimasq which run southwest-northeast, as far as Halab (Aleppo) and to just south of Tadmur (Palmyra), presumably in the Jabal al Khunayzir. There are apparently no recent records of the species in Syria (Masseti 2004), and it is believed to be extinct (Serhal 1997), apart from the re-introduced population in the Golan Heights. A female from the mountains east of El Qaryatein was collected in 1905 (Masseti 2004), and the last published record of a sighting is that of Maydon (1930) who recorded the species in the Jabal el Abtar, southwest of Tadmor (Harrison 1968a, Harrison and Bates 1991), although according to recent interviews with local people at Palmyra the species may have survived in the Tadmor region into the second half of the 1900s (G. Serra pers. comm. in Masseti 2004).<br/><br/>This ibex was also previously reported from the mountains in south-east Yemen which join with the Dhofar mountains of Oman (Harrison 1968). No recent surveys of current distributions have been made; however, it appears to still exist in greatly reduced numbers in the remotest regions of the dry mountains of the Hadramawt in the east (C. Stuart, in Shackleton 1997).
3796		habitat	eng	Nubian Ibex occur in rocky, desert mountains with steep slopes and hills (which provide vital escape routes), and associated plateaus, canyons and wadis. They consume a wide array of herbaceous and woody plants.
3796		population	eng	There is currently a lack of population data for some parts of the range of the Nubian Ibex; however, it is estimated that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals. More information is needed on population trends in the past, present, and future.<br/><br/>On the Sinai Peninsula, between 1977 and 1979, the population in the north has been estimated at around 50 animals, in the central region around 200, and in the south 155 (Baharav and Meiboom 1981). There are no reliable estimates of overall population size in Egypt, but they are thought to be stable; about 200 Ibex inhabit the El Galala El Baharia Plateau (M. Saleh, in Alkon in press). There are no estimates available for Eritrea, Ethiopia or Sudan.<br/><br/>In Israel, comprehensive, one-day ground surveys (supplemented by sporadic aerial counts) have been conducted annually each autumn within all major ibex ranges since 1981 by the Nature Reserves Authority. Total counts were relatively stable during 1982 to 1987, with a mean total count of 1,064 + 147 during this period, and a mean adult female-kid ratio of 2.2:1. Count data suggest that ibex are at carrying capacity in their major ranges. Given that the survey probably underestimates actual numbers, the total estimated number of Nubian Ibex in Israel is about 1,500, of which 800 are in the Judean desert, 500 in the Negev, and 150 in the Elat mountains. Recent counts indicate a decline in all three subpopulations (D. Saltz pers. comm.). No informed estimate is available for the size of the re-introduced Golan Heights population in Israeli-occupied Syria (Alkon 1997). <br/><br/>In Jordan, a captive breeding program was started in 1989 to augment a small relict population in danger of extirpation (L. Harding pers. comm.). Captive-bred animals were released into the Wadi Mujib Nature Reserve beginning in 1998, and the programme was terminated in 2006 when the wild population was estimated at approximately 200 (L. Harding pers. comm.). They are now believed to be stable in numbers (Maher Abu Jafar pers. comm.). A second population further south, centered on the Dana Nature Reserve, has been increasing any may be larger than the Wadi Mujib population, although no estimates of numbers are available (L. Harding pers. comm.). The former population in the Rum mountains has not been confirmed in recent years (L. Harding pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Oman, no data are available on the size, demographic status or trends of the total Nubian Ibex population. Ibex distributions and numbers are most likely determined to a large extent by the temporal and spatial rainfall pattern, particularly in the most arid areas. However, surveys have been completed only in the Huquf escarpment area, where numbers appear to have been stable over the last five years. In the coastal hills to the south of this population, the status of ibex is unknown (but see Sale, 1980). Generally, densities are likely to be similar to the Huquf escarpment where there are estimated to be one ibex/km² (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>In Saudi Arabia, there are no population estimates, but overall, numbers are believed to be decreasing in areas where ibex are not protected. In contrast, ibex numbers are believed to be increasing in the two protected areas where recruitment is satisfactory and females appear to give birth to twins frequently (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). In the Hawtat bani Tamim Ibex Reserve, the most recent census (Spring 2007) recorded 400 individuals (I. Nader pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are no estimates for Yemen (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>The Nubian Ibex is extinct in Syria, and in Lebanon due to large scale habitat destruction and abuse of hunting regulations (Serhal 1997a,b).
3796		threats	eng	Competition with livestock, camels and feral donkeys is a general threat throughout the range (Amer 1997; Hays and Bandak 1997; Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). In Egypt, the availability and distribution of waterholes is likely to be a major factor in the condition of populations, and both may fluctuate from year to year (Amer 1997). Water resources are also scarce in Israel and competition for these resources, along with habitat degradation by contamination of water sources, are major potential threats. High levels of tourists at watering, feeding and birthing sites also threatened the population in Israel (Alkon 1997).<br/><br/>Hunting is a threat to the species throughout its range. Poaching definitely occurs in Egypt (Amer 1997) and in Sudan (Nimir 1997), and is implicated in the disappearance of this species from some parts of its range in Egypt (Manlius 2001). Poaching also occurs in Jordan, although this threat has decreased recently (Hays and Bandak 1997). In Saudi Arabia, a general ban on hunting ibex was promulgated in 1979; however, it is difficult to control poaching, especially in remote areas (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). The species is effectively protected from hunting in Israel (Alkon 1997). In Yemen, automatic weapons are owned by many people throughout the country and hunting is probably the greatest threat to the ibex (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation threatens the species in much of its range. In Saudi Arabia, Nubian Ibex continue to be threatened by habitat degradation, particularly through the extension of roads, livestock encroachment and other development pressures in and around its remaining refuges (Habibi and Tatwany 1997).  Bedouin access to isolated regions where ibex occur means that the habitat and water resources of otherwise secure populations are threatened.<br/><br/>Some predation by leopards (<em>Panthera pardus</em>) has been reported in Israel, and reproductive success and juvenile survival vary from year to year, probably depending largely on the nutritional status of adult females. No significant effects of parasites or diseases have been detected among wild populations (Alkon 1997).  In Jordan, the small size of remaining ibex populations and their isolation from each other is also a cause for concern (Hays and Bandak 1997). In Saudi Arabia, continued displacement and isolation of ibex populations will further limit opportunities for dispersal and genetic interchange between scattered populations (Habibi and Tatwany 1997).
3797		conservation	eng	The Walia Ibex is protected by Ethiopian law and cannot be hunted except under a Special Permit for Hunting Game Animals for Scientific Purposes. The Walia Ibex is used by the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) and the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS) as their emblem, and frequently features in other Ethiopian symbolism (such as the national football team). <br/><br/>The Simen Mountains National Park, which contains the majority of the world population of this species, was gazetted by the Simen National Park Order No. 59 (1969) and became a World Heritage Site in 1978. Here the Walia Ibex may be receiving adequate if limited protection. The Park, while providing a core conservation area, must be considered in terms of a much larger environmental unit. It is essential to maintain wildlife corridors between the Park and surrounding areas of the Simen mountains. A detailed management plan for the Park and surrounding areas was developed after a 20-year inter-disciplinary research program (Hurni 1986). It deals not only with the Walia Ibex, but all the area’s unique wildlife, as well as the needs of the rural human population. Currently, the Park is administered by the Parks and Wildlife Administration Authority of the Regional Government. The park has attracted more international and national attention following its inclusion on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1996. An integrated conservation and development project  – the Simen Mountains National Integrated Development Project - funded by the Austrian Government and implemented in collaboration with the Parks Authority has resulted in considerable conservation activity in the last seven years.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures have been proposed: 1) establish the 400 km² buffer zone proposed in the 1986 Management Plan (Hurni 1986) for Simen Mountains National Park, which would increase the effective area of Simen Mountains National Park to 590 km² and serve two main functions; 2) reduce human and livestock impact in the National Park; 3) prohibit all hunting within the Park and enforce regulations effectively; 4) although no hybrids of domestic goats with Walia Ibex have been reported, free-ranging domestic goats must be eliminated from the Park and around other ibex populations to exclude the possibility of hybridization occurring; 5) with no Walia Ibex in captivity anywhere in the world, a small number should be captured to form the nucleus of a captive-breeding group in a closely managed and protected location in Ethiopia, and for a captive-breeding population outside the country; and 6) establish a monitoring programme that includes systematic execution and control of the conservation measures (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997; Nievergelt in press). A detailed ecological study of the species and habitat assessment on the potential new areas for re-establishment is needed.
3797		distribution	eng	Ethiopia is home to the world’s only population of Walia Iibex, which is found only in and around the Simien Mountains (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984; Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997; Nievergelt in press) in the North Gonder Administrative Zone of the Amhara National Regional State of north-western Ethiopia. Formerly more widespread in the Simen Mountains, most remaining Walia Ibex are found within the boundaries of the Simien Mountains National Park (13,600 ha), mainly along 25 km of the northern escarpment between Adarmaz Camp and Chennek Camp. There are also four small populations outside the protected area: north of Werk Amba west of the park; between Silki and Walka north-east of the park; between Bwahit and Mesarerya; and just north of Weynobar along the Ras Dejen escarpment to the north (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997).
3797		habitat	eng	The Simien Mountains are characterized by huge gorges and gulleys, both of which carve out steep and jagged cliffs, with this species inhabiting only the high cliffs that rise above the lower elevated plateau. However, ibex may descend to plateaus in areas where there is less human interference or disturbance.<br/><br/>Walia Ibex have varied social units, such as female-based groups that include kids and young males until they are about two or three years, groups of adult males, and mixed groups (Nievergelt 1981, Dunbar and Dunbar 1981). Most groups are relatively small, although groups of more than 50 individuals have been observed (Ludi 2006). Sexual segregation is pronounced mostly during parturition and lactation. This species is polygynous, with breeding year round, unlike other ibex species; however, there is a rutting peak from March to May. The diet of the Walia Ibex includes a great variety of herbaceous and woody plants (Dunbar 1978, Nievergelt 1981).
3797		population	eng	In 2004, the poulation stood at around 500, a slight increase over earlier estimates of 200-250 animals in 1994-1996 (Nievergelt in press). The population has been showing signs of increase over the past decade or so.
3797		threats	eng	Having survived two decades of war, the main threat to this species is now habitat destruction caused by human encroachment (the remaining natural habitat is extremely limited), even though most of the villagers who lived in the lowland areas of the Park were resettled outside the Park in 1978. However, they have returned once again taking advantage of the war that occurred over the last two decades or so and are residing within the National Park creating increasing pressure on the Park and its wildlife. Today, there are over 30,000 people living within and just outside of the National Park boundary. Despite the existence of national and regional legislation, the remoteness of the area coupled with the existence of people living within and outside of the Park prior to its establishment as a Conservation Area makes legislation difficult to enforce.<br/><br/>A few Walia ibex also move to the south-east of their natural range to feed on cultivated crops at places where there is cultivation of barley and other crops on steep gradients. These incidences occasionally lead to conflict with local farmers (B. Gebremedhin pers. comm.).
3798		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Portugal, owing to its very small population in that country (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>C. p. victoriae</em> occurs in Sierra de Gredos, las Batuecas and Riaño Hunting Reserves and Manzanares Natural Park. <em>C. p. hispanica</em> occurs in a number of protected areas, including Sierra de las Nieves, Sierra de Grazalema, Sierra Nevada, and Sierra de Tajada y Almijara, Puertos de Tortosa y Beceite, and Muela de Cortes. However, most of the range occupied by wild goats is outside protected areas. Conservation measures proposed include establishing additional populations of <em>C. p. victoriae</em> in other areas to strengthen its conservation status by reducing the possibility of an epizootic or some other catastrophe wiping out, or severely depleting, the present small population. When establishing new populations, founder effects should be considered, and sufficient numbers of animals should be introduced to maintain genetic diversity (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Measures should be taken to reduce poaching (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), and the impact of hunting should be scientifically assessed.
3798		distribution	eng	This species historically occurred throughout the Iberian peninsula, including southwest France, Spain, Andorra, and Portugal (Grubb, 2005). It is, however, extinct in the northern part of its range (including in France and Andorra), and no longer occurs in the Pyrenees. <em>Capra pyrenaica</em> is now endemic to the Iberian peninsula. Of the four described subspecies, only two are extant: <em>C. p. victoriae</em> and <em>C. p. hispanica</em>. <em>C. p. victoriae</em> occurs in the central Spanish mountains (Sierra de Gredos), and has been re-introduced to a number of additional sites in Spain (Batuecas, La Pedriza, Riaño) and northern Portugal (Peneda-Gerês National Park) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, Moço <em>et al.</em> 2006, J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). <em>C. p. hispanica</em> occupies the arc of mountains that run along the Mediterranean coast, from the Ebro river to the rock of Gibraltar (where it no longer occurs), as well as the Sierra Morena. <em>C. p. lusitanica</em> died out at the end of the 19th century, and <em>C. p. pyrenaica</em> went extinct in 2000 when the last known individual was found dead (Pérez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006). It formerly occurred throughout much of the French, Spanish and Andorran Pyrenees, and persisted until recently in Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park in the Maladeta massif.  The species is found from sea level to 3,400 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
3798		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky habitats. Even small rocky patches in arable farmland and on the coast may be used, although cliffs and screes interspersed with scrub or pine trees are the most typical habitats. It often lives in very close proximity to humans, and is a familiar and popular species. It disperses readily and can rapidly colonise new areas if appropriate habitat is available. It is an important trophy-hunting species, with some trophy prices exceeding EUR 2,000 (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Hunting can be an important source of revenue to local communities in rural areas. The species can sometimes be an agricultural pest, causing damage to almond trees (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006).
3798		population	eng	The population in the whole of the Iberian peninsula was estimated at c.50,000 individuals in more than 50 subpopulations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Pérez <em>et al.</em> 2002). Subpopulations include those of the Sierra Nevada (16,000 individuals), Sierra de Gredos (8,000  individuals), Maestrazgo (7,000 individuals), Serranía de Ronda and Sierras de Grazalema (4,000  individuals), Puertos de Tortosa y Beceite Natural Park (4,000 individuals) Cazorla (2,500  individuals), Sierra Tejeda y Almijara (2,500  individuals), Sierras de Antequera (2,000  individuals), Sierra Morena (2,000 individuals) and Muela de Córtes (1,500  individuals) (Pérez <em>et al.</em> 2002, J. Herrero and J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have expanded dramatically since the early 1990s, when the total population was estimated at c.7,900 individuals (Shackleton 1997), and continue to increase. Its range is expanding in Spain and into Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 2003 the Portuguese population consisted of a minimum of 75 individuals. (Moço <em>et al.</em> 2006).
3798		threats	eng	No threats are causing population or range declines at present - indeed the species is expanding. However, alteration and fragmentation of habitats (through agriculture, forestry, fires, and infrastructure development) may impact upon certain <em>Capra pyrenaica</em> populations, and competition with the introduced the aoudad (<em>Ammotragus lervia</em>) might become a conservation problem in the near future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006). The aoudad was introduced during the 1970s in southeastern Spain, and recently an important range expansion of this exotic ungulate has been reported (Cassinello <em>et al.</em> 2004); competition between these two ungulate species can be expected. The impact of hunting (predominantly for trophies) has not been scientifically assessed (J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006), but the poaching of large dominant males might alter gene flow (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). However, hunting levels are broadly under control. Outbreaks of mange (<em>Sarcoptes scabiei</em>) occur sporadically and have caused at least one major population crash (Shackleton 1997, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Wild goats are occasionally killed by accident during wild boar hunting-drives with dogs (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>Previously, the population was kept low by competition with domestic livestock, which restricted wild goats to marginal habitats. The causes of <em>C. p. pyrenaica</em>' s demise are unknown, but there are a number of hypotheses including competition for food with chamois, inbreeding depression, parasite infections from domestic livestock, climatic conditions, poaching, and low fertility due to plant secondary compounds (Shackleton 1997). The last remaining individual, a 13-year-old female, was killed by a falling tree.
3810		conservation	eng	Since 1989, the Formosan serow has been listed as a “Precious and Rare species” under Taiwan’s Wildlife Protection Act, and hunting the species is prohibited. Serow is protected in National Parks and in Nature Reserves. Recently, through the development of environmental-protection awareness and enforcement of related wildlife protection laws, conditions for serow have improved. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) conduct in-depth studies of their population biology and ecology, as well as the impact of the disease and parasites; 2) develop a community-based management and monitoring programme with aboriginal tribes.
3810		distribution	eng	The Formosan serow is endemic to Taiwan and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions throughout the island (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei 1992, Pei and Chiang 2004). It occupies elevations from 50 m to greater than 3,900 m just below the peak of Yu-shan, the highest mountain in the country. However, most populations today occupies regions higher than 1,000 m because most lowlands are encroached upon by human.
3810		habitat	eng	Formosan serow live in various mountainous habitats, from lowland tropical and subtropical rainforests, mixed broadleaf-conifer forests and warm temperate rainforests at mid-altitudes, to coniferous forests, alpine meadow, and tundra at the highest altitude range of 3,000 m~3,952 m (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei and Chiang 2004, Chiang 2007). They are adapted to steep and rugged terrain and may use the steep and craggy rock faces and cliffs to avoid predators. In forests lower than 3,000 m as in southern Taiwan, Formosan serow occurs more frequently at lower altitudes, at areas close to ridges and cliffs, and in steep, rugged or rocky terrain (Chiang 2007). At altitudes higher than 3,000 m, Formosan serow also occur in alpine grasslands dominated by <em>Yushania niitakaymensis</em>, in forests with <em>Juniperus formosana</em>, <em>Juniperus squamata</em>, <em>Tsuga chinensis</em>, and <em>Abies kawakamii</em>, and on cliff-tops (personal observations and Lue 1987). Populations can be high at high altitudes, particularly in remote areas or where there are cliffs. <br/><br/>The Formosan serow is intermediate feeder between selective browser and roughage eater (Hofmann 1985) with a tendency of being a selective browser (Hofmann 1985, Ochiai 1999). Formosan serow feeds on grasses, shrubs, browse, young twigs, some fruits, and even juvenile parts of conifers (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987). Based on information from aborigines, Lue (1987) stated that preferred food plants include, but are not limited to, <em>Urtica fissa</em>, <em>Elatostema edule</em>, <em>Anisogonium esculentum</em>, <em>Begonia laciniata</em>, <em>Polygonum chinensis</em>, <em>Chamabainia cuspidate</em>, <em>Mussaenda parviflora</em>, <em>Perrottetia arisanensis</em>, and <em>Pellionia arisanensis</em>. Analysis of relationships between forest structures and occurrence frequencies suggested that they may prefer disturbed and early-succession forests with gaps (Chiang 2007) where they could find grass and shrubs to browse (personal observations and McCullough 1974, Lue 1987).<br/><br/>Virtually nothing is known of its social organization. Captive animals mark objects with their infra-orbital glands and have localized dung sites; both behaviours are suggestive of territoriality (Chen 1987). Its reproduction is known almost exclusively from a limited number of captive animals (Wang and Chen 1981, Chen 1987). There is a single young born after seven months gestation (Smith and Xie 2008). Female Formosan serow are likely to be pregnant during September and November and give birth after March based on captive and hunters’ observations (Chen 1990). Formosan serow is mostly solitary (personal observation and Chen 1990), although captive groups with up to eight animals have been maintained (Chen 1987). Young Formosan serows were observed to follow their mothers with occasional hiding behaviour suggesting a follower type (Chen 1990). In the wild, young serows had also been photographed by camera traps to follow their parents in spring and fall (Pei and Chiang 2004).<br/><br/>Camera trapping data in remote areas with least human activities showed that Formosan serow is active day and night with significantly more diurnal activities (74% vs. 26%, Pei and Chiang 2004). It is most active during the 3 hours after sunrise and during the 4 hours before sunset (but lower activity levels than in the morning) and seasonal variations of activity levels were more pronounced in the afternoon (Pei and Chiang 2004). However, Formosan serow could become more nocturnal in areas close to human activities (Liu 2003).<br/><br/>Habitat segregation was found between Formosan serow, sambar deer (<em>Cervus unicolor swinhoei</em>) and Reeve’s muntjac (<em>Muntiacus reevesi micrurus</em>) (Chiang 2007). There may be competition in the wild with the sympatric sambar deer and Reeve’s muntjac, though the effects of these interactions require further research.
3810		population	eng	There is no estimate of total population size. Surveys showed that the Formosan serow is still widely distributed throughout the island, from the north to the south (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei and Chiang 2004). However, since World War II, logging and agriculture have encroached upon the virgin forests inhabited by serow, resulting in significant habitat loss. In addition, heavy hunting pressure over the past decades may have caused the population to decline (McCullough 1974). An average density of 22 serows/km² was estimated in part of high altitudes of Yu-shan National Park (K. Y. Lue, unpublished data). Casual observations by park rangers, hikers and wildlife researchers suggest that serow populations may be increasing in recent years. This may due to reduced hunting activities for game meat market in the city because of tighter law enforcement. However, this impression might be confounded because more people are now involved in outdoor activities. More sightings of serow may lead to a biased impression of increasing populations. Population trends need further research.
3810		threats	eng	In the past, wildlife was a source of food for the local indigenous people in Taiwan. Because of the growth in the livestock industry over the past 40 years in Taiwan, food from wildlife is becoming less and less important and hunting serow is now banned throughout Taiwan. However, wild meat is still preferred over livestock meat in certain situations such as ceremonies or gifts. Better economic conditions may also increase the demand for wild meat. Wild meat is still taken through illegal hunting and hunting activity seems to have increased in recent years, partially because the immigration of foreign workers into Taiwan have caused unemployment among the indigenous people, who have returned to their villages and now practice hunting for a living. Nevertheless, current hunting pressure still seems lower compared to several decades ago. It is unknown whether current hunting pressure has a significant adverse effects on serow populations. In addition, forestry, agricultural, road construction activities in the mountainous regions have encroached upon the virgin forests originally inhabited by serow. The latest threat to serow comes from increasing recreational and tourist pressures, but the impact is unknown. Mortality related to skin parasites have also been reported (Pei and Chiang 2004, Tsai 2005) and confirmed (Chen and Pei 2007) and could be a potential threat to the serow populations in Taiwan.
3811		conservation	eng	Due to a severe decline in the early 20th century, serow was designated a ‘Non Game Species’ by the Hunting Law in 1925, and hunting of this species was prohibited. In 1934, this species was designated to ‘’Natural Monument Species’’ under the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties (LPCP). In 1955, its status was raised to ‘’Special Natural Monument Species’’. Although serow hunting has been prohibited by laws since 1925, poaching pressure was high before the 1950s. As a result of the anti-poaching campaign conducted throughout the country in 1959, poacher’s syndicates were eliminated, and the serow population began to increase. The population increase was probably also due to an increase in suitable habitat in the form of young coniferous plantations created from 1950s to 1970s. By the 1970s these artificial plantation accounted for more than 40% of forest cover in Japan, and the serow range had expanded to around 40,000 km² ,and population increased to 100,000.  However, with this increase, damage to forestry and agricultural production had also drastically increased and conflicts arose between serow conservation and primary industries. Nevertheless, any capture of serows, including nuisance animal control, was not permitted until 1978 (with the exception of scientific research). <br/> <br/>The Japanese serow is legally managed under two laws, LPCP and the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law (WPHL).  The competent authority of LPCP is the Agency for Cultural Affairs, and that of WPHL is the Environmental Agency (currently Ministry of the Environment). The Forestry Agency has jurisdiction over forest management policy, which concerns damage prevention and habitat treatment. In 1979, these three Agencies reached an agreement to change serow management measures.  The essential points of new management policy were as follows.<br/>1) To establish serow protection areas. This decision meant the designation of ‘Special Natural Monument Species’ would be repealed and instead ‘Serow Protection Areas’ would be designated based on LPCP in the future. <br/>2) To allow serow cull as pest control outside the serow protection areas in cases of necessity.<br/>3) The Agency for Cultural Affairs would bear responsibility for conservation in the protection areas, the Environmental Agency would bear responsibility for management of serow outside the protection areas, and the Forestry Agency for avoiding serow damage on young conifer plantations by non-fatal methods such as fencing and netting. <br/>Conservationists, nature conservation NGOs, and some biologists opposed to this policy change.<br/><br/>Three primary functions were expected from the protection areas were 1) to maintain stable and viable local populations; 2) to preserve the geographical genetic diversity of serow populations; and 3) to establish a management system for serow and its habitat. Fifteen protection areas were nominated and 13 of them had been established by 1989, ranging in size from 143 km² to 2,180 km². The total area is 11,800 km², which covers about 20% of the current serow range over 23 prefectures. However, in many cases, the protection areas avoid commercial forests, and are situated at relatively high elevations including unsuitable habitats for serow. Therefore, some protection areas do not have enough suitable habitat quality and/or area size for the effecitve protection of local populations.  <br/><br/>The Agency of Cultural Affairs initiated a systematic survey of serow management in 1985, composed of main and supplemental survey programs. The purpose of main survey program is to monitor population trends and habitat conditions once every 6 or 7 years for each protection area. This program is carried out by specialists. The supplemental survey program is carried out annually, except in the main survey’s year, by local inhabitants to monitor population indices, habitat changes and damage, by simple and easy methods. The data from both programs are used to develop the management plan for each protection area.  Protection areas are not yet established in Kyushu and Shikoku due to disagreements with land owners. Therefore, the Japanese serow still retains the status of ‘Special Natural Monument Species’.  <br/><br/>In 1978, a control cull began in the restricted small areas of Gifu and Nagano Prefectures, and the culling area has expanded to large part of central Honshu.  As a matter of course, control cull is conducted outside the protection areas. The total number of serow removed was over 20,000 by 2005. The damage to conifer plantations in central Honshu markedly decreased in 1990s, because population density of serow in this area and also the area of young conifer plantations have reduced.  Two kinds of permissions, based on LPCP and WPHL, are required for control culls of serow. The areas and periods of the control, the upper limit of the harvest number, and the capture methods are specified in the permits. Biological investigation of killed serow has been continued since the beginning of the control.  Place and date of capture, sex, age, and reproductive condition are recorded for almost all individuals. These data are used for serow management. <br/><br/>In 1999, the WPHL was amended and the ‘Specified Wildlife Management Plan System’ was established. This is a legal management system and each prefecture can make a plan to properly manage wildlife populations. This plan must state specific goals for the target species, and prescribe concrete measure for properly controlled hunting, preventing negative influences on the population, and conserving habitats. This adaptive management system is considered to be useful and practical for management of serow outside the protection areas, and seven such plans for serow had been established by 2007.<br/><br/>The management system for serow has significantly developed during the last 25 years. Serow populations are stable and/or increasing in most areas, but following problems might affect negatively some populations:<br/>1) Growth of conifer plantations planted for the period from late 1950s to 1980s and over-grazing and/or browsing by sika deer reduce food supply for serow and deteriorate habitat quality.<br/>2) Interspecific competition with sika deer may reduce serow populations.<br/><br/>The serow population has recently decreased in Kyushu.  It is considered this decrease is probably caused by interspecific competition with sika deer. Also, the influence of deer control operations, such as disturbance of home ranges and accidental killing by hunting dogs and deer-fencing, might be having an impact. Surveys and countermeasures are needed for these problems.
3811		distribution	eng	The Japanese serow (<em>Capricornis crispus</em>) is endemic to Japan on three of the main islands: Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. The species is widespread in appropriate habitat on Honshu, but is absent from lowland cultivated areas and areas around human settlements. On Shikoku and Kyushu, their distribution is more limited. It became extinct in western Honshu and greatly reduced in other areas before the early 20th century. Since the 1960s, its range has been expanding.
3811		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal, though the animals actively feed only in the early morning and late afternoon. Their habitat includes various vegetation types such as broad-leaved evergreen forest, subalpine coniferous forest, alpine meadow and coniferous plantations, but temperate deciduous forest that is their preferred habitat. They eat fleshy leaves, evergreen leaves, plant shoots, and acorns (Jass and Mead 2004). This species is a monogamous, territorial browser, and sexual dimorphism is not developed. They are found solitarily, in pairs or small family groups. The population density is generally low (the average was 2.6/km² in the 1983 survey). Females mature sexually at 30 months. The gestation period is 7 months, and females give birth to single fawn. Life expectancy at birth and longevity are estimated to be 4.8-6.5 years and 25 years respectively (Tokida and Miura, 1988, Miura and Tokida, 1992).
3811		population	eng	The Japanese serow is common in the mountain ranges of northern and central Honshu, and eastern Shikoku, but is restricted to small, fragmented areas in Kyushu. By 1978 the total range occupied by serow was estimated at 34,500 km², with total number estimated by the  block count method (Maruyama and Nakama, 1983) of 70,000 to 100,000 animals. In 1983, the total population was estimated by the Environmental Agency at <em>ca</em>. 100,000 animals with a distribution area of more than 39,000 km².  In 2003, the distribution had expanded to 170% of that in 1978. On the other hand, the population density has slightly decreased in many areas. Currently the population is assumed to be stable or slowly increasing.
3811		threats	eng	The serow had been threatened due to over-hunting until the 1950s. It is considered that the poaching pressure was exceedingly high before the 1950’s. However, poacher’s syndicates were eliminated by anti-poaching campaign in 1959, and after that serow population began to increase.  Furthermore, the increase of young conifer plantations, which occurred from 1950s to 1970s and supplied a large quantity of food for serow, might affect the population growth.  From middle of 1970s to early 1990s, damage on young conifer plantations and agricultural crops by serow increased and the high level had been maintained.  The management measures of this species became a matter of controversy between conservationists, and forest owners and/or farmers, then the government agencies decided to start serow control in 1978.  In 1990s, damage by serow had declined with decrease of young plantations.  On the other hand, damage on forestry and agriculture by sika deer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus nippon</span>), wild boar (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>), and Japanese monkey (<span style="font-style: italic;">Macaca fuscata</span>) has remarkably increased, and accordingly social demands to control serow had decreased. <br/><br/>The sika deer population is conspicuously increasing throughout Japan in recent years, and undergrowth of forest is decreasing by the  grazing and browsing, and the interspecific competition with sika deer might affect serow population.
3812		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <br/><br/>In Indonesia (Sumatra), has been protected by law since 1932. A total of 3,083,308 ha of serow habitat are under some form of protection in a system of protected areas that includes three national parks, three game reserves, three nature reserves and two protected forests. However, many of these areas await gazetting and staffing, and in the absence of these actions they are little more than “paper” parks. Conservation measures proposed for Indonesia: 1) Conduct surveys along the Barisan mountain chain to determine current status, and to identify if there are any other viable populations of serow outside the currently known, main concentrations areas. 2) Maintain natural forest cover along the volcanic spine of Sumatra, free from roads, agriculture, timber extraction and other human encroachment. This offers the best hope for the serow’s long-term survival in Indonesia (Santiapillai and Widodo 1989). 3) maintain the strict protection of reserves where viable serow populations still exist; this must remain the prime concern. Protected areas where serow now occur must be properly zoned and managed. 4) Strictly protect the core areas which incorporate the feeding and breeding areas, to avoid interactions with humans. 5) Design land-use activities in the vicinity of serow reserves so that they are compatible with serow conservation. 6) Adopt measures to improve the living conditions of people existing along the periphery of serow reserves. 7) Publicize the plight of the serow to the people through sensible conservation education programs. <br/><br/>The Sumatran serow is totally protected under the Wildlife Act (76/72) of Peninsular Malaysia. Enforcement is carried out by the Department of Wildlife and National Park’s Enforcement Division. Serow occur in seven protected areas, but unfortunately these neither represent typical serow habitat, nor are they adequate to ensure its survival. Serow is also found in six proposed protected areas. Small captive breeding groups of serow are held at Zoo Negara (Vellayan, 1989) and Zoo Melaka. Conservation measures proposed for Malaysia: Implement the serow conservation strategy developed by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Peninsular Malaysia. This strategy includes: 1) Develop management plans and the application of appropriate wildlife management techniques to conserve and enhance serow populations. The management goals are to: 2) establish and conserve genetically viable populations in protected wildlife reserves, national parks, permanent forest reserves, and other forested areas and limestone hills; 3) protect areas which contain serow and manage them for an optimum sustainable population; and 4) establish a captive breeding population for future re-introduction of serow into protected areas. Specific management objectives and recommendations identified to meet these goals include: 5) co-ordinate actions of conservation agencies with those of agencies involved in quarrying and logging operations, to promote wildlife conservation; 6) develop a public education program; 7) increase effectiveness of law enforcement; 8) train personnel; 9) improve habitat management and conservation by increasing thenumber of protected areas; and 10) carry out ecological and biological research.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.
3812		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (Sumatra), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaya), Thailand (south of about 9°S latitude) (Grubb, 2005). In Indonesia (Sumatra), limited almost entirely to the volcanic mountain chain of the Barisan mountains which runs along the western spine of Sumatra from Aceh in the north to Lampung in the south. Although suitable habitat is more extensive within these mountains (Santiapillai and Widodo, 1989), there are only three known major concentrations: the Aceh highlands in the north, the Kerinci highlands in the centre and the Barisan Seletan highlands in the south. It is also found scattered through Peninsular (West) Malaysia, but concentrated in the northern states, especially Kelantan, Perlis and Perak. The species has been recorded in 50 areas in Peninsular Malaysia, but in each area, the number of animals is estimated to be only between 10 to 15 individuals.
3812		habitat	eng	It inhabits steep mountain slopes between 200 and 3,000 m (van der Zon, 1979), covered by both primary and secondary forests. The serow is predominantly a browser (Santiapillai and Widodo, 1989). It is usually solitary in nature, but small groups of up to seven have been observed (Nowak, 1991). It may occupy seasonal ranges and use well marked trails that often run along ridges of steep hills. Sumatran serow feed in the early hours of the morning and in late evenings, sheltering under overhanging cliffs and rocks during the rest of the day. No information on Sumatran serow reproduction is available.
3812		population	eng	No population estimates have been made in Indonesia. Although vulnerable to poaching and habitat destruction, serow appears to thrive well in some of the better protected areas such as Gunung Leuser National Park. Here the serow population may be healthy and increasing (M. Griffiths pers. comm., 1992). The species is considered 'rare' in Taratak Forest Reserve, Sumatra, Indonesia, based on a camera trapping survey undertaken in 2005. <br/><br/>In Malaysia, Mustafa <em>et al</em>. (1990) conducted a reconnaissance survey in the Pelangai Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan (3,107 ha), in an effort to determine the number of serow present before a capture operation started. Thirteen animals were recorded in this area, giving a density of 0.4 serow/km². The total number of serow estimated for Peninsular Malaysia is between 500 and 750 animals, scattered through many, very small, isolated populations, though the basis for these numbers is very unclear. It  is said not to be common in the Malay peninsula (Kwai HinHan pers. comm.).
3812		threats	eng	Within Indonesia, habitat destruction threatens the long-term survival of serow. The principal causes of habitat destruction are slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by highlanders and shifting cultivators, and the indiscriminate extraction of timber for export to the West. Poaching is not uncommon, and serows are caught in snares set for other game species, as well as shot, for local consumption of the meat, and for use of body parts in traditional medicines.  Hunting occurs inside and outside of protected areas.  Sources living around protected areas in Sumatra, such as the Gunung Leuser National Park, Aceh, claim that hunting continues to increase as illegal logging roads have opened up parts of the park, allowing access to previously inaccessible areas. Locals claim that populations of this species are in decline.  Trade of parts, especially the horns, is carried out openly in some places, such as in the town of Pancur Batu, North Sumatra.  No enforcement action against individuals trading in Serow parts has taken place in these locations.<br/><br/>Threats in Malaysia come mainly from disturbance and from habitat destruction caused by mining activities in the limestone and quartz ridge quarries within their habitat, and by deforestation of the hill dipterocarp forests for logging and agriculture. Serows also suffer from substantial poaching for its meat and body parts that are used for medicinal purposes. In Malaysia, a number of small populations exist, but are threatened by illegal hunting, with this species sometimes being a target, not just an opportunistic kill.  In Malaysia, this species does appear to be tolerant of some human disturbance, and in some areas, occurs very near human habitation.  Over the past two years, enforcement authorities have taken action against individuals involved in illegal hunting of this species, and as a result, trade in this species is not carried out openly, as it is in other Southeast Asian range States.  Very little information on current populations of this species exists.  However, local people living near serow habitat state that populations may be declining, due to hunting and due to quarrying of limestone and quartz areas.  Some wildlife restaurants in Malaysia offer the meat of this species.
3814		conservation	eng	It is on Appendix I of CITES, and in Class II in China’s list of protected species. This serow exists in many protected areas including: Sichuan-Baihe, Fentongzhai, Jiuzhaiguo, Labahe, Mabian Dafengdin, Meigu Dafengdin, Tangjiahe, Tiebu, Wanglag, Wolong and Xiaozhaiziguo; Shaanxi-Tabaishan, Fuping (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1986) and Takin Reserve; Gansu - Baishuijiang and Tou’ersantan; Yunnan - Fenshuilin, Gaoligongshan, Tongbiguan, Xishuanbangnan and Yulonghabaxueshan (Lijiang and Zhongdian); Fujian - Daiyunshan and Wuyishan; Zhejiang - Fengyangshan and Jiulongshan; Jiangxi - Jiulianshan and Wuyishan; Guangxi – Congzuo Xiling, Huaping, Qianjiadong, Shouchen and Yindinshan; Gu&hou - Fenginshan; Guangdung - Chebaling. Conservation measures proposed for China: 1) Reclassify serow as Class I in the national wildlife protection list. 2) Ban hunting and 3) the State Commercial System should be prohibited from purchasing products of this animal. 4) Conduct basic population surveys to determine distributions and numbers for development of conservation actions. 5) Undertake studies of ecology, population and management problems of this serow as part of the conservation management program for the giant panda.<br/><br/>It also occurs in many protected areas through the remainder of its range. Generally, has not been targeted for protection from hunting (or other conservation actions), as other species are much more threatened (W. Duckworth, pers comm. 2006). Legislation has successfully reduced hunting in Thailand (Anak Pattanavibool, pers comm. 2006). It is protected in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm.., 2006). <br/><br/>Currently, Cambodian legislation (State Council No. 35 KR.C, Law Decree on Forestry) governs the use and management of forests and wildlife, and stipulates penalties for contravention. However, this legislation is only interim and is generally unenforceable. It is also only very general in scope and does not specifically include serow. Protection of serow lies within the Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, and more specifically with the newly-created Wildlife Protection Office. Serow was known to occur only in Phnom Kravanh protected area, but this is located in a region which saw military conflict between 1980 and 1982, and possibly more recently. Conservation measures proposed for Cambodia: 1) Determine the serow’s distribution and status in Mondulkiri Province. The Forestry Department planned to begin these censuses as soon as it became safe and feasible. International support will be required to fund both the census studies and the development of the subsequent conservation plans. 2) The Cambodian Government should create a broad conservation strategy, including a network of protected areas and supporting infrastructure to protect all the country’s natural resources. The species likely occurs widely in the Cardamom range of the southwest, which is now well covered by national protected areas, and conservation management in several of these areas is already ongoing and starting to effectively control hunting (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species also likely occurs in several other areas of the country covered by protected areas, namely Rattanakiri province in Virachey NP and Mondulkiri Province (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Given Cambodia’s exceptional concentration of highly threatened species, conservation of serow should not be considered a high priority nationally, and with effective conservation management of suitable protected areas, the species should be safe without the need for species specific conservation activities (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Serow is included in Appendix II of the Endangered and Rare Species List of Viet Nam. However, it is not included in the list of 38 species covered by Declaration No. 276 of the Ministry of Forestry (2 June 1989) and Decision No. 18 HDBT of the Council of Ministers (17 January 1992) so serow can be hunted or captured. The species has been recorded from many protected areas and likely occurs in many others with extensive tracts of suitable habitat, the most significant populations remaining are likely to be found in the extensive tracts of habitat covered by protected areas in the Annamite (Truong Son) mountain chain, especially the extensive limestone formations of the central region and limestone formations in the north (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Effective management of suitable protected areas, especially controlling hunting, should be sufficient to conserve the species nationally, however, the majority of areas are still fall well below this level of management, although there is cause for optimism within a few (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, serow occur in Kahilu (an area of armed civil unrest, which suffers from poaching) and Kelatha Hill Game <br/>Sanctuaries, and in Shwesettaw and Shwe-U-Daung Wildlife Sanctuaries. It also probably occurs in Tamanthi, Pidaung, and Mulayit Wildlife Sanctuaries. Serow is also reported in a number of proposed National Parks: Alaungdaw Kathapa, Kyaukpandaung, Natma Taung and Pegu Yomas. Serow was eliminated from Taunggyi Wildlife Sanctuary, probably as the resultof poaching and hunting by domestic dogs (IUCN, 1992b; WCMC, 1987). Conservation measures proposed for Myanmar: 1) Carry out surveys and censuses to develop conservation programs. 2) Immediate enforcement of protection against poaching, especially in protected areas. <br/><br/>Serow is also protected in Thailand. It is known or expected to occur in the following protected areas: National Parks – Chaloem Rattankosin (Than Than Lot); Doi Inthanon; Doi Khuntan; Erawan; Khao Chamao-Khao Wong; Khao Luang; Khao Pu-Khao Ya; Khao Sam Lam; Khao Sam Roi Yot; Khao Yai; Nam Nao; Namtok Phliu (Khao Sabup); Phu Kradung; Rhamkhamhaeng; Si Nakarin; Si Satchanalai; Thaleban and possibly Ao Phangnga. WiZdZifi Sanctuaries – Doi Chiang Dao; Doi Pha Muang; Huai Kha Khaeng; Khao Banthat; Om-Koi/Mae Tun; Maenam Phachi; Phu Khieo; Phu Luang; Phu Miang-Phu Thong; Salawin; Thung Yai Naresuan; Tong Nga Chang. Conservation measures proposed for Thailand: Determine the serow’s status to assess the effects that logging and poaching are having on its distribution and numbers.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.
3814		distribution	eng	This species occurs in much of Myanmar, Cambodia, south and central China (Himalayas and east Tibet, south Gansu to Zhejiang and south to Yunnan), Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Grubb, 2005). Originally widely distributed throughout Thailand, the species is now restricted to steep, forested limestone hills and cliffs, in areas relatively inaccessible to human encroachment and the range is highly fragmented (Kamchanasaka, in press, Department of National Park and Wildlife). The Thai range map accompanying this account is only indicative of the extent of occurrence and not occupancy of range. Lekagul and McNeely (1988) stated that even when the surrounding areas were completely taken over by cultivation, these steep hills remain covered with dense vegetation. Such areas act as miniature sanctuaries for the serow. In 1977, these authors also reported serow in the north and northeast Thailand, but Nakasathien (1986) suggested a much more conservative distribution. The dividing line between the ranges of <em>C. milneedwardsii</em> and <em>C. sumatraensis</em> is unclear, but is suspected to fall somewhere in the Chooporn or Suratchathani Provinces on the Thai peninsula. In Thailand the species is primarily confined to the mountainous areas of the north and west, with isolated populations, in hill areas in the east and southeast. The historic distribution of serow in Lao PDR almost certainly included the vast majority of the countries land area, the majority of which is hilly to mountainous (e.g. Deuve, 1972; Lekagul and McNeely, 1988; R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Currently in Lao PDR the species is still widespread due to extensive tracts of habitat, often over rugged terrain, especially along the Annamite mountain range of eastern central and southern Lao PDR (W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006; R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Cambodia the species is probably naturally restricted to the hill and mountainous terrain that surround the Mekong and Tonle Sap (lake) central plains, although confirmation of presence comes from relatively few areas, primarily as a result of survey bias (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In Viet Nam the species was at least historically likely to have been widespread, except perhaps for the far southern Mekong Delta region, although this is not well documented, probably due to a historical bias towards surveys in the north (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Populations in the northern highlands are likely to be heavily depleted in number and fragmented, but are likely somewhat more numerous and contiguous along the Annamite (Truong Son) mountains of central and southern Viet Nam. Confirmed records, especially well documented ones, from the southern portions of this range are very few (Gia Lai and Kontum Provinces (Do Tuoc, 1990), Lam Dong Province (Pham Mong Giao, 1990) but this is likely primarily a reflection of the paucity of fieldwork, rather than the actual status of serow. The species has also been recorded from offshore islands of the north, e.g. Cat Ba (Ha Dinh Due <em>et al</em>., 1989; Le Hien Hao, 1973). <br/><br/>The general distribution in Myanmar appears to follow the forested mountain ranges surrounding the central plains. Its distribution in the northwest is believed to stretch through the Chin Hills from the border with India, probably as far south as 20ºN in the Arakan Yoma range. A larger distribution area occurs in the mountains in the north (Kachin state) and in the mountains east of about 96ºW, to Myanmar’s borders with China, Lao PDR and Thailand. <br/><br/><em>C. milneedwardsii</em> (as constituted here) is widely distributed through much of central and south-eastern China. The general distribution range may be taken to include all the area of the Southwest China Region from southern Gansu southward through Sichuan and most of Yunnan, and beyond into Myanmar. But the species is replaced in parts of northern Myanmar by <em>Capricornis rubidus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008), and probably by <em>C. thar</em> in parts of western Myanmar.<br/><br/>Records show a more or less continuous distribution along the ranges of the Hungduan mountain system. East of this region, populations occur in adjacent mountain areas of Qinling (Southern Slope), Shaanxi and Guizhou (Zhen, 1982). A few populations exist in the north-western Hengduan Mountains of Yushu and Nangqen (Qinghai) (Li <em>et al</em>., 1989). The species has a comparatively widespread distribution through western and southern Zhejiang, northern Fujian, most of Jiangxi (Shen <em>et al</em>., 1982), eastern Guizhou (Luo <em>et al</em>., 1985), northern Guangdong, eastern and south-western Guangxi, eastern and southern Yunnan, where it inhabits low mountains and foothills. It may also occur in south-western Sichuan, as indicated by specimens from the adjacent mountains of Jijiang.
3814		habitat	eng	Accounts from throughout the species range report the species inhabits rugged steep hills and rocky places, especially limestone regions up to 4,500 m asl (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Lekagul and McNeely 1988, Smith and Xie 2008). However, the species is also routinely recorded (by camera-trapping) in hill and mountain forest areas with gentler terrain (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), and does occur in flatter areas marginally (Will Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). The species occurs on small offshore islands and has been reported swimming between them (Duckworth and Walston 1998) and in Cambodia appears to occupy small very naturally isolated karst limestone outcrops in the level lowlands of the Mekong plains (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Feeds on a wide range of leaves and shoots, and visits saltlicks.  It is mostly nocturnal and solitary.<br/><br/>It is likely to tolerate moderately degraded habitat well, due to its presence in natural karst scrubland, though it is unlikely to be present in heavily disturbed areas such as agricultural land (W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006), and has been documented amidst secondary forests and swidden in at least one landscape mosaics of such habitats and ‘primary’ forest (W. G. Robichaud in litt. to R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species also appears to persist well in small habitat isolates, both naturally (i.e. Cambodia; R. J. Timmins pers. comm.. 2008) and due to habitat loss (i.e. Thailand; Lekagul and McNeely 1988). In parts of China it winters in the forest belt, ascending into alpine cliffs in summer (Yao, 1990). Elsewhere little is known of the species seasonal ecology.
3814		population	eng	No total estimates of numbers have been made. Populations in southeast China south of the Yangtze river) are small and isolated, and its general distribution range falls within regions with relatively dense human populations which are well-exploited economic areas. Although no population estimates have been made in this area, numbers are believed to be decreasing and its distribution range is gradually being reduced. In Lao PDR, this species is still widespread, and despite heavy hunting, it is consistently present in areas of suitable habitat (W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006; R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Little is known about the species in Cambodia, although it is likely widespread in suitable terrain, which is extensive, particularly in the Cardamom range of the southwest (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Numbers in Viet Nam are probably low, although as in Lao PDR the species appears to persist remarkably well in rugged terrain and where suitable habitat remains extensive (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).
3814		threats	eng	The meat, fur and various parts of this serow are highly prized by local people for food and medicinal purposes, so it is heavily hunted especially in the northern parts of its range. Habitat loss primarily from agricultural expansion, but also piecemeal clearance for firewood and timber is also a serious long-term threat in some areas. It is threatened at least locally because habitat is rapidly being lost to deforestation and land clearing. In 1962, a die-off caused by an unknown epizootic was reported in the Tangjiahe area (Qingchuan County, Sichuan).<br/><br/>The main threats to serow in Cambodia are posed by hunting, and to a lesser degree habitat loss, but the species is relatively safe in this country compared to other range states. In Lao PDR, serow horns, frontal bones, leg bones and other body parts are used in local, traditional medicine and are readily available in shops in Vientiane and elsewhere. The meat is also eaten in rural areas; however, the extent to which hunting affects the population status of this species in Lao PDR is unknown. In Viet Nam, serow is frequently hunted for meat and for sale as live individuals in many local markets, while its bones and other body parts are valued for medicinal purposes (TRAFFIC, 1993). The inaccessibility of much of the species preferred habitats is likely to be the serow’s main defence against eradication in most sites where it still occurs.
3815		conservation	eng	The red serow (as <em>C.S. s. rubidus</em>) was listed as Endangered (A2cd) in the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 2007). However, this assessment probably included the red form of Himalayan Serow which was often attributed to this species but is currently included in <em>C. thar</em>. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. There is an urgent need to survey this species' habitat to determine the range limits, population, and threats. Measures also need to be enacted to prevent hunting of the species. It is expected to occur in several protected areas, but this requires confirmation.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.
3815		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern, and perhaps western, Myanmar (Grubb, 2005). The range of <em>C. rubidus</em> is not well known, partly because of confusion with another red serow form in adjacent territories to the west in Assam and Bangladesh, and the fact that all serows can show varying amounts of red and black colouration. True <em>rubidus</em> specimens have black hair base rather than white. Records and specimens from Kachin state in the north of Myanmar are clearly this species. Other localities reported include the Upper Chindwin, Ararakan Hill Tracts and limestone hills in the upper Salween. Without accompanying specimens these records are less certain. The species may overlap in some locations with <em>C. milneedwardsii</em> which extends through most of the Shan States and Pegu (Bago) Yoma at least as far west as the Ayeyarwady river. The type locality is from the "Arakan Hills", however, many of the type localities from that time period are wrong and this may be one of them. Little survey work has been in the region of the type locality.<br/><br/>In northeastern India, serows attributed to <em>Capricornis sumatraensis rubidus</em> apparently occur south of the Brahmaputra River in hilly tracts in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura (Green, 1987). However, in this assessment, these animals are considered to be <em>Capricornis thar</em>, pending further information.
3815		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about the natural history of this species. It is assumed to  be similar in ecology to <em>Capricornis milneedwardsii</em>, inhabiting rugged steep hills and rocky places, as well as hill and mountain forest areas with gentler terrain.
3815		population	eng	There is no current information on the population of this species.
3815		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but there is significant hunting of other large mammals in the area. The serow in Myanmar is one of the most heavily traded species in the local trade.  Every market surveyed by TRAFFIC in Myanmar in 2006 had Serow, and in most markets, this was the most commonly observed species, with the bulk of the parts observed being horns and heads. Many of these markets are situated on the Myanmar-Thailand border and dealers claim that all buyers in these border markets come from Thailand, indicating a blatant disregard for both national legislation and CITES. Serows are protected throughout Southeast Asia by law, but protecting this species on the ground does not appear to be a priority in many countries.<br/><br/>Serow are very heavily hunted in Myanmar, with meat usually being consumed locally, but parts, including the forelegs, heads, horns and fat from the stomach region being the most sought after for use in traditional medicines.  These parts are rendered down and the oil is sold in small bottles.  According to dealers, this oil is applied externally to treat skin ailments and joint problems.  Horn tips are also exported from Myanmar to Thailand to be attached to the spurs of fighting cocks (this is believed to give them more power).<br/><br/>In 2006, interviews with dealers in border markets and markets in the centre of Myanmar, revealed that in all areas surveyed, Serow are apparently in decline. Hunters stated that they were having to travel further to get serow, and that they were, in many locations, becoming scarce.
3816		conservation	eng	The Himalayan serow is listed on Appendix I of CITES. In India, it is listed in Schedule I (revised March 1987) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) and is thus totally protected. This status has been accepted by all states except Nagaland. In China, it is a Class II nationally protected species.<br/><br/>Within India, this species of serow occurs in a number of protected areas in Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Sikkim, as well as a few protected areas in Manipur, Meghalaya, and Mizoram (Kathayat and Mathur (2002). In total, it is present in over 50 Indian protected areas, ranging in size from 4 km² to 1,800 km², and totaling about 17,000 km². However, many of these areas include substantial habitat unsuitable for serow and it is has been suggested that only some 6,000 to 8,000 km² of ca. 19,000 km² of good serow habitat in India, lies within protected areas (Johnsingh, 1991; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>., in prep. H). Serow occurs in the following protected areas (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1986; Green, 1987b; Kumar and Rao, 1985; Lamba, 1987; S. Pandey, 2002; Singh <em>et al</em>., 1990): Jammu and Kashmir- Dachigam National Park and Overa-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary; Himachal Pradesh-Great Himalayan National Park and the Daranghati, Gamgul Siya-Behi, Kalatop, Kanawar, Khokhan, Kugti, Manali, Naina Devi, Rupi Bhaba, Sechu Tuan Nala, Tirthan (possibly) and Tundah Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttar Pradesh -Nanda Devi National Park, Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park; Arunachal Pradesh - Namdapha National Park; and - Megahakrya - Balphakram National Park. However, the species is considered to be locally threatened even within some of these protected areas (e.g. Great Himalayan National Park and Daranghati, Manali, Tirthan and Tundah Wildlife Sanctuaries). Status within country: Indeterminate. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Establish the proposed Srikhand National Park, Himachal Pradesh. 2) Develop a management program for maintaining serow habitat and sustaining hunting outside protected areas. Habitat alteration and hunting will continue to negatively affect serow populations throughout northern India, and because serow is apparently dependent on patches of dense vegetation associated with rugged terrain, the alteration or elimination of such vegetation will be highly detrimental to the species. Management to control habitat alteration, prevention of overhunting outside protected areas, and effective protection in parks and sanctuaries, will be required to maintain viable populations in the future.<br/><br/>In China, two reserves have been established in Xiaca and Muotuo, and it should occur in the international protected area, the Qomolangma Nature Reserve, on the Sino-Nepal border. Conservation measures proposed for China: l) Undertake censuses to determine population status and distribution, including surveys in the Chun-pi valley. <br/><br/>It is listed in Schedule I of Bhutan’s Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1995. Himalayan serow is reported in Royal Manas National Park on the southern border with Assam (Jackson 1981). It also lives in the vast Jigme Dorji National Park (Blower, 1989; Wollenhaupt, 1988d), which extends across all of northern Bhutan, and in Black Mountains National Park (Blower, 1989). Conservation measures proposed for Bhutan: Surveys to determine numbers and distribution. <br/><br/>In Nepal, it occurs in the following National Parks: Royal Chitwan, Lake Rara, Langtang, Sagarmatha, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area), Khaptad, and Shey-Phoksundo. It is also found within the Annapurna Conservation Area, and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. The species probably occurs in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, and possibly also in Royal Bardia National Park, but these need to be confirmed. Conservation measures proposed for Nepal: 1) Conduct censuses and 2) studies of population demographics, to 3) develop specific conservation plans.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.
3816		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in east and southeast Bangladesh, Himalayas (Bhutan, northern India including Sikkim and Nepal), China (Tibet only), northeast India (provinces east of Bangladesh), and probably into western Myanmar (Grubb, 2005). <br/><br/>Formerly, serow used to occur in the whole region of Bangladesh east of the Jumuna river (90°E). Today, it is very rare and confined to a few scattered, isolated populations in pockets of evergreen and sal forests of northern Mymensingh, northeastern Sylhet, Chittagong, and Chittagong Hill Tracts (Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Kahn, 1985). Serow from the neighboring Indian states of Meghalaya and Tripura are believed to enter the districts of Comilla, Jamalpur and Myemsingh (Green, 1987b). In northeastern India, the red serow apparently occurs south of the Brahmaputra river in hilly tracts in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura (Green, 1987b; Groves and Grubb, 1985). <br/><br/>The Himalayan serow is widespread but sparsely distributed throughout the forested southern slopes of the Himalaya in northern India, from Jammu and Kashmir to the Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh, and in the hill states of northeastern India (Prater 1971). Himalayan serow is known to be locally present between 300 and 3,000 m as in all Himalayan states (Green 1987b), and is found extensively in the Sutlej and Beas River catchments (Himachal Pradesh) (Pandey, 2002). <br/><br/>Almost nothing is known of its distribution in Bhutan, other than it can exist in subtropical and temperate zones, and has been recorded in Royal Manas and Black Mountain National Parks (NCS, 1995). This serow is probably widespread throughout the forested mountain slopes of Nepal.<br/><br/>In China, it occurs in the forest belt between 2,000 and 3,000 m only in the narrow area on south slope of Qomolangma on the border with Nepal. Observations of serow running across highways are not infrequent (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). A population is found in the narrow area east of the Big Bend of Yarlung Zangbo River, where it inhabits sub-alpine forests (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). Identification of this taxon in China, which is mainly distributed on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, is based on a specimen obtained from Pugiongshan in Medog county in Tibet.
3816		habitat	eng	Accounts from throughout the species' range report that it inhabits rugged steep hills and rocky places, especially limestone regions up to 3,000 m asl, and also in hill and mountain forest areas with gentler terrain.
3816		population	eng	No estimates of population size are available in India, but density in good habitat within Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttaranchal) has been estimated at 1.6 serow/km² (Green, 1987a). No censuses have been made in Bangladesh, but numbers are believed to be very low, as are densities. No estimates of population size or trends have been made, but the population in China is believed to be small (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986), and the habitat and secretive behavior make estimating population numbers very difficult in Nepal.
3816		threats	eng	Though sometimes heavily hunted by locals for meat and trophies, habitat destruction, especially loss of forest understory due to clearing for agriculture and to collection of fuelwood, is probably the main threat to serow in India (Green, 1987b). Within some protected areas, serow populations may approach maximum densities of 2 animals/km². However, its apparent preferred habitat of steep, thickly vegetated slopes, is so patchily distributed that overall densities are low and serow is relatively rare throughout its range. Serow habitat is generally at higher elevations than the areas of intensive agriculture in the western Himalaya. Here, and in the eastern Himalaya (where cultivation is less extensive anyway), hunting is apparently the most importance influence on serow populations.<br/><br/>Habitat disturbance and poaching are the greatest threats to its survival in Bangladesh, both related to slash and burn (jhoom) cultivation (Khan, 1985).<br/><br/>The main threat in China is probably hunting. Although officially 64% of Bhutan remains forested, the figure is probably closer to 50% (Sargent, 1985), making deforestation one of the main threats to the forest-dwelling serow. Serow requires denser habitat than goral and hence is likely to be more susceptible to deforestation and removal of understory vegetation. In winters with heavy snowfalls, avalanches can cause considerable mortality within some serow populations. Poaching is also a problem in Nepal.<br/><br/>Hunting of this species is probably both for food and traditional medicine.
3833		conservation	eng	<em>C. hispidus</em> is listed in CITES Appendix I, in India it is listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, and in Nepal it is listed in Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973 (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990, Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).   It has been nationally listed in India as Endangered B2ab(ii,iii,iv) due to restricted area of occupancy, few and fragmented locations, with major threats affecting habitat area and quality (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  In Nepal, it has been nationally listed as Critically Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,iv)+2ab(ii,iii,iv) due to restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, single location with major threats affecting habitat area and quality (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/> <br/><em>C. hispidus</em> has records of occurring in several protected areas, including Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, Royal Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Dudwa National Park, Royal Chitwan National Park, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Kahna National Park, and Barnodi Wildlife Sanctuary (Maheswaran 2002, Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  A survey conducted in 2001 found no evidence of the presence of <em>C. hispidus</em> in Buxa Tiger Reserve, where it had been reported as occurring it the 1980s (Maheswaran 2002). <br/><br/>Long term research is needed to examine effects of threats such as burning, harvesting, and livestock grazing, as well as studies of ecology, reproduction, and movement patterns during flood and burning seasons (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990, Maheswaran 2002).  Control of the burning season within the range of <em>C. hispidus</em> is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year, as well as the development of management plans for the remaining areas of suitable grassland habitat (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Forest managers should be encouraged in the fostering of local species of grass and avoid the introduction of alien species for use by camp elephants (Maheswaran 2002). A return to the natural system would help prevent the extirpation of <em>C. hispidus</em>, as well as other native species (Maheswaran 2002).  Local education regarding the status of <em>C. hispidus</em> is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where <em>C. hispidus</em> occurs (Maheswaran 2002).  Forest guards are often only aware of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus nigricollis</span> and should be educated in the areas of active preservation of the threatened species (Maheswaran 2002)
3833		distribution	eng	Knowledge of the distribution of <em>C. hispidus</em> has always been limited. The historic range of the species extended along the foothill region of the southern Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh through southern Nepal, the northern region of West Bengal to Assam, and into Bangladesh as far south as Dacca (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). The current distribution in South Asia is sporadic, including the countries of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and possibly Bhutan (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The extent of occurrence of <em>C. hispidus</em> is estimated to be between 5,000 and 20,000 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated to be between 11 and 500 km², in highly fragmented populations (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It occurs at elevations ranging from 100-250 m (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3833		habitat	eng	<em>C. hispidus</em> primarily occupies tracts of early successional tall grasslands, locally termed elephant grass (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). During the dry season, most grassy areas are subject to burning, and the rabbits take refuge in marshy areas or grasses adjacent to river banks that are not susceptible to burning (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/>The limited information available on reproduction indicates that <em>C. hispidus</em> probably has a small average litter size (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It exhibits crepuscular behaviour (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3833		population	eng	During the mid-1960s there was speculation that <em>C. hispidus</em> had gone extinct, however, the capture of a live specimen in 1971 in the Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary, northwest Assam, confirmed that the species was persisting (Maheswaran 2002). Though there is no information available on exact number of individuals in any areas of the range of <em>C. hispidus</em>, little doubt exists that the species has experienced a dramatic decline due to habitat loss in recent years (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). <br/><br/>Nowhere within the range is the population of <em>C. hispidus</em> well above satisfactory levels, but in some places, such as Dudwa National Park in northern Uttar Pradesh and Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary in northern Wets Bengal, fresh as well as old fecal pellets of <em>C. hispidus</em> can be found in abundance (Maheswaran 2002). Taking into consideration the degree of habitat (tall and wet grassland habitat in places) fragmentation, chances are very remote that the species can disperse freely, especially during flooding and grassland burning during the dry season (Maheswaran pers. comm.). The number of individuals occurring in these two areas is currently unknown.<br/><br/>Density of <em>C. hispidus</em> in suitable habitat (unburned tall grassland) is 1/1,470 m² (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990).
3833		threats	eng	The primary threat to <em>C. hispidus</em> populations is habitat loss, caused by encroaching agriculture, logging, flood control, and human development (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). The natural spatial and temporal dynamics of the tall grassland habitat, particularly the fire cycles, are key important to the conservation of this species (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990, Maheswaran 2002). <br/><br/>The natural process of succession of grassland into woodlands reduces suitable habitat for grassland specialists such as <em>C. hispidus</em>. Thus, the elephant grass habitat occupied by the species is highly fragmented, and often intersected by forests, streams, and rivers (Maheswaran 2002).<br/><br/>The decline (quantitative and qualitative) of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and is expected to continue at this rate through 2014 (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).
3842		conservation	eng	The species is found in many protected areas in Cuba. The species is monitored in many of the areas where it occurs.
3842		distribution	eng	Desmarest's hutia is known from mainland Cuba and other islands within the Cuban archipelago, including the Isle of Youth and Archipiélago de las Doce Laqunas (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
3842		habitat	eng	This species is primarily herbivorous. It is arboreal and prefers areas with caves and extensive root systems where it will hide (Soy pers. comm.). It is found in all types of habitats such as montane cloud forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semi-deciduous forests, low, marshy areas and even in the mountains of eastern Cuba. This species can climb trees; however, it is more often found on the ground. The species lives in pairs in dense forests. <br/><br/>Its diet consists of leaves, fruit, bark, reptiles, insects and other small animals. The gestation period is between 110 to 140 days. After this time 1 to 6, but generally 2 fully developed young are born. These are nursed for about 153 days and become sexually mature at the age of 10 months. The life span of the species in captivity is up to 11 years (Alvarez and Gonzalez 1991; Poiez <em>et al.</em> 1992).
3842		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout all of Cuba. It is apparently common; in some protected areas its density has reached 50/ha, and in some mangrove swamps it reaches 100/ha (Alvarez and Gonzalez 1991).
3842		threats	eng	No major threats exist for this species. The species is sometimes hunted.
3847		conservation	eng	Populations in Asian range states are included in CITES Appendix I; populations in African range states are included on Appendix II. Hunting of the species is prohibited in Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (updated from Nowell and Jackson 1996).   <em></em>In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is protected from hunting in about half of its range states (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Namibia and South Africa, the caracal is classified as a Problem Animal, which permits landowners to kill the species without restriction; nonetheless, caracal have persisted and remain widespread.<br/><br/>Caracal are present in many large, and well-managed protected areas, across their vast range.
3847		conservation	eng	Populations in Asian range states are included in CITES Appendix I; populations in African range states are included on Appendix II. Hunting of the species is prohibited in Algeria, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (updated from Nowell and Jackson 1996). In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is protected from hunting in about half of its range states (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Namibia and South Africa, the caracal is classified as a Problem Animal, which permits landowners to kill the species without restriction; nonetheless, caracal have persisted and remain widespread.<br/><br/>Caracal are present in many large, and well-managed protected areas, across their vast range.
3847		distribution	eng	The caracal is widely distributed across Africa, Central Asia, and south-west Asia into India. While it is relatively common, there is concern over the status of populations on the edge of its range in the Central Asian republics and in Pakistan (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The caracal is widely distributed on the African continent, being absent only from the equatorial forest belt and from much of the central Sahara, but they are present in the montane massifs of that desert and its fringes, including the Hoggar and Tassili mountains of SE Algeria and the Saharan Atlas,  the Aïr of Niger, and edges of the great sand areas of Eastern Great Erg Tun and Alg. Their range is continuous to the west and east of the central Sahara, linking the ranges to the south and north of the desert (Stuart and Stuart in press).  The historical range of the caracal mirrors that of the cheetah, and both coincide with the distribution of several small desert gazelles (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Caracals still occupy much of their historic range in Africa but have experienced substantial loss at the peripheries, particularly in north and west Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).
3847		distribution	eng	The Caracal is widely distributed across Africa, Central Asia, and southwest Asia into India. While it is relatively common, there is concern over the status of populations on the edge of its range in the Central Asian republics and in Pakistan (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Caracal is widely distributed on the African continent, being absent only from the equatorial forest belt and from much of the central Sahara, but they are present in the montane massifs of that desert and its fringes, including the Hoggar and Tassili mountains of southeastern Algeria and the Saharan Atlas,  the Aïr of Niger, and edges of the great sand areas of Eastern Great Erg Tun and Alg. Their range is continuous to the west and east of the central Sahara, linking the ranges to the south and north of the desert (Stuart and Stuart in press).  The historical range of the caracal mirrors that of the Cheetah, and both coincide with the distribution of several small desert gazelles (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Caracals still occupy much of their historic range in Africa but have experienced substantial loss at the peripheries, particularly in north and west Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005)·
3847		habitat	eng	The caracal occupies a wide variety of habitats from semi-desert to relatively open savanna and scrubland to moist woodland and thicket or evergreen/montane forest (as in the Western Cape of South Africa), but favours drier woodland and savanna regions with lower rainfall and some cover (Stuart and Stuart in press).  While drier open country is preferred, they are absent from true desert and are usually associated with some form of vegetative cover (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They range up to 2,500 m and exceptionally 3,300 m (exceptionally) in the Ethiopian Highlands (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Caracal prey mainly on small- to medium-sized mammals, from small murids to antelope up to ~50 kg, but they will also take birds, reptiles, invertebrates, fish, and some plant matter (Stuart and Stuart in press).  Like cheetahs, caracals were captured and trained to hunt for Indian royalty, but although it is capable of taking the larger ungulates it was mainly used for small game and birds (Divyabhanusinh 1995).  Caracals often scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Home ranges are large in arid areas, with the home ranges of three males averaging 316.4 km² on Namibian ranchland (Marker and Dickman 2005).  In Saudi Arabia, a radio-tracked male ranged over 270 km² to 1,116 km² in different seasons (Van Heezik and Seddon 1998), while in an Israeli study, home ranges of males averaged 220.6 km² (Weisbein and Mendelssohn 1990).  Male home ranges in better-watered environments of South Africa are smaller (two males averaged 26.9 km² in West Coast National Park:  (Avenant and Nel 1998), and female ranges are considerably smaller than males (Stuart and Stuart in press).
3847		population	eng	In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is common in parts of its range, especially in South Africa and southern Namibia where it is expanding into new, and recolonizing vacant, areas; however, in central and West Africa, where they are largely absent, densities are apparently lower, possibly due to finer partitioning of resources in a more diverse carnivore community (Stuart and Stuart in press). Avenant and Nel (1998) recorded a density of 0.23-0.47 caracal/km² in the West Coast N.P. in the Western Cape of South Africa.<br/><br/>In its north Africa, the caracal is considered threatened (Stuart and Stuart in press), and rare in the Central Asian republics and India (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
3847		threats	eng	As caracals are capable of taking small domestic livestock, they are often subject to persecution. Stuart (1982) recorded that over the years 1931-1952 an average of 2,219 caracals per year were killed in control operations in the Karoo, South Africa. Similarly, Namibian farmers responding to a government questionnaire reported killing up to 2,800 caracals in 1981 (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Brand (1989) found that caracals were responsible for the loss of up to 5.3 domestic stock per 100 km² per annum in the former Cape Province of South Africa. Severity of depredation appears to be dependent on the availability of wild prey and husbandry techniques (Stuart and Stuart in press).<br/><br/>Habitat destruction (agriculture and desertification) is a significant threat in central, west, north and northeast Africa where caracals are naturally sparsely distributed (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is also likely to be the main threat in the Asian part of its range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
3849		conservation	eng	No information.
3849		distribution	eng	North, Baltic, White, Barents, Black and Caspian Sea basins; Aegean Sea basin only in Maritza drainage; eastward to Kolyma drainage (Siberia); westward to Rhine and eastern drainages of England. Absent from North Sea basin in Sweden and Norway. In Baltic basin north to about 66°N. Widely introduced to Italy, England and France but possibly often confused with <em>C. gibelio</em>.
3849		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually restricted to densely vegetated backwaters and oxbows of lowland rivers. Also in small well vegetated lakes and channels. Tolerates high summer temperatures and very low oxygen concentrations in summer and under ice cover. Able to survive in almost completely frozen water or almost-dry habitats by burying itself in mud. Spawns in dense submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at three years, females at four years in central and eastern Europe, at two years in southern Europe. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 18°C. Individual females spawn with several males. Males follow ripe females, often with much splashing. Females spawn 3-5 times during a season. Eggs are sticky and are attached to water plants. Omnivorous; feeds all day but mostly at night on plankton, benthic invertebrates, plant material and detritus. Seems to be a weak competitor, usually absent from waters with rich ichthyofauna and abundant predatory species. Very abundant in the absence of other fish species. High-bodied, fast-growing individuals in habitats with predatory fish, more elongate in habitats without predatory fish.
3849		population	eng	Abundant.
3849		threats	eng	Introduced <em>C. gibelio</em>.
3851		conservation	eng	The Blacktip Shark receives management in only two countries, Australia and the USA. In Australia, it is one of a suite of species that is collectively managed in the limited-entry fishery of northern Australia (Simpfendorfer pers. comm.). A keystone species in the US Atlantic directed shark fishery, it similarly is managed through a management plan that addresses the entire group of species represented in the fishery. At the time of this writing, species-specific management of the Blacktip Shark in the region was forthcoming.
3851		distribution	eng	The Blacktip Shark is widespread in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical waters. Primarily it is a continental species, although it is found around some oceanic islands. In the western Atlantic it ranges from Massachusetts, United States, to southern Brazil; in the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to central Africa; it is widespread in the Indian Ocean from South Africa to western Australia, including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; and in the Pacific Ocean it is recorded from throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago, at oceanic islands such as Hawaii, Tahiti and the Marquesas, and in the eastern Pacific from California, USA, to Peru (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994).
3851		habitat	eng	The Blacktip Shark occurs in nearshore waters off beaches, in bays, estuaries, over coral reefs and off river mouths. In the western North Atlantic it migrates north seasonally as far as Cape Cod, Massachusetts (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948) and is common year-round in southern areas of the USA. In this region males and females generally remain in sexually segregated schools outside of the mating season and off South Africa there is similar segregation in the local population (Dudley and Cliff 1993b). <br/><br/>This species commonly occurs in loose aggregations. The Blacktip Shark uses coastal bays and estuaries throughout the south-eastern US as nursery grounds (Castro 1996). It has an unusual habit of leaping from the water, rotating as many as three times, and falling back in the water, usually on its back. For this behaviour, as well as its similar morphology, it is often confused with the Spinner Shark. <br/><br/>The Blacktip Shark primarily eats bony fishes, but its diet also contains smaller amounts of crustaceans, such as shrimp and crabs and cephalopods (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Dudley and Cliff 1993b, Castro 1996). Small-sized elasmobranchs are also consumed in lesser quantities. This shark commonly follows fishing trawlers, consuming discarded bycatch and rarely attacking the cod ends of trawl nets. <br/><br/>The species is placentally viviparous producing 4?11 pups (mean 4?6) after an 11?12 month gestation period (Killam 1987, Dudley and Cliff 1993b, Castro 1996). Larger females produce more and larger pups. The females have a one-year resting stage between pregnancies, making the reproductive cycle a two-year event. In the western North Atlantic, mating occurs in early June through early July; in South Africa it occurs in November and December. Implantation usually occurs during the 10?11th weeks of gestation (when embryos measure 178?194 mm total length (TL)) and pups are born in late May-early June the next year. Pups occupy specific nursery grounds in shallow coastal waters away from the adult population, which may reduce predatory mortality on the cohorts. Pups are born at 53? 65 cm TL. The neonate stage lasts about a month and the juveniles continue to occupy nearshore nursery areas. Neonates increase by 25?30 cm during the first six months, have an annual growth of 20 cm during the second year of life and growth slows gradually through adulthood. This is a very fast growing species compared to its congeners. After reaching maturity, growth is less than 5 cm annually. The oldest fish aged have been 9?10 years of age. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for western North Atlantic Blacktip Sharks are: Females: L? = 195 cm TL; k = 0.197 year<sup>-1</sup> t = -1.15 year (Killam and Parsons 1989). Males: L? = 167 cm TL; k = 0.276 year<sup>-1</sup> t = -0.88 year (Killam and Parsons 1989). Sexes combined: L? = 176 cm TL; k = 0.274 year<sup>-1</sup> t = -1.2 year (Branstetter 1987).<br/><br/>There are regional differences in many biological parameters of Blacktip Sharks. In the western North Atlantic, males mature at 130?145 cm TL (or 4?5 years of age) and most females mature at 150?156 cm TL (or 6?7 years of age). In South Africa most males reach maturity at 146?150 cm pre-caudal length (PCL) and females at 151?155 cm PCL. The smallest pregnant female observed in South Africa was 146 cm PCL. Maximum reported size of females for the Northwest Atlantic population is 193 cm, with most large females ranging from 175?185 cm TL. Maximum reported size for males is 175 cm TL (128 cm PCL) and most are less than 165 cm TL in this region. In South Africa maximum sizes for both sexes occurs at 190 cm PCL, with modes of 161?165 cm PCL for males and 166?170 cm PCL for females. A female reaching 206 cm PCL has been recorded from the equatorial Indian Ocean The intrinsic rate of increase has been estimated at 0.054 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). In the western North Atlantic, at approximately 100 cm TL the shark weighs about 10 kg, at 150 cm TL about 25 kg and when nearing maximum size (<em>ca</em>. 180 cm TL) it will weigh almost 50 kg. Weight-length relationships for Blacktip Sharks in this region are: Males: wt (kg) = 1.4 × 10-5(cm TL 2.9) (Killam 1987) Females: wt (kg) = 3.0 × 10?6 (cm TL 3.1) (Killam 1987) Sexes combined: wt (kg) = 1.44 × 10-5(cm TL 2.87) (Branstetter 1987a) For South African blacktips (Killam 1987), the relationships are: Males: wt (kg) = 1.18 × 10-5(cm PCL 3.05) Females: wt (kg) = 1.08 × 10-5(cm PCL 3.08).
3851		population	eng	The Blacktip Shark is common in nearshore waters. It may be the most abundant large-coastal species in the north-west Gulf of Mexico (Branstetter 1981a).
3851		threats	eng	In the western North Atlantic this species has long been important in the recreational fishery and now is a primary target of the directed commercial fishery along the southeast coast from South Carolina to Florida and throughout the Gulf of Mexico (Branstetter and Burgess 1996, 1997). It is the second most important commercially landed species in that region after the Sandbar Shark (<em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em>) and its meat is considered superior to the latter species. In the USA, Blacktip Shark other carcharhinid meat is often sold under the name ?Blacktip Shark? because of wide consumer preference for the product. It is a significant constituent of the substantial Mexican shark catch, from both Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Elsewhere, it is the most commonly caught species in the large Indian fishery (Hanfee 1996), occasionally caught in the Mediterranean Sea driftnet fishery (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005), and surely constitutes a sizeable portion of the catch in smaller scale and artisanal fisheries throughout the northern Indian Ocean and South China Sea. In Australia, it represents a minor component of the shark catch in northern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Blacktip Shark meat is primarily consumed locally and fins are dried and shipped to the Far East where they are used in preparing shark-fin soup. In some areas the hides are utilised in preparing leather and the livers are used to extract oil.
3852		conservation	eng	Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Family Carcharhinidae is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To date, there has been little progress (see <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO?s) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as dusky shark whose stocks are exploited by many States on the high seas. Steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states (e.g., Canada, USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More are likely to follow suit.<br/><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans (NMFS 1993, Joyce 1999). In US Atlantic waters dusky sharks are a prohibited species (outside of the shark research fishery) on the Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic tunas, swordfish, and sharks. Prohibited species must be released immediately with minimum injury and without removing them from the water. The population appears to be responding to this measures, with substantial recruitment over the last six years (Ha 2006, Musick unpublished, Romine 2004), but it remains to be seen how many of these recruits will survive to maturity given the high bycatch mortality.<br/><br/>Management of the Australian fishery is through input controls implemented as time-gear units. In 2006, the Western Australian Government introduced a number of changes in all commercial fisheries to reduce mortality, particularly of dusky and sandbar sharks, including: a maximum size limit for Dusky Shark; additional controls on the use of longline; and the conversion of monthly gear units to daily gear units (McLoughlin 2008, McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The main management objective is to achieve target biomass levels of 40% of the initial biomass by 2040 for Dusky Shark (McLoughlin 2008).
3852		distribution	eng	The Dusky Shark has a cosmopolitan but patchy distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic</span>: Southern Massachusetts and Georges Bank to Florida, Bahamas, Cuba, northern Gulf of Mexico, and Nicaragua, southern Brazil (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic</span>: This shark?s distribution is uncertain in the northeast and eastern central Atlantic and these records, and others from tropical insular areas, may be misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. galapagensis</span> (J. Musick pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Senegal and Sierra Leone. Uncertain records exist from elsewhere, including Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Madeira (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994). &#160;<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span>: Most records are from the western and central-southern regions, along the North African coasts and Sicily Straits. It is likely that this species? ranges further east in the Ionian Sea and Levantine Basin (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Around 20 specimens have been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea to date: after Lozano Rey?s first record for the Mediterranean (1928), Moreno (1982) cites three specimens from the Alboran Sea and Hemida and Labidi (2002) reported another three from eastern Algeria. A single Tunisian report is from Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1979) and similarly, one from Malta (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). At Mazara del Vallo, Sicily, a further three specimens were observed (Cigala-Fulgosi pers. comm. in Fergusson and Compagno 2000) and Vacchi and Serena (1997) observed one. A single specimen was caught at Capo Testa, Sardinia (Fergusson and Compagno 2000) and at least five were seen in Tripoli, Libya, by Trevor Meyer (pers. comm. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span>: South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, and possibly in the Red Sea. Also, patchy records scattered in the Arabian Sea and recorded from the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Pacific</span>: Japan, China, Viet Nam, New Caledonia and throughout Australian waters (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific</span>: Southern California to Gulf of California, Revillagigedo Islands, and possibly Chile (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>The Dusky Shark undertakes long temperature-related migrations. On both coasts of the U.S., Dusky Sharks migrate northward in summer as the waters warm and retreat southward in fall as water temperatures drop (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). In western Australia, adolescents and adults move inshore during the summer and fall, with neonates occupying separate inshore areas (Last and Stevens 1994). Seasonal migrations (north in winter and south in summer) also occur off South Africa (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973). In the Indian Ocean, the young are known to aggregate in dense assemblages when feeding (Compagno 1984). Nursery areas occur in shallow waters (Compagno in prep.). Off Brazil, Mazzoleni (2000) suggested that there was possibly a nursery area in the north of Santa Catarina State, when 79 neonates were caught by the artisanal fishery from 1994 to 2000. Neonates were abundant in the end of summer to the middle of autumn (February?May). In the winter season virtually no specimens were caught. Nursery areas also occur off the southern coast of Natal, South Africa and off South Carolina, USA (Compagno in prep.).
3852		habitat	eng	The majority of the information below is taken from Camhi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005).<br/><br/>This shark is coastal and pelagic in its distribution, where it occurs from the surf zone to well offshore, and from the surface to depths of 400 m (Compagno 1984). Because it is poorly adapted to osmoregulate at lower salinities, it is not commonly found in estuaries (Compagno 1984, Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). A study off Brazil by Motta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1997) recorded the species at depths of 8?15 m off southern Sao Paulo State. Tagging studies in the southwestern Indian Ocean (Davies and Joubert 1967, Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973), the Northwest Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico (Kohler 1996), and the southeastern Indian Ocean (Simpfendorfer unpublished data) have all shown that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> is a highly migratory species. The longest distance between tagging and recapture is 2,052 nautical miles, and the longest period at liberty 15.8 years. Movements normally show seasonal patterns, with adults moving into more temperate areas as temperatures rise in summer. Movements of adults are longer than those of neonates and juveniles, although juveniles of approximately a year old have been recorded moving as much as 742 nautical miles off South Africa (Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The juveniles are known to migrate down as far as the southern and western Cape when the waters warm up during the summer months. They retreat back to the east coast as it cools (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2004). Major nursery areas for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> have been identified off the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973), the New Jersey to South Carolina coast of the United States (Musick and Colvocoresses 1988, Castro 1993), and the southwest coast of Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Simpfendorfer 1999). The neonates occur in nearshore waters in all of these nursery areas, but do not enter lower salinity areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> is a large shark that reaches 360 cm in length and 180 kg (Castro 1983). Off KwaZulu-Natal a female of 383 cm precaudal length (PL) and 450 kg has been captured in the protective shark nets (Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Maximum sizes recorded in the Mediterranean Sea were a male of 311 cm and a female of 349 cm (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Size and age data are available from several areas. In the northwest Atlantic, males mature at 231 cm fork length (FL) and at 19 years of age, and females at 235 cm FL and at 21 years of age (Natanson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). In the southwest Indian Ocean, off South Africa, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) report that males mature at 210 cm PL and 19.2 years of age and females at 214 cm PL and 20 years of age. The oldest Dusky Shark reported from vertebral ageing studies is 37 years, although they are believed to live to a maximum of 40-50 years (Natanson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Sminkey 1996). <br/><br/>The Dusky Shark is placentally viviparous, with litters normally ranging in size from 3?16 pups, of 70?100 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Recent work has suggested that gestation may be as long as 22 months (Branstetter and Burgess 1996, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Romine 2004). The lack of large yolky ova in the ovary of late-term pregnant <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> indicates that there is one year resting period between birth and mating, making the reproductive cycle at least three years long (Musick 1995, Branstetter and Burgess 1996, Romine 2004). <br/><br/>Recent demographic analyses of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in the western Atlantic have generated estimates of the annual rate of population increase of 2.8% (Cortés 1998) and 5.57% (Sminkey 1996). Both of these estimates are for the population without fishing mortality and assume a two-year reproductive cycle. Given that it is now thought that the reproductive cycle lasts three years these population increase rates are probably lower. Romine (2004) estimated the annual rate of population increase only to be around 1.9% and the population doubling time was estimated to be 36 years. Simpfendorfer (1999), using a three year reproductive cycle, estimated the annual rate of population increase for the Australian population was 4.3%. The low rates of population increase highlight the need for conservative management of fisheries that capture <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> (Cortés 1998). <br/><br/>Diet: <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus </span>has a varied diet that includes teleosts, elasmobranchs and cephalopods. Neonates and juveniles mostly consume small pelagic teleosts (e.g., sardines and anchovies) and squid (Smale 1991, Stevens 1990, Simpfendorfer pers. data). With increasing size larger teleosts (e.g., groupers, jacks) and elasmobranchs (e.g., dasyatids <span style="font-style: italic;">Raja </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinobatus </span>spp., squatinids, carcharhinids, mustelids and squalids) become more important in the diet (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, van der Elst 1979, Castro 1983, Smale 1991, Gelshleichter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). As a common apex predator <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> plays an important (but poorly studied) role in the marine ecosystem. In the western Atlantic, the dusky has always been less abundant than some other species of carcharhinid sharks with which it is sympatric, such as the sandbar shark (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). This seems to be in keeping with its larger size and higher trophic position.
3852		population	eng	This species is estimated to have undergone population decline in several areas of its range, as summarized in the threats section, below.
3852		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> is taken as both bycatch and target in commercial shark fisheries using, set nets, longlines, hook and line and trawls (Cramer 1995, Compagno in prep.) in many areas of its range. The species has among the most sought after fins for shark fin soup because of their large size and high fin needle content (ceratotrichia) (TRAFFIC 1996, R. Hudson pers. comm.). Because of its high-value fin, dusky sharks caught incidentally in tuna and swordfish fisheries are now regularly landed rather than released. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> was found to represent at least 1.2?1.7% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006a). It is estimated that between 144,000 and 767,000 Dusky Sharks are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 6,000 to 30,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). The very low intrinsic rate of increase of the Dusky Shark renders this species among the most vulnerable of all vertebrates (including great whales and sea turtles) to man-induced mortality (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Musick 1999). Furthermore, Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) report that the species is difficult to manage or protect because it is taken in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch.<br/><br/>Further threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> are from beach meshing programs in Australia and South Africa and from recreational fishing. Beach meshing in Australia (Queensland and News South Wales) undoubtedly catches <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span>, however, species-specific data are not available. Between 1972 and 1990, the New South Wales programme caught a total of 765 whaler sharks (Reid and Krough 1992), of which Stevens (1984) reported the capture of larger juvenile and adult <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> by recreational fishers off the east coast of Australia. Dusky sharks were one of the most important species in the trophy shark tournaments held in Florida, USA, until the stock collapsed (Heuter 1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</span><br/>The initial decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic was caused by a targeted recreational fishery that developed in the late-1970s and by bycatch in the pelagic swordfish longline fishery (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). A rapid expansion of the directed commercial shark fishery in the US in the late 1980s was fuelled in large part by the demand for shark fins in the markets of Asia (Cook 1990). Although Dusky Shark meat is used domestically in the US, the very high value of the fins suggests that the decline in this dusky shark population over past decades has been, and continues to be, driven by international trade in shark fins. There is little reason to believe that the demand for dusky shark products will lessen, especially as other fishery resources become increasingly depleted. In the Gulf of Mexico during the late 1980s, the dusky shark was the fourth most abundant species in the tuna longline bycatch, where medium to large dusky sharks were often shot, finned and discarded (Russell 1993).<br/><br/>Declining catch rates for Dusky Sharks in this area have been a cause for concern. Off North America the proportion of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in the catch decreased, while fishing for more abundant species continued (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> was put on the protected list in 2000, requiring all individuals captured in the longline fishery to be released. Even though the mortality of small juveniles on the longline was as high as 50% (lower for larger juveniles and adults) (Romine 2004), the juveniles have shown an increase of about 30% from the lowest point in the time series to 2005 in the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) survey, and continue to rise. This increase was not apparent in the stock assessment, which analysed catch data and multiple fisheries-independent and fisheries-dependent time series data sets in the western Atlantic (NMFS 2006). This assessment led to estimated declines of 62?92% between 1974 and 2003. These declines are of the same magnitude as those found in analyses of the VIMS survey data (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Romine 2004, Ha 2006), but in these studies the low point in Dusky Shark abundance occurred in the early-1990s. The NMFS (2006) assessment, which did not include the 2004?2006 VIMS survey data (which shows a further increase in juveniles) may not have detected the recent increase of juveniles because it was heavily influenced by pelagic data sets collected in deep water where juveniles are absent. The other long-term shark targeted survey in this region, which has been conducted off Cape Lookout, North Carolina through the University of North Carolina annually between 1972 and 2005 (data available to 2003) has captured 1,036 Dusky Sharks. This survey series shows a large, statistically significant decline of 98.8% (95%CI: 97.5?99.6%) and found evidence of no increase in recent years (Myers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.).<br/><br/>A new analysis of observer data from the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery from 1992?2005 (which combined catches of Dusky, Silky, and Night Sharks because of identification problems) suggests that this species complex has declined significantly, by 70% (95% CI: 54-81%) during this recent time period (Baum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). The observer data shows a steeper decline when Dusky Shark is analysed alone, but this analysis ignores species identification problems, and hence is not considered reliable (Baum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). For the Gulf of Mexico, an analysis of data from U.S. pelagic longline research surveys conducted in the mid-1950s and U.S. pelagic longline observer data from the late-1990s estimated that dusky sharks declined by 79% over this forty-year period (Baum and Myers 2004), which is less than the three generation period for this species. Thus, recent management actions in the US may have led to an increase in the numbers of juvenile Dusky Sharks, however adults still appear to be declining.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southwest Atlantic</span><br/>This species is taken both incidentally and as a target species in longline and artisanal fisheries throughout Brazilian waters and elsewhere in the South Atlantic. It is taken by longline off Santos where it is retained as ?other sharks? (Arfelli and Amorim 1994). The species has also been recorded from artisanal fisheries off Rio de Janeiro State (Sant'Anna and Siqueira 2000) and from southern Sao Paulo State (Motta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Bertozzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Gadig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). From July 1996 to February 1997 the species made up 1.12% of the catch (Motta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and 5.61% of the total catch from 1996 to 1999, which consisted mostly of juveniles, most frequently caught in June and August (Gadig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). A number of countries operate longline fleets targeting tuna and swordfish in the high seas areas of the Southwest Atlantic region. In addition to the coastal nations of the Southwest Atlantic, nations including Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Spain, Bolivia, Cape Verde, United Kingdom, China and Barbados also operate vessels here. Tuna and swordfish longline fisheries now also target sharks due to increasing demand for shark products and the value of their fins (Bonfil <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Mejuto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>The main threats in the Mediterranean Sea are commercial fisheries. This species is caught sporadically in longline, setline, gillnet and sometimes by tuna trap (?Tonnara? Tonnarella?) fisheries, principally off North African and rather less frequently by surface longlines, artisanal setlines and possibly trawlers in the Sicilian Channel. Carcharhinid sharks have been caught as target or bycatch in historical fisheries in this region, where fishing pressure is high, however there are few species-specific records from which to elucidate population trends. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> is rarely observed on fishmarkets in the Mediterranean, but is easily mistaken for other ?grey? requiem shark carcasses, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plumbeus</span>. This species is utilised for human consumption in several areas of the Mediterranean, including Sicily, Malta and Libya, although the meat is considered of low commercial value.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span><br/>The fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> off southwestern Australia developed in the 1940s, but rapidly increased in the late 1970s to produce annual catches of 500?600 t. The fishery uses demersal gillnets (16.5 to 17.8 cm stretched mesh) to target neonates in the nursery area and the selectivity of the nets results in very few individuals over three years of age being captured. The flesh of the young <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> is highly regarded and fetches a good price on local markets. Fins are also sold. Current estimates are that 18?28% of neonates are caught in their first year. An assessment using demographic models indicated that the fishery was sustainable at the then level of catch provided the fishing mortality of animals larger than two metres was less than 4% (Simpfendorfer 1999). However, a more recent assessment (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) found that the stock was less productive than previously thought, and that mortality of older dusky sharks in wetline fisheries outside the target fisheries was leading to a decline in recruitment. This assessment also estimated that the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of Dusky Sharks declined by more than 75% between the early 1970s and 2004, and that the decline was continuing. In 2006 additional management measures were introduced to the fishery (see below), including a maximum size limit for Dusky Shark. These management measures should arrest further declines, but continued monitoring and assessment will be essential to monitor the stock, and the effectiveness of these measures.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span><br/>Off South Africa, there is a pelagic tuna longline fishery that may take some as bycatch but this is unconfirmed. There is a small commercial line fishery taking juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span>, and there is a recreational line fishery that targets juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> but most are released (they were not released a decade ago) and there is the beach meshing operation that catches juveniles, adolescents and adults. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus </span>would have been a significant component in the beach meshing program off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, between 1978 and 1999, when the mean annual catch of was 256 individuals (range 129?571, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). There was no trend in either catch or catch rate. A subsequent update by Dudley and Simpfendorfer (2006) showed no trend in either catch rate or size over the period 1978?2003. The large mesh size of the nets used in these programs means that many of the <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> taken are sub-adults and adults, but juveniles are also caught. The occurrence of sub-adult and adult <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> off KwaZulu-Natal is affected by an annual winter influx of sardines Sardinops sagax and shark catches are influenced by attempts to remove the nets in advance of the arrival of the sardine shoals (Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Reports of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in recreational fisheries are limited. Van der Elst (1979) reported that large numbers of juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> were taken by recreational shore anglers in South Africa and Govender and Birnie (1997) have expressed concerns about the high rate of instantaneous fishing mortality in this fishery, although there is an increasing tendency to release the sharks.
3853		conservation	eng	Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries  is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to  improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Family  Carcharhinidae is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 UN Agreement on the  Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish  Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States  to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To  date, there has been little progress (see <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further  details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the  Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which recommends that  Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO?s) carry out regular shark population  assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark  management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as sandbar  shark whose stocks are exploited by many States on the high seas. Steps are  being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on  pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as  have several range states (e.g. Canada, USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More  are likely to follow suit.<br/><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans  (NMFS 1993, Joyce 1999). In US Atlantic waters Sandbar Sharks are a prohibited  species (outside of the shark research fishery) on the Fishery Management Plan  for Atlantic tunas, swordfish, and sharks. Prohibited species must be released  immediately with minimum injury and without removing them from the  water.<br/><br/>The species is under a comprehensive management plan in Western  Australia (McAuley <em>et al.</em> 2005). Management of the Australian fishery is  through input controls implemented as time-gear units. In 2006, the Western  Australian Government introduced a number of changes in all commercial fisheries  to reduce mortality, particularly dusky and sandbar shark, including: a maximum  size limit for dusky shark; additional controls on the use of longline; and the  conversion of monthly gear units to daily gear units (McLoughlin 2008, McAuley  <em>et al.</em> 2005).
3853		distribution	eng	This species occurs world-wide in tropical and warm temperate waters.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic</span>: USA from Gulf of Maine, Massachusetts to Yucatan, Mexico, Cuba and Bahamas; possibly to Belize, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Columbia, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela; southern population extending from southern Brazil to northern Argentina (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic</span>: Portugal, possibly Canary Islands, Spain, Morocco, Senegal, Cape Verde Islands, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Zaire, Sao Tome and Principe (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span>: Corsica, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Indian Ocean</span>: South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Mauritius, Seychelles, Red Sea, Gulf of Oman (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Pacific</span>: Viet Nam, China (including Taiwan Province), Japan, Indonesia (Aru Island), Australia (Queensland, New South Wales), New Caledonia (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Indian Ocean</span>: Western Australia and the Northern Territory (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Also common in the Hawaiian Islands in the Central Pacific (Compagno in prep). Records from Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands are probably spurious.
3853		habitat	eng	The below is mainly taken from Musick (2005), with some information updated.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus plumbeus</span> is a coastal shark, often in shallow waters associated with sandy or muddy flats, bays, estuaries and harbours commonly down to salinities of 20 ppt in some populations (Grubbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a) and also further offshore, particularly on banks, near islands, flat reefs and other topographic features in open waters (Compagno in prep.). This species occurs from the surfline down to 280 m (Compagno in prep.), but typically in waters less than 100 m where it frequently forages near the seabed. In the Mediterranean it is caught down to 200 m (caught at this depth on the bottom in Sicilian waters by trawlers) (Compagno in prep.). Juveniles tend to occur in offshore temperate waters, while larger sharks mainly occur in tropical waters (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>This species is viviparous with a yolk sac placenta. Gestation has been estimated at 9?12 months in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic (Springer 1960, Colvocoresses and Musick 1989), 12 months off Brazil (Hazin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), 11?12 months off South Africa (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, Cliff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988) and the East China Sea (Taniuchi 1971), 10?12 months off Taiwan (Province of China) (Joung and Chen 1995) and 12 months off Western Australia (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Females apparently have young only every two or three years. Joung and Chen (1995) noted that about 50% of mature females are pregnant off Taiwan (Province of China), and Cliff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1988) reported the same off KwaZulu-Natal. Conversely Springer (1960) noted that only 17?27% of mature females captured off Florida were pregnant. However, most of the mature females examined in the mid-Atlantic Bight of the US in summer are pregnant or recently have born young (Colvocoresses and Musick 1989). Therefore, the pregnancy rate in the Northwest Atlantic may be near 50%, but it is difficult to obtain a synoptic sample of the entire population of mature females because of their wide geographic distribution and seasonal movements. McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) report biennial reproductive periodicity off Western Australia with mating occurring during summer and autumn.<br/><br/>In general, size at maturity, maximum size and litter size decrease from the western Atlantic (Sminkey and Musick 1996) to the western Indian Ocean (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, Baranes and Wendling 1981), to Taiwan (Joung and Chen 1995) and Australia (Last and Stevens 1994), to the east China Sea (Taniuchi 1971) to Hawaii (Wass 1973). Size at maturity in females ranges from 129?158 cm total length (TL) and from 123?156 cm TL in males, as summarized by McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007). Litter size is variable and depends in part on the size of the mother. In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic litter size averages 8.4?9.3 (range = 1?14). However, in Hawaii mean litter size is only 5.5 (range = 1?8) (Tester 1969). In Western Australia litter size varies from 4?10 with a mean of 6.5 (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Within a given geographic area litter size is only very weakly correlated with the size of the mother (Cliff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988, Colvocoresses and Musick 1989, Hoff 1990, Joung and Chen 1995, McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>Size at birth varies slightly by region but does not follow the same geographic pattern. New born pups range from 40?53 cm TL. In the Gulf of Gabes, Mediterranean Sea, Capapé (1984) reported size at birth at 58?65 cm TL. Size at birth in Western Australia is 40?45 cm FL. And 60% of the embryos were female (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Sandbar Sharks are slow-growing K-selected species (Hoff 1990, Sminkey and Musick 1995). Although growth and age at maturity may be accelerated under captive conditions (Wass 1973), wild populations grow very slowly and mature at a relatively late age. In the western Atlantic the von Bertalanffy growth coefficient, k, has been estimated to be very low (0.039?0.089) in validated studies using annuli on vertebral centra (Lawler 1976, Casey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985, Sminkey and Musick 1995). Maturity in these studies was estimated at 13?16 years. However, in another study based on growth rates calculated from tag/recapture data, growth was considerably slower and age at maturity was estimated to be 29 years (Casey and Natanson 1992). Considerable debate has arisen concerning the discrepancy between the two methods including the small tag/recapture sample size and the possible effects of tagging on growth rates (Sminkey 1994). A recent study of age and growth off Taiwan (Joung <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) based on caudal vertebrae for which the annual nature of growth bands have not been validated is suspect. Romine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) recently defined age and growth of sandbar sharks in Hawaii where the population grow faster (k male = 0.12; k female = 0.10) and mature at an earlier age (males at 8 and females at 10 years of age, respectively) than populations in other areas. This study contradicts earlier very rapid growth estimates in captive sandbars (Wass 1973). In Western Australia, the annual periodicity of growth band formation was validated using vertebrae from tagged sharks, which were injected with oxytetracycline and were at liberty for up to 8.1 years. The oldest female was estimated to be 25 years of age and the oldest male was 19 years. The ages at which 50% of female and male sharks were mature was estimated to be 16.2 and 13.8 years, respectively (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Validated age at maturity estimates are available from McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006): females reach 50% maturity at 16.2 years of age and males at 13.8 years of age.<br/><br/>Recent publications suggest that for sandbar sharks the annual population increase rate can vary from 2.5% to 11.9% (Sminkey 1994, Sminkey and Musick 1996). These low rates of intrinsic increase are probably close to the real situation and reflect the K-selected life history parameters typical of virtually all large sharks. In Western Australia the stock was estimated to have a potential rate of population growth of 2.5% per year, in the absence of fishing (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The estimated generation and population doubling times of approximately 23 years, indicated a lengthy recovery period for the stock should it be reduced to lower than acceptable levels (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Regardless, Sandbar Sharks grow slowly and mature late. Longevity is 35-41 years (Musick 2005, McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>Diet: This shark mainly feeds on small bottom fishes, as well as molluscs and crustaceans. Compagno (2001) reports that this species? diet includes sardines, shad, menhaden, anchovies, sea catfishes, moray and snake eels, pipefish, barracuda, mullets, goatfishes, hairtails, spanish mackeral, bonito, mackeral, jacks, groupers, croakers, grunts, porgies, flounders and soles, sea robins, toadfish, cusk eels, porcupine fish, sharpnose sharks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhizoprionodon</span>), spiny dogfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Squalus</span>), bonnethead sharks, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, cow-nosed rays, squid, cuttlefish, octopi, bivalves and conchs, amphipods, shrimp and crabs. Neonates may consume mostly crabs and other large crustaceans and then eat more fishes as they get older (Ellis and Musick 2007). The species does not consume garbage and mammalian carrion as a rule, unlike some other members of its genus.
3853		threats	eng	<em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em> is a significant component of coastal shark  fisheries worldwide (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994,  Branstetter and Burgess 1995, Joung and Chen 1995, McAuley <em>et al.</em> 2005).  This species is caught with longlines, hook-and-line, and set bottom nets and is  also fished with rod and reel by sports anglers as a game fish (Compagno in  prep.). Sandbar sharks were found to represent at least 2-3% of the fins  auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke  <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Their fins are generally considered to be of high value,  comparable to dusky shark and hammerhead fins (S. Clarke unpubl. Data). Tagging,  age and growth studies show that sandbar sharks are a long-lived species with  low fecundity and are very vulnerable to over-fishing (Springer 1960, Casey  <em>et al.</em> 1985, Sminkey and Musick 1995, 1996; McAuley <em>et al. </em>2005,  2006). It is an important component of shark fisheries in most areas where it  occurs and has been severely overfished in the Northwest and Western Central  Atlantic, Mediterranean, Southern Brazil and probably the Northeast Pacific. It  has declined from fishing off western Australia and is common but not fished in  Hawaiian waters (Romine <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest Atlantic</span><br/>Along  the Atlantic coast of the US, Branstetter and Burgess (1995) reported that this  species contributed up to 60% of the catch and 80% of the landings in the  directed longline fishery. In addition, the sandbar shark is second only to the  blue shark <em>Prionace glauca</em> (a pelagic species) in the US Atlantic  recreational shark fishery (Hoff and Musick 1990). During the last 20 years the  recreational and commercial fisheries for sharks along the south Atlantic coast  of the US and in the Gulf of Mexico have expanded at rapid rates (Anderson 1985,  1990; Casey and Hoey 1985, Hoff and Musick 1990). Recreational catch has been  estimated at 2.5 million sharks (c.35,000 t) annually; 20?40% of these are killed  (National Marine Fisheries Service 1993). Driven by increased marketability, the  commercial fishery has rapidly expanded since 1985, with landings exceeding  7,100 t in 1989 (National Marine Fisheries Service 1993). In the Northwest and  Western Central Atlantic sandbar shark stocks were reduced by 85?90% in just 10  years because of over-exploitation. This species continued to support a  substantial fishery after such a severe population decline only because of the  very large size of the original stock. In addition, the age structure of the  population has been shifted dramatically toward younger age classes. Adult  females became very uncommon (Musick et al. 1993). Furthermore, the average size  of sandbar sharks off Virginia in 2005 had declined to 32% of the size in 1975  (Ha 2006). A Fishery Management Plan was introduced in 1993, on which <em>C.  plumbeus </em>is managed as a coastal species. Several states (Virginia, North  Carolina, Texas and Florida) also enacted laws to regulate shark fishing in  their respective regions (14% of commercial and 64% of recreational catches  occur in state controlled waters). Although biomass of the species was reported  to have increased by 2002 (Cortes <em>et al. </em>2002), a recent assessment  estimated that the stock is still only 35-47% of virgin biomass and 26-43% of  virgin mature abundance in numbers (SEDAR 2006). Further evidence of decline  comes from newly available analyses of survey data: A shark-targeted longline  research survey from the University of North Carolina, conducted annually  between 1972 and 2003 off Cape Lookout has caught 310 sandbar sharks. The  standardized CPUE time series for this survey indicates significant declines for  sandbar shark amounting to an 86% decline, with no recovery in the latter years  of the survey (Myers <em>et al. </em>in prep). A second shark-targeted longline  survey conducted in South Carolina in 1983-84 and 1993-1995 shows large  significant declines in sandbars, amounting to a 97% decline just over this 13  year time period (Myers <em>et al.</em> in prep). Finally, a trawl survey  conducted in Delaware Bay by the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and  Environmental Control between 1964 and 2004 shows a significant decline rate,  that over this 41 year time period amounts to an 84% decline (Myers <em>et  al.</em> in prep). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southwest Atlantic</span><br/>Intensive fishing by pair trawl,  gillnet and beach seine on pupping and nursery grounds is thought to have caused  excessively high juvenile mortality to the point of threatening the population  of the species in southern Brazil. Fishing with these gears has been intense in  this species? habitat during the last 20 years. The company SOPESCA in Rio  Grande recorded receipt of 10t of <em>C. plumbeus</em> on 11 February 1983. A  record of a typical beach seine catch on 23 February 1983 indicates that 20  individuals of <em>C. plumbeus</em> were caught within a single haul, with seven  specimens smaller than 80cm TL (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). No catches of the  species were observed during shore fishery monitoring in summer 2003, but  neonates of <em>C. plumbeus</em> were common during monitoring of a coastal  fishing at depths of 18-60m between Tramandaí and Saint Simão in summer 2005.  Neonates of <em>C. brevipinna, C. falciformis </em>and <em>C. signatus</em> were  also observed in this area, as well as adults of <em>Carcharias taurus</em>, which  is Critically Endangered in this region (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Carcharhinus plumbeus is also caught off Uruguay and northern Argentina (A.  Domingo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Adults of this species are also caught by pelagic  fisheries operating off the Atlantic coast of South America. A number of  countries operate longline fleets targeting tuna and swordfish in the high seas  areas of the Southwest Atlantic region. In addition to the coastal nations of  the Southwest Atlantic, nations including Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Spain, Bolivia,  Cape Verde, United Kingdom, China and Barbados also operate vessels here.  However, with the exception of Taiwan, (and during certain periods of the year,  Korea and Spain), the effort of these fleets is minor compared with other areas  of the Atlantic (Bonfil 1994). This species is taken, along with other  Carcharhinids in these fisheries (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2005). Tuna and swordfish  longline fisheries now also target sharks due to increasing demand for shark  products and the value of their fins (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005, Mejuto <em>et  al. </em>2006). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em> is  caught with surface and bottom longlines, gillnets and occasionally trawls in  the Mediterranean Sea, including in the Sicilian Channel, off Tunisia, Libya and  Egypt, Spain, Morocco and Algeria and infrequently elsewhere. There are also  anecdotal reports of bycatch of this species in fixed tuna traps (Tonnara) in  Sicily. Both coastal and pelagic fishing pressure is high throughout much of the  Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>This species was common until the 1980s along all the  Levantine coasts (Saad <em>et al. </em>2004), where it was the most dominant  species in shark catches (>85%) (Baranes and Ben Tuvia 1978). The sandbar  shark <em>C. plumbeus</em> is still the most important shark species captured in  this area, however, there has been a significant decline in captures (M. Bradai  pers. obs. 2008). <br/><br/>The Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia, and an area off Turkey  appear to be important nursery grounds for this species (Capapé 1984, Saidi  <em>et al.</em> 2005; Bradai <em>et al.</em> 2006, STECF 2003). There are no recent  records of gravid females of this species in the Mediterranean outside of these  areas. Constantini and Affronte (2003) report that the northern Adriatic Sea may  also be an important nursery area for the species, based on six neonatal sandbar  sharks captured with gillnets in this area between 1998 and 2000. The last  record of a pregnant female sandbar shark from this area was recorded in 1982  (Constantini and Affronte 2003, Travaglini 1982). <br/><br/>This species was  previously regularly seen on fish markets of southern Sicily during the summer  months but has not been observed on the same markets in recent years (F.  Cigala-Fulgosi and M. Vacchi pers. obs. 2003). A similar situation is apparent  in the eastern Adriatic sea (Lipej <em>et al. </em>2000, A. Soldo pers comm.) and  therefore recent publications have described <em>C. plumbeus </em>as an endangered  species in the Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, in Tunisia, the  species is regularly landed and observed in fish markets (Bradai <em>et al.</em>  2006).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Gabès, juvenile <em>C. plumbeus</em> are caught with  longlines and trawls and adult females are targeted using specially-designed  gillnets (locally known as ?kallabia? from ?kalb? bhar? (literally sea dog)  which means shark in Arabic) during spring and early summer, when they move  inshore to pup (Saidi <em>et al. </em>2005, Bradai <em>et al.</em> 2006). Given the  high biological vulnerability of this species to exploitation, the declines  observed in other areas of its range where it is taken as a target and bycatch  and continuing, unregulated fishing pressure in this area, it is strongly  suspected that this stock will also decline. <br/><br/>The species is a known  bycatch of pelagic fisheries operating within Mediterranean waters (STECF 2003),  but recent records appear to be very rare. While, in the Gulf of Gabès, juvenile  <em>C. plumbeus</em> represent a major component in total capture of the pelagic  fisheries targeting swordfish (Bradai <em>et al. </em>2006). In a study of  incidental catch of pelagic sharks from the swordfish and tuna fisheries  operating throughout the Mediterranean Sea from 1998-2000, only two specimens of  <em>C. plumbeus</em> were recorded in one area (the Straits of Sicily)  (Megalofonou <em>et al. </em>2005). Although blue shark, shortfin mako and  thresher sharks make up the bulk of shark catch in the Moroccan pelagic driftnet  fisheries in the eastern Mediterranean, Carcharhinid species are also known to  be taken and landed by this fleet on an occasional basis. Some boats are known  to deploy their nets near to the coast (1-2 miles from the shore) to target  pelagic sharks (Tudela <em>et al. </em>2005). Important catches of Carcharhinids  such as <em>C. plumbeus</em> are also made in the pelagic longline fishery  operating from ports in eastern Algeria (Walker <em>et al.  </em>2005).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation of this species? coastal nursery areas  through coastal development and pollution also poses an important  threat.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest and Western Central Pacific</span><br/>This species is a known  catch of longline, trawl and set net fisheries operating throughout large areas  of this region. It is a known catch of shark longline and tuna gillnet fisheries  operating off Indonesia (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Japanese data on sandbar  sharks are limited, but reported landings in Japan?s coastal ports show a sharp  decline during the period since 1992. At that time landings totaled 126 mt per  annum, but this amount decreased to 91 mt in 1995, 21 mt in 2000 and 3 mt in  2004. No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006). In Taiwan,  Province of China, catches and sizes have decreased during recent years,  particularly in north east waters (Chen <em>et al.  </em>1996).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span><br/>Sandbar sharks are an important component of the  Western Australian shark fishery. Current total biomass is probably at about 35%  of its level prior to the start of full-time northern shark fishing. Current  management arrangements in the fishery should arrest any further declines in  stock biomass, but continued monitoring and assessment will be essential to  monitor the stock, and the effectiveness of these measures. See McAuley <em>et  al.</em> (2005) for a summary of the fishery and stock status.
3854		conservation	eng	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> was protected in NSW in 1984 because of serious declines in the population due to commercial and recreational fishing, spearfishing and beach meshing. In early 1997, the Queensland State Government also declared <em>C. taurus</em> a totally protected species in that State?s waters, and the Australian Commonwealth Government followed suit with protection of <em>C. taurus</em> as a Vulnerable species in all Commonwealth waters and throughout Australia?s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (i.e., out to two hundred nautical miles offshore). Also in 1997, <em>C. taurus</em> received full protection on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the USA, under the Atlantic Fishery Management Plan. The main current threat to this species in south-eastern Australia is probably the accidental (bycatch) capture of juveniles by recreational line fishers.
3854		distribution	eng	Historically, the Grey Nurse Shark is regarded as having a broad inshore distribution, primarily in subtropical to warm temperate waters around the main continental landmasses, except in the eastern Pacific off North and South America (Compagno 1984a). In the Western Atlantic, this shark occurs from the Gulf of Maine to Florida (USA), in the northern Gulf of Mexico, around the Bahamas and at Bermuda, and also from southern Brazil to northern Argentina. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from the Mediterranean to the Canary Islands, at the Cape Verde Islands, along the coasts of Senegal and Ghana, and from southern Nigeria to Cameroon. In the western Indian Ocean it ranges from South Africa to southern Mozambique, but does not occur around Madagascar. This species has also been reported from the Red Sea and may occur as far east as India (where it appears to have been referred to as <em>C. tricuspidatus</em>; see Compagno 1984a). In the western Pacific, it has been reported from Japan and Australia, but not New Zealand (Last and Stevens 1994).
3854		habitat	eng	The maximum size of this species has been given variously as ~3.2 m by Compagno (1984a), ~2.75 m and ~142 kg by Hutchins and Swainston (1986) and ~3.2 m and ~300 kg by Hutchins and Thompson (1983). Catch records from beach meshing in NSW, however, suggest that these sharks may grow to 4.3 m, though this maximum length is doubtful and may be due to a misidentification (Reid and Krough 1992).<br/><br/>Branstetter and Musick (1994) described the age and growth of <em>C. taurus</em> in the western North Atlantic based on banding patterns on vertebral centra and stated the maximum age to be 30?35 years. The largest (oldest) male examined (248 cm TL) from the south-eastern USA was 7.5 years old, and the largest (oldest) female examined (272 cm TL) was 10.5 years old. The hypothesis of double annual ring formation is currently being re-examined. If only one ring is deposited each year, the ages cited above would be approximately doubled (J. Musick pers. comm.). The oldest individuals recorded in aquaria were 13 years in Australia (Roughley 1955) and 16 years in South Africa (Govender <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>The Grey Nurse Shark occurs either alone or in small to medium-sized aggregations of 20?80 individuals (Silvester 1977, Aitken 1991, Cliff unpubl.). These sharks are often observed hovering motionless just above the seabed in or near deep sandy-bottomed gutters or rocky caves, usually in the vicinity of inshore rocky reefs and islands. They are generally coastal, usually being found from the surf zone down to depths of around 25 m. However, they may also occasionally be found in shallow bays, around coral reefs and, very rarely, to depths of around 200 m on the continental shelf. They usually live near the bottom, but may also move throughout the water column (Compagno 1984a).<br/><br/>Males and females both mature at approximately 2 m in length off the south-eastern USA (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983). They are ovoviviparous and usually only two pups are born per litter once every two years. This is because the remaining eggs and developing embryos are eaten by the largest and/or most advanced embryo in each horn of the uterus (a phenomenon known as adelphophagy or uterine cannibalism). The gestation period may last from 9?12 months and size at birth is relatively large, at about 1 m (Gilmore <em>et al. </em>1983, Gilmore 1993).<br/><br/>Grey Nurse Shark populations off South Africa and the east coast of the USA are known to undertake complex size and sex segregated migrations. These have been documented by Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975c), Gilmore (1993) and Musick <em>et al</em>. (1993). In other parts of its range and particularly in south-eastern Australia, this species appears to undertake similar migrations.<br/><br/>The species feeds on a wide range of teleost fishes, as well as smaller sharks (Carcharhinidae and Triakidae), rays (Myliobatidae), squids, crabs and lobsters (Compagno 1984, Gelsleichter <em>et al</em>. 1999). Scott <em>et al.</em> (1974) reported that Grey Nurse Sharks in south-eastern Australia fed on shoals of Australian salmon (Arripidae) and other pelagic fish species.
3854		threats	eng	Grey Nurse Sharks have been fished throughout their range in the past, but are of variable economic importance regionally (Compagno 1984a). The species is highly regarded as a food fish in Japan, but not in the western Atlantic. It is caught primarily with line fishing gear, but is also taken in bottom-set gillnets and trawls. The meat is utilised fresh, frozen, smoked, and dried and salted, for human consumption. This species has also been used for fishmeal, its liver for oil, and its fins for making soup via the oriental sharkfin trade (Compagno 1984a).<br/><br/>This species has been taken along the Atlantic coast of the United States in a commercial shark fishery directed towards a wide array of large coastal species, but supported primarily by catches of <em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em> and <em>C. limbatus</em>. Musick <em>et al.</em> (1993) showed that several species of sharks, including the sand tiger, had declined by as much as 75% during the decade from 1980?1990 because of overfishing. Recently, this fishery has come under management and <em>C. taurus</em> has been accorded full protection (see below).<br/><br/>In the 1850s, this species was fished by hook-and-line in and around Botany Bay, New South Wales (NSW), Australia, during October and November, to provide a source of oil ?of excellent quality for burning in lamps? (Grant 1982). In the late 1920s this species was also fished, together with other shark species, at Port Stephens, NSW (Roughley 1955). It was the second most commonly captured shark after the whaler sharks (Carcharhinidae) in this area. According to Roughley (1955), Grey Nurse Sharks produced the best quality shark leather but their fins were not as desirable as those from some of the other sharks commonly caught in this fishery. Commercial fishing for <em>C. taurus</em> reputedly continued on and off in NSW using various methods up until the Second World War.<br/><br/>Pepperell (1992) summarised catch records of gamefishermen in south-eastern Australia and found that <em>C. taurus</em> constituted 11% (161 sharks) of the total recorded shark catch (1,461) during the 1960s and 7% (244 sharks) in the 1970s (total catch 3,466 sharks). The weights of <em>C. taurus</em> specimens caught by game fishermen ranged from less than 10 to around 190 kg (Pepperell 1992). Capture of this species was banned voluntarily by game fishermen throughout Australia in 1979 (Pepperell 1992).<br/><br/>Meshing of beaches was instituted in NSW in the late 1930s to protect bathers from shark attack (Reid and Krough 1992). Since then, shark meshing has also been adopted in Queensland, Australia (Paterson 1986) and in Natal, South Africa (Cliff and Dudley 1992). <em>Carcharias taurus</em> comprised 3.8% (n = 369) of the total NSW (i.e. Newcastle-Sydney-Wollongong area) beach meshing catch of sharks from 1950?1990 (Reid and Krough 1992). The number of <em>C. taurus</em> taken in these mesh nets in NSW over this 40-year period is thus slightly less than that taken by game fishermen during the 1960s and 1970s. Overall, there have been large declines over time in the meshing catch and catch per unit effort for the species. During the early 1950s, 24?36 <em>C. taurus</em> were meshed per year, but since the late 1970s only 0?3 were caught each year (Pollard <em>et al.</em> 1996). Prior to this 40-year period, Coppleson (1958) reported 58 Grey Nurse Sharks being caught in these beach meshing nets between October and December 1937.<br/><br/>Cliff and Dudley (1992) reported an average annual catch of 246 spotted ragged tooth sharks in the Natal (South Africa) beach meshing programme for the period 1978?1990, with 38% of the catch being found alive in the nets. Whenever possible these live sharks were released, many with tags. Between 1966?1972 there was a significant decline in the catch rate of this species, followed by a significant increase between 1972?1990 (Dudley and Cliff 1993a). Maximum and minimum catches were 20 (1966) and two (1981) sharks per km of net per year (Dudley and Cliff 1993a).<br/><br/>Interactions between skindivers and <em>C. taurus</em> in Australia are nowadays rare. There are reports of Grey Nurse Sharks stealing speared fish from skindivers, but this is not common. During the 1950s and 1960s, however, skin and SCUBA divers armed with barbless or barbed spears, hypodermic spears containing strychnine nitrate, and especially explosive powerheads, killed many <em>C. taurus</em> off the NSW coast (Cropp 1964). Divers also took them alive, often with lassos, to sell to aquariums (Cropp 1964). <em>Carcharias taurus</em> are still taken, under permit, for aquariums (Smith 1992), but with the assigning of their protected status (see later) and an increased awareness of the need for their conservation, there are now no reports of divers killing these sharks deliberately.<br/><br/>Because of its large size and fearsome appearance, and because it occurs in relatively shallow water where it often hovers almost motionless near the sea floor, <em>C. taurus</em> can be readily approached and is now a very popular attraction with SCUBA divers. Dive guides tend to highlight locations where these sharks regularly occur (e.g., Byron 1985), and divers can observe <em>C. taurus</em> at the same locations on many occasions, suggesting a high degree of site-attachment by these sharks. On the other hand, concern has been expressed (most recently in South Africa) that disturbance by divers may be detrimental to natural behaviour patterns and could even result in the exclusion of some sharks from critical habitat and/or important refuge areas (Andrew Cobb in litt.).
3855		conservation	eng	The Great White Shark is currently protected in the Australian EEZ and state waters, South Africa, Namibia, Israel, Malta and the USA (California and Florida states, with directed fisheries prohibited off all coasts). Protective laws are strict, but loopholes and inadequate enforcement causes problems including promoting the black-market for high-value Great White Shark products including jaws, teeth and fins. Australia has developed a comprehensive and multidisciplinary recovery plan for great white sharks in its waters (Compagno 2001). A proposal to list the great white shark in CITES, to regulate or ban international trade failed in 2000, but Australia has since listed the species in Appendix III. A CITES listing might help slow trade in great white shark products, but will not eliminate low volume criminal trade. The Great White Shark was added to both Appendices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) in 2002 with the objective of providing a framework for the coordination of measures adopted by range states to improve the conservation of the species (Government of Australia 2002). The great white shark should be removed from international game fish record lists, and needs consistently rational and realistic treatment by entertainment and news media to counter its notoriety and inflated market value.
3855		distribution	eng	The Great White Shark occupies a cosmopolitan range throughout most seas and oceans with concentrations in temperate coastal seas (Compagno 2001). It is principally known as a pelagic dweller of temperate continental shelf waters, but also ranges into the open ocean far from land and near oceanic islands, the cold boreal and austral (sub-Antarctic) seas and the coastal tropics. It is found from the surfline and the intertidal zone to far offshore, and from the surface down to depths over 250 m. It does not occur in fresh water, but penetrates saline bays and estuaries; during high tide it may swim in bays that have no water at low tide. Recent tagging and tracking studies and DNA analyses have demonstrated that this species undertakes long distance trans-oceanic movements, for example between South Africa and Australasia (Pardini <em>et al</em>. 2001) and California and the Hawaiian Islands (Boustany <em>et al.</em> 2002). Consequently its distribution is not considered disjunct, albeit that interchange between some populations may be limited. It is most commonly recorded from the waters of southern Africa (particularly from Namibia to KwaZulu-Natal and Mozambique); eastern, western and particularly southern Australia; New Zealand; the Japanese archipelago; the north-eastern seaboard of North America, especially Long Island and environs; the Pacific coast of North America, primarily from Oregon to Baja; the coast of Central Chile; and the Mediterranean Sea, primarily the Western-Central region and Tyrrhenian Sea (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Great White Sharks also occur, albeit less frequently, at many sites elsewhere (e.g., Brazil, Caribbean, Azores, Hawaii, north-west Africa, east Africa (Kenya, Tanzania), Seychelles, Mauritius, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, northern Australia, New Caledonia and Philippines). Limited inter-hemispherical movement between temperate areas, across equatorial waters by means of tropical submergence has been suspected (Last and Stevens 1994), but more recently Great White Sharks have been found in tropical inshore waters of east and southern Africa and even sighted and photographed by divers on coral reefs in Mozambique and elsewhere (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 2000, Compagno 2001).
3855		habitat	eng	The maximum size attained by Great White Sharks remains a matter of debate, and is estimated to be around 6 m, and possibly to 640 cm or more; the largest free-swimming individuals commonly captured are between 500?580 cm (mostly adult females) (Compagno 2001). Lengths at maturity for both sexes remain somewhat undetermined and based on (currently limited) age-growth data it may be possible that different populations mature at varying lengths. The majority of females mature at between 450?500 cm total length (TL) (Francis 1996), but have been reported as immature at sizes as much as 472?490 cm long (Springer 1939, Compagno 2001). Males mature at about 350?410 cm (Pratt 1996, Compagno 2001). One study of age and growth, pooled from 21 specimens (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1985) suggests a generalised age of maturity of 10?12 years based on counts of vertebral growth rings that are deposited yearly. A mature female of 500 cm is estimated to have reached c.14?16 years. The average reproductive age is estimated at 17 years. The oldest individual reported is a female with 23 growth rings from South Africa, assumed to be at least 23 years old. Longevity is suspected as being about 30 years (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1985). Since 1980, six pregnant females have been verified, taken from coastal waters off Okinawa and Japan (Uchida <em>et al.</em> 1996); North Cape, New Zealand (Francis op. Cit.) and Cape Bon, Tunisia (Fergusson 1996). Further recent but unconfirmed reports originated during the same decade from Australia (Bruce 1992, Francis, op. Cit. Via J.D. Stevens pers. comm.) and Taiwan (Francis op. Cit. As pers. comm. with D. Ebert). Reported litter-sizes range from 2?10 foetuses. Gestation time is unknown but likely to be a year or more (Compagno 2001). Size at birth is within a range of 109?165 cm TL. The Great White Shark is ovoviviparous and practices uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy (ingestion of unfertilised eggs). Mating has not been reliably witnessed to-date. Conceivably, females may give birth every two or three years rather than annually. Parturition apparently occurs during the spring to late summer in warm-temperate neritic waters.<br/><br/>Great White Sharks take a variety of bony fish as prey, from sedentary demersal rockfish, lingcod and benthic flatfish to fast pelagic species, and ranging in size from small demersal and schooling fishes to giants such as broadbill swordfish and bluefin tuna. Great White Sharks are known to congregate at concentrations of schooling bony fishes such as pilchards and bluefish, and follow the KwaZulu-Natal sardine run off South Africa (Compagno 2001). A broad range of elasmobranchs ? sharks and batoids ? are eaten by Great White Sharks, as are chimaeroids, chelonians, cephalopods and other molluscs, crustaceans and occasionally sea birds such as cormorants and penguins (Compagno 2001). The role of <em>C. carcharias</em> as a primary predator upon marine mammals and especially pinnipeds (e.g., northern elephant seals, harbour seals, California sealions, fur seals), has dominated much contemporary study of this species due to accessibility and intensive studies of seal colonies and a focus on seal predation as being related to biting of humans by great white sharks. The global importance of pinnipeds as prey taxa may be overstated, due to the regional bias in contemporary field observation towards those areas where sharks and pinnipeds are sympatric. Great White Sharks (especially larger individuals) are also active hunters of small odontocetes, particularly so (but not exclusively) in regions where pinnipeds are scarce or absent. Dead baleen whales and other large cetaceans may contribute a significant amount to the Great White Shark?s diet in some areas (Long and Jones 1996), but such food is sporadically available.
3855		threats	eng	Under various synonyms (maneater, white death), the Great White Shark has long been a focus for negative media attention, generated by its sometimes lethal interactions with humans. As a consequence of this typically exaggerated threat to human safety and an almost legendary ?Big Fish? status, the species is targeted as a source for sports-fishing, commercial drumline trophy-hunting (for jaws, teeth and even entire specimens preserved), sporadic human consumption or merely as the piscine whipping-boy of individuals pandering to shark attack paranoia. All of these activities have greatly increased since the ?JAWS? media phenomenon of the mid 1970s, not only to the detriment of <em>C. carcharias</em> but also in encouraging targeting of other, less high-profile species. Nowhere is the Great White Shark abundant and productive enough to sustain long-term directed fisheries; the majority of annual captures worldwide being made incidentally through commercial fisheries operating longlines, setlines, gillnets, trawls, fish-traps and other gear. The Great White Shark is ensnared throughout the water column in nearshore fisheries but, notably, is rarely represented in the elasmobranch bycatch of offshore oceanic pelagic fisheries (unlike Shortfin Mako (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>) and Porbeagle (<em>Lamna nasus</em>)). The Great White Shark is vulnerable to capture trauma and may be killed or has limited survivorship after capture. Great White Sharks are curious and readily approach boats, scavenge from fishermens? nets or longlines and devour hooked fish taken by rod-and-line or swordfish harpoon. This vulnerable propensity often results in either their own accidental entrapment or deliberate killing by commercial fishermen. In certain regions the Great White Shark has traditionally been viewed negatively as manifesting a costly interference to fisheries, although some fishers appreciate it for its role in eating pinnipeds that devour their catches. This species is unquestionably vulnerable to directed exploitation such as sports fisheries, the curio trade, the oriental shark-fin trade and even the public aquarium trade. The overall, long-term impact of these causes of mortality upon regional populations, coupled to those caused through indirect fishery captures or protective beach meshing, is probably detrimental. The removal of even a few individuals apparently has very tangible effect at discrete localities (such as the Farallon Islands, California, based upon observations following the cull of four local sharks in 1984 (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1985)). Habitat degradation (development, pollution and overfishing) also threatens this species and may largely exclude it from areas, perhaps traditionally utilised for feeding or as nurseries, where it was historically much more abundant. Great White Sharks have been sought as the ultimate species to display in large public oceanaria, but with poor survivorship so far. Directed fishery exploitation of Great White Sharks is primarily undertaken with the aim of trading its teeth and jaws as trophies or curios and its fins for the oriental fin trade. In South Africa offers of US$20,000?$50,000 have been made for great white shark jaws and US$600? $800 for individual teeth. Apart from their size, Great White Shark products in the form of curios and fins are boosted in value because of notoriety. A fin-set from a large great white shark may be valued at over US$1,000. Unfortunately, as with rhino horns and elephant tusks, the high value of Great White Shark products encourages poaching, clandestine trade and flouting of protective laws (Compagno 2001). Comparative data of catch-rates and CPUE are sketchy or lacking for most of the Great White Shark?s range, although some figures are available from select regions. Observations of game fishery captures in south-east Australia between 1961?1990 indicate a catch-ratio from 1:22 in the 1960s, declining to 1:38 in the 1970s and 1:651in the 1980s (Pepperell 1992), suggesting a possible decline in abundance. South Australian game-fishing catches from 1980?1990 averaged 1.4 sharks per year and has declined since the 1950s, possibly through a reduction in effort (Bruce 1992). Sydney game fishing catches have ranged from 0?17 between 1950?1980, with no significant trend. Commercial bycatches off Australia are suspected to be the largest cause of mortality to Australian Great White Sharks, although without any data to currently substantiate this claim (J.D. Stevens and B. Bruce pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recent tagging off South Australia (70?90 animals tagged) has demonstrated a 4?6% recapture rate (Stevens and Bruce pers. Comm.), which may be considered cause for concern. Approximately 40% of 126 Great White Sharks tagged at Dyer Island or Struisbaai, South Africa, between 1992?94 were resighted (Compagno unpubl.). Both the Australian and African research demonstrates at least short-term residency and site-affinity with some pronounced seasonality, coupled to more irregular nomadicity. Off the eastern USA, NMFS statistics from 1965?1983 show a decline from 1:67?1:210 (Casey and Pratt 1985), suggesting a possible decline in abundance. Data from beach meshing programmes in NSW and Queensland show a gradual and irregular decline in CPUE since the 1960s (J.D. Stevens and B. Bruce pers. comm.) whilst trends in KwaZulu-Natal meshing programmes are variable and less clear, but essentially downwards. Other indices of catch-rates are available from: California, between 1960?1985 as 0?14 sharks per year (mean 3.2, Klimley 1985), KwaZulu-Natal, between 1974?1988 as 22?61 sharks per year (Cliff <em>et al. </em>1989) and the Central Mediterranean Sea (Sicilian Channel), between 1950? 1994 as 0?8 sharks per year (mean 2.2, Fergusson unpubl.). We presently have no complete data for Japan, New Zealand or Chile. In other areas, catches are much more nominal and very sporadic (e.g., Brazil, Hawaii).
3858		conservation	eng	Listed as Rare in most of the range (Mongolia, Kazakstan and Russia), but Least Concern in China. Occurs in protected areas (approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia) occurs within protected areas. Further research is recommended to identify conservation actions.
3858		distribution	eng	Distributed in deserts and semi-deserts in SW Mongolia, Tuva, and China (Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Nei Mongol). Isolated area in E Kazakhstan. Distributed from close to the northern border of Mongolia in Great Lakes Depression, through Valley of the Lakes, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Northern Govi, and south to Eastern Govi, Trans Altai Govi Desert, and Alashani Govi Desert.
3858		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky deserts, arid steppe, desert-steppe and sandy deserts with Poacae, pea shrubs (Caragana spp.), spear grasses (Stipa spp.), Artemisia areneria and Cleistogenes soongorica. Lives in burrows dug by other species, jerboa, jirds, and hamsters. Solitary. Nocturnal.  Possesses obvious body fat deposits in summer, when tail may reach a diameter of 8 mm.  Diet primarily seeds and grains. Hibernates about 7 months a year. Reproduces once each year.  <br/>This is a nocturnal species, foraging for seeds at night.
3858		population	eng	No data are available at present.
3858		threats	eng	Natural disasters such as drought and heavy rainfall constitute threats to this species.
3859		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from protected areas in Kenya (e.g.. Tsavo West National Park [Vaughn 1976; Aggundey and Schlitter 1984]) and is likely to be present in protected areas in some other East African countries. Additional studies are needed into the impact of disturbance on this species.
3859		distribution	eng	This East African species is distributed from north-east Sudan (near the Red Sea) south to central Tanzania. The distribution extends from the border area of Uganda and Sudan in the  west, to east Somalia (near the tip of the Horn of Africa) in the east. Highest altitudinal record is 940 m (Csada 1996).
3859		habitat	eng	Animals have typically been recorded from lowland savanna, shrubland, and the coastal strip, and in some instances may be observed in river valleys (Varty and Hill 1988; Csada 1996). It roosts alone, or in small numbers, in caves, hollow trees and abandoned buildings (Kingdon 1974; Vaughn 1976; Ryan and Tuttle 1987; Csada 1996; Pearch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
3859		population	eng	Although there is little overall information on the abundance of this species, up to 81 bats have been found roosting in a hollow baobab tree (Vaughn 1976).
3859		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however, further studies are needed into the impact of disturbance on roosting sites.
3897		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
3897		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
3898		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
3898		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
3898		threats	eng	This species is exported in large numbers for the international live animal trade from southern Irian Jaya, Indonesia. It is heavily exploited and locally consumed in Papua New Guinea and  endangered by habitat loss and degradation in Australia.
3903		conservation	eng	Further systematic studies necessary to clarify distinction between different <em>Carollia</em> spp. The species occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.
3903		distribution	eng	Central and South America. This species occurs throughout east Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and north and east Brazil; it is also found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005).
3903		habitat	eng	This species depends on the fruit of Piper for the major portion of its diet, but it also gleans foliage for insects; its diet is supplemented by nectar in the dry season. It forages near moist areas, being taken most frequently in tropical evergreen forests. It is often one of the most numerous bats in lowlands rainforests, and it seems most common in disturbed areas. It uses the understory vegetation levels, where it concentrates its feeding on the fruits of shrubs and treelets, especially the slender green, candle like fruits of plants of the genus Piper. Because of its high numbers, this bat is one of the most important seed dispersers for Piper and many other plants with small fruits (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997). It inhabits a wide range of forest, forest fragments and savannas.
3903		population	eng	It is abundant to common in second growth woodland, clearings, and plantations; less common in mature forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Abundant but not as common as <em>C. perspicillata</em>. It is common through Central America and the Amazon; less common south of the Amazon.
3903		threats	eng	None known.
3904		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
3904		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Honduras to Peru, Bolivia, western Brazil, Venezuela, Guianas, and Suriname (Simmons, 2005).
3904		habitat	eng	Within the genus <em>Carollia</em>, this species is the most specialized in fruits of Piper (Thies and Kalko 2004). It forages near moist areas, being taken most frequently in tropical evergreen forests.  It uses the understory vegetation levels, where it concentrates its feeding on the fruits of shrubs and treelets, especially the slender green, candle like fruits of plants of the genus Piper. Because of its high numbers, this bat is one of the most important seed dispersers for Piper and many other plants with small fruits. In Panama, birth peaks occur in March to April and July to August (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Wilson, 1979). Thies <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that the activity of this species is not affected by moonlight conditions, and that only strong rain reduces the time it spends flying.  Thies <em>et al.</em> (in press) estimated a home range size of 13.8 +- 12.1 ha for this species in Panama, and suggested that its foraging patterns may increase the chance of seeds to find safe sites for germination.
3904		population	eng	It is abundant to common in second growth woodland, clearings, and plantations; less common in mature forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Is easily caught during sampling in appropriate areas (Davalos pers. comm.).
3904		threats	eng	No major threats.
3905		conservation	eng	Need taxonomic review. Found in protected areas.
3905		distribution	eng	Oaxaca, Veracruz and Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil and Guianas; Trinidad and Tobago; perhaps Northern Lesser Antilles (Simmons 2005).
3905		habitat	eng	Found in tunnels, understory. Bats of this species are widespread and highly abundant in many localities of the Neotropics. They demonstrate a strong preference for fruits of the family Piperaceae (Fleming 1988), but may feed on at least 38 different plant families (Geiselman <em>et al.</em> 2002). They may also feed on nectar, pollen and insects during seasons of low fruit availability (Mello <em>et al</em>. 2004). A more generalist diet may be a mechanism that allow coexistence of this species and other member of the same genus in the same locality (Thies and Kalko 2004), and the focus on Piper may reduce competition with other small-sized frugivorous phyllostomids like <em>Sturnira</em> (Marinho-Filho 1991). These bats present the typical bimodal reproductive pattern of plant-eating phyllostomids, and the timing of their breeding seasons is mainly determined by climate and fruiting food-plants (Mello <em>et al</em>. 2004). Cloutier and Thomas (1992) report that <em>C. perspicillata</em> bats may form colonies from a few to hundreds of individuals. Charles-Dominique (1991) observed differences in feeding behaviour between males and females, especially during the reproductive season. There is a strong reduction in number of captures of these bats in mist-nets during brither periods and nights, an evidence of lunar phobia (Mello 2006).
3905		population	eng	Abundant.
3905		threats	eng	None known.
3906		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research actions.
3906		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jalisco (Mexico) to northwestern Nicaragua. A report of this species from Guyana (Koopman, 1993) appears to be in error (Lim pers. comm.) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,200 m (Reid, 1997). Occurs in Costa Rica.
3906		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry, deciduous forest and second growth woodland (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves, empty wells, culverts, hollow trees, and buildings (Reid, 1997). This bat feeds on fruits of Piper, Cecropia, Muntingia, and Solanum spp. (Fleming, 1988). Reproductive cycle appears to be bimodal, with pregnant females from December to May and July to October (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002).
3906		population	eng	This bat is common to abundant in dry forest; absent in rainforest (Reid, 1997).
3906		threats	eng	Really difficult to identify, may be confused with other species of <em>Carollia</em>. In Mexico does not have important habitat loss (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
3916		conservation	eng	It occurs in Balbasang National Park.
3916		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Luzon island (Philippines). This species has been recorded from Benguet, Ifugao and Kalinga provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) at an elevation range from 2,100 to 2,500 m. It is likely to be widespread in Central Cordillera (L. Heaney pers. comm.) and could occur from 1,600 m and up, where the habitat zone changes.
3916		habitat	eng	This species is found in mossy forest at high elevations (Largen 1985; Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952; Thomas 1898; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) and is likely to be arboreal and forest dependent (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
3916		population	eng	The population status is unknown. The original specimens from were collected in 1895, two further specimens have been collected one each in 1946 and 2003 (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Each of these three collection localities are from different parts of Central Cordillera.
3916		threats	eng	This species occurs at high elevations, so it is less affected by conversion of parts of its range to vegetable farms than mid and lower elevation species (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
3917		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Surveys using appropriate sampling techniques are required to determine where this species may occur.
3917		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and is known only from the type locality, Mt. Data, Benguet Province, Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
3917		habitat	eng	The specimens were collected from mossy and upper montane forest at high elevation, from 2,200 to 2,500 m. (Largen 1985; Thomas 1898). It is likely to be an arboreal and forest dependent species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
3917		population	eng	There is very little known about population or local abundance of this species. It may be locally common (Thomas 1898; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known from four specimens in the original collection from 1895 and another two taken later that year, there have been no surveys for this species since then and it has not been collected again (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
3917		threats	eng	The region of the type locality at Mt. Data has been largely converted to vegetable farms although there are other mossy, montane forests nearby where this species may occur (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
3921		conservation	eng	This rodent has been registered in Chapada dos Guimãraes National Park (Reis, M. pers. comm.).
3921		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cerrado of eastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999); probably in two or three disjunct populations (Reis, M. pers. comm.).
3921		habitat	eng	This semi fossorial species inhabits transitional areas between gallery forest and Cerrado grassland where there is seasonal rainfall (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). A female with one embryo has been reported.
3921		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species; it is difficult to capture in surveys in areas where it is known to occur (Lacher pers. comm.).
3921		threats	eng	Habitat loss to agriculture is affecting the species throughout its known range (Lacher pers. comm.).
3990		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. Recommended conservation actions include management of the protected areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat and subpopulations.</span></span></span>
3990		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeiran islands where it is only known from Porto Santo, around Pico Branco, the southeast end of the island and the Ilhau de Cima (Seddon 2008) with similar distribution since 1878 (Wollaston 1878). Recent records (Field records 1984-1998) confirm the species is still living in all these locations.
3990		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caseolus calculus</span> lives at the base of grasses and herbs and on rocky slopes.
3990		population	eng	Populations have been small since 1880's, although there is a possible decline of the mainland populations.
3990		threats	eng	The population on the mainland coastal area is most susceptible, from habitat loss from coastal erosion or habitat  degradation due to invasive species (plants), fire or tipping or loss of  populations due to introduced rodents.
3993		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">Recommended conservation actions include management  of the protected areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring  of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat and  subpopulations<em>.</em></span></span></span></span>
3993		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeiran Islands, where there are two subspecies, one from Porto Santo and the other from Bugio (Desertas) (Cameron and Cook 1999, Seddon 2008). On Porto Santo this species has a restricted distribution and it is present in  four areas, mainly at the western end of Porto Santo, but extending to  two hills of eastern Porto Santo (Seddon 2008). On Porto Santo, these sites are widely scattered sites and the species is abundant where found. <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-style: italic;">C. abjectus nesiotes</span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> is restricted to Bugio and one site on Deserta Grande (Cameron and Cook 1999)<br/></span></span>
3993		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-US">This species is found on the underside of stones on scree slopes and at the base of crags.
3993		population	eng	There are no data on the population trends from the Desertas subspecies, but the Porto Santo subspecies was once very abundant (Seddon 2008).
3993		threats	eng	Disturbance of the habitat and changes in land-use management, for example, over-grazing by livestock, trampling, and loss of land through touristic and urban developments are threatening this species. The spread of<em> Theba pisana</em>&#160;and rodents is also a problem.
3994		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2.&#160; <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is widely distributed on Porto Santo, so recommended conservation actions include management of the protected areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat and subpopulations.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
3994		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeiran islands where it is only found on Porto Santo, where it is widespread on the main island. It is found at 12 locations and about 30 sites, mainly on the eastern side, but also on three of the offshore islets and isolated sites at the west end of the island (Cameron and Cook 1998, Seddon 2008).
3994		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland where it is found on the underside of stones, on scree slopes and at the base of crags.
3994		population	eng	The species is locally abundant and as such is thought to be stable.
3994		threats	eng	The population on the mainland are most susceptible from  habitat loss from tourist development or habitat  degradation due to  invasive species (plants), fire or tipping or loss of  populations due  to introduced rodents.
3995		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Council of Europe Berne Convention Appendix 2, and later on the EUHSD annexes II/IV.&#160; It was originally listed by IUCN 1990 as Rare, the species was not assessed for the 1996 list and placed as Near Threatened in 2000.&#160; The placement on the EUHSD annexes means an SAC should have been created for this species. Part of Porto Santo is now a protected area.
3995		distribution	eng	This species is            endemic to Madeiran islands; it is only known from the small island of Porto Santo, where it is widespread at the eastern end of the island.
3995		habitat	eng	This species is found on the underside of stones on scree slopes and at the base of crags within grassland.
3995		population	eng	The species is frequent in samples from the 10 locations, so the species is viewed as stable.
3995		threats	eng	The population on the mainland are most susceptible from  habitat loss from tourist development or habitat  degradation due to  invasive species (plants), fire or tipping or loss of  populations due  to introduced rodents.
3996		conservation	eng	The presence of large populations on two off-shore islets and populations on Pico Branco means that part of the range is protected. Hence no further conservation actions are needed.
3996		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands. It is is only known from Porto Santo, where it is widespread, mainly on the lower slopes and coastal grasslands, especially on the eastern end of the island, and it is also present on the two offshore islets of Ilheu de Baixo and Ilheu de Cal (Seddon 2008).
3996		habitat	eng	This species is found on the underside of stones on scree slopes and at the base of crags.
3996		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable. It is often frequent at suitable site (Cameron, pers.comm., 2010).
3996		threats	eng	The population on the mainland are most susceptible from  habitat loss from tourist development or habitat  degradation due to  invasive species (plants), fire or tipping or loss of  populations due  to introduced rodents.
3997		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, however&#160;designated protected areas would be required to protect these species from habitat loss.
3997		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands and is only known from Madeira, where it is rather localised, found mainly along the coast from Funchal to Canico (Seddon 2008). The distribution seems to have changed little since T. V. Wollaston collected the species in the period 1860-1870 (Seddon 2008). Paiva's records from Deserta Grande were thought to be improbable by Wollaston (1878) and Cameron and Cook (1999) did not record the species in their surveys on the Desertas. Seddon (2008) listed seven sites on Madeira, in two different small areas, but as threats are very localised, each site is considered separately.
3997		habitat	eng	This species is found on the underside of stones on dry slopes and amongst leaf-litter of herbs and low shrubs (Seddon 2008).
3997		population	eng	There is little data to establish population trends for this species.
3997		threats	eng	The populations are most susceptible from  habitat loss  from tourist development or habitat  degradation due to  invasive  species (plants), fire or tipping or loss of  populations due  to  introduced rodents.
3998		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2 under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Caseolus sphaerula</span>. Habitat management plans to maintain the status of the habitats, reduce likelihood of fire and impact of recreational use on habitats in the area.</span></span></span>
3998		distribution	eng	<em>Caseolus subcalliferus</em> is endemic to Madeira,&#160; where it is only known from Porto Santo, on the eastern peninsular of Pico Branco (Seddon 2008). Here is it recorded from three closely adjacent sites in one location (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996, Seddon 2008).
3998		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species was described by Wollaston (1878) as living on upper parts of various plants including <em>Juncus maritimus</em>.  Recent surveys have only found the species in areas of conifer plantation, where it was aestivating at up to 2 m up on the branches.
3998		population	eng	There are no recent data on population trends, but it has always been a rare species, based on limited records from the literature (Wollaston 1877, M. Seddon, pers. comm. 2009)
3998		threats	eng	These populations are most susceptible to  habitat loss  from land-use management (building, road or path construction) or  fire. Habitat  degradation due to  invasive  species (plants) or loss of  subpopulations due  to  introduced rodents are secondary threats.
3999		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. (1992) recommend that surveys are needed to assess the conservation status of this species, to determine if it is present in protected areas, and to learn more about the food plants and general natural history of this species.
3999		distribution	eng	This lowland species is distributed in Central Africa. It has been recorded from southern Cameroon, the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
3999		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, swamp forest, a mosaic of these two forest habitats, and a mosaic of swamp forest and secondary grassland (Bergmans 1990). It is a solitary rooster, with one specimen collected in the dense foliage of a bush (Nowak 1999). The female gives birth to a single young (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993).
3999		population	eng	It is apparently not uncommon, with many specimens (~20) caught in mist nets from a locality in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
3999		threats	eng	Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. (1992) indicate that there is little information on the threats to this species, but that it may be threatened by deforestation. It is possible that this species eats cultivated fruits, and consequently might be persecuted as a crop pest.
4003		conservation	eng	Hunting and trapping of the American beaver is regulated at the national level. Introduced populations occur in some protected areas.
4003		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout North America except the arctic tundra, peninsular Florida and the deserts of the southwestern United States. Its range extends into northern Mexico. In 1937 it was introduced in Finland, from where it naturally dispersed to Karelia and Leningrad Region (northwest Russia). It is also introduced in the Russian Far East, Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island (Russia). In 1946 American Beavers were introduced at Isla Grande, Tierra del Fuego (Argentina). Beavers are now found in all streams in the Andean and  extra-Andean areas, and in nearly all aquatic habitats on Isla Grande  as well as other Chilean islands of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago (Lizarralde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
4003		habitat	eng	It inhabits areas near lakes, ponds, and streams with access to suitable food and building resources. Beavers are known for their ability to modify an environment through the construction of dams, which often cause flooding of the surrounding areas (Jenkins and Busher 1979). Beaver activity modifies the original <span style="font-style: italic;">Nothofagus</span> (the main component of the South Patagonian forests) ecosystem from a closed forest to a grass and sedge dominated meadow  (Martínez Pastur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
4003		population	eng	Following overexploitation for the fur trade, protection and re-introduction programs have re-established the American beaver throughout its historical range. It is now abundant. The current population size in Russia is unknown, but the population in northwest Russia is stable. In the Isla Grande of Tierra del Fuego, several factors favored a rapid population growth and range expansion (Lizarralde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Twenty-five mated pairs of beaver introduced in 1946, have grown to a population of 35,000-50,000 animals.
4003		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats to the species throughout its range. It is hunted and trapped for pelts. Many beavers are killed in areas where tree felling and dam building are in discordance with human development. It is highly sensitive to tularemia.
4007		conservation	eng	A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II and IV for all others). In Finland, <em>C. canadensis</em> populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where <em>C. fiber</em> occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, <em>C. f. birulai</em> is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000), and is included as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). This subspecies is also listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE, 1996). Approximately 11% of the species? range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place in Mongolia:<br/>1) Bulgan Gol Nature Reserve was established along the Bulgan River in 1965 to conserve this species. <br/>2) Many translocations and conservation introductions have taken place over the past 50 years to enhance the Mongolian population.<br/><br/>The species is considered Endangered (EN A1bcd) in the Chinese Red List.
4007		conservation	eng	A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II and IV for all others). In Finland, <em>C. canadensis</em> populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where <em>C. fiber</em> occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, <em>C. f. birulai</em> is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000), and is included as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). This subspecies is also listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE, 1996). Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place in Mongolia:<br/>1) Bulgan Gol Nature Reserve was established along the Bulgan River in 1965 to conserve this species. <br/>2) Many translocations and conservation introductions have taken place over the past 50 years to enhance the Mongolian population.<br/><br/>The species is considered Endangered (EN A1bcd) in the Chinese Red List.
4007		conservation	eng	A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II & IV for all others). In Finland, <em>C. canadensis</em> populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where <em>C. fiber</em> occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).
4007		distribution	eng	The Eurasian beaver <em>Castor fiber</em> was once widespread in Europe and Asia. However, by the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, over-hunting had drastically reduced both the numbers and range of the species. In Europe, only a few isolated sites remained: parts of the Rhone (France) and Elbe (Germany), southern Norway, the Neman River and Dnepr Basin (Belarus) and Voronezh (Russia). A series of management measures and reintroductions have enabled the beaver to return to much of its former range, and there are now a number of rapidly expanding populations extending from Spain and France across central and eastern Europe to European Russia, and in Scandinavia and parts of western Finland. <br/><br/>Free-living populations of beavers are now established or establishing in most regions of their former European range, the main exceptions to date being Portugal, Italy, the south Balkans and Great Britain (Halley and Rosell 2002, Ceña <em>et al.</em> 2004). Detailed information on the status and distribution of the Eurasian beaver in each range state can be found in Halley and Rosell (2002), and information on the population that was translocated to Spain in 2003 can be found in Ceña <em>et al.</em> (2004). It is generally a lowland species, but occurs up to 850 m in Europe (Halley pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In Mongolia, a small population exists along the Bulgan River in northern Dzungarian Govi Desert, in the south-western corner of Mongolia. Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions carried out conservation introductions along Hovd River in Mongol Altai Mountain Range in 1974, 1975, and 1978, and along Tes River in northern Hangai Mountain Range in 1985, 1988 and 2002. In all cases Mongolian beavers from the Bulgan River were used in order to protect the gene pool in the central Asiatic hydro-geographic basin (Stubbe and Dawaa, 1982; Stubbe <em>et al.</em>, 2005a). A separate attempt to reintroduce beavers from Voronezh Reserve (Russian Federation) was unsuccessful (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).
4007		distribution	eng	The Eurasian beaver <em>Castor fiber</em> was once widespread in Europe and Asia. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, over-hunting had drastically reduced both the numbers and range of the species. In Europe, only a few isolated sites remained: parts of the Rhone (France) and Elbe (Germany), southern Norway, the Neman River and Dnepr Basin (Belarus) and Voronezh (Russia). Reintroductions have enabled the beaver to return to much of its former range, and there are now a number of rapidly expanding populations extending from Spain and France across central and eastern Europe to European Russia, and in Scandinavia and parts of western Finland. Free-living populations of beavers are now established or establishing in most regions of their former European range, the main exceptions to date being Portugal, the south Balkans and Great Britain (Halley and Rosell 2002, Ceña <em>et al.</em> 2004). Detailed information on the status and distribution of the Eurasian beaver in each range state can be found in Halley and Rosell (2002), and information on the population that was translocated to Spain in 2003 can be found in Ceña <em>et al.</em> (2004). It is generally a lowland species, but occurs up to 850 m in Europe (D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006).
4007		habitat	eng	Beavers are adapted for a semi-aquatic life, using a variety of freshwater systems, including rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, lakes, and swamps. They generally prefer freshwater habitats surrounded by woodland, but may occur in agricultural land or even suburban and urban areas (Tattersall 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002). In northern Scandinavia, beavers may be found right up to the limit of the willow zone in the mountains, where knee-high willow bushes are the only woody vegetation and it is iced over for 8 months of the year. This is not preferred habitat, but they can survive there. In many places, beavers live both on the valley floor, and on the mountain plateau above (where it is wooded), with a break in distribution where streams flow down the steep valley sides. In general beavers should be able to live in almost any freshwater habitat where there are trees or shrubs and the gradient is not precipitous. However, patterns of recolonisation demonstrate a clear preference for still or slow, laminar water flow if it is available (Nowak 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002, D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006).
4007		habitat	eng	Beavers are adapted for a semi-aquatic life, using a variety of freshwater systems, including rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, lakes, and swamps. They generally prefer freshwater habitats surrounded by woodland, but may occur in agricultural land or even suburban and urban areas (Tattersall 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002). In northern Scandinavia, beavers may be found right up to the limit of the willow zone in the mountains, where knee-high willow bushes are the only woody vegetation and it is iced over for 8 months of the year. This is not preferred habitat, but they can survive there. In many places, beavers live both on the valley floor, and on the mountain plateau above (where it is wooded), with a break in distribution where streams flow down the steep valley sides. In general beavers should be able to live in almost any freshwater habitat where there are trees or shrubs and the gradient is not precipitous. However, patterns of recolonisation demonstrate a clear preference for still or slow, laminar water flow if it is available (Nowak 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002, Halley pers. comm. 2006).
4007		population	eng	By the beginning of the 20th century, the global population had been reduced to eight populations, totaling approximately 1,200 individuals (Halley and Rosell 2002). Protection (beginning with a hunting ban implemented in Norway in 1845), natural spread and reintroductions have resulted in a rapid recovery in numbers and range, particularly in Europe. In 1998, the global population was estimated at 430,000 (Nolet and Rosell 1998), by 2002 it had reached at least 593,000 (Halley and Rosell 2002), and in 2006 the minimum estimate was 639,000 (D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). This is almost certainly a considerable underestimate, as both population and range are in rapid expansion (Halley and Rosell 2002, 2003; D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). Considerable further expansion in range and population, especially in western Europe and the lower Danube basin, can be expected. If current trends continue, the Eurasian beaver will be a fairly common mammal in much of Europe within the next few decades. However, populations in Asia are still considered small. In Mongolia, reintroductions have been successful and the population has reached 150, and in China the population has reached 800 (Halley and Rosell 2002, EMA Workshop 2006).
4007		population	eng	By the beginning of the 20th century, the global population had been reduced to eight populations, totalling approximately 1,200 individuals (Halley and Rosell 2002). Protection (beginning with a hunting ban implemented in Norway in 1845), natural spread and reintroductions have resulted in a rapid recovery in numbers and range, particularly in Europe. In 1998, the global population was estimated at 430,000 (Nolet and Rosell 1998), by 2002 it had reached at least 593,000 (Halley and Rosell 2002), and in 2006 the minimum estimate was 639,000 (D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). This is almost certainly a considerable underestimate, as both population and range are in rapid expansion (Halley and Rosell 2002, 2003; D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). Considerable further expansion in range and population, especially in western Europe and the lower Danube basin, can be expected. If current trends continue, the Eurasian beaver will be a fairly common mammal in much of Europe within the next few decades. <br/><br/>However, populations in Asia are still considered small. In Mongolia, reintroductions have been successful and the population has reached 150, and in China the population is about 700 (Halley and Rosell 2002, EMA Workshop 2006, Smith and Xie in press).<br/><br/>In Mongolia in 1964, the population size was estimated to consist of 100-150 individuals (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968), rising to 200 individuals by 1973 (Zevegmid and Dawaa, 1973). In 1991, surveys estimated there to be approximately 300 individuals along Bulgan and Hovd rivers (Stubbe <em>et al.</em>, 1991). The most recent population assessment was conducted in 2004, which recorded 40 lodges along Hovd River and estimated the population to consist of 130-150 individuals (Shar, 2005). Ten beaver settlements were recorded in the Tuvan section of Tes River in 2005 (A. Saveljev pers. comm.), and the Mongolian section of this river is believed to contain a similar beaver population (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Chinese subspecies of the Eurasian Beaver (C. f. birulai) is one of the rarest and least known aquatic mammals in China.  In the 1970s it was believed that only 100 animals remained in fewer than 20 family groups.  Currently, only one substantial population is known, at the Buergan River Beaver Reserve along the Xinjiang-Mongolian border - a narrow strip 50 km long and only 500 m wide.  Here the population is estimated to be only 500 animals, and only 700 may live in all of China.
4007		threats	eng	The beaver's historic decline was caused by over-hunting for fur, meat and castoreum (a secretion from the scent glands), combined with loss of wetland habitats. Beaver populations were severely reduced in most countries by mediæval times, but the species clung on in marshes and other inaccessible places until the advent of efficient steel traps and accurate firearms in the 17th century; and then through to the 19th century there was a rash of final extinctions for these reasons combined with drainage of many of the large marshland areas in which the species clung on (all of the European refugia where the species survived, except in Norway, are extensive marshlands). <br/><br/>Today, beaver populations in Europe are expanding rapidly, and there are no major threats (e.g. threats of a magnitude likely to cause decline at the regional level). Competitive exclusion of the native European beaver <em>C. fiber</em> by its American cousin <em>C. canadensis</em> may be a threat in parts of Finland and north-west Russia, but it is not a major threat regionally. In Europe North American beavers are now confined entirely to Finland and north-west Russia, where populations are increasing only slowly (due to heavy harvesting). The former population at a reservoir near Paris has been removed, and populations introduced to Poland and Austria have apparently gone extinct in competition with <em>C. fiber</em>, the opposite of what has tended to happen in Finland and north-west Russia (it has been suggested that, due to differences in the life history of the two species, Eurasian beavers may have a competitive advantage at more southerly latitudes, whilst North American beavers may be more successful further north: D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). There are no serious prospects of further introductions (Halley and Rosell 2002, D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). The two species do not interbreed (Tattersall 1999). Road kill is an important source of mortality for some populations (Tattersall 1999). Rapidly expanding beaver populations may come into conflict with humans in some areas, as they do some damage to forestry and crops. Such damages should be put into perspective: they tend to be less severe than those caused by other species such as deer and voles, but are noticed because beavers are a new and unfamiliar species in areas where they have been recently introduced (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, illegal hunting for skins, meat and castoreum still occurs in some areas such as the Tes River. Habitat loss through selective clear-cutting of willow, upon which this species relies for food and shelter is also a threat; this is known to be occurring along the Bulgan River and is leading to isolation of small populations and inbreeding. Pollution of water systems is also a threat. A hydroelectric dam in the Chinese section of the Bulgan River prevents migrations in this area (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, firewood gathering has depleted much of the forest on which the beavers need to subsist; additionally heavy grazing pressure has further reduced vegetation needed by beavers.
4007		threats	eng	The beaver's historic decline was caused by over-hunting for fur, meat and castoreum (a secretion from the scent glands), combined with loss of wetland habitats. Beaver populations were severely reduced in most countries by mediæval times, but the species clung on in marshes and other inaccessible places until the advent of efficient steel traps and accurate firearms in the 17th century; and then through to the 19th century there was a rash of final extinctions for these reasons combined with drainage of many of the large marshland areas in which the species clung on (all of the European refugia where the species survived, except in Norway, are extensive marshlands). <br/><br/>Today, beaver populations in Europe are expanding rapidly, and there are no major threats (e.g. threats of a magnitude likely to cause decline at the regional level). Competitive exclusion of the native European beaver <em>C. fiber</em> by its American cousin <em>C. canadensis</em> may be a threat in parts of Finland and north-west Russia, but it is not a major threat regionally. In Europe North American beavers are now confined entirely to Finland and north-west Russia, where populations are increasing only slowly (due to heavy harvesting). The former population at a reservoir near Paris has been removed, and populations introduced to Poland and Austria have apparently gone extinct in competition with <em>C. fiber</em>, the opposite of what has tended to happen in Finland and north-west Russia (it has been suggested that, due to differences in the life history of the two species, Eurasian beavers may have a competitive advantage at more southerly latitudes, whilst North American beavers may be more successful further north: D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). There are no serious prospects of further introductions (Halley and Rosell 2002, D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). The two species do not interbreed (Tattersall 1999). Roadkill is an important source of mortality for some populations (Tattersall 1999). Rapidly expanding beaver populations may come into conflict with humans in some areas, as they do some damage to forestry and crops. Such damages should be put into perspective: they tend to be less severe than those caused by other species such as deer and voles, but are noticed because beavers are a new and unfamiliar species in areas where they have been recently introduced (Halley and Rosell 2002).
4015		conservation	eng	This species is included on Appendix I of CITES. Hunting of all wildlife in Paraguay is officially prohibited. The species is also officially protected in Argentina, where its exportation, interprovincial traffic and commercial exploitation is illegal. Even so, the Chacoan peccary is heavily hunted for its meat everywhere it occurs and existing regulations prohibiting its hunting are ignored and unenforced (Taber 1993, Altrichter 2005). There are only two national parks within this species' range in Paraguay, the Defensores del Chaco (7,800 km²) and Teniente Enciso (400 km²). In Bolivia this species occurs in and around the huge Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (34,400 km²). In Argentina, the only protected areas containing Chacoan peccaries are Copo National Park (1,140 km²), in Santiago del Estero province, and other small provincial reserves.<br/><br/>The species has proved difficult to establish in captivity. In 1985, the Chacoan peccary was adopted for a Species Survival Plan (SSP) under the aegis of the Conservation Management Committee of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums. The following year, a captive breeding station was established at Estancia Toledo, near Filadelfia, in the central Paraguayan Chaco, with funding from the Foundation for Endangered Animals, the Zoological Society of San Diego, and the Lincoln Park Zoo. Of the total of 44 wild caught adult and juvenile animals obtained for 'Proyecto Tagua' 31 died in captivity (Byrd <em>et al</em>. 1988; Benirschke <em>et al</em>. 1990; Unger 1992; Brooks pers. comm.). However, by 1992 the herd had grown to 44 animals the majority of which were born in captivity. In 1996 a mixed group of 10 animals were imported into the United States from the Paraguayan colony.<br/><br/>Priority conservation actions recommended for this species are: upgrade and expand the existing protected areas system within the dry Chaco of Paraguay, Argentina and Bolivia; expand the private reserve system in the Chaco; establish an effective hunting ban on the species; develop an environmental education program; strengthen wildlife services in all three Chaco countries; improve and extend captive breeding initiatives; assess the feasibility of translocating wild caught peccaries into the national parks or other reserves from areas where the natural habitat is being destroyed; and conduct further research on various aspects of the Chacoan peccary's reproductive biology, behavior, ecology, range wide status, and future management needs both in the wild and in captivity (Taber 1993).
4015		distribution	eng	The Chacoan peccary is endemic to the dry Chaco of western Paraguay, south-eastern Bolivia and northern Argentina (Redford and Eisenberg 1992; Sowls 1984; Taber 1993). It has a total geographical range of approximately 140,000 km²  (Sowls 1984). In Paraguay, the species formerly occurred in all departments of the Chaco. In Argentina, Chacoan peccaries occurs in Chaco, Formosa, Salta and Santiago del Estero Provinces.  <em>C. wagneri</em> persists in the Bolivian dry Chaco in the departments of Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (Maffei <em>et al</em>., submitted)
4015		habitat	eng	The Chacoan peccary occurs in areas of low rainfall and high temperature and is restricted to the driest parts of the Gran Chaco biome (Sowls 1984, 1997). The prime habitat for the species is xerophytic thorn forest characterized by emergent trees, such as <em>Schinopsis lorentzii</em> and <em>Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco</em>; a dense shrub layer including <em>Ruprechtia triflora</em>, <em>Caparis</em> sp. and <em>Acacia</em> sp.; and a ground cover of bromeliads and cactii, such as <em>Opuntia</em> sp., <em>Cleistocactus baumannii</em> and <em>Eriocereus guelichii</em> (Mayer and Brandt 1982). Chacoan peccaries are also found at lower density in open woodland, characterized by trees such as <em>Tabebuia caraiba</em> and <em>Schinopsis balansae</em> (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Cactii, including <em>Cleistocactus</em>, <em>Eriocereus</em>, <em>Quiabentia</em> and at least two species of Opuntia, constitute the principal food of Chacoan peccaries. They also forage on the roots of bromeliads, fruit from various species of Acacia and Prosopis, and occasionally browse on forbs (Mayer and Brandt 1982; Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Chacoan peccaries lick and eat mineral rich soil from naturally occurring salt licks and leaf-cutter ant mounds. They also consume carrion on occasion and may even prey on small mammals.<br/><br/>Like the collared peccary, they are territorial and their home range sizes, based on convex polygons, measure about 1,100 ha and contain a core area of about 600 ha in the Paraguayan Chaco (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Density estimates vary from less than 1 individual/km² to as high as 9.2 individuals/km² (Mayer and Brandt, 1982). A study in the Paraguayan Chaco produced a density estimate of 0.43 individuals/ km² (1.1 individuals/sq mi) (Taber 1991). In the Argentine Chaco the density varied between 0.17 individuals/ km² in hunted sites to 0.44 individuals/ km² in non-hunted sites (Altrichter 2005). <br/><br/>Chacoan peccaries are diurnal and become active about sunrise, are active throughout the day and become inactive at dusk (Taber 1991). Reports of herd sizes in the Paraguayan Chaco vary between one and nine (Mayer and Brandt, 1982; Sowls, 1997), with an average of 4.5 (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, in hunted areas, average group sizes are smaller ranging from 1 to 4 (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993, Mayer and Brandt 1982, Altrichter and Boaglio 2004). <br/><br/>A slightly biased sex ratio in favour of males has been reported by Mayer and Brandt (1982) and Sowls (1984). Captive females in Paraguay (Proyecto Taguá, San Diego Zoo) gave birth between 1.2 and 8.3 years of age; younger females (<3 years old) usually had smaller litters than older females. They have one litter a year. Litter sizes in Paraguay have been reported to vary between one and four with averages of 2.72 (Mayer and Brandt, 1982; Brooks, 1992; Yahnke <em>et al</em>., 1997). Taber <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated litter size of 1.7 for a wild population and presumed that this small litter size resulted from low reproductive rate or high neonate mortality. The farrowing season extends from September through January. Maximum longevity is unknown, but Sowls (1984) estimated the age of some individuals, based on tooth cementum layers, as at least nine years. In captivity, animals have reached 10 years and 6 months. Gestation time in captivity has been found to be 151 days (Proyecto Tagua, San Diego Zoo).
4015		population	eng	Populations are fragmented within its limited geographical range and numbers of Chacoan peccary are declining. The species has disappeared from large areas of the Argentine Chaco where its original range has been reduced by approximately 40% (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Altrichter 2006). Its range has also been reduced in Bolivia (Maffei pers. comm.) and in the eastern Paraguayan Chaco (Neris <em>et al</em>. 2002). The total population size is unknown, but probably several thousand persist in the dry Chaco of Argentina and Bolivia and an estimated 5,000 individuals were estimated to survive in Paraguay in the early 1990’s (Taber 1993). Using estimates of density and remaining habitat for <em>Catagonus</em> in Argentina, M. Altricher (pers. comm.) estimated a population of 3,200 individuals in 2002. This was before the massive deforestation of the region for soy bean and cattle ranching started in 2003. In a recent study conducted in the Argentine Chaco, Altrichter and Boaglio (2004) found Chacoan peccary to be the rarest of the three species found in the area as well as being probably the most vulnerable to human disturbance.
4015		threats	eng	The decline in the range and numbers of Chacoan peccaries is probably due to a combination of factors. These factors include hunting by humans, habitat destruction, and disease with predation by large felids also a contributor (Taber 1989, 1991, 1993, Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Altrichter 2005). Of these, hunting pressure undoubtedly has the most negative impact on these animals. All peccary species in the Chaco in all three countries are vigorously hunted wherever they occur, even in national parks and reserve areas. Sowls (1984, 1997) has stated that the Chacoan peccary constituted one of the most important sources of bush meat in the areas where they were previously abundant. Chacoan peccary hides are thinner and much less valuable than those of the other peccary species. Fur buyers in Paraguay in 1988, for example, purchased <em>Catagonus</em> skins from settlers for about US$0.5 each compared to about US$8.0 for those of <em>Pecari tajacu</em> and US$5.0 for <em>Tayassu pecari</em> (Taber 1991). However, they still have been hunted and traded commercially. Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species. Although large tracts of intact bush survive, the rate of clearance for agriculture and cattle pasture in the Paraguayan Chaco has been estimated by some authorities as being as much as 1,500 km² annually (Sanjuro pers. comm.). A study in the Argentine Chaco found that Chacoan peccaries disappear when forest cover is reduced to less than 87% of the original cover (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004).<br/><br/>Estimated rates of decline are given below:<br/><br/>Argentina: 1972 to 2001, 588,900 ha (<em>c</em>. 20% of the forests) was deforested at a rate of 2.2% a year. Assuming this rate has continued, and will continue, this implies a 40% habitat loss over a given 18 year period (3 <em>Catagonus</em> generations). However, these total deforestation rates hide the impact of habitat degradation, which impacts virtually the whole area. Also, there are good reasons to believe that deforestation has greatly accelerated in the Argentine Chaco. The ongoing soy /commodity boom is having major impacts: e.g., over the last 10 years in the Chaco and Santiago del Estero provinces, soy cropland has grown from 284,000 ha to 1,513,000 ha. Some of this replaced smaller scale cotton cultivation, but most of this is new agro industrial expansions. This is putting tremendous pressure on remaining forest habitat. <br/><br/>Paraguay: One source reported that 45% of the dry forest was cut or selectively degraded by 1990. Since that time, approximately half of the area that had the largest <em>Catagonus</em> population existed in 1990 has now gone (A. Taber pers. comm.). The pressures of the habitat are not abating, and are probably increasing, particularly in the prime <em>Catagonus</em> habitat in Central Chaco (A. Taber pers. comm.). The species probably only hangs on in the fringes of this area, as the far west is too dry for the species, and the east too wet. Proposals for major irrigation schemes from the Paraguay River which would further expand deforestation in the Central Chaco, and allow limited expansion to areas further west, are being discussed. Also, dryland-adapted transgenic crops (especially soy bean) are allowing more land to be put under extensive agriculture, further encroaching on the species in its prime habitat.<br/> <br/>Bolivia: This situation is less clear in this country. The Kaa-Iya National Park in the north of the range probably stabilises the situation there. It is suspected that the conditions in the dry Chaco in Chuquisaca and Tarija are likely to be similar to those in the Argentine Chaco with increasingly extensive agriculture.<br/><br/>Based on the above observations, it is believed that an estimated present and future 50% loss of Chacoan peccary habitat over a three-generation time period (18 years) is defensible. Also, hunting pressures have probably not abated, further increasing the likelihood of such a rate of decline.
4037		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Catopuma&#160;badia</span>). It is fully protected by national legislation across most of its range. Hunting and trade are prohibited in Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It has been confirmed to occur in the following protected areas:  <br/><br/>Sabah: Danum Valley Conservation Area (Nowell and Jackson 1996)<br/><br/>Sarawak - Gunung Mulu National Park (Dinets 2003), Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/>Kalimantan: Gunung Palung National Park, Bentuang Karimum National Park (Meijaard 1997), Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007)
4037		distribution	eng	Found only on the island Borneo, where its distribution is poorly known, with increasing but relatively few recent records (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Meijaard 1997, Dinets 2003, Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003, Hearn and Bricknell 2003, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2004, Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005, Azlan and Sanderson 2007, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007, Azlaand Sanderson 2007).<br/><br/>Historically it probably occurred islandwide (Meijaard 1997, Azlan and Sanderson 2007).  However, there are still no confirmed records from Brunei (J. Sanderson pers. comm. 2008).  Meijard's (1997) records went up to 500 m elevation, and it may range up to 800 m (Giman and Boeadi, Indonesia mammal assessment, 2006) or higher - there is an unconfirmed record from 1,800 m on Mt. Kinabulu (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).<br/><br/>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).
4037		habitat	eng	The Borneo bay cat appears to be forest dependent, with records from hill and lowland forest as well as swamp forest (Meijaard 1997, Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003, Hearn and Bricknell 2003, Azlan and Sanderson 2007, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007).  It has been recorded from regenerating logged forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Hearn and Bricknell 2003, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2004, Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005a).  It has never been studied and there is no information about its diet (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  It occurs in both a reddish and grey colour phase.  Observations and camera trap photos have occurred at mid-day (Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007), early morning (Hearn and Bricknell 2003), and at night (Dinets 2003, Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005a).
4037		population	eng	The Borneo bay cat appears relatively rare compared to sympatric felids, based on the paucity of historical as well as recent records.
4037		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to commercial logging and oil palm plantations are the major threat.  Oil palm plantations are likely to expand in the future as a result of the push for biofuels, and forest cover on the island of Borneo, if current deforestation rates continue, is projected to decline from 50% to less than one-third by 2020 (Rautner <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Wildlife traders are aware of the species' rarity, and bay cats have been captured illegally from the wild for the skin and pet markets (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2004, Azlan and Sanderson 2007).
4038		conservation	eng	<em>P. temminckii</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Catopuma temminckii</span>). It is fully protected over most of its range by National legislation. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Viet Nam and is regulated in Lao PDR. There is no legal protection outside protected areas in Bhutan (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Its range includes many protected areas.
4038		distribution	eng	The Asiatic golden cat has a similar range to its close relative Pardofelis marmorata: from the Himalayan foothills into China and Southeast Asia.  However, it has a larger range in China, like the clouded leopard, and it does not occur on the island of Borneo, where its other close relative, Pardofelis badia, occurs (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>
4038		habitat	eng	The Asiatic golden cat is primarily found in forest habitats, ranging from tropical and subtropical evergreen to mixed and dry deciduous forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Less frequently it is found in more open habitats such as shrub and grasslands (Choudhury 2007).  Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) found golden cats used closed forest and more open habitats in proportion to their occurrence, showing no significant preference.  Some studies have suggested it may be less common in montane forest:  in Sumatra's Kerinci Seblat National Park, all records for this species were from lowland forest with none from montane forest, unlike the clouded leopard and marbled cat (Holden 2001).  Mishra (2006) also found clouded leopard and marbled cat, but no Asiatic golden cat, in the hill forests of India's western Arunachal Pradesh province.  However, Wang (2007) obtained camera trap photos of the Asiatic golden cat at an elevation of 3,738 m in Bhutan's Jigme Sigye Wangchuk National Park in an area of dwarf rhododendron and grassland, an elevation record for the species.  <br/><br/>Activity readings from two radio-collared golden cats in Thailands's Phu Khieu National Park showed daytime and crepuscular activity peaks (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Forty-seven per cent of 15 camera trap records in Sumatra's Kerinci Seblat National Park were in daytime (Holden 2001).  This suggests that the species is not primarily nocturnal, as thought previously.  <br/><br/>An adult female Asiatic golden cat in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park had a home range of 32.6 km², overlapped 78% by a male whose home range was 47.7 km².  Golden cat home ranges were larger than clouded leopard home ranges, although they were similar in activity and mean daily distance moved (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>One confirmed scat contained the remains of Indochinese ground squirrel (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Scats from Sumatra contained rat and muntjac remains, and the stomach contents of a carcass in Thailand's Kaeng Krachan National Park included the remains of a small snake (Grassman 1998). <br/><br/>While the reddish-gold pelage the cat is named for is the most common form, there are also are spotted (Wang 2007) and melanistic morphs (Holden 2001, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).
4038		population	eng	Some surveys have found more records for the Asiatic golden cat than for some other sympatric small felids (including the marbled cat, flat-headed cat, and fishing cat), suggesting that it may be more common than previously thought (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. Sanderson pers. comm. 2007).  Other survey efforts, however, have turned up fewer records (Rao <em>et al.</em> 2005, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Given that its distribution (Nowell and Jackson 1996), home range (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and camera trap encounter rates (Holden 2001, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006) are similar to those of clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa and Neofelis diardi diardi), it may be of roughly equivalent abundance.
4038		threats	eng	The Asiatic golden cat is threatened primarily by habitat loss to deforestation, but it threatened by indiscriminate snaring (Holden 2001), and there is illegal trade in its pelt and bones (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It has been reported killed for depredating livestock, including poultry but also larger animals such as sheep, goats and buffalo calves (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  The Asiatic golden cat is capable of taking larger prey, and is threatened by declining ungulate abundance in many parts of Southeast Asia.
4051		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Warner Lake Basin of south-central Oregon, Lake County, near the California/Nevada line, and in the Nevada portion of Twelvemile Creek, Nevada.
4055		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. The harvesting of this species from the wild needs to be managed sustainably.
4055		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Coquimbo (at approx. 29°S) to Puerto Montt (40°S), in Chile. It has an altitudinal range of 0-500m asl.
4055		habitat	eng	It occurs in large, deep ponds, and small reservoirs, and breeding takes place in ponds. It tolerates some minor disturbance of its habitat, but requires permanent ponds to persist.
4055		population	eng	Populations of this species are currently declining in central Chile; it is practically absent in ponds and lagoons close to towns where it was very abundant only a few years ago. However, populations are apparently common and stable in southern Chile.
4055		threats	eng	The main threats include harvesting as an exotic food source, and water pollution due to agriculture. Introduced trout and the drainage of ponds for development and agriculture are additional threats. Two wild-caught individuals from Chile were imported into Canada via the United States in 2005 for the pet trade (H. Gerson, pers. comm. 2008).
4064		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
4064		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Bolivia, north Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay (Dunnum, 2003; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). There are no records from French Guiana (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is found from 400 to around 3,000 m asl (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000, J. Vargas pers. comm.). The presence of this species needs to be confirmed in lowland Peru (J. Dunnum, pers comm.).
4064		habitat	eng	This species primarily is associated with savannas and other open habitats (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is diurnal and crepuscular, living in burrows with many entrances and shared by several individuals (Lord, 1999). In the Bolivian Yungas it occurs in disturbed areas. Asher <em>et al.</em> (2004), investigated populations of single males with one to two females, these males had a home range 880 +/- 217 m² and females 549 +/- 218 m². Gestation time is ~62 days with 1-5 (average 2) pups per litter, with several litters per year and births generally occurring between September and April (Gonzalez, 2001).
4064		population	eng	In Venezuela and Bolivia it is common (Lord, 1999), population densities ranged from 12.5 to 38 per hectare (Asher <em>et al.</em>, 2004). In Ecuador it is rare (Tirira, in prep.). It is only known from a single record in Peru and Ecuador. In Peru from Bahuaja Sonene National Park, in Ecuador from Alao, near Sangay National Park (Schliemann, 1981).
4064		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Locally, the species is sometimes hunted for food.
4065		conservation	eng	There are some national and state reserves within its range, but there are no known records within these areas. More research is needed on taxonomy for this species.
4065		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal areas of southeastern Brazil (Ximenez, 1980).
4065		habitat	eng	The species is native to the Atlantic Forest and has been introduced to grasslands. It prefers forest borders.
4065		population	eng	This rodent is widespread in grasslands. There has been some research on its population and taxonomy classifications.
4065		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes hunted for food, although this is not a major threat.
4066		conservation	eng	The species occurs at least in one protected area in Uruguay (Laguna de Castillos) and at least four in Brazil. Further taxonomic studies of this species are required.
4066		distribution	eng	This rodent occurs from Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina States, in Brazil, to eastern Uruguay (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It occurs in the wetlands of southeast Uruguay and close to the Atlantic coast in southern Brazil,  (Ximenez 1980).
4066		habitat	eng	It occurs along the margins of glens between hills and in association with <em>Cardo caraguata</em> (<em>Eryngium spp.</em>) (Gonzalez 2001). It inhabits grasslands and forest borders (Christoff, A. pers. comm.). The species has a low reproductive rate with gestation greater than two months and usually only 1-2 young (Kraus and Rodel 2004). Reproduction is seasonal (Kraus <em>et al.</em> 2005).
4066		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance, but the species is adaptable to grasslands and is assumed to have a stable population.
4066		threats	eng	Intentional burning of vegetation for cattle ranching is a major threat.
4068		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from 12 protected areas in Peru; it is present in at least two protected areas in Bolivia. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
4068		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peru, highland Bolivia, northwestern Argentina, and northeastern Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs from around 3,000 to around 4,300 m asl (Dunnum, 2003; Emmons, 2001). It is not present in the Yungas of the eastern versant of the Andes or the lowlands of Bolivia (Dunnum, 2003).
4068		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in moist habitats with scattered rocks and close to dense riparian habitats (including boggy areas). In Peru the species lives in thick grass or brushy grasslands and disturbed gallery forest in which it makes distinct runways. It is present in both primary and disturbed habitats. In Argentina it has been reported to live in burrows with multiple entrances. In captivity the gestation period is 63.3 days, litters average 1.9 (range 1-4), and the average age of first reproduction is two months (Weir, 1974; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
4068		population	eng	It is considered a common species, although there are not many records from Argentina.
4068		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
4074		conservation	eng	The largest single population is currently in the Una Biological Reserve contiguous with the Una Widlife Refuge (a buffer zone around the Biological Reserve), but a further protected area will be decreed in 2008: the Serra da Lontras National Park (16,800 ha), west of the biological reserve.<br/><br/>Also present in Condurú State Park (8,941 ha); Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (495 ha); and Canavieiras Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (500 ha).<br/><br/>An International Committee for the Conservation and Management for the Atlantic forest capuchin monkeys, <em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> and <em>C. robustus</em>, was created in 1992 by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) to promote field studies and organize a captive population from the numerous individuals kept as pets. It languished, but was resuscitated in 2002 (Santos and Lernould 1993; Baker and Kierulff 2002), and took in a Working Group created in 2003 for Barbara Brown?s Titi Monkey (<em>Callicebus barbarabrownae</em>) and Coimbra-Filho?s Titi Monkey (<em>C. coimbrai</em>) (both also occurring in north-eastern Brazil).<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
4074		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> is restricted to the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia, Brazil, north of the Rio Jequitinhonha, at least as far north as the Rio Paraguaçú near Salvador, but probably historically throughout the entire area west of, and north to, the Rio São Francisco (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1991/1992; Silva Jr, 2001).
4074		habitat	eng	Tropical lowland and submontane forest in of the Atlantic coast of Brazil. Arboreal quadrepeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>, 2004; Jack 2007). Also dry, semideciduous forest patches in the western part of its range in Bahia.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals in their diet, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top-ranking male being dominant to the top-ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). No field studies have been carried out examining particularly the behaviour and ecology of this species.
4074		population	eng	Rylands (1982) estimated the density at Una, Bahia, at 0.72 groups/km² or 10.87 individuals/km².
4074		threats	eng	This species is subject to very high rates of habitat loss and is heavily hunted (Santos <em>et al</em>. 1987; Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1992/1993).
4091		distribution	eng	<em>Cecilioides eulima</em> is endemic to Madeira.
4092		conservation	eng	This species used to occur on Mt. Data National Park, but does not anymore. It does, however, occur in a number of other protected areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4092		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and restricted to the Central Cordillera in northern Luzon. This species is known only from four widely scattered localities ranging in elevation from 1,800-2,500 m (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Records are from high elevation forest in Benguet province and in Balbalasang, Kalinga province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
4092		habitat	eng	The species occurs in thick vegetation in high elevation transitional montane-mossy and mossy forest at 1,800 to 2,500 m (Sanborn 1952; Thomas 1898; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is also found in mosaic habitats created by landslides but is not tolerant to significant forest disturbance. It feeds on earthworms (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4092		population	eng	There is uncertainty about the population status of this species, though overall it may be modertately common (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4092		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as it occurs on high elevation montane areas where it is cold, wet and steep. There is some localized threat such as high altitude vegetable farming, but this takes place only in a small portion of their range.
4097		distribution	eng	<em>Celestus occiduus</em> was known from Jamaica.
4097		population	eng	The last record of this species was in 1840.
4097		threats	eng	The introduction of predatory species (e.g., mongooses) may have resulted in the extinction of the Jamaica Giant Galliwasp.
4112		conservation	eng	Retention of primary forest. Presumably the species occurs in some protected areas. This is true for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.
4112		distribution	eng	This species is found in South America. It ranges from Northeastern Peru to South Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana (Simmons 2005).
4112		habitat	eng	This bat tends to roost in hollow trees. Aerial insectivore. It appears to be a slow flier and has a rather regular pattern of foraging in its home range, a feature shared with other emballonurids (Eisenberg 1989). Forages in beats, with a slow, fluttering flight. They have been noted flying in late afternoon. Found in mature rainforest and secondary forest (Emmons and Feer 1997).
4112		population	eng	This species is poorly known; apparently it is uncommon everywhere in its geographic range (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
4112		threats	eng	Deforestation. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.
4131		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas around the island of Ascension. Collecting this species from the wild has recently become prohibited by law (Endoh 2007). Most specimens in the aquarium trade in recent years originate from captive breeding.
4131		distribution	eng	This species is endemic the Ascension Island (to the UK) in the south central Atlantic Ocean. It has been recorded at depths from 15 m to at least 40 m depth.
4131		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species consists of rock and rubble (Allen 1980). It is an omnivore.
4131		population	eng	This is an abundant species. Groups of up to dozens of individuals can be seen below 100 ft (B. Bowen pers. comm. 2009).
4131		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species. No significant habitat loss, if any, is taking place or expected within its limited range.
4133		conservation	eng	Research actions. Found in protected areas.
4133		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela to Tamaulipas and Sinaloa (Mexico); also in Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,400 m (Reid, 1997). It does not occur in high zones in Guatemala (McCarthy pers. comm.).
4133		habitat	eng	This species can be found in deciduous and evergreen forest; it is most common in dense second growth and low, seasonally flooded forest, where it is sometimes abundant. In deciduous forest, it is often caught in mist nets set over small pools of water (Reid, 1997). It is also found in dry forest, gallery forest, plantations, and gardens. Apparently adapts well to extremely disturbed habitats and can live in city parks and scrubby forest near cane fields. It roosts in vine tangles and dense foliage. Males roost singly or in groups of two or three; a number may be dispersed around the same tree. Females roost in dense clusters. While roosting, the mask of skin in pulled up tightly completely over the face and forehead and covers the horizontal flaps of the ears; a ridge across the crown holds it in place and/or forms an air channel for breathing. It flies rapidly like big, heavy beetles, with a wobbly motion, sometimes with the body vertical to the ground (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Activity starts soon after sunset but is curtailed around full moon. This bat feeds on fruit, possibly by biting ripe fruits and sucking the juice. The facial folds may be used to direct juice to the mouth. Captives will accept green fruits, however, little is known of their feeding behavior in the wild (Snow <em>et al.</em>, 1980; Reid, 1997).
4133		population	eng	It is rare to uncommon, but widespread and with a wide habitat range (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997).<br/>May be locally abundant when there is fruit available (Miller pers. comm.)
4133		threats	eng	No major threats.
4134		conservation	eng	Additional data on distribution, populations, habitat and threats is urgently needed for this species. The priority should be for fresh searches across its known and likely range. Once fresh data is obtained any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
4134		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Sikkim in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Myanmar (Fraser 1936). Existing records from China (Needham 1930) appear to refer to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalaeschna</span> species, although it is likely to occur in Yunnan, as well as other north east Indian provinces and Bhutan.
4134		habitat	eng	This is a montane species, but nothing else appears to have been recorded on its habitat requirements.
4134		population	eng	There are few records of this species, but this may be due to a lack of expert sampling across much of its known range, and the habits of the species rather than genuine rarity.
4134		threats	eng	Without more information on the habitat requirements of this species it is not possible to do more than guess at any threats it might face.
4135		distribution	eng	Recorded to occur in Lake Lanao.
4137		conservation	eng	In Zanzibar, the revised version of the Aders' Duiker Species Recovery Plan (SRP) constitutes a framework for conservation of the species (Finnie 2002). In Kenya, a conservation and recovery plan has been proposed by Kanga (2002a).<br/><br/>Aders' Duiker has been protected under Zanzibar law since 1919, while in Kenya Aders' Duiker is a protected species. <br/><br/>In Zanzibar, the newly designated Jozani-Chakwa Bay National Park has secured part of the Aders' Duiker range within a strictly protected area. Another important subpopulation in Kiwengwa Forest is now protected as a nature reserve. In Kenya, the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is designated as a National Park, part of which is a strict nature reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine whether a viable population persists in the Dodori National F.R.<br/><br/>Intensive fieldwork undertaken in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest by the Kenya Wildlife Service has involved population surveys for Aders' Duiker and other species as well as monitoring illegal human activities. In 2003, fieldwork also involved the removal of animal snares from Aders' Duiker habitat.<br/><br/>In Zanzibar a community wildlife management programme commenced in 1995 in an effort to reduce antelope hunting to a more sustainable level. Village Hunter Associations have been set up to manage local wildlife. This will be continued and expanded. Community Forest Management Agreements are in place for the eight villages surrounding Jozani Forest, and the programme has been extended to cover most of southern Unguja. Part of these agreements involves the designation of high protection zones that allow extremely limited use of forest products. All five major subpopulations are covered by some form of community protection.<br/><br/>Conservation education programmes have had some success in increasing awareness in rural areas in both Kenya and Zanzibar. However, in Zanzibar a lot of work is still required in urban areas, the main market for firewood.<br/><br/>An investigation into the feasibility and efficacy of a captive breeding programme on Zanzibar was undertaken in December 2001 (Finnie 2001). An in-country captive-breeding programme has also been proposed for Kenya (Kanga 2001).<br/><br/>Trophy hunting has also been suggested in Zanzibar as a conservation tool (Finnie and Ely 2001). However, for such a rare species, the likely success of this programme must be investigated thoroughly.<br/><br/>The status of Aders? Duiker needs to be monitored closely so the efficacy of the recovery plans can be judged and, if necessary, altered. A simple research programme to understand more about the behavioural and population ecology of Aders? Duiker is necessary.
4137		distribution	eng	Aders? Duiker occurs on the main island of Unguja, Zanzibar, as a near endemic since, although the species has been described by Kingdon (1982) as widespread in the forests, woodland and thickets north of Mombasa (Kenya) ? almost up to the Somali border, in the light of rapidly shrinking suitable habitat, it would appear the population has succumbed to a severe decline in numbers. In the Arabuko ? Sokoke Forest, northwest of Kilifi (Kenya), the species is still present, but very few substantiated sightings are made each year. This forest covers approximately 416.8 km². In 2004, what is thought to be an Aders? Duiker was sighted in the Dodori National F.R. north of the Tana River Delta on the north Kenya coast (Andanje and Wacher 2004).<br/><br/>There is a possibility that Aders? Duiker may have once occurred on Fundo Island, off the coast of Pemba Island (Williams 1998)) and is reported to have been introduced on to Funzi Island, Pemba (Kingdon 1997), but has since become extinct on both these islands. Archer and Mwinyi (1995) mention, "unconfirmed?(but) reliable reports (which) indicate a thriving population on Tumbatu Island". Further confirmation of this is yet to be forthcoming.<br/><br/>In February 2000, five Aders? Duikers were translocated to Chumbe Island from mainland Zanzibar, where a female was already in place.
4137		habitat	eng	In Zanzibar, Aders? Duiker inhabits tall, undisturbed coral rag thicket known locally as msitu mkubwa (Archer 1994) of the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic (XIII). It is usually found singly, sometimes in pairs or trios and often, when encountered, may be following a troop of Sykes (<em>Cercopithecus mitis albogularis</em>) or Kirk's Red Colobus (<em>Procolobus kirkii</em>) monkeys feeding on discards and dislodged edibles from the canopy above (Swai 1983;  Imani  pers. comm. to Williams 1998). <br/><br/>Williams <em>et al.</em> (1996) found that Aders? Duiker has very specific habitat requirements. They were only found in older growth thicket areas and the highest population densities (11.4±5.18 per km²) were recorded in undisturbed high thicket. In contrast, Kanga (1999) did encounter the occasional Aders? in secondary thicket. In the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Aders? Duiker inhabits <em>Cyanometra</em> forest, one of three major habitat types dictated by local soils.<br/><br/>Aders? Duiker appears to be loosely diurnal (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1996), with a very acute sense of hearing and possibly smell (Archer 1994, Williams 1998). Aders? is a browser selecting for dicotyledenous leaves, seeds, sprouts, buds and fruits (Swai 1983). Territories are maintained by facial gland secretions on prominent twigs and faecal heaps (Swai 1983). No formal study of behavioural or ecological allopatric separation of Aders? Duiker with other small antelope has yet been attempted. Moreover, little is known about the population dynamics of this species or of its reproductive biology. Williams (in press) summarizes the available knowledge on the species.
4137		population	eng	To date, three surveys have been carried out within Zanzibar. The first in 1982 (Swai 1983) estimated the Aders? Duiker population to be in the region of 5,000 individuals. A second, more detailed survey undertaken in 1995 (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1996) placed the population at below 2000. The populations were shown to be located in five main subpopulations with varying degrees of interconnectedness: Kiwengwa Forest in the north, localities in the central Jozani-Chwaka Bay area and Mtende in the south. A third survey carried out in 1999 (Kanga 1999) placed the population at 614±46 within the same study area as Williams <em>et al.</em> (1996). This represents an 87.7±0.7% decrease in the calculated population size in 17 years. However, as each survey method used different methodologies, the results are not directly comparable. Nevertheless, it is evident that there has been a significant decline in the population in recent decades. <br/><br/>The Kenyan population in Arabuko-Sokoke is probably even closer to extinction. A figure of around 500 individuals was estimated in 1999 based on a drive-count survey. However, this figure was extrapolated from just three individuals and is extremely approximate (Kanga 2002b). Recent surveys have only sighted very low numbers (three in 1999, two in 2002 and two in 2003) (Kanga 2002a, 2002b and 2003).
4137		threats	eng	The major threats to Aders' Duiker are hunting and habitat loss.<br/><br/>There has been a long tradition of hunting in Zanzibar and Kenya. In Zanzibar, there is likely to have been an increase in hunting pressure following the revolution of 1964 after which enforcement of the wildlife laws became largely non-existent. It would appear that, partly as a result of hunting, the mini-antelope populations of Zanzibar and, especially Aders? Duiker, have undergone long-term declines. The Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry (DCCFF) began to address the hunting situation in Zanzibar in 1994. Although hunting has come under an increasing level of control in Zanzibar (both at the village and governmental level), it remains a significant threat at present (Finnie 2002). In the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest hunting and trapping are common. Over 2,600 households live within 2 km of the forest and at least 33% carry out hunting and/or trapping (FitzGibbon <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is assumed that the high level of trapping represents a significant threat to the continued existence of Aders? Duiker in Kenya.<br/><br/>In Zanzibar there has been a substantial amount of deforestation and forest degradation over the last 30 years. This has led to loss of habitat for Aders? Duiker, but also severe habitat fragmentation. Firewood is the primary source of income for a significant proportion of people living near the forest (Ely <em>et al</em>. 2000) and there are few alternative means of income generation. Habitat destruction is probably the most significant threat to Aders? Duiker survival on Zanzibar.<br/><br/>The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is one of the last major remnants of lowland forests on the East African coast, indicating the massive loss of habitat suffered by Aders? Duiker. Illegal wood-cutting continues to modify Aders? Duiker habitat and is assumed to negatively impact habitat quality. Wood-cutting continued to increase between surveys undertaken in 1998 and 2002 (Kanga 2002a). It is likely that habitat destruction will constitute the most difficult threat to address in terms of Aders? Duikers? future security.
4138		conservation	eng	Major and generally stable populations occur in areas such as Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Bangassou (Central African Republic), Monte Alen (Equatorial Guinea), Lope, Minkebe and other relatively undisturbed forests (Gabon), and Odzala, Nouabale-Ndoki and Lake Tele-Likouala (Congo-Brazzaville) (East 1999).
4138		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Central Africa in moist lowland forests of south and south-eastern Cameroon, south-western Central African Republic, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and north and south-western Congo (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Feer and Mockrin in press).
4138		habitat	eng	Found in areas with relatively undisturbed or primary forests, but also present in logged forest with dense undergrowth; sometimes recorded in secondary forest and farm-bush (East 1999; Feer and Mockrin in press).
4138		population	eng	it remains widespread and locally common and is frequently the most abundant medium-sized duiker species in undisturbed areas, but its populations are generally reduced to very low levels where hunting pressure is high (East 1999). Densities are summarized by Wilson (2001) and Feer and Mockrin (in press).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 382,000. Population trends are generally stable in the core areas of its range where human densities are low, but declining elsewhere.
4138		threats	eng	The primary threats to the survival of the species are habitat loss due to human settlement and expansion of agriculture and hunting (especially through the use of snares). In some areas where the hunting pressure and human disturbance is high, these factors have caused localized reductions in numbers to very low levels.
4139		conservation	eng	The Bay Duiker occurs in a number of protected areas including: Sapo (Liberia), Kakum (Ghana), Campo, Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Bangassou (Central African Republic), Monte Aien (Equatorial Guinea), Lope, Minkebe and other forests (Gabon), Odzaia and Nouabate-Ndoki-Kabo (Congo-Brazzaville) and lturi, Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko and Salonga (Congo-Kinshasa) (East 1999; Wilson 2001).<br/>Listed in CITES Appendix II.
4139		distribution	eng	The Bay Duiker formerly occurred throughout the equatorial lowland forests of West and Central Africa, extending to a limited extent into forest patches in the adjoining forest-savanna mosaic. Its range stretches from Guinea-Bissau to the Rwenzori Mts, the Albertine Rift and Lake Tanganyika, and south to north-east Angola to about 11°S; there are no confirmed records from Gambia, Benin or Nigeria, west of the Cross River (Kingdon and Feer in press, and references therein). Formerly occurred in Uganda, but now extirpated (East 1999).
4139		habitat	eng	Inhabits primary and relatively unmodified equatorial forests ranging from lowland to mid elevations. While it shows a preference for high primary rainforest, they may occupy patches of forest within savanna mosaics; also occurs in old farm-bush and old secondary forest (Kingdon and Feer in press).
4139		population	eng	Population densities are summarized by Wilson (2001) and Kingdon and Feer (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 725,000. While its numbers are generally stable in the less disturbed forests where hunting pressures are relatively low, its overall numbers are in decline because of loss of habitat and over-hunting for meat in other parts of its range (East 1999).
4139		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include bushmeat hunting, which takes place across its range (using both cable snares and nets) and habitat loss and degradation (particularly in the face of expanding human settlement), especially given its preference for primary forest.
4140		conservation	eng	The long-term survival of Jentink’s duiker is closely linked to the future of the remaining blocks of primary forest, in particular Tai National Park and Sapo National Park, and other key areas such as Krahn-Bassa and Grebo National Forests in Liberia, Cavaiiy-Gouin Forest Reserve in Côte d'Ivoire and Western Area Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone (East 1999).<br/>Listed on CITES Appendix I.
4140		distribution	eng	Confined to the western part of the Upper Guinean forest block, from Sierra Leone (where only positively reported for the first time in 1989) through Liberia to western Côte d’Ivoire; there are no confirmed records from Guinea (East 1999; Hoppe-Dominik in press).
4140		habitat	eng	Jentink’s Duiker formerly occurred widely in primary forest; it also enters secondary growth and farm bush adjacent to high forest, and in Liberia was stated to be a significant crop pest by rural communities in some areas of the south-east (East 1999).
4140		population	eng	This large duiker appears to be uncommon/rare throughout its range. East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 3,500, but Wilson (2001) doubted whether there were even more than 2,000 animals left throughout the range. The population trend is downwards except for a few remote areas where forest destruction and hunting pressures are lower (e.g., Sapo National Park), and the few areas where there is effective protection.
4140		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are widespread forest destruction (due to, for example, logging and human settlement) and hunting for meat.
4141		conservation	eng	Important protected areas for this species include Lopé Reserve (Gabon), Monte Alen N.P. (Equatorial Guinea), Dzangha-Ndoki N.P. (CAR), Odzala N.P. (Congo), and Kahuzi-Biega N.P., Maiko N.P. and Okapi Faunal Reserve (DR Congo). However, while some of these areas receive moderate to high levels of protection and management (e.g., Dzanga-Sangha-Dzanga-Ndoki, Lope, Odzala), others offer little or no protection against the expansion of logging, settlement and meat hunting.
4141		distribution	eng	The White-bellied Duiker ranges in the west from southern Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, through Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, northern and south-western Republic of Congo, and extreme south-western Central African Republic, and eastwards, north of the Congo River, to north-east DR Congo (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Hart in press). There are no confirmed records from Cabinda (Angola), south-eastern Central African Republic or Uganda (Hart in press).
4141		habitat	eng	Prefers moist lowland equatorial forests and mature closed-canopy forest; also present in older secondary forests, but absent from swamp forest, gallery forest, forest-savanna mosaics and cleared areas. It appears to prefer mono-dominant stands of <em>Gilbertiodendron</em> forest in areas such as Nouabale-Ndoki in Congo-Brazzaville and the lturi Forest in DR Congo (Hart in press).
4141		population	eng	This species generally occurs at lower densities than other medium-sized duikers, and is uncommon or rare in many areas where it occurs (Wilson 2001, Hart in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 287,000 animals. Like most other duikers of the Central African lowland equatorial forests, its numbers are generally stable in areas remote from settlement, but decreasing elsewhere because of forest degradation and bushmeat hunting.
4141		threats	eng	The major threat to this species, especially given its occurrence at low densities, is likely to be hunting (both with snares and nets), and it is one of the first species to drop out of the small ungulate fauna in areas subject to heavy snare pressure (Hart in press).
4142		conservation	eng	It occurs in virtually all protected areas within its range and is well represented in areas such as Sapo (Liberia), Taï (Côte d’Ivoire) and Kakum, Bia and Nini-Suhien (Ghana).
4142		distribution	eng	Maxwell’s Duiker formerly occurred throughout the moist lowland forests of West Africa, extending into the adjoining savannas (East 1999). It ranges from western Gambia and south-west Senegal east to the Cross River in Nigeria (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Nett and Newing in press).
4142		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist lowland forests (primary, secondary forests and plantations) and more locally within riverine forests, forest patches and forest-savanna mosaics. Much of its original habitat has been destroyed by the spread of settlement and agriculture, but Maxwell's Duiker are particularly adaptable to dense thickets, farm-bush habitats, and it still occurs locally in areas with thick undergrowth or other suitable cover. Thus, it has probably benefited from the destruction of primary forests by adapting well to disturbed habitats and remains widespread, occurring in primary and secondary vegetation and often surviving in close proximity to settlement.
4142		population	eng	Generally abundant throughout the Guinean forest zone. It is the most common duiker species in Côte d’Ivoire, where Newing (2001) recorded a density of 79 / km² in a mixed, hunted farmland near Taï N.P.<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 2,137,000, likely a conservative estimate. Despite its resilience to hunting pressure and its adaptability to degraded forest habitats, its numbers show a general tendency to decrease in many areas, especially as there are few protected areas within its range which receive effective levels of protection and management.
4142		threats	eng	While much of its original habitat has been modified or destroyed by the spread of agricultural settlement, it adapts to derived savannas and farm bush. Its major threats are human population growth and extensive hunting for bushmeat throughout its range states. It does show considerable resilience to hunting pressure, but not to intense poaching; for example, in the Comoé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire, high levels of poaching led to numbers of Maxwell’s Duiker declining by more than 90% within 20 years (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001).
4143		conservation	eng	The Blue Duiker occurs in large, generally stable numbers in many protected areas within the core of its range, e.g., Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Dzanga-Ndoki (Central African Republic), Monte Aien (Equatorial Guinea), Lope and Gamba (Gabon), Odzala, Nouabale-Ndoki, Lake Tele-Likouala and Conkouati (Congo-Brazzaville) and the Okapi reserve, Maiko, Kahuzi-Biega and Salonga (Congo-Kinshasa), not to mention several protected areas in South Africa.<br/><br/>The Blue Duiker should continue to survive in large numbers and provide an important source of protein to human populations in the Central African forest zone, as long as human population densities remain low to moderate over extensive parts of its range.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
4143		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in central, eastern and southern Africa, from the Cross River in Nigeria to south-east Sudan and southwards to central Angola, and remnant forests and thickets in Zambia, Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe, and parts of central Mozambique. In South Africa, this species is mainly confined to the evergreen forest and thicket along the coast from northern KwaZulu-Natal to the eastern Western Cape province; there are no confirmed records from Swaziland and none from southern Mozambique, suggesting a break in distribution between their South African range and eastern Zimbabwe and central Mozambique. Also present on the islands of Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Hart and Kingdon in press).
4143		habitat	eng	The Blue Duiker thrives in a wide range of forested and wooded habitats, including primary and secondary forests, gallery forests, dry forest patches, coastal scrub farmland and regenerating forest from sea level up to 3,000 m asl (Hart and Kingdon in press). They can persist in small patches of modified or degraded forest and thicket, even on the edge of urban centres.
4143		population	eng	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of more than 7,000,000 animals, likely a conservative figure. Protected areas comprise only a small part of its total range, but its core populations are generally stable apart from areas where subsistence and commercial meat-hunting pressures are exceptionally high (East 1999).
4143		threats	eng	The species is subject to extensive hunting for bushmeat throughout its range states, and is arguably the most important wild ungulate economically and ecologically in Africa (Wilson 2001). However, it withstands hunting pressure better than most of the larger duikers. Furthermore, unlike many of the other forest duikers, Blue Duikers tolerate and even thrive in a range of human-modified habitats, even in the vicinity of settlement, and often persist well in small habitat patches (Hart and Kingdon in press). Nonetheless, some local populations may be subject to declines or extirpation in the face of one or both of these threats (e.g., see Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000).
4144		conservation	eng	The Natal Red Duiker is well represented in several well-managed protected areas such as Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), Maputo Game Reserve (Mozambique), Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, Hluhluwe-iMfolozi and Ndumo G.R. (South Africa) (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press).<br/><br/>There is a need for further taxonomic work to investigate the status of this species relative to Harvey's Red Duiker.
4144		distribution	eng	The Natal Red Duiker formerly occurred widely in coastal and riverine forests and thickets, escarpments and montane forests from south-eastern Tanzania to north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press). There are no confirmed records of this species from Zimbabwe or Zambia; East (1999) shows the species occurring in north-east Zambia and northern Malawi, but these records relate to Harvey’s Duiker (see Hoffmann and Bowland in press, and references therein).
4144		habitat	eng	Inhabits evergreen forest, tropical/subtropical forest patches, coastal scrub, and riverine thickets. In north-east KwaZulu-Natal, they occur up to about 200 m elevation (Rowe-Rowe 1994).
4144		population	eng	Bowland (1990) recorded densities varying from 1/0.5-1.0 ha in favourable habitat (such as at St. Lucia) to 1/2.5-5.0 ha in less favourable areas. East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 42,000, although actual numbers could be considerably greater. Population trend is gradually downwards over much of the species’ range, although a substantial part of the range occurs in Mozambique, where an overall recovery in wildlife populations is likely to include this duiker (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press).
4144		threats	eng	Natal Red Duiker have disappeared from large parts of their former range, largely as a result of the loss of suitable habitat in the face of expanding human settlement and agriculture, as well as hunting (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press). Nonetheless, it remains locally common within its former range.
4145		conservation	eng	The Black Duiker occurs in several protected areas, such as Sapo N.P. (Liberia), Western Area F.R. (Sierra Leone), Taï N. P. and Comoé N. P. (Côte d’Ivoire) and Bia, Nini-Suhien and Kakum National Parks (Ghana) (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
4145		distribution	eng	The Black Duiker ranges in forested and formerly forested areas from south-western Guinea eastwards through Sierra Leone to the Niger River (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). There are no confirmed records from Benin or from Burkina Faso (East 1999), and no indication that the species has ever occurred east of the Niger River (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
4145		habitat	eng	The Black Duiker inhabits lowland rainforests of West Africa, the edge of primary forest, gallery forests, thicket, and riverine and deciduous forest patches within savannas. Black Duikers adapt quite well to a range of modified habitats throughout its range, including logged forest, secondary forest and farm bush, and it is among the most successful antelopes in colonizing farm-bush, and even (rarely) plantations (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
4145		population	eng	It is particularly common and successful in the central parts of its range, from Liberia to Ghana, but is rare or declining both east and west of this heartland. East (1999), assuming average population densities of 2.0/km² where it is known to be common/abundant and 0.2/km² elsewhere, produced an estimated total population of about 100,000. The population trend is probably gradually downwards over large parts of its range.
4145		threats	eng	Its adaptability to degraded and secondary forests and farm bush have enabled it to withstand the advance of settlement better than other medium-sized forest duiker species in West Africa and it still occurs quite widely within its historical range. Although it is a common component of bushmeat, it shows resilience to hunting and remains locally common. Given this, it is likely to persist in substantial numbers for considerably longer than most other medium-sized and large duiker species in West Africa. Nevertheless, it has already disappeared from the more densely settled parts of its former range (East 1999).
4146		conservation	eng	The Black-fronted Duiker is present in a number of protected areas such as Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Bangassou (Central African Republic), Lake Tele-Likouala and Nouabale-Ndoki (Congo-Brazzaville), Virunga, Ituri, Maiko, Kahuzi-Biega and Salonga (Congo-Kinshasa), Bwindi (Uganda), Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda) and Mount Kenya. Most of these key populations are stable. <br/><br/>Much of the Ugandan range of the Rwenzori Red Duiker is included within Rwenzori Mountains National Park. There is a need for further taxonomic work to determine whether this subspecies does indeed deserve recognition as a distinct species (as considered by Kingdon in press).
4146		distribution	eng	The Black-fronted Duiker occurs widely in swamp forests and alongside watercourses within the equatorial forest zone, from south-eastern Nigeria to the Albertine Rift, and in isolated montane forests in East Africa. The Nigerian population occurs in the Niger Delta and is probably disjunct from the nearest known population in Cameroon (East 1999; Plumptre in press). Isolated populations of this species were recorded on Mounts Cameroon, Kupe and Manengube by Bowden (1986), but Grubb <em>et al.</em> (2003) were not convinced these records relate to Black-fronted Duiker.<br/><br/><em>C. n. rubidus</em> is confined to the Ruwenzori Mtns at altitudes of 1,300-4,200 m, although it is thus far only recorded from the Ugandan side (Kingdon 1982, Grubb and Groves 2001; Kingdon in press).
4146		habitat	eng	Tropical forests of central Africa ranging from lowland swamp forest and seasonally flooded forest with poorly drained or permanently saturated soils (where it is frequently encountered along streams and in marshy areas) to montane forests, subalpine vegetation zones, bamboo, and moorland on Mounts Elgon and Kenya and the Aberdares (Kenya).
4146		population	eng	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 300,000. Population trends are probably downwards over large parts of the species’ range, except for areas where hunting pressures are low because of low human population densities and/or active protection. <br/><br/>East (1999) suggested that the population of the Rwenzori Red Duiker may number at least in the thousands.
4146		threats	eng	Like most other forest duikers, the distribution and numbers of this species have been reduced markedly in areas of dense human settlement and intensive hunting for bushmeat, but it survives in good numbers in areas where the level of human activities is relatively low (East 1999). <br/><br/>Although much of the range of the Rwenzori Red Duiker falls in a national park, the species nonetheless remains susceptible to snaring, and to habitat loss in the lower elevations of its range.
4148		conservation	eng	Brooke''s Duiker is now known to exist in reasonable numbers in only a few areas, such as Sapo National Park and some other forests in eastern Liberia and Tai National Park in south-western Côte d'Ivoire. <br/><br/>The mainland population of the nominate subspecies has only a few remaining strongholds, e.g., Korup National Park (Cameroon) and Cross River N.P. (Nigeria); it has also been recorded from several forest reserves (Forboseh <em>et al.</em> 2007). It remains relatively numerous on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). The effective protection of the Gran Caldera de Luba Scientific Reserve is crucial to the survival of this species on Bioko Island.<br/><br/>The distinctive White-legged Duiker is now known to be relatively widespread and numerous in Gabon, including protected areas such as Lope and the Gamba complex, and Odzala N. P. (Congo).<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
4148		distribution	eng	Ogilby’s Duiker is known from four separate populations within the equatorial forest zone (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Kingdon in press): <br/><br/><em>C. o. brookei</em> (Brooke's Duiker) ranges in Sierra Leone, south-east Guinea, Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, west of the Volta River;<br/><br/>The nominate subspecies occurs on Bioko Island, and then on the mainland in south-east Nigeria and south-west Cameroon;<br/><br/>The white-legged form of Ogilby’s Duiker, <em>C. o. crusalbum</em>, occurs in Gabon, mostly south of the Ogooué River, and is reported to occur in north-west Republic of Congo.
4148		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat is primary moist lowland forest, yet it is common in forest patches within the forest-savanna mosaic. It has been recorded in areas with a mix of high forest and logged forest, or high forest and secondary forest (but seems to be very rare in highly modified secondary forest). <br/><br/>On Bioko, the species is not only present in lowland forest but also in the island’s montane forest (perhaps to elevations exceeding 2,000 m) and in the higher altitude <em>Schefflera</em> forest zone, habitats which are normally occupied by other duiker species on the mainland (East 1999).
4148		population	eng	East (1999) produced an estimated total population of 35,000, including an estimated 5,000 Brooke’s Duikers, 12,000 <em>C. o. ogilbyi</em> and 18,000 of the white-legged form. Populations are probably decreasing throughout the ranges of Brooke’s Duiker and the nominate subspecies, with a few possible exceptions such as some protected areas. The White-legged Duiker’s numbers are probably stable in considerable parts of its range in Gabon and north-western Congo where human population densities are very low.
4148		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat destruction (due to agriculture, human settlement, and logging) and intense hunting pressure, mainly by snaring for bushmeat. Although hunting takes place throughout the range, this is particularly severe on Bioko (see summary of bushmeat studies in Kingdon in press).
4149		conservation	eng	The Red-flanked Duiker is well represented in protected areas (about half of the total population occurs in and around protected areas), generally in stable populations, with relatively large numbers in areas such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe, Haut Bandama and Marahoue (Ivory Coast), Mole, Bui and Digya (Ghana), Pendjari and W (Benin), Bouba Ndjida, Benoue and Faro (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris, Bamingui-Bangoran and Sangba (Central African Republic) and Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa) (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
4149		distribution	eng	This duiker formerly occurred throughout the band of savanna woodlands that stretches across West and Central Africa from Senegal and The Gambia to the Nile Valley (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Formerly widespread in north-western Uganda, as far east as the Albert Nile (East 1999); a small relic population was discovered in the Bugungu G.R., immediately south of the Murchison Falls N.P. (Allan 1996).
4149		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the savanna woodlands of west and central Africa. In Sierra Leone, it was formerly the commonest duiker species in the northern savanna and in farm bush on its southern edges; the replacement of primary forest with farm bush and other secondary vegetation has enabled this species to expand its range southwards to some extent (East 1999).
4149		population	eng	Published density estimates are summarized by East (1999), Wilson (2001) and Kingdon and Hoffmann (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 170,000. The population trend is gradually decreasing as human populations and hunting pressures continue to grow.
4149		threats	eng	The Red-flanked Duiker withstands heavy hunting pressure and probably still occurs reasonably widely throughout much of its historical range. It is common in most of the protected areas and most of the forest reserves within its range where suitable habitat remains, including areas where poaching has greatly reduced or eliminated most other antelope species. However, while it is more resilient than most other antelopes in the savanna zone, its numbers are generally in decline because of human disturbance and severe meat hunting pressures.
4150		conservation	eng	About one-third of this estimated population occurs within protected areas, including several in West Africa and Lobeke (Cameroon), Odzala and Nouabale-Ndoki (Republic of Congo), Bangassou (Central African Republic), Monte Allen N.P. (Equatorial Guinea), Bwindi and Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Kafue and Kasanka (Zambia), and Ituri (DR Congo) in Central Africa (East 1999; Kingdon and Lahm in press).<br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
4150		distribution	eng	The Yellow-backed Duiker has the widest distribution of the forest duikers, ranging from south-western Senegal through all West African countries to south-western Sudan and south-west Uganda, south to northern Angola (including Cabinda) and Zambia; they also occur in the Mau forest in south-west Kenya (Kingdon and Lahm in press). They are now considered extinct in The Gambia (East 1999), although whether they actually ever formerly occurred is uncertain (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). They were thought to have been extirpated from Rwanda (East 1999), but have been confirmed as surviving in the Nyungwe Forest (F. Mulindahabi and A. Vedder pers. comm.).
4150		habitat	eng	Throughout most of its range it occurs in moist lowland and montane forests, forest-savanna mosaics, riverine forests  gallery forest, thickets and isolated forest patches within moist savanna woodlands; also present in secondary forest, plantations and farm bush (East 1999; Kingdon and Lahm in press).
4150		population	eng	Density estimates are summarized by East (1999), Wilson (2001) and Kingdon and Lahm (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 160,000. The population trend is generally decreasing, except for some areas where hunting pressures are low because of low human populations and/or effective protection against poaching.
4150		threats	eng	In much of its range, especially outside protected areas, it has been reduced to low numbers or eliminated by forest destruction, and encroachment of human settlements, coupled with uncontrolled hunting for bushmeat. The species was formerly subject to strict taboos that once protected it in some parts of its range, and it is still considered a non-preferred game species in some areas; however, many of these taboos have broken down.
4151		conservation	eng	Udzungwa Mountains National Park is patrolled by anti-poaching rangers, and zero utilization of animals is permitted. However, the capture of Abbott's Duiker in snares is still occurring in Mwanihana Forest within the Park. With exception of Mount Kilimanjaro, where most of the forests were recently included in the National Park, there is no management in all the other sites.<br/><br/>Current work in the Southern Highlands employing hunters in environmental education initiatives in exchange for stopping hunting, has met with some success. It is too early to say if this will have a significant positive impact on Abbott?s duiker populations, although it may prove a valuable model for conservation at other sites and is being carried out alongside the use of Abbott's Duiker as a flagship species in village education programmes.<br/><br/>Major conservation management measures that would enhance the protection of Abbott's Duiker are the expansion of the Udzungwa Mountains N.P. to include important forests currently unprotected, in particular Uzungwa Scarp, Iyondo and Matundu. Also necessary is the inclusion of Mount Rungwe within the new Kitulo N.P. and greater law enforcement enacted in those areas that are currently not adequately protected (such as Southern Highland forests, Usambara and Uluguru Mountains). Critical forest connections, such as the degraded Bujingijila corridor linking Mount Rungwe to Livingstone forest in Kitulo, must be adequately protected.
4151		distribution	eng	A Tanzanian endemic found in a few montane and submontane forests and one lowland forest in the Eastern Arc Mountains, Mount Kilimanjaro and Southern Highlands. Formerly recorded from the forests patches along the top of the Gregory Rift between Babati and Mbulu. In the Eastern Arc, it is currently reported only from West Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains, while it probably disappeared from the Uluguru and East Usambara Mountains (Wilson 2001; Moyer 2003; Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press). Its status in other Eastern Arc forests is unknown; however, recent surveys failed to detect its presence in North Pare, South Nguru and Uluguru Mountains (F. Rovero, unpubl.). There are old records from the escarpment forests in eastern Njombe District (Swynnerton and Hayman 1951) but the status of these forests is uncertain and under investigation. Wilson (2001) noted that Abbott's Duiker was still present on the Poroto Mountains in 1958 but the status of that population is also uncertain. A small population is still present on Mount Rungwe and the Livingstone Forest within the new Kitulo National Park. The Udzungwa Mountains and Mount Kilimanjaro might hold the only two viable populations (Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press).
4151		habitat	eng	Found in interior and clearings of mature montane and submontane forest. In Mount Kilimanjaro, this duiker is reported as commonest between 1,300 and 2,700 m asl. (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995). In the Udzungwa Mountains, Abbott's Duiker has been recorded as low as 300 m in Matundu Forest a large, lowland and semi-deciduous forest (F. Rovero, unpubl.), as well as on the highest peak (Mount Luhombero, 2,600 m; Rodgers and Swai 1988). It is known from disturbed and secondary montane forest and bamboo forest to 2,500 m and occasionally plateau grassland to 2,800 m on Mount Rungwe and in Livingstone-Kitulo in the Southern Highlands (T. Davenport and S. Machaga unpubl.).<br/><br/>Very little is known of Abbott's Duiker ecology and behaviour. This is an extremely secretive species, occurring at low densities and very rarely seen even where it is considered relatively common. Furthermore, it appears to be mainly nocturnal and crepuscular (F. Rovero unpubl.) and, as with most duiker species, probably prefers dense, understory vegetation.<br/><br/>They have been seen browsing forest understory leaves, and marshy vegetation in forest clearing; also one individual photographed with a frog in its mouth.<br/><br/>Abbott's Duikers are known to be predated by leopards (<em>Panthera pardus</em>), and juveniles are probably predated by African Crowned Eagles (<em>Stephanoetus coronatus</em>) and pythons (<em>Python</em> spp). In the Udzungwa Mountains, the Lion (<em>Panthera leo</em>) and the Spotted Hyeana (<em>Crocuta crocuta</em>) are also potential predators (Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press, Moyer unpubl. data).
4151		population	eng	Although data are scarce, the total population is probably less than 1,500 individuals. Maximum densities in the Udzungwa Mountains are estimated at 1.3 individuals/km² (Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press), i.e. this species is at low densities even where locally common.<br/><br/><strong>Udzungwa Mountains subpopulations</strong>:<br/>Mwanihana Forest (177 km², 300-2,300 m, within Udzungwa Mountains National Park): locally common.<br/>Luhombero Forest (250 km², 1,350-2,500 m, West Kilombero Forest Reserve/Udzungwa Mountains National Park): locally common (Jones, unpubl.).<br/>Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (180 km², 300-2,050 m): rare.<br/>Matundu Forest Reserve (176 km², 300-1,000 m): rare.<br/>Ukami forest (6 km², 1,100-1,600 m): locally common.<br/>Nyumbanitu Forest Reserve (49 km², 1,350-2,500 m): scarce.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Highlands</strong>: very rare, with some 40 individuals estimated in Mount Rungwe and adjacent Livingstone forest (T. Davenport and S. Machaga, unpubl.). They may also persist in a few other Southern Highland forests currently being surveyed.<br/><br/>A new population, estimated at a maximum of 50 individuals, was found in 2006 in the southern Rubeho Mountains (?Ilole forest, 30 km²), where the species is locally common (F. Rovero, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Population abundance in Mount Kilimanjaro and West Usambara is unknown.
4151		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is snaring, which is taking place at low level within Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Mwanihana Forest), where there is a relatively high level of protection. Snaring has also been reported from other sites (Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, Southern Highlands, West Usambara Mountains), but at higher levels. Abbott's Duiker is also affected by loss of habitat due to agricultural encroachment, and selective logging. Virtually nothing is known of the ecology of this species, but selective logging may be predicted to adversely affect a duiker of the body size and low density of Abbott's Duiker (Struhsaker 1997).
4152		conservation	eng	Populations of the species occur in a number of protected areas, including the Okapi Faunal Reserve and Maiko and Salonga National Parks (DR Congo), Kibale N. P. (Uganda), Mount Elgon N. P. (Kenya) and Mahala Mountains N. P. (Tanzania) (East 1999).
4152		distribution	eng	Widespread in DR Congo, including large areas of contiguous range north of the Congo River, from the Ubangui in the west, to western Uganda, western Rwanda and Burundi, and western Tanzania (Mahali Mtns. and Gombe). Also in southern Sudan (Imatong and Dongotona Mtns.), Mt Elgon, and the forests of Kakamega and the Mau Escarpment in western Kenya (Hart in press).
4152		habitat	eng	In its lowland range in DR Congo, the species is restricted to large blocks of closed forest and does not range far out into gallery forests or forest islands in the savanna ecotone; however, in East Africa, they occur in relatively small and isolated forest remnants. In the Ituri Forest, Weyns’ Duiker occurs widely in primary and older secondary forests. Occurs in montane forests up to 3,000 m, reportedly on Mt Elgon (Hart in press).
4152		population	eng	In the Ituri Forest, Weyns’ Duiker is the second most common duiker species after Blue Duiker <em>Philantomba monticola</em>, with densities of unhunted populations averaging 15 animals/km² (Hart 2000). East (1999) estimated a total population 188,000.
4152		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hunting (especially with nets), although this species is among the more resilient to hunting pressure (Hart in press).
4153		conservation	eng	The Zebra Duiker is now confined to the remaining areas of primary forest within its former range, with its main strongholds being the Gola Forests in Sierra Leone, Sapo National Park and other forests of south-eastern Liberia, and Taï National Park and the adjoining Haut Dodo-Rapide Grah-Hana Forest Reserves, and Cavally-Gouin, Scio and Niegre Forest Reserves in Côte d’Ivoire (East 1999; Hoppe-Dominik in press).<br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
4153		distribution	eng	The Zebra Duiker occurs from eastern Sierra Leone to south-western Côte d’Ivoire; their presence in south-eastern Guinea was confirmed by a report from the Ziama-Diecke Forest Reserves (East 1999; Hoppe-Dominik in press).
4153		habitat	eng	The Zebra Duiker appears to be dependent on undisturbed primary lowland forest, sometimes ranging into montane and hill forest (Hoppe-Dominik in press). Although it may be found in secondary growth and swidden cultivation (e.g., Newing 2001), Wilson (2001) considered them the least adaptable of all West African duiker species to deforestation and therefore the least likely to survive hunting pressure and habitat degradation.
4153		population	eng	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 28,000. However, Wilson (2001) regarded this as an over-estimate, and doubted that there could be more than 15,000 animals across the range at most. The population trend is generally downwards because of poaching for meat and continuing destruction of West Africa’s few remaining primary forests. The only exceptions are a few localities where hunting pressures are low and/or there is effective protection against logging and poaching (East 1999).
4153		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat. For example, in Côte d'Ivoire it is confined to primary rainforest in the south-west, to the west of the Niouniourou River. This region was sparsely populated until the early to mid-1970s. Since then, there has been large-scale immigration, and timber extraction, forest clearance and agricultural settlement have proceeded rapidly (East 1999).
4154		conservation	eng	It is well represented in several protected areas, including Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks and Forest Reserves, and Shimba Hills and Tana River National Reserves (Kenya), Mount Kilimanjaro, Udzungwa Mountains, Mikumi, Arusha and Lake Manyara National Parks (Tanzania), Bush Bush National Park (Somalia) and Bale Mountain N.P. (Ethiopia) (Kingdon and Rovero in press).<br/><br/>There is a need for further taxonomic work to investigate the status of this species relative to Natal Red Duiker.
4154		distribution	eng	Harvey's Duiker occurs in central and south-eastern Kenya, north-eastern and central Tanzania, marginally in southern Somalia, and northern Malawi; there is a single record from Zambia (Kingdon and Rovero in press).<br/><br/>In Ethiopia an expedition to the Harenna forest in the southern part of Bale Mountains National Park in 1986 produced positive sightings of a “red” duiker. This was the first confirmed sighting of a <em>Cephalophus</em> duiker from Ethiopia. There has also been a subsequent sighting of this duiker in the same area. While identification of the species awaits confirmation, it is considered highly likely to be Harvey’s Duiker. This species occurs in southern Somalia and could have entered the Bale forests up the Juba and Genale valleys, a route which has been used by forest primates. In 1996, the presence of an unidentified species of red duiker was confirmed in dense bush around and north of the headquarters of Omo National Park in the south-west. The Omo population could be Weyns’ duiker (<em>C. weynsi</em>), which occurs in the lmatong Mountains of south-eastern Sudan 400 km to the south-west, but is here treated as an isolated population of C. harveyi (following East 1999, Wilson 2001 and Kingdon and Rovero in press).
4154		habitat	eng	Harvey’s Duiker occurres in lowland and montane forests, isolated forest patches, riverine forest, coastal scrub, thickets and other habitats with thick cover (East 1999; Kingdon and Rovero in press). Occurs to elevations above 2,400 m in some Eastern Arc massifs (e.g., in the Ulugurus; Doggart <em>et al.</em> 2004).
4154		population	eng	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 20,000 individuals, but this must be a substantial underestimate. The overall population trend is downwards as pressures of habitat destruction and subsistence hunting increase with expanding human populations (East 1999).
4154		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss due to timber extraction and encroachment of settlement, especially in the many coastal and montane forests. It continues to be heavily hunted throughout most of its range, using both dogs and wire snares.<br/><br/>In Somalia, this species was recorded from riverine habitats on the lower Shebelle and Juba Rivers and in coastal scrub and forest in the Lake Badana region, but by the mid-l980s, it had lost almost all of its habitat on the Juba and Shebelle Rivers to agricultural expansion and survived in only a few remaining patches of riverine forest on the lower Juba.
4159		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Although Commerson’s dolphins may have been seriously affected by the illegal deliberate take for bait in the Chilean crab fishery, the pressure on them in the southern part of their range apparently was reduced beginning in the late 1980s. However, in various parts of their range, incidental mortality in gillnets and other fishing gear continues and represents an ongoing threat (Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003, Iniguez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Such mortality should be investigated in more detail.
4159		distribution	eng	The two disjunct subspecies are separated by 130° of longitude and about 8,500 km. <br/><br/><em>C. c. commersonii</em> - Falkland Islands / Islas Malvinas and the coastal waters of southern South America. On the Atlantic coast the northern limit is at approximately Península Valdés. The range extends south into Drake Passage (61°50'S) as far as the South Shetland Islands, well within the range of <em>C. eutropia</em> (Rice 1998) (<em>C. eutropia</em> is predominately coastal and rarely goes into deep water or far offshore). Single dolphins and groups of up to hundreds were sighted in the late 1980s and early 1990s along the northern coast of Tierra del Fuego (Goodall 1994). Although sightings in the northern parts of the range often are of small groups or solitary individuals, overall numbers and group sizes increase to the south. On the west coast of South America, the northernmost confirmed record is a sighting of five individuals off Cape Valentin (53°33’S, 79°25’W) (Sielfeld and Venegas 1978). Genetic population structure is being studied in Argentina, where two “ecological stocks” have been identified based on differences in parasite loads and patterns of prey consumption (Berón-Vera <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/><em>C. c.</em> subsp. nova - Shallow coastal waters around all of the Îles Kerguélen in the southern Indian Ocean (Rice 1998; Robineau <em>et al</em>. 2007). No sightings or specimens have yet been reported from islands between South America and Kerguélen, such as Crozet, Heard, Amsterdam or St Paul (Goodall 1994). Dolphins of the Kerguelen Islands subspecies are most commonly sighted in the Golfe du Morbihan, on the eastern side of Kerguélen.<br/><br/>Recently, a sighting of a single individual south of Cape Town, in South African waters, was reported, although this should be considered extralimital (de Bruyns <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are also unsubstantiated reports of this species at South Georgia, but these have been rejected (Brown 1988).
4159		habitat	eng	Commerson's dolphins are found in cold inshore waters along open coasts, in sheltered fjords, bays, harbours and river mouths, and occasionally the lower reaches of rivers. Their offshore limit is not very clear. Along the Atlantic shelf Commerson’s dolphins have been sighted more than 100 nmi offshore and in water deeper than 1000 m (Pedraza 2008). Within the Strait of Magellan, they prefer the areas with strongest currents, such as the Primera and Segunda Angostura (First and Second Narrows), where the current can reach or exceed 15 km/hr (Goodall 1994). Off South America, Commerson's dolphins appear to prefer areas where the continental shelf is wide and flat, the tidal range is great, and temperatures are influenced by the cool Malvinas Current. In coastal Patagonia, they are found principally in areas with continental runoff such as at the mouths of the Chubut and Santa Cruz Rivers and at Puerto Deseado. Around the Falklands/Malvinas and Kerguelen Islands, as well as off mainland Argentina, they are often seen swimming in or at the edge of kelp beds. Commerson's dolphins sometimes move very close to shore, even inside the breakers. However, they are also observed offshore in waters deeper than 50 m.<br/><br/>South American Commerson's dolphins appear to be opportunistic, feeding near the bottom on various species of fish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and benthic invertebrates in kelp beds but also on pelagic schooling fish in more open areas. In the Kerguelen Islands, they seem to have a more restricted diet, consisting mostly of fish.
4159		population	eng	Commerson's dolphin seems to be the most abundant species of the genus <em>Cephalorhynchus</em> (Dawson 2002) although much of its range has not been surveyed and there are only a few estimates of abundance. Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. (1988) conducted aerial surveys in the northern Strait of Magellan and estimated a minimum of 3,221 dolphins for that area. However, they did not observe Commerson's dolphins in some areas where the species had been recorded previously. It has been suggested that the reduced abundance of these dolphins in some areas of southern Chile was due to either depletion of the population or displacement of the animals eastward of the Strait of Magellan. In either case, potential causes include mortality in fishing gear and extensive hunting in the past. The practice of using dolphins and other marine mammals as bait is reported to have declined in recent years, due in part to the fact that legal bait has been more readily available and in part to measures taken by Chilean government agencies (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons, 1994; Reeves <em>et al</em>., 2003). <br/><br/>Venegas (1996) estimated the density of Commerson's dolphins during early summer (1989-1990) in the eastern sector of the Strait of Magellan, flying 79 transects corresponding to 1,320 km. The estimated total number within the study area was 718 ± 196 individuals. Venegas attributed the substantial difference between his figures and those of Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. (1988) to methodological factors and time of year. In Argentine waters, overall abundance in the early to mid-2000s was estimated at about 40,000, with at least half of that number in Tierra del Fuego and southern Patagonia (Pedraza 2008).<br/><br/>The status of the Kerguelen Islands subspecies is even less clear than that of the South American subspecies. As of 1985, there had been more than 100 reported sightings, the largest group of about 100 dolphins having been seen near the edge of the shelf (Goodall 1994; Robineau 1989). The Kerguelen subspecies is restricted in range and is therefore probably small and relatively vulnerable to any anthropogenic threats.
4159		threats	eng	Until recently, various species of small cetaceans, mainly Commerson's dolphins and Peale's dolphins, were harpooned and used as bait in the southern king crab ("centolla") fishery in both Argentina and Chile (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994). Because the centolla is overfished in the Magellan region, fishing effort has shifted to the false king crab, which is exploited principally farther west in the channels. Commerson's dolphins are not found there, but they are relatively abundant in the eastern part of the Strait. In Argentina, the crab fishery operates in the Beagle Channel, where there are relatively few Commerson's dolphins. Some animals have been killed for sport (Reyes 1991) and others have been live -captured for dolphinaria (Goodall 1994).<br/><br/>This is the odontocete species most frequently taken in fishing nets off southern South America, perhaps due to its coastal distribution which overlaps with trammel and artisanal gillnet fisheries (<em>e.g</em>. Iñiguez <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is taken most often in fairly large-mesh nets. Although the scale of the bycatch is unknown, at least 5-30 died each year in nets set perpendicular to the shore in eastern Tierra del Fuego alone during the 1980s and early 1990s (Goodall 1994). They are also taken in this type of fishing in the Argentinean provinces north of Tierra del Fuego and in the eastern Strait of Magellan and Bahia Inútil in Chile. Commerson’s dolphins are also killed at least occasionally in midwater trawl nets on the Argentine shelf (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2000). Recent aerial surveys off Patagonia provided an estimate of 1,200 to 2,750 Commerson’s dolphins for Chubut Province (Pedraza 2008). The bycatch there in hake and shrimp fisheries (25 to 170 individuals per year, mostly females; Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003) could represent anywhere from 0.9 to 14% of the estimated abundance. Incidental mortality in gillnets was calculated as almost 180 animals for the fishing season 1999-2000 in a small area of the Santa Cruz Province, southern Argentina (Iñiguez <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The salmon farming industry in southern Chile plans to expand into the Southwestern Atlantic in an effort to meet the increasing demand for feeds based on anchovy, mackerel and other pelagic species of fish (Skewgar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Pelagic fish are captured by large vessels operating with trawls or purse seines, and those fish are then converted into meal to feed salmon. The rising global demand for fish meal could lead to unsustainable anchovy fishery expansion on the Patagonian coast. Global aquaculture, which uses feeds manufactured from fish meal, increased by 50% between 1998 and 2004, and will likely continue to grow (Skewgar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Uruguay recently approved a Chile-financed factory to process 200,000 tons of anchovy into fishmeal (Skewgar <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition to uncontrolled fishing that will reduce populations of key prey species like the southern anchovy, substantial bycatches of several species of dolphins, including Commerson’s, off Patagonia have been documented over the last 15 years. Commerson’s dolphins are particularly susceptible to capture in pelagic trawls or purse seines (Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003; Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2000). Enforcement of fishery regulations in Argentina and other countries in southern South America is reportedly inadequate (E. Crespo pers. comm.).
4160		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Better information on the status of Chilean dolphins is needed. The species may be declining because of bycatch and the consequences of extensive modification of its limited habitat in Chile. Specifically, it is important to obtain abundance estimates, quantitative information on direct and incidental mortality, and better information on habitat use in relation to aquaculture and other human activities that may degrade or eliminate these dolphins’ habitat. The rapid expansion of salmon (and shellfish) farming in southern Chile is a particular concern. It is also important to evaluate possible gaps in the distribution of Chilean dolphins.
4160		distribution	eng	This dolphin is found only along the Chilean coast (and possibly in southern Argentina), from about 30°S to Cape Horn, at the southern tip of South America. As is true of other members of the genus, it is found in shallow coastal waters, and sometimes enters estuaries and rivers. It occurs in the channels and fjords of southern Chile, and to a lesser extent along the west coast of Tierra del Fuego, such as in the Strait of Magellan. Its distribution appears to be continuous, although there may be areas of local abundance, such as Golfo de Arauco, the coast off Valdivia and the eastern side of Isla de Grande Chiloé (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1988).
4160		habitat	eng	The Chilean dolphin is restricted to cold shallow coastal waters. According to Goodall (1994) it inhabits two distinct areas: (1) the channels from Cape Horn to Isla Grande de Chiloé and (2) open coasts, bays and river mouths north of Isla Chiloé, such as waters near Valdivia and Concepción. It seems to prefer areas with rapid tidal flow, tide rips, and shallow waters over banks at the entrance to fjords. The dolphins readily enter estuaries and rivers. <br/><br/>Most sightings have been near shore and therefore the Chilean dolphin is considered a coastal species, although there has been little survey effort in adjacent offshore waters. Movements appear quite limited, with most dolphins resident in a small area. Individuals identified from natural markings on their dorsal fins have been shown to concentrate their activities in specific bays and channels (Heinrich, 2006; F. Viddi pers. comm., April 2007). Groups tend to be small (between 2 and 15), but relatively large aggregations (20-50) also have been reported (Goodall 1994). Although mixed groups of Chilean and Peale’s dolphins have been observed, a clear pattern of spatial and temporal partitioning of coastal habitat by the two species was documented during a six-year study at Isla Grande de Chiloé (Heinrich 2006). This pattern might not apply in other areas, such as farther south in the Guaitecas Archipelago, where mixed groups are often observed foraging and socializing (F. Viddi pers. comm., April 2007). <br/><br/>Chilean dolphins feed on shallow-water fishes (<em>e.g</em>., sardines, anchovies, rock cod), cephalopods, and crustaceans (Goodall 1994).
4160		population	eng	The only reliable abundance estimate is of 60 dolphins in an area of approx 270 km² off southern Isla Chiloé, Chile (Heinrich 2006). The total population appears to be very small (low thousands at most) although the perceived rarity of these dolphins may be due, to some extent, to the lack of boat traffic and fewness of trained observers in the channels, and to the animals’ shyness and evasive behaviour. Based on information from 20 years ago, it has been suggested that Chilean dolphins are locally abundant in areas such as Bahia Corral off Valdivia, the Golfo de Arauco near Concepción and around Isla Grande de Chiloé . Groups of 20-50 have been seen on the open coast near the northern limit of the species’ range (Goodall 1994). At least some Chilean dolphins near Chiloé reside in the same inshore waters year-round (Goodall 1994; Heinrich 2006).
4160		threats	eng	Chilean dolphins have been hunted for many years for food and crab bait. The crab bait fishery in southern Chile (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994) and a variety of other fisheries (particularly coastal gillnet fisheries) are potentially serious threats. Fishermen in coastal areas north of Isla Chiloé harpoon dolphins or use those taken incidentally in their nets as bait for longlines targeting <em>róbalo</em> (<em>Eleginops maclovinus</em>), individual hooks targeting swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>) and ring nets for crabs (<em>Cancer</em> sp.) (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1988). From Isla Grande de Chiloé south, dolphins have been used along with sheep, seals, sea lions, penguins, other marine birds, and fish for bait for the lucrative "centolla" (southern king crab) and "centollon" (false king crab) fishery. It was estimated in the early 1980s that two Chilean dolphins could be taken per week per boat at one cannery in Magellan Strait (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1988), and in 1992 up to 600 dolphins (including the more numerous and approachable Peale’s dolphin) were harpooned per year in the area near the western Strait of Magellan (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994). Fishing areas since then have moved farther north and south, and alternative sources of bait (such as offal from the fishing and fish farming industries) have become more readily available. The killing of dolphins for bait presumably continues to some extent but unfortunately there is no reliable recent information on this issue. Although hunting is now illegal, fishermen in the area are poor and enforcement of the law in remote areas is difficult.<br/><br/>Incidental mortality occurs throughout the range. Although no estimate exists of total incidental mortality in Chile, at Queule, south of Valdivia, Chilean dolphins accounted for nearly half of the dolphins taken in gill nets set from some 30 boats (Reyes and Oporto 1994). This would imply a catch of some 65-70 Chilean dolphins per year at this one port (Goodall 1994). An unknown number of Chilean dolphins are caught in shore-based gillnets set by local people from Isla Chiloé to capture small native fish and introduced farmed salmon that have escaped from their cages (Heinrich 2006).<br/><br/>Aquaculture farms for salmon and shellfish also may have negative effects on Chilean dolphins, <em>e.g.</em> by restricting their movements and eliminating important habitat along the east coast of Isla Grande de Chiloé. Exclusion of Chilean dolphins from bays and fjords is due mainly to large-scale shellfish farming operations but also to salmon farms, although these latter usually are located farther from shore and in deeper water than that preferred by the dolphins (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2003; Heinrich 2006; Ribeiro <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been shown that boat traffic, mainly related to aquaculture, affects the behaviour of Chilean dolphins (Ribeiro <em>et al</em>. 2005). Finally, there is evidence that Chilean dolphins are sometimes caught incidentally in anti-sea lion nets set up around salmon farms in the fjords and channels (Francisco Viddi pers. comm., April 2007).
4161		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the distribution of the species in Angolan waters in particular, as well as on the nature and extent of directed and incidental catches. More research emphasis should in future also be placed on possible detrimental interactions due to the overfishing of prey stocks, especially hake. Increased inshore fishing pressure will inevitably increase interactions between the fisheries and Heaviside’s dolphins (Peddemors 1999).
4161		distribution	eng	Heaviside’s dolphins have a limited range, restricted to southwestern Africa (Angola to South Africa), with records from about 17°S to the southwestern tip of the continent. They are commonly seen along the west coast of South Africa in the Cape Town region (Rice 1998; Dawson 2002). Records extend along the entire west coast of South Africa and Namibia, and into southern Angola (J-P Roux pers. comm.), but as the cetacean fauna of Angola is poorly known, it is uncertain how far north the species’ distribution extends there (Best and Abernethy 1994).
4161		habitat	eng	This is a coastal, shallow-water dolphin seen mainly in waters less than 100 m deep (Best and Abernethy 1994). It is generally associated with the cold, northward-flowing Benguela Current. Rice and Saayman (1984) speculated that some subpopulations may be resident in particular areas year-round, although this was questioned by Best and Abernethy (1994). Satellite-linked tagging indicated that in summer female Heaviside’s dolphins occupied home ranges of up to 1,000-2,000 km² over periods of up to 54 days, with a strong onshore-offshore diurnal pattern of movement (Elwen <em>et al</em>., 2006). More than 85% of sightings were in water with surface temperatures of 9-15°C (Best and Abernethy 1994). <br/><br/>The diet of Heaviside’s dolphin consists mainly of juvenile hake (individuals well below the modal length of commercially caught fish) (Sekiguchi <em>et al</em>., 1992). Other demersal fishes, pelagic schooling fishes, and cephalopods (including octopus) are also taken (Best and Abernethy 1994).
4161		population	eng	No range-wide survey has been conducted for this species. A published estimate of 800 -1,000 (Carwardine 2002) is not based on a survey and is only a guess. Surveys off the coast of southern Africa yielded approximate densities of 4.69 sightings per 100 nautical miles within 5nm of the coast, with relatively fewer sightings further offshore (Best 1984). Griffin and Loutit (1988) stated that Heaviside’s dolphins were the cetaceans most frequently seen from the Namibian coast.
4161		threats	eng	In general, Heaviside’s dolphins appear to face fewer threats than other members of its genus. Although fully protected legally, some killing with hand-thrown harpoons or guns has been reported (Rice and Saayman 1984; Best and Abernethy 1994). Heaviside’s dolphins are susceptible to entanglement in inshore gear such as beach seines, purse seines, trawls, and gillnets (Best and Abernethy 1994; Peddemors 1999). <br/><br/>Concern has been expressed about the potential effects of pollution and boat traffic (Culik 2004). However, organochlorine levels in a small sample of Heaviside’s dolphins failed to indicate significant exposure to DDT in the coastal waters of South Africa’s west coast, where the scarcity of arable land and low rainfall may help minimize pesticide residue inputs to the marine environment (De Kock <em>et al</em>. 1994). Also, low human population densities and the scarcity of large ports along most of the species’ range probably help reduce the possibility of adverse effects from boat traffic (Best pers. comm.).
4162		conservation	eng	The species is listed in CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>The entire range is within New Zealand waters, and therefore national conservation measures are discussed here. The New Zealand Government has created two protected areas to promote the conservation of <em>C. hectori</em>, and it is thought that these areas have contributed to reduced mortality in recent years. The Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary was established in 1988 under the Marine Mammals Protection Act to protect Hector’s dolphins. The 1,170 km² sanctuary extends 70 nautical miles alongshore around the Banks Peninsula to the Rakaia River and out to 4 nautical miles offshore (Dawson and Slooten 2005). Its effectiveness has been compromised by the interests of sports and commercial fishermen and by the fact that the dolphins’ offshore distribution extends beyond the protected area (Dawson and Slooten 1993). At Banks Peninsula the dolphins are found further offshore than elsewhere, probably because the bathymetry there slopes more gradually. Up to 65% of the dolphins in the area occur outside the sanctuary boundaries in winter months (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a). <br/><br/>The protected area established for Maui’s dolphins stretches for 210 nautical miles along the west coast of the North Island out to 4 nautical miles offshore. Although this area was closed to gillnetting under the Fisheries Act in 2003, gillnetting has continued inside the harbors, and trawling is restricted only within the first nautical mile offshore (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006b). <br/><br/>Discussions between the Ministry of Fisheries and Department of Conservation are currently (early 2008) underway to develop a more comprehensive management plan. A continuing high level of bycatch mortality indicates that stronger protection from entanglement in commercial and recreational fisheries is needed. Protected areas, reduced gillnet fishing effort and changes in fishing methods have been recommended as necessary to ensure the species’ long-term persistence (e.g. Martien <em>et al</em>. 1999, Burkhart and Slooten 2003, Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007). Meetings of stakeholders have concluded that fishery mortality must be reduced to zero to allow the North Island subspecies to recover (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2001; Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Several other small subpopulations (100 individuals or fewer) are at a similar risk from entanglement (Burkhart and Slooten 2003; Slooten 2005). Recent surveys (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2004, Slooten 2005, Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a,b) indicate that restricting gillnet fisheries to waters >100 m deep would have a major benefit in terms of reducing bycatch. In waters <100 m deep it would also be advisable to institute observer programs on any trawl fisheries that operate in Hector’s dolphin habitat.
4162		distribution	eng	Hector’s dolphin is endemic to New Zealand, and it has one of the most restricted distributions of any cetacean (Dawson and Slooten 1988; Dawson 2002). They are most common off the South Island and the west coast of the North Island. There are at least three genetically separate populations in the South Island, and a single small North Island population (<em>C. h. maui</em> - Baker <em>et al</em>. 2002).
4162		habitat	eng	The habits and biology of Hector's dolphin have been well studied in the last couple of decades, and this is undoubtedly the best-known species of the genus (Dawson 2002). It is found in shallow coastal waters, almost always within about 15 km of shore and <100 m deep, strongly concentrated in shallow, turbid waters close to shore in summer months and dispersing more widely in winter (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Photo-identification studies have demonstrated that at least some individuals are resident in small areas (about 30 km of coastline) year-round (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 1993). No two sightings of an individual have been more than 106 km apart (Bräger <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>Hector's dolphins feed on several species of small fish and squid (Dawson 2002). The diet is more varied on the east coast of the South Island (8 species make up 80% of the diet) than on the west coast (only 4 species make up 80%).
4162		population	eng	Studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA show that North Island Hector's dolphins are genetically distinct from any of the South Island subpopulations, with no overlap of maternal lineages between them (Pichler <em>et al</em>. 1998). Such differences over such a small geographic scale have not been observed in any other genetic studies of marine mammals (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Recent surveys indicate that the South Island Hector’s dolphin populations collectively number about 7,270 individuals (CV = 15.8%) (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2004; Gormley <em>et al</em>. 2005). The North Island subspecies is estimated to number about 111 (CV = 44%), and that population’s abundance and range appear to have been declining rapidly over the past 30 years (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006b; Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2001).
4162		threats	eng	Hector’s dolphin faces serious pressures from human activities given its limited coastal distribution. The main threat to the species in general is entanglement in gillnets (Dawson 1991; Slooten and Lad 1991; Dawson and Slooten 1993; Martien <em>et al</em>. 1999; Secchi 2006; Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007), with trawl fisheries also causing some mortality. Amateur gillnetting (as opposed to commercial gillnetting) is a significant part of the problem (Dawson and Slooten 2005). Sixty percent of all dead Hector’s dolphins for which cause of death could be determined, had died as a result of gillnet entanglement (DOC and Mfish 2007). Risk analyses for Hector’s and Maui’s dolphins indicate that recent levels of mortality are unsustainable (Slooten and Lad 1991; Martien <em>et al</em>. 1999; Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2000; Burkhart and Slooten 2003; Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007). This conclusion is robust to the uncertainty in abundance, mortality, and vital rates (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2000; Slooten 2007). The most recent population viability analysis indicates continued population declines (Slooten 2007). Additional threats include pollution, disease, vessel traffic, and habitat modification (Stone and Yoshinaga 2000).
4166		conservation	eng	<strong></strong>This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Hungary important populations of this species live in protected areas and Natura 2000 areas. The species is legally protected in Hungary. In Germany there are several actions and plans (monitoring and management) in place according to the EU Habitats Directive. In Germany this species is listed as Critically Endangered (2009). It is also included in the Red Book of Ukraine. In Italy there are management plans in SIC.<br/><br/>Key actions needed are to retain veteran oaks where they are in open country and to retain dying trees <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>. In denser stands of oak, opening up to improve sun penetration will favour this species.
4166		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe but increasingly rare or absent in the north and south-western Europe (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus, Asia Minor and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, but virtually absent in the north-east. It is much more sporadic on the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs where old oaks are present. In the European part of Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Erdem and Canakcıoglu 1977, Oymen 1987, Canakcıoglu 1993, Lodos 1998) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004, Malmusi and Saltini 2005). In Italy it has been reported from all the administrative regions (except in Aosta Valley) (Sama 2006). In France it has been reported from all the French Mediterranean area; it becomes more scarce and localised in the northern part of the country (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it is probably present across all the country, but records are lacking from the centre; there are many recent records from the north and south.<br/><br/>It is absent from Britain and Ireland. There is sub-fossil evidence for its occurrence in Britain up until 3690 +/- 100 BP, from Cambridgeshire fenland bog oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(Duffey 1968). More recent records have all been casual importations.
4166		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  This species lives in veteran trees which are currently in decline across Europe; regeneration of these trees is slow and there   may still be a 'gap' during which time there would be very little suitable habitat available for this species.<br/></p><p>It develops in <em>Quercus</em>. The larvae first develop under the bark of stressed living or dying trees, later burrowing deeper in the wood of sick, sun-exposed stems. The life cycle is at least three years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults winter in the pupal cell and emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host plants - it is predominantly a nocturnal and crepuscular species. In France trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Castanea</span>) with traces of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cerdo</span> usually have a diameter greater than 40 cm and are sun exposed. The species is below the altitude of 900 m. In Romania it has been reported from all type of oaks. In the south, it has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris, Quercus pubescens, Quercus pedunculiflora</span>, and in the north, it has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur, Quercus petraea</span>. Adults became active from mid May, until August in mountains. During the day they are hidden inside holes, under bark, and during the evening they become active. In the European part of Turkey larvae are said to develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Acer, Carpinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Cupressus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fraxinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Platanus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Prunus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>,<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> <em>Quercus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Ulmus</em></strong>. Adults are active in VI-VII and the life cycle is three or four years (Canakcıoglu 1993).</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary this species lives in thermophilous oak woods (mainly in turkey oak woods) in the hills and the lower mountain areas. Important populations occur in wood pastures and parklands where huge, old, solitary pedunculate oaks occur.&#160; <br/></p><p></p><p></p>
4166		population	eng	Has suffered a dramatic decline in the number of populations and in population sizes across central Europe over the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Buse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is common. <br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. However, viable populations still occur in older stands of oak and in a few wood pastures. In Romania it is well preserved in some protected areas from the south, south-west and south-east where old oak forests exist; in the Carpathians can be found in traditional pastures with old oaks and large deciduous forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is distributed throughout all German States, but the population has heavily declined and the species is almost Extinct. In France it seems to have disappeared from landscapes that have suffered massive changes in land use (suppression of hedges); it is more common in the south also in villages and city parks (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is localized but common and it also is common in Spain. In Sweden it is rare. In the Czech Republic it is&#160; rather common in the south-east and there has been a strong population decline in the western part of the country. In Slovakia there are many sites in the south and east.<br/><br/>In Portugal there is no information about the populations and the abundance of recent records is probably related to a higher sampling effort in the last two decades   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified but the species is considered a pest. <br/><br/>In the UK it was definitely present during Holocene (sub-fossil evidence) but no reliable evidence for breeding in the historic period; occasional imports with timber; single sighting in New Forest in 1966 and yet no other records from this well-recorded area.<br/><p>    </p>  <p></p>
4166		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Felling of sick or dying trees - especially in the favoured, open sunny situations, where they are more vulnerable to this treatment and where more visible to people - is a threat to this species.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is threatened by habitat loss because of the forest management (removal of old trees) in the hills and mountains. Lowland and wood pasture populations are threatened by abandonment of the grazing activity and reforestation (the old stems are no longer exposed to the sun) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Romania removal of the occupied oaks from pastures and forests is an issue; also local people use these for firewood (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <br/><br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
4177		conservation	eng	None known.
4177		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Socotra island. During the intensive limnological sampling surveys (Lab Ecology, Ghent University, Belgium) that went on from 1997 till 2004 on Socotra the species was not found. It is now probably extinct.
4177		habitat	eng	It is known from a pool on Socotra.
4177		population	eng	No information available.
4177		threats	eng	No information available.
4185		conservation	eng	<p>Effective field protection of rhino populations has been critical. Many remaining rhino are now concentrated in fenced sanctuaries, conservancies, rhino conservation areas and intensive protection zones where law enforcement effort can be concentrated at effective levels. Monitoring has also provided information to guide biological management decision-making aimed at managing rhino populations for rapid population growth. This has resulted in surplus animals being translocated to set up new populations both within and outside the species’ former ranger. However increasing black market prices for rhino horn, and increased poaching of rhino and involvement of criminal syndicates in recent years pose a significant threat to rhino populations. Increasing efforts are also being made to integrate local communities into conservation efforts. Strategically, White Rhinos are now managed by a range of different stakeholders (private sector and state) in a number of countries increasing their long-term security. In Southern Africa live sale of White Rhinos on auction (and limited sport hunting of surplus males) has also created incentives for private sector conservation and generated much needed funds which can help pay the high cost of successfully monitoring, protecting and managing rhino. Over 5,500 White Rhino across Africa are now managed by the private sector throughout Africa with the majority in South Africa (AfRSG 2011). <br/><br/> By 1977, all African rhino species were listed on CITES Appendix I, and all international commercial trade in rhinos and their products was prohibited. However, following a continued increase in numbers, the South African population of Southern White Rhino was downlisted in 1994 to Appendix II, but only for trade in live animals to “approved and acceptable destinations” and for the (continued) export of hunting trophies. In 2004, Swaziland’s Southern White Rhino were also downlisted to CITES Appendix II, but only for live export and for limited export of hunting trophies according to specified annual quotas. To help reduce illegal trade, and complement CITES international trade bans, domestic anti-trade measures and legislation were implemented in the 1990s by a number of the major consumer states and law enforcement effort has been stepped up in many consumer countries. In addition to local, national, international and continental initiatives, there are a number of regional African rhino conservation initiatives: the South African Development Community (SADC) Rhino Management Group , recently formed East African Rhino Management Group and the Southern African Rhino and Elephant Security Group/Interpol Environmental Crime Working Group. IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group is the continental coordinating body for rhino conservation in Africa.</p>
4185		distribution	eng	<p>Two subspecies of White Rhinoceros are currently recognized, the northern and the southern, each having a strikingly discontinuous range. The Northern White Rhino used to range over parts of north-western Uganda, southern Chad, south-western Sudan, the eastern part of Central African Republic, and north-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Sydney 1965). The previous only confirmed population in Garamba National Park in north-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo is now considered probably extinct as despite systematic ground surveys over probable range and additional foot patrols and aerial reconnaissance no live rhinos have been seen since 2006 and no fresh sign since 2007. There have been unconfirmed reports of rhino in southern Sudan, and surveys are planned. The last four potential breeding Northern White Rhino in captivity in Dvur Kralove Zoo in the Czech Republic have been translocated to a private conservancy in Kenya in the hope this will stimulate breeding. These animals form the only current confirmed population. <br/> <br/> The Southern White Rhino is now the most numerous of the rhino taxa, with South Africa remaining the stronghold for this subspecies despite increased poaching.&#160; Sizeable populations occur in the Greater Kruger National Park (which incorporates additional private and state reserves) and Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, but also occur in numerous state protected areas and private reserves (some of which are also well protected) throughout the country. There are smaller reintroduced populations within the historical range of the species in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Swaziland, while a small number survive in Mozambique. Populations of Southern white rhino have also been introduced outside of the known former range of the subspecies to Kenya Uganda &#160;and to Zambia (Emslie and Brooks 1999, Emslie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Uganda was previously a Northern White Rhino range state and so the species has been reintroduced to this country.&#160; </p>  <p>While Kenya has not been a White Rhino range state in the last two hundred years; evidence from fossils and cave paintings in Kenya and northern Tanzania suggests that the White Rhinoceros, presumably similar to the northern race (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. s. cottoni</span>), was widespread and a part of the East African savanna fauna until 3,000 years ago or less (M. Leakey pers. comm.), when it was probably displaced by pastoralists who could easily kill such tame animals (Brett RA [ed] 1993). This is based on the White Rhino subfossil documented by Maeve Leakey from 3,000 year from Rift Valley (Lake Nakuru area). Thus at one stage Kenya &#160;was once a White Rhino range state (subspecies unknown) and hence the White Rhino as a species but not <span style="font-style: italic;">C. s. simum</span> as a subspecies has probably been reintroduced to Kenya (with the latter being an introduction of a probable &#160;out of range subspecies).<br/> </p>  <p>Note: At the request of certain members and countries, the IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group (AfRSG) has a policy of not releasing detailed information on the whereabouts of all rhino populations for security reasons. For this reason, only whole countries are shaded on the map.</p>
4185		habitat	eng	The species is found in grassland in bushveld savanna habitats.
4185		population	eng	<p>As of 31 December 2010, there were an estimated 20,170 White Rhino in the wild (see Table 1 in the attached pdf). As of Dec 2008 there were an estimated 750 in captivity worldwide. The majority (98.8%) of White Rhino occur in just four countries (South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya) (AfRSG data 2011).<br/> <br/> Once widespread in the bushveld areas of southern Africa south of the Zambezi river, the Southern White Rhino was on the brink of extinction by the end of the 19th century having been reduced to just one small population of approximately 20-50 animals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. However, by the end of 2010, after years of protection and many translocations, the subspecies has grown to 20,160 wild animals. South Africa remains the stronghold for this subspecies (93.2%) conserving 18,800 individuals in 2010. Smaller reintroduced populations occur within former range states in Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe; populations of free-ranging Southern White Rhino have also been established outside their historical range in Kenya, Zambia (Emslie and Brooks 1999) and more recently Uganda although Uganda is a former <span style="font-style: italic;">C. s. cottoni</span> range state and an~3,500 year old white rhino subfossil indicates at one stage Kenya was also once a white rhino range state. Numbers of white rhino under private ownership continue to increase, numbering at least 5,500 in 429+ populations by the end of 2010. The bulk of white rhino (14,529 or 72.1%) continue to be conserved on state land. In 2007 Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya were the only other countries with over 300 wild Southern White Rhino, but following increased poaching numbers in Zimbabwe had dropped to 290 by the end of 2010. Together these three countries conserve 82.1% of the subspecies outside of South Africa.<br/> <br/> In the only confirmed surviving wild population in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Northern White Rhino (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. s. cottoni</span>) numbers&#160; declined rapidly from 30 in April 2003 due to an upsurge in poaching, and surveys in 2006 confirmed the presence of only four rhinos (Emslie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Numbers are believed to have stood at around 2,360 in 1960 (Emslie and Brooks 1999). However based largely on extensive and systematic foot surveys which failed to sight live rhino and find any signs (spoor and dung) this population is now considered probably extinct. Reports of a few possible Northern White Rhino surviving in a remote part of Southern Sudan have yet to be confirmed although surveys are planned. The last four potential breeding Northern White Rhino in captivity have been moved to a private conservancy in Kenya in the hope that a move to more wild conditions will stimulate them to breed. </p>
4185		threats	eng	<p>One of the main threats to the population is illegal hunting (poaching) for the international rhino horn trade. Rhino horn has two main uses: traditional use in Chinese medicine, and ornamental use (for example, rhino horn is a highly prized material for making ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers (jambiyas) worn in some Middle East countries). Until recently, at the continental species level, poaching of White Rhinos has not had a serious impact on overall numbers of White Rhinos in Africa, with poaching losses in parts of the range being surpassed by encouraging growth rates in others. From detected and reported figures, the annual average poaching incidents during 2003 to 2005 represented just 0.2 % of the total number of White Rhinos at the end of 2005 (Emslie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). However poaching levels have increased dramatically in recent years (Milliken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).</p><p> Poaching and civil wars in both Democratic Republic of the Congo and neighbouring Sudan have had a devastating impact on Northern White Rhino. Whilst poaching pressure initially increased during civil unrest and war in the late 1990s, good reproduction enabled the population to remain relatively stable. However, since 2003, poaching escalated and the population declined rapidly with 11 carcasses found in a three-month period between March and May 2004. Confirmed numbers of Northern White Rhino fell from 30 individuals in April 2003 to just four in August 2005. No live rhino have been seen since 2006 or signs of live rhino (spoor or dung) reported since 2007 despite intensive systematic foot surveys. It is believed that the Northern White Rhino has probably gone extinct in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. </p>
4192		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas. Within Australia, there is a need to monitor the distribution and abundance of the species, and to undertake studies of ecology and habitat requirements (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed, particularly to elucidate the taxonomic status of the New Guinea forms.
4192		distribution	eng	This species is present in the highlands of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and in the lowland and upland rainforests between Paluma Range and Cooktown, Queensland, Australia (Flannery 1995; Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It ranges from medium elevations to 3,450 m asl (New Guinea) and from sea level to 1,600 m in Australia.
4192		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and mostly arboreal species (though with some terrestrial activity). In New Guinea, the species is found in montane and mid-montane primary and secondary tropical moist forests, especially where there are tree ferns. It also occurs in areas of subalpine shrubland. In Australia, it is known from rainforest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species breeds twice a year in Australia, with the female typically giving birth to between one and four young (Haffenden and Atherton 2008).
4192		population	eng	It is generally a common species within suitable habitat in New Guinea, although it appears to be uncommon in the Australian part of the range.
4192		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species in Australia or New Guinea. Cats could be a threat to the species in some parts of the range.
4200		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Class A of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The Tana River Primate National Reserve (TRPN) holds about 56% of the mangabey groups. Of the 48% of mangabey groups outside of TRPN 10% of the groups live in forests under the management of the Tana Delta Irrigation Project while the remainder are on Trust/Government land.<br/><br/>A priority action is the re-establishment of the Mchelelo Research Station in the Tana River Primate National Reserve.
4200		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to 27 patches of gallery forests along the lower part of the River Tana in Kenya from 20-40 m asl. It has an extent of occurrence of 60 km along the riverside, from Nkanjonja to Hewani. The area of occupancy is considerably smaller (Butynski and Mwangi 1994). Broadly sympatric with <em>Procolobus rufomitratus rufomitratus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus</em>; narrowly sympatric on the forest edges with <em>Papio cynocephalus ibeanus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
4200		habitat	eng	Wahungu <em>et al.</em> (2005) found that the abundance of the mangabey was highly correlated with the spatial characteristics of the forests. This species is restricted to riverine gallery forests and adjacent patches of bush (the 1974 census found animals in 27 of the forest patches (50%)). It is a semi-terrestrial species that may be found in groups of 13 to 36 individuals, sometimes combining to form aggregations of 50 to 60 animals. In 1974, 86 groups were recorded (Butynski and Mwangi 1994).
4200		population	eng	This species is common within its small range. In 1994, the global population was estimated to number 1,000 to 1,200 individuals. The population appears to be somewhat below the 1975 estimate of 1,200 to 1,600 individuals. The population has declined by roughly 10-30% since 1975 (Butynski and Mwangi 1994).
4200		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation for agricultural land and timber, burning of adjacent grasslands preventing forest regeneration, overgrazing of forest understory by livestock, and changes to the flow of the Tana River and water table by damming and irrigation projects. Wahungu <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimates 35% of forests within the colobus’ geographical range was lost between 1979 and 2000. Animals may be persecuted for crop-raiding. There is no evidence of hunting for meat. There is a proposal to plant oil palm plantations, but it is not clear where as yet. The proposed Tana Integrated Sugar Project in Tana River and Lamu Districts threatens more than 200 km² of semi-natural habitat in the area.
4201		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.<br/><br/>This species is present in a number of protected areas including: Okomu National Park, Cross River National Park (Nigeria); Douala-Edea Reserve, Campo-Ma'an National Park, Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, Dja Reserve and Korup National Park (Cameroon); Sette Cama Forest Reserve and Mayumba, Loango, Moukalaba-Doudou, and Pongara National Parks (Gabon); Conkouati-Douli National Park (Congo); and Monte Allen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
4201		distribution	eng	This species ranges in coastal forests from western Nigeria into southern Cameroon, and throughout Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and Gabon (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999) and the Gabon-Congo border on the Atlantic shore (Maisles <em>et al</em>. 2007). Its southern limit is south of the Ogooue River in Gabon. There have been unconfirmed reports of its occurrence into Benin, and if it ever did occur it may now be extirpated (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is absent from Bioko Island.
4201		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found in high forest, but it also occurs in mangrove, gallery and swamp forest (Maisles <em>et al.</em> 2007). It can also be found in young secondary forests and around cultivated areas. Group size has been reported to be between 14 and 23 animals (Equatorial Guinea).
4201		population	eng	Although seemingly widespread, and sometimes locally abundant in scattered localities, the species now appears to be absent in areas with even low to medium hunting pressure (Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2007). It was already considered to be uncommon in Nigeria in 1982, and J. Oates (in Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2007) suggested that they may be naturally less common<br/>in Cameroon and Nigeria because of competition with drills <em>Mandrillus leucophaeus</em>. However, in other areas large troops of both mandrills <em>Mandrillus sphinx</em> (which are in a similar niche to drills) and of White-collared mangabeys have been recorded living sympatrically.
4201		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss and hunting for meat throughout most of its range. In places it is considered to be an agricultural pest.
4203		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.<br/><br/>It is present in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Udzwunga Scarp Forest Reserve, Tanzania (Ehardt <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ehardt 2001; Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005; Ehardt and Butynski 2006). Efforts to expand the National Park boundaries to improve the level of protection in the Udzwunga Scarp Forest Reserve have been unsuccessful. Demographic surveys are needed. There is a need to enforce laws prohibiting hunting in forest reserves, and to increase prevention of habitat alteration.
4203		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of Mwanihana Forest and Udzwunga Scarp Forest Reserve, on the eastern slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. It ranges from 400-1,300 m asl.
4203		habitat	eng	This species is often found in the lower understory of submontane and montane forest, and spends ~50% of its time foraging on the forest floor (Ehardt <em>et al.</em> 2005; Ehardt and Butynski 2006). It frequently moves through and utilizes disturbed areas and mosaic habitat (Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Diet is strongly concentrated on fruit, nuts and seeds, as well as herbaceous material (Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Mean group sizes range from 15 to >40 animals (Wasser 1993; Ehardt 2001; Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005).
4203		population	eng	The population was originally estimated to be between 1,800 and 3,000 animals (Homewood and Rodgers 1981; Rodgers and Homewood 1982; Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 2001). Current population estimate likely does not exceed 1,300 individuals (Ehardt <em>et al.</em> 2005). Split into two distinct subpopulations: the largest subpopulation (ca. 60%) occurs within the recently established Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and the remaining ca. 40% in Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (Ehardt 2001; Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Until recently, a third subpopulation was believed to exist in Ndundulu Forest Reserve, but surveys in 2004 confirm that the earlier reports by ornithologists (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001) were based on  misidentification of the primates present in this Forest Reserve (Ehardt and Butynski 2006).
4203		threats	eng	It is threatened by continuing deforestation for timber and charcoal production. It is also threatened by hunting, including with dogs.
4205		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. European Union listed in Appendix I.<br/><br/>The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas including Tai National Park and Sapo National Park. <em>C. a. lunulatus</em> occurs in Comoe National Park but it is threatened by civil conflict and hunting; it has also been recorded from Ankasa Resource Reserve, Dadieso Forest Reserve and Yoyo Forest Reserves in Ghana, and Marahoué National Park, Dassioko Forest Reserve and Niegre Forest Reserve in Côte d’Ivoire. Many of these protected areas should be elevated to national park status. <br/><br/>There are captive-breeding programmes for this species in European zoos.
4205		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Upper Guinea area. It is known from coastal Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, and is widespread in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,000 m asl and possibly higher in the Lome Moutains in Sierra Leone. There are two subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. atys</em> ranges in Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire to the Nzo-Sassandra system.<br/><br/><em>C. a. lunulatus</em> ranges through the eastern part of the range from the Nzo-Sassandra system to the Volta River. It has recently been recorded from Burkina Faso (Galat and Galat-Luong 2006).
4205		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forests, gallery forest, swamp forest including mangrove and mosaic habitats in the Guinean Forest Zone. This species is largely terrestrial but will also use the forest canopy. In Guinea it is known from woodland savanna. This species is known to raid farms. They are tolerant of some degree of habitat degradation in the absence of hunting.
4205		population	eng	There have been very few recent surveys for <em>C. a. atys</em> in Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, but it is not thought to be common. In the absence of hunting, this species used to be relatively widespread in farm/bush and secondary forest in Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><em>C. a. lunlulatus</em> has a more restricted range, patchy distribution and is not known to be abundant anywhere.
4205		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by habitat loss caused by deforestation for timber and firewood. The species is locally hunted for meat, and this is an increasingly important threat with ongoing forest fragmentation. Although they are tolerant of a wide range of habitats, hunting of this species for meat and persecution from crop raiding are major threats. However, in the muslim populations in the northern and western parts of its range, hunting is not thought to be a major threat.
4207		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. There are no confirmed records from Salonga National Park, although it has been recorded from near the south-west boundary and probably does occur (see Ehardt in press). Further studies into the limits of distribution, abundance, and threats to this species are needed.
4207		distribution	eng	This species is found south of the Congo River, in the central Congo Basin, where currently believed to be endemic to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The precise northern, southern and eastern range limits are not fully known, but based on current records the western limit is the Congo River, the northern limit could be the Lulonga River, and the eastern limit the Lomami River (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ehardt in press). Found up to 500 m asl.
4207		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seasonally inundated lowland and upland rain forest and may occur in gallery forest (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999); sometimes also recorded in secondary forest, and are apparently an agricultural pest in some areas. Diurnal species in which group size probably averages about 15 animals (Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. 1999), although J. Eriksson (in Ehardt in press) estimated group size at often more than 100 animals.
4207		population	eng	This is a poorly known species, and there is a paucity of information available on its population status. It appears to be very patchily distributed across its range, and there are very few records.
4207		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include hunting (both for meat and the pet trade); they may also be at risk from localized habitat loss.
4212		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas across its range.
4212		distribution	eng	This species is found from the south and east of the Congo-Oubangui River system in central Africa, through Uganda to the Rift Valley in Kenya and western Tanzania; it ranges as far south as northern Angola to north-western Zambia Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Butynski 2002). It is known to occur up to 2,000 m. <br/><br/>There are five recognized subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. ascanius</em> is present in Angola and south-western Democratic Republic of the Congo, south of the Congo and Kasai Rivers, generally below 500 m asl. North of this, some animals between the Kasai and Lukenie rivers may be attributable to this form (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/><em>C. a. atrinasus</em> is restricted to the vicinity of the type locality of Zovo, Angola on the Lunda Plateau at about 850 m asl. Although the type locality is near DR Congo, this subspecies has never been recorded from this country (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>The southern subspecies <em>C. a. katangae</em> is present mainly in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, between the Kasai and Lualaba Rivers at 500-1,300 m asl (see Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001 for details). It is also reported in north-western Mwinilunga District (Ansell 1978). <br/><br/><em>C. a. whitesidei</em> is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo where it ranges mostly south and east of the Congo River and west of the Lomami. The Lukenie marks the southern boundary, although monkeys that are similar to this taxon are known from south of the river (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>The eastern subspecies <em>C. a. schmidti</em> has the widest distribution of the five subspecies and occurs from east of the Lualaba River, Democratic Republic of Congo, into Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania and Kenya, and also occurs north of the Congo River where it is found north of Bangui, Central African Republic to southern Sudan in the east (see Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). It ranges between 400 and 2,500 m asl, mainly at elevations about 1,300 m in the eastern part of its range (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Transitional forms are said to occur between <em>whitesidei</em> and <em>katangae</em>, <em>katangae</em> and <em>ascanius</em>, and <em>katangae</em> and <em>atrinasus</em>. There is a wide transitional zone between <em>ascanius</em> and <em>atrinasus</em> (Lernoud 1988; Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001).
4212		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland, submontane, and montane tropical moist forests, swamp forest, riverine and gallery forest, and forest mosaic. It can occur in secondary or regenerating forests. Animals generally live in small family groups (~25 individuals) (Butynski 2002).
4212		population	eng	It is presumably a common species in some areas.
4212		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is likely that some populations are locally threatened by severe habitat loss or hunting.
4213		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is known to occur in most of the protected areas within its geographic range.
4213		distribution	eng	This species ranges from The Gambia and Senegal, just north of the Casamance River, through West Africa to the River Volta.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>C. c. campbelli</em> ranges from The Gambia in the west to the River Cavally, on the Liberia-Côte d'Ivoire border, while <em>C. c. lowei</em>  is found from the River Cavally (Côte d'Ivoire) in the west to the River Volta, Ghana in the east. The former subspecies is also known from the island of Caravela in the Bijagos Archipelago of Guinea-Bissau (Gippoliti and Dell'Omo 2003).
4213		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of tropical forests including lowland forest, gallery forest, mangroves, and woody savanna. Both subspecies occur in secondary forest and subsistence agriculture and farmbush.
4213		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in some areas.
4213		threats	eng	This species has been impacted by habitat loss through deforestation, and bushmeat. However, it often thrives in disturbed habitats, and remains common in many parts of its range.
4214		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This widespread species is present in a number of protected areas in Gabon (including most of the newly establish national parks) and in southern Cameroon.<br/><br/>The recently described subspecies <em>ngottoensis</em> is present in the proposed Mbaere-Bodingue park in CAR, but is absent from the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park and the contiguous Nouabale-Ndoki National Park, Congo, and apparently does not occur in any other protected area in the region (Brugiere <em>et al.</em> 2005).
4214		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Sanaga River in Cameroon south and east to the Congo River, and just south of the lower Congo in the north-western corner of Angola. Its range extends east of the River Sangha (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Colyn 1999; Butynski 2002). <br/><br/>Three subspecies are recognized. The subspecies <em>C. c. cephus</em> ranges over much of the species' range, the exception being the region of coastal Gabon and Congo bounded by the Ogooué and Kouilou-Niari Rivers, which is the area inhabited by the subspecies <em>C. c. cephodes</em>. A third subspecies <em>C. c. ngottoensis</em> is present in the Central African Republic, where it is known from the Kadei-Mambéré region east to the Oubangui, occurring as far north as Bangui, and in northern Congo.
4214		habitat	eng	This aboreal and diurnal species is largely associated with lowland tropical rainforest; however, animals may also be found in secondary habitat types (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999). Primarily a frugivorous species, it also consumes seeds, leaves, arthropods, eggs, and fledglings. Group sizes range from 4 to 35 individuals (Butynski 2002).
4214		population	eng	It is common and widespread in parts of its range.
4214		threats	eng	This species has been impacted by habitat loss through deforestation, and presumably hunting for meat. However, it can thrive secondary habitat, and seems to remain common in some parts of its range.
4215		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Class A of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. They Roloway Monkey has previously been recorded from a number of protected areas across the region. However, very recent surveys failed to confirm the presence of Roloways in four reserves in western Ghana including one — Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve — believed to harbor the monkey only several years earlier. It is possible that Ankasa Resource Reserve still contains a few Roloway individuals; a thorough survey of Ankasa, and of the Dadieso Forest Reserve (where the monkey was also reported in the recent past) should be a high priority (McGraw and Oates 2007). In neighboring Côte d’Ivoire, the Roloway guenon is not known from any protected areas. Surveys formerly documented them in two forests, namely the Yaya Forest Reserve and wet forest adjacent to the Ehy Lagoon (McGraw and Oates 2007). However, field surveys made in 2004 failed to document them at additional sites in southern Côte d’Ivoire, although hunters indicate that Roloways are present in small numbers in the Parc National des Iles Ehotilé (Kone and Akpatou 2005). Further investigations are needed in the forest zone along the Togo-Ghana border to confirm or refute the presence of Roloway Monkeys in Togo (Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The nominate subspecies is better off than its conspecific, and occurs on Mt. Nimba, part of which is a designated World Heritage Site. To protect this primate there is a need to protect large areas of mature forest from logging and conversion to agricultural land.
4215		distribution	eng	This species is found in the forests of Upper Guinea in West Africa, ranging from coastal south-eastern Guinea to Sierra Leone, Liberia, southern Côte d'Ivoire, and southwestern Ghana. There range may extend to Burkina Faso. There are also historical museum records and some reports of this species in Togo to the east of Lake Volta (see Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008 for summary). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the subspecies <em>C. d. diana</em> ranges from coastal south-eastern Guinea to the River Sassandra in Côte d'Ivoire; <em>C. d. roloway</em> is found from the River Sassandra in the east to the River Pra in Ghana.
4215		habitat	eng	This largely arboreal species occurs in the canopy of primary and old secondary lowland moist forest, and riverine and gallery forest. It is rare in degraded forest, but it appears that it can survive in lightly logged forest where the canopy remains
4215		population	eng	It appears to be a rare and declining species throughout the majority of its range, with <em>C. d. roloway</em> much rarer than <em>C. d. diana</em> in the west. In Ghana, Roloway Guenons have been steadily extirpated from both unprotected and protected areas (for example, Bia National Park) and the monkey is nearing extinction in that country if it has not disappeared already (McGraw and Oates 2007).
4215		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by hunting and habitat degradation and loss. The relatively large size of this species and the value of its meat and skin makes it a preferred game species. Large-scale deforestation in the region, through logging, conversion to agricultural land and charcoal production, continues to reduce the habitat available to this species (McGraw 1998; McGraw and Oates 2007).
4216		conservation	eng	This species is currently known only from the community-managed Kokolopori reserve in north-eastern DR Congo. Effective management of this reserve will be key to the survival of this species. Further surveys are urgently needed to assess the distribution and population status of this species. No individuals are held in captivity.<br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
4216		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few locations in the Lomela and Wamba regions of the Congo Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species has also been recorded at Kokolopori where four wild populations have been indentified in secondary forests within the Kokolopori Reserve of approximately 500 km² (these populations are extremely fragmented and isolated). The estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 3,000 km² within the proposed Kokolopori Reserve, between the Luo and Lopori Rivers (which may serve as geographic barriers) (M. Hurley pers. comm.). Ranges to about 380 m asl.
4216		habitat	eng	This is a largely terrestrial species that occurs in thickets in dense secondary lowland moist forest, and perhaps also in swamp forest (Kuroda <em>et al.</em> 1985); primary forest seems to be avoided. They forage mainly in the lower stratum of secondary forest but also frequently on the ground. The home ranges for the four populations in Kokolopori vary between 2.8 and 7.0 ha and the troops seem to be squeezed between expanding agricultural degradation of their secondary forest homes and primary forests (M. Hurley in press). Troop size ranges from 2 to 15 individuals (Kuroda <em>et al</em>. 1985), but sometimes the species can be observed in troops of about 30 monkeys (M. Hurley pers. comm.); they also have been recorded forming mixed groups with other guenons (Kuroda <em>et al</em>. 1985).
4216		population	eng	With the exception of the recent observations from Kokolopori, this species has not been sighted in recent surveys undertaken in its known range (J.A. Hart pers. comm.; M. Hurley pers. comm.). Although there is no reliable information on its population status, estimates indicate that there could be fewer than 200 individuals left in the wild (M. Hurley pers. comm.).
4216		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are hunting and habitat loss to agriculture.
4217		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class A of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. In Nigeria it is present Okomu National Park and in a number of forest reserves (e.g., Udo, Omo, Oluwa, and Ifon Forest Reserves). Strict protection of remaining forest habitat and hunting restrictions are needed. It is present in sacred groves in Benin but is not strictly protected.
4217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in scattered populations in isolated forest patches within south-western Nigeria (both west and east of the Niger River within the delta region) and southern Bénin (perhaps as far as Banon at 8°29' N) (Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008) with a western limit up to the Kouffo River. Campbell <em>et al</em>. (2008) tentatively suggested its presence in the Dahomey Gap in the Togodo Forest in Togo, and subsequent survey work has confirmed this record (G. Nobime <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>C. e. erythrogaster</em> ranges from southern Benin, including the Forêt Classé de Lama (see Sinsin <em>et al</em>. 2002 for review), and <em>C. e. pococki</em> is known from Nigeria.
4217		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary, secondary and riverine lowland moist forest. The average group size is five animals although groups of up to 30 have been observed.
4217		population	eng	It has a scattered distribution and is generally rare, but can be locally abundant (e.g., around Okomu National Park in Nigeria which was originally established for this species and where they are now flourishing).
4217		threats	eng	The forest habitat in the range of this species has been heavily degraded and exploited. The remaining patches of forest are threatened in particular by timber extraction and conversion to agricultural land. In the Niger Delta, forest degradation is mainly through large-scale artisanal felling of commercial trees, but not widespread conversion to farmland, with the result that potential suitable habitat remains. This species is also hunted for meat.
4218		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is protected by national legislation in Cameroon and Nigeria. This species is present in several protected areas including Cross-River National Park (Nigeria), Korup National Park and several forest reserves (Cameroon), and Pico Basile and Southern Island Scientific Reserve (Bioko, Equatorial Guinea).
4218		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range from the Cross River in south-eastern Nigeria to just south of the Sanaga River in Cameroon. It is also present on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea up to 1,000 m asl. <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the nominate subspecies <em>C. e. erythrotis</em> is endemic to Bioko; <em>C. e. camerunensis</em> is present on the African mainland in Nigeria and Cameroon.
4218		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary lowland tropical and sub-montane moist forest, and sometimes lives in close proximity to humans (as on Bioko). Group size ranges from four to 30 animals.
4218		population	eng	It is a secretive, shy animal and therefore hard to detect, but is thought to persist over a large area of much of its historic range. This is the most common primate on Bioko, and is estimated to number more than 20,000 individuals, a documented decline from the more than 30,000 estimated in 1986 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).
4218		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation through timber extraction and conversion of forest to agricultural land. It is also hunted for meat throughout its range, particularly on Bioko, where commonly found in the Malabo bushmeat market.
4219		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Okapi Wildlife Reserve, Maiko National Park, and Virunga National Parks in DRC, and in Nyungwe Forest Reserve in Rwanda. Presence in Itombwe Massif is not yet confirmed. Additional research on population numbers and range is required, and this species would benefit from control of bushmeat trade.
4219		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it is found in lowlands from the Congo/Lualaba River to the Ituri Forest and into the Albertine Rift and Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda. It occurs north to the Lindi-Nepoko river system and south to the southern tropical moist forest limit, where its range limit is poorly defined. Although it is generally a lowland species, it also occurs in the mountains of Albertine Rift, where many records come from the bamboo zone. The easternmost highland populations of <em>C. hamlyni</em> are now isolated in fragmented habitat islands and some have been extirpated (e.g., Gishwati, Rwanda, the Virunga Volcanos, and forest islands between Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Massisi). The species occurs above 3,000 m in both Tshiberimu and Kahuzi, so it seems safe to assume that 3,200 m is the upper elevation limit.
4219		habitat	eng	A predominantly terrestrial species found in lowland and mid-montane tropical moist forest and montane bamboo forest. Mean group size in Kahuzi-Biega lowlands and the Ituri forest is 2-3 (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2006; J. Hart, unpubl.).
4219		population	eng	Widespread, and apparently most common in the lowlands of Kahuzi-Biega National Park (densities of 5-7 individuals per km²; Hall <em>et al.</em> 2006). Most extant populations in montane sites are small. A cryptic and quiet species, which is difficult to census.
4219		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation in the montane areas (due to shifting agriculture). In addition, it is intensely hunted in some areas, particularly in lowland areas where snaring is common.
4220		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is protected by national legislation in Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda. It has been recorded in a number of well-protected sites (see Distribution). This species, like <em>C. hamlyni</em>, would benefit from control of bushmeat hunting.
4220		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, east of the Lualaba River through the Ituri Forest, Rwanda and western Uganda (south-west Kigezi District and the Ruwenzori Mountains), and south to the Itombwe Massif. The southern limits are poorly defined. Isolated populations occur east of the main block of the range, and include Kibale Forest National Park, Kalinzu Forest Reserve, Ruwenzori Mountains National Park, Maramagambo Forest Reserve and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), Nyungwe National Park (Rwanda), Virunga and Kahuzi-Biega National Park uplands (DRC), and Kibira National Park (Burundi; Barakabuye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Recently also recorded from Kahuzi-Biega lowlands (DR Congo) (J. Hall pers. comm.). This species is strongly sympatric with <em>C. hamlyni</em>, especially west of the Albertine Rift. It is found up to 2,900 m asl.
4220		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species that occurs in lowland, submontane and montane forests. In some areas, it enters cultivated land to raid crops. This species is found in small groups of on average 10 to 17 animals, although larger bands have been observed. This species is among the most important primate prey in the diet of leopards <em>Panthera pardus</em> in the Ituri Forest (Hart <em>et al.</em> 1996).
4220		population	eng	Widespread within the lowland block, but only locally common in some areas (e.g., the Epulu area in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve). It is also common in some of the eastern fragments (e.g., Nyungwe and Bwindi, the Rumangabo area of the Virunga NP in DRC).
4220		threats	eng	Deforestation is taking place on the eastern edge of the main block of the species' range, primarily as a result of agricultural expansion. It is hunted for meat in parts of its range, and is particularly vulnerable to both snaring and shotgun hunting.
4221		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is present in many protected areas across its range. There is an urgent need to assess the current status of <em>C. m. zammaranoi</em> and <em>C. m. schoutedeni</em>.
4221		distribution	eng	This widespread African species ranges from Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo eastwards to the Indian Ocean coastline and Zanzibar Island (Tanzania); in the eastern part of its range it is found from Ethiopia in the north to eastern South Africa in the south (Colyn and Verheyen 1987; Lawes 1990; Colyn 1991; Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Butynski 2002a, b). It is found from sea level up to 3,800 m asl (Rwenzori Mountains).<br/><br/>There are 17 subspecies: <br/><br/>1). <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em>. In Kenya, present in Kipini Conservancy, Witu Forest, Tana River forests west as far as Meru and Kora National Parks. <em>C. m. phylax</em>, a synonym of <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em>, is present on Patta and Witu Islands, Lamu Archipelago, Kenya. Reported to be present in the coastal forest of southern Somalia, but this requires confirmation (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). <br/>2). <em>C. m. kolbi</em> is restricted to the highlands of Kenya, east of the Rift Valley (including Nairobi). There is no evidence that <em>C. m. kolbi</em> occurs in Marsabit (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers comm. 2007).<br/>3). <em>C. m. albogularis</em> is present from Kilifi Creek south to northern Tanzania, and from here west to Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru, Tanzania; it also occurs on the island of Zanzibar, Tanzania. This subspecies is possibly the subspecies that occurs from Kilifi Creek to Malindi (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/>4). <em>C. m. francescae</em> is known only from Mount Waller and the Vipya Plateau of Malawi.<br/>5). <em>C. m. moloneyi</em> is present from Zambia west of the Luangwa River, northern-most Malawi, the Southern Highlands of Tanzania to the Udzungwa Mountains (T. Butynski pers. comm.).<br/>6). <em>C. m. erythrarchus</em> ranges from the Mlanje Plateau in southern Malawi, to Zimbabwe, much of Mozambique (althought the coastal limits are uncertain) to Limpopo Province and northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa in the south.<br/>7). <em>C. m. labiatus</em> is restricted to South Africa where it is found in the Limpopo Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape.<br/>8). <em>C. m. heymansi</em> ranges between the Lualaba and Lomami Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/>9). <em>C. m. opisthostictus</em> ranges from the Province of Katanga (= Shaba) in the Democratic Republic of Congo, north to approximately 6°N on the left bank of the River Lualaba to the western shores of Lake Tanganyika, it is found in north-western Zambia west of the Luangwa River.<br/>10). The nominate subspecies <em>C. m. mitis</em> is known only from the Dundo region of Angola.<br/>11). <em>C. m. boutourlinii</em> is present in southern Ethiopia, where it is found from Lake Tana southwards along the western side of the Ethiopian Rift, but does not reach Lake Turkana.<br/>12). <em>C. m. stuhlmanni</em> is widespread occurring in the Democratic Republic of Congo from the region between the Uele River and the Congo River, east of the Itimbiri River to the Ituri and Semliki Forests (Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda), and from here south to about 6°S and east of the Lualaba River, into southern Sudan, northern Uganda and parts of Kenya west of the Rift Valley, including Mount Elgon and the Kakamega Forest.<br/>13). <em>C. m. schoutedeni</em> is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo on the islands of Idjwi and Shushu in Lake Kivu, and from the Virunga Volcanoes and south-west as far as Bobandana.<br/>14). <em>C. m. doggetti</em> is found in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Burundi, north-western Tanzania, through Rwanda and parts of southern Uganda (there is uncertainty in the distribution of this subspecies and the degree of overlap with neighbouring subspecies).<br/>15). <em>C. m. kandti</em> has an unclear distribution, but is generally found in the area of Virunga Volcanoes, the contiguous Gishwati Forest, and higher part of Nyungwe.<br/>16). <em>C. m. zammaranoi</em> (treated by some as a synonym of <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em>) has a very restricted distribution in southern Somalia along the Jubba and Webi-Shebeli Rivers. See Gippoliti (2006) for a review.<br/>17) <em>C. m. monoides</em> ranges through the Selous Game Reserve and Kichi Hills west to the foot of the Udzungwa Mountains, south into Newala District.
4221		habitat	eng	This species is present in many different forest types including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, riverine and gallery forest, delta forest and bamboo forest (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 1990). Also found in sand forest. It can occur in secondary forest, logged forest and thickets. Group size ranges from 2 to more than 40 individuals. The gestation period is around 176 days after which a single young is usually born.
4221		population	eng	The population density of this species varies greatly with the habitat type occupied, but it is generally common throughout its range. In South Africa, lowest densities are found in swamp, sand and riverine forests (<0.3 individuals/ha), medium densities in Afromontane forests (0.4-0.9 individuals/ha) and highest densities in coastal forests (2 individuals/ha) (Lawes 1992). <br/><br/>Gippoliti (2006) estimated that there may be no more than 200-500 individuals of <em>C. m. zammaranoi</em> surviving in riverine forest fragments in Somalia.
4221		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole, although it is generally threatened to some degree by deforestation and habitat fragmentation. The species is also threatened by hunting in places (for food and animal parts are also used in places for traditional medicine). The population in Angola may have disappeared through habitat loss in a now densely settled region. Those subspecies with more restricted ranges are presumably threatened by deforestation because of a range of activities including agricultural activities (mainly shifting agriculture), selective logging for timber, logging for firewood, replacement by commercial timber forests (especially in South Africa), expanding human settlement and future mining operations. The area of Kipini Forest, in which the subspecies <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em> is common, has recently been given over by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and Kipini Conservancy for resettlement of people from the lower Tana River area. This could mean that the remaining forest is likely to be destroyed in the very near future (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
4222		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is known to occur in a number of protected areas, such as Digya and Kalakpa National Parks in Ghana, and several forest reserves in south-west Cameroon.
4222		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges from south-eastern Ghana (the Volta) to Cameroon, just south of the Sanaga River. It is often associated with rivers. It has been introduced to Sao Tome and from there to the Caribbean islands of Grenada and possibly to Saint Kitts and Nevis.
4222		habitat	eng	This is a lowland forest species that inhabits all but the most severely degraded habitat and extends into the savanna zone in gallery forest. The species is abundant close to river and gallery forest. It may be found in mangroves. Animals live in groups averaging 12 individuals.
4222		population	eng	It is generally a widespread and common species.
4222		threats	eng	This species has been impacted by large-scale habitat loss, and hunting for meat. However, it appears that it can adapt well to secondary habitat, and remains common in parts of its range.
4223		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, having recently been recorded by Maisels <em>et al.</em> (2007) from several additional national parks.
4223		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from north-eastern Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and Gabon in the west of its range to Uganda, Kenya and south-western Ethiopia in the east. It was formerly believed that the Sanaga River formed the northern boundary in Cameroon, but Maisels <em>et al.</em> (2007) extended the current known range for <em>C. neglectus</em> 100 km farther north in Cameroon, about 140 km farther south in Gabon, and about 80 km farther west in Congo than was previously known. The surveys were carried out in Cameroon in the Mbam Djerem National Park, in Gabon in the Bateke Plateau National Park, and the adjoining Bateke Plateau area in Congo. <em>C. neglectus</em> were found on both sides of the Djerem River in Cameroon, along the Mpassa and its tributaries in Gabon, along the Nambouli River in the Lefini Reserve in Congo, and up to the right bank of the Ogooué River on the Congo side of the border (Maisles <em>et al</em>. 2007). Until recently, the species was not known to range east of the Great Rift valley in Kenya, but it has now been recorded in the remote and isolated Mathews Range Forest Reserve of Samburu at an elevation of 2,200 m (the highest elevation at which the species has yet been recorded; Mwenja 2007).
4223		habitat	eng	This species is associated with riverine forest habitats. It is found close to rivers in lowland and submontane tropical moist forest, swamp forest, semi-deciduous forest and Acacia dominated forest. They are mainly arboreal. De Brazza’s Monkey is considerably more inconspicuous than most other guenons, rarely using group calls, and generally avoiding living in polyspecific troops (Gautier-Hion and Gautier 1978), and at least in Gabon, northern Congo, the Bateke Plateau and central Cameroon, living in small family parties (Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2007); however, it can be found in groups of as many as 35 individuals.
4223		population	eng	One of the most widespread of African forest monkeys, though never abundant over its range. The recently discovered isolated population in Mathews Range Forest Reserve was estimated at 200-300 individuals (Mwenja 2007).
4223		threats	eng	There are some localized declines taking place across the range, especially in East Africa, through deforestation of habitat for agricultural land and timber. It is also hunted for meat, especially in the more western parts of its range, while in East Africa it is killed both for food or as an agricultural pest (e.g., Brennan 1985).
4224		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), Mbam Djerem National Park (Cameroon) and others. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species, particularly elucidate the status of forms currently included in <em>C. n. martini</em>, since many of them may represent truly threatened subspecies.
4224		distribution	eng	This species is present as a disjunct population in Liberia and western Côte d'Ivoire, and then more continuously from the Osse River in western Nigeria south and east to the Congo River, across the Oubangui River as far east as Buta and Budjala (both Democratic Republic of the Congo) between the Congo River and Oubangui River. It is also present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). This isolated western range is thought to be due to competion with <em>C. diana</em>. <br/><br/>There are two subspecies. The subspecies <em>C. n. nictitans</em> is distributed south of the Sanaga River, Cameroon through the eastern part of the species range. The systematic status of the subspecies <em>C. n. martini</em> is uncertain, and herein includes a number of forms sometimes recognized as distinct taxa. Animals currently allocated to this subspecies occur from north-west of the lower Sanaga River, Cameroon, into the western part of the species range, including the island of Bioko.
4224		habitat	eng	It is present in lowland and montane tropical moist forest, gallery forest and secondary forest; it is less common in swamp forest. This species generally lives in groups of between 12 and 30 animals.
4224		population	eng	This species is rare in West Africa, but reasonably common in the eastern part of its range. On Bioko, numbers have undergone steep declines, exceeding 50% between the period 1986 to 2006 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).
4224		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened, especially in the west of its range, by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and agricultural land and by hunting for meat. Although it is hunted heavily (e.g., on Bioko), it still remains common in the central and eastern parts of its range.
4225		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is a widespread species that is present in several protected areas, including Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and Digya National Park (Ghana).
4225		distribution	eng	This West African species is distributed from Guinea-Bissau in the west to Togo in the east. There is also a recent reliable record from south-eastern Senegal (Pruetz <em>et al.</em> unpubl.). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the subspecies <em>C. p. petaurista</em> is found east of the Cavally River in Côte d'Ivoire to about the Dahomey Gap; <em>C. p. buettikoferi</em> is found to the west of the Cavally River.
4225		habitat	eng	It can be found in primary and secondary forests, riverine and gallery forest, regenerating areas and coastal bushland. It is also found in farmbush.
4225		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species.
4225		threats	eng	This species may have been impacted in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation and human settlement. It is possibly hunted for meat in some areas.
4226		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This widespread species is present in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon) - an important stronghold to insure the survival of <em>C. pogonias</em> in the Cameroon-Nigeria border area - Odzala National Park (Congo), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea) and Salonga National Park (DR Congo). Further taxonomic work is needed to elucidate the status of the various subspecies, and particularly to ascertain whether some forms merit recognition as distinct species.
4226		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Cross River in Nigeria, east and south to the Congo Basin where it is widespread and found throughout, ranging eastwards to Rwanda, and Uganda, and southwards into the forests south of the River Kasai. Also present on Bioko Island, where it has a limited distribution on the southern slopes of the Southern Highlands up to about 1,250 m asl; a small population on the southern slopes of Pico Basile was probably hunted out in 2000 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There are seven subspecies:<br/><br/>The distribution of the nominate subspecies, <em>C. p. pogonias</em> is a little unclear. Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. (1999) restrict it to Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, with an unnamed subspecies replacing <em>C. p. pogonias</em> on the mainland north of the Sanaga River. However, Groves (2001) records <em>C. p. pogonias</em> as occurring from the Cross River across the River Sanaga to Río Muni, and includes Bioko. The current treatment considers this subspecies to include the animals on Bioko, as well as the form occurring on the mainland between the Cross and Niger Rivers.<br/><br/>According to Groves (2001), the subspecies <em>C. p. nigripes</em> ranges from Río Muni (Equatorial Guinea), Gabon and Congo, south into Cabinda (Angola). However, this distribution does not conform with that mapped by Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. (1999), who map <em>grayi</em> as the form in Cabinda.<br/><br/><em>C. p. grayi</em> ranges from south Cameroon (middle Sanaga River) east to the Central African Republic, and south into Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo north of the Congo River. It ranges as far eastwards as about the Itimbiri River north of the Congo River. Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. (1999) map this species occurring south to the mouth of the Congo River.<br/><br/><em>C. p. denti</em> is found in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo to the east and north of the Congo-Lualaba River, extending north into the Central African Republic, but not found to the west of the Itimbiri River. This subspecies has also been recorded from western Rwanda and Uganda. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. p. wolfi</em> ranges between the Congo and Sankuru Rivers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><em>C. p. elegans</em> ranges between the Lomani and Lualaba Rivers south of 2ºS. <br/><br/><em>C. p. pyrogaster</em> is found between the Rivers Kwango and Kasai-Lulua in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola.
4226		habitat	eng	It is associated with lowland tropical forest, especially primary high-canopy forest, but may also be found in mature secondary mature up to submontane and montane elevations. This species lives in groups of eight to 20 animals.
4226		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range, but rare in some regions. Unlike for many other primates on Bioko, this island may be one of the strongholds for <em>C. pogonias</em> and especially for the nominate subspecies. In 1992, Mate and Colell (1995) found <em>C. p. pogonias</em> to be by far the most common monkey at their study side on the south-east coast of Bioko, recording densities of 1.8-2.25 individuals/km², perhaps because hunting of primates is lower on the south coast of Bioko as anywhere on the island (T. Butynski pers. obs.). Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) did not record any significant decline of the species on Bioko between 1986 and 2006.
4226		threats	eng	This species has been impacted in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation, agriculture and human settlement, and it is also hunted for meat across most of its range. <br/><br/>Results of survey work in Korup N. P. in Cameroon suggest that, although <em>C. pogonias</em> is small bodied, it might be more vulnerable to hunting than other guenon species due to its relatively narrow feeding and habitat requirements. Populations of <em>C. p. pogonias</em> appear to be declining in the north-east section of Korup N. P. and might have already been extirpated from areas of the park that are most heavily hunted and where anti-poaching patrols are absent. Results from forests near to Korup N. P. also suggest that hunting has reduced or eliminated populations of <em>C. pogonias</em>. However, populations appear to be increasing in southern Korup N. P. This may be the result of the relatively low hunting pressure (compared with north-east Korup) and/or a potentially more favourable habitat for this species in southern Korup (Linder 2008).
4227		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. The species occurs in the Okwangwo division of Cross River National Park and on the adjacent Obudu Plateau (Nigeria), Pico Basile National Park and the Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve (Bioko), and in the Takemanda Forest Reserve, Ibo Forest, and Banyang-Mbo Forest (Cameroon) which has been proposed for elevated protection status. Surveys of the status and distribution across its range are needed. None of the montane forest areas of the Cameroon highlands, the most important remaining habitat for this species, are formally protected and require urgent conservation action.
4227		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in western Cameroon, eastern Nigeria, and on Bioko Island. It is most abundant in montane and sub-montane forest up to at least 2,500 m asl. Its range includes isolated patches of forest in the grasslands of the Cameroon Highlands.<br/><br/>This species is divided into two subspecies: <em>C. preussi preussi</em>, on the mainland, and <em>C. p. insularis</em>, which is restricted to Bioko Island.
4227		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in montane and submontane forest above 800 m, and on Bioko shows a preference for Schefflera forest (Gonzalez Kirchner 2004; Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also more rarely found in lowland forest (e.g., to 450 in the Caldera on Bioko), and can occur in isolated forest patches in mountainous grasslands. They have semi-terrestrial habits and are found usually in the understorey of the forest. Little is known about feeding behaviour, but it is known to eat fruits, seeds, leaves, and flowers. This species lives in groups of 2-12 animals, consisting of a single male and several females with their young.
4227		population	eng	There has been no comprehensive population survey of this species, except on Bioko where the species has undergone declines exceeding 55% over a 20-year period (1986-2006; Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the mainland, the species is uncommon and highly fragmented.
4227		threats	eng	This species’ population size and distribution have been severely affected by habitat destruction and hunting. For example, Cameroon’s forests have been severely eroded by cultivation, fire and collection of wood for fuel. As a result, little montane forest remains in the mainland part of this species’ range. This species is highly susceptible to human predation because it is semi-terrestrial and relatively large-bodied, and hunting has led to a decline in its population across its range, but particularly on Bioko.
4229		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>There are no protected areas for wildlife in the range of Sclater's Monkey. Baker (2005) suggests the following conservation actions: 1) elevate the species to Schedule I of the Nigerian Endangered Species Decree of 1985 (this change may not be considered unless the species is elevated to CITES Appendix I); 2) raise awareness about the species and its uniquely Nigerian status through publicity and education; and 3) protect key forest areas, including the Edumanom and Upper Orashi Forest Reserves in Rivers and Bayelsa States, the Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve in Akwa Ibom State, and the communities of Ikot Uso Akpan, Lagwa and Akpugoeze. Other potential areas for protection are the Niger floodplain and Osomari Forest Reserve (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992), and the Blue River (Azumini, Abia State) and Enyong Creek/Ikpa River (Akwa Ibom State) (Tooze 1995).
4229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Nigeria. It ranges from the eastern Niger Delta in Bayelsa State east to the Cross River, and north to Enugu and Ebonyi States; the most northerly known populations occur in southern Anambra-Enugu States and central Ebonyi State (Baker and Olubode 2008). Sclater’s Monkey was feared extinct until it was sighted southwest of Oguta, Imo State, in 1988 (Oates and Anadu 1989). Additional populations were subsequently discovered in the early to mid-1990s (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992; Tooze 1995, 1996). More recently, the species was located in several sites where it had not been previously recorded (Baker 2005; Baker and Olubode 2008). Across its range, this species has been recorded in mostly fragmented, degraded forests (Oates <em>et al</em>. 1992; Tooze 1995; Baker and Olubode 2008).
4229		habitat	eng	The original habitat of this species would be moist tropical lowland forest, but due to severe habitat degradation, Sclater’s Monkey now persists in remnant secondary, gallery/riparian and freshwater swamp forests. The species is also found in marginal forest and farm-bush in communities where monkeys are regarded as sacred (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992; Tooze 1995; Baker 2005). The species is likely omnivorous, with a diet similar to other members of the <em>C. cephus</em> group: mostly fruits, insects and young foliage (Oates and Baker in press).
4229		population	eng	Until recently, this species was thought to be very rare, but extensive surveys have revealed its presence at a number of formerly unknown sites (Baker and Olubode 2008). The authors did not encounter any localities of recent extirpation, or sites where local reports indicated that populations of Sclater’s Monkeys had been extirpated even though suitable habitat remains.
4229		threats	eng	Sclater's Monkey occurs in a region with a very dense human population and where most natural forest has been destroyed by logging, conversion to cultivated land and oil exploration (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992; Baker and Olubode 2008). Of particular concern for this species is severe fragmentation of remaining habitat and thus lack of connectivity among existing populations. Sclater’s is hunted throughout its range (except in the very few places where monkeys are held sacred), but it continues to persist due to preferential hunting of larger-bodied primate taxa and its small size, shy nature and adaptability (Baker and Olubode 2008).
4230		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It was declared a totally protected species by the Gabonese government in 1994. About 10% of the species' range is in the Lopé National Park, but the highest density of this species is in Foret des Abeilles (which remains unprotected) and better protection of this Forest is needed. Planned logging activity in the south of the Lope Reserve should be monitored closely, and hunting both within the reserve and in the Foret des Abeilles urgently needs to be controlled. More detailed studies of its distribution and biology are urgently needed. A few animals are held in captivity in Gabon.
4230		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Gabon with a total range thought to be in the order of 11,000-12,000 km² (encompassing the Forêt des Abeilles). The species has been recorded west of the Offoué River within Lopé National Park, but not to the west of 11.50°E; the westerly limit remains unclear. The recorded eastern limit is the Ogooué R. The southern limit is also unclear, but it extends apparently to the foothills of the Massif du Chaillu (Gautier <em>et al.</em> 1992; Brugiere and Gautier 1999).
4230		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary and secondary lowland moist forest. The forest is dominated by Gaboon mahogany (<em>Acoumea</em>), the leguminous awoura (<em>Julbernardia</em>), false nutmeg (<em>Pycnanthus</em>), and mubala-oil tree (<em>Pentaclethra</em>). Sun-tailed Monkeys prefer densely shaded, tangled areas. They remain common after light logging, perhaps because dense undergrowth increases. The diet of this species is currently being studied, but it is known to prefer fruits which are abundant all year round. They are sometimes recorded raiding crops around villages. This species occurs in single-male, multi-female groups.
4230		population	eng	The population density of this species varies with habitat suitability and seemingly with altitude: at the Makandé Field Research Station, the density was estimated at 25 individuals per km² (Brugiere and Gautier 1999). In southern Lope, the mean density was about 4 per km² (Brugiere 2005).
4230		threats	eng	Brugiere and Gautier (1999) note that there is no recent evidence of a direct population decline in the species as a result of human activities. This species is hunted for meat (although it is reported to be difficult to hunt, because of its cryptic behaviour), and, being semi-terrestrial, is sensitive to ground snares (a common form of hunting around logging camps). Hunting pressure seems to be relatively low, but commercial hunting is likely to become a growing threat. Habitat loss, mainly due to logging (including in the Foret des Abeilles, which is largely allocated to logging concessions) is also a threat (Brugiere and Gautier 1999).
4233		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in a number of protected areas.
4233		distribution	eng	Present in Sudan from Khartoum in the north to Mongalla in the south, and in Djibouti, Ethiopia and Eritrea where it is found south of the River Omo and ranges as far east as the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Dandelot and Prevost 1972). Its range formerly extended along the Nile Valley.
4233		habitat	eng	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers (Dorst and Dandelot 1972). It is an extremely adaptable species that can live in both rural and urban environments. Heavily dependent on acacia seeds, flowers, foliage and gum. Also feeds on figs and other fruiting trees (Butynski 2002).
4233		population	eng	It is a common species. They live in bands of from 6 to 20, averaging a dozen individuals (Dorst and Dandelot 1972).
4233		threats	eng	It is generally common and adaptable over its range, and there are presumed to be no major threats.
4240		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in the proposed Harena-Kokosa National Forest Reserve, but which needs to be formally gazetted. Ongoing survey work in the Bale Mountains will hopefully reveal a better idea of the species' distribution and population status.
4240		distribution	eng	Endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, east of the Ethiopian Rift Valley in the Bale Mountains, where found at high elevations from 2,400 to 3,000 m asl (see Butynski in press).
4240		habitat	eng	This species has specialised habitat requirements as it is found in the bamboo forest zone of the Bale Mountains massif. Butynski (in press) summarizes the current state of knowledge of this diurnal, semi-terrestrial monkey.
4240		population	eng	The species was presumably more widespread and abundant in historic times. There is no information on population size, but it may be locally common in some areas (e.g., in Odobullu Forest at 6.87ºN, 40.17ºE; Butynski in press).
4240		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is ongoing habitat loss and degradation. For example, the Harenna Forest, where the Bale Monkey is generally uncommon, is under threat from expanding human populations, fire, agriculture, and the removal of forest products such as bamboo, lumber, fuelwood, and charcoal. Persecution for crop raiding may also be a localised threat. There is suggestion that hybridization may occur with <em>C. aethiops</em> on the margins of its range, but there are no confirmed records as yet.
4248		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES – Appendix II.<br/><br/>In Argentina, the crab-eating fox was considered "not endangered" by the 1983 Fauna and Flora National Direction <br/>(resolution 144), and its exploitation and commercial use was forbidden in 1987 (A. Novaro pers. comm., A. Farias pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no specific protective legislation for this species in any country, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most countries. Generally, there is no specific pest regulatory legislation for the Crab-eating Fox, but it is strongly disliked locally as a pest of livestock (poultry and lambs) leading to illegal hunting and consequential sales of pelts. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not reinforced (J. Carvino pers. comm., A. Soutullo pers. comm.). In Uruguay, hunting permits have not been issued since 1989 on the basis that lamb predation by foxes is negligible (Cravino <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2000).<br/><br/>Occurs in a large number of protected and unprotected areas across its geographical range.<br/><br/>No conservation measures are proposed for this species. No protection required at present.
4248		distribution	eng	The species is relatively common throughout its range from the coastal and montane regions in northern Colombia and Venezuela, south to the province of Entre Ríos, Argentina (35ºS); and from the eastern Andean foothills (up to 2,000 m) in Bolivia and Argentina (67ºW) to the Atlantic forests of east Brazil to the western coast of Colombia (1ºN). Its known central distribution in lowland Amazon forest is limited to areas north-east of the Rio Amazon and Rio Negro (2ºS, 61ºW), south-east of the Rio Amazon and Rio Araguaia (2ºS, 51ºW), and south of Rio Beni, Bolivia (11ºS).<br/><br/>Few records exist in Suriname and Guyana. Recent records in French Guyana (Hansen and Richard-Hansen 2000) have yet to be confirmed (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.). The previous citation of its occurrence in Peru (Pacheco <em>et al.</em> 1995) has since been retracted by the authors (D. Cossios pers. comm.).
4248		habitat	eng	Occupies most habitats including marshland, savanna, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savanna within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3,000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development (e.g., sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples) and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge; more open areas used by the Pampas Fox.<br/><br/>Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajó, Brazil, predominated in wooded savanna (34%) and regeneration scrub (31%); low-lying savanna was "avoided", and areas of wooded savanna "preferred", more by senior than junior foxes and more in the wet season than dry season (Macdonald and Courtenay 1996). In the central llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges similarly shift to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding, though are generally located in open palm savanna (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32%) (Brady 1979; Sunquist <em>et al.</em> 1989). In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes (one male, one female) in different territories were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest ("vereidas") (82%) and in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%) (O. Courtenay, unpubl.). Eighty-eight Crab-eating Fox specimens collected by the Smithsonian Venezuelan Project were taken from prairie and pasture (49%), deciduous and thorn forest (19%), evergreen forest (17%), and marshes, croplands and gardens (15%) (Handley 1976 as cited in Cordero-Rodríguez and Nassar 1999).
4248		population	eng	No precise estimates of population sizes are available, but populations generally are considered stable.
4248		threats	eng	The main potential threat is from spill-over pathogenic infection from domestic dogs. In the Serra da Canastra National Park, Brazil, Crab-eating Foxes raid human refuse dumps in close company with unvaccinated domestic dogs along park boundaries (R. Cunha de Paula pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is of no direct commercial value as furbearer due to the unsuitability of the fur which is coarse and short; however, pelts are sometimes traded as those of the South American grey fox in Argentina, and as those of the latter species and the Pampas Fox in Uruguay (Cravino <em>et al.</em> 1997, A. Farias pers. comm.). Current illegal trade is small as the probable consequence of low fur prices; in Paraguay, for example, no illegal fox pelts were confiscated from 1995 to 2000 (J. Cartes pers. comm.)
4249		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
4249		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
4249		conservation	eng	No information available.
4249		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only from one site in Mozambique (the type locality). Globally, the distribution is recorded as Tanzania and Mozambique.
4249		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kichi Hills south of the Rufiji Delta (Tanzania).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Mozambique.
4249		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania (Kichi Hills south of the Rufiji Delta) and Mozambique (the type locality). It occurs within Miombo woodlands from Mozambique northwards, and is likely to be widespread in suitable habitat within the Miombo forest areas.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from the Kichi Hills south of the Rufiji Delta (Tanzania).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from one site in Mozambique (the type locality).
4249		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools in coastal Miombo forest.
4249		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools in coastal Miombo forest (Pinhey 1981).
4249		population	eng	No information available.
4249		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
4249		threats	eng	No information available.
4249		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
4256		conservation	eng	White-lipped deer are listed as a Class I protected species under Chinese law.<br/><br/>Government deer farms were established during the 1970s and 1980s to supply the market and prevent poaching. Many had closed by the end of the 1980s due to overproduction by farms in New Zealand and elsewhere (prices in China dropped due to imports). For internationally held stock see ISIS (1993). <br/><br/>White-lipped deer occur in a few large nature reserves in western China, such as Yanchiwan (and possibly Qilian Shan) in Gansu, and Sanjiangyuan in Qinghai. However, habitat protection is not guaranteed by legal protection as a nature reserve (Harris 2007).
4256		distribution	eng	The species previously ranged across much of the eastern Tibetan Plateau (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species presently occurs in fragmented populations in northwestern and southwestern Gansu, eastern and central, and southern Qinghai, eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, and northwest Yunnan (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Yu <em>et al</em>. 1990; Kaji <em>et al</em>. 1989,1993; Schaller 1998; Wu and Wang 1999).
4256		habitat	eng	This species inhabits conifer forest, rhododendron and willow scrub and alpine grasslands from 3,500 to 5,100 m asl; is somewhat lower in winter (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993; G. Schwede pers. comm. 1998). Compared with other cervids on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, the white-lipped deer is most likely to be found in open habitats. The species' diet is comprised mostly of grasses, herbs, lichens, leaves and bark of trees and bushes (Tatatsuki <em>et al</em>. 1988, Wu and Wang 1999). In summer in alpine meadows, they may feed extensively on sedges (Harris and Miller 1995). The species occurs in seasonally large herds (up to 200–300), and female families (Miura <em>et al</em>. 1989). Males and females live separately except during the breeding season. In winter, they may range in the vicinity of lakes and rivers when food availability is higher (Jia-Yan Wu pers. comm. 1998). Calving is between late May and early July (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993; Yu <em>et al</em>. 1993) following a rut in October (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993). Gestation estimated at 246 days (Yu <em>et al</em>. 1993). Age at first reproduction in captivity is two years (hinds) and five years (stags) (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993).
4256		population	eng	There is no global population estimate. The species is distributed sporadically at low density, with some 2,000 individuals estimated in Gansu and Qinghai, and 4,000 individuals in Sichuan and the Tibet Autonomous Region (Wu pers. comm. 1990). Wang (1998) estimated a total population of some 7,000 (although Liu and Yin 1993 postulated 5,800 within the Tibetan Autonomous Region only). The species typically lives in high-elevation, remote habitats, and appears to have large, unpredictable ranges. Thus developing a reliable estimate of abundance will be difficult without intensive and rigorous efforts. <br/><br/>During the 1990s and first part of the 21st century, there have been anecdotal reports suggesting that white-lipped deer populations may be increasing, at least in some portions of their Tibetan Plateau range (e.g., Harris and Loggers, 2004).
4256		threats	eng	The species is hunted for meat, antlers, and other organs, which are used in traditional Chinese medicine (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species has been heavily depleted, especially due to hunting young individuals for their antlers. Guns have recently been confiscated from most pastoralists living in proximity to white-lipped deer in China, however, and poaching appears to be on the decline generally (Harris 2007). Throughout its range, competition with livestock is major threat, leading to habitat degradation. Populations have become seriously fragmented as a result of these threats (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993; Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Harris 2007). The species is extensively farmed for antler production on government farms in China (and in other countries, such as New Zealand).
4257		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES – Appendix I<em></em>. It is a Schedule I species under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004) and it is protected under the Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 of Bangladesh (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). A PHVA (Population and Habitat Viability Assessment) workshop was conducted at the Wildlife Institute of India in July 1995. In 1995 there were 74 (25:34:15) individuals of <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> in 10 Indian zoos (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). <br/><br/>Protected areas form the cornerstone of protecting Barasingha, given its attachment to level, well-watered areas, i.e. those perfect for agriculture. This makes for challenging conservation: “Controlling human disturbance on Lagga Bagga [Pilhibit Forest Division, Terai Arc Landscape, India] is a huge challenge: many people rely on it for firewood, thatch grass and fodder. Intensive protection and participatory management with these people are required to restore the area” (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Lagga Bagga was recently accorded protected area status, as a tiger reserve (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). Lagga Bagga and Kishanpur protected areas are connected by the Pilibhit Forest Division although Barasingha habitat is not contiguous (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). Dudhwa is also close by, and Lagga Bagga is adjacent to Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve of Nepal. These four areas in total hold most of the remaining <em>R. d. duvauvcelii</em>. Not surprisingly, few Barasingha herds now exist outside protected areas; in the Terai Arc Landscape of northern India, Hog Deer and Barasingha had the highest proportions (of all ungulates studied) of their regional populations within protected areas (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Remaining populations outside protected areas seem to be small, scattered, and facing a number of threats difficult to resolve; probably these should be seen as of lower priority than ensuring the persistence of populations within protected areas, but a rigorous assessment of this is needed.<br/><br/>Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (1995) recommended conservation actions which can, over a decade later, be boiled down to maintaining the integrity of the protected areas supporting key populations, with particular attention to:<br/>1. Curb poaching. The species does not have a high international trade value so poaching must tackled at least partly by and through local communities.<br/>2. Curb habitat degradation through further fragmentation and over-harvest of plant material from protected habitat.<br/>3. Develop long-term conservation management security for those areas where significant numbers disperse seasonally out of existing protected areas into surrounding farmland.<br/>4. Maintain appropriate burning regimes and other active habitat-management measures.<br/>5. Reduce and eventually cease grazing of domestic stock within protected areas.<br/>All these five issues should be addressed through effectively formulated and implemented protected area-specific management plans, reflecting the fragmented present distribution, the negligible likelihood of ever rejoining populations and that the threats have local causes and thus locally appropriate solutions. Given the wide range of possible threats and, in particular, the apparent necessity for active management of habitats (as well as control of human behaviour), management plans are particularly important to ensure a cohesive approach to conservation of Barasingha within the ecosystem of each protected area. Management plans have been prepared for various protected areas but their current status is not documented here.<br/><br/>One of the subspecies is down to a single herd, and another to just two herds. This makes extinction for a variety of unpredictable factors (e.g. weather, disease) a possibility. Establishment of additional populations of each of these forms a priority (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Patches of suitable habitat remain for each form, from which the species has been hunted out and which could, if hunting can be prevented, serve as suitable release areas. Captive breeding is often mentioned as being important for this species, but its conservation benefit is not clear. Each subspecies has protected areas which have–in the nick of time for two subspecies–secured buoyant populations. To expand beyond these, those protected areas retaining the species but not functioning so effectively need strengthening to allow natural recruitment. Establishment of additional herds of the two races down to a single site could be supported by translocations from each one’s sole current herd.<br/><br/>In Kanha National Park, conservation activities have included dispersal of Tigers <em>Panthera tigris</em> away from main grazing areas, control of poaching, cessation of grass burning, creation of water reservoirs, and reduction in domestic cattle numbers (Khajuria and Sinha 1986). Out-migration of villages from the park has significantly extended Barasingha habitat and protected their traditional fawning and rutting grounds (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994). Another park, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, has been enlarged from about 60 km² to some 300 km².
4257		distribution	eng	The Barasingha is currently found in isolated localities in north and central India, and southwestern Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan and Bangladesh (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Into the early twentieth century, the Barasingha was widely distributed in areas of suitable habitat throughout the Indo–Gangetic plain and the lowlands flanking the southern Himalaya. The range formerly extended eastward across the terai of southern Nepal through the Sundarbans as far as Assam. Barasingha occurred west to the River Indus, into Pakistan, and as far south as the River Godavari area of east-central India (Schaller 1967; Groves 1982; Sankaran 1989). The only known population in Bangladesh was in the Sundarbans, where it has been extinct for perhaps a century. The species may also have been in the northeast of Bangladesh, given its distribution in adjacent India (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Groves (1982) defined three subspecies with distributions (from Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004) as follows:<br/><em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> (G. Cuvier, 1823) (Wetland Barasingha): Indo-Gangetic plain, north of the Ganges: Nepal, India, and, where extinct, Pakistan.<br/><em>R. d. branderi</em> Pocock, 1943 (Hard-ground Barasingha): central India, between the rivers Ganges and Godavari.<br/><em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> (Groves, 1982) (Eastern Barasingha): Brahmaputra plain; probably disjunct from the nominate for a very long time (Groves 1982): India and, where extinct, Bangladesh.
4257		habitat	eng	Habitat use differs between Barasingha populations, and is reflected in hoof morphology. Central Indian animals (<em>R. d. branderi</em>) occupy open sal (<em>Shorea robusta</em>) forest with a grass understorey and grass glades; northern animals (<em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> and <em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em>) are obligate grassland forms, true swamp deer, inhabiting flooded tall grassland (Dunbar Brander 1927; Pocock 1943; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004), and, in Bangladesh, formerly, around mangroves of the Sundarbans (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Barasingha is predominantly a grazer (the main forage species are given in Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004), but at least <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> is known to feed occasionally on aquatic plants (C.D. Schaaf pers. comm. 1990), and aquatic plants contribute significantly to the diet of <em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> during the monsoon and winter (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>The animals disperse in the wet season and congregate in large herds during the dry season, often in response to new growth following fire and the need for drinking water (Henshaw 1991; Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004 and references therein). These seasonal movements take animals outside protected areas in at least Dudhwa and Kaziranga (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Dudhwa, mean group sizes during summer, monsoon, and winter were 32, 13, and 7 respectively; congregations of up to 250 individuals have been seen (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994). The composite home range of herds ranges from 10 to 30 km² annually (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>The Barasingha is polygynous: males and females have a linear hierarchy and during the rut males tend to defend females in oestrous (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1985, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Mating in <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> and <em>R. d. branderi</em> occurs during winter; most of the stags are in hard antler by September and they start calling by then. Calling peaks during mid October to November, but occurs within mid August–mid April. As the season progresses, the evening calling peak shifts to morning (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Rutting starts for <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> in August–September, for <em>R. d. branderi</em> in early December and for <em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> in April; antler shedding begins by mid January, late April and early October respectively for the three races; fawning peaks in July–August, September-October, and March-April respectively for the three races (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2005 and references therein). There is strong fidelity to rutting sites and animals continue to visit those amid cultivation (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>The Barasingha is monoestrous and monotochus (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Females reproduce at the age of 2–3 years and males older than 4 years contribute to breeding (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Gestation lasts 240–250 days (Asdell 1964). The sex ratio in all three subspecies ranged is 40–80 stags per 100 hinds (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Sankaran 1989, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). The low male : female ratio reflects selective predation and poaching (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Barasingha females (including the two-year-olds to have reproductive rates of 20–45 fawns per 100 hinds (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Sankaran 1989, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Barasingha mortality is largely by predation, flooding (for <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> and <em>R. d. ranjitsinhii</em>), and poaching. Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> is a major predator of Barasingha, there are anecdotal reports of kills by Leopard <em>P. pardus</em> and Dhole <em>Cuon alpinus</em> (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Golden Jackal <em>Canis aureus</em> predation on fawns and yearlings was reported by Singh (1985) and Schaff (1978).<br/><br/>Ecology and behaviour have been studied in several populations; Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (2004) gave an overview of information to date.
4257		population	eng	The present distribution of the Barasingha is much reduced and fragmented, reflecting major losses in the 1930s–1960s through conversion of large tracts of grassland to cropland and through barely-restrained hunting (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>The northern subspecies <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> is the most numerous of the three races, with an estimated wild population is of 1,800–2,400 in India and 1,650–1,800 in Nepal (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, NTNC, <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Schaller (1967) reported <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> from 15 localities in India of which 11 were in Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal, three in Assam and one in West Bengal. At present <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> exists in only six localities in Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal, two in Assam and none in West Bengal. In Nepal, out of four localities reported by Schaller (1967) only two now hold the species. Holloway (1973) reported a locality additional to Schaller’s, the Katerniaghat Sanctuary in Bahraich district of Uttar Pradesh. According to Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (2004), using data largely from Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (1995), <em>R. d. duvacelii</em> is restricted to Jhilmil tal Wildlife Conservation Reserve (Uttaranchal; no estimate), Hastinapur Sanctuary; Bijnor Forest Divison; Pilibhit Forest Divison (50–90 animals in the early 1990s, about 50 a decade later, centred on the Lagga Bagga forest block of Mahof and Mala ranges; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; but a population of about 300 in Lagga Bagga reported in 2008 to B. Long pers. comm. 2008); Kishanpur Sanctuary (about 400 in the early 1990s, Qureshi and Sawarkar 1994; and still “considerable numbers” a decade later, Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; a population of 600 reported in 2008 to B. Long pers. comm. 2008); Dudhwa National Park, Kheri District (a decline from 1,200–1,500 in 1976 to about 700 by 1993, but still excellent habitat; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; a population of 600 reported in 2008 to B. Long pers. comm. 2008); Katerniaghat Sanctuary (10–25 animals in the early 1990s) (all in Uttar Pradesh) in India. There is also a population of over 100 Barasinghas in a small conservation reserve called Tatwala in Hardwar district; this habitat and population is totally isolated from other Barasingha populations (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). It persists at two sites in Nepal, Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and Karnali–Bardia Reserve. At the former there was an increase from around 900 in 1976 to around 1,850 animals in 1993 (Henshaw 1993), and since then relative stability: the minimum estimate in a count in April 2007 was of 1,674 animals, making this the largest single population in the world of the subspecies (Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, NTNC, <em>in litt</em>. 2008). At Karnali–Bardia Reserve, at least 34 animals were thought to be present, an increase from six in 1977, by Bauer (1990); during 1995–1996, Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral (<em>in litt</em>. 2008) recorded about 73 animals in the park. Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated 50–100 animals. Since the assessments of Schaller (1967) populations have apparently gone from Banke Division and Chitawan Division (both Nepal); Jaulasal Sanctuary; Lalkua Sanctuary; Maldhan Sanctuary; along the river Ganges, west of Handpur; between Hardwar and Luksor; Sonaripur Sanctuary; South Kheri Forest Division; Bahdi Tal, 6 miles west of Bellerain; Ghola and surrounding tracts; Mirchia, bordering Nepal; Jaldapara Sanctuary and surroundings (all India) (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Further details of the Indian population of <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em>, estimated to total 3,500–4,000, are summarized in Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (1995); no more recent synthesis was traced.<br/><br/><em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> is only found in Assam: Kaziranga National Park may have held about 750 animals in 1984, but this had declined to 350–500 by 1994 (Choudhury 1987; Qureshi and Sawarkar 1994). These numbers were not based on methods which quantify confidence in the proposed population size; the first-ever rigorous estimates came from Karanth and Nichols (2000) who recorded a population density of 14 animals per km² during their surveys in 1996 in Kaziranga National Park. The current status in Manas Tiger Reserve is uncertain (although it reportedly still occurs; B. Long pers. comm. 2008), and the species is extinct in Darang Division along the Bhutan border (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>R. d. branderi</em> survives only in Kanha Tiger Reseve (Madhya Pradesh): the population peaked at an estimated 500 in 1988, an increase from a count of 66 in 1966 (Khajuria and Sinha 1986, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In 1995, Karanth and Nichols (2000) estimated population density of 3 per sq km in Kanha National Park. In 2004, the population was thought to number 300–350 (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Other populations had become extinct since the 1960s in Motinala and Karanjia ranges, Mandla District; Balaghat District between Baihar and Lamba; near Amarkantak, Bilaspur District; near Kota, Bilaspur District; Madhya Pradesh-Orissa border Raipur District; West Bastar Division near Tekemeta; West Bastar Division near Kutru in Toynar and Bhairamgarh Range (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004; some different locality names were used in Schaller 1967).<br/><br/>In 1992 there were approximately 50 individuals in five Indian zoos and 300 in various zoos in North America and Europe (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004)
4257		threats	eng	It is likely that Barasingha always had a patchy distribution, reflecting the available suitable habitat, and thus was predisposed to local extermination (Groves 1982). In aggregate, habitat conversion has led to its loss from most of its ancestral range. High levels of malaria discouraged settlement, agriculture, and thus habitat conversion in the Terai Arc Landscape until recently. The conquering of malaria has made the Indian side of the Terai Arc Landscape "one of the most densely populated regions of [India] and the [human] population is growing at a much higher rate than the rest of [India]. Most of the fertile terai plains have been taken over by agriculture." (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004: 32). Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (203 km²) is one of the few remnants of terai habitat in India (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). This deer's habitat is now reduced to isolated fragments as a result of agricultural encroachment and the destruction through habitat conversion of wetlands; the wet grasslands were seen as useless areas (they were termed ‘blanks’). Conversion took place largely during the 1930s–1960s (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Isolation into small, fragmented, populations increases the likelihood of localised extinctions, including those through chance events such as extreme weather and disease, as well as compounding the effects of ‘situation-normal’ threats like hunting.<br/><br/>Habitat degradation is still problematic within protected areas supporting Barasingha. Grass, timber and fuelwood cutting, by local people, degrade the surviving habitat, which lies mostly within protected areas, and external threats include change in river dynamics due to human developmental activities, increase in siltation and reduced flow of water during critical periods of summer. Protected area management practices are sometimes questionable, e.g. the current practice of grassland burning to control woody succession needs to be done in form of a mosaic, and harrowing should be discouraged as it seems to deteriorate grassland condition and promote occupation by unpalatable grass species like <em>Cymbopogon</em> spp. Many grasslands and woodlands have weed infestation (e.g. <em>Sesbania</em> spp.); manual weed removal in Dudhwa and Kaziranga yielded good results for habitat of Barasingha (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995, 2004). Although there seems to be no direct analysis of the effect of domestic stock grazing on this deer, in other wild ungulate communities studied in India they cause a major depression of densities of grazing species (e.g. Madhusudan 2004), and pending direct data, this should be assumed to be the case with Barasingha. Barasingha populations recovered in parts of North and Central India once grazing by domestic stock was controlled (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Serious efforts remain necessary to control grazing in Hastinapur, Jhilmil tal and Katerniaghat (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The grasslands and wetlands of the Terai arc landscape and the obligate species that they support, even those within protected areas are besieged by a multitude of threats which synergistically bode badly for the future (see also 2008 Red List accounts for Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> and Great Indian Rhinoceros <em>Rhinoceros unicornis</em>).<br/><br/>Barasingha meat is not considered a delicacy, being seen as less palatable than the meat of Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> and Chital <em>A. axis</em> (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994) but Barasingha are still poached for antlers and meat (to local markets), especially populations outside protected areas permanently or seasonally (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The hide is used to manufacture whips and other items (A. Singh pers. comm.). Particularly in Bangladesh, hunting seems to have been responsible for national extinction because the Sundarbans mangrove forest is still extensive (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). It is likely to remain a highly significant threat for populations outside well-secured protected areas.
4265		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I<em></em>. <br/><br/>Most Cambodian Eld?s deer are within protected areas, although a significant (but decreasing) number occur outside (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Timmins 2006). In several protected areas mammals effectively receive no protection other than a decreased likelihood of landscape-scale conversion of habitat (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Conservation management of the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Kulen Wildlife Sanctuary, Preah Vihear Protection Forest, and, particularly, Ang Trapeang Thmor Conservation Area and Srepok Wilderness Area may be stabilising and perhaps even increasing Eld?s deer populations, through externally funded conservation management projects supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society and The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF unpublished data; WCS unpublished data; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). These five areas cover well over 3,000 km² of relatively suitable Eld?s deer habitat, and thus the most pressing conservation need is the continued support and consolidation of these protected areas. Only once this is in place would it be sensible to divert resources to protect Eld?s deer in further areas of Cambodia currently with little to no active protection.<br/><br/>The central Lao population in Chonbuly District, Savannakhet Province, is under nominal protection in a roughly 200 km² provincial protected area specifically designated for the species (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004). The area had an ongoing conservation management project supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004) but despite a very promising start, this stalled in 2007. Options are being investigated for resumption of collaboration, because this population is highly threatened by ongoing agricultural expansion and unfettered dogs, and probably by poaching (A. Johnson pers. comm. to J.W. Duckworth 2008). The single southern Lao population found during extensive surveys in the 1990s was small and inhabited a mosaic of farmland amidst forest, adjacent to a subsequently declared provincial protected area (Round 1998). Attempts to upgrade the provincial protected area to national status have failed (A. Johnson pers. comm. 2007). The most important conservation measures for the species in Lao PDR are resumption and consolidation of the Chonbuly District Eld?s deer project, and perhaps assisting protected area management in southern Lao PDR, especially of Xe Pian National Protected Area, in order to maintain significant areas of suitable habitat, which might one day be recolonised.<br/><br/>In Thailand the protected area system failed to prevent the species' effective national extinction some years ago. Therefore, recent conservation efforts there have focused on the captive breeding of large numbers of <em>R. e. thamin</em> (see Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004), which is not, however, native to most of Thailand. Attempts to introduce <em>R. e. thamin</em> to non-native areas have had limited success, although there is a residual herd at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Propogation Station (Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is a current plan to introduce 40 of them into Hauai Kha Khaeng WS, in 2008, with 100 more in 2009 (W.J. McShea pers. comm. 2008). <em>R. e. siamensis</em> was the subject of an abortive Smithsonian Institution reintroduction program initiated in 1985. By 1989, progress was limited to construction of holding facilities at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Propogation Station. As with other range states the most pressing conservation measures seem to be strengthening protected area management in those areas that cover the species' former range, so that reintroduction might be possible in the future, jointly with measures to align all stakeholders to ensure that introduction programmes do not create herds with a mix of <em>R. e. siamensis</em> and <em>R. e. thamin</em> ancestry.<br/><br/>The Hainan population is now highly managed with most of the population in Datian NR, and other animals in Bangxi NR and Mihouling Reserve, and other captive facilities (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has been the subject of various avenues of research, for instance a population viability analysis was undertaken to examine demographic and environmental (drought) challenges to the two enclosed populations at the Hainan Datian Nature Reserve (Song 1996), with other research by Yuan <em>et al</em>. (1993) and Song (1993) (see also Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). But, the most important conservation measure needed appears to be strengthening of the protected area system so that deer can be re-established in a wild state without danger of poaching or habitat encroachment (see Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>India held 97 captive animals in 15 zoos in December 1992, a slight decline from over 100 in the mid-1980s (Decoux 1993); by 1994, 14 zoos held 107 animals (Sharma 1994). The population is probably inbred: all reportedly are descended from two founder pairs (Walker and Marimuthu 1991; see also Balakrishnan <em>et al</em>. 2003). The 40 km² Keibul Lamjao National Park was gazetted in 1977 specifically to protect <em>R. e. eldii</em> (Ranjitsinh 1978). Subsequently projects at the park have raised public awareness, and local support has been developed for conserving the endemic Manipur subspecies, and largely halted encroachment of the species habitat (Singh 2004). Status surveys of <em>R. e. eldii</em> have been carried out annually in Keibul Lamjao National Park since 1975 (Ranjitsinh 1996; Singh 2004), and research has been undertaken by Singh (1983; 2004). A Wildlife Institute of India proposal in the 1980s to establish a second free-ranging population in Assam (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1993) was not implemented. Conservation needs are essentially mitigating detrimental effects of the hydropower project on the park, strengthening the protected area management of the park (e.g. through even further improvement of local relations and capacity building), increasing the park?s area to meet the needs of deer through appropriate research and potentially establishing further wild populations in other areas.<br/><br/>In Myanmar, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary were established specifically to protect <em>R. e. thamin</em> (Salter and Sayer 1986), but little management has been undertaken and despite promising initial efforts, management effectiveness appears to be decreasing (Myint Aung 1990; W.J. McShea pers. comm. 2008). Deer were found on the outskirts of only one other protected area, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, but protection efforts were never extended to cover the appropriate area, and the majority of the remnant area occupied by the species are likely to be outside protected areas (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; W. McShea pers. comm. 2008). A number of reintroductions have taken place into enclosed sites such as Hlawga Wildlife Park, using animals from Rangoon Zoo and the wild. In 1995, an ecological study of radio-collared <em>R. e. thamin</em> was initiated in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary by the Smithsonian Institution, and a community education project commenced later that year to raise local awareness of the deer and the wildlife sanctuary (Wemmer 1995). The Wildlife Division surveys the population annually using a basic line transect method. Conservation measures needed were recently assessed to include extending the protected areas network (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000) but in the interim the most pressing needs seem to be to prevent further deterioration at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and to salvage the Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, if this is possible.<br/><br/>McShea <em>et al</em>. (2005) argued that "only Cambodia, with 11% suitable forest protected, has placed sufficient dry dipterocarp forest under protected status. Other Southeast Asia countries have not recognized dry dipterocarp forest as a significant ecotype worthy of conservation status". It is certainly true that this forest type has been seen as a low priority in the conservation planning of all range states, but consideration that a country has placed 'sufficient' of any habitat type under protected status is subjective and a variety of measures can be used. In this case, 'sufficiency' was judged on the basis of proportion of a country's total suitable habitat that has been nominally protected. An alternative would be to consider factors like the actual amount of protected habitat, and whether this is enough to represent the range of biotic variation within the country; whether such habitat is in large enough blocks to remain ecologically functional into the long term, and whether protection is largely nominal or is genuinely effective. The last dichotomy is likely to be the chief determinant of whether Eld's deer will survive. Considering that no range states yet have existing protected areas which have secured the species on a long-term footing (although there are promising developments in several countries), and considering the speed with which populations can decrease, priority is necessary at present to concentrate most conservation actions for Eld?s deer on securing existing protected areas for key populations which have real potential for success. Determining this potential will reflect situational factors as much or more than ?traditional? biological factors such as current Eld?s deer status within them. Eld?s deer could potentially persist in habitat mosaics of forest and agriculture, as they still do in some areas of Myanmar and Cambodia (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; T. D. Evans pers. comm. 2007), but cultural predisposition to hunting and competing land uses make it unlikely that poaching can be controlled, or habitat management developed, without the context of a protected area, in most range countries (India and perhaps Myanmar being the most likely exceptions).<br/><br/>There are large captive populations of the species, estimated in 2003 to number 180 <em>R. e. eldii</em>, 1,100 <em>R. e. thamin</em>, 23 <em>R. e. siamensis</em> (non-Hainan stock) and 280 <em>R. e. siamensis</em> (Hainan stock), but most captive groups are not managed with conservation in mind (Siriaroonrat 2004). There is some scope for using these animals in reintroduction programmes, particularly in Thailand where Eld?s deer is nationally extinct yet the country is now probably in ?the best financial and bureaucratic position? of all range states to conserve landscape-scale field populations of the species (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005).
4265		distribution	eng	This species was formerly widely distributed across suitable habitats of South and Southeast Asia, from the Manipur region of northeastern India through much of Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam to the island of Hainan (China) in the east (Salter and Sayer 1986; Grubb 2005). The historical range was broken into four major components, consisting of the Manipur region of India inhabited by <em>R. e. eldii</em>; <em>R. e. thamin</em> on the central plains of Myanmar; <em>R. e. siamensis</em> populations in the lowlands of Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (separated by the mountains along the Thai?Myanmar border from <em>R. e. thamin</em>); and the population on Hainan and former populations in mainland southern China, which appear to have been disjunct outliers of <em>R. e. siamensis</em>, separated from its main range by mountainous terrain in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.<br/><br/>The global Eld?s deer population is currently very localised to small areas within the species' former range. <em>R. e. eldii</em> is now confined to a single small population at the southern end of Loktak Lake in Manipur, India (Singh 2004). <em>R. e. thamin</em> still occurs in several localised areas of central Myanmar, as well as there being introduced populations in Thailand (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; Aung 2004; Naris Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>R. e. siamensis</em> occurs in one or two small localised populations in Lao PDR (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004), and as scattered small subpopulations mainly in the northern and eastern lowlands of Cambodia (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005), and occurs in a relatively wild state in one protected area on Hainan, with additionally several other managed herds on that island (Pang <em>et al</em>. 2003).
4265		habitat	eng	Populations in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia seems to have occurred in a variety of primarily open, grass dominated habitats. Most evidence of presence comes from Deciduous Dipterocarp Forests which primarily occur in the highly monsoonal areas of the Mekong plains (Wharton 1957; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), but historical populations known from, for instance, the Nakai and Bolaven plateaux of Lao PDR appear to have used a mosaic of small grasslands and wetlands amongst pine, semi-evergreen and other forest types, and those known from the Dalat and Kirirom plateaux would seemingly have occurred in more extensive pine?savanna habitats (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species may also have occurred in northern Lao PDR, where suitable habitat is localised to a few plains amid the generally unsuitable rugged densely forested terrain but no conclusive records have been traced (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), and would have presumably inhabited Mixed Deciduous Forests and grasslands of anthropogenic origin, as Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest does not occur in such northern areas (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Populations in Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest appear to favour open-canopy formations, with grass dominated understory, especially areas with extensive grassland patches (mainly hydrological in origin), and avoid closed-canopy formations where small deciduous bamboos predominate in the understory (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Given the highly seasonal nature of such forest areas, permanent wetlands, usually in the form of forest pools or stream bed pools, are likely to be very significant to the species and the densities of animals that a given area can support (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Despite suggestions to the contrary in some sources, there is no evidence that Eld?s deer in these countries are particularly wetland associated, nor is there evidence that the species reached high densities in floodplain tall grasslands (contrary to the case with hog deer) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The hydrological grasslands that the species appears often to associate with are favoured over forest for conversion to rice paddies, and the paddies likewise appear attractive to the deer. Males appear to be fond of wallowing. Anecdotal evidence suggests that deer do not make substantial movements and tend to remain year round within relatively small areas (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Lekagul and McNeely (1988) suggested that Eld?s deer had been ?driven? into drier areas by hunting and habitat destruction. However, this is clearly not the case in Cambodia where historically Eld?s deer were considered one of the most abundant species in the open seasonally very dry forests of the north and east (Wharton 1957). <br/><br/>The Loktak lake population in Manipur, India, inhabits an area of floating marsh called locally ?phumdi? (Singh 1983; 2004). This population has adaptations of the feet which are thought to help the animals move easily in their marshland habitat (Pocock 1943), but Pocock (1943) speculated that elsewhere in north-east India Eld?s deer would also have occupied drier plains. <br/><br/>In Myanmar most Eld?s deer occur in indaing forest, which is usually dominated by the tree <em>Dipterocarpus tuberculatus</em>, and is structurally and ecologically fairly equivalent to the Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest of Indochina and Thailand. There are two other types of deciduous forests used by the deer in Myanmar, dry (thandahat), and mixed (teak). All three forest types receive 100?200 cm of rainfall a year (Prescott 1987; Bronson 1989; McShea <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2001; Myint Aung <em>et al</em>. 2001). Pristine habitat is now absent within the Myanmar range of Eld?s deer and all populations use habitats at various stages of secondary succession (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The ecology of animals in Myanmar is likely to be similar to those in Indochina and Thailand reflecting the similarities in habitat, with dry-season movement closely correlated with the locations of water sources (Prescott, 1987; McShea <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2001). At the Hlawga wildlife park just outside Yangon, Myanmar, many species of Myanmar?s native wildlife have been introduced. In contrast to hog deer, sambar and northern red muntjac, which have all increased to good populations, Eld?s deer has failed to establish itself within this small fenced area. This is attributed by staff, including a past veterinarian, to the area being too humid (it is said to be outside the native range of Eld?s deer) although this has not been confirmed.<br/><br/>The typical habitat of Eld?s deer in Hainan Island is scrubland and dry grassland together with sparse trees in hills below 200 m asl in altitude (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Eld?s deer feeds on grass and some browse and also take fallen fruits and flowers, and reportedly can live without water for several days. Eld?s deer regularly visits salt licks. Stags are generally solitary except during the rut, while hinds congregate throughout most of the year (Gee 1961; Myint Aung pers. comm. 1996). Wharton (1957) recorded large herds in Cambodia in the 1950s, and Lekagul and McNeely (1988) stated that, prior to hunting reductions, herds of over 50 formed. In Keibul Lamjao National Park, <em>R. e. eldii</em> is thought to move from the ?phumdi? to island hillocks during periods of flooding (Green 1990). In China, the rut is during February?June, with a single fawn born from September to January. In India, calving occurs from mid-October to the end of December. Gestation period is between 237 and 240 days, and sexual maturity is reached at approximately 1.5?2.0 years (Wemmer and Grodinsky 1988).
4265		population	eng	Based on both habitat extent and size of remaining patches, Myanmar and Cambodia are the pre-eminent countries for Eld's deer (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the actual status of remaining populations is more related to hunting levels.<br/><br/>In Cambodia Eld?s deer still occurs over a relatively wide area, although localised within this, surviving as small remnant groups in the lowland forests of the north and east. The total population could well be several thousand animals in a forest area that probably exceeds 20,000 km², but densities are extremely low (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Survey work in appropriate habitat in the last decade has detected populations in at least 15 separate areas, with anecdotal evidence from several more areas (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Bird <em>et al</em>. 2006; Timmins 2006; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in press). A few may remain in the southwest, although there is little evidence other than for one small population in the Phnom Aural area which persisted until at least the late 1990s (Henshaw <em>et al</em>. 2002; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). Declines since the late 1950s, when large herds were still readily seen (Wharton 1957), have been dramatic. Even in the last decade or so, the species has declined by 90% or more, given comparisons of aerial counts in 1994 with ground survey results from 1998 to the present (Olivier and Woodford 1994; Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; R.J Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Declines are likely to continue into the future, especially as most remnant groups and animals live either outside protected areas, or in protected areas with little active management. At least a 50% decline in the next 10?15 years seems likely. Populations in the Srepok Wilderness Area, the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, the Preah Vihear Protection Forest, Ang Trapeang Thmor Conservation Area and Kulen Wildlife Sanctuary are likely to remain stable and may potentially increase due to ongoing externally funded conservation area management projects (WWF unpublished data; WCS unpublished data; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>R. e. thamin</em> was still relatively widespread and abundant during the mid-1980s on the plains of central and northern Myanmar, where its range centred on the Irrawaddy Plain, including the Bago or Sittang Plain to the east. It was said to be present to the southeast, along the Thai border (Salter and Sayer 1986), and along the western border with Bangladesh (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), but these records are doubtful and a questionnaire in 1992 and surveys in 1997 could only find evidence for the species in the northeast (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1992 a countrywide questionnaire was distributed by the then Wildlife Department of Myanmar, this resulted in reports of Eld?s deer from 28 Myanmar townships, and 2,200 Eld?s deer were estimated to remain within Myanmar, with the largest population (over 1,200 deer) in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (Myint Aung 1994; McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000). Regular transect surveys in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary between 1983 and 1996 indicated a population decline of upwards of 40% (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000), with a population estimated at about 500 deer in the latter years (Myint Aung pers. comm. 1996). A nationwide survey of Myanmar in 1997 found evidence of Eld?s deer within 23 of 24 townships surveyed, out of the 28 that were reported to contain Eld?s deer in 1992. The four unsurveyed townships were considered very unlikely to still harbour deer because of the little remaining habitat within them (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000). By 2003 a repeat of the 1992 surveys concluded that deer had disappeared from four townships and had declined in at least another four, but there were signs that in some townships populations were stable or even increasing (Myint Aung 2004). Increases and decreases were in part put down to reforestation efforts and habitat loss respectively (Myint Aung 2004). Conditions in Myanmar for Eld?s deer have deteriorated in the most recent years. At Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, favourable habitat has been taken over by agriculture. Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary is now the only viable population with nominal protection, and habitat currently appears more secure, but protection efforts appear to be failing, at least partly reflecting changes in management. Since funding from the Smithsonian Institution ceased in 2003, the amount of patrolling and the Eld?s deer population have both decreased every year (W. McShea pers. comm. 2008); a causal link seems inescapable. A population detected on the outskirts of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park was never protected by inclusion in the national park, and elsewhere in the country other populations and large blocks of suitable habitat have not been gazetted into the protected area system despite hopes that they would be (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; W. McShea pers. comm. 2008). No large populations have been found outside of Chatthin WS, and indeed all new populations detected in recent years have been based on sporadic records in planted teak forests, with numbers too low to attempt any empirical estimate of population (W. McShea pers. comm. 2008). The rate of net removal of forest is high within Eld?s deer range, even taking into consideration efforts to plant teak, giving further cause for concern (W. McShea pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR there are one or two known populations. One (of probably under 100 animals) is in Savannakhet province (central Lao PDR) and has been the focus of a small-scale species-specific conservation project, with regular subjective monitoring of the population (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004; A. Johnson pers. comm. 2007). Activities lapsed in 2007, but options are being assessed for restarting support. In the late 1990s another small population, of probably the low dozens of animals, was found from Champasak Province, far south-western Lao PDR, in areas adjacent to the Dong Khanthung Provincial Protected Area, but there has been no recent re-evaluation of the site and it is quite plausible that the species has been hunted out there (Round 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; A. Johnson pers. comm. 2007; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). It is unlikely, given the distribution of suitable habitat, the distribution of the human population, and the pervasive hunting culture in Lao PDR that any more significant populations of the species remain to be found (R.J. Timmins pers. obs.); lowland Savannakhet province was the only unprotected part of Lao PDR where in Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (1999: 41) recommended additional surveys of large mammals as likely to reveal new conservation priorities. One population was indeed found but since that was written, options for others have greatly declined due to extensive road-building, conversion of remaining dry forest habitat and assignment of much of the rest to plantation concessions (particularly on the western plains of the province) and continued extremely high levels of trade-driven large mammal hunting make the chances of any others remaining now very low (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008 from field assessment in late 2007).<br/><br/>Survival in Viet Nam is now very doubtful. Eld?s deer is still reported by local inhabitants (e.g. as reported in Nguyen Xuan Dang and Nguyen Thi Thuy (2004), but field surveys of such areas have failed to find the species (Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). Perhaps a few animals remain along the border with Cambodia (Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006), but repeated recent surveys of one of the more promising areas, Yok Don National Park, has not produced good evidence (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2004). The reported distributions given by Dang Huy Huynh (1990) and Ratajszczak (1991) were either overly optimistic and based on unverified evidence, or indicate a recent swift decline in the species in Viet Nam; probably both factors are responsible.<br/><br/>Continued presence of ancestral wild populations in Thailand is also now very unlikely. Very occasional reports, which are largely unverifiable, continue to be made, primarily in the Thailand?Lao PDR?Cambodia triborder area, and the Huai Kha Khaeng WS (e.g. Naris Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). At best a few remnant individuals may survive or immigrate. The Thai Royal Forestry Department has a captive breeding programme for both <em>R. e. thamin</em> and <em>R. e. eldii</em> and there have been attempts at introduction of the former in two areas (where it was never a native subspecies); numbers living in a ?wild state? are in the low tens (Naris Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Although once distributed in the tropical zone of southwest Yunnan and further east, the South China Eld?s deer has long been extirpated (Smith </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. in press; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). By the 1970s the only remaining Chinese populations were on Hainan and had declined to some 40 animals in Dong Fang and Bai Sha Counties, primarily due to poaching, from a reported 500 individuals in 1950s (</span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). In 1976 two protected areas, the Datian Nature Reserve, and the Bangxi NR, West Hainan, were founded around the two last remaining isolated herds of deer, with 26 and 20 animals respectively (Song and Zeng 2004; Pang </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2003; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). By 1981 the Bangxi NR population had been exterminated by poaching (</span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). The animals in Datian NR were kept in fenced enclosures while the population grew, and at the current time the whole c. 13 km² of the reserve is enclosed (Song 1996; Pang </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2003; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). Initial problems with conservation efforts at Datian included encroachment of almost half its habitat by agriculture since its establishment, deer deaths through drought and overcrowding in small enclosures, and some poaching (Pang </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2003; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). By 1991 the Chinese population had rebounded to 346 animals, of which 261 were within the Datian Nature Reserve (Yuan </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 1993). By 2003 there were about 1,000 animals in Datian NR, and beginning in 1986 captive and semi-wild populations were established at other facilities, the total population in which was approximately 260 animals in 2003 (Song and Zeng 2004; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). A semi-wild herd was founded once again in Bangxi NR, and by 2002 the population there was reportedly 115 animals (</span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). In 2003 a third ?wild? herd was founded in Mihouling Reserve (Song and Zeng 2004; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). </span><br/><br/>In India, <em>R. e. eldii</em> was thought to be extinct in the early 1950s but was subsequently rediscovered. By 1975, the only remaining wild population had declined to about 14 animals in the swamps of Loktak Lake, Manipur (Ranjitsinh 1978). On this basis, a floating marsh on the southern end of Loktak Lake was gazetted in 1977 as the Keibul Lamjao National Park (Ranjitsinh 1978). The population was reported to have increased to about 137 by 1994 (Singsit 1994; Singh 2004), and by 2003 censuses indicated a total of about 180 animals (Singh 2004). There are additionally similar numbers in captive conditions in India (Salter and Sayer 1986; Decoux 1993).
4265		threats	eng	In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam the most obvious threat to Eld?s deer is hunting, which in addition to local consumption of meat is driven by a thriving and probably increasing trade in bushmeat, a national, regional and East Asian market for traditional medicinal products derived from the species, and a regional international market for trophy antlers (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). The influence of traditional medicinal trade is uncertain, but may be very significant as products derived from the species are reportedly more valuable than are those from other deer (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some hunting in Cambodia is probably also driven by a demand for captive animals especially from zoos and menageries in Thailand and Cambodia (Salter and Sayer 1986; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species is apparently easy to hunt compared with other sympatric deer, and fawns are likely to be very vulnerable to dogs which almost always accompany human parties during forest visits, even when the visits are not for hunting (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The effects of hunting have been exacerbated by forest loss and fragmentation which is rapidly accelerating with human population in-migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction. Selective logging was initially one of the main driving forces, but it is now of relatively minor concern (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Human in-migration and subsequent agricultural encroachment into forest areas tends to concentrate on those habitats most used by Eld?s deer, and thus the species has suffered more than most from hunting (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). As an inhabitant of relatively open habitat through which travel and transport are easy, it is also likely to have been more heavily affected by a given level of hunting effort compared with species of rugged, dense hill evergreen forest; a similar scenario has been postulated for Jungle Cat <em>Felis chaus</em> (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Habitat loss <em>per se</em> is generally a lesser threat (especially in recent decades), and although huge tracts of suitable habitat have been lost in the last century, at least in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam this has probably largely occurred after Eld?s deer have been hunted out (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Probably the most significant challenge to conserving the species in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam is the uncertainty involved with long-term protected-area based conservation management. Protected areas, even those that at present have relatively active and effective management, face an uncertain future with the possibility of excision of conservation status for parts or all of some, the lack of long-term security in external funding adequate to maintain high standards of management, fluctuations in political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the consequential difficulties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff. Currently most protected areas that could or do support Eld?s deer in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam offer the species little if, any, protection (exceptions are listed under Conservation Measures).<br/><br/>Protected areas, primarily those along the triborder area of Thailand where it adjoins both Lao PDR and Cambodia, and the Huai Kha Khaeng WS, were unable to prevent the decline and likely extirpation of Eld?s deer from the wild in Thailand (see Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). This decline was likely to have been driven by much the same reasons as in Indochina. If any Eld?s deer do remain in the wild there, it seems unlikely that they will ever recover unassisted. There are few data on the introduced populations of <em>R. e. thamin</em> to non-native areas (see Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Threats to the species in Myanmar appear to be similar to those in Indochina, with perhaps more emphasis on exploitation for meat (Salter and Sayer 1986; Myint Aung pers. comm. 1997). Habitat loss in some range areas is still ongoing (Myint Aung 2004) and Koy <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that ?patterns of percentage tree canopy-cover were negatively correlated with human population density, suggesting further threats to Eld's deer populations as the human population continues to grow?. A support programme for the main site, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, had an encouraging start but following cessation of external funding the population is now in decline (see Population), while other protected areas in the country either failed to include appropriate habitat for the species (e.g. Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park) or failed to protect the habitat even within the protected area (e.g. Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary). Overall, the challenges of generating functional protected areas which will sustain Eld?s deer are similar to, and under current conditions even more daunting than, those outlined for Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (above). In general, protected areas in Myanmar are themselves highly threatened by major shortfalls in funding and political will (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The population on Hainan faces an uncertain future as a wild animal without hands-on management because protected area management has not been effective in preventing poaching (see Pang <em>et al</em>. 2003; Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Loss of suitable habitat has been extensive and is continuing, but large enough areas probably remain for further population expansion, provided that herds in such situations could be adequately protected from poaching (see Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Genetic analyses of the population suggest that there is low diversity resulting from a population bottleneck, and this could in the future threaten the population?s viability (Pang <em>et al</em>. 2003; Balakrishnan <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Indian populations of Eld?s deer declined due to some combination of hunting and habitat loss. Even at the Keibul Lamjao National Park, the habitats of the deer have been encroached for grazing, cultivation, and fish farming (Green 1990), but this seems to be mainly now under control (Singh 2004). This population is now most threatened by a hydro-electric project in Logtak Lake which maintains unnaturally high water levels during the dry season and has changed water flow patterns and water quality in the lake (Singh 2004). These in turn appear to be affecting the ecology of the Keibul Lamjao National Park floating marsh (Singh 2004; Sanjit <em>et al</em>. 2005). Floods could also seriously affect the population, which has no high ground to which it can easily escape (Singh 2004). There may also be the threat of low genetic diversity resulting from the effect of a very small founder population (Balakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2004) and as a small isolated population it must also be considered at risk from disease transfer from domestic livestock, and potentially other factors.<br/><br/>Eld?s deer readily grazes on rice and some other agricultural products (McShea and Myint Aung 2001). This provides some potential for human?wildlife conflict, but under current conditions populations seem to be too low for this to be a serious problem (e.g. at the Chonbuly district population, Savannakhet province, Lao PDR; J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Retributory killing may become more of a threat if populations are successfully rebuilt in areas close to agriculture.
4273		conservation	eng	This species is fully protected under Philippine law, but effective enforcement is wanting in most in most areas. A number of new protected areas have been established within the range of the species, but management and enforcement likewise remains ineffective in most (perhaps all) such areas. Awareness levels have increased greatly; unfortunately, this has not yet lead to a change in behaviour in terms of hunting pressure. The species occurs in small populations in several protected areas: Mount Canlaon National Park (8,000 ha); North Negros Forest Reserve (c. 18,000 ha); Mount Talinis/Lake Balinsasayao Reserve (c. 11,000 ha); and the proposed West Panay Mountains National Park (c. 70,000 ha). However, the formal declaration of the latter area was eventually stymied by lack of unanimity amongst relevant local government units and a number of separate, smaller areas have since been declared, though these do not cover all of the most important sites, nor have any of these areas been significantly better protected since declaration owing the absence of any corresponding national budgetary allocations. Small numbers of individuals are also reported to survive in and Hinoba-an in southwestern Negros Oriental, though there is now very little forest remaining in this area.<br/><br/>The Philippine Spotted Deer Conservation Programme (PSDCP) was formally established in April in 1990 under the aupices of a new Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR, Government of the Philippines) and the Parc Zoologique et Botanique de la Ville Mulhouse (Mulhouse Zoo, France), to enable development of a properly structured conservation breeding programme (viz: the  ‘World Herd’ of captive <em>R. alfredi</em>) based on the accession of donated and confiscated individuals, previously illegally held as pets by private owners, and to initiate a variety of other related, highest conservation priority activities. These included: development of three local wildlife rescue and breeding centres (two on Negros, one on Panay); wide-ranging field surveys and other field studies; assistance in the establishment of new protected areas and related habitat restoration measures; distribution-wide public awareness campaigns; and diverse personnel training and other local capacity-building initiatives. This  programme has since constituted easily the most successful programme of its kind in the Philippine but, and more importantly, it was also established and managed as a ‘flagship’ species/programme for the ‘West Visayas (or ‘Negros-Panay’) Faunal Region’; one of the world’s highest conservation priority areas in terms of both numbers of threatened endemic taxa and degrees of threat. As such the PSCDP has also constituted the principal driving force behind a diverse range of related conservation activities principally focused on a number of other most threatened West Visayan endemic species and species’ groups. As of 31 December 2006, there were also nearly 200 individuals of Negros Island origin and over 50 individuals of Panay Island origin in the captive breeding programme, and efforts are currently to conduct the first species reintroduction projects in the Philippines, and to do this by means of enabling the development of additional protected areas and/or the far more effective protection and restoration of selected existing protected areas (W. Oliver, 1996; Oliver <em>et al</em>, 2003, 2007) <br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include:<br/><br/>1.Enhance management and protection of existing protected areas, most of which effectively ‘unmanaged’ and ‘unprotected’ at present owing any national budgetary resource allocations for these areas. One means of doing this would be to faciliate development of co-management agreements between the relevant national and local government agencies; thereby both actively involving the latter and enabling the allocation of annual local (provincial and municipal) budgetary appropriations for these purposes.<br/><br/>2. Establishment of new ‘local conservation areas’ (in effect ‘municipal reserves’) via the Philippine ‘Local Government Code’, and/or private nature reserves; either or both of which avoid the cumbersome processes of the “National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)’, which effectively transfers administrative authority for these areas to seriously under-resourced national government agencies, which are thus ill-equipped to development and implement effective protection and restoration measures. <br/><br/>3. Reinvestigate the current status of this species on Masbate and develop and implement relevant conservation management recommendations for the enhanced future protection of any remaining native forest habitats and the potential future reintroduction of this (and other West Visayan endemic species) on this island and on Cebu (where <em>R. alfredi</em> was extirpated in the mid-twentieth century), and in other selected ‘vacant’ habitats on Panay and Negros Islands. <br/><br/>4. Implement priority recommendations re. local awareness-raising arising from recent, range-wide ‘ethnobiological’ surveys, revealing both currently low levels of awareness re. local protection legislation and overwhelming prevalence of ‘recreational’ (rather than ‘subsistence’) hunting in all key sectors.<br/><br/>5. Monitor and control illegal captures and movement of spotted deer; assess status of privately-held captive stocks and continue attempts to access animals of known origin for a collaborative breeding program; develop and extend breeding program through dispersal of breeding stocks on loan to reputable (breeding loan signatory) institutions, which are also prepared to contribute resources and technical assistance for relevant <em>in-situ</em> conservation activities under the aegis of this “flagship” program. Extend these activities to other critically threatened Visayan endemic species and their habitats.<br/><br/>6. Conduct (or complete) systematic (including mtDNA) research on intra- and inter-population variation amongst surviving Negros and Panay Island populations.
4273		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Visayan Islands (or Negros-Panay Faunal Region) of the central Philippines. The species was previously found on Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Cebu, Masbate and probably Ticao Islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Grubb 2005; Oliver 1993a, 1996). Presently, the species is restricted to the Mount Madja - Mount Baloy area of west Panay and a few scattered remnants of forest on Negros (Cox 1987; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1992). It was extirpated on Cebu in the mid-twentieth century. A few individuals were reported to survive on Masbate between 1991 and 1993, but the population there is almost certainly extinct or ‘functionally extinct’. It is not known whether <em>R. alfredi</em> or <em>R. mariannus</em> occurred formerly on Siquijor, where no deer now survive, but this species is replaced by <em>R. mariannus</em> on Bohol and all other larger Philippine Islands east of Huxley’s Line (i.e. excluding Palawan) (Grubb 2005; Oliver 1993a, 1996).
4273		habitat	eng	The species formerly occurred from sea-level to at least 2,000 m asl in primary forest and second growth. It can persist in some degraded habitats such as cogon grasslands as long as there are areas of dense cover. The preferred habitat of this species is not clear, since it is now restricted to steep, rugged slopes of dipterocarp forest that are innaccessible to humans (Cox, 1987). It was known to rely on dense forest for refuge (Rabor, 1977), but also frequents open grassy patches and secondary communities. Rabor (1977) reports that the main constituents of their diet are young shoots of cogon grass (found in clearings) and young low-growing leaves and buds within forests. It is predominately a browser, but also a grazer (captive animals also relish fruit). They also visit burnt forest clearings for the mineral content of floral ash, as well as the pioneering shoots. All local reports indicate an average group size of one to three individuals - mostly solitary males and females with single young – though it remains unclear whether or not these small group sizes are a function of continued and sustained hunting pressure, particularly as much larger numbers of individuals have been maintained peacefully together in captivity for indefinite periods (W. Oliver, pers. obs.). The species breeds year round in captivity and young animals are reported to be captured in the wild at all times of the year.
4273		population	eng	The species is considered to be rare throughout its present, limited range. Populations are severely fragmented and declining, although the species is evidently able to utilise a wide variety of habitats. Currently, the species is estimated to have been extirpated from at 95% to 98% of its former range (Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991; 1996). There is no global estimate of the population size, but it is reasonable to suppose that it is less than 2,500 mature individuals.
4273		threats	eng	This species has declined primarily as a result of habitat conversion (agriculture and logging) and hunting (Cox 1987; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991; Oliver 1992). Despite being fully protected by law, this species is still intensively hunted throughout its remaining range; both by local farmers in hinterland communities and recreational hunters from larger cities; both of which groups use the species as game (for meat and trophies), rather than for subsistence purposes (Cox, 1987; Evans <em>et al</em>., 1993; Oliver, 1994; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1992). Both of these groups may also sell any surplus meat as venison in local markets or to speciality restaurants; whereas local hunters from upland communities also specialize in live-captures to meet strong demand for these animals as pets (particularly amongst local politicians). Many of these are supplied by the orphans of hunter-killed animals, though almost all such captive stocks also include animals captured as adults in leg snares, as evinced by the amputation of their lower limbs.<br/><br/>There is continuing severe habitat fragmentation and reduction of populations from illegal logging and agricultural expansion, and some populations are now so reduced in size as to be of doubtful viability. Hybridization with <em>R. mariannus</em> has been repeatedly observed amongst poorly (i.e. unscientifically) managed captive stocks of these two species, but (and despite previously published fears to the contrary) is most unlikely to pose any additional threats to the few surviving populations of <em>R. alfredi</em> given the evident allopatry in the natural ranges of these two species (Cox, 1987; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991; Oliver 1993a, 1996, unpubl.)
4274		conservation	eng	Enforcement of existing regulations and protected area management is inadequate and requires strengthening. Some subpopulations or subspecies are severely threatened and may need to be considered individually for management purposes. Captive breeding of this species was advocated by the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) as a means of supporting rural communities. A large herd mixed with domestic stock is maintained on a ranch in Batangas, medium-sized deer farms (30–40 animals) exist in the Bicol region, and small backyard farms (3–5 animals) are found on Luzon. However, it is most unlikely that these initiatives might ever mitigate threats to any wild populations, as originally supposed, partly because of the increased demand for wild-caught founder breeding stocks, but also (and perhaps more importantly) it is virtually inconceivable that the commensurate establishment of legal markets in locally produced venison would not be widely abused for the continued sale of illegally-caught specimens; especially given the ineffective enforcement of existing protective legislation pertaining to these and other commercially valuable species.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include:<br/><br/>1. Conduct surveys of Philippine deer populations on all major islands to determine their relative abundance, and the nature and extent of threats, and efficacy of any existing protective measures.<br/>2. (Re-)investigate the systematic relationships of these animals from and within all major islands, especially within the ‘Greater Mindanao Faunal Region’, and secure comparative specimens from currently undescribed populations on Samar, Leyte and other smaller islands.<br/>3. Identify most ‘at risk’ populations based on the aforementioned surveys and systematic studies, and formulate and implement consensual recommendations for the enhanced future protection (and/or recovery) of the most threatened populations/taxa; any such recommendations to also include: the development of new ‘protected areas’ (and/or enhanced protection and management of existing protected areas) where existing habitat and species’ protection measures are clearly inadequate at present; and the re-evaluation and amendment of the evident existing anomalies between permissible subsistence hunting of non-threatened species by indigenous people <em>versus</em> contrary and more recent amendments to the threatened status rankings of traditionally targeted species/subspecies, and/or genuine subsistence hunting <em>versus</em> recreational (and/or commercial) hunting by local community hunters who are no longer economically dependant on such resources. <br/>4. Conduct a field investigation of species in an undisturbed population, preferably within a protected area.<br/>5. Re-examine the whole precepts of local deer farming initiatives in the Philippines, and the extend to which they help or hinder conservation.
4274		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the Negros-Panay Faunal Region, the Babuyan/Batanes groups, the Palawan Faunal Region, the Sulu Faunal Region, and other isolated islets (Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1992). It has been recorded on Luzon, Polillo and Catanduanes; Mindoro; Samar, Leyte, Biliran (where it is now extinct; Rickart <em>et al</em>., 1993), Bohol (where it is possibly extinct; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1992), Mindanao and Basilan Islands) and Marinduque (where it might also be extinct (W. Oliver pers. comm.)), but is apparently absent from both Dinagat and Siargao Islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998; Grubb, 2005. It has a highly fragmented distribution on most of the islands on which it survives, and was undoubtedly more extensively distributed in the past.<br/><br/>Populations have been introduced on Guam, Mariana and Caroline islands in the western Pacific (Grubb 2005). The species was introduced onto the Ogasawara (= Bonin) Islands (Japan) in late 18th to early 19th centuries by Spanish ships, but went extinct there by about 1925; the species was introduced there again from Guam after World War II, but does not currently occur there (Miura and Yoshihara, 2002; Grubb, 2005).
4274		habitat	eng	This species formerly occured from sea-level up to at least 2,900 m asl in primary and secondary forest (Taylor, 1934; Sanborn, 1952; Rabor, 1986; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998).  The Mindoro subspecies also frequents open grasslands, where it may be able to persist. In general, however, this is a forest species, which forages in grassland.
4274		population	eng	Populations of this species are fragmented, but are reported to be locally common in isolated areas, but heavily hunted and declining throughout most of its range (Danielsen <em>et al</em>., 1994). The largest populations are located on Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, and Leyte (Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991). Local extinctions have been reported on Biliran (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>., 1993), and probably Bohol and Marinduque (W. Oliver pers. comm.). Population declines have been reported in the subspecies <em>R. m. barandana</em>, which has the most restricted range on Mindoro, and which island has been severely deforested, especially in lowland areas (Oliver <em>et al</em>. , 1991). The overall population of the species remains unknown, but a decline of 30% over three generations (estimated at 24 years) seems plausible.
4274		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to continuing and severe loss of habitat due to illegal logging, human encroachment, agricultural encroachment and mining (Villamor, 1991). It is intensively hunted throughout its range for meat, hides, trophies, and trade, and legal protective measures are often not enforced (Villamor, 1991). Some subpopulations or subspecies are now severely threatened. Removal of animals from the wild for commercial purposes and the establishment of deer farms near protected areas (consisting of this species and introduced/foreign species) are a potential threat through the spread of disease and hybridization. Because of its small population size, the Mindoro subspecies (<em>R. m. barandana</em>) is highly threatened, due to the same causes (with intense habitat loss, as over 90% of forest cover has gone on the island).
4288		conservation	eng	As an extinct species there are no appropriate conservation measures. The indication that a remnant population might still survive (Schroering 1995 and <em>in litt</em>. as reported in Grubb 2005; MacPhee and Flemming 1999) was followed up by investigation, independently by several people, of Phongsali province, Lao PDR, by field survey and interview. This failed to find any further evidence of the species there or to elicit a consistent story of the origin of the antlers (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; per J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Given regional trends in Schomburgk’s deer’s sole known habitat, non-forest floodplains (its massive conversion to agriculture over the last 150 years) it is unlikely that the species could survive. However, any future indication of its existence should be followed up carefully. If by chance the species does survive, legislation giving it the highest levels of protection (in whatever country it was found), and an assessment of specific conservation needs would be imperative.
4288		distribution	eng	<em>Rucervus schomburgki</em> was endemic to Thailand and is thought to have become extinct when the last captive individual was killed in 1938; the last known wild animals were killed in 1932 near Sai Yoke and Kwae Yai, although this date was not universally accepted at the time (Harper 1945; Lekagul and McNeely 1988). The recent range in Thailand seems to have lain within 13°30′–18°N, 98°30′–102°E, comprising the central plain of Thailand (Giles 1937; Harper 1945; G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Attempts to circumscribe the range have, however, been bedevilled by a surprisingly large number of statements of occurrence elsewhere.<br/><br/>Statements of occurrence in the Sanda Valley, Yunnan, China by Sclater (1891: 180) and Bentham (1908) led to this locality being included without any caveat by Grubb (2005), and relate to both a frontlet and a skin. However, Sclater (1891) listed the set of antlers as of unknown locality, and the skin has a "?" mark that makes its Sanda Valley locality no more than tentative (G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Then, Bentham (1908) indicated that the antlers had been collected in the Sanda Valley by John Anderson in 1878, without giving explicit source for this statement. In fact, Anderson was in the Sanda Valley in 1868, not 1878, and moreover recorded no such antlers in his thorough write-up of zoological results of his Yunnan expeditions. This locality assignment for the antlers should be seen as an error of Bentham's, presumably stemming from the earlier, tentative, assignment of Sanda Valley to the deer skin Sclater also reported (G. J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Pocock (1943) included under distribution of the species “N. Siam [Thailand] and, it has been alleged, Yunnan and Lao PDR”, indicating his own concern with the Sanda valley ‘evidence’. The Shan states (Myanmar) have also figured as part of the species’s range, e.g. by Blanford (1891: 540). Reference to historical occurrence in these areas seems to stem from Brooke (1876), who wrote, based on written communication from a Dr Campbell of the Bangkok British Consulate) in reference to new specimens sent to him that ". . . all specimens were procured in northern Siam, probably even in the tributary states named Lao PDR and Shan". Campbell seems to have based his opinion at least partly on what professional indigenous hunters told him or others. Brooke gave no definition of "northern Siam" (conceivably it simply meant some way north of Bangkok), and Lao PDR in this context could well have included part or all of the Korat Plateau and other areas in present-day Thailand which are ethnically Lao and were often referred to in the past by terms such as ‘Siamese Lao PDR’. It is not even clear that Lao PDR and Shan were not just speculation on the part of Campbell and/or Brooke (G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Not surprisingly, Harper (1945) considered the Shan states report to be “highly indefinite” and occurrence in “Indo-China” [presumably = Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam] to be “in error”, although he took the ‘Sanda valley’ frontlet as “apparently authentic”, perhaps being focussed on the identity (which is not in doubt) rather than the provenance (presumably assuming that the association with the highly-respected Anderson’s name was enough). A more modern reanalysis concluded that "the northern Thailand, Myanmar, Yunnan, and Lao PDR range extensions suggested in the literature are based on erroneous or quite inconclusive items of evidence", sometimes perhaps influenced by a switch of Thai names between Eld’s and Schomburgk’s deer by Flower (1900) (G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Two loose antlers, presumed to be a pair, of Schomburgk’s deer photographed in Phongsali province, far northern Lao PDR, in 1991 were a most surprising find. This has been taken to suggest the species might survive, at least into the 1980s, and that it did indeed occur in Lao PDR (Schroering 1995) and it was even taken as sufficient evidence that the species was not extinct by MacPhee and Flemming (1999). However, while these are indeed Schomburgk’s deer antlers, it has proven impossible to recover a consistent story from their owner of the antlers’ origin (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999) and there is no compelling evidence that they had come from a recently killed animal, rather than being decades-old stock still in trade; Williams (1941) noted that even then that Schomburgk’s deer antlers "keep coming down to Bangkok from Paknampo and Korat by railway amongst collections of ordinary deer-horns consigned to Bangkok Chinamen . . . the horns are probably quite old . . ." and Schomburgk’s deer antlers are still in trade in Thailand (Srikosmatara <em>et al</em>. 1992). The owner of the antlers was, according to his daughter, a middleman trader in wildlife parts sourced from all over Indochina (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008, based on visit in 1996). Consequently, while remains of the species have been seen in Lao PDR in recent times, they cannot be taken as evidence that the species survives today, or ever occurred in Lao PDR.
4288		habitat	eng	The species inhabited seasonally inundated swampy plains with long grass, cane, and shrubs; it apparently avoided forest (Giles 1937), although there seems to be no information on where animals went at the height of the wet season, when much of the dry-season range was under water.
4288		population	eng	Schomburgk’s deer was apparently “not uncommon” in the late nineteenth century and herds still occurred around 1900–1910 (Harper 1945), but the species underwent a very rapid decline: Harper (1945) stated that it was never seen in the wild state by a European (although this may be better taken as a lack of such reports, because Europeans working, for example, on the Paknampo railway in the early days would almost surely have seen and hunted these deer; G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). The usually successful hunter Arthur S. Vernay made three trips to Thailand specifically for the species, the first in 1920, but failed to see the species. There are some hundreds of skulls, frontlet and antlers in collections (Harper 1945), but the species is now extinct.
4288		threats	eng	Commercial production of rice for export began in the late nineteenth century in Thailand’s central plains, leading to the loss of nearly all the grassland and swamp areas that this deer depended on, and greatly fragmented what remained. Intensive hunting pressure at the turn of the 19th–20th century restricted the species further and it disappeared in the 1930s. Schomburgk’s deer was prominent in the antlers sought by the Chinese medicine trade (Harper 1945). During the wet season, animals marooned on higher ground were hunted readily with spears from boats (Harper 1945), no doubt hastening the species' decline.
4292		conservation	eng	The Basking Shark is strictly protected under wildlife legislation within 12 nautical miles of the Isle of Man and Guernsey (United Kingdom dependent territories) and in British waters. It is protected in US Federal waters (including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) by a National Marine Fisheries Service rule for Atlantic shark fisheries, which prohibits directed commercial fishing, landing and sale of the species and in Florida State waters. The basking shark is one of several species partially protected through New Zealand?s Fisheries Act (1983). Commercial target fishing has been banned since 1991, but bycatch may be utilised. The liver and fins are landed and the fins almost certainly exported. The Basking Shark is listed on Annex II (Endangered or Threatened Species) of the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea (1976) Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean, but only Malta has legally protected the species. The Mediterranean population is also listed on Appendix I of the Bern Convention for the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats, subject to a European Commission reservation. A UK government proposal for an Appendix II listing on CITES was narrowly defeated in 2000, but was followed by an Appendix III listing in Europe later that year. Japan and Norway, the world's two main trading nations, took reservations on this listing. An Appendix II proposal, accepted by the 12th Conference of the Parties in 2002, came into effect at the end of February 2003 (www.cites.org). This requires international trade to be monitored and derived from sustainably managed fisheries.
4292		distribution	eng	Basking Sharks occur in temperate and boreal oceans. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs from the transition between Atlantic and Arctic waters (including the Gulf of Maine, south and west of Iceland and off the North Cape of Norway and Russia) to the Mediterranean, and occasionally as far south as Senegal and Florida. In the North Pacific, around Japan and off the Chinese coast, and from California north to British Columbia. In the southern hemisphere, recorded from South Africa, Brazil to Ecuador in South America, southern Australia and New Zealand (Compagno 1984a). Most records are from surface waters during spring and summer, with some reports from deep water in winter (Francis and Duffy 2002, Sims <em>et al.</em> 2003). A seasonal migration may occur, either from deep to shallow water or from lower to higher latitudes in warmer weather (the latter is not supported by recent UK observations (Sims <em>et al.</em> 2003)). Most records occur within a narrow range of water temperatures: 8°?14°C in the UK, Japan and Newfoundland, but up to 24°C in New England, USA. Records in warmer waters are generally of moribund or stranded specimens. At least some populations are migratory (Sims <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly seasonally segregated by sex; the winter distribution of most populations and locations used by pregnant females are unknown, although it seems likely that wintering sharks occur mainly in deep shelf water (Francis and Duffy 2002, Sims <em>et al. </em>2003). The different morphological characteristics of basking sharks in the Pacific and the North and South Atlantic oceans are not thought to indicate separate species (Compagno 1984a), but geographically isolated populations.
4292		habitat	eng	This shark is named from its habit of ?basking? on the surface in good weather conditions, usually singly or in small groups, although it also carries out extensive vertical migrations between the surface and deep water on the continental shelf and shelf-edge (Sims <em>et al</em>. 2003). Basking sharks are often associated with surface aggregations of zooplankton (Kunzlik 1988, Earll and Turner 1993), particularly along tidal and shelf-break fronts (Sims <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2003, Sims and Quayle 1998, Speedie 1998), where they feed on small fish, fish eggs and zooplankton by swimming open-mouthed with gill rakers erect and extended across the gaps between the gill arches to form a sieve (Stendall 1933, Matthews and Parker 1950, Van Deinse and Adriani 1953). <br/><br/>The large liver and high squalene levels (Burandeen and Richards-Rajadurai 1986) are characteristic of deepwater sharks. Deepwater pelagic shrimps (from >100 m) found in the stomach of a basking shark in Japan first indicated mesopelagic food sources (Mutoh and Omori 1978). Few sharks are recorded from coastal and surface waters in winter, indicating a migration into warmer regions or deep water, although there are surface records from Monterey Bay in winter (Squire 1990, Baduini 1995). A few winter specimens from the northeast Atlantic had shed their gill rakers, indicating that they were not feeding during this period of low zooplankton abundance. It was suggested that Basking Sharks might rest in deep water in winter (Parker and Boeseman 1954), utilising food reserves in the large liver. Energetics and tagging studies, however, indicate that feeding still takes place at this time and that extensive horizontal and vertical migrations are undertaken throughout the winter, on and near the edge of the Northeast Atlantic continental shelf (Sims <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2003). A New Zealand winter hoki fishery, targeting fish aggregated in deep water for spawning, takes a bycatch of Basking Sharks that may be feeding on the energy-rich eggs (Francis and Duffy 2002), while Sims <em>et al. </em>(2003) suggest that deep-diving sharks may feed on over-wintering copepods. <br/><br/>The reproductive biology of Basking Sharks is considered to be similar to that of other lamnoid sharks (Kunzlik 1988). Pairing takes place in early summer, wounds caused by copulation having been recorded in British waters in May by Matthews (1950). A single functional ovary contains a very large number of small eggs. Ovoviviparity occurs: embryos hatch within the uterus. Other lamnoid sharks exhibit embryonic ovophagy, in which the mother continues to produce infertile eggs on which the embryos can feed; the Basking Shark probably has the same strategy. Estimates for gestation period range from 12?36 months (Parker and Stott 1965, Pauly 1978, 2002, Compagno 1984a). The only record of a pregnant female was made by a Norwegian fisherman, who caught a shark which gave birth to five live young and one still-born, estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 m in length (Sund 1943). This indicates birth at a larger size than any other known ovoviviparous or viviparous shark. The catch from commercial surface fisheries is almost entirely non-pregnant females (e.g. Watkins 1958). It is thought there is likely a resting period of at least a year between pregnancies, and therefore a 2?4 year interval between litters (Parker and Stott 1965, Pauly 1978, 2002, Compagno 1984a). Pregnant females must normally segregate to an area where no fishery takes place (probably in deep water). Lien and Fawcett (1986) recorded twice as many males as females in incidental catches in deeper water around Newfoundland, indicating segregation of the sexes.<br/><br/>The smallest free-swimming individuals recorded are about 1.7?1.8 m (Parker and Stott 1965). However, the young are very rarely encountered until they reach more than 3 m in length. Growth is about 40 cm annually (Pauly 1978, 2002, Watterson in litt.). Males become sexually mature at a length of 5?7 m, age unknown, but possibly 12?16 years. Females are mature at 8.1?9.8 m and perhaps 16?20 years (Compagno 1984a). Pauly (1978) suggested mean age at first maturity for females as 18 years and that a shark of 9.6 m was 31 years old. There are unconfirmed measurements of 12.76 m (a theoretical maximum from Parker and Stott 1965) and 13.72 m (Holden 1974). Theoretically, longevity is about 50 years, though much more work on the age, growth and demographics of this species is needed. It is estimated that the natural mortality is low (M~0.07 per year) (Pauly 2002).
4292		threats	eng	Anon. (2002c) describes historical and modern fisheries. The Basking Shark has been exploited for several centuries to supply liver oil for lighting and industrial use, skin for leather and flesh for food or fishmeal. Modern fisheries yield liver oil, fins, meat and cartilage (Rose 1996, Anon. 2002c). The large liver represents 17?25% of total weight and contains a high proportion of squalene oil (Buranudeen and Richards-Rajadurai 1986). The very large fins fetch extremely high prices in international trade to East Asia (Fleming and Papageorgiou 1996, Lum 1996, Fairfax 1998, Anon. 2002c). Targeted basking shark fisheries entangle them in nets or use non-explosive harpoon guns to take sharks on the surface. Incidental catches are utilised when there is a market for the products and there has been an unutilised ?eradication? fishery. Catches have been recorded from Norway, Ireland, Scotland, Spain, Iceland, Canada, California, Peru, Ecuador, China and Japan (Compagno 1984a, Anon. 1999). One fishery in the Northeast Atlantic continues to take small numbers (ICES data, see Anon. 2002c). Most Basking Shark fisheries appear to have collapsed after initial high yields, and this species is considered by Compagno (1984a) to be extremely vulnerable to overfishing ? perhaps more so than most other sharks. A small fishery off Monterey Bay, California (Northeast Pacific), produced fishmeal and shark liver oil between 1924?1937. It expanded from 1946 to early 1950s, taking about 200 sharks annually. A drop in market prices for shark liver reportedly made the operation uneconomic. R. Lea (pers. comm.) reports that basking shark sightingsoff central California over the past 20 years are less numerous than in the past. The population may not have recovered from a substantial depletion during the 1940s and 1950s fishery and could still be affected by bycatch. S. van Sommeran (pers. comm.) notes that finned carcasses are occasionally reported.<br/><br/>Basking Sharks are common in the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples of Vancouver Island, Canadian Pacific. Salmon net fishermen in Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, complained of damage through accidental basking shark catches in the 1940s. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans instigated a shark eradication programme in the 1950s. Clemens and Wilby (1961) state that Fisheries vessels killed ?several hundred? in Barkley Sound up to 1959, to reduce salmon net bycatch. Darling and Keogh (1994) state ?Basking sharks are rarely sighted in Barkley Sound today, suggesting that the majority of the population in that area were killed.? It seems that this stock of Basking Sharks was significantly depleted over a period of just a few years and has not yet recovered. A summer Basking Shark fishery started at Achill Island, western Ireland in 1947, using set nets to entangle sharks. It peaked in the early 1950s, when 1,000?1,808 sharks were taken each year. In the early 1970s only 29?85 sharks were taken annually, a decline of over 90% in 20? 25 years. Re-capitalisation of the fishery in 1973 failed to increase yields locally and it closed in 1975, despite high oil prices. Parker and Stott (1965) and Horsman (1987) attributed the decline and collapse of this fishery to the overfishing of a local stock. Berrow and Heardman (1994) noted that there were still very few observations of basking sharks along the whole west and north-west coast of Ireland in 1993, and Achill Island fishermen reported fewer than 10 sharks sighted annually (Earll pers. comm.). This fishery appears to have depleted the population to such an extent that it has still not recovered some 40 years later. A wide-ranging Norwegian fleet has undertaken the major basking shark fishery in the northeast Atlantic from April to September in most years. Catches were high (>1,000 and up to >4,000) from 1959?1980 (Kunzlik 1988, ICES data, in Anon. 2002c). The Norwegian quota in European Community waters was 800 t (liver weight) in 1982, 400 t (approximately 800?1,000 sharks) in 1985, subsequently reduced to 200 t, 100 t, and to zero in 2001. Because basking sharks are taken by fishing vessels targeting small whales, increased restrictions on whaling activities and ageing vessels have reduced fleet size. The decline in this fishery has also been attributed to the falling value of Basking Shark liver oil, as a result of the competition from deepwater shark fisheries. Landings rose slightly in the early 1990s, when the fishery was being sustained by high fin prices (ICES 1995), but have since declined to very low levels, despite steeply increasing fin values. The majority of fins landed by Norway have been exported to Japan (Anon. 2002c). Since the precise location from which the basking sharks were taken is only identified by ICES sea area, it is difficult to detect and evaluate trends in catches, effort, and hence population, but the declines appear to be related to population trends and driven by fisheries and trade demand (Anon. 2002c). An intensive targeted Japanese Basking Shark fishery, utilising liver oil, shark fin and meat, took place in spring off Nakiri, Shima Peninsula, in the 1960s and 1970s. An estimated 1,200 sharks were harpooned from 1967?1978, peaking in 1972 when more than 60 sharks were sold at market in one day. Catches declined from about 150 sharks in 1975, to 20 in 1976, nine in 1977 and six in 1978. The fishery closed a few years later. In the 1990s, only 0? 2 Basking Sharks were being sighted each year off Nakiri during migration (Yano 1976, 1979, Uchida 1995). Basking sharks are sometimes landed and sold after becoming entangled in set nets or pot lines, or caught in trawls, but bycatch (whether landed or discarded) is rarely reported. Exceptions are reports by Lien and Fawcett (1986) on an incidental fishery for basking sharks by salmon and cod set nets and deepwater trawls in Newfoundland, and Francis and Duffy (2002) on incidental capture in deepwater fisheries off New Zealand. Incidental shark catches in Newfoundland increased in 1981 when a market developed for the fins and liver. When there is no market for the sharks? fins and livers, salmon fishermen generally remove their gear from the water to prevent damage when basking sharks are known to be in the area. If there is a market, any sharks caught are killed and landed. <br/><br/>Berrow (1994) estimated that 77?120 sharks are taken annually in the bottom set gillnet fishery in the Celtic Sea. Fairfax (1998) reports that basking sharks are sometimes brought up from deepwater trawls near the Scottish west coast during winter. Bycatch in Isle of Man herring fishery is about 10?15 fish annually and a further 4?5 entangled in pot lines, (K. Watterson in litt.). Local fishermen estimate an unreported bycatch of up to 40 Basking Sharks per year in one large bay in south-west England (C. Speedie pers. comm.). In contrast to these relatively large coastal bycatches, observer data from oceanic gillnet fleets suggest that only about 50 Basking Sharks were among the several million sharks taken annually offshore in the Pacific Ocean (Bonfil 1994). Habitat loss or degradation is not considered to be a serious problem for this species.<br/><br/>Following notes added by Lucy Harrison (iucnshark@gmail.com) via Sarah Fowler May 17th 2010<br/><p>Later in 2005, the species was listed in Appendix I and II of CMS. Appendix I means that Parties are required to provide strict  protection. </p>        <p>In 2006 ICES issued this advice, which is still current:“<em>No targeted fishing for basking shark should be permitted and additional  measures should be taken to prevent bycatch of basking shark in fisheries  targeting other species. A TAC should cover all areas where basking sharks are  caught in the northeast Atlantic. This TAC should be set at zero.”</em><br/>This advice was adopted in 2007 and the zero TAC covers all areas of the NE Atlantic where basking sharks may be caught. </p>      <p>Norway ALWAYS implements ICES advice (and indeed, unless they take out a reservation, also other MEA measures – unlike many other  States). Their basking shark fishery was therefore closed in either 2006 or 2007,  I forget which but probably the latter. They are presumably still landing bycatch, because Norway prohibits discards, but fishermen are not paid  full market value for catches for which they do not have a license – only  enough to cover the cost of bringing home the catch. This means that they will  be avoiding basking sharks wherever possible. <br/></p>  <p>Because of the CMS Appendix I listing, basking shark is also an EU prohibited species: “It shall be  prohibited for Community vessels to fish for, to retain on board, to tranship and to  land the following species in all Community and non-Community waters” Every year, however, we get reports of basking sharks being caught, landed and  put on sale illegally in the EU. So, small scale bycatch and utilisation is  definitely ongoing even in areas where the species is strictly protected.</p>    <p>Elsewhere: NZ is the only place where there is still a fairly large utilised basking shark bycatch (in trawls over hoki spawning  grounds). &#160;The fins are exported under CITES license to East Asia. NZ allows finning. </p>
4305		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
4305		distribution	eng	This species has been patchily recorded in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in the west, through Cameroon and northern Central Africa, to southern Sudan and western Uganda. Its is known from around 50 localities (mostly single specimens).
4305		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical moist and dry forest, dry savanna and more marginally from moist savanna. It is suspected to roosts in hollow trees.
4305		population	eng	This high flying species is rarely captured. It is found in relatively small groups.
4305		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat by logging activities.
4306		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range t is presumably present in many protected areas (including Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
4306		distribution	eng	This widely distributed bat has been recorded from much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from northeastern Côte d'Ivoire in the west, through much of the northern part of West and Central Africa (north of the Congo basin), to Ethiopia and East Africa, from here southwards as far as northeastern South Africa. It has been recorded between 400 and 2,000 m asl.
4306		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with dry woodland savanna. Roost sites include rock crevices, caves and abandoned mines. It has also been recorded roosting in the roofs of buildings and expansion joints in bridges.
4306		population	eng	It appears to be generally uncommon, although colonies may contain hundreds of bats.
4306		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of West Africa, some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food.
4307		conservation	eng	It is present in Meru National Park, Kenya, and is presumably present in several more protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, natural history, threats and distribution of this species.
4307		distribution	eng	This African species is widely distributed from Sierra Leone in the west, then patchily through West and Central Africa to southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania in the east. It has been recorded up to 1,700 m asl on Mount Nimba along the border of Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).
4307		habitat	eng	In the west of its range it is associated with montane tropical moist forest. The eastern populations are generally found in savanna and grassland savanna, Acacia, Combretum and Acacia–Commiphora communities. Roost in rocks, rock caves and fissures (Freeman 1981).
4307		population	eng	The abundance of this species is unclear, in parts of the range it seems to be a rare species that is found in small colonies consisting of a few individuals. In East African this species exhibits a clumped distribution, yet is relatively<br/>abundant locally (Weballa <em>et al.</em> 2004).
4307		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
4308		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is presumably present in some East African protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, distribution and natural history of this bat.
4308		distribution	eng	This East African species ranges from Eritrea and Ethiopia in the north, through southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and eastern Tanzania, to Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the south.
4308		habitat	eng	This species is associated with both dry and moist savanna habitats. It is generally dependent on rocky inselbergs for roosts, although specimens have been taken in an old mine (Smithers and Labao Tello, 1976).
4308		population	eng	Although there is little information on the abundance of this species, it is common in collections suggesting that it is easily found.
4308		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
4309		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur within any protected areas. The protection and monitoring of the few known roosting sites would be a useful conservation measure for this species. An assessment of the roosting sites in Vanuatu is urgently needed, as is further information about its distribution (to determine if there are other roost sites).
4309		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Fiji and Vanuatu. In Fiji it has been recorded from the islands of Taveuni and Vanua Levu. However, the only known roosting site in Fiji is a cave near the village of Nakanacagi on Vanua Levu, and because the species is likely to forage widely, it is possible that this site is indeed the only roosting site in Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). In Vanuatu this species has been reported from the islands of Espiritu Santo (Nanumbu Cave) and Malo (Tan Lensingo Cave and Abounatori Village) (Flannery 1995). It was extirpated from Tonga in prehistoric times (Koopman and Steadman 1995), and appears to have been extirpated from Viti Levu, Fiji as well, based on bones that have been found there (Worthy and Anderson 1999, as cited in Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007).
4309		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been observed roosting in a mudstone cave in Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007), and it has also been found roosting in caves in Vanuatu (Medway and Marshall 1975; Flannery 1995). In Fiji, it has been observed foraging in open spaces in a variety of habitats, including coconut groves, farmland, forest, and even over the ocean, near to the shore (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been mist-netted in areas of montane forest (Ingleby and Flannery 1991).
4309		population	eng	There is no recent information concerning the populations in Vanuatu. The single known roosting site in Fiji appears to hold thousands of individuals (Flannery 1995; and on the basis that Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> visited the site in 2000 and located <em>c.</em>1,000 young after the adults had left, reported in Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007).
4309		threats	eng	The species remains known from only three roosting sites. On Vanua Levu, villagers occasionally exploit the roost for food and disturbance at the cave is also a concern (Flannery 1995; Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).
4310		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from  Kruger National Park in South Africa, and from Mole National Park in Ghana and Comoe in Present in Kruger National Park, South Africa. (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).
4310		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been collected from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in West Africa, southern Sudan, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya, ranging south into southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and Namibia.
4310		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from savanna habitats and river valleys. It appears to be associated with intact woodland that is occasionally disturbed (e.g.. Mopane damaged by elephants).
4310		population	eng	In general there is little information on the abundance of this species over its range. It can be common in northwestern Zimbabwe, but it is not regularly recorded. The species is found in small colonies, with a single observation of a small group of breeding females.
4310		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It may be threatened in parts of its range through habitat loss and degradation (e.g.. in northern Zimbabwe and parts of Zambia)
4311		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this poorly known species.
4311		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the type locality of 'Scierie Forest, 30 km of southwest Kindu, Kivu' in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may range more widely, however, other surveys in the general area have not recorded this species.
4311		habitat	eng	As with similar member of the genus, it is presumed to fly at relatively high altitudes and possibly roosts in hollow trees, crevices and caves (Nowak 1999). There is little information available on the natural history of this species.
4311		population	eng	There is little information on the abundance of this species.
4311		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear. It may be threatened by habitat loss, through the conversion of forest to agricultural use and timber extraction, however, this needs to be confirmed.
4312		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in some protected areas in Australia as well as Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Western Province of Papua New Guinea. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
4312		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from the islands of Seram (Indonesia) and Yapen (Indonesia), New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and is present over much of northern Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,400 m asl.
4312		habitat	eng	This species is found in open tropical moist forest, open sclerophyll woodland, and clearings in these habitats. The species roosts in hollow trees, caves, and old buildings.
4312		population	eng	It is a common species in Australia (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008).
4312		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
4313		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. It has been collected in the Krau Wildlife Reserve (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003), Riverssketam and Reliau in Taman Negara National Park (L. B. Liat pers. comm.), and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003).
4313		distribution	eng	This species is found in west Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is Johore, Malaysia. At present it is known from only one locality in Sumatra.
4313		habitat	eng	Specimens have been netted over a forest stream (Medway 1978) and in lowland (<300 m asl) evergreen dipterocarp forest. It is also thought to have the foraging strategy of an open space insectivore (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003).
4313		population	eng	The population status and trend are unknown.
4313		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species, in particular for logging, agriculture, plantations, and also resulting from fire.
4314		conservation	eng	The species has a wide range, and likely occurs in some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
4314		distribution	eng	this lowland species is found throughout much of West Africa (including Senegal, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, and Nigeria), as well as a narrow distribution following the Nile from northern Sudan to Uganda. A second population is known from the east of Lake Victoria in eastern Uganda, western Kenya, and north-western Tanzania. A third, apparently disjunct, population in present in southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania.<br/>The records from Liberia should be re-examined as they may represent a different species, while the record from Malawi is doubtful (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).
4314		habitat	eng	This high flying bat is associated with savanna habitats. It ranges from the humid savanna, through to the Sahel. It is tree roosting, although not exclusively so, also being found in rock crevices, cracks, fissures and houses. Roosts are often very close to the ground.
4314		population	eng	This is a relatively common species, found in fairly small colonies.
4314		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations are threatened by general habitat loss and disturbance of old buildings.
4315		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
4315		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east, being recorded as far south as Angola, Botswana and Zimbabwe. There are some additional records from the Arabian Peninsula in Yemen and western Saudi Arabia. Animals have been found at elevations of up to 1,000 m asl, and possibly occur higher than this.
4315		habitat	eng	This is a savanna woodland species associated with <em>Brachystegia</em> woodlands in the southern portion of its range (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2002; Skinner an Chimimba 2005). In Nigeria, animals have been found in the Guinea and Sudan savannas extending southwards into cleared areas of tropical moist forest (Happold 1987; Willis <em>et al.</em> 2002). During the day this species has been recorded roosting in groups under tree bark an in the roofs of houses (Happold 1987; Ansell 1960; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
4315		population	eng	This species is typically found in small groups of 10 to 15 animals, with maternity roosts being formed of up to 25 bats.
4315		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The ability of the species to exploit buildings as roosts, and its association with cleared rainforest in Nigeria, suggests that it is relatively resistant to anthropogenic impacts (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2002).
4316		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Protection of key roost sites, surveys and habitat management are urgently recommended along with public awareness (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, while many large colonies are protected in countries such as Myanmar and Thailand by villagers and monks (P. Bates and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006), and the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas, there is a need to protect key roosting sites and to undertake population surveys in areas of previous decline (eg. Philippines).
4316		distribution	eng	This very widely distributed species is found throughout much of South Asia, southern and central China, most of mainland Southeast Asia, and much of insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is very widely distributed and is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Central and Western Provinces) (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 950 m asl. The species is likely to be found in Bangladesh (Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005). In China it has been recorded from Gansu, Yunnan, Hainan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present in Myanmar, Thailand, western Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia in mainland Southeast Asia. Within insular Southeast Asia it is wide ranging, and is found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and Lombok (all to Indonesia), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines there are records from Leyte, Luzon (Cagayan, Isabela, Pampanga, and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Cotabato) (Taylor 1934), Cebu and Negros (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
4316		habitat	eng	This species can form large colonies of thousands of bats that typically roost in caves, but can also be found in crevices in rocks, old disused buildings and temples. Populations generally forage close to roost sites, and have been recorded hunting in forested areas and over rice fields. It is a high and fast flyer that feeds on insects and other invertebrates.
4316		population	eng	This is a widespread but localized species which occurs in large colonies usually in caves. In South Asia, this species is widespread in its range in India, but is found in few locations. The Sri Lankan population is stable (W. Yapa pers. comm.) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, colonies ranging from a few hundred to more than 200,000 have been reported (Smith and Xie 2008). In Peninsula Malaysia the species is common and widespread although there are very few recent records. The total population in Thailand is around eight million, with a single population of over two million individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006); it is a very abundant species in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm. 2006).
4316		threats	eng	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. It is also threatened due to extraction and mining activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In mainland Southeast Asia, a colony of 300,000 bats was destroyed in northern Myanmar as a result of limestone extraction for cement manufacture (P. Bates pers. comm.), and a colony of hundreds of thousands of bats was eradicated as pests in Phnom Pehn, Cambodia (P. Bates pers. comm. 2006). In the Philippines, this was formerly among the most abundant bats in some large caves. However, virtually all of the known large colonies have now been extirpated, including the loss of a very large colony from Leyte in 1984 (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). The remaining population is probably declining due to forest loss, disturbance in caves (guano mining, hunting), and tourism (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). The only recent reports since 1980 are from northern Luzon (Danielsen <em>et al.</em> 1994; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and two recent records from Cebu (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It parts of its range, such as Lao PDR and Borneo, overharvesting of this species for food is leading to significant population declines.
4317		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range it seems probable that this species is present in some protected areas. On Madagascar, it has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it has been recorded from houses close to protected areas. The status of the population on Aldabra need to be clarified with complementary research needed into the conservation status of this population.
4317		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found from Senegal in the west of its range, eastwards to Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia, and as far south as South Africa. It has been recorded from the island of Bioko and the Annobon Islands (Equatorial Guinea), Pemba and Zanzibar (Tanzania), the Comoros Islands, Mayotte (Goodman 2007), and Madagascar (Bouchard 1998) and on the Aldabra Atoll of the Seychelles (Hutson 2004). In Madagascar, the species is restricted to the humid areas of the island (in the north and east) and can be found up to 1,300 m asl. Its southernmost range in Madagascar is not well understood and it has not been recorded south of Moramanga (Goodman and Cardiff 2004).
4317		habitat	eng	Bouchard (1998) indicates that this species is found in a variety of habitats from semi-arid regions in the north of its range to cleared rainforest regions in the south (Happold, 1987). It occurs widely in the savannas of Guinea and Sudan, and in the forests of the Congo basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is found in savanna woodlands in Zambia, and in the Cape Province of South Africa they occur in mountainous areas in the Cape Macchia Zone as well as in more arid open country further. In Zimbabwe the species shows a clear preference for low veld conditions and it is never taken on the plateau above 1,000 m asl (Smithers 1983). In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, it is largely restricted to the Valley bushveld, lowveld and Coast lowland bioregions. Although the species appears to prefer forest or savanna woodlands outside built-up areas, its presence in built-up areas is determined solely by the availability of suitable roofs and buildings for roosting. In Madagascar, it is known from the eastern humid rainforests, where it has been recorded from buildings and houses.  It is not thought to be a habitat specialist as it has been recorded in villages both near intact forest and in areas that are heavily degraded. On Aldabra the habitat is dry tropical shrub, it roosts in trees with a single roost of 30 animals recorded. Preferred roosting sites include horizontal surfaces of rafters, between rafters and brickwork, in the corrugations of corrugated roofs, between the roof tiles and the insulating material underneath as well as in air vents. In Madagascar it is often found roosting in buildings close to forests; however, this may reflect a bias in sampling methods. Natural roosts are hollows and crevices in trees, the crowns of various species of palms (see references in Bouchard 1998).
4317		population	eng	The colonies of this species range from a few animals (between 5 and 20) to hundreds of individuals. There are no estimates of its population in Madagascar but it is thought to be locally common in the eastern zone. On Aldabra, the population might be fewer than 250 animals.
4317		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. In some parts of its range, it is threatened from persecution as a pest, especially since it roosts in buildings.
4319		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from the Hell's Gate National Park in Kenya and Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
4319		distribution	eng	This little known African species has only been recorded from five, widely dispersed, localities. It has been recorded in the west from Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire, from '12 km northeast of Kade' in Ghana, from central Cameroon, from Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the type locality), and from the Hell's Gate Canyon National Park in Kenya.
4319		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. It is generally considered to associated with tropical forest habitats, with animals roosting in trees. In Ghana it has been recorded at the forest edge between invasive Guinea woodland and high forest (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.
4319		population	eng	It is believed to be a quite rare species that occurs in small colonies.
4319		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by habitat loss in parts of its West African range, although further studies are needed to confirm this.
4320		conservation	eng	A significant population has been recorded at the Mufu Point caves on Santa Isabel. A suitable conservation measure may be the protection of this site, and other known roosting sites.
4320		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the Solomon Islands where it has been recorded on the islands of Choiseul and Santa Isabel (Flannery 1995).
4320		habitat	eng	Troughton (1931) described the type locality (Mufa Point on Santa Isabel) as being caves opening out to cliffs over ocean (Troughton 1931, as referenced in Flannery 1995).
4320		population	eng	There is no recent information about the population size of this species.
4320		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
4321		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
4321		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from two lowland localities, Praia das Conchas (3 km NW of Guadalupe) and Agua Izé, in the northern part of São Tomé Island, of São Tomé and Príncipe. Extensive surveys have not located the species elsewhere on the island.
4321		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from Praia das Conchas which is quite open and the driest point of the island (open savanna forest with baobabs), and from Agua Izé which is much more humid, and although it is now cocoa plantations it was previously forest (J. Juste pers. comm. 2008). It is unclear if the species can persist in modified habitats. The colony size is not known.
4321		population	eng	It seems to be a very rare species that, despite considerable trapping effort, is currently only known from the type series of three specimens (J. Juste pers. comm. 2008).
4321		threats	eng	The species is believed to be threatened by general habitat loss resulting from coastal development, including tourism activities, conversion of land to agricultural use and possible port construction. The species may be competing with the much more abundant species <em>Chaerephon pumila</em>(J. Juste pers. comm. 2008), with further studies into this relationship needed.
4322		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
4322		distribution	eng	The Pig-footed Bandicoot occurred in Australia. It was recorded from Western Australia, through South Australia and the southern part of the Northern Territory, to south-western New South Wales and western Victoria. The last known specimen was collected in 1901. Reports of sightings in central Australia during the 1920s were unconfirmed. There were recollections of this species by the Pintupi people in the Great Sandy and northern Gibson Deserts into the 1950s (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988).
4322		habitat	eng	It was found in semi-arid and arid areas such as open sclerophyll woodland, mallee, heath, and grassland.
4322		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct.
4322		threats	eng	The main causes of this species’ demise are unknown, but it declined rapidly following European settlement (Johnson and Burbidge 2008). Destruction of habitat by rabbits and predation by foxes had been thought to be major factors, but these species were not yet present at the time Pig-footed Bandicoot populations crashed. Cats, however, were present and may have been a factor; disease or destruction of habitat by sheep might also have played a role (Johnson and Burbidge 2008).
4326		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species falls within several protected areas.
4326		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Baja California Peninsula (Patton 2005), and Magdalena Island and Cerraluo Island, Mexico.
4326		habitat	eng	This species is associated with sandy soils; it is found in an extremely arid region in habitats characterized by soil consisting almost entirely of sand and by sparse vegetation; it prefers flat areas, and is less common on slopes and ridges. Mounds and burrows of this species were found far up arroyos having a sandy floor, suggesting sandy soil is a more significant aspect of the habitat than a flat, open environment (Lackey 1991). The only known predator of <em>C. arenarius</em> is the barn owl, <em>Tyto alba</em> (Lackey 1991). <br/><br/>A female with two embryos was found in March (Lackey 1991).
4326		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat (Lackey 1991).
4326		threats	eng	Human activity may affect this species on Margarita Island, but it is not currently considered a major threat to the species' population status.
4327		conservation	eng	A small part of this species' range falls within a protected area.
4327		distribution	eng	This species is known from south Sonora, southwestern Chihuahua, western Durango, Sinaloa, and northern Nayarit (Mexico) (Patton 2005).
4327		habitat	eng	This species is found only in habitats such as barrancas having rocks of various sizes, but with no extensive rock-free areas. In Durango, it occurs on the subtropical western slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It is found on sandy areas among mesquite (<em>Prosopis</em>). In mountainous regions it is common along creek bottoms and the edges of cultivated fields. It is granivoruous (Best and Lackey 1992).
4327		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat (Best and Lackey 1992).
4327		threats	eng	This habitat of this species is changing to agricultural areas. This species is somewhat adaptable to cultivated land. However, rodenticides are applied to extirpate the species.
4328		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species.
4328		distribution	eng	This species is known from south Arizona, southwestern New Mexico (USA), south to north Sinaloa (Mexico) (Patton 2005).
4328		habitat	eng	Primary habitat for this species is within desert, associatated with shrubs or small trees, at the interface between sandy flats and rocky slopes. <br/><br/>It forages most often in the shelter of perennial plants and modifies its behavior in response to the risk of predation from owls. In the presence of owls, individuals make furtive, short trips into risky open areas between shrubs, especially when the moon is bright. It is solitary, nocturnal, lives in burrows, eats mostly seeds that it stores avidly against lean times, and does not need to drink water. It is unique among Sonoran desert pocket mice in its ability to consume seeds of the dominant shrub jojoba (<em>Simmondsia chinensis</em>), which contain chemical compounds toxic to most mammals. It also is unusually slow in harvesting seeds from sand, especially in comparison with kangaroo mice. Breeding is controlled by rainfall. In the Sonoran desert there are often two reproductive periods, one in spring following winter rains and another in early autumn following summer monsoons (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
4328		population	eng	This species is common. Its population sizes respond to seed availability, growing in years of good rains and shrinking during droughts (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Estimates of density vary from 2.2 to 86.1 animals per hectare (Paulson 1988).
4328		threats	eng	None known.
4329		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
4329		distribution	eng	Ranges throughout the Sierra Nevada, Coast, Transverse, and Peninsular ranges of southern California and northern Baja California, Mexico.
4329		habitat	eng	This species is strongly associated with dense chaparral, and forages along the edges between shrubs and small open areas. It is rare to uncommon in arid grassland, desert, and coastal scrub habitats.
4329		population	eng	This species is not common.
4329		threats	eng	The chaparral habitat within the range of this species is undergoing land use change due to grazing, fire, and urbanization.
4330		conservation	eng	Subspecies <em>C. f. fallax</em> and <em>C. f. pallidus</em> are federal candidate taxa in the United States and Species of Special Concern in the State of California. On Cedros Island, Baja California this species is considered endangered.
4330		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southern California and northern Baja California. It occurs up to 1,835 m. There is one population on Cedros Island (Baja) that was previously known as <em>C. anthonyi</em>.
4330		habitat	eng	Occupies shrublands that vary from sparse desert shrublands to dense coastal scrub. Tends to be more abundant where rocks or shrubs provide cover. Lives in a variety of habitats: desert slopes, agave, rocky areas, coastal sage scrub, etc.<br/><br/>It has a diet composed largely of seeds, but insects and plant foliage are also consumed. Like other heteromyid rodents, it is nocturnal, solitary, and seeks shelter in burrows during daylight. Burrow systems can be quite elaborate, consisting of a network of tunnels and chambers. Usually one or two chambers are used as dens for sleeping; the remaining chambers are used for hoarding seeds. Although reproduction can occurs throughout the year, this species breeds mainly during spring. The litter size probably ranges between 2 and 6. Young become sexually mature at 5 to 6 months of age. Females can produce 1 to 3 litters per year. Typical longevity in nature is only 4 to 6 months, but is not usual for some individuals survive 1 to 2 years (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
4330		population	eng	It is common and widespread (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Populations up to 52 mice/ha have been recorded.
4330		threats	eng	In some parts of its range (San Diego), the species may suffer habitat destruction from expansion of metropolitan areas (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations on Cedros Island, Baja are threatened by predation by feral dogs.
4331		conservation	eng	No known conservation measures exist for this species. There are protected areas within its range.
4331		distribution	eng	This species is found in western North America, mostly within the Great Basin and Mojave and Colorado deserts and including parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and California (United States), and the eastern coastal plain of Baja California (Mexico).
4331		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs in rocky habitats (lava beds, pebbly soils, gravel surfaces of stream beds, and among large boulders. It may occur in sandy soils along creek beds and under shrubs. Vegetation includes various desert shrub species.
4331		population	eng	This species is common in the United States. However, in Baja California, Mexico, this species is not very common. It has been found at densities of up to 30 mice/hectare in suitable habitat.
4331		threats	eng	In Mexico, this species is found where there is a lot of infrastructure for tourism, which may threaten populations in this region.
4332		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is unknown whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
4332		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico, from northeastern to southern Sonora, southwestern Chihuahua, and northern Sinaloa (Patton 2005).
4332		habitat	eng	This species can be found in brushy arroyos, and along the edges of cultivated fields. It occurs in sandy areas among mesquite (<em>Prosopis</em>). It is common near rocks and in dry arroyos. The habitat is thornscrub and short-tree forests with alluvial soils. There is a paucity of information regarding diet; however, in Sonora it eats grass seeds (Lackey and Best 1992). This species can live in agriculture areas. It is found in coastal areas, and along the foothills of the Sierras, which has not yet been converted to agriculture.
4332		population	eng	This is not a common species.
4332		threats	eng	At least 60% of its historical range is estimated to have been converted to agriculture. In the southern part of its range, agricultural development and the application of rodenticides are threats to this species. The application of rodenticides over the past 10 years is thought to have caused a serious decline in its population.
4333		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
4333		distribution	eng	This species is found from North Dakota southward through the Great Plains to Texas, south-eastern Arizona, and north-central Mexico. There are two disjunct populations: one in central Mexico, the other in the Baja Peninsula.
4333		habitat	eng	Occurs in grassy habitats associated with pinyon-juniper, short and mixed grass plains, mesquite grasslands, tall grass prairie, and oak uplands. Prefers prairie areas with sparse or moderate vegetation; various dry grassland habitats. Prefer sandy soils, but will live where clay content is high. Can also occur in rocky or gravelly areas with heavy soils. Has been found in irrigated cornfields.
4333		population	eng	This species is abundant.
4333		threats	eng	None known.
4334		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
4334		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-central Utah south through Arizona, central and southern New Mexico and the Trans-Pecos, Texas, (United States), and into northern Sonora and Chihuahua (Mexico).
4334		habitat	eng	Zonally confined to lower grasslands and deserts. Commonly found in creosote-bush, mesquite, saltbush, and creosote-bush-lechuguilla areas. Associated with rocky habitats rather than sandy soils, particularly cliffs, canyons, rocky gulches, old lava flows.
4334		population	eng	This species is common.
4334		threats	eng	None known.
4335		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
4335		distribution	eng	From the Chihuahuan Desert of the north-central Mexican Plateau north to west Texas and extreme south-eastern New Mexico (Patton 2005).
4335		habitat	eng	Occurs in desert shrub vegetation, where it is associated with rocky soils on slopes with scattered shrub cover. This rodent has strong preference for rocky places in Chihuahuan desert shrub vegetation. It prefers rocky soils or slopes where cactus, creosote, stool, and lechuguilla provide scattered cover. It is seldom found on sandy or other fine soils. <br/><br/>This rodent is active throughout the year. It feeds entirely on the seeds of various desert shrubs and grasses (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Mating begins in February and continues throughout July, with peaks of pregnancy in March, May, and July. The gestation period is about one month and the young leave the nest when they are about four weeks of age. The number of embryos per litter averages 3.2, with extremes of two and four. The annual population turnover is about 86%; that is, only 14 of each 100 individuals survive more than one year.
4335		population	eng	It is locally abundant when habitat is suitable (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Densities reported to range up to 60 individuals/ha.
4335		threats	eng	None known.
4336		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
4336		distribution	eng	North American deserts from northern Baja California and northcentral Mexico northward to southeastern California and extreme southern Nevada and Utah, and eastward through southern Arizona to extreme southwestern New Mexico. This geographic range excludes the range of taxa now separated as <em>C. eremicus</em>.
4336		habitat	eng	Associates with sandy soils on creosote-scrub flats or washes bordered with small trees. Avoids rocky soils.
4336		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitat. Densities reported between 0 - 8.5 individuals/ha.
4336		threats	eng	None known.
4337		conservation	eng	A small part of this species' range occurs in a protected area.
4337		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands from south Sonora to north Nayarit, Mexico (Patton 2005).
4337		habitat	eng	This species can be found on the coastal plain in habitat characterized by a soil of fine alluvial silt nearly devoid of small rock material, by a flora consisting of thorny leguminous trees, arborescent cacti, and a dense understory of <em>Opuntia</em>, rathbunia, and small woody shrubs (Patton and Jones 1972). Such habitat is common below the oak (<em>Quercus</em>) belt. Also, this species is found in thick cactus (<em>Opuntia</em>) associations, and is abundant along the edges of cultivated fields. It also occurs on sandy loam soils in arid tropical habitat (Best and Lackey 1992). <br/><br/><em>Chaetodipus pernix</em> is granivorous; it is known to feed on grass seeds. In Sonora, young are born in October and November, and a pregnant female was found in April (Best and Lackey 1992).
4337		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (Best and Lackey 1992).
4337		threats	eng	Extensive agricultural conversion is occurring within part of this species' range, and this species is also threatened by the application of rodenticides.
4338		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
4338		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Nevada, southeast California (USA) south to the cape of Baja California Peninsula (Mexico); also occurs on many islands in the Gulf of California (Patton 2005). It occurs at elevations up to 900 m (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California this species is found on Espiritu Santo Island, San Francisco Island, San Jose, Carmen, Coronados, San Marcos, San Lorenzo, Angel de la Guarda, Mejia islands, and in the Pacific on Margarita Island.
4338		habitat	eng	This rodent usually inhabits rough desert landscapes of boulders, washes, rocky slopes, coarse soil, and sparse vegetation characteristic of the lower Sonoran life zone. On islands it prefers rocky desert (Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>Little is known about the natural history of the spiny pocket mouse despite its wide range and the many reports of its occurrence. It is nocturnal, thereby escaping the intense heat and aridity of the desert during the day. Its diet probably consists of seeds and it may eat green vegetation following the brief periods of rain. Because water is scarce in its habitat much of the time, this rodent probably finds water derived from its food. The only record of reproduction detailed the occurrence of four embryos in one specimen. Nothing is known about growth, development, physiological function, and behavior (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
4338		population	eng	It is frequent and stable (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Very common on the Baja peninsula.
4338		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. Most populations are probably secure because the species inhabits areas of little agricultural value (Wilson and Ruff 1999). However, some populations on islands are threatened by predation from feral cats, and on Meija and Coronados Islands other species of rodents have been extirpated (<em>Peromyscus guardia</em> and <em>Neotomys bunkeri</em>).
4360		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. There are protected areas within the range of this species (e.g. in the Marianas Islands) but the presence of populations within these needs to be confirmed. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.
4360		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Pacific where it has only been recorded from Guam (USA) and the Northern Marianas Islands. It is possibly present at the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati) however this requires confirmation (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths from 35-80 m.
4360		habitat	eng	It has been recorded on coral reefs and rocky reefs from steep drop-offs and vertical walls where currents are strong, with abundant growth of gorgonians and black coral.
4360		population	eng	This species is not often sighted (largely because of its distribution in deeper waters) and is known only on the basis of a few museum specimens and underwater photographs. It is relatively uncommon to occasional with stable populations.
4360		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Any collecting for the pet trade would likely be very limited.
4361		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.<br/></p>
4361		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the seas surrounding Easter Island (= Rapa Nui) in the southeastern Pacific Ocean (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been observed from 1-25 m in depth.
4361		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky reefs composed of volcanic boulders with a prolific growth of brown algae (Allen 1980). Juveniles have been collected from shallow tide pools with some coral growth (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
4361		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
4361		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the population.</p>
4362		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.
4362		distribution	eng	This western Indian Ocean species ranges from Delagoa Bay (Mozambique) in the north to Lamberts Bay (South Africa) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been collected at depths of up to120 m.
4362		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with rocky and coral covered reefs, but has also been recorded from shallow tidal pools and estuaries where it lives among macroalgae (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
4362		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
4362		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
4363		conservation	eng	Although Saint Paul's Rocks is not a conservation area, it is very isolated and can only be reached by sea. There are discussions ongoing concerning the possible establishment of a protected area. It is possibly protected by Brazilian national legislation, although this requires verification.
4363		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern central Atlantic where it is known only from Saint Paul's Rocks (Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks), Brazil. It known from depths of 55 to at least 100 m.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
4363		habitat	eng	Animals are usually found on the vertical rock faces of rocky reefs. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.
4363		population	eng	Very few individuals of this species have ever been observed and/or collected.
4363		threats	eng	There is insufficient information available to determine if there are any major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is known to only have occurred once, and is not believed to have had a significant impact on the population to date.
4364		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any marine protected area.
4364		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern central Atlantic, where it ranges from Cape Verde and Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea. It is known from depths of 3-70 m.
4364		habitat	eng	It usually inhabits rocky areas from inshore shallows to at least 50 m (Allen 1980). It is often seen in pairs (Allen 1980).
4364		population	eng	It appears to be the most common butterflyfish along the tropical coast of West Africa (Allen 1980). It is particularly common on rocky reefs of the northern Gulf of Guinea (Guinea to Nigeria) (Allen 1980). Also common in Sao Tome Island.
4364		threats	eng	No apparent major threats.
4366		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some state and federal parks and reserves. Deborah Faria is developing management plan for this species.
4366		distribution	eng	This species occurs in fragments of Brazilian rain forests of Bahia, Espirito Santo and possibly Rio de Janeiro States (there are no confirmed reports of the species occurring in this state (Faria, in litt., 2006), its range is relatively restricted. It also occurs in Sergipe State.
4366		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and almost entirely arboreal; it occurs in primary and secondary rainforests; it feeds on leaves. Found most commonly along forest edge. Preliminary radio-telemetry indicates that cacao plantations are used to transit between forest fragments, but not as primary habitat. Its folivore diet does not include cacao leaves (Faria pers. comm.).
4366		population	eng	This rodent is found more commonly in Restingas, in northeastern Brazil, but this could be a factor of access (Faria pers. comm.). The main population strongholds are in Bahia along the coast in the north and southeast of the state and in Espirito Santo State where it can be found in protected areas including Sooretama Biological Reserve, Paulo Cesar Vinha State Park, Vale do Rio Doce Reserve, and in mountain forests in the Santa Teresa region.
4366		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of its habitat to agriculture, in particular cocoa plantations. This fragmentation of its habitat is resulting in the creation of isolated populations. This rodent is hunted for food.
4367		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is found in one protected area in Bolivia (Sajama National Park). Further systematic studies for this species are needed, most specifically, to determine if it is a distinct species, or a high-altitude subspecies of <em>Chaetophractus vellerosus</em> (Wetzel 1985, Gardner 2005).
4367		distribution	eng	This armadillo species is found in Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Argentina. Its distribution is poorly known, as it is often confounded with <em>Chaetophractus vellerosus</em>. In Argentina, it has been recorded in localities farther south than its current range (Carrizo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but these records need to be confirmed to exclude the possibility that they are <span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus.</span>
4367		habitat	eng	This omnivorous species inhabits high altitude grasslands, where it digs its burrows in sandy soils (Redford and Eisenberg 1992, Pérez Zubieta 2008).
4367		population	eng	Peredo (1999) estimated a total population of 13,000 individuals in an area of 340 km². The wild populations are decreasing.
4367		threats	eng	This species is intensively harvested commercially for its meat and carapace, including for charangos (musical instrument) and also handicrafts (Romero-Muñoz and Pérez-Zubieta 2008). Cáceres (1995) estimated 2000 individuals harvested each year in Bolivia. It also suffers habitat loss from sand excavation for concrete production (Peredo 1999) and agricultural activities (Ríos and Rocha 2002).
4368		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus</span> is present in a number of protected areas. The highest density of this species in a protected area is probably found in the Kaa-Iya National Park (3.4 million hectares), Bolivia.
4368		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus</span> is generally known from the Chaco region of Bolivia (Cuéllar and Noss 2003, Noss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), Paraguay and Argentina (Gardner 2005). A disjunct population occurs in eastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Crespo 1974, Carlini and Vizcaíno 1987, Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008, Abba and Cassini 2008). Records from Chile are probably <span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetophractus nationi</span>.
4368		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus </span>is primarily found in xeric environments, in both lowland and upland areas with loose sandy soils; it has been recorded from rangeland pasture and agricultural areas. The animal constructs burrows, and it is absent from rocky areas where burrows cannot be excavated (Greegor 1985, Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008, Abba and Cassini 2008).
4368		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, but the wild populations are expected to be stable.
4368		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus</span> is heavily hunted for its meat and carapace (including for charangos, a musical instrument; Aguiar and Fonseca 2008), especially by indigenous groups in some parts of the Chaco region in Bolivia (Cuéllar and Noss 2003, Noss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is also persecuted as an agricultural pest. In addition, some animals are killed by hunting dogs. The isolated population on the coast of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, is negatively affected by mining activities (Abba 2008).
4369		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas.
4369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. villosus</span> is present in the Gran Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina as far south as Santa Cruz, Argentina and Magallanes, Chile (Gardner 2005). It has been introduced in Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina (Poljak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007,&#160; Poljak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It ranges from sea level up to 1,500 m asl (Argentina).
4369		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. villosus</span> is present in a wide variety of habitats, among them grasslands (including pampas and chaco), savanna, and forest. It is also found in cultivated landscapes (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Abba 2008).
4369		population	eng	This is one of the most common armadillo species in Argentina (Abba 2008).
4369		threats	eng	In some parts of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. villosus </span>is locally used for food and charangos (musical instruments; Aguiar and Fonseca 2008). It is also persecuted as a pest species in agricultural areas, and is subject to sport hunting. Animals may also be killed on roads and by dogs (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008).
4375		conservation	eng	A sustainable fisheries management plan was prepared in 1996 and appllied in several phases since then (Sari 2006). However, further actions have been proposed by Sari (2006) which include: strict prohibition of illegal fishing practices, creation of alternative employment opportunities for the fishermen, prevent sand removal from riverbeds and initiate measures to protect Lake Van.
4375		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Van basin (the largest soda lake in the world).
4375		habitat	eng	Inhabits brackish water, coastal lagoons and river mouths; it also occurs in freswater rivers (Sari 2006). The species exhibits schooling behaviour according to year classes in the lake (Sari 2006). It is a plankton feeder.
4375		population	eng	The species is locally abundant but sparsely distributed (Sari 2006).
4375		threats	eng	The species is declining due to illegal fishing during the spawning migration (Sari 2006). There is also habitat degradation and loss due to mining of river sand and pollution from wastewater from domestic and industrial sources.
4414		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect roost sites and important areas of foraging habitat. Further research is needed into the ecology and threats to this species, particularly its foraging behaviour and habitat (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
4414		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Australia where it is found in scattered localities in eastern New South Wales and adjacent south-eastern Queensland.
4414		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from dry and wet sclerophyll forests and woodland, subalpine woodland, open Eucalypt forest with a rainforest canopy, and at the edge of rainforest habitat (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hoye and Schulz 2008). The species may depend heavily on sandstone outcrops with adjacent woodlands for natural roosting sites (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; M. Pennay pers. comm.). It also roosts in caves, mine tunnels, and Fairy Martin nests. Females give birth to one or two young. One known maternity roost contains 15-20 females (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
4414		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon or rare species (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The majority of records are from northern New South Wales. Current information indicates that the species is more widespread and stable than previously thought (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
4414		threats	eng	The species is threatened by disturbance and destruction of roosting sites (including by goats entering caves) (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Roosting sites are also threatened by coal mining. Other threats to the species include: clearance of foraging habitat for agriculture and urbanisation, the impacts of forestry operations, and predation by feral animals (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
4417		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas.
4417		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of Australia, being absent only from the Cape York Peninsula. It is present on the island of Tasmania and on Norfolk Island. Known from sea level to 1,500 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
4417		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense forest, open woodland, mallee, tall shrubland, and open areas. It roosts in trees and many different types of structures in human environments. The gestation period is about three months after which one or two young are born.
4417		population	eng	It is a common species (Dixon and Lumsden 2008).
4417		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
4419		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed on the isolated populations (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
4419		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread, especially in the south. Known from sea level to 1,570 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
4419		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats from rainforests to treeless plains (Young <em>et al.</em> 2008). It forms colonies in tree hollows, caves, and buildings. Colonies may consist of less than 10 individuals to more than 1,000 (Young <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females usually give birth to a single young.
4419		population	eng	It is a common species (Young <em>et al.</em> 2008).
4419		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
4420		conservation	eng	It is not known to be present in any protected areas. Information about the population numbers, distribution, taxonomy, ecology, current status, and threats are all vital. Identification and protection of suitable areas of habitat is also needed.
4420		distribution	eng	The New Caledonia Wattled Bat is endemic to the island of Grande Terre, New Caledonia (Flannery 1995; Simmons 2005), where it is currently known from a roost site in each of three towns: Hienghène (North Province), and Païta and Sarraméa (South Province). Further survey work is likely to find other colonies of this species on Grande Terre (F. Brescia pers. comm.).
4420		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this species. Flannery (1995) mentions that he did not capture the species while mist-netting in forest, and suggests that it prefers more open habitats. The holotype was collected in a house (Flannery 1995). The three known colonies are roof-roosting (F. Brescia pers. comm.).
4420		population	eng	It is known from few specimens (Tidemann 1986; Flannery 1995), and several efforts to locate the species during the 1990s were unsuccessful. Three colonies have recently been discovered that use human structures. The first one was found in 2002 in Hienghène (Kirsch <em>et al.</em> 2002). Two more have since been found in Païta and Sarraméa (in 2004 and 2005) (F. Brescia pers. comm.). Each of the three locations contains between 200 and 500 individuals (F. Brescia pers. comm.). A maximum population of 1,500 individuals would be based on the known colonies, however, there could well be other populations that have not been yet been discovered (F. Brescia pers. comm.).
4420		threats	eng	The threats to New Caledonia Wattled Bat are unclear. It may be threatened by habitat loss and direct human persecution as it is considered to be a pest roosting in roofs.
4421		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Bonaccorso (1998) suggests that local educational campaigns may assist the conservation of this species in New Guinea.
4421		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded on the island of New Guinea (present in Papua New Guinea only), on Fergusson Island in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), and from much of northern Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008). It ranges from sea Level to 300 m asl.
4421		habitat	eng	This species is present in lowland habitats where it has been recorded from wet sclerophyll forest, open woodlands, scrub, and over sand dunes. It roosts in tree holes, rock crevices, and in buildings. It is an aerial insectivore that forages over wetlands, including waterholes, marshes, creeks, and sewage ponds, and within forested areas. Females give birth to one or two young (Flannery 1995a; Bonaccorso 1998).
4421		population	eng	This species is common and widespread within its Australian range (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008). Bonaccorso (1998) suggests that it is not commonly encountered in Papua New Guinea, even though it occurs in association with humans.
4421		threats	eng	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened in parts of its range by disturbance of roosting sites or loss of tree hollows.
4422		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting and foraging sites. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
4422		distribution	eng	This species is found in a broad arc from coastal central Queensland, through the semi-arid central- and south-west of the state and in drier habitats of inland south-eastern Queensland (G. Ford pers. comm.). The range of the species continues into western New South Wales and north-eastern South Australia (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ford <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a possibility of a gap developing in the central part of New South Wales due to cropping activities in the wheatbelt. The species is found only in a few large remnants of habitat that remain in this area. If these remnants become more fragmented, this species will no longer be found in the wheatbelt (M. Ellis and M. Pennay pers. comm.). Found from <em>c.</em>40-400 m (M. Ellis pers. comm.).
4422		habitat	eng	This species occurs in eucalypt and acacia-dominanted open woodlands, semi-arid tall shrublands, dry sclerophyll forests, and Araucarian notophyll vine forests (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is found in subterranean roosts, tree hollows, and abandoned buildings. Colonies range from a few individuals to up to <em>c.</em>50 animals (T. Reardon pers. comm.). Generation length is likely to be around three to five years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Broad-scale habitat loss has occurred and is on-going across the eastern parts of the species' range in Queensland. It appears to be most scarce in highly fragmented landscapes (e.g., southern inland Queensland cotton/grain cropping region), but even there it sometimes persists in corridors and well-connected small remnants of native vegetation (G. Ford pers. comm.).
4422		population	eng	It was previously considered to be an uncommon species (Strahan 1995). It is now known, however, to be captured more frequently close to permanent or semi-permanent waterbodies (M. Pennay pers. comm.) and can be locally common (T. Reardon and M. Pennay pers. comm.).
4422		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss. Land clearance for cotton over the last fifty years has reduced the range in New South Wales, by about 10% of its overall range, and this clearance is ongoing (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Similar habitat loss is occurring in Queensland, but the extent and effects are unclear (L. Hall pers. comm.). Other potential threats include: roost disturbance, harvesting of timber in State forest lands, and changing fire regimes (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
4425		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the New Zealand Wildlife Act of 1953. Conservation is occurring using guidance from a national Bat Recovery Plan (Molloy 1995), with on-going assessments and annual work plans being co-ordinated by the national Bat Recovery Group. Conservation programmes are in place aimed at protecting roosting sites, enhancing habitat, controlling predators, and educating the public about New Zealand long-tailed bat. More information is needed regarding the population numbers and current status of the species. <br/><br/>There are two proposed subspecies/evolutionary significant units (ESUs) recognised by the New Zealand Bat Recovery Group and the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Winnington 1999). The national (non-IUCN) listings for these populations are as follows (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2007):<br/><br/>Long-tailed bat (North Island) <em>Chalinolobus tuberculatus</em>, nationally vulnerable<br/>Long-tailed bat (South Island) <em>Chalinolobus tuberculatus</em>, nationally endangered
4425		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand where it has been recorded from areas of suitable habitat on North Island, South Island, and Stewart Island. It has recently become absent from the Banks Peninsula of South Island, and now also appears to be rare or absent from many sites where they were formerly common (O'Donnell 2005).
4425		habitat	eng	New Zealand long-tailed bats are associated with areas of native temperate forest. The species has been recorded some distance from forest, occasionally in farmland and non-native plantations, but are generally found close to remnant native forest fragments (O'Donnell 2005). They primarily roost as solitary animals or in small groups within cavities in trees in native forest (O'Donnell 2005). Females are thought to give birth to a single young annually (O'Donnell 2001, 2005).
4425		population	eng	There were substantial population declines in this species during the 1990s (O'Donnell 2001). The species is now rare or absent from many sites at which it was once common, and these declines are continuing (O'Donnell 2005).
4425		threats	eng	Declines in long-tailed bats result from a combination of threats, namely predation and competition by introduced predators and browsers, habitat loss through land clearance, habitat degradation through logging and fragmentation of forests, and disturbance at roost sites. Introduced mustelids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela </span>spp.), rats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus </span>spp.), possums, and feral and domestic cats all prey on, or attempt to prey on, New Zealand bats (Worthy 1997; O'Donnell 2000; Pryde <em>et al.</em> 2005; Pryde <em>et al.</em> 2006). In a recent management trial survival was increased significantly in two subpopulations where intensive control of ship rats occurred (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).
4586		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
4586		distribution	eng	Occurs only in Pyramid Lake and Truckee River, Nevada.
4589		distribution	eng	North America: known only from one specimen collected in Snake River below Jackson Dam in Wyoming, USA.
4592		conservation	eng	Australia <br/>Western Australia – complete protection since May 1998 because stocks determined to be insufficient and susceptible to overfishing. From December 1st, 2003, Coral Reef Fin Fish Management Plan (for Queensland waters, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) prohibited all take and possession of Humphead Wrasse, other than for limited educational purposes and public display. <br/> <br/>China <br/>Permits are required for the sale of this species in Guangzhou province, southern mainland China – for conservation purposes. <br/> <br/>Indonesia <br/>Fishing permitted if: <br/>- Done by researcher (with research permit) for the purpose of scientific and mariculture development, as well as by artisanal fishers (with specific fishing permit). <br/>- Allowable weights are 1 to 3 kg. Fish with weight less than 1 kg and more than 3 kg should be used for mariculture and/or freed to nature. <br/>- Allowable fishing methods for catching humphead wrasse are hook and line, fish trap and gill net. <br/>- With regards to artisanal fishers involve in fisheries business partnership, the fishers should sell the fish to its collector partners. <br/>- Collector and exporters should develop a rearing and culturing facility in the collection site which is equipped with staff knowledgeable in reef fish culture. <br/>- Provincial Fisheries Services much monitor, control and report on permits and volumes 3-monthly but no data were available despite multiple queries and are apparently not collected. <br/> <br/>Maldives <br/>All exports ofumphead Wrasse were banned in 1995, largely due to concern for recreational diving, a sector that values this species. <br/> <br/>Niue <br/>The interference, take, kill, or bringing to shore of the Humphead Wrasse is prohibited without written approval. <br/> <br/>Palau <br/>Illegal to fish, buy or sell humphead wrasse < 64 cm TL. Illegal to export Humphead Wrasse irrespective of size. <br/> <br/>Papua New Guinea <br/>There is a 65 cm minimum size limit for exporting Humphead Wrasse but this does not prevent fishers from catching and holding smaller Humphead Wrasse in cages (culturing) until they attain 65 cm TL. All live fish operators are required to obtain licenses. <br/> <br/>Philippines <br/>Exports of all live fish are technically prohibited from throughout the Philippines but this part of the code is evidently not implemented. Until recently Humphead Wrasse could not be exported from Palawan with an exemption for the taking of small fish for mariculture. The Palawan regulation is pending reconsideration. There was much illegal movement of this species outside of Palawan for subsequent export.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.
4592		distribution	eng	The Humphead Wrasse is widely distributed on coral reefs and inshore habitats throughout much of the tropical Indo-Pacific, from western Indian Ocean and Red Sea to southern Japan, New Caledonia and into the central Pacific Ocean (follow link below for a distribution map). In Australia, it occurs on offshore reefs of north-western Australia and the Great Barrier Reef (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is rare in the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef in the Capricorn-Bunker Group (Russell 1983) and at Middleton and Elizabeth Reef (Gill and Reader 1992). This species appears to occur predominantly at depths of less than 100 m. It is not known from the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Island, Easter Island, Pitcairn Is., Rapa or Lord Howe Islands, Kermadec or Australes Is., and evidently does not occur in the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, Reunion Is., Mauritius or Rodrigues Is. <br/> <br/>Adults are known to occur largely on outer reef areas, often in association with channels and passes. Spawning aggregation sites have been reported from outer reef areas.
4592		habitat	eng	In one study, small post-settlement humphead wrasses were found in a species of seagrass (<em>Enhalys acoroides</em>), four species of hard coral (three <em>Acropora</em> spp. and <em>Porites cylindricus</em>), and in the soft coral <em>Sarcophyton</em> sp. (branching form; M.A. Tupper, pers. comm.). After settlement, juveniles and adults live associated with reef or near-reef habitats of seagrass beds and mangrove areas, with juveniles typically inshore and the largest individuals found in deeper waters of outer reefs or lagoons (Myers 1999). Juveniles of 3–20 cm TL, and larger, occur in coral-rich areas of lagoon reefs, particularly among live thickets of staghorn, <em>Acropora</em> spp. corals, in seagrass beds, murky outer river areas with patch reefs, shallow sandy areas adjacent to coral reef lagoons, and mangrove and seagrass areas inshore (Randall 1955, Randall<em>et al</em>. 1978, Myers 1999, J.H. Choat, pers. comm.).  Recruitment patterns may vary considerably between years (M.A. Tupper, unpublished data). Adults are more common offshore than inshore, their presumed preferred habitat being steep outer reef slopes, reef drop-offs, reef tops, channel slopes, reef passes, and lagoon reefs to at least 100 m. They are usually found in association with well-developed coral reefs (Vivien 1973, Randall <em>et al</em>l. 1978, Winterbottom <em>et al</em>. 1989, Allen and Swainston 1992, Sluka 2000). Typically they are solitary or paired, but have also been noted in groups of 3–7 individuals (Donaldson 1995). They appear to be somewhat sedentary in that the same individuals, indentifiable by distinct natural markings, may be seen along the same stretch of reef for extended periods.  Indeed, many commercial dive sites have their ‘resident’ Humphead Wrasse, a favoured species for divers.  Natural densities are evidently never high, even in presumed preferred habitats. For example, in unfished or lightly fished areas, densities may range from two to rarely more than 10–20 individuals per 10,000 m² of suitable reef. In fished areas, however, densities are typically lower by tenfold or more, and in some places fish no longer appear to be present. <br/> <br/>Accounts of reproductive activity in the field reveal that, depending on location, this species spawns between several and all months of the year, in small or large groupings, that spawning coincides with certain phases of the tidal cycle, and that groups of spawning fish can form daily, at a range of different reef types. Spawning areas and aggregated adults have been noted regularly along specific sections of reef, sometimes associated with no obvious topographical features, sometimes close to the shelf edge on outer reefs, or adjacent to exposed reef passes near fairly steep drop-offs, or on mid-shelf (unspecified) reefs (P.L. Colin, J.H. Choat, R. Hamilton, S. Oakley, pers. comms.). The species is evidently a daily spawner that probably does not migrate far to its spawning site(s), spawning for extended periods each year, i.e., a ‘resident’ spawner (Domeier and Colin 1997, P.L. Colin, pers. comm.): groups of up to 150 fish were observed in Palau along the shelf edge in a loose aggregation. <br/> <br/>Probable spawning aggregations have also been noted on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Fiji, New Caledonia, and in the Solomon Islands. Although spawning was not always observed, aggregated fish were ripe, or exhibiting behaviour likely associated with spawning. On the GBR, aggregations of up to 10 large males and 20–50 smaller fish (35–95 cm TL) were noted (J.H. Choat, pers. comm.). GBR aggregations from the Ribbon Reefs and north of Jewell Reef, once noted to include hundreds of fish, are no longer known at the same sites (Johannes and Squire 1988, L. Squire, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>The longevity of this species is up to at least 32 years, with females outliving the males (the oldest female recorded was 32 years), and sexual maturity is reached at about eight years of age (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). Histological studies show that sexual maturation is reached at a size of between 40 cm and 60 cm total length (Sadovy, unpublished data). This species is thought to be a protogynous hermaphrodite, with sex reversal occurring at about 15 years of age (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). At a total length of approximately 111 cm (Lau and Li 2000). Males grow very rapidly (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>It feeds on a variety of molluscs, fishes, sea urchins, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997).
4592		population	eng	Abundance estimates on northern Queensland (Australia) reefs are 2.5–3.5 adults per 8000 m² (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>There are no data on total numbers of this fish globally. However, adults are largely limited to outer reef areas which are a small proportion of the total reef area within its distribution and, even in preferred habitats, densities are very low for a commercially exploited species (rarely > 10 fish per 10,000 square meter when not fished). It is considered uncommon to rare naturally. Nothing is known about the extent of subpopulations or degree of fragmentation but available suitable habitat is a major determinant of its distribution. Some edge of range extirpations are suspected. <br/> <br/>The species is hermaphroditic, changing sex from female to male. The sex ratio of samples and fish observed in the field is female biased. Under IUCN criteria for mature individuals, there should be a correction made to factor in the sex bias which effectively reduces substantially the estimates of fish numbers included in this assessment.
4592		threats	eng	Threats include: <br/> <br/>1) Intensive and species-specific removal for the live reef food fish export trade of a naturally uncommon and vulnerable species; <br/>2) Readily accessible to spearfishing at night with SCUBA or hookah (i.e., compressed air) gear, and easy to catch with cyanide, or other poisons such as <em>Derris trifoliata</em>, due to predictable adult habitat and shallow depth range; <br/>3) Lack of coordinated, consistent national and regional management largely due to limited management capacity and the sometime secretive nature of traders – in particular there is no relevant regional fishery management authority to address problems with this species; <br/>4) Selective fishing, in particular the intensive take of juveniles for direct export sale and for grow-out (also referred to as ‘culture’ – the species cannot be hatchery reared; and <br/>5) Illegal, unregulated, or unreported (IUU) fisheries (Donaldson and Sadovy 2001). <br/> <br/>In addition, the species’ essential coral reef habitat is seriously threatened by human activity throughout the Indo-Pacific region.  Destructive fishing practices, such as sodium cyanide use which stuns animals for capture and incidentally kills living coral, have been well documented and are spreading in the Indo-Pacific region (Barber and Pratt 1998, Burke <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998, Johannes and Riepen 1995).  Despite its prohibition in many countries (including major exporters such as the Philippines and Indonesia), cyanide is still the preferred method for capturing certain live reef fish for international trade in some areas (Burke <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998, Johannes and Riepen 1995, Barber and Pratt 1998).  Indeed, larger Humphead Wrasse are difficult to catch any other way, other than by night-time capture.  When cyanide is applied, the fish often retreats into a crevice and becomes increasingly lethargic as the toxin reduces its ability to take up oxygen.  Divers may break away the living coral to get access to the hiding area, and remove the fish to clean water where it will often recover for shipment or holding in net pens. <br/> <br/>The most serious threat to this species is overfishing for the live fish export trade. They are mainly taken live for food – only rarely for the aquarium trade as far as can be determined.  This species is long-lived and naturally uncommon, and if it is similar to other reef fishes of similar size and biology (e.g., sequential hermaphroditism; aggregation-spawner) it is expected to have low rates of replacement and therefore be particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure (Donaldson and Sadovy 2001).  Moreover, being one of the largest of all reef fishes, they have few natural predators which means that fishing mortality may rapidly exceed natural mortality, possibly accounting for the rapid declines noted once fishing intensifies. <br/> <br/>Although data are not available from throughout its range, wherever there are significant exports and no effective controls, fish numbers have declined substantially within a decade or less and exploitation rates are expected to continue, or more likely, intensify. There are few refuges for this species since live reef fish carriers have access to all reefs where it occurs and it does not extend into very deep water, probably little more than 60 m. Adults only occur in reasonable numbers where the fishery is effectively managed or where they occur in marine protected areas. <br/> <br/>There has been speculation that Humphead Wrasse, and other reef fishes, can be cultured or "farmed" to meet international demand.  However, it appears that the use of cultured fish may actually pose a threat to wild populations in certain circumstances since it does not involve hatchery production (not yet possible for this species and unlikely to be possible at commercial levels for many years according to experienced aquarist M.A. Rimmer, pers. comm.) but the grow-out of wild sourced juveniles.
4598		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in eight national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, Masoala, Montagne d’Ambre, Midongy du Sud, and Ranomafana), two nature reserves (Betampona and Tsaratanana), and two special reserves (Anjanaharibe-Sud and Pic d’Ivohibe), although this may require confirmation given the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding the exact distributional limits of the various species of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests. The dwarf lemur species occurring in Zahamena National Park and the Analamazaotra Special Reserve at Andasibe (= Périnet), previously believed to be <em>C. major</em>, is now believed to be <em>C. crossleyi</em> (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
4598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. As a result of Groves’ (2000, 2001) revision of <em>Cheirogaleus</em>, this species has now been split into several and it is not clear how the new taxonomy affects its overall distribution, although it is still considered to be widespread ranging from Andohahela in the south to the Sambava region in the north. The southern extent of its distribution is verified by Hapke <em>et al.</em> (2005), who apparently found it along with <em>C. medius</em> and <em>C. crossleyi</em> near Tolagnaro. In addition, there are two records from Bemeraha and one from Bongolava (Thalmann 2000). Ranges from sea level to 1,800 m.
4598		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of Madagascar’s eastern lowland and montane forests where conditions of water and food availability are not as seasonally severe as in the drier western deciduous forests. The species prepares for hibernation by storing excess fat in its tail, perhaps representing as much as 30% of its total body mass; it hibernates in tree holes and hollows (Wright and Martin 1995). Home ranges of adult females extend up to 4 ha and appear to include those of adult males and juveniles as well. Sleeping groups of up to three adult animals have been observed both in tree holes and clumps of vegetation. Mating behavior ensues shortly after emergence from torpor in October and November, females giving birth to two to three infants in January after a gestation of about 70 days (Petter-Rousseaux 1964). However, a number of observations of this species, cited here and elsewhere in this account, were made in Andasibe (= Périnet), and probably refer to <em>C. crossleyi</em>.
4598		population	eng	Apparently a widespread and abundant species.
4598		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats to the species, although it may be undergoing localized declines due to habitat loss from slash-and-burn agriculture.
4599		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Its presence is reported from five national parks (Andohahela, Ankarafantsika, Kirindy Mitea, Tsingy de Namaroka and Baie de Baly) and five special reserves (Andranomena, Ankarana, Bemarivo, Maningoza and Beza-Mahafaly) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
4599		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. Groves (2000, 2001), in revising the genus, limited its range to the dry forests of western Madagascar. However, subsequent field studies and genetic analyses have extended the species' range all the way to the southern tip of Madagascar and into the evergreen humid forest of Saint Luce, 40 km north-east of Tolagnaro in southeastern Madagascar (Hapke <em>et al.</em> 2005). The range of the species relative to <em>C. adipicaudatus</em> is not clear. Ranges from sea-level to 800 m.
4599		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry deciduous forests. Individual home ranges approach 1-2 hectares. Small family groups consist of the reproductively-active pair and their offspring from one or two breeding seasons. Daylight hours are spent in tree holes during the day, with up to five individuals occupying a single shelter. Litter sizes range from one to four, but twins are most common and the young are born with eyes open and covered with fur. Both males and females take part in raising the young. Sexual maturity is reached during the second year of life (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein).
4599		population	eng	<em>Cheirogaleus medius</em> is an apparently widespread and abundant species. It occurs at densities estimated to range between 40-400 individuals/km² (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein).
4599		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats, but habitat loss, primarily due to slash-and-burn agriculture, charcoal extraction, and bushfires may be resulting in localized declines.
4600		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
4600		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Buton (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006), Sanana, Sulawesi and Sulu Islands (Indonesia) (Lawrence 1939; Simmons 2005; Flannery 1995) and throughout the Philippines, except Palawan (Ingle and Heaney 1992), where it is reported from Mindoro (Lawrence 1939), Mindanao (Davao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, and South Cotabato provinces), and Negros (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is a record from Tawi-tawi (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006).
4600		habitat	eng	The species is not well known, but it probably occurs in agricultural areas from sea level up to 200 m asl. It has often been found roosting in hollow trees (Rabor 1986; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The record from Sanana Island is from secondary forest near a village (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006).<br/>In the Philippines these bats are known to roost in coconut palms, hollow trees, and occasionally in caves (Ingle and Heaney 1992). They have been found flying low over the mouth of a stream on Sunana Island (Flannery 1995). These bats are insectivores and are thought to have two young at a time that are left in the roost when the adult bats go to forage (Nowak 1999).
4600		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown as there have not been many appropriate surveys.
4600		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring throughout its range. In the Philippines, much of the lowland forest has been lost. As this species is a large microbat, it is hunted in Sulawesi in large numbers (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006).
4601		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
4601		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and Terutau Island (Thailand) (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006) and in Indonesia, from Sumatra to Java, and across Borneo. In the Philippines it is found only on Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The record from Mindanao (Corbet and Hill 1992) represents a misidentified individual of Cheiromeles parvidens (L. Heaney  pers. comm. 2006).
4601		habitat	eng	On Borneo, it roosts in large caves and hollow trees and forages over streams, clearings, and above the forest canopy (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Thailand it is found mainly in lowlands (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006) and is a highly gregarious species, roosting in large colonies where suitable habitat is available (L. B. Liat unpubl. data).
4601		population	eng	It is generally rare though in some parts of its range it is considered to be a pest.
4601		threats	eng	Hunting and exploitation of caves for swiftlets are threats recorded from Borneo (Clements <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/>In Peninsular Malaysia the species is eaten by indigenous people and it is believed to be a pest of rice crops – roosts are destroyed in an effort to control the species. It is under threat from destruction of cave habitats though mining in other parts of its range.
4602		conservation	eng	Further information needed on species distributions and ecology is needed in order to protect habitats.
4602		distribution	eng	Recorded from Thailand in the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins, and from the Mekong in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand.
4602		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers; found on the surface of rivers in mainstream rivers in schools.
4602		population	eng	Rare in Thailand, the species is uncommon elsewhere, and found in low numbers. It is possibly found in naturally small populations. The species is estimated to have declined by 60% across its range, mostly within Thailand, as a result of habitat loss.
4602		threats	eng	Habitat degradation in Thai rivers and marshland. Future Mekong mainstream dams are thought likely to impact the species; populations from impounded parts of the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand have been lost.
4603		conservation	eng	The range is included in several protected areas.
4603		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Andes along Chile-Argentina boundary, from approximately 34°S latitude south to Straits of Magellan (Musser and Carleton 2005). Distribution in central Chile augmented by Pine <em>et al.</em> (1979) and in Argentina by Pearson (1995) and Teta <em>et al.</em> (2002).
4603		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Nothofagus forests and western ecotonal steppes of Patagonia (Pardinas <em>et al.</em> 2003).
4603		population	eng	It is an uncommun species.
4603		threats	eng	No major threats for  this species.
4604		conservation	eng	There is included in several protected areas.
4604		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Chile, along the coastal region from Coquimbo Province south to Cautín Province (Musser and Carleton 2005). Note: The Andes distribution should be reviewed as the species may ony occur in the coastal range.
4604		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shublands of the Chilean matorrall.
4604		population	eng	This species is considered rare.
4604		threats	eng	Agricultural activities, viniculture and cattle activities affect their habitat and therefore the survival of this species.
4606		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
4606		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
4606		threats	eng	This species occurs only in three separate populations on a single small island (Roti) with 70 km² available habitat. It is collected exclusively for the pet trade, where it commands high prices due to its status as a distinct, restricted-range endemic. It is now considered commercially extinct by Indonesian traders.
4607		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - swamps and streams.
4608		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
4608		threats	eng	International live animal trade in this attractive species has led to probable illegal trade from Papua New Guinea to Indonesia and western pet markets.
4609		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
4609		threats	eng	The species is the only endemic turtle in Papua New Guinea and restricted to a small range close to an urban center. It is illegally exported to the international pet market where it commands high prices due to its status as a distinct, restricted-range endemic.
4615		conservation	eng	Green turtles have been afforded legislative protection under a number of treaties and laws (e.g., Navid 1982, Humphrey and Salm 1996, Fleming 2001, Fretey 2001). Among the more globally relevant designations are those of Endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN; Baillie and Groombridge 1996, Hilton-Taylor 2000); Annex II of the SPAW Protocol to the Cartagena Convention (a protocol concerning specially protected areas and wildlife); Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora); and Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). A partial list of the International Instruments that benefit green turtles includes the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia (IOSEA), the Memorandum of Understanding on ASEAN Sea Turtle Conservation and Protection, the Memorandum of Agreement on the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA), and the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa. <br/>As a result of these designations and agreements, many of the intentional impacts directed at sea turtles have been lessened: harvest of eggs and adults has been slowed at several nesting areas through nesting beach conservation efforts and an increasing number of community-based initiatives are in place to slow the take of turtles in foraging areas. In regard to incidental take, the implementation of Turtle Excluder Devices has proved to be beneficial in some areas, primarily in the United States and South and Central America (National Research Council 1990). However, despite these advances, human impacts continue throughout the world. The lack of effective monitoring in pelagic and near-shore fisheries operations still allows substantial direct and indirect mortality, and the uncontrolled development of coastal and marine habitats threatens to destroy the supporting ecosystems of long-lived green turtles.
4615		distribution	eng	The Green Turtle has a circumglobal distribution, occurring throughout tropical and, to a lesser extent, subtropical waters (Atlantic Ocean – eastern central, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest, western central; Indian Ocean – eastern, western; Mediterranean Sea; Pacific Ocean – eastern central, northwest, southwest, western central). Green turtles are highly migratory and they undertake complex movements and migrations through geographically disparate habitats. Nesting occurs in more than 80 countries worldwide (Hirth 1997). Their movements within the marine environment are less understood but it is believed that green turtles inhabit coastal waters of over 140 countries (Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989).
4615		habitat	eng	Like most sea turtles, green turtles are highly migratory and use a wide range of broadly separated localities and habitats during their lifetimes (for review see Hirth 1997). Upon leaving the nesting beach, it has been hypothesized that hatchlings begin an oceanic phase (Carr 1987), perhaps floating passively in major current systems (gyres) that serve as open-ocean developmental grounds (Carr and Meylan 1980, Witham 1991). After a number of years in the oceanic zone, these turtles recruit to neritic developmental areas rich in seagrass and/or marine algae where they forage and grow until maturity (Musick and Limpus 1997). Upon attaining sexual maturity green turtles commence breeding migrations between foraging grounds and nesting areas that are undertaken every few years (Hirth 1997). Migrations are carried out by both males and females and may traverse oceanic zones, often spanning thousands of kilometers (Carr 1986, Mortimer and Portier 1989). During non-breeding periods adults reside at coastal neritic feeding areas that sometimes coincide with juvenile developmental habitats (e.g., Limpus <em>et al</em>. 1994, Seminoff <em>et al</em>. 2003).
4615		threats	eng	Green turtles, like other sea turtle species, are particularly susceptible to population declines because of their vulnerability to anthropogenic impacts during all life-stages: from eggs to adults. Perhaps the most detrimental human threats to green turtles are the intentional harvests of eggs and adults from nesting beaches and juveniles and adults from foraging grounds. Unfortunately, harvest remains legal in several countries despite substantial subpopulation declines (e.g., Humphrey and Salm 1996, Fleming 2001, Fretey 2001). In addition, a number of incidental threats impact green turtles around the world. These threats affect both terrestrial and marine environments, and include bycatch in marine fisheries, habitat degradation at nesting beaches and feeding areas, and disease. Mortality associated with entanglement in marine fisheries is the primary incidental threat; the responsible fishing techniques include drift netting, shrimp trawling, dynamite fishing, and long-lining. Degradation of both nesting beach habitat and marine habitats also play a role in the decline of many Green Turtle stocks. Nesting habitat degradation results from the construction of buildings, beach armoring and re-nourishment, and/or sand extraction (Lutcavage <em>et al</em>. 1997). These factors may directly, through loss of beach habitat, or indirectly, through changing thermal profiles and increasing erosion, serve to decrease the quantity and quality of nesting area available to females, and may evoke a change in the natural behaviors of adults and hatchlings (Ackerman 1997). The presence of lights on or adjacent to nesting beaches alters the behavior of nesting adults (Witherington 1992) and is often fatal to emerging hatchlings as they are attracted to light sources and drawn away from the water (Witherington and Bjorndal 1990). Habitat degradation in the marine environment results from increased effluent and contamination from coastal development, construction of marinas, increased boat traffic, and harvest of nearshore marine algae resources. Combined, these impacts diminish the health of coastal marine ecosystems and may, in turn, adversely affect green turtles. For example, degradation of marine habitats has been implicated in the increasing prevalence of the tumor-causing Fibropapilloma disease (George 1997).
4618		conservation	eng	The Threatened Species Scientific Committee have proposed that this species be listed as Critically Endangered and be noted as Threatened Fauna of Australia under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Recreational fishing of this species has been prohibited above the 10 Mile Brook Junction (Molony <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, illegal fishing activity still occurs and many fishers find it difficult to distinguish between Smooth and Hairy Marron (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008). A broodstock of Hairy Marron are being maintained at Pemberton Freshwater Research Centre for possible re-introduction programs. While re-introduction programs could result in increases in the population, this is only going to be maintained if other stressors are removed.<br/><br/>Conservation measures, as suggested by the Threatened Species Scientific Committee, include: removal of Smooth Marron from key habitat of the Hairy Marron, prevention of any further introductions of the Smooth Marron to the Margaret River, habitat maintenance, and re-introductions from the Pemberton broodstock.
4618		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upper reaches of the Margaret River in the south-west of Western Australia (Morgan and Beatty 2005, Bunn 2004). This species is currently only known from 11 sites in an area less than 50 km in length (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008). The area of occupancy (AOO) for this species is estimated to be less than 10 km² (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008).
4618		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in the deep waters of rivers on sandy stretches with plenty of organic matter. Individuals require access to shelter and refugia (e.g. rocks and tree roots), and good water quality (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
4618		population	eng	<em></em>This species has undergone a significant decline in population numbers within a very short period of time. Estimates indicate that there are possibly only 10,000 wild individuals left (Bunn 2004). In 2002, Austin and Ryan determined there had been an estimated 70% reduction in the numbers of this species in seven years at just one location, with a near 100% reduction in 13 years.
4618		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is direct competition with the Smooth Marron, <em>Cherax cainii</em>. The Smooth Marron has now replaced much of this species' former range in the lower and middle reaches of the Margaret River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax tenuimanus</span> is reported to hybridize with the Smooth Marron; 10% of the population at a location in the upper reaches of the river was comprised of hybrids (Bunn 2004). If Smooth Marron are considered the primary threat to this species, then the entire Margaret River system could be termed one location.<br/><br/>This species faces a number of threats in the middle and lower reaches of the river including habitat degradation, changes to the hydrological regime, predation by fish species (e.g. Redfin Perch) and competition (e.g. Smooth Marron and Yabbies), and illegal fishing activity targeting mature individuals (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008).
4621		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>
4621		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is native to freshwater creeks and water bodies in tropical Queensland, the Northern Territory and south-eastern Papua New Guinea. <em></em>It has been widely translocated around the world, and is considered an invasive species. This species has established feral populations in South Africa, Mexico, Jamaica and Puerto Rico (Ahyong and Yeo 2007). This species has a distribution exceeding&#160; 3.5 million km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>
4621		habitat	eng	This is a non-burrowing species that is tolerant of a wide variety of habitats. This species can be found in coastal streams and freshwater environments, with a preference for the slower moving upper reaches of rivers as well as lakes and lagoons (Wingfield 2002). The distribution of this species is restricted to tropical and subtropical climates as the species cannot survive prolonged exposure to water temperatures below 10<sup>o</sup>C (Semple <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995). The hardiness and conspicuous colouration of&#160;<em></em>this species has also made it popular in the aquarium trade worldwide (Ahyong and Yeo 2007).<br/><br/><em></em>This is a species with considerable potential for commercial culture. High growth rates and tolerance to wide variations in water quality make the species suitable for cultivation (Anson and Rouse 1994). In areas where this species has been introduced, <em></em>it may impact native fauna through direct competition, predation or habitat modification, or spreading previously unknown parasites into native populations (Ahyong and Yeo 2007). <br/><br/>This species has been reported to be a carrier of a number of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoan and metazoan parasites (Edgerton 1999, Edgerton <em>et al</em>. 2000, Hauck <em>et al</em>. 2001, Bowater <em>et al</em>. 2002, Romero and Jimenez 2002). This species has life history traits which are typical of an invasive species; that is ,this species is<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;r</span>-selected.
4621		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
4621		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no known major threats impacting this species.
4626		conservation	eng	Benign introductions made into one dam in Kruger National Park already successfully made. Introductions into irrigation dams in the Lomati catchment are suggested.
4626		distribution	eng	Lomati River (low-veld) system in Swaziland and Mpumalanga, South Africa.
4626		habitat	eng	Slow flowing vegetated sections of rivers and backwaters. Artificial dams.
4626		population	eng	A rare species - typically encountered in ones and twos in riverine habitats. Does very well in Dams (e.g., Driekoppies and Lomati Draai Dam).
4626		threats	eng	River regulation (continuous high flows) of the Lomati River. <em>Serranochromis robustus</em> is spreading through the lower Lomati and Komati River systems. Subsistence fishermen do target this species as they are easily caught on baited hooks.
4627		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two protected areas, Tama National Park in Venezuela and Chingaza National Park in Colombia.
4627		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andean highlands in far west Venezuela, Colombia, and central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of approximately 2,492 to 2,584 m (Voss, 1988).
4627		habitat	eng	This mouse is found in montane areas near to streams in association with cloud forest. It is aquatic, found in small creeks in humid tropical forest. It feeds on snails and possibly small fishes (Voss, 1988).
4627		population	eng	It is a rare species.
4627		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
4629		distribution	eng	<em>C. bleheri</em> is endemic to Indonesia, occurring in Danau Biru (Lake Holmes) in the Mamberamo River system of Irian Jaya.
4629		habitat	eng	The habitat consists of three interconnected freshwater lakes lying within a radius of six to seven kilometers.  The largest lake in this system is about 4.5 km long and 2 km wide.
4629		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the presence of introduced species such as carp and tilapia, and the increasingly common gill netting fisheries on the lakes.
4631		distribution	eng	<em>C. sentaniensis</em> is endemic to Indonesia, occurring in Lake Sentani and in its tributaries.
4631		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat is approximately 30 km long and 2-5 km wide.
4631		population	eng	The species was reported as being common in the 1950s. However. repeated attempts to collect the fish over the last 20 years have yielded only around ten specimens taken from a single creek.
4631		threats	eng	The human population living along the shore of Lake Sentani is rapidly increasing and was estimated at 25,000 in 1996.  The resultant pollution from domestic waste entering the lake is a threat to the species living there.  A further threat to this fish comes from the introduction of exotic species into its habitat, including carp, tilapia, walking catfish, barbs, and gouramies.
4632		conservation	eng	The few populations remaining for this species need to be given priority for conservation efforts. Land and water use practices need to be carefully managed and stocking of alien organisms need to be stopped. Probably the best way to effect this would be through conservancy agreements with riparian land owners and Mpumalanga Parks Board.
4632		distribution	eng	Restricted distribution. Known only from a few headwater tributaries (900 to 1,200 m altitude) in the Incomati system in Mpumalanga, South Africa and Swaziland.
4632		habitat	eng	Rocky habitats in fast flowing streams and rivers. Frequently occurs together with <em>C. anoterus</em> but it typically inhabits deeper runs rather than rapids.
4632		population	eng	Not very commonly collected but this is perhaps due to not targeting the correct microhabitats: deeper water flows. However, not as abundant as the co-occurring <em>C. anoterus</em>.
4632		threats	eng	Appears to have gone extinct from its type locality on the Crocodile River near Lydenburg. Probably due to continuous flows released from the Kwena Dam. Additional impacts within the region are sedimentation from forestry and agricultural activities, water extraction resulting in reduced or no flows, introduced alien fishes (<em>O. mykiss</em> and <em>M. salmoides</em>) and pollution from the Ngodwana paper mill. Interestingly, previous spills from the Ngodwana paper mill which caused substantial fish kills do not seem to have affected the present species numbers in the Elands River. Rapid recovery of Elands River populations has occurred. The impacts on genetic diversity on this population is, however, not known.
4633		conservation	eng	River health programmes aimed at improving the conservation of aquatic habitats should be supported. Widespread establishment of conservancies may also help in conserving aquatic habitats.
4633		distribution	eng	Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north to the Limpopo in southern Zimbabwe.
4633		habitat	eng	Found in sandy habitats in larger streams and rivers. The species buries itself in the sand substrate and forages on drift invertebrates and those in the substrate.
4633		threats	eng	Habitat degradation. Sedimentation of habitats from varied forestry and agricultural activities affect this and all other <em>Chiloglanis</em> species. Chemical pollution from industries, large towns and agriculture also locally affect <em>Chiloglanis</em>. Require permanent flows and have disappeared from the Letaba River.
4634		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further research is needed to determinate its taxonomic status.
4634		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north Andes, from central Ecuador (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998), through central and north Colombia, to west Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Linares, 1998; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,100 to 3,700 m.
4634		habitat	eng	This rodent is poorly known. It is restricted to moist humid cloud forest and co-occurs with the larger Thomasomys hylophilus, which it resembles (Aagaard, 1982). It is terrestrial, omnivorous, and nocturnal.
4634		population	eng	In Ecuador this rodent is uncommon (Tirira, in prep.). In Venezuela it is rare (Linares, 1998).
4634		threats	eng	No major threats although deforestation is affecting the species in some parts of its range.
4643		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Poland but not listed by the Annexes II or IV of the EUHSD. It can be supposed that at least a part of its subpopulations live within protected areas.<br/><br/>There are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
4643		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Northern Carpathians in Poland and Slovakia. There are at least 50 known locations (Soós 1943, Lisicky 1991, Wiktor 2004).
4643		habitat	eng	<p>This is a rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone (and sometimes dolomite) areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
4643		population	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be rare within its range, and there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
4643		threats	eng	<p>This species is not thought to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
4645		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on the population trends and the distribution of this species.
4645		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Austria, north-eastern Italy and north-western Slovenia. In Slovenia, it is present in 14 sites in three UTM Squares (10 x 10 km).
4645		habitat	eng	This is a rock-dwelling species associated with rocky habitats in  limestone areas at high altitude (above 1,000 m asl). It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or  at the base of rocks.
4645		population	eng	This species is rare. The population of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trend. However, there are unpublished observations that indicate a slight decline of some subpopulations.
4645		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the destruction of the habitat by quarrying. Another threat is the devastation of the habitat by touristic activities like skiing, hiking etc. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
4647		conservation	eng	It occurs in Temengor Forest Reserve and Ulu Langat Forest Reserve (Hutterer 2005), and probably within other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
4647		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Peninsular Malaysia (Hutterer 2005). It occurs mainly in hilly areas, where it occurs quite widely, and has been found at altitudes as low as 305 m asl in Selangor (approximately 20 km east of Kuala Lumpur). Its range could extend as far as extreme southern Thailand, but there have been no records.
4647		habitat	eng	In the Ulu Langat Forest Reserve, this species seems to prefer moist habitats within forest. It is adapted to an aquatic lifestyle, living in wetlands, permanent rivers, and the banks of streams in intact forest, feeding on aquatic invertebrates. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
4647		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
4647		threats	eng	This species has a relatively small range, and it is confined to a restricted habitat that is under pressure from human encroachment for agriculture, plantations and logging. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, but the extensive habitat loss within its range is likely to be having an impact.
4648		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and conservation needs of this species.
4648		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Malaysia, where it is found in the state Sabah in northern Borneo. In Sabah, it is present in three mountain ranges: Mount Trus Madi; Mount Kinabalu; and the Crocker Range. It probably occurs further south in Kalimantan (Indonesia) in appropriate habitats.
4648		habitat	eng	The species is considered to be semi-aquatic, and its diet is primarily composed of invertebrates. The species prefers moist habitats in montane forest, and can be found by streams in tropical forests in addition to marshland habitats. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. The species can be mistaken for <em>C. himalayica</em> due to its similarities in appearance and size.
4648		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
4648		threats	eng	This species has a small range, and it is confined to a restricted habitat that is under pressure from human encroachment, especially for logging. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, but the extensive habitat loss within its range is likely to be having an impact, and the species is probably ecologically sensitive.
4649		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
4649		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Pager Alam, in the Padang Highlands of southern Sumatra, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005). It is known from a single old record, but the lack of recent information could be related to the limited survey effort in this region.
4649		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, and is thought to be found in streams in montane forests, in common with other members of the genus. The species in this genus are good underwater swimmers, and, therefore, their diet consists primarily of benthic organisms including insects, aquatic larvae, crustaceans and small fishes. They create burrows, with the entrance usually located within the stream. This shrew has physical adaptations for aquatic life.
4649		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is kknown only from the holotype.
4649		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, it is likely to have been negatively impacted by human encroachment of its habitat, especially for small-holder agriculture, settlements, and timber extraction.
4651		conservation	eng	There are reports of the species existence in Bolivia from the Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve for Andean Fauna (N. Bernal pers. comm.). This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975 as <em>Chinchilla brevicaudata</em> and since 1977 as <em>Chinchilla chinchilla</em>.
4651		distribution	eng	The historic distribution of this species extended throughout the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, northwest Argentina, and Chile. The species has since been eradicated from many areas of its former range; it is now extinct in Peru and Bolivia, where specimens have not been recorded for over 50 years (Tarifa 1996, Anderson 1997). However, recent reports (from interviews with local people and observations of park guides) from the border region of Bolivia (Potosi Department) and Chile (Antofagasta) seem to indicate extant populations (J. Jimenez and N. Bernal pers. comm.). The species is not likely to persist elsewhere in its historic range in Bolivia. There may be records of released pets in parts of its range. The distribution of this species in Bolivia needs review.
4651		habitat	eng	This species lives in burrows or rocky crevices usually in arid areas, and are strictly nocturnal. It is a colonial species and feeds on vegetation.
4651		population	eng	The range of this species has been severely reduced to a portion of its former didtribution. In Bolivia, the species was thought to be extinct. However, there may be populations persisting on the border with Chile, in an isolated region with low human population. The populations experience natural fluctuations in relation to harsh winters.
4651		threats	eng	The species was hunted extensively in the past, but it is now bred easily in captivity for the fur and pet trade so hunting in the wild is no longer a major threat.
4652		conservation	eng	Legislation to protect the species has been in place since 1929, but was not efficiently enforced until the establishment of the Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas in Auco, Chile in 1983 (Jimenez 1996). This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1977.
4652		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Chile along the foothills of the Andes and coastal mountains south to Talca (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has been suggested that its range extends into Argentina and Salta province (Chebez 1994), but this is to be confirmed.
4652		habitat	eng	It occurs in barren, arid, and rugged areas of the mountain chains connecting the coastal mountain ranges and the Andes (Spotorno <em>et al.</em> 2004). Typical habitat is rocky or sandy with a sparse cover of thorn shrubs, few herbs and forbs, scattered cacti, and patches of succulent bromeliads toward the coast (Spotorno <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Sexual maturity in both sexes occurs on average at 8 months, but may occur as early as 5.5 months (George and Weir 1974). Females have a first litter at a mean age of 459 days, gestation lasts 111 days and there is an interbirth interval of 214 days (Neira <em>et al.</em> 1989). Litters have 1-6 pups (mean of 1.75) (Spotorno <em>et al,</em> 2004).
4652		population	eng	This species was once widespread, but in 1996 only 42 discrete colonies could be found in the wild; the number of these colonies and the general population size have been declining over time (Jimenez, 1996).
4652		threats	eng	This species has been threatened for years by human activities, including poaching, hunting, grazing by cattle and goats, mining, and firewood extraction. Despite current protection measures, populations are continuing to decline (Jimenez 1996). Current hypotheses to explain this decline, as summarized by Jimenez (1996), include:<br/>(1) current numbers are lower than the minimum viable population size for long-term survival;<br/>(2) predation by foxes upon chinchillas has increased during the past decades; <br/>(3) the later decline is caused by long-term abiotic and/or biotic changes; and <br/>(4) the trend might represent the decreasing phase of a long-term natural cycle of chinchilla populations.
4655		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Peru and Bolivia. No further conservation measures are needed.
4655		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano region of southern Peru, western Bolivia, and northern Chile (Musser and Carleton, 2005). This has an altitudinal range of 3,500 to 4,800 m.
4655		habitat	eng	It is usually caught among boulders and along stone walls; it can be in association with the viscacha (Lagidium). The species is found in also in dry shrubland. The Chinchillula is nocturnal and herbivorous; stomachs usually contain leaves, seeds, and a few insects.
4655		population	eng	It is a common species.
4655		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It was historically trapped, around fifty years ago, for its skin; this is not a current threat to the species.
4656		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
4657		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and is also listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in both Portugal and Spain. It occurs in several protected areas including Picos de Europa National Park, Spain, and Peneda-Gerêz National Park, Portugal.
4657		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to mountainous and hilly areas in north-western Spain (Galicia and Asturias) and northern and central Portugal with an annual precipitation of over 1,000mm. Its distribution is patchy because its required habitat is fragmented. It has been introduced to the Serra de Sintra, Portugal. It has an altitudinal distribution 100-1,000m asl (records above 1,000m asl require confirmation).
4657		habitat	eng	The species is associated with clear, well-oxygenated, small- to medium-sized slightly acidic streams (although in Portugal it has been found in water with pH 7-8), with dense surrounding vegetation in mountainous and hilly areas. The species has also been recorded from caves and abandoned flooded mines. It is associated with broad-leaved oak forest, and occurs in secondary vegetation, but not usually in commercial plantations. Animals have been recorded from eucalypt plantations, pine forests and even shrubland (<em>Taxus</em> or <em>Erica</em>) (Iñigo Martínez-Solano pers. comm. December, 2008). The females lay approximately 12-20 eggs in shallow stream water, often attaching the eggs to the bottom substrate. It is often associated with areas of traditional farming practices, and is particularly found in dry stonewalls. Some populations in north-western Spain have disappeared following replacement of broad-leaved forest with other habitats.
4657		population	eng	This is a localized species that can be abundant in suitable habitats (4-5 adults per metre of brook habitat). Eastern Spanish populations are found at lower population densities, and there have been reports of declines and extinctions of some populations in Galicia. In Portugal, populations are widespread and abundant (P. Arntzen pers. comm.) and not in any immediate danger, but they are considered to be vulnerable because of their specialized habitat requirements (Paulo 1997).
4657		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are pollution of streams with agrochemicals, canalization, and water extraction from streams for agricultural purposes, and the loss of terrestrial habitats associated with the streams through conversion to forestry plantations (<em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> plantations). In Portugal, habitat is at risk from fire.
4658		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
4658		distribution	eng	Caucasus in Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, and the eastern Black Sea mountains of northeast Turkey.
4658		distribution	eng	Caucasus in Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, and the E Black Sea Mtns of NE Turkey.
4658		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open rocky habitats including at the edge of forest. Uses natural roosts, sometimes makes simple dens. Active in dusk, in summer and autumn also diurnal. In the winter doesn't come to the surface. Feeds on green parts of grass and small shrubs, berries and mosses. In June starts storing food, usually in shape of small stocks, up to 6 kg. Has up to 4 litters per year. Smaller number of embryos and slower development of young than other vole species.
4658		population	eng	This species is common in suitable rocky habitat between 500 and 3,000 m.
4658		threats	eng	Some of the areas are used as pasture land but no major threats.
4659		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs within many protected areas within its range. In the Ukraine, the species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine.
4659		distribution	eng	<em>Chionomys nivalis </em>has a global distribution extending from south-western Europe through south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Iran (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). <br/><br/>In Europe, it is restricted to mountainous and rocky areas, typically above 1,000 m and up to 4,700 m (Amori 1999), but also found down to sea level; it is a species of rocky habitats (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).  Its strongholds in Europe are in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. Of the islands, it is found only on Euboea (Amori 1999).
4659		distribution	eng	<em>Chionomys nivalis </em>has a global distribution extending from south-western Europe through south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Iran (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, it is restricted to mountainous and rocky areas, typically above 1,000 m and up to 4,700 m (Amori 1999). Its strongholds in Europe are in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. Of the islands, it is found only on Euboea (Amori 1999).
4659		habitat	eng	It inhabits open, rocky areas, typically above the tree-line (Amori 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on grasses, shrubs, and berries (Krapp 1982).
4659		population	eng	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and no declines have been recorded. Fluctuations in population density are not known to occur. Its distribution is naturally fragmented as subpopulations became isolated from each other when temperatures warmed at the end of the last ice age (Amori 1999).
4659		threats	eng	In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by enchroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.
4659		threats	eng	In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by encroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.
4659		threats	eng	In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by encroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.
4660		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in protected areas.
4660		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), and in the eastern Black Sea Mountains in northeastern Turkey. Elevation range is from sea level to 3,200 m.
4660		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), and in the eastern Black Sea Mountains in northeastern Turkey. Elevation range is from sea level to 3200 m.
4660		habitat	eng	Unique species. Lives in  mesic habitats along streams and mountain rivers, usually rocky mossy areas with shrubs. The species apprears to be semi-arboreal, and although it dwells in the proximity of streams, does not appear to have aquatic adaptations (climbs and jumps across water). Although the species has been found outside forest, it typically is found in forested areas. Feeds on fern, elderflower and rhododendron leaves. Has 2-3 litters per year with about 3 young in each.
4660		population	eng	Moderately common, typically 5-10% of small mammals, though can be more common in suitable habitats.
4660		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In Turkey, there is pressure on riverine habitats in its range. There is mining for rocks in some of the habitats.
4664		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss.
4664		distribution	eng	Minas Gerais and São Paulo (SE Brazil), Paraguay (Simmons 2005).
4664		habitat	eng	The natural history of the genus Chiroderma is poorly known (Peracchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). C. doriae was thought to be found only in rainforest habitats (Bordignon 2005), but it occurs in a variety of habitats such as primary and secondary forests, small forested fragments, cultivated areas (Faria 1995), and even urban parks (Esbérard <em>et al</em>. 1996). Use of human-dominated areas indicates some flexibility of <em>C. doriae</em> to colonize or at least forage in urban areas if its food resource is available (Nogueira and Peracchi 2002). These records of <em>C. doriae</em> in disturbed areas are only from Rio de Janeiro (Esbérard 2003). Information about roosts is scarce (Peracchi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Species of Chiroderma are considered predominantly frugivorous. Some data suggest that pregnancy and lactation of C. doriae are seasonal events (Peracchi <em>et al</em>. 2006).
4664		population	eng	There is no information on population.
4664		threats	eng	Restricted geographic range and occurrence in habitats under severe anthropogenic pressure (e.g., Atlantic Rain Forest) (Nogueira and Peracchi 2002).
4665		conservation	eng	Not known.
4665		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guadeloupe and Montserrat (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).
4665		habitat	eng	Little is known about its natural history; presumably it is frugivorous like other members of the genus; it has been collect in open field adjacent to gallery forest, over streams, and under gallery forest (Jones and Baker, 1980).
4665		population	eng	This species apparently is rare (Jones and Baker, 1980).
4665		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat conversion. Hurricanes and Mt Serrat (volcanic eruption) are also potential threats (Davalos pers. comm.)
4666		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. Needs further research. Not very common in protected areas in Guatemala.
4666		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Peru, Bolivia, and Venezuela north to Michoacan, Hidalgo, and Chihuahua (Mexico) (Simmons 2005). Occurs in Nicaragua (Medina <em>et al</em>. in press).
4666		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known, ecologically and taxonomically. It is found in semi-deciduous and evergreen forest and forest openings; also near streams in dry areas and in savannas. It probably travels in the canopy or sub-canopy, as it is seldom caught in a nest at the understory level. It feeds on fruits, especially figs. It prefers moist habitats and evergreen tropical forests, as well as open areas (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997). In Costa Rica and Panama it has been captured over the forest canopy (Mantilla pers. comm.).
4666		population	eng	It is apparently uncommon to locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997).
4666		threats	eng	None known.
4667		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forest habitat. Found in protected areas.
4667		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This species is distributed from Costa Rica (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002) south to Amazonian Brazil, Guianas, Suriname, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). In Venezuela, it occurs at low elevations, below 1,000 m (Handley, 1976).
4667		habitat	eng	Poorly known. In Venezuela it prefers moist habitats and multistratal evergreen tropical forest (Handley, 1976) and occurs in open areas (Reid, 1997). The type specimen from Trinidad was caught in a well-lit cave (Goodwin and Greenhal, 1961). It probably travels in the canopy or subcanopy, as it is seldom caught in nets set at understory level (Reid, 1997).
4667		population	eng	Widely distributed. The species seems to be relatively uncommon but populations poorly understood and may be under represented in studies due to sampling bias. Just two records in Costa Rica (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002).
4667		threats	eng	Habitat loss in some parts of the range, although this is not a major threat.
4668		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
4668		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This species occurs from Hidalgo and Veracruz, Mexico south through the Isthmus, over much of northern South America to western and southern Brazil, Bolivia and Peru; also in Trinidad and Tobago (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). In Venezuela occurs in lowlands below 600 m (Handley, 1976).
4668		habitat	eng	Poorly known. In Venezuela, it is strongly associated with moist habitats and multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976); also second growth forest, clearings, and fruit groves (Reid, 1997). Feed on fruits, especially figs and roosts in trees hollows (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
4668		population	eng	Widespread, uncommon to locally common. It forages at the canopy level and may be under sampled because of methodological issues (Faria pers. comm.). Not common in Guatemala (Perez pers. comm.)
4668		threats	eng	Habitat loss, though not a major threat as the species is relatively tolerant to a range of habitats.
4669		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
4669		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from south west China (south Yunnan), eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Viet Nam, and Lao PDR (Musser 1981; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
4669		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, it inhabits moist deciduous and evergreen forest (Corbet and Hill 1992), using mosaic scrub areas as extensions of forest. It may also occur in regrowth and other degraded habitats. It is probably present at higher elevations above 700-800 m.
4669		population	eng	This species is common and can be locally abundant.
4669		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
4670		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
4670		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Nias, western Java, and also Sulawesi in Indonesia, and from scattered records in Borneo (including Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan). There is apparently a record from Bali.
4670		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland, hill and montane forest. The Sabah specimen was taken in the understorey of dipterocarp forest. It has been found roosting in small groups in tree ferns and in a shallow cave (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is probably not dependent on water.
4670		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
4670		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat for this species, it is usually not found in disturbed forest. Deforestation is occurring throughout its range for logging, agriculture and plantations, and as a result of fires.
4671		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas.
4671		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southern Mexico (Oaxaca and Tabasco), through Central America to Colombia, northwestern Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, the mouth of the Amazon river in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, southern Brazil, and northeastern Argentina (Misiones) (Gardner, 2005). It has been found up to 1,860 m in Argentina (Eisenberg, 1989) and 1,830 in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.). The scattered records in the central Amazon are likely a sampling artefact. Occurs up to 1800 m in Central America (Reid 1997).
4671		habitat	eng	Nocturnal; terrestrial and semi aquatic; solitary; it is carnivorous, eating small fish, crabs, crustaceans, insects that it catches in the water, and occasionally frogs. Prey is captured with either the front feet or the mouth. This is confined to areas of permanent water such as streams or rivers, usually within a forest. It is an excellent swimmer and diver, paddling with its hind feet and using its tail as a rudder, and the eyes and top of the head just above water. The den is usually a subterranean cavity, reached through a hole in the stream bank just above water level. Found in tropical forests and cleared areas in tropical forest regions. Most records are from clear rivers, lakes, and streams in hilly areas; may be rare or absent from silt-laden lowland watercourse. Litter size is one to five, with two to three most common. The female keeps the young in her pouch when she swims. In captivity one female had her first oestrous cycle at ten months of age. Within this cavity it builds a nest; in captivity animals have been observed to transport nesting material with their tails (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Marshall, 1978).
4671		population	eng	This species seems to be common where it occurs, but absent from many regions (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species is rare in Venezuela, although some authors think that the species is only rarely encountered due to nocturnal habits and inaccessible habitats (Marshall, 1978). Others believe that C. minimus is rare in all areas except Central American river systems (Emmons and Feer 1998).
4671		threats	eng	There are no major threats. This species was formerly captured for its skin, although the demand for marsupial furs has subsided in recent years (Eisenberg, 1993). Requires forest and water courses, cannot occur where this habitat is degraded or destroyed. Artisanal gold-mining in French Guiana and other parts of the species' range might degrade water courses posing a serious threat (Catzeflis in litt., 2006).
4679		conservation	eng	More survey work is required to determine the geographic range and status of the species.
4679		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to lowland habitats in the Palawan Faunal Region, Philippines (Musser 1979) with records from Balabac, Busuanga, and Palawan islands. There is a new record for Dumaran island by Widmann in 2005-2006 (pers. comm., voucher in National Museum, Manila). J. C. Gonzalez reported a specimen collected on Calauit, but the specimen was lost.
4679		habitat	eng	This rarely captured arboreal mouse is known from lowland forest near sea level (Taylor 1934), coconut groves, and bamboo thickets (Sanborn 1952) and uses vines which grow well in second growth forest. It has also been recorded from residential areas (P. Widmann pers. comm.).
4679		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It is apparently difficult to capture (Musser 1979).
4679		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat degradation may be a major threat to the species. However, it has been recorded in secondary and disturbed areas and is presumed to persist in those habitats.
4680		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). In India it is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
4680		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present in northeastern India, south China (including Hainan island), Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, eastern Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia (Java, southern Sumatra, the Mentawai Islands and other islands) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs between sea level to 1,600 m (Molur e<em>t al.</em> 2005).
4680		habitat	eng	Arboreal, found in primary and secondary forest; it does not appear to be restricted to a particular forest type and specimens have been obtained from tropical moist deciduous forest and evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests on lowlands, coastal plains, and hills, and from the montane evergreen rain forests on mountains and plateaus (Musser 1979). It can be found in very degraded habitat with some forest. In South Asia, it is found in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forest where it is seen among primary and secondary forests with abundance of bamboo and also in coastal habitats and hills. Bamboo species with moderate girths are favoured nesting sites between 1 to 3 m high from the ground  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
4680		population	eng	It can be locally abundant, although it is patchily distributed.
4680		threats	eng	Overall, there appear to be no major threats to this species other than heavy deforestation. The major threats of the species in South Asia include, habitat loss due to jhum (shifting) cultivation, small-scale logging, forest fires, clearing of bamboo patches, expansion of human settlements and dam constructions. It is also in local trade where it is harvested for consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
4681		conservation	eng	Part of Siberut is protected as the Siberut National Park, but it is not clear if this species is present in this reserve. There is an urgent need for improved habitat protection on the Mentawai islands. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species.
4681		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pagai and Siberut islands, in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
4681		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species living in tropical primary lowland forest (Musser 1979).
4681		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen from Pagai. There is no recent information on its population status.
4681		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss due to logging.
4682		conservation	eng	It is present in Kinabalu National Park. Further survey work is needed to confirm whether it occurs more widely on Borneo as is expected.
4682		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo, where it is recorded only from Sarawak and Sabah (Musser 1979), but probably also occurs in Kalimantan and more widely throughout Borneo. On Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah it is found between 900 and 1,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
4682		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, specimens have been collected in lowland evergreen and montane forest formations and adjacent coastal areas (Musser 1979).
4682		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
4682		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although other members of the genus are known to be able to withstand some habitat degradation and occur in forest edge.
4683		conservation	eng	It is present in Kinabalu National Park. Further survey work is needed to confirm whether it occurs more widely throughout montane Borneo as is expected.
4683		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens from Gunung Kinabalu (1,100-1,220 m) and north Kalimantan (Long Petak), but it probably occurs more widely on Borneo than current records suggest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
4683		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal in montane tropical forest (Musser 1979).
4683		population	eng	There is no information on current population status, it is known only from a handful of specimens.
4683		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although other members of the genus are known to be able to withstand some habitat degradation and occur in forest edge.
4684		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.
4684		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), and southern Kalimantan (Indonesia), but probably occurs throughout Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005).
4684		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that is presumably found in various types of forest, including degraded or modified forest areas, although this needs to be confirmed.
4684		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens.
4684		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened at lower elevations by loss of forest habitat.
4685		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Parque Nacional da Amazônia [Tapajós] (10,000 km²), and Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (Flona Tapajós).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
4685		distribution	eng	In the south and west of its range it appears to have an unusual distribution. It is absent from the Jiparaná-Marmoré interfluvium (between the Rios Mamoré, Madeira and Jiparaná and Serra dos Pacaás Novos in the south), and from areas of terra firme forest south of Serra dos Pacaás Novos; as such, it is excluded from almost two-thirds of the state of Rondônia (Ferrari and Lopes 1992; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999). Unexpectedly, it occurs further south in transitional, savanna-like forest (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999), extending south as far as the east bank of the Rio Guaporé in extreme southern Rondônia, on the border with Bolivia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1996). Ferrari and colleagues (1999) suggest that ecological factors, rather than physical barriers, limit the distribution of <em>Chiropotes albinasus</em> in this area, possibly linked to competition with the region's other pitheciine species, <em>Pithecia irrorata</em>.
4685		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat is high terra firme forest; however, the species has been observed occasionally in fragmented areas and inundated forests (Ayres 1981; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1996; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 2003), and vegetation at the transition between forest and savanna (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>This is a specialized seed predator and a highly frugivorous species, with as much as 90% of the diet composed of fruits (Ayres 1981; Pinto in press). In the Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (Flona Tapajós), immature seeds were the most important food item (48%), followed by mature fruit pulp (39%) and flowers (5%); matures seeds, immature pulp and invertebrates and other dietary items were eaten in smaller quantities. The most important plant families in the diet were Sapotaceae, Lecythidaceae and Moraceae (Pinto in press.). In Aripuanã, Ayres (1981) observed groups with 19 to 26 individuals. A group studied in Flona Tapajós had 56 members and used an estimated area of 1,000 ha in an 11-month study (Pinto, 2008).
4685		population	eng	This species occurs at low densities and appears to require large areas of continuous forest with high fruit productivity (Pinto and Setz 2005). From studies based on standardized line transects, population densities have been calculated for a number of areas (Table 1).
4685		threats	eng	The Trans-Amazon highway bisects the range of this species from east to west and, perhaps more importantly, the Santarém-Cuiabá highway (BR-163) makes most of the Xingu-Tapajós interfluvium easily accessible from the south. In recent years, this highway has become the main channel of colonization for soybean planters migrating northwards from Mato Grosso, although for the time being, this threat is limited to a relatively small proportion of the species’ range. Soybean farms contribute directly to forest clearing, but also provide the economic and political impetus for the development of new roads and infrastructure projects which accelerate rates of deforestation by other actors (Fearnside 2007). Cattle ranching is also an important threat. The species is hunted for food and occasionally for its tail (for use as dusters).
4691		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas. It is legally hunted in some of the protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
4691		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and also on the D'Entrecasteaux Group of islands where it has been recorded from Fergusson, Goodenough, and Normanby islands (Papua New Guinea). It ranges from sea level to 1,300 m asl.
4691		habitat	eng	This species is found from lowland tropical moist forest to montane mossy forest at higher altitude, and occurs in secondary habitats wherever there are large trees with holes. It lives in small groups of four or five animals in tree hollows. Females give birth to a litter of two or three young and are highly fecund.
4691		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known, but it is more abundant than many other species in its range.
4691		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. It is locally hunted for food.
4692		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. The degree to which this species is threatened by introduced rats should be studied.
4692		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to the Owen Stanley Mountain Range of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded between 1,200 and 2,300 m asl.
4692		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in areas of primary and severely degraded tropical moist forest. Animals generally live in tree hollows.
4692		population	eng	It is a common species.
4692		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It may be threatened by competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>. It is also hunted for food by local people, but this is not a major threat.
4693		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
4693		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,500 m asl.
4693		habitat	eng	This species is found from tropical moist forest and possibly in secondary habitats. It presumably lives in small groups in tree hollows. Females produce multiple litters annually.
4693		population	eng	It is a common species.
4693		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species. It is potentially threatened by competition for tree hollows from the introduced species <em>Rattus rattus</em>. <em>C. vates</em> is not specifically hunted for food, but would be killed if found.
4694		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Habitat and fisheries management based on local participation is needed. Quota regulation of trade and export is recommended.<br/></span>
4694		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mekong basin, where it is found in Lao PDR, Thailand, Central Highlands of Viet Nam (Srepok basin) and Cambodia. It is found as far north in Thailand as Loei in the Mekong (and perhaps, based on local knowledge (see Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) as far north as Chiang Saen) and larger tributaries. Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) record local fisher reports of the species in the Mekong delta in Viet Nam, and it is also reported from the Tonle Sap Lake (UNDP 2004).
4694		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species occurs in the Mekong mainstream and larger tributaries, especially in rocky rapid and submerged wood areas. Local people have reported spawning behaviour over rocky substrates, with parental care given to young.<br/></span>
4694		population	eng	Locally common in northeastern Cambodia and southern Lao PDR. Much less common in Thai waters.
4694		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Habitat alteration, caused by dams and other infrastructure development, in the Mekong and larger tributaries. Dams in the Mekong mainstream pose future threats to critical habitats of this species. Overfishing for the aquarium trade and for consumption may lead to population declines in the near future.<br/></span>
4695		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
4695		distribution	eng	Found in Thailand (restricted to Mtheae Klong basin; was formerly more widely distributed).
4695		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers with clear water and sandy bottoms.
4695		threats	eng	This species is intensively exploited for food and international pet trade.
4696		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
4696		distribution	eng	Found in the rivers of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and western Malaysia.
4696		habitat	eng	Spend most of the day submerged in the sandy bottoms of deep rivers. Females lay their eggs on sandy beaches.
4703		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in a number of protected areas in Bolivia (Cuéllar and Noss 2003), and Reserva Natural General Pizarro in Salta, Argentina (Regidor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Paraguay, it is known from Defensores del Chaco National Park (Meritt 2008).
4703		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. retusus</span> occurs in the Gran Chaco region of central and south-eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, and extreme northern Argentina (Gardner 2005). The two records further south from Redford and Eisenberg (1992) are not confirmed.
4703		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. retusus</span> is restricted to loose, sandy soils. It is patchily distributed and absent from areas with clay soils. It can be found in disturbed habitat, and may be encountered close to villages and other populated areas.
4703		population	eng	The population status of this small armadillo is not known.
4703		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. retusus</span> is threatened by habitat loss in the Chaco region. It is persecuted because of traditional beliefs concerning the animal as an omen of disaster (Cuéllar<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2001, Noss <em>et al.</em> 2008).
4704		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas including Lihué Calel National Park in La Pampa (9,905 ha), and some provincial protected areas in Mendoza. There is national and provincial legislation specifically in place for its protection, such as Provincial Law 6599 Mendoza. Further studies into the population status, demography and ecology of this species are needed.
4704		distribution	eng	This smallest of all armadillo species is endemic to central Argentina, where it is found in the provinces of Buenos Aires (southern part only), Catamarca, Cordoba, La Pampa, La Rioja, Mendoza, Rio Negro, San Juan and San Luis.
4704		habitat	eng	This poorly known, nocturnal species is found in dry grassland and sandy plains with shrubby vegetation.
4704		population	eng	It may be relatively rare, but nothing is known about its population size or trend.
4704		threats	eng	Habitat conversion due to agriculture (ploughing of fields) and cattle ranching (compaction of soil) are the predominant threats this species is facing, but predation by domestic cats and dogs is also contributing to its decline.
4726		conservation	eng	Research into the life history of this species is required, as is its current status regarding population size and trend.
4726		distribution	eng	Endemic for Japan and restricted to the Iriomotejima islands of the Ryukyu archipelago. This island is 284 km² large.
4726		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the upper mountain streams in virgin subtropical forest.  Adults fly in swarms through gaps in the forest.
4726		population	eng	The species has a restricted range and the population is stable.
4726		threats	eng	Most habitats have not changed, but potentially recent drought (perhaps global warming) has impacted the stream species.  It is also affected by pollution from farming and domestic developments.
4730		conservation	eng	Much of the population occurs within protected areas. Invasive trees are being removed. No additional measures are currently required for this species.
4730		distribution	eng	This species is now known to be widespread throughout high elevation (higher than 1,700 m asl) in Lesotho, South African Drakensberg Mountains.
4730		habitat	eng	Clear, high montane streams (higher than 1,700 m asl) with an abundance of fringing grasses, herbs and bushes.
4730		population	eng	The population is probably at least 10,000 individuals and stable.
4730		threats	eng	With proclamation of the transfrontier Drakensberg Park, a huge area is now protected which adequately conserves this species. Invasive pine trees were formerly a threat, but these are now being removed.
4731		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Surveys on further localities are urgently required. Removal of <em>Acacia mearnsii</em> should continue. Liaison with local farmers is essential so that cattle may enter streams at certain points only, fencing off other areas of the stream.
4731		distribution	eng	In 1975, this species was known from ten sites (Wilmot 1975), whereas in 2000 it was known from only two, showing a decline in extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, as well as decline in extent and quality of suitable habitat. It is currently known only from the Kubusi (near Stutterheim) and the Thorn River, eastern Cape, South Africa.
4731		habitat	eng	The species inhabits clear, shallow, rocky streams with riffles and glides and with an abundance of long grass, herbs and indigenous overhanging bushes (used as oviposition sites).
4731		population	eng	It is estimated that no more than 1,000 adults (per generation) exist, and even this may be a generous estimate. Population trends are unknown.
4731		threats	eng	Populations are severely threatened by cattle trampling stream banks and the synergistic effects of shading of the habitat by the alien invasive tree <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>. Further adverse synergistic effects include detergent entering the streams at Stutterheim, and possibly also the effects of direct predation from rainbow trout <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>.
4766		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Garden Castle Nature Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal), Karoo National Park (Western Cape) and Golden Gate National Park (Free State). Probably occurs also in other natures reserves along the Drakensberg in KwaZulu-Natal.
4766		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South African and Lesotho. Restricted to montane habitats from Beaufort West and Sutherland in Western Cape northeastwards to the Drakenberg mountains of Eastern Cape, western KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mpumalanga, and the Maluti Mountains of Lesotho and western Free State. Distributional limits of the four subspecies are unclear owing to poor geographic sampling, but their known ranges are separated by seemingly inhospitable habitat suggesting that they may be geographically isolated (Bronner 1995).
4766		habitat	eng	Restricted to high-altitude grasslands, scrub and forested kloofs in the Nama-Karoo and Grassland biomes of South Africa. <em>C. s. shortridgei</em> occurs in Escarpment Mountain Renosterveld. <em>C. s. sclateri</em> and <em>C. s. guillarmodi</em> in South-eastern Mountain Grassland with marginal intrusion into Wet Cold Highveld Grassland. <em>C. s. montana</em> is known from only North-eastern Mountain Grassland where it favours forested kloofs rather than valley grasslands where <em>A. septentrionalis</em> is the commoner species.
4766		population	eng	Locally common.
4766		threats	eng	No known major threats.
4767		conservation	eng	Research is needed to ascertain the generic affinities and systematic status of this species, and to document its distributional limits.
4767		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen (partial owl pellet remains) collected from the type locality at Giohar, Somalia.
4767		habitat	eng	Dense bush and savanna of the Somali Peninsula (Agnelli <em>et al</em>. 1988).
4767		population	eng	Known only from the incomplete remains collected from an owl pellet.
4767		threats	eng	There is no information on the major threats to this species.
4768		conservation	eng	Protected in the Tsitsikamma National Park, Wilderness National Park, Keurboomsriver Nature Reserve, as well as numerous forest reserves managed by either the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, or local authorities. It also thrives in cultivated areas and gardens (particularly in the Walmer district of Port Elizabeth), suggesting that it is not at risk from human activities. Research needed to accurately determine distribution limits, and to quantify possible major threats.
4768		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. It occurs in a narrow coastal band between Kynsna (Western Cape) northwards to Port Elizabeth (Eastern Cape) in South Africa.
4768		habitat	eng	Alluvial sands and sandy loams in Afromontane and Coastal Forest of the Fynbos and Moist Savanna biomes. Coexists with <em>Amblysomus corriae</em> in parts of their range, but trapping data suggest that  <em>A. c. corriae</em> prefers fynbos and forest fringes, and <em>C. duthieae</em> deeper forest. Thrives in cultivated areas and gardens.
4768		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats, but no quantitative data.
4768		threats	eng	Major threats include extensive (and intensive) development of coastal tourism resorts that could degrade habitats and lead to population fragmentation. Localized threats include predation by domestic pets in vicinity of human habitations, and persecution by gardeners.
4772		conservation	eng	Occurs in Coservation Areas. Research activities.
4772		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Sinaloa (Mexico) to Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam (Simmons, 2005). Occurs from 0-1,600 m.
4772		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. It is associated with moist areas in tropical evergreen forest. It is found in rainforest and openings in the forest such as marshes and plantations, and in montane forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997).
4772		population	eng	This bat is uncommon to rare but widespread in in Central America (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Does not seem to be common in South America (Tavares pers. comm.).
4772		threats	eng	No known threats.
4774		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Forest retention is required.
4774		distribution	eng	This species inhabits southern parts of Venezuela, the Guianas, Suriname, southeastern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and northern Brazil and Bolivia (Eisenberg, 1989).
4774		habitat	eng	In Venezuela, it is associated with moist areas in multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). Found in rainforest and openings in the forest such as marshes and plantations, and in montane forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species roosts in tree hollows in groups of up to eight (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Occurs up to 1,300 m.
4774		population	eng	Relatively uncommon to rare but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
4774		threats	eng	Deforestation although not a major threat.
4775		conservation	eng	Occurs in very few protected areas  between which habitat is rapidly being destroyed. Existing protected areas are not enforced and may offer little protection.
4775		distribution	eng	This species if found in southwestern Colombia, and northwestern Ecuador. Seems to be a Chocoan endemic (thus records from elsewhere are likely eronnius). Occurs 0-500 m in humid habitats.
4775		habitat	eng	Limited to primary forest. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It is found in rainforests, and it feeds on nectar, and small insects.
4775		population	eng	It is rare (Tirira, in prep.).
4775		threats	eng	The habitat  where this species occurs is rapidly being destroyed for agriculture, logging, road construction and illicit crop.
4776		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. In Mexico it is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Special concern in Arizona and California.
4776		distribution	eng	This species is known from Honduras and El Salvador to south California, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico (USA); a single record from south Texas (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,900 m (Reid, 1997).
4776		habitat	eng	This species can be found in desert scrub, deciduous, and pine-oak forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves and mines, less commonly in buildings. Individuals are spaced 2 to 5 cm apart and hang near the roost entrance where they remain alert and fly out if disturbed. This species leaves the roost shortly after sunset and feeds on pollen and nectar of agaves, cacti, Ipomoea, Ceiba, and other plants. Cactus fruits are also eaten. In southeast Arizona, this bat often visits hummingbird feeders, where it hovers in flight while lapping the nectar. Northern populations migrate south for the winter. Young are born in June to July in Arizona (Arroyo-Cabrales <em>et al.</em>, 1987; Reid, 1997).
4776		population	eng	This bat is fairly common (Reid, 1997; Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Not so common in Guatemala and Mexico (not rare) (Perez and Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
4776		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Mining and Tourism in the caves.
4777		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> is present in many protected areas.
4777		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> ranges through Venezuela (the delta and south of the Río Orinoco) and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname) south into Brazil (Maranhão state west along the Rio Amazonas/Solimões) and west into the upper Amazon Basin of Ecuador and Peru. Its southern limit in the western Amazon of Brazil is unclear. It occurs in the southern departments of Colombia, with its northern limit being the departments of Meta and Guainía. It ranges from sea level up to 2,438 m asl (Britton 1941).
4777		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> is found in tropical moist lowland and montane forest. Two-toed sloths have nocturnal and solitary habits. Gestation length seems to be approximately 10 months (Eisenberg and Maliniak 1985) but estimates are quite variable.
4777		population	eng	In Suriname, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> has been found at densities of 0.9 animals per hectare (Taube <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Brazilian Amazon, estimated densities range from 0.13 individuals per hectare (Manaus region) to 0.88 animals per hectare in the flooded forests (Mamirauá Reserve; Queiroz 1995, Chiarello 2008).
4777		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span>. Because they are usually found high in the canopy, motionless and virtually invisible, they are not as commonly hunted as armadillos or tamanduas, and there are taboos against their consumption by some native groups. They are probably hunted opportunistically, but there is no serious bushmeat trade.
4778		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. hoffmanni</span> is present in many protected areas. It is included in CITES Appendix III for Costa Rica. Further research is needed to establish whether there are taxonomic differences between the two disjunct populations.
4778		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. hoffmanni</span> has two disjunct populations. The northernmost population ranges from Nicaragua south into western Venezuela. The southern population is found from north-central Peru through extreme western Brazil (south-western Amazonas and probably Acre states) to central Bolivia. There is a doubtful, outlying record for this species from the Rio Aripuanã, Mato Grosso state, Brazil (Fonseca and Aguiar 2004). Its range within Brazil is unclear, and further surveys are needed. This species ranges from sea level to 3,300 m asl in Costa Rica; up to 1,925 m asl in Panama; and up to 1,150 m asl in the southern Andes of Venezuela. In Colombia, the species is found in the biogeographical regions of the Andean zone, Caribbean and Chocó, more specifically in the departments of Cauca, Chocó, Cundinamarca, Nariño, Quindío, Sucre, Valle del Cauca, and Santanderes from sea level up to 3,000 m asl  (Alberico <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000; Moreno 2003; Acevedo and Sanchez 2007).
4778		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. hoffmanni</span> is largely found in lowland and montane tropical forest, both deciduous and mixed-deciduous. In Central America, it occurs in evergreen and semi-deciduous tropical moist forest, as well as in secondary forest, but it is rare or absent in lowland dry forest. In Costa Rica, it is able to use cocoa plantations (<span style="font-style: italic;">Theobroma cacao</span>) as habitat and frequently ventures into relatively open pastures in search of isolated feeding trees (Vaughan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It can also occur in dry grassland with thorny shrubs and trees (Nicaragua, Genoways and Timm 2003). These sloths are rather solitary. Their herbivore-omnivore diet consists mainly of leaves, fruits and sap of some trees.
4778		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hoffmanni</span> occurs at densities of 1.05 animals per hectare on Barro Colorado Island, Panamá (Montgomery and Sunquist 1975). It has been found at densities of 0.3 to 1.5 animals per hectare in the Andean region of Colombia, while densities in the lowlands of northern Colombia were 0.2 to 0.83 individuals per hectare (Acevedo and Sanchez 2007; Alvarez 2004). </p>
4778		threats	eng	It appears that there are no major threats to <em>C. hoffmanni</em> at the global level. Nevertheless, populations in the northwestern part of its range, especially in Colombia and Central America, are declining due to severe habitat degradation and fragmentation. Furthermore, they are hunted by indigenous communities. Wild-caught individuals, especially offspring, are sold as pets to tourists in Colombia (Moreno and Plese 2006). This illegal trade is increasing and represents a cause of concern due to its impact on the wild populations.
4785		conservation	eng	It is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>C. toxostoma</em>.
4785		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the southern Iberian peninsula in Portugal and Spain in the following river basins: Guadiana (Spain and Portugal), Odiel, Guadalquivir, Guadalete, Guadiaro and Guadalhorce (Spain).
4785		habitat	eng	All river sections with strong current.
4785		population	eng	Declining (Carmona, J. pers. comm).
4785		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to dams and introduced species.
4786		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
4786		distribution	eng	Restricted to northeastern Italy including the river basins: Vomano, Tronto, Esino, Cesano, Metauro, Foglia, Po, Adige, Brenta, Piave, Livenza, Tagliamento and Isonzo. It has been introduced in central Italy (Tuscany and Latium).It is apparently extinct in the river Sava, the Slovenian stretch of River Isonzo. In this river the species is still reported in few populations as result of interaction with the introduced <em>C. nasus</em> and others riverine species. It is no longer extinct in the Adriatic basin of Slovenia in the river Vipava, a tributary of the Soca (Povz, M. pers comm.).
4786		habitat	eng	Prefers running waters in the foothill zone of mountainous regions, with gravely or sandy substrates. It is also found in lakes. Warm water adapted.
4786		population	eng	A common species but it is known to be declining in some localities.Has nearly disappeared in the middle and lower course of Po basin due to interaction with introduced species as <em>Silurus glanis</em>, <em>Leuciscus idus</em>, <em>Aspius aspius</em> and <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>. In others rivers the species should be considered as stable
4786		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water pollution and extraction. The introduction of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em> is a major current threat having been responsible of the near extirpation of this species from Slovenia 20 years ago.
4787		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
4787		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Anatolia in Turkey (Bakircay, Gedtiz and Kucuk Menderes).
4787		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
4787		population	eng	No data available on population size. Believed to be declining.
4787		threats	eng	Water pollution (agriculture, commercial, domestic, sewage) and extraction. Annual observations of water quality indicate overall decline in water quality (e.g., DSI 1987).
4788		conservation	eng	Listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
4788		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
4788		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
4788		population	eng	Common throughout its range.
4788		threats	eng	Dams, water pollution and extraction. It is also threatened by the potential introduction of alien species.
4789		conservation	eng	No information available.
4789		distribution	eng	Basins of Black (Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages), southern Baltic (Nieman, Odra, Vistula) and southern North Seas (westward to Meuse). Invasive or introduced in Rhône, Loire, Hérault, Seine (France) and Soca (Italy, Slovenia) drainages.
4789		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Moderate to fast-flowing large to medium sized rivers with rock or gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on shallow gravel beds often in small tributaries. May show a strong size related longitudinal distribution in smaller rivers, with adults inhabiting more upper river stretches. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years. May migrates some tens of km to spawning sites, which are often situated in tributaries, but which it does not inhabit in summer. Spawns in March-May when temperature reaches 12°C. Males form large aggregations, each male defending a small territory. Females spawn only once a year and, in some populations, during a very short period (3-5 days). Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae live along shores. Larvae live below surface. Early juveniles are benthic and inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. When growing, they leave the shores for faster-flowing waters. Recruitment is closely related to high spring temperature, absence of spring floods and available shallow-water habitats along shores. Juveniles overwinter in backwaters or in cavities along shores. Adults form dense swarms during winter in lower parts of rivers. Larvae and early juveniles with superior mouth feed on small invertebrates. Larger juveniles and adults, which have inferior mouth, feed on benthic diatoms and detritus cleaned up from hard substrate in habitats with strong current.
4789		population	eng	Abundant.
4789		threats	eng	Damming, destruction of spawning sites and pollution
4790		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
4790		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Karst region (endorheic basins) and river basins in Croatia (river Cetina] and Bosnia-Hercegovina [Glamocko, Livansjiko, Duvanjsko poljes] and lake Busko Jezero.
4790		habitat	eng	Lives in streams and lakes, and in small satellite lakes near rivers.
4790		population	eng	The subpopulation in Croatia has declined and the subpopulation in Bosnia Bushko is likely to decline following the introduction of an alien predator.
4790		threats	eng	Water abstraction, alien species, pollution, and habitat loss.
4791		conservation	eng	It is listed in Appendix II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
4791		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the central Iberian Peninsula of Spain and Portugal including the Vouga, Mondego, Alcoa, Tagus and Sado river basins. It has been introduced in Jucar, Sepima and Segura river basins in Spain
4791		habitat	eng	it lives in all river sections with a strong current.
4791		population	eng	Abundant.
4791		threats	eng	Water extraction, drought, and introduced species.
4792		conservation	eng	None.
4792		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
4792		habitat	eng	A small size fish (<300 mm). It lives all year round in lake Mikri Prespa whereas, in Lake Megali Prespa, it undertakes a spawning migration into the permanent in flowing rivers. This migration takes place exclusively at night.
4792		population	eng	Stable.
4792		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction, introduced species, overfishing. Water extraction leads to decreased water levels due to karstic nature of these lakes.
4794		conservation	eng	Listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
4794		distribution	eng	Restricted to northern Italy, the southern part of Switzerland. It has been introduced in some Italian lakes. It is locally extinct in Slovenia and the Isonzo river basin in Italy due to the introduction of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>, a practice still implemented.Recorded introductions into the rivers of central Italy were often a misidentification for <em>C. genei</em>. Several present records for <em>C. soetta</em> are probably a misidentification for <em>C. nasus</em>, due to similarities between these two species. As an example of how the alien species are spread now in Italy, in rivers from the Rovigo Province in eastern Italy, where <em>C. soetta</em> is still reported, the biomass of all native species was found to be about 22% of whole ichthyofauna.
4794		habitat	eng	A deepwater lacustrine species that also inhabits large rivers. It migrates from the lake to its tributaries for spawning in spring.
4794		population	eng	Very different from one locality to another. It is locally extinct in Slovenia but still thriving in other parts of its range. This species is now becoming quite rare in the lakes of northern Italy and Switzerland (Lugano, Maggiore, Como, Iseo, Garda) mainly as result of interaction with alien species, especially <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, which was introduced around 1990 and has become very common and is the subject of commercial fishing in several of these lakes. (Bianco, P. pers. comm). This species is also rarely found in rivers and has nearly disappeared in the main stretch of the Po basin, in the other rivers it forms very small populations and spawning occurs only in a few areas of each river (except in the Po).
4794		threats	eng	Dams, water pollution and extraction, and introduction of alien species as <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, <em>Silurus glanis</em> and <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>. The reduction in suitable spawning places due to pollution (agriculture) and to water extraction is of major concern.Other threats to the species are predation by cormorants, where in several places of Italy have become a serious pest and destroyed a large amount of fishes, especially in torrents or small river were the fishes migrate to for reproduction. (Compiled by C.esare Puzzi from GRAIA, and P.G. Bianco pers comm.).
4795		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
4795		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Rhône river basin in France and Switzerland and to coastal rivers in France. In France it has been introduced in river basins of the Atlantic coast. It has also been recorded in the Aude and Herault (Kottelat, M. pers comm).
4795		habitat	eng	It prefers the lower reaches of rivers. It can be found also in reservoirs. In presence of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em> (an introduced species), <em>C. toxostoma</em> occupies the areas upstream, and in the absence of <em>C. nasus</em> it occupies both upstream and downstream zones. Hybridization between <em>C. nasus</em> and <em>C. toxostoma</em> has been observed in the wild. Hybrids can successfully reproduce as shown by the introgressive capacity at the nuclear and mitochondrial level, and the survival of hybrids.
4795		population	eng	Decreasing.
4795		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (dams) and introduction of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>. However the destruction of dams has also allowed <em>C. nasus</em> to extend its range further upstream. In the past it has been out competed in its range by introduced <em>C. nasus</em>. The disappearance of spawning sites is an important factor for the decline.
4803		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
4803		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south central Peru, through western Bolivia, to northwestern Argentina and central Chile as far as 34°S (Muñoz Pedreros 2000). Usually found above 3500 m asl in the Altiplano (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
4803		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the southern and central Andes at high elevations.
4803		population	eng	There is nothing know of the populations of this species.
4803		threats	eng	There is nothing known of the threats to this species.
4804		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas, at least 13 in Peru alone.
4804		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano of central Peru (see Arana-Cardó and Ascorra, 1994) to western Bolivia and northwestern Argentina. It has an elevational range of about 2,200 to 5,000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
4804		habitat	eng	It is present in open grassland, rocky areas, shrub land, cultivated areas and rural houses.
4804		population	eng	It is a very common species. It can have population fluctuations, with many animals found during the harvest season.
4804		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
4806		conservation	eng	Due to its restricted distribution and possible high level of threat, the Owston's civet is of conservation concern (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2004; Long and Roberton in prep.). This species was listed as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>., 1989). This species is listed as Endangered on the China Red List and Vulnerable in the Viet Nam Red Book (MOSTE 2000). It is protected in Yunnan province, but not in Guangxi (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006), whilst in Viet Nam the species is listed in group IIB meaning exploitation is regulated but not prohibited (Decree 32/2006/ND-CP).<br/><br/>A successful international breeding program, coordinated from Viet Nam, has been established with populations in Europe, Viet Nam and soon in North America and the species has been the flagship species for the Small carnivore Conservation Program of Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam for the last 10 years (Roberton, S. pers comm. Heard Rosenthal, 1999).<br/><br/>It is likely to be present in protected areas throughout its distribution, and has been confirmed in 10 protected areas in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.), two in Lao PDR and three in China (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006).
4806		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in northern and central provinces of Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>1999, Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004), Viet Nam and southern China in Yunnan and Guangxi provinces (CITES 1997; Wang Ying-Xiang pers. comm.). Northern and central Viet Nam appear to hold the largest area of this species distribution range (Long and Roberton in prep., Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.) occurring from the most northern provinces in the Hoang Lien Son mountains and northern limestone highlands and throughout the northern and central Annamites (Long and Roberton in prep.; Rozhnov <em>et al</em>. 1992; Long <em>et al</em>., 2004). It has not been found west of the Mekong river (Corbet and Hill 1992, Rozhnov <em>et al</em>. 1992). In the Southern Annamites, the potential range is based on the occurrence of suitable forest type and elevation, unconfirmed village reports and similarly distributed species but there is no confirmed data from this area (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.). The range may also potentially extend into Cambodia for the same reasons, and two stuffed individuals have been seen in the Phnom Tamao zoo collection of stuffed mounts, yet lack any information on their source (Long and Roberton, in prep.)
4806		habitat	eng	The habitat use and general ecology of this species are poorly known. It has been recorded in lowland and montane evergreen forests, broadleaf forests over limestone, bamboo forest, heavily degraded forest and forest edges (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999; Timmins and Cuong 2001; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004; Long and Roberton, in prep; Wang Ying-Xiang pers. comm.). The range restriction of Owston’s civet in eastern Lao PDR is thought to be associated with the extent of wet evergreen forest in the eastern Annamites (Timmins and Cuong 2001).
4806		population	eng	Population status is poorly known across its range. It has been said that this species does not seem to be as abundant as other civet species in the region such as Paguma larvata, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Viverricula indica and Viverra zibetha (Veron <em>et al.</em> 2004). Within some parts of its range it is clearly scarce, e.g. In Quang Nam province in the central Annamites of Viet Nam only two animals were photographed during a camera trapping survey (Long <em>et al.</em> 2004). Despite concerns that this species was not at all common, Bourret (1944) determined it was locally common, and even considered it the most common civet between the Fansipan mountains and the Black river in northern Viet Nam. Two more recent trapping studies, one in the Hoang Lien mountains in northwestern Viet Nam and one in Pu Mat National Park in the northern Annamites this civet to be one of the most commonly photographed small carnivores in these areas (Lei Pu Long <em>et al</em>. in prep; SFNC 2000). It therefore may best be considered locally abundant and locally scarce
4806		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation were assessed as the major threats to Owston’s civet when it was still effectively unknown in the west (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Throughout its distribution this species is threatened by intensive snare trapping for meat, traditional medicine, living trophies and skin, and there has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2004; Lyman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Long and Roberton in prep.). Although habitat fragmentation magnifies the impact of hunting on populations, insight on the direct effects of habitat factors is thus far limited.
4807		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Mt. Isarog National Park and appears to be stable. There is need for further surveys of in southeast Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and known only from Mt. Isarog, southern Luzon Island. It occurs at an elevation range from 1,350-1,800 m. A photograph from nearby Mt. Malinao may depict this species, suggesting that it is more widely distributed than its current known range (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4807		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane and mossy forest, from approximately 1,350 m and above, on Mt. Isarog (Balete and Heaney 1997; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rickart and Heaney 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991). The species is tolerant of disturbance, and requires the presence of earthworms (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4807		population	eng	This is a fairly common species with a stable population and restricted distribution (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
4807		threats	eng	Three sides of Mt. Isarog have areas of intact habitat that are well managed. The remaining side was affected by logging in the 80s although there has been good habitat recovery in this area (L. Heaney pers. comm.). However, agriculture is encroaching on the species low elevation habitat (Abaca as fibre for clothing). Fortunately, this is predominantly an upper-elevation species (1,200 m and above) in oak dominated forests and threats at that elevation are minor.
4808		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
4808		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Mindoro island and lowland central Luzon (Laguna, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Tarlac provinces) (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs from near sea level to about 2,020 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4808		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest and occasionally in adjacent agricultural areas and cane grass (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973; Kellogg 1945; Musser <em>et al</em>. 1981; Rickart and Heaney 1991). It is tolerant of disturbance. It requires presence of earthworms (L. Heaney pers. comm.) and is often found along creeks.
4808		population	eng	The species is thought to be fairly common as there are scattered, widespread records from Mindoro (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4808		threats	eng	Although the species is tolerant of disturbed habitats, deforestation would be a major threat.
4810		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in some protected areas throughout its range (Balbalasan National Park, Mt. Data National Park).
4810		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and restricted to Luzon (Benguet and Mountain provinces). It is widespread in the northern and central Cordillera occurring from 925-2,700 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4810		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary, secondary and disturbed lower montane forest to mossy forest in the Central Cordillera (Largen 1985; Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952) and agricultural areas adjacent to forest. It is the most habitat tolerant native species and can also be found in vegetable gardens and farms, rice fields that are being fallowed, essentially anywhere where there are earthworms. The species is not found in grasslands or in open agricultural areas.
4810		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004), including in disturbed habitat. Population seems stable.
4810		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss caused by vegetable gardening and other widespread agriculture (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
4811		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Found in protected areas.
4811		distribution	eng	Veracruz (Mexico) south to the Guianas, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and N Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Paraguay.
4811		habitat	eng	Carnivore, dense forest. These bats tend to live near streams and other moist areas in forested lowlands, tropical rainforests, tropical deciduous forests, and cloud forests. They have been reported to roost in hollow trees, caves, and even Mayan ruins. (Medellin, 1989; Nowak, 1994). There is little known about the mating system of <em>C. auritus</em> (Altringham, 1996; Hill and Smith, 1984). Big-eared woolly bats have low reproduction rates, typically having just one offspring per litter. Females have only been reported to be reproductively active during the second half of the year. Pregnant females, however, have been observed from April until July. This is consistent with a monestrous cycle, varying geographically. One female taken into captivity gave birth to a single young after 99 days. They have a maximum gestation period of 220 days and a maximum weaning time of nine months. The age of reproductive maturity is between one and two years. (Kunz and Racy, 1998; Medellin, 1989; Nowak, 1994).<br/>Big-eared woolly bats are not exclusively carnivores. In fact, they have a flexible foraging strategy that allows them to eat insects and fruit in addition to extensive consumption of small vertebrates like bats, opossums, mice, birds, lizards, and frogs. They have a diet similar to that of <em>Vampyrum spectrum</em> and <em>Trachops cirrhosus</em>. Big-eared woolly bats have significant seasonal diet changes. In the wet season they eat more insects because they are more abundant. However, age and sex do not have any effect on what they eat. (Altringham, 1996; Hill and Smith, 1984; Kunz and Racey, 1998)
4811		population	eng	Very common. Thesey bats exist in low population density areas and form complex social groups that tend to stay together for several years. Colonies can consist of one to seven individuals, but typically contain three to five individuals. (Hill and Smith, 1984; Kunz and Racy, 1998; Medellin, 1989; Nowak, 1999). Rare in Mexico. Not so common in Central America.
4811		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
4812		conservation	eng	Research is needed to ground-truth the existence of this species in the Gouna area, and/or to trace the locality from which the type specimen was collected. Study of more specimens required to clarify systematics status.
4812		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected from the type locality at Gouna, Northern Cape, South Africa. Several field trips to ground-truth the occurrence of this species have yielded no specimens, or even signs of golden moles, suggesting either an error in recording provenance, or that the original specimen was transported there by anthropogenic means or even perhaps floodwaters of the Renoster River, flowing from the Roggeveld mountains further south.
4812		habitat	eng	The type locality is situated in Bushmanland Nama-Karoo, with extensive agriculture on the alluvial sand floodplains of the Vis and Renoster rivers. Adjacent natural habitats are gravel plains and small hills, which appear unsuitable habitats for chrysochlorids.
4812		population	eng	No signs of this species have been found at the type locality during two independent expeditions in the last 20 years.
4812		threats	eng	Extensive agriculture has dramatically transformed habitat at the type locality, but impact thereof cannot be assessed given uncertainty about provenance of the type specimen and/or the habitat requirements of the species.
4819		conservation	eng	It is included on CITES Appendix II. Protected in Argentina (classified as Endangered on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil (Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990). Hunting is prohibited in Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia. Maned wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Included in the United States Endangered Species list.<br/><br/>The species occurs in many protected areas in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and, possibly, Peru.  <br/><br/>Assessors are not aware of any conservation actions specific to the Maned Wolf. However, they are the beneficiaries of broader attempts to protect the cerrado (for example, recent actions to reduce the impact of road kills in Brasilia). <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>As of 31 December 1999, 144 institutions reported a total of 412 maned wolves in captivity, including 203 males and 209 females.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>Population surveys throughout the species' range are needed. The impact of human encroachment on suitable habitat is not clearly understood, and the suitability of agricultural land as maned wolf habitat needs to be investigated. The impact of disease processes on wild populations is not well understood.
4819		distribution	eng	The Maned Wolf inhabits the grasslands and scrub forest of central South America from the mouth of the Parnaiba River in north-eastern Brazil, south through the Chaco of Paraguay into Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, and west to the Pampas del Heath in Peru (Dietz 1985). Beccaceci (1992) found evidence of Maned Wolves in Argentina as far south as the 30th parallel, and a sighting in the province of Santiago del Estero was recently reported (Richard <em>et al.</em> 1999). They probably range into northern Uruguay. Their presence in this country was confirmed through a specimen trapped in 1990 (Mones and Olazarri 1990), but there have not been any reports of sightings since that date (S. Gonzalez pers. comm.).
4819		habitat	eng	Maned Wolves favour tall grasslands, shrub habitats, woodland with an open canopy (cerrado), and wet fields (which may be seasonally flooded). Some evidence indicates that they may prefer areas with low to medium shrub density (Bestelmeyer 2000). Maned Wolves are also seen in lands under cultivation for agriculture and pasture. Daytime resting areas include gallery forests (Dietz 1984), cerrado and marshy areas near rivers (Bestelmeyer 2000; F. Rodrigues unpubl.). There is some evidence that they can utilize cultivated land for hunting and resting (A. Jácomo and L. Silveira, unpubl.), but additional studies are essential in order to quantify how well the species tolerates intensive agricultural activity. <br/><br/>Omnivorous, consuming principally fruits and small- to medium-sized vertebrates. Numerous authors (Dietz 1984; Carvalho and Vasconcellos 1995; Motta-Júnior <em>et al.</em> 1996; Azevedo and Gastal 1997; Motta-Júnior 1997; Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1998; Jácomo 1999; Santos 1999; Silveira 1999; Juarez and Marinho 2002; F. Rodrigues unpubl.) have investigated the diet of the Maned Wolf. These studies have all found a wide variety of plant and animal material in the diet, with about 50% of the diet comprising plant material and 50% animal matter. The fruit <em>Solanum lycocarpum</em> grows throughout much of the range and is a primary food source; other important items include small mammals (Caviidae, Muridae, Echimydae) and armadillos, other fruits (Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Bromeliaceae and others), birds (Tinamidae, Emberizidae and others), reptiles and arthropods. Although the frequency of plant and animal items found in faecal samples is approximately equal, the biomass of animal items is usually greater than that of plant items (Motta-Júnior <em>et al</em>. 1996; Santos 1999; F. Rodrigues unpubl.). Certain items, such as rodents and <em>Solanum</em>, are consumed year round, but the diet varies with food availability. At least occasionally, pampas deer (<em>Ozotoceros bezoarticus</em>) are also consumed (Bestelmeyer and Westbrook 1998). In Jácomo's (1999) study, deer appeared in 2.4% of 1,673 samples analysed.
4819		population	eng	A Population and Habitat Viability Assessment workshop held in 2005 estimated the total population of Maned Wolves at ~23,600 animals, including 21,745 in Brazil, 830 in Paraguay, and 660 in Argentina (Paula <em>et al.</em> 2008). Numbers in Bolivia are unlikely to exceed 1,000 animals. <br/><br/>With their primarily solitary habits and large home ranges, Maned Wolves are found in low densities throughout the range.
4819		threats	eng	The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations is the drastic reduction of habitat, especially due to conversion to agricultural land (Fonseca <em>et al.</em> 1994). In addition, habitat fragmentation causes isolation of subpopulations. Many Maned Wolves are killed on the nation's roads. Highways border many of the Conservation Units of the Brazilian cerrado, and drivers often do not respect speed limits. Reserves close to urban areas often have problems with domestic dogs. These dogs pursue and may kill Maned Wolves and can also be an important source of disease. Domestic dogs also possibly compete with the Maned Wolf for food. Interactions with humans also pose a threat to the Maned Wolf. Diseases, such as those mentioned above, can be important causes of mortality in the wild, but there is very little information available about the health of wild populations. In areas where there are domestic dogs, the problem is certainly greater.<br/><br/>There is no commercial use. Indications are that the use of Maned Wolf parts for medicinal purposes does not involve any sort of large-scale commercial transactions and is confined to native folk medicine.
4828		conservation	eng	Possibly present in a few small nature reserves in its range. Field surveys are needed to establish the conservation status and threats faced by populations at the 17 localities this species is known to have occurred in the past.
4828		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. Recorded from indigenous Afro-Montane forests in Eastern Cape from East London northwards along coast to Port St Johns, and inland to Amathole and Kologha Mountains near King Williams Town and Stutterheim.
4828		habitat	eng	Coastal and Afromontane forests, sometimes marginally into adjacent grassland habitats (Maddock 1986). Not present in commercial forestry plantations, which abut or have replaced many indigenous forest patches. They have rather specific habitat requirements, selecting areas in forest patches with soft soils, well-developed undergrowth, and deep leaf-litter layers; they avoid steep slopes and rocky terrain. Apparently restricted to larger forest patches (Castley et al. 2000).
4828		population	eng	Locally common, but with a clumped dispersion.
4828		threats	eng	Likely major threats include: habitat loss owing to fragmentation of forests, which is ongoing in coastal forests as a result of urbanization (East London district) and ubiquitous coastal tourist resorts; and degradation of remaining forests as a result of forest clearance, collection of firewood, bark stripping, cutting for construction, livestock overgrazing. The species may now be locally extinct in many places where it occurred formerly (even within the Amathole forests they have disappeared at sites where they were collected in the early 1990s; G. Bronner pers. comm.).
4829		conservation	eng	Possibly occurs in the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve (Mpumalanga), and Mgeni Vlei Nature Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal). Research is needed to assess status of populations, and the threats they face, at all known localities.
4829		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution in South Africa, being recorded only from scattered localities in Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces.
4829		habitat	eng	Sandy soils in grasslands, meadows and along edges of marshes in savanna and grassland biomes of South Africa. Recorded from gardens and parklands, also found in dense stands of kikuyu grass (<em>Pennisetum clandestinum</em>) adjoining natural grasslands.
4829		population	eng	Extremely rare and secretive; only three specimens have been collected since 1980. Difficult to detect owing to preference for areas with sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.
4829		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat alteration as a result of mining and power generation, ecologically poor agricultural practices and urbanization, and habitat degradation associated with mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations that occur in the high-altitude grassland habitats in the northern parts of this species' range. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have proved largely ineffective. These power stations form the backbone of South Africa's electricity network, and disturbance is likely to increase as human populations grow and the demand for power increases. The widespread practice of allowing cattle to graze in marshes and dense grasslands near water during dry winter months leads to trampling and a loss of cover, and this undoubtedly impacts severely on this species. Some areas in which they formerly occurred (e.g., Tshwane (Pretoria) West) have been completely transformed by urbanization. Currently, there are only a handful of sites (3 in KZN midlands, 1 in Mpumalanga) where there are conclusive signs of their presence.
4833		conservation	eng	No information available.
4833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It has a patchy distribution on all coastlines.
4833		habitat	eng	It is widespread in the lake living in sand, silt and mud substrates. This species is documented to from 10-60 m (possibly 80 m).
4833		population	eng	This species occurs in low numbers, patchy, on soft substrates (E. Michel, pers. comm.).
4833		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
4871		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Ichetucknee Springs State Park, but it is not actively protected. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends and threats impacting this species. Future monitoring of population trends and species and site protection are also recommended for this species in order to sustain its long-term viability.
4871		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one spring along the Ichetucknee River (Suwannee River drainage) in Suwannee County, Florida (Franz 1982, Thompson 1968, 1999, Johnson 1973).
4871		habitat	eng	This species is found around submerged rootlets and mosses in sand and gravel-bottomed karst spring pools associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Notogillia wetherbyi</span>  (Thompson 1968).  The spring at the type locality issues from two sources from beneath a sandstone outcropping and forms a large circular pool 40 feet wide and 1-2 feet deep that is open and continuous with the Ichetucknee River.  Substrate is sand and gravel with silt along the shore and vegetation includes large patches of submerged bryophytes that cover sticks and rocks, and large clumps of cypress rootlets (where the snails are found) (Thompson 1968).
4871		population	eng	This species is known only from Coffee Spring along the west bank of the Ichetucknee River, Columbia County, Florida. No population information exists for this species.
4871		threats	eng	The area in which the species occurs is heavily used for recreation, particularly "tubing", diving, and canoeing (continuing and future) despite being located in a State Park. Since there is no population data available, it is impossible to gauge the effect of these threats on the population. Any stochastic events though could cause its imminent extirpation due to its limited range.
4876		conservation	eng	Although Wekiwa Springs is in a state park, it is not known whether any protection is afforded to the snail. It is classified under G1 S1 on NatureServe (2009), Critically Imperiled. This species has been considered for Federal Status in 1984 but has not been listed (within Florida) (Cummings pers. comm. 2010). Further research is also required regarding the population trends and threats impacting this species, and continued monitoring is advisable.
4876		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Wekiwa Springs, Orange County, Florida, USA (Burgess and Franz 1978, Johnson 1973, Thompson 1999).
4876		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a freshwater karst spring. The springs originate from five submerged horizontal caverns, and form a pool about 120 feet across. The snails occur in the spring pool and run for a short distance below the pool. The pool bottom is covered with fine sand, where this species is scarce and the spring run contains thick mats of submerged vegetation where this species is abundant.  The spring run is about 75 feet wide and 3 feet deep (Thompson 1968).
4876		population	eng	This species is known from only one locality: Wekiwa Springs (into Wekiva River of St. Johns River system), Orange County, Florida (type locality). The snails are abundant on aquatic vegetation, but are scarce on the sand bottom (Thompson 1968).
4876		threats	eng	Wekiwa Springs is used heavily for recreation. Although the population appears healthy, the small size of the single known site makes the species vulnerable to extinction.
4958		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
4958		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi Mbo, Cameroon.
4958		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias maclareni</em> is a demersal species. It is a lacustrine species that lives in deeper as well as in shallow waters. Larger specimens feed mainly on fish, especially Cichlidae; small specimens feed on insect larvae, Chironomids-Odonata (Teugels 1986).
4958		population	eng	No information available.
4958		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
4959		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
4965		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptemys insculpta</span> is included in CITES Appendix II and is protected in most areas of its occurrence. Substantial populations occur in protected areas and lands safeguarded from major development.<br/><br/>Remaining populations of Wood Turtles need to be considered carefully in land management practices, particularly forestry on public lands. Measures to minimize accidental mortality need further research, awareness, extension and implementation; this potentially includes roadside fencing and underpasses, and higher blade height on agricultural mowers. Regulations against collection of animals from the wild need full enforcement.
4965		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptemys insculpta</span> inhabits the Great Lakes region as far as eastern Minnesota, through the northern Appalachians to northern Virginia, and up to Nova Scotia (Iverson 1992).
4965		habitat	eng	<em>Glyptemys insculpta</em> uses a variety of habitats focused on clear, hard-bottomed streams and rivers and adjoining forest, woodland and some fields. Deep pools with permanent flow are essential for successful hibernation.<br/><br/>Wood Turtles feed on a variety of vegetation, mushrooms, earthworms, slugs and other invertebrates, and carrion.<br/><br/>Males reach 23 cm carapace length (CL), females 20 cm CL. Maturity is reached at 14–18 years (19–20 cm CL) in males, and at 14–18 years (16–18 cm CL) in females. Females usually produce a single clutch, but second clutches have been reported; clutches comprise 8–11 (range 3–20) eggs. Incubation takes about 67 days (range 42–82). Hatchlings measure about 37 (28–40) mm. Longevity exceeds 40 years (review in Ernst and Lovich 2009). Generation time has not been calculated but is likely similar to that of <em>Emys (Emydoidea) blandingii</em>, i.e. at the order of 36–47 years (Harding, pers. comm. Aug 2009).
4965		population	eng	In suitable habitat, Wood Turtles can reach substantial densities, ranging from five to over 100 animals per hectare of prime riparian habitat, but such stream valleys only represent a small portion of the overall area. Wood Turtles tend to be localized and associated with relatively less developed remote hill and montane regions (review in Ernst and Lovich 2009).
4965		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fragmentation and destruction are widespread in Wood Turtles' areas of occupancy, from residential and recreational developments (particularly second homes/cabins) and associated infrastructure, as well as forestry practices in the public lands where the main populations are located.<br/><p> Wood Turtles are valued as pets, and continued collection of animals for the (illegal) pet trade represents a threat to some populations. <br/> The terrestrial habits of <em>Glyptemys insculpta</em> in summer lead to road mortality as well as fatal encounters with recreational vehicles and agricultural machinery. </p>  <p>Predation by (subsidized) raccoons is significant, and believed to result in no recruitment in Michigan (J. Harding, pers comm Aug 2009). Subsidized predators may become a more significant issue as residential and recreational developments penetrate further into wood turtle habitat.</p><p> <em>Glyptemys insculpta</em> is well documented to have shifted its range northward with the end of the past ice age; global warning is likely to tip southern populations towards extinction, while northern populations might expand into new territory. </p>
4967		conservation	eng	<em>Glyptemys muhlenbergii</em> (as <em>Clemmys muhlenbergii</em>) is federally protected under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) since 4th November 1997, with the northeastern populations (Maryland to Massachusetts) listed as Threatened, and the populations of GA, NC, SC, TN and VA listed as Threatened by Similarity of Appearance. The species is protected by legislation or regulation in each of the States where it occurs. It is included in CITES Appendix I, precluding all international commercial trade. A recovery plan was compiled for the northern population in 2001.   <p>A number of sites inhabited by Bog Turtles are under government or NGO ownership and management, while owners of lands where bog turtles occur are engaged where possible to manage bog turtle sites optimally. Due to the high risk of illegal collection, localities are generally held in secrecy. </p>  <p>Key conservation measures required focus on safeguarding remaining habitat from destruction, degradation, pollution and conversion, managing habitat with regard to vegetation succession and invasives (through grazing, winter burning, or other measures), and landscape planning and management measures to prevent and reverse fragmentation of populations. Further population monitoring and surveys, research on conservation biology, climatic change impacts and disease issues, law enforcement action to address any illegal take and trade, and stakeholder outreach, all need to accompany these habitat measures. </p>  <p>Genetic study is needed to evaluate phylogeography with regard to the two main distribution areas, and to inform intensive management options including head-starting and translocation.&#160; </p>  <p>Extensive literature exists detailing population data, threats and recommended conservation measures; useful entry points into the literature are USFWS (2001), NatureServe (2005) and Ernst and Lovich (2009).</p>
4967		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptemys muhlenbergii</span> occurs in disjunct populations (Iverson 1992):<br/><ul><li>Southeastern Appalachian foothills: western North Carolina and immediately adjoining areas of Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee;</li><li>Northwestern Pennsylvania;</li><li>Northeastern Maryland through SE Pennsylvania, possibly northern Delaware, much of New Jersey, southeastern New York and up the Hudson valley, western Connecticut and western Massachusetts; </li><li>Scattered locations in upstate New York;</li><li>A questionable record from Rhode Island.</li></ul>
4967		habitat	eng	<em>Glyptemys muhlenbergii</em> is a near-exclusive inhabitant of marsh and swamp habitat away from large water bodies; typical habitats include stream-head sedge meadows, spring-fed sphagnum bogs, fens, and open shrubby swamps, and nearby small streams. In contrast to its vernacular name, the Bog Turtle generally avoids strongly acidic bogs (pH <5.5). As Ernst and Lovich (2009) noted, these are often ecologically ephemeral habitats due to vegetation succession. Bog Turtles have small home ranges, at the order of fractions of a hectare, but moderate-distance movements have been reported travelling both overland and using small streams (Carter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Pittmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).   <p>Bog Turtles are opportunistic omnivores, feeding on a great variety of invertebrate and small vertebrate animal prey as well as seeds, fruits and occasionally other parts of a range of herbs, grasses, sedges and shrubs (see review by Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>Bog Turtles can reach up to 11.5 cm carapace length (CL) in males, and 9.6 cm CL in females. Size and age at maturity has been reported as about 7–8 cm CL and 4–6 years in males, and half a cm larger and likely a year later in females. Females normally produce a single clutch of 3–4 (range 1–6) eggs; not all females reproduce in any given year. Hatchlings measure on average 26–28 mm CL. Longevity may exceed 30 years; generation time has not been calculated (see review by Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>
4967		population	eng	Population densities for Bog Turtle occurrences have been reported ranging from one to 213 turtles per hectare. Given the small size of most sites inhabited by bog turtles (average of about one hectare in the south, <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>variable size in the northern population), individual sites rarely comprise more than 40 adult individuals (Chase 1989, Mitchell 1991). Exchange of individuals between local sites has not been reported. Juveniles represent substantial proportions of the population in some sites (MD: Chase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989; NY: Warner 2005), but are rarely encountered at other sites (NJ: Arndt, 1986).<br/><br/>Northern populations (Massachusetts to Maryland) were determined to have declined in range and numbers by over 50% during the period 1977–1997, with 360 sites of occurrence remaining, of which 95% are on privately-held lands (FWS 2001).     <p>Extensive surveys of southern population in the 1980s identified 96 sites of occurrence, of which only 52 were considered viable; about 85% of occurrences were on private lands (Tryon and Herman 1991). </p>    <p> Beth Walton (Ph.D thesis, 2006) analysed habitat trends in Ashe County, North Carolina, and concluded that 2–3% of suitable habitat remains. </p>
4967		threats	eng	<p>Much Bog Turtle habitat has been destroyed by drainage and conversion in recent centuries as its wetland habitat is generally located in optimal agricultural soils and landscapes, processes that continue to some extent into the present. Being often located at the lower edges of intensively farmed lands, sedimentation and agrochemical run-off into wetland habitat is an issue. </p>  <p>The Bog Turtle's range is localized, both at the geographic scale (scattered areas of occurrence with extensive areas where the species is absent from suitable habitat) and at the local landscape scale, where suitable habitat is localized in a mosaic of other habitat types. Fragmentation of habitat has continued with agricultural intensification and optimization, and infrastructure, residential and industrial development. </p>  <p>Within protected wetland habitat areas, vegetation succession by both native plants and invasives can reduce the suitability of wetlands to bog turtles. </p>  <p>While fully protected throughout its range, the Bog Turtle remains in small but high demand in the pet trade by virtue of its small size, attractive colouration and reputed rarity. Because of the small home range size and sensitivity of its wetland habitat, disturbance and habitat trampling are greater concerns for this species than most other turtles.</p>  <p>Road mortality and increased predation of eggs and hatchlings from subsidized raccoons has been indicated. The impact of global warming, under various predicted scenarios, on hydrology and habitat supporting the Bog Turtle has not yet been evaluated in detail but warrants concern.<br/></p>  <p>Reports of die-offs, presumed related to disease, emerged in 2009; the extent and severity of epidemic disease has not been documented range-wide, but Brenner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) and Carter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) reported incidence of bacterial and mycoplasma potential pathogens in NC and VA populations. </p>
4968		conservation	eng	The Spotted Turtle is legally protected in Ontario and Quebec in Canada and in several States in the United States. <span style="font-style: italic;">Clemmys guttata</span> is confirmed to occur in a number of protected areas; however, because of vegetation dynamics, pollution and potential collection impacts, such protected populations are not necessarily secure in the long-term.<br/><br/>Securing suitable habitat for the species, including maintaining appropriate successional stages, is particularly important for the survival of the Spotted Turtle. Strict enforcement of legal protection is essential, as well as consideration of stricter protective laws and regulations for the species where appropriate.
4968		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clemmys guttata</span> inhabits the Great Lakes region of Canada and the United States, occurring from the southern tip of Lake Michigan to the St. Lawrence valley, as well as the upper reaches of the Ohio River system. It also occurs in the Atlantic coastal lowlands and foothills from New Hampshire (possibly southern Maine), southwards to northern Florida (Iverson 1992, Meylan 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).
4968		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clemmys guttata</span> inhabits a variety of wetland types, including vernal pools, swamps, bogs and marshes, small streams, wet meadows, and early and mature wet forests.<br/><br/>Spotted Turtles feed preferentially on small live animal prey, but also take some fruits and filamentous algae.<br/><br/>Maximum size 14.3 cm carapace length (CL). Maturity is reached at 7–13 years (8–10.5 cm CL) in males, and at 7–15 years (8–10.3 cm CL) in females. Longevity is at least 30 years, possibly as high as 65–110 years. Generation time has not been calculated but is likely at the order of 20–30 years.<br/><br/>Females produce one or two clutches of 3–5 (range 1–14) eggs. Incubation takes 67 (50–90) days. Hatchlings measure 27 (range 26–31) mm.<br/><br/>[Information taken from: Litzgus 2006, Meylan 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009]
4968		population	eng	<p><em>Clemmys guttata </em>generally occurs in small localized populations. Population sizes range from 30–1,205 individuals, though most populations are believed to be small or tiny. Reported population densities range from 0.05–79.1 Spotted Turtles per hectare, though most are at the order of 1–10 animals/ha.</p><p> Several populations have been documented as in decline, through loss of adults or lack of recruitment (Meylan 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>    <p>In Michigan,<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. guttata</span>’s status is considered similar or worse than that of <span style="font-style: italic;">Emys (Emydoidea) blandingii</span>, and it is rated as Threatened. In Ohio, few stable populations persist, 3–5% of original wetland habitat remains, and the species is largely confined to marginal habitat. In Massachusetts, an increase in recorded occurrences (individuals, but not necessarily populations) led to a downlisting of its status from&#160; 'Species of Special Concern' to 'Species of Conservation Interest' in 2006.<br/></p>
4968		threats	eng	<p><em>Clemmys guttata </em>apparently has population dynamics that particularly emphasize the long-term reproductive contributions of adult animals over time (Litzgus 2006); as a result, the species is particularly sensitive to removal of adults from a population, and impacts of even casual collection for pets, or traffic mortality, have significant impacts on a population. Collection for personal pets or trade, and mortality on roads and from agricultural machinery, have all been documented for the species. </p>  <p>Invasive plant species affecting wetland vegetation structure are a contributing threat factor. </p>  <p><em>Clemmys guttata</em> is reasonably specialized in its habitat requirements, and is not a good disperser/colonizer. As a result, habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss leads to disappearance of populations, while new opportunities, if any, are rarely colonized. Most populations are small to very small and thus sensitive to localized extinction.</p><p> Subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) probably represent a further impact on eggs and juveniles, and likely reduce recruitment into existing populations.<br/> </p><p>[Information taken from: Meylan 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009].</p>
4969		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
4972		conservation	eng	Abundant species that occurs in some protected areas. In all countries of occurrence listed as Least Concern.
4972		distribution	eng	Tian Shan except western ridges (NW Xinjiang, China; Kyrgyzstan) and Dzungarian Ala Tau (Kazakhstan). In northern Tian Shan and northern Dzungarian Ala Tau found from 1300 to 2900 m, in southern Dzungarian Ala Tau found from 1800 m.
4972		habitat	eng	Inhabits mountain mainly coniferous forests, however, sometimes found in broadleaf forests and above the coniferous forests belt. Colonies found in forests with rich grass and shrubs, rocks covered with moss and forest clearings. At high forest border lives on all slopes except southern slopes without forest, but found on southern slopes in subalpine belt with rich juniper stands. In autumn and winter sometimes found in human dwellings. Feeds on green parts of plants, berries, fir seeds. In autumn increases its consumption of mountain ash, honeysuckle and juniper bark, in winter feeds on brier and mountain ash berries. Near human settlements often consume apples and apricots. Make nests in natural shelters, under rocks or tree roots. Winter nests could be directly beneth snow cover, if it is thick enough. Reproduction time differs depending on the altitude. In lower border of distribution it is about 7 months (from beginning of March to end of September - beginning of October). At upper forest border it is 4 - 4,5 months (from the end of April to end of August). Litter size is 2-9 young.
4972		population	eng	Population fluctuates with years. Minimal fluctuations observed in rocky areas, and maximal in coniferous forests, where population size rises after good fir yield (Fedosenko, 1964). In Dzungarian Ala Tau population density is always low (Fedosenko and Lobachev, 1970).
4972		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, but continuous deforestation may significantly affect range size.
4973		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.
4973		distribution	eng	The bank vole, <em>Myodes glareolus</em> has a wide range in the Palaearctic which stretches from the British Isles through continental Europe and Russia to Lake Baikal. In the north, its range extends beyond the Arctic circle, and in the south it reaches northern Turkey and northern Kazakhstan (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is widespread in Europe, although it is absent from southern Iberia and the Mediterranean islands. It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Spitzenberger 1999).
4973		distribution	eng	The bank vole has a wide range in the Palaearctic which stretches from the British Isles through continental Europe and Russia to Lake Baikal. In the north, its range extends beyond the Arctic circle, and in the south it reaches northern Turkey and northern Kazakhstan (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is widespread in Europe, although it is absent from southern Iberia and the Mediterranean islands. It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Spitzenberger 1999).
4973		habitat	eng	It inhabits all kinds of woodland, preferring densely-vegetated clearings, woodland edge, and river and stream banks in forests.  It is also found in scrub, parkland, and hedges (Viro and Niethammer 1982, Spitzenberger 1999).
4973		population	eng	It is very common throughout much of its European range, with typical densities varying between approximately 6-12 individuals per hectare and 50-100 individuals per hectare (Spitzenberger 1999). Populations densities fluctuate from year to year. The long-term trend appears stable.
4973		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
4974		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its wide range. The population trend should be monitored in the north-western part of the range.
4974		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its wide range. The population trend should be monitored, particularly in the north-western part of the range.
4974		distribution	eng	The grey-sided vole, <em>Myodes rufocanus</em>,  has a large range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from northern Fennoscandia through northern Russia, including Siberia to Kamtchatka, the south Ural Mountains, Altai Mountains, and northeastern and northern Korea (Keima Plateau) and the islands of Sakhalin (Russia), and Japan (Sulkava 1999). It ranges as far south as northern parts of Mongolia and China (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In China it occurs from northern Xinjiang eastwards through Mongolia to the provinces of Jilin and Liaoning in northeast China. In Mongolia it is known from woodland habitats in Hangai, Hentii, Hövsgöl, Mongol Altai and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe. There is an isolated population around Ikh Bogd Mountain in Govi Altai Mountain Range (Lkhagvasuren and Samiya, 2004). In Japan, the subspecies <em>Clethrionomys rufocanus bedfordiae</em> is found on Hokkaido, Rishiri, Rebun, Daikoku, Teuri, Yagishiri, as well as Kunashir and Shikotan (South Kuril Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>It occurs from the coast to at least 1,170 m in northern Fennoscandia (Henttonen and Viitala 1982), and can reach elevations of up to 2,700 m asl in its Mongolian range, such as the Hangai Mountain Range.
4974		distribution	eng	The grey-sided vole has a large range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from northern Fennoscandia through northern Russia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Sakhalin, Hokkaido and Rishiri (Sulkava 1999). It ranges as far south as northern parts of Mongolia, China and the Korean peninsula (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from the coast to at least 1,170 m in northern Fennoscandia (Henttonen and Viitala 1982).
4974		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous forests and birch forests often around river valleys, where it tends to prefer rocky areas, dense undergrowth and leaf litter, and is also found in dry peat-bogs, grasslands and subarctic dwarf shrub heathland. It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on vegetative parts of grasses, herbs, and dwarf shrubs, and on berries (Henttonen and Viitala 1982, Sulkava 1999). The species can sometimes be found in high densities in clear-cut areas, and is often found on plains (B. Sheftel pers. comm. 2006).
4974		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous forests and birch forests, where it tends to prefer rocky areas, and is also found in dry peat-bogs and subarctic dwarf shrub heathland. It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on vegetative parts of grasses, herbs and dwarf shrubs, and on berries (Henttonen and Viitala 1982, Sulkava 1999). The species can sometimes be found in high densities in clear-cut areas, and is often found on plains (B. Sheftel pers. comm. 2006).
4974		population	eng	It is a common species in northern Fennoscandia. The long-term trend is stable with cyclic fluctuations every 4-5 years (Sulkava 1999). In northern Fennoscandia (Fennoscandian taiga) and northern Russia it was previously common, but there have been declines since the mid-1980s (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
4974		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species at present. Declines in Fennoscandia may be linked to changes in forestry practices (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
4975		conservation	eng	It receives no legal protection under international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas in its wide global range.
4975		conservation	eng	It receives no legal protection under international legislation. Occurs in a number of protected areas in its wide global range, including some in northern Fennoscandia.
4975		distribution	eng	<em>Myodes rutilus </em>has a northern Holarctic distribution. It occurs in northern Fennoscandia, European Russia, Siberia, Sakhalin and Hokkaido islands (Japan), Alaska (USA) and Canada, at latitudes of 43-73 degrees north (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).
4975		distribution	eng	This species has a northern Holarctic distribution. It occurs in northern Fennoscandia, European Russia, Siberia, north Xinjiang Province in China, through Mongolia, to northeast China and northern parts of the Korean peninsula (Keima Plateau), and the islands of Sakhalin (Russia), and Hokkaido (Japan), Alaska (USA) and Canada, at latitudes of 43-73 degrees north (Musser and Carleton 2005, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Mongolia it is known from Hövsgöl, Mongol Altai, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe. In north-western North America, it occurs throughout Alaska and eastward to Hudson Bay, and south to northern British Columbia and north-east Manitoba (Musser and Carleton 2005).
4975		habitat	eng	It is found in the subarctic birch forest zone and in northern parts of the boreal forest zone. It is more abundant in productive (eutrophic or mesotrophic) forests, with a dense understorey of grasses, herbs (especially Scrophulariaceae), or moss. It prefers mature old-growth forests and, unlike other <em>Myodes </em>species, it is absent from clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants. In the autumn it stores seeds, especially of Scrophulariaceae (Sulkava 1999).
4975		habitat	eng	It is found in the subarctic birch forest zone and in northern parts of the boreal forest zone. It is more abundant in productive (eutrophic or mesotrophic) forests, with a dense understorey of grasses, herbs (especially Scrophulariaceae), or moss. It prefers mature old-growth forests and, unlike other <em>Myodes </em>species, it is absent from clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, nuts, seeds, bark, lichen, fungus and insects, storing food for winter. In the autumn it stores seeds, especially of Scrophulariaceae (Sulkava 1999).
4975		population	eng	It is described as common in subarctic Fennoscandian birch woods. In northern parts of its European range, the long-term population trend is stable, with fluctuations on a 4-5 year cycle. In southern parts of its European range (e.g. in central Finland and Russian Karelia) the species is suspected to be declining (Sulkava 1999).
4975		population	eng	It is described as 'common' in subarctic Fennoscandian birch woods. In northern parts of its European range, the long-term population trend is stable, with fluctuations on a 4-5 year cycle. In southern parts of its European range (e.g. in central Finland and Russian Karelia) the species is suspected to be declining (Sulkava 1999). In North America, from year to year, recorded densities vary from <1 to >60/ha.
4975		threats	eng	Suspected declines in southern parts of its European range have been attributed to increased clear-felling of old-growth spruce forest (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
4975		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Suspected declines in southern parts of its European range have been attributed to increased clear-felling of old-growth spruce forest (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
4982		habitat	eng	Found in brackish estuarine waters and also in the sea.
4983		conservation	eng	In South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal province they are protected from human disturbance. It might occur in some protected areas. Protection of nesting and roosting sites from disturbance is important.
4983		distribution	eng	Percival's trident bat is largely confined to southern Africa, with records from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Swaziland, south-east Botswana, southern Zambia, Zimbabwe (the core of the distribution), and extralimital records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, northwestern Mozambique, and coastal Kenya (Taylor 2000). It has also been found on Mafia Island in Tanzania (unpublished record). It elevational range is from sea level to 1,000 m.
4983		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in savanna areas where there is sufficient cover in the form of caves and mine tunnels for day roosting (Taylor 2000). It feeds exclusively on moths, and appears to be very sensitive to disturbance.
4983		population	eng	Large fluctuations in population numbers are known, and it is prone to local extinctions. It is never found in very large colonies, with the largest known colony (of about 300 individuals) being reported in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, on the southern section of its range. However, the current estimated population size of the KwaZulu-Natal colony is currently only 50 animals. There are no population estimates from elsewhere in its range, although the largest population might be in Zimbabwe.
4983		threats	eng	There have been seemingly stochastic extinctions of colonies, though it is not known if the animals simply move to new locations. Roost disturbance seems to be an important factors, but there might be others, and there has been speculation that DDT might be a cause of population disappearances.
4985		conservation	eng	The species is within the Lake Abrau Nature Reserve.
4985		distribution	eng	Lake Abrau, near Novorossiisk (northern Caucasus, Russia).
4985		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Abrau is a warm and turbid hill lake, 2.6 × 0.6 km, 1.6 km², maximum depth 10 m, 84 m above sea level. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to two years. Spawns in open water, in late evening, in May-September. Eggs are pelagic. Feeds on crustaceans (copepods, mysids), following their daily vertical movements, swimming in surface layers at night and descending during daylight hours.
4985		population	eng	The species was abundant in 1996 (Chikhachev, 1997), in a recent survey (2006) very few individuals were recorded (J. Freyhof, J. pers comm.).
4985		threats	eng	There are 18 species introduced species in the lake, there are only 5 native species. Water abstraction has also reduced the level of the lake.
4987		conservation	eng	No information.
4987		distribution	eng	Northwestern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.
4987		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Euryhaline, in coastal waters, lagoons and lakes, estuaries and lower reaches of large rivers with a salinity up to 13 ?. Absent from pure seawater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to five years. Spawns in open water in late evening in April-July at 10-18°C. Eggs are pelagic. In Azov See, there are two spawning runs, one in spring and one in autumn. Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter close to spawning sites and spawn in spring. Returns to sea after spawning. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer. Feeds on crustaceans such as copepods and cladocerans.
4987		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Euryhaline, in coastal waters, lagoons and lakes, estuaries and lower reaches of large rivers with a salinity up to 13 ‰. Absent from pure seawater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to five years. Spawns in open water in late evening in April-July at 10-18°C. Eggs are pelagic. In Azov See, there are two spawning runs, one in spring and one in autumn. Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter close to spawning sites and spawn in spring. Returns to sea after spawning. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer. Feeds on crustaceans such as copepods and cladocerans.
4987		population	eng	Very abundant in esturine habitats.
4987		threats	eng	No major threats known.
4988		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
4988		distribution	eng	This species is confined to southern Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
4988		habitat	eng	<em>Clyomys bishopi</em>, a monocot herbivore, was the most specialized species in diet and microhabitat requirements in a study of seasonal niche dynamics of coexisting rodent species of the cerrado habitat. It is captured in habitats in the transition between semi-deciduous tropical forests and Cerrado habitats. In the dry season, the species was found in areas with partially continuous arboreal cover, from 2 to 3 m tall, with discontinuous herbaceous cover; in other seasons, it occurred in areas with partially continuous herbaceous cover, from 0.2 to 1 m tall, with 10 to 30% arboreal cover. It is also suggested that this rodent species can be found in the field in great number when palm trees are also available in high abundance (Bueno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), since these are the bulk of the rodent’s diet (Vieira 1997).
4988		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance of this species.
4988		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
4989		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas throughout it range (Vieira pers. comm.).
4989		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cerrado areas and Pantanal, central and southeastern Brazil, from Tocantins to Santa Catarina States, and in eastern Paraguay (Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982).
4989		habitat	eng	A semi fossorial, colonial species with diurnal activity confined to savanna areas and their edges (Emerson pers. comm.). In Brazil, three females with single embryos were caught during the period June to December (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
4989		population	eng	This species is patchy distributed but locally abundant (Filho pers. comm.).
4989		threats	eng	There are no major threats; however, habitat destruction through conversion to agriculture may affect the species in the southern part of the range (Vieira pers. comm.).
4996		conservation	eng	This lizard is present in all known designated Stephens' Kangaroo Rat Reserves in southern California; it is adequately protected in some parks, on some public lands, and on military bases (Brattstrom 2000). It is also present in protected areas in Mexico.
4996		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southwestern California in the United States (north to Dana Point, Orange County, and to near Colton, San Bernardino County), west of the crest of the Peninsular Ranges, south to southern Baja California peninsula in Mexico (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1998), including the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita, and San Marcos and Los Coronados islands in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002). In southern California, most populations are in Riverside and San Diego counties (Brattstrom 2000). It is absent from the interior of the Vizcaíno Desert in Mexico. Its elevational range extends from sea level to usually about 900 m (2,950 feet), rarely to 1,058 m (Stebbins 1985, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Grismer 1999, Brattstrom 2000). Stebbins (2003) reported the elevational range as high as perhaps 610 m (2,000 feet).
4996		habitat	eng	According to Brattstrom (2000), in southern California this lizard occurs primarily on coarse soils in open coastal sage scrub vegetation; it also inhabits many other vegetation types and disturbed areas: open chaparral, along edges of open, dry, riparian areas, along trails, along dirt roads, and in areas of light off-road vehicle use; often in areas with 50% cover and 50% bare soil, and flat to sloping topography; it seldom uses rodent burrows. Stebbins (2003) described the habitat as washes and other sandy areas where there are rocks and patches of brush and rocky hillsides: coastal chaparral, thornscrub, and streamside growth. This species often occupies open spaces between clumps of vegetation on loose, fine-grained soils, such as rocky hillsides bordering arroyos or the lower slopes of foothills (Tevis 1944, Welsh 1988, Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.
4996		population	eng	The species is extant in hundreds of locations in southern California; it has been observed at 227 sites since 1985 (Brattstrom 2000). It exists in very many additional areas in Baja California (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Grismer 2002). The total population size in southern California may be as high as 10 to 40 million individuals, or at least that order of magnitude (Brattstrom 2000). Presumably a greater number exists in the Baja California peninsula. Jennings and Hayes (1994) reported that about 75% of the formerly occupied habitat in the United States has been destroyed by development. However, Brattstrom (2000) found that the species is extant at 96% of known historical localities in California and that about 10 to 20% of the habitat has been lost in southern California since 1900 (Brattstrom 2000).
4996		threats	eng	In southwestern California, a considerable amount of the habitat has been destroyed and fragmented by urban and agricultural development (Jennings and Hayes 1994). There has also been habitat loss in the central portion of the Baja California peninsula. However, overall the species remains abundant through most of its range.
5027		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
5027		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Duero, Ebro and Tajo river basins in Spain and Portugal.
5027		habitat	eng	It lives in upper and middle reaches of rivers with shallow waters and stony bottom.
5027		population	eng	Decreasing.
5027		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (due to gravel extraction), water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species (e.g., pike in the Duero river).
5029		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
5029		distribution	eng	It occurs in rivers of the central and southern Iberian peninsula. Introduced into the Mino and Nalon river basins in Northern Spain.
5029		habitat	eng	It lives in the middle to lower parts of rivers with low current, sandy to gravel bottom with aquatic vegetation and shallow waters.
5029		population	eng	Decreasing.
5029		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (due to gravel extraction, water extraction and diversion). Introduction of exotic fish species. Illegal commercial trade as live bait.
5030		conservation	eng	None.
5030		distribution	eng	It is extirpated from its original range in the Kefalovriso karstic spring in Velestino village within the former Lake Karla basin in central Greece. Recent survey of the springs and streams of the Pinios and the previous Lake Karla basins has found it in the Chasambali spring (Economidis and Bobori 2003).
5030		habitat	eng	It lives in springs.
5030		population	eng	No data.
5030		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution, and drought.
5031		conservation	eng	No information.
5031		distribution	eng	Danube drainage: systems of Nera (Romania), Sava, Kupa (Slovenia, Croatia), Morava (Yugoslavia), Vit and Iantra (Bulgaria). Extirpated in Jiu (Romania) and perhaps Iantra (Bulgaria).
5031		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Moderate to fast-flowing stretches of shallow rivers. On sandy banks and shores, sometimes on rock bottom with submerged vegetation. Not known to enter small streams, large rivers or river stretches without current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
5031		population	eng	Locally abundant.
5031		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5032		conservation	eng	None.
5032		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Louros river basin in western Greece.
5032		habitat	eng	Riverine species preferring mud substrate.
5032		population	eng	No data.
5032		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution and potential hybridization with <em>C. arachthosensis</em> living in the Arachthos River since canals, now link in the lowland the two river basins.
5034		conservation	eng	None.
5034		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
5034		habitat	eng	It is an annual fish species dying after reproduction, which takes place in May. It spawns in coarse sand.
5034		population	eng	Stable.
5034		threats	eng	Water pollution (agriculture and domestic). In potential introduction of alien species to Lake Prespa would be likely to have a negative impact upon <em>C. meridionalis</em>.
5036		conservation	eng	No information.
5036		distribution	eng	Romania: Danube basin, Arges, Olt, Jui, Mures and Tapolitza systems.
5036		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Sandy streams with clean water and moderate to fast current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns from May to July.
5036		population	eng	Declining, localised and fragmented population.
5036		threats	eng	Development in Romania is leading to increased water abstraction, pollution and damming of rivers.
5037		conservation	eng	Protected under the Natura 2000 directive of the EU.
5037		distribution	eng	Atlantic drainages from Seine northward, Baltic basin south of 61ºN, upper Volga drainages, northern Black Sea basin (except Danube). Ancient records from Adour, Garonne and Loire drainages (France) require confirmation.
5037		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From small lowland streams to large rivers. In channels, ditches, backwaters and lakes on sand bottom. Able to inhabit very degraded streams especially if siltation is a problem. In Baltic Sea at salinity up to 5   %. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to five years, males up to three. Females spawn for the first time at 2-3 years, males at 1-2 years and more than 45 mm SL. Spawns in April-July, at temperatures above 18°C. Eggs are spawned in dense vegetation. Fractional spawner, producing 1-18 portions (under laboratory conditions). Larvae negatively phototactic, hiding under vegetation and in debris until beginning of exogenous feeding. Usually occurring together with hybridogenous, sperm-parasitic lineages, which have originated by hybridisation with <em>C. elongatoides</em>.
5037		population	eng	Abundant.
5037		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5038		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
5038		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia, Ozeros and Amvrakia and to the Acheloos river basin in western Greece.
5038		habitat	eng	It is mainly a lacustrine species. It reproduces in the spring.
5038		population	eng	No data.
5038		threats	eng	Water pollution (eutrophication) and abstraction. Habitat destruction. Lake level seasonal fluctuation.
5039		conservation	eng	No information.
5039		distribution	eng	Aegean and Black Sea basins, from Struma drainage to area of Varna (Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey), Lakes Volvi and Koronia (Greece); Danube basin in Bulgaria.
5039		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Still to flowing waters with sand or silt bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
5039		population	eng	Abundant.
5039		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5040		conservation	eng	No information.
5040		distribution	eng	Aegean Sea basin, from Pinios to Gallikos drainages (Greece, Macedonia).
5040		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Still waters of lakes, oxbows and backwaters, rarely in flowing water. On mud to silt bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
5040		population	eng	Very abundant.
5040		threats	eng	Water abstraction.
5042		conservation	eng	Found in the Lorentz National Park. Surveys to find this species again are required.
5042		distribution	eng	Found at two localities 9 km apart (Mount Wilhelmina and Lake Habbema) during the Archbold Expedition in 1938.  Extensive trapping in the area collected only six individuals at one locality. However, it is possible that it is found at other localities in the area. Elevation range 2,800 to 3,225 m asl.
5042		habitat	eng	This species is found in subalpine heathland above the tree line. It presumably lives in burrows.
5042		population	eng	This species is either rare or not readily trappable. The group that collected it found only 6 individuals out of thousands of specimens caught at one locality.
5042		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species in its high elevation range.
5047		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed in central Europe. There are fossil records from North America.
5047		habitat	eng	Occurs in undisturbed wetlands and calcareous bogs
5056		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas <span class="apple-style-span">included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species. Monitoring of the population size and trend is required.<br/></span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
5056		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the southwest part of&#160;Peloponnese (Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).
5056		habitat	eng	<em>Codringtonia</em> species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996). This species lives at least five years and the generation length to be about four to five years.
5056		population	eng	The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated, appear to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.
5056		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em> has a quite unusual life cycle for land snails of southern Europe, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern Greece (Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em>&#160;species (Giokas <em>et al</em>. 2007).&#160;</p>
5074		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia, and might be present in protected areas in South Asia and China. Within South Asia there is a need for additional research (surveys, monitoring), and programmes to increase public awareness about the species and bats in general (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
5074		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from South Asia eastwards into southeastern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Bangladesh Sunderbans (Khulna division) and India (Meghalaya and West Bengal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan and the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia it ranges from Myanmar, through most countries in the region, to Thailand and Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali) In South Asia it has been recorded from elevations ranging from 100 to 1,370 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
5074		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it has been recorded from subtropical forests and mangroves, with small colonies found roosting in caves or hollows of trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is basically a forest species. It has been found in a warm cave where the bat seemed to be hibernating. In Taiwan, this species is found in man-made structures, such as old pillboxes. In Southeast Asia, it is usually associated with forests, occurring from lowland to submontane forests, and is sometimes associated with limestone areas (Bates and Furey pers. comm.). It can persist in disturbed habitats and many types of roosting habitats are used including manmade tunnels (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
5074		population	eng	Although the species is widespread, it does not appear to be especially common. This may indicate natural rarity, or reflect difficulties in surveying the species. A maximum of seven animals were found together during surveys in Thailand (Sara Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia it has been found in colonies of sixteen or fewer individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
5074		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, some populations are threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agriculture and settlements especially in the Indian northeast (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Bangladesh, cyclones represent an additional threat to the habitat. In China and Southeast Asia, the main threat to some populations of this species is general habitat loss and degradation associated with ongoing deforestation.
5075		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It is probably dependent on the conservation of adequate areas of forest habitat. Taxonomic work should be carried out to determine the validity of the species.
5075		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the islands of Mindanao (Bukidnon province) and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species could certainly be present on islands between the known localities (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
5075		habitat	eng	There is very little information, but the species might be dependent on caves and presumably lives in forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
5075		population	eng	There is very little information on its abundance. This species is hard to survey and only one survey has been carried out using harp traps, which are appropriate for this species, and this suggests that the species is more common than was once thought (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
5075		threats	eng	There is very little information, as the ecology of the species is so poorly known. However, the species is suspected of having declined due to loss of forest habitat due to agriculture, logging, mining and urbanisation.
5076		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in the Krau Wildlife Reserve. Further studies are needed in to the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
5076		distribution	eng	This species occurs in inland Peninsular Malaysia and eastern Borneo.
5076		habitat	eng	The species roosts in caves and is found in primary and secondary forest.
5076		population	eng	There is very little information on its abundance. In Peninsular Malaysia this species has been captured at Kuala Lompat, Kuala Serloh, and Lubuk Baung (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2006; Senawi 2004).
5076		threats	eng	The species is likely affected by deforestation in many parts of its range due to logging, expanding agriculture and plantations, and fire.
5080		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and water regimes, and renaturation of waters are needed. In Germany, the species is regionally extinct. <em>C. h. freyi</em> is listed in the EC habitats directive (Annex II), and is included in the Bern Convention (Annex II).
5080		distribution	eng	Main area of the nominotypical subspecies from Sibiria to Japan, and maybe one isolated population in the delta of the river Ob; in Europe subspecies <em>freyi</em> is presently only known from Austria (valley of the river Lech, Tyrol); one population was discovered in Germany in 1952 by Bilek (lake “Zwingsee” near Inzell), but the population was extinct in 1967.
5080		habitat	eng	Clear and oligotrophic mountain lakes with zones of slow running waters (from incoming streams), shallow and vegetated.
5080		population	eng	Only seven reproducing populations (two more obviously without reproduction) are known from Austria; in general the population sizes are small or very small; rarest damselfly of Europe; population sizes and status in Sibiria and Asia unknown.
5080		threats	eng	Water pollution, changes in the water regimes, eutrophication, introduction of fishes, climatic changes.
5081		conservation	eng	Preservation of traditional agricultural, control of water pollution. Forest clearing around rivers. Examples of restoration took place in some restricted places in the UK, and also in northeast France through some actions of the Conservatoire des Sites Lorrains.
5081		conservation	eng	Preservation of traditional agriculture and rearing, control of water pollution. Forest clearing around rivers.
5081		conservation	eng	Preservation of traditional agriculture and rearing, control of water pollution. Forest clearing around rivers. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
5081		conservation	eng	This species is included in Annex II  and IV of the European Habitats Directive. Main conservation measures inlcude the management of water courses, control of water pollution, management that keeps the vegetation open. Intensification of agriculture should be avoided. Examples of restoration took place in some restricted places in the UK, Belgium and northeast France.
5081		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion mercuriale</em> occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. In northern Africa, it is known from Morocco (24 locations - four now possibly extinct), Algeria (eight locations - five now possibly extinct), and Tunisia (five locations - three now possibly extinct).
5081		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion mercuriale</em> occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. In northern Africa, it is known from Morocco (out of 24 locations, four now possibly extinct), Algeria (out of eight locations, five are now possibly extinct), and Tunisia (out of five locations, three are now possibly extinct).
5081		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion mercuriale</em> occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. More than 1,550 localities have been recorded in Europe for this species, among which at least 70 are probably lost. In Italy, only five recent records were published after 1990 and the species has clearly declined both in the southern areas and in Sicily (where it may be extinct) due to small streams drying up. Possibly, 50% of the known locations in Italy have become extinct.
5081		distribution	eng	West Europa and Maghreb.
5081		habitat	eng	Small brooks and springs.
5081		habitat	eng	Small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous
5081		habitat	eng	Small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous.
5081		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. mercuriale</span> is found in small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous. Also, the species lives in man-made irrigation channels, which are permanently wet.
5081		population	eng	In Europe, the species is rather common in France. It is more scattered in southern Iberia, rare in Germany, very rare in the United Kingdom, Belgium, Liechtenstein, extinct in southern Switzerland, Luxembourg, Austria and the Netherlands. About half of the Italian records are old and may refer to populations that are now extinct; the species is currently rare in Italy. Moreover, it is extinct or erroneously recorded in Slovenia, erroneously recorded from Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Macedonia, the Republic of Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania and the Caucasus.
5081		population	eng	In northern Africa, this southwestern Palearctic species is fairly scattered in north Morocco but is very rare in Algeria (only three recent records) and Tunisia (two recent records).
5081		population	eng	The species is rather common in France, except in the northwest, Iberia and Northern Morocco. Endangered in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Italy, Algeria, Tunisia, Slovakia. Critically Endangered in Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria. Extinct in Luxembourg, The Netherlands and Slovenia. The records of this species in the Czech Republic and in Bulgaria are questionable. Records from Albania, Hungary, the Republic of Moldova and Romania are now considered as erroneous.
5081		threats	eng	Rivers straightening, water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices. Overgrazing. Drought in relation to global warming.
5081		threats	eng	River straightening, water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, watertable lowering through irrigation, field destruction or conversion into other agricultural practices, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices.
5081		threats	eng	The main threats include river straightening (channelisation), water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices lead to the extirpation of the species. Drought in relation to global warming, forest closure and plantation of trees on river banks, poor management of bank side vegetation and the large scale of clearance of the ditches are also major threats.<br/>Flourishing populations still occur in many countries but their survival is definitely incompatible with modern intensive agricultural practices and forest closure. Although the species remains widespread in France, most of the populations at the periphery of its main area have been destroyed and a continuous decline is observed in any area where agriculture shifts from grasslands to irrigated ploughed fields, the worst situation being reached with maize (a crop that is irrigated throughout the summer months) and rice cultivation.
5081		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are river channelization, water management, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution, modern intensive agricultural practices, overgrazing and drought in relation to global warming.
5083		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas and is listed as Vulnerable in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz, 2000).
5083		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwest Bolivia, Peru, western Ecuador, northern and southwest Colombia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). In Bolivia it is found from the lowlands of Beni up to 2,500 m asl in the yungas (Incachaca) of Cochabamba (Anderson, 1997).
5083		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, arboreal and solitary, but adult pairs have been found denning together in tree holes. It is slow moving but can climb swiftly. It is restricted to forested regions, and is found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest; its movements are inoffensive, but quick to defend itself with its spines or by biting. It feeds leaves, fruits and bark (Emmons and Feer 1997).
5083		population	eng	It can be locally common, at low densities, as per other porcupines, and widespread; it is becoming less common due to deforestation.
5083		threats	eng	There are no major threats. In the Bolivian yungas, the species is killed as a pest in fruit orchards (J. Vargas pers. comm.).
5084		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species; not enough is known about the status of this species to know if any conservation measures are needed.
5084		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil south of the main channel of the Amazonas River, from Ilha de marajo, Belem to Ilha Tayauna, in the Pará and Amazonas States (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
5084		habitat	eng	The species is nocturnal and herbivorous (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). A lowland tropical rainforest species occuring in primary forest, there is a possibility that mature secondary growth might be inhabited (Voss in litt. 2006).
5084		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
5084		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
5085		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
5085		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed from Colombia and Venezuela south to northern Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999); occurring in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000; Emmons and Feer 1997; Zapata and Castro 2001).
5085		habitat	eng	Lives in dry and wet forests, disturbed and undisturbed forests.<br/><br/>The species is nocturnal and herbivorous (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). It rests in tree cavities or canopies during the day. Sexual maturity is reached at about nineteen months and they remain reproductively active for more than twelve years. There is no reproductive season but the reproductive interval is about 203 days. Gestation lasts up to 203 days after which one young is born (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
5085		population	eng	This is rare in some areas but is the common, dominant mammal in others.
5085		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species at this time.
5086		conservation	eng	Occurs within many protected areas within its range where it is still common (Samudio pers. comm.).
5086		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Panama (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005), and possibly west of Andes in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Reid 1997). It can be found in only lowlands (Reid 1997).
5086		habitat	eng	This species can be found in lowland deciduous and evergreen forest (Reid 1997). It occurs less often below 800 or 1,000 m (Samudio pers. comm.). It is able to persist within disturbed forest (Samudio pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It is nocturnal and arboreal; it sleeps during the day in vine tangles near the tops of trees. The diet includes fruit and leaves (Goldman 1920, in Reid 1997).
5086		population	eng	It has previously been considered uncommon (Reid 1997). However, recent surveys show the species to be fairly common in Panama.
5086		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species (Samudio pers. comm.).
5100		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Hungary, Austria and France, the species only occurs in protected areas.
5100		distribution	eng	This species occurs in France (the western Pyrenees, les Landes, Gironde to Charente-Maritime and Charente, Sarthe, Seine-et-Marne, Savoie and Isère), Switzerland (Rhine Valley and Tessino), Italy (Varese, Treviso, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia), Slovenia, Austria, Liechtenstein, Poland and Hungary. Sea level-500 m. It is also found throughout Kazakhstan and South Siberia to China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
5100		habitat	eng	The False Ringlet is a very local species that is declining at an alarming rate in several countries, though more stable in others. It inhabits low-lying, grassy marshes and reed-beds that are usually situated in the shelter of woodland, creating a warm and humid environment. The butterflies fly very slowly and hardly ever colonize nearby habitats. The eggs are deposited one by one on the blades of grasses, like meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), rye-grasses (<em>Lolium</em> spp.), hair-grasses (<em>Deschampsia</em> spp.), sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.)  and Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>). The caterpillars hibernate half-grown in the tussock, where they pupate as well. The False Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), blanket bogs (20%), raised bogs (13%), fens, transition mires and springs (10%), mixed woodland (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).
5100		population	eng	This species is extremely local in very isolated populations and is restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Bulgaria, Germany, Switzerland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia, France, Hungary (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
5100		threats	eng	Agricultural improvements (inc. land drainage) as well as abandonment of grassland habitats are the largest threats for <em>Coenonympha oedippus</em>. It survives nowadays in small and fragmented habitats where colonies are threatened by isolation.
5112		conservation	eng	Rocamora and Joubert (2004) recommend annual census of individuals along established transects; regular sensitive visits to all known roosting localities with additional surveys to locate any additional sites; reevaluation of the species distribution every three or four years; legal protection of all known roosting sites and their immediate surroundings; control of introduced predators (barn owl <em>Tyto alba</em> and cats); habitat protection within known feeding areas; public awareness campaigns; ongoing and additional research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species. Gerlach and Taylor (2006) also outline the importance of removing invasive vegetation from existing and abandoned roost sites, and restoring lowland forests through the control of coconut and cinnamon, and replanting native vegetation.
5112		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is currently found on the islands of Silhouette, Mahé (in the northwest of the island) and Praslin. It is thought to have become extinct on La Digue island and Praslin since 1980s (Justin Gerlach pers. comm. 2008).
5112		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from coastal boulder field caves with stable cool temperatures and access into native palm woodland or marsh habitat (Gerlach and Taylor 2006). It appears to need boulder caves with horizontal ceilings; low, stable temperatures; and clear cave flyways not obscured by vegetation (Gerlach and Taylor 2006). Joubert (2004) and Gerlach and Taylor (2006) provide specific details on the ecological requirements of this rare species. Although the species has recently been recorded from three islands, the only occupied roosting localities are known at La Passe and Grande Barbe (their continued presence at this second site was recently confirmed by J. Gerlach pers. comm.), on Silhouette island (Rocamora and Joubert 2004; Gerlach and Taylor 2006), and from two sites on Mahé, the main locality of Cap Ternay containing between 20 and 30 animals, and Anse Major with one or two bats (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2008). Abandoned roosts have been recorded from all four islands in the species historical distribution. A detailed study of the roosting site at La Passe is provided by Burgess and Lee (2004).
5112		population	eng	The species was noted by Wright (1868) to be 'very common in the neighborhood of the town of Port Victoria'. Joubert (2004) mentions that the species was seemingly still abundant up to the 1970s, and that the use of guano deposits as an indicator suggests that the magnitude of decline may have been as high as 90%. The global population is now clearly very small, and although the precise number is not known, it is believed to be fewer than 100 mature individuals (Rocamora and Joubert 2004; J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2008). The roosting cave at La Passe was recorded to contain 32 bats in total in 2003 (Gerlach 2004, 2008), however, more recently only 27 animals have been recorded roosting at this locality (Justin Gerlach pers. comm. 2008).
5112		threats	eng	Gerlach and Taylor (2004) report that the most catastrophic decline of this species probably occurred in the late 1800s and early 1900s when lowland forests were cleared, converting the mosaic of woodland and open gaps to intensively managed coconut plantations with no shrub layer to support the invertebrate diet of this species. Invasive plants including the Kudzu vine (<em>Pueraria phaseoloides</em>) and coconut scrub from abandoned plantations threaten remaining suitable habitat for this species. Kudzu vine threatens to overgrow roost cave entrances or to change the temperature gradient within caves (Gerlach and Taylor 2004). The species is sensitive to disturbance of roosting caves and this remains a threat to any active roost sites. Other suggested threats have been the predation of bats by the barn owl, <em>Tyto alba</em>, introduced in 1949, and feral cats.
5113		conservation	eng	On the African continent, there are no species-specific conservation measures in place, but there are some protected areas within its range. Both of the known sites for this species in Madagascar are within protected areas (the Ankarana Special Reserve and Namoroka National Park).
5113		distribution	eng	The African sheath-tailed bat is found in much of east and eastern-central Africa, with an isolated record from central Mozambique. It is also found in west Africa, with records from Guinea and Guinea Bissau, northern Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria. There is also a small distribution in western Angola. This species was recently discovered in Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is known only from the Ankarana Special Reserve in the north of the island and the Namoroka National Park in the west.
5113		habitat	eng	On mainland Africa, the African sheath-tailed bat is found in well illuminated caves, rocky crevices and cellars of houses (Rosevear, 1965). It preferentially roosts in caves along the sea and lake shores (Kingdon, 1974). In Nigeria, the African sheath-tailed bat is found in localised rocky habitats in southern Guinea savanna. Rosevear (1965) stated that they occur in woodland but only where there are acceptable roosting places. It is likely that other colonies occur in suitable rocky habitats in the southern Guinea savanna of western Nigeria. On Madagascar this bat taxon appears to be more varied in its habits, with some roost sites typically very dark and others quite close to the cave entrance. The two known sites on Madagascar are within dry deciduous tropical forest on a karst substrate (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Some authours suggests that the African sheath-tailed bat migrates (Happold, 1987; Skinner and Smithers 1990).
5113		population	eng	In the African portion of the African sheath-tailed bat's distribution, it roosts in large colonies (in the 1,000s of animals). The population and local abundance of this species in Madagascar is not known, but there is a minimum estimate of 500 individuals in one cave complex in Ankarana, Madagascar.
5113		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well understood. Disturbance of roost sites could potentially be a threat, but the effect of this on the population is not well known.
5142		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is present in a number of protected areas across its range, including Salonga National Park (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Virunga National Park (DR Congo), Nyungwe National Park (Rwanda), and Kaya Gonja and the Shimba Hills National Reserve (Kenya).
5142		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Angola north to the Congo-Oubangui river system, and then eastwards (with a disjunct range) to the montane and coastal forests of Tanzania and Kenya. Recorded to 2,415 m asl in Kenya (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>There are six described subspecies. <br/><br/><em>C. a. angolensis</em> ranges from Angola north to the great bend of the Congo River. <br/><br/><em>C. a. cottoni</em> occurs from north-east of the River Congo, east to Lake Albert and north to the Uele-Oubangui river system (this subspecies forms a hybrid zone with <em>C. a. ruwenzorii</em> in the south of its range). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. ruwenzorii</em> ranges along both sides of the western Rift, from the Semiliki Valley and the Rwenzori Mountains through south-eastern Uganda, Rwanda, Mount Kahuzi (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Burundi to the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania. <br/><br/><em>C. a. cordieri</em> is present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo where it occurs between the Lowa and Luama rivers from the Lualaba River in the west to close to Lake Kivu in the east, where it forms a hybrid zone with <em>C. a. ruwenzorii</em>. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. prigoginei</em> is endemic to Mount Kabobo, in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/>The eastern subspecies, <em>C. a. palliatus</em>, is discontinously distributed in the Southern Highlands and coastal and gallery forests of southern and eastern Tanzania and south-eastern Kenya. Kenyan distribution of <em>C. a. palliatus</em> is solely restricted to the southern coastal forests of the Kwale District (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>An isolated, undescribed subspecies is present on Mount Nkungwe and adjacent uplands in the Mahale Mountains of western Tanzania.
5142		habitat	eng	This largely arboreal species occurs in both lowland and montane primary and gallery forests. It is generally found in small family groups, but temporary aggregations of up to 300 animals have been reported. The eastern <em>Colobus a. palliatus</em> is a folivorous primate confined to the forests of Tanzania and southern Kenya (Kingdon 1997), and is forest-dependent primate.
5142		population	eng	This widespread species can be common in suitable habitat. Their populations in the eastern part of the range are much more fragmented than the populations across the Congo basin. In a recent comprehensive survey of the Kenyan range of the species, a total of 55 colobus populations were located, with the total Kenyan <em>C. a. palliatus</em> population estimated at between 3,100 and 5,000 individuals (560–900 groups). The density of <em>C. a. palliatus</em> in Shimba Hills forest, the largest population, was 15 individuals/km², and the total population size was thus estimated at ca. 2,400 individuals  (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2007).
5142		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion of land to agricultural use. Isolated populations, such as those in the Eastern Arc and coastal forests, are especially vulnerable (see Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2007 for further detail on <em>C. angolensis palliatus</em>). It is hunted for meat, especially in the Congo Basin.
5143		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed to assess the validity of the various described subspecies.
5143		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the area of the Donga River region of Nigeria and the Yabassi District of Cameroon, eastwards across the Oubangui River from the Central African Republic to the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and then discontinuously eastwards to southern Sudan, Uganda, the Kenyan and Ethiopian highlands, and Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru and the Kahé District of Tanzania (Groves in press).<br/><br/>There are eight subspecies: <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. g. occidentalis</em> occurs from eastern Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon, eastwards to south-western Sudan and Uganda. <br/><br/>The nominate <em>C. g. guereza</em> is found in forested areas of the Ethiopian highlands west of the Rift Valley and down into the lowland reaches along the Awash River, the Omo River and in the Blue Nile gorge.<br/><br/><em>C. g. gallarum</em> is restricted to the Ethiopian highlands east of the Rift Valley. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. g. dodingae</em> is endemic to the Didinga Hills in south-eastern Sudan. <br/><br/><em>C. g. matschiei</em> is found in Kenya west of the Rift Valley, and also in some of the forests within the Rift, west to Mount Elgon (Kenya and Uganda), and south to the Ngorongoro Crater and the Grumeti River in Tanzania. <br/><br/><em>C. g. percivali</em> is restricted to the Matthews Range of Kenya. <br/><br/><em>C. g. kikuyuensis</em> is known only from the Ngong Escarpment, Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountain Range, Kenya. <br/><br/><em>C. g. caudatus</em> is present on montane forests of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru, and the adjoining forests at slightly lower altitudes (Kahe; Momela Lakes in Arusha National Park), Tanzania and Kenya.
5143		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest, and gallery forest. They are often common in secondary or degraded forest. Animals live in small family groups.
5143		population	eng	A very widespread species that is still locally adundant in many areas.
5143		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation for timber, conversion to exotic forest plantations and conversion to agricultural land (e.g., von Hippel <em>et al.</em> 2000). Hunting may also be severely impacting populations in the western part of the species range; Mwenja (2007) commented, in passing, that this subspecies is killed for its skins by local pastoralists in and around the Matthews Range Forest Reserve.
5144		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Class A under the African Convention and under Appendix II of CITES. It is found in a number of protected areas, including Sapo National Park (Liberia), Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), and Tiwai Island Sanctuary (Sierra Leone).
5144		distribution	eng	This species is found in far western Africa, from southern Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia, east to the Sassandra River in Côte d’Ivoire (Kingdon 1997; Groves 2005). <br/><br/>A possible subspecies <em>C. p. dollmani</em> is found east of the Sassandra River, but is probably a hybrid with <em>C. vellerosus</em> in this very narrow contact zone up to the Bandama River.
5144		habitat	eng	Rainforest and forest galleries are preferred, the species is rarely found in degraded habitat, though sometimes in secondary forests.
5144		population	eng	Until recently this species was widespread. However, although the total range of this species is still extensive, habitat loss and hunting are becoming an increasing threat and fragmenting the remaining populations.
5144		threats	eng	This species is affected primarily by hunting and secondarily by habitat loss.
5145		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, and as Class B under the African Convention. This species needs effective protection against hunting, and its habitat must be protected. In Gabon, it is present in Lope Reserve (Gabon), where there is relatively good protection (Brugiere 1998), and also in the Foret des Abeilles, which is mostly allocated to logging concessions. Elsewhere, it is recorded from Monte Alen National Park in Rio Muni, and on Bioko from the Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve. Further data on the distribution and status of this species are required.
5145		distribution	eng	This species is found from Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), through Equatorial Guinea, western and central Gabon inland to Lope National Park (Brugiere 1998) (and with unconfirmed reports of sparse populations east of the Ogooue and Ivindo Rivers), parts of Congo, and on Bioko Island. This species is now rare or absent in those parts of its range where there has been extensive logging. In mainland Equatorial Guinea, for example, its range had been reduced to one-third of its former size by 1967. It is thought to occur from 500-2250 m asl. <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>C. s. satanas</em> is found only on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea), while <em>C. s. anthracinus</em> is found in Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, Equatorial Guinea, Congo and Gabon.
5145		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal evergreen, lowland moist, montane, and swamp forests. It is typically found high in the canopy of dense, primary rainforest, and is now only present in protected or undisturbed inaccessible areas. On Bioko, it has been observed on the montane heathland. It appears unable to survive in secondary forest, and is rare or absent in forests where logging has reduced canopy height. <em>C. satanas</em> is a highly arboreal, diurnal species. It feeds selectively on seeds and unripe fruits, and shows a strong preference for the leaves of lianas. Old leaves are less favoured, and only in sand-dune forest are they eaten with regularity. This species lives in groups averaging 15 individuals, and has an annual home range of approximately 60 ha.
5145		population	eng	There are no estimates of the total population of this species, but it is known to live at low densities. It is thought to have a patchy distribution in parts of its range. The highest density populations are thought to be in Lope Reserve, Gabon, where there is a population of approximately 50,000 - 55,900 individuals (Brugiere 1998), in the Foret des Abeilles (central Gabon) where the population density is 25-30 animals/km², and in the Douala-Edea Reserve (Cameroon), where the density was estimated to be 38 animals/km² in 1978. <br/><br/>On Bioko, this species has undergone the biggest decline of all the primates -- more than 60% between the period 1986 and 2006 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006). They were common species on Pico Basile in 1986, but have been heavily hunted in the Pico Basile National Park in the 2000s. They are now rare outside the Gran Caldera.
5145		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and forest clearance for agriculture. Its dependence on high-canopy habitats make it particularly susceptible to tree felling (Brugiere 1998). This species is also widely hunted for its meat and skin, with the populations on Bioko being under considerable pressure (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).
5146		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Class A under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It is known from several protected areas including Comoe National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), Fazao-Malfakassa National Park (Togo) and Mole, Bui and Digya National Parks (Ghana).
5146		distribution	eng	This species ranges between the Bandama River (Côte d’Ivoire) and its tributary, the Nzi, east into western Nigeria, to the Dahomey Gap (Togo and Benin). Historically, it occurred in central and eastern Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria. The population west of the Bandama, as far west of the Sassandra, the form "dollmani", is essentially a hybrid with <em>C. polykomos</em> (Groves <em>et al.</em> 1993).
5146		habitat	eng	Found in lowland rainforest and gallery forests and far north into the Guinea Forest Savannah Zone. In Bénin, they were observed in several habitats, including swamp forests, semi-deciduous forests and gallery forests (Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008). The diet is thought to resemble that of <em>C. guereza</em>, but the exact composition may vary according to the presence or absence of other monkeys.
5146		population	eng	There has been no systematic survey of this species, but it is known to have become rare in several national parks in Ghana where it had been assumed to be secure. It is now also a very rare animal in Benin, Togo and Nigeria.
5146		threats	eng	This species is threatened primarily by hunting and secondarily by habitat loss. The region it inhabits has a dense and rapidly growing human population, forest destruction has been extensive, and the hunting of wildlife is uncontrolled in most places (although in some places they are hold sacred; e.g., see Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008).
5151		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
5151		distribution	eng	Thi species is found in the rainforest zone and adjacent forest-savanna mosaic. It has been patchily recorded from Liberia (Lofa), western Cameroon, northeastern Angola, northwestern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda (Mount Elgon), western Kenya, southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. The range limits are not fully resolved, but it has not been recorded from the rainforest of Central African Republic or the forests of West Africa (except Gabon and Liberia). The species has been recorded up to 3,200 m asl, while the lowest elevation recorded is about 400 m, but generally it occurs above 800 m asl.
5151		habitat	eng	<em>Colomys goslingi </em>is most commonly found along banks of small and shallow flowing streams and around pools in tropical evergreen rainforests (lowland and montane). It has also been collected along streams in grasslands and savanna far from forest.
5151		population	eng	It is locally common.
5151		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species other than localised habitat loss in parts of the range; it is threatened in Zambia due to habitat destruction through clearing for charcoal production.
5221		conservation	eng	It is not known if thes species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5221		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen collected at Lubondai, Kasai Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Although the species has not recently been collected, no directed searches have been undertaken near to its type locality (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). This species is probably to be restricted to southern forest belt of the Congo, although more research is needed to confirm this (R. Hutterer pers. comm.).
5221		habitat	eng	The type collection took place within tropical moist gallery forest. There is little further information available on the natural history of this poorly known species.
5221		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
5221		threats	eng	The threats are not known, but it seems plausible that habitat loss (resulting from logging operations) could be a threat to this species.
5222		conservation	eng	No information available.
5222		distribution	eng	The species is currently known only from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala, Busu Lite and one additional unnamed site).
5222		habitat	eng	Unknown but possibly present in swamp forest.
5222		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
5222		threats	eng	None known at present.
5223		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
5223		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia, where it appears to have been distributed in south-eastern South Australia, Victoria, southern and eastern New South Wales and possibly in extreme south-eastern Queensland (Dixon 2008).
5223		habitat	eng	It was found in areas of eucalyptus woodland, where animals were recorded nesting in hollow branches. One female was known to have had a litter of three young (Dixon 2008).
5223		population	eng	This species is presumed to be extinct. It has not been recorded since 1860-1862 in Victoria, where it was at one time common and even regarded as a pest. Although it was widely distributed, it was apparently not abundant (Dixon 2008). Surveys conducted over the years have not found this species.
5223		threats	eng	It has been suggested that the possible causes for extinction of this species were habitat disruption by introduced livestock and rabbits, and predation by cats.
5224		conservation	eng	This species is not listed in Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Listed as vulnerable the Northern Territory (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000). It occurs in a large protected area on the peninsula of the Northern Territory (Garik Gunak Barlu National Park); also present in Kakadu National Park; and in Prince Regent Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution of the species in New Guinea, the ecology of the species, and threats to it. Future protection should be directed towards island populations. Targeted surveys are needed in Western Australia, particularly on population trends. There are ongoing studies on experimental release into areas with different fire regimes and cat control.
5224		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia and the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). In Australia, it previously occurred though much of monsoonal northern areas, including a number of offshore islands (e.g., Groote Eylandt). Currently this species occurs in perhaps 20 per cent of historic range. It is restricted to the mainland within a thin strip of about 30 km of the coast in Western Australia and Northern Territory. It is also known from islands. The smallest island from which the species is currently known is 8,181 ha (Inglis Island) (Woinarski <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Western Australia, the species is only known from several localities. The range is apparently disjunct between the northern Western Australia segment and the northern Northern Territory segment, though there have not been extensive recent surveys in the region. In Northern Territory, it is now found on Cobourg Peninsula, Bathurst, Melville, and Inglis Islands, Groote Eylandt, and a small area in Kakadu National Park (Woinarski 2000, 2005). The species is also present on Bentinck Island, Queensland.<br/><br/>In Papua New Guinea, it is known only from two nearby localities (Penzara Village and Morehead) in southern Western Province, where it seems to be a distinct subspecies, <em>C. p. randi</em>. Surveys suggest that the species has a restricted distribution (Flannery 1995). It ranges from sea level to 60 m asl.
5224		habitat	eng	This is a partly arboreal species found in open eucalypt woodland or savanna habitats, with a grassy or sparse shrub understorey (Flannery 1995; Woinarski 2005). On Cobourg Peninsula, it also occurs in coastal grasslands (with scattered large trees, beaches, and stunted eucalypt woodland) (Woinarski 2005). Females can give birth to several litters in a season of between one and four (usually 3) young, after a gestation period of 36 days (Kemper and Firth 2008). This species requires tree holes (Woinarski 2005). Its diet is mainly seeds (especially of grasses), with some fruits, invertebrates, and leaves and grass (Woinarski 2005).
5224		population	eng	It is sparsely distributed, but may be locally abundant (Kemper and Firth 2008). Its range and population size in the Northern Territory has probably declined by well over 50% since European settlement, but this decline cannot be dated with any assurance (Woinarski 2005). Historically it was abundant in Northern Australia, where records from 1880s and 1890s tell of its extraordinarily high density. This species is known from about 6 locations in the Kimberley Region. In the Northern Territory, there are recent records only from the Tiwi Islands, Inglis Island, a small area within Kakadu National Park, and on Coubourg Peninsula (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). In the latter area, it may be locally abundant (densities to 6 individuals/ha) (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There are no recent (post 1990) records from several other sites where it was formerly recorded (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There are no other data on recent population trends (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). In Papua New Guinea, it is known only from two specimens.
5224		threats	eng	The species appears to have specific habitat requirements and may be vulnerable to local extinctions (Kemper and Firth 2008). In Papua New Guinea, the habitat of this species is impacted by introduced deer and the species may be predated by feral dogs. Frequent fires decrease the availability of tree holes, on which these species depends (in the last century there has been a change to a more frequent fire regime). With too few fires, the species can also be threatened – it needs an appropriate fire regime. Cattle were a threat in the past, and may continue to be, but there is little evidence to support this. Feral cats are a problem and it is probably no coincidence that many of the remnant populations are on islands without feral cat populations.<br/><br/>The population on the Tiwi Islands will be reduced by a proposed forestry development that aims to clear between 30,000 and 100,000 ha of the preferred habitat (tall eucalypt open forests) and replace it with plantations of fast-growing exotic Acacia species (Woinarski 2005).
5228		conservation	eng	Currently, about 20% of the population occurs in protected areas, with around 80% occurring on private farmland and conservancies (East 1999). The most immediate conservation need is avoiding keeping <em>C. taurinus</em> and <em>C. gnou</em> in the same areas.
5228		distribution	eng	The Black Wildebeest occurs in South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho. By the end of the 19th century, excessive hunting had reduced the formerly vast population to a few individuals surviving on two farms in the Free State Province of South Africa; since then, protection by farmers and conservation agencies has allowed the species to recover (East 1999, Vrahimis in press). It has now been reintroduced to parts of its former range (western Swaziland and western Lesotho) and into farmland areas outside of its natural range (Namibia). A detailed discussion of the historical distribution of the species is given by Von Richter (1971).
5228		habitat	eng	A species characteristics of the open plains grasslands and karoo shrublands of South Africa and Lesotho. The high central plateau grasslands are characterized by flat to rolling hills, and mountainous areas with altitudes ranging from 1,350-2,150 m (Vrahimis in press). The Black Wildebeest is predominantly a grazer and prefers short grassveld (Von Richter 1974).
5228		population	eng	Recent estimates are available for almost all of this species’ populations, including total counts for protected areas and questionnaire surveys for private land. Summation of these estimates gives a total population estimate of more than 18,000, of which about 80% is on private farms and conservancies and 20% in protected areas. Population trend is increasing, especially on private land, with a large extralimital population now established in Namibia, where importations from South Africa led to a dramatic rise in the estimated total numbers, from 150 in 1982 to more than 7,000 in 1992 (East 1999).
5228		threats	eng	Previously, the main threat to this species was hunting pressure, habitat loss, and periodic outbreak of disease (Vrahimis in press). However, now that the species has recovered and numbers are increasing, the only significant threat is the problem of hybridization with the Common Wildebeest, <em>C. taurinus</em>, which can occur when the two species are mixed unnaturally on fenced land (East 1999). Hybrids are known to be fertile (Fabricius <em>et al.</em> 1988).
5229		conservation	eng	The vulnerability of this species to illegal hunting and loss of habitat caused by the encroachment of settlement is increased by the dependence of some migratory populations on seasonal access to unprotected rangelands. In these cases, e.g., Liuwa Plain, Tarangire and Kajiado, effective protection and management of national parks which contain only part of the population’s annual range may be insufficient to prevent major population declines. Loss of range outside protected areas may result in the replacement of migratory populations with much smaller (but nevertheless substantial) resident populations within protected areas, as has occurred in areas such as Etosha National Park and Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve. Some wildebeest populations are naturally relatively sedentary and/or their seasonal movements are generally accommodated within protected areas, e.g., Kafue, Luangwa, Hwange and Selous. The overall status of the species may not change in the long term if it continues to be well represented in protected areas and on private land, but if current trends continue its populations will become increasingly sedentary within fenced parks, reserves and farms (East 1999).<br/><br/>The future of the enormous migratory wildebeest population of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem will have a major impact on the species’ overall conservation status. This population has shown signs of recovery from its decline in the early 1990s (Thirgood <em>et al.</em> 2004), but two sections of the migration route – the Ikoma Open Area and the Mara Group Ranches – currently receive limited protection and are threatened by poaching or agriculture.<br/><br/>Other smaller, but substantial populations, of Common Wildebeest occur in areas such as: Kafue and Liuwa Plain (Zambia), Etosha (Namibia), Okavango, Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan, Ngamiland and the central and southern Kalahari (Botswana), Hwange (Zimbabwe), Kruger, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and Mkuzi (South Africa), Hlane (Swaziland) and private farmland (Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa) (Blue Wildebeest); the Luangwa Valley (Zambia) (Cookson’s Wildebeest); the Selous ecosystem (Tanzania) (Nyassa Wildebeest); Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania) (Western White-bearded Wildebeest); and Tarangire (Tanzania) and Kajiado (Kenya) (Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest). Most of these populations are currently stable or increasing. Some populations have decreased substantially from historical levels because of the loss of their former migration routes, e.g., Etosha, Kalahari.
5229		distribution	eng	Formerly distributed from southern Kenya southwards to northern and eastern Namibia, Botswana, the Orange River in South Africa, and Mozambique (East 1999; Estes in press). Common Wildebeest have also been introduced to regions outside their former distribution range, such as the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and private farmland in Namibia (East 1999).<br/><br/>The ranges of the five subspecies are as follows (following East 1999 and Estes in press):<br/><br/><em>C. t. taurinus</em> (Blue Wildebeest). Namibia and South Africa to Mozambique north of the Orange River, and from Mozambique to Zambia south of the Zambezi River, and from south-west Zambia to south-east and southern Angola.<br/> <br/><em>C. t. cooksoni</em> (Cookson’s Wildebeest). Restricted to the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. May have ranged as vagrants onto the adjacent plateau into central Malawi. <br/><br/><em>C. t. johnstoni</em> (Nyassa or Johnston’s Wildebeest). North of Zambezi River in Mozambique to east-central Tanzania, and formerly in southern Malawi, where now extinct. <br/><br/><em>C. t. albojubatus</em> (Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest). Northern Tanzania to central Kenya just south of the Equator, west to the Gregory Rift Valley.<br/><br/><em>C. t. mearnsi</em> (Western White-bearded Wildebeest of the Serengeti ecosystem). Northern Tanzania and southern Kenya west of the Gregory Rift Valley, reaching Lake Victoria at Speke Bay.
5229		habitat	eng	This species occurs in short-grass plains, and bordering Acacia savanna open bushland and woodland in drier areas. Serengeti wildebeests thrive on short grasslands on alkaline and volcanic soils during the rainy season, and withdraw to longer grasslands in areas of higher rainfall and permanent water during the dry season. They are rarely found above 1,800-2,100 m (e.g., the Ngorongoro Crater). Common Wildebeest are pure grazers, requiring water at least every day or two in the dry season (Estes in press).
5229		population	eng	During the late 1990s, estimates were available for all of the major surviving populations of this species, mainly from aerial surveys, producing a total population in excess of 1,200,000 (correcting for undercounting bias in aerial surveys). The migratory Serengeti-Mara population represented about 70% of global species numbers (942,000, having dropped below one million following the severe 1993 drought). Other population estimates were: Blue Wildebeest, 150,000 (with about half in protected areas, and one-quarter on private land and conservancies); Cookson’s Wildebeest, 16,000 (about 60% in protected areas); Nyassa Wildebeest, 96,000 (about two-thirds in protected areas, particularly Selous); and Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest, 94,000 (with about two-thirds in and around protected areas) (East 1999). <br/><br/>The most recent estimate of the total population size of Common Wildebeest is around 1,550,000 (R.D. Estes and R. East, in Estes in press), largely due to the rebounding of the Serengeti population to about 1,300,000 (Thirgood <em>et al.</em> 2004); other subspecies populations are estimated at 130,000 Blue Wildebeest, 5,000-10,000 Cookson’s, and 50,000-75,000 Nyassa. However, estimates of Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest indicate a steep decline in the subspecies’ populations to a current level of perhaps 6,000-8,000 animals.<br/><br/>Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population densities estimated by aerial surveys range from less than 0.15/km² in areas such as Kafue, Etosha, Hwange and the central and southern Kalahari, to 0.6-1.3/km² in areas such as Kruger, North Luangwa, Selous and Kajiado, and 3.6/km² in Tarangire. Recent total counts in areas where the species is abundant have produced population density estimates as high as 34.0-35.0/km², e.g., Serengeti and Ngorongoro Crater.
5229		threats	eng	Once often found in large concentrations, the numbers and distribution of Common Wildebeest have been reduced by the spread of settlement and livestock, elimination of water sources through watershed deforestation and expropriation for irrigation, poaching for meat, the loss of the seasonal ranges of some migratory populations, and  game eradication programs in failed efforts to eliminate the wild hosts of sleeping sickness (nagana) and other diseases of domestic livestock (East 1999; Estes in press). <br/><br/>Fences that blocked migration between wet and dry-season ranges have caused mass die-off events, by denying access to water and to higher-rainfall refuges during severe droughts. A notorious example is the decline in numbers and episodes of mass mortality of Botswana wildebeest caused by veterinary cordon fences that blocked drought-induced migrations, particularly after thousands died at Lake Xau in the north-east of the Kalahari Desert in 1980 (Owens and Owens 1980).
5239		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
5240		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
5263		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas, and is confirmed from Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea. Measures are needed to work with local communities to manage the harvest at sustainable levels. A captive-breeding programme should be considered.
5263		distribution	eng	The world's largest frog is known only from south-western Cameroon from the region of Nkongsamba, and south to Monte Alen in mainland Equatorial Guinea. It is generally found at low to medium altitudes, below 1,000m asl.
5263		habitat	eng	It lives in or near fast-flowing rivers and streams in rainforest, preferring warmer, slower rivers than <em>Conraua robusta</em>, though faster rivers than <em>C. crassipes</em>. It can survive in secondary habitats close to rivers, as well as in forest, but not in very heavily degraded areas (farm bush). Breeding occurs in streams and small rivers. The young rest by flowing water during the day. Around Nkongsamba in western Cameroon, <em>C. goliath</em>, <em>C. crassipes</em> and <em>C. robusta</em> occur sympatrically.
5263		population	eng	It has decreased significantly as a result of harvesting for food.
5263		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is hunting for food, and new, sophisticated traps for catching this species are now being used in the Nkongsamba area of Cameroon. Animals are also imported from Cameroon to the USA on a regular basis by animal dealers for zoos, the pet trade and competitive frog races (one estimate of this trade is 300 animals per year). It is also adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements, as well as by sedimentation of its breeding streams.
5269		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
5269		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to an area around S. Nicolau in Angola.&#160; Populations are known from Baia Farta, Baia Azul, Chapeu Armado, Sao Nicolau, Santa Maria, Bentiaba, Tombua and Porto Aleixandre. The area covers more than 400 km<sup>2</sup> in the provinces of Benguela and Namibe (M. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). There are some specimens reported from the region around Benguela and Chapeu Armado (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2004).&#160;   <p><br/></p>
5269		habitat	eng	This species will typically grow to 35 mm (<a href="http://www.vianetconchology.com">www.vianetconchology.com</a>). There is little information on habitat in the literature.
5269		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species.
5269		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at the present time. It  occurs in central and south Angola and hence away from the capital, so  that pollution is not a&#160; problem for this species (M. J. Tenorio pers.  comm. 2011). Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast,  but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is  not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the  future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers.  comm. 2011).
5270		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
5270		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coast of Angola. Populations are known from Sao Nicolau to Chapeu Armado, province of Namibe (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011) a distance of approximately 20 km of coastline.
5270		habitat	eng	This species will typically grow to 40mm (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
5270		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
5270		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to this species at this time. Oil  prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no  further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a  current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling  commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
5272		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and extremely scarce in   the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance and  threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known  conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
5272		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is restricted to Lobitos Bay in Province Benguela (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). &#160;Also, populations are known from Lucira to the Santa Maria area, covering the South of Benguela and North of Namibe provinces (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
5272		habitat	eng	This is species lives in shallow water at around 4 m depth where it lives in sand and algae. Adults typically grow to 18 mm (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004; Smithsonian Collections: http://collections.si.edu).
5272		population	eng	There is no information on populations in the literature
5272		threats	eng	This species is restricted to a single bay in Angola.&#160; The threats are unknown. &#160;Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is  no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a  current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil  drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
5330		conservation	eng	Preservation of spring and brooks and of water quality.
5330		distribution	eng	Southwest Caucasus and northeast Turkey in the Pontic Alps.
5330		habitat	eng	Mountain brooks and rivulets in the cloudy/rainy forest zone.
5330		population	eng	Four old localities are known in the SW slopes of Caucasus, and 14 new localities known in the northern slopes of the Pontic Alps in northeastern Turkey, between Ordu and the Georgian border.
5330		threats	eng	Water pollution and harnessing for human use.
5333		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
5336		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
5338		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
5340		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
5360		conservation	eng	No information available.
5360		distribution	eng	Baltic basin, lakes of upper Volga drainage (Seliger, Vseluga, Perejaslavskoe), some lakes of White Sea basin and North Sea basin east of Elbe drainage. Anadromous in Gulf of Finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of Gulf of Bothnia. North to about 69°N in Lake Inari, northern Finland. Frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in northern and central Germany and Poland.
5360		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and marine in open water. At sea, forages close to coast. Spawns along shores, at 3-10 m depth, rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface. Spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, marine and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years (2-3 in Lake Onega), males usually earlier than females. Spawns in October (central Finland), December (northern Germany) at 6-7°C. Anadromous populations start migrating to rivers in August (Neva). Eggs hatch in March-April and juveniles migrate to sea in late summer of first year in anadromous populations. Larvae pelagic close to water surface, usually close to shore. Usually occurs in deep waters in daytime and moves to upper layers at night. Feeds on zooplankton.
5360		population	eng	Very common. The species extended its range to the north through shipping canals and translocations.
5360		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5361		distribution	eng	The Longjaw Cisco was known from Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories in the United States, and Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes basin (except Lakes Ontario and Erie), Canada.
5361		habitat	eng	This demersal, freshwater species formerly was found in deep waters of freshwater lakes.
5361		population	eng	The species was last recorded in 1978.
5361		threats	eng	Over-exploitation by humans and predation by Sea Lampreys were the main causes of the decline of the Longjaw Cisco populations. Environmental changes may also have served to limit their populations.
5362		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in Canada and northern US in St. Lawrence-Great Lakes, Arctic, and upper Mississippi River basins from Quebec to Northwest Territories and Alberta and south to northern Ohio, Illinois and Minnesota.
5362		habitat	eng	Inhabits open waters of lakes and large rivers; also coastal waters of Hudson Bay (Canada).
5363		conservation	eng	No information.
5363		distribution	eng	All drainages (except Ob River and Lake Baikal basin in the Yenisey drainage) of Arctic Ocean in Eurasia from Mezen eastward; America from Cape Barrow to Coronation Bay. Introduced in many localities of former USSR, but not established.
5363		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Migratory. Mostly larger lowland rivers. At sea, in salinity up to 22 ?. Northernmost distribution among whitefishes; in summer enters open waters of Kara Sea and reaches Novosibirsk Islands. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives 10-12 years, rarely up to 20. Spends 6-8 years at sea before maturing and returning to rivers in June-July, to spawn in September-October of same year. A second run in autumn; those fishes remain a year in rivers before spawning. Moves far upstream, sometimes up to 1,500 km. Spawns in shallow tributaries with some current in well oxygenated water over gravel bottom. Individual females do not spawn every year; spawns only 2-3 times during entire life. After spawning, adults return directly to sea. Embryonic development lasts up to seven months. Alevins migrate downstream in May-June. At sea, feeds on larger crustaceans and small fish. No feeding during spawning run.
5363		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Migratory. Mostly larger lowland rivers. At sea, in salinity up to 22 ‰. Northernmost distribution among whitefishes; in summer enters open waters of Kara Sea and reaches Novosibirsk Islands. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives 10-12 years, rarely up to 20. Spends 6-8 years at sea before maturing and returning to rivers in June-July, to spawn in September-October of same year. A second run in autumn; those fishes remain a year in rivers before spawning. Moves far upstream, sometimes up to 1,500 km. Spawns in shallow tributaries with some current in well oxygenated water over gravel bottom. Individual females do not spawn every year; spawns only 2-3 times during entire life. After spawning, adults return directly to sea. Embryonic development lasts up to seven months. Alevins migrate downstream in May-June. At sea, feeds on larger crustaceans and small fish. No feeding during spawning run.
5363		population	eng	Commonly reported in catch statistics from Canada (J. Freyhof pers comm). The population in Russia is in decline.
5363		threats	eng	Overfishing, and pollution - mainly in Siberia.
5366		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred in Lake Nipigon and all of the Great Lakes except Lake Erie; now evidently extirpated in lakes Ontario and Nipigon and declining in lakes Superior and Huron.
5367		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred in Lakes Huron and Michigan in the Great Lakes basin.
5367		habitat	eng	<em>Coregonus johannae</em> was a demersal, freshwater species inhabiting the deeper portions of the lakes.
5367		threats	eng	Commercial exploitation and predation by the Sea Lamprey were the main causes of the extinction of the Deepwater Cisco.
5368		distribution	eng	Formerly more widespread in the Great Lakes; now occurs only in Lake Superior.
5369		conservation	eng	No information.
5369		distribution	eng	Native to Lakes Bourget (France) and Geneva (Switzerland, France). Population of Lake Aiguebelette (France) apparently introduced, but a 'lavaret' had already been recorded from there in the 17th century.
5369		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns on gravel, near shore, in shallow water, in December.
5369		population	eng	Abundant in Lake Bourget. In Lake Aiguebelette its population status is unkown. The species is extirpated in Lake Geneva (early 1900s), but as offspring of Lake Bourget population are hatched and reared in Thonon (on the shores of Lake Geneva), escapes should be expected.
5369		threats	eng	In lake Bourget there are no threats known. The reasons for the extirpation in Lake Geneva are unknown.
5370		conservation	eng	No information.
5370		distribution	eng	All drainages of Arctic Ocean from Volonga (46°E) and Pechora to Alaska (102°W). Rarely at sea, in water with salinity up to 9-15 ?.
5370		distribution	eng	All drainages of Arctic Ocean from Volonga (46°E) and Pechora to Alaska (102°W). Rarely at sea, in water with salinity up to 9-15 ‰.
5370		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland rivers and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 4-8 years, females at 5-9. Adults start upstream migration in late July-August and reach spawning sites by October-November and spawn in stretches with swift current and sand-pebble bottom, often under ice. Spawning lasts 5-7 days and fish leave spawning site soon after, migrating downstream to overwinter in deeper places of lower stretches of rivers together with older juveniles. In spring, alevins drift from spawning sites downstream with flood-water and forage in floodplain lakes and oxbows where they remain until end of summer before moving to river or reaching maturity (if lakes are large enough and do not dry out). Alevins and juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on benthos, mainly chironomid larvae and molluscs.
5370		population	eng	Abundant.
5370		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5371		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred in the Great Lakes (lakes Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Superior); now apparently extinct in the Great Lakes; last known specimens from Lake Huron in 1923 and Lake Michigan in 1969. Populations of what may be this species are extant in Lake Nipigon and possibly in other localities in central Canada, but some authors argue that this is <em>Coregonus artedi</em>.
5371		habitat	eng	Occurred in the upper zones of deepwater areas of lakes.
5371		threats	eng	Decline and extinction due to overfishing, sea lamprey predation, and introgressive hybridization.
5374		conservation	eng	No information.
5374		distribution	eng	Russia: Arctic Ocean basin from Kolyma (eastern Siberia) westward to Mezen drainages. Hybrids involving <em>C. peled</em> introduced in many reservoirs and lakes (Onega) throughout Russia, eastern and central Europe.
5374		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12-13 years (5-6 in dwarf form). Different populations of different forms greatly differ in growth rate. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years, males one year earlier than females. Females ripen very fast just before spawning; most females spawn each year. Spawns in autumn-early winter depending on local climate, over hard sand (shallows in lakes), sand, gravel or stone bottom (in rivers). In northern lakes, spawns under ice. Depth at spawning sites depends on ice thickness and changes in water level, commonly 1-3 m. Spawning lasts 12-16 days at 2-3°C. Feeds on zooplankton (mostly crustaceans), benthic animals (especially insect larvae and mussels, also algae) and insects from surface.
5374		population	eng	Abundant.
5374		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5375		conservation	eng	No information.
5375		distribution	eng	Arctic Ocean basin, from Finland (Lapland) to eastern Siberia, Alaska, Canada eastward to Mackenzie drainage.
5375		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes with tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, brackish waters. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 4-7 years, females at 5-8. Migratory. In July-August, congregates in large schools and migrates upriver to spawning sites. Lacustrine-riverine stocks enter lake tributaries. Distance of migration varies, commonly not very long. Most individuals spawn annually in August-November, sometimes later, in smaller streams or shallows of larger rivers with heavy current over gravel or stone bottom. Lacustrine stocks not migratory. Female lays only a single portion of eggs. Adults migrate downriver to deeper holes of middle stretches to overwinter. Usually starts downstream migration to feeding areas with ice melting. Feeds mainly on large benthic invertebrates (molluscs, gammarids, mysids, chironomids) and plankton in summer, small fishes and terrestrial insects in autumn.
5375		population	eng	No information.
5375		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5376		distribution	eng	Historical range included lakes Michigan, Ontario, and Huron.
5376		habitat	eng	Occurred in the upper zones of deepwater areas of lakes.
5376		threats	eng	Decline and extinction due to overfishing, and sea lamprey predation.
5378		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Great Lakes (extant but declining in Lake Superior, relatively common in Lake Nipigon) to Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories; uncommon outside Great Lakes basin. Occurrences also reported from Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba; Reindeer Lake and Lake Athabasca, Saskatchewan; Barrow Lake, Alberta; and Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories. Has apparently been extirpated from lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie.2
5378		habitat	eng	Generally in deep water of large lakes.
5378		threats	eng	The major threats include overfishing, predation by sea lamprey, and effects of introduced species; the last is considered the greatest current threat.
5379		distribution	eng	In the 1996 and 2000 IUCN Red Lists this species was incorrectly recorded as being present in the USA and that it occurred in the Great Lakes. The species is confined to the Petite Riviere watershed in southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada. Fish are known to occur in Millispsigate, Minamkeak and Hebb Lakes.  These are all landlocked subpopulations. There appears to be an anadromous component and individuals have been recorded annually in the estuary. Specimens have also been recorded in the estuary of the LaHave River. The Tusket River subpopulation was considered anadromous, although they have not been recorded in the watershed for many years. Further information on the anadromous form is required, especially confirmation of its presence in the Gulf of Maine.
5379		habitat	eng	The Atlantic Whitefish is anadramous, however, very little is known about its habitat requirements in both sea and fresh water, its reproduction or its behaviour.  It is likely that they spawn in late autumn (fall), as individuals have been observed moving upstream with Atlantic Salmon in October and November.  The anadramous form is believed to spend the summer months in coastal waters.
5379		threats	eng	The landlocked subpopulations in the Petite Riviere watershed have been angled for the last 60 years.  They are considered to be an excellent game fish.  They are often confused with the Lake Whitefish (<em>Coregonus clupeaformis</em>) and considered a food fish.  The Tusket River subpopulation was allegedly ruthlessly exploited.
5380		conservation	eng	None.
5380		distribution	eng	Southern North Sea basin: Schelde, Rhine and Meuse drainages (exceptionally northern France). Ascended Rhine up to Köln [recorded to have reached Strasbourg (France) but this is probably erroneous]. Occasional records from southeast coast of England.
5380		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In brackish water and main rivers; no evidence that it enters marine waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in October-December in rivers. Young move to brackish habitats where they remain until mature. Feeds on zooplankton, supplemented by benthic invertebrates in adults.
5380		population	eng	Last recorded in 1940.
5380		threats	eng	Pollution.
5383		conservation	eng	Fishing has now been banned in Lake Fegen for this species.
5383		distribution	eng	Sweden: Lakes Ören (Motalaström drainage), Hålsjön (Viskan drainage), Äsunden, Fegen (Ätran drainage); <br/><br/>Other populations in Finland (Lakes Änättijärvi, Kostonjärvi, Kokkamo, Pirttijärvi, Suomunjärvi (winter spawning), Sokojärvi, Kajoonjärvi, Luovijärvi, Siikajärvi (spring spawning)) and Russia (some lakes of Karelia (winter spawning; e.g. Korpiselkä)) are most likely not conspecific (Freyhof pers comm.).
5383		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in late April-early May (Sweden), December-January (winter spawning, Finland) or March-May (spring spawning, Finland), at 10-30 m depth. In all lakes, spring spawning <em>C. trybomi</em> occur in sympatry with <em>C. albula</em>. Winter spawning <em>C. trybomi</em> occur with <em>C. albula</em> only in Lake Änättijärvi, Finland. Feeds on plankton. In October-November rises to surface, probably to feed on spawn of <em>C. albula</em>.
5383		population	eng	The species is no longer present in Lakes Ören (Motalaström drainage), Hålsjön (Viskan drainage), Äsunden.
5383		threats	eng	Alien species (including <em>Sander lucioperca</em>) and water pollution from acid rain has caused the extirpation from Swedish lakes.
5414		distribution	eng	This species is known only by subfossil fragments collected at the type locality and from sites on Timor island (Glover 1986).
5414		threats	eng	Unknown.
5439		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho. Has supposedly been introduced to Flaming Gorge Reservoir, Utah and Wyoming (but not known if still extant there or not).
5439		habitat	eng	A benthic species, found from shoreline to a depth of 53 m or more.
5439		population	eng	Said to be common.
5443		distribution	eng	Known only from Coldwater Spring (Coosa River system), Calhoun County in Alabama.
5443		habitat	eng	A spring species.
5445		conservation	eng	No information available.
5445		distribution	eng	Northern Baltic basin in Scandinavia south to stream Maurine (53°51'N 10°56'E) in southwesternmost corner of Baltic basin (Germany). Lower reaches of streams and rivers and along coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia southwest to Estonia. Danube (except upper tributaries Save and Arges), Elbe, Ems, Weser and Rhône drainages. Tributaries of upper Rhine downriver (northward) to about Mannheim. A few of the uppermost tributaries of River Tevere, Central Italy. Adriatic drainages, from Potenza (Italy) to Zrmanja (Croatia), except Timavo spring (inhabited by <em>C. scaturigo</em>). mtDNA and microsatellite data show that sculpins from the stream Steenputbeek (4°17'N 50°43'E) in Scheldt drainage represent <em>C. gobio</em>, suspected to be introduced. Sculpins reported from Neretva drainage (Bosnia-Herzegovina) probably also belong to <em>C. gobio</em>.
5445		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold, clear and fast-flowing water of small stream to medium-sized rivers. As well on gravel or rocky shores of cold lakes and in slightly brackish waters along eastern Baltic coast. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn for several years. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching; a single male may guard the egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.
5445		population	eng	Abundant.
5445		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5446		conservation	eng	No information.
5446		distribution	eng	Streams in Carpathians draining to Danube, Dniestr, Vistula and Odra. Baltic basin, especially in northern Sweden and Finland between 64 and 68°N, central Finnish lakes area, a few streams in southern Finland, Lake Ladoga and southern Lake Onega drainage, a few lakes in northern Germany (extirpated), Lake Hancza (Poland) and Skjernaa drainage (Denmark). In Siberia from River Ob eastward to Lena. Absent in rivers draining to Baltic Sea south of Iijöki drainage in central Finland and in rivers draining to the White and Barents Seas.
5446		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Northern, and mountain and foothill streams, oligotrophic lakes. In Carpathian streams usually more upstream than <em>C. gobio</em>, very rarely syntopic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, about 40 mm SL. Spawns in February-April, when temperature rises above 5°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Nocturnal, shifts to day-activity during winter in the Arctic. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.
5446		population	eng	Abundant.
5446		threats	eng	No major threats known.
5447		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.
5447		distribution	eng	It is restricted to a 3 km stretch of the Lez River (Le Lez) from the spring to the Lirou tributary in southern France north of the town of Montpellier.
5447		habitat	eng	The Lez River is fed by a large resurgence draining a karstic plateau. Substrate is gravel and stony beds, temperature rarely exceed 20°C. Discharge is very regular.
5447		population	eng	No data.
5447		threats	eng	Water pollution, drying out of River Lez, and introduction of <em>Cottus gobio</em> are major threats. Water extraction for drinking water for the Montpellier town.
5481		conservation	eng	There is a need for the protection of the cave roosts. A survey of the limestone caves just across the Thai border inside Myanmar is required to determine if the species occurs there. Education of monks to prevent burning of incense is also required (P. Bates pers. comm.) as well as improvement of transboundary collaboration on conservation of the species along with transboundary information exchange, and identification and establishment of protected areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).
5481		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Thailand and Myanmar. The type locality in Thailand is Kanchanaburi, Ban Sai Yoke (= Yok), cave near the Forestry Station (14''26'N, 8''51'E). It potentially occurs further south in Myanmar, a genetic study is being undertaken to determine if the species exists in two isolated subpopulations. There are additional limestone caves near the Thai border in Myanmar although these have not been surveyed. Its elevational range is from 0-500 m asl.
5481		habitat	eng	This species is always associated with limestone outcrops near rivers and can survive in degraded areas. It always roosts in caves. Weighing around two grams, this tiny bat is reputedly the world's smallest mammal. It is insectivorous and normal foraging range appears to be limited to an area of around 1 km from the roost site (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
5481		population	eng	The total population is restricted to eight caves in Myanmar (Pereira <em>et al</em>. 2006) and 35 in Thailand (Yokubo <em>et al.</em> 2005; Redfield, 2006). The population in Thailand is estimated to be 5,100 individuals and the population has decreased. From 1983 to 1997, there has been a 10% decrease while from 1998 to the present a 14% decrease has been estimated. These figures are not based on the same cave samples, as the species disappeared from some caves and appeared in others and it is not known whether this simply reflects colonies moving from one cave to another (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) The population in Myanmar is over 1,500 individuals (P. Bates pers. comm.), all age classes are included although this is likely to be represented by mature individuals as the species matures quickly.
5481		threats	eng	The species is affected by disturbance of roosts by religious visits, fertilizer collection and tourism - there has been development of 'show caves' (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). There is also the potential for the extraction of limestone which would cause habitat destruction.
5484		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures for this species are known,&#160;however most sites lie in the central area, where the laurisilva forest is protected, and as such protection of the habitat should provide protection for this species.
5484		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira,where it is mainly found in the laurisilva forest in the central mountains, although there is a single site on the north coast (Seddon 2008).
5484		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp shaded ravines, at the base of tall crags and on rocky ledges amongst leaf-litter, soil and mosses.
5484		population	eng	This species is found in a limited number of localities, suggesting it is relatively rare.
5484		threats	eng	This species is possibly affected by a gradual decline in habitat quality close to roads and along levadas (irrigation channels) where non-native plant species have become established.
5485		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas, suggesting there are some measures in place for its conservation.
5485		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira. It is only known living on the northern side of the island where it occurs from coast to intermediate elevations. Wollaston (1878) noted that this was the rarest of the <em>Craspedopoma</em> species on Madeira. &#160;However recent surveys show that it is present in many more sites and that two other species <em>C. monziana</em> and <em>C. lyonnetianum</em> are both rarer species.
5485		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp shaded wooded areas amongst leaf litter and mosses, and on the underside of stones.
5485		population	eng	This species is present in suitable habitats in more than 10 different valleys on the island in areas that are protected,which  suggests that it is reasonably widespread.
5485		threats	eng	The inland sites are fairly intact, with only the coastal habitats show signs of habitat degradation. &#160;This is due to urbanisation, clearance and disturbance along the roadsides.
5494		distribution	eng	<em>C. lacustris</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system, Papua New Guinea.
5494		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat is about 19 km long and 2 to 4 km wide and has six villages on its shores.
5494		threats	eng	Gill nets and the use of outboard motors on the lake have been introduced since the 1980s.  Oil drilling and logging has also grown in the area over the last ten years.
5499		conservation	eng	The area around the type locality is included within an Important Bird Area. Species specific surveys are urgently needed on Dinagat to determine its range there and also on Siargao and Bucas Grande islands to ascertain if it occurs on those islands. The species is likely to be forest dependent, given its arboreal nature, although the extent which it can persist in secondary forest is unknown. Surveys of this species could potentially be undertaken under the EIAs required for mining projects.
5499		distribution	eng	This species which is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from a single specimen collected between 1974 and 1975 (Musser <em>et al</em>. 1985; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993) from Dinagat island. The type locality is Balitbiton, Loreto municipality, Surigao del Norte Province, Dinagat island, Philippines (Musser and Carleton 2005). <br/>Several teams of biologists have visited Dinagat briefly but specific surveys for this species have not been performed and the species was not located (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). <br/>The species may occur also on adjacent islands, especially Siargao and Bucas Grande, where <em>Podogymnura aureospinula</em>, previously only known from Dinagat, is now known to occur. Local people on the nearby island of Siargao reported seeing an arboreal rat resembling <em>Crateromys australis</em> (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993) but this still needs to be confirmed.
5499		habitat	eng	The holotype is from disturbed lowland forest, near a logging road. The species may be dependent on primary forest. It is not known whether this species is able to persist in secondary forest. The species is small for a cloud rat which occurs in the canopy.
5499		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype. Individuals of other <em>Crateromys</em> species are difficult to capture (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
5499		threats	eng	Dinagat island is particularly threatened by increasing levels of mining for chromite which occurs in ultrabasic areas. The species and habitat occur in an area which is negatively affected by local political activities. Deforestation is probably a major threat (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993) and a recent visit to the island showed that much of the forest has been logged (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).
5500		conservation	eng	Stricter enforcement of hunting restrictions in combination with awareness raising may be most helpful. Parts of the species habitat are protected but their management needs to be strengthened.
5500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from the Greater Luzon Faunal Region, in the mountains of northern Luzon (southern to central part of the Central Cordillera), from Benguet, Ifugao and Mountain provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952). It occurs at an altitude from 2,000 to 2,500 m (Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952).
5500		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and occurs in oak-dominated forest where it builds stick-nests in tree crowns for shelter (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been said that <em>C. schadenbergi</em> is associated with anthropogenic disturbance but evidence is scanty and anecdotal.
5500		population	eng	This is a moderately widespread species in the pine forest of southern the Central Cordillera and apparently locally common in oak-pine forest, though it is rare elsewhere (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). From talking to local hunters it is less common than <em>Phloeomys pallidus</em>, but apparently still moderately common.
5500		threats	eng	It is supposed that hunting is the greatest threat to this species. This species is hunted for food and for its fur to make hats, although this has not been seen for the past 5 years (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is also negatively affected by habitat loss due to conversion of its habitat to vegetable farms.
5501		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for surveys to determine whether the species is present on Mindoro.
5501		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known with certainty only from Ilin island. Unverified reports suggest its presence on southern Mindoro (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). The holotype is a taxidermy mount purchased on Ilin island, but the true provenance of the specimen is unknown (L. Heaney pers. comm.). However, surveys with local people have failed to reveal knowledge of the species. The specimen was "found" in the collection at the Smithsonian Museum decades after being donated (Musser and Gordon 1981).
5501		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology. It probably occurred in lowland forest (Musser and Gordon 1981).
5501		population	eng	This species is known only from one individual. A two week survey on Ilin island and adjacent Ambulong islands in 1997 was unable to find the species; a prior survey in 1989 and a later one in 2000 were also unable to detect it and its presence has not been detected during an ongoing conservation project on Ilin island. Extensive surveys on Mindoro have failed to detect its presence. The species was reported as extinct on Ilin (Pritchard 1989).
5501		threats	eng	There is no primary forest on Ilin island, and little remains of the fragile karst forest there.
5502		conservation	eng	There is a successful captive breeding project in place in Mar-it Conservation Park in Lambunao on Panay, numbering 45 individuals in 2005. There are also captive populations outside of the Philippines (for example in London Zoo).  Habitat protection and restoration urgently needed, a proposal for a protected area has was put forward in 1987 but little progress has been made. Population surveys are required.
5502		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where is found only in the Greater Negros-Panay Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1999) on Panay island perhaps up to 400 m. However, local people suggest that the species occurs up to a much higher altitude (W. Oliver pers. comm.).
5502		habitat	eng	This is a strictly arboreal and forest dependent species. It has been collected from lowland tropical primary and secondary evergreen rainforest formations (Gonzales and Kennedy 1996; Schweigert 1998). It may also occur in higher elevation forests based on many reports from local people (W. Oliver pers. comm.).
5502		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5502		threats	eng	The species is severely impacted by habitat destruction on Panay (Gonzales and Kennedy 1996; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993), particularly so in the lowland areas, due to illegal logging and agricultural encroachment. There is a low level of hunting pressure. The species range may have been restricted further to upland areas only.
5512		conservation	eng	In India it is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. <br/>In India it is known from Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala; Pench National Park in Maharashtra; Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu; Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa. In Sri Lanka it is present in Gal Oya National Park in Eastern Province; Kumana Wildlife Sanctuary in Northeastern Province and Yala National Park in Southern Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5512		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it is distributed in Bangladesh (Sathira), India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Southern and Eastern Province) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5512		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial, sometimes fossorial species occuring in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous and scrub<br/>forests, moist deciduous and evergreen forests, where it is seen in rocky areas, caves, crevices, tree hollows and subterrenean habitats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5512		population	eng	It was a commonly trapped rodent in the evergreen forests and fragments of Anamalais in the southern Western Ghats (Chadrasekar-Rao and Sunquist 1996; Shankar 1998), while it was not trapped even once in evergreen forests, fragments and plantations of Coorg, northern Western Ghats (S. Molur pers. comm.).
5512		threats	eng	Threats are not known for this species or the habitat where it occurs.
5513		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has been recorded from the Sri Lanka Malleshwara Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India, where it is widely distributed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Rajasthan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5513		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous and deserts, where it is seen in thorn scrub sparse vegetation, plain grasslands, agriculture lands and rocky areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5513		population	eng	There is little information available on the population of this species.
5513		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
5514		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a need to undertake surveys to locate viable populations of this species, and to identify appropriate areas for conservation.
5514		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005). It has been recorded from an elevation of about 600 m asl.
5514		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurs in tropical dry deciduous scrub forest, where it is seen in rocky areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5514		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
5514		threats	eng	The major threats of the species are habitat loss, conversion of forests to agricultural lands and plantations and fuel wood collection (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5515		distribution	eng	Endemic to the White River drainage in Pahranagat Valley, southeastern Nevada; including the spring of the Moapa River.
5515		habitat	eng	Lives in vegetated warm springs and their outflows and marshes.
5521		conservation	eng	Further research to resolve taxonomic issues within this genus is needed. Research is also needed into population numbers, range, biology, and ecology. The range of the species includes several protected areas.
5521		distribution	eng	This widespread species occurs from West Africa through the Congo Basin to East Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa to Cameroon, and from here through Central Africa to Uganda and Tanzania in the east, ranging as far south as northern Angola. It also occurs on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. It occurs from sea level up to 3,500 m asl.
5521		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest habitats. It has not been recorded outside of forest habitat.
5521		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
5521		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species. The species is eaten throughout its range but it is such an abundant species that its is not considered a major threat. It is even considered to be a pest species in some parts of its range.
5522		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. Research into taxonomy is needed.
5522		distribution	eng	This very widespread species occurs from the coast of West Africa through central Africa to the coast of East Africa, southwards to the north-eastern tip of South Africa and southern Angola. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m asl.
5522		habitat	eng	The species occurs in various habitats including forest and woodland, as well as farmland, cropland, plantations and rural areas. It is considered to be an adaptable species that is even known to invade sewers.
5522		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
5522		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. It is eaten throughout its range but it is such an abundant species that harvesting is not considered to be a major threat. The species is also used in medical research and has been recorded in the European pet trade. It is considered to be a species pest in some areas.
5523		conservation	eng	General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5523		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern South Asia and China. In South Asia it is found in northern India (Jammu and Kashmir) and in western Nepal at an altitude of around 4,000 m asl. It is presumed to be widely distributed at this elevation along the Himalaya (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from southwestern Xinjiang and northwestern Xizang, and is normally found at elevations ranging from 3,100-5,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
5523		habitat	eng	This species occupies coniferous and birch forests to desert steppe, shrubland, swampy meadow and highland meadow. Littter size ranges from 5-10 young (Smith and Xie 2008).
5523		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
5523		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
5524		conservation	eng	Approximately 9% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia listed as Least Concern.<br/>Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
5524		distribution	eng	Distributed from forest steppe to semideserts in south of Western Siberia, Tuva, Trans-Baikal region, Mongolia, NE China, Primorye (Russia) and Korea.<br/><br/>In Mongolia found throughout the country with the exception of extreme western and south-western regions. It does not occur in Valley of the Lakes or around the Gobi Desert region, where C. sokolovi occurs (G. Shenbrot pers. comm.).
5524		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid country, including steppe and semi-desert habitats, although it adapts to and is commonly found in croplands. Sometimes found in buildings. Occupies a simple burrow system with 2-3 entrances; the circular opening has a diameter of 2-3 cm.  The burrow runs to 1 m in length at a depth of 10-50 cm, and 4-5 branches end in nest or food storage areas.  Nests are lined with grass.  About 4-5 individuals (a maximum of eight) occupy each burrow.  Most active in the first half of the night.  Diet consists of grains and legumes, and they store these seeds in caches.  Hibernate overwinter, emerging in February-March.  Reproduction peaks in March and April, and again in autumn.  May breed between 2-5 times each year, producing large litters (range 1-10; average 6-7).
5524		population	eng	No data are available at present.
5524		threats	eng	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires also constitutes a threat. Neither of these are considered major threats to the species at present.
5525		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
5525		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of China, occurring in the provinces of Xizang, Qinghai, Gansu, and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 3,300-4,100 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). The distribution map accompanying this account is a parsimonious alignment that awaits revision.
5525		habitat	eng	It occurs in high mountain grasslands, shrubby marshes, and open steppe (Smith and Xie 2008). Burrows are built in which it stores grain for the winter (Smith and Xie 2008). Its diet consists of grains, grass seeds, and insects (Smith and Xie 2008). It exhibits activity during the day and night (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Reproductive periodicity is from May to August with litter sizes ranging from 5-10 (7-8 the norm) (Smith and Xie 2008).
5525		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
5525		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
5526		conservation	eng	Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In the rest of the area listed as Least Concern.
5526		distribution	eng	Distributed in mountain steppes in N and C China (Qinghai, Xizang; Nei Mongol, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, N Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, N Xinjiang), W and C Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Tuva and Trans-Baikal Region (Russia). In Mongolia east to approximately 104° E longitude. Recently recorded in northern portions of Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi.
5526		habitat	eng	Inhabits desert country to shrubland to forests and alpine meadows in southern part of the range. Also found in rocky mountain steppe and semi-desert habitats, preferentially foothills and southern sides of mountains where poa and bushes grow.  Most abundant in piedmont semidesert and low cereal steppe up to 1900 m asl. It occupies shallow burrows often constructed under rocks that extend horizontally beneath the surface. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes use insects. Constructs food stores and grass-lined nests.  Sometimes occupies burrows built by other small mammals.  Nocturnal.  At least two litters of 4-9 young are produced each year, beginning in March or April.
5526		population	eng	No data are available at present.
5526		threats	eng	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. In some areas, other rodent species may cause competition for resources. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats to the species at present.
5527		conservation	eng	Approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas in China. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Wang and Xie 2004). In Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
5527		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mongolia and China. There is little data available on the distribution of this species within Mongolia, it is known from the Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, and Eastern Gobi. In China, it occurs in the province of Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008).
5527		habitat	eng	it is known to occur in semi-desert habitats.<br/><br/>Parturition starts in mid-May for this species and it produces 2-3 litters/year with 4-9 young/litter (Smith and Xie 2008).
5527		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
5527		threats	eng	In Mongolia, the drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are being driven by anthropogenic activity (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Threats to this species in China are unknown.
5528		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to determine population status and trends, and research is needed to determine the species' requirements and investigate potential threats.
5528		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its wide range. Surveys are required to determine population status and trends, and research is needed to determine the species' requirements and investigate potential threats.
5528		distribution	eng	The present range of the grey hamster extends from eastern Europe through Russia and central Asia to Mongolia and western China. In the south, its distribution extends into Turkey, Israel, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Kashmir. In Europe, it is restricted to Greece, Turkish Thrace, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and European Russia. It is recorded from sea level to 4,300 m in the Pamir mountains of central Asia (Vohralík 1999).
5528		distribution	eng	The present range of the grey hamster extends from eastern Europe through Russia and central Asia to Mongolia and western China. The southernmost edge of its range extends through Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India (Jammu and Kashmir). It has also been recorded from Greece (but has not been recorded there in the last 35 years: G. Mitsain pers. comm. 2007), Turkish Thrace, and Bulgaria. In Turkey, occurs up to 2,300 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.). The majority of records are from above 1,000 m. It has been recorded up to 4,300 m in the Pamir mountains of central Asia (Vohralík 1999).
5528		habitat	eng	It originally occurred in dry grasslands, steppes and semideserts. Now, it also inhabits agricultural land and gardens, sometimes even living in houses. Arid areas with relatively sparse vegetation are preferred, and forests and damp habitats are avoided (Vohralík 1999). It typically feeds on roots, shoots and seeds.
5528		habitat	eng	It originally occurred in dry grasslands, steppes and semideserts. Now, it also inhabits agricultural land and gardens, sometimes even living in houses. Arid areas with relatively sparse vegetation are preferred, and forests and damp habitats are avoided (Vohralík 1999). It typically feeds on roots, shoots and seeds. A burrowing, nocturnal rodent.
5528		population	eng	A common species in appropriate habitats in the Caucasus and Central Asia. In Armenia and Kyrgyzstan, the species is synathropic, and sometimes more abundant than <em>Mus musculus</em>. However, in other parts of its range (e.g. the Balkans) it is scarce and sporadic.
5528		population	eng	It is scarce and sporadic in the Balkans, although it may be more abundant elsewhere in its global range. Populations in Greece (very rare: known from less than ten collections), Bulgaria (very rare: only six records) and Turkish Thrace may be isolated (Nechay 2000).  Its status is poorly known. There have been range contractions in some parts of Europe (EMA Workshop 2006).
5528		threats	eng	No major threats are known at the global level.
5528		threats	eng	The species is rare, especially in the Balkans, and its requirements are not well known. It is not known why the species is not more widespread within Europe, given that it can use a variety of habitats.
5529		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Specific conservation recommendations to improve the status of the species in western Europe are detailed in Stubbe and Stubbe (1998) and Nechay (2000). These focus on subsidising farmers to manage agricultural habitats appropriately, and minimising use of pesticides. In the last few years, reintroductions have been carried out in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Monitoring is required in eastern range states to determine population trends.
5529		distribution	eng	<em>Cricetus cricetus</em> has a large global range, extending from western Europe, through central and eastern Europe, Russia, and Kazakhstan, reaching as far east as the Yenisey river (Asian Russia). In Europe, it occurs from Belgium, the Netherlands and northern France in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany, Poland and Russia in the north to Bulgaria in the south (Panteleyev 1998, Weinhold 1999). It is found from sea level to 650 m (Nechay 2000).
5529		distribution	eng	<em>Cricetus cricetus </em>has a large global range, extending from western Europe, through central and eastern Europe, Russia, and Kazakhstan, reaching as far east as the Yenisey river (Asian Russia). In Europe, it occurs from Belgium, the Netherlands and northern France in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany, Poland and Russia in the north to Bulgaria in the south (Panteleyev 1998, Weinhold 1999). It is found from sea level to 650 m (Nechay 2000).
5529		habitat	eng	Its original habitat was fertile steppe and grassland, but it has successfully spread into a variety of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, croplands (especially cereals), and field edges, road verges and scrubby fallow areas on farms. In eastern parts of its range it is found quite often in gardens and orchards, in close proximity to human habitation. It is more abundant in these man-made habitats than it is in natural grassland. It prefers relatively deep, heavy soils, in which it digs extensive burrows. Its diet mainly consists of the green parts of plants and seeds, supplemented by invertebrates and, occasionally, small vertebrates. At high densities, it can be an agricultural pest (Nechay 2000).
5529		population	eng	It has undergone severe range and population declines in western and central Europe, and it now has a highly fragmented distribution in these areas. Subpopulation extinctions have occurred in a number of countries including Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Germany. Less is known about the status of the species in eastern Europe and Russia, but it is certainly more abundant there than in the west. Spring population densities of 0.5-3 individuals per hectare are reported in western Europe (Weinhold 1999), whereas densities of 3.4-37 occupied burrows per hectare have been recorded in Hungary (Nechay 2000). In Ukraine the species is considered abundant (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). In areas where the species is abundant, periodic population outbreaks occur (Nechay 2000).
5529		threats	eng	Its decline in western Europe has been attributed to a combination of persecution and agricultural intensification. It was trapped and poisoned to prevent damage to crops, and this practice continues in some parts of the hamster's range (although not in the western part of its range). In eastern Europe it continues to be trapped for the fur trade. Agricultural intensification, specifically the loss of perennial crops and small uncultivated patches of land, the introduction of autumn-sown cereals, and the increased use of pesticides, has had a negative impact on many hamster populations. Changing agricultural practices in eastern Europe, where the hamster population has traditionally been considered stable, may pose a threat in the future.
5558		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Hillwood Farm private game ranch (~165 km²), and it has also been recorded from the Nchila Wildlife Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
5558		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura ansellorum</em> is known from gallery forests in northwestern Zambia. It is restricted to the Ikelenge Pedicle. The holotype and paratype were collected in 1973 from Isombu stream and another paratype was collected from Nyansowe stream. A new specimen was collected on Hillwood Farm in 1990, in the leaf litter under gallery forest along Kazombi stream (Cotterill 2002). It is possible that this species also occurs in adjacent Congo (it has been collected 4 km from the border with Congo) and eastern Angola, but no surveys have been undertaken for the species in theses area. Expeditions into Pemba did not find it despite the presence of suitable Mushitu forest (evergreen) habitat.
5558		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to patchy gallery forests in the corner of northwest Zambia. They occur in Mushitu forests (evergreen), which are generally no more than 100 m wide, along the catchment of the upper Zambezi River. This habitat is distributed along tributaries and is highly fragmented.
5558		population	eng	This species is only known from four specimens. The most recent was collected in 1990.
5558		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion. Local-scale tree felling for extraction is also a contributing factor. The habitat of this species is also regularly damaged by fires.
5559		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Simien National Park, Ethiopia. There is a need to conserve suitable habitat at known localities, and to undertake surveys within the region to locate additional populations of this restricted range species.
5559		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from localities in the Ethiopian highlands of the Rift Valley. It has a very fragmented distribution and until recently was only known from three isolated mountain ranges. Recently a new location, Mount Guna, has been recorded. This species has been recorded at elevations from 2,700 m to 3,300 m asl.
5559		habitat	eng	This is a montane species which occurs in montane grassland and moorland in the afro-alpine zone. At lower elevations this species is limited by the lack of suitable habitat due to the conversion of natural vegetation to agriculture.
5559		population	eng	This species is not commonly found where sampled.
5559		threats	eng	Small-holder farming of crops and livestock is the principal threat to this species. Some habitat destruction has taken place in two of the five known localities.
5560		conservation	eng	<em>C. canariensis</em> is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and is also protected under Spanish law. It is found within a number of National Parks in Fuerteventura. Research is needed to determine the ecological and conservation requirements of this species (Stone 1995). Recommended conservation measures include controlling feral cats and preventing further introductions of alien species to small islands such as Mount Clara (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
5560		distribution	eng	The Canary shrew <em>Crocidura canariensis </em>is endemic to the eastern Canary Islands, where it is currently found on Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Lobos and Mount Clara. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km². Recent fossils indicate that it previously occurred on Graciosa and Alegranza (Hutterer 1999), but it has never been trapped on either of these islands and is presumed to have gone extinct there (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Canary shrew remains have been found in owl pellets collected on Graciosa and Alegranza, but this is believed to result from the movement of owls between different islands (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
5560		habitat	eng	The Canary shrew's main habitat is the malpaís (barren lava fields), and it seems to be adapted to the hot and dry conditions of these plains (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 1992, Stone 1995). It feeds on snails and insects in lava tubes, and it is cool inside its burrows even when temperatures reach 60ºC outside. The shrew is also sometimes found in gardens and abandoned arable land adjacent to lava fields, as well as in rocky gullies and sandy areas with rocks and vegetation (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). On Mount Clara, the species is restricted to a single coastal sand dune. More suitable habitat is found on other islands, however, there is a lot of urbanisation and industry.
5560		population	eng	Numbers and population trends are unknown. Mount Clara has a tiny population, which is unlikely to number more than a hundred individuals. The habitat of <em>C. canariensis</em> is severly fragmented as a result of anthropogenic habitat loss and natural barriers to dispersal (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2006).
5560		threats	eng	This species has a highly restricted distribution. Rapid urbanisation and infrastructure development in and around its range are causing loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat, and desiccation may also be a problem (Hutterer 2004). Introduced cats <em>Felis catus </em>sometimes depredate Canary shrews (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Other introduced species, e.g. rats and mice, are also present but are not known to have any effect on the Canary shrew. Of these threats, habitat loss is considered to be the most important (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
5561		conservation	eng	This species is found within Okapi Fauna Reserve.
5561		distribution	eng	The type locality of <em>Crocidura congobelgica</em> is Lubila, near Bafwasende, in the Ituri Forest, Democratic Republic of the Congo. More recently <em>C. congobelgica</em> has been recorded in the Okapi Fauna Reserve (Katuala <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in Masako Forest (unpublished data) both in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
5561		habitat	eng	<em>C. congobelgica</em> is restricted to undisturbed primary lowland forest. It is not clear at present whether the sites where it has been found are connected by continuous forest.
5561		population	eng	This species is uncommon and appears to have small population sizes. Generally only one or two specimens have been found during surveys. In total seven specimens have been recorded from three localities over an approximately 90 year period.
5561		threats	eng	The main threat to <em>C. congobelgica</em> is general habitat destruction. The Okapi Fauna Reserve is currently threatened by illegal logging and mining activities.
5562		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic and Congo. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.
5562		distribution	eng	<em>C. crenata</em> ranges throughout parts of the western Congo basin and is recorded from Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), southern Central African Republic (in Kongana Forest), the Congo, Gabon, and southern Cameroon, including the western parts of Korup National Park. There is also a record from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
5562		habitat	eng	<em>C. crenata</em> generally inhabits primary lowland forest, between 100 m to 700 m asl.
5562		population	eng	This species is abundant in some localities.
5562		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
5565		conservation	eng	Mount Cameroon is not officially a national park, but it is generally protected due to limited, controlled access: visitors must pay a fee in order to go up to the summit.
5565		distribution	eng	Crocidura eisentrauti is endemic to the top of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon, where it is limited to an area of approximately 10 km², between 2,000 and 3,000 m asl.
5565		habitat	eng	<em>C. eisentrauti inhabits the strip of grassland that occurs above forest line, up to the bare lava on top of the volcano.</em>
5565		population	eng	This is a little known species. The last specimens of <em>C. eisentrauti were collected in the 1950s. The current population size is not known.</em>
5565		threats	eng	While there are currently no major threats to this species, it is potentially threatened by stochastic events such as volcanic eruptions; the last eruption of Mount Cameroon was in the 1950s.
5566		conservation	eng	The southern part of its range is part of Bale Mountains National Park. There is a need to effectively conserve remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species.
5566		distribution	eng	This species is known from east of the Great Rift Valley in the Ethiopian highlands where is occurs in isolated patches. The type locality is the Gara Mulata Mountains. It is found at high altitudes of 2,700 to 4,050 m asl. There are three known main localities.
5566		habitat	eng	<em>C. glassi</em> occures in montane grassland, scrub, and afroalpine moorland.
5566		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat, and can occur at high densities.
5566		threats	eng	The habitat of this restricted range species is threatened by fires and overgrazing by livestock.
5567		conservation	eng	Several of its localities are within protected areas, such as the Parque Nacional de Monte Alen, Equatorial Guinea. There is a need for general research into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
5567		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from the high forest regions in Gabon, Central African Republic, southern Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) (Heim de Balsac 1968; Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is possibly present in Congo.
5567		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary lowland tropical moist forest.
5567		population	eng	This localised species occurs at low densities.
5567		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. Some populations are likely to be threatened by localised deforestation.
5568		conservation	eng	The swamp inhabited by this species is located within Kahuzi-Biega National Park. There is a need to prevent any future habitat loss within the restricted range of this species. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.
5568		distribution	eng	<em>C. kivuana</em> is restricted to the Kahuzi Mountains in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is known from two localities, 4 km apart. Its elevational range is 1,700-2,000 m asl.
5568		habitat	eng	This species only occurs in montane cyprus swamps within Kahuzi National Park (Dieterlen and Heim de Balsac, 1979).
5568		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in swamps, but does not seem to be present in other habitat types.
5568		threats	eng	Although there are no current threats to this species, it is considered plausible that it could be threatened in the future following any drainage of its wetland habitat.
5569		conservation	eng	This species is well protected in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park. Additional studies are needed to clarify the distribution of this species.
5569		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the montane region of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded from Kivu, Lemera, Irangi, Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and around Tshibati (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). In Rwanda, it has been recorded from Uinka. The elevational range of this species is 1,850 m to 2,450 m asl.
5569		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary montane forest, <em>Cyperus </em>swamps, and bamboo forests near Lake Kivu. It occurs in distinct localities at small, isolated mountain swamps.
5569		population	eng	There is no population available for this species.
5569		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by habitat loss at Tshibati and Lemara due to the development of tea plantations. There is no known habitat loss in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park.
5570		conservation	eng	<em>C. latona</em> occurs in Masako Forest, a forest reserve which includes primary forest, logged and regrown areas and cultivated areas.
5570		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura latona</em> inhabits the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Known localities include, the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, Kisangani, the type locality of Medje, and recently from Masako Forest. It occurs on the left and right banks of the Congo River and has been found on Mbiye island in the Congo River. It also occurs in Epulu and Njaro (Katuala pers. comm.). It occurs in lowland forest at an elevation of 500 m asl.
5570		habitat	eng	<em>C. latona</em> is a lowland species which occurs mainly primary forest but is also found in secondary forest and fallow areas (Katuala pers. comm.). Some islands in Congo river are flooded by tides, so the Mbiye Island population might be temporary.
5570		population	eng	This species is very uncommon.
5570		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
5571		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for <em>C. longipies</em>. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Research priorities include, undertaking surveys of its swamp habitats and genetic studies comparing this species with <em>Crocidura foxi</em> and <em>Crocidura theresae</em> in West Africa.
5571		distribution	eng	There is very little information available on the distribution of <em>Crocidura longipes </em>. It is known from two swamp areas in western Nigeria, near Kainji Lake National Park, east of Bahindi. This species is probably not widely distributed.
5571		habitat	eng	This species inhabits isolated swamps near Kainji Lake. It may also occur in dry Guinea savanna.
5571		population	eng	There is no up to date information available on the population size of <em>C. longiceps</em> as there have been no surveys in the species range since 1967.
5571		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by its restricted range and be affected by habitat loss.
5572		conservation	eng	At least two of the three localities where <em>C.lucina</em> occurs are protected by Bale Mountains National Park. Further general surveys of this species are needed.
5572		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura lucina</em> has only been recorded from the Ethiopian highlands at 3,000 m asl, east of the Rift Valley around Dinshu and Mount Albasso. The species has a restricted area of occupancy, and appears to be highly restricted to three highland locations. It has been recorded at elevations of 3,000-4,050 m asl.
5572		habitat	eng	<em>C. lucina</em> principally inhabits afroalpine moorland, being found in grassland at lower elevations.
5572		population	eng	This species is thought to be relatively rare. However, surveys have been infrequent and future research would enable more accurate estimates of population size.
5572		threats	eng	This species is thought to be relatively safe from habitat destruction as it occurs at high altitudes to cold for human activity. However, this species has an extremely limited range.
5575		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable habitat within the Cameroon highlands. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species
5575		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura manengubae </em> is endemic to the western highlands of Cameroon, where it has been found at Bamenda, Adamaoua, the Yaounde highlands and near Lake Manenguba at 1,800 m asl. The species may be present at additional montane localities, however, surveys are needed to confirm this. Its minimum known elevation is 1,000 m asl. It is not present on Mount Oku.
5575		habitat	eng	<em>C. manengubae</em> occurs in relict montane forest and middle elevation tropical moist at Yaounde. This region contains volcanic mountains which are covered in remnant forest. It is only found in primary forest habitats. At the Lake Manenguba locality, it appears to be limited to forest on a single slope of land going down to the lake.
5575		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5575		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range, and is probably threatened by some degree of habitat loss or degradation resulting from logging operations and conversion on land to agricultural use.
5576		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Drakensberg in South Africa, a protected wilderness area, and presumably is present in additional protected areas within its southern African range. Further studies are needed into the distribution and general ecology of this species.
5576		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura maquassiensis</em> is found in South Africa (Transvaal, Northwest Province, Kwa-Zulu Natal), Zimbabwe (including Nyamaziwa Falls and Matopo Hills) and Swaziland.
5576		habitat	eng	<em>C. maquassiensis</em> is found in rocky, mountain habitats. It may tolerate a wider range of habitats and individuals have been collected in Kwa-Zulu Natal from a garden, and in mixed bracken and grassland alongside a river at 1,500 m asl (Taylor 1998). A single specimen has been collected from coastal forest.
5576		population	eng	This species is relatively rare and seldom caught in traps during sampling. <em>C. maquassiensis</em> is a small shrew that is not easily trapped.
5576		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
5577		conservation	eng	This species is presumably present in a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5577		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura monax</em> occurs in montane forests in northern Tanzania and possibly in western Kenya. In Tanzania the type locality is Mount Kilimanjaro, and it has also been recorded from the Uluguru Mountains. Records of this spcecies in Kenya are uncertain and need to be reviewed (Hutterer 2005).
5577		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of <em>C. monax</em>.
5577		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5577		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
5578		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the undisturbed core area of Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. There is a need to maintain remaining areas of suitable forest for this species throughout its range. Additional surveys are need to identify any additional viable populations.
5578		distribution	eng	This lowland to submontane West African species has been recorded from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. Localities that it has been reported from include Mount Nimba (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Liberia), Panguma in Sierra Leone and from Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire.
5578		habitat	eng	<em>C. nimbae</em> has been recorded from undisturbed lowland tropical moist forest at around 500 m asl (Taï forest), to submontane habitats at the foot of Mount Nimba. This species appears to be associated with hills or small mountains.
5578		population	eng	<em>C. nimbae</em> appears to be  very rare; the largest sample collected was ten animals from Taï forest, Côte d'Ivoire.
5578		threats	eng	Mount Nimba is currently being heavily mined for minerals, and approximately half the mountain has already been severely degraded. The habitat of this species in Sierra Leone is also severely degraded.
5580		conservation	eng	<em>C. phaeura</em> is present in Nachisar National Park which is relatively well-protected. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5580		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura phaeura</em> is endemic to Ethiopia. It is only known from the areas of Nachisar National Park where 13 specimens were collected in the riverine forest bordering the Collufu and Sermale Rivers (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1993) and from the type locality, Sidamo, which is located at the base of Mount Guramba. Its elevational range is 1,100 m-2,400 m asl.
5580		habitat	eng	<em>C. phaeura</em> is found in montane and riverine forest along the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
5580		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5580		threats	eng	This species has a relatively restricted range, and there is believed to be threatened by some habitat loss, presumably through conversion of land to general agricultural use.
5582		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. There is a need to protect suitable areas of habitat for this species, most especially in localities such as Echuya Forest where habitat degradation is currently ongoing. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known shrew.
5582		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the montane areas of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and southwestern Uganda. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded from the type locality of Kahuzi-Biega National Park. In Uganda it has been recorded from Echuya Forest and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Extensive survey of swamps in Burundi and the Ruwenzori Mountains have not yielded any specimens of this species.
5582		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with montane <em>Cyperus</em> swamps, although it has been recorded from other moist habitats and small swamps.
5582		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitat.
5582		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the drainage of wetlands within Echuya Forest, presumably as part of the conversion of land to agricultural use.
5583		conservation	eng	This species is present in some forest reserves in the Usambaras. Further studies are needed into the threats and natural history of this species.
5583		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura tansaniana</em> is confined to the East and West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species was previously known only by the holotype, but recent surveys have found this species Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is thought to occur at elevations of 1,500-1,800 m asl. All other forest blocks in this area have been surveyed and this species has not been found.
5583		habitat	eng	<em>C. tansaniana</em> is found in sub-montane rainforest. It occurs in both primary forest and forest where logging has taken place previously but not recently. This species can tolerate some forms of selective logging.
5583		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon.
5583		threats	eng	It may be threatened by mining in the East Usambaras.
5584		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some forest reserves. There is a need to prevent further habitat loss and degradation within the restricted range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the species natural history and taxonomy.
5584		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura telfordi</em> is endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania, inhabiting parts of the Uluguru Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species occurs above 1,150 m asl.
5584		habitat	eng	This little known species appears to be limited to montane tropical moist forest.
5584		population	eng	This species occurs at very low densities and is not often found.
5584		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss in the Uluguru Mountains, presumably largely through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use..
5585		conservation	eng	This species is present in Bale Mountain National Park.
5585		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Ethiopian Highlands, on both sides of the Rift Valley, at elevations of 515 to 3,300 m asl (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1997).
5585		habitat	eng	<em>C. thalia</em> is found in open habitats from humid woodland savanna to upland grasslands, moorland and scrub, both to the east and west of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. It is largely absent from afromontane forest with a dense canopy (Lavrenchenko 2000).
5585		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
5585		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
5586		conservation	eng	This species is present in some forest reserves. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the species natural history.
5586		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura usambarae</em> is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in the Western and Eastern Usambara Mountains and the South Pare Mountains, in the north-east of the country. It may also be present in the south-western Ngozi Crater (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 1996; Stanley <em>et al</em> 2000). A skin recorded from the Poroto Mountains in southern Tanzania may belong to a different species (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). Its elevational range is likely to be 1,500-2,000 m asl. In the Usambara Mountains it is found below 2,000 m asl due to the lack of forest above that altitude. It is found at 2,000 m in the Para Mountains.
5586		habitat	eng	<em>C. usambarae</em> is found in montane tropical moist forest.
5586		population	eng	Surveys in the last 10 years have recorded <em>C. usambarae</em>.
5586		threats	eng	<em>C. usambarae</em> is threatened by continuing encroachment by people into the small forest patches it inhabits. Mining is a particular threat in the Eastern Usambaras.
5587		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine if this species still persists.
5587		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura wimmeri </em> appears to be endemic to southern Côte d?Ivoire, where it seems to be restricted to the area surrounding Adiopodoume. Records of this species from outside Côte d?Ivoire are based on misidentifications. Specimens recorded from Cameroon and Gabon refer to <em>Crocidura batesi</em> (Brosset 1988; Hutterer 2005).
5587		habitat	eng	This species is known only from moist savanna habitat.
5587		population	eng	Studies suggest that this is a rare species. It has not been recorded since 1976.
5587		threats	eng	It is believed that all suitable habitat for this species in the area of Adiopodoume has now been cleared, presumably largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use.
5588		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Research is required to determine its distribution and population trend, and to investigate potential threats (especially competition with <em>C. suaveolens</em>) and identify appropriate conservation measures.
5588		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura zimmermanni</em> is endemic to the island of Crete (Greece), where it has been trapped in the central mountains at altitudes of 1,150 to 1,400 m. However, owl pellets collected at 140 to 830 m contained remains of this species, indicating that it may also occur at lower altitudes (Vogel 1999).
5588		habitat	eng	It has been collected in open mountainous areas that are dry in summer and snow-covered in winter (Vogel 1999). It is likely also to occur at lower altitudes, but if so its habitat preferences there are unknown.
5588		population	eng	It is a rare and little-known species which is only recorded from a small number of localities. Analysis of owl pellets suggested that <em>C. zimmermanni </em>is more than ten times rarer than its congener <em>C. suaveolens</em> (Vogel 1999). The population trend has not been quantified but it is suspected to be decreasing.
5588		threats	eng	The introduction of <em>C. suaveolens</em> in Minoan times (<em>ca</em>. 2,500 to 1,500 BC) may have forced <em>C. zimmermanni</em> into a restricted range as it is out-competed for habitat (Pieper 1990, Nowak 1999). <em>C. suaveolens</em> is abundant in coastal areas, but has also been found in the mountains at the same sites as <em>C. zimmermanni</em> (Vogel 1999).
5589		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from one protected area in Central African Republic, and in the Masako Forest protected area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
5589		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura ludia</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the Central African Republic. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been found at Masako Forest near Kisangani, Medje and Tandala (Hutterer 2005), and has also been found on the southern side of the Congo River (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). In the Central African Republic it has been recorded from the Ngoto forest and the Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Hutterer 2005). It is possibly present in Congo and southeastern Cameroon.
5589		habitat	eng	<em>C. ludia</em> is restricted to lowland rainforests. It inhabits isolated gallery forest patches in savanna. The preferred habitat is not continuous throughout its range.
5589		population	eng	This species is believed to have a small population.
5589		threats	eng	General habitat loss and fragmentation are threatening the northern populations of this species in the Central African Republic.
5590		conservation	eng	At least one record is from a protected area. Control of the introduced mongoose species is necessary. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
5590		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Amani-Oshima (712 km²), Tokunoshima (248 km²) and Kakeromajima (77 km²) in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. On Amani-Oshima, it is known only from the southern parts, although the type locality lies further north. It occurs from sea level up to 300 m asl.
5590		habitat	eng	It inhabits broad-leaved natural forest.
5590		population	eng	The population of this species is probably very small; only around 10 specimens have been recorded. Only single specimens are known from Kakeromajima and Tokunoshima, the former dating back to the early 2000s and the latter to 1974. There has been no recent survey work on Tokunoshima or Kakeromajima.
5590		threats	eng	The species' habitat is confined to natural forests on mountain areas where many roads have been constructed and forests have been destroyed in the last 50 years. Less than 30% and 15% of natural forest remains intact on Amami-Oshima and Tokunoshima, respectively. The spread of the introduced mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>) remains a major threat to this species in Amami-Oshima (Japan RDB, 2002).
5591		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology, and threats to this species.
5591		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura polia</em> has only been recorded from Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 1916, Hollister described a set of six species, one of which was <em>C. polia</em>. Five of these were not found again until surveys by A. Dudu and colleagues, while <em>C. polia</em> has yet to be rediscovered.
5591		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
5591		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known only from the holotype.
5591		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
5592		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area but grazing during dry season may be a threat. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known species.
5592		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura raineyi</em> is a very rare species which has only been recorded from Mount Gargues in the Matthews Range, Kenya. It has not been recorded since 1912, with surveys needed in the area. It is not present on the adjacent Neru mountain range. The Matthews Range is fairly extensive, so its distribution may be wider than just Mount Gargues. The elevation range of this species is unknown but its presence in creeks indicates that it is found at lower altitudes.
5592		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forests and creeks. It is thought that it may prefer dry forests.
5592		population	eng	<em>C. raineyi</em> is considered to be a very rare species.
5592		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat.
5593		conservation	eng	This species is present in a National Park in Kenya. There is a need for additional research into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
5593		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura selina</em> has been recorded from three lowland forests in Uganda (including the type locality of Mabira Forest) (Dippenaar 1989), and there is also a possible record (<em>Crocidura</em> cf. <em>selina</em>) from an isolated forest patch in the Kyulu Hills of southern Kenya (Oguge <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>C. selina</em> has not been found in forest in Nairobi, or near Mount Kenya. Its maximum elevation is approximately 1,700 to 1,800 m asl.
5593		habitat	eng	<em>C. selina</em> is found in tropical moist forest and swamps.
5593		population	eng	This species appears to be uncommon in Uganda. It is the most common shrew in the Kyulu Hills of Kenya (Oguge <em>et al</em>. 2004).
5593		threats	eng	It may be threatened by forest fragmentation in Uganda. Oguge <em>et al</em>. (2004) indicate that the species is potentially threatened by the ongoing loss of forest fragments in Kenya.
5594		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5594		distribution	eng	<em>C. thomensis</em> is endemic to the island of São Tomé in São Tomé and Príncipe (Dutton and Haft 1996).
5594		habitat	eng	<em>C. thomensis</em> is associated with montane tropical moist forest.
5594		population	eng	This is considered to be an uncommon to very rare species.
5594		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general habitat loss and degradation, largely through deforestation for the construction of houses and gardens.
5595		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park (Das, 1999). Taxonomic research and field surveys to determine the population size and range and the current status of the available habitat, with ongoing monitoring of populations needed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5595		distribution	eng	This species was previously only known by the holotype of 'South Andaman Island', India in the eastern Indian Ocean. A single individual of this species was recently collected on Mount Harriet, South Andaman Island (Das 1999; Hutterer 2005).
5595		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal animal, that lives in tropical moist deciduous and evergreen forests, where it inhabits leaf litter and rock crevices (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5595		population	eng	Population abundance is not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5595		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to anthropogenic activities on the island, except within the National Park. It is possible that the habitat of this species was damaged by the December 2004 tsunami event (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5596		conservation	eng	None known.
5596		distribution	eng	Recorded from Armenia and Azerbaijan.
5596		habitat	eng	Unknown.
5596		population	eng	No information.
5596		threats	eng	Unknown.
5597		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Mount Kitanglang National Park (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).
5597		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it occurs widely in the Mindanao faunal region and on Camiguin. It has also been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin, Leyte, Maripipi, and Mindanao (Agusan, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga provinces) (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Its elevation range is 0-2,600 m.
5597		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary forest, secondary forest and scrubby secondary growth, although uncommon in the latter two habitats. It appears to be tolerant of a certain level of disturbance, although it does not occur outside of forested habitats (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1989; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
5597		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally abundant, generally found in most areas on Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is most common at mid-elevations, and somewhat less common at higher and lower elevations.
5597		threats	eng	Locally, the species is threatened by deforestation, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlements. Although there was significant deforestation in the past, there has been less deforestation above 1,500 m asl, and current populations are probably stable at higher elevations.
5598		conservation	eng	There are several large protected areas within the species' range and these are likely to provide some long-term protection. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance of this species.
5598		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the mountain ranges in the northern and western regions of Sumatra (Indonesia), including Mount Singalang (Hutterer 2005; Ruedi 1995). It can be found in altitudes between 1,800-2,200 m.
5598		habitat	eng	This species prefers montane and sub-montane tropical forests. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
5598		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5598		threats	eng	Deforestation, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlement, probably represents a major threat to this species. This threat will be more severe if it is shown that the species cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats. The rate of forest loss on Sumatra is lower at the higher elevations at which this species occurs.
5599		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
5599		distribution	eng	Known only from type locality (Oman: Dhofar, Khadrafi). Collected at an altitude of 620 m.
5599		habitat	eng	Unknown.
5599		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trend.
5599		threats	eng	Unknown.
5600		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures taken to protect this species in Egypt, and no part of its known distribution range is protected. More data are required on population status (densities, trends), threats, etc.
5600		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura floweri</em> is endemic to Egypt. It has been recorded from El Giza and the southern region of the Nile Delta, as well as records from Wadi El Natrun (a large oasis west of the Nile Delta), and from the Upper Nile Valley. <br/><br/><em>C. floweri</em> appears to have a restricted range, although M. Saleh (pers. comm.) believes that this may be due to the restricted sampling range of the commercial collectors from the village of Abu Rawash in Giza, from whom many of the specimens have originated. Saleh believes that it is not unlikely that, with a proper survey, this species will be found throughout the rest of the Nile Delta and possibly the Nile Valley, where habitats identical to those within its known area of occupancy extend uninterrupted by any obvious ecological barrier. However, collecting efforts over a period of one year in the 1990s failed to find any specimens in the Nile Valley area (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species was reported possibly extinct in 1962, however, in the 1980s it was recorded from owl pellets.
5600		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat requirements of this shrew, although it is found in man-made habitats in the Nile Valley.
5600		population	eng	The species apparently has a very small population, although it may not be as rare as it currently appears to be. Certainly it does not appear to be rare in the Cairo, Giza, and southern Nile Delta region (M. Saleh pers. comm.), although there do not appear to have been any population studies carried out.
5600		threats	eng	The population may have been impacted by environmental pollution caused by the widespread use of agricultural insecticides during the 1960s and 1970s, which is known to have had a very adverse effect on the Nile Valley wildlife. It is also possible that its habitat has changed drastically since the Aswan dam was built in Nile valley - this has had a great impact on small mammal species, partly due to the increased prevalence of pest rats. However, such an effect on <em>C. floweri</em> is undetermined.
5601		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Mount Malindang National Park. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
5601		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It was originally described from Mount Malindang on Mindanao island (Misamis Occidental province) in 1906, where it is known only from the holotype (and one other individual) taken at 1,859 m (Heaney and Ruedi 1994). There were no surveys for the species between 1906 and 2000, but in recent years two surveys on Mount Malindang found several specimens which might represent this species (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There are no records from the highest peaks on Mindanao, Mount Apo (Sanborn 1952) and Mount Katanglad (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006), which suggests that the species could be confined to the Zamboanga Peninsula (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and within that range restricted to Mount Malindang, which is the highest point on the peninsula and adjacent islands.
5601		habitat	eng	The species might be confined to primary forest at mid- to high-elevations although this has not been confirmed (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
5601		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species as it is known only from a few individuals. There have not been adequate surveys for this species on Zamboanga Peninsula, or in other areas of Mindanao. Its potential range should be sampled with appropriate techniques, including drift fences and pitfall traps (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
5601		threats	eng	There has been extensive deforestation in the region where the species occurs. It occurs within the Mount Malindang National Park, but the park is not well managed and therefore does not afford this species adequate protection. Most of the lowland forest has been cleared. The effects of deforestation on this species are not known.
5602		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
5602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Luzon and Mindoro faunal regions. There are records from Catanduanes, Luzon (Abra, Benguet, Camarines Sur, Kalinga, Laguna, Mountain, and Rizal provinces), and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) at an elevation range from 250-2,400 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1998, 2004; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991).
5602		habitat	eng	The species is common in primary lowland, montane, and mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 2004; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991) and less common in secondary forest. It does not occur outside of forested areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
5602		population	eng	This species is locally common (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
5602		threats	eng	Deforestation has affected the species, especially at lower elevations. Forest has been lost for agriculture, timber extraction, and human settlements.
5603		conservation	eng	Thorough surveys, and studies on taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat, ecology and threats are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species.
5603		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to and known only from the holotype on Middle Andaman Island (Andaman Islands, India) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Recent surveys by Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> (2004) did not yield any specimens of this species.
5603		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal animal, that lives in the leaf litter of tropical evergreen forests of northern Middle Andaman Island (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
5603		population	eng	Population status is unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5603		threats	eng	No current major threats known, but the habitat of this species might have been damaged by the December 2004 tsunami event.
5604		conservation	eng	This shrew has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park (Das 1999). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional research is needed into the taxonomy, abundance, and threats to this species, with regular monitoring of populations also needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5604		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the holotype at Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island, India. Das (1999) found six individuals of <em>Crocidura jenkinsi</em> in sympatry with <em>Crocidura andamanensis</em> on Mount Harriet, South Andaman Island. It has been recorded up to 100 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
5604		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal/crepuscular and semi fossorial animal, associated with the leaf litter of primary tropical moist deciduous forest. A single adult has been taken from forest guest house in Mount Harriet National Park.
5604		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
5604		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to selective logging, general anthropogenic activities and natural disasters such as the tsunami event of December 2004 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5605		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
5605		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia south of the Isthmus of Kra, including a number of offshore islands (Hutterer 2005). It is also present in Singapore.
5605		habitat	eng	It is a poorly known species, occurring in lowland and montane forest. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
5605		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5605		threats	eng	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human induced habitat degradation. In particular there is a rapid expansion of plantations, including oil palm, taking place within its range.
5606		conservation	eng	More surveys are needed on Mindoro and Sibuyan to find new information about the species' populations, habitat preferences, threats and conservation needs. Taxonomic work is also needed to determine whether or not the population on Sibuyan is conspecific with that on Mindoro. It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
5606		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from Mindoro and Sibuyan islands (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
5606		habitat	eng	There is little known about the habitat and ecology of this species. On Mindoro the three specimens were collected in high elevation primary forest and on Sibuyan, the six individuals were collected in lowland to low montane forest.
5606		population	eng	This species is known on Mindoro from two specimens taken in 1906 at 1,920 m asl and one specimen taken at 1,550-1,800 m on Mount Halcon, and on Sibuyan from six specimens taken in 1989 and 1992 at 325-1,325 m (Goodman and Ingle 1993; Goodman and Heaney unpubl. data). Adequate surveys have not been undertaken and there is little else known about the population status of this species.
5606		threats	eng	Nothing is know about threats to this species, as it is not known whether or not it is dependent upon forest. Mindoro and Sibuyan have undergone extensive deforestation. However, there is some remaining montane forest on both islands.
5608		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, being found only in five fragmented localities of Central and Sabaragamuwa provinces. It has an altitudinal range of occurrence from 330 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5608		habitat	eng	The Sri Lankan Long-tailed Shrew is a nocturnal/crepuscular animal that leads a fossorial mode of life. It lives in the tropical montane and lowland forests, where it inhabits the wet Patana grasslands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5608		population	eng	It is known from only a handful of specimens (Hutterer 2005).
5608		threats	eng	Deforestation (presumably through logging operations, and conversion of land to agricultural and other uses) and forest fires are some of the major threats faced by this shrew (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5609		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas, and conservation of the small amount of remaining habitat is needed urgently. Research on its distribution, population, habitat and ecology is also essential. This includes appropriate surveys for this species on the islands Panay and Cebu.
5609		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Cuernos de Negros volcanoes in southern Negros island (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Rabor 1986). The species might be found to occur in northern Negros, but surveys in the north have not used appropriate techniques to catch this species and so it is not known if its range extends further than the Cuernos de Negros volcanoes. Even if it occurs more widely, it is thought have an extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
5609		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were taken in primary lowland and montane forest from 500 to 1,450 m (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Rabor 1986). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habtats outside forest, though this is unlikely.
5609		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown as it is known only from six specimens. The first specimen was found in 1948, the others in the 1980s. Surveys in the Mount Kanlaon area (northern Negros) have not found any populations (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.), but the bait used on these surveys might not have been appropriate. Surveys undertaken on neighbouring Panay and Cebu did not use appropriate techniques to survey this species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
5609		threats	eng	The Cuernos de Negros volcanoes have the only remaining intact forest in southern Negros. However, this forest is fragmented and continues to decline, there being no effective protection in this area. (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; L. Heaney pers. comm.). The construction of a geothermal electrical plant has led to deforestation in the only known area of its occurrence (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).
5610		conservation	eng	The Nicobar Shrew has been recorded from Campbell Bay National Park (possibly now extinct here) and Galathea National Park in Great Nicobar Islands (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2004; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5610		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern tip of Greater Nicobar Island (India) in the Bay of Bengal. It has been recorded up to about 100 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5610		habitat	eng	The Nicobar Shrew is a nocturnal and semi fossorial species, which lives among leaf litter in tropical moist deciduous forest (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5610		population	eng	In 1975 the species was recorded from Campbell Bay National Park to the Galathea River, but in a subsequent survey in 1984, no specimens were observed in the same area (S.S. Saha pers. comm.). The population is considered to be decreasing.
5610		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to selective logging, general anthropogenic activities and tsunami events (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5611		conservation	eng	This species is known from Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and potential threats to this species.
5611		distribution	eng	This species is known for certain only from the vicinity of the type locality at Cibodas, western Java (Indonesia), including Mount Pangrango and Mount Gede at altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m (Corbet and Hill 1992).
5611		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain forests of Java. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
5611		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5611		threats	eng	Most of its range is in a protected area, and it is unlikely to be facing any immediate threats, other than those inherent to a species with a small range at high elevations (such as climate change).
5613		conservation	eng	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas, and it is found in Subterranean River National Park. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution, especially in relation to human alteration of its habitat. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
5613		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Palawan Faunal Region with records from Palawan and Balabac islands, at an elevation range from sea level to 1,300 m asl. Ten individuals of a <em>Crocidura</em> species caught on Dumaran and others caught in the Malampaya Sound are smaller than one would expect for <em>C. palawanensis</em> (P. Widmann pers. comm.); the identification of these specimens is currently underway (J. Esselstyn pers. comm.).
5613		habitat	eng	This species is found in old growth and scrubby secondary forest (Taylor 1934; Hoogstraal 1951; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is likely to tolerate a good deal of habitat loss and is possibly resistant to habitat fragmentation (indicated by its occurrence at a site at Dumaran, which was logged decades ago and degraded).
5613		population	eng	Very little was known about these species until recent surveys, using pitfall trapping and drift fences, yielded many specimens. It appears to be a widespread species and abundant in suitable habitat, which include highly degraded forest, but probably not agricultural areas. This species has been collected only with pitfall trapping, while other methods have not located the species and this was the reason behind the scant records available for this species. There have been recent collections in Malampaya Sound (northern Palawan), but these individuals still need to be identified. However, it is likely that the species occurs throughout Palawan (L. Heaney pers. comm.). On Dumaran Island, 10 individuals were found in 260 pitfall trap/nights in 60 ha of heavily logged forest patch (elevation 35-70 m), where the canopy height was 25 m but with dense understory, including some individuals in bamboo shrub (L. Heaney pers. comm.), although these individuals have yet to be identified.
5613		threats	eng	The area is undergoing rapid deforestation (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Lowland primary forest was disappearing quickly before a logging ban was placed in the mid-1990s, which has since then somewhat slowed deforestation rates and allowed regeneration of second growth forest. However, the species is reasonably adaptable and seems to be able to survive in some secondary habitats.
5614		conservation	eng	There are several large protected areas within the species' range and these are likely to provide some long-term protection. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
5614		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of northern and western Sumatra (Indonesia), where it has been recorded at 1,000-2,000 m asl. A possible record from Java (Corbet and Hill 1992) has not been confirmed to represent this species.
5614		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in montane forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
5614		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5614		threats	eng	Deforestation, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlement, probably represents a major threat to this species. This threat will be more severe if it is shown that the species cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats. The rate of forest loss on Sumatra is lower at the higher elevations at which this species occurs.
5615		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas within its range. General taxonomic research and field surveys are needed for this poorly known species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
5615		distribution	eng	This species is known only with certainty from the type locality of Skoro Loomba, in Pakistan administered Kashmir, at an elevation of around 2,900 m asl (Hutterer 2005).
5615		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane temperate forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5615		population	eng	There is no information available on the population of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5615		threats	eng	Threats not known for this species or habitat where it occurs (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5616		conservation	eng	None in place. More research is required to gather data on the status of the population, range, ecology, and potential threats to the species.
5616		distribution	eng	Only two specimens of <em>Crocidura religiosa</em> are known (in the British Museum); these were collected from the neck of the Nile delta and further down the Nile. Mummified specimens have also been found further south.
5616		habitat	eng	It is possibly found in degraded habitat, based on Hoogstraal 1962. However, specific habitat preferences are unknown.
5616		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
5616		threats	eng	Potential habitat has been affected by construction of the Aswan Dam.
5617		conservation	eng	Listed in the China Red List as Least Concern.  In the Russia Red List is listed as Least Concern as <em>C. suaveolens</em>. Occurs in protected areas.
5617		distribution	eng	This species is found from southeast Siberia, east China and Korea including Taiwan, Cheju, Tsushima and Kamishima Island (Japan) (Hutterer 2005).
5617		habitat	eng	With such an extensive range, this species has been recorded in a wide variety of habitats. In the western section of its distribution, it is found in semi-desert grasslands, while farther to the north it occupies steppe biotopes, and the southern fringe of coniferous forest and mixed broadleaf forest. In the south-central portion of its range it occurs in montane forests, while along the southeastern edge it occupies the heavily agricultural Yangtze river valley (Smith and Xie, in press). In Japan inhabit river banks, shrubs sourrounding cultivated lands and foothills (Abe, 2005).
5617		population	eng	Common species, in some areas abundant. In Russia still recognized as <em>C. suaveolens</em>, therefore data might need verification as summarized for a transpalaearctic species.
5617		threats	eng	None known.
5618		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
5618		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Dezful, Khuzistan province, southwest Iran, but it may range more widely.
5618		habitat	eng	Poorly known.
5618		population	eng	This species is only known from type series. There is no information on population size or trend.
5618		threats	eng	Unknown.
5619		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In particular, the taxonomic validity of the species needs to be assessed.
5619		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Timor, both Indonesia and Timor-Leste at 200 to almost 3,000 m asl. It is so far known from only two locations, but it is expected to occur more widely on the island, especially at higher elevations. Nevertheless, its extent of occurrence is likely to be less than 20,000 km².
5619		habitat	eng	There is little information available on this species. Presumably, it is found in primary mossy and montane forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats outside forest.
5619		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5619		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. If it is dependent on forest, then threats, especially in the lowlands, include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. Forest on Timor is now restricted to small patches.
5620		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas on Kilimanjaro and Meru. There are current plans to survey the Kenyan populations in near future (Nick Oguge pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Further information is also required on the status of its habitat to monitor the potential impacts of climate change.
5620		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kenya and northern Tanzania. It is present on Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru, the Ngorongoro crater, and in the highlands of southwestern Kenya. It is thought to occur at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 m asl.
5620		habitat	eng	<em>Crocidura allex</em> is a montane species found in alpine grassland and swamp areas, including above the treeline. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
5620		population	eng	Although this species is generally considered to be relatively rare, it appears to be quite common in the afro-alpine zone at 3,500 m asl on Mount Kilimanjaro (Shore and Garbett 1991).
5620		threats	eng	On Mount Kilimanjaro and the Ngorongoro crater, this species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from small-holder farming and possibly disturbance from tourism. It is also probable that it is threatened by agricultural expansion in other parts of its range. It is suspected that global warming may become a threat in the near future to the mountain habitats of this species. The glacier on Kilimanjaro has significantly already significantly retreated.
5621		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, this species may occur in areas of small reserves in the Cameroon Mountains. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
5621		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Cameroon Mountains to eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is known from several localities in the Cameroon Mountains, Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in eastern Nigeria. <em>C. attila</em> is primarily a montane species but it is probably also present in lowland areas. Within Medge it occurs below 1,000 m asl in hilly terrain but all other known localities are above 1,500 m asl. The highest recorded altitude for this species is 1,900 m asl in the Gotel Mountains. Although it has not yet been recorded it is likely that this species also occurs in the Central African Republic.
5621		habitat	eng	This forest-dwelling species is primarily montane and sub-montane but also occurs in lowlands. There is some evidence that <em>C. attila</em> is able to persist in degraded habitats.
5621		population	eng	This species is not uncommon throughout its range. Over 20 specimens were collected from Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
5621		threats	eng	This species has no known threats. Most of the forest in Cameroon is degraded but this species has been collected from degraded areas and seems tolerant of degradation.
5622		conservation	eng	The Harenna forest, Bale Region, is one of the few remaining natural forests in southern Ethiopia and currently, the largest sub-section of the Bale Mountains National Park.
5622		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bale mountains and Mount Albasso in Ethiopia. Five specimens have been recorded from two isolated forest patches. It is thought to occur at elevations between 2,400 m to 3,280 m asl.
5622		habitat	eng	<em>C. bottegoides</em> occurs in grassy clearings within the Harenna forest in the Bale Mountains. These clearlings are within a mosaic of different habitats including <em>Erica arboreum</em> woodland, grassy clearings in escarpment forest, moist riverine habitat, and mixed evergreen tropical rainforest. It is restricted to forest on narrow, south facing slopes of the escarpements.
5622		population	eng	This species is uncommon and is only known from five specimens. Harenna Forest contains the greater abundance of the two patches.
5622		threats	eng	The remnant areas of forest within the Bale Mountains are generally threatened by collection of timber and firewood by local villagers and groups of insurgents. The habitat of this species is also believed to be threatened by fires started by people.
5623		conservation	eng	It is present within the Ituri Forest National Park. Further general studies are needed into the distribution of this little-known species.
5623		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in the Democratic Republic of Congo, including Kisangani, Masako Forest, and a locality 2 km west of the Epulu Forest. It is also found on Kungulu Island (Katuala pers. comm.).
5623		habitat	eng	Relatively little is known about this species. It inhabits primary forest on a lowland plateau at an elevation of around 750 m asl. Forest in the area of distribution is still abundant. This species has been recorded along creeks and on fallow land. It has also occasionally been found in secondary forest.
5623		population	eng	A study of Masako Forest found this species to be the most abundant shrew species in this region.
5623		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present.
5624		conservation	eng	This species may occur within Uzungwe National Park, but its presence there is uncertain. There is an urgent need to effectively conserve remaining tracts of montane forest inhabited by this species.
5624		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura desperatais endemic to relict forest patches in the Rungwe and Udzungwa mountains of southern Tanzania. It is found at elevations over 1,500 m asl.</em>
5624		habitat	eng	This species is found in the mountain bamboo zone of patchy montane tropical moist forests.
5624		population	eng	The species is known from few specimens. It has been collected relatively recently, indicating that the species is still extant.
5624		threats	eng	This species is considered threatened by increasing forest loss and fragmentation in the Udzungwe Mountains of southern Tanzania. It is particularly vulnerable due to its restricted range, although restricted range in itself is not necessarily a direct threat.
5625		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Mount Elgon National Park. There is a need to effectively protect additional areas of suitable montane forest for this species. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the limits of the species distribution.
5625		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of western Kenya and northeastern Tanzania. It is possibly present in Uganda. It occurs at elevations above 1,000 m asl. Approximately seven localities have been recorded including Mount Elgon in Kenya.
5625		habitat	eng	This little known species is associated with montane tropical moist forest.
5625		population	eng	This species is uncommon to moderately common in suitable areas.
5625		threats	eng	This species is threatened within its limited range by general habitat loss, presumably mostly through conversion of land to agricultural use.
5626		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5626		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Angola, where it ranges from Duque de Braganca in the north to Huila in the south (Heim de Balsac and Meester 1977). The type specimen was found at an elevation of 1,098 m asl (at Pungo Andongo).
5626		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
5626		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5626		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It may be vulnerable due to its seemingly quite restricted range.
5627		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species. There is a need for additional taxonomic research, especially concerning the relationship between this species and <em>Crocidura voi</em>.
5627		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two East African locations, the type locality of "Nguruman" in southern Kenya, and Himo in Tanzania. These two localities are not connected as suitable habitat at Nguruman is isolated by Lake Magadi to the north, swamp to the south, and the Rift Valley escarpment to the west. Until the taxonomic issues surrounding the relationship between <em>Crocidura voi have been resolved it is difficult to determine the full extent of the species geographic range. This species has been recorded at approximately 800 m asl.</em>
5627		habitat	eng	This little known species is a dry savanna specialist that is not present in mountainous areas.
5627		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
5627		threats	eng	The species could be threatened in the future by loss of habitat resulting from the expansion of agricultural irrigation systems.
5628		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of conservation areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
5628		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho and southern Mozambique. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m asl and possibly higher.
5628		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in grassland and grassland savanna but it also found in gardens.
5628		population	eng	This species is relatively common in the coastal part of its range. <em>Crocidura flavescens is a synanthropic species which is adapted to living in habitats modified by humans and is commonly found in gardens. It is regularly found in low numbers at elevations of approximately 1,500 m asl.
5628		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
5629		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is presumably present within a number of protected areas.
5629		distribution	eng	This African species has been recorded throughout the Sudan savanna zone, from Senegal in the east to southern Sudan. In West Africa, this species is well known from Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and possibly occurs in other countries. Its Nigerian range includes the Jos Plateau which has an average height of 1,280 m and is the only region of Nigeria with a near temperate climate. There is an unpublished record of <em>C. foxi from Chad. This species has not been found in Benin.
5629		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of <em>C. foxi</em> is moist savanna and forest edges. However, this species can tolerate some habitat disturbance and is common in sugarcane plantations and similar modified habitats. At Owerri (Nigeria), they reportedly favor secondary growth and cleared land (Cozens and Marchant 1952; Happold 1987).
5629		population	eng	This species is common in some areas but its numbers vary throughout its range.
5629		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations might be locally threatened by severe habitat loss.
5630		conservation	eng	Both Aberdare and Mount Kenya are classified as National Parks and <em>C.fumosa</em> has a reseasonable degree of protection when it occurs in these area. However, the National Parks are not entirely effective in preventing forest loss.
5630		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura fumosa</em> occurs on Mount Kenya and in the Aberdare range, Kenya. It is found at high altitudes in three isolated "islands" in the Aberdare mountain range. Two of the localities have known elevations of 2,600 m and 3,200 m asl. It is thought that another locality may have a lower elevation at between 1,500 m-2,000 m asl but this would be considered unusual for this species.
5630		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist montane forest.
5630		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5630		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is the loss of forest (presumably largely through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use), in high elevation areas despite the fact that Mount Kenya and much of the Aberdare range have National Park status.
5631		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5631		distribution	eng	<em>Corcidura gracilipes</em> is known only from the holotype, collected at the indistinct type locality of "Auf der Reise nach dem Kilimandscharo" which is usually taken as "Kilimanjaro, Tanzania" (Hutterer 2005). It has not currently been recorded from Mount Kilimanjaro; it may have been collected from the Tanzanian coastal area.
5631		habitat	eng	There is no definite information available on the habitat and ecology of <em>C. gracilipes</em>. It may be a coastal forest species.
5631		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is currently known only from the holotype.
5631		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
5632		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.
5632		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura greenwoodi</em> has only been recorded from southern parts of Somalia.
5632		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from gallery forest, savanna, arid bush, and cultivated land.
5632		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
5632		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is considered to have a relatively restricted range.
5633		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Bale Mountain National Park. There is a need to prevent further loss or degradation of this species range, and the Harenna Forest as a whole. Known localities should be monitored to record any changes in abundance.
5633		distribution	eng	The type locality for <em>Crocidura harenna</em> is in Harenna forest in the Bale Mountains, southern Ethiopia. Harenna forest is thought to cover a maximum area of 200 km². Surrounding areas have been sampled but additional populations of <em>Crocidura harenna</em> have not been found. This species has an elevational range of 2,400 to 2,630 m asl.
5633		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Harenna forest. It is restricted to a narrow altitudinal belt known as the <em>Schefflera-Hagenia</em> belt which has a specific type of vegetation.The <em>Schefflera-Hagenia</em> belt is composed of mixed montane evergreen tropical forest. The total area inhabited by <em>C. harenna</em> is only 200 m wide and 20 km long resulting in a distribution of approximately 4 km².
5633		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat in the Bale Mountains.
5633		threats	eng	Remnant forest habitat in the Bale Mountains is threatened by conversion of land to agricultural use, overgrazing by domestic livestock, collection of firewood and timber and fires.
5634		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of montane habitat within the known range of this species. More research into population levels and habitat requirements is required to determine potential conservation actions.
5634		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura macmilliani</em> is found in the Western Plateau of Ethiopia. Until recently it was known only from the holotype (collected at 'Kotelee, Walamo'), but it was rediscovered in 2002 in the Middle Godjeb Valley, Western Plateau (Bannikov <em>et al</em>., 2001). It is currently known from three localities including, Koteke, the Middle Godjeb Valley, and Sheko Forest. It is unlikely that <em>C. macmilliani</em> occurs further north than these localities due to the lack of suitable habitat. Its elevational range is from 1,220-1,930 m asl.
5634		habitat	eng	This species is found in Ethiopian montane tropical forest, and humid woodland Terminalia-Combretum savanna with high grasses.
5634		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5634		threats	eng	The destruction of montane forests may become a serious threat to this species in the future by considerably reducing its geographic range and population numbers. The main threats to these forests in this region are fires and deforestation by humans.
5635		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
5635		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura macowi</em> is only known from its type locality on Mount Nyiro, south of Lake Turkana, Kenya.
5635		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
5635		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5635		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
5636		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Oku Faunal Reserve. It is not known if it is present within any additional protected areas. There is an urgent need to effectively conserve remaining areas of montane forest within the Cameroon highlands. Additional studies are needed into the natural history of this species.
5636		distribution	eng	This little known species is believed to be endemic to the mountains of Cameroon. It has been recorded from the type locality of Tinta (Mamfe Division) (Sanderson 1940), from the Bamenda Highlands (Schlitter <em>et al.</em> 1999), and more recently from Mount Oku (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). The Cameroon mountains are an isolated area, and surveys of other mountain blocks have not revealed this species. Its elevational range is between 1,200-1,800 m asl.
5636		habitat	eng	This little known species is currently known only from montane tropical moist forest habitats.
5636		population	eng	This species is very uncommon with very few specimens recorded..
5636		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive habitat destruction and degradation in the Cameroon mountains, including the protected Mount Oku area.
5637		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
5637		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura pitmani</em> is known from central and northern Zambia. The type locality for this species is uncertain but is thought to be the Maluwe-Sarengi district.
5637		habitat	eng	Other than being a montane species, little is known about the natural history of this species.
5637		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5637		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
5638		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. The top of the Aberdare Range is protected in Aberdare National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known species.
5638		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura ultima</em> is only known from its type locality of the Jombeni Range in the Nyeri District, Kenya. It might also occur in parts of the Aberdare Range, Kenya, but this needs to be confirmed.. It has been recorded at an altitude of approximately 1,524 m asl.
5638		habitat	eng	This little known species has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest.
5638		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5638		threats	eng	The extent to which this species habitat in the Jombeni Range is threatened varies across this area. Suitable habitat in the Aberdare Mountains is severely threatened. The principle threats to this species are human activities including encroachment into forest, settlement and deforestation.
5639		conservation	eng	<em>C. xantippe</em> has been recorded from Tsavo National Park, Kenya, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species..
5639		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura xantippe</em> is known from Voi and Tsavo in southeast Kenya, possibly Mount Nyiru in northwestern Kenya, and from the Usambaras Mountains in northeastern Tanzania.
5639		habitat	eng	This species is found at foot of of the Usambara Mountains and may have a wider distribution than is currently known. It occurs in bushland or very dry savanna.
5639		population	eng	<em>C. xantippe</em> is generally an uncommon species, even within suitable habitat.
5639		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
5640		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Upemba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known species.
5640		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura zimmeri</em> is a very distinct species from Katanga Province, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is known only from Upemba National Park. It was described in 1936 when two specimens were collected but has not been collected or seen again. However, this area has not been thoroughly sampled since its discovery and it is possible that further surveys may provide new records. It is thought to occur at an altitude of approximately 600-700 m asl.
5640		habitat	eng	<em>C. zimmeri</em> is a large shrew and one of the most distinctive of the <em>Crocidura</em> species. There is little natural history information available for this species. The Upemba National Park largely consists of wetlands, and the species is though to be associated with these habitat types.
5640		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
5640		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by gold and diamond mining in Bakama. There is also a considerable amount of settlement and fishing in the area where it is found.
5659		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the population of Cuba, which is included in Appendix II).
5659		habitat	eng	Found in both freshwater and brakish/saline lakes, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5660		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
5660		distribution	eng	Occurs in central and western Africa.
5660		habitat	eng	<a name="habi">A highly aquatic species, found primarily in riverine habitat with dense vegetation cover. Also found in large lakes. Individuals have been found in more brackish water, near the coast, and even on an offshore island (Bioko). These reports are unusual, but they do indicate a moderate tolerance of salinity</a>.<br/><br/>Has terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5661		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
5661		habitat	eng	Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5663		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the populations of Belize and Mexico, which are included in Appendix II with a zero quota for wild specimens traded for commercial purposes).
5663		habitat	eng	Can also be found in brackish waters in some areas. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5667		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
5667		habitat	eng	May also be found in coastal saltwater lagoons. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5668		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the populations of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, which are included in Appendix II).
5668		habitat	eng	Inland lakes, swamps and marshes as well as coastal brackish waters and tidal sections of rivers. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5670		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of CITES. There are also direct conservation measures, including captive breeding programmes, reintroductions and protected areas. Illegal hunting continues to occur, therefore further harvest management is required to reduce the rate of population decline currently occurring. Further research and monitoring of the population, taxonomy, harvest levels, and threats to this species should be carried out.
5670		distribution	eng	This species is no longer found in most of its historic range and is currently restricted to two relatively small areas in Cuba. Its principal distribution is in the Zapata Swamp, where it occupies an area of 360 km². In the Lanier Swamp on the Isle of Youth its present distribution is 35 km².
5670		habitat	eng	The Cuban Crocodile is a medium-sized crocodile found in freshwater marsh and inundated shrublands where it preys to a large degree on small mammals, particularly the native hutias (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capromys</span> spp.) and freshwater turtles (<span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys decussata</span>). Females make mound-type nests at the beginning of the annual rainy season (May-June) and lay 20-40 eggs.
5670		population	eng	The only population estimate available is from a study by Ramos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996). Based on this study the population of crocodiles in the Zapata Swamp is 3,000-5,000 individuals. The number in the Lanier Swamp has not been evaluated but is known to be much smaller than that in the Zapata Swamp. The total population size is likely to be 4,000 (Targarona <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm.).
5670		threats	eng	There are two main threats: illicit hunting and hybridization with native American Crocodiles. Hunting increased substantially from the 1990s to the present and is principally for the sale of meat to private restaurants serving the tourist industry or for local consumption. Hybridization has long been suspected but poorly understood. Recent genetic studies provide preliminary evidence that extensive hybridization is taking place in the wild. A captive population is present in two areas (in the Zapata Swamp and in the Lanier Swamp) but hybrid animals are strongly suspected in these populations as well. Neither of these threats has been resolved.
5671		conservation	eng	The Crocodile Management Association of Thailand (CMAT) has a strategy for re-introducing Siamese crocodiles into wild habitats in hopes of partial restoration of these crocodiles in their historical range in Thailand. It is also included in Appendix I of CITES.
5671		distribution	eng	Small populations remain in Laos, Viet Nam, and Indonesia, but wild Siamese crocodiles are virtually gone in Thailand. In 2000 a single specimen was discovered in Kaeng Krachan National Park in western Thailand, and in 2002 one to three were sighted in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary in central Thailand. An effort has begun to establish additional populations by releasing captive reared specimens in areas of protected habitat
5671		habitat	eng	Freshwater species, occurring in swamps and slow-moving sections of streams and rivers, but also found in lakes and rivers. Terrestrial nesting and basking sites.
5671		population	eng	The Siamese Crocodile has been eradicated from much of its former range.
5671		threats	eng	The principal threats are habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and persecution.
5672		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
5672		habitat	eng	Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
5674		conservation	eng	Legal classification varies from “vermin” (Ethiopia) to fully protected in conservation areas. Thus, while it is fully protected in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, the Spotted Hyaena may be legally shot by sport hunters in the adjacent Maswa Game Reserve. Spotted Hyaeans enjoy protection in a number of protected areas across their range, particularly in southern Africa, including Kruger National Park (South Africa), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa and Botswana), and Etosha National Park (Namibia).
5674		distribution	eng	Spotted Hyaena are relatively widely distributed in Africa, south of the Sahara. Their distribution is patchy, especially in West Africa, with populations often concentrated in protected areas. More continuous distributions persist over large areas of Chad, Central African Republic, southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Angola, Namibia, and parts of South Africa. Hofer and Mills (1998a) reported the species as extinct in Algeria, where they may have occurred in the Ahaggar and Tassili d’Ajjer, and also report no recent records from Djibouti, Eritrea, Gabon, Gambia, and Togo; however, Künzel <em>et al.</em> (2000) report that Spotted Hyaena are still widespread in Djibouti, and Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) note the same for Gambia. Recently, Henschel and Ray (2003) reported images of a single Spotted Hyaena inside the Ivindo National Park in Gabon, where the species has not been recorded since eradication around 1950. <br/><br/>There is no confirmed evidence of their occurrence in Egypt, Liberia or Lesotho.
5674		habitat	eng	Spotted Hyaenas are present in all habitats including semi-desert, savanna and open woodland, dense dry woodland, and even montane habitats, such as in the Aberdares, Mt Kenya, and the Ethiopian Highlands, up to 4,100 m altitude (Hofer and East in press; and references therein). It is absent from, or present at very low densities in, extreme desert conditions, tropical rainforests, although they may make deep incursions into forested areas where logging roads provide access (Hofer and East in press). In many parts of their range, they occur in close association with human habitations. Often considered scavengers, Spotted Hyaenas are in fact effective and flexible hunters (Hofer and East in press); damage to domestic stock mainly involves cattle, sheep and goats and varies widely in intensity (Hofer 1998). The ecology of the species is reviewed by Hofer and East (in press).
5674		population	eng	Viable populations still exist in a number of countries and a tentative estimate of the total global population is between 27,000 and 47,000. The largest known populations occur in the Serengeti ecosystem (in the Tanzanian sector, 7,200-7,700; in the Kenyan sector, 500-1,000) and the Kruger N.P., South Africa (1,300-3,900). Population densities based on systematic censuses vary substantially, from 0.006 to 1.7 individuals per km² (Hofer and Mills 1998b; and see references therein). Most populations in protected areas in southern Africa are considered to be stable, whereas many populations in eastern and western Africa, even in protected areas, are considered to be declining, mostly due to incidental snaring and poisoning (Hofer and Mills 1998b).
5674		threats	eng	Outside protected areas, populations are subject to human persecution through shooting, trapping and poisoning. Such activities may sometimes occur within the boundaries of conservation areas: mortality due to wire snares set to catch wild herbivores for meat is an important cause of adult mortality in the Serengeti, where snares kill around 400 adult hyaenas each year and are responsible for more than half of all adult mortality (Hofer <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently only since the mid-1970s has game meat hunting rapidly expanded, as more people have moved within walking distance of the boundaries of protected areas north and west of the Serengeti (Hofer 1998). The numbers killed by sport hunters are small as they are not considered an attractive species. It is also killed for food or medicine (Hofer and Mills 1998b). A further threat is posed by the decline in densities of wildlife species consumed by Spotted Hyaenas due to habitat loss caused by increased human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.
5675		conservation	eng	The species is protected in coastal reserves.
5675		distribution	eng	Coastal lakes and estuaries from  southern Mozambique to Durban, KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001), recorded from Madagascar.
5675		habitat	eng	Restricted to sandy, quiet water areas where it lives in burrows excavated in clean sand, often in association with the sandprawn <em>Callianassa kraussi</em> (Skelton 2001). It is unable to form burrows where the substrate is disturbed by water movements, is muddy or consists of sand with a particle diameter >0.5 mm. On exposed shores, it occurs deeper than 3.5 m, occasionally intertidal. Its food consists of slow moving benthic organisms like chironomid larvae, gastropods, bivalves and amphipods. Spawns throughout summer, males territorial.
5675		population	eng	Not known because of burrowing habits making sampling difficult
5675		threats	eng	Human disturbance and siltation of estuaries.
5679		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution of this species are needed.
5679		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded along the Central Cordillera from the Swart Valley in the west to the Huon Peninsula in the east (Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It may range more widely as it is a secretive species that is rarely recorded (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 1,200 to 3,500 m asl.
5679		habitat	eng	This species is associated with mountain stream habitats. Animals live in fast rivers close to the forest edge. Females are reported to have a single young (Flannery 1995).
5679		population	eng	While it is difficult to catch, it is consistently present at known sites in small numbers. This species is much more widespread and common than originally thought.
5679		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by hunting for food and some mining activities in the western part of the range.
5704		conservation	eng	Although technically found within Lore Lindu National Park, this protected area has not been well managed for biodiversity conservation. The type locality, Dana Lindu, is now in an area heavily used by humans. Although Lore Lindu is clearly in need of more effective management, there is also a need for further survey work using more appropriate survey techniques (specifically pit-fall traps) to determine the range and population status of this species.
5704		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities: the mountain valley of Danau Lindu at 1,067 m, and upper drainage of Sungai Miu in the Kulawi region at 823 m, Central Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is likely to be more widespread, but is almost certainly endemic to central Sulawesi.
5704		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial insectivore that inhabits tropical lowland evergreen rainforest. It is unclear whether it is able to survive in degraded habitats.
5704		population	eng	There is no information on population status, and it is known only from three specimens collected in the mid 1970s. These specimens were all incidentally captured, and there has been limited survey work involving appropriate survey techniques.
5704		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss and forest clearance due to expanding agriculture (especially rice and corn) and logging, particularly at lower elevations. Recent surveys (L. Ruedas pers. comm.) found much of the former rainforest habitat at the type locality had been converted to rice agriculture.
5705		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need to conduct surveys in remaining lowland forest blocks to determine the range of the species.
5705		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Luzon island, Philippines. It is known only from the holotype collected in 1895/1896 from the interior side of the northern portion Sierra Madre, Isabela province, at around 300 m (Thomas 1898).
5705		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown. However, it is possibly that it is confined to primary lowland forest (Musser 1982; Thomas 1898).
5705		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype (Thomas 1898).
5705		threats	eng	The lowland forest in the vicinity of the type locality is almost completely deforested.
5706		conservation	eng	More surveys using appropriate trapping techniques (with earthworms or drift fences) need to be undertaken at lower elevations to get a better sense of this species' population status. More research should also be carried out to determine if the species can persist in second growth forest.
5706		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and occurs from sea level to 1,550 m on Camiguin (L. Heaney pers. comm.; Heaney and Tabaranza 1995), Leyte, and Mindanao (Bukidnon, Cotabato, and Davao del Norte provinces) which represent two biogeographic regions. It is known from scattered records in the central parts of its range in Mindanao but is likely to occur throughout eastern Mindanao since it also occurs on Leyte (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
5706		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland forest and tolerates some level of habitat disturbance. On Camiguin it has been found in disturbed agricultural land among secondary forest and disturbed montane forest (Heaney and Tabaranza 2006).
5706		population	eng	The population status of the species is not very well known as it is very difficult to trap and there have been very few appropriate surveys for this species (L. Heaney pers. comm.). However, it has been found to be moderately common on Camiguin (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).
5706		threats	eng	There is significant deforestation in the lowlands, and much of this species habitat is gone.
5748		conservation	eng	Not recorded from any protected areas. Fieldwork to survey for populations and assess the extent of anthropogenic threats is urgently needed. Research to clarify systematic status, and determine distribution limits and basic ecology is also a priority.
5748		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. Recorded only from the type locality at Port Nolloth, Northern Cape Province, South Africa.
5748		habitat	eng	Coastal dunes and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld of the Namaqualand coastal plain (Nama-Karoo biome).
5748		population	eng	Extremely rare; known from only three specimens and not captured for over 50 years despite survey work.
5748		threats	eng	Habitat alteration as a result of mining of coastal sands for alluvial diamonds in the Port Nolloth district may pose a threat to this species (Smithers 1986).
5749		conservation	eng	Not yet recorded in any proclaimed conservation areas, but would be protected by the proposed Groen-Spoeg National Park. Research is needed to establish distribution limits and to gather basic data on natural history of this species.
5749		distribution	eng	Until recently, recorded from only the type locality near Lambert's Bay, South Africa (Helgen and Wilson 2001). Another specimen was collected at Groenriviermond, some 150 km further north along the Namaqualand coast in November 2003, suggesting that the range of this species is more extensive than previously recognized.
5749		habitat	eng	Coastal dune belt and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld Succulent Karoo (Nama-Karoo biome).
5749		population	eng	This species is extremely rare.
5749		threats	eng	Mining of coastal sands for alluvial diamonds could be impacting on this species, as this has been identified as threat to <em>Eremitalpa granti</em> (Smithers 1986), with which this species coexists. However, the extent and impact of this potential threat is unknown. Habitat alteration associated with tourism developments along the west coast may pose an additional minor threat.
5751		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Mole National Park, Ghana, and a few other protected areas.
5751		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in east-central Ghana, probably between the arms of the Red and Black Volta and Oti Rivers. Reports of this species in central Togo (Rosevear, 1969; and see map in Honeycutt <em>et al.</em> 1991) refer to the collection from the type locality, which was originally in Togo, but is now within Ghana.
5751		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species associated with savanna woodland, but also well adapted to agricultural land. It can be found burrowed into farmland, particularly those in which <em>Dioscorea alata</em> or <em>Manihot utilisima</em> were cultivated. It is a social animal living in colonies of up to seven individuals, with a single breeding pair. The species can probably produce two litters of one or two young per year.
5751		population	eng	This species is common within its restricted distribution, and is apparently considered to be an agricultural pest.
5751		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
5752		conservation	eng	While the species has yet to be recorded from any protected areas it is suspected to occur in several, including the Liuwa Plains National Park, Zambia. Additional surveys are needed to more clearly determine the range of the species, and its population abundance.
5752		distribution	eng	This species is has been widely recorded from central and south-eastern Angola, southwards across the Cunene River into extreme northern Namibia (Ovamboland provinces). There is a disjunct report of this species from Lubango, west-central Angola (14°56' S, 13°27' E) (Faulkes <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2004). Although there are no confirmed records from Zambia (not mentioned in Ansell 1978); a specimen from Sananga in south-western Zambia, which though sharing the same chromosome number (2n=58) is not believed to represent this species. The species may occur in the southern Democratic Republic of Congo, as noted in Woods (2005), however, this requires confirmation.
5752		habitat	eng	There is little general information available on the habitat preferences of this species. In Namibia the species has been reported from dry savanna, and flat and sandy terrain. In other parts of its range it has been recorded in areas of Miombo woodland. This is a social, subterranean species; four animals were caught from a single colony that was incompletely trapped.
5752		population	eng	It is probably a common species, although further studies are needed to confirm this.
5752		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It might be overharvested for food in parts of its range, although this needs confirmation.
5753		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protectected areas throughout the range, including both the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Conservation Area (Botswana and South Africa), and many protected areas in northern Botswana.
5753		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in westen parts of Zambia, western Zimbabwe, Botswana (it is generally widespread in except in the extreme eastern parts), central and northern Namibia (including the Caprivi Strip), and marginally into the Northern Cape of South Africa (Hotazel, Kalahari Park). It has been suggested that it is present in southern Angola (Woods 1995), but this has yet to be confirmed (the species occurs on the islands in the Okavango, and could potentially cross the river).
5753		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-arid thornscrub, woodland, savanna, grassland habitats associated with red Kalahari sands and sandy soils. It is a diurnal, subterranean species that prefers to live in Kahalahri arenosols, and loose unconsolidated alluvial sands. The areas in which the species occurs generally have a low to sporadic annual rainfall of around 2-400 mm. This is a social species that lives in colonies that average around 16 animals, but may be as many as 41 individuals. There is a single breeding pair, and colonies are formed from this pair and their subsequent litters, which remain in the natal group (Jarvis and Bennett 1993). Colonies can produce up to four litters of one to six young a year (Bennett pers. comm.). If the reproductive female dies, the colony disperses. The species has a generation length of three years.
5753		population	eng	This species is locally common, with densities known to exceed 318 individuals per sq km.
5753		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
5754		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that this species occurs in any protected areas, as the Jos Plateau, at least, is not protected.
5754		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded from the highlands of Nigeria and Cameroon. It has been reported from a single locality, Panyam, on the Jos Plateau in Nigeria, and from Ngaoundere in Cameroon.
5754		habitat	eng	On both the Jos Plateau of Nigeria and in Cameroon, the species has been recorded from extensive grasslands, rocky areas, riverine forest along streams. It is a subterranean species that lives in colonies. Rosevear (1969) mentions that they were found to eat worms in captivity.
5754		population	eng	The general population abundance of this species is not well-known. Rosevear (1969) discusses the 12 known specimens all collected at the same locality in Nigeria almost a century ago, as well as the 6 additional specimens taken from the same locality in 1966. In Cameroon it is apparently common, but localised.
5754		threats	eng	On the Jos Plateaux this species might be highly threatened by agricultural activities, particularly in the regions where the soil is more fertile and well suited for crops that cannot be grown in most other parts of Nigeria (e.g, potatoes). Collection of firewood in the area has also resulted in deforestation. However, it is not known to what degree these threats are affecting the species (some mole-rats adapt well to agricultural disturbance) The threats to the species in Cameroon are not known.
5755		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. Further taxonomic study of this species is needed to clarify the status of the various subspecies.
5755		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Africa, where it is found in Western Cape as far south as Stellenbosch and Somerset West in Cape Peninsula, extending to Stenkopf in the northwest, and then inland in the Northern Cape province to Prieska and Calvinia along consolidated sands along the east coast and inland to the Eastern Cape province, to the southern Free State and into Gauteng (subspecies <em>C. h. hottentotus</em>; <em>C. h. pretoriae</em>, <em>C. h. mahali</em>); the subspecies <em>C. h. natalensis</em> occurs from the Eastern Cape through KwaZulu-Natal, Lesotho, Swaziland (where <em>C. h. pretoriae</em> may also occur in the west) and into southern Kruger National Park and extreme southern Mozambique. The range of <em>C. h. nimrodi</em> begins at the Limpopo River and goes up to Bulawayo, but the eastern limit is unclear. Animals formerly recognised as <em>C. whytei,</em> (Faulkes <em>et al</em>. 2004), exist as a disjunct, isolated poplulation occurring in extreme southwestern Tanzania (at Suma, 9°10' S, 33°40' E), and the Nyika Plateau region of Malawi and adjacent Zambia southwards to the Nsanje District of southern Malawi (a single record; which may yet represent another taxon). The precise limits of distribution of the various subspecies remain to be properly delimited.
5755		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide range of subtrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane woodland. In South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal province, it occurs in a variety of habitats from short, mesic grassland to dense coastal forest, and from stony soils on hillslopes in the Drakensberg (Taylor 1998). In many parts of the range (e.g., Pretoria, Swaziland, and KwaZulu-Natal), they are found in a variety of man-made habitats including lawns, golf-courses and gardens. The species is subterranean, and social, with a colony size of around five animals (and up to 14) including a single reproductive pair. It has a litter size of two to six young and a generation time of about three years.
5755		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well-known. It is a widespread but localised species, presumably because of specific soil requirements (the population density may exceed 150 individuals per sq km in preferred habitats).
5755		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
5756		conservation	eng	This species is lkely to occur in a number of protected areas in Zambia. Further studies of animals from Malawi are needed to clarify their systematic status. There is a need to monitor populations of this species.
5756		distribution	eng	This is a central African species that has been recorded from central Angola, northern Zambia, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Faulkes <em>et al</em>. 2004, mention a record from Kinshasa at 4°22' S, 15°27' E), and southwestern Tanzania (Ufipa Plateau [not mapped here]). There is a record from northern Malawi (apparently from Rumphi), but this record probably represents another species (and the same may hold true for the specimen from Ufipa).
5756		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species that inhabits a variety of soil types (including stony soil, pure sand and clay) in savanna bushland and dense Acacia woodland with an annual  rainfal of over 1,100 mm. It is an adaptable species and has been recorded from agricultural land and abandoned fields, gardens, and pine plantations. This is a social species, with colonies generally consisting of between two and 20 individuals (although there may be as many as 40 animals).
5756		population	eng	Although there is no information on recorded densities, the species is very abundant in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia.
5756		threats	eng	This species is a major agricultural pest (especially for kasava), for which there have been long-running control projects. The species is also heavily exploited for food, particularly in Zambia, but this is not believed to currently represent a major threat.
5757		conservation	eng	Iit is considered likely to occur in protected areas such as Garamba National Park in the northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
5757		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from the southern Sudan (most easterly to 100 km east of Nile), northern Uganda, northern Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic. The locality records are widely distributed. Records of the species from eastern Nigeria (Woods 2005) are probably explained by the previous synonymy with <em>Cryptomys foxi</em>. The species may occur in eastern and central Cameroon, however, this requires confirmation. It is presumed to have a wide altitudinal range.
5757		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species of wooded savanna and agricultural land. Very little is known about the natural history of this social animal.
5757		population	eng	The population abundance of this widespread, yet localised, species is not known. A comment in Setzer (1956) notes that the species is "plentiful in mountain meadows".
5757		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
5760		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in many protected areas throughout Madagascar (such as Kirindy Forest, and Ranomafana, Masaola, and Ankarafantsika National Parks). It is the subject of a successful <em>ex situ</em> captive breeding programme. Better protection of intact forests and awareness programmes concerning the value of this species for pest control are needed. This species is not currently protected adequately under national legislation, as there are conflicts within national legislation, as well as within and between local community laws.
5760		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in less disturbed forests of Madagascar. It is absent from areas where forests have been cleared (e.g. the central high plateau). It is found from sea level up to around 2,600 m asl on the Andringitra Massif (Hawkins 2003).
5760		habitat	eng	This species is found both arboreal and terrestrial. It is found in all less disturbed forest types thoughout the island. Additionally, this species may be found above the treeline in montane areas (Goodman 1996). In general, it is not found outside of intact forest habitat, but it may pass through nonforest habitat as transient individuals. Its diet is known to include most animals in forests it inhabits, including lemurs to the size of Diademed Sifaka (bodyweight ~3 kg), rodents and reptiles (Rasolonandrasana 1994; S.M. Goodman and L. Dollar, unpubl.; F. Hawkins pers. comm.). Lemurs are frequently caught in trees. The gestation period is six to seven weeks after which between two and four young are born (Hawkins 2003); since infants remain with the mother for the first year, females only breed every other year. Sexual maturity is reached at three or four years of age (Hawkins 2003) and it is maximum known age in captivity is more than 20 years. It is active equally throughout the day and night (cathemeral), with periods of inactivity in the hottest and coldest parts of the day or night.
5760		population	eng	The Fossa is generally a solitary species that is found at low population densities (Hawkins 2003). Density estimates for the Menabe region are 0.26 individuals/km² (Hawkins 1998), and for Ankarafantsika 0.20/km² (Rahajanirina 2003). In a recent estimate incorporating 25 protected areas large enough to support a (not necessarily viable) population, current population size is at <2,500 (Hawkins and Racey 2005). The maximum estimated population size for the largest protected area in Madagascar (Masoala National Park) is 414 breeding adults, and this is likely to be a substantial overestimate. Metapopulations of more than this may be possible, given the ability of this species to range between forest patches. Connectivity of populations between distant forest fragments is not yet conclusively known. <br/><br/>Densities for the eastern forests are hypothesized by some to be at one-third that of the west, based on phototrapping and cage trapping efforts throughout the humid forests (L. Dollar, unpubl.). Subjective encounter rate is much higher in western forests (particularly in Menabe, Bemaraha and Ankarana reserves) than in rainforests (F. Hawkins unpubl.), but densities could well be similar between dry and humid forests. This is an important point for future investigation. Important factors may include densities of lemur prey species, and levels of hunting.
5760		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss and fragmentation of forest habitat, largely caused by the conversion of forested areas to agricultural land and pasture and selective logging. It also preys on domestic fowl and is consequently killed as a pest species by local people. It is very susceptible to hunting, and is often targeted by groups engaged in collective group hunting (e.g. in the Makira forests) specifically for the purpose of eradication. Parts of this species are also used for medicinal purposes. Competition with feral carnivores also occurs, including predation by feral dog packs.
5761		conservation	eng	This species needs habitat preservation. It is currently found within in a regional park. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Atlas of Endangered Invertebrates of Spain (2010).
5761		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. Its range is restricted to the Somiedo Valley, reaching to Picos Albos, in the southeast of Somiedo.
5761		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The  habitat of this species are cliffs and limestone walls, where specimens can be  found (depending on weather) directly on the walls or in crevices with chasmophytic vegetation. Given the  characteristics of the habitat (vertical walls), sampling efforts have been limited to the base of walls, but we assume that it also lives in other inaccessible parts  of these walls.
5761		population	eng	No population studies have been conducted on this species, but it is assumed to be stable. The density seems to be low. Ten specimens/sampling hour &#160;were collected in the locus typicus.
5761		threats	eng	Threats to this species are habitat alteration by fires or by enlargement of roads. Nevertheless, Somiedo is a valley with few human interferences.
5763		conservation	eng	The species is probably found in La Amistad protected area.
5763		distribution	eng	This species is known only from far west Panama (Hutterer, 2005). It occurs from 1,200 to 1,850 m asl (Reid, 1997).
5763		habitat	eng	One specimen was caught in an isolated barren of stunted trees and sparse ground cover in a region characterized by dense, wet evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is unknown.
5763		population	eng	This species is apparently rare (Reid, 1997).
5763		threats	eng	Deforestation and development are a threat to this species.
5764		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas such as La Amistad National Park in Panama and in many protected areas in Costa Rica.
5764		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Costa Rica southwards to western Panama. It is known from 1,800 to 3,400 m asl (Reid, 1997).
5764		habitat	eng	It can be found in highland oak forest and paramo (Reid 1997). The litter size is 1 to 4, and breeding may occur all year round (Reid 1997).
5764		population	eng	This species is fairly common (Reid, 1997).
5764		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species, and it may also be affected by pesticides.
5765		conservation	eng	It occurs in two protected areas; La Tigra National Park and El Uyuco Reserve.
5765		distribution	eng	This species occurs east of Tegucigalpa, Honduras and possibly also in adjacent regions of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua (Hutterer, 2005). It is currently known only from 3 localities at 1,700 m asl (Reid, 1997).
5765		habitat	eng	It can be found in pine, mixed pine, and oak forests in highland areas (Hutterer 2005). Its biology is unknown.
5765		population	eng	This species apparently is rare (Reid, 1997) and is only known from three localities.
5765		threats	eng	Deforestation and pesticides are probably threats to this species, but more research is needed to confirm this.
5766		conservation	eng	It is listed under the Category subject to Special Protection under the Official Threatened Species List of Mexico (NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001). A small part of its northern range is included in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. There are good forest practices in part of its range.
5766		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north central Oaxaca, Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). It occurs from 1,500 to 2,850 m asl.
5766		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest and wet conifer-oak forest, and apparently prefers dense, waist-high herbaceous cover at the edge of wet pine-oak forest. Sometimes it can be found using runways, which are common in the moss root that cover the forest floor (Robertson and Rickart, 1975). Females with three embryos were taken in May and October. Apparently, at least some reproduction occurs in both the wet and dry seasons.
5766		population	eng	It is relatively common, but according to trapping records, it is not common at any site in the north (Robertson and Rickart, 1975).
5766		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species. In 2005, 72% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).
5792		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Eastern Atlas National Park in Morocco, and is presumably present in other protected areas.
5792		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenodactylus gundi </em> ranges from eastern Morocco, through Algeria and Tunisia, to western Libya. It occurs mainly on the southern slope of the Atlas Mountains, where it has been recorded at altitudes from 230-2,900 m. The limit between the distribution of this species and C. vali in the west of the Saharan Atlas varies according to precipitation, with C. gundi disappearing in dry periods, and C. vali then occupying these areas.
5792		habitat	eng	This is an inhabitant of rocky habitats, where it shelters in fissures and rock crevices, and under rock formations. The species does not burrow and appears to be less well adapted to desert conditions than either C. vali or Felovia vae. It isa diurnal species that lives in small family groups of between three and 11 adults, with one to three males. The group occupy a common territory, which is marked and defended. The species has a gestation period of 73 days with a litter size of one to four young. There are usually two litters per year.
5792		population	eng	It is fairly common, but with yearly changes in abundance. This is a difficult species to observe.
5792		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
5793		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
5793		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two isolated populations. There is one population in extreme northeastern Morocco and adjacent parts of northwestern Algeria (along the valleys of the Guir, Zousfana and Saoura Rivers), with a southernmost record from Kerzaz in Algeria. The second population is in northwestern Libya, some 1,000 km to the east. This western population is found on high plateaus at about 1,000 m asl.
5793		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky habitats, sheltering in fissures and rocky crevices. It inhabits drier desert regions than C. gundi and in contrast with C. gundi, the species is more solitary, with males and females only coming together in the breeding season from November to January. The species is generally diurnal, although it is sometimes active for short periods after sunset. It has a gestation length of 56 days after which one to three young are born. The species has two or three litters per year.
5793		population	eng	In Morocco it is less abundant than the fairly common C. gundi, but the main part of this populations range is in Algeria, where there is no information on population abundance. There is no information available on the abundance of this species in Libya.
5793		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but it is presumed that there are no major threats to the species.
5795		conservation	eng	The species is not found in any protected area and no conservation measures are in place to protect it.
5795		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-central Argentina in Formosa and Chaco (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
5795		habitat	eng	The claws and teeth are specialized for fossorial life (Wilson and Reeder 2005, Mora <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in regions of sandy soils (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006).
5795		population	eng	C. argentinus is composed of lots of fragmented populations (Bidau, 2006).
5795		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion for soy farming and naturally small, fragmented populations (Bidau, 2006).
5796		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures being taken to protect this species.
5796		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005) in a very narrow distribution along the coast.
5796		habitat	eng	It inhabits coastal sand dune habitats with grasses (Panicum; Poa) (Malizia <em>et al.</em> 1991, Comparatore <em>et al</em>. 1992). It only occurs within 50 m of the coast, in the first line of the dunes.
5796		population	eng	The average young per litter is 2.9 (Zenuto and Busch cited in Busch <em>et al.</em> 2000)
5796		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the development of resorts for beach tourism and the establishment of pine plantations, both of which lead to significant habitat loss.
5797		conservation	eng	It does not occur in protected areas.This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Argentinian Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).
5797		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in La Pampa Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
5797		habitat	eng	It occurs in psamophile vegetation which is a naturally patchily distributed habitat (Bidau, 2006).
5797		population	eng	This species is made up of several naturally fragmented Populations (Bidau, 2006)
5797		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion (Bidau, 2006)
5798		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
5798		distribution	eng	This species occurs around the city of Santa Cruz, in Santa Cruz Department, central Bolivia; Mato Grosso in southwestern Brazil; western Paraguay; and Formosa Province in Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). In Bolivia it is found at about 400 m asl to 500 m asl (Anderson 1997).
5798		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable, not often flooded, soils. It has been recorded from open savanna areas that have been disturbed, by sugarcane plantations, cattle grazing and other agricultural activities. Opening up of savanna habitats is generally beneficial to tuco-tuco species.
5798		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
5798		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
5799		conservation	eng	It is found within Parque Nacional del Chaco (Ojeda and Bidau pers. comm.).
5799		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north eastern Argentina in southeastern Chaco Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Type locality at 26.48 and 59.33 (in decimal degrees)
5799		habitat	eng	There is no information about the habitat and ecology of this species. The range overlaps <em>C. argentinus</em> so may be similar.
5799		population	eng	Populations fragmented (Bidau pers. comm.)
5799		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of its habitat due to agricultural expansion for the growth of soy (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.).
5800		conservation	eng	It is not known if any conservation measures are needed in order to protect this species. Further research is needed.
5800		distribution	eng	This rodent is confined to southeast Brazil; the type locality is Minas Gerais (Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982).
5800		habitat	eng	The is no information about the habitat preferences and ecology of this species.
5800		population	eng	The is no information available on the population status of this species.
5800		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
5801		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species. This species is considered Endangered in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).
5801		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in the extreme western portions of Santa Cruz Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). The species is only known from the type locality (Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.)
5801		habitat	eng	It occurs in Patagonian steppes (Lessa pers. comm.)
5801		population	eng	Very little is known about this species.
5801		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
5802		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco in Bolivia.
5802		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Gran Chaco of Paraguay and southeast Bolivia, and possibly northeast Argentina though this needs confirmation (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found at around 175 to 400 m. According to Bidau and Lessa the species does not occur in Argentina (pers. comm.).
5802		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable, not often flooded, soils. It Is found in arid Chaco xerophytic shrubland. It can be found in both undisturbed habitats an and in areas disturbed by ranching.
5802		population	eng	It is a generally common species where it is present.
5802		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
5803		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5803		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern Chaco which lies west of the Paraguay River in the northern Chaco, Paraguay (Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). This species is only known from a single specimen which is lost. The map shows the possible region where the type locality is (Bidau, Lessa and Ojeda pers. comm.).
5803		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the Chaco region. It plays a large role in maintaining the ecological processes of the ecosystem: by digging burrows it buries leaf litter, thereby introducing sufficient humidity to allow for the decomposition of the leaf litter (Barreto <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
5803		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
5803		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat conversion, mainly into cattle pasture in conjunction with population growth of the indigenous communities could have a negative impact on the population.
5804		conservation	eng	It is found in the El Tromen Provincial Park. This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Argentinian Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).
5804		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in Neuquén Province and is confined to sand dune habitats at about 800 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5804		habitat	eng	It inhabits sand dune habitats at about 800 m (Pearson 1984, cited in Mora <em>et al.</em> 2003).
5804		population	eng	It is found in very few localities, a rare species (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.).
5804		threats	eng	Only few populations of this species are known.
5805		conservation	eng	In Bolivia, the species potentially occurs within Tariquia National Fauna and Flora Reserve and Aguaragua National Park, which are within its known distribution and contain appropriate habitat.
5805		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwest Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). There is an isolated locality where 3 individuals were recorded from around 4,300 m asl outside of the city of Potosi (Anderson, 1997). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 4,300 m.
5805		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that feeds on underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable soils, not prone to flooding. It is found in both primary and secondary habitat as well as disturbed and undisturbed areas (Cook <em>et al.</em>, 1990).
5805		population	eng	It is patchily distributed due to habitat, but locally abundant.
5805		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
5806		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5806		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains and the Monte desert of northwestern Argentina and northern Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005), although Bidau and Lessa (pers. comm.) say it does not occur in Argentina. This part of the range is range of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. opimus</span>. The range goes as far as 29o south in Chile (Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.).
5806		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
5806		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
5806		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
5807		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5807		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in Chubut and Rio Negro Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Two smaller populations have been added to distribution by Lessa (pers. comm.).
5807		habitat	eng	This species lives in arid, steppe grassland punctuated at irregular intervals by wet meadows known as mallines (marshes) (Lacey and Wieczorek, 2003). The diets of some individuals in the C. haigi study population consisted primarily of Poa pratensis, diets of other individuals were dominated by the grass Stipa speciosa (E. A. Lacey and M. Manacorda; in litt. cited from Lacey and Wieczorek, 2003). Although its primary habitat is Patagonian Steppe it is also found in low Monte and Valdivian rain forest.
5807		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
5807		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
5808		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Campo de los Alisos.
5808		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Argentina from the mountains of La Rioia Province north to Salta Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005), above 2,000 m asl.
5808		habitat	eng	It occurs in highland grasslands (Ojeda pers. comm.).
5808		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
5808		threats	eng	Habitat loss to agricultural expansion, in the form of potato plantations, is a threat to this species.
5809		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5809		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina in Tucumán and Salta Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5809		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry areas with xeric vegetation at about 600 m on soft and sandy soils (Reig and Kiblisky, 1969).
5809		population	eng	This species is composed of severely fragmented populations.
5809		threats	eng	This species is under threat from habitat loss to agricultural expansion.
5810		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas in Bolivia; in Peru it is present in the Zona Reservada Aymara Lupaca. Further research is needed into the impacts of the persecution of this species.
5810		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west Bolivia and eastern Peru around Lake Titicaca (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs between 3,800 and 4,500 m asl.
5810		habitat	eng	It is found in Altiplano open grasslands, in both primary habitat and areas disturbed by grazing. It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable soils.
5810		population	eng	It is a patchily distributed species that is locally common where it is found. In Peru it is the rarest of the Ctenomys species, occurring in a restricted area. (Cook and Yates, 1994).
5810		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species is locally threatened at some sites through persecution as a pest of grazing land, although the degree of threat from these measures is not known.
5811		conservation	eng	It is present in the Questa de Sama National Reserve.
5811		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Tarija Department in south central Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found at elevations of 2,600 to 4,000 m asl (N. Bernal pers. comm.).
5811		habitat	eng	It is found in open Altiplano grasslands, also in the foothills of Sama. It is found in both primary and disturbed areas. It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable soils.
5811		population	eng	It is a locally common species where it occurs.
5811		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is present in areas of traditional grazing and cultivation.
5812		conservation	eng	It is listed as Near Threatened in the Argentina national Red List (2000). In the Chilean country-level red list assessment (www.ssvsa.cl/especies.htm) the subspecies are classified as follows:<br/><em>Ctenomys magellanicus dicki</em>: Extinct<br/><em>C. m. osgoodi</em>: Endangered<br/><em>C. m. magellanicus</em>: Endangered.
5812		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to extreme southern South America including southern Chile and southern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is the only species of Ctenomys to inhabit Isla Grande Tierra del Fuego. The range shown in our maps is the historical range of the species (Lizarralde <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
5812		habitat	eng	It occurs in steppes in Patagonia (Lessa pers. comm.).
5812		population	eng	Osgood (1943) notes a decline in population in all over its range (Lessa pers. comm.). Lessa doubts there are extinct subspecies, even though there are information about declines.
5812		threats	eng	There is historical information that species is declining throughout its range for several decades (Lessa pers. comm.).
5813		conservation	eng	Part of its range occurs within several protected areas.
5813		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-central Chile from Talca to Cautin Provinces and in Argentina in Neuquén Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5813		habitat	eng	It is found in the Patagonian steppes in the arenas volcanicas between 900-2,000 m asl (Pearson and Christie, 1985).
5813		population	eng	There is no information available about the population status of this species.
5813		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
5814		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place to protect this species. It is not known if any are needed.
5814		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina on eastern slopes of the Andes from Santa Cruz north to Mendoza Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Elevation at locations of known occurrence ranges from 460 to 3,400 m asl. (Rosi <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
5814		habitat	eng	It inhabits semixeric to xeric habitats with grasses and shrub communities (Larrea sp.) that are predominantly on poorly developed sandy and gravelly soils (Mora <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
5814		population	eng	Gestation length is 95 days and the average young per litter is 2.9 (Busch <em>et al.</em>, 2000)
5814		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
5815		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Bolivia.
5815		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the coastal plains of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Mato Grosso, Brazil. It can also be found and eastern Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). In Bolivia this species is known only from a single locality in Santa Cruz Department at 400 m.
5815		habitat	eng	In Bolivia it is found in arid scrubby vegetation at the edge of the Chaco. It is found in colonies in shallow burrows. It is not known if the species is present in disturbed areas.
5815		population	eng	In Bolivia the population is known only from three specimens.
5815		threats	eng	The threats to this species in Bolivia are not known. The coastal plain environment inhabited by this species suffers from constant modifications because of urbanization, cattle raising and agricultural land use and drainage procedures associated with rice-paddy cultivation (Freitas, 1995).
5817		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5817		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality in Tucumán, northwestern Argentina, however it is presumed to occur in adjacent provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5817		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
5817		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
5817		threats	eng	The original range of this species is under severe pressure from habitat loss and degradation to agricultural expansion, mainly to sugar cane and soy. Most of the lost habitat has been destroyed in the last six years.
5818		conservation	eng	It may be present in a number of protected areas. Further general research is needed into this species.
5818		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwest Argentina, southwestern Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile, between 2,500 and 5,000 m asl on the Andean steppe.
5818		habitat	eng	It is found in high-Andean puna vegetation. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is crepuscular and diurnal.  This rodent is found on sandy and gravely soils, usually on slopes. Burrow systems usually consist of a single main tunnel from which short lateral branches diverge every few meters and include one or more chambers with stored vegetation and other chambers with nests. Only one animal lives in each burrow system. The burrows are expanded as vegetation is eaten and C. opimus reveals its presence by stripping large areas of natural vegetation. It eats roots, stems, or leaves of most of the available plants. The species digs a tunnel to the food source, then forages no more than two to thee body lengths outside its burrows, bringing the food back to the hole to eat (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Pearson, 1951, 1959; Pine <em>et al</em>. 1979; Tamayo and Frassinetti, 1980).
5818		population	eng	It is a locally common species with patchy distribution. It is abundant where vegetation is sparse and the soil is loose. In southern Peru it can occur at densities of one to 17 individuals per acre (Pearson, 1959). Gestation length is 120 days and the average young per litter is 1.6 (Pearson, 1959).
5818		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
5819		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place to protect this species in particular. Some protected areas have been created to conserve coastal lagoons and these may indirectly benefit <em>C. pearsoni</em> (Lessa pers. comm.).
5819		distribution	eng	This species is known from Soriano, San Jose and Colonia departments in Uruguay (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs below 200 m asl in altitude.
5819		habitat	eng	This species demonstrates great variation in its burrow construction, but usually there is one principal gallery with a constant depth that forms the major axis. Tunnels have an average of thirteen openings, with a range of five to 24, and vary in length from 70 to 130 cm. There are one or two nests of dried grass per tunnel (Altuna, 1983). Prefers sand dune habitats but ranges inland as well (Queirolo pers. comm.). It uses a broad range of soil types (Lessa pers. comm.). It lives in predominantly sandy soils with variable clay-loam fraction (Lessa and Langgruth 1983, cited in Mora <em>et al.</em>, 2003). In the west it inhabits hard soils and in the east it also inhabits softer soils, close to lakes and lagoons, including sand dunes (Lessa pers. comm.).
5819		population	eng	This species of rodent is common where it occurs but populations are fragmented (Lessa pers. comm.). Individuals occur at a density of 15-20 per hectare.
5819		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss to coastal development for tourism and real estate in the eastern portion of its range.  In the western portion of its range habitat loss is to agriculture and livestock (Lessa pers. comm.).
5820		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5820		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina, in the central area of western Corrientes Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It does not occur in Misiones (Bidau pers. comm.).
5820		habitat	eng	Species occurs in sandy soils (Bidau, Ojeda and Lessa pers. comm.).
5820		population	eng	This species occurs in two disjunct populations and where it occurs it is abundant.
5820		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
5821		conservation	eng	It is present in the Zona Reservada Aymara Lupaca. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species.
5821		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Altiplano of Puno in extreme southern Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has been recorded between elevations of 3,800 and 4,700 m asl.
5821		habitat	eng	It is found in open areas of Altiplano grassland. In occurs in sandy areas in which it constructs burrows. It lives in small colonies of a few animals. It is present in areas used for grazing.
5821		population	eng	This is an uncommon species and it occurs as patchy colonies.
5821		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however, it is sometimes used for traditional medicinal purposes.
5822		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5822		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Argentina, east of the Andes in San Luis and Mendoza Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is only known from the type locality near San Rafael (Ojeda pers. comm.).
5822		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
5822		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
5822		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
5823		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5823		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Argentina in Buenos Aires and La Pampa Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).<br/>.
5823		habitat	eng	Pampas grasslands were the original habitat of this species but due to changes in land use it is mostly found at the edges of the fields.
5823		population	eng	C. porteousi is relatively common where the species persists (Bidau pers. comm.).
5823		threats	eng	Is found only at the edges of the fields (Bidau pers. comm.). Throughout the range, almost the entire habitat has been converted to wheat, sunflower, and other crops.
5824		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5824		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Argentina in Salta and Jujuy Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Type locality is uncertain but in the province of Salta (Lessa pers. comm.). There is only one known locality (Lessa and Bidau pers. comm.).
5824		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
5824		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
5824		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
5825		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5825		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Argentina in Santa Cruz, Chubut, and Río Negro Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is known only from the type locality south of Parque Nacional Perito Moreno ((Allen, 1903) (Lessa and Bidau pers. comm.).
5825		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
5825		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
5825		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
5826		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Reserva Nacional del Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005), although it is not clear if there are any conservation measures being taken to safe guard it in particular. This species is considered Critically Endangered in the Argentinian Red List  (Diaz and Ojeda 2000).
5826		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in Neuquén Province within the area of Reserva Nacional del Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5826		habitat	eng	This species lives in arid, steppe grassland punctuated at irregular intervals by wet meadows known as mallines (Lacey and Wieczorek, 2003). The primary dietary item for all C. sociabilis sampled was the grass <em>Poa pratensis</em> (E. A. Lacey and M. Manacorda, in litt.).
5826		population	eng	Populations are declining across the limited range.
5826		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance by grazing sheep is the main threat to this species.
5827		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
5827		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Santa Cruz Department of Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is present between around 400 to 500 m asl.
5827		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that forages on underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable, not often flooded, soils. It has been recorded from open savanna areas that have been disturbed by sugarcane plantations, cattle grazing and other agricultural activities. Opening up of savanna habitats seems to be generally beneficial to this species.
5827		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
5827		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
5828		conservation	eng	There are no known measures taken to conserve this species.
5828		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Argentina along the coast in Buenos Aires Province, possibly extending to Santa Fe Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). There are 3 disjunct populations (Justo <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
5828		habitat	eng	It lives in well vegetated grassy habitats that have more or less sandy and friable to hard clay soils (Malizia <em>et al.</em>, 1991, Vassallo, 1998). It inhabits highly variable habitat from sand dunes to inland grasslands (Lessa pers. comm.).
5828		population	eng	Gestation length of this species ranges between 95 and 102 days (Weir 1974, Zenuto 1999 cited in Busch <em>et al.</em>, 2000) and the average young per litter ranges between 4.09-4.52 (Malizia and Busch 1991, 1997, cited in Busch <em>et al</em>. 2000).
5828		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
5829		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.  More studies should be performed at melocular and ecological levels, and protected areas must be set aside to preserve these species (Fernandes <em>et al.</em> 2007).
5829		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. torquatus</span> occurs from central Uruguay to southern Brazil, in Rio Grande do Sul State (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
5829		habitat	eng	The species occurs in wide range of habitats (E. Lessa pers. comm.). It prefers sandy habitats, in Uruguay it does not occur in cultivated areas (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). It lives in relatively shallow burrows and is diurnal in surface activity when it feeds on plants around the burrow entrance (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Young are born from September to December after a gestation of 105 days.
5829		population	eng	This species is widespread and composed of locally large populations (E. Lessa pers. comm.). The population density is related to food plant density (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
5829		threats	eng	Despite its wide geographic distribution, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. torquatus</span> is endangered in Brazil. In the sand fields in central and southern Rio Grande do Sul, agriculture has developed rapidly since the 1960s, particularly soybean, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> plantations (Fernandes <em>et al.</em> 2007). Strip coal mining is thought pose a significant threat of habitat disturbance to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. torquatus</span> (Freitas 1995).
5830		conservation	eng	There is no information on any conservation actions in place or needed for this species. This species is listed as Vulnerable on the Argentine Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).
5830		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina, in Tucumán Province west of the mountains to 3,000 m (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs in two disjunct populations (Ojeda pers. comm.).
5830		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid plains to 3,000 m in rather compact, loamy and humous soils (Reig <em>et al.</em> 1990).
5830		population	eng	It is relatively abundant in its northern range (Ojeda pers. comm.).
5830		threats	eng	Habitat loss to agricultural expansion is a major threat to this species (Ojeda pers. comm.).
5831		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
5831		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5831		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid areas of the plains of central Tucuman (Reig and Kiblisky, 1969).
5831		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
5831		threats	eng	It is thought that habitat loss to agricultural expansion is a major threat to this species.
5832		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
5832		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in Mendoza Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
5832		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
5832		population	eng	This species is considered Vulnerable in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).
5832		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
5935		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is accordingly legally protected in many countries, for example in Hungary. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Finland). In Finland it is listed as Critically Endangered and in Poland as Least Concern. It is planned to included this species in the Red Book of Ukraine.
5935		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe but it is largely absent in the south and west. The strongest populations are in central Europe. In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country wherever wooded plant societies occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has been recorded from three sites in the south (Ratti 2006). In Finland only two or three populations exist. A single locality is known in Spain, from the 1960s (Español 1963); it has never been found again.<br/><br/>Luce (1996) suggests that sites in southern Europe are mistaken identifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. haematodes</span>, although he provides no evidence in support of this opinion. Both species are recorded from Italy, which suggests that the records are genuine.
5935		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae and adults live under bark of deadwood of a variety of broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Acer,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, </span>and rarely <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. The adults and larvae are saproxylophagous, feeding on the decaying wood, but are sometimes reported as necrophagous or predatory (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The species needs open spaces and prefers lowland areas with soft-wooded broad-leaves. The adults and older stages of larvae hibernate under bark on the deadwood. In Romania larvae develop under very decayed bark of aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> trees with the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Ceratocystis </span>etc. The adult is active in May - June. Young beetles appear in July - August (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted forests, including hilly and mountainous broad-leaved forests, pine, poplar and black locust tree plantations, city parks, alleys or in solitary trees along roads (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Finland it lives in old-growth forests in old aspen trees.
5935		population	eng	The species is expanding in central-eastern Europe but declining in the surrounding areas. In the Czech Republic there are strong populations due to withering poplar plantations; it is the same situation in most parts of central Europe. In Germany, in the eastern part it seems common. In Hungary populations in hilly and mountainous broad-leaved forests and indigenous or planted pine forests are mostly small; populations in riverine willow galleries and indigenous or planted poplar plantations are often much stronger (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered very rare. <br/><br/>In Spain two specimens were collected in a single locality in the 1960s and it has never been found again (Español 1963). Very rare or presumably extinct in Spain (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).
5935		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.In Hungary removal of dead wood is a key threat, but the species is widespread and quickly colonizes new habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine a negative factor is the felling and destruction of old trees. In Finland populations are within protected areas, but the species is threatened by insufficient continuum of large aspen and poor possibilities of colonizing new areas.<br/></p>
5953		conservation	eng	Included in CITES – Appendix II (2003).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, the current wildlife decrees give the dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposal to list the species as a fully protected species is under discussion. In India, the dhole is protected under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Act of 1972 (permission is required to kill any individual unless in self defence or if an individual is a man killer). The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in India has provided some protection for populations of the dukhunensis subspecies (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers. comm., L. Durbin, pers. obs.). In the Russian Federation, dholes received the status of "protected animal" in 1974 (A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov in litt.); however, the poisoning of grey wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant dhole populations (V. Puzanskii pers. comm.). In Viet Nam, the dhole is protected by Decree 18/HDBT (17/01/1992) and the amendment Decree 48/2002/ND-DP (22/04/2002) under category IIB, which limits extraction and utilization. However, the levels of extraction or utilization are not quantified (B. Long in litt. 2003). Dholes are listed as a category II protected species under the Chinese wildlife protection act of 1988.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>No conservation measures specifically focused on dholes have been reported for most range states. In India, Project Tiger could potentially maintain dhole prey bases in areas where tigers and dholes coexist. There do not appear to be any specific measures for dhole conservation in Indochina, although the declaration of relatively large protected area networks in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam will, when these areas become functional realities on the ground, form a suitable conservation system for the species in at least Cambodia and Lao PDR. <br/><br/>There are at least 110 dholes in captivity, and the sex ratio is approximately even. Except for some captive populations in India heterozygosity appears to be good, but there is little chance of breeding the putative subspecies as animals from diverse geographical origins have been widely interbred (M. Boeer pers. comm.).
5953		distribution	eng	In Central and eastern Asia, there have been no confirmed, recent reports of dholes from Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan (where they were found formerly in the Tian-Shan area) or Tajikistan (where they were found formerly in the eastern Pamir area) (A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov in litt. D. Miquelle pers. comm.). There is a recent report of a dhole that was captured in Jiangxi district, south China (C. Bellamy pers. comm.). Dholes were once present in parts of western China in the Tian-Shan Range, but the species' current status in this area is unclear; they do at least still persist, perhaps in low numbers, in parts of the Qilian Shan in north-western Gansu Province (Harris 2006). The species is still found in Tibet today, particularly in areas bordering the Ladakh region of India (R. Wangchuk pers. comm.), and the Tibet Forestry Bureau has reported that dholes are still "common" in parts of southeast Tibet (S. Chan, in litt.). Dholes occurred in northern Korea (Won Chang Man and Smith 1999) and a few small populations may still exist. There have been no records from Pakistan, but the species occurred on the alpine steppes of Ladakh, Kashmir, and India (Johnsingh 1985) that extend into the region termed Pakistan-occupied Kashmir by India. <br/><br/>Dholes are still found throughout much of India south of the river Ganges, and especially in the Central Indian Highlands and the Western and Eastern Ghats of the southern states. They are also found throughout north-east India, in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, and West Bengal (A. Venkataraman, A.J.T. Johnsingh and L. Durbin pers. comm.). In the Himalaya and north-western India, the status of dholes seems more precarious with a much more fragmented distribution. Dholes reportedly still occur in the Ladakh area of Kashmir, which is contiguous with the Tibetan highlands in China (R. Wangchuk pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species formerly was recorded in the Terai region of the Indo-gangetic plain, including the Royal Chitawan National Park in Nepal, but there have been few recent reports. There is an unconfirmed report of dholes in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in the late 1990s (R.C. Kandel pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Bhutan, there have been recent press reports that dholes have recovered from a government-initiated mass poisoning campaign in the 1970s and there have apparently been numerous recent incidents of dholes killing livestock in the lower Kheng region. Two recent, independent, eye-witness reports identify dholes in six protected areas in Bhutan (S. Wangchuk pers. comm., T. Wangchuk pers. comm.). In some regions, dhole predation on wild boar (Sus scrofa) may be viewed in a positive light by local people (T. Wangchuk pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Bangladesh, dholes were thought to occur in the forested tracts of the Chittagong and Sylhet Districts (Johnsingh 1985). It is not certain whether any remain in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>In Myanmar, dholes were recorded by camera trapping at 11 of 15 survey areas scattered across the country, only four of which were protected. Dholes and/or leopards have apparently replaced tigers as the top predator in these areas (Myanmar Forest Department 2003).<br/><br/>In Indochina, dholes probably ranged over all or almost all of Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Thailand, although reliable site-specific information is scarce. Present distribution is highly fragmented and large parts, particularly of Viet Nam and Thailand, are without any regular occurrence of dholes, although they persist in a number of protected areas (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Waltson 2001, M. Baltzer and R. Shore in litt., A. Lynam pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species' historical range probably included all or most of the Malaysian peninsula and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java, but reliable information is scarce. Current distribution is poorly known but is thought to be highly fragmented. On the Malaysian peninsula, dholes are known to occur in four sites in northern and central areas of the peninsula (from recent camera-trap surveys; J.B. Abdul pers. comm.). On Java, dholes appear to be most common in the protected areas at the eastern and western ends of the island. On Sumatra, very little is known, but dholes are known to occur in major protected areas in the southern, central, and northern parts of the island (e.g., from camera trapping; D. Martyr pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no reliable evidence of the presence of Dhole in Turkey (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001; Can 2004).
5953		habitat	eng	The dhole is found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including: primary, secondary and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland–scrub–forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3,000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions.<br/>In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation types when compared to others in the same region (A. Venkataraman and V. Narendra Babu, unpubl.). In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forests are subject to seasonal monsoon climates. <br/><br/>Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels and suitability of breeding sites (proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures and sufficient prey).
5953		threats	eng	Depletion of prey base: Across almost all of Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam, as well as within protected areas, ungulates occur at levels well below natural. All species of ungulate except muntjacs (<em>Muntiacus</em> spp.), pigs (<em>Sus</em> spp.) and in some areas southern serow (<em>Naemorhedus sumatraensis</em>) are ecologically or fully extinct across extensive parts of the region. Only a few of the largest wildernesses support nearly intact species assemblages and even in these, the larger species (<em>Bos</em> spp., <em>Cervus</em> spp., hog deer <em>Axis porcinus</em>) are very rare. This situation will likely hinder any possibility of recovery by the region's dhole populations, even if the other issues could be addressed. While not as depressed as in Indochina, prey levels in Indonesia also exist at levels much below carrying capacity (because of illegal hunting and habitat degradation). In protected areas in southern and central India, where dhole numbers are stable, prey densities are high. In north-east India, prey densities are very low in protected areas with dholes.<br/><br/>Habitat loss and transformation: Currently, extensive areas of natural or semi-natural vegetation remain in Lao PDR and Cambodia, some areas encompassing many hundreds of square kilometres of potential dhole habitat. However, habitat conversion and fragmentation are proceeding apace. In Viet Nam, very few natural areas of over 50 km² remain. Habitat loss and fragmentation is a major threat to protected areas in Indonesia, particularly those on Sumatra. Habitat loss and degradation are also serious threats to dholes in South Asia and the disappearance of dholes from many of the forested tracts in India has been attributed in large part to loss of habitat.<br/><br/>Persecution: This certainly occurs in Indochina, although it is unclear how often. In Indonesia, too, it is a threat but again its significance is unknown. In India, such persecution can play a serious role in limiting local populations. Dholes living outside or on the edge of core protected areas are particularly vulnerable to human kleptoparasitism, snaring (non-selective) and direct persecution. For example, during a radio-tracking study in 2000, in the buffer zone of Kanha Tiger Reserve, central India, at least 16 out of 24 dholes in one pack died from a sudden strychnine poisoning (L. Durbin pers. obs.). In southern India, such persecution is moderate to low and often occurs indirectly when cattle graziers and others inadvertently go close to dhole dens and disturb adults and pups, disrupting breeding and rearing (A. Venkataraman pers. obs.). "By-catch" in snares and other traps is probably a significant threat to dholes across Indochina at least.<br/><br/>Competition with other species: Apparently, free-living dogs have been seen and/or camera trapped in many parts of Indochina, but there is no evidence for existence of large populations. Undoubtedly, the main competitor for prey species in Indochina is people. There is no evidence that feral dogs are significant competitors with dholes in Indonesia. In many parts of their range, dholes are sympatric with tigers and leopards and so the potential for significant interspecific competition for prey exists, especially if the prey populations are reduced as a result of hunting by people.<br/><br/>Disease and pathogens: Particularly those transmitted by feral and/or domestic dogs (e.g., mange, canine distemper, parvovirus and rabies). The significance of disease is unclear in Indochina, but diseases are a significant threat in South Asia and probably in parts of Indonesia.<br/><br/>There is no widespread exploitation for fur or other purposes, though medicinal use should be investigated in China.
5955		distribution	eng	Known from around the Gulf of Tonkin in Southeast Asia, particularly in northern Viet Nam and Hainan Island, China.
5955		habitat	eng	This species is found in high altitude woodland areas, often keeping to the safety of the underbrush.
5957		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> is protected under Chinese domestic legislation and is included in CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>Surveys to locate and protect any remaining animals and populations and their habitat are in progress; should one or more populations be found, effective in-situ protection of the species and its habitat are urgently required, alongside the establishment of an assurance colony for future re-introduction and population reinforcement.<br/><br/>A single pair in captivity has successfully reproduced (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and could represent the nucleus of a captive assurance colony.
5957		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. yunnanensis</span> has been reported only from Kunming Fu and Tongchuan Fu [=Dongchuan <span style="font-style: italic;">fide</span> Iverson, 1992, but refers to Zhongping (=Huize) City <span style="font-style: italic;">fide</span> Blanck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006] in Yunnan, China, at the time of its 1906 description (Iverson 1992, Parham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and a single animal from Xi Shan (Western Mountains) near Kunming collected in 1940 (Zhang and Cheng 1946). It is likely that these animals were purchased in markets and may have been transported by humans, possibly for substantial distances  (Blanck 2005). Three more specimens in the Institute of Zoology in Beijing (Parham<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, Blanck 2005) have no reported locality data or collection date. The origin of three recent specimens discovered since 2004 and now held in captivity has not been recorded (Zhou and Zhao 2004, Zhou 2005, He <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and the precise geographic origin of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. yunnanensis</span> remains subject of speculation, with northwestern Yunnan and adjacent Sichuan, northeastern Yunnan close to the Myanmar border, southern Yunnan, and northern Laos having been suggested (Blanck 2005, Blanck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Yang and Rao, 2008).
5957		habitat	eng	No information is available beyond the general assumption that <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> inhabits streams, lakes and/or swampy wetlands, the typical lifestyle of most <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora</span> species. The type locality, Kunming, is at just under 1,900 m altitude; a distribution range of 2,000-2,260 m altitude is generally cited (e.g., Yu 1998, Lau and Shi 2000), but has been questioned as being too high (Blanck 2005).<br/><br/>Females reach up to 17.5 cm CL at 850 grams, males about 15 cm at 375 grams (Zhou and Zhao 2004, Zhou 2005, Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In captivity, one or two clutches per female per year, of 4–8 eggs per clutch (maximum eight eggs per year), have been reported (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Hatchlings emerge after 64–68 days of incubation at 28–30­°C, and measure 32–35 mm at a weight of 6.5–8.3 grams (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
5957		population	eng	The type series of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis </span>consists of five animals collected at Kunming by a single collector, plus one from Tongchuan [Zhongping] collected by another collector, and another three museum specimens from Kunming, all collected at the same time (Parham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Blanck 2005), suggesting that the species was not particularly rare at this early period of exploration (1900–1906). Four more specimens were subsequently collected and stored in Chinese collections, one of these in 1940 (Parham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Zhou and Zhao 2004, Blanck 2005). Commercial turtle collectors and traders have extensively harvested turtles throughout China (Lau and Shi 2000), and extensive but unsuccessful search efforts had been made to locate <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> in the wild or in trade. Based on this information, the Asian Turtle Trade Working Group (2000) considered the species extinct. However, a single animal, without data on its origin, was purchased in a Kunming market in 2004 (Zhou and Zhao 2004), showing that this conclusion was premature. At least two animals have subsequently been reported and are held in captivity (Zhou 2005, He <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Yang and Rao 2008). There were initial concerns that the single 2004 animal could have been a hybrid animal that resembled <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> in its head and throat pattern, but not its absence of an anal notch; however, the identity of the live animals as <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> was genetically confirmed by He <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007).
5957		threats	eng	The main site of presumed historical occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span>, Kunming, is now an expansive city surrounded mainly by agricultural fields especially in the flat areas. The adjacent Kunming Lake is heavily polluted; the lake's endemic newt <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynops wolterstorfii</span> is considered extinct as a result of water pollution. Monofilament fishing nets were seen abandoned at the lakeshore in 2005, suggesting a risk of accidental drowning if <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> persists (van Dijk pers obs 2005). Substantial areas of the lake have been encroached upon by expansion of the city of Kunming, though a large area of open water remains. The Western Hills area has been extensively developed for tourism, including roads, trails and a cable car, and contains a long-term settlement of rural people tending vegetable and fruit gardens (and presumably gathering local flora, fungi and fauna, potentially including turtles). Hence, habitat degradation and destruction are believed to represent threats.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> has been restricted from international trade by inclusion in CITES Appendix II in 2000, but is reputed to be worth about USD 50,000 for the first animal to emerge from China into the international pet trade (Blanck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and several USD 1,000 for subsequent animals, generating strong incentives to search for and smuggle out any animal.
5958		habitat	eng	Juveniles fully aquatic (marshes, swamps, ponds, pools, rice paddies); adults semi-aqautic.
5960		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - ponds, rice paddies
5962		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
6012		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Range Restricted, but with a Stable population (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is not listed on current conservation priority lists of the Department of Conservation (Towns 1999). However, as part of the <em>Oligosoma </em> Species Recovery Plan, the following measures are listed as preferred options for the species: pest prevention, monitoring of translocations, planning for reintroduction to Cuvier, Stanley and Middle Chain Islands, and surveying of Red Mercury Island. The Ten Year Goals include reintroduction of the species to Tiritiri Matangi, Motuora Island and Double Island (Towns 1999).
6012		distribution	eng	Morphological and molecular data indicate that this species is distributed on the Poor Knights Islands (Aorangi, Tawhiti, Motu Kapiti Island, Archway Island, Stack A, Stack B,and Stack C (Whitaker 1978, Towns 1999), Mercury Islands (Middle, Green, and Korapuki Island), Ohinau Islands only on Old Man rock (Whitaker 1978, Towns 1999) and Aldermen Islands (Half Island, Ruamahuanui, Hongiora, Ruamahuaiti) off the north coast of New Zealand (Towns 1999, Gill and Whitaker 2001, Chapple <em>et al.</em> 2008). The new species separated from this species complex (<em>O. townsi</em>) is restricted to the Mokohinau Islands, Hen and Chickens group, Little Barrier Island and Great Barrier Island.<br/><br/>The Korapuki Island population in the Mercury Island group was reintroduced from Green Island in 1992-1993 (Towns 1994). <br/><br/>An extent of occurrence has been calculated by taking the sum of the island areas equalling 26 km²<sup></sup>:&#160;Poor Knights Islands, 24 km²<sup></sup>;&#160;Mercury Islands, 1 km²;&#160;Aldermen Islands, 1 km²; Ohinau Islands, 0.7 ha<br/><br/>Data from local extant species and subfossil deposits indicate that this species had lived in the coastal broadleaf forests and associated shoreline of Northland, near the Cavalli Islands, 1,000 years B.P. (Towns and Daugherty 1994); however, it is now locally extinct from this region.
6012		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal forest and scrub (Towns 1994), preferring leaf litter (Chapple <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is crepuscular (twilight-dwelling) to nocturnal (Towns and Daugherty 1994). It is omnivorous, and eats a variety of invertebrates, fruits and berries (Chapple <em>et al.</em> 2008).
6012		population	eng	This species is listed as Range Restricted, but with a stable population (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).
6012		threats	eng	Species of this genus have been particularly vulnerable to the effects of introduced mammals, namely rats and cats (Towns 1994). Middle Island and Green Island have not been colonized by introduced predators (Town 1994). <br/><br/>This species may be more vulnerable to predators due to its limited ability to climb and therefore shift to vertical use of the habitat (Whitaker 1978); however a number of the islands this species inhabits are free from introduced predators and there is frequent monitoring to ensure recolonization does not occur. &#160;This said, there is always the potential threat of recolonization by introduced predators, particularly rats, which could be detrimental to this species population (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).
6019		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> is present in a number of protected areas.
6019		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> ranges from Mexico (Veracruz and Oaxaca) in the north, south into Colombia from where it ranges west of the Andes to southern Ecuador, and east of the Andes into Venezuela, Trinidad Island, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil (Acre state east to western Maranhão state), and as far south as Bolivia (La Paz and Santa Cruz) (Gardner 2007). The species has not been recorded from El Salvador and it is unclear if the species was ever present there. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500 m asl. There is a population of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus </span>on the northeastern coast of Brazil; it is evaluated separately due to its isolation from the main population.
6019		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal species occurs in semi-deciduous and evergreen tropical moist lowland forest, gallery forest, and mangrove forest. It can be found in secondary forest habitat. Adults are solitary; the home range of a male overlaps the home range of three females (Montgomery 1983). The females give birth to a single young once per year.
6019		population	eng	Not much is known about the wild populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span>.
6019		threats	eng	Although general deforestation is taking place over many parts of the range, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> remains widespread in the Amazon Basin and there are currently no major threats to the survival of this small anteater. In some areas it is captured and kept as a pet species, although it usually does not survive long in captivity.
6026		conservation	eng	The Turks and Caicos has a fairly extensive system of national parks, nature reserves and sanctuaries, a number of which encompass areas supporting iguanas. However, these reserves are not immune to the effects of introduced mammals and few government resources are presently allocated to maintain or enforce protection of non-marine parks. Largely due to the urging of the TCI National Trust, legislation to protect iguanas within the islands has recently been drafted, although not yet implemented. In addition, the government has granted the TCI National Trust stewardship of Little Ambergris Cay, which supports a healthy iguana population, and Little Water Cay, which supports a large population of iguanas but needs management due to its popularity with tourists and recent invasion by feral cats. Finally, the TCI National Trust has initiated a public education campaign that includes a tour of all schools to discuss iguanas and other conservation issues. In November, 2003, a Conservation and Management Plan was drafted at a joint IUCN-government sponsored workshop attended by in-country conservation managers, government officials, private businessmen, and international iguana conservation experts. The plan lays out a comprehensive strategy to conserve and restore populations of the Turks and Caicos iguana within its historic range, and perpetuate it as a symbol of national pride and sound environmental management. <br/> <br/>All Bahamian rock iguanas are protected under the Wild Animal Protection Act of 1968. The Bahamas National Trust has proposed to the Bahamas government that Booby Cay, which is also of significant value for nesting seabirds, be named a protected area under the national parks system (Carey <em>et al</em>. 2000). Representatives of the Wildlife Committee of the Bahamas National Trust and the Department of Agriculture are planning the removal of feral goats.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
6026		distribution	eng	The species is found on 50–60 of the > 200 islands comprising the Turks and Caicos island banks.  The combined surface area of all islands in the Turks and Caicos is approximately 500 km². The extent of occurrence for iguanas is 13 km², most of which is accounted for by three large cays (Big Ambergis, Little Ambergris and East Bay). In the Bahamas, the species is found only on Booby Cay, located 0.5 km off the eastern end of Mayaguana Island. The cay is 2 km in length and varies from 100–750 m wide. Approximately 30% of the cay is taken up by two ponds.
6026		habitat	eng	The species is most abundant is rocky coppice and sandy strand vegetation habitats, and friable soil is required for nesting. It is diurnal and spends the night in burrows it has dug or in natural retreats under rocks. It is primarily herbivorous throughout its life, feeding arboreally or terrestrially on the fruits, flowers and leaves of > 60 plant species, as well as occasional invertebrates.  Adult males are territorial throughout the year. Courtship and mating occur in April/May, with a single annual clutch of 2–11 eggs laid in May/June. Females defend the nest burrow for several days to weeks after nesting, but are not territorial during the rest of the year. Hatching occurs in September after about 90 days of incubation. Sexual maturity in males occurs at about 7 years and in females at 6–7 years. Annual survivorship ranges from about 55% for the first three years of life, to about 67% during years four through six, to 90–95% in adults. Life table analysis suggests that mean cohort generation time is 14 years. Preliminary data suggest that some individuals live at least 20 years.
6026		population	eng	Approximately 30,000 adult iguanas remain in the Turks and Caicos islands, fragmented into 50–60 island subpopulations. Subpopulations range from islands without feral mammals, where iguanas are very common (densities may exceed 30 adults per hectare) to islands with feral mammal populations, on which iguana are either absent or extremely rare. The most important remaining subpopulations are on three large cays lacking feral predators (Big Ambergris, Little Ambergis and East Bay), the largest of which (Big Ambergris; 4.3 km²; supporting approximately 10,000 adult iguanas) is privately owned and under development.   <br/> <br/>In the Bahamas, surveys indicate that iguanas on Booby Cay were fairly numerous in 1988 and 1997, with all age classes present. However, the iguana population is restricted to a single small cay with a high point of 6.2 m and most of its area below 3 m. Although no formal census has been conducted, it is unlikely that the population exceeds 750 adults (Gerber <em>et al</em>., unpublished data).
6026		threats	eng	In the Turks and Caicos Islands, the primary threat to iguanas is introduced mammals, particularly cats and dogs.  Iverson (1978, 1979) documented the near-extirpation of a population of over 5,000 adults in three years as a result of predation by feral cats and dogs. Feral livestock (goats, cows, donkeys and horses) pose a serious threat also, presumably because they compete for food plants, alter the vegetational composition of habitats and trample soft substrates where iguanas burrow and nest. In 1995, iguanas were found on only 5–26 islands with cats or livestock. Iguanas on these islands were very rare, whereas iguanas on islands without introduced mammals are common.  Recently, feral cats have crossed a newly formed sand spit connecting Pine and Water Cay (two islands with cats) to Little Water Cay (an important nature reserve that was previously cat-free). Development for tourism is also an increasing cause of habitat loss. <br/> <br/>On Booby Cay, Bahamas, the immediate threat to the population is the presence of goats, which are degrading the vegetation through over-browsing.  Catastrophe, particularly in the form of a hurricane or storm surge, is a significant threat. <br/> <br/>In the Turks and Caicos, iguanas are still occasionally eaten by local fishermen, and although illegal exportation for international trade is undocumented, it probably occurs. There have been no reports of poaching of iguanas on Booby Cay, although it is unknown is any are taken by local fishermen for consumption.
6027		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p><p>Although most of Jamaica’s remaining ecologically important forests, including the Hellshire Hills, are owned by the government and protected by law under the Forest Act of 1996, the Act has received little enforcement. The Hellshire Hills is currently part of the Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA). Declared in 1999, the PBPA is Jamaica’s largest protected area and includes both of the Goat Islands. Designation as a protected area provides a promising legal instrument to prevent the expansion of large-scale development projects in the Hellshire Hills.<br/></p><p>Following the rediscovery of the species in 1990, a local Jamaican Iguana Research and Conservation Group (JIRCG) was formed, comprising representatives from the University of the West Indies, the Natural Resources Conservation Authority, Hope Zoological Gardens, and the Institute of Jamaica. Together with a group of international iguana specialists, the JIRCG held an IUCN-sponsored workshop in Kingston in 1993, which developed a Population and Habitat Viability Assessment and a comprehensive plan for recovering this species in the wild (CBSG 1993). During the workshop, it became clear the current mortality level of juvenile iguanas in the wild was too high to permit survival of the population. This led to recommendations for a captive headstarting program at the Hope Zoo, which has resulted in the release of 138 iguanas back into the Hellshire Hills from 1996 through 2010.<br/></p><p>The JIRCG is now known as the Jamaican Iguana Recovery Group (JIRG) and includes international collaborators. In addition to captive headstarting and release, the group continues to survey the wider Hellshire Hills, monitors individuals in the core area centered around the known nesting sites, and is detailing a complete natural history of the species (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2004; Wilson and van Veen 2005, 2008). Repatriated animals have demonstrated high survivorship and are now integrated into the breeding population. Complementary predator control in the core area has resulted in improved recruitment attributable to enhanced survival among younger age classes. The group also focuses on education, international awareness, and habitat protection and improvement.<br/></p><p>In 1994, an <em>ex situ</em> captive population was initiated with the importation of 12 iguanas to three U.S. institutions (Indianapolis Zoo, Fort Worth Zoo, and Gladys Porter Zoo). In 1996, this group was supplemented by a second importation of 12 iguanas to the San Diego Zoo, Central Florida Zoo, and Sedgwick County Zoo. After successful breeding in the U.S., the program has expanded to Fresno, Miami, and St. Louis zoos. The primary purpose of the U.S. captive population is to promote education, awareness, and provide support for the ongoing recovery effort of the wild population. Additionally, the captive colony is managed for long-term maintenance of genetic diversity in the event of catastrophic loss in the wild population (Grant 2010).<br/></p><p>As a further safeguard against extinction, captive-reared juvenile iguanas may also be used to establish satellite populations on the Goat Islands, provided the islands can be rendered free of predators and goats. A priority goal, highlighted in the 2006 Jamaican Iguana Species Recovery Plan, outlines establishing a dry forest biodiversity reserve on these offshore islets and is arguably the single most critical conservation activity ensuring the long-term recovery of the Jamaican Iguana. <br/></p><p>The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/>         </p><p></p><p></p>
6027		distribution	eng	According to Sloane (1725), who visited the island in 1688, iguanas were once common in Jamaica although their distribution seems to have been restricted to the drier sections of the south coast. The Jamaican Iguana declined dramatically during the second half of the 19th century, probably due to the introduction of the Indian Mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em> [=<em>auropunctatus</em>]) in 1872, changing land use patterns, and human population growth.&#160; Today, the iguana survives only in the Hellshire Hills, a rugged limestone area with suitable habitat totalling 114 km². However, extensive surveying has shown that iguanas are only found near the central core area that is protected from mongoose (<10 km²). Despite the proximity to Jamaica’s densely populated capital Kingston, the Hellshire Hills persist as a wilderness area because of its ruggedness and lack of surface water, making the area unsuitable for agriculture and large-scale settlement. The species was recorded to occur from sea level up to 200 m.
6027		habitat	eng	<p>  </p>  <p>Rugged limestone outcroppings comprise much of the Hellshire Hills with coarse red ferralic soil accumulating in crevices and depressions. Soil suitable for nesting is comparatively scarce. The vegetation of the Hellshire Hills consists of tropical dry forest, one of the world’s most threatened ecosystems. Jamaican Iguanas are found only in the remotest sections of the Hellshire Hills where the forest remains in good condition. The Jamaican Iguana feeds on leaves, fruits, and flowers of a wide variety of plant species, supplemented occasionally by animal matter, including snails and insects.<br/></p><p>Since 1991 the known communal nest sites have been observed intensively (Vogel 1994, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2004) and individuals have been marked. Nesting occurs in underground burrows, filled with loose soil, and is guarded for several days. Gravid female iguanas begin digging trial holes long before egg laying. Females deposit their eggs in mid-June, and hatchlings emerge approximately 85-87 days later. Clutch sizes range from 6-20 eggs depending on the size and age of the female. Hatching success varies from 0 to 100% and appears to be related to maternal body size and seasonal rainfall extremes (B. Wilson and R. van Veen pers. comms. 2010).</p><p></p>
6027		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>At the beginning of the 20th century, the Jamaican Iguana was thought to have survived only on the Goat Islands, two small islets offshore from the Hellshire Hills.&#160; The iguana was believed extinct after this population disappeared in the 1940s.&#160; However, the continued survival of the Jamaican Iguana in the Hellshire Hills was confirmed in 1970 (Woodley 1980) from a single individual and again in 1990, both found by hunter’s dogs. A preliminary survey in 1990 revealed a small surviving population of fewer than 100 animals living in the least disturbed central and western sections of the Hellshire Hills. Two active nesting sites were also found though juvenile recruitment appeared to be minimal. Iguanas appear to have disappeared from northern and eastern sections of the Hellshire Hills because of extensive logging for charcoal production, use of dogs for pig hunting, and human settlements (CBSG 1993, B. Wilson and R. van Veen pers. comms. 2010).</p><p>Today, because of intensive predator control and the reintroduction of headstarted iguanas, the population in the central core area only is increasing. &#160;Field research has documented several milestones in the core area including: a greater than two-fold increase in the number of nesting females, successful reproduction among repatriated releases, and long-term survival and reproductive maturation of hatchlings (B. Wilson and R. van Veen pers. comms. 2010). The population trend for iguanas wandering outside the area protected by the mongoose trapline is unknown.</p><p></p>
6027		threats	eng	The most significant pressure on the remaining population in areas of intact forest are alien invasive predators, including mongooses, cats, stray dogs, and possibly feral pigs. Mongooses are very common throughout the Hellshire Hills and field observations indicate they prey on both young iguanas and iguana eggs. Cats occur throughout the area and are also known predators of juvenile iguanas. The dogs used to hunt feral pigs are of particular concern, as they are able to kill adult iguanas (Woodley 1980). Although feral pigs have not been observed disturbing iguana nests in the Hellshire Hills, evidence from Mona Island suggests they are potentially important egg predators (Wiewandt 1977).<br/><br/>Another significant problem is illegal tree cutting in the forest for use in charcoal production, a local industry that provides income to an estimated 10,000 Jamaicans. Approximately one-third of the Hellshire Hills is badly degraded as a result of this enterprise. Development projects proposing large-scale limestone mining, human settlements, and tourism also threaten the eastern half of the Hellshire Hills. Although a few localized limestone quarries might have only limited impact on the iguanas and their habitat, the new roads that would be constructed to facilitate the mining process would undoubtedly allow charcoal burners, pig hunters, and other forest users to migrate further into the forest.<br/><br/>The Jamaican Iguana is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), however, this iguana has not been utilized by humans since well before the late 1800s.
6030		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
6031		conservation	eng	A major grant has been received from the Environment, Science and Energy Department of the UK Foreign Commonwealth Office to facilitate conservation activities on Anegada.  Goals of this program are to 1) implement a cat eradication/control feasibility study, 2) expand the current headstart facility, 3) train the Senior Terrestrial Warden in iguana husbandry and facility maintenance, 4) conduct population censusing and mapping at sites nesting sites and other potential sites where adults may be found, and 5) develop environmental education materials to raise public awareness of the importance and vulnerability of iguanas on Anegada. <br/> <br/>In the 1980s, eight iguanas were moved from Anegada to Guana Island, British Virgin Islands, to start a second population in part of the species’ former range (Goodyear and Lazell 1994).  This is not a limestone island, and does not provide as many natural retreats as Anegada.  In the absence of introduced predators, however, the iguanas appear to do well and reproduce in areas that are free of sheep (the only feral grazing competitor present).  Currently, approximately 20 adult iguanas are estimated to inhabit Guana.  Offspring have been seen each year since 1987, but recruitment is very low over much of the island.  Guana Island Wildlife Sanctuary continues to try to rid the island of sheep, which may improve the habitat for iguanas.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
6031		distribution	eng	The common name of the Anegada Island Iguana is misleading, as the animal was once distributed over the entire Puerto Rico Bank. Fossils are known from Saint Thomas and Puerto Rico. Vulnerability to predation by humans and their dogs and cats may have resulted in a contraction of its distribution to Anegada.
6031		habitat	eng	Estimates in the late 1960s (Carey 1975) showed small home ranges for both sexes (less than 0.1 ha), one principal burrow per animal, a 1:1 sex ratio, and habits that indicated monogamy (apparent pairs inhabited separate but proximate burrows in a joint home range isolated from other pairs).  The current population structure is quite different.  While previous studies may not have been sensitive to long range movements, it now appears that home ranges are quite large on Anegada:  males average 6.6 ha and females average 4.2 ha.  Home ranges broadly overlap and have one or two centers of activity.  In 1991 the sex ratio had dropped to 1 female:2 males.  Thus male competition for limited females may be responsible for the high degree of home range overlap.   <br/> <br/>Burrows of both sexes may be located on the old limestone reef-tract or in sandy areas adjacent to it.  If available, iguanas will use additional holes or crevices as emergency retreats.  Whereas degraded vegetation may provide for male subsistence, it may not provide females with sufficient energy to allow them both to produce eggs and compete with other animals for forage to support their own growth and metabolism.  Reproducing females may have low survivorship, resulting in the present skewed sex ratio.  Females usually lay one clutch of about 12-16 eggs per year in late spring or early summer. <br/> <br/>Although largely facultative herbivores, all age-groups of these iguanas are opportunistic carnivores.  Invertebrates (beetles, caterpillars, centipedes, roaches) form less than 1% of the natural diet, although this may be a result of limited availability.  The bulk of the diet consists of leaves and fruits.   <br/> <br/>Over the past 20 years, grazing pressure by goats, sheep, burros, and cattle has radically changed the vegetation composition of Anegada. The iguanas' diet is now composed of plant species the feral animals reject.
6031		population	eng	Population density in 1968 was estimated at 2.03/ha (Carey 1975).  In 1991, this figure had dropped to 0.36/ha in comparable habitat. Extrapolation of density estimates, distribution, and relative habitat quality yields a population estimate for Anegada of 164 individuals. A small restored population also exists on Guana Island with eight founding adults (Goodyear and Lazell 1994), from which three juveniles have been translocated to Necker Island. The total population, including individuals on Anegada, Guana, and Necker probably consists of fewer than 200 individuals.
6031		threats	eng	Areas on Anegada that once contained dense populations of iguanas now support few or none.  Research indicates that this is due to three major causes, including competitive grazing pressure from free-ranging livestock, predation by feral dogs, and predation of juveniles by feral cats.
6032		conservation	eng	Aside from occasional smuggling of animals across the Haitian border, compliance with international CITES trade regulations is effective.  Enforcement of national protective legislation in the Dominican Republic has improved during the past few years, but effective control is adversely influenced by a number of factors.  Clearing of natural habitat for development is not being prevented nor regulated and illegal hunting for food and the local pet market continues.  <br/> <br/>Ricord’s iguana is partially protected in two areas.  In the Neiba Valley, about 60% of the area supporting iguanas, including Isla Cabritos and a section of the south shore of Lake Enriquillo, is protected within the recently created Lago Enriquillo National Park.  The Isla Cabritos population has been protected within Isla Cabritos National Park since 1974.  <br/> <br/>In the Barahona Peninsula range, two protected areas, Parque Nacional Jaragua and the Acetillar Scenic Reserve, cover most of the remaining distribution of the species to the north and east of Cabo Rojo.  Ricord’s iguanas are only known from the park’s western boundary, where conflicts with limestone mining concessions on both sides of the park border continue to be unresolved.  Until now, no formal management has been established in the Acetillar reserve, and the habitat is impacted by a variety of activities.    <br/> <br/>As of November 1995 the total captive population of Ricord’s iguana was 5.9 individuals in two collections (Indianapolis Zoo and one private collection).  Successful captive breeding has been achieved in both, but survivorship of young has been low.  The only other significant captive breeding program was developed at the Parque Zoologico Nacional (ZooDom).  Although adversely affected by institutional problems, the program lasted for a number of years with comparable success.  Plans to re-establish the program at ZooDom have been halted since 1994 due to unfavorable institutional conditions
6032		distribution	eng	Ricord’s iguana is known only from southwestern Dominican Republic, where it is restricted to the arid Valle de Neiba and the most xeric portion of the Peninsula de Barahona coastal lowlands. The two populations are separated by the mesic Sierra de Baoruco (Massif de la Selle in Haiti), with three peaks exceeding 2,000 m that form an extensive ecological barrier.  Past drier Pleistocene climates may have allowed genetic exchange between the two subpopulations. The total range of Ricord’s iguana in the Dominican Republic is under 100 km², and less than 60% of the historical range is occupied, most of it showing various levels of disturbance. Throughout their range, Ricord’s iguanas are sympatric with rhinoceros iguanas.
6032		habitat	eng	Compared to rhinoceros iguanas, Ricord’s iguanas are quite specialized.  Several key environmental factors, including  soil depth and texture, landform, bedrock parental material, and climate seem to determine their presence.  Ricord’s iguanas inhabit the most arid regions of the Dominican Republic, where the climate is highly seasonal.   <br/> <br/>Ricord’s iguanas are strongly associated with thorn scrub woodlands, particularly with the thorn scrub-dry forest ecotone.  Typical habitat can be found north of Cabo Rojo inside the fork of the Oviedo-Pedernales and Cabo Rojo-Acetillar bauxite mine roads.  The topography of the area consists of a series of broad, flat plains punctuated by rocky steps and marine terraces with very fine soil over exposed dogtooth limestone.  Trees and shrubs are widely spaced, without forming a closed canopy.  Further north, only rhinoceros iguanas are present at a second, higher elevation site, with similar temperature but greater rainfall. In the transition zone between these two sites, both iguana species are present, sharing the edge habitat. <br/> <br/>On Cabritos Island, where Ricord’s iguanas have historically outnumbered rhinoceros iguanas based on frequency of sightings by visiting researchers, the plant community is a succulent-dominated 5-6 m dry forest on white sandy soil with low topography.  Ricord’s iguanas occur on north and south gentle slopes as well as on the central plateau, where soil conditions are favorable for their extensive burrows.  Ricord’s iguanas feed on a wide variety of plants and plant parts, depending on local availability.  Insects and crustaceans are also taken opportunistically.  <br/> <br/>While rhinoceros iguanas make extensive use of limestone crevices in addition to soil burrows, Ricord’s iguanas prefer to dig soil burrows which they continue to expand over time.  Hollow tree trunks and rock cavities are also used for retreats when soil is unavailable.  Retreat entrances are generally dug under dense thorny vegetation, shrubs, stumps, or exposed rocks.  <br/> <br/>Nesting sites are separate from retreats, in fine sandy soils.  Egg laying is highly synchronized with the first rainy period (May-June).  Females lay 2-18 eggs per clutch.  Incubation lasts 95-100 days, and hatching is synchronized with the second rainy season (September-October).  Females reach sexual maturity at about 2-3 years of age.  The social behavior of Ricord’s iguana generally resembles that of other rock iguanas, although wild males defend females much more aggressively in captivity than do wild male rhinoceros iguanas maintained at lower densities in comparable enclosures.  Although of major research interest and significant conservation importance, little is known of interspecific interactions between Ricord’s and rhinoceros iguanas.
6032		population	eng	All available data indicate that the historical range of Ricord’s iguana was small and disjunct. Several factors indicate that the population is currently declining, including direct observation, reduction in the extent and quality of available habitat, and documentation of the negative effects of introduced species.  Researchers and local inhabitants agree that until the mid-1970s, population densities of mature individuals were much higher than they are at present.  Lacking more accurate data, a current population estimate of 2,000 to 4,000 is probably conservative but fair.
6032		threats	eng	The major threats to Ricord’s iguanas are from human activities resulting in habitat reduction and degradation (clearing of vegetation for agricultural use, charcoal production, harvesting of fuelwood and hardwoods, overbrowsing by free-ranging livestock, mining of limestone, illegal collection of live cacti for local and international trade), in combination with local subsistence hunting for food and predation from introduced carnivores (dogs, cats and mongooses).  Competition from mammalian herbivores probably also occurs.  Hunting of Ricord’s iguanas for food and trade has increased gradually since the mid 1970s, both for local consumption as well as at a few oriental restaurants in Santo Domingo where iguanas were offered as a specialty dish.  In the past, some hunters used to set up to 100 snare traps per day at the entrance of retreats, with 30-50% trapping success.  Although current populations no longer support the numbers harvested 15 years ago, iguanas continue to be captured opportunistically in all areas with remaining populations, except on Isla Cabritos where law enforcement is presently effective.
6033		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
6035		conservation	eng	<em>Cyclura cychlura</em> is included in <a href="http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml">CITES Appendix I</a>. At the national level, the species is protected by the Wild Animals (Protection) Act, 1968 for the Bahamas.  <br/> <br/>A new protected area on North Andros was declared in 2003. However, this is in an area of low iguana occurrence and is only protected on paper. There are no protection measures on the ground. In the Exuma Islands, protected areas include  Pasture and Alligator Cays, Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park. <br/> <br/>Captive populations exist in Ardastra Gardens, Nassau, The Bahamas; and Los Angeles Zoo. <br/> <br/>Recommended actions include further surveys, genetic research, life history studies, investigation into the effects of current trade on the population, and a public education programme. A species management programme is recommended for The Bahamas.
6035		distribution	eng	Found on Andros and Exuma Islands, The Bahamas. Extent of occurrence is <20,000 km². At least three main subpopulations are known on Andros and 13 subpopulations in the Exuma Islands.
6035		habitat	eng	Preferred habitats are tropical dry forest, pine barrens, coastal coppice, mangrove and beach strand vegetation areas.  <br/> <br/><em>Cyclura cyclura</em> is a herbivorous, ground dwelling, saxicolous species using limestone crevices, or burrows constructed in sandy loam, as retreats. Juveniles and subadults often climb trees and shrubs in the morning to feed and bask. Hollows in dead trees often are used as retreats for juveniles. The islands are low-relief (< 20 m above sea level) karst limestone platforms. <br/> <br/>Average generation length is around 20 years.
6035		population	eng	The current global population is less than 5,000 and is declining. Of the three subpopulations on Andros, there are <500 in the northern part of the island, <1,500 in the middle, and <2,000 in the south part of the island. Satellite cays hold < 1,000. Subpopulation sizes in the Exuma Islands are: Bitter Guana Cay (20–50); Gaulin Cay (275–325); White Bay Cay (200–250); Noddy Cay (200–250); North Adderly Cay (235–275); Leaf (< 10); Guana Cay (80–90); Pasture Cay (16); Alligator Cay (75–90); Leaf Cay north of Highbourne Cay (500); U-Cay (300); Allen Cay (15); Flat Rock Cay (10).
6035		threats	eng	On Andros Island, there is island-wide logging, construction of homes and roads, feral animals and fire for agriculture or crab hunting. In the Exumas, main threats to the species are feral animals (e.g., goats), fire caused by tourists, and rapid private land acquisition. A direct threat to the population is hunting. This species is the target of illegal subsistence hunting for the animal's meat, and collection for the international pet trade. <br/> <br/>The species inhabits two distinctly different island areas in the Bahamas. The Andros population is threatened based on the acceleration of perturbations, such as habitat loss, feral animals, and subsistence hunting. Although the island is large and some undisturbed subpopulations exist, it is only a matter of time before humans or feral animals degrade the populations. A suggestive north/south trend in population decline is noted and procedures must be implemented to stop further degradation of populations and habitat. The Exuma Island populations inhabit an area that is becoming increasingly popular with tourists- both as a sailing destination and region to buy islands. Increased human traffic brings potential and distinct deleterious consequences to the local flora and fauna. In 2004, a large-scale fire was reported on an iguana-inhabited island that has recently become a designated tourist destination. The fire is purportedly the result of a tourist cigarette. Also, in recent years there has been an increase in feral animals and wildlife smuggling throughout the islands. Continued population monitoring must be a priority along with recognizing that the fragmented population faces a precarious future.
6039		conservation	eng	<em>Cyclura cychlura</em> is included in <a href="http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml">CITES Appendix I</a>. Like all Bahamian rock iguanas, this subspecies is also protected in the Bahamas under the Wild Animals Protection Act of 1968. However, no areas have been specifically designated for the protection of iguanas on Andros and no specific conservation programs are in place. <br/> <br/>There are currently no captive programs for this subspecies. There is one old individual at Ardastra Gardens and Zoo in Nassau. No one has been found who recalls the iguana being brought to the zoo and as yet no records have been found. This iguana, first observed and photographed by S. Buckner in 1991, was still alive as of June, 1997. One large male, a long term captive held by a private resident of South Andros, was still alive in 1984. Attempts to breed this animal have resulted in the death of at least two other iguanas, presumably females. <br/> <br/>A new protected area on North Andros was declared in 2003 but is in an area of low iguana occurrence and is only protected on paper. There are no protection measures on the ground.
6039		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found on Andros Island on the western edge of the Great Bahama Bank. Andros is the largest of the Bahamian islands with an area of 5,959 km². Subpopulations are found in areas in the North, Middle and South of the Island with associated satellite cays.
6039		habitat	eng	The Andros rock iguana is the only iguana in the Bahamas that is not now confined to small cays.  One preferred habitat of this subspecies is under the open canopy of the pine barrens (<em>Pinus caribaea</em> var. <em>bahamensis</em>), which offers a variety of fruits, flowers and leaves of plants suitable for consumption by rock iguanas.  The karst rock provides suitable retreats. <br/> <br/>Herbivorous, ground dwelling, saxicolous iguana using limestone crevices, or burrows constructed in sandy loam, as retreats. Juveniles and subadults often climb trees and shrubs in the morning to feed and bask. Hollows in dead trees are often used as retreats for juveniles.
6039		population	eng	While estimates put the wild population at 2,500 to 5,000 distributed in three or more subpopulations (Hudson <em>et al</em>. 1994), these figures could be much too optimistic as only occasional animals are observed, and these in scattered locations. Alternatively, due to the remoteness and difficulty in accessing much of the region, large subpopulations could be encountered, particularly in the central and southern regions of the island and in the western reaches of north Andros. <br/> <br/>Current subpopualtion size estimates are: North Andros (<500); Middle Andros (<1,500); South Andros (<2,000); satellite cays (<1,000).
6039		threats	eng	A major threat to the Andros Island iguana is the proliferation and expansion of the range of feral pigs.  While this is recognized both locally and nationally, appropriate methods of control have yet to be determined. Particularly in north Andros, feral pigs pose a very real threat to the recruitment of iguanas as they are known to rout out eggs from iguana nests. Feral and domestic dogs are also a threat to both juvenile and adult animals. The status and degree of threat posed by feral cats on Andros is unknown. Many local residents are apparently unaware of the protected status of the Andros iguanas and may occasionally take them for human consumption. <br/> <br/>The Andros iguana is threatened as a result of the acceleration of perturbations to iguana populations, such as habitat loss, feral animals and subsistence hunting. Although the island is large and some undisturbed subpopulations exist, it is only a matter of time before humans or feral animals degrade the populations. An obvious north/south trend in population decline is noted and procedures must be implemented to stop further degradation of subpopulations and habitat.
6040		conservation	eng	<em>Cyclura cychlura</em> is included in <a href="http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml">CITES Appendix I</a>. All Bahamian rock iguanas are protected under the Wild Animals Protection Act of 1968. Field surveys are continuing to assess current populations and to better define the geographic distribution of the subspecies.  The Leaf Cay population was newly discovered in 1997. Blood samples are being collected from each study population to establish genetic profiles for different cays. Potential threats unique to each cay are being documented in order to provide the Bahamian government with information that will aid in setting conservation policies. Also the vegetation and habitat condition on cays not currently supporting iguanas is being investigated for possible translocation programs. <br/> <br/>The Bahamas National Trust has erected signs on Gualin Cay notifying the public of the protected status of the iguanas. The Bahamian government currently does not recognize any captive breeding programs, although unsanctioned breeding of these iguanas is apparently taking place in the United States.
6040		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from small cays scattered over 80 km throughout the central and southern Exuma island chain of the Bahamas. Anecdotal information suggests additional inhabited cays, but verification is necessary. The determination of range through historic records is problematic due to certain cays sharing multiple names. Bitter Guana and Gaulin Cays constitute the northern extent of the population. Four cays, White Bay, Noddy, North Adderly, and Leaf Cays, all located northeast of Norman’s Pond Cay, compose the nucleus of the range. Guana Cay, southwest of Great Exuma, forms the southern boundary of the population.
6040		habitat	eng	The Exuma Island iguana utilizes a variety of habitats including sandy beaches, xeric limestone devoid of vegetation, and areas of vegetation with or without sand or rock substrates. Limestone crevices and sand burrows are used as retreats at night and in adverse weather conditions.   <br/> <br/>Except for the Guana Cay population, few formal natural history studies have been conducted. The Guana Cay population was studied in the 1970s (Wilcox <em>et al</em>. 1973, Carey 1976, Windrow 1977, Coenen 1995) and is currently being reinvestigated along with the other remaining subpopulations (Knapp 1995 and 1996). <br/> <br/>Adult iguanas are herbivorous and are arboreal as well as terrestrial feeders.  Preferred food items are seasonally dependent and primarily consist of flowers, fruits, young buds and leaves of <em>Rachicallis americana, Reynosia septentionalis, Strumpfia maritima, Jacquinia keyensis, Erithalis fruticosa, Coccoloba uvifera, Coccothrinax argentata, Eugenia axillaris, Suriana maritima</em>, and the rotting fruit of <em>Casasia clusiifolia</em> (Windrow 1977, C. Knapp, unpubl. data).  Coenen (1955) reports the iguanas as coprophagous.  They actively forage for the faeces of the zenaida dove, <em>Zenaida leucocephala</em>, and the white-crowned pigeon, <em>Columba leucocephala</em>. <br/> <br/>Nesting has been observed on Guana Cay, with females digging the nest burrow. The only excavations of nest chambers revealed three eggs each in two nests (Coenen 1995).
6040		population	eng	Eight subpopulations are known, totaling < 1,300 individuals: Bitter Guana Cay (20–50); Gaulin Cay (275–325); White Bay Cay (200–250); Noddy Cay (200–250); North Adderly Cay (235–275); Leaf (<10); Guana Cay (80–90); Pasture Cay (16). The population size is declining.
6040		threats	eng	Conversations with locals suggest that removal of animals from their home cays for tourist attractions elsewhere could constitute a significant threat.  Although such activities probably occur on a small scale, they may reflect the larger problem of smuggling of iguanas from the Bahamas for illegal wildlife trade. Some cays are visited regularly by locals and yachtsmen, and dog tracks have been observed on Bitter Guana Cay. In addition to possible hunting pressure, predation by dogs may be contributing to the apparent decline of that population. The presence of rats on Gualin Cay has been reported. The effect of rats on this population is unknown, but past research indicates the detrimental consequences of rats on island reptiles (Cree <em>et al.</em> 1995).  Certain cays possess diminutive nesting sites and the possibility of a season’s recruitment being decimated by severe weather conditions is genuine. <br/> <br/>The isolation of iguana-inhabited cays creates a problem for consistent population monitoring. Discrete environmental events including hurricanes could endanger certain populations. For example, Hurricane Lily engulfed Great Exuma and her satellite cays on 18 October 1996.  The effects of Lily on the Guana Cay iguana population were not observed until May, 1997 (S. Buckner, pers. comm.).
6041		conservation	eng	The Allen’s Cays iguanas are protected nationally under Bahamian law, but enforcement is difficult without a warden present.  The warden of the nearby Exumas Land and Sea Park can potentially respond to reports of poaching, but that is not always practical.  Fortunately signs erected on the islands explain the vulnerability of these lizards, and most visitors on yachts radio the authorities if anyone is seen harassing the iguanas.  Unfortunately visitors also enjoy feeding them unnatural foods.  Long-term investigations of growth, survivorship and population status of these iguanas are ongoing by J. Iverson, but a study of their reproductive ecology is urgently needed. <br/> <br/>A few captive Allen’s Cay iguanas are currently maintained at the Ardastra Zoo and Nature Centre Different on Abaco.  Captive breeding is a goal, but long-term plans for any offspring produced need to be developed.
6041		distribution	eng	Only two breeding populations of this subspecies are known, on Leaf Cay (4 ha) and U Cay (also known as Southwest Allen’s Cay; 3 ha) in the northern Exuma Island chain in the Bahamas. Probably less than seven adults also occur on Allen’s Cay (7 ha), but no evidence of breeding has been found there during 12 years of study.
6041		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this iguana on Leaf and U Cays has not been significantly disturbed by human activity, even though a number of introduced ornamental plants occur on these cays (e.g., <em>Casuarina</em>, lilies, palms).  All potential habitats on both Leaf and U Cays are occupied by iguanas, including some suboptimal areas of bare, honey-comb limestone.  Additional habitat is available on Allen’s Cay, but without sandy areas for nesting, the island apparently cannot support a breeding population.  Dredging of sand from the harbor between Allen’s Cay and Leaf Cay to upland areas on Allen’s Cay could double the potential habitat area for this iguana. <br/> <br/>Most of the details of the life history of this iguana remain unstudied.  What is known has been accumulated during approximately biennial visits by J. Iverson.  During these trips lizards have been marked and recaptured, primarily for growth and survivorship studies.  These iguanas can apparently survive on the very smallest rocky islets as long as sufficient vegetation is present for food. However, areas of sand are necessary for nesting.  Hatched egg shells have been found on several occasions but always in sandy areas.  The lack of breeding on Allen’s Cay may be due to insufficient areas of exposed sand above tidal influence. <br/> <br/>Based on minimum age of adults first caught in 1980 and still alive in 1992 and/or 1993, some of these iguanas live beyond 25 years of age.  Allen’s Cay iguanas are active diurnally, spending the night in burrows they have dug or in natural retreats in or under rocks.  They are primarily herbivorous, feeding on fruits, leaves and flowers of most of the plants present on their tiny islands.  They will climb up into the vegetation to feed.  They are also opportunistically carnivorous, as evidenced by crab claws in their feces.  In addition humans regularly feed the iguanas (particularly on Leaf Cay) everything from table scraps to fresh produce.   <br/> <br/>Nothing is known about reproduction in this species, but mating probably occurs in May, with egg-laying commencing in June.  Jolly-Seber models of recapture data suggest that survivorship of subadults and adults exceeds 90% per year.  During the non-breeding season, these lizards appear to have dominance hierarchies rather than strictly defended territories; however, this may be because tourists frequently feed the iguanas on the main beach areas, perhaps causing a breakdown in the natural social system.  Their behavior during the breeding season is unknown.
6041		population	eng	Based on a 17-year mark and recapture study, approximately 130 subadult and adult iguanas (> 8 years old) occur on Leaf Cay and 100 on U Cay.  Juvenile population estimates are not precise, but in March are probably near 100 for each island.  The entire wild population of this subspecies is less than 500 individuals.  The populations have generally been stable over the past 17 years, with recruitment occurring on both islands every year.  However, some removals from Leaf Cay by poachers and Bahamian zoo and park personnel are known to have occurred over the past decade.  Although the two main populations are generally stable, the two cays are heavily visited by tourists.
6041		threats	eng	The only significant current threat to these populations is the removal of iguanas by humans.  The problem is exacerbated by the fact that these cays offer good anchorage less than a day’s sail from Nassau; for example, during March 15-20 yachts and 1-2 native boats are anchored there each night.  Regular reports of actual or attempted poaching are made to the warden of the Exumas Land and Sea Park to the south.  In addition, iguanas are occasionally removed for exhibit purposes in Bahamian zoos, parks, and gardens.  Illegal exploitation for international trade is undocumented, but probably occurs.
6042		conservation	eng	In the Dominican Republic, most rhinoceros iguana populations are either fully or partially protected inside existing national parks and reserves.  Protected areas supporting iguana populations include Montecristi National Park, Parque Nacional del Este including Isla Saona, Parque Nacional Jaragua including Isla Beata, Las Caobas Strict Natural Reserve, El Acetillar scenic area, Sierra Martín García National Park, and Lago Enriquillo National Park, including Isla Cabritos.  However, the foothill regions in the latter two areas remain only partially protected.  Management in most protected areas is not intensive, and in some cases is restricted to legislation.  <br/> <br/>Compliance with international trade regulations is effective, aside from occasional smuggling of animals across the border with Haiti.  Rhinoceros iguanas are protected nationally by Dominican wildlife regulations.  Enforcement  has improved during the past few years, but clearing of the natural habitat for development is not being prevented, and illegal hunting and poaching for food and for the local pet market continues.  No formal protected areas are known within the present distribution of iguanas in Haiti.  The status of protective legislation is also uncertain, although the rhinoceros iguana was included on a list of protected wildlife by the Ministry of Agriculture during the 1980s.  Enforcement of any potentially existing wildlife regulations seems unlikely at present.  <br/> <br/>Rhinoceros iguanas are the most common rock iguana in captivity.  A successful breeding program existed at the Parque Zoológico Nacional of the Dominican Republic (ZooDom) from 1974 to 1994, with an average of 100 young hatching annually.  These efforts included experimental reintroductions of captive-bred young to several protected areas in the southwest Dominican Republic.  Although a captive colony of almost 300 iguanas representing all age classes was maintained at ZooDom as of December 1994 the program has been adversely affected by administrative changes since January 1995.  It is hoped that these problems can soon be resolved and the program resumed.  <br/> <br/>As of November 1995 rhinoceros iguanas elsewhere in captivity included 393,236 individuals at about 20 zoological institutions, with an additional 533 animals of unassigned subspecies, reported by seven American Zoo and Aquarium Association institutions (Christie 1995).  The actual number may be higher considering holdings at some European zoos and many private collections.
6042		distribution	eng	Rhinoceros iguanas are still widely distributed throughout Hispaniola, including most of its offshore islands.  Their current geographic range is fragmented relative to their more continuous historical distribution, and is strongly associated with xeric regions of lower human population density.  Most iguana concentrations are found along the southern side of Hispaniola, with the highest numbers in south-southwestern Dominican Republic.  <br/> <br/>In the Dominican Republic a minimum of ten subpopulations are known. In Haiti ten or fewer increasingly threatened subpopulations may still exist.
6042		habitat	eng	Rhinoceros iguanas are most abundant in, although not restricted to, dry forests characterized by xeric, rocky habitats of eroded limestone in coastal terraces and lowlands of the mainland and several offshore islands and small cays.  In areas supporting iguanas, mean annual rainfall ranges from 470 to 1,000 mm, and mean annual temperature is 25°C.  With some exceptions, the species ranges in elevation from -35 m (Isla Cabritos, Lake Enriquillo) up to 400 m. They are found in a variety of subtropical life zones and habitat types, including thorn scrub woodland, dry forest and transitional semideciduous to subtropical moist forests. <br/> <br/>Like other rock iguanas, rhinoceros iguanas are diurnal, spending the night in retreats.  Rock crevices, caves, burrows dug in soil or sand, and hollow trunks are also used during the day for resting, cooling or sheltering.  Males defend territories containing retreats attractive to females.  High trees and exposed rocks are used by males for basking and overseeing defended areas.  Mating takes place at the beginning of or just prior to the first rainy season of the year.  Females lay from 2 to 34 eggs, with an average clutch size of 17.  Females guard nests for several days after laying, and incubation lasts approximately 85 days.  Females probably become sexually mature at 2-3 years of age.  Rhinoceros iguanas feed on fruits, leaves and flowers of a variety of plants, depending on availability.  Additional information on their ecology and natural history is summarized by Schwartz and Henderson (1991).
6042		population	eng	Rhinoceros iguanas were common and widespread until the early 1950s, but accurate information concerning current population estimates on Hispaniola is lacking. Unpublished data, based on opportunistic surveys, are available for a few localities but are inadequate for extrapolation to other areas facing different levels of disturbance, particularly in Haiti. Observations on population and habitat trends recorded since the 1970s provide a fair but rough approximation of 10,000 to less than 17,000. Iguana densities are low in the majority of the areas where they presently occur and appear to be declining. Local extirpations are known from both Dominican Republic and Haiti. Populations are seemingly stable only on Isla Beata and the extreme of the Barahona Peninsula inside Parque Nacional Jaragua.
6042		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, due to extraction of hardwoods and fuelwood, charcoal production, agriculture, livestock grazing and limestone mining, represents the major threat to rhinoceros iguanas in both the Dominican Republic and Haiti.  In the Dominican Republic about 13% of the human population occupy dry forest regions.  These areas are also the most economically depressed and exploitation of forest habitats for charcoal and fuelwood represent important sources of income.  About 75-80% of the total national demand for these products originates from dry forest habitats.  In the Dominican Republic, roughly 35% of rhinoceros iguana habitat has been lost, and approximately 75% of what remains is disturbed.  Both figures are much higher for Haiti.   <br/> <br/>Other important threats are predation by feral dogs, cats, mongoose and pigs on adults, juveniles and eggs, and illegal hunting of subadults and adults for food and local trade.  The use of iguanas for food in Haiti is extreme in rural areas where iguanas are conspicuous enough that local people are familiar with them.  International trade of wild animals from Hispaniola, a conservation problem until the mid 1980s, has been controlled in the Dominican Republic under CITES since 1987, but no such control exists in Haiti.
6043		conservation	eng	Iguanas are protected within the Cayman Islands by the Animals Law of 1976 (Davies 1994) but protection of native habitats is lacking.  The Development and Planning Law of 1971 provides a legal mechanism to prevent the destruction of terrestrial habitats in the Cayman Islands, but this has never been implemented (Davies 1994).  Currently, the only protected areas on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman are the Cayman Brac Parrot Preserve (a 65 ha tract of potentially important iguana habitat) and the Little Cayman Ramsar Site (an 82 ha preserve encompassing Booby Pond and surrounding mangroves). <br/> <br/>The National Trust for the Cayman Islands has had an active iguana conservation program since 1990. However, due to limited resources, efforts have largely concentrated on the Grand Cayman iguana. An intensive field study of Lesser Caymans iguanas was conducted on Little Cayman in 1993 by Gerber.  Plans to continue this research await further funding. <br/> <br/>A captive breeding program does not exist for this subspecies but may be warranted for the Cayman Brac population if it is genetically distinct from the Little Cayman population.  This possibility needs to be investigated.  No pure Lesser Caymans iguanas are presently held in zoological institutions (B. Christie pers. comm.).
6043		distribution	eng	The Lesser Caymans iguana is native to two islands: Cayman Brac (38 km²) and Little Cayman (28.5 km²).  The islands are 7.5 km apart and are well isolated from other land masses. Both islands have been continually inhabited since the early 1800s. Current human populations for Cayman Brac and Little Cayman are approximately 1,000 and 200 respectively. <br/> <br/>In 1938 iguanas were abundant on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Since that time, populations of Lesser Caymans iguanas have declined and are clearly in danger of extinction, particularly on Cayman Brac. In 1965 the iguanas were abundant on Cayman Brac only along a relatively small section of the southwest coastline (Carey 1966). Today, the subspecies is nearly extinct on Cayman Brac. Over the last four years, F. Burton (pers. comm.) has seen only two iguanas on Cayman Brac (both juveniles) and received only two reports of sightings (both adults). Based on these results, the population probably numbers fewer than 50 individuals.
6043		habitat	eng	Like other rock iguanas, Lesser Caymans iguanas require suitable forage plants, basking areas, retreats and nesting sites.  On Little Cayman these requirements are met in a variety of coastal and interior habitats and iguanas are widely dispersed.  Maximum densities occur in dry evergreen bushlands and thickets growing on exposed and highly weathered limestone or dolomite.  These habitats provide a diverse assemblage of forage plants, a mosaic of sun and shade for thermoregulation, and an abundance of solution holes in the rock substrate which iguanas of all sizes use as retreats.  However, suitable nesting sites in these habitats are restricted to shallow patches of soil that accumulate in small depressions.  Consequently many females migrate to coastal areas with relatively deep sandy soils to nest. <br/> <br/>The diet of all age classes consists almost entirely of leaves, flowers and fruits; however, iguanas occasionally scavenge on animal carcasses (e.g., land crabs) or prey on slow-moving insects (e.g., Lepidopteran larvae).   <br/> <br/>Courtship and mating occur in April and early May, coinciding with the end of the dry season when temperatures and photoperiod are increasing.  Males compete intensely for territories which are occupied in all seasons.  Male territories are large, on the order of 1 ha, and during the breeding season as many as 10 females may temporarily reside within a single territory.  The adult sex ratio appears to be skewed toward females. <br/> <br/>Females lay a single clutch of 7-25 eggs (mean 15) annually, between late-May and mid-June, coinciding with the beginning of the wet season.  Females nest either in small soil patches within the rocky interior or in large sandy tracts along the coast, and may migrate considerable distances to nest sites.  Hatchling emergence occurs from early August to early September and incubation averages 72 days (range 63-80).
6043		population	eng	Presently Little Cayman still supports a widely, although patchily, distributed iguana population (G. Gerber unpubl. data). The population is reproducing and all age classes are represented, although juvenile mortality is very high due to predation by feral cats. During nine months of field work on Little Cayman in 1993 over 200 iguanas were captured and marked.  However due to the inaccessibility of much of the interior of the island and the patchy distribution of iguanas, good population estimates are not available; mature iguanas possibly number between 750 and 1,500.  he population appears not to have declined significantly since the 1970s (Townson 1980, Stoddart 1980) and 1980s (Blair 1983) and may even be larger today. Nonetheless, dense concentrations of iguanas which occupied the mid-northern (B. Ryan, pers. comm.) and mid-southern (Grant 1940) coasts of Little Cayman 50+ years ago no longer exist, and a growing population of feral cats and increasing human development severely threaten the long-term survival of iguanas on Little Cayman.
6043		threats	eng	Threats to Lesser Caymans iguanas include habitat destruction from road construction; commercial and residential real estate development; livestock grazing (on Cayman Brac) and farming practices; predation by feral cats and domestic dogs (and possibly introduced rats); disturbance of sensitive nesting areas; and road kills.  Since the construction of a municipal power generating station on Little Cayman in the early 1990s habitat destruction associated with road construction and real estate development have increased dramatically and the human population, although still small, has increased several fold.  Under the present socioeconomic conditions this pattern can be expected to accelerate.  Plans to replace the existing, grass airstrip on Little Cayman with a new, paved airstrip are underway.  Proposed sites for this project overlap areas of prime iguana habitat on the west end of the island.  Aside from the loss of habitat, such an airstrip will significantly increase human visitation to the island and promote further development.  The continued destruction and disturbance of coastal nesting areas on Little Cayman is of particular concern as nesting opportunities for iguanas in the interior appear to be limiting due to the paucity of suitable soil patches.  Also the increasing number of feral cats on Little Cayman pose an immediate threat to population recruitment.
6045		conservation	eng	All but one of the major iguana concentrations are either partially or fully protected.  At selected localities within the National System of Protected Areas, projects directed toward conservation and reproduction of Cuban iguanas are being carried out by the Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas in collaboration with researchers from Havana University.  Ecological and systematic studies are being conducted at the Institute of Ecology and Systematics, Cuban Academy of Sciences.
6045		distribution	eng	The Cuban iguana is well distributed around Cuba, mainly in xerophilic coastal areas, but relatively safe populations are found only on some islets along the north and south coasts and in isolated protected areas on the mainland.  This subspecies has also been introduced to Isla Magueyes, southwest of Puerto Rico.
6045		habitat	eng	Cuban iguanas can be found in relatively undisturbed xerophilic coastal lands on both mainland Cuba and surrounding islets, primarily in rocky limestone areas where natural refuges and appropriate nesting sites are available.  Foraging is commonly observed in concentrations of coastal mangroves.  In western Cuba there is an isolated population inhabiting an inland karstic mountain area.  Apparently, semiarid lands several kilometers inland from the coast can still support iguana populations. <br/> <br/>The Cuban iguana is a phytophagous generalist and the diversity of its diet depends on the floristic diversity and abundance of vegetation in each locality.  If readily available with little effort, Cuban iguanas will also feed on animal matter.  The most common animal item in the diet is the crab <em>Cardisoma guandhumi</em>.   <br/> <br/>Sexual maturity is reached at an age of two to three years.  Reproductive behavior in this subspecies is similar to that described for other members of the genus. Males become aggressive, and vigorously defend territories in competition for females. Females lay 15 to 30 eggs annually in a single clutch in a nest which they dig in the sand.
6045		population	eng	Because of its wide distribution, accurate information about the number of distinct subpopulations of Cuban iguanas is currently unavailable, yet it may be present on as many as 4,000 islets surrounding the Cuban mainland.  The population on the U.S. Naval Station at Guantánamo Bay has been estimated at 2,000-3,000 individuals (A. Alberts and J. Phillips unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Not many decades ago, the subspecies was extremely widespread on Cuba.  However populations on the mainland have decreased dramatically or disappeared entirely in most areas since the end of the last century.  On many islets populations are still relatively safe, but this situation is changing with the transformation of many islets for tourist developments.  Nevertheless if strictly protected areas on the mainland and islets continue to remain untouched, 60 to 80% of the remaining population will probably be safe.  Any population analyses should be carried out with two distinct components:  one for populations living on the mainland, and one for populations inhabiting small islands and islets. <br/> <br/>The total population of this subspecies in Cuba is estimated at between 40,000 and 60,000 individuals.   <br/> <br/>In general the population is declining, more quickly on the mainland than in other areas. Most disturbing is the rapidity of the loss of this subspecies in disturbed areas. Iguanas are now absent from the northeastern Havana coast, the Hicacos peninsula and Key Largo, where they were known to be very abundant some 30-40 years ago.  Mainland populations have probably been declining at a rate of greater than 1% per year for the last ten years.
6045		threats	eng	Habitat transformation and human disturbance represent the main threats to Cuban iguana populations.  Other important threats include predation by wild and domestic dogs on both adults and juveniles, predation by cats on juveniles, and egg predation by pigs.  Hunting is not a major threat because there is not a widespread tradition of consumption of iguana meat or eggs.
6046		conservation	eng	A grant from the Chicago Zoological Society has facilitated eradication of black rats from White Cay.  The project was a collaborative effort of the West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, the Bahamas National Trust, the Bahamas Department of Agriculture, and Zeneca Agrochemicals, Inc., which donated the rodenticide used in the eradication.  Two cays that appear promising as potential sites for establishment of a second wild population of the White Cay iguana have been identified.  Although they have yet to be surveyed on the ground, both look appropriate from the air, both are Crown land, and both have active seabird nesting colonies, a good sign that introduced predators are absent. W. Hayes and R. Carter visited White Cay in 1996 to obtain blood samples and other measurements from the iguanas and to evaluate their status.
6046		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs on only a single island, White (Sandy) Cay, in the southern Exumas of the Bahamas. This island is small, comprising about 25 ha (Schwartz and Carey 1977). The iguanas were probably much more widely distributed during the last ice age when many of the Exuma Cays were presumably connected due to lower sea levels. They possibly occupied additional adjacent cays in recent centuries but, if so, have vanished without a trace.
6046		habitat	eng	Except for informal visits mainly to collect specimens, this isolated subspecies has been largely ignored by scientists.  Essentially nothing has been published about its ecology or natural history.
6046		population	eng	The island can support only a limited number of iguanas. According to Lincoln-Peterson surveys conducted in 1997, the size of the population has been estimated at 150 to 200 individuals.
6046		threats	eng	Illicit smuggling and the possibility of introduced animals are likely the greatest threats to this population.  From photos that appeared in the April 1994 issue of a popular reptile magazine, it is clear that at least some <em>C. rileyi</em>, potentially from White Cay, have been recently smuggled.  At least eight individuals of <em>C. rileyi</em>, presumably of this subspecies, were discreetly exhibited in the showrooms of several Florida reptile wholesalers in 1993 (R. Ehrig pers. comm.), which suggests that more than a trivial number of animals were taken.  Another potential threat is inbreeding depression due to centuries or longer of effective isolation. <br/> <br/>In 1996 the footprints of a raccoon were observed on White Cay.  It may have dispersed there on its own after several were formerly introduced to nearby Hog Cay.  Although that animal has since been confirmed dead, it appears to have predated a significant proportion of the iguana population, particularly juveniles and females.  Black rats formerly threatened the iguana population, but have since been removed from the cay.
6047		conservation	eng	W. Hayes and R. Carter are currently evaluating body size and genetic relationships among the three populations.  They visited the Acklins Bight in 1996, as well as the introduced population, in order to obtain blood samples and measurements from the iguanas and to evaluate their status.
6047		distribution	eng	Natural populations of Acklins iguanas are found only on Fish Cay and North Cay in the Acklins Bight, Bahamas. They formerly occurred on at least Long (Fortune) Cay, and probably once roamed other cays in the vicinity, including the much larger Crooked and Acklins Islands. An additional introduced population with five founding individuals became established on a small cay in the early 1970.
6047		habitat	eng	Only anecdotal information on the natural history of this subspecies is available.  Like other rock iguanas, male Acklins iguanas appear to be highly territorial. Males have been observed in jousting matches involving open-mouthed territorial displays, and will chase other males out of defended areas.  Scars in the form of bite marks have been observed which probably result from these activities.
6047		population	eng	The total population is currently estimated at 13,000 or more iguanas.
6047		threats	eng	No evidence of feral animals or other threats have been identified in the Acklins Bight populations.  Introduced hutia (<em>Geocapromys ingrahami</em>) may be affecting the vegetation on the cay adjacent to that harboring the introduced population, although they have not yet crossed the channel separating the two cays.  Further, with only five founder animals, genetic heterozygosity of this population may be compromised.  On all cays, the potential for illegal poaching remains a threat.
6048		conservation	eng	At present, baseline data are being collected on all populations of <em>C. rileyi</em> to aid conservation management decisions.  Initial efforts involve population surveys, assessment of threats to survival, and genetic sampling.  Genetic analyses are essential to resolve the taxonomic identities of the nominate taxa, to assess the degree of divergence among individual populations, and to evaluate heterozygosity (which may reveal inbreeding depression).  Divergence may be sufficient that the genetic identity of most or all populations will need to be maintained. <br/> <br/>Further steps include concentrated searches for isolated colonies on the mainland and on the southernmost lakes, as well as reintroductions of iguanas to previously inhabited cays.  Further research is necessary to determine the suitability of each cay, and to assess what corrective actions would be necessary to render each suitable for reintroduction (e.g., removal of feral rats or supplementation of nesting habitat).  Reintroduction of iguanas on the mainland should be undertaken only if protection of a large area can be assured.  Additional comparative research planned for the isolated populations of this taxon includes vegetation analyses and studies of reproductive strategies, seasonal dietary shifts, and behavioral ecology. <br/> <br/>At present, no legal captive breeding programs exist outside the Bahamas.  The Bahamian government has wisely refused to issue export permits for any rock iguana taxa.  However, Ardastra Gardens in Nassau (New Providence Island, Bahamas) currently holds two juveniles and plans to implement an <em>in situ</em> programme.  Captive programs could be highly valuable for repatriation efforts, particularly if the genetic integrity of individual populations needs to be preserved. <br/> <br/>A public relations campaign is planned to heighten awareness and appreciation among island residents for their endemic iguana.
6048		distribution	eng	Fossil remains found by Olson <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicate that San Salvador iguanas once occurred throughout the island of San Salvador (area 150 km²).  Today, however, sightings on the mainland are exceedingly rare, occurring most often on the eastern side between Great Lake and Storrs Lake.  At present San Salvador iguanas appear to be restricted largely to five tiny offshore cays (Gaulin, Goulding, Green, Low, Manhead) and two cays within Great Lake (Guana and Pigeon, Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  They were presumably extirpated on at least six additional cays, with two extinctions occurring in recent decades (discounting an unconfirmed sighting on High Cay in 1991). The seven inhabited cays range in size from 1–12 ha and total approximately 26 ha of marginal to excellent habitat.
6048		habitat	eng	The habitat on cays presently occupied by iguanas varies greatly.  Vegetation on offshore cays is similar in varying degrees to coastal rock, sand strand and sea oat, and coastal coppice plant communities described on the mainland (Smith 1993).  However, for cays within inland lakes, the vegetation resembles the blacklands coppice (Guana Cay) and mangrove (Pigeon Cay) communities on the mainland.  Habitats on the mainland of San Salvador are highly diversified and suitable enough to harbor large iguana populations. <br/> <br/>Mean and maximum body sizes of iguanas vary significantly from cay to cay, and are positively correlated with plant diversity.  Iguanas are largest on Low Cay and smallest on Manhead Cay.  Previously reported measurements of body size (Schwartz and Carey 1977) were limited to samples from cays having low plant diversity.  Thus, prior recognition of <em>C. rileyi</em>  as the smallest of the rock iguanas may be an artifact of historical extinctions resulting in extant populations being confined today largely to the most inaccessible cays having minimal plant diversity. <br/> <br/>Iguanas are locally most common in the vicinity of limestone rock outcrops and/or patches of sea grape (<em>Coccoloba uvifera</em>).  On some cays they are numerous in patches of buttonwood (<em>Conocarpus erectus</em>) where they ascend into the foliage to browse.  On Pigeon Cay they are frequently encountered basking on the limbs of mangrove trees, often several meters or more above the ground.  The iguanas share their habitat with nesting seabirds on several cays, most notably on Gaulin Cay where brown noddies (<em>Anous stolidus</em>) and sooty terns (<em>Sterna fuscata</em>) are extremely dense. <br/> <br/>Aspects of feeding and reproductive ecology remain unstudied but are likely similar to other rock iguana species.  Adult males appear to be territorial throughout the year.  Courtship and mating probably occur in May, followed by nesting and egg-laying in June or July.  Hatchlings probably emerge from nest burrows in September or October.  Like other rock iguanas, San Salvador iguanas presumably require sandy areas for nest construction.  Such habitat appears to be limited on Guana Cay, but the presence of several juveniles in 1994 is indicative of successful nesting there.
6048		population	eng	Recent censuses by Hayes <em>et al</em>. (1995) suggested that approximately 500–600 individuals remain. However they suspected that juveniles were underestimated in their surveys, and have since learned that a moderate population thrives on Pigeon Cay, the one known population they had not yet visited. Nevertheless this subspecies likely numbers fewer than 1,000.  Populations on the isolated cays vary from perhaps as few as 10 (Gaulin Cay) to as many as 250 (Green Cay). Several populations are threatened by human-related causes and appear to be declining.
6048		threats	eng	Although remote and relatively difficult to access, populations on the cays are still threatened by human-related causes (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  The scarcity of juveniles on Low Cay is probably attributable to the presence of feral rats only recently detected there (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  More recently, rats have also been seen on Guana, High, and Pigeon Cays.  Considering the apparent impact of rats on insular populations of the tuatara (<em>Sphenodon punctatus</em>), an iguana-sized burrow-nesting reptile in New Zealand (Cree <em>et al.</em> 1995), rats probably pose a serious threat to survival of iguanas on several Cays and need to be exterminated soon.  Rats may also impact iguana populations indirectly by affecting vegetation, especially on cays with low plant diversity. <br/> <br/>The once dense population on Guana Cay (Ostrander 1982) has become greatly reduced in recent years.  A mysterious die-off due to unknown causes occurred in spring 1994, as evidenced by the discovery of eight adult carcasses and an estimated surviving population of only 24 individuals (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  Although natural disease is a possible cause, so too might be mosquito control efforts, recently implemented for the benefit of the growing tourism industry.  The ticks which infest these iguanas have not been found on any other cay, and may have rendered the lizards more vulnerable to agents causing their deaths.   <br/> <br/>The larvae of a moth (<em>Cactoblastis cactorum</em>) introduced decades ago to the West Indies are now rapidly devastating prickly-pear cacti (<em>Opuntia stricta</em>), an important food source for iguanas, on several cays.  The dense population of lizards on Green Cay is especially vulnerable, particularly since destruction of the cacti will be nearly complete within a matter of years, there are no known means of controlling the moth, and the remaining vegetation (nine plant species) represents a meager diet compared to other rock iguana species (Auffenberg 1982).  The impact of this ecological disturbance needs to be closely monitored. <br/> <br/>Rapid development on the island of San Salvador will undoubtedly threaten the populations further.  Feral dogs and cats are already numerous in local areas, but will increase as more resorts and housing tracts are constructed.  This would seriously jeopardize any possible reintroductions of iguanas to the mainland, unless protected areas of considerable size could be set aside.  Pollution of Great Lake due to environmentally unsound landfill practices may threaten the fragile mangrove community that harbors a moderate iguana population on Pigeon Cay.  Eventually, tourists may discover the attributes of the iguanas themselves, which could increase potentially detrimental human-iguana contacts.
6061		distribution	eng	<em>Cylindraspis indica</em> was known only from Réunion.
6061		population	eng	The species is thought to have become extinct in 1800.
6062		distribution	eng	<em>Cylindraspis inepta</em> was endemic to Mauritius.
6062		population	eng	It has not been recorded since the early eighteenth century.
6062		threats	eng	Hunting pressures and possibly the introduction of predators and competitive species to the island may have resulted in the demise of this species.
6063		distribution	eng	<em>Cylindraspis peltastes</em> was endemic to the island of Rodrigues, Mauritius.
6063		population	eng	The species is thought to have become extinct in 1800.
6063		threats	eng	Hunting pressures, direct habitat alteration by man and the introduction of predators and competitive species are cited as the causes of this species' extinction.
6064		distribution	eng	<em>Cylindraspis triserrata</em> was endemic to Mauritius.
6064		population	eng	It has not been recorded since the early eighteenth century.
6064		threats	eng	Hunting pressures from humans and introduced predators and competitive species have been blamed for the extinction of this species.
6065		distribution	eng	<em>Cylindraspis vosmaeri</em> was endemic to the island of Rodrigues, Mauritius.
6065		population	eng	It was last recorded in 1800.
6065		threats	eng	Hunting pressures and the introduction of predators and competitive species are thought to have contributed to the demise of this species.
6067		conservation	eng	Several sub-populations are under local conservation schemes.
6067		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria, where it lives in highly isolated sub-populations scattered throughout the Alps.
6067		habitat	eng	This is a alpine species living in the crevices of limestone rocks and moist alpine meadows.
6067		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are supposed to be stable. The population size can vary considerably between 0.2 to 48 specimens/m<sup>2</sup> (Bisenberger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
6067		threats	eng	The major threats to this species is the ongoing and increasing use of the alpine area for tourist and recreational activities. Skiing and mountain climbing may contribute to the destruction of the habitat, but there is actually no information on a serious impact to the species.
6069		distribution	eng	Italy, Tyrrhenian sea (Gulf of Naples, Gulf of Gaeta).
6069		habitat	eng	Found in marine/brackish water.
6069		threats	eng	Commercial exploitation.
6081		conservation	eng	The species is found in a number of protected areas.
6081		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is only found in the Mindanao Faunal Region. It has been recorded from the following islands: Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Maripi, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Samar, Siargao and Tongquil (Heaney . 1998; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Corbet and Hill 1992).
6081		habitat	eng	It is common in lowland primary and secondary forest, and in mixed forest and orchard (Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Wischusen <em>et al</em>. 1992, 1994; Wischusen and Richmond 1989; L. Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). This species can also tolerate disturbed habitats. It feeds on leaves and some fruit.
6081		population	eng	This species is widespread and common and populations are stable (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
6081		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species, especially at lower elevations. Commercial logging of second growth forest is also threat. This widespread destruction of lowland forest makes them somewhat vulnerable, but their ability to persist in disturbed forest makes them a relatively resilient species. Their fur is used for making hats in Bohol (C. Custodio pers. comm. 2006). The species is persecuted in Samar because it is thought to be a bad omen (J.C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2006).
6082		conservation	eng	The otter civet is listed in Appendix II of CITES and as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). Conservation of this species requires protection of forest and riverine habitat, and policing against illegal harvesting of timber and hunting (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is a need to survey for this species to determine its tolerance to secondary habitats, including riverine areas in plantations and other areas that maintain some natural vegetation, as well as to further assess its distribution and monitor its populations. Live trapping and camera trapping are being done in Krau Wildlife Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in order to study different species of small carnivores, and hopefully to detect the presence of the otter civet (Malaysia Carnivore Project 2005). The absence of recent records in Peninsular Malaysia is of great concern, and it is very important to know if some protected areas still harbor this species (G. Veron pers. comm., 2006).<br/><br/>This species is found in many protected areas throughout its range. Including Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary in western Sarawak in 2000 (Sebastian, 2005), Kaeng Krachan National Park (12 57 N, 99 23 E) in Thailand in 1998 (Anon, 1998), Bukit Sarang Conservation Area in Sarawak (Belden <em>et al. </em>2007), Way Kambas National Park in Sumatra (Veron <em>et al</em>, 2006), Danau Sentarum National Park (Jeanes and Meijaard 2000), and Leuser National Park in Sumatra (van Strien, 1996).
6082		distribution	eng	The otter civet has a Sundaic distribution and is found in Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo), Thailand and apparently, far from the Sundaic region,  northern Viet Nam (Tonkin, which is the type locality of Cynogale lowei) (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is one very old record from Singapore (Meiri 2005) but there is no evidence that this involved an animal taken there, rather than one with a trade locality (B.Y.P.H. Lee in litt. to J. W. Duckworth 2007).<br/><br/>Lekagul and McNeeley (1977) listed the species in southern Thailand, but there were no confirmed records until 1992 (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). Another record in Kaeng Krachan National Park in 1998 confirms its presence in southern Thailand (Anon 1998). There is also an unconfirmed sighting from northern Thailand from Phu Kradung National Park in 1986 (Schreiber 1989; Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006), which should be viewed with skepticism until corroborated, as it would take the species range out of the purely Sundaic pattern is shows by all other records and it is based on an unverified local report.<br/><br/>Recent records of this species from Borneo include sightings in Sarawak (Sebastian 2005; Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007s) and in Sabah (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). The otter civet has been recorded as high as 1,370 m above Bario in Sarawak, but the majority of records are from lowland forest (Veron <em>et al</em>, 2006).There are some camera trap pictures of this species in Sumatra (Veron <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is also a possible record from a fisherman's house near Yilong Lake in southern Yunnan, China in 1973, which is of unknown provenance (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). If the species does actually occur in both northern Thailand and Yunnan (China), then it is likely to also occur in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).
6082		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of the otter civet and further studies are required. This species is thought to be largely confined to peat swamp forests, though there are recent records from lowland dry forest (Sebastian 2005). Preferred habitat appears to be lowland primary forest, but it has been recorded in secondary forest, bamboo, and logged forest (Heydon and Bulloh 1996; Franklin 2001; Veron <em>et al.</em> 2006), however, the long-term persistence of this species in these habitats is unknown (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). The otter civet has also been recorded from freshwater swamp forest and limestone forest, surrounded by acacia plantation in Bukit Sarang Conservation Area, Sarawak (Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>As the otter civet is semiaquatic (Veron <em>et al</em>, 2006) and known to forage in the water (Medway, 1978; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Yasuma, 1994), it is assumed that this species feeds on fish, crabs, mollusks, small mammals, and birds (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It is also thought to be nocturnal (Sebastian, 2005), though there is data indicating it is also occasionally active during the day (see data from N. Franklin; G. Veron pers. comm. 2006; Sebastian 2005).
6082		population	eng	There is very little known about the otter civet’s population trends and local abundance, and further studies are required (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). Sebastian (2005) reports that this species’ apparent rarity is puzzling, including a low detection frequency in heavily surveyed areas. There is a need to determine whether the species' rarity is due to sampling or methodology bias (possibly due to its habitat specificity) or due to naturally low densities (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). It is known from 75 total museum individuals: 40 from Borneo, 12 from Sumatra, and eight from Peninsular Malaysia (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989; Veron <em>et al</em>. 2004). There have been 19 other sightings of this species in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). There was an intensive survey that recorded this species 59 times during 3,920 camera trap days in Way Kamabas National Park in Sumatra between January 1996 and December 1998 (Veron <em>et al. </em>2006).
6082		threats	eng	Reduction in primary forest habitat has proceeded very fast throughout the lowland Sundaic region in the last 20 years (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al.</em>, 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003). This has probably reduced populations of otter civets, and threatens its persistence (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). Clear-cut logging is one of the major factors contributing to decline in suitable habitat, and even selective logging may sufficiently alter habitat such that it is the species can no longer occupy it; combined, this loss of primary forest may be responsible for the current rarity of the otter civet (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). Heydon and Bulloh (1996) found that the abundance of civets (including palm civets, banded palm-civet, otter civet, terrestrial civets and linsangs) in northern Borneo was significantly lower in logged forest than in primary forest, with the most specialized civets, including the otter civet, being less tolerant of logged forests than generalist civets. Conversion of peat swamp forests to oil palm plantations is a major threat particularly to this species. There is no evidence that the species is specifically hunted, but as a ground-dwelling species it will be exposed to the snares and other ground-level taps set for other species. The numbers of animals caught and effects on populations, if any, are unknown.
6089		conservation	eng	<em>C. mexicanus</em> is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
6089		distribution	eng	<em>Cynomys mexicanus</em> is endemic to north-central Mexico. It is found in the states of Coahuila and San Luis Potosi; it once also occurred in the states of Nuevo Leon and Zacatecas.
6089		habitat	eng	Prairie dogs generally occupy open grasslands in plains and plateaus. They are diurnal animals using elaborate burrow systems for shelter and protection against predators. They show a high degree of social organisation and form large colonies (towns) which often cover an area of 100 ha or more.
6089		population	eng	This species is very rare.
6089		threats	eng	The Mexican prairie dog is losing habitat to the expansion of agriculture and livestock farming.  Many colonies have been exterminated through poisoning.<br/><br/>This species has lost at least 65% of its habitat, which has been converted for agriculture and other uses. It is considered extinct in Zapatecas, which represented 10% of its original range. San Luis de Potosi, representing 25% of its original range, has also been heavily converted to agriculture, and the extraction of water has dried up soils and grasslands.
6090		conservation	eng	In 1991, a formal recovery plan for Utah prairie dogs was approved. The bulk of the recovery efforts has centered around the establishment of colonies on public lands by transplanting animals from private lands within their historical range (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). The potential of these efforts to be successful in the long-term have apparently been undermined by reclassification of its status to Threatened (allowing animals to again be eradicated). In 2001, the US Fish and Wildlife Service was petitioned to restore Endangered status. However, no finding has been issued. In March 2004, the petitioners expressed intent to sue over the failure to make a timely finding.<br/><br/>One colony is protected in Bryce Canyon National Park. As of 2004, despite public land efforts at establishing new Utah prairie dog colonies and supplementing existing ones, approximately 68% of Utah prairie dogs still occur on private and other nonfederal lands.<br/><br/>Research needs include: determine causes of high rate of crashes of local populations; determine rangeland revegetation and grazing practices that will result in improved persistence of translocated populations; determine genetic consequences of high rates of population crashes and how this affects the spatial arrangement of translocation sites and numerical goals for population recovery (Utah Prairie Dog Recovery Implementation Team 1997).
6090		distribution	eng	The species' range is restricted to an area of about 1,850 square kilometres in southern Utah in the United States. Prior to control programs, the range reportedly extended from Pine and Buckskin valleys in Beaver and Iron counties (perhaps west to Modena in Iron County), north to at least Salina Canyon and near Gunnison in Sevier County (possibly to Nephi), south to Bryce Canyon National Park, and east to the foothills of the Aquarius Plateau (Collier 1974, Pizzimenti and Collier 1975, McDonald 1997). More recently, this species occurred in substantial populations in only three areas: the Awapa Plateau, along the east fork of the Sevier River, and in eastern Iron County; the grass and Sevier river valleys, plus three small, widely separated mountain valleys have small populations (Collier 1974, Pizzimenti and Collier 1975). The species is scarce or absent in the Aquarius Plateau, Fremont and Paria valleys, and Salina Canyon (Collier 1974, Pizzimenti and Collier 1975). It occurs only in areas at elevations of 1,500 to 2,700 m asl.
6090		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of grasslands, in level mountain valleys, in areas with deep well-drained soil and vegetation that prairie dogs can see over or through. Prairie dogs dig underground burrow systems, in which the young are born. <br/><br/>They reproduce slowly, relative to other rodents (Hoogland 2001). Females produce only one litter per year, but the probability of weaning a litter each year is only 67% (Hoogland 2001). Although all females copulate as yearlings, only 49% of males do so (Hoogland 2001). For females that wean offspring, mean litter size at first emergence from the nursery burrow is 3.88 (Hoogland 2001). Mating occurs in March or April. Gestation lasts about one month. Young are born in late April or early May. Litter size is 2-10 (average 3-5); female produces one litter per year. Young emerge above ground at six weeks (late May to early June), weaned in about seven weeks, first breed at about two years.<br/><br/>Lives in colonies ("towns"). Colony structure is dynamic in size and location; social units within colony comprise a dominant male, several females, and the young of the past two years (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Survivorship in the first year is less than 50%; only 30% remain alive at the end of their second year (Hoogland 2001). <br/><br/>Feeds primarily on grasses, alfalfa, leafy aster, European glorybind, wild buckwheats in seed, flowers and seeds of shrubs, and insects when available; also may consume cattle faeces; generally prefers flowers and seeds over leaves. The species is inactive and torpid in severe winter conditions. Adults emerge and begin foraging from mid-March to early April, enter dormancy mid-July to mid-August; juveniles enter dormancy from early October to mid-November; low elevation colonies (below 7,000 ft) generally are two weeks earlier than higher elevation colonies (Spahr <em>et al.</em> 1991).
6090		population	eng	Counts by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources in 2004 yielded a population estimate of approximately 8,000 adults (USFWS, http://mountain-prairie.fws.gov/species/mammals/utprairiedog/). On a broad scale, USFWS (1991) mapped about two dozen subpopulations (distinct patches of occupied habitat).<br/><br/>According to USFWS (1990), the total population increased to 9,200 adults in spring 1989. The range continued to expand in the early 1990s as a result of transplantation and natural population increase; this increase may have resulted from recent mild winters in Utah; population densities in the early 1990s were "increasing to a point where a crash is imminent due to an outbreak of plague" (USFWS 1990). Range-wide spring survey counts conducted by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources in the spring of 2004 found 4,022 adults, which represents approximately half of the total population. Hence the current population size is similar to that in 1989.<br/><br/>Population in 1920 (before control programs) was estimated at 95,000 (USFWS 1990). Currently the adult population size is thought to be fewer than 10,000. Historical area of occupancy has declined from about 1,800 square kilometers historically to only about 28 square kilometers today.<br/><br/>Population densities are extremely variable, ranging from a mean of less than 2.5/ha to more than 74/ha (Pizzimenti and Collier 1975).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>Population in 1920 (before control programs) has been estimated at 95,000 (USFWS 1990). Currently the adult population size is thought to be fewer than 10,000. Historical area of occupancy has declined from about 1,800 square kilometers historically to only about 28 square kilometers today.
6090		threats	eng	The major historical decline was primarily a result of intensive poisoning efforts. For example, in 1971, poisoning "annihilated" one of the few remaining large colonies (near Loa, Wayne County) (Pizzimenti and Collier 1975). In 1972, the largest colony (Enoch, Iron County) was reduced from more than 1,000 individuals to fewer than 50, apparently from poisoning (Pizzimenti and Collier 1975).<br/><br/>Recent threats include habitat destruction resulting from residential and agricultural development on private lands, deliberate (illegal) poisoning and shooting by ranchers and farmers concerned about agricultural damage, and plague outbreaks (Hoogland <em>et al.</em> 2004). Plague has caused major declines in various populations over the past several decades. Grasslands are becoming dominated by sagebrush due to livestock grazing (K. McDonald pers. comm., 1995); shrubby habitats provide poor conditions for prairie dogs. Drought may reduce prairie dog food resources and cause population declines in colonies on drier sites.
6091		conservation	eng	Many colonies are in national parks, state parks, and other protected lands, most of which prohibit prairie dog control/eradication. However, few colonies are provided protection, even in parks. Large, core occurrences need protection from population control.<br/><br/>Inventories are needed range-wide, and they should determine locations and sizes of colonies, ownership, and the presence of plague.<br/><br/>Of primary concern is the long-term viability of colonies in relation to size and distance to nearby colonies. Additionally, research into prairie dog genetics is needed to determine if currently reduced populations and habitat fragmentation are causing damaging levels of inbreeding.
6091		distribution	eng	This is primarily a Great Plains species, originally occurring from extreme southern Saskatchewan in Canada (Frenchman River Valley), and Montana south through the western and central Great Plains to the desert grasslands of western Texas, New Mexico, southeastern Arizona (formerly) in the United States, and northeastern Sonora, and northern Chihuahua in Mexico (Koford 1958). The species is now extirpated from southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and locally in many other areas throughout its range.
6091		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of dry, flat or gently sloping, open grasslands with low, relatively sparse vegetation, including areas overgrazed by cattle. The species occurs in open vacant lots at town edges in some areas. Young are born in underground burrows. <br/><br/>Habitat includes all major grassland types - short, mixed and tall; most abundant and an important community member in the Mixed Grass Prairie and Short Grass Plains associations (Carpenter 1940, in Osborn 1942). Tallgrass prairie habitat is mainly areas where wild or domestic ungulates or other disturbance has reduced the stature of the tallgrass; prairie dogs maintain the vegetation in a low stature.<br/><br/>Fine to medium textured soils are preferred (Koford 1958), presumably because burrows and other structures tend to retain their shape and strength better than in coarse, loose soils. However, sandy soils often support larger, coarser graminoids with lower forage quality; prairie dogs may avoid these forages and thus associated sandy areas. Colonies commonly are found on silty clay loams, sandy clay loams, and loams (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 1986). Encroachment into sands (e.g., loamy fine sand) occurs if the habitat is needed for colony expansion (Osborn 1942). <br/><br/>By colonizing areas with low vegetative stature, prairie dogs often select areas with past human (as well as animal) disturbance. In North Dakota and Montana, colonies tended to be associated with areas heavily used by cattle, such as water tanks and long-term supplemental feeding sites (Licht and Sanchez 1993).<br/><br/>Breeding system is harem-polygamous, with most females copulating with one male and males with several females (Hoogland and Folts 1982). Litter size typically averages about four. Individual females produce one litter per year.
6091		population	eng	The total population size in the early 2000s was estimated at between 3,684,000 and 33,156,000; using average density figures, the estimated population was 18,420,000 (USFWS 2004). <br/><br/>This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Most occurrences are represented by relatively small populations, and it is unknown how many are viable in the long term, but certainly there are at least several dozen occurrences with good viability.<br/><br/>Currently, the species is declining in some areas, increasing in others; overall trend at present is probably stable or slightly decreasing, with a long-term outlook of slow decline (USFWS 2002). A small stable population exists in Canada (USFWS 2004). Range and abundance appear to be relatively stable in Mexico in recent decades (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Area of occupancy has been reduced from about 40 million hectares historically to about 766,400 hectares (USFWS 2004), a decline of about 98 per cent. Range contractions have occurred in the southwestern portion of the range in Arizona, western New Mexico, and western Texas through conversion of grasslands to desert shrublands; in the eastern portion of the range, range contractions are largely due to habitat destruction through cropland development in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Texas (USFWS 2004). Approximately 37 per cent of the historical habitat has been converted to cropland, now generally unavailable due to continuous disturbance. <br/><br/>Prairie dog towns formerly were much larger than at present. For example, one town in central Oklahoma stretched 35 km (Tyler 1968). In 1998, maximum town size in Oklahoma was 427 ha; length 2.1 km) (Lomolino and Smith 2001).<br/><br/>Density of prairie dogs fluctuates within and between years according to colony demographics, environmental conditions, forage availability, and soil and/or vegetation sites within towns (Koford 1958). Typical adult densities are about 12 per hectare (Koford 1958).
6091		threats	eng	Threats fall into four main categories. 1) Exotic disease, particularly sylvatic plague (<em>Yersinia pestis</em>) to which prairie dogs are highly susceptible. 2) Loss of habitat to agriculture and urbanization. 3) Habitat fragmentation and its many effects. 4) Control activities by government, private organizations, and individuals via poisoning and shooting. <br/><br/>EXOTIC SPECIES/DISEASE: Sylvatic plague was introduced to North America around 1899 (Cully 1989) and first reported in black-tailed prairie dogs from Texas in the mid-1940s (Reading <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a serious threat given its pervasiveness and efficacy, as it can kill more than 99% of prairie dogs in a colony (Cully 1989), and numbers do not appear to fully recover (USFWS 2002). Though prairie dogs have persisted in the presence of plague since about 1900 and prairie dog numbers are high given habitat loss and control efforts, plague is still of concern to local populations and for long-term persistence. Plague is not well documented in black-tailed prairie dogs across their range though there is no reason to believe that plague is not as significant in black-tailed as it is in white-tailed prairie dogs (Cully 1992). On large areas originally selected as possible ferret reintroduction sites, declines of up to 90 per cent from about 1985-2000 are "generally attributed to sylvatic plague" (USFWS 2000). Only about 10 percent of the historical range is both plague-free and available (not cropland) (USFWS 2000). Widespread outbreaks in 2001 may indicate the beginning of an 'up' cycle in plague occurrence (USFWS 2002). The significance of plague in range-wide prairie dog mortality is unclear, though experts agree that where plague occurs it is extremely important in population dynamics (Cully 1992). Plague may be introduced into a colony by other species or by dispersing prairie dogs, which bring plague-ridden fleas into a colony.<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) noted that: (1) High exposure doses of plague bacilli may be necessary for disease contraction in some individuals; (2) limited immune response has been observed in some individuals; (3) a population dynamic may have developed in low-density, isolated populations that contributes to the persistence of these populations; (4) the apparent ability of some sites to recover to pre-plague levels after a plague epizootic; and (5) approximately one-third of the species' historic range has not been affected by plague. Based on this and on recent estimates of occupied habitat, USFWS (2004) concluded that plague no longer appears to be as significant a threat as previously thought and that plague in combination with other factors is not likely to cause the black-tailed prairie dog to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION: Habitat loss has been an important factor in prairie dog declines in the past. Cheatheam (1977) estimated that about 36% of the land area in regions used by prairie dogs was covered by water developments, urban expansion, cropland, and improved pasture. Similarly, Bishop and Culbertson (1976) detected extensive colony loss on river terraces as a result of farming activities. Conversion of native prairie to farmland does not necessarily represent habitat loss to prairie dogs, but farmers will not tolerate prairie dogs in their fields (Merriam 1902). Similarly, prairie dogs prosper in empty urban lots and fields, yet this is not often tolerated given the plague risk. However, in New Mexico, urban (Gunnison's) prairie dogs are often allowed to remain because colony fleas are killed instead. Still, developments that destroy patches of grassland (e.g., roads, buildings, water impoundments) result in loss of potential prairie dog habitat and restriction of area for colony expansion.  <br/><br/>USFWS (2004) concluded that present or threatened habitat destruction is not a threat to the species, although considerable effects due to this factor have occurred in the past. Additionally, USFWS concluded that present or threatened habitat modification as it relates to plague is not a significant threat to the species.<br/><br/>CONTROL: Control by humans, interacting with low forage production, is probably the main cause of loss of the prairie dog from the more arid parts of its range, including southwest New Mexico and southeast Arizona (Cully 1992) and Texas (see map in Cheatheam 1977). For most of the 20th century, Animal Damage Control, its forerunners, and other control agencies worked hard to eliminate prairie dogs over wide areas (Cully 1992). Towns were poisoned primarily with strychnine and zinc-phosphide baits (e.g., oats mixed with rodenticide). Poisoning was immediately followed up with extermination of any remaining living prairie dogs (Cully 1992). Indeed, control efforts, with some help from plague, resulted in a reduction in prairie dog acreage from 700,000,000 to 1,500,000 in 1971 (Cain <em>et al.</em> 1971, in Fagerstone and Biggins 1986; Cully 1989). Today prairie dog poisoning efforts are limited to local, problem populations and entail control, not extermination. Public control agencies, including ADC, do very little prairie dog control work, as most control is practiced by land managers. These agencies do provide technical information and assistance, however.<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) acknowledged extant and potentially significant local population reductions due to chemical control of prairie dogs but concluded that impacts due to this factor are not a threat to the extent that the species could become endangered in the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) acknowledged that recreational shooting can reduce population densities at specific sites and that extirpation possibly may have occurred in isolated circumstances due to this factor. However, USFWS noted that populations can recover from very low numbers following intensive recreational shooting and therefore concluded that effects due to recreational shooting do not constitute a significant threat.<br/><br/>Distribution, abundance, and trend data indicate that inadequate regulatory mechanisms are not limiting black-tailed prairie dog populations at present, nor are they likely to within the foreseeable future (USFWS 2004).
6103		conservation	eng	Other than further taxonomic studies, no conservation actions are currently needed for the species as a whole. It is present in many protected areas throughout its range. In South Asia, this species like most other fruit bats in India is considered a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka and Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and in Hakgalla National Park in Sri Lanka.
6103		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from South Asia, through parts of southern China to parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) (Sarker and Sarker 2005; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (North Central, Uva and Western provinces) (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press; Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). In southern China, it has been recorded from Guangdong, with possible records from Xizang (Medog) and southern Yunnan (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). In continental Southeast Asia, it is known from southern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam (identity of records from northern Viet Nam need verification), Cambodia (known only from Phnom Phen [G. Csorba pers. comm.]), and Peninsular Malaysia. In Insular Southeast Asia, it is known from the islands of Sumatra and Java (Indonesia), Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia only), the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), the Talaud Islands (Indonesia) and Ternate Island (Indonesia). It might be present on the island of Palawan in the Philippines, but this requires confirmation.
6103		habitat	eng	This species can be found from habitats ranging from orchards, gardens to forested tracts. It roosts in palms especially seed clusters of palms either solitary or in small groups of a few individuals in rural and urban landscapes and in forested areas. Bears a single young after a gestation period of 105-120 days (Bates and Harrison 1997). In South Asia, the species is believed to be more restricted to higher elevations when compared to <em>C. sphinx</em>, making it specifically a hill forest species.
6103		population	eng	In northeast India, the population is stable and it is common but not as abundant as <em>Cynopterus sphinx</em> (Tarapada Bhattacharyya pers. comm. June 2005), while in southern India it is rare (C. Srinvasulu pers. comm. September, 2007). In Southeast Asia, it is generally locally abundant and most common in disturbed and residential areas, however, is locally rare in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2004).
6103		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
6104		conservation	eng	Isolated populations from Thailand need to be examined taxonomically (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
6104		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Lesser Sunda Islands, and adjacent small islands in Indonesia. It has also been recorded from Bali, Lombok, Simelue and Nias (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
6104		habitat	eng	It is found in many habitats in Indonesia but only pristine forests in Thailand. In Malaysia it has been found in agricultural areas, suburban parks, fruit orchards and secondary forest as well as good forest (Campbell and Kunst, 2006). They have a harem social structure, and are highly gregarious when roosting in caves, but are found in smaller groups when roosting in forests. It makes tent roosts.
6104		population	eng	This species is common in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm.), but locally rare in northern and western Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
6104		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Deforestation is a threat in Thailand, but elsewhere this species adapts to disturbed habitats.
6105		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.
6105		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Indonesia on Bali, Lombok, Moyo, Sumbawa, Sangeang, Komodo, Flores, Sumba, Adonara, Lembata, Pantar, Alor, and Wetar Islands (Simmons 2005). It has also been collected in West Timor (D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm.). The type locality of is Desa Belo (8°52'S, 116°50'E), at around 40 m asl, Jerewah, west Sumbawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia.
6105		habitat	eng	It is found in disturbed habitats and secondary forests up to 100 m asl. There is very little additional information available for this species.
6105		population	eng	The species is common throughout its range.
6105		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6106		conservation	eng	As it is present in many protected areas and is very adaptable, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species like most other fruit bats in India is considered a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from protected areas in India like Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh. Taxonomic studies, population monitoring and lobbying with the government to accord it a non-vermin status are recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Molecular taxonomic studies to know the variations in the population are recommended (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 10 October, 2007).
6106		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from much of South Asia, through southern China, most of mainland and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Dhaka, Khulna and Rajsahi divisions), Bhutan (Phuntsholing), India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central, Eastern, Far Western and Western Nepal), Pakistan (Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 400 m asl distributed widely in the region.  In southern China, it is found from Tibet to Fujian (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia to Peninsular Malaysia, and from here it occurs in Indonesia (the Mentawai Islands, Sumatra, western Java, Bali, Sumbawa and Sulawesi) and southern Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia]).
6106		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats from rural areas, primary and secondary forested habitats to urban landscapes. It is found as small colonies consisting of 3-7 individuals, sometimes more; it roosts underside leaves, in flower and fruit clusters of Kitul Palm, on Saraka asoka trees and is known to build tents in the roosting trees. It feeds on a variety of fruits both wild and cultivated. It has a low but fast flight. It breeds twice a year, and in some areas is known to breed throughout the year and bears a single young (Bates and Harrison 1997).
6106		population	eng	This is a widespread and very common species. In South Asia, it is considered to be more adaptable than <em>C. brachyotis</em>, and the population of <em>C. sphinx </em>seems to be stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. September, 2007).
6106		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened in parts of its range through deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agriculture and for construction of dams and other developmental activities. It is also under threat due to hunting for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it is a pest species of orchards and is hunted for food in some parts of the range. In China, there is some habitat loss and the species is hunted for medicinal purposes.
6107		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed in to the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
6107		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Timor, and adjacent small islands.
6107		habitat	eng	It is tolerant of a broad range of habitats, including secondary and disturbed habitats. It was observed roosting in an old building (U. Sinaga pers. comm.).
6107		population	eng	The population is stable but it is uncommon throughout its range.
6107		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
6135		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Apalachicola  River drainage area in the southeastern US.
6139		distribution	eng	Recorded from tributaries of the lower Rio Grande, including Pecos and Devils rivers (Texas, US); Las Moras, Pinto, and San Felipe creeks (western Texas, US); and Rio San Carlos (Coahuila, Mexico). The species may have occurred in the upper Pecos before aridity in the area increased (Mayden 1989).
6154		conservation	eng	This species' range lies within a Ramsar site: Laguna de Chichankanab.  It has also been listed as threatened by SEDESOL (1994).
6154		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in Laguna Chichancanab, a complex of inland freshwater lakes following a fault line, near the centre of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.  Laguna Chichancanab has a surface area of 7.5km².
6154		habitat	eng	<em>C. labiosus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits lakes, in clear to brownish water, with hard or soft substrates.
6154		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
6154		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by several factors, including the impacts of tilapia breeding (introduced in 1988) and by the poorly planned development of touristic activities. Pesticides and fertilizers used on surrounding agricultural lands can drain into the lagoon. An enlargement of agricultural land will increase deforestation, and possibly siltation in the lagoon (Ramsar 2004).
6164		conservation	eng	This species was once thought to be extinct, but has since been identified in a few, small refugia in eastern California. There are approximately five remaining occurences of this species, with only a few of these adequately protected. Recovery plans need to protect all five populations with at least 500 overwintering individuals, from all potential threats.<br/><br/><em>Cyprinodon radiosus</em> was previously assessed as Endangered (criterion A2ce) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.
6164		distribution	eng	This pupfish is endemic to the Owens Valley, California, from Fish Slough and its springs (Mono County) near Bishop downstream to Owens Lake (Inyo County), including springs around the lake (Moyle 2002). It is now confined to several special refuges in the Owens Valley (Bolster 1990, Mire 1993, Moyle 2002). This species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence less than 5,000 km².
6164		habitat	eng	This pupfish was once abundant in shallow, clear, warm (about 10–25°C) sloughs, spring pools, irrigation ditches, marshes with emergent bullrushes and <em>Chara</em> mats, and flooded pastures along the Owens River (Lee<em> et al</em>. 1980, Moyle 2002). Now it occurs mostly in deep pools and shallows of artificially created refugia (Bolster 1990). It needs good quality water, aquatic vegetation, and a silt- or sand-covered bottom. Males establish spawning territories around rocks or vegetation where adhesive eggs can be laid and guarded. Females avoid male territories except when ready to spawn. Spawning substrate includes silty bottoms, submerged plants, algal clumps, rocks, or crevices, at depths up to 2 m (Moyle 2002). Larvae and juveniles stay close to the substrate (Moyle 2002). In early morning and late afternoon, mixed aggregations of 10–20 males and females swarm throughout the habitat, foraging by picking invertebrates and detritus from rocks and vegetation (Mire 1993). Hatching time is 6 days at an air temperature range of 24–27°C (Mire and Millet 1994).
6164		population	eng	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). As of the beginning of the 21st century, this species was regarded as stable in only two of five refuges (Moyle 2002), but they remained threatened because these sites require active, ongoing management to keep the habitat favourable for pupfishes and to keep out alien species (Moyle 2002).<br/><br/>See Minckley <em>et al.</em> (1991) for a fairly detailed account of the historical status of this species.<br/><br/>The existing population is descended from fewer than 1,000 individuals rescued from a drying habitat in 1969 (Pister pers. comm.).
6164		threats	eng	Population declines observed in this species, have been attributed to water diversion and subsequent habitat alteration (loss of seasonally flooded shallows along the Owens River), and competition with, and predation by, introduced species. Current threats include introduced species [Largemouth Bass (which eliminated pupfish from the Owens Valley Native Fishes Sanctuary and BLM Spring; Moyle 2002), mosquitofish, bullfrogs, crayfish], encroaching vegetation (cattails, tules, and other emergent plants), and habitat degradation (including vandalism). All populations are in small, artificial situations, vulnerable to stochastic fluctuations.
6178		conservation	eng	The “Regulations on the Management of Dianchi Lake” indicates that the lake is closed to fishing in the season when this species is breeding.
6178		distribution	eng	Only ever known from Lake Dianchi and it tributaries. It may now only survive in Songhuaba Reservior.
6178		habitat	eng	It stays mostly in calm water with plenty of waterweeds. It feeds on  miscellaneous food but primarily on aquatic insects, small shrimps etc. It  spawns from May to July at the littoral zone on mud and sand. Its growth is slow  (Wu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Yang and Chen 1994, Yue and Chen 1998).
6178		population	eng	There is no record of this species in past few decades from Lake Dianchi.&#160; It was a common commercial species in the 1960s, but it has not been caught in the main lake or been found in any fish market around the lake for about 20 years. It may survive in Songhuaba Reservior but the population size is unknown.
6178		threats	eng	The reproduction and growth rate of <em>Cyprinus micristius</em> is low. The  pollution of the lake water, overfishing and the introduction of alien fish  species has caused a sharp decline in the species population.
6179		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
6179		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Yilong Lake, Yunnan, southern China. The species was first described in 1977, from specimens collected in 1963-4.
6179		habitat	eng	Previously recorded from a lake.
6179		population	eng	The species is thought to be extinct. The lake was surveyed in 1983-84 (W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011), and the species was not recorded. Recent surveys by the Kunming Institute of Technology have also not   found the species (W.&#160; Zhou pers. comm, 2011). No live specimens exist  in captivity.
6179		threats	eng	Overfishing depleted populations of the species.<span class="shorttext"> The water level of the lake declined since the 1950s. In 1981 the lake completely dried up (for about 20 days) as a result of water&#160;abstraction&#160;for agriculture. The lake is also polluted by increased organic pollution caused by sedimentation from the surrounding catchment.  Urbanisation and pollution from agriculture are also threats.
6180		distribution	eng	Confined to the Danube River and its tributaries.
6181		conservation	eng	More research is needed into the threats to species
6181		conservation	eng	No information.
6181		distribution	eng	Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins. Introduced throughout the world. Cultivated in large quantities for human food and stocked for sport fishing.<br/><br/>In Europe, <em>C. carpio</em> has apparently been domesticated since the Middle Ages and cultivated stocks are assumed to be derived from the wild form of the Danube. Wild stocks occur naturally only in rivers draining to the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. <em>C. carpio</em> is widely cultivated worldwide, but in fact many cultivated stocks (and most of the Asian ones) belong to several other East Asian species. One of them, <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> (often erroneously referred to as <em>C. carpio haematopterus</em>) is cultivated in several eastern European countries and has been introduced to Russia and Ukraine. It is not known whether it has become established there. In western Europe, Japanese ornamental varieties (kois) possibly derived from <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> or of hybrid origin occasionally escape from ponds. Wild <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> are distinguished from wild <em>C. carpio</em> by having 29-33 + 2-3 lateral line scales (vs. 33-37 + 2-3), 18-22½ branched dorsal rays (vs. 17-20½), body silvery with red pelvic, anal and lower caudal lobe (vs. grey to bronze).
6181		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Warm, deep, slow-flowing and still waters, such as lowland rivers and large, well vegetated lakes. Introduced in all types of water bodies. Spawns along shores or in backwaters. Successful survival of larvae only in very warm water, among shallow submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 3-5 years, females at 4-6. Lives up to 50 years and usually spawns every year. Age of maturity is related to latitude and altitude. Spawns in May-June at temperatures above 18°C. Adults often make considerable spawning migrations to suitable backwaters and flooded meadows. Individual females spawn with a few males in dense vegetation. The sticky eggs are attached to water plants or other submerged objects. Larvae and juveniles inhabit warm and shallow flooded river margins or backwaters, feeding mostly on very small zooplankton (rotifers). Reproductive success is restricted to years when the water level starts rising in May and when high temperatures and flooding of terrestrial vegetation last for a long period during May and June. Juveniles and adults feeds on a wide variety of benthic organisms and plant material. Most active during dusk and dawn. Very tolerant of low oxygen concentrations.
6181		population	eng	Within its native range the species is thought to be abundant.
6181		population	eng	Within its native range the species is thought to be abundant but pure populations are very rarely distinguished from hybrids or domesticated and semi-domesticated populations.
6181		threats	eng	River regulation (they require flooded areas to spawn) and hybridisation with introduced stocks is a major threat.
6182		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3Q - Imperilled to Vulnerable, but with questionable taxonomy which may reduce conservation status) (NatureServe 2009), an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened (1 Jan 1993, Williams <em>et al.</em>&#160;in press, from Cummings pers. comm. 2011), and a previous IUCN Red List Category of Endangered (1996 ver 2.3) (Bogan 1996). This species is also listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Appendix II.<br/><br/>Few occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed. One occurrence in Kansas is protected by the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. In southeastern Kansas, this species is protected from commercial harvest in the Verdigris River Freshwater Mussel Refuge (Miller 1993).<br/><br/>A current taxonomic challenge to this species was brought about by a phylogenetic analysis indicating this species is not a monophyletic group and may comprise two and possibly five distinct taxa, one of which includes the federally endangered <em>Cyprogenia stegaria</em> (Serb 2006). Serb (2006) recommends that the Arkansas, Black, and White drainages be managed as separate units for conservation. Conservation management plans for the Ouachita River system will be more complicated, because Ouachita populations contain two distantly related and genetically distinct lineages.<br/><br/>Further research is recommended into the taxonomy of this species, so that conservation efforts can be better directed.
6182		distribution	eng	This species has been revised taxonomically which has resulted in its distribution being drastically reduced. It is found in the highlands west of the Mississippi River in the Arkanssas river drainage (Turgeon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Serb 2006, Graf and Cummings 2007) and is only known from a few severely fragmented localities in Big Piney Creek (Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and Point Remove Creek (University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology 2003 - Collection No. 98754). Although its overall range stretches more than 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>, it has a very discontinuous distribution.
6182		habitat	eng	This species is found in gravel, and soft mud bottoms in medium sized rivers in flowing water only (NatureServe 2009). It is generally confined to shallow riffles and runs in predominantly clean, moderately compacted gravel-sand substrata (Obermeyer <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>The fish hosts for this species include: the Banded Sculpin (<em>Cottus carolinae</em>), Log Perch (<em>Percina caprodes</em>), Fantail Darter (<em>Etheostoma flabellare</em>) and possibly the Goldfish (<em>Carassius auratus</em>) (Obermeyer <em>et al.</em> 1997).
6182		population	eng	This species is native to the Arkansas River system in Arkansas (Obermeyer <em>et al.</em> 1997) and is known only from approximately 20 localities in Big Piney Creek (Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and Point Remove Creek (University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology 2003 - Collection No. 98754) though these may be different species (Corderio pers.comm 2011)  and are in decline.
6182		threats	eng	The species is threatened by impoundments and channelisation, gravel mining, agricultural practices (resulting in siltation and organic inputs), and the spread of the Zebra Mussel (<em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>) which now occurs in the Arkansas River drainage. Obermeyer (2000) found a reduction in the overall range associated with habitat loss due to large impoundments.<br/><br/>St. Francois, Reynolds, and Iron Counties in Missouri are located within the Southeast Missouri Lead Mining District, an area that was mined extensively for lead and zinc for more than a century. As a result of this, large amounts of metals which are toxic to this species, including cadmium, lead, zinc, and nickel were released and are continuing to be released into Missouri's environment (Mosby<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Weber<em></em> 2009).
6189		conservation	eng	The species is protected under French law. It is found in places with large granite rocks and this habitat is protected in Corsica.
6189		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyrnotheba corsica</span> is endemic to Corsica (France), where it is found in the whole island.
6189		habitat	eng	It is a ground-dwelling species that is found under leaf litter and prefers humid places. It occurs in forest fringes, open forest and generally under trees including moderately disturbed habitats.
6189		population	eng	The species is found at many sites, but the populations have very few individuals and the trend is unknown. In the last ten years the species has been systematically mapped. The number of currently known sites is ca. 50 localities.
6189		threats	eng	Cutting of the forest and fires destroy the habitat of the species as it reduces the leaf litter available and affects the humidity conditions. Pesticide and herbicide application might locally affect the populations as it is toxic for the species and they dry out.
6204		conservation	eng	Numerous conservation measures, international management plans, harvest quotas, and agreements and treaties, have been developed for the conservation of hooded seals dating back to the 1870s.  Molting seals in the Denmark Strait have received complete protection since 1961. Harvest quotas at Jan Mayen began in 1971, hunting was banned from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in 1972, and quotas were placed on the rest of the Canadian harvest beginning in 1974. A European Economic Community ban on importation of all seal products in 1985 reduced the harvest of blue-back hooded seals through loss of the primary market for the furs (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992). In addition to establishing quotas, several countries place observers on commercial fishing boats, and monitor subsistence harvests.
6204		conservation	eng	Numerous conservation measures, international management plans, harvest quotas, and agreements and treaties, have been developed for the conservation of Hooded Seals dating back to the 1870s. Moulting seals in the Denmark Strait have been protected since 1961. Harvest quotas at Jan Mayen began in 1971. Hunting was banned in the Gulf of St Lawrence in 1972 and quotas were placed on the rest of the Canadian harvest beginning in 1974. A European Economic Community ban on importation on seal products in 1985 reduced the harvest of blueback Hooded Seals through the loss of the primary market for the furs (Lavigne and Kovacs 1986, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992).
6204		distribution	eng	Hooded Seals are found at high latitudes within the North Atlantic; seasonally they extend their range north into the Arctic Ocean, as well as south into the North Sea in the Northeast Atlantic. They breed on pack ice and are associated with it much of the year, though they spend significant periods of time pelagically, without hauling out (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988, Folkow and Blix 1999). There are four major pupping areas: near the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St Lawrence, north of Newfoundland in an area known as the “Front,” the Davis Strait (Sergeant 1974) and in the West Ice in the Greenland Sea near the island of Jan Mayen. Hooded Seals wander extensively sometimes; young animals have come ashore as far south as Portugal and the Canary Islands in Europe and south into the Caribbean in the West Atlantic (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986). They are increasingly common in recent years on Sable Island and along the New England coast (Harris <em>et al</em>. 2001, Lucas and Daoust 2002). They have also been found outside the Atlantic in the eastern Beaufort Sea and an adult female stranded in southern California in 1992 (Dudley 1992, Rice 1998, Kovacs 2002). Since the mid 1990s large numbers of vagrant Hooded Seals have been found away from the Arctic in some years; the numbers of these sightings are increasing for unknown reasons (Mignucci-Giannoni and Haddow 2002, Harris and Gupta 2006).
6204		distribution	eng	Hooded seals are found in the Arctic Ocean and in high latitudes of the North Atlantic. They breed on pack ice and are associated with it for most of their lives, shifting their distribution with seasonal fluctuations in ice cover (Sergeant 1974). There are four major pupping areas: near the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, north of Newfoundland and east of Labrador in an area known as the “Front”, the Davis Strait, and near Jan Mayen (Reeves and Ling 1981). Hooded seals wander widely, and animals have beached as far south as Portugal and the Canary Islands in Europe, and from New England south to several islands in the Caribbean, in the Americas. Since the mid 1990s large numbers of wandering vagrants have been found away from the Arctic in some years, and the numbers of these sightings are increasing for unknown reasons (Mignucci-Giannoni and Haddow 2002).
6204		habitat	eng	Hooded Seals are a markedly sexually dimorphic ice-breeding pinniped. Adult male hooded seals average 2.5 m in length and 300 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986), with large animals reaching over 400 kg (Kovacs 2002). Adult females are smaller, averaging 2.2 m and 160 kg, but can reach 300 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992). Pups are born at approximately 1 m in length and 24 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals pup on pack ice in mid March. The breeding season for this polygynous species is very short, usually lasting only about 2.5 weeks, and mating takes place in the water (Boness <em>et al</em>. 1988, Kovacs 1990). This species has the shortest lactation period for any mammal, with most pups being weaned in four days (Bowen <em>et al</em>. 1985). Pups weigh an average of 48 kg at weaning in the Northwest stocks (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992, Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 1997). The short reproductive period is energetically advantageous to both males and females, with relative losses in body mass being small for both sexes compared to other phocid seals (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992, Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals moult in July, with each breeding stock congregating at a separate, traditional site, north of their whelping areas. If mixing does occur, the degree to which this takes place is unknown. Following the moulting period each stock disperses in the North Atlantic; movement patterns are only documented for the Greenland Sea stock (Folkow and Blix 1995, 1999, Folkow <em>et al</em>. 1996). Apart from the breeding and moulting periods where Hooded Seals form loose aggregations in specific areas, it is thought that hooded seals live quite solitary lives. However, little is in fact known about them outside the periods when they congregate. Groups of females with young animals have been seen at the northern ice edge in summer, but it is not known whether the groups were socially facilitated or solely the result of concentrations of prey (Kovacs pers. Obs.). Hooded seal longevity is 25-30 years (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals are very capable divers that spend extensive periods at sea without hauling out (Folkow and Blix 1999). Most of their dives are from 100-600 m in depth and last 5-25 minutes, however, very deep dives to over 1,000 m and dives lasting almost an hour have been recorded (Folkow <em>et al</em>. 1996, Lydersen <em>et al</em>. Unpubl. Data). Hooded Seals feed on a wide variety of fish and invertebrates, including species that occur throughout the water column. Examples of typical prey are <em>Parathemisto</em>, Greenland halibut, members of the cod family such as Polar and Atlantic Cod, redfishes (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.), sand eels, herring, capelin, squid (e.g. <em>Gonatus fabricii</em>), and shrimp (Haug <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2007).<br/><br/>Polar Bears and Killer Whales are known Hooded Seall predators (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988); Greenland Sharks might also take young Hooded Seals.
6204		habitat	eng	Hooded seals are markedly sexually dimorphic pinnipeds. Adult male hooded seals average 2.5 m in length and 300 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986), with very large animals reaching over 400 kg (Kovacs 2002).  Adult females are smaller, averaging 2.2 m and 160 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986), but can reach 300 kg (Reeves and Ling 1981). Pups are born at approximately 1 m in length and 25 kg (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Hooded seals pup on pack ice in March and early April. The breeding season for this polygynous species is very short, usually lasting about two weeks, and mating takes place in the water (Boness <em>et al.</em> 1988).  This species has the shortest lactation period for any mammal, with most pups being weaned in four days at an average weight of 42.6 kg (Bowen <em>et al.</em> 1985).  <br/><br/>Most animals congregate in the Denmark Strait or north of Jan Mayen for a post-breeding molt in early summer, followed by dispersal in the North Atlantic (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986).  With the exception of the breeding and molting periods where they form short-lived, loose aggregations in specific areas, hooded seals live solitary lives that can last 25-30 years (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Hooded seals are capable divers and spend approximately 90% of their time at sea submerged. The majority of dives are from 100-600 m in depth and last 5-25 minutes, however, very deep dives to over 1,000 m and others lasting almost an hour have been recorded (Lavigne and Kovacs 2002).  Although their diet is not well known, hooded seals have been reported to feed on a wide variety of fish and invertebrates, including species that occur throughout the water column.  Examples of typical prey are Greenland halibut, cods such as polar and Atlantic cod, redfishes (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.), herring, capelin, squid, and shrimp (Reeves and Ling 1981, Kovacs and Lavigne 1986).  Polar bears, killer whales, and Greenland sharks are known hooded seal predators (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).
6204		population	eng	Aerial surveys carried out at all three whelping areas in the Northwest Atlantic in 2005 produced an estimate of 116,900 pups born. The whole population, modelled based on the pup counts, produced an estimate of 592,000 individuals (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005). This suggests a moderate increase both in pup production and population size between the mid 1980s and 2005 (Hammill and Stenson 2006, 2007). Hooded Seals in the northeast Atlantic are showing an opposite trend. Pup production estimated for the Greenland Sea stock (West ice, near Jan Mayen) in 2005 was 15 250 pups, which in turn produces an estimate of total population size of about 70,000 animals (Øigård and Haug 2007, Salberg <em>et al</em>. 2008). This population estimate for the northeast Atlantic stock is 10-15% of the level observed some 60 years ago. Pup production estimated for this hooded seal whelping area in 1997 was 24,000. The cause of the significant, on-going decline in this population is unknown. But, concern for the apparent problems facing this stock has lead to the closure of hunting in recent years and the listing of this stock in the Norwegian Red List as Vulnerable (www.artsdatabanken.no).
6204		population	eng	The current worldwide population of hooded seals is unknown. From the 1950s to the 1980s various estimates were published giving a population from 300,000-600,000 animals.  However, the methods used to generate these past estimates are poorly documented and the estimates are considered unreliable (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986). Counts of pups born in the western Atlantic breeding areas have been used to extrapolate an estimate of approximately 400,000-450,000 animals for the Front and Gulf of Saint Lawrence herds (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005). Using similar methods, the Jan Mayen stock has been estimated at 200,000 animals (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).
6204		threats	eng	Hooded seals were subjected to episodes of intense commercial hunting in the 19th and 20th centuries. Harvests were often conducted in association with harp seal harvests and commercial fisheries for Greenland sharks. Norway, the Soviet Union, Canada, and Greenland have been principally involved in the commercial harvests. Following World War II this was primarily focused on newborns, because of their highly prized blue-back pelt, however, many adults females were taken when defending their pups. Annual harvests of hooded seals continue in Canada and Greenland (Lavigne and Kovacs 2002).   <br/><br/>In 1985 a permanent import ban on hooded seal pelts by the European Union ended most of the commercial harvesting of this species, although Canada took approximately 26,000 as recently as 1996. Hooded seals are also taken by Native People of Greenland and Canada for subsistence purposes every year (Kovacs 2002).  Bycatch of hooded seals in coastal net fisheries has been reported from the United States, from trawl fisheries off Norway and Newfoundland, and salmon drift nets used off Greenland (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992, Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005, Woodley and Lavigne 1991). Competition for food with commercial fisheries and other predators has been suggested as a factor that may limit population growth or lead to declines (Reijnders <em>et al. </em>1993).<br/><br/>Impacts of oil spills on hooded seals have not been reported; however as an ice breeding species, they might be at risk of mortality from spills during the pupping season when newborn and newly weaned pups could be fouled (St. Aubin 1990). Hooded seals did not suffer fatalities during the mass die-off of harbour seals in European waters from phocine distemper virus in 1998 and 2002. Subsequent testing of a variety of Arctic seals revealed antibodies to the virus in 18-24% percent of the hooded seals sampled indicating exposure and transmission of the virus (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>The hooded seal is an Arctic pack ice species dependent on ice as a substrate for pupping, molting, and resting, and as such is vulnerable to reduction in extent or timing of pack ice formation and retreat. The productivity of the ice edge ecosystem is also dependent on the dynamics and seasonality of Arctic ice, and alteration of the cycle of formation and retreat could have negative effects on important hooded seal prey such as Arctic cod (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Decreases in sea ice cover could also lead to more shipping and development of extraction based industries in the Arctic which in turn could negatively affect hooded seals through increased exposure to contaminants and pollution, increased disturbance, and increased risk of shipping accidents and spills (Pagnan 2000).
6204		threats	eng	Hooded Seals were subjected to intense commercial hunting in the 19th and 20th centuries. Harvests were often conducted in association with Harp Seal harvests and commercial fisheries for Greenland Sharks. Norway, the former Soviet Union, Canada, and Greenland have all been involved in the commercial harvests of this species. Following World War II the hunt was primarily focused on pups because of their highly prized blue-back pelt, however, many adult females were taken when defending their pups (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). The number of Hooded Seals in the northwest Atlantic is relatively well known. Pup production estimates have been repeatedly conducted, and TAC (total allowable catch) adjusted through time (e.g. Sergeant 1976, Hay <em>et al</em>. 1985, Bowen <em>et al</em>. 1987, Hammill <em>et al</em>. 1992, Stenson <em>et al</em>. 1996). Since 1998 TAC has been set at 10,000 seals per year, but catches are in fact only a few hundred animals (ICES 2006). Hooded Seals have also been harvested commercially in the Greenland Sea for centuries. The hunt increased substantially after World War II, to levels that were clearly not sustainable; regulatory measures were introduced in 1958 to reduce effort, and quotas were imposed in 1971 (Sergeant 1976, ICES 2006). Based on catch per unit effort analyses and mark-recapture pup production estimates it was assumed that the stock increased from the 1960s through to the 1990s at an unknown rate (Ulltang and Øien 1988). Aerial survey attempts in 1994 failed to produce an estimate (Øritsland and Øien 1995). Recent modelling efforts suggest that a very substantial decrease in population abundance took place from the late 1940s up to the early 1980s (ICES 2006). Aerial surveys in recent years suggest that this downward trend is continuing. Total pup production was estimated to be 24 000 in 1997 and this number dropped to 15 250 in 2005 (Salberg <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals are also taken by native people of Greenland and Canada for subsistence purposes every year (Kovacs 2002). By-catch of Hooded Seals in coastal net fisheries has been reported from the United States, from trawl fisheries off Norway and Newfoundland, and salmon drift nets used off Greenland (Woodley and Lavigne 1991, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992, Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005). Competition for food with commercial fisheries and other predators has been suggested as a factor that may limit population growth or lead to declines (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Impacts of oil spills on Hooded Seals have not been reported; however, as an ice breeding species, they might be at risk of mortality from spills during the pupping season when newborn and newly weaned pups could be fouled (St. Aubin 1990). Hooded Seals have been exposed to morbillivirus (Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1997), but did not suffer fatalities during the mass die-offs of Harbour Seals in European waters from phocine distemper virus in 1998 and 2002. Subsequent testing of a variety of Arctic seals revealed antibodies to the virus in 18-24% percent of the Hooded Seals sampled indicating exposure to the virus (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The Hooded Seal is a pack ice species, which is dependent on ice as a substrate for pupping, moulting, and resting and as such is vulnerable to reduction in extent or timing of pack ice formation and retreat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2005, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). The productivity of the ice edge ecosystem is also dependent on the dynamics and seasonality of arctic ice, and alterations to the cycle of formation and retreat could have negative effects on important Hooded Seal prey such as Arctic Cod. Decreases in sea ice cover could also lead to more shipping and development of extraction based industries in the Arctic which in turn could negatively affect Hooded Seals through increased exposure to contaminants and pollution, increased disturbance and increased risk of shipping accidents and spills (Pagnan 2000).
6206		conservation	eng	Research actions.
6206		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in the Caribbean lowlands of Nicaragua (Koopman, 1993) and Costa Rica (Starrett and Casebeer, 1968; Rodriguez pers. comm.); Colombia (Rodriguez <em>et al.</em>, 1995), Guyana (Lim and Engstrom, 2005), Suriname (Lim, unpublished data), French Guiana (Simmons and Voss, 1998), Amazonian Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1996), Panama (Reid pers. comm.). All localities are at or below 500 m elevation.
6206		habitat	eng	Roosts in groups of 1 to 10 at the top of palm trees on fronds, usually in relatively open areas such as groves or gardens. It hangs freely by the feet when roosting, near the midrib of a frond. Activity starts about 45 min after sunset but is usually restricted to immediately around the roost for 15 to 30 min, after which time, in complete darkeness, individuals disperse, flying at least 3 to 4 m above ground (Starrett 1972; Reid and Langtimm 1993). Adaptable to human disturbed areas. Aerial insectivore.
6206		population	eng	This is one of the rarest Neotropical bats, know from fewer than twenty individuals taken from less than ten localities in humid lowland areas (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).
6206		threats	eng	Rarity - but no immediate threats. Not considered rare in Costa Rica (Pineda e Rodriguez pers. comm.).
6219		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
6219		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from eastern Nepal, northeastern India, southern China (southern and western Yunnan) and from adjacent areas of Lao PDR and Viet Nam in Southeast Asia. It is known only from a small number of specimens from a few scattered localities (Musser and Carleton 2005). In South Asia, although it is known from only a few locations in the region, it is presumed to be very widely distributed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).This montane species occurs from around 1,050 (South Asia) to 3,000 m asl.
6219		habitat	eng	It has only been recorded from upper montane tropical and subtropical primary evergreen moist forest. It is not known if it can be found in disturbed or modified habitats.
6219		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens.
6219		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species at the few known Southeast Asian localities. In South Asia, the major threats of the species are general deforestation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It could also be under pressure from culling by local people and government agencies due to a perceived threat of a population boom of rodents during bamboo flowering years of 2007-2008.
6220		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas.
6220		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of the Yungas of Bolivia and southeastern Peru, and extends at least into extreme western Brazil (Dunnum and Salazar-Bravo, 2004). This species occurs up to about 1,000 m.
6220		habitat	eng	In Bolivia, the species is found in Yungas forest areas where it is specifically restricted to disjunct patches of bamboo habitat. It can also be found in bamboo stands in disturbed areas, such as alongside rivers in urban areas. All localities are within tropical or subtropical areas.
6220		population	eng	It is relatively common within suitable bamboo habitat.
6220		threats	eng	Although the species is restricted to bamboo habitats it is adaptable to habitat change, as long as some bamboo stands remain.
6221		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
6221		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and western Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6221		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal species is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is social and forages in bamboo clumps in family groups (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Its home ranges reach up to 0.43 ha (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is a varzea specialist and is rarely seen but can be heard because of its very distinctive call.
6221		population	eng	This rodent is not common.
6221		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
6222		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Cotapata National Park in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitats and threats to this species.
6222		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites, Cotapata in Bolivia (3,300 m asl) and in Juliaca, Peru (around 1,000 to 3,000 m asl) (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Salzar-Bravo <em>et al</em>. 2003).
6222		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest where it is restricted to bamboo habitat. It is folivorous and bamboo is a major food item (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The type specimen was collected along a creek in the middle of the day (Allen, 1900). It is not known to occur in modified habitats.
6222		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens.
6222		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
6223		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mekil Wildlife Management Area.
6223		distribution	eng	This species is known from the high elevations of western New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded at four localities but it is expected to occur more widely. It has been recorded from 1,000 to 2,300 m asl.
6223		habitat	eng	It is a strictly arboreal species of primary montane moss forest. It has not been recorded in secondary forests.
6223		population	eng	It is rarely encountered; only ten individuals were encountered in 600 hours work at one locality (L. Salas pers. comm.).
6223		threats	eng	This species is occasionally hunted by local people for food and its pelt, however, it is not easily encountered, and hunting is not considered a major threat to this species.
6224		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to better determine the distribution (particularly to see if it is present elsewhere on the island), abundance, and threats to this little-known species.
6224		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Fergusson Island, of the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea. All records are from the mountains in the west of the island at elevations of 600 to 1,000 m asl; it is possible that the species is restricted to this area (Flannery 1995).
6224		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species of primary tropical moist forest habitats. During the day animals den in dry leaf nests in hollows. Its diet is largely composed of insects, fruits, and leaves.
6224		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens (most recently, a specimen was collected in 2003).
6224		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but presumably include loss of suitable habitat and denning sites because of expanding agriculture.
6225		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
6225		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Vogelkop Peninsula (Indonesia), central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 850 and 3,050 m asl (mostly above 1,200 m).
6225		habitat	eng	This is a largely arboreal species of primary montane tropical moist forest. It has not been recorded from secondary forest habitats. Females may give birth to a single young.
6225		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat, but as it is a cryptic species that is difficult to detect.
6225		threats	eng	This species is occasionally hunted by local people for food and its pelt, however, it is not easily found, and hunting is not considered to be a major threat to this species.
6226		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in New Guinea, and is also present in some Australian protected areas (e.g., Wet Tropics World Heritage Area).
6226		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the islands of Waigeo, Yapen, and the Aru Islands (all Indonesia); through much of the lower elevation forests of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); into Queensland, Australia, where it ranges from Mt. Spec, near Townsville to the Iron Range (Handasyde 2008).
6226		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, arboreal species occurs in primary and degraded tropical moist forests, and adjacent eucalypt and melaleuca woodlands. The female gives birth to up to two young (Handasyde 2008).
6226		population	eng	Within New Guinea this species is abundant in suitable habitat. In Australia, it is common in the lowlands and uncommon at higher elevations.
6226		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. Within New Guinea, the main threat to this species is deforestation through subsistence agriculture. It is also hunted for food, however, this is not considered to be a major threat. There are no major threats to this species in Australia.
6229		conservation	eng	Deepwater sharks are subject to management in Community waters and in certain non Community waters for stocks of deep-sea species for 2005 and 2006. The TAC for ICES areas V, VI, VII, VIII and IX for a group of deep sea shark species including <em>D. licha</em> is 6 763 t. In Subarea X (the Azores) the TAC is 120t and in Subarea XII 243 t. The EC has also introduced emergency measures to ban deep-water gill-netting.<br><br>The development and implementation of national management plans (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. The EC prepared a draft proposal for the European Community Plan of Action, which encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of sharks in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al.</em> 2002).
6229		distribution	eng	Found on continental and insular shelves and slopes in warm-temperate and tropical areas (Compagno and Cook 2005). This species is found in the western and eastern Atlantic, western Indian Ocean, western Pacific and around the Hawaiian islands (Compagno in prep.).
6229		habitat	eng	The Kitefin Shark is a deepwater, benthic to mesopelagic species. Found on continental and insular shelves and slopes in warm-temperate and tropical areas from 37 m down to 1,800 m depth, most common below 200 m. Within the Western Mediterranean it occurs at depths of up to 1,800 m (Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992), in the Tyrrhenian Sea it is present between 200?800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001) and in the Adriatic it was found at depths of up to 900 m (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 2001).  It is, however found primarily on the continental slopes at depths of 300?600 m (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Reproduction is via aplacental viviparity and occurs throughout the year, with greater activity during the summer and autumnal months (Bini 1976, Tortonese 1956). Produces 3?16 pups per litter, (Bauchot 1987), but usually 6?8 per litter (Bini 1976, Tortonese 1956). The size at birth is approximately 30 cm in total length (Bauchot 1987, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984). The length of maturity for males ranges between 77-121 cm and for females, between 117?159 cm (Bauchot 1987). However, in the Adriatic a mature female was observed which was considerably smaller, measuring 96 cm in length (N. Ungaro pers. obs.). The maximum size of kitefin sharks is reported to be 180 cm in total length, however 120 cm is a more common length (Bauchot 1987).<br/><br/>This shark is a solitary species (Bauchot 1987). The Kitefin Shark?s diet is indicative of the water region it occupies, it preys on mesopelagic and benthic fishes, including catsharks (<em>Galeus</em>) and spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus</em> and <em>Etmopterus</em>), as well as cephalopods, crustaceans and polychaetes (Macpherson 1980, Bauchot 1987).
6229		population	eng	Population size is unknown; however the Kitefin Shark is believed to be relatively common yet low in abundance. There is probably little or no exchange between populations separated by the deep ocean or occurring in different ocean basins, which are considered to form distinct regional subpopulations (Compagno and Cook 2005).<br><br><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br>In the Mediterranean, the range of this species appears to be confined to the western and central basins (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Biomass appears to be very low in this region (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). The GRUND project, a series of experimental trawl surveys carried out on the continental and upper slopes of the central Mediterranean suggest a positive trend in kitefin catches between 1985 and 1998, however the dataset was relatively poor in that very few specimens were caught (average 1.9 per hour) over 12 years of surveys (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000). <em>D. licha</em> were present in <2% of bottom trawls across the Mediterranean (Relini <em>et al. </em>2000). A bottom trawl fishery for red-shrimp Aristeus antennatus operating in the Gulf of Valencia collected data between 1988 and 1989 on the frequency of <em>D. licha</em> catches. The species was present in 28.6% of trawls carried out at 450?675 m depth, with a mean abundance of 0.06 specimens per hour of trawling (Guallart 1990). During exploratory surveys to collect data of the exploited and virgin stocks of deep-sea <em>A. antennatus</em> (DESEAS project), <em>D. licha</em> were caught in all three areas of the study (the Balearic area, the western Ionian and the eastern Ionian). Abundance decreased with depth in the Balearic area and the species was found to be more abundant between 1,000 and 1,499 m in the western Ionian and was present mainly at shallower depths in the eastern Ionian (Sion <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br><br><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br>Stock identity of Kitefin Shark in Northeast Atlantic is unknown. However the species seems to be more abundant in the south area of the Mid Atlantic Ridge (ICES Area X). Elsewhere in the Northeast Atlantic, kitefin shark is infrequently recorded. For the purposes of stock assessment and management, the Azores/Mid-Atlantic Ridge population is considered to be separate from the Northeast Atlantic Slope population (ICES 2006). There is very little population information for this species over the remainder of its range. On the Chatham Rise in New Zealand, <em>D. licha</em> comprised less than 1% of the total shark catch in all fishing (Wetherbee 1999). The species has been captured in greater numbers, however in fishing that was conducted at shallower depths other locations in New Zealand (Clark and King 1989).
6229		threats	eng	This shark has long been exploited commercially (Compagno and Cook 2005). Because of the generally deep depth at which this species appears to spend most of its time, historically it was taken primarily in deepwater directed fisheries efforts (Compagno and Cook 2005). However, with recent trends in development of deep fishing gear (especially trawl gear), and the increasing need for commercial fisheries to fish deeper in attempts to sustain harvest levels, this species and other deep-sea elasmobranchs will undoubtedly come under increased pressure in the future (Compagno and Cook 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>The following is taken from the ICES WGEF Report (2006) unless stated otherwise.<br/><br/><em>D. licha</em> was formerly caught in targeted hand-line and gill-net fisheries in the Azores. Landings from the Azores began in the early 70s and increased rapidly to over 947 t in 1981. From 1981 to 1991 landings fluctuated considerably, following market fluctuations and peaked at 937t in 1984 and 896t in 1991. After 1991 the reported landings declined linearly, possibly as a result of economic problems related to markets. The fishery ceased at the end of the 1990s because it was not profitable. Since 1988 a bycatch has been reported from mainland Portugal with 282 t in 2000 and 119 t in 2003. <em>D. licha</em> from the Azores is now a bycatch from different deep-water fisheries, with landings in 2004 and 2005 of less than about 15 t (Pinho 2006). This species is also caught by longline fisheries off the Portuguese mainland.<br/><br/>This species has been reported in longline and gill-net fisheries directed at mixed deep-water sharks west of the British Isles. Recent emergency measures by the EC and NEAFC have closed these deep-water gill-net fisheries. It is apparently also taken in small quantities by mixed deep-water trawl fisheries west of the British Isles but quantities are unknown as shark species are not usually separated in landings statistics. According to the WGEF (ICES 2006), while the United Kingdom and Ireland have official reported landings of Kitefin Shark, these have likely been misidentified, and are more likely to be either Portuguese dogfish or leafscale gulper shark. A comparison between recent Scottish trawl surveys and MAFF surveys in the 1970s shows a 94% decline in catch rate, however, this value must be treated with caution as it is likely that other species may have been misidentified as <em>D. licha</em> in the 1970s (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore this species is at the limit of its geographical range west of Scotland. In total, the WGEF estimated total landings in the ICES area to be around 47 t in 2005.<br/><br/>Stock assessments of the <em>D. licha</em> fishery were made during the 80s (Silva 1987). The stock was considered intensively exploited with the average observed total catches (809 t) near the estimated maximum sustainable yield (MSY=933 t). During the DELASS project (Heessen 2003), the stock was considered depleted based on the probability of the Biomass 2001 being less than BMSY.  Preliminary assessment results suggest that the stock may be depleted, to about 50% of virgin biomass. However, further analysis is required, particularly analysing the effect of liver oil prices on the fishery.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>There was a specific Kitefin Shark fishery based in the Ligurian Sea until the 1930s. Roughly ten boats worked this fishery using traditional longline gear. It is reported that each boat caught approximately twenty large individuals, which were often pregnant females (Vacchi and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2000).<br/><br/>Today, the Kitefin Shark is caught across the Mediterranean mainly as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries. In the Balearic Sea, individuals ranging from small juveniles to adults are caught by such fisheries operating on the continental slope at depths between 300 and 675 m (Guallart pers. comm.).  These individuals are generally discarded, the majority of which are still alive (Guallart 1990, Guallart pers. comm. 2003). There is no information on post release survival rates for this species, however due to neutral buoyancy of its body, many of them are unable to sink again, die on the surface, and sometimes are found stranded on the coast (Guallart pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Although little specific information is available in other areas of the species' range, it is distributed over a wide depth range and is therefore a potential bycatch in a number of deepwater fisheries. The life history characteristics of the species (i.e., slow growth, relatively large size at maturity etc.) make them vulnerable to rapid declines should pressure increase throughout their range.
6232		conservation	eng	This species has an important and interesting conservation history. In 1960, the Iranian Game and Fish Department initiated the first conservation actions by designating the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge around the site of this animal's re-discovery. A male and a female calf were bought from local people in south-west Iran by a team from Von Opel’s Zoo in Germany in 1957–1958.&#160; In 1960 the first fawn was conceived in Opel (a female) but the male died before conceiving a male.&#160; Subsequently a stag was sent to Germany in 1964.&#160; In the interim the female was cross bred with European males (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). The hybrids were disposed of in 1965-1966 (Jantschke 1991).&#160; Between 1964 and 1965, a 400 strong team captured 6 deer within the protected areas and transfer them to the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge, where they were managed in a 55 hectare enclosure, and where the population increased. &#160;Iran received seven animals from Germany in 1972 which were suspected as hybrids, and kept them isolated from the pure-bred Persian population at Dasht-e-Naz. This &#160;population totalled 30 animals in 1977 and was transferred to a 6 ha enclosure in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge to allow more space for the pure-bred population, and to prevent gene exchange between them. In December 1978, four of these animals were transferred to Israel. From 1977, specimens of pure-bred Persian fallow deer were transferred to new sites in different parts of Iran including its original habitat in Karkheh Wildlife Refuge. Signs of deer were still presented in Karkheh prior to the translocation (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Subsequently in 1995 the new enclosure (180 ha) was established in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge for transferred pure-bred deer from Dasht-e-Naz, in order to reduce the population density in Dasht-e-Naz (Rabiei 2002). These conservation measures have brought the species back from the brink of extinction in Iran, and the population is gradually increasing. However, the two truly wild population remain seriously threatened and need strict protection in order to recover. <br/><br/> Recommended conservation actions have been compiled by Rabiei (1995, 2002, 2003), and include: further population surveys; ecological and genetic research; strengthening of existing management of protected areas; creating of new protected areas; promote protection of the last remaining truly wild populations in the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge; re-introducing animals to these two populations; strengthening the existing captive breeding programs; and establishing a collaborative captive breeding programme and reintroductions across the historic range of the species. It is extremely important to keep the pure-bred and wild animals separate, and to concentrate all conservation efforts on the pure-bred stock.<br/> The species is included on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Dama dama mesopotamica</span>).
6232		conservation	eng	This species has an important and interesting conservation history. In 1960, the Iranian Game and Fish Department initiated the first conservation actions by designating the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge around the site of this animal's re-discovery. A male and a female calf were bought from local people in south-west Iran by a team from Von Opel?s zoo in Germany in ?1957-1958?, and subsequently a stag was sent to Germany. Between 1964 and 1965, a 400 strong team captured 6 deer within the protected areas and transfer them to the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge, where they were managed in a 55 hectare enclosure, and where the population increased. The stock in Germany also bred well, but unfortunately they interbred with <em>Dama dama</em> (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Iran received seven of these hybrid animals from Germany in 1972, but fortunately kept them isolated from the pure-bred Persian population at Dasht-e-Naz. The hybrid population totalled 30 animals in 1977 and was transferred to a 6 ha enclosure in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge to allow more space for the pure-bred population, and to prevent gene exchange between them. In December 1978, four of these hybrid animals were smuggled into Israel. From 1977, specimens of pure-bred Persian fallow deer were transferred to new sites in different parts of Iran including its original habitat in Karkheh Wildlife Refuge. Signs of deer were still presented in Karkheh prior to the translocation (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Subsequently in 1995 the new enclosure (180 ha) was established in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge for transferred pure-bred deer from Dasht-e-Naz, in order to reduce the population density in Dasht-e-Naz (Rabiei 2002). These conservation measures have brought the species back from the brink of extinction in Iran, and the population is gradually increasing. However, the two truly wild population remain seriously threatened and need strict protection in order to recover. <br/><br/>The re-introduction program within Israel was initiated in 1996 (Bar-David <em>et al</em>. 2005), but consists entirely of hybrid animals.<br/><br/>The species is included on CITES Appendix I. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions have been compiled by Rabiei (1995, 2002, 2003, 2004), and include: further population surveys; ecological and genetic research; strengthening of existing management of protected areas; creating of new protected areas; promote protection of the last remaining truly wild populations in the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge; re-introducing animals to these two populations; strengthening the existing captive breeding programs; and establishing a collaborative captive breeding programme. It is extremely important to keep the pure-bred and wild animals separate, and to concentrate all conservation efforts on the pure-bred stock.
6232		distribution	eng	The Persian Fallow Deer formerly occurred in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and eastern Turkey (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). It was depicted in relief artwork dated prior to the 9<sup>th</sup> century BC and in ancient times its range probably included North Africa from Tunisian border to the Red Sea. By 1875 it was restricted to southwestern and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its range. It was considered extinct, but a small population was rediscovered in southwestern Iran in 1956. The only surviving indigenous wild populations are in Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Iran (though the population in Karkeh has also been restocked with animals from the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge).<br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations in Iran as follows: Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Ashk and Kaboudan Islands in Lake Uromiyeh (Uromiyeh National Park); and the Miankotal enclosure in Arjan and Parishan Protected Area. All these reintroduced populations are either in enclosures or on islands. Some of the animals in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge are hybrids with <em>Dama dama</em>, although the hybrids and pure-bred animals are maintained in separate populations. Introductions to Shiri, Lavan, Kish Islands in the Persian Gulf were probably not successful.<br/><br/>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Israel</st1:place></st1:country-region> a reintroduction program for Persian Fallow Deer has been underway since 1996 with more than 250 animals in the wild today. The breeding nucleus in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Israel</st1:country-region> was founded in 1976 from three animals (two males and one female) from the Opel Zoo and four females from Semeskandeh facility in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Animals at the Semeskandeh facility were received from Opel in 1973 and were suspected in to be hybrids with the European Fallow Deer. However, all hybrids produced at Opel were reported to have been disposed of in 1965-66 (Jantschke 1991). Genetic studies of the Israeli population revealed low genetic diversity (over 95% similarity between individuals), which suggests no hybridization. None of the individuals in the Israeli population exhibits the morphological traits typical of European fallow deer (palmate antlers or a relatively long bushy tail with a central black streak).
6232		distribution	eng	The Persian Fallow Deer formerly occurred in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and eastern Turkey (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). It was depicted in relief artwork dated prior to the 9th century BC and in ancient times its range probably included North Africa from Tunisian border to the Red Sea. By 1875 it was restricted to southwestern and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its range. It was considered extinct, but a small population was rediscovered in southwestern Iran in 1956. The only surviving indigenous wild populations are in Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Iran (though the population in Karkeh has also been restocked with animals from the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge).<br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations in Iran as follows: Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Ashk and Kaboudan Islands in Lake Uromiyeh (Uromiyeh National Park); and the Miankotal enclosure in Arjan and Parishan Protected Area. All these re-introduced populations are either in enclosures or on islands. Some of the animals in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge are hybrids with <em>Dama dama</em>, although the hybrids and pure-bred animals are maintained in separate populations. Introductions to Shiri, Lavan, Kish Islands in the Persian Gulf were probably not successful. In Israel, hybrid animals from Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge were re-introduced in the Hai Bar Carmel Reserve in 1978, where they have been bred and subsequently released (since 1996) into the Kziv Reserve and surrounding countryside in northern Israel, and since 2005 into the Jerusalem Mountains. Hybrid animals are not included in this assessment.
6232		habitat	eng	The Persian fallow deer occupies a range of woodlands, such as tamarisk, oak and pistachio woodlands. The wild population utilizes riparian forest thickets (McTaggart-Cowan and Holloway 1978). The rut is during August and early September, and calving at the end of March to early April, following a gestation period of approximately 229 days (Chapman and Chapman 1975).
6232		habitat	eng	The Persian Fallow Deer occupies a range of woodlands, such as tamarisk, oak and pistachio woodlands. The wild population utilizes riparian forest thickets (McTaggart-Cowan and Holloway 1978). The rut is during August and early September, and calving at the end of March to early April, following a gestation period of approximately 229 days (Chapman and Chapman 1975).
6232		population	eng	The Persian Fallow Deer was thought to be extinct by the 1940s, but a small population of perhaps 25 animals was subsequently rediscovered in Khuzistan Province, Iran during the 1950s (Davies 1982). As of the mid 1990s, the total population in Iran (including captive and re-introduced animals) did not exceed 250. By 2004, the total Iranian population had increased to approximately 340 individuals (A. Rabiei pers. comm.). By 2008, the number of animals had increased further, though only 365 of these are pure-bred, the remainder being hybrids (A. Rabiei pers. comm.). In Israel there were approximately 200 individuals in the north of the country by 2005, and around 150 in Hai Bar Carmel Reserve.
6232		population	eng	The Persian fallow deer was thought to be extinct by the 1940s, but a small population of perhaps 25 animals was subsequently rediscovered in Khuzistan Province, Iran during the 1950s (Davies 1982). As of the mid 1990s, the total population in Iran (including captive and re-introduced animals) did not exceed 250. By 2004, the total Iranian population had increased to approximately 340 individuals (Rabiei 2004). By 2008, the number of animals had increased further, though only 365 of these are pure-bred, the remainder being hybrids (A. Rabiei pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Israel there were approximately 200 individuals in the north of the country by 2005, and around 150 in Hai Bar Carmel Reserve. However, all animals in Israel are hybrids with <em>Dama dama</em>, and there are not included within the assessment.
6232		threats	eng	This species has experienced numerous threats such as habitat destruction, poaching, natural predation, and competition with livestock, and this lead to its long decline and near extinction. Also they are suffering from the effects of small population size, isolation and inbreeding (Hemami and Rabiei 2002).
6234		conservation	eng	This is one of the most highly threatened antelopes in Africa. Recommendations for the long-term conservation of the Hirola in Kenya have been included in a conservation action plan (Magin 1996) and a conservation evaluation report (Butynski 1999). These recommendations are now part of the current conservation and management plan for the Hirola in Kenya (Hirola Management Committee 2004) and are being acted upon by the Kenya Wildlife Service, in conjunction with the Hirola Management Committee and local conservation NGOs. There is an urgent need to improve the level of management and protection of the one natural population of Hirola, particularly in the Arawale National Reserve and in the Galma Galla/Kolbio region of Kenya. Community conservation and anti-poaching activities must be established over a large portion of the remaining range, but insecurity for conservation workers is an extremely serious problem in this region. Consideration should be given to establishing protected areas at Galma Galla and Lag Dere, and to expanding the Tana Primate National Reserve to the east to include at least 300 km² of prime habitat for Hirola (Butynski in press). There are only two Hirola in captivity.
6234		distribution	eng	The Hirola is endemic to north-east Kenya and south-west Somalia. Historical distribution is estimated to have covered ca. 17,900 km² in Kenya and ca. 20,500 km² in Somalia (Bunderson 1981, East 1999, Butynski in press). In Kenya, Hirola currently occur between Garsen, Bura and Galma Galla/Kolbio over an area of ca. 8,000 km² (Butynski 1999). Current status in south-west Somalia is not known, but its former range has been badly affected by prolonged civil and military conflicts that continued up to early 2007.<br/><br/>There is a small translocated population in Tsavo East National Park, outside the species’ natural range. This originated from a translocation of 30 animals from Garissa District conducted in 1963. It is thought that most of these perished soon after release and that the size of the “effective founder population” was only 11 to 19 animals (Butynski 1999). A further 10 animals were translocated to Tsavo East in 1996 (Hofmann 1996).
6234		habitat	eng	Hirola inhabit semi-arid thorn bush, open bush grassland, to light woodland, and lush savanna grassland. Their preferred habitat is seasonally flooded, open grassland with scattered small shrubs and trees on well-drained soils with short leafy swards of grass formed by fire, or by the combined grazing pressure of wildlife and domestic livestock (Bunderson 1981, Butynski in press).
6234		population	eng	In 1979, there were ca. 16,000 animals in Kenya on 17,900 km². Estimated numbers decreased from 12,500 in the early to mid-1970s to about 7,000 in 1977-83, followed by a drastic decline (85 to 90%) between 1983 and 1985 caused by the severe drought of 1984 (Butynski 1999). Ground surveys suggested a population of between 500 and 2,000 in Kenya in 1995/1996 (Andanje and Ottichilo 1999, Butynski 1999, Dahiye and Aman 2002). Somalia had ca. 2,000 Hirola in 1979, but has few, if any, today (Butynski 1999). Overall, numbers have fallen by 85 to 90% since 1980 and are still declining (East 1999, Butynski in press).<br/><br/>The translocated population in Tsavo East National Park numbers ca. 105 individuals, an increase from the 56 to 76 animals in 1995/1996 (Andanje and Ottichilo 1999, Butynski in press).
6234		threats	eng	Hunting, disease, drought, habitat loss, and competition with livestock. Lack of effective protection leaves it vulnerable to poaching. The development of the cattle industry, compounded by rinderpest and drought are continuing threats. The Tsavo population additionally faces predation by relatively high densities of large carnivores and competition from a greater variety of other wild herbivore species (but much lower numbers of cattle) than in its natural range (East 1999, Butynski in press).
6235		conservation	eng	Around 98% of remaining Korrigum occur in and around protected areas, primarily in the W-Arly-Pendjari complex (Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin) and in Waza and Benoue in northern Cameroon (East 1999; Duncan in press).<br/><br/>About one-quarter of Tiang occur in protected areas), including: Zakouma N.P. (the largest population in central Africa at ca. 1,300) and Salamat Faunal Reserve and Aouk hunting areas (Chad), Manovo-Gounda-St Floris N.P. (CAR), Dinder N.P. (Sudan), Omo N.P. and Mago N.P. (Ethiopia) and Sibiloi N.P. (Kenya) (East 1999; Duncan in press). There is no information on their status in Dinder N.P., where they may now number no more than a few dozen individuals (Chardonnet 2004).<br/><br/>Coastal Topi occur mainly outside protected areas, although they are present in Boni and Dodori National Reserves (East 1999).<br/><br/>More than 90% of Topi occur in protected areas, in particular Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Akagera N.P. (Rwanda), Mara (Kenya) and Serengeti N.P. (Tanzania). However, the populations in QENP and the Virungas have been declining (East 1999). The population in Akagera, the last effective stronghold for Topi in Rwanda, declined from around 7,500 in 1990 to an estimated 2,000 in 1997-1998; following the reduction in size of the park in 1997, only an estimated 770 animals survive in the new Akagera N.P. (Williams and Ntayombya 1999).<br/><br/>The Bangweulu Tsessebe occurs in Bangweulu, and has been translocated to a number of private game ranches in Zambia (Cotterill 2003). The latter author called for the translocation of a population to Kasanka N.P.<br/><br/>Tsessebe are well represented in both protected areas (40%) and on private land (20%), with strongholds in Okavango and Chobe N.P. (Moremi) and Kruger N.P. (South Africa). However, the population in Kruger N.P., among the best-protected areas on the continent, declined to about 220 individuals in 1996 (Dunham <em>et al.</em> 2005).
6235		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred widely on floodplains and other grasslands in sub-Saharan Africa. It was one of the most numerous large antelope species in Africa, but has been eliminated from much of its former range. Various populations have become very rare and it has disappeared from Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Senegal, The Gambia, and Burundi. The ranges of the subspecies are as follows (following East 1999 and Duncan in press):<br/><br/>Korrigum formerly occurred from southern Mauritania and Senegal to western Chad, but has undergone a dramatic decline since the early 1900s because of displacement by cattle and uncontrolled hunting for meat. The species no longer occurs in Mauritania, Mali, Senegal, or The Gambia, and they probably no longer occur in northern Togo, Nigeria or western Chad, except as vagrants.<br/><br/>Tiang occurred throughout southern Chad, northern Central African Republic, and Sudan to south-western Ethiopia and extreme north-western Kenya.<br/><br/>Coastal Topi formerly occurred in southern Somalia in riverine grasslands on the lower Shebelle and Juba Rivers and the area around Bush Bush N.P., and in Kenya in Lamu, Garissa and Tana River districts. Their range is unchanged in Kenya, although there is no information available from Somalia.<br/><br/>Topi occurred in south-west Kenya, northwest and western Tanzania, east and south-western Uganda, north-eastern Rwanda, and the eastern floodplains and savanna grasslands of Burundi. Topi are now extinct in Burundi.<br/><br/>Bangweulu Tsessebe formerly occurred in the Bangweulu Flats in northeastern Zambia, and in the Katanga Pedicle of DR Congo, where they are now extinct.<br/><br/>Tsessebe remain present in a number of populations in southern Africa, but became extinct in Mozambique around the late 1970s or early 1980s. They have been reintroduced in Swaziland, after the indigenous population was exterminated.
6235		habitat	eng	Generally an inhabitat of floodplains and other grasslands in sub-Saharan Africa. The species moved seasonally between the Sahel grasslands, savannas and the floodplains of the Niger Delta. In Sudan, the Tiang was widespread in savanna and floodplain grasslands, but also occurred in much lower numbers in the woodlands of the south-west. In Somalia, the Coastal Topi formerly occurred locally in the south, in riverine grasslands on the lower Shebelle and Juba Rivers and in the Lake Badana (Bush Bush National Park) area. In South Africa, the Tsessebe formerly occurred in the bushveld and lowveld. Currently, the Tsessebe occurs mainly on the basalt plains of northern Kruger National Park. Tsessebe do not occur in forests, arid or montane habitats (above 1,500 m) (East 1999; Duncan in press). Nearly exclusively grazers, they can go for months without drinking in the dry season if they are feeding on growing grass (Duncan in press).
6235		population	eng	East (1999) gives total population estimates of 30,000 Tsessebe, 93,000 Topi, 100,000 Coastal Topi, 75,000 Tiang and 3,000 Korrigum, and a species total of about 300,000. Based on the figures available in Appendix 4 in East (1999), numbers of Bangweulu Tsessebe are in the order of 3,500.<br/><br/>Chardonnet (2004) revised the estimate of the global population of Korrigum to 1,850-2,650 (including 800 in W-Arly-Pendjari and 800-1,600 in Waza N.P.), and estimated the number of Tiang in Central Africa at 3,200. <br/><br/>East's (1999) total for Tiang included an estimated 50,000 Tiang in southern Sudan, which he acknowledged could be a gross underestimate of the actual population; indeed, recent aerial surveys carried out by WCS in southern Sudan in the early dry season in 2007 indicate a population of ~153,000 (probably an underestimate) in the Jonglei area and a generally favourable conservation situation (although numbers in Boma National Park had declined). These estimates are lower than those reported for the late dry season in 1980 (by about half), but slightly larger than those recorded in the early dry season in the same year (see Mefit-Babtie 1983).<br/><br/>Population trends are increasing for the Tsessebe (especially on private land) and Bangweulu Tseseebe, but decreasing for most of the other subspecies.
6235		threats	eng	While the species is still numerous and widespread, it has been eliminated from large areas of its former range by hunting, and habitat degradation associated with the encroachment/expansion of cattle. These threats have been most marked on the West African Korrigum; of the 12 countries in which they formerly occurred, they are now extirpated from four, and probably only occur as vagrants in three.
6236		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II.
6252		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
6252		distribution	eng	This species is known from one area in the Nilwala River basin, in Opatha, Sri Lanka (R. Devi, pers. comm.).  The range of this species is an estimated 818 km².
6252		habitat	eng	<em>D. pathirana</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in swift flowing streams, with pebble or boulder substrates.  It has not been found in silted rivulets flowing into the mainstream.  It forms groups of 3-5 individuals slowly moving near the surface.
6252		population	eng	<em>D. pathirana</em> is reported to be numerous within its limited range (Pethiyagoda 1994).
6252		threats	eng	<em>D. pathirana</em> is threatened by pressure from shade loss and agricultural effluents (Pethiyagoda 1994).    <br/><br/>During the past two centuries, nearly all the natural forests in this eco-region have been cleared for tea, rubber, and coconut plantations, rice paddies, and human settlements (WWF 2001).
6265		conservation	eng	The Kowari is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs in a few protected areas including Diamantina and Astrebla Downs National Parks.
6265		distribution	eng	The Kowari is endemic to Australia, where it is found on the gibber plains of the Channel Country in southeastern Queensland and northern South Australia (Lim 2008).
6265		habitat	eng	Kowaris inhabit stony gibber plains with sparse scrub between braided river channels and sand dunes in Channel Country (Lim 2008).
6265		population	eng	This species is rare and scattered with low densities (Lim 2008). Populations fluctuate with climatic conditions (Lim 2008). Estimates of total population are based on area, maximum density and the fact that there are 24 known populations (although probably less now as some populations are thought to have recently disappeared; Canty and Brandle 2008). The total adult population is probably less than 10,000 individuals (P. Canty pers. comm.).
6265		threats	eng	Kowari numbers have declined in areas where livestock grazing is intense, and their occurrence has diminished near water holes used by stock. The affects of introduced predators on this species is unknown. Global warming has the potential to be a threatening process for this species. Modelling by Chapman and Milne (1998) for the Kowari predicted a severe contraction in range.
6266		conservation	eng	This species is found in at least one protected area (e.g., Simpson Desert Regional Reserve). Research into its distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and possible threats is needed.
6266		distribution	eng	The Crest-tailed Mulgara is endemic to Australia, where it is known with certainty only from some of the desert regions along the border between the Northern Territory and South Australia. Because the re-recognition of <em>D. blythi</em> as a species has been so recent the identity of museum specimens must be re-checked before the true range limits of both it and <em>D. cristicauda</em> can be determined (Woolley 2005, 2008).
6266		habitat	eng	<em>D. cristicauda</em> is found primarily in Sandhill Canegrass (<em>Zygochloa paradoxa</em>) dominated dunes, with a vegetation cover less than 20%, Nitre Bush (<em>Nitraria billardierei</em>) grasslands (Foulkes and Canty 2000), and Sandhill Canegrass flats near salt lakes (J. Foulkes pers. comm.). Their burrows have been found on dunes (Woolley 1990) and at the base of Nitre Bush hummocks (Masters 2008). Relatively little is known of the biology of this species (see Woolley 2006), but the reproductive pattern is thought to be similar to that of <em>D. blythi</em>.
6266		population	eng	This species has a wide known range (Woolley 2005; Masters 2008).
6266		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
6267		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas.
6267		distribution	eng	The Brush-tailed Mulgara is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in arid regions of the central and western parts of the country. Because the re-recognition of <em>D. blythi</em> as a species has been so recent the identity of museum specimens must be re-checked before the true range limits of both it and <em>D. cristicauda</em> can be determined (Woolley 2005, 2008).
6267		habitat	eng	This species occupies spinifex (<em>Triodia</em> spp.) grasslands, and burrows in flats between sand dunes. It is generally a solitary species that hunts at night, although it is not strictly nocturnal (Woolley 2008).<br/><br/>This species has a wide ranging diet that includes various types of invertebrates, reptiles, and small mammals (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1998; Masters 1998; Turner 2004). It produces one litter per year (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1982) with a maximum litter size of six and a sex ratio of 1:1 (Baker 1996; Masters 1997, 1998). The breeding season is June to October (Masters 1997). Individuals of both sexes can survive for more than one breeding season, with only a very small proportion of the population surviving to the third year (Masters 1997). In captivity Brush-tailed Mulgaras can live up to five years of age (Woolley 1971). This species is solitary with a home range of 1.4 to 14 ha (Manson 1994; Masters 2003).
6267		population	eng	The Brush-tailed Mulgara currently occurs in scattered populations at fairly low density, but may be locally abundant (D. Pearson pers. comm.) – such as in the Tanami Desert and Uluru National Park (Gibson and Cole 1992; Masters 1993, 1998). The density of Brush-tailed Mulgaras fluctuates depending on long-term climatic conditions (Gibson and Cole 1992). The population also fluctuates annually, declining during breeding season (June to October) and increasing following the influx of juveniles in the spring (Masters 1993, 1997, 1998). There have been no recent declines, as the species appears to be relatively secure within its present range (Masters 2005).
6267		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Its habitat has been adversely affected by the grazing of introduced species (e.g., camels, rabbits, cattle), and changes to the fire regime. However, losses in spinifex cover probably do not adversely affect the species as long as at least 15% cover is maintained (Masters <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is also possible that predation by introduced feral cats and foxes may threaten this species. Climate change is likely to pose a threat to this species in the future (Masters 2005).
6268		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
6268		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central Nigerian plateau (the Jos Plateau).
6268		habitat	eng	It is an extreme wetland specialist, found in moist savanna, seasonally wet grassland, swamps, and also in plantations.
6268		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known, although it appears to be scarce and it is found at low densities.
6268		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It might have a restricted range, with habitat specialisations (moist to wet habitats), and it might be affected by continuing habitat loss.
6269		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed to resolve taxonomic questions concerning the validity of several taxa currently included within the <em>Dasymys incomtus</em> species complex.
6269		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded over Central Africa, East Africa and parts of Southern Africa. It ranges from Congo and Central African Republic in the west, through the Congo Basin, to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya, and from here southwards into Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, western Mozambique and Zimbabwe, ranging as far west as northern Botswana and Namibia and as far south as eastern and coastal regions of South Africa.
6269		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, including forest and savanna habitats, swampland and grasslands. It is unclear if the species can persist in agricultural landscapes.
6269		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species is not known.
6269		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
6270		conservation	eng	Its range is mostly covered by the Ruwenzori Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintainance within its range is needed.
6270		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Ruwenzori Mountains (between lakes Edward and Albert) in Uganda and may possibly occur in adjacent areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is only found from 2,600 to 3,800 m asl.
6270		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane tropical forest, montane grassland and wetlands.
6270		population	eng	The abundance, and population size and trends, for this species are not known.
6270		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range, and is threatened by habitat loss, presumably resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.
6271		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.
6271		distribution	eng	This species appear to be distributed in two separate areas, in south central Angola and in southwestern Zambia, northern Botswana and Namibia.
6271		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist grasslands and wetlands.
6271		population	eng	The abundance, and population size and trends, for this species are not known.
6271		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
6272		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species. Habitat maintainance and restoration may be needed.
6272		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges from Senegal (where it occur in coastal areas) eastwards south of the Sahel belt, through most of West Africa, to western Nigeria and possibly from Cameroon.
6272		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swampy and wetland areas.
6272		population	eng	This is a rare species that is rarely caught.
6272		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but human impacts on its habitat (habitat degradation and water pollution) may be locally significant.
6277		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix III in Honduras. Guyana had a CITES Annual Export Quota of 350 live animals for 2001. In Panama it is listed as Least Concerned. Occurs in Panamanian national parks and on Panamanian islands.
6277		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Mesoamerica and South America, and has a disjunct range. The northern portion of the range occurs from Chiapas and the Yucatan Peninsula (southern Mexico) to northern Ecuador and Colombia and western Venezuela. The southern portion of the range occurs from southern Peru and Bolivia, through south-western Brazil and Paraguay to northern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has been introduced to western and eastern Cuba and the Cayman Islands (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). In Mesoamerica, it can be found from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997). In South America, it is found up to at least 1,500 m (Emmons and Freer 1997).
6277		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mature deciduous and evergreen forest, secondary forest, and in gardens and plantations (Emmons and Freer 1997; Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is a lowland tropical forest species that feeds on palm (<em>Attalea butyraceae</em>), and is an important seed disperser (Wright and Duber 2001). It is diurnal; activity starts early in the morning and continues on and off throughout the day. It is sometimes seen at night as it is easily disturbed when sleeping, and it may continue feeding after sunset. It sleeps in hollow logs, under buttress roots, or in tangles of vegetation. Burrows in banks may be used in some regions. Each individual has several sleeping sites that are used repeatedly. The diet consists mainly of seeds and fruits; small amounts of plant material and fungi are included when supplies of fruit are low. When food is abundant, it carries seeds away and buries them for future use, depositing each seed in a different place. Since not all seeds are recovered, this rodent is an important seed disperser for a number of tree species including Guapinol (<em>Hymenaea courabil</em>) (Hallwachs 1986). <br/><br/>Agoutis live in stable pairs that remain together until one of the pair dies. Often only one individual may be seen, as members of the pair do not stay in close contact with each other. Pairs maintain territories but are fairly tolerant of other agoutis if food is plentiful. In aggressive interactions, the long rump hairs are raised to form a fan-shaped crest. Females give birth to 1 or 2 well-developed young. Soon after birth, the mother leads the young to a small nest hole. Young are independent at 4 to 5 months (Reid 1997).
6277		population	eng	This rodent is widespread, and is one of the most common species throughout most of its range (Emmons and Freer 1997; Reid 1997).
6277		threats	eng	It is a preferred game species (Wright and Duber 2001). This agouti is heavily hunted for meat, and populations are much reduced in many areas with suitable habitat (Emmons and Freer 1997; Reid 1997). It is reluctant to leave its territory and so can be run to ground by dogs and killed with machetes (Reid 1997). In the northern portion of its range, this species is also threatened by habitat loss (conversion to pasture) (Emmons and Freer 1997).
6278		conservation	eng	Listed as potentially Vulnerable in Argentina
6278		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east central and southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay to Misiones Province, Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6278		habitat	eng	A frugivore, there is no information on habitat and ecology; maybe they are similar to other Dasyprocta species. See Dasyprocta puntata.
6278		population	eng	There is no data on the population size of this species.
6278		threats	eng	This rodent is hunted and as a result may have undergone local extinctions.
6279		conservation	eng	The island is a protected area. Considered a threatened species in Panama (R. Samudio pers. comm.).
6279		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Coiba Island, Panama (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
6279		habitat	eng	This rodent is poorly known. It is found in forested regions, which are mainly deciduous (Reid 1997). Its biology has not been reported, but is probably similar to <em>D. punctata</em> (Reid 1997).
6279		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
6279		threats	eng	This species has no major threats, though it could be subject to a single threat event. Future potential threats include tourist development, hurricanes, and disease.
6280		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
6280		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Guianas.
6280		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland humid forests and secondary forests.
6280		population	eng	This species is apparently common.
6280		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted by this is a minor threat.
6281		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas within its geographic range.
6281		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Venezuela and adjacent areas of Colombia, south to Ecuador, Peru, Guyana, Suriname, and west central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6281		habitat	eng	The agouti is a significant harvester of seeds and fruits. Within its home range it accumulates stores for times of fruit scarcity, caching food in small pits which it excavates and then covers. Adult females defend parts of their home ranges when food is scarce. Young may be tolerated within the parent’s home range. An adult male defends as large an area as he can against other adult males, thereby ensuring the paternity of the young in his range. At high densities the ranges of a male and a female may be coincident, and thus they give the appearance of living in pairs (Smythe, 1978). During times of fruit scarcity, the subadults may lose weight. When startled, agouti produce a bark like warning call to alert family members within the home range to a potential predator, and the long hairs of the rump are erected, increasing the animal’s apparent size. On encountering boas (Boa constrictor), they sit at a distance and drum with a hind foot, attracting other family members, who join them in foot drumming until the snake moves off (Kleiman, 1974; Eisenberg, 1974; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6281		population	eng	This rodent is common to uncommon and has a large geographic range (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
6281		threats	eng	This species is intensively hunted for meat, but nevertheless persists close to villages (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
6282		conservation	eng	It is protected under Annex II of the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol in Venezuela. Much of its range is within protected areas.
6282		distribution	eng	The Orinoco agouti is found only in Delta Amacuro State, Venezuela (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs only in lowland areas, from 0 m asl to 30 m asl (Linares, 1998).
6282		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in flooded areas where the vegetation is rainforest or mangrove (J. Ochoa pers. comm.) and it feeds on fruits and seeds.
6282		population	eng	It is a common species (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
6282		threats	eng	It is hunted for food in indigenous areas. It is also affected by habitat destruction (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
6283		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any effective conservation measures in place to protect this species.
6283		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs at elevations of up to 3,080 m asl.
6283		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.
6283		population	eng	There is very little known about this species.
6283		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although it is thought that they are hunted for their meat.
6284		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in every country in its range.
6284		distribution	eng	This species is found in South America north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro (L. Emmons pers. comm.); it occurs in Venezuela, the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname), central Brazil, and Trinidad and Tobago. It has been introduced to the Lesser Antilles; specifically Dominica, Grenada, and US Virgin Islands (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
6284		habitat	eng	This is a forest species, including degraded secondary forest.
6284		population	eng	It is a common species.
6284		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted locally, but this is not seen as a major threat to the species overall.
6285		conservation	eng	This species occurs within a few protected areas in Mexico.
6285		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Veracruz to eastern Oaxaca (Mexico) (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has been introduced to western and eastern Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It can be found from lowlands to 500 m (Reid 1997)
6285		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland evergreen forest and second growth (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is mainly diurnal, although sometimes it is seen at night. It is terrestrial. This species eats fruit, soft seeds, and new growth of forest plants. In Veracruz, fruits eaten include figs, hog plums (<em>Spondias mombin</em>), and <em>Brosimum alicastrum</em>. It may be seen alone or in pairs. Pairs occupy territories of 1 to 2 ha. One or two young are born during the dry season. Young are precocious and follow their mother soon after birth (Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986; Reid 1997).
6285		population	eng	This rodent is probably uncommon (Reid 1997).
6285		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a major threat (IUCN Redlist 1996).
6286		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any effective conservation measures in place to protect this species.
6286		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Brazil south of the Amazon (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6286		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in Caatinga, within semi arid scrubland (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6286		population	eng	This is a common agouti species (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6286		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
6287		conservation	eng	This species occurs within two protected areas (J. Schipper pers. comm.). Further taxonomic research is needed.
6287		distribution	eng	This species is presumably endemic to Roatán Island, Honduras (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). There are peccary populations on several other nearby islands that are thought to be transplants, however, it is not known which species they represent (Emmons pers. comm.).
6287		habitat	eng	This rodent is poorly known. It is found in forested regions and second growth forest (Reid 1997). Its biology has not been reported, but is probably similar to that of <em>D. punctata</em> (Reid 1997).
6287		population	eng	This species is locally common where protected or where not persecuted.
6287		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat-loss and habitat degradation, as well as hunting, are major threats.
6288		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> has been recorded in a few protected areas. It is considered a conservation priority species in Uruguay (E. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2010).
6288		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> is found in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil. It occurs as far south as the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina (Abba 2008). The distribution is more restricted than depicted by Redford and Eisenberg (1992) and Wetzel (1985). Localities in the west near the Andes are based on incorrectly identified individuals. In the province of Córdoba, Argentina, it is restricted to the east. The exact northern limit of its range is uncertain due to its morphological similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">Dasypus septemcinctus</span>.
6288		habitat	eng	This armadillo species is typically found in the grasslands and pampas of northern and central Argentina (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Abba 2008, Abba and Cassini 2008). It is also present, but less common, in woodland and forest habitats.
6288		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> was previously common (although there are no population density estimates available), but it is sensitive to habitat loss through urbanization, and agricultural expansion has meant that populations are declining or absent over much of its former range (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It remains a common species in parts of its range (e.g. the province of Buenos Aires, Abba 2008).
6288		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> is threatened by habitat loss through agriculture, urbanization, accidental mortality on roads, direct hunting for food and predation by dogs (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008).
6289		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kappleri</span> is present in a number of protected areas.
6289		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Colombia (east of the Andes), Venezuela (south of the Orinoco), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and south through the Amazon Basin of Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and northern Bolivia (Pando Department) (Gardner 2005). In Brazil, it occurs in a large part of the state of Mato Grosso, but has not been recorded from southern Pará state, east of the Rio Tapajós. The easternmost locality is on the left bank of Rio das Mortes, a tributary of the upper Rio Araguaia, western Mato Grosso. There is a potentially disjunct population to the south of Marajó Island (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
6289		habitat	eng	This relatively large armadillo is restricted to the tropical moist lowland forests of the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. In savanna areas it is restricted to forest patches. The species constructs burrows in well-drained soil. The females typically give birth to two young (Eisenberg 1989).
6289		population	eng	There are no details available on the population status of this species.
6289		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Locally, the species is threatened by deforestation, and in Ecuador and Brazil it is subject to hunting (Tirira 2001, T.C.S. Anacleto pers. comm. 2010). It is unable to survive in savannas or open areas.
6290		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas.
6290		distribution	eng	This armadillo ranges from the southern United States of America through Mexico and Central America, to South America as far south as northern Argentina (McBee and Baker 1982, Gardner 2005). It is also present in the Lesser Antilles, on Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago.
6290		habitat	eng	It is very adaptable and is present in a variety of habitats (McBee and Baker 1982). It has a high rate of reproduction, and commonly produces quadruplets.
6290		population	eng	It is a common species.
6290		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; it is hunted throughout its range, but given its high rate of reproduction it seems able to withstand a reasonably high degree of offtake. In North America, it is subject to poisoning as it is often considered a nuisance.
6291		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Río Abiseo National Park.
6291		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. pilosus</span> has been recorded only from the south-western Peruvian Andes in the departments of San Martín, La Libertad, Huánuco, and Junín (Gardner 2005). It has recently been observed in the department of Amazonas (L. Bermúdez Larrazábal pers. comm. 2009). The known localities were mapped incorrectly by Wetzel (1982), and repeated in Eisenberg and Redford (1999). It ranges from lowlands to 3,000 m asl.
6291		habitat	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the Peruvian yungas (subtropical montane deciduous and evergreen forests). It is found in areas with dense or shady cover and limestone formations.
6291		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. pilosus</span>.
6291		threats	eng	This species is threatened by severe deforestation of its habitat. It is likely subject to hunting, but there is no information on the intensity and the degree to which it constitutes a major threat.
6292		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> has been recorded from several protected areas and is protected by national legislation in Venezuela.
6292		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> is found throughout the Llanos (the flat plains) of Venezuela and Colombia. It has been recorded at elevations between 25 and 200 m asl (Eisenberg 1989).
6292		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> is generally restricted to open or shrubland habitats in lowland and mid-altitude areas. Animals have a home range of between 1.7 and 11.6 hectares (Ferguson-Laguna 1984).
6292		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> is locally rare. In intact natural habitats, it has been found to be moderately common.
6292		threats	eng	In parts of its range it is threatened by intense hunting for subsistence purposes (Ferguson-Laguna 1984), and by ongoing habitat loss.
6293		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> is present in some protected areas.
6293		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> ranges from the lower Amazon Basin of Brazil, to the Gran Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Its southern limit is uncertain due to morphological similarities to <span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi</span> and juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">D. novemcinctus</span> (see Hamlett 1939) .
6293		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> appears to be a grassland species. However, in south-eastern Brazil it prefers to live in gallery forests. It appears adaptable to human disturbance and secondary habitat (Aguiar and Fonseca 2008).
6293		population	eng	The population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> is not known.
6293		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Locally, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> is threatened by habitat degradation and hunting for food.
6294		conservation	eng	Recovery objectives for this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: ensuring that the species persists within its present (1992) range, and increasing population numbers by expansion into former range.<br/><br/>Management actions completed or underway (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996): habitat management research into the impact of prescribed burning and timber harvesting in the Jarrah forest is under way. Western Quoll habitat requirements are considered during rehabilitation after bauxite mining; impact of fox control programs completed research has shown that Western Quolls have benefited from fox control programs using 1080 meat baits. A broad-scale fox baiting program is now under way in the Jarrah forest; Western Quoll populations are being monitored at several sites within the Jarrah forest as part of the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia) faunal management programs and as part of ongoing research into fox control, prescribed burning, and timber harvesting. A monitoring site in the Wheatbelt has not yet been established; distribution and requirements in the semi-arid zone increase over the next few years. An extensive survey for Western Quolls in the southern Wheatbelt failed to detect any. Populations may have continued to decline over the last 10 years and restocking of suitable areas is probably required; captive breeding program ongoing and successfully undertaken at Perth Zoo since 1989. Over 60 Western Quolls have been bred, with most being used for translocation to Julimar Conservation Park; a successful translocation has been undertaken at Julimar Conservation Park. Translocations to Wheatbelt reserves and Shark Bay have been proposed.<br/><br/>A study into the impact of introduced predators on native fauna, including native predators such as the Western Quoll is currently underway (K. Morris pers. comm.).
6294		distribution	eng	The Western Quoll, or Chuditch, formerly occurred as two subspecies over approximately 70% of the Australian continent, being found in every mainland state and the Northern Territory; museum specimens from the east of Australia of <em>D. geoffroii geoffroii</em> are known from Peak Downs in eastern Queensland (Thomas 1888), the Liverpool plains of New South Wales (Gould 1840), and Mildura New South Wales (Kreft 1857). The western subspecies, <em>D. g. fortis</em>, is now restricted to the south-west of Western Australia, occurring at low densities throughout the Jarrah forest and more patchily in the drier woodlands and mallee shrublands of the central and southern Wheatbelt (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The Julimar population is translocated.
6294		habitat	eng	The former wide range of the Western Quoll suggests the capability of occupying a variety of habitats, including deserts, woodlands, mallee shrublands, sclerophyll forests, and coastal areas. The species can be found in degraded areas. Western Quolls are generally nocturnal and solitary. Females construct burrows during pregnancy and maintain non-overlapping core areas in their home range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is an opportunistic species that mainly eats invertebrates.
6294		population	eng	The total population of Western Quolls is probably under 10,000 individuals. Some populations are under 100 individuals (as in Julimar). The species probably naturally occurs in small populations. The Western Quoll is very wide ranging. There is some fluctuation within populations. The species has suffered declines in the past, but due to active management and translocations, it seems to be recovering. <br/><br/>Western Quoll are known from 25 of the 57 fauna monitoring sites in the south-west of Western Australia, in 15 of these, the species has increased in abundance (as measured by trap success rates) or remained unchanged since fox control was implemented in 1996 (K. Morris pers. comm.). In the other 10 sites this species has declined; the reason for this is unclear at present, however, in at least one of these sites (Honeymoon Pool, Collie River) management practices have changed so that rubbish bins are no longer left at the picnic and camping sites (Western Quolls are well known scavengers) (K. Morris pers. comm.). A study into the impact of introduced predators on native fauna, including native predators such as the Western Quoll, is currently underway and reintroduction of captive breed <em>D. g. fortis</em> to former areas of its range in the arid zone of Western Australia is planned for the period 2009-2012 (K. Morris pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Whilst no substantiated evidence has been found to support the continued presence of the eastern subspecies <em>D. g. geoffroii</em> in Queensland, New South Wales or Victoria, there are three unconfirmed reports cited in the Threatened Species of Western New South Wales folder (1996) of this species from far western New South Wales. Specifically, these sighting are from 1996 at North of Broken Hill, in 1990 from ?Myall? NW of Tilpa, and ?Albermarle? between Broken Hill and Menindee in 1988. The latter record was chased out of a tree but escaped into a rabbit warren. Known and unconfirmed occurrences of <em>D. maculatus</em> from the central and far west of New South Wales make it hard to verify reports of <em>D. geoffroii</em> made by the public (as distinguishing the two species can be difficult). A live <em>D. geoffroii</em> was confiscated by New South Wales Department of Conservation and Climate change staff in 1983 from a chicken pen on a property in Central West New South Wales ?  it was presumed to have been a captive individual/pet that had originated from a from Western Australia stock, however, its origins were never verified and there was no further consideration or exploration of the possibility of a wild population persisting in the area, despite being within its former range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It is generally accepted that mammal survey techniques in most areas of the former eastern range of <em>D. g. geoffroii</em> have not been targeted towards <em>D. g. geoffroii</em>, being neither adequate in magnitude or duration to detect the presence of this species if it does indeed persist at all.
6294		threats	eng	Habitat alteration due to clearing, grazing, and frequent wildfire (especially extensive, hot wildfires) may have detrimentally impacted the population; after fires, there is often an incursion of foxes, which can be detrimental. Competition for food and predation from cats and foxes, hunting, and poisoning have also contributed to its decline.
6295		conservation	eng	The Northern Quoll occurs in a number of protected areas. Recommended actions for this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: monitor abundance and disease status at selected sites across range; undertake additional research into causes of decline. In the Northern Territory, it has been recorded from 15 conservation reserves (Kakadu, Litchfield, Garig Gunak Barlu, Mary River, Manton Dam, Nitmiluk, Umbrawara Gorge, Fogg Dam, Charles Darwin, Black Jungle, Tjuwaliyn (Doglas Hot Springs), Berry Springs, Limmen, Leaning Tree Lagoon, and Howard Springs) (Woinarski 2005).
6295		distribution	eng	The Northern Quoll occurs in the northern parts of Australia. Historically, it occurred in northern Australia from Pilbara to south-east Queensland, extending inland as far south as Alexandria. More recently, there has been substantial decline in southern and eastern Queensland and the Cape York Peninsula. The Northern Quoll has apparently disappeared from most or all of the lower rainfall former range in the Northern Territory and south-east and south-west Kimberley. A substantial decline has also occurred in Pilbara (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species has been recorded from Groote Eylandt and the nearby North-east Island, Marchinbar Island (in the Wessel group), Inglis Island (in the English Company Islands group) and Vanderlin Island (Sir Edward Pellew group). It has also been recently translocated to Astell and Pobassoo Islands in the English Company island group (Woinarski 2005). This species occurs up to around 1,300 m asl.
6295		habitat	eng	The Northern Quoll occurs in a range of habitats including Eucalyptus open forest, monsoon rainforest, and savanna woodlands. The species is most abundant (and apparently with less fluctuations) in rocky environments. In north Queensland, it is most common in coastal and/or high altitude rocky areas and in drier habitats of upland tablelands (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species is a generalist, as it occurs in a wide range of habitats and its diet consists of a variety of invertebrates and small vertebrates (Woinarski 2005). The Northern Quoll shelters in hollow logs, rock crevices, caves, and tree hollows (Woinarski 2005). It is mostly a ground-dwelling species, but is also an adept climber (Woinarski 2005).
6295		population	eng	The species is locally common, although it currently is undergoing declines across much of its range. Densities of 3-4 females per square kilometre in savanna woodland have been recorded (Oakwood 2002). Several studies suggest that there has been a recent, severe population declines in Kakadu National Park due to cane toads (Watson and Woinarski 2003; Oakwood 2004). This species is common in north-western Kimberley, particularly in near-coastal, high-rainfall areas (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
6295		threats	eng	Current threats are uncertain, but the species may be vulnerable to disease, possibly related to the presence of cats. Cats and dogs are known to kill individuals, although they apparently do not like to eat them. Predation is the main cause of mortality in some areas (exacerbated by changes in fire regimes that result in more frequent burning), particularly woodland and forest habitats (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). There have been recent substantial population declines in the Iron Range (Queensland), Cape York Peninsula, and the top end of the Northern Territory associated with the spread of cane toads and land-use changes. For instance, major declines to regional extinction have been reported for Northern Quolls following cane toad invasion on Cape York Peninsula (Burnett 1997). Northern Quolls appear to be particularly susceptible to the poison of cane toads, and are killed when they attempt to kill or consume the toads (Woinarski 2005). The species has also disappeared from coastal lowland areas in north Queensland following agricultural and urban development (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6296		conservation	eng	Recommended actions for Eastern Quolls (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: design and implementation of a suitable system for monitoring change in range and abundance of the species in Tasmania; identify threats and habitat requirements for management, through appropriately developed research. Ongoing fox control measures in Tasmania should be fully supported.
6296		distribution	eng	Historically, the Eastern Quoll occurred on Tasmania and on the Australian mainland, including South Australia (from the southern Flinders Range to the Fleureu Peninsula), Victoria, and New South Wales to the mid-north coast (C. Rehberg pers. comm.). The range has now been reduced by 50-90%. It has become extinct on the mainland within the last 40 years (the last mainland specimen being a road-killed specimen was in 31 January 1963 in Vaucluse, Sydney), although there are numerous unconfirmed reports of the species since then (C. Rehberg pers. comm.). The species is now present only in Tasmania and on Bruny Island, where it may have been introduced. It is widespread within Tasmania, but its distribution is patchy (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6296		habitat	eng	In Tasmania, Eastern Quoll occurs in open forests, woodlands, grasslands, and ecotones including agricultural pasture. It also occurs in heaths, wet scrub, and moorlands. The quoll occurs at all altitudes and in a wide range of vegetation types except rainforest (Rounsevell <em>et al.</em> 1991). Specific habitat requirements are unknown (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6296		population	eng	The species is still fairly common on Tasmania.
6296		threats	eng	The threatening processes that caused the decline and extinction of Eastern Quoll on the Australian mainland are unknown. While the biology of the species is fairly well known, diseases and habitat requirements for conservation of the population are not. The Eastern Quoll is susceptible to road mortality and an increase in traffic speed has resulted in local extinction in one area (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The impact of feral cats in Tasmania is not well understood, and red foxes were recently introduced (in 2000), which could pose a major threat to this species in the future.
6299		conservation	eng	The New Guinea Quoll has been recorded from a number of protected areas. It is not currently protected by any government legislation and deserves some attention as a key predator.
6299		distribution	eng	The New Guinea Quoll is widespread throughout much of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), but has a patchy distribution across its range. It has a wide elevational range (sea level to 3,600 m), most often occurring 1,000-1,300 m asl; it is absent from the south-western lowlands (Flannery 1995). It is not certain if the species occurs in the Vogelkop region of Papua, although the map is drawn to include that area. The New Guinea Quoll is also found on Yapen Island.
6299		habitat	eng	The New Guinea Quoll is widespread throughout tropical moist forest including areas of disturbed forest. It has been reported from rural gardens and entering villages to prey on rats. Very little is known about the biology of this species. It is, however, clear from a study of museum specimens (Woolley 1994) that breeding occurs throughout the year. The New Guinea Quoll is a top-level predator in New Guinea.
6299		population	eng	This species is locally common, but declines have been recorded especially in areas where human impact has increased.
6299		threats	eng	Increasing human populations, hunting by dogs, and expanding land-use may have an impact on this species (particularly the potential loss of the lowland habitats to oil palms). It is possible that it is affected by competition with introduced cats, but studies are needed for confirmation. Cane toads may also pose a threat.
6300		conservation	eng	Recovery objectives (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) for <em>D. m. maculatus</em> include: monitor populations; prevent further habitat loss and fragmentation; minimise any impact that 1080 baiting may be having on the species; undertake public education, especially of private land holders in rural areas, to reduce direct killing.<br/><br/>Population trends should be conducted using repetitive density estimates in a range of habitats across its distribution. Suveys are particularly needed in central and southern New South Wales to complement forest surveys in north-eastern areas. Cage trapping and hair tubing have proved fairly successful in detecting the species if more than one sampling period per site is undertaken. Additional studies should investigate the effects of competition from other predators including feral cats, foxes and dingoes/wild dogs. Habitat use and further study of dietary requirements are also a priority. In Tasmania, monitoring of population densities should be conducted in relation to forestry practices.<br/><br/>Management actions required for <em>D. m. maculatus</em> (Maxwell <em>et al. </em>1996) include: determining the critical threatening processes and taking remedial actions; minimising habitat loss, establishing broad wildlife corridors between conservation areas and implement these in all land use plans; feral predator control in significant areas; minimising non-target kills from 1080 baiting in known habitat areas. <br/><br/>There have been several management actions completed or underway for <em>D. m. maculatus</em> (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).  For Victoria, an Action Statement was prepared under Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. A study of diet and some home range estimates and bait take behaviour was completed (Belcher 1995). Experimental baiting trials are under way (commenced 1995 by DNRE Orbost). For Tasmania, a three-year study of diet, fine-scale habitat use and competition with the two sympatric dasyurid carnivores <em>D. viverrinus</em> and <em>Sarcophilus harrisii</em> was completed (Jones 1995; Jones and Rose 1996).<br/><br/>Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) define recovery objectives for <em>D. m. gracilis</em> as being the identification of current distribution and limiting factors, and to conserve remaining populations.  Much of the habitat of this subspecies is secure from large-scale disturbances as it lies within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. A three-year field study of the life-history strategy, ranging behaviour, feeding ecology, distribution and abundance, and conservation status of the species in north Queensland is in the report stage (Burnett 2000). A management profile for the species in State Forests in north Queensland has been prepared (Burnett 1995) and a report on the conservation status of the species has been presented to QDE (Burnett 1993) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>Management actions required for <em>D. m. gracilis</em> include continued monitoring of quoll populations; additional survey work in order to locate other quoll populations and to test more rigorously for population distributional limits; experimental removal of cane toads from roads within the optimum habitat of <em>D. m. gracilis</em> and monitoring of effects if any on quoll populations; community extension work in areas where quolls have been, and continue to be, displaced (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6300		distribution	eng	The Spotted-tailed Quoll is endemic to Australia, where it exists as two subspecies: <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dasyurus maculatus maculatus</em> was formerly distributed in south-eastern Queensland (as far north as Bundaberg and as far west as Chinchilla), eastern New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania (including some of the Bass Strait Islands (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) report that in south-east Queensland it has undergone a range contraction indicated to be in excess of 30% over the last 25 years and is now rare in most areas. Remaining populations are concentrated in the Blackall and Conondale Ranges, southern Darling Downs (Stanthorpe to Wallangarra), Main Range (Goomburra to Spicers Gap), Lamington Plateau and McPherson/Border Ranges (Springbrook to Mount Lindsay). This species is still extant in the Australian Capital Territory and eastern New South Wales, patchily distributed as far west as Warrumbungles National Park with a number of localized areas where reasonably abundant, mostly in wet forests. Most abundant populations believed to be in north-eastern New South Wales, where most commonly encountered on the north coast and ranges from the Hunter Valley, Taree, Port Macquarie to Coffs Harbour and gorges and escarpments of the New England Tableland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Victoria, it is now patchily distributed through the Eastern Highlands, East Gippsland, the Otway Range and the Mount Eccles - Lake Condah area. Records of the species since 1970 are concentrated in the upper Snowy River valley, the Otway Range, Mount Eccles National Park, the Rodger River - Errinundra Plateau area and around the Gippsland Lakes (Mansergh 1995). There is a recent (1991) record from the Murray Mallee near Swan Hill, however, no population has been located. In Tasmania Spotted-tailed Quoll is absent from islands and absent or rare in the central midlands and parts of the central east coast cleared for agriculture. Records (339) during the past 30 years show it is more frequently recorded in wet forests or scrub in the north-east highlands and in the west of the State (Rounsevell <em>et al.</em> 1991). It is extinct in South Australia.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>D. m. gracilis</em> formerly occurred throughout the latitudinal range of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of north Queensland. It is now apparently extinct from the Atherton and Evelyn Tablelands, and there are few sightings south of 17<sup>o</sup>45'S. This represents a decline in extent of occurrence of approximately 20% (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6300		habitat	eng	<em>D. m. maculatus</em> is found in forests, woodlands, wet forest alliance, rainforest, coastal heaths and coastal wet scrub, estuarine areas, and rocky headlands (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The optimum habitat for <em>D. m. gracilis</em> appears to be upland (>900 m asl) notophyll vine forest. Occurs in lower abundances in progressively more marginal habitat - in lower altitude notophyll and mesophyll habitats (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Occasionally it occurs as a transient in wet and dry sclerophyll forest and in modified habitats (e.g., pastures.
6300		population	eng	The total population of Spotted-tailed Quolls is on the order of 20,000 mature individuals. Populations in south-east Queensland, western Victoria (Otways and far south-west of Victoria), and coastal areas of southern New South Wales are known to be declining. Populations in north-eastern Queensland are small, fragmented, and are <1,000 individuals (Burnett 2000). Tasmanian population numbers appear to be stable. <br/><br/>There is some evidence of a decline in distribution or in numbers in remaining suitable habitat (e.g., in the Otway Range), and the species is mostly uncommon (although it is present in good numbers in some areas, such as the Marengo and Chaelundi Forests).
6300		threats	eng	The reasons for decline of <em>D. m. maculatus</em> are a combination of habitat loss and fragmentation, possible disease at the beginning of the 20th century, competition with foxes and feral cats, predation by foxes and dogs, and impact of widespread strychnine baiting for dingoes. Most recently threats include non-target mortality from trapping and poisoning (there is a long-standing concern that quolls are being killed by the use of 1080 poisoning, but this has not been confirmed and is currently the focus of a number of investigative trials). Direct persecution is significant as they are attracted to caged birds and do not necessarily take flight when discovered. Estimated forest loss as a result of clearing within its former range in south-east Queensland is over 70%, with the majority of loss occurring over the last 20 years. The species uses a large number of den sites throughout the year and activities that reduce the number of den logs are likely to be significant. In Tasmania this taxon is naturally rare, possibly as a result of competition with <em>D. viverrinus</em>, <em>Sarcophilus harrisii</em>, and feral cats (Jones 1995). Road mortality could be a significant factor where high speed roads and good habitat coincide, as quolls are attracted to feed on the carcasses of road-killed animals (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/><em>D. m. gracilis</em> is susceptible to factors which increase juvenile and/or adult mortality, or which otherwise decrease breeding success. Such factors may include habitat clearance, logging, introduced species including cane toad, and direct killing at chicken pens, at houses, and on roads (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6301		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wassur National Park (Papua Province, Indonesia) and Tonda Wildlife Mangement Area (Papua New Guinea). Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to Bronze Quolls are needed (especially interactions with introduced species).
6301		distribution	eng	<em>Dasyurus spartacus</em> is the only mammal in New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) restricted to the Trans-Fly ecoregion in the southern part of the island that cannot also be found in Northern Australia (Helgen and Oliver 2004). This species is thought to range in elevation from 0 m to 200 m asl (S. Hamilton pers. comm.), but it has only been recorded from 0 m to 60 m asl. It has not been recorded north of the Fly River although patches of suitable habitat exist in these areas.
6301		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal predatory species occurring in savanna woodlands. The habitat is reduced during the wet season when much of the lower lying areas are inundated with water, confining both predator and prey species to smaller "islands” of habitat. Individuals have been caught raiding chicken houses, and there is a report from locals of a female with young being found in a newly dug (empty) pit toilet at Serki village in April 2006. <br/><br/>Little is known about the biology of this species; Woolley (2001) has recorded observations on reproduction and suggested that this species is a seasonal breeder. A clear distinction in size and weight among 12 individuals was observed, suggesting that two cohorts were represented (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It is thought to live for a maximum of three years.
6301		population	eng	This species was described from 5 specimens (2 juveniles, 1 adult male, and 2 adult females) (Van Dyck 1988), and it is now known from a total of only 12 museum specimens. Locals report it to be common in parts of the Trans-Fly region, and there are several local language names for this species across its range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It was first found in 1972 (Waithman 1979). Earlier mammal surveys in the region, including those of the 1936-37 Archbold expedition (Rand and Brass 1940) and Jentink (1907), did not find it. Four specimens were collected by P. A. Woolley in 1991 (Woolley 2001). Seven weeks of targeted trapping with between 100 and 150 traps per night in the Trans-Fly in 2006 (at both Mibini and Serki) resulted in only 12 records of this species, eight of which were captured in traps; the other four were obtained from local hunters (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
6301		threats	eng	Bronze Quolls are possibly affected indirectly by human hunting practices. People in the region use dogs for tracking and locating other game species. When hunting dogs locate quolls, they reportedly kill them. Predation likely also occurs from feral dogs. Introduced feral cats were found breeding in areas between Morehead and Mibini in 2006 within several hundred meters of sites where Bronze Quolls were trapped. Feral cats have not been recorded previously in the Trans-Fly region. The impact of cats on this species is unknown, but one specimen obtained by Woolley was killed by a cat (P. Woolley pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is a predicted loss of Bronze Quoll habitat due to invasive weeds (e.g., <em>Mimosa</em>), and altered fire regimes. The greatest threat from invasive species, however, could be from cane toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) and the toxins they possess, which are lethal to many vertebrates if consumed. Cane toads are a potential threat given the localised extinction of its congener <em>D. hallucatus</em> in the Northern Territory, which coincided with the range expansion of toads across northern Australia in recent times (Oakwood and Foster 2008). At present, this threat remains speculative given the fact that cane toads have not yet arrived and the effects of cane toads on this species are unknown.
6302		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <em>Daubentonia madagascariensis</em> is reported to occur in numerous protected areas, including 12 national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mamamara Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d?Ambre, Ranomafana, Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namoroka, Verezenantsoro, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibé-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Forêt d?Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d?Ivohibe). In addition, the Aye-aye has been sighted in the north-eastern forests of Daraina, which was declared a new protected area in 2005 (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a captive breeding program involving various institutions, and a EEP and an SSP.
6302		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. Recent confirmed sightings document the Aye-aye's presence in eastern forests from Ampanefana in the north to Andohahela National Park in the south, and in western forests from Montagne d'Ambre in the north to at least the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park. There is also an introduced population on the island of Nosy Mangabe and Aye-Aye island, above Mananara Nord (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein). Sea-level to 1,875 m.
6302		habitat	eng	The nocturnal aye-aye is quite adaptable and is known from a variety of habitats including primary rain forest, deciduous forest, secondary growth, cultivated areas, dry scrub forest, coconut groves, and mangrove swamps; the southern spiny desert appears to be the only habitat in which the species does not occur. Its presence in many areas appears to be determined largely by its primary food resource, the seeds of ramy (<em>Canarium</em> spp.) although there are also other dietary staples (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). <br/><br/>During the day, Aye-ayes sleep in nests, tree forks or vine tangles. Nests may be occupied for a few days at a time and several individuals may use the same nest at different times. Males occupy much larger home ranges than females, 125-215 ha compared to 30-40 ha; interestingly, aye-ayes appear to spend more time moving along the ground than any other lemur except <em>Lemur catta</em> (Sterling 1993). Recent evidence suggests that Aye-ayes are not strictly solitary, but also forage in tandem and may exhibit differing relationships between animals of the same sex (Sterling and Richard 1995). There appears to be no restricted mating season and a single young is born. Females begin breeding at three or four years, and indications are that females give birth every two to three years (Petter and Peyrieras 1970).
6302		threats	eng	Despite the Aye-aye?s widespread distribution, it is still killed as a crop pest, and a harbinger of evil, and habitat destruction remains a localized threat throughout the range. In addition, trees such as <em>Intsia bijugia</em> and <em>Canarium madagascariense</em>, which are dietary staples for this species, are also cut preferentially for the construction of boats, houses, and coffins (e.g., Iwana and Iwakawa, 1988). There is also some evidence that it is hunted for food in some areas (e.g., Makira, C. Golden pers. comm.).
6313		conservation	eng	Most of the specimens were collected in Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Research is needed into population numbers, the species range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures. Populations of this species should be monitored. Further management of the protected areas in which the species occurs is needed.
6313		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift valley in southwest Uganda, western Rwanda, Burundi and extreme eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurs from 1,700 to 2,400 m asl, perhaps even higher.
6313		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species mostly confined to high altitude marshes within bamboo and montane forest. It is specialized for climbing on stems of marshy grass and other plants. The species has not been recorded from human habitats. Two pregnant females have been recorded with three embryos each, and a nest with four young has been found (Nowak 1999).
6313		population	eng	In some swamps it may be common but to date only about 20 specimens have ever been collected.
6313		threats	eng	The small geographic range of the species has experienced considerable habitat destruction in recent years and has a very high human population density. However, much of the species habitat is in the highlands which is well protected in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (Democratic Republic of the Congo), the lowlands are more threatened.
6316		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in Queensland under the 1992 Nature Conservation Act and is protected nationally by the Environmental Protection Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Environmental Protection Agency 2007). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
6316		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia. It is mainly found in the Brigalow Belt region, along the central Queensland coast in the areas of Townsville to Keswick Island. This species has also been reported in the islands of Magnetic, South Mole, and Shaw Islands (Environmental Protection Agency 2007). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,756 km²<sup></sup>.
6316		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open forest, including wet sclerophyll forest, with under-storeys of low vegetation. This species has been collected in leaf litter and has been found sheltering under objects on the forest floor (Shea 1986).
6316		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
6316		threats	eng	This species occurs mainly in the Brigalow Belt, a region which has been extensively cleared for agricultural use (Wilson 2003). The remaining habitat is fragmented and under further pressure from urban development and invasive plants and animals.
6317		conservation	eng	There are recovery and management plans in place for this species, and it is listed as a species with special protection status. Further research and monitoring of its population is required to ensure that the current legislation is effective. Conservation measures, including the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to ensure that habitat loss within this species' range is reduced.
6317		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Queensland, Australia, and was previously restricted to 13 localities (Porter 1998), including areas in the Brigalow Belt (Wilson 2003). Its range may now be further reduced as it is only known from four of these sites; Mount Crosby, Lake Manchester, Karana Downs and the Bunya Mountains (Department of the Environment and Water Resources 2007). The Bunya Mountains are disjunct from the other three localities. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,283 km² however, its extent of occurrence is closer to 20,000 km²<sup></sup>.
6317		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky outcroppings in dry, open eucalyptus-acacia woodlands with an under-storey of grass and shrubs (Porter 1998). It is known to inhabit leaf litter and has also been found under logs and stones (Ryan 2006).
6317		population	eng	This species is rare (Porter 1998).
6317		threats	eng	This species is thought to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance (Porter 1998). Land clearing for agriculture has occurred in this region and the remaining habitat has become fragmented and degraded by invasive plants and animals (Wilson 2003).
6329		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
6329		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul states) and northeastern Argentina (Misiones province) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
6329		habitat	eng	<em>Delomys dorsalis</em> occurs in forest in cool climates including lowlands and highlands in south and from 600 to 2,400 m in north (Costa, Geise, and Vieira pers. comm.). This species occurs in wet tropical and subtropical forests (Cademartori <em>et al.</em> 2005). Bonvicino and Geise (1995) found this species in mountain scrub montane forest habitats at 1,750 m elevation and above.
6329		population	eng	This rodent is locally abundant (Costa, Geise, and Vieira pers. comm.).
6329		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.
6330		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
6330		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Atlantic coast (Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to Santa Catarina States), of southeast Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
6330		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in forest around 500 m elevation, inland from coastline in North and along coast in South (Geise and Costa pers. comm.).
6330		population	eng	This species is locally common (Voss, 1993).
6330		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.
6335		conservation	eng	Although the beluga was hunted intensively on a commercial basis in many parts of its range during the 20th century, the only known direct removals at present are for food (subsistence use) and the aquarium trade (there is a limited live-capture fishery in Russia). A regional management body, the Joint Committee on Narwhal and Beluga/North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (JCNB/NAMMCO), exists in Canada and Greenland with the expectation that it will ensure the conservation of belugas. This body sets or recommends catch limits for beluga populations within member countries. Catch levels from subpopulations range anywhere from <10 to a few hundred animals per year. Removals from some subpopulations/stocks are considered sustainable, however, there is concern and evidence that removals from other subpopulations/stocks are not (e.g. Eastern Hudson Bay and West Greenland) (Alvarez and Heide-Jørgensen 2004, COSEWIC 2004, NAMMCO/JCNB 2005).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
6335		conservation	eng	Local and regional management bodies exist in Canada, Greenland, and the United States (Alaska), with the expectation that they will ensure the conservation of belugas. These include the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee (United States) and JCNB/NAMMCO (Canada/Greenland) and generally set harvest limits or recommend harvest limits for beluga populations within countries of interest. Harvest levels from sub-populations range anywhere from <10 to a few hundred animals per year. Removals from some subpopulations/stocks are considered sustainable, however there is concern and evidence that removals from other subpopulations/stocks are not (e.g. Eastern Hudson Bay and West Greenland) (Alvarez and Heide-Jørgensen 2004). In the Russian Federation, there is little to no population assessment.
6335		distribution	eng	Beluga whales are distributed in high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from the west coast of Greenland westwards to Svalbard (Stewart and Stewart 1989, O'Corry-Crowe 2002). Records from the Sea of Japan and Baltic Sea are considered extralimital but resident populations occur in cold temperate latitudes in Cook Inlet (Alaska) and the St. Lawrence River system (Canada).
6335		distribution	eng	Beluga whales are distributed in high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from the west coast of Greenland westwards to Svalbard (Stewart and Stewart 1989; O'Corry-Crowe 2002). Records from the Sea of Japan and Baltic Sea are considered extralimital, but resident populations occur in cold temperate latitudes in Cook Inlet (Alaska, US) and the St. Lawrence River system (Canada). Satellite telemetry, genetic studies, and organochlorine analyses show belugas have strong matrilineally driven seasonal site fidelity to fjords and estuaries for summering and they migrate to separate wintering grounds (O’Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1997; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001 de March <em>et al</em>. 2002; Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002; O’Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 2002; Palsbøll <em>et al</em>. 2002).
6335		habitat	eng	Belugas are relatively well-studied as a result of carcass sampling in association with hunting, along with a considerable amount of satellite-linked radio-tracking (Richard <em>et al</em>. 1998a,b; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003a; Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Belugas occur seasonally (mainly in summer) in coastal waters as shallow as 1-3 m deep but also in deep offshore waters (800 m).  They typically enter estuaries and sometimes move upstream into rivers; there are records of individuals or small groups ranging hundreds of kilometers from the sea. They occupy estuaries, continental shelf and slope waters, and deep ocean basins in conditions of open water, loose ice, and heavy pack ice.  Belugas generally prefer to overwinter in shallow or coastal areas, usually with light or highly moveable ice cover (Barber <em>et al</em>., 2001; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003a) and may occur as fully Arctic populations (Richard <em>et al</em>. 1998b; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001) or sub-Arctic populations (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/><br/>Some belugas undertake large-scale annual migrations between summering and wintering sites, while others remain in the same area year-round, shifting offshore only when excluded from coastal habitat by fast-ice formation (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Large numbers of migratory belugas occur along the northwestern and northern Alaskan coast, in the Canadian high Arctic, and in western Hudson Bay.  At certain times of the year, those whales migrate thousands of kilometers, in some cases as far as 80oN into dense pack ice (Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001) or thousands of kilometers into the North Water polynya or to the pack ice off West Greenland (Richard <em>et al</em>. 1998a,b; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003a).  Non-migratory belugas that generally make seasonal shifts in distribution of less than a few hundred kilometers are found in Cook Inlet, Cumberland Sound, Svalbard, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Kingsley 2002; Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>While the general features of beluga whale habitat can be described for the relatively well-studied populations, the importance of those features is not well understood (Laidre <em>et al</em>. in press).  For example, the summer occupation of nearshore/estuarine waters has been ascribed alternatively to feeding (Seaman <em>et al</em>. 1982), to warm water providing a thermal advantage to neonates (Sergeant and Brodie 1969), and to the presence of fresh water and coarse substrates facilitating skin shedding during molt (St. Aubin <em>et al</em>. 1990; Frost <em>et al</em>. 1993).  The relative importance of each of those factors likely varies based on the environmental conditions (e.g., water temperatures and prey availability) specific to each of the summering areas (Frost and Lowry 1990a).  Similarly, it is unclear why belugas sometimes move into deep, ice-covered waters.  One potential reason would be to avoid killer whale (Orcinus orca) predation (Frost <em>et al</em>. 1992).  However, the movements into the ice appear excessive for what would be needed to avoid killer whales (Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001) and actually could expose belugas to predation by polar bears (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1987a) as well as increase the risk of entrapment in the ice.  It is possible belugas move into ice-covered offshore regions for feeding, primarily on Arctic cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>), but few data are available to test this hypothesis.  Similarly, the associations of belugas with features such as the continental shelf break (Moore 2000) may be related to oceanographic processes that produce good feeding conditions (Laidre <em>et al</em>. in Press).<br/><br/>Dives may last up to 25 min. and can reach depths of  800 m.  The beluga has a diverse diet, which varies greatly from area to area.  Although various species of fish are considered to be the primary prey items (including salmon, herring, and Arctic cod), belugas also feed on a wide variety of mollusks (such as squid and octopus) and benthic crustaceans (shrimps and crabs).  Polar bears and killer whales are known predators of belugas throughout their Arctic range (Frost <em>et al</em>. 1992).
6335		habitat	eng	Belugas occupy estuaries, continental shelf and slope waters, and deep ocean basins in conditions of open water, loose ice, and heavy pack ice. Belugas occur seasonally (mainly in summer) in coastal waters as shallow as 1-3 m deep but also in deep offshore waters (>800 m). They typically enter estuaries and sometimes move upstream into rivers; there are records of individuals or small groups ranging hundreds of kilometers from the sea.
6335		population	eng	The global population consists of numerous subpopulations with varying degrees of differentiation (hereafter the terms subpopulation and stock are used interchangeably).  The International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee (IWC 2000) organized information on belugas on the basis of 29 provisional management stocks.  Some of the stock boundaries overlap spatially and seasonally, complicating assessment.  Many of the subpopulations or stocks maintain distinct or contiguous geographical ranges during the summer months but mix during the spring and autumn migrations and share common wintering quarters.  While good abundance estimates are available for some beluga subpopulations/stocks, the sizes of others are virtually unknown.  Total numbers worldwide are well above 150,000 animals, with many portions of the range unsurveyed.  The following estimates for subpopulations/stocks or regions range from relatively precise abundance estimates to rough approximations of numbers in the late 1990s or early 2000s: <br/><br/><strong>Alaska</strong><br/><em>Cook Inlet</em>: The number of beluga whales in Cook Inlet is estimated from counts by aerial observers and aerial video group counts (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2000b; Lowry <em>et al</em>. 2006). The most recent published estimate at the time of the present assessment (May 2008) was 302 (CV=0.16) in 2006 (Angliss and Outlaw 2007). In addition, the National Marine Fisheries Service had indicated via a web posting that the point estimate from the 2007 aerial survey was 375.<br/><br/><em>Bristol Bay</em>: Most recently (1994), the number of beluga whales in Bristol Bay was estimated at 1,555 (Lowry and Frost 1999).  This estimate was based on a maximum count of 503 animals, which was corrected using radio-telemetry data for the proportion of animals that were diving (Lowry and Frost 1999) and for the proportion of newborns and yearlings not observed due to their small size and coloration.  Surveys in 1999 and 2000 resulted in maximum counts of 690 and 531, which can be extrapolated to population estimates of 2,133 and 1,642, respectively (L. Lowry, University of Alaska Fairbanks pers. comm. to K. Laidre, 1/07). <br/><em>Eastern Bering Sea</em>:  Aerial surveys of Norton Sound, the summering site for the eastern Bering Sea stock, were conducted in 2000.  Preliminary analyses produced an uncorrected estimate of 5,868 animals; when corrected for animals not visible at the surface and for newborn and yearling animals not observed due to their small size and dark coloration, the estimated population size for Norton Sound is 18,142 (CV=0.24) (R. Hobbs, AFSC-NMML pers. comm. 01/07; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). <br/><br/><em>Eastern Chukchi Sea</em>: Frost <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated the minimum size of the eastern Chukchi stock of belugas at 1,200, based on counts of animals from aerial surveys conducted during 1989-91.  The total corrected abundance estimate for the eastern Chukchi stock is 3,710. <br/><br/><strong>Shared Alaska/Canada</strong><br/><em>Eastern Beaufort Sea/Beaufort Sea</em>: The most recent aerial survey, conducted in July 1992, resulted in an uncorrected estimate of 19,629 (CV=0.229) (Harwood <em>et al</em>. 1996).  The corrected population estimate was 39,258 animals (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). <br/><br/><strong>Canada</strong><br/><em>Cumberland Sound</em>: This stock numbers about 1,500 animals and is thought to have increased since the 1980s (COSEWIC 2004)<br/><br/><em>Ungava Bay</em>:  The Ungava Bay stock is too small to estimate. Hammill <em>et al</em>. (2004) recently estimated it at <50 animals; none were seen on a survey conducted in 2001. <br/><br/><em>West Hudson Bay</em>: There are estimated to be more than 23,000 belugas in western Hudson Bay and more than 1,300 along the southern Hudson Bay coast (Richard 1991). <br/><br/><em>East Hudson Bay</em>: Belugas in Eastern Hudson Bay have declined from 4,200 (SE 300) in 1985 to 3,100 (SE 800) in 2004 (corrected estimates) (Hammill <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/><em>St Lawrence River</em>: The St. Lawrence subpopulation is estimated to be in the order of 900-1,000 individuals.  There is no evidence of a significant trend in abundance since 1988 (COSEWIC 2004).<br/><br/><em>Eastern High Arctic/Baffin Bay</em>: A survey in 1996 estimated 21,213 belugas (95% CI 10,985 to 32,619) in the waters surrounding Somerset Island: Barrow Strait, Peel Sound and Prince Regent Inlet (Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002).  This estimate takes into account both whales missed by observers and those that might have been unavailable for detection due to diving behavior. It includes whales that move to West Greenland during the winter.<br/><br/><strong>Shared Canada/Greenland</strong><br/><em>West Greenland</em>: Aerial surveys flown in late winter in West Greenland between 1981 and 1994 found that beluga numbers had decreased by 62% during that period, probably because of overharvesting (Heide-Jørgensen and Reeves 1996).  Further surveys in 1998 and 1999 confirmed the decline and found 7,941 (95% CI: 3650-17278) belugas in West Greenland, including whales missed by the observers and whales that were submerged during the survey (Heide-Jørgensen and Acquarone 2002).  Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimate that approximately 30% of the Eastern Canadian high Arctic/Baffin Bay beluga stock migrates to West Greenland for overwintering.<br/><br/><strong>Svalbard</strong><br/>Belugas have never been surveyed around Svalbard.  Pods numbering into the thousands are sighted irregularly around the archipelago, and pods ranging from a few to a few hundred individuals are seen regularly (Gjertz and Wiig 1994; Kovacs and Lydersen 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Russia</strong><br/><em>Eastern and Central Russian Arctic</em>: There are no rigorous abundance estimates for the Eastern and Central Russian Arctic (Boltunov and Belikov 2002).  Rough estimates of a few thousand in Anadyr Gulf and a few thousand in the western Chukchi and eastern East Siberian Seas were summarized in a table compiled by the IWC Scientific Committee (IWC 2000).  In addition to those animals, belugas from Alaskan stocks (e.g. eastern Bering Sea, eastern Chukchi Sea, and Beaufort Sea stocks) move into eastern Russian waters during the winter.  The IWC table mentioned above (IWC, 2000) indicates a rough estimate of 18,000-20,000 in the Okhotsk Sea. <br/><br/><em>Western Russian Arctic</em>:  Belugas in the Western Russian Arctic occupy four major areas: (1) southern Barents and White seas, (2) southern Barents and Kara seas, (3) coastal waters of the Kara Sea, and (4) western portion of the Laptev Sea.  They may share wintering grounds to some extent.  Surveys have not yet been conducted in the Barents and Kara seas and the number of belugas inhabiting these regions is unknown.  The White Sea hosts a resident population of belugas numbering about 1,000 over-wintering individuals.  In summer, this number is augmented by animals from the Barents Sea.
6335		population	eng	The global population consists of numerous subpopulations with varying degrees of differentiation. The IWC organized information on the basis of 29 management stocks and recognized that these were provisional (IWC 2000). Some of the stock boundaries overlap spatially and seasonally, complicating assessment. Many of the sub-populations or stocks maintain distinct or contiguous geographical ranges during the summer months and mix during the spring and autumn migrations and share common wintering quarters. While good abundance estimates are available for some beluga sub-populations/stocks, the size of others is virtually unknown. Total numbers worldwide are well above 150,000 animals.
6335		threats	eng	Direct hunting by aboriginal people for food is the biggest known threat to belugas across certain portions of their range. The most immediate concerns relate to continuing harvests from small and depleted subpopulations (IWC 2000). The strong philopatry of belugas, which causes them to return to the same estuaries year after year, makes them highly vulnerable to overexploitation. This behavioural trait is undoubtedly the most important natural factor which has led to the extirpation of belugas from some parts of their range (e.g. southwest Greenland, some river mouths in Ungava Bay, Canada) by a combination of commercial and subsistence hunting. <br/><br/>Another threat is Arctic climate change. As recent decreases in ice coverage have been more extensive in the Arctic belugas may experience climate-induced geographic shifts or altered reproductive capacity due to persistent changes in ice extent. Changes in sea ice extent and concentration thus have the potential to alter the distribution, range and migration patterns of cetaceans associated with ice habitats, and thus indirectly affect nutritional status, reproductive success, and ultimately the abundance and stock structure of these species (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Laidre <em>et al.</em> in press).  Belugas are also susceptible to <em>sassats</em> or ice entrapments when sea ice conditions rapidly change.<br/><br/>Other known or potential threats include a wide variety of human activities: oil and gas development, expansion of fisheries (with possible implications for bycatch and resource depletion), and industrial and urban pollution.
6335		threats	eng	Hunting for human consumption is the biggest known threat to belugas across certain portions of their range. The most immediate concerns relate to continuing harvests from small and depleted subpopulations (IWC 2000). The strong philopatry of belugas, which causes them to return to the same estuaries year after year, makes them highly vulnerable to overexploitation. This behavioural trait is undoubtedly the most important natural factor that has led to the extirpation of belugas from some parts of their range by a combination of commercial and subsistence hunting (e.g. in southwestern Greenland and some river mouths in Ungava Bay, Canada). <br/><br/>Known or potential threats include a variety of human activities in addition to hunting: oil and gas development, expansion of fisheries (with possible implications for bycatch and resource depletion), hydroelectric development (in Hudson Bay), and industrial and urban pollution. Climate change will likely increase the scale and distribution of these activities. Hydroelectric development may affect belugas because of their dependence on estuarine conditions. Areas such as the McKenzie Delta and West Greenland are subject to oil exploration, which often includes seismic surveys, offshore drilling, and artificial island construction. These activities are undertaken in the summer months in the same areas occupied by belugas at this time of year. In a study of responses of belugas to ice-breaking ships, the belugas typically moved rapidly along ice edges away from approaching ships and showed strong avoidance reactions to approaching ships at distances of 35-50 km (Finley <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/>Climate change is another potential threat. Belugas may experience climate-induced geographic shifts or altered reproductive success due to persistent changes in extent of sea ice (Tynan and DeMaster, 1997, Laidre <em>et al</em> In Press).  Belugas are also susceptible to savssats or ice entrapments when sea ice conditions change rapidly.<br/><br/>Threats from contaminants are of concern in some areas. Studies of the small, geographically isolated subpopulation in the St. Lawrence River have found that concentrations of both total PCBs and chlorinated PCB congeners are much higher in these belugas than in Arctic belugas. Some scientists believe that the increased occurrence of opportunistic bacterial infections, parasitic infestation, gastric ulcers and other disorders in St. Lawrence belugas is evidence of a link between immune system dysfunction and PCB exposure (Martineau <em>et al</em>., 1994). <br/><br/>To summarize, in some parts of the species’ range, particularly in Canada and Greenland, intensive hunting represents an ongoing major threat, and in a few instances this is compounded by the less direct and less easily quantified threats (realized and potential) of disturbance by vessel traffic (e.g. St. Lawrence estuary, river mouths in eastern Hudson Bay), habitat modification (e.g. large hydroelectric dams in rivers flowing into Hudson Bay and James Bay), contaminants (e.g. St. Lawrence estuary), climate change (including secondary effects from opening of Arctic and sub-Arctic waters to year-round ship traffic, oil an gas development, commercial fishing), and possibly incidental catch in fisheries (e.g. St. Lawrence estuary).
6336		conservation	eng	A large Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin has been declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Other smaller marine protected areas exist or have been proposed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). In 1999, the Spanish Ministry for the Environment included the Common Dolphin in its National Endangered Species Act as "vulnerable". The following year, a program was initiated to identify important areas for the conservation of cetaceans in the Spanish Mediterranean with the aim of implementing the European Union's "Habitats" Directive, the Barcelona Convention and the Bonn Convention (Convention on Migratory Species, or CMS) through the creation of marine protected areas. Based on the presence of a relict group of Common Dolphins, the eastern Ionian area around the island of Kalamos has been included by the Greek Ministry of the Environment in the Natura 2000 network ("Site of Community Importance") under the 9243 EEC "Habitats" Directive. While these types of designations may benefit Common Dolphins at least indirectly, measures to provide direct benefits, e.g., area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, curtailment of inputs of particular pollutants, etc., remain to be identified and implemented. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS 2002) considers the Mediterranean Common Dolphin as an endangered population. It is expected that efforts to increase understanding of ongoing threats, monitor status, and provide needed protective measures on behalf of the dolphins and their habitat will be organized and implemented through ACCOBAMS.
6336		conservation	eng	The common dolphin is included in EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora; <em>D. delphis</em> is listed on Annex IV (Animal and Plant Species of Community Interest in Need of Strict Protection).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>A large Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin has been declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Other smaller marine protected areas exist or have been proposed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). While these types of designations may benefit common dolphins at least indirectly, measures to provide direct benefits, e.g., area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, curtailment of inputs of particular pollutants, etc., remain to be identified and implemented. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS 2002) considers the Mediterranean common dolphin as an endangered population. It is expected that efforts to increase understanding of ongoing threats, monitor status, and provide needed protective measures on behalf of the dolphins and their habitat will be organized and implemented through ACCOBAMS. The current ban on driftnet fishing in the Mediterranean should be implemented and enforced as a matter of priority.<br/><br/><strong>Black Sea</strong><br/>Commercial killing of Black Sea common dolphins, as well as other Black Sea cetaceans, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. The Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea (1996) envisages some special cetacean-oriented conservation and research actions, and a regional Conservation Plan for Cetaceans in the Black Sea has been drafted in accordance with the ACCOBAMS International Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). On a national level, Black Sea cetaceans, including common dolphins, are protected by environmental legislation and governmental decrees. Action plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in Ukraine (2001) and Romania (2003) but they have no legal effect at present (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
6336		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. The Mediterranean population is listed in Appendices I and II of CMS.<br/><br/>Common dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery, are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC. The IATTC has imposed annual stock mortality limits on each purse seiner and has promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001). In the eastern North Pacific, the U.S. drift gillnet fishery has been required to use acoustic warning devices since 1996 to reduce cetacean bycatch; however, some bycatch of <em>Delphinus delphis</em> has continued (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>The current ban on driftnet fishing in the Mediterranean should be implemented and enforced as a matter of priority.
6336		distribution	eng	The Short-beaked Common Dolphin (hereafter referred to as the Common Dolphin) is a small cetacean species with a wide distribution. Like most other cetaceans, however, it is not panmictic and occurs as a series of geographically separate subpopulations (e.g., Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002). Once one of the commonest species in the Mediterranean Sea, the Common Dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decrease in this region during the last 30–40 years (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Coastal groups in western Greece seem to exhibit relatively high levels of site fidelity (Politi 1998), but little is known about the movements and ranging patterns of animals living offshore.<br/> <br/>The case for regarding Mediterranean Common Dolphins as a distinct subpopulation is not perfect, and admittedly rests upon a somewhat complicated chain of inference. Genetic studies indicate a significant level of divergence between Mediterranean and Atlantic populations (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press). Differences in contaminant levels between dolphins from the Alboràn Sea (northwestern Mediterranean) and Atlantic Ocean also suggest a certain degree of isolation. Organochlorine concentrations in Alboràn Sea dolphins were about double those typical of dolphins in neighbouring North Atlantic waters and showed a completely different profile (proportions between PCB congeners, the DDE/tDDT ratio, etc.) (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2001). Genetic exchange between Common Dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve only animals from the Alboràn Sea (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press), possibly due to oceanographic features such as the Almería-Orán thermohaline front.<br/> <br/>At the eastern end of the Mediterranean, there is little indication of movement by Common Dolphins through the narrow Dardanelles Strait between the Aegean and the Marmara and Black Seas, where Common Dolphins are known to occur (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003). A preliminary study of skull morphometrics (Amaha 1994) suggested differences between Black Sea and Mediterranean Common Dolphins. In contrast, a genetic comparison of relatively small samples (8 Black Sea, 20 central Mediterranean) revealed no significant differences (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press). Clearly, further work based on larger samples is needed to assess and characterize the relationship between Black Sea and Mediterranean Common Dolphins. It is acknowledged that some genetic exchange might occur in portions of the Aegean Sea where favourable habitat still exists (e.g., in the Thracian Sea; Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, what remains between the Aegean and Alboràn sectors of the Mediterranean seems to be only isolated, remnant groups (possibly indicative of further population substructure). The once-large aggregate Mediterranean subpopulation is now a small fraction of what it was as recently as the middle of the twentieth century (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). One note of caution is that there has been relatively little survey coverage of waters along the North African coast.
6336		distribution	eng	The short-beaked common dolphin is an oceanic species that is widely distributed in tropical to cool temperate waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (Perrin 2002), from nearshore waters to thousands of kilometers offshore. It regularly occurs in some enclosed seas, such as the Okhotsk Sea and Sea of Japan, and separate subpopulations apparently exist in the Mediterranean and Black seas.  Short-beaked common dolphins may occur in parts of the Indian Ocean around southeast Africa and southern Australia, but previous records of this species in other parts of the Indian Ocean and in waters of Taiwan and are now thought to have been long-beaked common dolphins <em>D. capensis</em> (Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002).
6336		distribution	eng	The short-beaked common dolphin is an oceanic species that is widely distributed in tropical to cool temperate waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Perrin 2002), from nearshore waters to thousands of kilometers offshore. They regularly occur in some enclosed seas, such as the Okhotsk Sea and Sea of Japan, and separate subpopulations exist in the Mediterranean and Black seas. Short-beaked common dolphins may occur in parts of the Indian Ocean around southeastern Africa and southern Australia, but previous records of this species in other parts of the Indian Ocean and in waters of Taiwan are now thought to have been of long-beaked common dolphins (<em>D. capensis</em>; Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002).
6336		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean, Common Dolphins are found in both pelagic and neritic environments, occasionally sharing the former with Striped Dolphins (<em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>) and the latter with Common Bottlenose Dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncates</em>) (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mixed-species groups of Common, Striped and Risso's Dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been consistently observed in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Mediterranean Common Dolphins are typically found in groups of 50–70 animals, with larger aggregations occasionally recorded. In the eastern Ionian Sea coastal waters, however, groups rarely include more than 15 individuals, and groups greater than 40 have not been observed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).
6336		habitat	eng	Short-beaked common dolphins appear to have a preference for upwelling-modified waters, areas with steep sea floor relief, and extensive shelf areas, but they are widespread in warm temperate and tropical waters (Evans 1994). In the eastern tropical Pacific, they prefer equatorial and subtropical waters with a shallow thermocline, relatively large seasonal changes in surface temperature, and seasonal upwelling (Reilly 1990; Fiedler and Reilly 1994). <br/><br/>Mediterranean common dolphins frequent coastal and upper slope waters (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Black Sea, common dolphins are distributed mainly offshore and visit shallow coastal waters following seasonal aggregations and regular mass migrations of small pelagic fishes such as anchovy and sprat (Birkun 2006). Black Sea common dolphins avoid waters with low salinity, and this may explain why they do not occur in the Sea of Azov and in the Kerch Strait. <br/><br/>Associations with other marine mammal species are common. Schools in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) are sometimes associated with yellowfin tuna, and have thus been involved in tuna purse-seine fishing operations (Gerrodette 2002). Mixed-species groups of common, striped and Risso’s dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been observed frequently in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). The prey of common dolphins consists largely of small schooling fishes and squids (Perrin 2002).
6336		habitat	eng	Short-beaked common dolphins appear to have a preference for upwelling-modified waters, areas with steep sea floor relief, and extensive shelf areas, but they are widespread in warm temperate and tropical waters (see Evans 1994).  In the eastern tropical Pacific, they prefer equatorial and subtropical waters with a shallow thermocline, relatively large seasonal changes in surface temperature, and seasonal upwelling (Reilly 1990, Fiedler and Reilly 1994). <br/><br/>Mediterranean common dolphins frequent coastal and upper slope waters (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In the Black Sea, common dolphins are distributed mainly offshore and visit shallow coastal waters following seasonal aggregations and regular mass migrations of small pelagic fishes such as anchovy and sprat (Birkun 2006).  Black Sea common dolphins avoid waters with low salinity, and this may explain why they do not occur in the Sea of Azov and in the Kerch Strait. <br/><br/>Associations with other marine mammal species are common. Mixed-species groups of common dolphins, striped dolphins (<em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>) and Risso's dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been observed frequently in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). The prey of common dolphins consists largely of small schooling fishes and squids (Perrin 2002). Reproduction is seasonal, with the exception of the Central population in the eastern tropical Pacific, which breeds throughout the year (Danil and Chivers 2007).
6336		population	eng	Literature and osteological collections unambiguously confirm that Common Dolphins were widespread and abundant in much of the Mediterranean Sea until the late 1960s, and that their decline occurred relatively quickly (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003; and see references contained therein). Today, Common Dolphins remain relatively abundant in the westernmost portion of the basin, the Alboràn Sea. There are sparse records off the coast of Algeria where, however, survey coverage has been limited. Possibly isolated groups are present around Sardinia and Corsica, particularly off their western coasts (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Common Dolphins are seen in the early summer in the south-eastern Tyrrhenian Sea off the island of Ischia (Mussi <em>et al</em>. in press). The species is also present in the Sicily Channel, with larger groups being observed around Malta (Vella in press). Common Dolphins can be found in portions of the eastern Ionian Sea, particularly around the island of Kalamos (Politi and Bearzi in press), and in the Gulf of Corinth (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Sighting and stranding data indicate a regular presence of Common Dolphins in the Aegean Sea, particularly in the Thracian Sea, Northern Sporades, the southern Evvoikos Gulf, the Saronic Gulf, and the Dodekanese (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). Otherwise, these dolphins are rare in, or completely absent from, Mediterranean areas where information is available (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mediterranean regions where Common Dolphins have apparently vanished include the Adriatic Sea, Balearic Sea, Provençal basin, and Ligurian Sea.<br/> <br/>There is no basin-wide estimate of abundance for Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea. Line-transect ship surveys of the Alboràn Sea in 1991–1992 produced an estimate of 14,736 (CV=0.38; 95% CI=6,923–31,366), with a density of 0.16 dolphins per km², but no estimates were made for this species elsewhere in the western Mediterranean due to the low number of sightings (Forcada and Hammond 1998). Vella (in press) combined data from ship and aerial surveys conducted between 1997–2002, and obtained a density estimate of 0.135 dolphins per km² (CV=0.28; 95% CI=0.066–0.290) in the area around the Maltese islands. Around the island of Kalamos in the eastern Ionian Sea, the mean sighting frequency was 0.016 groups per km (or 0.11 dolphins per km) in the years 1993–2000, but in 2001–2002 there was a significant decrease to 0.007 groups per km (or 0.04 dolphins per km) (Student's t=4.88).
6336		population	eng	This is a very abundant species, with many available estimates for the various areas where it occurs. In the Atlantic, abundance in European continental shelf waters was estimated at 63,400 (95%CI=27,000-149,000) in 2005 (SCANS-II project: P. Hammond pers. comm. 2007). Offshore, abundance in a block bounded by 53-57ºN and 18-29ºW has been estimated at 273,000 (95%CI=153,000-435,000) in 1995 (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> in press).  West of the Bay of Biscay, 62,000 common dolphins were estimated in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in 1993 (Goujon 1996).  In the western North Atlantic, 121,000 (CV=0.23) were estimated (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the western Mediterranean, abundance has been estimated at 19,400 (95%CI=15,300-22,800) in the northern Alborán Sea between 2000 and 2004 (Cañadas 2006). Once one of the most common species in the Mediterranean Sea, the short-beaked common dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decline during the last 30-40 years (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Dramatic negative trends were recorded in portions of the central Mediterranean, particularly in the northern Adriatic Sea and in the eastern Ionian Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006). Recent genetic studies indicate that population structure within the Mediterranean reflects differences in distribution pattern and habitat use by short-beaked common dolphins in the eastern (where the species is predominantly coastal) and western (where it is predominantly pelagic) portions of the basin (Natoli 2004).  Genetic exchange between short-beaked common dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve predominantly animals from the Alborán Sea (Natoli 2004). <br/><br/>The population size in the Black Sea is unknown. Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate common dolphin abundance in a few parts of the range.  The survey areas are small relative to the total range of the subspecies. Results suggest that current population size is at least several 10,000s, and possibly 100,000 or more (Birkun 2006).  By the mid 1960s, the Black Sea subpopulation collapsed due to long-running overexploitation and a reduction of 70% was inferred. However, directed takes continued until 1983 when cetacean hunting finally ceased.  The population has not recovered (Birkun 2006).
6336		population	eng	This is a very abundant species, with many available estimates for the various areas where it occurs. In the Pacific, 2,963,000 (CV=24%) was estimated for the eastern tropical Pacific (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002), and an average of 352.000 (CV = 18%) was estimated for the US west coast based on surveys between 1991 and 2005 (Barlow and Forney in press). Off California, common dolphins show seasonal and inter-annual changes in abundance due to shifts in distribution (Forney and Barlow 1998).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, abundance in European continental shelf waters was estimated at 63,400 (95%CI=27,000-149,000) in 2005 (SCANS-II project; P. Hammond pers. comm.). Offshore, abundance in a block bounded by 53-57ºN and 18-29ºW was estimated at 273,000 (95%CI=153,000-435,000) in 1995 (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> in press). West of the Bay of Biscay, 62,000 common dolphins were estimated in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in 1993 (Goujon 1996). In the western North Atlantic, 121,000 (CV=0.23) were estimated to occur (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the western Mediterranean, abundance has been estimated at 19,400 (95%CI=15,300-22,800) in the northern Alborán Sea between 2000 and 2004 (Cañadas 2006). Once one of the most common species in the Mediterranean Sea, the short-beaked common dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decline during the last 30-40 years (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dramatic negative trends were recorded in portions of the central Mediterranean, particularly in the northern Adriatic Sea and in the eastern Ionian Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004; 2006). Recent genetic studies indicate that population structure within the Mediterranean reflects differences in distribution pattern and habitat use by short-beaked common dolphins in the eastern (where the species is predominantly coastal) and western (where it is predominantly pelagic) portions of the basin (Natoli 2004). Genetic exchange between short-beaked common dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve predominantly animals from the Alborán Sea (Natoli 2004). <br/><br/>The population size in the Black Sea is unknown. Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate common dolphin abundance in a few parts of the range. The survey areas are small relative to the total range of the subspecies. Results suggest that current population size is at least several 10,000s, and possibly 100,000 or more (Birkun 2006). By the mid 1960s, the Black Sea subpopulation collapsed due to long-running overexploitation, and a reduction of 70% was inferred. However, directed takes continued until 1983 when cetacean hunting finally ceased. The population has not recovered (Birkun 2006).
6336		threats	eng	A number of factors may have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mediterranean biodiversity is undergoing rapid alteration under the combined pressure of human impact and climate change (Bianchi and Morri 2000), and it is difficult to discriminate between the effects of environmental shifts due to climate change, whether "natural" or a result of the greenhouse effect, and other factors that may be affecting the availability of dolphin prey, such as overfishing and habitat degradation. In all Mediterranean areas where Common Dolphins have been studied consistently, namely the Alboràn Sea, southeastern Tyrrhenian Sea, and eastern Ionian Sea, competition with fisheries is a source of concern (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003) although cause-effect relationships and ecosystem dynamics remain poorly characterized. The role of xenobiotic contamination is controversial but likely significant. High levels of PCBs in Mediterranean dolphins, compared to levels in dolphins from other areas (Fossi <em>et al</em>. 2000, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2002), represent a major concern because of the possibilities of immune suppression and reproductive impairment. The high PCB levels in Common Dolphins from the Alboràn Sea are close to the range at which adverse effects could be expected, based on extrapolation from other species (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2000, in press) found a significant correlation between mixed-function oxidase activity and organochlorine levels in Common Dolphin skin biopsies, suggestive of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and potential for transgenerational effects. The cumulative importance of these threats and other factors, including incidental mortality in fishing gear (below), is poorly understood.  <br/> <br/>Fishery bycatch is a major threat to many cetacean populations, and it could well have played a role in the decline of Common Dolphins in at least some Mediterranean areas (IWC 1994). In the Alboràn Sea, for example, drift gillnets are known to have caught a few hundred Common Dolphins per year (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999). This fishery has stopped, but it operated for many years and undoubtedly had some impact on the population. If drift nets were taking Common Dolphins in the Alboràn Sea, it is reasonable to assume that they were (and are) doing so in other parts of the Mediterranean where drift net fishing and Common Dolphin occurrence overlap. Bearzi <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggest that bycatch alone is unlikely to be the factor most responsible for the decline of Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean, but it may have played a significant role at certain times and in certain areas. <br/> <br/>The possibility that the Striped Dolphin has been increasing in the Mediterranean and has begun to occupy the ecological niche of the Common Dolphin has been discussed in the literature (Viale 1985, Aguilar 2000, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Such a hypothesis is extremely difficult to prove or disprove, particularly if invoked as a causal factor in the Common Dolphin's decline. Even if it were true that Striped Dolphins have been extending their range to inshore waters traditionally inhabited by Common Dolphins, it would be unclear whether this process was being driven by competitive exclusion, or was instead a secondary outcome of the Common Dolphin's disappearance for some other reason. In any event, competition would not be an issue in areas such as the northern Adriatic Sea, where the Common Dolphin has disappeared while the Striped Dolphin rarely occurs.
6336		threats	eng	The common dolphin is one of the most prominent by-catches of pelagic purse-seine and driftnet, and trawl fisheries. Incidental capture of common dolphins in European Atlantic fisheries has been well studied in recent years, and as a result of recent EU legislation, on-board observer programmes are being carried out in most of the fisheries considered to have a potentially significant bycatch of common dolphins. Northridge (2006) showed that bycatches of common dolphins in European pelagic trawl fisheries probably total around 800 animals per year in UK and French pelagic trawl fisheries for sea bass.  Annual catch rates in the UK sector of this fishery have been falling in recent years (Northridge 2006) and the annual average total mortality (2000-2006) is 170 animals in this sector.  Other bycatches in the same area are known to occur in gill nets, tangle nets and possibly other fisheries (Northridge 2006). <br/><br/>The main factors thought to have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Mediterranean short-beaked common dolphins include: 1) incidental mortality in fishing gear, especially driftnets, 2) reduced availability of prey caused by overfishing and habitat degradation, 3) contamination by xenobiotic chemicals resulting in immunosuppression and reproductive impairment, and 4) environmental changes such as increased water temperatures affecting ecosystem dynamics (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2006).  A recent survey focusing on the Moroccan driftnet fishing fleet estimated that about 12,000-15,000 dolphins are killed annually around the Strait of Gibraltar (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>At least 840,000 dolphins were taken from the Black Sea from 1946 until a ban of small cetacean hunting was declared in Turkey in 1983.  The take was certainly much greater because that value did not incorporate catch statistics from Romania (whole period), Turkey (before 1976 and after 1981) and Bulgaria (before 1958) (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Reduced prey availability is considered to be a major ongoing threat to Black Sea common dolphins (Bushuyev 2000).  Of two mass mortality events that killed an unknown but certainly large number of common dolphins in 1990 and 1994 (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), the latter was recognised as the result of a morbillivirus epizootic.  However, both die-offs coincided with a drastic (8 to 12 fold) decline in the abundance of the two main common dolphin prey species, anchovy and sprat.  Such a reduction was caused by a combination of overfishing, eutrophication and the explosive increase of the introduced ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>.  Correlation between large die-offs of Black Sea common dolphins and prey scarcity suggests that reduced prey availability increases susceptibility to viral infection (Birkun 2006).
6336		threats	eng	The common dolphin is one of the most prominent by-catches of pelagic purse-seine, driftnet and trawl fisheries. In the ETP, common dolphins are sometimes found in association with yellowfin tuna, <em>Thunnus albacares</em>, and annual incidental mortality in the tuna purse-seine fishery of this species has been as high as 24,307 (in 1986) (IATTC, 2006). Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) imposed per-vessel stock limits on the international fleet, the mortality declined to 325 in 2005 (IATTC 2006). Takes have been recorded in other purse-seine fisheries in the Indian Ocean and off the west coast of Africa (Simmons 1968). Short-beaked common dolphins are the most commonly killed cetacean in the U.S. drift gillnet fishery for sharks and swordfish, with about 2,100 estimated killed between 1990 and 2002 (Julian and Beeson 1998; Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005); measures have been in place to reduce cetacean takes since 1996, and bycatch levels are not a population level concern (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Incidental capture of common dolphins in European Atlantic fisheries has been well studied in recent years, and as a result of recent EU legislation, on-board observer programs are being carried out in most of the fisheries considered to have a potentially significant bycatch of common dolphins. Northridge (2006) showed that bycatches of common dolphins in European pelagic trawl fisheries probably total around 800 animals per year in UK and French pelagic trawl fisheries for sea bass. Annual catch rates in the UK sector of this fishery have been falling in recent years and the annual average total mortality recently (2000-2006) has been 170 animals in this sector. Other bycatches in the same area are known to occur in gill nets, tangle nets and possibly other fisheries (ICES 2005; Northridge 2006). <br/><br/>In the western North Atlantic, 105 common dolphins are taken on average each year by sink gill nets and bottom trawls (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). By-catches have also been reported from other areas (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 2000; Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>The main factors thought to have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Mediterranean short-beaked common dolphins include: 1) incidental mortality in fishing gear, especially driftnets, 2) reduced availability of prey caused by overfishing and habitat degradation, 3) contamination by xenobiotic chemicals resulting in immunosuppression and reproductive impairment, and 4) environmental changes such as increased water temperatures affecting ecosystem dynamics (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2006). A recent survey focusing on the Moroccan driftnet fishing fleet estimated that about 12,000-15,000 dolphins are killed annually around the Strait of Gibraltar (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>At least 840,000 dolphins were taken from the Black Sea from 1946 until a ban of small cetacean hunting was declared in Turkey in 1983. The take was certainly much greater because that value did not incorporate catch statistics from Romania (whole period), Turkey (before 1976 and after 1981) and Bulgaria (before 1958) (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Reduced prey availability is considered to be a major threat to Black Sea common dolphins (Bushuyev 2000). Of two mass mortality events that killed an unknown but certainly large number of common dolphins in 1990 and 1994 (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), the latter was recognised as the result of a morbillivirus epizootic. However, both die-offs coincided with a drastic (8 to 12 fold) decline in the abundance of the two main common dolphin prey species, anchovy and sprat. Such a reduction was caused by a combination of overfishing, eutrophication and the explosive increase of the introduced ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>. Correlation between large die-offs of Black Sea common dolphins and prey scarcity suggests that reduced prey availability increases susceptibility to viral infection (Birkun 2006). Prey depletion caused by overfishing was considered as a main cause for the decline of common dolphins in the eastern Ionian Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2006).
6337		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Vessel quotas for incidental take for <em>Delphinus</em> sp. are issued under an international agreement managed by the IATTC for the eastern tropical Pacific.
6337		distribution	eng	Long-beaked common dolphins generally occur within about 180 km of the coast. The overall distribution of this species remains imperfectly known, because until 1994, all common dolphins around the world were classified as a single species: <em>D. delphis</em> (Heyning and Perrin 1994). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies recognized:<br/><br/><em>D. c. capensis</em> – This subspecies appears to be found in distinct areas and apparently-disjunct subpopulations are known from the east coast of South America, West Africa, southern Japan, Korea and northern Taiwan (and possibly China), central California to southern Mexico, Peru, and South Africa. <br/><br/><em>D. c. tropicalis</em> – This subspecies ranges in the Indo-Pacific from at least the Red Sea/Somalia to western Taiwan/southern China and Indonesia, and including the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Thailand (Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002).
6337		habitat	eng	Long-beaked common dolphins inhabit tropical and warm-temperate waters of all three major oceans. <em>D. capensis</em> seems to prefer shallower and warmer water and occurs generally closer to the coast than does <em>D. delphis</em> (Perrin 2002). It is found mostly over continental shelf water depths (< 180 m), and generally does not occur around oceanic islands far from mainland coasts (Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002). It sometimes associate with other species of cetaceans.
6337		population	eng	There are no estimates of global abundance for <em>D. capensis</em> and few local abundance estimates. Off California, USA, at the northern part of this species' range, abundance estimates have ranged from about 11,000 to 49,000, averaging about 22,000 (CV = 50%) dolphins between 1999 and 2005 (Barlow and Forney, in press). Dolphins found off California are part of a larger population extending southward through Mexico, where Gerrodette and Palacios (1996) estimated 55,000 within Pacific coast waters of the Mexican EEZ and 69,000 in the Gulf of California. One relatively well-studied variant of the long-beaked form is the Baja neritic race, which is found in the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez), Mexico, and the coastal warm-temperate eastern North Pacific, north of 20°N. About 15,000-20,000 are estimated to occur off South Africa (Cockcroft and Peddemors 1990). The <em>tropicalis</em> subspecies is widespread in the Indian and western Pacific oceans, but there are no estimates of abundance for any portion of its range.
6337		threats	eng	Long-beaked common dolphin are known to be taken in bottom-set gillnets and purse seine fisheries off southern California, but potential impacts are uncertain. Some bycatch has also been documented in drift gillnets off California (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). They are only occasionally involved as bycatch in the eastern tropical Pacific tuna fishery. They are present off Japan, and some have been taken in drive fisheries there. There are anecdotal reports of potentially large numbers of dolphins, including long-beaked common dolphins, killed for bait in some coastal fisheries off Baja California, Mexico (K. Forney pers. comm.). Long-beaked common dolphins have been taken opportunistically by harpoon in northeastern Taiwan and are caught incidentally by oceanic driftnets off eastern Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.). There is a large direct kill around Margarita Island, off eastern Venezuela, in which dolphins are harpooned in large numbers (Romero <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the Indian Ocean and Chinese waters, they are taken in gillnets, trawls, and purse seines. There is growing concern about the large numbers of long-beaked common dolphins killed off Peru and used for human food or shark bait (K. Van Waerebeek pers. comm.). Incidental catches of <em>Delphinus</em> sp. in pelagic driftnets in southern and south-eastern Brazil have been recorded (Zerbini and Kotas 1998), but no current estimates of bycatch are available. Given that this fishery occurs in the presumed range of the species, some of these individuals may belong to this species.
6405		conservation	eng	It occurs in Crocker Range National Park (Sabah, Malaysia). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
6405		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to montane Borneo where it is restricted to altitudes above 900 m (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998) in Malaysian northern Borneo, including the mountains of north-eastern Sarawak and Mts. Kinabalu and Trus Madi in Sabah (Helgen 2005). Recorded from 1,200 m to elevations of 3,350 m (Corbet and Hill 1992).
6405		habitat	eng	This species is found in submontane and montane pristine forest. This species needs undergrowth as it comes down to forage for insects (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
6405		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since the early 1970s. Between 1989 to 1991, three sessions of trappings at the area (Sinsuran Ridge, Sabah) where the animal was last caught in the early 1970s, failed to capture the animal (K.H. Han pers. comm.).
6405		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to non-tree plantations at lower elevations.
6409		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas across its range, including of course Serengeti National Park.
6409		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed in forested areas of central and eastern mainland Africa, from central Kenya as far south as the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa, west to north-east Angola. Not recorded from Botswana, Zimbabwe or the Limpopo Province of South Africa (Milner and Gaylard in press).
6409		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forested and well-wooded areas. In South Africa, occurs in Afromontane forests and thickets of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000). At the western coastal limit occurs in milkwood-dominated coastal forests (Gaylard 1994), while further north in central Mozambique it occurs in lowland evergreen forests and in the evergreen riverine forests of the Save River (Smithers and Lobão Tello 1976). In East Africa, in the Ngorongoro Crater, Serengeti National Park and Maasai Mara Game Reserve, they are found in fig trees and in the riverine forests (H. Hoeck pers. comm.); they also occur in drier Acacia woodland and in rocky alpine and sub-alpine habitats. Throughout their range, dependent on tree cavities, epiphytes or dense matted forest vegetation for shelter. A decrease in numbers in southern Africa has been attributed to loss of structure within habitat, rather than forest size (Castley and Kerley 1993). The biology and life-history of the species is summarized by Milner and Gaylard (in press).
6409		population	eng	Southern Tree Hyraxes spend long periods inactive in the high canopy or tree holes and so often escape notice. They are locally abundant in the Virunga Mts (13.4/ha; Milner and Harris 1999) and Ruwenzori Mts, where they live at a high density. In southern Africa, where <em>D. arboreus</em> is considered rare (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000), relative density has been estimated by means of counts of latrines in cavity trees (i.e. Catch Per Unit Effort; Gaylard 1994): 0.07[rn]0.29 latrines/man hour searching were found in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.
6409		threats	eng	The main threats include forest clearing and snaring for meat and skins (Milner and Gaylard in press). Many forest patches are too small to maintain viable populations (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000).
6410		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas in its range, including Tai National Park and the National Park of Upper Niger (Guinea).
6410		distribution	eng	This species is confined to West and Central Africa from Sierra Leone to northern Uganda and southwards to northern Angola and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Also on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (Shultz and Roberts in press).
6410		habitat	eng	Usually found in lowland moist forests, as well as moist savannas, but also in montane habitats to elevations of 3,500 m (Shultz and Roberts in press).
6410		population	eng	There is no reliable information on population densities and structure. Observations from Taï N. P., Côte d’Ivoire, provide a rough estimate of 1-2 individuals/km² based on nocturnal calling records (Shultz and Roberts in press).
6410		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although they are presumably sensitive to severe habitat fragmentation as a result of deforestation, and they are also hunted for food and skins (Shultz and Roberts in press). Fa <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded a significant increase in the number of carcasses of this species found in bushmeat markets in Bioko I. between 1991 and 1996.
6426		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. Recommended conservation actions for this species include: monitor distribution and abundance; and continue research on population dynamics, especially in lowland and riverine forests.
6426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the area north of the Daintree River to the vicinity of Mount Amos and west to the Mount Windsor Tablelands, on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland. The elevational range is sea level to 1,400 m asl.
6426		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of closed tropical moist forests, including tropical vine and gallery forest where they have recently been expanding their range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is primarily nocturnal.
6426		population	eng	It is a cryptic species that is now relatively common, although it is thought to be rare in the uplands.
6426		threats	eng	Upland populations appear secure. Lowland areas of forest have been disturbed by development. The viability of lowland populations was threatened by continued subdivision and development of remaining tracts of lowland rainforest under freehold tenure (specifically in the Daintree), which would have fragmented tree-kangaroo habitat and increased their exposure to predation by domestic dogs. However, this threat has now been much eased because of the buy-back schemes in the Daintree region and the recent introduction and enforcement of the Queensland Management Act. <br/><br/>In the past it was threatened by hunting pressure by Aborigines (Martin and Johnson 2008). Resumption of hunting might constitute a future threat (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6427		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to it.
6427		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Guinea, where it is found in the high elevations of the central mountains of southeastern Papua New Guinea. It ranges between 600 and 3,650 m asl.
6427		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to mossy mid- to upper primary montane tropical forest.
6427		population	eng	It is generally rare and occurs at low densities. The productivity of its preferred habitat is low, resulting in a natural low population density.
6427		threats	eng	This species is threatened by heavy hunting for food with dogs by local people. Future threats include habitat loss and degradation.
6429		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Hunting regulations and local awareness programmes should be developed to protect this species. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
6429		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), where it occurs in the mid-montane areas of the Central Cordillera. It may have previously occurred in lowland areas, however, it now appears to be extirpated from this part of its range. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,860 m asl.
6429		habitat	eng	This species is now restricted to montane tropical forest; it was formerly present in areas of lowland forest.
6429		population	eng	It is probably not a common species, especially as its range overlaps with high human densities.
6429		threats	eng	The species is highly threatened by hunting for food and is traded internally for cultural reasons by local people, and additionally by habitat loss through local deforestation for wood and timber, and by shifting cultivation and coffee plantations and rice (dryland) and wheat.
6431		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species occurs in a couple of protected areas. There is a community-based conservation project in the northern coastal range of New Guinea that is focused on protecting tree kangaroo species. Further surveys are needed to determine the true range of this species.
6431		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern coastal areas (including the Foja mountains), and the Vogelkop Peninsula of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is also present on the adjacent islands of Yapen, Waigeo, Misool, Salawati, and possibly Batanta (Indonesia). It probably ranges further to the south-west from the northern coastal range (this is a poorly surveyed area). It ranges in elevation from between 100 and 1,400 m asl.
6431		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland and mid-montane tropical forests. It is found in both primary and degraded forests.
6431		population	eng	It is a rare species, but it might occur at higher densities in the absence of humans. The population in the northern coastal range of New Guinea is considerably more threatened than other populations.
6431		threats	eng	This species is threatened by heavy hunting for food by local people, and by habitat loss and degradation through conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural use, and large-scale oil palm plantations.
6432		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. The species has been promoted as a flagship species, and it has a very high profile in the region where it occurs. Recommended conservation actions for this species from Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996), include: monitor distribution and abundance; study habitat utilisation and population dynamics in fragmented and regenerating rainforest habitats.
6432		distribution	eng	This species is present in the rainforests between Ingham and Mossman in north-eastern Queensland, Australia. It is now largely restricted to upland rainforests because of extensive clearing of lowland rainforests. Its area of occupancy has declined substantially in upland areas because of clearing of prime habitat on basalt soils on the Atherton Tableland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The elevational range is sea level to 1,600 m asl.
6432		habitat	eng	It is found in wet rainforests, and often in secondary forests. Occasionally found in dry and fringing eucalypt forests. They are known to forage in agricultural areas. This species is nocturnal, cryptic, and territorial. Its diet consists of fruit and leaves of a variety of rainforest plants (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
6432		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat.
6432		threats	eng	Historically, the main threat has been reduction of habitat, but this has ceased with the declaration of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and the species appears to have been able to persist in the mosaic of fragmented habitat (particularly where there are available habitat corridors). On the Atherton Tableland, increased fragmentation makes them more vulnerable to predation by dogs, although strategic reforestation on the Atherton Tableland opens the possibility of some recovery of its original area of occupancy in the future (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In agricultural areas where it occurs, predation by dogs and road kills represent threats.
6433		conservation	eng	The community-based Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program in Papua New Guinea is protecting this species through protection of habitat (S. Martin pers. comm.). The species has received considerable conservation attention within Papua New Guinea. There is a need to regulate hunting of this species through establishment of no-hunting areas by local people (S. Martin pers. comm.). The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program is working with local communities on the Huon Peninsula to create a Conservation Area of over 80,000 hectares (S. Martin pers. comm.).
6433		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the high elevations of the Huon Peninsula on the island of New Guinea, Papua New Guinea. There is a population present on the island of Umboi, Papua New Guinea, but this is "almost certainly introduced" (Flannery 1995a), and although this population is mapped it is not considered for the purposes of listing. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 3,300 m asl. The extent of occurrence is less than 14,000 km².
6433		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical montane and upper montane forests. Females have a gestation period of about 44 days (Heath <em>et al.</em> 1990); in captivity the young permanently leave the pouch by about 41 weeks (Dabek 1994). The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program is currently conducting a study of home range and habitat characteristics (S. Martin pers. comm.).
6433		population	eng	It has a naturally low population density.
6433		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overhunting for food by local people, and habitat loss due to conversion of forest to subsistence agricultural use and general human encroachment. The human population of the Huon Peninsula is rapidly growing. Coffee production is increasing and there is an active nickel mine on the northern edge of the mountain range.
6434		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
6434		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea where it is restricted to the Vogelkop Peninsula, and possibly the Fak Fak Peninsula, of Papua Province, Indonesia (Flannery 1995). The elevation today ranges between 1,000 and 2,500 m asl. There are historical records from sea level.
6434		habitat	eng	It is a montane tropical forest species, although it occurred historically in lowland forest.
6434		population	eng	It is an uncommon species that is restricted primarily to the uninhabited parts of its range. It has lost a significant portion of its range (and hence population) in the last 60-70 years.
6434		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting by local people for food, and through loss of habitat by conversion of forest to cultivated land. Flannery (1995) indicates that it has been eliminated from the more densely populated parts of the Arfak Mountains.
6435		conservation	eng	There is a community-based conservation project in place for this species; this includes a local hunting moratorium in the Swelpini area (Flannery 1995).
6435		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely restricted range on the summits of the eastern Bewani range and the Menawa block, and the Torricelli Mountains between the Yonkeitei and Wigotei Villages in the Fatima area of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). The total range is estimated to be close to 1,247 km². It has been recorded between 830 and 1,520 m asl.
6435		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from montane tropical forest. This species spends large amounts of time on the ground (Flannery 1995). Animals are wary and are usually only encountered as solitary individuals, although small groups of animals were recorded in the past (Flannery 1995). There does not appear to be a breeding season, and the females seem to give birth to one, or possibly two, young (Flannery 1995).
6435		population	eng	The subpopulation size of this species in the Torricelli Mountains totals less than 250 individuals (L. Salas pers. comm.). At the eastern end  of the Bewani range at the village of Kabori, Jim and Jean Thomas (pers. comm.) report that nine animals were killed during a hunting trip. The village representatives were willing to sign a hunting moratorium.
6435		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for food by local people and by habitat loss through conversion of forest to subsistence agricultural use and regional human population growth.
6436		conservation	eng	This species is found in a management area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
6436		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Papuan Plateau lowlands on the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), where Flannery (1995) reports that it has been recorded from between the upper Awarra and Strickland Rivers, Bamu, the Mount Sisa area and the Wabo area, southern Chimbu Province. The altitudinal range is incompletely known, but it appears to be found between sea level and 800 m asl.
6436		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland tropical forests where it is associated with karst habitats. Little more is known about the natural history of this species.
6436		population	eng	In relation to other tree kangaroo species, it is considered to be locally abundant in places.
6436		threats	eng	It is hunted for food locally, however, this is not considered a major threat to this species as there is a low human population density in the area, which is largely related to the region's inhospitable limestone topography. Deforestation due to logging is a threat in places (three quarters of the range is now a logging concession, but the dry karst country is largely inaccessible). There are ongoing proposals to put in oil palm plantations. There is also drilling for oil in one place.
6437		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas. It is protected from hunting in parts of its range by traditional beliefs. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
6437		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it is restricted to the Tembagapura and Kwiyawagi mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia. It is found between 2,700 and 3,500 m asl.
6437		habitat	eng	This is a sub-alpine species. It is present in upper montane low mossy forest or scrub type habitats, usually above 2,700 m. It is largely a terrestrial species that is found in rugged areas. These are very docile animals.
6437		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
6437		threats	eng	It is threatened by hunting for food in parts of its range. In the western parts of the range the species is still protected  by tradition, but in the eastern parts it has undergone major declines due to increasing human population and loss of habitat. Climate change also poses a long-term threat for this sub-alpine species; already the climate changes are allowing changes in agricultural practices.
6439		conservation	eng	The single known locality is within the Kahnti-Biega National Park. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures. There is a need to monitor the only known population of this species. Improvements in the management of the protected area for this species is needed.
6439		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two specimens from a single location on Mount Kahuzi in the highly threatened montane forest of the Kahnti-Biega National Park in the Kivu Region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The records are from around 1,900 to 2,100 m asl. There have been many surveys in surrounding areas that have not found the species, suggesting that it is a narrow range endemic (Dieterlen 1969; Dieterlen 1976).
6439		habitat	eng	The specimens were collected in a deep valley in dense montane forest and bamboo on Mount Kahuzi. There is little further information available on this species.
6439		population	eng	It is only known from two specimens. The high level of collecting undertaken in the area suggests that this is a rare species.
6439		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are illegal logging and burning of the habitat within the park.
6440		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a few protected areas including forest reserves. The taxonomic status of species in this genus is very confused and further research is needed. More information is needed about the species population abundance, range, biology, ecology, habitat status and threats. There is a need to monitor populations of this species [[WHY?]]
6440		distribution	eng	This relatively widespread species is endemic to highland areas of East Africa, including western Kenya (Hollister, 1919). It has been reported from Mount Elgon on the Kenya-Uganda border (Clausnitzer 2001), Mount Kilimanjaro (Shore and Garbett 1991; Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995), the western Rift Mountains from western Uganda including the Ruwenzoris south to western Rwanda and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kivu region). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 4,700 m asl. There is some uncertainty regarding the range of the species because of both the unresolved taxonomic status of some related forms, and the lack of adequate sampling in some areas.
6440		habitat	eng	This species is more terrestrial than other species of the genus. It inhabits dry, dense, grassy areas, and less frequently marshes and moist herbaceous vegetation. The species also occurs in sparse bamboo and secondary forest. On Mount Kilimanjaro, <em>D. insignis</em> inhabits heath and alpine zones at 3,500 to 4,700 m asl, with the savanna species, <em>D. melanotis</em>, found near the forest margin at 1,500 m (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995)
6440		population	eng	The species can be abundant at lower altitudes, but it becomes gradually less common with increasing altitude.
6440		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. There are some localised threats from agriculture on the Mau Escarpment in Kenya that may threaten the species in the future.
6441		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Kahnti-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and also protected areas in Burundi as well as elsewhere within its range. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology and ecology. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.
6441		distribution	eng	This East African species is endemic to the Albertine Rift Valley endemic where it has been recorded from the western and eastern slopes of the Ruwenzori Mountains in Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda, and in the Kivu region in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species has been recorded from 1,300 to 4,000 m asl.
6441		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range of habitats along the Albertine Rift. It inhabits grassland and disturbed habitats such as plantations and cropland. At higher elevations the species lives in open forests and or/bamboo forest at the edges of swamps. All of the habitats in which the species has been recorded have moist dense vegetation suitable for climbing.
6441		population	eng	It can be quite common.
6441		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
6442		conservation	eng	This species is present within the area of the proposed Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Although the park is yet to be officially established, the area is generally well protected (although there is some illegal grazing of livestock). The species is also found in Simien Mountains National Park. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats and potential conservation measures. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.
6442		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the high plateau of Ethiopia, and has been recorded from both sides of the Rift Valley (Yalden and Largen 1992). It is known from about nine sites and has been recorded from 2,500 to 3,550 m asl.
6442		habitat	eng	This is a grassland species that has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. This species differs from congeners in its inability or reluctance to climb (Yalden and Largen 1992). This species may be nocturnal (Gotelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1990).
6442		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, only about 30 specimens are known (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1976; Yalden and Largen 1992). The species is rarely captured in survey work.
6442		threats	eng	It is threatened by extensive livestock grazing within its range.
6443		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic resolution.
6443		distribution	eng	This wide ranging Subsaharan species occurs along the coast of southern South Africa, north through Swaziland, and up the coast of Mozambique through Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, central Angola, Zambia and the very southern corner of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It also has disjunct populations in Tanzania, the highlands of Ethiopia, Nigeria, the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Uganda, Benin, and Liberia and Guinea. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl in southern Africa. In Ethiopia it is a high elevation species.
6443		habitat	eng	The species inhabits grasslands and savanna. It has not been recorded from human habitats.
6443		population	eng	Although the species is difficult to trap, it is not thought to be a common species.
6443		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
6444		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic revision.
6444		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal South Africa and from disjunct populations in Tanzania, Botswana and Mozambique. The populations are separated by areas of unsuitable habitat. It occurs from sea level in the southern part of its range, to montane areas in the north.
6444		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in forest/grassland mosaic habitats in the southern parts of its range. In northern areas it is more restricted to grassland habitat. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
6444		population	eng	In the southern part of its range it is reported to be very common in suitable habitat.
6444		threats	eng	While there are no major threats to this species, grassland fires may represent a potential threat to a number of populations.
6445		conservation	eng	The range of the taxon is presumed to include a few protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic revision.
6445		distribution	eng	This taxon has been recorded from two disjunct areas, one population in West Africa (from Togo east to Cameroon) and two sites in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has been recorded from close to 300 to 1,000 m asl.
6445		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of montane bunch grass. There is little further information is available on this taxon.
6445		population	eng	It is considered to be common in Cameroon. There is no infoemation available on populations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
6445		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6446		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic revision.
6446		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution in Southern Africa and East Africa. It ranges from Ethiopia in the north, largely through East Africa to northeastern South Africa in the south, being found as far west as Angola, but absent from the Congo Basin. It has been recorded up to around 1,500 m asl.
6446		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of grassland/savanna mosaic habitats.
6446		population	eng	It is a common species.
6446		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall, although fires can be a local threat.
6447		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
6447		distribution	eng	This species is largely distributed in southern Central Africa and northern Southern Africa. It has been recorded from Angola, into southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, eastwards through Zambia, into Malawi and southern Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. It has a fragmented distribution, being found only in suitable habitat. It occurs up to about 2,200 m asl.
6447		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of forest/grassland mosaic, although it is more of a forest specialist.
6447		population	eng	It is a common species.
6447		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall, although fires can be a localised threat.
6448		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected area. There are some reserves for birds but these are at lower elvations in the forest.
6448		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three mountains in western Cameroon; Mount Cameroon from 1,700 to 4,000 m asl, Mount Manenguba 1,800 to 1,900 m asl and Mount Kupe at 850 m asl. It is most likely an endemic of these mountains. It has not been recorded from lower altitudes.
6448		habitat	eng	It lives in burrows in the grass in montane sanvannas. It is also found in plantations and farmlands on Mount Kupe. It is mostly terrestrial, diurnal and nocturnal.
6448		population	eng	It is a rare species.
6448		threats	eng	The species occurs above the forest line in montane grassland so it will not be effected by deforestation. Climate change may be a future threat and grazing livestock may move up to higher latitudes if the forest is cleared.
6449		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
6449		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Chitau, east-central Angola at around 1,500 m asl.
6449		habitat	eng	The type locality is in an agricultural area that was previously moist savanna.
6449		population	eng	It is not thought to have been collected again since it was first described.
6449		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
6483		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Zoological gardens which are protected, but it must also occur elsewhere. Further research to establish the species' range, population status and habitat requirements is urgently needed.
6483		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, in the Congo, at around 300 m asl. (Petter 1966).
6483		habitat	eng	It has only been captured in a bamboo clump in the Zoological Gardens. The dentition of this species suggests that it could be insectivorous (Nowak 1999).
6483		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known, and only a few specimens have been collected. It is an extremely difficult species to trap.
6483		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
6490		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
6490		distribution	eng	This species largely occurs in the Congo Basin of Central Africa. It ranges from Cameroon east through the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), Central African Republic, to Rwanda and Uganda. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
6490		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland swampy and riverine habitats, and forages in streams in lowland and montane tropical forest. The diet consists on insects and other invertebrates, and occasionally vegetable matter (Nowak, 1999).
6490		population	eng	It is locally common in appropriate habitat.
6490		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6491		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
6491		distribution	eng	This West African species is patchily distributed from Sierra Leone, through Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana.
6491		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from lowland and montane rain forest, and also in secondary forest associated with swampy soils.
6491		population	eng	It is generally considered to be an uncommon species.
6491		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but its association with forest habitats suggest that it may be threatened by deforestation.
6493		conservation	eng	<em>Dermatemys</em> has been subject to legal protection in Mexico since 1927, as under the Mexican Constitution all natural resources belong to the Nation and can only be exploited with formal authorization/permits. <em>Dermatemys</em> was included in the Mexican Red data list (NOM-059-ECOL 1994) as endangered, making all forms of harvest and exploitation illegal. However, very little is done to enforce the law and few people respect it (Vogt pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>In Belize, there is national legislation (Statutory Instrument No. 55, of April 1993) designed to control the level of harvest and establish some protected populations (Polisar 1994). The efficacy of this legislation needs to be evaluated and the nation-wide status of the species assessed. <br/> <br/><em>Dermatemys</em> is protected under Guatamalan law (Campbell 1998) but exact details are not available. <br/> <br/><em>D. mawii</em> is categorized as a highly protected species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (Code of Federal Regulations, 1987).  <br/> <br/><em>Dermatemys</em> is listed on Appendix II of CITES. <br/> <br/>Laguna La Popotera, Veracruz, Mexico, was designated a RAMSAR site in 2005 with specific hopes of creating the first extensively managed wildlife reserve specifically for <em>Dermatemys</em> (Horne in litt. to TFTSG RLA, 27Jul 05). The species is present in Laguna del Tigre N.P. in Peten, Guatemala, and was recommended as a focal species for park management (Castañeda Moya <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/> Currently there are several <em>ex situ</em> populations of this species with which viable breeding colonies can be established in different zoos and farms. Some of these <em>ex situ</em> populations are: Nacajuca, Tabasco, with 880 turtles, La Florida, Veracruz, with 45 turtles, the Veracruz Aquarium with 2 animals, Chicago Zoo with 2 animals, Detroit Zoo with 2 animals, Philadelphia Zoo with 9 specimens, and the Guatemala City Zoo with one animal. <br/> <br/>In 2004 a group for <em>D. mawii</em> conservation was established, proposing a program that includes raising the authorities' and people’s awareness on the species, its captive conservation that includes the genetic management of the captive populations, evaluating the wild populations and their habitat, improved enforcement of existing legal protection, promotion of harvest management measures for sustainable use, and the creation of a reintroduction program. <br/> <br/>In summary, existing protective measures need to be implemented, populations inhabiting protected areas must be watched over carefully, and careful thought must be given to meeting some, if not all, of the intensive commercial demand for the species by sustainable production from farms.
6493		distribution	eng	Inhabits the regions within the large rivers from the Papaloapan basin in central Veracruz and along the lowlands of the Usumacinta basin in the States of Tabasco and Chiapas, as well as in Campeche, Mexico, through Belize and the large rivers and lakes of the department of Peten on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala. There are no records for this species in either the State of Yucatan or in the northern part of Quintana Roo (Iverson and Mittermeier 1980, Iverson 1992, Campbell 1998, Vogt unpublished data). (See Figure 1 in the attached PDF for a map of the extent of occurrence).
6493		habitat	eng	<em>Dermatemys</em> primarily inhabit the larger deeper rivers and oxbow lakes throughout the year. During the rainy season they will enter the flooded forests and travel up smaller river courses to nest. Often as flood waters recede they will become trapped in oxbow lakes until the next rainy season, since they are so poorly designed for terrestrial locomotion. Even though this turtle is a fast swimmer and is capable of swimming up rapids they often concentrate in the deep pools at the bottom of the river during the day (Vogt unpublished data). Well oxygenated water is preferred, as they have highly vascularized papillae in the larynx which enable them to stay underwater indefinitely, drawing water in through the mouth and exhaling through the nostrils. However anaerobic black water oxbow lakes used to hold large concentrations of <em>Dermatemys</em> that are trapped there after the water level of the river recedes in the dry season. Although <em>Dermatemys</em> will use fast-moving sections of rivers, they often seek respite from the current in the calmer parts of deep pools and are found in association with submerged tree trunks imbedded in the river bottom. Larger turtles usually rest on the bottom and sometimes partially imbed themselves if the substrate is soft enough. Small individuals often seek shelter closer to shore, resting partially imbedded in accumulations of detritus and also hidden amongst the branches of submerged trees. During April and May, the dry season, adult <em>Dermatemys</em> congregate in the deeper waterholes, 6 m or more in depth. During this same time of the year juveniles and subadults can be found along the shorelines of smaller tributaries taking refuge within the branches of fallen trees or mounds of accumulated detritus (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979, Polisar 1996, Vogt pers. obs.). Populations in Belize are known to enter estuaries (Moll 1989). Dermatemys is an herbivorous turtle throughout its life (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979, Moll 1989, Vogt unpublished data). It eats a wide variety of aquatic vegetation, fallen leaves and leaf detritus, and fallen fruits from riparian vegetation. Belizean populations are also known to enter estuaries to feed upon mangrove vegetation and sea grasses (Moll 1989). <br/> <br/>Females reach maturity between 34.2–42.0 cm, while males become mature between 32.8-38.5 cm (Polisar 1996, Vogt unpublished data). Females grow larger than males; largest size reported is 60 cm and 22 kg (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979), although none of 567 turtles examined by Polisar (1996) in North-Central Belize during 1989–1990 exceeded 49 cm. No information is available on age at maturity or on longevity. <br/> <br/>Nesting begins during the height of the rainy season from September through December when water levels are at their annual peaks; up to three, exceptionally four, clutches of eggs are laid (Vogt and Flores-Vilela 1992, Polisar 1996). Reports in the literature describing the nesting season as March and April (Lee 1969, Moll 1986a) were based on turtles found in the markets that were most likely holding their eggs for an extended period due to their captive condition. Some females may lay their ultimate clutch for the season in late February or early March, but these are anomalies. Vitellogenesis begins in June and July with oviposition from September to March in the Rio Lacantun in Chiapas (Vogt unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Nests are excavated within 3 m of the shoreline, usually within 1 m (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979), often in saturated soil. Nests are often constructed under an overhanging river bank. Since the nests are scattered along a dynamic shoreline during the rainy season they often go undetected by predators. Often nests are exposed by flood waters creating the misconception that this species of turtle lays its eggs underwater (Vogt unpublished data). The earliest nests of the season are often inundated for weeks at a time with no effect on survivorship. Polisar (1992) documented 80–100% hatching success in eggs subjected to more than 30 days of submersion in water. The physiological mechanisms of this emybryonic diapause need to be investigated further. <br/> <br/>Up to three clutches were laid per year in Chiapas, with clutch size ranging from 6-16 eggs. Incubation time in the laboratory varied from 115–223 days, this variation is attributed to embryonic dormancy. Diapause allows the eggs to remain at an early developmental stage when environmental conditions are not favorable for development, cool temperatures and flood conditions, diapause is broken by drying of the nests and warmer temperatures. Clutches laid over a 4 month time span hatch synchronously, stimulated by moistening of the soil during the first summer rains (Vogt unpublished data). In Belize Polisar (1992) reported 217–300 days between oviposition and hatchling emergence. Vogt and Flores-Villela (1992) reported that incubation temperatures in the laboratory above 28° C produced all females and temperatures of 25–26° C produced males.
6493		population	eng	In the 1970s populations in Tabasco near Villahermosa were decimated and the professional turtle hunters began to go farther and farther away to find turtles to harvest. Harvest quantities in the 1970s amounted to 1,000–2,000 turtles per lake annually; the species was abundant enough in the Tio Lacantum area, Chiapas, that traders built an airstrip to fly them out to Villahermosa (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979). Tales were told by locals of 100s to a thousand <em>Dermatemys</em> taken in a single day in oxbow lakes along the Rio Lacantun and Lago Palestina near Juarez, Chiapas (Vogt unpublished data). By the 1980s no such large populations remained, and the largest confiscations were rarely over 100 turtles. By 1990 Vogt (pers. obs.) never saw more than 5 animals in one place being held from confiscation or for sale. In the Rio Tsendales, Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, in the 1980s, it was possible to catch 40–45 adults in 5 days of trapping with 20 fyke nets (Vogt unpubished data). By the mid 1990s this population had been decimated by Tabascanian turtle trappers, even though the area was completely within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (Vogt pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Populations of <em>Dermatemys</em> are now so low in Mexico that recovery is perhaps not possible in most regions. The only viable populations of <em>Dermatemys</em> currently (in 2005) exist in inaccessible areas far from civilization. In the Rio Blanco of Veracruz there exists a recuperating population, with a proportion of subadults to adults that is extremely high. Normally at least 80 per cent of the population consists of adults when the population is not being over harvested (Vogt unpublished data). When there are few adults and few subadults and more hatchlings found than adults the population is in extremely fragile shape. When this population was trapped in the late 1990s it had a majority (80%) of subadults, signifying that the adults had recently been overharvested, but that there was sufficient reproductive stock being produced that the population was judged to be recuperating. How many decades this might take is unknown (Vogt unpublished data). <br/> <br/><em>Dermatemys</em> is legally protected by several laws and international agreements but these regulations have not stopped its capture or consumption, and populations of the species in Mexico have been almost eliminated (Vogt and Flores Villela 1992). In Guatemala the status of the population is not clear (Polisar and Horwich 1994). Moll (1986b) conducted countrywide surveys of river systems inhabited by <em>Dermatemys</em>, and market surveys, in 1983–1984. Polisar (1992) documented population structures in sections of the Belize River exposed to contrasting levels of exploitation, finding adults very scarce in the heavily exploited sections. There are reasonable probabilities that some populations in Belize are now afforded at least partial protection, such as sections of Rio Bravo and Irish Creek, Cox Lagoon, and part of the Sibun River (which is a village-originated Hickatee Conservation Area). While pressures in Belize can be assumed to be high, trends have been less disastrous and declines less rapid than in Mexico. <br/> <br/>In Guatemala the status of the populations are not known (Polisar and Horwich 1994). A herpetofauna survey of Laguna del Tigre, Peten, Guatemala, in April 1999 focused on Morelet's Crocodile but also recorded the occurrence of <em>Dermatemys</em>, though in densities too low to quantify reliably (Castañeda Moya <em>et al</em>. 2000). Further surveys in Guatemala and follow-up evaluations in Belize are a priority. <br/> <br/>It was listed in the 1982 IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Groombridge 1982) and has been considered as a high priority by the IUCN Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle SG in its 1989 action plan; it was uplisted to Endangered in the 1996 IUCN Red List.
6493		threats	eng	<em>D. mawii</em> is perhaps the most endangered species, genus, and family of turtles in Mexico, and possibly elsewhere in its limited range. Currently the greatest threat to this species is the human over-consumption that has driven them to be threatened with extinction. Although some of the habitats where these turtles live have been degraded, over-exploitation started even before habitat degradation. <em>Dermatemys</em> are captured with nets, by free diving and by harpooning. Its sale has been illegal since 1975, but this has not done very much to reduce its capture. In Mexico, <em>Dermatemys</em> sold for up to US$ 10 per large animal (presumably over 10 kg) in 1979 (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979); it is currently valued at over $40 per kg live weight in Villa Hermosa (Syed pers. comm. with PROFEPA wildlife inspectors in Tabasco 2005). In 1980 animals were still seen in the fish markets of Alvarado, Lerdo de Tejada and Minatitlan; today they are not sold openly in local markets. In Alvarado, their meat is frozen for sale and delivery is by request (Vogt pers. obs.). Turtle traders in Veracruz expressed concern about future supplies as long ago as 1970 (Mittermeier in Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979). <em>Dermatemys</em> are traditionally harvested for consumption in many areas of Belize (Moll 1986b, Polisar 1995). <em>Dermatemys</em> is similarily one of the most valued turtles in Peten, Guatemala, because its meat is considered a delicacy; animals continue to be hunted with nets, harpooned or collected by hand. At recent harvest rates, the species is expected to be driven inevitably to extinction (Campbell 1998). In addition, the depletion of Mexican populations and the high demand for the species in Mexico will inevitably invite smuggling from Guatemala and Belize.
6494		conservation	eng	Extraction of sea turtles and their products has become illegal in most countries. In many, there are conservation programmes to protect egg clutches and nesting females from poaching. International trade of all sea turtle products and sub-products is forbidden under CITES. However, the use of the Leatherback meat, oil or eggs is allowed in some nations, as part of internal traditional customs or rituals. While many international instruments (CMS, CBD, SPAW to name a few) require the protection of sea turtles in international waters, lack of effective monitoring in pelagic fishing operations still causes significant bycatch mortality. As an unprecedented action, the United States government recently closed a very large area in the northern Pacific to the US longline fishery in order to protect leatherbacks from incidental capture. <br/> <br/>Because of the decline in the world's populations of the leatherback turtle, full protection of all nesting beaches to eliminate poaching, avoid degradation of critical habitat, and increment hatchling recruitment (through enhancing hatching success and incrementing the number of nesting protection programs) will be necessary. However, as pointed out by Sarti <em>et al</em>. (1996) and Spotila <em>et al</em>. (2000) recovery of this population cannot be achieved by increasing hatchling production alone because of the very high mortalities as fisheries' bycatch. Due to the very drastic observed population declines in last few decades, pelagic and coastal fishing practices that impact leatherbacks must be changed or eliminated urgently to minimize leatherback mortality in these habitats. Further, because the migratory routes of leatherbacks cross territorial waters of many nations or occur in the high seas, international collaboration focused on sea turtle conservation is essential. In regions such as the Caribbean, where populations are shared and the dynamic nature of the nesting habitats provokes shifts in nesting sites, greater collaboration and data sharing will be necessary to derive a better understanding of population sizes and trends.
6494		distribution	eng	The Leatherback turtle has a worldwide distribution. It is found from tropical to sub-polar oceans; nests on tropical (rarely subtropical) beaches. Very little is known about the distribution of post-hatchlings and juveniles. Leatherbacks smaller than 100 cm curved carapace length seem limited to regions warmer than 26°C. Sightings of turtles less than 145 cm show that some juveniles remain near to the coast in St. Lucia, E. Trop. Pacific, Mexico, Barbados, USA (east and west coast-Georgia, S. Carolina, Texas, Rhode Island, California) Puerto Rico, Amer. Samoa, Bonaire, Chile, Spain, Venezuela, Scotland, and England (Eckert 1999).
6494		habitat	eng	<strong>Main Habitats</strong>: Nest on sandy beaches. The juveniles may remain in tropical waters warmer than 26°C, near  the coast, until they exceed 100 cm in curved carapace length.  When adults, they are pelagic and live in open ocean, sometimes in temperatures below 10°C. There are very few sighting of males near the coast during the breeding season, only the females are near to the coast during the breeding season and go to the beach to nest. <br/> <br/><strong>Generation Length</strong>: The estimate of age to maturity for the species used by most authorities is based on a skeletochronological analysis by Zug and Parham (1996), that placed it at around 13-14 years.  However, population-wide estimates of age are not currently practical and thus average age of parents are not known. Considering that most authorities agree that the life-span of leatherbacks is 30 years or more, then age to maturity plus one half of the reproductive life span (22 years) is taken as a reasonable approximation of generation length. If density dependence applies, the severely depleted status (see below) would argue that current growth rates are higher than natural and natural generation time may be longer than 22 years.  <br/> <br/><strong>Degree of fragmentation</strong>: Genetic analyses have shown that the Pacific populations are very closely related, and distinct from those of the Atlantic, suggesting a degree of reproductive independence. However, the lineages in the two ocean basins are not as highly differentiated as found for analogous assemblages in other cheloniid species (Dutton <em>et al.</em> 1999).
6494		population	eng	The first attempt to evaluate the world population was done by Ross in 1979 (Ross 1982), estimating than 29,000 to 45,000 adult leatherback existed in the world, not counting the rookeries of the Eastern Pacific which had not been discovered yet.  Pritchard estimated in 1982 that the world population consisted of 115,000 adult females, and considered that the Mexican population supports up to 60% of the global total.  In 1996, Spotila and collaborators provided the most recent global estimation, compiling published data, unpublished information and personal comments from 28 leatherback nesting sites, estimating that 20,000 to 30,000 adult females existed at that time in the world.  This represents a reduction of the global population of 78% from Pritchard’s estimation in 14 years, less than a single generation. <br/> <br/>Based on the number of nestings known to date, it has been mentioned that some of the most important populations have collapsed.  For example, the rookery in Malaysia, which from 10,155 clutches in 1956 fell to 37 in 1995 in the same stretch of beach. The East Pacific leatherback population has been estimated to have collapsed to about 1,690 adult females, down from 4,638 in 1995 (Spotila <em>et al.</em> 2000) with the Mexican population, which is in serious danger of collapse in spite of protection efforts applied for over a decade (e.g., number of nests have fallen from 5,080 to less than 100 annually in one of the main rookeries of the Pacific coast); and those in Costa Rica dropping from 1,646 nest to less than 500 nest in the main nesting beach on the Pacific coast. In the Pacific basin, only the Indonesian population remains as still somewhat abundant (2,983 nests in 1999 in a single beach from 13,000 nests in 1984) but with uncertain status and future prospects, since civil problems have hampered the continuation of monitoring and protection activities in the area, along with significant fisheries pressures that impacts the population. <br/> <br/>There are areas in the Atlantic in which the number of nests per season has increased in the past few years, as is the case of the US Virgin Islands. However, these populations are relatively minor. Others populations in the Atlantic have decreased or fluctuated such as those in French Guyana or Surinam.  In these two, the beach dynamics hinder an accurate evaluation of the population status, since whole beaches disappear, forcing females to search for alternative suitable nesting beaches.  Along with this, the leatherback population is shared between Surinam, Guyana, French Guyana and maybe Trinidad and Brazil.  Until a true international cooperation program exists, it won’t be possible to have thorough evaluations of such population.  For the coast of Africa, there are historical records for South Africa. In the Indian Ocean,  the population is increasing but cannot be considered a large population, with around 100 nests per season in 56 km. in the last four years. Recent reports mention that west Africa has an important population with around 10,400 nest per season, but the total area occupied for the leatherbacks is not well known and there is no available historical information. J. Fretey mentioned (pers. comm.) that this population could be currently the most important in the world.
6494		threats	eng	The main threats have been a prolonged harvest of eggs and the incidental capture in oceanic fisheries. In some areas the egg harvest and illegal poaching has removed more than 95% of the clutches, and this has been recognized as the main cause for the collapse in the Malaysia population (Chan and Liew 1996). Fishing activities using longline and driftnets are an important threat since juvenile and adult are captured in migratory routes (Zug and Parham 1996).  In some areas females are killed on the nesting beaches for oil extraction. Leatherback hunts, which have been stripped of their traditional customs and controls, are also a serious threats (Suarez and Starbird 1996). Oceanic pollution, basically by plastics is another cause of mortality. Phthalates, derived form plastics have been found in the leatherback egg yolk (Juárez-Cerón 1998).
6495		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.
6496		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.
6506		conservation	eng	The desman is listed in the Russian Red Data Book (under category 2: declining in number rare relict species). It is protected in the buffer zone of Okskiy, Voronezhskiy, Kaluzhskie Zaseki  Zapovednik, and Ugra National Parks and several small protected areas. This species has been the subject of re-introductions attempts. Recently, conservationists tried to reintroduce it to the Desna basin, in the area of Bryanskiy Les Zapodnenik. The Biodiversity Conservation Centre has started a public campaign against nylon nets and electro-fishing. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended to stabilize and improve the condition of the Russian desman throughout its range include the following:<br/>· Banning the unrestricted sale of nets and net-making materials;<br/>· Developing a system of measures to combat electric landing nets; and<br/>· Setting up specialized hunting reserves in the desman's key areas of habitation.
6506		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan; it has recently disappeared from Belarus. At the beginning of the 20th century the desman was common in the Dnepr, Don, Volga and Ural rivers basins. Its current range is very fragmented, and it has disappeared form many areas where it formerly occurred. At the end of the 19th century it disappeared from Ukraine, but was reintroduced in the 1950s. In the 1990s it was found again in the Desna (a tributary of the Dnepr, Ukraine).
6506		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan; it has recently disappeared from Belarus. At the beginning of the 20th century the desman was common in the Dnepr, Don, Volga and Ural rivers basins. Its current range is very fragmented, and it has disappeared from many areas where it formerly occurred. At the end of the 19th century it disappeared from Ukraine, but was reintroduced in the 1950s. In the 1990s it was found again in the Desna (a tributary of the Dnepr, Ukraine).
6506		habitat	eng	A riparian species, it is found in holes primarily along oxbow lakes, less frequently by rivers and ponds. It does not inhabit all water bodies within its range; it has quite strict habitat requirements and prefers water bodies with rich water-marsh vegetation, bushes and primary forests along the banks. Prefers lakes with 1-2 m depth with rich invertebrate fauna. Also found in small rivers with slow flow. In favourable years it is able to reproduce during the whole year, but usually has two reproduction peaks at the end of spring and autumn. Males participate in care of young. Omnivorous, recorded feeding on at least 72 species of water invertebrates and 30 plant species, as well as fish and amphibians.
6506		population	eng	At the beginning of the 1970s in the Soviet Union there were about 70,000 individuals, of which the majority occurred in Russia, with about 1,500 individuals in Kazahstan and single records in Ukraine and Belarus. More recent surveys in the Russian Federation indicate that the population there declined from 39,000 in 1985 to 27,000 in 2000/2001, and it is suspected that rates of decline have increased since then owing to growing threats from fisheries bycatch. The 2000/2001 survey covered around 30,000 km of the banks of rivers, lakes and artificial reservoirs, and a uniform methodology was used (see the Biodiversity Conservation Centre website http://www.biodiversity.ru/eng/programs/desman/results.html for further details). In Ukraine the desman is currently very rare and in Belarus it has recently been extirpated.
6506		threats	eng	The main threat to the Russian desman at present is the widespread use of fixed fishing nets. These nets, which are used by poachers, have become increasingly cheap and widely available in recent years: a recent study recorded 50 'outlets' freely selling these nets on the Moscow-Vladimir section of the Nizhny Novgorod highway alone (http://www.biodiversity.ru/eng/programs/desman/results.html). The very low price and high durability of modern nets means that poachers often leave them in the water for days or even months, checking them only occasionally and often abandoning them. A desman dies on average within 5-10 minutes when trapped in a net. <br/><br/>The second most important threat is the use of 'electric landing nets' (or electric rods), which use an electric current to stun fish. These items of equipment, also used by poachers, have become widespread over the last 10-15 years. They are not believed to directly harm desmans, as a general rule, but they almost totally wipe out the fish and aquatic invertebrates that the desman depends upon.  <br/><br/>A third major threat is habitat loss and degradation. During the second half of the twentieth century water pollution, creation of impoundments, drainage, clearance of riparian vegetation, and uncontrolled agricultural exploitation of flood plains became widespread and contributed to the decline in the species' population. However, this process has abated somewhat in the last decade, and its influence on the decline in the Russian desman population is today secondary. Competition for breeding sites with introduced nutria (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and muskrats (<em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>) may also be a threat.
6508		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas, but no specific conservation measures are in place.
6508		distribution	eng	This is a Sahelian species found from Senegal and Mauritania eastwards through Mali, Burkina Faso Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, possibly Chad and Sudan to the Red Sea.
6508		habitat	eng	It is recorded from scrub savannas with sparse vegetation and hardened soils, often with gravel.
6508		population	eng	It is locally very abundant in suitable habitats (based on observations and owl pellet counts).
6508		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6509		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas, but no specific conservation measures are in place.
6509		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern Africa. It ranges from southwestern Angola in the north, through much of Namibia and Botswana, into western, central and northeastern South Africa, and possibly into Zimbabwe.
6509		habitat	eng	This species is found on arid gravel plains and areas of hardened sand. This species is not found in high (soft) dune areas.
6509		population	eng	It is a seasonally abundant species.
6509		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6510		conservation	eng	There is a need for building human resource capacity for colonies elimination.
6510		distribution	eng	Uruguay, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Northern Chile north to Sonora, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas (Mexico); Margarita Island (Venezuela); Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Also Uruguay.
6510		habitat	eng	Found in  large colonies. Hematophagous. Common vampire bats are limited to warm climates. They can be found in both arid and humid parts of the tropics and subtropics. They occur up to 2400 meters in elevation (Ramirez,  pers. comm.). The bats usually live in colonies ranging from 20 to 100 individuals although much larger colonies (up to 5,000) have been reported. Desmodus rotundus roosts in moderately lighted caves with deep fissures, and in tree hollows. Vampire bats can also be found in old wells, mine shafts, and abandoned buildings. Roosts often smell strongly of ammonia because of the digested blood that has collected in the crevices and on the floors of the roosts (Mulheisen and Anderson 2001).
6510		population	eng	Abundant. This bat is a social animal that hunts and lives in groups. The bats live in colonies consisting of both males and females. In captivity, dominance hierarchies based on access to food were observed, but there is little conclusive evidence of complex hierarchies in the wild. Curiously, most close associations are formed between several females or females and their offspring; adult males do not form close social ties in the roost. Females frequent more roost site than males, making associations in many different places. The associations between females are maintained over many years. Wilkinson (1985, 1986) reported that although self-grooming occurs more often, social grooming is an important part of the vampire bat's behaviour. Social grooming usually occurs between females and their offspring, but it is also significant between adult females. The adult females participating in grooming are usually closely related or roost mates. Wilkinson (1986) found that social grooming has more to do with food sharing than with the removal of ectoparasites. In many instances, social grooming begins with one female approaching another and grooming her for as long as two minutes. The female being groomed then regurgitates part of her blood meal for the grooming female. It is also common to see females regurgitate food for their offspring.
6510		threats	eng	It is persecuted due to rabies but this is not a major threat.
6511		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
6511		distribution	eng	This species is found on the central Ethiopian plateau. It has been recorded at elevations of 1,800 to 3,300 m asl.
6511		habitat	eng	This is a semi-arboreal species of moist montane forests and scrub. It is also found in agricultural lands adjacent to forest.
6511		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
6511		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is not considered to be at risk because of its high population levels and because it can be found in agricultural lands.
6520		conservation	eng	In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).<br/>Found in protected areas.
6520		distribution	eng	Tamaulipas (Mexico) south to Northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Brazil; Trinidad; Margarita Isl (Venezuela) (Simmons 2005). Also Venezuela, Guianas, and Suriname.
6520		habitat	eng	Found in forests and transition zones. Hematophagous. <em>D. youngi</em> has been found in moist tropical and dry forests. They have been found roosting in caves, tree hollows, and on the edges of banana tree plantations. (Elizondo, 1999; Nowak, 1999). White-winged vampire bats feed mostly on blood from various bird species, including free-ranging poultry species (chickens, Guinea fowl, and turkeys). (Nowak, 1999; Schutt <em>et al.</em>, 1999)
6520		population	eng	Rare, three specimens found in three localities to southern cone. Little work has been done on this rare species, therefore the range may be larger than what has been documented. (Greenhall <em>et al.</em>, 1983)
6520		threats	eng	Can be confused with the common vampire bat (<em>D. rotundus</em>) and be persecuted.
6553		conservation	eng	The species has been included on CITES Appendix I since 1975, and legally protected in all range states.  An extensive international co-operative programme for the conservation of this species is being implemented with <em>in situ</em> activities being conducted in Indonesia and Malaysia. The primary objectives are to develop and deploy effective anti-poaching teams and to provide the co-ordination capacity to manage and sustain the programme. Rhino Protection Units (RPU) have been a <em>force majeur</em> in stopping poaching in Sumatra. Many organizations are involved with these units, including the Government of Indonesia (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). The expansion and reinforcement of anti-poaching programmes is the top priority if this species is to survive.<br/><br/>There are also ongoing efforts to develop managed breeding centers for the species in Indonesia and Malaysia. There have been recent advances in captive breeding techniques for this species, including a successful births at the Cincinnati Zoo in 2001 and 2004 (Khan <em>et al</em>., 2004). One of these offspring was transferred back to a breeding center in Sumatra.<br/><br/>There is a need for further surveys in northern Myanmar to determine the status of any remaining populations.
6553		distribution	eng	The Sumatran rhinoceros once occurred from the foothills of the Himalayas in Bhutan and north-eastern India, through southern China (Yunnan), Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and the Malay Peninsula, and onto the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997; Grubb, 2005). The species' precise historical range is indeterminate, as early accounts failed to distinguish rhinos to specific level, due to partial sympatry with the other two Asian rhino species (<em>Rhinoceros sondaicus</em> and <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em>). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis</em> formerly occurred in India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (Nowak, 1999). The subspecies is extinct in the three former countries, but there is a possibility that populations remain in northern Myanmar.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni</em> formerly occurred throughout the island of Borneo. Currently, the species occurs only in Sabah (Malaysia), although a few individuals may still survive in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia) (Meyaard, 1986).<br/><br/><em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis</em> formerly occurred in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra (Indonesia). Presently, the subspecies occurs only in parts of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997).<br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to over 2,500 m asl.
6553		habitat	eng	The species inhabits tropical rainforest and montane moss forest, and occasionally occurs at forest margins and in secondary forest (Nowak, 1999). The species occurs mainly in hilly areas nearby water sources, and exhibits seasonal movements, moving uphill in times of lowland flooding (van Strien, 1975). This shy species is dependent on salt licks, and occurs mostly in primary forest in protected areas, but wandering into secondary forests outside protected areas, especially in the dry season in search of water (Van Strien, 1975; Boeadi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Males are primarily solitary, but can have overlapping territories with females, which are commonly found with offspring (Nowak, 1999). The home range size of females is probably no more than 500 ha, while males wonder over larger areas, with likely limited dispersal distance. The species is generally solitary, except for mating pairs and mothers with young (Nowak, 1999). Its life history characteristics are not well known, with longevity estimated at about 35-40 years, gestation length of approximately 15-16 months, and age at sexual maturity estimated at 6-7 years for females and 10 years for males (Nowak, 1999; IRF website (www.rhinos-irf.org), 2007).<br/><br/>Home range: Males up to 5,000 ha, females 1,000 -1,500 ha. Daily movements between feeding sites and wallows are probably only a few kilometers per day. Longer treks are made when males and females go to saltlicks (5-10 km) and by males exploring their large ranges. Dispersal appears to be mainly by sub-adult animals (4-7 years) old. In this period they may be found rather far from the home grounds. Adults are very traditional in the use of their ranges and will not move away unless severely disturbed. Water is never very far away in the habitats occupied by the Sumatran rhino.
6553		population	eng	The total population is estimated at fewer than 275 individuals, though probably more than 220. Until the early 1990's the numbers continued to decline at a rapid rate with estimated losses of 50% or more of the population per decade (Foose and van Strien 1997). Over the last decade the decrease has been halted or slowed in most of the larger populations because of better protection, but animals are still being lost in the small remnant populations.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis</em> now occurs mainly on Sumatra, where there are 170 to 230 individuals. It has its largest populations remaining in Bukit Barisan Selata, Way Kambas, and Gunung Leuser National Park (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997). There are about 60 to 80 animals in Gunung Leuser, about 60 to 80 Bukit Barisan Selatan, and 15-25 in Way Kambas, with some local reports of rhinos occurring outside of protected areas in Aceh Province (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). There are also a few small, non-viable populations, including no more than a few individuals in Kerinci-Seblat National Park. Some populations are decreasing due to poaching, with very steep decreases in some areas (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). Poaching has ceased in Bukit Barisan Selata and Way Kambas National Parks recently (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). Populations in Peninsular Malaysia are now very small, but the species possibly survives in Taman Negara National Park and in Tamon Besor/Belum area. It probably no longer survives in Endau Rompin National Park (Malaysia).<br/><br/>The majority of the few remaining individuals of the subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni</em> occur in Tabin National Park in Sabah (Malaysia), with some also in the Danum Valley (also in Sabah). The total population in Sabah is likely to be about 50 individuals (Han pers. comm.). A two year survey from 2000-2002 indicated 6 known individuals, 10 probable individuals, and an additional 35 possible (Van Strien, 2005).<br/><br/>The population status of the subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis</em> is unknown, with the very slight possibility that a small number of individuals survive in the Lassai Tract in Myanmar.<br/><br/>There are over 20 animals in captivity, mostly in Indonesia and Malaysia, with a few in the United States.
6553		threats	eng	The two principal threats are poaching and reduced population viability. Hunting is primarily driven by the demand for the supposedly medicinal properties of rhino horns and other body parts, and many centuries of over-hunting has reduced this species to a tiny percentage of its former population and range. The species is now so reduced that there are very small numbers in each locality where it still survives. As a result, breeding activity is infrequent, successful births are uncommon in many populations, and there is a severe risk of inbreeding depression (J. Payne pers. comm.). The species is frequently stated to be sensitive to habitat disturbance (van Strien, 1986), but timber extraction is of little or no significance to the species, as it is robust enough to withstand more or less any forest condition (J. Payne pers. comm.).
6557		conservation	eng	Black Rhino have been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1977. All international commercial trade in Black Rhinos and their products have been prohibited. To help reduce illegal trade, and complement CITES international trade bans, domestic anti-trade measures and legislation were implemented in the 1990s by a number of consumer states. Effective field protection of rhino populations has been critical. Many remaining rhino are now concentrated in fenced sanctuaries, conservancies, rhino conservation areas and intensive protection zones where law enforcement effort can be concentrated at effective levels. Monitoring has also provided information to guide biological management decison-making aimed at managing rhino populations for rapid population growth. This has resulted in surplus animals being translocated to set up new populations both within and outside the species' former range. Following a decline in breeding performance in some areas, increased effort has recently been given to improving biological management with a view to increasing metapopulation growth rates. Increasing efforts are also being made to integrate local communities into conservation efforts (most notably in the Kunene region of Namibia). Strategically, Black Rhinos are now managed by a range of different stakeholders (private sector and state) in a number of countries increasing their long term security. In contrast to Southern White Rhino, most Black Rhino on privately owned land are managed on a custodianship basis for the state. Since CITES CoP13 limited sport hunting quotas have been approved of up to five surplus males annually (to further genetic and demographic conservation management goals) for the two range states with biggest populations (South Africa and Namibia). In addition to local and, national initiatives, there are a number of regional African rhino conservation initiatives: the South African Development Community (SADC) Regional Programme for Rhino Conservation, the SADC Rhino Management Group, and the Southern African Rhino and Elephant Security Group. IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group is the continental coordinating body for rhino conservation in Africa.
6557		distribution	eng	<p>There are now three remaining&#160; recognized ecotypes/subspecies of Black Rhinoceros occupying different areas of Africa. A fourth recognised subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. longipes</span> once ranged through the savanna zones of central-west Africa but it is now considered to have gone extinct in its last known habitats in Northern Cameroon.</p><p>The other three more numerous subspecies are found in the eastern and southern African countries. The original range of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. bicornis</span> included Namibia, southern Angola, western Botswana, and south-western and south-eastern South Africa (up to the Kei River), although today they occur only in Namibia (the stronghold) and South Africa with a sighting of one animal in Angola and unconfirmed reports of possibly another three animals.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. michaeli</span> was distributed from southern Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia, through Kenya into northern-central Tanzania and Rwanda. Its current stronghold is Kenya. Smaller but growing numbers occur in northern Tanzania. The single animal that survived in Rwanda has died. One important free-ranging population occurs outside its range in a private game reserve in South Africa. Contractually, these <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. michaeli</span> animals may only be translocated back to historical range and not elsewhere in South Africa and/or to zoos. The repatriation of some of these animals back to former subspecies range in Tanzania has started with the first five being moved to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania in 2010.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. minor</span> occurred from western and southern Tanzania through Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique to the northern, north-western and north-eastern parts of South Africa (north of the Mtamvuna river). It also probably occurred in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Angola, eastern Botswana, Malawi, and Swaziland. Today, its stronghold is South Africa and to a lesser extent Zimbabwe, with smaller numbers remaining in southern Tanzania. The South-central Black Rhino is now thought to be extinct in Angola and a single animal has been sighted in Mozambique since the 2008 IUCN African Rhino Specialist Group (AfRSG) meeting. The subspecies has been reintroduced to Botswana, Malawi, Swaziland and Zambia.<br/><br/>Note: At the request of certain members, the AfRSG has a policy of not releasing detailed information on the whereabouts of all rhino populations for security reasons. For this reason, only whole countries are shaded on the map.<br/></p>
6557		habitat	eng	Black Rhino occur in a wide variety of habitats from desert areas in Namibia (<em>biceros</em>) to wetter forested areas. The highest densities of rhinos are found in savannas on nutrient-rich soils and in succulent valley bushveld areas. Black Rhino are browsers and favour small Acacia's and other palatable woody species (<em>Grewia'</em><span style="font-style: italic;">s,</span> <em>Euphorbiacea</em> species etc.) as well as palatable herbs and succulents. However, because of high levels of secondary plant chemicals, much woody plant browse (especially many evergreen species) in some areas is unpalatable. Failure to appreciate this, has in the past led to carrying capacities being over-estimated in some areas. Apart from plant species composition and size structure, Black Rhino carrying capacity is related to rainfall, soil nutrient status, fire histories, levels of grass interference, extent of frost and densities of other large browsers. To maintain rapid population growth rates and prevent potential habitat damage if the population overshoots carrying capacity, populations of black rhinos should be managed at densities below long term ecological carrying capacity (i.e., below zero growth densities).
6557		population	eng	<p>Throughout most of the 20th century, the Black Rhino was the most numerous of the world's rhino species. Relentless hunting of the species and clearances of land for settlement and agriculture resulted in the population being reduced from a probable several hundred thousand at the start of the century, to less than 2,500 by the early 1990s, the minimum population estimate in 1995 was 2,410 (Emslie and Brooks 1999). Between 1970 and 1992, large-scale poaching caused a dramatic 96% collapse in numbers. From 1992–1995 total numbers remained relatively stable with increases in some countries (those with the best-protected and managed populations) being cancelled out by declines in others. However, since 1995, Black Rhino numbers at a continental level have increased every time continental population estimates have been revised by the AfRSG reaching 4,880 by December 2010 (Emslie 2006; Emslie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007; AfRSG data 2008, 2011).<br/> <br/> Subspecies totals as of 31 December 2010 are (see also Table 1 in the attached pdf): Southern-central Black Rhino (<span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. minor</span>) 2,220, South-western Black Rhino (<span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. bicornis</span>) 1,920 and Eastern Black Rhino (<span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. michaeli</span>) 740 based on 2011 AfRSG data. In Cameroon, no evidence of the Western Black Rhino was found during extensive surveys over much of its known range during the dry season in 2006 and since then there have been no reports of either rhino sightings or spoor and this subspecies is considered extinct.</p><p>Two countries have shown net increases in numbers of Black Rhino over the period 1980–2010: South Africa and Namibia, from estimated 630 + 300 in 1980 (Emslie and Brooks 1999) to 1,915 + 1,750, respectively by the end of 2010 (AfRSG data 2011). In both countries, investments in conservation programmes, including monitoring and law enforcement, have been high. As with White Rhinos, four range states (South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya) currently conserve the majority (96.1%) of remaining wild Black Rhino.</p><p>As of December 2005, an additional 240 Black Rhino (171 <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. michaeli </span>and 69 <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. minor</span>) occurred in captivity worldwide (Emslie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
6557		threats	eng	<p>The Black Rhino faces a variety of threats. The main threat is poaching for the international rhino horn trade. Rhino horn has two main uses: traditional (and more recently new non-traditional) use in Chinese medicine, and ornamental use (for example, rhino horn is a highly prized material for making ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers or Jambiyas worn in some Middle East countries). In recent years there has been an upsurge in black market prices for rhino horn which has coincided with an increase in poaching in some range states. This increase has coincided with new use of rhino horn to supposedly treat cancer (a non-traditional use) and one for which there is no supporting clinical evidence of its effectiveness.</p><p> Civil unrest and the free flow of weapons in Africa have had a significant impact on African rhino conservation efforts. Black Rhino populations in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda have to varying degrees all suffered from the consequences of war and civil unrest since the 1960s (Emslie and Brooks 1999). The negative effects of this have been exacerbated when combined with lack of political will and lack of conservation expenditure by some governments. Some detrimental effects include trading of rhino horn and ivory for weapons, increased poaching due to increased poverty in times of civil unrest, and diminished levels of protection for rhino populations as funds are diverted away from wildlife departments. Other threats that can cause populations to decline include habitat changes, competing species and alien plant invasions.</p>
6561		conservation	eng	Research actions.
6561		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Nayarit (Mexico) to eastern Brazil and Trinidad (Simmons 2005).
6561		habitat	eng	<em>D. albus</em> prefer humid habitats like riparian and tropical rainforests but have been found in human-disturbed areas like plantations, clearings, and over villages (Ceballos and Médelin 1988). They are solitary, and like all members of the family are insectivorous (Ceballos and Médelin 1988).
6561		population	eng	They do not form colonies and are found in small groups only during the breeding season (Ceballos and Médelin 1988). The home range size for <em>D. albus</em> is unknown (Potchynok and Myers 2006).
6561		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
6562		conservation	eng	Not cited. Listed as the least known species of the genus, thus research actions should be taken.
6562		distribution	eng	The species ranges from southeastern Colombia and adjacent Venezuela to the Guyana, extending south to northwestern Brazil (Eisenberg 1989). Many specimens have been taken below 200 m elevation (Eisenberg 1989)
6562		habitat	eng	Ecology is little known. These bats fly high in open space, such as above rivers, streams, and lagoons, and above the forest canopy. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around high floodlights and are among the many species swooping around such lights, even in towns (Emmons and Feer 1997). It is associated with multistratal evergreen forest and prefers moist areas (Eisenberg 1989). Their roosts are not well known; perhaps they are found in abandoned towers, or between the leaves of palm trees (Emmons and Feer 1997). Maybe well adapted to human habitation.
6562		population	eng	They are known from only a few specimens, and this is the least known species in the genus. The high roosting and flying behaviour of these bats makes detecting them extremely difficult, and it is not possible to say whether they are common or rare or to estimate population size.
6562		threats	eng	Restricted distribution (for the genus) with few specimens.
6563		conservation	eng	Retention of forest. Research actions.
6563		distribution	eng	The species ranges from southern Venezuela to northwestern Brazil (Eisenberg 1989). Specimens have been taken below 200 m elevation (Eisenberg 1989).
6563		habitat	eng	Ecology is little known. These bats fly high in open space, such as above rivers, streams, and lagoons, and above the forest canopy. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around high floodlights and are among the many species swooping around such lights, even in towns (Emmons and Feer 1997). They are associated with wet habitats and multistratal evergreen forest (Eisenberg 1989). Their roosts are not well known; perhaps they are found in or between the leaves of palm trees (Emmons and Feer 1997).
6563		population	eng	Known from few localities but can be locally common. The high roosting and flying behaviour of these bats makes detecting them and inferring population size using current methodologies extremely difficult.
6563		threats	eng	Deforestation is a localised threat.
6564		conservation	eng	Forest retention.
6564		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Amazonia portions of Peru (Pacheco <em>et al.</em> 1995), Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1996), adjacent Venezuela (Linares 1998), Guianas and Surinam (Lim and Engstron 2005). Many specimens have been taken below 200 m elevation (Eisenberg 1989) and upper elevation limit is below 1,000 m in Venezuela (Handley 1976).
6564		habitat	eng	Ecology is little known. These bats fly high in open space, such as above rivers, streams, and lagoons, and above the forest canopy. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around high floodlights and are among the many species swooping around such lights, even in towns (Emmons and Feer 1997). They are associated with wet habitats and multistratal evergreen forest (Eisenberg 1989). Their roosts are not well known; perhaps they are found in or between the leaves of palm trees (Emmons and Feer 1997).
6564		population	eng	The high roosting and flying behaviour of these bats makes detecting them extremely difficult, and it is not possible to say whether they are common or rare (Emmons and Feer 1997).
6564		threats	eng	Deforestation is a localised threat.
6567		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.
6567		distribution	eng	This lemming is known from the Ogilvie Mountains, north-central Yukon Territory, Canada (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder, 1993, 2005). It probably represents a relict population that became isolated above valley glaciers well over 10,000 years ago (Youngman 1967).
6567		habitat	eng	The species' habitat includes rocky alpine tundra south of the High Arctic tundra zone (Musser and Carleton in Wilson and Reeder 2005). This lemming has been collected at the base of a glacial cirque (Youngman 1967). Little else known about this species.
6567		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown. It is estimated that there are only a small number of occurrences (NatureServe).
6567		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6568		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. The collared lemming subspecies from Novaya Zemlya (<em>Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus</em>) is considered as Vulnerable under Russian nature conservation legislation (included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998).
6568		distribution	eng	"Arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra in the Palearctic, from White Sea, W Russia, to Chukotski Peninsula, NE Siberia, and Kamchatka; including Novaya Zemlya and New Siberian islands, Arctic Ocean" (Wilson and Reeder 2005), but excluding Wrangel Island (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em> 2002).
6568		distribution	eng	"Arctic and sub-Arctic tundra and forest-tundra in the Palearctic, from White Sea, W Russia, to Chukotski Peninsula, NE Siberia, and Kamchatka; including Novaya Zemlya and New Siberian islands, Arctic Ocean" (Wilson and Reeder 2005), but excluding Wrangel Island (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em> 2002).
6568		habitat	eng	Inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra with small <em>Salix</em> spp. bushes. Lives in colonies with simple burrows along feeding routes; nesting and seed storage chambers used collectively. Activity is multiphase and may occur around the clock. Feeds on shoots and leaves of willows and birches, and vegetation and berries of cloudberry, great bilberry and other species. Litters 2-3 times a year with 5-6 young each time. A migratory species.
6568		population	eng	Common throughout the distributional area. Shows extreme cycles of abundance approximately every three years. Apparent population declines in the European part of the distribution area may have been the result of natural population fluctuation.
6568		threats	eng	No major threats known at present, but climate change may threaten the species in the future.
6569		conservation	eng	The whole island is State Reserve "Ostrov Vrangelya".
6569		distribution	eng	Known only from Wrangel Island (Os. Vrangelya), off coast of Anadyr region (Russia,&#160; <span style="background-color: rgb(251, 251, 251); ">North Chukotka</span>).
6569		habitat	eng	In summer it inhabits a number of different biotopes. Prefers dry rocky slopes, and river and brook valleys with rare, but abundant vegetation (shrubs, cereals and grasses). Often occurs together with <em>Lemmus sibiricus portenkoi</em>. Avoids excessively damp places. In winter concentrates in places with early snow cover, such as hill slopes and lowlands. Winters together with <em>Lemmus sibiricus portenkoi</em>. Main part of the diet is shrubs, different grasses and cereals. Starts storing food in en of July - beginning of August. Maximum amount of stored plants was about 10 kg (Belyaev and Shamurin, 1967). Builds complex dens that may cover 30 sq. m and have up to 30 entrances (Belyaev and Shamurin, 1967). The underground passages are one level, about 25 cm from ground level, but some cells could be about 50 cm in depth. <br/><br/>Females give 1-2 litters in summer and up to 5-6 litters during under snow period. Summer litters are usually 5-6 young, while in winer it is 3-4. Young born during summer do not reproduce in summer. Development pace of young highly dependent on population cycle stage, faster during depressions and slower during peaks (Chernyavskii and Tkachev, 1982).
6569		population	eng	This species experiences cyclic population outbreaks. Population dynamics was studied by different researchers from 1964 to 1998. During this period population peaks occurred in 1966, 1970, 1981, 1984 and 1994. Between depressions and peaks the number of animals differs by 250-350 times (Chernyavskii and Tkachev, 1982; Dorogoi, 1987). Usually depressions and peaks last no longer than a year, and population decrease and increase are gradual. However, since 1986 regular periodicity of the cycles was broken. In general, since then population is under depression and the peak of 1994 was small. There are data that population cycles and population size in different parts of the island do not coincide (Litvin and Baranyuk, 1989; Travina, 1999).
6569		threats	eng	Endemic of the single island, with pronounced population cycles. No major threats, but intrinsically vulnerable because of restricted distribution and marked population fluctuations.
6607		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas within its range. There is some national legislation in at least parts of its range. There is an urgent need to establish a long term monitoring program, and to determine the extent of competition with the European snow vole.
6607		distribution	eng	The Balkan snow vole is endemic to the Balkan states of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and western Macedonia. Its range is likely to extend into Albania and may include northern Greece, although there are no known records (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m, but is typically found over 1,500 m and rarely much lower (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It is the only living representative of its genus, and its range was restricted throughout prehistorical times.
6607		habitat	eng	It is found exclusively in rocky karst limestone areas, typically being found in stone-piles in meadows above the tree line, less often in rocky areas below the tree line. It has highly specific habitat requirements (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). It eats grasses and herbs. The species' life history is slow compared to other Arvicoline rodents: longevity is up to four years, age at sexual maturity is two years, and the species has 1-2 litters per year (Petrov 1992, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).
6607		population	eng	Because it is restricted to karst limestone habitats, it has a naturally discontinuous distribution, and subpopulations are always small and isolated (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). The long-term population trend has not been quantified, but there is evidence to suggest that the species is declining in both population and range (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). At the southernmost known site (on the Macedonia/Albania border) there have been no records of this species in the last 30 years, and the only records since then are of the European snow vole <em>Chionomys nivalis</em> (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). There are three distinct lineages within the population (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). One of these, the north-western lineage, is of particular cause for concern: its range is excessively limited and<br/>highly fragmented, with only 17 known localities that stretch along approximately 300 km of the Dinaric mountain<br/>range; and its populations are invariably small and frequently highly isolated, with an extensive survey of its range often yielding only one individual in many of the sampling localities (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007).
6607		threats	eng	It tends to inhabit isolated, inaccessible areas that are subject to little human disturbance. However, interspecific competition with another native rock-dwelling vole, <em>Chionomys nivalis</em>, may possibly pose a threat (Kryštufek 1999, Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). There has been no research and monitoring to determine whether this is a major threat, or whether this is occurring over a long time period - there is only anecdotal evidence from the southernmost locality (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).
6608		conservation	eng	There are records in several protected areas.
6608		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found in Colombia from 300 to 3,400 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). In the Bolivian yungas it is known from 1,000 to 1,600 m; there are few records in Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; J. Vargas pers. comm.).
6608		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit high selva and upper parts of the lower selva (Grimwood, 1969). Little is known about the wild habits of this species, but in captivity it is tame. Claws indicate it to be a digger, appears to be easy to capture for both predator and man. It is active by night, resting in caves or dens at the base of trees. This rodent has some climbing ability, especially prominent in young animals. It feeds on fruits, leaves, and plant shoots. It produces a wide variety of vocalizations, and males seeking mates produce a complicated, intricate series of calls. Gestation lies between 222 and 280 days; generally only two young are born (Eisenberg, 1974; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Lord, 1999). Its behavior in captivity has been summarized by Meritt (1984).
6608		population	eng	It appears to be rare and its distribution is patchy (Lord, 1999). In Bolivia, the species appears to be rare in general; however, it appears to be common in Cotapata National Park (J. Vargas pers. comm.).
6608		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation and habitat loss. As an agricultural pest this species is hunted and its meat is eaten, especially in cultivated areas.
6622		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its distribution range, population status and threats. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
6622		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from single records from Namti in northern Myanmar (Musser and Newcomb 1983), and from western Nepal (Musser and Carleton 1993), and from two locations in northern India (Bihar and Manipur; Agrawal 2000). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000 to 2,000 m asl.
6622		habitat	eng	This burrowing species occurs in tropical evergreen, temperate broad leaved, moist deciduous forest. It is unclear whether it is restricted to forest habitats or can also be found in fields.
6622		population	eng	Little is known about the population of this species. It has been collected very infrequently and in widely separated areas (Musser and Carleton 2005).
6622		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are unknown.
6628		conservation	eng	Further surveys are needed in the Amazon region to confirm the species presence or absence. As for other vampire species, education  programs about vampire and rabies control programs are required. The species should be excluded from vampire control programs.
6628		distribution	eng	North, Central, and South America. This species ranges from Southern Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, and Eastern Brazil; a single vagrant individual has also been reported from Southern Texas (USA) (Simmons 2005). Lowlands to 1,900 m (Reid, 1997). Has been collected up to 1,000 m asl. Also central and southern Brazil.
6628		habitat	eng	Found in all types of forest, mainly at low elevations.  Roosts in caves and mines, rarely in hollow trees. Individuals are well spaced in the roost, and group size is usually small, although a group of more than 500 was found in a cave in Puebla, Mexico, where numbers were much reduced in January, perhaps indicating seasonal movements or migration.  Avian blood may predominate in the diet of wild individuals, although cattle are occasionally exploited. Unlike other vampires, this attractive bat is gentle and easy to handle. Reproduction occurs year around (Reid, 1997). Also occurs in open areas (Aguiar pers. comm.).
6628		population	eng	Uncommon and local, but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). They roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less. In one study, <em>D. ecaudata</em> was observed to be more solitary and did not gather into groups when in the presence of other bats in a cave. They have a structured society in which they build strong social bonds with other bats in the colony. Very rare in Belize (Miller pers. comm.)
6628		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range. There are vampire control programs.
6635		conservation	eng	Hose’s palm civet is protected in Sarawak (Wildlife Protection Enactment 1998) and in Sabah (Wildlife Protection Enactment 1997). The species is known to occur in protected areas such as Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo where it was recorded in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al,</em> 2005) and in 2002 (Dinets, 2003), as well as in Ulu Temburong National Park in Brunei (Yasuma, 2004; Francis, 2002).
6635		distribution	eng	Hose’s palm civet is endemic to the island of Borneo, found in Sabah, Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei (Francis 2002; Yasuma 2004; Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Sabah, this species was recorded in Mount Kinabulu National Park (Dinets 2003; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005), in Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary (Azlan pers. Obs. And Sabah Wildlife Department). In Brunei, the species has been recorded in Ulu Temburong National Park (Francis 2002; Yasuma 2004), as well as from Bukit Retak (deep within Ulu Temburong National Park, at 04 31 N, 115 10 E) in 1997 (Yasuma 2004). This civet’s full elevational range is thought to extend from 450 m (Francis 2002) to 1,700 m (Dinets 2003). The holotype is from Mount Dulit in northeastern Sarawak collected in 1,891 at 1,200 m (Van Rompaey and Azlan 2004).
6635		habitat	eng	Little is known of the ecology of Hose’s palm civet and further studies are required. Observations by Yasuma (2004) suggest the species is nocturnal and ground-dwelling, making dens in holes between rocks and/or tree roots. <br/><br/>Due to the few recorded sightings of this species in the wild, each in different forest types and elevations, the habitat preference and ecology of this species is difficult to characterize and remains largely unknown. Although it was formerly assumed to be strictly montane (e.g. Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), several recent sightings suggest this species is wide-ranging in terms of elevation (Francis 2002, Van Rompaey and Azlan 2004, Azlan pers. comm.).This species has been recorded from primary lowland rainforest, montane forests, mature mixed dipterocarp forest hilltop and montane broadleaf forest (Payne <em>et al</em>, 1985; Dinets, 2003; Van Rompaey and Azlan, 2004; Yasuma, 2004; Wells <em>et al</em>., 2005).
6635		population	eng	Almost nothing is known about population status and breeding status of Hose’s palm civet (Van Rompaey and Azlan, 2004)). As this species is known from only 17 individual museum specimens, it is either rare, its range in northern Borneo has not yet been thoroughly explored, or a combination of the two (Van Rompaey and Azlan 2004). The wide altitudinal spread of records suggests that the species ought to be common in collections; the fact that it is not suggests very strongly that something limits its population to be very localised in distribution, very low density, or both.
6635		threats	eng	As very little is known about Hose’s palm civet, it is difficult to characterize current threats (Azlan pers. comm.); nevertheless habitat loss and degradation have been assumed to be major threats to this species (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). Across its range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses. It is possible that hunting could pose a major threat, especially as population numbers and trends are unknown. This species was listed as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids since it is known from only 15 museum specimens (most recent specimen collected in 1955) and there were then no records of a live individual being spotted in the wild (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989).
6662		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is not in a protected area. Further surveys are needed in distribution, threats, status and ecological requirements.
6662		distribution	eng	This species is possibly known only from the type locality in the northern part of the central Cordillera, Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Woods and Kilpatrick (2005) note it could possibly occur in Ecuador,  however, this is likely to be a confusion with D. labilis.
6662		habitat	eng	This is a highly arboreal rodent.
6662		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species.
6662		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
6663		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Panama. Further surveys are needed into its distribution, threats, status, and ecological requirements.
6663		distribution	eng	This species is found in Panama (including San Miguel Island), possibly also western Colombia (but no specimens) and northern Ecuador. Occurs in lowlands to 1,500 m asl (Reid 1997).
6663		habitat	eng	This rat is found in evergreen and deciduous forest, mangroves, plantations, and second growth. It is nocturnal and strictly arboreal and has not been trapped on the ground. It move slowly and may remain motionless for long periods, but climbs swiftly if pursued. During the day, adult pairs or lone individuals sleep in holes in trees. If disturbed by banging on the trunk of an occupied tree, they stick their heads out. This behaviour is well known to rural residents, who report them occupying trees near water and always being in pairs. Pairs may travel and forage together at night. The diet probably includes fruit and young leaves. Its litter size is 1 to 2 young and breeding may occur year-round (Reid 1997; Emmons and Feer 1997).
6663		population	eng	The population status of this species is largely unknown, but it is probably not uncommon (Reid 1997). It may be locally common (Emmons and Feer 1997), such as on Barro Colorado Island, Panama.
6663		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Much of its geographic range has been deforested (Emmons and Feer 1997).
6664		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in the 1,900 acre (769 ha) El Dorado Nature Reserve, where one individual was observed in 2011. Nothing is known about current occurrence outside this observation.
6664		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northeast Colombia at 680 m asl (Allen 1899). It is known from only two specimens (Emmons 2005).
6664		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecological requirements of this species are unknown at present. It is known only from upper tropical to lower montane humid forest on the NW slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
6664		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. Current reports by Pro Aves (Paul Salaman) present a scenario of land degradation and resultant fragmentation. Other tree rats (Genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplomys</span>) nest in tree cavities and are arboreal, and do not likely disperse long distances. Fragmentation and degradation of the canopy would likely impact dispersal ability of <span style="font-style: italic;">Santamartamys</span> as well.
6664		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species, if any, are unknown (Emmons and Feer 1997). Paul Salaman (pers. comm.) reports that much of the forest in the potential range has been cleared or degraded. He also states that land process in the region have risen due to demand for weekend and holiday homes and that coffee cultivation is also expanding. Climate impacts could be a long-range threat.</p>
6665		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.
6665		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Rapel River drainage basin between Chilean Regions V and VI.
6665		habitat	eng	<em>D. chilensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
6665		population	eng	Though this species has previously been regarded as extinct, two specimens attributed to this species were recently collected in the Rio Cachapoal, Rapel basin (Dyer 2000).
6665		threats	eng	All diplomystids are considered to be potentially or actually threatened or endangered due to habitat deterioration and predation or competition by introduced trout, <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em>. <em>Diplomystes chilensis</em> may be extinct (Lundberg <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>This species is threatened by habitat degradation and contamination (Campos <em>et al</em>. 1998).
6671		conservation	eng	On Okinawa Island, full protection for all of Yanbaru is necessary. Research methods to control introduced predators is needed. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
6671		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Amami-oshima and Tokuno-shima islands of the Amami Group, and Okinawa island, on the Ryukyu Islands in Japan. Since 1980, the species has been restricted to the mountains in western Amami-oshima, Mount Amagi, Mount Inokawa, and Mount Inutabu on Tokuno-shima, and the mountains in the northern part of Okinawa (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
6671		habitat	eng	The species inhabitats intact chinquapin and oak forests from mid- to upper montane regions on Okinawa, chinquapin and oak forests and secondary areas at 300-400 m asl on Amami-oshima, and areas with over 60% forest cover at elevations of 300-400 m asl on Tokuno-shima (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
6671		population	eng	It is a rare species. Based on questionnaire surveys conducted in 1985 and 1995, the species is thought to have undergone declines. There have been no extensive surveys for this species since 1995 (although there have been incidental sightings).
6671		threats	eng	There is major deforestation on all three islands. Also, feral dogs and cats predate this species on all three islands, while introduced mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>) predate the species on Amami-oshima and Okinawa (Japan RDB, 2002).
6675		conservation	eng	It is protected as a Threatened non game species by the state of Texas, and is a federal C2 candidate taxon. No populations are known to occur in captivity. Most of the species' range is on privately owned lands, however, a few individuals were trapped at Copper Breaks State Park in Hardeman County in the 1980s, but no individuals have been observed in the 1990s (Martin pers. comm.). However, a road kill was recently (1997) obtained just outside the park boundary (Horner, unpubl. data), and an area less than 1 km from the park boundary is known to be occupied by this species. Most of the habitat in the park is no longer suitable habitat due to the growth of vegetation. Continued road spotlight surveys need to be conducted throughout the range, especially in those six counties where kangaroo rat populations are most abundant and observable. Also, access to private lands where colonies were found in the 1980s needs to be obtained. Colonies of various sizes need to be monitored to determine trends.
6675		distribution	eng	The species' range encompasses a small area in north-central Texas and adjacent Oklahoma (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989, Schmidly, 2004). Surveys in Texas from 1985 to 1987 yielded occurrences in Cottle, Hardeman, Wilbarger, and Wichita counties (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1988); one specimen was obtained in 1989 in Motley County (Martin and Matocha, 1991), and a new county record for Childress County was obtained in 1987 (Wahl, unpublished data). Apparently, there are few, if any, populations remaining in Archer, Baylor, Clay, and Montague counties (southeastern part of the range in Texas).<br/><br/>The first report from Oklahoma was by Bailey in 1905 (Carter <em>et al</em>. 1985); the species has been very infrequently recorded since then (e.g., Baumgardner, 1987; Caire <em>et al</em>. 1989). A 1988 survey yielded no observations of this species in Oklahoma (Moss and Mehlhop-Cifelli, 1990), but subsequent surveys have yielded a few specimens.
6675		habitat	eng	It prefers areas of short grass with open patches of bare ground, often with a high clay content. Patches of mesquite (<em>Prosopis glandulosa</em>) have been associated with this species, but may not be essential. The open habitat allows a good view of the surrounding area. Dust baths appear to be essential to kangaroo rats both to maintain good condition of skin and fur, and also to facilitate territorial scent-marking. Primarily they are nocturnal, spending most of the day in burrow systems and emerging at night to forage on seeds, vegetation and insects. Most kangaroo rats will store a supply of seed within their burrows in case of long periods of drought. They are highly adapted to arid conditions and rarely need to drink water.
6675		population	eng	Considering all occurrences of occupied habitat, both current and historical, there are certainly more than 21 occurrences or subpopulations, but probably less than 100 (Martin and Matocha, 1972; Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1988; Stangl and Schafer, 1990; Shaw, 1990; Martin and Matocha, 1991). However, if only extant occurrences with good estimated viability are considered, the number of occurrences probably drops to fewer than 20 (Martin pers. comm.). Based on recent surveys (Martin pers. comm.), population size probably exceeds 1,000. This number, however, is difficult to confirm since colonies are known only from private property, and access is often difficult to obtain. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species has apparently decreased from 11 counties (including Oklahoma) to six counties. Areas that traditionally had stable populations or occurrences of Texas kangaroo rats in the late 1980s and early 1990s no longer seem to support an observable population. The vegetation in some of these traditional areas has become overgrown, and if individuals are present, they are in smaller, fragmented patches. However, this may be a normal cycling pattern for this species. Population sizes vary greatly over time, and literature from the late 1980s and early 1990s seem to indicate stable populations, but more recent surveys indicate a depression in numbers (Martin pers. comm.).
6675		threats	eng	Available habitat has been greatly reduced and fragmented over the past several decades as a result of the conversion of land to agricultural uses and development. Prairie dogs create improved habitat conditions for the Texas kangaroo rat, and extirpation of most prairie dogs from within the range of <em>D. elator</em> may have negatively affected populations of the kangaroo rat. Rangeland management practices that result in dense growth of grasses, or the invasion of non-native grasses have degraded conditions for the kangaroo rat, which thrives in heavily grazed or otherwise disturbed conditions. Heavy cattle grazing is not a threat but rather yields good kangaroo rat habitat.
6676		conservation	eng	This species protected by Mexican law (Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-059-ECOL 2001).
6676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-western Baja California, Mexico (Patton 2005).
6676		habitat	eng	This species is found on cactus-covered slopes and in contiguous areas with short vegetation and little topographic relief; the southern populations inhabit floodplains and relatively flat areas bordered by mesas and hills.<br/><br/>It uses burrows that are not located under vegetation. The species apparently possesses a high affinity for flat land and a lack of tolerance for cultivation. It is nocturnal. Young are born during several months of the year, but the peaks appear to be in winter and spring (Best and Lackey 1985).
6676		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance. This species has not been recorded since 1986, despite exhaustive surveys. This species may be extinct.
6676		threats	eng	Threats include habitat destruction and agriculture, as well as intrinsic factors related to a restricted range. Little of this species' original habitat remains intact.
6678		conservation	eng	<em>D. ingens</em>was listed as Endangered by both the California Fish and Game Commission (in 1980) and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (in 1987). Habitat is protected to varying degrees at Carrizo Plain National Monument, U.S. Department of Energy Naval Petroleum Reserves in western Kern County, and certain BLM lands. Parcels in the Lokern area of western Kern County have been protected by the California Energy Commission, California Department of Fish and Game, and The Nature Conservancy. <br/><br/>Habitat for three of the six regional populations (Cuyama Valley, Kettleman Hills, and San Juan Creek Valley) include no public or conservation lands; all are small and vulnerable to extirpation from demographic and random catastrophic events (e.g., drought, flooding, fire), and inappropriate land uses that would degrade or destroy habitat (USFWS, 1998).<br/><br/>Future conservation actions require an adequate understanding of compatible land uses and management prescriptions that provide optimum habitat conditions (Williams and Germano, 1993). Data should be collected on demography, dispersal, and reproduction, as well as the status of populations occurring on private lands in the Cuyama Valley, San Juan Creek area, and Ciervo/Tumey Hills. See USFWS (1998) for specific protection, management, and monitoring needs.
6678		distribution	eng	The species' range is endemic to California in the United States and is confined to a narrow strip along the southwestern border of the San Joaquin Valley and a few nearby valleys to the west, including the Carrizo and Elkhorn plains and upper Cuyama Valley, with scattered colonies in the Ciervo, Kettleman, Panoche, and Turney Hills, and the Panoche Valley (Grinnell, 1922; Hall, 1981; Williams and Kilburn, 1991; Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993). Its historical range extended from Merced County south to the base of the Tehachapi Mountain in Kern County, and west to eastern San Luis Obispo County and extreme northern Santa Barbara County (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1993). Its elevational range extends to about 868 m asl (400-2,850 feet).<br/><br/>The population is currently fragmented into six major geographic units: 1) the Panoche region in western Fresno and eastern San Benito counties; 2) Kettleman Hills in Kings County; 3) San Juan Creek Valley in San Luis Obispo County; 4) western Kern County in the area of the Lokern, Elk Hills, and other uplands around McKittrick, Taft, and Maricopa; 5) Carrizo Plain in eastern San Luis Obispo County; and 6) Cuyama Valley in Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo counties (see USFWS, 1998). These major units are fragmented into more than 100 smaller populations, many of which are isolated by several miles of barriers such as steep terrain with plant communities unsuitable as habitat, or agricultural, industrial, or urban land without habitat for this species (USFWS,1998).
6678		habitat	eng	The habitat of giant kangaroo rats consists of gently sloping and level piedmont plains and (formerly) areas supporting saltbush and perennial grasses; habitat now is dominated by introduced annuals, with many shrubs in some areas. The species occupies areas of sparse vegetative cover and well-drained soils and slope generally less than 9% (Williams and Kilburn, 1991) (sometimes up to 22%; USFWS, 1998), often in areas that are heavily grazed by cattle and sheep (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). They prefer semi-arid slopes at the head of draws in barren shrubless areas, with loose, easily diggable, sandy loam soils. Found in underground burrows when inactive. They are absent from areas continuously in dry-land cultivation and from irrigated fields but may recolonize fallow dry-land grain fields if there are colonies on uncultivated land nearby (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Habitats listed in order of decreasing favorability: 1) annual grassland association in areas with less than five to six inches annual rain, and level to gently sloping ground, 2) alkali desert scrub association in areas with less than five to six inches annual rain, sandy loam soils, and level to gently sloping ground, 3) friable soils of sand, loam, clay loam or gravelly in areas with the above characteristics, and 4) slopes of 10-15 degrees with the above characteristics and located near colonies in more favorable habitats (D. Williams pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Home range is about 60-350sqm. This species is basically solitary and territorial, with strict intrasexual avoidance indicated. In spring, areas around occupied burrows have a more lush growth of herbaceous vegetation than do areas between burrow systems; this growth is eventually removed by grazing by livestock and/or kangaroo rats (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Digging and feeding activity promote the establishment of exotic weeds, which in turn are a favoured food source (Schiffman, 1994). Giant kangaroo rats feed on seeds, especially those of <em>Lepidium nitidum, oenothera, Bromus rubens,</em> and <em>Erodium cicutarium</em>. They also eat some green herbaceous vegetation and occasionally insects. In some localities. They gather dry grass into "haystacks" to cure, later removing seeds for storage in underground burrows. They also temporarily bury seeds in the ground before storing in burrows. Giant kangaroo rats emerge to forage soon after sunset in spring. They spend a little less than two hours per night above ground actively foraging in spring-summer (Braun, 1985).<br/><br/>Limited data indicate that the reproductive season may extend from January through May (Williams and Kilburn, 1991) (February to June or perhaps later according to Biosystems Analysis, 1989). Gestation lasts about one month. Litter size is three to six (Biosystems Analysis, 1989); average litter size is probably four (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Young are weaned at four weeks (Matthews and Moseley, 1990).
6678		population	eng	The huge colonies of this species described in historical literature no longer exist. Extant habitat comprises only about 1.8 percent of the historical habitat (Williams, 1992; USFWS, 1998).The extant distribution includes more than 100 more or less distinct populations, but most of these represent fragments of a formerly more continuous distribution. There are six major geographic units, each of which could be regarded as a single occurrence or subpopulation. Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 during average conditions. Adult population size varies substantially with drought and plant productivity (USFWS, 1998); density ranges from one to 110 individuals per hectare (see USFWS, 1998).<br/><br/>Within the area of currently occupied habitat, populations have expanded and declined with changing weather patterns since 1979; at their peak in 1992 to 1993, there probably were about six to 10 times more individuals than at their low point in spring of 1991, when a majority of the 11,145 hectares probably was uninhabited and most of the rest was inhabited by less than 10 percent of peak numbers (see USFWS, 1998 for sources). Population density is five to 50 per hectare (18-69/ha in the larger and denser colonies, Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Extant population sizes are small; from fewer than 10 to several hundred individuals (Braun, 1985).
6678		threats	eng	The decline is largely a result of conversion of habitat to agricultural uses, combined with additional loss of habitat to industrial uses (e.g., petroleum exploration and extraction) and urbanization, and population reductions and extirpations from rodenticide use (aimed at California ground squirrel and historically at kangaroo rats) (Williams, 1992; USFWS, 1998). Possibly excessive livestock grazing may have contributed to the decline in some areas (livestock may crush near-surface burrows and compete for food with kangaroo rats) (see USFWS, 1998). Between 1972 and 1980 most of the remaining habitat was converted from native vegetation to cultivated agricultural crops due in part to an abundance of irrigation water supplied by recently completed water delivery systems. <br/><br/>More recently, the conversion of habitat to agricultural uses has slowed substantially, but urban and industrial developments, petroleum and mineral exploration and extraction, new energy and water conveyance facilities, and construction of communication and transportation infrastructures continue to destroy habitat and increase the threats to the species by reducing and further fragmenting populations (USFWS, 1998). Habitat degradation due to lack of appropriate habitat management on conservation lands, especially lack of grazing or fire to control density of vegetation (including shrubs) may be a threat (Williams and Germano, 1993).
6682		conservation	eng	<em>D. stephensi</em> is listed as Endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (1988). A Habitat Conservation Plan targeting the species has been prepared by Riverside County designating six major areas for study as potential preserve sites. Some of the land within these sites has been purchased for preserve use. Most of the major populations occur within the boundaries of existing protected areas including Lake Perris State Park, San Jacinto Wildlife Area, Sycamore Canyon Park, Lake Mathews Ecological Reserve, and Roy E. Shipley Reserve.<br/><br/>Some habitat has been protected through the establishment of San Jacinto Wildlife Area and Lake Mathews Ecological Reserve in Riverside County. The Riverside County Habitat Conservation Agency has implemented a habitat conservation plan for the creation of a reserve network within a portion of the species' range (USFWS, 1997).<br/><br/>It is necessary to determine if the species is present in the Rawhide Motorcross Park and to estimate abundance. Habitat should be protected from agricultural and urban development. As of the early 1990s, existing state regulations and county zoning restrictions did not provide adequate habitat protection (Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). Habitat conservation efforts should be directed at establishing a few large, widely separated preserves, rather than many smaller ones (Price and Endo, 1989). For long-term population persistence, Burke <em>et al.</em>, (1991) recommended a minimum reserve size of 1,320 ha (3,300 acres) of suitable habitat. Most extant populations occupy areas of less than 400 ha; Burke <em>et al.</em>, (1991) proposed nine potential reserves (see also O'Farrell and Ulark, 1989). Some reserves should be at higher elevations as these may serve as refuges during drought (Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). For delisting, USFWS (1997) recommended the establishment of at least five reserves (at least 6,675 ha) in Riverside County and two in San Diego County.<br/><br/>It is necessary to obtain data on demography, dispersal, reproduction, and food habits; investigate taxonomic relationship to <em>D. heermanni</em> and <em>D. panamintinus</em>; and investigate grazing impacts.
6682		distribution	eng	The range of this species encompasses approximately 2,870 square kilometres in the San Jacinto Valley and adjacent areas of western Riverside County, southwestern San Bernardino County (at least formerly), and northwestern and north-central San Diego County, California in the United States (Bleich 1977, Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993). It is found at elevations of 55 to 1,250 m asl (USFWS, 1997). As of the late 1980s, most extant populations were in western Riverside County, but the largest known population was on the Warner Ranch near Lake Henshaw, San Diego County (see Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991).
6682		habitat	eng	Habitats include annual grassland and coastal sage scrub with sparse shrub cover, the former more favourable than the latter, commonly in association with <em>Eriogonum fasciculatum</em>, <em>Artemisia californica</em>, and <em>Erodium cicutarium</em> (USFWS, 1997). Typical habitat includes sparsely vegetated areas (perennial cover less than 30%) with loose, friable, well-drained soil (generally at least 0.5 m deep) and flat or gently rolling terrain. This species may recolonize abandoned agricultural land. It is most abundant where stands of native vegetation remain (Matthews and Moseley, 1990) but deceases as bunchgrass density increases (see Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). In western Riverside County, shrub removal resulted in increased kangaroo rat densities (Price <em>et al</em>. 1994). Periods of inactivity are spent in underground burrows. Individuals may construct their own burrows or may nest in old burrows of the California ground squirrel or in abandoned burrows of pocket gophers (see Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991, USFWS, 1997). In captivity, females construct elaborate nests (Bleich, 1977).<br/><br/>This species probably produces one litter per year or two litters per year under high rainfall conditions and perhaps none under drought conditions. Average litter size is about 2.5. In Riverside County, a peak in recruitment occurred in spring (McClenaghan and Taylor, 1993). In some areas, young are born in late spring or early summer, and at least sometimes as late as July. In some years, young-of-the-year may reproduce. Life span appear to be relatively short, generally less than a few years.<br/><br/>Mean home range size for two populations in Riverside County were 570 sq m and 970 sq m (Bleich, 1977). Price <em>et al.</em> (1994) found that the median of the maximum distances moved between captures was about 29 m for 557 individuals and home ranges were stable over time. Diet is probably similar to <em>D. heermanni</em> and <em>D. panamintimus</em> which feed primarily on seeds but also eat insects and herbaceous vegetation in the spring. Sagebrush may provide much of the food. More likely to forage in open, lit spaces than is sympatric <em>D. agilis</em> (Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991). Predators include owls and various carnivores.
6682		population	eng	As of the late 1980s, there were 79 known extant populations (O'Farrell and Uptain, 1989; see also Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). Some of these populations no longer exist whereas subsequent surveys have revealed previously undocumented populations (see USFWS, 1997). USFWS (1997) mapped a dozen "significant populations," noting that additional small fragmented populations also exist. Most existing populations occupy relatively small areas and probably are of less than optimal size for maximum viability. O'Farrell and Uptain (1989) found that 68 occupied sites were less than 40 hectares.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but exceeds 10,000. As of the late 1980s, the largest known population included about 14,000 individuals (Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991). Population density estimates vary with location and season, and range from about five to 58 per hectare; perhaps about 20-40 per hectare would be typical (USFWS, 1987; Bleich, 1977; McClenaghan and Taylor 1993). Population densities can vary more than ten-fold in response to rainfall patterns (Price and Endo, 1989). In Riverside County, peak numbers occurred in late spring-early summer; populations declined from late summer through winter; minimum monthly survival rates for adults was 0.79-0.87 (McClenaghan and Taylor, 1993). <br/><br/>As in most small mammals, abundance is a misleading index to degree of jeopardy. Habitat decline is expected to continue (Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991), but the rate of habitat loss decreased in the 1990s, in part as a result of a habitat conservation plan initiated in western Riverside County (USFWS, 1997). Price and Endo (1988) estimated that the historical habitat had been reduced by about 60 percent by 1984. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining."
6682		threats	eng	The habitat occupied by Stephens' kangaroo rat is also attractive for agricultural and urban developments. The known range of the species is centred around a rapidly developing part of southern California. A significant portion of its former range has been lost, however, several major populations of the species remain. Suitable habitat for <em>Dipodomys stephensi</em> happens to be mostly on private land and it is threatened by agricultural and urban development and fragmentation. Apparently some areas have been intentionally ploughed or poisoned in efforts to eliminate this species (1988 Federal Register 54(190):38465-38469). <br/><br/>Certain non-native grasses (e.g., <em>Bromus diandrus</em>) can exclude this species from otherwise suitable habitat (USFWS, 1997). Land management practices that lead to the development of thick vegetation have resulted in kangaroo rat population declines in some areas (USFWS, 1997). Populations isolated by fragmentation are vulnerable to extirpation or decline from some types of grazing (e.g., excessive vegetation removal and burrow trampling by horses in small enclosures), off-road vehicle activity, rodenticide use, genetic bottlenecks, or unnaturally high levels of predation (by domestic cats associated with urban development).
6683		conservation	eng	Subspecies <em>exilis</em> and <em>nitratoides</em> are listed by United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as Endangered. Most protected occurrences are for the unlisted subspecies <em>brevinasus</em> on the Carrizo Plain; few protected occurrences are of the listed subspecies <em>exilis</em> or <em>nitratoides</em>. Subspecies <em>nitratoides</em> current range includes Pixley National Wildlife Refuge, Allensworth Ecological Preserve, and TNC lands at Paine Wildflower Preserve (Matthews and Moseley 1990). For subspecies <em>exilis</em>, about 85 percent of the 347 hectares of designated Critical Habitat has been acquired, but these lands generally have not been appropriately managed for kangaroo rats (see USFWS 1998). Most of the critical habitat is within state Alkali Sink Ecological Reserve; about nine hectares are part of the Mendota Wildlife Management Area; the rest is privately owned (Matthews and Moseley 1990, USFWS 1998).<br/><br/>Efforts to locate populations of subspecies <em>exilis</em> should be continued and intensified (USFWS 1998). Further inventory of subspecies <em>brevinasus</em> is needed. Remaining suitable habitat needs to be protected from development or conversion to incompatible uses.<br/><br/>The relationship between population density and habitat quality needs to be assessed, and more data on demographics, reproduction, and impacts of grazing and fire are needed. Taxonomic status of the nominal subspecies and of various populations needs to be resolved.
6683		distribution	eng	The range of this species encompasses part of the San Joaquin Valley and adjacent valleys, in California in the United States, from the valley floor in Merced County, south of the Merced and San Joaquin rivers, to the southern edge of the valley, and the Panoche Valley (eastern San Benito County), the Carrizo Plain (San Luis Obispo County), and the upper Cuyama Valley (San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties), at elevations of 50-800 metres (Best 1991, Williams <em>et al.</em> 1993).
6683		habitat	eng	Habitat includes friable sandy or silty soils in areas with no to moderate shrub cover and scattered herbaceous plants: sparsely vegetated alkali sink communities where soils are generally sandy or silty; valley grassland; saltbush and sink scrub. The species does not tolerate irrigation or cultivation but may reinvade fields no longer under cultivation. <br/><br/>Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) level to gently sloping areas with sparse to moderate shrub cover in alkali desert scrub and valley grassland, (2) ridge tops and steep slopes with sandy, friable soils and scattered shrubs in alkali desert scrub and valley grassland, (3) sandy arroyos and dry stream beds in above associations, and (4) arid annual grasslands with alkaline, friable soils. <br/><br/>When inactive, it occupies underground burrows; burrows in hummocks (e.g., around base of shrub); burrow systems are shallow but often extensive. Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding season is reported to be December-August or throughout the year (Best 1991). Reproductive activity starts in late February and continues until September, with a peak in April. Gestation lasts 31-35 days. Litter size is 1-3, usually two. Young leave nest at about three weeks. Females will have up to three litters per year. <br/><br/>Feeds on seeds (e.g., those of <em>erodium, capsella bursapastoris</em>, and <em>atriplex</em>). Also consumes some insects and green vegetation in the spring. May cache seeds in small pits in the walls of the burrow system.
6683		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but appears to be at least a few 100,000s. Local population size tends to exhibit large fluctuations. Reported densities are generally between 5-20 per hectare. It is represented by numerous relatively small populations found throughout most of the historical range that spanned several million acres.
6683		threats	eng	Habitat has been reduced and fragmented primarily as a result of agricultural development, with additional losses due to urbanization, associated transportation infrastructure, and invasion by exotic grasses (USFWS 1998). Most extant habitat is of poor or marginal quality, is unprotected in private ownership, and in rapidly developing areas. Some populations have been negatively affected by rodenticides.<br/><br/>Populations of this species periodically increase to high levels and decline rapidly (due to long-term drought, excessive amounts of precipitation, flooding, or other factors). Sometimes these fluctuations lead to local extirpation (USFWS 1998). When large expanses of connected habitat existed, local extinction was not a great problem because some surviving populations eventually increased, and individuals recolonized areas where they had been eliminated (USFWS 1998). Current population fragmentation inhibits or prevents such recolonization. Fragmentation, isolation, and subsequent extirpation without recolonization has greatly affected subspecies <em>exilis </em>and may now be in progress in subspecies <em>nitratoides</em> (USFWS 1998).
6684		conservation	eng	Probably several occurrences of this species are in protected areas such as state parks.
6684		distribution	eng	This species is found in the United States in the Los Angeles Basin and foothills of San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains in Ventura, Los Angeles, and Riverside counties north to Santa Barbara County and through the southern Sierra Nevada, including Mount Pinos, Tehachapi and San Gabriel mountains, and northern San Fernando Valley (Sullivan and Best, 1997). Populations extending southward into Baja California are now allocated to <em>Dipodomys simulans</em> (Sullivan and Best, 1997).
6684		habitat	eng	This species is primarily montane, occupying chaparral-covered slopes upward to coniferous forests (Best <em>et al.</em>, 1996). It prefers easily excavated sandy or gravelly soils for constructing burrows, typically on steep slopes. Abundance increases following fires that create open space (Price and Waser, 1984). Nests are in underground burrows. No reproductive information is available, but they probably produce an average of two young per litter. Diet is likely to be similar to other closely related species that feed primarily on seeds but also eat some insects and green vegetation. This species is nocturnal.
6684		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (Sullivan and Best, 1997), but some of them are not extant. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, but the rate of decline is unknown. Specific data on long-term trends are lacking, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined.
6684		threats	eng	Many populations probably have been extirpated or depleted due to urbanization and related habitat destruction (Sullivan and Best, 1997). This is an ongoing threat as human populations in the region expand.
6685		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range probably includes a few protected areas.
6685		distribution	eng	This species is found on the barrier islands of Tamaulipas, Mexico; Mustang and Padre islands of southern Texas; and the adjacent eastern two thirds of mainland Texas, from Zapata County and south from Bexar and Gonzales counties (Baumgardner and Schmidly, 1981; Davis and Schmidly, 1994).
6685		habitat	eng	Gulf Coast kangaroo rats prefer to inhabit sparsely vegetated areas with sandy soils. On islands they are usually associated with dunes. On the mainland, sites include overgrazed mesquite savanna, cleared brushland supporting various grasses and weedy forbs, and post oak-blackjack oak association with deep sandy soil. Nests are in underground burrows (Baumgardner, 1991). Diet includes the seeds of various plants. This species is active at night, throughout the year.
6685		population	eng	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe).
6685		threats	eng	Mainland habitats are affected by farming and ranching. The barrier islands habitat may be affected by infrastructure development, however, this species most probably remains common in the undisturbed areas of its range.
6686		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
6686		distribution	eng	Ranges through arid regions of the southwestern United States (California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona), extending southward into northwestern Mexico (Senora and Baja California).
6686		habitat	eng	Prefers low desert with sandy soil and sparse vegetation, particularly stabilized dune areas with vegetation. In the United States, inhabits dunes from -60 m (Death Valley, CA) to 1,710 m asl (Nevada).
6686		population	eng	This species is very common in suitable habitat. Density varies seasonally, but is typically 0.2-1.4 individuals/ha.
6686		threats	eng	No known major threats. In some areas, this species is threatened by cars and recreational vehicles on dune areas. This species can live in disturbed areas such as agricultural zones were the soil has been overturned.
6687		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area and is protected under Mexican law, with the status of in danger of extinction, "en peligro de extinción".
6687		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on San Jose Island off the southeastern coast of Baja California, Mexico.
6687		habitat	eng	San Jose Island is covered with hills and low mountains of less than 600 m, with vegetation similar to that of mainland Baja California (Best and Thomas 1991). This species has been collected in open habitat at 100 m from sandy beach, in an area with 65% vegetative cover and 35% desert pavement (Best and Thomas 1991).<br/><br/>The current estimated area of occupancy is less than 30 km<sup>2</sup> and the maximum extent of occurrence is less than 70 km<sup>2</sup> (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).
6687		population	eng	There are few specimens known of the species. There are probably fewer than 100 adults remaining (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).
6687		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are predation from introduced feral cats and destruction of habitat by introduced feral goats. Threats also include ongoing, human-induced habitat loss and habitat degradation, and intrinsic factors related to a restricted range.
6688		conservation	eng	This species is listed as endangered and protected under Mexican law (NOM-059-ECOL-201).
6688		distribution	eng	This species only occurs on Santa Margarita Island off the western coast of Baja California, Mexico. The extent of occurrence is less than 70 km<sup>2</sup>.
6688		habitat	eng	Santa Margarita Island is mountainous with barren rocky slopes varying from 300 to 540 m in elevation. Vegetation is sparse and dominated by giant cactii (<em>Pachycereus</em> spp., <em>Machaerocereus gummosus</em>, <em>Pedilanthus marocarpus</em>, etc.) (Best 1992).<br/><br/>This species is found only in the sandy areas in a valley in the middle of the island (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).
6688		population	eng	Although relatively unknown; it is apparently uncommon (Best 1992).
6688		threats	eng	This species is threatened by introduced feral cats and dogs. Santa Margarita Island has been designated as a military reservation by the Mexican government (Best 1992).<br/><br/>It is also threatened by intrinsic factors due to its restricted range.
6689		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>Two subspecies do have conservation measures. <em>D. m. parvis</em> is a federal candidate taxon in the United States and a California Species of Special Concern, and <em>D. m. collinus</em> is also a federal candidate in the United States  (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).
6689		distribution	eng	Upper and Lower Sonoran Life Zones of southwestern United States and northern Mexico, including parts of California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Sonora, Sinaloa, and the islands of Margarita and San Jose. Populations on these two islands were previously considered to be distinct species.
6689		habitat	eng	Occurs in a broad range of habitats with a substrate of sandy soils, clays, gravel, or rocks. Vegetation is characterized by desert scrub, sagebrush, pinyon-juniper, and Joshua tree.
6689		population	eng	This species is common.
6689		threats	eng	No major threats known.<br/><br/>Habitat loss due to rapid expansion of coastal metropolitan areas in California threatens two subspecies (<em>D. m. collinus</em> and <em>D. m. parvus</em>) (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).
6690		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Several protected areas are located within its range.
6690		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mexican Plateau from north Coahuila and south Chihuahua to north San Luis Potosi and south Nuevo Leon (Mexico) (Patton 2005).
6690		habitat	eng	This species can be found in desert shrub vegetation, in arid interior-desert region consisting mainly of rolling plains. <br/><br/>Scattered dome-shaped burrows with peripheral entrances are conspicuous on desert flats; these usually possess several entrances. Sometimes openings of burrows are conspicuous in banks shallow ditches along roadways; some mounds have as many as six entrances and are honeycombed with tunnels (Best 1988). Four females taken in July in different places have two embryos each (Best 1988).
6690		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon (Best 1988). It has had densities reported from 8.5 - 20 individuals per hectare (Ceballos and Olivia 2005).
6690		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
6691		conservation	eng	Very abundant in protected areas in the United States and probably in Mexico.
6691		distribution	eng	Ranges from southern Alberta and Saskatchewan (Canada) in the north to southern Hidalgo, Mexico in the south. Eastward from central Oregon and eastern California to central Kansas and Oklahoma (United States).
6691		habitat	eng	Occurs in a variety of vegetation types, but all are associated with fine-textured, sandy soils. Vegetation includes semi-arid grasslands, mixed-grasslands, and scrublands.
6691		population	eng	Wide ranging and common. Very abundant.
6691		threats	eng	None known. In, Mexico it inhabits areas with low human activity.
6692		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.
6692		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Durango south to north Oaxaca, Mexico (Patton 2005). Its known altitudinal distribution is from 950 m to 2,850 m (Jones and Genoways 1975).
6692		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in semi-arid or arid environments characterized by short grasses and clumps of prickly pear, nopal, cactus, or low thornbrush interspersed with open patches of bare ground. <br/><br/>Little has been recorded on foods habits. Some captured individuals had seeds and small green leaves or young plants in their pouches. The species uses burrow systems with a single entrance. A female recorded in June had two embryos, and two females taken in October had three embryos each; also some juveniles were reported in April, August, and November. From this information it is concluded that the reproductive period is prolonged (Jones and Genoways 1975).
6692		population	eng	It this species is relatively common throughout its range. However, in the Valley of Mexico, the population is considered extinct.
6692		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. Some populations are threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture, but this is not currently considered a major threat to the entire population.
6693		conservation	eng	None.
6693		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution. The northern portion of its range is from north-eastern Arizona, northern New Mexico, and far western Texas (USA), southward to northern Sonora and Chihuahua (Mexico). The southern portion of its range is in central Mexico, primarily in Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosi states.
6693		habitat	eng	Desert grasslands with scattered shrubs. However, these kangaroo rats disappear when invasive shrub cover exceeds 20%. Thus, their presence is an indicator of the health of desert grasslands (Krogh <em>et al.</em> 2002; Waser and Ayers 2003).
6693		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
6693		threats	eng	Degradation of desert grasslands, with replacement by mesquite or creosote bush communities, is a major threat (Whitford 1997). Declines in some areas correspond with increases in the density of woody plants associated with grassland degradation. Heavy rains associated with tropical storms possibly may impact seed stores and cause major population declines.
6705		conservation	eng	Populations near the Don river are listed in the local Red Data Book. The species occurs in several protected areas (for example, in Mongolia approximately 17% of the species’ range lies within protected areas).
6705		conservation	eng	Populations near the Don river listed in the local Red Data Book. The species occurs in several protected areas.
6705		distribution	eng	Distributed in deserts and partly in semi-deserts from Don River sands (Russian Federation) to cis-Caspian region, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and N Iran and through Kazakhstan to Irtysh River, Tuva, Mongolia and China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
6705		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in deserts and some semi-deserts from Don River sands (Russian Federation) to cis-Caspian region, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and N Iran and through Kazakhstan to Irtysh River, Tuva, Mongolia and N China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
6705		habitat	eng	Inhabits different types of sand, however avoids large expanses of open sand-dunes. Also found in sand-dunes covered with pine forest. Most abundant in hilly and ridge sands, including those used as pastures. Often found together with <em>Allactaga</em> spp. One of the pioneer species that is occupying new habitats that have emerged as the Aral Sea dries out. In northern parts of the range it hibernates, while in southern parts it remains active throughout the year with the exception of extremely cold winters. Lives in burrows with length of about 5-6 m and depths up to 3 m; can also occupy burrows of <em>Meriones major</em>. In spring feeds on vegetative parts of grasses and shrubs, also eats roots and bulbs. When seeds start to ripen it switches its diet to seeds. During the whole year it takes insects and larvae as a usual part of its diet. The length of the reproductive period differs in northern and southern parts of the range: from 2 to 2.5 months in north to 8-9 months in south. The number of litters per year differs correspondingly, from 1 to 4 in differents parts of the range.
6705		habitat	eng	Inhabits high-altitude sandy deserts and semi desert, but avoids large expanses of open sand-dunes. It is also found in sand-dunes covered with pine forest. Most abundant in hilly and ridge sands, including those used as pastures. It is often found together with <em>Allactaga</em> spp. It is one of the pioneer species that is occupying new habitats that have emerged as the Aral Sea dies out. In northern parts of the range it hibernates, while in southern parts it remains active throughout the year with exceptions in extremely cold winters. Lives in burrows with length of about 5-6 m and depths up to 3 m; can also occupy burrows of <em>Meriones major</em>. In spring feeds on vegetative parts of grasses and shrubs, also eats roots and bulbs. When seeds start to ripen it switches its diet to seeds. During the whole year it takes insects and larvae as a usual part of its diet. It is highly adapted to arid conditions and rarely needs to drink water. The length of the reproductive period differs in northern and southern parts of the range: from 2 to 2.5 months in north to 8-9 months in south. The number of litters per year differs correspondingly, from 1 to 4 in differents parts of the range.
6705		population	eng	A common species with weakly marked population fluctuations. In favourable years population density could reach 5-6 animals per hectare (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).
6705		threats	eng	The species is common throughout most of the range and is a pioneer species that occupies opening sands in the Aral Sea area. However, pervasive changes to desert habitats are a major threat in the European part of the range. It is listed as threatened in the Don River region's local Red Data Book because of the fragmentation of its preferred habitat (sand dunes).
6705		threats	eng	The species is common throughout most of the range and is a pioneer species that occupies opening sands in the Aral Sea area. There are no major threats to the species across its entire global range. However, pervasive changes to desert habitats are a major threat in the European part of the range. It is listed as threatened in the Don River region's local Red Data Book because of the fragmentation of its preferred habitat (sand dunes). In Mongolia, drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
6710		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Research into habitat and population trends is needed. Taxonomic study is needed to confirm the identity of the the southern and northern populations.
6710		distribution	eng	Found in the Pahang River, western Peninsular Malaysia, and in the Tapi River in southern Thailand, and a northern population from the Mae Khlong and the Mae Ping (Chao Phraya basin) in north-central Thailand. It appears to have a disjunct range.<br/><span style=""><br/></span>
6710		habitat	eng	Occurs in rivers and tributaries, where it inhabits rocky crevices and submerged woods. Found in clear, flowing or sluggish water (not found in lakes).
6710		population	eng	Locally uncommon throughout known range. Although the species has been recorded from the Chao Phraya it appears to have been  extirpated as it has not been collected there for over 70 years (Rainboth 1989).
6710		threats	eng	No specific threats are known to this species. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected.
6713		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in the national Red Data Book of Spain and is protected by national legislation. There is a need to further clarify the distribution of this species.
6713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to isolated areas in southern, eastern and north-eastern Spain, from sea level to around 2,050m asl (in Granada).
6713		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of open areas, pine groves and shrubland associated with limestone or gypsum soils. This is a very aquatic species found in shallow pools, streams, springs, ponds and artificial water sources, such as drinking troughs and drainage channels. Breeding and larval development takes place within the aquatic habitats. It can be present in traditionally farmed areas.
6713		population	eng	It is generally more abundant in the south of its range, and is considered to be scarce in the north, although further surveys are required. Its occurrence is very patchy within its overall range, and it is believed to be in decline, principally due to increased aridity within its range. It is likely that isolated populations have recently become extinct along the Mediterranean coast.
6713		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is continued loss of habitat as a result of increased aridity throughout its range. It is also threatened by loss of suitable habitat (including fragmentation) to agricultural and infrastructure development. The species is particularly impacted by the loss, or contamination, of aquatic habitats (such as drinking troughs), and introductions of predatory fish and crustaceans, in particular the Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>). Its populations are now fragmented in many parts of its range.
6714		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
6714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Corsica (France), where it is found mainly in the central part of the island, from Corte and Cervione in the north to Porto-Vecchio in the south (Noellert and Noellert 1992). It has been recorded from localities between 300m and 1,900m asl, and is absent from coastal lowlands.
6714		habitat	eng	This frog is strongly associated with running waters in high-altitude pristine woods and forests, and is especially found in areas with precipitous streams. The eggs are deposited under rocks and stones in mountain streams, with larvae developing in these streams.
6714		population	eng	There is little information available on the population status of this species, which was only recently identified and differentiated from the more widespread <em>Discoglossus sardus</em>. It is believed to be slowly declining as a result of predation by introduced salmonid fishes.
6714		threats	eng	This species is threatened by introduced predatory salmonid fishes.
6715		conservation	eng	It was rediscovered in 2011 in the Hula Reserve<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012), its only known extant locality,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and it remains protected by national legislation in Israel. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history. The Israel Nature and Parks Authority (INPA) plans to undertake a monitoring effort for this species (S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012).<br/><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
6715		distribution	eng	In the 1940s this species was recorded from only two sites on the eastern shore of Lake Huleh, Israel. In 1955 the species was recorded again, in the northwest edge of the Hula swamps, just east of the extant 'En Agmon spring (Y. Werner pers. comm. March 2012). It seems possible that it could once also be found in adjacent parts of the Syrian Arab Republic. It was recently found in a very circumscribed area of the 200 ha (2 km²<sup></sup>, here taken as the maximum possible extent of occurrence) Hula Nature Reserve, (at 65 m asl), which is less than 5 km away from its former sites, and surveys are currently underway to determine if it may occur elsewhere in the Hula Valley (S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012). <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>
6715		habitat	eng	Recent observations suggest that this species may be more terrestrial than initially thought (S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012). It is reported to occur in marginal freshwater habitats within the Lake Huleh wetlands of Israel. It is a larval-developing species.<br/><br/><br/><br/> <br/> <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
6715		population	eng	The last collection record dated from 1955, and the species had been  subsequently declared as Extinct. Surveys of potentially suitable habitat have been undertaken since, including in the Aammiq marsh (the only remaining  wetland fragment of the Bekaa valley) of nearby  south-east Lebanon, but these failed to locate any  animals there (Tron and Duguet 2004, Tron 2005).&#160; However, the species was recently rediscovered  in late 2011 (Rinat 2011). Until its rediscovery, only three adult specimens and two tadpoles were known to science (S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>  <p><br/></p>
6715		threats	eng	The Huleh marshes were drained in the 1950s in an attempt to both eradicate malaria and to make the land suitable for agricultural use. Of the original 6,000 ha of marshland, only 300 ha (3 km²<sup></sup>) remained after drainage. The remaining wetland was set aside as a nature reserve - the Hula Nature Reserve - in 1964. While the reserve is well-managed, it functions as a refuge for many water birds, possibly more than those that used to be in the original swamp, and predation pressure is thought to be very high and a real threat to a small amphibian population comprised of few individuals (S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012). In addition, most of the area surrounding the reserve is cultivated (S. Gafny pers. comm. March 2012)<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>should the species occur outside the reserve.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>
6720		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. This species is present in a small grassland on western Porto Santo, so  recommended conservation actions include management of the grassland  areas for maintenance of this species and to ensure no loss of further habitat and possible selection of part of the range as a protected area. Research actions include  population monitoring and habitat monitoring, especially for the  populations near to tourist facilities.</span></span></span>
6720		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo,&#160; Madeiran&#160; islands. It is restricted to the west end of the island, around Pico d'Ana Ferreira, with one record from the east end of the island. It is rarely found as a Quaternary fossil, possibly reflecting range restricted distribution through time (Seddon 2008).
6720		habitat	eng	This species is found under stones on grassland, and in scree, leaf-litter at base of small rock crags or in quarries.
6720		population	eng	This species when present, can be abundant, however it is very localised.
6720		threats	eng	The species is found in the western part of the island, with an  additional small subpopulations near the coast where the habitat has been  subject to changing land-use practice due to hotel and villa construction, and use of sand deposits for small quarries, and as such the quality of the  habitat has declined over the last thirty years.&#160; The areas behind are used for recreation as well as grazing land and although the main area  falls within a designated protected area, the major threats would be change of land-use (construction) or invasive plants.
6721		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the European Union Habitats Directive Species Annex II and IV, which means that a SAC should be designated for this species. Further conservation actions required are a habitat monitoring programme for the species (as a proxy for population trends).
6721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it has always been rare. Seddon (2008) notes that is restricted to the south coast of Madeira (Cabo Garajau to Cabo Girao) and similar range was reported by Wollaston (1878), Paiva (1866) and Nobre (1931). Paiva's records are from west of Funchal, whereas Wollaston's records all come from the Garajau area. Recent records (NMW database, field records 1984, 1995) confirm the species is still living on sea-cliffs by Cabo Garajau (Seddon 2008).
6721		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Discula tabellata</span> lives in crevices of bare rock faces, on dry stone walls and at the base of grasses and herbs on cliff top boulders.
6721		population	eng	Estimates of population size by field recording suggest that the species is not common at the site.
6721		threats	eng	All recent records are only from Garajau, a single area on the south side of Madeira, where habitat area and quality has been reduced through a building development above the cliffs for residents and tourists. The habitats are under pressure due to continued development, although main habitats are on the sea-cliff beneath where possible threats include invasive plants, fire and tipping.
6722		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. At present the range does not lie in a designated SPA, and so protected area management is needed, as well as management of the introduced predators (rats) that are feeding on this species.</span></span></span>
6722		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Porto Santo, on the north side of the main island. Waldén (1983) believed the species might be extinct but Seddon (pers. comm. 1992) noted it was still present in a small region of headland where originally found by Wollaston (1878), and the finding was reported in Wells and Chatfield (1992) where the species was noted to be present on dry  stony ground on the headland of Pedragal in an area of 10 m<sup>2</sup> only. Another site was located close by during Cameron and Cook's surveys and mapped by Seddon (2008).
6722		habitat	eng	This species is found&#160; in grassland areas on cliffs, where it's found under stones or in small scree areas.
6722		population	eng	The species is very rare. It is usually found in specialist surveys targeted at the species.
6722		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fire and predation from non-native species, in two closely sites on small headland, which is considered to be a single location.
6723		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This  species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and  the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. At present the range lies in a protected area. Further research on habitat status and monitoring would be recommended for this species which is found in a protected area.</span></span></span>
6723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands: it is restricted to the islet of Ilheu de Cima, south-east of the main island of Porto Santo (Seddon 2008).
6723		habitat	eng	This species is found beneath large blocks of basalt scattered on the grassy slopes (Seddon 2008).
6723		population	eng	This species is only present on an offshore islet and there are no recent data on population trends.
6723		threats	eng	Although the vegetation on the island has been subjected to grazing, at present the levels of threat to the species are uncertain. &#160;Any activity that disturbs the vegetation around the basalt blocks where the species is found could lead to disturbance of the species.
6724		conservation	eng	This species is widely distributed on eastern Porto Santo, so recommended conservation actions include management of the grassland areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat.
6724		distribution	eng	The two subspecies are both endemic to Porto Santo (Seddon 2008); one is only found subfossil (Cameron <em>et al</em>. 2006). The living subspecies has a total extent of occurrence of 10 km<sup>2</sup> but is present over the eastern part of the  island and in these sites it is abundant.
6724		habitat	eng	This species is found under stones on grassland.
6724		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, however&#160;the species is abundant within its range (Seddon 2008).
6724		threats	eng	The habitat has been subject to changing land-use practice, and  as such  the quality of the habitat has declined over the last thirty  years,  although the main area falls within a designated protected area  and the  species is abundant within its range.
6725		conservation	eng	Further monitoring on population status and impact of rodents is required to establish future trends in decline.
6725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands and it is restricted to eastern end of Porto Santo where it is mainly found on the lower slopes around two hills, both in close proximity (Seddon 2008).
6725		habitat	eng	This species is found on the ground, on rocks and amongst low growing grasses and herbs in Porto Santo.
6725		population	eng	The species suffers from predation by introduced rodents and adults are impacted. The species is not abundant and&#160;it is thought to be a slow-maturing species which is more vulnerable than the smaller-bodied gastropods, as their reproductive success is impacted by loss of adults.&#160; Many shells can be found in small clusters with their apices eaten out, and this species has a less robust shell than the other taxa, so is easier to break into.
6725		threats	eng	This large-shelled gastropod has multiple threats: there are problems of competition with other introduced helicids such as&#160;<em>Theba pisana,&#160;</em>impact of over-grazing within the habitat on the lower slopes of the hills (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010) and evidence that a rodent is predating on this species as well as on others with similar shell size and form (Seddon 2008). The rodents predate on adults;&#160; these slow-maturing species are more vulnerable than the smaller-bodied gastropods, as their reproductive success is impacted by loss of adults.
6726		conservation	eng	The species range lies partly in a protected area on Porto Santo; further research required on population trends and impact of introduced rodents.
6726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo (Madeiran islands), and is also known as fossil on Ilheu de Baixo. It is present at 14 sites within a restricted area of occupancy of less than 12 km².
6726		habitat	eng	This species is found in rock crevices, amongst stems of shrubby plants and under stones.
6726		population	eng	There are no data on recent population trends.
6726		threats	eng	The major threats are from grassland fires disturbing the habitat and killing off the adults within these populations.
6727		conservation	eng	This species is widely distributed on eastern Porto Santo, so  recommended conservation actions include management of the grassland  areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected  areas to ensure no loss of further habitat. Research actions include population monitoring and habitat monitoring, especially for the populations near to tourist facilities.
6727		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Porto Santo, where it is abundant on the mountains in the northeastern part of the island, around Pico Branco and Pico do Conçelho (Seddon 2008). The distribution seems to have been similar in Wollaston’s time over 130 years ago (Seddon, pers. comm, 2010).
6727		habitat	eng	This species occurs under stones on grassland.
6727		population	eng	The quantative surveys undertaken in the late 1990's (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010) suggests that the  populations are reasonably abundant in spite of the habitat quality that  declining over the last thirty years following increased tourism and  recreational activities, as well as changing in grazing practices<br/>There is no additional data on population trends, however&#160;the species is  abundant within its range and believed to be stable (Seddon 2008).
6727		threats	eng	The habitat quality has been declining over the last thirty years following changing land-use practice including increasing in tourist developments.
6728		conservation	eng	The species would benefit from grassland management and reduction of risk from grassland fires, as well as reducing impact of recreational activities in the habitats. Habitat monitoring is required to evaluate conservation status in the future, as if these activities are not impacting the species, then it could be downlisted.
6728		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo in the Madeiran islands. It is restricted to the east end of the island, with a total area of occupancy of 8 km<sup>2</sup> with the main populations on slopes of two small hills (Seddon 2008).
6728		habitat	eng	This species occurs under stones on grassland (Seddon 2008).
6728		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, however can be locally abundant.
6728		threats	eng	The major threats lie in habitat loss through land-use change or grassland fires.
6729		conservation	eng	None of the range falls within a designated protected area. Conservation actions include habitat monitoring for indication of population trends, as well as population monitoring to establish impact of the predation on the species.
6729		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo. There are records from the mainland where the species is now largely restricted to the east end of the island, but fossils show it was formerly widespread (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species has a total area of occupancy of 16 km<sup>2</sup> with the three isolated sub-populations, on two different hillslope areas at the eastern part of the island, and another at west end of the mainland opposite Ilheu de Baixo.
6729		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland with herbs, on coastal cliffs, rocky slopes and summits. The habitat  has been subject to changing land-use practice, and declined in quality  over the last thirty years. The site behind the harbour and at the west end of the island are the most vulnerable populations.
6729		population	eng	There is no recent population trend data for this species. It is known to be impacted by rodent predation.
6729		threats	eng	These small populations are vulnerable to rodent predation,  fires and other habitat loss from tourist developments (hotels, recreational areas, roads).
6730		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to determine if the species is still extant.
6730		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it was reported to be restricted to Deserta Grande (Wollaston 1878). Cameron and Cook (1999) did not record this species in their survey work in 1994-8 and it was not recorded by Oliver in his surveys in 1994 (M. Seddon pers. comm. 2010).
6730		habitat	eng	The habitat is uncertain, but likely to be amongst rocks on grassy slopes or within scree.
6730		population	eng	The species was not recorded in recent surveys by Ripken and Oliver in  1994 (Oliver pers. comm. 1995)&#160; or by Cameron and Cook in various surveys (1999) in spite of  the large fairly conspicuous shell. This suggests that it is either very  rare or possibly extinct.
6730		threats	eng	The species is only present on one island where overgrazing by goats has lead to massive changes in vegetation and stability of slopes in the last 150 years.
6731		conservation	eng	It is likely that the species is extinct, given the size of the shell, however, given the conservation actions removing the goats in recent years and the planned programme to restore vegetation, so further surveys are recommended at regular intervals for this species.
6731		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Desertas (Madeiran islands); Wollaston (1878) reported that it was scarce on Bugio in the 1860s. Cameron and Cook (1999) did not record this species in their survey work and hence the species may be extinct or extremely rare now on the island.
6731		habitat	eng	Wollaston (1878) described the species as living amongst lichens on the sea-cliffs. These&#160; cliffs are quite inaccessible, and hence difficult to sample, although the species has a large, conspicuous discoid shell.
6731		population	eng	This species has not been recorded for over 50 years and was reported to be rare over 140 years ago (Wollaston 1878). Wollaston (1878) described the species as living amongst lichens on the  sea-cliffs, however these&#160; cliffs are quite inaccessible, and hence difficult  to sample, although the species has a large, conspicuous discoid shell.
6731		threats	eng	The island has been subject to much change in vegetation since the  introduction of goats, which lead to soil erosion and changing vegetation.
6732		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known specifically for this species and none considered necessary.
6732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands; it is only known from Madeira, where it is widespread especially on the southern side at low elevations (Seddon 2008). &#160;The subspecies <em>D. m. taienata</em> is only known from the western region north of Ponto da Pargo to Paul do Mar (Seddon 2008).
6732		habitat	eng	This species is present in grassland, scrub and partly disturbed habitats, it is found on the underside of stones, on scree slopes and at the base of crags.
6732		population	eng	There is no detailed information on population trends, however the&#160;populations are believed to be stable.
6732		threats	eng	It is considered not to be threatened at present, but should be reviewed periodically in the event of loss of habitat due to residential, agricultural and industrial development along the coast.
6735		conservation	eng	The species is on the EU Habiats and Species Directive Annex II and requires an SPA, however, it was thought to be extinct until recently.  There are few protected areas in the  range of this species, and  establishment of a small area would benefit  the species through  reduction of the impact of development for tourism. Habitat monitoring is required at the site to ensure disturbance  is not impacting the species.
6735		distribution	eng	<em>Discus guerinianus</em> is endemic to the Madeiran Islands, where it was originally recorded from Riberia de Santa Luzia on Madeira (Wollaston 1878,&#160; Seddon 2008). Cameron and Cook (1999) recorded it from&#160;two sites, one site close to Ponta do Pargo at the far west of the main island of Madeira and the other near Paul do Mar. Other surveys failed to find other sites for this species, despite intensive efforts between 1970's and 1990's (Seddon 2008).&#160;One site has undergone recent change due to hotel developments close by and the other site has been disturbed by recent fires (Cameron,&#160;pers. comm.&#160;2010 )
6735		habitat	eng	In 1878, Wollaston described the habitat as intermediate to high elevations, confined to deep wooded ravines under stones and leaf litter. &#160;Between 1878 and 1999 there were no records of this species and it was believed to be extinct, as the Riberia de Sta Luzia had changed considerably since Wollaston had recorded it there. &#160;In 1999 the species was rediscovered, at two sites, one of which was scrubby habitats and the other was Laurisilva forest remnants (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010).
6735		population	eng	After 80 years of being regarded as extinct, the species was rediscovered in a different area of the island some 25 km from the original type locality. &#160;One of these two sites was close to hotel development and may well have been lost (Cameron pers. comm., 2010).
6735		threats	eng	At Ponta do Pargo recent fires have disturbed the habitat and at Paul  do Mar there has been a hotel development with possible loss of this  site.
6736		conservation	eng	The status of this species should be reviewed regularly to check that the species has not started to decline.
6736		distribution	eng	Endemic to the USA. This species remains restricted to the southern fringe of the 'driftless area': Illinois (Jo Daves Co.); Iowa (Allamakee, Clayton, Clinton, Delaware, Dubuque, Fayette, Jackson). Originally Frest (1984) reported <em>ca</em>. 18 localities, but species specific surveys in the right habitat suggest there are at least 45 localities where the species is recorded (Frest 1992, Nekola, pers. comm).
6736		habitat	eng	This species is largely limited to cool limestone cliffs above algific (cold-producing) talus slopes, or sometimes in/on the talus as well. It seems to like rock fissures in particular.
6736		population	eng	Nekola (pers comm.) believes that the populations status is currently stable, with no populations being lost over the last decade.  In fact, the main change is the addition of new sites during species specific surveys.
6736		threats	eng	Main threat is habitat change either through changing microclimate or vegetation change. McMillan and Nekola (2003) note that these habitats are vulnerable to impact of rock climbing at sites.
6763		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species.</p>
6763		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Piedmont</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Broad</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in Oglethorpe, Elbert, and Wilkes Counties, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, USA (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981, 1989).   <br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
6763		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower found in sandy clay soil (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>
6763		population	eng	<p>&#160;There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
6763		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
6764		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as endangered (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and NatureServe have given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, Critically imperilled, due to its very restricted range   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species has been ranked as the highest priority out of 23 high priority crayfish species by the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, for which a conservation strategy has been developed (Eversole and Welch 2010).<br/>    <p>The small geographic size of known <em>D. youngineri</em> colonies, however, facilitates protection of the species through land purchases or conservation easements, at least until research determines the habitat requirements and a management plan is established.</p>
6764		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from 2 localities in Newberry County, South Carolina, USA.&#160; These constitute its type locality and another 14.4 km away on State Route 121 (Fetzner 2008). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 1,656 km<sup>2</sup>.
6764		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower, the burrows of which extend below the water table, sometimes more than a metre down (Fitzpatrick and Eversole 1997). It is found in forested wetland with sandy clay substrate (Hobbs and Carlson 1985).
6764		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a reported very small total population in South Carolina. There are believed to be 1 - 1,000 individuals in South Carolina with a past decline of 10 - 30% (in an unknown time frame) and a currently declining population   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009, Eversole and Welch 2010). This species is no longer present at its type locality, which was completely destroyed by clear-cutting in 1989   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
6764		threats	eng	In 1989 the entire forested area constituting this species type locality was clear felled. This species is no longer found at this location. Thus, future felling could cause a decline in the population abundance   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species is also impacted by ground water abstraction&#160;(R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009), and changes in soil hydrology, for example due to ditch construction and&#160;drainage&#160;tiles (Eversole and Welch 2010). This&#160;species&#160;may also be threatened by the introduction of pesticides and other nutrient-rich pollutants introduced in to ground water from agriculture and industry (Eversole and Welch 2010), although the impact of this is not known.
6765		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
6765		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is largely absent from the southern lowlands of the island. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.
6765		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in early regrowth and disturbed tropical moist forest, although it can be found in mature forest habitats. It is fairly resilient to human disturbance, occurring in gardens, but it does require some form of tree cover within its habitat. The average number of pouch young in females is 1.4 young (Flannery 1995).
6765		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species in parts of its range. It appears to be more abundant in the southern part of its range.
6765		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
6770		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
6770		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guniea), except from montane regions, and is also presnt on Yapen Island, Indonesia (Bergmans and Sarbini 1985). A record from Sulawesi, Indonesia, by Boeadi and Bergmans (1987), probably represents an undescribed subspecies or species.
6770		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, swamp forest, and gardens. The species roosts singly or in small groups, usually in the forest understory. It has not been found in cave roosts. This is a frugivorous species, and is has been recorded feeding on the introduced invasive <em>Piper aduncum</em> (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Females give birth to a single young annually.
6770		population	eng	It is a common species. Bonaccorso (1998) considered it to be more abundant than previously thought because it chiefly roosted as scattered individuals (rather than in large roosts), and had a tendency to fly above the normal placement of mistnets. The species is caught frequently in canopy nets (T. Leary pers. comm.).
6770		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
6771		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in protected areas within its range.
6771		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. It has been recorded from Bali, Nusa Penida, Lombok, Moyo, Sangeang, Komodo, Sumbawa, Rinca, Flores, Lembata, Pantar, Alor, Wetar, Babar, Timor, Sematu, Roti, Savu, and Sumba islands.
6771		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves and rock crevices. A large series was collected from a hollow tree. Colonies up to 300 individuals have been found on Timor (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990). This species seems to be quite tolerant of disturbance.
6771		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
6771		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting (by smoking them out of caves), and cave loss can be localised threats to the species.
6772		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed to determine if this species is conspecific with <em>Dobsonia viridis</em>.
6772		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Raja Ampat Islands (Batanta, Gebe, Salawati, Gag, Waigeo (plus possibly Misool)), and the Biak and Supiori islands (including Owi) in Geelvinck Bay, Indonesia. It is not present on the island of New Guinea (Flannery 1995).
6772		habitat	eng	This species roosts in large colonies in both caves and trees. It is commonly found foraging in secondary forest, Pandanus, plantations, and gardens. Flannery (1995) thought that the similar-sized <em>Dobsonia emersa</em> excludes it from caves where the two species co-occur. Of the 14 specimens in the type series collected in December 1909 from Waigeo, seven females were lactating or pregnant. Females observed on Biak-Supiori in September were in an early stage of pregnancy, while on Batanta many pregnant females were observed in October (Flannery1995).
6772		population	eng	This species is widespread and common within its range.
6772		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is unlikely to be hunted within this range (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
6773		conservation	eng	On Cebu, <em>D. chapmani</em> occurs in the Catmon municipal watershed and it has been adopted as a flagship species by the local government in Carmen municipality. There are political problems in the region and researchers are reluctant to take part in surveys there. <br/><br/>The local government of Carmen has organized a group of environment protection coordinators who patrol and report violations to the municipal mayor and council. Part of the duty of the environment protection coordinators is to survey cave sanctuaries and report illegalities e.g. tree felling and hunting particularly of bats. The municipal government has declared the caves where these bats occur as Naked-backed Fruit Bat Sanctuaries. Reforestation project is underway there (Paguntalan in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>The largest remaining forest fragment is not within a protected area and was not included in the listing of Key<br/>Conservation Sites in Cebu (Mallari <em>et al.</em> 2001). This needs to be rectified.<br/><br/>On Negros, the species has been recorded from a provincial level forest reserve in the southwest of the Island (Calatong). Two towns are pending resolutions to adopt this as a flagship species. <br/><br/>There is an urgent need for improved protection of the remaining known populations on both islands, and further surveys are needed to locate additional populations.
6773		distribution	eng	The Negros Naked-backed Fruit Bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from Cebu and Negros Islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Simmons 2005) occurring at an elevation range from sea level to 860 m. It was thought to be probably extinct but was rediscovered at Carmen and Catmon on Cebu Island in 2001 (Pangutalan <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Calatong (near Sipalay City), Negros Occidental province, southwest Negros Island, in 2003 (Alcala <em>et al</em>. 2004). Further surveys might locate additional populations on both islands.
6773		habitat	eng	<em>D. chapmani</em> occurs in remnant patches of secondary forest on karst limestone, where the natural vegetation is batino (<em>Alstonia macrophylla</em>), hindunganon (<em>Macaranga</em> sp.), tubug (<em>Ficus septica</em>) and matamban (<em>Mallotus</em> sp.) on steep slopes. The surrounding agricultural clearings are planted with abacca (<em>Musa textiles</em>), gabi (<em>Colocasia esculenta</em>) and coconuts (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>) (Paguntalan <em>et al.</em> 2004). The forest at Carmen and Catmon, Cebu island, is a critically important site for the species. However, the only available habitat for the species in this area is a series of small secondary-growth forest fragments on limestone, all of which are highly disturbed (Paguntalan <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The species lives in small caves or cracks in limestone, and forages in karst habitats, which have less rainfall than in other parts of the country. Records suggest that the species is exclusively a cave dweller (Rabor 1986; Heaney and Heideman 1987; Utzurrum 1992). However, three specimens were observed roosting in coconut fronds (Rabor 1954), indicating that <em>D. chapmani</em> is not restricted to forest and is able, to some extent, to make use of degraded and highly disturbed habitats (Paguntalan <em>et al</em>. 2004).
6773		population	eng	<em>Dobsonia chapmani</em> was known to occur on the islands of Negros and Cebu between 1949 and 1964 and the species was believed to have become probably extinct by the 1970s as a result of forest destruction, disturbance through guano mining, and hunting (Heaney and Heideman 1987; Utzurrum 1992). About 35 specimens were collected in the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s from several different cave systems in southern Negros some of which occurred in well forested and sparsely populated areas (Paguntalan <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species was reported to be formerly common in lowland forest from sea level to 800 m in southern Negros Island (Rabor 1986). Populations were rediscovered in Carmen and Catmon on Cebu Island in 2001 (Pangutalan <em>et al.</em> 2004), and five individuals were found in a small limestone forest fragment (Calatong) near Sipalay City, Negros Occidental province, southwest Negros Island in 2003 (Alcala <em>et al</em>. 2004).
6773		threats	eng	The Negros Naked-backed Fruit Bat is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, and harvest for meat throughout most of its range.<br/><br/>On Negros, lowland forest and karst habitat within the former known range of the species (before its rediscovery) have been heavily degraded by logging and clearing for agriculture. Since its rediscovery in 2001 there has been significant conversion of habitat to agriculture and mining for copper and gold within the current known range of the species on Cebu. Evans (1993) reported that less than 4% of Negros Island was forested, with small patches of degraded forest in the central and southern portion of the island. Roosts of the species are disturbed by guano miners.  The largest remaining fragment of forest within the range of this species on Cebu is approximately 60 ha and this is threatened by the cutting of trees for charcoal and agricultural development (Paguntalan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<br/><br/>Harvest of <em>D. chapmani</em> for local consumption and sale has caused past population declines. Hunting is known to occur in the areas in which it has been rediscovered. In an ethnobiological survey, which included the islands of Sipalay City, out of 28 respondents, 15 reported hunting this species (A. Carino pers. comm. 2006). As a larger species, it is particularly targeted by hunters and in the past the species was sold in street markets. However, since 1995, <em>D. chapmani</em> has rarely been captured in caves where it has reportedly been hunted before. Interviews with hunters indicate that only about one or two individuals of <em>D. chapmani</em> have been taken during the 2003-2005 period indicating a population decline (Paguntalan in litt. 2006). It has been bred in captivity by collectors as a pet (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006).
6774		conservation	eng	It is believed to occur in some protected areas.
6774		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Indonesian islands of Numfoor, Biak-Supiori, and Owi. Populations attributed to this species from Numfoor, however, represent a closely related, undescribed species (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It has been reported from sea level to 30 m asl.
6774		habitat	eng	This cave-roosting species is present in both primary and secondary forest habitats; the original specimens from Biak were collected from a garden, while the Owi animals were collected in secondary forest (Flannery 1995). It is apparently common around villages, and very docile. Flannery (1995) remarked that they are easily disturbed at the roost in caves.
6774		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
6774		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is only known from less than five sites. It may possibly be threatened by habitat degradation and forest clearance due to logging and agricultural expansion on Biak (this is the most highly populated West Papuan island), but it appears able to tolerate some level of disturbance so this is unlikely (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). There is some disturbance at roost sites and limited hunting of this species.
6775		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
6775		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, and has been recorded from Sulawesi, Muna, Mangole, Sanana, Malenga (and probably on all the Togians Islands). It is also possibly found on Buton Island, according to genetic evidence (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
6775		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and disturbed habitats. This species is commensal with humans. It roosts in caves and lives in small to medium colonies.
6775		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.
6775		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting of this species in caves may cause some localised declines, but is not considered a major threat at present.
6776		conservation	eng	Important roosts of this poorly-known species should be protected. Further studies are needed into the species biology, ecology, and threats. This species is not known to be present in any protected areas, except perhaps a wildlife management area on Goodenough and Lake Lawma on Fergusson. It is likely more vulnerable on the Trobriands and Woodlark Island (as subspecies, <em>Dobsonia pannietensis remota</em>); needs monitoring and further study.
6776		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from the islands of Fergusson, Goodenough, Normanby, Misima, Panaeati, Rossel, Sudest, Kiriwina, and Woodlark (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded at elevations of between sea level and 1,800 m asl.
6776		habitat	eng	This little-known species roosts in caves and tree hollows (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is a roosts in groups.
6776		population	eng	It is very common in some parts of its range (e.g., Woodlark and Normaby Islands) (Flannery 1995), and is altitudinally wide ranging. There is no evidence of declines, but this could be due to a lack of applicable studies.
6776		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation in parts of its range. Hunting may be a threat, since it is large, and could be seen as a good source of meat.
6777		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
6777		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from the islands of  Duke of York, Dyaul, Mioko, New Britain, New Ireland, Ulu, Umboi (and nearby small islands), and the New Hanover Islands (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is found from sea level to 300 m asl.
6777		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland primary and secondary tropical moist forest, plantations, and rural gardens. It normally roosts in small groups, or as solitary individuals, in foliage. It has been recorded roosting in coconut plantations, and there are some records of animals roosting in caves.
6777		population	eng	It is a common species.
6777		threats	eng	Conversion of lowland forest habitats to oil palm plantation is a major threat. Somewhat threatened by deforestation, for the timber trade, but it is very resilient as long as there is not complete conversion (if small forest patches are maintained during clearing).
6778		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures pertaining to this species.
6778		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from much of the Solomon Islands as well as neighbouring islands in Papua New Guinea (i.e., Bougainville and Buka, and possibly Nissan). Occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
6778		habitat	eng	It roosts in medium-sized to large caves, although small numbers of individuals can be found in rock overhangs. It forages in disturbed areas and is less common in primary forests. Its closest relative, <em>D. praedatrix</em>, roosts in small colonies in the crowns of coconut trees (beneath old drooping fronds), and it is possible <em>D. inermis</em> may also utilize these roosting sites.
6778		population	eng	This species is widespread and common. It is unknown to what extent there is genetic connectivity between island populations. It is unlikely, for instance, that there is any regular exchange of genes between the most distant population on Rennell Island and other islands in the Solomon Archipelago (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
6778		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Whilst commonly observed in coastal areas, its dependence on caves for large breeding colonies makes it particularly susceptible to even low levels human disturbance and hunting.
6779		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas. There is a need to ensure the protection of important roosting sites. Bonaccorso (1998) mentions a large roosting site of some 10,000 bats at a village near Omeru (Papua New Guinea), where local villagers have provided protection to the bats and offer walking tours to view the roost for a small fee. Taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of this species relative to <em>D. magna</em>.
6779		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Timor, Samau (I. Maryanto pers. comm.), Maluku Islands (including Ambon, Bacan, Buru and Seram islands), Banda Islands, throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), including the Kai and Aru Islands (Indonesia) to Australia, where it is restricted to the Torres Islands and Cape York, Queensland. It is also found on Waigeo, Batanta (Ibhu pers. comm.), Salawati, and Yapen in Indonesia. It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to 2,700 m asl.
6779		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest, wet open forest, rural gardens, and fruit and coconut plantations. It is generally absent from dry woodland and savanna. It roosts in caves, sinkholes, boulder piles, old mines, disused buildings, and dense vegetation. It is a gregarious species. In New Guinea, colonies may contain several thousand animals. In Australia, colonies are generally much smaller. Females annually give birth to a single young (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999).
6779		population	eng	It is the most abundant and widespread fruit bat on Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998). It is generally rare in Australia (Strahan 1995). Few specimens are known from Buru island but it is common on Seram and Banda. It is uncommon on other islands.
6779		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Habitat loss, due to active logging is a threat along with hunting for food and mining activities for Nickel on Gag. It is also locally threatened in parts of its range by shooting as a pest species, and accidental mortality on barbed-wire fences (Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999),
6780		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
6780		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Kai Islands, central and south Moluccas including Seram, Ambon, and Buru, Banda Islands, all in Indonesia. A closely related but undescribed species occurs in the Tanimbar Islands (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
6780		habitat	eng	It is common in disturbed forest, coconut plantations, and gardens. It roosts in caves and trees.
6780		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.
6780		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Hunting, especially in caves (Boadi pers. comm.), represents a localised threat for some populations.
6785		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least 12 protected areas. It is categorized as Vulnerable in the Red Book of Mammals of Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda, 2000).
6785		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina, from Bolson de Pipanaco, Catamarca Province at approx 28 degrees south to 50 degrees south (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Subspecies <em>D. p. centricola</em> occurs in Catamarca Province, the eastern region of La Rioja Province, the northwest of Cordoba Province, and the southwest of Santiago del Estero Province (Cabrera, 1953). Subspecies <em>D. p. patagonum</em> occurs in the central area of Buenos Aires Province, the south of Cordoba Province, San Luis and Mendoza Provinces, and to the south of Argentina to Santa Cruz Province (Cabrera, 1953).
6785		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland habitats, including forest and creosote bush (Larrea) flats in northwestern Argentina (Campos <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It prefers habitats with shrub cover but will also use overgrazed and bared soils in the Monte Desert biome (Kufner and Chambouleyron, 1991). Maras are herbivores (Kufner and Duranona, 1991). In southern Argentina, breeding is from August to January (Taber and Macdonald, 1992) and in Patagonia, most births occur between September and October (Taber, 1987). In captivity, maras produce three or four litters each year (Dubost and Genest, 1974), but in the wild, most females produce only one litter annually (Taber, 1987). Average litter size is two (range, 1-3) (Campos <em>et al</em>. 2001).
6785		population	eng	The population is decreasing and the species is not easily found (Ojeda, R. pers. comm.).
6785		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agriculture, and hunting for their skins have resulted in localized extinctions such as Buenos Aires Province (Cabrera, 1953). The species competes with large, introduced herbivores such as sheep and the European hare (Jayat, J. pers. comm.).
6786		conservation	eng	It is probably present in some protected areas in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay.
6786		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chaco of Paraguay, northwest Argentina as far south as Cordoba Province, and extreme south Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs at elevations around 400 m asl in Bolivia.
6786		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in the arid Chaco, and is typically found in dry, low, flat thorn scrub. It probably can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It digs large burrows, conspicuous by the extensive piles of dirt outside the entrances. Females have been caught with one and two embryos. In captivity its gestation period is 77 days; the litter size averages 1.5 (range 1 to 3) (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Wilson and Kleiman, 1974).
6786		population	eng	It is common where it is found. The home range varies from 33.3 to 197.5 ha, with a mean of 97.9 ha (Taber, 1987).
6786		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
6793		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within beira range or active in-situ conservation programmes for the species. There is a successful captive- breeding population at Al Wabra, Qatar.
6793		distribution	eng	Endemic to northeast Africa. Most of the distribution area lies in northern Somalia [Somaliland], from the Nogaal Valley northwards. Full details of the distribution are unclear, but from historical and recent information the remaining core areas of the population are: Asse hills-Lahan Sheik, Garoowe area (Bur Cobohille), Wagar, Buuraha and Golis mountains, Araweina, Ali Haidh and Guban region. Between these locations, occasional sightings have been reported (Moustapha Elmi 1992, Giotto et al. in press).<br/><br/>The species’ existence in Djibouti was only confirmed in 1993, when they were observed on hillsides at two sites in the southeast, close to the borders with Somalia and Ethiopia (Künzel and Künzel 1998). Recent surveys have shown that the area of distribution in Djibouti is about 250 km² and located in the mountainous Ali Sabieh - Arrey - Assamo region (Künzel et al. 2000, Laurent et al. 2001, Heckel et al. 2004).<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, the species is known from the Marmar mountains along the border with north-west Somalia (Bolton 1973). No recent information is available on its status in this part of the country, where large numbers of armed pastoralists and their livestock now reside. There is no evidence of their occurrence in the Ogaden region (Wilhelmi 1997, Wilhelmi et al. 2006).
6793		habitat	eng	Beira frequent rocky or stony hillsides, rarely steep slopes, where the dominant vegetation is a woody steppe of mixed <em>Acacia</em> scrub (Giotto <em>et al</em>. in press).
6793		population	eng	In the 1980s it still occupied large parts of its historical range, but in greatly reduced numbers. East (1999) estimated the population at 7,000 [though fewer mature individuals] based on the assumption that a population density of 0.2 /km² applied throughout the species’ range, and that its area of occupancy is about 35,000 km². Most occur in northern Somalia, which has been relatively unaffected by the civil/military conflicts in the rest of the country. Its numbers may be decreasing in some parts of its range where settlement is expanding and livestock densities are high, but its populations are probably stable in areas with few settlements.<br/><br/>In Djibouti, the total population has been estimated at between 50 and 150 individuals (Künzel and Künzel 1998, Laurent <em>et al</em>. 2001, Heckel <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Djibouti, Beira are restricted to a limited area and likely decreasing in number due to desertification by overgrazing and disturbance from an incoming population of refugees. In Somalia, animals underwent a marked decline in number during the 1975 drought (Simonetta 1988).
6793		threats	eng	Drought, habitat deterioration as a result of overgrazing by domestic livestock, uncontrolled hunting and cutting of woodland and scrub for charcoal exports to the Gulf area (Moustapha Elmi 1992, East 1999). However, the Beira’s small size, wariness, and the vegetated rocky habitat it prefers have apparently enabled it to avoid heavy hunting pressure.
6794		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Protection of areas of suitable habitat and regulation of hunting activities may be beneficial to the conservation of this species.
6794		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Goodenough Island, Papua New Guinea (extent of occurrence is <100 km²). It ranges between 1,000 and 1,800 m asl.
6794		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to montane tropical oak forests with little herbaceous growth, but with a ground cover thick with ferns, mosses, and lichens. The female is believed to give birth to a single young. The species comes down seasonally to the gullies, and is then susceptible to hunting (D. Mitchell pers. comm.).
6794		population	eng	It is common within suitable habitat.
6794		threats	eng	It has been recorded as being hunted by local people using dogs, although Flannery (1995) suggests that hunting pressure may be decreasing. The forest habitat of this species is being cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture and is rapidly being converted to grassland.
6795		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least one protected area (Mamberamo) and one wildlife management area.
6795		distribution	eng	This species is generally widespread across northern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is absent from the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. It ranges in elevation from sea level to around 400 m asl.
6795		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary tropical lowland forests. It can occur in disturbed areas including abandoned gardens. Females give birth to a single young.
6795		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat and resilient to hunting pressures.
6795		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by subsistence hunting for food.
6799		conservation	eng	It occurs in Varirata National Park near Port Moresby, although this population may have been recently extirpated (L. Salas pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the impacts of hunting on populations of this species. This species needs to be closely monitored and regularly reassessed.
6799		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowlands of southern and south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia). It is absent from areas of high elevation. It ranges from sea level to 400 m asl.
6799		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical forests. It can occur in disturbed areas including abandoned gardens. It is often found in gallery forests.
6799		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat.
6799		threats	eng	It is threatened by local hunting for food and habitat loss due to conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural use, logging concessions, and road building (which will lead to more hunting). It is a preferred bushmeat species, and the populations around Port Moresby have been largely hunted out. Sold for 50 Kina per animal at the markets.
6800		conservation	eng	It occurs in Lorentz National Park. Habitat protection and regulation of hunting is needed to protect this species in parts of its range.
6800		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of western Papua Province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It also occurs on the neighbouring Indonesian islands of Misool, Salawati, and Yapen.
6800		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swampy lowland tropical forest (seasonally inundated) and probably occurs in secondary habitats (old gardens). The female gives birth to a single young.
6800		population	eng	This species is abundant in the southern coastal area of its range, but it is rare in the central portion of the Vogelkop Peninsula. Animals are able to persist close to human habitation.
6800		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. It is threatened in parts of its range by hunting for food and habitat loss through conversion of forested areas to small-scale agricultural use. The species is threatened on Yapen Island by ongoing logging activities.
6801		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g., Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area). It needs further study on its taxonomy and distribution.
6801		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the hill to lower montane areas of south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). The distribution range is uncertain. It is restricted to the southern slopes in an elevational range of 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.
6801		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower montane primary and disturbed tropical moist forest. Females give birth to one or two young.
6801		population	eng	It is common in hill forest and lower montane forest.
6801		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species is locally threatened by subsistence hunting for food.
6802		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
6802		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper hill to upper-montane forests throughout the central mountain chain of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been extirpated from the Hunstein, Schrader, and the Torricelli ranges, and probably the Adelberts (L. Salas pers. comm.). There are fossil records from the Vogelkop and from the Arfak Mountains. It occurs from 800 to 3,100 m asl.
6802		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary forests and small garden clearings. The home range is about 1-1.5 ha. It uses holes in the ground. It is often associated with small streams. Females give birth to one or two young.
6802		population	eng	This used to be a common species. It is now uncommon and is especially hard to find near human settlements.
6802		threats	eng	This species is threatened by local overhunting for food. It is also a common prey item of naturalized (New Guinea singing) dogs (prehistorically introduced) even in the most remote highland areas of New Guinea, so essentially everywhere it is killed readily by humans and/or dogs (K. Helgen, per. comm.).
6814		conservation	eng	<p>Public aquariums have had <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>in their collections but not many aquariums actively raise this species in captivity (Koldewey 2005) and commercial breeding of pipefish for sale to aquarists is rare (Seahorse Sanctuary 2008).</p><p>This species is found or suspected to occur in the following Australian marine protected areas: Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve, Western Australia, Cartier Island Marine Protected Area, off northern WA (unconfirmed), Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area, Queensland, and Rowley Shoals Marine Park, Western Australia (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p><p>In Australia, this species has been subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 since 1 January 1998 and is listed as a marine species under section 248 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</p>
6814		distribution	eng	<p></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus </span>is a pipefish that inhabits tropical and subtropical waters. It is found in the Indo-Pacific region. Its range includes the Red Sea and East Africa in the east to American Samoa in the west (Froese and Pauly 2009). The waters of Japan mark the northern boundary of its range (Matsuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984) and it is found in the south as far as Australian waters (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990, Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p><p></p>
6814		habitat	eng	<p>A marine species associated with coral reefs (Belmaker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>is found in pairs or occasionally in large groups (Kuiter 2000), although aggregations may be composed of juveniles (Kuiter 1996, cited by Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, p. 136). Males start brooding at 90 mm standard length (Dawson 1985) and eggs are carried on the underside of the abdomen.<br/></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus </span>is found at depths between five and 56 m. It has also has been observed to live in caves and crevices (Kuiter 2000). This species is found with cleaner shrimps and is assumed to perform some role in cleaning other fishes (Kuiter 2000, Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p>
6814		population	eng	<p>There is little information available regarding the population sizes or trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>for its entire known geographic range. Within Australian jurisdictional waters population declines are not suspected (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), however no information is available for regions where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>is caught for the aquarium trade, such as Indonesia and the Philippines (Paulus 1999, Reksodihardjo-Lilley and Lilley 2007).</p>
6814		threats	eng	<p>There is little information on direct threats to this species, other than the removal of wild individuals for the aquarium trade. There are no catch or trade volume estimates for <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>available.</p>
6820		conservation	eng	It is found in at least Mt. Kinabalu National Park (Han pers. comm.) and Gunung Mulu National Park (Giman pers. comm.).
6820		distribution	eng	This species is found on mountains of north and west Borneo (Kalimantan, Sarawak, Sabah), above 975 m  (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
6820		habitat	eng	This species can tolerate secondary forest and fruit orchards, and appear to be more common in primary forest (Han pers. comm.).
6820		population	eng	This species is fairly common and stable throughout its range (Han pers. comm.).
6820		threats	eng	Deforestation due to land conversion for agriculture is the major threat to this species, even right outside Mt. Kinabalu National Park, where people grow vegetables at high altitudes (Han pers. comm.).
6821		conservation	eng	It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia - Eagle’s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and National park, Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, Tale Valley Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India; Lawachara National Park in Bangladesh (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, life history and monitoring are recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
6821		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northeastern South Asia, southern China and western Southeast Asia. This species has been widely recorded from Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal in South Asia at elevations of 900 to 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from southern Xizang and eastern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from western and northern Myanmar.
6821		habitat	eng	It is diurnal and arboreal species that also forages on the forest floor. It occurs in subtropical montane evergreen and broadleaved forests (including moist semi deciduous forest in Bangladesh [Sarkar pers comm.] and oak-rhodedendron forest in Nepal [Shrestha pers. comm.].). It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy of dense oak, bamboo, fir and pine forest patches (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from rhododendron forests to subtropical forests at lower elevations, and conifer forests at high elevations (Smith and Xie 2008). The species litters of two to five young (Smith and Xie 2008).
6821		population	eng	This species is locally common in India. There appear to be few animals in Bangladesh and Nepal (Sarkar and Shreshta pers. comm.).
6821		threats	eng	In Nepal and Bangladesh the species is threatened by deforestation and fragmentation of habitat (Sarkar and Shreshta pers. comm.). Hunting for consumption is a major threat in northeastern India.
6822		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation, neither is it known from any of the protected areas in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is presumably present in many protected areas outside of South Asia. Survey, life history and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
6822		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed through northeastern South Asia, central and southern China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has only been recorded from only a couple of locations in Manipur and Nagaland in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been reported from Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). It has also been recorded from the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded in northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam. It is found between 900 and 3,500 m asl (China).
6822		habitat	eng	It is diurnal and arboreal species, which also forages on the forest floor. It occurs in subtropical montane evergreen, broad leaved forests and coniferous forests. It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy of dense oak, bamboo, fir and pine forest patches (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
6822		population	eng	While there is little information available on the abundance of this species, it appears to be reasonably common over much of its range.
6822		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this species as a whole. Habitat degradation due to shifting (jhum) cultivation practices and hunting and poaching for local consumption have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
6823		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, Bawangling, and Jinfoshanis Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A2cd+3cd (Wang and Xie 2004).
6823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008). The distributional limits of this species are uncertain due to taxonomic confusion and misidentification in the field. It is known to occur in the provinces of Guizhou, Hubei, Sichuan, Guangdong, Anhui, Guangxi, Hunan, and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). Thorington and Hoffmann (2005) indicate that the distribution extends into extreme northern Viet Nam. The distribution is apparently fragmented (Smith and Xie 2008) and requires review.
6823		habitat	eng	This species occupies holes in rocky terrain (Smith and Xie 2008). They are characterized as rather inactive during winter (Smith and Xie 2008).
6823		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
6823		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6824		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas in Southeast asia, with no direct conservation measures needed (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). In South Asia, it is known from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
6824		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, from northeastern South Asia and southern China, into much of mainland Southeast Asia. It has been recorded in only two locations in India, once each in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland at around 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In southern China, it has been recorded from Yunnan and southwestern Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is distributed from Myanmar in the west, through western Thailand, much of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and northern areas of Peninsular Malaysia. It is generally found at less than 1,500 m asl.
6824		habitat	eng	It is diurnal and largely arboreal. It occurs in subtropical montane evergreen and broadleaved forests. It is predominantly found in thick shrub layer vegetation but does go into the forest canopy to feed and forages on the floor; it persists well in degraded and fragmented habitats (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid and high canopy of dense oak, bamboo, fir and pine forest patches (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
6824		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
6824		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Southeast Asia (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Hunting for food is a major concern in parts of northeastern India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
6834		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine the impact of the numerous possible threats to populations - especially logging and agriculture.
6834		distribution	eng	Only found in southern and central Chile, to the south of Concepcion and on the island of Chiloe, and adjacent Argentina. It was recently captured in Argentina in Lake Nahuel Huapi National Park (Birney <em>et al.</em>, in press).
6834		habitat	eng	Dromiciops gliroides live in the cool, humid forests of the Chilean Andes where they inhabit thickets of Chilean Bamboo (Chusquea sp.). This nocturnal, arboreal mammal construct spherical nests of water-repellant bamboo leaves lined with moss or grass. Nests probably serve to protect the animals from the cold, but when temperatures drop during the winter and food becomes scarce, Dromiciops gliroides will hibernate. Feeds primarily on larvae and pupae of insect.
6834		population	eng	Its population has declined over recent years. Currently, <em>D. gliroides</em> has been catalogued as a rare species in Chile,<br/>due to its reduced population size. Furthermore, the high degree of fragmentation in the Maulino forest, allows to suppose that the local population of Dromiciops as well as that of the Reserva Los Ruiles and Los Queules could be in danger of extinction.
6834		threats	eng	This species is threatened by a loss of restricted habitat.
6852		distribution	eng	It was previously thought that <em>Dryococelus australis</em> was endemic to Lord Howe Island, Australia. In the 1960s, large stick insects were reported to exist on Balls Pyramid, a rocky outcrop 23 km away from Lord Howe Island (Smithers 1969). A scientific expedition to the rock in 2001 confirmed that this stick insect is <em>Dryococelus australis</em> (Macey 2001).
6852		habitat	eng	<em>Dryococelus australis</em> is a large, heavy-bodied species (Gurney 1947). On Lord Howe Island the species was found in large cavities in the trunks of living trees, emerging at night to feed.  However, Balls Pyramid is a small, desolate, rock island without trees.
6852		population	eng	After the introduction of rats to Lord Howe island in 1918, the population dwindled and the species was thought to have become extinct in 1920. Current numbers on Balls Pyramid are not known.
6858		conservation	eng	It is protected by international law under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV), in parts of its range where these apply. Listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). The species is found in protected areas.
6858		conservation	eng	It is protected by international law under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV). The species is found in protected areas.
6858		distribution	eng	<em>Dryomys nitedula</em> is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China).<br/>In the Mediterranean, occurs in Italy (including an isolated population in the south), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel. Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).
6858		distribution	eng	<em>Dryomys nitedula</em> is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China).<br/>In the Mediterranean, occurs in Italy (including an isolated population in the south), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel. Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kry?tufek 1999).
6858		distribution	eng	<em>Dryomys nitedula</em> is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China). In Europe, it occurs from eastern Switzerland through eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula to Latvia in the north and Russia in the east, with an isolated subpopulation in southern Italy (Kryštufek and Vohralik 1994). Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).
6858		habitat	eng	It occurs in a broad variety of habitats including broad-leaved, mixed, coniferous and dwarf montane woodland. Also found in rocky areas, evergreen shrubland (including Mediterranean-type shrubland), and wood-steppe (Kryštufek 1999, Smith and Xie in press). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.
6858		habitat	eng	It occurs in a broad variety of habitats including broad-leaved, mixed, coniferous and dwarf montane woodland. Also found in rocky areas, evergreen shrubland (including Mediterranean-type shrubland), and wood-steppe (Kry?tufek 1999, Smith and Xie in press). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.
6858		habitat	eng	It occurs in a broad variety of habitats in Europe, including broad-leaved, mixed, and coniferous woodland (mainly at higher altitudes), dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em> and rocky areas, evergreen Mediterranean shrubland, and wood-steppe (Kryštufek 1999). In the west, the species is found in moist areas next to streams (Austria, Switzerland, and Germany). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.
6858		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in some parts of its range and rare in others. <br/><br/>In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kryštufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere in Europe as yet (Kryštufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>This species is widespread and common in mountainous areas of Azerbaijan and is widespread in Turkey. In Israel in 1961 only 35 animals were observed during 350 hours of field surveys (Harrison and Bates 1991). Reported as quite common in Syria in evergreen forests and orchards (Shehad <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, a survey along the Bulgan River drainage basin estimated there to be 20 individuals per hectare (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968). In 1988, only a few old nests were found in the vicinity of Bag Shar Bolog, although the population is believed to be fairly stable (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).
6858		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in some parts of its range and rare in others. <br/><br/>In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kry?tufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere in Europe as yet (Kry?tufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>This species is widespread and common in mountainous areas of Azerbaijan and is widespread in Turkey. In Israel in 1961 only 35 animals were observed during 350 hours of field surveys (Harrison and Bates 1991). Reported as quite common in Syria in evergreen forests and orchards (Shehad <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, a survey along the Bulgan River drainage basin estimated there to be 20 individuals per hectare (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968). In 1988, only a few old nests were found in the vicinity of Bag Shar Bolog, although the population is believed to be fairly stable (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).
6858		population	eng	In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kryštufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere as yet (Kryštufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).
6858		threats	eng	There are no major threats in most parts of its range.
6858		threats	eng	There are no major threats in most parts of its range (EMA Workshop 2006). Declines at the western edge of its range have been attributed to deforestation (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006)
6859		conservation	eng	Found in at least one protected area (Ciglikara Forestry Research Area).
6859		distribution	eng	<em>D. laniger <em>is endemic to Turkey, where it ranges from the south-west to eastern Anatolia. It occurs at altitudes of 1,500 m and above (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007)</em></em>
6859		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat specialist restricted to rocky and stony habitats in the mountains. In southwestern Turkey it is found in rocky areas dominated by Cedar (Cedrus libani), Juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. foetidissima, J. oxycedrus), Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Fir (Abies cilicica) and Oak (Quercus cocciferae). In central Anatolia, vegetation cover within the distributional range is sparse.
6859		population	eng	The species is specialized and naturally rare. Only several tens of specimens are known.
6859		threats	eng	The species is not thought to be under any major threat. There is a possible localized threat on Munzur Mountain, Turkey due to ongoing construction of a dam, and in other areas mining for stones may be a problem.
6860		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Wanglang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered A1c; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
6860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the province of Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008).
6860		habitat	eng	This species occupies subalpine forests of mixed coniferous and broadleaf trees (Smith and Xie 2008). It will make nests (12 cm in diameter) in trees usually 3.0-3.5 m above the ground (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a nocturnal species that forages on green plants (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Parturition occurs in May, with litter size of four (Smith and Xie 2008).
6860		population	eng	It is known from only five specimens (Smith and Xie 2008).
6860		threats	eng	Loss of habitat resulting from logging is most likely a major threat to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).
6909		conservation	eng	The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
6909		distribution	eng	Coastal and Island waters between East Africa and Vanuatu between latitudes of about 27° North and South of Equator. See Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002).
6909		habitat	eng	See <a href="http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/docs/dugong.pdf">Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002)</a>.
6909		population	eng	Total population size is unknown. See <a href="http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/docs/dugong.pdf">Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002)</a>.
6909		threats	eng	See <a href="http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/docs/dugong.pdf">Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002)</a>.
6923		distribution	eng	Dusicyon australis was endemic to the Falkland Islands.
6923		population	eng	It was discovered in 1690 and was still common when Charles Darwin visited the Falklands in 1833. Throughout the 1800s however, the population declined drastically. The last individual is believed to have been killed in 1876.
6923		threats	eng	The species was hunted by US fur traders in the 1830s, and when Scottish settlers arrived in the 1860s and began raising sheep on the Island, <em>D. australis</em> was poisoned as a pest species.
6924		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although protected on paper in most range countries, this has not yet been backed up by specific conservation action, although the species’ presence was a major factor for conservation efforts at Jamari National Forest, western Brazil (Koester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span><span lang="EN-GB"> 2008).</span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The Short-eared Dog is likely to occur in most protected areas that encompass large tracts of undisturbed forest in western Amazonia. During the last decade, its presence has been confirmed in protected areas in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru.&#160;</p><p>The species is not included in the CITES Appendices.</p><p>No animals currently are known to be in formal captive breeding programmes. In the past, individuals have been held in several U.S. zoos (including the Lincoln Park Zoo, the National Zoo, the Brookfield Zoo, the Oklahoma City Zoo, and the San Antonio Zoo), mostly during the 1960s and 1970s (Leite Pitman and Williams 2004).</p><p>The biology, pathology, and ecology of the species are little known. Especially lacking is any true estimate of population density and an understanding of the species' habitat requirements. New GPS tracking technology will facilitate studies on density, habitat use and home-range.</p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>
6924		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The Short-eared Dog has been found in scattered sites from Colombia to Bolivia and Ecuador to Brazil. Its presence in Venezuela was suggested by Hershkovitz (1961) but never confirmed. Various studies have suggested the presence of the species throughout the entire Amazonian lowland forest region, as well as Andean foothill forests in Ecuador and Peru up to 2,000 m (Emmons and Feer 1990, 1997; Tirira 1999; A. Plenge pers. comm. 2002).<br/> <br/> For the 2004 assessment, museum specimens were re-checked and an extensive survey of field biologists doing long-term research in the species' putative range was carried out, constructing a distributional map based only on specimens of proven origin and incontrovertible field sightings (Leite Pitman and Williams 2004). This map has been refined with subsequent sighting records (M.R.P. Leite Pitman pers. obs.). The northernmost record is in Mitú, Colombia, at 1º15'57"N, 70º13'19"W (Hershkovitz 1961), the southernmost in Bolivia at 14°25'47.9994"S, 63°13' 47.9994"W (R. Wallace pers. obs.), the easternmost record is from the vicinity of Fazenda Amanda, Viseu, Brazil, at 01º52'S, 46º44'W (Pereira 2002), and the westernmost in the Rio Santiago, Peru, at 4º37'S, 77º55'W (Museum of Vertebrate Biology, University of California, Berkeley, collected 1979). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">A single specimen [MACN 31.59 held in the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”. (MACN). Colección de Mamíferos] collected on 4 June 1930 is documented as coming from western Pichincha in Ecuador (O.B. Vaccaro pers. comm.). A detailed locality is not provided and it is likely that it is mislabelled; the same collector collected another specimen on 30 July 1930 east of the Andes in Ecuador (specimen also in MACN). However, if the locality is correct, this would be the only record of the species west of the Andes and would mean that the species also previously occurred in the Chocó. </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">A specimen in the Santa Cruz Natural History Museum labelled as <em>Atelocynus microtis</em>, was genetically analysed and found to be a specimen of <em>Cerdocyon thous</em> (L. Emmons, pers. comm. 2008) which highlights the potential for misidentification between the two species in areas of savannah-forest ecotone in southern Amazonia (where the two species coexist).</p>
6924		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The Short-eared Dog favours undisturbed rainforest in the Amazonian lowlands. The species has been recorded in a wide variety of lowland habitats, including terra firme forest, swamp forest, stands of bamboo, and primary succession along rivers. At Cocha Cashu, sightings and tracks of the species are strongly associated with rivers and creeks, and there are five reliable reports of Short-eared Dogs swimming in rivers. Records are very rare in areas with significant human disturbance, i.e., near towns or in agricultural areas. It is unclear whether the Short-eared Dog is able to utilize habitats outside wet lowland forests. One sighting in Rondonia, Brazil, was in lowland forest bordering savanna (M. Messias pers. comm.). The species has also been recorded up to 2,000 m elevation in montane forest on ridges adjacent to lowlands.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p><p>In an ongoing field study initiated in Madre de Dios, Peru in 2000, a female tracked for one year used an area of 8 km² and a dispersing male 30km² in 3 months. Preliminary evidence suggests that male territories probably do not overlap (M.R.P. Leite Pitman pers. obs.).</p><p></p>
6924		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The Short-eared Dog is notoriously rare, and sightings are uncommon across its range. However, this may not always have been the case. The first biologists to study the species found it relatively easy to trap during mammal surveys around Balta, Amazonian Peru, in 1969 (A.L. Gardner and J.L. Patton pers. comm.). Grimwood (1969) reported collecting specimens around the same time in Peru's Manu basin (now Manu National Park), suggesting that the species was also relatively common in that area.<br/> <br/> Following these reports, the species went practically unrecorded in the Peruvian Amazon until 1987, despite intensive, long-term field surveys of mammals in the intervening years (Terborgh <em>et al.</em> 1984; Janson and Emmons 1990; Woodman <em>et al.</em> 1991; Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1995). Even Louise Emmons, who carried out long-term monitoring and trapping of Ocelots (<em>Leopardus pardalis)</em> and other mammals at the Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu, never saw or trapped the Short-eared Dog (L. Emmons pers. comm. 2008). For whatever reason, the species appears to have gone entirely unrecorded from the region between 1970 and 1987.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This local and temporary disappearance is potentially related to transmission of diseases by domestic dogs, commonly brought by local indigenous into protected areas. Two disease surveys carried out in Manu National Park found parvovirus and distemper to be common among domestic dogs, posing a threat to Short-eared Dog populations and other carnivores inside Manu and Alto Purus National Park (Schenck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997; Leite Pitman, Nieto&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Over the last two decades, it appears that the species population may be recovering in some areas, with increasing numbers of sightings in recent years, but which also certainly reflects a greater number of biologists and tourists in the region and improvements in detection technology such as the use of camera-traps. Between 1987 and 1999, biologists working in the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, mostly in the vicinity of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, reported 15 Short-eared Dog sightings. Surveys in Cocha Cashu conducted from 2000–2003 resulted in a few brief encounters, while surveys around the Curanja and Purus rivers found tracks in every creek visited (M.R.P. Leite Pitman pers. obs.). From 2003 to date, more than 100 camera-trap pictures of this species have been recorded at Los Amigos Biological Station, also in south-eastern Peru (M.R.P. Leite Pitman pers. obs.). The species has also been recorded by camera traps in northern Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and western and eastern Brazil.</span></p>
6924		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The major threats to this species are habitat loss (especially due to large-scale conversion currently underway in Amazonia), prey-base depletion from hunting, and diseases. There are no reports of widespread persecution of the species.</p>
6925		conservation	eng	Not included in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Between 1975 and 2000, a governmental authorization was required to hunt the species in Peru. Since 2000, hunting outside the established areas and trade of the species has been prohibited. The police and the Ministry of Agriculture are responsible for the control of illegal trade. However, it has proven especially difficult to control trade in rural areas and in some cities. Currently, there are no international treaties or conventions regarding this species.<br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador and Peru.<br/><br/>The Sechuran Fox was not traditionally protected, for cultural reasons, until recently. Now it is protected in Santa Catalina de Chongoyape, a rural community of Lambayeque department, because they are considered important for tourism and as seed dispersers (D. Cossíos, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Some specimens are kept in the authorized collections, including Parque de las Leyendas Zoo, Lima (26 specimens) and Atocongo Zoo, Lima (three specimens).
6925		distribution	eng	The Sechuran Fox can be found in the coastal zones of north-western Peru and south-western Ecuador, between 3 and 12°S. In Peru, it is distributed on the western slope of the Andes between the frontier with Ecuador and Lima. Specimens living further south may be the Chilla <em>Pseudalopex griseus</em> or another species not yet described (E. Vivar pers. comm.).
6925		habitat	eng	The Sechuran Fox occupies habitats ranging from sandy deserts with low plant density to agricultural lands and dry forests (Cabrera 1931; Huey 1969; Langguth 1975).
6925		population	eng	This species was judged by Grimwood (1969) as being abundant at the time and not in need of protection. The species is often observed in rural areas and disturbed environments from Piura department to La Libertad department in Peru. Surveys based on footprints in Coto de Caza El Angolo in Piura, Peru, recorded an average of 12.6 foxes/km (CDC 1989). The Sechuran Fox is uncommon in Ecuador.
6925		threats	eng	The most important threats to this species are from the market for handicrafts and amulets and from persecution because of damage to livestock. In Peru, the typical attitude towards this species is one of persecution (68.3% of correspondents) or indifference (31.7%). The stated reasons for persecution were due to damage on domestic fowl and guinea pigs (65% of correspondents), the consumption of vegetal or stored goods (13.3%), and the belief of goat predation (10%) (D. Cossíos, unpubl.). <br/><br/>Illegal sale of pups, of amulets made from body parts, and of handicrafts made from fur occurs principally in the markets of Tumbes, Chiclayo, Piura and Lima city. The most common type of handicraft made with fox parts consists of preserved adult animals in a "sitting" position. This activity is limited almost exclusively to the department of Piura, Peru. The practice of magic-religious rituals by shamans involving preserved Sechuran Fox specimens or parts is the principal human use of this species in Peru. The specimens are used to attract "good spirits" or "positive energies" during premonition rituals or to manufacture amulets (called seguros) with different purposes. Some shamans use also the Sechuran Fox's fat for the treatment of bronchial illness and stomach disorders (D. Cossíos, unpubl.).<br/><br/>The Sechuran Fox also faces some pressure in agricultural zones and from urbanization and habitat degradation; indeed, habitat reduction or loss is considered the principle threat to this species in Ecuador (Tirira 2001).
6926		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/>The species is currently listed as Least Concern on the Brazilian Red List (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005); it is classified as Near Threatened in the Minas Gerais state list.<br/><br/>Hunting and trade in wildlife is generally forbidden in Brazil. There is no specific hunting legislation for Hoary Foxes. <br/><br/>Specimens in Brazilian zoos at the time of writing include: Brasilia (1); São Paulo (1); Ribeirão Preto (1); Belo Horizonte (5); Teresina (1). High mortality rates due to starvation amongst captive cubs are reported. There are no current plans to reintroduce hoary foxes into the wild.<br/><br/>Gaps in Knowledge<br/>Areas for further research include focusing on aspects of behavioural ecology, population status, geographical range, the potential role of disease in population regulation, and their status as potential reservoirs of veterinary (e.g., scabies, distemper) and public health (e.g., leishmaniasis, rabies) pathogens.
6926		distribution	eng	The Hoary Fox is confined to Brazil, associated with the cerrado habitats (mosaic of grasslands and xerophytic vegetation) of the central Brazilian plateau, and peripheral transitional zones including dry open habitats of the Pantanal (Mato Grosso state). Confirmed in the states of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Tocantins and Goiás (J. Dalponte unpubl.), southern and western Bahia (Juarez and Marinho-Filho 2002; J. Dalponte, pers. obs.), and western Piauí in Parque Nacional Serra da Capivara (F. Olmos pers. comm.). Capture records of an extant specimen held in Teresina Zoological Park indicate its northerly geographical limit is probably in north Piauí (Costa and Courtenay 2003). A previous report of its occurrence in Ceará (north-east Brazil) (Deane 1956) was contested by Courtenay <em>et al.</em> (1996). Records along the Brazil-Bolivian border in Mato Grosso (Anderson 1997) are unsubstantiated; the nearest record is 70 km to the south in the Pantanal (Mato Grosso do Sul) (J. Dalponte unpubl.).
6926		habitat	eng	Occurs in open cerrado habitats, but readily adapts to insect-rich livestock pastures and areas of agriculture (soybean, rice, corn, eucalyptus plantation). Rarely observed in densely wooded cerrado, floodplains, dry or gallery forests.
6926		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in the central highland cerrado biome, but populations appear smaller than those of the sympatric Crab-eating Fox for which population estimates are similarly lacking.
6926		threats	eng	The principal biome where Hoary Foxes occur is the cerrado which is being destroyed at a rate of 3% each year, largely in the interests of agriculture (livestock and soybean) (MMA-BRASIL 1998). However, it appears that Hoary Foxes adapt to livestock pasture rich in termites and dung beetles. Breeding foxes are found in deforested wooded areas (J. Dalponte, pers. obs.), thus it is possible that deforestation may not have a negative impact on the species. Areas of high human population density are unlikely to be suitable. The species is not exploited for fur or any other products.
6927		conservation	eng	Included in CITES – Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycalopex griseus</span>).<br/><br/>Present in at least six protected areas in central west Argentina. In Chile, the secies is present in 30 Wildlife Protected Areas (WPA) from a total of 49 surveyed. However, 40% of those 30 WPAs are smaller than the 115 km² needed to sustain a minimum viable population (500 individuals). Estimates of local extinctions in WPAs from central Chile reach 50% (see Simonetti and Mella 1997). The most important Chilean WPAs in which Chillas occur include: Parque Nacional Lauca, Parque Nacional Puyehue, Parque Nacional Vicente Pérez Rosales, Parque Nacional Torres del Paine.<br/><br/>Resolution 144/83 of the former National Secretary of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development of Argentina categorises this species as "In Danger". Chillas are totally protected in Mendoza, Catamarca, and San Luis, while in the continental provinces of Patagonia and in Tierra del Fuego, hunting and fur trading are legal (A. Novaro and M. Funes pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Chile, the passing of the 1972 furbearer's protection law appears to have curtailed the exports of pelts (Iriarte and Jaksic 1986, Iriarte 2000). Currently, all Chilean populations are protected by law N° 19,473 [1996], except for those from Tierra del Fuego (XII Region), where a maximum of 10 individuals/day/hunter are allowed from May 1 to July 31 (A. Iriarte pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Efforts are being made in Argentina to concentrate the relevant biological, legal and commercial information on the species in an attempt to design a plan for sustainable use and conservation (A. Novaro and M. Funes pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Chillas occur in many zoos of Argentina and Chile, but details of breeding in captivity are not known.<br/><br/>The need for a deeper understanding of the biology of the Chilla has been repeatedly emphasized by Argentinean as well as by Chilean studies (e.g., Johnson and Franklin 1994a; González del Solar <em>et al.</em> 1997). Reliable information is needed especially with regard to those biological aspects required for population management leading to sustainable use and conservation: population-dynamics, incidence of parasites and other diseases, and research on the role of chillas in small-livestock mortality.
6927		distribution	eng	Widespread in plains and mountains on both sides of the Andes, from northern Chile (17°S) down to Tierra del Fuego (54°S). In Argentina, they occur in the western and southern arid and semi-arid regions of the country, from ca. 23°S (Jujuy and Salta) to Tierra del Fuego, and from the eastern foothills of the Andes mountain range to meridian 66°W, reaching the Atlantic coast (ca. 63°W) south from Río Negro. Present in the following provinces: Jujuy (Jayat <em>et al.</em> 1999), Salta (Mares <em>et al</em>. 1996), Tucumán, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, west of San Luis, Neuquén, west of La Pampa, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego (Osgood 1943; Olrog and Lucero 1981).<br/><br/>Widespread in Chile from the I Administrative Region (Atacama Province) in the north, south to the Strait of Magellan (XII Administrative Region, Magallanes Province) and Tierra del Fuego (Medel and Jaksic 1988; Marquet <em>et al</em>. 1993), and from the western foothills of the Andes mountain range to the Pacific coast (71–73°W). They were introduced to Tierra del Fuego in 1951 in an attempt to control rabbit (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>) infestation (Jaksic and Yáñez 1983).<br/><br/>Other populations have been reported to exist in some of the southern Atlantic islands, including Malvinas/Falkland (Olrog and Lucero 1981), but this requires confirmation. Their presence in Peru is uncertain.
6927		habitat	eng	The Chilla occurs in steppes, "pampas" (grasslands), and "matorral" (scrublands) (Olrog and Lucero 1981). They generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3,500–4,000 m (see Marquet <em>et al.</em> 1993; Jayat <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although Chillas occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In central Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat, open patches of low height (1–2 m) scrub than in areas with dense vegetation or ravines. Yet, they do visit ravines, apparently in search of fruit (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1980; Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1996). In southern Chile (Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta), Chillas also prefer open areas to those more dense patches where Darwin's Foxes occur (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1990; Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1990; Medel <em>et al</em>. 1990). Durán <em>et al</em>. (1985) found that in Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat was the shrubby steppe composed of "coirón" (<em>Festuca</em> spp., <em>Stipa</em> spp.) and "ñires" (<em>Nothofagus antarctica</em>), and that burning and destruction of forests in order to augment the land for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for Chillas. A similar preference was detected in Parque Nacional Torres del Paine, where 58% of the 12 monitored individuals used matorral shrubland or <em>Nothofagus</em> thicket habitat within their home ranges, more than was expected (Johnson and Franklin 1994b). In the north-eastern Mendoza desert (Argentina), these foxes seem to prefer the lower levels of the shrubby sand dunes that characterize the landscape or the valleys among dunes rather than their higher sections (R. González del Solar, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Chillas are tolerant to very different climatic regimes from remarkably hot and dry areas, such as the Atacama coastal desert in northern Chile (less than 0 mm average annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), to the humid regions of the temperate Valdivian forest (2,000 mm average annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature) and the cold Tierra del Fuego (ca. 400 mm average annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).
6927		population	eng	In Argentina, Olrog and Lucero (1981) considered chillas to be "locally common". In the latter country, relative abundance of chillas has been evaluated mainly through the scent stations technique. Autumn data collected in Pilcaniyeu (Río Negro) from 1983 to 1989, as well as winter data collected in Patagonia from 1989 to 2000 (A. Novaro and M. Funes unpubl.) and in north-eastern Mendoza from 1993 to 1997 (F. Videla <em>et al.</em> unpubl., R. González del Solar <em>et al.</em> unpubl.), suggest that populations are essentially stable in the southern half of Argentina where habitat is more favourable. They are reported to have expanded their distribution in Tierra del Fuego since their introduction (A. Novaro pers. comm.). J. Bellati (pers. comm.) estimated in 1996 an ecological density of one chilla/km² in Tierra del Fuego. Their status in the northern half of the country is unknown.
6927		threats	eng	The main threat to Chilla populations in the past was commercial hunting. However, inferences on the historical rate of Chilla extraction are difficult, since official pelt-export reports apparently have conflated data corresponding to different species. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recent years. Illegal trapping still occurs in some regions of Chile and Argentina, mainly related to controlling predation on small livestock and apparently not as intensively as in the past (A. Iriarte pers. comm.). The species is hunted for its pelt in Argentina and Chile.
6928		conservation	eng	Included in CITES – Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycalopex gymnocercus</span>).<br/><br/>In Uruguay, the Pampas Fox has been reported in many protected areas which are included in a law passed in 2000 establishing the national protected areas system. However, this law has not been implemented yet (R. Rodríguez-Mazzini and D. Queirolo Morato pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Argentina, it was declared not threatened in 1983 and its trade was prohibited in 1987. However, this species continues to be hunted and demand for its fur exists. <br/><br/>In Uruguay, all foxes are protected by law, and the only legal exception is the government's so-called "control hunting permission", which does not allow the taking of animals for the fur trade. The situation is very similar in Paraguay.<br/><br/>In Argentina, the Pampas Fox has been successfully bred in captivity and presently is the best represented carnivore species in captivity in the country (Aprile 1999).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Most aspects of the species' ecology remain unknown. Studies on population dynamics in agricultural land, impact and sustainability of hunting, effect of predation on livestock and game species are needed, particularly for an appropriate management of wild populations. In addition, resolution of the species' taxonomic status is essential.
6928		distribution	eng	The Pampas Fox inhabits the Southern Cone of South America, occupying chiefly the Chaco, Argentine Monte, and Pampas eco-regions. From eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay and east of Salta, Catamarca, San Juan, La Rioja and Mendoza provinces in Argentina, to the Atlantic coast; and from south-eastern Brazil to the Río Negro Province, Argentina, in the south. Information on the limits of its distribution and the extent to which it overlaps with congeneric species is uncertain.
6928		habitat	eng	The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the Southern Cone Pampas grasslands. It prefers open habitats and tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrub lands and open woodlands (Brooks 1992; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In the driest habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the species is replaced by the Chilla. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox would select more open areas. Apparently, the Pampas Fox has been able to adapt to the alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities to its natural habitats.
6928		population	eng	Little quantitative data are available on the abundance of Pampas Fox populations. However, it would be either abundant or common in most areas where the species has been studied. <br/><br/>In the coastal area of central Argentina, a study based on scent-stations found that Pampas Fox signs were more frequent than the Common Hog-nosed Skunk (<em>Conepatus chinga</em>) and Grison (<em>Galictis cuja</em>) (García 2001). Similarly, the frequency of observation of Pampas Fox was higher than that of skunk, grison, and the Geoffroy's Cat (<em>Oncifelis geoffroyi</em>) in a Sierra grassland area of Buenos Aires Province (M. Lucherini <em>et al.</em> unpubl.). In areas where the Pampas Fox is sympatric with the Crab-eating Fox, the former would be more abundant in open habitats, while the latter would more frequently inhabit woodland areas.<br/><br/>The Pampas Fox seems to be tolerant of human disturbance, being common in rural areas, where introduced exotic mammals, such as the European hare (<em>Lepus europaeus</em>), could form the bulk of its food intake (Crespo 1971; Farias 2000a; D. Birochio and M. Lucherini unpubl.).
6928		threats	eng	The implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) by official organizations, coupled with the use of non-selective methods of capture, represent actual threats for the Pampas Fox. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any serious studies on population abundance or the real damage that this species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is officially illegal.<br/>Most of the species' range has suffered massive habitat alteration. For instance, the Pampas, which represents a large proportion of the species' distribution range, has been affected by extensive cattle breeding and agriculture. Approximately 0.1% of the original 500,000 km² range remains unaffected. However, due to the species' adaptability, the Pampas Fox seems able to withstand the loss and degradation of its natural habitat, as well as hunting pressure. Since no studies are available on its population dynamics in rural ecosystems, caution is required, since the sum of these threats may eventually promote the depletion of fox populations. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in the provinces of Tucumán (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1991) and Salta (Cajal 1986) of north-western Argentina.<br/><br/>Considering that the Pampas Fox trade is banned, no statistical information on the fur harvest is available. Different authors have pointed out that Argentine exports corresponding to the Chilla historically included other species, such as the Crab-eating Fox and the Pampas Fox (Ojeda and Mares 1982; García Fernandez 1991).
6929		conservation	eng	Included on CITES – Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycalopex culpaeus</span>).<br/><br/>In Chile, the Culpeo occurs in 38 protected areas distributed throughout the country, encompassing all the habitats where it can be found. However, only 14% are large enough to support viable populations. In Argentina, the species occurs in 12 national parks and several provincial reserves, the majority of which probably support viable populations. In Peru, Culpeos occur in 13 protected areas (D. Cossios pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Chile, hunting has been banned since 1980, although law enforcement is not strict.<br/><br/>The Argentine legislation about Culpeos is contradictory. Culpeos were considered "Endangered" by a 1983 decree of the Argentine Wildlife Board (Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestres), due to the numbers of culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s. However, trade at the national level and export of Culpeo pelts was legal during that entire period and currently remains legal. The Culpeo's endangered status has never been revised in spite of marked changes in the fur trade and reports from monitoring programmes. The Tierra del Fuego population has been legally protected since 1985 (N. Loekemeyer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Peru, the Culpeo is not considered endangered and hunting may be legal if a management plan is approved by the government (D. Cossios pers. comm.). In Bolivia, although the fur export was banned in 1986, the species is not protected (Tarifa 1996, L. Pacheco pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Argentine Wildlife Board is starting to develop a management plan for canids that will include the Culpeo (V. Lichschein and M. Eliseth pers. comm.). Five regional workshops that included wildlife agency officials from provincial governments, wildlife traders, conservationists, and scientists have been held in Argentine Patagonia during recent years (the last one in 2002) to coordinate efforts to manage culpeo populations in a sustainable manner and reduce sheep predation. Similarly, in Chile, two national carnivore workshops have been organized by the Livestock and Agricultural Bureau during recent years. These were aimed at presenting new findings on the natural history of canids, including Culpeos, and wildlife-livestock issues and to discuss ways of improving our knowledge and better protecting Chilean carnivore populations. <br/><br/>The Culpeo is common in zoos throughout Chile and Argentina.
6929		distribution	eng	The Culpeo is distributed along the Andes and hilly regions of South America from Nariño Province of Colombia in the north (Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 1995) to Tierra del Fuego in the south (Markham 1971; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It ranges down to the Pacific shoreline in the desert of northern Chile (Mann 1945, J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.), south to about Valdivia (Osgood 1943) and then again in Magallanes. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, the culpeo is found in Argentina from Jujuy Province in the North, reaching the Atlantic shoreline from Río Negro and southwards. This extended eastward distribution is relatively recent and was apparently favoured by sheep ranching (Crespo and De Carlo 1963; Novaro 1997a).
6929		habitat	eng	Throughout its wide distribution, the Culpeo uses many habitat types ranging from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, to broad-leaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses all the range of habitat moisture gradients from the driest desert to the broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, the culpeo reaches elevations of up to 4,800 m (Redford and Eisenberg 1992; Romo 1995; A.J. Novaro <em>et al</em>. unpubl.; J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.). Redford and Eisenberg (1992) placed the Culpeo in the coldest and driest environments of South America relative to other South American canids.
6929		population	eng	Due to conflicts with humans (i.e., preying upon poultry and livestock, Crespo and De Carlo 1963; Bellati and von Thüngen 1990) and because of its value as a furbearer, the Culpeo has been persecuted throughout its range for many decades (Jiménez 1993; Novaro 1995). Thus, current population numbers may be the result of past and present hunting pressure and food availability. The introduction of exotic prey species such as European hares (<em>Lepus europaeus</em>) and rabbits, as well as small-sized livestock into Chile and Argentina ca. 100 years ago, probably led to increases in the distribution and abundance of Culpeos, and facilitated their expansion towards the lowlands in eastern Argentina (Crespo and De Carlo 1963; Crespo 1975; Jiménez 1993; Jaksic 1998; Novaro <em>et al.</em> 2000a). Currently, Culpeos range over a much wider area in Patagonia than previously. Likewise, in several areas of the desert of northern Chile, recent mining activities provide the culpeo with resources such as food, water and shelter that were in much shorter supply in the past, and hence have changed their local distribution and abundance (J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels as shown by fur harvest data from Argentina and still maintain viable regional populations (Novaro 1995). Culpeo populations that are harvested intensively may maintain viable levels through immigration from neighbouring unexploited areas that act as refugia (Novaro 1995). The Culpeo population in Neuquén Province in north-west Patagonia for example, appears to function as a source-sink system in areas where cattle and sheep ranches are intermixed (Novaro 1997b). Cattle ranches where no hunting occurs supply disperser foxes that repopulate sheep ranches with intense hunting. Changes in sex ratio may be another mechanism that allows culpeo populations to withstand intense hunting (Novaro 1995). Furthermore, large litter size and early maturity (Crespo and De Carlo 1963) could explain the Culpeo's high resilience to hunting.<br/><br/>When hunting pressure is reduced, Culpeo populations usually can recover quickly (Crespo and De Carlo 1963). This increase was observed at the Chinchilla National Reserve (Jiménez 1993) and at Fray Jorge National Park (Meserve <em>et al.</em> 1987; Salvatori <em>et al</em>. 1999), both in north central Chile. Culpeo densities also have increased in many areas of Argentine Patagonia following the reduction of fur prices and hunting pressure in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Novaro 1997b; A.J. Novaro and M.C. Funes unpubl.). An exception to this response is the Culpeo population in Tierra del Fuego, where they are still declining in spite of several years of reduced hunting pressure (N. Loekemeyer and A. Iriarte pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Estimates from intensive trapping by Crespo and De Carlo (1963) provided a density of 0.7 individuals/km² for north-west Patagonia, Argentina. Thirty years later, Novaroet al. (2000b), using line transects, reported densities of 0.2–1.3 individuals/km² for the same area. In north central Chile, the ecological density of culpeos in ravines is 2.6 individuals/km², whereas the crude density (throughout the study site) is 0.3 individuals/km² (Jiménez 1993). In Torres del Paine, a crude density of 1.3 individuals/km² was reported based on sightings (J. Rau pers. comm.). Interestingly, a later estimate for the same area, based on telemetry, rendered an ecological density of 1.2 individuals/km² (Johnson 1992, in Jiménez 1993).<br/><br/>Based on radio telemetry, sightings and abundance of faeces, Salvatori <em>et al</em>. (1999) concluded that Culpeos respond numerically to a decline in the availability of their prey in north central Chile. Earlier, based on abundance of faeces, Jaksic <em>et al</em>. (1993) reached the same conclusion for the same Culpeo population. In contrast, Culpeos (not distinguished from sympatric Chillas) did not show a numerical or a functional response during a decline of their main prey at another site in north central Chile (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1992).
6929		threats	eng	Main threats to Culpeos have been hunting and trapping for fur (although trade has decreased in the last decade) and persecution to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. Habitat loss does not appear to be an important threat to this species. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may be important in some areas (Novaro 1997b).
6930		distribution	eng	In Portugal it is restricted to the upper Tejo estuary, the Caniçada reservoir belonging to the Cávado drainage basin, and four reservoirs belonging to the Mondego system (Aguieira, Raiva, Fronhas, and Lagoa Comprida). Found in temporary ponds in the Doñana National Park (SW Spain) and on the Quadalquivir River.
6931		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
6931		distribution	eng	This species is reasonably widespread in southeast Asia occurring from the Malay Peninsula, possibly including southern Thailand, to Indonesia where the species occurs in Borneo including Brunei and possibly Sumatra (A. Suyanto pers. comm. 2006) and the Philippines, where it is known only from one specimen from Luzon (Abra province) and three from Mindanao (Misamis Oriental province) (Kock 1969; Utzurrum 1992; L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006), although it probably occurs over a substantial part of the Philippines (L. Heaney  pers. comm. 2006).
6931		habitat	eng	This is probably a canopy or supracanopy species and has been taken in mist nets over streams, primarily in lowland, hill, and montane forest. It is not clear if this species can persist in degraded areas.<br/>In the Philippines, it has been found in montane rainforest in areas close to disturbed areas (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006). It has also been caught in secondary forest (Ramayla pers. comm. 2006) and roosts in small groups in ferns there. In Indonesia, it has been recorded from montane regenerating forest which had been heavily logged during the 1970s. On Borneo, they are believed to roost in hollow trees and caves (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
6931		population	eng	These are high flying bats that are difficult to record (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). They are uncommon in Indonesia where they naturally occur at low densities.
6931		threats	eng	The species is affected by deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture, logging, plantations, and forest fires, throughout much of its range, particularly in the lowlands.
6937		conservation	eng	It occurs at the boundary of the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambatovaky (but yet confirmed to be within this protected areas [Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006]) and probably in Parc National de Masoala (the locality of Maroantsetra is located here [Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006]). Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) recommend that some known "urban" populations (such as the population within Maroantsetra) should be managed and protected. Additionally survey work is needed over much of the species range. This species is sometimes bred for commercial purposes outside Madagascar, and many specimens exchanged in the pet trade are captive bred. Captive breeding programmes and the CITES Appendix I status of this species have effectively halted commercial exploitation of it in Madagascar (if indeed this was ever a major threat), and any future trade in it needs to be well regulated. There is a well-managed captive breeding programme involving many US zoos, and it is now also kept in a zoo in Madagascar. Further taxonomic work is required to resolve confusion between this species and <em>D. guineti</em>.
6937		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-eastern Madagascar, where it has a relatively wide, but poorly understood, distribution. Specific records come from Andivoranto (a historical record), around Antongila Bay, Fizoana, Iaraka, Maroantsetra, Rantabe and Voloina (Glaw and Vences 2007). Other reported localities for this species, especially the southernmost ones, might in fact refer to <em>Dyscophus guineti</em>. It occurs from sea level up to 600m asl.
6937		habitat	eng	It lives in primary rainforest, coastal forest, secondary vegetation, degraded scrub, and highly disturbed urban areas. It is a very adaptable species, but possible declines in Maroansetra indicate that there might be a limit to the extent that it can persist in urbanized habitats. It appears to be localized to sandy ground near the coast, and breeds in ditches, flooded areas, swamps, and temporary and permanent still or very slowly flowing water.
6937		population	eng	It is locally abundant, especially in and around Maroansetra (the best known locality for this species). However, surveys undertaken around Maroansetra in 2006 suggest that the population here seems to be declining (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In Ambatovaky its population is stable and abundant.
6937		threats	eng	Pollution of waterbodies is a potential threat, and in the past this species was subject to collection for international trade, although this is now largely under control and restricted.
6973		conservation	eng	Current protection of natural forest is maintaining the species' habitat and cessation of all natural forest removal is critical. Restoration of natural forest edges may enable it to expand its area of occupancy. Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable.
6973		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to South Africa. The original geographical range of this species has probably been reduced through removal of the Cape forests. Currently the species is known from streams near Storms River and in the Tsitsikamma Forest (Western Cape and Eastern Cape) (Samways 2006 in press), and Marloth Nature Reserve. It was recently discovered at Swellendam. The current known range is around 400 km².
6973		habitat	eng	This is an unusual odonata species for South Africa in that it inhabits small, fern-fringed streams in the deep shade of the forest at relatively southerly latitudes (<em>ca</em> 34°S).
6973		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but with the protection of the Tsitsikamma Forest, range and population size appear to have stabilized (Samways 2006 in press).
6973		threats	eng	Renewed natural forest removal would be a severe future threat, but currently this is considered to have minimal impact.
6975		conservation	eng	The population occurs within protected areas (Hottentots-Holland Reserve, Kogelberg Nature Reserve, Cedarberg Nature Reserve, Table Mountain National Park). Population levels should be monitored regularly. There must be no further encroachment of plantation forestry or introduction of trout. Fish-farming enterprises in Jonkershoek and Du Toit' s Kloof are of concern. The removal of alien invasive trees, is of great benefit to this species.
6975		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to South Africa. It is only known from the mountains in the West Cape, this species could never have been abundant as it is such a habitat specialist. From early records (Pinhey 1984) it was nevertheless at many more localities than it is today, having disappeared in particular from the Rawsonville area. Today it is known only from small, boulder-filled streams in the upper reaches of small rivers in the Cape Fold mountains (Samways 2006 in press).
6975		habitat	eng	The species is now known from several locations with clear, shallow streams with an abundance of large, lichen-covered boulders (Samways 2006 in press).
6975		population	eng	Population size is unknown, however its population appears to have stabilised in both range and size.
6975		threats	eng	There are several threats which are also synergistic. Alien invasive trees (pines and <em>Acacia longifolia</em>) shade the habitat and alien invasive rainbow trout are predators. The former threat of habitat removal (mostly for plantation forestry) has largely subsided.
6977		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in Araripe National Forest (Leite, 2003). The species would benefit from habitat protection measures. Further studies on the ecology and life history of this species are required (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6977		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Brazil from the southern portion of the state of Ceara to the northern most part of Minas Gerais state (Leite 2003). The range of this species is likely to be less than 20,000 km².
6977		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and is probably folivorous (Leite, 2003). It is strongly arboreal, and some species construct leaf nests in tree cavities (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6977		population	eng	This rodent may be locally common although occurs in fragmented and patchy habitat (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6977		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
6978		conservation	eng	This species has not been found in any protected areas (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6978		distribution	eng	This species originally occured in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is now highly restricted to Minas Gerais and no longer in Rio de Janeiro (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6978		habitat	eng	Original specimen was found in a cave near Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
6978		population	eng	This rodent is uncommon; it is known from only four specimens (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6978		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002), and habitat destruction is ongoing in the Cerrado (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6979		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
6979		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and northeastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999), and in Bolivar state of eastern Venezuela (Catzeflis pers. comm.).
6979		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and arboreal in nature. Two young are born (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is present in primary forest.
6979		population	eng	Its population is not well known but it not thought to be particularly common (Catzeflis, F. and Patton, J. pers. comm.).
6979		threats	eng	The species is affected by deforestation, although this is not considered a major threat at this time.
6980		conservation	eng	Some studies on ecology and natural history in progress. It occurs in some protected areas including Itapoa State Park.
6980		distribution	eng	The known range of the drab Atlantic tree rat extends from the southern state of Parana to Rio Grande do Sul (Leite, 2003). This species has been reported in localities within 60 km of Porto Alegre, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6980		habitat	eng	This species is strongly arboreal; it constructs leaf nests in tree cavities (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It occurs in semideciduous and Araucaria forests. Some predation by foxes has been documented in Atlantic Forest habitat. It is nocturnal and folivorous (Leite, 2003).
6980		population	eng	This rodent is apparently common in some localities (Y. Leite, com. pers.).
6980		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
6981		conservation	eng	There are no records from protected areas but this species likely occurs in Mamiraua, State of Amazonas.
6981		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Amazon region, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). As <em>Toromys grandis</em> the species occurs along both banks of the Amazon, the lower Solimoes and the mid to lower sections of the Tapajos (Iack-Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Further sampling may demonstrate the presence of this species along other tributaries of the Amazon (Lack-Ximenes <em>et al</em>. 2005).
6981		habitat	eng	This rodent is apparently restricted to flooded forest but sampling has been poor.
6981		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance.
6981		threats	eng	The species is affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forest, a habitat which is not highly threatened in this region.
6982		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in Estaçao Ecologica da Acaua (State Park) in Minas Gerais state.
6982		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the coastal regions of Pacaraíba, Bahia and Minas Gerais states, Brazil; there are three clusters on record approximately 700 km apart (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Leite, 2003).
6982		habitat	eng	The species is present in the Eastern forests (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002) where it is found mainly inland in semideciduous forests but reaches the coastal area of Paraiba (Leite, 2003).
6982		population	eng	This species is known from 31 specimens in 5 localities (Leite, 2003).
6982		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
6983		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
6983		distribution	eng	This species is confined to western Amazonia. It is found from the Cenepa River in northern Peru through to the Jurua, Jau, Purus and Negro rivers in Brazil (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The range is thought to extend into eastern Ecuador (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
6983		habitat	eng	Little is known of the biology of this species; it is probably adaptable to secondary habitats including gardens, anywhere there is a closed canopy; also found along stream edges (J. Patton pers. comm.). During a survey three of the four specimens of this species captured were taken in the tree canopy. The digestive system physiology suggests it feeds on leaves (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). In the same survey, a single adult female was found to be pregnant with a single embryo.
6983		population	eng	The results of a study were unable to ascertain the true abundance of this species, it was unclear whether the trapping program failed or whether Makalata macrura is rare throughout the Rio Jurua (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Emmons and Feer (1997) suggested that the species is locally common.
6983		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
6984		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Floresta Nacional de Ipanema (Protected National Forest) (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Also occurs at the Parque Estadual da Ilha do Cardoso, Sao Paulo state (Leite, 2003).
6984		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil from states of Rio de Janeiro to Parana, mainly along the coastal zone but extending inland to western Sao Paulo state (Leite, 2003, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6984		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits in the eastern forests (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The species may construct arboreal nests of leaves (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Most museum records are in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, but species also occurs in semideciduous forest (Leite, 2003).
6984		population	eng	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6984		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
6985		conservation	eng	The species is not recorded from any protected areas, however, it would benefit from areas of its known range being given protected area status. Studies are needed to provide better information on population size, biology and ecology of the species and to determine the best plan for conservation action. The species would further benefit from habitat restoration, enforcement of existing restrictions on hunting and a captive breeding programme to release individuals into natural habitat.
6985		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Brazil (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002); it is concentrated around Região de Ilhéus-Itabuna; also one record from 1997 is known in Eliseo Medrado Municipality, Bahia State. The extent of occurrence is approximately 15,000 km², not including outlier record in Eliseo Medrado (Moura, R. pers. comm.).
6985		habitat	eng	This species lives on cacao plantations and consumes cacao leaves, but further research is required to determine what its original habitat was before its association with humans; it is likely to have been a forest inhabitant (R. Moura pers. comm.).
6985		population	eng	Some interviews with locals indicate that this species was abundant in past, but it has been more difficult to locate recently (R. Moura pers. comm).
6985		threats	eng	The destruction of  forests for pasture represents a serious threat to the survival of <span style="font-style: italic;">Callistomys pictus </span>and other species in southern Bahia. This rodent inhabits lands predominated by cacao cultivation, also being turned over for pasture lands, coffee plantations and eucalyptus timber. It is hunted. Road construction is fragmenting some of its natural habitat.
6986		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
6986		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality: Pebas, northeastern Peru. It was collected at around 200 m. Emmons and Feer (1997) and Woods and Kilpatrick (2005) include a larger range. They said that this species occurs in the central and north of the Amazonia Peru.
6986		habitat	eng	It was collected in lowland Amazonian tropical moist forest.This rodent is nocturnal, and arboreal and nests in hollow trees. The female appears to bear only one or two young (Eisenberg and Redford, 1997; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
6986		population	eng	This species is difficult to collect and as a result very little is known about it..
6986		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
6987		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in two protected areas in Ecuador.
6987		distribution	eng	E. saturnus is known from a few scattered localities in eastern Ecuador and central Peru, in the upper Marañon River (Iack-Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005) to at least 1,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
6987		habitat	eng	This rodent is nocturnal, and arboreal. It nests in hollow trees. The females appear to bear only one or two young. It is found in premontane and lowland rainforest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
6987		population	eng	It is rare, and known from fewer than 10 individuals, from a small geographic range (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
6987		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
6988		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several national parks within its range.
6988		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Colombia and Venezuela (Iack-Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005) including Margarita Island (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
6988		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland thorn forest in moist areas near streams. It has been captured in trees, and probably is nocturnal. Its nests in trees holes and feeds on fruits and seeds. This rat is found in gallery forest, thorn forest, dry forest, and trees in llanos, and rarely in rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Lord, 1999).
6988		population	eng	This spiny rat is locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Lord, 1999).
6988		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.
6989		conservation	eng	80% of the 336 km² of São Sebastião Island consist of Atlantic rainforest, mostly old second growth due to selective logging. The forest is, however, currently in the process of expansion (Olmos, 1997) since most of the island surface is protected as a state park (Parque Estadual de Ilhabela, ca. 27,000 ha) (Leite, 2003).
6989		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo state, Brazil; this continental island is 336 km², 80% is Atlantic rainforest (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Leite, 2003; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
6989		habitat	eng	This rodent is an arboreal nester; captive specimens may feed on fruit but not foliage (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Island has rugged topography from sea level to 1,379 m, the dominant vegetation is broadleaf, evergreen rainforest (Leite, 2003).
6989		population	eng	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6989		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The island includes a population of introduced cats (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
6990		conservation	eng	More research is required to determine its conservation status. The species would benefit from establishment of a protected area within its range. A proposal exists to create a protected area adjacent to, but not extending into, the known range of the species (R. Moura pers. comm.).
6990		distribution	eng	This species was known only from the type specimen collected in the nineteenth century (Emmons <em>et al.</em> 2002). The type locality is Helvecia, Bahia state, Brazil (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Recently an extensive search was conducted in the surrounding area with only one specimen found during a year (R. Moura pers. comm.).
6990		habitat	eng	There is no detailed information on the habitat of this species and little is known of its ecology. This rodent has been collected in broadleaf evergreen rainforest close to sea level (Leite, 2003).
6990		population	eng	Just one specimen found in recent history, located within 40 km of Helvecia (type locality) (R. Moura pers. comm.).
6990		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known but estimated to be direct and indirect effects of deforestation.
7010		conservation	eng	The species has been found in several protected areas in Colombia.
7010		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western, central, and eastern Cordilleras of Colombia between 800 and 2,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005), and on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (Tirira, in prep.).
7010		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior and natural history of this species. It is known from the montane forest as well as secondary forest. It is thought to be nocturnal, arboreal and solitary.The species is preyed on by pumas in the central Andes (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
7010		population	eng	In Ecuador it is rare (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Colombia, the species is common in appropriate habitat (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
7010		threats	eng	The species is typically killed by locals in Colombia to protect their dogs (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
7013		conservation	eng	The species was listed as Vulnerable at a national scale by Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1993) who drew up an action plan for the species. However, most of the arguments for listing are based on the eastern populations, which have been listed as "endangered" in New South Wales (NSW Scientific Committee 2003), "vulnerable" in Victoria (Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007), and "rare" in Southern Australia (Wilson and Swan 2008). It is not considered threatened in Western Australia. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed, particularly of the declining populations in New South Wales, which are likely to become extinct unless threats are eliminated (NSW Scientific Committee 2003).
7013		distribution	eng	This species is an Australian endemic. It has a disjunct distribution, and is widespread throughout southwestern Western Australia. Its eastern distribution is smaller, and comprised of three disjunct and small populations: Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, southwestern New South Wales, and western Victoria (Shine 1982, Wilson and Swan 2008).
7013		habitat	eng	This species inhabits heaths and open scrubland, favouring mallee/spinifex associations. In the eastern part of its range, the species seems to be dependent on mallee and <span style="font-style: italic;">Triodia</span> hummock grass (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>It often shelters amongst leaf litter under low-lying vegetation and is likely to be a sit-and-wait ambush predator (NSW Scientific Committee 2003).
7013		population	eng	The eastern populations of this species are considered under threat (Annable 1996) and appear to have declined dramatically in places. In New South Wales, the population is considered extremely small, due to a lack of sightings over a period of fourteen years, despite extensive biodiversity surveys (NSW Scientific Committee 2003).
7013		threats	eng	In Victoria, clearance of mallee habitat for agriculture and grazing, together with inappropriate fire regimes and overgrazing by livestock, has greatly diminished the amount of habitat available to this species (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989). These factors are also thought to affect the species in the remainder of its eastern distribution (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Annable 1996). Predation by foxes may also be acting as a major threat to this species (NSW Government 2005).<br/><br/>With the species thought to be an ambush predators, the above threats may have a particular devastating effect, as ambush predators are thought to undergo particularly rapid declines among the Australian elapid snakes (Reed and Shine 2002).
7014		conservation	eng	It may be present in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, but this requires confirmation since there are no records this far west. Further work is necessary to better determine the distribution range and population status of this species, and to what degree it is impacted by bushmeat hunting.
7014		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (Indonesia) where it occurs in the north-east tip of the northern peninsula, from sea level to 1,100 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
7014		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and vermivorous species that inhabits lowland tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser 1990). It is unknown whether it can survive in degraded habitats, since most localities from which the species is known are very early collecting sites when the habitat was probably more intact than today.
7014		population	eng	It is only known from museum specimens. There are museum records from six localities (G. Musser pers. comm.). In the early 1940s, H. Raven collected eight specimens in a single locality, but there is no recent information on the current status of this species.
7014		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to logging, expanding agriculture and human settlement. It is also hunted for bushmeat.
7015		conservation	eng	Clara's Echymipera occurs in several protected areas.
7015		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of north-central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the island of Yapen (Indonesia) (Van Deusen and Keith 1966). It ranges from sea level to 1,700 m asl.
7015		habitat	eng	This species prefers lowland and lower-montane tropical moist forests. It is also sometimes found in rural gardens and other disturbed areas. It is a highly fecund species.
7015		population	eng	Clara's Echymipera is locally abundant. A large portion of its range is in areas of very low human population density.
7015		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however, it is extensively hunted for food by local people.
7016		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine the range, natural history, and possible threats.
7016		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two fairly recent specimens collected at two localities in the Fly-Strickland river drainage of Papua New Guinea. There is a third, unconfirmed record from Mount Menawi. If accepted, this would extend both the range and the elevation of the species. Elevation range is sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
7016		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the natural history of Menzies' Echymipera. It is suspected to be restricted to a specific habitat type that has not been well surveyed, possibly the gallery forests along the Fly-Strickland river drainage.
7016		population	eng	Menzies' Echymipera is known from only two (possibly three) specimens. It appears to be a naturally rare species.
7016		threats	eng	Threats to Menzies' Echymipera are not known. It could be restricted to a specific habitat type. Predation by feral dogs may be a threat to the species.
7017		conservation	eng	It is not known if David's Echymipera is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, range, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
7017		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Kiriwina, in the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It may be present on other islands in the group, although further field studies are needed to confirm this. Kiriwina is a small island and the extent of occurrence of the species is at most 280 km<sup>2</sup>. The island of Kiriwina has a high human population and is very low lying (maximum elevation 100 m asl).
7017		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from areas of degraded forest and regrowth habitats (Flannery 1995).
7017		population	eng	David's Echymipera is supposedly common, despite high human population in its range (Flannery 1995).
7017		threats	eng	The threats to David's Echymipera are poorly known, but the island has a high human population and much of the area is cultivated.
7018		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
7018		distribution	eng	The Common Echymipera is widely distributed throughout New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and neighbouring islands in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, the eastern Moluccas of Indonesia, and Yapen and Biak-Supiori islands of Indonesia. It ranges from sea level to 2,000 m (but usually below 1,200 m) asl.
7018		habitat	eng	Common Echymiperas occur in lowland and lower-montane primary and degraded forests, including coffee plantations. It is resilient to disturbance. The females give birth to between one and three young.
7018		population	eng	This species is extremely abundant in suitable habitat.
7018		threats	eng	The Common Echymipera is locally hunted for food, sometimes by using dogs, but this is not considered a major threat. It may be locally threatened in some areas by predation from feral or village cats.
7019		conservation	eng	The Long-nosed Echymipera occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
7019		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species ranges from the islands of Misool, Yapen, the Aru Islands, and Kai Islands (all Indonesia); across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); to the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Goodenough, Fergusson, and Normanby) of Papua New Guinea and the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia, in the south. It ranges from sea level to 2,100 m, but almost always below 1,200 m asl. In Queensland occurs from sea level to 800 m asl.
7019		habitat	eng	On New Guinea, the Long-nosed Echymipera is found in primary lowland tropical moist forest and grassland adjacent to closed forest. The species is considered to be intolerant to habitat disturbance. In Australia, it is known from mesophyll vine forest, notophyll vine forest, gallery forest and coastal closed heath near to closed forest (Gordon 2008).
7019		population	eng	This species is uncommon over much of its range (Flannery 1995a,b), including Australia.
7019		threats	eng	In New Guinea, this species is threatened by overhunting for meat and by disturbance of forest habitats. There appear to be no immediate threats to the species in Australia (not hunted and unlikely to be as it is difficult to find), although its range here is restricted.
7021		conservation	eng	The integrated water resources management plan for the Trichonis Lake (developed in the framework of the Life - Nature '99 project entitled: 'Actions for the preservation of Calcareous fens in Trichonis lake') should be implemented in the area aiming to eliminate the present high water level fluctuations in the lake on both annual and monthly basis. This will decrease the environmental impacts from the water abstractions for irrigation during the dry period and will facilitate preservation of the ecologically important habitats, in the broader area.
7021		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lake Trichonis and Lyssimachia in southwestern Greece.
7021		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species. It is the smallest freshwater European teleost at maturity: 18 mm with a maximum length of 25 mm. It is a semelparous species dying just after spawning. The males provide parental care.
7021		population	eng	Common in specific sites within the lakes. Maybe declining.
7021		threats	eng	Water pollution, water extraction (lake level now fluctuates), and potentially habitat impacts from bottom trawling.
7022		conservation	eng	None.
7022		distribution	eng	Restricted to western Greece, north of Patraikos Gulf, including Lefkas Island (may now have disappeared). Specifically, it is present in the Louros and Arahthos Rivers and in Trichonis Lake, possibly including the Mataranga river although this river dries out in the summer. Also found in the lower drainage of rivers Kalamas river and Acheloo and Pahvotis Lake (introduced), in Blykos spring, and in a small river the Agios Dimitrios. Occurrence further north in Albania needs to be confirmed.
7022		habitat	eng	It lives exclusively in freshwaters, rivers, springs and lakes. Maximum length is ca. 54 mm for females and 51 mm for males. Minimum size at maturity is 24 mm. Reproduction is in the spring and summer. Phragmites plants are required for reproduction. The males provide parental care.
7022		population	eng	Common in western Greece. Probably stable.
7022		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, and habitat destruction.
7030		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
7030		distribution	eng	This species is known from Honduras to western Panama (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from Caribbean lowlands to 700 m (Reid, 1997).
7030		habitat	eng	This species can be found in wet, evergreen forest and tall second growth. It roosts in groups of 4 to 8 in tents made from small to medium sized Heliconia spp. or other understory plants. Horizontal leaves are chewed on either side of the midrib, causing the sides to collapse and hang vertically. Old heliconia leaves assume the same form, but appear withered and dead, whereas tents in active use are in succulent, green leaves. Tents are about 2 m above ground, and some tents are used only as night feeding roosts. Fruit pulp and seeds of small, understory figs were found under a night roost. This bat is seldom caught in mist nets, except when nets are set near occupied tents. Roosting groups can be closely approached and observed. Males and females share tents until young are born (in April in Costa Rica), then males leave. Females appear to suckle each other's young on occasion (Timm, 1982; Reid, 1997).
7030		population	eng	This bat is uncommon and local (Reid, 1997).
7030		threats	eng	May have habitat preference (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.). In Costa Rica the population declined, food preference, habitat restriction (Rodriguez pers. comm.)
7037		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality in the Cataract Gorge of the South Esk River (also referred to as the Dennison River), Launceston, Tasmania. The river is dammed at Trevallyn Dam near Launceston and used for the city's Hydro Electricity scheme. Although most of the water is dammed at Lake Trevallyn, some flows on into the Cataract Gorge where it becomes a tributary to the Tamar River, and the outflow from the power station also joins the Tamar River downstream of Launceston.
7037		threats	eng	Threatened by the construction of the hydroelectric dam in 1956 which changed the water flow through the Cataract Gorge. This may have resulted in the extinction of this species.
7083		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) including, Parc National d’Isalo, Parc National de Namoroka, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana and Réserve Spéciale de Cape Sainte Marie; however, hunting has been reported from within Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (Cardiff 2006). Roosts that are located in inaccessible rock outcrops pose significant challenges to hunters are relatively protected. Cave roosts are probably subject to highest hunting pressure and conservation measures should be focused at these sites.
7083		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is widespread, albeit with a patchy distribution (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found both along the coast and on the central high plateau and areas from where there are no records probably reflect inadequate survey coverage rather than a genuine absence. There are some areas within its range where the lack of crevices means there are no roosting opportunities (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
7083		habitat	eng	It is known to roost in tree foliage, but is more usually found in rock fissures and caves (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana it used caves that were high and long with a good buffering capacity for temperature and humidity (Cardiff 2006). Its patchy distribution which includes humid, dry deciduous and spiny forest is probably related to the availability of suitable roost sites and <em>E. dupreanum</em> is rare or absent from a number of forests without rocky outcrops (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007; Schmid and Alonso 2005). It continues to survive in highly modified landscapes with very little native vegetation remaining (Ratrimomanarivo 2007), but appears to use native forest vegetation for food in preference to introduced plants (Picot <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fruit is the main dietary component but it also eats leaves and other plant parts (Picot 2005; Picot <em>et al</em>. 2007). Through the ingestion of pollen and small seeds, a significant ecological role is inferred (Picot <em>et al</em>. 2007; Ratrimomanarivo 2007) and <em>E. dupreanum</em> may be an important pollinator of threatened baobab trees (Baum 1995). Additional research is needed on natural history and in particular roosting ecology and movements. MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that <em>E. dupreanum</em> might be migratory because of regular variation in the occupancy and abundance of roosts. Antibodies to Nipah, Tioman and Hendra viruses were detected in <em>E. dupreanum</em> in eastern Madasgascar (Iehlé <em>et al</em>. 2007).
7083		population	eng	The population size and local abundance of this species are not well known. Estimates of colony size are difficult to obtain because the bats are hidden during the day, but is usually in the range of between 10 and 500, with a median of 200 individuals (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). The maximum colony size of 1,400 is from Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (S. G. Cardiff unpubl.).
7083		threats	eng	This species is subject to harvesting for bushmeat across its range and hunting occurs both at roosting and foraging sites (Jenkins and Racey in press). It is classed as a game species under Malagasy law and although it can only be legally hunted between May and August (Durbin 2007), this legislation is widely ignored and the bats are hunted throughout the year. Its roosts tend to be well protected from bushfires and it is able to survive in landscapes with severely depleted natural food supplies as long as alternative plants are available (Ratrimomanarivo 2007). Hunting is therefore the main threat and was reported to account for a 30% desertion rate from 60 roosts (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although hunters report that deserted roosts are recolonized after a few years, there are several confirmed examples where this species has been extirpated at roost sites (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003).
7084		conservation	eng	This species is present in a few protected areas across its range, with a large roosting colony in Kasanka National Park, Zambia. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites, and a better understanding of the migratory patterns of this species would be beneficial to any conservation activities. The highest priority is to limit the harvesting of this species to sustainable levels.
7084		distribution	eng	This bat is broadly distributed across the lowland rainforest and savanna zones of Africa from Senegal in the west, through to South Africa in the south and Ethiopia in the east (possibly ranging into Djibouti and southern Eritrea). It is also present on the extreme southwest Arabian Peninsula, where it has been recorded from Yemen and Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991). Populations of this bat occur on several offshore islands including the Gulf of Guinea islands and Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia (off Tanzania) (Bergmans 1990; Simmons 2005). There is a possibly disjunct population in the Air Mountains of Niger. Distribution at northern and southern extremes of the range is patchy and erratic. It is also sparse or absent in large areas of the Horn of Africa, central East Africa, and elsewhere (Bergmans, 1990). This bat is a migratory species in parts of its range; populations migrate from the West African forest north into the savanna zone during the major wet season. It ranges from sea level to around 2,000 m asl (Ruwenzori Mountains).
7084		habitat	eng	This adaptable species has been recorded from a very wide range of habitats. It is commonly found in moist and dry tropical rain forest, including evergreen forest habitats in the form of coastal (including mangrove) and riverine forest, through moist and dry savanna and mosaics of these and similar habitat types. Populations can persist in modified habitats and the species is often recorded in urban areas, such as wooded city parks.
7084		population	eng	In general this is a common species forming large colonies of thousands to even millions of individuals. Within colonies they form tight clusters of up to 100 animals, although in particularly large colonies this clustering may not be so obvious. Colonies may show extreme roost-site fidelity. During migration this species disperses into small groups. There is evidence of a widespread decline (P. Racey pers. comm.). A well-known colony in Kampala (Uganda) declined in numbers over a forty-year period from <em>ca</em>. 250,000 animals to 40,000 in 2007 (Monadjem <em>et al</em>. 2007). <em>Eidolon helvum</em> is the most heavily harvested bat for bushmeat in West and Central Africa, and this is believed to be a major factor in reportied population declines (P. Racey pers. comm.).
7084		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. It is, however, locally threatened in parts of its range by severe deforestation, and more generally across West and Central Africa by hunting for food and medicinal use. It is the most heavily harvested bat for bushmeat in West and Central Africa, and one of the most frequently consumed mammals in this region (P. Racey pers. comm.). Large pre-migration colonies are considered particularly vulnerable to any threats. In some areas it is considered to be a pest species and roosting locations may be restricted by cutting down trees. Trees are also cut down in order to catch bats for the market (P. Racey pers. comm.).
7091		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
7091		distribution	eng	In India, this species is known from Purnea in Bihar, Mal, Bardighi and Calcutta in West Bengal, Wardha district in Maharashtra, and from Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal (Sharma 2003, Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been recorded in Rangpur, Bangladesh and Chitwan, Nepal (Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has recently been recorded from Surat and Bhavnagar Gujarat (Vyas 2006).<br/><br/>The Maharashtra specimen recently recorded has extended the range by about 950 km from Corbett National Park, by 1,070 km from Purnea, by 950 km from Chitwan, and by 1,230 km from both Mal and Bardighi, West Bengal (Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7091		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both dry and moist broadleaf forests. It is also known to occur in dry thorny scrub land and deciduous forest (R. Vyas pers. comm.).
7091		population	eng	According to Sharma (2003), this species is rare. Currently, only nine specimens are known (Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7091		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
7112		conservation	eng	The species is not listed by CITES. It is included in the Chinese Red List as Vulnerable A2bcd+3bcd (Smith and Xie 2008), but it is not classified as a national protected species. It is listed as a provincially protected species in Hunan, Sichuan, Tibet, and Gansu. Being a widespread species, it is likely to be present in many protected areas. There is a need to determine its current status in the wild across is its wide range in China. Activities should include field reconnaissance, population censuses, demographic surveys, ecological studies, and investigations into human use of the species. More effort is required to confirm the existence and status of the species in Myanmar, particularly in the north eastern part of Kachin State (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm.).
7112		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and southern China and there are old records from northern Myanmar (Groves 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). There has been fairly extensive camera trapping in the Myanmar range of the species where it is known from old specimens, but these surveys have failed to locate the species (Than Zaw pers. comm.). If it does persist in Myanmar it must have an isolated habitat, or limited elevational or geographic range that has prevented its detection; the Wildlife Conservation Sociery surveys have looked for this species many times without any result (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
7112		habitat	eng	It is known to live in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, between 300 and 800 m asl in southeastern China; between 1,500-2,600 m asl in the middle of its range; and to as high as 4,750 m asl in western Sichuan (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Its diet is grass, some browse, and fruits. They are secretive and crepuscular, and are usually solitary or found in pairs. They live within well-defined home territories where they travel along well-established paths, rendering them vulnerable to snares. Rut occurs between September and December, single or twin fawns are born in April to July after about six months gestation, and animals are sexually mature in about nine months (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993). It lives on mountainous terrain covered by dense forests. It eats bamboo and herbs (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2004). Zhang <em>et al</em>. (2004) also found that tufted deer habitats were characterized by relatively high shrub and herb density, but also a relatively high proportion of open land. Historically, this species was known from high damp forest in the northeastern Myanmar just below the snow line.
7112		population	eng	No documented estimates of population size or trend are available, although Sheng <em>et al</em>. (1998) guessed that there might be 300,000 to 500,000 animals in China. Little work is being done on this species and its status is poorly known.
7112		threats	eng	In China, this species is hunted by locals (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Although data are lacking, given the very high level of harvesting of large mammals in China, it is reasonable to expect that this species in in decline. In Myanmar, hunting for trade to China is a pervasive threat that almost certainly applies to this species (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
7121		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Chinese Red List as Extinct in the Wild, and on the China Key List - I. The present re-introduced populations are contained within enclosures and are essentially still subject to captive management.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation action includes:<br/>1.  Establish additional populations when and where appropriate, with the aim of re-establishing a genuinely wild, free-ranging population. <br/>2.  Establish a genetic management programme of all populations in China. <br/>3.  Develop conservation education programmes to raise conservation awareness among the local people and general public.<br/><br/>Following a trial release of this species in the Dafeng Reserve, China, Hu and Jiang (2002) concluded that future releases will necessitate either natural or artificial boundaries to alleviate conflict between introduced <em>E. davidianus</em> and farmers, on whose land the deer are likely to stray. These authors suggest a reintroduction model based on that of <em>Oryx leucoryx</em> in Oman (Stanley Price 1989).
7121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China. Père David’s deer has been recovered from the brink of extinction and has become a classic example of how to rescue a highly threatened species (Ebenehard 1995). In the mid 1980s, Père David’s deer was re-introduced into captive facilities in China, and populations established in Beijing, Dafeng, Tianezhou and Yuanyang. <br/><br/>Fossils of <em>Elaphurus bifurcates</em>, <em>E. chinanensis chia</em>, <em>E. lantianensis</em> have been excavated from the region east of Xi’an and south of Harbin. The modern species of <em>Elaphurus</em>, Père David’s deer (Milu in Chinese) evolved in the Pliocene period of the Tertiary, according to fossils excavated in southern Japan. During the Pleistocene period, it was known from Manchuria (Hofmann, 2007). During the Holocene, <em>P. davidianus</em> was restricted to swamps and wetlands in the region south of 43°N and east of 110°E in mainland China (Cao 1992, Zhou, 2007). However, the distribution of <em>P. davidianus</em> shrank and its population declined due to hunting and land reclamation in the swamp areas as human population expanded (Jiang and Li, 1999). <em>P. davidianus</em> had largely disappeared in the wild by the late 19th century, and the last wild animal was shot near the Yellow Sea in 1939.<br/><br/>However, during the Qing Dynasty (1616-1911), the Nanyuang Royal Hunting Garden contained a herd of <em>P. davidianus</em> in its 200 km² hunting ground. This hunting garden in the southern suburbs of Beijing was predominantly a wetland, consisting of swamps, ponds and lakes crossed by the Yongding River. The area had been sealed off from the outside world since the Yuan Dynasty (1205-1368) as a royal garden. The French missionary Père Armand David “discovered” <em>P. davidianus</em> in the Nanyuan Royal Hunting Garden in 1864. Realising that the deer was an unknown species to the West, he persuaded the wardens to give him hinds and skeletons of an adult male, an adult female and a young male, and sent them to Paris in 1866, where the species was named Père David’s deer by Milne-Edwards. In 1895, the wall of the Nanyuan Hunting Garden was destroyed by a heavy flood of the Yongding River, and most of the Père David’s deer escaped and were hunted. Only 20-30 animals survived in the garden. Then in 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, the garden was occupied by troops and the remaining deer were shot and eaten.<br/><br/>However, before the demise of the royal herd of Père David’s deer in the Nanyuan Royal Hunting Garden in 1900, the deer had been introduced into private deer collections in the United Kingdom, France and Germany. During the first decade of the 20th century, the 11th Duke of Bedford in the United Kingdom gathered the last 18 Père David’s deer in the world to form a breeding herd at the Woburn Abbey, England. Only 11 of these deer were capable of reproducing (Bedford, 1951-52). Nevertheless, the heavily inbred Père David’s deer safely passed though the genetic bottleneck of inbreeding and adopted the vast open parkland of an English country estate (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>The captive population started to increase (though with a setback during the First World War due to food shortage), and since the Second World War, the animals started to be spread through captive facilities worldwide, with the first captive animals being sent back to Beijing Zoo in 1956. More recently deer have been sent to China into managed, fenced situation in Beijing, Dafeng, Tianezhou and Yuanyang.
7121		habitat	eng	Studies have been carried out on the behavior, ecology and reproduction of Père David’s deer in Beijing since 1985, in Dafeng since 1986, and in Tianezhou since 2001. This species lives in low-lying grasslands and reed beds, often in seasonally flooded areas such as the lower Yangtze River valley and coastal marshes.  It eats grass, reeds and leaves of bushes, can swim well, and spend long periods in water.  It lives in single sex ormaternal herds. Animals reach maturity during second year. Gestation is 270-300 days. One, rarely two young are born. These are weaned in 10-11 months.  Adults live up to 18 years. Data from the Dafeng Reserve suggests that female <em>E. davidianus</em> establish a home range of approximately 1 km² (Hu and Jiang 2002).
7121		population	eng	After decades of <em>ex situ</em> conservation, the species breeds successfully in captivity (Beck and Wemmer 1983). In China there are now fenced populations in Beijing, Dafeng, Tianezhou and Yuanyang. <br/><br/>The first conservation reintroduction of Père David’s deer to China included two groups, of 20 deer (5 males : 15 females) and 18 deer (all females), in 1985 and 1987, respectively. All 38 deer were donated by the Marques of Tavistock of Woburn Abbey, and the transportation was sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). After a careful search and evaluation by a group of zoologists, botanists, wildlife managers and officers, the relic site of the Nanyuang Royal Hunting Garden in the southern suburbs of Beijing was chosen as the site of re-introduction, creating the Beijing Milu Park (39°07'N, 116°03'E), with an area of 60 ha.  The deer in the park have received supplemental feeding year round (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2000a).<br/><br/>The second re-introduction of <em>E. davidianus</em> was carried out in August of 1986, organized by former Ministry of Forestry and WWF. A group of 39 Père David’s deer was selected from five zoological gardens in the United Kingdom, with the deer mainly from the Whipsnade Wild Animal Park. An extensive search which covered a vast area in eastern China for a potential reintroduction site was conducted before a decision was made. The Dafeng State-Owen Forestry Farm was chosen, on the Yellow Sea coast in eastern China in a lightly populated area (semi-fossils of Père David’s deer have been excavated from the neighbouring counties, so this site is probably in its natural habitat). The introduced herd was released into three fenced paddocks, each about 100 ha in area.  The reserve purchased another 30 km² land in 1995, more than doubling its original size. In 1997, the Dafeng Milu Natural Reserve was approved by the National Nature Reserve Commission as a national nature reserve. The Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve has the potential to host a large population of Père David’s deer. The reserve has kept the reintroduced Père David’s deer and their offspring on its land, and in 1998 the first group of deer was released from the paddocks into the wider reserve (Hu and Jiang 2002). In 2003, and 2006 another two groups of deer were released from the paddocks. There were 950 Père David’s deer in the reserve in 2006. The annual average population growth rate of deer in the reserve was 17.01%. This Père David’s deer conservation strategy calls for further expanding of the Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve (Jiang <em>et al</em>., 2000b). <br/><br/>The Beijing Milu Park is in a suburb of the national capital with a limited area and is engulfed by city development, whereas the Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve is located in a remote costal region with little human settlement, where it is possible to acquire more land for conservation. Therefore, the Beijing Milu Park while keeping a healthy nuclear breeding herd of about 100 deer at the park, has shipped Père David’s deer to other sites in east China (Yang, 2007). The translocations thus reduced the grazing pressure on the park vegetation and expanded the distribution range of the Père David’s deer in the country. The average annual population growth rate for Père David’s deer in Beijing Milu Park from 1987-1997 was 17.3%. This Père David’s deer conservation strategy calls for an expansion of this artificial dispersal of animals to establish new sites (Jiang <em>et al</em>., 2000b). <br/><br/><em>E. davidianus</em> from the Beijing Milu Park have been relocated to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in eastern China and Hainan Island in the South China Sea. In October 1993, a group of 30 Père David’s deer (8 males : 22 females) arrived and was released in a paddock on a small peninsular in the Yangtze River, Tianezhou (29°49'N,112°33'E). This site was then established as the Tianezhou Milu Nature Reserve in 1993. The size of the reserve is 11.67 km². Another group of 34 Père David’s deer (10 males : 24 females) was transferred from the Beijing Milu Park to the Tianezhou paddock in the following year to enlarge the population. An additional 30 deer (15 males : 15 females) were released into the paddock of the reserve in 2002. The relocated deer reproduced in the second year after the relocation (Yang <em>et al</em>, 2002). By the end of calving season of 2006, there were 522 <em>E. davidianus</em> in the Tianezhou Milu National Nature Reserve. The annual average population growth rate was 22.2%. The birth rate and population growth rate in Tianezhou were significantly higher whereas the mortality rate was significantly lower than those of the Dafeng. <br/> <br/>In November, 2002, 30 <em>E. davidianus</em> (14 males : 16 females) from Beijing Milu Park and 20 from the Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve were introduced to Yuanyang Forestry Farm, Henan. These deer are in an enclosure on the Yuanyang Yellow River Nature Reserve (35°11'N, 114°15'E). In 2006, there were 53 deer in the Yuanyang Yellow River Nature Reserve paddock, but the sex ratio was predominately male biased (38 males : 15 females)  (Li <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Currently, there are a total of 53 herds of <em>E. davidianus</em> in China. Nine herds have fewer than 25 deer, 75.5% have fewer than 10 deer (Yang <em>et al</em>., 2003). Such a small herd size raise question about the effective population size and health of population genetics, since those herds are isolated and there is no gene exchange. The artificially dispersed <em>E. davidianus</em> herds are similar to a meta-population. The viability of the meta-population depends on the man-made gene exchange process by the managers.
7121		threats	eng	The species became extinct in the wild due to habitat loss and hunting.  The size of the reintroduced population was only 120 in 1993 (Cao 1993), although has increased to over 2,000 since that time (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). Low genetic diversity has been identified as a long-term threat by Zeng <em>et al</em>. (2007) and Yang <em>et al</em>. (2008). It is unclear how much native habitat remains on which <em>E. davidianus</em> can exist in a free-ranging state.
7135		conservation	eng	Although this is a common, very widespread species, more information about its population size and trends, biology and potential threats (even if localized) facing this species is required.<br/>At the present moment, no species-specific conservation measures are needed.
7135		conservation	eng	No information available.
7135		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population range, biology and ecology, and threats.
7135		conservation	eng	Some estuarine systems in north eastern South Africa and in Mozambique provide some protection.
7135		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris melanosoma</span> is known from the East African coast, and from the Society Islands to north of Japan. This species has been introduced into the Panama Canal Zone (Koumans 1953).</p>
7135		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the East coast of Africa south to Transkei. Also tropical Indo-West Pacific (Skelton 2001).
7135		distribution	eng	The species is known from the eastern African coastal zone and lower reaches of rivers.
7135		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the Indian Ocean coastal zone, also Indo-West  Pacific: East Africa to French Polynesia (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal rivers from Tanzania  southwards<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the east coast,  Mozambique south to Transkei, South Africa.
7135		habitat	eng	A secretive species that inhabits muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove  swamps, sometimes penetrating into freshwaters (Skelton 2001).
7135		habitat	eng	A secretive species that inhabits muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove swamps, sometimes penetrating into freshwaters (Skelton 2001).
7135		habitat	eng	Epibenthic in freshwater and estuaries (Maugé 1986).
7135		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris melanosoma</span> is a demersal, amphidromous species that can usually be found on mud bottoms. Adults inhabit brackish estuaries and medium to large size rivers. It is also found in submerged bank vegetation of freshwater streams.
7135		population	eng	No information available.
7135		population	eng	Not known.
7135		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends available for this species. However, given the very wide distribution of this species and the absence of any significant threats, the global population can be considered stable.
7135		threats	eng	No information available.
7135		threats	eng	Removal of mangrove swamps, construction of harbours in estuaries with resultant pollution, and other human impacts may affect populations locally.
7135		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is known from estuarine and riverine habitats where it may be suffering localised declines due to water pollution, boat traffic and fishing activity.
7136		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. Because of the very minor conservation problems facing this taxon, no conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.
7136		distribution	eng	The Cape Sengi is endemic to South Africa (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Although most distribution maps show it as having two disjunct areas of occurrence, recent data indicate that it is continuously distributed (Stuart and Stuart 1991; Friedman and Daly 2004). It has not been recorded in Namibia, and is not suspected to occur north of the Orange River.
7136		habitat	eng	This species occupies rocky habitats.
7136		population	eng	The species is not considered abundant, but it is widespread in suitable habitats and locally common. Current population trends are not known, but there is no reason to believe that <em>E. edwardii</em> numbers are increasing or decreasing significantly due to any factors other than natural variation in environmental conditions in the rocky and arid environments where they occur.
7136		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species. Habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small-holder and industrial agriculture, mineral extraction, and urban development, however, these are not considered major threats to the current population.
7137		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. It should be a priority for further survey work.
7137		distribution	eng	This species is found only along the northern coast of Somalia (Corbet and Hanks 1968).
7137		habitat	eng	Similar to <em>Elephantulus rufescens</em>, but not well known.
7137		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
7137		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known.
7138		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. Because of the very minor conservation problems facing this taxon, no conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.
7138		distribution	eng	A widespread species found mainly in South Africa and Namibia, but also extreme southern Botswana (Smithers 1971) and south-western Angola (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
7138		habitat	eng	This species occupies arid habitats, including deserts, dry savannas, and dry shrublands. It is especially associated with rocky ridges and outcrops or koppies.
7138		population	eng	There are no data on the population status of <em>E. rupestris</em>, but it is likely to be locally common and it can be expected that populations will vary greatly in the arid habitats that it occupies.
7138		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species. Habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small-holder and industrial agriculture, mineral extraction, and urban development. Changes in habitats due to desertification and bush encroachment may adversely alter habitats for sengis, but at present these changes do not appear widespread or serious.
7140		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. The most important conservation priorities for the Asian elephant are: 1) conservation of the elephant's habitat and maintaining habitat connectivity by securing corridors; 2) the management of human–elephant conflicts as part of an integrated land-use policy that recognizes elephants as economic assets from which local people need to benefit or at least no suffer; 3) better protection to the species through improved legislation and law enforcement, improved and enhanced field patrolling, and regulating/curbing trade in ivory and other elephant products. Monitoring of conservation interventions is also needed to assess the success or failure of the interventions so that adjustments can be made as necessary (i.e. adaptive management). Reliable estimation of population size and trends will be needed as part of this monitoring and adaptive management approach.
7140		distribution	eng	Asian elephants formerly ranged from West Asia along the Iranian coast into the Indian subcontinent, eastwards into South-east Asia including Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and into China at least as far as the Yangtze-Kiang. This former range covered over 9 million km² (Sukumar 2003). Asian elephants are now extinct in West Asia, Java, and most of China The western populations (<em>Elephas maximus asurus</em>) were probably extinct by 100 BC, and the main Chinese populations (sometimes referred to as <em>E. m. rubridens</em>) disappeared sometime after the 14th century BC. Even within its surviving range in South and South-east Asia, the species has been in retreat for hundreds if not thousands of years, and generally survives only in highly fragmented populations (Olivier 1978; Sukumar 2003; Blake and Hedges 2004).<br/><br/>Asian elephants still occur in isolated populations in 13 states, with a very approximate total range area of 486,800 km² (Sukumar 2003; but see Blake and Hedges 2004). The species occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka in South Asia and Cambodia, China, Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra) Lao PDR, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah), Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam in South-east Asia. Feral populations occur on some of the Andaman Islands (India).<br/><br/>The elephants of Borneo were believed to be feral descendants of elephants introduced in the 14th–19th centuries (Shoshani and Eisenberg, 1982; Cranbrook <em>et al</em>., 2008); however, recent genetic evidence suggests they are indigenous to the island (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2003; but see Cranbrook <em>et al</em>., 2008). <br/><br/>The species was once found throughout Sri Lanka, but today elephants are restricted mostly to the lowlands in the dry zone where they are still fairly widespread in north, south, east, north-western, north-central and south-eastern Sri Lanka; but with the exceptions of small remnant populations in the Peak Wilderness Area and Sinharaja Area, elephants are absent from the wet zone of the country. The species continues to lose range to development activities throughout the island. <br/><br/>Once widespread in India, the species is now restricted to four general areas: northeastern India, central India, northwestern India, and southern India. In northeastern India, the elephant range extends from the eastern border of Nepal in northern West Bengal through western Assam along the Himalaya foothills as far as the Mishmi Hills. From here it extends into eastern Arunachal Pradesh, the plains of upper Assam, and the foothills of Nagaland. Further west, it extends to the Garo Hills of Meghalaya through the Khasi Hills, to parts of the lower Brahmaputra plains and Karbi Plateau. Elsewhere in the south in Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, and the Barak valley districts of Assam, isolated herds occur (Choudhury, 1999). In central India, highly fragmented elephant populations are found in the States of Orissa, Jharkhand, and the southern part of West Bengal, with some animals wandering into Chattisgarh. In north-western India, the species occurs in six fragmented populations at the foot of the Himalayas in Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, ranging from Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in Bahraich Forest Division in the east, to the Yamuna River in the west. In southern India, elephants occur in the hilly terrain of the Western Ghats and in parts of the Eastern Ghats in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and, relatively recently, Andhra Pradesh. There are eight main populations in southern India, each fragmented from the others: northern Karnataka; the crestline of Karnataka–Western Ghats; Bhadra–Malnad; Brahmagiri–Nilgiris–Eastern Ghats; Nilambur–Silent Valley–Coimbatore; Anamalais–Parambikulam; Periyar–Srivilliputhur; and Agasthyamalais.<br/><br/>In Nepal, elephants were once widespread in the lowland Terai, but are now restricted to a few protected areas along the border with India: Royal Chitwan National Park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Royal Bardia National Park, and Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, and their environs. There is some movement of animals between these protected areas and between Bardia National Park and the adjacent parts of India.<br/><br/>In Bhutan, all the existing elephant populations are found along the border with India. They are reported from Royal Manas National Park, Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Sanctuary, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Reserve Forests such as Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary, Dungsum, and Mochu. In the past, elephants made seasonal migrations from Bhutan to the grasslands of India during the wetter summer months of May to October, returning to their winter range in Bhutan from November. Now these movements are restricted as a result of loss of habitat on the Indian side and fragmentation of habitat on the Bhutan side. <br/><br/>In Bangladesh, the species was once widespread, but today it is largely restricted to areas that are relatively less accessible to humans, mainly Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast. In addition, some animals periodically visit the New Samanbag area of Maulvi Bazar District under the Sylhet Forest Division in the north-east of the country, coming from the neighbouring Indian states of Tripura, Meghalaya, and Assam.<br/><br/>The Asian elephant has a wide, but highly fragmented, distribution in Myanmar. The five main areas of elephant abundance are: the Northern Hill Ranges, the Western Hill Ranges, Pegu Yoma (central Myanmar), Tenasserim Yoma (in the south, bordering Thailand), and Shan State or eastern Yoma.<br/><br/>In Thailand, the species occurs mainly in the mountains along the border with Myanmar, with smaller fragmented populations occurring in the peninsula in the south (in several forest complexes, south to the border with Malaysia); in the northeast (in the Dong Phaya Yen-Khao Yai forest complex, including Khao Yai National Park, and the Phu Khieo-Nam Nao forest complex); and in the east (in a forest complex composing the Khao Ang Runai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Khitchakut National Park, and Khao Cha Mao National Park).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, elephants are primarily found in the mountains of the south-west and in Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri Provinces. Recent surveys in Keo Sema District (Mondulkiri Province) suggest that important numbers may remain in that area (WCS unpubl. data). Elsewhere, Asian elephants persist in Cambodia in only small, scattered populations (Duckworth and Hedges, 1998).<br/><br/>In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, elephants remain widely but very patchily distributed in forested areas, both in the highlands and lowlands. Two important and likely viable populations are known, one in Xaignaboli Province west of the Mekong and one on the Nakai Plateau. Other potentially important elephant populations occur in Phou Phanang and Phou Khao Khoay in Vientiane Province; Phou Xang He in Savannakhet Province; Dong Ampham and Dong Khanthung, including Xe Pian, close to Cambodian border; and Nam Et, Nam Xam, Phou Dendin, and Nam Ha in the north, close to the Viet Namese and Chinese borders.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, only a small population persists now. In the northern part of the country there are no elephants left, barring occasional wanderers into Son La from Lao PDR. In the central and southern parts of the country, very small isolated populations remain in Dak Lak, Nghe An, Quang Nam, Dong Nai, and Ha Tinh Provinces. <br/><br/>In China, Asian elephants once ranged widely over much of southern China, including the Fujiang, Guangdong, and Guangxi Provinces (Smith and MacKinnon, in press). The species was extirpated in southern Fujiang and northern Guangdong during the 12th century, but evidence indicates persistence in Guanxi into the 17th century (Smith and MacKinnon, in press). All that now remains of this once widespread elephant population in China is the remnant in Yunnan where the species survives in three prefectures: Xishuangbanna, Simao, and Lincang.<br/><br/>In Peninsular Malaysia, the species is still widely distributed in the interior of the country in the following States: Pahang (which probably has the largest population), Perak, Johor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah, and Negeri Sembilan (where very few animals remain).<br/><br/>On Borneo, elephants only occur in the lowlands of the northeastern part of the island in the Malaysian State of Sabah and adjacent parts of Kalimantan (Indonesia). In Sabah, they occur in forested areas in the south, centre, and east of the State in the following Districts: Kinabatangan, Sandakan, Beluran, Lahad Datu, Tawau, and Pensiangan. In Kalimantan, elephants occur only in the Upper Sembakung River in Tindung District. The origin of the elephants of Borneo remains unclear and the subject of debate. Due to the limited distribution of the island’s elephant population it is argued by some that the species was not indigenous, but descended from imported captive elephants (Medway 1977; Cranbrook <em>et al</em>., 2008). However, others argues that while captive elephants have undoubtedly been brought to Borneo, genetic analyses have shown that the elephants found on Borneo are genetically distinct, with molecular divergence indicating a Pleistocene colonization and subsequent isolation (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2003)<br/><br/>On Sumatra (in Indonesia), the elephant was once widespread, but now survives only in highly fragmented populations. In the mid-1980s, 44 discrete elephant populations were known to exist in Sumatra’s eight provinces, 12 of these were in Lampung Province (Blouch and Haryanto, 1984; Blouch and Simbolon, 1985). However, by 2003, only three of Lampung’s 12 populations were extant (Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005). An unknown number of Sumatra’s other elephant populations remain (Blake and Hedges, 2004), and those that do are threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and as a result of conflict with humans (Santiapillai and Jackson, 1990; Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005). Nevertheless, the island is thought to hold some of the most significant populations outside of India. For example, recent surveys in Lampung Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI=[373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI=[144, 225]) elephants, respectively (Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005). Bukit Barisan Selatan NP is therefore a critically important area for Asian elephant conservation. The challenge now is to protect these populations from further habitat loss and poaching.
7140		habitat	eng	Asian elephants are generalists and they occur in grassland, tropical evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest, dry deciduous forested and dry thorn forest, in addition to cultivated and secondary forests and scrublands. Over this range of habitat types elephants are seen from sea level to over 3,000 m asl. In the Eastern Himalaya in northeast India, they regularly move up above 3,000 m asl in summer at a few sites (Choudhury, 1999). The Asian elephant is one of the last few mega-herbivores (i.e. plant-eating mammals that reach an adult body weight in excess of 1,000 kg) still extant on earth (Owen-Smith, 1988). Given their physiology and energy requirements, elephants need to consume large quantities of food per day. They are generalists and browse and graze on a variety of plants. The proportions of the different plant types in their diet vary depending upon the habitat and season. During dry season in southern India, Sukumar (1992) observed that 70% of the elephant's diet was browse, while in wet season, grasses make up about 55%. However, in an adjoining area, Baskaran (2002) observed that browse formed only 15% of the diet in dry deciduous forest and 47% of the diet in the thorn forest in the dry season, while the annual diet was dominated by grass (84%). In Sri Lanka, elephants may feed on more than 60 species of plants belonging to 30 families (McKay, 1973). In southern India, Baskaran (2002) recorded that elephants fed on 82 species of plants (59 woody plant species and 23 grass species). Elephants may spend up to 14–19 hrs a day feeding, during which they may consume up to 150 kg of wet weight (Vancuylenberg, 1977). They defecate about 16–18 times a day, producing about 100 kg of dung. Dung also helps disperse germinating seeds. <br/><br/>Elephants range over large areas and home ranges in excess of 600 km² have been recorded for females in south India (Baskaran <em>et al</em>., 1995). In north India, female home ranges of 184–326 km² and male home ranges of 188–407 km² have been recorded (Williams, 2002). Smaller home range sizes, 30–160 km² for females and 53–345 km² for males, have been recorded in Sri Lanka (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2005). Given their requirements for large areas, elephants are regarded as an “umbrella species” because their conservation will also protect a large number of other species occupying the same area. They are also a premier “flagship species” and are sometimes regarded as a “keystone species” because of their important ecological role and impact on the environment.<br/><br/>The life span of Asian elephants is 60 to 70 years, and males reach sexual maturity at between 10–15 years of age; females usually first give birth in years 15 or 16 (Shoshani and Eisenberg, 1982).
7140		population	eng	A recent estimate for the global population size of the Asian elephant was 41,410–52,345 animals Sukumar (2003) The estimated population size for each country was: Bangladesh 150–250; Bhutan 250–500; Cambodia 250–600; China 200–250; India 26,390–30,770; Indonesia 2,400–3,400; Lao PDR 500–1,000; Malaysia 2,100–3,100; Myanmar 4,000–5,000; Nepal 100–125; Sri Lanka 2,500–4,000; Thailand 2,500–3,200; and Viet Nam 70–150 (Sukumar, 2003) . However, Blake and Hedges (2004) and Hedges (2006) argue that the oft-repeated global population ‘estimate’ of about 40,000 to 50,000 Asian elephants is no more than a crude guess, which has been accepted unchanged for a quarter of a century. They argue that with very few exceptions all we really know about the status of Asian elephants is the location of some (probably most) populations, with in some cases a crude idea of relative abundance; and for some large parts of the species range we do not even know where the populations are, or indeed if they are still extant. These difference of opinion are due in part to the difficulty in counting elephants in dense vegetation in difficult terrain, different survey techniques being used in different places, and a too-widely held belief that population monitoring is unimportant. Nevertheless, whatever the error margins, it appears almost certain that over 50% of the remaining wild Asian elephants occur in India. <br/><br/>The overall population trend of the Asian elephant has been downwards, probably for centuries. This remains the case in most parts of its range, but especially in most of the countries of South-east Asia. Within India, there is evidence that the large population in the Western Ghats in south of the country has been increasing in recent years due to improved conservation effectiveness.
7140		threats	eng	The pre-eminent threats to the Asian elephant today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation (Leimgruber <em>et al</em>., 2003; Sukumar, 2003; Hedges, 2006), which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops. Hundreds of people and elephants are killed annually as a result of such conflicts. The long-term future of elephants outside protected areas, as well as in some protected areas, is therefore inextricably linked to mitigating such human–elephant conflicts, and this is one of the largest conservation challenges in Asia today (Sukumar, 1992, 2003; Hedges 2006).<br/><br/>Asian elephants live in the region of the world with the densest human population, growing at a rate of between 1–3% per year. Because elephants require much larger areas of natural habitat than most other terrestrial mammals in Asia, they are one of the first species to suffer the consequences of habitat fragmentation and destruction and because of its great size and large food requirements, the elephant cannot co-exist with people in areas where agriculture is the dominant form of land-use. In extreme cases, elephants have been confined as so called ‘pocketed herds’ in small patches of forest in landscapes dominated by man. Such ‘pocketed herds’ represent an extreme stage in the human–elephant conflict (Olivier, 1978). In other cases elephants have been caught and taken to so-called Elephant Training Centres where they languish, lost to the wild population (Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005, 2006). <br/><br/>Poaching is a major threat to elephants in Asia too, although reliable estimates of the number of elephants killed and the quantities of ivory and other body parts collected and traded are scarce (Sukumar <em>et al</em>., 1998; Milliken, 2005). It has been argued that poaching is a relatively minor threat to Asian elephant because some males and all females lack tusks (Dawson and Blackburn, 1991). However, the reality is that elephants are poached for a variety of other products (including meat and leather) in addition to ivory, and poaching is now acknowledged as a threat to the long-term survival of some Asian elephant populations (e.g. Kemf and Santiapillai, 2000; Menon, 2002). Moreover, poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious problem in some parts of Asia (Sukumar, 1992; Menon <em>et al</em>., 1997). In Periyar Tiger Reserve in southern India, for example, ivory poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios: over the 20-year period from 1969 to 1989 the adult male:female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122 (Chandran, 1990). Selective removal of tusked males has several implications for the affected populations: sex ratios obviously become highly female biased, genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline (Sukumar <em>et al</em>., 1998; Sukumar, 2003). Poaching of elephants is also a major problem in other parts of Asia. Large-scale hunting of elephants for ivory, bushmeat, hides, and other products has reduced their populations significantly over a wide area from Myanmar to Indonesia (Menon <em>et al</em>., 1997; Duckworth and Hedges, 1998; Kemf and Santiapillai, 2000; Martin and Stiles, 2002; Menon, 2002; World Wide Fund for Nature, 2002a; Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005).
7142		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Carite Forest Reserve, which is a well-managed protected area. Further surveys are needed to relocate this species and determine whether or not it might still survive in the wild. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
7142		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sierra de Cayey, Puerto Rico, where it has been recorded from 647-785 m asl.
7142		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from bromeliads (terrestrial and arboreal) in forests and open and rocky areas. It is known to be a live-bearing species, giving birth to 1-3 young, unique amongst members of the genus.
7142		population	eng	This species has not been seen since 1981, and it is now possibly extinct. Extensive surveys of suitable habitat have failed to find any individuals. It has clearly undergone a catastrophic decline.
7142		threats	eng	While the cause(s) for decline in this species remain(s) unknown, suspected factors include habitat destruction, forest fragmentation, limited distribution (10 km2), high habitat specialization, slow reproduction, climate change, chytridiomycosis and introduced predators.
7143		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but both caves are currently within an area designated as a national park for the future (although this is not yet confirmed). One cave is currently within the Jackson Bay Hunting Club.
7143		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two caves near Jackson's Bay, on the Portland Ridge Peninsula, very close to sea level (10-15 m asl), in Jamaica.
7143		habitat	eng	It has only been recorded inhabiting caves in moderately well-forested areas. Eggs are laid among rocks and it breeds by direct development.
7143		population	eng	It is a very rare species and is difficult to find. It was last seen in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009), but there have been no surveys for the species since.
7143		threats	eng	The caves in which it occurs on the Portland Ridge Peninsula are being disturbed by humans, including by people occupying caves illegally. There is also significant disturbance of the habitat from agriculture, the nearby lighthouse, and from touristic activities.
7144		conservation	eng	There are at least two forest reserves in the area where this species occurs, as well as a proposed National Park (Dolphin Head National Park). Ensuring the gazettment of this new protected area, and maintenance of the existing habitat is essential, and further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of the species.
7144		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in western Jamaica, and has been recorded from 120-680 m asl.
7144		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found in mesic closed-canopy forests, where it calls from bare ground or rocks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
7144		population	eng	It could be locally abundant within its restricted range, but it had a  very fragmented and restricted distribution. It was last observed in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
7144		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation, in particular due to agriculture, selective logging, and infrastructure development for ecotourism. Invasive bamboo is also becoming a problem in regenerating areas.
7145		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any formally protected areas. Although its range includes Cockpit Country Forest Reserve, this does not guarantee long-term protection for the remaining habitat. The maintenance and protection of remaining suitable habitat across the range of the species is essential.
7145		distribution	eng	This species is known from only four localities in the central uplands of Jamaica. It has been recorded from 600-835 m asl.
7145		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that has only been found on the edge of forest in banana groves and pastures. It calls from rock and earthen crevices, but can it be quite a difficult species to locate, mainly because its call is drowned out by that of the invasive <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>. It presumably breeds by direct development.
7145		population	eng	It is known to be extremely rare and has only been seen or heard on a few occasions since it was first described in 1926. Two specimens were collected in the mid 1980s, and one individual was heard in the late 1990s. A series of specimens was collected in the 1960s, suggesting that it might have been more common in the past. Although there has been no recent survey work for this species, it does appear to have declined significantly.
7145		threats	eng	The primary threat is habitat destruction, due to agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development. Their range has now been completely invaded by the introduced <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>, which has a much louder call (and is more locally abundant), and which is quite possibly out-competing this species ecologically, and resulting in noise interference in mating calls (S.B. Hedges pers. obs.).
7146		conservation	eng	This species formerly occurred in El Yunque National Forest, but it has not been recorded recently from this area. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it survives in the wild. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
7146		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Puerto Rico as well as the western mountains, at an altitudinal range of 45-630 m asl.
7146		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, restricted to mountain streams, with a preference for rocky torrents in closed mesic forest. It is known to call from boulders, banks, and waterfalls, and to breed by direct development.
7146		population	eng	Formerly known to be abundant in eastern Puerto Rico as well as the western mountains, it has not been seen since 1976 or 1988 (Hedges and Díaz 2009). Habitats where it once occurred have been surveyed repeatedly by experts at different times of year (including the rainy season), without success, and it is now considered to be almost certainly extinct.
7146		threats	eng	The main cause of the decline of this species appears to be related to the synergistic effects of chytridiomycosis and climate change, although invasive predators might also have had an impact.
7147		conservation	eng	The species is known from Parc National Morne La Visite and Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat within them continues to be destroyed. Urgent action is required to conserve the remaining habitat in these areas. Survey work is also necessary to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it still survives in the wild. In view of the possible risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
7147		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Massif de la Hotte and Massif de la Selle, in Haiti. It has been recorded from 303-1,697m asl.
7147		habitat	eng	It is a riparian/aquatic stream-dwelling species found in mesic hardwood forests, and has not been recorded from disturbed forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
7147		population	eng	At one time this species was abundant, but it has not been seen in the last two decades despite extensive surveys of suitable habitat prior to 1991, and might now be extinct. It was last recorded in 1985 (Hedges and Díaz, 2009).
7147		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction, as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture, is taking place on the Massif de la Hotte and Massif de la Selle. Chytridiomycosis might also be implicated in the decline of the species, although this has yet to be confirmed.
7148		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but its known range is in Cockpit Country Forest Reserve, although this does not guarantee the long-term protection of the species' habitat. Improved protection and maintenance of the remaining forested habitat is a priority.
7148		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "vicinity of&#160; 'the cave' about 4 miles WNW Quick Step..." in the Cockpit Country of south-western Trelawny Parish, Jamaica, at around 450m asl.
7148		habitat	eng	It is a very small frog found in heavy leaf-litter in low-elevation wet forests on limestone. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
7148		population	eng	It is a rare species, and is difficult to find.
7148		threats	eng	This species requires undisturbed forested habitat, and so the continued clearing of forest for the planting of illegal crops at the type locality represents a serious threat to its survival.
7149		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the habitat of this species is urgently needed.
7149		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range at Cuchilla de Pandura, Puerto Rico. Its altitudinal range is 91-303m asl.
7149		habitat	eng	It lives near rivers and in humid forests where it is found among large boulder clusters; the eggs are laid on damp boulder surfaces in grottoes and develop directly.
7149		population	eng	The species is not currently believed to be declining.
7149		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction that is taking place due to agricultural expansion and urban development; as some populations are associated with streams, they might also be susceptible to chytridiomycosis. In addition, presence of introduced species such as Rattus rattus among boulder clusters may pose a threat.
7150		conservation	eng	This species was known to occur in Luquillo National Forest in the El Yunque area. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to determine whether or not this species could still survive in the wild; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
7150		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred in the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, at an altitude of 300-1,150 m asl.
7150		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species that breeds by direct development, it is known from extremely humid closed-canopy forest.
7150		population	eng	Formerly uncommon even in the 1980s, this species was last recorded in 1990 and subsequent extensive searches have failed to locate this species. It is now believed to be most probably extinct.
7150		threats	eng	While the cause for this species' disappearance remains unknown, potential factors could have been climate change and disease. Rats and mongooses have also been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges 1993, and Thurley and Bell 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of <em>Eleutherodactylus coqui</em>), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to establish their relative contribution to amphibian declines.
7455		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, habitat loss is proceeding even within the reserve borders, and there is therefore a need for improved and strengthened management of this protected area.
7455		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the upland regions of Holguin and Guantanamo Provinces, eastern Cuba, with an altitudinal range from 300-1,000m asl.
7455		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in mesic closed forests, and breeds by direct development.
7455		population	eng	It is moderately common within suitable habitat.
7455		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction due to mining and agriculture.
7577		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
7577		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Atlantic-facing Andean slopes at intermediate elevations in northwestern Argentina (Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, San Juan y Mendoza).
7577		habitat	eng	In deserts and shrublands, up to 1,800 m at north of its range.
7577		population	eng	A common species not facing threats for its survival.
7577		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
7578		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
7578		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Patagonian areas of southern Argentina, from central Mendoza and south Río Negro Provinces and adjacent parts of Magallanes in Chile.
7578		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Patagonian steppe habitat.
7578		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
7578		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
7579		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
7579		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano, usually above 3000 m, of extreme southern Peru, through northeastern Chile and west-central Bolivia, to northwestern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Argentina in Jujuy, Salta and Catamarca provinces.
7579		habitat	eng	Puna and highlands Andes, above 3,000 m.
7579		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
7579		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
7580		conservation	eng	The species it is found in several protected areas.
7580		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Patagonian region of southern Argentina, from Buenos Aires and La Pampa Provinces southwards to Santa Cruz province (Musser and Carleton 2005).
7580		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas with open vegetation such as sandy lowland scrub areas and sandy flats with halophytic<br/>plants (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). The species inhabits sand dunes in the Monte Desert (Corbalan and Ojeda 2004) and disturbed shrub and grasslands in the Andean Piedmont (Gonnet and Ojeda 1998). Gestation was determined to last 18 days (Mares 1988).
7580		population	eng	This species is abundant in dense shrublands dominated by Larrea cuneifolia with high grass cover (Corbalan and Ojeda<br/>2004).
7580		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
7581		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It has a Global Heritage Status of G3 (vulnerable) but is classified as S1 (critically imperilled)&#160; in some states (NatureServe 2009). Further research is recommended to clarify the extent of threats impacting this species.
7581		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Alabama, Florida and Georgia. In Florida, it is confined to the shoal immediately below the Jim Woodruff Dam on the Apalachicola River; it is also found in Georgia in the Flint River and tributaries near Albany and downstream, and in Alabama (Thompson 1999). Mihalcik and Thompson (2002) list the distribution as the lower Flint River system in Georgia and the Apalachicola River in Florida. Burch (1989) lists the Flint River, Georgia, and tributaries and Uchee Creek in Russell Co., Alabama.<br/><br/>Goodrich (1942) lists the Flint River, Georgia, and tributaries; and Uchee Creek, Russell County, Alabama.  Clench and Turner (1956) list the Flint (Flint River and Spring Creek in Georgia), Chattahoochee (Flat Shoal Creek and Mulberry Creek in Georgia, Uchee Creek and Howard Creek in Alabama), and Apalachicola (Apalachicola River, Florida) River drainages. Also, the FLMNH holds a record from Coffee Spring (Santa Fe drainage), Suwannee/Columbia Co., Florida, collected in 2000.
7581		habitat	eng	While generally associated with riffles and rocky substrates of rivers and creeks, <em>Elimia</em> spp. may also be found in certain situations in still water and sand or mud substrates. The&#160; only published habitat data can be found in Clench and Turner (1956) and Thompson (1968). Thompson (1968) lists <em>Elimia albanyensis </em>as a shoal species (i.e., riffles) living on rock substrates.
7581		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There are around twenty subpopulations which are patchily distributed.
7581		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but sedimentation is likely to significantly impact its habitat (shoals and riffles).
7582		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperilled, a National Status of N1 - Critically Imperilled for the US, and a State/Province Status for Alabama of S1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009). Further taxonomic work is needed on this species to establish its relationship to other species of the genus.&#160;Monitoring of populations is needed periodically with habitat degradation identified and mitigated. On top of its state listing, this species requires federal protection and enforcement, and site and habitat protection may aid the protection of this species.  A survey for potential reintroduction sites within the Cahaba River drainage should be conducted and captive propagation and reintroductions considered.  If deemed necessary, extant populations should be augmented, if propagation efforts are successful (Mirarchi<em> et al.</em> 2004).
7582		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the main channel of the Cahaba River (Stein 1976), where it was historically found at Centreville and upstream at Lily Shoals in Bibb County (Burch 1989; Goodrich 1934, 1941). Today, it is known to survive between Centreville and Booth Ford, Shelby County, Alabama (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). This counts as a single location (given the threats of impoundments and pollution) as this stretch of river is approximately 16 km in length.
7582		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lotic habitats in moderate to fast current over shoals (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004).   It is also found beneath rock ledges of undercut areas (Bogan and Pierson 1993).
7582		population	eng	This species was identified at nine sites by Bogan and Pierson (1993). Actual occurrences may not equal the number of sites after lumping of populations.  Although historically it was reported from a short reach of the Cahaba River between Centerville and Lily Shoals, Bibb Co., Alabama, today it is known to only survive between Centreville and Booth Ford, Shelby County, Alabama (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species has never been recorded in large numbers (Stein 1976). Pierson (pers. comm. 1997) reported the species as "very rare" and found only one occurrence in recent surveys.&#160;This species is declining rapidly throughout its range.
7582		threats	eng	This species is highly threatened throughout its restricted range due to sedimentation, siltation, and impoundments. The entire population is downstream of Birmingham, Alabama, and is therefore vulnerable to pollution.&#160;Isolated and imperiled populations are likely to be vulnerable to random accidents, such as toxic spills, and to naturally catastrophic events, such as droughts and floods, even if land use and human populations were to remain constant within isolated watersheds.
7585		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Future surveys are recommended in order to monitor the status of this population as it is endemic to the Mobile basin.
7585		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) lists the range as "Headwaters and small streams and creeks of the Cahaba River; in a few tributaries of the Black Warrior River; Waxahatchee Creek and branches of the Coosa River basin." (Goodrich 1941). However, 1993 surveys by Bogan and Pierson found nothing in the Waxahatchee Creek and branches of the Coosa River basin that resembled this species.  Mirarchi (2004) lists this species as common and endemic to Mobile basin, Alabama, where it is widespread in the Black Warrior and Coosa River tributaries and in the Cahaba River system, but only in these drainages and it is an Alabama state endemic. The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
7585		habitat	eng	This species is found in the freshwater river drainages of the Mobile Basin, Alabama.
7585		population	eng	Although this species is endemic to the river drainages of the Mobile basin, this species is reported to have an abundant distribution where it does occur.
7585		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats impacting the global population of this species.
7602		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place and this species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status ranking of G1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009). Further research is recommended to clarify the population trends and the true extent of threats to this species. Future surveys are needed in order to monitor the long-term status of this species.
7602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to two river creeks (equalling two locations), Yellowleaf and Choccolocco Creeks of the Coosa River&#160;in Alabama (Bogan and Pierson 1993, NatureServe 2009). It is poorly known but was historically found in the mainstem Coosa River. However, the two remaining locations are disjunct populations (Lydeard pers. comm. 2000, in NatureServe 2009), with an extent of occurrence of less than 300 km<sup>2</sup>. Excluding disjunctions within the overall distributions of the species, the extent of occurrence is reduced to around 30 km<sup>2</sup>.
7602		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater creeks of the Coosa River, Alabama (Mirarchi 2004).
7602		population	eng	There is insufficient information available regarding the population trends of this species.&#160;Although a decline in population size has been reported, it is unclear to what extent and further research is required to ascertain the population trends. While the two remaining locations represent a disjunct population, this cannot be classed as severe fragmentation.
7602		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation as a result of impoundments, siltation and pollution (NatureServe 2009).
7606		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
7606		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known but is endemic to the Coosa River tributaries from Calhoun to Coosa Cos., Alabama (Mirarchi 2004). Burch (1989), from Goodrich (1941), cites the Coosa River basin, in creeks from Calhoun to Coosa Co., and occasionally in the Coosa River. Marys Creek, Terrapin Creek and Choccoloco Creek in Coosa drainage (Huryn and Denny 1997). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
7606		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams and river tributaries.
7606		population	eng	This species is commonly found where it occurs (Huryn and Denny 1997).
7606		threats	eng	There are no known threats significantly impacting the global population of this species.
7617		conservation	eng	Tennessee NHP is planning surveys of the site to determine present status of this species (TN NHP pers. comm. 2008). Further research is recommended regarding population trends and threats impacting this species.
7617		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely limited distribution. Burch (1989) lists this species as only present in Mossy Creek (Holston River drainage), Jefferson Co., in east Tennessee (as cited by Goodrich 1935, 1940). Its area of occupancy has been estimated as 0.4–4 km² and its extent of occurrence is less than 100 km². It has never been known from nearby sites and a survey of the site in 2002 failed to locate the species, neither in its tributaries nor nearby.
7617		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater creeks.
7617		population	eng	Burch (1989) lists this species only in Mossy Creek, Jefferson Co., in east Tennessee, and this is where the species was originally described from by I. Lea in 1838.  In a survey of the site in 2002, the species could not be located, neither in its tributaries nor nearby (TN NHP pers. comm. 2008). The population is therefore considered to be decreasing.
7617		threats	eng	This species is only known from a single locality and is therefore susceptible to sporadic events that might cause an extirpation. The exact extent of threat processes which may affect this species is largely unknown.
7618		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is found in many protected areas. There is a need to determine why the populations in the eastern part of the range are in decline, to monitor these populations, and to identify and implement appropriate conservation measures.
7618		distribution	eng	<em>Eliomys quercinus </em> is endemic to Europe, where it was historically widespread from Portugal in the west to the Urals (Russia) in the east. It is now largely confined to western Europe, including numerous Mediterranean islands, with eastern populations having become scattered and fragmented. The focus of the species range in the region is in the west. It is a polytypic species, and some insular populations are distinctive forms (e.g., Balearic Islands). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,000 m.
7618		habitat	eng	Its main habitat is woodland (coniferous, deciduous, and mixed), although it is sometimes found in orchards and gardens. It is less arboreal than some other dormice, and is often found on the ground in rocky areas, cracks in stone walls, and even in houses (Le Louarn and Spitz 1974, Vaterlaus 1998, Filippucci 1999, Spitzenberger 2002, Bertolino 2006).
7618		population	eng	Population declines, range contractions and local extinctions have occurred in central, eastern and southern Europe over the last few decades. Some island populations are declining. The species is now rare in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (probably extinct: Ju?kaitis 2003), east Germany and the Czech Republic (Andera 1994) and adjacent Austria (Spitzenberger 2002), and has disappeared completely from the Slovakian part of the Carpathians and from the Croatian mainland. The last record in Romania is over 20 years old (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In the south of Spain, where it was formerly abundant and expanding, it is now rare (Ruiz and Roman 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal a decline in population is possible, although causes and magnitude of any such reduction are unknown (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Many of the declines were over the last 50 years or so, with some of the declines more recently recorded. The species may have been lost from over half of the range in the last 30 years (S. Bertolino pers. comm. 2006). In parts of its range where it is more abundant, population density is usually less than 10 individuals per hectare, though exceptionally densities of 30-50 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Filippucci 1999).
7618		population	eng	Population declines, range contractions and local extinctions have occurred in central, eastern and southern Europe over the last few decades. Some island populations are declining. The species is now rare in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (probably extinct: Juškaitis 2003), east Germany and the Czech Republic (Andera 1994) and adjacent Austria (Spitzenberger 2002), and has disappeared completely from the Slovakian part of the Carpathians and from the Croatian mainland. The last record in Romania is over 20 years old (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In the south of Spain, where it was formerly abundant and expanding, it is now rare (Ruiz and Roman 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal a decline in population is possible, although causes and magnitude of any such reduction are unknown (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Many of the declines were over the last 50 years or so, with some of the declines more recently recorded. The species may have been lost from over half of the range in the last 30 years (S. Bertolino pers. comm. 2006). In parts of its range where it is more abundant, population density is usually less than 10 individuals per hectare, though exceptionally densities of 30-50 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Filippucci 1999).
7618		threats	eng	It has been suggested that it is threatened in some areas (especially Corsica) by direct competition with the brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The populations from Germany eastwards are declining (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006), but the reasons are not well known, although thought to be related to habitat changes. In some areas of orchards, the species is considered a pest.
7619		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
7619		distribution	eng	<em>Eliomys melanurus</em> is a widespread species, occurring from the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula westwards to Egypt. It is found from low altitude desert up to 2,850 m.
7619		distribution	eng	<em>Eliomys melanurus</em> is a widespread species, occurring from the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula westwards to Egypt. It is found from low-altitude desert up to 2,850 m.
7619		habitat	eng	The species exists in a wide variety of habitats from steppes and semi-desert to high mountains in rocky areas which are devoid of trees and bushes. It has been found in areas which are snow covered throughout winter.
7619		population	eng	Both <em>E. melanurus</em> and <em>E. munbyanus</em> are locally common.
7619		threats	eng	Has a broad range and is not seriously threatened. Overgrazing and loss of vegetation is a problem in some areas, for instance in the Negev Desert.
7621		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from numerous protected areas throughout its range.
7621		distribution	eng	The most widely distributed species in the genus, found in eastern and northern Madagascar including the western portion of the central highlands. It ranges from the Montagne l'Ambre in the north, to the Anosyennes and Vohimena Mountains in the south-east. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,875 m asl (Carleton 2003).
7621		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid forest, as well as some sites in dry deciduous forest, including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, where it uses a wide variety of terrestrial and arboreal microhabitats (Carleton 2003). The females give birth to litters of up to four young (Carleton 2003). Although primarily restricted to forest, it is one of the few <em>Eliurus</em> species that can be found in very degraded forest.
7621		population	eng	This species can on occasion be common in montane forest (D. Rakrotondravony pers. comm.)
7621		threats	eng	This species is mainly threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for conversion to agricultural land and for charcoal production. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
7622		conservation	eng	This species is present from at least 11 protected areas including the Andohahela, Andringitra, Marojejy and Montagne d'Ambre National Parks, Manongarivo Special Reserve, and Pic D'Ivohibe and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserves.
7622		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern and northern Madagascar including the western portion of the central highlands. It has been recorded from the Montagne d'Ambre in the north to the Parc National d'Andohahela in the south. This species is found at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl (Carleton 2003).
7622		habitat	eng	This species is known from areas of montane rainforest and has not been recorded outside of forest. It appears to be a mostly arboreal species, occasionally visiting ground level (Carleton 2003). The females may give birth to up to four young.
7622		population	eng	In certain montane forest habitats this species is remarkably common (Carleton and Goodman 2000).
7622		threats	eng	This species is found in montane areas above 1,000 m, which is above the zone of heaviest deforestation, although in portions of this species range its habitat is threatened by deforestation. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
7623		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a numerous protected areas including Ankarana Special Reserve, Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d'Ankarafantsika, Kirindy Forest and Zombitse and Vohibasia Forests.
7623		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it ranges widely from lowland humid forest in the north-east to dry forests formations in the western and southern portions of the island. It occurs from the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d'Ankarafantsika in the north to the vicinity of Bevilany in the south-east. It has been recorded from near sea level to 1,250 m asl (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 2001; Carleton 2003).
7623		habitat	eng	This predominantly scansorial species is found in lowland humid forest of the north-east, dry deciduous forest in the west, and spiny forest in the south and south-west of its range. It can also be found in dry-humid transitional forest (Carleton 2003). This species nests in tree holes and has a gestation period of 24 days, after which it gives birth to a litter of up to three young (Carleton 2003). This species also occurs in secondary forest, including areas with regenerating forest after fire (Randrianjafy 2003; S.M. Goodman pers. comm.). This species is dependent on forest, though it can occur in heavily degraded forests.
7623		population	eng	It appears to be more common in deciduous forest than in spiny forest. At other sites such as Analavelona, it is very abundant (S.M. Goodman, unpubl.).
7623		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through livestock grazing, charcoal production and wildfires. This species is also locally threatened by domestic and feral dogs and cats. This species is not susceptible to plague as the only humid forest areas that it occurs in are below 800 m.
7624		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. More surveys are needed to determine the species' distribution, population, biology, and ecology. There should be genetic work to determine its exact relationship with regard to <em>E. majori</em> and <em>E. danieli</em> (Carleton and Goodman 2007).
7624		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to eastern Madagascar, where it was previously known only from the type locality of Ampitambe forest, in the vicinity of Ambositra in Fianarantsoa Province (Carleton and Schmidt 1990; Carleton 2003). This species was not recorded for 92 years until recorded in 2000 from Ankerana, about 35 km north-east of Fandriana in the Fandriana-Marolambo corridor (Carleton and Goodman 2007; Raherisehena and Rakotondravony, unpubl.).  It has been collected from 900-1,670 m asl. This seems to be one of the few rodents in the eastern humid forest with a restricted distribution, as there have adequate surveys to the north and south of its known distribution (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
7624		habitat	eng	It is known only from montane humid forest. Presumably it is an arboreal or scansorial animal. Nothing further is known about the ecology of this species.
7624		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, collected in 1895-1896, and one additional specimen collected in 2000 (Carleton and Goodman 2007; Raherisehena and Rakotondravony, unpubl.).
7624		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
7625		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas (at least 12) including Ranomafana National Park, Masaola National Park, and Andohahela National Park.
7625		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the humid forests formations of Madagascar, from the northern highlands south to Andohahela National Park in the southern Anosyennes Mountains. It has been recorded between 410 and 1,625 m asl (Carleton 2003).
7625		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical moist forest on foothills and montane forest. It is found in grassy glades and amongst herbaceous vegetation, vines, stands of tree ferns and bamboo thickets. It is partly scansorial but is also found at ground level, especially in montane forest. The females give birth to up to four young (Carleton 2003). This species has been found to be adaptable to secondary forest, although at lower abundances.
7625		population	eng	It appears to be more common in mid-altitude and montane forest.
7625		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
7626		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas across eastern Madagascar.
7626		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the humid forests formations of northern and eastern Madagascar. It ranges from Montagne d'Ambre in the northern highlands to the southern Anosyennes and Vohimena Mountains, and the littoral forests of the south-east. It is found from near sea level up to around 1,025 m asl, but also recorded on the Andringitra Massif to 1500 m (Carleton 2003; V. Randrianjafy pers. comm.).
7626		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and littoral forest. it is one of the few native Malagasy rodents found in littoral forests. It is a mostly a scansorial species that lives in monogamous pairs, and occupies ground burrows (Carleton 2003). The females give birth to up to three young (Carleton, 2003). It also has been found to occur in plantations of non-native trees, such as <em>Eucalyptus</em> (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
7626		population	eng	At certain sites, particularly lowland forest, this species can be relatively common (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
7626		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land.
7635		conservation	eng	Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.
7635		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Waccamaw River Basin in North and South Carolina (Bogan 2002, Bogan and Alderman 2004). It is also occasionally found in the Waccamaw River at least as far south as Conway, South Carolina, and its distribution in the river may be correlated to pH (Porter 1985, Porter and Horn 1983).  Depending on its genetic relationship to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Elliptio</span>, it might be wider-ranging.  Recently it was found at sixteen sites (of 61) in the Pee Dee River drainage (Little Pee Dee River, Great Pee Dee River, Black River) in South Carolina, representing significant range increases for this species (Catena Group 2006).
7635		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers in sand and sandy gravel substrate (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7635		population	eng	This species is locally abundant, and in Lake Waccamaw this species is the most abundant (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7635		threats	eng	Typical freshwater threats likely to affect this species include habitat degradation as a result of pollution from domestic and industrial sources, residential development, wood and pulp plantations, and droughts (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7636		conservation	eng	Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as currently stable according to the AFS assessment. Further research regarding taxonomy and population trends, accompanied by monitoring of population trends, will help elicit future changes in population status.
7636		distribution	eng	The range extent for this species is difficult to ascertain due to confusion with other peninsular <span style="font-style: italic;">Elliptio</span>. Johnson (1972) listed the range to include the St. Marks River system and the Suwannee River system, in peninsular Florida. It is also found in the Ochlockonee River system in Florida and possibly Georgia.
7636		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in lakes and rivers, in sand and mud bottom habitats (Johnson 1972).
7636		population	eng	This species is thought to be common (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
7636		threats	eng	Threats likely to affect this species include pollution to river systems from domestic and agricultural sources (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
7638		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 (apparently secure) (NatureServe 2009), an American Fisheries Society Status of Special Concern (1 Jan 1993) and Vulnerable (Williams<em> et al.</em> in press), and a previous IUCN Red List Category of Near Threatened (1996 ver 2.3).&#160;In South Carolina, this species is listed as State Special Concern (Bogan and Alderman 2008).&#160;It is unknown whether any occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed. Further clarification of this species' taxonomic classification is necessary, and population surveys are suggested as these data are lacking.
7638		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina (Bogan and Alderman 2008, NatureServe 2009). Bogan <em>et al</em>. (2009) found that specimens identified as <em>angustata </em>were re-identified as <em>fisheriana</em>.
7638		habitat	eng	This habitat specialist is found in deep run river habitats with coarse sand or gravel and a swift current (NatureServe 2009). Bogan and Alderman (2008) found this species in sand and sandy gravel often along the edges of aquatic vegetation. <br/><br/>The fish host for this species is unknown.
7638		population	eng	Notwithstanding any changes to its taxonomy, this species is considered to be fairly stable throughout its range, with several new occurrences discovered recently (NatureServe 2009).&#160;Specific population data is unknown.
7638		threats	eng	This species is negatively impacted by several threats, such as water abstraction, logging, urban and domestic pollution, agricultural pollution and industrial pollution (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Although this species is impacted upon by many threats, it has a wide distribution and as such is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale.
7640		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the upper parts of the Chipola River catchment.
7640		habitat	eng	This mollusc is found only in the upper reaches of the catchment. It occurs in the silty sand substrates of slow to medium flowing tributaries.
7643		conservation	eng	No widespread conservation actions have been undertaken for this species. Further research regarding the taxonomy, population trends, threats and ecology of this species is required.
7643		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Satilla River system in Georgia (Butler 1994). There is some speculation that this species may also occur in the St. Marys River system, which lies directly south of the Satilla River, but this species has been listed at times as <em>Elliptio crassidens</em> (Johnson 1970). Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1993) also list this species from South Carolina and Florida.
7643		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy/muddy to sandy substrates in medium-sized streams in swift to moderate currents (Heard 1975). It is also found in the main channel of rivers, backwaters and even lakes (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).
7643		population	eng	Although historically known from few occurrences, these occurrences were often represented by an abundance of individuals and despite a lack of comprehensive survey effort of the river, periodic recent survey efforts have not documented any site extirpations.&#160;Number of occurrences can only be estimated, since a comprehensive survey of the Satilla River basin has not been completed. Johnson (1970) lists only four historical occurrences, three from the main stem of the Satilla River, and one from Buck Lake, a bayou of the Satilla River.  Heard (1975) reported <em>Elliptio downiei </em>from only a few occurrences in the Satilla River, but noted that populations could be locally abundant.  Butler (1994) lists the species as endemic to the Satilla River in Georgia.  If the <em>Elliptio</em> in the St. Mary's River, Georgia, is indeed this species and not<em> Elliptio crassidens</em>, occurrences would include the St. Mary's River east of St. George and south-southeast of Folkston, and Spanish Creek in West Folkston, all in Charleton Co. (Johnson, 1970). <em>Elliptio downiei</em> is still extant at the type locality, Buck Lake (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).<br/><br/>This species is currently considered stable (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).&#160;Long term trends are not really known as the occupied habitat was not well surveyed historically.
7643		threats	eng	This species is restricted to a single river system in Georgia (although it has also been recorded from South Carolina and Florida). Threats include bank destabilization due to urbanization, eutrophication, chemical pollution, and extreme low water conditions induced by water withdrawals.
7644		conservation	eng	Lake Waccamaw was designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as "Critical Habitat" due to the presence of the Threatened Waccamaw Silverside (<span style="font-style: italic;">Menidia extensa</span>). However, this federal designation is probably not sufficient to conserve the mussel fauna in the lake.  A monitoring plan is needed. Further research is required on the taxonomy, population status and trends, ecology and threats impacting this species. Site protection and national protection of the species will help to ensure the species long term survival.<br/><br/>Williams <em>et al. </em>(in press) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.
7644		distribution	eng	The type locality is the Savannah River in Georgia, but the species is also recorded from the Waccamaw River Basin (down as far as Brookville, South Carolina) and Cape Fear River Basin in North Carolina (Adams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990, Bogan 2002), in Bladen, Brunswick, Columbus, Cumberland, Duplin, Harnett, Pender, and  Sampson Cos.; however, the species is mainly found in Lake Waccamaw (LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).  It is also found in the Pee Dee River basins in South Carolina (Bogan and Alderman 2004).  It is likely extirpated from the Ogeechee River system, Georgia (Sukkestad et al. 2006).<br/><br/>Because forms of <em>Elliptio folliculata</em> grade into forms of <em>Elliptio producta</em>, it is difficult to give a precise estimate of the number of occurrences of<em> E. folliculata</em>. In most areas with clearly defined <em>E. folliculata</em> forms present, reproduction is occurring. However, reproduction is limited in the Lake Waccamaw population.  Recently, the species was observed at ten sites within the Waccamaw River and lower portions of the Black River (Catena Group 2006).  Davis and Mulvey (1993) cite the Donora Station and Reedy Branch of Mill Creek in South Carolina.
7644		habitat	eng	<em>Elliptio folliculata</em> is restricted to the Atlantic Slope Piedmont and Coastal Plain physiographic regions. This species can be found in streams, creeks, rivers, and in Lake Waccamaw. Substrates range from silt/sand to coarse sand/gravel/cobble/boulder/bedrock. Lotic habitats range from higher gradient riffle-run-pool systems to meandering swamp creeks.  Average depth in Lake Waccamaw, where it occurred, was 2.24 m.
7644		population	eng	Porter (1985) found the species in low numbers in Lake Waccamaw with an average density of 0.1/m<sup>2</sup>, and a maximum density of 3.2/m<sup>2</sup>. During 1990-1998 North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission surveys of Lake Waccamaw, <span style="font-style: italic;">Elliptio folliculata</span> represented significantly less than 1% of the mussel species found. There were no signs of recent reproduction. Only large, old individuals of <em>E. folliculata </em>were found in the Cape Fear River above Fayetteville, North Carolina.<br/><br/>Whatever the taxonomic status of <em>Elliptio folliculata, </em>lanceolate <em>elliptio</em> species within the range of <em>E. folliculata</em> usually are not present or only represent a small percentage of the mussel fauna at each survey station. Given low abundances and patchy distributions and numerous impacts from land, water, and air uses, we can expect future losses in local populations of this complex.  The species is likely extirpated from the Ogeechee River system, Georgia (Sukkestad <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In most areas with clearly defined <em>E. folliculata</em> forms present, reproduction is occurring. However, reproduction is limited in the Lake Waccamaw population.
7644		threats	eng	The water quality of Lake Waccamaw is generally good. Algal productivity seems to be controlled by the amount of humic materials coming in from the swamp creeks around the lake, especially noticeable after heavy rains. Thus, water transparency varies according to the amount of precipitation, and in drought years the lake water may be very clear. Under such conditions, filamentous clumps of algae develop and the abundance of benthic algae increases markedly. The lake may be particularly sensitive to increased nutrient loading at these times. Increased nutrient and sediment loading can come from several different sources: increased development along the lake shore, channelization of swamp creeks which empty into the lake and bring in agricultural runoff, and clear-cutting activities along the river bank. The Lake Waccamaw wastewater treatment plant, which discharges to the swamp near the river is not currently in compliance with effluent standards.  Also, mussel species distributions in lakes are largely determined by the trophic status of the lake (Green 1971), and while the mussels in Waccamaw can be considered to be oligotrophic species, it is possible that Lake Waccamaw is becoming more eutrophic with time, since <span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula</span> is now common in many areas of the lake, including the Lake Waccamaw State Park area. The exotic aquatic weed <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrilla</span> (or other exotics such as Brazilian <span style="font-style: italic;">Elodea</span> or Water milfoil) could become a threat if ever introduced to the lake. Such species have become very dense in shallow waters of many lakes and slow-flowing rivers in the southeast, and extensive beds of these rooted macrophytes could effectively exclude bottom dwelling organisms. Few mussels are found in beds of the currently established rooted macrophytes in Waccamaw (Porter 1985). Also, when beds of these types of plants die and decay, water quality can become impaired.
7646		conservation	eng	No major conservation measures have been undertaken.&#160;Further research is required on the taxonomy, population status and trends, ecology and threats impacting this species. Site protection and national protection of the species will help to ensure the species long term survival.
7646		distribution	eng	This species is common, but has a limited range as a local endemic to the Altamaha River system in Georgia (Johnson 1970, Heard 1975). However, it has also recently been documented in the Ogeechee drainage in Georgia (C. Skelton, GA College and State University, pers. comm. 2006). Similarly,&#160;during&#160;a&#160;survey&#160;of the Savannah River proper in Georgia and South Carolina in 2006, specimens ascribed to this species were widely collected (J Wisniewski pers. comm. 2009).
7646		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers with sand/mud to sand substrates, in moderate to slack current (Heard 1975). Johnson (1970) also listed the habitat as sand or sandy mud.
7646		population	eng	This species is historically known from at least five occurrences in the Ocmulgee River drainage, one in a Little Ocmulgee River tributary, two in the Oconee River, three in the Ohoopee River, and six in the Altamaha River. It is currently widespread in the Altamaha River system, and found in reduced numbers in the Oconee and Ohoopee rivers. In a recent survey of the Altamaha River system, it was found at 176 (63.8%) of 276 sites surveyed (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000). It was the most common mussel found in the lower Altamaha River system (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).  <br/><br/>Over 7,000 specimens were found in a 1993 to 1997 survey of the Altamaha River system (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).  In a survey of 131 stations (93 Altamaha River, 19 Ocmulgee River, 5 Oconee River, 4 Ohoopee River, 10 Little Ocmulgee River), 6,404 specimens were found at 109 stations (Anon 1995).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">TRENDS</span><br/>This species appears stable in most areas of the Altamaha River system except in the Oconee River. It also appears to be in decline in the Ohoopee River (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).  Based on 241 sites sampled prior to 2000 and 120 sites sampled after 2000, pre-2000 site occupancy in the Altamaha basin in Georgia is estimated at 56% (136 sites) and post-2000 site occupancy at 75% (90 sites) (Wisniewski <em>et al</em>. 2005).
7646		threats	eng	Localised threats include sedimentation due to poor land management practices and urbanization, pollution, eutrophication, low water levels due to water withdrawals, and bank and streambed destabilization.
7648		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The Choctawhatchee River drainage has an unprotected watershed.&#160;Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.&#160;<em>Elliptio mcmichaeli </em>was listed as a species of special concern throughout its range (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1993) and in Alabama (Lydeard <em>et al.</em>&#160;1999). Garner<em> et al. </em>(2004) designated <em>E. mcmichaeli</em> a species of highest conservation concern in the state (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further research on taxonomy, population trends, ecology and threats will help elicit this species' conservation status. National and site protection is needed for this species, including legislation to ensure enforcement.
7648		distribution	eng	This species was formerly considered a Choctawhatchee River endemic, restricted to the Choctawhatchee River mainstem in Alabama and Florida, the Pea River in Alabama, large tributaries of both rivers in Alabama, and Bruce, Wright, Sandy, Holmes, and East Pitman creeks. Williams<em> et al. </em>(2000) recently reported this species from the Escambia River system, including the Sepulga River, Conecuh County, Alabama, and the Conecuh River, Crenshaw County, Alabama.  Blalock-Herod <em>et al</em>. (2005) listed this species in the Choctawhatchee River drainage from 29 historical sites and found 51 new sites in both Florida a<em></em>nd Alabama. The extent of occurrence is less than 22,000 km².
7648		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy clay in moderate current (Heard 1979), and main river channels with moderate currents in substrates ranging from consolidated sand and mud to coarse, shifting sands (Blalock <em>et al.</em> 1998). Juveniles may require sand and silt-free riffles. Johnson's (1970) records of <em>Elliptio fraterna </em>from the main channel of rivers and tributaries in swift currents over sandy substrates are probably based on <em>Elliptio mcmichaeli.</em><br/><br/>Despite its limited range, it appears to be tolerant of moderate siltation and other low impact threats (Butler pers. comm. 2000).
7648		population	eng	Current surveys indicate <em>Elliptio mcmichaeli </em>populations are sporadic in distribution (Blalock <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, this species can be locally abundant. At the best site known, approximately 90 specimens/hr can be found. Densities at a site on the mainstem Choctawhatchee River in adjacent Alabama harboured approximately 20 individuals/m²<sup></sup>.  In a 2004 survey of 24 sites in the Choctawhatchee, Yellow, and Conecuh-Escambia River drainages in southern Alabama, Pilarczyk <em>et al.</em> (2006) found this species at four sites (in particularly high abundance at West Fork Choctawhatchee River - 226 specimens/m²,<sup></sup> and Flat Creek - 276 specimens/m²<sup></sup>, both Choctawhatchee River drainage).<br/><br/>Although this species can still be found in large numbers at several sites, recent surveys suggest it no longer occurs at multiple, historical sites (Blalock<em> et al</em>. 1998).  Range is reduced in Alabama despite several new localities found (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is still extant in much of the Choctowhatchee River drainage, with the exception of the Pea River system upstream of Elba Dam (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is also extant in the Conecuh River system (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008).<br/><br/><em></em><em></em>This species is known from approximately 20 occurrences in Choctawhatchee River system. Historically it was known from seven occurrences in the Pea River, and in a recent survey it was found at three historical occurrences as well as a new occurrence (Blalock <em>et al.</em> 1998). It was not located at the approximately 45 other sites surveyed in the Pea River drainage. Most mainstem Choctawhatchee River occurrences are historical and unmappable (i.e., the historical place names are not found on current maps). It was also recently reported from several historical occurrences in the Escambia River system, and during a recent survey was found in the Supulga River, Conecuh County, Alabama, and in the Conecuh River, Crenshaw County, Alabama (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2000). Although 179 sites were recently surveyed in the Escambia and Yellow rivers, no specimens were found in the Yellow River drainage (Williams <em>et al. </em>2000).  Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> (2005) listed this species in the Choctawhatchee River drainage from 29 historical sites (relocated in 15 of 20 surveyed) and found 51 new sites in both Florida and Alabama.  In a 2004 survey of 24 sites in the Choctawhatchee, Yellow, and Conecuh-Escambia River drainages in southern Alabama, Pilarczyk <em>et al</em>. (2006) found this species at four sites (in particularly high abundance at West Fork Choctawhatchee River and Flat Creek, both Choctawhatchee River drainage). It is widespread in the Choctowhatchee River system and is known from a few Conecuh River system localities (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7648		threats	eng	The population at US highway 90 has declined sharply for unknown reasons. Excessive sedimentation as a result of poor land management practices, chemicals from industrial run-off, reservoirs, and bank and stream bed destabilization could be potential threats. Due to human population growth in the Choctawhatchee River drainage, various federal agencies have suggested over 25 potential locations for impoundments in the Pea River system (Blalock <em>et al. </em>1998). Water withdrawals for irrigation and other purposes are also a potential impact.<br/><br/>This species exhibits slow growth to reproductive maturity; and is a filter feeder, so is very sensitive to the above threats. It is also dependent upon fish populations (Butler pers. comm. 2000). However, it appears to be tolerant of moderate siltation and other low impact threats (Butler pers. comm. 2000).
7649		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is currently under review by the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission.&#160;Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.&#160;Further research regarding taxonomy and population trends, accompanied by monitoring of population trends, will help elicit future changes in population status.
7649		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic coast from the Savannah River north to the Roanoke River basin (Bogan <em>et al. </em>2009). It is possibly extirpated from&#160; the Ogeechee River system in Georgia (Sukkestad <em>et al. </em>2006).
7649		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in medium to large rivers, on sand and gravel substrate with current (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7649		population	eng	Although specific population information is lacking, this species is reported to be declining across its range and&#160;is uncommon where found (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7649		threats	eng	Typical threats to freshwater systems include habitat degradation due to abstraction of water and pollution from urban, industrial and agricultural sources (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010). Although these threats may be affecting the species on a local scale, they are unlikely to be impacting the global population.
7651		conservation	eng	If extant at the type locality, the population may be protected by Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge. Further research regarding this species' taxonomy, population trends, ecology and threats is required.
7651		distribution	eng	This species is a St. Johns River and Oklawaha River endemic that is restricted to the middle St. Johns River system in central Florida. It is known from mainstem sites, at least a few lake occurrences (Lake Beresford, Lake Dexter, Lake Woodruff) and a few tributaries (Econlockhatchee River, Oklawaha River). It is historically known from Marion, Lake, Volusia, Seminole, Orange, and Brevard Cos (Butler pers. comm. 2000).
7651		habitat	eng	This species inhabits loose sand to soft mud, presumably in slow currents or slack-water areas and is known from a few lake occurrences  (W. McCullagh pers. comm. 1992).
7651		population	eng	This species, if valid, is known from five or six occurrences, all in the middle portion of the St. Johns and Oklawaha River systems in Florida. It is not known whether it is extant at the type locality (Lake Woodruff) (designated by Johnson 1967). There are possibly more occurrences, but surveys need to be conducted in poorly accessible river/lake segments (W. McCullagh pers. comm. 1992).<br/><br/>Little is known about the viability of this species at the various reported sites, but it has historically been known from low numbers (<6) at each occurrence (W. McCullagh pers. comm. 1992). Approximately one in every 300–400 mussels was identified as this species in September 1986 at I-4 crossing of the St. Johns River, outlet of Lake Monroe (W. McCullagh pers. comm. 1992).<br/><br/>Historical data on the species is largely limited to type material collected in late 1800s. Past confusion with <em>Elliptio jayensis</em>, with which it might be synonymous, muddles matters.
7651		threats	eng	Extreme hypereutrophication, urban and agricultural runoff, and dredging are probable threats. Dredging and damming of the Oklawaha River for the Florida barge canal very possibly destroyed some populations. The Orlando area, draining into the middle St. Johns River and Econlockhatchee River, is one of the fastest growing in the U.S., potentially putting great pressure on water and habitat quality for this and other species (W. McCullagh pers. comm. 1992).<br/><br/>Considering low number of occurrences and population size, this species is probably more fragile than other unionids. It exhibits typical susceptibility to filter feeder impacts (W. McCullagh pers. comm. 1992).
7652		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 - Imperilled, and a State/Province Status Rank of S2 - Imperilled for Georgia, S1 - Critically Imperilled in Alabama, and S1S2 - Critically Imperilled to Imperilled in Florida (NatureServe 2009). Williams&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>(2010) lists this species as endangered according to the American Fisheries Society (AFS) assessment.&#160;&#160;This species was added to the U.S. Federal Endangered Species list in 1998, and a recovery plan was created for this species (USFWS 2003).  Critical habitat has been designated for 380.4 km of the Upper Flint River, Georgia; 302.3 km of the Middle Flint River, Georgia; 396.7 km of the Lower Flint River, Georgia; 155.4 km of the Apalachicola River in Florida; 177.3 km of the Upper Ochlockonee River, Florida and Georgia; and 75.4 km of the Lower Ochlockonee River in Florida (USFWS 2006). Occurrences in the lower Ochlockonee and Apalachicola rivers border the Apalachicola National Forest.<br/><br/>Further research is required regarding the taxonomy, population status, ecology and threats impacting this species. Conservation and legislative protection is also required.
7652		distribution	eng	The Purple Bankclimber is known from 68 historical collections representing 25 occurrences in the Apalachicola, Chattahoochee and Flint (ACF) rivers in Alabama, Georgia and Florida, and from nine occurrences in the Ochlockonee River system in Florida and Georgia. Heard (1979) reported one shell of <em>Elliptoideus</em> from the Escambia River, near Century, Florida, but in Deyrup and Franz (1994), it was stated this record was based on the conchologically similar <span style="font-style: italic;">Plectomerus dombeyanus</span>. It is known from fossil records from two additional Florida drainages (Bogan and Portell 1995, J. D. Williams pers. comm. 2010). It appears to be very rare or extirpated from the Chipola and Chattahoochee rivers. One specimen was recorded from the Chattahoochee in December of 2000, prior to that it had not been recorded since the 1800s. The last record from the Chipola River was in 1988 (Brim Box and Williams 2000). The range is likely to extend over an area of up to 45,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but because of the disjointed distribution of this species, taking discontinuities and only partially occupied basins into account makes the estimated range much smaller than this, and more in the region of no more than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>The species once occurred in 737 river miles within the ACF and Ochlockonee river basins. It has lost 39% of its range (from 737 to 453 river miles) (USFWS 2003).
7652		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand, fine gravel or muddy sand substrates in moderate current (Heard 1975) in large rivers or streams (Clench and Turner 1956). In the ACF Basin it was found primarily at main channel sites (small to large river channels) in slow to moderate current with sand/limestone substrates, and frequently in waters over 3 m in depth (Brim Box and Williams 2000, USFWS 2003, 2006). In the Ochlockonee River system, it was found in the main channel in sandy substrates in moderate to swift currents.<br/><br/>Direct life-history data is not available for this species. Freshwater mussels are highly variable in their longevity from species to species (e.g. Haag and Rypel 2011). Studies have shown longevity of species in the tribe Pleurobemini, to which this species belongs, to range from 14 to 57 years (Haag and Rypel 2011). In order to put population declines in perspective, we develop an estimate of longevity based on the average of observed maximum ages (from populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Elliptio arca, E. complanata, E. crassidens, Fusconaia cerina, F. cuneolus, F. ebena, Pleurobema coccineum, P. collina</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. decisum</span>; Haag and Rypel 2011), and derive an average longevity of 31-32 years (using minimum and maximum ages observed, we derive upper and lower margins of 19 and 57 years respectively). In a study of fecundity and maturity in a number of freshwater mussels, age at maturity ranged from less than one year in <span style="font-style: italic;">Lampsilis ornata </span>to up to nine year in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quadrula asperata</span>; the sole representative of the tribe Pleurobemini, <span style="font-style: italic;">Elliptio</span> arca, matured early at an age of two years (Haag and Staton 2003). Assuming a first age of maturity of around 2-5 years, generation length (estimated as the average age of a parent in the population) is estimated as around 16 to 19 years, with three generations spanning approximately 48 to 57 years. As a result, we assess population decline estimates since around 1955 to 1965 for the purpose of validation of criterion A.
7652		population	eng	In recent surveys throughout its historical range, the species was found at 30 of 324 sites surveyed in the ACF Basin in Alabama and Georgia (Apalachicola and Flint Rivers and one specimen from the Chattahoochee River system- first record since the 1800s) (Brim Box and Williams 2000) and 16 of 73 sites surveyed in the Ochlockonee River system [note that many of these sites can be lumped into fewer occurrences]. It is rarely collected in tributary streams or impoundments.  There exists a recent discovery of a single live specimen on the Chattahoochee River. In Georgia, it has been found in the Flint, Chattahoochee and Ochlockonee rivers (USFWS 2003).  In Alabama, it is restricted to the Chattahoochee River with a few historical records and extant records only in the tailwaters of Bartletts Ferry Dam in Lee Co. and Harris Co., Georgia (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008).<br/><br/>Relatively high densities exist in the upper Apalachicola and Ochlockonee Rivers.  Current population sizes in the Flint and Chipola Rivers are much smaller (USFWS 2003).  Most occurrences in the Ochlockonee River are above Talquin Reservoir except for an anomalous small stream occurrence from an unnamed tributary of Mill Creek, Flint River system (one specimen in 1998) (USFWS 2003).<br/><br/>In 1987, 100 individuals/hr could be found at the best known site. Based on recent surveys, the species can be locally abundant in the main channels of the Flint and Apalachicola rivers (Brim Box and Williams 2000). Dozens of specimens were found in the mainstem of the Flint River in Decatur County, Georgia, and below the Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam in the main channel of the Apalachicola River. Hundreds were also observed in the main channel of the Ochlockonee River in Leon Co., Florida, during a 1993 survey (Brim Box pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Although large populations persist at multiple localities, this species is now rare or extirpated from two of the five rivers where it was historically found. Based on recent surveys, little evidence of recent recruitment was found throughout its historical range.  It is extirpated from Chattahoochee River (only former locality in Alabama) except for a single specimen collected recently (Brim Box and Williams 2000); Line Creek, upper Flint River system; Little River, Ochlockonee River system (Butler and Alam 1999). <br/><br/>The threatened Purple Bankclimber once occurred in 737 river miles  within the ACF and Ochlockonee river basins. It has lost 39% of its  range over the last 10-20 years (from 737 to 453 river miles) (USFWS 2003).
7652		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in distribution, occurs in generally small subpopulations, and shows little evidence of recovering from historical habitat losses without significant positive human intervention. This species does not tolerate impounded conditions. Principle causes of decline include impoundments, channelisation, pollution, and sedimentation that have altered or eliminated those habitats that are essential to the long-term viability of many riverine mussel populations. Detailed information on these threats can be found in USFWS (2003).  Many of the impacts discussed in USFWS (2003) occurred in the past as unintended consequences of human development in the Apalachicolan Region. However, the species and its habitats continue to be impacted by excessive sediment bed loads of smaller sediment particles, changes in turbidity, increased suspended solids (primarily resulting from nonpoint-source loading from poor land-use practices, lack of BMPs, and maintenance of existing BMPs), and pesticides. Other primarily localised impacts include gravel mining, reduced water quality below dams, developmental activities, water withdrawal, impoundments, and alien species. Toxic spills are also a possibility in all extant populations (USFWS 2003).  Barge maintenance dredging in Apalachicola and Chattahoochee rivers probably eradicated EOs. Since this species is restricted to the main channel of large rivers, excess sedimentation as a result of bank destabilisation and poor land management practices could alter suitable habitats. It is also&#160; threatened by agricultural runoff and pollution.
7653		conservation	eng	None known. Need further study of habitat and ecology and necessary conservation measures.
7653		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the Alai Mtns, S Kyrgyzstan.
7653		habitat	eng	Poorly studied species. Habitat and ecology is possibly similar to that of Ellobius tancrei.
7653		population	eng	Unknown.
7653		threats	eng	Unknown.
7654		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures as a whole are currently needed for this species.
7654		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from eastern Iran, through Turkmenistan and Afghanistan, east to Pakistan  (Habibi 2003). It ranges from sea level to an elevation of several thousand metres.
7654		habitat	eng	The species is fossorial and is found in open steppe habitat with loose soil not sand. It has been recoded from cultivated fields though it can live in shallow mountainside soils, where it burrows, feeding on the undergound parts of plants. It does not hibernate but may become inactive in the summer. The reproductive period is short. Females have been reported with three to four embryos in Armenia.
7654		population	eng	The species is common in suitable habitats. It is uncommon in Turkmenistan.
7654		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In southern Turkmenistan, the habitat is being degraded in some areas by agriculture. In South Asia it is threatened by natural calamities such as drought, wildfires, avalanches and landslides and interspecific competitors (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
7655		conservation	eng	No records in protected areas in Turkey. Found in protected areas in Armenia (GMA Turkey, 2005).
7655		distribution	eng	Southern Transcaucasia through east Turkey and northwest Iran.
7655		distribution	eng	S Transcaucasia through east Turkey and northwest Iran.
7655		habitat	eng	Most abundant in mountain grasslands and steppes from 700 to 2,500 m. Also found in sandy semi-deserts in piedmonts. Ecology is similar to that of <em>Ellobius talpinus</em>. Colonial, subterranean, appears on the ground only when moves soil from the burrows. Feeds mostly on underground parts of plants (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
7655		habitat	eng	Most abundant in mountain grasslands and steppes from 700 to 2500 m. Also found in sandy semi-deserts in piedmonts. Ecology is similar to that of <em>Ellobius talpinus</em>. Colonial, subterranean, appears on the ground only when moves soil from the burrows. Feeds mostly on underground parts of plants (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
7655		population	eng	In Turkey, 240 individuals/ha. Common in Iran and Armenia.
7655		threats	eng	No major threats (GMA Turkey, 2005).
7656		conservation	eng	As the species is abundant across most of the range and even sometimes a considerable agricultural pest, there have been no conservation measures in Russia and Kazakhstan. Ukrainian populations are severely fragmented and recently <em>Ellobius talpinus</em> was included in new edition of the Ukraine Red Data Book.
7656		distribution	eng	Steppe grassland and semi-deserts in SE Europe, Kazakhstan (except SE Kazakhstan) and Turkmenia. Sometimes found in forest-steppes.
7656		distribution	eng	Steppe grassland and semi-deserts in SE Europe, Kazakhstan (except SE Kazakhstan), Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Sometimes found in forest-steppes.
7656		habitat	eng	A typical subterranean steppe mammal. Lives in large groups, digs complex burrows which may be inhabited by around ten animals. Colonies are very mobile. Burrow entrances usually sealed with soil. Feeds on subterranean plant parts. Nesting chambers (especially winter ones) and foraging chambers are usually about 4 meters underground. Seldom emerges above ground (usually only to clear soil from the burrow or to disperse, rarely for feeding). During dispersal could cover distances up to 800 meters. No real hibernation, but in winter as well as during summer heat and drought, activity declines significantly. During the warm period of the year gives birth to two litters with 2-3 young in each.
7656		population	eng	Common throughout most of the range. In some parts it is abundant on cultivated lands, especially along forest belts, where one hectare could be inhabited by 15 family groups. In some parts in Russia and Kazakhstan it is a considerable pest. The population in Ukraine is fragmented and declining owing to cultivation of steppe areas. It has been extirpated from areas between Dnieper River and Lugansk region, and from the Dnieper to Crimea (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
7656		threats	eng	Cultivation of steppe habitat, fragmentation of social groups and populations.
7656		threats	eng	No major threats at present to the species as a whole. Cultivation of steppe habitat may lead to fragmentation of social groups and populations.
7657		conservation	eng	Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. On the rest of the territory leasted as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
7657		distribution	eng	Distributed in lowland and mountain semi-deserts and deserts in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, SE Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia (NW, central and SE), and Tuva (Russia). In China found in N Xinjiang through Mongolia to Nei Mongol and extending south to S Gansu and Shaanxi.
7657		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppes, semideserts, deserts and grasslands, especially in moist valleys and near the banks of lakes and streams.  Sometimes found in oasis farmlands.  Feeds on the underground parts of plants and especially starch bulbs and tubers.  Fossorial “head-lift diggers,” they use their incisors and skull to loosen and shovel dirt.  Lives in a complex burrow system including food storage and nest chambers.  Long burrow passages are between 5-6 cm in diameter usually lying at depths between 10-40 cm, while nest and food storage chambers descend to depths of 50-70 cm.  They are active day and night, but spend little time outside their burrows during the day.  At night, however, they may range quite far from their burrows.  Extremely timid, they may emit a bird-like chirp when frightened.  Reproduction typically occurs between April and September.  Males and females reach reproductive maturity at about 90 days.  Gestation period is about 26 days, and females have their first litter at about five months of age and may have as many as 6-7 litters of between 3-4 or 5-7 depending on environmental conditions.  Offspring remain in their underground nest until they are weaned at about 60 days of age.  The interval between litters is between 34-36 days.
7657		population	eng	No data are available at present.
7657		threats	eng	Drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
7658		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Annexes of the European Union Habitat's and Species Directive. A large species, it is more vulnerable to habitat disturbance, however it is now considered to be widespread in suitable habitats in Spain and in Brittany (France), much reduced in the Basque country, and is not known in the intervening areas. The species is not considered to be threatened, and is listed as Least Concern in the Spanish Red List (Verdu and Galante 2009). It is more restricted in France, and is listed as a protected species, and occurs in at least three protected areas. Given that the species is part of the Annexes of the European Union Habitat's and Species Directive, then the species should have various SAC designated for the protection of the species in each country.
7658		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution area covering the north of the Iberian Peninsula, from the Galician Atlantic coast to the western Pyrenees (Altonaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). There are also various isolated populations in La Rioja (North of Iberian Peninsula) and in Brittany, France (Oses <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Although Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) cite the species from Portugal, the distribution for Oses <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.&#160;(2011) suggests that it does not extend much over the border.
7658		habitat	eng	Typically the species is found in undergrowth of damp, humid forests, often under large logs or stones. It is known from both oak woodland (Brittany, Spain) aand beech woodlands. It is not restricted to forests, having been found in suitable damp vegetated habitats associated with walls, screes and caves.&#160;This species undergoes predation from mice and other rodents, as well as predation of juveniles by beetles.
7658		population	eng	In known sites in France and Spain the population of this species has been monitored over the last 10 years and is currently believed to be stable. The species is currently undergoing research to determine the origins of the different populations in Spain (Oses <em>et al</em>. 2011).
7658		threats	eng	The major threats to the species lie in the loss of habitats, due to logging, encroachment of towns and villages, or conversion of woodland to agricultural lands.
7664		distribution	eng	The Mary River Turtle is endemic to the Mary River in south-eastern Queensland.
7664		habitat	eng	The Mary River Turtle occurs in flowing, well-oxygenated sections of streams. Its habitat consists of riffles (particularly productive parts of the river that are shallow with fast-flowing, aerated water) and shallow stretches alternating with deeper, flowing pools. It generally does not occur in impoundments. Has terrestrial nest sites.
7667		conservation	eng	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves and the identification of additional important roosting sites. The species has been recorded from Mt Stolle, which is in line to be designated as a Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).
7667		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Guinea and nearby islands. In Papua New Guinea, it has been collected from Chimbu, East Sepik, Gulf, Southern Highlands and Western Provinces (Bonaccorso 1998). Within Papua Province, Indonesia, the species has been recorded from the Kapari River of Fakfak District, Yapen Island, and from Biak Island. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,500 m asl.
7667		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded at roosts in limestone caves and mining tunnels (Bonaccorso 1998). Colonies normally number between ten and 30 individuals (Bonaccorso 1998). It is a nocturnal species that forages in open areas.
7667		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species that is known from few sites.
7667		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation and may be adversely affected locally by collection for food.
7668		conservation	eng	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification of additional important roosting sites. The species has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).
7668		distribution	eng	This species is known from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from the Indonesian islands of Halmahera, Ambon, Seram, Gebe, Yapen, Biak, Numfor, and Supiori. It is present throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Central, Chimbu, East Sepik, and Eastern Provinces of Papua New Guinea), and also occurs on New Ireland, Lihir, Tabar islands, Bougainville, and Buka, Papua New Guinea. In the Solomon Islands, it has been reported from the islands of Guadalcanal, Malaita, New Georgia, and Sanata Isabel (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a,b). It has an elevational range of sea level to 1,600 m asl.
7668		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow limestone caves and mining tunnels, with colonies typically consisting of between ten and 30 animals (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a). It is an insectivorous species that combines aerial feeding with foliage gleaning (Bonaccorso 1998).
7668		population	eng	Flannery (1995a) reports that this is a relatively common species on New Guinea.
7668		threats	eng	It may be threatened locally by collection for food.
7669		conservation	eng	Although there have been no conservation actions to protect this species to date, it is fully protected by legislation in Samoa, Guam, and in the Northern Marianas Islands. Suitable conservation actions for this species include the protection of known roosting caves, and the identification of additional important roosting sites. Surveys are needed on population status and trends, as well as ecology, and threats (e.g., pesticide levels). A proposed survey of fossil remains on many of the southern islands of its historical range could yield potential translocation sites.
7669		distribution	eng	The Pacific Sheath-tailed bat contains four subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Emballonura semicaudata rotensis</em> is found on the Marianas, and was historically on Guam, Rota, Aguiguan, Tinian, Saipan. Today it is only present on Aguiguan Island. <br/><br/><em>E. s. semicaudata</em> was historically found in Samoa, American Samoa, Fiji, Palau, and Tonga. In Samoa, it was found on Savai'i and Upolu, where it was common; in American Samoa, it was found on Manua and Tutuila. This species has now disappeared from Samoa and American Samoa (Tarburton 2002). In Tonga, it was found on Eua and Niuafoou, and was last collected in 1989. In Fiji, it was found on Taveuni, Ovalau, Viti, Levu Lakiba, the Yasawas, and Rotuma (it is common on the last). The species is also known historically from Vanuatu (Koopman 1997). <br/><br/><em>E. s. sulcata</em> occurs on the islands of Chuuk and Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands, and is doing well on at least Pohnpei. It is not found in the Marshall Islands (there was an erroneous record of presence from there).<br/><br/><em>E. s. palauensis</em> is found on Palau, including Koror, Peleliu, Babelthuap, and Anguar, where it is common. It ranges from sea level up to 210 m asl (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).
7669		habitat	eng	This is a small (five gram) bat with high site fidelity to caves. <em>E. semicaudata</em> is usually considered a cave-dependent species (it prefers cave entrances), but it also has been found roosting beneath overhanging cliffs. The species has been recorded flying in daylight under forest, but normally emerges at dusk. Details of its diet are not known (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>E. s. rotensis</em> is found primarily in forested habitats on Aguiguan (Esselsytn <em>et al.</em> 2004).
7669		population	eng	This species was previously a common species over much of its range. <em>E. s. rotensis</em> was last observed on Guam in 1972, and was thought to have become extinct in the Northern Mariana Islands after 1932 until recent confirmation of a population on Aguiguan Island in 1984. It is estimated that 150 to 300 animals remain there with no immediate threats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Populations in Fiji have significantly declined and may be extinct on Viti Levu (Flannery 1995). The subspecies <em>E. s. sulcata</em> and <em>E. s. palauensis</em> are thought to be stable, but there are limited data to support this (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
7669		threats	eng	Reasons for the declines and disappearances of the Pacific Sheath-tailed Bat are unclear. There have been continual declines since 1945. Threats include the disturbance of roosting sites, pesticide contamination, the loss of native forests to agriculture and grazing, invasive species, and stochastic events.<br/><br/>Monitor lizards, cockroaches, and rats may limit the selection of roosting sites on Aguiguan. During WWII caves in the Marianas were bombed (some caves were also sealed off during this time); since then, there has been limited disturbance of roosting sites (limestone caves), resulting from cave visitation and guano mining. Pesticide use is another potential threat. In Fiji, the disturbance to caves and burning of forest near roosts are possible causes of decline. In American Samoa and Samoa the effects of cyclones may have an effect, although the populations here will have experienced such perturbations in the past. The conversion of forest to agriculture must have had an effect, while other factors such as introduced cats and rats, pesticide use, and disturbance to caves are likely to have had a minor influence (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
7670		conservation	eng	In the Philippines, this species is found in protected areas, but most of these areas in the lowlands afford minimal protection. As with other species dependent on caves and crevices, there is a need to assess the population status, including the surrounding forest areas, across its range. Elsewhere in its range, it occurs in some protected areas.
7670		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi and other Indonesian islands. In the Philippines, it is probably found throughout except the Batanes/Babuyan region. Records are from Balabac, Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dinagat, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur, Laguna, Quezon provinces), Maripipi, Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Negros, Panay (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found across Borneo.
7670		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland disturbed forest, as well as agricultural areas near remnant forest. Most records are from caves, under large boulders, crevices, overhangs, or in man-made tunnels (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Ingle 1992; Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species tends to roost close to the entrance of caves (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There are no records from old growth forest (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm.).
7670		population	eng	In the Philippines the species is common in areas with caves, including in or near secondary forest; but is apparently rare elsewhere (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Indonesia the species is common in the eastern part of its range (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
7670		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, there is ongoing disturbance to caves, but whether this affects the species is not currently known (D. Balete, L. Heaney and A. Suyanto pers. comm. 2006).
7671		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Parc National de Mantadia (Randrianandrianina <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Parc National de Midongy du Sud (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006) as well as from a network of protected sites around the Baie de Antogil (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). It probably does not require specific conservation action as long as forest vegetation is protected, but local populations should be monitored at roosting sites.
7671		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the humid zone of eastern Madagascar and has been recorded from around Maroantsetra in the north to Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) in the south (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is known from a wide elevational range, from as low as 30 m (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006) to at least 900 m (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006).
7671		habitat	eng	<em>Emballonura atrata</em> is usually found roosting in caves and small crevices in or near to relatively intact humid forest (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006; Randrianandrianina <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is considered to be dependent on relatively intact forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2006).
7671		population	eng	There is no information on population size. This species is rarely trapped in flight or detected acoustically and information on populations and distribution is mainly from bats found in caves. Colony size in caves rarely exceeds 20 individuals (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007).
7671		threats	eng	This species is collected by people for bushmeat in one part of eastern Madagascar (D. Andriafidison pers. comm.). Otherwise, forest clearance for expanding agriculture threatens the foraging and roosting sites for this species (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007).
7672		conservation	eng	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves and identification of additional important roosting sites. Mt. Stolle (Papua New Guinea) is in line to be designated as a Wildlife Management Area, and the species has been recorded from this area (D. Wright pers. comm.).
7672		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Kai Islands, Yapen Island, Biak Island, and mainland Papua Province (all Indonesia); and the highlands of Papua New Guinea and the islands of New Ireland, Bougainville, Woodlark, Kiriwina, and Alcester (all Papua New Guinea) (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a,b). The mapped range reflects the current extent of knowledge. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,500 m asl (more common above 500 m on New Guinea, but starting lower on other islands).
7672		habitat	eng	This is a cave-dwelling species that forages for insects along forest streams, clearings, and dense forest (Bonaccorso 1998). Females are presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.
7672		population	eng	Bonaccorso (1998) reports that it is abundant in some caves on New Ireland, common in the Trobriand Islands, but uncommon on mainland New Guinea.
7672		threats	eng	It may be locally threatened by over-collection for food. A potential threat is disturbance of caves (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
7673		conservation	eng	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification of additional important roosting sites. There are no known records of this species from protected areas, but it may occur in some within its range in Papua New Guinea.
7673		distribution	eng	This species is known from Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from East New Britain, Gulf, New Ireland, Southern Highlands, and Western Provinces. In the Solomon Islands it has been recorded from the islands of Guadalcanal, Rennel, Malaita, and Santa Isabel (Bonaccorso 1998). It may be present on other islands within the Solomons group. This species ranges from sea level to 1,400 m asl (Mu, East New Britain Province).
7673		habitat	eng	This is a cave-dwelling, insectivorous species that has been recorded from mossy tropical forest (Bonaccorso 1998). Females are believed to give birth to two young per year (Bonaccorso 1998).
7673		population	eng	The species is considered to be rare, but it may be more abundant than is currently known (Bonaccorso 1998). The occurrence of this species across several biogeographic regions (mainland New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Solomon Islands) may indicate that there is little genetic connectivity between some populations (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
7673		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation and may be locally impacted by collection for food.
7674		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
7674		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Myanmar and Thailand to western Malaysia, Borneo (all of the island) and Indonesia (Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Bangka, Belitung, Enggano, Babi Islands, Batu Islands, Nias Island, Mentawai Islands, Java, Sulawesi) (Simmons 2005). The distribution in Sulawesi is uncertain. There is a new record from southern Thailand, near Phanom, suggesting that the Myanmar population is linked to that of southern Thailand and Malaysia (S. Bumrungsri and P. Bates pers. comm.).  This species may also have been recorded from Buton (T. Kingston pers. comm.). It is found at an altitude of about 50 m in southern Myanmar and 330 m asl in Sumatra (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).
7674		habitat	eng	This species is found in limestone caves and small crevices throughout secondary forest in southern Myanmar where colony size reaches 50 individuals. In southern Thailand a maximum of 100 individuals are found in manmade caves while smaller colonies are found under hanging rock in tropical lowland forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Peninsular Malaysia <em>E. monticola</em> occurs in lowland rainforest, roosts under fallen trees, buttresses and tables (C. Francis pers. comm.).
7674		population	eng	There is very little population information for this species. It is relatively common on the islands of southern Myanmar (P. Banks pers. comm.).
7674		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Extraction of limestone may lead to the destruction of caves where this species is found. Deforestation for agriculture, plantations, logging and as a result of fire is a major threat in some parts of its range.
7709		conservation	eng	Blanding's Turtle is listed as Endangered (Nova Scotia) and Threatened (Great Lakes/St. Lawrence) under Canada's Species at Risk Act. <br/>It is protected under State legislation and regulations in Massachusetts, New York, and presumably other States.<br/><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, including a very large population in Nebraska. In Michigan, management of wetlands over five acres has been transferred from State to Federal administration. Conservation action programs for the species have been developed in several US States and in Nova Scotia. <br/><br/>Immediate conservation needs include:<br/><ol><li>Methods to reduce road mortality (e.g., fencing and road passages);</li><li>Elimination of commercial collecting; <br/></li><li>Protection of large resident wetland areas and smaller ephemeral wetlands;</li><li>Protection and management of adjacent terrestrial areas used for nesting and as corridors for movements among wetlands;</li><li>Research on risks associated with the timing and duration of terrestrial movements of both sexes</li><li>Where necessary, removal of nest predators</li></ol>(Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)
7709		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Emydoidea blandingii</span> inhabits the Great Lakes region of Canada and the United States, the upper Mississippi basin, and the Niobrara and Platte Rover Systems of the Missouri; scattered populations occur in the lower Hudson Valley of New York, in the eastern Massachusetts (SE New Hampshire) southern Maine area, and in Nova Scotia (Iverson 1992, Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
7709		habitat	eng	Blanding's Turtle uses a variety of permanent and temporary wetland habitats, with a preference for shallow clear standing water with abundant aquatic vegetation, but can be found in almost any waterbody in their area. The animals are highly mobile and move extensively between wetlands; nesting occurs in open grasslands, often well away from water.                 Animals leave strong scent trails, increasing their vulnerability to raccoon and fox predation. The species feeds mainly on crayfish and other small animal prey, but also scavenges and takes plant material and seeds.<br/><br/>Males reach 28 cm carapace length (CL), females 22 cm CL. Maturity is reached at about 12 years (20 cm CL) in males, and at 14–20 years (16–19 cm CL) in females. Longevity can be at least 77 years in the wild. Blanding's Turtle has been subject of arguably the most detailed population dynamics analysis of any turtle, documenting that animals mature at the age of 14 at the earliest, and generation times were calculated to vary between 36 and 47 years (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Ernst and Lovich 2009).<br/><br/>Females produce one or two clutches of 8–15 eggs (range 3–22, substantial geographic variation) in a reproductive year, but only half the females in a population may reproduce in a given year. Incubation takes about 82–96 (range 65–128) days, with substantial geographic variation. Hatchlings measure about 33 mm.<br/><br/> [Reviews available in Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), and Ernst and Lovich (2009)]
7709		population	eng	<p>Populations of Blanding's Turtle are often small and localized, with populations of a few dozen or hundred turtles, and densities ranging from 0.02 animals per hectare in Maine to 28/ha in Wisconsin, 55/ha in Missouri, and up to 57/ha in Nebraska. The largest known population, in Nebraska, is estimated at over 130,000 animals, excluding hatchlings and yearlings (Lang 2004). In contrast, Pennsylvania populations may total a few dozen individuals. Populations in Illinois and Ohio are perceived to be in ongoing decline, possibly associated with increased predation by raccoons (D. Mifsud, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p> Some populations appear stable over time, while others were documented as declining (Brodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Summaries of these can be found in Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) and Ernst and Lovich 2009.</p>  <p>Participants at the MidWest USA Turtle RL WS estimated that 30–50% of suitable habitat and the populations they contained have been lost in recent decades, while many remaining populations have reduced in size.</p>
7709		threats	eng	<p>Blanding's Turtles have been reported as being impacted by road mortality and collection for trade. They also at least locally from habitat degradation, fragmentation and destruction, and increased predation of eggs, young and possibly adults from subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements), but little quantitative data on the severity of these factors appears available. </p>  <p>Road mortality risk increases with progressive expansion and increased density of rural road networks. </p>  <p>Blanding’s Turtle is the second commonest turtle species in bycatch of the commercial trapping of snapping turtles using baited traps, and a ready market exists (Harding, pers comm. Aug 2009).</p>  <p>Given its particular population dynamics, slightly increased rates of loss of juveniles and adults significantly affects a population. </p>
7710		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites.
7717		conservation	eng	The species is subject to a variety of European, national and other protective legislation and occurs in a number of protected areas. Maintenance of suitable wetlands, ensuring that some viable populations of all subspecies are effectively protected, control of competition from exotic turtle species, minimising water pollution and population monitoring all appear desirable conservation measures.
7717		distribution	eng	This species has a wide, but now very fragmented distribution in Europe (especially in the Mediterranean region, but north to central France, northeastern Germany, Poland, Latvia and Belarus), in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions (east to Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, south to most of Turkey and northwestern Iran), and in coastal northwestern Africa from eastern Morocco to northern Tunisia. Its distribution somewhat complicated by suspected human introductions. For a more detailed treatment, see Fritz (2001b).<br/><br/>The subspecies are distributed as follows: <br/><em>Emys orbicularis occidentalis</em>: Northern Africa: northeastern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis hispanica</em>: Donana of South-west Spain and probablly all other Atlantic drainages on the Iberian Peninsula. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis fritzjuergenobsti</em>: Mediterranean drainages of Spain.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis galloitalica</em>: Mediterranean coastal region from Catalonia (Spain) through southern France and the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy. Populations of southern Italy an Sicily represent an undescribed subspecies.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis lanzai</em>: Corsica.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis capolongoi</em>: Sardinia. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis hellenica</em>: Adriatic coastal region southwards to Peloponnesus and Bootia (Greece); possibly including populations of the southern Crimea and western European Turkey. This includes a population on the island of Limnos (Greece) reported by Sindaco et al. (2000).<br/><em>Emys orbicularis orbicularis</em>: Central Europe, from eastern Germany through Poland, Baltic States and Russia eastwards to the Aral Sea, as well as central France and the Danube basin; apparently disappeared from the Rhine basin. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis iberica</em>: Southern Dagestan (Russia), Kura drainage basin and Kura-Araksinker depression of Georgia and Azerbaijan . <br/><em>Emys orbicularis persica</em>: Northern Iran and adjoining Turkmenistan. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis colchica</em>: Southeastern Balkans, Turkish Black Sea coast and parts of western and central Anatolia, Colchis, and possibly various areas in eastern South Ukraine. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis eiselti</em>: localised endemic from the vicinity of Gaziantep, southeastern Anatolia. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis luteofusca</em>: Southern Central Anatolian high plain.
7717		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - ponds, lakes, brooks, streams, rivers, drainage canals.
7717		habitat	eng	This species has variable habitat utilisation across its wide range. It favours freshwater or slightly brackish waterbodies with slow-flowing or standing water, often small-scale, densely vegetated and frequently seasonal, while preferred nesting sites have sandy soil, generally a southerly orientation and certain characteristics with regard to vegetation and insolation (Fritz 2001b, and references therein). Mature females produce one, two or in some populations three clutches of about six to nine eggs (extremes one to 16; large clutches tend to correlate with fewer clutches per year). Animals reach sexual maturity after about four to ten years, depending on location, males maturing earlier than females (Fritz 2001b, and references therein).
7717		population	eng	Populations towards the northern extremes of the distribution range tend to be very small, whereas populations in the Mediterranean and Caucasus regions can be more abundant (e.g., Corsica - Cheylan 1995). French (Servan 1995), Spanish and at least western Turkish populations were considered to be in decline (Atatur 1995).
7717		threats	eng	Habitat loss impacts have been considered crucial to declines of populations of the species: urbanisation, road construction, wetland drainage (Atatur 1995; Servan 1995). Species is sensitive to water pollution, which has been considered a factor in the localised disappearance of the species (Atatur 1995;  Servan 1995; Mascort 1996).<br/>The species has been considered as at especially high risk from competition for food, basking and nesting sites by exotic <em>Trachemys scripta</em> (Kramer 1995; Servan 1995). Collection for food and pet trade has been a historical impact and continues in some locations but is not a major threat to the species overall. Overexploitation of water sources is reducing the available habitat of the species, and increasing salination.
7720		conservation	eng	Some populations of <em>E. recurvatum</em> occur in protected reserves, but many are in recreation lands. Monitoring of populations will remain important, so to will the establishment of protected areas.  Further research on all aspects of its biology is required.
7720		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma recurvatum</em> is found in seven states in the United States of America.
7720		habitat	eng	This species occurs at coastal-plain ponds with shallow, sandy shores, large amounts of vegetation, especially <em>Juncus militaris</em>, and yearly natural fluctuations in water levels. Turnover rate (33.3%) and local extinction rate (41%) between two years is relatively high for damselfly (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 2002). Thus it has probably adapted to patch colonization within meta-populations. Adults have limited flight season in early summer.
7720		population	eng	<em>E. recurvatum</em> is often common, sometimes abundant, in its preferred habitat.
7720		threats	eng	<em>E. recurvatum</em> is under threat from wetland and adjoining upland habitat destruction from construction and development, lowering water level from groundwater use, and pollution from roadway run-off and sewage. Both motor boats and automobiles represent threats in wetlands and terrestrial uplands adjoining them.
7735		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range coincides with national parkland. It has not been listed for protection under any State or <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Federal Acts</st1:state></st1:place> (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). A regional survey of this species range is required (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <u1:p></u1:p>
7735		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, and has only been found on Wilsons Promontory, Southern Victoria. Due to the low disperal ability expected for this species, and the isolation of the Promontory from both the mainland of Victoria (by the Yanakie Isthmus) and the Bass Strait Islands including Tasmania, it is unlikely that the species will be found elsewhere (Horwitz 1990). The area in which this species is distributed is 517 km², and this species is thought to have a severely fragmented distribution (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
7735		habitat	eng	The burrows of this species<em></em> are usually located on the hill slopes adjacent to the flood plain where they receive no water from the water-table (type 3 burrows). The soil consists of 1 - 2 cm of macro-organic material, followed by 15 - 40 cm of silty sand and a gradual change to soils with a heavier component of clay. The largest individual found has a carapace length of 26.8 mm, and the largest reproductive female was 24.1 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
7735		population	eng	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
7735		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The only known major threat to this species is its restricted distribution to one small region which falls within a gazette national park (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Regional disturbance such as a decline in rainfall and repetitive severe fires could cause significant declines in subpopulations (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Fire hasn't been a major issue for burrowing crayfish in the past as they are insulated by the soil; however fire frequency and severity have been increasing under climate change, while habitats have been drying out (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, species living in type 3 burrows might be exceptionally susceptible to climate change as they rely on predictable level and timing of water supply (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
7736		conservation	eng	This species is classified as Threatened under the state of Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. The potential threat posed by elevated sedimentation and turbidity within Croajingolong National Park as a result of timber harvesting in adjacent state forest, is generally managed through the application of the Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production (NRE 1996). Degradation of native riparian vegetation along Victorian rivers and streams (SAC 1996) is listed as a potentially threatening process under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Van Praagh 2003a). The Thurra River is designated a Representative River, characteristic of the eastern Victorian dissected uplands and river plains and the catchment of the Benedore River is declared a ?Scientific Reference Segment? under the State Environment Protection Policy ? waters of East Gippsland (NRE 1996). These rivers occur within the potential range of the Mallacoota Burrowing Crayfish and may confer additional habitat protection for the species. The East Gippsland Forest Management Area Plan includes a specific conservation guideline for this species (Van Praagh 2003a).<br/><br/>Doran and Richards (1996) found that the primary consideration in the management of <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span> species appears to be related to the level of available moisture, soil type and degree of disturbance to which they are subject.&#160;      Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, with monitoring of the population trends and threats. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7736		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. The known distribution of this species is confined to two sites on the western region of Mallacoota Inlet, near the Victoria-New South Wales border (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately  15 km² <sup><em></em></sup>and is known from a single location.
7736		habitat	eng	Habitat information regarding this species<em></em> is known only from the type locality. It was found in a creek measuring 1 - 2 m wide with steep, clear banks (free of vegetation) of predominantly silty and sandy soil in a warm temperate rainforest. The burrow was filled with water at the level of the creek but no connections to the creek were found (type 2 burrows). The largest male found was 17.8 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 17.6 to 20.4 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
7736		population	eng	There is no population information for this species,   however this is not an abundant species   (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
7736		threats	eng	This species is threatened by its restricted distribution coupled with the loss of riparian vegetation (Horwitz 1995). Loss of riparian strips results in elevated sedimentation and turbidity. At present, recreational fishing is allowed in Croajingolong National Park but it is not known whether harvesting of crayfish as food or bait is occurring. The potential range of this species also includes areas of private land grazed by cattle resulting in trampling, erosion and sedimentation of habitat (Van Praagh 2003a). Many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus </span>are particularly vulnerable to localized environmental disturbances (Williams 1990). Localized catastrophic events, such as an extended drought, fire or large sediment pulses could drastically effect populations of this species (Van Praagh 2003a).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7737		conservation	eng	This species is listed as 'vulnerable' under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and as 'endangered' under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (Doran 2000). <em></em>It is included in the objectives for fauna conservation in the Parks and Wildlife Service (2000), Strzelecki National Park Management Plan. It is also included in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span> group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both State and Federal Government (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species is found within an existing national park, however it is unknown how much of its range is located within formal reserves (Doran 2000). A detailed assessment of its geographic distribution and the quantity, quality and long-term security of its available habitat needs to be undertaken, especially given the significant threat posed by bushfires (Doran 2000).   Future research should also focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<p><strong></strong></p>
7737		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the region of Mount Strzelecki and the Darling Ranges on Flinders Island in the Bass Strait, as well as the higher gullies of Mount Munro on Cape Barren Island, Australia (Horwitz 1990, N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). It has an estimated distribution of 15.1 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and an estimated area of occupancy of 0.18 km<sup>2</sup> (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2008). Though, these figures are rough estimates, as the exact distributional boundaries for the species are poorly known and need to be better surveyed (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7737		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in boggy habitats and small clear water creeks in higher altitude temperate wet fern gullies (Horwitz 1990). More recently it has also been found in poorly drained mossy tea-tree bogs and small grassy spring/soak in open dry eucalyptus forests at lower altitudes (Doran 2000). The burrows often have more than one opening and frequently ramify beneath rotting logs or the root matting of tree ferns. The largest male found was 25.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 18.8 to 25.3 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).<br/><p></p>
7737		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;it can be very locally abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7737		threats	eng	This species is restricted in distribution to only three known, relatively high altitude, regions on Flinders Island and Cape Barren Island in the Bass Strait (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2008). The reservation status of this species is relatively high, however there are still numerous threatening processes present within its habitat (Doran 2000). The habitat for this species is considered to be susceptible to severe wildfire and subsequent habitat loss   including loss of shade and moisture. Whilst the likelihood of fire has not been quantified, key habitat is identified as the most fire sensitive. High fuel levels, the existing drought conditions and the lack of access for fire control, dramatically increases the likelihood of intense wildfires (Doran 2000). Within the next ten years, the risk of fire and subsequent habitat loss and population decline can be considered high (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2008).<br/><br/>Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Feral pigs are a potential threat on Flinders Island, especially in areas with shallow soils where the crayfish can be readily caught (N. Doran and P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Forestry and agricultural issues are currently not a major threat to this species, however this might change in the future depending upon decisions regarding such activities on the islands (Doran 2000). <br/>  <br/><strong></strong>
7738		conservation	eng	<p>This species is currently listed as 'vulnerable' under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (Doran 2000). The species&#160; is included in the <em>Engaeus</em> group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both State and Federal Governments (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). The distribution of the species covers several informal reserves, comprising approximately 7% of its extent. An estimated 50-55% of the species distribution occurs in state forest (Doran and Richards 1996). Doran (2000) states that a major proportion (41%) of the distribution of this species is in state forest. At present there are buffer zone requirements in place to protect this species. While buffer zones had been put in place throughout this species' range, in a key location the forest industry has undermined its own protection mechanisms by not adhering to procedure and subsequently impacting on important habitat for this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Conservation actions need to address procedural errors and the lack of management within agricultural land.</p>
7738		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the region around <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Arthur</st1:placename> in north eastern <st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. A four month field investigation of this species extended its known distribution from the three original sites to seventy nine sites. The species is now estimated to cover a range of approximately 215 km², with at least another 50 km² to the south of its distribution over which abundance is lower. Thus, the distribution of this species is approximately 290 km² (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>
7738		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat requirements of this species appear to be relatively simple, with the presence of sufficient moisture and suitable soil for burrowing being the major requirements. Provided these needs are met, the species is found over a wide range of altitudes, slopes, vegetation types, and stream classes, although it tends to favour broad seeps and flats, and marshy pans next to streams. This species seems to be highly tolerant of disturbance, and was found in high numbers in culverts, streams through standing pine plantation, and even seeps in the middle of cleared and burned plantation. Specimens collected from burrows in such places were found to be healthy and reproductively active. This species has an adult cephalothorax length, or occipital carapace length (OCL), of 3 to 4 cm. (Doran and Richards 1996).</p>
7738		population	eng	This species is considered to be widespread throughout its range (Doran and Richards 1996). Long-term monitoring plots have been established for this species, although these need to be revisited and the data analysed (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7738		threats	eng	<p>A large proportion (41%) of the distribution of this species is in state forest, and so is subject to forestry activity (Doran 2000). Notably, a portion of key habitat allocated as protected area was removed recently, owing to procedural errors (Doran <em>et al.</em> 2001). Such forestry activities needs to be properly managed to minimise impacts (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). In the remainder of its range the species is also subject to heavy pressure from agricultural activity on private land, for which no code or guidelines are in place (Doran 2000). Broad scale habitat degradation and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major threat in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>   <p><strong></strong></p>
7739		conservation	eng	This species has been listed as Threatened under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (SAC 1993). Any activity which damages stream bank integrity and alters water tables or drainage lines could be potentially harmful. The surrounding streamside vegetation within the plantation area is currently protected by Regional Prescriptions and the Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production (NRE 1996), which excludes timber extraction operations from streamside buffers and steep zones. A requirement of this code is the production of Forest Management Plans (FMPs) which include detailed prescriptions for the conservation of native forest fauna (Van Praagh 2003b).<br/><br/>Conservation measures in the management plan include surveys and monitoring to accurately map the distribution of the species (Van Praagh 2003b). The responsibility of NRE (Parks, Flora and Fauna Division, Forests Service, Gippsland Region) includes; encourage research into the biology and ecology of the Narracan Burrowing Crayfish to identify the effects of agricultural and forest management practices on crayfish populations; establish a buffer zone around selected localities (the number to be determined when extent of population distribution is known), and avoid locating roads or tracks within buffer zones. Burns within crayfish habitat should be avoided during late spring and early summer when the species is close to or above the soil surface (Van Praagh 2003b).<br/><br/>Education programs will involve local Landcare groups and other community groups such as field naturalists in the conservation of the species. These programs will include landholders and land managers, and educate them about the crayfish through this Action Statement and the production of a colour brochure. Habitat restoration will include the rehabilitation of degraded environments where the species is known to occur. Landowners within the catchment of the Land for Wildlife Program, will be advised of grants that are available to assist in protecting and enhancing riparian habitat (Van Praagh 2003b).
7739		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia, and has been recorded from a 30 km section of the highland region to the north and west of the western Strzelecki Ranges in South Gippsland, Victoria. It is restricted to localities above 120 m in altitude. The range is likely to be slightly increased westward by further collecting, however extensive collections in northerly, southerly and easterly directions have failed to reveal its presence (Horwitz 1990). This species has a distribution of approximately 350 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>
7739		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in the flood-bed regions of fern tree gullies in temperate, wet sclerophyll forests. The lateral burrow branches may be constructed immediately beneath the root mats of the tree ferns. The soils in such flood-beds are usually high in organic matter, have a high silt component, and are dark in colour (Horwitz 1990). Van Praagh and Hinkley (1999) found that many of the sites they surveyed had a dense understorey or dominance of tree ferns such as Soft Tree Fern (<em>Dicksonia antarctica</em>) and Rough Tree Fern (<em>Cyathea australis),</em> as well as the ?wet ferns? Mother Shield Fern<em> (Polystichum proliferum)</em> and Hard Water Fern <em>(Blechnum wattsii)</em>. Buttercup (<em>Ranunculus spp</em>.) and native nettle (<em>Urtica incisa)</em> often made up a sometimes quite sparse ground cover. <br/><br/>Burrows of this species may occasionally be found in the banks of flowing creeks, and under these circumstances the burrows usually have two or three openings (which are chimneyed), descending to the water level where they have a horizontal component before descending further to the deepest level of the water-table. The largest male found was 26.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 20.2 to 25 mm carapace length. The species appears to breed in mid to late spring and carries larvae during summer, probably releasing juveniles in late summer. The species life history and ecological requirements is poorly known (Horwitz 1990).
7739		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, although the species can be locally abundant (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).
7739		threats	eng	This species is relatively common within its range, but has a very restricted distribution. The area where the species has been recorded was previously tall wet <span style="font-style: italic;">sclerophyll </span>forest dominated by Mountain Ash <span style="font-style: italic;">(Eucalyptus regnans</span>) (Horwitz 1990). Much of the area has been significantly modified since European settlement, primarily being cleared for dairy farming and crops such as potatoes. Many of the gullies in which the species occurs retain some native vegetation (Horwitz 1990). In its final recommendation, the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC 1993) determined that this species is highly vulnerable to future threats which are likely to result in extinction. At present the distribution of the species on cleared land and the extent of stock grazing within the known range of the crayfish, is unclear. Due to the clayey nature of the soil, riparian habitat is particularly sensitive to pugging and compaction by stock (Van Praagh 2003b). Removal of riparian vegetation and grazing is contributing to soil erosion, stream bank damage, siltation of streams and possible damage to the crayfish burrows. Although the role of native vegetation in the survival of the species is not known, the species occurs predominantly in areas where remnant riparian vegetation remains (Horwitz 1990). This suggests that native vegetation may be important for this species conservation (Van Praagh 2003b). The distribution of this species encompasses land used for timber production. Little is known about the impacts of forestry practices on the crayfish, however it is thought that forestry activities may pose direct and indirect threats to the crayfish through habitat destruction from creation or use of logging roads, and removal of vegetation (Horwitz 1990).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7740		conservation	eng	Existing conservation measures for this species include surveys which were undertaken as part of the Regional Forest Agreement process for the Gippsland Region (Van Praagh 2003c). Recommended conservation measures are as follows: Conduct surveys to establish the distribution of the species within the 30 km stretch of riparian habitat and search likely habitat outside this area; Monitor key populations represented within national parkland, Crown land plantation areas, and private land; Incorporate actions to protect, enhance and restore this species' habitat into relevant Regional Catchment Strategies or their subordinate strategies via Biodiversity Action Plans; Protect this species' habitat within the Tarra-Bulga National Park and plantation areas; Provide landholders with information and advice regarding measures to protect this species if surveys confirm the presence of this species on or near private land (Van Praagh 2003c). Plans to pursue funding under the Natural Heritage Trust and /or provide incentives to support fencing of habitat on private land to exclude stock have been made. Research should be encouraged into the biology and ecology of this species over a three year period and identify the effects of forest management practices using the population found in Tarra-Bulga National Park as a control.
7740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Victoria, Australia. It is restricted to the high altitude regions of the Eastern Strzelecki Range in South Gippsland, Victoria. All sites at which it was collected were over 400 m altitude (Horwitz 1990). However, Van Praagh (2003c) states this species is restricted to an area of habitat occurring along streams over a linear distance of approximately 30 km in two river basins, namely the La Trobe and South Gippsland drainages (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2008). This includes the Tarra-Bulga National Park, public land and leased land for private forestry and some privately owned land. This species has an estimated Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) of 116 km<sup>2</sup>.
7740		habitat	eng	This species' burrows have been found either in the flood-bed where they were very shallow and almost without a descending or vertical component, or immediately adjacent to the flood-bed in the banks where vertical tunnels of these burrows often descended to the flood-bed level. These yellow soils were composed of a heavy clay component (Horwitz 1990). The species has been largely recorded from the very high, steep parts of the Eastern Strzelecki Ranges, in wetter gullies where there is no clear demarcation between the gully and the hillside.
7740		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;No data exist&#160;to say at this stage whether this species is undergoing a population decline or whether it is stable (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009)</p>
7740		threats	eng	<p>This species' burrows can be located in head water regions which are particularly susceptible to degradation by forestry practices. This is particularly the case if the prescriptions in the 'Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production' (NRE 1996) are not strictly followed or developed in accordance with the ecological requirements of this species (Van Praagh 2003c). Crayfish that are restricted to high altitudes such as this species are generally thought to be more sensitive to changes in water quality due to their occurrence within cooler temperature regimes and clear water, compared to more opportunistic lowland crayfish. All freshwater crayfish appear to be highly susceptible to chemical pollutants such as herbicides and insecticides, and this species has not been found in areas cleared of native vegetation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. to B. Van Praagh undated). On privately owned land, removal of riparian vegetation combined with the impacts of stock grazing contribute to soil erosion, stream bank damage, and siltation of streams resulting in damage to the crayfish burrows. While the exact role of native vegetation in the survival of the species is not known, it is likely to be important (Van Praagh 2003c). A substantial amount of land within the range of the species distribution is used for plantations. The species has been recorded from above Grand Ridge Road (Rhyton Junction) on Crown land which is leased to Grand Ridge Plantations, a subsidiary of Hancock Victorian Plantations Pty Ltd. This area contains both hardwood and softwood plantations. Forestry activities may pose direct and indirect threats to this species from construction, use and maintenance of logging roads, snig tracks, and removal of vegetation. Potential threats include habitat destruction and crushing of burrows, deposits of sediment into burrows and alteration of water table levels (Horwitz 1990). Any activity which may lead to an alteration in the nature of the stream-side water table or drainage patterns could impact on the species' survival locally. Guidelines for forestry operations have been developed in the Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production (NRE 1996) to minimise any impacts from these activities (Van Praagh 2003c). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2008). Given the species' relatively high altitude occurrence, climate change will pose a significant threat to this species in the future (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>
7741		conservation	eng	This species is listed as 'endangered' under both the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). This is due to its restricted distribution, its negligible reservation status, and continued threatening processes throughout its range (Doran 2000). Both prior management plans recommend two particular sections of land for protection. These areas represent both major habitat types of the species, and cover one seventh (62 ha) of its total available habitat. The areas are: the riparian reserve along Surveyors Creek - thus securing the flood plain and tea tree habitat - covering approximately 3.5 km of creek and 15 m on the northern side of the creek only; an area of state forest around the upper portions of Surveyors Creek, consisting of buttongrass plains and a sufficient buffer of land around the potentially available habitat of the species (Doran and Richards 1996). It has been suggested that the first area be adequately protected by the exclusion of livestock, while the second could be established as either a fauna reserve and/or wildlife sanctuary (Gaffney and Horwitz 1992). <br/><br/>In addition, this species has been included in the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Engaeus </span>Group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both State and Federal Government (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species is currently incorporated in a notification and conservation prescription system established by the Forest Practices Board (FPB) and the Threatened Species Unit (TSU) to advise forestry operations within sensitive areas (Doran 2000). Long-term monitoring programs have been put in place to provide feedback information on the effectiveness of conservation measures currently in place.
7741		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Tasmania, Australia. It is known from a limited area north-east of Scottsdale with an extent of occurrence of approximately 25 km². It has been estimated that only 4 km² of suitable habitat is available to this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Approximately 22.5%, 12.8%, and 64.7% of its range are found on private land, unallocated crown land, and state forest respectively (Horwitz 1991).
7741		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found in wet buttongrass and healthy plains (particularly with peaty and saturated soils), but also occurs in surface seepages, the floodplains of creeks (often with scrubby or taller tea tree vegetation), wet areas converted to pasture, and some creek banks in open dry eucalyptus forest (Doran 1999). Females mature at a carapace length of 16.4 mm. Mating occurs between mid November and late December, and may represent the only time that male crayfish will be found openly wandering on the surface (in search of female burrows). Females carry eggs and larvae through December and January. While a strong linear relationship exists between body size and fecundity in this species, no information exists regarding the rate of growth, survivorship and recruitment, age, or number and frequency of breeding events (e.g. biennial or singular) (Doran 1999).
7741		population	eng	The population size for this species has been estimated to be 1,360,000 to 2,670,000 individuals (Horwitz 1991).  This figure is likely to need revision. Two key areas of its habitat have since been drained and modified by unauthorized development, which could have led to a reduction in population numbers (N. Doran pers. comm. 2010). However, it is unclear to what degree the population has been impacted. Long term monitoring plots have been established for this species, however they need to be revisited and the data analysed (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   Qualitative evidence exists for local population decline following drainage of swampland, and cattle trampling (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
7741		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are forestry and agricultural activities (Doran 2000). Downstream effects of road construction, quarrying and the effect of inappropriate fire management are other potential threats. An uncontrolled fire of high intensity or inappropriate burning practices could be devastating to a species of such limited distribution. The peat habitat of  this species could be lost entirely under such conditions, or could smoulder for long periods (Gaffney and Horwitz 1992). This species will be particularly sensitive to this when the soil is at its driest (December to March/April), or when the species is likely to be on or near the surface (during the mating period of late spring and early summer) (Horwitz 1991). <br/><br/>While the species can be found on swampland that has been converted to pasture, there is evidence that such drainage and conversion has a significant impact on this species and the faunal assemblages that depend on it (Horwitz 1991). Threats as a result of conversion to pasture, include the introduction of exotic plants, ploughing, fertilisation, grazing by hoofed animals, potentially higher water temperatures, and ensuing dangers of eutrophication. Ploughing disturbs the soil to a certain depth, and changes its structure by mixing and sometimes compacting layers (Horwitz 1991). Trampling by cattle is a direct threat to crayfish at times of the year when they are close to or on the surface (Horwitz 1991). The effects of fertilisers (used in the conversion of buttongrass swamps to pasture) and herbicides/pesticides on this species<em></em> are largely unknown. However, some decapod crustaceans are known to exhibit high sensitivity to certain pesticides (Horwitz 1991, Davies <em>et al</em>. 1994). Gravel reserves, tracks and roads within the range of this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are situated on gravelly and sandy soils prone to sheet, rill and gully erosion resulting in deposition of soils in low lying parts where the swamps occur (Horwitz 1991). These deposits have the potential to smother crayfish burrows (Horwitz 1990, 1991).<br/><br/>While parts of this species' range are within the North Scottsdale Forest Reserve, most of its available habitat is not secured (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Few loggable trees exist within the relevant habitat itself except along riparian strips, but forestry activity higher in catchments may cause indirect problems through enhanced soil erosion and siltation. The major portion of this land is currently classified as 'deferred forest', and Gaffney and Horwitz (1991) state the long term preservation of these areas is not currently secured. Twenty two percent of the area in which this species can be found is private and the majority of this land is either drained, converted to pasture or regularly grazed (Horwitz 1991). While a small portion of unallocated Crown land along Surveyors Creek is marked as a river reserve, this conveys no special status to the area beyond that of unallocated Crown land (Doran and Richards 1996). Two of these key areas have been drained and modified by unauthorized development, which could have led to a recent reduction in population numbers (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The acute range restriction of this species makes the identification and amelioration of potential threats to its habitat and population numbers a priority (Doran 2000).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Climate change might&#160; also exacerbate the fire risk by increasing the susceptible burning periods for the peat soils that the species prefers. It is highly likely that one significant fire event could drive this species to extinction (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7742		conservation	eng	This species has been listed as a threatened taxon in Schedule 2 of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. In its final recommendation, the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC 1993) determined that this species is significantly prone to future threats which are likely to result in extinction (Morey 2004). A community education and awareness component was implemented by NRE in 1995. An information brochure on this species was distributed to all landholders within the Labertouche Creek catchment, and meetings were also held with landholders and the local Labertouche Landcare group. Some of the known habitat was fenced to help restrict access for cattle to the creek (Morey 2004).<br/><br/>Future management will include: coordinating research and surveys at other locations within the Labertouche Creek catchment and adjacent catchments to estimate the population size, determine its ecological requirements, investigate its reproductive biology, and determine the ecological relationships with other sympatric decapods; set aside the Crown Land on Labertouche Creek containing remnant vegetation that has been recommended for reservation by the LCC as a Flora and Fauna Reserve; determine appropriate buffer width of riparian vegetation required to protect the species, and encourage land managers and landholders to fence off direct access to creeks for cattle; re-establish indigenous riparian vegetation (Morey 2004).
7742		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. The only known current localities of the species are on Labertouche Creek and Wattle Creek (a tributary of Labertouche Creek) in West Gippsland (Morey 2004). This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 16 km². This species is thought to have undergone a reduction in this EOO since the previous Red List assessment (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
7742		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks which flow through predominantly cleared grazing land. Remnant patches of indigenous vegetation, some of which is in a relatively natural condition, and scattered eucalypts (<em>Eucalyptus viminalis</em> and <em>E. ovata</em>) are present along these creeks (Morey 2004). The largest male found was 20.3 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 16 to 19 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 15.7 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
7742		population	eng	There is no population information for this species<em></em>.   The species is very cryptic due to its particular burrowing habitat so all apparent records of low levels of abundance should be regarded critically (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
7742		threats	eng	This species appears to have an extremely limited distribution, despite extensive searches (Horwitz 1990). Virtually nothing is known of the ecology, population dynamics and habitat requirements of the species. It is thought indigenous vegetation removal, cattle trampling of both the ground and creek banks and alteration of the water table may adversely affect this species (Morey 2004). Most of the creek frontage at the known locations is unfenced and where cattle have had unrestricted access to creeks in the catchment, the understorey is virtually absent. Cattle has been grazed in the area for the past 100 years (B. Whiting pers. comm. to J. Morey undated). Cattle may have affected this species by compacting the ground and possibly collapsing burrows as well as causing streamside erosion, bank damage and loss of native vegetation. Gold-mining was apparently conducted along the creek and its tributaries earlier this century. Rock is still mined within the catchment. It is not known how critical the persistence of native vegetation is to the survival of the species (Morey 2004). The only known current locations of the species are on Labertouche Creek and Wattle Creek (a tributary of Labertouche Creek) in West Gippsland (Morey 2004). This means that if the Labertouche Creek were to become polluted the Wattle Creek population may also be affected.
7743		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed as Threatened under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. Research is required to provide improved taxonomic and distributional understandings for this species, and following this a clearer determination of its habitat requirements, population numbers and conservation status (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
7743		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. Its range extends from the Mount Baw Baw region in the east, to Warburton in the west (Horwitz 1990).&#160;<br/>This species has an approximate distribution of 274 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;<p>&#160;<br/></p>
7743		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows found predominantly in the flood-plain, in grey clayey and silty soils. The largest male found was 29 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 18.4 to 30.7 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 23.5 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
7743		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
7743		threats	eng	The only known major threat to this species is its restricted distribution, although disturbance to the area in which this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found could cause a significant population decline. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7744		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species should also be assessed for listing under State/ Federal listing, and management plans should be developed for known sites of occurrence (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>
7744		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is endemic to <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state></st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It can be found in fractured locations in the Granville Harbour-Rosebery district in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state></st1:state>, the region of the <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Dazzler</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, and north of Deloraine in northern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state></st1:place></st1:state> (Horwitz 1990). It has also been recorded in the vicinity of Burnie in north-west <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state></st1:place></st1:state> (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,586 km², but has a disjunct distribution (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>  <p><strong></strong></p>
7744		habitat	eng	At all sites from which this species has been collected, the vegetation was mixed forest with burrows being found in soils of sandy, silty clays. The largest male recorded was 24.9 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 20 to 24.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 21 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
7744		population	eng	This species is rare throughout its range, and only occurs in small, fragmented localities (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7744		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is its severely fragmented distribution. It has undergone a decline in its range, most likely as a result of urbanization. This threat has been inferred from maps showing an overlap of urban areas with the range of this species. Urban development is still ongoing in some of its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore,   broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><br/><strong></strong></p>
7745		conservation	eng	In 2001-02, funding was provided to the Tasmanian government through the National Heritage Trust (NHT) Endangered Species Program to prepare and implement the Burrowing Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span>) Recovery Plan 2001-2005 for several species of burrowing crayfish. Survey work undertaken as part of this project led to the discovery that this species should also be considered a threatened species (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2005), especially as its range does not appear to overlap with secure reserves (Doran 2004). Other suggested conservation measures include targeting of private landowners for conservation covenants, creating new reserves, establishing waterwatch monitoring programs in catchments (G. Marsden pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2005) and protecting existing colonies (A. Richardson pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2004).<br/><br/>Increased public awareness and involvement in threatened species protection through community education and involvement will also greatly assist the recovery process for this species. Through the work of the Burrowing Crayfish Recovery Team, public awareness of several other Tasmanian burrowing crayfish has been raised through school and community talks and through a series of magazine, press and newspaper articles (Doran 1999).<br/><br/>Priority recovery and threat abatement actions required for this species are: monitor population trends; and determine specific threats to known colonies and appropriate actions to abate them (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2005).
7745		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central north Tasmania. It is found in an area running southwest from Port Sorell to the Railton area and north to Quoiba, near Devonport (Nelson 2003). The historical distribution of this species is difficult to determine. Based on the distribution and abundance of other burrowing crayfish, it is likely that this species was quite common throughout its range prior to its habitat becoming highly modified (Nelson 2003). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 515 km² (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Surveys conducted in 2002-03 found that this species had a restricted, fragmented population with limited connectivity between populations. Occupancy within its range is estimated to be between 0.2 - 0.5 km² (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). This estimate is based on known locations, with a 10 m (0.2 km²) or 20 m (0.5 km²) buffer applied to waterways and suitable wet areas within each colony to give an overall estimate of potentially occupied habitat (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). This is thought to be a conservative estimate (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). It is still not clear how much available suitable habitat is unsampled (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). It is highly probable that known populations will remain isolated due to the modified environments separating them and the continuing threatening processes operating throughout the range of the species (Nelson 2003).
7745		habitat	eng	This species occupies seeps, wetlands and stream banks in relatively undisturbed habitats. It is only rarely seen above ground or in standing water. This species is often found in clayey soils with deeper burrows than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span> species. It is believed to eat rotting wood, detritus, root material and, occasionally, animal material. The dispersal of this species through waterways may be limited, leading to restricted ranges and a high degree of local speciation (Doran 1999). The largest male recorded was 25.5 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged form 18.8 to 29.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 19.6 mm carapace length (Horwtiz 1990).
7745		population	eng	Population estimates for this species are based on detailed population density information available for the Scottsdale Burrowing Crayfish, <em>Engaeus spinicaudatus</em>. These population estimates identify a difference in burrowing crayfish density between disturbed and undisturbed land (Horwitz 1991). Direct observations have produced a population estimate across known sites of between 1,000 - 1,500 mature individuals (Nelson 2003). The population range may be between 20,000 and 188,000 individuals, however this is possibly a major over-estimate (Doran 2004).<br/> &#160;<br/>It was estimated that on the basis of habitat change alone, it is possible the species would have experienced a serious decline in the past 100 years with a potential decline greater than 80% over any ten year period, or three generations (P. Horwitz pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2004). Another study found that the population could be experiencing a decline of approximately 90% (Doran 2004). However, precise population figures are difficult to determine and estimates range considerably.
7745		threats	eng	This species habitat is highly impacted by agriculture, forestry and urban development. It was estimated that approximately 86% of the species' known habitat occurs on private and public land subject to disturbance and modification, with a further 11.5% existing in state forest where it is subjected to forestry activities (G. Walker-Smith pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2004).<br/><br/>This species may be impacted by activities that severely alter water quality, quantity or soil and food availability (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008a). Potential threats include the clearing of vegetation along rivers and drains; ploughing; dam construction; unrestricted stock grazing (which churns and compacts the soil); burning; conversion to plantation (which imposes significant mechanical disturbance on stream headwaters and seepage channels); frequent, high intensity fires that have negative long-term effects on soil and vegetation; the establishment of roads and associated drainage activities that impact on seep, wetland and stream bank habitat quality (e.g. through the promotion of siltation and erosion); and other activities that degrade river bank integrity and enhance erosion (DPIW 2007).<br/><br/>The species' habitat may also be affected by poor waste management; waterway pollution; the inappropriate application of pesticides and fertilisers; and degradation through the establishment of weeds such as gorse and blackberries in waterways and seeps  (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008a). In addition, a recent survey recorded <em>Cherax destructor</em>, an introduced burrowing crayfish, from a dam where this species<em></em> was present. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span> is not native to Tasmania and is regarded as an introduced pest. It may pose a threat to this species through competition for food and habitat (Nelson 2003; DPIW 2007).<br/><br/>This species' fragmented distribution means that it is very susceptible to population decline, with each isolated colony at risk of direct disturbance, especially in urban and production areas, or under the influence of climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Numerous small populations also depend on small springs that might be affected by changes in rainfall, drainage and evaporation.<br/><br/>While severe disturbance could eliminate the species, it can also persist, possibly for very long periods, in farm, suburban, and industrial forest surrounds. The species is apparently tolerant of clearing and agricultural development, occurring naturally in small and scattered colonies (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008a). While all of these impacts have the potential to affect burrowing crayfish habitat over the long term, this species is most at risk from these activities at periods when it is moulting, visiting the surface, mating or nurturing young (Horwitz 1991). Local government planning has not been particularly successful in incorporating consideration of this species. Several public complaints have been lodged for investigation under federal legislation with regard to developments affecting this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, despite intensive surveys this species was not found to occur in secure reserves (Doran 2004).
7746		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, including monitoring to detect if any population declines are occurring. Potential threats also require investigating as these are largely unknown.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7746		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It can be found in the central northern region of Tasmania. Collections in the Queen Victoria Museum come from the suburbs of Launceston, including St. Leonards on the eastern side of the Tamar River, and these specimens represent the eastern most extension of its known range. It appears to be most abundant in the Meander River region between Deloraine and Launceston (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of&#160;  2,499 km<sup>2 </sup>(Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
7746		habitat	eng	This species can be found in burrows in the banks of creeks and in swamps where the vegetation is characteristically dry sclerophyll in nature, frequently with an abundance of tea tree. The soils typically have a heavy clay component, particularly in the region of the Meander River where the clays are yellow. The largest male found was 27.6 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 15.1 to 27.9 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 24 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
7746		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, however its burrows are either less obvious or less abundant than those of other crayfish species living in similar habitats (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7746		threats	eng	<p>The range of this species overlaps with areas which have undergone development for agriculture which may have reduced population numbers in the past due to cattle trampling and habitat loss, but there is no evidence to support this claim (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Urban populations no longer appear to exist, and the introduced brown trout <em>Salmo trutta</em> is known to predate on this species. These types of threats require further investigation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, climate change will be a major issue if it changes in groundwater levels in thick clays where this species is predominately found (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
7747		conservation	eng	This species is listed under the Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 as Threatened (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, research on the impact that possible threats are having on the population numbers of this species is needed.
7747		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. This species has been found in the Dandenong Ranges, east of Melbourne. Its occurrence near Mt. Donna Buang is unexpected and the eastward extension of its range is in need of clarification. It is not likely to be found west of Mt. Dandenong (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 167 km<sup>2</sup>.
7747		habitat	eng	The species occurs in flood-beds of headwater creeks in temperate, wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus regnans</em> and with abundant ferns at ground level, where it creates shallow burrows that ramify extensively (Horwitz 1990).  <p>&#160;<u></u></p>
7747		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.   It can be locally common (Horwitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985), but it is infrequently encountered, partly because of its cryptic behaviour (Horwitz 1990).
7747		threats	eng	Feral pigs, illegal cutting of tree ferns, and forestry activity resulting in sedimentation of head water creeks, may be problematic for this species. However, no evidence exists to suggest that these types of activities have lead to declines in populations.   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
7749		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species. Although its distribution range does coincide with the   D?Entrecasteaux National Park.
7749		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to the Augusta region in Western Australia, and is distributed from the Margaret River to the Windy Harbour region (Morgan and Beatty 2005). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) has been inferred as 2,578 km², and is unlikely to be much greater (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).&#160;It is unknown whether altitude is potentially a limiting factor in the distribution of this species&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).<p></p>
7749		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is a primary burrower and is found in swamps and peatlands, in any areas where the water table reaches or nearly reaches the surface, and there is a suitable substrate for burrowing (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). They are not found in significant water bodies (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). This species appears to be closely associated to certain hydrological processes and potentially soil types, and responds poorly to disturbance&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
7749		population	eng	There is no population information for&#160;<em></em>this species. However, historical records show that in the last 20 to 40 years, subpopulations have extirpated from some sites (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). It is thought to be abundant at sites where it is recorded (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
7749		threats	eng	This species is threatened by rapid changes in land use within their combined distribution areas, which  have affected surface and ground water conditions in the south-west, destroying their natural habitat (Naturebase 2007). This species has not been found at its type locality since 1960 as it was degraded by cattle, water hole construction and hydrological changes associated with urbanization (Horowitz and Adams 2000). However, these subpopulations would seem not to be under threat at present. This species appears to have a larger distribution and there has been significantly less development around the area where this species is now found (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). Feral pigs also appear to negatively impact this species (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).
7750		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Enhydra lutris nereis</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I. All other populations are included in CITES Appendix II. In Canada, Sea Otters are protected and managed under the Species at Risk Act. In the United States, Sea Otters are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA) and in Southwest Alaska and California, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). The US Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) is the federal agency responsible for their conservation and management. The ESA also makes it illegal to buy, sell or possess any part of endangered species or items made from them. However, both the ESA and the Act allow for coastal Native people in Alaska to harvest Sea Otters for personal use, trade, barter, and the development of cottage industry. Native subsistence harvest of Sea Otters is monitored by the Service through a Marking, Tagging and Reporting program. The Service and Native organizations conduct joint population surveys and dialog on important conservations issues. The MMPA also mandates that efforts must be made to recover the species, which means creating and implementing a plan for returning them to healthy population levels.&#160;<br/> <br/> Despite protection and various conservation measures, the southern Sea Otter population has been slow to recover.&#160; In 1994, the Service developed a Conservation Plan for northern Sea Otters in Alaska with the aim of managing human activities that hinder Sea Otter population recovery or sustainability.&#160; When a significant portion of the species range is stable and healthy, this will facilitate removing the species from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. Many of the conservation actions in the 1994 Plan have been completed, however, the population declines in the Aleutian Islands were unanticipated and new health risks are being identified that may limit population recovery. There have been several successful reintroduction attempts along the west coast of North America, restoring this highly appealing animal to much of its former range.</p>
7750		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>Historically, Sea Otters occurred across the North Pacific Rim, ranging from Hokkaido, Japan, through the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Commander Islands, the Aleutian Islands, peninsular and south coastal Alaska and south to Baja California, Mexico (Kenyon 1969). In the early 1700s, the worldwide population was estimated to be between 150,000 (Kenyon 1969) and 300,000 individuals (Johnson 1982). Although it appears that harvests periodically led to local reductions of Sea Otters (Simenstad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978), the species remained abundant throughout its range until the mid-1700s. Following the arrival in Alaska of Russian explorers in 1741, extensive commercial harvest of Sea Otters over the next 150 years resulted in the near extirpation of the species. When Sea Otters were afforded protection by the International Fur Seal Treaty in 1911, probably fewer than 2,000 animals remained in 13 remnant colonies (Kenyon 1969). Remnant populations were located in the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and in the Commander Islands Russia; five in Southwestern Alaska (the Aleutian Islands, Alaska Peninsula, and Kodiak Island), and one remnant population in each of the following regions;&#160; Southcentral Alaska (Prince William Sound), Canada (Queen Charlotte Islands), central California, and Mexico (San Benito Islands) (Estes 1980). However, the Queen Charlotte, Canada and San Benito Island, Mexico remnant Sea Otter populations have presumably died out and likely did not contribute to the recolonization of the species following near extirpation (Kenyon 1969).</p>  <p></p>  <p>In north America, the Sea Ottes range is fairly continuous from the Aleutian Islands to Prince William Sound with population gaps along the Gulf of Alaska until Yakutat (which was a translocated population) with another gap in the population’s distribution until the outer islands of Southeast Alaska (also a translocated population form the Aleutian Islands and Prince William Sound). The next gap in the Sea Otter population distribution is between Southeast Alaska and British Columbia, Canada. Translocation efforts were successful in Washington State but not in Oregon thus there is a large population gap between the small Sea Otter population in Washington and that of central California.</p>
7750		habitat	eng	<p>Throughout their range, Sea Otters use a variety of near shore marine environments and 84% of foraging occurs in water ≤ 30m in depth (Bodkin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and throughout much of their range, foraging occurs within a kilometer of the shore. Their classic association is with rocky substrates supporting kelp beds, but they also frequent soft-sediment areas where kelp is absent (Riedman and Estes 1990, DeMaster<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1996, Burn and Doroff 2005). Kelp canopy is an important habitat component, used for foraging and resting (Riedman and Estes 1990). They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs. Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, Sea Otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt. Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long, and remain there year-round. Sea Otters forage in rocky and soft-sediment communities on or near the ocean floor. The maximum confirmed depth of dive was 97 m (Newby 1975); however recent studies using time-depth recorders implanted in Sea Otters indicate average maximum forage depths of 54 m for female and 82m for male Sea Otters (Bodkin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/> <br/> Sea Otters are weakly territorial (Kenyon 1969) with fighting and aggression rare (Loughlin 1980). Only adult male Sea Otters establish territories. Males patrol territorial boundaries and attempt to exclude other adult males from the area. Females move freely between and among male territories. Groups of male and female Sea Otters generally rest separately. Sea Otter annual home ranges can occupy up to 0.8 km² (80 ha) and extend along 16 km of coastline (Kenyon 1969, Loughlin 1980). Typically, female Sea Otter home ranges are about 1.5–2 times larger than resident adult males during the breeding season; however, females have smaller annual or lifetime home ranges than males (Riedman and Estes 1990). Jameson (1989) found that territorial adult males occupied a mean home range of 40.3 ha during the summer-fall period (when home range size was considered equal to territory size); and mean coastline length was 1.1 km. Winter-spring mean home range size of territorial adult males that remained in female areas was 78.0 ha, with a mean coastline length of 2.16 km.<br/> <br/> The diet of Sea Otter consists almost exclusively of marine invertebrates, including sea urchins, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other molluscs, crustaceans, and snails. Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets crabs and giant octopuses (Estes 1980). Sea urchins, abalones and rock crabs are the principal prey of Sea Otters in newly reoccupied habitats of central California (Vandevere, 1969) whereas clams and crab will make up the diet in soft-sediment habitats (Kvitek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Doroff and DeGange 1994). Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, Sea Otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type (Kvitek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). In California, it has been noted that Sea Otters ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across. Only in the Aleutian archipelago were Sea Otters observed to regularly eat fish, which could comprise up to 50% of their diet. The fish species eaten were usually bottom dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms, such as the Red Irish Lord and Globefish (Estes 1980). They also consume crab, clam, mussels, turban snails, sea cucumbers, squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, large barnacles, scallops, and sea stars (Wild and Ames 1974, Riedman and Estes 1990). Bivalve molluscs are excavated by digging in sand or mud bottoms and are the most common prey in soft-sediment communities (Calkins 1978, Kvitek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Doroff and DeGange 1994).<br/> <br/> Male Sea Otters reach sexual maturity around age five or six, but probably do not become territorial or reproductively successful for two or three subsequent years (Riedman and Estes 1990). Most female Sea Otters are sexually mature at age four or five (Kenyon 1969, Jameson and Johnson 1993, Monson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Monson and DeGange 1995, von Biela 2007). Sea Otters apparently are polygynous, although the exact nature of the mating system may vary. Females normally give birth to a single pup that weighs 1.4 to 2.3 kg at birth (Riedman and Estes 1990). Twinning has been documented in Sea Otters (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980); however, litters larger than one are rare, and when they occur, neither pup is likely to survive (Jameson and Bodkin 1986). Pups remain dependent upon their mothers for about six months (Jameson and Johnson 1993). Longevity in Sea Otters is estimated to be 15 to 20 years for females and 10 to 15 years for males (Riedman and Estes 1990).</p>
7750		population	eng	<p>The Sea Otter population thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000, occurring along the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja Peninsula in Mexico. Its abundance was greatly reduced by human exploitation. Between 1751 and 1911 the distribution was reduced to 13 known remnant populations: two in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; one in the Commander Islands; a total of 10 in the following areas: Aleutian Islands (2)and along the Alaska Peninsula (3); Kodiak Island (1), Prince William Sound (1), the Queen Charlotte Islands (1), central California (1), and San Benito Islands (1). However, the Queen Charlotte, Canada and San Benito Island, Mexico remnant Sea Otter populations have died out and likely did not contribute to the recolonization of the species following near extirpation (Kenyon 1969).<br/> <br/> Sea Otters currently have established populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, and there have been reports of single-animal observations in Mexico and Japan. Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 106,822 Sea Otters. In Russia, population monitoring has increase for Sea Otters throughout the range and number are about 19,000 are in the Kurils, 2,000 to 3,500 on Kamchatka and another 5,000–5,500 on the Commander Islands.&#160; The Sea Otter population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 individuals in 1973. By 2006, however, the estimated population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals in Alaska. A massive decline in Sea Otter population in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change; the cause of this decline is not known, although orca predation was suspected. The Sea Otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which killed thousands of Sea Otters in 1989. Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the Sea Otter's range is discontinuous. Between 1969 and 1972, 89 Sea Otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island, British   Columbia. They established a healthy population, estimated to be over 3,000 as of 2004, and their range is now from Tofino to Cape Scott. In 1989, a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast. It is not known if this colony, which had a size of about 300 animals in 2004, was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade. In 1969 and 1970, 59 Sea Otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington State. Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals, and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point. California has over 3,000 Sea Otters, descendants of approximately 50 individuals discovered in 1938. The spring 2009 Sea Otter survey counted 2,654 Sea Otters in the central California coast, which is suggestive of a population that is stable or slightly declining; counts are down from an estimated pre-fur trade population of 16,000 (USGS unpublished data). California's Sea Otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern Sea Otters discovered near Big Sur in 1938; their principal range is now from just south of San Francisco to Santa Barbara County. In the late 1980s, the US Fish and Wildlife Service relocated about 140 California Sea Otters to San Nicolas Island in southern California for establishing a reserve population should the mainland is struck by an oil spill. The San Nicholas population initially shrank as the animals migrated back to the mainland, as of 2005, only 30 Sea Otters remained at San Nicholas, thriving on the abundant prey around the island.</p>
7750		threats	eng	Oil spills are the greatest anthropogenic threat to Sea Otter (Geraci and Williams 1990). Sea Otters become hypothermic when oiled because oiled Sea Otter fur loses its insulative property and Sea Otters have no blubber layer, oil can be ingested while grooming, leading to gastrointestinal disorders, other ailments and death and volatile components of oil inhaled by Sea Otters can cause lung damage. Estimates of sea otter mortality following the Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound ranged from 2,650 (Garrott <em>et al.</em> 1993) to 3,905 (DeGange <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>Significant numbers of Sea Otters drowned in gill and trammel nets in California from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s (Estes 1990). Recent population declines in California’s Sea Otters may be incidental to summer commercial fisheries. Estes <em>et al</em>. (2003) found that Sea Otter mortality was elevated in the summer months and that commercial fin fish landings in the coastal live trap fishery increased. Recent analyses indicated annual Sea Otter carcass recoveries and reported fishery landings were significantly correlated.<br/><br/>Thomas and Cole (1996) found 10% of southern Sea Otters they examined to be emaciated without specific cause of mortality. Severe weather and periodic climatic events such as El Niño can disrupt foraging behaviour and food availability, and increase pup loss. Under these circumstances, Sea Otters may find it difficult to meet their high metabolic needs, leading to malnutrition or starvation. Serious tooth wear in older Sea Otters may also contribute to mortality (Riedman and Estes 1990). Recent studies have found infectious disease to be an important mortality factor in California Sea Otter populations. Around 280 Sea Otters found dead have been linked “to a pair of protozoan parasites, <span style="font-style: italic;">Toxoplasma gondii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sacrocystis neurona</span>, that are known to breed in cats and opossums (Conrad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Alaska, <span style="font-style: italic;">Streptococcal endocarditis</span>, encephalitis and/or septicemia, referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">Strep</span>. syndrome has been identified in forensic-level necropies of northern sea otters (Unusual mortality event working group) as well as trauma from boat strikes.&#160; Goldstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) found northern sea otters from the Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak and Kachemak Bay area infected with phocine distemper.<br/> <br/> Killer Whales (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orcinus orca</span>), Great White Sharks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharodon carcharias</span>), Bald Eagles (<span style="font-style: italic;">Haliaeetus leucocephalus</span>), Coyotes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Canis latrans</span>), and Brown Bears (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ursus arctos</span>) have been documented as predators of Sea Otters (Riedman and Estes 1990). Predation by Killer Whales is one factor that is believed to have caused Sea Otter population declines across the Western Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands (Doroff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Estes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Hatfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Significant declines in preferred prey species populations - Northern Fur Seals (<span style="font-style: italic;">Callorhinus ursinus</span>), Harbour Seals (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoca vitulina</span>), and Steller Sea Lions (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eumetopias jubatus</span>) are believed to have caused Killer Whales to prey switch and consume Sea Otters (Estes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). <br/> <br/> Studies in Alaska and Washington and elsewhere have shown that Sea Otter predation on sea urchins may indirectly enhance the growth of kelp and kelp-associated communities. Shellfish are important to commercial, recreational, and tribal fisheries throughout the species range and predation by Sea Otters can be significant and result in localized fisheries and economic issues.
7777		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
7777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
7777		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.
7777		population	eng	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes as less than 1 in 1979/80, and 0 for 1987/88, increasing to about 100 for 2006/08. (No exact figures are given for the 1993/95 small trawl).
7777		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
7780		distribution	eng	Occurs in Ghandisagar Reservoir, River Narmada and a hillpool in the Madhya Pradesh State in central India.
7781		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected areas. Survey and monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
7781		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan (Nuristan and Badakshan), northern Pakistan (North Western Frontier Province) and northern India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand) (Habibi 2003, Molur <em>et al. </em>2005, Nowak 1999). It is widely distributed in the region at elevations of 1,800 to 3,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
7781		habitat	eng	In general this species is foun in montane coniferous forest. It is believed to have a generation time of approximately 4-5 years; it has up to two litters annually of 2-4 young (Nowak 1999).
7781		population	eng	The population is believed to be declining, though the trend is not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7781		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Selective logging, civil unrest, hunting for pet and fur trade are threats in parts of the species range (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
7782		conservation	eng	Least Concern in China, Data Deficient in Russia. In Mongolia approximately 50% of the species’ range occurs within protected areas.
7782		distribution	eng	Distributed in China, Kazakhstan, Russia and Mongolia. Main part of the range is in China, N Xinjiang (Smith and Xie in press).<br/><br/>In Mongolia found in Dzungarian Govi Desert and parts of Trans Altai Govi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Recently recorded in Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi. <br/><br/>At the end of XIX century used to be common in Caspian and Kazakhstan deserts and semi-deserts, but western part of the range drastically has drastically shrunk. Currently western limit of the range is at Zaisan basin, Kazakhstan (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995). In Russia found in S Altai near the border with Kazakhstan and China.
7782		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry-steppe, semi-desert, and stable sand dune habitats. In spring and summer they occur at lower altitudes, where they will remain until the grass is all dried at which time they will move up to higher altitudes to feed on montane grass through winter. Diurnal. Constructs burrows in areas of sandy soil, and each entrance is connected to others via runways. Feeds on roots, tubers and seeds of salsola, wormwood, and different grass near in the vicinity of their holes and emerges for only very short periods of time. Once the food around their hole has been depleted they will move on to a new hole or dig a new one.  Reproduction occurs in the summer months producing at two (Mongolia) or least three (China) litters of about 6-9 young per litter. The young are sexually mature within 3-4 weeks.  Population sizes and the extent of the distribution of the species may fluctuate greatly from year to year.  In years of abundance the species may be distributed across all of N Xinjiang reaching densities of between 1,000-3,000 per hectare. When populations crash; however, the species is rare and restricted to just a few localities with very favorable conditions.  Disease transmission is a problem during high population years.
7782		population	eng	This species experiences population fluctuations on a yearly basis, with large populations observed in 1993 (N. Batsaikhan pers. comm.), 1996, 1997 and 2002 (D. Avirmed pers. comm.), however, the most recent estimate in 2005 found small population sizes (D. Avirmed pers. comm.). In Kazakhstan and Russia it is rare.
7782		threats	eng	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered to be major threats to the survival of the species.
7783		conservation	eng	In Mongolia, approximately 19% of the species’ range occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species may be present in protected areas in China. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). In Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Research should be conducted regarding the distribution of this species in Mongolia.
7783		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it occurs in the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, Eastern Gobi, Trans Altai Gobi Desert and Alashani Gobi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em> 1989). In China, it occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, and Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008).
7783		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane meadows and riverbanks (Smith and Xie 2008), and semi-desert habitats, constructing burrows in areas of sandy soil. The burrow systems are complex with multiple openings, storage chambers, and nests (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It feeds on bulbs, seeds, and roots. It breeds during the summer (May to August) with each female giving birth to three litters of between 4 and 10 offspring.
7783		population	eng	No data are available at present regarding the population status. This species experiences population fluctuations.
7783		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
7786		conservation	eng	Cave conservation is an important measure for this species. More information on population status, range, habitat and ecology and threats are needed for this species.
7786		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Borneo. A record from Mentawai Islands could be a large example of <em>spelaea</em> (Corbet and Hill 1992), but Helgen (pers. comm.) suggests it may represent an undescribed subspecies. Thus the records from Mentawai Islands have been excluded from the map here because it is highly unlikely that the specimens originally collected by Kate (1942) were misidentified (C. Francis pers. comm.).
7786		habitat	eng	It roosts in limestone caves. It has been collected in banana mixed garden close to caves (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). It is most likely a canopy species, but there is not much information regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.
7786		population	eng	Only a few specimens have been collected from both eastern (A. Suyanto pers. comm.) and western Kalimantan.  It is considered rare and uncommon across the island.
7786		threats	eng	Exploitation of karst areas may be a threat to this species (U. Sinaga pers. comm.). This species is also hunted, but it is not known if this constitutes a threat to the species (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).
7787		conservation	eng	This species is adaptable, and is present in many protected areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. In South Asia, this species like most other fruit bats in India is considered a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The species has been recorded from protected areas like Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution, and lobbying to remove it from vermin category are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Awareness programmes on ill effects of cave/roost disturbance is recommended (C. Srinivasulu and Bhargavi Srinivasulu pers. comm. September, 2007).
7787		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely from northern South Asia, into southern China, and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia  it is known from India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Uttaranchal) and Nepal (far western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it is found in southwestern Guangxi and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, and parts of Viet Nam and Cambodia to Peninsular Malaysia. In insular Southeast Asia, it ranges from Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumba, Sulawesi, Muna, Sanana, Halmahera, Batjan and Tidore), much of the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia) to the Philippines where is found throughout the country, except the Batanes/Babuyan region. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Camotes (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Carabro (Alcala and Alviola 1970), Catanduanes, Cebu, Danjugan (Carino 2004), Ilin (Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006), Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Cavite, Ilocos Norte, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal, and Sorsogon provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental [Ramayla pers. comm.], South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Polillo, Samar (Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006), Sanga-sanga, Sabtang, Siargao, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tablas, and Ticao (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006, Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
7787		habitat	eng	This is a cave roosting bat forming compact clusters and cohabits with other bats. It roosts in large groups consisting of thousands of individuals in caves in forested areas. They are more often found in disturbed and agricultural areas, although they do occur in primary forest as well. It is a nectar eating bat with a slow flight, and has adapted to using the flowers of many important agricultural and orchard crops (Smith and Xie 2008). It breeds throughout the year and produces one young (Bates and Harrison 1997). It has been also reported living in small groups from the attics of village huts in northeast India (Tarapada Bhattacharyya pers. comm. June 2005) and Myanmar (Khim Maung Swe pers. comm. January 2000).
7787		population	eng	More than 4,000 individuals were recorded from Batu caves in Malaysia (Bates and Harrison 1997). The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia although a recent discovery of this species in Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu suggests a comparatively rare occurrence compared to the Rousettus leschenaulti (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Philippines, this species is often found in colonies of thousands in caves, even in agricultural areas (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). On Palawan Island two populations were found, one exceeding 2,000 individuals and another that probably exceeded 50,000 individuals (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).
7787		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of South Asia it is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Cave tourism and lighting is an emerging threat in some caves, as at Borra Caves, Andhra Pradesh (Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2003). In China they are often under heavy hunting pressure (Smith and Xie 2008).
7797		conservation	eng	This species is present in Wawushan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), and likely present in Gonggashan and Labahe Nature Reserves.  Mt. Emei was named a World Heritage Site in 1996 (UNESCO 2008).  Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
7797		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of China, known only from the Omei (Emei) Shan range of Sichuan province (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 1,500-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
7797		habitat	eng	This species occupies forests and meadows (Kaneko 1996). Reproductive period is from early summer to late fall (Kaneko 1996).
7797		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
7797		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
7798		conservation	eng	This species is present in Changshanerhai Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
7798		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 2,500-4,800 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
7798		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forests, scrub, bamboo, and in open and rocky meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Reproductive periodicity occurs from early summer to late fall (Smith and Xie 2008).
7798		population	eng	This species has been characterized as common along stream banks (Smith and Xie 2008).
7798		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
7799		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolongmay (CSIS 2008), Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
7799		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008), Qinghai, and Ningxia (CSIS 2008). It occurs at elevations approximately between 2,600-4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
7799		habitat	eng	It occupies mountain forests particularly damp mossy forest at altitudes between about 2,600-4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It appears to fill the ecological niche of <em>Eothenomys</em> at higher elevations (Smith and Xie 2008). Its diet consists of seeds, buds, young leaves, and grass (Smith and Xie 2008).
7799		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
7799		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
7800		conservation	eng	This species is found in Tiantangzhai, Houhe, Foping Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
7800		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), Anhui, Sichuan, Gansu, Henan, Ningxia, Hebei (CSIS 2008), and Hubei. The subspecies <em>inez</em> occupies the northern portion of the distribution and subspecies <em>nux</em> occupies the southern portion (Smith and Xie 2008). It can be found at elevations ranging from 500-2,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
7800		habitat	eng	This species will make burrows in loose soil, in overgrown wooded gullies and ravines (Smith and Xie 2008).  Reproductive periodicity is from March to October (Smith and Xie 2008).
7800		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
7800		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
7801		conservation	eng	It is present within many protected areas. The isolated population in Thailand is present in Doi Inthanon National Park. In South Asia, it has been recorded in Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7801		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, it is widespread in south China, and ranges into northern Southeast Asia. In India it has been recorded from Mishmi hills (Agrawal 2000) and upper catchment area of Noa Dihing river (S.S. Saha pers. comm.) in Arunachal Pradesh at over 300 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Anhui, Guangdong, western Yunnan, southeastern Xizang, southern Gansu and southwestern Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded from the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is present in northern Myanmar, extreme northwestern Viet Nam; and there is an isolated locality in Thailand that possibly represents a relictual population (Musser and Carleton 2005), there may be additional isolated populations of this species that have not been recorded. The species has a known altitudinal range of 700 to 3,000 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005).
7801		habitat	eng	In China it is found in temperate montane evergreen forest (pine and rhododendron), in southern parts of the range it is more likely to be associated with open or cultivated areas close to the forest edge. In South Asia found in tropical and subtropical montane, temperate forest, where it leads a subterranean life, found in the leaf litter on the forest floor. Frequents wooded jungles and grassy meadows (Agrawal, 2000) and transition zones between temperate broad leaved and subtropical forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7801		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
7801		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species as a whole. In South Asia this species is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, small-scale logging, human settlements (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
7802		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ailaoshan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
7802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008).  This distribution is characterized as fragmentary and widely scattered (Kaneko 1996). It occupies elevations between 1,800-3,350 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
7802		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
7802		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
7802		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range at present.
7803		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
7803		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and occupies a restricted range located on the Sichuan and Yunnan border (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging between 2,500-4,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
7803		habitat	eng	It occupies rocky areas and meadow habitats (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs from spring to fall (Smith and Xie 2008).
7803		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
7803		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
7804		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
7804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North and South Korea (Kaneko, 1990). It ranges across the north-western, central, and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula.
7804		habitat	eng	This vole occupies a fairly wide variety of habitats, but seemingly avoids extensive forests (Won, 1967). Specimens of this species have been collected from scrub-covered hillsides, talus slopes, forested areas, abandoned paddy fields, the edge of the forest, old logs, tree stumps, and often near the bank of streams (Won and Smith, 1999; Allen and Andrews, 1913; Jones and Johnson, 1965; Won, 1967). It can probably adapt to some anthropogenic habitats.
7804		population	eng	It is fairly common in central and southern Korea (Yoon, 1994).
7804		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be experiencing any major threats.
7805		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Songshan, Xinglongshan, Houhe, and Pangquangou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
7805		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hebei, Beijing, Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008), Henan and Hubei (CSIS 2008).
7805		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and woodlands (Smith and Xie 2008). Its diet consists of green vegetation, shoots and to a lesser extent seeds (Smith and Xie 2008). It is primarily nocturnal (Smith and Xie 2008).
7805		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
7805		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
7806		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), Liupanshan, Taibaishan, Wanglang, and Wolong Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and is presumed to occur in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).
7806		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces. <em>E. s. setchuanus <em>occurs in western Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan, and southwestern Qinghai, while <em>E. s. vicinus</em> occurs in southern Gansu, eastern Qinghai, southern Shaanxi, and Ningxia (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occurs at elevations ranging from 3,000-4,000 m asl (Holden and Musser 2005).
7806		habitat	eng	This species occupies shrub-steppe or meadow habitats in mountainous regions, at high elevations (Smith and Xie 2008). It is sometimes found in spruce forests (Smith and Xie 2008). The preferred habitat seems to be alongside streams in cool forest areas (Nowak 1991). It was also recorded in dense shrubland resulting from deforestation (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its diet "primarily consists of green plants" (Smith and Xie 2008).
7806		population	eng	A study conducted in southern Gansu in 1996 recorded this species as occurring in previously unknown habitat (dense shrubland), where it was characterized as not so rare (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998). Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> (1998) also indicate that this species is often recorded by Chinese surveys conducted in forests within its range.
7806		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
7807		conservation	eng	Species recovery action plan and reintroductions (to extirpated locations) are recommended for this species. The species is widely commercially captive bred but this stock may not be genetically suitable for re-introductions so a conservation specific <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>conservation breeding programme is recommended.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
7807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand, where it is known from the lower Mae Khlong, Chao Phraya and Bangpakong basins. Formerly it was thought to be Extinct in the Wild, but recent information confirms that the species is still extant (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm.), but very localised, in the Chao Phraya. It is reported to be extirpated in the Mae Khlong and Bangpakong basins but this needs further investigation.
7807		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits lowland streams with rocky or sand gravel bottoms.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
7807		population	eng	It is reported that the species has disappeared from many parts of its range. Large numbers are exported annually from Thailand, all now from captive bred sources.
7807		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline in the wild population of the species are not well known. The aquarium fish trade has been accused of driving the species to local extirpation because of very selective overfishing (over the past 40 years), but there is no documented evidence for this (Kottelat and Whitten 1996). Habitat modification may be the more likely cause of population declines in this case (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). In the 1970s, many dams were constructed in Thailand and these probably severely impacted several large basins in the region. Large swamp areas have also been drained. Habitat degradation and change (including pollution from farmland and domestic sources, infrastructure development such as road building and dams causing loss of habitat and changing in flow regimes and siltation due to agriculture) are now the main threats to this species.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
7815		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
7821		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. This species is legally protected by the US Endangered Species Act of 1973. Research into the threats, population numbers and trends, and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
7821		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Puerto Rico, and is especially abundant in the northern karst region (Acevedo-Torres <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has an elevational range of 0 to 480 m above sea level.
7821		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats. It occurs in rainforests, karst landscape, caves, and even altered environments such as plantations and urban areas.
7821		population	eng	This species is described as common in undisturbed karst areas of northwestern Puerto Rico (Tolson and Henderson 1993). Much of the boa's apparent rarity undoubtedly relates to observers' difficulties in visually detecting the species in forests (Wunderle <em>et al</em>. 2004), and this boa is not as rare as previously thought (Puente-Rolon and Bird-Pico 2004). Although the species is probably less abundant than it was in pre-Columbian times, recent accounts indicate that it is still widespread on Puerto Rico, and suggest that it may be common in some locations (Reagan 1984).
7821		threats	eng	This species has undoubtedly been threatened in the past and declined in numbers. Most of Puerto Rico has now been deforested except for inaccessible karst areas, which this species prefers. It is predated on by introduced mongooses, and killed by humans for a number of reasons, including extracting their fatty oils. However, this species is still abundant in its natural and altered habitats.
7826		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
7832		conservation	eng	A search for other populations of <em>E. camelus</em> is urgently needed, as is extent of habitat (forested streams) that is available in the general area. Population size and trends have to be monitored. Occurs in the protected area of Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. One occurrence is unpublished, that from D. R. Paulson's collection.
7832		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Costa Rica; Alajuela (collection notes: "10 mi N Varablanca, 2,800 ft" (D.R. Paulson collection), and Cartago (collection notes: "Juan Viñas, 1,036 m" and "Carrillo, ca 300 m", both in Calvert (1920)).
7832		habitat	eng	Species occurs at forest streams, from lowland to mid elevation (300 - 1,000 m).
7832		population	eng	<em>E. camelus</em> is, at best, described as being uncommon at known localities.
7832		threats	eng	Deforestation is an ongoing threat; it mostly occurs in unprotected land within the species range.
7833		conservation	eng	<em>E. clavatus</em> is not known to be present in any protected area. Searches for other populations are urgently needed, as is the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends have to be monitored. Realistically, there is no odonatologist living anywhere near its known range.
7833		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Guatemala: Alta Verapaz, Cobán (Belle 1980) and in Mexico: Chiapas, Lagunas de Montebello, 1,480 m (S. E. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006).
7833		habitat	eng	<em>E. clavatus</em> is found at forest streams.
7833		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. clavatus</em> is not known.
7833		threats	eng	Deforestation of <em>E. clavatus</em> habitat is assumed to continue and much of its known range is already deforested.
7834		conservation	eng	First, further study is needed to determine that the two known subpopulations are of the same species. A search for existing subpopulations is needed, with assessment of habitat needs. Population sizes and trends need to be monitored.
7834		distribution	eng	Pacific slope of southern Mexico (Nayarit and Oaxaca).
7834		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest streams (400–900 m).
7834		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
7834		threats	eng	Deforestation and diversion of water for human uses.
7835		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
7835		distribution	eng	Chiapas in Mexico.
7835		habitat	eng	Lowland rain-forest streams (600 m).
7835		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
7835		threats	eng	Deforestation.
7836		conservation	eng	One population lies within the protected area of Reserva Forestal El Rodeo.  New studies are needed to confirm habitat status and population range of <em>E. subsimilis</em>.
7836		distribution	eng	<em>Epigomphus subsimilis</em> is found in Costa Rica from the following areas:<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela, Turrúcares, Rio Siquiares, 670 m (Calvert 1920)<br/>Costa Rica: San José, Reserva Forestal El Rodeo, 7 km W Colón (Ramírez 1996, R. W. Garrison collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Province, 14 km SSW Monteverde, 355 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)
7836		habitat	eng	Presumably lowland rain-forest streams like most other <em>Epigomphus</em>. Type series taken in corn and banana fields near river, however. Males taken at swampy spring seep in forest, one patrolling small pool and another at forest edge. Known elevation range 355 - 670 m.
7836		population	eng	There is no information available to assess <em>E. subsimilis</em> population size or trend.
7836		threats	eng	The deforestation of <em>E. subsimilis</em> habitat is presumed to continually affect its numbers, causing a decline in the population.
7854		conservation	eng	<em>E. drummondhayi</em> was listed as a "Candidate Species" in 1997 under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA), and was classified as a "Species of Concern" in April 2004 by National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (see: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/concern/). In either case the status does not carry any procedural or substantive protection under the ESA. <br/> <br/>Status by Distinct Population Segment (DPS) US: Endangered, steady and drastic decline in abundance, males rare (G.R. Huntsman pers. obs.).
7854		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the waters around Bermuda and along the coast of the USA from North Carolina to the Florida Keys and in the northern and eastern Gulf of Mexico. Reports of Speckled Hind from Cuba and the Bahamas are unsubstantiated (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
7854		habitat	eng	<em>E. drummondhayi</em> derive their common name (Speckled Hind) from the multitude of tiny white spots that cover their reddish-brown head, body and fins. Specked hinds are deep-water groupers, which have their pelagic egg and larval stages offshore (Richards 1999). Adults inhabit offshore rocky bottoms in depths of 25 to 183 m but are most common between 60 and 120 m (Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles are more commonly found in shallower portions of the depth range (Ross 1988). <br/> <br/>Speckled Hind are protogynous hermaphrodites (Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000); females mature at 4 or 5 years of age (45–60 cm TL), transition into males was estimated to occur at ages 7 to 14 (Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Spawning occurs from April to May and July to September (Heemstra and Randall, 1993, Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000). No direct observation of spawning has been reported; spawning may occur at >70 m depth based on the catch of ripe individuals (Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000, Gilmore and Jones 1992). <br/> <br/>Maximum size is about 110 cm TL and maximum weight is 30 kg (Matheson and Huntsman 1984, Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Prey items, which can be engulfed whole, include fishes, crabs, shrimps lobsters and molluscs (see <a href="http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/">NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources</a> web site).
7854		population	eng	Very little population data have been reported for the species. <br/> <br/>In Bermuda the species is rare and probably not reproducing. Biologist and Bermuda Fisheries government officer Brian Luckhurst "examined and photographed two specimens in 1983 and that was the last time I have seen any specimens". "My view is that there is probably not a reproductively viable population here. We may occasionally get larvae coming in on Gulf Stream eddies but that is sporadic. Suffice it to say that the species is commercially extinct here and has been for at least 20 years" (B. Luckhurst pers. comm). Smith (1958) reported the species to be sporadically common in Bermuda at depths of 146–182 m, but now the species appears to be quite rare (Smith-Vaniz <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) data showed that the landings of <em>E. drummondhayi</em> have fluctuated. In southeastern USA, annual landings (recreational and commercial) declined to about 5 metric tons in the mid-1990s, then increased to about 18 metric tons, then dropped to just a few metric tons in 1995 (see Figure 2 in the attached pdf for a graph of these figures). More recent landings data have not been located (Parker and Mays 1998). <br/> <br/>The landings reflected in the commercial landings for all US waters indicates a different trend, one showing overall increase from 1980 to 2004 (yearly landings from 1980 in metric tons: 0.7; 1.9; 5.3; 12.3; 14.8; 14.6; 12.7; 9.9; 8.7; 8.9; 9.8; 27.1; 30; 20.7; 29.4; 19.4; 17.5; 28.2; 23.2; 23.2; 29.7; 30.9; 23.3; 40.3; 47.4). (See the detailed table of commercial landings data for this species at http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/commercial/landings/annual_landings.html). <br/> <br/>It is not known what trends in fishing effort have been associated with the reported landings, although there appears to be a movement of effort offshore (and into the areas where this species occurs) by both recreational and commercial sectors as part of moving fishing effort away from inshore waters. The declines and increases noted above could either reflect declines or increases in catch rates combined with a movement/change of fishing effort, or some combination of the two. <br/> <br/>Personal observations by Dr. Gene Huntsman (cited in Musick <em>et. al</em>. 2001), a scientist familiar with the species and its fishing history suggested steady and drastic declines in abundance. <br/> <br/>Low resilience, minimum population doubling time is 4.5 - 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/> <br/>A detailed analysis of size-frequency data and catch data in the Gulf of Mexico is needed to determine stock status in this location. The species appears to be depleted over its more shallow range and status in both deep and shallower areas needs to be determined.
7854		threats	eng	An immediate threat to this species is related to management of the commercial bottom long-line fishery of the southeastern US. The management trend has been to restrict such indiscriminate gear to deeper waters. If this management trend continues Speckled Hind and other deep-water species like it (Warsaw Grouper, Snowy Grouper, Yellowedge Grouper, and several species of tilefish) will experience an even greater impact than they do now because barotrauma (expansion of enclosed gases in the swimbladder (embolism)) results in hemorrhage and eventual death as these deep-water fish are brought to the surface (Coleman and Williams 2002, Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>There is also a trend for the recreational fishery to operate in deeper water as shallower stocks become depleted. Even though there is a daily bag limit and trip limit for groupers, there are so many recreational fishermen (over 1 million saltwater licenses in Florida alone) that the potential impact on the already depleted Speckled Hind population is serious. <br/> <br/>At the present time there are no stock assessments and none are planned.
7855		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
7855		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>exsul</em> is an eastern Central Pacific species occurring from the Gulf of California to Panama.
7855		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> is a demersal species mostly known from juveniles. One juvenile examined came from a depth of 55 m. It is apparently too rare to be of commercial interest. The only adult specimen was found in Panama City fish market and was 125 cm TL.
7855		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> is a rare species throughout its range and known from only a few specimens.
7855		threats	eng	The specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> are not known.
7858		conservation	eng	<strong>Protection in Australia</strong> <br/><em>E. lanceolatus</em> was catergorized as Lower Risk (conservation dependent) on an Australia-wide basis. <br/> <br/>Under current Queensland Fisheries regulations, the fish is classified as "no take species" for recreational fishing (http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/). <br/> <br/>Under Northern Territory Regulation 9 of the Fisheries Act, no species of the genus <em>Epinephelus</em> above the size of 120 cm may be taken (H. Larson, pers. comm., cited in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Protected Species in NSW Waters (since 1977). <br/> <br/>Protected Species in WA waters. <br/> <br/>No ASFB Listing (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Protected species in Queensland waters (since 2003) (Queensland Fisheries Service 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>Protection in India</strong> <br/>There is a total ban on the capture and sale of <em>E. lanceolatus</em> in the Union Territory of Andaman Islands, India, where <em>E. lanceolatus</em> is relatively abundant. The local fisheries department has issued notices and the field staff monitor the capture and sale of it. Shipment or marketing of this species is not permitted. However, there is accidental capture of this species along with other groupers, although it cannot be marketed openly. In mainland India, this species is included in the banned list of species for fishing. But, except in Laccadive Islands and in the Gulf of Mannar, the species is not common (Dr. C.M. James pers. comm.).
7858		distribution	eng	<em>E. lanceolatus</em> is the largest and most widely distributed among all groupers (Sadovy and Cornish 2000) but is locally rare (Randall 1995). It occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific region from the Red Sea to Algoa Bay (South Africa) and eastward to the Hawaiian and Pitcairn Islands (Heemstra and Randall 1993) throughout Micronesia (Myers 1991). In the western Pacific, it ranges northwards to southern Japan and southwards to Australia. In Australia it occurs all along tropical and temperate coasts, rarely straying into cool temperate waters (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994. It is known from oceanic islands as well as continental localities. Its absence in the Persian Gulf is puzzling (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It can be found in the entire Indian Ocean, but is rarely seen north of the Maldives (Delbelius 1993). Not known from the coast of Pakistan, near the entrance to the Gulf or Gulf of Oman, but <em>E. lanceolatus</em> is reported from the coast of Pakistan near the entrance to the Gulf of Oman observed by divers off Raysut, southern Oman (Randall 1995). <br/> <br/>In S and SE Asia <em>E. lanceolatus</em> is recorded from Japan, mainland China, Hainan Island, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. There isalso a recent record for Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). In Taiwan the species was recorded rarely at Ruerhmen at the southwest waters, but not found in other parts of the island (Kuo and Shao 1999). <br/> <br/>Indonesia and the Philippines were, respectively, the main sources of Live Reef Fish imports into Hong Kong as well as the main sources for <em>E. lanceolatus</em> (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999, Sadovy <em>et al</em>. 2003).
7858		habitat	eng	<em>E. lanceolatus</em> is the largest of all coral reef dwelling bony fishes. It tends to be solitary and inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs at a depth of a few to at least 50m. Large individuals often have a "home" cave or wreck in which they frequently stay (Myers 1991). It is somewhat unusual for a large species in that large individuals can be found in shallow inshore waters, including rocky areas, caves and wrecks, habours and estuaries, (Lau and Li 2000, Sadovy and Cornish 2000) and down to 100 m; overall it is more often found in shallow water (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It even swims into brackish areas (Delbelius 1993). Specimens more than a meter long have been caught from close to shore and in harbours (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Its favourite food on coral reefs and in rocky areas is spiny lobsters. It is also known to eat a variety of fishes, including small sharks and batoids, and juvenile sea turtles; in South African estuaries, the main prey item is the mud crab (Heemstra and Randall 1993). All food is swallowed whole (Myers 1991). <br/> <br/>Maturity size is thought to be approximately 129 cm and max size is 270 cm (Lau and Li 2000). It rarely reaches its final weight of about 400 kg. The larger it grows, the shyer it becomes according to underwater observations (Delbelius 1993). <br/> <br/>There are no reported direct observations of spawning aggregations (as is found in many other grouper species) for <em>E. lanceolatus</em>, although these have been reported anecdotally (Domeier <em>et al</em>. 2002). Interviews with fishermen provide indirect evidence of spawning aggregations in eastern Indonesia where seasonally, catches increase from an average 1 fish/week/boat to 5–6 fish/week/boat during the possible aggregation season; the spawning period was suggested to be December to February based on these interview data (Sadovy and Liu 2004). <br/> <br/>Rarely is the species seen underwater anywhere, but there are reports of individuals caught in Hong Kong, by hook or spear, in deeper water and outer islands such as Waglan Island dating back at least 30 years (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The Giant Grouper is nowadays often brought into Hong Kong from elsewhere in the South China Sea and beyond, for consumption, and periodically escapes from mariculture facilities, so the source of Giant Grouper seen in Hong Kong waters to day is uncertain. From older reports, however, small numbers of this species did once occur naturally in local waters but this location is edge of range (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>It is not common enough to be of much commercial importance, but it is often the target of spearfishermen because of its size. Caught with hook and line and spear (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Data are needed on age, growth, reproduction, landings and trade (other than Hong Kong imports).
7858		population	eng	It is rare thus population status cannot be inferred from insufficient data. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).
7858		threats	eng	Commercial and recreational fishing activities, including the live reef fish trade and the marine aquarium fish trade, have the potential to adversely affect populations of this species (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Andaman Islands, India, Giant Grouper are protected by law but the fisheries department does not enforce this law and the fish caught are unnoticed and are not cared for (Dr. C.M. James pers. comm.), leading to mortalities. <br/> <br/>It is likely that since a large area of reef is required to maintain such a large predator, its numbers are typically low, even in unexploited areas; this is consistent with underwater observations. In many places, it has all but disappeared (Myers 1991), due primarily to spearfishermen. Since the species takes decades to grow, and juveniles are also relatively uncommon, there is little chance of giant individuals reappearing in unprotected areas (Myers 1991). <br/> <br/>The gall bladder of the Giant Grouper is an item of strong magical-medical significance to cure 'soul loss and ease pain', and even today, the highly distinctive thick walled stomach of <em>E. lanceolatus</em> sells for a high price and the skin and flesh are appreciated (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>Small groupers are quite palatable, but the flesh of large fish is strong flavoured and stringy (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). The meat of this fish is quite popular around the world. It is one of the most highly valued live food dishes and retails at over US$ 100/kg for the smaller specimens; larger specimens have a lower wholesale price per kg (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999, Sadovy and Vincent 2002). Juvenile Giant Groupers are sometimes found in the pet (aquarium) trade. As a young fish, this grouper sports beautiful colors and moves gracefully, hence the appeal.
7859		conservation	eng	A spearfishing ban has been imposed on the species for ten years in France. A number of Marine Protected Areas have been established to protect the habitat of the fish. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, <em>E. marginatus</em> forms part of a ‘restricted’ group of species governed by a bag limit of five fish per day (S. Fennessy, pers. comm., 2003).
7859		conservation	eng	A spearfishing ban has been imposed on the species for ten years in France. A number of marine protected areas have been established to protect the habitat of the fish. In South Africa, <em>E. marginatus</em> forms part of a ‘restricted’ group of species governed by a bag limit of five fish per day (S. Fennessy, pers. comm. 2003).
7859		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus marginatus</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and western Indian Ocean. It is found in the  Mediterranean Sea and around the southern tip of Africa, except for Namibia (S. Fennessy pers. comm. 2004) to southern Mozambique. In the western Atlantic, this species is found in southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. It is also reported from southern Oman (Randall 1995). Reports from Madagascar are likely in error (M. Harmelin-Vivien pers. comm. 2004) For this species, which aggregates to spawn, area of occupancy is taken as the area of all aggregation sites. This area, which will occupy < 10% extent of occurrence, is not known. Known or suspected reproductive sites in the north-western Mediterranean Sea include Corsica (Revellata, Lavezzi Islands), Var (Les Embiez, National Park of Port-Cros), Pyrenees-Orientales coasts (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003), Medes Islands (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a) and Lampedusa Island (Marino <em>et al</em>. 2001).
7859		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus marginatus</span> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: Mediterranean Sea and round the southern tip of Africa, except for Namibia (S. Fennessy, pers. comm. 2004) to southern Mozambique. Western Atlantic: southern Brazil, and from Uruguay and Argentina (see <a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a>). Also reported from southern Oman (Randall 1995). Reports from Madagascar are likely in error (M. Harmelin-Vivien, pers. comm. 2004) For this species, which aggregates to spawn, area of occupancy is taken as the area of all aggregations sites. This area, which will occupy < 10% extent of occurrence, is not known. Known or suspected reproductive sites in the north-western Mediterranean Sea: Corisca (Revellata, Lavezzi Islands), Var (Les Embiez, National Park of Port-Cros), Pyrenees-Orientales coasts (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003), Medes Islands (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a) and Lampedusa Island (Marino <em>et al</em>. 2001).
7859		habitat	eng	<em>E. marginatus</em> inhabits rocky reefs from 8–300 m (see species account on <a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a>). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, changing from female to male at large size. <br/> <br/>Females in Tunisian waters reached sexual maturity at age 5, while sex reversal of females to males takes place between the 9th and 16th years with a maximum at the12th year (Chauvet 1988). In Brazil, 50% of females reach sexual maturity at 47 cm while the largest female was 79 cm and the smallest male was 80 cm. The species matures in spring and spawns in early summer with a peak in December (Andrarde <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><em>E. marginatus</em> forms small spawning aggregations of a few tens of individuals. (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a, Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997b). Aggregation sites are known from the Medes Islands Marine Reserve, Spain (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a), off Lampedusa Island in the Mediterranean (Marino <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the National Park of Port-Cros, France (Chauvet and Francour 1991). Aggregation sites also appear to exist in Brazil as spearfishermen have reported large catches (up to 400 kg) in a few days from the same areas (Andrarde <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>In the Medes Island Marine reserve in Spain, density of Dusky Grouper was low in winter and maximal in summer, which took place from late June to late August (up to 8–fold increase). The number continued to increase before spawning in mid August, then dropped rapidly afterwards. During this period, dominant males developed territorial behaviour and displayed aggressively towards neighbouring males and smaller females. The observed sex ratio was approximately 1:7 (sexually active males versus adult females) (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a).
7859		habitat	eng	<em>E. marginatus</em> inhabits rocky reefs from 8 to 300 m. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, changing from female to male at large size.<br/><br/>Females in Tunisian waters reached sexual maturity at age 5, while sex reversal of females to males takes place between the 9th and 16th years with a maximum at the 12th year (Chauvet 1988). In Brazil, 50% of females reach sexual maturity at 47 cm while the largest female was 79 cm and the smallest male was 80 cm. The species matures in spring and spawns in early summer with a peak in December (Andrarde <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>E. marginatus</em> forms small spawning aggregations of a few tens of individuals. (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a, Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997b). Aggregation sites are known from the Medes Islands Marine Reserve, Spain (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a), off Lampedusa Island in the Mediterranean (Marino <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the National Park of Port-Cros, France (Chauvet and Francour 1991). Aggregation sites also appear to exist in Brazil as spearfishermen have reported large catches (up to 400 kg) in a few days from the same areas (Andrarde <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In the Medes Island Marine reserve in Spain, density of Dusky Grouper was low in winter and maximal in summer, which took place from late June to late August (up to 8-fold increase). The number continued to increase before spawning in mid August, then dropped rapidly afterwards. During this period, dominant males developed territorial behaviour and displayed aggressively towards neighbouring males and smaller females. The observed sex ratio was approximately 1:7 (sexually active males versus adult females) (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a).<br/><br/>Age of first maturity is 5 years for females and as it is protogynous, the sex change to males occurs aground 9-16 years (Golani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Chauvet 1988). It probably lives to over 30 years of age. Based on this, generation length is estimated to be approximately 20 years.<br/><br/><em>E. marginatus</em> is widely targeted across its global range as adults for food, and is extremely slow to reach sexual maturity (around five years in females and 12 years in males). It also forms spawning aggregations which are particularly vulnerable to overfishing, and as such, shows low resilience to fishing.  Furthermore, the observed sex ratio of sexually mature males to females in one spawning aggregation was approximately 1:7 (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a). The sex ratio is heavily skewed towards females, and may become more so, if fishing is targeted towards the largest individuals (males). Heavily skewed sex ratios may lead to reductions in reproductive output.
7859		population	eng	It is highly likely that the two primary areas where <em>E. marginatus</em> occurs, in eastern Africa/Europe and South America represent (at least) two separate subpopulations with minimal gene flow due to the very large distance between them. <br/> <br/>In France, Spain and Italy, this species is abundant only in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) where fishing is totally banned. A fish survey conducted for more than ten years demonstrates an increase in the population of the Dusky Grouper inside MPAs. The fish is much more abundant in the southern part of the Mediterranean than in the north. The population of <em>E. marginatus</em> has never been very numerous along the French Mediterranean coast. But a dynamic population of groupers has been recorded in the northern Mediterranean for 15 years (Harmelin and Robert 2001). Visual censuses conducted in Ustica Island revealed a high abundance of the grouper in coastal areas (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999). <br/> <br/>A recovery in the Dusky Grouper population has been observed in France, first in MPAs and now even in unprotected areas. A tenfold increase was observed in the French National Park of Port-Cros for the last 10 years. The increase is believed to be related to several factors acting in synergy: increased number of MPAs, spearfishing ban and global warming of the Mediterranean Sea (M. Harmelin-Vivien, pers. comm. 2003). <br/> <br/>The presence of small groupers is constantly observed in the south of Spain and along the North African coasts. The presence of many small Dusky Groupers were also observed in Corsica between 1990, 1992, 1996 and 2001 (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, a decline in populations has been observed in Tunisia and southern Spain due to overfishing (reported by scientists of these countries at the 1998 Symposium on Mediterranean groupers).
7859		population	eng	It is highly likely that the two primary areas where <em>E. marginatus</em> occurs, in eastern Africa/Europe and South America represent (at least) two separate subpopulations with minimal gene flow due to the very large distance between them. Of the two discontinuous distributions for <em>Epinephalus marginatus</em> in Africa/Europe and South America, that of the former is far larger and it is assumed that most of the global population lies in this area. <br/><br/>Information concerning the actual global population of this species remains fragmentary and incomplete, but annual landings data exist for many countries in the range of this species in Africa/Europe. Comparable data are not available for South America although this species is known to be important in artisinal fisheries and to spearfishers along Santa Catarina in Brazil (Andrade <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Landings data can be used as a crude proxy for changes in population size provided fishing effort, gear types, management regulations, etc., do not also change over time in a way that could cause landings to change accordingly. In this instance, changes in fishing effort/management, that could explain the large declines in landings seen from 1990 to 2001 (up to 95%, in Italy) are not known. There is some of evidence of localized recovery in France, but on a very small scale compared to the declines in landings over many of the countries where <em>E. marginatus</em> occurs.<br/><br/>In France, Spain and Italy, this species is abundant only in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) where fishing is totally banned. A fish survey conducted for more than ten years demonstrates an increase in the population of the Dusky Grouper inside MPAs. The fish is much more abundant in the southern part of the Mediterranean than in the north. The population of <em>E. marginatus</em> has never been very numerous along the French Mediterranean coast. But a dynamic population of groupers has been recorded in the northern Mediterranean for 15 years (Harmelin and Robert 2001). Visual censuses conducted in Ustica Island revealed a high abundance of the grouper in coastal areas (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999).<br/><br/>A recovery in the Dusky Grouper population has been observed in France, first in MPAs and now even in unprotected areas. A tenfold increase was observed in the French National Park of Port-Cros for the last 10 years. The increase is believed to be related to several factors acting in synergy: increased number of MPAs, spearfishing ban and global warming of the Mediterranean Sea (M. Harmelin-Vivien, pers. comm. 2003).<br/><br/>The presence of small groupers is constantly observed in the south of Spain and along the North African coasts. The presence of many small Dusky Groupers were also observed in Corsica between 1990, 1992, 1996 and 2001 (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, a decline in populations has been observed in Tunisia and southern Spain due to overfishing (reported by scientists of these countries at the 1998 Symposium on Mediterranean groupers).<br/><br/>Although fisheries data is lacking from many countries within its range, the alarming declines seen in Europe and around the Mediterranean, along with reports that spawning aggregations are being targeted in Brazil, as well as the fact that this is a very large grouper and that large size is a biological characteristic clearly shown to be associated with higher risk of extinction, demands a precautionary approach when assessing the global threat of extinction in this species. There have been declines of 88% in total catches for seven countries between 1990-2001 in a significant part of its overall geographic range. Additionally, this species is considered to be heavily fished in many other parts of its range where there are relatively few data.
7859		threats	eng	Overexploitation from commercial fishing is the primary threat. The slow growth rate and the complex reproductive style of <em>E. marginatus</em> compound its inability to withstand high fishing pressure (Fennessy 1998).<br/><br/>In the past, spearfishing has been the main cause of mortality in France. Furthermore, the possible removal of legal protection of dusky groupers and a resumption of spearfishing will further impact the re-established juvenile population (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003).
7859		threats	eng	Overexploitation from commercial fishing is the primary threat. The slow growth rate and the complex reproductive style of <em>E. marginatus</em> compound its inability to withstand high fishing pressure (Fennessy 1998). <br/> <br/>In the past, spearfishing has been the main cause of mortality in France. Furthermore, the possible removal of legal protection of dusky groupers and a resumption of spearfishing will further impact the re-established juvenile population (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003).
7860		conservation	eng	<em>Hyporthodus nigritus</em> was listed as a "Candidate species" in 1997 under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) (United States), and was classified as a "Species of Concern" in April 2004 by National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Both status assessments do not carry any procedural or substantive protections under the ESA.<br/> <br/>According to the NOAA Fisheries' 2002 Report to Congress (NMFS 2003), the status of the Warsaw Grouper stock in Gulf of Mexico is unknown, and the status of the Atlantic stock is overfished with overfishing occurring.<br/> <br/>Current commercial grouper regulations for the Gulf of Mexico include Warsaw Grouper - no minimum size; 726 mt overall deep-water grouper quota (GMFMC 2003).<br/> <br/>Current commercial grouper regulations for the U.S. South Atlantic include Warsaw Grouper - one per vessel per trip; may not be sold or traded; no transfer at sea (SAFMC 2003).<br/> <br/>Status by Distinct Population Segment (DPS) US: Endangered, steady and drastic decline in abundance, males are rare (G.R. Huntsman, pers. obs.).
7860		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Western Atlantic from Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, Trinidad, and as far south as Rio de Janeiro. Warsaw Grouper seem to be rare in the West Indies, with single records from Cuba, Haiti, and Trinidad; this rarity and the apparent absence from the western Caribbean shelf may be due to the dearth of deep-water fishing in this area (Manooch and Mason 1987, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Robins and Ray 1996).
7860		habitat	eng	<em>Hyporthodus nigritus</em> is classified as a deep-water grouper; they inhabit reefs (such as deep Oculina reef areas and other growth-encrusted hard bottom) on the continental shelf break in waters 76-219 m deep (Manooch and Mason 1987). The fish have their pelagic egg and larval stages pelagic offshore (Richards 1999, Parker and Mays 1998), juveniles can be found in nearshore areas, occasionally seen on jetties and shallow-water reefs (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Hardy 1978, Lavett Smith 1971). Adults are usually found on rough, rocky bottoms in depths of 55 to 525 m (FAO 1977, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Bullock and Smith 1991, Gutherz 1982).<br/> <br/>The Warsaw Grouper is long-lived (up to 41 years) and has a slow growth rate (Manooch and Mason 1987, Musick <em>et al</em>. 2001). Maximum size is about 235 cm TL and about 200 kg. <br/> <br/><em>Hyporthodus nigritus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, age of maturity occurs at nine years (Parker and Mays 1998, Musick <em>et al</em>. 2001). Spawning has been reported to occur around April and May in Cuba (García-Cagide 1994).<br/> <br/>The Warsaw Grouper's large mouth enables it to engulf prey whole after capturing it in ambush or after a short chase. Diet items include crabs, shrimps and fishes.
7860		population	eng	No abundance population data have been reported for the species. <br/> <br/>Landings data are available from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) for the period from 1950 to 2003. Landings of <em>H. nigritus</em> were recorded in a few southeastern states of the US, including, Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Florida (east and west coasts). Landings were variable over 40 years from 1950 to 1990, ranging from 56 to 162 metric tons; peaks occurred in 1952, '65, '81 and '88, while troughs were recorded around 1960, '80 and '84. The landings showed marked declines between 1995 and 1998 to 25 to 40 metric tons, but rose again to 114 metric tons in 2003. (For the landings figures see Table 1 in the attached PDF).<br/> <br/>By region (see Table 1 in the attached PDF), about 99% of Warsaw Grouper are caught in the Gulf of Mexico (Texas Louisiana, Alabama and Florida west coast). In terms of location, Florida west coast is the largest landing port in the US, responsible for about 68% of the total US landings from 1950 to 1985. However, the landings showed a decreasing trend in the Florida west coast since 1985, while the landings in Texas and Louisiana increased during the same period and took over the leading place in the 1990s. The change in trends of landings may indicate a shift in abundance around the area due to natural causes or because of a change in fishing practices. Further study on <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. nigritus</em> is needed to better understand stock trends. <br/> <br/>According to the NOAA Fisheries' 2002 Report to Congress (NMFS 2003), the status of Warsaw Grouper Gulf of Mexico stock is unknown, and the status of the Atlantic stock is overfished with overfishing occurring. Long-term and short-term biomass trends for Warsaw Grouper are unknown (Mazurek 2004). <br/> <br/>Although Cuba is within the range of this species, no information on landings could be found and it was not mentioned in a Cuban context in the recent book by Claro <em>et al</em>. 2001 which discusses ecology and fisheries of marine fishes of Cuba. This strongly implies that the species is either not common, has always been insignificant in the fishery, or has been seriously depleted. However a spawning season for the species in Cuba was noted by Garcia-Cagide (1994) indicating a reproductive population in the area. <br/> <br/>The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) capture fisheries data, but their records only recorded production of <em>E. nigritus</em> in the West Central Atlantic Fisheries Area (31), annual production ranged from 16 to 54 metric tons during the period from 1994 to 2000 (FAO 2002). <br/> <br/>The species is reported to have low resilience, with a minimum population doubling time of 4.5 - 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).
7860		threats	eng	An immediate threat to this species is related to management of the commercial bottom long-line fishery of the southeastern US. The management trend has been to restrict such indiscriminate gear to deeper waters. If this management trend continues Warsaw Grouper and other deep-water species like it (Speckled Hind, Snowy Grouper, Yellowedge Grouper, and several species of tilefish) will experience an even greater impact than they do now because barotrauma (expansion of enclosed gases in the swimbladder - embolism) results in hemorrhage and eventual death as these deepwater fish are brought to the surface (Coleman and Williams 2002, Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>There is also a trend for the recreational fishery to operate in deeper water as shallower stocks become depleted. Even though there is a daily bag limit and trip limit for groupers, there are so many recreational fishermen (over 1 million saltwater licenses in Florida alone) that the potential impact on the already depleted Warsaw Grouper population is serious. <br/> <br/>The limited dataset used to determine the status of the Atlantic stock, in the absence of a full stock assessment (M. Prager pers. comm.), indicates that the spawning potential ratios (SPR) for Warsaw Grouper in the Atlantic is between 6 and 14%, well below the threshold level indicating overfishing (NMFS 2003). There are no stock assessments for the Gulf of Mexico stock and none are planned in the immediate future.
7861		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>In the US, the species has been monitored and had conservation measures applied directly to manage the fishery since the early 1990s.<br/><br/>In Brazil,&#160;  <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em> niveatus</em> was a frequent species and was often landed with <em>Polyprion americanus</em> (Polyprionidae) (DD) (Sadovy 2003), but was likely commonly misidentified and quantified. In 2005, a 10-year-ban for <em>P. americanus</em> fisheries was instituted by the Brazilian Environment Ministry (BRASIL/MMA 2005) that may afford <em>H. niveatus</em> some protection from fishing.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>1. US Amendment #6 (1993): commercial quotas and trip limits enacted (SAFMC 2005).<br/><br/>2. US Amendment #11 (1998): <em>H. niveatus</em> determined to be overfished (static SPR = 5-15%) (SAFMC 2005).<br/><br/>3. Preferred Alternatives in US Amendment 13C: <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Commercial</span>:<br/>Reduce the annual commercial quota from 344,508 lbs gutted weight (406,519 lbs whole weight; implemented in 1994) to 84,000 lbs gutted weight (99,000 lbs whole weight). Prohibit purchase and sale, and prohibit harvest and/or possession of <em>H. niveatus</em> over the bag limit after the quota is taken. Specify a commercial trip limit of 10 fish until the quota is met (SAFMC 2005). An annual quota of 245,082 kg, with a trip limit of 1,134 kg (SAFMC 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Recreational</span>:<br/>Limit the possession of <em>H. niveatus</em> to one per person per day within the five-grouper per person per day aggregate recreational bag limit.<br/><br/>4. Classified as endangered by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick<em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Suggested measures</strong><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that the age composition of <em>H. niveatus</em> landings should be monitored because only 19% of the fish caught (n=809) by longlines in South Carolina were older than six years. This further emphasizes the problem of removal of females, as Moore and Labisky (1984) could not find a male until age 6 years. Juveniles would have to be protected to ensure recruitment to the adult population through developmental migration (Moore and Labisky 1984).
7861		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>niveatus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from Massachusetts (USA) to the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda, the Caribbean, southern Brazil (Heemstra and Randall 1993), and Uruguay.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Aruba, Bahamas, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, French Guiana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico (stray), Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
7861		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Adult <em>H. niveatus</em> occur offshore on rocky bottoms at depths of 30 to 525 m, but are most common between 100 and 200 m. Juveniles may be found inshore and are often reported from the northeastern coast of the USA (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) reported that larger adults were caught more frequently in waters deeper than 100 m in South Carolina. Jones <em>et al.</em> (1989) observed <em>H. niveatus</em> utilizing shelter around rock ridge habitat in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, suggesting there would be a resource partitioning of habitat space utilization or shelter between <em>H. niveatus</em> and <em>H. flavolimbatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum size attained is about 120 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Recorded maximum weight is 30 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Maximum age attained is 29 years (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999). Full recruitment into the fishery occurred at 575–600 mm TL and at age eight years (Moore and Labisky 1984). Ximenes-Carvalho <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> was long-lived (tmax=46.4 years) and had annual natural mortality (M) of 0.170.<br/><br/><strong>Length-age relationship</strong><br/>Based on an otolith study of 536 <em>H. niveatus</em> collected from the US South Atlantic Bight from 1972 to 1979, the von Bertalanffy growth equation of the was TL(mm)=1255 (1-e(-0.074(Age+1.92)) (Matheson and Huntsman 1984).<br/><br/>Based on 178 fish from relatively unexploited population in the lower Florida Keys, the von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>H. niveatus</em> was 1,320 mm TL (1-e(-0.087(Age+1.013)) (Moore and Labisky 1984).<br/><br/>According to otolith-based age studies of <em>H. niveatus</em> collected by commercial and research vessels, the von Bertalanffy growth equations calculated in different sampling periods were (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999):<br/><br/>1993-94 by snapper reels (commercial catch; n=311) = 1201 mm TL (1-e(-0.103(Age+1.149))<br/><br/>1982-85 by longlines and Kali poles (research; n=163) = 948 mm TL (1-e(-0.122(Age+0.668))<br/><br/>1993-94 by longlines (commercial catch; n=1218) = 1117 mm TL (1-e(-0.119(Age+1.409))<br/><br/>Annual mortality of the relatively unexploited stock was calculated to be 16% by catch-curve analysis (Moore and Labisky 1984), which was lower than the total annual mortality rates of 21–22% for commercially fished stocks in North Carolina and South Carolina during the late 1970s (Matheson 1981).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Adults feed mainly on fishes, gastropods, cephalopods, and brachyuran crustaceans (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/>Examination of intestinal contents revealed that <em>E. niveatus</em> feeds on fish (47% by number), cephalopods (18%) and brachyuran crabs (Bielsa and Labisky 1987).<br/><br/>Based on a study on stomach content, Weaver and Sedberry (2001) recorded that the diet of <em>H. niveatus</em> included swimming crab <em>Portunus spinicarpus</em> (90%), other benthic crustaceans, fishes (6%) and squids (2%).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>Sexual pattern</em><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>niveatus</em> was suggested to be a protogynous hermaphrodite by the presence of early males aged 7, 8 and 9, showing evidence of recent sexual transformation (no transitional was found) (Moore and Labisky 1984).  <br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) concluded that <em>H. niveatus</em> is protogynous based on the size (767-1090 mm) and age (8-29 year) of 97 males and the capture of two transitionals (787 mm TL, age unknown and 1000 mm TL aged 13).<br/><br/><em>Reproductive biology</em><br/>81% of 144 females reached sexual maturity by age 4–5.  Males could not be found until age six, but males comprised 40% of all fish of age eight or older (Moore and Labisky 1984). Moore and Labisky (1984) also suggested that sexual transition occurs principally within 3–4 years after the females reach sexual maturity in the Florida Keys.<br/><br/>Based on samples collected in the Carolinas from 1991 to 1995, Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) found that female <em>H. niveatus</em> matured at lengths from 451 to 575 mm TL (ages 3–7). Mature gonads were found in 4% of the females at age three, 52% at age five, 95% at age seven, and 100% at ages older than seven. The smallest mature female was 469 mm TL and the largest immature female was 575 mm TL (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><em>Spawning</em><br/>In the Florida Keys, <em>H. niveatus</em> were found in spawning condition from April to July (Moore and Labisky 1984).<br/><br/>On the upper continental slope off South Carolina at depths of 176–232 m, <em>H. niveatus</em> were observed to be in spawning condition from April to September (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that <em>H. niveatus</em> might form spawning aggregations.
7861		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The most common deep-water grouper throughout its range, although in decline in association with heavy fishing.<br/><br/>From catch curve estimates, the mortality of <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> increased from 0.19 to 0.32 in the headboat fishery in 1972 to 1978, but remained stable at 0.24 to 0.25 in the commercial fishery from 1977 to 1979 (Matheson and Huntsman 1984).<br/><br/>Huntsman <em>et al.</em> (1999) stated that <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> was very rare and that only small individuals were observed in the US South Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent Data</strong><br/>Studies on the populations of <em>H. niveatus</em> in the USA revealed that its population has declined since 1985. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with <em>H. niveatus</em> encountered [n] by the total number of surveys carried out in a particular year [N]) of <em>H. niveatus</em> in the tropical western Atlantic stayed almost zero from 1993 to 2005 (except 0.01% to 0.04% in 2002 to 2004) (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 2<sup>nd</sup> Mar 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Sighting frequency of <em>H. niveatus</em> based on Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) underwater visual census.<br/><br/><em>Adrian's Mark (2,700 sq. m), Onslow Bay, North Carolina, USA</em><br/>Based on the catches (from a previously unexploited group of <em>H. niveatus</em>) from 21 trips by two fishing vessels (fished at depths of 137-194 m) from June 1985 to April 1986, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> comprised 91.7% of 1,094 fish caught, contributing over 30% of the total amount of <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> landed in North Carolina (Epperly and Dodrill 1995).  <br/><br/>Epperly and Dodrill (1995) estimated the initial exploitable biomass ranged from 29.2–30.8 tonnes (eviscerated weight), at a density of about 11 kg  per sq. m.  Epperly and Dodrill (1995) also found that not only had catch rates declined from 8.10 fish (68.8 kg) per drop in June 1985 to 1.25 fish (6.6 kg) per drop in September 1985, but also that of the mean fish size. In that study, the rate of decline in numbers between 28 June and 7 August 1985 (40 days) was estimated to be 3% of the population daily by fishing. By early August 1985, over 60% of the exploitable biomass was found to be removed; and within a year, over 80% had been removed (Epperly and Dodrill 1995).<br/>     <br/><em>North Carolina and South Carolina, USA</em><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that the population of <em>H. niveatus</em> was overfished based on the following:<br/><br/>1. size at age of fish caught with longlines and snapper reels had increased noticeably since the 1980s, which could be a density-dependent population response to a decrease in competition for resources;<br/><br/>2. 81% of the fish caught with commercial longlines in 1993 to 1994 (N=809) were aged to six years, with immature females the majority (56%) (female maturity is about three years);<br/><br/>3. the percentage of males in the population (based on 599 sexually mature fish) seemed to have decreased significantly from 7-23% in the 1970s and 1980s to 1% in the 1990s; and<br/><br/>4. mean length of fish landed in the longline fishery had steadily decreased from 65 to 80 cm TL in the early 1980s to 50 to 60 cm TL in the mid-1990s. <br/><br/><em>Broward County, Florida, USA</em><br/>Based on over 1,100 visual fish census on natural and artificial reefs at depths of 7 to 23 m from 1995 to 2002, only eight juvenile <em>H. niveatus</em> were recorded from seven visual point counts (Arena <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/>Fishery-dependent data by country<br/><br/><em>Southeast Brazil</em> (23° to 26°S)<br/>From 1986 to 1995, <em>H. niveatus</em> comprised 9.9% of the total catch by bottom line fisheries (201-650 m). The largest catch was made between 201 and 300 m, with a mean CPUE of 0.1 kg per hook-day (Paiva and Garcez 1998).<br/><br/>Among the species observed in the industrial landings in south Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), from 1989 and 1999, <em>H. niveatus</em> (cherne-verdadeiro), and was captured frequently during the 90?s, but was never abundant (1 to 30 specimens per boat) (Monica Brick, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Southeast Brazil</em> (18° to 26°S)<br/>From 1986 to 1995, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> comprised 12.1% of the total catch of benthic fishes by liners (Paiva and Andrade-Tubino 1998).<br/><br/>Annual landings in Santa Catarina (south Brazil) for <em>H. niveatus</em> is as follows 14.15t (2002), 1.76t (2003), 0.54t (2004), 1.70t (2005) and 4.50t (2006) (GEP/UNIVALI, 2006). For São Paulo (southeast Brazil), 8.45t (1999), 5.38t (2000), 0.37t (2001), 0.51t (2003), 0.34t (2004) and 0.32t (2005) (Instituto de Pesca 2006).<br/><br/>In areas where it has been fished beyond economic viability, recovery has been slow.<br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/>According to the NMFS annual commercial fishery landings of <em>H. niveatus</em>, the quantity between 1981 and 2004 ranged from 44.2 to 306.7 mt. From 1999 to 2004, an annual average of 232.6 mt of <em>E. niveatus</em> was landed (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 5<sup>th</sup> Jan 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><strong>Table 2</strong>: NMFS annual commercial fishery landings of <em>H. niveatus</em> (1981-2004); and <br/><strong>Table 3</strong>: Catch and revenue of landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> from the South Atlantic.<br/><br/><em>USA (Gulf of Mexico region, including all of Monroe County)</em><br/>According to NMFS, the annual recreational harvest estimates of both number (N) and weight of <em>H. niveatus</em> averaged 7,619 fish and 15,641 kg in 1996 to 2005. Landing peaked at 87,298 fish and 280,263 kg in 1981. (Note: there are very large proportional standard errors (PSE) associated with the annual estimates of landings, which suggest these are rare-event landings in the recreational fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico.) (Tom Sminskey, Statistician of the Fisheries Statistics Division of the NMFS, pers. comm. on 15<sup>th</sup> Mar 06)<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: NMFS Gulf of Mexico region, including all of Monroe County ? annual recreational harvest estimates of both number (N) and weight of <em>H. niveatus</em>.
7861		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Caught with hook-and-line, bottom longlines, with traps and trawlings (Moore and Labisky 1984, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>Trawls operated at 25-45 m depths poses a threat to juvenile survival (Moore and Labisky 1984).<br/><br/>Yield-per-recruit model for <em>H. niveatus</em> indicated that the headboat and commercial fisheries were harvesting 60–80% of the maximum available yield per recruit (Matheson and Huntsman 1984).<br/><br/>In Onslow Bay, off the central North Carolina coast, the rate of decline in number between 28 June and 7 August 1985 (40 days) was estimated to be 3% of the population was removed daily by fishing. By early August 1985, over 60% of the exploitable biomass was found to be removed; and within a year, over 80% had been removed (Epperly and Dodrill 1995).<br/><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) reported that <em>H. niveatus</em> is susceptible to rapid depletion in a localized area through fishing efforts.<br/><br/>Musick <em>et al.</em> (2000) considered that the risk factors of <em>H. niveatus</em> included low productivity, protogyny, spawning aggregations, and that the species is vulnerable to extirpation in United States waters where populations are severely depleted and where the percentage of males in populations have declined significantly (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999; Huntsman <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Arena <em>et al.</em> (2004) suggested that the high demand for <em>H. niveatus</em> with its naturally slow growth rates made this species extremely susceptible to overfishing.<br/><br/><em>H. niveatus</em> occurs at depth outside most established marine protected areas within its range.
7862		conservation	eng	There has been a complete ban on the fishing of Nassau grouper in the US federal waters since 1990. This includes federal waters around Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. There is also a ban on U.S. state waters. The species is a candidate for the US Endangered Species List. <br/> <br/>In Mexico in 1997, the fishery authority completely banned fishing Nassau grouper "during spawning aggregations" (December to February) (Aguilar-Perera, pers. comm. 2001). This regulation is believed to still be in place. <br/> <br/>In the Bahamas, three spawning aggregation sites, High Cay of the coast of Central Andros and two sites off the east coast off Long Island were protected by law from 17 Dec 1999 to 24 February 2000. In addition, fishing for Nassau grouper was banned throughout the Bahamas from 12-26 February 2000 (M. Braynen press release, February 2000). As of 2003, there is no enforcement (other than voluntary at one site) of fishery bans on aggregations at any site in the Bahamas (Sir Nicholas Nuttall, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In Belize, spawning aggregation sites were open to fishing on a rotational basis but in at least one recent case (Glover's Reef in 1999/2000), there was no enforcement of a fishing ban and it was fished (Sala and Ballesteros 2000). As a result of growing concern, all Nassau grouper aggregations were closed to fishing at the end of 2002 in Belize. <br/> <br/>In the Cayman Islands, there are three main ('traditional') grouper 'holes'  in the Cayman Islands which only residents are allowed to fish during spawning season.  Only line fishing is permitted. This legislation appears to have come into effect in 1978 (Phil Bush, pers. comm. 2001). Recognizing further declines new legislation is to be introduced in January 2003 to protect Nassau grouper at designated spawning areas (Phillippe Bush pers. comm.).   <br/> <br/>In addition, it is forbidden to fish for groupers during spawning seasons in the Dominican Republic, there is a moratorium on fishing for Nassau groupers in Bermuda and a quota system was introduced for the capture of Nassau's in Cuba (see Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/>The degree to which the Nassau grouper receives protection through no-take marine protected areas is not known. <br/> <br/>The available evidence indicates that spawning aggregations are extremely important to maintenance of Nassau grouper populations, most of the data needed to improve the accuracy of this assessment in the future would be on the current status and importance of these aggregations. Information on the following would be of great value: <br/> <br/>1) Are traditional aggregation sites special or can aggregations form in new areas ? <br/> <br/>2) Does reproduction in the Nassau grouper only occur in spawning aggregations and if this is the case, do mature individuals reproduce each year and do they always use the same site ? <br/> <br/>3) There are a number of traditional aggregation sites that have reportedly disappeared (see Sadovy and Eklund 1999) that do not appear to have re-visited in recent years. Assessing the health of Nassau grouper populations in the future would be greatly improved by annual monitoring of as many traditional aggregation sites as possible. This would include checking for the possible formation of aggregations in the vicinity of traditional sites where no aggregation currently occurs. <br/> <br/>It would also be helpful to know the degree to which Nassau groupers receive effective protection in marine protected areas of the Caribbean.
7862		distribution	eng	The Nassau Grouper is found from Bermuda and Florida throughout the Bahamas and Caribbean Sea. Heemstra and Randall (1993) indicate a second subpopulation lying along the coast of Brazil, roughly from Forteleza to Rio de Janeiro. However this may be an error, as there do not appear to be any specimens or verifiable photographs of the Nassau grouper from Brazil (Heemstra, pers. comm. 2001, Moura 2001).
7862		habitat	eng	Occurs to at least 130 m and is most abundant in clear water with high relief coral reefs or rocky substrate (Sadovy and Ekland 1999) Post-settlement fish inhabit <em>Laurencia</em> macroalgal clumps, seagrass beds and coral (Eggleston 1995, Dahlgren 1998). <br/> <br/>Generation time is estimated at 9-10 years, based on average fish size from an unexploited aggregation in Belize and the growth curve from five Cayman Island spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Eklund 1999).
7862		population	eng	Most time series landings/CPUE data sets show some yearly fluctuations and even large ones, but not order of magnitude fluctuations. However, Table 16 in Sadovy and Eklund (1999) of commercial landings in the US showed order of magnitude variations from 1986 to 1988 when total landings in pounds were 15,633, 0, 4,737 respectively. The data has been checked and indeed, very few Nassau were caught in 1987, and for no apparent external reason (Eklund, pers. comm., March 2001). As the Nassau grouper is long-lived and relatively sedentary this is rather surprising. <br/> <br/>Current population size is estimated at >10,000 mature individuals. It is estimated that a population decline of 60% has occurred over the last three generations (27-30 years). Ideally, the percentage decline (from the best available data, i.e., landings, CPUE, spawning aggregation size) would be applied to estimates of the original Nassau subpopulation within each country for which the decline applies. This would be done for all countries and the overall decline would be the percentage difference between the original global population size and the current one. Unfortunately, estimates of country stock size are rare. Therefore, past declines were weighted by coral reef area (rather than population size) to give an overall decline figure. This method assumes that pristine densities of Nassau grouper were the same at all localities. This is probably not likely to have been the case but it enables a single figure to be derived, which is likely more representative of the global situation than the alternative, which would be to say that the decline lies between 55 and 99.5% (the lowest and highest documented decline rates). <br/> <br/>From the available data and most recent reports, Nassau subpopulations are likely to either be stable (e.g., the U.S.) or in decline (e.g., Cuba, Belize). Overall, it seems very likely (80-100%) that overall, the global population of Nassau grouper will continue to decline over the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>There is no evidence of distinct subpopulations of Nassau grouper based on genetic work (mtDNA and microsatellites) of fish sampled from a number of sites in Florida, Cuba, Belize and the Bahamas (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1996). Therefore, it is considered that there is only one subpopulation with all individuals in it, that the population is not severely fragmented. There is no evidence of extreme fluctuations in the number of locations or subpopulations.
7862		threats	eng	Nassau Grouper are fished commercially and recreationally by handline, longline, fish traps, spear guns and gillnets. Aggregations are mainly exploited by handlines, or by fish traps, although gillnets have recently been used in Mexico. Declines in landings, catch per unit effort (CPUE) and, by implication, abundance have been reported throughout its range and it is now considered to be commercially extinct in a number of areas (Sadovy and Ekland 1999). The fact that much of the catch in many areas comes from spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Eklund 1999) is also worrying given that targeted aggregations have evidently collapsed in many countries. <br/> <br/>Suitable habitat for the Nassau grouper is also likely to be in decline. Of the estimated 20,000 km² of coral reef in the Caribbean, 29% is estimated to be under high risk of degradation from human activities, 32% is at medium risk and 39% is at low risk (Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998). Although the Nassau grouper also inhabits rocky reefs, these are unlikely to be able to compensate for the loss of quality coral reef habitat.
7863		distribution	eng	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7863		habitat	eng	Medium to large rivers in shoal and riffle areas.  Winter breeder.
7863		threats	eng	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species, which probably went Extinct in 1940.
7864		distribution	eng	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7864		habitat	eng	Shallow fast moving water in medium to large rivers.  Possibly a winter breeder.
7864		threats	eng	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species, which probably went Extinct in 1940.
7865		distribution	eng	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7865		threats	eng	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species.
7866		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered throughout its range, except in the free-flowing reach of the Tennessee River from the base of Wilson Dam downstream to the backwaters of Pickwick Reservoir and the lower 5 RM of all tributaries to this reach in Colbert and Lauderdale Counties, Alabama (USFWS 2001). It has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperiled, due to the historical decline in its range and the fact that it now occurs in only a few disjunct locations (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>The USFWS, in cooperation with the State of Tennessee and Conservation Fisheries, Inc., proposes to reintroduce this species into its historical habitat in the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox County Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>Recently, critical habitat was designated for the Duck River (74 river km occupied, 0 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee, Bear Creek (0 river km occupied, 43 river km unoccupied habitat) in Alabama and Mississippi, Powell River (0 river km occupied, 154 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee and Virginia,  Clinch River (242 river km occupied, 0 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee and Virginia, Copper Creek (0 river km occupied, 21 river km unoccupied habitat) in Virginia, Nolichucky River (8 river km occupied, 0 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee, Big South Fork (0 river km occupied, 43 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee and Kentucky, and Buck Creek (0 river km occupied, 58 river km unoccupied habitat) in Kentucky (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>A recovery plan has been published (USFWS 2004) with the recovery objective of delisting. The Recovery Strategy includes the preservation of extant populations and the occupied habitats of these five species is the most immediate and important recovery priority for these mussels. Preservation and protection of these populations will be achieved by continuing to use existing regulatory mechanisms, establishing partnerships with various stakeholders, using best management practices, and minimising or eliminating threats to the species. Each extant population must also be viable to achieve recovery. Unless a previously unknown population is found, other viable populations within the historic range of each of the five species must be reestablished and protected to effect recovery. Reestablishing new viable populations will require close coordination with and concurrence of the State(s) involved and with other partners that have interests at any potential reintroduction sites. Additional research into the life history and ecological requirements of these mussels as defined in this plan will help formulate the biological information necessary for the preservation of existing or reestablishment and maintenance of other viable populations. Knowledge of the effective population size is particularly critical for determining the size and demographic makeup of a viable population for these species. Due to the rarity of extant populations, propagation of laboratory or hatchery-reared progeny is the most logical means of providing individuals for the establishment of new populations. Facilities that attempt to propagate these mussels should follow the Service's established controlled propagation policy. Priorities for recovery efforts for the five species via propagation should be to develop propagation technology, augment and expand the ranges of extant populations to ensure their viability, and reestablish viable populations in other streams within their historical range that have suitable habitat and water quality. Pursuing and implementing these efforts will enable the recovery of the five species. The&#160;Recovery Criteria: Downlisting from endangered to threatened status will occur when the following criteria are met for the protection of extant stream populations, discovery of currently unknown stream populations, and/or reestablishment of historical stream populations: (1) five streams with distinct viable populations of the Cumberland Elktoe, six streams with distinct viable populations of the Oyster Mussel and Cumberlandian Combshell, four streams with distinct viable populations of the Purple Bean, and three streams with distinct viable populations of the Rough Rabbitsfoot have been established; (2) one distinct naturally reproduced year class exists within each of the viable populations; (3) research studies of the mussels' biological and ecological requirements have been completed and any required recovery measures developed and implemented from these studies are beginning to be successful, as evidenced by an increase in population density of approximately 20 percent and/or an increase in the length of the river reach of approximately 10 percent inhabited by the species as determined through biennial monitoring; (4) no foreseeable threats exist that would likely impact the survival of the species over a significant portion of their ranges; (5) within larger streams the species are distributed over a long enough reach that a single catastrophic event is not likely to eliminate or significantly reduce the entire population in that stream to a status of nonviable; and (6) biennial monitoring of the five species yields the results outlined in criterion (1) above over a 10-year period.<br/><br/>Actions Needed:<br/>1. Utilise existing legislation/regulations to protect current and newly discovered populations.<br/>2. Determine the species' life history requirements and threats and reduce or alleviate those threats which threaten the species.<br/>3. Develop and use an information/education program to solicit the assistance of local landowners, communities, and others to recover the species.<br/>4. Search for additional populations, and through propagation activities, pursue augmentations or reintroductions in order to establish viable populations.<br/>5. Conduct anatomical and molecular genetic analysis of the species to determine the potential occurrence of species complexes or hidden biodiversity.<br/>6. Develop and implement a monitoring program, and annually assess the recovery program where needed.<br/><br/>This species occurs in very low numbers within the jurisdiction of the US Park Service in the Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area. It has also been found in the vicinity of TNC's Pendleton Island Preserve, but only dead shells have been reported from the preserve. Survival of populations in such "protected" areas is largely dependent on the continuation of high environmental quality in the watershed upstream from such sites. Such conditions do not exist at either site (USFWS 2004).  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been established in the Tennessee River below Wilson Dam, Colbert and Lauderdale Cos., Alabama, extending13.4 km and including the lower 8 km of all tributaries that enter the Wilson Dam tailwaters (USFWS 2001).  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been proposed for reintroduction into the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam (Knox and Sevier Cos., Tennessee) to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox Co., Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (Knox, Grainger, and Jefferson Cos., Tennessee), where this species currently does not exist (USFWS 2006).  Recently, critical habitat was designated for the Duck River (74 river km occupied, 0 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee, Bear Creek (0 river km occupied, 43 river km unoccupied habitat) in Alabama and Mississippi, Powell River (0 river km occupied, 154 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee and Virginia,  Clinch River (242 river km occupied, 0 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee and Virginia, Copper Creek (0 river km occupied, 21 river km unoccupied habitat) in Virginia, Nolichucky River (8 river km occupied, 0 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee, Big South Fork (0 river km occupied, 43 river km unoccupied habitat) in Tennessee and Kentucky, and Buck Creek (0 river km occupied, 58 river km unoccupied habitat) in Kentucky (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Above statements referring to the Duck River basin apply to a new undescribed species (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2010).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the taxonomy, population status, ecology and life history of the species, as well as the effectiveness of recovery measures, in order to safeguard this species in the wild. Continued monitoring is recommended.
7866		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Tennessee and Cumberland River drainages. It historically occurred in the Cumberland River drainage downstream of Cumberland Falls. In the Tennessee River drainage, it historically occurred from the headwaters in southwestern Virginia downstream to Muscle Shoals (Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008), and in the Tennessee River across northern Alabama and in some tributaries. <br/><br/>The species is now extirpated from Alabama (the most recent dated record was from the Estill Fork of the Paint Rock River in 1980; Williams <em>et al. </em>2003), Georgia (Wisniewski pers. comm. 2007) and Copper Creek, Virginia (Hanlon <em>et al.</em> 2009). This extirpation in two of its three range states and at some localities in Virginia represents a range reduction of over 80% over the last 25-50 years (A. Bogan, K. Cummings and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). The estimated extent of occurrence for the species is 250-1,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is limited to between 1 and 20 severely fragmented locations&#160;(NatureServe 2009). Consequently, our estimated extent of occurrence does not include these severe discontinuities within the species range and is therefore significantly smaller than the mapped range extent.<br/><br/>Still, several populations remain  in isolated stretches of the Big South Fork (Scott County, Tennessee, and  McCreary County, Kentucky) although the identity of these populations may be in  question (USFWS 2003, 2004).&#160; Populations are also extant in the Tennessee  River system in the Clinch River (Russell and Scott Counties, Virginia and  Hancock County, Tennessee), Powell River (Lee County, Virginia), North Fork  Holston River (Scott County, Virginia - reintroduced), Nolichucky River (Cocke  and Hamblen Counties, Tennessee), and Duck River (Maurey and Marshall Counties,  Tennessee); while it may still be extant in Copper Creek (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2001, USFWS 2003, 2004). There is also high potential for the discovery of new populations of the species (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012).
7866		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shoal habitat in small to large rivers, where it occurs in silt-free gravel and sand substrates. It is a long-term brooder, gravid from late summer or autumn until the following summer. Fecundity of a Clinch River population has been reported to average 13,008 glochidia per female per year (n = 10) and to range from 7,780 to 16,876 glochidia per individual (Jones 2004). Males and females of this species have been reported to emerge from the substrate during May and June, when females display paired microlures against bluish white pads within their extrapallial swellings. This behavior in females is presumed to attract glochidial hosts. However, that does not explain the behavior in males, since long-term brooders generally spawn during autumn. The display has been described as rhythmic movements, with the microlure of the left mantle pad rotating in a clockwise, circular manner and that of the right mantle pad rotating counterclockwise (Jones 2004). Females<em></em> have been observed to snap their valves together on darters that were investigating the lure and trap them between the valves (Jones 2004). This behaviour may facilitate infestation (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1993). The generation length is 5 years (Jones 2009) using age at first  reproduction<br/><br/>Fishes reported to serve as glochidial hosts for the species in laboratory trials include <em>Etheostoma blennioides</em> (Greenside Darter), <em>Etheostoma camurum</em> (Bluebreast Darter), <em>Etheostoma flabellare</em> (Fantail Darter), <em>Etheostoma rufilineatum</em> (Redline Darter), <em>Etheostoma simoterum</em> (Snubnose Darter), <em>Etheostoma vulneratum</em> (Wounded Darter) and <em>Percina sciera</em> (Dusky Darter) (Percidae); and <em>Cottus baileyi</em> (Black Sculpin), <em>Cottus bairdii </em>(Mottled Sculpin) and <em>Cottus carolinae </em>(Banded Sculpin) (Cottidae) (Williams <em>et al. </em>1993).<br/><br/>No specific longevity information is available for this species, but given the fact that thick-shelled mussel species are often very long-lived, that gravid females of this species were aged at around seven to nine years (USFWS 2004), and that the method used to age gravid females, growth ring counting, is likely to underestimate true age between three- to ten-fold (Anthony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), we assume that three generations fall within the estimated range declines of 80% over a period of 25-50 years.
7866		population	eng	This species was previously widespread, however it is now confined to a few fragmented locations (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010). Extirpation in two of its three range states and at some localities  in Virginia represents a range reduction of over 80% over the last  25-50 years (A. Bogan, K. Cummings and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
7866		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species in the Cumberlandian Region is habitat alteration.  Principal causes include impoundments, channelisation, pollution, and sedimentation that have altered or eliminated those habitats that are essential to the long-term viability of many riverine mussel populations.  Impoundments result in the elimination of riffle and shoal habitats, disruption of a river's ecological processes,  elimination of current and the covering of rocky and sand substrates by fine sediments, and alteration of downstream water quality and riverine habitat.  Daily discharge fluctuations, bank sloughing, seasonal oxygen deficiencies, cold-water releases, turbulence, high silt loads, and altered host fish distribution have contributed to limited mussel recruitment and skewed demographics.  Impoundments, as barriers to dispersal, contribute to the loss of local populations by blocking postextirpation recolonization.  Population losses due to impoundments have probably contributed more to the decline of the Cumberlandian Combshell, Oyster Mussel, and Rough Rabbitsfoot and most other Cumberlandian Region mussels than any other single factor (as the Cumberland Elktoe and Purple Bean generally inhabit smaller rivers, impoundments have had less of an impact on them, although the impact is still significant) (USFWS 2004).  <br/><br/>The entire length of the Tennessee River and much of the Cumberland River is maintained as a navigation channel with a series of locks and dams - nine on the Tennessee River and four on the Cumberland River. Channel maintenance activities continue to cause substrate instability and alteration in these rivers and may serve to diminish what habitat remains for the recovery of riverine species.  <br/><br/>Heavy metal-rich drainage from coal mining and associated sedimentation have adversely impacted many stream reaches, destroying mussel beds and preventing natural recolonisation.  Acid mine runoff may be having local impacts on the recruitment of, particularly, the Cumberland Elktoe, since most of its range is within watersheds where coal mining is still occurring.  Impacts associated with coal mining activities have particularly altered upper Cumberland River system streams with diverse historical mussel faunas and have been implicated in the decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Epioblasma</span> species, especially in the Big South Fork. Strip mining continues to threaten mussels in coal field drainages of the Cumberland Plateau with increased sedimentation loads and acid mine drainage, including Cumberland Elktoe and Cumberlandian Combshell populations. The Marsh Creek population of the Cumberland Elktoe has also been adversely affected and is still threatened by potential spills from oil exploration activities.  Coal mining activities also occur in portions of the upper Powell and Clinch River systems, primarily in Virginia.  Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs) are indicative of coal fines in the bottom sediments of streams. Known to be toxic to mussels and fishes, PAHs have been found at relatively high levels in the upper portions of the Clinch and Powell Rivers in Virginia.  <br/><br/>In-stream gravel mining has been implicated in the destruction of mussel populations.  Negative impacts include riparian forest clearing (e.g., mine site establishment, access roads, lowered floodplain water table); stream channel modifications (e.g., geomorphic instability, altered habitat, disrupted flow patterns [including lowered elevation of stream flow], sediment transport); water quality modifications (e.g., increased turbidity, reduced light penetration, increased temperature); macroinvertebrate population changes (e.g., elimination, habitat disruption, increased sedimentation); and changes in fish populations (e.g., impacts to spawning and nursery habitat, food web disruptions).  Gravel mining activities threaten the Cumberlandian Combshell populations in the Powell River and in Buck Creek, the latter stream representing one of only two remaining populations of this species in the entire Cumberland River system. Mining activities on the Elk River may have played a role in the extirpation of the oyster mussel and Cumberlandian Combshell from that river.<br/><br/>Contaminants contained in point and nonpoint discharges can degrade water and substrate quality and adversely impact, if not destroy, mussel populations.  Although chemical spills and other point sources (e.g., ditch, swale, artificial channel, drainage pipe) of contaminants may directly result in mussel mortality, widespread decreases in density and diversity may result, in part, from the subtle, pervasive effects of chronic low-level contamination.  Mussels appear to be among the most intolerant organisms to heavy metals, several of which are lethal, even at relatively low levels.  Among other pollutants, ammonia has been shown to be lethal to mussels.  Common contaminants associated with households and urban areas, particularly those from industrial and municipal effluents, may include heavy metals, ammonia, chlorine, phosphorus, and numerous organic compounds. Nonpoint-source runoff from urban areas tends to have the highest levels of many pollutants, such as phosphorus and ammonia, when compared to other catchments.  Agricultural sources of chemical contaminants are considerable and include two broad categories--nutrients and pesticides. Nutrient enrichment generally occurs as a result of runoff from livestock farms and feedlots and from fertilizers used on row crops.  Pesticide runoff that commonly ends up in streams may have effects (based on studies with laboratory-tested mussels) that are particularly profound.<br/><br/>Numerous Cumberlandian Region streams have experienced mussel kills from toxic chemical spills and other causes. The high number of jeopardised species in the upper Tennessee River system make accidental spills a particular concern to conservationists and resource managers.  <br/><br/>Sedimentation, including siltation runoff, has been implicated as the number one factor in water quality impairment in the United States.  Specific biological impacts on mussels from excessive sediment include reduced feeding and respiratory efficiency from clogged gills, disrupted metabolic processes, reduced growth rates, increased substrate instability, limited burrowing activity, and physical smothering.   Host fish / mussel interactions may be indirectly impacted by changes in stream sediment regimes through three mechanisms: fish abundance, diversity, and reproduction reduced; impedes host fish attractant mechanisms;  interfere with the ability of some species' adhesive conglutinates to adhere to rock particles.  Waterborne sediment is produced by the erosion of stream banks, channels, plowed fields, unpaved roads, roadside ditches, upland gullies, and other soil disturbance sites.  Agricultural activities produce the most significant amount of sediment that enters streams.  Silvicultural sedimentation impacts are more the result of logging roads than the actual harvesting of timber.  <br/><br/>Developmental activities associated with urbanisation (e.g., highways, building construction, infrastructure creation, recreational facilities) may contribute significant amounts of sediment and other pollutants in quantities that may be detrimental to stream habitats.  With development, watersheds become more impervious, resulting in increased storm-water runoff into streams and a doubling in annual flow rates in completely urbanised streams. Impervious surfaces may reduce sediment input into streams but result in channel instability by accelerating storm-water runoff, which increases bank erosion and bed scouring.  Water withdrawals for agricultural irrigation and municipal and industrial water supplies are an increasing concern for all aquatic resources and are directly correlated with expanding human populations. This impact has the potential to be a particular problem for the Cumberland Elktoe population in the Big South Fork system and the Oyster Mussel population in the Duck River.<br/><br/>The alien Asian Clam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula flumminea</span>) was first reported from the Cumberlandian Region around 1959. This species has been implicated as a competitor with native mussels for resources such as food, nutrients, and space, particularly as juveniles.  Densities of Asian Clams are sometimes heavy in Cumberlandian Region streams, making competition with populations of some of these five species likely. Paradoxically, large, seemingly healthy, populations of unionids may coexist with Asian Clams.  The invasion of the nonnative Zebra Mussel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span>) poses a threat to the mussel fauna of the Cumberlandian Region.  Although Zebra Mussels are now in the Tennessee and Cumberland River systems, the extent to which they will impact native mussels is unknown. However, as Zebra Mussels are likely to reach higher densities in the main stems, large tributaries, and below infested reservoirs, native mussels in these areas will likely be more heavily impacted than mussels in smaller streams without upstream reservoirs. Mussel extinctions are expected as a result of the continued spread of Zebra Mussels in the Eastern United States.  Other potential threats from alien species on native mussels include the Black Carp (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mylopharyngodon piceus</span>), a native of China.  If these species invade Cumberlandian Region streams, they could wreak havoc on already stressed native mussel populations.  The Round Goby (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neogobius melanostomus</span>) is another alien invader fish species released in the 1980s into the Great Lakes in ballast waters originating in southeastern Europe.  The arrival of Round Gobies may therefore have important indirect effects on unionid communities through negative impacts to their host fishes.<br/><br/>The overall threat to this species, posed by piscine and invertebrate predators, in most instances is not thought to be significant. Although parasitism is not thought to be a significant problem in mussels, excessive trematode infestations in their gonads have been implicated in inducing mussel senescence.  The harvest of Cumberlandian Region mussel species for commercial purposes is well documented (Anthony and Downing 2001). It is doubtful, however, that this species has ever been overly exploited for pearling, pearl buttons, cultured pearls, or any other exploitative activity (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Without the level of genetic interchange these species experienced historically, many small and isolated populations that are now comprised predominantly of adult specimens may be slowly dying out due to various factors. This may, in part, account for the relatively recent demise of numerous tributary populations. Even given the improbable absence of the impacts from current and existing threats, smaller isolated populations of this species may be lost to the devastating consequences of below-threshold effective population size (EPS).  Once-sizable populations of many Cumberlandian mussel species occurred throughout significant portions of the main stems of the large rivers and tributary systems comprising the Cumberlandian Region. This was particularly true for the Cumberlandian Combshell and Oyster Mussel. Historically, there were no natural absolute barriers to genetic interchange among their tributary subpopulations and those of their host fishes (with the notable exception of Cumberland Falls).  Without the level of genetic interchange these species experienced historically (because of anthropogenic threats), many small and isolated populations that are now comprised predominantly of adult specimens may be slowly dying out due to various factors (USFWS 2004).
7869		distribution	eng	Cumberland and Tennessee River Basins.
7870		distribution	eng	Disjunct distribution from main <em>Epioblasma florentina</em>.
7870		habitat	eng	Small-medium rivers.  Restricted in range and only found in riffles.
7870		population	eng	No longer found in Black River. A few specimens were collected in the last decade.
7872		distribution	eng	Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7872		habitat	eng	Medium to large rivers, amongst riffle-beds in gravel and sand.
7872		population	eng	Only known from one small stretch of river in the 1970s.
7872		threats	eng	Last subpopulation killed off by domestic sewage influxes.
7874		distribution	eng	Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7874		habitat	eng	Small to medium rivers, in gravel and sand in clear fast flowing water.
7874		threats	eng	Extinction due to habitat destruction and deterioration.
7877		conservation	eng	This species was listed as federally endangered in the U.S. in 1992 and a recovery plan was prepared (USFWS 2000). However, Williams <em>et al.</em> (2010) lists this species as possibly extinct according to the AFS assessment. Similarly, the species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of GH - Possibly Extinct, and State/Province Status Ranks of SH - Possibly Extinct in Tennessee, and SX - Extinct in Alabama, and Georgia (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>A specific recovery plan has been created for the Mobile River basin (USFWS, 2000) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect habitat integrity and quality of river and stream segments that currently support or could support imperiled aquatic species, (2) consider options for free-flowing river and stream mitigation strategies that give high priority to avoidance and restoration, (3) promote voluntary stewardship as a practical and economical means of reducing nonpoint pollution from private land use, (4) encourage and support community based watershed stewardship planning and action, (5) develop and implement programs and materials to educate the public on the need and benefits of ecosystem management, and to involve them in watershed stewardship, (6) conduct basic research on endemic aquatic species and apply the results toward management and protection of aquatic communities, (7) develop and implement technology for maintaining and propagating endemic species in captivity, (8) reintroduce aquatic species into restored habitats, as appropriate, (9) monitor listed species population levels and distributions and periodically review ecosystem management strategy, (10) coordinate ecosystem management actions (more detail in USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Critical habitat has been designated in Alabama in the Cahaba River, Coosa River, Hatchet Creek, Kelly Creek, Big Canoe Creek, and the lower Coosa River; in Georgia in Oostanaula complex; and in Tennessee in Oostanaula complex (0 occupied, 549 unoccupied km) (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to determine whether this species is still extant. If it is still found, urgent measures have to be put in place to protect the species (site and habitat protection) and aid species recovery.
7877		distribution	eng	Historically, this species was known from the upper Coosa River system and the Cahaba River above the fall line in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee, but has not been reported in over twenty years years and may be extinct (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004, USFWS 2004, Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008). In Tennessee, it has not been reported in many years and was only known from the Conasauga River in Polk Co. (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, it is known historically from the Etowah, Oostanaula, and Conasauga River drainages but has not been collected live recently (Williams and Hughes 1998).<br/><br/>Only one record of this species outside of the Coosa River drainage is known (University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology Collection - No. 91261). It was labeled “Cahaba River, Alabama”, with no accompanying data. This record is questionable, since the Cahaba River was well-sampled during the early 1900s and no other specimens are known. Therefore this species is not considered to be part of the Cahaba River fauna (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008). The most recent documented museum collections of this species<em> </em>were taken in 1973 from the Conasauga River, Georgia, and Little Canoe Creek, on the Etowah and St. Clair county line, Alabama.<br/><br/>On current knowledge, the species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2 </sup>(probably significantly less for both).&#160;If it is still extant, there are likely to be fewer than five occurrences, but in all likelihood, this species is extinct (NatureServe 2009).
7877		habitat	eng	The only available habitat information appears to be in van der Schalie (1938). He lists specimens he questionably called this species from Lily Shoals of the Cahaba River. Species of this genus typically were found in strong currents and coarse particle substrates.
7877		population	eng	Historically, <em>Epioblasma othcaloogensis</em> was found in streams of  the Coosa River system and Conasauga River of Georgia, Alabama and  Tennessee. However, when it was last collected in 1974, it was only  found within a small portion of the Upper Coosa River drainage in  Georgia and Alabama. If the species is still extant, it is likely to occur in fewer than five occurrences, but in all likelihood this species is extinct.  The most recent records were from tributaries of the Coosa River (above Weiss Dam in Alabama) in the early 1970s, and the Cahaba in the 1930s (USFWS 2004, Mirarchi <em>et al. </em>2004).  The Cahaba River specimen is questionable, at best (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).  The most recent documentation of museum specimens were taken in 1973 from the Conasauga River, Georgia, and Little Canoe Creek on the Etowah and St. Clair County line, Alabama (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008). Potentially suitable habitat can still be found in several rivers and streams of the upper Coosa River drainage, but it has not been found in the Cahaba River drainage in several decades.<br/><br/>There have been no recent occurrences despite repeated searches over the last ten years. However, the range is large, so that there is a chance that the species may still be extant; plus individuals are small and difficult to find as they bury completely in the substrate (USFWS 2004).
7877		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat modification, sedimentation, and other forms of water quality degradation. Potential habitat is locally impacted by carpet mill and other industrial discharge, sewage treatment plant discharge, urban and agricultural runoff, and surface mine drainage (USFWS 1997).  Disappearance from significant portions of its range are primarily due to changes in river and stream channels due to dams, dredging, or mining, and historic or episodic pollution events.  The species is not known to survive in impounded waters and more than 1700 km of large and small river habitat in the basin have been impounded by dams for navigation, flood control, water supply, and/or hydroelectric production purposes (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>In the Mobile River basin, the greatest threats are dams (for navigation, water supply, electricity, recreation, and flood control), channelisation (causing accelerated erosion, altered depth, loss of habitat diversity, substrate stability, and riparian canopy), dredging (for navigation or gravel mining), mining (for coal, sand, gravel, or gold) in locally concentrated areas, point source pollution (industrial waste effluent, sewage treatment plants, carpet and fabric mills, paper mills and refineries in mainstem rivers), and non-point source pollution (construction, agriculture, silviculture, urbanisation) (USFWS 2000). <br/><br/>Isolated imperiled populations in the Mobile River basin are likely to be vulnerable to random accidents, such as toxic spills, and to naturally catastrophic events, such as droughts and floods, even if land use and human populations were to remain constant within isolated watersheds (USFWS 2000). This species does not tolerate impoundments.
7879		conservation	eng	Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as extinct according to the AFS assessment.
7879		distribution	eng	This species is globally extinct.  It is recorded historically from the Clinch River in the headwaters of the Tennessee River system, the White River (Wabash tributary), and in the lower Wabash River at Posey Co., Indiana, as well as the Ohio River in Cincinnati (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In Tennessee, it is known historically from the Clinch River and from the Cumberland River near Priestly Shoals, Davidson Co. (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In Alabama, it was historically distributed throughout the Tennessee River, but has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).  In Kentucky, it formerly occurred in the Green and Ohio Rivers (Cicerello and Schuster 2003).  In Indiana, it was formerly distributed in the Wabash River (Cummings and Mayer 1997).  In Ohio, it formerly occurred in the Ohio River in Cincinatti (Watters 1995).
7879		habitat	eng	This species presumably occurred in shoal habitat, primarily in large rivers (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
7879		population	eng	This species has not been collected since the early 20th century (IUCN 1996).  It historically occurred in the Ohio, Tennessee, Cumberland, and Wabah Rivers (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In the Cumberland River, it ranged upstream to near the mouth of the Stones River (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  It occurred in most of the Tennessee River drainage, from headwaters in eastern Tennessee to the mouth of the Tennessee River, but a paucity of museum material suggests it was rare (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  All Alabama museum records were collected at Muscle Shoals, but it probably ranged across northern Alabama with the most recent material from 1924 (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008).
7879		threats	eng	This species presumably became extinct due to habitat loss and degradation (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7880		conservation	eng	Williams<em> et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as extinct according to the AFS assessment.
7880		distribution	eng	This species is globally extinct.  It was found historically in the lower Clinch and Holston Rivers and in the Tennessee River downstream from Knoxville to Muscle Shoals, northwestern Alabama, and was known from the Cumberland River at Nashville, Tennessee, the Wabash River at New Harmony, Indiana, and from the Ohio River at Cincinnati, Ohio (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In Alabama, it historically occurred throughout the Tennessee River in Alabama, but has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004).  In Tennessee, it was formerly collected in the lower Clinch River and lower Holston River from Knoxville to the Tennessee/Alabama border.  It was also known historically from the Cumberland River at Nashville and probably occurred throughout the mainstem of the Cumberland River (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In Kentucky, it formerly occurred in the Ohio River (Cicerello and Schuster 2003).  In Illinois, it occurred in the Middle Wabash, Little Vermillion, Little Wabash, and Lower Wabash drainages (Cummings <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988, 1991).  In Ohio, it was reported from Cincinnati in the Ohio River (Johnson 1978).  It was also known from the Wabash River at New Harmony, Indiana (Johnson 1978).
7880		habitat	eng	This species occurred in shoal habitat of large rivers (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
7880		population	eng	It historically occurred in the Tennessee River across northern Alabama and disappeared soon after impoundment of the Tennessee River, with the most recent material dating from 1901 (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008). Morrison (1942) suggested the species may have begun its decline prehistorically, based on diminishing numbers in archaeological middens over time.
7880		threats	eng	This species presumably became extinct due to habitat loss and degradation (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
7881		distribution	eng	Lower Warbash River system.
7886		distribution	eng	Tennessee River, Upper tributaries including North Fork, South Fork, Clench River, Dow River.
7892		distribution	eng	Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7892		habitat	eng	Large rivers, amongst shallow riffle-beds in gravel and sand.  Winter breeder.
7892		threats	eng	Extinction due to pollution and habitat destruction.
7893		distribution	eng	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.
7893		population	eng	Used to occur extensively in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems but now down to single subpopulation in the Cumberland River, with no evidence of reproduction.
7893		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, habitat deterioration, pollution, introduction of non-indigenous species, decline of host fish populations.
7895		distribution	eng	Tennessee River system.
7896		conservation	eng	More studies are needed concerning its present range and potential threats.
7896		distribution	eng	Eastern Himalaya, from Kathmandu Valley to Darjeeling in Sikkim.
7896		habitat	eng	Montane streams.
7896		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
7896		threats	eng	Pollution and siltation because of erosion of streams.
7897		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Baikal.
7897		habitat	eng	Makes up the main bulk (90%) of zooplankton of this size (1.5 - 2 mm) in the lake, and plays the main role in filtering and purifying Baikal's water.
7899		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a needto maintain areas of suitable primary forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
7899		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa from Sierra Leone (only recorded from Bintamane Mountain and the Gola Forest [Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998]), through Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, east to Ghana (west of the Volta Basin). In Central Africa, it has been reported from Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River only), Equtorial Guinea, Gabon, and also from Congo-Brazzaville (Abolo). In Sierra Leone, recorded to 1,020 m and at low altitude in the Gola Forest (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
7899		habitat	eng	Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) state that the species is found in undergrowth in thick forest, favouring <em>Raphia</em> palm areas (feeding on the fruit of these trees). Probably does not adapt well to human-modified landscapes and has not been recorded from secondary forest formations. Animals are generally solitary and arboreal, but possibly at least partly terrestrial.
7899		population	eng	It is not common, and seldom encountered. There are relatively few specimens in museums and it has only been recorded from a few localities over its wide distribution.
7899		threats	eng	This species appears to be restricted to primary tropical moist forest. Deforestation, presumably largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations, are possibly major threats to this species.
7901		conservation	eng	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species it has been recorded from Mupa National Park and Bikuar National Park in Angola. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable roosting and feeding sites for this species, and for new field surveys to better determine the current conservation status of the species.
7901		distribution	eng	This African bat is present in Angola and adjacent parts of northern Namibia. It is largely a lowland species, but may range into more montane areas. In Angola it is present west and south of the Mosaic of Guineo-Congolian lowland rain forest and secondary grassland (Bergmans 1988). In eastern Angola the range seems to be halted by the extensive mosaic region of <em>Brachystegia bakerana</em> thicket and edaphic grassland (Bergmans 1988).
7901		habitat	eng	Bergmans (1998; 1999) reports that the species is present in wetter Zambezian miombo woodland, north Zambezian woodland; <em>Colophospermum mopane</em> woodland and scrub woodland. Simmons and Chimimba (2005) suggest that the species may be largely confined to riverine forest and other evergreen forest with fruit-bearing trees. Shortridge (1934) reports on animals hanging singly from bare branches of large <em>Acacia</em> trees near the Cunene River, however, loose colonies of up to 200 have also been found.
7901		population	eng	The abundance of this species is poorly known, with very little recent information.
7901		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the removal of roost trees, often for use as fuel. Griffin (1998) indicates that the removal of riverine trees is a particular threat to species of Epomophorus in Namibia, with relatively little suitable habitat remaining; presumably this is similar problem in Angola. It may have been threatened by the availability of firearms during the long civil war in Angola, although this requires confirmation.
7902		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. The area where it occurs has been inaccessible for many years, further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
7902		distribution	eng	This poorly known African bat has only been recorded at the type locality of Dundo in northeast Angola, and from Pointe Noire on the coast of Congo (Bergmans 1988).
7902		habitat	eng	Although the natural history of this species is poorly known, it seems to be primarily a savanna species that may range into tropical moist forest.
7902		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens.
7902		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. There is deforestation taking place in parts of the species range, however, it is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat modification.
7903		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in many protected areas.
7903		distribution	eng	This widespread African bat ranges from Senegal in the west, through much of West Africa and parts of Central Africa, to Ethiopia in the east. It does not appear to be present to the south of northern Democratic Republic of the Congo or Ethiopia. It is typically a lowland species occurring below 500 m asl, however, the Ethiopian populations may be found up to 2,000 m asl.
7903		habitat	eng	This adaptable species is present in a variety of tropical moist and dry forest, savanna, bushland and mosaic habitats, and has additionally been reported from mangroves and swamp forests. It is able to persist in areas of partially degraded forest. Roosting usually takes place as individuals or small groups in dense vegetation (Happold 1987).
7903		population	eng	This species is generally common throughout the woodlands and savannas of western Africa. Animals are often found in loose colonies of up to 100 bats.
7903		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by overhunting for food and habitat loss through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
7904		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. Additional research is needed into the impact of possible overharvesting of animals on some populations.
7904		distribution	eng	This species is largely distributed in Central Africa and East Africa. It appears to range from northern Nigeria and Cameroon, into Chad, southern and central Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and from here south into eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, Kenya and Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar), being recorded as far south as Malawi, northern Mozambique and northern Zambia. There is one isolated record from coastal Congo, although the presence of the species in this country, and also in Chad and Nigeria, needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded from lowland sites up to elevations of over 2,000 m asl (2,200 asl at Gondar, Ethiopia).
7904		habitat	eng	This species is regularly recorded from woodland (including miombo woodland), savanna, bushland, arid or semi-desert grassland habitats and mosaics of these general habitat types. It East African coastal areas it has been recorded from mangroves. It has been found resting together in small groups of about a dozen animals.
7904		population	eng	This is a common species.
7904		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food.
7905		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
7905		distribution	eng	This East African species is present in Uganda, northern Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia.
7905		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from dry and arid savanna habitats. It is possible that this species has a specialised diet to persist in its arid habitat.
7905		population	eng	It can be a common species.
7905		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by deforestation of its habitat for timber and firewood.
7906		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
7906		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (it is broadly distributed across southern Africa). It has been recorded from Cameroon (Aellen 1952), Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo and Angola in the west, through southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, being distributed in East Africa from Uganda, Kenya and southern Somalia in the north, through Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar), Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique into Zimbabwe, eastern and southern South Africa and Swaziland. There is a need to confirm the presence of this species in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. It ranges from sea level to around 2,000 m asl.
7906		habitat	eng	mosaics of these habitat types. It appears to be largely absent from densely forested areas, but has been recorded from mangrove and riverine forest with fruiting trees. Roosting sites are often under the canopy of trees, in thick foliage, with animals sometimes present in considerable numbers. The species is somewhat adaptable to habitat modification, with populations recorded from well wooded urban and suburban areas, where it is associated with fruit-bearing trees. Animals occasionally roost in man-made structures.
7906		population	eng	Common.
7906		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
7907		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in West Africa (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Further studies are needed into the dependence of this species on forested areas.
7907		distribution	eng	This lowland West African bat ranges from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau in the west, to central Nigeria in the east.
7907		habitat	eng	This species is largely known from the wetter and drier types of the Guineo-Congolian lowland tropical moist forests of the western Upper Guinea forest block and the adjoining mosaic of lowland tropical moist forest and secondary grassland, with some possibly isolated occurrences in the eastern Upper Guinea region (the Nigerian localities) (Bergmans 1989). In the Mount Nimba area species was caught mostly in areas of secondary bush or cultivated land, in preference to primary forest; it was rarely caught within closed forest, but did occur in the fringes (Wolton <em>et al.</em>1982). Populations have also been recorded from swamp forest and mangroves. Animals are typically found singly or in small groups.
7907		population	eng	It appears to remain common in many areas, with the exception of Nigeria, but populations may be declining in areas of ongoing deforestation.
7907		threats	eng	It is possible that there are no major threats to this species. Populations might be threatened by deforestation in parts of the species range, however, the extent to which it depends on forest cover is unclear.
7908		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kasungu National Park in Malawi and from Parc National de l'Upemba in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There is a need for additional studies into the natural history of this species and into any possible future threats to the species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
7908		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in East Africa, Central Africa and southern Africa. It has been recorded from Angola, Namibia, Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi and Mozambique, being found as far north as Tanzania and possibly Rwanda. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 1,500 m asl (in Malawi) and at 1,890 m asl at Kibwele, Tanzania.
7908		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with miombo woodland, dominated by <em>Brachystegia</em>, <em>Julbernardia</em> and <em>Isoberlinia</em> vegetation. It may not roost in groups, although this needs confirmation.
7908		population	eng	It does not appear to be an especially rare species in Malawi. There is little information on the abundance of the species over the rest of its range, but it is presumed to be reasonably common.
7908		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7909		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species as a whole.
7909		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present in much of West Africa and Central Africa, with some records from East Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in the west, to Cameroon, and then through Central Africa to southern Sudan, Rwanda and Uganda in the east. It has been recorded as far south as northern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northeastern Zambia.
7909		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest, where it has been recorded in both primary and secondary habitat. Populations are also present in the mosaic habitats of tropical moist forest with woodland and grassland (Bergmans 1989). It is an adaptable species that can be found in disturbed areas, seemingly being only absent from heavily degraded or urban areas. The species roosts as small groups, often close to water (Brosset 1966; Jones 1972).
7909		population	eng	This is a common species.
7909		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
7910		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states in Europe. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
7910		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions are known.
7910		distribution	eng	<em>Eptesicus nilssonii </em>is a widespread Palaearctic species that occurs from France and Norway through northern and central Europe and Asia east to the Pacific seaboard and northern Japan. In Europe, it occurs north to well above the Arctic Circle, but is absent or occasional in the west (the Low Countries, UK, western France, Iberia). It occurs from sea level to 2,300 m (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006).
7910		distribution	eng	This is a widespread Palaearctic species that occurs from France and Norway through northern and central Europe and Asia, east to the Pacific seaboard and northern Japan (found only on Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), Rebun, and Rishiri). In Europe, it occurs north to well above the Arctic Circle, but is absent or occasional in the west (the Low Countries, UK, western France, Iberia), and is scarce in the mountains of southern Europe (occurs from southern France across northern Italy and there are scattered occurrences in the Balkans). It has been recorded once from Iran although the population there is marginal to the species' range (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). In Mongolia (subspecies <em>E. n. nilssonii</em>), it is found throughout the north of the country, in forested areas in north-western Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia. It occurs from sea level up to 2,300 m asl (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006).
7910		habitat	eng	A fast flying nocturnal bat species, found in a variety of habitats from mountain taiga to desert. It forages in open areas of diverse habitats, including woodland edge (or above woodland), small-scale farmland, parks and gardens with trees (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006), over lakes and rivers and at street lights. It is also found in river valleys where it can remain by a source of freshwater, roosting in tree holes and crevices. In autumn, it forages and displays in high mountains above the tree line (Spitzenberger 2002). Its diet comprises small insects such as Diptera. Summer roosts are located mainly in houses, occasionally in tree holes. It may change roost sites during summer. Winter roosts are found mainly in houses, cellars, and natural and artificial underground habitats. In winter the species roosts singly or in small groups of 2-4 individuals. Long-distance movements of up to 450 km have been recorded by Tress (1994). In Mongolia it hibernates from November to December until March or April, and although it does not migrate, it may shift roosts several times over seasons .
7910		habitat	eng	A fast flying nocturnal bat species, found in a variety of habitats from mountain taiga to desert. It forages in open areas of diverse habitats, including woodland edge (or above woodland), small-scale farmland, parks and gardens with trees (van der Kooij <i>in litt. </i>2006), over lakes and rivers and at street lights. It is also found in river valleys where it can remain by a source of freshwater, roosting in tree holes and crevices. In autumn, it forages and displays in high mountains above the tree line (Spitzenberger 2002). Its diet comprises small insects such as Diptera. Summer roosts are located mainly in houses, occasionally in tree holes. It may change roost sites during summer. Winter roosts are found mainly in houses, cellars, and natural and artificial underground habitats. In winter the species roosts singly or in small groups of 2-4 individuals. Long-distance movements of up to 450 km have been recorded by Tress (1994). In Mongolia it hibernates from November to December until March or April, and although it does not migrate, it may shift roosts several times over seasons .
7910		habitat	eng	It forages in open areas of diverse habitats, including woodland edge (or above woodland), small-scale farmland, parks and gardens with trees (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006), over lakes and rivers and at street lights. In autumn, it forages and displays in high mountains above the tree line (Spitzenberger 2002). Its diet comprises small insects such as Diptera. Summer roosts are located mainly in houses, occasionally in tree holes. It may change roost sites during summer. Winter roosts are found mainly in houses, cellars, and natural and artificial underground habitats. In winter the species roosts singly or in small groups of 2-4 individuals. Long-distance movements of up to 450 km have been recorded by Tress (1994).
7910		population	eng	A widespread and common species over much of its range, indeed the most abundant bat species in the north (Rydell 1999). Summer maternity colonies usually number 10-100 females.
7910		population	eng	A widespread and common species over much of its range in Europe, indeed the most abundant bat species in the north (Rydell, 1999). Summer maternity colonies usually number 10-100 females. In Mongolia, there have been no population estimates conducted, but the species is believed to be evenly distributed and not rare (M. Stubbe pers. comm.). In Japan, colonies of over 100 individuals can be found.
7910		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be disturbance of colonies in houses (and possibly when hibernating in underground habitats). However this is not thought to be a major threat to the species.
7910		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species. There are localized threats in some parts of its range but these are not having a significant impact on the species overall.
7911		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species  Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions known in North Africa or South Asia.
7911		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species  Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions known. Protection of maternity roosts and study of impact of <em>B. thuringiensis </em>on the species are needed at least in Austria (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).
7911		distribution	eng	<em>Eptesicus serotinus </em>is widely distributed through the Palaearctic from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboards, across the Mediterranean from Portugal eastwards to Turkey, and is marginal to North Africa. It occurs north to about 57ºN in Denmark, south-west to North Africa (found in Morocca, Algeria, Tunisia, and to western Libya), and east into northern parts of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. In the Middle East it is recorded from Syria and Lebanon. Records from the Canary Islands (Lanzarote) refer to a single vagrant that died shortly after arrival (Trujillo 1991). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to to 1,440 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
7911		distribution	eng	<em>Eptesicus serotinus </em>is widely distributed through the Palaearctic from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboards. It occurs north to about 57ºN in Denmark, south-west to North Africa, and east into northern parts of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. Records from the Canary Islands (Lanzarote) refer to a single vagrant that died shortly after arrival (Trujillo 1991). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to to 1,440 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
7911		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitats across its wide range including semi-desert, temperate and subtropical dry forest, Mediterranean-type shrubland, farmland and suburban areas. Favoured feeding areas include pasture, parkland, open woodland edge, tall hedgerows, gardens, and forested regions.  Feeds on larger beetles, moths and flies.<br/>Most summer (maternity) colonies are in buildings and occasionally tree holes or rock fissures.<br/>In winter it roosts singly or in small numbers in buildings and rock crevices, or often in underground habitats in north central Europe. Winter roosts are usually in fairly cold, dry sites. It is a largely sedentary species, with movements to 330 km recorded (Havekost 1960 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7911		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitats across its wide range including semi-desert, temperate and subtropical dry forest, Mediterranean-type shrubland, farmland and suburban areas. Favoured feeding areas include pasture, parkland, open woodland edge, tall hedgerows, gardens, and forested regions.  Feeds on larger beetles, moths and flies.<br>Most summer (maternity) colonies are in buildings and occasionally tree holes or rock fissures.<br>In winter it roosts singly or in small numbers in buildings and rock crevices, or often in underground habitats in north central Europe. Winter roosts are usually in fairly cold, dry sites. It is a largely sedentary species, with movements to 330 km recorded (Havekost 1960 in Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005).
7911		habitat	eng	It forages over open woodland, woodland edge, and pasture, feeding on larger beetles, moths and Diptera.<br/>Most summer (maternity) colonies are in buildings (mainly houses) and occasionally tree holes or rock fissures.<br/>In winter it roosts singly or in small numbers in buildings and rock crevices, or often in underground habitats in north central Europe. Winter roosts are usually in fairly cold, dry sites. It is a largely sedentary species, with movements to 330 km recorded (Havekost 1960 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
7911		population	eng	A very widespread and abundant species, with decreases recorded in some areas and increases in others. It may be increasing in some parts of northern Europe (e.g. Denmark) and decreasing in others, slightly (e.g. UK), or severely (e.g. Austria). In Austria, a 70% decline has been recorded in the eastern part of the country (the former stronghold) over the last 15 years, and the species is now absent from lowland regions with bare arable land (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). It is suspected to be declining in the rest of Pannonian basin. It is known from a single locality in European Turkey, and the total population in Turkey is small (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Iran it is at the edge of the its range, the species occurs in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Summer maternity colony size is generally 10-50 females (occasionally up to 300). It winters singly or in small groups.
7911		population	eng	A very widespread and abundant species, with decreases recorded in some areas and increases in others. It may be increasing in some parts of northern Europe (e.g. Denmark) and decreasing in others, slightly (e.g. UK), or severely (e.g. Austria). In Austria, a 70% decline has been recorded in the eastern part of the country (the former stronghold) over the last 15 years, and the species is now absent from lowland regions with bare arable land (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). It is suspected to be declining in the rest of Pannonian basin. It is known from a single locality in European Turkey, and the total population in Turkey is small (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). In Iran it is at the edge of the its range, the species occurs in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). There is a large North African population: it is the most common bat species in northwest Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>Summer maternity colony size is generally 10-50 females (occasionally up to 300). It winters singly or in small groups.
7911		threats	eng	In some areas it is affected by habitat loss and disturbance and destruction of colonies in houses. Population decline in Austria might be related to food reduction due to large scale mosquito control with the bacterium <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, used in the Danube and Moravia regions (F. Spitzenberger and I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). The species is a host of the rabies-related virus EBLV1. There is increasing interest in the occurrence, risk to humans and epidemiology of this virus (e.g. Stantic-Pavlinic 2005), which could have an effect on the public image of this house-dependent bat.
7911		threats	eng	In some areas it is affected by habitat loss and disturbance and destruction of colonies in houses. Population decline in Austria might be related to food reduction due to large scale mosquito control with the bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>, used in the Danube and Moravia regions (F. Spitzenberger and I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). The species is a host of the rabies-related virus EBLV1. There is increasing interest in the occurrence, risk to humans and epidemiology of this virus (e.g. Stantic-Pavlinic 2005), which could have an effect on the public image of this house-dependent bat.
7912		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
7912		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela (Simmons, 2005). In Ecuador found up to 3,300 m (Burneo pers comm,Tirira 2003) - and in Bolivia as low as 100 m (Aguirre pers com). In Venzuela occurs in Andes, Cordillera la Costa, and Pantepuis.
7912		habitat	eng	This bat is purely insectivorous. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.
7912		population	eng	This species is uncommon to rare throughout its range.
7912		threats	eng	None known.
7913		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas.
7913		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Australia.
7913		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of wooded habitats. In the north of its range, it seems to follow major watercourses (B. Thomson pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows and abandoned buildings. Colonies can contain a few individuals to around 50 animals (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young.
7913		population	eng	It is a common species (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7913		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7914		conservation	eng	None in place. More research is needed to determine population status and trends.
7914		distribution	eng	Distributed in NW Kazakhstan, and to the north of Aral Sea.
7914		habitat	eng	Ihhabits deserts on the NE coast of Aral Sea. There are insufficient data on the biology of the species. Nursing colonies were found in clay constructions.
7914		population	eng	There are no data on population size.
7914		threats	eng	There are no data on major threats to the species.
7915		conservation	eng	Protected through Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive in parts of range where these apply. No specific conservation actions known.
7915		conservation	eng	Protected through Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive in the very small part of the range where these apply. Taxonomic work is required to determine if more than one species is involved here and what the ranges of these are, and what their population status is.
7915		distribution	eng	A Palaearctic species, occuring from the eastern Mediterranean around margins of Arabian peninsula to Iraq, Iran and southern Caucacus states; also central Asia to India, northwestern China and possibly Mongolia.
7915		distribution	eng	Found in "Rhodes (Greece), Turkey, Egypt, Yemen, Israel, Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, east to Mongolia, NW China, and Pakistan" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range falls within the European Mammal Assessment region. Altitude: to 2,100 m.
7915		habitat	eng	Forges over open habitats, including disturbed (e.g. agricultural) habitats and around street lights. Roosts in crevices in buildings (including ruins) and rock faces.
7915		habitat	eng	Found in a wide range of semi-arid habitats including Mediterranean vegetation, lowland farmland and rocky mountains. A crevice dwelling species, inhabiting buildings, ruins (including tombs), and natural rock crevices throughout the year.
7915		population	eng	Little known; appears to be generally rare to uncommon although reported as locally common in Egypt. <br/><br/>Colony size probably small (e.g. generally c.2-3) (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Uncommon or probably rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Rare in Jordan (Amr, 2000). Not abundant in the northern parts of its range; although not included in the Red List  of Turkmenistan, it is considered rare there (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species is very rare in Turkey, it has been recorded in 19 locations and is often encountered as single individuals, although it is occasionally observed in groups of 15-20 individuals in maternity colonies (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). The Syrian records are mostly of solitary animals (Shehab <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reported to be locally common in Egypt, with colonies of up to 200 females being reported (African Mammal Assessment Workshop 2004).
7915		population	eng	Nothing known, but nowhere common. Seems to be more common in arid regions. Colony size probably small (e.g. to c.20).
7915		threats	eng	Not known; apparently a species that adapts to artificial habitats.
7915		threats	eng	The species requires ruins which are decreasing in number and can be disturbed by tourists (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007), however, this is not thought to be a major threat to the species as a whole at present.
7916		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas. Needs taxonomic review.
7916		distribution	eng	Veracruz (Mexico) south to Northern Argentina, Paraguay; Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005). It does not occurs in western Mexico (Arroyo-Cabralles pers. comm.).
7916		habitat	eng	Mountain forests (Perez pers. comm.). Roosts in houses and hollow trees (Reid pers. comm.)
7916		population	eng	Uncommon in Mexico. Fairly locally common in Costa Rica. May be a species complex (Barquez - pers. comm.).
7916		threats	eng	No threats throughout its range.
7919		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in some protected areas.
7919		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is distributed in northern parts of Northern Territory and Kimberley of Western Australia (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is also present on the Bonaparte Archipelago, and Groote Eylandt.
7919		habitat	eng	This species forages in tropical woodlands, grassland, and thickets. It roosts in caves and disused mines (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008), as well as in road culverts (which are sometimes used for maternity colonies) and bird nests within road culverts (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It is usually found in groups of a few individuals, however, maternity colonies may consist of several hundred individuals (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to one or two young.
7919		population	eng	It is a common species (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7919		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however, the maternity colonies are especially sensitive to human disturbance (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7920		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
7920		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia including Tasmania and Lord Howe Island. Known from sea level to 1,300 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
7920		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforest, wet and dry eucalypt forests, subalpine woodland, and alpine moors. It occurs in urban areas and in remnant farmland vegetation (L. Lumsden and T. Reardon pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows in colonies of up to 60 animals (Hoye <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young.
7920		population	eng	It is a common species (Hoye <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7920		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7921		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2000). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
7921		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected in southern Thailand (Bandon, Kao Nawg), and from southern Nepal (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2000) where it has been recorded in and near Royal Chitwan National Park.
7921		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
7921		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known .
7921		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
7922		conservation	eng	Check taxonomic status of the species, and systematics of diminuta's group.
7922		distribution	eng	Venezuela, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
7922		habitat	eng	Insectivorous, inhabits open areas, urban and sub-urban, low populations (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)
7922		population	eng	Not common, but wide distribution.
7922		threats	eng	None.
7923		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting and foraging areas.
7923		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the Kimberley region of Western Australia in Australia.
7923		habitat	eng	It has usually been collected close to waterbodies (which likely reflects collection effort) in sandstone ranges (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). This species roosts in caves and buildings. It is found in colonies of up to 80 individuals (Armstrong and Kitchener 2008). Females give birth to a single young.
7923		population	eng	This species is rare and seldom recorded, but it could be underestimated (Armstrong and Kitchener 2008).
7923		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7924		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
7924		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Australia.
7924		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of habitat types, being found from deserts through to tropical moist areas in the north (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is generally located close to rocky areas with caves, cracks, and crevices in which the species roosts. It also roosts in abandoned mines. Females may breed twice a year and give birth to a single young, althought about a fifth of births are of twins (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7924		population	eng	It is an abundant species (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7924		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7926		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this poorly known species.
7926		distribution	eng	This little known bat has only been recorded from Mali (Timbuktu) and Sudan (all records within a 200-mile radius of Ed Dueim) and recently from Mahmûdé Lake, Wilaya Hodh Ech Chargui in Mauritania (Braestrup 1935; Koopman 1975; Padial and Ibáñez, 2005).
7926		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected from thorny acacia thicket, dry shrubland, dry grassland and desert habitats. Koopman (1975) mentions that collection sites in Sudan and Mali are similar thorny acacia thickets and that the species may be associated with this vegetation type. Padial and Ibáñez (2005) note that the species was collected in a similar thorny dry habitat to other records.
7926		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens.
7926		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7927		conservation	eng	Research actions, taxonomic review. It is found in protected areas.
7927		distribution	eng	N Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay, Brazil, and the Guianas east to Peru and north to Jalisco and Tamaulipas (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).
7927		habitat	eng	Biology poorly known, roosts in trees and houses.
7927		population	eng	Common and widespread.
7927		threats	eng	None known.
7928		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas.
7928		distribution	eng	Southern Canada to Colombia and Northern Brazil; Greater Antilles; Bahamas; Hispaniola, Dominica and Barbados (Lesser Antilles); Alaska (Simmons 2005).
7928		habitat	eng	The big brown bat inhabits cities, towns, and rural areas, but is least commonly found in heavily forested regions (Kurta 1995). Some bats require stable, highly insulated environments in order to hibernate. Eptesicus fuscus has a more tolerant constitution so it can winter in less substantial structures. Besides human dwellings, it has been found to take up residence in barns, silos, and churches. Also, this bat has been found roosting in storm sewers, expansion joint spaces in concrete athletic stadiums, and copper mines (Baker 1983). In presettlement times it is presumed the big brown bat roosted in tree hollows, natural caves, or openings in rock ledges. Occasionally groups of these bats are still found living in tree cavities (Baker 1983). Recently, some were found hibernating in caves in Minnesota (Knowles 1992).<br/>The big brown bat hibernates in various structures, either man-made or natural environments. They prefer cool temperatures and can tolerate conditions many other bats cannot. They may become active during their winter hibernacula and can move to an optimum habitat. One banded bat was recorded to have moved to a different cave 400 yards away, during the same winter (Goehring 1972).<br/><em>E. fuscus</em> is an insectivorous bat. It preys primarily on beetles using its robust skull and powerful jaws to chew through the beetles' hard chitinous exoskeleton. It also eats other flying insects including moths, flies, wasps, flying ants, lacewing flies, and dragonflies (Baker 1983). One study indicated that juvenile E. fuscus ate a greater range of softer food items in their diets, compared to adults. The same study also indicated that bats having survived their first winter (yearlings), did not differ significantly in diet from the adults (Hamilton and Barclay 1998).
7928		population	eng	It is reasonable to speculate that populations of the big brown bat have increased with an increasing number of human habitations (Baker 1983). Big brown bats can survive up to 19 years in the wild and males tend to live longer than females. Most big brown bats die in their first winter. If they do not store enough fat to make it through their entire hibernation period then they die in their winter roost. Female big brown bats form maternity colonies to rear young. The size of these colonies can vary from 5 to 700 animals. Males of the species roost alone or in small groups during this time. Both sexes will roost together again in the late summer (Nowak 1999).
7928		threats	eng	Big brown bats are fairly common and are not of any special conservation concern.
7929		conservation	eng	Research actions.
7929		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).
7929		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
7929		population	eng	There is no information on population.
7929		threats	eng	Habitat loss, hurricanes.
7931		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas in South Africa, and presumably is present in protected areas within other parts of the species range. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
7931		distribution	eng	This largely Southern African species ranges from southern Angola in west, through parts of Namibia, South Africa, southern Lesotho, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia, with a single record as far north as southwestern Kenya.
7931		habitat	eng	Most specimens appear to have been collected close to rivers, or in a range of surrounding habitats including montane grassland, marshland and well-wooded banks (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It has been recorded roosting in small groups of three or four animals in dry and wet caves, mines, and similar habitats. A single specimen was collected hanging on the outside wall of a building in Zimbabwe (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
7931		population	eng	Although the species is considered to be sparsely distributed, it is locally common in part of the ranges, such as Zimbabwe but is though to be rarer elsewhere (e.g.. South Africa).
7931		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7932		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
7932		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Peru, and western Ecuador, including Puna Island (Ecuador) (Simmons, 2005).
7932		habitat	eng	This bat is strictly insectivorous. It occurs in dry and semi-deciduous forests (Tirira, in prep.). Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.
7932		population	eng	In Ecuador it is rare but locally common in Peru.
7932		threats	eng	No known threats - however, the area where it occurs is undergoing rapid deforestation (but affect unknown).
7933		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of this species.
7933		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities across the Korean Peninsula, Pyongyang, Seoul and Gaesung.
7933		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
7933		population	eng	This species has not been identified since its original description, the original description suggests possible synonymy with one or two other species, and no specimen has been available to assess its taxonomic status (Tony Hutson pers. comm. 2008).
7933		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
7935		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this little known species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7935		distribution	eng	This species has been widely, but patchily recorded, from the Arabian Peninsula to western South Asia. It has been recorded from Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, it is possibly present in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait, it has been recorded from southern Iraq (including Basra), and southern and southeastern Iran. Within South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar and Laghman provinces) and Pakistan (Baluchistan and Sind) at an elevation of 860 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7935		habitat	eng	In Oman, the species has been recorded in the crevices of walls and behind stones of ruined buildings, isolated in semi-desert terrain and on sand dunes next to the sea (Harrison and Bates 1991). In Iran it has been recorded from arid areas with the roosting sites unknown. Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species in South Asia except that it is found in semi-arid to arid areas in caves near rivers (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7935		population	eng	It has been reported on five occasions in Iran where they were found as individuals or in small groups (Sharifi <em>et al</em> 2000). The most recent record for Iran is from the 1970s despite more recent survey efforts, and the species appears to be genuinely rare (Sharifi pers. comm.). The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
7935		threats	eng	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this species or its habitat overall. The threats to this species in South Asia remain unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7936		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. It is not known if it is present in protected areas in other parts of the species range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
7936		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern South Asia, through much of central China, with some records from northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) and India (Meghalaya and Mizoram) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it ranges throughout much of the central part of the country, being recorded as far north as Gansu and Ningxia. In Southeast Asia, it is limited to records from northern Myanmar and northern Thailand.
7936		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) except that it is reported from Khasi Hills in Meghalaya where the vegetation is tropical moist deciduous forest (Bates and Harrison 1997). There appears to be nothing recorded on the natural history of this species from other regions of its range.
7936		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
7936		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
7937		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional surveys are needed to try to locate and study a population of this species.
7937		distribution	eng	This poorly known West African bat is known only from a few specimens. It is known from the type locality at Lagos in Nigeria, from specimens from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (although these specimens may not have originated on Bioko) and from an unspecified locality in Senegal. The Lagos and Senegal specimens were collected around 1900 (Happold 1987).
7937		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.
7937		population	eng	There is no good information on the population abundance or size of this bat.
7937		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
7938		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from quite a few protected areas.
7938		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it has been recorded from Queensland and New South Wales.
7938		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in a number of moist forest habitats. It roosts in tree hollows (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to one or two young.
7938		population	eng	It is a common species (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7938		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Clearance of forest for urban development is a threat in New South Wales (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
7939		conservation	eng	This species occurs many protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not the populations west of Adelaide represent a different species from those to the east (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
7939		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Australia, including the island of Tasmania. Known from sea level to 1,700 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
7939		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats including wet and dry sclerophyll forest, shrubland, low shrub woodland, mixed temperate woodland, and mallee (Tidemann and Law 2008), as well as remnant vegetation in farmland and in urban areas (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows and buildings, with colonies of up to 100 animals recorded (Tidemann and Law 2008). Females give birth to a single young after a gestation period of about three months (Tidemann and Law 2008).
7939		population	eng	It is a common species (Tidemann and Law 2008).
7939		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7942		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be located and monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
7942		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India. It is presently known only from the type locality of Darjeeling in West Bengal. A single location record hence area and extent are unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7942		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is reported from montane forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Das 2003).
7942		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
7942		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
7944		conservation	eng	This species is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed into its ecology and identification.
7944		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, from eastern Queensland to north-eastern New South Wales.
7944		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from dry forests and tropical woodlands, with rocky habitats. It roosts in small groups in rock overhangs, mine tunnels, and sometimes in buildings (Parnaby <em>et al.</em> 2008; M. Pennay pers. comm.).
7944		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat, although such habitat is limited (Parnaby <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7944		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
7945		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in many protected areas.
7945		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia including the island of Tasmania. Its altitudinal range in Victoria is from sea level to 1,100 m asl, but it is most common below 400 m (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
7945		habitat	eng	This species is associated with temperate mixed woodland, and dry and wet sclerophyll forest. It roosts in tree hollows and building roofs in maternity colonies of less than 20 individuals up to 120; males often roost singly (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young.
7945		population	eng	It is an abundant species (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008).
7945		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Land clearing for cropping is a threat, at least in the northern part of New South Wales (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
7949		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. In Ethiopia, the Yangudi-Rassa National Park (4,731 km²) and the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve (8,766 km²) were established in 1969. However, the former has never been formally gazetted, and both areas are utilized by large numbers of pastoralists and their livestock. These areas are remote and extremely arid, and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) has not had sufficient funds or personnel for appropriate management (Kebede 1999). In Eritrea, the government designated the African wild ass area between the Buri Peninsula and the Dalool Depression as a high-priority area for conservation protection as a nature reserve. In both Eritrea and Ethiopia, research and conservation programmes (Ministry of Agriculture and EWCA) have been critical for sustaining African Wild Ass populations by involving local pastoralists in their conservation. There are no protected areas in the range of the species in Somalia. Populations of Somali Wild Ass are maintained in captivity (Moehlman 2002).<br/><br/>Recommended research and conservation actions, include:<br/><br/>1. Ecosystems based and population dynamics research on the African Wild Ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia.<br/>2. Research on interactions among pastoralists, livestock, wildlife and the environment<br/>3. Actively involve local pastoralists in the preparation and management of long-term action plans<br/>4. Post-graduate training of personnel in Eritrea and Ethiopia.<br/>5. Surveys in Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan and Egypt to determine current distribution of African wild ass<br/>6. Genetic research on the African Wild Ass and local domestic donkey populations to clarify the genetic status of the two subspecies.
7949		distribution	eng	The African Wild Ass occurs in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia; some animals may persist in Djibouti, Sudan and Egypt, but there is no recent information available (Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press). Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1996) recorded them to 1,500 m in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are recognized. The Nubian Wild Ass, <em>E. a. africanus</em>, lived in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the shores of the Red Sea, and south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. During aerial flights in the 1970s, wild asses were seen in the Barka Valley of Eritrea and in the border area between Eritrea and the Sudan. The Somali Wild Ass, <em>E. a. somalicus</em>, was found in the Denkelia region of Eritrea, the Danakil Desert and the Awash River Valley in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia, western Djibouti, and into the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. In Somalia, they ranged from Meit and Erigavo in the north to the Nugaal Valley, and as far south as the Shebele River (Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>The current range of the African Wild Ass (in Ethiopia and Eritrea) is approximately 15,000 km². DNA extracted from faecal samples collected from animals in Eritrea and Ethiopia resulted in the identification of five mitochondrial DNA haplotypes: one haplotype (group of polymorphisms) specific to the Eritrean population (haplotype D); one haplotype specific to the Ethiopian population (E); and three shared haplotypes (A, B, and C). These results suggest that there is and/or has been gene flow between the subpopulations (Afrera, Serdo) in Ethiopia and the population in Eritrea (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7949		distribution	eng	The African Wild Ass occurs in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia; some animals may persist in Djibouti, Sudan and Egypt, but there is no recent information available (Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press). Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1996) recorded them to 1500 m in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are recognized. The Nubian Wild Ass, <em>E. a. africanus</em>, lived in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the shores of the Red Sea, and south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. During aerial flights in the 1970s, wild asses were seen in the Barka Valley of Eritrea and in the border area between Eritrea and the Sudan. The Somali Wild Ass, <em>E. a. somalicus</em>, was found in the Denkelia region of Eritrea, the Danakil Desert and the Awash River Valley in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia, western Djibouti, and into the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. In Somalia, they ranged from Meit and Erigavo in the north to the Nugaal Valley, and as far south as the Shebele River (Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>The current range of the African Wild Ass (in Ethiopia and Eritrea) is approximately 15,000 km². DNA extracted from faecal samples collected from animals in Eritrea and Ethiopia resulted in the identification of five mitochondrial DNA haplotypes: one haplotype (group of polymorphisms) specific to the Eritrean population (haplotype D); one haplotype specific to the Ethiopian population (E); and three shared haplotypes (A, B, and C). These results suggest that there is and/or has been gene flow between the subpopulations (Afrera, Serdo) in Ethiopia and the population in Eritrea (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7949		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is arid and semi-arid bushland and grassland. In Eritrea and Ethiopia, the African Wild Ass lives in volcanic landscape of the Great Rift Valley where they range from below sea level in the Dalool Depression to 2,000 m asl (Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>In Eritrea and Ethiopia, limited observations indicate that African Wild Asses are primarily grazers, but that they will also utilize browse. Typical of arid habitat equids, the only stable groups are composed of a female and her offspring. Females do associate with other females or with males, but even temporary groups are small. Low density and low sociability may be due to low forage quality and availability. In the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve the preferred forage is <em>Aristida</em> sp, <em>Chrysopogon plumulosus</em>, <em>Dactyloctenium schindicum</em>, <em>Digiteria</em> sp, <em>Lasiurus scindicus</em>, and <em>Sporobolus iocladus</em> (Kebede 1999; Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).  In Eritrea, <em>Pannicum turgidium</em> is an important forage species (Teclai 2006).
7949		population	eng	In Ethiopia, there has been a severe population decline since the early 1970s. Klingel (1972) recorded group sizes of 10-30 individuals in the Danakil, and he estimated a density of 18.6 wild asses per 100 km² in an area of approximately 10,000 km². During that survey, Yangudi-Rassa National Park had the highest density (30 wild asses per 100 km²). In 1994, Moehlman and Kebede did a ground survey of the Yangudi-Rassa N.P.; no wild asses were seen, although local Issa pastoralists reported that they were present but rare and occurred at an approximate density well below one animal per 100 km² (Moehlman 1994; Kebede 1995; Moehlman <em>et al.</em> 1998). In 2007, Kebede (F. Kebede <em>et al.</em> pers. comm. 2007) surveyed the historic range of the African Wild Ass in Ethiopia and determined that they have been extirpated from the Yangudi-Rassa N.P. and the Somali Region and that the only remaining population is in the north-eastern Afar Region. The total number of wild ass observed during this survey was 25 in an area of 4,000 km² yielding a density of 0.625 animals per 100 km². This density is higher than that of 1994-1998 survey, which was 0.5 wild ass per 100 km² in an area of 2,000 km² (Moehlman 2002). In the Serdo-Hillu area, where there has been a research and conservation programme with Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority and local Afar pastoralists for the past ten years, the population has remained stable. Although the number of African Wild Ass in this area has not declined, the population is very small and under high risk of extinction. There may be fewer than 200 African Wild Ass left in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In Eritrea, there are limited long-term data. The first successful survey was made in 1996 and there has been a research and conservation programme with the Ministry of Agriculture for the past ten years. The main study site in the Northern Red Sea Zone has had a population of roughly 47 individuals per 100 km² (Moehlman <em>et al</em>. 1998; Moehlman 2002). This is the highest population density found anywhere in the present range of the species and is similar to population densities recorded in Ethiopia in the early 1970s. This is a limited study area (100 km²), but recent research indicates that African Wild Ass currently inhabit approximately 11,000 km² in the Denkeli desert (Teclai 2006). Surveys are needed to determine the distribution and density of African Wild Ass in this larger area. A rough estimate of African Wild Ass in Eritrea would yield a total of possibly 400 individuals. <br/><br/>In Somalia, in 1997, local pastoralists said that there were less than 10 African Wild Ass left in the Nugaal Valley; an earlier ground survey in 1989 in the Nugaal Valley yielded population estimates of roughly 135-205 animals or approximately 2.7-4.1/km² (Moehlman 1998). Some animals may remain near Meit and Erigavo, but this area has not been surveyed since the 1970s (Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press). It is not known if African Wild Ass currently persist in Somalia.<br/><br/>In summary, the total number of observed African Wild Ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia is 70 individuals; there may be as many as 600 individuals in these two countries, but this figure is a very rough extrapolation from more intensely studied areas. The number of mature individuals is approximately one-third of the population (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001), hence the minimum number of mature individuals is 23 and the maximum might be 200. In Ethiopia, in the last 35 years there has been a greater that 95% population decline and in the last 12 years the African Wild Ass has been extirpated from roughly 50% of its range (Kebede <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Eritrea, the population is stable and slowly increasing. However, it is difficult to predict population trends into the future. The desert habitat of the African Wild Ass in both Eritrea and Ethiopia suffers from recurrent and extreme droughts (Kebede 1999; Teclai 2006).
7949		threats	eng	The major threat to the African Wild Ass is hunting for food and medicinal purposes; for example, body parts and soup made from bones are used for treating tuberculosis, constipation, rheumatism, backache, and boneache (Kebede 1999; Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press). Limited access to drinking water and forage (largely due to competition with livestock) is also a major constraint, with reproductive females and foals less than three-months old most at risk. Hence, it will continue to be important to determine critical water supplies and basic forage requirements, allowing management authorities to determine (in consultation with local pastoralists) how to conserve the African Wild Ass (Kebede 1999, 2007; Moehlman 2002; Teclai 2006; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press). The third major threat to the survival of the African Wild Ass is possible interbreeding with the domestic donkey (Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).
7950		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Grevy's Zebra are legally protected in Ethiopia, although official protection has been limited. Community-based conservation has been more effective. In Kenya, they have been protected by a hunting ban since 1977. While under the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act No 376 of 1976 (Part II of the First Schedule), Grévy’s Zebra was listed as a ‘Game Animal’ (Williams 2002); they are currently being uplisted to a legally ‘Protected Animal’ in Kenya.<br/><br/>At present, protected areas form less than 0.5% of the range of Grevy’s Zebra. In Ethiopia, the protected areas are nominal (Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve, Yabello Sanctuary, Borana Controlled Hunting Area and Chalbi Sanctuary). In Kenya, the Buffalo Springs, Samburu, Shaba N.R. complex and the private and community land wildlife conservancies in Isiolo, Samburu and the Laikipia Plateau provide a core and crucial protection of Kenya’s southern population of Grevy’s Zebra (Williams 2002). On the Laikipia Plateau, protection and reduced competition with domestic livestock, have seen Grevy's Zebra numbers increasing since they first expanded into this area in the early 1970s (Williams 2002, in press).<br/><br/>Kenya has recently taken steps to develop a national conservation strategy for Grevy’s Zebras. Ethiopia has held two workshops on the status and conservation of the Grevy’s Zebra. Research and community-based conservation is on-going in the three known population areas.<br/><br/>Williams (2002) highlights several other conservation actions focused on wild populations, involving: 1. Protection of water supplies; 2. Management of protected areas; 3. Community conservation; and 4. Monitoring of numbers in the wild.
7950		distribution	eng	Grevy's Zebra is confined to the Horn of Africa, specifically Ethiopia and Kenya. They may persist in southern Sudan. Grevy's have undergone one of the most substantial reductions of range of any African mammal. Historically, they ranged east of the Rift Valley in Kenya to western Somalia, and in northern Ethiopia from the Alledeghi Plain through the Awash Valley, the Ogaden, and north-east of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia to north of Mt. Kenya and south-east down the Tana River in Kenya (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 1994). Currently, Grevys’ Zebra have a discontinuous range, and are found from the eastern side of the Rift Valley in Kenya to the Tana River. There is a small, isolated population in the Alledeghi Plains northeast of Awash N.P. in Ethiopia. From Lake Ch’ew Bahir in southern Ethiopia, the population extends to just north of Mt. Kenya although a few animals are found further southeast along the Tana River. A small introduced population survives in and around Tsavo East N.P. in Kenya. They are considered to be extirpated from Somalia (where the last confirmed sightings date to 1973) and from Djibouti; there are no confirmed records that the species ever occurred in Eritrea (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1986, Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1994). Sightings from southern Sudan require verification (Williams 2002, in press). <br/><br/>Yalden <em>et a</em>l. (1996) recorded them to 1,600 m in Ethiopia.
7950		habitat	eng	Grevy’s Zebras live in arid and semi-arid grass/shrubland where there is permanent water (Klingel 1974; Rubenstein 1986; Rowen and Ginsberg 1992; Williams 2002, in press). They are predominantly grazers, although browse can comprise up to 30% of their diet during times of drought or in those areas which have been highly transformed through overgrazing. Breeding males defend resource territories (water and food being the key resources) of 2–12 km²; the home range size of non-territorial individuals is up to 10,000&#160;km². They are extremely mobile and individuals have been recorded to move distances of greater than 80&#160;km, with movements determined by the availability of resources; lactating females, for example, can only tolerate one or two days away from water (Klingel 1974; Rubenstein 1986; Rowen and Ginsberg 1992; Williams 2002, in press).
7950		population	eng	Current estimates put the total population of Grevy's Zebra remaining in the wild in Kenya and Ethiopia at approximately 1,966 to 2,447 (B. Lowe pers. comm. 2008; F. Kebede pers. comm. 2008). From 1988 to 2007, the global population of Grevy’s Zebra declined approximately 55%. The worse case scenario is a decline from 1980 to 2007 of 68%. The number of mature individuals is approximately 750, and the largest subpopulation is approximately 255 mature individuals.<br/><br/>In Kenya, the Grevy’s Zebra population declined from an estimated 4,276 in 1988 (KREMU 1989) to 2435-2707 in 2000 (Nelson and Williams 2003) to 1567-1976 in 2004 (B. Low pers.comm.) to an estimated population size of 1468-2135 in 2006 (B. Low pers. comm. 2007). In 2007, the population estimate of 1838-2319 indicates that either more individuals were being accurately observed or that the population is stabilizing and increasing (Mwasi and Mwangi 2007). The trend from 1988 to 2006 (18 years) is a decline of 50 to 66%. The data for 2007 indicates a potential increase in the population in Kenya.<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, Grevy’s Zebra declined from an estimated 1,900 in 1980 to 577 in 1995 (Rowen and Ginsberg 1992, F. Kebede pers. comm. 2007), to 106 in 2003 (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). In 2006, the population in Ethiopia was estimated to be 128 (F. Kebede pers. comm. 2007). The trend from 1980 to 2003 (23 years) is a decline of roughly 94%. The data for 2006 indicates a potential increase in the population in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>The density and area of occupancy of Grevy’s Zebras fluctuates seasonally as animals move in their search for resources. During the dry season, when they are dependent on permanent water, animals tend to be more concentrated. However, given that they can move up to 35&#160;km from water even during the dry season, their densities are never high. They are most abundant and most easily observed in the southern portion of their range in southern Samburu and the Laikipia Plateau.
7950		threats	eng	The major threats to Grevy's Zebra include: reduction of available water sources; habitat degradation and loss due to overgrazing; competition for resources; hunting; and disease (Rowen and Ginsberg 1992; Williams 2002, in press). <br/><br/>In Kenya, hunting for skins in the late 1970s may have contributed to the observed decline, although recent data suggest that the continuing decline in this country is attributable to low recruitment due to low juvenile survival. This is a result of competition for resources – both food and access to water – with pastoral people and domestic livestock (Williams 1998). However, a low level of hunting of Grevy’s Zebra for food and, in some areas, medicinal uses continues (Williams 2002, in press). Furthermore, the water supply in critical perennial rivers has declined, most notably in the Ewaso Ng’iro River where over-abstraction of water for irrigation schemes has reduced dry season river flow by 90% over the past three decades (Williams 2002, in press).<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, killing of Grevy’s Zebra is the primary cause of the decline (F. Kebede pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Recently, Muoria <em>et al.</em> (in press) recorded an outbreak of anthrax in the Wamba area of southern Samburu, Kenya, during which more than 50 animals succumbed to the disease.
7951		conservation	eng	This species is legally protected in Mongolia, Turkmenistan, Iran and India. In Mongolia it is protected as Rare under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act No. 264) of the 2000 Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (MNE 1996). Hunting has been prohibited since 1953, and it is currently listed as Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987; MNE 1997). <em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em> and <em>E. h. khur</em> are included in CITES Appendix I, with the other subspecies being on CITES Appendix II. The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). The species occurs in protected areas in all range states where it survives. Approximately 29% of the species? range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al</em> 2006).<br/><br/>As outlined in the section on geographic distribution, there have been re-introduction projects for this species in a number of countries, including Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia. In an effort to increase the total number of kulan populations, animals from the Badkhys and Barsa Kelmes were translocated to other areas in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbzekistan between 1955 and 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Recognizing the threatened status of the dwindling Kulan population in the 1940s, the Soviet government gazetted the 900 km² Badkhyz Preserve in Turkmenistan to protect the remaining 200 Kulan. The population consequently grew to approximately 6,000 animals between 1945 and 1993. However, in the late 1990s when the Kulans left  the reserve during the summer months, they were killed in large numbers. The population was significantly reduced to approximately 600 animals. This history illustrates how quickly a healthy population of equids can be reduced to a critically endangered level. <br/><br/>To date, the introduction of <em>E. hemionus</em> in Israel has been successful. The animals were introduced in 1982. Due to a high percentage of male births, the population grew very slowly at first (Saltz and Rubenstein 1996). Starting in 1991, the population began to grow more quickly with 17 births in 1994. As of the 1997 birth season, there were approximately 105 animals, of which 31 were adult breeding females. The animals are found over an area of 4,500 km². The animals use three artificial water points that are maintained by the Israeli Nature Reserves Authority in addition to several natural  springs. Detailed ongoing studies of the population examine population increase, range expansion, habitat use, and changes in vegetation density and species richness. Information from these studies will be used in the development of management plans for the population (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There are some important research needs for this species. A large omission in our knowledge of the Asiatic Wild Ass is its status and distribution within China. In Turkmenistan and Iran, the management of the Onager and Kulan would greatly benefit from increased knowledge of basic behaviour and ecology. Such information would provide a better understanding of threats to these populations. In particular, as the potential for escalating human-wildlife conflict increases during droughts, a short-term study to understand the seasonal movement patterns of the Badkhyz Kulan population in Turkmenistan, and the places where conflicts are taking place, might help to address how best to protect this population. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, the following conservation measures are in place:<br/>? In 1999, the Mongolian Government created two protected areas specifically for the conservation of this species, Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area (Dzungarian Gobi Desert) and Zagiin Us Nature Reserve (Northern Gobi) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/>? Research projects have been conducted to investigate the status, distribution, ecology and social structure of Asiatic Wild Ass in Mongolia (e.g., Feh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/>? Several conservation organizations were brought together at the ?First Asiatic Wild Ass Conference? held in Mongolia in 2005 (AWAC 2005), where a range of conservation management issues were addressed.<br/>? An in-depth study of the ecological impact of the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway has been conducted, including trials using Mongolian Gazelles to investigate the possibility of their crossing bridges or tunnels. This research may also benefit Asiatic Wild Ass migration.<br/>? Activities in Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area include: monthly wildlife transects, monitoring of Asiatic Wild Ass and other species such as wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and Przewalski?s Horse (<em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>) to understand interactions, vegetation mapping, and workshops to integrate park management with sustainable livelihoods (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/> <br/>The following five actions are now those deemed most important for this species (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002):<br/><br/>1. The Kulan population in Badkhys Preserve has declined by approximately 90% in a three year period. Improved protection from poaching is needed both within the reserve and along the summer migration route to the Kushka River. The ecological requirements of this population need to be determined and an ecosystem analysis made of their habitat in order to prepare a long-term sustainable management plan.<br/><br/>2. Over 30% of the Khur population is ranging outside the Protected Area. The Sardar Sarovar Canal has changed the land-use patterns and the agro-economy i.e. from rain dependent crops to irrigated cash crops. Around the Rann, mitigation measures for the increasing number of wildlife and human conflicts are urgently needed. <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, is an exotic shrub spreading fast across the habitat, the management needs to undertake thinning operation of this shrub for habitat improvement. Salt mining is the major economy for eight months in the year for the locals living around the Rann. This area produces 21% of India?s salt. The transportation of the salt is through well-defined routes. Presently truckers? criss-cross through the area (habitat) thereby causing excessive damage to fragile arid grasslands (Shah 1993). The Sardar Sarovar canal has fragmented the Khur population. There is a need to evaluate possible linkages between the fragmented Khur population and its source Rann population. There is a need to understand the demography and immigration patterns of Khur in the newly occupied sites (i.e., Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Velavadar Blackbuck National Park, areas in Bhal, Great Rann and neigbouring state of Rajasthan) (Shah 1993, 1998, 1999). The existing sanctuary infrastructure and staffing needs to be strengthened which is presently inadequate for managing a Sanctuary of 5,000 km² (Shah 1993). There is a need for disease monitoring of domestic equids and other livestock.  The sanctuary was notified in 1973, and the land settlement process has been initiated. The sanctuary has been identified as a potential Natural World Heritage Site; its evaluation is pending (Gujarat Forest Department 2007). There is a need for an assessment of the status of Khur along the Indo-Pakistan border adjoining the Rann. The Wild Ass Sanctuary was identified as one of the six landscape sites in India for biodiversity conservation through improved rural livelihoods, a programme which is aided by the World Bank (Government of India 2007).<br/><br/>3. Taxonomic questions need to be clarified and subspecies ranges should be demarcated. These data are needed for the Wild Ass subspecies in Mongolia and for the Kulan/Onager populations in Turkmenistan and Iran. Information from the latter investigation could also affect the taxonomic listing of the introduced Israeli population.<br/><br/>4. Investigation and development of plans are needed to address conflict between local human groups and Wild Ass populations. Today, grazing outside reserves and encroachment into agricultural areas threaten to decrease ?good-will? towards Asiatic Wild Ass populations in Turkmenistan and Mongolia. Whether now or in the future, all Wild Ass populations will probably be in conflict with local pastoralists and agricultural groups. Conflict with human populations will lead to loss of habitat quality and increased susceptibility to high mortality during drought and disease outbreaks. Efforts need to be made to address current problems and to limit their occurrence in the future. In addition, the following conservation measures have been identified specifically for Mongolia (AWAC 2005):<br/><br/>? Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature, including strict control at border posts between Mongolia and China for illegal export of carcasses.<br/>? Control meat markets, to prevent illegal trade in carcasses within Mongolia.<br/>? Map critical habitat and movement corridors.<br/>? Consider migration routes when planning transportation routes and fences, including implementation of mitigation measures along fenced transportation routes (e.g., railway Ulaanbaatar-Beijing) (P. Kaczensky pers. comm.).<br/>? Raise public awareness and establish education programmes to highlight the international importance and socioeconomic benefits of Mongolian populations (e.g., teach herders that they benefit from Asiatic Wild Ass digging waterholes in dry riverbeds) (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/>? Livelihood aid for local people, e.g., alternative income strategies. Conflict between local pastoralists and agricultural groups needs to  be addressed.<br/>? Conduct further research on population numbers, habitat use and migration, including further research to clarify the subspecific taxonomy of Mongolian populations of Asiatic Wild Ass (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), and rigorous annual population monitoring, preferentially using aerial surveys.<br/>? Stronger co-operation between Mongolia and China to facilitate conservation efforts, e.g. formation of trans-border protected areas.
7951		conservation	eng	This species is legally protected in Mongolia, Turkmenistan, Iran and India. In Mongolia it is protected as Rare under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act No. 264) of the 2000 Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (MNE 1996). Hunting has been prohibited since 1953, and it is currently listed as Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987; MNE 1997). <em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em> and <em>E. h. khur</em> are included in CITES Appendix I, with the other subspecies being on CITES Appendix II. The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). The species occurs in protected areas in all range states where it survives. Approximately 29% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al</em> 2006).<br/><br/>As outlined in the section on geographic distribution, there have been re-introduction projects for this species in a number of countries, including Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia. In an effort to increase the total number of kulan populations, animals from the Badkhys and Barsa Kelmes were translocated to other areas in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbzekistan between 1955 and 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Recognizing the threatened status of the dwindling Kulan population in the 1940s, the Soviet government gazetted the 900 km² Badkhyz Preserve in Turkmenistan to protect the remaining 200 Kulan. The population consequently grew to approximately 6,000 animals between 1945 and 1993. However, in the late 1990s when the Kulans left  the reserve during the summer months, they were killed in large numbers. The population was significantly reduced to approximately 600 animals. This history illustrates how quickly a healthy population of equids can be reduced to a critically endangered level. <br/><br/>To date, the introduction of <em>E. hemionus</em> in Israel has been successful. The animals were introduced in 1982. Due to a high percentage of male births, the population grew very slowly at first (Saltz and Rubenstein 1996). Starting in 1991, the population began to grow more quickly with 17 births in 1994. As of the 1997 birth season, there were approximately 105 animals, of which 31 were adult breeding females. The animals are found over an area of 4,500 km². The animals use three artificial water points that are maintained by the Israeli Nature Reserves Authority in addition to several natural  springs. Detailed ongoing studies of the population examine population increase, range expansion, habitat use, and changes in vegetation density and species richness. Information from these studies will be used in the development of management plans for the population (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There are some important research needs for this species. A large omission in our knowledge of the Asiatic Wild Ass is its status and distribution within China. In Turkmenistan and Iran, the management of the Onager and Kulan would greatly benefit from increased knowledge of basic behaviour and ecology. Such information would provide a better understanding of threats to these populations. In particular, as the potential for escalating human-wildlife conflict increases during droughts, a short-term study to understand the seasonal movement patterns of the Badkhyz Kulan population in Turkmenistan, and the places where conflicts are taking place, might help to address how best to protect this population. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, the following conservation measures are in place:<br/>• In 1999, the Mongolian Government created two protected areas specifically for the conservation of this species, Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area (Dzungarian Gobi Desert) and Zagiin Us Nature Reserve (Northern Gobi) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/>• Research projects have been conducted to investigate the status, distribution, ecology and social structure of Asiatic Wild Ass in Mongolia (e.g., Feh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/>• Several conservation organizations were brought together at the ‘First Asiatic Wild Ass Conference’ held in Mongolia in 2005 (AWAC 2005), where a range of conservation management issues were addressed.<br/>• An in-depth study of the ecological impact of the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway has been conducted, including trials using Mongolian Gazelles to investigate the possibility of their crossing bridges or tunnels. This research may also benefit Asiatic Wild Ass migration.<br/>• Activities in Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area include: monthly wildlife transects, monitoring of Asiatic Wild Ass and other species such as wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and Przewalski’s Horse (<em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>) to understand interactions, vegetation mapping, and workshops to integrate park management with sustainable livelihoods (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/> <br/>The following five actions are now those deemed most important for this species (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002):<br/><br/>1. The Kulan population in Badkhys Preserve has declined by approximately 90% in a three year period. Improved protection from poaching is needed both within the reserve and along the summer migration route to the Kushka River. The ecological requirements of this population need to be determined and an ecosystem analysis made of their habitat in order to prepare a long-term sustainable management plan.<br/><br/>2. Over 30% of the Khur population is ranging outside the Protected Area. The Sardar Sarovar Canal has changed the land-use patterns and the agro-economy i.e. from rain dependent crops to irrigated cash crops. Around the Rann, mitigation measures for the increasing number of wildlife and human conflicts are urgently needed. <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, is an exotic shrub spreading fast across the habitat, the management needs to undertake thinning operation of this shrub for habitat improvement. Salt mining is the major economy for eight months in the year for the locals living around the Rann. This area produces 21% of India’s salt. The transportation of the salt is through well-defined routes. Presently truckers’ criss-cross through the area (habitat) thereby causing excessive damage to fragile arid grasslands (Shah 1993). The Sardar Sarovar canal has fragmented the Khur population. There is a need to evaluate possible linkages between the fragmented Khur population and its source Rann population. There is a need to understand the demography and immigration patterns of Khur in the newly occupied sites (i.e., Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Velavadar Blackbuck National Park, areas in Bhal, Great Rann and neigbouring state of Rajasthan) (Shah 1993, 1998, 1999). The existing sanctuary infrastructure and staffing needs to be strengthened which is presently inadequate for managing a Sanctuary of 5,000 km² (Shah 1993). There is a need for disease monitoring of domestic equids and other livestock.  The sanctuary was notified in 1973, and the land settlement process has been initiated. The sanctuary has been identified as a potential Natural World Heritage Site; its evaluation is pending (Gujarat Forest Department 2007). There is a need for an assessment of the status of Khur along the Indo-Pakistan border adjoining the Rann. The Wild Ass Sanctuary was identified as one of the six landscape sites in India for biodiversity conservation through improved rural livelihoods, a programme which is aided by the World Bank (Government of India 2007).<br/><br/>3. Taxonomic questions need to be clarified and subspecies ranges should be demarcated. These data are needed for the Wild Ass subspecies in Mongolia and for the Kulan/Onager populations in Turkmenistan and Iran. Information from the latter investigation could also affect the taxonomic listing of the introduced Israeli population.<br/><br/>4. Investigation and development of plans are needed to address conflict between local human groups and Wild Ass populations. Today, grazing outside reserves and encroachment into agricultural areas threaten to decrease “good-will” towards Asiatic Wild Ass populations in Turkmenistan and Mongolia. Whether now or in the future, all Wild Ass populations will probably be in conflict with local pastoralists and agricultural groups. Conflict with human populations will lead to loss of habitat quality and increased susceptibility to high mortality during drought and disease outbreaks. Efforts need to be made to address current problems and to limit their occurrence in the future. In addition, the following conservation measures have been identified specifically for Mongolia (AWAC 2005):<br/><br/>• Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature, including strict control at border posts between Mongolia and China for illegal export of carcasses.<br/>• Control meat markets, to prevent illegal trade in carcasses within Mongolia.<br/>• Map critical habitat and movement corridors.<br/>• Consider migration routes when planning transportation routes and fences, including implementation of mitigation measures along fenced transportation routes (e.g., railway Ulaanbaatar-Beijing) (P. Kaczensky pers. comm.).<br/>• Raise public awareness and establish education programmes to highlight the international importance and socioeconomic benefits of Mongolian populations (e.g., teach herders that they benefit from Asiatic Wild Ass digging waterholes in dry riverbeds) (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/>• Livelihood aid for local people, e.g., alternative income strategies. Conflict between local pastoralists and agricultural groups needs to  be addressed.<br/>• Conduct further research on population numbers, habitat use and migration, including further research to clarify the subspecific taxonomy of Mongolian populations of Asiatic Wild Ass (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), and rigorous annual population monitoring, preferentially using aerial surveys.<br/>• Stronger co-operation between Mongolia and China to facilitate conservation efforts, e.g. formation of trans-border protected areas.
7951		distribution	eng	In historic times the Asiatic Wild Ass ranged through much of Mongolia, north to Transbaikalia (Russia), east to northeastern Inner Mongolia (China) and possibly western Manchuria (China), and west to Dzhungarian Gate (Grubb 2005). It formerly occurred in Kazakhstan, north to the upper Irtysh and Ural Rivers in Russia, and westward north of the Caucasus and Black Sea to at least the Dniestr River (Ukraine), Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, and southeast of the Caspian Sea in Iran, northern Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, east to Thar Desert of northwestern India (Grubb 2005). It also extended through the Arabian Peninsula as far south as central Saudi Arabia. It survived in Armenia and Azerbaijan until 17th-18th Centuries (Wolfe 1979). The Syrian Wild Ass became extinct in 1927.<br/><br/>By the 19th Century, their range had declined significantly. Today, the most abundant subpopulation of the species occurs in the southern part of Mongolia and adjacent northern China (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species also survives as isolated populations in the Rann of Kutch (India), the Badkhyz Preserve (Turkmenistan) and at Touran National Park and Bahramgor Reserve (Iran) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Populations have been re-established as follows: Barsa-Khelmes Island in the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan); Aktay-Buzachinskiy reserve on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea (Kazakhstan); Andasayskiy reserve and Kapchagayskoye in southeastern Kazakhstan; Dzheiran Ecocentre near Bukhara (Uzbekistan); Meana-Chaacha, Kaakha, Kopet Dag, and Sumbar Valley in southern Turkmenistan (re-introduced populations in Kurtusu and Germab perhaps no longer survive); Sarakamish Lake in northern Turkmenistan; the Beruchi Peninsula (Ukraine), the Negev (southern Israel), and Taïf (Saudi Arabia) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The re-established populations in Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia are not of the subspecies that originally occurred there (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There are five generally recognized subspecies (Grubb 2005):<br/><em>Equus h. hemionus</em> - the Mongolian Kulan (in northern Mongolia) (<em>E. h. luteus</em> - the Gobi Kulan in southern Mongolia and northern China, is probably a synonym of <em>E. h. hemionus</em> (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2000, Grubb 2005))<br/><em>E. h. khur</em> ? the Khur (India)<br/><em>E. h. kulan</em> the Turkmen Kulan (in Turkmenistan, re-introduced in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine)<br/><em>E. h. onager</em> - the Onager (Iran, introduced in Saudi Arabia)<br/><em>E. h. hemippus</em> ? the Syrian Wild Ass (Extinct, formerly from Syria south into the Arabian Peninsula)<br/>The reintroduced population in Israel is of hybrid origin (<em>E. h. onager</em> and <em>E. h. kulan</em>).<br/><br/>The largest surviving subpopulation, the Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus h. hemionus</em>)  is in Mongolia, where it was formerly widely distributed throughout steppe and semi-desert habitats, from the extreme west of the country to the Mongolian-Russian-Chinese border in the extreme northeast (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Asiatic Wild Ass has experienced a major decline in population size and range size, even in Mongolia (Bannikov 1981) and they are now only found in the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, the Northern Gobi, the Alashani Gobi Desert and the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), as far north as Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in the Eastern Gobi (S. Amgalanbaatar and R. Reading pers. obs.). Recent evidence suggests that the population has either expanded or shifted further north and east over the past 20-25 years, but rarely crosses the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway line (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.). There are important populations in the Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area, in Dzungarian Gobi, and the Great Gobi Section A Strictly Protected Area in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>The Khur <em>Equus hemionus khur</em> was formerly widespread in the arid zone of northwestern India and Pakistan, westwards through much of central Asia. However, it is now limited to the Little Rann of Kutch  in Gujarat, India. The khur probably went extinct in Baluchistan and the extreme south of Pakistan, on the Indian border, during the 1960s (Corbet and Hill 1992). There are some recent records of Khur along India-Pakistan border. During the last two decades Khur has shown range expansion along with an increase in their population (Shah 2004).
7951		distribution	eng	In historic times the Asiatic Wild Ass ranged through much of Mongolia, north to Transbaikalia (Russia), east to northeastern Inner Mongolia (China) and possibly western Manchuria (China), and west to Dzhungarian Gate (Grubb 2005). It formerly occurred in Kazakhstan, north to the upper Irtysh and Ural Rivers in Russia, and westward north of the Caucasus and Black Sea to at least the Dniestr River (Ukraine), Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, and southeast of the Caspian Sea in Iran, northern Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, east to Thar Desert of northwestern India (Grubb 2005). It also extended through the Arabian Peninsula as far south as central Saudi Arabia. It survived in Armenia and Azerbaijan until 17th-18th Centuries (Wolfe 1979). The Syrian Wild Ass became extinct in 1927.<br/><br/>By the 19th Century, their range had declined significantly. Today, the most abundant subpopulation of the species occurs in the southern part of Mongolia and adjacent northern China (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species also survives as isolated populations in the Rann of Kutch (India), the Badkhyz Preserve (Turkmenistan) and at Touran National Park and Bahramgor Reserve (Iran) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Populations have been re-established as follows: Barsa-Khelmes Island in the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan); Aktay-Buzachinskiy reserve on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea (Kazakhstan); Andasayskiy reserve and Kapchagayskoye in southeastern Kazakhstan; Dzheiran Ecocentre near Bukhara (Uzbekistan); Meana-Chaacha, Kaakha, Kopet Dag, and Sumbar Valley in southern Turkmenistan (re-introduced populations in Kurtusu and Germab perhaps no longer survive); Sarakamish Lake in northern Turkmenistan; the Beruchi Peninsula (Ukraine), the Negev (southern Israel), and Taïf (Saudi Arabia) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The re-established populations in Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia are not of the subspecies that originally occurred there (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There are five generally recognized subspecies (Grubb 2005):<br/><em>Equus h. hemionus</em> - the Mongolian Kulan (in northern Mongolia) (<em>E. h. luteus</em> - the Gobi Kulan in southern Mongolia and northern China, is probably a synonym of <em>E. h. hemionus</em> (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2000, Grubb 2005))<br/><em>E. h. khur</em> – the Khur (India)<br/><em>E. h. kulan</em> the Turkmen Kulan (in Turkmenistan, re-introduced in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine)<br/><em>E. h. onager</em> - the Onager (Iran, introduced in Saudi Arabia)<br/><em>E. h. hemippus</em> – the Syrian Wild Ass (Extinct, formerly from Syria south into the Arabian Peninsula)<br/>The reintroduced population in Israel is of hybrid origin (<em>E. h. onager</em> and <em>E. h. kulan</em>).<br/><br/>The largest surviving subpopulation, the Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus h. hemionus</em>)  is in Mongolia, where it was formerly widely distributed throughout steppe and semi-desert habitats, from the extreme west of the country to the Mongolian-Russian-Chinese border in the extreme northeast (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Asiatic Wild Ass has experienced a major decline in population size and range size, even in Mongolia (Bannikov 1981) and they are now only found in the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, the Northern Gobi, the Alashani Gobi Desert and the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), as far north as Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in the Eastern Gobi (S. Amgalanbaatar and R. Reading pers. obs.). Recent evidence suggests that the population has either expanded or shifted further north and east over the past 20-25 years, but rarely crosses the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway line (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.). There are important populations in the Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area, in Dzungarian Gobi, and the Great Gobi Section A Strictly Protected Area in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>The Khur <em>Equus hemionus khur</em> was formerly widespread in the arid zone of northwestern India and Pakistan, westwards through much of central Asia. However, it is now limited to the Little Rann of Kutch  in Gujarat, India. The khur probably went extinct in Baluchistan and the extreme south of Pakistan, on the Indian border, during the 1960s (Corbet and Hill 1992). There are some recent records of Khur along India-Pakistan border. During the last two decades Khur has shown range expansion along with an increase in their population (Shah 2004).
7951		habitat	eng	Asiatic Wild Ass inhabit mountain steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert plains. They are usually found in desert steppe. Typically they are grazers and in Mongoia (Gobi B) throughout the year they eat <em>Stipa glareosa</em>, <em>Agropyron cristatum</em> and <em>Achnatherum</em> (<em>Feh</em> 2001). They can be found in rocky or sandy areas associated with <em>Artemisia</em>, grasses, <em>Anabasis</em> spp., Russian thistle (<em>Salsola</em> spp.), saxaul (<em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>) and pea shrubs (<em>Caragana</em> spp.) (Harris and Miller 1995, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001). To date, there have been few detailed studies of Asiatic Wild Ass feeding ecology. However, observations suggest a feeding strategy similar to that observed in other equids in xeric environments. When grass is plentiful, Asiatic Wild Ass are predominately grazers. During dry season and in drier habitats, Asiatic Wild Ass will browse a large portion of their diet. While Asiatic Wild Ass eat woody plants, other forage is taken when possible. Animals have been observed eating seed pods (Shah 1993) and using their hooves to break up woody vegetation to obtain more succulent forbs growing at the base of the woody plants. Herds can number up to 1,200 individuals. Water sources are an important determinant of distribution; in summer months the species occurs within 10-15 km of standing water, and this range increases five-fold in winter when it is not restricted by water availability. In Mongolia, Asiatic Wild Ass have been observed digging holes as deep as 60 cm in dry riverbeds to access water, eating snow during winter as a substitute (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Asiatic Wild Ass weigh approximately 200?260 kg. Gestation is 11 months and breeding is seasonal. Peak birthing season occurs between April and September ? within any one subpopulation, births tend to occur over a two to three month span with a peak between mid June and mid July (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There have been a number of studies on social organisation and behavioural ecology of Asiatic asses. These studies have been conducted on several of the Asiatic Wild Ass populations throughout their range. While the explanations and terminology describing the species? mating system do not necessarily coincide, there are similarities in the observations. In all studies, breeding is seasonal and females with young tend to group together in relatively small groups (two to five females). Descriptions of male breeding strategies differ considerably (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Early studies were mostly descriptive. Both Solomatins and Rasheks long term studies based mostly on individual follow-ups described a harem type social structure in Turkmene Kulan harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) whereas Klingel?s one week observations described a territorial system. Bannikov?s short term survey in Mongolia described harems or family groups.  Both harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) and territorial defence (Klingel 1977) social systems were described. Since 1980, several detailed studies have been carried out on various subspecies: Khur in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah 1993), Kulan in Mongolia (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the reintroduced Kulan/Onager hybrids in Israel (Saltz and Rubenstein 1995, Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). Two studies, Shah (1993) and Saltz <em>et al</em>. (2000), describe systems in which individual stallions either defend territories or form all-male groups. Four social units are identified in Khur; family group, stallion, all male group and displaced stallion (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Stallions in the Rann of Kutch exhibit both seasonal and year-round territoriality with females, forming small seasonal harems (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). Territorial stallions defend territories throughout the year in the Rann of Kutch. Females remain on territories during the breeding season (monsoon season), with some females remaining on one territory and others moving between territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). A few mares continue to remain on territories all year round. Shah (1993) refers to the two groupings as year-round and seasonal harems. The term ?harem? maybe misleading here, as the stallion behaviour describes resource defence rather than guarding of females, and the ?item? at stake is land. Shah (1993) states that ?the quality of the territory seems to be a prime determinant of dominance?. This is similar to territory stallion dominance witnessed in Grévy?s zebra (Ginsberg 1989). Within the Rann of Kutch, female movements were often limited to single territories, thereby creating ?harem-like? female groupings (Shah 1993). However, females are able to move freely between territories, thereby describing a system in which female movement adapts to changing resource availability, as well as mate preference. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem type social organization (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Rainfall and productivity of food resources  determine the <em>khur</em> recruitment and population growth rate (Shah and Qureshi 2007).<br/><br/>Similar social behaviour has been documented in the reintroduced population of wild asses in the Negev, Israel. The study in Israel is unique in that it has documented a growing population of all known individual females and territorial stallions. The study has followed  the population from having one territorial stallion to more than seven. Males return to the main breeding area (an area with  permanent water sources) each spring, several weeks before the females return (Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). The majority of males return to the same territories that they held in previous years; non-territorial males either form small all-male groups in the breeding area or remain in the winter grazing areas. Females return within a few weeks and foal almost immediately. Females form groups on territories but group membership remains fluid. This fission-fusion social system (Rubenstein 1986, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007) has some females remaining on one territory throughout the breeding season while others switch territories regularly.<br/><br/>In the Gobi B National Park (Mongolia), both Bannikov (1958) and Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that Kulan social behaviour is similar to that of feral horses. Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) describe family groups consisting of individual males with several females and their foals moving to and from water sources, but the study is based on only a small number of identified individuals. In addition, stallions were observed to herd females. This behaviour is similar to that found in feral horses (although some of the specific postures differed) and is not common among the other subspecies studied. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem where stallions defend resources and benefit from having access to mares on these territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi 2007). In Gobi B, stallions were observed to defend both females and foals from predators (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994). Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that khulan behaviour in Gobi B is different from other populations as a direct response to predation pressure from cooperatively hunting wolves.<br/><br/>Further study of known individuals is necessary to fully understand the social behaviour of Asiatic wild ass. It is likely that differences in social structure and behaviour depend on climatic seasonality, vegetation cover, and predator hunting pressures. Additional clarification of social structure and the factors that influence animal movement and behaviour (e.g. climatic and anthropogenic factors, grazing pressure, etc.) can provide a helpful tool in understanding threats to individual populations. The studies briefly outlined above demonstrate that there is a great deal of flexibility within the species? social structure. With increasing levels of desertification and habitat fragmentation, all the above and future studies should be consulted in the formation of habitat and species conservation plans Feh <em>et al</em> 2002, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007).
7951		habitat	eng	Asiatic Wild Ass inhabit mountain steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert plains. They are usually found in desert steppe. Typically they are grazers and in Mongoia (Gobi B) throughout the year they eat <em>Stipa glareosa</em>, <em>Agropyron cristatum</em> and <em>Achnatherum</em> (<em>Feh</em> 2001). They can be found in rocky or sandy areas associated with <em>Artemisia</em>, grasses, <em>Anabasis</em> spp., Russian thistle (<em>Salsola</em> spp.), saxaul (<em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>) and pea shrubs (<em>Caragana</em> spp.) (Harris and Miller 1995, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001). To date, there have been few detailed studies of Asiatic Wild Ass feeding ecology. However, observations suggest a feeding strategy similar to that observed in other equids in xeric environments. When grass is plentiful, Asiatic Wild Ass are predominately grazers. During dry season and in drier habitats, Asiatic Wild Ass will browse a large portion of their diet. While Asiatic Wild Ass eat woody plants, other forage is taken when possible. Animals have been observed eating seed pods (Shah 1993) and using their hooves to break up woody vegetation to obtain more succulent forbs growing at the base of the woody plants. Herds can number up to 1,200 individuals. Water sources are an important determinant of distribution; in summer months the species occurs within 10-15 km of standing water, and this range increases five-fold in winter when it is not restricted by water availability. In Mongolia, Asiatic Wild Ass have been observed digging holes as deep as 60 cm in dry riverbeds to access water, eating snow during winter as a substitute (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Asiatic Wild Ass weigh approximately 200–260 kg. Gestation is 11 months and breeding is seasonal. Peak birthing season occurs between April and September – within any one subpopulation, births tend to occur over a two to three month span with a peak between mid June and mid July (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There have been a number of studies on social organisation and behavioural ecology of Asiatic asses. These studies have been conducted on several of the Asiatic Wild Ass populations throughout their range. While the explanations and terminology describing the species’ mating system do not necessarily coincide, there are similarities in the observations. In all studies, breeding is seasonal and females with young tend to group together in relatively small groups (two to five females). Descriptions of male breeding strategies differ considerably (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Early studies were mostly descriptive. Both Solomatins and Rasheks long term studies based mostly on individual follow-ups described a harem type social structure in Turkmene Kulan harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) whereas Klingel’s one week observations described a territorial system. Bannikov’s short term survey in Mongolia described harems or family groups.  Both harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) and territorial defence (Klingel 1977) social systems were described. Since 1980, several detailed studies have been carried out on various subspecies: Khur in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah 1993), Kulan in Mongolia (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the reintroduced Kulan/Onager hybrids in Israel (Saltz and Rubenstein 1995, Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). Two studies, Shah (1993) and Saltz <em>et al</em>. (2000), describe systems in which individual stallions either defend territories or form all-male groups. Four social units are identified in Khur; family group, stallion, all male group and displaced stallion (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Stallions in the Rann of Kutch exhibit both seasonal and year-round territoriality with females, forming small seasonal harems (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). Territorial stallions defend territories throughout the year in the Rann of Kutch. Females remain on territories during the breeding season (monsoon season), with some females remaining on one territory and others moving between territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). A few mares continue to remain on territories all year round. Shah (1993) refers to the two groupings as year-round and seasonal harems. The term “harem” maybe misleading here, as the stallion behaviour describes resource defence rather than guarding of females, and the “item” at stake is land. Shah (1993) states that “the quality of the territory seems to be a prime determinant of dominance”. This is similar to territory stallion dominance witnessed in Grévy’s zebra (Ginsberg 1989). Within the Rann of Kutch, female movements were often limited to single territories, thereby creating “harem-like” female groupings (Shah 1993). However, females are able to move freely between territories, thereby describing a system in which female movement adapts to changing resource availability, as well as mate preference. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem type social organization (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Rainfall and productivity of food resources  determine the <em>khur</em> recruitment and population growth rate (Shah and Qureshi 2007).<br/><br/>Similar social behaviour has been documented in the reintroduced population of wild asses in the Negev, Israel. The study in Israel is unique in that it has documented a growing population of all known individual females and territorial stallions. The study has followed  the population from having one territorial stallion to more than seven. Males return to the main breeding area (an area with  permanent water sources) each spring, several weeks before the females return (Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). The majority of males return to the same territories that they held in previous years; non-territorial males either form small all-male groups in the breeding area or remain in the winter grazing areas. Females return within a few weeks and foal almost immediately. Females form groups on territories but group membership remains fluid. This fission-fusion social system (Rubenstein 1986, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007) has some females remaining on one territory throughout the breeding season while others switch territories regularly.<br/><br/>In the Gobi B National Park (Mongolia), both Bannikov (1958) and Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that Kulan social behaviour is similar to that of feral horses. Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) describe family groups consisting of individual males with several females and their foals moving to and from water sources, but the study is based on only a small number of identified individuals. In addition, stallions were observed to herd females. This behaviour is similar to that found in feral horses (although some of the specific postures differed) and is not common among the other subspecies studied. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem where stallions defend resources and benefit from having access to mares on these territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi 2007). In Gobi B, stallions were observed to defend both females and foals from predators (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994). Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that khulan behaviour in Gobi B is different from other populations as a direct response to predation pressure from cooperatively hunting wolves.<br/><br/>Further study of known individuals is necessary to fully understand the social behaviour of Asiatic wild ass. It is likely that differences in social structure and behaviour depend on climatic seasonality, vegetation cover, and predator hunting pressures. Additional clarification of social structure and the factors that influence animal movement and behaviour (e.g. climatic and anthropogenic factors, grazing pressure, etc.) can provide a helpful tool in understanding threats to individual populations. The studies briefly outlined above demonstrate that there is a great deal of flexibility within the species’ social structure. With increasing levels of desertification and habitat fragmentation, all the above and future studies should be consulted in the formation of habitat and species conservation plans Feh <em>et al</em> 2002, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007).
7951		population	eng	During the past century the total population and range of Asiatic Wild Ass has declined significantly (Clark and Duncan 1992, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The largest remaining subspecies population is the Mongolian Khulan (<em>E. h. hemionus</em>) which was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 +/- 898 in four areas (Lkhagvasuren  2007). Southern Mongolia currently holds the largest population of Asiatic Wild Ass in the world, representing almost 80% of the global population (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this population is at risk due to illegal hunting and numbers have declined significantly from an estimated population size of 43,165 in 1997 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). There may be as many as 4,800 to 6,000 Khulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but this may be a seasonal population that is migrating from Mongolia (Pantel <em>et al</em> 2006). Offtake for the illegal meat trade is estimated at 3,000 individuals per year. Recruitment (number of offspring) varies from 3-23%. The potential net loss per year may be 5-10%. In 21 years or 3 generations, the population decline will be greater than 50%. If illegal hunting continues in Mongolia, the potential decline of this important population will be 5-10% per year. The Kulan population in Turkmenistan is also at risk due to illegal hunting.<br/><br/>The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur (<em>E. h. khur</em>) with an estimated population in 2004 of 3,900 in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). This is the only subpopulation of Asiatic Wild Ass that has had a steady increase in population size since 1976 to the present. The population increase is associated with range expansion, <em>khur</em> has occupied areas beyond ~200 km away from its source population in Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). <br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>E. h. kulan</em>) populations in 2005 were approximately 1,300 in Turkmenistan (Badkhys Reserve  850-900 and seven reintroduction sites (445) (Lukarevskiy and Gorelov 2007) The Kulan has experienced a recent dramatic decline in its main population in Turkmenistan. The population in the Badkhyz Preserve declined from 6,000 in 1993, to 2,400 in 1998 to 646 in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). From 1995 to 2000 the estimated number of Kulan in reintroduction sites was approximately 320. In 1992 the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan were Barsa-Khelmes Island : 96 ; Aktau-Busatchinski: uncertain; Andasaiski reserve: 164 ; Kaptchagaiskoye: 150 for a total of 410. In 1999, the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan in these four sites was approximately 900 animals (Pereladova and Baidavletov pers. com. 2006). The reintroduced population in Uzbekistan in Dzheiran Ecocentre was 34 in 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Information on the status of the Onager in Iran (<em>E. h. onager</em>) is limited, but recent estimates are 600 in the two protected areas (L. Shamimi, pers.com. 2007). There were 471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, and 96 in Bahramgor Reserve in 1996, with four re-introduced animals in Yazd Province in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). There were also five <em>E. h. onager</em> in Taïf (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and the hybrid <em>E. h. onager</em> x <em>E. h. kulan</em> population in Israel numbered 100 in 2000.<br/><br/>The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Ass has declined by 52% population in the last 16 years. It occurs in 14 locations and is severely fragmented. Generation length in <em>Equus hemionus</em> is seven years, age at first reproduction for females is 5 years, females produce one live foal every three years, sex-ratio at birth is 50/50, first year survival rate is approximately 50%, second year survival rate is approximately 50%, and only half of the stallions reproduce, yielding an approximately one-third of the population being ?mature individuals? (Feh <em>et al</em> 2001). The current estimated number of mature individuals is 8358. The estimated global population decline in the future is >50% due to illegal hunting.
7951		population	eng	During the past century the total population and range of Asiatic Wild Ass has declined significantly (Clark and Duncan 1992, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The largest remaining subspecies population is the Mongolian Khulan (<em>E. h. hemionus</em>) which was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 +/- 898 in four areas (Lkhagvasuren  2007). Southern Mongolia currently holds the largest population of Asiatic Wild Ass in the world, representing almost 80% of the global population (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this population is at risk due to illegal hunting and numbers have declined significantly from an estimated population size of 43,165 in 1997 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). There may be as many as 4,800 to 6,000 Khulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but this may be a seasonal population that is migrating from Mongolia (Pantel <em>et al</em> 2006). Offtake for the illegal meat trade is estimated at 3,000 individuals per year. Recruitment (number of offspring) varies from 3-23%. The potential net loss per year may be 5-10%. In 21 years or 3 generations, the population decline will be greater than 50%. If illegal hunting continues in Mongolia, the potential decline of this important population will be 5-10% per year. The Kulan population in Turkmenistan is also at risk due to illegal hunting.<br/><br/>The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur (<em>E. h. khur</em>) with an estimated population in 2004 of 3,900 in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). This is the only subpopulation of Asiatic Wild Ass that has had a steady increase in population size since 1976 to the present. The population increase is associated with range expansion, <em>khur</em> has occupied areas beyond ~200 km away from its source population in Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). <br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>E. h. kulan</em>) populations in 2005 were approximately 1,300 in Turkmenistan (Badkhys Reserve  850-900 and seven reintroduction sites (445) (Lukarevskiy and Gorelov 2007) The Kulan has experienced a recent dramatic decline in its main population in Turkmenistan. The population in the Badkhyz Preserve declined from 6,000 in 1993, to 2,400 in 1998 to 646 in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). From 1995 to 2000 the estimated number of Kulan in reintroduction sites was approximately 320. In 1992 the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan were Barsa-Khelmes Island : 96 ; Aktau-Busatchinski: uncertain; Andasaiski reserve: 164 ; Kaptchagaiskoye: 150 for a total of 410. In 1999, the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan in these four sites was approximately 900 animals (Pereladova and Baidavletov pers. com. 2006). The reintroduced population in Uzbekistan in Dzheiran Ecocentre was 34 in 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Information on the status of the Onager in Iran (<em>E. h. onager</em>) is limited, but recent estimates are 600 in the two protected areas (L. Shamimi, pers.com. 2007). There were 471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, and 96 in Bahramgor Reserve in 1996, with four re-introduced animals in Yazd Province in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). There were also five <em>E. h. onager</em> in Taïf (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and the hybrid <em>E. h. onager</em> x <em>E. h. kulan</em> population in Israel numbered 100 in 2000.<br/><br/>The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Ass has declined by 52% population in the last 16 years. It occurs in 14 locations and is severely fragmented. Generation length in <em>Equus hemionus</em> is seven years, age at first reproduction for females is 5 years, females produce one live foal every three years, sex-ratio at birth is 50/50, first year survival rate is approximately 50%, second year survival rate is approximately 50%, and only half of the stallions reproduce, yielding an approximately one-third of the population being ‘mature individuals’ (Feh <em>et al</em> 2001). The current estimated number of mature individuals is 8358. The estimated global population decline in the future is >50% due to illegal hunting.
7951		threats	eng	Threats to the species include loss of habitat as a result of human settlement, cultivation, overgrazing, developmental activities, conflict with humans (crop depredation), competition for water, salt extraction, poaching for meat, competition with domestic livestock and, in certain parts of the range, war and civil unrest have had a detrimental effect on the species (Clark and Duncan 1992; Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Perhaps the greatest threat to the populations of Asiatic Wild Ass appears to be the potential for catastrophic population declines due to poaching (i.e., <em>kulan</em> in Turkmenistan and <em>hemionus</em> in Mongolia). Disease and/or drought are ?stress events? that are a constant threat to small, isolated Wild Ass populations, such as those in India, Iran, Israel, and Turkmenistan. For example, a disease outbreak of African horse sickness in the 1960s resulted in a major decline and the extinction of small Khur populations (Gee 1963). Continued fragmentation and marginalisation of the smaller populations could result in similar extinctions. Small, isolated populations are demographically and genetically vulnerable.<br/><br/>Specific threats to particular populations are outlined below:<br/><br/>The main threats to the Onager (<em>Equus hemionus onager</em>) in Iran are, in decreasing order of severity, poaching, overgrazing, competition for water, and removal of shrubs (Tatin <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tatin <em>et al</em>. (2001) identified the main threats to the Onager population at Touran, and outlined the actions being implemented to combat them. Both the Touran and Bahramgor populations are geographically, and therefore genetically, isolated from each other.<br/><br/>The Khur (<em>Equus hemionus khur</em>) in the Little Rann of Kutch is the subspecies subject to the most direct threat from increasing human activities. The ecology of the Wild Ass Sanctuary, for example, is threatened by a canal building project ? the Sardar Sarovar Project of the Narmada Development Authority (Goyal <em>et al</em>. 1999). There is growing competition for resources as an increasing number of livestock are grazed within the reserve during monsoon season. At the same time, salt mining, the major economic industry for local people, has increased 140% since 1958 (Shah 1993). Such increased activity is particularly disruptive as the period for salt mining coincides with advanced stage of pregnancy in the Khur (Shah 1993). The increase in Khur population and its range expansion into the human dominated landscapes has resulted in increased incidences of crop depredation. Agriculture has intensified with better irrigation facilities thus changing the land use patterns.<br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus kulan</em>) has suffered a catastrophic decline in the late 1990s due to poaching for the sale of meat (Lukarevskii pers. comm. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). The only naturally occurring population of this subspecies is in the Badkhyz Reserve in Turkmenistan. During the summer months this population migrates to the Kuska River, which is 100&#160;km outside of the protected area. The critical situation of the Badkhys Reserve Kulans clearly illustrates how swiftly isolated equid populations can be decimated and potentially driven to extinction during a period of a few years.<br/><br/>The Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em>) is suffering from illegal hunting for meat and skins, for commercial use in some areas (Duncan 1992; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stubbe <em>et al</em> 2007). Habitat is being degraded through human settlements such as herder camps which restrict access to oases, resource extraction such as mining, and possibly though grazing by increasing numbers of domestic livestock, particularly domestic horses and sheep. Habitat fragmentation and restriction of wide-scale movements due to fencing is a significant problem along the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway and the China-Mongolia border (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006, in prep.), and is also caused by roads, fences and railway lines associated with resource extraction activities. Nomadic herdsmen in Mongolia claim that an increasing number of Kulan are damaging the rangeland (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997). In part, wildlife-livestock competition may result from an increased number of livestock following Mongolia?s shift to a market economy (e.g., livestock  numbers increased from 24.6 million head to 28.6 million head between 1989 and  1995 (Honhold 1995, Müller and Janzen 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). The negative impacts of grazing in Mongolia are well documented, especially where wild and domestic livestock overlap (Honhold 1995, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987). Increased competition with livestock may result in further fragmentation of the wild ass population by limiting Kulan to strictly protected areas. In addition to competition for grazing land, poaching for meat and hides poses an increasing threat to Kulan in Mongolia (Duncan 1992, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). High levels of hunting in the 1980s severely decreased kulan populations in inner Mongolia. Xiaoming and Schaller (1996) found very few Kulan further than 100&#160;km from the Chinese/Mongolia border, suggesting that the inner Mongolian population is only a seasonal expansion of the Mongolian population. Wingard and Zahler (2006) reported that the illegal trade in Mongolian Kulan is removing approximately 3,000 individuals per year from the population. This level of exploitation is not sustainable.
7951		threats	eng	Threats to the species include loss of habitat as a result of human settlement, cultivation, overgrazing, developmental activities, conflict with humans (crop depredation), competition for water, salt extraction, poaching for meat, competition with domestic livestock and, in certain parts of the range, war and civil unrest have had a detrimental effect on the species (Clark and Duncan 1992; Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Perhaps the greatest threat to the populations of Asiatic Wild Ass appears to be the potential for catastrophic population declines due to poaching (i.e., <em>kulan</em> in Turkmenistan and <em>hemionus</em> in Mongolia). Disease and/or drought are “stress events” that are a constant threat to small, isolated Wild Ass populations, such as those in India, Iran, Israel, and Turkmenistan. For example, a disease outbreak of African horse sickness in the 1960s resulted in a major decline and the extinction of small Khur populations (Gee 1963). Continued fragmentation and marginalisation of the smaller populations could result in similar extinctions. Small, isolated populations are demographically and genetically vulnerable.<br/><br/>Specific threats to particular populations are outlined below:<br/><br/>The main threats to the Onager (<em>Equus hemionus onager</em>) in Iran are, in decreasing order of severity, poaching, overgrazing, competition for water, and removal of shrubs (Tatin <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tatin <em>et al</em>. (2001) identified the main threats to the Onager population at Touran, and outlined the actions being implemented to combat them. Both the Touran and Bahramgor populations are geographically, and therefore genetically, isolated from each other.<br/><br/>The Khur (<em>Equus hemionus khur</em>) in the Little Rann of Kutch is the subspecies subject to the most direct threat from increasing human activities. The ecology of the Wild Ass Sanctuary, for example, is threatened by a canal building project – the Sardar Sarovar Project of the Narmada Development Authority (Goyal <em>et al</em>. 1999). There is growing competition for resources as an increasing number of livestock are grazed within the reserve during monsoon season. At the same time, salt mining, the major economic industry for local people, has increased 140% since 1958 (Shah 1993). Such increased activity is particularly disruptive as the period for salt mining coincides with advanced stage of pregnancy in the Khur (Shah 1993). The increase in Khur population and its range expansion into the human dominated landscapes has resulted in increased incidences of crop depredation. Agriculture has intensified with better irrigation facilities thus changing the land use patterns.<br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus kulan</em>) has suffered a catastrophic decline in the late 1990s due to poaching for the sale of meat (Lukarevskii pers. comm. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). The only naturally occurring population of this subspecies is in the Badkhyz Reserve in Turkmenistan. During the summer months this population migrates to the Kuska River, which is 100&#160;km outside of the protected area. The critical situation of the Badkhys Reserve Kulans clearly illustrates how swiftly isolated equid populations can be decimated and potentially driven to extinction during a period of a few years.<br/><br/>The Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em>) is suffering from illegal hunting for meat and skins, for commercial use in some areas (Duncan 1992; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stubbe <em>et al</em> 2007). Habitat is being degraded through human settlements such as herder camps which restrict access to oases, resource extraction such as mining, and possibly though grazing by increasing numbers of domestic livestock, particularly domestic horses and sheep. Habitat fragmentation and restriction of wide-scale movements due to fencing is a significant problem along the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway and the China-Mongolia border (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006, in prep.), and is also caused by roads, fences and railway lines associated with resource extraction activities. Nomadic herdsmen in Mongolia claim that an increasing number of Kulan are damaging the rangeland (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997). In part, wildlife-livestock competition may result from an increased number of livestock following Mongolia’s shift to a market economy (e.g., livestock  numbers increased from 24.6 million head to 28.6 million head between 1989 and  1995 (Honhold 1995, Müller and Janzen 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). The negative impacts of grazing in Mongolia are well documented, especially where wild and domestic livestock overlap (Honhold 1995, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987). Increased competition with livestock may result in further fragmentation of the wild ass population by limiting Kulan to strictly protected areas. In addition to competition for grazing land, poaching for meat and hides poses an increasing threat to Kulan in Mongolia (Duncan 1992, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). High levels of hunting in the 1980s severely decreased kulan populations in inner Mongolia. Xiaoming and Schaller (1996) found very few Kulan further than 100&#160;km from the Chinese/Mongolia border, suggesting that the inner Mongolian population is only a seasonal expansion of the Mongolian population. Wingard and Zahler (2006) reported that the illegal trade in Mongolian Kulan is removing approximately 3,000 individuals per year from the population. This level of exploitation is not sustainable.
7953		conservation	eng	The kiang is legally protected in several countries. In China it receives first class protection; in India it is on Schedule I of Indian Wildlife, Protection Act of 1972; and in Pakistan it is conserved under the Northern Areas Wildlife Preservation Act 1975. It is on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Conservation and research recommendations include:<br/><br/>• Research on the molecular genetics of the taxonomic status of the three subspecies of kiang, with urgent emphasis on the status of <em>E. k. polyodon</em>.<br/>• Coordinated surveys on the present distribution, population numbers and trends, using comparative methodologies.<br/>• Comparative ecosystem analysis of habitat and forage requirements of domestic livestock and kiang. Initial efforts should concentrate on known areas of seasonal overlap between kiang, pastoralists and their livestock.<br/>• Studies on population dynamics with emphasis on recruitment and mortality rates<br/>• Long-term studies using individually recognized animals should be implemented (i.e. to understand life-history strategies, movements patterns, resource selection patterns, etc.)<br/>• Carry out studies of ecology or seasonal movement patterns. These two types of data are necessary to develop sound management plans. In addition, information on species’ requirements (e.g., forage, water, range) would be helpful to ensure that other species-specific or ecosystem management plans incorporate aspects important to kiang biology.<br/>• Develop and implement mitigation management plans to reduce conflict between kiangs and domestic livestock.<br/>• Develop a protocol for disease monitoring.<br/>• Implement conservation education and awareness programs. These should be promoted amongst the army in areas where the kiang habitat comes under military jurisdiction, in order to help conserve the kiang and other wildlife. This is especially important in areas where kiang may be moving between protected, non-protected, and/or military areas.<br/>• The transboundary aspects of management of kiang need to be considered. Where possible, data sharing and management collaboration should be fostered between the park rangers and wardens who manage the same animals on either side of a border. In addition, a kiang population and habitat viability analysis would bring all the scientists and managers associated with the species on one platform to develop a conservation action plan.<br/>• A review of the management actions every three years would help to portray the true conservation status of the species as it exists in the field, and the effectiveness of the conservation measures that have been taken.
7953		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is centred on the Tibetan Plateau between 2,700 and 5,400 m asl. Most of the distribution is in China, but the species extends into northern parts of Pakistan, India, Nepal and possibly Bhutan. Within this broad range, kiang distribution has become increasingly fragmented, and at present, most of the populations are found in protected areas or in areas under army jurisdiction.<br/><br/>In China the species is found in much of Qinghai, in southern Gansu, in southern Xinjiang, and in most of Tibet (Xizang). In Pakistan, at the westernmost edge of the species' distribution, kiang are largely restricted to a belt stretching along the Oprang and Muztagh Rivers, close to the Pakistan-China border. In India kiang occur in Ladakh area of Kashmir, and in northern Sikkim. In Nepal kiang are restricted to a few areas along the border with China. There have been no reports from Bhutan, but their presence is possible in the extreme north and northwest of the country.
7953		habitat	eng	The kiang is an animal of open terrain, mainly found in plains, alpine meadows, desert steppes, broad valleys, and hills, where grasses and sedges, are abundant (Harris and Miller 1995, Schaller 1998, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006). They reach their highest densities on the vast alpine meadows and range from 2,700 m to as high as 5,400 m (Schaller 1998). However, they also occur in desert steppe and other arid habitats, such as in the Qaidam Basin. For example, kiang are found in largest numbers in xeric, south-facing basins throughout Yeniugou (“Wild Yak valley” in Chinese) in Qinghai Province (Harris and Miller 1995). Kiang in Pakistan have been sighted along river and stream basins in patches of <em>Myricaria</em>, willow, and <em>Hippophe</em> (Rasool 1992). Major sightings in Ladakh (India) are along the Indus and Hanley Rivers and the species is very common around high altitude lakes (Shah 1996). In Xinjiang Province, in the East Arjin Shan Nature Reserve, kiang have been sighted between 3,345 m and 4,355 m during a winter survey (Shah and Huibin 2000). In south and central Tibet, were located between 4,305 and 5,431 m in September (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). In Gansu Province, sightings range from 3,400 to 4,200 m (Bleisch 1996). They have been sighted at elevations of 3,500 to 4,700 m in Ladakh (Shah 1996), while in north Sikkim (India), the major kiang sightings were in the undulating and rolling plains and meadows at an altitude of 5,100 to 5,400 m (Shah 1994).<br/><br/>As a wild equid, kiang relies on coarse but abundant forage to meet its nutrient requirements (Duncan 1992; Schaller 1998). <em>Stipa</em> spp., a common grass on the Tibetan Plateau, constitutes most of the diet of kiangs, whereas sedges are eaten occasionnaly (Shah 1994, 1997, Harris and Miller 1995; Schaller 1998). Forbs and shrubs are rarely eaten (Harris and Miller 1995, Schaller 1998). There are direct observations of kiang feeding on <em>Carex</em> spp., <em>Kobresia</em> spp., and <em>Stipa</em> spp. in Sikkim (Shah 1994, 1997). In Chang Tang, the summer diet of the kiang was approximately 65% <em>Stipa</em> spp., followed by <em>Kobresia</em> spp., <em>Carex</em> spp., <em>Poa</em> spp., and <em>Elymus</em> spp., and small amounts of a few forbs and shrubs (Schaller 1998).  In the same area, the proportion of <em>Stipa</em> in winter diets increased to > 90% (Schaller 1998).<br/><br/>No regular migration pattern has been observed in kiang (Schaller 1998). They do, however, make seasonal movements between different habitat types, often dispersing in small groups into hilly terrain in summer, and concentrating in basins and flat terrains during winter (Schaller 1998). It has been suggested that these movements are linked to the availability of relatively high-quality forage (Schaller 1998). Daily movements between flat plains and meadows and higher elevation terrain have been observed, suggesting a daily pattern of altitudinal movements (A. St-Louis, pers. obs.). In Xinjiang Province, major activity occurs along the <em>Stipa</em> meadows and in winter, mixed herds spent 50% of their time feeding with two feeding peaks per day (Shah and Huibin 2000).<br/><br/>Limited observations indicate that the social organisation of the kiang is similar to that of other wild equids living in arid conditions, such as Grévy’s zebra (<em>E. grevyii</em>), African wild ass (<em>E. africanus</em>), and Asiatic wild ass (<em>E. hemionus</em>). In this type of social organization, there are no permanent groups, and the most stable social unit is mother-foal. Males do not permanently tend groups of mares and young but are territorial, and young males often form bachelor groups (Klingel 1977). Male kiangs often show territorial behaviour, chasing intruders as they come by and occupying the same area for several months (Denzau and Denzau 1999). Males recognizable by natural marks have been observed occupying the same territory over a period of 3 years in eastern Ladakh (A. St-Louis, pers. obs.). Bachelor groups are also common (Schaller 1998, A. St-Louis pers. obs.). Kiangs normally foal in July and August (some in June and September), which is also the period of time in which females appear to come into estrus (Schaller 1998). During this season, males are often solitary and spaced in such a fashion as to appear to be territorial. Group sizes also tend to be smaller during this season. Females of the same reproductive stage are often associated. Large aggregations may form on good pasture during the fall and winter (Schaller 1998). Kiang mares have a gestation period of 355 days. Kiang are usually solitary or are found in small herds. Herds congregate on good pastures in autumn and winter, at times in herds of 300 to 400 (Schäfer 1937; Schaller 1998; Shahand Huibin 2000). More than 500 kiang were seen in one group in December 1999 (Shah and Huibin 2000).
7953		population	eng	The current global population estimate of kiang is 60,000-70,000 animals, 90% of which are in China (Shah 2002). The Chinese population is approximately 56,500-68,500 animals, of which 15,000 are in Qinghai and Gansu (Schaller 1998), 4,500-5,500 in Xinjiang (Schaller 1998, Shah and Huibin 2000), and 37,000-48,000 in Tibet (Schaller 1998). Outside China, the population is estimated at 1,600-2,145 (Shah 2002). It must be stressed, however, that these figures come from several surveys conducted using different methods, and over a period of >20 years. Also, the kiang is a trans-border species, and their propensity to make large-scale movements makes any attempt to quantify their numbers in any given area difficult (Shah 1996). Recent surveys do not allow new population estimates, but illustrate local trends that should be taken into account. For example, Schaller <em>et al</em>. (2005) documented a population increase in Tibet since their surveys in the early 1990s. At this point new surveys are urgently required throughout the kiang’s distribution range. The information below provides the available data for specific regions prior to 1999 and a last section provides information on kiang surveys since 1999.<br/><br/><em>Qinghai and Gansu</em> (China)<br/>It is estimated that 15,000 kiang reside in Qinghai (Schaller 1998). The kiang population in Qinghai appears to be fragmented, and there are large areas of the province where the species is rare, particularly where the pastoralists live in greater numbers. Kiang have been almost exterminated in the eastern third of Qinghai Province and are uncommon in and around the periphery of Qaidam Basin. The southwestern part of Qinghai comprises some 100,000 km² where the highest kiang density occurs (Schaller 1998). Kiangs are mostly found in remote areas with low human population densities or, in some cases, in valleys seasonally unoccupied by pastoralists, such as the plains north of Qinghai Hu (also known as Koko Nur Lake - Foggin 2000). Kiang also extend east to Ngoring Hu and in the north across the Qaidam Basin to the Qilian Shan, but only at low densities. This is a vast tract for which no real population estimates have been made. Areas between Kunlun Pass around Wudaoliang and Tuotuohe have been surveyed for wild ungulates and had about 1,500–2,000 kiang: a density of about 0.1 animal/km² (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1991). In the Yeniugou valley in southwest of the province, Harris <em>et al</em>. (1999) estimated a population of 843 individuals in 1,051 km² in 1991, counted less than 100 in 1992, and in 1997 counted 418 kiang. In Wudaoliang, 213 kiang were seen in 2,100 km² and 1,500–2,000 were estimated in 20,000 km² (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1991). On the Qinghai-Tibet border, 510 kiang were counted in 2,736 km² (Feng 1991) and 1,000–1,500 kiang were estimated in a 75,000 km² area. Three hundred and twenty kiang were counted between March and July 1997 north of Qingha Hu, Huashixia (Maduo county) and Tuotuoheyan (Foggin 2000).<br/><br/>In Gansu, kiang were the second most commonly observed ungulate in winter when 0.255 kiang/km were encountered in a 679 km vehicle survey (Bleisch, 1996). In Yanchiwan Reserve, 58 kiang were sighted in 1985 (Schaller 1998). Kiang occur in the Aksai area adjacent to the Qinghai Boundary (R. Harris <em>in litt</em>., 1999).<br/><br/><em>Xinjiang</em> (China)<br/>In Xinjiang, the best known kiang population is in the Arjin Shan Nature Reserve (Altun Mountain Nature Reserve; Achuff and Petocz 1988). Kiang seem to be flourishing, and have replaced chirus (or Tibetan antelope, <em>Phantolops hodgsoni</em>) as the most numerous large mammal in the reserve (J. Gaw <em>in litt</em>., 1997), with a population estimate of 2,000-3,500 (Shah and Huibin, 2000). Along the southern margin of Arjin Shan (Tula Valley), 56 kiang were sighted in a 300 km drive. Numbers fluctuate with season in the Tula Valley as they travel to and from the adjoining Arjin Shan Reserve (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1991). West of Arjin Shan Reserve, 108 kiang were sighted in a 4,000 km² area (Schaller 1998). A survey of 23,000 km² in the western half of the reserve showed that most kiang were concentrated in about 5,795 km² (Achuff and Petocz 1988). Kiang were more abundant in the eastern half of the reserve, where over 1,000 kiang were sighted by Butler <em>et al</em>. (1986), whilst Feng (1991) had recorded 770 kiang in 1,030 km². These numbers were extrapolated to an estimate of 41,262 kiangs for the whole reserve (Gao and Gu (1989), which is considered much too high by Schaller (1998). The eastern Arjin Shan Nature Reserve survey in the winter of 1998 had an encounter rate of 2.56 kiang/km (333.5 km of vehicle survey; Bleisch 1999). The 1999-2000 survey had an encounter rate of 2.34 kiang/km (1,854 kiang in 792 km of travel, Shah and Huibin 2000). The western Arjin Shan Nature Reserve had a very low kiang density of 0.137/km², especially in the vicinity of gold-mining camps. Kiang numbers were estimated at 1,500 in this area of the reserve (Bleisch 1999b). Taking all the above surveys and estimates into account, Shah and Huibin (2000) derived their total kiang population of the area at 2,000-3,500 animals. Some earlier population estimates for the reserve were clearly much too high (e.g., 30,000; Butler <em>et al</em>. 1986). Elsewhere in Xinjiang, the species was last seen in the Taxkorgan Nature Reserve during the 1950s (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1987). Kiang still occur in the Aksai Chin region of Xinjiang, but there have been no surveys (Schaller 1998).<br/><br/><em>Tibet</em> (China)<br/>The largest populations of kiang in the world are in Tibet, mostly located in the northwest region of Chang Tang. Kiang occur in southern Tibet, but they are separated from the northern populations probably as a result of intensive agricultural practices and human settlements along the Tsangpo River valley (Schaller 1998). Local people reported that kiang were exterminated in most of this region between the 1960s and 1980s (Schaller 1998). Scattered populations survive along the Himalaya west of Bhutan (Schaller 1998). Kiang were sighted north of the Tibet-Sikkim border (Shah 1994). Kiang occur in the Qomolangma Reserve, but estimates are not clear, ranging from <50 up to 300 individuals (Jackson 1991; Schaller 1998). In southwestern Tibet, the kiang population is fragmented along the foothills of the Himalaya (R. Jackson pers. comm., Schaller 1998). A vehicle survey was conducted in September 2000 in south, southwest and central Tibet, covering the area between Nyalam-Lhatse-Saga-Mansarovar-Gar-Gerze-Dong Co-Coqen-Saga-PaikaTso-where 421 kiang were sighted in 2,660 km of travel (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). An encounter rate of 1.4 kiang/km was obtained between Mayumla and Mansarovar (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). Kiang were also sighted in the Gakyi, Gerze, Tsochen, and Raga areas (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). In the eastern part of their Tibet range, kiang occur around Chigo Co in three populations and others persist just south of Yamdrok Co, totaling not more than 200 animals (Schaller 1998). In the Chang Tang region, the eastern area located east of a line from Nam Co to Siling Co is now almost devoid of kiang (Schaller 1998). Kiang, however, are widely distributed and moderately common to the west and north of Siling Co, including the whole Chang Tang Nature Reserve, (Schaller 1998).They were also sighted along the road that crosses Chang Tang north to Coqen and west in Gerze and Shiquanhe (Schaller 1998). In 1990, the Aru Basin had an estimated 250 kiang in 1,800 km² (0.14/km²; Schaller and Gu 1994). Based on Schaller’s work, the number of kiang in the reserve would be between 21,743 and 28,006 in an area of 334,000 km² (or 18,488 to 23,813 in the official area of 284,000 km²). A team of Chinese scientists carried out research in the Karakoram and Kunlun Mountain systems and reported the occurrence of large herds of kiang roaming around the Memar Lake (Rasool 1992). Kiang have been reported from Phala (300 miles north-west of Lhasa) and Motsobunnyi Lake (Goldstein and Beall 1989). A concentration of 806 kiang south of Yibug Caka was sighted in October 1993 (Schaller 1998). <br/><br/><em>Outside China</em><br/>Outside China, kiang numbers are small. In India the largest populations are in eastern Ladakh, in the Jammu and Kashmir state. Historically and currently, their range encompasses the area between Rupshu and Changchenmo (Stockley 1936; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991). Although their range covers an area of 6,000 km² in Ladakh, kiang numbers have been greatly reduced in many areas (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991). Approximately 1,500 to 1,600 kiang are distributed over an estimated range of 15,000 km² in the Trans-Himalayan region with no protected areas (Chundawat and Rawat 1994). Reports state that kiang are numerous in the Eastern Plateau in Ladakh around Tso Moriri (Mallon 1991). The Jammu and Kashmir Wildlife Department, Leh, conducted a census in 1988 and estimated a total of 1,500 kiang, and in 1994 counted 1,518 kiang in East Ladakh (Ladakh Wildlife Department, Jammu and Kashmir State Forest Department). An encounter rate of 1.17 kiang/km was obtained (497 kiang in 426 km) during the June 1995 survey covering areas around Pangong Tso, Chushul, Hanley, Tso Moriri, Tso Kar, and Demchok; Chumur was not surveyed due to bad weather (Shah 1996). A high encounter rate of 12.64 kiang/km was obtained along the Indus (278 kiang counted, Shah 1996), whilst 574 kiang were counted in a survey in July 2000, at an encounter rate of 0.92 kiang/km (Bhatnagar 2000). Other kiang habitats in Ladakh include the More Plains located south of the Taglang la along the Leh-Manali road (Q. Qureshi pers. comm., 1996), and Norbu Sumdo  and Korzok, south-east of Ladakh (Charudutt Mishra pers. comm., 1998). Kiang have been reported by locals from Kharnak (upper Zanskar) in Ladakh (Y.V. Bhatnagar pers. comm., 1999). According to local Lahul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) informants, kiang in small numbers have been sighted north of Kibar, along the Jammu and Kashmir/Himachal Pradesh state boundary (Y.V. Bhatnagar and C. Mishra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Elsewhere in India, the kiang population in Sikkim was recently thought to be extinct (Duncan 1992). However, two surveys conducted in 1994 and 1995 in north Sikkim confirmed their continued existence in a 200 km² area close to the Indo-Tibetan border, at an altitude between 5,100 m and 5,400 m (Shah 1994, 1997). An encounter rate of 0.54 kiang/km was obtained in a 138 km vehicle survey in this area in November 1994 (Shah 1994) A vehicle survey between May and June 1995 recorded an encounter rate of 0.092 kiang/km (26 kiang counted in 283 km, Shah 1997) The largest herd of kiang (n=48; foals were seen, but not counted) was observed across the border, west of Bamchola (Shah 1994). In 1994, the kiang population was estimated at 74–120 individuals (Shah 1994). This area has no protected status as it comes under army jurisdiction (Shah 1994, 1997)<br/><br/>The continued presence of the species in extreme northeastern Pakistan has been confirmed (Wegge 1988). An isolated population of 20 to 25 kiangs is sporadically distributed towards the easternmost boundary of the Khunjerab National Park beyond Shamshal, adjoining the area between the Aghil range and the Kunlun Mountains of Chinese Turkistan (Rasool 1992). This represents the westernmost limit of the kiang range. Kiang are restricted to a belt stretching along the Oprang and Muztagh Rivers, which form the Pakistan-China border. High altitude porters in June 1985 reported kiang sightings in Chikar, Furzin, and Muztagh Kayul Ridge (Rasool 1992). Few censuses have been conducted due to the isolation of the area and the population status remains unknown (Rasool 1992).<br/><br/>In Nepal the status of the species is still very uncertain. There are records from Chhujung in the Mustang district, Kiangchummi, Lapchagawa, and in the watershed areas of Salekhola, Yarchakhola, and Itikhola (Gurung 1999). Other potential sites for kiang in Nepal include the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, the Annapurna Conservation area and the Shey-Phoksundo National Park (Shah 2002) Sharma <em>et al</em>. (2004) reports 37 kiang in Chuksung, Upper Mustang. It is not clear whether these data refer to animals that wander across the border with China or to animals permanently living in Nepal.<br/><br/><em>Recent kiang surveys</em> (after 1999)<br/>Surveys were conducted in the eastern part of the Chang Tang Nature Reserve in an area northwest of Siling Co by Schaller <em>et al</em>. (2005) to assess changes in the wildlife populations since the early 1990s. The density of kiang was more than twice that observed in 1991, with 2,266 kiang counted in an area of 11,870 km², compared to 1,224 kiang seen over an area of 17,500 km² (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). Whether this trend can be generalized to other parts of the kiang distribution range remains unclear, but these observations suggests that there is an increase in kiang numbers within the Chang Tang Nature Reserve (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys were also conducted between 1999 and 2002 across the Chang Tang Nature Reserve to assess the influence of human presence on ungulate densities (Fox and Bårdsen 2005). These surveys revealed that kiang are well distributed across the reserve but tend to be concentrated in areas with low human presence. Kiang densities in areas with low human presence ranged from 1.06 to 1,53 individuals/km² (encounter rate = 0.13-0.23 kiang/km); whereas densities in areas with medium human presence were estimated at 0.88 individuals/km² (encounter rate = 0.06-0.16 kiang/km; Fox and Bårdsen 2005).<br/><br/>A recent winter survey crossed the northern region of the Chang Tang Nature Reserve and continued across the Kekexili Nature reserve in Qinghai to the Golmud-Lhasa highway (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007). Few kiangs were observed along the entire route, with densities less than 0.1 individuals/km². The majority of the kiang censused (48%) were seen near the end of the transect line near the Golmud-Lhasa (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In Ladakh, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em> (2006) estimated a mean density of 0.24 individuals/km² in a wide survey of Ladakh, and concentrations up to 0.56 individuals/km² in the Hanle valley. The general figure for Ladakh is thus comparable with the densities estimated in the 1980s (0.25 individuals; Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991).
7953		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are potential conflicts with human presence and livestock, over-hunting, and possible disease transmission from domestic livestock. Because the status and trends of kiang populations are poorly known, it is difficult to come up with one situation that may apply to the entire kiang population and its range. It appears that there is much regional variation in their population decline or increase (Schaller 1998; Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). There is no doubt that kiang populations have been decimated in the past, and that they are now absent or scattered in some part of their former range (Schaller 1998). During the last decade, however, successful wildlife protection measures, such as a strict control of illegal hunting, resulted in a population increase in some areas (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). But the real conservation issue for kiangs is related to conflicts with livestock herding practices. Changes in rangeland use policy are increasing the human presence and movements in key wildlife areas, along with increasing livestock numbers (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005; Fox and Tsering 2005). Rangelands in some locations are turned into private ranches owned by several families (G. B. Schaller pers. comm.), likely causing an intensification of pasture use. Rangelands are also often fenced from wildlife, which not only prevent kiang to gain access to key resources, but may also cause injuries and casual deaths (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005; Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006). It also appears that, while there may be a general perception by local communities that kiang overuse pastures on a wide scale, the real conflicts occur at local scale. For example, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. (2006) pointed out that in Ladakh, kiang only use 10-11% of the total forage consumed, while the other 89-90% is used by livestock. Still, large concentrations of kiang may undoubtedly have an important impact on grasslands at a local scale, and appropriate management decisions may be necessary. But it should be stressed that in order to address this conflict, solutions must also be implemented at local scale.<br/><br/>More specific threats in particular parts of its range are listed below.<br/><br/>Qinghai (China): The Yeniugou valley is one of the finest and most accessible wildlife areas in Qinghai. This area has a continuing influx of Tibetan and Mongolian nomads who, unlike the nomads in Tibet, lack allocated rangelands (Harris 1993). There are plans to make this valley a hunting reserve (Schaller 1998). In 1994, 2,000 to 3,000 gold diggers from Qinghai Province moved into the Nyima area (Southern boundary of the Reserve). Oil exploration teams were also in the area at the same time. Such extractive works should be monitored to avoid damage to the environment and to control illegal hunting by oil workers and miners (Miller and Schaller 1997). Gold miners from eastern Qinghai Province first began entering the Yeniugou Valley in the late 1980s and were still using it as a transportation corridor to mining sites in 1997 (Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999). Poaching continues in some places (e.g. near Golmud), sometimes with the acceptance of nomads who perceive the kiang as a nuisance to their livestock (G. B. Schaller pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Xinjiang</em> (China): In the Arjin Shan Nature Reserve (AMNR), densities of wildlife in the north and west of Aqik Lake are very low as the area is used extensively by tractors and supply trucks travelling to and from two large gold mines within the nature reserve (Bleisch 1999b). Pastoralists have settled in the eastern part of the reserve and their domestic horses have been observed feeding with kiang in its winter range. Such use of the area needs to be analyzed and monitored, with special attention to the possibility of disease transmission.<br/><br/><em>Tibet</em> (Xizang) (China): In the Chang Tang Nature Reserve, most of the area inhabited by pastoralists is located in the southern and western part of the reserve, although human presence is increasing even in the most remote areas (Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004). Today there are between 20 and 30,000 people and >1.5 million head of livestock dependent on the rangelands of the reserve (Miller and Schaller 1997; Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fox and Tsering 2005). Changes in traditional pastoral production systems pose a danger in the Chang Tang Reserve. Remote pastoral areas that used to take months to reach on horseback and by caravan are now accessible in a few days by vehicle from Lhasa (Miller and Schaller 1997). The complex system of rotational grazing, which has succeeded in maintaining the rangelands, is being modified. Nomad groups now fence winter pastures and some have built long fences across valleys and hills to keep wildlife out, which will affect the kiang and chiru populations (Miller and Schaller 1997; Shah and Huibin 2000; Shah and van Gruisen 2000; Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). The current development priorities that will affect the kiang is “sedentarisation” of pastoralists. This will intensify land use and problems of overgrazing, and will increase competition for forage. Consequently, there are demands from herders to control kiang populations (Miller and Schaller 1997; Foggin 2000; Harris 2008). But since the hunting ban also prevents subsistence hunting - such as in northwest Tibet for example, where it used to be common - an intensification of rangeland use may meet the needs of the local people (Fox and Tsering 2005). In southern Tibet there may be less than 2,500 kiang. If this is a separate subspecies it will be important to carefully monitor their status (Neumann-Denzau and Denzau 2003).<br/><br/><em>Ladakh</em> (India): Approximately 215,000 domestic livestock (90% represented by sheep and goat and 10% by yaks and horses) compete with an estimated 5,000 wild ungulates (Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006) in the Changthang region. Hence there is an increased pressure on the pastureland. The Jammu and Kashmir Government has encouraged nomads to keep pashmina goats for production of wool by giving incentives that will sustain their living standards. In this context, kiang are increasingly perceived as serious competitors by pastoralists and the local administration. A decreasing tolerance for kiang may thus lead to a “worsening willingness to preserve it” by local authorities (Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006:935). Other disturbances also arise from, 1) road networks being established for strategic reasons; 2) the State Tourist Department planning to open up new areas in the upper Indus Valley towards the Tibetan border, allowing pilgrims to visit the holy “Mount Kailash” directly from Ladakh (Pfister 1998), which would occur through the major kiang habitats in Dungti and Fukche areas.<br/><br/><em>Sikkim</em> (India): The habitat on the Indian side of the Sikkim plateau is the only area that has water when compared to the adjacent Tibetan plateau. The Tibetan pastoralists and livestock inevitably visit the Indian side for watering during the dry period, effectively preventing the kiang from accessing water sources. The livestock could also potentially transmit diseases. Seventeen Dokpa families (nomads) have ‘Nangs’ (temporary settlements) on the Sikkim plateau (200 km²). Approximately 1,000 yaks and 1,500 sheep are dependent for grazing on the plateau areas from October to April each year, which may cause interspecific competition with kiang (Shah 1994).
7960		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. z. zebra</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I; <span style="font-style: italic;">E. z. hartmannae</span> is listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Various authors provide an historical perspective on the conservation actions taken for Mountain Zebra (Penzhorn 1988, in press; Novellie <em>et al.</em> 2002). Most surviving Cape Mountain Zebra are now found in national parks (793 animals in 2006) or provincial nature reserves (596 in 2006), although the numbers on private land have also increased (165; Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). Over 90% of the current total population of 1,389 Cape Mountain Zebras are derived from animals relocated from the Mountain Zebra National Park. The management of the Cape Mountain Zebra metapopulation requires the mixing of at least some animals from the three relict populations (MZNP, Gamkaberg, and Kamanassie), all of which are genetically depauperate, although this has been hampered by the relatively slow growth of the Kamanassie population. Chadwick and Watson (2007) have proposed facilitating the growth of this population by changing the fire management regime in the habitat preferred by zebra; acquiring adjacent land; and the translocation of Mountain Zebra onto adjacent land.<br/><br/>Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra occur in four key protected areas in Namibia: Skeleton Coast Park, Etosha National Park, Namib-Naukluft Park, and Ai-Ais-Hunsberg Park complex. Namib-Naukluft Park is particularly important with a population of around 2,300 animals (1998 estimate). Around 25% of the national population in Namibia occurs on conservancies in communal lands with the remainder on commercial livestock and game farms (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). In South Africa, an estimated 280 animals occur on private properties and in the Goegap Provincial Nature Reserve. In the Northern Cape; the numbers of Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra in South Africa’s Eastern Cape and Western Cape comprise nearly one-quarter of the population of the subspecies in South Africa, and their removal and replacement with the Cape subspecies is a priority (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002, Penzhorn in press).
7960		distribution	eng	Historically, Mountain Zebras occurred from the southern parts of South Africa through Namibia and into extreme south-western Angola (Penzhorn in press). Two subspecies are recognized: Cape Mountain Zebras (E. z. zebra) were widely distributed along mountain ranges forming the southern and western edge of the of the central plateau of the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces of South Africa, from the Amatola Mountains in the Cathcart District westward and northward to the Kamiesberg in Namaqualand in the Northern Cape; Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras (E. z. hartmannae) occur in the mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the central plateau in Namibia, with a marginal extension into south-western Angola (Penzhorn 1988, in press). Novellie <em>et al.</em> (2002) postulate that the ranges of the two subspecies were separated by an area devoid of mountainous habitat between the northernmost point of the Cedarberg and Bokkeveldberg ranges, and the southernmost point of the Kamiesberg range.<br/><br/>Today, surviving natural populations of Cape Mountain Zebra occur only in Mountain Zebra National Park, Gamka Mountain Reserve, and the Kamanassie mountains. Populations have been reintroduced to various parts of their former range, including Karoo National Park, De Hoop Nature Reserve, Karoo Nature Reserve (recently proclaimed as the Camdeboo National Park), Commando Drift Nature Reserve, Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area, Tsolwana Nature Reserve. and Gariep Dam Nature Reserve (Lloyd 2002; Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In Namibia, the establishment of artificial waterpoints have allowed Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra to occupy previously unsuitable habitat, such that their present range differs from that in historical times. Joubert (1973) gave their range as discontinuously distributed in four populations: from Kunene Province southwards to the Ugab River and east to the Outjo District; the Erongo Mountains; on the escarpment from the Swakop River southwards to the Naukluft Mountains and eastward along the Kuiseb and Gaub drainages into the Khomas Hochland; and the Fish River Canyon and Huns Mountains near the Orange River in the south. Hartmann's Mountain Zebra are also established in three conservation areas in the Northern Cape, South Africa: Richtersveld and Augrabies National Parks and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserve.  Hartmann’s Mountain zebra may still survive in Angola, in Iona National Park(Crawford-Cabral and Verissimo 2005). Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have also been introduced outside of their range in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002).
7960		habitat	eng	Mountain Zebra inhabit rugged, broken mountainous and escarpment areas up to around 2,000 m with a rich diversity of grass species and perennial water sources (Penzhorn in press). They are predominantly grazers, only browsing if forced to do so. The typical social structure is one of small harems comprising an adult stallion and one to three (maximum five) mares and their dependent foals; non-breeding groups consist primarily of bachelors, but sometimes include young fillies (Penzhorn in press).
7960		population	eng	In 1998, the number of Cape Mountain Zebras had increased from <100 animals in the 1950s to about 1,200 individuals, with the largest population (reintroduced), estimated to number 250 in 1998, in the Karoo National Park (Lloyd 2002; Novellie <em>et al.</em> 2002). The average annual rate of increase of the entire Cape Mountain Zebra population from 1985 to 1995 was 8.6% (Novellie <em>et al.</em> 1996), and from 1995 to 1998, 9.6% (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). From 1998 to 2006 there has been a steady increase in the populations of Cape Mountain Zebras from 1003 to 1389 in National Parks and Provincial Nature reserves. In 1998, there were approximately 165 Cape Mountain Zebra on private lands; more recent figures are not available. Hence, the Cape Mountain Zebra population in South Africa has been steadily increasing since the 1980s. The current population size is estimated to be more than 1,500 individuals (ca. 500 mature) (Mountain Zebra Working Group pers. comm., R. Smith 2008).<br/><br/>In 1998, the Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras population was estimated to number about 25,000, or approximately 8,300 mature individuals (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). Limited data from Namibia indicates that populations are increasing on communal lands in the north-western part of the country (G. Stuart-Hill pers. comm. 2008); from 2000 to 2006, numbers have increased from 6 to 27 individuals observed per 100 km of road surveyed. However, there is no information on the status of populations of Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra in the protected, private and communal areas in the rest of Namibia (and see Major Threats).
7960		threats	eng	Cape Mountain Zebra were once extensively hunted for their skins, because they competed with livestock for grazing, and allegedly because they broke fences (Penzhorn 1988). Today, however, the greatest threat to the Cape subspecies may stem from the risk of crossing with Hartmann's Mountain Zebra, which are introduced to the Eastern and Western Cape.<br/><br/>The most important threat to Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras in Namibia is livestock production and farming activities such as fencing that prevent access to water. Increasingly sophisticated farming could further disrupt movements through fencing or by preventing access to surface water (Novellie <em>et al.</em> 2002). The risk of hybrization in Hartmann's Mountain Zebra is minimal, given that only a single subspecies occurs in Namibia and the fact that importation of Mountain Zebras of either subspecies has never been permitted (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>In Namibia, there is commercial trade in Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra skins. Populations need to be carefully monitored so that harvesting does not adversely affect population viability. Hartmann's Mountain Zebra are reportedly being harvested at a rate of about 2,000-3,000 per year, which may exceed their rate of population growth (e.g., Cape Mountain Zebra in Gamka Mountain Nature Reserve increase at about 5% per year; Watson <em>et al</em>. 2005).
7961		conservation	eng	<p>Przewalski's Horse is legally protected in Mongolia. It is protected  as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom  (2000). Hunting has been prohibited since 1930, and the species is  listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It  is listed as Critically Endangered in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian  Red Books (Shagdarsuren <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987, MNE 1997), and in the Regional Red List for Mongolia (Clark <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The taxon's entire re-introduced range in Mongolia is within protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus przewalskii</span>).<br/> <br/> The following conservation measures are in place:</p>  <ul><li>An  International Studbook was produced in 1959, followed in the 1970s by  establishment of the North American Breeders Group, which developed into  the Species Survival Plan for the Przewalski’s horse. The European  Endangered Species Program for this species was accepted in 1986. Many  countries now cooperate in these programs to minimize inbreeding and  retain genetic diversity in their horse populations.</li><li>There are three ongoing reintroduction sites in Mongolia.</li><li>The Status and Action Plan for the Przewalski's Horse (<span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus przewalskii</span>) was produced in 2002 (see Wakefield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), and provides a more detailed account of the history and ongoing conservation efforts surrounding the species.</li><li>All  three reintroduction sites are fully monitoring their populations and  are integrating community livelihood support into their projects.</li><li>There  have been several workshops of stakeholders involved in the  reintroduction of Przewalski's Horse to Mongolia (Boyd 2009). At the  ‘Endangered Wild Equid Workshop’ held in Ulaanbataar in 2010 the  following threats were identified: loss of population due to stochastic  events (i.e. severe winter); limited habitat and resources (pasture and  water); domestic horses (hybridization, disease, social stress); lack of  information, appreciation / awareness, lack of knowledge; and  exploitation of resources (i.e. mining). Specific actions needed for  each threat category were identified and described.</li></ul>  <p>&#160;Conservation measures required:<br/></p><ul><li>The health of wild and domestic horses should be monitored for disease (Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2005). Standardized techniques should be used to monitor health,  fecundity, mortality, habitat utilization and social organization of all  populations (Wakefield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), and contact between Przewalski's Horses and domestic horses should be kept to a minimum.</li><li>A single population management approach should be developed.</li><li>Mongolia currently has the only wild population and an action plan is needed for the country.</li><li>The  genealogy of all horses in Mongolia should be established based on  individual micro-satellite data to monitor inbreeding levels, identify  hybrids and plan for necessary movements of horses between  reintroduction centers to maximize genetic diversity.</li><li>An  authoritative government protocol for hybrids should be developed, to be  established before hybridization occurs, and to be made available in  each re-introduction centre and to local people (King and Gurnell 2005).</li><li>Further communication and cooperation between all re-introduction centres would be beneficial.</li><li>Further training and post-graduate education of staff and biologists involved with this conservation work.</li></ul>
7961		distribution	eng	Until the late 18th Century, this species ranged from Germany and Russian Steppes east to Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China. After this time, the species went into catastrophic decline. Wild animals survived in eastern Europe (Poland, Belarus, Lithuania and Germany) through the eighteenth century, with the last wild individuals possibly killed in 1814 (Novak 1999). The Plains Tarpan (Equus ferus ferus), lived on the steppes of southern Russia and the Ukraine. The last wild population of Przewalski’s Horse survived until recently in southwestern Mongolia and adjacent Gansu, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia (China). Wild horses were last seen in 1969, north of the Tachiin Shaar Nuruu in Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989).<br/> <br/> Since the 1990s, reintroduction efforts have started in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan and Ukraine; Mongolia is the only country where truly wild reintroduced populations exist within its historic range. Reintroductions in Mongolia began in Takhin Tal Nature Reserve in the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (9,000 km<sup>2</sup>) and Hustai  National Park in Mongol Daguur Steppe (570 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1994 (King and Gurnell 2005). A third reintroduction site, Khomiin Tal, (2,500 km<sup>2</sup>), in the Great Lakes Depression, was established in 2004, as a buffer zone to the Khar Us Nuur National Park in Valley of the Lakes (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/> <br/> All living wild horses belong to the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus przewalskii</span>. The first visual account of Przewalski’s-type Horses date from more than 20,000 years ago. Rock engravings, paintings, and decorated tools dating from the late Gravetian to the late Magdalenian (20,000-9,000 BC), were discovered in caves in Italy, southern France, and northern Spain; 610 of these were horse figures (Leroi-Gourhan 1971). Many cave drawings in France show horses that look like Przewalski’s Horse (Mohr 1971). In prehistoric times, the species probably roamed widely over the steppes of central Asia, China, and Europe (Ryder 1990). The first written accounts originate from Tibet, recorded by the monk Bodowa, who lived around 900 AD. In the “Secret History of the Mongols”, there is also a reference to wild horses that crossed the path of Chinggis Khaan during his campaign against Tangut in 1226, causing his horse to rear and throw him to the ground (Bokonyi 1974). That the wild horse was a prestigious gift, denoting its rarity or that it was difficult to catch, is shown by the presentation of a Przewalski’s Horse to the emperor of Manchuria by Chechen-Khansoloj-Chalkaskyden, an important Mongolian, circa 1630 (Zevegmid and Dawaa 1973). In a Manchurian dictionary of 1771, Przewalski’s Horse is mentioned as “a wild horse from the steppe” (Dovchin 1961).<br/> <br/> Przewalski’s Horse was not described in Linnaeus’s “Systema Naturae” (1758) and remained largely unknown in the West until first mentioned by John Bell, a Scottish doctor who travelled in the service of Tsar Peter the Great in 1719-1722 (Mohr 1971). His account of the expedition, “A Journey from St  Petersburg to Peking”, was published in 1763. Bell and subsequent observers all located horses known at that time within the area of 85-97° E and 43-50° N (Chinese-Mongolian border). Wild horses were reported again from what is now China by Colonel Nikolai Mikailovich Przewalski, an eminent explorer, at the end of the nineteenth century. He made several expeditions by order of Tsar Alexander the Second of Russia to central Asia, aiming to reach Tibet. While returning from his second expedition in central Asia, he was presented with the skull and hide of a horse shot about 80 km north of Gutschen on the Chinese-Russian border. The remains were examined at the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Science in St   Petersburg by I.S. Poliakov, who concluded that they were a wild horse, which he gave the official name <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus przewalskii </span>(Poliakov 1881). Further reports came from the brothers Grigory and Michael Grum-Grzhimailo, who travelled through western China from 1889-1890. In 1889, they discovered a group in the Gashun area and shot four horses: three stallions, and a mare. The four hides and the skulls of the three stallions, together with an incomplete skeleton, were sent back to the Zoological Museum in St. Petersburg. They were able to observe the horses from a short distance and gave the following account: “Wild horses keep in bands of no more than ten, each herd having a dominant stallion. There are other males, too, but they are young and, judging by the hide of the two-year old colt that we killed, the dominant male treats them very cruelly. In fact, the hide showed traces of numerous bites” (Grum-Grzhimailo 1982). Current scientific review of the taxonomy of wild equids (Groves 1986) places Przewalski’s Horse as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus</span>.
7961		habitat	eng	<p>Przewalski’s Horse formerly inhabited steppe and semi-desert habitats, as most of this range became degraded or was occupied by livestock, the species became restricted to semi-desert habitats with limited water resources (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). Lowland steppe vegetation was preferentially selected by horses at Hustai National Park and seasonal movements are affected by the availability of the most nutritious vegetation (King and Gurnell 2005).</p><p>Because the historic range is not precisely known, there has been much debate about the areas in which Przewalski’s Horses were last seen: was it merely a last refuge or was it representative of the typical/preferred habitat? The Mongolia Takhi Strategy and Plan Work Group (MTSPWG 1993) concluded that the historic range may have been wider but that the Dzungarian Gobi, where they were last seen, was not a marginal site to which the species retreated. Although grass and water are more available in other parts of Mongolia, these areas often have much harsher winters.<br/></p> An alternative viewpoint of the desert-steppe controversy is that the Eurasian steppe should be considered the wild horse's optimal habitat (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). This would suggest that Przewalski’s Horses were forced into sub-optimal ranges such as the arid Gobi, as the more favourable steppe region was colonized by nomadic pastoralist people over several millennia. Studies of feral horses have shown that they are able to live and reproduce in semi-desert habitats but their survival and reproductive success is clearly sub-optimal compared to feral horses on more mesic grassland (Berger 1986). Van Dierendonck and de Vries (1996) suggest that the wild horse is primarily a steppe herbivore that can survive under arid conditions when there is access to waterholes.
7961		population	eng	<p>There are now approximately 306 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia (Zimmerman 2011). All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program (Bowling and Ryder 1987). Introgression of domestic horse blood happened not only in Halle (#229 dom.Mongol), but also in Askania Nova (#175 Domina; Bowling<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003). <br/></p>  <p>Between 1992 and 2004, 90 captive-born horses were transported to the Takhin Tal/Gobi B reintroduction site in Mongolia (ITG International Takhi Group, Zimmermann 2008). A further three males were translocated from Hustai  National Park to Takhin Tal in 2007 (Zimmermann 2008). In 2008 there were approximately 111 free-ranging horses in this population (Zimmerman 2008, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007). In December of 2009 there were 137 individuals in the population, but due to an extremely harsh winter (dzud) the population suffered extreme mortality and by August 2010 only 49 individuals remained (Kaczensky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Zimmerman 2011). From 1992 to 2000, 84 horses were brought to Hustai National Park by the Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse and Mongolian Association for Conservation of Nature and the Environment (MACNE) from reserves in Europe (King and Gurnell 2005). As of the end of 2010 this population was approximately 233 individuals (Zimmerman 2011). A third reintroduction site was started in 2004 at Seriin Nuruu in the Khomiin Tal buffer zone of the Khar Us Nuur National Park in western Mongolia (Association pour le cheval de Przewalski: TAKH). Twenty-two individuals consisting of four pre-established families and one male bachelor group were brought from Le   Villaret, France between 2004 and 2005 (C. Feh pers. comm., Zimmermann 2008). In 2010, this population had 24 individuals (Zimmermann 2011). <br/></p>  For the reintroduced population in Mongolia, mature individuals are those that are born in the wild and five years of age. However, individuals born in captivity do not count as mature until they have reproduced in the wild and that offspring is at least five years old. As of 2006 there were 55 mature individuals in the wild (52 (M.F., 26.26) in Hustai, 3 (1.2) in Takhin Tal). In 2007 Hustai had 68 (33.35) mature individuals and Takhin Tal had 11 (3.8) for a total of 79. The reintroduced populations continued to grow and in 2008, Hustai had 90 (39.51) and Takin Tal had 14 (7.7) mature individuals for a total of 104. In 2009, Hustai had a population of 118 mature individuals (52.66) and Takin Tal had 33 (15.18) for a total of 151. The winter of 2009/2010 was very severe and there was high mortality of Przewalski’s Horses, particularly in Takin Tal. In 2010, Hustai’s mature population was 117 (53.64) and Takin Tal’s number of mature individuals was reduced to 17 (8.9). However, the total population of mature individuals was 134. Hence for a period of five years, the mature population of Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia has been more than 50 individuals. Although this means that the Przewalski’s Horse qualifies as Endangered it should be borne in mind that most of these individuals are from one reintroduction site and climatic perturbations like the extremely harsh winter in 2009/2010 can have very negative effects on small populations.<br/> <br/> In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) of the Department of Forestry at Kalameili Nature Reserve (KNR) in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region has established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses (January 2008, Pantel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Zimmermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Since 2007 one harem group is roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi (Xinjiang); another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but are returned to the acclimatization pen during the winter (Zimmermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/> <br/> The history of population estimates and trends in Przewalski’s Horse has been described by Wakefield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002). Since the ‘rediscovery’ of the Przewalski’s Horse for western science, western zoos and wild animal parks became interested in this species for their collections. Several long expeditions were mounted to catch animals. Some expeditions came back empty-handed and some had only seen a glimpse of wild Przewalski’s Horses. It proved difficult to catch adult horses, because they were too shy and fast. Capture of foals, with possible killing of the adult harem members, was considered the only option (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Four expeditions that managed to catch live foals took place between 1897 and 1902. Fifty-three of these foals reached the west alive. Between the 1930s and the 1940s only a few Przewalski’s Horses were caught and most died. At least one mare was crossbred with domestic horses by the Mongolian War Ministry (Bouman and Bouman 1994).<br/> <br/> Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in an area between the Baitag-Bogdo ridge and the ridge of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu (which, translated from Mongolian, means ‘the Yellow Mountain of the Wild Horse’), but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 by the Mongolian scientist N. Dovchin. He saw a stallion near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989). Annual investigations by the Joint Mongolian-Soviet Expedition have since failed to find conclusive evidence for their survival in the wild (Ryder 1990). Chinese biologists conducted a survey in northeastern Xinjiang from 1980 to 1982 (covering the area of 88-90° E and 41°31'-47°10' N) without finding any horses (Gao and Gu 1989). The last native wild populations had disappeared.<br/> <br/> The number of living animals in the International Studbook was 1,872 in early 2008. Of the 53 animals recorded in the Studbook as having been brought into zoological collections in the west, only 12 contributed any genes to the current living population. Of these, 11 were brought into captivity between 1899 and 1902 and the last of them died in 1939. The twelfth founder was captured as a foal in 1947. The thirteenth founder was born in 1906 in Halle (Germany) to a wild-caught stallion and a domestic Mongolian mare, and the fourteenth founder is a female born in Askania Nova (Ukraine) to a Przewalski’s Horse stallion and a domestic female of a Tarpan type. Nevertheless, the current population is genetically very close to the original wild horses (Bowling et al. 2003). In addition to animals held in captivity and those already re-introduced, there have been a number of animals released into very large enclosures (reserves). The four largest are in Le Villaret (18.13; Massif Central, France), Buchara (19.17.1; Uzbekistan), the Hortobágy-National Park (77.81; Hungary), and the Chernobyl exclusion zone (32.37; Ukraine) (information as of January 2010, Zimmermann pers. comm.).
7961		threats	eng	A number of causes have been cited for the final extinction of Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia and China. Among these are significant cultural and political changes (Bouman and Bouman 1994), hunting (Zhao and Liang 1992, Bouman and Bouman 1994), military activities (Ryder 1993), climatic change (Sokolov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992), and competition with livestock and increasing land use pressure (Sokolov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Ryder 1993, Bouman and Bouman 1994). Capture expeditions probably diminished the remaining Przewalski’s Horse populations by killing and dispersing the adults (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). The harsh winters of 1945, 1948, and 1956 probably had an additional impact on the small population (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Increased pressure on, and rarity of waterholes in their last refuge should also be considered as a significant factor contributing to their extinction (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996).<br/> <br/> For the reintroduced populations, hybridization with domestic horses is the primary threat, accompanied by competition for resources with domestic horses and possibly other livestock. Wherever Przewalski's Horses come into contact with domestic horses, there is a strong risk of hybridization and transmission of diseases. Recently, illegal mining in the protected areas is an additional threat to the viability of these areas. In Hustai National Park, it has been noted that overgrazing of the buffer-zone and continued pressure on the reserve are possible consequences of the enhanced economic activity in this area (Bouman 1998); however, the second phase of the project (1998-2003) paid much more attention to sustainable development of the buffer-zone. In the western section of the Gobi  National Park (Gobi B), habitat degradation by nomads and military personnel and their livestock continues; there is no core zone here that is free from human influence all year round. Infectious diseases transmitted from domestic horses, notably <span style="font-style: italic;">Babesia equi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. caballi</span> and strangles (infection by <span style="font-style: italic;">Streptococcus equi</span>), are a major threat to small reintroduced populations originating from zoos (Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, King and Gurnell 2005). Predation on foals by wolves may account for a significant number of mortalities and constitutes a threat to the population growth and continued survival of this taxon (Wit and Bouman 2006, Kaczensky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007). As was observed during 2009/2010, severe winters can result in significant mortality.<br/> <br/> There is concern over loss of genetic diversity after being reduced to a very small population and maintained in captivity for several generations. Sixty per cent of the unique genes of the studbook population have been lost (Ryder 1994). Loss of founder genes is irretrievable and further losses must be minimized through close genetic management. Furthermore, inbreeding depression could become a population-wide concern as the population inevitably becomes increasingly inbred (Ballou 1994). However, correct management of the population can slow these losses significantly, as has been achieved since the organization of the regional captive-breeding programs.
7980		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
7980		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Pyrenees between 1,500 and 2,500m; in Spain particularly, at altitudes higher than 2,000 m in the central part of the Pyrenees. This is a European endemic species.
7980		habitat	eng	The Gavarnie Ringlet is found on screes with patches of grassy vegetation and on steep, grassy slopes. Meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) are the main foodplants. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).
7980		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
7980		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
7982		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
7982		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the south of Europe: in France in the southeast of the Massif Central (Ardèche, Cévennes), in northeast Italy (vicinity Lago di Garda) and in Southeast Europe from the southwestern part of Croatia, the south of Bosnia and of Serbia to central Greece. 800-2,600 m (mostly 1,400-2,000 m). It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
7982		habitat	eng	In the mountains, the Ottoman Brassy Ringlet occurs on slopes and level ground with grassy vegetation. At lower altitudes, it is found in woodland clearings. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>) and other fine-leaved grasses. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), screes (11%).
7982		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
7982		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
7983		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. Research is needed on its ecology and habitat.
7983		distribution	eng	Occurs in the southeast of France (from Drôme and Vaucluse to the French Alps) and in the bordering Italian Alps.&#160; Found at altitudes of 1,400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
7983		habitat	eng	The Larche Ringlet inhabits steep screes and rocky slopes of limestone with sparse grassy vegetation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
7983		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
7983		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
7984		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
7984		distribution	eng	Occurs only in the central Spanish and French Pyrenees. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.
7984		habitat	eng	The False Dewy Ringlet looks very like the Dewy Ringlet (<span style="font-style: italic;">E. pandrose</span>) but, as far as it is known, the two species do not occur in the same habitat type. This species mostly occurs on steep, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation. The caterpillars feed on various meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) and fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). It has one generation a year has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).
7984		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
7984		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
7993		habitat	eng	Found in warm springs.
7994		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area in South Africa, but will be protected by the proposed Groen-Spoeg National Park if this is established. In Namibia, this species occurs in the Namib Desert National Park. Research is needed to clarify the systematic status of the two subspecies; consistent morphological differences correspond with a major barrier to gene flow (Orange River).
7994		distribution	eng	Confined to the west coast of southern Africa, from St. Helena Bay (Western Cape, South Africa) northwards to Walvis Bay (Namibia).
7994		habitat	eng	Strandveld, Succulent Karoo and Namib Desert. Prefers soft, shifting sands of dunes but also present in inter-dune swales with quite dense vegetation providing sand is not too consolidated. Areas containing scattered clumps of the dune grass (<em>Aristida sabulicola</em>) are the preferred habitat for this species in South Africa. The young are thought to be born in tunnels constructed by this species, but it lacks a proper burrow system; resting sites are usually under vegetation. It is a nocturnal surface forager of termites, but also other invertebrates and small lizards. The home ranges of individual <em>E. granti</em> overlap, but they are solitary and tend to avoid each other when feeding (Fielden <em>et al</em> 1990, 1992)
7994		population	eng	Densities are low owing to the arid, energy-sparse conditions of their environment, especially in the Namib Desert. Adults solitary, but tracks of several individuals have been found in the same area on the same night suggesting that a certain amount of home range overlap is tolerated.
7994		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation by dune removal and diamond mining may have impacted on populations in parts of this species' range.
7995		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
7995		distribution	eng	From Karakum desert near Aral sea and western part of Uzboi to Ashgabat, Mary, western parts of Bukhara oasis, SE Kyzylkum and Chuya Moinykum. Isolated population in S Balkhash basin.
7995		habitat	eng	Inhabit sandy deserts, mainly in matted and hillocky sands. In southern part of the range prefers vast sand massifs, in northern part prefers small sand areas separated by takyrs and salines. Sometimes found at oasis borders. Permanent summer and winter burrows ae on open speces, while shelter burrows are usually under bushes. Burrows are usually up to 60 cm deep (up to 80 in Balkhash region), with many exits. Feed mainly on seeds, except spring (April - May), when green plant parts are significant part of the diet. Hibernation is up to 6 months. One litter per year, 3-8 young per litter.
7995		population	eng	Usually not abundant, up to 3 individuals per ha in Balkhash Basin, but more abundant in Kyzylkum. Population size fluctuates, rapidly decreasing once in 10-12 years.
7995		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
8004		conservation	eng	North American porcupine habitat falls within several protected areas within Canada, the U.S., and Mexico which has allowed the species to reestablish its populations.
8004		distribution	eng	Southern half of Canada, and northern and western United States, as well as scattered populations elsewhere in the eastern U.S. On the northern boundary of Mexico from the lower-middle Baja Peninsula east to the eastern border of mainland Mexico in a relatively straight line, but not in Baja or the Yucatan (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
8004		habitat	eng	Porcupines are found in a variety of habitats including dense forests, tundra, grasslands and desert shrub communities. <br/><br/>The diet is also generalized, but shows a marked difference between winter and summer seasons. Winter foods are primarily the bark, cambium and phloem of trees such as eastern and western hemlock, sugar maple, and Douglas fir. Porcupines will often feed heavily on a single tree, causing extensive damage or death. In the spring the diet shifts as porcupines begin feeding on roots, steams, leaves, berries, seeds and grasses. This species is primarily nocturnal and does not hibernate (Woods 1973). <br/><br/>Reproduction occurs during fall or early winter. Following a relatively long gestation, females give birth to one young in spring or early summer. Litters of more than 1 are uncommon (Woods 1973). An individual North American porcupine may have as many as 30,000 quills, measuring 7.5 cm long, which are used for defense purposes. Typical defense behavior is backing up towards the predator, swinging the tail, which has a high concentration of quills.
8004		population	eng	The North American porcupine is common and widespread. Local population densities range from 1 individual/km<sup>2</sup> - 9.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, with cyclical population peaks every 12-20 years (Woods 1973).
8004		threats	eng	No major threats to the species as a whole. <br/><br/>However, because of the damage caused to property, including trees, crops and car tires, porcupines are often hunted or trapped. In Mexico, it is considered in danger of extinction due to hunting (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). More effective population controls may be the management of a healthy population of fishers, the porcupine's main predator. Mortality is also known to be caused by collisions with automobiles (Woods 1973).
8005		conservation	eng	<p>The measures briefly described below are dealt with in greater detail in the Regional Overviews (see attached PDF).</p>  <ul><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Treaties      and Agreements.</u><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; Hawksbills benefit globally      from inclusion in CITES, the Convention on International Trade in      Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (listed on Appendix I) and <st1:stockticker u4:st="on">CMS</st1:stockticker>,<strong>      </strong>the Convention on Migratory Species (listed on Appendices I and      II).&#160; Regional agreements also help to conserve Hawksbills and their      habitats (see Regional Summaries, Appendix II).</span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Public      Awareness.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> </span></strong><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160;Interest      in Hawksbills and other species of marine turtles is at an all-time high      around the world.&#160; Interest in ecotourism is growing.</li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Capacity      building.</span></u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> &#160;</strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Increasing      numbers of biologists and conservationists focusing on sea turtles around      the world<strong> </strong>benefit hawksbills.</span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Protected      Areas.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; </span></strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Nesting      and foraging sanctuaries protect Hawksbills although effective enforcement      remains an elusive goal in many.</li><li><span times="" new="" roman=""></span><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Legislation and Enforcement.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; </span></strong>Numerous<strong> </strong>countries have temporarily or permanently banned all exploitation of sea turtles and their eggs and are attempting to improve enforcement of international bans on the tortoiseshell trade.</li></ul>
8005		distribution	eng	<p>The Hawksbill has a circumglobal distribution throughout tropical and, to a lesser extent, subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. Hawksbills are migratory and individuals undertake complex movements through geographically disparate habitats during their lifetimes. Hawksbill nesting occurs in at least 70 countries, although much of it now only at low densities. Their movements within the marine environment are less understood, but Hawksbills are believed to inhabit coastal waters in more than 108 countries (Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989, Baillie and Groombridge 1996; see Regional Overviews in attached PDF).</p>
8005		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitats</span><br/>Hawksbills nest on insular and mainland sandy beaches throughout the tropics and subtropics. They are highly migratory and use a wide range of broadly separated localities and habitats during their lifetimes (for review see Witzell 1983). Available data indicate that newly emerged hatchlings enter the sea and are carried by offshore currents into major gyre systems where they remain until reaching a carapace length of some 20 to 30 cm. At that point they recruit into a neritic developmental foraging habitat that may comprise coral reefs or other hard bottom habitats, sea grass, algal beds, or mangrove bays and creeks (Musick and Limpus 1997) or mud flats (R. von Brandis unpubl. data). As they increase in size, immature Hawksbills typically inhabit a series of developmental habitats, with some tendency for larger turtles to inhabit deeper sites (van Dam and Diez 1997, Bowen et al. 2007). Once sexually mature, they undertake breeding migrations between foraging grounds and breeding areas at intervals of several years (Witzell 1983, Dobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Mortimer and Bresson 1999). Global population genetic studies have demonstrated the tendency of female sea turtles to return to breed at their natal rookery (Bowen and Karl 1997), even though as juveniles they may have foraged at developmental habitats located hundreds or thousands of kilometers from the natal beach. While Hawksbills undertake long migrations, some portion of immature animals may settle into foraging habitats near their beaches of origin (Bowen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Roles in the Ecosystem&#160; </span><br/>Like other species of sea turtles, Hawksbills contribute to marine and coastal food webs and transport nutrients within the oceans (Bouchard and Bjorndal 2000). Hawksbills are important components of healthy coral reef ecosystems and are primarily spongivorous in the Caribbean (Meylan 1988), but more omnivorous in the Indo-Pacific (review by Bjorndal 1997). They consume relatively large amounts of algae in northern Australia (Whiting 2000 cited in S. Whiting in litt. to J. Mortimer 4 Jun 2007), soft corals in the Great Barrier Reef region (C. Limpus unpublished data), and other combinations of forage depending on habitat (in Seychelles, J. Mortimer and R. von Brandis unpublished data; in Barbados, B. Krueger unpublished data). At sites where they are primarily spongivorous, Hawksbills have been found to support healthy reefs by controlling sponges which would otherwise out-compete reef-building corals for space (Hill 1998, León and Bjorndal 2002, Bjorndal and Jackson 2003).
8005		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Generation Length</span><br/>Generation length is defined as the age to maturity plus one half the reproductive longevity (Pianka 1974). Hawksbills mature very slowly, taking 20 to 40 years, and so are long-lived (Chaloupka and Musick 1997). In the Caribbean and Western Atlantic, Hawksbills may mature in 20 or more years (Boulon 1983, 1994; Diez and van Dam 2002; Krueger in litt. 2006). Age to maturity in the Indo-Pacific requires a minimum of 30-35 years (Limpus 1992; Limpus and Miller 2000; Mortimer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, 2003). In northeastern Australia, first breeding is estimated to occur at 31-36 years for females and 38 years for males (Limpus and Miller 2000).<br/><br/>Data on reproductive longevity in Hawksbills are limited, but becoming available with increasing numbers of intensively monitored, long-term projects on protected beaches.&#160; During the last decade, numerous individual Caribbean Hawksbills have been recorded actively nesting over a period of 14-22 years (C.E. Diez in litt. 2006, Z. Hillis-Starr in litt. 2006, Parrish and Goodman 2006). In the Indo-Pacific&#160; Mortimer and Bresson (1999) and Limpus (1992) have reported nesting over 17-20 years, comparable to other Chelonid turtles which range from 20 to 30 years (Carr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978, FitzSimmons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).<br/><br/>Given estimated ages to maturity of 25 years in the Caribbean and 35 years in the Indo-Pacific, with half of reproductive longevity estimated at 10 years, a conservative generation length of 35 years (25 + 10 years) is calculated for the Caribbean and Western Atlantic, and 45 years (35 + 10 years) in the Indo-Pacific. In analyzing the data, declines over three generations are therefore measured for up to 105 years in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic and up to 135 years in the Indo-Pacific. In fact, generation length may well have been longer in the days when population density was higher (Bjorndal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Nesting Population Size and Fecundity</span><br/>Sea turtle population trends are best diagnosed using in-water abundance estimates coupled with estimates of demographic parameters such as survival and recruitment possibilities (Chaloupka and Limpus 2001, Bjorndal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). However, these data rarely exist for sea turtle populations and so most assessments are based on evaluating nesting trends, which assumes a close correlation between population trends and nesting activity (Bjorndal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/>&#160;<br/>For this assessment the size of a nesting population is defined as the average number of individual females nesting per year. In some cases, population numbers can be determined by saturation tagging of nesting females or by recording the total number of slaughtered nesters. More often, however, population estimates need to be derived from records of the total number of egg clutches laid during a season. Saturation tagging of nesting females indicates that at most sites the average female Hawksbill lays between three and five egg clutches during a single nesting season (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Mortimer and Bresson 1999), with indications that newly recruited females lay fewer egg clutches (Mortimer and Bresson 1999, Beggs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and possibly fewer clutches in the Arabian/Persian Gulf (Pilcher 1999). Following the pattern of earlier status reviews, the present assessment calculates the annual number of nesting females by dividing the total number of egg clutches recorded, by three to five to produce a bracketed population estimate.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population Trends and Conclusions</span><br/>In many parts of the world, Hawksbill populations have continued to decline since the publication of the previous Red List Assessment (Meylan and Donnelly 1999). Continuing losses in southeast Asia are of particular concern. Hawksbills face multiple, severe threats. The volume of the tortoiseshell trade has diminished, yet it remains active and substantial, and the Japanese bekko industry remains intact.<br/><br/>In 2001 the IUCN Red List Standards and Petitions Subcommittee upheld the Critically Endangered listing of the Hawksbill, based on ongoing and long-term declines in excess of 80% within the time frame of three generations and ongoing exploitation (IUCN 2001b). The Subcommittee review cited “convincing evidence of reductions in excess of 80% over the last three generations at many, if not most of the important breeding sites throughout the global range of the species”. Not surprisingly, those declines reflect the intensity of the tortoiseshell trade in the 20th Century. Although some relatively large populations still exist, especially in Australia, this is not inconsistent with long-term global or even regional population reduction over three generations (a point noted by the Subcommittee). Unlike previous reviews of the status of the Hawksbill, the present assessment is quantitative and provides a numerical basis for the global listing of the species as Critically Endangered. The 2001 findings of the IUCN Red List Standards and Petitions Subcommittee are as valid today as they were six years ago.<br/><br/>The current assessment clearly demonstrates the importance of protection in both terrestrial and marine habitats. With protection, some populations have stabilized, and others are now increasing, most notably in the Caribbean. The increases documented in the Caribbean coincide with dramatic reductions in take on the foraging grounds of Cuba which have, in effect, spared tens of thousands of large Hawksbills since the early 1990s. Such increases provide hope for the future, but unfortunately are still the exception rather than the rule. Similar results are needed elsewhere.
8005		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Threats</span>: <br/><br/>The most important threats to Hawksbill turtles, described here, are dealt with in greater detail in the section entitled Regional Overview (see attached PDF).<br/><ul><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Tortoiseshell Trade</span>. Recent and historical tortoiseshell trade statistics are key to understanding the enormous and enduring effect that trade has had on Hawksbill populations around the world (see IND-Table 5, PAC-Table 5 and ATL-Table 7 in attached PDF). Within the last 100 years, millions of Hawksbills have been killed for the tortoiseshell markets of Europe, the United States and Asia. The global plight of the Hawksbill in the latter half of the 20th Century has been recognized by the inclusion of the species in the most threatened category of IUCN’s Red List since 1968 and the listing of all Hawksbill populations on Appendix I of CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, since 1977. Nevertheless, trade continued at exceptionally high levels for years as major trading countries acceded to CITES and Japan, the world’s largest consumer of bekko (tortoiseshell), continued to import shell under a CITES reservation (exception) until 1993. During the period 1950-1992, Japan’s bekko imports were the equivalent of 1,329,044 large turtles (1,408,787 kg). Conservatively estimating that 30% of the turtles taken for the trade were nesting females, nearly 400,000 adult female Hawksbills were killed for the Japanese market in those years, a time frame that approximates a single Hawksbill generation. Significant domestic trade in Hawksbill products continues to be a major problem in many countries and, despite international and domestic prohibitions and the lessening of the volume in the last decade, trade remains an ongoing and pervasive threat in the Americas and southeast Asia (Fleming 2001, Chacón 2002, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia 2004, van Dijk and Shepherd 2004, Brautigam and Eckert 2006).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Egg Collection</span>. Intense levels of egg exploitation continue in many parts of the world (see IND-Table 5 and ATL-Table 7 in attached PDF), especially southeast Asia, where it approaches 100% in many areas (see PAC-Tables 4 and 5 in attached PDF).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Slaughter for Meat</span>. Adult and juvenile Hawksbills are still killed for meat in many areas (see IND-Table 5, PAC-Table 5 and ATL-Table 7 in attached PDF).&#160; In some places the meat is used by fishermen as shark bait (J. Mortimer unpubl. data, C. Lagueux, unpubl. data). Fishermen who target lobster and reef fish will commonly take whatever hawksbills they encounter (Carr and Meylan 1980).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Destruction of Nesting Habitat</span>. Tropical coastlines are rapidly being developed for tourism which often leads to destruction of nesting habitat (see IND-Table 5, PAC-Table 5 and ATL-Table 7 in attached PDF). Because Hawksbills prefer to nest under vegetation they are particularly impacted by beach-front development and clearing of dune vegetation. Daytime nesting Hawksbills in the Western Indian Ocean are particular sensitive to disturbance from human activity on the coast and in nearshore waters (Mortimer 2004). In other parts of the world such as the Middle East and Western Australia gas and oil refineries seriously disrupt nesting habitat (see IND-Table 5 and PAC-Table 5 in attached PDF).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Destruction of Foraging Habitat</span>. Hawksbills are typically associated with coral reefs, which are among the world’s most endangered marine ecosystems (Wilkinson 2000). Climate change has led to massive coral bleaching events with permanent consequences for local habitats (Sheppard 2006) (see IND-Table 5, PAC-Table 5 and ATL-Table 7 in attached PDF).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Hybridisation of Hawksbills with Other Species</span>. At certain sites where Hawksbill numbers are particularly low, they regularly hybridise with other species of sea turtles (see ATL-Table 7 in attached PDF).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Entanglement and Ingestion of Marine Debris - including Fishing Gear</span>. Hawkbills are particularly susceptible to entanglement in gill nets (see IND-Table 5, PAC-Table 5 andATL-Table 7 in attached PDF) and capture on fishing hooks (Mortimer 1998). Juvenile Hawksbills comprised 47% of all turtles entangled in derelict fishing nets and other debris in northern Australian waters (Kiessling 2003, White 2004). Ingestion of marine debris by Hawksbills is also significant (White 2004).</li><li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Oil Pollution</span>. There is evidence oil pollution has a greater impact on Hawksbills than on other species of turtle (Meylan and Redlow 2006). In some parts of the world (especially the Middle East) oil pollution is a major problem (see IND-Table 5 in attached PDF).<br/></li></ul><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"><br/>Tortoiseshell Trade Overview</span><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">History of the Trade</span><br/>Tortoiseshell, the beautiful scutes of the carapace and plastron of the Hawksbill turtle, has been prized since ancient times. Surrounded by legend, tortoiseshell has been described as “one of the romantic articles of commerce, not only because of where it comes from, but because of the creatures from which it is obtained and the people engaged in the trade” (quoted in Parsons 1972). Jewellery and other tortoiseshell objects have been unearthed from pre-dynastic graves of the Nubian rulers of Egypt and excavated from the ruins of the Han Empire which ruled China in pre-Christian times. Over 2,000 years ago Julius Caesar considered the warehouses of Alexandria brimming with tortoiseshell to be the chief spoil of his triumph. By the early years of the 9th Century, caravans of Arab traders carried rhinoceros horn, ivory, and tortoiseshell throughout the Indian Ocean. For the next 1,000 years, the tortoiseshell trade flourished (Parsons 1972). Around 1700, during the Edo Period, the bekko (tortoiseshell) artisans of Japan established themselves at Nagasaki (Milliken and Tokunaga 1987).<br/><br/>The tortoiseshell trade has been closely linked to European discovery, conquest, and commerce around the world. The Portuguese, Dutch, French and English played major roles in the global trade; exploitation occurred throughout the world’s tropical oceans, and especially in the East Indies (i.e., modern day India, Indo China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines). The East Indies were a major source of the shell of antiquity, and these rich waters fittingly have been called the world’s most productive seas for tortoiseshell (Parsons 1972). In the insular Pacific international trade did not develop until the mid 19th Century, but once established, it took a tremendous toll on the region’s Hawksbills. For the next 150 years, tortoiseshell was a prized commodity in the Pacific, first with the sandal-wooders and then with the whalers (McKinnon 1975).<br/><br/>European Hawksbill fishing in the Caribbean began in the mid-17th Century and intensified throughout the 18th Century as demand increased (McClenachan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). As they decimated local Hawksbill populations in one area after another, turtle fishermen moved from one site to the next. The plentiful Hawksbill resources of Central America were exploited for more than 100 years by traders, including Americans, who established the town of Bocas del Toro on the coast of Panama in 1826 (Parsons 1972). Turtling was still a lucrative business in Cuba in 1885 when the village of Cocodrilos on the Isle of Pines was settled by turtle fishermen who emigrated from the Cayman Islands after its Hawksbills were gone (Carrillo et al. 1999). Over the next 100 years, many tens of thousands of Hawksbills were captured in the rich foraging grounds of the Cuban shelf.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">20th Century Trade</span><br/>Tortoiseshell trade statistics are key to understanding the enormous and enduring effect that trade has had on Hawksbill populations around the world.&#160; In the early 20th Century, tortoiseshell was imported for luxury markets in Europe, the United States and Asia as the manufacture of combs and brushes, jewellery boxes, and tortoiseshell ornaments was “an established industry in almost every civilized country” (Seale 1917). Declines in Hawksbill populations were obvious in many areas by the first part of the century, as exemplified by expressions of “wanton destruction” in the Virgin Islands (Schmidt 1916) and over exploitation in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) (Dammerman 1929). Although existing records document an extensive trade in many countries, such as the 8,000 Hawksbills (8,000 kg) taken annually in the Philippines for the shell trade to Japan during World War I (Seale 1917) and 160,700 Hawksbills killed between 1918-1927 in the Dutch East Indies for export to Japan, Singapore and the Netherlands (Dammerman 1929), records for many other areas are incomplete.<br/><br/>During the 20th century, Japan was the world’s largest importer of tortoiseshell (Milliken and Tokunaga 1987, Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989). Although data are not available for imports in the first half of the century, Japanese statistics document the import of shell equivalent to more than 1.3 million large Hawksbills from around the world between 1950-1992 and more than 575,000 stuffed juveniles from Asia between 1970-1986 (Milliken and Tokunaga 1987, Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989). Local trade in stuffed Hawksbills also flourished in the Indian Ocean, the Pacific and the Americas, especially in tourist areas. When Japanese, European, American and other Asian imports are considered along with the large quantities of tortoiseshell used locally in places like Sri Lanka and Madagascar, it is readily apparent that some millions of Hawksbills were killed for the tortoiseshell trade in the last 100 years.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Hawksbills and CITES&#160;&#160; </span><br/>In 1975, in recognition of its threatened status, the Hawksbill was included on Appendices I (Atlantic population) and II (Pacific population) of CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, when the Convention came into force. By 1977 the entire species was moved to Appendix I to prohibit all international trade. Nevertheless, the global trade continued for a number of years, in large part driven by Japanese demand. At the end of 1992, Japanese imports ceased, but the industry continues to operate with stockpiled material.<br/><ul><li>In the late 1970s more than 45 countries were involved in exporting and importing raw shell, with annual Japanese imports the equivalent of about 37,700 turtles (40,000 kg).</li><li>Export and import levels remained exceptionally high until the mid-1980s as major trading nations slowly joined CITES. When they acceded to CITES in 1978, France and Italy took reservations (exceptions) to the Appendix I Hawksbill listing; these reservations were withdrawn in 1984 when they joined the EU.</li><li>When Japan acceded to CITES in 1980, it also took a reservation on the Hawksbill and reduced its annual quota to the equivalent of 28,300 turtles (30,000 kg), based solely on the needs of its bekko industry.</li><li>In 1985 CITES proposals by Indonesia and the Seychelles to place their Hawksbill populations on Appendix II to allow trade failed at the 5th CITES Conference of the Parties (COP 5). A similar Indonesian proposal at COP 6 in 1987 was withdrawn before the vote.</li><li>A comprehensive report on the Japanese sea turtle trade by Milliken and Tokunaga in 1987 documented significant amounts of bekko trade with CITES countries. From 1980 to 1985, between 42% and 58% of all bekko imports originated in CITES countries, without proper export documents.</li><li>In 1989 a detailed report commissioned by the CITES Secretariat found that Hawksbill populations were depleted or declining in 56 of 65 geopolitical units for which data were available and estimated that the annual global nesting population was a minimum of 15,000-25,000 Hawksbills. The authors concluded that the listing of the species on Appendix I was “unquestionably appropriate and must be maintained” (Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989).</li><li>On 1 April 1990, Japan reduced its annual bekko quota to the equivalent of 18,870 turtles (20,000 kg,).&#160; In 1991, in an effort to avoid a U.S. embargo of its fish and fishery products, Japan agreed to further reduce its annual quota to the equivalent of 7,075 turtles (7,500 kg) by August 1991, to establish a zero quota on 1 January 1993, and to drop its Hawksbill reservation in July 1994. Japan also agreed to support the re-training of hundreds of bekko artisans. In the early 1990s, in response to the end of the Japanese trade, Cuba reduced its annual Hawksbill fishery quota from 5,000 turtles to 500.</li><li>Since 1994, officials in Seychelles and Zanzibar have acquired tortoiseshell stocks from local artisans and subsequently burned them to demonstrate a commitment to ending the tortoiseshell trade (Khatib et al. 1996, Mortimer 1999). Cape Verde has shown similar commitment (Fretey et al. 2002).</li><li>In 1997 and 2000, at CITES COP 10 and COP 11, Cuba proposed to sell its stockpiled tortoiseshell to Japan, and also proposed a continuation of the international trade in tortoiseshell taken from the 500 Hawksbills still captured each year. All these proposals failed.</li><li>In response to regional disagreement generated by Cuban interest in moving Caribbean Hawksbills from Appendix I to II, the CITES Secretariat convened two regional Hawksbill dialogues in 2001 and 2002. The Dialogues encouraged regional cooperation by helping to establish Hawksbill priorities. As a result, resources for research, management and conservation have been generated.</li><li>Although the tortoiseshell trade continues to threaten Hawksbills in numerous places, overall volume is substantially reduced. Thirty years after CITES came into force, the ban on international trade demonstrates its value over time in protecting Hawksbills. Above all, nesting increases in the Caribbean coincide with the enormous reduction in Hhawksbill fishing in Cuban waters.</li><li>In June 2007, Cuba informed CITES COP 14 that it would voluntarily institute a moratorium on its sea turtle fisheries in 2008. Although Cuba has a CITES Hawksbill reservation (exception) and reserves its right to dispose of its tortoiseshell stockpile, most nations are members of CITES and therefore cannot legally trade in tortoiseshell.<br/></li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">The Japanese Tortoiseshell Trade</span><br/>Twenty years ago, in their landmark report on Japan’s sea turtle trade, Milliken and Tokunaga (1987) focused on providing estimates of the numbers of Hawksbills (and other species of sea turtles) represented by trade data so that the effect of Japanese exploitation around the world could be assessed. In particular, they cautioned that past exploitation is relevant to understanding and predicting current sea turtle population trends.<br/><br/>Estimates of the numbers of Hawksbills involved in the tortoiseshell trade are based on conversion factors calculated for each region by Milliken and Tokunaga (1987). Globally, the average Hawksbill produces 1.06 kg of tortoiseshell; but regionally, conversions are 0.74 kg in the Indian Ocean; 0.75 kg in Asia; 0.88 kg in Oceania; and 1.34 kg in the Caribbean. A combination of factors likely accounts for these differences, including regional variation in average adult size, as well as the relative proportion of adult and immature turtles represented in the trade. Some reports indicate that in the past the average turtle produced more shell than in recent decades. Adult turtles that survive long enough will continue to grow, so it follows that the average size of nesting animals tends to decline in an over-exploited population. In other cases, once nesting populations have been destroyed, hunters may shift their focus to foraging turtles which usually include immature animals. In the absence of specific historical information documenting the size classes of animals killed, the conversions we use in the present assessment are based on estimates provided by Milliken and Tokunaga. Based on the trade through 1992 (when legal Japanese imports ceased), the following information reveals the extent of the Japanese exploitation of global Hawksbill populations and the percent contribution of different regions to overall imports during 1950-1992.<br/><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Caribbean and Latin America (44.2%)</span>: 29 countries provided the shell of 460,220 turtles (616,695 kg). Exports from Panama and Cuba were the equivalent of 152,070 and 106,948 turtles (203,774 kg and 170,047 kg, respectively), making them the most important sources of bekko in the world for Japan. Panama hosted the region’s largest nesting Hawksbill assemblages until the latter part of the 20th Century. After 1961, Hawksbills in the Cuban trade were captured only at sea, but comprised adult and large immature animals.</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Asia (20.8%)</span>: nine countries provided the shell of 387,020 turtles (290,265 kg). Exports from Indonesia were the equivalent of 155,654 turtles (116,741 kg), making it the most important source in the region and the third largest global supplier to Japan. Much of the shell exported from Singapore to Japan was probably of Indonesian origin (118,535 turtles, 88,901 kg). Asia was nearly the sole source of Japan’s stuffed juvenile Hawksbill imports, as discussed below.</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">North America (15.1%)</span>: the United States provided Japan with the shell of 199,490 turtles (211,463 kg) in two very large shipments, 142,241 kg in 1951 and 68,402 in 1954. The countries of origin are unknown, but in all likelihood some quantity originated in U.S. Caribbean and Pacific territories.</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean and East Africa (8.7%)</span>: 15 countries provided the shell of 164,828 turtles (121,973 kg). Kenya and Tanzania, regional collection points, were the major exporters. Countries in the northwestern Indian Ocean are notably absent from Japanese import statistics. As a non-CITES country, Maldives figured prominently in the trade after 1984 despite its national legislation protecting Hawksbills. Japanese imports therefore were in contravention of CITES Conf. Res. 4.25, which requires a nation with a reservation to treat an Appendix I species as Appendix II, with valid export documents from the country of origin.</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Oceania (5.8%)</span>: six countries provided the shell of 92,124 turtles (81,069 kg). A significant proportion of this trade is attributed to Australia until 1977 (29,109 turtles; 25,616 kg). Solomon Islands and Fiji were also important suppliers, especially in the final years of trading, with 40,982 and 14,490 turtles (36,064 and 12,751 kg, respectively). Fiji banned all tortoiseshell exports in January 1991 (Daly, 1991) but domestic tourist trade in Hawksbill curios and whole carapaces continues (see PAC-Table 5 in attached PDF).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Europe and West Africa (5.4%)</span>: 10 countries provided the shell of 70,560 turtles (74,793 kg). The Netherlands was the largest exporter with the equivalent of 44,775 turtles (47,461 kg), but the source of this shell is unknown.</li><li>In the 1970s, small lacquered Hawksbills became popular in Japan as symbols of long life. From 1970-1986 Japan imported 576,702 juvenile Hawksbills, mostly from Indonesia and Singapore but also from Taiwan, Province of China (32,075), the Ryukyus (13,438), Philippines (8698), Viet Nam (1195), Hong Kong (3549), and small quantities from a handful of other nations. Japan subsequently prohibited the trade, but continued to allow dealers to sell stocks acquired before July 1994. In December 1999, the dealers reported that they had a total of 135 stuffed sea turtles (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan 2000).</li><li>Numerous irregularities in bekko imports occurred in the final years of Japan’s trade under its CITES reservation. These included imports of shell from non-CITES countries that did not legally allow export of shell, as well as imports from countries known to have had too few turtles to supply the shell attributed to them. Based on these data, Japanese bekko imports from 11 of the 14 countries reported by the dealers in 1989 were illegal.</li><li>The bekko stockpile in Japan includes raw shell and finished products. After Japan banned all imports in January 1993, annual Japanese domestic sales from stockpiled supplies remained high. Between July 1995 and July 1998 the stockpile was reduced from 188.4 to 102.73 tonnes (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan 2000). Information on subsequent annual sales and use is not available, but supplies would now be exhausted if utilization had continued at 28 tonnes a year after July 1998.</li><li>Today, however, the bekko industry is intact, and Japanese consumer demand remains high. In January 2000, the valuable raw shell from abdominal plates ranged in price from JPY 30,000 per kg to JPY 150,000 per kg (US $ 294-$1470 at that time) (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan 2000).<br/></li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">21st Century Global Trade</span><br/>Significant domestic trade in Hawksbill products is a major problem in many countries and, despite prohibitions on international trade and a reduction in its volume in the last decade, international and domestic trade remains an ongoing and pervasive threat in the Americas, Asia, and parts of Africa (Fleming 2001, Chacon 2002, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia 2004, van Dijk and Shepherd 2004, Brautigam and Eckert 2006, Reuter and Allan 2006).<br/><ul><li>Some Japanese dealers have continued to import shell illegally as evidenced by numerous bekko shipments intercepted en route to or in Japan since the ban took effect (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan 2000) and ongoing underground trade in southeast Asia to Japan and other destinations (van Dijk and Shepherd 2004, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia 2004).</li><li>More than a decade after the Japanese prohibition on bekko imports took effect, van Dijk and Shepherd (2004) reported the interest of the Japan Bekko Association in acquiring Indonesia’s remaining stockpiles of bekko.</li><li>Although the volume of trade in Indonesia diminished significantly between 1991 and 2001, it is still substantial. The collection of tortoiseshell still occurs in numerous places, with most of the trade appearing to be disorganized and underground. Western Sumatra, Nias, and Papua are areas where significant exploitation and trade are known or suspected (van Dijk and Shepherd 2004).</li><li>Those familiar with the trade warn that Indonesian stockpiles should be seized “as any indication of resumption of international trade of bekko could lead to requests from Indonesian traders to be allowed to sell their stockpiles” (van Dijk and Shepherd 2004).</li><li>Surveys in Viet Nam in 2002 revealed an active international trade in tortoiseshell that had increased since 1999.&#160; Shell was purchased by tourists and foreigners buying in bulk for export to Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan (Province of China), Thailand, China and Asian communities in North America and Europe. Viet Nam subsequently instituted full protection for the Hawksbill (van Dijk and Shepherd 2004, TRAFFIC East Asia 2004).</li><li>In recent reviews of the Lesser Antilles, Dominican Republic, Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, researchers provided evidence of extensive clandestine trade in sea turtles, including Hawksbills.&#160; Management and law enforcement are inadequate throughout the region (Brautigam and Eckert 2006, Reuter and Allan 2006).</li><li>On 1 February 2007, the Kyodo News of Japan reported that Cuba would not seek to re-open the international tortoiseshell trade at the upcoming CITES meeting and noted Japanese disappointment given the long term support provided for the bekko industry. During 1991-2006, the Japanese government spent 735 million yen (US $6M) for research on Hawksbill resources and 140 million yen (US $1.1M) for projects to resume international trade, including trade with Cuba. The article also reported that the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry will support the bekko industry for another five years.<span times="" new="" roman=""></li></ul>
8010		conservation	eng	Bearded seals are protected by various laws in their range countries and by treaties internationally.  Subsistence hunting by Native People of the Arctic is generally for personal use and not regulated, for example, as in Canada and the United States (Cleator 1996, Angliss and Outlaw 2005).<br/><br/>Vessel-based commercial hunting in the former Soviet Union ended in 1975 and the harvest continues at much lower levels, more like a subsistence harvest.  Prior to the end of commercial harvesting, the Soviet Union used a system of quotas to regulate the take in an attempt to manage the population (Kelly 1988).  Licensed hunters can take bearded seals in Svalbard, but not in nature reserves or during the breeding season (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8010		conservation	eng	Bearded Seals are protected by various laws in their range countries. Subsistence hunting by indigenous people of the Arctic is generally for personal use and not regulated unless populations are depleted (<em>e.g.</em>, Cleator 1996, Angliss and Outlaw 2005).<br/><br/>Vessel-based commercial hunting in the former Soviet Union ended in 1975; after that time the harvest has taken place at much lower levels (similar to a subsistence harvest). Prior to the end of commercial harvesting, the Soviet Union used a system of quotas to regulate the take of Bearded Seals in an attempt to manage the population (Kelly 1988). Licensed (sport) hunters can shoot bearded seals in Svalbard, outside protected areas and not during the breeding season (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8010		distribution	eng	Bearded seals have a circumpolar distribution in the Arctic and sub-Arctic south of 85 degrees North, usually in water less than 200 m deep (Kelly 1988). A disjunct population inhabits the Sea of Okhotsk, ranging south to Hokkaido, Japan (Rice 1998). They reach the southern Bering Sea and Bristol Bay to the limit of seasonally ice covered waters (Kelly 1988). They also occupy all of Hudson Bay, and range south to Southern Labrador, and northern Iceland and Norway (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Bearded seal vagrants have been reported from many locations outside the Arctic including Portugal in the eastern North Atlantic (van Bree 2000), the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, northern Newfoundland, and Cape Cod, Massachusetts in the western North Atlantic (Gosselin and Boily 1994).<br/><br/>The ranges of the two subspecies are divided near the central Canadian Arctic in the Western Hemisphere, and Laptev Sea in the Eastern Hemisphere, with the Atlantic subspecies barbatus occurring from the central Canadian Arctic east to the central Eurasian Arctic, and Pacific subspecies nauticus occurring from the Laptev Sea east to the central Canadian Arctic, including animals in the Sea of Okhotsk (Rice 1998).
8010		distribution	eng	Bearded Seals have a patchy circumpolar distribution throughout much of the Arctic and sub-Arctic, south of 85ºN (Kelly 1988). A disjunct population inhabits the Sea of Okhotsk, ranging south to Hokkaido, Japan (Rice 1998). Bearded Seals reach the southern Bering Sea and Bristol Bay to the limit of seasonally ice covered waters regularly (Kelly 1988). They also occupy all of Hudson Bay, are found throughout much of the eastern Canadian Archipelago, both coasts of Greenland and south to southern Labrador. They can also be found along the north shore of Iceland, within the Svalbard Archipelago and across much of the north within the Russian Federation (Kovacs 2002). Bearded Seal vagrants have been reported from many locations outside the Arctic including Portugal in the eastern North Atlantic (van Bree 2000), the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, northern Newfoundland, and Cape Cod, Massachusetts in the western North Atlantic (Gosselin 1994).<br/><br/>The ranges of the two putative subspecies are divided near the central Canadian Arctic in the West and the Laptev Sea in the East, with the Atlantic subspecies <em>barbatus</em> occurring from the central Canadian Arctic east to the central Eurasian Arctic and the Pacific subspecies <em>nauticus</em> occurring from the Laptev Sea east to the central Canadian Arctic, including animals in the Sea of Okhotsk (Rice 1998). Geographical variation does exist in the calls of Bearded Seals across their range, suggesting some population substructure (Risch <em>et al</em>. 2007).
8010		habitat	eng	Bearded Seals are the largest northern phocid seal. Adults reach lengths of 2-2.5 m and weights of 250-300 kg (Andersen <em>et al</em>. 1999) with females typically being slightly larger than males (Kovacs 2002). In the Bering Sea, males have been recorded to reach 390 kg and females 361 kg (Kelly 1988). Weight fluctuates dramatically during the year and bearded seals are typically at their lowest weight from mid-summer to autumn, after which they regain lost weight lost during breeding and moulting (Andersen <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Alaskan waters, sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 years in females, with 80% of females having had a pup by age 6. Males reach sexual maturity at 6-7 years (Kelly 1988). Final body size is reached at approximately 9-10 years (McLaren 1958), and they can live 20-25 years (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Bearded Seal pups are born on small floes of annual ice and they swim within hours of birth (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1996). Peak birthing occurs between late March and mid-May, varying somewhat across the bearded seal’s range (Kovacs 2002). Pups in the Bering Sea average 132 cm and 34 kg in weight at birth and are weaned in an estimated 12-18 days when they weigh around 85 kg (Kelly 1988). Gjertz <em>et al</em>. (2000) estimated that in Svalbard pups are weaned in approximately 24 days. Prior to weaning their aquatic skills have developed to the degree that they spend about half their time in the water, diving for up to 5.5 minutes to depths of up to 84 m (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Adult females spend over 90% of their time in the water while caring for a dependent pup; about half this time is spent away from the neonate, presumably in foraging dives. Most female dives are relatively short and shallow. On average, there are 3 nursing bouts per day accomplished during the brief times the mother is out of the water. The amount of time mothers spend in the water is thought to be an adaptive response to polar bear predation, making the pair less conspicuous to hunting bears (Krafft <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Mating takes place at the end of lactation similar to other phocid seals. Males court females and display using elaborate downward trilling vocalizations that can travel many kilometers (Cleator <em>et al</em>. 1989). Individual males use distinct songs, and occupy the same territories over a series of consecutive years within constraints imposed by variable ice conditions, or they show a roaming pattern (VanParijs <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2003, 2004). In captivity singing males are attended by other satellite males similar to the male groups that have been observed for Harbour Seals in the wild (Davies <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Bearded Seals feed primarily on or near the bottom and most diving is to depths of less than 100 m (though dives of adults have been recorded up to 300 m and young-of-the-year have been recorded diving down to almost 500 m; Gjertz <em>et al</em>. 2000). They use their elaborate whiskers to search for prey on and in soft bottom substrates (Marshall <em>et al</em>. 2007, 2008). Because of their benthic feeding habits they live primarily in waters overlying the continental shelf, in shallow regions such as the Bering and Barents Seas (Burns 1981, Kovacs 2002). The availability of sea ice is a major habitat determinant for bearded seals. They are typically found in regions of broken free-floating pack ice; in these areas bearded seals prefer to use small and medium sized floes, avoiding large floes (Simpkins <em>et al</em>. 2003). They rarely haul out more than a body length from water and they use leads within shore-fast ice only if suitable pack ice is not available (Kovacs 2002). Bearded Seals naturally occur at quite low densities (<em>e.g.</em>, Bengtson <em>et al</em>. 2005); they are typically solitary animals, but will form small, loose aggregations when ice availability is limited, such as at the time of moulting in midsummer.<br/><br/>The diet of Bearded Seals varies by age, location, season, and possibly also changes in prey availability in marine communities (Kelly 1988). Their primary foods live on or near the bottom, but also include some infauna as well as schooling and demersal fish (Burns 1981, Hjelset <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the Kara and Barents seas, the diet is dominated by crustaceans (shrimps) and molluscs (gastropods and bivalves). Cod, other demersal fish, and worms are also regular components of the diet. A wide variety of prey has been reported from the Sea of Okhotsk with crabs and shrimps accounting for 87% of the total intake for animals in the north, and clams, worms, and gastropods making up 40%, 23%, and 12% respectively of the intake for animals in the south near Sakhalin Island. In the Bering and Chukchi Seas, snow crab was the most important prey, followed by the crab <em>Hyas coarctatus</em>, while the reverse was true farther north. Shrimp species, gastropods, and octopus are important in both the northern and southern Bering Sea and the Chukchi Sea. The diet is similar in the Beaufort Sea with the addition of Arctic cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) (Burns 1981). Antonelis <em>et al</em>. (1994) found that 86% of Bearded Seals examined in the central Bering Sea in early spring, had fish in their stomachs. In order of importance these were capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>), codfishes (<em>Gadidae</em>), and eelpouts (<em>Lycodes</em> spp.). Lowry <em>et al</em>. (1980) reported similar findings on percentage of the occurrence of fish in stomachs, but reported that fish as a percent of total volume was 16% from May through September, and dropped to 5% for October through April. In the eastern Canadian Arctic, Bearded Seals in the summer consumed a minimum of 12 fish species, dominated by sculpins (<em>Cottidae</em>) and Arctic cod with fish prey accounting for greater than 90% of the wet weight of the stomach contents (Finley and Evans 1983). At Svalbard, Bearded Seals eat a wide variety of prey (>50% of collected stomachs had 5 or more prey species). Polar cod (<em>Boreogadis saida</em>), sculpins (<em>Cottidae</em> spp.), spider crab (<em>Hyas araneus</em>), and the crustaceans <em>Sabinea sptemcarinatus</em> and <em>Sclerocrangon boreas</em> were the most frequent prey items (Hjelset <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In June, following the pupping and breeding season, Bearded Seals undergo their annual moult. During the moult they spend much of their time hauled out and are reluctant to enter the water (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2004). Animals can be found moulting from April to August with a peak in May to June (Burns 1981). Bearded Seals usually haul out on ice when it is available, but will haul out on land in the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, along the Laptev, White, and Kara Sea coastlines and at Svalbard (Burns 1981, Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2004).
8010		habitat	eng	Bearded seals are the largest phocids in the Arctic. Adults reach lengths of 2-2.5m and weights of 250-300 kg (Andersen <em>et al.</em> 1999) with females typically being slightly larger than males (Kovacs 2002). In the Bering Sea, males have been recorded to reach 390 kg and females 361 kg (Kelly 1988). Sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 years in females, with 80% of females having had a pup by age 6. Males reach sexual maturity at 6-7 years (Kelly 1988).  Physical maturity occurs at approximately 9-10 years (McLaren 1958), and they can live 20-25 years (Kovacs 2002). Bearded seal pups are born on the sea ice, but they swim within hours of birth (Kovacs 2002), and before they are weaned they are spending about half their time in the water. <br/><br/>Bearded seals primarily feed on or near the bottom, and most diving is to depths of less than 100m (Kovacs 2002).  Therefore they live primarily in waters overlying the continental shelf, like much of the relatively shallow Bering Sea when it is seasonally covered with ice (Burns 1981).  Adults have been recorded to dive to nearly 300 m, and young pups to over 488 m (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Ice is also a determinant of habitat. Bearded seals are typically found away from shore-fast ice and unbroken heavily covered ice fields, preferring areas with moving ice where ice movement, currents, weather and land features interact to create broken ice fields, leads, polynas, and other open areas (Burns 1981).  They rarely haul out more than a body length from water (Kovacs 2002).  Bearded seals are typically solitary animals, but will form loose aggregations when ice availability is low (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>The diet of bearded seals varies by age, location, season, and possibly changes in prey availability in marine communities over long time periods (Kelly 1988).  Their primary foods live on or near the bottom, but also include some infauna and schooling and demersal fish (Burns 1981). At Svalbard, bearded seals took a wide variety of prey and over half of the stomachs examined had 5 or more species. Arctic cod, found in 44% of the animals, sculpins (Cottidae spp.) in 44%, spider crab (<em>Hyas araneus</em>) in 59%, and the crustaceans <em>Sabinea sptemcarinatus</em> 59% and <em>Sclerocrangon boreas</em> 46%, were the most frequently found prey items (Hjelset <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>In June, following the pupping and breeding season, bearded seals undergo their annual molt. During the molt they spend much of their time hauled out, and are reluctant to enter the water (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004). Animals can be found molting from April to August with a peak in May to June (Burns 1981). Bearded seals usually haul out on ice when it is available, but will haul out on land in the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, along the Laptev, White, and Kara Sea coastlines (Burns 1981), and at Svalbard (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Important natural predators of bearded seals include polar bears (Burns 1981), as well as killer whales, walruses, and Greenland sharks (Kovacs 2002).
8010		population	eng	The size of the global population of Bearded Seals is not known (Kovacs 2002). Crude published estimates for parts of the bearded seal’s range include: 200,000-250,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk, including 60,000-75,000 off eastern Sakhalin Island (1968 to1990) and 250,000-300,000 in the Bering Sea, including 83,000-87,000 in the western Bering Sea (Fedoseev 2000). A minimum estimate for Canadian waters of 190,000 animals was suggested by Cleator (1996), based on data collected over a 35-year period. Angliss and Outlaw (2005) state that there are no current reliable population estimates for the Bering Chukchi stock of Bearded Seals. No estimates exist for the population in the Atlantic Ocean (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993), or the region from the Barents to the Chukchi Sea. Population trends are not known.
8010		population	eng	The worldwide population of bearded seals is unknown (Kovacs 2002). Portions of the range have the following abundance estimates: 200,000-250,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk, including 60,000-75,000 off eastern Sakhalin Island for the period 1968 to 1990, and 250,000-300,000 in the Bering Sea, including 83,000-87,000 in the western Bering Sea (Fedoseev 2000). A minimum estimate for Canadian waters of 190,000 animals was suggested by Cleator (1996), based on data collected over a 35-year period. Angliss and Outlaw (2005) state that there are no current reliable population estimates for the Bering Chukchi stock of bearded seals. No estimates exist for the population in the Atlantic Ocean (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993), or Barents to Chukchi seas area.
8010		threats	eng	Indigenous peoples of the Arctic have hunted Bearded Seals for subsistence for thousands of years, a practice that continues today. However, levels of subsistence harvest are not well known. Subsistence harvests of Bearded Seals in the United States were estimated to be approximately 6,800 in 2000 (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Subsistence harvest levels are not closely monitored in Canada, but Cleator (1996) estimated that roughly 2,400 bearded seals were taken per year. Approximately 500-1,000 Bearded Seals are taken annually in Greenland (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Rates of struck-and-lost are high for bearded seals in most months of the year, likely about 50% for gun-based harvests; these are not generally accounted for in hunting statistics.<br/><br/>The former Soviet Union historically had commercial harvests of Bearded Seals in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering, Chukchi, Barents and White Seas, with high harvest levels at times. Harvests grew from 9,000 to 13,000 from 1957 to 1964, and were 8,000 to 10,000 per year for the Bering and Okhotsk Seas combined from 1964-1967 (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992). This level of commercial harvesting was very likely unsustainable and in all probability depleted these populations (Kelly 1988). Bearded Seals are now harvested more on a subsistence basis for local use in Russia. Harvests in the Bering Sea of 1881 and 1418 were reported for 1988 and 1989 respectively (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Fisheries interactions are low. Logbooks maintained by U.S. fishermen indicate 14 Bearded Seals killed and 31 injured in 1991 in the Bristol Bay, Alaska salmon drift net fishery. There were several incidents of incidental take, serious injury, or mortality in the Alaskan Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands flatfish and pollock trawl fisheries from 1999-2003, when annual mortality was estimated at 1.6 seals (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Kelly (1988) mentions fisheries for snow/Tanner crabs (<em>Chionoecetes opilio</em>) and pink shrimps (<em>Pandalus</em> borealis), as possible sources of fisheries conflicts in the future, especially if these fisheries are renewed or expanded because both of these species are important foods for Bearded Seals.<br/><br/>Oil spills from offshore extraction and transportation could negatively affect bearded seals through direct contact with oil and damage to foraging areas and stocks of prey, particularly benthic invertebrates, which are vulnerable to oil contamination (Kelly 1988).<br/><br/>Global climate warming is currently causing major reductions in the extent and duration of sea ice cover in the Arctic, creating a threat to many species of marine ice-associated mammals. Pinnipeds, such as the Bearded Seall that are dependant on sea ice for pupping, moulting, resting and access to foraging areas, may be especially vulnerable to such changes (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). Stirling and Derocher (1993) suggest that climatic warming could result in more favourable conditions for Bearded, Harp, Harbour Seals and Walruses if it causes sea ice to become less consolidated in winter, and extends the summer open water period.<br/><br/>An increase in human-created noise in the arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including Bearded Seals which are very vocal during their breeding season (VanParijs <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2003), to abandon areas of habitat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). A reduction in sea ice cover would likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and extractive industries, and an associated greater threat of marine accidents and disturbance of marine mammals (Pagnan 2000).<br/><br/>Harp Seals, Hooded Seals, and Ringed Seals from the Canadian Arctic, where they overlap range with Bearded Seals, were all determined to carry antibodies to phocine distemper virus (PDV), with harp seals constituting the population with the largest percentage (83%) of positive tests. Although the disease has not been identified in Bearded Seals, the opportunity for exposure exists (Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Important natural predators of Bearded Seals include Polar Bears (Burns 1981), as well as Killer Whales, Walruses, and Greenland Sharks (Kovacs 2002).
8010		threats	eng	Native Peoples of the Arctic have hunted bearded seals for subsistence for thousands of years, a practice that continues today (Burns 1981). Overall levels of subsistence harvest are not well known. The former Soviet Union had commercial harvests in the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Bering, Chukchi, Barents, and White Seas historically, and harvest levels were at times high. Harvest levels grew from 9,000 to 13,000 from 1957 to 1964, and were 8,000 to 10,000 per year for the Bering and Okhotsk Seas combined from 1964-1967 (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992).  This commercial over-harvesting probably depleted the population (Kelly 1988).  Bearded seals are now harvested more on a subsistence basis for local use in Russia, although some seals are killed as food for fur-farm animals (Kelly 1988), and are primarily taken from the Bering Sea where harvests of 1,881 and 1,418 were reported for 1988 and 1989 respectively (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/>Fisheries interactions appear to be low. Logbooks indicate 14 bearded seals killed and 31 injured in 1991 in the Bristol Bay, Alaska salmon drift net fishery. There were several incidents of incidental take, serious injury, or mortality each in the Alaskan Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands flatfish and pollock trawl fisheries respectively from 1999-2003, when annual mortality was estimated at 1.58 seals (Angliss and Outlaw 2005).  <br/><br/>Oil spills from offshore extraction and transportation could negatively affect bearded seals through direct contact with oil, and damage to foraging areas and stocks of prey, particularly benthic invertebrates, which respond poorly to oil contamination (Kelly 1988).<br/><br/>Arctic climate change that is currently leading to reduction in the extent and duration of sea ice cover is a threat to many species of marine mammals.  Patterns of Arctic primary productivity and population levels of prey species important to Arctic marine mammals may be altered as a consequence of Arctic warming and changes in sea ice. Pinnipeds, such as the bearded seal that are dependant on sea ice for pupping, molting, resting, and access to foraging areas, may be especially vulnerable to such changes (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). In contrast, Stirling and Derocher (1993) suggest that climatic warming could result in more favorable conditions for bearded, harp, and harbor seals, and walruses if it causes sea ice to become less consolidated in winter, and the summer open water period to lengthen.<br/><br/>An increase in human-created noise in the Arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including bearded seals which are very vocal during their breeding season, to abandon areas of habitat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997).  A reduction in sea ice cover would likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and extractive industries, and an associated greater threat of marine accidents and disturbance of marine mammals (Pagnan 2000).  <br/><br/>Harp seals, hooded seals, and ringed seals from the Canadian Arctic, where they share habitat with bearded seals, were all determined to carry antibodies to phocine distemper virus (PDV), with harp seals constituting the population with the largest percentage (83%) of positive tests.  Although the disease has not been identified in bearded seals, the opportunity for exposure exists (Duignan <em>et al.</em> 1997).
8032		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.
8032		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Sulawesi, Indonesia, where it is known only from a few montane localities. It has been recorded between 1,800 and 2,300 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
8032		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in montane tropical rainforest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has only been collected in relatively undisturbed forest. It is generally considered to be a terrestrial species (G. Musser pers. comm.) and folivorous.
8032		population	eng	It is an infrequently collected species, but it may not be rare (G. Musser pers. comm.).
8032		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although there is some deforestation of suitable habitat in the south of the species range.
8033		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
8033		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Jamaica, Bahamas, and Cayman Islands (Simmons, 2005).
8033		habitat	eng	The species normally roosts in large colonies in cooler portions. It begins foraging later than many other bats (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its diet typically contains some combination of insects, nectar, and fruit. It has a litter size of one and probably gives birth just once each year in spring (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8033		population	eng	This bat is apparently locally common; it can form colonies of thousands (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
8033		threats	eng	Threats to the caves - mining, guano (Mancina pers. comm.).
8035		distribution	eng	Endemic to five counties in California, U.S.A.
8035		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
8035		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
8035		threats	eng	This subspecies has a very restricted range in one of the most highly populated parts of the United States.
8070		conservation	eng	<em>Erymnochelys</em> has been listed in CITES Appendix II since 1978 (UNEP-WCMC 2007) and is fully protected by Malagasy Law (Kuchling 1993a, 1997; Kuchling and Mittermeier1993). Most major populations of <em>Erymnochelys madagascariensis</em> occur outside protected areas. Most of the small populations inside protected areas (PN Ankarafantsika 65,520 ha, PN Baie de Baly, RNI Bemaraha 152,000 ha) are also under exploitation pressure and declining or depleted or locally extirpated (CBSG 2001).<br/><br/>Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Conservation International have been working collaboratively on a conservation strategy for this species since 1997/98. This includes population field studies, captive breeding, and community education (Garcia 1999, 2006; Kuchling 2000; Kuchling and Garcia 2003).<br/><br/>Kuchling (1997) suggested three conservation actions: an education campaign for fishermen, a captive breeding programme, and the establishment of additional protected areas. Recommendations from the 2001 CAMP workshop suggest additional measures which include enforcing protection for the species in protected areas and recovery management of depleted protected populations, establishment of monitoring and recovery strategies for the populations at Manambolomaty (a Ramsar site with the largest and most important <em>Erymnochelys</em> poulation), and public education range-wide (CBSG 2001).
8070		distribution	eng	<em>Erymnochelys madagascariensis</em> is endemic to the western lowland river basins of Madagascar from the Mangoky River in the south to the Sambirano region in the North (Iverson 1992, Glaw and Vences 1994, CBSG 2001, Pedrono 2008).The species ranges up to about 500 m altitude (Pedrono 2008). Two genetically distinct forms have been noted. It is sympatric with <em>Pelomedusa subrufa</em> and <em>Pelusios castanoides</em>.<br/><br/>The species' extent of occurrence was estimated at the 2001 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop as over 20,000 sq. km, with an area of occupancy of less than 500 sq. km. (CBSG 2001).
8070		habitat	eng	<em>Erymnochelys</em> habitat consists of slow-moving rivers, lakes, and swamps. Its preferred habitat is that of permanent open wetlands (CBSG 2001) and favours basking sites like rocks, logs, etc. (Kuchling and Garcia 2003). Garcia (1999, 2006) and Garcia and Lourenco (2007) carried out on fecal and stomache content analyses and found that juveniles feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates and adults feed on molluscs, plant material (leaves, seeds and fruit), and dead animals.<br/><br/>This turtle has a carapace length of 50 cm or more (Garcia 1999, 2006). Females are sexually mature at carapace lengths of 25-30 cm (Kuchling 1988). The sex ratio in various populations varies from 1:2 to 1.7:1 (Kuchling 1988, Gracia 2006). Age at maturity and longevity are not known, but a generation time of 25 years was estimated at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001).<br/><br/>These turtles nest between September and January (most prevalent October-December) and appear to have a biennial ovarian cycle, with individual females only nesting in alternate years. They can lay up to two or three clutches with an average of 13 eggs (range 6-29) in a reproductive season (Kuchling 1988, 1993a and b; Garcia 2006; Pedrono 2008).
8070		population	eng	The best available information in 2001 generated an estimate of at least 10,000 animals making up some 20 subpopulations (CBSG 2001). Individual popuations comprise tens to a few hundred animals based on mark-recapture studies (Garcia 2006). The species is universally reported to be in widespread serious non-cyclical decline (CBSG 2001).
8070		threats	eng	<em>Erymnochelys</em> turtles are exploited for food at the local subsistence level and also taken as incidental catch in regular fishing (Kuchling 1993a, 1997; Kuchling and Mittermeier 1993; CBSG 2001; Garcia and Goodman 2003).<br/><br/>The habitat is fragmented by agricultural and deforestation practices. Siltation is a problem because of the conversion of lakes to rice fields (CBSG 2001). No information is available on the predicted impacts of hydrological changes to Madagascar's rivers in the context of agricultural development, infrastructure development (dams/reservoirs) and climate change. Most populations occur outside protected areas, and even those inside protected areas are under exploitation pressure (Garcia and Goodman 2003).
8073		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II and as Class B under the African Convention. It is recorded from many protected areas across its range. Laikipia District holds the largest population of <em>E. patas</em> in Kenya today. All patas groups in this area occur outside protected areas and make use of cattle ranches which provide large areas of <em>Acacia drepanolobium</em> woodland and artificial watersources (Isbell and Chism 2007; De Jong <em>et al.</em> 2007).
8073		distribution	eng	This species ranges from north of the equatorial forests and south of the Sahara from western Senegal through to Ethiopia, south to northern, central and southern Kenya (De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press) and north-central Tanzania as far as the Acacia woodlands east of Lake Manyara (4 deg S). Found at low densities in the Serengeti National Park and the Grumeti River Corridor, Tanzania (De Jong <em>et al</em>. 2007). Outlying subpopulations are also found on the Air and Ennedi massifs. Recorded to 2,000 m asl (De Jong <em>et al</em>. in press).
8073		habitat	eng	This species is found in vegetation types ranging from open grassland, to wooded savannas, to dry woodland. It is commonest in thinly bushed Acacia woodland, and appears to have a preference for woodland-grassland margins. It is largely terrestrial, and although it can climb trees when alarmed, it usually relies on its speed on the ground to escape from danger. This species feeds primarily on grasses, gum, berries, fruits, beans, and seeds, and preferred species include common savanna trees and shrubs such as <em>Acacia</em>, torchwood (<em>Balanites</em> sp.), <em>Euclea</em> and num-num (<em>Carissa</em> sp.). It is relatively adaptive, however, and also feeds on invasive alien species such as prickly pear and Lantana, as well as cotton and food crops. Visits to water are frequent in the dry season.<br/><br/>Patas Monkeys often use artificial water sources and fences to sit on and scan from. In all areas in which they were encountered in Kenya, they were somewhat habituated to humans, mainly to pastoralists, farmers and 'monkey chasers' in crop fields. In Busia District (Kenya), they have adapted to an area with a high human population with little to no natural vegetation left, and included maize and other crops in their diet (De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/><em>E. patas</em> is a diurnal species which lives in groups averaging 15 individuals, with an extensive home range (e.g., 51.8 sq. km for one group of 31 individuals). Burnham (2004) reported longer day journey lengths for all-male groups compared with social groups in the same area of Laikipia (mean for males: 7.3 km; females: 4.7 km), with male home ranges approximately twice the size of social groups. At night, groups may be spread over an area of 250,000 m², and so is protected from severe loss to predators.
8073		population	eng	This is a widespread species, although densities are generally low across the range. The optimum density is estimated to be approximately 1.5 animals/km², and Hall's (1968) studies recorded 110 patas in a 311,200 ha area. In Kenya, the geographic range has declined from ca. 88,800 km² in 1995 to roughly 48,200 km², and the gaps among populations has increased. The current geographic range is ca. 54% of the known historic (pre-1995) range (De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press). In Tanzania, the geographic range has decreased from ca 30,500 km² (pre-1995) to roughly 19,000 km² (decline of ca. 38%; De Jong <em>et al.</em> 2007).
8073		threats	eng	This species is occasionally hunted for food, and is also persecuted as a crop pest in several range countries. It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss due to increasing desertification as a result of land-use practices (e.g., overgrazing by cattle, clearance of savanna for crops etc.).
8097		conservation	eng	Gray whales have been protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) since its establishment in 1946. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for the eastern gray whale and catch limits have been set since the 1970s on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee (most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure) and a needs request from the relevant governments (Russian Federation and US). The current (2003-07) catch limit for the eastern stock is 620 for five years, subject to a maximum of 140 in any single year. This meets the needs request and is considerably below the estimated level (over 400) that would be sustainable (IWC 2005). <br/><br/>Three gray whale breeding lagoons in Mexico (Laguna Ojo de Liebre, L. San Ignacio and L. Guerrero Negro) enjoy some protection in the form of limitations on boating, fishing and coastal development, originally as National Gray Whale Refuges, now through their inclusions in the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, which is also listed internationally as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a Ramsar protected wetland (Hoyt 2005).<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES and Appendix II of CMS.
8097		conservation	eng	The gray whale is regionally extinct in European waters, so there are no conservation measures for this species in the region. Gray whales have been protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission since its establishment in the 1946. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for the eastern gray whale and catch limits have been set since the 1970s on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee.
8097		distribution	eng	The gray whale was once found in the North Atlantic. Sub-fossil remains, the most recent dated at around 1675, have been found on the eastern seaboard of North America from Florida to new Jersey, and on the coasts of the English Channel and the North and Baltic seas. There are historical accounts of living gray whales from Iceland in the early 1600s and possibly off New England in the early 1700s (Rice 1998). Gray whales are now only found in the North Pacific and adjacent waters.
8097		distribution	eng	The gray whale was once found in the North Atlantic. Sub-fossil remains, the most recent dated at around 1675, have been found on the eastern seaboard of North America from Florida to New Jersey and on the coasts of the English Channel and the North and Baltic seas. There are historical accounts of living gray whales from Iceland in the early 1600s and possibly off New England (USA) in the early 1700s (Rice 1998).<br/><br/>Gray whales are now only found in the North Pacific and adjacent waters. The larger eastern North Pacific population summers and feeds mainly in the shallow waters of the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, and the northwestern Bering Sea; a few also summer and feed along the Pacific coast from Vancouver Island (Canada) to central California (US). The population migrates in autumn along the coast to winter breeding grounds on the west coast of Baja California (Mexico) and the southeastern Gulf of California. Some calves are born during the southward migration but most are born in shallow bays and lagoons on the west coast of Baja California (Jones and Swartz 2002).<br/><br/>The much smaller western subpopulation summers in the Okhotsk Sea. The major known feeding grounds are off the northeastern coast of Sakhalin Island (Russian Federation), but some animals are occasionally seen off the eastern coast of Kamchatka (Russian Federation) and in other coastal waters of the northern Okhotsk Sea. Its migration routes and winter breeding grounds are poorly known, the only recent information being from occasional records on both the eastern and western coasts of Japan and along the Chinese coast (Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002; see separate listing of this subpopulation for more information).
8097		habitat	eng	Gray whales are primarily bottom feeders and are thus restricted to shallow continental shelf waters for feeding. They are largely coastal although they do feed at greater distances from shore on the shallow flats of the Bering and Chukchi seas. <br/><br/>Gray whales feed primarily on swarming mysids, tube-dwelling amphipods, and polychaete tube worms in the northern parts of their range, but are also known to take red crabs, baitfish, and other food (crab larvae, mobile amphipods, herring eggs and larvae, cephalopods, and megalops) opportunistically or off the main feeding grounds.<br/><br/>Most groups are small, often with no more than three individuals, but gray whales do sometimes migrate in pods of up 16, and larger aggregations are common on the feeding and breeding grounds. ‘Aerial’ behaviour such as breaching and spyhopping are common, especially during migration, and in and near the breeding lagoons of Baja California and mainland Mexico.
8097		habitat	eng	Gray whales are primarily bottom feeders and are thus restricted to shallow continental shelf waters for feeding. They are largely coastal although they do feed at greater distances from shore on the shallow shelf of the Bering and Chukchi seas. <br/><br/>Gray whales feed primarily on swarming mysids, tube-dwelling amphipods, and polychaete tube worms in the northern parts of their range, but are also known to take red crabs, baitfish, and other food (crab larvae, mobile amphipods, herring eggs and larvae, cephalopods, and megalops) opportunistically or off the main feeding grounds.
8097		population	eng	Genetic studies and differential recovery patterns (LeDuc <em>et al.</em> 2002) suggest that the small western North Pacific subpopulation is isolated from the larger eastern subpopulation. The former is listed as Critically Endangered (see separate account).<br/><br/>Both eastern and western gray whales were hunted in prehistoric times, but aboriginal catches declined to relatively low levels by the early 20th century due to depletion of the stocks by commercial whaling and the general decline of the traditional aboriginal economies (Mitchell and Reeves 1990). <br/><br/>Eastern gray whales were rapidly depleted by commercial whalers operating in the breeding lagoons when they were discovered in the mid-19th century, estimated peak catches (averaging over 480 whales per year) occurring between 1855 and 1865. Lagoon whaling ended by about 1875, apparently due to exhaustion of the lagoon populations, but shore-based whaling in California continued at a lower level until the late 19th century (Henderson 1984; IWC 1993). In the 20th century, there were some pelagic catches off California and Mexico by Norwegian and American vessels in the 1920s and 1930s, and in the 1930s and 1940s by a Soviet pelagic fleet in the Bering and Chuckchi Seas (Donahue and Brownell 2001; Brownell and Swartz 2006). A further 320 gray whales were taken under scientific permit in the 1960s (Rice and Wolman 1971), and 138 illegal Soviet catches occurred in the 1960s (Doroshenko 2000). Substantial “aboriginal subsistence” whaling in the Bering and Chukchi seas off Chukotka (Russian Federation) resumed in 1948 and has continued into the present, apart from an interruption in the early 1990s during the collapse of the USSR. Catches during the last 50 years (1956-2005) have averaged around 150 per year. Very small numbers have also been taken by aboriginal whalers in Alaska (US), and, in recent years, by the Makah tribe in Washington State, (US) (Donahue and Brownell 2001; IWC 2005). <br/><br/>Despite the continuing catches, the eastern subpopulation has recovered strongly from past over-exploitation, increasing by 2.5% per annum during 1967-96 (Buckland and Breiwick 2002). The subpopulation seems to have peaked around 1997/98 when a census on the southward migration indicated a population of 24,000-36,000; it may have declined since the most recent estimate is 15,000-22,000 for 2001/02 (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, there are a number of unresolved possible explanations for the downturn, <em>inter alia</em> related to an ‘overshoot’ of carrying capacity (Moore <em>et al.</em> 2001) and/or unusual environmental conditions around the turn of the millennium resulting in poor calf production, high stranding rates and relatively high numbers of emaciated animals (e.g. LeBouef <em>et al.</em> 2000, IWC 2003, Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2005). Perryman <em>et al.</em> (2002) showed that calf production was related to the proportion of feeding habitat free of sea ice in the preceding summer. Since 2002, calf production has recovered, and mortality and the occurrence of emaciated whales have declined (IWC 2004). The population has probably reached a size where it exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment in years where food availability is below average and is likely to fluctuate around some environmentally determined average level (IWC 2003).<br/><br/>The western Pacific subpopulation remains at a small fraction of past levels and is estimated to number about 100 individuals, of which 20-30 are mature females (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2005), based on analysis of photo-identification data (see separate listing for the western Pacific subpopulation for more information).
8097		population	eng	This species is extinct in the North Atlantic. In the North Pacific, the eastern stock has recovered strongly from past over-exploitation, and the most recent population estimate is 15,000-22,000 for 2001/02. The western Pacific stock remains at a small fraction of past levels and is estimated to number about 100 individuals, of which 20-30 are mature females (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is considered Critically Endangered.
8097		threats	eng	Gray whales have been subject to hunting since prehistoric times, due to their slow swimming speeds and coastal distribution. The North Atlantic population was extinct by the early 1700s although the causes are unclear. Overexploitation was though to have caused the extinction of the western gray whale until Soviet scientists in the 1980s reported a small remnant group summering off Sakhalin Island, Russia. The eastern North Pacific population had reached such low numbers by the end of the 19th century that commercial whaling ceased, but has now recovered to at or near carrying capacity, its abundance showing some fluctuation in response to environmental conditions. <br/>The eastern North Pacific population is subject to anthropogenic threats such as entanglements in fishing gear (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2002), disturbance by vessels and other noise, collisions, and possibly petroleum-related and other contaminants (Moore and Clarke 2002).  However, these do not appear to be important for the demography of the population.
8097		threats	eng	Gray whales have been subject to hunting since prehistoric times, due to their slow swimming speeds and coastal distribution. The North Atlantic population was extinct by the early 1700s, although the causes are unclear. Over-exploitation was thought to have caused the extinction of the western gray whale until Soviet scientists in the 1980s reported a small remnant group summering off Sakhalin Island. The eastern North Pacific subpopulation had reached such low numbers by the end of the 19th century that commercial whaling ceased, but it has now recovered to at or near carrying capacity, its abundance showing some fluctuation in response to environmental conditions.<br/> <br/>The eastern North Pacific subpopulation is subject to anthropogenic threats such as entanglements in fishing gear (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2002), disturbance by vessels and other noise, collisions, and possibly petroleum-related and other contaminants (Moore and Clarke 2002). However, these do not appear to be having a significant effect on the demography of the population.
8099		conservation	eng	<p>International Whaling Commission (IWC) regulations protect western gray whales from commercial and aboriginal subsistence whaling; the range states of the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russian  Federation</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Republic</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Korea</st1:placename>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, are members of the IWC (but as noted above, some limited illegal hunting may continue). Oil and gas companies operating off <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> have implemented some voluntary measures to reduce their impacts on gray whales, such as speed restrictions on their vessels (Anon. 2006). At present, one oil company is co-operating with the IUCN Western Gray Whale Advisory Panel (WGWAP) although it is not bound by the panel’s recommendations (<a href="http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/sakhalin/">http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/sakhalin/</a>). </p>
8099		distribution	eng	<p>The western gray whale summers in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>, mainly off the northeastern coast of <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:place></st1:country-region>). There are also occasional sightings off the eastern coast of Kamchatka (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:country-region>) and in other coastal waters of the northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Vladimirov 1994, Weller <em>et al.</em> 1999). Its migration routes and wintering grounds are poorly known, the only recent information being from occasional records on both the eastern and western coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kato <em>et al</em>. 2006) and along the Chinese coast (Zhu and Yue 1998). Until 1966, there was a whaling ground off <st1:city w:st="on">Ulsan</st1:city> (southeastern <st1:placename w:st="on">Korea</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype>), where whales were taken during November to April, with two peaks (in December/January and March/April), suggestive of south- and northbound migrations respectively through the <st1:place w:st="on">Sea  of Japan</st1:place> (Kato and Kasuya 2002). However, no gray whales have been recorded in the Korean whaling grounds since 1968. The great majority of recent Japanese records are on the Pacific side, suggesting that this is now the more important migration route. The few modern records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> are scattered along virtually the entire Chinese coast from the northern Yellow Sea to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hainan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype></st1:place> in the south (Zhu and Yue 1998). The calving grounds are unknown but may be around <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hainan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, this being the southwestern end of the known range (Brownell and Chun 1977). </p>
8099		habitat	eng	<p>The main feeding habitat of this subpopulation is the shallow (5-15 m depth) shelf of northeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, particularly off the southern portion of Piltun Lagoon, where the main prey species appear to be amphipods and isopods (Weller <em>et al.</em>, 1999).&#160; In some years the whales have also used an offshore feeding ground in 30-35m depth southeast of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chayvo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype></st1:place> where benthic amphipods and cumaceans are the main prey species (Fadeev 2003). Some gray whales have also been seen off western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place> but to date all whales photographed there are also known from the Piltun area (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recently whales have also been seen, apparently feeding, in <st1:placename w:st="on">Severnaya</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype> on the north coast of <st1:place w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:place> (IUCN 2006).&#160; </p>
8099		population	eng	<p>Western gray whales were thought to be extinct as recently as 1972 (Bowen 1974), but a small number are now known to survive (Berzin 1974, Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002); the best estimate for 2006 is 113-131 animals, of which 26-35 are reproductive females, based on an analysis of photo-identification data (Cooke <em>et al</em>. 2006). The figures include adjustments for the photo-identified whales that are likely to have died and for the estimated number of living whales that have yet to be catalogued. In the absence of additional new mortality in excess of the estimated rate over 1994-2004, the population size is projected to increase at 2-4% per annum (Cooke <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, even a very small number of additional annual female deaths will cause the subpopulation to decline.</p>
8099		threats	eng	<p>  Western gray whales were hunted by aboriginal people in the northern part of their range since prehistoric times but to an unknown extent (Mitchell, 1979). They were taken by Japanese hand-harpoon whalers in the <st1:place w:st="on">Sea of Japan</st1:place> since at least the 16<sup>th</sup> century, and by net whalers on the Pacific coast in the 17<sup>th</sup> to 19<sup>th</sup> century (Omura 1984, 1988).&#160; Western gray whales were also taken by European and American whalers, mainly in the Okhotsk Sea, from the late 1840s to perhaps the start of the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Henderson 1984), and by Russian steam whalers on the Russian far eastern coast at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Andrews 1914, Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002). Quantitative information is scarce, but it is possible that the subpopulation was already depleted by the start of modern whaling at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. During 1890-1966 an estimated 1,800 – 2,000 gray whales were taken off the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Korea</st1:country-region> peninsula and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kato and Kasuya 2002). Apart from the main grounds off southeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Korea</st1:country-region>, whales were also taken in the <st1:place w:st="on">Yellow Sea</st1:place> in the early part of this period. Occasional catches are recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> during 1916-58 (Zhu and Yue 1998). It is not known whether any whales have been taken by the Democratic People’s <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Republic</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Korea</st1:placename></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Three western gray whales, all females, were fatally entangled in net-traps on the Pacific coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 2005 (Kato <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Subpopulation projections show that if this level of mortality continues, the subpopulation would decline towards extinction (Cooke <em>et al</em>. 2006, IWC 2007). Most recently, a female yearling (9.1 m) was killed in <st1:placename w:st="on">Yoshihama</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sanriku</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:place> on 19 January 2007. The stranding of a dead western gray whale in Japan with a hand harpoon lodged in it of the kind used by porpoise hunters (Brownell and Kasuya 1999) is of concern, as is the finding of gray whale meat on domestic whale meat markets on the Pacific coast of Japan (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2002). Incidental catches of cetaceans in the extensive coastal net fisheries off southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> are also of concern (Zhou and Wang 1994). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The substantial nearshore industrialization and shipping congestion throughout the migratory corridors of this subpopulation represent potential threats by increasing the likelihood of exposure to ship strikes, chemical pollution, and general disturbance (Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Offshore gas and oil development in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> within 20 km of the primary feeding ground off northeast <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> is of particular concern. Activities related to oil and gas exploration, including geophysical seismic surveying, pipelaying and drilling operations, increased vessel traffic, and oil spills, all pose potential threats to western gray whales. Disturbance from underwater industrial noise may displace whales from critical feeding habitat. Physical habitat damage from drilling and dredging operations, combined with possible impacts of oil and chemical spills on benthic prey communities also warrants concern (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2005)</p>
8110		distribution	eng	Occupies five tributaries of the south bend of the Tennessee River: Buffalo River and upper Shoal creek in Lawrence County, Tennessee; and Flint River (Madison County), Swan Creek (Limestone County), and Cypress Creek (Lauderdale County, northern Alabama.
8112		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Arkansas River drainage from Arkansas to Colorado.
8113		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etheostoma ditrema</em>, however, it was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criterion D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species. Conservation measures need to be taken to protect key recharge sources for springs in which this species occurs, with additional efforts to alleviate pollution and other pressures on this species habitat. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.
8113		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Etheostoma ditrema</em> encompasses the upper and middle Coosa River system in the Ridge and Valley Province above the Fall Line in northeastern Alabama, northwestern Georgia, and extreme southeastern Tennessee (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Boschung and Mayden 2004). This range description relates to the <em>Etheostoma ditrema</em> complex which may eventually be split into multiple taxa. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,634 km²<sup></sup>.
8113		habitat	eng	This species typically occurs in amongst aquatic vegetation and coarse organic debris in limestone springs and slow-flowing spring runs at depths of a metre or less. It is most abundant in vegetation-filled spring ponds with growths of aquatic moss, watercress, and water milfoil. It may perch on clumps of vegetation well off the bottom (Page 1983, Kuehne and Barbour 1983, Utter 1984, Etnier and Starnes 1993, Catchings 1994, B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm.).
8113		population	eng	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). Boschung and Mayden (2004) mapped 32 collection sites in Alabama; many of these are closely adjacent within a single stream; probably at least 15 are distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Adult population size is unknown. This species is locally abundant in spring habitat (Etnier and Starnes 1993), but overall it is not very common. Populations are "very fractionated" (Boschung and Mayden 2004). <br/><br/>Etnier and Starnes (1993) noted that several populations "have doubtless been eliminated by habitat alterations."<br/><br/>Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size may be declining, but the rate of decline probably is less than 30% over three generations or 10 years. Status in Alabama has not improved over the past several decades (Boschung and Mayden 2004).
8113		threats	eng	Several subpopulations of this species have been eliminated by habitat alteration (Etnier and Starnes 1993). Spring habitats are being altered by a number of factors such as chemical use to remove native plants and animals allowing "home water gardens" to be constructed, construction of fishing ponds with introduced species, and as drinking water sources (Boschung and Mayden 2004). These habitats have also been lost and degraded by groundwater depletion (abstraction), and siltation and pollution associated with urbanisation (e.g. Birmingham, Alabama) (Boschung and Mayden 2004). Dispersal has been impeded by construction of structures such as impoundments (Kuhajda pers. comm. 1998). Warmer summer-month, water temperatures in surrounding springs, is also believed to prevent dispersal due to specific temperature requirements (B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm. 1998). This species is of conservation concern in all three states in which it occurs.
8116		distribution	eng	Has a small range in the New River system of Virginia and North Carolina.
8118		distribution	eng	Has small scattered populations in a narrow range in the Ohio River basin (Indiana, Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia).
8120		distribution	eng	Has a small range in the upper Little Red River drainage in Arkansas.
8121		distribution	eng	Has a small range in the Osage River system, Missouri.
8122		distribution	eng	Found only in a few springs of the upper Black Warrior River system in Alabama.
8123		distribution	eng	Restricted to six adjacent stream systems draining into Choctawhatchee Bay, Okaloosa and Walton counties, Florida. 90% of the total range is within Eglin Air Force Base.
8124		distribution	eng	Has a small range in New River drainage, Virginia and West Virginia.
8125		distribution	eng	Has a small range in a portion of the Ouachita River system in Arkansas.
8127		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Bayou Pierre River and its tributaries in western Mississippi.
8130		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em>;&#160;however, <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em> was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, distribution range, and habitat status of this species is needed. Conservation efforts should seek to improve agricultural practice within this species range.
8130		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em> is restricted to small tributaries of the Duck River in the Tennessee River drainage. It can be found in Bedford, Coffee, Lewis, Marshall and Maury counties within Tennesse (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Burr<em> et al.</em> 1993). The area in which this species is distributed is probably less than 10,000 km². In a directed survey of the species, it was only found at 10  sites in the entire Duck River system. It was also found to be absent from 6 sites from which it was previously known (Cook, Taylor and Burr 1996). <span class="copy">Burr<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1993) found the species in 10 locations representing probably 9 distinct subpopulations.
8130		habitat	eng	<em>Etheostoma striatulum</em> typically occurs in bedrock pools of low-gradient headwaters and creeks with large slab stones (Page 1980, Etnier and Starnes 1993). Adults use the stones for shelter but may also use under cut banks and tree roots. Small individuals occur in gravel substrate pools and along vegetated or rocky stream margins. Eggs are laid on the underside of large slab stones (Page 1983).
8130		population	eng	Burr<em> et al.</em> (1993) found this species in 10 of the 28 known historical collection sites, probably representing nine distinct subpopulations. Etnier and Starnes (1993) reported that efforts to collect this species in four of the dozen creeks from which the species is known were not successful. The current population trend is not known, but habitat extent and quality are thought to be in a state of decline.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. Reports of current populations have been described as rare by Page (1980) and Page and Burr (1991), and uncommon by Etnier and Starnes 1993. In the study by Cook, Taylor and Burr (1996) this species was always found in low numbers (<6/site, most yielded 1 or 2 specimens/site).
8130		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to agricultural activity, poses the greatest threat to population numbers of <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em>. Nutrient enrichment from cattle manure being dumped directly into streams, and siltation from non-point agricultural sources are well known threats faced by this species (D.A. Etnier 1995 pers. comm.). These threats pose a significant threat to this restricted range species.
8132		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species habitat requires protection from further development and degradation. Monitoring of the habitat status, population numbers and distribution range is needed to assess trends in rate of decline. Further research is needed to resolve taxonomic issues.
8132		distribution	eng	This species range encompasses springs along the southern bend of the Tennessee River in northern Alaska (Boschung and Mayden 2004) and formerly through south-central Tennessee (Etnier and Starnes 1993). The extent of occurence is thought to be less than 10,000 km², with an area of occupancy less than 200 km²<em></em>, assuming there are fewer than 20 extant populations averaging less than 10 km² of occupied habitat.
8132		habitat	eng	This species habitat is restricted to vegetated spring pools and runs with slow current and high water quality. It is usually associated with watercress (<em>Nasturtium officionale</em>) or other aquatic plants or algae, over clean substrates of fine gravel, sand, and silt. Water temperatures range between 15 –17°C (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Jones <em>et al</em>. 1993, Boschung and Mayden 2004). Although the species has been found around small (four to five feet high) dams, and small impoundments (beaver ponds), larger structures pose a barrier to dispersal (B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm.). Warm summer month temperatures in surrounding spring waters are also thought to preclude dispersal (B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm.). Due to the habitat requirements of this species, it has a severely fragmented distribution.
8132		population	eng	Boschung and Mayden (2004) mapped 25 collection sites and indicated that the species has been extirpated in 12 of those sites.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. This species can be locally numerous in favorable habitat.<br/><br/>This species has evidently been extirpated from roughly 50% of the known collection localities (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Boschung and Mayden 2004).
8132		threats	eng	The primary threat to the population of this species is human modification of spring heads. Extirpations have occurred in Alabama as a result of vegetated spring heads being converted to fishing ponds or treated with herbicides to remove vegetation (Boschung and Mayden 2004). Former habitat in Tennessee was inundated by the construction of  Pickwick Reservoir (Etnier and Starnes 1993).
8136		conservation	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is listed as a threatened species across much of its range. It is protected in South Australia, listed as vulnerable in the Australian Capital Territory and threatened in Victoria. In New South Wales (NSW), this species occurs in the "Lower Murray River Endangered Ecological Community" and so is normally given the status of a threatened species across a large proportion of its range. Despite this, recreational fishing is permitted within the Endangered Ecological Community boundaries (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Nationally, the conservation status was “indeterminate” due to a lack of knowledge at the time of the scoping report by Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007). </p>  <p>Fishing for this species is prohibited in the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia (PIRSA 2008, TAMS 2007).</p>  <p>In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four of the more than 35 <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species in NSW attain that size (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus sulcatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus spinifer</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus valentulus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus armatus</span>), so the regulation may in fact increase fishing pressure on these four species. </p>  <p>The spiny crayfish fishery was closed in Victoria from 1983 until 1991 (Barker 1992), but the current fishery for spiny crayfish is managed through a minimum size limit of 90 mm OCL, closed seasons and areas, and a bag limit of five per person per day (only one of which can exceed 120mm OCL) (DPI 2007). </p>  <p>Any future conservation measures or efforts for this species as a whole (i.e. throughout its range) are likely to be complicated, disjointed or hindered by the fact the species is distributed over three states and one territory, all of which have differing legislation and regulations regarding this species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Ideally a holistic and collaborative approach including all stakeholders (i.e. all relevant states and territories) should be adopted in any future research or conservation efforts for this species in order to maximize research outputs, conservation outcomes, and minimise duplication of effort, and thus domestic outlays.</p>  <p>The known and potential threats facing this species need to be more thoroughly investigated, documented, and monitored over time, as do subpopulations of this species. A systematic and thorough investigation of the species' contemporary distribution, and quantification of the population status (including any declines) is recommended urgently, as such data is essential for objective assessment against IUCN Catagories and Criteria.</p><p>Monitoring of&#160;this&#160;species is essential to guarantee its survival.&#160;Despite&#160;the awareness of the&#160;species&#160;through angling, little is known of its ecology and threats (S. Lawler, pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>
8136		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia and is recognised as the 2<sup>nd</sup> largest species of crayfish in the world (Van Praagh 2003). The species is found from near sea-level to over 700 m above sea level, and its distribution extends into New  South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. The species range covers a distance north to south of 450 km, and a distance east to west of 800 km, rendering it the most widespread species in the genus (Morgan 1997). This species Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) was estimated to exceed 150,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).</p>    <p>This distribution includes waterways in the Murrumbidgee, Murray, Mitta Mitta, Kiewa, Ovens and Goulburn River catchments. Although there were still commercial catches of this species reported in the Murray River in South   Australia until the 1960s, this species is now considered rare or absent from this area downstream of Mildura in New South Wales (approximately 1,000 km of river) (Van Praagh 2003, Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Absence from this part of the river appears to be the most appreciable documented reduction in the distribution, estimated to be around 10% of its natural distribution (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). However, there has been no recent targeted sampling for this species in the South Australian reaches of the Murray River to confirm their continued absence (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). </p>
8136		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus armatus</span> occupies a range of habitats from small upland streams to large lowland rivers. The average size of individuals increases with the amount of habitat available. Important habitat characteristics include flowing water, clay banks, woody debris, deep holes, and boulders as these provide shelter (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This species is tolerant of temperatures up to 27°C and moderate salinities (<16 parts per thousand), but is intolerant of low dissolved oxygen concentrations (Gilligan et al. 2007).</p>  <br/>This species is a k strategist, meaning it is long lived when not disturbed and slow to reach maturity.&#160; The size of this species at sexual maturity varies widely between locations, and its age at sexual maturity may also vary (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>species<em>&#160;</em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).<br/>  <br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
8136		population	eng	<p>The species is considered extinct or very rare in several of the lowland reaches of the rivers it inhabits (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Subpopulations of this species have been identified as declining due largely to exploitation, inappropriate management of waterways (resulting in habitat degradation) and pollution (Gilligan  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).   Since the 1940s, this crayfish species has also been steadily declining in the Murrumbidgee (particularly in the lower reaches) and Murray  Rivers.&#160;However, this information is based solely on recreational fisher reports, as no primary data has thus far been collected to support these claims (N. Alves pers. comm. 2008).&#160;Recently there is some evidence of continued decline in the lower Murray River (McCarthy 2005).</p>
8136		threats	eng	<p>This species is thought to have been affected by a number of threat processes, including habitat modification, pollution and pesticides, exploitation (i.e. recreational fishing) and the effects of introduced species (Van Praagh 2003, Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p>  <p>      </p><p>The construction of weirs and resulting river regulation and seasonal flow reversal, and the widespread use of agrochemicals in the 1940s and 50s are likely to be the two primary threatening processes responsible for the decline in the range and abundance of this species, mainly through perturbation of&#160;breeding cycles and the timing of the release of young&#160;(S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). Furthermore, the avoidance of weir pool environments in this species has been reported (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Agrochemicals, and even cow dung in the river water, have an impact on the abundance and health of this species symbionts (Temnocephalans) but the role they play in the health of the crayfish remains unknown (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).</p><p></p><p></p><p>Exotic species (foxes, goats, cats, pigs, fish) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d, &#160;Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p>    <p>Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). Barker (1992) reported considerable variation in catch rates and sizes across different sites for this species.</p>    <p>Although widespread and less specific in its habitat requirements than most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>species, it will potentially be impacted upon by the effects of climate change, as are other species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>. A predicted drier climate will lead to decreased run-off, soil moisture and decreased environmental flows: particularly in areas of increasing demand for agricultural water supplies (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes, 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).</p><p>This species is most threatened in the lower Murray River, where the extinction boundary seems to be moving east from Mildura (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>In particular, given that the species occurs in the heavily degraded Murray-Darling system, it is conceivable that population declines will continue into the future, therefore, continued monitoring of the species and threats is required (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
8137		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species; however its distribution range coincides with the nature reserve. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; <br/></p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus bindal</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>
8137		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia and known only from the type locality, near the peak of Mount Elliot in Queensland (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). There is no other suitable habitat within 250 km (Morgan 1989). The extent of occurrence for this species is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008); area of occupancy is almost certainly less than the extent of occurrence. It is only known from a single location (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p><p> &#160;</p>
8137		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits cool, clear, fast-flowing waters in areas of tropical rainforest (Morgan 1989), and is known from a single isolated pocket of rainforest at approximately 1,000 m above sea level on Mount Elliot (Morgan 1989).</p><p>    </p><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>  <p></p>
8137		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
8137		threats	eng	<em></em>  Although this species occurs within National Parks it is susceptible to the following potential threats: 1. Given its highly restricted range, the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors.&#160; 2. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat, increased potential for bushfires (Hilbert<em> et al.</em> 2001, Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007, Laurance and Curran 2008). 3.&#160; Potentially large scale threats from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. 4.&#160; Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c,d). These exotic species could have localised impacts on <em>E. bindal</em>, which given the species highly restricted distribution could contribute to serious declines in distribution and/or local abundance.
8138		conservation	eng	<p>The range of the species coincides with several national parks. This species is listed as threatened under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, and an Action Statement under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988) has been prepared (Van Praagh 2003). In South Australia there is no minimum legal length (i.e. size) for this species, but a bag limit of five individuals applies (PIRSA undated). The spiny crayfish fishery was closed in Victoria from 1983 until 1991 (Barker 1992). The current fishery for spiny crayfish is managed through a minimum size limit of 90 mm OCL, closed seasons and areas, and a bag limit of five per person per day (only one of which can exceed 120 mm OCL) (DPI 2007). Only three of the 11 Victorian species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euasta armatus, E. bispinosus and E. kershawi</span>) attain 90 mm OCL, so the regulations may increase pressure on these species.</p>    <p>Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008) &#160; </p>
8138		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is recorded from the Glenelg River system and its tributaries, in western Victoria, and in Ewens Ponds south of Mount Gambier, South Australia. It is found from close to sea level to altitudes of 320 m and probably higher (Riek 1969; Morgan 1986). There has been an   apparent disappearance from Rocklands Reservoir (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
8138		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in streams, rivers and ponds. The vegetation at lower altitude sites includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptospermum</span> species, bracken, with wet sclerophyll forest and pine plantations in areas (Morgan 1986). This species prefers streams with shaded, well vegetated banks, and an abundance of woody debris (Morgan 1983). <br/></p><p>    </p><p>This is a slow-growing species taking up to 12 years to reach sexual maturity (Van Praagh 2003). It reproduces annually, has a low dispersal rate, and is typically found at low densities (Honan and Mitchell 1990 a,b,c).</p>  <p></p>
8138		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Population data for this species was documented by Barker (1992), and various aspects of growth, reproduction and general biology have also been studied (Honan and Mitchell 1995a,b,c; Honan 1998), making this one of the better understood species in the genus. It is a slow-growing and late-maturing species, and its population attributes appear unsuited to exploitation (Honan and Mitchell 1995a,c). This species is thought to exhibit extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2009). This species is the least abundant of the three spiny crayfish species (Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007).</p>  <p></p>
8138		threats	eng	<em></em>  Climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (IPCC 2007, Westoby and Burgman 2006) is a potential threat to this species. Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2002). This alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006).<br/><br/>The Glenelg River catchment has been      extensively cleared, and modified, and river regulation, de-snagging,      channelization and increased sedimentation have impacted in-stream      habitat (Van Praagh 2003, O'Brien 2007). Construction of the Rocklands Reservoir      is thought to have caused the local extinction of this species, which was recorded at the site prior to      the dam's construction (Horwitz 1990).<br/><br/>The abundance      of this species has been      reduced through inappropriate levels of exploitation (Jones and Morgan 1994). Morgan (1983)      observed evidence of heavy fishing activity in the Glenelg River      system, and noted that populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>      could be heavily impacted in a single weekend of heavy fishing pressure. Barker (1992) found considerable      variation in catch rates and sizes of this species across different sites. Recreational fishing (in particular      the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far      reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population      phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in      females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><br/>Exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region, potentially are a large scale threats for this species (Horwitz 1990, Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Other exotic species (cats, foxes, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c) and could have localised impacts on this species, leading to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.
8139		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, however this species range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Eungella</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Nationa</st1:placetype></st1:place>l Park.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to effects of exotic species.<p>All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially 'no take' species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as this are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008b), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</p>
8139		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is found in the rainforested headwaters in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Clarke</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype>, approximately 65 km west of Mackay in <st1:place w:st="on">Central Queensland</st1:place> (Morgan 1988). The nearest suitable highland habitat is either 500 km to the south, or 240 km to the north (Morgan 1988). This species is restricted to localities above 740 m above sea level (Morgan 1988).   Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of different drainage basins, and therefore the species distribution is clearly severely fragmented (Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006). This species' extent of occurrence is estimated at 80 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>
8139		habitat	eng	<em></em>  This species inhabits cool, fast flowing, well shaded streams of montane rainforests in an area of exceptionally high rainfall (Morgan 1988, Horwitz 1990, Ponniah and Hughes 1998).
8139		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this species. Recent (Coughran 2008a unpublished data) targeted surveys in a number of streams and gullies in and around the type locality suggested this species is relatively uncommon, and at some sites co-occurs with a more abundant species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span>. </p>
8139		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is susceptible to the following threats: 1. Cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological reg<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es and severe weather events. Cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate change modeling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate, leading to decreased runoff and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007); 2. The alteration of hydrological reg<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es is likely to <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006); 3. Over-exploitation. This restricted range species is susceptible to over-exploitation by collectors and illegal fishing pressure (O’Brien 2007); 4. Exotic fish. Potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <em>et al</em>. 2008); 5. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <em>et al. </em>1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localised <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts on <em>E. eungella</em> and contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p></p>  Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted   range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments),   global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This   species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and  degrade  riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats  on this  species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be   significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J.   Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
8140		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however this species range coincides with the Northern Queensland World Heritage Area  (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Further research on the possible threats to this species is needed to determine to what degree they are impacting the population.<br/><p>All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed   and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.  (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). </p>
8140		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from a small highland area (more than 900 m above sea level) west of Mossman (north <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>), between and including <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Lewis</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Spurgeon</st1:placename></st1:place> (Morgan 1988). The species inhabits numerous gullies and headwaters of different streams within this area. This species extent of occurrence is approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>  (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, and therefore the species distribution is severely fragmented (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).
8140		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit cool, clear, fast-flowing headwater streams within rainforest (Morgan 1988). As is the case for most <em>Euastacus</em> species, this species<em> </em>prefers well oxygenated, heavily shaded sites. Individuals like to burrow either under rocks or logs (Horwitz 1990). Unlike other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> in northern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland,</st1:place></st1:state> this species is very large exceeding 100 mm Orbital Carapace Length (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>
8140		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species although it is relatively common within its small range (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
8140		threats	eng	<em></em>This species may be threatened by over-exploitation due to recreational fishing (Coughran 2008 <em>unpublished data</em>) especially as this species is over the 90 mm OCL catch limit that has been imposed for spiny crayfish.<br/>  <p>Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat, and an increased potential for bushfires could all cause population declines (Hilbert<em> et al.</em> 2001, Chiew and McMahon 2002,Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007, Laurance and Curran 2008).</p>      <p>This species is also potentially threatened by the introduced Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b), although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d). Large areas of stream habitat within the species distribution have been totally rooted by feral pigs (Coughran 2008 <em>unpublished data</em>).&#160;</p>
8141		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species, however its distribution coincides with several national parks and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">state</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">forests</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Furthermore, All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>    <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
8141		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from the Maleny Plateau and streams flowing from it, in the upper reaches of Yabba Creek, and from a tributary of the upper <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane River</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> (Morgan 1988). Furthermore, this species is known only from sites approximately 475 m above sea level (Morgan 1988, Smith<em> et al.</em> 1998). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>.   The distribution and habitat are limited (Morgan 1988), and all sites fall within 0.5° latitude and 0.5° longitude. There are few places within this EOO that are above 475m, so the area of occupancy is likely to be very low (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Though this species occurs in a number of streams, the distribution is restricted to headwater reaches above 475 m, and therefore the distribution is severely fragmented as intervening lowland areas have been identified as barriers to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).
8141		habitat	eng	<p>This species<em> </em>inhabits cool, clear, flowing headwaters in montane areas, in both wet sclerophyll and rainforest (Morgan 1988). Like other species of <em>Euastacus</em>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks. Smith<em> et al.</em> (1998) recorded the species in deep pools, runs, riffles and glides. <br/></p>
8141		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species. Smith<em> et al.</em> (1998) recorded details about growth, habitat and abundance of juveniles in two creek catchments in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Conondale</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The distribution of this species is severely fragmented as intervening lowland areas have  been identified as barriers to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and  Hughes 2006).</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
8141		threats	eng	<em></em>  Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific data on the impact of this threat on this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).     <p>Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus hystricosus</span> is a large species that would be appealing to recreational fishers.   Illegal harvesting is a potential threat (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Morgan (1983) observed evidence of heavy fishing activities in the Conondale region, and noted that populations of <em>Euastacus</em> could be heavily impacted in a single weekend of heavy fishing pressure. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<em> et al. </em>2008).
8142		conservation	eng	<p>  Although the range of this species coincides with the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Mistake</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.  All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> are officially no take species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that some <em>Euastacus</em> species such as this species are not spiny (Morgan 1988, Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p>    <p></p>
8142		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, and is known only from the type locality in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mistake</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype>, southeastern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). The range of this species is drained by tributaries of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 10 km² (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008); its area of occupancy must be less than or equal to the extent of occurrence, and is thus also less than 10 km².</p>
8142		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species inhabits tributaries of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008) within a highland (920 m above sea level) rainforested site in the Mistake Mountains (Morgan 1988).
8142		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be rare as it is known only from six specimens (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
8142		threats	eng	<em></em>Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>      <p></p>
8143		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution is wholly within <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Queensland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Parks</st1:placetype></st1:place> and Wildlife Service property. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into environmental tolerances and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus maidae</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</span></p>
8143		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. The only published records of this species are from the type locality in the upper reaches of Currumbin Creek in southeast Queensland (Riek 1956, Morgan 1988), and it has not been collected below approximately 150 m above sea level   (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>   (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
8143		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in the Currumbin Creek, which is characterized by cool, clear, fast-flowing water in a rainforested area (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). This species is restricted to heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters in rainforest where it can burrow under logs and rocks. Furthermore, it co-occurs with the much larger <em>Euastacus valentulus</em> and <em>Euastacus sulcatus </em>(J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
8143		population	eng	This species is believed to be extremely rare within its highly restricted distribution (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). Despite various extensive targeted surveys (J.M. Furse pers. obs. 2000, 2001 and 2002, J. Coughran pers. obs. 2007 and 2008) only three specimens of this species were captured (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
8143		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007.   Land use management on private properties situated at the top of the catchment (on the Springbrook Plateau), could lead to declines in habitat/water quality due to pesticides, pathogens, pollution, siltation, and eutrophication. Given the highly restricted distribution of this species, these impacts could lead to significant population declines, or extinction.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
8144		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species; however its distribution range coincides with the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kroombit</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Tops</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus monteithorum</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1989; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.<p></p>
8144		distribution	eng	<em></em> This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known only from the type locality, Kroombit Tops, a single isolated mountain peak in <st1:place w:st="on">central Queensland</st1:place>. The nearest suitable highland habitat is either 280 km to the south, or 425 km to the north (Morgan 1989).   The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 10 km², and the area of occupancy must be less than or equal to the extent of occurrence.
8144		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits cool, clear fast flowing headwaters in rainforested areas at approximately 860 m above sea level (Morgan 1989). Like other species of <em>Euastacus</em>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
8144		population	eng	This species is thought to be rare. Recent (Oct 2008) targeted surveys in a number of streams and gullies in and around the type locality failed to locate any specimens of this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse 2008).
8144		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, goats, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
8145		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However its distribution coincides with a number of protected areas including the Northern Queensland World Heritage Area, Cape Tribulation National Park and Cedar Bay National Park (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, all 'spiny crayfish' (Euastacus) species in Queensland are officially no take species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>    <p>Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and the impacts of threats within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
8145		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from two sites (approximately 40 km apart), the type locality (Mount Finnigan) and Thornton Peak, South of Cooktown, North Queensland (Morgan 1988). Both sites are above 1,000 m above sea level, and should be considered as severely fragmented given that intervening lowland areas are barriers to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm. 2009).&#160;&#160; </p>
8145		habitat	eng	<em></em>      <p>This species inhabits cool, clear, fast-flowing waters in areas of tropical rainforest (Morgan 1988). It is found in streams and pools where it burrows in the bank or shelters in natural crevices for shelter (Monroe 1977). Specimens have been collected during the day from under rocks or in leaf litter, and at night this species has been observed just inside the burrow entrance (Monroe 1977). The burrows of this species have been observed to have one or two entrances (Monroe 1977).</p>
8145		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species.</p>
8145		threats	eng	<em>Euastacus robertsi</em> has low dispersal capabilities through non-continuous rainforest which will result in problems in the future as more and more and more of the surrounding rainforest is harvested (Ponniah and Hughes 1998). This species also has a very limited range which means the effects of habitat degradation will be more pronounced. Agriculture within their range and a loss of riparian vegetation is also having a detrimental effect on the species (Horwitz 1990, 1995). In addition the species is susceptible to the following potential threats:1. Given its highly restricted range, the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors; 2.</span> Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat, increased potential for bushfires (Hilbert<em> et al.</em> 2001; Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007; Laurance and Curran 2008); 3. </span> </span>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species.   Other exotic species (cats and pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c) and given this species highly restricted distribution and rarity, could have serious impacts on <em>E.&#160;robertsi </em>by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance.</span>
8146		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Maiala</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus setosus</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</span></p>  <p></p>
8146		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from a limited number of sites proximal to the type locality, in headwater tributaries of the Pine River near Mount Glorious, northwest of Brisbane (Riek 1969, J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It is thought to possibly occur elsewhere in the D'Aguilar Range, although rainforest in the area has been extensively cleared and persists only in some gullies of state forests and national parks (Morgan 1998).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 10 km² (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009); its area of occupancy is almost certainly less than 10 km². </p>
8146		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits cool, running headwater creeks in rainforested areas above 500 m (Morgan 1988). Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks (Horwitz 1990).</p>
8146		population	eng	<p>The species is known to be rare (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
8146		threats	eng	Given the restricted range of this species, it is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, it is also susceptible to climate change impacts such as increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). In addition, the Cane Toad (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) also poses a threat (DEH 2004b), although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic introduced species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution and rarity, could have serious impacts on this species by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
8147		conservation	eng	<p>    <p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it does occur in the Conondale and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mapleton</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Falls</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Parks</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, population genetics, investigations into the species thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus urospinosus</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</p>  </p><p><br/></p>
8147		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is restricted to a tributary of Obi Obi Creek, between Maleny and Mapleton in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Blackall</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype>, and other sites in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Conondale</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Morgan 1988, Borsboom 1998). Individuals were collected at altitudes greater than 240 m above sea level (Horwitz 1990). The species distribution consists of two geographically separate areas around 15 km apart (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). However, the rainforest has been largely cleared throughout the area and only persists in pockets (Morgan 1988), and the two localities should be regarded as severely fragmented (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 200 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
8147		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits cool, clear fast flowing headwaters in rainforested areas. Like other species of <em>Euastacus</em>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks (Horwitz 1990). <br/></p>
8147		population	eng	<p>  Few specimens have been collected of this species from the Maleny and Mapleton localities, but in a more intensive, long-term study in the Conondale Ranges, Borsboom (1998) collected it in high numbers (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
8147		threats	eng	<p>Given the apparently restricted range of each population, the species is susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management, practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given the restricted distribution, could have impacts on this species by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) considered the potential threat of illegal recreational fishing for the larger <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus hystricosus</span> in the Conondale area, and this may also be a threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. urospinosus</span>.   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats,&#160; foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p>
8148		conservation	eng	<p>Within Victoria, this species is listed as threatened under The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. The Scientific Advisory Committee determined that this species was particularly 'vulnerable' to future threats which are likely to result in extinction (Van Praagh 2003). <br/></p>    <p>As a result of the action statement developed in 2003 by Van Praagh, the following actions were suggested: a) determine distribution and abundance of the species, b) protect instream and riparian habitat, c) determine key habitat parameters. Further research should also be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160; </p>    <p>In Victoria, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish, and as this species does not attain that size, it is indirectly protected by this restriction. Apart from a ban on <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus armatus</span>, there are no recreational fishing regulations for freshwater crayfish in the Australian Capital Territory (TAMS 2007).</p>
8148		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is present in the Australian Capital Territory, especially in the high country west of the Snowy Mountains and into the eastern semi-alpine country of Victoria as far as the Mount Beauty-Mount Hotham region (Morgan 1997). The range extends from northeast to southwest approximately 210 km (Morgan 1997). This species is restricted to the upper reaches of several drainages, and the range can thus be considered severely fragmented due to the isolating effects of unsuitable lowland habitat and the barriers of mountain ridges (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). It inhabits sites greater than 640 m above sea level. The range is extremely narrow, and the overall extent of occurrence (EOO) for the species is approximately 4,500 km² (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). The primary determinant of this species' distribution is elevation, so even within this EOO there will be places below 1,000 m where other crayfish species are found (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p><p></p>
8148		habitat	eng	<em></em>  This species typically occupies cool, clear upland streams in alpine and sub-alpine regions. In Morgan's (1997) description of the type locality, he describes an abundance of ferns, granitic substrate, with dry sclerophyll forest and heath. He also notes that this species has a patchy distribution in the Australian Capital Territory occurring in high streams where vegetation is relatively undisturbed.<br/><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).<br/></p>
8148		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.   The species is considered rare (Van Praagh 2003, O'Brien 2007), although may be common in very localized situations (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).
8148		threats	eng	Habitat modification is a major threat to this species. The habitat has been impacted by agriculture, burning, river regulation and in-stream structures (i.e., Snowy River Hydro-electric Scheme) (O'Brien 2007).  Although this species occurs within national parks there are numerous other potential threats such as exotic fish and other exotic species, climate change, over-exploitation for food and bait (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/> <br/>Potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout, Rainbow Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region may impact this species (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localised impacts on this species by contributing to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.<br/>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/>        Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable alpine habitat and increased potential for bushfires could pose a threat to this species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, cats, foxes, trout and perch) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
8149		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species<em>,</em> however in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length applies (DPI 2007); as this species <em></em>does not attain that size, it is indirectly protected by this restriction.    <p><br/></p><p>There are plans to establish some protected habitat areas at sites where <em>E. diversus</em> has been recorded. If implemented these will be Linear Reserves consisting of an undisturbed buffer of approximately 100m on each bank of the stream 1km upstream and downstream of sites where <em>E. diversus </em>&#160;were recorded (Murray 2003). Land use management practices will apparently be managed or restricted within and nearby these Linear Reserves (i.e. no road construction, and any fuel reduction or regeneration burning in the vicinity will be strictly controlled to ensure that the reserves themselves are not burnt (Murray 2003)). </p>  <p>When established these protected habitat areas should be monitored to evaluate the efficacy of the threat mitigation measures implemented therein. Existing populations should also be monitored to identify if any dramatic decreases in numbers occurr. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, population genetics, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
8149		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It has a very restricted distribution, having been found at only seven localities on, and around the Erinundra Plateau in <st1:place w:st="on">East  Gippsland</st1:place>, Victoria. The type locality is approximately 50 km north of Orbost (Morgan 1986). The species was then rediscovered in Ferntree, Ellery, Jungle and Lilly-Pilly Creeks, all in the headwaters of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brodribb</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River </st1:placetype></st1:place>  (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). In 1995 a subpopulation was located in Yandown Creek, in the headwaters of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Queensborough</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. This is the only subpopulation known outside the Brodribb River Catchment (Murray 2003). The terrain is rugged, and its restriction to headwater streams at elevations between 350 - 1,050 m above sea level warrants that the distribution of this species be considered as highly fragmented (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated at approximately 500 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;    </p>
8149		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is not well known. However, the streams present within its range are cool, perennial and highly oxygenated, flowing through wet or damp forest or rainforest. The substrate is usually cobbles, pebbles, or gravel and there is an abundance of instream debris (Murray 2003).
8149		population	eng	The species was considered rare by Horwitz (1990), and is still uncommon at the sites it inhabits. Some of these sites are also inhabited by the larger and dominant <span style="font-style: italic;">E. kershawi</span> (Coughran 2008 unpublished data).   This species is common enough at the site 30 miles north of Orbost, with several caught within a few minutes (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).
8149		threats	eng	This species faces various serious threats associated with land use management and ongoing forestry practices within its limited range (Murray 2003). These threats include increased sedimentation of waterways from construction of logging roads, clear felling of vegetation, and associated prescribed burning for vegetation regeneration purposes (Murray 2003). In addition, stream flow regimes and various water quality parameters (i.e. temperature, organic material and nutrient loads, and oxygenation levels) are likely to be influenced by land use practices within its small range (Murray 2003). These threats are likely to become more pronounced as the logging activities encroach on waterways inhabited by this crayfish (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).  As a result, timber harvesting and burning of the forest to manage timber is the largest threat to this species with its entire distribution in a logging zone (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Localised catastrophic events, such as a prolonged drought or large sediment pulses could drastically affect populations of this species. Roads alongside, or across, streams are the most likely source of a sediment pulse. Road works can also cause an increase in sedimentation immediately downstream of the works, causing a decline in the quality of both the water and the substrate (Murray 2003). <br/><br/> As a high altitude species, climate change poses a threat, including increased temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable highland habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).    <p>Exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats, brown trout) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, Murray 2003, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e), and given this species restricted distribution and apparent rarity, could have serious impacts on this species<em>&#160;</em>by contributing to declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>
8150		conservation	eng	<em></em>      <p>This species is listed as Threatened under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 in the state of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>. Furthermore, this species range coincides with the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Wilson's</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Promontory</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm Orbital Carpace Length (OCL) applies (DPI 2007); this species   does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p>Future conservation efforts need to focus on describing key habitat parameters for this species and protecting critical habitat. Research should also be initiated into the population status of this species and to what extent impacts such as forestry, invasive species and climate change are having upon it.   Research should also be initiated into population genetics of the species and biological and life history information, and investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species  (J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Local awareness programs would benefit this species: at present there is a lack of awareness of this endemic species in this area (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
8150		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found on Wilsons Promontory and in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Strzelecki</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype> of southern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state> at elevations of 50-600 m above sea level (Morgan 1986). The species has a severely fragmented range, with the unsuitable lowland habitat of the Yanakie Isthmus forming a barrier between the Wilson's Promontory population and the remaining mainland sites (Morgan 1986, J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Recent surveys of the Strzelecki ranges have failed to&#160;locate&#160;a single individual of this species (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 1,500 km<sup>2 </sup> (J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
8150		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in narrow and shallow waters with a temperature range of 7-15<sup>o</sup>C and high dissolved oxygen content (Van Praagh 2003). It is more commonly seen in streams with pool habitat and little or no aquatic vegetation (Van Praagh 2003). Riparian vegetation reflects the altitudinal differences of sites within its fragmented range (Morgan 1986, Van Praagh 2003).
8150		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>This species has a restricted, fragmented distribution and is considered to be rare (O'Brien 2007). This&#160;species&#160;is&#160;further&#160;regarded to be rare within the&#160;Wilson&#160;Promentary (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>
8150		threats	eng	<em></em>A considerable amount of land within the potential range of this species has been converted to pine plantations. However, quantitative studies on the impact of forestry practises on these crayfish are few and far between. Many studies have shown direct effects of timber harvesting on the macro-invertebrates of streams due to decreased water quality and quantity (Campbell and Doeg 1989). Forestry activities may pose direct and indirect threats to&#160;<em></em>this species by changing the flow characteristics of the stream, run-off, the amounts and type of organic debris entering the stream, temperature regimes, and the amount and rate of in-stream sediment (Van Praagh 2003). The deposition of sediment in streams coats the substrata, fills interstitial spaces and is detrimental to young crayfish. These areas are of value in protecting juvenile crayfish from predators. A study recently showed a negative relationship between the presence of this species and levels of instream silt (Koster <em>et al</em>. 1999). Wildfires are another major threat to this species, of which there have been a few in the last decade (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). <br/><p>Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this rare species may be susceptible to over-collection and fishing pressure. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<em> et al. </em>2008).<br/></p>Other potential large scale threats that occur within the range of this species, include the threat of predation by exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe<em> et al.</em> 2008). Future potential threats include climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003).
8151		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range may coincide with the Koombooloomba Forest Reserve (J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to exotic species (J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>All species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> in Queensland are officially no take species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as this species are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Short and Davie 1993; Coughran 2008b), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
8151		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is currently known from a single site in O'Leary Creek, a tributary of the upper Tully River above Koombooloomba Dam, North Queensland (Short and Davie 1993).   This species has an extent of occurrence of around 10 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>
8151		habitat	eng	<em></em>  This species is known to occur in river and creeks, and has been found under rocks in shallow water. They prefer rock/sand substratum, fringing simple notophyll vine forest with high water clarity (Short and Davie 1993).
8151		population	eng	<p>This species is apparently rare (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Recent (Oct 2008) targeted surveys in a number of streams and gullies proximal to the type locality failed to locate any specimens of this species, although the habitat was apparently suitable (Coughran 2008a unpublished data<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; </p>
8151		threats	eng	<p></p><p>  Given the apparently restricted range of each population, the species is susceptible to localized <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts, including bush fires, forest management, practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors. Cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological reg<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes pigs, goats) that have generally been found to <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given the restricted distribution, could have <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts on this species by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p>
8152		conservation	eng	All species in the genus are listed on Appendix II of CITES.
8153		conservation	eng	Right whales have been protected internationally from commercial hunting since 1935, but this has only been fully respected since the early 1970s, when the presence of international observers ended illegal catches by Soviet fleets, and land stations in South America also stopped taking right whales. Although several countries have designated marine protected areas that include right whale breeding habitat, it is not always clear what additional level of protection is offered over and above that applying to whales in the country’s waters generally. Those protected areas with specific management measures aimed at protecting the right whales in their calving grounds include the Area de Proteção Ambiental de Baleia Franca (Right Whale Environmental Protection Area) off Catarina State in Brazil, the Golfo San José Provincial Marine Park (Parque Marino Golfo San José) in Argentina, and the Great Australian Bight Marine Park in South Australia.<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES and CMS.
8153		distribution	eng	Southern right whales have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Hemisphere. The distribution in winter, at least of the breeding component of the population, is concentrated near coastlines in the northern part of the range. Major current breeding areas are nearshore off southern Australia, New Zealand (particularly Auckland Islands and Campbell Islands), Atlantic coast of South America (Argentina and Brazil), and southern Africa (mainly South Africa). Small numbers are also seen off central Chile, Peru, Tristan da Cunha (British Overseas Territory), and the east coast of Madagascar (IWC 2001, Rosenbaum <em>et al</em>. 2001). In summer right whales are found mainly in latitudes 40-50°S (Ohsumi and Kasamatsu 1986) but have been seen, especially in recent years, in the Antarctic as far south as 65°S (IWC 2007, Bannister <em>et al</em>. 1999) and around South Georgia (Rowntree <em>et al</em>. 2001).
8153		habitat	eng	Southern right whales have been well-studied on their winter breeding grounds, especially at Peninsula Valdés, Argentina, and in Australia and South Africa. Researchers have used callosity patterns to identify individuals on these grounds, and have learned much about the southern right whale's behavior, communication, and reproduction. Females produce calves at 3-5 year intervals, usually three years but with a lengthening of the cycle to five years when feeding conditions are poor (Leaper <em>et al.</em> 2006). Calves are born from June to October with a peak in August after a 12-13 month gestation period (Best 1994). Where feeding occurs north of 40°S the diet consists mainly of copepods, south of 50°S mainly euphausiids (krill), and varying proportions of the two food items at intermediate latitudes (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998).
8153		population	eng	The IWC conducted its last major review of southern right whales in 1998 (IWC 2001), from which most of this information is taken.<br/><br/>Following severe historical depletion by commercial whaling, several breeding populations (Argentina/Brazil, South Africa, and Australia) of southern right whales (<em>E. australis</em>) have shown evidence of strong recovery, with a doubling time of 10-12 years (Bannister 2001, Best <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cooke <em>et al</em>. 2001). The other breeding populations are still very small, and data are insufficient to determine whether they are recovering. Estimated total population size as of 1997 was 7,500 animals (of which 1,600 were mature females, including 547 from Argentina and 659 from South Africa), and the three main populations have continued to increase at a similar rate since then (Best <em>et al.</em> 2005, Cooke <em>et al.</em> 2003, IWC 2007). Illegal Soviet catches (mainly in the 1960s) temporarily inhibited recovery, but overall the population appears to have grown strongly since then (see below).<br/><br/>There appears to be substantial interchange between breeding grounds off the same continent, e.g. between Argentina and Brazil (Groch <em>et al.</em> 2004), but a much smaller rate of interchange between land masses, e.g. between Australia and New Zealand (Anon. 2004) and Argentina and Tristan da Cunha (Best <em>et al.</em> 1993).
8153		threats	eng	Southern right whales were hunted extensively by pre-modern whaling starting in the early 17th century, but especially in the 18th and 19th centuries by American and European whalers. Not all records have survived, and furthermore there is uncertainty over the numbers of animals killed but not caught. The total number processed between 1770 and 1900 is conservatively estimated at about 150,000, of which 48,000-60,000 were taken in the 1830s alone. By the start of modern whaling at the beginning of the 20th century, the species was already rare, and catches thereafter until right whales were legally protected in 1935 totalled only about 1,600 individuals. Over 3,000 were taken illegally by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998). The hemispheric population in 1770 is estimated at 55,000-70,000 and is estimated to have been depleted to a low of about 300 animals by the 1920s. The species presumably began to recover following protection in 1935, but the illegal Soviet catches in the 1960s are estimated to have removed over half of the remaining population and delayed recovery (IWC 2001).<br/><br/>Like their congeners in the Northern Hemisphere, southern right whales are subject to mortality due to entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with shipping (IWC 2001). However, this does not seem to have impeded their recovery, at least in some areas. The lower average density of human populations and thus fishing, shipping and other potentially harmful activities in the Southern Hemisphere, compared with the western North Atlantic, probably makes this species less affected by such activities than is the North Atlantic right whale.<br/><br/>Parasitism by kelp gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em>, which gouge skin and blubber from the whales’ backs, has been increasing rapidly in the Península Valdés calving ground and may eventually drive the whales elsewhere (Rowntree <em>et al.</em> 1998). This appears to be a learned behaviour that has spread through the gull population, and which is likely exacerbated by the elevated gull populations provisioned by the prevalence of uncovered disposal sites for fishery and other waste.<br/><br/>Observed correlations between breeding success off Argentina and sea surface temperature anomalies at South Georgia suggest that as Antarctic feeding grounds warm up, the average calving rate of southern right whales can be expected to decline (Leaper <em>et al.</em> 2006).
8162		conservation	eng	In Mongolia, the species is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws because it occurs within protected areas; however, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Approximately 44% of it's range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. It was listed as Rare in the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987; MNE 1997) and was recently regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A3c in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In China, this species occurs in Ejinahuyanglin Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas.  There are no known conservation measures in place in China. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
8162		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, Sokolov <em>et al.</em> (1996) reported it from ten localities in desert habitats of the Trans Altai Gobi Desert and Alashani Gobi Desert. Mongolia represents the northern limit of its global distribution. In China, it is known from the arid regions of Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Nei Mongol, and Ningxia provinces (Smith and Xie 2008).
8162		habitat	eng	In Mongolia, this species is found in desert habitats, with most records from sandy valleys with low shrub cover, associated with pea shrubs (<em>Caragana spp.</em>), <em>Kalidum foliatum</em>, tamarisk (<em>Tamarix ramossima</em>) and saxaul (<em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>). Its range overlaps with the Gobi jerboa (<em>Allactaga bullata</em>), midday gerbil (<em>Meriones meridianus</em>), hairy footed jerboa (<em>Dipus sagitta</em>) and Gobi hamster (<em>Cricetulus obscurus</em>) (MNE 1997). <br/><br/>The most important biological feature of this species is its insectivory, insects comprise 95% of its diet (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996).  This nocturnal species has large ears and elongated feet, a long tail with a white tip and black mid-section, and a grey coat with a white underside. It is one of the larger jerboa species in Mongolia, males weigh 23.7-37.8 g, with head-rump measurements of 95-107 mm, an average tail length of 147-180 mm, a hind foot length of 44-46 mm, and an ear length of 39-45 mm. Females generally weigh less (27.4-33 g) and have slightly shorter body and tail lengths (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>In China, it is an inhabitant of sandy desert regions; usually found in sand hills on the edge of desert oases or in sandy valleys with sparse vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008). Green plants constitute the bulk of its diet, but it may consume insects and lizards (Smith and Xie 2008).  Parturition occurs in early spring, with litter sizes of 2-6 (Smith and Xie 2008).
8162		population	eng	In Mongolia, surveys of the Trans Altai Gobi Desert in 1975 found three individuals in the Zuun-Mod oases using 200 pitfall traps per day, five individuals during night surveys in the Hatan suudal Mountain over a 46 km transect, and six individuals over a 50 km transect in the Zam Bilkhiin Gobi (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1978). Studies in the desert zones between 1979 and 1983 found an average of 0.5 ± 0.2 individuals per hectare. A survey of five biomes found this species to be ubiquitous in the extra-arid and true deserts of the Trans-Altai Gobi (Kulikov and Rogovin 1980).
8162		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
8166		conservation	eng	Research actions. Habitat conservation. The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
8166		distribution	eng	SW Canada and Montana (USA) to Queretaro (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
8166		habitat	eng	Spotted bats have been found foraging in many different habitats, especially in arid or Ponderosa Pine forests, and marshlands. Because of the low frequency of their echolocation calls large open habitat is predicted to be preferred. However, it is believed that the distribution of suitable diurnal roosting sites is cause for the patchy distribution of this species. Spotted Bats roost in the small cracks found in cliffs and stony outcrops. They have been found as high as 3,000 m above sea level, and even below sea level in the deserts of California (Pierson and Rainey 1998; Poche 1981; Watkins 1977).<br/><br/>The female gives birth to one young weighing 20% of her body weight usually around June. Young do not have the spots of the adults, nor fully developed ears at birth. Juveniles have been caught in mist nets in July. Lactating females have been caught as late as August (Watkins 1977).
8166		population	eng	Very little is known about this species. It was once thought to be rare In the 100 years from the time of its discovery to 1990 only 14 individuals, for example, were collected in California. Since then the number of locations where spotted bats have been found in that state has tripled, and their range is now known to extend from Montana south to central Mexico, including in western US into arid parts of Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah that were previously unrecognized. While the distribution is very patchy over this range, the species may be locally common. Typically at a given site usually only one is caught per night, and individuals are well dispersed, separated by distances of 750-1,000 m of each other. They use vocalizations to communicate with neighbours. There is at least one recorded account of an apparent territorial dispute involving vocalization and direct contact. Only in one study has this species been seen foraging in groups (Hussain 2000). It is considered as very rare in its South range of its distribution (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
8166		threats	eng	Very little is known about the distribution of the population of this bat. Because the Spotted Bat seems to forage in various habitats, conservation of diurnal roosts, rocky cliffs that have snug cracks for roosting, seem to be the best way to protect this species. However, large open foraging sights, where their echolocation is most effective, are important to the conservation of this species, as well as the availability of large moths as prey.<br/><br/>In general, the long term persistence of North American bat species is threatened by the loss of clean, open water; modification or destruction of roosting and foraging habitat; and for hibernating species, disturbance or destruction of hibernacula (Chambers and Herder, 2005)
8168		conservation	eng	This species is known from Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
8168		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in northern Lao PDR (Osgood 1932), one location in central Myanmar (Yoma survey area, Bates <em>et al</em>. 2000), one location in central Thailand (Kock and Kovac 2000), and one location in southern Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003).
8168		habitat	eng	It has been found roosting in internodal spaces of bamboo stems. In Myanmar, it has been found in hilly forest (P. Bates pers. comm.) and in lowland bamboo forest in Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003). In Thailand is found in mixed deciduous forest with bamboo (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
8168		population	eng	It was recorded from one location in Thailand with a population of around seven individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). A single specimen was collected in Viet Nam. It is unclear why the species is not more common in bamboo habitat, or whether it is dependent on a particular type of bamboo.
8168		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known.
8172		conservation	eng	No information.
8172		distribution	eng	Danube drainage: Tisza and Timis systems (Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary).
8172		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Ammoecoetes feed on detritus and insect larvae; they usually metamorphose in July-August. Metamorphosis lasts 1-5 months and feeding starts in the following March. Spawns in spring, usually after one year of predatory life, in April-June in uppermost reaches of brooks. Dies after spawning. Adults feed on live and dead fish; they usually kill their prey and feed on body tissues or swallow the whole fish.
8172		population	eng	Suspected to be slowly declining.
8172		threats	eng	Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.
8173		conservation	eng	No information available.
8173		distribution	eng	Tributaries of Baltic (Odra, Vistula, Neman drainages), northern Black (Danube to Kuban drainages) and Caspian Seas (River Sura, Volga drainage). In Danube, restricted to tributaries below Iron Gate; a single record from upper Morava system (Czechia).
8173		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland, piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in September-December, overwinters and spawns in late April-early May, later at higher elevations, when temperatures reach 11-16°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form aggregations. Dies after spawning.
8173		population	eng	Abundant in Poland and Ukraine, but suspected to be gradually declining overall.
8173		threats	eng	Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.
8174		conservation	eng	No information.
8174		distribution	eng	Upper and middle Danube drainage (Sava and Drava systems and upper Danube north and west of Drava). Locally in Timis and Olt systems (lower Danube drainage). Absent from Tisza and Cerna systems.
8174		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Clear, well oxygenated brooks in piedmont and montane zones. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in July-September, overwinters, and spawns in March-May, later at higher elevations, when temperatures reach 7-10°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig shallow nests in habitats with moderate current. Dies after spawning.
8174		population	eng	Suspected to be radually declining.
8174		threats	eng	Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.
8199		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in the Montagne d’Ambre National Park and in three special reserves (Analamerana, Ankarana, and Forêt d’Ambre) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is also in Montagne de Francais Classified Forest, which is not protected. It has also been observed in forests of the Daraina region, which is now part of a protected area to be created for Golden-crowned Sifaka (<em>Propithecus tattersalli</em>). Expansion of the highly successful awareness campaign in Daraina to Analemarana and Ankarana is recommended. There is a small worldwide captive population.
8199		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme northern Madagascar. It is the only species found on the Cap d’Ambre Peninsula, the most northerly point on the island. From there its range extends south, east of the Mahavavy River beyond Ambilobe. The eastern part of its range extends south in Daraina to the Manambato River. Ranges from sea-level to 1,250 m.
8199		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry and humid forests, and is reported to inhabit all levels of the forest (though is most likely to be found in lianas, thick cover and terminal branches). It also readily descends to the ground to eat fallen fruit, lick earth or travel. Group size does not appear to differ significantly between habitat types, the average group being five or six and the maximum size about 15 individuals. According to Freed (1996), this species is cathemeral, remaining active both day and night throughout the year. In Ankarana and Montagne d’Ambre, mating occurs in late May and June, and births take place from mid-September through October (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
8199		population	eng	Several estimates of population density have been made: 77 individuals/km² in the Analamerana Special Reserve; 104 individuals/km² in the humid forests of Montagne d’Ambre; and 221 individuals/km² in the Ankarana Special Reserve (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). <br/><br/>More recently, in Analamerana, Crowned Lemurs reached high densities of 21-25 individuals/km² and in Ankarana encounter rates were 1.7 groups per km² in Anilotra, but at other sites there were only 0.4 groups per km² (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).
8199		threats	eng	Forest loss due to slash-and-burn practices, charcoal production, mining for sapphires and gold, and illegal logging, as well as hunting for food, are the principal threats to this species.
8202		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is protected by law in the Comores. It is known to occur in a single protected area, Ankarafantsika National Park. Unprotected populations are found in the forests of Anjamena, Antrema (at Katsepy), Mariarano, and Tsiombikibo (near Mitsinjo) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.
8202		distribution	eng	This species is found in north-western Madagascar and in the Comores on the islands of Moheli, Anjouan and Gran Comoro, where they were almost certainly introduced by human agency. On Madagascar, it is known from the region of Ambato-Boéni and Ankarafantsika; the northern limit of its distribution appears to be near Analalava on the Bay of Narindra, and it has been seen south and west of the Betsiboka River at Katsepy and on the shores of Lac Kinkony, on both sides of the Mahavavy River and in the Tsiombikibo forest near Mitsinjo (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Ranges from sea level to 400 m.
8202		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry deciduous forests in western Madagascar, more typically in humid forests in the Comores, and can survive in secondary forest. In Madagascar it lives in small cohesive family units of an adult male-female pair with one to four offspring; larger groups have been recorded on Mohéli in the Comoros. A cathemeral species, with fruit predominating in the diet. The birth season appears to be around mid-October on Anjouan and in Madagascar, and females give birth each year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
8202		population	eng	Muller <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded densities of 16 groups/km² and 45 individuals/km² in Anjamena, using transect line sampling.
8202		threats	eng	Forests of western Madagascar inhabited by mongoose lemurs are already highly fragmented and continue to be cleared for pastures, crops, and charcoal production. Hunting using traps is also considered to be a threat. While previously under less threat on Anjouan and Mohéli, this species is now more often regarded as a crop pest, especially by an influx of Malagasy who do not adhere to local customs that have historically provided lemurs in the Comores a greater degree of protection (Tattersall 1998).
8203		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is found in four national parks (Andringitra, Mantadia, Marojejy, Ranomafana and Zahamena), two strict nature reserves (Tsaratanana and Zahamena), and seven special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Mangerivola, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, and Pic d’Ivohibe) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population
8203		distribution	eng	The range of E. rubriventer extends from northern Madagascar’s Tsaratanana Massif south along the thin strip of east coast rain forest to the Pic d'Ivobe and the Manampatrana River (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005), although at one time it ranged further south. It does not occur on the Masoala Peninsula. Ranges from 70-2,400 m.
8203		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted mainly to primary forest habitats, as high as 2,400 m on the Tsaratanana Massif. Its activity pattern is characterized as cathemeral, and group size varies from two to 10 individuals, the typical group containing an adult pair and their offspring. Home range size has been estimated at 12-15 ha. Young are born in September and October; usually one infant is born per year to each group and mortality is approximately 50%. They are very specialized frugivores, and an important seed disperser (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
8203		population	eng	Not common. In Ranomafana, densities were 5.25 individuals per km² (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8203		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn practices and illegal logging. Also subject to hunting, which can be heavy in certain areas, such as Mantadia.
8204		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is found in three national parks (Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, and Masoala), in the Betampona Strict Nature Reserve, and in two special reserves (Anjanaharibe-Sud and Nosy Mangabe) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Control of hunting within the range is urgently required. There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.
8204		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of the rainforest that remains in north-eastern Madagascar, occurring from the Bemarivo River, near Sambava, south to the region of Mananara Nord, including the Masoala Peninsula. There is an isolated population in the Betampona Nature Reserve, and they have been introduced to Nosy Mangabe. Distribution south of Mananara remains to be clarified as there is significant hybridization with <em>E. fulvus</em> occurs over a wide area (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Ranges from sea level to 1,670 m.
8204		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in tropical moist forest. It is believed to be cathemeral, active both day and night throughout the year. Females are reported to feed more heavily than males on flowers during the dry season, typically a time of resource abundance during which they also are more likely to give birth. Fecundity has been measured at 0.2 – 0.7 babies per adult female per year, with most adult females producing offspring each year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
8204		population	eng	Population density has been estimated at around 15 individuals/km² on the Masoala Peninsula (Rakotondratsima and Kremen 2001).
8204		threats	eng	Destruction of Madagascar’s eastern rain forests, primarily through slash-and-burn practices (but also through mining for quartz), is the principal threat to the survival of <em>E. albifrons</em>. The species is also hunted for food in many parts of its range. This was the most heavily hunted species in Makira (using both traps and firearms, although the latter are very few in the region), where it was the most heavily hunted of all lemurs (Golden 2005).
8205		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in the Manombo Special Reserve; animals in the Andringitra National Park are mostly hybrids with <em>E. rufifrons</em>. Recent surveys have identified populations in unprotected forests (Vevembe and Lambohazo) that could be added to existing parks and reserves (Johnson and Overdorff 1999). Preservation of the corridor between Andrinitra and the current range, which includes the hybrid zone between <em>E. rufifrons</em> and <em>E. cinereiceps</em>, is a priority. The Missouri Botanical Garden is also presently active in managing and upgrading the protected status of the littoral forest of Mahabo. As of 2007, this species was reported from four zoological collections (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
8205		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in south-eastern Madagascar in a thin strip of forest that runs from the Manampatrana River south to the Mananara River. An isolated population of this species occurs in the Manombo Special Reserve and in Mahabo Forest south of Farafangana. Recent analyses of Landsat imagery estimate that total habitat remaining within this species’ range is less than 700 km² (Johnson and Wyner 2000; Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005). South-east of the Andringitra Massif, there is a 60 km wide hybrid zone between what is now <em>E. rufifrons</em> and <em>E. cinereiceps</em> at the Iantara River (headwaters of the Manampatrana), characterized by high density of figs and a high density of hybrid lemurs (58 /km²; Irwin <em>et al</em>. 2005). Ranges from 20-1,500 m.
8205		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest habitats. Three social groups with six to 11 individuals were identified at Mahabo, and two social groups of four to eight individuals were recorded at Manombo (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008). According to Johnson (2002), it is mainly frugivorous, its diet supplemented with leaves, flowers, and fungi. Flowers are an especially important food item late in the dry season. Their low densities are probably related to the poor availability of suitable fruit trees. This species more than others appears to have a more fission-fusion grouping pattern.
8205		population	eng	In the Manombo Special Reserve and Manombo Classified Forest, there are an estimated 60 mature individuals (J. Ratsimbazafy pers. comm.). Irwin <em>et al.</em> (2005) give a density estimate in Vevembe of 10 individuals/km²; however, south of this there is blackwater, white sand, low-productivity forest where densities will be lower. These authors determined a maximum population estimate of 7,265+/-2,268 individuals.
8205		threats	eng	Selective logging, hunting and the continued conversion of rain forest habitat to agricultural land are the greatest threats to the survival of the white-collared lemur. It is trapped easily by hunters during the fruiting season of the strawberry guava (<em>Psidium cattlianum</em>) in Manombo (J. Ratsimbazafy pers. comm.). In the rest of its range it is hunted with shotguns, snares and slingshots particularly when it comes into coffee plantations.
8206		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in two national parks (Andohahela and Midongy du Sud), the Kalambatritra Special Reserve, and the Saint Luce Private Reserve. In addition, surveys have documented its presence in the Mandena Conservation Zone (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). A small group was introduced about 20 years ago into the Berenty Private Reserve where it hybridized with introduced <em>E. rufifrons</em>. There is a small worldwide captive population.
8206		distribution	eng	This lemur is found in south-eastern Madagascar from Tolagnaro north to the Mananara River (being replaced by <em>E. cinereiceps</em> to the north of this), including the Kalambatritra Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Ranges from sea level to 1,875 m.
8206		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of moist tropical forest. It is believed to be largely frugivorous and cathemeral, remaining active both day and night throughout the year. Social groups tend to be multi-male / multi-female (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
8206		population	eng	It appears to be common where it occurs. In Midongy du Sud, densities were recorded at 14 individuals/km² (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8206		threats	eng	The principal threat to the survival of <em>E. collaris</em> is habitat destruction, due to charcoal production and some slash-and-burn agriculture. It is also reported to be widely hunted for food and trapped occasionally for the local pet trade.
8207		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported to occur in four national parks (Ankarafantsika, Mantadia, Andringitra, and Zahamena), two strict nature reserves (Tsaratanana and Zahamena), and seven special reserves (Ambatovaky, Ambohitantely, Analamazaotra, Bora, Mangerivola, Manongarivo, and Tampoketsa-Analamaitso) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008)). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.
8207		distribution	eng	This species is found in Madagascar in three populations: in the west, north of the Betsiboka River, where it lives on the high plateau in scattered forest fragments; in eastern Madagascar, to the north of the Mangoro River to the Onive River (generally north-east of Antananarivo as far as the Ambatovaky Special Reserve); and in an isolated population in Ambohitantely Special Reserve, a small reserve of no more than 3,000 ha. They are also on the island of Mayotte in the Comores, where it apparently was introduced by human agency (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/><br/>The western populations can be divided into two subpopulations, a southern one extending from the Betsiboka River/Ankarafantsika National Park to the Maverano River, and a northern one ranging from the Andranomalaza River and Manongarivo Reserve to the Mahavavy du Nord River south of Ambilobe. Animals in the northern reaches of this range may also be found throughout the moister forests of the Sambirano region, as well as on the slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif, and are very similar in coloration to the brown lemurs found on the island of Mayotte (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). Ranges from sea-level to 400 m.
8207		habitat	eng	Occurs in the tropical/subtropical dry forest in the west, and tropical moist lowland and montane forest in the east. Groups vary in size from 3-12 (larger on Mayotte) and home ranges on Madagascar vary from approximately seven to 20 ha (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
8207		population	eng	Population densities range from 40-60 individuals/km² (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
8207		threats	eng	Forest destruction, due primarily to slash-and-burn practices, charcoal production and illegal logging, is the principal threat, but hunting is increasingly becoming a significant threat (including with blowpipes, firearms, bow-and-arrows and traps) and sometimes entire groups are captured.
8209		conservation	eng	Llisted on CITES Appendix I. It is found in three national parks (Baie de Baly, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, three special reserves (Bemarivo, Kasijy, and Maningoza), and the Tsiombokibo Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The status of this species in captivity is difficult to determine at this time, owing now to taxonomic confusion with <em>E. rufifrons</em>.
8209		distribution	eng	The Red Brown Lemur is found in western and north-western Madagascar, where it is known from the Betsiboka River south to the Tsiribihina River.
8209		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
8209		population	eng	There is no information available. Until recently, the more widespread <em>E. rufifrons</em> was considered synonymous with <em>E. rufus</em>, and most studies to date have been in areas that fall within the range of the former.
8209		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, burning to clear pastureland, fuelwood gathering, and illegal logging, as well as hunting.
8210		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in Montagne d’Ambre National Park and in two special reserves (Analamerana and Ankarana). The forests of Daraina, where it is also found, are slated to become a protected area. The species is also represented in captivity.
8210		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in northern Madagascar, the southerly limit being Manambato River. The distribution range is centred on Ankarana, Anamalerana and Montagne d'Ambre, with a disjunct population in Daraina to the southeast. Ranges from sea level to 1,400 m.
8210		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane, such as on Montagne d'Ambre, and dry deciduous forests. In Ankarana National Park, it appears to favor secondary forest and is active both day and night. These lemurs are absent from very dry forests such as those of Cap d’Ambre, north of Antsiranana, but it is present in those of Daraina, to the south-east. In Ankarana groups may include up to 15 animals, significantly larger than those observed in Montagne d’Ambre, which range from three to nine animals. Mating occurs in late May and births usually take place in late September or early October (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Often found associating with <em>E. coronatus</em>, especially in the wet season (Freed 1996).
8210		population	eng	Sanford’s Brown Lemur occurs at higher densities on the slopes of Montagne d’Ambre and in other evergreen forests than it does in dry deciduous forests of the region, such as those of the Analamerana Special Reserve. On Montagne d'Ambre they are particularly common between 800 and 1,000 m (Freed 1996). In two sites in Analamerana, densities have been recorded at 3.5-5.5 individuals/km²; this species is less abundant and occurs at lower density than Crowned Lemurs in both Analamerana and Ankarana (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).
8210		threats	eng	The primary threat to the survival of Sanford’s Brown Lemur is habitat destruction, due to mining for sapphires and slash-and-burn practices, although it does appear to survive in degraded habitats. They are also hunted and commonly kept as pets.
8211		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Parts of the distribution area of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> officially received protected area status in 2007 (Parc National Sahamalaza-Iles Radama), including the Sahamalaza Peninsula and some mainland forests to the north and east (Lernould 2002, Schwitzer and Lork 2004, Schwitzer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The Sahamalaza Peninsula is also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.</p>
8211		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>This species is endemic to the island  of Madagascar. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eulemur flavifrons</span> has a very limited distribution in northwestern Madagascar. It only occurs on the Sahamalaza Peninsula as well as in a narrow stretch of forest on the adjacent mainland, extending from around Befotaka in the south to the Manongarivo mountains in the north. The Maevarano River serves as the southern boundary of the species’ range, the Sandrakota River as the eastern boundary and parts of the Andranomalaza River as the northern boundary, although it also occurs north-east of the latter, just east to the Manongarivo Special Reserve (Andrianjakarivelo 2004, Rabarivola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991, Randriatahina and Rabarivola 2004). In the north-eastern part of its range <span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> is possibly hybridizing with the genetically close <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macaco</span> (Meyers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Rabarivola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991).</p>
8211		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eulemur flavifrons</span> inhabits more or less disturbed primary and secondary tropical sub-humid forests in the southern Sambirano, a transition zone between the Sambirano region in the north and the western dry deciduous forest region in the south. It occurs from sea level up to an altitude of 1,200 m (Randriatahina and Rabarivola 2004). Its home range size and utilization differs between primary and secondary forest fragments, indicating that this species is somewhat able to adapt to different types of habitat. However, larger home ranges and lower densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> in secondary forest as compared to primary forest suggest that the former is less suitable habitat for the species (Schwitzer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a). Parasite prevalence seems to be higher in secondary than in primary forest and seems generally high when compared to data from other lemur species, suggesting that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> on the Sahamalaza Peninsula are generally under pressure, possibly due to the high degree of fragmentation and degradation of the remaining forest habitat (Schwitzer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). During a 12-month study, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> consumed parts of 72 different plant species from 35 families. 52.3% of these were fruits, and 47.7% were leaves. The animals also fed on flowers, insects, insect exudates and fungi (Polowinsky and Schwitzer 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Eulemur flavifrons</span> exhibits a bimodal activity pattern with peaks during the morning and evening twilight. It shows activity bouts during the day and night year-round. Nocturnal illumination and the proportion of illuminated lunar disk are positively associated with the amount of nocturnal activity. Total daily activity, as well as nocturnal activity, is higher in secondary forest than in primary forest (Schwitzer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007b). At certain times of the year, this species may feed on large quantities of cicadas. Group size ranges from 4 to 11 individuals (Andrianjakarivelo 2004, Randriatahina and Rabarivola 2004, Schwitzer 2004, Volampeno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). <br/></p>
8211		population	eng	In <em>E. flavifrons</em>, mean density was calculated to be 24  indviduals/km² in the eastern part of the species’ range  (Andrianjakarivelo 2004) and 97 individuals/km²  in the Ankarafa Forest on the Sahamalaza Peninsula (Volampeno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2011), but the latter figure seems to be unusually high.
8211		threats	eng	<p>The greatest threat to the Blue-eyed Black Lemur is habitat destruction due to the continuing slash-and-burn agriculture as well as selective logging and “feu de colère” (Seiler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). Logging and forest fires have increased dramatically since the onset of the political crisis in Madagascar in early 2009. The species is also hunted for food, especially by the Tsimihety in the eastern range of its distribution, where Andrianjakarivelo (2004) found a trap density of up to 570 traps/km² within certain areas. Blue-eyed Black Lemurs are locally kept as pets.</p>
8212		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <span style="font-style: italic;">E</span><em>. macaco</em> occurs in two strict nature reserves (Lokobe and Tsaratanana) and in the Manongarivo Special Reserve. It is protected on the island of Nosy Komba where the local people consider it sacred and the animals serve as a major tourist attraction (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
8212		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar ranging from sea level up to 1,600 m. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eulemur macaco</span> is distributed from the Mahavavy River in northern Madagascar, east to the vicinity of Ambilobe. The southern boundary of its distribution is marked by the Andranomalaza River. To the south-east <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macaco</span> evidently hybridizes with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> in the Manongarivo Special Reserve (Meyers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989). The Black Lemur is found in the forests of the Ampasindava Peninsula, on the islands of Nosy Be (Lokobe) and Nosy Komba, in the coastal forests northeast of Ambanja, including the peninsula leading to Nosy Faly, and has been introduced to the small island of Nosy Tanikely (Mittermeier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, and references therein). The populations close to the <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macaco</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">E. flavifrons</span> boundary differ considerably in fur colouration and pronunciation of ear tufts from those populations living further north (Schwitzer and Lork 2004) and the heads of the females are almost completely white.
8212		habitat	eng	<em>E. macaco</em> is considered to be quite adaptable and has been reported from a wide variety of habitats that include primary forest, secondary forest, forest-agricultural mosaics, and timber plantations. The species is considered cathemeral, group size ranges from two to 15 animals, and females give birth to a single young, usually between September and November (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
8212		population	eng	The population status of the Black Lemur is not known.
8212		threats	eng	Slash-and-burn agriculture is a persistent threat to north-western Madagascar’s remaining forests, where <em>E. macaco</em> is also hunted for food or killed as a crop pest in some areas. Hunting with traps seems to kill females preferentially, as they tend to lead groups in travel. There is also a small, but persistent, trade in this species as pets, particularly on Nosy Be.
8218		conservation	eng	There is no legislation to specifically protect this species, however, there have been campaigns to raise awareness amongst the public. The preparation of the Bermuda Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan will hopefully lead to a Management Plan being developed for this species.  Attempts are also being made to establish a captive population. In order to safeguard the last remaining viable subpopulation on Southampton Island it is essential that efforts are made to minimise any human impacts on the island, and that introductions of predatory species are prevented.
8218		distribution	eng	The Bermuda Rock Skink is the only endemic terrestrial vertebrate on the isolated archipelago of Bermuda. It is a relatively primitive 'relict' species and is identifiable from Pleitocene deposits on Bermuda.
8218		habitat	eng	Not much is known about the ecology of this species, but it appears that it may have a long generation length. It is thought that some individuals from a toe-clipping study were still being observed 27 years later.  Hatchlings are believed to be strictly insectivorous, but the diet then switches to carrion, which is primarily collected from seabird nests (includes broken eggs, dead chicks, and regurgitated fish and squid) (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2001).
8218		population	eng	The largest remaining subpopulation appears to be that on Southampton Island which comprises about 400 individuals (about 240 mature individuals). Other subpopulations include those on Nonsuch Island (23 individuals), Inner Pear Island (52), Charles Island (123), Palm Island (44) and a mainland reserve site at Spittal Pond (124) (see Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2001 for further details).
8218		threats	eng	The major threat has undoubtedly been habitat loss due to expanding agriculture (17% of the area) and homes and gardens (50% of the area).  However, there has also been evidence of sharp declines in reserve areas with restored vegetation.  These declines have been attributed to predation by introduced and reintroduced species. These include kiskadees (<em>Pitangus sulphuratus</em>, lizard-eating birds deliberately introduced in 1957 to control anoles), night herons (<em>Nyctanassa violacea</em>, reintroduced to replace long-extinct native herons in 1976–78), Jamaican anoles (<em>Anolis grahami</em>, introduced in 1905 to control scale insects on crops), and cane toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>, a predatory species introduced to control cockroaches). <br/> <br/>On islands not impacted by introduced species but easily accessible to people, high mortality has been attributed to the large number of discarded bottles and drink cans. Lizards are attracted to the bottles and cans, and then become trapped and are killed by the heat of the sun; their carcasses in turn attracting more lizards (see Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2001).
8239		conservation	eng	The Steller Sea Lion is protected in the United States and Canada, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (Russia) is proposing to add it to their “red” species list. In the United States the Steller Sea Lion is listed as Depleted under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act. The species was listed as Threatened in 1990 with the Western Population moved to Endangered in 1997 under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. A draft recovery plan for Steller Sea Lions was prepared in 1992, and a new assessment team was initiated in 2001. A draft and publication are planned for spring 2008. Critical habitat was designated in 1993, including no entry zones near rookeries and management of fisheries activity in the vicinity of rookeries. A groundfish management that strategically disperses fisheries over areas and time was put in force in 2003. Extensive funding has been applied to Steller Sea Lion research to develop information on ecology, behaviour, genetics, population dynamics, and movements to assist in the development of management activities, to attempt to understand the reasons for the decline and to promote recovery of the species.
8239		distribution	eng	Steller Sea Lions are found from central California (formerly southern California), north along the west coast of North America to the Aleutian Islands, and west along the Aleutian chain to the Kamchatka Peninsula, and from there south along the Kuril Islands to northern Japan, the Sea of Japan, and possibly to both Koreas. Steller Sea Lions also occur in the Sea of Okhotsk, west of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. From the Aleutians they range north across the Bering Sea to the Bering Strait. Vagrants have been recorded in China, and at Herschel Island in the Beaufort Sea (Rice 1998).
8239		habitat	eng	Steller Sea Lions are the largest otariids and the fourth largest pinniped. Both sexes are robust and powerfully built at all ages. They are sexually dimorphic, with adult males weighing three times as much, and growing 20-25% longer than adult females. Pups are born with a thick blackish-brown lanugo that is moulted by about 6 months of age. The maximum length of adult males is about 3.3 m and average weight is 1000 kg. The maximum length for adult females is about 2.5 m and average weight is 273 kg. Pups are born at an average of about 1 m and 18-22 kg.<br/><br/>The age of maturity is 3-6 years for females, and 3-7 years for males (Calkins and Pitcher 1982). Males are not able to defend territories before they are 9 years old (L. Lowry pers. comm.). The annual pregnancy rate of mature females declined during the 1970’s and 1980’s and was estimated to be 55% in the 1980’s based on collections at sea (Pitcher <em>et al</em>. 1998). Recent age-structured modelling based on population counts from the central Gulf of Alaska indicates that the birth rate in 2004 was 36% lower than in the 1970’s (Holmes <em>et al</em>. 2007). Gestation lasts one year, including a delay of implantation of about 3 months. Females may live up to 30 years old and males to about 20 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Steller Sea Lions are highly polygynous and breed in the late spring and summer. Adult males arrive before females and those that are nine years or older establish themselves on territories, which they aggressively and vociferously defend. Steller sea lions have deep voices and produce powerful low-frequency rolling roars and can be heard for long distances over the noise of wind and waves.<br/><br/>Pups are born from May through July, and females stay continuously ashore with their newborns for the first week to ten days after giving birth. Following this period of attendance, females make foraging excursions, primarily at night for periods of 18-25 hours, followed by time ashore to nurse their pup. Females come into estrous and mate about two weeks after giving birth. Weaning can occur before the next breeding season, but it is not unusual to see females nursing yearlings or older juveniles.<br/><br/>Throughout their range, Steller Sea Lions are primarily found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and slope. However, they frequent and cross deep oceanic waters in some parts of their range. Steller Sea Lions occasionally leave haulouts in very large groups; however, sightings at sea are most often of groups of 1-12 animals. They aggregate in areas of prey abundance, including near fishing vessels, where they will feed on netted fish and by-catch. Steller sea lions are known to haulout on sea ice.<br/><br/>They are not considered migratory; juveniles and subadults make the longest distance trips. Adults usually forage and live near their natal colonies and return to these sites to breed. The area used by adult females for foraging in winter increases dramatically over the area used in the summer and females tend to dive deeper in winter than summer. Diving is generally to depths of 200 m or less and dive duration is usually two minutes or less, with both parameters varying by season and age of the animal  Diving ability of pups and juveniles increases with age, and they routinely dive to depths of around 140 m for periods of two minutes as yearlings. The diving of adult males has not been studied.<br/><br/>Steller Sea Lions feed on many varieties of fish and invertebrates. Much of the information on diet comes from animals living in Alaska, where Steller Sea Lions feed on walleye pollock, Pacific Cod, Atka Mackerel, herring, sand lance, several varieties of flatfish, salmon and rockfish, and invertebrates such as squid, octopus, bivalves and gastropods (Sinclair and Zeppelin 2002, Trites <em>et al</em>. 2007). Adult females with young pups feed extensively at night, switching to foraging at any time after the breeding season. Steller sea lions are known to kill and consume young and small northern fur seals at the Pribilof Islands, and also have been reported to kill and consume Harbour and Ringed seals, and possibly Sea Otters.<br/><br/>The primary predators of Steller Sea Lions are Killer Whales. Sleeper Sharks in Alaska have been found with Steller Sea Lion remains in their stomachs, but it is unknown whether the prey was scavenged and in any case they are not believed to be primary predators. Great White Sharks presumably take Steller pups within the areas where their range overlaps.
8239		population	eng	The worldwide population of Steller Sea Lions declined by 64% during the period from 1960 to 1989, and is currently estimated to be between approximately 105,800-117,800 animals. The decline has been most dramatic in the large populations from the Gulf of Alaska (-54%), west throughout the Aleutian Island chain (-81%), to the moderately-sized Russian population (-74%). The most recent estimates, derived from the last complete surveys of pups (2005) and non pups (2004) in western Alaska (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005), Russia (Burkanov and Loughlin 2005), and the population known as the “Eastern Stock” which includes all Steller Sea Lions east of 144° (Pitcher <em>et al</em>. 2007) suggest an overall decline from the mid 1970s in excess of 50%.<br/><br/>Several population viability analyses conducted on Steller Sea Lions (e.g. York <em>et al</em>. 1996, Gerber and Van Blaricom 2001, Winship and Trites 2006, NMFS Steller Sea Lion Final Draft Recovery Plan 2008). Results have been consistent and indicate that the western segment of the population has a high probability of declining to a low level. Even the most conservative of the analyses found that the probability of quasi-extinction of the western segment within 100 years was approximately 10%.
8239		threats	eng	Steller Sea Lions have been important to the subsistence cultures of people living near them for long periods. Native Alaskans currently take about 300 a year for food and other products. The reasons for the large declines in the population, which were especially acute in some portions of the range during the period 1960 to 1989 are unclear, but are the subject of intensive ongoing investigations. Factors hypothesized include: the direct and indirect effects of large-scale commercial fisheries on key Steller sea lion prey species, long-term ecosystem shifts, and changes in behaviour by a primary predator, the killer whale.<br/><br/>Steller Sea Lions are killed in nets in fisheries off Alaska. An unknown number may be shot during commercial fishing operations. Tissue contaminant levels are generally low in most parts of their range. Deliberate killing by fishermen, disease, incidental take by fisheries, and reduced food supply have been suggested as factors which may have contributed to the current decline (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1989, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Loughlin and York 2000). The Steller Sea Lion Recovery Team identified and ranked threats to recovery of the western stock and used a weight of evidence approach to assess the relative impact. The team recognized three threats as “potentially high”: environmental variability, competition with commercial fisheries and killer whale predation. Similarly, Atkinson <em>et al</em>. (2008) recently reviewed the suspected anthropogenic sources of mortality for the same stock of Steller Sea Lions and concluded that competition with fisheries and the potential impacts of contaminants could not be excluded as continuing threats to recovery.
8241		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
8241		distribution	eng	This species is found from Oaxaca and Yucatán (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, the Guianas, Trinidad, and Jamaica (Simmons 2005). There is no valid records for Belize (Miller pers. comm.).
8241		habitat	eng	<em>E. auripendulus</em> is an insectivore (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993). Occurrs in dense forests, in coastal plains, desciduous forests, chacos, but have been found in human-disturbed areas and in a savanna (Best <em>et al</em>. 2002). They fly up to 1,200 m height (Barquez 1999). On the Yucatan Peninsula, Shaw’s mastiff bat has been observed at dusk over a highway (Ingles 1959; Jones <em>et al</em>. 1973). In Panama, individuals tended not to hang head down but instead tended to crawl into cracks and small recesses. When disturbed, they almost never flew but tried to escape by running on all fours (Bloedel 1955). In Trinidad, <em>E. auripendulus</em> was encountered at the same site as <em>M. ater</em> and <em>M. molossus</em> (Genoways <em>et al</em>. 1973). In Mexico it has been found in tropical moist forests under 1,000 m (Arita, 2005)
8241		population	eng	<em>E. auripendulus</em> occurs at elevations of 25–100 m in Venezuela and from lowlands to 1,800 m in Peru (Best <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its seldom captured in mist nets.
8241		threats	eng	In Mexico it could be threatened by deforestation.
8242		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research activities. Hard to identify with acoustic methods as for the others Eumops.<br/>Listed as special protection status by the Mexican NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Eumops nanus</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
8242		distribution	eng	Veracruz (Mexico) to northwest Peru, northwest Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil (Simmons 2005). Also found in Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas and Surinam. There are no records to Guatemala and Costa Rica <em>Eumops</em> in Venezuela probably is not this species (Gonzalez and Barquez pers. comm.).
8242		habitat	eng	<em>E. bonariensis</em> occurs in forests and occur in association with man-made structures (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 2003). Peters’ mastiff bat is an insectivore (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993; Mares <em>et al.</em> 1989). Reproduction in october-november (Barquez 1999). Low flying bats (Barquez 1999). In Mexico it has been found under 40 m (Arita, 2005)
8242		population	eng	These bats live in groups that usually consist of 10-20 bats at least 6 meters off the ground. (Nowak 1999, Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In Mexico pregnant females were present from late March to late June, with parturition synchronous in mid- to late June (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 2003). Lactating females were present over 7 weeks from early June to late July (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Argentina, a pregnant female was present in November (Mares <em>et al</em>. 1981). In Paraguay, pregnant females were present 17–21 October (Baud 1981). Very rare species in some parts of Mexico but abundant in Yucatan (Arita, 2005).
8242		threats	eng	No major threats.
8243		conservation	eng	Taxonomic revision and improve details in species distribution.
8243		distribution	eng	Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina (Simmons 2005). Distribution for Bolivia included from Williams (2002).
8243		habitat	eng	<em>E. dabbenei </em> tends to roost in the holes of trees and in buildings in Neotropic areas (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993; Novak 1999; Fioramonti 2001). Iti is insectivorous (Barquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). Found in savannas and dry forests (Barquez 1999). Found in low altitudes (Barquez 1999).
8243		population	eng	<em>E. dabbenei</em> is a species poorly known relative to most other <em>Eumops</em> species. (Nowak 1999). It is a rare species (Barquez pers. comm.).
8243		threats	eng	None.
8244		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
8244		distribution	eng	This species is found from Jalisco (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina and Brazil; Jamaica; and Cuba (Simmons 2005). Southern portion of western distribution expanded (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006). There are no valid records from Belize (Miller pers. comm.).
8244		habitat	eng	A typical inhabitant of subtropical forests but found in a variety of habitats in various geographic regions. <em>E. glaucinus</em> is frequently found in urban areas throughout its range (Brand 2002). Each colony of <em>E. glaucinus</em> consists of one male and several females. Members of this species become inactive in cooler climates but they are not known to hibernate. <em>E. glaucinus</em> is carnivourous insectivore (Brand 2002). Found to inhabit holes in trees (Barquez 1983). Also colected in the transition of tropical to template forest (Sanchez-Hernandez, 1978).
8244		population	eng	This bat roosts in colonies (Goodwin 1946). Belwood (1981) suggested that a colony consists of a male and its harem. In Cuba, there's evidence of reproductive activity troughtout most of the year (Best <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Mexico pregnant females were observed from March to late june (Best <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is common in Cuba (Mancina pers. comm.). Found from lowlands up to 900 m.
8244		threats	eng	Listed as least concern in Argentina. No major threats are known.
8245		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas throughout the range.
8245		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central and South America. This bat is known from Mexico, northwest Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Brazil (Simmons 2005). It occurs at elevations 45 m in French Guiana (Simmons and Voss, 1998), 155 m in Venezuela (Eisenberg, 1989; Handley, 1976), and at 320 m in Peru (Graham and Barkley, 1984). In Belize is known from colections (Reid pers. comm.).
8245		habitat	eng	<em>E. hansae</em> flies in the upper levels of the canopy (Fenton, 1972); occurs in tropical forests off coastal areas (Alvarez-Castañeda and Alvarez, 1991); in the eastern Brazilian highlands, and coast and in the Amazon Basin and Atlantic Forest biomes (Koopman, 1982; da Fonseca <em>et al.</em>, 1996). In Venezuela, it has been observed over ponds, large clearings, and evergreen forests; roosting inside a cavity located in a dead standing tree in a large lagoon (Handley, 1976). In Peru, <em>E. hansae</em> flew over a small river bordered by tall, tropical, lowland forest in hilly terrain (Graham and Barkley, 1984). In Bolivia, this bat occurred in a savanna area near the edge of a forest (Ibañez and Ochoa, 1989). The stomach of a specimen from Bolivia contained Orthoptera (Anderson, 1997).
8245		population	eng	The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to their high flying and roosting behaviors (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Need acoustic surveys as for all molossids (Miller pers. comm.). Rare in Mexico.
8245		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
8246		conservation	eng	Not cited, maybe research actions.
8246		distribution	eng	This bat occurs in the northern Amazon Basin (Koopman, 1982). It is known only from Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam (Eger, 1977; Koopman, 1994; Reid <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Sanchez <em>et al</em>. 1992). It is present at an elevation below 500 m (Sanchez <em>et al</em>. 1992; Reid <em>et al</em>. 2000).
8246		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. In Venezuela, a female was present in a 15-year-old pine (<em>Pinus caribaea</em>) plantation; original vegetation at this locality corresponds to grass (<em>Trachipoqum</em>) savannas, in association with swamps dominated by the palm<em>Mauritia flexuosa</em>, gallery forests, and swampy evergreen forests (Sanchez <em>et al.</em>, 1992). In Ecuador, this bat was collected in the tropical evergreen forest (Reid <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is insectivorous; may feed on large insects likes other species of <em>Eumops</em>.
8246		population	eng	This is one of the rarest Neotropical bats; know from a few individuals taken from less than ten localities in humid lowland areas. It is probably declining through habitat loss. The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to its high flying and roosting behaviours (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
8246		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
8247		conservation	eng	Avoid loss of drinking sites and habitat. Found in protected areas.
8247		distribution	eng	California to Texas (USA), south to Zacatecas and Hidalgo (Mexico); western Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil; Cuba (Simmons 2005). Include Misiones in Argentina and all of Paraguay and exclude southern tip of distribution in Argentina (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006). The Cuban material may be misidentified (Mancina pers. comm.).Include south Colombia.
8247		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of extensive open areas with potential roost locations having vertical faces to drop off from and take flight, such as crevices in rock outcropings and cliff faces, tunnels and tall buildings. This species inhabits various types of open, semi-arid to arid habitats (Ahlborn 2000, Cockrum 1960, Allen 1987, Best <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em>E. perotis</em> is insectivore (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993).
8247		population	eng	This species is non-migratory (Best <em>et al.</em> 1996), although in Mexico apparently is a migratory species (Aragon, 2005). It's a common species (Barquez pers. comm.).
8247		threats	eng	It uses only select drinking sites and is severely limited by the availability of drinking water. Because its wing structure is unable to drink from water sources less than 30 m long. As a consequence, western mastiff bats are no longer found in many previously occupied areas and populations may be in decline (Acker, 2001).
8248		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
8248		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Arizona (USA) to Nicaragua (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid, 1997). There are registers for Costa Rica (Pineda pers. comm.).
8248		habitat	eng	This species can be found usually in dry forest and arid regions, sometimes in semideciduous forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. It has been caught over ponds or watering holes in deserts. In Arizona, single young are born in June or July (Barbour and Davis, 1969). It is a fast, high-flying bat that captures large insects, including large (up to 60 mm) beetles and grasshoppers. Mainly in arid and dry forest regions, but also from areas where moist forest occurs. Flight speed reported at least 43 km/h, but is probably an underestimate. (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002).  Found in pine-oak forests in Mexico (Iniguenz, 2005)
8248		population	eng	It is uncommon to rare (Reid, 1997). The southern populations (in Central America) are poorly known and limited; the northern populations (in USA) are locally common and but limited (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to their high flying and roosting behaviors (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
8248		threats	eng	Not known.
8256		conservation	eng	It is found in Tierra del Fuego National Park (Argenina) and in Rio las Minas (Chile)
8256		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina on Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, neighbouring islands, and parts of southernmost Chile (Magallanes); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).
8256		habitat	eng	It is found at the north of the Island (steppe) and in some forest areas.
8256		population	eng	It is a rare species, not frequent to catch in tramps.
8256		threats	eng	Overgrazing by exploitation of sheep.
8257		conservation	eng	It is included in several protected areas in Chile and Argentina.
8257		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west-central Argentina (Mendoza, Rio Negro and Neuquen Provinces) and adjacent regions of Chile (Santiago, Bío-Bío, and Araucanía Provinces), apparently at higher elevations (1740-3000 m); range limits unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005).
8257		habitat	eng	Highland meadows/"vegas" in the high southern Andes region (Barquez <em>et al</em>. 2006).
8257		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species. It is considered as an uncommon species.
8257		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
8258		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
8258		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west-central Argentina (from Mendoza until Neuquen Province) and central Chile (Santiago to Magallanes area) southwards to extreme southern Argentina and adjacent Chile, excluding Tierra del Fuego; limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).
8258		habitat	eng	Rocky areas from sea level into mountains of Patagonian steppe.
8258		population	eng	It is a common species.
8258		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
8261		distribution	eng	Found in the South Pacific. The list of countries of occurrence may not be complete.
8261		habitat	eng	The worm lives in the shallow waters in the coral reefs. During its main breeding season, which occurs on the second or third day after the third quarter of the moon in October or November, the worms produce segments which are engorged with sperm or eggs. These segments break off at sunrise, rise to the surface, and release their gametes into the sea. The local villagers and fishermen collect these segments in large quantities as it is a popular delicacy. The gelatinous mass of worms is baked or fried and then eaten.
8261		threats	eng	Over-harvesting appears to have resulted in local extinction e.g., in northwestern Upolu (Samoilys and Carlos 1990).
8265		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in the Dja Reserve, Cameroon, and is presumed to occur in a number of the region's other protected areas.
8265		distribution	eng	This species ranges between the Sanaga River in Cameroon and the Congo and Ubangui Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is present in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Congo and possibly in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
8265		habitat	eng	The Southern Needle-clawed Galago lives in primary and secondary lowland moist forests. This species primarily feeds on gums and resins. It gives birth to a single young annually.
8265		population	eng	This is a common species. It is more abundant in seconday forest where gum and resin food trees are more common.
8265		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened in parts of its range through habitat loss.
8266		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in protected areas including the Cross River National Park (Nigeria), Korup National Park, and Banyang - Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (Cameroon), and the Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve (Bioko).
8266		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from the Niger River in Nigeria to the Sanaga River in Cameroon, and is also present on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>E. p. pallidus</em> is endemic to Bioko Island, while <em>E. p. talboti</em> occurs on the mainland.
8266		habitat	eng	It is largely found in the mid to high canopy of tropical moist forest including secondary forest. This species feeds on tree gum and resins; they appear to be largely confined to lower elevations, perhaps due to a paucity or absence of gum-producing trees at higher elevations (above 1600 m asl) (J. Oates pers. comm.). It gives birth to a single young annually.
8266		population	eng	There have been no careful assessments of population status of this species.
8266		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by fragmentation of its habitat through conversion of forest to agriculture and extraction of timber.
8269		conservation	eng	In Pakistan, habitat destruction was the most immediate threat to the survival of the woolly flying squirrel. The Wildlife Conservation Society has launched a community conservation initiative, the Northern Areas Conservation Project. This project is aimed at helping local communities protect the high mountain pine forest ecosystem that the woolly flying squirrel depends upon for its survival. The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
8269		distribution	eng	The species was originally known from a few specimens collected in extreme northern Pakistan in the portion of Kashmir under Pakistani control and from northern Sikkim, India (Nowak 1999). The range possibly extends to China (Agrawal and Chakraborty 1969, Roberts 1977). Corbet and Hill (1992) report that two skins have been collected from Yunnan, however, the species is not reported from China by Smith and Xie (2008). The presence of the species in Sikkim, India as reported by Agarwal and  Chakraborty (1970) is based on a single skin. However, due to the lack of  osteological and other distinguishing characteristics of the species, and the  lack of subsequent records from Sikkim, the distribution of the species in  Sikkim is doubtful. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eupetaurus cinereus</span> is currently known only from a very small region in northern Pakistan, in Diamer and southern Gilgit districts and (Zahler and Woods 1997) and there is currently no evidence that the species exists in India or other nearby countries.
8269		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eupetaurus cinereus</span> is currently known to live only in caves and crevices on steep cliffs in the dry conifer forest zone of northern Pakistan. This region was historically well-forested with blue pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus wallichiana</span>), chilgoza pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. gerardiana</span>), juniper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>sp.), and scattered deodar cedar, spruce and fir in higher and moister side valleys. It is bound in this region to between 2,400 and 3,800 m in elevation, as below this minimum there is only scattered dry scrub or arid rock desert and above this maximum is the alpine zone (Zahler and Woods 1997). It is strictly nocturnal, and dietary analysis suggests that it is highly dependent upon pine needles in its diet (Zahler and Khan 2003).<br/><em></em>
8269		population	eng	Until 1994 there had been no confirmed sightings of this species since 1924 (Zahler 1996).  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region> the vast majority of recent sightings have been in Diamer and southern Gilgit Districts (Zahler and Woods 1997). Estimates in 1996 based on potential available habitat and local knowledge suggest a population in the core region of Diamer of between 1,000 and 3,000 (Zahler and Woods 1997). There is no current information available on the population abundance of this species elsewhere in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
8269		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to large-scale clear-cutting of forests (Zahler and Woods 1997). It is also threatened to a lesser extent by expansion of agriculture, small-scale logging, infrastructure development, and human settlements (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
8306		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> is present in many protected areas.
8306		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> is present in a wide area of South America, from southern Suriname and adjacent Brazil to Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina (Redford and Wetzel 1985). It does not occur in Buenos Aires Province (Flores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). For over 20 years, it was thought that a disjunct population existed on the border between Brazil and Suriname (Wetzel 1985). However, recent studies in northern Brazil confirmed the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> in Maranhão (Silva Junior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), Amapá (Silva Junior and Nunes 2001), and parts of northern (Silva Junior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a, b), northwestern (Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and eastern Pará (Andrade <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Most of these records are located in the cerrado. The presence of this species in Peru needs to be confirmed.</p>
8306		habitat	eng	This omnivorous species is found in open areas, savannas, shrubland and dry, semi-deciduous forest. It can be found in secondary forests, and may also occur in primary Amazonian forest (Redford and Wetzel 1985).
8306		population	eng	&#160;It is a common species (Redford and Wetzel 1985).
8306		threats	eng	There are no major threats. However, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> is hunted extensively, mostly for local use.
8327		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Maningoza Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Ankarafansika National Park, Baie de Baly National Park, Montagne d'Ambre National Park and Ranomafana National Park. Further studies into the ecology, distribution, taxonomy and exploitation of this little-known species are needed.
8327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from the eastern, northwestern, and western forests. The elevational range is from sea level to 1,025 m.
8327		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wetlands or near wetlands within either dense humid rainforests (east) or dry deciduous forests (west) (Albignac 1973). It is a largely solitary, nocturnal and crepuscular species; although diurnal sightings have been recorded, animals generally spend the day under logs, in crevices and under similar ground cover. The species feeds almost exclusively on earthworms, but occasionally takes amphibians, insects or their larvae. The females give birth to one or two young, which are very well developed at birth. Seldom found far from intact forest.
8327		population	eng	This species is very uncommon across its range, and is seldom found using standard trapping techniques, which could be due to its specialized diet of earthworms. Only in Amber Mountain National Park and Andohahela National Park have individuals been seen regularly.
8327		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation of its habitat through conversion of forest to cultivated land, logging and charcoal production. It appears that this species is also selectively hunted for its meat by local people (Schneider 1989). Further studies are needed to quantify the impact of this hunting on <em>Eupleres</em> populations. Where present, predation by feral cats and dogs threaten this species, especially on the periphery of forests.
8371		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive; it is also protected by regional legislation (Regional Law n. 23/1998 (art. 5, c. 3)). The Gola di Gorroppuu has been designated as a Site of Community Importance under the Habitats Directive. In addition, a number of populations live in established and planned protected areas, including Parco Regionale Sette Fratelli, Parco Nazionale Gennargentu-Golfo di Orosei, and Parco Regionale Monte Limbara. Programmes to remove trout from the species' habitat would assist in the recovery of populations.
8371		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy, where it is found only in the eastern part of the island between the Limbara Mountains in the north and the Sette Fratelli Mountains in the south. There are a few very old records from western Sardina (i.e. Linas Mount) (Lecis and Norris 2003), but these are very doubtful (it is believed the location was misreported). Further information is needed on the range of the species in the south-west of the island. It is found at elevations of between 50 and 1,800m asl, although it is most often found at elevations of 400-800m asl.
8371		habitat	eng	It is a montane species of permanent and temporary stagnant and running waters, which prefers calm areas of small or large rivers. Its terrestrial habitats are generally restricted to riverine scrub or woodland, and the species may also be found in cave systems. Its breeding sites are permanent pools, water holes, small lakes and streams. The eggs are deposited between stones or are buried in sand; the larvae develop in the streams (Griffiths 1996; Rimpp 1998). The species is quite adaptable and can be found in artificial pools.
8371		population	eng	This is generally a rare species that can be locally common in suitable habitat (e.g. over 400 specimens may be found in a single pool). The largest population of the species is in the Gola di Gorroppu. In one well-studied population the sex ratio is largely male. The number of subpopulations is declining. Between 1999 and 2001 it was found in 14 sites, whereas around 1991 it was present in 30 sites (and even in 1991 it was absent from nine other sites where it had been previously observed). The northern population near Mount Limbara is close to extinction.
8371		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are pollution of waterbodies, habitat fragmentation, predation by introduced trout, and prolonged drought (often caused by excessive water abstraction). During the 1950s, many populations were lost through the application of DDT to waterbodies. Recently, the Gola di Gorroppu population has become threatened through damage to its habitat caused by tourist activities. At least one population is known to be affected by chytridiomycosis and is declining.
8375		conservation	eng	The island where this species occurs is currently protected by the Isla Mocha Reserve, although people live within this reserve; improved management of the existing protected area is required, as is close monitoring of the surviving populations.
8375		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Isla Mocha (38° 22'S; 73° 54'W), 40km from the coast of Chile near Concepción. Its altitudinal range is from 20-250m asl.
8375		habitat	eng	It can be found under logs in mixed temperate forest. It lays its eggs in small, terrestrial, water-filled holes on hillsides. The larvae develop in the same places.
8375		population	eng	The population of this species is very small. The most recent records are of three individuals collected in August 2001.
8375		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction caused by subsistence wood collecting and cattle ranching.
8376		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for formal protection of its native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest in its range. Further survey work is also needed to determine whether this species occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
8376		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Mehuin, Valdivia Province, Chile. It has an altitudinal range of 50-80m asl.
8376		habitat	eng	It can be found under logs close to forest streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. It lays eggs in small, water-filled holes on hillsides, where the larvae develop.
8376		population	eng	It was abundant in the 1970s but is now rare; a few individuals were found in 2003.
8376		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of clear-cutting and cattle ranching.
8385		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in protected areas, such as Nikko National Park. It is listed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
8385		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is known from just a few isolated montane areas on Honshu. In the western part of the range, it is present at higher elevations (usually above 400 m asl, sometimes lower), and in the northern parts at lower elevations.
8385		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest at low to high elevations; also in alpine grassland.
8385		population	eng	It is rare across much of its range, occurring in small localized pockets.
8385		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a threat in the western part of the range.
8386		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed on its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
8386		distribution	eng	<em>E. parvidens</em> is known from three widely separated sites: the Di Linh Plateau (type locality) in Lam Dong Province, southern Viet Nam; Rakho in Bac Kan Province, northern Viet Nam; and southern Yunnan, China, near the border with Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It almost certainly occurs more widely, especially in places between the currently known locations.
8386		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. The holotype was collected near a stream at 800 m elevation. It is likely to be associated with forested habitats, but this is not certain.
8386		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
8386		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.
8391		conservation	eng	Its range is protected at both the state and federal level. It is listed as Threatened by the state of Texas and Threatened by the Federal government. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
8391		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a pool at the source of the San Marcos River (San Marcos Springs, Spring Lake), Hays County, Texas, United States, and a short distance downstream (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). A second, smaller population of this species was thought to occur in the Comal River (Springs), slightly to the west in Comal County; however, this population recently was determined not to be <em>E. nana</em> (Chippindale, Hillis and Price 1994, Chippindale, Price and Hillis 1998, Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
8391		habitat	eng	It can be found in shallow alkaline springs carved out of limestone. They have been found in mats of blue-green algae (<em>Lyngbya</em> sp.), under rocks, and in gravel substrate at water depths of less than 1m to several metres. The species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Eggs have never been observed in the wild. In captivity, ovipositioning has occurred on aquatic moss, filamentous algae, rocks, and glass marbles.
8391		population	eng	It is abundant within its limited range, where the population is stable. Population densities were estimated to be about 116-129 individuals per m² in vegetation mats (Tupa and Davis 1976; Nelson 1993). The entire population has been estimated as about 53,200 individuals in vegetation mats and suitable rocky substrates (USFWS 1996).
8391		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to alterations in water level and water quality that may result from agricultural and residential development.
8392		conservation	eng	Barton Springs is in Zilker Park, which is owned and operated by the City of Austin. City property is managed as a park and pool. Various agencies of the state of Texas have committed to expedite developing and implementing conservation measures needed for the species and the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer, as set forth in the "Barton Springs Salamander Conservation Agreement and Strategy," signed 13 August 1996 (see Federal Register 61(172):46608-46616, 4 September 1996, for details). The City of Austin has established a captive breeding program for this species. This species is listed as Endangered by both the state of Texas and the Federal Government.
8392		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Barton Springs, Edwards Aquifer, Austin, and Travis County, Texas, USA; it occurs in four hydrologically connected spring outlets (see Chippindale <em>et al.</em> [1993] for further details). Barton Springs is fed by the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer; this segment occurs in portions of Blanco, Hays, and Travis counties.
8392		habitat	eng	It is a spring dweller, occurring in the fourth largest spring in Texas. It inhabits spring outlets impounded/retained by concrete structures. Evidently, this species occurs primarily in non-subterranean waters; they are unlikely to range extensively underground but can live in subterranean waters (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). They are usually found under rocks or in gravel in about 0.1-5m of water; it also takes refuge among aquatic vascular plants, vegetative debris, and algae when such habitat is available (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). Spring habitat flows throughout the year and maintains a fairly constant temperature of 20 degrees celsius. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding is unknown in the wild; some other spring-dwelling species of central Texas <em>Eurycea</em> are thought to deposit eggs in gravel substrate. Captive breeding has been achieved at the Dallas Aquarium and the City of Austin facility. Females appear to deposit the eggs randomly on cobble, gravel, aquatic macrophytes, and the glass sides and bottom of the aquaria (L. Ables, D. Chamberlain pers. comm.).
8392		population	eng	The total population size is unknown. The observable population in Eliza Pool was dozens or hundreds in the 1970s, 15 in November 1992, 0 from December 1993 to May 1995, 0-28 between June 1995 and July 1996. They were reportedly abundant in Barton Springs Pool in 1946, about 150 were seen in November 1992, and survey counts between April 1995 and April 1996 ranged from 3-45 individuals. No more than 20 have been observed during any one survey of the Sunken Garden Springs outlet, but this site is difficult to survey. See population updates by Chippindale and Price (2005). They declined during the 1970s and 1980s, probably due in part to cleaning procedures used by the City of Austin at Barton Springs Pool; new maintenance procedures at Barton Springs resulted in habitat recovery (e.g., re-establishment of vascular plants) and salamander population increases in the early 1990s, although the number of individuals located has been highly variable from year to year and the most recent data suggest a decline in numbers in 2000. The current population trend is unknown.
8392		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to extinction due to its very limited distribution within a sensitive habitat; the primary threat is contamination of the waters that feed Barton Springs. The Barton springs Aquifer has been designated by the Texas Water Commission as one of the aquifers most vulnerable to pollution in Texas (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). Excessive groundwater withdrawal is a potential threat. Under pool maintenance procedures in place as of 1992, human use of the Barton Springs Pool for swimming did not conflict with the continued existence of the salamander (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). Recreational swimming in the Barton Springs Pool does not pose a threat.
8393		conservation	eng	Listed as Threatened by the state of Texas, but not currently listed federally. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
8393		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the south-eastern margin of Edwards Plateau of central Texas, in the Cibolo Sinkhole Plain region of Comal, Bexar, and perhaps Kendall counties, USA (Chippindale, Hillis and Price 1994, Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (2000) listed at least seven apparently separate occurrences.
8393		habitat	eng	It is found on rock and mud substrates of limestone caves. It is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown.
8393		population	eng	The total adult population size and trends are unknown. Individuals of this species appeared scarce during visits to the type locality in the early 1990s (Chippindale 2005), although earlier collectors were able to collect fairly large series at this site.
8393		threats	eng	Potential threats include land development and pollution.
8407		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> may be found in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Philippines as well as Australia. No other conservation measures are known.
8407		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>is the most widely distributed of the five sea moth species. It occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (Palsson and Pietsch 1989).
8407		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>is most commonly found in bays and estuaries (Grant 1978) and has been collected at depths as shallow as 3 m but is most often found between 37–91 m (Palsson and Pietsch 1989). Herold and Clark (1993) found that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>were associated with fine to coarse pebble substrate or vast stretches of sandy bottom, sometimes with the seagrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila stipulacea</span>, and only occasionally with patches of corals.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Reproduction</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>are broadcast spawners and observations of the species <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>suggest that it is monogamous. Pairings of individuals were maintained for at least 22 days (Herold and Clark 1993). After two spawnings in captivity, there were 253 and 236 eggs collected respectively (Herold and Clark 1993). Spawning by pairs has been observed to occur at dusk <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>when pairs travel up the water column to release and fertilise eggs. Spawning activities may occur daily during the summer breeding season. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>do not appear to be territorial or site attached (Herold and Clark 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>is an opportunistic feeder and the most common items found in its diet include copepods, isopods, polycheates, nematoades, trematodes, pistol shrimp, post-veliger mollusks, foraminifera and stones up to 1 mm in diameter (Herold and Clark 1993).
8407		population	eng	The lack of data for population sizes of sea moths such as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>that was highlighted by Vincent (1997) still exists. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurypegasus draconis </span>is found in low densities (Herold and Clark 1993, Vincent 1997) and breeding pairs do not show site fidelity.
8407		threats	eng	Sea moths may possess characteristics that make them unsuited to heavy exploitation, such as low population densities and established long-term pair bonds of one male and one female that mate repeatedly (Kuiter 1985, Herold and Clark 1993, Vincent 1997).<br/><br/>Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> include being taken as bycatch in fishing gears that collect fish from near the bottom. Bycatch of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> has been reported in China (Vincent 1997), the Philippines (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and Australia (Stobutzki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A review of species taken as bycatch in the Australian prawn fishery rated <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> as having high susceptibility to capture by trawls (Stobutzki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In the Philippines, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> was taken as bycatch in modified Danish seines more often than in otter trawls and it was estimated that in the Danajon Bank, approximately 132,480 individuals were caught, on average, annually as bycatch (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Sea moths caught as bycatch in China often enter the medicinal trade (Vincent 1997).<br/>&#160;<br/>Sea moth species began appearing in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in the 1980s, and are now traded by several South East Asian countries, including southern China and Hong Kong, although the scale and impact of the trade remains unclear (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999, Vincent 1997). While <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> individuals are found in TCM they are used less often than other sea moth species (Vincent 1997).<br/><br/>Extraction of live specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> for the aquarium trade is performed by compressor divers (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Collections have also been performed with hand nets (Herold and Clark 1993). Since <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> lives in deeper waters, it is collected less often for the aquarium trade than other sea moths.
8408		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio </span>may occur in a number of Hawaiian marine protected areas including Ahihi-kinau, Hanauma Bay, Manele-Huloppe and Waikiki (Wood 2007), but the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio</span> in these protected areas is yet to be determined. &#160;</p>
8408		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio </span>is known only from the Hawaiian Islands (Tinker 1978).</p>
8408		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio </span>inhabits moderately deep benthic environments (Palsson and Pietsch 1989). Larvae and juveniles are often collected in neuston and plankton nets, and midwater research trawls (Palsson and Pietsch 1989).</p>
8408		population	eng	Unknown.
8408		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
8410		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
8410		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly is essentially a species of the East African coastal forest belt from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">KwaZulu-Natal</st1:place></st1:state> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It goes inland to the Nguu, Uluguru, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Uzungwa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> and to Songea in the south, also just extending into neighbouring parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zambia</st1:place></st1:country-region> and even southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Shaba, DRC</st1:place></st1:country-region>. From Mozambique it extends into Zimbabwe’s Mountains on the border. This gives the species a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO).<br/></p>
8410		habitat	eng	The species is linked to forests, even at times riverine forest (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994), and can tolerate some habitat disturbance (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> it occurs at altitudes from near sea-level to 1,100 m, occasionally to 1,500 m (Kielland 1990). This butterflies appears to use a wide range of host plants from the Sapotaceae (Pinhey 1965, Henning and Henning 1989), Fabaceae (Henning and Henning 1989), Erythroxylaceae, Sapindaceae (Kielland 1990) and Anacardiaceae (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
8410		population	eng	This species is not rare across its forest habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
8410		threats	eng	There are no major documented threats to this species.
8418		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Caparao National Park. Surveys are required to determine whether the species is synonymous with E. subspinosus and to determine necessary conservation measures.
8418		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and eastern Brazil, northeastern Argentina, and Paraguay (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has been recorded in Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul States and one record for Espirito Santo State (Christoff, A. pers. comm.).
8418		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist grasslands of the southern cerrado and pampas habitats of Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Lacher and Alho, 2001). It is also found in forest, at forest edges and in introduced grasslands in Atlantic Forest from Espirito Santo south to Argentina and Paraguay (Christoff, A. pers. comm.).
8418		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
8418		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
8436		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas across its range.
8436		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is found only in the Mindanao Faunal Region and has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Samar, and Siargao islands (Heaney 1985; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) at an elevational range from sea level to 2,000 m.
8436		habitat	eng	It is a lowland and montane primary and secondary forest species, its highest abundance is at middle elevations in small clearings (Heaney 1985; Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).
8436		population	eng	This is a locally moderately common species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was not encountered in a recent survey between 100-400 m in primary forest on Samar (J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006).
8436		threats	eng	Deforestation may affect the species to some extent, but this is not considered a major threat (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).
8437		conservation	eng	It occurs in various protected areas but many of these may support only small populations as they may be above this species' main altitudinal range (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.).
8437		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo. It occurs also on Banggi island (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
8437		habitat	eng	This species inhabits predominantly lowlands and lower hills.
8437		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
8437		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the massive habitat conversion of lowland and lower hill forest in Borneo. It is unclear whether the species can use replacement plantations (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.).
8438		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and Bukit Sarang Conservation Areas in Sarawak (Han and Giman pers. comm.).
8438		distribution	eng	IThis species is endemic to Borneo, where it is confined to the central mountain ranges (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005). It ranges in East Kalimantan, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. Some records are reported from West Kalimantan (upper Kapuas River and possibly from the area near Sambas).
8438		habitat	eng	This is a lower sub-montane species that can be found up to 3,000 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005; Giman pers. comm.). It feeds on mosses, and is often found on tree trunks, it has been recorded once from peat swamp forest (Han pers. comm.).
8438		population	eng	This species is not easily trapped in cage traps, but more often caught in mist nets (Han and Giman pers. comm.). This species might be rare, though the lack of records could be due to difficulty in trapping (Han pers. comm.).
8438		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
8441		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are required for this species. In Hungary it is protected by law.
8441		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Danube drainage, and according to Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) it is distributed in Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro and Ukraine.&#160; Additional records reported from Bosnia & Herzegovina and Serbia (Tomovic pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) notes that although there are old records of this species in Russia, these are all erroneous and that the species does not occur there.
8441		habitat	eng	This freshwater species occurs in rivers.
8441		population	eng	In the Danube there is an observable decrease in the population, however there are several stable sub-populations in tributaries.
8441		threats	eng	Pollution is the main threat to this species.
8488		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
8488		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Chickasawhay and Escatawpa river basins in Alabama and Mississippi (Fitzpatrick 1987).<br/>  This species has a distribution of approximately 12000 km<sup>2</sup>.
8488		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and burrows in Sarracenia bogs (Schuster and Taylor 2004).
8488		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
8488		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats to this species, however the removal of peat bogs may pose a future threat (NatureServe 2009). Destruction of pitcher plant bogs due to road construction, development, or forest management practices have caused fragmentation within populations (S. Adams pers.comm. 2010). However, the species exists in all pitcher plant bogs sampled within its range (S. Adams pers.comm. 2010).
8489		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, as well as population trends. Furthermore, site protection is needed to prevent further development within its range.</p><p></p>
8489		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from Jackson, Harrison, Stone and Lamar counties, Mississippi, and Mobile County, Alabama with new records just into Baldwin County (Hobbs 1975). The exact range and relationships of several populations of this species, and the closely related and environmentally equivalent species <span style="font-style: italic;">F. burrisi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. byersi</span> need to be determined (NatureServe 2009). Theses species look very similar and there is a possibility of misidentification (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010). This species has a distribution of approximately 6,700 km².
8489		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and occurs in pitcher plant bogs with <span class="copy">dominant vegetation including <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarracenia</span> sp., and <span style="font-style: italic;">Drosera</span> sp. (NatureServe 2009).
8489		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
8489		threats	eng	This species is impacted by draining of its habitat for urban development (NatureServe 2009), which is thought to be impacting a significant part of this species' range (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
8490		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
8490		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Pine Bluff next to the Cleveland County line and Jefferson County, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1989). This species has been documented from six sites in Jefferson County and from two sites in Cleveland County (Hobbs and Robison 1989, Robison and Wagner 2005). The estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 3,800 km<sup>2</sup>.  <br/><br/><span class="copy"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
8490		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in roadside ditches away from standing water (Hobbs and Robison 1989).
8490		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. <span class="copy">
8490		threats	eng	<p>Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <em>Fallicambarus</em> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). The more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. In addition, competition from introduced crayfish species (<em>Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> (Guiasu 2007, NatureServe 2009). However these are general threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> species; the precise threats to this species are unknown.<br/></p>
8491		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been awarded some protection through a Candidate Conservation Agreement between the US Forest Service, Mississippi National Guard, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks, and the Fisheries and Wildlife Service (NatureServe 2009). As a result, the Mississippi National Guard have removed all activities from within its range (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). In addition, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range and habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>  Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>
8491		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is largely restricted to five locations in pitcher plant bogs (40 m by 500 m) in the Upper Cypress Creek watershed, and a small portion of Beaumont Creek watershed in the Camp Shelby Training site, DeSoto National Forest, Pascagoula River Basin, Perry County, Mississippi, USA (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 442 km<sup>2</sup>.
8491		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and is found in wetland habitats where it is dependent on the maintenance of an open bog habitat for survival (Johnston and Figiel 1997). Burrowing activities are limited between autumn and winter when the habitat is wet (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In summer, burrow depth increases as the habitat dries (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In the summer months this species aestivates (Johnston and Figiel 1997). The burrows are complex with multiple openings and escape tunnels (Johnston and Figiel 1997). Furthermore, this species is short lived, with a longevity of between two and three years (Johnston and Figiel 1997).
8491		population	eng	In one life-history study, catch per unit effort (CPUE) ranged from 0.02-0.17 (active season) and 0.0 (inactive season) suggesting that simply counting burrow structures will not give you an accurate population estimate (Johnston and Fiegiel 1997); a total of 87 individuals were counted from one population. Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) recorded a CPUE of 0.75 (active season) and 0.75 (inactive season), but they excavated deeper than Johnston and Fiegiel (1997). Because the species has both active and inactive seasonal periods, the relationship between the amount of surface evidence (i.e. burrow mounds and openings) and crayfish estimates must include both the active number of surface openings and average number of burrow nodes. When surface openings and burrow nodes are counted during summer an averaged per burrow ration of 13:1 is obtained. When this is applied to data collected in 2004, average burrow density was fopund to be 2.7 +- 0.69 within open canopy pitcher plant bogs, and when corrected for the 75% burrow occupancy, crayfish averaged 2.0 +- 0.52 m<sup>-2</sup> (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). There is no population data for Beaumont Creek. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
8491		threats	eng	This species is dependent on maintenance of open-bog habitat for its survival, so it is vulnerable to activities that either compact the soil (destroy burrows) or alter the hydrology of the area (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999). Silviculture and troop and tank manoeuvres in Camp Shelby previously impacted upon this species, however, these threats have been removed due to a Candidate Conservation Agreement between the US Forest Service, Mississippi National Guard, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks and the Fisheries and Wildlife Service (NatureServe 2009).
8492		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
8492		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was known from only two localities, both in the Ouachita River basin in Pike County, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1985). However, it is now known to occur in 12 sites in Garland, Hot Spring, Montgomery, and Pike counties (Robison and Crump 2004, Robison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
8492		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower, located in low lying seepage areas in pastures, yards and lawns (US Forest Service 2008).
8492		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
8492		threats	eng	<p>Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <em>Fallicambarus</em> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). Also, the more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. The second greatest threat is pollution (including air, water and soil pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary waters). Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes far removed from permanent waterbodies, they are often prevented from expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the effects of global warming. Lastly, competition from introduced crayfish species (<em>Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
8493		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is being impacted upon by threats within its range.  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
8493		distribution	eng	This species is known from 2 sites (Williams and Bivens 2001) on a tributary of Cypress Creek (in the Hatchie River drainage) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">McNairy   County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place> (Hobbs and Fitzpatrick 1970).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 80 km<sup>2</sup>.
8493		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species that was described from a roadside ditch, and is known to occur within a tributary of Cypress Creek (Hobbs and Fitzpatrick 1970). It is also known to burrow in sandy soil on herbaceous shrubland (NatureServe 2009).
8493		population	eng	The type colony of this species probably does not exceed 100 adults (Williams and Bivens 2001).
8493		threats	eng	This species is known from a tributary of the Hatchie River system. The Hatchie has undergone a significant decline in water quality as a result of sedimentation, contaminants, and alteration to its hydrology. Most of these threats originate from previous channelisation of many tributaries (The Nature Conservancy 2009). Furthermore, sedimentation rates have been exacerbated by intensive cotton farming and deforestation in the surrounding catchment (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2009).<br/><span class="610302316-22072003">
8494		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
8494		distribution	eng	Hobbs and Robison (1989) described this species from a single locality in western Union County, Arkansas (Robison and Allen 1995). Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) have since described it as rare and known from another single locality in Columbia County.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of between 4 - 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
8494		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in sandy loam soil (Hobbs and Robison 1989) and in shrub dominated wetland (NatureServe 2009).
8494		population	eng	This species is at present known from only 18 specimens, from two collections at the type locality, and an undetermined number of specimens at a second locality in Columbia County (Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; Furthermore, this species has always been regarded as rare and never abundant locally (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
8494		threats	eng	<p>Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). Also, the more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. The second greatest threat is pollution (including air, water and soil pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary waters). Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of the U.S. and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes far removed from permanent waterbodies, they are often prevented from expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the effects of global warming. In addition, competition from introduced crayfish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</span>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007, NatureServe 2009).</p>
8495		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, some sites are known from the Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas. Furthermore, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).&#160; Further research is needed to detrmine the abundance and possible threats impacting this species.</p>
8495		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Saline River basin in Sevier, Howard, and Pike Counties, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1989).   This species has a distribution of approximately 4600 km<sup>2</sup>.
8495		habitat	eng	This species is found in marshes, and is a primary burrower. Its preferred substrate is sandy-clay; nearby streams are clear, fast-running, shallow and with rocky substrate (Reimer 1966). <span class="copy">It is also known from seeps in elevated areas in pine woods (NatureServe 2009).
8495		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
8495		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats impacting this species.</p>
8496		conservation	eng	It is considered to be Critically Endangered in Poland, and is listed in the <a href="http://www.iop.krakow.pl/pckz/opis.asp?id=248&je=en">National Red Data Book of Poland</a> (Głowaciński and Nowacki 2009). In Poland it is protected by law and its locality is protected within a national park. Firstly, efforts should be made to re-discover the two previously identified locations.
8496		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Falniowskia neglectissima </span>was first described from Brama Krakowksa Rocks in the Pradnik Valley, Ojców National Park, Poland. It occurs also in Ukraine. According to the data given in the <a href="http://www.iop.krakow.pl/pckz/opis.asp?id=248&je=en">National Red Data Book of Poland</a> (Głowaciński and Nowacki 2009) its biology, abundance and distribution are poorly known, and it was recorded only from the Ojców National Park and the closest environs of Kraków. It may be under-recorded as it is very difficult to find because of its small size and small populations. It has not been found since 1988, although no intensive surveys have been carried out (Falniowski, in litt., 2009). &#160; </p>
8496		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
8496		population	eng	There is no information available about populations and its trends.
8496		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
8539		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix ii (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis&#160;bieti</span>).
8540		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Thailand and Turkey (Nowell and Jackson 1996). This species is considered threatened in a number of range states in Europe and the Caucasus, and is included in the Red Books of the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. It is considered possibly extinct in Georgia.
8540		conservation	eng	The jungle cat is listed on CITES Appendix II.  It is protected from hunting in some range states (India), but in many receives no legal protection outside protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br><br>The ecology and status of the jungle cat is poorly known (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Southwest and Southeast Asia, where it is considered rare and declining, more research needs to be undertaken to gain knowledge of current distribution, both in and outside of protected areas (Abu-Baker <i>et al.</i> 2003, Duckworth <i>et al.</i> 2005).  Some farmers consider the jungle cat a pest which takes poultry (Abu-Baker <i>et al.</i> 2003), and conservation measures should include better protection for domestic fowl and halting of indiscriminate poisoning and trapping.  The jungle cat would also benefit from improved protection of natural wetlands and reedbeds, particularly in the more arid parts of its range, and improved legislation prohibiting fur trade.
8540		conservation	eng	The jungle cat is listed on CITES Appendix II.  It is protected from hunting in some range states (India), but in many receives no legal protection outside protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species now receives legal protection from all hunting and trading within Afghanistan after being placed on the country’s 2009 Protected Species List. Furthermore, given the amount of habitat loss occurring in riparian and wetland areas in Afghanistan, this species should be considered a research priority.<br/><br/>The ecology and status of the jungle cat is poorly known (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Southwest and Southeast Asia, where it is considered rare and declining, more research needs to be undertaken to gain knowledge of current distribution, both in and outside of protected areas (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Some farmers consider the jungle cat a pest which takes poultry (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003), and conservation measures should include better protection for domestic fowl and halting of indiscriminate poisoning and trapping.  The jungle cat would also benefit from improved protection of natural wetlands and reedbeds, particularly in the more arid parts of its range, and improved legislation prohibiting fur trade.
8540		distribution	eng	The jungle cat has a broad but patchy distribution.  In Africa, it is found only in Egypt, along the Nile River Valley south to Aswan, and in El Faiyum, Farafara, Dakhla and Kharga oases (Glas in press).  Into southwest Asia, it occurs through Israel, southern Lebanon, northwestern Jordan, western Syria, and into Turkey and western Iraq (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em>, 2003).  In this region its occurrence is highly localized around riparian vegetation and permanent water sources.  In central Asia, it is found in the Caucasus mountains (up to 1,000 m), around the Caspian and Aral Seas and associated river valleys, and through Iran west to Pakistan.  It occurs widely in tropical and sub-tropical Asia, including almost all of India as well as Sri Lanka, ranging up to 2,400 m in the Himalayan foothills, and through Southeast Asia to southern China, but absent from Malayan peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  Its range in Indochina is poorly known, especially in Myanmar.  Duckworth <em>et al.</em> (2005) review the few historical distribution records from Indochina and add several recent ones from Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.
8540		distribution	eng	The jungle cat has a very broad range, from Southeast Asia west through India, Southwest and Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and finally into Africa along the Nile River Delta.
8540		habitat	eng	The jungle cat, despite its name, is not strongly associated with closed forest, but rather with water and dense vegetative cover, especially reed swamps, marsh, and littoral and riparian environments. It is able to satisfy these requirements in a variety of habitats, from desert to scrub woodland and dry deciduous forest, as well as cleared areas in moist forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
8540		habitat	eng	The jungle cat, despite its name, is not strongly associated with the classic rainforest "jungle" habitat, but rather with wetlands - habitats with water and dense vegetative cover, especially reed swamps, marsh, and littoral and riparian environments.  Hence its other common and more applicable name, the swamp cat. Water and dense ground cover can be found in a variety of habitats, ranging from desert (where it is found near oases or along riverbeds) to grassland, shrubby woodland and dry deciduous forest, as well as cleared areas in moist forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Areas with extensive deciduous dipterocarp forest and at least scattered surface water are the species predominant known habitat in Indochina. However, areas such as the Nakai Plateau which support other forms of savanna-like vegetation may support the species. It is probably absent from all closed canopy forests, including rainforest. The species may make use of agricultural areas with a low intensity of human use and which retain patches of scrub (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>Jungle cats have adapted well to irrigated cultivation, having been observed in many different types of agricultural and forest plantations throughout their range, such as sugar cane plantations in India.  In Israel they can be found around pisciculture ponds and irrigation ditches.  Vereschagin (1959) noted that the jungle cat's use of the semi-arid plains of Azerbaijan increased with the development of a local irrigation system and decreased with its abandonment.  However, mowing the seasonally flooded riverine tugai vegetation (trees and shrubs with dense stands of tall reeds and grasses) of this region for livestock fodder, as well as plowing it under for agriculture, is known to be associated with the decline of jungle cat populations in the European-central Asian parts of its range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  <br/><br/>Jungle cats feed mainly on prey that weighs less than one kilogram.  Small mammals, principally rodents,  are the prey most frequently found in feces and stomach contents.  A study in India's Sariska reserve estimated that jungle cats catch and eat three to five rodent per day (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Birds rank second in importance, but in southern Russia waterfowl are the mainstay of jungle cat diet in the winter.  With overwintering populations of waterfowl congretating in large numbers on unfrozen rivers and marshes, the jungle cat hunts among reeed beds and along edges of wetlands, searching for injured or weakened birds.  Other prey species are taken more opportunistically, including hares, nutria, lizards, snakes, frogs, insects, and fish.  In India, they have been seen to scavenge kills of large predators such as the Asiatic lion.  In a study in southern Uzbekistan, the fruits of the Russian olive made up 17% of their diet in winter.  While jungle cats specialize on small prey, they are large and powerful enough to kill young swine, subadult gazelles, and chital fawns (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).<br/><br/>Density estimates from natural tugai habitat in central Asia range from 4-15 individuals per 10 km², but where this vegetation type has declined due to development density does not exceed two cats per 10 km² (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).
8540		habitat	eng	The jungle cat, despite its name, is not strongly associated with the classic rainforest "jungle" habitat, but rather with wetlands - habitats with water and dense vegetative cover, especially reed swamps, marsh, and littoral and riparian environments.  Hence its other common and more applicable name, the swamp cat. Water and dense ground cover can be found in a variety of habitats, ranging from desert (where it is found near oases or along riverbeds) to grassland, shrubby woodland and dry deciduous forest, as well as cleared areas in moist forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br><br>Areas with extensive deciduous dipterocarp forest and at least scattered surface water are the species predominant known habitat in Indochina. However, areas such as the Nakai Plateau which support other forms of savanna-like vegetation may support the species. It is probably absent from all closed canopy forests, including rainforest. The species may make use of agricultural areas with a low intensity of human use and which retain patches of scrub (Duckworth <i>et al.</i>, 2005).<br><br>Jungle cats have adapted well to irrigated cultivation, having been observed in many different types of agricultural and forest plantations throughout their range, such as sugar cane plantations in India.  In Israel they can be found around pisciculture ponds and irrigation ditches.  Vereschagin (1959) noted that the jungle cat's use of the semi-arid plains of Azerbaijan increased with the development of a local irrigation system and decreased with its abandonment.  However, mowing the seasonally flooded riverine tugai vegetation (trees and shrubs with dense stands of tall reeds and grasses) of this region for livestock fodder, as well as plowing it under for agriculture, is known to be associated with the decline of jungle cat populations in the European-central Asian parts of its range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  <br><br>Jungle cats feed mainly on prey that weighs less than one kilogram.  Small mammals, principally rodents,  are the prey most frequently found in feces and stomach contents.  A study in India's Sariska reserve estimated that jungle cats catch and eat three to five rodent per day (Mukherjee <i>et al.</i> 2004).  Birds rank second in importance, but in southern Russia waterfowl are the mainstay of jungle cat diet in the winter.  With overwintering populations of waterfowl congretating in large numbers on unfrozen rivers and marshes, the jungle cat hunts among reeed beds and along edges of wetlands, searching for injured or weakened birds.  Other prey species are taken more opportunistically, including hares, nutria, lizards, snakes, frogs, insects, and fish.  In India, they have been seen to scavenge kills of large predators such as the Asiatic lion.  In a study in southern Uzbekistan, the fruits of the Russian olive made up 17% of their diet in winter.  While jungle cats specialize on small prey, they are large and powerful enough to kill young swine, subadult gazelles, and chital fawns (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).<br><br>Density estimates from natural tugai habitat in central Asia range from 4-15 individuals per 10 km², but where this vegetation type has declined due to development density does not exceed two cats per 10 km² (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).
8540		population	eng	It is a relatively common species throughout much of the range. In Europe, it is of marginal occurrence, with small populations in Cis-Caspian region and the Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The European population has been rapidly declining since the 1960s. There have been no records of this species in Astrakhan State Reserve (Russian Federation) since the 1980s. Marked population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, probably because of absence of adaptations to cold winters. Despite these fluctuations the long-term trend in Europe is of decline in both population and area of occupancy. Data from Russia suggest that there are about 500 animals left in the wild (Prisazhnyuk and Belousova 2007). A very small population persists in Georgia (I. Macharashvili pers. comm. to K. Tsysulina 2007).
8540		population	eng	The jungle cat is considered common in some parts of its range, primarily in India (Mukherjee 1988), but also Pakistan and Bangladesh (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  <br/><br/>In southern China and southeast Asia (with the exception of northeastern Cambodia),  however, it appears quite rare in comparison to sympatric small cats (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005).  This rarity appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon associated with unselective trapping and snaring, especially in Lao PDR and Thailand as well, where it was described as common by Lekagul and McNeely (1977) but has since suffered drastic declines and is rarely encountered (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005; Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz, Southeast Asia mammal assessment 2003).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is of marginal occurrence, with small populations in Cis-Caspian region and the Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The European population has been rapidly declining since the 1960s. There was no records of this species in Astrakhan State Reserve (Russian Federation) since the 1980s. In Northern Ossetia (Russian Federation) only about 150 animals were recorded (Kuryatnikov and Varziev 1983). Marked population fluctuations are characteristic of this species in this region, probably because of absence of adaptations to cold winters. Despite these fluctuations the long-term trend in Europe is of decline in both population and area of occupancy. Data from Russia suggest that there are about 500 animals left in the wild (Prisazhnyuk and Belousova 2007). A very small population persists in Georgia (I. Macharashvili pers. comm. to K. Tsysulina 2007).  This species is considered threatened in a number of range states in Europe and the Caucasus, and is included in the Red Books of the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia (IUCN 2007).<br/><br/>In southwest Asia the species is also considered rare and threatened (Abu-Baker <em>et al</em>. 2003, Habibi 2004).
8540		population	eng	The jungle cat is considered common in some parts of its range, primarily in India (Mukherjee 1988), but also Pakistan and Bangladesh (Duckworth <i>et al.</i>, 2005).  <br><br>In southern China and southeast Asia (with the exception of northeastern Cambodia),  however, it appears quite rare in comparison to sympatric small cats (Duckworth <i>et al</i>. 2005).  This rarity appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon associated with unselective trapping and snaring, especially in Lao PDR and Thailand as well, where it was described as common by Lekagul and McNeely (1977) but has since suffered drastic declines and is rarely encountered (Duckworth <i>et al</i>. 2005; Lynam <i>et al.</i> 2006, W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz, Southeast Asia mammal assessment 2003).<br><br>In Europe, it is of marginal occurrence, with small populations in Cis-Caspian region and the Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The European population has been rapidly declining since the 1960s. There was no records of this species in Astrakhan State Reserve (Russian Federation) since the 1980s. In Northern Ossetia (Russian Federation) only about 150 animals were recorded (Kuryatnikov and Varziev 1983). Marked population fluctuations are characteristic of this species in this region, probably because of absence of adaptations to cold winters. Despite these fluctuations the long-term trend in Europe is of decline in both population and area of occupancy. Data from Russia suggest that there are about 500 animals left in the wild (Prisazhnyuk and Belousova 2007). A very small population persists in Georgia (I. Macharashvili pers. comm. to K. Tsysulina 2007).  This species is considered threatened in a number of range states in Europe and the Caucasus, and is included in the Red Books of the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia (IUCN 2007).<br><br>In southwest Asia the species is also considered rare and threatened (Abu-Baker <i>et al</i>. 2003, Habibi 2004).
8540		threats	eng	Jungle cats can do well in cultivated landscapes (especially those that lead to increased numbers of rodents) and artificial wetlands. However, reclamation and destruction of natural wetlands, ongoing throughout its range but particularly in the arid areas, still pose a threat to the species, as density in natural wetlands is generally higher (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Unselective trapping, snaring and poisoning around agricultural and settled areas have caused population declines in many areas throughout its range (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).  India formerly exported large numbers of jungle cat skins before the species came under legal protection (over 300,000 were declared as being held by traders there when export was banned in 1979), and some illegal trade continues there (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), as well as in Egypt (Glas in press) and Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).
8540		threats	eng	Jungle cats do well in cultivated landscapes (especially those that lead to increased numbers of rodents) and artificial wetlands. However, reclamation and destruction of natural wetlands, ongoing throughout its range but particularly in the arid areas, still pose a threat to the species, as density in natural wetlands is generally higher (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Thousands of jungle cat furs have been confiscated in illegal trade in India (Mukherjee 1998). In Europe, population and range declines since the 1960s have been attributed to illegal hunting and artificial landscape change.
8541		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting of this species is prohibited in Algeria, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Mauritania, Niger, Pakistan and Tunisia (Nowell and Jackson 1996). On the African continent, Sand Cats are recorded from several protected areas, including Tassili n? Ajjer and Ahaggar National Parks (Algeria), Aïr and Tenere National Reserve (Niger), and Djebel Bou-Hedma Biosphere Reserve (Tunisia) (Sliwa in press). In Saudi Arabia, a study is underway in the Mahazat As-Sayd and Saja/Umm Ar-rimth Protected Areas (Strauss <em>et al.</em> 2007), while records also exist from the ?Uruq Bani Ma?arid Protected Area (Strauss pers. obs.)  In Iran it has been reported from the Moteh and Touran protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>There is a need for more fine-scale distribution studies and estimates of home range and density.
8541		distribution	eng	The Sand Cat is the only felid found primarily in true desert, and has a wide but apparently disjunct distribution through the deserts of northern Africa and southwest and central Asia. It is not clear whether the gaps in known range are due to a lack of records or truly reflect species absence (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996). For example, sightings have been reported in Libya and Egypt west of the Nile (Sliwa in press), but there are no historical records despite intensive collecting effort (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976).  <br/><br/>In North Africa, Sliwa (in press) has summarized what is known of its distribution: the Sand Cat occurs marginally in western Morocco, including former Sahara Occidental, Algeria, and from the Sinai peninsula to the rocky deserts of eastern Egypt.  Although there have been sightings, no specimens have been collected from Tunisia, Libya, or in Egypt, west of the Nile River.  There are sight records from Mali and both specimens and sightings in Niger. In Mauritania, it is supposed to occur in the Adrar mountains and Majabat al Koubra. Thought to be present, but currently no specimens available, in Senegal and Chad, where spoor have been found, and also Sudan. <br/><br/>In Asia, there is a recent new country distribution record for Syria, around the area of Palmyra (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). It is not known if the small populations of Sand Cats in Pakistan's Balochistan province are connected to the central Asian population via Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).  It has been recorded from the desert regions west of the Caspian Sea (in northern Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), but it is not known if the distribution is or was continous to the Arabian peninsula (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
8541		distribution	eng	The Sand Cat is the only felid found primarily in true desert, and has a wide but apparently disjunct distribution through the deserts of northern Africa and southwest and central Asia. It is not clear whether the gaps in known range are due to a lack of records or truly reflect species absence (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996). For example, sightings have been reported in Libya and Egypt west of the Nile (Sliwa in press), but there are no historical records despite intensive collecting effort (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976).<br/><br/>In north Africa, Sliwa (in press) has summarized what is known of its distribution: the Sand Cat occurs marginally in western Morocco, including former Sahara Occidental, Algeria, and from the Sinai peninsula to the rocky deserts of eastern Egypt.  Although there have been sightings, no specimens have been collected from Tunisia, Libya, or in Egypt, west of the Nile River.  There are sight records from Mali (including a recent night time observation in the Lake Faguibine area: O. Hamerlynck pers. comm. 2011) and both specimens and sightings in Niger. In Mauritania, it is supposed to occur in the Adrar mountains and Majabat al Koubra. Thought to be present, but currently no specimens available, in Senegal and Chad, where spoor have been found, and also Sudan.<br/><br/>In Asia, there is a recent new country distribution record for Syria, around the area of Palmyra (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). It is not known if the small populations of Sand Cats in Pakistan?s Balochistan province are connected to the central Asian population via Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).  It has been recorded from the desert regions west of the Caspian Sea (in northern Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), but it is not known if the distribution is or was continuous to the Arabian peninsula (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
8541		habitat	eng	Sand Cats are specialists of sandy desert, where they are unevenly distributed, localized around sparse vegetation which can support small rodent prey.  They are also found in stony desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  With thickly furred feet, the Sand Cat is well adapted to the extremes of a desert environment, living in areas far from water, and tolerant of extremes of hot and cold temperatures (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Sliwa in press), largely because of their fossorial (burrowing) behavior (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).  They are absent from areas where the soil is compacted (Heptner and Sludskii 1972).<br/><br/>Small rodents are their primary prey, with records from Africa including including Spiny Mice (Acomys spp), Jirds (Meriones spp), Gerbils (Gerbillus spp), and Jerboas (Jaculus spp. and Allactaga tetradactyla), but also young of Cape Hare, Lepus capensis. They have also been observed to hunt small birds like Greater Hoopoe Lark Alaemon alaudipes, Desert Lark Ammomanes deserti, and consume reptiles such as Desert Monitor Varanus griseus, Fringe-toed lizards, Acanthodactylus spp., Sandfish Scincus scincus., Short-fingered Gecko Stenodactylus spp., and Horned and Sand vipers of the genus Cerastes, and insects (De Smet 1988, Abbadi 1993, Dragesco-Joffé 1993, Sliwa in press).  Sand-dwelling rodents made up the majority (65-88%) of stomach contents from carcasses collected in Turkmenistan and Uzebekistan in the 1960s (Schaenberg 1974).  In Arabia the sand cat's distribution coincides with that of sand skinks and Arabian toad-head lizards; both reptiles are thought to be an important source of food for the cat (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>They are capable of rapid digging to extract the latter prey items (Schauenberg 1974). Sand Cats may cover kills with sand and return later to feed. Independent of drinking water they are capable of satisfying their moisture requirements from their prey, but drink readily if it is available (Sliwa in press).   They appear to be primarily nocturnal (Abbadi 1993, Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Sand cats have been recorded to move long distances in a single night (5-10 km), and a radio telemetry study in Israel suggests large home ranges, with one male using an area of 16 km² (Abbadi 1993).  Annual ranges from the ongoing study in Saudi Arabia are larger, up to 40 km² (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).
8541		habitat	eng	Sand Cats are specialists of sandy desert, where they are unevenly distributed, localized around sparse vegetation which can support small rodent prey.  They are also found in stony desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  With thickly furred feet, the Sand Cat is well adapted to the extremes of a desert environment, living in areas far from water, and tolerant of extremes of hot and cold temperatures (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Sliwa in press), largely because of their fossorial (burrowing) behaviour (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).  They are absent from areas where the soil is compacted (Heptner and Sludskii 1972).<br/><br/>Small rodents are their primary prey, with records from Africa including including Spiny Mice (Acomys spp), Jirds (<span style="font-style: italic;">Meriones</span> spp), Gerbils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gerbillus</span> spp), and Jerboas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Jaculus</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Allactaga tetradactyla</span>), but also young of Cape Hare (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus capensis</span>). They have also been observed to hunt small birds like Greater Hoopoe Lark (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alaemon alaudipes</span>), Desert Lark (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ammomanes deserti</span>), and consume reptiles such as Desert Monitor (<span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus griseus</span>), Fringe-toed lizards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthodactylus</span> spp.), Sandfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scincus scincus</span>), Short-fingered Gecko (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenodactylus</span> spp.), Horned and Sand vipers of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerastes</span>, and insects (De Smet 1988, Abbadi 1993, Dragesco-Joffé 1993, Sliwa in press).  Sand-dwelling rodents made up the majority (65–88%) of stomach contents from carcasses collected in Turkmenistan and Uzebekistan in the 1960s (Schaenberg 1974).  In Arabia the sand cat's distribution coincides with that of Sand Skinks and Arabian toad-head lizards; both reptiles are thought to be an important source of food for the cat (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>They are capable of rapid digging to extract the latter prey items (Schauenberg 1974). Sand Cats may cover kills with sand and return later to feed. Independent of drinking water they are capable of satisfying their moisture requirements from their prey, but drink readily if it is available (Sliwa in press).   They appear to be primarily nocturnal (Abbadi 1993, Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Sand Cats have been recorded to move long distances in a single night (5–10 km), and a radio telemetry study in Israel suggests large home ranges, with one male using an area of 16 km² (Abbadi 1993).  Annual ranges from the ongoing study in Saudi Arabia are larger, up to 40 km² (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).
8541		population	eng	There are relatively few records of sand cats and they are often reported as rare (Sliwa in press). The only available density estimates come from a telemetry study in southern Israel, where 11 cats were caught in the study area of 15 x 25 km (375 km²) (M. Abbadi, in Sliwa in press).  In Saudi Arabia, a study is underway in the Mahazat As-Sayd and Saja/Umm Ar-rimth Protected Areas.  In the former, sand cats appear to occur at far lower densities than Rüppell's fox (Strauss <em>et al.</em> 2007 and pers. comm. 2008). In low-quality habitat, such as shifting sand dunes, densities may be very low (Sliwa in press).  Numbers may fluctuate in response to environmental conditions leading to prey declines and recoveries (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
8541		population	eng	There are relatively few records of Sand Cats and they are often reported as rare (Sliwa in press). The only available density estimates come from a telemetry study in southern Israel, where 11 cats were caught in the study area of 15 x 25 km (375 km²) (M. Abbadi, in Sliwa in press).  In Saudi Arabia, a study is underway in the Mahazat As-Sayd and Saja/Umm Ar-rimth Protected Areas.  In the former, Sand Cats appear to occur at far lower densities than Rüppell's Fox (Strauss <em>et al.</em> 2007 and pers. comm. 2008). In low-quality habitat, such as shifting sand dunes, densities may be very low (Sliwa in press).  Numbers may fluctuate in response to environmental conditions leading to prey declines and recoveries (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
8541		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is the major threat to the sand cat.  Vulnerable arid ecosystems are being rapidly degraded by human settlement and activity, especially livestock grazing (Allan and Warren 1993, Al-Sharhan <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The sand cat's small mammal prey base depends on having adequate vegetation, and may experience large fluctuations due to drought (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), or declines due to desertification and loss of natural vegetation.<br/><br/>Other localized threats include the introduction of feral and domestic dogs and cats, creating direct competition and through predation and disease transmission (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  They also may be killed in traps laid out by inhabitants of oases targeting foxes and jackals or in retaliation for killing their chickens (De Smet 1989; Dragesco-Joffé 1993). There are occasional reports of animals shot in south-east Arabia (M. Strauss pers. comm.).
8542		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I and protected by national legislation across most of its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Hunting of this species is banned in Botswana and South Africa.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include more fine scale distributional studies particularly in Namibia and Botwana, as well as  a second ecological study in a different habitat than Sliwa (2004), preferably in areas of lower rainfall more typical of the current predicted range (A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is recorded from several protected areas, including Karoo National Park, Mountain Zebra National Park, and Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa, and Makgadikgadi Pans (Botswana). To date, there are no confirmed records for the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa) or Central Kalahari Game Reserve (Botswana) (A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2007).
8542		distribution	eng	The black-footed cat is endemic to southern Africa. The species is found primarily in Namibia and South Africa, but also Botswana (where there are historical records but no recent ones), and marginally in Zimbabwe and likely marginally in extreme southern Angola (Sliwa 2008, B. Wilson and A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2007).
8542		habitat	eng	The black-footed cat is a specialist of open, short grass areas with an abundance of small rodents and ground-roosting birds. It inhabits dry, open savanna, grasslands and Karoo semi-desert with sparse shrub and tree cover and a mean annual rainfall of between 100 and 500 mm at altitudes of 0-2,000 m.  It is not found in the driest and sandiest parts of the Namib and Kalahari Deserts (Sliwa 2008).<br/><br/>During a 6-year field study on the game farm in central South Africa, 1725 prey items were observed consumed by 17 free-ranging habituated black-footed cats.  Average prey size was 24.1 g. Eight males fed on significantly larger prey (27.9 g) than 9 females (20.8 g). Fifty-four prey species were classified by their average mass into 8 different size classes, 3 for mammals, 3 for birds, 1 for amphibians/reptiles, and 1 for invertebrates. Small mammals (5-40 g) constituted the most important prey class (39%) of total prey biomass followed by larger mammals (> 100 g; 17%) and small birds (< 40 g; 16%). Mammals and birds pooled comprised 72% and 26% of total prey biomass, respectively, whereas invertebrates and amphibians/reptiles combined constituted just 2% of total prey mass consumed. Heterotherm prey items were unavailable during winter, when larger birds and mammals (> 100 g) were mainly consumed. Small rodents like the large-eared mouse (Malacothrix typica), captured 595 times by both sexes, were particularly important during the reproductive season for females with kittens. Male black-footed cats showed less variation between prey size classes consumed among climatic seasons. This sex-specific difference in prey size consumption may help to reduce intra-specific competition (Sliwa 2006).  In terms of interspecific competition, Sliwa <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that black-footed cats captured smaller prey on average than African wildcats, although both captured approximately the same number (12-13) of prey species per night.<br/><br/>Black-footed cats are solitary, except for females with dependent kittens, and during mating. Males have larger annual home ranges (20.7 km²; n=5) than females (10.0 km², n=7) (Sliwa 2004). Adults travel an average of 8.42+/- 2.09 km per night - more distance than the African wildcat (5.1 +/- 3.35 km per night) depite their smaller size, although some wildcats travelled very far (17.37 per km longest distance, as opposed to the black-footed at's 14.61 km) (Sliwa <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Male ranges overlap those of 1-4 females. Intra-sexual overlap varies from 12.9% for three males to 40.4% for five females. Home-range size is likely to vary between regions according to resources available to the individuals (Sliwa 2004).  Kittens are independent after 3-4 months, but remain within the range of their mother for extended periods (Sliwa 2008).<br/><br/>The black-footed cat is one of the world's smallest cats, with females weighing an average of 1.3 kg and males larger at 1.93 kg (Sliwa 2008).  The conspecific and more common African wildcat is considerably larger (females - 3.9 kg; males - 5.1 kg) (Sliwa <em>et al.</em> 2007).
8542		population	eng	The black-footed cat is rare compared to the other small cats of southern Africa (Sliwa 2008).  There has been only one field study of the black-footed cat, on a game farm in central South Africa, with the research period spanning more than a decade (Sliwa <em>et al.</em> 2007), and over 17,000 fixes and 1,600 hours of observation of radio-collared and habituated cats.  In his 60 km² study area, Sliwa (2004) found the density of adult cats to be 0.17 per km².  In low-quality habitat densities are possibly very much lower (Sliwa 2008).
8542		threats	eng	Black-footed cats are threatened primarily by habitat degradation by grazing and agriculture, as well as by poison and other indiscriminate methods of pest control (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sliwa 2008).
8543		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. The species is fully protected across most of its range in Europe and eastern areas of Central Asia, but is only protected in part of its African range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is listed on the EU Habitats & Species Directive (Annex IV) and the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range states.
8543		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II.  Wildcats are fully protected across most of its range in Europe and Asia, but only some of its African range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV) and the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range states (IUCN 2007). In China, the Chinese Alpine Steppe cat is protected as a separate species under Category II.  The 1992 meeting of the Cat Specialist Group in Beijing recommended upgrading to Category I, which requires permission of national, rather than provincial, authorities to hunt or trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but this has not yet been done. The species is legally protected in Afghanistan having been placed on the country?s first Protected Species List in 2009, banning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan. With so little information or data known on this species in Afghanistan, it is also proposed as a priority species for future study. <br/><br/>The main conservation need is to identify populations of genetically pure wildcats and attempt to prevent hybridization by neutering and removing feral domestic cats.  However, such efforts are complicated by the difficulty in distinguishing wildcats from domestic cats, especially when some hybridization has already taken place (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8543		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II.  Wildcats are fully protected across most of its range in Europe and Asia, but only some of its African range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV) and the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range states (IUCN 2007). In China, the Chinese mountain cat is protected as a separate species under Category II.  The 1992 meeting of the Cat Specialist Group in Beijing recommended upgrading to Category I, which requires permission of national, rather than provincial, authorities to hunt or trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but this has not yet been done.<br/><br/>The main conservation need is to identify populations of genetically pure wildcats and attempt to prevent hybridization by neutering and removing feral domestic cats.  However, such efforts are complicated by the difficulty in distinguishing wildcats from domestic cats, especially when some hybridization has already taken place (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8543		distribution	eng	The Wildcat has a very broad distribution, found throughout most of Africa, Europe, and southwest and central Asia into India, China, and Mongolia.  Five subspecies (following Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007   and Macdonald <em>et al</em>. in press) are distributed as follows:<br/><br/>The African Wildcat <em>F. s. lybica</em> occurs across northern Africa and extends around the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula to the <st1:place w:st="on">Caspian Sea</st1:place> (Driscoll <em>et al. </em>2007). This extremely wide distributional range is accompanied by a very broad habitat tolerance, being apparently only absent from closed tropical forest. Although thinly distributed in true deserts such as the Sahara, they do occur, especially in association with hill and mountain country, such as the Hoggar. In North Africa they occur discontinuously from Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and into Egypt. It has an extensive distribution across the savannas of West Africa from Mauritania on the Atlantic seaboard, eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Sudan and Ethiopia; southwards it is present in all East and southern African countries (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) where it is replaced by the Southern African Wildcat subspecies <em>F.s. cafra </em>(Driscoll <em>et al</em>. 2007). At present the boundary between the two cannot be determined by available genetic samples, but morphological evidence suggests the break to occur in the south-east, in the area of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region> (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>2004a,b; <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kitchener</st1:place></st1:city> and Rees 2009).  <br/><br/>Asiatic Wildcat <em>F. s. ornata</em> occurs from the eastern Caspian into western India, and north to Kazakhstan, and into western China and southern Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat <em>F. s. bieti</em> was previously considered a separate species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Wozencraft 2005), but here classified as a Wildcat subspecies based on genetic analysis (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Based on a small sample size, Garcia-Perea (2000) described cranial characteristics from two skulls as similar to <em>F. silvestris</em>.  Endemic to western China and primarily found in Qinghai province, and possibly also northwestern Sichuan province (He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  He <em>et al.</em> (2004) considered records from other parts of China (Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xingjian, Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces) to be other subspecies of <em>Felis silvestris</em>.<br/><br/>European Wildcat <em>F. s. silvestris</em> was formerly very widely distributed in Europe and absent only from Fennoscandia. Severe declines and local exirpations occured in Europe between the late 1700s and mid 1900s, resulting in a fragmented relict distribution (Stahl and Artois 1991, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Peichocki 2001). It is extinct in the Netherlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It was considered regionally extinct in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), but vagrants still occur and the Italian population is spreading northwards into Austria (Lapini and Molinari 2006). It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic (  IUCN 2007).  It occurs from sea level to 2,250 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In some parts of the wildcat's distribution (e.g. Scotland, Stromberg in Germany) it is possible that, as a result of hybridization with the domestic cat, very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Herrmann and Vogel 2005).<st1:state w:st="on"> Sicily</st1:state> is the only Mediterranean island populated by European wildcats; populations on other islands (including Sardinia, Corsica and possibly <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place>) are probably feral domestics stemming from Neolithic times (Gippoliti and Amori 2006, Macdonald <em>et al</em>. in press, T. Viago in litt. 2009).
8543		distribution	eng	The wildcat has a very broad distribution, found throughout most of Africa, Europe, and southwest and central Asia into India, China, and Mongolia.  Five subspecies (following Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007) are distributed as follows:<br/><br/>African wildcat <em>F. s. cafra</em>:  Occurs wholly, or in part, in nearly all African countries (Nowell and Jackson 1996). This extremely wide distributional range is accompanied by a very broad habitat tolerance, being apparently only absent from closed tropical forest. Although thinly distributed in true deserts such as the Sahara, they do occur, especially in association with hill and mountain country, such as the Hoggar. In North Africa they occur discontinuously from Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and into Egypt. It has an extensive distribution across the savannas of West Africa from Mauritania on the Atlantic seaboard, eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Sudan and Ethiopia; southwards it is present in all East and southern African countries (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Near Eastern wildcat <em>F. s. lybica</em>:  Mixes with <em>F. s. cafra</em> in northern Africa, and extends around the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula to the Caspian Sea (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Asiatic wildcat <em>F. s. ornata</em>:  From the eastern Caspian into western India, and north to Kazakhstan, and into western China and southern Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Chinese alpine steppe cat <em>F. s. bieti</em>:  Previously considered a separate species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Wozencraft 2005), but classified as a wildcat subspecies based on genetic analysis (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007, Eiziirik <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Based on a small sample size, Garcia-Perea (2000) described cranial characteristics from two skulls as similar to <em>F. silvestris</em>.  Endemic to western China and primarily found in Qinghai province, and possibly also northwestern Sichuan province (He <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wozencraft <em>et al.</em> in press).  He <em>et al.</em> (2004) considered records from other parts of China (Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xingjian, Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces) to be other subspecies of <em>Felis silvestris</em>.  If <em>Felis silvestris bieti</em> is accepted as a subspecies of wildcat, then there may be a gradation in form, and the geographic range may be modified accordingly.<br/><br/>European wildcat <em>F. s. silvestris</em> (IUCN 2007):  In Europe it was formerly very widely distributed and absent only from Fennoscandia. Severe declines and local exirpations occured in Europe between the late 1700s and mid 1900s, resulting in a fragmented relict distribution (Stahl and Artois 1991, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Peichocki 2001). It is extinct in the Netherlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It was considered regionally extinct in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), but vagrants still occur and the Italian population is spreading northwards into Austria (Lapini and Molinari 2006). It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic (EMA Workshop 2006).  Populations of wildcats occur on Sicily, Crete, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, as well as numerous other small Mediterranean islands.  It occurs from sea level to 2,250 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In some parts of the wildcat's distribution (e.g. Scotland, Stromberg in Germany) it is possible that, as a result of hybridization with the domestic cat, very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Herrmann and Vogel 2005).
8543		distribution	eng	The wildcat has a very wide distribution stretching across Europe (<em>F. silvestris</em>, silvestris group), South West and Central Asia (F. <em>silvestris</em>, ornata group), and Africa (<em>F. silvestris</em>, lybica group) (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Europe it was formerly very widely distributed and absent only from Fennoscandia. Severe declines and local extirpations occurred in Europe between the late 1700s and mid 1900s, resulting in a fragmented relict distribution (Stahl and Artois 1991, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Peichocki 2001). Previously considered extinct in the Netherlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but it may be recolonizing from populations in the Eifel or Ardennes forests (Canters <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It was considered regionally extinct in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), but vagrants still occur and the Italian population is spreading northwards into Austria (Lapini and Molinari 2006). It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic (EMA Workshop 2006). Wildcats (silvestris group) occur on Sicily, and populations of cats assigned to the libyca group occur on Crete, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands. Feral domestic cats are also found on numerous other small Mediterranean islands.  It occurs from sea level to 2,250 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In some parts of the wildcat's distribution (e.g. Scotland, Stromberg in Germany) it is possible that, as a result of hybridization with the domestic cat, very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Herrmann and Vogel 2005).
8543		habitat	eng	European wildcats are primarily associated with forest and are found in highest numbers in broad-leaved or mixed forests with low densities of humans. They are also found in Mediterranean maquis scrubland, riparian forest, marsh boundaries and along sea coasts. Areas of intensive cultivation are avoided (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>As with other wildcats, rodents are the staple of the diet of European wildcats across much of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Biro <em>et al.</em> 2005) However, rabbits are a major prey where they occur (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lozano <em>et al.</em> 2006). Birds (both passerine and ground-dwelling) are of secondary importance (Biro <em>et al.</em> 2005). The composition of the diet shows only minor seasonal variations: rabbits or rodents are the major year-round food items. In Italy, historical (1968-1983) and recent (1994-2004) diets of wildcats show highly significant differences in composition,  with an overwhelming occurrence of arthropods, reptiles and murines in the most recent period; the change appeared to be directly correlated to the expansion of wood vegetation and growth of atmospheric temperature over the last twenty years (Ragni 2006). Wildcats will also scavenge food and cache their kills, especially in winter (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The overlap in trophic niche between wildcats and feral domestic cats is large (Biro <em>et al.</em> 2005), indicating the potential for competition between these two taxa. Age at sexual maturity is 10-12 months for females and 9-10 months for males, interbirth interval is typically one year (although females may exceptionally breed twice in a year if the first litter is lost), and longevity is exceptionally up to 15 years, but more typically up to 5-6 years  (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8543		habitat	eng	Wildcats are found in a wide variety of habitats, from deserts and scrub grassland to dry and mixed forest, absent only from rainforest and coniferous forest.  European wildcats are primarily associated with forest and are found in highest numbers in broad-leaved or mixed forests with low densities of humans. They are also found in Mediterranean maquis scrubland, riparian forest, marsh boundaries and along sea coasts. Areas of intensive cultivation are avoided. African wildcats are found everywhere outside tropical rainforest, although thinly distributed in true desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Chinese alpine steppe cat is restricted to the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau, and is found primarily in alpine meadow habitats from 2,500 to 5,000 m (He <em>et al.</em> 2004). Yin<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al.</em> (2007) obtained the first camera trap photos of a wild individual at 3,700 m.  Asiatic wildcats have a different elevational range (up to 2,000?3,000 m), and are most typically associated with scrub desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/><br/>Rodents and rabbits are the staple of the wildcat's diet across its range, with birds of secondary importance, although a variety of small prey is taken, and wildcats also scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Phelan and Sliwa (2006) found large home ranges (52.7 km² for a radio-collared female) in desert habitat in the United Arab Emirates, larger than home ranges reported elsewhere in more optimal haibtat - 6?10 km² for females in South Africa's Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Herbst and Mills 2005 in Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and 1?2 km² for females in Scotland and France (Stahl <em>et al.</em> 1988, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8543		habitat	eng	Wildcats are found in a wide variety of habitats, from deserts and scrub grassland to dry and mixed forest, absent only from rainforest and coniferous forest.  European wildcats are primarily associated with forest and are found in highest numbers in broad-leaved or mixed forests with low densities of humans. They are also found in Mediterranean maquis scrubland, riparian forest, marsh boundaries and along sea coasts. Areas of intensive cultivation are avoided. African wildcats are found everywhere outside tropical rainforest, although thinly distributed in true desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Chinese alpine steppe cat is restricted to the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau, and is found primarily in alpine meadow habitats from 2,500 to 5,000 m (He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Yu <em>et al.</em> (2007) obtained the first camera trap photos of a wild individual at 3,700 m.  Asiatic wildcats have a different elevational range (up to 2,000-3,000 m), and are most typically associated with scrub desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/><br/>Rodents and rabbits are the staple of the wildcat's diet across its range, with birds of secondary importance, although a variety of small prey is taken, and wildcats also scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Phelan and Sliwa (2006) found large home ranges (52.7 km² for a radio-collared female) in desert habitat in the United Arab Emirates, larger than home ranges reported elsewhere in more optimal haibtat - 6-10 km² for females in South Africa's Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Herbst and Mills 2005 in Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and 1-2 km² for females in Scotland and France (Stahl <em>et al.</em> 1988, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8543		population	eng	One of the major barriers to the effective conservation of the wildcat in Europe is the lack of information regarding its current status and population trends (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). There have been no recent large-scale surveys or European regional reviews of the status of the species (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). During the European Mammal Assessment process, information (ranging from detailed national surveys to expert opinion) was collated for a number of European range states and is presented here, but this is by no means a comprehensive review. A review of the status of the wildcat in Europe in the 1980s and early-mid 1990s can be found in Stahl and Artois (1991) and Nowell and Jackson (1996).<br/><br/><strong>Scotland (UK)</strong>: Recent estimates have varied between 1,000 and 4,000 (compared to 1.2 million feral cats in Britain), but as few as 400 cats with classical wildcat pelage may survive, and it is possible that very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005). If so, this putative subspecies would be Critically Endangered (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys show that 30% of populations have declined, whilst only 8% are increasing (Battersby 2005). The Scottish wildcat is currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.<br/><strong>Portugal</strong>: The population is suspected to be decreasing (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines reaching 30% over three generations in the past or future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><strong>Spain</strong>: In some places it is increasing and others decreasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines of over 30% over the last three generations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><strong>Belgium</strong>: Evidence from wild cats found dead on roads indicated that the species is gradually expanding its range to the north and west. There are no data on population size (Libois 2006).<br/><strong>Germany</strong>: The population was recently estimated at 1,700-5,000 individuals (Knapp <em>et al.</em> 2000). The population is increasing and occupying new areas (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Switzerland</strong>: The wildcat persists in the Jura Mountains in northwestern Switzerland, adjacent to the French population. It was very rare in the 1970s, but records started to increase in the late 1980s (Doetterer and<br/>Bernhart 1996) and are now reported on a low, but regular frequency over the whole of the Swiss Jura Mountains. No population estimation available. <br/><strong>Italy</strong>: The estimated number of wildcats is between 750 and 1000 individuals (Ragni 1981, Ragni <em>et al.</em> 2001), which remains unchanged due to the slight range expansion in the middle and north-east, accompanied by extinction in the north-western peninsula (Ragni 2006). <br/><strong>Slovenia</strong>: The population is estimated (on the basis of density and habitat suitability) at no more than 2,000; it is stable. Recently expanded highways possibly pose some threat in south-east part of its high density range. (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006)<br/><strong>Poland</strong>: Estimated number of wildcats in Poland is between 100 and 150 individuals, estimated density is 1-1.3 per 1000 ha (Okarma <em>et al.</em> 2002). The current distribution of wildcat in the Polish Carpathians, mainly along the borders with Slovakia and Ukraine, shows that the Polish population forms a continuum with Slovak and Ukrainian populations. Together they constitute the northernmost part of the larger Carpathian population of this species. The species is decreasing and is considered endangered (EN) in Red Data Book of Poland (Wolsan <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><strong>Slovakia</strong>: The estimate of the Slovakian population in 2000 was about 1,500 individuals (unpublished data of the Slovak Environmental Agency: A. Olszanska pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Serbia</strong>: There are large populations along the southern Danube (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Macedonia</strong>: The species is widespread (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Greece</strong>: The wild cat is widespread in continental Greece with sightings in all forested areas and many wetlands. There are apparently more sightings in north and north-east Greece, where the population density seems to be higher. The population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable. On Crete it occurs at low densities (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).<br/><strong>Romania</strong>: The population is estimated to number c.10,000 individuals, but this is not based on quantitative data (Red Data Book of Romania). <br/><strong>Bulgaria</strong>: There are no quantitative data, but the species is considered relatively abundant (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><strong>European Russia</strong>: The population size and trend have not been quantified, but there are thought to be large, relatively stable populations (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>In Scotland, 88% of wild-living cats may be hybrids or feral domestic cats (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Italy and Hungary the proportion of hybrids is estimated at 8% and 25-31% respectively (using genetic nethods: Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lecis <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the basis of museum specimens, the proportion of hybrids in Bulgaria was estimated at 8-10% (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997), but the extent of hybridization may have increased since specimens were collected. Wild cats of mixed origin have also been found in Belgium, Portugal, Germany (only one animal) and Switzerland (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). In general the genetic distance to the domestic cat is larger in the north of the range than in the south (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eastern European populations are generally considered to be relatively pure (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Assessing the status of the wildcat is difficult, becuse it is a cryptic species and, moreover, because it may be difficult for some experts to distinguish between specimens of European wildcat and domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Morphological critera established by Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2005) should help to resolve these problems.
8543		population	eng	The world's population of domestic cats was estimated at 400 million twenty years ago (Legay 1986), making Felis silvestris one of the world's most numerous animals.  However, domestic cats hybridize readily with wildcats, and genetic analysis of wildcat samples found that most showed evidence of hybridization (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  There are probably very few populations remaining of genetically pure wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Chinese alpine steppe cat, F.s. bieti, apparently has a very restricted range, and is the least numerous of the wildcats, classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In the Near East region, wildcats occur at low density, and are threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and egradation as well as hybridization (Phelan and Sliwa 2006).<br/><br/>Most detailed population information is available about the European subspecies, F.s. silvestris, although there is still a lack of information regarding its current status and population trends (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). There have been no recent large-scale surveys or European regional reviews of the status of the species (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). During the European Mammal Assessment process (IUCN 2007), information (ranging from detailed national surveys to expert opinion) was collated for a number of European range states and is presented here, but this is by no means a comprehensive review.  A review of the status of the wildcat in Europe in the 1980s and early-mid 1990s can be found in Stahl and Artois (1991) and Nowell and Jackson (1996).<br/><br/><strong>Scotland (UK)</strong>: Recent estimates have varied between 1,000 and 4,000 (compared to 1.2 million feral cats in Britain), but as few as 400 cats with classical wildcat pelage may survive, and it is possible that very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005). If so, this putative subspecies would be Critically Endangered (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys show that 30% of populations have declined, whilst only 8% are increasing (Battersby 2005). The Scottish wildcat is currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.<br/><strong>Portugal</strong>: The population is suspected to be decreasing (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines reaching 30% over three generations in the past or future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><strong>Spain</strong>: In some places it is increasing and others decreasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines of over 30% over the last three generations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><strong>Belgium</strong>: Evidence from wild cats found dead on roads indicated that the species is gradually expanding its range to the north and west. There are no data on population size (Libois 2006).<br/><strong>Germany</strong>: The population was recently estimated at 1,700-5,000 individuals (Knapp <em>et al.</em> 2000). The population is increasing and occupying new areas (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Slovenia</strong>: The population is estimated (on the basis of density and habitat suitability) at no more than 2,000; it is stable. Recently expanded highways possibly pose some threat in south-east part of its high density range. (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006)<br/><strong>Poland</strong>: Estimated number of wildcats in Poland is between 100 and 150 individuals, estimated density is 1-1.3 per 1000 ha (Okarma <em>et al.</em> 2002). The current distribution of wildcat in the Polish Carpathians, mainly along the borders with Slovakia and Ukraine, shows that the Polish population forms a continuum with Slovak and Ukrainian populations. Together they constitute the northernmost part of the larger Carpathian population of this species. The species is decreasing and is considered endangered (EN) in Red Data Book of Poland (Wolsan <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><strong>Slovakia</strong>: The estimate of the Slovakian population in 2000 was about 1,500 individuals (unpublished data of the Slovak Environmental Agency: A. Olszanska pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Serbia</strong>: There are large populations along the southern Danube (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Macedonia</strong>: The species is widespread (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Greece</strong>: The wild cat is widespread in continental Greece with sightings in all forested areas and many wetlands. There are apparently more sightings in north and north-east Greece, where the population density seems to be higher. The population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable. On Crete it occurs at low densities (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).<br/><strong>Romania</strong>: The population is estimated to number c.10,000 individuals, but this is not based on quantitative data (Red Data Book of Romania). <br/><strong>Bulgaria</strong>: There are no quantitative data, but the species is considered relatively abundant (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/>European Russia: The population size and trend have not been quantified, but there are thought to be large, relatively stable populations (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>Introduced populations of F. silvestris occur on Crete, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, as well as numerous other small Mediterranean islands (Vigne 1992, Hemmer 1999, Gippoliti and Amori 2006). However, the wildcat of Sicily is generally considered to be an autochthonous population of <em>F. s. silvestris</em>, given its genetic distinctness from the mainland Italian population (Randi and Ragni 1991, Gippoliti and Amori 2006).<br/><br/>In Scotland, 88% of wild-living cats may be hybrids or feral domestic cats (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Italy and Hungary the proportion of hybrids is estimated at 8% and 25-31% respectively (using genetic methods: Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lecis <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the basis of museum specimens, the proportion of hybrids in Bulgaria was estimated at 8-10% (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997), but the extent of hybridization may have increased since specimens were collected. Wild cats of mixed origin have also been found in Belgium, Portugal, Germany (only one animal) and Switzerland (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). In general the genetic distance to the domestic cat is larger in the north of the range than in the south (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eastern European populations are generally considered to be relatively pure (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Outside Europe, the extent of hybridization is considered likely to be lower, but still significant, by Nowell and Jackson (1996), noting reports from Pakistan, central Asia and India.  Evidence of hybridization has been found in southern Africa (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and North Africa (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press). Assessing the status of the wildcat is difficult, becuse it is a cryptic species and, moreover, because it may be difficult for some experts to distinguish between specimens of European wildcat and domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Morphological critera established by Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2005) and genetic markers recommended by Driscoll <em>et al.</em> (2007) should help to resolve these problems.
8543		population	eng	The world's population of domestic cats was estimated at 400 million twenty years ago (Legay 1986), making the domesticated form of <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis silvestris</span> one of the world's most numerous animals.  However, domestic cats hybridize readily with wildcats, and genetic analysis of wildcat samples found that most showed evidence of hybridization (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  There are probably very few populations remaining of genetically distinct wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat, <span style="font-style: italic;">F.s. bieti,</span> apparently has a very restricted range, and is the least numerous of the wildcats, classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In the Near East region, Wildcats occur at low density, and are threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation as well as hybridization (Phelan and Sliwa 2006).<br/><br/>Most detailed population information is available about the European subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">F.s. silvestris</span>, although there is still a lack of information regarding its current status and population trends. There have been no recent large-scale surveys or European regional reviews of the status of the species (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). During the European Mammal Assessment process (IUCN 2007), information (ranging from detailed national surveys to expert opinion) was collated for a number of European range states and is presented below, but this is by no means a comprehensive review.  A review of the status of the Wildcat in Europe in the 1980s and early-mid 1990s can be found in Stahl and Artois (1991) and Nowell and Jackson (1996).<br/><br/><strong>Scotland (UK)</strong>: recent estimates have varied between 1,000 and 4,000 (compared to 1.2 million feral cats in Britain), but as few as 400 cats with classical wildcat pelage may survive, and it is possible that very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Macdonald <em>et al</em>. in press). If so, this population would be Critically Endangered (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys show that 30% of populations have declined, whilst only 8% are increasing (Battersby 2005).<br/><strong>Portugal</strong>: the population is suspected to be decreasing (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines reaching 30% over three generations in the past or future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><strong>Spain</strong>: in some places it is increasing and others decreasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines of over 30% over the last three generations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><strong>Belgium</strong>: evidence from wild cats found dead on roads indicated that the species is gradually expanding its range to the north and west. There are no data on population size (Libois 2006).<br/><strong>Germany</strong>: the population was recently estimated at 1,700-5,000 individuals (Knapp <em>et al.</em> 2000). The population is increasing and occupying new areas (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Slovenia</strong>: the population is estimated (on the basis of density and habitat suitability) at no more than 2,000; it is stable. Recently expanded highways possibly pose some threat in south-east part of its high density range. (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006)<br/><strong>Poland</strong>: estimated number of wildcats in Poland is between 100 and 150 individuals, estimated density is 1-1.3 per 1000 ha (Okarma <em>et al.</em> 2002). The current distribution of wildcat in the Polish Carpathians, mainly along the borders with Slovakia and Ukraine, shows that the Polish population forms a continuum with Slovak and Ukrainian populations. Together they constitute the northernmost part of the larger Carpathian population of this species. The species is decreasing and is considered endangered (EN) in Red Data Book of Poland (Wolsan <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><strong>Slovakia</strong>: the estimate of the Slovakian population in 2000 was about 1,500 individuals (unpublished data of the Slovak Environmental Agency: A. Olszanska pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Serbia</strong>: there are large populations along the southern Danube (IUCN 2007).<br/><strong>Macedonia</strong>: the species is widespread (IUCN 2007).<br/><strong>Greece</strong>: the wild cat is widespread in continental Greece with sightings in all forested areas and many wetlands. There are apparently more sightings in north and north-east Greece, where the population density seems to be higher. The population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable. On Crete it occurs at low densities (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).<br/><strong>Romania</strong>: the population is estimated to number c.10,000 individuals, but this is not based on quantitative data (Red Data Book of Romania). <br/><strong>Bulgaria</strong>: there are no quantitative data, but the species is considered relatively abundant (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">European Russia</span>: the population size and trend have not been quantified, but there are thought to be large, relatively stable populations (IUCN 2007).<br/><br/>In Scotland, 88% of wild-living cats may be hybrids or feral domestic cats (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Italy and Hungary the proportion of hybrids is estimated at 8% and 25-31% respectively (using genetic methods: Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lecis <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the basis of museum specimens, the proportion of hybrids in Bulgaria was estimated at 8-10% (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997), but the extent of hybridization may have increased since specimens were collected. Wild cats of mixed origin have also been found in Belgium, Portugal, Germany (only one animal) and Switzerland (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). In general the genetic distance to the domestic cat is larger in the north of the range than in the south (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eastern European populations are generally considered to be relatively pure (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Outside Europe, the extent of hybridization is considered likely to be lower, but still significant, by Nowell and Jackson (1996), noting reports from Pakistan, central Asia and India.  Evidence of hybridization has been found in southern Africa (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and North Africa (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press). Assessing the status of the wildcat is difficult, because it is a cryptic species and, moreover, because it may be difficult for some experts to distinguish between specimens of European wildcat and domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Morphological critera established by Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2005) and genetic markers recommended by Driscoll <em>et al.</em> (2007) should help to resolve these problems.
8543		threats	eng	Habitat loss and persecution by humans caused the dramatic decline of this species in Europe in the 18th to mid 20th centuries. Today, the main threats are hybridization, disease transmission, and competition with feral domestic cats. There is ongoing habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation in some areas (e.g., Mediterranean bushland); although in some other parts of Europe forest cover is increasing as a result of abandonment of extensive agricultural land. The fact that wildcats have failed to recover across much of their former European range, despite decades of strict legal protection, indicates that although persecution has largely ceased, other factors are now limiting populations of this species.<br/><br/>European wildcats suffer from hybridization with domestic cats, which descend from African wildcats. The process of domestication began thousands of years ago in North Africa and Southwest Asia, and domestic cats are now found in large numbers throughout the world, living in peoples' homes as well as feral in the wild.  Feral cats compete with wildcats for prey and space, and there is also interbreeding or hybridization, which is leading to a strong decline in genetically pure wildcats in some areas. There is also a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Fromont <em>et al.</em> 1998, Daniels <em>et al.</em> 1999), with some infections being maintained permanently in wildcat populations by transmission from domestic cats, when otherwise the diseases would die out (Fromont <em>et al.</em> 1998). A further risk is presented by the selective resistance of silvestris x catus  hybrids to viral disease infection (Ragni and Possenti 1991, Ragni 1993). <br/><br/>Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, especially road kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lüps <em>et al.</em> 2002, Schulenberg 2005). The species is still considered a pest in Scotland and is illegally persecuted. Predator control measures in a number of European countries may result in this species being killed as bycatch. In Europe at least, the species has never been commercially exploited for its fur (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Introduced feral domestic cats cause serious harm to native species in many parts of the world, and there have been suggestions that virus-vectored immunocontraception should be developed as a control method (Courchamp and Cornell 2000). Any such development should take into account potential risks to wildcats. In recent years there have been a number of cases of people taking young wildcats from the wild in the mistaken belief that they would make good pets (8 cases in two years in two areas in Germany, and another cat that was introduced from France into the Netherlands: Canters <em>et al.</em> 2005, Simon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8543		threats	eng	Wildcats are most threatened by domestic cats.  Hybridization is widespread; there may be very few genetically pure populations of Wildcats remaining (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Phelan and Sliwa 2006, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Of all Wildcat subspecies analyzed, only the Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. bieti,</span> showed no evidence of genetic introgression of domestic cat genes, but the sample size was small (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Feral cats compete with Wildcats for prey and space, and there is also a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and Wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Daniels <em>et al.</em> 1999, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, in Europe, especially road kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lüps <em>et al.</em> 2002, Schulenberg 2005). The species is still considered a pest in Scotland and is illegally persecuted (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004). Predator control measures in a number of European countries may result in this species being killed as bycatch.  Wildcats are also killed as pests in southern Africa although this does not seem to have resulted in population declines (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press).  In the past Asiatic Wildcats have been trapped in large numbers for their fur, although at present there is little international trade in Asian wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Large-scale poisoning campaigns to try to control populations of small mammals such as pikas, voles and moles have been conducted in the habitat of the Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat.  Several different types of chemicals are in use which have been found to have adverse effects on predators. Although ecological methods of pest control have been urged by Chinese scientists, such campaigns continue and have eradicated potential prey such as pikas from large areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996, He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Skins of Chinese mountain cats have been encountered in small numbers in the illegal wildlife trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996, He <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, habitat loss led to dramatic declines in Europe and Russia in the 18<sup>th</sup> to mid-20<sup>th</sup> centuries (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  However, wildcats can do well in cultivated landscapes which increase rodent densities (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although these are the areas where hybridization with domestic cats occurs and spreads.
8543		threats	eng	Wildcats are most threatened by domestic cats.  Hybridization is widespread; there may be very few genetically pure populations of wildcats remaining (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Phelan and Sliwa 2006, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Of all wildcat subspecies analyzed, only the Chinese alpine steppe cat <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. bieti</span> showed no evidence of genetic introgression of domestic cat genes, but the sample size was small (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Feral cats compete with wildcats for prey and space, and there is also a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Daniels <em>et al.</em> 1999, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, in Europe, especially road kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lüps <em>et al.</em> 2002, Schulenberg 2005). The species is still considered a pest in Scotland and is illegally persecuted (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004). Predator control measures in a number of European countries may result in this species being killed as bycatch.  Wildcats are also killed as pests in southern Africa although this does not seem to have resulted in population declines (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press).  In the past Asiatic wildcats have been trapped in large numbers for their fur, although at present there is little international trade in Asian wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Large-scale poisoning campaigns to try to control populations of small mammals such as pikas, voles and moles have been conducted in the habitat of the Chinese mountain cat.  Several different types of chemicals are in use which have been found to have adverse effects on predators. Although ecological methods of pest control have been urged by Chinese scientists, such campaigns continue and have eradicated potential prey such as pikas from large areas (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Skins of Chinese mountain cats have been encountered in small numbers in the illegal wildlife trade (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; He <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, habitat loss led to dramatic declines in Europe and Russia in the 18th to mid 20th centuries (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  However, wildcats can do well in cultivated landscapes which increase rodent densities (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although these are the areas where hybridization with domestic cats occurs and spreads.
8548		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.
8548		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded from Mauritania, western Mali and northeastern Senegal.
8548		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from rocky habitats, where it lives in crevices and rock fissures. Animals have been recorded from the edge of very dry tropical forest (George 1974). A captive female gave birth to four litters with a single young each.
8548		population	eng	There is little information on the abundance of this species, but population densities of up to 25 per hectare in central Senegal have been suggested (Nowak 1999).
8548		threats	eng	The threats to this species are generally not well known. Schlitter (1989) suggested that general desertification and deforestation of the Sahel represented a threat to the species.
8550		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
8550		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Er Hai, Yunnan, China (Davis<em> et al. </em>1983). The area of the lake is 250 km²<sup></sup>.
8550		habitat	eng	This species is found in a lake on mud substrates with little vegetation. It was found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Radix</span> sp. and young <span style="font-style: italic;">Margarya</span> sp. At some times of the year (June/July) this species is also thought to occur in vegetative habitat. The lake averages at 10 m deep (Davis <em>et al.</em> 1983).
8550		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
8550		threats	eng	Water quality in Lake Er Hai is said to be declining as a result of increasing pressure from nutrient discharges from non-point pollution sources (e.g., urban and agricultural run-off, livestock husbandry, and in-lake fish culture), and soil erosion due to deforestation (Dali EPB 1995). Surveys between 2000 and 2007 in Lake Er Hai showed there to be few, if any, gastropods remaining in the lake. The gastropod fishery has closed within the last ten years, the likely cause of this is use of chemicals to control algal nuisance. The introduction of the molluscivore Black Carp has also contributed to the decline in diversity and abundance of molluscs in this lake (D. Aldridge pers.comm 2010).
8551		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of potential threats on this species.
8551		distribution	eng	This is a tropical/subtropical species that inhabits oceanic waters around the globe generally between 40°N and 35°S. It does not generally approach close to shore, except in some areas where deep, clear waters are very close to the coast (such as around oceanic archipelagos like Hawaii). Reports of its occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea, while common in the literature, are not supported by authenticated records. It is also doubtful whether it occurs regularly in the Red Sea or Persian Gulf (Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 1991). A few high-latitude strandings and sightings are thought to be extralimital records, and are generally associated with incursions of warm water (Ross and Leatherwood 1994; Donohue and Perryman 2002; Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002).
8551		habitat	eng	The pygmy killer whale occurs in deep, warm waters, generally beyond the edge of the continental shelf, and rarely close to shore (except near some oceanic island groups where the water is deep and clear). This species is mainly tropical, but occasionally strays into warm temperate regions.<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet of this species, although it is known to eat fish and squid. It has occasionally been recorded attacking dolphins, at least those involved in tuna fishery interactions in the eastern tropical Pacific (Perryman and Foster 1980).
8551		population	eng	Although there is little information on the population biology of this species, the pygmy killer whale appears to be naturally uncommon. Wade and Gerrodette (1993) estimated that there were about 38,900 (CV=31%) of these whales in the eastern tropical Pacific. There are estimated to be 817 (CV=112%) in the Hawaiian portion of the US EEZ, and 408 (CV=60%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Barlow 2006; Mullin and Fulling 2004).
8551		threats	eng	Because of their relatively low abundance, even small takes in localized areas could be significant. Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of pygmy killer whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect pygmy killer whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006) and have been a part of multi-species unusual stranding events in Taiwan (Wang and Yang, 2006).<br/><br/>Pygmy killer whales have been killed directly in both harpoon and driftnet fisheries (Caribbean islands, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Indonesia) and incidentally in various types of fishing gear (most areas of the species’ range). <br/><br/>A few individuals are known to be taken in drives and in driftnets in various regions, most notably Japan and Sri Lanka (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). Reports on the small-cetacean fisheries of St Vincent and Lamalera suggest that pygmy killer whales form a very small proportion of the catch and that catches probably have little impact on the subpopulations in those areas. In Sri Lanka, there is mortality of this species due to harpooning of dolphins for use as bait on long-lines for sharks, billfish, and other oceanic fishes (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). <br/><br/>Although they comprise less than 2% of all cetaceans in monitored by-catches in gillnet fisheries in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka and in villages on the south-west coast of Sri Lanka, this may amount to 300 - 900 pygmy killer whales each year (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). The numbers of animals killed incidentally in net fisheries, such as those in Sri Lanka, may be much higher than is so far documented, because monitoring of these widespread activities is incomplete. In the long term, such takes may have a significant impact on pygmy killer whales where their distribution overlaps with extensive gillnetting operations (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). Small incidental catches are known in fisheries in other areas including the Philippines and Taiwan (Ross and Leatherwood 1994, Dolar 1994, J. Wang pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>This species does not appear to be particularly abundant anywhere that it has been sighted. In Hawaii, subpopulations appear to be small, and this, along with their limited movements, suggests the species may be particularly vulnerable to human impacts regionally.
8553		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from protected areas such as Eravikulam National Park in Kerala, India (Pradhan <em>et al.</em> 1997) and Horton Plains National Park in Sri Lanka (W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake pers. comm. 2005). Taxonomic and population studies of the two populations are urgently recommended. The Indian and Sri Lankan populations might represent two distinct species (S. Molur pers. comm.).
8553		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sri Lanka (central mountain hillsides) and southern India (largely the Western Ghats of Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Upper Bhavani in Tamil Nadu Pradhan <em>et al.</em> (1997)). It has been recorded from 1,850 to 2,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
8553		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane forest, montane swamp and marshes. It has been recorded amongst weeds and a dense undergrowth in wet ravines. Initially this species was considered to be a water shrew but it has since been considered as a semi-fossorial species (Nowak 1999). In India, it is found in montane rain forest, collected from shola-grassland ecosystem (montane swamps and marshes) at altitudes between 2,200 and 2,400 m asl (Pradhan <em>et al</em>. 1997).
8553		population	eng	In India it has been trapped only twice recently. Either it is an extremely trap shy animal or its population densities are low compared to other shrews.
8553		threats	eng	The restricted habitat of this species is threatened by human encroachment and development activities.
8554		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
8554		distribution	eng	This species occurs in small creeks in the area around Mobile Bay, east to the Appalachicola River system, Alabama and Florida (Thompson 1999).
8554		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small freshwater creeks in the area around Mobile Bay, east to the Appalachicola River system, Alabama and Florida (Thompson 1999).
8554		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
8554		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting the global distribution of this species.
8556		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Werribee River, Victoria.
8576		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in France.
8576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is&#160;mainly&#160;known from the Vaucluse to the Departments of Bouches-du-Rhône and Alpes Maritimes.
8576		habitat	eng	This species lives in the waters flowing below the riverbeds and maybe living in subterranean waters as well.
8576		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
8576		threats	eng	Hyporheic habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Over-extraction is another important threat for small stream, as it may completely dry out in summer, thus effecting directly the species. Increased frequency and intensity of summer droughts (possibly climate change), are also a potential threat.
8630		conservation	eng	This species was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3). The unique flora and fauna of the artesian spring systems have been listed as an ‘endangered community’ under the Australian Environmental Protection & Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 (Wilmer <em>et al</em>. 2005). Proper management of the springs in which this species is found is the only option to ensure its long-term survival, and an area-based management plan is recommended. Continued local and regional impacts on artesian water must be carefully controlled to prevent further drawdown. Habitat damage due to livestock and other pastoral activities should be minimized (Ponder 1996).
8630		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the ‘Middle Springs’ of the Lake Eyre Supergroup in the Great Artesian Basin, found between Maree and Oodnadatta in South Australia, Australia (Ponder 1996). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 9,450 km², yet because each spring is surrounded by large tracts of desert, these large areas of uninhabitable land should be discounted in the extent of occurrence estimation. As a result, the extent of occurrence is likely to lie between around 2,500 km² and 9,450 km². The area of occupancy only constitutes a fraction of this estimate and is likely to be no more than 20 km².
8630		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs and can be found in the spring head and outflows, amongst small sedges at the edges (Ponder 1996). A desert environment surrounds the springs, with very high temperatures and high levels of evaporation (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1989).
8630		population	eng	This species is common and has a number of populations. However, it has a very localised distribution (Ponder 1996, S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
8630		threats	eng	Artesian springs are found in South Australia and western Queensland. There also used to be artesian springs in the north-west of New South Wales, but these are now mostly extinct, presumably as a result of water extraction from the basin by the pastoral industry (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1989). In South Australia each spring is typically separated by arid agricultural land (Ponder 1996) which provides as marked a discontinuity of habitat as that of an island surrounded by sea. This fragmented distribution makes this species especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), and it has been found that the life history characteristics of this species make it more sensitive to changes in prevailing environmental conditions (Niejalke and Richards 1998). Habitat damage due to livestock and other pastoral activities is also a current threat to the species (Ponder 1996). Although locally very common, this species is dependent on a continuing supply of clean water, and yet it is currently threatened by the over-extraction of artesian water for agricultural, industrial and municipal uses (Wilmer <em>et al</em>. 2005). In addition, the drought conditions and high temperatures experienced by Australia in recent years will be having a negative effect on the level of outflow from these springs.
8642		habitat	eng	Found mostly in coniferous forests, but also in alpine grasslands.
8668		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in a number of protected areas, including Montagne d’Ambre, Masoala, Marojejy, Zahamena, Ranomafana and Andohahela National Parks, and Ankarana Special Reserve.
8668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern forests and the Sambirano Region in the north-west of Madagascar (Kerridge <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is present as far north as Montagne d'Ambre National Park and as far south as Andohahela National Park in the south-east. Strongholds include the Masoala Peninsula, rainforests at Mananara, Ambatovaky and Zahamena, and the Andohahela forest region. The altitudinal range is sea level to at least 1,600 m, but the species seems much scarcer above 1,000 m.
8668		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and terrestrial species is found in humid tropical lowland, mid-altitude and littoral forests, and is sometimes associated with streams or marshy areas in these habitats (Kerridge <em>et al.</em> 2003). It seems that this species does not adapt to secondary habitats (Kerridge <em>et al</em>. 2003). During the daytime, animals shelter in hollow trees, under fallen logs, or amongst rocks. The gestation period is around 82 and 89 days (Albignac 1973). Young are born well developed, and sexual maturity is attained at about two years of age.
8668		population	eng	This species has been found to be locally common (Kerridge <em>et al.</em> 2003).
8668		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land, selective logging and charcoal production. This species is also threatened by hunting, and the taste is most preferred among the native carnivores (Golden 2005). Introduced species including dogs, cats, and the small Indian civet <em>Viverricula indica</em> are competitors, and dogs are also likely predators.
8700		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is known from Horton Plains National Park in Central Province. Survey, taxonomic research and captive breeding for species recovery are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic and restricted to central and southwestern Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/>A record of this species from India is considered to be erroneous. Its distribution in India is based on a single juvenile, which was probably an individual of <em>Funambulus sublineatus</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.).
8700		habitat	eng	It is diurnal and arboreal species. It occurs in montane evergreen and rainforests. It has been found to occupy in low country wet zone to mid montane wet zone and lowland rainforest (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Results of a survey of the area in and around the Sinharaja forest, Sri Lanka showed the species preferred unlogged areas (six specimens); an additional four specimens were captured in logged areas, whereas none were taken in abandoned areas or plantation (Wijesinghe and de L. Brooke 2005). Generation time likely to be ~3 years judging by similar species.
8700		population	eng	It is rare in museum collections and may be rare in the wild. The population is declining perceptibly at a rate of over 20% over the last three generations and more than 30% predicted over the next three generations due to habitat loss (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8700		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to large wood plantations, selective logging and forest fires have been observed to be the major threats. Habitat loss has been estimated at 20-50% over the last 10 years and is predicted at 30% over the next 10 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8701		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is however, known from the following protected areas in India - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife Sanctuary, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National Park, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary, Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary, Pulicat Bird Sanctuary, Siwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Sri Lankamalleshwara National Park and Sri Venkateshwara National Park in Andhra Pradesh; Kanha National Park and Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh; Indravathi National Park in Chhattisgarh; Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa; Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Taxonomic research is recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8701		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is widely distributed found at elevations from sea level up to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8701		habitat	eng	This is a very adaptable species. It is a diurnal and semi-arboreal. This species occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forest, mangrove forest, grasslands, scrublands, plantations, rural gardens and urban areas. In Sri Lanka, found throughout the island except in deep jungles (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8701		population	eng	It is a very common species.
8701		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
8702		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India -  Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife Sanctuary, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National Park, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary, Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary and Siwaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh; Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa; Balaram-Ambaji Wildlife Sanctuary, Jessore Wildlife Sanctuary, Narayan Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Taxonomic research is recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8702		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution ranging from Iran, through Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India to Nepal at elevations of 0 to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
8702		habitat	eng	This is a very adaptable species. It is diurnal and semi-arboreal species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forest, montane forests, grasslands, scrublands, plantations, arable land, rural gardens, urban areas, introduced vegetation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8702		population	eng	Common locally. The range is retracting in parts of India due to displacement by the larger <em>Funambulus palmarum</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.).
8702		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
8703		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is however, known from the following protected areas in India - Silent Valley National Park, Thekkadi Bird Sanctuary, Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. In Sri Lanka it is reported from Horton Plains National Park in Central Province and Adam’s Peak Wildlife Sanctuary in Sabaragamuwa Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, limiting factor research and captive breeding for species recovery are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005).
8703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005) at elevations of 200 to 1,200 m asl.
8703		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to riparian habitats, especially reedbeds, in tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest. In Sri Lanka, it is associated with these wetlands in low country wet to mid montane wet zone (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005) and in bamboo jungles. In the Western Ghats it is associated with <em>Ochlandra</em> sp. Reedbeds in moist forests (N. Rajamani pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8703		population	eng	It is a very rare squirrel in the Western Ghats, with very few sightings reported. The population trend indicates a quantitative decrease at a rate of 20% or more in last 10 years and a similar trend in the future is predicted due to habitat loss in the two countries (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). This is one of the rarest and most shy <em>Funambulus</em> species that is usually confused with <em>Funambulus layardi</em> in Sri Lanka and <em>Funambulus tristriatus</em> in India (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).
8703		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging, collection of non-woody vegetation (reeds), and forest fires have been observed to be the major threats (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Forest fragmentation and pesticide spraying is affecting the species in some parts of its range, while collecting reeds for construction purposes is also threatening its habitat (N. Rajamani pers. comm.).
8704		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is however, known from the following protected areas in India - Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala; Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Maharashtra; Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve, Srivilliputur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu; and Nagarahole National Park in Karnataka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Taxonomic studies, survey, habitat management and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8704		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Ghats in India, seen in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs at elevations of 700 to 2,100 m asl and is widely distributed in the mountain ranges (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005)
8704		habitat	eng	It is diurnal and semi-arboreal species. It occurs in tropical evergreen forest, moist deciduous forests, plantations and pasturelands. It is found to occupy tea, cardamom and coffee estates (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species breeds year round with an average litter size of 2.6 offspring. Generation time is likely to be three years.
8704		population	eng	It is a locally common species. A population decline at >10% in 20 years has been observed and the predicted decline is >10% in 10 years due to persecution and loss of habitat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8704		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agro-industry farming, large wood plantations, small-scale logging, increase in<br/>human settlements, pest control by means of pesticides and poisoning have been observed to be the major threats. Habitat loss of 10% more than in the last twenty years and predicted to increase to more than 10% in the next 20 years due to major damming projects (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Native shade tree species in coffee and cardamom plantations are being systematically replaced with exotic shade trees. The squirrel seems to avoid exotic shade trees (S. Molur pers. comm.)
8709		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Fundulus waccamensis</em>;&#160;however, its habitat is indirectly protected by Critical Habitat of Lake Waccamaw for the federally Threatened <em>Menidia extensa</em> (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1999). <em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> was also previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/><br/>Conservation efforts are needed to ensure migration routes to the canal system surrounding Lake Waccamaw are not obstructed (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008). Maintaining high water quality within the canals is also critical for the conservation of this species (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008). Monitoring of the population numbers is also needed.
8709		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is restricted to Lake Waccamaw and its associated tributaries in Columbus County, North Carolina (Menhinick 1991, Shute, Shute and Lindquist 1981). This species has been reported from Phelps Lake in Washington County, North Carolina where it may have been introduced via bait bucket. However this population appears to be more morphologically similar to <em>F. diaphanus </em>than <em>F. waccamensis</em> (W.C. Starnes 2004 pers. comm, Krabbenhoft <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence of approximately 196 km².
8709		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is a near-surface to mid-water species, occurring in large schools over sandy bottoms in open water or near emergent vegetation. Throughout summer this species inhabits inshore areas, often near submerged vegetation (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008) and during the winter months, it is commonly seen in swamps and canals surrounding Lake Waccamaw (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980, Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008). Spawning occurs from April until August in shallow (< 1 m) water (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008) and individuals spawn on silty or sandy substrate and possibly on vegetation (Shute<em> et al.</em> 1979, Shute <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983).
8709		population	eng	<em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is represented by a single population (Menhinick 1991).<br/><br/>The total adult population size was estimated by Lindquist and Yarbrough (1982)  at one to ten million individuals.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
8709		threats	eng	<em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is threatened by water temperatures in shallow areas of the lake which are frequently above lethal limits, thus restricting available breeding habitat. It is also possible that eutrophication could exacerbate this problem (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>This species is also threatened by upland deforestation and concomitant siltation in the lake which threatens development of demersal eggs (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> may also be impacted by residential septic tank run-off which is increasing into Lake Waccamaw (P.W. Shute pers. comm. 2010).
8755		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Kahuzi-Biega National Park (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Ruwenzori Mountains National Park (Uganda), Kibira National Park (Burundi) and other protected areas.
8755		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the montane forests of the Ruwenzori Mountains (Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Albertine Rift mountains (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda) at 1,500 to 2,800 m asl.
8755		habitat	eng	This species is associated with montane forests, being especially found in stands of <em>Prunus africanum</em> (a dominant tree in the region) and, at the upper reaches of its altitudinal range, in forests of <em>Hagenia abyssinica</em>. Populations are usually found in areas of forest with a broken canopy where trees are smothered in climbers, and undergrowth is densely tangled. It does not adapt well to cultivated areas. This species is diurnal, arboreal, and primarily solitary, although they are occasionally seen in pairs.
8755		population	eng	The abundance is difficult to assess because these squirrels are very shy and inhabit dense vegetation. It is apparently common in <em>Prunus africanum</em> stands, but less common in higher reaches of montane forest.
8755		threats	eng	The primary threat within the Albertine Rift has been the mass conversion of primary forests to agricultural land, as well as the extraction of forest resources (fuelwood, bushmeat) by local people. Nonetheless, these activities do not appear to be significantly affecting this species at present, and there are not considered to be major threats to the species at present.
8756		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is probable that it occurs in some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of West African populations.
8756		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded in from Benin and Nigeria in West Africa, with a seemingly disjunct second population distributed from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and northern Gabon, into Central African Republic and much of the Congo Basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
8756		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in lowland tropical moist forest throughout much of the range, but has also been reported from gallery forest. It can be found in secondary habitats. Animals are usually found singly or in pairs
8756		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
8756		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
8757		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.
8757		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from the southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo and adjacent parts of northern and north-eastern Angola.
8757		habitat	eng	All localities from which this species have been recorded are outside of the main Central African forest block. It is believed to be a moist savanna species, although this needs to be confirmed. There is little additional information available on the natural history of this species.
8757		population	eng	This species has been recorded from only around fifteen collecting localities (with perhaps no more than 30 specimens collected). It has probably not been collected since the 1950s or 1960s, owing to the recent limits on survey effort within the species range.
8757		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
8758		conservation	eng	Known to occur in a number of protected areas including some well managed reserves in Namibia (Etosha National Park and the Kaokoveld National Park). There is a need for additional surveys in the northern parts of the species range.
8758		distribution	eng	This largely Central African species ranges from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, south of the Congo River, through western Angola (including on the Angolan Esscarpment) to northern Namibia (Brandberg is the southernmost limit at about 20 deg S). It has been recorded to altitudes of more 2,000 m asl.
8758		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with dense woodland, where trees attain a larger size with more luxuriant canopies, such as along watercourses and on rocky outcrops (Shortridge 1934). In Namibia, the species is associated with vegetation on granite outcrops, and not with the thinner woodland of the more open areas. It is diurnal and arboreal, but spend much time foraging on the ground. Animals rest in holes in trees lined with leaves and grass or in dreys of twigs, leaves and grass constructed in the forks of branches; it has been suggested that they use dreys during the summer months and holes in trees during the winter. They average a litter of two young.
8758		population	eng	This species is fairly well represented by museum specimens. It is relatively common in north-western Namibia.
8758		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
8759		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in some protected areas.
8759		distribution	eng	This Central African species is widely distributed the montane regions of the Cameroon Highlands, through Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to Central African Republic, ranging as far south as western Congo. There is an additional specimen of this species from Brazzaville in southern Congo. It has not yet recorded from Nigeria or the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has a wide altitudinal range from lowland to montane forest.
8759		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with lowland and montane forest habitats. It is not known if it can persist in secondary forest or other modified habitats.
8759		population	eng	This is a common species.
8759		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
8760		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
8760		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), much of Gabon, western Congo, possibly the Cabinda enclave of Angola and southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
8760		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with lowland forest habitats. There is very little natural history information available, but it is considered to be a largely terrestrial species.
8760		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
8760		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range it is presumably threatened by general habitat loss.
8761		conservation	eng	This species is likely to occur in protected areas through the range, and has been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon.
8761		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Ghana (east of the Volta Basin), westwards through Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon to extreme southwestern Central African Republic and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and on Bioko Island).
8761		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It is a terrestrial and nocturnal species (Rosevear 1969). There are few additional details on the natural history of this species.
8761		population	eng	It is probably a fairly common species.
8761		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. In Benin, the bones of this species are used for traditional medicinal purposes, while the tails are used as ornaments (M. Ekue pers. comm.).
8762		conservation	eng	It is probable that this species occurs in numerous protected areas.
8762		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded in West Africa and Central Africa. It has a disjunct distribution range, and is found in four main areas. It ranges from The Gambia to southern Ghana, west of the Dahomey Gap; from southern Nigeria to Central African Republic and south to Gabon (including Equatorial Guinea); from the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, north of the Congo to Uganda and Rwanda; with the fourth population in southern Congo and northern Angola. It has been recorded from sea level to at least 1,650 m asl on Mount Bintamane (Sierra Leone).
8762		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest habitat, but populations are also found in coastal scrub and savanna in parts of the range (e.g. Ghana). It can be found in forest edge habitats, clearings and secondary growth formations. Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) state that in Sierra Leone the replacement of forest with farm bush and farms appears to have been favoured by the species. This is considered to be a pest species on some on farms and cocoa plantations. It is diurnal, and predominantly arboreal (apparently favouring palm trees such as <em>Raphia</em>), although animals are also seen foraging on the ground.
8762		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a quite common species.
8762		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
8763		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in some protected areas, but this has not been confirmed. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
8763		distribution	eng	This West African species is found in Ghana (north of the forest and east of the Volta River), Togo and Benin, extending northwards into southern areas of Burkina Faso and Niger (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
8763		habitat	eng	This species is found in both savanna and drier forest formations, including gallery forest. There is little information available on the biology or habits of this species.
8763		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
8763		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
8764		conservation	eng	This chameleon occurs within Parc National d'Andringitra; Ankaratra massif is not yet formally protected. Vences <em>et al.</em> (2002) report a sparse voucher collection and some of the reported localities therefore need to be resurveyed as a matter of priority, including those for which no specimens are available.This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and Category I, Class II of  national wildlife legislation, but a trade suspension has been in place  since 1994 (Carpenter <em>et al.</em> 2004, 2005). Heathland within this species' range should be managed to limit the impact of fires.
8764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar's central highlands, from Parc National d'Andringitra in the south to Ankaratra in the north (Brygoo 1971,&#160;Vences&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2002,&#160;Glaw and Vences 2007, Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010). Brygoo (1971) reported this species from Ibity, Ambohimitombo, Antobeba and Ambatolampy, but specimen evidence from these localities is apparently lacking (Vences<em> et al.</em> 2002).&#160;Andreone <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that this species occurs in Antoetra and near Lake Mantasoa. This species is found between 1,850 and 2,643 m above sea-level, but probably occurs at lower elevations&#160;(Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2007). The chameleon's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 14,513 km².
8764		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in montane savanna habitats, including secondary heathland and savanna grasslands Although it occurs in sympatry with the widespread white-lined chameleon (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Furcifer lateralis</em>) throughout its range, it is clearly tolerant of a narrower range of abiotic conditions (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Vences <em>et al.</em> 2002).
8764		population	eng	This species has been recorded at densities of 12.2 ha<sup>-1</sup> at Ankaratra (Randrianantoandro <em>et al. </em>2010).   Due to human pressures on and the patchy distribution of remaining    forest throughout its range, the population is presumed to be both    declining and severely fragmented.<p></p>
8764		threats	eng	Although montane heathland in central Madagascar is declining less rapidly than forested areas, human activities (e.g., agricultural expansion) result in annual burning and degradation of the habitat where the species occurs, and this represents the major threat to this species.&#160; Illegal collection continues and although it may constitute a threat, there is little information on the quantities of animals removed from the wild (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010).
8765		conservation	eng	<p>Laborde's chameleon occurs within the boundary of the Réserve Spéciale d'Andranomena (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003), Parc National Mikea and Parc National Kirindy Mitea (Raselimanana 2008) in the west, as well as in two other protected areas that are currently under development (Antimena in the Menabe Region and PK32 Ranobe in the Atsimo Andrefana Region). Additional survey work and research is needed into this species <em></em>to  better understand its current distribution, ecological requirements and life history. In  particular, it is important to survey for this species in the forests north of the Tsiribihina River because, although comprehensive surveys have not found<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span><em></em>Laborde's chameleon in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), it might occur in the lower altitude forest to the west. It is also important to ascertain whether the unusual life history documented for this lizard <em></em>n the arid south is shared by subpopulations in the north, where environmental conditions are  less harsh. Research is needed to establish the extent to which this species is threatened, and by which processes, in different parts of its range.<br/></p><p>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, but exports of wild caught individuals were suspended in 1994 (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is listed as a protected species (Category I, Class II) under Malagasy law which permits authorized collection from wild. Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) recommend that this species should be a conservation priority because of its restricted distributions, susceptibility to extirpation, low population densities, and lack of formal protection for habitat in the southwest.</p>
8765		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the west and south west of Madagascar, and is found in low elevation sites (between 20 and 100 m above sea level) with remaining forest cover (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003, Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana 2008). It has been recorded from the Mikea forest in southwestern Madagascar (Raselimanana 2004, Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), the Menabe forests in western Madagascar (Brygoo 1971, Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003, Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010), Parc National de Kirindy Mitea (Raselimanana 2008) and two sites further north, Katsepy and Soalala (Brygoo 1978). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 16,649 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
8765		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>Laborde's Chameleon is strongly associated with remaining forest, especially spiny forest in the southwest and deciduous forest in the west (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003). This species exhibits a bizarre annual life cycle where synchronous hatching occurs in November, followed by rapid growth into maturity, copulation in January and senescence and death by April (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Eggs are deposited in nests in the ground and remain in diapause until shortly before the rains (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). There is little quantitative data on clutch size for this species in the wild, but a radio tracked female was observed laying 11 eggs in southern Madagascar (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is sexually dimorphic and exhibits physically intense combat and agnostic courtship (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In artificial combat scenarios, large males with short rostral appendages were the more successful whilst females appeared to show a&#160; preference for males with wide  rostral appendages (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species is prey for <em>Madagascarophis </em>and <em>Mimophis </em>snakes (Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007).</p>
8765		population	eng	In dry spiny forest habitats in south-western Madagascar this species occurs in population densities of 30.8 ha per ha (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) whilst in the dry deciduous forests of the Menabe region in western Madagascar, it occurred at lower densities&#160; of 7.2 per ha (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In the southwest, the entire population of this species survives as eggs during the austral winter (Karsten <em>et al.</em> 2008) but it is not clear what life history is used by the populations further north, in less harsh environmental conditions. The patchy distribution of, and the severe human pressures placed on, remaining suitable habitat within this species' range suggest the population is both declining and severely fragmented.
8765		threats	eng	<p>The forests in Madagascar's southwest are under high pressure from expanding rural and urban populations, and underwent some of the largest declines in forest cover between 1990 and 2000 in the whole of the island (Harper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The main threats to Laborde's Chameleon<em> </em>in this region<em> </em>are the conversion of native forest vegetation into charcoal and forest clearance for agriculture (Seddon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007). Similarly, the forests in western Madagascar are threatened by charcoal production and slash and burn clearance for subsistence agriculture, as well as timber harvesting (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Ganzhorn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160;There is no evidence that commercial collection currently poses a threat to this lizard<em>.</em></p>
8766		conservation	eng	<p>Part of the species' range in Itremo is in the process of being established as a protected area. Survey work is required to determine whether the species may occur more widely, and to clarify its degree of tolerance of habitat modification. Any ongoing commercial collection needs to be monitored and, if it represents a threat to this species, international trade restrictions enforced.<br/></p>
8766		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it appears to be restricted to the south-central highlands around Itremo and Ambatofinandrahana (Brygoo 1971, Glaw and Vences 2007, Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Records from Betafo and Ambositra are old (Brygoo 1971) and recent surveys have not recorded this chameleon there (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The lizard has an estimated elevational range of 1,100-1,690 m asl., and an extent of occurrence of 3,900 km²<sup></sup>.
8766		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from Tapia forest, which is a dry forest dominated by&#160;<em>Uapaca bojeri&#160;</em>(Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has also been found in coffee plantations and in orchards in Itremo, and even in villages (Ramanantsoa 1974, Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and pastureland (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). However, the habitat in the range of the species is fragmented by large patches of savanna grassland. A dissected female contained 12 eggs and oviposition occurs in April (Glaw and Vences 2007).
8766		population	eng	This species has been recorded as being abundant in both undisturbed and disturbed (orchards and coffee plantations) habitats. Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) recorded a density estimate&#160;16.4 individuals per ha at a site that included both disturbed and undisturbed habitats. Although tolerant of some habitat modification, the species may still be declining as a result of forest loss throughout its range. Due to the patchy nature of its forest habitat within a savannah landscape it is presumed to occur as a severely fragmented population.
8766		threats	eng	<p>Tapia forest is a relatively rare and declining habitat type in Madagascar.&#160;In the Itremo area, the main threats are mining (quartz and tourmaline) and logging for charcoal use. Slash-and-burn agriculture may represent a threat to this species by removing Tapia forest, but further research is needed to clarify whether the resulting farmland represents suitable habitat for this lizard (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). There is convincing evidence that collection from the wild still occurs around Itremo. The impact of this collection has yet to be studied but is unlikely to be a major threat to populations if highly localized and only involves relatively small quantities of chameleons.</p>
8767		conservation	eng	This species has been given Vulnerable status in Queensland. Parts of this species' range coincides with protected areas. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and monitoring of both its population and habitat is recommended. The establishment and management of protected areas is suggested to provide a refuge for this species from habitat degradation.
8767		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Southern Brigalow Belt in the south east interior of Queensland. The range extends from Yeppoon and the Expedition Range in the north, southwards to Oakey, Inglewood and Glenmorgan (Cogger <em>et al</em> 1993). This species can be found between 200 to 500 m above sea level.
8767		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas with Brigalow such as woodlands and dry sclerophyll forests.
8767		population	eng	This species is uncommon in its range. Covacevich (1995) describes how this reptile has suffered serious declines and highlights it as needing conservation attention.
8767		threats	eng	Vegetation clearing within central Queensland has been estimated at around 43-46% over the past 40 years (Fensham and Fairfax 2003) and the Brigalow Belt has experienced rates of vegetation clearance comparable to those found in the tropics (Seabrook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). 60% of the original vegetation in the Southern Brigalow Belt has been cleared (Accad <em>et al</em>. 2006), mostly for agriculture. However, the remaining habitat is also threatened by other processes such as fires, both wild and human induced. The habitat degradation and fragmentation of the Brigalow Belt has lead to dispersal problems for this species (Wilson 2003).
8771		conservation	eng	Caves in central Brazil are threatened and need conservation measures to assure persistence. Need data on population (census) to evaluate trends. Conservation of cerrado habitats.
8771		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central and South America. This species occurs from Costa Rica south to Peru, the Guianas, and eastern Brazil; Trinidad (Simmons 2005).
8771		habitat	eng	The species' natural history is very poorly known, and it is infrequently collected. This bat is strongly associated with moist habitats in Venezuela (Handley 1976), especially in lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer 1997). Roosts in small clusters in colonies of up to at least 60 in caves, horizontal fallen logs, and deep cracks between rocks; one such roost was among large boulders in a riverbed, which were exposed during the dry season (LaVal 1977). A group of four found under a hollow log in Ecuador immediately vacated the roost when approached, then circled nearby and attempted to re-enter (Reid 1997). This small bat forages for insects, Lepidoptera in particular, flying close to the ground with a slow, fluttering, moth like flight (LaVal 1977). It is seldom caught in mist nets (Reid 1997). One pregnant female was captured in Colombia in September (Camargo and Tamsitt 1990). Five fossil specimens were recovered from Toca da Boa Vista, Bahia, Brazil (Czaplewski and Cartelle 1998).
8771		population	eng	Apparently rare and local, but widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997). Patchily distributed in Central America and northern South America. Sexes may roost separately during part of the year (Camargo and Tamsitt 1990). In Costa Rica were found more than 59 males occupying a hollow log in May (LaVal 1977).
8771		threats	eng	Associated with caves and karstic environments and may be vulnerable to some habitat loss.
8773		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Endangered in 1976 throughout its range, except in the free-flowing reach of the Tennessee River from the base of Wilson Dam downstream to the backwaters of Pickwick Reservoir and the lower 5 river miles of all tributaries to this reach in Colbert and Lauderdale Counties, Alabama (USFWS 2001). Williams <em>et al.</em> (2010) lists this species as endangered according to the AFS assessment.<br/><br/>A recovery plan (USFWS 1984) was created which outlines the following  objectives: (1) preserve populations and habitats in the North Fork  Holston, Powell, Clinch (including tributaries Little River and Copper  Creek), Elk, Paint Rock, Little, and Sequatchie Rivers, (2) conduct life  history research on the species, to include gametogenesis, fish host  identification, age class structure, growth rate, life tables, and  mortality factors, (3) determine the feasibiltiy of introducing the  species into one additional stream/river or establishing a viable  population in an appropriate section of a stream/river where it  currently resides; implement such an activity where feasible, (4)  outline and implement a schedule to monitor population levels and trends  in extant and introduced populations and population centers, (5)  evaluate the success of individual activities and overall success of the  recovery program; recommend revisions or additional actions as  necessary to recover the species.<br/><br/>The USFWS (2006), in cooperation with the State of Tennessee and Conservation Fisheries, Inc., proposes to reintroduce this species into its historical habitat in the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox County Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been established in the Tennessee River below Wilson Dam, Colbert and Lauderdale Cos., Alabama, extending 13.4 km and including the lower 8 km of all tributaries that enter the Wilson Dam tailwaters (USFWS 2001).  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been proposed for reintroduction into the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam (Knox and Sevier Cos., Tennessee) to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox Co., Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (Knox, Grainger, and Jefferson Cos., Tennessee), where this species currently does not exist (USFWS 2006). Pendleton Island in the Clinch River, Virginia, is a TNC preserve  (Bruenderman and Neves 1993) and has a reproducing population (gravid  females).  <br/><br/>Further research regarding the taxonomy, ecology, population and threats impacting this species is required. The implementation of conservation strategies are also needed to protect this species, including site and species national protection and population establishment and augmentation where appropriate.
8773		distribution	eng	Historically, this species was widespread in tributaries of the Tennessee River system in Tennessee (above the Mussel Shoals area), Virginia, and Alabama including the Tennessee, Flint, Paint Rock, Elk, Nolichucky, Clinch, Emory, Powell, Holston, North Fork Holston Rivers; Big Moccasin Creek (Virginia), Poplar Creek (Tennessee), Bear Creek (Alabama), Limestone Creek (Alabama), Hurricane Creek (Alabama), and Little River (Tennessee) (USFWS 1984). It currently persists in portions of the Clinch and Powell rivers, the North Fork of the Holston, and in the Paint Rock River. The largest population resides in the Clinch River, but it is reproductively isolated from the Powell River population (Neves 1991). It has been extirpated from Tennessee River proper with a population extant in Paint Rock River in Alabama (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004).
8773		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shoal habitats of creeks and rivers. Historical distribution data suggest that it  occurred in smaller streams than many other species of the genus. It  prefers stable gravel substrates in moderate current (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008), and was recorded as inhabiting clear, high gradient streams in firm cobble and gravel substrates (Neves and Moyer 1988).<br/><br/>Bruenderman and Neves (1993) detailed the life history of the species in the Clinch River, southwestern Virginia. It is a short-term brooder, apparently spawning in early May, with females gravid from mid-May through early August. Developing embryos are bound in conglutinates and change color from pink to orange to light peach as they mature. However, mature glochidia are discharged in a loose, gelatinous matrix instead of well-defined conglutinates. Fecundity was assessed in one gravid female, which contained approximately 113,000 embryos. Glochidia were recovered from stream drift as early as late May and as late as mid-August. Ortmann (1921) reported a similar gravid period for the species, from mid-May through mid-July (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Fishes on which natural infestations of <em>glochidia </em>have been observed and confirmed in laboratory conditions include <em>Cyprinella galactura </em>(Whitetail Shiner), <em>Nocomis micropogon</em> (River Chub) and <em>Notropis leuciodus </em>(Tennessee Shiner, Cyprinidae; Bruenderman and Neves 1993). Additional species found to serve as glochidial hosts in laboratory trials are <em>Cottus bairdii </em>(Mottled Sculpin, Cottidae); and <em>Campostoma anomalum</em> (Central Stoneroller), <em>Luxilus albeolus</em> (White Shiner), <em>Notropis telescopus</em> (Telescope Shiner) and <em>Pimephales notatus</em> (Bluntnose Minnow, Cyprinidae; Bruenderman and Neves 1993, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Based on examination of thin sections of shell, this species was found to live at least 32 years (Bruenderman and Neves 1993, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).  <p><br/></p> <p>&#160;</p>
8773		population	eng	No surveys have been conducted throughout the entire range of this species.  Surveys in Virginia (1980) indicated that twelve sites were scattered throughout the Clinch River (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2001). It was reported recently in Copper Creek (Upper Clinch drainage) in Virginia (Fraley and Ahlstedt 2000).  Populations outside the Clinch River (Powell River, Hancock and Claiborne Cos., Tennessee; see Parmalee and Bogan 1998) are either extirpated, have poor viability, or no viability.  Such sites include the North Fork Holston River at Cloud Ford, Tennessee; three sites in the Powell River in Tennessee and Fletcher Ford, Virginia; Elk River, Paint Rock River, Little River (Blount Co., Tennessee), Sequatchie River near Dunlop, Tennessee (USFWS 1984); but all of these have little or no viability.  In Alabama, it was once extant across the northern part of the state but is now only found in the Paint Rock River (Mirarchi 2004).<br/><br/>Bruenderman and Neves (1993) conducted life history studies on a healthy population from the Clinch River in Scott Co., Virginia.  Here, cohort structure of live specimens and collections of valves indicate  populations in the Clinch River are declining (Bruenderman and Neves  1993). Pendleton Island in the Clinch River, Virginia, is a TNC preserve (Bruenderman and Neves 1993) and has a reproducing population (gravid females).  These two sites are very close and are essentially one population.  Outside the Clinch River, viability generally does not exist (USFWS 1984). <br/><br/>Overall the species has suffered a significant reduction in range.  Most former  sites in Tennessee no longer maintain populations (Parmalee and Bogan  1998). <br/>Surveys of 201 km of the Elk River from the Alabama border through Tennessee revealed a single site with this species in Lincoln Co., Tennessee (Ahlstedt 1983). It has been extirpated throughout most of its former range in Tennessee, with the last remaining population in the Clinch and Powell Rivers (Hancock and Claiborne Cos.) and survival of these populations remains questionable (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). The only known extant Alabama population of this species is in the Paint Rock River system (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).
8773		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to changes in water quality and has declined due to impoundments, siltation, and pollution. The remnant population in the Powell River may be threatened by oil and gas drilling and coal mining (Neves 1991). The Clinch River population was reduced by toxic discharges and spills prior to 1972. The invasion of the Asian clam, and the possible invasion of the zebra mussel, also threaten remaining populations.  Reasons for decline listed in the recovery plan include: impoundment, siltation, and pollution (USFWS 1984).
8778		conservation	eng	This species was listed as federally endangered in 1976 in the U.S., and a recovery plan was created (USFWS 1984) and an experimental reintroduced population established (USFWS 2001, 2006). Williams <em>et al. </em>(2010) lists this species as Endangered according to the AFS assessment. The species has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperilled, as well as State/Province Status Ranks of S1 - Critically Imperilled for the states of Alabama, Tennessee and Virginia (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Pendleton Island in the Clinch River is a TNC preserve.  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been established in the Tennessee River below Wilson Dam, Colbert and Lauderdale Cos., Alabama, extending13.4 km and including the lower 8 km of all tributaries that enter the Wilson Dam tailwaters (USFWS 2001).  Nonessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been proposed for reintroduction into the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam (Knox and Sevier Cos., Tennessee) to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox Co., Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (Knox, Grainger, and Jefferson Cos., Tennessee), where this species currently does not exist (USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>Further research regarding this species' taxonomy, ecology, population status and threats impacting this species is recommended. Conservation measures are needed in order to ensure this species' long-term survival, including site and species protection (with particular emphasis on the enforcement of protection), and a&#160;continuation&#160;of current management and population augmentation methods.
8778		distribution	eng	Historically, this species occurred throughout the Tennessee River drainage as far south as Mussel Shoals, including sections of the Elk, Flint, Paint Rock, Clinch, Powell, North Fork Holston, and Tennessee Rivers (USFWS 1984). <br/><br/>Its current distribution is scattered over five rivers: the North Fork of the Holston in Virginia, the Clinch (from the Virginia-Tennessee border upstream to Nash Ford), the Powell (from the Virginia-Tennessee border upstream to Lee County, Tennessee), the Elk River in Tennessee (although it has not been seen here since 1980) and the Paint Rock River in Alabama, where it is uncommon  (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004, USFWS 1984).<br/><br/>Its current distribution is scattered over five rivers (assessed as five locations) and the limited range of this species is becoming even more restricted (two of the rivers may no longer be viable) due to changes in water quality. The extent of occurrence is estimated as no more than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Declines have been significant (80% of range) and existing populations are isolated from one another.
8778		habitat	eng	This species is found in shoals and riffles of small to medium sized rivers in clear streams with moderate to fast current (Bogan and Parmalee 1983). It is typically well burrowed in sand and cobble substrates. It does not appear tolerant of deeper water or reservoirs (USFWS 1984).<br/><br/>This species is a short-term brooder. Ortmann (1921) reported gravid females from mid-May to mid-July. However, he stated that “none happened to have glochidia.” Presumably they were gravid with eggs or developing embryos. Females gravid with mature glochidia have been reported in July and August (Jones and Neves 2007) and glochidia have been reported in stream drift in the North Fork Holston River, southwestern Virginia, during the same period (Kitchel 1985) (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinella galactura</span> (Whitetail Shiner, Cyprinidae) was found to serve as a glochidial host of the species in laboratory trials (Neves 1991). Fishes found to be marginal hosts in laboratory trials include <span style="font-style: italic;">Luxilus chrysocephalus</span> (Striped Shiner) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Luxilus coccogenis</span> (Warpaint Shiner, Cyprinidae); and <span style="font-style: italic;">Etheostoma rufilineatum</span> (Redline Darter, Percidae; Jones and Neves 2001). Fishes in the North Fork Holston River for which observations of natural infestation with this species' glochidia have been reported include <span style="font-style: italic;">Luxilus cornutus</span> (Common Shiner) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis telescopus</span> (Telescope Shiner, Cyprinidae; Kitchel 1985, Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008).
8778		population	eng	A 1980 survey for Virginia Game and Inland Fisheries put the number of sites in Virginia at 30 (Neves 1991), about half of which are considered historical or extirpated (the species is likely to be still extant in Virginia in Powell, Upper Clinch, North and South Fork Holston); populations of the mussel are disjunct throughout its range. No comprehensive surveys have been conducted throughout its range, however, it remains as a relict population in many stretches of the Clinch, including Copper Creek (Fraley and Ahlstedt 2000, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Powell Rivers in Tennessee and Virginia, and in the Paint Rock River in northern Alabama, particularly the unimpounded sections (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  Jones and Neves (2007) summarize the distribution in the upper North Fork Holston River (Smyth and Bland Cos., Virginia) as river km 136.2 to 154.3. Since 1970, the species has been taken from several tributaries of the Tennessee River including the North Fork Holston River, Clinch River, Powell River, Elk River, and Paint Rock River (USFWS 1984, 2006).  A 210 km survey of the Elk River from the Alabama border through Tennessee in 1980 found this species at a few sites in Lincoln/Moore Cos., Tennessee (Ahlstedt 1983).  In Tennessee, it once occurred in the Clinch River, from Hancock Co. downstream to Roane Co., and in the Powell River, from Hancock Co. downstream to Campbell Co.. However, it is now restricted to unimpounded stretches of these rivers in Claiborne and Hancock Cos. (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In Alabama, it was once distributed across the northern part of the state, but now is only extant in the Paint Rock River (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>The species is now believed to be extirpated in the Tennessee, Holston, and Elk  Rivers in Tennessee (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  It is also believed  to be extirpated in the Flint River (USFWS 1984) and Tennessee River proper  in Alabama (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The species was once common  throughout much of the Tennessee River, but was never recorded from the  Duck or Cumberland Rivers (USFWS 1984).  This species has lost at least 80% of its known range over the last 25 to 50 years (A. Bogan pers. comm.&#160;2010).<br/><br/>A few sites in Virginia have the best viability, as does the population in the Clinch River on the Tennessee side (considered the most viable extant population). Sites with recent recruitment exists in the North Fork Holston River above Saltville, Virginia; Clinch River in Tennessee to Russell Co., Virginia; Powell River from Norris Reservoir upstrream to Lee Co., Virginia/ Elk River in Lincoln Co., Tennessee; Paint Rock River in Jackson Co., Alabama; and Copper Creek in Scott Co., Virginia (USFWS 1984).<br/><p>Jones and Neves (2007) recorded a die-off in the North Fork Holston River in Virginia beginning in 1999. Hanlon <em>et al</em>. (2009) showed similar declines in Copper Creek, Virginia,&#160;Eckert&#160;<em>et al</em>. (2010) on Cleveland Island on the Clinch River, and Eckert &amp; Pinder (2008) in Clinchport on the Clinch River.</p>
8778		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to changing water quality and physical disruption. It is therefore threatened by habitat alteration and pollution from strip mine runoff and coal washing. Intensive industrial and agricultural development of the Tennessee Valley since the early 1900s has had a significant impact upon the mussel fauna inhabiting the Tennessee River basin.  Dam construction in the upper Tennessee River system may have been the most significant factor.  Dams were constructed for hydroelectric power, flood control, and navigation, as well as recreation.  Siltation has also impacted the species (from strip mining, coal mining, road construction, forestry and agricultural operations).  Pollution is also a factor, from heavy metals, industrial effluent, chemical spills, agricultural waste, fertilizers, pesticides, and human waste (USFWS 1984).  Populations in the North Fork of Holston and Clinch rivers were reduced by toxic discharges and spills prior to 1972. Some sizable populations in the Elk River were destroyed by impoundment of Tims Ford Reservoir. The invasion of the Asian clam, and the possible invasion of the zebra mussel, also threaten remaining populations.
8782		conservation	eng	No widespread conservation actions have been undertaken.&#160;Monitoring of population trends would ensure that any significant changes in the status of this species will be responded to adequately.
8782		distribution	eng	In Missouri, the species is restricted to the southern Ozarks including the James, North Fork White, Eleven Point, and Current Rivers, all of which flow south.  In addition, it has been found in an archaeology site in Camden Co. in a north-flowing river, the Sac (Oesch 1995) as well as the Spring River in southwestern Missouri (Branson 1982).  In Arkansas, it is fairly widespread across the White and Arkansas River basins in the northern part of the state in the Ozark Highlands.  It is extirpated in Iowa where it formerly occurred in the Sac County region of the Sac River basin.  Occurrence in Oklahoma is speculative although it is very close in Missouri.
8782		habitat	eng	Optimally this species occurs in medium to large headwater streams, preferably in riffle or run areas but sometimes in glide or pools.
8782		population	eng	In Missouri, this species is restricted to the southern Ozarks and has been found in the James, the North Fork White, the Eleven Point and the Current Rivers (Oesch 1995).  It is widespread in the Arkansas Ozark Highlands in the White and Arkansas River basins (including Buffalo River).  Occurrence in Oklahoma is speculative although it is very close in Missouri.<br/><br/>Historically, some extirpations have occurred at the edges of the range of this species in Missouri (Oesch 1995) and it is now extirpated from Iowa where it formerly occurred in Sac Co.
8782		threats	eng	Typical threats in the Ozark region include habitat destruction (channel alteration, channel maintenance), hydrological alterations (dams), and nutrient loading (confined animal operations, grazing).
8783		conservation	eng	This species was considered a species of special concern throughout its range by Williams <em>et al.</em> (1993) and in Alabama by Lydeard <em>et al</em>. (1999). Garner <em>et al. </em>(2004) designated it as&#160;a species of low conservation concern in the state (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008). Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.
8783		distribution	eng	<em>Quadrula succissa</em> is endemic to the eastern Gulf Coast drainages from the Choctawhatchee River drainage west to the Escambia River drainage in Alabama and Florida (Clench and Turner 1956). The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
8783		habitat	eng	This species occurs in medium creeks to large rivers.&#160;It is usually found in areas with slow to moderate current, in sand or sandy mud substrates&#160;and&#160;&#160;is sometimes common along channel slopes in shallow water.&#160;It&#160;is presumably a short-term brooder, gravid in spring and summer. It has been observed brooding embryos in June in the Escambia River. Glochidial hosts of this species are unknown (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
8783		population	eng	Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> (2005) listed 44 historical sites in the Choctawhatchee River drainage of Alabama and  Florida (extant in 17) and located 46 new sites in the drainage (stable within the drainage).
8783		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat degradation as a result of pollution from domestic, urban and agricultural sources, and droughts (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
8785		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is recorded from Cross River National Park (Nigeria), as well as from Afe Mountain, Korup and Banyang-Nbo National Parks (Cameroon), and the major protected areas on Bioko.
8785		distribution	eng	This species is present on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and on the mainland of Africa between the Niger River in south-eastern Nigeria and the lower Sanaga River, Cameroon.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the subspecies <em>S. a. alleni</em> is endemic to Bioko, while <em>S. a. cameronensis</em> is present in Nigeria and Cameroon including Oban, Mamfe, Obrura and Mkpani.
8785		habitat	eng	Found in lowland and montane primary and secondary forest; also recorded in farmbush. A nocturnal species that forages on the ground and low and mid-canopy.
8785		population	eng	Locally common in appropriate habitat. Highest density in montane forest, and lower densities in primary lowland forest (Ambrose 2003).
8785		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss.
8786		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from the Meru and Shaba National Parks and Arawale National Reserve, Kenya (Butynski and De Jong 2004). Further studies into the geographic distribution, taxonomy and ecology of this species are needed.
8786		distribution	eng	This species is present in Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia (may extend into north-eastern Uganda and possibly south-eastern Sudan, but no confirmed records as yet). It is distributed between the Webi Shebeli River valley in the north-east and the Tana River valley in the south-west, towards Lake Turkana (at least as west as South Horr) and the Ethiopian Rift Valley in the north-west. The species distribution limits in the Ogaden area are not certain. It has a known altitudinal range of 150 to 1,200 m asl (see Butynski and De Jong 2004). Narrowly sympatric with <em>Galago senegalensis</em> in Meru National Park, Kenya (Butynski and De Jong 2004).
8786		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species living in drier, thornier habitat than any other galago, or indeed any other African primate. It may be found in all strata within Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland and thicket. It is absent from open woodland and bushland. It can be found in Acacia dominant bushland and thicket in severely degraded habitat. This species is either solitary or found in small groups. There is no information available on reproduction in this species, but it is likely that a single infant is born.
8786		population	eng	It is patchily distributed, but locally common, throughout its range. Over much of the range, the density is probably less than one animal per hectare, but densities are much higher at some sites (e.g., >4 animals per ha in Meru N.P.; Butynski and De Jong 2004).
8786		threats	eng	A number of subpopulations in Somalia may be threatened by habitat loss or degradation. However, this species has been recorded in severely degraded habitat (through overgrazing; Butynski and De Jong 2004).
8787		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Budongo Forest Reserve and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), and Kahuzi-Biega National Park (DR Congo). Additional surveys on population numbers and range are required, and taxonomic work to elucidate the status of the Itombwe populations.
8787		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Albertine Rift region, and in the Itombwe Massif in Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south. There is a narrow eastward range extension to just west of the Nile, where they occur in forest patches such as Mabira and Mpanga. There is also a record from Moroto in north-east Uganda (Nash <em>et al.</em> 1999). There is a possibility that this species has been sighted in the Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda (Ambrose 2002), but this recourd could well have been <em>Galagoides thomasi</em> (that do occur there).
8787		habitat	eng	It is found in all strata within both primary and secondary tropical lowland and submontane forest; especially where Parinari excelsa is the dominant tree. It usually occurs in the lower levels of the forest. This species is presumed to give birth to between one and four young annually.
8787		population	eng	Fairly common in some sites, such as Kibale, Bwindi Impenetrable and Mpanga Forest Reserve.
8787		threats	eng	There are no major range-wide threats, but it may be threatened in parts of its range by localised deforestation, mainly due to agriculture (e.g., maize, potatoes, pyrethrum, bananas) and pasture (for grazing cattle).
8788		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
8788		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution, ranging from northern Namibia and Angola, eastwards through south-eastern Democatic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe and northern Botswana to western Tanzania, Malawi, eastern Mozambique and the northern and north-eastern parts of South Africa. The northern limits of the distribution range of this species are not well defined; although the range as shown here includes Rwanda and Burundi, where their presence requires confirmation.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>G. m. moholi</em> ranges from the eastern part of the species distribution to south-eastern Botswana, and is found throughout Zambia and intergrades with <em>G. m. bradfieldi</em> in the Western Province of Zambia; <em>G. m. bradfieldi</em> has been recorded from the Waterberg, Namibia, northwards into southern Angola, and eastwards to northern and northeastern Botswana and the Makgadikgadi Pan, and the Western Province of Zambia (Meester <em>et al.</em> 1986).
8788		habitat	eng	This species is found in all strata in savanna woodland (being particularly associated with <em>Acacia</em> spp, which provide a source of gum). They also occur in miombo and Mopane woodland, riverine gallery forest and at the edges of wooded areas. Acacia and mopane trees provide holes and the latter often have hollowed out trunks which are used as resting and breeding sites. They are independent of water, obtaining their moisture requirements from food. They rest in groups of 2-7, but disperse to forage alone. This species gives birth to twins twice per year.
8788		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species. Found in highest densities in association with <em>Acacia karroo</em>.
8788		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The range of the species is expanding in some parts, particularly in the south (e.g., it has been recorded from areas in Gauteng where it was not previously known). Arable farming is giving way to game ranching and regeneration of natural vegetation.
8789		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range including Tsavo West National Park, Tsavo East National Park, Mt. Kenya National Park, Meru National Park, Kora National Park, Samburu National Reserve, Shaba National Reserve, Buffalo Springs National Reserve in Kenya. In Tanzania, it is known from Grumeti Game Reserve, Serengeti National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, Tarangire National Park, and Mikumi National Park (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
8789		distribution	eng	Possibly the most widespread galago species, ranging from Senegal in the west, through the savanna and open woodland of Africa, to Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia in the east and Kenya and Tanzania in the south. The southern limit of distribution is probably the Rufiji River. The area of sympatry with <em>G. moholi</em> in central and southern Tanzania and with <em>G. gallarum</em> in central Kenya has yet to be defined and requires investigation.<br/><br/>There are four subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>G. s. senegalensis</em> ranges from Senegal in the west through to Sudan and western Uganda. <br/><br/><em>G. s. braccatus</em> is known from a number of districts in Kenya, and from north-east and north-central Tanzania (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>G. s. dunni</em> is found in Somalia and the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. <br/><br/><em>G. s. sotikae</em> is confined to the southern shores of Lake Victoria (Tanzania) where it is found from western Serengeti, to Mwanza (Tanzania) to Ankole (southern Uganda).<br/><br/>In general, the limits of distribution between the four subspecies are not well known, and not indicated on the map.
8789		habitat	eng	This species is found in all strata of savanna woodland (e.g. Miombo), in dense to open bushland areas, in montane forest (e.g. Mau Forest, Kenya, and Harenna Forest, Ethiopia), and in secondary and/or highly fragmented forest and woodland, including cultivated areas (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). It avoids areas of grassland. Found in forests where no other galagos are present. <em>G. senegalensis</em> is sympatric with <em>Galago gallarum</em> (Butynski and De Jong 2004), <em>Galago moholi</em>, <em>Galagoides cocos</em>, <em>Otolemur garnettii</em>, <em>O. crassicaudatus</em> and likely with <em>Perodicticus potto</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species builds nests in dense thorn trees or nest in tree holes (Bearder <em>et al.</em> 2003; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Group size is 1-5, though they forage separately at night. Presumed to give birth to between one and two young annually (Nash 1983).
8789		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species. In Kenya, <em>G. s. braccatus</em> was encountered at rates of: 0.1 individuals/km (1.0 individuals/h) by vehicle in the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Laikipia Plateau (1,800-1,900 m asl), 1.1 ind/h by foot in Makindu (960 m asl), 1.2 ind/km (1.4 ind/h) by foot in Kajiado, southern Kenya (1,500 m asl), and 1.1 ind/km (3.4 ind/h) by vehicle in Kora National Park (500 m asl). On the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya, <em>G. s. braccatus</em> densities can locally be as high as 300 to 500 individuals/km² (Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Tanzania, the encounter rates with <em>G. s. braccatus</em> were 0.1 ind/km (2.4 ind/h) by vehicle in Tanga (10 m asl), 0.9 ind/h by foot in Meia meia (1,330 m asl), 4.1 individuals/km (3.5 individuals/h) by foot near Mikumi National Park (470 m asl), and 4.0 individuals/h by foot at Mto wa Mbu, Lake Manyara National Park (970 m asl; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>G. s. sotikae</em> was encountered at the rate of 2.5 individuals/km (7.1 individuals/h; 1,480 m) in Grumeti Game Reserve, western Serengeti, Tanzania (Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.).
8789		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
8790		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Occurs in a nmber of protected areas. There is a need for better information on the range of this species.
8790		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zanzibar Island, Tanzania (the nominate subspecies), with the form <em>udzungwensis</em> recorded from the lowland Udzungwa Mountains, the Uluguru Mountains and the Usambara Mountains, all in Tanzania. Recorded from sea level to 1100 m asl (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has also recently been recorded from Mafia Island (A. Perkin pers. comm. 2008).
8790		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the mid to high canopy of tropical coastal forest, submontane and lowland tropical forest. It may prefer secondary to primary forest. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.<br/><br/>Sympatric with <em>Otolemur garnettii</em> and <em>Galagoides orinus</em> and narrowly sympatric with <em>Galagoides cocos</em>. Parapatric with <em>G. granti</em>, meeting at the Rufiji river.
8790		population	eng	<em>G. zanzibaricus</em> is the most abundant and widespread galago in the coastal forests of Tanzania. The density varies greatly from site to site. In the Udzungwa Mountains (for example, Matundu Forest Reserve), <em>G. z. udzungwensis</em> is estimated to occur at densities of more than 500 individuals/km², whereas <100 individuals/km² occur at many other sites (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Although <em>G. z. zanzibaricus</em> is confined to Unguja Island, it is widespread over the eastern and southern parts of the island, and is common in at least some places (e.g., >200 individuals/km² in Jozani–Chwaka Bay National Park (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006).
8790		threats	eng	This species is threatened through the loss of indigenous forests by replacement with exotic conifers. It is presumably also threatened by a general loss of its forest habitat through conversion to agricultural land and timber extraction.
8808		conservation	eng	Between 1991 and 1992, to save the species, 31 fish were moved into Lake Oberon, a remote fish-free lake in south-west Tasmania. The Pedder Galaxias are thriving in this new habitat and in 2001 some were moved to a second artificial habitat.
8808		distribution	eng	The Pedder Galaxias previously occurred only in Lake Pedder and its tributaries and surrounding swamps in Tasmania. It is no longer found within its native range. Since 1996 its distribution has been limited to a remote highland lake in south-west Tasmania (Lake Oberon), where it was introduced (a benign introduction) in a successful attempt to rescue the species from extinction.
8808		habitat	eng	The Pedder Galaxias lives in the ea-coloured water of lakes and streams. The last known natural habitat occupied was slow-flowing meandering sections of tributaries to the Lake Pedder impoundment. Pools with roots and overhanging banks providing shelter were preferred. The Pedder Galaxias live for 5 to 6 years. They breed once a year in spring and females produce up to 1,200 large eggs that are about 2.5 mm in diameter. Eggs are laid under rocks, plants and wood. The Pedder Galaxias feed mainly on terrestrial and aquatic insects and crustaceans.
8808		threats	eng	They declined rapidly from the late 1970s due to destruction of habitat by the flooding of Lake Pedder for a hydro-electric scheme. At the same time, predatory brown trout were introduced for recreational fishing. Since the flooding, another aggressive competitor, the native climbing galaxias, which did not previously occur in Lake Pedder, has also become abundant. Pedder Galaxias were last seen in their remaining natural habitat in 1996. Their survival in their introduced places depends on keeping their habitats free of introduced fish species.
8810		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Goulburn River.
8816		conservation	eng	This species complex has always been assessed as a single species, and therefore no conservation actions specifically target this species. Some of the taxa within this complex will benefit from river health monitoring and the planned river rehabilitation programs on the Krom and Rondegat Rivers (Cederberg) and the Krom River (Eastern Cape).
8816		distribution	eng	Mountain, coastal and lowland streams of the Cape Floristic Region from tributaries of the Gamtoos and Krom River systems in the east to the Cederberg Mountains (Olifants River system) in the west (Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa).
8816		habitat	eng	Some of the taxa seems to prefer clear oligotrophic mountain streams with low dissolved minerals, whilst others prefer lowland stream that can be turbid with high levels of dissolved minerals.
8816		population	eng	No information is available on population trends and it is unclear how many populations of this species complex exists and which populations forms part of which taxon.
8816		threats	eng	Alien invasive species is probably the major threat for all the different taxa. In addition agricultural activities such as unsustainable water extraction and insecticides probably plays a critical role in their conservation status. Not enough is known about the different taxa to understand specific threats.
8823		conservation	eng	This rodent has been collected in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park. Additional research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
8823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil. It has been rarely recorded across its known range, which is estimated on known localities. The type locality possibly is Minas Gerais, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is found at least up to 1,700 m asl (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
8823		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecology is poorly known. It is found in Savannah scrub and may require specific habitats, such as Cerrado Rupestre. Further studies are required to determine whether the species occurs in other habitats. It is found in rocky outcrops at higher elevations and on plateaus. Available habitats are patchy (Weklser pers. comm.).
8823		population	eng	There is no information on population trends or abundance. The species has been collected rarely as there is a potential problem with the trapping techniques used in surveys undertaken so far (Weksler pers. comm.).
8823		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at this time. The species' specific habitat is not highly threatened (although fires may affect some areas); however, surrounding areas are heavily used (Lacher pers. comm.).
8824		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
8824		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Peru, throughout much of Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay and northeastern Chile. This rodent is found through an enormous altitudinal range: in the Andes it occurs up to 5,000 m asl, whereas in Paraguay it is found in the low Chaco. In Argentina it is found as low as 20 m asl.
8824		habitat	eng	It is primarily diurnal and terrestrial. It is found in a wide variety of drier habitats. In Salta Province, Argentina, it is most common in moist areas such as stream edges and croplands. In Peru this species may associate with <em>Ctenomys</em>, as <em>Galea</em> uses its burrows and appears to respond to the alarm calls of <em>Ctenomys</em> by seeking cover. The home range of a female was 4,275 square metres. Males mark females during courtship using chin gland secretions. In captivity the gestation period is 53 days, litters size is 2.7 (range 1 to 5), and neonates average 37 g. Lactation lasts about three weeks, and the age of first reproduction is one to three months. Females may have up to seven litters per year (Cabrera, 1953; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Kleiman, 1974; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Rood, 1972).
8824		population	eng	It is a common species that is patchily distributed.
8824		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
8825		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas in its range in areas of open habitat.
8825		distribution	eng	This species occurs eastern Bolivia to northeastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). The type locality is restricted to Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
8825		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open areas, in savanna and in the semi arid Caatinga region, in primary and disturbed habitats (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It does not have specific habitat requirements; it does not occur in forest (Lacher pers. comm.). In northeastern Brazil, Greater Grisons (<em>Galictis vittata</em>) are major predators of rock cavies.
8825		population	eng	This rodent is extremely abundant throughout its geographic range (Lacher pers. comm.).
8825		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to the species, but it is unlikely that there are any major threats.
8826		conservation	eng	It is strictly protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annexes II and IV). Part of the range falls within the Parc National des Pyrénées Occidentales and Parque Nacional de Covadona, and possibly the Parque Nacional de Aiguas y Lago de San Mauricio and the Parque Nacional de Ordesa. This species' conservation has been the topic of an international conference that has drawn up an action plan that includes priority actions. There is also an action plan for the species in Portugal. Actions proposed include appropriate management of water courses, habitat restoration, improvement of knowledge of the threatened populations, and use of the desman as a flagship species to promote river conservation (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Spain the species is considered Vulnerable because populations have disappeared from the formerly known range (L.J.P. Muñoz pers. comm. 2007).
8826		distribution	eng	The Pyrenean desman is restricted to the Pyrenees mountains (Andorra, France and Spain), as well as parts of northern and central Spain and northern Portugal. In France it occurs along the Aude, Agly, Salat, Aspe, Ossau, Ariège, Ardour, Tet and Tech rivers. In Portugal it occurs along the Minho, Ancora, Lima, Neiva, Cavado, Ave, Leca, Douro, Vouga, Mondego, and Tejo rivers (Queiroz <em>et al.</em> 1998) In Spain it is found in the upper reaches of rivers in the Pyrenees, the Cantabrian mountains, the Sistema Central, the Picos de Europa and along the Deva River. It also occurs in the Sierra de Guarra north of Huesca and Infiesta, Oviedo, and Burguete, Navarro (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). It is found at altitudes between sea level and 2,500 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Spain, the river systems that the species occurs in flow to three different seas: Mediterranean, Atlantic and Cantabrian; hence the populations are all separated from each other.
8826		habitat	eng	The desman's preferred habitat is fast flowing mountain streams, although it is occasionally found in slow moving water bodies such as canals, lakes and marshes. It favours perennial rivers where the margins offer some shelter, and it requires clean and well oxygenated water. <em>G. pyrenaicus</em> is specialised to an aquatic environment. It feeds nocturnally on a diverse array of crustaceans and insect larvae, including stoneflies and caddis fly larvae (Queiroz 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8826		population	eng	The population has declined in recent years, but it is hard to obtain precise estimates of population size and decline rate for this shy and secretive species (González-Esteban <em>et al.</em> 2003). The desman has been radio-tracked in Portugal following successful capture of animals using underwater traps (care is required to check these traps regularly to prevent drownings: M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). In favourable habitats population densities may be 5-10 individuals per kilometre, but other studies indicate much lower densities (Quaresma <em>et al.</em> 1998, Chora 2001, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Portugal it is estimated that there are less than 10,000 mature individuals divided into small and isolated subpopulations due to the existence of physical (e.g. dams) and ecological barriers (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Spain the species has undergone marked declines in the central system (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006), and the desman has disappeared from some sites where it was previously known (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In the Spanish Pyrenees and Cantabrian regions densities range from 2.8 to 7.3 animals per km of river (Palomo and Gisbert 2002); however, in the Sistema Central population densities are lower (P. García pers. comm. 2007). In France the population is also declining (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>As well as population declines, range contractions have been observed along the western, southern, and eastern edges of the desman's range in Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
8826		threats	eng	This species is confined to a very vulnerable habitat in a restricted area. The most potent threats are from water pollution, and habitat fragmentation caused by the construction of hydro-electric plants, water extraction, and dam and reservoir construction (Queiroz 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other threats are direct persecution from fishermen who incorrectly believe this species to be a threat to fish stocks, especially trout, or from over-eager collectors. Poison and explosives are used as fishing methods in Portugal, which would kill the desman (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). The escape of North American mink (<em>Neovison vison</em>) from fur farms in northern Iberia might be negatively impacting populations in Galicia. It is predated by otters in Galicia (forming up to 5% of their diet) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><br/>Climate change is anticipated to be a serious threat to the desman in the near future. The species tends to occur only in areas with annual rainfall superior to 1,000 mm and, given climate change scenarios for Spain, by 2060 the species may be virtually extinct from central Spain and also in most of its important areas from northern Iberia (P. García pers. comm. 2007).
8827		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Sajama in Bolivia, and from Zona Reservada Aymara Lupaca in Peru. Further studies are needed to determine whether the species is still present within the known range, and to better understand the major threats to the species.
8827		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano of southern Peru and adjacent Bolivia. It may be present in northern Chile, although there appear to be no records from this country. It generally occurs above 3,000 m.
8827		habitat	eng	It is a habitat specialist, largely restricted to open sandy areas with some grasses. It is not found in agricultural habitats. It both burrows into the soil and uses abandoned burrows, or shares burrows, with other rodent species.
8827		population	eng	It is generally believed to be a rare species. There are no records of this species during recent surveys. It was last collected in 1975.
8827		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known. It may be threatened in Bolivia by indirect mortality during ongoing eradication of <em>Ctenomys</em> species in pastoral land through flooding of burrows.
8833		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Marojejy, Masoala, Zahamena and Ranomafana National Parks. Further studies into the ecology of this little-known species are needed.
8833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widely distributed in the eastern humid forests from the lowlands to around 700 m asl (Goodman, 2003). There is only one record of this species over 700 m, at 1,500 m asl (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
8833		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, and largely terrestrial, species of lowland tropical humid forest. It appears to be limited to forests on lateritic soils, and is seldom encountered outside of the forest, although there are apparently records from degraded forest (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). There are few details available on reproduction in this species (Goodman 2003). Its morphology indicates that it is capable of predating species at or possibly above its body weight.
8833		population	eng	The population status of this species is not well known, although it generally appears to occur at low densities (Goodman 2003) and is detected very rarely (F. Hawkins pers. comm.). This is supported by trapping data in some eastern forest sites (L. Dollar, unpubl.). A survey in 1994 in Masoala, recorded only a single individual over the course of 2.5 months (Razafimahatratra pers. comm.).
8833		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land and logging. There are no data on hunting, but the species is probably killed by dogs accompanying hunters in the forest. A minor threat may be competition with the introduced <em>Viverricula indica</em> and feral cats and dogs may threaten this species.
8834		conservation	eng	The only protected area within range is Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species, as well as the extent of threats.
8834		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Lac Tsimanampetsotsa region of south-western Madagascar. It has been recorded from the edge of the Mahafaly Plateau north and further south to near the Linta River (Goodman 2003; Mahazotahy <em>et al.</em> 2006). The altitudinal range is 35-145 m (Mahazotahy <em>et al</em>. 2006). A recent model calculated the range at 442 km² (Mahazotahy <em>et al</em>. 2006).
8834		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, terrestrial species is found in dry spiny tropical forest and shrubland and at the edge of the forest in areas disturbed by cattle grazing. Animals spend daylight hours asleep in burrows or holes that are prevalent in the fissured limestone substrate characteristic of its habitat. While little is known about reproduction in this species, it appears to breed continously (Goodman 2003).
8834		population	eng	Described only in 1986, this species appears to be locally common in pristine forest (Goodman 2003). The population size of this species is estimated at between 2650 and 3540 individuals (including juveniles) (Mahazotahy <em>et al.</em> 2006).
8834		threats	eng	This species has a limited range, and its habitat is threatened by livestock grazing and clearance for maize cultivation. The western part of the area in which it is found is reasonably inhospitable to human encroachment (Goodman 2003). It is probably at risk of predation by non-native carnivores, especially dogs.
8881		conservation	eng	A recovery plan for this species has been developed, and captive-breeding and reintroduction programmes are in place. The species was successfully reintroduced to the Roque Chico de Salmor in 1999, and subsequent reintroductions have taken place at Julan and at la Dehesa. Continued control of feral cats should be resumed to allow population recovery. This species is protected by national and international legislation. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Both la Fuga de Gorreta and the Roque Chico de Salmor are protected areas.
8881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro in the Canary Islands (Spain). The species was once present throughout much of the island and on the small offshore Roque Chico de Salmor. It is currently restricted to the southern end of the Risco de Tibataje, in la Fuga de Gorreta, located between Guinea and the so-called Paso del Pino (an area of about four hectares), with reintroduced populations on the Roque Chico de Salmor, and at Julan and la Dehesa on El Hierro. The species ranges between 350 and 500m asl.
8881		habitat	eng	It is now confined to a small areas of cliff with sparse vegetation. The species is believed to have once occurred throughout much of El Hierro, being only absent from areas of laurel forest. It is a largely herbivorous species. It has two clutches of five to thirteen eggs.
8881		population	eng	The population of this species is about 300 to 400 animals in the wild (including re-introduced populations)..
8881		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is predation by feral cats, and possibly also by dogs and rats. A remnant population was extirpated from the Roque Chico de Salmor in the 1930s through the overcollection of animals for scientific institutions and commercial interests. Control of feral cats stopped in in 2002.
8892		distribution	eng	Restricted to impounded headwaters (Wilkinson Springs) of Upper Clear Creek (San Saba River system) on the Clear Creek Ranch, 16 km west of Menard, Menard County, central Texas.
8895		distribution	eng	Found in the Pecos River basin of Texas and New Mexico.
8902		conservation	eng	<em>G. desperatus</em> is currently listed Endangered in New Mexico and is a Federal species of concern.
8902		distribution	eng	Historically, Noel's amphipod was known from three subpopulations in New Mexico.
8902		habitat	eng	Gammarid amphipods are generally found in small streams, ponds and springs where the freshwater habitat is cool and well-oxygenated.  They are light sensitive and are most active at night. Diet includes algae and submergent vegetation and detritus with juveniles feeding mainly on microbial foods.
8902		population	eng	Two subpopulations became extinct during the twentieth century (one in the 1950s, the other in the 1980s). The remaining population exists in Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge where current management practices are maintaining population stability.
8902		threats	eng	Gammarid amphipods are particularly sensitive to changes to their environment caused by pollutant contamination.  Regional groundwater pumping and oil/gas industry operations are ongoing in the Pecos River Valley and such activities are known to deplete groundwater aquifers and to contaminate ground- and surface-waters.  Residential development within aquifer recharge-discharge areas along the western bounds of Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge also bring the threat of further contamination through domestic sewage.  Natural events such as prolonged drought may also threaten the extant population by reducing water levels and increasing salinity and contaminant concentrations.
8905		distribution	eng	Occurs in only four springs in Jeff Davis and Reeves Counties, Texas.
8916		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
8951		conservation	eng	No information.
8951		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>.
8951		distribution	eng	North Sea coasts of Scotland and Scandinavia, coasts of Iceland and White Sea, Atlantic coasts from Ireland northward, southeastern shore of Baltic Sea and its basin (Odra and Vistula drainages), shores of Black Sea and its northern basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). Almost absent inland in Finland, except north of 68°N. Hybrid zone with G. gymnurus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to northern Italy.
8951		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> encompasses the coastal waters of Eurasia, Iceland, eastern Asia and Northern America. In North America, this fish ranges from Alaska to Baja California on the west coast, from Baffin Island and the west side of Hudson Bay to Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, along east coast, and it occurs also in inland areas (including Lake Ontario) along both coasts.  Sometimes this species occurs in the open ocean. This species has been introduced and is established in certain areas of California, Massachusetts, and the Great Lakes (Lakes Huron, Michigan, Erie and Superior) (Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1999; Stephenson and Momot 2000). In Eurasia it is found along North Sea coasts of Scotland and Scandinavia; coasts of Iceland and White Sea; Atlantic coasts from Ireland northward; southeastern shore of Baltic Sea and its basin (Odra and Vistula drainages); shores of Black Sea and its northern basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). Almost absent inland in Finland, except north of 68°N. There is a hybrid zone with <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gymnurus</span> in the English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. It has been introduced to northern Italy.
8951		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea: shallow coastal areas. In freshwaters, prefers small streams, but may be found in a variety of habitats including lakes and large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, with numerous resident populations in brackish or pure freshwater, rarely in marine waters. Usually forages at sea until two years old, then moves to lower part of rivers in March-April to reproduce. Freshwater populations usually spawn for the first time at one year. In spawning season, males develop a bright orange to red belly and blue-green flank and eyes. They defend territories, in which in April-June they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas, very rarely attached to plants. They make a depression up to 14 × 10 cm to which they bring plant materials (especially filamentous algae), which are glued together with kidney secretions. Several females are individually led to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour is very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in 7-8 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days after which male abandons the nest. Anadromous individuals usually die of exhaustion after spawning cycle while freshwater individuals are able to complete several cycles within one year or sometimes over several years. Juveniles move to sea (anadromous populations) or to deeper, larger water bodies (freshwater populations) in July-August where they form large feeding schools. Feeds on small aquatic invertebrates, especially insects and crustaceans.
8951		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in quiet weedy pools and backwaters. It is also found in the marginal vegetation of streams, over sand and mud bottom substrates. Marine populations are pelagic, and usually found inshore along the coast, in estuaries and coastal lagoons. In some lakes, two morphologically and ecologically distinct forms may occur, differing in habitat (one littoral, the other mainly limnetic). Eggs are deposited in freshwater in a nest of plant material made by the male on the bottom in shallow water. The female will typically lay a few hundred eggs and may lay eggs in several nests over a period of several days (Morrow 1980).<br/><br/>Anadromous, with numerous resident populations in brackish or pure freshwater, rarely in marine waters. Usually forages at sea until two years old, then moves to lower part of rivers in March-April to reproduce. Freshwater populations usually spawn for the first time at one year. In spawning season, males develop a bright orange to red belly and blue-green flank and eyes. They defend territories, in which in April-June they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas, very rarely attached to plants. They make a depression up to 14 × 10 cm to which they bring plant materials (especially filamentous algae), which are glued together with kidney secretions. Several females are individually led to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour is very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in 7-8 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days after which male abandons the nest. Anadromous individuals usually die of exhaustion after spawning cycle while freshwater individuals are able to complete several cycles within one year or sometimes over several years. Juveniles move to sea (anadromous populations) or to deeper, larger water bodies (freshwater populations) in July-August where they form large feeding schools. Feeds on small aquatic invertebrates, especially insects and crustaceans.
8951		population	eng	Abundant.
8951		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
8951		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known. However, the species has been listed as threatened in some of its range states, for example it is listed as Endangered in Croatia.
8951		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known. However the species has been listed as threatened in some of its range states such as Endangered in Croatia   where the species does not occur naturally.
8955		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.
8955		habitat	eng	Occurs inshore over a variety of substrates, amongst emergent vegetation, over exposed sandy beaches and some distance offshore over a mud bottom.
8957		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
8957		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
8957		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore. It is morphologically and ecologically partly molluscivore.
8957		population	eng	No information available.
8957		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
8966		conservation	eng	Conservation programs for Indian Gharial have been undertaken in India and Nepal, based on the establishment of protected areas and restocking these with animals born in captivity. <br/> <br/>From one perspective it could be argued that over 5,000 juvenile Gharial were released into largely inhospitable habitats in Indian and Nepali rivers and left to their fate. In Chitawan National Park, Nepal, where about 300 gharials were released, there were 16 nests in 1977 and in 2006 there were six. So reintroduction didn't work so well there (though it is argued that at least total extinction has been averted by supplementation), thanks largely to growing and uncontrolled anthropogenic pressures, including depletion of the fish resources. Gharial are generally grown for two to three years and average about one meter TL when released. While the programme calls for monitoring, it has not been consistently carried out and little research on adaptation, migration and other key aspects have been conducted. <br/> <br/>In the Girwa River (Katerniaghat Sanctuary), where 909 Gharial were released (including 112 in 2006), there were four nests recorded in 1977 and 20 in 2006, so 16 nesting females (2% of the total pre-2006 releases) resulted from 30 years of reintroductions. This is seemingly not a great achievement for the money and effort spent, and as several knowledgeable researchers have suggested, perhaps carrying capacity has been reached there. <br/> <br/>In the third, and most important remaining Gharial breeding habitat, the Chambal River (the tri-state, National Chambal Sanctuary) where 3,552 Gharial were released (Whitaker and Andrews 2003) (plus 224 in 2006), there were 12 nests recorded in 1978 and 68 in 2006. While nesting has increased by over 500%, these recruited mature, reproducing females are only about 2% of the total number released. As has been pointed out many times, the linear, riverine habitat of the Gharial is an extreme disadvantage with annual monsoonal flooding when the newly hatched young are especially prone to being flushed downstream out of the protected areas. <br/> <br/>With recruitment or retention of reintroduced Gharial (plus natural recruitment) over the last 30 years being as low as 0.02% (Mahanadi River, Orissa) and averaging 3% to 10% elsewhere, the entire reintroduction strategy needs to reassessed. Scarce conservation funds and human resources need to be also focused on other rigorous actions such as habitat assessment, fisheries enhancement and conflict mitigation, educating river people concerning conservation efforts in order to improve the survival odds of the Gharial. It should be noted that the four places where Gharial are still breeding today all had residual populations when the restocking programmes began. Nowhere has restocking re-established a viable Gharial population. <br/> <br/>The Gharial is listed on CITES Appendix I and on CMS Appendix I.
8966		distribution	eng	The western-most historic occurrence of the Gharial was the Indus River in present day Pakistan and the eastern-most (albeit from only two records in the scientific literature) was the Irrawaddy River in present day Myanmar (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF). Today three widely separated breeding subpopulations are left in India (Chambal River, Girwa River and Son River) and one in Nepal (Rapti/Narayani River) (see Figure 2 in the attached PDF).
8966		habitat	eng	Indian Gharial nest in seasonally exposed sandbanks along slow moving sections of large to medium sized rivers. Gharials congregate for mating and nesting during the dry season in these highly seasonal rivers. When concentrated in these areas they are highly vulnerable to impacts from fishing and malicious killing. The nests are also vulnerable as they traditionally are laid in the same beaches year after year and in some habitats (Girwa River in India and Rapti/Narayani River in Nepal) the eggs are relished by tribal people.
8966		population	eng	See Justification (above).
8966		threats	eng	Alteration of habitat: throughout all of the present range of the Gharial their rivers have been dammed; diverted for irrigation and other purposes leading to seasonal drying of once perennial rivers (unlike many other crocodilians gharial cannot walk overland to find water nor can they tunnel to escape the summer drought; sand mined for construction on a huge scale; and looming ahead is a mega-project to interlink all of India's major rivers which will be a catastrophe for all river life. <br/> <br/>Fishing: intensity of fishing is increasing and use of gill nets is rapidly killing many of the scarce adults as well as many subadults. This danger is prevalent throughout most of the present gharial habitat, even the protected areas. <br/> <br/>Agriculture and grazing: riparian people are some of the poorest in India and depend almost entirely on local resources and their own agriculture to survive. During the dry months when the river is down, planting gourd crops and herding livestock for drinking and grazing on the sand banks and river edges has become prevalent all along the Chambal River in particular. These are the very sand banks used by gharial for nesting and basking and these anthropogenic activities take place in the breeding season. <br/> <br/>Utilization: Use of the ghara (narial excrescence in adult male Gharial), penis and fat for medicines has been traditional and is still reported from Nepal and occasionally in India. Considering the fact that there may be below 20 adult males left in the wild, continued use is a major threat. <br/> <br/>Gharial eggs are sought by tribal people to eat and in the Girwa River (the Katerniaghat Sanctuary) it was reported that almost all the nests had been raided by humans during the nesting seasons of 2001 to 2005. The reported high hatchling rates in 2006 are attributed to the enforcement efforts carried out this year by the Wildlife Warden and his staff.
8967		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan. Legally protected in all range states. <br/><br/>Important protected areas across the range include Saharan Atlas N.P., Belezma N.P. and Mergueb N.R. in Algeria, and Djebel Chambi N.P. in Tunisia. Mallon and Kingswood (2001) highlighted Djebel Chambi as of outstanding importance as it holds the largest population in Tunisia and is of key importance for the recolonization of the Dorsale range. However, no reintroductions are currently planned (K. De Smet pers. comm.). Mallon and Kingswood (2001) also called for stringent protection from hunting for all populations in Morocco and Algeria, and the establishment of a number of new protected areas that had been proposed in Morocco (including Western Sahara) and Algeria. A captive population, originating from animals in Western Sahara, is maintained in Almeria, Spain (Abáigar and Cano 2005). Offspring of these animals were reintroduced in Bou Kornine N.P. in Tunisia in 2002 (K. de Smet pers. comm.). In Toubkal National Park in Morocco, animals were reintroduced in a fenced enclosure in 1997 (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).
8967		distribution	eng	Endemic to mountains and hills of the Atlas and neighbouring ranges of north-west Africa. Over hunting and habitat degradation have greatly reduced the former range and led to fragmented populations.<br/><br/>In Morocco, populations are highly fragmented, but recent reports suggest relatively substantial and increasing populations in the western Anti-Atlas, and range extensions in eastern Morocco (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>In Algeria, the distribution is limited to the northern part of the country: it is no longer found either north of the Tell Atlas or to the south of the Saharan Atlas (De Smet and Smith 2001). The species has only recently disappeared from a few localities, mainly in the north. The populations of the western Tell Atlas, Batna-Biskra, and the Aurès mountains are no longer contiguous, and some groups of the Saharan Atlas and the Ugartha mountains were recently extirpated (K. de Smet pers. comm.). The most recent information indicates that some of these populations are growing. The most eastern populations are found in the Aurès, the Némentcha mountains, and the hills near the Tunisian border (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Tunisia, numbers and distribution declined steeply due to overhunting by the 1970s, but  the population then began to increase as a consequence of efficient conservation measures implemented in and around Chambi National Park (Kacem <em>et al</em>. 1994).
8967		habitat	eng	Inhabits open semi-arid Mediterranean forests, maquis, and steppes, from sea level to 2,600 m (Cuzin 2003). Movements of this species are highly variable: it may be sedentary, or attitudinally migrant, migratory, or nomadic (Cuzin 2003); locally, individuals from the same population may exhibit different movement patterns (F. Cuzin pers. comm.)
8967		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 1,750 – 2,950 (Morocco: 900 to 2,000; Algeria: 560; Tunisia: 300 to 400. The figure for Algeria was taken from De Smet (1991), for Tunisia from Kacem <em>et al</em>. (1994), and for Morocco from Cuzin <em>et al.</em> (in press).
8967		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are overhunting and habitat degradation, mainly due to the transformation of habitat into cropland and pastures for livestock, and for charcoal (Cuzin 2003; Beudels-Jamar <em>et al</em>. 2005). Predation by dogs, on young gazelles at least, is also a threat, and dogs foiled an attempt to introduce Cuvier’s Gazelle into Souss-Massa N.P. in Morocco (Loggers <em>et al</em>. 1992).
8968		conservation	eng	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Lafontaine <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The Réserve partielle de faune du Bahr-el-Ghazal (Chad), west of the present Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim N.R., and the Aïr-Ténéré N.P., harbour the remaining viable Dama Gazelle populations. Both reserves have suffered from military unrest resulting in the collapse of conservation infrastructure (Scholte in press; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Dama Gazelle are present in captivity, but the number of founders is limited (Sausman 1998; Thuesen 1998). Animals from Almeria breeding facility in Spain were introduced to an enclosure (R?mila Royal Reserve) in Morocco (130 present in 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press) and gazelles from München Zoo (originally bred at Almeria) were released into an enclosure in Souss-Massa N.P. (12 animals in 2006); these semi-captives are intended to form part of a reintroduction programme in Morocco. All of the animals from Almeria stock originate from Western Sahara. Elsewhere, Dama Gazelle were released into the 2,000-ha Bou-Hedma N.P. in Tunisia in the early 1990s (Abaigar <em>et al</em>. 1997) where around 17 were present in 2006 (T. Wacher pers. comm.); gazelles have also been reintroduced to Guembeul Faunal Reserve in Senegal (Cano <em>et al</em>. 1993) and a reintroduction programme in Ferlo North Reserve is underway (7 animals).
8968		conservation	eng	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Lafontaine <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>The Réserve partielle de faune du Bahr-el-Ghazal (Chad), west of the present Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim N.R., and the Aïr-Ténéré N.P., harbour the remaining viable Dama Gazelle populations. Both reserves have suffered from military unrest resulting in the collapse of conservation infrastructure (Scholte in press; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Dama Gazelle are present in captivity, but the number of founders is limited (Sausman 1998; Thuesen 1998). Animals from Almeria breeding facility in Spain were introduced to an enclosure (R?mila Royal Reserve) in Morocco (130 present in 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press) and gazelles from München Zoo (originally bred at Almeria) were released into an enclosure in Souss-Massa N.P. (12 animals in 2006); these semi-captives are intended to form part of a reintroduction programme in Morocco. All of the animals from Almeria stock originate from Western Sahara. Elsewhere, Dama Gazelle were released into the 2,000-ha Bou-Hedma N.P. in Tunisia in the early 1990s (Abaigar <em>et al</em>. 1997) where around 17 were present in 2006 (T. Wacher pers. comm.); gazelles have also been reintroduced to Guembeul Faunal Reserve in Senegal (Cano <em>et al</em>. 1993) and a reintroduction programme in Ferlo North Reserve is underway (7 animals).
8968		distribution	eng	Formerly widespread in the Sahara and Sahel zones, but their range and numbers have been extremely reduced. In North Africa, Dama Gazelle are now probably extinct, although they may survive in the Drâa (where observations were made by nomads in 1993) (Cuzin 1996; Aulagnier <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is also possible, though increasingly unlikely, that they may survive in very small numbers along the border between southern Morocco and Mauritania (Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). They may also survive in the Tassili de Tin Rehror in southern Algeria (K. De Smet pers. comm.). In Tunisia, they are believed to have occurred in the south and to have disappeared before the 20th century (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>South of the Sahara, Dama Gazelle are still present in eastern Mali, Air and Termit/Tin Toumma in Niger, and in the Chadian Manga and Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim Nature Reserve in Chad (Scholte in press, and references therein); however, aerial and ground surveys of Termit-Tin Toumma in 2007 failed to record any Dama Gazelles (Wacher <em>et al</em>. 2007). They are now thought to be extinct in Mauritania, and are probably extinct in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, and Libya (see Scholte in press for summary, and references therein). There are no recent confirmed records from the Sudan, although East (1999) mentioned it could still occur at low densities in Northern Darfur and Northern Kordofan.
8968		habitat	eng	Inhabits Sahelian grasslands, sparsely wooded savanna and sub-desert steppes with <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Panicum</em> vegetation; usually avoids really sandy areas, but will frequent low mountains and mountain plateaus, probably as refugia. In southern Morocco, it was found in areas without any <em>Acacia</em>, but with dense shrub cover (Cuzin 2003).
8968		population	eng	Numbers of Dama Gazelle have declined drastically since the 1950s and 1960s. The early 1970s population in the Ouadi Rime - Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve in Chad, one of the former strongholds of the species, was estimated at 10,000-12,000 individuals, but today the species is very rare in this reserve (J. Newby, in Scholte in press). Known remnant populations are all very small and extremely fragmented; the only known populations of any size are in Manga (Chad), eastern Air (Niger), and the Mali/Niger border area. In all areas surveyed, numbers have been very low and the size of observed gazelle groups very small (range=1-5 individuals) (Lamarque <em>et al.</em> 2007). Subpopulations probably number around 20 individuals in all cases, are separated by hundreds of kilometers, and the total current wild population is certainly less than 500 individuals (J. Newby pers. comm.).
8968		threats	eng	The main threats to this species include uncontrolled hunting (by nomads, military and by Arab hunting parties), and habitat loss and degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock (and the impact of expanded livestock rearing due to well construction in preferred habitats). Prolonged drought is also having an impact on pasture quality (Lafontaine <em>et al.</em> 2005; Scholte in press).
8969		conservation	eng	Listed on CMS Appendix I and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan. Legally protected or partially so in several range states. Dorcas Gazelle occur in many protected areas throughout their range, including: M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve (Morocco); Tassili and Ahaggar National Parks (Algeria); Bou-Hedma, Sidi Toui, Dghoumes, Oued Dekouk and Djebil National Parks (Tunisia); New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, Surman and El-Kouf National Park (Libya); Elba National Park and Saint Catherine Protectorate (Egypt); Banc d?Arguin National Park (Mauritania); Ouadi Rimé - Ouadi Achim Reserve (Chad); and Mille-Sardo Wildlife Reserve (Ethiopia) (Scholte and Hashim in press). In Libya, the New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, and Surman populations are enclosed, whereas the El-Kouf National Park is free-living (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). There are several other populations in protected areas in Morocco, but the populations listed above (M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve) are particularly valuable as they are known to be of local origin (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle do well in captivity, and are particularly common in several privately owned, captive collections in the Middle East (most originating from Egypt, the horn of Africa and Sudan) (Scholte and Hashim in press). Additionally, there is a well-managed captive population in Almeria (Spain), originating from Western Saharan stock.
8969		conservation	eng	Listed on CMS Appendix I and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan. Legally protected or partially so in several range states. Dorcas Gazelle occur in many protected areas throughout their range, including: M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve (Morocco); Tassili and Ahaggar National Parks (Algeria); Bou-Hedma, Sidi Toui, Dghoumes, Oued Dekouk and Djebil National Parks (Tunisia); New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, Surman and El-Kouf National Park (Libya); Elba National Park and Saint Catherine Protectorate (Egypt); Banc d?Arguin National Park (Mauritania); Ouadi Rimé - Ouadi Achim Reserve (Chad); and Mille-Sardo Wildlife Reserve (Ethiopia) (Scholte and Hashim in press). In Libya, the New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, and Surman populations are enclosed, whereas the El-Kouf National Park is free-living (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). There are several other populations in protected areas in Morocco, but the populations listed above (M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve) are particularly valuable as they are known to be of local origin (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle do well in captivity, and are particularly common in several privately owned, captive collections in the Middle East (most originating from Egypt, the horn of Africa and Sudan) (Scholte and Hashim in press). Additionally, there is a well-managed captive population in Almeria (Spain), originating from Western Saharan stock.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix III (Algeria, Tunisia).
8969		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred over the entire Sahelo-Saharan region, from the Mediterranean to the southern Sahel and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and extending into southern Israel, Syria and Jordan (marginal occurrence).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle became extinct in Senegal (where they probably only occurred as a vagrant or seasonal visitor; East 1999), and were subsequently reintroduced to protected areas although there is no recent information on their status; they are possibly extinct in Nigeria, and their current status in Burkina Faso is unclear (Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8969		habitat	eng	Inhabits a wide range of arid and semi-arid habitats, but avoids extensive areas of dunes and hyperarid areas (Cuzin 2003; Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8969		population	eng	East (1999) compiled figures that suggested a sub-Saharan population of 35,000 to 40,000 and a total population somewhere in the tens of thousands. Numbers were declining generally, except where hunting pressure was low (East 1999).<br/><br/>Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. (2005) report recent declines in almost all range states and say it has disappeared from many regions and is seriously reduced in numbers where it survives. The largest current populations are in Chad (especially in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve), Niger (Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve and the Termit Massif-TinToumma), and the horn countries (Scholte and Hashim in press, and references therein). In Morocco, the wild population is estimated at 800- 2,000 individuals (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press). The population in Israel was estimated at >2,000 and stable (Clark and Frankenberg 2001).
8969		threats	eng	The major threats include overhunting, and habitat degradation due to overgrazing by livestock and drought.
8970		conservation	eng	Mountain Gazelle are legally protected in Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Oman, but enforcement is not always effective. They occur in the following protected areas: <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia: Uruq Bani Ma?arid (5,500 km²); Al Khunfah (34,225 km²); and Ibex Reserve (2,370 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle). The Farasan Islands (600 km²) have been a nature reserve under the control of the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) since 1988, and aerial censuses are carried out by NCWCD on the Farasan Islands, at 2-3 yearly intervals.<br/><br/>Oman: Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (24,785 km²); Wadi Sareen Tahr Reserve (800 km²); Jebel Samhan NR (4,500 km²), As Saleel NP (220 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle).<br/><br/>Israel: En Gedi (14 km²); Ya?ar Yehudia (62 km²); Mezukai Herev (23 km²). The current habitat in the Arava Valley is protected, and supplementary feed is provided and natural vegetation irrigated. However, an evaluation of predator control in the area is recommended.
8970		conservation	eng	Mountain Gazelle are legally protected in Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Oman, but enforcement is not always effective. They occur in the following protected areas: <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia: Uruq Bani Ma’arid (5,500 km²); Al Khunfah (34,225 km²); and Ibex Reserve (2,370 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle). The Farasan Islands (600 km²) have been a nature reserve under the control of the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) since 1988, and aerial censuses are carried out by NCWCD on the Farasan Islands, at 2-3 yearly intervals.<br/><br/>Oman: Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (24,785 km²); Wadi Sareen Tahr Reserve (800 km²); Jebel Samhan NR (4,500 km²), As Saleel NP (220 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle).<br/><br/>Israel: En Gedi (14 km²); Ya’ar Yehudia (62 km²); Mezukai Herev (23 km²). The current habitat in the Arava Valley is protected, and supplementary feed is provided and natural vegetation irrigated. However, an evaluation of predator control in the area is recommended.
8970		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred across most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to southern Syria and extending westwards into Sinai. The last confirmed records for Egypt were in 1932 though there have been some recent unconfirmed reports (Saleh 2001). There have been no records in Syria since the 1970s (Kingswood <em>et al.</em> 2001), although they may survive on Jabal Hermon and perhaps in upper Galilee (Masseti 2004). In Lebanon, the species was believed to have become extinct after 1945, but three were seen in 1998 in the Barouk Mountains (Kingswood and Khairallah 2001). The last record from Jordan was in 1986 (Kiwan <em>et al.</em> 2001), although Masseti (2004) notes that they were reintroduced into Shaumari Wildlife Reserve.<br/><br/>Their current range includes: Israel (widely distributed); Saudi Arabia (occurs on the Farasan islands, in three protected areas, and as scattered populations in the west); Oman (widely distributed, with the largest population in the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates and Yemen, mainly from the west and south. There is also a small introduced population on Farur Island (Iran) in the Persian Gulf (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).
8970		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred across most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to southern Syria and extending westwards into Sinai. The last confirmed records for Egypt were in 1932 though there have been some recent unconfirmed reports (Saleh 2001). There have been no records in Syria since the 1970s (Kingswood <em>et al.</em> 2001), although they may survive on Jabal Hermon and perhaps in upper Galilee (Masseti 2004). In Lebanon, the species was believed to have become extinct after 1945, but three were seen in 1998 in the Barouk Mountains (Kingswood and Khairallah 2001). The last record from Jordan was in 1986 (Kiwan <em>et al.</em> 2001), although Masseti (2004) notes that they were reintroduced into Shaumari Wildlife Reserve. <br/><br/>Their current range includes: Israel (widely distributed); Saudi Arabia (occurs on the Farasan islands, in three protected areas, and as scattered populations in the west); Oman (widely distributed, with the largest population in the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates and Yemen, mainly from the west and south. There is also a small introduced population on Farur Island (Iran) in the Persian Gulf (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).
8970		habitat	eng	Inhabits a range of desert and semi-desert habitats. They often occur in steep terrain, but avoid rocky areas, and can withstand severe climatic conditions, living in the hot and dry Jordan Valley, the Negev Desert, and the Nafud and Dhofar Deserts (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1995). <br/><br/>In Israel, the gazelles of the Arava Valley (<em>Gazella gazella acaciae</em>) are found in arid habitats dominated by acacia (<em>Acacia raddiana</em> and <em>A. tortilis</em>); Palestine Mountain Gazelle (<em>G. g. gazella</em>) are found in hilly regions with good vegetative cover, especially in areas near irrigated cultivation.<br/><br/>The gazelles on Farasan Island inhabit areas of broken coral ravines and flat gravel. They apparently emerge to feed at night mainly on <em>Cyperus</em>., and obtain water mainly from dew (Flamand <em>et al</em>. 1988).
8970		population	eng	Total numbers are currently estimated at less than 15,000: Israel (approximately 3,000); Oman (approximately 13,000 were estimated in the late 1990s, with 10,000 on the Jiddat al Harasis, although this population has been declining since then; Saudi Arabia (1,500-1,700, but up to 1,000 of these are on the Farasan Islands, with over half of them on Farasan Kebir); Yemen (no estimates but generally described as rare). Numbers of gazelles in Israel and the West Bank (usually considered to be <em>G. g. gazella</em>) were estimated at 10,000 in the late 1990s (Clark and Frankenberg 2001). Since then they have declined sharply and there are currently estimated to be about 3,000 in total.
8970		threats	eng	The major threats are illegal hunting for meat and live capture for pets and private collections, particularly in Oman, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Habitat loss through agricultural development, fencing pasture for cattle, construction of roads and settlement is also a major threat.<br/><br/>In the Arava Valley, the major threat to the Acacia Gazelle is habitat deterioration: the water table is falling due to abstraction of underground water sources for agriculture causing acacia trees, bushes and perennial plants to disappear. Predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and jackals (<em>C. aureus</em>) has also increased. The small size of the remnant population means that inbreeding is a threat and leaves the taxon vulnerable to stochastic factors. <br/><br/>The Palestine Mountain Gazelle was formerly hunted under license in Israel and was regarded in places as an agricultural pest. Shooting was legally halted in 1993 due to declining numbers.<br/><br/>There are no natural predators on the Farasan Islands so overgrazing is a potential future problem if the population increases. Hunting (killed for meat) and live trapping (for sale as pets on the mainland) are the main threats but the effect of these has fallen since the islands were declared a reserve.
8971		conservation	eng	About 30% of the population occurs in protected areas. The largest surviving populations occur in Omo-Mago-Munrle-Chew Bahir and Borana (Ethiopia), the northern rangelands, Kajiado, Mara, Tsavo and Laikipia (Kenya) and, in particular, Serengeti and Tarangire (Tanzania); the bulk of the Serengeti Grant’s Gazelle population occurs well away from the western boundary of the protected area where most poaching activity occurs. Most of these protected populations are in gradual decline (East 1999). The status of the population in Boma N.P. (where numbers were estimated at about 3,000 in the southern section of the park in the 1970s and 1980s) in southern Sudan is not known.
8971		distribution	eng	Grant's Gazelle inhabits the Somali-Masai Arid Zone, from southern Sudan and Ethiopia to central Tanzania; and from the Kenya/Somali coast to Lake Victoria (East 1999; Siegismund <em>et al.</em> in press).
8971		habitat	eng	Inhabits subdesert, lowland thorn bush, savanna woodland, open plains, and montane grassland up to 2500 m.  Capitalizing on its water-independence, Grant's Gazelle makes a living in areas beyond reach of herbivores that need to drink. Some even migrate to short-grass plains in the dry season and the savanna woodland during rains - opposite to the main migration. But large herds also share wet-season range and mix with the more numerous Thomson's Gazelle (Estes 1991).
8971		population	eng	Recent population estimates are available for most of this species’ current range, mainly from aerial surveys. Summation of these estimates gives a total of about 140,000, but this is probably an underestimate of the species’ total numbers because of undercounting in aerial surveys and the lack of population estimates for some areas. Citing various East (1999) indicates that population densities estimated from aerial surveys range from <0.04/km² in areas such as Borana and South Karamoja to 0.5-0.6/km² in Sibiloi and Tarangire, 1.0/km² in Serengeti-Mara and 3.8/km² in Amboseli. Estimates obtained by ground counts in areas where the species is common range from 1.0 - 3.7/km² in Nairobi and Lake Nakuru National Parks and Ngorongoro Crater. Assuming an average correction factor of 2.5 for undercounting bias in aerial surveys (which may be conservative), and that areas for which population estimates are unavailable support an average density of 0.1/km², East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 350,000. Kenya continues to support the largest numbers, although estimated total numbers have decreased by >50% since the 1970s (East 1999). Population trend is downward, with some exceptions such as Sibiloi and Marsabit National Parks, some of Kenya’s northern rangeland districts, Laikipia, Masai Mara National Reserve, Amboseli, Serengeti, Tarangire and Mkomazi.
8971		threats	eng	Grant's Gazelle remains widespread within and outside protected areas, despite the loss of parts of its range to the expansion of agriculture and the decline of some populations because of poaching and competition with increasing numbers of livestock. It is nevertheless of concern that its numbers appear to be in decline over large parts of its range (e.g., Tsavo) and that populations which are known to be stable or increasing comprise only about 25% of the species’ total numbers (East 1999).
8972		conservation	eng	It is listed on CMS Appendix I and is included in the CMS Action Plan for Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. <br/><br/>Known to occur in Djebil National Park and Senghar National Park in Tunisia, Tassili des Ajjers National Park in Algeria (where reported from the Erg of T'im Merzouga; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007), and possibly the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve (Niger). The species is present in about 20 collections in North Africa, Europe and North America (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). The total number in captivity is <200.
8972		conservation	eng	It is listed on CMS Appendix I and is included in the CMS Action Plan for Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. <br/><br/>Known to occur in Djebil National Park and Senghar National Park in Tunisia, Tassili des Ajjers National Park in Algeria (where reported from the Erg of T'im Merzouga; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007), and possibly the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve (Niger). The species is present in about 20 collections in North Africa, Europe and North America (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). The total number in captivity is <200.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix I.
8972		distribution	eng	Occurs across the Sahara, west of the River Nile. Distribution coincides with the larger ergs, though rare or absent on the south-east periphery and apparently absent from the western dune complexes (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has disappeared from most of its former range in Egypt’s Western Desert (Saleh 2001, El Alqamy and Baha El Din 2006). A single report from Morocco (Loggers <em>et al</em>. 1992) is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>The center of its distribution is found in the Great Western Erg, the Great Eastern Erg, the sandy zone which stretches from the Hamada de Tinrhert in Algeria to the Fezzan in Libya, and the smaller ergs in the periphery of the central Saharan massifs of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers (Beudels and Devillers, in press).<br/><br/>It is believed that the slender-horned gazelle was very widely distributed in the Sahara until relatively recently. In the last 10 years, its presence has been confirmed only in the Great Ergs of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the extreme Western desert of Egypt. No reports to the south of these locations have been supported by any hard evidence (Beudels and Devillers, in press).
8972		distribution	eng	Occurs across the Sahara, west of the River Nile. Distribution coincides with the larger ergs, though rare or absent on the south-east periphery and apparently absent from the western dune complexes (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has disappeared from most of its former range in Egypt's Western Desert (Saleh 2001, El Alqamy and Baha El Din 2006). A single report from Morocco (Loggers <em>et al</em>. 1992) is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>The center of its distribution is found in the Great Western Erg, the sandy zone which stretches from the Hamada de Tinrhert in Algeria to the Fezzan in Libya, and the smaller ergs in the periphery of the central Saharan massifs of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers (Beudels and Devillers, in press).<br/><br/>It is believed that the slender-horned gazelle was very widely distributed in the Sahara until relatively recently. In the last 10 years, its presence has been confirmed only in the Great Ergs of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the extreme Western desert of Egypt. No reports to the south of these locations have been supported by any hard evidence (Beudels and Devillers, in press).
8972		habitat	eng	Favours areas of dunes (ergs) and interdunal depressions. Ranges widely in search of ephemeral vegetation.
8972		population	eng	Numbers are believed to have undergone a serious decline due to uncontrolled hunting (Mallon and Kingswood 2001, Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). East (1999) estimated that the sub-Saharan Africa population could be as low as a few hundred and was unlikely to exceed a few thousand. Numbers are still declining in some areas mainly due to unregulated hunting. The size of the current population in Egypt and Libya is unknown, but is described as small (El Alqamy and Baha El Din 2006). All populations are reportedly small or very small. There is no recent survey information for several areas of the known range, and other areas of potential habitat such as the sand seas of Libya and western Algeria that have been poorly surveyed.
8972		threats	eng	The main threat is hunting/poaching, though disturbance and degradation of natural habitats (especially erg vegetation) through desertification also has a negative impact (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005).
8973		conservation	eng	Approximately 15% of the total population of this species occurs in protected areas (East 1999), in particular W N.P. (Niger, Burkina Faso, Benin), Waza N.P. (Cameroon) and Zakouma N.P. (Chad) (East 1999; Scholte and Hashim in press). Heuglin's Gazelle is protected in Dinder N.P. in Sudan, but East (1999) noted that it does not receive effective protection here, as the sites that it prefers are utilized intensively by camel herders who trespass into the park in the dry season and destroy the gazelle’s favourite shade trees to feed their camels and goats.<br/><br/>The extension of effective protection and management to additional populations besides those in areas such as Zakouma, Waza and Dinder National Parks is necessary. Development and implementation of land use plans which allow for the needs of wildlife outside protected areas in countries such as Chad and Sudan would also be of major benefit to many of the remaining populations of this species (East 1999).<br/><br/>A limited number of Red-fronted Gazelles are maintained in captivity, but without formal breeding programmes.
8973		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred throughout dry grasslands and sahelian bushlands from Mauritania and northern Senegal to the western side of the Nile River in Sudan, with Heuglin's Gazelle (<em>E. r. tilonura</em>) ten ranging east of the Nile between the southern part of the Red Sea hills in Sudan and the southern foothills of the Ethiopian massif in western Eritrea and north-western Ethiopia (East 1999; Scholte and Hashim in press; Hashim in press). It is likely to be extinct in Ghana.
8973		habitat	eng	Formerly widespread in the Sahel zone in the sahelian grasslands, savannas and savanna woodlands, and shrubland. They range up to 1,400 m in the savannas of north-western Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is able to adapt to human occupation of its habitat to some extent, e.g., it is known to re-occupy fallow land if sufficient cover is available. It occurs locally in small to moderate numbers in areas of largely unexploited rangeland. They are known to make seasonal movements, although these are increasingly restricted by human settlement.
8973		population	eng	The available information on this species’ numbers is based mainly on informed guesses. East (1999) produced an estimated total population of about 25,000, which includes an estimated 3,500-4,000 Heuglin’s Gazelles. At the time of East's (1999) estimate, large numbers were known to survive in Niger (ca, 4,000) and Mali (ca. 3,000). Population trends are generally downwards.
8973		threats	eng	Red-fronted Gazelle populations have been reduced to scattered remnants over most of its range by illegal hunting, competition with domestic livestock, and habitat degradation resulting from drought, overgrazing of livestock and clearance of land for agriculture.
8974		conservation	eng	Extinct.
8974		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three male specimens bought in markets in Algeria towards the end of the 19th century. There are no records from the wild. The place of origin of these specimens is unknown and it is likely they had been traded across the Sahara. This kind of trade still occurs in 2007 (K. de Smet pers. comm., F. Cuzin pers. comm.). One original specimen has been recently examined and identified as <em>G. rufifrons</em> (K. de Smet pers. comm. to ASG, May 2008).
8974		habitat	eng	According to Lavauden (1930), this species inhabited forests and bushes in the region of Saida. However, this is purely speculative and based on the vegetation in the area around Oran.
8974		population	eng	Extinct.
8974		threats	eng	Extinct.
8975		conservation	eng	There are no functioning protected areas or active field conservation programmes within its range. Its conservation status is therefore likely to decline further unless effective protection and management or representative populations and their habitat can be developed and implemented. Populations of Speke's Gazelle are maintained in captivity.
8975		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Horn of Africa. Inhabits the 20 to 40 km wide grassland plain that extends along the Indian Ocean coastline of Somalia (hunting pressure has eliminated Speke?s Gazelle from coastal grasslands south of 2°30'N latitude). Northern limit delimited by steep hills of the Gulis Range. Scattered groups of Speke's Gazelle were still rarely encountered in the northern Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia in the mid-1980s, but extreme hunting pressure was on the verge of eliminating the species from the Ogaden at that time. Attempts to evaluate the possible occurrence in the north-eastern Ogaden (Ethiopia) are planned, but the current security situation makes efforts to get there difficult. Interviews with local people have revealed that it is infrequent or absent from this region.<br/><br/>Speke?s Gazelle were formerly widespread in the open barren grasslands of north-central and north-eastern Somalia and the central coastal region. It occurred widely within its historical range in the 1980s, although its numbers had been reduced greatly by hunting, drought and overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock. It was common on the central coastal plain in the mid-1980s (Thurow, in press).
8975		habitat	eng	Most common on semi-arid grasslands, but also found in dwarf shrub (e.g. Indogofera intricata) and barren rangelands, at altitudes below 2,500 m. The presence of a biting tabanid fly (<em>Haematopota</em> sp.) during the mid-growing season prompts movements to the coast or large inland sand dunes where the breeze disperses the flies. They also move to these areas in the late dormant season because the sparse vegetation stays green longer on these sites, possibly because the roots access soil moisture stored deeper in the dunes (Thurow, in press).
8975		population	eng	East (1999) estimated that the population may number in the tens of thousands. It was traditionally not hunted by many local people who regarded it as ?the devil?s livestock? but had been eliminated along roads by soldiers in areas of conflict (Thurow in press). However, numbers have been falling steadily for over 20 years due to uncontrolled hunting. The former strongholds in the Coastal and Nogaal plains of Somalia have been under severe pressure during the past two decades of civil war and there is no evidence that it still occurs in Ethiopia. A recent survey to the southern Nogaal region in Somaliland revealed that the species still exists in this area, but sightings are rather scarce.
8975		threats	eng	Extreme political instability and periodic civil and military conflicts over the past 20 years (and continuing) in Somalia, combined with a lack of any central government control, has resulted in a prevalence of weapons, over-exploitation of wildlife, and lack of protection for wildlife. There are no functioning protected areas within its range. An illegal wildlife trade, including in antelopes, has developed in Somalia during the last few years (Amir 2006).  <br/><br/>Drought and overgrazing due to increasing numbers of domestic livestock have negatively affected habitat.
8976		conservation	eng	Legally protected in most range states, although enforcement is not universally effective. The species occurs in many protected areas across its range. The species has been reintroduced to various parts of its former range (e.g., Al Talila, 30 km south of Palmyra in Syria; Masseti 2004), and reintroduction of the nominate form is under consideration in Georgia.<br/><br/>The Arabian Sand Gazelle occurs in several protected areas, including: Al-Khunfah, Harrat al-Harrah, Mahazat as-Sayd, Uruq Bani Ma?arid (Saudi Arabia); Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (Oman); and South Bahrain Island (Bahrain); although not formally designated as a PA, access to Hawar Island is restricted.
8976		distribution	eng	Occurs from the south of the Arabian Peninsula across the Middle East and Asia to Mongolia, China and Pakistan. Their historical range has contracted greatly, and they are now extinct in Kuwait, Georgia, and perhaps Kyrgyzstan (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). <br/><br/>The historical range of Arabian Sand Gazelle (the only subspecies assessed here) covered the Arabian Peninsula north to southern Iraq and Kuwait. The taxon is currently found in Bahrain (Hawar Island and southern part of Bahrain Island); Oman (Dhofar, edge of Rub al Khali to Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates (Umm al Zummur area); Saudi Arabia (four populations, all in protected areas); Jordan (north-east); Syria, Iraq and Yemen. It is now extinct in Kuwait (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).
8976		habitat	eng	Inhabits a wide range of semi-desert and desert habitats. Ascends into foothills and penetrates mountain valleys in Central Asia, to altitudes of 2,700 m in Mongolia (Bannikov 1954). They migrate seasonally in search of pasture and water. Arabian Sand Gazelle prefers areas of dunes and sandy desert in the Arabian Peninsula.
8976		population	eng	Numbers were estimated at 120,000-140,000 in Mallon and Kingswood (2001), but populations throughout the range have decreased since then and are subject to continuing illegal hunting and habitat loss. The former population in Turkmenistan has virtually disappeared. A large former population (c. 15,000) in Kazakhstan has also drastically declined in recent years. Small numbers occur in south-east Turkey (Ceylan Pinar, ca. 200 individuals in an enclosure; M. Masseti pers. comm. 2007), and c. 4,000 in Azerbaijan. In Iran, numbers were estimated at a little over 4,000 in 2001, virtually all in protected areas. In some of these poaching is still a factor and numbers are still declining. Drastically reduced in Pakistan, and may be on the verge of extinction there. Mongolia is thought to contain the largest remaining population of the species (estimated at 60,000 in the early 1990s; Amgalan 1995), so holding an estimated 40-50% of the global population (Lkhagvasuren <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, this population has been heavily reduced by poaching in the last 2-3 years and this decline is continuing.<br/><br/>The total population of Arabian Sand Gazelle is estimated to be less than 10,000 and certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals, with country population estimates as follows: Saudi Arabia (2,650-3,050 in four populations); United Arab Emirates (up to 1,000); Oman (no information on population size); Bahrain (350-400 on Hawar; 450-500 on Bahrain Island); Yemen (no information); Syria (approximately 100 seen in southern Syria in 1998 (Habibi 1998)); Jordan (rare); Iraq (up to 1,000 were reported by Al-Robaae and Kingswood (2001)).
8976		threats	eng	The main threats are illegal hunting (for meat and to a lesser extent for trophies) and habitat loss (due to economic development, conversion to agriculture, increasing numbers of domestic livestock). In Central Asia the species is susceptible to the effects of severe winter weather. In Arabian Peninsula some are live-caught for private collections.
8978		conservation	eng	Occur in more than 80 protected areas in India, 5 in Pakistan and 9 in Iran. In parts of western India Chinkara are protected by villagers for religious reasons. The species is fully protected by law in India, Pakistan and Iran.
8978		distribution	eng	Range covers much of western and central India, extending through Pakistan, south-western Afghanistan into north-central Iran. The Thar Desert of western India remains a stronghold. Distribution in Pakistan has been greatly reduced by overhunting and although still widespread, populations are scattered (Habibi 2001b). In Iran, distribution is also scattered extending to Kavir NP in Tehran Province (Hemami and Groves 2001).
8978		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid areas, including sand deserts, flat plains and hills, dry scrub and light forest. Ranges to 1,500 m in Pakistan (Habibi 2001b). They are facultative drinkers, and so can live in very arid areas. They sometimes raid fields cultivated with rape seed and sorghum in desert regions (Habibi 2001b).
8978		population	eng	Numbers in India have been estimated at more than 100,000 with 80,000 in the Tahr Desert (Rahmani 2001). Numbers in Pakistan have declined due to overhunting, but no current estimate is available (Habibi 2001b). Current status in Afghanistan is unknown but they are also believed to be very rare (Habibi 2001a). Around 1300 were estimated for Iran (Hemami and Groves 2001).
8978		threats	eng	Indiscriminate hunting has adversely affected gazelles in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan (hunted for meat and to a lesser degree for trophies). Habitat loss through overgrazing, conversion to agriculture and industrial development is also a factor.
8980		conservation	eng	Hammond <em>et al.</em> (2001) showed that three captive populations of putative <em>G. saudiya</em> are of little relevance to future conservation of the taxon and that surveys of privately owned populations provided no evidence of surviving <em>G. saudiya</em>.
8980		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred in the Arabian Peninsula from Kuwait to the borders of Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). Most records are from the western part of Saudi Arabia. Reports of occurrence in Iraq are unconfirmed and doubtful (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). A record from Amman, Jordan, cited by Harrison and Bates (1991) relates to a specimen found in archaeological excavations and the species was not included in the list of antelopes occurring in the country by Kiwan <em>et al.</em> (2001).
8980		habitat	eng	Formerly occurred on gravel and sandy plains (Harrison and Bates 1991). It was a species of open Acacia country, occurring singly or in groups of up to 20.
8980		population	eng	It was reported to be Extinct in the wild in the 1980s and subsquent reports of captive specimens in collections in the Arabian Peninsula have been shown to refer to other taxa or to hybrids (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2001).
8981		conservation	eng	Extinct.
8981		distribution	eng	This enigmatic antelope is known only from a single male specimen in the Berlin Museum, apparently collected in 1825 and attributed to the Farasan Islands in the Red Sea. However, there is some doubt as to whether the specimen in fact originated from the Farasans and its former distribution and status may never be known (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). Skull characteristics distinguish the specimen from all other gazelles. It is highly unlikely that the specimen represents a former wild population of gazelles on the Farasan Islands. The gazelles that now occur on the Farasan Islands are a subspecies of <em>G. gazella</em> (Thouless <em>et al.</em> 1991).
8981		habitat	eng	There is no detailed information available, but this species presumably inhabited desert environments.
8981		population	eng	Extinct.
8981		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline of this species are not known.
8982		conservation	eng	Thomson's Gazelle occur in a number of protected areas in their range, with core areas of the Serengeti-Mara population protected by the Serengeti N.P. and Masai Mara N.R., where wildlife tourism is the only permitted land use (FitzGibbon and Wilmshurst in press).
8982		distribution	eng	Thomson?s Gazelle occurs widely within its historical range in the grasslands of southern and central Kenya. The largest populations occur in the Mara ranches, Masai Mara National Reserve and the Laikipia and Kajiado rangelands. In Tanzania, the species occupies about half of its former range in Acacia savannas and grasslands in the north (East 1999).
8982		habitat	eng	Thomson's Gazelle live in the short grasslands of Kenya and Tanzania (East 1999). They are primarily grazers, although they may include more forbs and fruits in their diect in the dry season; Thomson's Gazelle are relatively drought resistant, enabling them to remain out on the dry plains, long after most other ungulates have moved off to find wetter habitats (FitzGibbon and Wilmshurst in press). Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti follow a broadly similar pattern of seasonal movements to the Serengeti?s migratory wildebeest and zebra populations, but remain for longer in the wet season range on the open plains in the south-east of the ecosystem and do not migrate as far north as the Masai Mara reserve in Kenya during the dry season (East 1999).
8982		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the population size of Thomson's Gazelle at around 550,000 animals. The migratory population of the Serengeti ecosystem, which is Africa?s largest and most spectacular gazelle population, has been estimated at 174,015 (± 37,406 S.E.), based on data from the 2003 wet season (Mduma 2003), which is indicative of a steep decline since the estimate of 500,000 in the early 1980s (Sinclair and Norton-Griffths 1982). This would be consistent with a loss of large wild herbivores in the Masai Mara ecosystem in Kenya, where there are estimated to be ca. 40,000 in the Masai Mara reserve, a decline from ca. 100,000 in 1977 (Ottichilo <em>et al.</em> 2000). Likewise, Estes <em>et al.</em> (2006) report a decline of 60% from 1978-2005 in the Ngorongoro Crater. There are also reports of declines in the Ewaso Nyira basin, where numbers were estimated at ca. 33,000 in 1977, but at one-third of this in 1997 (Muchoki 2000).
8982		threats	eng	Although there do not appear to be any major threats to Thomson's Gazelle, there is evidence that several populations have undergone declines (FitzGibbon and Wilmshurst in press). In Ngorongoro Crater, these declines have been attributed to availability of water, tourist impacts, habitat modification due to exotic plant invasion, fire management, and road development (Estes <em>et al.</em> 2006).
8987		conservation	eng	Extinct.
8987		distribution	eng	This species was described on the basis of five specimens collected in 1951 in mountains near Ta’izz. Localities included Wadi Maleh, Usaifira, and Jabal Zarba (Groves and Lay 1985; Greth <em>et al.</em> 1993).
8987		habitat	eng	Seen in small groups of 1-3 on Euphorbia-covered hillsides at altitudes of 1,230 - 2,150 m; not seen in cultivated areas or near roads (Sanborn and Hoogstraal 1953).
8987		population	eng	The population was described as very common in 1951, but there have been no records since the 1950s and the species is now believed extinct (Mallon and Al Safadi 2001). During surveys conducted in 1992 in the mountains south of Ta'izz, local people reported that gazelles had not been seen in the area for several decades (Greth <em>et al.</em> 1993).
8987		threats	eng	This species was hunted for food by army officers in 1951 (Sanborn and Hoogstraal 1953); there is no other information available.
8992		conservation	eng	The Mongalla Gazelle is present in Boma National Park and in Mongalla Game Reserve, although seasonal movements cause very large fluctuations in numbers (Hashim in press).
8992		distribution	eng	Mongalla Gazelles inhabit the flood plains and flat savanna grasslands in southeast Sudan, east of the Nile, but not reaching the Ugandan and Kenyan borders. They have been recorded from the Omo region in south-west Ethiopia, but there is no recent information on its occurrence in this country (Hillman and Fryxell 1988; East 1999; Hashim in press).
8992		habitat	eng	The Mongalla gazelle inhabits floodplain and savanna grasslands in Sudan (East 1999). This gazelle is adapted to following a nomadic annual cycle over the eastern Sudd floodplains, an ecologically peculiar region where extensive floods are followed by extreme aridity (Hashim in press). During the wet season, the Mongalla Gazelle aggregates in high population densities with other migratory species such as White-eared Kob and Tiang (Hillman and Fryxell 1988).
8992		population	eng	East (1999) guessed that the total population of Mongola Gazelle could number 100,000, but numbers are known to fluctuate substantially in this area and the central parts of its range are particularly inaccessible. An aerial survey carried out by WCS in 2007 produced a population estimate for part of South Sudan of 278,000 (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007).
8992		threats	eng	There are no clear major threats at present. The population in the Boma ecosystem is apparently stable and not exposed to serious hunting pressure. Part of the Mongalla Gazelle range is devoid of water, making access to this part of their range by poachers difficult (Hashim in press).
8994		conservation	eng	In Ethiopia, only three National Parks are likely to support populations of the Ethiopian Genet: Yangudi-Rassa, Awash and Simien Mountains (Gaubert in press). There is a need for further survey work to better understand the habitat requirements and population status of the species.
8994		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed in Ethiopia, northern Somalia, Eritrea, Djibouti and south-eastern Sudan (Gaubert in press). Diaz Behrens and Van Rompaey (2002) observed animals up to 3,750 m in the Abune Yosef massif, in Ethiopia.
8994		habitat	eng	Although the habitat requirements of this species are not well known, it appears to have a wide altitudinal and ecological range, from coastal plains and open dry lowlands to montane heather moorlands and Afroalpine grasslands (Gaubert in press). Diaz Behrens and Van Rompaey (2002) provide records of this species in montane dry forest (where dominant species include Tree Heath <em>Erica arborea</em>, Curry Bush <em>Hypericum revolutum</em> and Abyssinian Rose <em>Rosa abyssinica</em>), and recorded them to 3,750 m asl. Haltenorth and Diller (1980) state that the Ethiopian Genet is sometimes found near urban areas, but for such a poorly known species this requires confirmation.
8994		population	eng	The current population status is not known, but they are evidently rare (Gaubert in press). Yalden <em>et al.</em> (1996) considered them very uncommon. Known from fewer than 20 museum specimens (Diaz Behrens and Van Rompaey 200).
8994		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unclear. Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1996) mentioned habitat loss due to felling and cultivation in <em>Acacia</em> woodland and thornbush, together with pressures of herds of domestic stock in both arid lowlands and high plateaux.
8997		conservation	eng	Although present in several protected areas, several of these require improved protection since hunting is intense even within protected areas, such as Mt. Nimba, Ziama Classified Forest and Taï N.P. Further survey work is necessary to determine whether secondary growth and moist woodland areas provide suitable habitat for this species (Dunham and Gaubert in press).
8997		distribution	eng	Largely restricted to the forests of the Upper Guinea rainforest block, having been recorded from Liberia, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana (Gaubert <em>et al</em>. 2002, Dunham and Gaubert in press).
8997		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dense rainforest. In Taï N.P., frequently observed in wetland areas including swamp forest (poor drainage areas dominated by prop-root trees and raffia palms) and riverine habitat (Dunham and Gaubert in press). However, one specimen collected in a region of moist woodlands and savanna in Guinea makes its restriction to rainforest questionable (Gaubert <em>et al.</em> 2002).
8997		population	eng	Little is known about the population status of this species, but it may be locally abundant, at least in protected areas of suitable habitat (Dunham and Gaubert in press).
8997		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat loss, due to the intensive deforestation resulting from agriculture, logging, and mining pressures in the Upper Guinean forest zone. Severe hunting pressures may also be affecting populations, and animals are hunted for both meat and skins (Dunham and Gaubert in press).
8998		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas, but it may occur in the Cross River National Park. There are none in the Niger Delta.
8998		distribution	eng	Endemic to Nigeria and Cameroon. Has been recorded as ranging from the Niger R. eastwards to the Sanaga R., but there are also records of the species from west of the Niger Delta (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The region between the Niger Delta and the Cross R. is heavily populated and a mosaic of forest patches and cultivated land, but recent records do exist: for example, one was recently bought at the roadside near Azumini (Angelici and Luiselli 2005). Gaubert <em>et al.</em> (2006) give records that show this species ranging more than 500 km south of the Sanaga R. to southern Cameroon, Gabon and Republic of Congo, as well as 180 km west of the known range in Nigeria between Oni and Epe (but these are not mapped). Ranges to more than 1,000 m asl.
8998		habitat	eng	Inhabits scrub, low tangled vegetation, and bare ground below trees in high deciduous forest. Occasionally, also present in secondary and montane forest (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In Nigeria, Angelici and Luiselli (2005) found that the presence of this species was statistically correlated to the presence of primary dry forest and bush-mango plantations inside the forest, and to a lesser extent secondary dry forest, and primary flooded forest but negatively influenced by the presence of suburban areas, pineapple plantations, bushlands, and oil palm plantations.
8998		population	eng	In the Niger Delta area the Crested Genet seems common where it occurs, but there is no information on its abundance  east of the Cross R. (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
8998		threats	eng	Habitat loss is probably a major threat, since the Cross River State forests are rapidly being converted into farms or wastelands and the Niger Delta is exploited as an oil-production area. They are also believed to suffer from high hunting pressure (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
9001		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas, however, little enforcement is in place and refuges do not prevent threats such as introduced mongoose.
9001		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Jamaica (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Very little current information is available for it.
9001		habitat	eng	This hutia is now restricted to remote karstic areas, hills and mountainous regions, where there is an abundance of natural crevices and tunnels. It is almost exclusively nocturnal, emerging at night to forage over a wide area on exposed roots, bark, shoots, fruits, and foliage of a large variety of plant species. This species lives in social family groups of two to six individuals. Smaller families, pairs, and single individuals apparently inhabit smaller or more accessible holes. Little is known of reproduction in the wild. In captivity, this species bears one or two, rarely three, young at a time. Triplets have been recorded in only 3 of 47 parturitions. The gestation period is approximately 123 days with an average interbirth interval of 168 days (n = 27). The earliest primiparous birth recorded was at the age of one year. In captivity, breeding has occurred throughout the year (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1983).
9001		population	eng	This species is still relatively widespread on Jamaica, but patchily distributed. Known from 16 population sites where it is fairly abundant in some areas - however, these sites are severely fragmented. Some populations are very small and threatened while larger populations remain as a stronghold.
9001		threats	eng	Ongoing human-induced habitat loss and degradation, as well as hunting continue to be major threats to this species. Introduced mongoose is a threat to the species, as well as predation by dogs.
9002		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures.
9002		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (East Plana Keys, Bahamas) and introduced populations on Little Wax Cay (1973) and Warderivk Wells Cay (1981), Bahamas. (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
9002		habitat	eng	This species is found on coral atolls with semi-arid woody scrub and thicket; it is the most terrestrial of the hutias. It is herbivorous and is known to eat the fruits, leaves and trunks of island vegetation, and occasionally seaweed.
9002		population	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been extirpated from much of its range; it may be locally abundant on the three small islands where it remains. Population estimates are outdated but are exist: East Plana Key (12,000 individuals), Little Wax Key (1,200) (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1991, Clough 1972).
9002		threats	eng	Populations remain stable on the few islands where the species persists, however, these islands are susceptible to being wiped out by stochastic events such as hurricanes. All populations are threatened by the possibility of a feral cat arriving to the islands.
9003		conservation	eng	None.
9003		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Little Swan Island, Honduras.
9003		habitat	eng	Scrub thicket on coral atoll.
9003		population	eng	Extinct, although formally plentiful.
9003		threats	eng	Driven to extinction through predation by introduced cats, which were released onto the islands prior to 1960. Local people report a very strong a hurricane in 1955 which may have added to the population decline.
9004		conservation	eng	None.
9004		distribution	eng	This species was known from Cuba.
9004		habitat	eng	Unknown, but likely ground dwelling by analogy with <em>Capromys</em> species.
9004		population	eng	Extinct.
9004		threats	eng	Unknown, possible due to introduction of rats.
9007		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9008		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9010		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9011		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
9013		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9014		conservation	eng	Very little research has been done on this species and most of it only in the last ten years.<br/><br/>The species is protected nationally under Malagasy law (Decree 60126; October, 1960). Internationally, the Radiated Tortoise was listed as Category A of the African Conservation Convention of 1968, and, since 1975, it has been listed on Appendix I of CITES, which affords species the highest level of protection (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Hilton-Taylor 2000).<br/><br/>Four protected areas and three additional sites (Lac Tsimanampetsotsa National Park 43,200 ha, Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve 67,568 ha, Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve 1,750 ha, Andohahela National Park 76,020 ha, and Berenty Private Reserve 250 ha, Site of Biological Interest – (1) Hatokaliotsy 21,850 ha and (2) PK3 north of Tulear 12,500 ha) fall within the range of this species. A captive breeding centre (Village de Tortues de Mangily) was established in Ifaty.<br/><br/>In August 2005, an international meeting of the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) group produced an alarming prediction that without immediate and significant intervention, viable populations of Radiated Tortoises will likely be extirpated from the wild within one tortoise generation, that is, 45 years (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). It was suggested that a systematic monitoring program be established. This will have to involve the training of local people so that the programme can be viable. This and other recommended conservation measures are detailed in the PHVA workshop report (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition, monitoring of exploitation trends at the wholesale and consumer parts of the trade chain (surveys of markets, traders and restaurants in Madagascar; monitoring international pet trade) is important.<br/><br/>Additionally, ensuring adequate coverage of Radiated Tortoise populations as Madagascar expands its protected area network is essential. Research on habitat usage, specifically the impacts and benefits from <em>Opuntia</em> and other invasive vegetation, is desirable.
9014		distribution	eng	Radiated Tortoises are found in the dry spiny forests of southern and southwestern Madagascar, from the area of Amboasary in the south across the Karimbola and Mahafaly plateaus north of Tuléar (where the habitat is highly fragmented and tortoises may be close to extinction) to Morombe. They are usually found in a narrow band within about 50 to 100 km from the coast (Glaw and Vences 1994, Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. 2005). Is sympatric with <em>Pyxis arachnoides</em>. The species' core range compries about 10,000 square km.
9014		habitat	eng	The Radiated Tortoise is found in low irregular rainfall areas with xerophytic spiny vegetation dominated by Didiereaceae and <em>Ephorbia</em> (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989). They can be found on the high plateaus inland and also on the sandy dunes close to the coast (Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Radiated Tortoises are herbivores feeding predominantly on grasses and in some areas on the alien invasive <em>Opuntia</em>. On occasion they are also known to ingest animal matter. During the rainy season wild tortoises drink from water that collects on rocks after it rains (Leuteritz 2003).<br/><br/>Adult female tortoises range in carapace length from 24.2 - 35.6 cm and males ranged in from 28.5 - 39.5 cm (Pedrono 2008). Males exhibit distinct secondary sexual characteristics by about 26 cm carapace length (Leuteritz 2002). Mature females produce up to three clutches per season with 1–5 eggs per clutch (Leuteritz and Ravolanaivo 2005), leading to an estimated average production of two clutches of four eggs each per breeding female; an estimated 82% of mature females breed in an average year (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). No solid data exists on longevity but estimated life span is believed to be up to 100 years (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). A detailed overview of natural history is presented by Pedrono (2008).
9014		population	eng	Historically this species has been quite abundant, often being found along roadways and has served as symbol of Madagascar's south. This is not the case anymore. Tortoises are not found along major roadways but may be locally abundant in certain areas. According to O’Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003) the species is declining, with its range having contracted by one fifth over the last 25 years. Lewis (1995) reports density estimates based on line distance sampling of 262.2 to 1,076.7 tortoises/km², from which he extrapolated a conservative total population size of 1.6–4 million. Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported densities of 27–5,744 tortoises/km² with a total population estimate of 12 million. Rioux Paquette <em>et al</em>. (2006) undertook a microsatellite genetic analysis, which identified three distinct conservation units with relatively high assignments rates. The study supported the role of the Menarandra and Manambovo Rivers as major barriers to the dispersal for most Radiated Tortoises.<br/><br/>Population models were calculated at the 2005 Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) workshop based on a number of variables including estimated population size and annual harvest intensity. Depending on the variables selected, the species was predicted to reach extinction at various times, with most estimates clustering around 45 years into the future (range 20-100+ years) (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007).
9014		threats	eng	Threats to the tortoise’s survival include collection and habitat loss (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 1998, O’Brien 2002, O’Brien <em>et a</em>l. 2003). “Collection” can be subdivided into two further categories: collection for the international wildlife trade and collection for utilization by local people.<br/><br/>International collection has been documented with Asian smugglers collecting tortoises for the pet trade and for their livers (Behler 2002).<br/><br/>However, domestic utilization of this species is of greater concern. Within Madagascar, the Mahafaly and the Antandroy, whose land covers the range of the Radiated Tortoise do not utilize the tortoise. They have a taboo (teremed a 'fady') against eating or touching the tortoises (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998, Lingard <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, large quantities of Radiated Tortoises are gathered by people from other areas of Madagascar who recently moved into this region, or by Malagasy people who are passing through. O’Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated that up to 45,000 adult Radiated Tortoises are harvested each year. Anecdotal information indicates that annual harvest numbers have increased since then; estimates calculated at the 2005 PHVA workshop ranged from 22,000 to 241,000 tortoises collected annually. Tortoise meat is especially popular around Christmas and Easter (Lewis 1995). Declared protected areas are insufficiently patrolled and resourced to deter large-scale collection right inside these nominal strongholds.<br/><br/>Besides being used as food, the Malagasy often keep the tortoises as pets and in pens with chickens and ducks as a means of warding off poultry diseases (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat loss includes deforestation for use as agricultural land, the grazing of livestock, and the burning of wood for charcoal (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998). Recent analyses by Conservation International (May 2007) of the state of the spiny forest biome, using aerial imagery, indicate that deforestation rates have significantly increased over the last five years (compared with the period 1990-2000) (H. Crowley pers. comm. to Leuteritz). The 2001 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop estimated habitat loss at 21-50% during the period 1990-2000, and forecast a habitat loss rate of 51-80% for the period 2001-2010. Harper <em>et al</em>. (2007) documented a consistent annual forest loss rate of 1.2% for the spiny forest (primary Radiated Tortoise habitat) throughout the period 1970-2000, and measured an overall reduction from 29,782 to 21,322 sq km over this period, a 29% reduction in less than one tortoise generation.<br/><br/>Invasive plant species affecting habitat suitability were considered a significant threat at the 2001 CAMP workshop.
9016		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Madagascar national law and is also included in CITES Appendix I (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The species' area of occurrence at Soalala (area west of Baly Bay; 113,000 ha) was considered a "Site of Biological Interest" but it held no legal protection status (Nicoll and Langrand 1989), until in 1997 the Baly Bay area was gazetted as a national park (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 2005). The parks authority have had a permanent presence (eight personnel) at Soalala since 2001. There is also a network of 40 village ‘para-rangers’ who actively watch out for possible smugglers (and outbreaks of fires).<br/><br/>Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust established a conservation program for the Ploughshare Tortoise in 1986 that strongly integrated local people (Durbin <em>et al</em>. 1996). A summary of early research concerning the species was provided by Bour (2007). The history of Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust’s Project Angonoka  was described by Lewis <em>et al</em>. (2005): Project Angonoka began in 1986 as a project to safeguard <em>A. yniphora</em>. The project was established as collaboration between Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (then known as Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust) and the Water and Forests Department of the Government of Madagascar, together with support from the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). Given the extreme rarity of the species, the initial goal was the establishment of a captive-breeding project. This was successfully achieved. In December 2004, the captive project had 224 captive-bred juveniles from 17 founder adults (10 males, 7 females). From the 1990s, work progressed to ecological research on the species in the wild, and developing conservation strategies with the surrounding local communities. The latter work formed the basis of community-led firebreaks and with the communities themselves proposing the creation of a park to safeguard the tortoise and the remaining forests.<br/><br/>Ongoing monitoring of the species' occurrence in the global pet trade is needed, along with effective enforcement and repatriation and/or safe, conservation-oriented maintenance of confiscated animals in appropriate facilities.
9016		distribution	eng	This species has a very small distribution and is known from a 25 to 60 sq. km range around Baly Bay in northwestern Madagascar (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Glaw and Vences 1994, Bour 2007). The area of suitable habitat may extend up to 70-92 sq.km. (DWCT survey results 1999-2000), while the area of occupancy may be restricted to just 12.4 sq. km (Pedrono 2008).
9016		habitat	eng	The species is found in the Baly Bay region (over an area of approximately 700 km², though only 66 km² of this is considered suitable habitat). This region is comprised of dry deciduous forest, savanna, and mangrove swamps. The climate is tropical with a distinctly seasonal rainfall patterns. Angonoka utilize bamboo-scrub habitat, which is considered to be a secondary stage of the dry deciduous forest (Curl <em>et al</em>. 1986). Bamboo-scrub habitat consists of a mosaic of shrubs, bamboo, savanna grasses, and open, non vegetated areas. The shrubs are generally under 2 m and the dominant species include <em>Bauhinia</em> sp. and <em>Terminalia</em> sp. Bamboo (<em>Perrierbambos madagascariensis</em>) occurs in dense thickets within the habitat. Andrianandrasana (2000) estimates there are 7,975 ha of suitable habitat of which 6,669 ha have tortoises occupying them. Elevation is less than 50 m above sea level (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1999a and b).<br/><br/>Adult male tortoises are larger and heavier than females. Mean adult male length and weight is 414.8 mm (range 361-486 mm) and 10.3 kg (range 7.2-18.9 kg) respectively. Mean adult female length and weight is 370.1 mm (range 307-426 mm) and 8.8 kg (range 5.5-12 kg) respectively (Pedrono and Markwell 2001).<br/><br/>According to Smith (1999) grasses and forbs in open rocky areas of bamboo scrub habitat appeared to be important food items. Feeding was observed from October through May. Tortoises were observed to feed upon herbs, forbs and shrubs (<em>Bauhinia</em> sp. and <em>Terminalia</em> sp.) rather than grasses. Tortoises were never observed feeding on live bamboo, however, on several occasions they consumed leaf litter that included dead bamboo leaves. Angonoka were also observed feeding on dried carnivore and African bush pig feces (Smith 1999).<br/><br/>Smith (1999) estimates sexual maturity at a minimum of 15 years old. A study by Pedrono <em>et al</em>. (2001) showed the reproductive period was from 15 January to 30 May and tortoises produced 1-6 eggs (mean 3.2) per clutch and up 4 (mean 2.45) clutches per season. Despite low densities the egg fertility rate was 71.9% and resulting hatching success was 54.6% (Pedrono <em>et al</em>. 2001). This yields an estimated annual production of 3.2x2.45x54.6% = 4.3 hatchlings per reproducing female. By analogy with <em>Astrochelys radiata</em>, the average age of reproducing animals per generation time is estimated as being 42 years (Madagascar WS 2008).
9016		population	eng	It was estimated that the total wild population is about 600 individuals (440 to 770). These are found within five subpopulations: two to the east of the Andranomavo river (Sada and Beheta) and three to the west of the river (Ambatomainty, Betainalika, Andrafiafaly) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pedrono 2000). Based on distance sampling surveys and the extent of suitable habitat (by 2005), DWCT estimated a maximum of 800 wild animals. Recent impacts (illegal collection for the international pet trade) have reduced the estimated population substantially, and the wild population is currently estimated to possibly be as low as 400 individuals, of which 200 adults (G. Pedrono pers.comm., 2008).<br/><br/>Based on the Population Viability Analysis performed for this species (Pedrono <em>et al</em>. 2004), and recent level of poaching for international trade, the Angonoka is at extreme risk of extinction in the wild within 10 to 15 years, less than one generation time of 42 years.
9016		threats	eng	The tortoise’s restricted distribution and threatened status are believed to result from exploitation in historical times and from frequent human-caused fires, which were deliberately started to create and improve grazing conditions for Zebu cattle (Juvik <em>et al</em>. 1981, Curl <em>et al</em>. 1985). According to Lewis <em>et al</em>. (2005) "since 1995, the local communities, with the assistance of the Water and Forests Department and Durrell Wildlife, have annually burnt the savannah fringes during the wet season creating a system of natural firebreaks". Outbreaks of fires within tortoise habitat have continued to decrease annually. There was less than 50 ha of tortoise habitat burnt in 2004, but larger areas of Angonoka habitat were burnt in other years.<br/><br/>The other major and ongoing threat comes from illegal collection for the international pet trade (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pedrono 2008); marked wild animals have been recorded from pet trade in Asia and despite some successful enforcement and confiscation actions, the species remains in extremely high demand in the global illegal pet trade which severely threatens the remaining wild animals.
9029		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix I.
9029		threats	eng	Traded in some numbers in international consumption trade despite listing on CITES Appendix I.
9031		conservation	eng	Several conservation measures have been put in place for this species, including: a) fenced populations on cleared farmland; b) establishment of new reserves; c) regulated burning regime; d) annual population surveys; e) and a population viability assessment (according to which, the species has low risk of extinction in 100 years). Its range includes Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park and Forest Grove and Witchcliffe State Forests.
9031		distribution	eng	This is an Australian endemic known from north and west of the Blackwood River between Margaret River and Augusta, in extreme south-west Western Australia (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is known from Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park and Forest Grove and Witchcliffe State Forests (Tyler 1997). The greater portion of this species' range occurs on privately owned land (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 130km² and the area of occupancy is less than 2.5km² (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.
9031		habitat	eng	The species inhabits swamp systems of the coastal, high rainfall zone (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Males call from small depressions beneath leaf-litter or moss in the peaty soil of broad drainage lines (Driscoll 1998). Females lay eggs inside burrows where the eggs develop directly (Driscoll 1998). There is no free-swimming tadpole stage (Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1990). Breeding takes place in spring and early summer (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999).
9031		population	eng	Most of the 56 subpopulations are small, with less than 50 adult male frogs (Wardell-Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1995). Long term population monitoring data, based on calling males, is available for three populations for the period 1992-1997. Populations varied in size over this period with a maximum number of approximately 110 individuals being recorded in 1994 at Forest Grove South (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). Current population size is approximately 3,000 and declining. There is no movement between the 56 subpopulations.
9031		threats	eng	Clearing, grazing, and repeated fires are all major threats. Approximately 70% of creek systems suitable for breeding have been cleared since European settlement and consequently populations have been lost. The species' small native range has been radically reduced and severely fragmented.
9032		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in place for the species at present include: a) extended fuel reduction burn cycle; b) checks for pig activity; c) population presence/absence checked annually; d) protection within State Forest; and e) most of the species range has been recommended for gazetting as a Nature Reserve as part of the Regional Forest Agreement.
9032		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is confined to a 6.3km² area east of the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge in the extreme south-west of Western Australia (Tyler 1997).
9032		habitat	eng	This species occurs in permanently moist sites in relatively dry and seasonal climatic zones in mixed Jarrah/marsh forest. It is found in undisturbed areas of riparian vegetation and seepages along broad creeks on Mosa side of Blackwood River, at an elevation of 120m asl in broad U-shaped valleys where there is marked topographic relief. It is a summer breeder. Males call from small depressions in clay under dense vegetation cover. Eggs are deposited in small depressions and are often associated with calling males. Eggs hatch and the tadpoles develop in a jelly mass with no free-swimming or feeding stage.
9032		population	eng	Only six populations of this species are known (Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999). Population estimates are available for Spearwood North and South from 1992 to 1998 (Driscoll 1998, 1999; Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999) and Geo Creek from 1993 to 1994 (Driscoll 1998, 1999). Estimates of calling males for the three locations varied between approximately 30 and 160 individuals (Driscoll 1998, 1999; Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999). Populations at Spearwood varied in size over the survey period with no obvious decline or increase at either site (Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999). In 1994 the maximum total number of adults of the species was estimated at 2,230 frogs (Wardell-Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1995 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999).
9032		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to the species, including: fire and changes to water seepages; high visitation rates by tourists to the Blackwood River system; and the impacts of feral pigs. The genetic structuring of the populations indicates that movement is extremely limited with little or no migration. However, the population of the species appears to be stable, and it is probably able to withstand these threats at present.
9038		distribution	eng	<em>Geoemyda silvatica</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats area of India.
9038		habitat	eng	This omnivorous, freshwater species is found on the floor of evergreen forest.
9042		habitat	eng	Primarily terrestrial, occasionally entering freshwater.
9042		threats	eng	Populations are judged to be badly declining on Okinawajima, with two small isolated populations on Kumejima, and no status data for Tokashikijima.
9048		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from over five protected areas including Ankarafantsika National Park, Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Tsimanampetsotsa RNI and Zombitse National Park. It has also been found in the private concession of Kirindy CFPF.
9048		distribution	eng	This species is found in north-western, western, and southern Madagascar. The easternmost occurrence of this species was recorded recently in south-eastern Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although this species is not known from many sites, it likely occurs in appropriate habitat in between the known localities.<br/><br/>This species was not found during a recent survey of the environs of Fénérive (Rakotondravony <em>et al</em>. 1998).
9048		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry deciduous forest, gallery forest, and spiny bush. Undergoes daily and seasonal torpor, not active during austral winter. This species has been captured in open savanna (many kilometres from forests) - this is a termite specialist that could be reliant on termite mounds even if there are no forest. It is adaptable to some habitat disturbance.
9048		population	eng	This species is rarely found, but is common in owl pellets at some sites.
9048		threats	eng	This species was previously thought to be dependent on forest, though recent work has revealed that it is present in grasslands. Thus, habitat loss may be less a factor than previously surmised.
9051		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2.&#160; This listing on the EU Species and Habitats Directive requiring designation of a protected area (pSAC). Further work is urgently needed on habitat and population monitoring for this species, as the areas where the species is now found are now extremely disturbed habitats.</span></span></span>
9051		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the main island of Madeira, known only in the vicinity of Canico to Gaula on the coast of southeast Madeira (Seddon 2008).&#160;Nobre (1931, p. 114) lists a number of sites including Ribeiro do Porto Novo and Canico to Gaula.&#160;&#160;It was not found by Cook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1990) during their surveys at the extreme eastern end of Madeira. Seddon and others have recently live-collected the species in a small valley within the vicinity of Canico (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010). Groh and Hemmen (1986) illustrate material from Faja do Mar, in west Madeira (Seddon 2008).
9051		habitat	eng	Information resulting from recent surveys (1991-1999) show that this species still occurs on north-east facing scree slopes near Porto Novo, with ground cover of shrubs including <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia piscatoria, Aeonium glutinosum</span>. These slopes are somewhat disturbed by human activity, with evidence of dumping (now restricted).
9051		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, although the species is rare and very localised, and hence usually only found in targeted surveys. It is thought to be declining.
9051		threats	eng	The species lives on slopes that are somewhat disturbed by human activity: tourist developments, extension of airport access roads, illegal dumping (now restricted) and introduced vegetation (Opuntia).
9052		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the EU Species and Habitats Directive requiring designation of a protected area (pSAC). At present there are no known conservation action plans for this species, and at present the main part of the range does not fall into a protected area. Invasive species need to be controlled, more research is required on the population and distribution of this species, as well as monitoring of its habitat.
9052		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it can still be found living on the north coast of Madeira between Sao Vincente and Porto Moniz (Seddon 2008). Wollaston (1878) commented on the low numbers of specimens found, with the most abundant finds of 120 shells just east of Sao Vincente; this pattern remains today (M. Seddon pers. comm. 2010). It was abundant in the Quaternary fossil deposits at Canical.
9052		habitat	eng	This species is found on coastal cliffs and steep slopes, amongst short turfed grasses and herbs and amongst leaf-litter on rock ledges. It is also present on rock surfaces on cliffs.
9052		population	eng	This species has always been rare in samples but was recorded by Seddon (2008) and by Cameron and Cook (1998).
9052		threats	eng	The major threats come from habitat degradation due to presence of roads and tunnels along this part of the coast, with possibility of road widening, pollution from run-off from the road. Also introduction of non-native plants and molluscs to the habitat.
9053		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the EU Species and Habitats Directive, but has never been relocated despite extensive searches over the last 40 years.
9053		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is mainly found as a Quaternay fossil at the east end of Madeira (Seddon 2008). Wollaston (1878) has a single record of the species from 1860, where it was found by Reverend Lowe in the Ribeira do Fayal at the foot of perpendicular crags along the new levada called the levada da Fajaa dos Vinhaticos. Since 1980, there have been numerous unsuccessful attempts to locate this site by various collectors such as Waldén, Seddon, Killeen, Colville, Coles, Cameron and Cook (Seddon and Cameron pers. comm. 2008).
9053		habitat	eng	The only records are from moist soil surface amongst tufts of ferns, grasses within area of heather and <em>Vaccinium</em> with few laurisilva trees at foot of perpendicular crags (Wollaston 1878).
9053		population	eng	This species has not been collected since 1864 and may be extinct.
9053		threats	eng	As this species has not been recorded for nearly 150 years the threats are difficult to establish, however at the time of the last record there was considerable habitat disturbance due to construction of the irrigation levadas on Madeira.
9054		conservation	eng	A protected population occurs on White Sands National Monument, but it is vulnerable to droughts (D. Hafner pers. comm.). Inventory needs are as follows: 1. Determine distribution and long-term dynamics of isolated populations located between the established populations (Rio Grande, White Sands, and Gran Quivera). 2. Evaluate the effect of grazing and fire suppression on intermediate populations. 3. Monitor established populations periodically to determine population dynamics (Hafner, in press). 4. Determine if additional populations exist in Texas and Mexico.
9054		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution (D. Hafner pers. comm.), and is restricted to a narrow area of south-central New Mexico, a small section of the north-western Trans-Pecos in Texas (several localities in El Paso and Hudspeth counties), and bordering areas in Chihuahua, Mexico. <br/><br/>Subspecies <em>arenarius</em>: narrow strip of bottom land along the upper Rio Grande Valley from Porvenir, Chihuahua, north to Las Cruces, New Mexico (Williams and Baker 1974). Subspecies brevirostris: Tularosa Basin and adjacent Jornada del Muerta of New Mexico in the vicinity of White Sands National Monument, Gran Quivira (Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument), and south-east of San Antonio (Williams and Baker 1974; Hafner and Geluso 1983).
9054		habitat	eng	This fossorial species occurs in loose soils of disturbed areas or sandy areas near open water; it is often common along edges of rivers, ponds, or irrigation canals (Schmidly 1977; Davis and Schmidly 1994).
9054		population	eng	According to Hafner (pers. comm.), it is difficult to estimate the number of occurrences because populations occur in small patches of appropriate habitat. However, there are probably more than 100 occurrences or subpopulations rangewide (D. Hafner pers. comm.). The total adult population size is estimated at over 10,000 individuals occupying over 50,000 acres (D. Hafner pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This species is common within its small range in Texas and New Mexico (Schmidly 1977; Davis and Schmidly 1994). Populations are dense in areas along the Rio Grande, and large populations occur on Gran Quivera and White Sands National Monuments (Hafner, in press). The scant information that is available regarding population trends indicates populations may fluctuate greatly and that intermediate populations may be slightly declining (D. Hafner pers. comm.). In 1981 populations were locally abundant in pinon-juniper habitat at and near Gran Quivera National Monument, along the margins and interior basins of White Sands National Monument, and along the banks of the Rio Grande near Las Cruces. After a prolonged drought in 1982, no pocket gophers were found at White Sands National Monument and only old mounds could be located at Jornada del Muerta (a potentially ephemeral population). On the other hand, activities in the Las Cruces vicinity have improved gopher habitat, and populations are dense in areas in the Rio Grande Valley (Hafner, in press).  <br/><br/>According to Hafner (in press), it appears that secure but isolated populations persist along the Rio Grande, at White Sands National Monument, and at Gran Quivera National Monument. However, continued grazing and fire suppression, coupled with warming and drying trends, may result in the extirpation of intermediate, ephemeral populations (Hafner, in press). Some intermediate populations may be lost as drying trends continue, but with the return of wet periods populations are expected to expand (D. Hafner pers. comm.)
9054		threats	eng	The interior valleys of New Mexico have experienced extensive desertification and an increase in shrub cover during this century due to overgrazing and fire suppression, perhaps accelerated by a warming and drying trend. A reduction in quality and expanse of grassland has apparently resulted in increased fragmentation and isolation of <em>G. arenarius</em> populations, which already have a patchy distribution dictated by the availability of appropriate friable soil. Continued grazing and fire suppression, coupled with warming and drying trends, may further isolate the Rio Grande and Tularosa Valley populations temporarily eliminating intermediate, ephemeral populations (Hafner, in press). <br/><br/>Habitat in the Las Cruces area has apparently been improved by Army Corps of Engineers activities. Populations are dense along the Rio Grande and adjacent agricultural fields and pasturelands in areas where the river has been channelized and the natural bosque eradicated (Hafner, in press; D. Hafner pers. comm.). According to Williams and Baker (1974), <em>Cratogeomys castanops</em> may have replaced <em>G. arenarius</em> some areas. In contrast, Hafner and Geluso (1983) found <em>Geomys</em> to be abundant in the White Sands area, while they caught relatively few <em>Cratogeomys</em>. Davis and Schmidly (1994) stated that this species faces no known threats but should be monitored in view of its small distribution. Hafner (pers. comm.) indicated that this species is not very threatened or is unthreatened; it is threatened only in the sense that it occupies a somewhat small range.
9055		conservation	eng	This species occurs is a few protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed on the subspecies of <em>G. personatus</em>, specifically to determine whether any of the subspecies warrant full species status.
9055		distribution	eng	The Texas pocket gopher has a patchy distribution throughout south Texas and the adjacent north-eastern portion of Tamaulipas, Mexico (Williams 1982).
9055		habitat	eng	The Texas pocket gopher prefers loose, sandy soils in open or sparsely wooded areas, with dense soils acting as a barrier to dispersal. They are fossorial animals, spending most of their lives underground. These pocket gophers apparently live alone with each animal having its own burrow system, which includes up to 30 m of tunnels. Diet consists of underground vegetation (roots, bulbs, and rhizomes), occasionally eating surface vegetation within easy reach of the burrow entrance. Breeding occurs between October and February with females producing two litters of 3-4 young each year (Williams 1982).
9055		population	eng	This species is common to abundant throughout much of its range. It can also be uncommon in some parts of its range, and is patchily distributed due to its association with specific soil types.
9055		threats	eng	At the species level, <em>G. personatus</em> appears secure. However, the small, restricted populations of three subspecies (<em>maritimus</em>, <em>fuscus</em>, <em>streckeri</em>) are vulnerable to the detrimental effects of habitat modification from agriculture.
9056		conservation	eng	In Mexico, this species is listed in the highest threat category.
9056		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the south-eastern Tamaulipas region of coastal Mexico (Baker and Williams 1974). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 150 km<sup>2</sup> (Ceballos and Olivia 2005).
9056		habitat	eng	Geomys is described as preferring loose, deep, sandy soils in open or sparsely wooded areas. They are fossorial animals, spending most of their lives underground. These pocket gophers apparently live alone with each animal having its own burrow system. Diet consists of underground vegetation (roots, bulbs and rhizomes), although they occasionally eat surface vegetation within easy reach of the burrow entrance.<br/><br/>It is very restricted to certain habitats (regosol and cambosol).
9056		population	eng	This species is rare.
9056		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range and specific habitat preference (Baker and Williams 1974). The habitat of this species is severely fragmented by agriculture and industrialization, and it is vulnerable to further encroachment. This species range is dominated by three growing cities. It is also threatened by intrinsic factors relating to its small range size.
9062		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.
9062		distribution	eng	The range of this species is limited to central and south-central Texas (Davis and Schmidly 1994, Smolen <em>et al.</em> 1993, Cramer and Cameron 2001, Schmidly 2004).
9062		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits deep, brown loamy sands or gravelly sandy loams; it is isolated from other <em>Geomys</em> by shallow stony to gravelly clayey soils (Schmidly 2004). Subspecies <em>texensis</em> inhabits live oak-mesquite-Ashe juniper habitats; subspecies <em>bakeri</em> occurs in mesquite-blackbrush-desert hackberry habitats (Cameron, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Subspecies <em>bakeri</em> is associated with nearly level Atco soil, which is well drained and consists of sandy surface layers with loam extending to as deep as two metres (Smolen <em>et al.</em> 1993).
9062		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several distinct occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. The subspecies <em>texensis</em> is locally abundant (Schmidly 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined by less than 25% compared to the historical situation.
9062		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
9066		distribution	eng	Known only from Rodrigues Island where it was discovered in 1879.
9066		habitat	eng	Found in damp woods.
9077		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Giant's Castle Nature Reserve in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg. Further studies into the taxonomic status of the KwaZulu-Natal populations are needed.
9077		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mesic regions of South Africa (above 500 mm rainfall). It has a disjunct distribution in southwestern Cape north to Citrusdal and Nieuwoutdwal, and eastwards to Port Elizabeth and the Transkei. There are isolated populations in KwaZulu-Natal close to the border with Lesotho (the species possibly once ranged along the coast; Taylor 1998), and in Mpumalanga (specifically Belfast, Wakkerstroom and Ermelo).
9077		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species that is found in most sandy soils, coastal sand dunes and sandy alluvium both along river systems and in the montane regions of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape. Specimens from Wakkerstroom have been collected in red clay and black turf soils amidst montane grassland on the edge of a small vlei (a marshy area) (Bronner 1990). It has also been recorded from anthropogenically disturbed habitats, such as golf courses (for example, at the Nottingham road locality in the Kamburg region), gardens, and even at the University of Cape Town campus. The areas where the species occurs generally receive in excess of 500 mm per annum. It is a largely solitary species that may have two litters of four to ten young per year. The species has a generation length of four years.
9077		population	eng	This is an uncommon, localized species. Population densities may exceed 30 animals per sq km in the area of Cape Town.
9077		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, and it is often an agricultural and horticultural pest.
9089		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
9089		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Chile (see Saavedra and Simonetti, 2001, for northern range extension), including Mocha and Chiloe Islands, to Straits of Magellan, and southern Argentina (Neuquén to Santa Cruz Provinces) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
9089		habitat	eng	Valdivian forest and subantartic, including shrubs associated.
9089		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
9089		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
9092		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range.
9092		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and southwestern Africa, including Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa, the western edge of Zimbabwe and part of southern Mozambique.
9092		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy ground or sandy alluvium with a grass, scrub or light woodland cover (Nowak 1999). It is a commensal species that can be found in houses. It is a nocturnal species that lives in a warren with many entrances. The diet consists mostly of seeds. It appears to breed throughout the year.
9092		population	eng	It is a very common species.
9092		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9093		conservation	eng	Most of the populations of this species (more than 90%) are found in protected areas.
9093		distribution	eng	This species has a narrow range in southwestern Angola and northwestern Namibia.
9093		habitat	eng	It is found in gravel plains, sand flats and dry river beds.
9093		population	eng	It is a common species.
9093		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9094		conservation	eng	The whole population is within protected areas.
9094		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Namibia.
9094		habitat	eng	It is largely found in high dune areas (dunes up to 300 m high). It is also found in dunes and dune hummocks.
9094		population	eng	The populations of this species fluctuate naturally, but are generally stable.
9094		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9095		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place, however, the species does occur in some protected areas.
9095		distribution	eng	This species is found in western South Africa and southwestern Namibia.
9095		habitat	eng	It is associated with gravel plains, consolidated sand and dry river beds.
9095		population	eng	It is a very common species, with naturally fluctuating populations.
9095		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by increasing overgrazing of arid vegetation.
9096		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
9096		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the unspecified type locality and a few additional records in northern Somalia, including Berbera, Bulhar and Burao. This species ranges from sea level to at least 1,000 m asl (Burao).
9096		habitat	eng	There is little information available on this species. Presumably, it is found in arid areas.
9096		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9096		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9097		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
9097		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Morocco. It is found from the southeastern slopes of the Rif Mountains and the Gharb plain, to Chaouia and southwards to Jbilets. This species' range is limited in the east by the Middle Atlas.
9097		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and clay areas, and it is also found in abandoned fields. It is not found in actively cultivated areas, forests or matorral habitat.
9097		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
9097		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9099		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus muriculus</em> is a valid species, and to better understand where the species is distributed.
9099		distribution	eng	This poorly-known taxon has been reported from a number of localities in Sudan, however, because of considerable taxonomic confusion it is uncertain as to which of these records refer to <em>Gerbillus muriculus</em>. Only the approximate type locality of '80 miles (129 km) northeast of El Fasher, Madu, Darfur, Sudan' is mapped here.
9099		habitat	eng	The ecological requirements of this taxon are unclear, however, populations reported to be this species have been recorded from irrigated agricultural land and dry grassland with compacted soils.
9099		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance or trends for this species.
9099		threats	eng	The threats to this taxon are not known.
9100		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9100		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from few localities in Mali, Niger and Sudan; however, it is believed to occur more widely in arid areas between these sites.
9100		habitat	eng	This is a species of sandy to sand-clay soils, fallow areas and millet fields.
9100		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9100		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9101		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9101		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from a small number of localities in Sudan and Somalia.
9101		habitat	eng	This species has been found in dry grassland. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
9101		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9101		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9102		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus agag</em> is a valid species, and where it is distributed.
9102		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Gerbillus agag</em> is very unclear. Populations of <em>Gerbillus agag</em> have been reported from Mali, Nigeria, and Niger to Chad, Sudan and Kenya (Musser and Carleton 2005); however, because of considerable taxonomic confusion, it is uncertain as to which of these populations should be allocated to <em>Gerbillus agag</em>. The type locality is Agageh Wells, Kordofan, Sudan (not mapped here).
9102		habitat	eng	There is little information available on this species. Presumably, it is found in arid areas.
9102		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9102		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9104		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
9104		distribution	eng	This species is found in Libya and Egypt. The distribution is split in two, with an eastern range and a western range, with no suitable habitat in between.
9104		habitat	eng	All types of habitats in Libya ranging from dense vegetation (in oasis and wadis) to barren areas.
9104		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species.
9104		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9105		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
9105		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the coastal plains of North Africa and the Middle East where it ranges from Tunisia and northern Libya, to Egypt (the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta south to El Faiyum), Israel and southwestern Jordan.
9105		habitat	eng	This is a little-known species of coastal plains and littoral deserts. It is generally associated with solidified coastal dunes.
9105		population	eng	A common species in suitable habitats.
9105		threats	eng	No major threats known at present. Overgrazing may be a problem in some parts of the range.
9106		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further studies are needed into the natural history of this little known species.
9106		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan (Musser and Carleton 2005; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Detailed distribution information in South Asia is not known.
9106		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal/crepuscular, terrrestrial, gregarious species, occurs in temperate forests and grasslands near water sources (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9106		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9106		threats	eng	No threats have been recorded for this taxon or its habitat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9109		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9109		distribution	eng	This little-recorded species is known only with certainty from Sudan; there are also possible records of the species occurrence in northern Kenya.
9109		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in arid areas.
9109		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9109		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9110		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9110		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded from type locality, Burao, in northern Somalia.
9110		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. The type locality is in dry hilly country.
9110		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9110		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9111		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus burtoni</em> is a valid species, and where it is distributed.
9111		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the indistinct locality of Dharfur, Sudan. No additional details appear to be available. No distribution map is provided
9111		habitat	eng	Thereappears to be no information available on the natural history of this taxon.
9111		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9111		threats	eng	The threats to this taxon are not known.
9113		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
9113		distribution	eng	Arabian Peninsular, Iraq and Iran. The species also occurs marginally in Syria (one record: D. Kock pers. comm.) and Jordan. Found from sea level to c.450 m asl.
9113		distribution	eng	Arabian Peninsular, Iraq and Iran. The species also occurs marginally in Syria (one record: D. Kock pers. comm.) and Jordan. Found from sea level to <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span>. 450 m asl.
9113		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, solitary species is found on sandy soils and mud flats in eastern deserts. In Saudi Arabia the species is associated with <em>Haloxylon</em>, <em>Calligonum</em>, <em>Ephera alata</em> and <em>Artemesia</em> bushes (Qumsiyeh 1996) which provide shelter. It is mainly gramnivorous but becomes omnivorous in response to available resources (Scott and Dunstone, 2000). Information on reproduction is limited but suggests an extended reproductive season in the Arabian Peninsular (Harrison 1972), up to eight young are born.  In Jordan, the species is found in sand dunes (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).
9113		population	eng	A common species. It was considered 'Least Concern' in the United Arab Emirates by Hornby (1996). It is known from many localities in Saudi Arabia. In Jordan, the species' density ranges from 2.71 and 3.75 individuals/ha (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).
9113		threats	eng	No major threats.
9114		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9114		distribution	eng	This species is largely found in northwestern Kenya and northeastern Uganda, especially around Lake Turkana.
9114		habitat	eng	This is a semi-desert species found in areas of open, sandy, gravel plains with sparse vegetation.
9114		population	eng	The population abundance is unknown, but historical records suggest that it is uncommon.
9114		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9116		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas in Israel (G. Shenbrot pers. comm. 2006).
9116		distribution	eng	Middle East, Arabian Peninsular and marginally into eastern desert of Egypt. In the Mediterranean it occurs in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey. Occurs up to 2,000 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).
9116		distribution	eng	Middle East, Arabian Peninsular and marginally into eastern desert of Egypt. In the Mediterranean it occurs in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey. Occurs up to 2,000 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007).
9116		habitat	eng	This solitary, burrowing species occurs in a variety of arid habitats including desert, semi-desert, and rocky habitats in hill country.
9116		population	eng	A common species.
9116		threats	eng	No major threats.
9119		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
9119		distribution	eng	This little known species is found in eastern Ethiopia, central Somalia, Djibouti, and Eritrea.
9119		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from sandy areas in bare, or sparsely vegetated, rocky plains, low grassland and dry savanna.
9119		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
9119		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9120		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
9120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Yemen in the southwest Arabian Peninsula. The limits of its geographic range are not yet clear.
9120		habitat	eng	This is a social burrowing species which occurs in <em>Euphorbia</em> wooded hillsides, sometimes inhabiting the buurows of other species (Harison and Bates 1991). It has also been trapped in fallow fields. Little is known of its biology and ecology.
9120		population	eng	There is little information on this species, but it is believed to be common in suitable habitats.
9120		threats	eng	There are believed to be no major threats to this species, which is believed to be adaptable.
9121		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species and it is not known if it is present in any protected areas.
9121		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern Egypt from eastern fringes of Nile delta to the Sinai Peninsula (south of El Arish). It was previously believed to be restricted to the type locality, however, recent chromosome data has clarified the extent of this species range (L. Granjon pers. comm.). Also recorded extralimitally from Israel and Palestine (Happold in press).
9121		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky desert, sandy coastal plains, grassy valleys, and also within palm tree groves and cultivated areas.
9121		population	eng	It is a common species, sometimes found in high densities.
9121		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9123		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure in place, however, in view of its wide range it is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.
9123		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the desert and semi-desert regions of northern Africa. It also occurs marginally in Israel and Jordan.
9123		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in dry sandy or rocky areas, sometimes with sparse and coarse vegetation. It is also found in in areas close to palm groves.
9123		population	eng	It is a common species.
9123		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9124		conservation	eng	It is known from Desert National Park, Rajasthan. Field surveys, habitat management and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9124		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Pakistan (Sindh) and India (Gujarat and Rajasthan) in South Asia. It occurs at elevations of 750 to 800 m, and is widely distributed in the region (Agrawal 2000, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, Musser and Carleton 2005).
9124		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, fossorial, terrestrial and gregarious species occurs in desert, semi-desert regions and agricultural lands has been found to occupy interdunal grasslands, shifting sand dunes, uncultivated fields. Although all species of rats and mice (family Muridae) are considered pests by the Indian government, only a few of these, including <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gleadowi</span>, are actually detrimental to crops (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
9124		population	eng	There has been a quantitative decrease in the population at the rate of <10% in the past five years, with a future decline at the rate of <10% predicted in the coming 10 years due to habitat loss because of livestock grazing and changes brought over by the construction of irrigation canals (S. Chakraborty pers. comm. 2005).
9124		threats	eng	The major threat for the habitat is the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal. Initially the species might benefit due to grazing as the habitat structure improves for it (sand becomes loose) but later due to heavy grazing the plant productivity (seed production) will be affected and hence the population will decline. Grazing also breaks up the mounds which affect the burrowing behaviour. The species will probably be more patchily distributed as a result of the canal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Other threats to the species include: habitat loss and degradation due to small-holder farming, livestock grazing; presence of alien species and predators; pollution due to excessive use of pesticides and disturbance due to human activities and transport.
9125		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Taxonomic research is required to clarify the status of this species.
9125		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, and it may be restricted to coastal parts of Libya (Durna). It is likely to be a population of <em>G. amoenus</em> occurring in Libya.
9125		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from coastal sand dunes.
9125		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
9125		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species faces any threats.
9126		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it has been recorded from many protected areas.
9126		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Kenya (the Rift valley) and northern and central Tanzania.
9126		habitat	eng	It occurs in open, dry woodland, savanna, on gravel or pebbly soils.
9126		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is variable and it may be considered common to uncommon.
9126		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9127		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas. No specific measures are in place or needed.
9127		distribution	eng	This species occurs in arid and semi-desert areas surrounding the Sahara Desert. It has been recorded in central Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia, northern Libya, northern Egypt, Sudan, central Chad, central Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, south Mauritania and northern Senegal. Outside Africa there are records from Israel, Jordan and the western Arabian peninsula.
9127		habitat	eng	A semi-desert and desert species.
9127		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant in suitable habitat.
9127		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9128		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
9128		distribution	eng	A Moroccan endemic, this species is restricted to around 30 km of sandy habitats near to Essaouira (north of high Atlas).
9128		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy habitats close to the coastline.
9128		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but it is probably naturally small (due to the restricted habitat). It is likely to be declining as a result of habitat loss and disturbance.
9128		threats	eng	The species is threatened by disturbance of its coastal habitat by tourism, especially during the summer months. In addition, the development of infrastructure for the tourist industry is leading to habitat loss for this species.
9129		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Souss Massa National Park, Morocco.
9129		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco, where it is restricted to sand habitats in the Souss plain and along the coast between the high Atlas and the Anti-Atlas Mountains.
9129		habitat	eng	It is found in low sand dunes and generally sandy areas.
9129		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
9129		threats	eng	This species is threatened by disturbance and habitat loss caused by increasing tourism and agricultural use (with irrigation) in the Souss plain.
9130		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
9130		distribution	eng	Known only from type locality; east coast of Tunisia (between Bou Ficha and Enfidaville).
9130		habitat	eng	Unknown.
9130		population	eng	Unknown (only holotype known).
9130		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9131		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9131		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from several areas in southern Somalia, and a single record in northern Somalia (the type locality of Bulhar).
9131		habitat	eng	This species is found from semi-desert, coastal gravel plains, to dry savanna and open grassland with sparse shrub.
9131		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9131		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9132		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
9132		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Tunisia and northwestern Libya.
9132		habitat	eng	This species is associated with desert edge and subdesert habitats. Occurs on plataeus and small dunes (Aulagnier, S. pers. comm.).
9132		population	eng	There is nothing known about population abundance and trends of this species.
9132		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9133		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9133		distribution	eng	This species is only known from type locality of Jebel Marra in the Dharfur region of Sudan.
9133		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be found in the arid, rocky habitats of Jebel Mara.
9133		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends for this species.
9133		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9134		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
9134		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in Wadi Alagi, Egypt (eastern desert of Nubia), and has also been recorded from parts of southeastern Egypt and northeastern Sudan.
9134		habitat	eng	This species is found in open areas of bare soil in rocky plains. Also found in agricultural areas. Found in abandoned villages up to 750 m.
9134		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends of this species, although further surveys may reveal it to be common.
9134		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9135		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It almost certainly requires the conservation of appropriate habitat in the face of agricultural expansion. Research is needed to gain more information on threats and conservation needs.
9135		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun Rivers (see Lay and Nadler 1975). The bulk of its range is in Iraq, but it extends into southwestern Iran (in the Karun valley) in Khuzistan Province, and into eastern Syria in the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributary, the Khabur (D. Kock pers. comm.).
9135		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun Rivers (see Lay and Nadler, 1975). The bulk of its range is in Iraq, but it extends into southwestern Iran (in the Karun valley) in Khuzistan Province, and into eastern Syria in the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributary, the Khabur (D. Kock pers. comm.).
9135		habitat	eng	This species is adapted to the boundary zone between alluvial valley bottoms and dry desert, where it lives in colonies in burrows in areas with sparse vegetation (Lay and Nadler, 1975). It is crepuscular and nocturnal. It appears that reproduction occurs throughout the year. Two to eight young are born (mean 5). Predadors include the domestic cat, jackals and mongoose. Unlike most gerbils, this species only occurs adjacent to rivers in fluvial soils, which also tend to be used for intensive arable land in which the species cannot survive. As a result, the species is patchily distributed.
9135		population	eng	It is believed to be common in suitable habitat. In 1970 the species was common along the banks of the Euphrates River.
9135		threats	eng	The specific habitat in which the species occurs is under pressure from the expansion of intense, irrigated agriculture.
9136		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
9136		distribution	eng	Occurs in the western part of the Sahara and Sahel (from Morocco to Tunisia in the north and from Mauritania through northern Mali and Niger to Chad in the south). Also present in the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East through Afghanistan and Pakistan to northwest India.
9136		habitat	eng	Found in desert, semi-desert, arable land and gardens. Mostly found in parts of the desert with relatively deep soil and abundant vegetation, such as wadis, oases, sebkhas edges and sand-clay plains or basins.
9136		population	eng	It is a common species.
9136		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9137		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Banc d'Arguin National Park, Mauritania, and it may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9137		distribution	eng	This largely West African species ranges from western Mauritania in the west, through Mali, Niger and northern Nigeria to extreme western Chad. It is also found in the sandy islands of Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania.
9137		habitat	eng	It is found in various sandy habitats and agricultural areas in the Sahel region.
9137		population	eng	This is a very abundant, agricultural pest species.
9137		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9138		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into taxonomy, population numbers and range is needed.
9138		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coastal sandy habitats south of the Anti-Atlas Mountains, Morocco. The eastern and southern limits of the species distribution are not known.
9138		habitat	eng	This species is associated with sparsely vegetated coastal sand dunes.
9138		population	eng	The population abundance and trends of this species are not known.
9138		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9140		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
9140		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Egypt west of the Nile. It is found as far west as the Qatara Depression, however, it is not found in the depression.
9140		habitat	eng	This species is known from consolidated coastal sand dunes and other sandy habitats, including sandy areas close to fields and vegetation, but not within agricultural land.
9140		population	eng	This species is common within its restricted distribution.
9140		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9141		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
9141		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coastal mountain ranges of the Red Sea and the westernmost part of the Gulf of Aden in western and southern Yemen and in southwestern Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991).
9141		habitat	eng	This heavily built gerbil prefers sandy areas near villages, stores and cultivated areas. It appears to be less adapted to arid areas than most of its counterparts. Breeding is thought to occur throughout the year, the peak seasons being autumn and winter. Little is known of its biology.
9141		population	eng	It is believed to be abundant in appropriate habitat.
9141		threats	eng	This is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
9142		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus principulus</em> is a valid species, and to better understand where the species is distributed.
9142		distribution	eng	This poorly-known taxon has been reported from the type locality of 'El Malha, Jebel Meidob' (approximate distribution mapped), and an additional locality to the west of Khartoum (F. Dieterlen pers. comm.).
9142		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in rocky plains with scrub vegetation.
9142		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9142		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9143		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Omo National Park, Ethiopia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9143		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Djibouti, southwestern Ethiopia, northwestern Kenya and possibly southeastern Sudan.
9143		habitat	eng	It is found in a range of dry habitats, from rocky plains to open grassland.
9143		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
9143		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9144		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
9144		distribution	eng	This East African species has been recorded from localities in eastern Ethiopia and south Somalia (including Awash), southeastern Sudan, Kenya and northern Tanzania.
9144		habitat	eng	It is found in open grasslands or bare, rocky plains.
9144		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
9144		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9145		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
9145		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Nile valley and oases of Egypt and northern Sudan. From Sudan, it ranges westwards through Chad and Niger to Mali, and possibly Mauritania.
9145		habitat	eng	This species is associated with sandy habitats in desert and semi desert areas.
9145		population	eng	It is a common species.
9145		threats	eng	There are no major threats are known to this species. The species occurs in the Nile Valley where there is extensive agriculture, but the effects of this on the species are not known at present.
9149		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.
9149		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range. It is found from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and the high plateaus of Algeria, eastwards through Tunisia to northwestern Libya. The species is also present in coastal parts of northeastern Libya and Egypt west of the Nile River. It is a lowland species.
9149		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rich steppe grassland vegetation and cultivated areas, especially arable cropland. Unlike many other <em>Gerbillus</em> species, <em>G. simoni</em> is not found in sandy habitats.
9149		population	eng	It is not common, and is collected in traps less frequently than other <em>Gerbillus</em> species.
9149		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
9150		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9150		distribution	eng	This little-known species is known only from two records, the type locality of Upper Sheikh, Somalia, and a single record from Djibouti (Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is likely to occur in the uniform, and presumably suitable, habitat between these two localities.
9150		habitat	eng	It is found in deserts, areas of bare soil, open gravel plains and grasslands with very sparse vegetation.
9150		population	eng	The population abundance and trends of this species are not known.
9150		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
9151		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9151		distribution	eng	The type locality of this poorly-known species is Khartoum, Sudan. It is only known from three localities to the west of the White Nile in Sudan.
9151		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in areas of rocky plains and open grassland on consolidated sands.
9151		population	eng	There is no information on the population abundance of this species.
9151		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9153		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it occurs in protected areas over much of its range.
9153		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of northwest Africa. It is found in the arid and desert areas of Morocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Chad, Niger, Mali and Mauritania.
9153		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy desert and semi-desert areas. Also occurs in steppes in coastal zones (S. Aulagnier pers. comm.)
9153		population	eng	This is a common species.
9153		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9155		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
9155		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded at a number of separate localities in Sudan and Djibouti.
9155		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from consolidated soils in gravel plains, semi-desert and desert.
9155		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends for this species.
9155		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9178		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
9180		distribution	eng	Recorded from a small area in the Alvord River basin.
9180		habitat	eng	Found in springs and spring-fed streams.
9182		distribution	eng	Restricted to Borax Lake basin, and outflow waters in Alvord Basin, Harney County, south-central Oregon.
9184		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Colorado River system.
9194		conservation	eng	East (1999) estimated that around 40% of the total population survived in and around protected areas, with the main strongholds including: Waza National Park and the hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon); Zakouma National Park (Chad); Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda); Boma National Park (Sudan); South Luangwa National Park (Zambia); and, in southern Africa, Etosha National Park (Namibia), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe) and Kruger National Park (South Africa) (East 1999; Ciofolo and Pendu in press). Some of the major protected populations have decreased during the 1990s in national parks such as Serengeti (Tanzania) and Tsavo (Kenya).<br/><br/>In Niger, conservation projects have facilitated the Niger Giraffe’s population recovery in an area outside any formal protected park or reserve. However, poaching and habitat loss and degradation as a result of increased aridity, and expansion of human activities remain threats (Ciofolo and Pendu in press). This small population survives only in the wild, since the Giraffes held in captivity in the Vincennes Zoo, France, which were long considered to represent <em>peralta</em>, in fact belong to the subspecies <em>antiquorum</em> (Hassanin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Rothschild's Giraffe is one of the most imperilled Giraffe subspecies remaining. Exact numbers of giraffes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Murchison</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Falls</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> are approximate due to lack of surveys but are most recently estimated at approximately 240 individuals. Determining exact population numbers and conservation status of the Murchison Falls National Park Rothschild's Giraffe population is a priority for long-term conservation of this subspecies. Wildlife Conservation Society are planning a survey in 2010.
9194		distribution	eng	The Giraffe formerly occurred in arid and dry-savanna zones of sub-Saharan Africa, wherever trees occur. Today, its range has contracted markedly with the expansion of human populations, especially in West Africa. <br/><br/>In West Africa, Giraffe formerly ranged from Senegal to Lake Chad, but the only viable surviving population within this entire area is a small population in south-western Niger with a range of about 15,000 km² (Boulet <em>et al.</em> 2004). This represents the only surviving wild population of <em>G. c. peralta</em>; a small population observed in the Ansongo-Menaka Partial Faunal Reserve in Mali, on the border of Niger, is presumed to be extinct.<br/><br/>Giraffe are still present in northern Cameroon, southern Chad, Central African Republic and in Garamba National Park in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (East 1999); there is limited information on their occurrence in Sudan, west of the Nile (where they were not recorded at all during the course of recent surveys), but they do still occur in the south-east (in Boma National Park) (Fay <em>et al</em>. 2007). In East and north-east Africa, Giraffe still occur in relatively large numbers in northern Kenya, mainly outside protected areas, in south-western and southern Ethiopia, Somalia, and in small numbers in a few protected areas in Uganda; they are now extinct in Eritrea. Giraffe remain relatively widely distributed through southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Of some concern is the status of Rothschild’s Giraffe, for which the only remaining naturally occurring population occurs in Murchison Falls National Park, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Rothschild's Giraffes have been re-introduced to six sites in Kenya (Ruma National Park; Mt Elgon National Park; Murgor Farm, Iten; Sergoit-Kruger Farm, Iten; Kitale Area Farm; Nasalot Reserve) and one site in Uganda (Kidepo Valley National Park) within the native range. Six extralimital introductions have also taken place in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  <br/><br/>There is an isolated population of Giraffe (Thornicroft’s Giraffe <em>G. c. thornicrofti</em>) in the Luangwa Valley (Zambia).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, having been reintroduced to many parts of the range from which they were eliminated, Giraffes are currently common both inside and outside a number of protected areas in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa. In Angola, the Giraffe is now assumed to be extinct. A few animals are reported to still survive in Sioma Ngwezi National Park in south-western Zambia, while in Mozambique, a few individuals still occur in the area adjacent to Kruger National Park. Giraffe have been introduced to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Swaziland</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Giraffe Conservation foundation pers. obs., J. Fennessy pers. obs., Ciofolo and Pendu in press).
9194		habitat	eng	Typically associated with <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Commiphora</em> and <em>Combretum</em> savannas, but they also occur marginally in miombo <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoberlina</span> woodland, in Cameroon (Ciofolo and Pendu in press). Giraffes are selective browsers, with Acacia species forming the bulk of their diet throughout the range, but also species of the genera <em>Balanites</em>, <em>Commiphora</em>, <em>Detarium</em>, <em>Boscia</em>, <em>Combretum</em>, <em>Ziziphus</em> and <em>Grewia</em> (Ciofolo and Pendu in press).
9194		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population at about 140,000 animals, predominantly in areas dominated by Acacia woodlands and shrublands. More recent preliminary estimates put the total population at less than 80,000 animals (  International Giraffe Working Group and Giraffe Conservation Foundation pers. comm.); efforts are currently under way to census the continent’s populations more accurately (Fennessy 2007) which will enable a more thorough determination of the conservation status of the species and subspecies. <br/><br/>The population in Niger estimated to number 79 animals in 1999 (Ciofolo <em>et al.</em> 2000), has since increased to more than 200 animals in 2007 (  J Suraud pers. obs.).   <br/><br/>In 1998 there was an estimated population of more than 500 Rothschild’s (and Nubian) giraffe, with the populations from Sudan unknown (East 1999). There were an estimated 2,500 individuals in Murchison Falls National Park in the 1960s, declining sharply to 350 in 1982–1983 and 250 in 1995–1996. The current population in Murchison Falls National Park is estimated to be of 240 individuals and stable.   The reintroduced population in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Ruma National Park</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>, is estimated to be of 130 individuals and is declining due to poaching. Numbers at each of the other five reintroduction sites are of 10-20 individuals and some of these are unlikely to be viable. In sum, Rothschild’s Giraffe is estimated to number less than 470 individuals in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>, with an unknown (but likely small) number in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
9194		threats	eng	While southern populations are increasing in abundance, northern populations have been decreasing due to habitat degradation and poaching. For example, poaching and armed conflict across the range of the Reticulated Giraffe in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya has reduced numbers to perhaps fewer than 5,000 individuals (  Giraffe Conservation Foundation pers. obs., Fennessy 2007).
9197		conservation	eng	It would be important to investigate the relation between this species and human activities.&#160;Although it appears to be well adapted to the life in highly degraded biotopes, such as gardens, it would be necessary to identify the extent to which these sites are really suitable for the species and whether population trends are as positive as they seem to be or not.
9197		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of Algarve in Portugal (Puente 2006).
9197		habitat	eng	This species lives in low altitudes on calcareous substrate, near the coast. It is frequent on old walls and in old gardens and parks in cities. It is also found in shrublands and cultivated areas.
9197		population	eng	There are no population trends for this species, but it is frequent and locally very common.
9197		threats	eng	Although this species seems to be well adapted to human influence, it is currently facing some issues related to the increased&#160;urbanization. Pollution is also a concern.
9199		conservation	eng	This species has been given a low monitoring priority status of 3 and is considered Rare under the Australian Threatened Species Act, 1995 (Driessen and Hocking 2008).&#160;Further research is recommended to provide an estimate of abundance for this species and confirm the potential threats.
9199		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Great Lake, Tasmania (Ponder and Avern 2000). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 160 km<sup>2</sup>.
9199		habitat	eng	This species is known from the Great Lake in Tasmania, where it is found in soft mud sediments, in a depth of up to 30 metres (Fulton 1983, Ponder and Avern 2000).
9199		population	eng	Only two specimens of this species were found in the Great Lake, Tasmania in 1983, but it was described as 'quite common' when sampled during 1981 (Fulton 1983). There is no recent population information available for this species.
9199		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include predation by the introduced species of carp <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> (Ponder and Avern 2000), and habitat modification as a result of the Great Lake significantly increasing in size due to the construction of dams in 1920 and 1964 (Department of Primary Industries and Water 2009). This was to produce hydroeclectric power and has changed the lake from a shallow into a deep lake (Department of Primary Industries and Water 2009).
9240		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
9240		distribution	eng	This species is found in Texas, Kansas, and Minnesota in the United States, east to Quebec and Nova Scotia in Canada (uncommon to rare in these provinces) and eastern United States; there are montane populations scattered from northwestern Mexico to Honduras (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
9240		habitat	eng	It prefers deciduous and mixed forests, particularly beech-maple, oak-hickory and poplar. Also occurs in old orchards. In New Hampshire, preferentially used areas with large shagbark hickories and beeches; males tended to use areas with large oaks, females tended to use areas with abundant snags (Fridell and Litvaitis 1991). Favours small, abandoned woodpecker holes for den sites; also uses nest boxes and abandoned bird and squirrel nests outside tree cavities. <br/><br/>Births peak April-May and late summer in the north, late February-March and September-October in the south. Litter size usually is about 2-3 in the south, 3-4 in the north. Young first breed in spring after birth in the north, may breed late in first summer in the south. Two distinct breeding periods in New Hampshire, February-March and June-July. Females produce two litters per year.<br/><br/>This species is highly sociable, particularly in winter, when communal nesting peaks; communal nesting aggregations occur in both northern and southern populations (Layne and Raymond 1994). May be ousted from cavities by some large cavity-nesting birds; may kill or oust some small cavity-nesting birds. Home ranges of <em>G. volans</em> varied from 5-13 hectares, mean 7.4 hectares (Weigl and Osgood 1974).<br/><br/>Diet includes plant and animal foods. Feeds on insects in spring; nuts, seeds, and fruits through the rest of the year. May eat birds (especially eggs and young) and carrion. Caches food for winter. In South Carolina, acorns were most important throughout year; pine seeds, other plant material, and a few insects also consumed (Harlow and Doyle 1990). Active at night throughout the year, except during extreme winter cold. Will enter a state of torpor in cold periods.
9240		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of range (NatureServe). Population density was estimated at 31-38/ha in southeastern Virginia (Sawyer and Rose 1985), 10-14/ha in Maryland, 1.5-2.5/ha in Michigan-Massachusetts (Layne and Raymond 1994).
9240		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall. Localised threats include loss of habitat and loss of cavity-bearing and mast-producing trees. In Arkansas, a seed-tree harvest regime, particularly without retained overstorey hardwoods, produced a level of disturbance and resource depletion that was too severe for flying squirrel persistence (Taulman <em>et al.</em> 1998).
9245		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from some protected areas. Studies on distribution, abundance, and ecology are needed for this species.
9245		distribution	eng	Little is known about this species range. It has been collected from the Amazonian regions of Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru (Gardner, 2007), and Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The species is found up to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000; D. Tirira pers. comm.). The disjunct distribution is likely a sampling artifact.
9245		habitat	eng	There is a lack of information on the ecology of this species. Four specimens were taken by animal dealers from dense, humid tropical forests. The diet probably consists of insects, seeds, fruits and eggs. This species is nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary. It is known from rainforest and dry forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). There are no records from outside of the forest.
9245		population	eng	This species is apparently extremely rare; it is known only from nine individuals, each from a different locality (Emmons and Feer, 1997). The rarity of known individuals is likely due to difficulty sampling.
9245		threats	eng	Parts of its Brazilian range are likely threatened by deforestation, although the connectivity of these range outliers makes the extent of this threat difficult to measure.
9246		conservation	eng	It was designated a natural monument in Japan in 1975. It is present in protected areas.
9246		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Dogo Island (Oki Islands).
9246		habitat	eng	The species is found in mature primary and secondary forests in lower montane to subalpine zones (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is mostly arboreal and nocturnal, and eats insects, fruits, birds eggs and other small animals (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
9246		population	eng	A widespread species, but not common. The local population density is estimated to be 0.8/ha in some areas (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
9246		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9247		conservation	eng	This species has been collected by A. Suyato from Gunung Halimun National Park (U. Sinaga pers. comm.). Further research to determine the species' range, population status, habitats and threats is needed.
9247		distribution	eng	This species, described in 1939, is known only from two neighbouring localities on Mt Pangeango in western Java, Indonesia.
9247		habitat	eng	There is no information specific to this species. Members of the genus, are sometimes recorded in bamboo, and often cope with cultivated habitats. A. Suyanto collected a specimen in bamboo (U. Sinanga pers. comm.). It is not usually dependent on water and it probably lives in small colonies.
9247		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It has been collected only twice, seventy years apart.
9247		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss in the lowland regions could be a threat, assuming its reliant on primary habitat.
9248		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
9248		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Myanmar, through Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Moluccas Islands (Indonesia), Borneo, Sumatra, Java and the Philippines. In the Philippines there are records from Palawan Island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
9248		habitat	eng	This species roosts in rock crevices, in hollow bamboo, and in banana leaves in Peninsular Malaysia (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). Habitat and ecological requirements are unknown in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
9248		population	eng	The species is uncommon throughout most of its range although it can sometimes be locally common.
9248		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
9249		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of potential threats on this species.
9249		distribution	eng	Short-finned Pilot Whales are found in warm temperate to tropical waters of the world, generally in deep offshore areas (Reilly and Shane 1986, Olson and Reilly 2002). They do not usually range north of 50°N or south of 40°S. There is some distributional overlap with their long-finned relatives (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. melas</span> is the only other species currently recognized), which appear to prefer cold temperate waters of the North Atlantic, Southern Hemisphere, and previously the western North Pacific. Only Short-finned Pilot Whales are currently thought to inhabit the North Pacific, although distribution and taxonomy of pilot whales in this area are still largely unresolved (Kasuya 1992). The two geographic forms of Short-Finned Pilot Whale off Japan have different, but partially-overlapping, distributions. The range includes the Sea of Japan. This species is not thought to inhabit the Mediterranean Sea, but it does occur in the southern Red Sea (Olson 2009). There are no confirmed accounts of <em>Globicephala</em> in the Persian Gulf, which is generally shallow with high salinity and turbidity (Boer <em>et al</em>. 2003, Preen 2004).
9249		habitat	eng	These animals are found in deep waters, typically in highest densities over the outer continental shelf or continental slope. They occur in tropical to cool temperate waters. In 1982–83, a strong El Niño event brought about major ecosystem changes off the southern California coast. Pilot whales avoided the area (presumably due to the absence of spawning squid) for much of the next 10 years.<br/><br/>This species feeds on vertically migrating prey, with deep dives at dusk and dawn following vertically migrating prey and near-surface foraging at night (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Although they also take fish, pilot whales are thought to be primarily adapted to feeding on squid. One of the main forms taken off the California coast is the Market Squid (<span style="font-style: italic;">Loligo</span> sp.). Short-finned Pilot Whales show the tooth reduction typical of other squid-eating cetaceans.
9249		population	eng	Estimates of abundance exist for several areas. The northern form off Japan has a subpopulation estimated at 4,000–5,000, and the southern form has an estimated subpopulation of about 14,000 in coastal waters (Miyashita 1993). Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated abundances in the Philippines: eastern Sulu Sea - 7,492 (CV = 29%); Tañon Strait - 179 (CV = 96%). There are an estimated 589,000 (CV=26%) Short-finned Pilot Whales in the eastern tropical Pacific (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002), and an estimated 304 (CV=102%) in waters off the North American west coast (Barlow 2003). In Hawaiian waters, there are estimated to be 8,846 (CV=49%) (Barlow 2006). The Gulf of Mexico contains at least 2,388 (CV=48%) animals (Mullin and Fulling 2004), and 31,139 (CV=27%) pilot whales of both species are estimated to occur in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Trend data are not available throughout the range of the species; however, abundance estimates of short-finned pilot whales in the eastern tropical Pacific significantly increased from 1986–1990 to 1998–2000 (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002). There is no information on global trends in the abundance of this species.
9249		threats	eng	The Short-finned Pilot Whale has been exploited for centuries in the western North Pacific. The largest catches have recently occurred off Japan, where small coastal whaling stations and drive fisheries take a few hundred annually. In recent years, the southern form continues to sustain a higher kill than the northern form and is considered depleted The current annual national quota is 50. In 1982, the drive fishery at Taiji expanded and harpooning of the northern form was resumed off Sanriku and Hokkaido. Between 1982 and 1985, 1,755 whales of the southern form were killed, and 519 of the northern form were taken during this same period. The current annual national quota is 450. From 1985 to 1989, Japan took a total of 2,326 short-finned pilot whales. The drive fisheries in Japan, as well as the Japanese harpoon fishery continue today. In 1997, Japan recorded a catch of 347 Short-finned Pilot Whales (Olson and Reilly 2002).<br/><br/>A small, intermittently active fishery takes around 220 pilot whales per year at St. Vincent, and there are reports of a small fishery at St. Lucia (Bernard and Reilly 1999). Reliable catch data are not available for these Caribbean hunts. The species is also hunted in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, also with no regular reporting of catch levels.<br/><br/>Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1994) reported on directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Hunters at four of the seven investigated fishing villages took cetaceans for bait or human consumption, including short-finned pilot whales. These are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Around 800 cetaceans are taken annually by hunters at the sites investigated, mostly during the inter-monsoon period of February–May. Dolphin meat is consumed or sold in local markets and some dolphin skulls are cleaned and sold as curios. Although takes and possession were banned in December 1992, the ban did not stop dolphin and whale hunting, but it seems to have decreased the sale of dolphin meat openly in the market.<br/><br/>In U.S. Atlantic waters, pilot whales have been taken in a variety of fisheries (Olson and Reilly 2002). Based on preliminary data, the squid round-haul fishery in southern California waters is estimated to have taken 30 Short-finned Pilot Whales in one year. In the California drift gill net fishery between 1993 and 1995, the mean annual take of Short-finned Pilot Whales was 20 (Bernard and Reilly 1999). About 4 individuals/year are killed in the Hawaii-based long-line fishery (Forney and Kobayashi 2005). Such interactions have also been recorded in the western tropical Indian Ocean (Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, unpublished data). On the other side of the Pacific Ocean, an estimated 350 - 750 <em>G. macrorhynchus</em> die annually in passive nets and traps set in a Japanese fishery (Bernard and Reilly 1999) and an unknown number are taken incidentally by the large-mesh pelagic driftnets off eastern Taiwan. The most common human-related cause of death observed in waters off Puerto Rico and the US and British Virgin Islands were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by gunshots and spear wounds (Mignucci <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for Short-finned Pilot Whales (Hohn <em>et al</em>. 2006). Around Taiwan and adjacent areas, a series of unusual strandings of short-finned pilot whales coincided with large-scale military exercises in 2004 but whether these strandings were related to the exercises is unknown (Wang and Yang 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect short-finned pilot whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
9250		conservation	eng	<p>One of the areas with regular confirmed presence of Long-finned Pilot Whales in the Mediterranean, the western section of the Ligurian Sea, is included within the marine Sanctuary dedicated to cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, created by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco (Pelagos Sanctuary, SPAMI). No management or conservation measures have been taken as yet specifically for the conservation of this species.<br/></p>  <p>A SPAMI (Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance) under the Barcelona Convention has been proposed for the northern half of the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera in southern Spain (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005), but it has not yet been designated or even evaluated by the Spanish administration. This proposed area includes the “hot-spots” for Long-finned Pilot Whales in the Mediterranean.<br/></p>  In 2009 the Long-finned Pilot Whale was proposed as "Vulnerable" for the Spanish National Catalogue of Endangered Species, but evaluation and acceptance by the authorities is still pending.
9250		conservation	eng	The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations have been listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. <br/><br/>One of the areas with regular confirmed presence of long-finned pilot whales in the Mediterranean, the western section of the Ligurian Sea, is included within the marine Sanctuary dedicated to cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, created by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco (Pelagos Sanctuary, SPAMI). No management or conservation measures have been taken as yet specifically for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>A SPAMI (Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance) under the Barcelona Convention has been proposed for the northern half of the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera in southern Spain (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2005), but it has not yet been designated or even evaluated by the Spanish administration. This proposed area includes the “hot-spots” for long-finned pilot whales in the Mediterranean.
9250		conservation	eng	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations have been listed in Appendix II of CMS. However, recent data on movements in the northwest and northeast Atlantic suggest that these subpopulations should also be included in Appendix II of CMS. Attention should also be paid to the western North Atlantic subpopulation(s), in particular those migrating between United States and Canadian waters, formerly depleted by over-hunting and now facing increasing incidental mortality in trawl fisheries (Reyes 1991).
9250		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean region, Long-finned Pilot Whales occur in the western Mediterranean Sea, including Strait  of Gibraltar.<br/>  <p>There are no confirmed records of Long-finned Pilot Whales from the eastern Mediterranean basin (Marchessaux and Duguy 1978, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003) other than a floating carcass reported from the Gulf of Taranto off eastern Italy (Centro Studi Cetacei 1998), but a few unconfirmed sightings have been reported from Turkish waters (A. Oztürk pers. comm.) and other unspecified areas (three sightings; McBrearty <em>et al</em>. 1986). The species therefore is considered to occur regularly only in the western Mediterranean Sea. No information exists about its possible former presence in the eastern basin.<br/></p>  <p>Confirmed records are from: Morocco (rare except in the Straits of Gibraltar; Bayed 1996; Verborgh 2005; de Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005; Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, although recent inquiries suggest a larger presence in Moroccan waters according to the stranding records; Belcaid, pers. comm.), Algeria (scarce; Boutiba 1994), Tunisia (rare; Lotfi <em>et al</em>. 1997), Spain (abundant in the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera but scarce northwards; Raga and Pantoja 2004, Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005), France (scarce; UNEP-RAC/SPA 1998, Gannier 2005) and Italy (regular to scarce; e.g. Podestá <em>et al</em>. 1997, Azzelino <em>et al</em>. 2008).</p><br/><p>  </p><p><br/></p>
9250		distribution	eng	Long-finned pilot whales occur in temperate and subpolar zones (Olson and Reilly 2002). They are found in oceanic waters and some coastal waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea and North Sea. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs in deep offshore waters, including those inside the western Mediterranean Sea (where is thought to be the only species of pilot whale found there), North Sea, and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Abend and Smith 1999). Long-finned pilot whales tend to follow their prey (squid and mackerel) inshore and into continental shelf waters during the summer and autumn (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In the western North Atlantic, they occur in high densities over the continental slope in winter and spring months.  In summer and autumn months, they move over the shelf.  Long-finned pilot whales were previously found in the western North Pacific as well, but appear to be absent there today.  The circum-antarctic subpopulation(s) in the Southern Hemisphere occur as far south as the Antarctic Convergence, sometimes to 68°S.  They are apparently isolated from those of the Northern Hemisphere (Bernard and Reilly 1999).
9250		distribution	eng	Long-finned pilot whales occur in temperate and subpolar zones (Olson and Reilly 2002). They are found in oceanic waters and some coastal waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea and North Sea. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs in deep offshore waters, including those inside the western Mediterranean Sea (where it is thought to be the only species of pilot whale found), North Sea, and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Abend and Smith 1999). Long-finned pilot whales were previously found in the western North Pacific as well but appear to be absent there today. The circum-Antarctic subpopulation(s) in the Southern Hemisphere occur as far south as the Antarctic Convergence, sometimes to 68°S. They are apparently isolated from those of the Northern Hemisphere (Bernard and Reilly 1999).
9250		habitat	eng	Long-finned pilot whales are highly social; they are generally found in pods of about 20-100, but some groups contain over 1,000 individuals.  These large pods are generally dispersed in smaller subgroups of 10-20.  Based on photo-identification and genetic work, pilot whales appear to live in relatively stable, maternally-based pods like those of killer whales, and not in the fluid groups characteristic of many smaller dolphins.<br/><br/>This is one of the species most often involved in mass strandings (Olson and Reilly 2002).  Strandings are fairly frequent, for instance, on Cape Cod (Massachusetts, USA) beaches from October to January.  Their tight social structure also makes pilot whales vulnerable to herding, and this has been taken advantage of by whalers in drive fisheries off Newfoundland, the Faroe Islands, and elsewhere.  <br/><br/>Primarily squid eaters, pilot whales will also take small medium-sized fish, such as mackerel, when available (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 1997).  Other fish species taken include cod, turbot, herring hake, and dogfish.  They will sometimes also ingest shrimp.  Pilot whales are deep divers, most feeding appears to take place at depths of 200-500 m.
9250		habitat	eng	Long-finned pilot whales tend to follow their prey (squid and mackerel) inshore and into continental shelf waters during the summer and autumn (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the western North Atlantic, they occur in high densities over the continental slope in winter and spring months. In summer and autumn months, they move off the shelf.<br/><br/>The typical temperature range for the species is 0 - 25°C (Martin 1994). The Alboran Sea is one of the most important areas for this species in the Mediterranean (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000); in this area, the average depth of encounters was about 850 m (ranging from 300 to 1,800 m), reflecting the distribution of their preferred diet, pelagic cephalopods. Around the Faroe Islands, tracking studies show a preference for waters over the border of the continental shelf (Bloch <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Off the coast of Chile, Aguayo <em>et al</em>. (1998) mainly sighted G. melas near the edge of the continental shelf. Goodall and Macnie (1998) reported on sightings in the south-eastern South Pacific, which were clustered from 30-35°S, 72- 78°W, at a maximum of about 160 nm from shore. In the southwestern South Atlantic, sightings were clustered in two areas, 34- 46°S and off Tierra del Fuego, 52-56°S, where schools were found up to 1,000 n. mi. from shore. Fifteen sightings were from waters south of the Antarctic Convergence, from December to March. Only one sighting was made south of 44°S in winter, probably due to lack of effort in southern seas during the colder months.<br/><br/>Primarily squid eaters, long-finned pilot whales will also take small medium-sized fish, such as mackerel, when available (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 1997). Other fish species taken include cod, turbot, herring hake, and dogfish. They will sometimes also ingest shrim.
9250		habitat	eng	<p>The Long-finned Pilot Whale is a predominantly offshore species with a preference for deep waters seaward of the continental shelf and slope in all areas of occurrence in the Mediterranean (Gannier 1995, Raga and Pantoja 2004, Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005, Azzelino <em>et al</em>. 2008). Preferred habitats are generally deeper than 500 m (mean of 849 m, SD = 281, range 207–1,800 m) with intermediate slopes in the Alborán Sea (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002, Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2005). They are even deeper in the central and northwestern Mediterranean: range 2,000–2,500 m in the Ligurian Sea (S. Airoldi, pers. comm.), mean of 2,063 m (SD = 875, range = 750–2,500) in the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1993) and mean of 2,056 m (SD = 403) in the Provença-Liguria area (Gannier 2005).<br/></p>  <p>The species is regarded as predominantly a squid-eater, but whales also feed at least occasionally on pelagic fish (Relini and Garibaldi 1992, Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002 and references therein, Olson and Reilly 2002).<br/></p>  Long-finned Pilot Whales are highly social, with a social structure similar to that of Killer Whales (Olson and Reilly 2002, de Stephanis 2007). Average group sizes in the Alborán Sea (30.3, SE = 2.19; Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005) and the Ligurian Sea (30.6, SE = 4.34, S. Airoldi, pers. comm.) are much larger than in other surveyed parts of the Mediterranean: 14 for the Strait of Gibraltar (de Stephanis 2007), 12 for the Tyrrhenian Sea (Di Natale 1982), 10 for the central and northwestern Mediterranean (SE = 1.33; Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1993) and 11 for the east coast of Spain (Raga and Pantoja 2004). Opportunistic sightings gave the highest average group size for the Alborán Sea in summer (23.4) compared to the rest of the Mediterranean and the NE Atlantic (9.5) (McBrearty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986).
9250		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>The species is common in the Alborán Sea and adjacent waters (Cañadas and Sagarminaga  2000), and relatively common to scarce in the rest of the western  Mediterranean, but it is not recorded in the eastern basin. Relative density  is unknown for most areas.</p><p>Estimates of abundance are available for the Strait of Gibraltar and the northern Alborán Sea. In the Strait of Gibraltar mark-recapture analysis on well-marked animals gives estimates ranging from 249 to 270 animals (Verborgh 2005, Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, De Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005, De Stephanis 2007). New estimates are available for 2006 (350, 95% CI of 314–386) and 2007 (297, 95% CI of 289–306) (CNEA 2009). In the Alborán Sea a preliminary abundance estimate was obtained through spatial modelling of line transect data, yielding an estimate of 1,890 animals, uncorrected for animals missed on the track line (therefore, this is considered an underestimate), with a 95% CI of 1,483–1,915 and CV = 0.07 (Jewell <em>et al</em>. 2007). Encounter rates are much higher in the Alborán Sea than in any other part of the Mediterranean (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000). Pilot whales are increasingly scarce in Spanish waters northwards from the Gulf  of Vera, comprising only 2.1–2.5% of cetacean sightings recorded there (Raga and Pantoja 2004). The percentages are also low in other areas of the Mediterranean (e.g., 0.9 % for the Central Mediterranean, 2% for the NW Mediterranean, 3.6% for North African waters and 7.9% south of the Balearic Islands, as compared to 18.3% for the Alborán Sea) (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000).</p><p>Strandings have been recorded in Morocco, Algeria, Italy, France and Spain (Boutiba 1994, <a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">Podestá <em>et al</em>. 1997,</a> UNEP-RAC/SPA 1998; Raga and Pantoja 2004, Belcaid pers. comm.). One animal (a floating carcass) was found in Greece (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003).</p>      <p>  </p><p>Recent genetic analyses suggest differentiation between Long-finned Pilot Whales in the Mediterranean (n=173) and the Atlantic (n=78). One haplotype is unique to the Mediterranean, being the only one recorded in the Alboran Sea (n=45) and shared by the Strait of Gibraltar (n=92) and other Mediterranean areas (n=36) together with two other haplotypes. These results also suggest the existence of two subpopulations in the Mediterranean Sea: the Strait of Gibraltar and the rest of the Mediterranean, but with some mixing (Verborgh, in prep).</p>  <p>Most Long-finned Pilot Whales are “resident” in the Strait of Gibraltar according to a photo-identification study (Verborgh 2005, Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, De Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005), although some individuals that have been seen only once in the last seven years are considered “transient” (Verborgh 2005, Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, De Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005).</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population Trend</span><br/></p>A reduction in abundance of around 15% is suspected to have occurred in the Strait of Gibraltar between 2006 and 2007 as a result of epizootics (CNEA 2009), but there is no suggestion of a longer-term decline in the abundance estimates since 1999 (Gauffier 2008). On the contrary, an overall positive trend is apparent, although this has not yet been quantified.<p>No trend in encounter rate has been recorded in the northern Alboran Sea. However, encounter rates in the two most recent years are the highest observed since 1992 (Cañadas, unpublished).</p>  There is no information on abundance in the rest of the Mediterranean.
9250		population	eng	Sighting surveys in 1987 and 1989 generated an abundance estimate of more than 750,000 pilot whales in the central and northeastern North Atlantic (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993). There are estimated to be about 200,000 long-finned pilot whales in summer south of the Antarctic Convergence in the Southern Hemisphere and approximately 31,000 (CV = 0.27) in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), but some of these are short-finned pilot whales. There is no information on global trends in abundance. There is little information on subpopulations within the species (Donovan <em>et al</em>. 1993).
9250		population	eng	There is little information on stocks within the species (Donovan <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the north-eastern Atlantic the number of pilot whales inhabiting the area between East Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Faroe Islands and off the western coasts of the British Islands and Ireland was estimated at around 778,000 (CV=30%) by Buckland <em>et al.</em> (1993). The removals by drive hunting at the Faroes (see below) have therefore been considered sustainable (NAMMCO 2000, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).
9250		threats	eng	Drive fisheries for long-finned pilot whales in the Faroe Islands date back to the Norse settlement in the 9th century.  Catch statistics exist from the Faroes since 1584, unbroken from 1709-today, show an annual average catch of 850 pilot whales (range: 0 - 4,480) with a cyclic variation according to the North-Atlantic climatic variations (Bloch and Lastein 1995). This level of offtake has been considered sustainable (NAMMCO 2000, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Incidental catches are reported from Newfoundland, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of France. In British waters, long-finned pilot whales are accidentally caught in gillnets, purse seines and in trawl fisheries. A 1990 workshop to review mortality of cetaceans in passive nets and traps documented an annual kill of 50-100 <em>G. melas</em> off the Atlantic coast of France. Furthermore, pilot whales are also known to be taken incidentally in swordfish driftnets in the Mediterranean (Olson and Reilly 2002). <br/> <br/>Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of  large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g. Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al.</em> 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g. Jackson <em>et al.</em> 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of long-finned pilot whales are unknown but could result in population declines. Commercial fisheries for squids are widespread in the western North Atlantic. Target species for these fisheries are squids eaten by pilot whales, again raising the possibility of prey depletion. <br/><br/>Long-finned pilot whales off the Faroes, France, UK and the eastern USA appear to have high levels of DDT and PCB in their tissues. Heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury also have been found in pilot whales from the Faroes. Because these contaminants accumulate in tissues over time, older animals and especially adult males tend to have the highest concentrations (Caurant and Amiard-Triquet 1995). <br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species of beaked whales indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items. Sometimes this may happen when animals are already ill and incapable of finding/catching normal prey (e.g. Gomercic <em>et al.</em> 2006), or they may be healthy and eat it by accident and it then contributes to blockage of the digestive tract and eventual death (e.g. Scott <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>Globicephala melas</em> may also be at risk.<br/><br/>While impacts of high levels of anthropogenic sound have been well documented for beaked whales (Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991, Frantzis 1998, Balcomb and Claridge 2001, US Dept of Commerce and US Navy 2001, Jepson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005), there are examples for a number of other species of odontocetes of potential impacts. While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, strong avoidance reactions, embayments or mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for short-finned pilot whales (Hohn <em>et al.</em> 2006), killer whales, melon-headed whales (Southall <em>et al.</em> 2006), Atlantic spotted dolphin (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), striped dolphins, dwarf sperm whales (Hohn <em>et al.</em> 2006), pygmy sperm whales, and Dall’s porpoise (Balcomb pers. comm.). As such, it should be recognized that high levels of anthropogenic sound have the potential to impact other deep diving odontocete species. <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect long-finned pilot whales, and may induce changes in the species’ range, abundance and/or migration patterns (Learmonth<em> et al.</em> 2006).
9250		threats	eng	Owing to their occurrence in offshore waters and their feeding habits targeting mainly deep-sea squids, Long-finned Pilot Whales are probably not often exposed to human activities that occur in coastal waters (tourism, many types of fisheries, etc.). No serious threats have been identified in the Mediterranean as yet, except for a recent morbillivirus epizootic (see below). However, potential threats include by-catch (between 1978 and 1982, 26 pilot whales were reported caught in fishing and other gear in the western Mediterranean, at least three of them in tuna nets; Northridge 1984); collisions with ships (at least two in the Straits of Gibraltar – R. <a name="OLE_LINK9"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8">de Stephanis, pers. comm.; two in the Tyrrhenian Sea – Di Natale 1982; one in the NW Mediterranean – Pesante <em>et al.</em> 2002); </a>man-made noise (interaction but no clear results reported in the Ligurian Sea; Rendell and Gordon 1999); harassment during whale watching; and toxic pollution (high levels of organochlorine contaminants such as DDT and PCBs in the Atlantic – Olson and Reilly 2002; high levels of cadmium in the Faeroe Islands – Caurant <em>et al</em>. 1993, Olson and Reilly 2002).&#160; <br/><br/>An epizootic in 2006–2007 caused high mortality among the pilot whales of the Strait  of Gibraltar (follow the link below to see Table 1, extracted from Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2008). The epizootic started off the southern coasts of Spain in October 2006, first in the Strait of Gibraltar and expanding soon to the east to Almeria and the Balearic Islands and the region of Murcia. The last cases were detected in Valencia and the Balearic Islands in April 2007. This kind of epizootic could happen again.
9250		threats	eng	The only current fishery for long-finned pilot whales is undertaken in the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Although this fishery has been actively pursued since the 9th century, catch levels have apparently not caused stock depletion, such as occurred off Newfoundland. Catch statistics exist from the Faroes since 1584, unbroken from 1709 to today, showing an annual average catch of 850 pilot whales (range: 0 - 4,480) with a cyclic variation according to the North-Atlantic climatic variations (Bloch and Larstein 1995). The IWC, ICES and NAMMCO have concluded, that with an estimated subpopulation size of 778 000 (CV=0.295) in the eastern North Atlantic and approximately 100 000 around the Faroes (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993; NAMMCO 1997) the Faroese catch is probably sustainable. In Greenland, catches are relatively small. <br/><br/>Incidental catches are reported from Newfoundland, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of France. In British waters, long-finned pilot whales are accidentally caught in gillnets, purse seines and in trawl fisheries. Very few are reported taken incidentally in fisheries in the Southern Hemisphere (Reyes 1991). However, according to Bernard and Reilly (1999), there are probably more pilot whales taken incidentally than are presently documented. On the east coast of the USA, the foreign Atlantic mackerel fishery was responsible for the take of 141 pilot whales in 1988. This fishery was suspended in early May of that year as a direct result of this anomalously high take. A 1990 workshop to review mortality of cetaceans in passive nets and traps documented an annual kill of 50-100 <em>G. melas</em> off the Atlantic coast of France. Long-finned pilot whales are also known to be taken incidentally in trawl and gillnet fisheries in the western North Atlantic, and in swordfish driftnets in the Mediterranean (Olson and Reilly 2002).<br/><br/>Zerbini and Kotas (1998) reported on cetacean-fishery interactions off southern Brazil. The pelagic driftnet fishery is focused on sharks (families Sphyrnidae and Carcharinidae) and incidentally caught at least 15 <em>Globicephala melas</em> in 1995 and 1997. The authors conclude that the driftnet fishery may be an important cause of cetacean mortality in that region. <br/> <br/>Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of long-finned pilot whales are unknown but could result in population declines. Commercial fisheries for squids are widespread in the western North Atlantic. Target species for these fisheries are squids eaten by pilot whales, again raising the possibility of prey depletion.<br/> <br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect long-finned pilot whales, and may induce changes in the species’ range, abundance and/or migration patterns (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
9251		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is not found in a protected area.
9251		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Upper Guinea rain forests of western Liberia (Bong, Lofa, and Mesurado Counties) and Guinea, and is presumably also found in the forested parts of Sierra Leone which lie between these two populations.
9251		habitat	eng	The tree hole crab inhabits water-filled holes in trees in closed canopy rainforest in the Upper Guinea forest of West Africa.
9251		population	eng	In pre civil war Liberia (before 1989) the population levels were estimated to be about 5-10 per km² of closed canopy rainforest, but may well be declining as deforestation progresses. This species would appear to be restricted to rainforest and requires a specialized habitat - rainwater filled natural holes found in suitably-sized trees at a height of  between 1 to 2 meters above the ground.
9251		threats	eng	Loss/degradation (human induced) of its rainforest habitat is ongoing due to human population increases, deforestation, regional wars, and political instability, and these most likely represent the major present and future threats to this species.
9266		conservation	eng	No information available.
9266		distribution	eng	The species is known from the eastern Africa coastal zone.
9266		distribution	eng	This species is common throughout the intertidal areas of the Indo-Pacific.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the eastern Africa coastal zone.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its African distribution extends as far south as East London, South Africa.
9266		habitat	eng	An epibenthic, intertidal species, not uncommon in mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and coastal rivers (Maugé 1986).
9266		habitat	eng	Inhabits intertidal areas, estuaries, lagoons and coastal rivers (common in mangroves and occasionally penetrates the lower reaches of freshwater streams).
9266		habitat	eng	This is an epibenthic, intertidal species, not uncommon in mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and coastal rivers (Maugé 1986).
9266		population	eng	No information available.
9266		threats	eng	No information available.
9267		conservation	eng	The species range falls entirely within the boundaries of Ankarana National Park.
9267		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
9267		habitat	eng	A hypogean species: restricted to subterranean waters.
9267		threats	eng	Other than its naturally restricted range, no current threats are known to be affecting the population.
9268		distribution	eng	<em>G. incisus</em> is endemic to Lake Sentani and its tributaries.
9268		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat is approximately 30 km long and 2-5 km wide.
9268		threats	eng	The human population around the lake is increasing and was estimated at around 25,000 in 1996.  The resultant pollution from domestic waste entering the lake is threatening the species living there.  A further threat comes from the introduction of exotic species into the habitat, including carp, tilapia, walking catfish, barbs, and gouramies.
9272		distribution	eng	<em>G. wannamesis</em> is endemic to Lake Wanam, west of Lae.
9272		habitat	eng	The freshwater habitat of this species is a small (2-3 km diameter) lake.
9272		population	eng	The species was reportedly abundant when first collected in the 1970s. However, the fish was difficult to find during searches carried out in 1994-1995.
9272		threats	eng	The introduction of exotic species such as tilapia and carp into the lake over the last few decades have posed a threat to this species.
9273		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
9273		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sinaloa (Mexico) to Panama; southeastern Colombia; eastern Ecuador; eastern Peru; and northwestern Brazil (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid, 1997). Also in Guyana.
9273		habitat	eng	This bat occurs in evergreen forest, dry forest, banana groves, and clearings (Reid, 1997). It roosts in hollow trees, caves, and tunnels (Reid, 1997). The diet includes nectar and pollen of bananas and Mucuna, fruit of Acnistes, and moths (Howell and Burch, 1974). Birth peaks have been recorded January to April and July to August (Webster and Jones, 1993).
9273		population	eng	It is common in most of its range in rainforest; less common in dry forest (Reid, 1997). In rainforest often it is more numerous than <em>G. soricina</em>. In Ecuador is rare, known for just one record (Tirira pers. comm.).
9273		threats	eng	None.
9274		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
9274		distribution	eng	This species is known from Costa Rica north to Jalisco, Michoacan, Morelos, Tlaxcala, and Colima (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid, 1997).
9274		habitat	eng	This species occurs in thorn scrub, deciduous and pine-oak forest; occasionally recorded in evergreen forest and agricultural areas (Reid, 1997). Its biology probably is similar to <em>G. soricina</em>, a species better known. The roosts include caves, buildings, and culverts. Flowers visited by this species include <em>Pseudobombax</em> and <em>Ipomeas</em>. The reproduction does not appear to be seasonal (Webster and Jones, 1984; Reid, 1997).
9274		population	eng	It is fairly common (Reid, 1997). Rare in Costa Rica (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.). Not so common in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.).
9274		threats	eng	Habitat loss, human induced fire, persecution are localised threats.
9275		conservation	eng	Review taxonomic status. Avoid habitat loss.
9275		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Venezuela (including Margarita Island), north Brazil (only in Roraima -Webster and Handley 1986), Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, St Vincent, Curaçao, Bonaire, and Aruba (Lesser Antilles). The records from Dominica and Ecuador are erroneous (Simmons 2005). 0-2,250 meters (Lew pers. comm.).
9275		habitat	eng	This species forms maternal colonies in shelters such as caves and hollow trees. Several hundred females and their young can roost together. Normally a single young is born. The time of reproduction can be strongly seasonal in habitats with pronounced rainfall cycles, but females are polyestrous and can bear two or three young per year. Though fully capable of hovering in flight while taking nectar from flowers, this bat is also to some extent a foliage-gleaning insectivore (Howell, 1983). Activity periods are bimodal, just before dawn and just after dusk. During the period of nectar production by Agave, individual bat will defend the plants against conspecifics to ensure an exclusive supply of nectar and pollen (Lemke, 1984; Willig, 1983). Seems resticted to dry habitat types and open areas (Soriano pers. comm.)
9275		population	eng	The taxonomy is poorly undestood and difficult to extrapolate across current subspecies organizations. Not common in Trinidad and Tobago (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961)
9275		threats	eng	As currently defined taxonomically, this species is not threatened. There is some localised destruction of some habitat. It may be composed of several unique species with more restricted ranges.
9276		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least five protected areas (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
9276		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chiapas to Michoacan and Tlaxcala (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (usually below 300 m and close to sea level) (Reid, 1997; Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
9276		habitat	eng	This species can be found in thorn scrub and dry, pine-oak forest, often near water (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves, hollow trees, culverts, wells, and buildings. It has been caught in mist nets set over rivers and creeks in arid regions and was recorded in Chiapas with the 3 other <em>Glossophaga</em> species found in Mexico (Webster and Jones, 1985; Reid, 1997). Habitat loss between 0 - 1% over the last ten years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.)
9276		population	eng	Inside its wide distribution it is found in few localities, and in these localities it is considered common (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
9276		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
9277		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. Needs taxonomic revision. Found in protected areas.
9277		distribution	eng	Tamaulipas, Sonora and Trés Marías Isls (Mexico) south to the Guianas, Southeastern Brazil, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru; Margarita Isl (Venezuela); Trinidad; Grenada (Lesser Antilles); Jamaica (Simmons 2005).
9277		habitat	eng	Found in forests (south), rural and urban areas (north). Nectarivorous. Found in caves, tunnels, and houses. Co-inhabit with <em>Carollia</em>. Willig (1983) found more than 2,000 individuals in an abandoned house in Brazil.
9277		population	eng	It is scarce on the south and abundant in the north. In Argentina they face many threats (Barquez pers. comm.).
9277		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range. Deforestation is a localised threat. Populations are scarce in south.
9281		conservation	eng	In 2001, the Indian government banned the landing of all species of chondrichthyan fish in its ports, although shortly afterwards, this ban was amended and now the Ganges shark <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em> is one of  just ten species of chondrichthyans protected under Schedule I, Part II A of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests 2006). However, the effectiveness of this measure is unknown and these regulations may be difficult to enforce, with a diffuse but widespread artisanal fishery on a major river system for local consumption as well as international trade.
9281		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lower reaches of the Ganges-Hooghli river system, West Bengal, India. It possibly occurs in other river systems in the area. Could also occur in shallow marine estuaries although there are no verified marine records of this species to date.  <br/> <br/>Traditionally, this species has been assigned a wide range in the Indo-West Pacific, but this was found to be mostly based on other species of requiem sharks, particularly members of the genus <em>Carcharhinus</em> (Compagno 2005).
9281		habitat	eng	This is a little known species that is yet to be adequately described (Martin 2005). Size at maturity is estimated at about 178 cm TL (Compagno 2005), maximum size at about 204 cm TL and size at birth at 56 to 61 cm TL (Compagno 2005). The habitat of this species is thought to be fresh water in the lower reaches of the Ganges-Hooghly River system, possibly also shallow marine estuaries but there are no verified marine records of this species. The small eyes and slender teeth of this shark suggest that it is primarily a fish-eater and is adapted to turbid water such as occurs in the Ganges River and the Bay of Bengal (Compagno 1997). The eyes of <em>G. gangeticus</em> are tilted dorsally rather than laterally or ventrally, as in most carcharhinids, suggesting that this species may swim along the bottom and scan the water above it for potential prey back-lit by the sun (Compagno 1984). However, Roberts (2005) reports that <em>G. gangeticus</em> in the Bay of Bengal feed heavily on dasyatid stingrays, which spend much of their time on the bottom. <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em> is probably viviparous (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been nominally implicated in numerous attacks on humans in the Ganges but since <em>C. leucas </em>occurs in the same river system this cannot be proven at present and it is possible that <em>C. leucas</em> was involved in most of, if not all, of the attacks (Compagno in prep).
9281		population	eng	Originally known only from three museum specimens (one each in the Museum National d?Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Humboldt Museum, Berlin and Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta), all of which were collected in the nineteenth century. There were no records between 1867 until 1996, although 1996 records have not been confirmed as <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em>. A specimen collected 84 km upstream of the mouth of the Hooghli River, at Mahishadal in 2001 has been identified as <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em> but on photographs of the jaw only (Compagno in prep).
9281		threats	eng	Historically, and is currently fished in the Ganges-Hooghly river system, although the details are not well known (Compagno 2005). It is caught by gillnet and appears in the international trade in shark jaws as curios (M. Harris pers. comm.), and probably also in the oriental fin trade and is consumed locally for its meat (Compagno 2005). There are major fisheries for sharks in India and large inshore carcharhinids, including <em>Glyphis</em> species, are readily targeted (L.J.V. Compagno pers. obs). Other probable threats include overfishing, habitat degradation from pollution, increasing river utilization and management, including construction of dams and barrages (Compagno 1997). A few jaws of what is apparently this species have been observed in international trade during recent years (L.J.V. Compagno pers. obs.), to testify that it is not extinct, however there is no information to suggest that the population status of this species has changed. There is an urgent need for a detailed survey of the shark fisheries of the Bay of Bengal.
9283		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
9283		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), from 1,000 to 1,700 m.
9283		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane forest.
9283		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
9283		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9285		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is only known from its type locality, so that further research is required to establish its distribution, population numbers, habitat and ecology. Further taxonomic work is also suggested as the taxonomy of this genus is uncertain. This species was previously assessed as Endangered A1ce in 1996 (version 2.3).
9285		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia (Crosse 1872). It is only known from the type locality at Lac de la Grande Vallée des Kaoris in southern New Caledonia (Crosse 1872; Solem 1961). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
9285		habitat	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, a lake in southern New Caledonia (Crosse 1872).
9285		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
9285		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
9289		distribution	eng	<em>G. kooringensis</em> is endemic to Australia, occurring in suitable habitat in South Australia.
9289		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found on heavily grazed slopes hidden in fissures in boulders.
9289		threats	eng	The main threats to the species stem from habitat deterioration caused by fire and overgrazing.
9294		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
9294		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Gökdere stream in southern Turkey.
9294		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
9294		population	eng	No data.
9294		threats	eng	The stream is not polluted at present. Restricted range is the main threat.
9295		conservation	eng	No information.
9295		distribution	eng	Northern Caspian basin (Volga, Ural).
9295		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. Nocturnal benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other larger benthic invertebrates.
9295		population	eng	Abundant.
9295		threats	eng	Pollution and river engineering.
9297		conservation	eng	No information available.
9297		distribution	eng	Dniestr and tributaries of lower and middle Danube drainages (Black Sea basin); upper Vistula drainage in Poland (Baltic basin).
9297		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast-flowing piedmont rivers with large areas of sand bottom. Spawns in shallow water over gravel, sand or plant material in fast-flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Most fish spawn 1-2 years, from late May-early June until late August-September. Eggs are released in successive portions. To spawn, both sexes move to surface or open water. Eggs drift with current, sink to bottom and stick to substrate. Juveniles and adults are active during day. Feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates, usually catching drifting food organisms.
9297		population	eng	Abundant, but expected to decline in the future.
9297		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water pollution and dam construction.
9298		conservation	eng	EU Natura 2000 Species.
9298		distribution	eng	Danube drainage (absent from Danube main river except upper course and stretches with fast current).
9298		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riffles of small, fast-flowing rivers and bottom of large rivers with water velocities of 0.7 m/s and more, stone bottom, in submontane zone. Young individuals prefer slow currents and shallow shoreline habitats with sand bottom. Spawns in shallow habitats with very high current (about 1 m/s). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In laboratory, spawns several times between late May and mid-September, at temperatures above 11°C. Males wait for females at spawning sites. To spawn, both sexes move to surface or open water. Eggs drift with current, sink to bottom and then stick to substrate. Adults are nocturnal and solitary, juveniles are active at day. No data on food in the wild.
9298		population	eng	Still frequent in suitable habitats in the Danube drainage. Though the population has declined, it is extirpated from the upper Danube (1830s).
9298		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to pollution and damming and is locally threatened. The population is expected to continue to decline with on-going economic development.
9303		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is reported from several protected areas in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
9303		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide distribution ranging from Iran to India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Within India it is known from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. In Pakistan from North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh. It is present in Jammu and Kashmir. In Sri Lanka it is known from Central Province, North Central Province, Southern Province and Western Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has been recorded from southeastern Iran by Misonne (1990)
9303		habitat	eng	It is a partially diurnal, fossorial also terrestrial, semi-arboreal,not particularly gregarious, herbivorous species. It is found in varied habitat conditions from tropical dry deciduous, dry wood, shrub, tropical thorn forests and grassy clumps, may venture in to cultivated lands, bushes, orchards,scrublands, grasslands close to streams, tropical dry deciduous, except cold deserts. Also found near granite hills with sandy loam and silty soil. In Sri Lanka, this species is found in low country, dry zone and mountain wet zone, low country semi evergreen forests, wet patana grasslands. It has been found to occupy rocky and hilly tracts, burrows, grassland close to streams, build nests on thick bush, shrubs (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). This can be a serious agricultural pest species (Corbet and Hill 1992).
9303		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
9303		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this widespread species. It is harvested for local consumption in parts of its range and is an important prey base species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9308		conservation	eng	Occurs in Cheraw State Park, Campbell Lake State Park, and the Savanna River Plant in South Carolina.
9308		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States: Piedmont area of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee. The species is known from 11 counties within these states.
9308		habitat	eng	Boggy trickles, slow, small streams and lakes, all with part sand, part silt bottoms, and <em>sphagnum</em> moss margins (Dunkle 2000).
9308		population	eng	Maybe 1,000 or more at each location. Known from 11 locations in four states.
9308		threats	eng	No specific threats known. Potential threats include forestry and development.
9311		conservation	eng	In Florida, occurs in Blackwater River State Park, Blackwater River State Forest, and Apalachicola National Forest, and in Conecuh National Forest in Alabama.
9311		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from 15 counties within the states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi. Current population size is unknown.
9311		habitat	eng	Clean sand-bottomed streams and rivers (Dunkle 2000).
9311		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
9311		threats	eng	Usual threats of development, forestry, and pollution.
9312		conservation	eng	No management plans are formally operative; for their formulation, Tennessen urged cooperation with land owners, habitat restoration, and regular Odonata surveys (Bick 2003).
9312		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States: 60 square miles in south central Tennessee.
9312		habitat	eng	Third order streams, 10 to 60 ft wide, with a highly variable rate of flow, and with bottoms a mix of small gravel and sand; silt, mud, organic debris are minor (Tennessen 1994).
9312		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
9312		threats	eng	Streams subject to pesticides, organic pollution, cattle trampling of banks.
9313		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States.
9313		habitat	eng	Medium to large, clean, rocky rivers with muddy and silty reaches.
9313		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
9313		threats	eng	Northern population (form, subspecies, or species) occurs in the Delaware River National Recreation Area. Little Cahaba River, Alabama, population is on Nature Conservancy Preserve (Krotzer 2002).
9400		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9401		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9402		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Mexican law and is included in CITES Appendix I. A substantial part of the southern area of occurrence of the species is effectively protected by the Mapimi Biosphere Reserve (3,424 sq. km., IUCN Category VI) in Durango; a substantial northern population is protected through cooperative agreement with Rancho Sombreretillo in Chihuahua (Trevino <em>et al</em>. 1997); and a number of ranches in the area afford private protection. <br/> <br/>Research concerning the species have led to good understanding of the species' biology. Local awareness projects combined with enforcement of legal protection have had very positive local effects (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). Some <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> captive groups exist and some conservation breeding successes have occurred, and headstarted juveniles have been released (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989, Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Reintroduction / relocation of the species into Big Bend NP (Texas, US) has been proposed (Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 1997) but has found little support with US authorities to date. <br/> <br/>Further intensive <em>in situ</em> conservation action for the species is warranted, with ongoing public awareness and outreach and perhaps continuing operation of captive insurance colonies.
9402		distribution	eng	Occurs restricted to a series of disjunct isolated basins collectively known as the Bolson de Mapimi of south-eastern Chihuahua, western Coahuila and northern Durango, Mexico (Aguirre in Groombridge 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989, Iverson 1992). <br/> <br/>The Bolson de Mapimi covers about 40,000 sq. km; the total geographic range of <em>G. flavomarginatus</em> measures about 150 km across, and the area of occupancy is about 7,000 sq. km (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).  <br/>The past distribution of the species was much wider - Pleistocene fossils indicate occurrence as far away as south-western Arizona and Oklahoma, US, and Aguascalientes, Mexico (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).
9402		habitat	eng	Bolson Tortoises prefer low grade slopes (0.5% to 2%) of fine textured soil (averaging 48% sand, 32% silt, 10% clay, 10% gravel), vegetated by mixed sclerophyll shrub and desert bunch grass. These areas generally fringe basin floodplains. The area of occurrence is between 1,000 and 1,400 m altitude. (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Bolson Tortoises dig burrows up to 8 m long and 2 m deep as refuge from predators and extremes of climatic and weather conditions, and surface activity is correlated with rainfall and temperature. Aguirre <em>et al</em>. (1989) calculated that adult Bolson Tortoises spend less than 1% of their entire lives on the surface, either basking or feeding along well-established trails near the burrow. Burrows are constructed in social aggregations, and clusters show social structuring of individuals. (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). Radiotracked juveniles preferred to excavate (or opportunistically use) burrows under <em>Opuntia</em> cacti (Tom 1994). <br/> <br/>Bolson Tortoises are exclusively herbivorous, feeding on a variety of grasses, shrubs and herbs (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>This is the largest North American tortoise species, approaching 40 cm CL (fossils indicate past size more than double this). Both sexes reach similar size. Sexual maturity probably occurs at CL over 25 cm and 15 to 20 years of age. Females outnumber males, at male/female ratios of 0.43 to 0.83 in different populations. Wild females produce 1 or 2 clutches (average 1.3) averaging 5.2 eggs; infertility rate averages 35%. Thus, an average female will produce only 3.4 offspring in an 8-year period of her reproductive period. With perhaps a survivorship of less than 5% to maturity, replacement time is over half a century.
9402		population	eng	Populations are localized and disjunct. Three major populations sustain large reproducing populations, and three further minor populations exist. Total number of adults was estimated at a maximum of 7,000 to 10,000 in 1989. (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Maximum known recent density is seven animals per hectare, but normal density is at the order of one animal per hectare. (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).
9402		threats	eng	The extreme reduction of the species' range in geological time has been attributed to a combination of climatic change, seismic activity eliminating whole populations by collapsing burrows, and overexploitation by paleoindians (Morafka<em> et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>In recent decades, Bolson Tortoises have been overexploited for food by local residents (particularly resettled people in ejidos) and particularly by railroad workers since the 1940s construction of railroads; tortoises were also collected and shipped by rail to coastal Pacific cities for gourmet consumption. Tortoises are now absent from a 10 km strip on either side of the railroad, and from the vicinity of roads. (Morafka 1982; Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Ongoing threats include habitat degradation and destruction by overgrazing, ploughing and irrigation, which have apparently contributed to the extirpation of large tortoise colonies through direct mortality and reduced juvenile survival and thus recruitment (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).
9403		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9404		conservation	eng	National and international laws controlling hunting or capture of gorillas exist in all habitat countries, but enforcement of protective legislation is almost non-existent. <em>G. gorilla</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES and in Class A of the African Convention. Conservation areas exist in most gorilla range states and several National Parks have been created recently specifically to protect great apes and other large mammals. Strongholds identified as exceptional priority areas for ape conservation and not yet affected by Ebola are: the Dja Conservation complex and Boumba-Bek/Nki complex in Cameroon, the Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba complex in Gabon, the Lac Télé Likouala complex in RoC, and the Sangha Trinational complex of the Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). National Parks offer no protection from Ebola and only one of these remaining gorilla strongholds (Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba) is remote from recent epidemics (P. Walsh, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Urgent conservation needs include the effective implementation of protection laws. Conservation areas must be adequately protected and managed, and some additional areas should be gazetted. Surveys of outlier populations in Cameroon, Cabinda and the Democratic Republic of Congo are needed, as are conservation education programmes. Extensive resources are required to identify appropriate conservation actions in the face of the spread of Ebola. A better understanding of the spatial and temporal spread of the disease between and within species may allow development of a pro-active campaign to protect at-risk great ape and human populations through vaccination and/or the reinforcement of effective physical barriers (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recommendations for reducing the negative impacts of selective logging on large mammals, including gorillas, have been formulated and applied in pilot zones (Elkan <em>et al</em>. 2006, Morgan and Sanz 2007), but considerable efforts are needed to establish partnerships with the logging industry such that protective measures are enforced, and concessions bordering National Parks are a priority. Finally, the poor understanding of the current size of the population of western gorillas must be addressed. Much of the western lowland gorilla's range has not been surveyed recently and survey methods have not been consistently reliable. Older survey data are particularly unreliable as Ebola and commercial hunting are known to have caused dramatic and rapid declines in affected areas (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). New surveys using consistent methods as well as regular monitoring of populations in protected areas are urgently needed throughout the western gorilla's range. This will enable the conservation community to design and implement optimal conservation strategies in the face of this potent cocktail of threats.<br/><br/>A series of three workshops has identified priority actions for the conservation of <em>G. g. diehli</em>, and these have been formulated into an IUCN Action Plan (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007). There are several cross-cutting actions which require attention throughout Cross River gorilla range, notably increasing conservation education and awareness, fostering improved community participation in conservation issues, increasing trans-boundary conservation activities such as joint patrols to control timber and bushmeat between the two countries, and further research. The most urgently-needed actions identified, which must be undertaken for any longer-term measures to be effective, are habitat protection and the control of hunting. In Nigeria the majority of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population occurs within formal protected areas (Cross River National Park and Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary), but in Cameroon none of the population is as yet protected in this way (although two areas are in process of establishment: Takamanda National Park and Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary). Further areas, including migration corridors, need to be brought under conservation management to increase the chances for the long-term survival of a viable population of Cross River gorillas, and the effectiveness of existing management improved.
9404		distribution	eng	The western gorilla <em>Gorilla gorilla</em> is found in Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo (RoC), Cabinda (Angola), and possibly in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The core population had until recently an almost continuous distribution in suitable habitat from southern CAR to the Congo River and west to the coast. Small outlying populations remain on the Nigeria-Cameroon border at the headwaters of the Cross River and in the Ebo/Ndokbou forest in Cameroon, just north of the lower Sanaga River. The species may also persist in the Maiombe region of Democratic Republic of Congo contiguous with Cabinda.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are currently recognized. <em>G. g. gorilla</em> (Savage and Wyman, 1847) occurs in Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), south to the Congo River mouth, and east across the Sangha River, to the Oubangi River. The subspecies <em>G. g. diehli</em> (Matschie, 1903) occurs in a small area on the Nigeria-Cameroon border, extending a short distance on either side of the border in the forests on the upper drainage of the Cross River.
9404		habitat	eng	Found primarily in lowland tropical forest, particularly where there is dense ground-level herbaceous growth, and in swamp forests. Staple foods are pith, leaves and shoots. Fruit component of the diet is generally high but varies with seasonal availability (Rogers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Gorillas live in groups averaging 10 and occasionally over 20 individuals, composed of at least one adult male, several adult females and their offspring. Each group?s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. The few precise life-history data available for <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> in the wild come from six years of observation of habituated groups at Lossi (prior to the Ebola epidemic) and from 6.5 years of observation at Mbeli Bai in the Nouabalé-Ndoki NP (RoC). Birth rates at Lossi and Mbeli Bai averaged 0.18 and 0.2 respectively with inter-birth-intervals of 4 to 6 years for six females whose first infant survived (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Infant mortality up to three years of age, in populations not affected by Ebola, was 22% and 65%, respectively, for Lossi and Mbeli (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Compared with the much larger demographic datasets from almost three decades of observation of mountain gorillas (<em>Gorilla beringei beringei</em>), it appears that western lowland gorillas reproduce more slowly due to longer inter-birth-intervals and higher infant mortality. Patterns of male and female emigration appear to be similar, but large groups (>20) containing more than one adult male are relatively uncommon in <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Two studies of <em>G. g. diehli</em> (at Afi and Kagwene) demonstrated flexible grouping patterns with groups ranging in size from 2 to 20. These grouping patterns likely occur for several reasons, including restricted habitat, feeding competition related to fruit consumption, high hunting pressure, and limited opportunities for male migration between nuclei (McFarland 2007). Each group?s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. Today, Cross River gorillas are restricted mostly to hilly areas, and range from lowland to submontane forest (Allen 1932, Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sunderland-Groves <em>et al</em>. 2003), although they occasionally use lowland areas between hills (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bergl 2006).
9404		population	eng	<strong><em>Gorilla gorilla gorilla</em></strong><br/>Previous assessments have focused on habitat availability as the major predictor of gorilla abundance. Thus, the commonly cited figure of 95,000 western gorillas (Harcourt 1996) is based on an assumption that all intact habitat in Western Equatorial Africa contains gorillas at densities that were typical of Gabon in the early 1980s. However, habitat loss is not the major driver of ape decline in this region. Rather, recent surveys suggest that since the early 1980s, commercial hunting and outbreaks of the Ebola virus have virtually extirpated gorillas from a great deal of otherwise intact forest. Technical problems with the conversion of ape nest density to estimates of gorilla density preclude a rigorous estimate of range-wide gorilla abundance.<br/><br/><strong><em>Gorilla gorilla diehli</em></strong><br/>Although gorillas in the Cross River region first became known to science in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, little attention was paid to their conservation status until the late 1980s (Harcourt <em>et al</em>. 1989). Early reports had referred to their precarious situation, but little had been done to thoroughly examine their distribution and abundance, or to protect the remaining population and habitat (Anon 1934, Critchley 1968, March 1957). Intensive surveys over the last decade have found that approximately 250 to 300 <em>G. g. diehli</em> persist in a forested area of roughly 8,000 km². This estimate is of uncertain accuracy and is based primarily on nest counts and estimated range size. The gorillas are found in at least 10 localities (Groves 2002, Beamont 2004, Bergl 2006, Bergl and Vigilant 2007). Though the localities where the gorillas are found are geographically distinct, the majority of these areas are connected by forested land. Recent genetic evidence suggests that three subpopulations are present, but that these subpopulations do have limited reproductive contact (Bergl and Vigilant 2007). These localities are primarily rugged highlands, typically in areas relatively less disturbed by human activity. While there may be an ecological component to this distribution, the gorilla?s concentration in highland areas is almost certainly strongly influenced by human hunting pressure, which is more intense in the lowlands. Ebola has not been reported in the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population, but their close proximity to dense human populations puts them at high potential risk of acquiring human pathogens (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007).
9404		threats	eng	<strong><em>Gorilla gorilla gorilla</em></strong><br/>There are two primary drivers of rapid western lowland gorilla decline: commercial hunting and the Ebola virus. Until the early 1980s, the interior of western lowland gorilla range included a series of vast, road-less blocks of forest where hunting access was extremely difficult and gorilla densities were high. Since then improvements in transportation infrastructure, devaluation of the regional currency, declining oil stocks, and timber depletion in other tropical regions have led to an explosion in mechanized logging. Regional timber production nearly doubled between 1991 and 2000 (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Vast tracts of previously inaccessible forest have recently been penetrated by logging roads, which provide commercial hunters ready access to remote areas with high ape densities, and to markets. Logging vehicles are also used to transport bushmeat, and logging employees eat more bushmeat than do local villagers.<br/><br/>The gorillas? very low reproductive rates (3% maximum observed rate of population increase, Steklis and Gerald-Steklis 2001) mean that even low levels of hunting are enough to cause population decline. Consequently, the logging boom has caused a rapid crash in gorilla numbers. For example, Gabon experienced an estimated 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000, most of which was attributed to hunting (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Given that Gabon is the least heavily human populated country in the region, hunting impact is likely as high or higher in other range states. The threat posed by logging promises to continue and even intensify in the foreseeable future. Rates of timber production in the region are increasing (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002), in the case of Gabon exponentially (Figure 1). Profits in the industry are derived largely through exploitation of previously unlogged areas rather than sustainable harvesting in older concessions. The current trajectory predicts that the last remaining tracts of inaccessible forest will be opened to logging in the next 10 to 20 years.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Roundwood production in Gabon (1980-2005).<br/><br/>The second major driver of rapid gorilla decline is disease, specifically the Ebola virus. Since the early 1990s, Ebola has caused a series of massive gorilla and chimpanzee die-offs in remote forest blocks at the heart of their range. Outbreaks were first noted in 1994 in the Minkébé forest block of northern Gabon (Huijbregts <em>et al</em>. 2003). Before Ebola?s arrival, what is now Minkébé National Park held what was probably the second largest protected gorilla and chimpanzee population in the world. In 1996 Ebola emerged in the Lopé Reserve (now National Park) in central Gabon, in 2001 in the Mwagné forest block of eastern Gabon, in 2002 to 2003 in the adjoining Lossi forest block of north-west Congo, and in 2003 to 2005 in the Odzala National Park in north-west Congo (Figure 2). The Ivindo forest block of central Gabon was not monitored during the outbreak period, but it lies directly adjacent to the 1996 human outbreak zone around Booué and recent observations suggest an ape die-off there too.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 2</strong>: Protected areas with important western lowland gorilla populations.<br/><br/>Both phylogenetic analyses of the Ebola virus genome and analyses of the spatio-temporal pattern of outbreaks in humans and wild apes (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005, Lahm <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that these outbreaks were not isolated events but part of a spreading epizootic of Ebola in its reservoir host (probably bats, Leroy <em>et al</em>. 2005). Moving at about 40 to 45 km/year, this epizootic has for the last decade spread in an east/north-easterly direction across the region. Although continued spread is not guaranteed, the epizootic?s past spread rate has been highly consistent, making it possible to accurately predict the timing of the Odzala die-off well before it occurred (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005).<br/><br/>During Ebola outbreaks, gorilla mortality rates have been extremely high. During three different outbreaks at two different study sites, individually known social groups containing almost 600 gorillas were monitored. In all three outbreaks about 95% of known individuals died (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Higher survival rates amongst solitary individuals suggest that most of the remaining 5% may be individuals who were never infected rather than resistant survivors (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nest surveys at four different sites exhibit an ?all or none? pattern of Ebola impact. Areas of 10,000 km² or more showing 95% declines in abundance transition abruptly into areas with little or no mortality (Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007, WCS and Government of Congo MEF unpublished data). These low ape densities are not reasonably attributed to hunting pressure as most of the remote survey zones had high ape densities just a few years before the declines were detected and because densities of other preferred target species (e.g., elephants and duiker) were still high after the Ebola outbreaks (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). The proportion of habitat in the 95% mortality class varied amongst outbreak sites, from little or none at Lopé to the entire Mwagné survey zone (Table 1a). In Odzala National Park, which held what were by far the largest protected populations of gorillas and chimpanzees in the world, the outbreak zone covered about 58% of the park. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1a</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in six survey zones.<br/><br/>Table 1a contains estimates of the percent decline in gorilla abundance in each survey zone. In the Lossi and Odzala zones, extensive survey data allowed a fairly precise mapping of outbreak and non-outbreak zones. Therefore, the number presented for these two zones is based on the proportion of the survey zone in each outbreak class (Outbreak vs. NonOutbreak) and the assumption of 95% mortality in outbreak areas. This approach was not possible for the Mwagné and Minkébé sites where virtually the entire populations were wiped out, or for the Ivindo site where survey intensity was not high enough to precisely map outbreak and non-outbreak zones. For these sites, nest encounter rates for surveys conducted before Ebola emergence are compared with nest encounter rates after Ebola emergence (Pre-Ebola vs. Post-Ebola). No attempt was made to estimate % decline for Lopé because it was the only zone to be logged before Ebola arrival and the only area in which a substantial proportion of the survey zone has experienced high rates of hunting. This makes it difficult to discriminate Ebola impact from hunting impact. Therefore, for the purposes of this analysis, Ebola is assumed to have had zero impact at Lopé. Estimated declines in gorilla abundance for the five zones for which estimates have been made range from 56% at Odzala to more than 95% at Mwagné and Minkébé. When decline rates are averaged across all six zones (with the contribution of each zone weighted by its surface area) the mean decline is 74% (weighting by relative abundance makes no significant difference; see Table 1b). The assumption of zero impact at Lopé has a conservative effect on this mean value (see Table 1a and 1b for comparison).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1b</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in five survey zones.<br/><br/>These six protected areas account for 45% of the total protected area habitat (67,250 km²) in which significant western lowland gorilla populations were found before Ebola emergence (Table 2). If we assume that all major protected areas had the same pre-Ebola density, this implies that 33% of the total protected area population of western lowland gorilla (100*(0.45*0.26+0.55*1) = 33%) has been killed by Ebola just over the last 13 to 14 years. This estimate is highly conservative in that pre-Ebola density estimates for protected areas with Ebola impact were typically much higher than for protected areas without recorded Ebola impact.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Protected areas holding significant pre-Ebola outbreak populations of western lowland gorilla, and Ebola-induced declines. <strong>Note: more detailed tabular data to support the calculations are available upon request</strong>.<br/><br/>If the Ebola epizootic continues at the same rate and trajectory, it could reach most of the remaining protected areas with large populations of western lowland gorillas within the next 5 to 10 years. Six major protected areas (Boumba Bek, Nki, and Lobéké Reserves in Cameroon, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in C.A.R., Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and Lac Télé Reserve in Congo) lie in the wave?s path and account for 44.6% of the protected area habitat where Ebola outbreaks have yet to be documented. All six areas lie inside a 275 km radius from the 2004 Lossi outbreak site at Odzala National Park. Thus, if the epizootic wave continues to spread at its past rate it may move through all six sites by about 2011 (calculated as 2004 + (275 km/43 km/yr)). If all sites suffered declines of a magnitude similar to previous parks (i.e. 74%), this would represent a 32.6% decline in the unaffected protected area population (calculated as: 100*((area of habitat affected*mortality rate)/total habitat)). Combined with previous impact, this would constitute a 45.4% Ebola-induced decline of Western Gorilla abundance in all protected areas (Table 2) in a period of just 20 years (i.e., from 1992 to 2011), or about one generation length*. This estimate is conservative in that these six protected areas are more remote than the other unaffected parks and are, therefore, likely to hold a higher proportion of the western gorilla population than is predicted by their area. The decline estimate is also independent of any decline caused by other factors (e.g., hunting), which, as already noted, was the primary reason for a 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000 in Gabon alone.<br/><br/>Timber extraction is the major source of forest clearance in western lowland gorilla range, which retains the highest percentage of forest cover in equatorial Africa (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Logging is selective, regional deforestation rates average only about 0.4% per year (FAO 2001), and gorillas do well in secondary forest if hunting is controlled. Thus, forest clearance alone should not become a major threat to western lowland gorillas for at least two or three decades, by which time other causes, if left unchecked, will already have greatly depleted populations. Forest clearance for agriculture is a major threat in heavily populated coastal regions, particularly in Cameroon. However, these areas harbour only a tiny fraction (probably <5%) of remaining western lowland gorillas. <br/><br/>Finally, there are hints that climate change may pose a serious future threat. Most of the western gorilla range receives rainfall only slightly higher than the amount necessary to maintain closed canopy forest. The last few decades have seen a decline in mean rainfall and a lengthening of dry seasons (Giannini <em>et al</em>. 2003), which increase the risk of forest fires. If this drying trend continues, there is a risk that large scale forest fires will cause dramatic forest loss, as seen recently in Southeast Asia and South America (Cochrane 2003). This risk will be magnified if regional climate trends are reinforced by local scale forest clearance for agriculture and timber (Baidya Roy <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Details on calculation of generation time can be found in Appendix 1 (follow the link below for <strong>Appendix 1</strong>).<br/><br/><strong><em>Gorilla gorilla diehli</em></strong><br/>The remaining population of <em>G. g. diehli</em> is small and fragmented, occurs mostly outside of protected areas (especially in Cameroon) and is surrounded by some of the most densely populated human settlements in Africa. This subspecies is at risk from its small size and associated increases in inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. The lack of strictly protected areas throughout much of the range of <em>G. g. diehli</em> makes the future of sizeable portions of gorilla habitat uncertain. Conversion of forest for agriculture and grazing is occurring rapidly in many parts of the gorillas? range and the largest current protected area in which Cross River gorillas occur (the Okwangwo Division of Nigeria?s Cross River National Park) contains enclaves of human settlements whose farmlands have spread beyond their legal boundaries and threaten to divide the park into two. The construction and improvement of roads in both Cameroon and Nigeria also threatens to increase subdivision of the population. Though legal prohibitions against the killing of gorillas exist in Nigeria and Cameroon, enforcement of wildlife laws is often lax, and most protected areas suffer from poorly-controlled poaching. Although recent conservation efforts have reduced hunting of Cross River gorillas to a low level, the threat remains and the small size of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population means that almost any level of hunting off-take is likely to be unsustainable and have a significant negative effect on population size.
9406		conservation	eng	National and international laws controlling hunting or capture of gorillas exist in all habitat countries, but enforcement of protective legislation is almost non-existent. <em>G. gorilla</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES and in Class A of the African Convention. Conservation areas exist in most gorilla range states and several National Parks have been created recently specifically to protect great apes and other large mammals. Strongholds identified as exceptional priority areas for ape conservation and not yet affected by Ebola are: the Dja Conservation complex and Boumba-Bek/Nki complex in Cameroon, the Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba complex in Gabon, the Lac Télé Likouala complex in RoC, and the Sangha Trinational complex of the Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). National Parks offer no protection from Ebola and only one of these remaining gorilla strongholds (Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba) is remote from recent epidemics (P. Walsh, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Urgent conservation needs include the effective implementation of protection laws. Conservation areas must be adequately protected and managed, and some additional areas should be gazetted. Surveys of outlier populations in Cameroon, Cabinda and the Democratic Republic of Congo are needed, as are conservation education programmes. Extensive resources are required to identify appropriate conservation actions in the face of the spread of Ebola. A better understanding of the spatial and temporal spread of the disease between and within species may allow development of a pro-active campaign to protect at-risk great ape and human populations through vaccination and/or the reinforcement of effective physical barriers (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recommendations for reducing the negative impacts of selective logging on large mammals, including gorillas, have been formulated and applied in pilot zones (Elkan <em>et al</em>. 2006, Morgan and Sanz 2007), but considerable efforts are needed to establish partnerships with the logging industry such that protective measures are enforced, and concessions bordering National Parks are a priority. Finally, the poor understanding of the current size of the population of western gorillas must be addressed. Much of the western lowland gorilla’s range has not been surveyed recently and survey methods have not been consistently reliable. Older survey data are particularly unreliable as Ebola and commercial hunting are known to have caused dramatic and rapid declines in affected areas (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). New surveys using consistent methods as well as regular monitoring of populations in protected areas are urgently needed throughout the western gorilla’s range. This will enable the conservation community to design and implement optimal conservation strategies in the face of this potent cocktail of threats.
9406		distribution	eng	<em>G. g. gorilla</em> (Savage and Wyman ,1847) occurs in Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), south to the Congo River mouth, and east across the Sangha River, to the Oubangi River.
9406		habitat	eng	Found primarily in lowland tropical forest, particularly where there is dense ground-level herbaceous growth, and in swamp forests. Staple foods are pith, leaves and shoots. Fruit component of the diet is generally high but varies with seasonal availability (Rogers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Gorillas live in groups averaging 10 and occasionally over 20 individuals, composed of at least one adult male, several adult females and their offspring. Each group’s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. The few precise life-history data available for <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> in the wild come from six years of observation of habituated groups at Lossi (prior to the Ebola epidemic) and from 6.5 years of observation at Mbeli Bai in the Nouabalé-Ndoki NP (RoC). Birth rates at Lossi and Mbeli Bai averaged 0.18 and 0.2 respectively with inter-birth-intervals of 4 to 6 years for six females whose first infant survived (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Infant mortality up to three years of age, in populations not affected by Ebola, was 22% and 65%, respectively, for Lossi and Mbeli (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Compared with the much larger demographic datasets from almost three decades of observation of mountain gorillas (<em>Gorilla beringei beringei</em>), it appears that western lowland gorillas reproduce more slowly due to longer inter-birth-intervals and higher infant mortality. Patterns of male and female emigration appear to be similar, but large groups (>20) containing more than one adult male are relatively uncommon in <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004).
9406		population	eng	Previous assessments have focused on habitat availability as the major predictor of gorilla abundance. Thus, the commonly cited figure of 95,000 western gorillas (Harcourt 1996) is based on an assumption that all intact habitat in Western Equatorial Africa contains gorillas at densities that were typical of Gabon in the early 1980s. However, habitat loss is not the major driver of ape decline in this region. Rather, recent surveys suggest that since the early 1980s, commercial hunting and outbreaks of the Ebola virus have virtually extirpated gorillas from a great deal of otherwise intact forest. Technical problems with the conversion of ape nest density to estimates of gorilla density preclude a rigorous estimate of range-wide gorilla abundance.
9406		threats	eng	There are two primary drivers of rapid western lowland gorilla decline: commercial hunting and the Ebola virus. Until the early 1980s, the interior of western lowland gorilla range included a series of vast, road-less blocks of forest where hunting access was extremely difficult and gorilla densities were high. Since then improvements in transportation infrastructure, devaluation of the regional currency, declining oil stocks, and timber depletion in other tropical regions have led to an explosion in mechanized logging. Regional timber production nearly doubled between 1991 and 2000 (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Vast tracts of previously inaccessible forest have recently been penetrated by logging roads, which provide commercial hunters ready access to remote areas with high ape densities, and to markets. Logging vehicles are also used to transport bushmeat, and logging employees eat more bushmeat than do local villagers.<br/><br/>The gorillas’ very low reproductive rates (3% maximum observed rate of population increase, Steklis and Gerald-Steklis 2001) mean that even low levels of hunting are enough to cause population decline. Consequently, the logging boom has caused a rapid crash in gorilla numbers. For example, Gabon experienced an estimated 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000, most of which was attributed to hunting (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Given that Gabon is the least heavily human populated country in the region, hunting impact is likely as high or higher in other range states. The threat posed by logging promises to continue and even intensify in the foreseeable future. Rates of timber production in the region are increasing (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002), in the case of Gabon exponentially (Figure 1). Profits in the industry are derived largely through exploitation of previously unlogged areas rather than sustainable harvesting in older concessions. The current trajectory predicts that the last remaining tracts of inaccessible forest will be opened to logging in the next 10 to 20 years.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Roundwood production in Gabon (1980-2005).<br/><br/>The second major driver of rapid gorilla decline is disease, specifically the Ebola virus. Since the early 1990s, Ebola has caused a series of massive gorilla and chimpanzee die-offs in remote forest blocks at the heart of their range. Outbreaks were first noted in 1994 in the Minkébé forest block of northern Gabon (Huijbregts <em>et al</em>. 2003). Before Ebola’s arrival, what is now Minkébé National Park held what was probably the second largest protected gorilla and chimpanzee population in the world. In 1996 Ebola emerged in the Lopé Reserve (now National Park) in central Gabon, in 2001 in the Mwagné forest block of eastern Gabon, in 2002 to 2003 in the adjoining Lossi forest block of north-west Congo, and in 2003 to 2005 in the Odzala National Park in north-west Congo (Figure 2). The Ivindo forest block of central Gabon was not monitored during the outbreak period, but it lies directly adjacent to the 1996 human outbreak zone around Booué and recent observations suggest an ape die-off there too.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 2</strong>: Protected areas with important western lowland gorilla populations.<br/><br/>Both phylogenetic analyses of the Ebola virus genome and analyses of the spatio-temporal pattern of outbreaks in humans and wild apes (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005, Lahm <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that these outbreaks were not isolated events but part of a spreading epizootic of Ebola in its reservoir host (probably bats, Leroy <em>et al</em>. 2005). Moving at about 40 to 45 km/year, this epizootic has for the last decade spread in an east/north-easterly direction across the region. Although continued spread is not guaranteed, the epizootic’s past spread rate has been highly consistent, making it possible to accurately predict the timing of the Odzala die-off well before it occurred (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005).<br/><br/>During Ebola outbreaks, gorilla mortality rates have been extremely high. During three different outbreaks at two different study sites, individually known social groups containing almost 600 gorillas were monitored. In all three outbreaks about 95% of known individuals died (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Higher survival rates amongst solitary individuals suggest that most of the remaining 5% may be individuals who were never infected rather than resistant survivors (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nest surveys at four different sites exhibit an “all or none” pattern of Ebola impact. Areas of 10,000 km² or more showing 95% declines in abundance transition abruptly into areas with little or no mortality (Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007, WCS and Government of Congo MEF unpublished data). These low ape densities are not reasonably attributed to hunting pressure as most of the remote survey zones had high ape densities just a few years before the declines were detected and because densities of other preferred target species (e.g., elephants and duiker) were still high after the Ebola outbreaks (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). The proportion of habitat in the 95% mortality class varied amongst outbreak sites, from little or none at Lopé to the entire Mwagné survey zone (Table 1a). In Odzala National Park, which held what were by far the largest protected populations of gorillas and chimpanzees in the world, the outbreak zone covered about 58% of the park. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1a</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in six survey zones.<br/><br/>Table 1a contains estimates of the percent decline in gorilla abundance in each survey zone. In the Lossi and Odzala zones, extensive survey data allowed a fairly precise mapping of outbreak and non-outbreak zones. Therefore, the number presented for these two zones is based on the proportion of the survey zone in each outbreak class (Outbrk vs. NonOutbrk) and the assumption of 95% mortality in outbreak areas. This approach was not possible for the Mwagné and Minkébé sites where virtually the entire populations were wiped out, or for the Ivindo site where survey intensity was not high enough to precisely map outbreak and non-outbreak zones. For these sites, nest encounter rates for surveys conducted before Ebola emergence are compared with nest encounter rates after Ebola emergence (Pre-Ebola vs. Post-Ebola). No attempt was made to estimate % decline for Lopé because it was the only zone to be logged before Ebola arrival and the only area in which a substantial proportion of the survey zone has experienced high rates of hunting. This makes it difficult to discriminate Ebola impact from hunting impact. Therefore, for the purposes of this analysis, Ebola is assumed to have had zero impact at Lopé. Estimated declines in gorilla abundance for the five zones for which estimates have been made range from 56% at Odzala to more than 95% at Mwagné and Minkébé. When decline rates are averaged across all six zones (with the contribution of each zone weighted by its surface area) the mean decline is 74% (weighting by relative abundance makes no significant difference; see Table 1b). The assumption of zero impact at Lopé has a conservative effect on this mean value (see Table 1a and 1b for comparison).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1b</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in five survey zones.<br/><br/>These six protected areas account for 45% of the total protected area habitat (67,250 km²) in which significant western lowland gorilla populations were found before Ebola emergence (Table 2). If we assume that all major protected areas had the same pre-Ebola density, this implies that 33% of the total protected area population of western lowland gorilla (100*(0.45*0.26+0.55*1) = 33%) has been killed by Ebola just over the last 13 to 14 years. This estimate is highly conservative in that pre-Ebola density estimates for protected areas with Ebola impact were typically much higher than for protected areas without recorded Ebola impact.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Protected areas holding significant pre-Ebola outbreak populations of western lowland gorilla, and Ebola-induced declines. <strong>Note: more detailed tabular data to support the calculations are available upon request</strong>.<br/><br/>If the Ebola epizootic continues at the same rate and trajectory, it could reach most of the remaining protected areas with large populations of western lowland gorillas within the next 5 to 10 years. Six major protected areas (Boumba Bek, Nki, and Lobéké Reserves in Cameroon, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in C.A.R., Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and Lac Télé Reserve in Congo) lie in the wave’s path and account for 44.6% of the protected area habitat where Ebola outbreaks have yet to be documented. All six areas lie inside a 275 km radius from the 2004 Lossi outbreak site at Odzala National Park. Thus, if the epizootic wave continues to spread at its past rate it may move through all six sites by about 2011 (calculated as 2004 + (275 km/43 km/yr)). If all sites suffered declines of a magnitude similar to previous parks (i.e. 74%), this would represent a 32.6% decline in the unaffected protected area population (calculated as: 100*((area of habitat affected*mortality rate)/total habitat)). Combined with previous impact, this would constitute a 45.4% Ebola-induced decline of Western Gorilla abundance in all protected areas (Table 2) in a period of just 20 years (i.e., from 1992 to 2011), or about one generation length*. This estimate is conservative in that these six protected areas are more remote than the other unaffected parks and are, therefore, likely to hold a higher proportion of the western gorilla population than is predicted by their area. The decline estimate is also independent of any decline caused by other factors (e.g., hunting), which, as already noted, was the primary reason for a 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000 in Gabon alone.<br/><br/>Timber extraction is the major source of forest clearance in western lowland gorilla range, which retains the highest percentage of forest cover in equatorial Africa (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Logging is selective, regional deforestation rates average only about 0.4% per year (FAO 2001), and gorillas do well in secondary forest if hunting is controlled. Thus, forest clearance alone should not become a major threat to western lowland gorillas for at least two or three decades, by which time other causes, if left unchecked, will already have greatly depleted populations. Forest clearance for agriculture is a major threat in heavily populated coastal regions, particularly in Cameroon. However, these areas harbour only a tiny fraction (probably <5%) of remaining western lowland gorillas. <br/><br/>Finally, there are hints that climate change may pose a serious future threat. Most of the western gorilla range receives rainfall only slightly higher than the amount necessary to maintain closed canopy forest. The last few decades have seen a decline in mean rainfall and a lengthening of dry seasons (Giannini <em>et al</em>. 2003), which increase the risk of forest fires. If this drying trend continues, there is a risk that large scale forest fires will cause dramatic forest loss, as seen recently in Southeast Asia and South America (Cochrane 2003). This risk will be magnified if regional climate trends are reinforced by local scale forest clearance for agriculture and timber (Baidya Roy <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Details on calculation of generation time can be found in Appendix 1 (follow the link below for <strong>Appendix 1</strong>).
9416		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in at least a few protected areas.
9416		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around six localities in southeastern Peru through northwest Bolivia. The localities include the type locality the Aceramarca River (tributary of the Unduavi River in Yungas) in La Paz, Bolivia (Gardner, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,600 to 3,290 m (Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
9416		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical forests (elfin forest). It is likely that <em>G. aceramarcae</em> is arboreal, although it may forage for fruit, insects and other small invertebrates on the forest floor. There are no records outside of forest.
9416		population	eng	Unknown. There is difficulty sampling this species due to its arboreal habits.
9416		threats	eng	There is very little known about threats, although deforestation rates in the species’ range are not currently suspected to be high.
9417		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species and effect of possible threats.
9417		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southeast of Brazil, Paraguay, eastern Peru and eastern Bolivia.
9417		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. agilis</span> is nocturnal and arboreal. It frequents the forest understory, where they use slender branches and vines. Found in evergreen and gallery forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997). <em>G. agilis</em> is a characteristic inhabitant of the gallery forest of southern South America but has broad habitat tolerance. It has been caught under fallen trunks, in tree holes, and in moist woodland. It is reported to be an adept climber, and nests made of vegetation have been found 1.6 m off the ground. One such nest contained seven individuals. In eastern Paraguay it has usually been captured in vegetation but sometimes has been caught on the ground. Specimens are commonly captured in pitfall traps. It is likely that specimens reported from the Cerrado were misidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Crytonanus</span>. This marsupial is found throughout the Brazilian cerrado, usually associated with mesic areas such as gallery forests. This mouse opossum is reported to have up to twelve young. Females lack a true pouch, and the teats remain hidden when the female is not lactating (Massoia and Fornes 1972, Nitikman and Mares 1987).
9417		population	eng	This species is locally common to rare. It may be present but very rare throughout western Amazonia, but common in dry forests to the south (Emmons and Feer 1997).
9417		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In some areas, especially along the Andean foothills, the species is probably declining due to deforestation.
9418		conservation	eng	Besides the presence of some protected areas in regions where the species occurs, specific actions in order to protect this species have not taken place.
9418		distribution	eng	Similar to some other members of the genus, the geographic distribution of this species is poorly known. So far, the species is known to occur in the Cordillera de Mérida and the Páramo de Tama in western Venezuela, and in&#160; the Departamento Cundinamarca in Colombia (Handley 1976, Alberico <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Cuartas and Muñoz 2003, Gardner 2007). This species is found at high elevations from 1,100–4,000 m in Venezuela (Hershkovitz 1992).
9418		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests and secondary forests. Although there are no published studies about its the ecology and natural history, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gracilinanus dryas</span> is likely arboreal, just as other members of the genus.
9418		population	eng	This species is rare.
9418		threats	eng	The major threat is deforestation, which has severely fragmented much of the forest in the region. The highest fragmentation occurs at elevations from 1,000–2,000 m, where most of both human settlements and farming, especially coffee and cattle, are present.
9419		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
9419		distribution	eng	This species is only known for several locations across a broad area of northern South America and its true distribution is unknown. Eastern Columbia through eastern Venezuela, southern Guyana, and northern Suriname, northern French Guiana, through to eastern Brazil. There are several other published references for this species that are unreliable (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
9419		habitat	eng	Poorly known. This species inhabits tropical forests, and has been recorded in dense secondary forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is likely that G. emiliae is arboreal, although it may forage for fruit, insects and other small invertebrates on the forest floor.
9419		population	eng	Extremely rare, known only from five individuals (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
9419		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Locally, habitat loss is an issue.
9420		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
9420		distribution	eng	This species occurs in&#160; Venezuela and Colombia. In Venezuela, the species is know from the Cordillera de la Costa and the Cordillera de Mérida at elevations from 2,100 to 4,000 m (Handley 1976, Hershkovitz 1992). Its presence in Colombia is only know from two records: Las Marimondas (1,450 m) in the Sierra de Perijá, Departmento La Guajira (Hershkovitz 1992) and La Selva, near Bogotá, Departamento Cundinamarca (Handley and Gordon 1979)
9420		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in savannah edge habitats, deciduous forest, humid evergreen forest, and cloud forest (Handley 1976, Hershkovitz 1992). It is associated with humid environments, frequently using the ecotone between forest and grasslands, mainly in riparian forest.&#160; There are records from coffee plantations in Colombia (Hershkovitz 1992). Although there are not published studies about the ecology and natural history of the species, and there are few specimens in natural history museums and collections, most of the available speciems were captured on trees, suggesting that the species might be arboreal.</p>
9420		population	eng	Paucity of specimens in collections suggest that the species is rare, probably due to low population densities.
9420		threats	eng	There is some threat from habitat loss, though not as severe since it uses secondary habitats.
9421		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. More research is needed to define to true range of this species.
9421		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southeastern Brazil, and from Misiones province in Argentina (Davis, 1947; Massoia, 1980; Vieira, 1949). Costa <em>et al.</em> (2003) demonstrated that this species occurs north into Minas Gerais state. Brown (2004) provided records south of Porto Alegre in Rio Grande do Sul state. Gardner (2007) does not recognize the localities in Misiones (Argentina) or Porto Alegre (Brazil), and the range needs clarification.
9421		habitat	eng	Found in wet evergreen Atlantic coastal forest in eastern Brazil. <em>G. microtarsus</em> was regularly caught on the ground as well as in trees, in both virgin and second-growth forest, though its morphology suggests extensive arboreality. It will probably found be found to be confined to areas of moderate to high rainfall (Davis, 1947; Stallings, 1988; Tate, 1933).
9421		population	eng	Restricted range. Not as abundant as G. agilis, although it is not rare (L. Costa pers. comm.).
9421		threats	eng	No presumed major threats. There is extensive deforestation in parts of its range.
9422		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from some protected areas, and likely occurs in many protected areas.
9422		distribution	eng	This species is found from Peru eastwards to southern Guyana, northern French Guiana, and Brazil (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Gardner, 2007; Astua, 2005). The known distribution is patchy, however, the species likely opccurs across the northern Amazon but is difficult to capture. This species is known from 13 localities (Astua, 2005). It is found up to 1,000 m in elevation (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
9422		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, and probably mostly arboreal, although some were captured in pitfall traps. It occurs in lowland and lower montane evergreen forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
9422		population	eng	The rarity of this species is probably due the difficulty in trapping it (Astua, 2005). This species is known from 13 specimens (Astua, 2005).
9422		threats	eng	It is presumed not to have major threats, especially since deforestation rates are not extremely high throughout its range.
9450		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. There may be a need to establish protected areas to conserve this species.
9450		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the upland location of Jebel Marra, a large inselberg in the savanna environment of western Sudan.
9450		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid woodland in rocky areas of valleys on the western side of Jebel Marra. It is not known if the species is present in modified habitats.
9450		population	eng	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.
9450		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9451		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and thrreats of this little-known species.
9451		distribution	eng	This West African species has been recorded from southern Senegal (two locations), southern Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte D'Ivoire. It is known from very few localities.
9451		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary tropical moist forest, coastal scrub and Guinea woodland (Rosevear 1969; Grub <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species nests in small shrubs and trees. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
9451		population	eng	It appears to be a very rare species.
9451		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9452		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
9452		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from Malindi in Kenya and along coastal parts of southern Somalia.
9452		habitat	eng	It has been collected in coastal dry shrubland. It is not known if the species can adapt to modified habitats.
9452		population	eng	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.
9452		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9453		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
9453		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Mozambique, eastern Zimbabwe and northern South Africa. It is possibly present in Swaziland, although this requires confirmation.
9453		habitat	eng	It is found in dense evergreen forests in southern Africa. Animals have also been reported from drier bushveld or coastal forest (Taylor 1988; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
9453		population	eng	This species is common in the localities where it is found.
9453		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9454		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
9454		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan, southwards through much of East Africa to eastern parts of South Africa. It also ranges eastwards from Angola to Mozambique.
9454		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest areas (dry forest and moist lowland forest), dry, moist, and high altitude shrubland, as well as anthropogenic habitats such as arable land, pasture land and urban areas.
9454		population	eng	It is a common species.
9454		threats	eng	In view of the species adaptability, there are presumably no major threats.
9455		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas, including Kibira National Park, Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Ruwenzori Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Improvements are needed to the management of protected areas for the conservation of this species.
9455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift region of Africa. It has been recorded from a number of localities including the Ruwenzori Mountains National Park (Uganda), Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), Kibira National Park (Burundi) and Kahuzi-Biega National Park (eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo).
9455		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to montane tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
9455		population	eng	It is not a rare species
9455		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.
9456		conservation	eng	This species is found in the Mount Kenya National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. The population of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.
9456		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Kenya, in Kenya, where it has been collected at 2,750 m asl.
9456		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in moist montane tropical moist forest and high altitude shrubland.
9456		population	eng	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.
9456		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
9457		conservation	eng	The are no conservation measures in place, however, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. The population of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.
9457		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from scattered localities in Uganda, southern Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, northeastern Zambia, Malawi and is possibly present in Mozambique. It is always found at high altitude, and has been recorded between 1,900 and 3,600 m asl on Mount Elgon (Uganda and Kenya).
9457		habitat	eng	It is found in dense moist evergreen montane forests and thickets at high altitude. This species is arboreal and nocturnal.
9457		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
9457		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened in parts of its range by conversion of land for agricultural use and logging operations.
9458		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
9458		distribution	eng	The limits of the distribution of this species are uncertain. It has been recorded from southern Sudan, the Central African Republic, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, south Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. There are disjunct records from Sierra Leone.
9458		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests (including riverine forests and forest edges), swamps with trees, and grasslands with trees. It is also found in the roofs of huts and houses. It is an arboreal and nocturnal species.
9458		population	eng	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.
9458		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats as a whole to this species.
9459		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Nechisar National Park. Improvements are needed to the management of this protected areas for the conservation of this species.
9459		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. It has been found close to the forest edge at 1,800 m asl.
9459		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are not well known. As animals were collected at the edge of montane forest, it may be a forest species.
9459		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
9459		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The highland areas in Ethiopia surrounding its known localities are heavily impacted by agriculture.
9460		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is presumed that the species is present in a number of protected areas.
9460		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa, Central Africa and western parts of East Africa. It occurs from Liberia eastward through Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana (Grubb <em>et a</em>l. 1998), and Togo to southern Nigeria, then south through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon to northern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998); also found on Bioko. It is also found in most of the eastern Congo Basin in southern Central African Republic, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as forest patches in western Uganda (Delany 1975). The full geographic limits are unresolved.
9460		habitat	eng	This species is found in both moist, and semi-dry, montane and lowland rainforest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitats.
9460		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
9460		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats as a whole to this widespread species.
9461		conservation	eng	<p>To date, no specific conservation measures have been taken for Risso’s Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea.</p><p>The existence of a Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco, has proved to be of great value for the study of Risso’s Dolphins. Most of the detailed studies of Risso’s Dolphins within the Mediterranean have taken place there. Research on Risso’s Dolphin within the Pelagos Sanctuary should be expanded, and additional areas in the region should be identified where protective measures would benefit the species. The first step toward this has taken place in southern Spanish waters, where habitat preference modelling has been undertaken to define Areas of Special Interest for the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Spanish Mediterranean (Cañadas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).</p>
9461		conservation	eng	The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations are included in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species.
9461		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations are included in Appendix II of CMS.<br/><br/>This is a circumglobal species, which migrates between summering and wintering grounds. Off California, where these movements are best known, they may cross between US and Mexican waters. Data on abundance, bycatch, and behavior needed in order to develop conservation measures that will enable protection of the natural habitat of the species
9461		distribution	eng	<p>Risso’s Dolphins occur in much of the Mediterranean Sea although most reported sightings have been in the western basin. The greatest concentration is in the Ligurian-Corso-Provençal basin, where the species is present all year-round. In general, Risso’s Dolphins prefer deep offshore waters and continental slope areas. The Ligurian-Corso-Provençal basin is one of the few areas in the Mediterranean Sea where the continental shelf is close to the coast, giving especially good opportunities to observe and study this species. In this Area, Azzellino<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2008) suggested a transient use of the habitat. Risso’s Dolphins also occur seasonally in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea off the west coast of Ischia and between the island of Ustica and the Aeolian islands. They are observed regularly in the Balearic Sea and in the eastern half of the Alborán Sea (mainly from Seco de los Olivos to the Gulf of Vera) all year-round.<br/></p>  <p>The apparent scarcity of Risso’s Dolphins in the eastern Mediterranean may be partly due to the paucity of observational effort there. A few strandings have been recorded in the northern Adriatic Sea and few sightings and strandings have been recorded along the coast of Israel and in the western Ionian Sea (Sicily). Risso’s Dolphin has been observed in the eastern Ionian Sea (Greece), around the western side of Crete and in the Aegean Sea (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). No data are available for the southern Mediterranean Sea.</p>
9461		distribution	eng	This is a widely-distributed species, inhabiting primarily deep waters of the continental slope and outer shelf (especially with steep bottom topography), from the tropics through the temperate regions in both hemispheres (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). It also occurs in some oceanic areas, beyond the continental slope, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific. It is found from Newfoundland, Norway, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and Gulf of Alaska in the north to the tips of South America and South Africa, southern Australia, and southern New Zealand in the south. Its range includes many semi-enclosed bodies of water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of California, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sea of Japan, and Mediterranean Sea.
9461		distribution	eng	This is a widely-distributed species, inhabiting primarily deep waters of the continental slope and outer shelf (especially with steep bottom topography), from the tropics through the temperate regions in both hemispheres (Kruse <em>et al.</em> 1999). They also occur in some oceanic areas, beyond the continental slope, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific.  They are found from Newfoundland, Norway, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and Gulf of Alaska in the north to the tips of South America and South Africa, southern Australia, and southern New Zealand in the south. Their range includes many semi-enclosed bodies of water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of California, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sea of Japan, and Mediterranean Sea.
9461		habitat	eng	Risso’s dolphins inhabit deep oceanic and continental slope waters, generally 400-1,000 m deep (Baird 2002; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993), mostly occurring seaward of the continental slope. They frequent subsurface seamounts and escarpments, where they are thought to feed on vertically migrant and mesopelagic cephalopods. In Monterey Bay, California, Risso's dolphins are concentrated over areas with steep bottom topography (Kruse 1989). Currents and upwelling causing local increases in marine productivity may enhance feeding opportunities, resulting in the patchy distribution and local abundance of this species worldwide (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). Davis <em>et al</em>. (1998) and Baumgartner (1997) reported that in the Gulf of Mexico, Risso's dolphins were mostly found over deeper bottom depths, concentrating along the upper continental slope, which may reflect squid distribution. Most records of <em>Grampus griseus</em> in Britain and Ireland are within 11 km of the coast. In certain areas, such as in the southwest English Channel, Risso’s dolphins are known to occur seasonally in shallow coastal waters to feed on cuttlefishes <em>Sepia officinalis</em> (Kiszka <em>et al</em>., 2004).<br/><br/>Long-term changes in the occurrence of Risso’s dolphins in some areas (e.g., off Catalina Island and in central California) have been linked to oceanographic conditions and movements of spawning squid (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). Risso's dolphins feed on crustaceans and cephalopods, but seem to prefer squid. Squid bites may be the cause of at least some of the scars found on the bodies of these animals. In the few areas where feeding habits have been studied, they appear to feed mainly at night.
9461		habitat	eng	Risso’s dolphins inhabit deep oceanic and continental slope waters, generally 400-1000 m deep (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Baird 2002), mostly occurring seaward of the continental slope. They frequent subsurface seamounts and escarpments, where they are thought to feed on vertically migrant and mesopelagic cephalopods. Currents and upwelling causing local increases in marine productivity may enhance feeding opportunities, resulting in the patchy distribution and local abundance of this species worldwide (Kruse <em>et al.</em> 1999). Most records of this species in Britain and Ireland are within 11 km of the coast. <br/><br/>Risso's dolphins feed on crustaceans and cephalopods, but seem to prefer squid. Squid bites may be the cause of at least some of the scars found on the bodies of these animals. In the few areas where feeding habits have been studied, they appear to feed mainly at night.
9461		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat preferences</span><br/>Risso’s Dolphins show a preference for deep pelagic waters, in particular over steep shelf slopes and submarine canyons (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Gaspari 2004, Cañadas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Individual Associations and Kinship</span><br/>Risso’s Dolphins in the Ligurian Sea (1990–2000) were encountered in groups of variable size, with mostly weak inter-individual associations but also some consistent relationships between individuals over periods of months and, in a few cases, years (Gaspari 2004). Limited evidence on genetic similarity among individuals within and among groups (n = 30) in the northwestern Mediterranean suggests that Risso’s Dolphins have a fluid social structure (Gaspari 2004).
9461		population	eng	Although Risso’s Dolphins are regularly sighted in the western Mediterranean, no population estimates exist for the species in this region. They are generally considered scarce. Population identity and structure&#160;Risso’s Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea are genetically differentiated from those in the eastern Atlantic. This implies that gene flow between the two areas is limited or negligible and that the Mediterranean animals constitute a distinct subpopulation (Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). There is also some evidence of structuring within the Mediterranean. Most of the samples analysed were from the Ligurian Sea, so it is possible that multiple populations use this area as a foraging ground (Gaspari <em>et al</em> 2007).<br/><br/>    Abundance and TrendLine-transect abundance estimates exist only for the western central Mediterranean, where aerial surveys from 2001–2003 resulted in an estimate of 493 Risso’s Dolphins (95% C.I. 162–1,498) in an area of 32,270 km² (Gómez de Segura <em>et al</em>. 2006).&#160; In all surveyed areas, encounter rates have been low (i.e., Ligurian-Corso-Provençal basin, 0.098 per km – Tethys Research Institute; southern Tyrrhenian Sea, 0.2 per nmi – B. Mussi, pers. comm.; Alborán Sea, 0.0032 per km - Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><p>There is no baseline information on abundance and therefore it is not possible to assess trends for the Mediterranean population.</p>
9461		population	eng	There are no estimates of global abundance, but there are some estimates for specific areas. Forney and Barlow (1998) observed that the estimated abundance of Risso's dolphins off California was almost an order of magnitude higher in winter (N= 32,376) than in summer (N= 3,980). However, the California, Oregon, Washington subpopulation is now estimated at only 16,066 (CV=28%) whales (Barlow 2003). Hawaiian waters are estimated to contain 2,351 (CV=65%) Risso’s dolphins (Barlow 2006). Abundance estimates off Sri Lanka ranged from 5,500 to 13,000 animals (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the eastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated the abundance at 1514 (CV=55%) individuals. There are an estimated 20,479 (CV=59%) Risso’s dolphins off the eastern United States (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), 2,169 (CV=32%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2004), 83,300 (CV=17%) in three areas of concentrated occurrence off Japan (Miyashita 1993), and 175,000 in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). <br/><br/>In relative terms, there are several examples of long term changes in abundance and distribution, e.g. in the Southern California Bight (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the late 1950s, Risso's dolphins were rarely encountered in this area, and between 1975 and 1978 they were still considered to be a minor constituent of the cetacean fauna of the Bight, representing only 3% of the cetaceans observed. After the El Niño of 1982/83, however, numbers of Risso's dolphins increased, especially around Santa Catalina Island where they came to be considered common (Shane 1995). There is no information on global trends in the abundance.
9461		population	eng	There are no regional estimates of abundance for this species. Although Risso’s dolphins are regularly sighted in the western Mediterranean, they are considered scarce (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Line-transect abundance estimates for the western central Mediterranean in 2001-03 gave 493 Risso’s dolphins (95% C.I. 162-1,498) in an area of 32,270 km<sup>2</sup> (Gómez de Segura <em>et al</em>. 2006).
9461		threats	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, Risso’s dolphins are among the cetacean species frequently found entangled in<br/>fishing nets. Bycatches in longlines and gillnets have been reported in Spain (Valeiras and Camiñas 2001) and Italy (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1990). Sound pollution is a threat to deep-diving pelagic cetaceans, including Risso’s dolphins. Evidence consistent with a syndrome related to exposure to high-intensity sonar has been described in this species in the UK (Jepson <em>et al.</em> 2005). Risso’s dolphins in the Mediterranean have been found to carry substantial contaminant burdens (see references in Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
9461		threats	eng	Occasional direct killing of Risso’s dolphins has occurred. This is generally as a result of the dolphins removing fish from longlines, or in multi-species small cetacean fisheries, such as those that occur in Sri Lanka, the Caribbean, and Indonesia. One regular hunt occurs in Japan, where about 250-500 are taken per year in a drive fishery. Some Risso’s dolphins have been captured for live display in oceanaria, although there are not many of them in oceanaria.<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, Risso's dolphins are apparently the second most commonly taken cetacean in fisheries, providing fish and meat for human consumption and fish bait; subpopulations there may be adversely affected (see Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1991). An estimated 1,300 Risso's dolphins may be landed annually as a result of this fishery, and abundance estimates in these waters range only from 5,500 to 13,000 animals (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Japan, Risso's dolphins are taken periodically for food and fertilizer in set nets and as a limited catch in the small-type whaling industry (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999), with reported catches in recent years ranging from about 250–500. They are also a major target of artisanal hunting, and are taken often in gillnets and other fishing gear in the Philippines (Dolar 1994, Dolar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Off eastern Taiwan, Risso’s dolphins are also taken by harpoon opportunistically and oceanic large-mesh driftnets for large pelagic fish appear to take considerable numbers incidentally (Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are reports of bycatches from the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, the southern Caribbean, the Azores, Peru, and the Solomon Islands. They are also a rare bycatch in the US tuna purse seine industry, and are taken occasionally in coastal gill net and squid seining industries off the US coast, or shot by aggravated fishermen (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales that are also deep-divers that feed on squid, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
9461		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Bycatch</span><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, Risso’s Dolphins are among the cetacean species frequently found entangled in fishing nets. Bycatches in longlines and gillnets have been reported in Spain (Valeiras <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and Italy (Notarbartolo di Siara 1990).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Noise</span><br/>Sound pollution is a threat to deep-diving pelagic cetaceans, including Risso’s Dolphins. Although there are no records of Risso’s Dolphin strandings in the Mediterranean Sea directly attributable to noise, evidence consistent with a syndrome related to exposure to high-intensity sonar has been described in this species in the UK (Jepson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Contaminants  </span><br/>Like other odontocetes, Risso’s Dolphins in the Mediterranean carry substantial contaminant burdens (Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Marsili and Focardi 1997, Shoham-Frider <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Fossi and Marsili 2003).
9465		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas in Bolivia and at least one national park in Argentina.
9465		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of Andes in south-central Bolivia and northwest Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 3,700 m.
9465		habitat	eng	In Salta province, Argentina, this species is limited to transitional forest, occurring on very low mountains in the central part of the province, but it also may occur in drier portions of the subtropical forest. It was trapped in thick grass along road cuts and from areas of second growth (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981). Anderson (1997), states that in general the limited data available for Bolivia fits with the habitats described in Argentina by Mares <em>et al.</em> (1981). In Bolivia, it is also known from pre-Puna grassland and Tucumano Boliviano forest habitats.
9465		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, however, can be locally common (i.e. in portions of Bolivia).
9465		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
9466		conservation	eng	The species is not present in any protected areas.
9466		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Catamarca Province, Otro Cerro, 3000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
9466		habitat	eng	Highland grasslands.
9466		population	eng	There is not information on populations. All information of the species comes from the type locality.
9466		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9467		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina.
9467		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-central Bolivia, western Paraguay, and nearby Brazil, south through western Argentina to nothern Santa Cruz Province (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
9467		habitat	eng	It is found in wet Chaco, shrubby areas.
9467		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
9467		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
9480		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
9480		distribution	eng	A species is apparently known only from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, with an isolated population present in southern Cameroon.
9480		habitat	eng	This little-known species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if it can persist in secondary or degraded habitats.
9480		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
9480		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, however, it has been recorded over a wide area of seemingly suitable habitat.
9481		conservation	eng	Recorded at least from Mount Nimba forest Reserve in Côte d'Ivoire and Okajakrom Forest Reserve in Ghana. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
9481		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire (in Mount Nimba Reserve), Ghana, Togo, Nigeria and Cameroon; it was mentioned from Bioko Island by Rosevear (1969). It has yet to be recorded from Sierra Leone. There is an unidentified specimen of <em>Graphiurus</em> in the British Museum from southern Democratic Republic of the Congo that is often thought to be this species, but likely represents a distinct species (P. Grubb pers. comm.).
9481		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, but may also enter cultivated areas and buildings, as reported by Rosevear (1969) who summarises the little information available on this species.
9481		population	eng	This species is very rarely collected.
9481		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It is possibly threatened by ongoing deforestation within its range, however, it has seemingly been recorded from modified habitats such as agricultural land. In Benin (where the species is not recorded from the wild), this species has reportedly been found on sale in markets for medicinal purposes, but this requires confirmation.
9483		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed to better determine the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species.
9483		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout much of Subsaharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and Gambia, through much of West Africa (including a seemingly disjunct record from Niger), with few records in Central Africa north of Angola, to East Africa where it is found from Ethiopia and Somalia southwards to northern Tanzania. It is found as far south as eastern Zimbabwe, Malawi and central Mozambique. It is found up to at least 2,400 m asl.
9483		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a range of moist and dry savanna habitats and tropical dry forests or woodland.
9483		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
9483		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
9484		conservation	eng	This species is probably present in several protected areas.
9484		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species, ranging from Sierra Leone in West Africa, possibly to Uganda in the east. It ranges throughout much of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, reaching extreme northwestern Zambia in the south.
9484		habitat	eng	This is a largely a lowland forest species, but may also be found in in savanna. Jeffrey (1973) noted it was present in most habitats, though not in high forest, including houses and disused buildings. Often found in oil palms in Sierra Leone (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). Tree-dwelling, spends much time on the ground (Rosevear, 1969).
9484		population	eng	In Sierra Leone, apparently common and widespread in the forest area, and quite frequently lives and nests in buildings and houses (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
9484		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
9485		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Taita Hills and Mount Kenya National Park.
9485		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Subsaharan Africa, from southern Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia, through East Africa and parts of eastern Central Africa, to Angola and northern South Africa. It has been recorded to 2,600 m asl.
9485		habitat	eng	This species is present in a range of savanna and woodland habitats. It is commonly found in as a commensal with people.
9485		population	eng	This is probably a common species.
9485		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
9486		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
9486		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from eastern Angola and northwestern Zambia. Ansell (1978) states that is known only from a few localities and is rarely collected.
9486		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with moist savanna habitats. There is little additional information available on the species natural history.
9486		population	eng	It is only known from a very few specimens.
9486		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9487		conservation	eng	It is presumably present within some protected areas.
9487		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in much of East Africa and Southern Africa. It ranges from Ethiopia, through much of East Africa (and marginally in western Central Africa) to South Africa (reaching as far west as the Western Cape) and Lesotho.
9487		habitat	eng	This species is found in woodland, savanna, grassland and rocky areas (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In parts of its range it is foun in either Afromontane forest or riverine forest dominated by <em>Combretum</em>. The can persist in secondary habitats, and are sometimes found in various types of buildings.
9487		population	eng	Densities have been estimated at about 10 animals per hectare, especially in riverine forest (where they can be the dominant small mammal) (R. Baxter pers. comm.).
9487		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
9488		conservation	eng	This pecies is present in several protected areas.
9488		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa, where it occurs widely in Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, and  Western Cape provinces, with a single record from the North West province. The occurrence of <em>G. ocularis</em> in KwaZulu-Natal, due to a single skin collected in 1915 some 400 km from its known range, is doubtful (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 1994).
9488		habitat	eng	The species is associated with the sandstone formations of the Cape, which have many vertical and horizontal cracks and crevices in which to shelter and nest (Channing 1984).
9488		population	eng	The current population size is not known, but they are not common.
9488		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
9491		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas. Additional studies and surveys are needed to better determine the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
9491		distribution	eng	This African species has been recorded from Zambia, southern Malawi, much of Zimbabwe, central Mozambique, eastern Botswana, northeastern South Africa and the highveld of Swaziland.
9491		habitat	eng	They generally occur in rocky terrain, and live in rock crevices and in piles of boulders. In parts of their distributional range, they live in trees (Ansell 1960; Smithers and Lobao-Tello 1976). Occasionally they are found in buildings.
9491		population	eng	Based on collections, the species is probably not uncommon.
9491		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
9492		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. The relationship of this species to <em>G. angolensis</em> requires investigation.
9492		distribution	eng	This little-known species is largely distributed in Namibia and South Africa, in a narrow strip from Karibib and Mount Brukaros in Namibia south to Port Nolloth and Eenriet in South Africa. There is a single possible record from central Angola.
9492		habitat	eng	Shortridge (1934) refers to this species as a nocturnal rock dormouse, inhabiting mountainous and entirely treeless situations.
9492		population	eng	Fairly plentiful among rocky hills around Karibib (Shortridge 1934).
9492		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
9493		conservation	eng	It is possibly present in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
9493		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from southern Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and Gabon (Belinga 1.09 N; 13.12 E). There are also two records from central Democratic Republic of Congo (Inkongo 4.55 S; 23.15 E; Masako 0.36 N; 25.13 E). Additional survey work will probably reveal the distribution of this species to be more continuous.
9493		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. Few additional details are available concerning the species natural history.
9493		population	eng	It is known only from around 20 museum specimens.
9493		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitats.
9496		conservation	eng	<p>Previously <em>Graptemys barbouri</em> was assessed by IUCN (in 1996) as LC/nt under the version 2.3 criteria; as G2, or Vulnerable, by NatureServe in 1996; as G2 (Imperiled) at both global and State level by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory; and as a Species of Special Concern in Florida. <em>Graptemys barbouri</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14th June 2006.</p>  <p><em>Graptemys barbouri</em> is prohibited from most forms of commercial exploitation in Alabama, Florida and Georgia, and only Florida allows take of up to two individuals for personal use. </p>  <p>Management of subsidized / elevated raccoon and fish crow populations is a challenging prospect but should be considered (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). </p>  <p>Future river management, including commercial barge traffic, recreational boating, snag removal, sand dredging and water usage, and waterfront residential developments, are generally beyond the scope of turtle conservation but turtles should at least be integrated into management plans and practices, and a few specific sites warrant protected status (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). </p>  <p>Research on the population and harvest levels is recommended to identify the rate of past and current decline,</p>  Genetic evaluation of the Choctawhatchee map turtles is needed. (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
9496		distribution	eng	<em>Graptemys barbouri</em> inhabits the Apalachicola River system and nearby systems of Florida, Georgia, and Alabama in the southeastern United States, including the Chattahoochee river system as far north as Stewart County, GA, the Flint River north to Meriwether Coounty, GA, the Chipola River, and the Choctawhatchee and Pea River systems as far as Geneva Coouty, AL (Iverson 1992, Bonin <em>et al</em>. 2006, Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2006).
9496		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys barbouri</em> favours sections of free-flowing rivers with limestone outcrops, which support good populations of freshwater snails, but use of silty channels is also widespread. (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).The species is essentially carnivorous, with juveniles and males feeding on a variety of insects and small snails, whereas larger females shift to a diet of predominantly freshwater snails with some bivalves also taken. (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).</p>  <p>Females require many years (possibly 14–20 years) to reach maturity at 20 cm carapace length (CL) and 1 kg weight; males mature in three to four years at about 8 cm CL. Females reach their maximum size (largest recorded – 330 mm CL, 3.3 kg) by the age of about 24 years. Males reach only 130 mm CL at about 200 g. Corresponding to the different age to reach maturity, population sex ratios have been recorded as 67–78% males. Hatchlings measure 30–38 mm and weigh up to 13 g (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).</p>  <p>Females have a prolonged nesting season (late April to early August) with rather small clutch size (usually 7–10 eggs/clutch, extremes 3–15) and may produce three to five clutches per year, for an annual reproductive output of 25–40 eggs (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Nest predation rates are substantial, mainly by raccoons but also fish crows (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). </p>
9496		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys barbouri</em> was considered the fourth rarest <em>Graptemys</em> based on extensive basking surveys (Lindeman pers. comm. 2009). </p>  <p>Moler (1986) compared his population survey along the Chipola River to Carr's (1952) observations, and concluded that population trends in the 45 years since the observations by Carr was as compatible with a stable population as with a decline. However, compared to encounter rates of 68.3 turtles/km of river by Sanderson in 1974 during repeated sampling of a 5.65 km section (total of 386 individuals), sighting rates of 2.64 (average) to 5.66 turtles/km by 1986 suggest a substantial decline at least locally. Cagle (1952) collected 393 individuals from an unspecified section of this river. </p>  <p>Numbers along a surveyed section of the Apalachicola River estimate numbers of 350–500 individuals (Zappalorti in Ewert <em>et al</em>. 2006), with Choctawhatchee River estimates a minimum of 250 individuals in the Florida stretch with the highest recorded density as 7.1 turtles/km. </p>  The population of <em>G. barbouri</em> is estimated to range between 1,000 and 10,000 individuals, found in 1–20 subpopulations (NatureServe 2006). This species is reportedly abundant in parts of its range, such as the Chipola, Apalachicola, and Flint Rivers, while it is scarce in others. NatureServe (2006) describe the population's short term trend as “declining to stable”.
9496		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys barbouri</span> is threatened by habitat degradation, overharvesting and predation. Local harvesting is thought to continue along the Chipola River (Ewert <em>et al</em>. 2006). Some shooting is thought to still continue.   <p>Channel modification, dredging, barge traffic and pollution threaten its riverine habitat. Increasingly, overgrowth of sandy spoil mound sites for nesting is changing the spatial distribution of nests, with nesting sites becoming ever more clumped, and removal of dead trees or 'snags' removes basking sites (Ewert <em>et al.</em> 2006). Demand for water from the rivers it inhabits is substantial and likely to increase in the future. Few superfund polluted sites are located within or immediately connected to <span style="font-style: italic;">G. barbouri</span> habitat, and the potential of a major industrial spill affecting a significant section of the total population of <em>G. barbouri</em> cannot be discounted. (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).</p>  <p>Eggs and young are heavily predated by raccoons and fish crows, affecting recruitment. Raccoons also kill nesting adult females. To what extent raccoon and fish crow populations near the nesting sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. barbouri</span> are subsidized by humans remains unknown (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<br/> <br/> Parts of the Flint River population have been affected by a sometimes-fatal disease condition of unknown etiology.</p>  <p>In the Choctawhatchee River system there is indication of introgressive hybridization with <em>G. ernsti</em>, which could locally deplete <em>G. barbouri</em> as a pure form. (Ewert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). </p>
9497		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys caglei</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. It has been listed as Threatened in Texas since 2000. It was a candidate for Federal protection under the ESA until 2006, when it was found not to warrant ESA status&#160;based in part on actions taken by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) to increase protection of the species against collecting and shooting.&#160;</p>      <p>Updated distribution and status surveys are urgently needed, followed by a program of population monitoring. Much better understanding is needed of the threats facing this species, and appropriate measures to address these threats. </p>
9497		distribution	eng	<p>Recorded on the Guadalupe River system of south-central Texas (segments of the Guadalupe and San Marcos rivers in Kerr, Kendall, Comal, Guadalupe, Gonzales, Dewitt, Hays, and Victoria counties) as well as the adjoining San Antonio River (although continued occurrence in the San Antonio is unconfirmed – Vermersch 1992, Ernst and Lovich 2009). Overall, the vast majority of the species’ individuals appears restricted to the lower 120 km of the Guadalupe River. </p>
9497		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys caglei</em> occurs in riverine habitat with limestone bedrock bottoms interspersed with pools with silt and gravel, and with gravel bars connecting long pool areas with a shallow average depth and a muddy moderate flow; optimal habitat appears to include both riffles and pools; males may spend much of their time in gravel bar riffles and transition areas between pools and riffles; basking sites include fallen trees and shrubs, logs, rocks, and cypress knees. </p>  <p>Males and juveniles apparently feed mainly on aquatic insects, while females reportedly are predominantly mollusc feeders (Haynes and McKown 1974, Porter 1990 in Lindeman 1999, Killebrew in Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>Females reach a maximum carapace length (CL) of 21.3 cm, while males become no larger than 12.6 cm CL. </p>  <p>Males were calculated to mature towards the end of their second or in their third year of growth (Lindeman 1999). Females produce one or perhaps up to three clutches of 1–6 eggs (Wibbels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, Vermersch 1992). Longevity has not been reported but likely exceeds 20 years. Generation time has not been calculated. </p>
9497		population	eng	<p>At the time of description (1974), <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys caglei </span>was described as locally abundant in the lower Guadalupe River, some other sections of the Guadalupe, in the San Antonio system, and in several smaller tributaries (Haynes and McKown 1974). </p>  <p>The species is nearly invisible along the upper Guadalupe (above San Marcos confluence) and any populations there are likely severely fragmented. The population in the San Antonio river system may have been extirpated (Ernst and Lovich 2009). The species has thus suffered an effective range reduction of 50–67% since 1974. </p>  <p>Killebrew data from the early 1990s, focused on the lower Guadalupe area, estimated a total population of 11–13,000 animals; the surveys were repeated in 2000–2001, with similar results (Lindeman, pers.comm.). </p>  <p><em>Graptemys caglei</em> was considered the rarest of all <em>Graptemys</em> by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. </p>
9497		threats	eng	<p>Specific documentation of the threats impacting <em>Graptemys caglei</em> have not been published in detail. Habitat alteration and disturbance are likely factors, and the effects of groundwater depletion from the Edwards aquifer is likely to be significant. Being an exceedingly shy species with a physiological need for extensive basking, human disturbance of river areas is likely long-term low-level detrimental. </p>
9498		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys flavimaculata</em> was listed as federally threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1991; as Endangered by the State of Mississippi; and was included in CITES Appendix III (United States) on 14 June 2006. The 1993 Recovery Plan listed six actions needed: </p>  <ol><li>Conduct population assessments throughout the      range</li><li>Conduct life history research on the species</li><li>Investigate water quality and determine habitat      suitability</li><li>Formulate actions to protect the habitat</li><li>Develop educational materials about the turtle,      its habitat, and threats </li><li>Develop population monitoring plan. </li></ol>  <p>Horne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) called for improved law enforcement protecting adult turtles, public education, and possibly nesting beach protection. </p>
9498		distribution	eng	<p><em>Graptemys flavimaculata</em> is confined to the Pascagoula River system, including the Leaf, Chickasawhay, and Escatawpa rivers, in southern Mississippi. The Leaf and Chickasawhay Rivers merge to form the Pascagoula; the Escatawpa is a tributary which joins the lower Pascagoula just before its estuary (USFWS 1993). The total range comprises less than 760 km of river [Pascagoula = 130 km, Leaf = 290 km, Chickasawhay = 340 km, but not all of this area is occupied: see the 'Population' section].</p>
9498		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys flavimaculata</em> is exclusively riverine and inhabits mainly sunny river sections with moderate to strong current, abundant sand bars, and abundant deadwood basking sites. </p>  <p>Males and juveniles feed predominantly on insects and freshwater sponge fragments, while females consume mainly molluscs and sponges (Seigel and Brauman 1994 in Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>Females may reach up to 19 cm carapace length (CL) at an average weight of 1.13 kg; males grow up to 11 cm CL at an average of 154 g weight. Females reach maturity at about 15 cm CL (Cagle 1954, Horne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) at an estimated age of 8–10 years, while males were estimated to mature at 3–4 years (USFWS 1993). Mature females produce clutches averaging 4.7 eggs (range 3–9), and few females (16%) produce a second clutch in a year, while apparently many females skip reproduction for one or more years (Horne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003); in captivity, reproductive output is significantly higher, with females averaging 3.3 clutches of 3.4 eggs annually (Goode 1997). Generation time is unknown but at (female) age of first maturity over eight years, and exceptionally low rate of reproductive output, is probably more than 20 years.</p>
9498		population	eng	<p>Available information indicates that the Yellow Blotched Sawback declined substantially in the late 20<sup>th</sup> century, and while the decline appears to have been halted, the species has not recovered to historical levels yet.</p><p>At the time of its description, Cagle (1954) reported <em>G. flavimaculata</em> to be the dominant turtle in the Pascagoula and Chickasawhay rivers. Early surveys (McCoy and Vogt 1980, in USFWS 1993) reported good populations throughout most of the Leaf and Pascagoula rivers, while populations in the Chickasawhay were in decline. </p>  <p>Lovich (in Ernst and Lovich 2009) found the species common in the Leaf River upstream from a pulp processing plant but absent for an undetermined distance downstream. No <em>G. flavimaculata</em> were observed in the upper Leaf River by Lindeman (1998) during repeated surveys during 1994–95, though he reported low to good numbers near Hattiesburg and further downstream (Lindeman pers. comm.). Some observations were made on the far upper Leaf by Selman, and the population in the middle Leaf river appeared relatively common during studies and casual observations during 2006–2010 (Selman unpubl. 2010, P.P. van Dijk pers. obs. 2010).<br/></p>  <p>USFWS surveys in 1989 (Stewart 1989, Murrah 1991 in USFWS 1993) documented near-absence of the species from the Leaf and upper Pascagoula river sections where the species was abundant a decade earlier, but an apparent increase in population density in the lower Pascagoula. This subpopulation however declined substantially following the impact and aftermath of hurricane Katrina in late 2005 (Selman and Qualls 2007). <br/></p>   <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys flavimaculata</span> was considered the third-rarest <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys</span> by Lindeman (pers. comm. 2009) based on extensive basking surveys.
9498		threats	eng	<p><em>Graptemys flavimaculata</em> has been documented and hypothesized as impacted by a variety of processes, of which habitat degradation and pollution stand out. </p>  <p>Navigation and flood control improvement measures lead to the removal of snags, logs and other obstacles, which represent prime basking sites as well as invertebrate prey habitat. Localized riverine gravel mining increases river water turbidity downstream and affects invertebrate prey populations. Reservoir construction and operation within the Pascagoula basin changes river characteristics to impoundments and affects flow patterns and water quality parameters downstream. </p>  <p>Pollution from municipal run-off and sewage discharges, industrial effluents (particularly from paper pulp processing, and brine discharges from oilfields) and elevated dioxin levels are extensive throughout the basin and have apparently impacted the turtles directly and indirectly through compromised reproduction. </p>  <p>Past commercial and current personal collection for pets, wanton shooting of basking turtles, exceptionally high (increased) nest predation, at the order of 90%, by (subsidized) fish crows, raccoons and fire ants, and reduced reproductive success as a result of human disturbance of preferred nesting sites, have all been indicated as significant additional impacts on populations. </p>  <p>For detailed reviews of threats, see USFWS (1993), Horne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003), and Ernst and Lovich (2009). </p>
9499		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys oculifera</em> was designated as Threatened under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1986; a recovery plan has been prepared but no funding has been allocated to implement its recommendations and critical habitat has not been designated; the species was included in a 2005 review of species included under the ESA. </p>  <p>The Ringed Sawback is protected in Mississippi, where it is State-listed as Endangered (<a href="http://home.mdwfp.com/License/info.aspx?id=13">http://home.mdwfp.com/License/info.aspx?id=13</a>), while it is listed as Threatened in&#160;Louisiana.&#160;</p>  <p>The Ringed Map Turtle is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. A section of the Pearl river, 19 km in length, was established as a sanctuary for the Ringed Sawback, resulting in channel maintenance practices consistent with the species’ requirements, and public awareness efforts. The species also occurs in the riverfront sections of Nanih Waiya WMA, Pearl River WMA, and Old River WMA in Mississippi, and Pearl River WMA and Bogue Chitto NWR in Louisiana (Jones & Selman, 2009). </p>  <p>Further desirable conservation measures include implementing the recovery plan, including designation of two Pearl River sections, amounting to 240 river km, as protected habitat, with associated implementation of regulations and funding made available for land acquisition. Further studies of natural history and population dynamics, to complement research already completed or in progress, is desirable.&#160;</p>
9499		distribution	eng	<p><em>Graptemys oculifera</em> inhabits the Pearl and Bogue Chitto rivers of southeastern Louisiana and western Mississippi. The occupied section of suitable habitat in the Pearl is about 790 km and the occupied section of the Bogue Chitto about 85 km, for a total length of 875 km of occupied river length; the Pearl River is fragmented by the Ross Barnett reservoir (Jones and Selman 2009). </p>
9499		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys oculifera</em> is most abundant in streams with moderate to fast current, numerous basking logs, nearby sand and gravel bars, and channel wide enough to allow sun to reach basking logs. Ringed Sawbacks, both males and females, feed predominantly on caddisflies, diptera, mayflies, beetles and other insects, as well as occasionally scavenging dead fish (Jones and Selman 2009).</p>  <p>Females may reach 22 cm carapace length (CL), males may reach 11 cm CL. Females have been calculated to reach maturity at 13–14 cm CL at 7–16 years of age, while males mature at 7–8 cm CL and 3–5 years. Longevity certainly exceeds 21 years and likely exceeds 25 (males) to 37 (females) years. (Jones and Selman 2009). Generation time has not been estimated. </p>  <p>Females usually produce a single clutch, rarely a second clutch; only 60% of mature females nest in any given year. Clutch size averages 3.66 (range 1–10) eggs (Jones 2006). Hatchlings measure about 35 (range 28–40) mm. </p>
9499		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys oculifera </em>has been reported at densities of 4–340 animals per km of river (review by Jones and Selman 2009). Population monitoring over the past 20 years indicate that some subpopulations are stable while others are in decline (Jones and Selman 2009). No overall decline rates have been estimated. </p>  <p><em>Graptemys oculifera</em> was considered the overall sixth rarest <em>Graptemys</em> species by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. </p>
9499		threats	eng	<p>Over 21% of the range of <em>Graptemys oculifera</em> had already been channelized by 1986. Plans for channelization of an additional 28% of the Pearl River and over 160 km of the Bogue Chitto river, while not executed, have not been entirely rescinded and remain as a significant potential threat (Jones & Selman, 2009). </p>  <p>Riverine sedimentation loading and pollution remain particularly significant in the Pearl River system as a result of catchment management infrastructures and practices, riverside paper industries, and riverine gravel mining (review in Lovich et al., 2009). In addition, the river has suffered significant impact from hurricanes in recent years. Because of the connectivity of river mainstem habitat, an impact in the upper reaches of either river inhabited by the species will affect the entire turtle population (and/or its prey base) in that river, increasing the species’ vulnerability to impacts elsewhere. &#160;Incidental anthropogenic removal of animals, by pet collection, shooting or incidental take in fisheries, disturbance of basking and nesting sites and behaviour (reducing long-term individual fitness and recruitment), and increased nest predation levels by increasing populations of raccoons, armadillos and fish crows (who together predate 86% of nests – Jones, 2006), represent additional background impacts on remaining subpopulations (Jones & Selman, 2009). </p>
9500		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys ernsti</em> previously was assessed by IUCN (in 1996) as LR/nt under the version 2.3 criteria; as G2 (Imperiled) at both global and State level by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory; and as ‘Rare’ by the FCREPA based on its occurrence in just a single drainage basin. </p>    <p><em>Graptemys ernsti</em> is prohibited from most forms of commercial exploitation in Alabama and Florida; Florida allows take of up to two individuals for personal use.<em><br/></em></p><p><em>Graptemys ernsti</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. Aresco and Shealy (2006) recommended further regulation of personal take in Florida, outlawing basking traps, regulating all-terrain vehicle (ATV) access to riverside areas, and called for collection of baseline data on turtle populations for long-term monitoring, monitoring of water quality parameters, development of pollution spill contingency plans, and due consideration of turtles and ecological values when considering hydrological infrastructure developments. </p>
9500		distribution	eng	<p><span class="datalabel"><span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys ernsti</span> is restricted to parts of the Escambia, Yellow, and Shoal rivers and their tributaries in western Florida and adjoining Alabama (Lovich and McCoy 1992, Aresco and Shealy 2006). </p>
9500		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys ernsti</em> inhabits the main channels of medium-sized to large rivers and creeks, specifically areas with an abundance of freshwater mussels and snags for basking. The species does not or barely occur in estuarine, backwater or floodplain swamp habitats. Females nest on large, relatively open sandbars of fine sand. </p>  <p>Males and juveniles feed mainly on insects, while adult females feed almost exclusively on gastropod and bivalve molluscs, with the introduced Asian clam <em>Corbicula</em> being the females’ primary prey (Aresco and Shealy 2006).</p>  <p>Females mature at an age of at least 14 (more likely 19) years, 21.2 cm carapace length (CL), and can reach a maximum size of 28.5 cm CL by age 23 years. Males mature at about 3–4 years of age, at or over 80 mm CL, and can attain maximum size of about 13 cm CL by age of eight years. Females nest from May through July and produce an average of four (range 1–6) clutches per female per year, each clutch comprising an average of seven (range 6–13) eggs (Lindeman 1999, Aresco and Shealy 2006). </p>
9500		population	eng	<em>Graptemys ernsti </em>was considered the seventh rarest/commonest <em>Graptemys</em> by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. Numbers of animals seen during basking surveys are pretty good compared to the ecologically equivalent <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gibbonsi</span>, ranging from 5–17.5 or higher numbers of animals per km of river, and is apparently the most abundant turtle of the Escambia and Yellow Rivers. (Aresco and Shealy 2006).
9500		threats	eng	<p><span class="datalabel">Nest predation is variable by location and time but may exceed 95%, mainly from raccoons and fish crows; while these are native species, their populations tend to be increased by human facilitation. </p>  <p><span class="datalabel">Nest and hatchling mortality has been recorded resulting from recreational vehicle use on riverine sandbanks (Aresco and Shealy 2006). </span></p>  <p>Water quality in the Conecuh and Escambia rivers is at potential risk from catastrophic mishaps at upstream industrial facilities, including a paper mill, a waste water treatment facility and a manufacturing facility, potentially affecting the turtles’ filter-feeding prey and the turtles themselves (Aresco and Shealy 2006). <span class="datalabel"></p>  <p><span class="datalabel">Potential threats on the future horizon include salvage logging of submerged tree trunks, snag removal for boating purposes, and proposed impoundments and associated water flow changes and sediment loading </span>(Aresco and Shealy 2006).<span class="datalabel"></p>  <p><span class="datalabel"><span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys ernsti </span>is in some demand in the global pet trade and persistent collection could impact the species significantly. </p>
9502		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys nigrinoda</em> is listed as a Protected Nongame Species by the State of Alabama, as Endangered by the State of Mississippi, and is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. </p>  <p>A variety of riverside protected areas safeguard nesting sites, and to some extent resident populations. Initiatives under way under the Mobile Bay Aquatic Ecosystem Recovery Plan are likely to significantly benefit <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys nigrinoda</span>; no measures specific to the species appear urgently needed, though background biological research and population monitoring are desirable. </p>
9502		distribution	eng	<em> Graptemys nigrinoda</em> occurs below the Fall Line in the Alabama, Tombigee, Black Warrior, Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Cahaba rivers of Alabama and northeastern Mississippi.
9502		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys nigrinoda</em> inhabits rivers and streams with moderate current, and logs and other basking sites; hatchlings and juveniles apparently prefer adjoining sloughs and bayous. Eggs are laid in nests dug on open expanses of fine sand. </p>  <p>Black-knobbed Sawbacks feed predominantly on freshwater sponges, bryozoans, molluscs and insects, as well as taking some plant material. </p>  <p>Females reach 22 cm carapace length (CL), while males remain much smaller at 12 cm CL maximum. Females reach maturity at about 8–9 years and 17 cm CL, while males mature at about 7 cm and 3–4 years. Females produce 3–4 clutches of on average 5.5 eggs annually. Hatchlings measure 36 mm CL. Generation time has not been calculated. &#160;</p>  <p>Natural history reviews by Blankenship <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009), Ernst and Lovich (2009).</p>
9502		population	eng	<p>Surveys up to 1980 (McCoy and Vogt in Blankenship <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) documented extensive and abundant populations throughout much of the extensive range of the species, particularly in areas not intensively used by commercial shipping. The species apparently is able to utilize large impoundments. Densities of 15–23 basking <em>G. nigrinoda</em> per km of river have been reported at different times (review by Blankenship <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). </p>  <p><em>Graptemys nigrinoda</em> was considered the fourth commonest <em>Graptemys</em> by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. It continues to be observed in good numbers, in places representing 60–80% of all basking turtles, and populations appear healthy. </p>
9502		threats	eng	<p>Removal of basking logs and snags to improve navigation, collection for pets, intensive local collection of turtle eggs and adults for consumption in the recent past, wanton shooting of basking turtles, mortality from drowning in fishing gear and boat strike, high nest predation by (subsidized) fish crows, raccoons, armadillos and fire ants, and reduced reproductive success as a result of human disturbance of preferred nesting sites, have all been indicated as at least locally significant impacts on populations (Blankenship <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Ernst and Lovich 2009).</p>
9503		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys versa</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. Commercial collection of turtles in Texas public waters was ended in 2007. &#160;Range-wide status surveys, further conservation biology research, and at least a casual monitoring program would be desirable for this species. </p>
9503		distribution	eng	<p><em>Graptemys versa</em> has been recorded from the Colorado River drainage system, primarily on the Edwards Plateau of west-central Texas, including major tributaries such as the llano, San Saba and Concho Rivers (Iverson 1992); its lower limit remains undefined but few records exist from downstream of Bastrop (Vogt 1981).<br/></p>
9503		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys versa</em> is found in rivers with moderate current, abundant aquatic vegetation, and basking logs; it is also associated oxbows and lakes. </p>  <p>Males and juveniles feed on a variety of insects and other invertebrates and presumably accidentally ingested plant materials, while females historically had a varied diet including native molluscs; since the spread of invasive Asian clams (<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula</span>) in the Colorado River basin since 1972, mature females feeds mainly on this prey species (Lindeman,2006). </p>  <p>Females may reach up to 21.4 cm carapace length (CL), while males do not exceed 11.5 cm CL. Males appear to mature at the age of two or three years, while females take at least seven years to mature at about 13 cm CL. Females produce up to four clutches of on average 5.6 (range 4–9) eggs per year (Lindeman 2001c, 2005). </p>
9503		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys versa </em>was considered the eighth rarest/sixth commonest <em>Graptemys</em> species by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. Individuals were more common (or visible) in riverine sections bordered by private lands than in areas with public access (Lindeman 2004). </p>
9503		threats	eng	<p>No specific threats to this species have been reported. </p>
9509		conservation	eng	No conservation actions specifically for this species.&#160; In some regions, it is considered rare.
9509		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graziana lacheineri </span>has an alpine distribution and is found in Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998), Austria (Reischütz and Reischütz 2009) and Slovenia (Radoman 1983). According to Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (<a href="www.faunaeur.org/">Fauna Europea website</a>), the range extends to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
9509		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters and freshwater springs.
9509		population	eng	The species is abundant at spring sites across the range.
9509		threats	eng	Although there maybe localised threats to populations of this species through the use of springs, the range is so extensive that it will not lead to extinction in the near future.
9510		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed for this species.
9510		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graziana pupula </span>is restricted to north-east Italy and western Slovenia (Haase 1994; Gloer 2002, p. 115). It is widespread in region, with many records from Italy (see Checklist and Maps of Italian Fauna, version 5.3.8).
9510		habitat	eng	This widespread species is found within springs.
9510		population	eng	This is a widespread species, even though there is no specific population data available.
9510		threats	eng	There are no known threats of this species.
9511		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
9511		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to springs near the source of the River Sattnitz near Klagenfurt in Austria; it was originally described from Georgsquelle (Haase 1994). Haase (1994) suggests that it is present at six springs within close proximity.
9511		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found in springs and in the interstitial waters of river beds of the Sattnitz, close to the springs.
9511		population	eng	There is no population information available.
9511		threats	eng	The major threats to this species lie in the exploitation of the water source, either through extraction of groundwater feeding the spring, or capping (off-take) of water from the springs. There are a variety of purposes in the region, use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies. A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.
9530		habitat	eng	Found in relicts of tall grass prairie.
9530		threats	eng	This species was once much more widespread, but most of its former habitat has been converted to agriculture.
9533		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. The preservation of the primary forest habitat at Grand Bois, dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Vateriopsis seychellarum</span>, and prevention of further invasion by alien plant species is imperative for the survival of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. thomasseti</span> (Gerlach 2002).
9533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles (Mahé island), with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 80 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 0.01 km². It was originally known from Cascade Estate on Mahé island, Seychelles (Sykes 1909). The species was thought to have been lost after high altitude forest habitat in the area was cleared for cinnamon plantations. However, the species was rediscovered in 2002 in Grand Bois, Mahé. It is also found in mist forest at Congo Rouge, Mahé.
9533		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected from "mountain forest" (Sykes 1909). The rediscovered specimen was collected from leaf litter in a relict fragment of primary forest (Gerlach 2002); it is now known from mist forest. It is thought that the species is restricted to primary forest habitat. A tropical forest species, this snail is predatory on small invertebrates.
9533		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals.
9533		threats	eng	Currently, the main threat to the species is habitat degradation caused by invasive cinnamon trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Small-holder farming and small-holder wood plantations caused habitat deterioration in the past, but these threats have since ceased.
9554		distribution	eng	Out of a total of 10 forest fragments surveyed (73 sampling sites from all forests), <em>G. taitensis</em> was recorded in five forests only: Mbololo; Ndiwenyi; Fururu; Ngangao; Vuria.
9554		habitat	eng	Species preferences include the most intact forest areas characterized by deep forest floor litter, dense moss growing on dead fallen wood or tree trunks, high % canopy cover, huge trees, dead fallen wood.
9554		threats	eng	Habitat loss and disturbance due to human activity.
9561		conservation	eng	The wolverine has been petitioned twice for listing under the federal Endangered Species Act in the conterminous United States, but the most recent petition was denied citing lack of information on distribution, habitat requirements, and threats (United States Fish and Wildlife Service 2003). In North America, the eastern wolverine population continues to be Endangered, and the western population remains Special Concern.<br/><br/>The wolverine is recorded from a number of protected areas. However, due to its spatial requirement, very few reserves will contain the full home ranges of more than a small number of individuals (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).<br/><br/>European range states have different monitoring and management regimes varying from strict protection in Finland and Sweden, licensed harvest and control measurements in Norway to legal harvest year round in Russia.<br/><br/>In North America, wolverine management issues include regulating trapper harvest, preventing human disturbance at denning sites, and mitigating for habitat loss and fragmentation (Krebs <em>et al.</em>, 2004).<br/><br/>Key conservation measures that need to be implemented revolve around minimizing conflicts resulting from depredation of livestock, reducing legal and illegal hunting of wolverines, establishing well-planned conservation areas and carrying out surveys to gain a better understanding of the population and ecology of the wolverine. <br/><br/>Farmers and local communities should be educated in and encouraged to adopt husbandry practices that will minimize depredation of livestock thereby reducing conflicts. Economic incentives could encourage farmers to conserve wolverines on their land instead of hunting them. A compensation and education program has been implemented in Sweden with reindeer herders where the herders profit financially from identifying dens on their land and protecting them; similar programs could be applied in more areas of the species range. <br/><br/>Governments and researchers require a more solid knowledge of population dynamics, wolverine-prey relationships, habitat-use and distribution of the wolverine. This information is needed to ensure that legal, government-permitted hunting quotas are appropriate and small, localized, endangered populations are protected. Better enforcement of laws that prohibit hunting of wolverines is required in applicable parts of the species range, with higher penalties to discourage poachers. Governments need also improve coordination between wildlife conservation and agriculture programs to ensure that conservation areas are established in regions with little risk of conflict with farmers and herders.<br/><br/>The wolverine is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. European range states have different monitoring and management regimes varying from strict protection in Finland and Sweden, licensed harvest and control measurements in Norway to legal harvest year round in Russia.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population: The Scandinavian wolverine population is covered by both Swedish and Norwegian management regimes, which are quite different. However, both Norwegian and Swedish populations are monitored through annual counting of active natal dens (Landa <em>et al.</em> 1998b) and non-invasive faecal DNA surveys (in southern areas). There is cooperation and data exchange between the two national programmes. The Swedish national interim goal is to reach minimum 90 annual wolverine reproductions (approximately 575 individuals >1 yr of age) (Riksdagen 2000). Sweden has international obligations through the Bern Convention for the conservation of the European wildlife and habitats, the regulation of trade through the European Council Regulation on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora, and the EU habitat directive. The wolverine is in Sweden is officially listed as endangered and is not subject to hunting. However, recently a few family groups have been killed in the purpose of reducing conflict with the domestic reindeer herding industry in northern areas. Norway was recently (2003) divided into 6 different management regions with politically appointed management boards (Miljøverndepartementet 2003). The Norwegian national goal is to control the total population within the limits of 39 yearly active reproductions (21 within the Norwegian part of the Scandinavian wolverine population) (Miljøverndepartementet 2003). The total of 39 breedings equals approximately 250 individuals >1 yr of age. Control measurements, killing of family groups in early spring and licensed harvest is used as a management tool to restrict wolverine distribution and predation on unattended sheep during summer and domestic reindeer all year around. Wolverines in Norway are covered by the Bern Convention (Bern 1979). The wolverines in Norway are officially listed as vulnerable (new official listing is expected by the end of 2006). <br/><br/>2. Southern Norwegian wolverine population: Norway was recently (2003) divided into 6 different management regions. The national goal is to control the Southern Norwegian population (including North Trøndelag County) at maximum 18 yearly active reproductions (approximately 115 individuals >1 yr of age) (Miljøverndepartementet 2003). Control measurements, killing of family groups in early spring and licensed harvest is used as a management tool to restrict wolverine distribution and predation on unattended sheep during summer in southern Norway. Wolverines in Norway are covered by the Bern Convention (Bern 1979). The wolverines in Norway are officially listed as vulnerable (new official listing is expected by the end of 2006). <br/><br/>3. Swedish forest wolverine population/occurrence: Totally protected, also see description for the Scandinavian wolverine population for further details. <br/><br/>4. Finnish – western Russian wolverine population: Management differs in Finland and Russia. In Finland the species is monitored through a national fauna monitoring programme based on tracks crossing fixed 4x4+4 km triangles. Wolverines have been fully protected in Finland since 1982. In Russia the wolverine is monitored via tracking surveys and numbers are estimated based on daily pats and a calculation coefficient (Novikov 1994, Novikov 2005). In Russia wolverines are considered a game/pelt species.<br/><br/>5. Finnish western wolverine population: Wolverines have been fully protected in Finland since 1982. In western Finland, the small introduced subpopulation seems to function without the presence of semi-domesticated reindeer, wolf, or lynx. A research project where nutritional ecology of wolverines within the three areas of wolverine distribution within Finland will be compared has been initiated. A future aim is to develop non-invasive molecular genetic monitoring of the wolverines within Finland similar to the one conducted in Scandinavia (Kojola 2005).
9561		conservation	eng	The wolverine is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. European range states have different monitoring and management regimes. The species is strictly protected in Finland and Sweden, but is subject to licensed harvest and control measures in Norway.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>Wolverines are subject to both de facto hunting and government organised lethal control activities in Norway. The Norwegian national goal is to control the total population within the limits of 39 yearly active natal dens. Control measurements, killing of family groups in early spring and licensed harvest is used as a management tool to restrict wolverine predation on unattended sheep during summer and domestic reindeer all year around. The national goal in Sweden is to reach a minimum of 90 annual reproductions which equals approximately 550 individuals. Wolverines in Sweden are protected, although there is some limited use of lethal control following acute depredation events. The Norwegian and Swedish population is monitored through annual den inventories and there is cooperation and data exchange between the two national programmes. In Finland the species is monitored through a national fauna monitoring programme based on tracks crossing fixed 4x4+4 km triangles. <br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>Wolverines are protected in Finland and Russian Karelia.
9561		distribution	eng	In addition to their circumpolar distribution across Siberia and North America, wolverines once occurred throughout the European part of Russia, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and north-east Poland. During the 19th century, wolverines disappeared from the southernmost of these areas in Europe mainly due to persecution, but also due to deforestation and other human impacts. In Europe the species is now found in Norway, Sweden, Finland and European part of Russia. Within these countries wolverines are mainly found north of 60ºN. According to the Guidelines for Population Level Management Plans for Large Carnivores (LCIE 2007) two populations are recognized in Scandinavia and Karelia:<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>This population is distributed mainly along the border of Norway and Sweden, with extensions into the southern Norwegian mountains, and the northern Norwegian county of Finnmark and adjacent areas of northwest Finland (the region of Lappland). Within this range there are three population segments, the south Norwegian, the central population segment along the Norwegian/Swedish border, and a few animals breeding in the boreal forest areas of eastern Sweden.<br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>This population extends across southern and central Finland (all Finland excluding Lappland) and the Russian oblasts of Murmansk and Karelia. The main distribution appears to be continuous, but there is a relatively isolated population segment in western Finland.
9561		distribution	eng	The species has a circumpolar distribution, corresponding with the Boreal zone of the northern hemisphere (Kvam <em>et al.</em> 1988). The range of the wolverine reaches from Scandinavia through the Russian Federation and Siberia to Alaska, Canada and the western lower states of the United States south to California. The range includes territory of the following countries: Canada, China (Heilongiang, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia), Estonia, Finland, Mongolia, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, and United States (Alaska, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Washington, Oregon and California) (Whitman 1999).<br/><br/>During the 19th century, wolverines disappeared from the southernmost of these areas in Europe mainly due to persecution, but also due to deforestation and other human developments. In Europe the species is now found in Norway, Sweden, Finland and European part of Russia. Within these countries wolverines are mainly found north of 60ºN. Based on geographic connectivity and genetic surveys the wolverines in Europe likely consist of five populations/occurrences.
9561		habitat	eng	Wolverines inhabit a variety of habitats in the alpine, tundra, taiga, and boreal forest zones. They are found in coniferous, mixed, and deciduous woodlands, bogs, and open mountain and tundra habitats. Sometimes known as “hyaenas of the north”, wolverines have evolved to scavenge from the kills of wild ungulates abandoned by more efficient predators such as wolves and lynx, as well as victims of accidents and disease. However, wolverines also prey on hares, rodents and occasionally animals as large as moose given certain snow conditions. They can also prey heavily on domestic sheep and semidomesticated reindeer. The wolverine has vast home-ranges (Landa <em>et al.</em> 1998a) and good dispersal abilities. Faecal DNA sampling has detected dispersal distances of more than 500 kilometres (Flagstad 2005, Flagstad <em>et al.</em> 2006).
9561		habitat	eng	Wolverines inhabit a variety of habitats in the alpine, tundra, taiga, and boreal forest zones. They are found in coniferous, mixed, and deciduous woodlands, bogs, and open mountain as well as tundra habitats (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Snow is generally regarded as an important component of the wolverine's seasonal habitat requirements (Banci 1987, Hatler 1989). Wolverine habitat selection is negatively affected by human activity, including roads, infrastructure, and backcountry recreation (May <em>et al.</em> 2006; Krebs <em>et al</em>. 2007). The wolverine has vast home-ranges (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1998), vary from 100 to 500 km<sup>2</sup> for males and 100 to 200 km<sup>2</sup> for female, and good dispersal abilities. Faecal DNA sampling has detected dispersal distances of more than 500 kilometres (Flagstad 2005, Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2006). Hornocker <em>et al</em>. (1983) consider this species as solitary, which influences the large home ranges and extensive seasonal movements.This species is nocturnal with some daylight activity and it is considered as opportunistic feeder. Wolverines prey on hares, rodents and occasionally animals as large as moose given certain snow conditions. They can also prey heavily on domestic sheep and semi-domesticated reindeer.<br/><br/>The wolverine is a nocturnal species (Whitman 1999) with an average life expectancy of 4 to 6 years in the wild, with a maximum of about 13 years (Pasitschniak-Arts and Lariviere 1995). The species reaches its sexual maturity at 2.5 years, breeding occurs in early spring to late fall with litters of 1-5 young (mean litter size is 3 young) born between February and April (Whitman 1999). <br/><br/>Wolverines are thought to have evolved to scavenge from the kills of wild ungulates abandoned by other carnivores such as the lynx and wolf, as well prey animals felled by disease or injury. Wolverines also actively hunt smaller animals such as rodents, hares, musk deer, roe deer and wild sheep; given the appropriate snow conditions they will also hunt larger animals such as moose. Conflicts arise when wolverines prey on domestic livestock such as sheep or semi-domesticated reindeer. Given their dependence on other hunters for much of its scavenged food, wolverines are able to carry and cache large amounts of meat for later consumption.
9561		population	eng	North America: The distribution and abundance of the species has been notably reduced in the 20th century in United States (Pasitschniak-Arts and Larivière 1995) and during the 19th century, wolverines disappeared from the southernmost of its European distribution mainly due to persecution, but also due to deforestation and other human developments. However, although there has been substantial range reduction, there is evidence of resurgence in some places of his historical distribution (Rowland <em>et al.</em> 2003). Throughout their range, wolverines occur at relatively low densities and require large home ranges varying from at least 100 km² to upwards of 600 km² (Whitman 1999). In Europe, the species is relatively rare. Densities of this species are never high, and it has been found to be less abundant than wolves, even in optimal habitats (Pasitschniak-Arts and Lariviere 1995). Densities range from one per 500 km² in Scandinavia to one per 65 km² in Montana, USA (Pasitschniak-Arts and Lariviere 1995).<br/><br/>Substantial populations occur in northern Canada and Alaska. Outside of Alaska, the population in Montana is considered to be the largest and most stable population of wolverines, given its close proximity to healthy populations in Canada (Cegelski <em>et al</em>. 2003). Densities of wolverines are never high (Aubry <em>et al</em>. 2007, Makridin 1964). Many wolverine populations appear to be relatively small and isolated (Ruggiero <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>In North America, population density estimates range from one wolverine per 65 km<sup>2</sup> in Montana (Hornocker and Hash 1981) to one per 200 km<sup>2</sup> in northern British Columbia (Quick 1953), Alaska (Becker and Gardner 1992), and the Northwest Territories (Lee and Niptanatiak 1993). Lofroth and Krebs (2007) estimated densities for wolverines in British Columbia using existing wolverine distribution, wolverine food, ecosystem mapping and human development data. Density estimates range from 6.2 wolverines/1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in high-quality habitat to 0.3/1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in rare-quality habitat. Their predicted population estimate for British Columbia was 3,530 wolverines.<br/><br/>Europe: The European population of <em>Gulo gulo</em> is currently estimated to be approximately 2,260 individuals: 1,400 in European Russia (Novikov 2005), 150 in Finland, and 1998–2000 were 326 (±45) individuals in Sweden and 269 (±32) individuals in Norway (Sæther <em>et al</em>. 2005). The southern Norwegian population was naturally re-established during the late 1970s and was a result of protective legalisation (Landa and Skogland 1995). To the east, the Eastern Russian wolverine population is believed to comprise more than 18,000 individuals (Novikov, 2005). The species is not abundant in Mongolia, but still relatively widespread: it is only found in northern taiga habitats in Hentii and Hövsgöl mountain ranges (Bannikov 1954, Dulamsteren 1970), northern parts of Hangai Mountain Range and Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989).The European distribution is connected to the East Russian population along the Urals. The overall European population forms a relatively continuous distribution with a few geographically and genetically distinct subpopulations and constitutes a smaller fraction of the large Eurasian population. <br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population: The Scandinavian wolverine has shown a low genetic variability and subdivision among populations indicating that the wolverine in Scandinavia has lost variation due to a previous bottleneck event and that the current populations are the result of a recent common genetic background (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2001, Flagstad <em>et al.</em> 2004). The current population estimate is 580 individuals (>1 yrs of age) with approximately 200 in Norway and 380 in Sweden (Larsson 2005, van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2005). The population has a continuous distribution and is narrowly connected to the Finnish – Western Russian population along the border of Finnmark County in the northernmost parts of its distribution. However, an initial genetic analysis has indicated a clear genetic distinction between these populations (Ø. Flagststad pers. comm.). In its southern distribution, the Scandinavian wolverine population provides as a source for the Southern Norwegian wolverine population (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2001, Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2004, Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2006) as well as a source for the Swedish forest wolverine population(s) close to the Gulf of Bothnia in Southern Sweden (Hedmark 2006).<br/><br/>2. Southern Norwegian wolverine population: The southern Norwegian population was naturally reestablished during the late 1970s and was a result of protective legalisation (Landa and Skogland 1995). This population has recently increased in numbers and distribution, but is currently kept at around 100 individuals by various control measurements (Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2006). Genetic surveys have shown that the Southern Norwegian wolverine population is genetically distinct from the Scandinavian population, but the geographic gap between the southern and the main Scandinavian population to the north and east has decreased from 100-200 km by the early 1990s to virtually connectivity by 2006. However, exchange of individuals still is limited and the Southern Norwegian population seems to form a sink with a few individuals emigrating from the northern continuous population (Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Flagstad 2006).<br/><br/>3. Swedish forest wolverine population/occurrence: The Swedish forest wolverine occurrences were naturally established, during the mid 1990s (Hedmark 2006). These new occurrences were likely established by as few as 2 and 2-4 individuals and are currently consisting of  2 and 10 individuals, respectively (Hedmark 2006). Non-invasive genetic surveys has showed that these occurrences have little, if any, contact with the main Scandinavian wolverine population (Hedmark 2006).<br/><br/>4. Finnish – western Russian wolverine population: During the last decades, there has been an increase in population numbers and distribution of wolverines in Finland, but decreasing trends in Russia (Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000a). The western Russian population is estimated to be approximately 1,400 individuals (Novikov 2005). Relationships with other populations: to the west the distribution of the Finnish – Western Russian wolverine population is narrowly connected to the Scandinavian population along common borders with Norway and Sweden. An initial genetic analysis has indicated a clear genetic distinction between the Scandinavian population and the wolverines living in northern parts of Finland (Ø. Flagststad pers. comm.). It is also unclear how the western part of the wolverine distribution within this population (Finland, Kola, Karelia) connects along the narrow isthmus between the White Sea and Lake Onega in Western Russia. This area is judged as an extremely important connection for the northern element of the taiga fauna (Lindén <em>et al</em>. 2000) and these concerns should be further investigated. To the east, the European Russian wolverine population has a wide connection to the much larger East Russian population adjoining along the Urals in western Siberia. The Eastern Russian wolverine population is believed to comprise more than 18,000 individuals (Novikov 2005). <br/><br/>5. Finnish western wolverine population: This population was established by translocating animals from domestic reindeer herding areas in the north during the 1980s-1990s. The population is estimated to consist of about 10-15 individuals and now seems to reproduce naturally (Kojola 2005). The gap between this and the Karelia distribution is about 200-300 km and little is known about exchange between these populations. This population/occurrence should therefore be judged as isolated from other populations until further knowledge is gained.
9561		population	eng	The European population of <em>Gulo gulo</em> is currently estimated to be approximately 2,300 individuals. The European distribution is connected to the Asian Russian population along the Urals. The overall European population forms a more or less continuous distribution with a few geographically and genetically distinct units, and constitutes a smaller fraction of the large Eurasian population. During the last decades, there has been a increase in population numbers and distribution of wolverines in the Fennoscandian countries, but decreasing trends in Russia.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>Population size: 750 wolverines. Genetic surveys for the Scandinavian population have shown a low genetic variability and subdivision among populations indicating that the wolverine in Scandinavia has potentially lost variation due to a previous bottleneck event and that the current populations are the result of a recent common genetic background. The southern part of the population seems to form a sink with a few individuals emigrating from the northern continuous population. The southern Norwegian population segment was naturally re-established during the late 1970s and was a result of protective legislation. This population segment has recently increased in numbers and distribution, but seems to have stabilized at around 100 individuals. Genetic surveys have shown that the southern Norwegian population segment is genetically distinct from the northern population segments (about 220 individuals in Norway), but the geographic gap between the southern population and the main population to the north and east has decreased from 100-200 km by the early 1990s to virtually connectivity by 2006. There are an estimated 380 individuals of 1 year and older in the Swedish portion of the central population segment. Recently, during the 1990s a small and distinct reproducing population became established in the southern boreal region of the country. Population data for the past 9 years (1996-2004) suggest a fairly stable over all population trend, with a slight increase during the past 5 years.<br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>Population size: 450 wolverines.
9561		threats	eng	Within the current range, extensive human activities continue to pressure wolverine populations and habitat (Krebs <em>et al.</em> 2004). Overexploitation through hunting and trapping, as well as predator poisoning programs and resource extraction likely caused wolverine populations to contract in the eastern and south-western portions of their historical range in North America since the early 1900s (Banci 1994).<br/><br/>The wolverine is threatened by fragmented distributions, presumed low genetic diversity, as well as “population control” hunting and conflicts with human settlements resulting from depredation of livestock. While this species inhabits a zone that is particularly affected by climate change (IPCC International Climate Report 2005), habitat change or even loss is not taking place at such a rate to be considered a major threat to the wolverine. Ample forested lands and tundra with suitable prey stocks are available throughout much of its range. The problem is the low rate of human land use expansion into this range, increasing the frequency of interaction with human populations and conflict over livestock depredation. Given the remoteness of these locations, tolerance of wolverines taking livestock is low and in some areas “population control” hunting is used as a proactive means to avoid loss of animals. In Norway, where almost 10,000 sheep are believed to be killed by wolverines each summer, government committees have instituted annual harvest quotas in an effort to control livestock losses; however, these quotas may not be sustainable as they are set very high even in relation to the most liberal estimate of wolverine population size, and it is unclear whether this hunt actually reduces the numbers of sheep and semi-domestic deer lost to predators. <br/><br/>Wolverines are scarce in Europe today. Their continued survival is threatened due to their small and fragmented distribution, and the potential for their future survival may be weakened by the likelihood of low genetic diversity. Habitat loss per se is not a substantial threat to wolverine conservation. Large areas of Norway, Sweden and Finland are still covered by forests and mountains that offer a suitable prey base and habitat for wolverines. The problem is that these are not wilderness areas, and wolverines come into conflict with a low, but crucial, number of human land uses. The fact that there are no large areas within their distribution where there is no conflict potential with sheep or semi domestic reindeer means that human tolerance for wolverines is low. This results in a difficult situation for wildlife managers who are forced to try and balance wolverine conservation with the conflicts they create with livestock. In Norway, farmers no longer use traditional sheep-herding methods that once deterred depredation, so wolverines are often controlled in an effort to protect livestock. Poaching also occurs. In Russia, overharvesting and declines in key prey species are major threats.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population: The species is subject to illegal killings due to depredation conflicts (sheep, domestic reindeer). The scope of this is difficult to quantify. Furthermore wolverines are sensitive to human disturbance (settlements, public and private roads etc.) especially in the vicinity of their denning areas (May <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>2. Southern Norwegian wolverine population: The Southern Norwegian wolverine population is subject to illegal killings due to depredation conflicts on sheep. The scope of this is difficult to quantify. Most people in Norway are settled in southern Norway and the wolverines are sensitive to human disturbance (settlements, public and private roads, etc.) especially in the vicinity of their denning areas (May <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>3. Swedish forest wolverine population/occurrence: A high degree of genetic similarity among individuals in the two areas indicates inbreeding, possibly including brother-sister matings (Hedmark 2006). Inbreeding depression and demographic stochasticity are therefore likely to be the main threats (Pimm <em>et al</em>. 1988). These forest dwelling wolverines live outside the distribution of “domestic” reindeer, which form the most common prey for wolverines (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1997). Establishment of wolverines in the forest landscape is judged to be a way of reducing conflict with the domestic reindeer industry (Hedmark <em>et al</em>. unpubl. ms, Hedmark 2006).<br/><br/>4. Finnish – Western Russian wolverine population: About half the Finnish wolverine population are living within the reindeer management area in the north (Kojola 2005), thus creating conflict with the domestic reindeer industry (Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000b) with associated illegal killings. The scope of this is unknown. The Russian economic depression during the 1990s is believed to have led to widespread poaching of ungulate game species. Furthermore, it led to a reduction of the domestic reindeer herding industry due to large calf/breeding losses. This is believed to have indirectly negatively affected the wolverine’s populations in the European and most human populated part of Russia. The wolverine's main prey base (wild and domestic reindeer) became less abundant and the population has faced a decrease in numbers and distribution during the last few decades (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1997, Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000a, Novikov 2005). In Russia the wolverine is harvested for fur, and to the best knowledge of the assessors, there are no harvest restrictions. Russia has not yet ratified the Bern Convention. <br/><br/>5. Finnish western wolverine population: It is likely that this small and presumably isolated population will face inbreeding problems (Hedmark 2006) as well as being exposed to demographic stochasticity (Pimm <em>et al</em>. 1988). Inbreeding depression and demographic accidents are therefore main threats. These forest dwelling wolverines live outside the distribution of semi domesticated reindeer, which form the most common prey for wolverines (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1997). Establishment of wolverines in the forest landscape is judged to be a way of reducing conflict with the domestic reindeer industry (Hedmark <em>et al</em>. unpubl. ms, Hedmark 2006).
9561		threats	eng	Wolverines are scarce in Europe today. Their continued survival is threatened due to their small and fragmented distribution, and the potential for their future survival may be weakened by the likelihood of low genetic diversity. Habitat loss per se is not a substantial threat to wolverine conservation. Large areas of Norway, Sweden and Finland are still covered by forests and mountains that offer a suitable prey base and habitat for wolverines. The problem is that these are not wilderness areas, and wolverines come into conflict with a low, but crucial, number of human land uses. The fact that there are no large areas within their distribution where there is no conflict potential with sheep or semidomestic reindeer means that human tolerance for wolverines is low. This results in a difficult situation for wildlife managers who are forced to try and balance wolverine conservation with the conflicts they create with livestock. In Norway, farmers no longer use traditional sheep-herding methods that once deterred depredation, so wolverines are often controlled in an effort to protect livestock. Poaching also occurs. In Russia, overharvesting and declines in key prey species are major threats.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>High levels of depredation on domestic sheep in Norway, and on semi-domestic reindeer in Norway, Sweden and Finland, generate large conflicts. These lead to pressure for population reduction through both legal and illegal killing. Finding ways to reduce depredation on sheep is crucial. It is unclear if the existing levels of harvest, especially in Norway, are sustainable. With respect to depredation on semi-domestic reindeer solutions are harder to find as wolverines depend heavily on semi-domestic reindeer for food.<br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>The Russian economic depression during the 1990s is believed to have led to widespread poaching of ungulate game species. Furthermore, there has been a reduction of the semi-domestic reindeer herding industry due to large calf/breeding losses. This is believed to have indirectly negatively affected wolverine populations in western Russia. The wolverine's main prey base (wild and domestic reindeer) became less abundant and the population has faced a decrease in numbers and distribution during the last decades.
9564		conservation	eng	Leadbeater's Possum occurs in a number of protected areas and is listed as a threatened species both nationally and within Victoria. A recovery plan for the species was prepared (Macfarlane <em>et al.</em> 1998), as well as several conservation strategies (e.g., Smith 1982; Smith <em>et al.</em> 1985; Macfarlane and Seebeck 1991; Lindenmayer <em>et al.</em> 1991; Lindenmayer and Possingham 1994), but these are now largely out of date. Populations of this species have been monitored over the last several years conducted by numerous volunteers and public awareness of the plight of this species is high (Smith and Harley 2008). Research into the effects of fire and ways to improve timber harvesting techniques are important.<br/><br/>The species’ dependence on tree hollows that resulted from burnt remnant trees from the 1939 fires has led to dire predictions about its population trend over the next 30 years as these trees continue to collapse. The use of nest boxes as a management tool that has received a lot attention as one way to possibly ameliorate the imminent cavity shortage. Research in the central highlands suggests that nest boxes receive a low rate of occupancy and would be ineffective as a large-scale solution to the problem (Lindenmayer <em>et al.</em> 2003). This result, however, has been questioned as nest box occupancy rates are much higher at Yellingbo (Beyer and Goldingay 2006; Harley 2006). Although the habitats are very different between the Yellingbo outlier and the central highlands the discrepancy in occupancy rates is thought to have more to do with box dimensions and placement than the difference in location, thus leaving open the possibility of nest boxes as a useful management tool for the species (Beyer and Goldingay 2006; Harley 2006). <br/><br/>Approximately 31% of its Ash forest habitat is protected, while about 69% is allocated for timber production. Timber harvesting is obviously a major factor of any recovery plan for Leadbeater's Possum (Lindenmayer 1996). Large-scale clear-cutting and even-aged stand management is detrimental to the species, and there have efforts to adopt harvest practices that are compatible with the conservation of the species. The preservation of more large trees with hollows and a dense habitat structure with an understorey of Acacias is essential (Smith and Lindenmayer 1992; Smith and Harley 2008). Recently management recommendations for timber harvesting for Leadbeater's Possum has become very sophisticated, including, for instance, detailed recommendations for post fire timber salvage that protects patches of tall trees (Lindenmayer and Ough 2006). Further research is needed into timber management practices, and much work will be required to have these implemented.
9564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a limited distribution (<3,500 km²) near the western limit of Victoria's eastern highlands from 500-1,500 m asl. There is a small, isolated population that occupies swamp forest at Yellingbo Conservation Nature Reserve at around 80 m (Smith and Harley 2008).
9564		habitat	eng	Leadbeater's Possum is a nocturnal, arboreal species that spends its day in tree hollows. Its diet mainly consists of exudates from trees and to a lesser extent arthropods (Smith 1984).<br/><br/>Optimum habitat for Leadbeater's Possum is a regenerating or uneven-aged Ash forest with a dense understorey of Acacia trees and an ample supply of old hollow trees. The occurrence and quality of habitat is primarily determined by patterns of successional change and stand development resulting from disturbance, such as past wildfires and timber harvesting operations. Regrowth from the 1939 wildfires, combined with fire-killed remnants of mature forest, has provided abundant feeding and nesting habitat during the last 30 years.<br/><br/>Older aged and mixed aged forest containing live hollow-bearing trees also support populations of Leadbeater's Possum, although not in the same high densities that can be found in suitable regrowth forests. The role, however, of these suboptimal forests in the medium-term will be critical for conservation of the species. These forests are not subject to a rapid decline in habitat suitability that is predicted to occur in current high value habitat regrowth forests. Older aged forest and mixed aged forest with hollow-bearing trees and a low occurrence of wattles are defined as potentially optimum habitat because of their potential to become optimum in the short term (<30 years), as a result of natural or deliberate disturbance.
9564		population	eng	There are about 200 individuals at Yellingbo, and the main population is estimated at around 2,000 mature individuals. There is a predicted to be a decline of approximately 90% over the next 30 years due to loss of den trees and suitable nesting habitat (Smith and Lindenmayer 1992).
9564		threats	eng	This species is heavily dependent on old trees, and fire-killed remnants that are rapidly decaying and falling over. Recruitment of suitable hollows, used for shelter and breeding, is very slow. The long-term viability of habitat in mature and mixed aged forests is threatened by wildfires and some timber harvesting practices. The species and its remnant habitat also are closely tied to a narrow set of climatic conditions that could be severely affected by global warming (Lindenmayer <em>et al.</em> 1991).
9565		conservation	eng	No information.
9565		distribution	eng	Danube drainage.
9565		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open sand and mud bottom of large rivers with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, nocturnal. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, 120-160 mm SL. Spawns in April-June. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Females attach eggs to stones. Larvae are benthic. Usually crepuscular but feeds also during daytime. Feeds on small invertebrates, especially molluscs.
9565		population	eng	Abundant.
9565		threats	eng	No major threats known.
9566		conservation	eng	No information.
9566		distribution	eng	Basin of northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov: Dniestr, South Bug, Dniepr, Don and Kuban drainages. In Dniepr up to Belarus.
9566		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Flowing waters, also lakes with clear water; in summer in rapids; over sand and gravel bottom but prefers hard compact sand. Spawns in river stretches with heavy current and sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, 120-160 mm SL. Spawns in small schools. Female lays slightly sticky eggs in several portions: first at 6-8°C, second at 12-14°C. Eggs hatch in 6-8 days at 14-16°C. Newly hatched larvae first lie on bottom; at 9 days (when pectorals are developed), they actively move to middle water layers and drift downstream. At 12 days (6.5 mm SL), they start active feeding on small invertebrates in shallow shoreline habitats. A benthic species that aggregates in small schools. Usually crepuscular but feeds also during daytime. In September, starts forming large schools and moves to deeper places and remains inactive until ice melts. Does not migrate for long distances. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (crustaceans, insect larvae, molluscs), rarely on small fish.
9566		population	eng	Abundant.
9566		threats	eng	No major threats known.
9567		conservation	eng	No information available.
9567		distribution	eng	Danube (from delta to Bavaria), Dniestr and Dniepr (from delta to Kiev) drainages.
9567		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open sand and muddy bottom in backwaters, large rivers with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-3. Migrates from river mainstreams to backwaters to spawn. Nocturnal, benthic, feeding on small invertebrates.
9567		population	eng	Abundant.
9567		threats	eng	No major threats known.
9568		conservation	eng	No information.
9568		distribution	eng	Caspian, Black, Baltic and North Sea basins; Great Britain. North to about 69°N in Scandinavia. In Asia, Aral Sea basin, Arctic Ocean basin eastward to Kolyma drainage. Introduced or invasive in France west of Rhine, northern Italy, northern Great Britain and Greece. Introduced to Great Lakes region, North America.
9568		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Eutrophic lakes, lowland and piedmont rivers. Prefers still or slow-flowing water with soft bottom, without vegetation. Most abundant in estuaries of large rivers, brackish lakes with salinities up to 10-12? and reservoirs. Generally increases in abundance with increased eutrophication. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to 10 years, males up to seven. Spawns for the first time at 1-3 years, males one year earlier than females. Spawns in March-May, until July in the north, on a variety of substrates at depths of about 3 m or less. Spawns at temperatures above 6°C in the north and above 10°C in the south. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Eggs become adhesive on contact with water and stick to stones or plants. Females may spawn intermittently, laying eggs in two or more portions, usually separated by about 30 days in summer. Eggs of first portion are larger than those of second portion. Larvae without, or with only a brief, pelagic larval stage, switching early to benthic life, secretive and solitary, not forming schools. Survival of larvae is poor below 10°C and above 20°C. Crepuscular or nocturnal. The well-developed cephalic lateral line system and tapetum lucidum in eyes makes it an efficient predator at night and in turbid waters. Usually feeds on benthic chironomid larvae and amphipods, which can be detected in the top layers of the substrate by sensory canals on head. Pelagic in coastal lakes and tidal estuaries, feeding on zooplankton and fish. When they coexist in deep lakes, <em>Perca fluviatilis</em> and <em>G. cernuus</em> partly occur at different depths, <em>G. cernuus</em> being more abundant in deeper layers.
9568		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Eutrophic lakes, lowland and piedmont rivers. Prefers still or slow-flowing water with soft bottom, without vegetation. Most abundant in estuaries of large rivers, brackish lakes with salinities up to 10-12‰ and reservoirs. Generally increases in abundance with increased eutrophication. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to 10 years, males up to seven. Spawns for the first time at 1-3 years, males one year earlier than females. Spawns in March-May, until July in the north, on a variety of substrates at depths of about 3 m or less. Spawns at temperatures above 6°C in the north and above 10°C in the south. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Eggs become adhesive on contact with water and stick to stones or plants. Females may spawn intermittently, laying eggs in two or more portions, usually separated by about 30 days in summer. Eggs of first portion are larger than those of second portion. Larvae without, or with only a brief, pelagic larval stage, switching early to benthic life, secretive and solitary, not forming schools. Survival of larvae is poor below 10°C and above 20°C. Crepuscular or nocturnal. The well-developed cephalic lateral line system and tapetum lucidum in eyes makes it an efficient predator at night and in turbid waters. Usually feeds on benthic chironomid larvae and amphipods, which can be detected in the top layers of the substrate by sensory canals on head. Pelagic in coastal lakes and tidal estuaries, feeding on zooplankton and fish. When they coexist in deep lakes, <em>Perca fluviatilis</em> and <em>G. cernuus</em> partly occur at different depths, <em>G. cernuus</em> being more abundant in deeper layers.
9568		population	eng	Abundant.
9568		threats	eng	No major threats known.
9581		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas including Analamazaotra and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserves, and Mantadia, Marojejy, Ranomafana, and Andringitra National Parks. As with other predominantly forest living rodents on Madagascar, suitable tracts of pristine habitat should be conserved. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
9581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it ranges from the northern highlands south to the southern limits of the Anosyennes Mountains. It has a wide elevational range and has been recorded from around 500 to 1,800 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
9581		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, terrestrial species found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It generally occurs in areas with sparse understory vegetation. Animals may be found in ground burrows, up to a meter deep, located under fallen logs and other ground cover. The biology of this species is not well known. This species appears to be able to tolerate some habitat modification, as individuals have been captured in intact secondary forest mixed with introduced tree species (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
9581		population	eng	On the basis of standard trapping techniques, this species is never common (S.M. Goodman and D. Rakotondravony pers. comm.).
9581		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through clearance for cultivation and fire. It may be suffering increased competition from the introduced Black Rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
9594		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is described as "of no conservation concern" (O. Griffiths pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Further research regarding the threats to the species is needed, as some of the impacts affecting Mauritian freshwater habitats may also affect this species.
9594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mauritius, where it is found throughout the island (O. Griffiths pers. comm. 2009). It has been recorded on the Seychelles (Brown 1994), on Mahe, Victoria, La Digue, Praslin, and Fregate, but these are likely to be from an introduction in the 1970s (Gerlach 2006).
9594		habitat	eng	This species associates with the invasive water hyacinth <em>Eichornia crassipes.</em> Brown (1994) lists its habitat as "slowly flowing rivers and streams, especially where slightly polluted". This species also occurs in ponds (O. Griffiths pers. comm. 2009).
9594		population	eng	This species is described as "very common" on Mauritius (Ministry of Environment and National Development Unit 2006).
9594		threats	eng	Mauritius has the highest proportion of threatened molluscs of any country globally (86.5 per 1,000 species assessed on the 2006 IUCN Red List). With regards to freshwater molluscs, major threats include invasive species (e.g., the Golden Mystery Snail <em>Pomacea bridgesi</em>, which has recently naturalised on the island and has the potential to cause significant ecological impacts due to large size and high fecundity), water abstraction for agriculture and industry, and pollution due to agricultural and industrial runoff and domestic waste (Ministry of Environment and National Development Unit 2005, 2006). Increased salinisation due to climate change-induced sea level rise is a potential future threat to all freshwater ecosystems on the island (Ministry of Environment and National Development Unit 2005). It is not known if or to what extent this speces is affected by any of these threats. However, the species is currently described as very common across Mauritius, so that it is unlikely that these processes are having adverse effects on this species.
9608		distribution	eng	This species is only found in one location, on Cerro Pelón (2,080 to 2,650 m) in the Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca (México) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002).
9608		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest.
9608		population	eng	There is only one known population.
9608		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation within its very restricted range.
9609		distribution	eng	It is only known from Cerro Zempoaltepec (above 2,500 m), in Oaxaca (Mexico) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002; Ceballos and Olivia 2005).
9609		habitat	eng	This species is only known from above 2,500 m in cloud forest. It prefers cool, wet climates with fern and lichen vegetation.
9609		population	eng	This species is considered rare.
9609		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation within its restricted range.
9610		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas in Mexico. Research about the species biology and ecology is needed.
9610		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands of Chiapas, México, to central Guatemala, and northwestern El Salvador (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,950 to 3,110 m (Musser 1969). The species has not been found in El Salvador since the 1960s.
9610		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in wet montane forest in the pine-oak belt. It favors mature oak forest with numerous epiphytes, mosses, and fallen trees (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and semiarboreal; it is usually trapped on fallen logs or low branches. Females were nonreproductive in December in Guatemala (Reid 1997).
9610		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid 1997).
9610		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat; the species is limited to high elevation areas that are quickly being degraded.
9611		conservation	eng	More research is needed into its population status and extent of occurrence.
9611		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations on the eastern, middle slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental, México (1,830 to 2,000 m): south Hidalgo and central Veracruz (Musser and Carleton 2005). Musser and Carleton (2005) also list the species as occurring in extreme north-western Oaxaca, but this is not mapped because it is thought to represent a separate species (see Taxonomic Notes).
9611		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Like its congeners, this species is arboreal and lives in moist high elevation cloud and pine/oak forests (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 2002).
9611		population	eng	There is no recent information about its abundance.
9611		threats	eng	This species is threatened by timber extraction and human settlements.
9618		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected area. Survey, monitoring and life history studies are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern India recorded only from the three locations of Angarakhata in Kamrup district, Assam (Agrawal 2000), and Bishnupur and Senapati in Manipur (Agrawal 2000) at elevations ranging between 900 and 1,300 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a relictual species which ranged much more widely in the Pleistocene (Musser and Carleton 2005).
9618		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species occuring in in tropical evergreen, moist deciduous forests. Also found in secondary forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9618		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species
9618		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss and fragmentation from general encroachment on its habitat, hunting and fire (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
9630		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Gunung Niut Penrisen Nature Reserve. Further survey work involving the appropriate techniques (e.g. pitfall traps) is needed to investigate the distribution range and population status of the species.
9630		distribution	eng	This species is recorded only from the type locality, Penrisen Hills in Sarawak, and a second locality (Bettotan) in Sabah, Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is very likely to occur more widely in Borneo than current records suggest.
9630		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, it inhabits forest, and not necessarily restricted to primary formations.
9630		population	eng	It is known only by the holotype and the specimen from Bettotan. It is very difficult to trap, and there is no recent information on its population status.
9630		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected by habitat loss.
9631		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and from the slopes of Gunung Soputan, which is formally designated as a protection forest (although the management effectiveness of this area is unknown). Further survey work is needed to better determine the geographic range and current population status of this species.
9631		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from the north east tip of the northern peninsula (three localities) and the central core of Sulawesi, Indonesia, between 75 and 1,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Although known only from three disjunct locations, it is likely that with additional survey work this species will be shown to range more widely through northern Sulawesi than current records suggest. Another undescribed form of <em>Haeromys</em> occupies montane forest formations on Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).
9631		habitat	eng	A frugivorous species, inhabiting tropical lowland evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). All localities from which specimens have been collected to date were from forested regions, although this does not preclude its presence in lightly degraded habitats.
9631		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species. It is rarely encountered and collected during surveys, partially due to its arboreal habits, diminutive size, and patchy distribution (Musser 1990), and also because most surveys do not involve the use of the appropriate techniques for capturing this species.
9631		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and expanding agricultural activities.
9632		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
9632		distribution	eng	This species have been recorded in Borneo and in Palawan and Calawit islands (Philippines). However, it is very likely extinct on Calawit and it has not been found on Palawan in most recent survey. So, probably the Borneo population is the only remaining.
9632		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest.
9632		population	eng	This species is rare.
9632		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss.
9660		conservation	eng	Numerous countries have invoked protective measures to limit grey seal harvests, culls, disturbance, and by-catch (Bonner 1981, ICES 2005). Pollutant loads in Baltic gray seals have declined in step with regulations banning of the use and/or discharge of toxic pollutants such as DDT and PCBs beginning in the 1970s, and the reproductive health of female grey seals has improved as has the population level in the Baltic (Bergman <em>et al.</em> 2001). Establishment of coastal marine reserves for seals in Norway have been more effective in protecting harbor seals than grey seals because the latter are more likely to travel outside the areas closed to fisheries and become entangled in nets (Bjore <em>et al.</em> 2002).
9660		conservation	eng	Numerous countries have invoked protective measures to limit Grey Seal harvests, culls, disturbance and by-catch (Bonner 1981, ICES 2005). Pollutant loads in Baltic Grey Seals have declined following regulations banning the use and discharge of toxic pollutants such as DDT and PCBs beginning in the 1970s. Although the prevalence of colonic ulcers has increased over the last decades, the reproductive health of female Grey Seals has improved as has the population level in the Baltic (Bergman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Establishment of coastal marine reserves for seals in Norway have been more effective in protecting harbour seals than Grey Seals because the latter are more likely to travel outside the areas closed to fisheries and become entangled in nets (Bjorge <em>et al</em>. 2002).
9660		distribution	eng	Grey Seals have a cold temperate to sub-Arctic distribution in North Atlantic waters over the continental shelf (Hall 2002). There are three populations isolated both geographically and by timing of reproduction (Bonner 1981); mtDNA variations are large between these three breeding areas, though the Baltic and East Atlantic populations are much closer to one another than to the West Atlantic population (Boskovic <em>et al</em>. 1996). In the western Atlantic, the population is centred in north-eastern North America from the Gulf of Maine to southern Labrador, including the Gulf of St Lawrence. The eastern Atlantic population is concentrated around the United Kingdom (UK)  and Ireland but is also found around Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and along the European mainland coast from the Kola Peninsula south to southern Norway, and from Denmark to Brittany in France. The Baltic Sea stock is confined to the Baltic Sea (Bonner 1981, Hall 2002). Vagrants are known from as far south as New Jersey in the western Atlantic and Portugal in the eastern Atlantic (Rice 1998).
9660		distribution	eng	Grey seals have a cold temperate to sub-Arctic distribution in the North Atlantic waters over the continental shelf (Hall 2002). There are three populations isolated both geographically and by timing of reproduction (Bonner 1981). In the western Atlantic, the population is centered in northeastern North America from the Gulf of Maine to southern Labrador, including the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The eastern Atlantic population is found at Iceland, the Faroe Islands, from the Kola Peninsula south to southern Norway, around most of the United Kingdom and Ireland, and in Brittany in France.  The Baltic Sea stock is entirely confined to the Baltic Sea (Bonner 1981, Hall 2002). Vagrants are known from as far south as New Jersey in the western Atlantic and Portugal in the eastern Atlantic (Rice 1998).
9660		habitat	eng	Grey Seals are a large sexually dimorphic phocid. Western Atlantic Grey Seals are significantly larger than eastern Atlantic animals. In the UK, adult males are on average 2 m long and weigh 233 kg, with a maximum of 310 kg. Adult females average 1.8 m and 155 kg. At birth, pups are 90-105 cm, with male pups averaging 15.8 kg and female pups averaging 14.8 kg in weight (Bonner 1981). Weaning weights average 40 kg for males and 35.8 -39.6 kg for females. In the western Atlantic adult males average 2.25 m and 300-350 kg with maximum weights over 400 kg. Adult females average 2 m and 150-200 kg with maximum weights over 250 kg (Mansfield 1988, Hall 2002). Pups are heavier at birth than pups born in the UK and are 25% heavier at weaning. Male pups average 56.2 kg and females 51.6 kg, measured for pups born on the ice near Amet Island (Haller <em>et al</em>. 1996). Male pups weigh 51.6 and females weigh 50.5 kg for those born on land at Sable Island (Baker <em>et al</em>. 1995). Baltic Grey Seal pups weigh about 12 kg at birth, but weaning mass differs between (Jussi <em>et al</em>. 2008)  48.3 (± 8.1 kg) for pups born on ice to 37.4 (± 7.8 kg) for pups on land. <br/><br/>Lactation lasts around 15-18 days on average, with ice breeders having slightly shorter lactation periods; weaning is abrupt (Kovacs 1987, Haller <em>et al</em>. 1996). Pre-weaning mortality of Grey Seal pups varies widely between colonies, usually between 5 and 20% but can be as high as 30%. Pup mortality rates are influenced by habitat quality, birth site, quality of maternal care, injuries resulting from male-male aggression and to a lesser extent predation by Greater and Lesser Black-backed Gulls (<em>Larus marinus</em> and <em>L. fuscus</em>) on weakened, unprotected, pups, or pups born on the periphery of a colony (Baker and Baker 1988, Twiss <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In the Baltic pre-weaning mortality is low for pups born on ice, but varies between 5 and 30% on land, depending on pupping density (Jussi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Main predators are White-tailed Eagles (<em>Haliaeetus albicilla</em>) and Greater Black-backed Gulls.<br/><br/>In the UK, females give birth on land and show considerable site fidelity (Pomeroy <em>et al</em>. 1994). Mothers typically stay with their pups until weaning, but are rarely more than a few meters away from water (Twiss <em>et al</em>. 1994). In the Gulf of St Lawrence, lactating females that give birth on the ice spend about 72% of their time hauled out, nursing the pup every 2-3 hours. They are hauled out significantly more in darkness than during daylight hours. From the time of birth until weaning, females lose about 5.7 kg per day (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 1994). Females in the UK lose an average of 65 kg over the lactation period (Fedak and Anderson 1982), whereas the somewhat larger females in the West Atlantic lose an average of 75 kg (Haller <em>et al</em>. 1996). Females come into estrus around the time of weaning (Boness <em>et al</em>. 1982). Females are at their lowest weight following the moulting period, averaging 126.2 kg; by the beginning of the next pupping period they again average 210 kg (Beck <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Adult male Grey Seals do not typically come ashore until the first pups are born, unlike most other pinnipeds where males arrive before the females (Bonner 1981). Their average age when first returning to their breeding colonies is 9-10 years (Manske <em>et al</em>. 2002). Males spend large amounts of time out of the water fasting during the breeding season. Some males go to sea for periods of 2-3 days while others remain hauled out for the entire breeding season (Lidgard <em>et al</em>. 2003). Males do not defend a fixed territory, but stay near a particular group of females. Breeding age males lose less weight per day than lactating females, but because they are ashore for an average of 36 days, up to an extreme of 57days, they can experience considerable loss of mass (Anderson and Fedak 1985, Tinker <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Pupping dates differing significantly between populations: peak dates in the western Atlantic are in January; in eastern Atlantic peak dates vary between September and December in different subpopulations; and in the Baltic Sea peak pupping is in late February to early March, which coincides with the annual maximum ice coverage. The differences in pupping seasons probably keep the groups reproductively isolated (Bonner 1981). Pups are born on land in the eastern North Atlantic, and can be born on either on ice or land in the western North Atlantic and the Baltic (Bonner 1981, Baker <em>et al</em>. 1995). Pups are born with a woolly white lanugo that is moulted around the time of weaning. Pups usually stay on land from birth until the moult is finished, although some pups on small exposed beaches often swim for short periods even before moulting (Kovacs 1987). During the post weaning fast pups lose up to 25% of their body weight (Mansfield, 1988). In the United Kingdom, adult females moult from mid-January to mid-February, and males moult from mid-February through until early April. In Canada, the moult is later in the spring (Bonner 1981). Peak moulting season for Baltic seals is the last week of May to the second week in June.<br/><br/>Grey Seals are shallow, short-duration divers. Most adult diving is shallower than 120 m and less than 8 min. Females dives are on average slightly longer (5.5 min.) than those of males (4.9 min.), although males tend to dive a little bit deeper (57 m compared to 49 m). In the Gulf of St Lawrence, maximum dives recorded were 412 m for males, and 354 m for females (Beck <em>et al</em>. 2003). Typically in the United Kingdom, dives are shorter and shallower (average 4-10 min., max. 30 min.). In European waters gray seals are primarily demersal feeders, diving to the sea bed during most dives (usually 60 m, but down to 200 m in some areas; Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>Grey Seals are not long-distance migrants. In Europe, they often haulout on land, especially on outlying islands and remote coastlines exposed to the open sea. Tracking of individual seals has shown that they can feed up to several hundred kilometres offshore during short foraging trips lasting 2.3 days on average (McConnell <em>et al</em>. 1999). Individual Grey Seals, based at specific haulout sites, often make repeated trips to the same region offshore but will occasionally move to a new haulout and begin foraging in a new region. Movements of Grey Seals between haul-outs in the North Sea and the Shetland Isles, Outer Hebrides and Faeroe Islands have been recorded. During foraging trips Grey Seals often target areas with fine gravel/coarse sandy sea-bed sediments, which are the preferred habitat of sandeels, an important part of the Grey Seal’s diet. Satellite telemetry data from Canada shows that Grey Seals there perform much longer foraging trips and often travel much larger distances than European seals. In the Baltic Sea, Grey Seals make short trips, spending roughly 75% of their time within 50 km of haulout sites (Sjoberg and Ball 2000).<br/><br/>Grey Seal diet varies by location, though they are largely demersal or benthic feeders, (Hall 2002). In some areas, the food consumed can be over 70% sandeels (<em>Ammodytes</em> sp.). In Iceland, where 15 species make up the majority of the diet, the most common stomach contents by weight are Atlantic Cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>) 24%, sandeels 23%, catfish (wolf-fish, <em>Anarhichas lupus</em>) 15%, and saithe (<em>Pollachius virens</em>) 11% (Hauksson and Bogason 1997). At the Faroes, adults feed on cod and catfish, subadults feed on sandeels and saithe and juveniles consume sandeels (Mikkelsen <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the United Kingdom, sandeels, cod and Dover Sole (<em>Solea solea</em>) accounted for 56% of the diet by weight. Gray seals also eat other flatfish, including Dab (<em>Limanda limanda</em>), Flounder (<em>Platichthys plessus</em>) and plaice (<em>Pleuronectes platessa</em>) (Prime and Hammond 1990). In the Outer Hebrides, gadids account for 40% or more of the diet (ling (<em>Molva molva</em>), Atlantic Cod and Whiting (<em>Merlangius merlangus</em>)); sandeels are less important in this area (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 1994). In Canada, 15 species of fish occur regularly in the diet (Mansfield 1988). Atlantic Cod, Herring (<em>Clupea herringus</em>) and Capelin (<em>Mellotus villosus</em>) account for 72% of prey by weight (Murie and Lavigne 1992).
9660		habitat	eng	Grey seals are large sexually dimorphic phocids. In the United Kingdom, adult males are on average 2.07 m long and weigh an average 233 kg, with a maximum of 310 kg.  Adult females are smaller, averaging 1.79 m and 155 kg. At birth, pups are 90-105 cm, with male pups averaging 15.8 kg and female pups averaging 14.8 kg in weight (Bonner 1981). Adults in the western Atlantic are larger, with males averaging 2.25 m and 300-350 kg, and females averaging 2 m and 150-200 kg (Mansfield 1988), with males reaching a maximum of over 400 kg and females over 250 kg (Hall 2002).<br/><br/>Pupping occurs from September to March with peak dates differing significantly between populations: in the western Atlantic, January; eastern Atlantic, September-December; and in the Baltic Sea, late February to early March, which probably reproductively isolates each group (Bonner 1981).  Pups are born on ice or land in the western North Atlantic, land in the eastern North Atlantic, and ice in the Baltic (Bonner 1981).  Pups are born with a woolly lanugo that is molted several weeks after weaning. The pup stays on land from birth until the molt is finished, losing up to 25% of its body weight from fasting (Mansfield 1988). In the United Kingdom, pups molt before weaning; adult females molt from mid-January to mid-February, and males molt from mid-February to early April (Bonner 1981).<br/><br/>Grey seals not known for being long-distance migrants. In one study, they spent 43% of their time within 10 km of frequently used haul-out sites, traveling to sandy areas, or gravel sea-bed sediments, the preferred habitat of sandeels, an important part of the grey seal’s diet. Short trips away averaged 2.3 days (McConnell <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Canada, tagging revealed that some animals travel 350-800 km, and in the United Kingdom, they took short-range trips. Occasionally, long treks of up to 2,100 km were made, crossing deep water from northern England to the Shetlands or Orkneys, and from the Faroes into the North Sea.  In the Baltic Sea, grey seals make short trips, spending roughly 75% of their time within 50 km of haul-out sites (Sjoberg and Ball 2000).<br/><br/>Grey seals' diet varies by location, though they are largely demersal or benthic feeders (Hall 2002).  In some areas, the food consumed can be over 70% sandeels (<em>Ammodytes</em> sp.). In the United Kingdom, sandeels, cod and Dover sole accounted for 56% of the diet by weight (Prime and Hammond 1990).
9660		population	eng	Grey Seal numbers are increasing at most locations, but are declining in a few localities. The Grey Seal population in the UK is one of the most intensively monitored large mammal populations in the world. Pup production of all the major breeding colonies is monitored regularly, annually in the UK and less frequently but regularly in Canada and other range states. However, because of differences in estimation methods and changes in population dynamics it is difficult to estimate the total global population size. For ease of comparison the most recent pup production estimates for all Atlantic populations are given in Table 1 in the linked PDF document, which forms an integral part of this assessment.<br/><br/>Baltic Grey Seals alternate between land- and ice-breeding, and the proportion of pups born on land vary from 5% to 95%, so it is not easy to use typical pup production counts to enumerate Grey Seals in the Baltic. Surveys in the Baltic count the number of seals hauled out during peak moulting season (late May-to early June), which represents approximately 80% of total population size (Hiby <em>et al</em>. 2007). Counted numbers hauled out in 2007 was estimated at 22,000.<br/><br/>Pup production figures can be used to derive approximate total population estimates. In Canada the “all age” population is approximately 250 000 divided into two main herds, one largely located in the southern Gulf of St Lawrence and the other at Sable Island (DFO 2006). The Sable Island colony has been increasing at a rate of 13% per year, but has recently showed signs of slowing (Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2007). The Gulf of St Lawrence population is decreasing (Hammill <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the UK the different subpopulations show differing dynamics (SCOS 2006). In the Hebrides and Northern Isles pup production has stabilized while in the central and Southern North Sea production is still increasing exponentially. The total population is estimated to be between 117,000 and 171,000 at the start of the breeding season, i.e. excluding pups. Overall the UK population is increasing at approximately 2.5% p.a. (SCOS 2007).<br/><br/>Total population estimates for other regions are: USA - 7,300 – increasing (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005); Iceland – 11,600 – declining (Hauksson 2007); Norway - 3,100 – trend unknown (Wiig 1986); Ireland - 2,000 – increasing; Russia - 1,000-2,000- unknown; Baltic Sea - 22,000- increasing (2007, Helcom portal).
9660		population	eng	Grey seal numbers are increasing at some locations while declining in others. The total world population is not completely known. Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans estimates its present population at 250,000 divided into in two herds, mainly in the southern Gulf of St Lawrence, and at Sable Island (Anon. 2006). Aerial surveys in 1997 provided an abundance estimate for the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Sable Island populations at 195,000 animals. The Sable Island population is increasing by 13% per year. The Gulf of St. Lawrence population is decreasing by and unspecified amount. There are approximately 7,300 gray seals in United States waters, where its numbers are increasing (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population estimates for areas in the eastern North Atlantic are: Iceland, 11,600 (Hauksson 1987), Norway, a minimum of 3,100 (Wiig 1986), Ireland 2,000, the White Sea 1,000-2,000, and the United Kingdom 110,000 and increasing at 6% per year (Hall 2002). The Baltic Sea population is given as 17,640 (ICES 2005).
9660		threats	eng	Grey Seals have been important in subsistence harvests in coastal areas within their range throughout history. They have been hunted in the Baltic Sea for more than 10,000 years (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Commercial harvesting has been ongoing in many areas for hundreds of years, and at times Grey Seals have been important to local economies (Mansfield 1988). Over-harvesting in the Baltic in the early 20th century led to a large decline; this population once numbered somewhere between 80,000 and 100,000, but was reduced to about 20,000 in the 1940s. A further decline to 1,500-2,000 seals was caused by high loads of PCB (Harding and Härkönen 1999).<br/><br/>Government culls, bounties and licensed kills for protection of fishing gear have been put into effect in many countries and continue to be used to control Grey Seal numbers and reduce their impact on commercially important coastal fisheries (i.e. salmonid fisheries). Grey Seals feed on a number of commercial species, and by damaging nets and traps they are in direct conflict with fisheries. They also are vectors for parasites that can have an impact on the economy of some fisheries (see ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Entanglement in commercial fishing nets causes by-catch mortality in most parts of the Grey Seals’ range (Woodley and Lavigne 1991). By-catch levels are approximately 300 per year in Swedish fisheries in the Baltic (ICES 2005). A Norwegian study from 1975-1998 reported the death of 259 seals, representing 7% of the tagged animals, primarily juveniles less than a year old (Bjorge <em>et al</em>. 2002). Among 528 deaths of tagged seals in the UK, 148 were attributable to fishing nets. However, this may overestimate the rate of entanglement-related mortality due to the high rate of tag returns from fisheries. Woodley and Lavigne (1991) suggested that 1-2% of animals less than a year old die in fishing gear. Finally, in the United States’ Northeast sink-gillnet fishery there was an average annual mortality of 141 Grey Seals reported for the period 1999 to 2003 (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Grey Seals are known carriers of the morbillivirus, known as phocine distemper virus (PDV), in all populations (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1992, Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1995, Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, they have suffered almost no mortality from the disease, in marked contrast to Harbour Seals. Harkonen <em>et al</em>. (2006) report Grey Seal mortality of approximately 230 (equal to 1% of the harbour seal mortality) in the 1988 epizootic in Europe and the death of 30 Grey Seal pups in the Baltic were attributed to PDV. Because Grey Seal haulout with Harbour Seals in the Wadden Sea and are known to travel more widely than the sedentary Harbour Seal, it is presumed that they had a role in the outbreak and spread of the 2002 epizootic of PDV in Harbour Seals (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Grey Seals are exposed to agricultural pollutants through the food chain in their coastal ranges. PCBs and DDT contaminant loads are extremely high in Baltic Grey Seals, despite the fact that tissue burdens have declined since the 1970s. Analysis of samples collected from 1996 to 1998 indicated that Grey Seals still have a very heavy load of contaminants when compared to other seals outside the Baltic (ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Health effects on Grey Seals have been suggested to be linked to their high exposures to PCBs and DDT. Baltic Grey Seal have a relatively high rate of colonic ulcers associated with hookworm infestations, which are sometimes fatal. This condition occurs in Baltic Ringed Seals as well, but is not found elsewhere in either species (ICES 2005). Uterine stenosis and a host of other pathologies in other organs have been attributed to long-term exposure to environmental toxics, particularly in older Baltic Grey Seals. These are specifically linked to reproductive and population declines for this subspecies and are conditions not seen in other populations (Bergman <em>et al</em>. 2001). However, no negative effects have been attributed to heavy metal contaminants in Baltic Grey Seals (Bergman <em>et al</em>. 2001, ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Grey Seals live close to human population centres and shipping lanes and spend much of their time in the vicinity of favourite haulout locations. Spilled oil from vessel accidents and other sources have fouled gray seal sites since at least the 1940s (St. Aubin 1990). Despite numerous records of oiled animals and occasional reports of dead animals coated in oil, or animals having ingested oil, it has not been determined whether these mortalities are attributable to contact with oil in this species (St. Aubin 1990). <br/><br/>Grey Seals are generalist predators and their population has increased in recent decades during periods of declines of some commercial fish stocks that are important Grey Seal prey. The risks of over-fishing induced declines of fish stocks on gray seals are unclear at this time. One potential threat is the risk of a demand for larger culls and control of Grey Seal populations to help rebuild fisheries stocks that are affected by, or are presumed to be affected by, Grey Seals.<br/><br/>The potential effects of climate change on Grey Seals are not well known. Although not a high Arctic species, some Grey Seals pup on ice and are seasonally associated with ice in parts of their range (Bonner 1981). It is unknown how decreases in sea-ice cover might affect Grey Seals, although Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) identify the Grey Seal as a species that will probably undergo a decrease in its range because of climate change. Since Baltic Grey Seal pup mortality on land breeding sites is considerably greater compared with pups born on ice, and weaning weights much lower on land, a scenario with less ice will reduce the mean long-term growth rate in this population (Jussi <em>et al</em>. 2008).
9660		threats	eng	Grey seals have been important in subsistence harvests throughout the history of their contact with humans. They have been hunted by peoples of the Baltic Sea coast for more than 10,000 years (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 2005). Commercial harvesting has been ongoing in many areas for hundreds of year, and at times grey seals have been important to local economies (Mansfield 1988). Overharvesting in the Baltic in the early 20th century led to a large decline, from a population that once numbered an estimated 30,000 to perhaps as high as 200,000 to a low of 1,500-2,000 by the early 1980s (Kokko <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Government culls, bounties, and licensed kills for harvest and protection of fishing gear have been put into effect in many countries, and continue to be used in some in efforts to control grey seal numbers and reduce their impact on commercially important fisheries. Grey seals feed on a number of commercial species, and by damaging nets and traps, they are in direct conflict with fisheries. Indirectly, grey seals are a vector for seal worm, also known as cod worm, a destructive parasite of Atlantic cod (Mansfield 1988, ICES 2005). <br/><br/>Entanglement in commercial fishing nets causes bycatch mortality in most parts of the grey seals’ range (Woodley and Lavigne, 1991). Bycatch levels are approximately 300 per year in Swedish fisheries in the Baltic (ICES 2005). Of 528 deaths of tagged seals in the United Kingdom, 148 were attributable to fishing nets. However, this may overestimate the rate of entanglement-related mortality due to the high rate of tag returns from fisheries. It was also estimated that 1-2% of animals less than a year old die in fishing gear (Woodley and Lavigne 1991). <br/> <br/>Grey seals are known carriers of the morbillivirus known as phocine distemper virus (PDV), in all populations (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1992, Duignan <em>et al.</em> 1995, Harkonen<em> et al.</em> 2006).  However, they have suffered almost no mortality from the disease.  Harkonen <em>et al.</em> (2006) report grey seal mortality of approximately 230 (equal to 1% of the harbour seal mortality) in the 1988 epizootic in Europe, and the death of 30 gray seal pups in the Baltic were attributed to PDV.  Because grey seals haul out with harbour seals in the Wadden Sea, and are known to travel more widely than the sedentary harbour seal, it is presumed that they had a role in the outbreak and spread of the 2002 epizootic of PDV in harbour seals.<br/><br/>As a coastal species, grey seals are exposed to and ingest industrial and agricultural pollutants through the food chain.  PCBs and DDT contaminant loads are extremely high in Baltic gray seals, despite the fact that tissue burdens have declined since the 1970s.  Analysis of samples collected from 1996 to 1998 indicated that gray seals still have a very heavy load of contaminants when compared to other seals outside the Baltic (ICES 2005). Health effects on grey seals have been suggested to be linked to very high exposures of PCBs and DDT. Baltic grey seals have a relatively high rate of colonic ulcers, sometimes fatal, associated with hookworm infestations. This condition occurs in Baltic ringed seals as well, but essentially not found elsewhere in either species (ICES 2005). Uterine stenosis and a range of pathologies in other organs have been attributed to long-term exposure to environmental toxins, particularly in older Baltic gray seals. These are specifically linked to reproductive and population declines for this subspecies, and are conditions not seen in other populations (Bergman <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, no negative effects have been attributed to heavy metal contaminants in Baltic gray seals (Bergman <em>et al.</em> 2001, ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Grey seals are generalist predators, and their population has increased in recent decades during periods of declines of some commercial fish stocks that are important grey seal prey. The risks of overfishing or climate-induced declines of fish stocks on grey seals are unclear at this time. One potential threat is the risk of a demand for larger culls and control of grey seal populations to help rebuild fisheries stocks that are affected by, or are presumed to be affected by, grey seals. This would be similar to the efforts to manage harp seals after the collapse of the Atlantic cod fishery, as discussed by DeMaster <em>et al.</em> (2001).  Despite the fact that the collapse of the cod fishery is probably not attributable to seal predation, there has been ongoing pressure to cull the populations of harp seals and gray seals (Yodzis 2001).<br/><br/>The potential effects of climate change, either warming or cooling, on gray seals are not well known. Although not a high Arctic species, some grey seals pup on ice and are seasonally associated with ice in parts of their range (Bonner 1981).  It is unknown how decreases in sea-ice cover might affect gray seals, although Learmonth <em>et al.</em> (2006) identify the gray seal as a species that will probably undergo a decrease in range because of climate change.<br/><br/>None of the above is thought to be a major threat to the species as a whole at present.
9672		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I. It is known to occur in only two protected areas (Ranomafana National Park and Andringitra National Park).The entire corridor between the two existing areas has been proposed as a Conservation Site. A captive breeding programme was set up at Parc Tsimbazaza from a founder population of two individuals that have reproduced four times. However, the programme has since collapsed. Setting up a micro-propagation program to generate new stands of bamboo has been recommended as a needed conservation measure.
9672		distribution	eng	This species is known from the rain forests of southeastern Madagascar, at elevations of 600-1,400 m asl, where it can be found in and around Ranomafana National Park (where discovered in 1983 and not known from north of Miaronony), Andringitra National Park (discovered in 1993), to the north-east possibly to the region of Betsakafandrika, and in a forest corridor that connects Ranomafana with Andringitra National Park (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
9672		habitat	eng	It is found in humid forests and marshes with bamboo and reeds. The golden bamboo lemur is a diurnal species with a distinct midday rest period. It lives in small groups, usually of three to four individuals, that maintain home ranges of up 30 ha. Females typically give birth to a single young in November and December. The young are born in an altricial state and are kept safe in dense vegetation for the first two weeks of life. Based on studies at Ranomafana National Park, as much as 90% of this lemur’s diet may consist of bamboo, the majority of which is the giant bamboo (<em>Cathariostachys madagascariensis</em>) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
9672		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution and typically occurs at low densities. Irwin <em>et al.</em> (2005) commented that the population size, if uniformly distributed, would be 5,916 individuals, but that since the species is so patchily distributed, actual population size is likely much smaller, perhaps 25% of this estimate.
9672		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture and harvesting for bamboo for building houses, carrying water, making baskets and other local uses. Hunting is also a threat in some parts of the range.
9673		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas: five national parks (Baie de Baly, Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namoroka, Mantadia, and Ranomafana), one strict nature reserve (Tsingy de Bemaraha) and five special reserves (Bemarivo, Kasijy, Ambohitantely, Analamazaotra, and Mangerivola) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The bamboo lemurs in Kalambatitra presumably are now presumably <em>H. meridionalis</em>, but this requires confirmation; likewise, animals in Andringitra National Park, Pic d’Ivohibe and Manombo may represent either <em>H. meridionalis</em> or hybrids with <em>H. griseus</em>. Further work is now needed to ascertain the limits of distribution of species and the described subspecies.
9673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. In the wake of the study of Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> (2007), this species has a more restricted distribution in the eastern rainforests than previously believed, being found from about Lake Aloatra south to about Ranomofana (where it is then gradually replaced by <em>H. meridionalis</em>). Further, based on the findings of Rabarivola <em>et al</em>. (2007), animals in western Madagascar from the Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsiombikibo, Baie de Baly, Tsingy de Namoroka and Bongolava regions between the Mahavavy du Sud and the Tsiribihina Rivers also are <em>H. griseus</em> (they were formerly considered to be <em>H. occidentalis</em>). Upper elevation limit unclear as animals from 1,600 m on the Andringitra Massif are now either <em>H. meridionalis</em> or hybrids between <em>H. griseus</em> and <em>H. meridionalis</em>).
9673		habitat	eng	This species occurs in various types of eastern forest, but is found at its highest densities near stands of bamboo and bamboo vines. Bamboo constitutes at least three-quarters of the diet, primarily new shoots and leaf. Group size varies between two and seven, and groups can contain more than one breeding female. Reports of home range size vary from 6-10 ha at Analamazaotra to as much as 15-20 ha at Ranomafana. The birth season for this species is essentially October through January, and a single young is the rule; the inter-birth interval is typically one year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
9673		population	eng	Common. Pollock (1979) estimated population density at 47-62 individuals/km² at Périnet.
9673		threats	eng	Hunting is a major threat to this species, and it also commonly kept as a pet. Habitat loss due to slash-and-burn practices and due to clearing of bamboo stands is also a threat.
9674		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Remnant populations now receive protection in Ranomafana National Park and Andringitra National Park. Torotorofotsy is a RAMSAR wetland site. Surveys in unstudied classified forests and forest reserves in eastern Madagascar may eventually turn up new populations, but in the meantime continued monitoring of existing populations is required.<br/><br/>Wright <em>et al.</em> (2008) propose several immediate research and conservation recommendations. Further study of dietary breadth in populations other than Ranomafana is crucial to developing an understanding of this species? ecological flexibility, and eventually understanding its patchy distribution.<br/><br/>Only 39 <em>P. simus</em> individuals have been kept in captivity. As of 2007, there were 22 in seven institutions (five in Europe and two in Madagascar) (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2008).
9674		distribution	eng	Subfossil remains confirm that this species once had a widespread distribution in Madagascar that covered the northern, north-western, central and eastern portions of Madagascar, including Ampasambazimba in the Itasy Basin (west of Antananarivo), the Grotte d?Andrafiabe on the Ankarana Massif, and the Grottes d?Anjohibe near Mahajanga and Tsingy de Bemaraha (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/><br/>Today, the species has a much diminished range in the south-eastern and south-central rainforests of Madagascar. Wright <em>et al</em>. (2008), who estimated that <em>P. simus</em> now occupies only about 1-4% of its historical range, reported confirmed sightings of Greater Bamboo Lemurs in only 11 of 70 survey localities with a latitudinal range of 18°52' to 22°26'S. Five of these sightings were in or around the protected areas of Ranomafana National Park (Miaranony, Talatakely and Ambatolahy Dimy), and Andringitra National Park (Manambolo, Camp 2). An additional unconfirmed observation occurred here (Korokoto). Another five sightings were in unprotected forests at Kianjavato and Karianga, and outside Evendra, Morafeno and Mahasoa. Finally, they were observed in Torotorofotsy, the only locality north of Ranomafana National Park situated about 10 km north-west of Andasibe. The elevation range for confirmed sightings is 121?1,600 m (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2008).
9674		habitat	eng	This species is associated with forests abundant in giant bamboo. It subsists predominantly on bamboo, but its diet includes seven plant species representing three different families. In Ranomafana National Park, the bamboo <em>Cathariostachys madagascariensis</em> can account for as much as 95% of the diet, with shoots, young and mature leaves, and pith being consumed (Tan 1999, 2000). The patchiness of this bamboo species may be one factor limiting the current distribution and population continuity of <em>P. simus</em>, as this key food species is not found in all forest microhabitats, and is apparently limited to forest near large rivers. The availability of drinking water could also be a limiting factor, as during dry months in Ranomafana National Park, <em>P. simus</em> was the only lemur species seen regularly coming to streams to drink water (Wright <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Observations of wild populations and animals in captivity suggest that this species is cathemeral, active both during the day and at night throughout the year. They live in polygamous groups that can occupy home ranges of 40-60 ha or more. Mating begins in May or June, with infants typically born in October and November. Females usually give birth to a single young each year (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein).
9674		population	eng	On current evidence, this species may have the smallest population size of any lemur on the island. Only about 12 groups, totaling less than 100 individuals, have been documented in over 20 years of regional surveys. During 400 days of census work in Ranomafana, only three groups in total have been detected (with a maximum of 20 individuals confirmed) (Wright <em>et al.</em> 2008).
9674		threats	eng	The greater bamboo lemur is threatened by slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, the cutting of bamboo and hunting with slingshots and snares, the latter exacerbated by their movements into the rice paddies.
9676		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Lac Alaotra was declared a Ramsar site in 2003, and covers the entire watershed, 722,5000 ha, with the aim of conserving biodiversity and the wetland ecosystem. Plans at present are to create a strict conservation area of close to 8,000 ha and an adjacent 5,200-ha zone where controlled activities (e.g., fishing) are permitted. Public awareness campaigns have focused on the benefits of habitat conservation to the half million or more people who live by the lake erosion control, the biological filtering of agricultural pollutants, flood prevention. A regional fishing convention bans lemur hunting and marsh burning. There is a small, but self-sustaining, captive population in a number of European zoos.
9676		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the papyrus and reed beds surrounding Lac Alaotra, Madagascar?s largest lake located in the eastern rain forest region (Mutschler and Feistner 1995). The species occurs as two subpopulations, a small one in the northern part of the lake around the Belempona Peninsula and a larger one in the adjoining marshlands along the lake?s southwestern shores bounded by the villages of Anororo, Andreba and Andilana-Sud (Mutschler <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its entire range appears to be rather less than 200 km² and it occurs only up to elevations of 750 m.
9676		habitat	eng	In its unique marshland habitat (this is the only primate to live in marsh habitat) this lemur feeds principally on four food items: the pithy stems of papyrus (<em>Cyperus madagascariensis</em>), tender shoots of reeds (<em>Phragmites communis</em>), and two types of grasses (<em>Echinocochla crusgalli</em> and <em>Leersia hexandra</em>) (Mutschler 1999). Active mainly during daylight hours, <em>H. alaotrensis</em> also exhibits significant nocturnal activity. They live in family groups of up to a dozen members and defend territories ranging in size from less than one hectare to eight hectares. Young are born from September through February and twins are common (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
9676		population	eng	The most recent population estimates for <em>H. alaotrensis</em> put numbers (using encounter rate) at about 2,500 individuals in 2002 (Ralainasolo 2004), representing a decline of more than 50% in less than a decade. A survey in 2004 using distance sampling resulted in a population estimate of around 5,000 animals (J. Ratsimbazafy pers. comm.). In 1994, the population was estimated at 7,500-11,000 also based on encounter rate. The northerly population has not been censused, but probably has also been significantly reduced.
9676		threats	eng	Conversion of marsh habitat to rice fields has been the most severe threat to the survival of this species, although the remaining marsh habitats are difficult to convert due to regular flooding. However, a major drainage project would pose a major threat if this were realized in the region. Burning of the remaining marshlands takes place to catch fish and to graze cattle. The resulting increase in aquatic plants is choking fishing areas and driving further burning and may also limit marsh regeneration after flooding. <br/><br/>Hunting for food and capture for pets also have reduced its numbers through the years. A variety of hunting and trapping methods are employed by local people. Direct pursuit by dogs is the most common, but they may also be captured by using a harpoon, a snare, a stick to knock them out or into the water, or by burning their reed bed habitat, causing them to flee into the hands of waiting hunters. More than 1000 lemurs have been hunted annually in some years (Mutschler <em>et al.</em> 2001).
9678		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in four national parks (Masoala, Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, and Zahamena), three strict nature reserves (Tsaratanana, Betampona and Zahamena), and six special reserves (Manongarivo, Analemarana, Ankarana, Anjanaharibé-Sud, Ambatovaky, Marotandrano). However, recent surveys did not encounter any animals in Analamerana or Ankarana, just in a single patch of unprotected forest in the corridor that connects these reserves (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).
9678		distribution	eng	Following the recent study of Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> (2007), this species is known from the Ankarana and Analamerana region in the north of Madagascar (although see Banks <em>et al</em>. 2007 who did not record it there), and throughout the Sambirano region in the north-west (and the Ampasandava Peninsula). Rabarivola <em>et al</em>. (2007) also found evidence that the range of this species extends further south in the eastern rainforests than previously believed, occurring in Maraonsetra in the north-east at least to Zahamena, east of Lake Aloatra. Whether these populations are contiguous remains to be determined. Animals from the central-western parts of Madagascar, formerly attributed to <em>H. occidentalis</em>, are now provisionally assigned to <em>H. griseus</em> following Rabarivola <em>et al</em>. (2007).
9678		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species. Apparently, it has a preference for forests that contain bamboo or bamboo vines, but it also has been reported from degraded habitats in the Sambirano River valley, as well as in patches of bamboo surrounded by agricultural land (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). It is reported as being active mainly at night, with groups of six individuals recorded (Mutschler and Tan 2003).
9678		population	eng	A single group of <em>H. occidentalis</em> was observed during a visit to Ambery, a secondary forest site supporting patches of giant bamboo (Valiha sp.) in the north of Madagascar. The encounter rate was 0.06 groups per km, a useful step towards assessing the population status of this species, because there have been few studies where the local population levels of this species have been estimated from survey methods (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).
9678		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by the regular burning of its habitat to clear pasture for livestock; charcoal production in the west and mining in Ankarana are also leading to degradation of habitat. Hunting is also a major threat; in Makira, hunting takes place using slingshots, machetes, and firearms (Golden 2005).
9679		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Cat Tien National Park, Viet Nam. There is a need to protect remaining stands of natural undisturbed bamboo where the species has been recorded, and to conduct additional surveys to locate any additional remaining patches of habitat. Further studies in general are needed into this species.
9679		distribution	eng	The species has a patchy distribution in northern Lao PDR, Viet Nam and China (southern Yunnan, Guangxi and Hainan island) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Wang (2003) recognized two subspecies in China: <em>H. d. delacouri</em>, Thomas, 1927, occurring in mainland China; <em>H. d. marmosa</em>, Allen, 1927, occurring on Hainan island.<br/>It is probably now patchily distributed because of habitat loss.
9679		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane tropical wet and dry forest (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is highly arboreal and probably restricted to bamboo habitats between 1,200 and 1,500 m (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It appears to be sensitive to disturbance and is not present in modified habitats.
9679		population	eng	This species is difficult to trap and is only represented in musuems by a few specimens. It is probably never abundant (D. Lunde pers. comm.).
9679		threats	eng	This species appears to be associated with natural stands of bamboo, a habitat of which very little remains within the known range of the species (D. Lunde and K. Aplin pers. comm.). Remaining stands of this bamboo are being cut for building materials and other uses. The human population of Lao PDR is growing rapidly and any remaining habitat in this country can be expected to be disturbed within the near future.
9680		conservation	eng	It is present in the Cameron Highlands (Malaysia) and is likely to be present in the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary, however, this needs to be confirmed. There is a need to protect remaining stands of natural undisturbed bamboo where the species has been recorded, and to conduct additional surveys to locate any additional remaining populations in habitat patches.
9680		distribution	eng	The species has a patchy distribution, it has been recorded from Myanmar and western Thailand, however, it may be extirpated from these countries as little natural vegetation remains. An extant population occurs in Peninsular Malaysia (Musser and Carleton 2005). Specimens of <em>H. longicaudatus</em> reported from Yunnan by Wang (2003) probably represent <em>H. delacouri</em>.
9680		habitat	eng	This species is known only from natural stands of bamboo in evergreen lowland rainforest. It is a lowland species in the northern part of its range; it is recorded from around 500 m in Malaysia. The diet of this species is restricted to various parts of bamboo.
9680		population	eng	It was formerly recorded as being common in Myanmar, but all of the natural habitat within the known range has now been cleared.
9680		threats	eng	This species appears to be associated with natural stands of bamboo, a habitat of which very little remains within the known range of the species (D. Lunde and K. Aplin pers. comm.). Remaining stands of this bamboo are being cut for building materials and other uses. It is possibly extirpated in Myanmar and Thailand.
9686		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.
9686		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in the vicinity of or amongst marginal vegetation, only rarely over exposed sandy beaches away from rooted plants. Does not enter deeply into the marginal swamps and is rarely recorded at the swamp ends of inlets.
9687		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9687		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is an epiphytic algae grazer.
9687		population	eng	No information available.
9687		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9688		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.
9688		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9688		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species is an epiphytic algae grazer.
9688		population	eng	No information available.
9688		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
9689		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.
9690		conservation	eng	<em>H. fischeri</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.
9690		distribution	eng	<em>Haplonycteris fischeri</em> is endemic to the Philippines. It is widespread through most of the country, excluding the Camiguin, Palawan, and Batanes/Babuyan faunal regions. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Catanduanes, Cebu (Cebu Cloud Forest Reserve) Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Albay, Aurora, Bataan, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Quezon, Quirino, Tarlac, and Zambales provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte (R. Pamaong pers. comm. 2006), Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Palaui, and Samar (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The record from Palawan reported by Kock (1969) is probably erroneous, which is supported by recent failure to record this species on Palawan Island despite extensive netting there (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). Records are from 150-2,250 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
9690		habitat	eng	The Philippine pygmy fruit bat inhabits lowland and montane, primary and secondary habitats, including mossy forest, and mixed agricultural habitats and second-growth forest. It exhibits an eight month delay in embryo development which gives a gestation period of 11.5 months, the longest known in bats (Heideman 1989). Females can become pregnant at the age of three to five months (Heideman 1989). The species is an important seed distributer.
9690		population	eng	This is one of the most common fruit bats in primary forest, especially at middle elevations; <em>H. fischeri</em> is often moderately common in secondary forest, and is also present in mixed agricultural habitats and second-growth forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Within forest the species abundance usually increases with elevation up to about 1,200-1,500 m asl, and then declines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1991, 1998, 2006; Heideman and Heaney 1989, Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). Patterns of abundance on Luzon are similar to those on other islands, but they are less abundant there overall. In a 2003 mist net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Haplonycteris fischeri</em> was common at lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished report).
9690		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <em>H. fischeri</em>, although populations, particularly those in the lowlands, have declined in recent decades as a result of habitat destruction by logging, and conversion to intensive agriculture, whereas highland populations have not been so badly affected (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
9696		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
9714		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9714		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
9714		population	eng	No information available.
9714		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9717		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9717		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9717		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
9717		population	eng	No information available.
9717		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9718		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9718		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9718		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
9718		population	eng	No information available.
9718		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9719		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9719		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
9719		population	eng	No information available.
9719		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9721		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9721		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone. The species could be a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>), however this is not certain. It may also be a prawn-eater.
9721		population	eng	No information available.
9721		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9725		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9725		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
9725		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 46% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
9725		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9726		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
9726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
9726		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.
9726		population	eng	No information available.
9726		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
9727		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
9727		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lake Kyoga, Uganda.
9727		habitat	eng	<em>H. worthingtoni</em> is a benthopelagic species.  The females are mouth brooders.
9727		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
9727		threats	eng	Nile perch were introduced into Lake Kyoga in 1955 and 1956.  Stocks of the Nile perch have increased rapidly since 1965, and these increases have been concurrent with a reduction of native species (Ogutu-Ohwayo 1993), however, no information exists relating specifically to a decline in this species.
9729		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Victoria.
9736		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia.
9736		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from southern South Asia, through parts of southern China to insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Assam, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), recorded from 475 to 750 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). This taxon may probably also occur in Bhutan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Guangdong, Fujian, and is present on the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from a few scattered localities on the mainland, and from Indonesia (the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok and Ambon) and the Philippines with insular Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, it has only been recorded from the islands of Luzon (Cagayan and Camarines Sur province and Laguna province), Leyte, Negros, and Panay from 475 to 750 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
9736		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests and valleys with tall trees in the vicinity of water (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It feeds on beetles (Bates and Harrison 1997). There is little information on the natural history of this species in China (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded only from tall and hill forest in Peninsula Malaysia. In Philippines, the species is known from primary and disturbed lowland forest (Ingle and Heaney 1992; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993) and is believed to probably be dependent on lowland forest.
9736		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not well known. It has not been collected in Kerala (southern India) in surveys between 1990 and 1999 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
9736		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species is affected by deforestation in parts of its range.
9737		conservation	eng	Taxonomy and field surveys are needed for this species throughout its range. It has been recorded from some protected areas in Malaysia.
9737		distribution	eng	This species appears to range from South Asia, to mainland Southeast Asia and the island of Borneo. In South Asia, some specimens earlier identified as <em>H. mordax</em> were reassigned as <em>H. harpia</em>, and it is not currently possible to clearly identify the distribution range of this species in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species has been patchily recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (reported from Taman Negara [Aik and Akbar 2002] and from Temengor Forest Reserve, Perak by [Francis 1995]) and Borneo (Sabah [Malaysia]).
9737		habitat	eng	There appears to be little information available on the natural history of this species. It appears to be a species of mature forest.
9737		population	eng	There is little information available on the population of this species.
9737		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but probably include degradation of forested areas.
9740		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas.
9740		distribution	eng	<em>H. whiteheadi </em>is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread excluding the Palawan Faunal Region and the Batanes/Babuyan group of islands. It has been recorded from Biliran, Camiguin, Cebu, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur; there are no records from northern Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006)), Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Southern Cotabato, Suriago del Sur and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Mindoro, Negros, and Samar. Its elevation range is from sea level to 1,800 m.
9740		habitat	eng	<em>H. whiteheadi</em> occurs in lowland and montane forest, in primary, lightly disturbed and secondary habitats. It has been found in montane ultramafic forest on limestone, and in mosaic habitats of second-growth forest and agriculture. These are fairly large bats that fly moderately high and are known to roost in trees, but not caves. They might depend on the fruits of viney pandans (<em>Freycinetia</em> spp.) (Heaney 1984; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).
9740		population	eng	Populations of the harpy fruit bat are considered to be stable at present; their main habitat is montane forest, which is mostly intact (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is unlikely that there has been a substantial population decline in the past and although this species is not abundant it is considered uncommon to common in lowland forest and moderately common in montane forest (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In a 2003 mist net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Harpyionycteris whiteheadi</em> was uncommon in lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al.</em> unpublished report).
9740		threats	eng	<em>H. whiteheadi </em>is rarely if ever hunted. Although not considered to be a major threat this species is vulnerable to deforestation (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), which has occurred particularly in the lowlands rather than in the species' preferred montane habitat.
9743		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span> is nationally protected. Its habitat (8310-4) is protected under the Habitat Directive. However more research is needed at the taxonomy level.
9743		distribution	eng	No type locality is given by Draparnaud for <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span>, but the author suggests that the locality is in France. It is present in France (Jura, Doubs, Ain) and in Switzerland (cantons of Neuchatel and Berne) (Bernasconi 1975; Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001)
9743		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span> lives in subterranean waters and possibly in the waters flowing under the river beds.
9743		population	eng	There is no population data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta.<br/></span>
9743		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.<br/><br/>Hyporheic habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption is another important threat for small stream that may become completely dried out in summer, thus affecting directly the species. Casual droughts, and therefore climate change, are also a potential threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span>.
9744		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Austria. It is listed on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). There are no known species specific recovery plans and it is not known to be present in any protected areas.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat should be conducted, along with research into the species' population trends.<p></p>
9744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria, where it occurs in the limestone Alps in the Lower Austria region.
9744		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that inhabits groundwater ecosystems and springs and lives on the roots of trees (Resichutz pers. comm. 2010).
9744		population	eng	This species is considered to be very rare and has recently experienced a population decline.
9744		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are abstraction for drinking water and the lowering of ground water levels. There are also threats from pollution, mainly from agricultural practices and habitat destruction from the building of power plants.
9746		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species, although population monitoring and habitat monitoring are recommended.&#160; Awareness that there are endemic species restricted to the groundwaters would also be beneficial for planners and environment agencies.
9746		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia wienerwaldensis</span> is endemic to Austria, where it was first found in wells at Klamm near Wienerwald (Haase 1992).&#160; Glöer (2002) notes that the range now extends to Klamm, Pressbaum and Baden, all south of Vienna (Wien). Reischutz (1996) found it in the outflow of water storage reservoir beside road between Lindhutten and Alland (Weinberg).
9746		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the groundwater systems within the karst area and is collected from outflow springs where shells are found in debris.
9746		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
9746		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia wienerwaldensis</span> is threatened by declining water quality, partly from agricultural sources (nitrates, pesticides) and partly from human settlements, as well as habitat degradation, as the result of cleaning of the spring sites and formation as reservoirs to take-off water for settlements, and to abstract water from groundwater system (Reischutz & Resichutz, 2009).
9759		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in both Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.
9759		distribution	eng	This Central African species is known from southern Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and southern Central African Republic. It is found at elevations of between 100 and 620 m asl (in Gabon).
9759		habitat	eng	It is found in primary lowland forest. This is a habitat specialist and is not found in disturbed forests.
9759		population	eng	It is relatively uncommon and is usually trapped in fairly small numbers. This species does not enter traps easily which could possibly explain why they are perceived to be uncommon. They have been shown to be more abundant when trapped using pitfall traps.
9759		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for both timber and wood, and for the conversion of land to subsistence agriculture close to villages.
9760		conservation	eng	Killing of sun bears is strictly prohibited under national wildlife protection laws throughout their range. However, little enforcement of these laws occurs. The sun bear has been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1979. <br/><br/>Conservation measures and priorities vary by country. None of the range countries have established specific conservation measures for sun bears, and some taking is permitted (Servheen 1999).  General measures to reduce forest loss and poaching would help conserve the species. The most beneficial conservation measure in Indonesia and Malaysia would be protection of remaining forests from conversion to other land-uses, eliminating unsustainable logging practices, and prevention of forest fires. Establishment of new and effectively managed protected areas in Indonesia and Malaysia should be promoted in order to preempt land conversion (Augeri 2005, Tumbelaka and Fredriksson 2006, Wong 2006).<br/> <br/>Reducing the trade in bear parts would be highly beneficial for the survival of the species in mainland Southeast Asia. However, given available resources, the patrolling and monitoring of entire protected areas is currently an overwhelming task. To make this problem more manageable, a network of small bear recovery zones (100–200 km²) could be established within key protected areas. The patrolling efforts of rangers could then be focused on these zones. Recovery zones should be locations with plentiful bear foods such as trees from the families Lauraceae, Moraceae, Burseraceae, Myrtaceae and Fagaceae. Such zones would provide a biologically meaningful, geographically focused, and logistically realistic way for the efforts of protected area staff to be translated into population recovery for bears (and other wildlife species). <br/><br/>Recently, the Bear Specialist Group mapped the current, range-wide distribution of sun bears. Important habitat blocks for long-term survival of sun bears were identified (Bear Conservation Units-BCUs). Anti-poaching efforts within these BCUs should be a high priority. Trends in bear occurrence and relative abundance within BCUs could be monitored using standardized sign surveys and camera trapping. Results of such monitoring could indicate which management or ecological conditions promote successful bear conservation, and which do not, and provide a means to assess the results of conservation efforts (e.g., future range expansion and/or increased bear density being indicative of effective conservation efforts).  Additional field studies also would be helpful in this regard; few intensive studies have been conducted on this species.
9760		distribution	eng	Sun bears occur in mainland Southeast Asia as far west as Bangladesh and northeastern India (Chauhan 2006), as far north as southern Yunnan Province in China, and south and east to Sumatra and Borneo, respectively. It now occurs very patchily through much of its former range, and has been extirpated from many areas, especially in mainland southeast Asia. Its current distribution in eastern Myanmar and most of Yunnan is unknown. Reports of sun bears formerly occupying Nepal appear to be erroneous. Sun bear fossils from the Pleistocene have been found much further north into China and on the island of Java (Erdbrink 1953), but sun bears did not occur there in historical times. <br/><br/>Sun bears are uncommon at the northern and western edges of their range (southern Yunnan province, southeastern Tibet, northeast India, and Bangladesh; (Chauhan 2006, Gong and Harris 2006); this lower abundance was apparent in historical times (e.g., in India; Higgins 1932) so is probably a natural gradient unrelated to human exploitation.
9760		habitat	eng	Sun bears rely on tropical forest habitat. Two ecologically distinct categories of tropical forest occur within its range, distinguished by differences in climate, phenology, and floristic composition. Tropical evergreen rainforest is the sun bear’s main habitat in Borneo, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia. This aseasonal habitat receives high annual rainfall that is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Tropical evergreen rainforest, includes a wide diversity of forest types used by sun bears, including lowland dipterocarp, peat swamp, freshwater swamp, limestone/karst hills, hill dipterocarp, and lower montane forest. <br/><br/>In contrast, sun bears in mainland Southeast Asia inhabit seasonal ecosystems with a long dry season (3–7 months), during which rainfall is <100 mm per month.  Seasonal forest types are usually interspersed in a mosaic that includes semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp (<1,000 m elevation), and montane evergreen forest (>1,000 m). The range of sun bears overlaps that of Asiatic black bears (<em>Ursus thibetanus</em>) in this seasonal forest mosaic. <br/><br/>Sun bears also have been reported in mangrove forest, although their occurrence in this forest type probably depends on proximity to other, more favored habitats. Sun bears use selectively logged areas (Wong <em>et al.</em> 2004, Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005), and oil palm plantations near forest edges (Nomura <em>et al</em>. 2004).  However, there is no evidence that sun bears can survive in deforested or agricultural areas in the absence of nearby forest (Augeri 2005).<br/><br/>Sun bears occur from near sea level to over 2,100 m elevation, but appear to be most common in lower elevation forests. In Indonesia and western Thailand, for example, sun bears occur primarily below 1,200 m (Augeri 2005, Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). Sun bears have been observed up to 2,100 m in Myanmar (Saw Htun 2006), 1,600 m in Lao PDR (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 1999), and 2,143 m in Sumatra (Augeri 2005). <br/><br/>Sun bears are omnivores, feeding primarily on termites, ants, beetle larvae, bee larvae and honey, and a large variety of fruit species, especially figs (<em>Ficus</em> spp.), when available (McConkey and Galetti 1999, Wong <em>et al</em>. 2002, Augeri 2005, Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Occasionally, growth shoots of certain palms and some species of flowers are consumed (Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006), but otherwise vegetative matter rarely occurs in the diet. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae, Burseraceae and Myrtaceae make up more than 50% of the fruit diet (Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006), whereas in western Thailand fruits of Lauraceae and Fagaceae are the most commonly consumed (Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Thailand sun bears and Asiatic black bears use many of the same habitats and have extensive overlap in diet.  However, in montane forests >1,200 m elevation (where ground cover is sparse) Asiatic black bears are more abundant than sun bears (Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Little is known about social structure or reproduction in sun bears.  Except for females with their offspring, sun bears are usually solitary. They may congregate to feed from large fruiting trees, but this behavior appears to be rare. Sun bears do not seem to have a defined breeding season anywhere in their range and usually give birth to only one cub (less commonly two; Schwarzenberger <em>et al</em>. 2004). Female bears use cavities of either standing or fallen large hollow trees as birthing sites. As sun bears occur in tropical regions with year-round available foods, they do not hibernate.
9760		population	eng	Reliable estimates of sun bear populations are lacking. However, rapid loss of forests throughout their range and an active trade in wild bears and their parts is strong evidence of a declining trend. Attempts to extrapolate population size (e.g., Meijaard 2001) from anecdotal information on bear density (derived from occasional bear sightings and sign surveys, e.g. Davies and Payne 1981) have led to unreliable estimates (Garshelis 2002). Augeri (2005) used occupancy modeling (based on camera trapping) to estimate proportions of Indonesian Protected Areas that were occupied by sun bears.  The proportion of an area occupied (occupancy) is likely correlated with population size, so finer-scale population trends might be gleaned from changes in occupancy.
9760		threats	eng	The two major threats to sun bears are habitat loss and commercial hunting. These threats are not evenly distributed throughout the range of the species. In areas where deforestation is actively occurring, sun bears are mainly threatened by the loss of forest habitat and forest degradation arising from: clear-cutting for plantation development, unsustainable logging practices (Augeri 2005, Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005, Tumbelaka and Fredriksson 2006, Wong 2006), illegal logging both within and outside protected areas (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004), and forest fires (Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2007). These threats are prevalent in Indonesia and Malaysia on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Sundaland), where large-scale conversion of forest to oil palm (<em>Elaeis guineenis</em>) or other cash crops is proceeding at the rate of 1,000s of km² per year (Holmes 2002). <br/><br/>Human-caused fires in parts of Sundaland are also diminishing habitat quality for sun bears.  These fires are more extensive during El Niño-related droughts. On Borneo, periods of prolonged drought have disrupted fruiting patterns (e.g., Harrison 2000), which in combination with reduced habitat availability due to logging and fires, resulted in starvation among sun bears, even in primary forest areas (Wong <em>et al</em>. 2005, Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006b). <br/><br/>Commercial poaching of bears for the wildlife trade is a considerable threat in most countries (Meijaard 1999, Nea and Nong 2006, Nguyen Xuan Dang 2006, Saw Htun 2006, Tumbelaka and Fredriksson 2006, Wong 2006), and is the main threat where deforestation is currently negligible (for example in Thailand where nearly all remaining forest is within protected areas; Vinitporsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). Killing bears is illegal in all range countries but is largely uncontrolled.  In Thailand, local hunters in one area estimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of sun bears by 50% in 20 years (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2006).   <br/><br/>In Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam, sun bears are commonly poached for their gall bladders (i.e., bile) and bear-paws; the former is used as a Traditional Chinese Medicine, and the latter as an expensive delicacy.  In China and Viet Nam, bile is milked from commercially-farmed bears; however, as there are few sun bears in China, farms there contain mainly Asiatic black bears.  Conversely, both sun bears and Asiatic black bears are farmed in Viet Nam, in small private enterprises. Bears are routinely removed from the wild to stock or restock these small farms (Nguyen Xuan Dang 2006, B. Long, MOSAIC and WWF-Viet Nam pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Other motivations for killing bears include: preventing damage to crops (Fredriksson 2005), subsistence use, fear of bears near villages, and capture of cubs for pets (the mother being killed in the process). Although few sun bears exist in India, villagers there still kill sizeable numbers (Chauhan and Singh 2006).<br/><br/>Despite significant poaching within extant forest areas, sun bear populations appear to persist longer than some other heavily-exploited large carnivores. For example, tiger (<em>Panthera tigris</em>) populations have been severely reduced or extirpated in 12 of 15 protected areas surveyed in Myanmar, whereas sun bears were still encountered relatively frequently in 13 of these areas (Lynam 2003, Saw Htun 2006). Similarly, in Thailand tigers are close to extirpation in the Khao Yai forest complex, but sun bears and their signs are still consistently encountered there (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2006, Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006).
9763		conservation	eng	It is protected by Western Australian Legislation, which prevents collecting. R.A. Davis has done detailed surveys of the central Wheat belt. Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
9763		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest arid zone of Western Australia. It is most common along the wheat belt and adjacent gold fields from the Murchison River south to Tambellup and east to Jerramungup and Frank Hann National Park and Lort River. It can also be found along the eastern side of Jarrah Forest, Wandoo Forest, and Salmongum Woodlands. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
9763		habitat	eng	Adults are active on the surface during summer and autumn nights. It burrows in the banks or under stones on the bed of sandy shallow, ephemeral watercourses in swamps or at the vertical edges of clay pans. Calling begins with winter rains in April or May. Terrestrial egg deposition occurs in burrows in a foam nest and tadpoles are aquatic. Between 250-700 eggs are laid and hatch 10 days to 4 weeks later. Tadpoles have been found in ponds of milky and clear water.
9763		population	eng	It is a common species. There are numerous records from CALM salinity surveys from pit traps and hearing calling males.
9763		threats	eng	It might have been affected by vegetation clearing and resultant dry land salinity, but is still widespread.
9772		conservation	eng	Understanding and quantifying threats scored the highest priority for conservation research on this species. In addition, any information on demography of adults or tadpoles would be very valuable. Taxonomic revision of the whole genus is necessary. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and the maintenance of its remaining breeding and non-breeding habitat is essential. There is also a need for continued monitoring of known populations, survey work for other populations and&#160;invasive species control. Agreements need to be drawn up with private land owners for the management and long term protection of sites.
9772		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to four perennial rivers (Geelhoutboom, Martin's, Klein and Diepkloof) with their headwaters in the Elandsberg mountains, and a fifth site in the Cockscomb mountains, all in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Its altitudinal range is 400-550 m asl.
9772		habitat	eng	It is a species of fynbos heathland and grassy fynbos. Only very small remnants of fynbos survive within its range, so very little non-breeding habitat survives. It breeds in fast-flowing perennial rivers and streams with rocky beds in the upper reaches of the Elandsberg and Cockscomb mountains. Females lay up to 200 eggs. Adults and tadpoles are found beneath submerged and partly submerged rocks in these streams, and occasionally at the edge of small waterfalls and cascades. The tadpoles take two years to develop.
9772		population	eng	<p>No numerical population information is currently available for this species, tadpoles are seen regularly and adults rarely, fitting their cryptic life history. The spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as one site (Elandsberg) holds >50% of individuals and the 30 km distance between subpopulations is considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.</p>
9772		threats	eng	The main threats are loss of suitable non-breeding and breeding habitat as a result of afforestation with exotic pine plantations, fires, erosion, siltation of streams, dams, and road building. Introduced predatory fish are probably also a threat.
9773		conservation	eng	The whole of this species' range is incorporated in the Table Mountain National Park, part of the Cape Floristic Region World Heritage Site, and&#160;Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens. High priorities for conservation research were set to determine the dispersal of this species and the highest priority to estimate population size. Perceived threats need to be evaluated and management plans need to be properly implemented and integrated between properties. Current monitoring of tadpoles could be expanded to make population estimates.
9773		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range (Extent of Occurrence: 9 km<sup>2</sup>) being endemic to the southern and eastern slopes of Table Mountain, in the Western Cape province, extreme south-western South Africa. Within this, the Area of Occupancy (around 4.5 km<sup>2</sup>) is believed to be suffering ongoing decline. It occurs between 240 and 1,060 m asl.
9773		habitat	eng	It lives in forest and fynbos heathland, breeding in clear perennial streams in gorges, valleys and ravines on Table Mountain. Non-breeding adults have been found in damp, sheltered habitat well away from streams, including in caves. The tadpoles require longer than 12 months to complete metamorphosis, and so it is important that there is perennial water to allow the larvae to develop. The habitat on some of these streams is deteriorating due to abstraction and soil erosion.
9773		population	eng	It is a rare and elusive species that survives in low population densities. The number of tadpoles in the Skeleton Gorge decreased by around 50% from 1980 to 2000, but monitoring of tadpoles suggest that this subpopulation is stable.
9773		threats	eng	The main threats are the spread of alien vegetation, frequent fires, and water storage reservoirs on the mountain which can affect the consistency of stream-flow. Intensification of tourism is also a threat through soil erosion around some of the streams. Water abstraction from streams has resulted in habitat loss and may limit the vertical movement of tadpoles in summer.
9792		conservation	eng	The localities where this species is found in Orense province are within a regional natural reserve (Parque Natural Serra Enciña da Lastra). The limits of its&#160; range should be better delimited. The population size, biology, and the interaction with <span style="font-style: italic;">Helicella sp. </span>should be studied.
9792		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. Its range is limited to a very small area in the border between León and Orense provinces, in the upper Sil river valley (Bierzo region). Sampling efforts have confirmed the presence of the species in only four UTM grids of 1x1 km<sup>2</sup>.
9792		habitat	eng	This species lives in places of limestone substrate in shrublands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Arbutus </span>with rocks covered by a thin film of slime, in open places (on vertical rock surfaces) or under chasmophytic vegetation.
9792		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.&#160;Density seems to be very low, as it is inferred by the efforts need to find specimens: three to five live specimens found per hour of sampling (only calculated during dry weather conditions and during the day).
9792		threats	eng	The construction of Peñarrubia reservoir/ dam has probably eliminated an important part of the population of this species. Road construction would not constitute a major threat to the species, because <span style="font-style: italic;">X. bierzona</span> can easily colonize recently disturbed vertical rocky slopes. Nevertheless, cementation of vertical slopes in the margins of roads to avoid the falling rock would destroy an important part of its habitat. Another risk is the competition with another native snail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Helicella sp</span>.) which lives in similar habitat conditions. Contact zones between them have not been found, which prevents us from knowing if they hybridize. The major future threat to this species are fires.
9793		conservation	eng	Urgent actions are needed to try to save this species, including captive breeding, reintroduction, protection and management of its habitat, etc.&#160;It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).&#160;This species was firstly classified as Endangered (EN) in the Spanish Red Book of Invertebrates Invertebrates&#160;(Verdú and Galante 2006) and the Red Book of Andalusian Invertebrates&#160;(Arrébola and Ruiz 2008), but&#160;later it was proposed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Atlas of the Spain Threatened Invertebrates (Arrébola, Díaz, Ruiz and Puente 2008)&#160;.
9793		distribution	eng	This Spanish endemic is known from only three locations (four records): two in the province of Seville and one, the type locality, in the province of Málaga. The three locations are far from each, delimiting a quite fragmented range.
9793		habitat	eng	The appropriate habitat of this species is not very well known. The three locations where it was sampled were strongly modified by human activities: one in the margins of cultivated land and two in erial. The two locations in Sevilla are situated in the agricultural regions "La Campiña" and "La Vega", a large expanse of&#160;land almost fully occupied by different crops. So, it seems that <em>X. gasulli</em>&#160;only survives in those places where the agricultural influence allows it.
9793		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However, it is possible to infer a strong and continuous decline over the several decades (loss of habitat).
9793		threats	eng	The main threat is the strong development in agriculture, both extensive and intensive, and all its&#160;secondary&#160;effects, that occurred in the area where this species was formerly distributed. In 2008, 61 localities were sampled, including the four where the species had been previously cited, in order to define the range of this species and its threatened status.&#160; No individual was found (Arrébola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
9794		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as Data Deficient in the Red book of Spanish Invertebrates&#160;(Verdú and Galante 2006) and the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates&#160;(Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperon and Moreno 2008, pp. 1309). It is also included in the "Conservation and Sustainable&#160;Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). More research on the taxonomy, population and ecology of this species is needed. The range of the species is included in the Natural Park of Cabo de Gata.
9794		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from the "Sierra de Gata" in the south of the province of Almería (Spain) (Gasull 1972).
9794		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones (Gasull 1972) in Barranco del Sabinar, a rocky area of volcanic origin.
9794		population	eng	There are no population data about this species but an extremely low density of individuals can be inferred due to the great difficulty to find it.
9794		threats	eng	Fires and stochastic events can severely affect this species, due to its restricted known area. However, more data are needed about the species and also about the threats.
9795		conservation	eng	Natural reserves ensures protection of the species. Detailed studies about distribution are needed to better delimitate its extent of range.
9795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the East of the Basque country and north of Navarra. It lives in the mountain systems of Aitzgorri, Aralar and in Lindux mountain. The area of occupancy (AOO) has been calculated based on the area in the mountain systems where it lives.
9795		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry and sunny places with xeric herbaceous vegetation in karstic areas, being sheltered under stones.
9795		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
9795		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires and infrastructure construction, which can decrease the extension of the habitat.
9796		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as Endangered in the Red Book of Spanish Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) as well as in the Red Book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Arrébola and Ruiz 2008). It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). It is needed to develop and implement an integral recovery plan for the west coast of the province of Almería that would&#160;benefit not only <em>H. stiparum</em> but other threatened species in this area, i.e.: the terrestrial snails <em>Iberus g. gualtieranus</em> (Linnaeus, 1758), <em>Xerosecta adolfi</em> (Pfeiffer, 1854), <em>Theba subdentata helicella</em> (Wood, 1828), <em>Xerotricha mariae</em> (Gasull, 1972), <em>Hatumia cobosi</em> (Ortiz de Zárate, 1962),&#160;<em>Xerocrassa cobosi</em>&#160;(O. de Zárate, 1962)&#160;and&#160;<em>Iberus gualtieranus mariae</em>&#160;(Cobos, 1979) (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). In this plan, the necessary steps to ensure the conservation of the species should be defined, such as the protection of the&#160;scarce coastal dune systems and steppe areas that still remain, especially the left side of the Andarax river mouth where it is necessary to know the real situation of the subpopulation. Other important conservation measure would include the implementation of habitat protection standards, the assessment and monitoring of the general urban plan in some municipalities (Roquetas de Mar, El Ejido, Almería, etc.) and the control of new irrigation concessions<span title="">.
9796		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the Andalusia province of Almería (south of Spain). It is restricted&#160;to a small and&#160;progressively modified area, not far from the coastline in El Ejido, Almería, Viator, Benahadux, Berja (Puente 1994, Arrébola 2001, Arrébola and Ruiz 2008, Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
9796		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helicella</span><span title=""><em> stiparum</em> lives in steppe areas with coastal influence, high insulation, very dry soils and&#160;xerophyte&#160;shrubs, with the presence of stones (limestones) where it hides (Arrebola 1995, Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is also present in small coastal sandstone cliffs and coastal dune environments, sheltered in herbaceous and shrub vegetation.&#160;On the coast, it does not appear in saline soils or associated with halophytic vegetation. Towards&#160;inland,&#160;&#160;it has not colonized &#160;the surrounding mountains environments (Sierra de Gador and Sierra Alhamilla).&#160;Life cycle is unknown, although, as in other&#160;xerothermophilous&#160;species studied in the area, aestivation can last several months (May to October) and reproduction is&#160;mainly in autumn, after the first rains (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009<span title="">).</span>
9796		population	eng	There are few population data about this species. However, it seems that t<span title="">he largest subpopulations in size and extension occur in the coastal strip, divided in two isolated groups.&#160;The first (western) extends between Roquetas de Mar and Guardias Viejas, and includes the natural site Punta Entinas-Sabinar.&#160;The second (eastern) is between the airport of Almeria and Cabo de Gata, comprising part of the Natural Park Cabo de Gata-Nijar. Considering the whole range, the densities are considerably higher in steppe areas (coastal or not) than in the coastal-dune environments (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).
9796		threats	eng	<strong>H</strong><span title=""><strong>abitat</strong>: The progress of the greenhouses has led to a loss and/or a severe&#160;transformation&#160;of nearly 280 km<sup>2</sup> of steppe.&#160;13% of the whole disturbance has happened between 1991 and 1999 (36.4 km<sup>2</sup>).&#160;On the coast, the urbanisation is also growing and an increase of 6.2 km<sup>2</sup> in the built surface occurred from 1991 to 1999, of which more than 50% have led to loss of natural habitat.&#160;The urban growth is estimated at 14% between 1991 and 1999.&#160;Between 1999 and 2002 the expansion of "Almerimar" urbanization has reduced virtually the species habitat to the natural protected site "Punta Entinas" (aerial land of Andalusia 2004). <span title="">The natural protected surface actually cover only 27.6% of the occupation recorded in 1999. <br/><strong>Population</strong>: Although the species is well adapted to the typical aridity of the area, the different level of drought cause fluctuation in the population size. The overexploitation of aquifers for irrigation purposes, amplifies the mentioned effect, reducing the water availability for the species and the vegetation that supports it. Subpopulations living in agricultural areas are exposed to land and water pollution by pesticide treatments. In this context, <em>H. stiparum</em>&#160;is gradually replaced by other snails species that are more resistant to these pollutions, such as <em>Rumina decollata</em> (Linnaeus, 1758), <em>Theba pisana </em>(Müller, 174) or <em>Otala lactea murcica</em> (Rossmässler, 1854).</span>
9797		conservation	eng	The habitat of the species is currently well preserved. Thus, no further conservation actions are needed.
9797		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is restricted to a small region in north Burgos and western Alava.
9797		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric grasslands and ruderal areas, with calcareous substrate.
9797		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
9797		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires and infrastructure construction, which can decrease the extension of the habitat.
9798		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place, but monitoring of all subpopulations is recommended.
9798		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic from the Galicia-Leon regions in Spain, specifically in the mountains surrounding Sanabria lake.
9798		habitat	eng	This species lives in shrubby vegetation and grassland vegetation. In El Courel, it is specifically found under stones in the&#160;calcareous area.
9798		population	eng	The current population trend of this species is unknown.
9798		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fires, urban development, road construction, floods (caused by rising river levels) and farming.
9799		conservation	eng	The most important action is to carry out more research about the species, specially on its taxonomy, population, distribution and its threat situation, and then to take the relevant actions. It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).&#160;This species has been classified as Data Deficient (DD) in the Red book of Spanish Invertebrates&#160;(Verdú and Galante 2006) and the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates&#160;(Arrébola and Ruiz 2008; pp 1308).
9799		distribution	eng	This species is endemic for the province of Grenada, in Spain. There are only four records known for this species: the type locality (Ortiz de Zárate 1950) and three more by Alonso (1975). Later authors were not able to find new living specimens neither in the type locality, nor in the province of Granada, including the localities mentioned by Alonso (Puente 1994, Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
9799		habitat	eng	This species lives in rocky limestone biotopes (Alonso 1975).
9799		population	eng	There are no population data about this species, but a low density of individuals can be inferred due to the great difficulty to find it.
9799		threats	eng	The type locality is a calcareous dolomitic&#160;mountain (Monte Jabalcón), quite different geologically from the surroundings lands, that has experimented several pine reforestations during the second half of the last century. It is also affected by some&#160;tourist&#160;activities. The three locations cited by Alonso (1975) belong to heavily modified areas, close to agriculture activities, except one in Sierra Elvira.
9828		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Nyika National Park (Malawi) and Kasunga National Park (Malawi).
9828		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In Kenya, it is only known from the Kapiti plains, Taita Hills and south coastal Kenya. In Tanzania, it is known from south of Biharamulo in the northwest, throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains, and by a record from the Ufipa Plateau in southwestern Tanzania. It is widespread in Malawi, but has only been recorded from eastern Zambia. It is also present in northern Mozambique and the southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Reports of this species from Zimbabwe are in error as it has not been recorded from south of the Zambezi River. It is found at elevations of up to 2,200 m asl.
9828		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species of open or wooded savanna, including Combretum-Brachystegium woodlands. It is present in a wide variety of habitats including rocky hillsides and submontane grasslands. The species uses a wide range of soil types from well-drained sandy soils to cotton soils that are very hard when dry and sticky and water-looged when it rains. It is a solitary species of which little is known about its biology.
9828		population	eng	There is little information on the population abundance of this species. Population densities are known to be low on the Kapiti plains of Kenya, but the species occurs at higher densities in Malawi.
9828		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. It is considered to be an agricultural pest in some parts of its range, but it is also regarded as a common and excellent source of protein.
9830		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. <em>Heliosciurus gambianus</em> probably represents a complex of several similar species. Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species.
9830		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded over Subsaharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia eastwards through West Africa to Cameroon, through southern Chad and Central African Republic, to southern Sudan (with an isolated population on Jebel Marra), Ethiopia, and northwards to Eritrea with a southerly extension into Uganda and northwestern Kenya. In the south of its range, the species occurs in central Angola, Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and southwestern Tanzania. It has been recorded to elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.
9830		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with savanna woodland. Populations have also been observed within riparian forest and in savanna areas. It is generally absent from closed forest habitats. This species is commonly found in agriculural areas, especially oil palm plantations. Animals are diurnal, solitary and predominantly arboreal.
9830		population	eng	This is considered to be a common and widespread savanna species (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
9830		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
9831		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Liwonde National Park, Malawi).
9831		distribution	eng	This largely East Africa species ranges from Tanzania south to southern Mozambique (Maputo), and westwards in the Chimanimani Highlands of Zimbabwe, south-central Zambia and Malawi.
9831		habitat	eng	In Zimbabwe and Mozambique, this species is associated primarily with lowland or montane evergreen forest, but also occurs in riverine forest and thickets within the <em>Brachystegia</em>/<em>Julbernardia</em> woodland association (Skinner and Smithers 1990). They nest in holes in trees or in dense clumps of vines high in forest trees. The species is diurnal, and is either solitary or found in pairs. A female taken in eastern Zimbabwe in August had four foetuses (Smithers and Wilson 1979).
9831		population	eng	It is common in museum collections and is believed to also be common in the wild.
9831		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In Mozambique, the removal of forest to make way for agricultural development has reduced the habitat available to them, although in certain areas, such as in the Inhambane, Manica and Sofala provinces, they are still to be found even in the relic forest patches (Skinner and Smithers 1990).
9832		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in several protected areas. Survey work to determine the status of numbers of this species, and to investigate whether it can persist in degraded or agricultural habitats.
9832		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to West Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone and most of Liberia eastwards in a narrow band in lowland forest formations through Côte d'Ivoire to western Ghana. There is no confirmed record of this species from Guinea, but it is likely to occur in this country.
9832		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, although animsla have apparently also been recorded in farmbush (Rosevear 1969).
9832		population	eng	This species is common in museum collections, and is presumably also common in the wild.
9832		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not well known. Much of the species preferred habitat has been extensively logged and converted to plantations and agricultural land. However, the species might be able to persist in modified habitats, and further research is needed to confirm this.
9833		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas throughout the range.
9833		distribution	eng	This widespread Subsaharan species is distributed from Senegal and the Gambia In West Africa, eastwards through Sierra Leone and Liberia to southern Togo, Benin, Nigeria, and from here into southern Cameroon and southern Central African Republic, to Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania in East Africa. Not yet recorded from south of the Congo River. It is also present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).
9833		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest, but it is not limited to this habitat, and can be found within savanna formations and drier gallery forest. In Sierra Leone, the species was apparently recorded in <em>Avicennia</em> mangrove swamps (Rosevear 1969; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is also recorded from agricultural lands, especially cocoa plantations and oil palm plantations (kernels of oil palm fruits are a favoured food). The species is apparently usually found nesting in taller trees using holes in the trunk or larger branches (Rosevear 1969). It breeds twice a year with a litter size of two young.
9833		population	eng	It is likely to be common, but little is known about the species abundance.
9833		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
9834		conservation	eng	Known from a number of protected areas, including the Rwenzori Mountains (Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo), Kahuzi-Biega (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and Bwindi Impenetrable Forest (Uganda).
9834		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift, ranging from the Blue Mountains (west of Lake Albert) south to Itombwe (west of Lake Tanganyika) and Kabira National Park (Burundi). It is found in montane regions between 1,600 and 3,000 m asl.
9834		habitat	eng	Montane forest habitats, although Kingdon (1997) notes that the species has adapted to secondary growth and cultivation mosaics.<br/>Arboreal, although likely to feed near the ground.
9834		population	eng	This species is regularly captured, but only in small numbers.
9834		threats	eng	There are no major threats as a whole to this widespread species. The primary threat within the Albertine Rift is the conversion of primary forests to agricultural land, as well as the extraction of forest resources (eg. fuelwood) by local people. Other threats include fire and mining for coltan.
9835		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Jozani Forest on Zanzibar (Tanzania) and Aruboke-Sokoke (Kenya). There is a need to undertake more research into the natural history of this species, especially whether it can persist in modified habitats such as plantations.
9835		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southeastern Kenya to northeastern Tanzania largely in coastal forest, although it has also been recorded from Mount Kilimanjaro below 2,000 m asl (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995), suggesting a wide altitudinal range. It is present on Zanzibar and Mafia Islands, but not Pemba.
9835		habitat	eng	This species has generally been recorded from coastal forest formations, and riverine associations. Little additional information is available on the species natural history.
9835		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
9835		threats	eng	The coastal forests of eastern Africa are under threat from expanding agriculture, charcoal burning and fuel wood extraction, uncontrolled fires, unsustainable logging, human settlement, and destructive mining practices. To what degree these factors have specifically affected this species is not known.
9843		conservation	eng	This snail is legally protected at the national level in France ("Arrêté du 23 avril 2007 fixant les listes des mollusques protégés sur l'ensemble du territoire et les modalités de leur protection (JORF nr. 106 du 6 mai 2007 page 8089, texte nr. 32)") and by the city of Ajaccio with "Convention avec le Conseil général de la Corse du Sud", a National Recovery Plan (NRP) obtained by ”Circulaires DEB/PEVM n°08-07 du 3 octobre 2008 et n° 09-04 du 8 septembre 2009, du Ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement Durable, des Transports et du Logement (MEDDMM)” en faveur de l’Hélix de Corse, espèce « Grenelle ». The NRP will outline actions for species protection beyond the context of the Natura 2000 programme (FR 9400619) that will extend the effort of habitat restoration.
9843		distribution	eng	The Corsican Snail is only found near Ajaccio, in a biotope restricted to a small geographic area named "Campo dell'Oro" (which really occupies only 0.02 km²), located near the airport, delimited at the east side by the joint delta of the two rivers Gravona and Prunelli and at the west side by a marina.
9843		habitat	eng	The species is ecologically and biologically highly specialised and lives on and in the loose maritime sands of the river delta associated with low shrub vegetation (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista salzmannii</span>) and with annual or biennial plants characteristic of coastal sands.
9843		population	eng	Thanks to human assistance and biotope management (Natura 2000 site) providing protected areas appropriate for snail colonization, the population is considered to be stable. The population size is estimated to be between 7,500 and 10,000 individuals among which 3,800–5,200 are mature individuals (estimated information from samplings made in 2009–2010, M. Charrier, pers. comm., 2011)
9843		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are urbanisation and land use around the town of Ajaccio, leading to habitat fragmentation and habitat loss, as well as leisure activities on the sand beach.
9844		conservation	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;The protection of its habitat and monitoring of the population is needed.
9844		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, being distributed in some of the Cyclades Islands (central Aegean), Rhodes and Astypalaia and some very small offshore islets. For most of these islands it is known from sub-fossils (Mylonas 1982, Mylonas 1983, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
9844		habitat	eng	The species is ground-dwelling, found in Mediterranean shrublands in limestone areas and sandy beaches, avoiding forests of <em>Quercus</em> and <em>Pinus (</em>Mylonas 1982, 1983).
9844		population	eng	There is an overall declining trend for the species' population. This species is extinct from most of the islands where it was previously present (now only&#160;known&#160;from sub-fossils) (Mylonas 1982, 1983).
9844		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas and fire has played a role in the&#160;restriction&#160;of the species' populations and their local extirpation.&#160;Nevertheless,&#160;according&#160;to Mylonas (1982, 1983), it was intensive grazing, and the subsequent impoverishment of the species habitats that had the most significant impact.
9845		conservation	eng	Due to their habitat (cliffs near the sea), only general preventive measures can be advised, such as preventing fires that could destroy the habitat. More taxonomic research is also needed on the two ecomorphs.
9845		distribution	eng	This species is only found on Santa Maria island, Azores, where it is restricted to two small areas.
9845		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moreletina obruta</span> lives near the shore on sea cliffs; the white morph lives among gramineae, the black morph under stones. Although there are plenty of dead shells of the white morph, living specimens can be hard to find; the black morph is even rarer.
9845		population	eng	This species appears to have a disjunct distribution, the white ecomorph living in Figueiral (N 36º 56.873'; W 25º 07.715'; 100 m) and west of Praia Formosa (coordinate unavailable; 10 m); the black ecomorph was collected east of Anjos (coordinate unavilable; 50 m) and west of Anjos (N 37º 00.481'; W 025º 08.318'; 20 m) (Martins 2002)
9845		threats	eng	As this species lives in cliff areas near the sea, only natural threats are foreseeable; however, accidental fires may pose a real threat to the white morph colonies, which live among gramineae.
9864		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened), and it has been recorded from several protected areas. In Guatemala it is protected by national legislation, with part of the species range within protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. <span style="font-style: italic;">Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I. Additional research is needed into the taxonomic status, distribution and threats to this species.
9864		distribution	eng	This species is found in at low to moderate elevations in the Pacific foothills of Mexico from southern Sonora to Chiapas, and along the Pacific drainages in southeastern Guatemala (Departamento de Santa Rosa). It has an elevational range of around 400 to 1,000 m asl.
9864		habitat	eng	This lizard is most regularly encountered in tropical deciduous forest, but can also be found in thorn forest, tropical scrubland, and low elevation oak forest. It does not seem to be present in disturbed areas.
9864		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
9864		threats	eng	In general, the species is threatened by various forms of deforestation and by human persecution.
9865		conservation	eng	Collection of Gila monsters is prohibited by laws and regulations throughout the range in the United States and Mexico. Sizable areas of habitat are protected from development in national parks and monuments and in federal wilderness areas (Brown and Carmony 1999). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9865		distribution	eng	The Gila Monster occurs in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It ranges from extreme southwestern Utah, southern Nevada, and adjacent southeastern California south through southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and much of Sonora to extreme northern Sinaloa, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). The core of the range is in Arizona and Sonora. Its elevational range extends from near sea level in Sonora and 30 m in Arizona to at least 1,545 m in southeastern Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986), and 1,180 to 1,950 m in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
9865		habitat	eng	Occupied vegetation types include desert grassland, Mohave and Sonoran desert scrub, and thorn scrub (Sonora); less often oak or pine-oak woodland. In Mexico, it occurs on lower mountain slopes and adjacent plains and beaches (Stebbins 2003), sometimes in irrigated areas. Canyon bottoms, arroyos (dry creeks), and rocky slopes may support relatively dense populations in some parts of Arizona and Sonora. In southern Arizona, the Gila Monster is more abundant in wetter and rockier palo verde-sahuaro desert than in drier and sandier creosote-bursage desert, where it occurs mainly in or near rocky buttes or mountains (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). In New Mexico, the species is most commonly associated with desert scrub vegetation in rocky regions of mountain foothills and canyons; sometimes it is found along the lower fringes of pinyon-juniper woodland or oak woodland; rarely encountered in agricultural areas (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Gila monsters are mainly terrestrial but infrequently climb into vegetation. Refuges include spaces under rock, dense shrubs, burrows, or woodrat nests. Sub-surface shelters are important components of the habitat, and certain ones are used with a high degree of fidelity (particularly in winter), sometimes by multiple individuals concurrently (Beck and Jennings 2003). In Arizona, Gila monsters spend about 98% of the year under cover (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). In Utah, individuals spent over 95% of active season underground; occasionally they basked near shelters in spring; shelters were burrows or crevices in rocky areas; hibernacula faced south (Beck 1990).
9865		population	eng	This species is never very abundant, but its abundance varies greatly. It is represented by well over 100 collection/observation sites that are well distributed throughout the range (e.g., see Campbell and Lamar 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand; the species is fairly common in at least some parts of the range. Lowe <em>et al</em>. (1986) stated that Gila monsters are infrequently seen but not rare or uncommon in Arizona. In New Mexico, the species is commonly encountered in the Redrock Wildlife Area in Grant County and at Granite Gap in Hidalgo County; a density of approximately five individuals per sq. kilometre was estimated for one area (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Populations are declining over most of the United States range (Campbell and Lamar 2004), but the rate of decline is unknown (probably less than 30% over the past three generations). Beck (1985) estimated that the population in Utah included 450 to 800 individuals, down from an estimated 2,000 to 5,000 before the 1930s. It is probably declining even more seriously in Mexico.
9865		threats	eng	Populations have been exploited (illegally) by commercial and private collectors, and they have suffered from habitat destruction due to urbanization and agricultural development (New Mexico Department of Fish and Game 1985). Concrete-lined canals are barriers to movement (Brown and Carmony 1999), as are busy highways. Mortality on roads likely is increasing as traffic volume increases on established highways and new roads are built. The most important reason for the decline is habitat loss resulting from development (Campbell and Lamar 2004). It is probably decreasing in southern Sonora due to expanding commercial agriculture.
9869		conservation	eng	Recommended actions include monitoring its distribution and abundance, and studying its habitat requirements and population dynamics.
9869		distribution	eng	The Lemuroid Ringtail Possum occurs in Australian rainforests in two distinct localities: one is above 450 m elevation between Ingham and Cairns, north Queensland, and a smaller population above 1,100 m asl occurs on the Mt. Carbine Tableland, west of Mossman (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). The area of occupancy has declined as a result of clearing and fragmentation of rainforest.
9869		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species that prefers cool, wet, primary rainforest, typically in the core rather than on the margins of suitable habitat. It rests in tree hollows, and feeds on the foliage of trees, often high in the canopy (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species appears to be very sensitive to the effects of fragmentation and disappears from isolated rainforest patches of 40-80 ha or less (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). It does not use narrow forest corridors.
9869		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).
9869		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. Selective logging was a past threat, but now much of its range is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage area. It is very sensitive to canopy removal, and is adversely affected by the construction of wide roads and clearing for power lines resulting in open areas within its habitat. It is likely to be sensitive to global warming as it is found at high elevations (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).
9870		conservation	eng	Is recorded from a protected area.
9870		distribution	eng	This copepod is known only from Lake Powell, between Albany and Denmark, in the Warren region of south-west, Western Australia.
9872		conservation	eng	Research into the life history and taxonomy of this species is required, as is its current status regarding population size and trend.
9872		distribution	eng	This species endemic to the Okinawa islands and Amami islands (Ryukyu archipelago, southwest Japan).
9872		habitat	eng	The species inhabits ponds, swamps, slow streams, artificial dams and ponds.
9872		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
9872		threats	eng	The habitat is being lost to agricultural practices, which is also contributing to water pollution, along with domestic and industrial expulsions.
9875		conservation	eng	The habitat of this species should be protected.
9875		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north-eastern coast of Tenerife, where it is very localised to about 7 locations &#160;(9 sites) which are quite scattered localities because of urban development on the coast, so the species range has become fragmented (Ibanez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1987).
9875		habitat	eng	This species occurs on lowland vegetation on canary islands and within malpais, volcanic tubes.
9875		population	eng	The population trend is thought to be decreasing based on loss of habitat.
9875		threats	eng	The major threats includes habitat loss through urbanisation, road construction, tourist recreation areas and quarrying of the habitat for roadstone.
9876		conservation	eng	Recommended actions in Moliner Gomez (2001) include habitat protection. It is not listed by the National Red List (Verdu and Galante 2009) nor on the Canarian List, and as such it is not legally protected.
9876		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is only found in the region of Masca (Teno Mountains) on Tenerife, where it was recorded from an area of less than 3 x 3 km<sup> </sup>(area of occupancy is 9 km<sup>2</sup>).
9876		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species is found in typical lowland canary island vegetation.<p></p>
9876		population	eng	This large species is thought to be declining.
9876		threats	eng	The main threats are from urbanisation and use of the region by tourists (path construction, use of mountain bikes on trails, jeep tours, picnic sites and tourist facilities)
9877		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research is needed on the distribution and population of this species.
9877		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife, where it is endemic to a very small area near the south-eastern coast at the Bco. de Santo near Sta Cruz (Wollaston 1878).
9877		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
9877		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
9877		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, but it has been described from a single location around the growing urbanisation area of Sta. Cruz de Tenerife. It can be supposed that the species is under high pressure; there is no information whether this species is still extant or already extinct.
9878		conservation	eng	<p>The habitat requires conservation in order to protect the species, as well as restoration of habitats to reduce fragementation of the populations. This species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish Red List by Verdu and Galante (2009) and is on the register of Endangered Species for Canary Islands, but not on the catalogue of Endangered Species in Spain. Actions recommended include the provision of a protected area between&#160;the three villages of Caletillas, Candelaria and Igueste de Candelaria.</p>
9878		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tenerife, where it is very localised between the three villages of Caletillas, Candelaria and Igueste de Candelaria [UTM 28RCS63-64].
9878		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the typical dry lowland vegetation (Piso basal) within a Barranco., under stones and in rock crevices or in the shelter inside of the sparsely growing shrubs.</p>
9878		population	eng	The population is decreasing.
9878		threats	eng	In the last 25-30 years, the habitat has been nearly completely destroyed by urban developments from the 3 adjacent villages and transportation links between them. The main stress remains the fragmentation of the remaining populations by these developments.
9879		conservation	eng	Moliner Gomez (2001) note that this species was listed on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable A1c (Groombridge 1996) noting that a small area was occupied by this species and that the habitat was in need to protection.&#160;The species requires protection of the habitat as well as restoration of habitats to lessen the impact of fragmentation.
9879		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the lowlands of northeastern Tenerife around Santa Cruz, Canary Islands (Spain).
9879		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry open areas of degraded lowland vegetation of Piso Basa, typical canary island vegetation (Ibanez and Alonso 2007).
9879		population	eng	This species is declining based area of occupancy which has declined.
9879		threats	eng	This species is declining due to urbanisation, as well as quarrying close to the city for building stone, road construction.
9880		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. Further research is need on&#160; the population size, distribution area, etc.
9880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, between Juan Grande and Maspalomas, San Bartholome.
9880		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
9880		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, but it is apparently very rare. A genetic detailed analysis can be found in Neiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011).
9880		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, because of a general lack of information.
9881		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
9881		distribution	eng	There are two known subspecies for this species,&#160;<em>Hemicycla glyceia&#160;glyceia</em>&#160;is only known as a Quaternary fossil, whereas&#160;<em>Hemicycla glyceia silensis&#160;</em>is known living in the Monte del Agua in the north-western part of Tenerife.
9881		habitat	eng	This species is found in Laurisilva forest and there are no known threats to this forest and there is no active management of the forest.
9881		population	eng	The population of this species is stable.
9881		threats	eng	This species is present in Laurisilva forest where there are no known threats and no active management of the forest.
9882		conservation	eng	<p>The habitat requires conservation in order to protect the species. Further data would be required for long-term monitoring of the habitat trends. This species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish Red List by Verdu and Galante (2009) and is on the register of Endangered Species for Canary Islands. Actions recommended include the provision of a protected area from Monte del Faro to Montana Colorada.</p>
9882		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is only found on Gran Canaria, on the peninsula of La Isleta at 4 sites: El Confital, Mont el Faro, Montana del Vigio and Malpais [UTM 28RD5510].</p>
9882		habitat	eng	<p>This is a ground-dwelling species found in typical lowland canary island vegetation often under stones or within stone walls.</p>
9882		population	eng	<p>Population trend information is not available. There are few live specimens known (Groh, pers. comm., 2010)</p>
9882		threats	eng	<p>The major threat comes from habitat destruction as the result of military activities within the military range. In the future there are proposals to remove the military range and use the site for urban expansion.</p>
9884		distribution	eng	Recorded from a pool near Lake Ilgaz.
9889		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
9889		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Eregili marsh. It used be present in Lake Gölcük near Isparta and Lake Akgöl near Konya.
9889		habitat	eng	A marsh species. The fish is used for mosquito control.
9889		population	eng	No data available.
9889		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of the water supply to the marsh being restricted by the construction of a dam across the stream inlet. The marsh has been partly drained and water is extracted from the marsh for agricultural purposes. The marshes are also sometimes burned.
9891		conservation	eng	The Wilsons Promontory and Mt William populations are in National Parks and are covered by government legislation.
9891		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia. This species is known from only six scattered localities from near  Alexandra, Yea and Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, and from King Island to Mt William  National Park, Tasmania (Trueman <em>et al</em>. 1992, Endersby 1993, Watson  1995).
9891		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine lagoons, permanent ponds and swamps that may dry out in the summer (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
9891		population	eng	Known from only six scattered populations. The populations are very scattered. The Alexandra and Yea populations are in Central-east Victoria and have specimens have not been seen since January 2001, when 10 specimens were seen (Hawking and Dunkle unpublished data 2001). Adults were last seen at Wilsons Promontory population is in the south of Victoria, in January 2003 (Smith and Paulson unpublished data 2003). The populations on King Island and two populations near Mt William, Tasmania have not been surveyed since 1995. The adults are very hard to find as they are very small and their metallic green colour allows them to blend in with the surrounding vegetation.
9891		threats	eng	The Yea and Alexandra populations are threatened by lack of water coming onto  the floodplain, due to agricultural practices and river regulation. The Wilsons  Promontory population was severely threatened when the Park staff destroyed the  reeds, which were the <em>H. mirabilis</em> habitat, by burning.
9908		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to ascertain the population trends and extent of threats impacting the global population of this species.
9908		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lord Howe Island, Australia, and has an estimated extent of occurrence of around 56 km<sup>2</sup> (21.6 mi<sup>2</sup>) (Ponder 1982).
9908		habitat	eng	This species is found in lotic freshwater river systems.
9908		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available.
9908		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
9911		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its entire range is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Monitoring of the known population is recommended in order to detect any significant declines in population numbers in time.
9911		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Erskine Valley, on the southern part of Lord Howe Island, Australia (Ponder 1982). The area in which this species is distributed is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
9911		habitat	eng	This species is known from seepages and springs (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).
9911		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
9911		threats	eng	The whole island where this species occurs is a protected area. Therefore it is unlikely that this species is impacted by threat processes. However, its small distribution renders this species more vulnerable to new threat processes or unforeseen stochastic events.
9917		conservation	eng	The Nilgiri tahr is fully protected (Schedule I) by the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, although this protection is rarely enforced and illegal hunting is a major threat (Kannery, 2002; IUCN, 2004).<br/><br/>The creation of Eravikulam and Silent Valley National Parks, Mukurti, Anamalai, and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Srivilliputhur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary and the Kalakadu-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, together offer an important degree of protection to the Nilgiri Tahr. Eravikulam National Park and its surroundings has been cited as having nearly 1,000 individuals (Kannery, 2002), although others have questioned this figure, believing it to be too high (Abraham <em>et al</em>. 2006, M. Alembath pers. comm., 2008). <br/><br/>The Tamil Nadu Forest Department is removing exotic monocultures along the periphery of the Mukurti National Park. In addition, institutions such as the Nilgiri Wildlife Association, High Range Wildlife Association, Ramnad District Wildlife Association, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Bombay Natural History Society and the Wildlife Institute of India, are active in promoting conservation of Nilgiri tahr. Conservation measures proposed: The Nilgiri tahr requires continuous study and monitoring, because its small and isolated populations are extremely vulnerable. With proper conservation, including habitat maintenance and minimising mortality due to hunting, it is possible that with time, the species could be considered no longer threatened, if the following are accomplished: 1) Establish the proposed Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. This would include the Bandipur, Nagarhole and Silent Valley National Parks, the Mudumalai, Mukurti and Wynad Wildlife Sanctuaries, the Bolampatti Reserved Forest and the proposed Karipuzha National Park (WCMC, 1988c), and encompass a Nilgiri tahr population of 400 to 450 individuals (Davidar, 1978; Rice, 1984). An extension to such a reserve has also been proposed (Rice, 1990) to include peripheral cliffs used by tahr as escape and birthing terrain. A revised biosphere reserve design of these conservation units has been suggested by Rodgers and Panwar (1988). 2) Enact management proposals that include the systematic monitoring of tahr populations, as well as possible re-introductions (Rice, 1988a, 1990; Rai and Johnsingh, 1992). There is good potential for re-introductions in areas such as the Kalakadu-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve where several highlands had small populations of tahr some 20 to 40 years ago, but today are very small or non-existent (Rai and Johnsingh, 1992). 3) Consider low impact recreational use (e.g. trekking, fishing) of suitable areas, especially where such activities would benefit (and compensate) the local economy for restrictions on traditional activities such as hunting by local inhabitants. 4) Co-ordinate Nilgiri tahr with other wildlife and habitat conservation efforts, because the Western Ghats are one of India’s major wildlife areas.
9917		distribution	eng	The present distribution of the Nilgiri tahr is limited to approximately 5% of the Western Ghats in southern India, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu in southern India (Shackleton, 1997; Grubb, 2005), although not along the border between these two states (M. Alembath pers. comm. 2007). At the beginning of this century the range of tahr probably extended northward at least to the Brahmagiri hills of southern Karnataka (Shackleton, 1997).  The animals are more or less confined to altitudes of 1,200 to 2,600 meters (Nilgiri Tahr Trust); populations as low as 900 m may or may not represent pre-human extent of occurrence in elevation (Rice, 1984).
9917		habitat	eng	The Nilgiri tahr is found at high elevations on cliffs, grass-covered hills, and open terrain (Nilgiri Tahr Trust, retrieved 03 January 2007).  Females gestate for about 180 days, and usually give birth to one kid per pregnancy (Rice, 1984). Animals are sexually mature in the wild at around three years of age (Wilson, 1980; Rice, 1990), though they are only expected to live three or 3.5 years on average, their potential life span is at least 9 years (Rice, 1988; Rice, 1990). The species is diurnal, but are most active grazing in the early morning and late afternoon (Prater, 1971; Nowak, 1991).
9917		population	eng	Total numbers were estimated at between 2,000 and 2,500 individuals in the 1970s-1980s, and were thought to be stable (Davidar, 1978; Rice, 1988a, 1990). More recently Daniels <em>et al</em>. (2008) estimated the total population at no more than 1,800-2,000 individuals. An overall decline in the species was suggested by Daniels <em>et al</em>. (2008), although some populations appear to have remained stable in recent decades (Mishra and Johnsingh 1998). The species current populations are estimated to be Nilgiri hills (450, though now reduced to 75-100), Silent Valley (30), Siruveni Hills (20), Elival Mala (60), Nelliampathi Hills (30), Top Slip and Parambikulam (120), Eastern Slopes of Ananmala (125), Grass Hills of Anamala (250), Swamaimala (130) Eravikulam National Park (760), High Range (30), Palani Hills (60), Highwavy mountains (100), Mudaliar oothu (70), Vellakaltheri (90), Ashambu Hills (70), and Thiruvannamalai peak (40) (Nilgiri Tahr Trust, retrieved 02 January 2007).
9917		threats	eng	Principal threats are habitat loss (mainly from domestic livestock and spread of invasive plants) and poaching (Daniels <em>et al</em>. 2008). The general trends of decline even in the best managed Tahr habitats indicate that the total population of the species does not exceed 2000 at present and a conservative estimate would place the numbers within the 1,800-2,000 range (Daniels <em>et al</em>., 2006). Currently, the only populations with more than 300 individuals are in Eravikulam National Park and in the Grass Hills in Anamalai. The most recent information from the Nilgiri hills (Mukurti Wildlife Sanctuary), which previously had more than 300 tahr (Davidar, 1978; Rice, 1984; Schaller, 1971), indicates that only between 75 and 100 individuals remain. Wattle (<em>Acacia mearnsii</em>) plantations and cattle apparently no longer threaten the Mukurti population, so their decline is probably due solely to illegal hunting. The status of the other smaller populations (many of which are less than 100 individuals), which are also subject to continued illegal hunting, can be considered precarious. Similar population decreases and threats to the species were reported in a survey in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Rai and Johnsingh, 1992).<br/><br/>Populations of these animals are small and isolated, making them vulnerable to local extinction. Habitat patches for Nilgiri tahr are naturally discontinuous, but some habitat fragmentation may have anthropogenic causes (C. Rice pers. comm., 2008). The species faces competition from domestic livestock, whose overgrazing has allowed for the invasion of graze-resistant weedy species into preferred meadows, thus in competition with the native grasses that tahr prefers (Mishra and Johnsingh, 1998).  Continued conversion of tahr habitat to agricultural land has resulted in a present distribution that is about one-tenth of its historical range (Mishra and Johnsingh, 1998; Kannery, 2002; IUCN, 2004).
9918		conservation	eng	It has been illegal to kill or capture tahr in Oman since the Royal Decree issued in 1976 (Ministry of Diwan Affairs, Ministerial Decision No. 4), but the terrain and distribution make this difficult to enforce. Following two years of field study from 1973, a special wildlife guard force, administered by the Diwan of the Royal Court, was established in 1975 to protect Arabian tahr in a 200 km² area in the mountainous region of the Jabal Aswad escarpment 45 km south of Muscat, encompassing the watershed of the Wadi As Sareen. A number of tahr guards (“mushrafin”) were appointed from local tribes originally to patrol just the Wadi As Sareen Nature Reserve, but subsequently their jurisdiction was extended to include Jabal Sa’atari 20 km to the north. The area patrolled by the guards was further extended, and by 1992 they protected tahr and Arabian gazelle in an area of about 2,350 km², including the mountains near Nakhl 70 km south-west of Muscat and the Jabal Bani Jabir about 120 km south-east of Muscat. In addition, a number of villagers are retained to report any poaching attempts. All the patrolled areas contain good quality habitat, but tahr populations are small and isolated, and thus vulnerable to diseases introduced by domestic stock, and other stochastic events. <br/><br/>In 1979 an agreement was made with three local families to keep their domestic livestock out of a 16 sq km area of the Jabal Aswad cliff overlooking Wadi Qiyd, an area of particular importance for the tahr.  <br/><br/>In 1993 the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment (now Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs) established a small wildlife ranger unit in the Ja’alan to guard a population of Arabian gazelle at As Saleel, near Al Kamil. The following year this was expanded to look after a substantial tahr population in Jabal Qahwan. Further units were established elsewhere in Oman, those in the north specifically tasked with identifying and monitoring further tahr populations. They now operate in all areas of the tahr’s range.<br/><br/>Tahr is one of the species kept in the Omani Captive Breeding Centre for Mammals at Bait al Barakah in northern Oman, where it has reproduced in captivity. The species has proved difficult to rear in captivity when compared with other native ruminants, so none have yet been released into the wild.  <br/><br/>In the future it is intended that surplus animals will be used for re-introductions and for supplementing existing populations. Conservation measures proposed: 1)  Establish a network of reserves already identified, which, where possible, encompass core zones free of domestic livestock. The proposed reserves are designed to protect around 1,750 animals, and would include the majority of the known populations. 2) The captive breeding program should continue to gather more information on the species and its genetics, and provide a source for re-introductions which could be especially important if disease struck wild populations. 3) Consider establishing a second captive breeding group outside the region. 4) Maintain and extend the present enforcement of conservation measures. Along with censuses and gathering further data on distributions, more ecological research on the species is required, including studies on competition with livestock. Active habitat management will be required to ensure the continued survival and conservation of Arabian tahr (Munton, 1985). 5) The seed bank being established under the Oman Botanic Garden will include those of the tahr’s major forage species so that overgrazed areas can be re-vegetated. This would also be valuable for reestablishment of forage for domestic livestock, and help reduce competition for tahr. 6) Continue to enforce the traditional laws which restrict tree cutting in the Sultanate as another important component of habitat management (Munton, 1985). 7) Re-instate the traditional conservation areas such as the Hamiyat and establish new ones (Munton, 1985) 8) Co-operate with the Ministry of Agriculture in measures to give better protection and management of rangelands and forests throughout Oman.
9918		distribution	eng	The entire world population of Arabian tahr occurs in the mountains of northern Oman and the United Arab Emirates, where it prefers north facing slopes between 1,000 and 1,800 m, which are characterized by relatively high rainfall, cooler temperatures and diverse vegetation. <br/><br/>There are small scattered populations throughout a 600 km crescent in northern Oman, from the limestone massifs of the Musandam, through the Hajar mountains as far as Jebel Qahwan due south of Sur. Sightings in the Musandam, the United Arab Emirates and the northern Batinah Region of Oman are sporadic and rare, mainly due to depleted numbers and the inaccessibility of the tahr’s preferred habitat. <br/><br/>Further south the tahr is reported to be thriving in areas of preferred habitat where it has effective ranger protection and competition from domestic goats is limited. The most important populations occur near Nakhl, the Wadi As Sareen Nature Reserve and Jebel Qahwan in the Ja’alan. In addition to the well-vegetated limestone escarpments, tahrs range through the lower altitude ophiolite mountains which form nearly 60% of its former habitat. Although the vegetation here is sparser and less diverse, there are more open pools and perennial springs due the lower permeability of the rock.<br/><br/>Insall (1999) noted that, of the historic range of 19,413 km², recent occurrence was noted in hectads totalling 8,863 km². In a further 6,924 km² of hectads the species' occurrence was unclear, and it was reported as extinct in the remaining 3,653 km² of its historic distribution.
9918		habitat	eng	Optimum tahr habitat comprises north facing slopes between 1,000 and 1,800 m, that are characterized by relatively high rainfall, cool temperatures and diverse vegetation. They have been seen at altitudes down to sea level, especially during the rut when males are known to move long distances between known populations to find females. In captivity births have occurred in all months of the year, but in the wild the season is from September to November. A second rut, known as ‘Lia’ah adh dhubab’, is reported to occur in February in years when there is good forage after early rainfall (Wood 1992; Insall 1999).<br/><br/>Tahrs live in small family groups of two or three animals, and are entirely herbivorous. The species is diurnal, grazing in the early morning and late afternoon. Although it can survive long periods without drinking if good vegetation is available, in summer it will come down to drink every two or three days. There is widespread anecdotal evidence of tahrs drinking at night from the sources of the ‘falaj’ channel irrigation systems.
9918		population	eng	There is no recent estimate of total population, though there are probably fewer than 5,000 animals. Although some populations may have increased through protection, overall it is likely that the species continues to decline,<br/><br/>The global population was estimated to be less that 2,000 animals by Munton (1985), although the extremely rugged terrain, low densities and small group size, make accurate censuses very difficult. In a three-month follow-up survey in 1987, Munton calculated that there had been a 6% increase in tahr populations where hunting had ceased. This suggested that the population in Wadi Sarin area had doubled between 1978 and 1987 from around 360 to 700 individuals. In a three-month zoological survey in the Ru’us Al Jibal mountains of the United Arab Emirates in 1995, C. Stuart (pers. comm. to S. Lovari) made only one sighting of tahr (a female and 2-3 month-old young) in the Hajar Mountains.
9918		threats	eng	The greatest threat to the survival of the species is loss of habitat (Insall 1999). Although within guarded areas its status is sound, elsewhere problems include restricted available habitat, poaching, and most importantly, competition with livestock, primarily domestic goats. In some areas of prime habitat there has been a steady increase in domestic livestock numbers, where new road networks make it easy to transport animals to new pasture or to bring in supplementary food and water. These areas include the high plateaux of the Eastern Hajar Range, the Jabal Al Akhdhar and Jabal Kawr in the Western Hajar. In most other areas of the tahr’s range there is strong anecdotal evidence that domestic livestock numbers have decreased. However, active shepherding of livestock has all but ceased, increasing the occurrence of stray animals which become feral and then breed in areas of tahr habitat. <br/><br/>In times of severe drought tahrs have been found in poor condition in a number of areas of its range, some of which have died. There is evidence that they are susceptible to diseases that affect domestic goats. This will remain an ongoing threat until vaccination of domestic animals against clostridial diseases becomes <em>de rigueur</em>. Cases of warble fly strike occurred in the Tanuf area of the south-facing cliffs of the Jabal Al Akhdhar in early 2000. Illegal hunting remains a significant threat in some areas. This is exacerbated by the burgeoning network of graded secondary roads which are fragmenting the tahr’s habitat throughout its range. Further ahead, a prospective increase in mineral mining, especially in the ophiolite mountains, threatens to degrade both vegetation and groundwater supplies upon which the tahr depends.
9919		conservation	eng	Listed as Category I species in China. It is not listed on CITES. <br/><br/>Within China, it occurs in Qomolangma Nature Reserve on the Sino-Nepal border. Conservation measures proposed for China include undertaking a survey and census to determine the species’ distribution and status. <br/><br/>In India, protected areas with Himalayan tahr (Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981, 1983; Green, 1987b; Kathayat and Mathur 2002) include: Jammu and Kashmir – Kishtwar National Park (locally threatened); Himachal Pradesh - Great Himalayan National Park (confirmed), and Daranghati (locally threatened), Gamgul Siahbehi, Kanawar, Khokhan, Kugti, Manali (locally threatened or extinct), Rupi Bhaba, Sechu Tuan Nala, Tirthan and Tundah (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttarakhand -Nanda Devi and (probably) Valley of Flowers National Parks, Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park. Himalayan tahr occurs in a very narrow band along timberline areas in the Himalaya, and although still present over much of its historical range, the lack of population data precludes a satisfactory status designation within its relatively restricted range. It appears, however, that the species is capable of using rugged forested slopes with temperate oak and pine forests, well below the timberline area where it is now found. This suggests that it current range distribution may reflect displacement from formerly used lower elevation areas.  As well, much of its current distribution lies outside the network of protected areas. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Extend the Great Himalayan National Park as proposed. 2) Establish the proposed Srikhand National Park (Himachal Pradesh) 3) Devise innovative community based reserves for the species outside Pas (these need to include community based protection, tourism, awareness, etc).<br/><br/>Probably a significant proportion of Nepal’s tahr populations occur within protected areas, but it is also believed to be widespread in smaller, scattered populations outside reserves. The species is known to occur in Langtang, Lake Rara, Sagamartha, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area) and Shey-Phoksundo National Parks, in the Annapurna Conservation Area, and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. It may also occur in Khaptad National Park in the Midlands (Bauer, 1988). Conservation measures proposed for Nepal: As with blue sheep, 1) maintain the current, closely controlled, legal hunting program, and 2) consider a regulated program of low-level subsistence hunting by local villagers. 3) It will also be necessary to study the impact of the increasing fragmentation of tahr populations. The first steps to address this issue would be to begin in selected areas by mapping tahr habitat features such as cliffs (using 1:50,000 topographic maps), followed by ground surveys to validate the species’ presence/absence.
9919		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Himalayas including China (southern Tibet), north India (Jammu and Kashmir to Sikkim), and Nepal.  It is introduced in New Zealand and Western Cape Province (South Africa) (Grubb, 2005).<br/><br/>In China, tahr appear to be found in only in a few spots along the southern Tibet border near Qubuo river, extending south into the Himalayas and can be expected in extreme western Tibet adjacent to known populations in India (Wang 1998, Smith and Xie 2008). In India, the Himalayan tahr occurs in timberline regions across the southern forested slopes of the Himalaya from Jammu and Kashmir to Sikkim (Sathyakmuar 2002). It is patchily distributed from south-central Kashmir, eastward through the southern part of Kulu District (Himachal Pradesh) between 2,000 and 3,270 m (Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981, 1983), and more widely present at similar elevations through northern Uttarakhand to the Nepalese border. Small numbers are also found in east and west Sikkim near the borders with Nepal and Bhutan. Formerly the Himalayan tahr had a continuous distribution throughout Nepal between 1,500 and 5,200 m, but this is now being increasingly disrupted by activities related to human encroachment (Green, 1978, 1979). Tahr inhabits temperate to sub-alpine forests up to treeline, between 2500 and 5,200 m. Schaller (1977) mapped fourteen locations of tahr, and there are undoubtedly more. There are no recent, credible reports of tahr from Bhutan (T. Wangchuk pers. comm., 2008), though it possibly occurs in the extreme west of the country.
9919		habitat	eng	The Himalayan tahr inhabits steep rocky mountain sides, especially between 3,000-4,000 m asl, with woods and rhododendron scrub (Smith and Xie 2008). The species eats grass, other herbs and some fruits. The Himalayan tahr is diurnal, and lives in small groups of 2-20 individuals, excluding older solitary males. Mating occurs from October to January. One or occasionally two kids are born in June and July after a gestation of 180-242 days depending on delayed implantation. The age at sexual maturity is 1.5 years, with captive animal lived up to 22 years (Smith and Xie 2008).
9919		population	eng	There is no global population estimate, nor knowledge of rates of change.<br/><br/>For China, there are no estimates of numbers, but the population is thought to be small, and only a few have been observed in the field (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). Wang (1998) thought that perhaps 400-500 occurred within China. No total population estimate is available for India, although recent counts include about 130 individuals in the Kanawar Wildlife Sanctuary and greater than 100 in the Great Himalayan National Park, both in Himachal Pradesh (Gaston <em>et al</em>., in press; S. Pandey pers. comm.). Density estimates include 2.3/km² in the Daranghati Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh) (S. Pandey pers. comm.), and 17/km² in part of Kedernath Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttar Pradesh) (S. Sathyakumar pers. comm.). It is probably declining in India (Y. V. Bhatnagar pers. comm. 2008). There is evidence to suggest that considerable local extinctions have taken place. The species may be close to extirpation in the western limit of its distribution in Jammu and Kashmir. The entire population reported north of the Chenab River from Kisthwar to the Banihal pass is believed to be extinct. Very small populations survive in the Bani-Sarthal areas of the Kathua district and the Kisthwar NP in Kisthwar-Doda districts. There are no available estimates for the total Nepalese population of tahr. Green (1978) estimated their ecological density in Langtang National Park to be between 6.8 to 25.0 tahr/km², and Bauer (1988) estimated a combined minimum number of 1,000 tahr for Sagamartha, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area) and Langtang National Parks.
9919		threats	eng	The major threats in China are uncontrolled hunting and deforestation. In India, Himalayan tahr is sometimes hunted for meat, and there is apparently significant competition with livestock for summer grazing in some areas. Nevertheless, many areas of prime tahr habitat are sufficiently isolated, rugged and seasonally snow-covered, that the degree of disturbance, livestock grazing and habitat alteration by humans is minimized. In Nepal, threats come from an expanding human population and accompanying increases in livestock, habitat loss, poaching and access. As a result of these factors, tahr populations are becoming increasingly isolated. Avalanches during winters with high snowfall also can be a significant mortality factor for tahr.
9942		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9942		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
9942		threats	eng	Detailed monitoring of trade and status is urgently required; known trade volumes of the species have declined by about 50% in Indonesia recently despite high demand in the food trade. It is restricted to small and isolated populations over much of its range, although there is a lack of data for some areas.
9943		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
9943		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
9944		distribution	eng	<em>H. adamsoni</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system of Papua New Guinea.
9944		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is about 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.
9944		threats	eng	Gill nets and the use of outboard motors have been introduced on the lake since the 1980s.  Adamson's grunter is one of the largest fish species in the lake and therefore has become one of the main targets of net fishermen.  Oil drilling and logging have also developed in the area over the past ten years.
9948		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Populations of Central and North America are CITES Appendix I. The species is protected across most of its range, with hunting prohibited in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay, United States and Venezuela, and hunting regulations in place in Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats. Populations in protected areas are expected to be very low, likely because of the impact of the higher ocelot densities (Oliveira pers. comm.). This species is often perceived as not threatened due to its visibility (it is diurnal) and use of open habitats.
9948		distribution	eng	The jaguarundi occurs from the eastern lowlands of Chipinque National Park in Nuevo Leon, MX (NE limit) and the western lowlands of Mexico, all the way to southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay (Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007) and south through central Argentina at ca. 39ºS. This is predominantly a lowland species ranging up to 2,000 m, but in Colombia has been reported up to 3,200 m (Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 1986)  It is probably extinct in the US (south Texas) (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, A. Caso pers. comm. 2007).
9948		habitat	eng	The jaguarundi occupies a broad range of both open and closed habitats, from Monte desert, semi-arid thorn scrub, restinga, swamp and savanna woodland to primary rainforest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  However, in open areas it sticks to vegetative cover, including secondary growth habitat, disturbed areas, and human induced grasslands (Mexico), open areas with some protection, provided forest or other dense cover is present (Oliveira 1994, A. Caso pers. comm.). This felid is perceived as more tolerant of human disturbance due to its use of open habitats. <br/><br/>This small-sized felid (5 kg) body shape suggests the species to be mostly terrestrial. However, it moves about easily in trees (Oliveira 1994). Its litter size is 1.9 kittens (1–4). Because it is mostly diurnal, it tends to be the most easily seen Neotropical felid, which lead to the false assumption it was common. Diet includes mostly small mammals, birds and reptiles, with a mean prey mass of 380 g. However, larger sized prey (>1 kg) are not unusual (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005, Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Home range size varies greatly, ranging up to 100 km², larger than for any other Neotropical small cat (Konecny 1989).  The species is not the dominant small cat species in most areas, even in most areas of open habitats. Additionally, jaguarundi is also negatively impacted by ocelots (the “ocelot effect”) (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in press).  It has several colour morphs - brownish-black, grey and reddish yellow - which can even be found in the same litter (Oliveira 1998).
9948		population	eng	Contrary to earlier characterizations of this species as relatively common and abundant (Nowell and Jackson 1996), research indicates that the jaguarundi is an uncommon, low density species.  Densities are very low everywhere it has been sampled, and jaguarundis are more commonly found at 0.01-0.05/km² or lower (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission), but reaching up to 0.2/km² in a few and restricted high density areas (A. Caso pers. comm.).  The jaguarundi’s density/numbers are negatively impacted by those of the larger sized ocelot (the “ocelot effect”) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press).  Considered Near Threatened in Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000) and Threatened in Mexico (SEMARNAP 2001).
9948		threats	eng	The species is generally not exploited for commercial trade, although jaguarundis are doubtless caught in traps set for commercially valuable species and may be subject to low intensity hunting pressure around settled areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Its main threats are however, habitat loss and fragmentation, especially for large scale agriculture and pasture. Jaguarundis are commonly killed for killing poultry (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
9975		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
9975		distribution	eng	This species is found from east of Moulmein, Tenasserim (Myanmar), extending to Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. There are records also from Cambodia (P. Banks pers. comm.), Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Sabah where it is only known from two localities (the Witti Range and Sepilok), and east Kalimantan (one specimen, A. Suyanto pers. comm.) in Borneo. In Lao PDR the species is reported, by Robinson and Webber (1998), from Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, and from Xe Pian in southern Lao PDR by Robinson (1998). In Viet Nam the species is known from Don Nai province.
9975		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, from lowland wet forest to dry dipterocarp forest and hill forest, and also limestone caves. It is usually associated with small rivers and streams. It usually lives in small colonies, with less than 10 individuals.
9975		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its scattered distribution through mainland Southeast Asia and Borneo.
9975		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species is apparently tolerant to a broad range of habitats.
9976		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
9976		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak in Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
9976		habitat	eng	All specimens were recorded from lowland localities. There is little information available for this species. In Ulu Gombak, it was found roosting in a group of less than five, on leaves of a palm tree, by the side of forest stream.
9976		population	eng	This species is known only from five localities with only a handful of specimens (around six).
9976		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although habitat loss is a probable threat.
9977		conservation	eng	The type locality is located within Morowali Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.
9977		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality at central Ranu Ri, Sulawesi (01°51'S, 121°30'E), Indonesia.
9977		habitat	eng	The single specimen was caught in a small clearing on a covered (with vegetation) path at the edge of primary forest.
9977		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known from only one specimen.
9977		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
9978		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. General habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. Public awareness activities are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas and no direct conservation measures are currently needed.
9978		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is widely distributed species and is presently known from Bangladesh (Dhaka Division), Bhutan (no exact location) (Koopman 1993; Simmons 2005), India (Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Nepal (Mid Western Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura, Northern, Northwestern, Sabaragamuva, Southern, Central and Uva provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In South Asia, it has been recorded up to 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand (including Sunate Karnphum), Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), Viet Nam (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Cambodia (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001), and is probably more widespread than is currently known.
9978		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts solitary or in small groups of a few individuals among dense canopied trees. It is found in lowlands, hills and near seashores (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).The species forages in open areas among paddy fields, grasslands, with a steady and slow flight, and mostly feeds on beetles, termites and other insects. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, it is considered to be a forest edge species that can be found close to degraded areas (such as agricultural land).
9978		population	eng	In South Asia, although it is a widely distributed species the abundance, population size and trends for this species are presently not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is widespread and relatively common in Southeast Asia, although it often flies at between nine and twelve metres above the ground and so is not regularly captured in surveys (Bates and Harrison 1997).
9978		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use and human settlements. It is also threatened in some areas by hunting for local consumption and for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
9979		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas. It is known from Sapagaya Forest Reserve and the Lumerau River in Tabin Widlife Reserve (Hill and Francis 1984). On the Malay Peninsula there are four specimens in Taman Nagara National Park (Lim Boo Liat pers. comm.). The one known locality in Thailand is in Kangkachan National Park.
9979		distribution	eng	This species is found on Borneo (Sabah) and Peninsular Malaysia. It has recently also been recorded from one locality in Kangkachan National Park in Phetchaburi Province in northern peninsular Thailand (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
9979		habitat	eng	This is thought to be a forest dependent species. One pair was found netted in Sabah flying along a stream in lowland dipterocarp forest (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985). In Peninsular Malaysia the species is found in lowland primary forest in Taman Negara and Krau Game Reserve (T. Kingston pers. comm.). In Thailand the only known locality is in undisturbed lower evergreen montane forest (Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em> 2006).
9979		population	eng	There is limited information on population size, but this species is likely to be rare.
9979		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging, plantations, agriculture and forest fires is a major threat to this species.
9980		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to establish extent of occurrence and habitat preferences, population density, and ecology. Much of the forest within the species' range has already been cleared for coffee and cattle.  <br/> <br/>There is a recent (1993) record of the species from a protected area (Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, Mexico).
9980		distribution	eng	Chiapas in Mexico, Baja Veracruz and Alta Veracruz in Guatemala.
9980		habitat	eng	Forest streams at 1,700–2,000 m.
9980		population	eng	Unknown.
9980		threats	eng	Deforestation.
9981		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
9981		distribution	eng	This species is found in El Salvador, Guatemala (Chiquimula), Honduras (Comayagua) and Nicaragua (Jinotega).  The following includes collection notes from the locations:<br/>Guatemala: Chiquimula, 3 km NE Ermita, 5 km E Concepción las Minas, 1,100 m (Donnelly 1965)<br/>Guatemala: Zacapa, La Unión, 850 m (R. W. Garrison collection)<br/>Honduras: Comayagua, ca 10 mi SW Siguatepeque, 1,600 m (DRP collection)<br/>Nicaragua: Jinotega, Cerro Kilambé, 1,250 m (Abbott <em>et al</em>. 2002)
9981		habitat	eng	The species prefers upland forest streams and has an elevation range 850 - 1,600 m.
9981		population	eng	Population size and trend is not known for <em>H. eboratum</em> although it is found in small numbers at the five known localities.
9981		threats	eng	There is not enough data available to suggest any problems at present, but its preference for forest streams could be under threat from deforestation in the future.
9982		conservation	eng	The species presence in protected areas has not been documented. Continued monitoring of at least some populations is advised.
9982		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Guatemala (Alta Verapaz, Baja Verpaz) and four states in Mexico.
9982		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes low to middle elevation small to moderate-sized wet-forest streams. Most records are at an elevation range of 500 - 760 m, with one at 1,700 m.
9982		population	eng	<em>H. tricellulare</em> is presumed to be locally common in many populations, but has received little surveying recently.
9982		threats	eng	<em>H. tricellulare</em> habitat continues to undergo deforestation but it is at a low level so as not to cause concern to the population numbers.
9987		conservation	eng	This species occur in several protected areas throughout the range, including Tsavo, Meru, and Samburu National Parks in Kenya. This species is also common in a number of zoological gardens across the world, and procedures for maintaining captive colonies are well established (Jarvis and Sherman 2002).
9987		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of Somalia, central Ethiopia, and much of northern and eastern Kenya, extending as far south as the eastern border of Tsavo West National Park and the town of Voi (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). The species has also been recorded from Djibouti (e.g. Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2001) suggesting that the species has a wider range than is presently known. It has an altitudinal range of 400 to 1,500 m asl.
9987		habitat	eng	Naked mole-rats live in arid habitats, characterized by high temperatures and low and irregular rainfall, which generally average 200-400 mm/year. They are found most frequently in hard, consolidated, lateritic loams, although they<br/>can live in fine sand, pure gypsum, and laterite (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). The species is subterranean and eusocial, living in colonies averaging between 75 and 80 animals per colony (but may be as many as 290). The colonies are extended family groups, with overlapping generations. Reproduction is restricted to a single reproductive female, and at most three breeding males (usually one or two). Non-breeders (which are sociologically suppressed by aggressive behaviours of the dominant female) help care for and defend the reproductive animals and young. The non-breeding animals maintain and defense of the colony burrow system (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). The species has a gestation length of 66 to 74 days, after which between one and 28 young are born. Females can bear litters every 76 to 84 days, and wild females regularly bear more than 50 pups per year in four or five litters (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). In captivity, this is a relatively long-lived species; females lived to 23 years, and males to 28 years.
9987		population	eng	This is a common species.
9987		threats	eng	According to Jarvis and Sherman (2002), naked mole-rats live in areas with little agriculture and minimal development, such that they do not pose a significant agricultural pest. However, they do eat crops such as casava and sweet potatoes, both important agricultural produce, and expansion of agricultural activities into the range of the species could lead to the species being regarded as a pest. Jarvis and Sherman (2002) also note that, given the patchy distribution of naked mole rat colonies, and their population genetic structure, extirpation of local, genetically distinct subpopulations is possible. In general, however, there are no immediate threats to this species.
9997		conservation	eng	Bush Hyrax are found in many protected areas across their range. The taxonomic and population status of isolated populations should be assessed.
9997		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in Africa from the northern parts of South Africa (Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces) northwards to Ethiopia and Sudan; there is a disjunct population in the west-central Angola (<em>H. b. bocagei</em>) (Barry and Shoshani 2000; Barry and Hoeck in press) and an apparently isolated population in south-western Democratic Republic of Congo (<em>H. b. chapini</em>). References to this species in Algeria and Egypt are in error, and both relate to confusion with <em>P. capensis</em> (Hoffmann, M., Hoeck, H.N. and De Smet, K. unpubl.).
9997		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of rocky kopjes (small hills or outcrops), sheer cliffs or precipices, and piles of large boulders, commonly in association with Rock Hyrax <em>Procavia capensis</em> (Barry and Shoshani 2000; Barry and Hoeck in press). They are found to elevations of 3,800 m in East Africa (Kingdon 1971). Predominantly a browser, feeding on leaves, fruits, stems and bark (Barry and Shoshani 2000). A comprehensive review can be found in Barry and Shoshani (2000) and Barry and Hoeck (in press).
9997		population	eng	Widespread and abundant in East Africa, but more localized and at lower population densities in parts of southern Africa. Densities in the Matobo N. P. in Zimbabwe ranged from 0.5-1.1 individuals per ha from 1992-1996 (Barry and Mundy 1998). Rainfall, through its effect on fecundity, appears to be the factor primarily responsible for annual fluctuations in abundance (Barry and Mundy 1998).
9997		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Locally, the species may be hunted.
10004		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas (R. Anderson pers. comm.).
10004		distribution	eng	This species occurs across the Caribbean coast and northern foothills of Colombia and Venezuela (including Margarita Island), and Trinidad and Tobago. It ranges in elevation from sea level typically up to around 1,500 to 1,600 m (Anderson 2003).
10004		habitat	eng	This is one of the best-studied species of the genus. It is strongly associated with moist areas and multistratal tropical evergreen forests. It is also found in deciduous and moderately mesic evergreen tropical forests, as well as in subsistence agricultural areas (Anderson 2003). In parts of the tropics that experience extended dry periods it exists in gallery forest in association with streams. <br/><br/>This pocket mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial, but can climb in small shrubs. It digs an extensive burrow system in which it constructs a nest. The species prefers moist forests of tropical and subtropical mountains. It feeds on seeds, some fruit, grains, succulent vegetation and insects. Young mature to independence within fifty days of birth and may be caught near the maternal burrow. They subsequently disperse to establish a new burrow system (Eisenberg 1989; Lord 1999).
10004		population	eng	It is common (Lord 1999). It can exist at densities of up to 2.2 individuals per hectare (Eisenberg 1989). This species is often collected in large numbers.
10004		threats	eng	This species is a forest obligate species but can live in disturbed forest (R. Anderson pers. comm.).
10005		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.), and probably in Colombia (R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).
10005		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Panama to southwestern Colombia and northwestern Ecuador, including both slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central and western slope of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. A disjunct population is present in the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela (Anderson and Soriano 1999; Anderson 1999). It ranges from sea level to around 2,500 m in sufficiently wet areas (Anderson 1999).
10005		habitat	eng	The species inhabits wet, unseasonal areas of the Choco and adjacent western slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (Anderson and Jarrin-V. 2002). This species occurs in disturbed forests (Anderson and Jarrin-V. 2002)
10005		population	eng	It is common to abundant in evergreen forest (Reid 1997).
10005		threats	eng	No threats are known.
10006		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
10006		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Tabasco and the southern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, south to northwestern Colombia (Patton 2005). It occurs in lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997).
10006		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen and semideciduous forest and good second growth. At low elevations it is usually found in mature, wet forest, and it favors areas with abundant palms (Reid 1997). It is seen on the ground in wet, lowlands forest at night. <br/><br/>This mouse makes burrows under tree roots or in open areas on the forest floor. Burrow entrances are usually vertical, unlike those of deer mice (<em>Peromyscus</em> spp.). Its nest is located in burrows or under logs. It feeds on palm nuts (<em>Welfia georgii</em>, <em>Socratea durissima</em>, <em>Euterpe macrospadix</em>, <em>Geonoma</em> sp., and <em>Iriartea gigantean</em>), other seeds (<em>Meliosma</em> spp., <em>Pentaclethra macroloba</em>, and <em>Virola sebifera</em>), fruit, and insects (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989). Seeds may be stored in burrows or in caches above ground (Fleming 1983). Breeding occurs year-round, and a female have 5 litters per year. Litter size is usually 3. These mice live longer than many rodents of similar size, and some may survive 2 or 3 years in the wild (Fleming 1983; Reid 1997).
10006		population	eng	It is common and widespread (Reid 1997). Population density can reach 18 mice per hectare in suitable forest; individuals’ home ranges overlap extensively (Fleming 1983).
10006		threats	eng	None known.
10007		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in the Yucatan. It has been well studied.
10007		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico, north Belize, and north Guatemala) (Patton 2005). It occurs only in lowlands (Reid 1997).
10007		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in semideciduous forest, thorn scrub, and second growth. <br/><br/>It is nocturnal and terrestrial, but occasionally travels on low, horizontal logs. Its habits are solitary; individuals fight viciously if introduced in captivity and probably maintain exclusive territories in the wild. Breeding occurs mainly in the wet season, from April to January, and litter size is 2 to 5 young (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1974; Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 1989).
10007		population	eng	Widespread; common to abundant (Reid 1997).
10007		threats	eng	This species is adversely affected in parts of its range by increasing human populations, via agricultural expansion.
10009		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a newly-named national park, Tacana, in Mexico.
10009		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southeastern Chiapas (Mexico) and bordering parts of western Guatemala (Patton 2005). It is found from 2,500 to 2,800 m (Reid 1997). The Guatemalan population may have been severely affected  by Hurricane Stan in 2006.
10009		habitat	eng	It is found on cold, wet slopes of montane forest with numerous epiphytes, mosses, and fallen trees. Its biology is poorly known (Reid 1997).
10009		population	eng	This rodent is rare and local (Reid 1997).
10009		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the significant forest loss in its habitat. Habitat fragmentation, landslides, and floods are additional threats.
10010		conservation	eng	It occurs mainly within protected areas.
10010		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Talamanca Range of Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from 1,800 to 2,600 m (Reid 1997).
10010		habitat	eng	It is found in wet, montane oak forest, with numerosous fallen trees (Reid 1997). It has been found within secondary forest. Most of its biology is unknown (Reid 1997).
10010		population	eng	It is quite common within the appropriate habitat (Reid pers. comm.).
10010		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, it faces intrinsic threat due to its limited range.
10025		conservation	eng	None.
10025		distribution	eng	This species was known from Puerto Rico and Vieques Island.
10025		habitat	eng	Not known.
10025		population	eng	Extinct.
10025		threats	eng	Possibly rats.
10030		conservation	eng	None.
10030		distribution	eng	This species is widely but disjunctly distributed in temperate and tropical seas of the continental and insular shelves of the Pacific, Atlantic (including the type locality in the Mediterranean Sea) and Indian Oceans. It occurs from the surface to at least 2,000 m, on continental and insular shelves and upper slopes (including sea mounts).
10030		habitat	eng	A capable predator, the Bluntnose Sixgill Shark feeds on a wide variety of animals including other sharks (it is known to attack hooked conspecifics, which it sometimes follows to the surface from depth), skates, rays, chimaeras, dolphinfish, small swordfish and marlins, herring, grenadiers, antimoras (codlings), rockfishes, cod, lingcod, hake, flounders, halibut, turbot, gurnards and anglerfish, as well as many types of invertebrates including squid, crabs, sea cucumbers and shrimp. It also eats carrion and sometimes seals (Ebert 1994). The bluntnose sixgill shark has not been involved in shark bite incidents on humans, but has been known to swim up to and examine divers (off southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada) and rarely surfers (Cannon Beach, Oregon, USA) without threat or physical contact (C. Bond pers. comm. 1985). Small specimens thrash and snap when captured, but large individuals offer little resistance. This shark appears to become increasingly sensitive to light with increasing size. Adults may become highly agitated when exposed to even moderately intense light. However, this phenomenon needs much more investigation, since the species has been observed and/or photographed from research submersibles off Bermuda and California in well-lighted situations (floodlights) without undue agitation or avoidance of lighted areas (B. Lea pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is ovoviviparous, bearing very large litters numbering from 22?108 young, size at birth 65?74 cm. Males mature at about 315 cm and females at about 420 cm. Longevity, pupping interval and mating behaviour are unknown. Pupping grounds apparently occur on the upper slopes and outer continental shelves. Since this species preys on conspecifics opportunistically, some mechanism of separation of larger and smaller individuals undoubtedly occurs (Ebert 1994). Young tend to be found in shallow waters often just off the shore, but as they grow they move into successively deeper waters. Adults tend to follow diurnal patterns of vertical distribution, sitting deep on the bottom by day and coming toward or to the surface at night to feed. As for many species of deep-water sharks, it is unknown whether this species segregates by sex.
10030		threats	eng	Due to its broad depth range and relative sluggishness, this shark has often been captured incidentally in fisheries for other species. It is taken by handline, longline, gillnet, traps, trammel net, and both pelagic and bottom-trawls. When captured it is often smoked in the Pacific Northwest U.S. (Washington State) and Italy to produce a fine cured product, usually for export to European markets. It is occasionally used for meat and liver oil in Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Additionally, it has been used for salted and dried food products, as well as fish meal and pet foods. Uses of fins may exist but are unreported. This species has been sought for sport fisheries in deeper parts of San Francisco Bay, California, USA (beneath the Golden Gate Bridge), as well as in deeper bays of Oregon and Washington States (Compagno in prep. a). This species is widely believed not to be capable of sustaining either sport or commercial fisheries efforts. Attempts to develop directed fisheries for the bluntnose sixgill shark have rapidly collapsed in California waters, usually lasting less than three years (Compagno in prep. a). Attempts to manage the sport fishery for the hexanchids in San Francisco Bay have been hampered by unusual rules that did not regulate the catch of these sharks per boat, but rather set the quotas at fish per person-pole. It has not been uncommon to see boats on the Bay loaded "to the gunwales" with fishermen to justify the number of poles aboard. The sixgill shark population in San Francisco and Humboldt Bays of California and Puget Sound complex of Washington was considered to be in serious decline in 1995 as a result of fishery activity. Development of a fishery for bluntnose sixgill in British Columbia is being explored, as a replacement for other traditional bony fish and elasmobranch fisheries that are now in decline. This has proceeded despite strong concerns voiced by fishery biologists as to the unsustainability of such fisheries historically (K. Wolf pers. comm.).
10032		conservation	eng	The species is included on Appendix II of CITES (as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hexaprotodon liberiensis</span>). It is fully protected legally in all countries. It is protected in Liberia under the Wildlife and National Park Act of 1988, but enforcement of the regulations is loose except in Sapo National Park, where protection is good.<br/><br/>A vital area for the Pygmy Hippo's protection is the Sapo forest in eastern Liberia. A 509-square-mile block of this forest was chartered as Sapo National Park in 1983, establishing its only national park. Another key area in which the species occurs is in the Tai National Park in western Côte d'Ivoire. Tai is now subject to poaching, agricultural encroachment and gold mining in the park's river beds.<br/><br/><strong>Captive Breeding</strong><br/>As of the end of 2004, the latest edition of the International Studbook for the Pygmy Hippopotamus recorded some 303 animals (290 captive-born) from a founder population of 70, in 135 zoos in captivity (Hlavacek <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species breeds freely in captivity and most, if not all, of the specimens listed have been born in zoos to captive-bred parents. The world population of captive born animals has more than doubled since 1970.<br/><br/>Whilst the future of the species in captivity seems assured, the conditions under which it is kept need reconsideration given that most collections consist of a pair that are kept permanently together in a pool of water. Evidence from the wild suggests that Pygmy Hippopotamus come together infrequently and do not spend much time immersed in the water. The causes of death mentioned in the Studbook include many references to attacks by mates, maternal neglect and injuries inflicted by the mother. It is possible that many of these deaths are due to stress from the artificial conditions of captivity and greater attention to the way of life in the wild might help to reduce this mortality.<br/><br/>There are no current research projects investigating Pygmy Hippo ecology or conservation in the wild. In addition, there is little action being taken to protect Pygmy Hippo habitat or populations.<br/><br/>Objectives:<br/><br/>1. To ensure, as a first priority, that the species can continue to survive in the Liberian forests without further reduction or fragmentation of its range.  <br/><br/>2. To establish more precisely the distribution and numbers of the species throughout its range but more particularly in Liberia, where the bulk of the population occurs.<br/><br/>3. To identify secure regions where conservation action can be concentrated. <br/><br/>4. To establish whether or not the isolated population reported from Nigeria still exists and if it does, to develop plans for its enhanced future protection. <br/><br/>(The alleged population in Guinea-Bissau is so improbable that the time and money that would be involved in an attempt to establish its existence are unlikely to be justified.)<br/><br/><strong>Priority Projects</strong><br/>1. Establish a reliable method for assessing the sizes of the various populations.  <br/><br/>It is unlikely that such an elusive creature can be counted accurately and attention should be paid to developing indirect techniques that will provide an index of density, as has been done with forest elephants. These may include, for example, counts of dunging areas, trails or nest sites.<br/><br/>2. Identify and give special protection to areas containing adequate populations of the species and which appear free from the threat of deforestation. <br/><br/>This does not necessarily mean according them national park status, which might be difficult to achieve. In any case, even if new parks were created they might not be large enough to contain viable populations. As the only national park in Liberia, however, special attention should be given to Sapo National Park particularly as the species was recently recorded there.<br/><br/>3. Monitor the species in protected areas on a permanent basis using techniques developed for census purposes. <br/><br/>4. Identify potential threats to the species in each area and take steps to remove them.  <br/><br/>Apart from the obvious problem of deforestation, attention should be paid to possible threats from meat hunting and the trophy trade. Education should play a prominent role in such projects in making local people aware of the rarity and uniqueness of the pygmy hippopotamus.<br/><br/>5. Mount expeditions to those regions of Nigeria where the species was last reported in order to look for evidence of its continued existence. <br/><br/>If it is shown to survive there, special efforts should be made to assist the development of management strategies for its enhanced future protection and to determine the taxonomic as well as the conservation status of this population. <br/><br/>6. Coordinate the international captive breeding effort to take advantage of recent computer programmes for analysing stud book data and to ensure that maximum use is made of the genetic potential of the existing captive population. <br/><br/>7. Study the behaviour of the species under a variety of captive conditions in order to generate information of benefit to their enhanced future husbandry, with particular reference to the habits of the animals in the wild.
10032		distribution	eng	The Pygmy Hippo is endemic to West Africa. Known populations (of the nominate subspecies, <em>H. l. liberiensis</em>) occur in four African countries (in order of ascending population sizes): Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia. A record from the Corubal River in Guinea-Bissau by Cristino (1958), who claimed to have shot an individual, almost certainly represented a young Common Hippopotamus. The overall past distribution of the Pygmy Hippo was not very different from what it is today, but the populations have become much more fragmented and have disappeared from many former sites. The distribution of the species is centered on Liberia, which includes the bulk of the population (Anstey 1991), with occurrence in the other three countries mainly close to the shared borders with Liberia. Sierra Leone has remnant Pygmy Hippo populations in the Gola Forest region bordering Liberia, Tiwai Island, and the Loma Mountains. Populations reported from other forests in Sierra Leone in the late 1960s are now presumed to be extinct, leaving the Gola Forest as the country’s last main refuge. The Republic of Guinea contains fragmented Pygmy Hippo populations along the Liberian and Ivoirian border in the Reserve de Ziama. There were also reports of Pygmy Hippopotamus populations in Dere Forêt, but more recent reports suggest that this area has been degraded and converted into farmland. However, there was evidence of Pygmy Hippo found in Diécké Forest Reserve, south-east of Ziama (Alonso <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 1994, populations in Ziama and Diécké forests were estimated at 32–96 and 18–54 individuals, respectively (Butzler 1999). Côte d'Ivoire has lost most of its historical forest cover and is likely to be home to fragmented Pygmy Hippo populations along its border with Liberia in the Fresco region; populations are likely found throughout Tai National Park and may occur in Cavally Forest Reserve (north-west of Tai N.P.), Mount Nimba Reserve, N’Zo Forest Reserve, Taipleu Forêt, Tatigbo Lagoon, and along the Dagbe, Bolo, and Niouniourou Rivers. In Côte D'ivoire, it has previously been recorded as far east as between the Sasandra and Bandama Rivers (Dekeyser 1954), but Bosman and Hall-Martin (1989) reported it from the Azagny National Park in the south-east corner of the country. Whether it naturally occurs there or has been introduced is not clear. The largest Pygmy Hippo populations are believed to be in central and south-eastern Liberia, although population sizes are unknown. Liberian Pygmy Hippo populations are believed to occur in Sapo National Park, the Cestos-Senkwehn Forests, Krahn-Bassa National Forest, Gbi National Forest, Grebo National Forest and in Grand Kru County. No recent information is available on the populations of north-west Liberia, which may still sustain a substantial number of Pygmy Hippos.<br/><br/>The second subspecies, <em>H. l. heslopi</em>, is known only from the Niger Delta east to the vicinity of the Cross River in Nigeria (Corbet 1969). This second, isolated population in Nigeria is some 1,800 km to the east of the known populations, on the other side of the Dahomey Gap. Such a discontinuous distribution is very rare amongst forest vertebrates in West Africa and Robinson (1970) considers that there is insufficient evidence to confirm that the species ever existed in Nigeria, despite the account by Heslop (1945), who shot one near Omoku in the vicinity of the Niger Delta. This putative Pygmy Hippo subspecies was identified in 1945 based on morphological features of skulls collected in the late 1930s in Nigeria. Others have been equally skeptical, but Ritchie (1930) gave measurements of two skulls that were obtained in 1928 from the Niger Delta so there seems little doubt that the species did once occur in the country. It may be extinct, but Oates (in litt. 1993) reported that residents in the Niger Delta still knew of the species. Although the 1993 Action Plan posits that <em>H. l. heslopi</em> individuals may still occur in the Niger Delta, the existence of this subspecies has not been confirmed or reported. There is little possibility that this Niger delta population still survives, although it is surprising that the existence was so poorly known or documented.
10032		habitat	eng	The Pygmy Hippo is rarely seen because of its secretive, nocturnal habits and consequently not much is known of its ecology. The most detailed field study is that of Robinson (1970) and a general account of its biology is given by Lang (1975). The Pygmy Hippo is much less gregarious than the larger species, being usually found either solitary or in pairs. As it is largely nocturnal it tends to spend the day hidden in swamps, wallows or rivers and sometimes in hollows under the banks of streams, which it is said to enlarge. It favors heavily forested regions, but it is dependent on water and usually remains close to streams. It also used to frequent forests fringing the rivers that extend into Transitional Woodland and the southern Guinea savanna, further inland. However, it seems likely to have been hunted out of most of these areas. Within the forest it follows well defined trails or tunnel-like paths through swamp vegetation, which it marks by spreading its dung by vigorously wagging its tail while defecating, like its larger relative. <br/><br/>The species is exclusively vegetarian, feeding on leaves and roots of forest plants (including semi-aquatic plants and forest herbs) as well as on fallen fruit. The stomach has four chambers (Langer 1988). The first three are covered with tough keratinized epithelium, only the last containing glandular epithelial tissue. There is evidence that microbial breakdown of plant material takes place in the first three stomach chambers, no caecum being present in this species. This mode of digestion  is usually considered an adaptation to a highly fibrous, generally "low-quality" vegetable diet. The droppings are poorly formed and similar to those of the common hippo.<br/><br/>It is not known how far individual Pygmy Hippos roam in the wild, or whether they keep to well-defined home ranges, but their habit of fecal marking implies they may be at least partly territorial in defending particular areas against incursions from other members of the species. However, during the rainy season (May–September), animals are reported by hunters to disperse over wide areas in the forest zone. The effects of predators on pygmy hippo populations are unknown, but the principal carnivore capable of attacking an animal this size is the leopard.<br/><br/>No accurate data on reproduction, including breeding season, have been published for the wild populations. Sexual maturity occurs at  about four to five years of age. From studies of captive animals (Lang 1975; Tobler 1991), the oestrous cycle has been shown to average 35.5 days with oestrus itself being 24–48 hours long. The average gestation length is 188 days after which a singleton young is born weighing about 5.7 kg. Twins are born very rarely, the incidence being approximately one in every 200 births. The young are born on land (although can readily swim), and there is no evidence from captive births that a nest constructed. A survey of over 800 births indicates that these occur throughout the year (Tobler 1991).
10032		population	eng	The 1993 Action Plan estimated that there were approximately 2,000–3,000 individuals remaining across all the four countries (Sierra Leone, Republic of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia). The 1993 population estimate for Sierra Leone, the only country with an estimated population size, was 80-100 individuals. Subsequent reports of habitat loss and hunting suggest that the 1993 estimate may be high given current conditions.
10032		threats	eng	The range of this species has changed dramatically in the past 100 years, but most acutely in the past 30 years. Forests within the Pygmy Hippo’s historical range have been steadily logged, farmed and settled. Human development activities have caused the retreat of Pygmy Hippo into diminishing parcels of forest, which are becoming increasingly fragmented and insular. Although Pygmy Hippo are unlikely to be a primary target for subsistence hunting, they are likely taken opportunistically by bushmeat hunters. In addition, the effects of national and international conflicts in eastern Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia are unknown, but lessen the probability of Pygmy Hippo persistence. The border area between the Guinea and Liberia has been under increasing pressure from the impacts of Liberian war refugee settlements.  Although protection level for Pygmy Hippo in Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Sierra Leone was described as complete, the level of enforcement is unknown. Reports from Côte d'Ivoire suggest that enforcement is limited due to lack of resources and civil unrest. Along the Côte D'ivoire-Liberian border, poaching and intense logging appear linked as logged forests are more easily accessible (Alonso <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Liberia, where the majority of remaining Pygmy Hippos are believed to reside, legal protection is described as incomplete, and the level of enforcement of protection is described as poor. Pygmy Hippo protection has historically been most effective in the Sapo National Park. However, recent reports from Flora and Fauna International suggest that current legal protection has been suspended and Pygmy Hippos are being hunted for meat in the Park. Liberia’s Cestos-Senkwehn Rivershed, located in south-central area of the country, was believed to be home to substantial numbers of Pygmy Hippos based on a forest survey conducted in 1998. Since that time, Cestos-Senkwehn area has been largely logged and developed (Robinson and Suter 1999). In 1999, almost 190 million cubic meters of wood was exported from Liberia. The scope of the deforestation has alarmed Liberian government officials. In April 2000, Liberia's Minister of Agriculture, Roland Massaquoi, in criticizing the way logging companies were operating stated "it is evident that most of the country's natural rainforests has been depleted without reforestation". This alarming rate of deforestation has been confirmed by Friends of Liberia (FOL), Society for the Renewal of Nature Conservation in Liberia, and independent researchers. <br/><br/>The evidence suggests that habitat in protected areas in all resident countries is under siege. Pygmy Hippos, by nature of their habitat requirements, are extremely sensitive to this loss. The current population threats—deforestation for logging and human settlement, hunting, and regional conflicts—continue to threaten remaining Pygmy Hippo individuals. The conservation status of the Pygmy Hippo in Liberia is poor. At the present rate of habitat loss, only small insular populations will remain and, in the total absence of any regional conservation plans, effective protection or conservation actions, viability of this species should be considered extremely poor.
10034		conservation	eng	None.
10034		distribution	eng	This species was known from Hispaniola.
10034		habitat	eng	Not known.
10034		population	eng	Extinct.
10034		threats	eng	Not known.
10041		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10041		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
10041		threats	eng	It is threatened due to trade exploitation in Cambodia, Lao and Viet Nam. Habitat loss remains a contributing factor throughout its range.
10053		conservation	eng	The species is included on CITES Appendix I and occurs in several protected areas across its range. Recommended conservation actions include: systematic surveys to determine status and extent of geographic distribution; support continued ecological studies of the species throughout its range; strengthen protected areas management; exclude domestic stock from protected areas with physical barriers and law enforcement; reduce numbers of livestock; improve livestock management through farmer education demonstration projects.
10053		distribution	eng	The taruka occurs as scattered populations with very little contact areas among them, a distribution explained by the specialized habitat it uses. Its distribution can be regarded as almost continuous along the highlands of the Andes from the north of Peru to northeastern Chile, but we should be aware that the habitat type used is isolated in some areas, and human density is high between patches. The taruka occurs in heavily fragmented populations throughout the high Andes of Bolivia—with no records in the southwest—, and in northwest Argentina. The historical distribution was probably the same as the actual one, but populations might have been less fragmented then. Contrary to several publications (Geist 1998; Weber and Gonzalez 2003; Wemmer 1998), the taruka has never occurred in Ecuador. It is unlikely that the taruka has ever crossed north of the Huancabamba depression in north Peru, even during the Pleistocene, when the habitat type it currently uses was lower than present altitude. Then, the high Andes were populated by other deer genera (Hoffstetter 1986; Wheeler <em>et al.</em> 1976). The asseveration of the former presence of taruka in Ecuador was based on doubtful records (Tirira 2001). One specimen in the Buenos Aires museum and another in the Field Museum, Chicago, were marked as coming from Ecuador (Voss 2003), but both have disappeared and could have come from anywhere else, for example Peru or Chile, if they were correctly identified. Another two specimens were deposited in the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales in Madrid (Voss 2003). These were authentic records from Ecuador, as the collector, the collection site and the year were identified (Voss 2003), but both specimens were also lost and there is no way to verify the species.
10053		habitat	eng	Tarukas have been found at 2,000-3,500 above sea level in the southern portion of their distribution in Argentina (Cajal 1983), at 2,500-4,000 m in northern Chile (Sielfeld <em>et al.</em> 1988), and at 3,500-5,000 m in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia (Barrio 1998, 2004; Jungius 1974; Merkt 1985; Yensen <em>et al</em>. 1994). Tarukas live in areas with wet weather on the eastern Andes (Barrio 2004; Jungius 1974) as well as areas with dry weather on the western Andes (Barrio 1998; Merkt 1985; Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 1988). Tarukas are usually found above the treeline on mountain slopes characterized by rock and cliff-like outcrops amid grassland vegetation (Barrio 2004; Jungius 1974; Merkt 1985, 1987). Tarukas seem to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources—usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh (Barrio 2004; Merkt 1985), however, they have been observed in dense shrubbery near rivers and inside Polylepis sp. forests (Barrio, in prep). In several sections of the distribution, taruka populations live in fragmented portions of the range (Barrio 1999; Cajal 1983). The taruka shares its habitat with domestic stock, which might compete with taruka and decrease the area available to them (Barrio 1999, 2004).
10053		population	eng	Based on known densities and censuses for Argentina, Chile and Peru, and estimations for Bolivia, the total population is estimated to be around 12,000–17,000 individuals. Taruka population in Chile might be around 1,000 individuals, based on census data from Sielfeld <em>et al.</em> (1988). Based on calculated densities including all potential areas and on extent of distributional range, total taruka population in Peru may be around 9,000-13,000 individuals, of which—based on known age structure—at least 75% are mature individuals (7-10,000 individuals).
10053		threats	eng	Threats include competition with domestic stock, habitat destruction, trophy hunting, and predation by domestic dogs (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1973; Merkt pers. comm.). In Bolivia, antlers are used in traditional medicine to cure facial paralysis (Tarifa pers. comm.) and dried meat is used by rural populations (CDC 1987).
10054		conservation	eng	As 63% of all subpopulations are outside of protected areas (and another 9% are partially outside), there is an urgent need to establish management plans for most of the remaining huemul subpopulations. The huemul is classified as endangered in the Chilean and Argentinean Red Data Books of Vertebrates (Glade 1988, Díaz and Ojeda 2000) and is also listed in the Appendix I of CITES and UNEP/CMS Conventions. This species has been protected by law since 1929 in Chile and 1989 in parts of Argentina (Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000). In order to promote huemul conservation, five Binational Workshops have been conducted since 1992. In 2001, both countries developed their national huemul conservation plans (Chile began with an update in 2007), but funding constraints have thus far impeded their implementation. The species occurs in 13 Chilean national parks and reserves (Corti <em>et al.</em> 2005), and populations occurring outside of protected areas are either barely known or unknown. In Argentina, huemul occur in 5 national parks plus several provincial reserves. Both countries also have some private reserves with huemul populations. Nevertheless, only 28% of the 101 identified subpopulations in both countries were found within existing protected areas, 63% were located outside of protected areas, while 9% were found partially within protected areas (Vila <em>et al</em>. 2006). Moreover, most protected areas in both countries are ‘paper parks': financial constraints result in insufficient personnel and infrastructure and prevent adequate inventorying, monitoring and protective measures. For instance, problems are such that field-based national park wardens in Argentina often do not receive fuel for transportation, for 2 month periods (2007/2008). A man on horseback with 5 dogs, another roaming dog, and a group of 3 horseback riders were seen in the course of one day, on visiting an area classified as Critical due to huemul presence in an Argentina national park reserve. (C. Chehebar 2007, report to national park administration). Furthermore, management plans, if prepared, are based on limited data, and are hardly, if at all, implemented (Martin and Chehebar 2001, Rusch 2002). In remote national parks of Chile, cattle introductions and poaching of huemul are common due to lack of infrastructure for enforcement (Frid 2001, Corti 2006). Other important limitations result from socioeconomic and political interests which prevent the implementation of conservation measures, such as removal of cattle from national parks, which utilize up to 56% of park areas (Simberloff <em>et al</em>. 2003). On the other hand, the public system of protected areas contains extensive habitat formerly and currently still used by huemul, making it a prime candidate for contributing significantly to huemul recovery (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a). An urgent task is thus to find ways to extend the implementation and control of existing policies established for protected areas (Martin and Chehebar 2001, Rusch 2002). <br/><br/>Some conservation measures currently prioritized by government agencies of both countries include: increase efforts to obtain more information on huemul subpopulations such as the current distribution, abundance, and threats; encourage more effective protection of the identified subpopulations (emphasizing an increase of protection in the VIII and XI regions of Chile and in the Province of Chubut of Argentina); promote the creation of private protected areas with presence of huemul (or suitable habitat) to facilitate connectivity and dispersal; promote training to improve local skills in wildlife management and monitoring techniques; and encourage educational activities and media campaigns to raise awareness about the huemul´s status. Achieving these measures would be more likely through coordination (also binationally) between the several administrative jurisdictions, private owners, and local communities.<br/><br/>The present state of huemul with its high degree of fragmentation, small subpopulation sizes, and low total number (Vila <em>et al</em>. 2006) indicates that the situation is not viable, and may be less so in Argentina with only a few hundred remaining huemul. The trend follows a continued loss of subpopulations, i.e. a reduction in numbers and area of occupancy, even within national parks (Franke 1949, Povilitis 1998, Serret 2001). In 1936, the Argentine National Parks created a captive breeding station in order to repopulate park areas already devoid of huemul, and in 1971 the 'Operativo Nacional Huemul' was launched to prevent huemul from extinction, although the program never crystallized. The goal today is the species’ recovery (e.g. Argentina National Huemul Conservation and Recovery Plan), which implies an increase in numbers and distribution to a viable level. For recovery to succeed, threats to individual remaining huemul subpopulations need to be understood (Corti <em>et al</em>. 2005). Making decisions about corrective measures should be based on understanding these threats, and would take conservation beyond the creation of protected areas. Basic information on the species and on most subpopulations is very scarce, which complicates interpretations of some observations. If sufficient data are lacking to make informed management decisions, they likely are insufficient to build a realistic PVA model which would be premature or even misleading; urgent management needs and research priorities can be identified without constructing a quantitative model (Ralls <em>et al</em>. 2002). Thus, a fundamental need is to increase well-founded knowledge about the ecology and biology of the species and factors preventing the recovery of individual subpopulations. It is important to study detrimental factors with a holistic approach since the factors acting on a given subpopulation are multi-factorial, and the importance of factors may change over time. In-situ studies are recommended; however, a recovery strategy for huemul must also include ex-situ tools, as for many of the questions, the most efficient, and sometimes only, approach would be controlled studies of semi-captive animals (captive center in Chile since 2005). It would also provide opportunities to study re-introduced groups (stemming from the captive breeding center), taking an adaptive management approach (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a, Armstrong and Seddon 2007). In consequence, several additional conservation measures surfaced that need to be incorporated:<br/><br/>1. Scientific research, as performed in similar situations worldwide, should be facilitated by all agencies involved and for any existing huemul subpopulation<br/>2. Management decisions for any subpopulation should be made acknowledging the limitations imposed by socioeconomic and political constraints and the gaps of information, and should take the approach of the Precautionary Principle until better information is available<br/>3. Centres with semi-captive huemul for studies and re-introductions function as a valuable recovery tool and should be facilitated, particularly if non-competing funds are available. Efforts should be directed to gain a maximum of information through research under controlled conditions and through reintroductions <br/>4. Once subpopulations are known to be recovering numerically and spatially, they should become a research focus in order to determine the reasons for the recovery success.
10054		distribution	eng	The huemul is endemic to Chile and Argentina and currently only inhabits the Andes of Southern Chile and Argentina (Vila <em>et al.</em> 2006). The subpopulation in the Nevados de Chillán area (VIII Region of Chile) has the greatest degree of spatial isolation, with a distance of about 425 km from the nearest subpopulation to the south in Nahuel Huapi national park (Argentina, 40º30'S, Dirección Nacional de Fauna Silvestre). The southern part of Lanin national park (Argentina) may still have a subpopulation, but this needs to be confirmed (Roberto Nogara pers. comm.). The remainder of the current distribution also has a high degree of fragmentation apparently mainly due to past human activity, with the coastal populations in Chilean Patagonia presenting the lowest fragmentation, with the most continuous stretch of populations in areas that are nearly void of human presence due to the remoteness of a rugged terrain and the extreme weather conditions (Corti <em>et al</em>. 2005).. The degree of isolation of subpopulations within much of the region, or its effects, are, however, unclear. <br/><br/>The historical distribution range of huemul covered a latitudinal range of 20 degrees along about 2,000 km. In southern Patagonia huemul reached the Atlantic, and whereas they occurred in the Patagonian steppe to the north, it is presently uncertain how far east they might have reached (Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000).
10054		habitat	eng	Habitat:<br/>At present, the huemul occurs mainly in the Andes mountains, from close to sea-level up to 3,000 m elevation, and is found mainly at the forest edge and forests of southern beech (<em>Nothofagus spp.</em>). Locally, huemul are still found in a variety of habitats: from valley flats to steep mountain slopes; from open grasslands to closed shrubby or forested habitats, inclusive of post-fire or mixed habitats. The pattern of using different habitat components has been found to vary and depends on availability, season, presences of other herbivores and predators, or disturbances, and is reflected in the broad dietary spectrum (see below). In the past, however, huemul occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands (Diaz 1993, also see Frid 1994). Annual home range size in some currently used habitat has been estimated to be about 350-650 ha with daily travel distances of up to 8 km, but rarely more than 5 km (reviewed in Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000, Gill <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Group size:<br/>Recent reports show group sizes of huemul ranging from single males to mixed groups of 11, whereas, group sizes in the past have exceeded 100 huemul in open grassland areas, likely as winter congregations (reviewed in Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000). The large group sizes mentioned in the past, and the characteristics of current areas still containing medium-sized groups indicate that past densities were likely higher in most places. Pefaur <em>et al</em>. (1968) stated that densities had diminished. Steffen (1900) reported that after his crew ran out of food, they continued living off huemul for weeks.<br/><br/>Predators:<br/>Predators of the huemul include man, puma (<em>Puma concolor</em>), culpeo fox (<em>Pseudalopex culpaeus</em>) and domestic dogs. A fawn was observed being killed by a fox, then chased off by the huemul mother (Wensing 2005, Paulo Corti unpubl.). Saucedo and Gill (2004) reported several fawns being killed by foxes. Hershkovitz (1972) described the several species of foxes, like culpeo fox, as dog-like or coyote-like in general appearance and habits. Puma have been shown to be an important ultimate mortality factor in one subpopulation (Smith-Flueck and Flueck 2001). Huemul will escape persistent pursuers by trying to out run them, by seeking refuge on cliffs or by using lakes, being very efficient swimmers. When threatened by predators, huemul may attempt avoidance by first remaining motionless or hiding, a strategy that is not optimal when fire arms are present. However, when discovered at close range they will flee, and rapidly. Huemul are known to snort, stomp the ground, or run effortlessly uphill or downhill; they also bound like mule deer and take to water. During captures conducted near Tortel in Chile, if the threat came from below, the huemul ran rapidly uphill, however, individuals were also observed to run quickly downhill, distancing themselves such that the capture team, using dogs, often lost the animals (O. Guineo pers. comm.). Huemul have the capacity to learn and have been observed to increase their flight distance in relation to disturbance activity, for instance, becoming flighty at 300 m when approached by people and/or their dogs (pers. comm. from M.L. Thomas and O. Guineo, Frid 2001). Krieg found in the 1920's that huemul in north-eastern areas was were considered very shy, whereas those in the southwest were extremely trusting (Krieg 1925:593). <br/><br/>There are no studies showing a negative impact from dogs on huemul populations, although in very reduced populations a loss from any factor is very significant. In fact, dogs have been shown to kill 36% of marked fawns and also adults (Corti 2006), which would place great pressure on mid-sized subpopulations and could result in local extinctions of reduced or declining subpopulations as an stochastic event rather than as a constant factor (P. Corti, unpubl.). It has been assumed that huemul are easy prey to dogs based on anecdotal accounts mentioning that they can become paralyzed after reaching a state of panic. This reaction has been explained by the absence of native cursorial predators. However, the evolutionary history of huemul included cursorial predators in North and South America, including Canis, which became extinct in South America only in the Holocene.<br/><br/>Documented interactions of huemul with dogs are rare, and thus the following accounts recorded by M.L. Thomas are instructive (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b). Case 1: an adult huemul male ran down a logging trail, bounding side to side to navigate tree logs while trying to outrun 3 dogs. Case 2: a female and her fawn calf were chased by 2 dogs; they did not run to water but contoured a hill for about 1.5 km and then climbed to the higher ground, outrunning the dogs. Case 3: a radio- collared female huemul and her week-old fawn were observed. The doe suddenly went in front of several approaching dogs and away from the bedded fawn. The barking dogs circled away from the area to about 500 m and continued barking for 20 minutes. About 4 hours later, just at dusk the female approached the fawn from the other direction, nursed it and then headed back the same way she had come, taking the fawn about 500 m out of the area. Adult huemul have been observed to apparently become exhausted after relatively short chases (P. Corti, unpubl.), reasons for which should be studied. All 8 dead males described by M.L. Thomas (pers. comm.) in that area (which area?) died in winter just before antler shedding, which often indicates males that died from low physical condition and thus were susceptible to predation. <br/><br/>Feeding behavior:<br/>Studies so far of individual wild subpopulations showed the number of plant species in the diet as low as 11 and as high as 120 in Torres del Paine (Guineo and Garay 2008, in press), which is dependent on the vegetation community, pressure from other herbivores, predators and disturbances. On the other hand, females spent 93 % of foraging time on only two plant species during the summer-fall season at Fiord Tempano in O’Higgins National Park (van Winden 2006). Graminae in the summer diet for instance was as low as 0.1% (Smith-Flueck 2003) or as high as 16% (D. Sierralta, unpubl.). The results of these and other studies shows that the diet of huemul can vary substantially from one subpopulation to another (also see Smith-Flueck 2003, Galende <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The Zoo in Buenos Aires kept huemul from 1936 to at least 1942, and, being 1500 km from natural huemul habitat, likely maintained huemul on an artificial diet (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a). Huemul utilizing the Patagonian steppe in the past (Diaz 1993, Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000) certainly had a different diet, maybe more like taruca (H. antisensis) given that the puna vegetation is very closely related to that of the Patagonian steppe, and many of the dominant genera are frequent in both regions and few of the Puna's genera are absent in Patagonia (Fernández and Busso 1997). It is interesting to note that  two species, Maytenus sp. and Alstroemeria sp., were highly preferred in several fecal diet studies, yet were only accepted at a medium and low level, respectively, by captive-fed huemul. Instead these huemul preferred a native willow (Salix humboldtiana) above all other species (Drouilly 1983), which suggests that this plant species might have been a main staple of their winter diet, back when huemul were able to migrate to the river valleys before the arrival of settlers. Considering the consumption of at least 120 plant species in Torres del Paine, the completely different environments elsewhere used currently and historically, and the successful rearing in the Buenos Aires zoo indicate that the huemul is using an even larger number of plant species, is flexible in its diet which is to be expected of a ruminant, and is a mixed feeder overall.<br/><br/>Seasonal movements:<br/>In other migrating cervids, several factors are known to affect migratory behavior, such as snow depth and consistency and availability of food as stimuli to seek lower elevations, population density, age and sex structure, and behavior of the predator. A consistent pattern among temperate cervids in mountains is that after the initial arrival of a population (through dispersal, re-introduction, invasion) it begins with a resident population, occupying winter ranges (McCullough 1985, Haller 2002). Huemul in some areas moved to 1,000 m elevation in winter and to 3,000 m in summer in the past (Housse 1953)<br/><br/>Past descriptions of huemul reveal that both resident and migratory behaviors existed. Krieg (1940) indicated the existence of all-year resident huemul in quiet valley bottoms, comparing them to the phenomena of the ‘forest chamois' (Rupicapra rupicapra) as opposed to chamois moving to high elevation Alps during the summer. On the eastern side of the Andes, seasonal migrations of medium distances are still remembered by older people living in intermountain valleys, usually from many decades earlier, but longer migrations are only known from a few reports by early explorers (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b) and would be a movement pattern similar to cervids inhabiting the Rocky mountains and adjoining prairies of North America.<br/><br/>The distance of migration depends on the steepness of an area. As the animals take advantage of phenological changes (Atzler 1984), steep terrain requires little lateral displacement to gain altitude. Thus, huemul in steep terrain in Chile had short migration distances, ‘migrations’ were mainly reflected as an altitudinal shift; in the study areas of Gill <em>et al</em>. (2007), huemul undertook either a modest seasonal migration or none at all as summer and winter areas overlapped. Winter severity is important in determining actual migratory behavior; other cervids, for instance, commonly remain at higher altitudes during winters with less snow (Brown 1992, Sabine <em>et al</em>. 2002). On the other hand the reverse situation represents a trap for several huemul populations, when during harsher winters they do go to lower areas that have been settled, and where they could die from hunting or dogs.
10054		population	eng	The species occurs in fragmented subpopulations with reported densities ranging from 0.02 - 5.66 deer/km² and averaging 1.25 (n=17) (reviewed in Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000), however, some estimates included unoccupied areas. Wensing (2005) measured 8.64 huemul/km² in coastal Chile. It has been estimated that no more than 1,000 animals survive in Chile (Drouilly 1983) and 500 in Argentina (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a), resulting from reductions of over 99% in population size and of over 50% in distribution (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In Argentina, the remaining huemul reside along 1,850 km of Andes in about 50 subpopulations, which are mostly fragmented (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a). There are an estimated 101 subpopulations of huemul, but 50 of these only live within 8x8 km squares whereas another 15 live within 8x16 km squares. Of these 65 subpopulations, 67% are outside of protected areas (Vila <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Chile, most huemul populations are concentrated in coastal Patagonian where extensive habitat is present in almost a continuous form. However, fragmentation increases northwards on the mainland.
10054		threats	eng	The widespread reduction in numbers and distributional range across the full extent of the historic range (Redford and Eisenberg 1992) was likely due to a combination from overkill, overstocking with domestic livestock (feral and controlled animals), and land conversion for agricultural purposes. This process started before the arrival of Spaniards and peaked before the first systematic accounts were made (Miller 1980), and details remain to be elucidated. Based on the chronology of human settlement, the impact was earlier in the northern than in the southern portion of the distribution, and earliest possibly in the northwestern portion, which is the central valley of Chile. Krieg (1925: 593) having surveyed the area of huemul distribution, noted that few people on the west side of the Andes had seen huemul as they only remained in the highest and remotest areas.<br/><br/>The major reduction in numbers and distribution resulted in an increased fragmentation of the population. The resulting subpopulations continue to experience a variety of factors, which keep their numbers low or decreasing. When an isolated subpopulation becomes very small (10-30 huemul, a common feature of the present situation), then ANY loss of individuals is important (Caughley 1994), including from natural predators. It is under these very local circumstances that many different biophysical factors can become crucial: logging, mining, construction of roads, water reservoirs and other infrastructure, livestock grazing, farming, poaching, new diseases, uncontrolled and/or feral dogs, or unregulated tourism. Huemul subpopulations from such a large variety of habitats and circumstances can be expected to be of different average physical condition, and thus might respond differently to a given factor.<br/><br/>One important omnipresent threat is that both Chile and Argentina have weak mechanisms to protect huemul in non-protected areas, and even inside protected areas, from inadequate responses by authorities due to financial and other constraints. Thus, other national interests may override the presence of a huemul subpopulation, and major public constructions are realized instead (e.g. related to hydroelectric power, pipelines, freeways, new towns, development of tourism, etc.). The many economic activities tolerated are mainly related to livestock production, forest products, and tourism of all types including hunting.<br/><br/>Another omnipresent and continuous threat is the virtual elimination of suitable winter range. Whereas some subpopulations have access to a sufficient altitudinal range within a small area (due to steepness of terrain), others would need to migrate over much longer distances, particularly on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In all cases, if the winter range is basically occupied by settlers, farmers or livestock producers, uncontrolled hunting and uncontrolled dog populations might prevent a subpopulation from recovering. Most if not all historical winter ranges on the eastern slopes are private and are used intensely for livestock production and/or hunting. This includes many protected areas including the national reserves of national parks. Besides the loss of winter ranges, the migratory behavioural patterns have also been eliminated, because huemul reaching those winter ranges were regularly killed. Migration behaviour in other cervids has been shown to be an acquired trait which can be eliminated through hunting or barriers (Baker 1978, Hjeljord 2001, Berger 2004, Bolger <em>et al.</em> 2008). Thus, habitat loss, deterioration of winter habitat and loss of traditional migratory behaviour may be some of the more common factors in many of the subpopulations.<br/><br/>An omnipresent continuous threat is the vulnerability towards humans, due to an initial lack of wariness which provides easy killing opportunities as has been reported consistently since the 1800s. Thus there are few opportunities for a huemul to learn to increase the flight distance. Losses from illegal hunting continue and might have an important effect on the viability of very reduced subpopulations. Populated areas result in losses of huemul from hunting and from dogs, and thus they contribute to undermining the reformation of original migratory behavioural patterns.<br/><br/>There are several threats which might take importance at a local situation, but cannot be considered to represent an omnipresent problem. The local circumstances of a given subpopulation would determine the need for specific research to address the problems and to find adequate counter measures (Corti <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Food competition from other herbivores: currently, but certainly in the past, huemul formed part of a natural multi-herbivore system. As in any such system, it is the combined herbivore pressure on forage which is of interest. Like other ruminants, huemul have a plastic feeding behaviour (see under Habitat and Ecology). Diets in other cervids have been shown to change according to intraspecific changes in density or changes in the combined density or mixture of a herbivore community. For instance, it was shown that huemul and red deer diets in a lenga forest habitat overlapped between 42 and 62% (Smith-Flueck 2003). Whereas several studies like this one show that different herbivores (native and exotic) eat the same plant species as huemul, there are no studies to show that this foraging by other herbivores affects huemul performance, such as a decrease in reproduction or increase in mortality, thus reducing the population growth rate lamda. In fact, huemul still have remained, even in the presence of cattle production lasting over 110 years (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b). Meanwhile huemul have disappeared in areas with no cattle, sheep, nor exotic red deer (Smith-Flueck 2003). Krieg, already in 1940, observed that forage in winter range areas produced a large quantity of domestic and wild exotic herbivores with superb body development. Thus he considered that a lack of forage could not explain the absence of native herbivores like huemul. Overgrazing, by definition, through excessive livestock or uncontrolled wild exotic herbivore density in huemul areas would be expected to affect all herbivores present in that area.<br/><br/>Diseases: When other herbivores (native, exotic wild or domestic) use the same range as huemul, diseases can be transmitted. In Argentina, records from local government agricultural research institutions (INTA), animal health authorities (SENASA) and livestock veterinarians are available to indicate the presence of dangerous diseases near huemul populations, as the raising of livestock is the major economy for the region. Brucellosis could be a concern for reduced huemul populations. In Chile, ongoing research is showing new findings of diseases transmitted from cattle (P. Corti, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Anecdotal accounts by settlers are cited who claimed that foot and mouth disease (FMD) was responsible for decimating huemul over huge areas 60-70 years ago, and that they are very susceptible (König 1952, Simonetti 1995). FMD outbreaks in the UK resulted in experimental studies of five cervid species which were all susceptible to FMD to some degree. Based on natural behaviour of these free-living deer in the UK, they are considered unlikely to be an important factor in the maintenance and transmission of the virus during an epidemic of FMD in domestic livestock (Thrusfield and Fletcher 2002, Fletcher 2004). At normal densities of cervids, FMD is considered a self-limiting disease (Morgan <em>et al</em>. 2003). The low densities of huemul and reactions of other cervids to FMD render those early anecdotal accounts by settlers doubtful. Additionally, at the possible rate of increase in deer with one young per year, a population would have recovered by 300% in only a few years. Some, citing Texera of 1974, believe diseases like <span style="font-style: italic;">Cysticercus tenuicollis</span> to be fatal to huemul when transmitted by livestock (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b). However, Texera stated that he did not consider the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. t.</span> to be the cause of death, rather that the condition of the female deteriorated after a premature parturition, aggravated by very little space and little variety of food provided. Furthermore, in other cervids and ungulates the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. t.</span> is considered of little significance and usually does not result in any clinical signs (Leiby and Dyer 1971, Prestwood <em>et al</em>. 1976, Mason 1994, Letkova and Lazar 2006). The adult stage is cosmopolitan in distribution and occurs in the small intestine of dogs, foxes, and other wild carnivores including puma (Rausch <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>A recent study (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2008) reports on bone disease based on dead huemul. Osteopathology was found in 52% of adults, 63% showed mandibular, 100% maxillary and 78% appendicular lesions. These skeletal lesions would affect the capacity for predator avoidance, suggested as an explanation for the low average adult age (3.1 years) and lack of population recovery. Compared to other ungulate studies, huemul were affected at young ages and with more compounded and severe pathologies. It was hypothesized that the generalized chronic alveolar osteomyelitis and osteoarthritis in huemul was secondary and related to nutritional ecology.<br/><br/>Invasive species: no studies are available showing any direct effects on huemul, neither through competition, predation nor diseases. Invasive species potentially threatening huemul include <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus, Dama dama, Sus scrofa, Lepus europaeus</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryctolagus cuniculus</span>, but it is unclear if they contributed to the present situation as huemul subpopulations disappeared frequently before the arrival of these species. Feral livestock with the same potential impacts include cattle, sheep, horses, and goats. Similar effects result from extensively run livestock and dog use, which is a widespread land use throughout the huemul distribution. Additional wild species with a potential to affect huemul are currently held in fenced areas, thus representing potential sources of future escapees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Capreolus capreolus, Capra ibex</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemitragus jemlahicus</span> (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a).<br/><br/>Predation: this poses an important threat to reduced subpopulations of huemul as each loss is the more important as the size of the subpopulation diminishes: a demographic stochasticity problem.  If it is suspected as a mayor mortality cause, it should be confirmed through studies and eliminated with all means possible. One study based on tagged animals showed that 36% of fawns and also adult huemul were killed by dogs (Corti 2006). Depending on other factors affecting mortality and recruitment, dog predation can be enough to prevent recovery or even precipitate a decline. Other subpopulations though have declined in the absence of dogs, and the nature of local threats has to be determined for each subpopulation. It is also possible that reduced huemul subpopulations cannot recover, and thus are threatened with extinction from predation by native species. In such cases it might be necessary to temporarily reduced the pressure from native predators.<br/><br/>Logging and silviculture: extraction of wood should not by itself create a problem, as huemul do well in post-fire landscapes. Negative impacts would be expected from secondary issues, like hunting, presences of dogs, new roads providing access, and likelihood of new settlers and livestock. Marked huemul have been shown to leave areas disturbed by logging (Gill <em>et al</em>. 2007). Pure plantations, especially of exotic conifers, would likely make habitat unsuitable. The subpopulation at Cerro Castillo (Chile) appears to be expanding to areas which had been reforested with exotic pine trees to stop erosion (J. Jimenez pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Genetic problems: inbreeding may affect various components of fitness, but it is poorly understood in natural populations (Coulson <em>et al</em>. 1998). They looked at two measures, birth weight and neonatal survival in red deer, and neither inbreeding coefficient nor individual heterozygosity was consistently related to these fitness components. China's population of Pere David's Deer, once extinct in its native habitat in China, has grown to over 2,000 from 12 founders, with few signs of genetic retrogression after generations of inbreeding. To measure occurrence of inbreeding on a genetic basis might be difficult in general (Pemperton 2004), and very impractical for most remaining huemul subpopulations. Detection of a reduced fitness component with or without specific underlying causes might still be an indication of a problem related to inbreeding. On the other hand some species have been show to be apparently resistant to inbreeding possibly from purging of deleterious alleles (Windig <em>et al</em>. 2004). As there is no apt information on huemul, the precautionary principle indicates that increasing the size of subpopulations by all means should be a mayor major objective.<br/><br/>Small population size: this is the most important aspect in terms of extinction risk due to demographic and environmental stochasticity, and emphasis should be on determining the population size and monitoring the trend (O'Grady <em>et al</em>. 2004). Only a few subpopulations in Chile seem to be stable (Tamango and Castillo National Reserves, Torres del Paine National Park, some southern coastal subpopulations). One subpopulation in central Chile has been declining (Povilitis 1998), but trends for most subpopulations are unknown, or became only clear when local extinctions were evident. Although sightings in both countries have increased in recent times for some localities, it has not been shown to be due to a numeric response. Any factor known or suspected to prevent the numeric recovery should be eliminated. In the case that this is impossible, another valid option is a possible total capture of the group and to use it to reinforce other subpopulations, to re-introduce the animals to a site where negative factors are judged sufficiently reduced, or to stock a semi-captive centre. <br/><br/>Infrastructure development: both countries are experiencing rapid economic growth and are promoting its continuation. Several important huemul subpopulations face construction of the  largest ever energy project of Chile, major dams and reservoirs and 1,600 km of transmission lines, whereas smaller scaled hydro electric projects in Argentina will also affect several populations. Inundations of fertile valley bottoms will be a major loss of important habitat, whereas construction and later maintenance will increase the human contact with these huemul and thus result in losses from poaching, dogs and illegal releases of domestic livestock. The current environmental approach in Chile leans towards “the one who does the damage pays”, resulting principally in trying to mitigate by reducing damage, repair or compensation (pay if damage is irreversible).<br/><br/>Other<br/>Some factors are not commonly listed as threats, yet they contribute substantially to the probability of achieving a recovery, or not. Some countries are obligated by law to spend the money necessary to address issues determined important for an endangered species. This appears not to apply to Chile nor Argentina. The National priorities regarding an endangered species or other National interests, like building dams, pipelines, roads, etc. differ, thus the adequacy of laws pertaining to huemul need to be confirmed. For instance, as of 1995, Chilean laws contained flaws, were inconsistent, and the mining code in Art. 17 permits mining exploration and exploitation within the Protected Wilderness Areas (Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000). Also, the adequacy of enforcing the existing laws has direct implication on the potential to achieve a recovery, and should be explicitly analyzed.<br/><br/>Socio-economic and political interests often override what conservation biology would recommend, and thus might limit the potential for recovery. Settlers within National parks raise livestock (Martin and Chehebar 2001), utilizing up to 56% of park areas (Simberloff <em>et al</em>. 2003), but commonly run several fold more livestock than permitted (Serret <em>et al</em>. 1994). Although areas of Reserves in National Parks were declared as ‘Critical Areas’ due to huemul presence, 90% of such an areas is are still exclusively used by cattle and only 10% by huemul, and  'intangible' Park areas are exploited mainly through unauthorized livestock and hunting. Reducing livestock is hampered by lack of control, fencing and prevailing policies (Martin and Chehebar 2001, Sabatini and Iglesia 2001).<br/><br/>Thus, other threat categories to consider include:<br/>- inadequacy of laws<br/>- inadequacy of enforcement of laws<br/>- lack of government obligation to finance endangered species measures<br/>- socio-economic and political realities which have little chance to be modified, yet prevent huemul recovery<br/>- chronic under-funding of responsible agencies, affecting law enforcement, monitoring, etc.<br/>- lack of public awareness of the huemul situation.
10056		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus capensis</span> is protected by law in the Knysna estuary (Sea Fisheries Act of 1973) and both the Swartvlei and Knysna estuaries fall under the protection of the National Parks Board (Whitfield 1995).<br/><br/>A conservation breeding program was started in 1998 to help mitigate the natural and anthropogenic threats to this species (Galbusera <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Offspring of this founding stock was transferred from the Zoological Society of London to the Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), currently the only zoo in Europe where this species is being bred in captivity (Galbusera <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
10056		distribution	eng	<p><em>Hippocampus capensis</em> is thought to currently be found in the Knysna, Swartvlei, and Keurbooms estuaries in South Africa (M. Cherry, pers.comm; T. Meintjes, pers. comm.; P. Joubert, pers. comm.). Historical and anecdotal records indicate that this species could previously be found in Klein Brak, Groot Brak, Goukamma, Groot, Kromme, Kabeljous and Gamtoos estuaries (Bell<em> et al.</em> 2003, Lockyear<em> et al.</em> 2006), but surveys carried out between 2001 and 2003 could only locate individuals in the Knysna, Swartvlei, and Keurbooms estuaries (Lockyear<em> et al.</em> 2006).</p>  <p>The Knysna estuary (estuarine mouth: 34°04′ S, 23°03′ E) is by far the largest of the three estuarine systems, covering a water surface area of 19–21 km²<sup></sup> (Geldenhuys 1979 in Teske<em> et al.</em> 2003). However, extensive sandbanks mean that the subtidal area covers only 10 km² (Bell<em> et al.</em> 2003). The Keurbooms estuary (estuarine mouth 34°02′ S, 23°23′ E) is located approximately 42 km east of the Knysna Estuary, and is much smaller, at 2.7–3 km²<sup></sup> (Duvenage and Morant 1984 in Teske<em> et al.</em> 2003, Oudegeest and Laterveer 2005). The third and smallest estuary, Swartvlei estuary (34° S, 22°46′ E), is located approximately 26 km west of the Knysna estuary, with a total water surface of 2–3 km²<sup></sup> (Liptrot 1978 in Teske<em> et al.</em> 2003, Oudegeest and Laterveer 2005). The combined water surface of these estuaries is approximately 27 km².</p>    <p>The area of occupancy for <em>H. capensis</em> was estimated to be less than 50 km²<sup></sup> in 2000 (Lockyear 1999, Hilton-Taylor 2000), but the total surface area of estuaries currently containing known populations of <em>H. capensis</em> is 27 km². Considering that this species’ abundance within the estuaries is low and distributions are patchy (Teske<em> et al.</em> 2007), that significantly more <em>H. capensis </em>are found at sites characterized by high vegetation cover and vegetated sites are limited in these estuaries (e.g., only approximately 11% of Knysna estuary, Teske<em> et al.</em> 2007), and that sandbanks and other structures reduce available habitat for this species, the actual area of occupancy is likely to be much less than 27 km².</p>    <p>Dispersal within the Knysna estuary is probably accomplished passively through tidal currents, and it is likely that some juvenile seahorses may be flushed out to the sea before finding suitable habitat (Teske<em> et al.</em> 2003). This may provide the two smaller estuaries, Keurbooms and Swartvlei, with an infrequent but continuous input of new colonists from the Knysna estuary (Teske<em> et al.</em> 2003). Channel nets deployed to catch ichthyoplankton in the Swartvlei estuary yielded a net movement of 4,091 juvenile<em> H. capensis</em> out of the estuary mouth in October 1986 and a net movement into the estuary of 250 juveniles in November 1986, over a 24-hr period (Whitfield 1989). The total extent of occurrence for this species may include the three estuaries with known populations as well as the inshore coastal areas connecting the estuaries – a total area certainly no more than 300 km² – but the rates of re-entry into estuaries by juveniles is unknown; thus, according to the precautionary principle, the actual extent of occurrence may be little more than that area of occupancy (A. Whitfield, pers. comm.).</p>
10056		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus capensis</span> are found at depths between 0.5–20 m (Toeffie 2000 in Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) in association with submerged aquatic plants. Within Knysna, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis</span> are associated with five dominant aquatic plants: <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera capensis, Caulerpa filiformis, Codium extricatum, Halophila ovalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruppia cirrhosa (</span>Teske <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), though they are most likely to be found grasping <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera capensis</span> eelgrass holdfasts (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). This species is also associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyura stolonifera</span> (a large ascidian) and sponges, but significantly more adult and juvenile seahorses are found at sites characterized by high vegetation cover (75%) than at sites with lower cover (Teske<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). Vegetated sites make up approx 11% of Knysna estuary (Teske <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), thus large areas of habitat in the Knysna estuarine system may be unsuitable for <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis</span> because of the absence of submerged vegetation (Toeffie 2000 in Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis </span>can also tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), such as salinities ranging from 1–59 g/kg (Whitfield 1995).<br/><br/>Juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis</span> are often found in low frequencies during surveys, likely because they spend time in the plankton, at least initially, and older juveniles may use different habitat from the adults sampled (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Juvenile length is strongly dependent on temperature and photoperiod, with higher temperatures and longer photoperiods resulting in juveniles being smaller in captivity (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis </span>adults feed predominantly on small crustaceans which are sucked from submerged leaf surfaces or from the water column (Whitfield 1995).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs in the austral summer, when water temperatures approach 20°C and sexual maturity is attained in about one year at 65 mm standard length (Whitfield 1995). In captivity, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis </span>are diurnally active and have an elaborate courtship and mating ritual involving brood pouch inflation, tail grasping and ‘face-to-face’ positioning (Grange and Cretchley 1995).
10056		population	eng	The total population estimate for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus capensi</span>s in the Knysna estuary (mean, with range representing 95% confidence intervals) was 89,000 seahorses (range 30,000–148,000) in 2000 (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and 62,000 (range 41,000–82,000) in 2001. In 2002, the Swartvlei and Keurbooms supported 995,000 (range 390,000–1.7 million) and 836,000 (range 242,000–1.7 million) seahorses, respectively. In 2003, the Swartvlei estuary supported only 176,000 (range 83,000–280,000) seahorses, and no seahorses could be found in the Keurbooms estuary (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>As of 2003, assuming the total population of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis</span> in the Knysna estuary remained relatively constant at 62,000 individuals between 2001 and 2003, the estimated total population in all estuaries was 238,000 seahorses, range 124,000–360,000, down from 1.9 million seahorses, range 675,000–3.5 million, between 2001 and mid-2002 (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Juveniles typically constitute 5–20% (average 13%) of individuals sampled (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2006), resulting in an estimated mean population size of approximately 207,000 mature individuals as of 2003.<br/><br/>In 2005, the Knysna and Swartvlei population sizes appeared to be healthy (M. Cherry, pers. comm.) and, in 2010, populations were reported anecdotally to be seen in abundance in many of the marinas in the Knysna estuary and as being present in the Swartvlei estuary (T. Meintjes pers. comm., P. Joubert pers. comm.). Similar to the 2003 surveys, preliminary surveys of the Keurbooms estuary in 2011 found no seahorses, despite the availability of suitable habitat (Appleby 2011). However, anecdotal evidence indicates individuals may occasionally be seen in this estuary (T. Meintjes pers. comm., Appleby, 2011).<br/><br/>Recently constructed artificial habitats (e.g., marinas/boat harbours) appear to act as protective habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis</span> (P. Joubert, pers. comm.) and, as relatively large numbers of individuals are seen in these habitats (B. Allanson, pers. comm.), they may have a beneficial effect on population size.
10056		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus capensis</span> is the only seahorse species thus far inferred to be primarily at risk from habitat damage (Lockyear 2000, Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). This species’ primary habitat, the Knysna estuary, is among the most heavily used water bodies in South Africa (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and human settlements and associated industrial, domestic, and recreational activities are increasing around all estuaries where this species has been recorded (Skelton 1987 in Whitfield 1995).<br/><br/>The area is under threat from urban expansion and land-use changes in the catchment; stormwater runoff has increased in volume and peak flows carry suspended sediment into the estuary (strong currents sweep animals and plants out into the sea and silt depositions result in the smothering of habitat and the clogging of gills); rising population and equity development, to provide piped water for all, threatens freshwater inflow; and waste water disposal brings in chemical and biological pollutants (Marker 2003). Development surrounding the estuary is known to deposit trace metals, hydrocarbons, pesticides and organic wastes into the estuary (Chmelik 1975 in Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2003). Within the estuary, the cumulative impact of boats may significantly affect the seagrass habitats of this species (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Pollution events or other disturbances which affect the submerged plant beds of these estuaries will have a direct and indirect impact on <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis </span>populations (Skelton 1987 in Whitfield 1995), yet construction developments and pollution continue (Lockyear <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Teske <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis </span>also appears to be vulnerable to water temperature increases. In 1991, 3,000 dead seahorses were found along the shores of the Swartvlei estuary after heavy rainfall and flooding caused a breach in the estuarine mouth and partially drained the estuary, leaving many individuals trapped in small pockets of remaining water. Mortality was attributed to the sudden increase in water temperature following the reduction in water level (Russell 1994). When the water levels drop and individuals are restricted to smaller pools, they are also susceptible to high levels of predation (P. Joubert pers. comm.). Furthermore, large-scale flooding may substantially alter the estuaries in which this species is found (C.A.P.E. Estuaries Management Programme 2010). The present rate at which construction developments and other human activities are increasing along the estuary is alarming; the resulting habitat degradation may make recovery of populations after a naturally occurring disaster, such as a freshwater flood, increasingly difficult (Teske <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>Furthermore, recently observed specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. capensis</span> also appear to be infected with lesions; the disease appears most often in individuals using artificial habitats (P. Joubert pers. comm.).
10057		conservation	eng	<strong>Globally</strong> <br/>CITES Appendix II-listing for entire genus (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). Australia and New Zealand are CITES parties. <br/> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>1. Listed as Data Deficient by Environment Australia. <br/>2. In Australia, all syngnathids have been subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> since 1 January 1998 (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>3. All syngnathids and solenostomids were gazetted as marine species under s248 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) Act 1999 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002), with implementation effective in 2001 (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2001, Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). <br/>4. Protection under the relevant fisheries laws in NSW, SA, Tas and Vic. <br/>5. No ASFB Listing (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/>6. Present in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas: Jervis Bay Marine Park, southern NSW.  Suspected to be in most NSW Aquatic Reserves within its range (Pogononski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand</strong> <br/>1. Seahorses cannot be targeted by commercial fisheries, but can be sold to Licensed Fish Receivers as regulated quantities of bycatch (see Threats section). <br/>2. Big bellied seahorses are present in the following New Zealand marine reserves, where legislation protects all wildlife from extraction or harm: Kapiti Island reserve (2,167 ha area), Kokomohua reserve, Te Angiangi reserve, Te Wharawhara (1,075 ha area) (Woods pers.obs). They may also be present in other existing marine reserves but their presence has not been documented. There are many more marine reserve areas currently under review around New Zealand, which may include seahorses in their fauna.
10057		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus abdominalis</em> occurs in the marine waters of south-eastern Australia and all around New Zealand (Kuiter 2001, Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004); populations have also been recorded from estuaries in Australia (Martin-Smith and Vincent 2005) and may also occupy similar sites in New Zealand. All populations fall within FAO Fisheries Areas 57 and 81 (Indian Ocean eastern and southwest Pacific). <br/> <br/><em>Hippocampus abdominalis</em> is known in Australia from Newcastle, New South Wales (NSW) southwards throughout Victoria (Vic), Tasmania (Tas) and westwards as far as the northern Great Australian Bight in South Australia (SA) (Kuiter 2001). It has been found to depths of at least 35 m (Kuiter 2001). <br/> <br/>In New Zealand the species is widespread within the 200-mile Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ), from the Three Kings Islands in the north, to the Snares Islands in the south, and at the Chatham Islands (Scrimgeour 1986, Paulin and Roberts 1992). In New Zealand, depth distribution varies considerably where sightings have been recorded from the intertidal to a maximum depth of 104 m (Amaoka <em>et al</em>. 1990); occurrences from the surface to 40 m are more common (Paulin and Roberts 1992, Francis 1998, Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stevenson and Beentjes 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Museum Records (Australia)</u> <br/>19 specimens (height 46–250 mm), captured from depths of 0–32 m, ranging in geographical distribution from Newcastle (32°52’S, 151° 75' E) to the northern Great Australian Bight (approx. 32°24’S, 133°30’E) Specimens were collected between 1916 and 1996. There are additional specimens from NSW in various fish collections around Australia, but the identifications of these specimens have not yet been verified [Pogonoski, 2002 #3720]. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for Figure 2: known extent of distribution in Australian waters. <br/> <br/>The extent of occurrence for <em>H. abdominalis</em> includes the seawaters of south-eastern Australia and New Zealand (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Lourie <em>et al</em>., 2004). Within New Zealand waters, <em>H. abdominalis</em> are known from the Three Kings Islands in the north, the Snares Islands in the south, and at the Chatham Islands to the east (Scrimgeour 1986, Paulin and Roberts 1992). <br/> <br/>Area of occupancy is generally unknown but there is assumed to be suitable habitat throughout the geographic range. Populations of <em>H. abdominalis</em> have been reported from Sydney Harbour, NSW; Lakes Entrance, Port Phillip Bay, Western Port, Vic; Tamar, Derwent and Huon River Estuaries, Tas; Spencer Gulf and Yorke Peninsula, SA (Kuiter 2000 & 2001, Martin-Smith and Vincent 2005, K. Martin-Smith pers. comm., J. Manna pers. comm.), Whangateau Harbour (Kuiter 2000) and Wellington Harbour North Island NZ (Woods 2002).
10057		habitat	eng	Generally, there is little known about the <em>in situ</em> ecology of <em>H. abdominalis</em>. In Australia, there is on-going research on populations in the Derwent Estuary, Tasmania and Sydney Harbour, NSW (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). Most NZ research has focused on aspects of diet and reproduction, conducted <em>ex situ</em> on wild individuals from Wellington Harbour (Woods 2002 and 2005, Poortenaar <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adult <em>Hippocampus abdominalis</em> have been recorded from harbours, protected coastal bays and deep waters with sponges (Kuiter 1993, Kuiter 2001). Depth range varies considerably from the surface down to 104 m (Amaoka <em>et al</em>. 1990, Paulin and Roberts 1992, Francis 1998, Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stevenson and Beentjes 2001). Habitat varies from intertidal rock pools to, more commonly, amongst shallow macroalgal stands (e.g., <em>Ecklonia</em>, [Kuiter 2000]), submerged rocky outcrops, exposed open sea floor and artificial structures (Francis 1998, Woods 2003). In Tasmania, <em>H. abdominalis</em> are reported as common near the entrances of large estuaries on muddy bottoms, or near reef edges, feeding on small crustaceans (Last <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is not definitively known whether they occupy home ranges or are free-ranging, although some evidence suggests certain populations may exhibit site fidelity (Van Dijken 2001). Unlike most seahorse species, <em>H. abdominalis</em> is a relatively strong swimmer and has been known to swim over hundreds of meters in the course of a day (Vincent 1990). Adults are also known to occur in open water and to raft on macroalgal rafts (Kingsford and Choat 1985) and seagrass (J. Manna, pers. comm.): this occurs at all times of the year in at least New Zealand (Kingsford and Choat 1985, Kingsford 1986). Artificial structures appear to be important habitats for <em>H. abdominalis</em>: in particular, jetties, nets and salmon cages. For example, hundreds of individuals have been observed on anti-predator nets surrounding salmon aquaculture pens in the Huon Estuary, Tasmania (Marshall 2004, K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). Similarly, <em>H. abdominalis</em> have been observed in reasonably large numbers on the net of a swimming enclosure in Sydney Harbour since 2003 (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction</strong>: <br/>As with other members of the seahorse and pipefish family, males incubate eggs in an abdominal pouch and eventually release young that look like miniature replicas of adults (Edgar 1997). The pouch is developed at about six months of age, but first breeding occurs closer to 12 months (R. Kuiter, pers comm. in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Spawning occurs mainly from (the Austral) spring to summer, where Woods (in press) found brooding males present throughout the year, but with an apparently lower incidence of brooding in winter. Similarly, Poortenaar <em>et al</em>. (2004) examined the reproductive biology of female <em>H. abdominalis</em>, looking at ovarian morphology, reproductive condition and sex steroid levels.  Using these indices, they found that females were capable of reproductive activity throughout the year, presenting the potential for a protracted spawning season (Poortenaar <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The number of juveniles (mean ± 1 SE) released per brood in a New Zealand population was 271.2 ± 27 (Woods, in press), whereas the maximum reported brood size for the species in aquaculture is 1,116 (R. Hawkins pers comm. in Lourie <em>et al</em>., 2004). Juveniles 16–19 mm in standard length, are released from the pouch after about thirty days. Larger males produce more juveniles (Woods, in press). Juvenile length and weight are not correlated with the number of juveniles per brood, parent male size or parent male pouch volume. The percentage of pouch contents that are non-viable (i.e., premature or non-viable eggs) upon juvenile release tends to be low (1.1 ± 0.2%; mean ± 1 SE of the total pouch contents) (Woods, in press). Following release from the parent male, juveniles are believed to be pelagic, at least for several weeks, Juveniles up to 8 cm in length have been collected in surface waters of the open ocean over the Chatham Rise in New Zealand (Woods, pers. obs.) and adult <em>H. abdominalis</em> have been captured near-shore associated with floating seaweed and debris (Kingsford and Choat 1985). The propensity for rafting presents a possible large-scale dispersal mechanism for this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Diet</strong>: <br/>The diet of wild adult <em>H. abdominalis</em> consists largely of crustaceans, in particular amphipods, caridean shrimp, and peracarids (Woods 2002). There are no differences in diet between male and female seahorses. Smaller seahorses consume relatively more crustaceans than larger seahorses, where a greater proportion of their gut contents are comprised of amphipods when compared with adults. There is evidence for seasonal differences in diet, with amphipod consumption peaking in spring and summer, and decapod consumption lowest in autumn (Woods 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Behaviour</strong>: <br/>This species is reported to be more active at dusk and at night than during the day in New Zealand (Paulin and Roberts 1992). In Australia, <em>H. abdominalis</em> has been observed aggregating in groups at night (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.).
10057		population	eng	Unknown, but see Range for known populations. At most reported locations in Australia, <em>H. abdominalis</em> appears to be rare or scarce. Mean peak densities in the Derwent Estuary, Tasmania were 0.12–1.11 individuals per 100 m² in 2000–2002, but subsequently declined significantly. In Tasmanian macroalgal (<em>Ecklonia</em>) habitats, densities of fewer than one individual per 500 m² are generally recorded (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). Numbers from trawls (NZ) suggest that on soft bottoms, the species may be widespread if scarce, but further documentation is needed. <br/> <br/>Exceptions to sparse populations are aggregations on some artificial structures and one documented report of large numbers aggregated on rafting seagrass (J. Manna, pers. comm.)
10057		threats	eng	The main global threats to <em>H. abdominalis</em> include: <br/> <br/>1. Bycatch in commercial demersal fisheries. <br/>2. Unregulated take (recreational, domestic or for export). <br/>3. Intrinsic life history parameters. <br/>4. Natural predation. <br/>5. The appearance of protection under CITES international trade legislation; a 10 cm size limit is likely to provide inadequate protection for this large species of seahorse. <br/> <br/>1. <u>Bycatch and Commercial Fisheries</u> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>Legislation requires that all interactions of commercial export fisheries with any syngnathid, including <em>H. abdominalis</em>, are recorded. However, there are few documented examples of commercial bycatch of <em>H. abdominalis</em> suggesting either low compliance or few interactions. Given the nature of Australian commercial fisheries operating in the geographic range of <em>H. abdominalis</em> (i.e., gear type, depth range, target species) it is probably unlikely that significant numbers are caught as bycatch. All of these commercial fisheries have been assessed against sustainable fishing guidelines by the Department of Environment & Heritage and certified as not having unacceptable impacts on syngnathids in either the short-term (Wildlife Trade Operation) or long-term (Exempt fishery). <br/> <br/>However, despite mandatory reporting of syngnathid exports since 1998, Australian figures differed considerably from import statistics elsewhere. Official Australian government international trade data for the period 1998–2002 showed that declared exports of dried <em>H. abdominalis</em> were minimal (<10 kg) and sourced from aquaculture operations only. However recorded imports of seahorses (potentially including other Australian <em>Hippocampus</em> species) to China, Hong Kong and Taiwan over the same period were over 700 kg. It seems probable that other species of syngnathid (particularly pipehorses, <em>Solegnathus</em> spp.) from Australia were recorded as seahorses when they were imported into Hong Kong and Taiwan through misidentification, translation and data coding errors (Martin-Smith and Vincent in press). Nonetheless, species identities need to be verified in these jurisdictions. <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand</strong> <br/>In New Zealand, seahorses cannot be targeted by commercial fishing (1983 Fisheries Act). As such, they are not part of the New Zealand fisheries Quota Management System (QMS) that regulates the total amount of commercial catch in New Zealand.  However, <em>H. abdominalis</em> caught as incidental bycatch during commercial fishing, may be legally sold to Licensed Fish Receivers (LFR) (section 67 of the 1983 Fisheries Act) limited to <10 kg wet weight per 24 hr period (section 67(2)) (Woods 2000). Bycatch has historically been solicited by New Zealand companies with strong Asian connections for domestic medicinal use and for export to countries such as Hong Kong and Taiwan for traditional medicinal (TM) usages (Vincent 1996). Seahorses caught as bycatch, but not sold for TM use, are sometimes kept as aquarium pets or dried as a curio. Seahorses are not known to be used as a food in New Zealand. <br/> <br/>Only a short recorded catch history of <em>H. abdominalis</em> in New Zealand is available. Data from the Ministry of Fisheries databases (follow the link below to see Table 1.1) shows the total estimated catch (estimated actual catch by vessel skippers on day of fishing) of <em>H. abdominalis</em> from 1989 through 2005 was 240 kg, whereas the landed catch (recorded at factory/processing plant) for these years was 1,625 kg. It should be noted that because of the difference between the ways in which fishing year is recorded between estimated and landed catch data, estimated catch data appears one fishing year ahead of landed catch data, yet estimated catch and landed catch forms are filled out in the same calendar year. There are obvious disparities between estimated and landed catches, which may indicate either that estimated catch data is underestimated or that landed catch data is incorrect due to reasons such as species miscoding or data entry error. Miscoding of <em>H. abdominalis</em> (SHO) as Silver Dory (SDO – <em>Cyttus novaezelandiae</em>), a fish taken irregularly as bycatch has been known to occur within the fisheries database. The large pipehorse <em>Solegnathus spinosissimus</em> (SDR) is also sometimes misidentified by fishers as seahorses. <br/> <br/>Detailed examination of individual Catch Effort Landing Return data (CELR, submitted by quota holders documenting total catch and fishing effort), reveal that the single largest catch of seahorses reported by one fisher was 60 kg in the Nelson/Marlborough dredge fishery. This is the exception in terms of catch size, as the majority of individual CELR’s reported seahorse catches <1 kg. Statistical areas of catch are on the Eastern side of New Zealand and central New Zealand, effectively within Fisheries Management Areas (FMA) 1 (Auckland East), 2 (Central East), 7 (Nelson Marlborough) and 20 (Kapiti Coast). The majority of seahorses were caught in statistical areas 010–011 (south of Auckland, North Island) and the Nelson Marlborough FMA (follow the link below to see Figures 3 & 4). However, the 010–011 data should be queried because of the purported catch method (see below for discussion on purported catch method of bottom long lining). Estimated catch by fishing method is summarised in Table 1.2 (follow the link below). <br/> <br/>Seahorses were caught using a variety of methods. However, seahorses were probably not attracted to the fishing equipment through bait action. In the case of set nets, fish traps and cod traps, seahorses probably attach to the fishing equipment to use it as substratum and are then hauled onboard the fishing vessel still attached (Woods, pers. obs). In the case of dredging, seahorses are probably caught by the dredge whilst foraging over shellfish habitat following settlement on suitable near-surface substratum as juveniles (e.g., mussel spat-catching lines). <br/> <br/>In the case of the bottom long line (BLL) data, this is probably incorrect and likely to be a species miscoding or data entry error. Bottom long lining for snapper is particularly popular around northern North Island and Bay of Plenty regions (010–011 statistical areas). Seahorses should not get hooked on long lines as the hooks used should be too large (usually size 5–15 hooks) for the seahorse’ small mouth, and seahorses are not attracted to large, non-moving bait. If the BLL data is correct, this leaves the possibility that the seahorses are rapidly colonising and attaching (using their prehensile tails) to set long lines, which in turn implies a very dense mobile surrounding population. This is unlikely given the limited information available on population densities for seahorses. From reviewing the catch data, dredging numbers appear generally feasible given the catch sizes, gear used, and observation of seahorse settlement on substratum above the dredged seafloor. <br/> <br/>2. <u>Unregulated take (Recreational, Domestic or for Export)</u> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>As <em>H. abdominalis</em> is protected by legislation throughout its geographic range, unregulated take should not pose a threat to populations. In State waters (<2 nautical miles from the coast) relevant laws in NSW, SA, Vic and Tas require that all recreational and domestic fishers hold a permit, which should ensure that the take is sustainable. Illegal take has been reported sporadically (D. Harasti, pers. comm.). However, there is little evidence of systematic IUU (illegal unregulated and unreported) fishing of <em>H. abdominalis</em>. Similarly, in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (2 nm to the edge of the EEZ), all syngnathids are protected as listed marine species by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC), where under this legislation it is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Under the former Australian Wildlife Protection Act (Regulation of Exports and Imports (WPA) (1 and the present EPBC (effective for syngnathids 2001), syngnathids have had the same level of protection since 1998. <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand</strong> <br/>As a non-QMS species, the recording of accurate export data for <em>H. abdominalis</em> has historically not taken place. Dried seahorses were either included in the export category 0305.59.00 (Other fish, whether or not salted but not smoked), or 0301.10.00 (Ornamental fish). Therefore, reconciliation of exports with estimated and landed catches is not historically possible. There are no catch limits for the amateur-take of seahorses in New Zealand in terms of numbers or sizes. <br/> <br/>3. <u>Intrinsic Life History Traits</u> <br/>By virtue of their life history characteristics, seahorses are generally regarded as being particularly vulnerable to direct over-exploitation, indirect fishing pressure through non-selective fishing gear or other disruptions such as habitat loss/degradation and environmental pollution around their coastal habitats (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Bell <em>et al</em>. 2003, Foster and Vincent 2004, Martin-Smith and Vincent 2005). Some of these traits apply to <em>H. abdominalis</em>, while other aspects of their life history may confer resilience. <br/> <br/>Records from Australia and benthic trawls in New Zealand suggest that like other seahorses, populations are generally sparse (therefore individuals might have difficulty finding a mate in affected areas). However, mark-recapture studies in Tasmania and NSW have shown no evidence of mate fidelity as has been observed in other seahorse species (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). It should be noted that trawled soft bottom may represent marginal habitat for the species, and populations may be more abundant in areas with greater rugosity or diverse benthic structure. <br/> <br/>In fishes, a particular suite of life history traits is correlated with high recovery rate (Hutchings and Reynolds 2004); this includes rapid growth, short life span, small body size and low age at maturity (Reynolds <em>et al</em>. 2001).  It appears that at least some of these traits may be relevant to <em>H. abdominalis</em>. <br/> <br/>The age and growth rates of wild <em>H. abdominalis</em> are not well documented. The only <em>in-situ</em> data on growth for <em>H. abdominalis</em> (northern New Zealand) reports rates of 2.8 mm per month increases in standard length (SL) for small seahorses, and rates of up to 14.9 mm per month for 16 cm SL seahorses (Van Dijken 2001). Based on operculum ageing and length/weight relationships in wild animals, Lovett (1969) estimated that for <em>H. abdominalis</em> in Tasmania, seahorses from 9.1 to 11 cm in length were one year old; those 9.1–16.1 cm were 1–2 years old; those 14.4–19 cm were 2–3 years old; those 18–22 cm were 3–4 years old; and finally, those over 22 cm in length were 4+ years old. It is difficult to contextualize <em>in situ</em> growth rates or lifespan of <em>H. abdominalis</em> relative to other seahorse species because these data are generally not yet available. However, longevity is short when compared with families such as, for example, scorpaenids, serranids and lutjanids that live >25–40 years (Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>If Lovett’s age/growth estimates are broadly applicable across the species’ range, then <em>H. abdominalis</em> reaches first sexual maturity at around one year of age (wild <em>H. abdominalis</em> 10 cm in length from Wellington Harbour were capable of brooding embryos, Woods, in press). Reproductive output of male <em>H. abdominalis</em> increases in terms of brood number, with size (Woods, in press). Seahorses show a relationship between maximum size and the appearance of reproductive characteristics (inferred to represent size at first reproduction) typical of other bony fishes (Foster and Vincent 2004), suggesting that they be not more vulnerable to exploitation than other teleosts. <br/> <br/>Low fecundity is also cited as a life history trait that may confer risk to a species, although other authors point out that there is no relationship between fecundity and a population’s potential for recovery (Hutchings and Reynolds 2004). Seahorses have small brood sizes relative to other fishes with parental care (Foster and Vincent 2004). However, seahorses also mate iteratively which increases their overall reproductive output. <em>H. abdominalis</em> in particular appears to be reproductive year around, with the greatest proportion of juveniles occurring in the Austral summer (M. Hickford, unpublished data). Seahorses are also released from the male brood pouch fully metamorphosed, such that although numerically small relative to many other teleosts, broods of <em>H. abdominalis</em> may experience greater survivorship than other young. <br/> <br/>4. <u>Natural Predation</u> <br/>Natural predators of <em>H. abdominalis</em> include fishes such as skates (<em>Dipturus</em> spp.), red cod (<em>Pseudophycis bachus</em>), trumpeter (<em>Latris lineata</em>), blue cod (<em>Parapercis colias</em>), ling (<em>Genypterus blacodes</em>), sea perch (<em>Helicolenus percoides</em>) (Graham 1974), and banded wrasse (<em>Notolabrus fucicola</em>) (Denny and Schiel 2001) in NZ. In Australia, <em>H. abdominalis</em> is taken by flathead (<em>Platycephalus</em> spp.), Australian salmon (<em>Arripsis truttacea</em>), striped anglerfish (<em>Antennarius striatus</em>) and birds such as cormorants (<em>Phalacrocorax</em> spp.) and fairy penguins (<em>Eudyptula minor</em>) (Kuiter 2000, K. Martin-Smith pers. comm.). No research has yet addressed the effects of predation in any species of seahorse. Presumably <em>H. abdominalis</em> should have evolved to sustain natural predation rates, but the effects of predation in combination with exploitation remain unknown. <br/> <br/>5. <u>The Appearance of Protection Under CITES Appendix II legislation</u> <br/>All seahorse species are listed on CITES Appendix II, which, although still permitting trade, requires that such trade is determined to be non-detrimental to exploited populations. To issue a Non-Detriment Finding (NDF) the relevant CITES regulatory body must have a reasonable knowledge of the biology and ecology of the seahorse species concerned. In lieu of NDFs, a minimum seahorse height, such as the 10 cm minimum height (mHT) recommended by CITES may be used. The 10 cm mHT size restriction is an across-species compromise that provides one value for all species in the genus. For the majority of seahorse species that are similarly sized, such a minimum size restriction may well be applicable. However, the 10 cm mHT might not be applicable to seahorse species that are markedly different from an average seahorse size. For brooding male <em>H. abdominalis</em> from Wellington Harbour, when the CITES 10 cm mHT size restriction is translated to length (11.56 cm SL) and plotted against recorded brood sizes, it appears that this size restriction is not an adequate protective measure for <em>H. abdominalis</em> at this location (Woods, in press) as the data suggest that males appear to begin brooding just before the proposed minimum 10 cm mHT size and produce relatively low numbers of juveniles, leaving the most productive males (number of juveniles produced) open to exploitation. A larger minimum size restriction to allow sustainable exploitation of this species would appear to be required. Reproductive output should be modeled in light of <em>in situ</em> survivorship data in order to understand the implications of the 10 cm size limit for population persistence. Australia’s legislation should enable NDFs through appropriate management of permits at the State level and assessment of commercial export fishing operations under the EPBC.
10060		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of <em>H. bargibanti</em> as Data Deficient (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  Very few data are available for this species.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10060		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the ecology of this species.  It is one of the smallest seahorse species, measuring less than 2 cm in height (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).  It has a specific habitat, being found only on gorgonian corals <em>Muricella plectana</em> (Gomon 1997, Tackett and Tackett 1997, Whitley 1970) at depths ranging from 16–40 m (Tackett and Tackett 1997).  <em>Hippocampus bargibanti</em> appears to form pairs and may be monogamous (Tackett and Tackett 1997).
10060		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are currently unknown, however, their attractive colouration makes it possible they could be collected for the aquaria trade.
10061		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  A permit or license is required to export dried or live syngnathids from South Africa.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10061		distribution	eng	Known from the eastern Indian Ocean around East Africa and Madagascar. Genetic research suggests that this species may be part of the <em>kuda</em> complex (S. Casey, in litt. in Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further research is required.
10061		habitat	eng	This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (A. Holley, pers. comm. in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10061		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus borboniensis</em> is found in the traditional medicine and curios trades (Vincent and Perry in prep.), however, the numbers of animals traded are unknown.  Its habitat may also be threatened by degradation – the Mauritius and La Reunion coral reefs are being degraded by sedimentation and nutrient pollution (Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998, Cuet <em>et al</em>. 1988, Naim 1993).
10063		conservation	eng	Listed as a genus (<em>Hippocampus</em>) on Appendix II of CITES (Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). <br/> <br/>1. All syngnathids are listed as Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>2. The Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995 prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania (by non-permit holders, since Sept. 1994). <br/>3. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 from 1 January 1998. <br/>4. Australian <em>H. breviceps</em> populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the EPBC Act in 2001. <br/>5. No Australian Society of Fish Biology Listing. <br/>6. Likely to inhabit the Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve (Marine Protected Areas) in Spencer Gulf, Southern Australia.
10063		distribution	eng	<em>H. breviceps</em> is a temperate, southern Australian endemic seahorse, which is most common in the Port Philip Bay region of Victoria (Kuiter 1993).  It is also known from Spencer Gulf and St. Vincent Gulf in South Australia, and Forsters Inlet southward to Port Arthur in eastern Tasmania (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has also been recorded from Bass Strait (Last <em>et al</em>., 1983). Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) report that its occurrence in Western Australian waters is, at this stage, unclear. Lourie <em>et al</em>. (2004) note that some specimens from Western Australia have significantly longer, narrower snouts and may represent a separate species. This slender-snout form has only been seen in the northern portion of the species’ range, and is called <em>H. tuberculatus</em> (knobby seahorse) by Kuiter (1993).  The range of <em>H. breviceps</em> falls within FAO fisheries area 57.<br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence includes Southern Australia, Victoria,Tasmania, and Western Australia.  Area of occupancy includes documented populations in Port Philip Bay region of Victoria (Moreau and Vincent 2004), Spencer Gulf and St. Vincent Gulf in South Australia, Forsters Inlet southward to Port Arthur in eastern Tasmania (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) and from the Bass Strait (Last <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>Likely to inhabit the Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve (Marine Protected Area) in Spencer Gulf, Southern Australia (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).
10063		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus breviceps</em> occurs in sheltered coastal reefs in macroalgal beds (<em>Sargassum</em> spp.) (Moreau and Vincent 2004), within (Kendrick and Hyndes 2003) and at the edge of seagrass patches (Kuiter 2000). Individuals have also been found on floating macroalgae (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994), associated with rock reef and jetty habitats (Coleman 1980) and observed on sponge reefs at depths below 15 m (Kuiter 2000). <em>Hippocampus breviceps</em> are more normally found at depths of approximately 5 m, although may be difficult to see because of good camouflage (Edgar 1997). Specimens found in <em>Sargassum</em> usually have long fronds or appendages on the head and back. <em>Hippocampus breviceps</em> feeds close to the sand or rubble during the day and is carnivorous, targeting mysids (Kuiter 2000). <br/> <br/>In Port Philip Bay animals occur in small to large aggregations (Kuiter 1993) with male;female sex ratios of 1:1 (Moreau and Vincent 2004). Group (2–5 individuals) occurrence coincides with particular seaweed areas that are the site of early morning social encounters (Moreau and Vincent 2004). Kuiter (2000) suggests that small groups congregate in safe places at night, often high in macroalgae to keep away from crabs on the substrate. Adults exhibit variable site fidelity, with 12 of 38 individuals remaining within a focal study area for five weeks of observation (Moreau and Vincent 2004). Females use significantly larger area than males (Moreau and Vincent 2004). <br/> <br/><em>H. breviceps</em> is thought to breed on an approximately monthly cycle throughout the Austral summer, producing 50–100 young per brood (Kuiter 2000). Males have large pouches that they inflate when courting females. <em>In situ</em> observations indicate that adult seahorses display and interact with potential partners, although not every day, and not necessarily with the same partner at each encounter (Moreau and Vincent 2004).  Females transfer batches of eggs (1.6 mm diameter (Vincent 1990) to males during copulation which can take from a matter of minutes to 2.5 days, in <em>ex situ</em> conditions (Kuiter 1993). Kuiter (1993) reports that in captivity, males may accept eggs from more than one female, although this has yet to be observed in natural wild pairs. Larvae have been observed swimming to the surface upon release, where they grasp small bits of weed or debris in surface waters (Kuiter 2000).  Kuiter (2000) reports size at settlement to be 25 mm. <br/> <br/>Longevity in aquaria is at least 3–5 years (P.Quong, pers. comm. in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002), but lifespan in the wild is unknown.
10063		population	eng	No quantitative data exist on the estimated size of <em>H. breviceps</em> populations or subpopulations. Densities of 0.21 adults per square meter have been reported in the only studied population in Port Philip Bay. Research is required to determine the species’ genetic population structure and connectivity.
10063		threats	eng	The biggest threat facing <em>H. breviceps</em> is likely to be increasing development and population pressure in coastal waters leading to the degradation of shallow inshore habitat (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Such threats remain unquantified for this species at present.  Additional threat may be posed by collection for the marine aquarium fish trade, as <em>H. breviceps</em> can be brilliantly coloured (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Current removal rates (estimated at <100 wild caught individuals annually) need to be assessed in light of population abundance data that is not presently available. Prawn trawling in Spencer Gulf South Australia (Tanner 2003) poses an unknown threat to populations and/or habitat.
10064		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  A permit or license is required to export dried or live syngnathids from South Africa.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10064		habitat	eng	This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et a</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10064		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus camelopardalis</em> is caught for traditional medicines, curiosities, and aquaria in Tanzania, but not elsewhere in its range (J. McPherson, unpublished data).  A few traders interviewed during trade surveys conducted by Project Seahorse between 2000–2001 noticed local declines in seahorse populations over the last 10–30 years, but most had noticed no change (J. McPherson, unpublished data). The authors conclude that the trade: (1) probably poses no danger to seahorses in Kenya; (2) may be a cause for concern in Tanzania; and (3) is insufficiently known to draw conclusions in South Africa or Mozambique.
10065		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002. Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance, and distribution is needed.
10065		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus coronatus</em> are found among Sargassum, close to shore (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984).  The breeding season of this species is June to July (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984).  <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10065		threats	eng	Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 indicated that the trade in <em>H. coronatus</em> appears to be quite small (B. Kwan, unpublished data). It is only found in Japan (from Hokkaido to Kyushu; Nakabo 2000), and while it is not targeted in any fishery, it may be caught incidentally in other fisheries (B. Kwan, unpublished data).
10066		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Full monitoring of the trade is underway in the United States, however this is dependent on traders’ declarations.  Seahorses are listed under Title 68 (Rules of the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission) of the Florida Administrative Codes.  The targeted fishery for the aquarium trade in Florida is monitored and regulations are in place, such as a limitation on the number of commercial harvesters, however the non-selective exploitation is not monitored in any state.  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> are considered threatened in the states of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil.  Their status has not been evaluated in the other states
10066		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus erectus</em> occurs from the southern tip of Nova Scotia in Canada, along the east coast of the USA, and south to Mexico, the Caribbean, and Venezuela. Small specimens from Brazil appear to be genetically distinct from the north Atlantic specimens and may prove to be a separate species (S. Casey, in litt. in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Further research is needed.
10066		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus erectus</em> occur in water up to 73 m, and are associated with aquatic vegetation such as mangroves, seagrass, sponges, and floating Sargassum, as well as sponges (Lieske and Myers 1994, and McAllister 1990 in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Fish and Mowbray 1970).  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> can be found at the surface and bottom of both shallow water and deeper areas of channels in bays, along beaches, in or near salt marshes, and over oyster beds and weed-covered banks (Hardy 1978). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10066		population	eng	Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 indicated that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined in the Western Atlantic (Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico), with fishers reporting decreases in catch of seahorses (proportion of declines that can be attributed to <em>H. erectus</em> is unknown).  On the coast of Mexico 21/29 fishers in five locations reported declines in seahorses due to the shrimp trawl fishery.  Of the 14 fishers who provided quantified catch estimates, eight estimated declines between 75–90% in the past 10–30 years (J. Baum  unpublished data).  In Brazil 25/29 fishers surveyed reported declines in seahorse catches due to heavy fishing pressures (I. Rosa, unpublished data).  In Honduras 70% of interviewed fishers (n=9) believed there has been a decline in abundance (J. Baum, unpublished data).  While we recognize that these surveys and reported population declines do not encompass the global range of <em>H. erectus</em>, we have chosen to take the precautionary approach of assigning VU.
10066		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus erectus</em> is traded dried as traditional medicine (TM), curios and live for aquariums (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  This is a popular aquarium fish in North America.  In Florida alone, thousands of <em>H. erectus</em> are collected each year for the aquarium trade (P. LaFrance, unpublished data).  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> is Brazil’s 6th most important marine ornamental export (Monteiro-Neto <em>et al</em>. 2000).  In addition to being sold as TM, <em>H. erectus</em> are sold as curios in Mexico along the Caribbean coast (J. Baum, unpublished data).  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> are often brought up as bycatch by shrimp trawling operations in Florida (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003), and in Mexico seahorse population declines are attributed to indirect harvesting by the shrimp trawl fishery (J. Baum, unpublished data).  In Central America <em>H. erectus</em> are brought up in the shrimp trawls in Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua, and are exported as TCM, or sold on both coasts as curios (J. Baum, unpublished data).  Similarly in South America <em>H. erectus</em> are among the bycatch of shrimp trawls in Mar del Plata, Argentina (L. Magnasco in litt. to A. Vincent 23 May 1999), and in Brazil (I. Rosa and J. Baum, unpublished data).   <br/> <br/>The preferred habitat of <em>H. erectus</em> is also declining due to coastal development, pollution, and increased sedimentation.  For example, in NE Brazil the development of shrimp farms has destroyed much of the coastal mangrove habitats where seahorses live (J. Gomezjuardo in litt. to A. Vincent Sept. 1999).
10068		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  All seahorses are listed on Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, banning their capture and trade, with full monitoring of the dried syngnathid trade underway.  This monitoring is dependent on traders’ declarations.  A permit or license is required to export dried or live syngnathids from South Africa.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10068		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus fuscus</em> are found in eelgrass beds (<em>Zostera</em> sp.) in lagoons at depths of 50 to 200 cm (N.A.M. Pathirana in litt. to Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).   <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (N.A.M. Pathirana in litt. to Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998)
10068		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus fuscus</em> is traded for traditional medicines, curiosities, and aquaria (Vincent and Perry, in prep.). The volume of the trade in this species is unknown, but without appropriate management the trade might pose a threat to the species.  <em>Hippocampus fuscus</em> is collected for the aquarium trade in Sri Lanka (Vincent 1996).  In interviews conducted as part of Project Seahorse trade surveys between 2000–2001, half of the 160 fishers surveyed in India reported decreases in their catch of seahorses, while 36% reported no change and 14% reported an increase (A. Perry, unpublished data). However, the proportion of <em>H. fuscus</em> in this trade is unknown, so we need more information to properly categorize the species. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow eelgrass habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries.
10069		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  <em>Hippocampus hippocampus</em> is listed in the Red Data Book of Portugal, but this listing has no obvious management implications (Vincent 1996).  Full declaration of the trade in live and dead syngnathids is required in the European Union, and full monitoring of the dried trade is underway there.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10069		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus hippocampus</em> is found in shallow, muddy waters; estuaries; inshore among algae; rocky areas (Whitehead 1986).  They may overwinter in deeper water (Whitehead 1986).  The breeding season for <em>H. hippocampus</em> extends from April to October (Wheeler 1985, Whitehead 1986). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow, inshore areas (Whitehead 1986) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10069		threats	eng	Seahorses are caught both intentionally and incidentally in Portugal, and sold for curiosities (J. Curtis, in litt to P. LaFrance July 2001). They are also caught incidentally in Italy, France, Spain, Turkey and Croatia (pers. comms. to P. LaFrance).  Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 revealed that seahorses are caught in, and exported from, a number of African countries within the range of <em>H. hippocampus</em> (Egypt, Guinea, Senegal; J. McPherson, unpublished data). The volume and impacts of this capture and trade are unknown, but without appropriate management this might represent a threat to the species. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries.
10070		conservation	eng	Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10070		habitat	eng	Found at depths of at least 6 m. <em>H. histrix</em> is often associated with sponges and sea-squirts, or is found in areas of sparse or no seagrass (R.H. Kuiter in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species primarily lives at moderate depths of about 15 m or deeper, on soft bottom with soft corals and sponges, but it is occasionally found inhabiting shallower algae-rubble reef zones in about 10 m depth (Kuiter 2000). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and in many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995) and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10070		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown. Spiny seahorses are less desirable for traditional Chinese medicine, although their use is increasing with the rise in patent medicines (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). <em>H. histrix</em> is rarely seen in the aquarium trade.
10072		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES in Appendix II.&#160;<br/><br/>There are no known conservation measures for this species however, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus ingens</span> is listed on Mexico’s NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 as a species subject to special protection; intentional capture and trade of wild seahorses is prohibited. In Panama, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ingens</span> are included under the Ministry of Agriculture’s decree 19.450, which regulates the extraction of coral reef fishes.
10072		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Southern California through the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Cocos, Malpelo and Galápagos Islands (Anon. 2002).
10072		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits weed beds, sea-whips and gorgonians, usually at depths of 1—20 m. It is also known to be associated with flotsam as it has been collected at the surface and from the stomachs of the Pacific Yellowfin Tuna and Bluefin Tuna (Humann and Deloach 1993, Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Maximum recorded depth for this species is 60 m. This species is sometimes caught by tuna purse seiners in the open ocean, possibly from drifting algae.
10072		population	eng	This species was modestly abundant in the Galapagos, but is now rare. It is not common in Malpelo or Gorgona Island and there is a decreasing abundance suspected in the Gulf of California.<br/><br/>Interviews with shrimp fishers on the Pacific coast of Mexico in 2000 estimated that CPUE of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ingens</span> had declined from hundreds or thousands caught per month to tens or none (a decline of 75–90% of estimated catch relative to the previous 15–30 years) attributed to overexploitation and trade (Baum and Vincent 2005). Declines were also seen in Ecuador, and were likely due to heavy fishing pressure. Target <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ingens</span> fisheries on the Pacific coasts of Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama and Peru have experienced declines of approximately 50% in a similar time period (Baum and Vincent 2005). It is therefore conservative to estimate a decline of just 30% over its entire range over the past three generations, which is suspected to continue, if not accelerate, into the future.
10072		threats	eng	This species is of commercial importance for the international aquarium trade (Sánchez 1997) the traditional medicinal trades and as curios (Baum and Vincent 2005, Evanson <em>et al.&#160;</em>2011). It is often caught as by-catch in the shrimp fisheries in Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru and surveys of Latin America have estimated that between 199,000 and 380,000 seahorses are incidentally caught on the Pacific coast each year (Baum and Vincent 2005). It is commercially exported from, Peru, Mexico, and the US (UNEP-WCMC 2012). There is also anecdotal evidence from fishers and traders of declines in seahorse availability, which raises concerns for this species (Baum and Vincent 2005).<br/><p>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline resulting from degradation of habitat from coastal development, tourism and fisheries because they inhabit relatively shallow areas&#160;(Lourie&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span>. 2004)&#160;where these threats are most pronounced. Like most seahorses, <em>H. ingens</em> have been shown to have high site fidelity and relatively small broods (Lourie <em>et al.&#160;</em>2004,Saarman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), which makes them sensitive to disturbance and limits their potential for recovery.</p>
10074		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance, and distribution is needed.
10074		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus jayakari</em> has been caught at depths of 2–3 m.  It is found in beds of seagrasses such <em>Halophila</em> spp. (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
10074		population	eng	During Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001, eight of the 11 fishers surveyed in Pakistan reported a 50% decrease in seahorse catch in 1999, while the remaining three fishers had noticed no change (A. Perry, unpublished data). However, it is unknown how much of this catch, if any, is comprised of <em>H. jayakari</em>.
10074		threats	eng	Trade surveys conducted by Project Seahorse between 2000–2001 indicated that the trade of seahorses in Pakistan appears to be relatively small, and is mostly limited to local collection for aquarium use (A. Perry, unpublished data).  Israel reported that there is no trade of seahorses in the country, nor are there exports (<a href=http://www.cites.org/eng/cttee/animals/18/E18-18-1.pdf">CITES AC18 Doc 18.1</a>).  The size of the trade in this species in Oman, if any, is unknown. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries
10075		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  All seahorses are listed on Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, banning their capture and trade. In Singapore, <em>H. kuda</em> is recognized as being threatened by habitat destruction and harvesting for medicinal use and the aquarium trade and harvest is not allowed except by permit. They are listed as vulnerable in the National Red Data Books in Singapore and Viet Nam.  In France it is illegal to import seahorses under the name <em>H. kuda</em>.
10075		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus kuda</em> occur throughout south east Asia, Australia, Japan, and some of the Pacific islands, including Hawaii (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
10075		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow inshore waters up to 40–50 m deep; mangroves; seagrass beds; estuaries; and on steep mud slopes (R. Kuiter, pers. comm. in Lourie<em>et al</em>. 1999). It has also been recorded from open water and attached to drifting <em>Sargassum</em> up to 20 km away from land (Kuiter and Debelius 1994).  <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow areas (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10075		population	eng	While exact population numbers for <em>H. kuda</em> remain unknown, Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 have inferred that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined throughout its range.  For example, in Hong Kong traders reported that local seahorses, while common 30 years ago, were rarely found in 2000, with the decrease in availability attributed to habitat destruction and pollution (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In India half of the surveyed fishers (n=80/160) reported decreases in catch of seahorses (A. Perry, unpublished data), while in the Philippines fishers targeting seahorses specifically (n=7) reported declines of between 50% and 95% from as early as 1980 and as recently as 1997 (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).  The fishers in the Philippines cited overfishing, the increasing population of fishers and indiscriminate catch of seahorses, including pregnant and immature seahorses, as causes of the decline in catch (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).
10075		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus kuda</em> is caught and traded for traditional medicines, aquaria and curios throughout its range (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  It is one of the most valuable seahorses in traditional Chinese medicine (Vincent and Perry, in prep.), is a popular aquarium fish (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) and is caught in India for the traditional medicine trade (Marichamy <em>et al</em>. 1993).  In general, indiscriminate catch, habitat degradation and exploitation are potential threats to this species. <br/> <br/>For example, in Hong Kong seahorses are threatened by habitat degradation and pollution, and may be susceptible to incidental catch in the shrimp trawl fishery (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In China seahorses are caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes.  In the Philippines declines in seahorse availability are attributed to overfishing, an increasing number of fishers, and non-selective catch of seahorses (e.g., taking pregnant or immature seahorses) and habitat destruction (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).
10077		conservation	eng	The following information is taken from Lourie <em>et al</em>. (2004): <br/>1. Entire genus listed on Appendix II of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), effective May 2004. <br/>2. Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001 (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>3. Listed by Environment Australia as Data Deficient <br/> <br/>Information below is taken from Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002): <br/>1. All syngnathids are listed as Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>2. The <em>Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995</em> prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania (by non-permit holders, since Sep 1994). <br/>3. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998. <br/>4. All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999</em>. <br/>5. No Australian Society of Fish Biology Listing.
10077		distribution	eng	Unknown. Known only from four museum specimens collected at depths of 64–110 m off Eden (approximately 37°S) NSW, southwards to central Bass Strait (38°56’S), Victoria, between the Australian mainland and Tasmania (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Kuiter 2000). Collected between <em>circa</em> 1927 and 1981 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>H. minotaur</em>.
10077		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus minotaur</em> has been trawled from depths of 64 to 110 m on fine sandy or hard bottoms, possibly in association with gorgonian corals (Gomon 1997). Noticeable bud-like processes are present on the dorsal surface of the tail of <em>H. minotaur</em>, reminiscent of those on the body of <em>H. bargibanti</em> that are used for camouflage in soft coral fans. This may suggest that they inhabit gorgonians, but collection information to date has given scant habitat information (Gomon 1997).
10077		population	eng	Unknown.
10077		threats	eng	Trawling presents an unknown threat.
10082		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The export of syngnathids from Mexico is effectively banned. Permits or licenses are required to export dried syngnathids from Honduras and Nicaragua, and to export live syngnathids from Panama, Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10082		habitat	eng	Vari (1982) reports <em>H. reidi</em> at depths as great as 55 m.  Small individuals tend to be found in shallower water than large animals (Dauwe 1993).  It has been found on gorgonian corals, seagrass, mangroves and Sargassum (Lieske and Myers 1994). <em>Hippocampus reidi</em> are pair-bonded in the wild (B. Dauwe and M. Nijhoff in litt. to Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10082		population	eng	During Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001, fishers in Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama reported decreases in the catch of seahorses both in trawls (as bycatch) and by divers (J. Baum and I. Rosa, unpublished data), but the portion of these declines attributable to <em>H. reidi</em> is unknown.
10082		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus reidi</em> are collected and traded in the Americas as aquarium fishes, folk medicine, curiosities and for religious purposes (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2002). The volume of this trade is unknown, as there is confusion between this species and a similar one, <em>H. erectus</em>. Without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species. <em>H. reidi</em> are also taken as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries in the U.S., Mexico and Central America (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2002).  A study of bycatch in Florida found that most seahorses in bycatch were <em>H. erectus</em>; this suggests that <em>H. reidi</em> may not be as susceptible to trawling as <em>H. erectus</em>, possibly because of habitat differences. <br/> <br/><em>Hippocampus reidi</em> is considered threatened in the United States by the American Fisheries Society (AFS) (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000). They cite the species' rarity and degradation of its seagrass habitats in South Florida as reasons for this listing. While this status may apply on a national level, we did not find information that would justify such a listing for the species as a whole.
10083		conservation	eng	<em>Hippocampus sidonis</em> has been listed under CITES appendix II ensuring that international trade of this species is monitored. This species may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology, threats and population trends of this species.
10083		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus sindonis</em> is endemic to Japan. It is known off Hamamatsu, Totomi Bay, Sagami, Misaki, Shizuoka Prefectures.
10083		habitat	eng	There is no information available for the life history and habitat of <em>Hippocampus sindonis</em> (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Males carry eggs in brood pouch which is found under the tail (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).
10083		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Hippocampus sindonis</em>.
10083		threats	eng	The are no known major threats to <em>Hippocampus sindonis</em>. <br/><br/>Seahorses are vulnerable to a number of threats. This species is not known for any commercial trade, however it maybe taken as by-catch, susceptible to coastal habitat degradation, or exploited for the Chinese medicine trade or ornamental trade.<br/><br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Vincent <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
10084		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004. The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.
10084		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus spinosissimus</em> are found in areas with muddy or sandy bottoms and on coral reefs (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10084		population	eng	Fishers in the central Philippines report declines in the abundance of seahorses (Vincent 1996), but <em>H. spinosissimus</em> is a relatively small portion of the total seahorse catch in this area (pers. obs.).  In the early and mid-1990s, fishers and buyers in Indonesia also reported declines in seahorse abundance (Vincent 1996), but the portion of this decline that can be attributed to <em>H. spinosissimus</em> is unknown.
10084		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus spinosissimus</em> is traded for traditional medicines, curiosities, and aquaria (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  Spiny seahorses such as <em>H. spinosissimus</em> are generally less desirable for traditional Chinese medicine, but their use is increasing with the rise in patent medicine use (Vincent 1996). The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management the trade might pose a threat to the species.  <em>Hippocampus spinosissimus</em> is also caught quite commonly as bycatch by trawlers in Thailand (S. Lourie in litt.). <br/> <br/>This species is also threatened by damage to its habitats. Damage to coral reef ecosystems by dynamite and cyanide fishing have been well documented, particularly in the Philippines. Land-based activities such as forestry often lead to increased siltation in surrounding marine waters, thereby smothering corals. The decline in and fragmentation of this species’ habitats throughout its range raise the possibility of declines in populations in addition to those caused by the fisheries and trade.
10087		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  All seahorses are listed on Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, banning their capture and trade. This species is also included in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book.
10087		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwest Asia and Australia.  Specimens from north-west Australia may represent a separate species (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Further research is needed.
10087		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus trimaculatus</em> has been trawled from depths of less than 20 m. In Viet Nam it has been found in gravel and sandy bottom habitats (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow habitats (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10087		population	eng	While exact population numbers for <em>H. kuda</em> remain unknown, Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 have inferred that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined throughout the range of <em>H. trimaculatus</em>.  For example, in Hong Kong traders reported that local seahorses common 30 years ago were rarely found in 2000, with the decrease in availability attributed to habitat destruction and pollution (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In India half of the surveyed fishers (n=80/160) reported decreases in catch of seahorses (A. Perry, unpublished data), while in the Philippines fishers targeting seahorses specifically (n=7) reported declines of between 50% and 95% from as early as 1980 and as recently as 1997 (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).  The fishers in the Philippines cited overfishing, the increasing population of fishers and indiscriminate catch of seahorses, including pregnant and immature seahorses, as causes of the decline in catch (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).
10087		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus trimaculatus</em> is caught and traded for traditional medicines, and curios throughout its range (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  It is one of the most valuable seahorses in traditional Chinese medicine, and is found as an ingredient in kanpo, Japan’s traditional medicine.  In general, indiscriminate catch, habitat degradation and exploitation are potential threats to this species.  For example, in Hong Kong seahorses are threatened by habitat degradation and pollution, and may be susceptible to incidental catch in the shrimp trawl fishery (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In China seahorses are also caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes.  In the Philippines declines in seahorse availability are attributed to overfishing, an increasing number of fishers, and non-selective catch of seahorses (e.g., taking pregnant or immature seahorses) and habitat destruction (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).  In Taiwan <em>H. trimaculatus</em> are observed in the dried trade and are landed as bycatch (A. Perry, unpublished data).
10088		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10088		distribution	eng	A single specimen was found in the Solomon Islands, which is outside the probable normal range of this species (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
10088		habitat	eng	<em>Hippocampus whitei</em> are found to depths of 25 m in shallow, weedy, inshore areas, in <em>Zostera</em> spp. seagrass beds, on sponges, and often under jetties on kelp holdfasts (Kuiter 1997).  They are also found on manmade objects such as shark nets (A.C.J. Vincent, pers. obs.).  <em>Hippocampus whitei</em> breed from October to April.  Within this breeding season, they are site-faithful to a home range (averaging 8 m² for males, 12 m² for females: Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review) and are faithful to a single mate (Vincent and Sadler 1995).   <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Kuiter 1997) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10088		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus whitei</em> is caught for the aquarium trade, and mostly sold on the domestic market (Vincent 1996).  The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species. Small numbers of <em>H. whitei</em> are probably also taken as bycatch in the southeast trawl fishery (Australian Fisheries Management Authority 1999).
10089		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Full monitoring of the trade is underway in the United States, however this is dependent on traders’ declarations.  Seahorses are listed under Title 68 (Rules of the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission) of the Florida Administrative Codes.  The targeted fishery for the aquarium trade in Florida is monitored and regulations are in place, such as a limitation on the number of commercial harvesters, however the non-selective exploitation is not monitored in any state.  The take of seahorses for the aquarium trade is prohibited in the USVI and Puerto Rico.  Stock assessments are needed in order to evaluate the sustainability of the fishery and establish appropriate management guidelines.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
10089		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus  zosterae</em> is a species from the Gulf of Mexico (Florida Keys and Texas) and the Bahamas (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999).
10089		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow seagrass flats, especially in association with <em>Zostera</em> and other seagrass, and is found in floating vegetation (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow seagrass beds (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10089		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus zosterae</em> are one of the more popular seahorses in the aquarium trade (Vincent 1996, Wood 2001).  Florida has a small directed trawl fishery in shallow grass beds off the west coast for <em>H. zosterae</em> where they are landed in a live bait trawl fishery.  In this fishery alone, tens of thousands of <em>H. zosterae</em> are collected each year for the aquarium trade (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  <em>Hippocampus zosterae</em> occupies the 2nd rank of the top 10 fishes exported from Florida for the aquarium trade (Wood 2001).   <br/> <br/>The American Fisheries Society (AFS) lists the United States populations of <em>H. zosterae</em> as Threatened due to habitat degradation (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000).  While this status may apply on a national level, we did not find information that would justify such a listing for the species as a whole.
10103		conservation	eng	There are numerous protected areas across the countries where Common Hippos are found. Although in most countries the official level of protection is good, the level of enforcement of these regulations is poor in many countries. In some countries, Common Hippos are still found outside of protected areas.
10103		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/>There are numerous protected areas across the countries where Common Hippos are found. Although in most countries the official level of protection is good, the level of enforcement of these regulations is poor in many countries. In some countries, Common Hippos are still found outside of protected areas.
10103		distribution	eng	Common Hippos are found in many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and were previously found in virtually all suitable habitats. The species still occupied much of its former range in 1959, although it had disappeared from most of South Africa except for the Kruger National Park (Sidney 1965). They occur in rivers throughout the savanna zone of Africa, and main rivers of forest zone in Central Africa, in Angola, Benin, northern Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, southern Chad, Côte d?Ivoire, Dem. Rep. Congo, Egypt (extinct; formerly along Nile to its Delta), northern Eritrea, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea (Mbini), Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia (only two records), Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia (Caprivi Strip, Okavango River), Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, South Africa (now only in northern and eastern Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga Province, and northern KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>The Common Hippopotamus was already rare in Egypt by the time of the Renaissance. From the end of the Roman Empire up until towards 1700 at the latest, the Hippo was still present in two well disjunct zones in the Nile Delta and in the upper Nile. Through the 1700s, records become increasingly scarce, and the latest definite records are from the early 1800s (Manlius 2000).
10103		distribution	eng	Common Hippos are found in many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and were previously found in virtually all suitable habitats. The species still occupied much of its former range in 1959, although it had disappeared from most of South Africa except for the Kruger National Park (Sidney 1965). They occur in rivers throughout the savanna zone of Africa, and main rivers of forest zone in Central Africa, in Angola, Benin, northern Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, southern Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Dem. Rep. Congo, Egypt (extinct; formerly along Nile to its Delta), northern Eritrea, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea (Mbini), Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia (only two records), Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia (Caprivi Strip, Okavango River), Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, South Africa (now only in northern and eastern Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga Province, and northern KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>The Common Hippopotamus was already rare in Egypt by the time of the Renaissance. From the end of the Roman Empire up until towards 1700 at the latest, the Hippo was still present in two well disjunct zones in the Nile Delta and in the upper Nile. Through the 1700s, records become increasingly scarce, and the latest definite records are from the early 1800s (Manlius 2000).
10103		habitat	eng	As its name suggests, the Common Hippopotamus is an amphibious creature, which spends the day in water and emerges at night to feed. The hippopotamus uses the water only as a retreat and it does not eat aquatic vegetation to any extent. Open water is not essential and the animal can survive in muddy wallows but it must have access to permanent water to which it can return in the dry season. The essential factor is that the skin must remain moist for it will crack if exposed to the air for long periods. The skin physiology is complex and not fully understood but is clearly adapted for an amphibious existence. A curious feature is the red secretion from modified sweat glands, which is thought to have an antibiotic function. <br/><br/>The water body must be large enough to accommodate a number of animals for the Common Hippo is highly gregarious when resting by day. The social habits of the species have been studied by Klingel (1991), who found that the "schools" are unstable groups of females and bachelors. The social system is based on mating territoriality. Common Hippos are gregarious, social, polygymous animals. Females become sexually mature between the ages of 7?9, and males 9?11. Females typically bear a single offspring every other year as lactation can extend for 18 months. Territorial males monopolize a length of the shoreline of the river or lake but tolerate bachelors within the territory provided they behave submissively. Non-breeding males also settle outside territorial areas, especially seasonal wallows. Fights for the possession of a territory can be fierce and the animals may inflict considerable damage on each other with their huge canines but minor conflicts are usually settled by threat displays, of which the "yawn" is the most conspicuous. Territorial males do not normally fight each other and severe fights usually occur only when a bachelor challenges a territorial male for control of its territory. There is little association between animals when they are feeding at night, except between females and their dependent young, and the males do not then behave in a territorial fashion. <br/><br/>The male Common Hippopotamus, rarely the female, spreads its dung by wagging its tail vigorously while defecating, both in the water and on land, where it is thought to have a signalling rather than a territorial function. The dung piles may serve for orientation. <br/><br/>Vocalizations take the form of complex bellows and grunts, which presumably have a signalling function. Sounds may be made either on land or in the water and may be transmitted simultaneously through air and water. This is the only known case of amphibious calls in a mammal.<br/><br/>It is probable that the need to avoid the direct rays of the sun has determined the nocturnal feeding habits of the animal. It leaves its wallow soon after sunset and spends the night grazing on short grass swards for up to several kilometres from water. These swards, which are kept short by the activities of the hippopotamus, are known as hippo lawns. Although the hippopotamus grazes every night, except for mothers with very young calves, there are usually animals present in the water all night, as some return after a few hours and others leave later. The animal feeds by plucking the grass with its wide, muscular lips and passing it to the back of the mouth to be ground up by the molars. The front teeth (incisors and canines) play no part in feeding. The amount of food ingested is small relative to the size of the animal but its resting habits by day reduce its energetic demands. The stomach is a complex four-chambered structure with a ruminant type digestion although the animal does not chew the cud.<br/><br/>The ecological requirements for hippopotamus, therefore, include a supply of permanent water, large enough for the territorial males to spread out, and adequate grazing on open grassland within a few kilometres of the daytime resting sites.
10103		habitat	eng	As its name suggests, the Common Hippopotamus is an amphibious creature, which spends the day in water and emerges at night to feed. The hippopotamus uses the water only as a retreat and it does not eat aquatic vegetation to any extent. Open water is not essential and the animal can survive in muddy wallows but it must have access to permanent water to which it can return in the dry season. The essential factor is that the skin must remain moist for it will crack if exposed to the air for long periods. The skin physiology is complex and not fully understood but is clearly adapted for an amphibious existence. A curious feature is the red secretion from modified sweat glands, which is thought to have an antibiotic function. <br/><br/>The water body must be large enough to accommodate a number of animals for the Common Hippo is highly gregarious when resting by day. The social habits of the species have been studied by Klingel (1991), who found that the "schools" are unstable groups of females and bachelors. The social system is based on mating territoriality. Common Hippos are gregarious, social, polygymous animals. Females become sexually mature between the ages of 7–9, and males 9–11. Females typically bear a single offspring every other year as lactation can extend for 18 months. Territorial males monopolize a length of the shoreline of the river or lake but tolerate bachelors within the territory provided they behave submissively. Non-breeding males also settle outside territorial areas, especially seasonal wallows. Fights for the possession of a territory can be fierce and the animals may inflict considerable damage on each other with their huge canines but minor conflicts are usually settled by threat displays, of which the "yawn" is the most conspicuous. Territorial males do not normally fight each other and severe fights usually occur only when a bachelor challenges a territorial male for control of its territory. There is little association between animals when they are feeding at night, except between females and their dependent young, and the males do not then behave in a territorial fashion. <br/><br/>The male Common Hippopotamus, rarely the female, spreads its dung by wagging its tail vigorously while defecating, both in the water and on land, where it is thought to have a signalling rather than a territorial function. The dung piles may serve for orientation. <br/><br/>Vocalizations take the form of complex bellows and grunts, which presumably have a signalling function. Sounds may be made either on land or in the water and may be transmitted simultaneously through air and water. This is the only known case of amphibious calls in a mammal.<br/><br/>It is probable that the need to avoid the direct rays of the sun has determined the nocturnal feeding habits of the animal. It leaves its wallow soon after sunset and spends the night grazing on short grass swards for up to several kilometres from water. These swards, which are kept short by the activities of the hippopotamus, are known as hippo lawns. Although the hippopotamus grazes every night, except for mothers with very young calves, there are usually animals present in the water all night, as some return after a few hours and others leave later. The animal feeds by plucking the grass with its wide, muscular lips and passing it to the back of the mouth to be ground up by the molars. The front teeth (incisors and canines) play no part in feeding. The amount of food ingested is small relative to the size of the animal but its resting habits by day reduce its energetic demands. The stomach is a complex four-chambered structure with a ruminant type digestion although the animal does not chew the cud.<br/><br/>The ecological requirements for hippopotamus, therefore, include a supply of permanent water, large enough for the territorial males to spread out, and adequate grazing on open grassland within a few kilometres of the daytime resting sites.
10103		population	eng	There are clear regional differences in population size and distribution. Eastern African countries (including Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia) form the conservation stronghold for this species and are where the largest numbers of Common Hippos occur. Although common hippos are found in many West African nations, overall population sizes tend to be much smaller, either because of less available habitat or the higher density of human populations. Populations appear to be decreasing in many countries. The largest populations are found in East Africa. A country-by-country assessment conducted in 1993?1994 found that there were approximately 160,000 Common Hippos across their range, although this was considered to be an overestimate. A more recent assessment suggests that there are likely between 125,000 and 148,000 Common Hippos remaining. In contrast with the 1994 estimate, this range is not likely to underestimate the populations size. Of the 29 countries in which Common Hippos are found, confirmed population declines have been reported in half. The largest declines have occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a country once thought to have the largest populations.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa</strong><br/>The species is not common in West Africa and the population is split into a number of small groups totalling about 7,000 spread over 19 countries. Populations most at risk are those in West Africa, where the distribution is particularly fragmented. <br/><br/>Hippopotamus are absent from the rain forests except near large rivers. They are most abundant in estuarine habitats and on the lower reaches of rivers. Some are found in the sea in the Archipelago of Bijagos off Guinea Bissau. Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Senegal probably contain the bulk of the West African Common Hippopotamus, with total numbers likely to be in the region of a few thousand. Although small in area, Guinea Bissau supports a substantial population, which is particularly abundant on the islands of the Bijagos Archipelago and along the numerous inland rivers. The species is common on most of the rivers in Guinea and in the east and south of Senegal with an estimated country-wide population of between 500 and 700. The Gambia contains no more than about 40 animals. There are probably less than 200 in Sierra Leone or Mali and none at all in Liberia or Mauritania.<br/><br/>The group of contiguous countries, Côte d?Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Burkina Faso, contain a total of, at most, two thousand Common Hippopotamus with the majority in Burkina Faso. There have been no recent counts except on the Comoe River on the border with the Côte d?Ivoire, where 720 were recorded in 1989. A further group is found on the Pendjari River system bordering Benin. This numbered about 500 in 1979 but only some 280 remained in 1987. The Mono River between Benin and Togo supported a small but stable population of 53 in 1986. Only remnant populations remain in Ghana. <br/><br/>Nigeria and Niger between them contain at least 400. No recent information was obtained for Chad but according to Sidney (1965) the species was common in the vicinity of Lake Chad during the 1950s. Common Hippopotamus were also once numerous in Cameroon but the only information obtained during the present survey was from the Korup National Park, where signs of the species are common around the confluence of the Miri and Bake Rivers although sightings are few. It is likely that the species does not occur in the Bake River much further upstream than Bajo although some traces were found as far up as Bakut. At least 150 Common Hippopotamus (possibly as many as 1,500) are known to exist in the Central African Republic in addition to an unknown number in Bamimgui-Bangoran National Park, where 136 were counted in 1973 although now there are probably only 20 to 30 present. Common Hippopotamus occur along most of the coastline of Gabon and for a considerable distance up the Ogooue River and although there are no recent estimates of numbers, they are said to be abundant in places. A few are found in neighbouring Equatorial Guinea on the Campo River. No counts have been made in the Congo, but the species is reported by one correspondent to be widely distributed and numerous on suitable rivers but another reports its presence on only one, the Nyanga River. The entry for the Congo in the IUCN Directory (IUCN/UNEP, 1987) lists Odzala National Park, Lefini Reserve (Louna and Lesio Rivers), and Nyanga North Reserve as containing hippopotamus. Zaire will be considered with East Africa as most of the hippopotamus are in the east of the country.<br/><br/>The total number of Common Hippopotamus in the nineteen west African countries considered here cannot be assessed with any accuracy because of the absence of recent counts but the figure is likely to be in the region of 7,000.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa</strong><br/>East Africa holds substantial numbers with 30,000 in eastern DR Congo and populations numbering tens of thousands in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania. Several thousand also occur in Kenya and Uganda bringing the total for East Africa as a whole to about 70,000.<br/><br/>Many of the Common Hippopotamus in Africa are found in the east, especially in Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and DR Congo. The Common Hippopotamus occurs in the southern Sudan on the Rivers Nile, Sobat and Jur south of Malakal and in several national parks and reserves. Other localities include the Sudd and tributaries of the Nile. There is no information on population sizes but it is said to occur in good numbers in most places. The species is also abundant between altitudes of 200 and 2,000 m in neighbouring Ethiopia, where its main strongholds appear to be the Omo, Awash and Great Abbi (Blue Nile) Rivers. It also occurs in most of the larger lakes and as isolated populations in smaller swamps and pools. The few that occur in the dry south-east are confined to the Webi, Shebeli and Ganale Rivers. The northern limit of the species is the Setit River. No precise counts have been made recently but the Common Hippopotamus is said to be numerous throughout its range. The total for the two countries combined is probably to be numbered in tens of thousands. Very few animals remain in neighbouring Somalia although some small groups have been reported on the lower Shebeli River and along the Juba River, where they are rather more numerous. No Common Hippopotamus have been reported from Djibouti.<br/><br/>The species occurs in most of the many suitable habitats throughout Kenya and some recent counts have been made in the Mara River area (2,132 in 1980), Lake Naivasha (220 in 1988) and along part of the Tana River between Osako and Adamson's Falls (220 in 1983) (Coe and Collins 1986, Karstad <em>et al.</em> 1980, Smart, in litt). The Mara figure includes some from over the border in Tanzania. Elsewhere in Tanzania, Common Hippopotamus are common in the Selous Game Reserve, where 1,894 were counted on 115 km of the River Rufigi in 1987 (Samuels, in litt). An estimate for the total population of the Selous in 1986 was 16,900 (with a standard error 6,307) from an aerial sample count made by I. Douglas-Hamilton. Independent aerial counts in the Selous reported by Games (1990) returned figure of 15,483 in 1986, 24,169 in 1989 and 20,589 in 1990. The last total is a rather crude extrapolation from an observed figure of 6,866. A large population occurs on the Akagera River and associated lakes on the border between Tanzania and Rwanda, but no recent count has been made. The total counted from the air in 1969 was 671 (Spinage <em>et al.</em> 1972). Common Hippopotamus are found in most other national parks and reserves of Tanzania and although not present anywhere in large numbers, the total probably amounts to several thousand more. <br/><br/>The principal concentrations of the species in Uganda are in the two large national parks, Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth. At one time the population in the latter park reached 21,000, but this was reduced to about 14,000 in the culling programme of the 1950s. Counts in the early 1970s returned about 11,000 but heavy poaching during the Amin years had left only a couple of thousand by 1989 when 2,172 were estimated from an aerial sample count. Similar numbers were found in the Murchison Falls National Park in the past but there, too, heavy poaching has reduced the population to remnant numbers although a recent count has not been made. The latest appears to have been in 1980 when 1,202 were recorded on the Nile between the falls and Paraa Lodge. The total for the whole park is probably about the same as in Queen Elizabeth National Park i.e., a few thousand. Other regions in Uganda where substantial numbers of hippopotamus occurred include the Semliki River and lakes Victoria and Kyoga. An educated guess of about 7,000 for the present total population of hippopotamus in the whole country is probably not far wrong.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus have a wide distribution in DR Congo including some in the north-west of the country although the bulk is in the east, where they occur around Epulu and Wamba and along some of the larger rivers in the Ituri Forest. Other populations occur on the Zaire River (Yangabi), Bomu River and elsewhere in several national parks including Garamba, Kundelungu, Salonga, Upemba and Virunga. The latter contains the greatest concentration with a total of 22,875 estimated from a 1988 aerial count made by C. Mackie, who with K. Hillman Smith also recorded 2,851 in Garamba National Park in 1988. In round figures, these counts suggest a total of some 26,000 Common Hippopotamus for the two parks. Numbers elsewhere in DR Congo probably do not amount to more than a few thousand, perhaps bringing the country-wide total up to about 30,000.<br/><br/>There are not many Common Hippopotamus in the remaining East African countries of Rwanda and Burundi. Numbers on the Akagera River have been mentioned above in the section on Tanzania and there are probably still a few in wallows within the Akagera National Park or Mutara Game Reserve but no recent information has been received. Common Hippopotamus occur in Burundi on the Malagarazi, Ruvubu and Rusizi Rivers but there are conflicting reports over numbers. P. Chardonnet reports good populations numbered in hundreds and P. C. Trenchard puts the total on these rivers as over 1,000 as a conservative estimate. K. M. Doyle, however, casts doubt on these figures, for along a 120 km stretch of the Ruvubu River where several hundred were reported by P. Chardonnet, he recorded only 39 animals, all but two within the Ruvubu National Park, although there may have been more in wallows etc. away from the river, which were not surveyed.<br/><br/>Although there are many gaps in the data, the above analysis suggests that there could be as many as 70,000 Common Hippopotamus in the east African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa</strong><br/>Southern Africa also has flourishing populations, with Zambia containing the biggest population, 40,000, of any country in Africa. Others with large numbers include Mozambique (16,000?20,500), Malawi (10,000), Zimbabwe (6,900) and South Africa (5,000). The total in the whole of the region may be around 80,000. <br/><br/>No information has been received from Angola. According to Sidney (1965), the Common Hippopotamus was widespread throughout Angola particularly in the east on the Cunene, Cubango, Cuando, Cuanza, Longa and Zambezi Rivers.  <br/><br/>There are probably more Common Hippopotamus in Zambia than in any other single country. F. E. C. Munyenyembe puts the country-wide total at 40,000 with 20-25,000 in the Luangwa Valley according to R. H. V. Bell. They are reported to be widespread on the Kafue Flats and in Lochinvar National Park. Neighbouring Malawi, although small, is also densely populated with Common Hippopotamus, which occur on all rivers and lakes of sufficient size. The main concentrations are at Elephant Marsh (lower Shire River), the south-west arm of Lake Malawi, Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe in Liwonde National Park. R. H. V. Bell makes a guess that there are some 10,000 Common Hippopotamus in the whole of Malawi. Further south in Zimbabwe, the species is still common. It is found on most of the large rivers particularly the Limpopo. Zambezi and the Sabi/Lundi systems. It is also found in smaller rivers and dams where there is permanent water. Some wander over long distances to provide isolated records. The only estimate for the country-wide total is that made by R. B. Martin on the basis of some limited counts, which have revealed some dense populations e.g. 2,000 on a 50-km section of the Zambezi. His estimate is 6,900, of which 5,530 occur in national parks or reserves, 1,020 on communal lands and 350 elsewhere.<br/><br/>A surprising number of Common Hippopotamus appear to have survived in Mozambique, at least up to 1986, despite the recent civil strife. The species is still widely distributed throughout the country and is present on most river systems. Several national parks and reserves contain hippopotamus although only Gorongosa, with about 2,000, has a sizeable population. L. Tello's estimate made in 1986 year puts the total at between 16,000 and 20,500 for the country as a whole with most (10,000 -12,000) in the Zambezi Wildlife Utilization Area, which includes Marromeu Reserve and four safari hunting blocks. It is also contiguous with the Gorongosa National Park. This is the only region where numbers have increased (by some 20% since 1974). Elsewhere there has been a decline, except in Tete Province, whose population of between 1,500 and 2,500 is said to be stable.<br/><br/>Namibia is too dry to support many Common Hippos except in the north, where the species is present in some numbers on the Cuando and Zambezi Rivers in the Caprivi Strip. Elsewhere it occurs along the boundary with Angola on the Okavango River. Botswana is also too dry, except in the north of the country, where some animals occur in the Okavango Delta and in the Chobe/Linyati River system. A few (18+) exist on the Limpopo in the east. Outside this area, a small population may still exist near Ghanzi although some observers think this is unlikely. C. A. Spinage puts the total in northern Botswana at 1,600 in the wet season and 500 in the dry.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus are confined to the north-east of the country in the Republic of South Africa, mainly in the Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West provinces and the northern tip of KwaZulu-Natal. Most of them are in the Kruger National Park in perennial rivers, dams and the larger pools of seasonal rivers. The total counted in the park in 1989 was 2,761 with 2,575 in rivers and 191 in dams and pools. R. H. Taylor gives a total (for 1986) of 1,264 for KwaZulu-Natal, with the largest concentration (595) on Lake St Lucia, but he suggests a better estimate of 1,423 averaged over the five years 1982-1986. Those in kwaZulu-Natal outside the Kruger National Park are mainly confined to the large rivers in the eastern and northern regions of the province. These figures suggest that there are approaching 5,000 Common Hippopotamus in the country as a whole.<br/><br/>It is not possible to provide a total for the whole of southern Africa because of the lack of data from Angola, which used to support large populations and may do so still, although the disturbed political situation in the country makes it more likely that most hippopotamus have been shot. Assuming the worst and that only a few hundred remain in Angola, a very rough estimate for the regional total would be 80,000.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.
10103		population	eng	There are clear regional differences in population size and distribution. Eastern African countries (including Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia) form the conservation stronghold for this species and are where the largest numbers of Common Hippos occur. Although common hippos are found in many West African nations, overall population sizes tend to be much smaller, either because of less available habitat or the higher density of human populations. Populations appear to be decreasing in many countries. The largest populations are found in East Africa. A country-by-country assessment conducted in 1993–1994 found that there were approximately 160,000 Common Hippos across their range, although this was considered to be an overestimate. A more recent assessment suggests that there are likely between 125,000 and 148,000 Common Hippos remaining. In contrast with the 1994 estimate, this range is not likely to underestimate the populations size. Of the 29 countries in which Common Hippos are found, confirmed population declines have been reported in half. The largest declines have occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a country once thought to have the largest populations.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa</strong><br/>The species is not common in West Africa and the population is split into a number of small groups totalling about 7,000 spread over 19 countries. Populations most at risk are those in West Africa, where the distribution is particularly fragmented. <br/><br/>Hippopotamus are absent from the rain forests except near large rivers. They are most abundant in estuarine habitats and on the lower reaches of rivers. Some are found in the sea in the Archipelago of Bijagos off Guinea Bissau. Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Senegal probably contain the bulk of the West African Common Hippopotamus, with total numbers likely to be in the region of a few thousand. Although small in area, Guinea Bissau supports a substantial population, which is particularly abundant on the islands of the Bijagos Archipelago and along the numerous inland rivers. The species is common on most of the rivers in Guinea and in the east and south of Senegal with an estimated country-wide population of between 500 and 700. The Gambia contains no more than about 40 animals. There are probably less than 200 in Sierra Leone or Mali and none at all in Liberia or Mauritania.<br/><br/>The group of contiguous countries, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Burkina Faso, contain a total of, at most, two thousand Common Hippopotamus with the majority in Burkina Faso. There have been no recent counts except on the Comoe River on the border with the Côte d’Ivoire, where 720 were recorded in 1989. A further group is found on the Pendjari River system bordering Benin. This numbered about 500 in 1979 but only some 280 remained in 1987. The Mono River between Benin and Togo supported a small but stable population of 53 in 1986. Only remnant populations remain in Ghana. <br/><br/>Nigeria and Niger between them contain at least 400. No recent information was obtained for Chad but according to Sidney (1965) the species was common in the vicinity of Lake Chad during the 1950s. Common Hippopotamus were also once numerous in Cameroon but the only information obtained during the present survey was from the Korup National Park, where signs of the species are common around the confluence of the Miri and Bake Rivers although sightings are few. It is likely that the species does not occur in the Bake River much further upstream than Bajo although some traces were found as far up as Bakut. At least 150 Common Hippopotamus (possibly as many as 1,500) are known to exist in the Central African Republic in addition to an unknown number in Bamimgui-Bangoran National Park, where 136 were counted in 1973 although now there are probably only 20 to 30 present. Common Hippopotamus occur along most of the coastline of Gabon and for a considerable distance up the Ogooue River and although there are no recent estimates of numbers, they are said to be abundant in places. A few are found in neighbouring Equatorial Guinea on the Campo River. No counts have been made in the Congo, but the species is reported by one correspondent to be widely distributed and numerous on suitable rivers but another reports its presence on only one, the Nyanga River. The entry for the Congo in the IUCN Directory (IUCN/UNEP, 1987) lists Odzala National Park, Lefini Reserve (Louna and Lesio Rivers), and Nyanga North Reserve as containing hippopotamus. Zaire will be considered with East Africa as most of the hippopotamus are in the east of the country.<br/><br/>The total number of Common Hippopotamus in the nineteen west African countries considered here cannot be assessed with any accuracy because of the absence of recent counts but the figure is likely to be in the region of 7,000.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa</strong><br/>East Africa holds substantial numbers with 30,000 in eastern DR Congo and populations numbering tens of thousands in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania. Several thousand also occur in Kenya and Uganda bringing the total for East Africa as a whole to about 70,000.<br/><br/>Many of the Common Hippopotamus in Africa are found in the east, especially in Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and DR Congo. The Common Hippopotamus occurs in the southern Sudan on the Rivers Nile, Sobat and Jur south of Malakal and in several national parks and reserves. Other localities include the Sudd and tributaries of the Nile. There is no information on population sizes but it is said to occur in good numbers in most places. The species is also abundant between altitudes of 200 and 2,000 m in neighbouring Ethiopia, where its main strongholds appear to be the Omo, Awash and Great Abbi (Blue Nile) Rivers. It also occurs in most of the larger lakes and as isolated populations in smaller swamps and pools. The few that occur in the dry south-east are confined to the Webi, Shebeli and Ganale Rivers. The northern limit of the species is the Setit River. No precise counts have been made recently but the Common Hippopotamus is said to be numerous throughout its range. The total for the two countries combined is probably to be numbered in tens of thousands. Very few animals remain in neighbouring Somalia although some small groups have been reported on the lower Shebeli River and along the Juba River, where they are rather more numerous. No Common Hippopotamus have been reported from Djibouti.<br/><br/>The species occurs in most of the many suitable habitats throughout Kenya and some recent counts have been made in the Mara River area (2,132 in 1980), Lake Naivasha (220 in 1988) and along part of the Tana River between Osako and Adamson's Falls (220 in 1983) (Coe and Collins 1986, Karstad <em>et al.</em> 1980, Smart, in litt). The Mara figure includes some from over the border in Tanzania. Elsewhere in Tanzania, Common Hippopotamus are common in the Selous Game Reserve, where 1,894 were counted on 115 km of the River Rufigi in 1987 (Samuels, in litt). An estimate for the total population of the Selous in 1986 was 16,900 (with a standard error 6,307) from an aerial sample count made by I. Douglas-Hamilton. Independent aerial counts in the Selous reported by Games (1990) returned figure of 15,483 in 1986, 24,169 in 1989 and 20,589 in 1990. The last total is a rather crude extrapolation from an observed figure of 6,866. A large population occurs on the Akagera River and associated lakes on the border between Tanzania and Rwanda, but no recent count has been made. The total counted from the air in 1969 was 671 (Spinage <em>et al.</em> 1972). Common Hippopotamus are found in most other national parks and reserves of Tanzania and although not present anywhere in large numbers, the total probably amounts to several thousand more. <br/><br/>The principal concentrations of the species in Uganda are in the two large national parks, Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth. At one time the population in the latter park reached 21,000, but this was reduced to about 14,000 in the culling programme of the 1950s. Counts in the early 1970s returned about 11,000 but heavy poaching during the Amin years had left only a couple of thousand by 1989 when 2,172 were estimated from an aerial sample count. Similar numbers were found in the Murchison Falls National Park in the past but there, too, heavy poaching has reduced the population to remnant numbers although a recent count has not been made. The latest appears to have been in 1980 when 1,202 were recorded on the Nile between the falls and Paraa Lodge. The total for the whole park is probably about the same as in Queen Elizabeth National Park i.e., a few thousand. Other regions in Uganda where substantial numbers of hippopotamus occurred include the Semliki River and lakes Victoria and Kyoga. An educated guess of about 7,000 for the present total population of hippopotamus in the whole country is probably not far wrong.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus have a wide distribution in DR Congo including some in the north-west of the country although the bulk is in the east, where they occur around Epulu and Wamba and along some of the larger rivers in the Ituri Forest. Other populations occur on the Zaire River (Yangabi), Bomu River and elsewhere in several national parks including Garamba, Kundelungu, Salonga, Upemba and Virunga. The latter contains the greatest concentration with a total of 22,875 estimated from a 1988 aerial count made by C. Mackie, who with K. Hillman Smith also recorded 2,851 in Garamba National Park in 1988. In round figures, these counts suggest a total of some 26,000 Common Hippopotamus for the two parks. Numbers elsewhere in DR Congo probably do not amount to more than a few thousand, perhaps bringing the country-wide total up to about 30,000.<br/><br/>There are not many Common Hippopotamus in the remaining East African countries of Rwanda and Burundi. Numbers on the Akagera River have been mentioned above in the section on Tanzania and there are probably still a few in wallows within the Akagera National Park or Mutara Game Reserve but no recent information has been received. Common Hippopotamus occur in Burundi on the Malagarazi, Ruvubu and Rusizi Rivers but there are conflicting reports over numbers. P. Chardonnet reports good populations numbered in hundreds and P. C. Trenchard puts the total on these rivers as over 1,000 as a conservative estimate. K. M. Doyle, however, casts doubt on these figures, for along a 120 km stretch of the Ruvubu River where several hundred were reported by P. Chardonnet, he recorded only 39 animals, all but two within the Ruvubu National Park, although there may have been more in wallows etc. away from the river, which were not surveyed.<br/><br/>Although there are many gaps in the data, the above analysis suggests that there could be as many as 70,000 Common Hippopotamus in the east African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa</strong><br/>Southern Africa also has flourishing populations, with Zambia containing the biggest population, 40,000, of any country in Africa. Others with large numbers include Mozambique (16,000–20,500), Malawi (10,000), Zimbabwe (6,900) and South Africa (5,000). The total in the whole of the region may be around 80,000. <br/><br/>No information has been received from Angola. According to Sidney (1965), the Common Hippopotamus was widespread throughout Angola particularly in the east on the Cunene, Cubango, Cuando, Cuanza, Longa and Zambezi Rivers.  <br/><br/>There are probably more Common Hippopotamus in Zambia than in any other single country. F. E. C. Munyenyembe puts the country-wide total at 40,000 with 20-25,000 in the Luangwa Valley according to R. H. V. Bell. They are reported to be widespread on the Kafue Flats and in Lochinvar National Park. Neighbouring Malawi, although small, is also densely populated with Common Hippopotamus, which occur on all rivers and lakes of sufficient size. The main concentrations are at Elephant Marsh (lower Shire River), the south-west arm of Lake Malawi, Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe in Liwonde National Park. R. H. V. Bell makes a guess that there are some 10,000 Common Hippopotamus in the whole of Malawi. Further south in Zimbabwe, the species is still common. It is found on most of the large rivers particularly the Limpopo. Zambezi and the Sabi/Lundi systems. It is also found in smaller rivers and dams where there is permanent water. Some wander over long distances to provide isolated records. The only estimate for the country-wide total is that made by R. B. Martin on the basis of some limited counts, which have revealed some dense populations e.g. 2,000 on a 50-km section of the Zambezi. His estimate is 6,900, of which 5,530 occur in national parks or reserves, 1,020 on communal lands and 350 elsewhere.<br/><br/>A surprising number of Common Hippopotamus appear to have survived in Mozambique, at least up to 1986, despite the recent civil strife. The species is still widely distributed throughout the country and is present on most river systems. Several national parks and reserves contain hippopotamus although only Gorongosa, with about 2,000, has a sizeable population. L. Tello's estimate made in 1986 year puts the total at between 16,000 and 20,500 for the country as a whole with most (10,000 -12,000) in the Zambezi Wildlife Utilization Area, which includes Marromeu Reserve and four safari hunting blocks. It is also contiguous with the Gorongosa National Park. This is the only region where numbers have increased (by some 20% since 1974). Elsewhere there has been a decline, except in Tete Province, whose population of between 1,500 and 2,500 is said to be stable.<br/><br/>Namibia is too dry to support many Common Hippos except in the north, where the species is present in some numbers on the Cuando and Zambezi Rivers in the Caprivi Strip. Elsewhere it occurs along the boundary with Angola on the Okavango River. Botswana is also too dry, except in the north of the country, where some animals occur in the Okavango Delta and in the Chobe/Linyati River system. A few (18+) exist on the Limpopo in the east. Outside this area, a small population may still exist near Ghanzi although some observers think this is unlikely. C. A. Spinage puts the total in northern Botswana at 1,600 in the wet season and 500 in the dry.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus are confined to the north-east of the country in the Republic of South Africa, mainly in the Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West provinces and the northern tip of KwaZulu-Natal. Most of them are in the Kruger National Park in perennial rivers, dams and the larger pools of seasonal rivers. The total counted in the park in 1989 was 2,761 with 2,575 in rivers and 191 in dams and pools. R. H. Taylor gives a total (for 1986) of 1,264 for KwaZulu-Natal, with the largest concentration (595) on Lake St Lucia, but he suggests a better estimate of 1,423 averaged over the five years 1982-1986. Those in kwaZulu-Natal outside the Kruger National Park are mainly confined to the large rivers in the eastern and northern regions of the province. These figures suggest that there are approaching 5,000 Common Hippopotamus in the country as a whole.<br/><br/>It is not possible to provide a total for the whole of southern Africa because of the lack of data from Angola, which used to support large populations and may do so still, although the disturbed political situation in the country makes it more likely that most hippopotamus have been shot. Assuming the worst and that only a few hundred remain in Angola, a very rough estimate for the regional total would be 80,000.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.
10103		threats	eng	The primary threats to Common Hippos are illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and ivory (found in the canine teeth) and habitat loss. Illegal or unregulated hunting of Common Hippos has been found to be particularly high in areas of civil unrest (Kayanja 1989; Shoumatoff 2000; Hillman Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). A recent field survey found that Common Hippo populations in DR Congo have declined more than 95% as a result of intense hunting pressure, during more than eight years of civil unrest and fighting (Hillman Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003). Widespread poaching for meat has also been reported from Burundi and Ivory Coast (Associated Press 2003; H. Rainey pers. comm.). In many countries were Common Hippos are found, populations are not confined to protected areas; some of these unprotected areas are included in Table 1. Although it is likely that the majority of the total Common Hippo population occurs in some form of protected area (national park, biosphere, game or forest reserve, sanctuary, conservation area), the proportion of protected Common Hippos likely varies among countries. For countries with a high proportion of Common Hippo populations outside protected areas, the likelihood of persistence is much lower as there is no impediment to hunting or incentive for habitat protection.<br/><br/>Estimates of the amount of Common Hippo ivory illegally exported have also increased. A 1994 assessment by TRAFFIC, the monitoring agency of international trade for the IUCN, reported that illegal trade in hippo ivory increased sharply following the international elephant ivory ban in 1989. Between 1991-1992, approximately 27,000 kg of hippo canine teeth were exported, an increase of 15,000 kg from 1989?1990 estimates (Weiler <em>et al</em>. 1994). In 1997, more than 1,700 hippo teeth en route from Uganda to Hong Kong were seized by customs officials in France (TRAFFIC 1997). Five thousand kilos of hippo teeth (from an estimated 2,000 hippos) of unknown origins were exported from Uganda in 2002 (New Vision 2002).<br/><br/>Common Hippo?s reliance on fresh water habitats appears to put them at odds with human populations and adds to their vulnerability, given the growing pressure on fresh water resources across Africa (WWC 2004). Habitat loss stems from water diversion related to agricultural development (Cole 1992; Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993; Viljoen 1995; Viljoen and Biggs 1998) as well as larger-scale development in and around wetland areas (Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993). Reports of human mortalities from Common Hippo interactions have also increased in recent years. Ten countries reported growing numbers of hippo-human conflicts, in several cases exacerbated by drought conditions.<br/><br/>Although there are several ongoing research projects in captive facilities and with wild populations, little research has focused directly on common hippo conservation. Mwanika <em>et al</em>. (2003) considered the genetic consequences of the intense unregulated hunting that occurred in Uganda in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Based on both nuclear and mitochondrial data, they conclude that although populations were reduced to 70% of initial population size, their current levels of genetic diversity are substantial and not a cause for concern. This suggests that for some populations, once the hunting disturbance is removed, recovery from intense hunting is likely and may not result in detrimental long-term population effects.<br/><br/>Lewison (2007) evaluates the relative impacts of the known threats to persistence?habitat loss (from agricultural or larger-scale development) and hunting pressure?on a model population. While accounting for rainfall variability and demographic stochasticity, the model results suggest that combinations of habitat loss and even moderate levels of adult mortality from hunting (1% of adults) can lead to a relatively high probabilities of population declines over the next 30?40 years.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.
10103		threats	eng	The primary threats to Common Hippos are illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and ivory (found in the canine teeth) and habitat loss. Illegal or unregulated hunting of Common Hippos has been found to be particularly high in areas of civil unrest (Kayanja 1989; Shoumatoff 2000; Hillman Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). A recent field survey found that Common Hippo populations in DR Congo have declined more than 95% as a result of intense hunting pressure, during more than eight years of civil unrest and fighting (Hillman Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003). Widespread poaching for meat has also been reported from Burundi and Ivory Coast (Associated Press 2003; H. Rainey pers. comm.). In many countries were Common Hippos are found, populations are not confined to protected areas; some of these unprotected areas are included in Table 1. Although it is likely that the majority of the total Common Hippo population occurs in some form of protected area (national park, biosphere, game or forest reserve, sanctuary, conservation area), the proportion of protected Common Hippos likely varies among countries. For countries with a high proportion of Common Hippo populations outside protected areas, the likelihood of persistence is much lower as there is no impediment to hunting or incentive for habitat protection.<br/><br/>Estimates of the amount of Common Hippo ivory illegally exported have also increased. A 1994 assessment by TRAFFIC, the monitoring agency of international trade for the IUCN, reported that illegal trade in hippo ivory increased sharply following the international elephant ivory ban in 1989. Between 1991-1992, approximately 27,000 kg of hippo canine teeth were exported, an increase of 15,000 kg from 1989–1990 estimates (Weiler <em>et al</em>. 1994). In 1997, more than 1,700 hippo teeth en route from Uganda to Hong Kong were seized by customs officials in France (TRAFFIC 1997). Five thousand kilos of hippo teeth (from an estimated 2,000 hippos) of unknown origins were exported from Uganda in 2002 (New Vision 2002).<br/><br/>Common Hippo’s reliance on fresh water habitats appears to put them at odds with human populations and adds to their vulnerability, given the growing pressure on fresh water resources across Africa (WWC 2004). Habitat loss stems from water diversion related to agricultural development (Cole 1992; Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993; Viljoen 1995; Viljoen and Biggs 1998) as well as larger-scale development in and around wetland areas (Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993). Reports of human mortalities from Common Hippo interactions have also increased in recent years. Ten countries reported growing numbers of hippo-human conflicts, in several cases exacerbated by drought conditions.<br/><br/>Although there are several ongoing research projects in captive facilities and with wild populations, little research has focused directly on common hippo conservation. Mwanika <em>et al</em>. (2003) considered the genetic consequences of the intense unregulated hunting that occurred in Uganda in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Based on both nuclear and mitochondrial data, they conclude that although populations were reduced to 70% of initial population size, their current levels of genetic diversity are substantial and not a cause for concern. This suggests that for some populations, once the hunting disturbance is removed, recovery from intense hunting is likely and may not result in detrimental long-term population effects.<br/><br/>Lewison (2007) evaluates the relative impacts of the known threats to persistence—habitat loss (from agricultural or larger-scale development) and hunting pressure—on a model population. While accounting for rainfall variability and demographic stochasticity, the model results suggest that combinations of habitat loss and even moderate levels of adult mortality from hunting (1% of adults) can lead to a relatively high probabilities of population declines over the next 30–40 years.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.
10107		conservation	eng	Protection of the known sites may be a helpful conservation measure for Biak horseshoe bats, as would additional surveys to determine if the species has a wider range on the island of New Guinea.
10107		distribution	eng	Biak horseshoe bats are endemic to Indonesia where they occur on the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Gebe, Biak, Supiori, and Numfoor; they have also been reported from the Vogelkop Peninsula on the island of New Guinea (Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b). It has been recorded from 100-300 m asl. in New Guinea (Flannery 1995b).
10107		habitat	eng	The Biak horseshoe bat is a cave roosting species recorded from areas of primary tropical moist forest.
10107		population	eng	It can be relatively common.
10107		threats	eng	Biak horseshoe bats species appear to be restricted to caves for roosting. Disturbance of these sites is a potential threat to this species.
10108		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.); there are records from G'Niut National Park.
10108		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore (Botanic Gardens), and northern Borneo where it is only confirmed in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah (Malaysia), but probably also occurs in Kalimantan (Indonesia).
10108		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary forest, all known records are from lowland areas (C. Francis, T. Kingston and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Malaysia, the species has been reported roosting in small groups of up to 15 individuals, in very large fallen trees with deep hollows (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is found at 100 m asl in lowland areas near to water in Thailand, and is also reported as roosting in trees, not caves (Bumrungsri <em>et al</em>. in press).
10108		population	eng	It is rare in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), and uncommon in the remainder of its range (C. Francis and T. Kingston pers. comm.).
10108		threats	eng	This forest dependent species is affected by deforestation as a result of logging, fires, plantations and agriculture; it does not do well in degraded areas (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
10109		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place, but it occurs in Comoe National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. and presumably also in other protected areas across its wide range.
10109		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in a range which extends from Guinea-Bissau in west Africa (also the most northerly record) to northern Uganda (also the most eastern and southerly record) (Simmons 2005). It is a lowland species found below 1,000 m. There are records from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, and it is to be expected in Mali, Benin and Chad.
10109		habitat	eng	It is found in the Guinea savanna zone extending southwards into derived savanna and areas of destroyed rainforest (Koopman, Mumford and  Heisterberg 1978; Happold 1987). It does not occur in closed rainforest. It roosts in caves and rocky crevices or on the undersides of boulders, but apparently not in houses (Happold 1987).
10109		population	eng	There is little information. The Aba roundleaf bat is thought to be sparsely distributed throughout its range, and to roost in small colonies (approximate group size in the dozens, not hundreds).
10109		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It appears to have taken advantage of forest clearance by moving into formerly forested land.
10110		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Mahanandi Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal. In Southeast Asia, it occurs in protected areas throughout its range. In parts of its range further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10110		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from India and Nepal, eastwards into central and southeastern China, and from much of peninsular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been reported from India (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central, Eastern and Western Nepal) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it is distributed south of the Yangtze river, and has been recorded in Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macao, Guangxi, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Guizhou, Fujian and the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. In South Asia, it has been recorded at elevations of 1,000 to 2,031 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10110		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this usually low flying species is generally a high altitude species found in montane and bamboo forests (Mistry 1995). It has been recorded roosting either singly or in colonies of several individuals and shares its roosts with other species of bats in subterranean caves, lofts of houses, verandahs of old houses, old temples. It breeds once a year and gives birth to two young (Bates and Harrison 1997). In China, it is considered to be a species found in a variety of habitats. They are known to inhabit caves and a variety of man-made structures. Colonies can number in the hundreds of individuals, and they co-occur with species of <em>Rhinolophus</em> and other bats. In Southeast Asia, the species has been primarily recorded near caves but occurs in quite distant areas from the roosts when foraging.
10110		population	eng	It appears to be fairly common throughout its range.
10110		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural purposes, from mining activities, and disturbance to roosting sites in caves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, cave disturbance is occurring throughout the species' range and it is hunted (presumably for food) in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand.
10111		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites for this species. In South Asia, additional studies into the threats to this species are needed.
10111		distribution	eng	This very widespread species ranges from India, through much of Southeast Asia, to the islands of New Guinea and Australia. In South Asia this species is very widely distributed. It is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands, Orissa and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, North Central, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Aul and Vijaykumar 2003, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2006). In Southeast Asia it is distributed from Myanmar, into Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, and from here ranges to Sumatra (Indonesia), northern parts of Borneo (Brunei [possibly], Indonesia and Malaysia), the Philippines (found throughout with records from Balabac [Hill, 1963], Bohol, Catanduanes, Cebu, Leyte, Luzon [Abra, Benguet (Taylor, 1934), Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal, Tarlac provinces], Marinduque [Lawrence, 1939], Maripipi, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan [Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998].), Sulawesi (Indonesia), the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the islands of Biak-Supiori and Yapen (Indonesia), New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the islands of New Britain and New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from northern and central parts of Australia. It has been recorded up to 1,700 m asl in (New Guinea).
10111		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts in small colonies in lofts of old thatched houses, old disused buildings, disused areas of buildings, mines, tunnels, culverts, wells, hollows of large trees in forested areas, large crevices in walls, caves on sea shores. It is a late flyer with a low, fast and fluttering flight and feeds on small sized coleopterans and mosquitoes. A single young is born after a gestation period of 150-160 days (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from lowland and montane primary and secondary forest, over or associated with limestone (L. Heaney and Balete pers. comm.), where it usually roosts in caves (L. Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Esselstyn and L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) although there is a record from a human-constructed tunnel in lowland secondary forest (Sedlock, 2001). The species is only very rarely found in agricultural areas near to forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.). In New Guinea and Australia, it forages in a wide variety of habitats including rainforest, dry woodland, mangroves, dry scrub, euclypt woodland and secondary growth. It roosts in caves and abandoned tunnels. Animals largely roost in small groups but can sometimes be found in groups of several hundred individuals (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). The female gives birth to a single young.
10111		population	eng	This species is common in its range in South Asia and has been recorded in small colonies of few individuals. Although there are no long-term studies on this species, informal observations reveal that the populations are stable in many localities (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In the Philippines, the species has not been found to be common (Heaney and Balete pers. comm.). It is widespread, but never especially common in the remainder of Southeast Asia (Bates pers. comm.). In Australia, it appears to be a generally uncommon species.
10111		threats	eng	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In South Asia and Australia the species is locally threatened by the disturbance of maternity caves. In the Philippines, the species has probably declined as a result of destruction of lowland forest and disturbance of caves (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). In the Philippines, as with other cave dwelling bats, there is likely to be some localized hunting for food (Heaney and Balete pers. comm.), however, it is unlikely to be taken for food throughout most of its southeast Asian range (Francis pers. comm.).
10112		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Allen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Garamba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and presumably in several other protected areas.
10112		distribution	eng	The Benito roundleaf bat has been recorded from Sierra Leone eastwards across the forest zone west and central Africa, as far east as the Sudan/Democratic Republic of Congo border. There are records from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan. A previous report of this species in Central African Republic is in error, though it might occur in the south of that country. In Nigeria, it is widely distributed in the rainforest zone (Happold 1987).
10112		habitat	eng	It can be characterised as a true lowland rainforest species. It roosts singly, in pairs or in very small groups in the cavities of fallen logs, in holes of living trees close to the ground and in road culverts (Happold 1987). It exhibits a definite preference for waterways, rivers and swamps. It does not occur in cleared areas outside forest.
10112		population	eng	It has a patchy distribution, typically found in small familial groups, but can be found in groups of up to 20 individuals. There is no information on overall abundance.
10112		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the major threat to this species.
10113		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
10113		distribution	eng	This species is found from Thailand to Timor. In the Philippines, the few individuals referred to this species are from Luzon (Camarines Sur province) and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). A specimen from Palawan reported by Allen (1922) was recently re-identified as <em>Hipposideros ater</em>, which is the only report of the species from the island (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
10113		habitat	eng	A forest species preferring primary forest, it is not common in disturbed forest areas. It roosts in caves in Peninsular Malaysia (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
10113		population	eng	This species is common in the southeast Asia region and probably widespread in Borneo, although there are no records (C. Francis pers. comm.). The status of the Philippines population is unknown (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10113		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is sensitive to deforestation.
10114		conservation	eng	The single record for <em>H. breviceps</em> is not within a protected area. Survey work is a priority for this species.
10114		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen from the type locality (described in 1941) on North Pagai in the Mentawai Islands, Sumatra, Indonesia.
10114		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is colonial and live in caves in forested areas. It is probably insectivorous.
10114		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known; it is only known from one specimen.
10114		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
10115		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place. Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
10115		distribution	eng	A very wide ranging species, occurring from the south-western Arabian Peninsula (including Yemen) and across most of sub-Saharan Africa (except for central forested regions) (Simmons 2005). This species has also been recorded in southern Algeria, central Niger, eastern Chad, the Senegal/Mauritania border. <em>H. caffer tephrus</em> is confined to the coastal areas of northern Morocco. A supposed record from southern Algeria requires confirmation. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,500 m in this area.
10115		distribution	eng	A very wide ranging species, occurring from the south-western Arabian Peninsula (including Yemen) and across most of sub-Saharan Africa (except for central forested regions) (Simmons 2005). This species has also been recorded in southern Algeria, central Niger, eastern Chad, the Senegal/Mauritania border. <i>H. caffer tephrus</i> is confined to the coastal areas of northern Morocco. A supposed record from southern Algeria requires confirmation. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,500 m in this area.
10115		habitat	eng	This species occurs in savanna, bushveld and coastal forest, and is usually associated with rivers and other water resources (Taylor 2000), provided there are caves or buildings where it can roost during the day (Happold 1987). Colony size varies from small to medium-sized groups of tens or hundreds of individuals (Taylor 2000), exceptionally up to 500,000 (Brosset 1966; Happold 1987).
10115		population	eng	A common and numerous species. Sundevall's roundleaf bats are extremely gregarious and capable of forming huge colonies where there is adequate roosting space. At Shagunu (Menzies 1973) a colony of about 1,000 individuals inhabited a cave five meters wide, 1-2 m high and 10-15 m deep. In Gabon they live in colonies of 200-1,000 and one exceptionally large cave contained an estimated 500,000 bats (Brosset 1966; Happold 1987).
10115		threats	eng	Human disturbance to roosting sites (caves) could have a negative effect.
10116		conservation	eng	A significant population of this species is present in the Balek Wildlife Sanctuary, and it has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.). Additional important roosting sites should be protected to ensure the security of the species.
10116		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present on Yapen Island (Indonesia); part of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), the Trobriand Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Louisade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea); Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea); and throughout many of the Solomon Islands (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b). It is predominantly found in the lowlands from 0-600 m asl., but has been found up to 1,000 m (D. Wright pers. comm.).
10116		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded roosting in many caves and tunnels. It forms populations of tens of animals to several thousand individuals. The population at the Balek Wildlife Sanctuary in Madang Province (Papua New Guinea) consists of several thousand animals (Bonaccorso 1998). Females are presumed to give birth to one or two young annually. The foraging habitats are unknown, but cave roosts have been found in forested areas and foraging may occur along rivers (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
10116		population	eng	It is a common species.
10116		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
10117		conservation	eng	None conservation measures are currently in place. It is not known from any protected areas. Taxonomic studies are urgently needed to determine whether or not the three recorded localities all refer to the same species.
10117		distribution	eng	On the basis of current knowledge, this species is known only from three localities: Buea in Cameroon (type locality); Shabunda in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; and at the Kakamega Forest in western Kenya close to Lake Victoria. If it is a single species, then it is likely to be found in future in intervening locations. Its elevational range is from sea-level to 500 m, and probably higher.
10117		habitat	eng	Little known about this species. The Kakamega specimen was captured in 'Intermediate Evergreen Forest' (Schlitter <em>et al.</em> 1986). The original specimens were taken from a hollow tree (Eisentraut 1963).
10117		population	eng	Very little known about the species. It is known form  only three records in a general region that is not widely surveyed.
10117		threats	eng	If it is a forest-dependent species, then it is probably suffering from ongoing forest loss. If future taxonomic studies show it to be restricted to Mount Cameroon, then it could be seriously threatened by habitat destruction.
10118		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range it is presumed to be present in some protected areas. In the Philippines, there is a need for further appropriate surveys on Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Protection of forest around cave complexes is required and particularly so in Borneo.
10118		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (where it is possibly extinct), through the island of Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands (Indonesia), to the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), the Philippines, Sulawesi (Indonesia), a number of the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), the Kai Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), Yapen Island (Papua Province, Indonesia), in scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), through the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea), on Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, through Vanuatu (Jenkins and Hill 1981) to the Cape Peninsula in northeastern Queensland, Australia. In the Philippines records are from Mindanao (Davao del Sur and Maguindanao Provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and Palawan (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
10118		habitat	eng	Found at low elevation habitats between sea level to 1,400 m asl (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006). The species is typically tied to caves, but can be found in a variety of habitat types (K. Helgen pers. comm.). This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest and also from open forest habitats. It roosts in caves (especially large caves), abandoned mines and in hollow trees. Many hundreds of individuals may be encountered at a single roost. The females give birth to a single young (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
10118		population	eng	It is generally a common species. In the Philippines, the populations are unknown, the only known records being from the 1946 Philippine expedition on Mindanao (Sanborn 1952), since then there have been no appropriate surveys there (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and probably elsewhere in Borneo the species is a cave dweller in forests and it can be locally abundant in suitable areas.
10118		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by mine visitation and habitat loss in parts of its range, although it is tolerant to a certain level of disturbance.
10119		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas in India such as the Kalakkad Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2006) and from Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). Detailed studies on taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, threats and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, although it is present in a number of protected areas further protection of suitable forest habitat is needed.
10119		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from South Asia into much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species occurs in India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Haryana, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal and Pakistan (Punjab) at elevations ranging from 62 to 1,480 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although it has only been recorded from only a few locations in the region, it is quite widespread (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species is found from Myanmar in the west, through parts of Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and possibly Cambodia (presence here needs to be confirmed, G. Csorba pers. comm.) to Peninsular Malaysia, and from here has been recorded on the islands of Sumatra (Indonesia) and parts of Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia). Although there are reports of this species from Philippines, there appears to be no conclusive evidence of the species presence here (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
10119		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this species. In Southeast Asia, it seems to be a largely lowland species that has been recorded roosting in caves (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia this species roosts in hollows of trees in forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The young are born after a gestation period of 180 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
10119		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Thailand has been found roosting in groups of up to 30 individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is usually captured in small numbers in surveys in Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).
10119		threats	eng	This species is threatened over much of its range by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations for conversion of land to agriculture and as human settlements. It is also facing threat due to tourism related developmental activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10120		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas (Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National d’Isalo, Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana, Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre, Parc National de Kirindy-Mite) as well as other forest that are actively managed for conservation (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Ifticene <em>et al</em>. 2005; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007; Ranivo and Goodman 2007).
10120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it occurs from sea-level to at least 1,350 m above sea level.
10120		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including dry deciduous, littoral and gallery forests (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008). It roosts in large colonies in caves and in solitary settings on the peripheral branches of large trees (Cardiff 2006; Goodman 2006; Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008). In sites with extensive networks of underground cavities, <em>H. commersoni</em> only occupies a few of the potential roosting caves (Cardiff 2006) and in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana used rather narrow caves within 100 m of water (Cardiff 2006). It often uses buildings as night roosts or feeding perches. This species is known to use the edge and interiors of relatively intact forest, but has also been caught feeding in and around small villages (Ifticene <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007; Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008). Further study is therefore required on its forest dependency, but there is evidence that mature forest trees are an essential habitat resource for <em>H. commersoni</em> in areas without caves (Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>It is a specialist beetle predator and appears to be inactive during the austral winter (Razakarivony <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and may even be migratory (Ranivo and Goodman 2007). Males are significantly larger than females and the latter sex show latitudinal variation in morphology (Ranivo and Goodman 2007).
10120		population	eng	There is little information available on population size, but this species can roost in colonies of many thousand individuals.
10120		threats	eng	Besides habitat loss, it is also threatened by hunting and is particularly vulnerable at roosting sites where bats are hunted as they emerge at dusk (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008; Jenkins and Racey in press). In the extreme south-west of Madagascar, there were an estimated 140,000 individuals harvested for food annually between January and March (Goodman 2006). This hunting is thought to be occur throughout western Madagascar in areas where local people live in close proximity to roosting colonies of <em>H. commersoni</em> (Jenkins and Racey in press).
10121		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further surveys for the large Mindanao leaf-nosed bat to determine its distribution, including in the vicinity of the type locality, as it is possible that this species is seriously threatened.
10121		distribution	eng	The large Mindanao leaf-nosed bat is endemic to the Philippines. It is known for certain only from the holotype (now destroyed (Bennett <em>et al.</em> 2002)) from Mainit, Surigao del Norte province, Mindanao (Peters 1871). One individual, believed to refer to this, species was captured in the lowland dipterocarp forest, to the south of the type locality, on Mount Hilong-hilong (Cantilan, Surigao del Sur) (Gomez in litt. 2007). There are records that might refer to this species from Polillo, with recent records (6 captures) from a cave near the town of Burdeos, Polillo Island, and a specimen (no. 4491) exists in the Philippines National Museum (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2002).
10121		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of <em>H. coronatus</em> are not well known. The records from Mindanao and Polillo Island were from a cave in lowland forest over limestone (Bennett <em>et al.</em> 2002; Gomez in litt. 2007).
10121		population	eng	The population status of <em>H. coronatus</em> is unknown as it was known only from the holotype (Peters 1871) until early 2000s when several individuals were found on Polillo island (Bennett <em>et al.</em> 2002), and more recently on Mindanao. Surveys using harp traps, mist nets and bat detectors in caves across the island have not located further records of the species (D. Bennett pers. comm. 2006).
10121		threats	eng	The vicinity of the type locality is mostly deforested, although there is some secondary-growth forest (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006). The recent records from a cave on Polillo Island are in an area where there are continuing threats from human disturbance to the roost and surrounding habitat. Habitat has been lost at a high rate in the past and it is inferred that deforestation will continue, these are likely to cause local population extinctions. <em>H. coronatus</em> is believed to be subject to hunting pressure in parts of its range.
10122		conservation	eng	A suitable conservation measure for this species would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.
10122		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from five localities in the Telefomin area of Sandaun and Western Provinces, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has also been collected in the Tembagapura area of Papua Province, Indonesia (K. Helgen pers. comm.). Animals in the Telefomin area have been collected up to 1,800 m asl. Occurs down to 1,400 m asl, and the Snow Mountains record is from 2,700 m.
10122		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in deep limestone cave complexes. It may be a solitary animal, or it may aggregate in small groups (Bonaccorso 1998). The species probably forages in forested habitat (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
10122		population	eng	Bonaccorso (1998) states that it is a rare species, but Flannery (1995) suggests that it is common in deep caves at 1,600 to 1,800 m asl. It is likely to be locally common.
10122		threats	eng	This species is currently known from very few roosting sites, and it is unclear if there are any threats to these localities.
10123		conservation	eng	There is a need for survey and research work to improve the understanding of ecology and population biology of these bats.
10123		distribution	eng	The type locality for <em>H. coxi</em> is at 1,280 m asl on Mount Penrisen, south west Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia (Simmons 2005).
10123		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
10123		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
10123		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
10124		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species is present in any protected areas. Knowledge of this species is extremely poor, additional taxonomic and survey work are required.
10124		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Timor, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).
10124		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the habitat preferences and ecology of this species. Presumably, it is found in primary forest.
10124		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10124		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10125		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect any important roosting sites, and to maintain suitable foarging habitat in the vicinity of these. Further field surveys are needed to locate additional populations of this species, and to determine if the species is present in Nigeria.
10125		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southwestern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (both Bioko island and Rio Muni). The species might be present in Nigeria, however, this needs confirmation. It is a lowland species is found at elevations from sea-level to 500 m.
10125		habitat	eng	This little known species is associated with tropical lowland moist forest, and is not present in areas of cleared forest. It is a cave roosting species.
10125		population	eng	This species has been rarely recorded and is known only from a few locations.
10125		threats	eng	Threats to this species include ongoing forest loss, and disturbance of cave roosting sites. A number of the few known roosts have already been deserted presumably because of disturbance.
10126		conservation	eng	The roosting habits of this bat requires very large hollow trees, so conservation of these must be a priority. It is found in some protected areas, for example Kwamgumi Forest Reserve in Tanzania, and the Udzungwa Mountains National Park of Tanzania.
10126		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded over much of West Africa and Central Africa, with a few scattered records from East Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, through most countries in West Africa, to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic and Rwanda, being recorded from East Africa in southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya, with an isolated population in southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania (Decher and Fahr 2005). It has been collected at Tongwe Forest near Tanga and Kwamgumi Forest Reserve in Tanzania (K. Howell pers. comm. 2004). There is a dubious record from the border area of Chad and the Central African Republic. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 1,000 m.
10126		habitat	eng	Although this bat is often considered to be a forest species (Happold 1987), it can be found far into the forest–savanna mosaic in many parts of its range (Decher and Fahr 2005). In Nigeria, it has only been recorded from tropical moist forest. It does not occur in heavily degraded areas. The species roosts singly, in pairs or in small groups of up to 12 individuals in cavities in hollow standing trees. They prefer cavities as high as possible above the ground and sometimes share these with flying squirrels (Happold 1987).
10126		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species in some areas.
10126		threats	eng	Although not threatened throughout its range, the species may disappear from many areas that are threatened by deforestation, especially on the extreme limits of its distribution (Decher and Fahr 2005).
10127		conservation	eng	A suitable conservation measure for Makira horseshoe bats would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.
10127		distribution	eng	The Makira horseshoe bat is restricted to the island of Makira (also called "San Cristobal") in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995).
10127		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves and may occur in great numbers at some sites (Flannery 1995).
10127		population	eng	It appears to be a common species on Makira (Flannery 1995).
10127		threats	eng	This species is restricted to relatively few maternity caves (Flannery 1995), which are susceptible to disturbance. Cyclones are a threat in the eastern Solomon Islands and because this species is only known from one island, a single storm event could have a large impact on the species.
10128		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this taxon in India. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Protection of roost site from edible swift nest collectors is highly recommended (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia and Australia it is present in a number of protected areas. Important maternity roosts should be identified and protected. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
10128		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Nicobar Islands of India through Southeast Asia to Australia. On the Nicobar Islands, the endemic subspecies <em>H. d. nicobarensis</em> is present on the islands of Bompuka, Katchal, Tillangchong, Tressa and Trinket (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from southern Myanmar, into Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern Lao PDR, to Peninsular Malaysia, and from here to much of Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and Sulawesi), East Timor, the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines it is found in all regions (sea level to 900 m asl) except the Batanes/Babuyan region. Specimens have been collected from the Philippines islands of Bohol, Busuanga, Calauit, Catanduanes, Cebu (Lawrence, 1939), Dinagat, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon [Benguet (Taylor, 1934), Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Laguna, Nueva Vizcaya, Pampanga, Quezon, Rizal (Taylor, 1934) provinces], Mindanao [Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Maguindanao, South Cotabato (Sanborn, 1952), Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur (Taylor, 1934)], Mindoro (Lawrence, 1939), Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Samar, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). There are some records from the island of Tawi-tawi (K. Helgen pers. comm.). On the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) it is found in scattered localities and it is present throughout much of the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). The species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville and Buka (Papua New Guinea), and from many of the Solomon Islands. It is present in Australia where it is largely restricted to the rainforests of northern Queensland (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is found from sea level to 1,300 m asl.
10128		habitat	eng	On the Nicobar Islands it is colonial and roosts in small to large colonies, hanging singly from high chambers in cave roofs and roosts with other Hipposideros spp. (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). It feeds on beetles. It is a low flier in gallery forests, over water pools and also found in disturbed forests (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). A single young is born in a separate maternity roost (Bates and Harrison 1997), and pregnant females have been observed in the month of March (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia, the species occurs in primary forest and disturbed lowland forest areas, including riparian areas (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). And roosts in hollow trees, caves and man-made tunnels (Heaney <em>et al.</em> in press; Lepiten, 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Sanborn, 1952). Animals have been collected from trees within agricultural areas (J. Esselstyn and L. Heaney pers. comm.). In New Guinea and Australia, it has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, dry open woodland, rural gardens and plantations (Bonaccorso 1998). The species roosts in caves, disused mines, hollow trees and old buildings. The females give birth to a single young (Bonaccorso 1998). Maternity colonies may consist of several thousand animals (Bonaccorso 1998).
10128		population	eng	The Nicobar subspecies, <em>H.d. nicobarensis</em>, is very common and has been found to roost in large colonies of over 500 bats to small colonies of over 30 bats on four islands of Nicobar Islands (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003).  It was first recorded from a cave on Trinket Island, but it does not occur on that island anymore (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003), the reason for this disappearance is unknown. In the Philippines this species is considered to be locally common (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998). There can be large roosts or thousands or more individuals, though the species often roost in small numbers (K. Helgen and L. Heaney pers. comm.). In New Guinea it is a relatively common species (Flannery 1995).
10128		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats overall to this widespread species. The Nicobar subspecies is threatened by edible swiftlet nest collection activities in caves; although the reason for its disappearance from one cave is unknown (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia it is likely to be locally threatened by hunting and cave exploitation. In the Australian range some threats include habitat loss due to disturbance, loss of roosting sites, and loss of foraging habitat to agriculture (L. Hall pers. comm.).
10129		conservation	eng	A suitable conservation measure for this species would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, population numbers, and threats to this species are needed.
10129		distribution	eng	The fierce leaf-nosed bat is present on the islands of Boungainville (Papua New Guinea), Guadacanal, Malaita, New Georgia, San Jorge, and Santa Isabel (all in the Solomon Islands). On Bougainville Island it is found from sea level to 400 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).
10129		habitat	eng	This is a cave roosting species. Animals may be found roosting singly or in small groups of up to 12 individuals (Bonaccorso 1998).
10129		population	eng	The fierce leaf-nosed bat appears to be uncommon, found in a few sites, and with few individuals at each site (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
10129		threats	eng	Threats to this species include lowland deforestation and cave disturbance.
10130		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas within its range.
10130		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. It is recorded from Sabah (Yasuma and Andau 2000), and was recently found in the Crocker Range, Sabah (E. Meijaard pers. comm.). All known specimens are from Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo, but it is probably widespread across the island.
10130		habitat	eng	It occurs at low densities in primary forest and is not known from disturbed areas.
10130		population	eng	It is known from only a few locations, the species appears to be widespread but occurs at very low densities.
10130		threats	eng	Populations have declined with ongoing forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and fires.
10131		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. There is a need to protect roost sites for this species, and overall habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. The viability of establishing captive-breeding colonies for this species should be assessed. Public awareness campaigns need to be taken up to mitigate further threats to this highly restricted range species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10131		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India and is known only from the villages of Katangi, Katanga and Richhai in Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh (Khajuria 1970). Surveys in the early 1990s in Madhya Pradesh by the Zoological Survey of India did not record this species in places other than the above (M.K. Ghosh and Tarapada Bhattacharyya  pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to 200 m asl. The extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² based on the likely foraging radius of 10 km² and roost fidelity of similar sized hipposiderid species (Brosset 1966, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10131		habitat	eng	This species is colonial, roosting in colonies of several individuals in caves both small and large and is also found beneath large granite boulders and shares its roost with other species of bats. The foraging habitat is dry tropical forest. It feeds on beetles, crickets, and other small insects (Khajuria 1970, Bates and Harrison 1997).
10131		population	eng	Khajuria (1970) reported it to be uncommon and reported this species from six different roosts in three different villages in Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh.
10131		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely due to stone quarrying operations (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 10 October 2007). It might additionally be threatened by general disturbance of roosting caves.
10132		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas.
10132		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Borneo and much of Peninsular Malaysia (Simmons 2005). The type specimen was collected from Mount Mulu, Baram, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo.
10132		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland rainforests. It roosts in limestone caves, under rocks and in hollow trees (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).
10132		population	eng	This species is found in small numbers.
10132		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of logging, expanding agriculture and plantations, and fires, as well as limestone extraction represent threats to this species.
10133		conservation	eng	A suitable conservation measure for this poorly-known species would be the protection of the few known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.
10133		distribution	eng	This recently described species has been recorded from three nearby localities in the Bewani Mountains of Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been found at elevations of 200 to 300 m asl.
10133		habitat	eng	This species roosts in caves in low hills and has been observed foraging for insects in rural villages and gardens (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).
10133		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
10133		threats	eng	It is currently known from only a few sites. It is unclear whether or not it is threatened at these localities.
10134		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this bat, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. There is a specific need to maintain large trees as roosting sites for the species. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and possible additional threats to this species.
10134		distribution	eng	Populations of bats allocated to this species have been recorded in West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west, and has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. In Central Africa it is distributed in southern Cameroon, with scattered records from Gabon, Central African Republic, northern parts of Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda. It is generally a lowland species, being recorded up to 500 m asl.
10134		habitat	eng	This species is associated with primary tropical lowland moist forest. It does not appear to be present in degraded forest. Animals have been found roosting in hollow trees.
10134		population	eng	There is little information on its overall abundance. It is usually found in small groups, but sometimes in congregations of up two hundred bats.
10134		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation or degradation of its habitat. Presumably this is largely a result of logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
10135		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India including the Bhimashakar Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra and is very likely to be found in other protected areas too in the range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Public awareness is needed to mitigate future threats to populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
10135		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed in South Asia in Afghanistan (Laghman and Nangarhar provinces), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh), Nepal (Central Nepal), Pakistan (Baluchistan, Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Sabaragamuwa and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,600 m asl. It has been recorded from western Yunnan in China (Smith and Xie 2008). Records of this species from Viet Nam from are probably erroneous, based on misidentified <em>Hipposideros pomona</em> (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003).
10135		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a variety of habitats from arid regions to thick forests. It roosts in colonies of a few to large number of individuals in old dilapidated buildings, temples, cellars, caves and old wells. It is a late flyer with a slow, fluttering and low flight and feeds on cockroaches and coleopterans. A single young is born after a gestation period of 150-160 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
10135		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its range and the population seems to be stable and doing well.
10135		threats	eng	Some populations of this species are affected by habitat loss largely due to tourism related developmental activities such as fumigation and cave sealing in the Ajanta-Ellora Cave Complex, and from stone mining and quarrying (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10136		conservation	eng	This has been recorded from a number of protected areas. In India, the species has been recorded from the Melghat Tiger Reserve, Borivili National Park in Maharashtra, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (Srinivasulu, 2004). In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Public awareness is needed to mitigate future threats to this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
10136		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Sylhet and Rajshahi divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). It is very widely distributed and has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). On mainland Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from western and southern Thailand (including Terutau Island), Cambodia (four specimens have been recorded but no exact localities are available [Borissenko and Kruskop 2003]), southern Lao PDR (Francis pers. comm.), southern Viet Nam, and Peninsular Malaysia (including Penang Island). Within insular Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Bangka and Java (all to Indonesia), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and from the island of Sanana in the Sula Islands (Indonesia) (Flannery 1995). There is a record from the island of Bali (Indonesia) but it may be erroneous (Kock and Dobat 2000).
10136		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry to wet lowland forests, but have also been recorded from rubber estates in Southeast Asia. This species roosts in small colonies or family units in old mines, cracks, culverts and crevices in old buildings, caves, among large boulders, overhanging ledges, tunnels, dungeons, forts, temples and churches. On Borneo it has been found roosting in caves in small groups with <em>H. cervinus</em>, as well as in colonies of hundreds of animals (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998). On Sanana Island it has been found in a colony of several hundred individuals sharing a large cave with six other bat species (Flannnery 1995). It is a low flier and feeds on beetles and other insects (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Sri Lanka, the species is observed to change roost sites frequently (W. Yapa and P.C.M.B. Digana pers. comm.).
10136		population	eng	This species, though widespread throughout its range in South Asia, is not very common as the localities are scattered and the colony size is small. The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Bates and Harrison (1997) call this a comparatively rare bat as only isolated individuals have been recorded. In Southeast Asia this species is never abundant, but is widespread and not rare.
10136		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the foraging grounds of this species are threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and  conversion of land for agriculture. It is also threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites and disturbance to caves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10137		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to determine if the species occurs in additional locations, and areas of suitable habitat require protection (S Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
10137		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in central and southern Thailand (Lop Buri, Tha Woong, Khao Sa Moa Khan), further surveys are required to determine if it is in more locations. The two southern localities on the range map may be historical as the entrances to the caves have been blocked, however, it is not known whether the species currently occurs in nearby caves (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
10137		habitat	eng	The species requires a very specific roosting habitat of caves with small entrances which are underground, and this type of cave is rare (Waengsothorn <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species does not travel more than 2 km from the cave to forage. It is unlikely that there is any mix between the known populations as the areas between them are rice fields which are unsuitable for the species. The closest populations are more than 150 km apart (Waengsothorn <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10137		population	eng	The current total population estimate for the species for the known colonies is 1,000-1,400 individuals (Waengsothorn <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10137		threats	eng	There has been a loss of limestone habitat in the area due to limestone mining (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In addition most known populations are outside protected areas and the forest habitat is highly disturbed due to livestock and deforestation (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Known localities are surrounded by rice fields where pesticide use is high. The roosts of the species are disturbed due to harvesting of guano and the species is sensitive to this. It is hunted in some parts of its range for food.
10138		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Studies in taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and population monitoring are required immediately. There is a need to identify and protect key roosting caves for this species, and general habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration is also needed. Public awareness about the endemicity and status of this species is recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10138		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India and is presently known only from the two localities of Hanumanahalli and Theralli, in Kolar District, Karnataka State (Kock and Bhat 1994). It has not been recorded from additional nearby localities despite surveys by K.S. Sreepada (surveys from 1993 to 1997) and R. Krishnan (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). It has been recorded from 500 to 570 m asl. The extent of occurrence is 101-5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km² because of a likely foraging radius of 10 km² based on foraging ecology and roost fidelity of similar sized hipposiderid species (Brosset 1966, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
10138		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it roosts in granite caves in subterranean habitats and shares its roosts with other hipposiderid species such as <em>H. ater</em>, <em>H. fulvus</em> and <em>H. speoris</em> (Kock and Bhat 1994, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10138		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10138		threats	eng	This species is threatened by mining activities and loss of foraging habitats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10139		conservation	eng	It might occur in protected areas, particularly Dumoga Bone National Park situated to the east of Gorontalo. This species is a priority for survey work to determine its range and current population status.
10139		distribution	eng	The type specimen of this species was collected from Poso in central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Laurie and Hill 1954). It is only known from two more localities in northern Sulawesi: these were collected by Gorontalo in 1875 and Minahassa in 1877 (Feiler 1981).
10139		habitat	eng	This species belongs to the <em>diadema</em> species group (Simmons 2005) and is likely to have similar biology to other bats in this group.  It probably roosts in caves or large colonies and may forage in more open areas (Flannery 1995).
10139		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Both specimens from northern Sulawesi reported by Feiler 1981 were collected in the 1870s. The date of the collection of the holotype is not known but pre-dates 1925 (Laurie and Hill 1954). No more recent records are known.
10139		threats	eng	There is no information about threats to this species.
10140		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve important roosts for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
10140		distribution	eng	This West African endemic is closely association with caves. It has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Nigeria (Hayman, 1947; Rosevear, 1965; Happold, 1987; Grubb <em>et al</em>., 1998). It is found between sea level and 1,400 m asl.
10140		habitat	eng	This species is associated with caves and similar roost sites, including boulder caves, true caves, and mine shafts. It has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats ranging from tropical moist forest to arid Sahel vegetation, and from lowland areas into montane regions.
10140		population	eng	This species forms roosts of only a few animals, usually in the dozens rather than hundreds. There is a pronounced geographic morphological variation between populations, suggesting that there may be little movement of animals between populations.
10140		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by the disturbance of roosting caves, and might additionally be threatened by subsistence hunting although this needs to be confirmed.
10141		conservation	eng	It is present within the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve World Heritage Site. There is a need to enforce the protection of this area. Additional surveys are needed to learn more about the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
10141		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Nimba in the border area of Guinea, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. On Mount Nimba it has been recorded from the localities of Grotte de Blandé and Pierré Richaud in Guinea. Former records from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon were misidentified (see Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995). It has been recorded between 500 and 1,400 m asl.
10141		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is still quite poorly known. It has only been recorded with certainty from two localities on Mount Nimba, one in lowland tropical moist forest, and a second in afromontane savanna. It has been collected roosting within a natural cave (Grotte de Blandé) and a small, abandoned mining tunnel (Pierré Richaud). It is not known with certainty if the species mainly, or exclusively, roosts in caves and similar habitats (J. Fahr pers. comm.).
10141		population	eng	Only six specimens are currently known from two localities.
10141		threats	eng	The species is believed to be highly threatened because of extensive iron ore mining activities underway, and planned, within its limited range on Mount Nimba. It is probably additionally threatened by general deforestation in parts of its range. Indiscriminate subsistence hunting of bats for food occurs in caves on Mount Nimba and likely impacts this species.
10142		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India including the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (Srinivasulu and Nagulu 2002) and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh (Harshey and Chandra 2001). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Public awareness campaigns are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10142		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia where it is widely distributed. It is presently known from Bangladesh (Khulna division) (Khan 2001), India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Orissa, Rajasthan Tripura and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).  It has been recoded from sea level to an elevation of around 1,000 m asl. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10142		habitat	eng	This is a colonial species that roosts in small (50 individuals) to very large (several thousand individuals) colonies in caves, old disused tunnels, old temples and cellars under old buildings. It has been recorded sharing its roosting sites with <em>Megaderma lyra</em>, and other species of bats (Bates and Harrison 1997, C. Srinivasulu per. obs. 28.9.07). The species has been found in association with other bats including <em>Hipposideros fulvus</em>, <em>H. galeritus</em>, <em>H. speoris</em>, <em>Miniopterus schrebersii</em>, <em>Rhinolophus rouxi</em> and <em>Rousettus leschenaulti</em> in Sri Lanka (W. Yapa and P.C.M.B. Digana pers. comm.). In Meghalaya it is found in mixed colonies of <em>Hipposideros armiger</em>, <em>Ia io</em>, <em>Miniopterus schrebersii</em>, <em>Myotis blythii</em>, <em>Rhinolophus pearsonii</em> and <em>Rousettus leschenaulti</em> (A. Tabah pers. comm.). It occurs in southern dry zone, lower foothills and wet zone hills of Sri Lanka (Phillips 1980).  It is an early and high flyer, and feeds on large beetles (coleopterans) and other large and hard bodied insects. This species breeds once a year and gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of 260 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
10142		population	eng	Although widely distributed, it is known from only a few locations spread across India and Sri Lanka (Bates and Harrison 1997).  Population and trends are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Roost counts in Sri Lanka indicated 11,350 individuals at a single study area (W. Yapa and P.C.M.B. Digana pers. comm.) and around 6,000 individuals in Meghalaya (A. Tabah pers. comm.)
10142		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land for agricultural use, for plantation of cash crops and for human settlements. It is very sensitive to disturbance to roosting sites and is hunted for local consumption and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10143		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. In South Asia, it has been recorded from protected areas in India like Orang National Park in Assam. Surveys, habitat management, population monitoring are important recommendations. In areas where this taxon is facing threat due to mining activities public awareness is needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species.
10143		distribution	eng	This species complex is widely distributed, ranging from northeastern South Asia, throughout much of southern China and mainland Southeast Asia, into several islands within insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is found in Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions) and India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Hainan island, Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008). On mainland Southeast Asia, it is distributed widely across Myanmar (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), ranging into Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia. In insular Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from numerous islands including the Mentawi Islands, Sumatra, Java, Bali, the Kangean Islands (all to Indonesia) and the southern part of the island of Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia] and possibly Sarawak [Malaysia]). This species has been taken from sea level up to around 2,000 m asl.
10143		habitat	eng	In Myanmar it  is found in a variety of habitats from highly disturbed agricultural land to secondary forest, in dry zones and humid areas (P. Bates pers. comm.; K.M. Swe pers. comm.; Bates and Harrison 1997). It is often associated with limestone caves in Myanmar and Indonesia (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). On Peninsular Malaysia, the species has been recorded from primary lowland tropical moist forest (Frances pers. comm.). In South Asia, this species roosts in caves, mine shafts, pagodas and buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found roosting in human habitations (P. Bates pers. comm.).
10143		population	eng	As currently defined this is a common bat throughout much of its range (Bates and Francis pers. comm.). In South Asia, this species is distributed across three northeastern states of India, but the sightings are sparse and few between. Only two colonies of less than 100 individuals have been recorded in the last decade (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In northern Myanmar, it is one of the more common bats living in big colonies. However, there is a decline in their numbers due to mining and it is estimated to have declined by 10% over the last 10-15 years (K.M. Swe pers. comm.).
10143		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, there currently appear to be no major threats to this species in northeastern India. The situation in Bangladesh is not known. However, disturbance to roosting sites such as caves by humans may pose a threat to this species as observed in Meghalaya (A. Tabah pers. comm.). In neighbouring Myanmar mining activities in limestone caves for manufacture of cement is a threat to some populations of this species (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It may be affected by hunting in some parts of its range (Francis pers. comm.).
10144		conservation	eng	Recommended actions include prevention of cave disturbance (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006).
10144		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and the Philippines. In the Philippines, it is recorded only from one individual from Luzon (Isabela province) and one from Mindoro (Balete <em>et al</em>. 1995; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are unverified and poorly documented records of this species from other islands in the Philippines. In Thailand it is usually found below 400 m asl.
10144		habitat	eng	All known sites are limestone cave areas; the species can survive in degraded forest and a population is known from a forest fragment within a sugar cane plantation in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The two known specimens from the Philippines were collected close to sea level in ultrabasic forest, and in an agricultural area near a river (Balete <em>et al</em>. 1995).
10144		population	eng	The population status in Malaysia is unknown. In Thailand, two thirds of the known populations are outside protected areas, colonies comprise groups of up to three hundred individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006). A Thai population has undergone a decline from a few hundred individuals to 30 over a 20 year period (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
10144		threats	eng	The species is affected by tourism and religious disturbance to the caves, they are also hunted.
10145		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in some protected areas.
10145		distribution	eng	This species is found in Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending to Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Viet Nam. It can be expected in northern Lao PDR, but this has not been confirmed.
10145		habitat	eng	It is associated with caves in limestone areas, the species can occur in disturbed and fragmented areas, including agricultural areas (S. Bumrungsri and P. Bates pers. comm.).
10145		population	eng	This species tends to have small populations at each location. In Thailand, populations are typically comprised of less than a hundred individuals. The species is usually caught as individuals (S. Bumrungsri and P. Bates pers. comm.).
10145		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although cave disturbance affects the species throughout its range. In addition it is hunted at least in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
10146		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in protected areas. Further taxonomic study, especially comparative work with <em>H. pomona</em>, is required to determine the status of this species.
10146		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from three localities in Indonesia: Kangean, southwest Sulawesi and Seram (Simmons 2005).The type locality of <em>H. macrobullatus</em> is Talassa (near Maros) on Sulawesi, Indonesia.
10146		habitat	eng	This species is thought to roost in caves and tree hollows. It probably forages in woodland. The altitudinal range is unknown.
10146		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10146		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging and human disturbance of caves represent a threat to this species.
10147		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. Additional survey work is required for this species.  Some of these bats roost in a cave in central Java protected by the government as a tourist attraction.
10147		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern half of Java and Madura below 1,000 m asl. The type locality is Sampang, Madura Island, Indonesia (Simmons 2005). Some survey work has been conducted to the west but this species was not found; it is possible the range may extend further eastward (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).
10147		habitat	eng	This species is known to roost in limestone caves, in small colonies. It presumably forages in the surrounding forest.
10147		population	eng	This species is common in central Java and is probably stable (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
10147		threats	eng	Limestone extraction and forest loss due to logging represent a threat to this species.
10148		conservation	eng	The protection of major cave roosting sites would be a suitable conservation measure for this species.
10148		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. Within Papua New Guinea it has been recorded in Central, East New Britain, East Sepik, Gulf, Madang, Morobe, New Ireland, Oro, Southern Highlands and Western Provinces. In the Province of Papua, Indonesia it has been recorded from Sorong and Jayapura Districts and is presumed to occur in other areas close to the border with Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b). It ranges from sea level to 380 m asl (T. Leary pers. comm.).
10148		habitat	eng	This species forages by gleaning for insects around dense vegetation in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, sclerophyll forests, and rural gardens. It roosts in groups of up to 50 animals in caves, mines, tunnels, and sometimes in tree hollows.
10148		population	eng	It is a common species.
10148		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
10149		conservation	eng	It is present within the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve World Heritage Site. There is a need to protect important roost sites and areas of suitable forest habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
10149		distribution	eng	This West African species has been recorded from seven localities in Guinea, Liberia (central and western uplands), and Côte d'Ivoire. It may range into Sierra Leone and Ghana, however, there are no records from this country (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is a lowland species recorded between sea level and 650 m asl.
10149		habitat	eng	Although the natural history of this species is little-known, it appears to be a associated with undisturbed tropical moist forest. Roost sites include natural caves, boulder caves and overhanging cliffs.
10149		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a very rare species.
10149		threats	eng	The species is threatened by general deforestation, mining operations on Mount Nimba and the disturbance of roosting caves. It is likely harvested for subsistence use as food.
10150		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
10150		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from only a few localities. It has been reported from Eritrea (including the type locality of Keren [Heuglin 1862]), Ethiopia (including Sidamo in southern Ethiopia [Meester and Setzer 1971]), Kenya (where it has been recorded from the localities of Kinangop and Nakuru [Hayman 1954]), Somalia, Djibouti [Legendre 1982; Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2001] and from Jeddah in Saudi Arabia (Gaucher and Brosset 1990). Animals have been reported at elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.
10150		habitat	eng	This species has typically been recorded in dry savanna, coastal shrub and desert, or semi-desert habitats. It is possibly a cave roosting species, however, a number of animals were found in a house at Nakuru, Kenya, by Hayman (1954).
10150		population	eng	Little is known about the population of this species. Very few animals have ever been recorded.
10150		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain poorly known. Its is suspected to be threatened by habitat loss resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, and by disturbance of roosting sites.
10151		conservation	eng	Protection of the known sites would be a helpful conservation measure for this species. Additional surveys are needed to determine if the species has a wider range, and whether it occurs in cave habitats. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
10151		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from Central, Chimbu, Gulf, Sandaun, and Western Provinces. In the Papua Province, Indonesia it has been recorded from the Lorentz River in Fak-fak District (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It is a lowland species, found from sea level to 1,500 m asl.
10151		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland tropical forest. It is not known from caves and small groups have been found roosting in hollow trees (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).
10151		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered.
10151		threats	eng	It is currently known from only a few sites. It is unclear whether or not it is threatened at these localities.
10152		conservation	eng	The one specimen was not collected within a protected area. Further studies are needed to determine the taxonomic validity of this species, and if validated, its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats need to be documented.
10152		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality Klang, Selangor, Malaysia.
10152		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat preferences and ecology of this species.
10152		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen in Malaysia, which is now unfortunately damaged.
10152		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10153		conservation	eng	<em>H. obscurus</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.
10153		distribution	eng	The Philippine forest leaf-nosed bat is endemic to the Philippines. There are records from the islands of Bohol, Catanduanes, Dinagat, Luzon (Benguet, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Pampanga, and Tarlac provinces, though it probably occurs through the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.)), Maripipi, Mindanao (Bukidnon, and South Cotabato provinces), Negros, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, on Mindanao it has recently been more widely: a) in lowland forest on Mount Hamiguitan (Mati, Davao Oriental); b) lowland forest at Cantilan and Carrascal on Mount Hilong-hilong (Surigao del Sur); and c) montane forest on Mount Hilong-hilong (Agusan del Sur) (Gomez in litt. 2007). It is usually found from sea level to 850 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and up to 1,100 m asl on Mount Katanglad (Mindanao) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10153		habitat	eng	<em>H. obscurus</em> is dependent on primary and disturbed lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is generally a cave-roosting species although an individual has been recorded roosting in a mine shaft, one in a dark cavity in a tree buttress (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Taylor 1934), and another in a hollow tree (Sanborn 1952; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
10153		population	eng	It is a locally uncommon to common species in primary and disturbed secondary forest (Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the past surveys used mist nets and are likely to have under-recorded the number of individuals, but new research using harp traps and bat detectors has found <em>H. obscurus</em> to be more common than previously detected (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). This species seem to be more common at the lowland forest of Carrascal in Surigao del Sur in comparison with other sites surveyed.
10153		threats	eng	Its populations in lowland forest have probably been seriously reduced due to forest clearance, but it is able to survive in secondary forest. Given its wide range and adaptability, the species is probably not seriously threatened, even though there is continuing deforestation.
10154		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. Research into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, population monitoring and habitat management are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10154		distribution	eng	This very widespread species ranges from South Asia, through southern China, and much of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Hunan, and Hainan island (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species ranges through Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and northern Peninsular Malaysia.
10154		habitat	eng	Although <em>Hipposideros pomona</em> is widespread, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it roosts in small colonies of a few individuals in caves and crevices in subterranean habitats (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002, Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia it roosts predominantly though not exclusively in caves, and is considered to be very tolerant modified habitats and can even occur in urban areas.
10154		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia the species is common throughout its range. In northern Myanmar, the population seems to be stable (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10154		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is under threat from human activities in Nepal. In northern Myanmar some colonies are threatened by hunting for local consumption as food and medicine, and due to tourism related developmental activities (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
10155		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
10155		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southern China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008) and Viet Nam (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2003). According to Huynh <em>et al</em>. (1994), this species was reported in Viet Nam only from Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province), however, there is evidence for the presence of this species considerably further south, in Phong Na (Quang Binh Province), where it possibly occurs together with related <em>H. lylei</em>. It is widespread in southern China.
10155		habitat	eng	It is a cave-roosting species, and has been found roosting in the same caves as <em>H. armiger</em>.
10155		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10155		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10156		conservation	eng	<em>H. pygmaeus</em> species occurs in a number of protected areas. More adequate protection of known sites is important. Surveys are required on this species to determine its ability to survive in degraded areas.
10156		distribution	eng	The Philippine pygmy leaf-nosed bat is endemic to the Philippines and has been recorded from sea level to 200 m asl. There are records from Bohol, Luzon (Camarines Sur and Rizal provinces, though it possibly occurs through all of southern Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm.)), Marinduque, Negros, and Panay (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). A few individuals have recently been captured in Surigao del Sur, eastern Mindanao (Gomez in litt. 2007). It is likely that future surveys will show this species to be more widespread than current records suggest (L. Heaney, D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).
10156		habitat	eng	Specimens have been taken in limestone caves, within or near to lowland forest (Sanborn 1952; Taylor 1934). It might be more tolerant to cave disturbance than was once thought. Forest is regenerating in some parts of this leaf-nosed bats range (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).
10156		population	eng	This is a widespread species which is generally thought to be rare (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, surveys in moderately to heavily disturbed caves on Bohol during 2006 have shown <em>H. pygmaeus</em> to be abundant there (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
10156		threats	eng	In the past, much of the species lowland habitat has been destroyed and deforestation continues. There is widespread exploitation of limestone areas for quarrying (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006). Surveys in 2006 on Bohol suggest that <em>H. pygmaeus</em> may be more tolerant to moderate and heavy habitat disturbance than previously thought (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It is probable that the species is hunted for food in parts of its range (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
10157		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range it seems likely that the species is present in a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from the Manga Forest Reserve of Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
10157		distribution	eng	This widespread African bat has been recorded throughout much of West, Central, and East Africa and part of southern Africa including Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern and eastern Zambia, southern Malawi and north-western Mozambique. It is found between sea level and 2,300 m asl.
10157		habitat	eng	Mostly a lowland tropical moist forest species but can also found in relic and riverine forests in dry savanna (Happold, 1987; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). Roost in caves, rocky crevices and abandoned mineshafts (Happold, 1987). Animals have also been found under a bridge, in a hollow kapok tree and in derelict buildings (M.N. Morton in Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10157		population	eng	This is one of the most common bats in Africa, with some colonies containing up to 500,000 individuals.
10157		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by the loss and conversion of suitable habitat. It is also threatened in parts of its range by collection for subsistence use.
10160		conservation	eng	A Recovery Plan has been developed for this species in Australia (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is found in a number of protected areas in Australia (L. Hall pers. comm.), and is listed by the Australian government as a threatened species. Further studies are needed into the distribution (particularly within New Guinea), abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
10160		distribution	eng	This species is present in south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and in the Cape York Peninsula of Australia. There are also reports of disjunct occurrence from Kroombit Tops National Park in Queensland, Australia. It ranges from 200 to 1,400 m asl. In Australia, the range has receded northwards considerably (<em>c.</em>30% of Australian range) over the last 60 years (L. Hall pers. comm.).
10160		habitat	eng	This little-known species is found in rainforest, savanna forest, and dry open areas. It roosts in caves, mines, old buildings, culverts under roads, and tree hollows (Bonaccorso 1998; Hall 2008). Its generation length is likely to be around 3-4 years (G. Richards pers. comm.).
10160		population	eng	It is a rare species (Hall 2008) that is believed to be declining, at least at Iron Range (L. Hall pers. comm.).
10160		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species. Loss of roost habitat in old mines that are destroyed or collapse is a threat (L. Hall pers. comm.). Roost disturbance is another problem (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
10161		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Pangandaran Nature Reserve.
10161		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one location in west central Java, in Gua Karmat (7°41' S, 108°40' E), Pangandaran, in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). Despite targeted surveys of the surrounding caves, the species has not been found elsewhere on Java. Its altitudinal range is below 1,000 m asl.
10161		habitat	eng	This species roosts inside caves in large colonies. The habitats surrounding the roosting caves are rice paddies and plantations.
10161		population	eng	It is very common locally and the population is probably stable (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
10161		threats	eng	Limestone extraction represents a possible threat to this species.
10162		conservation	eng	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread, but sensitive species. This species has been recorded from protected areas in India like the Nagarjuansagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, but is very likely to occur in many other protected areas (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.).
10162		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Aisa and is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,385 m asl.
10162		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry plains to forested hillsides in caves, caverns, underground cellars, old forts, palaces, under bridges, old disused buildings, temples, tunnels (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It roosts in colonies ranging from a few to several hundreds of individuals (K.S. Sreepada, H.R. Bhat and W. Yapa pers. comm.). In India, individuals do not usually congregate in clusters and tend to be scattered, while in Sri Lanka they tend to be in close contact in roosts (Bates and Harrison 1997, K.S. Sreepada, H.R. Bhat and W. Yapa pers. comm.). It has a slow and low flight and hunts for insects close to the ground. The diet consists of coleopterans, dipterans, mosquitoes and other insects. A single young is born after a gestation period of 135-140 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
10162		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in its range. It has been recorded from many locations in peninsular India and over 75 locations in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In a study, W. Yapa (pers. comm.) has observed more than 600 individuals in a cave in Sri Lanka. Similarly, K.S. Sreepada and H.R. Bhat (pers. comm.) observed between 50 and 1,000 individuals at several locations in Karnataka, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10162		threats	eng	In India, this species is locally threatened in parts of its range because of hunting for local consumption and medicinal purposes, persecution by fumigation, roost disturbance due to tourism related activities, stone quarrying, developmental activities such as tearing down old disused buildings leading to loss of roosting sites; no threats have been identified for Sri Lankan populations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Tamil Nadu, roosts are often under threat from collection of bats for food and medicine (G. Marimuthu and J. Vanitharani pers. comm.), and in Maharashtra the species is threatened by disturbance from tourism and other human interferences (Bates and Harrison 1997).
10163		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas.
10163		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it has been recorded from northern Western Australia, Northern Territory, and north-western Queensland (Milne and Hall 2008). It has been recorded on the Boulanger Islands, Bathurst Island, Boongaree Island, and Koolan Islands.
10163		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of sandstone cliffs, escarpments and boulder country, gorges, and waterholes bordered by paperbark trees (Milne and Hall 2008). It roosts in boulder piles, crevices, old mines, and shallow caves. The species is only found singly or in twos (N. McKenzie and B. Thomson pers. comm.).
10163		population	eng	This species is rare; recent surveys of Kakadu National Park (within the region where most records have occurred) only found the species at one location (Milne and Hall 2008).
10163		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
10164		conservation	eng	This species is possibly present in some protected areas throughout its range.
10164		distribution	eng	This species is present on the Indonesian islands of Sumba, Rote, Sumbawa, Flores, Semau and Savu (Simmons 2005). The type locality is a cave (9°55' S, 120°41' E) on eastern Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia.
10164		habitat	eng	This species is found below 1,000 m asl in caves and the roofs of houses. It is insectivorous and probably lives in large colonies. It is not dependent on water.
10164		population	eng	This species is locally common.
10164		threats	eng	Limestone extraction represents a threat to this species.
10165		conservation	eng	In Japan the areas around some sites are national forests. There has been pressure to protect important roost sites and associated habitat. Fences were erected at the cave entrances to control tourists, and a small area originally designated for development was proposed as a reserve (Hutson <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam three of the five known sites are protected and a new site is proposed (N. Furey pers. comm.).
10165		distribution	eng	This species has a very disjunct distribution, with one subspecies (<em>H. t. turpis</em>) on the Yaeyama (Sakishima) Islands of Japan, including Iriomote, Ishigaki, Yonaguni, and Hateruma (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005) and is not likely to occur more widely, and the other subspecies (<em>H. t. pendleburyi</em>) in southern Thailand and Viet Nam. The systematic status of the two subspecies remains unclear in view of its unusual distribution. Surveys have not found the species in areas between known locations.
10165		habitat	eng	During the day this species is found roosting in caves, often in large colonies of up to 1,000 individuals (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005), and at night it forages in the surrounding woodland. The larger <em>H. armiger</em> feeds on large insects such as beetles (especially scarabeids), but smaller sympatric species take softer prey such as crickets, moths, <em>Diptera</em>, flying termites and <em>Hymenoptera</em> (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Four of the five known localities in central and northern Viet Nam are at karst sites and in protected areas (N. Furey pers. comm.), and it also occurs in karst areas in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The species uses disturbed forest, and it may persist in fragments of suitable habitat.
10165		population	eng	In Japan, there are at least five colonies on Iriomote Island, with at least half of the total estimated population in a single colony that occurs on private land; on Yonaguni, there are no more than 1,000 individuals; on Ishigake, there are around 10 colonies, estimated at around 10,000 bats; and on Hateruma, there is no record of population size (this population is very distinct from other populations).<br/>A study will be undertaken by Thong in Viet Nam. The population is locally common in Cuc Phuong and Cat Ba island National Parks in Viet Nam (N. Furey pers. comm.). Populations in Thailand are scattered (S. Bumrungri pers. comm.).
10165		threats	eng	In general, human disturbance at roosting sites is the main threat. In Japan on the island of Iriomote the main breeding colonies are concentrated in two caves; most caves are subject to the risk of disturbance. The areas surrounding these caves are National Forest, but there has been pressure to develop the areas around the caves which would involve forest clearance. A nursing colony of 1,000 individuals in the western part of Iriomote Island has been disturbed by tourists since 2005. Development for agriculture and logging would remove key foraging areas and result in potential isolation of the cave roosts, causing declines of these principal populations. Similar declines and even extinctions have already been observed in other nearby islands. There has been similar pressure on Ishigaki to build an airport and holiday resort. Publicity about the plight of these bats resulted in increased public interest, including increased tourism to the breeding caves.<br/>The species is affected by deforestation in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), and in Viet Nam there is ongoing decline in the quality of habitat through disturbance from tourism and habitat destruction (N. Furey pers. comm.). In Cat Ba in Viet Nam, tourism disturbance is heavy (N. Furey pers. comm.). In Thailand areas around protected areas are deforested and the areas themselves are degraded.
10166		conservation	eng	A suitable conservation measure for this species would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed. During the 1997 El Niño there was a large fire in the oak forest habitat of this species, and surveys to confirm the status of this species are needed. The species has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).
10166		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from Gulf, Sandaun, and Central Provinces. In Papua Province, Indonesia it has been recorded from the Utakwas River, Fak-fak District (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It ranges between 30 and 1,600 m asl.
10166		habitat	eng	This cave-roosting species has been reported from oak forest habitats between 1,400 and 1,600 m asl. At lower elevations it has been recorded in primary forest on limestone (T. Leary pers. comm.). It is generally found in caves with high humidity or water.
10166		population	eng	It is locally common in the Tabubil-Telefomin region, but rare in other parts of its range.
10166		threats	eng	This species appears to be restricted to caves for roosting. Disturbance of these sites is a potential threat to this bat. During the 1997 El Niño there was a large fire in the oak forest habitat of this species that may have caused population declines.
10167		conservation	eng	At present, about one-third of the species’ total population occurs in protected areas. The largest surviving populations occur in areas such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Côte d'Ivoire), Arly-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), Waza National Park and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris (Central African Republic), Moyowosi-Kigosi and Katavi-Rukwa (Tanzania), the Luangwa Valley (Zambia), Nyika National Park (Malawi) and northern Botswana. Most of these populations are stable or increasing but some, e.g., in Comoe, Arly-Singou and Cameroon’s North Province, are in decline.
10167		distribution	eng	The Roan Antelope formerly occurred very widely in the savanna woodlands and grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa, but has been eliminated from large parts of its former range. Remarkably, the species remains locally common in West and Central Africa, while in East and southern Africa, the traditional antelope strongholds, the species is now very rare. The species is now locally extinct in Burundi, Eritrea and possibly Gambia. It was also eliminated from Swaziland and later reintroduced to the privately owned Mkhaya Nature Reserve (East 1999; Chardonnet and Crosmary in press).
10167		habitat	eng	Savannah woodlands and grasslands, and the bushveld and lowveld of southern Africa, with the cover of high grasses and woody plants playing an important role for both grazing and calving (Chardonnet and Crosmary in press). A water-dependent grazer/browser.
10167		population	eng	Citing various authors East (1999) indicates that summation of the available population estimates suggests a total population of about 40,000 Roan, but this does not allow for undercounting bias in aerial surveys or the extensive areas of the species’ current distribution for which estimates are unavailable. Accounting for these biases, East (1999) gives an estimated total population of 76,000, with the largest populations in Burkina Faso (>7,370), Cameroon (>6,070), Zambia (>5,080) and Tanzania (>4,310). However, large numbers are also believed to survive in southern Sudan. Despite the fact that Roan are generally common in West and Central Africa, some populations are in decline, such as that in Comoé N.P. where numbers have declined by about 70% between 1978 and 1998 to around 500 animals (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001).<br/><br/>Density estimates are summarized by East (1999) and Chardonnet and Crosmary (in press). Overall population trend is generally stable or decreasing in protected areas and decreasing elsewhere, apart from the small numbers on private land in southern Africa which are increasing.
10167		threats	eng	The Roan Antelope has been eliminated from large parts of its former range because of poaching and loss of habitat to the expansion of settlement, and now survives mainly in and around protected areas and in other areas with low densities of people and livestock. Its persistence in West Africa is probably due to its ability to withstand illegal hunting pressures better than many other large herbivores, especially the more water dependant and more sedentary species which are more exposed to poaching (East 1999; Chardonnet and Crosmary in press).<br/><br/>Different explanations have been provided for the decline of Roan and its lack of subsequent recovery in the Kruger N.P. in South Africa (450 animals in 1986 to around 30 in 2001; Harrington <em>et al.</em> 1999; Grant <em>et al</em>. 2002). The most likely reason is increased predation pressure following the influx of grazers from artificial waterpoints (Knoop and Owen-Smith 2006).
10168		conservation	eng	Extinct.
10168		distribution	eng	This endemic South African species was restricted to the southern coastal areas from about Caledon to Plettenberg Bay. The last individual Bluebuck was shot around 1800, the first African antelope to be hunted to extinction by European settlers (Klein 1974). Detailed reviews of the species are provided by Mohr (1967), Klein (1974), and Smithers (1983).
10168		population	eng	Extinct.
10168		threats	eng	Extinct.
10169		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippotragus niger variani </span>is listed on CITES Appendix I.
10170		conservation	eng	Sable sunrvive in good and generally stable numbers in areas such as Moyowosi-Kigosi, Katavi-Rukwa and the Ruaha and Selous ecosystems (Tanzania), Kafue (Zambia), Liwonde (Malawi), Okavango and Chobe (Botswana), Hwange, Matetsi, Sebungwe and the Middle Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe) (East 1999). The population in Kruger N.P. (South Africa) has been in decline (Grant and van der Walt 2000). In addition, there are relatively large, increasing numbers on private farms and conservancies in Namibia (extralimital), Zimbabwe and South Africa (East 1999). <br/><br/>Luando Reserve and Cangandala N.P. are the essential strongholds for Giant Sable (East 1999). There have been calls for the establishment of a Giant Sable National park to encompass both these protected areas (Walker 2002).<br/><br/>Sable are held in captivity, although no individuals of the Giant Sable subspecies are held captive.<br/><br/><i>Hippotragus niger variani</i> is listed on CITES Appendix I.
10170		distribution	eng	The Sable Antelope formerly occurred widely in the savanna woodlands of southern and eastern Africa, with an isolated population (Giant Sable) in central Angola, between the Cuanza and Luando Rivers and immediately north of the Luando. They have been eliminated from large areas of their former range by meat hunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of agricultural settlement and livestock (East 1999). This range reduction has been most marked in Mozambique, where they survive only in good numbers in Niassa in the north, and in the western Gaza province, southeast DR Congo, and north-east Tanzania (East 1999; Estes in press). Sable have been reintroduced to many parts of their former range, but have also been introduced to areas where they never naturally occurred, including to Swaziland (East 1999).
10170		habitat	eng	A savanna woodland species, very closely associated with the miombo <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland zone. The Sable is an “edge” species that frequents the woodland/grassland ecotone; it spends the wet season in woods open enough to support an understory of grasses no more than 30 cm high on well-drained soils, and in the dry season emerges onto the grasslands in search of green grass and forbs (Estes in press). They are both gramivorous and folivorous, although grass makes up the bulk of their diet (Estes in press, and references therein).
10170		population	eng	Summation of available population estimates gives a total population of about 54,000 Sable, but this does not allow for undercounting bias in aerial surveys or parts of the species’ range for which estimates of numbers are unavailable. East (1999) estimated the total population at 75,000, of which about half occurs in and around protected areas and one-quarter on private land. The population in the Selous ecosystem probably represents the largest free-ranging population in Africa. Overall population trends are more or less stable in protected areas, increasing on private land and decreasing etsewhere (East 1999).<br/><br/>Total numbers of the Giant Sable surviving are estimated (2007) at 200-400 (P. vaz Pinto in litt to ASG, 2007).<br/><br/>Like other ungulates of the miombo woodlands, the Sable occurs at low density in comparison with ungulate densities in semi-arid savanna. Wilson and Hirst (1977) estimated density at 4/km² in the Matetsi area of SW Zimbabwe, which they considered the best Sable habitat in southern African.
10170		threats	eng	Sable have been eliminated from large areas of their former range by meat hunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of agricultural settlement and livestock. Poaching and armed conflict have been a major threat, specially for the Giant Sable (<em>H. n. variani</em>) and Sable populations in Mozambique. Further decline in the distribution and numbers of the Sable Antelope may occur in the more northerly parts of its range in future, unless the expansion of human populations and livestock is countered by the implementation of higher levels of protection and management of wildlife in countries such as Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique (East 1999).<br/><br/>The survival of the Giant Sable through more than 20 years of civil war is highly encouraging, but its survival remains precarious as many Angolans who fled the Luando Reserve during the mid-1970s flood back to areas they had formerly evacuated. There have been recent incidents of hybridization of Giant Sable with Roan Antelope in the Cangandala N.P. (Vaz Pinto 2006).<br/><br/>Inbreeding, evidenced by increased calf mortality, is a major risk in many of the smaller, privately owned herds (Grobler and van der Bank 1994).
10188		conservation	eng	No information available.
10188		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from isolated site from Mfipa, Mtosi and Kipili Islands (Tanzania), and Mpala (DRC).
10188		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky substrate at moderate depths 5-20 m.
10188		population	eng	No information available.
10188		threats	eng	It is possible that in Tanzania sedimentation could threaten the species.
10189		conservation	eng	No information available.
10189		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from Ufipa and Mtossi (Tanzania) on the south-eastern shore (Michel <em>et al.</em> 2003).
10189		habitat	eng	It is confined to rocky substrates at moderate depths, 5-20 m.
10189		population	eng	No information available.
10189		threats	eng	It is possible that in Tanzania sedimentation could threaten the species.
10190		conservation	eng	Listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
10190		distribution	eng	The medicinal leech has been recorded throughout Europe as far east as the Ural mountain range. It has a patchy distribution.
10190		habitat	eng	Found in naturally occurring freshwater lakes, ponds, streams, and marshes. Usually rests at air/water interface near the shore. <br/> <br/>Has been used medicinally for the purpose of phlebotomy (drawing blood) for millennia, and was popularized for this use in the nineteenth century. Currently used in microsurgery to reduce postoperative haematomas is quite effective. The species is commercially available for medical purposes. Several anticoagulants, such as the antithrombin compound hirudin, have been extracted from salivary tissues and have biomedical/pharmacological use.
10190		population	eng	It is scarce in France and Belgium, and is thought to occur in more than 20 scattered subpopulations in the UK.
10190		threats	eng	The medical use of leeches might explain their wide distribution across Europe, as they are thought to have been released into ponds once they had been used for bleeding patients. It is also thought that in the past over-collecting reduced their numbers in some areas. Over-collecting for medical purposes is unlikely to be a threat today, given the protected nature of this species and the ability to breed leeches commercially at leech farms. Perhaps a more significant issue is the conversion of grazing marshes (the prime habitat of the species) to arable cultivation - resulting in lowering of water levels, pollution, and fewer host species. Invasion of scrub around ponds has also been a problem in places.
10200		conservation	eng	Not known.
10200		distribution	eng	SE Brazil (Simmons 2005). Known just from type locality.
10200		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
10200		population	eng	There is no information on population.
10200		threats	eng	Not known.
10201		conservation	eng	Not known.
10201		distribution	eng	Chile, Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Peru and Bolivia.
10201		habitat	eng	Normally inhabits mines, but can be found in houses.
10201		population	eng	It is relatively common.
10201		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
10202		conservation	eng	Unknown.
10202		distribution	eng	N Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, W Bolivia, S Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, N Peru and S Brazil (Simmons 2005).<br/>In Ecuador, Colombia e Venezuela, high altitude in mountain ranges (+2,000 m) (Gonzalez com pess).
10202		habitat	eng	Insectivorous. Found in houses, caves, hollow trees. Colonies with until 20 individuals. They may hibernate.
10202		population	eng	Abundant.
10202		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10203		conservation	eng	Unknown.
10203		distribution	eng	E Brazil, Bolivia, NW Argentina (Simmons 2005). Not cited for Paraguay (Lopez- Gonzalez 2004)
10203		habitat	eng	This species is insectivorous, there is only very few information about this bat. Found in forests and buildings (Gonzalez com pess)
10203		population	eng	In Argentina is scarce. In Brazil is abundant.
10203		threats	eng	Deforestation
10205		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), due to a  restricted range, habitat modification or declining range.<br/>Further research is needed to determine abundance, life history and the existence of any major threats.
10205		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: black;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">This species is found in 5 lo</span>calities the Pearl River drainage system, including five localities in Winston County and one in Neshoba County, Mississippi (Black 1969). Further information on this species and its distribution is expected  from Bob Jones of Mississippi Fisheries, Wildlife and Parks.       <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 4,300 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
10205		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seasonal roadside ditches comprising of lentic water conditions and abundant emergent aquatic vegetation (Black 1969). It is presumed to be a secondary burrower (Black 1969).
10205		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
10205		threats	eng	It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, and water pollution such as agricultural run-off   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Paving of roadside ditches may be a threat to this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
10206		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>Further research on this species is required to determine its abundance, life histories and major threats.
10206		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Tombigbee and Pascagoula River basins in Kemper, Lauderdale, Lowndes, and Noxubee Counties, Mississippi, USA (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This species is currently known from fewer than 5 localities. Further information on this species and its distribution is expected from Bob Jones of Mississippi Fisheries, Wildlife and Parks. <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 6,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
10206		habitat	eng	This species is located in small streams and roadside ditches with turbid water. It is presumed to be a secondary burrower and burrows to depth of 0.3 - 0.5 m (Fetzner 2008).
10206		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
10206		threats	eng	It is unknown wheather<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, alteration to the hydrological regime and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). In addition, paving of roadside ditches may reduce available habitat of this species.
10207		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) based on a loss of habitat quality, and a restricted range.<br/><br/>Further research on population trends for this species is needed.
10207		distribution	eng	This species was known only from Lowndes, Oktibbeha, and Webster counties, Mississippi, USA (Fitzpatrick and Payne 1968). Many of the sand creek accounts may not still be in existence   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). The distribution of this species is severely fragmented   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Following recent surveys of this species distribution between 2007 and 2009, it is&#160;believed&#160;to only occur in the Sand Creek drainage in&#160;Oktibbeha County, despite reports from two other counties (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). As such this species is currently believed to exist at only two locations less than 216&#160;m apart (R.L &#160;Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;One of these is a tributary of Sand Creek and the other is a ditch and pond along the side of a dirt road.&#160;<p>The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at around 291 km<sup>2 </sup>(R. L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). The area of occupancy is calculated at 13 km<sup>2</sup>. It is possible that this species may be known from other localities, but this would not more than double or triple the area occupied (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
10207		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lentic habitat such as ponds, puddles, ditches, and also in lotic habitats such as streams (Fitzpatrick and Payne 1968). It is further found in association with emergent vegetation and littoral zones (Fitzpatrick and Payne 1968). This species burrows during the summer dry periods and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989).Currently this species has only been found in two locations: a&#160;moderately&#160;flowing&#160;creek approximately two meters wide, 30 cm deep, with a sand and clay bottom, and a roadside ditch approximately 1 m wide and 30 - 40 cm deep with a silt bottom and some aquatic vegetation (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).
10207		population	eng	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Fitzpatrick (2002) describes the species as never abundant but moderately plentiful at the type locality. Seeing as the type locality is now completely devoid of this species, the more abundant of the two remaining locations is the creek, in which it is not common (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). &#160;<br/></p>
10207		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation through residential and urban developments at its type locality, from which it is now believed to have been extirpated. These developments&#160;result usually in complete destruction of the small streams which this species requires (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;In addition, development over intermittent ponds is known to remove habitat   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009,&#160;R.L. Jones pers. comm 2010). &#160;Due to its restricted distribution and occurrence in one area (two locations 216 metres apart) this species is&#160;extremely&#160;susceptible to threats.
10208		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) corresponding to a restricted range and decline in habitat quality.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the range of this species, as well as its presence at known localities   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
10208		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to Itawamba, Lee, and Monroe Counties, Mississippi, USA (Fitzpatrick 1977). The accounts of this species in Oktibbeha County need to be confirmed as there is some overlap with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hobbseus orcenectoides</span>, although this is unlikely (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Its presence in Clay County has been claimed by Fitzpatrick (1977) but no subsequent specimens exist to corroborate this. <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 3,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
10208		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in sluggish, shallow (< 30 cm deep) streams, flowing through dense sedges over a silty bottom (Fitzpatrick 1977). In addition, this species can be found in roadside ditches and a nearby slough (S. Adams pers. comm.).
10208		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.Recent survey of the type locality of this species and two other locations nearby have found no individuals   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>Further information on this species and its distribution is expected from Bob Jones of Mississippi Fisheries, Wildlife and Parks.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
10208		threats	eng	Threats to this species have been identified as urbanisation, and the drainage and conversion of ponds   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). At sites that are heavily urbanised, no specimens have been found   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
10209		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160;Both the Pearl River&#160;and Noxubee localities of this species are within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Forest (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010), and may thus be given some protection under the area's conservation remit.&#160;</st1:placetype></st1:place><br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and distribution of this species.
10209		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upper Pearl River watershed,  from a few localities in Attala, Choctaw, and Kemper counties, Mississippi, USA (Fetzner 2008, R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010)). In addition, this species has been collected from the upper headwaters of the Noxubee River (Tombigbee River drainage) in Winston County, Mississippi (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;The latter locality is approximately 4.6 km northeast of the <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl River</st1:place> locality record.&#160;The records from the Noxubee drainage are clustered in an area of less than two square kilometres (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species' presence in Webster County, although a neighbouring county, is uncertain as no voucher specimens exist to support this part of the range. Kemper County lies within the Tombigbee drainage but is still regarded as possibly containing specimens of this species   (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species is currently only known from four collection localities (Adams 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated at approximately 2,450 km².
10209		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small, permanent streams comprising of sand, silt and gravel beds (Fitzpatrick 1967). Typically the water flow in these habitats is between sluggish and moderately flowing with emergent vegetation (Fitzpatrick 1967). There are, however, not many gravel bed habitats in Mississippi, mainly due to the&#160; geology of the area   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). This species has&#160;additionally&#160;been collected from narrow headwater streams (some less than 1 m in width), ephemeral ponds and in roadside ditches (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).
10209		population	eng	This species is not common and is not particularly well known in collections, having last been collected in 2002   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). It must be noted that the last collection was not to be taken literally as most surveys focus on stream habitat rather than ditches and ponds   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009), although current information suggests that this species is rare.
10209		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by siltation and agricultural run-off (Fitzpatrick 1967). In addition, in Choctaw County a transmission line route is being constructed (TVA 2006). During a survey, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was identified as either within the right-of-way or immediately downstream from the construction site (TVA 2006). This will cause disturbance and increased siltation of the streams in this area (TVA 2006). Previous to this, Fitzpatrick (1996) stated this species did not seem to be imminently threatened.
10210		conservation	eng	This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), based on a restricted range, and modification or reduction of the species range.<br/><br/>Further research on site specific threats is needed.
10210		distribution	eng	This species is found in the streams and headwaters of the Yalobusha River in Calhoun, Chickasaw and Webster counties, Mississippi, USA (Fitzpatrick and Busack 1989, USFS 2009). This species represents the only known member of this genus in the Mississippi River drainage   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). There have been recent collections of this species from the Topashaw  Creek drainage (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). These sites have been recently  sampled, confirming this species persistence   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). <span class="copy">The species is no longer present in the type locality and was recently found to be absent from several previously known localities (NatureServe 2009).    <p>The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated at just over 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>. It has been described as severely fragmented within its range due to the barrier effects of unsuitable habitat (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
10210		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent small and shallow streams with firm, clay bottoms in the head waters of the Yalobusha River (Fitzpatrick 1996). These rivers flow through agricultural land. This species is not considered a primary burrower   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
10210		population	eng	The species is not regarded as rare, but its range is probably restricted to extreme headwater streams   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
10210		threats	eng	The threats to this species include channelization, head-cutting of streams, and loss of riparian strips (NatureServe 2009). Channelization along with headcutting are thought to be affecting the global population of this species (S. Adams pers.comm. 2010). It is thought that this has increased fragmentation of the headwater habitat (S.Adams pers.comm. 2010).
10211		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas located within the range of this species.
10211		distribution	eng	This species is known from south Sinaloa to Oaxaca; it is found in interior México along basins of Río Balsas to central Puebla and Río Tehuacán to north Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).
10211		habitat	eng	This species can be found on the lower wooded slopes and the adjacent dry grounds that are covered with mesquite. <br/><br/>Its burrows are at the base of trees and under other available cover. Numerous trails have been noted leading from these burrows onto the wooded hillside. It prefers the foot of low cliffs and rocky ledges on the hillsides, and it is noted that it inhabits dense patches of agave (Genoways and Birney 1974). <br/><br/>A female captured in February had a single embryo; and a lactating female accompanied by two young was found in September (Genoways and Birney 1974).
10211		population	eng	This species is relatively common to locally abundant in suitable habitat (Genoways and Birney 1974).
10211		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
10215		conservation	eng	The range of the species is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, and continued conservation and maintenance of its habitat is necessary. More exhaustive searches for this species are needed, in order to determine whether or not it still survives in the wild. If it is found, then further conservation measures, including a conservation management plan, will be needed.
10215		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the highlands of the Itatiaia Mountains, in south-eastern Brazil. It occurs from 2,400-2,600m asl.
10215		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the ground, under mulch and leaves, which is also where the eggs are laid. It hides under stones and in terrestrial bromeliads in open grassland, and probably breeds by direct development.
10215		population	eng	This species was found frequently up until the 1970s, but has not been found for more than 10 years even though there have been extensive searches of the area for many years. It was last collected in 1976.
10215		threats	eng	The species has been heavily impacted by habitat degradation due to touristic activities and fire, and is also affected by extreme frosts.
10217		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
10217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil, throughout Uruguay, and east central Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
10217		habitat	eng	This is a semi aquatic rodent occurring in low marshy areas and gallery forests where it feeds tender parts of plants (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Timing of reproduction is influenced by rains but usually falls between spring and the end of summer producing 3-6 young (Gonzalez 2001).
10217		population	eng	The species can be a pest in sugarcane and rice fields.
10217		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.
10218		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
10218		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). Provinces of Tucuman, Salta, Jujuy, Formosa, Chaco, Cordoba in Argentina).
10218		habitat	eng	Wetlands in several biomas including the Chaco - is not found in Yungas. This is a semi aquatic rodent.
10218		population	eng	This species is uncommon to common.
10218		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species in Paraguay (Weksler pers. comm.).
10219		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
10219		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Rio Grande do Sol, southeast Brazil and southern Uruguay (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).The type locality comes from a fossil in Lagoa Santa (Brazil).
10219		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas with aquatic vegetation near streams and rivers (Gonzalez 2001). This is a nocturnal and semi aquatic species, observed in tall grasses and reeds also in marshy areas. Voss and Carleton (1993) report recent populations where grasslands, marshes, gallery forests and open woodlands form complex mosaics of subtropical pampas habitats (Voss and Carleton, 1993). It is mainly vegetarian (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The species builds nests in reeds above water.
10219		population	eng	This species was reported as 'rather common' in 1929 along the Rio Cebollati and in marshes in Trienta y Tres, Uruguay (Voss and Carleton, 1993). Results of a 1963 expedition suggest that L. molitor is less abundant than sympatric H. brasiliensis. Not abundant, difficult to locate, only three point localities in Uruguay (Queirolo pers. comm.).
10219		threats	eng	Destruction of wetlands and marshlands.
10220		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
10220		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed, it reaches the Orinoco and Amazon River basins: Venezuela (including an isolated locality in the Maracaibo Basin, northwest of the Andes; see Linares, 1998), the Guianas, northern and central Brazil, and Amazonian regions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It also occurs in Suriname (Weksler pers. comm.).
10220		habitat	eng	During a survey along the Rio Juruá of the western Amazon of Brazil, the species was found in grass patches along the river margins and agricultural areas close to rivers (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Some female specimens examined from August to November were either pregnant or lactating; young were also observed during these months (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
10220		population	eng	This rodent is uncommon to common.
10220		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at this time.
10238		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10241		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10246		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10249		conservation	eng	Is is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
10250		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
10251		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
10252		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
10253		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
10254		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
10259		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
10259		distribution	eng	This species occurs from east central Honduras to northwestern Ecuador (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
10259		habitat	eng	The Armored Rat usually is found near creeks or streams in lowland evergreen forest, or in low-lying areas such as palm swamps. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. <br/><br/>During the day it occupies burrows, usually located on steep banks near water. Burrows are roughly horizontal and extend about 2 m to a nest chamber lined with shredded vegetation. This large rat can be easily detected at night as it has good eyeshine, and, when disturbed, it usually runs swiftly to a burrow. It may remain at the burrow entrance, where it can be closely observed or even captured by hand. The diet includes fruit, insects (beetles and orthopteran remains have been found in its burrows), and some green plant matter. Litter size is one to three; young are precocious at birth and have soft fur. Spines develop after one month (Reid 1997).
10259		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally abundant in evergreen, lowland forest (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).
10259		threats	eng	No known major threats.
10260		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
10260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
10260		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.
10260		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The shallow sand stations where this species used to occur were rarely sampled after 2002. However, during the past decade this species was also very rare or absent in other suitable habitats.
10260		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
10261		conservation	eng	There have been no known conservation measures taken for this species. There is a need to monitor and reduce groundwater pollution in the surrounding area. This species is not found in a protected area. Additional research is needed to understand the range, ecology and potential threats to the species.
10261		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Horaglanis krishnai</span> is a Western Ghats endemic species, described from dugout wells in Mundakkayam in Kottayam District by Menon (1950) and subsequently found in dugout wells in the midlands of Ettumanur in Kottayam District, Kerala by Babu and Nayar (2004). (Menon 1950 & 1951, Jayaram 1977 & 2010, Anna Mercy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001 a & b, Babu and Nayar, 2004). The site has not been visited since 1979.
10261		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Horaglanis krishnai</span> is a small sized, blind catfish. The species lives in subterranean tunnels. Much of it's natural ecology is unknown, but it's reproductive cycle has been studied under captive conditions (Anna Mercy&#160;<em>in litt.</em> 2001, Jayaram 2010).
10261		population	eng	There have been no studies pertaining to the natural populations of this species.
10261		threats	eng	The species might be threatened by groundwater pollution from the surrounding town and agricultural pollution although this needs to be confirmed.
10264		conservation	eng	Restocking, fishing regulations. A EU LIFE project in Austria to improve habitat conditions (now finished and seems to have been successful). Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
10264		distribution	eng	Native only in the Danube drainage, where it has a very fragmented distribution. Very locally introduced in some headwaters of Odra, Vistula (Poland), Lake Constance (Germany), Tagus (Spain), Rhône (France) and probably other drainages where it apparently maintains only by stocking.
10264		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Montane and submontane reaches of large streams and swift rivers with gravel beds, well oxygenated, fast-flowing water and temperatures rarely above 15°C. Prefers deep pools and shady water under overhanging vegetation. Spawns in very clean gravel in fast-flowing water, usually in small river tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 20 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4 years and about 1 kg, females at 4-5 years and 2-3 kg. Spawns every year in early spring, usually March-April, rarely early May, when temperatures reach 6-10°C. Commonly migrates upriver for spawning in upper reaches of tributaries. Males arrive first at spawning sites. Males guard females against other males. Both sexes excavate a redd about 1.2-3.0 m in diameter, 10-20 cm deep, and defend a small territory in spawning grounds against other individuals. Usually spawns during daytime. During spawning act, both sexes cover the eggs with substrate. Both sexes may defend the spawning site up to two weeks after spawning. Eggs usually hatch after 25-40 days. Larvae remain in gravel until yolk sack is absorbed after 8-14 days. Juveniles inhabit fast-flowing waters and feed on drifting invertebrates, becoming piscivorous after 1-3 years. Adults feed on fishes as well as small terrestrial vertebrates. Juveniles and adults are territorial.
10264		population	eng	The species has undergone a massive decline starting over 100 years ago. More recently the majority of the stocks rely upon re-introductions (from farmed stock and ranched) for angling and conservation. It is almost impossible to identify if any stocks are self sustaining.
10264		threats	eng	Historically overfshing, pollution and dam construction caused the decline of the species. Currently the main the threats are hydropower stations which heavily regulate flow regime (which impacts upon their prey and habitat), and pollution in some countries (Bosnia and Croatia).
10268		conservation	eng	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically were directed to control local and national fisheries. Commercial sturgeon fishing was prohibited in the Soviet Union during the periods 1923-1930, 1958-1976 and from 1984 to the present (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). The Kaluga Sturgeon was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1998.
10268		distribution	eng	The Kaluga Sturgeon inhabits the entire Amur River basin from the estuary to the river’s upper reaches. It occurs in tributaries - the Shilka, Onon, Argun, Nerch, Sungari, Nonni and Ussuri and Neijiang Rivers (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997). It rarely occurs in Lake Khanka. Young specimens also appear in the coastal waters of the Sea of Okhotsk, near the northeastern part of the Tatar Strait, and in the Sea of Japan near the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). There are two separate populations in the Amur River tributaries - Zeya River and Bureya River (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Chen 2007).
10268		habitat	eng	Habitat: All types of benthic habitats in large rivers and lakes of the Amur River basin. <br/><br/>Biology: Semi-anadromous (anadromous fishes spend at least part of their life in salt water and return to rivers to breed). The Kaluga Sturgeon spawns in lower reaches of the Amur River in strong-current habitats in the main stream of the river on gravel or sandy-gravel bottom. Spawning peaks from the end of May to July. Adults spawn many times during their life cycle. Spawning periodicity is 4-5 years in females and 3-4 years in males. The generation length of the species is not less than 20 years (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Berg 1948).
10268		population	eng	Currently, complete population data based on results of direct counts and fishery statistics do not exist for this species. A decline of catches has been observed since the end of the 19th century (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). Towards the end of the 19th century, annual catch was approximately 500 tonnes. Before 1992 the annual catch was 92 tonnes. This indicates a greater than 80% decline in catches over 90 years (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).<br/><br/>A hatchery is located in Luchegorsk at Khabarovsk district which contains a living collection of eight species of sturgeons (including the Kaluga Sturgeon) and hybrids. In 2007, this hatchery attempted the first re-stocking of juveniles of this this species into the Amur River.
10268		threats	eng	The causes of the population decline are still overfishing, both legal and poaching (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). Recently, environmental pollution in the Amur River basin threatens the habitat and reproduction of this species (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Chen 2007).
10269		conservation	eng	This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998. Restocking programmes are ongoing. However the programmes do not compensate for the loss of natural reproduction and the populations continue to decline (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>The annual number of fingerlings released into the Volga show 0.4 million in 1951; 13.1 million between 1966-70 (average per year); 19.4 million between 1981-85; 11.3 million between 1996-2000; and 3 million between 2001-2005 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The Report of the 28th Session of Caspian Bioresource Commission states that the total fingerling release of beluga in 2008 was 7.02 million from Russia, Iran and Khazakstan. <br/><br/>Some natural reproduction of the species remains in the Volga and Ural Rivers. However, at present the abundance of Beluga is extremely low. Since 2000 in Russia, it has only been caught for the purposes of reproduction (for hatcheries) and science. The protective measures at the feeding grounds are necessary to maintain the population of beluga, as well as the preservation of natural spawning and juveniles breeding at hatcheries.<br/><br/>In the Danube the release of recruitment size (over 15 cm long) from Romania into the Danube has risen from 12,500 in 2006, to 15,130 in 2007 and 20,000 in 2008 (Suciu pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Iran, in work with the World Bank, are increasing the rate of release of Beluga; in 2003, 6,000 individuals (CWT tagged and visible tagged) were released. The size of the released individuals has been increased from 3-5 g to 10-25 g to increase survival rates (Pourali <em>et al</em>. 2003). Hatchery experts (which are state owned) are given financial incentives upon the delivery of individuals ready to be released. Iran has also developed beluga farming to supply meat and caviar production to minimize the impact to the wild population (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is not fully protected in any range state, though fishing licences are required in most countries and Iran has banned private sturgeon fisheries. Overall however, enforcement measures seem to be lacking. In 1996, fishing in the open sea for the species was banned through an agreement between the countries bordering the Caspian Sea. Artificial spawning grounds have been attempted below Volgograd dam, which has shown some success (Ruban pers. comm.). In the Sea of Azov commercial fishing was banned in 1986.<br/><br/>Gene banks, DNA and tissue cryopreservation exists in Iran and Russia.<br/><br/>Azerbaijan have voluntarily proposed a zero quota for Caviar export for 2009 to CITES.<br/><br/>Range states are also encouraged to provide protection to the species spawning and feeding grounds.
10269		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the basins of the Caspian, Black, Azov, and Adriatic Seas, however its current native wild distribution is restricted to the Black Sea (in the Danube only) and the Caspian Sea (in the Ural only). It is one of the largest anadromous fish in the Caspian Sea, where at least three Beluga populations have been identified by microsatellite technique (Pourkazemi 2008). It does occur in the Azov Sea, and Volga River but these are stocked fish.
10269		habitat	eng	At sea, this species is found in the pelagic zone, following food organisms. It migrates further upriver to spawn than any other sturgeon; however this migration has now been disrupted due to river regulation (in the Danube drainage up to Morava River). It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. <br/><br/>This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Males reproduce for the first time at 10-15 years, females at 15-18 years, with an estimated generation length of 20-25 years. This species spawns every 3-4 years in April-June. A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes one peak in late winter and spring and one in late summer and autumn. In spring, it migrates from the sea before spawning. Individuals migrating in autumn remain in the rivers until the following spring. Spawning occurs at temperature from 6 to 14 °C in the channel and spring flooded spawning grounds at a current speed of 0.8-1.2 m / sec. Spawners the late winter/spring run dominate the spawners in the Volga River (80%), whereas the late summer/autumn&#160; run dominates in the Ural River. Yolk-sac larvae are pelagic for 7-8 days and drift with current. Juveniles migrate to sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. <br/><br/>In the past this species was the largest fish of the Caspian Sea, reaching lengths of more than 5 m and a weight of 1,000 kg. The lifetime of such large specimens, apparently, exceeded 100 years. Currently there are individuals up to 280 cm, weighing up to 650 kg. Average length of females is 240, males is 220 cm, weight respectively is 130 and 65 kg. The maximum age of 53 years was observed in 2003. <br/>&#160;<br/>Various environmental factors influence the distribution of the species in the Caspian Sea. One factor is water temperature, as mature Beluga prefer water temperatures not exceeding 30°C. They spend the spring and summer mostly in the northern and middle parts of the Caspian Sea and then move southwards to spend the winter in the southern areas, which coincides with highest densities of food organisms. The diet includes roach   (<em>Rutilus</em>), carp (<em>Cyprinus</em>), herrings (<em>Alosa</em>), kilka (<em>Clupeonella</em>), crayfish (<em>Astacus</em>), gobies (Gobiidae), pike-perch (<em>Sander </em>), birds, sturgeons (Acipenseridae), and even seals (Phocidae) (Khodorevskaya <em>et al</em>., 1995).  Mature individuals of Beluga are less sensitive to low temperature than the immature, as they feed in the northern part of the Caspian Sea under the ice. With water temperatures decreasing, Belugas reduce the range of depths at which they feed. In spring and autumn immature individuals prefer the more desalinated sea areas. In summer the highest concentrations occur at the salinity of 3 to 7%. The largest concentrations of Beluga in the northern Caspian occur during the migration of its main prey organisms (herrings, kilka, gobies, roach, etc.).
10269		habitat	eng	At sea, this species is found in the pelagic zone, following food organisms. It migrates further upriver to spawn than any other sturgeon; however this migration has now been disrupted due to river regulation (in the Danube drainage up to Morava River). It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. <br/><br/>This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Males reproduce for the first time at 10-15 years, females at 15-18 years, with an estimated generation length of 20-25 years. This species spawns every 3-4 years in April-June. A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes one peak in late winter and spring and one in late summer and autumn. In spring, it migrates from the sea before spawning. Individuals migrating in autumn remain in the rivers until the following spring. Spawning occurs at temperature from 6 to 14 °C in the channel and spring flooded spawning grounds at a current speed of 0.8-1.2 m / sec. Spawners the late winter/spring run dominate the spawners in the Volga River (80%), whereas the late summer/autumn&#160; run dominates in the Ural River. Yolk-sac larvae are pelagic for 7-8 days and drift with current. Juveniles migrate to sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. <br/><br/>In the past this species was the largest fish of the Caspian Sea, reaching lengths of more than 5 m and a weight of 1,000 kg. The lifetime of such large specimens, apparently, exceeded 100 years. Currently there are individuals up to 280 cm, weighing up to 650 kg. Average length of females is 240, males is 220 cm, weight respectively is 130 and 65 kg. The maximum age of 53 years was observed in 2003. <br/>&#160;<br/>Various environmental factors influence the distribution of the species in the Caspian Sea. One factor is water temperature, as mature Beluga prefer water temperatures not exceeding 30°C. They spend the spring and summer mostly in the northern and middle parts of the Caspian Sea and then move southwards to spend the winter in the southern areas, which coincides with highest densities of food organisms. The diet includes roach <span style="font-style: italic;">Rutilus rutilus</span> (L.), common carp (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>&#160;L.), herrings (Clupeidae), kilka (Clupeonella), crayfish (Astacus), gobies (Gobiidae), pike-perch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sander lucioperca</span> (L.)), birds, sturgeons (Acipenseridae), and even seal (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 1995). Mature individuals of Beluga are less sensitive to low temperature than the immature, as they feed in the northern part of the Caspian Sea under the ice. With water temperatures decreasing, Belugas reduce the range of depths at which they feed. Immature individuals in spring and autumn prefer the more desalinated sea areas. In summer the highest concentrations occur at the salinity of 3 to 7%. The largest concentrations of Beluga in the northern Caspian occur during the migration of its main prey organisms (herrings, kilka, gobies, roach, etc.).
10269		population	eng	Global fisheries statistics show that there has been a 93% decline in catch from 1992 (520 tonnes) to 2007 (33 tonnes) (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>The number of Beluga annually entering the Volga dropped from 26,000 (1961-65) to 2,800 (1998-2002), a decline of 89% in 33 years (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Only 2,500 migrated up Ural in 2002 (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <br/><br/>Currently it is thought that nearly 100% of Beluga in the Volga are hatchery reared, but there is evidence of spawning elsewhere in its distribution (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Despite intensive restocking in the Caspian Sea (91% of each generation is estimated to come from hatchery stock), the annual catch in the northern Caspian Sea has drastically fallen. Catches in the Caspian were: 1945-55 average of 1,380 tonnes; 1956-65 average of 1,283 tonnes; 1966-75 average of 1,623 tonnes; 1976-85 average of 849 tonnes; 1986-95 average of 506 tonnes; 1996-2003 (latest data) average of 60.8 tonnes (in Doukakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> accepted). This shows a decline of 95%. The official catch statistics support this trend, as they show that the species was abundant in 1938 and then stable to the late 1980s, with the major decline starting from 1990 to the present showing over a 90% decline in the past 60 years (see Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The agreed Beluga catch quota for all of the Caspian Sea (2007/8 - 28th session of the Commission) was 99.8 tonnes; this quota was not achieved. The proportion of Beluga (to other sturgeon species) in trawl catches of the northern Caspian Sea in all seasons of observations was at an average of 11%. Over the recent years, this percentage has decreased to 8.3%, and the catch of beluga during trawl surveys did not exceed 31 specimens per year&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>Spawning numbers for the Volga from 1961-65 was 26,000, whilst in 1996/1997 it was 1,800 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), with 2,800 in 1998-2002 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>In the Sea of Azov, between 1979-1981 it is estimated that 551,000 individuals existed (from stocked, and dominated by sub-adult and juveniles); in 1988-1993 there were 25,000 and after 1994 they were only caught sporadically, despite banning of commercial fishing of Beluga in 1986. After 1986 the major threat was from bycatch. Since 1994, 98% of individuals recorded in the Azov Sea have been juvenile. In 2001 the first individuals were produced from captive bred individuals and released (Chebanov and Koziritskaya 2007).<br/><br/>Catches in the Danube have also declined. In the mid-Danube the annual catch was 23 tonnes (average between 1972-76) which dropped to 7.5 tonnes (average between 1985-89), a decline of 67% in around 12 years (CITES 2000). In 2002, 21.3 tonnes were caught in Romania, whilst only 8.4 tonnes were caught in 2005, showing a 60% decline in three years. The percentage of catch quota achieved in Romania was 85% in 2002, 84% in 2003, 46% in 2004, and 34% in 2005. In 2006 the catching of Beluga was banned in the Danube (Paraschiv <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10269		threats	eng	Overfishing at sea and poaching in estuaries and rivers for meat and caviar is a major threat to the species. Overharvesting and a sharp increase in poaching has led to the largest and most mature specimens being removed from the population and reducing natural reproduction to almost zero (Krassikov and Fedin 1996). In the Ural river current fishing rates are 4 to 5 times sustainable levels (F Max) (Doukakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. accepted). <br/><br/>Bycatch is also a threat to the species. The species caviar is very high value (8,000 USD per kilo in 2009).<br/><br/>Impoundment of rivers has destroyed most of the species spawning grounds. The Volgograd dam, built in 1955, has decreased the area of available spawning grounds by 88-100% in the Volga river, similar areas have been reduced in the Terek and Sulak rivers from 132 ha and 202 ha, respectively. The Don river dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban river led to the loss of 140,000 ha (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Due to the longevity of the species pesticide contamination, leading to many problems including reduced reproductive success is also suspected (Gessner, J. pers comm.).<br/><br/>The Allee effect could also be a threat to the species.
10269		threats	eng	Overfishing at sea and poaching in estuaries and rivers for meat and caviar is a major threat to the species. Overharvesting and a sharp increase in poaching has led to the largest and most mature specimens being removed from the population and reducing natural reproduction to almost zero (Krassikov and Fedin 1996). In the Ural river current fishing rates are 4 to 5 times sustainable levels (F Max) (Doukakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. accepted). <br/><br/>Bycatch is also a threat to the species. The species caviar is very high value (8,000 USD per kilo in 2009).<br/><br/>Impoundment of rivers has destroyed most of the species spawning grounds. The Volgograd dam, built in 1955, has decreased the area of available spawning grounds by 88-100% in the Volga river, similar areas have been reduced in the Terek and Sulak rivers from 132 ha and 202 ha, respectively. The Don river dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban river led to the loss of 140,000 ha (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Due to the longevity of the species there is evidence of pesticide contamination, leading to many problems including reduced reproductive success (Gessner, J. pers comm.).<br/><br/>The Allee effect could also be a threat to the species.
10274		conservation	eng	Striped Hyaena are present in numerous protected areas across their vast range. Because they exist outside of formally protected areas in regions where pastoralism is the norm and the potential for human-carnivore conflict is very high (for example, in Egypt and Kenya), particular attention should be paid to identifying ways to reduce human-carnivore conflict through promotion of methods that ensure adequate numbers of prey persist and/or methods that reduce livestock killing by carnivores (Wagner in press).
10274		distribution	eng	The Striped Hyaena has a very large, albeit now patchy distribution, extending from Africa, north of and including the Sahel, and including much of east and northeast Africa south to about central Tanzania, through the Middle East and Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, though not reaching Assam, Bhutan or Myanmar. They may have recently expanded into Nepal (Hofer and Mills 1998a).<br/><br/>Although historically present, there are no reliable recent records of occurrence in Sudan, Eritrea, or Somalia in Africa, or in Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, or Afghanistan in the Asian range (Hofer and Mills 1998a). Although the latter authors could find no recent records for Syria, there are recent records from the Palmyra area and elsewhere (Masseti 2004, G. Serra pers. comm.). Kasparek <em>et al.</em> (2004) discuss the recent distribution of the species in Turkey.
10274		distribution	eng	The Striped Hyaena has a very large, albeit now patchy distribution, extending from Africa, north of and including the Sahel, and including much of East and North-east Africa south to about central Tanzania, through the Middle East and Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, though not reaching Assam, Bhutan or Myanmar. They may have recently expanded into Nepal (Hofer and Mills 1998a). <br/><br/>Although historically present, there are no reliable recent records of occurrence in Sudan, Eritrea, or Somalia in Africa, or in Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, or Afghanistan in the Asian range (Hofer and Mills 1998a). Although the latter authors could find no recent records for Syria, there are recent records from the Palmyra area and elsewhere (Masseti 2004; G. Serra pers. comm.). Kasparek <em>et al.</em> (2004) discuss the recent distribution of the species in Turkey.
10274		habitat	eng	In most of its range the Striped Hyaena occurs in open habitat or light thorn bush country in arid to semi-arid environments (Hofer 1998; Wagner in press). It avoids open desert (such as the centre of the Arabian desert and the Sahara, though they may occur at low density in the central Saharan massifs), dense thickets and forests, and also avoids high altitudes; however, it has been recorded to 3,300 m in Pakistan (Roberts 1977), 2,700 m in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003), and at least to 2,300 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Striped Hyaena are sometimes found close to dense human settlements (e.g., Israel and Algeria). Individuals have been recorded 19 km south of Tel Aviv, 5 km east of the international airport and on the Tel Aviv-Haifa highway near Mount Carmel (Hofer 1998; and references therein), and in the suburbs of Algiers (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007). Striped Hyaenas are unafraid of humans and frequently forage on garbage and carrion near to human habitation (K. de Smet, F. Cuzin and M. Masseti pers. comm.). Young animals are even kept as pets in some areas.
10274		population	eng	Hofer and Mills (1998b) estimated the total population of Striped Hyaena at 5,000 to 14,000 individuals (see Table 5.2 in Hofer and Mills 1998b). Such an assessment of the current population trends of the Striped Hyaena is complicated by a number of problems (they are nocturnal, solitary, occur at low densities often in rugged country, sightings are infrequent, and surveys difficult to carry out). Moreover, in areas where the range of the Striped Hyaena overlaps with that of the Spotted Hyaena and the Aardwolf, few people acknowledge or recognize a difference between the three hyaenid species. Nonetheless, even if the overall population is larger than this estimate, based on their questionnaire survey, Hofer and Mills (1998b) found that the Striped Hyaena is already extinct in many localities and that populations are generally declining throughout its range.<br/><br/>As noted, Striped Hyaenas occur at low population densities. A large study in Laikipia District, central Kenya, estimated the minimum regional density at 0.03 adults/km² (Wagner 2006), while van Aarde <em>et al.</em> (1998) more than 0.016/km² in the Negev Desert (see also Table 5.1 in Hofer and Mills 1998b).
10274		threats	eng	The major reasons for the apparent decline include persecution (especially poisoning), decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores (wolf, cheetah, leopard, lion, tiger) and their prey, and changes in livestock practices (Hofer 1998). Humans are consistently indicated as the major source of mortality throughout the evaluated range, largely because the hyaena is loathed as a grave robber, and because of incidents of damage to agriculture (e.g. in Israel) and livestock (Hofer 1998; Wagner in press). Striped Hyaena are very susceptible to accidental or targeted poisoning as it readily accepts strychnine-poisoned bait. For example, along the Mediterranean coast in Israel, the Striped Hyaena was exterminated by strychnine poisoning during the rabies eradication campaign administered by the British government between 1918 and 1948. The Striped Hyaenas ate poisoned donkey carcasses that were provided to control golden jackals, then the main carrier of rabies. Further large-scale poisoning occurred between 1950 and 1970 (Hofer 1998). In the Palmyra area in Syria, the species is heavily persecuted (including destruction or blockage of dens, poisoning carcasses, or the use of the fire to chase animals out of dens). There is also illegal trade in skins, and body parts for use in traditional medicine (as there is elsewhere in the range), and they are often kept in cages for display purposes (G. Serra pers. comm.). The species is commercially hunted in Morocco for use in traditional medicine, with various parts being used (especially the brain) and may fetch very high prices. Hunters may travel hundreds of kilometres to capture this species (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).
10276		conservation	eng	Brown Hyaena occur in a number of large conservation areas, including: Namib-Naukluft, Skeleton Coast, Sperrgebiet and Etosha National Parks (Namibia), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa, Botswana), Pilanesberg N.P. (South Africa), and the Central Kalahari G.R. (Botswana). However, Brown Hyaenas are still often recorded outside protected areas: in an ongoing survey of nearly 50 landowners in South Africa's North-West Province between October 2006 and May 2007, 67% of interviewees reported sightings of Brown Hyaena on their property with the preceding 12 months (D. Scott, R. Yarnell and M. Thorn pers. comm.).
10276		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa except for a marginal extension into the arid parts of south-western Angola. The range of the Brown Hyaena has shrunk significantly since the end of the 18th century when it was last recorded from Table Bay in the extreme south-west of the continent (Hofer and Mills 1998a; Mills in press). They remain widespread in southern Africa, and in recent years in South Africa have been recorded from the extreme south in the Western Cape (Gansbaai and Bredasdorp) where it was believed to be extirpated, so it may be recolonizing some of these areas (Hofer and Mills 1998a), although it seems more likely that these were vagrants. Records from Malawi are erroneous (see discussion in Ansell and Dowsett 1988).
10276		habitat	eng	The Brown Hyaena is found in desert areas with annual rainfall less than 100 mm, particularly along the coast, semi-desert, open scrub and open woodland savanna with a maximum rainfall up to about 700 mm. It shows an ability to survive close to urban areas. It is independent of drinking water, but needs some type of cover in which to lie up during the day. For this it favours rocky, mountainous areas with bush cover in the bushveld areas of South Africa (Skinner 1976). It is primarily a scavenger of a wide range of vertebrate remains, which is supplemented by wild fruits, insects, birds’ eggs and the occasional small animal which is killed; their impact on domestic livestock is usually small (Mills 1998; in press). Along the Namib Desert Coast, Brown Hyaenas are successful hunters of Cape Fur Seal pups (e.g, Wiesel 2006).
10276		population	eng	The total population size on the continent has been estimated as at a minimum of 5,000 to 8,000 individuals, with Botswana having the largest population (an estimated 3,900 animals) (Hofer and Mills 1998b). A recent national population estimate for Namibia (undertaken in 2004) puts the number of Brown Hyaenas at 522 - 1187 animals (Hanssen and Stander 2004).
10276		threats	eng	Outside protected areas, the Brown Hyaena may come into conflict with humans, and they are often shot, poisoned, trapped and hunted with dogs in predator eradication or control programmes, or inadvertently killed in non-selective control programmes (Mills 1998). In an ongoing survey of land-owners in the North-West province of South Africa, it was apparent that there are still strong negative attitudes towards Brown Hyaenas: nearly half of ~50 interviewees used lethal control in the form of ‘call-in’ and shooting, poisoning or live trapping, with 127 Brown Hyaenas reported to have been killed within the land held by the interviewees (an area of 1613 km²) (D. Scott, R. Yarnell and M. Thorn pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Although used in traditional medicine and rituals, it is not nearly as sought after in this regard as the spotted hyaena (Hofer and Mills 1998b).
10277		distribution	eng	Historically occurred in the Rio Grande and Pecos River systems, Texas, New Mexico (US) and Mexico; range now drastically reduced, occurs only in perennial sections of the Rio Grande in New Mexico.
10278		conservation	eng	There are two protected areas on the island, but neither of these are effectively managed and it is not certain if the species occurs or ocurred in either of these.
10278		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highland areas of the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. It occurs from 450 m (Bonyoma) up to about 2,000 m asl (Refugium).
10278		habitat	eng	It has been collected at forest edges bordering farms. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
10278		population	eng	This species is known only from 36 animals collected in the early 1960s. There is no current information on population size or trends, but it is probably declining.
10278		threats	eng	Much of the montane forest habitat of this species has been destroyed by logging, clearing for cocoa plantations, and other agricultural activities (crops and cattle).
10279		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to effectively conserve remaining areas of montane forest in Cameroon.
10279		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Mount Cameroon, Mount Oku and Mount Lefo, Cameroon.
10279		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical montane forest.
10279		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is known only from a few specimens.
10279		threats	eng	There is deforestation on the lower slopes of the species mountain habitat through conversion of land to agricultural use, and the extraction of timber for firewood and building materials.
10280		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Ruwenzori National Park. There is a need to monitor populations of this species and to record any potential changes in habitat loss.
10280		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the Ruwenzori Mountains in western Uganda and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has been recorded at elevations between 1,830 m and 2,440 m asl.
10280		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species found in tropical montane forest.
10280		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
10280		threats	eng	It is only known from a very restricted area which is currently not under any major threat. Deforestation is a potential future threat should protection of the area be changed or not enforced.
10281		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g., Pic de Fon in Guinea).
10281		distribution	eng	This West African species occurs in the 'Liberian Forest Zone' being found in northern and eastern Sierra Leone, Liberia, the southern half of Guinea and the parts of Côte d'Ivoire west of the Sassandra River. It is found from the lowlands up to 2,250 m asl.
10281		habitat	eng	It is found in moist lowland and moist montane forests, but also occurs in the dry forests at Pic de Fon (Guinea). This species does not appear to tolerate any disturbance.
10281		population	eng	It is a common species.
10281		threats	eng	There is some deforestation in parts of its range, but plenty of suitable habitat still remains.
10282		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas including Tai Forest National Park and Cavally Forest Reserve, both in Côte d'Ivoire.
10282		distribution	eng	This West African species is found from Sierra Leone westwards to southwestern Nigeria west of the Niger River. It is mostly a lowland species.
10282		habitat	eng	It is found in moist primary and secondary tropical moist forest.
10282		population	eng	It is fairly common in good habitat (moister conditions), in other places it is not so common. Historically, the range would have been much wider (and presumably the population larger), but it has been reduced due to deforestation (especially in Côte d'Ivoire).
10282		threats	eng	There is some deforestation in the area, and historically the species has been impacted by this (but most of this would have happened mainly more than ten years ago).
10283		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. The taxonomy urgently needs to be addressed as this is a species complex with between at least three to five distinct species (based on chromosomal data and biometrics).
10283		distribution	eng	This largely Central African species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria (on the east side of the Cross River), through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, southern Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and extreme northwestern Zambia to southern Uganda and western Rwanda and Burundi. It is also found in the Cabinda portion of Angola. This species is found up to 2,500 m asl and may even occur higher.
10283		habitat	eng	It is generally found in primary moist forest along streams. The species is also found in secondary forest, and even extends into drier forests in West Africa. The species does not go above the forest line in East Africa. Is a diurnal species.
10283		population	eng	It is a very common species.
10283		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There is some deforestation of its habitat, but this species is still so widely distributed that this is not considered to be a major problem.
10300		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
10300		distribution	eng	This species is wide ranging from Colombia and Venezuela into northern Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
10300		habitat	eng	The species occurs only in habitat close to water including marshes, estuaries, and along rivers and streams (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Depending on habitat and hunting pressure, they are found singly or socially. They are diurnal or nocturnal depending on hunting pressure and the season (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). In Venezuela and the Brazilian Pantanal, the species breeds throughout the year, usually with a single breeding cycle. Gestation lasts up to 120 days after which an average of 3.5 young are born (range, one to seven), the peak birth period is during February in the Brazilian Pantanal (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
10300		population	eng	It is locally common and widespread, but uncommon or rare in populated areas of the Amazon (Emmons and Feer 1999). Populations in the rainforest are small and narrowly restricted to open watersides (Emmons and Feer 1999). In the Brazilian Pantanal, densities reached a maximum of 12.5 animals per hectare (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
10300		threats	eng	This species is severely threatened by hunting; some local populations have been extirpated (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Capybara leather is valued in South America and from 1976 to 1979 almost 80,000 skins were exported from Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). There is a large internal market for the skins.
10303		conservation	eng	This species is now extinct.
10303		distribution	eng	Steller's Sea Cow was known from the Bering Sea. The last population was discovered by a Russian expedition wrecked on Bering Island in 1741. It is likely that a population also persisted in at least the western Aleutian Islands into the 18th century (Domning <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>A catalogue of osteological specimens of <em>H. gigas</em> in the world’s museums, with a history of their collection, was published by Mattioli and Domning (2006).<br/><br/>In the Pliocene and Pleistocene, <em>Hydrodamalis</em> occurred from Japan to Baja California, Mexico (Domning 1978; Domning and Furusawa 1995), a range that coincided with that of the Sea Otter <em>Enhydra lutris</em>.
10303		habitat	eng	When discovered, Steller's Sea Cow inhabited the shallow cold waters around the Commander Islands in the Bering Sea, grazing on kelps.
10303		population	eng	Steller's Sea Cow was discovered in 1741 in the shallow waters around the uninhabited Commander Islands. The relict Bering Island population was studied by Georg Steller (a naturalist and physician onboard Vitus Bering's ship wrecked on the island in 1741). The sea cow was an easily available source of meat and the islands became a regular stop-over and stocking up point for Russian fur hunters until 1762–1763. Ruthlessly hunted, Steller's Sea Cow was probably extinct by 1768. Turvey and Risley (2006) presented a preliminary mathematical model of its extinction dynamics, providing evidence that the initial Bering Island sea cow population must have been higher than higher than the 1,500 animals suggested by Stejneger (1887) to allow the species to survive even until 1768.
10303		threats	eng	<em>Hydrodamalis</em> was slaughtered for its meat and leather. Anderson (1995) discussed the ecological interaction between sea cows, sea otters, <em>Strongylocentrotus</em> sea urchins, and kelp, and suggested that human predation on sea otters (resulting in a nearshore community dominated by sea urchins, which largely eliminate shallow-water kelps leading to their replacement by chemically defended deep-water species) was a major factor, along with hunting, in sea cow extinction. Turvey <em>et al.</em> (2006) assessed whether hunting alone would have been sufficient to wipe out the sea cow, and showed that the speed of sea cow disappearance on Bering Island indicates that hunting alone was more than sufficient to exterminate the species without having to invoke any additional ecological pressures.
10304		conservation	eng	Limestone Salamander Ecological Reserve (LSER) protects 120 acres of habitat. The Bureau of Land Management has designated an additional 1,600 acres as the Limestone Salamander Area of Critical Environmental Concern (LSACEC) (encompasses both confirmed and potential habitat) (California DF&G 1990). The species is listed as Threatened by the Department of Fish and Game, under the State of California Endangered Species Act.
10304		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Lower Merced River drainage, Mariposa County, California, USA. In the vicinity of Briceburg: it occurs at the confluence of Bear Creek and Merced River, along tributaries of Bear Creek, along North Fork of Merced River, and at Hell Hollow about 4 miles above Lake McClure and at the confluence of Hell Hollow Creek with Lake McClure (Stebbins 1985b, California Department of Fish and Game 1990). The elevational range is from 300-760m asl.
10304		habitat	eng	It inhabits moss-covered limestone outcroppings and talus rubble generally in Gray Pine (<em>Pinus sabiniana</em>)-Oak (<em>Quercus wizlizenii</em>, <em>Q. chrysolepis</em>, and <em>Q. dumosa</em>) woodland, with relatively few pine but numerous California Buckeye (<em>Aesculus californica</em>). It also (but less often) occurs in chaparral; typically under rocks and logs near streams or seepages. It stays underground (rock crevices, caves, mines, etc.) in dry weather. It is a terrestrial breeder, presumed to lay large yolky eggs and it is known to lack a larval stage. It disappears from cleared areas, but otherwise adaptability to habitat disturbance is unknown.
10304		population	eng	It is uncommon in favourable habitat, but not rare.
10304		threats	eng	A proposed gold mine operation in Hell Hollow poses the most serious threat; other potential threats include highway construction (the type locality is along the main access road to Yosemite National Park) and quarrying for limestone (California Department of Fish and Game 1990) as well as dam building.
10305		conservation	eng	Many of the known populations occur on U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management land; Shasta-Trinity National Forest has developed a management plan (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). The Shasta Salamander is listed as Threatened under the State of California Endangered Species Act and is protected on federal lands under the survey and management mitigation of the Northwest Forest Plan.
10305		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area in northern California, in the headwaters of Shasta Reservoir drainage, Shasta County, California, USA. As of 1990, there were 12 known populations (California Department of Fish and Game 1990), including those at Backbone Ridge, Mammoth Butte, Hirz Mountain, Potter and Low Pass creeks, McCloud River, Brock Mountain, Samwell Cave, and near Ingot. Since 1990, researchers have expanded the number of populations to 61, thought to represent 16-17 population centres (Nauman and Olson 2004). Populations are now known from Green Mountain (Lindstrand 2000) and the Calaveras Cement Quarry. It has an elevational range of 300-975m asl (Stebbins 1985b, Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980).
10305		habitat	eng	It is commonly, but not always, found near limestone outcrops; usually in cool, wet ravines and valleys; most commonly in oak-Gray Pine (<em>Pinus sabinianus</em>) woodland, also in Douglas-fir woodland and ponderosa/Jeffrey pine-oak at higher elevations; in moist limestone fissures or caves, sometimes under nearby logs and talus in wet weather (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). Little is known concerning breeding activity; eggs are probably laid underground or in cave crevices and fissures during early summer months (May-July) with young hatching in late summer/early fall. During non-breeding seasons animals can be found using limestone or the forested slope habitat. Susceptibility to habitat degradation is difficult to assess because no long-term studies have been conducted.
10305		population	eng	It can be locally abundant within its small range. Populations are believed to be stable.
10305		threats	eng	Road construction, quarrying for limestone, and raising the elevation of Lake Shasta are potential threats (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Impoundment of Lake Shasta has destroyed some habitat; a rise in water level could wipe out some extant populations. Timber harvesting and human recreational activities are additional threats.
10309		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
10310		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in Australia and New Guinea. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.
10310		distribution	eng	This species is present on Obi Island in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia, the Kai Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the islands of Biak-Supiori and Yapen (Indonesia), it is found over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on the D’Entrecasteaux Islands and the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea), and ranges through parts of northern, eastern, south-eastern and south-western Australia, including the island of Tasmania and a number of offshore islands (e.g., Bernier Island, Western Australia). It ranges from sea level to 1,900 m asl.
10310		habitat	eng	This species is associated with a wide variety of permanent aquatic habitats. It can be found in most types of freshwater habitats, including artificially irrigated sites, and can also occur in mangrove and estuarine areas (Flannery 1995a,b; Olsen 2008). Animals nest in bankside tunnels or logs, and while most food is taken from the water, they may forage in riparian vegetation (Olsen 2008). Females may annually have up to five litters (usually one or two) of three or four young (Olsen 2008).
10310		population	eng	It is generally a common, but sparsely distributed, species. There have been some declines in parts of Australia.
10310		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In New Guinea, some populations are locally threatened by aquatic pollution resulting from mining activities. In south-western Western Australia, populations have declined likely due to increased salinity from clearing in agricultural areas. Extinction in the Montebello Islands (Western Australia) was probably due to a high density of introduced black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) and cats.
10311		conservation	eng	This species may be present in a protected area (i.e., Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
10311		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area between Lake Habbema and Mount Wilhelmina in Papua Province, Indonesia. It is possibly widespread in a small number of wetland localities in the Snow Mountains. It has been recorded from between 2,800 and 3,600 m asl.
10311		habitat	eng	Modern records of this species have been from subalpine habitat. It is presumably associated with wetland areas. Little else is known about this species.
10311		population	eng	It is not commonly found.
10311		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. People generally do not enter its montane habitat.
10312		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Enarotali Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
10312		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a single locality in the isolated Wissel Lakes region of Papua Province, Indonesia. It may be a restricted range species. It has been recorded from 1,765 to 1,800 m asl.
10312		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, found in rivers, lakes, and streams in montane forests. Little else is known about the natural history of this species.
10312		population	eng	In view of 53 specimens being caught from the region during a single expedition, it is believed to be relatively common in the Wissel Lakes region. However, it has not been seen since 1959.
10312		threats	eng	It appears to have a restricted range, however, it lives at high elevations and the habitat is not under threat. In the long-term climate change may pose a threat.
10313		conservation	eng	There are some protected areas on the island of unknown status. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
10313		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. It may also occur on the island of Umboi, but surveys are needed to confirm this. Elevation ranges from sea level to 500 m asl.
10313		habitat	eng	It is a lowland species. Like other Hydromys species, it is associated with streams, rivers, or other wetland habitats.
10313		population	eng	It is known from only three specimens.
10313		threats	eng	New Britain has been severely deforested through logging which may be impacting water quality and hence this species. There is also clearance of land for oil palm plantations.
10314		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
10314		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), where it is found between the Hagen Mountain Range in the west and the Wau area in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,600 m asl.
10314		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest rivers and streams, and is not really found in lakes. Several individuals usually inhabit the same burrow, which is often located in a stream bank. It feeds along stream banks and also within the water.
10314		population	eng	It is a common species.
10314		threats	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the area of highest human population density on Papua New Guinea, and the species appears to be resilient to this. It may be hunted for food, but this is unlikely to be a major threat.
10329		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Chinese Red List as Vulnerable A2bcd, and is on China Key List II.  <br/><br/>This species occurs in Poyang Lake Nature Reserve and Yancheng Nature Reserve, where around 1,000-1,500 animals are present in isolated subpopulations, each with less than 100 animals (Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, nature reserve designation at Yancheng has evidently not prevented continued habitat loss and fragmentation (Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2004, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2006a, b). Poyang Lake Nature Reserve has a management plan and is regularly patrolled. A small captive population has been established in Yancheng Nature Reserve, but the justification for this is unclear (Zhang 1994, Hu <em>et al</em> 2006)<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions in China include:<br/>1. Poyang Nature Reserve: Enlarge the reserve and improve its protection. The reserve covers only a small part of <em>H. inermis</em>? range in the Jiangxi region, and it is recommended that this be increased in size and that protection be extended to nocturnal patrols when the majority of poaching takes place.<br/>2. Yancheng Nature Reserve: Establish habitat corridors to link small, isolated populations.<br/>3. Strengthen existing protected areas management: increase staffing levels and improve communications and equipment supply; introduce anti-poaching patrols; develop community-based management strategies and an education program in response to human encroachment and poaching; and introduce training program for reserve staff in wildlife management techniques.<br/>4. Create new protected areas (only a small proportion of the total population is currently protected).<br/><br/>In the Koreas, measures are needed to control poaching and to provide extensive areas of secure habitat for the species.
10329		distribution	eng	This species is occurs in China (formerly from Liaoning to Guangxi including the lower Yangtze Basin) and Korea; it has been introduced to England and France (Whitehead 1993).<br/><br/>The Chinese population was originally found in Jilin and Liaoning provinces in the northeast of the country, in the eastern Yangtze Basin and islands at the mouth of this river, and in the southeast of the country in northwestern Guangdong, southern Hunan and central and eastern Guangxi (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). According to Hu <em>et al</em>. (2006) it is now restricted in China to the central portion of that distribution in the eastern Yangtze Basin, and populations in northeastern and southeastern China are now extinct. <br/><br/>Currently, the species' distribution in both Koreas may be substantially reduced, but little specific information is available. It is reported as being ?relatively widespread? in the Republic of Korea (N. Moores pers. comm., 2008), particularly along the west coast. It apparently remains relatively widespread in the lower-lying parts of DPR Korea, but assessing the true status is confounded by repeated reports of widespread and frequent releases of captive-bred stock. It is unclear at what levels these occurred in the past; since the mid-1990s they are likely to have been only at low, if any, levels in all except a few high profile areas. It is possible that Chinese stock have been included in the captive populations within DPR Korea, although this has not been confirmed (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008).
10329		habitat	eng	Water deer are evidently an ?edge? species, preferring habitats characterized by shrubs and small trees (Rhim and Lee (2007). They prefer coastal plains, salt marshes, and riparian areas, and are negatively affected by human presence (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2006a, b). It is unclear whether the species persists in Korea in purely agricultural areas away from the semi-natural riparian vegetation associated with large rivers and coastal plains (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). However, further south in Korea, where unmodified waterways and patches of fallow habitat persist, water deer appear capable of living in rice-paddies (N. Moores pers. comm., 2008). As suggested by their name, water deer can swim (Guo and Zhang 2002), but appear unlikely to colonize areas > 20 km from a source population.   <br/><br/>Other than during the mating season, it is in general a solitary species; stable pairs or small groups have been reported in places with high population densities. The rut, in England, starts in late November and extends through December and occasionally into January. From May to July, females will deliver litters of up to six fawns although the most common figure is only from one to three). Offspring mortality is high, with up to 40% of juveniles dying during their first four weeks.
10329		population	eng	Population densities have been said to be rather low in most places within its native range (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990, Won and Smith 1999, Hu <em>et al</em>. 2006), but few if any primary data have been presented in support of this. Signs (footprints, faeces) and sightings suggest high densities persist in semi-natural habitats of at least the lower (tidal) Chongchon plain of west-central DPR Korea (Pyongan North and Pyongang South provinces) in 2000?2004 although, as indicated above, some supplementation by released stock cannot be ruled out (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). At another area holding the species in DPR Korea, Mount Kuwol (Hwanghae South province), signs were difficult to find in 1999 despite specific searches, although local farmers reported that significant numbers were still present. Repeated searches in the Myohyang mountains (Pyongan North, Pyongang South and Chagang provinces) in 1999?2004 found no evidence of the species but suitable habitat was marginal. Water deer are readily observed in the outskirts of Pyongyang but are presumably releases and/or the descendents of releases. Reasonable numbers are reported to persist elsewhere in the DPR Korea lowlands (Ju Jong Sil, Academy of Sciences, verbally 2003 to J.W. Duckworth). <br/><br/>Water deer occur in the Republic of Korea and it said to be ?moderately widespread?, particularly along the west coast, as well as within the demilitarized zone between the two Koreas (Kim and Cho 2005), but its population cannot be estimated. <br/><br/>Within China, Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) estimated fewer than 10,000 individuals in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River; 1,200-1,500 in coastal areas of Jiangsu; 600-800 in the Zhoushan Islands of Zhejiang; and 1,000 in the Poyang Lake (Jiangxi) region. More recently, Sheng (1998) estimated 500-1,1000 in the coastal areas of Jiangsu (see also Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998), 1,500 in the Zhoushan Islands, around 1,000 in the Poyong Lake region, and an additional ~ 500 individuals in Anhui. <br/><br/>Hu <em>et al</em>. (2006) present a map showing a considerable reduction in the current distribution of <em>H. inermis</em> compared with its known, historical range, and describe population declines of the species as ?drastic?. Their map suggests that the species no longer occurs in Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shaanxi, Shandong, Henan, or Fujian provinces, and has become rarer in Hubei, Hunan, and Zhejiang provinces. However, the time period over which this range reduction is not known with any precision. Hu <em>et al</em> (2006) also provide data suggesting that <em>H. inermis</em> in the eastern-most (and densest) populations within China in Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces retain a relatively high amount of genetic diversity, although populations on the Zhoushan archipelago displayed some divergence from those on the mainland. Within Yancheng Nature Reserve, their geographic distribution decreased and became markedly more fragmented between the 1980s and 2001 (Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2004).
10329		threats	eng	Poaching and habitat destruction are major threats to this species (Won and Smith 1999). The species is valued for its meat, and for the semi-digested milk found in the rumen of unweaned fawns, which is used in traditional medicine as a cure against indigestion in children (Won and Smith 1999). It is sometimes trapped as a pest in China, and is reported to be a low-concern pest of rice fields in DPR Korea (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Hunting is carried out at night with dogs (Sun Lixing pers. comm. 1990). Most hunting in DPR Korea is probably with snares; guns are highly restricted and active hunting with dogs, although doubtless occurring to some extent, is too publicly visible to be the preferred choice. Snares for deer are at very high density in forest hill areas; no assessment has been made of their usage in the lower Chongchon plain where water deer remain common. It is not therefore possible to speculate on the species? resilience to such hunting (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>In Yancheng Nature Reserve, poaching is reported as severe, and there is high mortality during periods of flooding. Fawns have been bought from local people to establish and support the captive population, where the mortality rate is reportedly high (Zhang 1994). Water deer have evidently been reduced or extirpated in most of the reserve, remaining only in the relatively small core area (Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998, Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Habitat loss through reclamation for agriculture and urban development is a major threat to water deer in eastern China (Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998). Formerly widespread areas of appropriate habitat north of the Yangtze River delta have been lost and the remaining areas fragmented, leaving remaining populations of water deer vulnerable. <br/><br/>The Korean populations, at least in DPR Korea, are highly threatened by habitat loss, on the assumption that wild population will not persist in fully agricultural landscapes. It is reported, however, to be ?moderately widespread? at least in the Republic of Korea. In DPR Korea, agricultural policies have led to a large-scale land rezoning programme which involves the canalisation of streams, removal of damp hollows and generally the conversion to active farmland of all areas within the plains which have retained semi-natural vegetation to date. This programme is ongoing. Coastal habitats have so far fared better but there are ambitious plans for the reclamation of large proportions of the intertidal areas on the west coast, and this will involve major loss of the currently extensive suitable habitat present in natural coastal plains. With no empirical information on the use of purely agricultural regions by water deer in Korea, the precise effects of these ongoing and planned habitat changes are unclear; field study is required. Ground-dwelling mammals in DPR Korea are under heavy snaring pressure, at least in forest areas. The extent of snaring in the non-forest habitats occupied by this species and the effects of snaring on local populations are unclear. The situation in the lower Chongchon plain, an area with high human population densities and heavy conversion of plains land to agriculture (although retaining a largely natural coastal zone and channel profile for the river itself) suggest that either snaring levels are not so high in these areas or water deer are resilient to them (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008).
10335		conservation	eng	Populations have been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to better regulate the collection of this species from the wild, as populations are generally considered to be susceptible to overharvesting. There is also a need for improved regulation to prevent contamination of waterways used by this species with agrochemicals.
10335		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, however its distribution is unclear because of confusion in identification between <em>Hydrosaurus amboinensis</em> and <em>H. pustulatus</em>. Populations of <em>H. pustulatus</em> have been reported from the islands of Luzon (with recent records from Bicol), Polillo, Mindoro, Negros, Cebu, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, Tablas, Romblon, Sibuyan, and Catanduanes. It may be present on the island of Bohol but this requires confirmation.
10335		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic species is generally restricted to riparian vegetation present in lowland tropical moist forests (both primary and secondary) to open cultivated areas. It is probably omnivorous, and is associated with certain food trees. It appears to have a preference for particular shrubs and trees as resting places (often overhanging water), and is usually collected from these. This is an oviparous species that buries eggs within river banks.
10335		population	eng	Animals can be very common in appropriate habitat (such as silty, lowland rivers). The density of the species is also considered to vary between islands; field surveys indicate that it is common on Guimaras and Romblon, but rarer on Negros and Cebu.
10335		threats	eng	The threats to the two species of <em>Hydrosaurus</em> in the Philippines are generally very similar. Populations appear to be principally threatened by habitat loss, often the conversion of wooded land to alternative uses (including agriculture), and through logging operations. In addition, animals (especially hatchlings) are heavily collected for both the pet trade (national and possibly international) and local consumption. Because of inter-island trade, there is some possibility of introduced animals mixing with indigenous populations. In some parts of is range it is additionally threatened by water pollution resulting from the use of agrochemicals and increased sedimentation.
10340		conservation	eng	The leopard seal is not listed as endangered or threatened. Leopard seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and any future commercial harvest would be regulated by these international agreements (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).
10340		distribution	eng	Leopard seals are widely-distributed in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters of the southern Hemisphere, occurring from the coast of the Antarctic Continent north throughout the pack ice and at most sub-Antarctic islands. There is a seasonal presence of juveniles at Kerguelen and Macquarie Islands with the greater numbers being sighted in September and October (Borsa 1990, Rounseveld and Eberhard 1980). Vagrants regularly reach warm temperate latitudes. They haulout on ice and on land, often preferring ice floes near shore when these are available (Kooyman 1981, Rice 1998, Bengtson 2002).
10340		habitat	eng	Adult males are 2.8 to 3.3 m long and weigh up to 300 kg. Adult females are 2.9 to 3.6 m, with very large animals possibly reaching 3.8 m, and weights of 260 to upwards of 500 kg. Pups are 1 to1.6 m in length and weigh 30 to 35 kg at birth. The age at sexual maturity is probably 4 years for females and 4.5 years for males. Longevity is estimated to be over 26 years (Kooyman 1981, Rogers 2002). <br/><br/>Pups are born on the ice from early November to late December and the period may be as long as early October to early January (Southwell <em>et al</em>. 2003). Births at South Georgia occur from late August to the middle of September. Pups are probably weaned at four weeks old, and female estrous occurs at or shortly after weaning. Unlike crabeater seals, male leopard seals do not haulout with female-pup pairs. Mating is believed to occur in the water.<br/><br/>At sea and on the ice, leopard seals tend to be solitary. They are well known for their habits of preying upon penguins. However, their diet is in reality highly varied and changes with seasonal and local abundance of prey. Leopard seals will consume krill, fish, squid, penguins, a variety of other types of seabirds, and juvenile seals including crabeater, southern elephant, and fur seals. They also occasionally scavenge from carcasses of whales. Most prey is caught in the water. Penguins are regularly held in the teeth by one end and slung in an arc with a rapid snap of the head and neck and smashed on the surface of the water and torn open. Smaller pieces are then swallowed. Young, newly fledged naïve penguins are most vulnerable, but adult birds are taken as well. Leopard seals patrol and regularly station themselves just off penguin rookeries and wait to ambush and chase penguins transiting to and from the colonies.
10340		population	eng	This is a widespread species and, similar to the other Antarctic seals that inhabit the pack ice, population assessments are very difficult and expensive to conduct and therefore infrequently undertaken. Published global population estimates range from 100,000-300,000 (Scheffer 1958) up to 220,000-440,000 animals (Laws 1984). However, early estimates were based on very limited sampling and were highly speculative. The most recent global estimate, from analysis of ship and aerial sighting surveys carried out around the continent between 1968 and 1983, provided a point estimate for global leopard seal population size in the pelagic pack ice of the Southern Ocean of 300,000 animals (Erickson and Hanson 1990). This estimate is likely to have considerable uncertainty associated with it, and only very large changes in leopard seal population size could be confidently detected from repeated surveys (Southwell <em>et al</em>. In Press).
10340		threats	eng	There are currently no threats from human activity throughout the species’ normal range. Small numbers of leopard seals have been taken for research purposes and some were previously killed for dog food, but otherwise there is no current or past significant catch of leopard seals (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) list the effects of global climate change as unknown on leopard seal. However, loss of sufficient areas of pack ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators, availability of preferred prey such as penguins, other ice seals, krill, and fish that could all possibly decline, could all effect leopard seals directly or indirectly to an unknown degree. The effects of loss of large amounts of ice on the Antarctic continent, general climate warming, or sea level rises on Antarctic ocean circulation and productivity, and on Antarctic marine resources such as seals are unknown. <br/><br/>Two of the four species of Antarctic ice seal, leopard and crabeater, tested positive for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV). Weddell seals were tested and did not have any antibodies, and Ross seals were not tested. The effects of an outbreak of this or other diseases on leopard seals either as a disease within this species or repeatedly transmitted to it from an outbreak in a prey species such as the crabeater seal are unknown. Leopard seals are generally solitary except when with a pup or mating, so transmission of disease within the species would likely be slow or only seasonally significant. CDV is believed to have arrived in the Antarctic with sled dogs before the advent of vaccines. A mass mortality of crabeater seals occurred in 1955, with many animals displaying viral illness symptoms prior to death, however, the exact cause of death is unknown (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>Seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic has increased steadily in the last 30 plus years, and is currently at all-time high levels. The effects of increased vessel noise, disturbance from vessels passage and close approach by people in small boats and on land on leopard seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are unknown. There is also a risk of injury to a small number of animals from collision with boats or crushing from large vessels passing through ice fields.<br/><br/>There are no reports of significant fisheries interactions. Commercial harvest of krill may pose direct or indirect threats to leopard seals, if conducted on a large scale.
10341		conservation	eng	Water Chevrotains occur in several protected areas, including: Sapo N. P. and Grebo National Forest (Liberia), Tai N. P. (Côte d’Ivoire), Lobeke N. P. (Cameroon), Lope N. P. and Minkebe N.P. (Gabon), Maiko N.P. Kahuzi-Biega N.P. and Okapi Faunal Reserve (DR Congo) and Odzala and Nouabale-Ndoki (Congo Republic) (East 1999).
10341		distribution	eng	Endemic to West and Central Africa, ranging across the forest belt from Sierra Leone and south-eastern Guinea, through Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire into south-west Ghana. Then ranges in southern Nigeria, east of the Niger River, through the central forest block, across southern Cameroon, Gabon, Cabinda (Angola), Congo and DR Congo to extreme western Uganda, where now believed extirpated (East 1999; Hart in press). A record from Angola's Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River, is the southernmost record of the species from the continent (Crawford-Cabral and Veríssimo 2005).
10341		habitat	eng	Chevrotains are confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat, they only occupy areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. However, the Water Chevrotain is not a swamp specialist, and often ranges in mature upland forest areas (Hart in press).
10341		population	eng	In the Ituri Forest, densities of 1.5-5.0/km²have been recorded (Hart in press). Higher densities (28/km²) have been reported in Gabon (Dubost 1978). East (1999) estimated the total population size at around 278,000 animals, with populations generally in decline.
10341		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and bushmeat hunting. In the central Ituri Forest, chevrotains are regularly caught by the Mbuti net hunters, and consistently represent about five percent of total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years (Hart in press).
10350		conservation	eng	Many populations on public lands provide good opportunities for conservation management of this species. For example, it occurs in 16 sites within the Carolina Sandhills National Wildlife Refuge in Chesterfield County, South Carolina (Garton and Sill 1979; Brown 1980). In New Jersey, the greatest density of tree frogs, and the largest numbers of colonies, are found in protected areas within Lebanon and Wharton State Forests and Greenwood and Pasadena wildlife management areas (Freda and Morin 1984). Most occurrences in the Florida and Alabama populations are on protected lands, specifically Eglin Air Force Base and Blackwater River State Forest in Florida, and Conecuh National Forest in Alabama (Jackson pers. comm.).
10350		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern USA including the Pine Barrens of New Jersey; the upper Coastal Plain and parts of lower Coastal Plain of North and South Carolina; and western Florida panhandle and adjacent Alabama, some 750km south-west of the nearest South Carolina population. It is also known in Georgia from an old record of a single specimen (Means and Mohler 1979; Gosner and Black 1967; Conant and Collins 1991). There are numerous occurrences throughout its range. The largest populations occur in New Jersey (Freda and Morin 1984). Discovery of this species in Florida was fairly recent (Christman 1970). Palmer (1977) suggested that the current distribution reflects relicts from a considerably more widespread distribution in the past.
10350		habitat	eng	The non-breeding habitat is generally pine-oak areas adjacent to breeding habitat. Activity is terrestrial and arboreal. Important egg-laying and larval habitats include open cedar swamps and sphagnaceous, shrubby, acidic, seepage bogs on hillsides below pine-oak ridges. It is intolerant of closed-canopy conditions.
10350		population	eng	Its total adult population size is unknown but it is relatively common where it occurs. Its population is relatively stable overall, but it is probably experiencing local declines due to habitat loss.
10350		threats	eng	It is apparently secure in most of the range, although relative scarcity and specialized habitat requirements justify continued monitoring and protection. The primary threat in the New Jersey Pine Barrens is habitat destruction or alteration from residential, agricultural, and industrial development (Palmer 1977; Freda and Morin 1984). Development pressures within the Pine Barrens place isolated populations outside protected areas at increased risk of elimination. The early successional shrub bogs, seeps, and sphagnum ponds selected as breeding sites are very acidic and nutrient-poor ecosystems and any changes in the chemistry of the waters in these habitats (as, for example, from storm water runoff) would likely cause the disappearance of the characteristic flora and fauna (Ehrenfeld 1983; Morgan <em>et al.</em> 1983; Freda and Morin 1984). The sandy soils of the Pine Barrens are very porous and allow pollutants to quickly enter the ground water, which is the major water source for the wetlands upon which the tree frog depends. Development can also lower the water table, which would have dramatic effects on the hydrology of bog wetlands. Garton and Sill (1979) reported that the specific habitat requirements of the species made it susceptible to local extirpation. Unlike other sympatric tree frog species, it generally does not breed in temporary waterbodies such as natural rain pools or in human-made areas such as roadside ditches and borrow pits. However, Bullard (1965) reported chorusing males along a roadside ditch in North Carolina. As is true for other Sandhills species, plant succession due to fire suppression appears to be a significant threat in South Carolina (Cely and Sorrow 1986).
10351		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in many countries, it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and it is present in many protected areas. It has been reintroduced to Latvia (Gaua National Park, Riga District) in 1987-1992 from Belarus and from captive bred individuals raised at Riga Zoo. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in southern Turkey is needed. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.<br/><br/>In Sweden, a "restocking program" has successfully has increased the population from 2,000 (1980) to 50,000 (2008) in about 900 breeding ponds and the species has been repopulated to its historic range. The species benefits from pond creation programs in several areas of Central Europe. This is often a flagship species for numerous restoration programs.
10351		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in many countries, it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and it is present in many protected areas. It has been reintroduced to Latvia (Gaua National Park, Riga District) in 1987-1992 from Belarus and from captive bred individuals raised at Riga Zoo. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in southern Turkey is needed. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.<br/><br/>In Sweden, a "restocking program" has successfully has increased the population from 2,000 (1980) to 50,000 (2008) in about 900 breeding ponds and the species has been repopulated to its historic range. The species benefits from pond creation programs in several areas of Central Europe. This is often a flagship species for numerous restoration programs.
10351		distribution	eng	This is a widespread Palearctic species occurring from Iberia (where there are scattered populations within its range) and France, eastwards to western Russia and the Caucasian region, and southwards to the Balkans and Turkey (except extreme eastern, southeastern parts). It is mostly absent from Scandinavia (except southern and eastern Denmark and extreme southern Sweden), and has been introduced to the UK (New Forest) but is now thought to be extinct there and is not mapped. This is a lowland species that has been recorded at a maximum altitude (in Europe) of 2,300m asl. (Bulgaria), although this requires reconfirmation.
10351		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with open, well-illuminated broad-leaved and mixed forests, bush and shrublands, meadows, gardens, vineyards, orchards, parks, lake shores and low riparian vegetation. Dark and dense forests are avoided. Populations can tolerate periods of dryness and can be encountered in dry habitats (Dan Cog?lniceanu pers. comm., October 2008). Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant waters such as lakes, ponds, swamps and reservoirs, and sometimes in ditches and puddles. The species has been reported from anthropogenic landscapes, including large cities (e.g., Kiev). It sometimes occurs in sympatry with <em>Hyla meridionalis</em> (and produces infertile hybrids).
10351		population	eng	While the species is common in suitable habitats in parts of its range, it is reported to be fragmented and in significant decline over much of its Western European distribution (e.g., Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Baker, 1997; Fog, 1995).
10351		threats	eng	The species is quite sensitive to changes in habitat, including loss and fragmentation of forests, bush groves and meadows (with the isolation of populations), and the drainage and pollution of wetlands (industrial and agricultural) and predatory fish species. These impacts on metapopulations have led to declines in parts of Europe, and possible local declines in Turkey. The species is collected for the pet trade, and in some parts of its range (western Europe) this might be leading to local population declines.
10355		conservation	eng	The current known range of the species is not within any protected area. Further survey work is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality, and if it even still persists at the type locality.
10355		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rubião Júnior, Botucatu, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil.
10355		habitat	eng	It was originally found on vegetation or on forest leaf-litter near streams. The type specimen was found in a temporary pond, which has subsequently disappeared. It breeds in temporary ponds.
10355		population	eng	Surveys to locate this species in recent years have not found any individuals.
10355		threats	eng	The type locality of the species has been destroyed by agriculture and human settlement.
10356		conservation	eng	Its entire range is in Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi.
10356		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Marumbi, in Paraná State, Brazil, at approximately 500m asl, although it perhaps occurs elsewhere.
10356		habitat	eng	It lives in humid forest and is associated with streams. Its reproductive habits are not known, but breeding is likely to take place in water.
10356		population	eng	There is no information regarding the population status of this species, which is known from three specimens collected in 1953. Many researchers have revisited the type locality since 1986, where extensive forest remains, but have not relocated it.
10356		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by touristic activities.
10357		conservation	eng	The taxonomic identity of this species clearly needs to be resolved.
10357		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in south-eastern Brazil: Barro Branco, Duque de Caxias, in the state of Rio de Janeiro (the type locality); and Linhares, in the state of Espírito Santo.
10357		habitat	eng	It is presumed to live in the rainforest and to breed in water.
10357		population	eng	Its population status is unknown because of the taxonomic problems associated with this species.
10357		threats	eng	There is no information on this species' major threats.
10459		conservation	eng	It occurs in Carrasco, Amboro, and Tariquia National Parks in Bolivia. In Argentina, it occurs in Baritú National Park.
10459		distribution	eng	This species is found east of the Andes from central Bolivia to northern Argentina. In Bolivia, it occurs from 450-2,000m asl in the Departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Tarija, and Santa Cruz (Duellman <em>et al.</em> 1997, De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Argentina, it is found at 500-1,500m asl.
10459		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species from forest and open areas and it inhabits Amazonian rainforest, inter-Andean valleys, Bolivian-Tucumano montane forest, and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Köhler (2000) points out that this species occurs in semi deciduous forest, in dry valleys, and in humid and cloud forest. It can be found near streams and ponds. It lays its eggs underwater. Some larvae were observed in slow streams, inside small pits (15cm) (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 1999).
10459		population	eng	It is common in Bolivia. It is rare in Argentina, where it was last collected in 2000.
10459		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Bolivia. In Argentina, selective logging, and the clear cutting of primary forests, trout introduction and the alteration of watersheds are threats to this species. It is also possibly threatened in the future by mining and dams.
10543		conservation	eng	Agile gibbons are protected throughout their range by local laws as well as by listing on CITES Appendix I, although the extent to which national or international laws actually protect the species is uncertain.<br/><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Bukit Barisan National Park, Kerinci Seblat National Park, Selantan National Park, and Way Kambas National Park in Indonesia; Mudah Wildlife Reserve in Malaysia; and Hala Bala Sanctuary in Thailand. Unfortunately, many of these are merely proposed or gazetted, and their actual protected status is uncertain. Moreover, many of the Sumatran reserves are in montane regions where the species occurs only at low densities. In Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in southwestern Sumatra, populations are presently secure and healthy but will depend on the regaining of control by the Indonesian government over illegal deforestation of its parks for their continued survival (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>As the validity of the subspecies is questionable, a research priority is to clarify this issue so that the species can be further assessed.
10543		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sumatra (Indonesia) (southeast of Lake Toba and the Singkil River), Peninsular Malaysia (from the Mudah and Thepha Rivers in the north to the Perak and Kelanton Rivers in the south) and south Thailand (near the Malaysian border, east of the Thepha River watershed (Gittins 1978; Groves 2001; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986; W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
10543		habitat	eng	This species occurs at highest densities in dipterocarp-dominated forests, but their known habitat ranges from swamp and lowland forests to hill, submontane, and montane forests (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). Additionally, populations in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in Sumatra do not seem to avoid forest edges near human habitations (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). In southern Sumatra, populations were found up to 1,400 meters (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>These arboreal and diurnal primates are primarily frugivorous (preferring fruits high in sugar, such as figs), but they will consume immature leaves and insects as well (Gittins 1979, 1982). An average home range size of 29 ha has been determined in a study at Sungai Dal (Gunung Bubu Forest Reserve) on the Malayan peninsula (Gittins 1979, 1982; Gittins and Raemaekers 1980).
10543		population	eng	O'Brien <em>et al.</em> (2004) performed a population assessment in 2002 on agile gibbons in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. Using calling counts in both forest edge and interior habitats, and basing their estimate on forest cover area in the park, they calculated a population of 4,479 agile gibbons (CV = 30%) (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Peninsular Malaysia, Belum and Ulu Muda are strongholds. Portions of the population in Thailand likely number a few thousand individuals, located in approximately three forests fragments/reserves (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Density estimates for this species range from 1.4-2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Bukit Barisan Seletan (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004), and 6-11.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Kerinci-Seblat (Yanuar 2001) to 5.5-18.9 individuals (2-5 groups)/km<sup>2</sup> in Sungai Dal on the Malay peninsula (Gittins 1979). Recent surveys in south Thailand reveal the density to be 2 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in parts of Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (W. Brockelman pers. comm.)
10543		threats	eng	On Sumatra, this species is threatened by conversion of their forest habitats by humans and a subsequent opportunistic capture for the pet trade. These threats extend to populations within national parks and forests, including illegal agricultural development inside the parks. In Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in southwestern Sumatra, deforestation rates are linked to the coffee market; coffee plantations serve to completely strip arboreal primates of their canopy habitats (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). The expansion of oil palm plantations is a major cause of forest loss on Sumatra. In nearby Java, agile gibbons are one of the most commonly seen gibbons in the wildlife markets (Nijman 2005). <br/><br/>The species? status in West Malaysia is uncertain; in Indonesia, it was certainly affected by fires and deforestation of the 1990s. There has been a probable 50%-plus range reduction in last 10 years (C. Groves pers. comm.), and oil palm plantations are expanding rapidly in the country. In Thailand there is extensive conversion of forests to rubber plantations and other crops (even inside protected areas), as well as hunting for the pet trade.
10547		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is protected by Indonesian law. More than half of the remaining Kloss's gibbons reside in Siberut National Park, a government protected area. Whittaker (2005b, 2006) suggested the following conservation actions: 1) increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement, 2) formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible, 3) protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971, 4) conservation education, especially regarding hunting, and 5) the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies (Whittaker 2006).
10547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the four Mentawai Islands (Siberut, Sipora, North Pagai and South Pagai) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Geissmann 1995; Groves 2000; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986).
10547		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal, diurnal, and omnivorous, though predominantly frugivorous (Whitten 1982a). Although disturbance levels in <em>H. klossii</em> habitat on the different islands are variable, a recent survey detected similar population densities in un-logged forests, forests logged 10 years ago, and those logged 20 years ago (Whittaker 2005; Paciulli 2004).<br/><br/>Gibbons in the Siberut area studied by both Tenaza (1974, 1975) and Tilson (1980) had unusually small average home ranges of 7-11 ha. A gibbon group studied in a different area on Siberut had a home range size of 32 ha, similar to that in other species of the genus <em>Hylobates</em> (Whitten 1980, 1982b).
10547		population	eng	Whittaker (2005a,b) gathered population estimates on all four Mentawai Islands, using loud-call monitoring and forested area estimates to census the animals. The species population is estimated at 20,000 to 25,000 individuals remaining on the Mentawai Islands, where they are endemic (Whittaker 2005b, 2006), which amounts to a reduction in numbers of up to 50% since the last survey in 1980 (World Wildlife Fund 1980; MacKinnon 1986, 1987). Throughout the Mentawai Islands, density averaged 12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Whittaker 2005a, b). The largest remaining population, 13,000-15,000 individuals, is found in Siberut National Park (Whittaker 2005b, 2006).
10547		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006). It is also threatened by conversion to oil palm plantations, and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of increased access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos which formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade is also a threat to this species (Whittaker 2006). Although this may be a greater threat to this species than to other gibbons (D. Whittaker pers. comm.), it is rarely seen in the pet-trade in Java (Nijman 2005).<br/><br/>The extent of the threats from logging, hunting, and the pet trade faced by this species varies depending on location. The very large population in Siberut National Park, on central Siberut, lives in a protected area but is subject to moderate hunting pressure from local people. In the Peleonan forest, northern Siberut, the habitat was logged 20 years prior but faces low hunting pressure. This area is significant because four of the endemic Mentawai primates (<em>H. klossii, Simias concolor, Presbytis potenzian</em>i and <em>Macaca siberu</em>) exist here in high densities. Populations in Saureinu, Sipora are subject to traditional use by locals but limited logging. In South Pagai, forest plots are selectively logged but there is high hunting pressure. Animals on North Pagai were not censused, but logging and hunting occurs there as well (Whittaker 2005b).
10548		conservation	eng	<em>Hylobates lar</em>, like all gibbons, is a nationally protected species in all the countries across its range, and is listed under CITES Appendix I. In most of its range it is confined to protected conservation areas (for example in Thailand, where no significant populations survive outside of protected areas). However, in most countries, these areas are not well patrolled, even if they are well managed for tourism. There is an urgent need for improved protection of these areas, ideally involving local communities that should benefit from as well as participate in management. Illegal use of forest products, as well as poaching, is common in most protected areas. Inadequate management and protection, rather than forest destruction, are the main long-term threats and conservation efforts must seek to identify the hunters and incorporate them into new management priorities.<br/><br/>Further survey work is needed to determine current population numbers within protected areas across the range. One such priority area is southwest Yunnan, where it is unclear whether the species still survives (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
10548		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is found in northern Sumatra (Indonesia), throughout Peninsular Malaysia (except for a narrow strip between the Perak and Mudah Rivers, where <em>H. agilis</em> occurs), north through southern and eastern Myanmar (east of the Salween River), most of Thailand (though not in the north-east), and marginally into southern China. The break in distribution between Perak and Muda/Thepa Rivers on the Malaysian Peninsula is genuine (T. Geissmann pers. comm.). The species also occurs in a small area of northwestern Lao PDR (west of the Mekong River). The range formerly extended into southeastern Thailand, where it was parapatric with <em>H. pileatus</em> (Brockelman 1978; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986; Marshall <em>et al.</em> 1972; T. Geissmann pers. comm.). It is unclear whether the population on Phuket (Thailand) is native, but they certainly have been introduced or reintroduced. <br/>In China, the species is currently known only from Nangunhe Nature Reserve in the Prefectury of Lincang, south-west Yunnan (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2006).
10548		habitat	eng	This species is found in evergreen, semi-evergreen, and mixed evergreen-deciduous forest (sometimes known as ?dry evergreen? forest, in the northern parts of its range), and is known to utilize regenerating secondary forest and selectively logged forest (Johns 1985). In northwestern Thailand, white-handed gibbons utilize patches of dry evergreen, mixed deciduous, and bamboo forest near Karen settlements if they are not hunted (Yimkao and Srikosamatara 2006). This is predominantly a lowland species (below 1,000-1,500 m).<br/><br/>Like most other species of gibbon they consume a largely frugivorous diet that includes mainly figs, as well as young shoots, leaves, some flowers, and insects. Gibbons, unlike most macaques and leaf monkeys that often share their habitats, swallow nearly all the seeds that they ingest, making them potentially important as seed dispersers. Certain species of fruits that require the consumer to remove a tough outer cover appear to rely almost entirely on gibbons for seed dispersal (Bartlett 1999; Ellefson 1974; Gittins and Raemaekers 1980; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980; Palombit 1992, 1997; Ungar 1995).<br/><br/>Generation length in white-handed gibbons is on the order of 15 years. They mature late, with females maturing at 8-10 years and males at 8-12 years, and have one offspring every 3 to 5 years (Brockelman <em>et al</em>. 1998; W. Brockelman pers. comm.). If a female loses a baby she may come into estrus sooner, but the average inter-birth interval in a population at carrying capacity is about 3.5 years (W. Brockelman pers. comm.). Average group size in <em>H. lar</em> generally increases with latitude, illustrating that group size is not a very useful species-specific character in gibbons. This reflects a general trend of increasing birth rate with latitude found in many vertebrate groups. Average group size has been reported at 2.7 (Chivers 1978) and 3.3 (Ellefson 1974) in Peninsular Malaysia, 3.7 in central Thailand (Brockelman and Srikosamatara 1993), and 4.4 (Carpenter 1940) and 4.9 (Yimkao and Srikosamatara 2006) in northern Thailand. The average home range sizes are 44-54 ha on the Malayan peninsula (Ellefson 1974; Gittons  and Raemaekers 1980; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980) and about 16 ha in the Khao Yai National Park in Thailand (Chivers 1984).
10548		population	eng	Population densities for this species range from 2.4 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Ketambe, Sumatra (Palombit 1992) to 0.7-2.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Kuala Lompat and Tanjong Triang on the Malayan peninsula (Ellefson 1974; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980; Raemaekers 1977) to 6.5 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (Brockelman cited in Chivers 2001). A few smaller, fragmented populations survive in southern Peninsular Thailand and northwestern Malaysia, perhaps together numbering in the low thousands. There are no recent estimates of the populations in the Tenasserim section of Myanmar, northern Sumatra and in southern Peninsular Malaysia (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, during the 1960s, there were estimated to be 200 individuals on both sides of the Nangunhe River. In 1988, the date of last sighting, it was estimated that there were less than 10 groups. And in 1992, the last survey date, the authors did not find any direct evidence for the species? persistence, but estimated that three groups may remain with about 10 individuals in total. Although not specified in the original publications, this estimate appears to be based on interview data (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2006; Guo and Wang 1995; Lan and Wang 2000).<br/><br/>No population estimates are currently available for Indonesia, Malaysia, and Myanmar. While for Lao PDR, there are no reliable estimates, but for Nam Poyi National Protected Area (which is the only protected area from which they are recorded), the species is uncommon to rare, perhaps numbering in the mid- to high-hundreds (Boonratana 1997). In some parts of Thailand there are several populations where numbers are at least in the thousands, though in northern Thailand they are now very rare. The largest population is in Kaeng Krachan National Park, which probably has on the order of 3,000-4,000 individuals. The Western Forest Complex may well have on the order of 10,000 animals, and likely upwards of 1,000 survive in the western part of Khao Yai National Park, as well as in Phukhieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Nam Nao National Park. A few smaller populations survive in the south, for example Khao Sok (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
10548		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is hunting (having replaced even forest clearance as the top threat); they are hunted both for subsistence food use and for the pet trade. Hunting pressure varies across the range, but takes place even within protected areas. Much of the hunting is done by villagers exploiting <em>Aquilaria</em> spp. trees prized for their aromatic wood, and other forest products (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Construction of roads through protected areas (for example, the Security Highway through Nam Poyi in Lao PDR, the north-south highway in Peninsular Malaysia) may also pose a threat since it promotes forest clearance and strip development, possibly increases fragmentation, and increases access by hunters into protected areas. Ongoing localized forest loss due to shifting agriculture and commercial plantations of palm oil poses a threat. On northern Sumatra, most of the lowland forests have been logged out and the threat of Ladia Galaskar, a network to link the west and east coasts of Aceh province, means that much of the remaining forest is at risk.
10550		conservation	eng	Javan gibbons have been protected throughout their range by Indonesian law since 1924, and are listed under CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Three of the 15 locales that support the largest populations of silvery gibbons surveyed by Nijman are in national parks, while five are part of, or the entirety of, so-called “strict nature reserves”. The remaining seven locales are unprotected; approximately half of the remaining populations collectively reside here. In the interest of this species, it is these areas that require some level of increased protection (Nijman 2004). The second largest population of this species (for example in the Dieng Mountains) is not in a protected area.<br/><br/>In 2003, 56 Javan gibbons were maintained at eight Indonesian zoos, 15 at four Indonesian wildlife rescue centers, with five potential breeding pairs. There is no evidence that the species has bred successfully in captivity in Indonesia. Outside the range country, 48 Javan gibbons were maintained at ten institutions in nine countries, with six breeding pairs. The total <em>ex-situ</em> population is some 120 individuals, the majority of which are wild-caught (Nijman 2006).
10550		distribution	eng	<em>Hylobates moloch</em> is endemic to Java (Indonesia). It is mostly confined to Java’s western provinces (Banten and West Java), but is also present in central Java (as far east as the Dieng Mountains).
10550		habitat	eng	<em>Hylobates moloch</em>resides in floristically rich patches of relatively undisturbed lowland to lower montane rainforest mostly below 1,600 m, but sometimes up to 2,000–2,400 m (Nijman 2004). It can also tolerate moderately disturbed forest.<br/><br/>The species is strictly arboreal and diurnal, and mainly frugivorous (Kappeler 1981, 1984). Home ranges in Ujung Kulon cover about 17 ha (Kappeler 1981, 1984). Inter-birth intervals in wild gibbons are typically 3-3.5 years (Leighton 1987; Palombit 1992), and age of sexual maturity and/or the age of dispersal in wild gibbons is about 8-10 years (Brockelman <em>et al</em>. 1998; Geissmann 1991), but the age at first reproduction may be about 10-12 years (Brockelman <em>et al</em>. 1998)
10550		population	eng	From 1994-2002, Nijman (2004) assessed the entirety of the silvery gibbon’s population in its known areas of occurrence by using fixed-point counts and forest transect walks, as well as by a review of literature. Their presence was detected by listening for gibbon song, and affirmed by local park officers and residents. He estimates that between 4,000–4,500 individuals remain in over 15 different locations. Over 95% of the gibbons are in populations of more than 100 individuals, and the four largest areas support populations of more than 500 individuals each (Nijman 2004). Asquith (2001) reported that in 1995 nine local populations had gone extinct, though Nijman found two of these locales to still harbor silvery gibbons. This is attributed to the effects of habitat disturbance and low population density on calling frequency, and suggests an under-representation of gibbon abundance and number of remaining populations (Nijman 2004). Small populations of the species are likely to go extinct; however, this will not impact the overall population estimate in the immediate future (Nijman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Median population density ranges are 2.7 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 9.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in lowland forest (<500 m), 2.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 8.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> for hill forest (500-1,000 m), and 0.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 1.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> for lower montane forest (1000-1,750 m) (Geissmann and Nijman 2006; Nijman 2004).
10550		threats	eng	The historical deforestation that affected Java in colonial times still maintains an overriding presence on the landscape, effectively restricting the arboreal silvery gibbon to continuous tracks of forest around mountain and volcano tops. However, habitat disturbance today is relatively slow, and populations of gibbons, while isolated, are substantial in size. Wildlife trade exerts an as yet un-quantified effect on <em>Hylobates moloch</em> (Nijman 2005). Populations seem to have become more or less stabilized in recent years as overall loss of habitat reached a climax some time ago. Though habitat loss continues, it is at a much slower rate today.
10551		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, including Betung-Kerihun National Park, Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park, Kutai National Park, Sungai Wain Protection Forest, Tanjung Puting National Park (Indonesia); Lanjak-Entimau Sanctuary, Semengok Forest Reserve (Malaysia) (Richardson pers. comm.).
10551		distribution	eng	The species as a whole occurs throughout Borneo except for the southwest (where <em>H. albibarbis</em> is found), from the north bank of the Kapuas River clockwise around the island to the east bank of the Barito River (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Hylobates muelleri muelleri </em><br/>This taxon is found in southeast Kalimantan, Indonesia, approximately south of the Mahakam River and west of the Barito River (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Hylobates muelleri funereus </em><br/>This taxon is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). It ranges from the northeast of Borneo (Sabah) south to the Mahakam River and perhaps west to the Baram District and the IV Division of Sarawak (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Hylobates muelleri abbotti</em> <br/>This taxon is found in Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak). It occurs north of the Kapuas River and east as far east as the Saribas District of Sarawak (Groves 2001).
10551		habitat	eng	The species is found in tropical evergreen forests of primary, selectively logged and secondary forest types. Mueller?s gibbons are arboreal and diurnal, and frugviorous (preferring fruits high in sugar), but will also eat immature leaves and insects (Leighton 1987; Rodman 1978). They have been recorded from forests up to 1,500 m (Leighton 1987) or 1,700 m in Sabah (Yasuma and Andau 2000), with densities decreasing at higher elevations (V. Nijman pers. comm.). In Kutai National Park, average home range size was 36 ha (Leighton 1987).
10551		population	eng	This species is generally common in areas where good forest remains (J. Hon pers. comm.). Densities estimated using various techniques at three Indonesian sites ranged from 9-14.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> at Kutai National Park, to 6.9-9.9 at Kayang Mentarang National Park, and 7.9-9.5 at Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Nijman and Menken 2005). Out of 11 studies on the effects of logging, 6 reported decline and 3 were neutral (Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005). Meijaard and Nijman (unpubl. data) conservatively estimate the total population to be approximately 250,000-375,000 individuals.
10551		threats	eng	Deforestation and trade in illegal pets are the predominant threats, and in interior areas hunting is also a threat (Mejiaard <em>et al</em>. 2005; Nijman 2005). From 2003-2004, Nijman (2005) recorded 54 individuals in markets in Kalimantan. Much habitat is being lost due to expanding oil palm plantations and logging.
10552		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. In Cambodia the major stronghold is three contiguous protected areas, including Samkos and Aural Wildlife Sanctuaries, and the Central Cardamom Protected Forest. This last area contains about 3,350 km<sup>2</sup> of gibbon habitat and a population of nearly 7,000 groups. This potentially could ensure the long-term survival of the species if effectively managed. The Cambodian Forestry Administration in collaboration with Conservation International is developing a management plan for this area, and ranger units have been established to stop illegal poaching and logging. Gibbons also occur in Bokor National Park (1,220 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat), which is generally well managed. As in Thailand, numerous smaller fragmented areas also contain pileated gibbons, most with low long-term prospects. In Cambodia there is a need to strengthen protected area administration and protection activities, and to halt logging and development activities in important conservation areas (Brockelman pers comm.; Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In southeast Thailand, all populations are included within protected areas, but more effort needs to be made to change the behavior of local villagers who hunt. The largest protected forest areas are the Tab Lan National Park, Pang Sida National Park, Ta Phraya National Park, Khao Ang Ru Nai Sanctuary, and Khao Soi Dao Sanctuary, totaling greater than 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest habitat in three blocks (Phoonjampa and Brockelman unpubl. data).
10552		distribution	eng	The range of this species includes southeastern Thailand, a portion of southwestern Lao PDR (west of the Mekong), and western Cambodia (west of the Mekong). In Thailand, the western limit may once have been the Bang Pakong River, extending north to Khao Yai National Park, east of the Lam Takhong watershed, and all forested areas east and south of the Moon River (Geissmann 1995; Groves 2001; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986). In Khao Yai, the limit is Khao Rom Mountain and the upper reaches of the Lam Takhong river on the north side (Brockelman 1975; Marshall <em>et al.</em> 1972).
10552		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist, seasonal evergreen and mixed deciduous-evergreen forests and have been recorded to about 1,500 m in Cambodia, and to around 1,200 m in Thailand. This species is similar to <em>H. lar</em> in diet and general ecology, consuming mostly fruits, shoots, and some immature leaves, as well as insects (Srikosamatara 1980, 1984). Researchers find the species somewhat shyer and more elusive than <em>H. lar</em> (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Average group size in Thailand is four individuals (Brockelman and Poonjampa unpubl. data). There has been no long-term study of behavior and life history.
10552		population	eng	In Cambodia, the primary area of importance is the Cardamom Mountains, in the south-western part which is relatively intact, where densities are on the order of 1-2 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, with an estimated 20,000 individuals (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Populations in the north, where the habitat is similar but more open, with a very small percentage of evergreen forest, are smaller. Bokor National Park in southwestern Cambodia has an estimated 1,000 groups and is likely to be isolated from the remainder of the range (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Pileated gibbons might number more than 35,000 individuals in Cambodia in total (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR the population is significantly smaller, mainly since it comprises a smaller part of the range (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Thailand, there are an estimated 12,000 individuals (3,000 breeding groups) surviving in the four largest forest areas including five major protected areas (Khao Yai National Park, Thap Lan National Park, Khao Ang Ru Nai Sanctuary and Khao Soi Dao Sanctuary), based on an auditory census in 2004–2005, plus around 1,000 to 2,000 individuals in 15 other scattered and highly fragmented smaller protected areas (Phoonjampa and Brockelman unpub. data). Population densities are generally low, averaging close to one group (average 4 individuals)/km<sup>2</sup>, with pockets of higher density populations in some remote mountain areas (Brockelman and Srikosamatara 1993). An earlier study generated a total population estimate of 30,000 pileated gibbons for Thailand (Tunhikorn <em>et al.</em> 1994).
10552		threats	eng	This species is threatened by both hunting, primarily for subsistence, and severe habitat fragmentation and degradation (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Thailand all populations are now within protected conservation areas and the era of logging and slash-and-burn agriculture (Brockelman 1983) is now mostly over. Nevertheless, severe encroachment has occurred in eastern Khao Yai Park and other major protected areas, and subsistence hunting by minor forest product collectors is still uncontrolled (Phoonjampa and Brockelman unpubl. data). In Cambodia, however, habitat destruction is a more immediate threat than poaching, especially in remote areas. Most populations are not yet secured in protected areas, and the main threats are habitat loss due to logging, agricultural conversion, hydroelectric development, and new human settlements (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
10566		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need to establish a monitoring programme to determine whether or not it is in decline in areas of suitable habitat. The reported decline in apparently suitable habitat in the Serra das Cabras is reminiscent of declines and disappearances of other high-altitude, stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and the possibility of chytridiomycosis should be investigated. This species occurs in Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.
10566		distribution	eng	This species from south-eastern Brazil is known from the Serra das Cabras, Campinas, in the state of São Paulo, east to Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, Itatiaia Municipality, Itamonte, in the state of Minas Gerais. It might be more widely distributed, and is here assumed to occur beween the two known localities. Its altitudinal range is 800-1,700m asl.
10566		habitat	eng	This is a species of primary and secondary forest, associated with fast-flowing streams in which it breeds. The males are diurnal and frequent shaded places on rocks, in rock crevices, and under rocks and boulders.
10566		population	eng	It is very abundant in Itatiaia, but it is decreasing in the Serra das Cabras for unknown reasons.
10566		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, tourism and fire.
10588		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jianfengling Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in Jiaxi and Wuzhishan Nature Reserves. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
10588		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, and is restricted to the island of Hainan (Smith and Xie 2008).
10588		habitat	eng	It is recorded from tropical rainforest and subtropical evergreen rainforest (Stone 1995). It was formerly known from subterranean habitats, now thought to be used for burrows (Stone 1995). Little is known about the ecology of this species (Stone 1995).
10588		population	eng	This species has been characterized as very rare (Wang 1998).  here are currently no data regarding the population status of this species. It is inferred that the population is declining due to habitat loss.
10588		threats	eng	Its evergreen forest habitat is under threat from clearance for timber and agricultural expansion (Stone 1995).
10589		conservation	eng	This species is found in Kerinci-Seblat National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution in the surrounding highlands, abundance, and threats to this species, in particular on its ability to adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
10589		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the slopes of Mount Kerinci, and surrounding mountains to the north and south, in the central part of the mountain chain in western Sumatra, Indonesia (Ruedi <em>et al</em>. 1994). It has been found at elevations between 2,000-3,000 m asl.
10589		habitat	eng	It appears to be confined to montane forests. Its ecological requirements are very poorly known.
10589		population	eng	It appears to be commonly found in suitable habitat within its small range.
10589		threats	eng	This species are not known occurs in a region where there is extensive loss of forest, especially for small-holder agriculture, and this is likely to be a threat to the species, and to cause increasing fragmentation of its populations. There are also increasing human populations within its range, and extraction of timber from the remaining forests.
10590		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It occurs in Wolong, Ailaoshan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) in China, and may be present in additional protected areas in China. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
10590		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-central China, northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam (Hutterer 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). In China it is known from the provinces of Guizhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging from 300-2,700 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992). Its distribution in Myanmar and Viet Nam is marginal. In China, its distribution appears to be allo- to parapatric with <em>Neotetracus suillus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). It could also occur in northern Lao PDR and extreme northeastern India, but so far there are no records.
10590		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical evergreen forest at altitudes between 1,500 and 2,700 m asl, close to and away from streams (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known to what extent it might also be able to live in degraded habitats. It is strictly nocturnal and is associated with burrows.
10590		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in suitable habitat, though numbers vary from place to place.
10590		threats	eng	It might be affected by habitat loss, but this depends on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats. However, given its wide range, there are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
10591		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Bimpong Forest Reserve, Ghana. There is a need to survey for this species in suitable habitat within the Atewa Hills, Ghana.
10591		distribution	eng	This poorly-known West African species has been recorded from Côte d'Ivoire (one record), Ghana (two records) and a disjunct record from Sierra Leone. It is a lowland species occurring up to about 500 m asl.
10591		habitat	eng	It is a tropical lowland forest species. This is a very distinctive species which would not be missed during collecting or in collections.
10591		population	eng	It is known only from four collections despite intensive collection in these areas. It may be very scarce.
10591		threats	eng	Deforestation is probably a major threat to the species; one of the localities in Ghana (Kade) has suffered intense deforestation.
10592		conservation	eng	It occurs in Odzala National Park and possibly others.
10592		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern Central African Republic, northern Gabon, northern Congo and southern Cameroon. It probably also occurs in Equatorial Guinea, as has been found very close to the country border. There is a disjunct record further to the east in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which may indicate that the species is more widespread than is currently thought. It occurs at low elevations.
10592		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet forest, generally near rivers.
10592		population	eng	It is reasonably common, but not as abundant as other species.
10592		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10593		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas.
10593		distribution	eng	This largely Central African species occurs from Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko Island) to Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda, northwestern Burundi and Rwanda; but precise distribution limits are unknown. It is generally a lowland species occurring to about 1,200 m elevation (West Africa), but in Burundi occurs from 1,670 to 2,100 m asl.
10593		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mixed scrubby forest vegetation and montane forest (primary forest with climbing vines), it is ground dwelling but also climbs into trees to about 3 m.
10593		population	eng	It is a very common species.
10593		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Although there is some deforestation in parts of its range this is not enough to impact this species.
10594		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas (e.g., Pic de Fon in Guinea).
10594		distribution	eng	This West African and Central African species has been recorded from Guinea (Mount Nimba) to Gabon and Cameroon, and from Cameroon, into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species is present in the Cabinda enclave of Angola. It is a lowland species occurring up to 1,500 m asl.
10594		habitat	eng	It is found in moist to dry deciduous forest.
10594		population	eng	It is a very common species.
10594		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10595		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in Kisama Reserve, Angola. Further field surveys are needed to confirm the conservation status of this species.
10595		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western and central Angola. Records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Crawford-Cabral 1998) are not generally accepted. The species is found up to about 1,500 m asl.
10595		habitat	eng	It is widespread in dry forested areas, and also survives in disturbed areas.
10595		population	eng	There is no information about abundance or population status.
10595		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10596		conservation	eng	It occurs in a large number of protected areas.
10596		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from montane forest islands in western and central  Angola, extreme eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, western Rwanda, and Kenya through Tanzania to northeast Zambia. It may possibly also occur in Malawi, but no there are records to date. On Mount Elgon it occurs over 2,000 m (even up to 4,400 m in Ruwenzori Mountains) but elsewhere in East Africa it is generally found above 1,500 m asl. Moving further south into Angola and Zambia, the lower altitudinal range drops to 1,000 m asl. The species is not found above the forest in the afroalpine grasslands.
10596		habitat	eng	This species found in afromontane forest, but is not present in afroalpine grasslands.
10596		population	eng	it is extremely common in places (certainly in Kenya).
10596		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10597		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
10597		distribution	eng	This Subsaharan African species has been recorded from southern and southeastern Nigeria, Gabon, Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, southern Sudan to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and western Kenya to east central Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda; the precise distribution limits are unknown. It has been recorded to elevations of 2,250 m asl.
10597		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland moist rain forest, and also in bamboo habitats. The species occurs in secondary forest, but rarely in cultivated areas. This species is partly aboreal.
10597		population	eng	It is a very common species.
10597		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10598		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
10598		distribution	eng	This species is known from west Panama to Nayarit and Veracruz (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,600 m (Reid, 1997). It is documented from Panama, Costa Rica and Nicaragua (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 1993). There are unreported specimens from Honduras (McCarthy pers. comm.).
10598		habitat	eng	This species can be found in evergreen forest and opening on the Caribbean Slope, especially at middle elevations. It occasionally is recorded in deciduous forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in small caves and culverts. Pollen, fruit and insects are taken in addition to nectar (Gardner, 1977). In Costa Rica, birth peaks occur in the dry season, February to April, and in the wet season, August to November (Wilson, 1979). In Mexico it has been recorded selva mediana (cities forest) (Coates and Coates-Estrada, 1986). It is also been reported in template forest (Sanchez and Romero, 1995 -- Alvarez-Castaneda and Alvarez, 1991). Also reportet in tropical moist montaine forest (Emmons, 1997). Do not have important habitat reduction (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).
10598		population	eng	This bat is fairly common (Reid, 1997). Not common in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.).
10598		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
10600		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and is known from Namdapha National Park, in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species in Southeast Asia.
10600		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, southern and central China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from mountainous regions of Nepal, Bhutan (distribution in this country is unclear) and northeastern India up to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China it has been recorded from Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Zhejiang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR (only three localities known), Viet Nam and marginally in Cambodia.
10600		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal and nocturnal species, found in tropical and subtropical montane forests, and in more temperate oak and rhododendron forests at middle to high elevations (1,500 to 3,400 m asl). Populations can be found in primary forests as well as secondary, degraded forests and scrubby habitat. Two to three young are born in each litter.
10600		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population of this species is believed to be declining in South Asia, but the rate of decline is not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
10600		threats	eng	In South Asia, the species is threatened by habitat loss due to shifting (Jhum) agriculture, small wood plantations, mining activities, infrastructure development, establishment of human settlements, construction of dams and forest fires (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In certain parts of northeastern India this species is hunted for food (S. Molur pers. comm.). The threats to the species in Southeast Asia and China are unclear.
10602		conservation	eng	This species is likely to occur in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
10602		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mt. Pangrango, west Java, Indonesia (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
10602		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary forest.
10602		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10602		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10603		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
10603		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Borneo and Java (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
10603		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in forested habitat but its ecology its poorly known.
10603		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10603		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10604		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. More information is needed on this species' abundance, ecology and tolerance to disturbance. Improved forest conservation and protection measures are needed to stop or reduce illegal logging and clearing for agriculture.
10604		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is only found in the Palawan Faunal Region on Palawan, and Bancalan islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). Survey efforts have not encountered it on Dumaran island (P. Widmann pers. comm. 2006).
10604		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and arboreal and is found in primary and secondary lowland forest, where it nests in cavities of large trees (Taylor 1934; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). Recent records also show that it occurs in secondary and selectively logged forest (P. Widmann pers. comm. 2006).
10604		population	eng	This species is widespread and moderately common in mature forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). Presence of this species can be determined from spotlighting efforts and by listening for its characteristic vocalizations (Esslestyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; P. Widmann pers. comm. 2006).
10604		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potentially very serious threat in light of this species' reliance on tree cavities. It is also occasionally hunted for food and captured for pet trade but this is estimated to have a minimal impact on the population.
10605		conservation	eng	In China, this species occurs in Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, and Bawangling Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and is likely to be present in many other protected areas within its distribution. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).
10605		distribution	eng	According to Nowak (1999) the range of this species is Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, northwestern Viet Nam, Guizhou, and possibly Fujian provinces in China. According to Smith and Xie (2008), it occurs on Hainan Island and in the provinces of Guizhou, Guangxi, and Fujian in China. The 1999 Status Report for Wildlife of Lao PDR indicates that no historical specimens have been confirmed and that the distribution within Lao PDR is provisional (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species occupies an elevational range of 0-1,500 m asl (Duckworth 2004).
10605		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lower montane forests and mixed deciduous forests (Smith and Xie 2008). It can exist in partly cleared forests near cultivation. They are nocturnal, staying in hollow trees by day and foraging on (cultivated) fruit at night (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
10605		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
10605		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10606		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.
10606		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Sipura island, in the Mentawai Archipelago, south west of Sumatra (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
10606		habitat	eng	This is a lowland species living in primary forest.
10606		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10606		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
10607		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
10607		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Myanmar, through Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and northern Borneo. It is also found in Lao PDR, southern Viet Nam, and Singapore.
10607		habitat	eng	These squirrels are known from pirmary forests, degraded secondary forest and scrub, and cultivated areas up to 1,500 m.
10607		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10607		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
10608		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
10608		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen, recorded from Baleg, East Aceh Province, northern Sumatra.
10608		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of this species is primary forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
10608		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10608		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
10613		conservation	eng	One site with suitable habitat in Hidaka Town, Hyogo Prefecture, was designated in November 1998 as a protected area. Designated as a "domestic endangered species of wild fauna and flora" under the Law for Conservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. In Kyoto, the species is totally protected as a 'natural monument'.
10613		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, occurring in central Honshu, and known only from several localities on the Tango Peninsula, the Tajima region of Hyogo, and the northern part of Fukui.
10613		habitat	eng	It occurs in secondary broad-leaved evergreen and deciduous forest, and bamboo forest. It breeds in pools, ditches and springs and the larvae develop in these waterbodies.
10613		population	eng	All populations of this species are known to be small.
10613		threats	eng	The species' habitat is steadily becoming unsuitable for survival. In one case, construction of a road destroyed the habitat of a population and resulted in its extirpation. It is currently illegally traded in Japan as a pet.
10614		conservation	eng	It is present in several national and quasi national parks, and two populations are designated as natural monuments. There is a need to monitor and control the offtake of this species for the pet trade. Further survey work is needed to determine its current population status.
10614		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, with a very restricted distribution in Kyushu (around the cities of Oita, Kumamoto, Miyazaki) and Shikoku (around the city of Kochi).
10614		habitat	eng	It occurs in paddy fields, secondary forest and bamboo in hilly areas. It breeds in pools, ponds, paddy fields at forest edges, ditches, and brooks, where the larvae also develop.
10614		population	eng	There is no information available on the current population status of this species.
10614		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, due in particular to infrastructure development for human settlement. It is also threatened by water pollution, and is often found in the pet trade.
10615		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in several protected areas, and has been designated as a natural monument by Hakuba village. There is a need to carefully monitor and control the level of offtake in this species for the pet trade.
10615		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, being known from Gifu Prefecture and Toyama Prefecture, and from Hakuba village, Nagano Prefecture, in the central region of Japan.
10615		habitat	eng	It occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forest and larch plantations in montane areas. Wetlands and streams are required for breeding and larval development.
10615		population	eng	It is believed to be declining.
10615		threats	eng	Habitat loss is an important threat; for example, the habitat around Hakuba village is being destroyed as a result of the rapid construction of villas. Other threats include the shrinkage and drying of wetlands, pollution, and the pet trade.
10616		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not the species occurs in any protected areas, but formal protection of remaining habitat on the Oki Islands is urgently needed. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established for this species. Further survey work is required to determine its current population status.
10616		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, being entirely confined to the island of Dogo in the Oki Islands in Shimane Prefecture.
10616		habitat	eng	It occurs from sea level to the top of the mountains, inhabiting evergreen forest and coniferous plantations. It breeds in streams by larval development, like most other members of the genus.
10616		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, but several local populations are extinct, and there is a continuing decline in numbers.
10616		threats	eng	The major threats to the species include habitat degradation and loss, largely as a result of road construction, deforestation, alteration of river courses, and pollution.
10617		conservation	eng	It is designated a natural monument by Kumamoto Prefecture. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.
10617		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is distributed in Kyushu (Kumamoto, Miyazaki, and Kagoshima Prefectures).
10617		habitat	eng	It occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest and mixed forest. It breeds in upstream areas, where the larvae also develop.
10617		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
10617		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss and degradation, due to the construction of roads and logging, and water pollution. This species is also harvested for medicine and food.
10618		conservation	eng	This species is designated as a natural monument by Hakui City (Ishikawa Prefecture), and conservation and population recovery efforts are already under way in this area.
10618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is known from Ishikawa Prefecture and Toyama Prefecture.
10618		habitat	eng	It occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forests, and conifer plantations on low mountains. Breeding takes place in springs, streams, ponds and ditches where the larvae also develop.
10618		population	eng	Most populations are believed to be in decline.
10618		threats	eng	Major threats include water pollution, predation by introduced predators, and destruction of breeding habitat from infrastructure development.
10632		conservation	eng	The range includes the Lorentz National Park, and it is probably in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, harvesting levels, and threats to this species.
10632		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it has been recorded from the Arfak Mountains in the west, and on the Central Cordillera from the Weyland range in the west to the Mount Hagen region in the east (Flannery 1995). It is possible that the species may occur further north in suitable habitat than is currently known. Animals have been recorded between 1,400 and 2,800 m asl.
10632		habitat	eng	It is a largely terrestrial species known from tropical moist forest, forest edge habitats, and old gardens. Animals live in burrows in the ground. It is considered to be a relatively slow breeder for a rodent species; Flannery (1995) reports the capture of a female with a single dependant young.
10632		population	eng	It is neither abundant, nor scarce; not commonly collected.
10632		threats	eng	This species is a favoured food animal that is hunted with dogs by local people.
10633		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, harvesting levels, and threats to this species.
10633		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is found on the island of New Guinea from the Hagen area of the central highlands in the west to the extreme south-east of the island, also on the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has an elevational range of 1,400 to 2,800 m asl.
10633		habitat	eng	It is a largely terrestrial species known from tropical moist forest, forest edge habitats, old gardens, and regrowth areas of forest close to villages. Animals live in burrows in the ground. It is considered to be a relatively slow breeder, and usually gives birth to a single young.
10633		population	eng	Although many specimens of this species have been collected, it is generally not considered to be very common, but also not rare.
10633		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, despite its slow breeding. This species is a favoured food animal that is hunted with dogs by local people.
10634		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica de Una.
10634		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two nearby localities in the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil, Ilhéus and Una, where occurs up to 60m asl. It probably occurs more widely, but its distribution is very poorly known.
10634		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and is probably an explosive breeder in temporary pools.
10634		population	eng	In 1999, after an absence of records for 50 years, it was rediscovered at Una, where many specimens were found. However, there is still no clear picture of its overall population status, and it is probably a very hard species to detect when it is not breeding.
10634		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging, tourism and human settlement.
10635		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.
10635		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to mountains of central Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005), at altitudes between 1,400 and 2,300 m.
10635		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial vermivore species living in primary montane forest.
10635		population	eng	This species occurs at extremely low densities in suitable habitat.
10635		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10636		conservation	eng	Species range broadly overlaps with the proposed: Kelompok Hutan Buol Toli-toli Nature Reserve, Gunung Sojol Nature Reserve, and Pegunungan Buol Toli-toli Game Reserve.
10636		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to lowland and hill forest in northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Indonesia).
10636		habitat	eng	This species is known from primary forest as well as degraded, secondary forest and scrub at altitudes up to 1,700 m.
10636		population	eng	<em>H. ileile</em> is rare across its range.
10636		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from human disturbance.
10642		conservation	eng	Ecological and population studies along with effects of long-term livestock grazing on the species is recommended. The species has not been recorded from any protected area.
10642		distribution	eng	It is endemic to northern India (Jammu and Kashmir) and Pakistan (North Western Frontier Province) occurring at an elevational range of 2,450 to 3,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has a wide range of distribution, but is estimated to have a restricted area of occupancy based on available habitat in the region. It is found in more than 15 fragmented locations in the region.
10642		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, terrestrial, semi-fossorial, herbivorous and gregarious vole. It is seen in temperate forests where it inhabits subalpine scrub forests and meadows above the tree line (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
10642		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
10642		threats	eng	Overgrazing of the species habitat by domestic livestock and the expansion of human settlements are some of the major threats to the species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
10643		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
10643		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sardalla in Jammu and Kashmir, India (Agrawal 2000) and to Murree hills in Punjab and five locations in North Western Frontier Province, Pakistan (Roberts 1997) at elevations of 1,800 to 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is estimated to have a very wide distribution in the region (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
10643		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, crepuscular, herbivorous and gregarious vole. It is seen in temperate forests where it inhabits the grassy slopes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
10643		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
10643		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of intensive farming, planting of apple orchards and potato crops. It is also threatened by increasing human settlement in the region (Roberts 1997).
10644		conservation	eng	Obtaining accurate information on threats was given the highest priority on conservation research for this species. Determining the status of all sites and estimating population size also receive high research priorities. Research is still required to determine population sizes, life history and ecology (in particular dispersal potential), followed by appropriate&#160;monitoring of&#160;both population and habitat. In addition, land owner agreements need to be drawn up for protection and management of all sites for conservation management. This species occurs in the&#160;iSimangaliso&#160;Wetland Park, the&#160;Umlalazi Nature Reserve, and the Twinstreams-Mtunzini Natural Heritage Site.
10644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coast of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, ranging from&#160;Warner Beach&#160;in the south to St Lucia village in the north. It is found within 20 km of the coast up to 380 m asl. Although the Extent of Occurrence is 2,303 km<sup>2</sup>, the Area of Occupancy has been calculated to be only 9km<sup>2</sup>.
10644		habitat	eng	It is a species of coastal mosaic bushland and grassland, breeding in stagnant, usually temporary to semi-permanent, water, rarely exceeding 50 cm in depth, surrounded by dense sedges. It is seldom found at the same breeding sites as the abundant <em>Hyperolius marmoratus</em>.
10644		population	eng	The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented as >50% of individuals are in small and isolated patches and >50% of subpopulations are considered non-viable.&#160;It is secretive and so is under-recorded, but appears to be a rare species.
10644		threats	eng	It is confined to a small area subject to urbanization, habitat fragmentation, afforestation, and drainage for agricultural and urban development. Some breeding sites are being polluted by DDT, which is used for controlling malarial mosquitoes. The spread of alien vegetation, in particular eucalyptus, is responsible for the drying out of some breeding sites.
10707		conservation	eng	The northern bottlenose whale is said to have been twice overexploited by Norwegian hunting, in the periods 1880-1920 and 1938-1973. It was included in the International Whaling Commission schedule in 1977, with recommendations that northern bottlenose whales be granted Protected Stock status with zero catch limit (Klinowska 1991). It is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species as well as in Appendix I of CITES. Populations or stocks are not defined; this, together with estimates of present abundance as well as present levels of catches (Faroe Islands), should be the focus of future studies (Reyes 1991, Culik 2004, Dalebout <em>et al.</em> 2006).
10707		conservation	eng	The species is included in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The species was included in the International Whaling Commission schedule in 1977, with recommendations that northern bottlenose whales be granted Protected Stock status with zero catch limit (Klinowska 1991). Populations or stocks are not defined; this, together with estimates of present abundance), should be the focus of future studies (Culik 2004; Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10707		distribution	eng	Northern bottlenose whales are found only in the North Atlantic, from New England, USA to Baffin Island and southern Greenland in the west and from the Strait of Gibraltar to Svalbard in the east (c. 38ºN to 72ºN: Mead 1989, Gowans 2002).  There are reports from the Mediterranean Sea, and some extralimital records from the Baltic Sea. Bottlenose whales are occasionally observed off the Azores (Steiner <em>et al.</em> 1998), and have been seen as far south as the Cape Verde Islands (15ºN: Ruud 1937). The pelagic distribution extends from the ice edges south to approximately 30°N. Historic catch distributions indicated the existence of at least six centres of abundance, each potentially representing a separate stock (Benjaminsen 1972): i) the Gully; ii) northern Labrador-Davis Strait; iii) northern Iceland; iv) and v), off Andenes and Møre, Norway, and vi) around Svalbard, Spitzbergen. Anecdotal reports from whalers suggest a north/south seasonal migration could occur in some regions but there is little strong evidence for this. They inhabit the most northerly waters of the Barents and Greenland seas in summer (May to August). The northern bottlenose whale forms an antitropical species pair with the southern bottlenose whale, <em>Hyperoodon planifrons</em>.
10707		distribution	eng	Northern bottlenose whales are found only in the North Atlantic, from New England, USA to Baffin Island and southern Greenland in the west and from the Strait of Gibraltar to Svalbard in the east (c. 38ºN to 72ºN; Mead 1989; Gowans 2002). There are reports from the Mediterranean Sea (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000), and some extra-limital records from the Baltic Sea. The best-known subpopulation of the northern bottlenose whale, the best known of all beaked whales, occurs in the waters over “The Gully,” a large submarine canyon off Nova Scotia, Canada (44ºN, 59ºW; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, there have been strandings and at least one sighting as far south as North Carolina in the western Atlantic (Mead 1989). The Gully is the southernmost area of consistent northern bottlenose whale presence in the western Atlantic (Wimmer and Whitehead 2004). In the eastern Atlantic, bottlenose whales are occasionally observed off the Azores (Steiner <em>et al</em>. 1998), and have been seen as far south as the Cape Verde Islands (15ºN; Ruud 1937). The pelagic distribution extends from the ice edges south to approximately 30°N.
10707		habitat	eng	The behavior and ecology of northern bottlenose whales have been better studied than that of any other species in the family Ziphiidae.  Most groups contain at least four whales, sometimes with as many as 20, and there is some segregation by age and sex. These deep divers can remain submerged for an hour, possibly as long as two, and can reach depths of well over 1,400 m (Hooker and Baird 1999). They are known for their curiosity, often approaching and swimming around boats for some time, as well as their habit of "standing by" injured companions; these behaviours permitted whalers to kill large numbers of whales at the same site (Gray 1882). Although capable of travelling long distances, their movement patterns are generally quite localized (Hooker <em>et al.</em> 2002, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>These cold temperate to subarctic whales are found in deep waters, mostly seaward of the continental shelf (and generally over 500-1,000 m deep) and near submarine canyons.  They sometimes travel several kilometres into broken ice fields, but are more common in open water.  Few whales were caught in shallow waters over the continental shelf off Labrador and in waters less than 1000 m deep off the west coast of Norway. In the surrounding waters of Iceland, the whales were sighted in waters with surface temperature between -1.3°C and +0.9°C (Reyes 1991).<br/><br/>Northern bottlenose whales occupy a very narrow niche; their primary food source is squid of the genus <em>Gonatus</em> (Hooker <em>et al.</em> 2001, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 2003) These whales may also occasionally eat fish (such as herring and redfish), sea cucumbers, starfish, and prawns. They do much of their feeding on or near the bottom in very deep water (>800 m, and as deep as 1,400 m: Hooker and Baird 1999). Longevity is at least 37 years, possibly much longer (Christensen 1973).
10707		habitat	eng	These cold temperate to subarctic whales are found in deep waters, mostly seaward of the continental shelf (and generally over 500-1,500 m deep) and near submarine canyons. They sometimes travel several kilometers into broken ice fields, but are more common in open water. Few whales were caught in shallow waters over the continental shelf off Labrador and in waters less than 1000 m deep off the west coast of Norway.<br/><br/>The species occupies a very narrow niche; the primary food source is squid of the genus <em>Gonatus</em> (Hooker <em>et al</em>. 2001; Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 2003). The whales may also occasionally eat fish (such as herring and redfish), sea cucumbers, starfish, and prawns. They do much of their feeding on or near the bottom in very deep water (> 800 m, and as deep as 1,400 m; Hooker and Baird 1999).
10707		population	eng	Global abundance has not been estimated. A rough estimate open to questions is that about 40,000 occur in the eastern North Atlantic (NAMMCO Annual Report 1995), including an estimated 5,827 (CV=16%) in the high latitudes of the eastern North Atlantic (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990). Estimates for Icelandic and Faroese waters were 3,142 and 287 whales respectively, although allowance was not made in the surveys for animals not observed because of their long dives. A subpopulation of c. 163 individuals (95% CI 119-214) occurs in the Gully (Scotian Shelf). About 57% of this subpopulation is found in a 20 x 8 km core area at the entrance of the canyon at any time. Mark-recapture analysis of fifteen years of data suggest that this population is stable (Whitehead and Wimmer 2005). Most subpopulations of the species are probably still depleted, due to large kills in the past; over 65,000 animals were killed in a multinational hunt that operated in the North Atlantic from c. 1850 to the early 1970’s (Mitchell 1977; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>A study by Christensen and Ugland (1983) resulted in an estimated initial (pre-whaling) population size of about 90,000 whales, reduced to some 30,000 by 1914. The population size by the mid-1980s was said to be about 54,000, roughly 60% of the initial stock size. <br/><br/>Historic catch distributions indicated the existence of at least six centers of abundance, each potentially representing a separate stock (Benjaminsen 1972): i) the Gully; ii) northern Labrador-Davis Strait; iii) northern Iceland; iv) and v), off Andenes and Møre, Norway, and vi) around Svalbard, Spitzbergen. Anecdotal reports from whalers suggest a north/south seasonal migration could occur in some regions but there is little strong evidence for this and whales are reported in the Gully year round. They inhabit the most northerly waters of the Barents and Greenland seas in summer (May to August). <br/><br/>The small resident population in the Gully is largely isolated from populations to the north (Labrador) and northwest (northern Iceland); the whales there are smaller and appear to breed at a different time of year (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997b and are genetically distinct at both mitochondrial and nuclear markers, refuting the hypothesis of seasonal migrations between these regions (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2006). Little is known about populations in central and western North Atlantic (Reyes <em>et al</em>. 1993). For statistical consideration, Christensen (1975) assumed that all the bottlenose whales caught east of Greenland belonged to a single subpopulation, while Mitchell (1977) defined Cape Farewell (Greenland) to divide west and east North Atlantic catches (Culik 2004).
10707		population	eng	Global numbers of northern bottlenose whales are largely unknown. There are estimated to be more than 5,000 in the waters around Iceland and the Faroe Islands. An estimated 40,000 occur in the eastern North Atlantic (NAMMCO Annual Report 1995), including approximately 5,827 (CV=16%) in the high latitudes of the eastern North Atlantic (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990). Estimates for Icelandic and Faroese waters are 3,142 and 287 whales respectively, although allowance was not made in the surveys for animals not observed because of their long dives (Reyes 1991). Most populations of the species are probably still depleted, due to large kills in the past; over 65,000 animals were killed in a multinations hunt that operated in the North Atlantic from c.1850 to the early 1970s (Mitchell 1977, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1993). A study by Christensen and Ugland (1983) resulted in an estimated initial (pre-whaling) population size of about 90,000 whales, reduced to some 30,000 by 1914. The population size by the mid 1980s was said to be about 54,000, nearly 60% of the initial stock size.
10707		threats	eng	This is one of only a few species of beaked whales to be hunted commercially on a large scale. Hunts occurred from the 1850s to the 1970s, and over 65,000 whales were killed (with many more struck but lost: Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1993). By far the major bottlenose whaling nation has been Norway, though some hunting was also done by the UK and Canada. The northern bottlenose was sought after for its oil (including a form of spermaceti oil in the head) and later for pet food. No hunting of this species has been conducted by Norway since 1973 (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Reyes 1991). The species has been essentially unexploited for almost 30 years, with only a few animals taken in some years in the Faroe Islands. The aggregate population was certainly reduced by whaling, and the extent of recovery is uncertain (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Mitchell (1977) considered that the population was severely depleted in both the early and modern whaling periods. Very few incidental catches have been reported (Reyes 1991). <br/><br/>Pollutant levels in this species are usually low (Reyes 1991). There are no major fisheries for squid in the Northeast Atlantic, but future developments could represent some threat for subpopulations as heavily depleted as those of the bottlenose whale (Culik 2004). This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006).
10707		threats	eng	This is one of only a few species of beaked whales to be hunted commercially on a large scale. Hunts occurred from the 1850s to the 1970s, and over 65,000 whales were killed (with many more struck but lost; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993). They have also been hunted in a drive fishery in the Faroe Islands, with over 800 taken there (Bloch <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>By far the major bottlenose whaling nation has been Norway, though some hunting was also done by the UK, Canada and Denmark (Faroes). The northern bottlenose was sought after for its oil (including a form of spermaceti oil in the head) and later for pet food. No hunting of this species has been conducted by Norway since 1973 (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Reyes, 1991. The species has been essentially unexploited for almost 30 years, with only a few animals taken in some years in the Faroe Islands (on average 2.2 whales per year in the period 1709-2002). The aggregate population was certainly reduced by whaling, and the extent of recovery is uncertain (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mitchell (1977) considered that the population was severely depleted in both the early and modern whaling periods. Few incidental catches have been reported (Reyes 1991). <br/><br/>There are no major fisheries for squid in the Northeast Atlantic, but future developments could represent some threat. This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10708		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES. Commercial whaling of this species would be regulated by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. <br/><br/>There is very little information about this species, its biology, abundance, bycatch rates or migratory patterns (Dixon <em>et al</em>. 1994). More research is clearly needed.
10708		distribution	eng	Southern bottlenose whales have a circumpolar distribution in the southern Hemisphere, south of about 30°S (Mead 1989; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Most sightings are from about 57°S to 70°S. There are known areas of concentration between 58°S and 62°S in the Atlantic and eastern Indian Ocean sectors of their range. They are found in Antarctic waters during the summer.
10708		habitat	eng	<em>Hyperoodon planifrons</em> is most common beyond the continental shelf and over submarine canyons, in waters deeper than 1,000 m. It is rarely found in water less than 200 m deep. In summer, this species is most frequently seen within about 100 km of the Antarctic ice edge, where it appears to be relatively common. Cockcroft <em>et al</em>. (1990) reported sightings in the steep thermocline between the Agulhas current and cold Antarctic water masses.
10708		population	eng	Southern bottlenose whales are the most common beaked whales sighted in Antarctic waters, and are clearly abundant there. Kasamatsu and Joyce (1995) estimated an abundance of 599,300 (CV=15%) beaked whales south of the Antarctic Convergence in January, most of which were considered to be southern bottlenose whales. This estimate of abundance is likely underestimated because the methods used did not account for the fact that beaked whales dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). <br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
10708		threats	eng	No significant exploitation of southern bottlenose whales is known, and they have never been hunted on a large scale. Although never taken commercially, some southern bottlenose whales have been killed during whaling for research purposes. Some have also been incidentally killed in driftnets (Croxall and Nicol 2004). Recently several of this species have been recorded as bycatch of driftnet fishing in the Tasman Sea. Numbers taken annually are not known, however, (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Developing high-latitude fisheries, such as that for Antarctic toothfish, have the potential to reduce food available for large predators, such as <em>Hyperoodon planifrons</em>. That this fishery has a significant illegal component is an additional concern. <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect southern bottlenose whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10713		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In part of its European range, this species depends on specific woodland management.  In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Italy, none of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In Estonia, France and Germany, it is not known if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.
10713		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several separate areas: southeast of Sweden, south of Finland, the Baltic States and northeast of Poland. Locally in the north and southeast of of Germany, north of Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and further eastwards and southwards to the north of Greece. In France in Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne, Nièvre, Allier, Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or, Haute-Marne and Haute-Saône. 200-1,000 m. It is also found in the temperate zone of Siberia up to Transbaikalia and Yakutia in the east and to northwest of China and Mongolia in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
10713		habitat	eng	The Scarce Fritillary occurs in clearings, where young ash trees are growing in open, mixed woodland. The eggs are laid in one batch on a leaf of Ash (<em>Fraxinus excelsior</em>) or Aspen (<em>Populus tremula</em>), preferably at a height of 4 to 10 m. The butterfly generally has a slow, gliding flight but can speed up when necessary. The caterpillars build a nest of silk and leaves and feed together at first, while still quite small. They go into hibernation, remaining in the nest, which usually falls to the ground onto the woodland floor. In spring, they leave the nest and separate, spreading out in search of food. They use a variety of larval foodplants at this stage, including honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera</em> spp.), plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), or privets (<em>Ligustrum</em> spp.). They pupate in the litter layer. It has one generation a year although some of the caterpillars hibernate a second time before pupating. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), mixed woodland (18%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%), mesophile grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).
10713		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, FYR of Macedonia, France, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
10713		threats	eng	This is a typical species of open woodlands and coppice, mostly threatened by changes in woodland management or the felling or destruction of the forests.
10714		conservation	eng	The new Menabe-Antimena protected area has temporary protection order and covers the entire range of the species. A successful captive-breeding programme for this species has been established by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (see Wright <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is ongoing research on potential pathogens, and there is a need to control feral dogs and cats.
10714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is restricted to the west of the island in a narrow coastal zone. The southern limit is now the Tomitsy River (until recently it ranged south to the the Andranomena River) up to the Tsiribihina River in the north (Sommer 2003). In the last century, the species ranged from the Morondava River to the Tsiribihina in the north, but the species has lost significant portions of its range, and is now found in two isolated range segments (separated by the Mandroatra River). The total range is estimated to be less than 200 km². The species is found from 60-100 m asl.<br/><br/>Subfossil remains indicate that over the past 1400 years, the range of <em>H. antimena</em> extended at least 475 km further south (Goodman and Rakotondravony 1996).
10714		habitat	eng	This is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It inhabits dry deciduous coastal forest (mixed with baobabs) with a sandy floor permanently covered by dry leaf-litter. Animals live in monogamous social units and both sexes are territorial. The animals occupy a family burrow with a complex of tunnels. They are nocturnal, and forage on the forest floor for fallen fruit, seeds and leaves. It is also known to dig for roots and tubers and to strip bark from saplings. Mating takes place in the rainy season, and the females give birth to one young per litter; females can give birth twice within the reproductive period. Males leave the parental burrow and territory at the age of around one year (before the next breeding period) and can reproduce immediately. However, female offspring show delayed dispersal and stay with their parents for two reproductive seasons. Females are probably not sexually mature before the age of two years (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 2002; Sommer 2003).
10714		population	eng	Within the largest forest fragment in the southern forest area, the Kirindy Forest/CFPF, field studies between<br/>1990 and 2000 documented a rapid population decline. Whereas the population size was constant between 1992 and 1996 (54 animals/100 ha), the population density declined by about 40% between 1997 and 1999 (33 animals/100 ha) and in 2000 by about 60% of the original density (22 animals/100 ha) (Sommer and Hommen 2000).<br/><br/>In a population viability analysis, Sommer <em>et al.</em> (2002) used a calculated median of 23 active burrows per 100 ha in suitable habitat to estimate the southern subpopulation (15,000 ha) with 6,900 adults and the northern subpopulation<br/>(4,000 ha) with 18,40 adults.
10714		threats	eng	The historical decline of this species has been partly through climatic change leading to increased aridification of south-western Madagascar, and also the extensive modification of suitable habitat by humans since their arrival on the island. Current areas of habitat are threatened by slash and burn agriculture, charcoal production, burning for cattle pasture and logging (Sommer 2003). There is a road that now cuts through the middle of the species' range, and has divided the range. Throughout its range, increasing visits by hunters and their dogs have targeted this species. Also, this species has declined with the introduction of feral dogs and cats, by predation and also potentially transmission of lethal toxoplasmosis. This species could be susceptible to hantavirus, which has been shown in some rodents in eastern Madagascar.
10734		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and in view of its wide range, is presumably present in some other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
10734		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea-Bissau in the west, to northwestern Angola in the south, and as far east as western Ethiopia and western Kenya (near Lake Victoria). It has been recorded to at least 1,800 m asl.
10734		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including lowland tropical moist forest, riverine forest, swamp forest, mangroves, palm forest, and less commonly in moist savanna. This bat has a lek mating system at many locations, but not at all known sites (e.g.. at Tai National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). The males gather into groups (leks) of a few hundred animals and attempt to attract females. The species roosts 20 to 30 metres up in the forest canopy (Bradbury 1977), usually on exposed branches beneath a cover of dense vegetation. It feeds The diet is primarily figs and other fruit, including cultivated crops.
10734		population	eng	It is a locally common species. Roosts can contain as many as 25 bats, but the average roost size is fewer than five animals.
10734		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by habitat destruction, particularly the loss of riverine forests. In parts of its range it is hunted for subsistence food.
10744		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
10744		habitat	eng	An amphidromous species.
10744		threats	eng	No threats are known to currently be affecting the population.
10746		conservation	eng	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and has been protected under Italian national law since 1974.
10746		conservation	eng	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and has been protected under Italian national law since 1974. It is found in several protected areas throughout its range. The species is a favoured food item in many parts of its range, and investigations are needed into harvest levels in these areas, including North Africa and West Africa. In Morocco it is considered Endangered (Cuzin 2003).
10746		distribution	eng	The crested porcupine is found in Italy, North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. In Europe, it is restricted to mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, where it occurs from sea level to over 1,500 m. It is sometimes asserted that the porcupine was introduced to Italy by the Romans, but fossil and subfossil remains indicate its presence in Europe in the Upper Pleistocene (Amori and Angelici 1999).
10746		distribution	eng	The crested porcupine is found in Italy, North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. In the Mediterranean it is known from mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia; there are also records from Libya, and along the Egyptian coast (Osborn and Helmy 1980). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,550 m in Moroccan Anti Atlas (Cuzin 2003). It is sometimes asserted that the porcupine was introduced to Italy by the Romans, but fossil and subfossil remains suggest it was possibly present in Europe in the Upper Pleistocene (Amori and Angelici 1999).
10746		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean it inhabits dry Mediterranean shrubland, maquis, abandoned farmland, steppe, forest and dry rocky areas. In West Africa, it is found in both woodland savanna and forest formations. Its den is in a deep burrow or a cave. Its diet consists of roots and tubers (including cultivated crops), bark, and fallen fruit (Nowak 1999, S. Lovari <em>in litt.</em> 2006). This is a mainly nocturnal animal, living and breeding in burrows or dens. It is a solitary forager, known to travel long distances in search of food.
10746		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry Mediterranean shrubland, maquis, abandoned farmland, and dry rocky areas. Its den is in a deep burrow or a cave. Its diet consists of roots and tubers (including cultivated crops), bark, and fallen fruit (Nowak 1999, S. Lovari <em>in litt.</em> 2006).
10746		population	eng	In mainland Italy, population densities are increasing, and the species is expanding its range northwards. On Sicily, the porcupine is widespread, and the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Amori and Angelici 1999). Outside Europe, there is little published information on population trends, but there have been declines in at least some areas, probably as a result of persecution and exploitation for its meat and quills (Nowak 1999). In Africa, it is generally common throughout the range, although it is becoming increasingly rare in North Africa (where there has been a decline in range and population). In Morocco, it is declining and clearly threatened (Cuzin 2003). The species may have been extirpated in Egypt since 1980, and has been extinct in heavily-settled parts of Uganda since the 1970s (Nowak 1999).
10746		population	eng	In mainland Italy, population densities are increasing, and the species is expanding its range northwards. On Sicily, the porcupine is widespread, and the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Amori and Angelici 1999). Outside Europe, there is little published information on population trends, but there have been declines in at least some areas, probably as a result of persecution and exploitation for its meat and quills (Nowak 1999). The species may have been extirpated in Egypt since 1980, and has been extinct in heavily-settled parts of Uganda since the 1970s (Nowak 1999).
10746		threats	eng	Despite being strictly protected under international and domestic legislation in Europe, the porcupine is still illegally hunted for meat (often with dogs). This occurs both in Europe and Africa (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In parts of the range it is considered a pest species and it is sometimes illegally controlled with poison baits because of the damage it may do to crops (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), a practice which continues (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). However, at present these are not thought to be major threats to the survival of the species in Europe.
10746		threats	eng	Despite being strictly protected under international and domestic legislation in Europe, the porcupine is still illegally hunted for meat (often with dogs). This occurs both in Europe and Africa (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In parts of the range it is considered a pest species and it is sometimes illegally controlled with poison baits because of the damage it may do to crops (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), a practice which continues (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). However, at present these are not thought to be major threats to the survival of the species in Europe.<br/><br/>It is collected for human consumption in most parts of its range (including Italy, North Africa, and West Africa). It is also an agricultural pest causing damage to crops and fields. In Morocco, it is widely used for traditional medicine / witchcraft, and sold very commonly in local markets (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).
10748		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, most of which are very well managed.
10748		distribution	eng	This widespread African species occurs from Kenya and southern Uganda in the north, through Tanzania, Rwanda, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, extreme southwestern Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique, and then south throughout the southern African Subregion (although it is absent from much of central Botswana). There is no confirmed evidence that they occur on The island of Zanzibar, Tanzania. It is found from sea level to over 2,000 m asl.
10748		habitat	eng	It is found in most of the types of vegetation encountered in southern Africa. They are generally absent from forest, and are only found here marginally. They have  been recorded in the coastal parts of the Namib Desert in Namibia. Day-time shelters may take the form of rock crevices, caves and abandoned Aardvark (<em>Orycteropus afer</em>) burrows or other types of holes in the ground. Holes are often modified to their own requirements, but they also dig their own burrows as they do in East Africa. It is a nocturnal, territorial and mostly solitary forager, although it can occasionally be found foraging in groups of two to three animals. This species is monogamous and live in groups comprising either an adult pair, an adult pair and their offspring from consecutive litters, or an adult male and young of the year (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). The species has a gestation period of 93 to 94 days, after which one to three young are born. There is a single litter per year.
10748		population	eng	It is fairly common, although hunting pressure may account for its absence in some areas.
10748		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Porcupines have benefited from agricultural development and their destructive feeding habitats have led to them being considered as a problem in some farming areas, especially where root crops, potatoes, groundnuts and maize are grown. Porcupines are also notorious for ring-barking trees, which exposes the tree's heartwood and increases susceptibility to fungal infections.
10749		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia,  Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India, Lang Tang National Park in Central Nepal, and  Sagarmatha National Park in Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In South Asia it is protected by Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act.
10749		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Nepal, through northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005), to central and southern China (Xizang, Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Fujian, Jianxi, Zhejiang, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Shaanxi, Gansu) (Smith and Xie 2008), throughout Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam, through Peninsular Malaysia, to Singapore, Sumatra (Indonesia) and throughout Borneo (Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei). It is also present on the island of Penang, Malaysia. It can be found from sea level to at least 1,300 m asl.
10749		habitat	eng	It can be found in various forest habitats, and in scrubby, open areas close to forest. It can be found in agricultural areas, but needs to have rocky outcrops or other areas in which it can create a den or dig burrows. Burrows are generally occupied by family groups. Following a gestation period of about 110 days, two or three young are born. Two litters may be produced annually.
10749		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
10749		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia, it is hunted for food but this not thought to impact populations. In South Asia, it is threatened by habitat loss due to construction of dams, human settlements and other infrastructure development. It is harvested for subsistence food and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
10750		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. No immediate conservation actions are needed for this widespread and adaptable species.
10750		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) (Musser and Carleton 2005; Van Weers 1978).
10750		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide vartiety of habitats ranging from natural forest to cultivated areas, from sea level to at least 1,200 m.
10750		population	eng	This species is widespread and common.
10750		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this may not be impacting populations.
10751		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas. No specific measures are in place or needed.
10751		distribution	eng	Recorded in Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean through southwest and central Asia (including Afghanistan and Turkmenistan) to Pakistan, India, Nepal, China and Sri Lanka. In the Himalayan mountains they reach altitudes of up to 2,400 meters (Gurung and Singh 1996).
10751		distribution	eng	Recorded in Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean through southwest and central Asia (including Afghanistan and Turkmenistan) to Pakistan, India, Nepal, China and Sri Lanka. In the Himalayan mountains they reach altitudes of up to 2400 meters (Gurung and Singh 1996).
10751		habitat	eng	This species has a broad habitat tolerance, occupying rocky hillsides, tropical and temperate shrubland, grasslands, forests, arable land, plantations, and gardens.
10751		population	eng	A very widespread species. Status varies in different parts of the range, but in at least parts of the range it is common enough to be considered a pest.
10751		threats	eng	Porcupines are considered agricultural pests by locals who trap and use them for food (Qumsiyeh 1996).
10752		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in several protected areas.
10752		distribution	eng	This species is found on Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Flores, Lombok, Madura, and Tonahdjampea (Indonesia) (Van Weers 1979, 1983; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Recorded to 1,600 m on Flores (Van Weers 1979, 1983). There is a record from Sulawesi dating back to the late 1800s, where it had probably been introduced from Flores, but this seems to have been a one off event involving the transfer of a living animal to that island (Van Weers 1979).
10752		habitat	eng	Primarily a lowland species, found in secondary and degraded habitats.
10752		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
10752		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
10753		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas. It is also one of the focal species monitored by wildlife wardens to record the extent of hunting in the Culasian Managed Resources Protected Area in Rizal (southern Palawan) and in Omoi Cockatoo Reserve in Dumaran (I. Widmann pers. comm.).
10753		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines being restricted to the Palawan Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded from Palawan, and Busuanga islands.
10753		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland primary and secondary forest, with movements into grassland, scrubland, and cultivated areas (I. Widmann pers. comm.).
10753		population	eng	It can be a locally common species, but populations are decreasing rapidly in many areas. Interviews with local hunters have confirmed these declines (I. Widmann pers. comm.).
10753		threats	eng	The species is affected by forest clearance and is hunted for food. It is an important game species for some ethnic communities (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>It is also traded nationally as a pet, private collectors in the Philippines and also occasionally within Palawan but it is unlikely that it enters the wildlife trade in larger numbers (I. Widmann pers. comm.).
10754		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in several protected areas.
10754		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is found throught most of the island from sea level to elevations of at least 300 m.
10754		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of primary and secondary habitats. It may occur at higher densities in secondary or disturbed habitats than primary habitats.
10754		population	eng	It is a common species.
10754		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. It is hunted for food, but this does not appear to be a significant threat to the species.
10755		conservation	eng	In South Asia there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10755		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from northern South Asia, much of southern and central China, and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from India (Assam and Meghalaya) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Guizhou, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Yunnan, Shaanxi and Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, eastwards into Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been recorded at elevations of 200 m to 1,700 m asl.
10755		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical moist forest, where it is exclusively a cave roosting species. It has been found in areas of pristine mixed and deciduous forest (Thailand), wet evergreeen forest (Viet Nam). It has often been reported from limestone karst areas, however, it is found in non-limestone areas in Viet Nam (Thong pers. comm.).
10755		population	eng	The largest known population is of close to a hundred animals in Nepal (G. Csorba pers. comm.). In Thailand the known populations are up to about 20 individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
10755		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia there are no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened by general habitat degradation. In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also threatened by disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10761		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Venezuela. In Colombia, it occurs in Munchique National Park (Voss, 1988). Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed.
10761		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of west Venezuela, Colombia, and north Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is occurs from 600 to 2,700 m.
10761		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tall rainforest, cloud forest, or secondary forest; it is nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic and feed on crabs and other aquatic invertebrates (Voss, 1988).
10761		population	eng	This is not a rare species, yet it is difficult to collect.
10761		threats	eng	The major threats to this species outside of the protected areas in which it occurs are loss of habitat due to deforestation and agriculture, as well as water pollution.
10762		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (J. Ochoa and M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
10762		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Central, north Venezuela (Linares, 1998) up to Serrenia de Bobare (J. Ochoa pers. comm.). It occurs from 800 to 1,100 m.
10762		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tall rainforest and montane cloud forest; it is nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic and feed on crabs and other aquatic invertebrates (Voss, 1988).
10762		population	eng	This is not a rare species where habitat remains, yet it is difficult to collect (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
10762		threats	eng	In the western part of the distribution there is habitat destruction caused by deforestation and conversion to pasture (J. Ochoa pers. comm.). This species is susceptible to water pollution and contamination.
10763		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the geographic range, habitat and ecology of this species.
10763		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Jatun Yacu river area, Napo Province, in eastern Ecuador and from Chanchamayo near Tarama, Junin Department in Peru. There may be an additional record for this species from southern Ecuador, however, this needs to be confirmed (D. Tirira pers. comm.). It is presumed to occur at sites between the widely disjunct Ecuador and Peru localities, but the distribution is difficult to determine. In Ecuador it is believed to have an elevational range of 900 to 1,700 m; in Peru it has been recorded at 920 m.
10763		habitat	eng	This species is probably nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on crabs, other aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae and occasionally small vertebrates. It is found near to freshwater, and appears to require clear, fast-flowing narrow streams. It has been found in hilly terrain, with primary forest, and the streams are presumed to have rocky beds. It has not been found outside of primary forest.
10763		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens.
10763		threats	eng	The type of forested areas from which the species has been recorded are experiencing expanding human population growth, with fragmentation of suitable habitat taking place. This species is susceptible to water pollution and contamination.
10764		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the geographic range, habitat and ecology of this species. Monitoring of the species and further information regarding threats are also needed. It is listed as critically endangered by Panamá.
10764		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Ecuador and central Panamá. In Ecuador, this species occurs from 900 to 1,700 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
10764		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tall rainforest, cloud forest, or secondary forest; species of this genus are nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic, and feed on crabs and other aquatic invertebrates (Emmons and Feer 1997; Voss 1988). In Panamá, a few specimens were taken from a hilly region where streams passed through moist forest, scrubby secondary growth, and coffee groves (Reid 1997)
10764		population	eng	It is rare and local along fast-flowing stream forests. In Panamá, only a few specimens have been found.
10764		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to deforestation, agriculture, and urban development. The species is also threatened by water pollution.
10788		distribution	eng	Recorded from a pool at Itapura.
10789		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on the Annex II of EU Habitats and Species Directive and on the list of protected species for the Bern Convention, the regional government has designated a protected area for the species. However, rodent control needs review to determine the impact on this species, amongst others on the islet.
10789		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, originally found on the island Porto Santo during the Quaternary (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), but it is now only known living on at two sites on the small islet of Ilheu de Baixo off the southwest coast of Porto Santo (Seddon 2008; Groh and Cameron, pers. comm., 2010).
10789		habitat	eng	This large ground-dwelling helicid is found in grassland and rocky slopes on the islet.
10789		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, but this species is more vulnerable to predation by rodents than other smaller crag and scree species on the island.
10789		threats	eng	The species are vulnerable to predation by rodents, as the species is a large gastropod which would be predated. Other possible risks to the species would include competition from <span style="font-style: italic;">Theba pisana</span> and possibility of fire, although as the island is a protected area, there is less likelihood of fire as there is no tourist access to the islands.
10790		conservation	eng	At least four protected occurrences exist in Utah: Canyonlands National Park, Capitol Reef National Park, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, and Natural Bridges National Monument (George Oliver pers. comm., 1998), and at least a few additional protected occurrences are in Arizona (e.g., Grand Canyon National Park) and New Mexico. Occurrences in several national forests and in national wildlife refuges do not necessarily result in much protection for this species. Increased efforts are needed to improve our knowledge of the distribution and abundance of this species throughout its range.Most aspects of the ecology of this species need further study.
10790		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Distrito Federal and Michoacan (Mexico) to south Utah and south Nevada (USA) (Simmons, 2005).<br/>The range encompasses the southwestern United States and part of Mexico, from southern Utah and southern Nevada south through Arizona (northwestern, central, southeastern; Hoffmeister 1986) and New Mexico (Mogollon Plateau and western Soccoro County in the San Mateo and Magdalena mountains (Frey 2004) to Distrito Federal and Michoacan in southern central Mexico (Simmons, 2005), including the Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra Madre Oriental, and Sierra Volcanica Transversal. The range closely approaches California and Colorado, but as of 2005 no records were available for those states. The winter range is not known. The elevational range extends from 403 to 3,225 meters, with most records at 1,100-2,500 meters. Subspecies <em>hualapaiensis</em>: southern Nevada, southern Utah, and northern Arizona (Mohave County and Coconino County north of the Grand Canyon); subspecies <em>phyllotis</em>: remainder of range (Tumlison 1993).
10790		habitat	eng	The biology of this species is poorly known. It occurs in a variety of wooded habitats including especially ponderosa pine forest, pinyon-juniper woodland, riparian woodland, encinal (oak woodland), pine-oak woodland, and fir forest. Others come from more arid habitats, including desert shrub, mesquite grassland with scattered oaks, xeric scrub, and tropical deciduous forest. The species is a highly adapted insect predator using a sophisticated combination of sonar signals and flight maneuvers to forage for and intercept its nocturnal prey. It feeds on small moths; other known prey include soldier beetles, dung beetles, leaf beetles, roaches, and flying ants (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).<br/>Habitat is primarily mountainous wooded areas (e.g., ponderosa pine, pinyon-juniper, Mexican woodland, oak brsuh) but also includes riparian (e.g., cottonwood) woodland and ranges from Mohave desert scrub of low desert ranges to white fir forest (Hoffmeister 1986). Typically this bat is found near rocks: cliffs, boulders, lava flows, etc., and it is frequently netted along streams or over ponds. Maternity colonies of 30 to 150 individuals have been found in mine shafts, boulder piles, sandstone crevices, lava beds, and beneath the loose bark of large ponderosa pine snags (Bat Conservation International, Western Bat Working Group, Czaplewski 1983, Rabe <em>et al.</em> 1998, Adams 2003).
10790		population	eng	It is uncommon in USA (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species is represented by several dozen occurrences or subpopulations in the United States. Occurrence information is not available for the bulk of the range in Mexico.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Up to 100 individuals per roost have been observed in six roosts in the Coconino National Forest, Arizona (Mammal Diversity Review Notes 1996).<br/><br/>Population trends are not definitely known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined substantially compared to the historical situation. Barbour and Davis (1969) and Hoffmeister (1986) pointed to the paucity of pre-1955 records for Arizona and discussed the possibility that this species has only recently expanded its range to Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico. Hoffmeister (1986) found no factor (e.g., habitat change) that might account for this possible change. Population trends are unknown in Utah and Nevada (G. Oliver and C. Carreno pers. comm., 1998). Possibly stable in Arizona (S. Schwartz pers. comm., 1998).<br/><br/>In Mexico are considered uncommon (Ceballos and Oliva 2005)
10790		threats	eng	Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size apparently have declined but probably at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/>Threats include recreational entry into occupied caves/mines, active mining in occupied tunnels, vandalism or closure of abandoned mines used as maternity roosts, and timber management practices that reduce the availability of large pine snags for roosting. The Western Bat Working Group categorized the threat as "High" throughout the Rocky Mountain region (Adams 2003). The Arizona and Nevada natural heritage programs considered the degree of threat to be moderate (Sabra Schwartz and Carrie Carreno pers. comm., 1998). Lack of adequate information for Mexican populations prevents range-wide assessment of the scope of threat. An important mine roost was destroyed by relocation of a nearby highway (Western Bat Working Group 1998).  Maternity colonies are easily disturbed, often resulting in abandonment (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997). Limited data suggest that this bat may abandon mines that have been gated to prevent recreational entry, even if the gates are permeable to other bat species (Western Bat Working Group).
10794		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Further research into population trends and abundance is needed.
10794		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded throughout West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west to Nigeria, and from here into Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There is a historical record from south of Lake Victoria in Tanzania. It is suspected that the species is more continuously distributed throughout its range than is currently known.
10794		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species occurs in lowland and mid-elevation tropical moist forest, but might also be found in dense woodland. It is a gregarious species; Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) mention two small groups of between six and 10 animals in Sierra Leone.
10794		population	eng	In a 75 ha area in central Gabon, Julliot <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the density for this species as 164-437/km².
10794		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats overall to this widespread species. It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by general deforestation.
10796		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to occur in several protected areas. Further research on population trends and abundance is needed.
10796		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been reported from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) in the west of its range, Ngotto forest on the border of the Central African Republic and Congo; and then in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is possibly present in extreme western Uganda. The species possibly occurs more widely between the known populations. There is a population on Mount Cameroon (Cameroon), that is believed to be separate from the remainder of the range.
10796		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and gregarious species is associated with lowland and montane tropical moist forest. Rosevear (1969) remarked that this species is a more true inhabitat of the older closed forest than the genus <em>Anomalurus</em>, it is not present in the secondary regrowth in which oil palms are grown.
10796		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. Sanderson (1940) recorded a total of around 100 individuals of both species of <em>Idiurus</em> living together in the same tree.
10796		threats	eng	There are possibly no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It seems probable that deforestation may constitute a localised threat to the species in parts of its range.
10797		habitat	eng	Interstitial species.
10798		conservation	eng	<p>                  </p><p>Further research is needed to confirm its presence and range, given the nature of the record, as it is currently only known from one location and with a second pre-1950 location. However, as the shells were retrieved from floodline debris, flushed from karst fissures it is difficult to establish population trends or range. The abstraction of groundwater water may pose a threat as this could cause the loss of the species' habitats.&#160;Further research is needed to confirm its presence and range, given the nature of the records. As it has been previously listed, it is maintained at the national assessment on a precautionary basis, rather than listing as Data deficient. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the past, this species has been classified as Possibly Extinct (IUCN 1994). Further research is recommended to ascertain whether this species still exists, and if it does then to clarify the extent of its distribution and identify any threat processes impacting upon it.</p><p></p>
10798		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Austria</st1:country-region> <span lang="EN-GB">and it was first described from<span lang="EN-GB"> the flotsam <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">of the Mürz</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Steiermark (Boeters, 1988) and in Salzerbad (Glöer 2002). These two localities are probably in separate groundwater systems, but Reischutz & Reischutz (2009) show that it is currently only known from one location and with a second pre 1950 location (Murz River). However, as the shells were retrieved from floodline debris&#160; it is difficult to establish population trends or range (Haase, 1995).</span>
10798		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica gratulabunda </span>is recorded from floodline debris within freshwater rivers and is most probably present in subterranean waters, like other representatives of this genus.</p>
10798		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
10798		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.</p>
10799		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica kleinzellensis</span> is listed as Critically Endangered on the Austrian National Red List, as well as the Lower Austria List as A1.&#160; Further research is required to know if the species is still extant in the groundwaters of the region, although sampling these sites is very difficult, and possibly only habitat monitoring will reveal changes to that would impact the species.<br/><br/>               <em></em>
10799		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica kleinzellensis</span> is known from a small area and has only been found as dead-shells in the outflow of springs from karst groundwaters.  This sites are springs north of Ortstrand, near Kleinzell im Halbachtal, Niederosterreich.&#160; Gloer (2002) notes that in addition to the type locality, it is known from <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">two other springs in the immediate vicinity near Kleinzell<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> (Kalter Brunnen 500m s. of town) and a temporary karst spring at Gutenbach near to the Hisrchkogel. Sites lie in the valleys of Turnitz and Traisen (Haase pers, comm 1996).</span>
10799		habitat	eng	This species is known as dead shells from freshwater springs, and is presumed to live in the groundwater feeding the springs.
10799		population	eng	It has never been collected as living specimens, it is only known from dead shells (P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2009)
10799		threats	eng	The main threats are changes to the groundwater system, either through over abstraction of water (leading to drying of the outflow springs) or pollution of groundwater from agricultural sources.
10800		conservation	eng	<p>  </p>  <p>  </p><p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is legally protected from hunting throughout much of its range (it is listed in CITES Appendix II), but enforcement of these regulations is extremely difficult and therefore limited. In Dominica, the species is not formally listed as protected and there is a need to amend the Forestry and Wildlife Act to include provisions for the iguana. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is found in several nationally protected areas including the four national parks in Dominica, Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre (Guadeloupe), the Quill and the Boven (St. Eustatius), and Îlet Chancel and the Reserve Biologique Domaniale de la Montagne Pelée (Martinique). A number of satellite islets around Anguilla, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Martinique<em>,</em><span lang="EN-GB"> St. Martin and St. Barthélemy offer significant potential to be established as protected areas. <br/></span></span></p>  <p>In 2007, the French government commissioned an action plan to propose conservation measures in a concerted effort to protect this species (Maillard and Breuil 2007, Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007, Legouez 2007). <span lang="EN-GB">Since 2007, extensive fieldwork has been conducted in Guadeloupe and Martinique. Although the action plan was approved in June 2010, funding remains absent for the majority of specified actions. <br/></p>  Research on the population biology and ecology of iguanas throughout the Lesser Antilles is ongoing, but further survey work is required in many parts of the range.&#160; Anguilla has not been surveyed in more than ten years and several offshore cays offer potential for introduction. Iguanas are believed extinct on Antigua (where mongooses are present), but there are a number of offshore cays that should be surveyed. In St. Martin, the most recent survey from 2000 found no Lesser Antillean Iguana present; the Dutch side (Sint Maarten) has not been surveyed recently, although it is known that Green Iguana is present on both sides. Two islets offshore from St. Martin, Tintamarre, and Pinel were surveyed in 1996 by M. Breuil. Tintamarre is a potential site for translocation whereas Pinel is not suitable because of the presence of<em> </em>Green Iguana. There are recent reports that Lesser Antillean Iguana may have re-colonized Barbuda following a hurricane, but this is unconfirmed. The north of Grande-Terre in Guadeloupe requires survey work. A small island with suitable habitat, Kahouanne, north of Basse-Terre, was surveyed in 2007 by GECIPAG and is a potential site for introduction, as is the east of Marie-Galante. Îlet Pigeon (also offshore from Basse-Terre) is unsuitable because of the presence of Green Iguana (GECIPAG, pers. comm. 2007-2009). The north of the main island of Martinique requires further survey work as well as the small island of Ramier where nine individuals were re-introduced in 2006. Many cays off the cost of Chancel should be surveyed as potential sites for re-introduction. The east coast of Dominica and several offshore islets on the east coast also are under-surveyed.<p>Education and public outreach efforts are necessary throughout the range. In Dominica there is a critical need to develop an identification guide to assist officials in distinguishing Lesser Antillean Iguana from Green Iguana in order to ensure the latter species is not introduced to Dominica.</p>Captive Lesser Antillean Iguana originating from Dominica are currently maintained at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and Chester Zoo (UK), and Fresno’s Chaffee Zoo (US). Reproduction has occurred but with variable success (M. Goetz pers. comm. 2009). As the Dominican population is presently healthy, these individuals and their future offspring should remain in captivity in order to gather husbandry expertise, as well as growth and reproductive data which can be applied to future <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> captive conservation efforts. Captive-raised iguanas could be used for reintroduction to suitable offshore islands and other protected areas, or for augmenting depleted populations. Reintroductions should originate with iguanas from the same geographic region whenever possible (as was the reintroduction at Ramier).    <p></p>       <p></p>
10800		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>Historically, this species is believed to have existed throughout the northern Lesser Antilles, from Anguilla to Martinique. Its range included (main islands only): Anguilla; Saint-Martin (French West Indies and Netherlands Antilles); St.-Barthélemy, including the island of Île Fourchue and its two small satellites (Îlet au Vent and Petite Islette), Îlet Frégate and Îlet Chevreau (or Bonhomme); St. Eustatius (Netherlands Antilles); St. Kitts and Nevis; Antigua and Barbuda; Guadeloupe, including the islands of Grande-Terre, Basse-Terre, Îles de la Petite Terre (comprising Terre de Bas and Terre de Haut), La Désirade, Les Îles des Saintes (comprising Terre-de-Bas, Terre-de-Haut, and Ilet à Cabrit), and Marie-Galante; Dominica; and Martinique, including Îlet Chancel and Îlet à Ramiers (introduced in 2006).</p><span lang="EN-GB">The Lesser Antillean Iguana has since been extirpated from Saint-Martin (French and Dutch sides), Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts, Nevis, and Marie-Galante (Powell 2004). Ongoing surveys conducted on Guadeloupe since 2007 by Groupe d’Étude et de Conservation de l’Iguane des Petites Antilles en Guadeloupe (GECIPAG) suggest that populations have been extirpated recently from Grande-Terre and Les Îles des Saintes. It is also likely that iguanas have been extirpated from the islands of Îlet Frégate and Îlet Chevreau in <span lang="EN-GB">Saint-Barthélemy (M. <span lang="EN-GB">Breuil pers. comm. 2009).<br/>     <p></p></span>
10800		habitat	eng	<p>  </p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The Lesser Antillean Iguana occupies islands of the northern Lesser Antilles from sea level to approximately 1,000 m (on Dominica). The species exists in xeric scrub, dry scrub woodland, littoral woodland, and mangrove, as well as lower and mid-altitude portions of transitional rainforest. The present condition of these habitats varies from island to island. Iguanas are able to survive in extremely xeric degraded habitats (less than 1,000 mm annual rainfall) to mesic forests (3,000-4,000 mm annual rainfall) in the absence of introduced predators or competitors. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Both hatchlings and juveniles live predominantly among bushes and low trees, usually in thick vegetation offering protection, basking sites, and a wide range of food.&#160; With age they climb higher and inhabit larger trees. <br/></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is a generalist herbivore, feeding primarily in the morning, with a diet that includes leaves, flowers, and fruits of a wide range of shrubs and trees. Seasonal variation in feeding ecology exists, with folivory during the dry season shifting to folivory and frugivory during the wet season. Feeding is selective with fresh leaf growth, flower buds, and ripe fruits preferred. Seed dispersal by iguanas may be significant for a number of coastal forest plant species, especially those with large or unpalatable fruits which are not dispersed by small birds or bats. Differences in feeding ecology between populations reflect local variation in plant species composition (either natural or as a result of introduced browsers). Like its congener the Green Iguana, the species has been observed to be opportunistically carnivorous (Lazell 1973). <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Sexual maturity is reached at approximately two to three years, although breeding in young males is likely limited due to their inability to achieve dominance and defend a suitable territory. Longevity studies have yet to be conducted, but recent data suggest that individuals could reach 25 years in age. Generation length is estimated to be 11-14 years (C. Knapp pers. comm. 2009). Nest sites occur in sandy but also in clayish, well-drained soils exposed to prolonged sunlight. Clutch size, which may vary geographically, ranges from 8-18. Anecdotal evidence suggests an incubation period of approximately three months.</span></p>       <p></p>
10800		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Formal surveys using transect techniques have been conducted for Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre (Guadeloupe) and by mark-recapture for Î<span lang="EN-GB">let Chancel (Martinique). Rough population estimates for the remaining islands are based on limited surveys designed predominantly to locate iguanas for morphometric and genetic data collection. These population estimates are based subjectively on comparisons of observed density of iguanas and the extent of their range within each island. The population from Dominica is also estimated using site-specific mark-recapture data from 2007-2009 (C. Knapp pers. comm. 2009). Qualitatively, Dominica is believed to support the largest population (10,000-15,000 adults) due to the extent of available coastal habitat and known distribution, while Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre support the highest population density. However, many populations have been reduced to extremely low levels and limited areas such that their long-term viability is uncertain.</span></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">In Guadeloupe, since 2001, populations are now extirpated from Grande-Terre (Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007), and Terre-de-Haut, Terre-de-Bas, and Îlet à Cabrit (Les Saintes) where Green Iguana (<span lang="EN-GB"><em>Iguana iguana) </em><span lang="EN-GB">is now common. Individuals are still present in small numbers on Basse-Terre though their persistence is likely to be short-lived since Green Iguana <em></em><span lang="EN-GB"> and hybrids are now also present (Breuil <em>et al.</em><span lang="EN-GB"> 2007, M. Breuil and GECIPAG pers. comm. 2009). Green Iguana is absent from La Désirade and thus large concentrations of Lesser Antillean<em> </em><span lang="EN-GB">Iguana persist at various sites. Lesser Antillean<em> </em><span lang="EN-GB">Iguana is now extirpated from Marie-Galante. The first estimation of the population of Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre (4,000–6,000 adults) was conducted in 1992-1993, three years after Hurricane Hugo (Breuil 1994a, Breuil <em>et al.</em> 1994). A second estimate was conducted by Lorvelec <em>et al.</em> (2007), but the results are questionable because of sampling methodology (Breuil and Ibéné 2008). Nonetheless, there seems little doubt that the two small islands are home to several thousand individuals (M. Breuil pers. comm. 2009). <br/></span></span></span></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The population of Chancel in Martinique has been monitored since 1993. In 1994, the population was estimated at approximately 250 adults (Breuil 1994b). More recent estimates using mark-recapture suggest a population size between 650 (Ourly 2006) to 950 adults (Legouez 2007). Estimates from 2009 suggest that the population now numbers more than 1,000 adults (M. Breuil pers. comm.). The increase is likely due to a decrease in hunting, an increase in tree cover from ~20% in 1947 to ~50% today, improvement and protection of the two historical nesting sites (Breuil 2000a,b; Legouez 2007), and control of domesticated, free-roaming dogs.&#160; Elsewhere in Martinique, nine adults were reintroduced to a small island, Ramier, in 2006 (Ourly 2006) and in 2008 a nest was found with hatched eggs. A few subpopulations of Lesser Antillean Iguana persist on the main island of Martinique and are protected, however introduced Green Iguana is also present (Breuil 2000a). <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The current status of populations in Saint Barthélemy is unclear. On the main island, Lesser Antillean Iguana is found in a few areas, some of which support high densities; however, Green Iguana and hybrid individuals are also now known. Surveys in the early 2000s found a few lone individuals on Île Fourchue and its two small satellite islands (Îlet au Vent and Petite Islette) <span lang="EN-GB">and it is not known if reproduction is occurring (Breuil 2001). Though reported by Lazell (1973), iguanas were not found recently on Îlet Frégate or Îlet Chevreau (Bonhomme)<span lang="EN-GB">. <br/></span></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles, the species is now believed extirpated on Saint-Martin (where Green Iguana is now present) and from St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, and Barbuda.</p>     <p></p>
10800		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Habitat loss and fragmentation were historically most extensive on the least mountainous islands, which have been systematically cleared for agriculture, especially sugarcane. On these islands, the species has either become extinct (for example, St. Kitts and Nevis) or remains only in tiny remnant populations (for example, St. Eustatius). As tourism has superseded agriculture in importance, coastal development has further reduced the remaining habitat and significantly affected already limited communal nesting sites. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Road casualties occur regularly along coastal roads which bisect iguana habitat in Dominica, Basse-Terre and La Désirade (Guadeloupe), and St. Barthélemy.&#160; In Dominica, casualties peak late in the dry season when numerous gravid females are killed while migrating to coastal nest sites and early in the wet season when hatchlings disperse inland from nests.&#160; On La Désirade, there has been an increase in the number of off-road vehicles and a corresponding increase in deaths. <br/></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is impacted by a range of non-native introduced predators. Feral and pet cats are believed to be significant predators of juvenile iguanas on Anguilla, and predation by cats and dogs is a problem on Dominica.&#160; On St. Barthélemy, feral predators are few, but adult iguanas are known to be killed by guard dogs that run free within fenced properties where iguanas move to feed.&#160; Hatchlings and juveniles are within the prey range of mongooses (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> [=<em>auropunctatus</em><span lang="EN-GB">]) and the species is either extinct or highly threatened on all islands where mongoose occurs (for example, Antigua and Barbuda). However, it is unclear how significant the impact of the mongoose is compared with other factors such as cats since Green Iguana remains common in mongoose-inhabited islands. Finally, raccoons (<em>Procyon lotor)</em><span lang="EN-GB"> may pose a problem on La Désirade and other parts of Guadeloupe. <br/></span></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Free-ranging and feral browsing competitors are present among almost all iguana populations, with the notable exceptions of Iles de la Petite Terre and most of Dominica. Goat and sheep populations are particularly large and of most concern on Anguilla, La Désirade, St. Eustatius, and the islets of Saint-Barthélemy (Fourchue, Bonhomme, Frégate) where extensive over browsing continues to cause a shift in plant species composition and habitat structure (Breuil 2002). <br/></p>  Displacement through competition and hybridization with Green Iguana appears to be the dominant factor in the disappearance of the species from islands throughout the Guadeloupe Archipelago. Hybridization between <em>Iguana</em> species has been confirmed through both molecular and morphometric analyses from Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe), Les Îles des Saintes (Day and Thorpe 1996), and elsewhere throughout their range (Breuil 2000c, 2002; Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007; M. Breuil pers. comm. 2009). Post-invasion displacement is rapid and population extirpations have been recorded from several islands in the French West Indies (Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007, M. Breuil pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Presently, only Dominica, Les Îles de la Petite Terre, La Désirade, and Îlet Chancel remain free of Green Iguana. The threat is critical on Saint-Barthélemy due to the recent arrival of Green Iguana<em> </em>to the island. Hybridization and aggressive displacement of this species by Green Iguana should be considered potentially serious threats to all remaining populations.<br/><br/>Historically, hunting occurred throughout the range of the species since  the time of the Amerindians. Hunting is now illegal throughout the  species’ range. However, St. Eustatius has recently experienced a  dramatic rise in iguana hunting, causing a crash in the population.  Increased hunting has been linked to an influx of construction workers  for the expansion of oil storage facilities on island and economic  problems caused by changes in European Community regulations. Despite  recent local legislation, iguana meat continues to be sold locally and  transported to restaurants in nearby St. Martin. Hunting also remains  locally prevalent in parts of Dominica, where certain populations have  experienced rapid unsustainable exploitation (A. James pers. comm.  2009).<br/><p></p>
10803		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed to establish the current distribution, habitat and threats to this species.</p>
10803		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen that was recorded originally in 1898 from Sumatra (Indonesia) although the exact locality was not provided.
10803		habitat	eng	No information about habitat and ecology of this species is available.
10803		population	eng	No population data is available.
10803		threats	eng	No information is available about threats to this species.
10809		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The area of La Reserve-Brullee should receive legal protection, and invasive species must be controlled.
10809		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found only on Mahé island. It has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 70 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 6 km².
10809		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits high altitude forest, from 450-700 m.
10809		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated at 23,500 individuals.
10809		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which impact this snail's habitat. Small-scale wood plantations caused habitat deterioration in the past.
10823		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. It is present within the Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary.
10823		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Indoreonectes evezardi</span> is known from the Krishna and Godavari basins in the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Western Ghats</st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 1999), Mula Mutha river (Kharat <em>et al</em>. 2003), Pavna river (Chandanshive <em>et al</em>. 2007), Bhim- Sina- Man (Jadhav and Yadhav 2009) and Cauvery River (Remadevi<em> et al</em>. 2002). Pati and Agrawal (2002) described a hypogean population of <span style="font-style: italic;">I.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">evezardi </span>from Kotumsar cave along the bank of river Kanger in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Kanger</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National  park</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Bastar</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>.<br/></p>
10823		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams with pebbly bed (Menon 1999). Hypogean populations of <em>I. evezardi</em> are present in the Bastar region of Central <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Animals migrate upstream for reproduction.
10823		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. evezardi</span>. It is a very common species in the northern Western Ghats.
10823		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution in the Mula-Mutha river.
10824		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10825		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10826		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in three national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia and Zahamena), two nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena) and five special reserves (Analamazaotra, Mangerivola, Ambatovaky, Anjanaharibe-Sud, and Marotandrano) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The corridors between Mantadia and Zahamena is being proposed as a Conservation Site. Anosibe An-ala Classified Forest in the south should be proposed as a protected area. A major region wide conservation education campaign to eliminate hunting, with the Indri as the flagship species, is recommended.
10826		distribution	eng	This highly distinctive lemur is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it inhabits the eastern rain forests from Anjanaharibe-Sud in the north south to Anosibe An-ala Classified Forest. It has not been found on the Masoala Peninsula or in Marojejy (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Usually at low eleveations, but ranges up to 1,800 m (Goodman and Ganzhorn 2004).
10826		habitat	eng	The Indri inhabits tropical moist lowland and montane forests. It lives in groups of two to six individuals, normally consisting of a monogamous adult pair (they seek new partners only after a mate dies) and their offspring. Groups in fragmented habitat tend to be larger than those in more extensive, undisturbed areas (Pollock 1979, Powzyk 1997). The diet consists primarily of immature leaves supplemented by flowers, fruit, seeds and bark, which vary in proportion according to season. They occasionally descend to the ground to eat earth, perhaps to detoxify seeds that have also been consumed (Powzyk 1997, Britt <em>et al.</em> 2002, Powzyk and Thalmann 2003). Home ranges average 18 ha in the fragmented forests of Analamazaotra, but have been estimated as large as 40 ha in the more pristine forests of Mantadia. Females give birth every two to three years. Reproduction is highly seasonal, with the birth of a single offspring occurring in May or June. Reproductive maturity is reached between seven and nine years of age (Pollock 1977).
10826		population	eng	Population densities are low, typically ranging from 5.2-22.9 per km² (Powzyk and Thalmann 2003).
10826		threats	eng	Indris are threatened by the loss of rain forest habitat to supply fuel and timber and to make way for slash-and-burn agriculture. Hunting of the Indri was considered taboo by many local people (and still is in some areas), but fady has broken down in many regions and hunting pressure is now quite significant in some areas. Studies of villages in the Makira Forest indicate that Indri have also been hunted in the past for their skins, which were worn as clothing, that the meat is prized and fetches a premium price, and that current levels of hunting are unsustainable (Golden 2005).
10830		habitat	eng	An anchihaline species (occurs in brackish water).
10831		conservation	eng	The species is in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Research is needed to evaluate better the impact of threats, and to design effective conservation measures.
10831		distribution	eng	Botos occur throughout the Amazon and Orinoco river basins, from the deltas upstream to where impassable rapids, waterfalls, lack of water, and possibly low temperatures block their movement (Best and da Silva 1989a,b). Three geographic populations have been recognized as subspecies: <em>I. g. geoffrensis</em> in the Amazon basin, except for the Madeira drainage in Bolivia above the Teotonio rapids, <em>I. g. boliviensis</em> in the upper Madeira drainage, and <em>I. g. humboldltiana</em> in the Orinoco basin (Rice 1998). <br/><br/>Besides the Amazon mainstem, <em>I. g. geoffrensis</em> has been recorded in the Tocantins (and das Mortes and Verde affluents), Xingu, Tapajós, Madeira (below the Teotonio rapids), Purus, Juruá, Ucayali, and Marañon (and Samiria affluent) tributaries flowing generally north, and in the Negro, Caqueta (Japurá), Apaporis, Putumayo, Napo, and Tigre tributaries flowing generally south (partial list from Best and da Silva 1989a,b; Leatherwood 1996). <br/><br/>In addition to the Madeira mainstem above the Teotonio rapids, <span style="font-style: italic;">I. g. boliviensis</span> has been reported from the Beni (and Orton affluent), Iténez or Guaporé Basin (and Verde and Iporuporé affluents), and Mamoré Basin and its tributaries and afluents: Pirai, Grande, Ichilo, Chapare, Ibaré, Tijamuchi,&#160; Apere, Yacuma and Yata (Pilleri and Gihr 1977, Aliaga-Rossel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Aliaga-Rossel 2010). <br/> <br/>In the Orinoco system, besides the mainstem, <em>I. g. humboldtiana</em> has been recorded in the Apuré (and Portuguesa and Guanmar affluents), Capanaparo, Cinaruco, Meta, Bita, Vichada, Tomo, Tuparro, Guaviare (and Guayabero affluent), Inírida, and Atabapo (and Temi affluent) tributaries flowing south and east, and in the Aro, Caura, Parquaza, Ventauri (San Juan affluent) tributaries flowing north and west, as well as in the Casiquiare Canal, which connects the Orinoco with the Negro River (a tributary of the Amazon), above and below the two sets of rapids at Puerto Ayacucho, which are the principal barriers that may (or may not) separate the Amazon and Orinoco populations (as summarized in Pilleri and Gihr 1977; Best and da Silva 1989a,b; Meade and Koehnken 1991). Botos have been seen crossing the first set of rapids at Puerto Ayacucho (Atures) during high water (Fernando Trujillo pers. comm. to B.D. Smith).
10831		habitat	eng	Botos swim into flooded forests in the high-water season and often search for prey among the roots and trunks of partially submerged trees. Mark/recapture studies have shown that some individuals are resident to specific areas year-round (Martin and da Silva 2004a), whereas others move several tens to hundreds of kilometers within the rivers, but there does not appear to be any actual seasonal migration (Martin and da Silva 2004a).<br/><br/>Botos are generally concentrated below channel confluences (Magnusson <em>et al</em>. 1980; Mead and Koehnken 1991; Leatherwood 1996; Vidal <em>et al</em>. 1997; Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 2000), with mixing of white and black waters (Martin <em>et al</em>. 2004). Their affinity for confluences diminishes during the high water season, probably because the animals move into appended lakes and flooded forests (Leatherwood 1996; Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 2000; Martin and da Silva 2004b). They occur most often within 150 m of the edges of rivers, with lower densities in the centers of large rivers (Martin <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Botos feed on a large variety of fishes (over 43 species), generally near the bottom (see Best and da Silva 1993; da Silva 2002).
10831		population	eng	In the Amazon basin, data are available on abundance and encounter rates for only a few river segments: 107 individuals counted (0.19 dolphins/km; ± 0.06) in a 490-km segment of the Solimões River, Brazil in August 1979 (Magnusson <em>et al.</em> 1980); 0.22 dolphins/km (± 0.04) observed in a 1525-km segment of the Solimões River, Brazil during four surveys in March 1983- February 1984 (Best and da Silva 1989b); 78 individuals counted and 346 individuals estimated (CV=0.12) using line and strip transect methods in a 120-km segment (ca. 250 km²) of the Amazon River bordering Peru and Colombia, including the Atacuari, Loretoyacu, and Amacayacu tributaries, and the Caballo Cocha and Tarapoto-El Correo lake systems in June 1993 (Vidal <em>et al</em>. 1997); 0.147 dolphins/km (± 0.121) observed in a 232-km segment of the Amazon-Marañon River, Peru during 11 surveys in March-August 1991-1993 (Leatherwood and Reeves 1995a); 0.41-0.50 dolphins/km observed in a 95-km segment of the Tigre River, Peru during 14 surveys in March-August 1991-1994 (Leatherwood and Reeves 1995b); and 260 ± 50 individuals in 225 km² of the Mamirauá Lake system of Brazil - extrapolated to about 13,000 individuals in the 11,240 km² Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Martin and da Silva 2004a). <br/><br/>Counts and encounter rates for segments of the Orinoco basin include: 122 individuals counted (1.16 dolphins/km) in a 105-km segment of the Apuré River, Venezuela in 1981 (Pilleri <em>et al</em>. 1982); 0.20 dolphins/km observed in a 201-km segment of the Apuré River, Venezuela in July-August 1989 (Schnapp and Howroyd 1992); 14-15 individuals counted (0.024 dolphins/km) in a 450-km segment of the Orinoco River, Venezuela in 1981 (Pilleri <em>et al</em>. 1982); 8 individuals counted (0.025 dolphins/km) in a 340-km segment of the Casiquiare River, Venezuela in 1981 (Pilleri <em>et al</em>. 1982).
10831		threats	eng	Threats include incidental mortality in fishing gear, deliberate killing for fish bait and attractant and for predator control, damming of rivers (although this is, at present, less of a problem than for the river cetaceans in Asia), and environmental pollution from organochlorines and heavy metals (see da Silva 2002; IWC 2007; Reeves <em>et. Al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>The Mura Indians hunted botos near Barro do Rio Negro, Brazil during the nineteenth century (Pilleri and Arvy 1981) and the Tucuna and Cocama Indians may have killed them in the Amazon near Leticia (Allen and Neil 1958; Layne and Caldwell 1964) and the lower Ucayali River (Mohr 1964), respectively, until at least the 1950s. <br/><br/>Between 1956 and the early 1970s, more than 100 botos were live-captured and exported mostly to the U.S. and Europe (Brownell 1984) and (a few) to Japan (Tobayama and Kamiya 1989). However, in recent decades, there have been no reported live-captures and exports.<br/><br/>Incidental mortality has not been studied systematically in most areas. However, similar to other small cetaceans, botos are vulnerable to entanglement in a variety of nets (lampara seine nets, fixed gill nets, drifting gill nets; Best and da Silva 1993; Martin <em>et al</em>. 2004) as well as to drop traps intended to catch large fish or manatees in the flooded forest in Peru (Leatherwood 1996)<br/><br/>There is an emergent, but already large-scale, problem involving the deliberate killing of botos in Brazil for fish attractant (IWC 2007). Botos are also killed deliberately in some areas because fishermen regard them as competitors and because the dolphins damage fishing nets (F. Trujillo pers. comm. to B.D. Smith).<br/><br/>Fishing with explosives, although illegal in most areas, is common in some areas of the Amazon Basin (Goulding 1983; Smith 1985). This fishing technique threatens botos due to the concussive effects of explosions. Fishermen also reportedly attempt to kill dolphins that are attracted to prey on the stunned or dead fish (Best and da Silva 1989a). <br/><br/>Water development projects have not been as extensive in the Amazon and Orinoco basins as in Asian rivers inhabited by cetaceans. A population of botos was isolated above the Tucuruí dam in the Tocantins River, but there is no information on their current status. The Balbina dam in the Uatuma River may have isolated botos but there is no information on historic or current occurrence of dolphins in this river. Both of these dams in the Amazon basin, and the Guri dam in the Caroní, an Orinoco tributary, have probably degraded downstream habitat due to their effects on flow and temperature regimes (see Ward and Stanford 1989; Ligon <em>et al</em>. 1995; Kondolf 1997). There are many more proposed dams, especially for northward flowing Amazon tributaries that, if built, would restrict dolphin movements (Best and da Silva 1989a) and probably degrade their habitat. <br/><br/>Mercury is often used to separate gold from soil and rock in mining operations along the Amazon (Pfeiffer ,i>et al. 1993). In the Madeira River almost 60% of children under five years old had accumulated levels of mercury, presumably from eating contaminated fish, high enough to cause neurological damage (Boischio and Henshel 1996). A study of mercury in the sediments and floating plants in the Tucuruí Reservoir of the former Tocantins River, Brazil, emphasized the risk of mercury accumulation in the bed of non-flowing waters (Aula <em>et al</em>. 1995). The effects of the bioaccumulation of mercury in botos are unknown but the high levels recorded in the Amazon ecosystem give reason for concern.
10832		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area, and there remains a need for much improved protection and maintenance of the Valdivian temperate forests in its range. The status of this species should be closely monitored.
10832		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around the type locality, Mehuin, Valdivia Province, Chile. It has not been found elsewhere, despite survey work. Its altitudinal range is from 50-200m asl.
10832		habitat	eng	It occurs in small streams and under stones in temperate forest. At night, it feeds on the margins of streams. Breeding takes place in streams, and the species is characterized by free-swimming tadpoles.
10832		population	eng	It is locally common, and was last recorded in 2003.
10832		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction resulting from clear cutting and afforestation with pine plantations.
10833		conservation	eng	The species is not listed as threatened (Verdu and Galante 2009). It was assessed as LR/nt by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999).
10833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands. It is restricted to Tenerife, where it is known from 8 sites, representing 3 locations.
10833		habitat	eng	This species occurs in "Piso" Basal lowland vegetation and natural pine forests.
10833		population	eng	There are no known data on population trends, but these sites are not in a highly populated area.
10833		threats	eng	These species lives in a low density population area, and even though there is some low level of disturbance, it is unlikely to threaten this species.
10834		conservation	eng	Both Valido<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1999) and Moliner  Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) suggest this species is Endangered.&#160;This species is included as Vulnerable B2ab(iii) on the Red List of Spain (Verdu and Galante 2006).&#160;Part of the site lies in a protected area, however most of the habitat is not protected and hence the protected area needs to be extended to cover the entire habitat of this species. In addition long-term monitoring is required for the species.
10834		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tenerife where it is found on the southern slope of the Anaga Mountains.
10834		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the "piso basal", typical lowland vegetation on Canaries.
10834		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
10834		threats	eng	Future threat are related to the encroachment of urban development as the site lies on the edge of Santa Cruz (within 200 m of the limit of urbanisation) (Moliner Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).
10835		conservation	eng	Moliner Gomez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2001) listed as Near to Extinction and Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) proposed the species as Critically Endangered.&#160;This species is included as Vulnerable D2 on the Red List of Spain (Verdu and Galante 2006).&#160;They proposed the creation of protected areas and restoration of the habitat. Monitoring of future trends in habitat are required to establish the future status of the species.
10835		distribution	eng	This species is found on Gran Canaria, where it is known from a single location in a degraded laurisilva forest at Barranco de la Virgen (Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001)
10835		habitat	eng	This species occurs in degraded laurisilva forest.
10835		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. This species is very rare.<br/></p>
10835		threats	eng	The major threats lie in continued degradation of the habitat through forest utilisation for use of the wood for agricultural purposes.
10836		conservation	eng	<p>All subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) considered this species as LR/nt.<br/></p>
10836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tenerife where it is found in the Anaga Mountains.
10836		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in Laurel forests (Laurisilva).</p>
10836		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are thought to be stable.</p>
10836		threats	eng	Road construction and logging are the main threats to this species.
10838		distribution	eng	This species was found in Virginia, Tennessee and Alabama. Formerly widespread across the entire catchment of the Tennessee River above Muscle Shoals Alabama.
10838		habitat	eng	Rapid well oxygenated waters of shoals and riffles of rivers, but not in slack water below shoals.  Feeding on algal coating of rocks.  Water depth up to 1.5 m.  Lays between 20-100 eggs, which begin to hatch after 15 days.
10838		population	eng	In 1983 it was restricted to three populations.
10845		conservation	eng	This species is listed as protected in Indonesia and it occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
10845		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo (Lekagul and McNeely 1988; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It has also been recorded from Singapore, Tioman, and Penang.
10845		habitat	eng	These squirrels occur up to 1,000 m in primary forests, secondary, degraded forests and scrub, as well as cultivated areas. They can be a pest in plantations. It is nocturnal, and uses tree hollows.
10845		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in Malaysia. In Singapore, these animals are listed as rare.
10845		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
10846		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
10846		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to two islands Mentawai Archipelago (Sipura and North Pagai islands), Indonesia.
10846		habitat	eng	This species lives in primary forests up to 500 m.
10846		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
10846		threats	eng	Habitat loss on the two islands represents a threat to this lowland species.
10847		distribution	eng	<em>I. phlegethontis</em> is restricted to the Bonneville River basin, Utah.
10847		threats	eng	This species may be adversely affected by predation, competition , and hybridization with introduced fish species such as Speckled Dace <em>Rhinichthys osculus</em>.
10849		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
10851		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
10851		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Chile (see Saavedra and Simonetti 2000, for northern range extension), including Chiloe and Guaitecas Islands, and adjacent Argentina (Neuquén to Chubut Provinces.—see Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2003; Pearson 1995).
10851		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to forest steppe ecotones and Andean forests; in Argentina it is found closely associated with <em>Nothofagus spp</em>. forests (Pardinas <em>et al.</em> 2004). Saavedra and Simonetti (2000) have reported isolated populations in central Chile in coastal maulino forest patches.
10851		population	eng	This species occurs in high local abundances (i.e. in Bariloche has been caught in large numbers in camera-tramps). (Cofre and Marquet 1999). In other areas is an uncommon species.
10851		threats	eng	The species is very associated to forests, so deforestation can be considered a threat for it.
10858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA. It possibly extends north-south beyond the Bay Area (Bick 2003), with a total range area probably less than 500 square miles.
10858		habitat	eng	Temporary urban pools at new construction (Garrison and Hafernik 1981).  Also in depressions at the foot of steep hillsides where water seeps down (D.R. Paulson pers. comm.).
10858		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
10858		threats	eng	Small range, development.
10859		conservation	eng	None.
10859		distribution	eng	This species was known from Hispaniola.
10859		habitat	eng	Not known.
10859		population	eng	This species is extinct.
10859		threats	eng	Likely extinct due to rats, however, this is not known.
10860		conservation	eng	None.
10860		distribution	eng	This species was known from Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) and offshore islands. It was introduced to Puerto Rico, Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, and Mona Islands. It was the only known hutia on La Gonave island (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
10860		habitat	eng	This species was poorly known, although a wide range of habitats has been reported.
10860		population	eng	MacPhee and Flemming (1999) consider this species to be extinct. This species likely went extinct after 1500 AD (estimated at 1525 AD on Mona Island by Nieves-Rivera and McFarlane 2001) following European settlement although some reports exist suggesting possible survival to approximately 1800 AD.
10860		threats	eng	The main threat in the past which led to the decline of this population was probably predation by introduced mongooses and <em>Rattus rattus</em>. The species was historically hunted by Arawak Indians, however, this likely did not lead to the decline of the species as it went extinct following European settlement.
10861		conservation	eng	Unknown.
10861		distribution	eng	Scattered collection localities are known for <em>Isomma hieroglyphicum</em>, in eastern Madagascar from the north to the south of the island.
10861		habitat	eng	Small streams and rivers. Specimens in southeastern Madagascar were observed along running waters in forested areas.
10861		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
10861		threats	eng	The species may be affected by deforestation in the region, but more data are required to confirm this.
10863		conservation	eng	The Golden Bandicoot is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is present in a number of protected areas and a recovery plan was developed for the 2004-2009 period (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2003). Recommendations from this plan include: monitoring the species to determine population trends; translocating individuals from Marchinbar Island to other suitable islands; determining the threatening processes on the mainland and working to ameliorate them; and communicating with stakeholders.
10863		distribution	eng	The Golden Bandicoot is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. This species used to be very widespread in the interior of the country, but now it is confined to the high rainfall areas of the north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins Islands) (Western Australia), Barrow and Middle Islands off the Pilbara coast (Western Australia), and Marchinbar Island (Northern Territory) (McKenzie <em>et al.</em> 2008).
10863		habitat	eng	This species is known from a variety of habitats including rainforest margins, coastal scrub, heath, sandstone with spinifex, and tussock grasslands and with an overstorey of acacia or eucalyptus. Individuals maintain overlapping home ranges of from 12-35 ha. Their diet comprises a broad range of invertebrates.
10863		population	eng	The Golden Bandicoot is sparsely distributed within the mainland Western Australia and recent population declines have occurred here. It is abundant on Barrow Island, being the most common mammal, with at least 20,000 individuals (McKenzie <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are estimated to be 1,000 on Middle Island. There have been no recent declines on Barrow or Middle Islands. No population estimates are available for Uwins or Augustus Islands, but the species is said to be relatively common on the former and sparse on the latter. From surveys conducted in 1994-1995, 1,400 individuals were estimated to occur on Marchinbar Island (Southgate <em>et al.</em> 1995), and a re-survey (June 2006) indicated that population levels have remained about the same (Palmer and Woinarski 2006).
10863		threats	eng	On mainland Kimberley, Golden Bandicoots are threatened by changing fire regimes and cats. These two threats work synergistically to the detriment of the species, whereby groundcover reduced by fire makes bandicoots more susceptible to predation (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2003). Feral dogs on Marchinbar may have been a minor threat, but these were eradicated in 2004-2005 (Palmer and Woinarski 2006). There is a serious risk of introduced predators establishing on Barrow and Middle Islands. Lower densities on Middle Island (relative to Barrow Island) may have been due to competition from the introduced Black Rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>), however, these were eradicated in 1993 and since then numbers appear to have increase (Morris 2002; McKenzie <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The reasons for past declines of the Golden Bandicoot are unknown. It declined in south-western and eastern Kimberley soon after the spread of pastoralism (Friend 1990). Rapid decline in the desert regions may have been due to introduced predators and changed fire regimes. The species became extinct on Hermite Island (near Barrow and Middle) shortly before 1912, probably due to predation by feral cats (Burbidge 1971).
10878		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
10878		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in western Amazonia, from southeastern Colombia south along the base of the Andes to northern and eastern Bolivia, east on both sides of the Rio Solimoes to at least the Rio Madeira and Rio Negro, Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
10878		habitat	eng	Its habitat is described as 'seasonally inundated forest, either igapo or varzea'. This species occurs in canopies and nests in tree holes (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The litter size is thought to be two or less, breeding season has not been determined (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
10878		population	eng	This is species is not common, it is an arboreal species and is difficult to observe and collect (Patton pers. comm.).
10878		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
10879		conservation	eng	The species has not been reported from any protected areas, although its distribution range includes a number of protected areas (Patton, J. pers. comm.).
10879		distribution	eng	This rodent occurs in the Amazon Basin of Central Brazil from Río Madeira east to Río Tapajoz and north to lower Río Negro (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999, Woods, 1993).
10879		habitat	eng	This species is found in Terra Firme forests, associated with black water rivers.
10879		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance.
10879		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified at this time.
10886		conservation	eng	It found within several protected areas including La Amistad National Park. More information is needed about this species' taxonomy, natural history, populations, and conservation status.
10886		distribution	eng	This species is known form intermediate elevations in western Panamá (Chiriquí region) and on the Azuero Peninsula (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from 1,000 to 1,500 m (Carleton 1989).<br/><br/>The species is known from two disjunct populations, which are being looked at taxonomically (Timm pers. comm.).
10886		habitat	eng	This species is found in mature forest. Its biology is poorly known; it is nocturnal and terrestrial (Reid 1997).
10886		population	eng	It is apparently rare and local (Reid 1997). It may no longer occur in the Azuero Peninsula, where it has been looked for recently without success (Reid pers. comm.).
10886		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, this species may be subject to threats from deforestation, roads, and agriculture.
10887		conservation	eng	The majority of the species range is in a protected area.
10887		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the easternmost Panama and Serranía del Darién, and extreme northwest Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005). In Colombia the species has been found between 100 to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).
10887		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in montane and cloud forest.
10887		population	eng	This rat is uncommon to locally common in a small geographic range (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).
10887		threats	eng	No major threats to this species at this time.
10911		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in protected areas in Iran. In South Asia the species is not protected by any legislation. It has been recorded from Zangi Nawar Game Reserve,  Baluchistan in Pakistan (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
10911		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea, through to the Kyzylkum Desert, central Uzbekistan: Turan lowland, most probably with a disruption in the south-west of the Karakum desert, and from Usturt to Messeran Plato in the west to Central Kyzylkum desert n the east, and in old deltas of Murgab and Tedjent Rivers (to south from Karakum channel) in the south-east (Kuznetsov 1965; Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995), the west part of Kavir Namak in East of Kashmar (North East of Iran, Darvish in litt.), east and south Iran (Lay 1967), south, west and north Afghanistan (Hassinger 1973; Habibi 2003) and southwest Pakistan (Roberts 1997). In South Asia it is found at elevations of 700 to 1,250 m asl.
10911		habitat	eng	Very little known of the biology and ecology in of this species in Iran and Pakistan, though it is better known in Turkmenistan. This burrowing species occurs in desert, where it prefers clay soil, although occurs on gravel desert with relatively sparse vegetation, including small shrubs. It is a solitary species that undergoes a period of hibernation.<br/><br/>In Turkmeniston they stick to clay-sandy areas and avoid big sand masses. They make burrows in takyrs, on the borders of salines, in rubbly desert areas, usually on the borders of hilly and ridgy sands. Permanent burrows are simple, 1.5-2 m long. At the end of a single passage there are one or two nests. They feed mainly on green parts of plants and seeds. Overwintered females give up to 3 litters per year, litter size is 5 on average.
10911		population	eng	The local population density is typically of the order of one individual per hectare. It is common in Turkmenistan, population density can be up to 10 individuals per 1 km of tracking.
10911		threats	eng	In Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, the species' populations are declining due to agricultural expansion, much of which happened prior to 1990 in southern Uzbekistan. The species is declining slightly in the northern part of its range due to irrigation. In Syria, this species is used in falconery (Mike Jordan pers. comm.)
10912		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
10912		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula as far east as southwestern Iran. It is found in desert and semi-desert with patchy records from Senegal and Mali through Mauritania and Morocco to Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Eritrea and Somalia (though absent from the Nile Delta). The distribution is likely somewhat more continuous, though nevertheless dependent on suitable habitat. The species has been recorded to elevations of 1,500 m asl (Egypt).
10912		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species varies across the range, from sand dunes to rocky substrates, however, it is always found near to vegetation. It is a strictly nocturnal species, and its remains are commonly found in owl pellets. The species has a litter size of four to five young.
10912		population	eng	A widespread species, although somewhat patchily distributed in parts of its range. Reported to be common in a number of range states (e.g. Qatar, Jordan), but not considered an abundant species in African parts of the range.
10912		threats	eng	In some areas in Jordan, the species is spotlighted and hunted for food and bait for falconry. Locally eaten by humans, since they are easily caught through their burrow systems. Can be trapped during grooming outside the burrow and are considered edible by several tribes of Bedouin in Jordan and the Negev (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Syria, there is massive capture (using spotlights at night), and the species is sold to falconers for food (G. Serra pers. comm.). In Africa there are no major threats to the species.
10913		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas, and are the focus of ongoing research (especially related to the physiology of hibernation).
10913		distribution	eng	<em>Jaculus orientalis</em> has a distribution extending from Morocco, east through Algeria and Tunisia, to Libya, and Egypt. Extralimitally to the African continent, the species also occurs in the Sinai (Egypt) and from the northern Negev desert and western Judean Desert in Israel. The species is found from sea level to 600 m in Israel, although it is found at much higher elevations in Africa.
10913		habitat	eng	The species is found in a range of habitats including deserts, semi-deserts, coastal sand dunes and marshes, meadows, and cultivated fields. It is a nocturnal rodent which may move considerable distances each night in search of food. Its diet includes roots, shoots, seeds, grains and cultivated vegetables. J. orientalis is a sociable species and is often found in small groups.
10913		population	eng	It is widely distributed and abundant. In Algeria, the species is apparently very common in Hauts Plateaux (Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991).
10913		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is reported as being a pest species of barley and grain fields  and in parts of its range. Bedouin farmers often catch and eat the species, however, they are not eaten in the Maghreb.
10919		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is found in a National Park (Ponder and Clark 1990).&#160;This species was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and Endangered in 1994.&#160;Further research is recommended to determine an abundance estimate for this species and survey surrounding areas as it potentially occurs in similar habitat locally (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
10919		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Carnarvon Gorge National Park in Queensland, Australia (Ponder and Clark 1990) and is found in several locations (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as 54,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
10919		habitat	eng	This tiny species is found in springs, creeks and rock face seepages. The springs in Carnarvon Gorge flow from sandstone which is part of the same series making up the aquifer of the Great Artesian Basin. However, the water flowing from this sandstone is not derived from the Great Artesian Basin (Ponder and Clark 1990). This species is most similar to <em>J. coreena, J. exigua</em> and <em>J. colmani</em> (Ponder and Clark 1990).
10919		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
10919		threats	eng	Carnarvon Gorge National Park is a nearly pristine habitat (Australian Nature Guide 2009). There is tourism within the park, but it is unlikely that this is having a negative impact on this species (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
10925		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and Endangered in 1994. The small springs in which this species lives flow from Tertiary basalts and are not derived from the Great Artesian Basin. This means that it is necessary to not only protect the individual springs where this species occurs, but to also manage the usage of the water from the springs, as local drawdown is potentially a problem (Ponder 1996). Further research is recommended to ascertain a current population estimate for this species, and to monitor the existing populations.
10925		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a cattle station south of Carnarvon Gorge National Park in central western Queensland, Australia (Ponder and Clark 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 100 km²<sup></sup>, and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km²<sup></sup>. Within this area, it is only found in five locations.
10925		habitat	eng	This tiny species inhabits springs and rock face seepages. This species is most similar to <em>J. carnarvonensis</em> and <em>J. colmani</em> (Ponder and Clark 1990).
10925		population	eng	In 1996, this species was described as relatively abundant, but it has a very localised distribution (Ponder 1996).
10925		threats	eng	All the known localities of this species are within the boundaries of one cattle station, and therefore it is threatened by habitat damage caused by cattle. In addition this species is likely to be threatened by the impacts of local drawdown of water (Ponder 1996).
10929		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3) as and Endangered in 1994. Proper management of the spring where this species occurs is the only option to ensure its long-term survival. This means that it is not only necessary to protect the individual spring, but to also manage the usage of the water from the spring, as local drawdown is a problem (Ponder 1996). Further research is recommended to ascertain a current population estimate for this species, to monitor existing populations and further survey work is needed to establish if this species occurs in other springs nearby.
10929		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single spring in Queensland, Australia, which is situated within the boundaries of a homestead northeast of Aramac (Ponder 1996). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and an area of occupancy of&#160; less than 10 km²<sup></sup>. Within this area, the species occurs in less than five locations  (only one location is currently known, but it is likely that it occurs in other springs nearby).
10929		habitat	eng	This tiny species inhabits springs, showing preference for the shallow marshy outflows (Ponder and Clark 1990).
10929		population	eng	In 1996, this species was described as relatively abundant, but it has a very localised distribution (Ponder 1996).
10929		threats	eng	The spring in which this species resides is situated within pastoral land, and therefore this species is threatened by habitat damage caused by cattle and other pastoral activities. In addition, this species is likely to be threatened by the impacts of local drawdown of water (Ponder 1996).
10939		habitat	eng	Non-anadromous species.
10946		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be extinct.
10946		distribution	eng	This species was described in 1965 and is known only by type locality: Central Brazil, Federal District, Brasilia, Parque Zoobotanico, at 1,030 m (Musser and Carleton, 1993).
10946		habitat	eng	A semi-fossorial species first discovered in 1960 on the site of the capital, Brasília, which at the time was under construction; the species has not been collected since even after many attempts specifically to locate remaining populations.
10946		population	eng	Many studies have attempted to collect this species in the wild but no individuals have been recorded in the last 48 years (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
10946		threats	eng	This species has not been seen since discovered and is presumed to be extinct, as the entire region where it was discovered has been converted to a city and more recently urban sprawl.
10949		habitat	eng	Deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nest sites.
10950		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
10950		threats	eng	This is an extremely rare species known from only a few animals. It apparently occurs scarcely in scattered localities. The forest stream habitat is being impacted by conversion to tea plantations.
10952		habitat	eng	Deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nest sites.
10952		threats	eng	Could possibly be extinct considering that no animals have been reliably recorded since 1935 despite mass trade of riverine turtles from Myanmar to China.
10953		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
10953		threats	eng	Has disappeared over much of its former range in India and is severely threatened in Bangladesh.
10954		conservation	eng	It was collected in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
10954		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single collection in the 1930s at the type locality at 1,000 m in the lower part of Gunung Pangrango-Gede, western Java, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may be present at other locations but it has not been collected from other sites to date.
10954		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that was collected in bamboo habitat within forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the forest that it was collected in was disturbed or modified.
10954		population	eng	It was reportedly common at the time the type series was collected. It has not been caught during subsequent collections within the area.
10954		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10957		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas. Ongoing studies are being conducted by Emerson Vieira and Sergio Lucena.
10957		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and Misiones province in northeast Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
10957		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and arboreal species which occurs in moist tropical forests, in bamboo thickets near to water. Stallings <em>et al.</em> (1994) conducted surveys in the Biological Reserve of Poço das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, southeastern Brazil and determined a home range can reach up to 1,000 m², with densities up to 1.47 per km².
10957		population	eng	Species is naturally very rare. The ecological density is about 4.28 individuals per km² in Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil (Silva 2005).
10957		threats	eng	This rodent is locally threatened by habitat destruction in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.
10958		distribution	eng	Known only from Table Mountain, Cape Town, Western Cape.
10960		distribution	eng	Known only from Nightingale Island in the Tristan da Cunha group. Was found in 1937.
10960		habitat	eng	Occurs in the upper littoral zone, just above the tide level.
10966		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Morogoro (presumably within the Morogoro State Forest Reserve) and Genda Genda (possibly in a Forest Reserve). There is a need to prevent further loss of coastal forest habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species to locate additional populations.
10966		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Tanzania, where it has only been recorded from Morogoro; the Genda Genda coastal forest; and the Tong'omba coastal forest (Matschie 1895; Swynnerton and Hayman 1951; Cockle <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10966		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from tropical coastal forest.
10966		population	eng	Very little is known about the population of this rarely recorded species.
10966		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of coastal forests, largely through conversion of land to subsistence agriculture and harvesting of timber and firewood for local use.
10967		conservation	eng	The taxonomic validity of this species needs to be determined.
10967		distribution	eng	The type locality is recorded as "South Africa", however, there is significant doubt regards the origin of the only two syntypes of this species, and somewhere in Southeast Asia may be more plausible.
10967		habitat	eng	There is no information known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
10967		population	eng	It is only known from two syntypes collected over a century ago.
10967		threats	eng	There is no information known about threats to this species.
10968		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into this species and its natural history are needed. Research efforts are needed to assess whether this species occurs on Normanby and Goodenough (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
10968		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from the islands of Fergusson, Misima, Sudest, and Woodlark in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It occurs from sea level to 700 m asl.
10968		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical lowland forest and hill forest, and is presumed to be a foliage gleaning insectivore (Bonaccorso 1998). It is likely to forage in disturbed areas (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
10968		population	eng	It is known from a few specimens, and has not been collected since the 1950s (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
10968		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss is presumably a threat.
10969		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Kambai Forest Reserve in Tanzania by Cunneyworth (1996), and seems likely to be present in a number of protected areas within its range. Further studies are needed to determine if the species is truly present in Angola.
10969		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in East Africa and southern Africa, with some records in southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and possibly northern Angola in Central Africa (records are uncertain from this country). In East Africa it has been recorded from Kenya and Tanzania in the north, through Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. In southern Africa, it appears to be widespread in Zimbabwe, with additional scattered records from northeastern South Africa and central Namibia.
10969		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with moist savanna habitats (including bushveld) (Taylor 2000). Roosting sites include deserted weaver bird nests, among clusters of leaves, on the bark of trees, and on traditional houses (rondavels) (Roberts 1951; Smithers and Wilson 1979; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
10969		population	eng	Although this species is rarely encountered, it is not thought to be especially uncommon.
10969		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
10970		conservation	eng	This species is known from protected areas (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006). It also appears on a checklist for the Bukit Barisan National Park in South Sumatra (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1996), but this record is questionable.
10970		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Sumatra (Indonesia), and Sabah in Malaysian Borneo. It is found below 400 m asl. This species may be more widespread and common than is currently known.
10970		habitat	eng	This is a forest dependent species. Lekagul and McNeely (1977) reported that the type specimens were found roosting in an abandoned bird's nest (broadbill) in heavy forest on the bank of a river. A recent collection was found in Thailand in disturbed forest at 150 m asl which was adjacent to a large patch of pristine evergreen forest (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10970		population	eng	This species is not common. It occurs at low densities in primary forest in Malaysia, generally less than 1% of captures in harp traps (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
10970		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires represents a major threat to this species.
10971		conservation	eng	It is unclear if this species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this little known bat.
10971		distribution	eng	There are scattered records of this poorly known bat from West and Central Africa. It has apparently been reported from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, possibly Ghana (though see Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (though see Hayman and Hill 1971). It is found up to 600 m asl. A record of this species from Kenya was based on a specimen subsequently re-identified as <em>Kerivoula smithii</em> (J. Fahr pers. comm.).
10971		habitat	eng	This is a species of moist lowland rainforest, tropical dry forest, and swamp forest. Other members of the genus have been found to roost in vegetation.
10971		population	eng	It appears to be a rare, or rarely recorded, species.
10971		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. In parts of its range it is presumably threatened to some degree by habitat loss resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use, and harvesting of timber and firewood.
10972		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the systematic status, distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
10972		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded at the type locality of 'between Semian and Wogara, Belegaz Valley, Ethiopia'.
10972		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.
10972		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
10972		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
10973		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic review is required to determine species and range limits.
10973		distribution	eng	The current distribution of this species appears to be very disjunct; being found in Borneo, Lesser Sundas, Bali, Sumbawa and Sumba in Indonesia (Corbet and Hill 1992), and possibly in Kon Kha Kinh and Pu Mat, Viet Nam (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, the specimens from mainland Southeast Asia may be a distinct, unrecognized species. Many of these records could also be <em>K. hardwicki</em>. This species is not found in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The type locality for this species is south Flores, Lesser Sundas, Indonesia.
10973		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary forest.
10973		population	eng	The population information is probably confused due to misidentifications. If this species is like <em>K. hardwickii</em>, with which it is probably being confused, then it is probably not uncommon. However, it is also known to be locally common (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
10973		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging and agriculture is a major threat to this species.
10974		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Siju Wildlife Sanctuary in Meghalaya. It has been recorded from protected areas in parts of Southeast Asia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
10974		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from southern and northern South Asia, southern China, and throughout continental and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (no exact location) (Das, 2003, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2005), India (Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central Province) (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). In China, it is widely distributed in the southeast of the country, including the island of Hainan. In Southeast Asia, it is found throughout the mainland, in insular Southeast Asia it ranges from Indonesia (the Mentawi Islands [Siberut and Sipura], Sumatra, Java, Bali, Kangean, Nusa Penida, Lombok, Sumba, Sulawesi, Pelang, Banggi, Karakelang), to the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Biliran, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur Province), Mindanao (Bukidnon Province), Palawan, and Samar (Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Over its range, it has been recorded between 60 and 2,100 m asl.
10974		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is found in warm valleys in northeast India and near paddy fields in Sri Lanka and known to roost in caves and buildings in forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is found in subtropical and tropical areas, and has been collected in both forested and agricultural localities. Animals sometimes forage around houses and villages, and roost in buildings and under tile roofs on occasion (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, there are records from primary forest in Cambodia (G. Csorba pers. comm. 2006), dry forest including disturbed sites in Lao PDR, and hill forest in Peninsular Malaysia (Francis pers. comm. 2006). On Banggi Island (Indonesia) the species was found roosting in the axil of a rattan vine leaf. In the Philippines, it has been recorded in lowland, montane, and ridgetop mossy forest (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). On Palawan Island, there are records from a bamboo thicket at 60 m and primary lowland forest at 650 m (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).
10974		population	eng	In Southeast Asia it is a moderately common species in primary forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.). The abundance, population size and trends for this species in South Asia are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10974		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this somewhat adaptable species.
10975		conservation	eng	It occurs in Krau Wildlife Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>, 2006).
10975		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. It was described by Yasuma (1997) from Brunei and Bukit Suharto in East Kalimantan, Borneo, and also is known from Maliau Basin and Lumerao in Sabah (unpubl. survey report) and from the Sebangau peat swamps in Central Kalimantan, Borneo (Husson and Morrogh-Bernard 2003). It can be expected to also occur in Thailand, but this has not yet been confirmed.
10975		habitat	eng	The species is common in primary forest, and may not do well in highly disturbed forest (C. Francis pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from the Sebangau peat swamps in Central Kalimantan (Husson and Morrogh-Bernard 2003). Roosting habits are unknown (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10975		population	eng	The species may be widespread and relatively common in suitable habitat, but it is difficult to trap without harp traps, and is often overlooked in Borneo. It is extremely common in Krau Wildlife Reserve Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006).
10975		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat to this species.
10976		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
10976		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Southeast Asia including mainland Thailand (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006), Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006), Viet Nam (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006), Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999), Indonesia (found on Bali, Borneo, Java and Sulawesi), and the Philippines (known only from Samar) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It can be expected in northern Cambodia, but this has not yet been confirmed.
10976		habitat	eng	It is associated with primary and moderately disturbed semi-evergreen forest in limestone karst areas. It has been recorded from primary forest in Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2003) and disturbed forest in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006).
10976		population	eng	The status of the species is unknown in the Philippines and it is uncommon but widespread elsewhere.
10976		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range, although deforestation may be affecting the species in parts of its range.
10977		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to better understand the taxonomic status of <em>Kerivoula lanosa</em>.
10977		distribution	eng	This bat is widely recorded across sub-Saharan Africa, from Liberia and Guinea in the west, to Ethiopia and Kenya in the east, and ranging as far south as southern South Africa.
10977		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest, to dry woodland, and both dry and moist savanna. Animals have often been encountered roosting in abandoned bird nests (Roberts 1951; Taylor 1998).
10977		population	eng	There appears to be little information available on the population abundance of this species.
10977		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
10978		conservation	eng	This species needs taxonomic revision, however, it appears to be distinct according to local scientists (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). It does occur in a few protected areas within its range.
10978		distribution	eng	The species is found in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and southern Thailand. The record from Thailand requires confirmation (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) as it may not be this species. The species is easily confused with <em>K. intermedia</em>, with which it is probably conspecific.
10978		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the understorey of dipterocarp forest (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is found also in lowland and secondary forest (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).
10978		population	eng	This species occurs at low densities. As with <em>K. intermedia</em>, the species is difficult to catch unless harp traps are used.
10978		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations, forest fires and coal and limestone mining are threats to this species.
10979		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Varirata National Park, Central Province (Flannery 1995). Further surveys with harp traps are needed to determine the full range of this species.
10979		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from a number of widely distributed sites. It is also probably present in Papua Province, Indonesia although this requires confirmation. It ranges from sea level to 1,600 m asl, but is probably predominantly a lowland species.
10979		habitat	eng	It is found in both primary tropical moist forest and disturbed habitats. Animals roost in hollow tree limbs as solitary individuals or in small groups (Bonaccorso 1998). It forages for insects at a low level in the forest.
10979		population	eng	This species is known from relatively few specimens collected from less than 10 sites.
10979		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat destruction in the lowlands is presumably a problem. As they are found as solitary individuals or in small colonies, they are unlikely to be as threatened as species that roost together in large numbers.
10980		conservation	eng	This species is a priority for survey work to determine its population numbers and status, because it has a limited distribution and may be in decline. Testing tissues of recently captured bats for pesticide levels is recommended (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Further research is required to confirm the identity of the specimen from Wetar.
10980		distribution	eng	This species occurs on New Britain, Duke of York, Umboi, and Manus Islands of Papua New Guinea. A specimen from Wetar Island, Indonesia reported by Hill and Rozendaal (1989) may represent <em>K. hardwickii</em> (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). It occurs from sea level to 500 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).
10980		habitat	eng	This species has been captured along watercourses in disturbed environments and secondary regrowth, but these were recently converted areas and it is not known whether the species can persist in these habitats (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
10980		population	eng	Presently thought to be uncommon. The use of mist-nets, currently the main means of collection, might not be the best way to capture the species, and this could have led to the species being under-reported (Flannery 1995).
10980		threats	eng	Oil palm development is likely to have removed much habitat for this species. Pesticides in oil palm plantations are probably a threat to this species (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
10981		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range including, Gunung Halimun National Park on Java, Danau Sentarum National Park in West Kalimantan (Jeanes and Meijaard 2000), and Gunung Palung National Park (Blundell 1996). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
10981		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Buton in Indonesia, and northern Borneo.
10981		habitat	eng	On Buton and Malaysia, this species roosts in groups of 1-14 individuals in small tree hollows in lowland mixed-deciduous dipterocarp forest.
10981		population	eng	This species is thought to be reasonably common throughout its range.
10981		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species, although deforestation is occurring through many parts of its range.
10982		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, at least in Australia. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
10982		distribution	eng	This species is found in both East and West New Britain Island (Papua New Guinea) (S. Hamilton pers. comm.), and along the coastline of eastern Australia where it ranges from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland to southern New South Wales (Flannery 1995a; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Woodside <em>et al.</em> 2008). It also has been recorded on the island of Biak (Indonesia), and at a few scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (in Papua New Guinea only) (Flannery 1995a,b). Within Papuan New Guinea it has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,300 m asl (Bonaccorso 1998).
10982		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of tropical moist forest types, dry and wet sclerophyll woodland, riparian Casuarina forest and coastal Meloleuca forest. It has been found in secondary growth forest. This species roosts as solitary individuals or as small groups of animals (up to about 20 individuals) in dead palm fronds, dense foliage, tree hollows, birds nests, caves, and buildings. It is insectivorous, gleaning invertebrates from vegetation (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998; Woodside <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Australia, <em>c.</em>95% of its diet is web-weaving spiders (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
10982		population	eng	It is difficult to find this small, cryptic bat which roosts in foliage, consequently it is poorly represented in museums. The recent use of harp traps indicates that they are more common than previously thought in both Papua New Guinea and Australia. Historically, there have been periods of little to no collections of this species in Australia, for reasons that are not clear (L. Hall pers. comm.).
10982		threats	eng	In Australia it is suspected that this species is threatened by clearance of suitable forest habitats for timber and agricultural purposes. It is also believed to be threatened by changes in fire regimes and predation by domestic and feral cats (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The threats to the species outside of Australia are not known.
10983		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
10983		distribution	eng	The species occurs on Borneo, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, extremem southern Thailand, Sumatra, and the Philippines. In the Philippines, there are records from Jolo (Taylor 1934), Mindanao (Davao del Norte Province) and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
10983		habitat	eng	In Malaysia the species is generally dependent on primary forest (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006). There are records of two groups roosting in dead leaves on small shrubs in lowland forest in the Philippines (Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Palawan Island, there are records from secondary lowland forest at 80 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
10983		population	eng	This is a common species in primary forests on Sumatra (M. Nusalawo  pers. comm. 2006), and in Peninsular Malaysia it is fairly common in the understorey of primary forest. Harp and tunnel traps are required to survey this species. It is inferred that the population in Malaysia has undergone a decline of at least 30% in 15 years (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006).
10983		threats	eng	This species is dependent on primary forest which is being lost due to logging, plantations, conversion to agriculture and forest fires.
10984		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this little known species.
10984		distribution	eng	This African bat has been recorded from Guinea, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in West Africa; and from Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to western Uganda in Central Africa.
10984		habitat	eng	In general the species is found in lowland tropical moist forest, but has been encountered in both montane tropical moist forest and tropical dry forest. Rosevar (1965) indicates that the species is present in closed high forest. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded habitats. It may roost in tree hollows and similar habitats, however, this needs to be confirmed.
10984		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species that is known only from 14 localities.
10984		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. Koopman (1995) mentions that this one of seven bat species from Liberia that have not been recorded from the lowland since 1965, and that it might have declined because of deforestation, although this may instead just indicate vagaries of collection within this country.
10985		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Borivili National Park in Maharashtra, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh and Orang National Park in Assam, and Chitwan National Park in Nepal. Studies on preference to and survival in alternate habitats by this species is needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10985		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from southern and northeastern South Asia, southern China, most of mainland Southeast Asia and some major islands in insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is known from Bangladesh (Dhaka division) (Sarker and Sarker 2005, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Mid-western Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Sabargamuwa, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it has been recorded from much of southeast China, including the island of Hainan. In Southeast Asia, it ranges throughout the mainland, and has been recorded from the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Ambon, Halmahera and Ternate. In South Asia it has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10985		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it has been recorded in dry deciduous forests and found among dried leaves of banana, dry grass, flowers, weaver bird nests and in sugar cane fields. It flies close to bushes with a fluttering flight (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it is reported to roost in foliage, frequently amongst dried leaves or flowers that allow it to blend in well. They apparently aestivate during the day, as they are relatively sluggish when disturbed. In Southeast Asia, it is considered to be a poorly known species that probably roosts singly or in small groups in leaves of trees, and in bird nests, and is known to roost in old dead banana leaves (P. Bates pers. comm.). It has been collected in tall grass, flowers, among leaves of vines, and in sugar cane.
10985		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species.
10985		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats to this species. In South Asia this species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also threatened by conversion of plantation lands to make way for human settlements and changes in cropping pattern (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
10986		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and general ecology of this apparently rare species.
10986		distribution	eng	This African bat is known from scattered records in a distribution band ranging from Nigeria and Cameroon in the west, through the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to Uganda and Kenya in the east. Earlier records from Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia (Happold 1987; Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995) appear to be in error (J. Fahr pers. comm. in Simmons 2005). It has been recorded at elevations of 900 to 2,800 m asl.
10986		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from several forest types including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, tropical dry forest and swamp forest. Happold (1987) reported that in Nigeria, the species is found in 'the rainforest zone east of the Niger River'. It may use the nests of weaver birds and sunbirds, and tree cavities as roosting sites (Happold 1987). It is not known if the species is adaptable to habitat disturbance.
10986		population	eng	This species has been very rarely recorded (Happold 1987).
10986		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this little known species.
10987		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of some populations.
10987		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Thailand, Borneo, and the Philippines. In Malaysian Borneo, the species is known only from two localities in Sarawak (Mulu and Usun Apau) and from Sabah (Kinabatangan). In the Philippines, records are from Luzon Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte Provinces), Palawan, and Panay (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Taylor 1934) and Polillo (Alviola 1999).
10987		habitat	eng	In the Philippines, the species has been found in disturbed forest and agricultural areas (Sanborn 1952). On Palawan island, it has been reported from cogon grassland at around 60 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) and in secondary forest beside a creek at 450 m asl on Mt. Makiling (Laguna, Luzon) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Sedlock 2001).
10987		population	eng	Originally this species was considered to be extremely rare but this was probably due to inappropriate survey methodology and an inadequate number of surveys. Surveys using harp traps in montane forest on mount Isarog (Camarines Sur Province, Luzon) have found the species to be common at high elevations (1,400 m asl) (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). It is known only from isolated records in Malaysia, and it is not certain whether this reflects genuine rarity for this species or if it is a sign of the sampling difficulties associated with it.
10987		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In the Philippines, the species is locally threatened at higher elevations in montane forest on ultramafic soils through activities associated with mining (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).
10988		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas which have suitable habitat.
10988		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Brazil, from Piaui State to north Minas Gerais State, excluding coastal areas (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The rock cavy was successfully introduced to Fernando de Noronha in 1967 (Oren, 1984).
10988		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits dry rocky areas with low scrub vegetation where they shelter in crevices (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Its range is not restricted by elevation (Lacher pers. comm.). It feeds on leaves. The average gestation period is 75 days with an average litter size of 1.5, up to three litters of two young can be produced annually (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It can reproduce throughout the year in captivity.
10988		population	eng	There have been no detailed population studies; however, it is probably stable where it occurs (Lacher pers. comm.).
10988		threats	eng	This species is heavily hunted for food throughout its range, although protected areas offer refuge from hunting for this species. There are probably no major threats throughout its range.
11002		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
11003		conservation	eng	1). It is important to plan the management of this species by collecting as much information as possible on the cultural interactions between local human communities and tortoises, because it may be possible to create a mosaic of protected areas linking all the forested zones in which people traditionally worship tortoises. This strategy is certainly possible in some areas of southern Nigeria (Bayelsa State), e.g., around the towns of Sagbama and Brass.  <br/> <br/>2). Although <em>K. homeana</em> is on CITES Appendix II, thus banning the import of wild individuals into Europe (EC regulation number 338/97), it nevertheless seems necessary to develop further conservation legislation in favor of this species both at the international and national levels. At the national and sub-national level it is necessary to include this species among the protected fauna in all the countries of occurrence. At present, there is virtually no country that can reliably preserve this species, and we have seen several specimens traded for food or traditional medicine even inside protected areas (e.g., Upper Orashi Forest Reserve in Rivers State, southeastern Nigeria). Another serious problem is represented by the high rates of export of these tortoises to western markets from such countries as Ghana and Togo (e.g., see Lawson 2000). The exports of these specimens should be seriously controlled to prevent free-ranging specimens being taken, especially considering that it is often unclear how these specimens are obtained because tortoise farms are very underdeveloped in these countries. Harris (2001), for instance, found that most <em>Python regius</em> exported from Togo to Europe were claimed to come from farms but were actually newborns of wild-caught females (who were killed after oviposition). Close control should be exercised on these farms to prevent the tortoise trade from being conducted in the same way.  <br/> <br/>3). The field ecology of <em>K. homeana</em> has been studied intensively only in southern Nigeria and in western Cameroon. These studies should be continued in these two countries to achieve a very detailed dataset, but should also be urgently expanded into other countries of this species’ range for comparative purposes. The same is true also for the studies on the relationship between humans and tortoises. <br/> <br/>4). There is a strong need to establish protected areas that include populations of these tortoises, and perhaps a very promising initiative would be to create protected corridors by linking areas where local people traditionally protect tortoises.  <br/> <br/>5). Potential attempts at trade management have been undertaken (see Table 2 in the atached PDF). However, these should be developed more to reduce impact of export trade on wild-caught animals.
11003		distribution	eng	<strong>Historical Distribution Data</strong> <br/> <br/><em>K. homeana</em> is a forest tortoise with considerable range over the continuous Guinea-Congo rainforest region. The most reliable account of its distribution is provided by Iverson (1992), although comments are available also in later literature (e.g., Vetter 2002). However, it should be taken into account that for this species as well as for many Afrotropical reptiles, the picture of the distribution is based on an indiscriminate list of all the reliable locality records collected also during the colonial age (i.e., often in areas which have been drastically modified by humans during the last decades). As a result, these maps are often little more than "ideal maps", a reflection of a species’ previous distribution rather than its current status. Because of this, the distribution map of <em>K. homeana</em> (and virtually of all other medium to large size vertebrates) is a great overestimation of its real distribution. <br/>  <br/><em>K. homeana</em> is found in Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and in the Democratic Republic of Congo (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF). <br/> <br/><u>Liberia</u> - was found throughout the whole country: known in the north-west provinces as well as in the extreme southeast, around Harper (Iverson 1992).  <br/><u>Cote d'Ivoire</u> - Recorded in the forests around Aboisso in the south (Iverson 1992).  <br/><u>Ghana</u> - Reported to be widespread in the southern territories (Iverson 1992).  <br/><u>Togo</u> - No localities are presented in Iverson (1992), but see under Present Range below.  <br/><u>Benin</u> - No localities are presented in Iverson (1992), but see below. <br/><u>Nigeria</u> - Found only in the southern regions (Iverson 1992), in the continuous rainforest vegetation zone.  <br/><u>Cameroon</u> - Found throughout the coastal regions and also in the Southern Province (Iverson 1992); its presence has also been well documented in the Southwest Province in recent years (e.g., Lawson 1993, 2000, 2001).  <br/><u>Equatorial Guinea</u> - Found both on Bioko Island and in Rio Muni (Iverson 1992). <br/><u>Gabo</u> – Not recorded by Iverson (1992), but likely present because of a very few specimens exported in recent years to international markets. <br/><u>The Democratic Republic of Congo</u> - Isolated subpopulations are known from the easternmost forests, close to the political borders with southern Sudan and western Uganda (Iverson 1992). These subpopulations should be accurately studied to understand if they are an isolated subspecies or typical <em>homeana</em>.  <br/> <br/><strong>Present Range</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Liberia</u> - No recent survey on the distribution of this species in Liberia has been published. Several specimens (>50) were found by our research staff in the bush-meat markets of Monrovia, Buchanan, and Gbarnga during July 2000. According to the sellers, the tortoises were captured in the nearby surroundings. We also captured (and marked) 14 specimens in the coastal forest around Greenville, in July 2002, during a period of 8 consecutive days of research (a total of 68 hours spent in the field). <em>K. homeana</em> is reported by villagers to be locally common (e.g., around Gbarnga), and the pilot surveys in Greenville established an average sighting frequency of 1.75 tortoises/day, which is intermediate between those observed in southern Nigeria in (i) a harvest area (0.84 tortoises/day) and (ii) a non-harvest area (2.98 tortoises/day) (Luiselli 2003a). Based on interviews with local hunters and on our preliminary data, we believe that <em>K. homeana</em> is still widespread in Liberia, although likely declining due to over-exploitation by people. In particular, the civil war which has raged throughout Liberia in recent years has had serious consequences for several populations of this species. <em>K. homeana</em> became a common food item for people displaced into forests or bushlands to escape the fighting. Indeed, several interviewees confirmed that tortoises were one of the main protein sources not only for people escaping war but also for soldiers operating in forested zones. <br/><u>Cote d'Ivoire</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. Historical records (summarized in Iverson 1992) showed that it is found only in the south. <br/><u>Ghana</u> – <em>K. homeana</em> has been found recently in Onyadze and Ony-Winn (two sites of Muni-Pomadze Lagoon, southern Ghana) in secondary forest and grass/thicket habitats (Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000). Our staff did not capture any free-ranging specimen of this species during some pilot surveys conducted in the years 1995, 1996, and 1998 in the coastal bushland in the Great Accra region, but we did capture a single male in a bush-plantation area around Cape Coast (southwestern Ghana). Additional surveys in October–November 2003 in the markets around Accra and Koforidua (southern Ghana) indicated several specimens traded, and a very few specimens found in the field (which would likely mean a very low population density; see Table 1 in the attached PDF). Based on data provided by Raxworthy and Attuquayefio (2000), plus our surveys (and from comparisons with other geographic regions like Liberia and Nigeria), and on interviews with local people, we consider this species to have become increasingly uncommon in Ghana. The numbers of free-ranging tortoises captured for the international pet trade should also be monitored, because it cannot be excluded that, as in Togo (Harris 2001), several traded specimens do not come from tortoise farms. <br/><u>Togo</u> - Found only in the remnant forests around the towns of Kpalime and Badou (southwestern Togo) (Harris 2001).  <br/><u>Benin</u> – Although no records are available in Iverson (1992), the species is certainly present in Benin Republic, where it is heavily exploited and also exported to western countries (see Figure 1, and Tables 1 and 2 in the attached PDF). <br/><u>Nigeria</u> - The current distribution is well known because the species has been studied intensively by ourselves and associates during the last ten years (e.g., Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2003; Luiselli 2003a,b,c, 2005). This species has been observed by our staff in several States:  <br/>Lagos -- presumably rare; several specimens were only found in the forest fragments and bush around Maryland, and around Lekki Lagoon. <br/>Oyo -- presumably declining (according to several interviewees); we found it in the forest patches around Ibadan, where it has been collected also in the past (Blackwell 1968), and is actively hunted (Butler and Shitu 1985). <br/>Edo -- locally common in mature forest fragments, but presumably extirpated from the many recently deforested areas. Based on random surveys throughout 13 potential sites of occurrence in 1999–2000, we verified its presence in only 4 sites (30.8%). <br/>Delta -- very endangered due to severe habitat loss (potential habitat for tortoises covers approximately 0.1% of the state area) and hunting for subsistence. For instance, it was found along the riverine swamp-forests of the Etiope River in 1982, but not found again in 2001 (Lea <em>et al</em>. 2003).  <br/>Bayelsa and Rivers -- found in some swamp-forest patches of both these states (e.g., Powell 1993, Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2000) and is locally common in a few areas where it is worshipped by indigenous communities (Luiselli 2003a). However it is actively persecuted for both subsistence and traditional medicine ("ju-ju") in most areas, where it is very likely to be declining (see data in Luiselli 2003a). In addition, it is severely threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) due to expanding petrochemical development.  <br/>Anambra -- extremely rare, it is found only in a few riverine forest patches in the southernmost part of this state and surrounding Oguta (in AGIP oilfield forest site). Most of the state landscape is characterized by plantations and cultivations, not suitable habitat for this tortoise. <br/>Akwa-Ibom -- severely fragmented populations are found in a few riverine forests (e.g., along the banks of the River Kwa-Ibo) and in the Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve; many specimens are traded for "ju-ju" and food in Uyo market, but it seems that a good proportion of them may have come from the adjacent Cross River State (Eniang unpublished data). In addition, it is severely threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) due to petrochemical expansion in coastal areas. More common at the border with Cross River State (surroundings of Itu). <br/>Cross River -- common in lowland forests (e.g., in the Ikpan Forest block, see Eniang and Luiselli 2002), it is replaced by <em>Kinixys erosa</em> in hilly and mountainous forests. In the Cross River National Park, for instance, it is much less common than <em>K. erosa</em>, but this is probably due to natural ecological constraints. <br/><u>Cameroon</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. Lawson (2000) reported a very strong hunting pressure on this species in the Western and South-West Provinces. Lawson (1993) recorded its presence in 7 different sites (Abat, Mundemba, Baro, Besingi, Ekundu Kundu, Pamol Palm Plantations, Nfainchang). Additional known localities are Bipindi, Dibongo, Jengwe, Kribi, Déhané, Nkolembembe, Nko’olong, and Akom II (van Dijk 1994, LeBreton 1999). <br/><u>Equatorial Guinea</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. <br/><u>Gabon</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. Its distribution is unknown but likely extremely reduced (for instance it has not found during two very extensive field surveys in the ‘Monts de Cristal’, and in the ‘Massif du Chaillu’; see Pauwels <em>et al</em>. 2002a,b), although very few specimens were traded and exported (see Table 2 in attached PDF). <br/><u>The Democratic Republic of Congo</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. <br/> <br/><strong>Extent of Occurrence</strong> <br/>According to our calculations, based on maps in Iverson (1992) modified by data reported in other sources published before 1992, and on original data made available to us (referring to distributions in 1980–90), the entire range of <em>K. homeana</em> had a potential extent of occurrence of about 788,843 km² in 1992 (see Table 3 in the attached PDF). The country comprising the highest percentage of the potential range was Nigeria (23.4% ), followed by Cameroon (20.3%). <br/> <br/>Because Nigeria and Cameroon comprise the greatest proportion of this species’ potential range (43.7%) they are appropriate to assess the current global status of <em>K. homeana</em> in the absence of firm data from the other countries. <br/> <br/><strong>Area of Occupancy</strong> <br/>Because few fieldwork-based data on the area of occupancy exist for <em>K. homeana</em>, the area of occupancy is simply defined as 10% of the area of extent of occurrence as applied in the Red List Criteria (IUCN 2001), yielding an estimate of 78,843 km². In Nigeria, where the human population density is expanding rapidly (currently about 120 million people) and where the remnant proportion of forests is very low (about 1% of that found in the 1950s; Geomatics 1996), it is almost certain that the current tortoise range is far less than the 10% of former range expected according to IUCN (2001) criteria. We would suggest that a more appropriate estimate of the current range of <em>K. homeana</em> in Nigeria is approximately 5% of that in 1992 (i.e., approximately 9,235 km², and this is certainly an overestimation). A current occupation of only 5% of the 1992 range would translate to an assessment, for the Nigerian populations, as Critically Endangered under criteria A2c. Of course this does not include reduction in occupancy in other range states, and so we could not be sure about the soundness of any generalization of this assessment as CR. However, it has not been reported anywhere that the species survives significantly better in other countries, and there is little cause for optimism. Hence, based on these calculations, the status of <em>K. homeana</em> is clearly becoming vulnerable due to the considerable extent of habitat loss in addition to subsistence hunting.
11003		habitat	eng	Most of the data available on the habitat preferences of <em>K. homeana</em> populations are based on anecdotal observations and not on sound data. It is generally reported that this species occurs in forests all throughout its range, generally of a drier type than the forests inhabited by <em>K. erosa</em> (Ernst and Barbour 1989). According to Broadley (1989) it inhabits the lowland evergreen forest, and a similar habitat has been described in western Cameroon (Lawson 1993), where it is locally threatened by clearance of forest for cultivation (e.g., around Nfainchang; Lawson 1993). <br/> <br/>The most detailed study on the habitat preferences of <em>K. homeana</em> has been done in southern Nigeria. At a landscape scale, a statistical study (based on logistic regression of presence/absence data) revealed that Nigerian populations of <em>K. homeana</em> are habitat specialists, being linked to zones of secondary dry forest around mangroves and in zones with secondary swamp-forest (Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2000). Considering that in the Delta states these habitat types have declined dramatically during the last decades, falling from 2% of state area in 1976–78 to only 0.2% in 1993–95 (Geomatics 1996) due primarily to petrochemical expansion, it may be inferred that habitat loss represents a very serious reason of decline for these tortoises at a global scale. This supposition is reinforced by evidence that <em>K. homeana</em> needs closed forest canopy and shady microhabitats to avoid overheating, and shows behavioral thermoregulation in its avoidance of overheating (Luiselli 2005), i.e. allowing only short periods of exposure to the sun during movements between sunlit and shaded areas (Hailey and Coulson 1998, Luiselli 2005). Another potential limitation factor of habitat occupancy by <em>K. homeana</em> may be a potential for interspecific competition for food with the closely related <em>K. erosa</em>, which exhibits a wide overlap in terms of spatial use (Luiselli 2003b). <br/> <br/>At a local scale, Luiselli (2003a) demonstrated that the type of attitude of human communities towards tortoises may have very serious consequences on the habitat preferences of these animals, so that any generalization can be difficult. Luiselli (2003a) studied tortoise population ecology at six study areas with similar habitat characteristics in the eastern axis of the Niger Delta. In three areas, the tortoises had been worshipped by local communities for a long time as holy animals, whereas in three other areas they were actively hunted for subsistence. The habitat use by tortoises varied depending on the type of treatment by the indigenous people (hunting vs. veneration): in the veneration areas the tortoises were frequently found in disparate habitats (i.e., dense dry bush, sparse dry bush, riparian vegetation, swamps, and plantations; Luiselli 2003a). In the hunting areas the tortoises were found almost exclusively inside dense bush, and always avoided plantations. It seems likely that the different habitat usage reflects extirpation from easier hunting areas (Luiselli 2003a). This study may have important global consequences for this species' status, because it demonstrates that wherever they are hunted for subsistence (which is a common occurrence in West and Central Africa, e.g., see Fa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lawson 2000, Fa and Garcia Juste 2001, Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2003), the habitat in which they are still found is just a fraction of the potential habitat. They are limited to forest patches with very dense vegetation where access for human hunters is difficult. Forest habitat loss is an enormous problem in West Africa because of the rate of destruction (Oates 1999), and concomitant with this, human overpopulation and increasing hunting pressure (e.g., Luiselli 2003a,c; Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2003) means that the long-term viability of these tortoises is at high risk. <br/> <br/>Clearance of forest for cultivation is also considered a cause of decline for <em>K. homeana</em> in Cameroon (e.g., around Nfainchang; Lawson 1993). Although we do not have quantitative data for other countries it is obvious that the same is happening almost everywhere in the range of this tortoise, since in all these countries human population density is growing, forest loss is rapid, and hunting for subsistence is rampant (e.g., see discussion in Oates 1999).
11003		population	eng	There are no available data on the global population size and density of <em>K. homeana</em> at the continental scale. We therefore need to use the few data available on the density and home ranges of these tortoises from some specific localities to generate estimates of population size at the continental scale. <br/> <br/>In the Niger Delta (southern Nigeria), during 1995–2002, we radiotracked 33 adults (20 males and 13 females) for 40 continuous days, and measured mean home range size (quantified via minimum convex polygon) of 0.37 km² for males and 0.24 km² for females, with some specimens (especially males) exhibiting home ranges as large as 0.46 km². Lawson (2000) also stated that, in western Cameroon, male home range may exceed 0.5 km²; his data are very similar to our own despite the different study regions and environmental conditions. Moreover, both in Nigeria (Luiselli and associates unpublished data) and in Cameroon (Lawson 2000), male tortoises are highly territorial, and usually drive other males away from their core home ranges. Thus, the density of these tortoises is low in most places even in highly suitable environments. Luiselli (2003a) presented some data on population structure and abundance of <em>K. homeana</em> that can be useful for calculating a rough density of these tortoises under natural conditions. During 20 consecutive field days of research in southern Nigeria (10 days in the wet season and 10 days in the dry season, from February 2001 to January 2002) ten people independently searching a 20 ha area found an average density of 1.4 tortoises/ha at six localities. The density ranged from 0.15 to 0.9 tortoises/ha in harvest areas, and from 1.65 to 2.85 tortoises/ha in veneration areas (density values calculated from Table 1 in Luiselli, 2003a). <br/> <br/><em>K. homeana</em> is known to inhabit similar habitats across its entire range, and data from separate regions (Cameroon and Nigeria) showed a clear similarity also in home range size and territoriality. Hence we may use the above population density of approximately 1.4 individuals/ha for <em>K. homeana</em> in Nigeria to extrapolate estimates for the whole species range. Calculating population size from the population density estimates (Luiselli 2003a), we expect approximately 140 tortoises in an area of 1 km², which would give a figure of about 1,300,900 tortoises in all of Nigeria according to the most optimistic view (i.e., assuming that in 50% of the occupied sites there is veneration, and no hunting pressure). However, since our data show that veneration occurs in less than 1% of the occupied sites, the total tortoise population figure would be much lower. With an average density (calculated from Luiselli 2003a for harvest areas) of 0.53 individuals/ha this gives 53.33 tortoises/km², and about 500,000 tortoises in all of Nigeria. This latter figure is probably a much more accurate population estimate. If we apply the above reasoning to the whole of this species’ range we calculate a total population size for <em>K. homeana</em> of at best 4,205,000 tortoises. <br/> <br/>Lawson (2000), studying the harvest rates of <em>K. homeana</em> in three protected areas of Cameroon (Korup National Park, Banyang-Mbo Sanctuary, and Nta-Ali Reserve), estimated an overall mean annual harvest rate of 0.3 animals/km² in these areas with good habitat conditions and relatively low human density. Then, if 100% of the species’ range was protected and under relatively low human density, and extrapolating harvest data by Lawson (2000), the expected annual harvest rate would have been 236,532 tortoises, i.e., 5.6% of the total surviving tortoise population. However, the percent of protected territory is less than 3% of the species’ range, and the human population density is much higher in several regions of the species’ range than in the three protected areas of Cameroon studied by Lawson (2000), and hence we may conclude that the annual harvest rate is certainly much higher than the calculated 5.6%, but not quantifiable on the basis of current data. Also acknowledging the theoretical limits of our calculations, which are simply estimates, it is still very likely that the free-ranging populations of this species cannot sustain the current pressure (combination of continuing habitat loss and hunting) for more than 2–3 generations (<em>sensu</em> IUCN 2001), with each generation being about 15 years. Based on the above assumption, <em>K. homeana</em> meets at least the IUCN Red List criteria for Vulnerable status, but a case for an even higher category of risk can be made.
11003		threats	eng	<em>K. homeana</em> is currently experiencing a very serious decline in much of its range, due mainly to habitat loss (through agricultural and industrial expansion and deforestation) and intensive harvesting for subsistence and traditional medicine ("ju-ju") by local people in desperately poor economic condition, as well as for the international pet trade (further details on all these threats are given above). <br/> <br/>Although <em>K. homeana</em> is still found in nearly all the forest-zone protected areas in Nigeria (see Table 4 in the attached PDF) and in Cameroon (Lawson 2000), there is no doubt that hunting is still rampant in all these protected areas, as testified by harvest data provided by Lawson (2000) and the observations of Luiselli (2003c) of hunted specimens inside two protected areas in the Niger Delta. Hence, a crucial point to be addressed by future studies is the impact that illegal hunting activities may have on populations of <em>K. homeana</em> inside formally established protected areas. At present, it is clear that protected area populations are not free of exploitation.
11004		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
11005		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - shallow swamps
11006		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/><em>K. creaseri</em> occurs in a few protected natural and archaeological sites, including Calacmul and Siankaane BR. <br/> <br/>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas would be desirable.
11006		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Yucatan Peninsula in the Mexican states of Yucatan, Quintana Roo and northern Campeche (Iverson 1992). It has been recorded close to the border with Belize but not confirmed within that country.
11006		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the mesic parts of the rather arid northern Yucatan Peninsula, where no surface streams exist and the aquatic habitat is restricted to cenotes (pools in limestone sinkholes) and temporary pools (Duellman 1965 in Smith and Smith 1979, Iverson in Groombridge 1982, Buskirk 1997). Artner (2004) found animals in surface rainpools but not in cenotes, at water depths of 5 to 30 cm (exceptionally 80 cm); they shared these waters with <em>Rhinoclemmys areolata</em> and <em>Kinosternon scorpioides cruentatum</em>. The distribution of <em>K. creaseri</em> is complementary to that of <em>K. acutum</em> and <em>K. leucostomum</em> and broadly sympatric with <em>K. scorpioides cruentatum</em>. <br/> <br/>Artner (2004) thought the natural diet to consist of aquatic insects and their larvae, fallen insects and freshwater snails, which has been confirmed by faecal data. It is tolerant of moderate habitat disturbance, although very intensive habitat modification, not found within its range at present, would be a problem. <br/> <br/>Apparently active only during the rainy season, June to October, spending the rest of the year in aestivation (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). Estimated to take 10 to 15 years to maturity. Females may produce multiple clutches each consisting of a single egg (Iverson, 1989). Artner (2004) recorded a captive female producing 2 to 4 clutches of 1 to 2 eggs per year (3 to 6 eggs annually). No information is available on longevity.
11006		population	eng	No detailed information available; the species was thought to be rare in the 1982 Red Data Book (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). It is now thought to be locally abundant in suitable habitat (Iverson 1989, Lee 1996).
11006		threats	eng	No threats specifically recorded. Very few animals have been recorded in international pet trade, but they are collected in small numbers and eaten by locals. The blood and meat are locally used to treat respiratory illness.
11008		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - small streams
11009		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. Not likely to occur in the coastal Lagunas de Chacahua NP or Huatulco NP. <br/> <br/>All basic biological and status information needs to be collected for this species.
11009		distribution	eng	Southern Oaxaca, Mexico, and presumably into eastern Guerrero (Iverson 1992, Carr 1993). The species is known from between 100 and 800 m elevation (Berry and Iverson 1980).
11009		habitat	eng	Inhabits still, turbid waters, including seasonal pools, permanent ponds, marshlands and muddy ponds, but animals are occasionally encountered in rivers (Iverson, 1986). It may be washed onto the coastal plain by seasonal upland flooding (Ernst and Barbour 1989). <br/> <br/>The animals are active apparently mainly during the rainy season (June to October) and rarely bask (Iverson 1986). <br/> <br/>The species is probably an opportunistic feeder; recorded diet is dominated by plant matter, but animal matter (beetles, shrimp, tadpoles, fish) is also taken (Iverson 1986). <br/> <br/>Maximum size is 175 mm in males and 157 mm CL in females. Males reach maturity between 113 and 125 mm CL, at an age of about 7 to 10 years, while females mature at about 115 mm CL and 8 to 9 years of age (Iverson 1986).  <br/>Nesting likely occurs from after mid-July, and hatching probably occurs after the rainy season but the hatchlings likely remain in the nest until next rainy season (Iverson 1986).
11009		population	eng	This is generally understood to be an uncommon species, although is apparently very common in southern Oaxaca and adjoining easternmost Guerrero (Buskirk in litt. 2 Jan 2007).
11009		threats	eng	Carr (in litt. 11 Jan 2007) reported to have found it as a road kill, and obtained a series of shells from locals that were presumably eaten, so there may be some localized subsistence use as food; the significance of these levels of mortality is unknown. Small numbers of juveniles in the international pet trade, apparently derived from captive breeding in Mexico and elsewhere, pose no threat to the species at present trade levels.
11010		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
11011		conservation	eng	In the United States,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Kinosternon sonoriense</span> is restricted from exploitation in Arizona through area restrictions where collection is not permitted (including all protected areas), New Mexico has an annual bag limit of five <span style="font-style: italic;">K. sonoriense</span>, while California has no restrictions of collection of the species. Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven.<br/><br/>The species inhabits a number of protected areas in each country of occurrence, including the Catalina Mountains, Montezuma’s Well, and Organ Pipe Cactus NM in Arizona. Nevertheless, these areas’ protected status does not necessarily safeguard the habitat and species from groundwater loss and climatic change impacts. <br/><br/>Currently the Arizona Game and Fish Department, National Park Service, Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, and the Phoenix Zoo have been working together to maintain an assurance colony of Sonoyta Mud Turtles and improve habitat at Quitobaquito Oasis (Riedle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>Range-wide population assessments, further natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas in Mexico would be desirable. Intensive efforts will be needed to safeguard and restore remaining habitat of the Sonoyta Mud Turtle, both at the only site in the United States (State and partner efforts in place and ongoing) and in the Rio Sonoyta in Mexico (cross-border partnership public-NGO developing in recent years).
11011		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon sonoriense</span> occurs in hill areas of southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, and Lower Colorado basin of USA and Mexico, and endorrheic and Baja California drainages of Sonora and Chihuahua (Iverson 1992). <br/><p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon sonoriense</span><em> sonoriense</em>: Lower Colorado basin of southwestern New Mexico, southern Arizona, and possibly extreme southeastern California, USA, as well as the Magdalena, Sonora, upper Yaquia and upper Fuerte [Urique] of Sonora and endorrheic basins of western Chihuahua, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Ernst and Lovich 2009).</p><p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon sonoriense</span><em> longifemorale</em>: Endemic to the Rio Sonoyta basin on the border of Arizona (USA) and Sonora (Mexico) (Iverson 1992).</p>
11011		habitat	eng	Sonora Mud Turtles preferentially inhabit permanent waterbodies such as streams, creeks, ditches, ponds, springs, waterholes and stock ponds (cattle drinking basins), often in woodland, but also in Sonoran Desert vegetation. Preferred waterbodies contain clear water with rocky, gravelly or sandy bottom and aquatic vegetation. Ephemeral waters and terrestrial habitats are only occasionally used. (van Loben Sels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, Ernst and Lovich 2009). Animals move out of drying puddles onto land (not into permanent waterbodies) (Ligon and Stone 2003). Occurs up to 2,042 m altitude (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994).   <p><em>Kinosternon sonoriense</em> are preferentially carnivorous, including plant matter in their diet only when the availability of animal food, such as benthic insects, snails, small crustaceans and carrion, is limited (Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>Females may reach 17.5 cm carapace length (CL), males no more than 15.5 cm CL&#160; Females may reach maturity at five to nine years of age, at CL 9.3-10.6 cm or more (Hulse 1982, Rosen 1987, in Ernst and Lovich 2009, van Loben Sels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Males mature at 7.6-9.8 cm CL and 4-8 years of age (Hulse 1982, Rosen and Lowe 1996, in Ernst and Lovich 2009). Several females produce at least two clutches per year. Clutch size averages 6.7 eggs (range 2-11). (van Loben Sels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) Hatchlings measure 25-27 mm CL (range 19-34 mm) at 1.8-3.3 grams (review by Ernst and Lovich 2009). A generation time of 12 years and a net replacement rate of 1.6 have been calculated (Rosen and Lowe 1996, in Ernst and Lovich 2009). Longevity may exceed 40 years in the wild. </p>
11011		population	eng	<p>Recorded population densities in suitable habitat are as high as 750 to 3,000 animals per hectare (Hulse 1982, Stone 2001). A large stable population persisted in a canyon that fell completely dry in some years (Stone, 2001). <br/></p><p>The species is rated as Apparently Secure in Arizona, Vulnerable in New Mexico, introduced in Nevada and Possibly Extirpated in California (NatureServe, 2004). No population data are available concerning Mexican populations. </p>  <p>Population of the ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">longifemorale</span> is less abundant; the population at Quitobaquito Oasis (in Organ Pipe Cactus NM) has declined from several hundred in the late 1950s to about 100 in the early 1980s; habitat improvements increased the population to about 130 turtles in the early 1990s, but indications are that the oasis has since declined in water inflow. The Quitobaquito population has continued to remain stable, and continued maintenance and improvements are being made to the pond. The mudturtle population in the Rio Sonoyta just across the US-MX border persists in semi-permanent pools resulting from artificial dams and waste water effluent in the town of Sonoyta. Turtles also persist within seasonal pools along the Rio Sonoyta further west in the Reserva de la Biosfera El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar. There is a possibly introduced population found farther south in the city of Quitovac (Rosen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). </p>
11011		threats	eng	Irrigation, water extraction and water diversion projects have a significant impact on the species’ habitat through affecting groundwater and surface water availability as well as affecting riparian vegetation. Hydrological stresses may be exacerbated by changes in prevailing climatic conditions.   <p>Introduced bullfrogs and freshwater crayfish represent additional, alien predators on juveniles (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, NatureServe 2004) </p>  <p>Water diversion, groundwater pumping and habitat degradation are particularly severe in the range of the Sonoyta Mud Turtle (ssp. <em>longifemorale</em>). Conservation efforts&#160; here are complicated by narcotics smuggling and human trafficking in the area. </p>
11021		conservation	eng	Further searches for <em>K. ballochi</em> in more remote areas surrounding the type locality have been proposed for August 2007 (Jenkins, pers. comm.). There are no conservation measures in place at present.
11021		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few small creeks along a 15-20 km stretch of the Ok Tedi Mine supply road between Kiunga and Tabubil which is part of the Upper Fly River system, Papua New Guinea.  Most specimens have been collected from tributaries of the Ok Smak River.  It is probably restricted to tributaries of the Ok Smak River and tributaries to adjacent rivers within the upper Fly River basin (Jenkins, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Ok Smak River lies within the upper Fly River basin, but as <em>K. balloch</em>i is not likely to be found in the main stem of the Fly River, it is therefore restricted to an area which covers 15,283 km².
11021		habitat	eng	<em>K. ballochi</em> is a demersal species that inhabits narrow, clear creeks flowing through rainforest in generally flat terrain.  Species from the family Pseudomugliidae normally congregate in schools.
11021		population	eng	When it was first discovered in 1982, the species was reported as being moderately common. Attempts to locate the fish at the type locality in 1994-1995 were unsuccessful.  The species has not been found in the wild for over ten years in the type or adjacent localities (Jenkins, Pers. comm.).
11021		threats	eng	It is suspected that <em>K. ballochi</em> has been severely impacted by habitat degradation.  The type locality of this species and adjacent suitable habitats have been extensively damaged by associated activities of the Ok Tedi copper and gold mine (Jenkins, pers. comm.).  Not only has the freshwater habitat of this species been altered through the construction of a road leading to Ok Tedi mine, but its proximity to the mine means that it is likely to be affected by pollution.  Sedimentation and toxic runoff has greatly reduced fish catches from the Ok Tedi and Fly River systems.  It has been reported that even after the mine is closed in approximately fifteen years, recovery may take another twenty years.  Exotic fish species are also a concern in this region, which may be affecting <em>K. ballochi</em> (WWF 2001).
11026		conservation	eng	There is localised conservation as some springs are included within protected areas. However, protection is at the site level with no protection of the actual watershed.
11026		distribution	eng	It is restricted to north-eastern Italy.
11026		habitat	eng	Lives in springs and cold clean streams on the flat plains.
11026		population	eng	It was previously believed to exist in only a few places but it has recently been found to be more widespread.
11026		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution.
11027		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention as <em>Gobius thessalus</em>.
11027		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Pinios River catchment in Thessaly in Central Greece. Formerly, it was common in lake Karla, which has since been almost drained leaving only a few remaining isolated subpopulations.
11027		habitat	eng	Lives in springs and well-oxygenated streams rich in aquatic vegetation. It is also found in creeks, in brackish water, and in irrigation channels. It does not appear to need well-oxygenated waters.
11027		population	eng	Unknown
11027		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water pollution.
11028		conservation	eng	None.
11028		distribution	eng	It is only known from a single spring on Corfu island, Greece. Recent attempts in the late 1990's have failed to find it (Kottelat, M. pers comm.).
11028		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater springs.
11028		population	eng	No data
11028		threats	eng	Water extraction, which has possibly led to increased salinity in the springs, and pollution.
11029		conservation	eng	This is a Natura 2000 Site, which is apparently providing no effective protection as there are plans to drain part of the area.
11029		distribution	eng	Restricted to the River Acheron delta in western Greece.
11029		habitat	eng	It is found in fresh and brackish waters, often with abundant vegetation, and sand or mud substrates.
11029		population	eng	Declining and the local people have been draining the area.
11029		threats	eng	Land reclamation: local authorities are planning to reclaim approximately 50% of the swamp. Water pollution - in particular from the local village.
11030		conservation	eng	No information.
11030		distribution	eng	Saline, fresh and estuarine waters along coasts of Black, Azov; Caspian and Aegean Seas west to Aliakmon drainage (Greece); identity of populations from along the eastern shore of Adriatic questionable. Has been recorded from freshwater lakes and lowland rivers more than 100 km from coast. Introduced in Aral Sea (but now extirpated).
11030		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to hypersaline waters (salinity up to 5.5 ‰) of lakes, estuaries and lagoons. Most abundant in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20-23 mm SL. Spawns in March-July, up to four portions of eggs. Eggs are attached to the roof of a cavity under stones, plant material or shells and are defended by male. Postlarvae are pelagic. Feeds on small invertebrates. In Trichonis Lake: on mud to gravel bottom, at depths less than 2 m; feeds mainly on copepods and larvae of the mussel <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>.
11030		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to hypersaline waters (salinity up to 5.5%) of lakes, estuaries and lagoons. Most abundant in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20-23 mm SL. Spawns in March-July, up to four portions of eggs. Eggs are attached to the roof of a cavity under stones, plant material or shells and are defended by male. Postlarvae are pelagic. Feeds on small invertebrates. In Trichonis Lake: on mud to gravel bottom, at depths less than 2 m; feeds mainly on copepods and larvae of the mussel <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>.
11030		population	eng	Abundant.
11030		threats	eng	No major threats known.
11031		conservation	eng	None.
11031		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the karstic River Matica, Neretva and Lake Bacina (Polje Jezero) in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
11031		habitat	eng	It lives in the freshwater karstic Matica river, its upper part drys out in summer. It can be found also in the brackish Lake Bacina. Spawning season in February.
11031		population	eng	No data.
11031		threats	eng	Eutrophication, water pollution and extraction and alteration of the habitat.
11032		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention and in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive.
11032		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Adriatic catchment. It has been introduced in the Tyrrhenian catchment in Italy. In Greece it is only known from the Evinos delta, but the identity of this population needs confirmation.
11032		habitat	eng	A eurihaline species found in fresh and brackish waters
11032		population	eng	Abundant.
11032		threats	eng	No major threats known.
11033		conservation	eng	Today, Lechwes survive mainly in and around protected areas and game reserves. <br/><br/>Red Lechwe occur in the Moremi G.R. and Chobe N.P. (Botswana), Sioma Ngwezi, Liuwa Plains and Kafue National Parks, and the West Zambezi and Kasonso-Busanga Game Management Areas (Zambia), Kameia N.P. and the Luando, Mavinga and Luiana Game Reserves (Angola), and the Western Caprivi G.R. and the Mahango Game Park (Namibia) (Jeffery and Nefdt in press). <br/><br/>Kafue Lechwe occur only in Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National Parks, both Ramsar sites, and the Kafue Flats Game Management Area in Zambia (Jeffery and Nefdt in press).<br/><br/>Black Lechwe occur only in the Bangweulu Game Management Area, and the Kalasa-Mukoso Game Management Area, while the Upemba National Park is the only known protected area refuge for the Upemba Lechwe (Jeffery and Nefdt in press).<br/><br/>The long-term survival of the lechwe in the wild is totally dependent on the effective protection and management of its remaining populations and their wetland habitats in a few critical areas, in particular Bangweulu (Black Lechwe), Kafue Flats (Kafue Lechwe), Okavango, Linyanti, Busanga and Caprivi (Red Lechwe), and Upemba N.P. (Upemba Lechwe). A significant proportion of the species’ total numbers occurs outside national parks and game reserves (>80% for the Red Lechwe). It is therefore likely that both revenue generation through sustainable offtake by sport hunters which capitalises on the species’ value as a trophy animal and the development of sustainable harvesting to provide meat for local people, e.g., in Bangweulu and Kafue Flats, will play an increasingly important role in the conservation of lechwe populations (East 1999).<br/><br/>Populations of Lechwe are maintained in captivity.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
11033		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Lechwe is discontinuous, with major populations restricted to extensive wetlands in Botswana, Namibia, Angola and Zambia, and remnants of populations in south-east DR Congo. Present distribution is much the same as its historical distribution, except that range has contracted, particularly over the last century (East 1999; Jeffery and Nefdt in press). The ranges of the four subspecies are as follows (from Jeffery and Nefdt in press):<br/><br/>The Kafue Lechwe is confined to the Kafue Flats in central Zambia.<br/><br/>The Black Lechwe is confined to the southern half of the Bangweulu Swamps of northern Zambia. It is unlikely to survive in its former range on the Chambeshi floodplains along the upper Luapula floodplain that forms the common frontier between Zambia and south-eastern DRC.<br/><br/>Red Lechwe are found in the Okavango Delta, and the Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe system of northern Botswana; the Okavango, Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe, Mashi, and Zambezi River systems of north-east Namibia; and the upper Zambezi and middle Kafue of Zambia.<br/><br/>The extinct Robert’s Lechwe was reportedly restricted to within the Luongo and Kalungwishi drainage systems of the lower Luapula locality of north-east Zambia.<br/><br/>The Upemba Lechwe is restricted to the Upemba wetlands, Kamalondo depression, in the Katanga<br/>Province of south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Cotterill 2005).
11033		habitat	eng	Lechwe are associated with wetlands, preferring the shallow water margins of floodplains and swamps (less than a metre deep), although they may occasionally swim across deep-water areas. They typically frequent light woodlands and termitaria grasslands on the periphery of inundated floodplains, floodplain grasslands and water-meadows among seasonally inundated floodplains, shallow water meadows of permanently inundated swamps and lagoons, and occasionally papyrus and reed beds of permanent deep-water swamps (Jeffery and Nefdt in press). Southern Lechwe are grazers, feeding mainly on floodplain and aquatic grasses. Nefdt (1996) discusses an instance in which Lechwe adapted their reproductive behaviour to changes in ecology including those induced by human activities.
11033		population	eng	Population estimates based on aerial surveys are available for all of the major surviving Lechwe populations. East (1999), correcting for undercounting biases, produced a total population estimate of 98,000 Red Lechwe (85% in the Okavango Delta), 78,000 Kafue Lechwe and 36,000 Black Lechwe. Overall population trends are stable or increasing for the Black and Kafue Lechwes and for the Red Lechwe in protected areas, but are decreasing for the Red Lechwe outside protected areas (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Kafue Lechwe population has been monitored for many years, and has the most reliable time-series of population records. In the early 1970s, estimates consistently put the population at between 90,000 and 110,000. By the early 1980s the population had been reduced to between 40,000 and 45,000, but has increased thereafter slowly to between 50,000 and 70,000 (East 1999; Jeffery and Nefdt in press, and references therein).<br/><br/>Black Lechwe increased from 16,000-17,000 in the late 1960s to about 40,000 in 1980 and subsequently decreased to 30,000, where it seems to have stabilised since the late 1980s (East 1999; Jeffery and Nefdt in press).<br/><br/>The Upemba Lechwe population of DR Congo has declined from about 20,000 to less than 1,000 since the 1980s (Cotterill 2005).<br/><br/>Roberts Lechwe is extinct.
11033		threats	eng	Lechwes have been eliminated from large parts of their former range by poaching for meat. Poaching is implicated in apparent large-scale changes in the dry season distribution of Black Lechwe, with a dramatic decrease in the numbers occupying the western end of the main Bangweulu Swamps where poaching is intense. In contrast, its numbers appear to be stable or increasing in the central section of the main swamp, and there has been a steady increase in the dry season population on the 100 km² Chimbwi Plain in south-eastern Bangweulu (East 1999). Commercial poaching is also the primary reason for the dramatic decline in numbers of the Upemba Lechwe (Cotterill 2005).<br/><br/>Droughts and disruption of the natural flooding regime are significant causes of population decline. For example, water flow on the Kafue floodplain has been regulated almost entirely by human needs since the construction of hydroelectric dams at the eastern and western ends of the Flats in the 1970s. The Kafue Flats are also used for livestock grazing and the peripheral area is densely settled, particularly in the south. As already noted, the population of Kafue Lechwe decreased from 90,000-100,000 in the early 1970s, before the closure of the dams, to 40,000-50,000 in the early to mid-1980s (East 1999).
11034		conservation	eng	In the Sudan, populations of Nile Lechwe occur in three nominal protected areas: Zeraf, extending over 9,700 km² along the Bahr-el-Zeraf; Fanyikang, over 480 km², north of Bahr-el-Gazal, which separates them from the Zeraf Reserve; and Shambe, over 620 km², along Bahr-el-Gebel. However, Nile Lechwe move in and out of these nominally protected areas and most occur in areas that are shared seasonally with huge herds of cattle. In Ethiopia, they occur in the Gambella N.P., which has yet to be officially gazetted (see Falchetti in press).<br/><br/>Falchetti (1998) outlined priorities for both <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of this species. The urgent need to address these priorities as opportunity permits is underlined by plans to resuscitate the construction of the Jonglei canal, introduce irrigation and exploit oil reserves in southern Sudan (in the Sudd and in Zeraf; Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007), which could result in a dramatic deterioration of the Nile Lechwe's status (East 1999).<br/><br/>There is an increasing population of Nile Lechwe held in captivity (Falchetti 1998).
11034		distribution	eng	Found only in Sudan and Ethiopia. In Sudan, the bulk of the population is found in the Sudd swamps, with smaller numbers in the Machar marshes near the Ethiopia border. In Ethiopia, the Nile Lechwe occurs marginally in the south-west, in the Gambella National Park, where its survival is probably highly precarious because of expanding human activities (Hillman and Fryxell 1988; East 1999; Falchetti in press).
11034		habitat	eng	The Nile Lechwe is confined to seasonally flooded swamps and grasslands within the Sudd and Machar-Gambella wetlands of southern Sudan and south-western Ethiopia. They are almost always in shallow waters on the edge of deeper swamps where the water is between 10 and 40 cm deep (Mefit-Babtie 1983).
11034		population	eng	Aerial surveys of the Sudd region conducted in the early and late dry season of the Jonglei area in southern Sudan in 1980 yielded estimated counts of ~12,000 and ~32,000 animals, respectively. Most animals were concentrated mainly within the swamps on the west bank of the Nile (Mefit-Babtie 1983). Probably less than 1,000 animals were present in Machar-Gambella (Hillman and Fryxell 1988). An aerial survey carried out by WCS in the early dry season in southern Sudan in 2007 yielded an estimate of 4,291 animals, and identified the Zeraf Reserve as the most important protected area for this species (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007).
11034		threats	eng	The wildlife of the Sudd and Machar-Gambella wetlands of southern Sudan and south-western Ethiopia has been severely affected by civil war, the displacement and resettlement of human populations, proliferation of firearms and increased hunting for meat (Falchetti in press). Nile Lechwe are likely to be very strongly constrained by large numbers of cattle that penetrate deep into the Sudd during the dry season and they are commonly very close to dense herds of cattle during the day, but always in water that is too deep for the latter to graze in (Falchetti in press).
11035		conservation	eng	More than half the population survives in protected areas, with about 60% of Defassa in protected areas, and more than half of Common in protected areas (plus 13% on private land) (East 1999).<br/><br/>Important populations of the Defassa Waterbuck persist in areas such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Côte d'Ivoire), Arly-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso), Mole and Bui (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris (Central African Republic), Moukalaba (Gabon), Garamba and Virunga (Congo-Kinshasa), the Awash Valley and Omo-Mago-Murule (Ethiopia), Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth National Parks (Uganda), Serengeti, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Ugalla River and Katavi-Rukwa (Tanzania) and Kafue (Zambia), but about half of these populations are in decline because of poaching (East 1999).<br/><br/>Important populations of the Common Waterbuck occur in areas such as Tsavo, Laikipia, Kajiado, Lake Nakuru and the coastal rangelands (Kenya), Tarangire and Selous-Mikumi (Tanzania), the Luangwa Valley (Zambia), and Kruger, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and private land (South Africa) (East 1999).
11035		distribution	eng	The Waterbuck formerly occurred throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been eliminated widely within its former range, but survives in many protected areas and in some other areas which are sparsely populated by humans. <br/><br/>The Defassa Waterbuck is found west of the western Rift Valley and south of the Sahel from Eritrea in the east to Guinea Bissau in the west; its most northerly point of distribution is in southern Mali. A population still exists in Niokola-Koba in Senegal. Defassa also range east of the Congo Basin forest, spreading west below the basin’s southern limit through Zambia into Angola. Another arm extends north, west of the Congo Basin to the Zaïre R. in Congo Republic. Defassa are extinct in Gambia (though vagrants may enter from Senegal) (Spinage in press).<br/><br/>East of the eastern Rift Valley, the Defassa is replaced by the Common Waterbuck, which extends southwards to about the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi N.P. in KwaZulu-Natal, and to central Namibia. Common Waterbuck are extinct in Ethiopia (though Defassa remain) (Spinage in press).
11035		habitat	eng	Inhabits savanna woodlands and forest-savanna moasics near permanent water (East 1999). Defassa generally are limited to areas receiving at least 750 mm annual rainfall, whereas Common persist in drier regimes (Spinage in press). They have been recorded to at least 2,100 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Waterbuck are able to exploit a range of habitats to which its congeners are specifically adapted, albeit only to a varying degree, being not as aquatic as the Lechwe, nor as independent of water as the Kob (Spinage in press). Waterbuck are classified as grazers, but also browse.
11035		population	eng	Citing various authors East (1999) indicates that population densities can reach high levels within localized areas of favourable habitat, e.g., >10.0/km² in Lake Nakuru National Park. More typical density estimates obtained by aerial surveys of areas where the species is reasonably common are of the order 0.05-0.15/km². Higher densities of 0.2-0.9/km² have been recorded in aerial surveys of a few areas. Ground sun/eys have provided density estimates of the order 0.4-1.5/km² in areas where the species is common. <br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 200,000. This includes approximately 95,000 Defassa Waterbuck and 105,000 Common. Overall population trend is decreasing for both subspecies.
11035		threats	eng	Waterbuck have been eliminated widely within their former range mainly due to hunting, due to their sedentary nature and fondness for cultivation (Spinage in press). Even though they remain well represented in protected areas, several populations have undergone steep declines (especially those of the Defassa Waterbuck), including those in Queen Elizabeth N. P., Murschison Falls N.P., Akagera N.P., Lake Nakuru N.P., and Comoe N.P. (Spinage in press; and references therein).
11036		conservation	eng	While the kob is highly susceptible to hunting, loss of habitat and disruption of the natural flooding regime, it has the ability to recover its numbers rapidly from very low levels with effective protection. For example in Cameroon, the population of Waza National Park decreased from 25,000 in 1962 to 2,000 in 1988-94. This resulted from a general drying out of its habitat caused by droughts and disruption of the natural flooding regime from 1979 by the construction of the Maga dam on the Logone floodplain, which formed Lake Maga. Additional mortality of the Waza population was caused by poaching and the 1982-83 rinderpest outbreak. Since 1994, the Netherlands-funded IUCN/CML Waza-Logone project has investigated rehabilitation of the floodplain by release of excess water from Lake Maga and the Logone River. By 1997, the Kob population was increasing in response to the reflooding activities of this project. While large-scale rehabilitation of the Waza-Logone floodplain is contemplated, this may not be possible unless increasing security problems and a degenerating social climate in the region are overcome (Scholte <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Protected areas important for the survival of Buffon’s Kob, include: Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Côte d’Ivoire), Arly-Singou (Burkina Faso), Mole and Bui (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), Waza and Benoué and Faro National Parks of the North Province (Cameroon), Zakouma  (Chad), and Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris and Sangba (Central African Republic) (East 1999; Fischer in press).<br/><br/>Less than 1% of the total population of White-eared Kob occurs in protected areas, such as the Boma and Badingilo National Parks in south-east Sudan (East 1999). Recent surveys in south-eastern Sudan suggest that, despite the civil war, the white-eared kob populations still survive in good numbers. Further surveys are urgently required to clarify the white-eared kob’s current status and investigate possible conservation actions.<br/><br/>The Uganda kob survives in good numbers in Garamba and Virunga National Parks (DR Congo), and Murchison Falls-Aswa Lolim, Queen Elizabeth and Tore-Semliki (Uganda) (East 1999). The status of this subspecies is likely to improve as the rehabilitation of other areas of Uganda proceeds in the next few years, e.g., Aswa-Lolim and Toro-Semliki, although political disturbances in DR Congo may adversely affect the important populations of Garamba and Virunga National Parks.<br/><br/>A few Uganda Kob are held in captivity (East 1999).
11036		distribution	eng	Kob have a patchy distribution ranging from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau to Uganda, southern Sudan, and south-east Ethiopia. The ranges of the three subspecies are as follows (following East 1999 and Fischer in press):<br/><br/><em>K. k. kob</em> (Buffon’s or Western Kob) has the widest distribution range, from Senegal to Central African Republic and DR Congo. They are now extinct in the Gambia and Sierra Leone and most likely in southern Mauritania.<br/><br/><em>K. k. thomasi</em> (Uganda Kob) occurs in north-east DR Congo, south-west Sudan and widely throughout Uganda. They once ranged into south-west Kenya, and lakeside areas of north-west Tanzania, but are now extinct there.<br/><br/><em>K. k. leucotis</em> (White-eared Kob) have the most restricted range of the three subspecies, occcurring in Sudan, south-west Ethiopia and extreme north-east Uganda.
11036		habitat	eng	Typical habitat includes riverine grasslands and floodplains of major rivers; grasslands; seasonal floodplains and grasslands near water within savanna woodlands (East 1999). Kobs are almost exclusively grazers, and confined to regions that have year-round access to water (Fischer in press). Social organization in the Kob is dependent on density and includes two discrete mating systems, changing from a lek system at high densities (>14 animals/km²) to a resource-defence system at lower densities (Fischer in press; and references therein).
11036		population	eng	East (1999) estimated numbers of Buffon's Kob at 95,000 and generally declining (with the exception of a few protected areas). For example, Kob numbers in the Comoé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire declined by more than 80% within 20 years (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). Estimated total numbers of this subspecies exceeded 225,000 in the late 1980s (East 1999).<br/><br/>Similarly, the population of the White-eared Kob has been estimated at more than 100,000 (East 1999). An aerial survey of part of Southern Sudan carried out by WCS in 2007 produced a population estimate of >753,0000 (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Numbers of Uganda Kob within parks and reserves may be more stable, with an estimated total population size of 100,000 (East 1999). <br/><br/>Today, Kob live in many isolated populations, most of which are smaller than 1,000 animals. In the late 1990s only two regions in West Africa contained populations of more than 10,000 individuals (in Senegal and Cameroon), while only the Uganda population of <em>K. k. thomasi</em> contained more than 10,000 animals (East 1999).<br/><br/>Kobs can reach high densities when well protected in areas of favourable habitat, ranging from 15-40 animals/km² (Fischer in press; and references therein); however, in areas of heavy hunting pressure, densities decline to less than 1/km² (Fischer 1998). The highest densities of Kob (1,000/km²) have been reported around drinking sites in the dry season (Fryxell 1987).
11036		threats	eng	The sedentary nature of Kobs and their tendency to occur in relatively large concentrations make them highly susceptible to hunting. Buffon's Kob, in particular, has been eliminated from large parts of its former range by poaching for meat and now survives mainly in and around protected areas. Poaching has caused large-scale declines of key populations in areas such as Comoe National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and northern and eastern Central African Republic during the 1990s (East 1999; Fischer in press). <br/><br/>Loss of habitat to the expansion of settlements, agricultural development and livestock is another major cause of population reduction. For example, the Uganda Kob formerly occurred in south-western Kenya and north-western Tanzania in grasslands alongside Lake Victoria, but was exterminated by the spread of settlement and agricultural development.<br/><br/>Droughts, disruption of the natural flooding regime (e.g. the construction of the Maga dam on the Logone floodplain, Cameroon), and outbreaks of rinderpest have also been cited as significant causes of population decline (East 1999; Fischer in press).
11037		conservation	eng	East (1999) estimated that about one-third of the population survives in protected areas. Besides Kilombero Valley, key areas for the survival of Puku include: Katavi-Rukwa (Tanzania), Kafue, the Luangwa Valley and Nsumbu-Tondwa-Mweru Wantipa (Zambia), and the smaller populations in Kasungu N.P. (Malawi) and Chobe N.P. in Botswana (East 1999). Jenkins (in press) discusses priority actions to conserve Puku across their range.
11037		distribution	eng	The Puku formerly occurred widely in grasslands near permanent water within the savanna woodlands and floodplains of south-central Africa. It has been eliminated from large parts of its former range and reduced to fragmented, isolated populations, but some of these are still numerous. Large numbers now occur in only two countries, Tanzania and Zambia (East 1999). Populations of Puku still occur in northeast Botswana on the Chobe River floodplain (Dipotso and Skarpe 2006), and they occur as vagrants in the middle Zambezi valley of Zimbabwe and the eastern Caprivi of Namibia.
11037		habitat	eng	Puku are obligate grazers, occupying grasslands near permanent water within the savanna woodlands and floodplains of south-central Africa. Although associated with wet areas and swamp vegetation, Puku avoid deep standing water, and in that sense are ecologically distinct from Lechwe (Jenkins in press). The high population growth rate of Puku has been suggested to explain the rapid recovery of some populations following cessation of unsustainable poaching levels (Goldspink <em>et al.</em> 1998).
11037		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population size at 130,000. A recent aerial survey of the Kilombero Valley, Africa's largest Puku population, employed two complimentary methods to assess the population size of Puku. When surveyed using the same methods as used on previous counts, the population was estimated as 23,301± 5,602 SE, a notable decrease from the previous estimates of 55,769 ± 19,428 SE in 1989 and 66,964 ± 12,629 in 1998. However, a more intensive survey was also undertaken (using 2.5 km transect spacing as opposed to 10 km) specifically to count the Puku and this resulted in a population estimate of 42,352 ± 5,927 SE (see Jenkins in press, and references therein). The small population in the Selous G.R. has been extirpated.<br/><br/>The population of Puku on the floodplains along the Chobe River was believed to be in decline since the last census in 1965-1967; however, the population has shown a strong increase in numbers compared with the 1960s, although the concentration of the population has shifted eastwards (Dipotso and Skarpe 2006).
11037		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation caused by expanding human settlements and cultivation is a major threat to Puku populations. The social/breeding system is particularly vulnerable to disruption by habitat fragmentation and hunting with the longer term impact of a collapse of population recruitment (Jenkins in press). In the Kilombero Valley, Jenkins <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported that the major threat to Puku came from the expansion of cattle herds onto the floodplain boundary and damage to wet season habitat by farmers who cleared miombo woodland.<br/><br/>Puku are relatively easy to approach during the dry season, when densely aggregated on floodplains, and are consequently very vulnerable to illegal hunting. Unsustainable hunting and especially heavy poaching appear to have extirpated Puku across their range (East 1999).
11047		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of threats on this species.
11047		conservation	eng	This species seldom occurs in European waters and thus there are no specific conservation measures at the regional level.
11047		distribution	eng	Pygmy sperm whales are known from deep waters (outer continental shelf and beyond) in tropical to warm temperate zones of all oceans (McAlpine 2002).  They appear to be especially common over and near the continental slope, although they also occur in very deep oceanic regions.  This species appears to prefer somewhat more temperate waters than does the dwarf sperm whale.  The range of <em>Kogia breviceps</em> is poorly known, though a lack of records of live animals may be more due to inconspicuous behaviour rather than rarity. Most information stems from strandings (especially females with calves), which may give an inaccurate picture of the actual distribution at sea (Culik 2004). There are very few records of this species from European waters (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2003)
11047		distribution	eng	Pygmy Sperm Whales are known from deep waters (outer continental shelf and beyond) in tropical to warm temperate zones of all oceans (McAlpine 2002). This species appears to prefer somewhat more temperate waters than does the Dwarf Sperm Whale. The range of <em>Kogia breviceps</em> is poorly known, though a lack of records of live animals may be more due to inconspicuous behaviour rather than rarity. Most information stems from strandings (especially females with calves), which may give an inaccurate picture of the actual distribution at sea (Culik 2004).
11047		habitat	eng	<em>Kogia breviceps</em> has records from nearly all temperate, subtropical, and tropical seas. It is rarely seen at sea; it tends to live a long distance from shore and has inconspicuous habits. According to Caldwell and Caldwell (1989) <em>K. breviceps</em> lives in oceanic waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf while <em>K. sima</em> lives over or near the edge of the shelf. However, this separation of both species was not apparent in the study of Mullin <em>et al.</em> (1994) who, by aerial observation, found both species over water depths of 400-600m in the north-central Gulf of Mexico.
11047		habitat	eng	<em>Kogia breviceps</em> is rarely seen at sea; it tends to live a long distance from shore and has inconspicuous habits. According to Caldwell and Caldwell (1989) <em>K. breviceps</em> lives in oceanic waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf while <em>K. sima</em> lives over or near the edge of the shelf. However, this separation was not apparent in the study by Mullin <em>et al</em>. (1994) who, by aerial observation, found both species over water depths of 400-600 m in the north-central Gulf of Mexico. These waters of the upper continental slope were also characterized by high zooplankton biomass (Baumgartner <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Studies of feeding habits, based on stomach contents of stranded animals, suggest that this species feeds in deep water, primarily on cephalopods and, less often, on deep-sea fishes and shrimps (dos Santos and Haimovici 2001; McAlpine <em>et al</em>. 1997). In South Africa, they take at least 67 different prey species and appear to feed in deeper waters than do Dwarf Sperm Whales (Ross 1979).
11047		population	eng	There are no estimates of global abundance. Abundance of this and similar whales is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). The frequency with which they strand in some areas (such as Florida and South Africa) suggests that they may not always be as uncommon as sightings would suggest. Recent genetic studies suggest the there is some gene flow between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific oceans (S. J. Chivers pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Delineations between stocks are often difficult to determine, therefore assessments should be considered ongoing processes. In the case of the Pygmy Sperm Whale, concern that sightings may be confused with the cogener <em>K. sima</em> (the Dwarf Sperm Whale) further complicates the estimation of abundance. There are estimated to be about 247 (CV = 106%) off California, Oregon, and Washington (Barlow 2003); 7,251 (CV=77%) off Hawaii (Barlow 2006); 742 of both species of Kogia (CV=29%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin <em>et al</em>. 2004); and 395 of both species (CV=40/75%) in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).
11047		population	eng	There are no estimates of global abundance for pygmy sperm whales. The frequency with which they strand in some areas (such as Florida and South Africa) suggests that they may not always be as uncommon as sightings would suggest. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).
11047		threats	eng	Although they have never been taken in large numbers and have never been hunted commercially, small numbers have been taken in coastal whaling operations off Japan, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Lesser Antilles, and Sri Lanka (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993). Perez <em>et al.</em> (2001) reported occasional bycatch in fisheries in the northeast Atlantic (mostly gillnet and purse seine operations). Noise pollution may also be a problem.
11047		threats	eng	Although they have never been taken in large numbers and have never been hunted commercially, small numbers of the species have been taken in coastal whaling operations off Japan, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Lesser Antilles, and Sri Lanka (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>A few have been killed in gillnet fisheries of Sri Lanka, Taiwan and California, and it is likely they are killed in gillnets elsewhere as well (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Barlow <em>et al</em>. 1997). Perez <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported on occasional bycatch in fisheries in the northeast Atlantic (mostly gillnet and purse seine operations). However, although it is taken in small numbers both directly and incidentally in fisheries, Baird <em>et al</em>. (1996) found no serious threats to its status.<br/><br/>A young male Pygmy Sperm Whale stranded alive on Galveston Island, Texas, USA and died in a holding tank 11 days later. During necropsy, the first two stomach compartments (forestomach and fundic chamber) were found to be completely occluded by various plastic bags (Laist <em>et al</em>. 1999). Such ingestion of plastics, with associated gut-blockage, appears to be a common issue in this species.<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In 2005, a large series of unusual stranding events over about 3 weeks in and around Taiwan included several Kogia (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008) with at least 2 Pygmy Sperm Whales (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is unknown if military, seismic or other loud noise-producing human activities resulted in these strandings.<br/><br/>There are high levels of unexplained strandings in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect Pygmy Sperm Whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
11048		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of threats on this species.
11048		conservation	eng	This species seldom occurs in European waters and thus there are no specific conservation measures at the regional level.
11048		distribution	eng	The dwarf sperm whale, like the pygmy sperm whale, is known mostly from strandings (Nagorsen 1985, Caldwell and Caldwell 1989, McAlpine 2002). It is generally not a commonly-seen species at sea, although this may have more to do with its cryptic appearance than actual rarity.  It appears to be distributed widely in tropical to warm temperate zones, apparently largely offshore. Their distribution shows somewhat more of a preference for warmer waters than does that of the pygmy sperm whale, and this species probably does not range as far into high-latitude waters.  There is no evidence of migrations.  A single record exists for the Mediterranean, and this is considered extralimital.
11048		distribution	eng	This species appears to be distributed widely in offshore waters of tropical and warm temperate zones, apparently preferring warmer waters, and perhaps more offshore waters (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989). A single record exists for the Mediterranean; this is considered extralimital. The species occurs in the Sea of Japan and in the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>Its distribution shows somewhat more of a preference for warmer waters than does that of the Pygmy Sperm Whale; this species probably does not range as far into high-latitude waters. <br/><br/>There are two problems in trying to establish ranges for <em>Kogia</em> spp.. First, members of this genus are only rarely identified at sea (and then usually not to species), and second, it is only recently that the two species have been clearly recognized as separate. As a consequence, most reliable records of either species are based on stranded individuals or occasionally on those taken in small fisheries for small cetaceans (Nagorsen 1985; Caldwell and Caldwell 1989; McAlpine 2002).
11048		habitat	eng	Dwarf Sperm Whales appear to feed primarily on deep-water cephalopods, but also take other prey types (dos Santos and Haimovici 2001). About 38 different prey species are known from South African waters (Ross 1979).
11048		habitat	eng	There is very little known of the ecology of this species (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989, McAlpine 2002).  Much of what is known comes from records of strandings. Group sizes tend to be small, most often less than about six individuals (although groups of up to 10 have been recorded). Dwarf sperm whales appear to feed primarily on deep-water cephalopods, but also take other prey types (see dos Santos and Haimovici 2001).
11048		population	eng	No estimates of global abundance exist.
11048		population	eng	No estimates of global abundance exist. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). Delineations between stocks are often difficult to determine, therefore assessments should be considered ongoing processes. In the case of the Dwarf Sperm Whale, concern that sightings may be confused with or for the congener <em>K. breviceps</em> (the Pygmy Sperm Whale) further complicates interpretation of past estimates of abundance.<br/><br/>There are estimated to be about 19,172 (CV=66%) off Hawaii (Barlow 2006); 742 of both species of <em>Kogia</em> (CV=29%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2003); 395 of both species (CV=40/75%) in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006); and about 11,200 (CV=29%) in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). Using corrections for missed animals, Ferguson and Barlow (2001) re-estimated the abundance as approximately 150,000 of both species in the eastern tropical Pacific. There is evidence of site fidelity for individuals off the island of Hawaii (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2006), suggesting that within-basin population structure may exist.
11048		threats	eng	Although never hunted commercially, these animals were sometimes harpooned by 19th-century whalers. Dwarf Sperm Whales were taken in a small harpoon fishery for Pilot Whales at St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles, in Japan, and occasionally in an aboriginal fishery on Lamalera Island in Indonesia, and have also been reported from fish markets in Sri Lanka (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). This species is also taken occasionally by harpoon off Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A few Dwarf Sperm Whales are known to have died incidentally in fisheries throughout their range. When taken in commercial fisheries the numbers are so few that it is considered a rare bycatch. Zerbini and Kotas (1998) reported some bycatch in the Brazilian driftnet fishery.<br/><br/>Both <em>Kogia</em> species have been reported with plastic bags in their stomachs that may have prevented digestion of food and ultimately brought death. Perhaps the textural or visual quality of the plastic was similar to that of squid and thus enticed the whales to devour it (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989).<br/><br/>In general, there are not known to be any serious human impacts, and subpopulations are probably relatively less affected by human activities than are those of most other cetaceans (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989).<br/><br/>While impacts of high levels of anthropogenic sound have been well documented only for Beaked Whales (Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991; Frantzis 1998; Balcomb and Claridge 2001; US Dept of Commerce and US Navy 2001; Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2005), there are examples for a number of other species of odontocetes of potential impacts. While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, strong avoidance reactions, embayments or mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for Short-finned Pilot Whales (Hohn <em>et al</em>. 2006), Melon-headed Whales (Southall <em>et al</em>. 2006), Atlantic Spotted Dolphin (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), Dwarf Sperm Whales (Hohn <em>et al</em>. 2006), and Dall’s Porpoise (Balcomb pers. comm.). It should be recognized that high levels of anthropogenic sound have the potential to impact all deep diving odontocete species.<br/><br/>In 2005, a large series of unusual stranding events over about 3 weeks in and around Taiwan included at least 13 Dwarf Sperm Whales, many of which were live strandings (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is unknown if high-intensity anthropogenic sounds resulted in these strandings. However, “bubble-like lesions” were reported in some individuals by Yang <em>et al</em>. (2008). There are high levels of unexplained strandings in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida that warrant concern (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect Dwarf Sperm Whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
11048		threats	eng	Primary threats that could cause widespread declines include vulnerability to high-level anthropogenic sound sources, especially military sonar and seismic surveys, and bycatch. Hunting is localized and has not had a high impact on the status of the species globally.
11050		conservation	eng	Rintja and Padar are included in Komodo National Park. Renewed trapping efforts are needed to determine whether this species occurs on Flores. Recent surveys failed to find the species, but these were conducted only in forest habitats not in drier habitat.
11050		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Rintja, Padar, Lomblen and Pantar in the Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It probably occurs on other islands in the Lesser Sunda chain (e.g. Komodo) (Musser and Carleton 2005; K. Aplin pers. comm.). It is represented only by subfossil material from Flores, recovered from sediments 4000-3000 years old (Musser 1981).
11050		habitat	eng	This species have been trapped on the rocky ground under tall thickets and beneath the gallery forest along water courses; the rocks and crevices among the rocks, might provide refuges for the rats (B. Boeadi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It seems to be in dry, thorny scrub habitats (B. Boeadi pers. comm.), not a habitat well-represented on Flores itself.<br/><br/>Sub-fossil record may be from past environmental conditions when appropriate habitat was more widespread. It is quite tolerant of humans, and found around garden areas.
11050		population	eng	It is believed to be relatively abundant as the type series was relatively large.
11050		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is possible that competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em> may be a threat. The habitat on these islands is relatively degraded, yet they seem adaptable and are still trapped.
11054		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
11054		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
11054		habitat	eng	Trewavas <em>et al.</em> (1972) noted that <em>Konia dikume</em> spends much of its time at depths of 20 m or more. When brought to the surface, freshly caught specimens are covered with a thin film of bright red blood, gills are deep red with gas bubbles enmeshed in the filaments, and swollen capillaries fill the gill cover with blood. <em>Konia dikume</em> mainly feeds on mosquito larvae; possesses elevated levels of haemoglobin in its blood as an adaptation to reduced oxygen levels at great water depth (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.
11054		population	eng	No information available.
11054		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
11055		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
11055		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
11055		habitat	eng	<em>Konia eisentrauti</em> It feeds on algae, small insects and fish eggs (Lamboj 2004). It is also a kleptoparasite of freshwater crabs (Dominey and Snyder 1988). This species is a ovophilic mouth-brooder with both sexes as possible incubator (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.
11055		population	eng	No information available.
11055		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
11061		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least two protected areas (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
11061		distribution	eng	This species occurs from west central Brazil (Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sol, and Rodonia States) to northeast Bolivia (Santa Cruz and Beni Departments).
11061		habitat	eng	The species is a habitat specialist occurring in wet grasslands. The species is adapted for burrowing and it spends most of the day in underground tunnels, except during the wet season when it moves above ground (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It feeds on roots and grasses (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
11061		population	eng	This species is not common and is patchily distributed (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
11061		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction of the grasslands due to agriculture and livestock (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
11062		conservation	eng	The unique living population known it is inside a protected area.
11062		distribution	eng	This species occurs in isolated localities in northeastern Argentina, and east-central Brazil; range poorly documented (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Brazil, one of the records is a fosil (Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais) so its current occurrence is there is not verified. The last recent records were found in 1993 in Planantina, Aguas Enmendadas National Park  (Marinho-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1999).
11062		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marshlands (Pires-Avila 1972).
11062		population	eng	This rodent is known from three historical specimens. There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species, but is considered as very rare.
11062		threats	eng	Unknown.
11070		conservation	eng	Surveys to confirm the suspected extinction of <em>L. fisheri</em> (Wikramanayake, 1990) are recommended.
11070		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the mid to upper reaches of the Mahaveli River basin, Sri Lanka, with an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 4,385 km².
11070		habitat	eng	<em>L. fisheri</em> is a benthopelagic species that only inhabits deep, fast-flowing sections of the river.  It has not been recorded from unshaded, silty or turbid waters.  It moves fast through the water, staying close to the bottom.  Juveniles have been observed picking algae off submerged rocks.  It occurs sympatrically with (and possibly mistaken for) <em>Puntius</em> sp. 'martenstyn' throughout its known range.
11070		population	eng	It has been reported that <em>L. fisheri</em> may already be extinct, as a result of habitat loss following the Mahaveli River Development Project (Wikramanayake 1990), see Major Threats.
11070		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to the habitat of <em>L. fisheri</em>.  The Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme, initiated in 1979, included developing the Mahaweli River to provide irrigation facilities for dry zone agriculture and generate hydro-electric power, by constructing four new dams  (Asian Development Bank 2006).&#160; In addition, the rainforests of Sri Lanka are rapidly being depleted by agriculture, mining, logging and urbanization.  Between 1956 and 1980, total forest cover had been reduced from 44 to 25 percent.  One result of this deforestation is stream degradation due to increased erosion, siltation, extreme flow fluctuations and decreased shade cover (Wikramanayake 1990).
11071		conservation	eng	The healthiest and most secure population is mostly within the Oorlogskloof Nature Reserve. Remaining populations are on privately owned land. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, preventing capture of the species. The most important rivers for this species have been identified as priority freshwater environments for fish conservation (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). A State of River report has been written to the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in 2006 for the Olifants-Doring River system within which is a dedicated section on freshwater fish management issues.
11071		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Olifants River system (Skelton 2001). It seems to have gone extinct in the Upper Olifants branch of this system, but still occurs in mainstream areas of the Doring River.
11071		habitat	eng	It favours deeper pools (2 to 5 m) of the mainstreams and larger tributaries. The biology of this species is poorly studied. It co-exists with <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> and <em>Barbus serra</em> in the larger rivers. It is a bottom feeder, feeding on algae, detritus and small invertebrates and it spawns in spring and summer (Skelton 2001).
11071		population	eng	This species is reasonably common only in the Oorlogskloof-Kobee River, representing about 5% of original distribution range. Small numbers of adult fish also occur in the Doring and Groot rivers, but recruitment is absent due to the presence of alien predatory fishes.
11071		threats	eng	The major threats are invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation. <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> have had a major effect on recruitment, and instream dams prevent adults from reaching spawning grounds.
11074		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
11074		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
11074		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.
11074		population	eng	No information available.
11074		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
11075		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
11075		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
11075		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.
11075		population	eng	No information available.
11075		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
11076		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
11076		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
11076		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.
11076		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 11% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 76% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
11076		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
11077		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
11077		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
11077		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.
11077		population	eng	No information available.
11077		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
11113		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas. There has been an EU-Life project for this species in Portugal.
11113		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to the northwestern and central mountain systems of Spain, and northern and western Portugal, with a number of isolated populations in the mountains and coastal areas of southern Portugal and Spain. It can be found from close to sea level to 2,100 m asl (Central Mountain System).
11113		habitat	eng	This species lives in humid, bushy areas of shrubland, woodland edges, open woodland (deciduous, mixed and pine), along river and stream sides, overgrown sites and close to fences in pastureland. It is especially tightly linked to streams in the southern part of its distribution. On average the females lay clutches of 11 to 18 eggs.
11113		population	eng	It can be common in optimal habitat, but some fragmented populations are very rare, and overall it appears to be in significant decline. The southern population isolates in both Spain and Portugal are all very rare, and the one on Sierra Morena in Spain is possibly extinct.
11113		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to habitat alteration. Populations in the south of Spain are threatened by habitat loss, largely through deforestation, forest fires and alteration of streamside habitats.
11117		conservation	eng	This rare species is included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (1984) - category 3. It has been recorded from a protected area in Turkey, but it is not known if it is found within a protected area in Georgia. Further research is needed into the natural history, range and threats to this species. Habitat maintenance is needed in areas of overgrazing.
11117		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Black Sea coastal region of Turkey (eastwards from Giresun Province to Hopa in Artvin Province) and Georgia (Adzharia), and is also present in Armenia (Baran and Atatur, 1998).  The main distribution range of the species occupies the northern spurs of the East-Pontic mountains in the north-east of Turkey. A small isolated part of the distribution is within the western slopes of the mountain Mtirala in the vicinity of the town of Batumi in southwestern Ajaria (Georgia). It ranges from 1500 to 2200m asl.
11117		habitat	eng	Animals are found in damp and bushy areas close to streams, generally with large stones and rocks (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It can be encountered in mountains meadows with rocky outcrops, pine and talus slopes.
11117		population	eng	This is a naturally very rare species.
11117		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock (cattle and sheep).
11120		conservation	eng	Populations of this species have been recorded from the Caucasus and Teberda Reserves. Additional studies are needed into the impact of climate change on this species, with trends in population numbers regularly monitored.
11120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a narrow belt of subalpine meadows in the Great Caucasus Range of Georgia and Russia. Populations have been recorded from Mount Elbrus and the Baksan River in the east to the Fisht and Osten mountains in the west. Further to the west it is widely distributed in the upper reaches of the Kuban', Teberda, Zelenchuk, Belaya, Laba rivers and other waterbodies flowing to the north. Populations have also been recorded from the southern slopes of the Caucasus, in the upper reaches of the Bzyb' River and its tributaries in Abkchazia and in the upper reaches of the Mzymta River from the slopes of Mount Aibga. It has been recorded between 1,650 and 2,800m asl.
11120		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the subalpine and alpine belt, where it prefers open areas of alpine meadows with rocks or piles of stones. The number of eggs in the clutch varies from two to six, averaging four or five.
11120		population	eng	This species is generally rare. Populations are predominantly found on southern slopes, with north facing populations becoming increasingly rare as they are considered to be susceptible to climate change. The species is most abundant between 1,800 and 2,200m asl where the most suitable habitat is available.
11120		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general habitat loss within its narrow elevational range. In addition to modification of areas by people for tourism and other activities, the habitat of this species appears to be impacted by climate change. Longer, warmer summers are reducing the survival rate for eggs, and increasingly colder winters are reducing the number of young animals surviving hibernation. A continuing cycle of hot summers and cold winters can lead to a sharp reduction in the number of animals.
11130		conservation	eng	The South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) have established regulations for removal of <em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> for both commercial and recreational purposes. These include a maximum landing size of 30.5 cm, gear restrictions, and a daily bag allowance of five hogfish per day for recreational fishers. There are a number of no-take zones in the Caribbean and total fishing is restricted to just over 300,000 ha of the wider Caribbean.&#160;<br/><br/>Ault <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggest restricting recreational fishing in particular areas by limiting the use of SCUBA gear with spear fishing and/or limiting the amount of time during a year that spear fishing may be undertaken. Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed to ensure that any future population declines are noted.<br/><br/>Catch per unit effort (CPUE) was much lower (half or less) in the fished zone when compared to a lightly-fished or protected zone. CPUE of hogfish decreased with increasing distance from the reserve, which suggests that spillover from the protected area can enhance the local fishery yields outside its boundaries. This indicates increasing the area covered by protected zones would benefit this species (Tupper and Rudd 2002).
11130		distribution	eng	<em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is present in the Caribbean and north to Bermuda and the Carolinas and extends southwards to the northern region of the Brazilian Coast. <br/><br/>This species is present in the following countries: Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Aruba; Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Bermuda; Canada; Cayman Islands; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; Dominican Republic; French Guiana; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guyana; Haiti; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Mexico; Montserrat; Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao); Nicaragua; Panama; Puerto Rico; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago; Turks and Caicos Islands; United States; Venezuela; Virgin Islands, British; Virgin Islands, U.S., NE Brazil (Floeter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
11130		habitat	eng	<em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is found on coral reefs at 3-40 m depth, especially sandy outer reef slopes. Juveniles are most common in shallow seagrass, and inshore reef habitats.<br/><br/>It is a monadric protogynous hermaphrodite (McBride and Johnson 2007) with a very slow rate of sex change (several months that occurs post spawning). It has an extended spawning season from January to May. In Florida, females attain sexual maturity at two years 26.0 cm (FL), sexual transition at three to five years but recorded in individuals up to 13 years. Reproductive aggregations have been observed in Los Roques (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). &#160;<br/><br/>There is considerable variation in growth and age structure over the geographic range of this species. The most detailed account (McBride and Richardson 2007) compared growth and age structure of populations from the eastern Gulf of Mexico and southern Florida (Easten Gulf of Mexico - max. age 23 years; max. size 82.4 cm (FL); <span class="bodytext">von Bertalanffy Growth Function Linf 91.7 cm;&#160; k .014; mortality rate 0.35, and South Florida -&#160; max. age 13 years; Max size 62.2 cm (FL); <span class="bodytext">von Bertalanffy Growth Function Linf 42.8 cm;&#160; k .045 mortality rate 0.4).<br/><br/>A broader survey of&#160; four Atlantic locations revealed the following: (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008) Margarita (Venuezula) -&#160; max. age five years, max. size 35.3 cm; Los Roques (Ven) - max. age10 years, max. size 68.7 cm; Belize - max. age seven years max. size 55.4 cm; Bermuda - max. age 16 years, max. size 84.4 cm. In addition, mortality rates estimates from catch curves from Margarita and Belize (0.8, 0.7) both heavily fished, were double those from Los Roques and Bermuda where only light fishing occurs. <br/><br/>All populations examined for age distribution in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico, South Florida, (McBride and Richardson 2007)&#160; Belize, Los Roques, Bermuda, Margarita (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008) revealed that distribution was strongly skewed to the younger age classes varying from one to four years. Abundance estimates by Underwater Visual Census in Belize and Los Roques (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008) revealed low densities (0.81-0.95 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>). No counts of aggregations were made.</span>
11130		population	eng	In the past <span style="font-style: italic;">Lachnolaimus maximus</span> had moderate abundance over shallow west Atlantic coral reefs, but is now depleted in many areas due to fishing. Large populations are maintained at only a few sites including Los Roques (Venezuela), Bermuda and at some sites in the Florida Keys (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Overall the population has declined over most of its range. <br/><br/>Ault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) report high harvesting rates for Florida with declining returns of 272 metric t in 1987 to 154 metric t in 1993 and averaging 93 metric t from 1998-2001. This represents a decline of approximately 60% over a period of 14 years. The declines are still continuing (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Considering together all catch and census data on the species from throughout its geographic range, it is clear that declines of at least 30% must have occurred within the last few generations (Y. Sadovy pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is another of the large hypsigenyine labrids that reaches a large size but has very low population densities. At Los Roques aggregations of approximately 50 large individuals were found on shallow sandy slopes (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
11130		threats	eng	<em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is harvested as a food source although is of minor commercial importance and is mainly caught using hook and line. It is marketed as the 'Hog Snapper'. This species has been implicated in ciguatera (Robins <em>et al</em>. 1986). The 2005 total landings of <em>L. maximus</em> were 13% lower than the average landings over the previous five years (2000-2004) and were 42% lower than the historic average landings (1982-2005) (FWRI 2006). The latest stock assessment (SEDAR and SAFMC 2004) indicated that the hogfish fishery was severely overfished and has been for the last two decades in Florida waters (FWRI 2006). This has impacted upon the growth and recruitment of this species.<br/><br/>Coral reefs of the Caribbean had been heavily damaged by disease, coastal development, coral bleaching, and over-fishing. It is predicted that reefs away from population centres will remain healthy in the future, unless the adverse predictions for global climate change, of more tropical storms and bleaching occur (Andrews <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is also a common species within the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure on this species has increased since the 1970s (Bohnsack <em>et al</em>. 1994) it is possible the size at maturity could decrease over time (McBride 2001). This species is currently in decline around Puerto Rico (Ojeda-Serrano <em>et al</em>. 2007). The estimated number of hogfish landed between 1980 and 1992 in the Monroe County area fell from 180,917 to 21,813 (Bohnsack <em>et al</em>. 1994). These figures fluctuated in this time period but demonstrated an overall decline.<br/><br/>Tupper and Rudd (2002) found that fishing pressure and depth had a marked influence on hogfish length, density and biomass, with these attributes being significantly higher on deeper reefs. In fished areas the length, density and biomass of hogfish were all significantly lower when compared to a nearby protected area. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) was much lower (half or less) in the fished zone when compared to lightly-fished or protected zones.<br/>Although there is evidence of exploitation across this species' range the reasons behind them are understood and reversible (H. Choat pers. comm. 2009). Also, overfishing does not seem to have had an impact on recruitment (H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).
11133		conservation	eng	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and is protected by a Presidential Decree No 67/1981 of the Greek State. It has been the focus of a European Union Life Project.
11133		distribution	eng	It is restricted to streams on Rhodes Island.
11133		habitat	eng	Inhabits most of the island's freshwater systems, including streams, springs, reservoirs, and pools.
11133		population	eng	The population is generally stable but fluctuates in the short-term, depending on levels of rainfall.
11133		threats	eng	Water extraction and summertime drought.
11135		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and potential threats to this poorly known species.
11135		distribution	eng	This little known species is known from two localities in Angola (including the type locality of Tyihumbwe [Chiumbe], 15 km west of Dala) and a single locality in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Mumeme, East of Likasi, Shaba Province). Hill and Carter (1941) suggest that the species may occur throughout eastern Angola, but more sampling is needed here.
11135		habitat	eng	This appears to be a moist savanna species. Further details are needed about the species natural history.
11135		population	eng	The populations abundance is not well known, however, 25 specimens were collected at one locality.
11135		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
11136		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, however, it is possible that given the species wide range, that it is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and possible threats to this species.
11136		distribution	eng	This species is known from several apparently disjunct locations in Southern and East Africa. It has been recorded from Huila in Angola; northeastern Namibia and adjacent Botswana; central and southern Zimbabwe and adjacent northeastern South Africa; northern Zambia and extreme southern Democratic Republic of the Congo; Malawi (and possibly adjacent Mozambique); and from a single locality in southern Tanzania.
11136		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from dry and moist savanna, and heathland habitats. It is often found in the vicinity of rivers. This species is prefers habitats at higher elevations (Happold and Happold 1997). It is reported to occur under the bark of trees, usually in pairs (Ansell 1960; Ansell and Dowsett 1988).
11136		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well known. It seems to be rarely collected, and may be naturally rare.
11136		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
11137		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species is protected within the Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia. Further studies are needed into the distribution and general natural history of this species.
11137		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from a few localities in Namibia (Kuiseb River, Gobabeb, Zwartmodder, Klein Aus and Helmeringshausen), and a single area in South Africa (Algeria in the Cedarberg Mountains of the Western Cape) (Skinner and Chimimba, 2005).
11137		habitat	eng	In general, this species has been recorded from temperate desert and dry savanna, with individuals most often found in close proximity to water. A specimen has been taken from a roost under exfoliating rock (Skinner and Chimimba, 2005).
11137		population	eng	Although the species appears to be naturally rare in the Namib desert, it is rather commonly captured in mist-nets set around water tanks outside of the Namib.
11137		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
11138		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho, and may be present in additional protected areas. Additional studies into the population abundance and distribution are needed.
11138		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from Ethiopia in the north of its range, south through parts of Kenya (including Nyeri, Mount Kenya) and Tanzania (Mazumbai Forest Reserve, West Usambara Mountains [Kock and Howell 1988]; Kebebe Farms, Iringa district [Stanley and Kock 2007]), southern Zambia, Lesotho (including Sehlabathebe National Park), and South Africa (the Clarens district in the eastern Free State; from the Game Valley Estates [Hella Hella] near Richmond, KwaZulu-Natal [Skinner and Chimimba 2005]).
11138		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry savanna, mediterranean like shrubby vegetation, and high altitude grassland. The specimen from Game Valley Estates (Hella Hella) was recorded in valley bushveld (Taylor, 1998).
11138		population	eng	This seems to be an uncommon species, possibly having large population fluctuations. Multiple animals have been caught at most localities surveyed in South Africa, however, in East Africa it is known from many localities, but as one or two animals only (Schlitter pers. comm.).
11138		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
11140		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species in the European region.
11140		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES<br/><br/>The Southeast Asian subpopulations are listed in Appendix II of CMS. Subpopulation structure and the impact of direct and incidental takes require further investigation.
11140		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is poorly known.  Fraser's dolphin has a pantropical distribution, largely between 30°N and 30°S in all three major oceans (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994, Dolar 2002).  Strandings in temperate areas may represent extralimital forays connected with temporary oceanographic anomalies such as the world-wide El Niño phenomenon in 1983-84, during which a mass stranding occurred in France (Perrin <em>et al.</em> 1994). Bones <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported on a stranding on the coast of Scotland.
11140		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is poorly known. Fraser's dolphin has a pantropical distribution, largely between 30°N and 30°S in all three major oceans (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994; Dolar 2002). Strandings in temperate areas (Victoria in Australia, Brittany and Uruguay) may represent extralimital forays connected with temporary oceanographic anomalies such as the world-wide El Niño phenomenon in 1983-84, during which a mass stranding occurred in France (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). Bones <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported on a stranding on the coast of Scotland.
11140		habitat	eng	It is an oceanic species that prefers deep offshore waters, but it can be seen near shore in some areas where deep water approaches the coast (Perrin <em>et al.</em> 1994). Fraser's dolphins feed on midwater fish (especially myctophids), squid, and crustaceans (Dolar <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Physiological studies indicate that Fraser’s are capable of quite deep diving (and it is thought that they do most of their feeding deep in the water column in waters up to 600 m deep), but they have been observed to feed near the surface as well (Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1994).
11140		habitat	eng	It is an oceanic species that prefers deep offshore waters, but it can be seen near shore in some areas where deep water approaches the coast (such as the Philippines, Taiwan, and some islands of the Caribbean and the Indo-Malay archipelago) (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>In the eastern tropical Pacific, it occurs more often in Equatorial - southern subtropical surface water and other waters typified by upwelling and generally more variable conditions (Au and Perryman 1985). Off South Africa, records are associated with the warm Agulhas Current that moves south in the summer (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Fraser's dolphins feed on midwater fish (especially myctophids), squid, and crustaceans (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2003). Physiological studies indicate that Fraser’s are capable of quite deep diving (and it is thought that they do most of their feeding deep in the water column – in waters up to 600 m deep), but they have been observed to feed near the surface as well (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1994).
11140		population	eng	There are estimated to be about 289,300 (CV=34%) Fraser’s dolphins in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993; Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994), and 16,836 (CV=11%) in Hawaiian waters (Carretta <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the eastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated a total abundance of 13,518 (CV=27%) Fraser’s dolphins. About 726 (CV=70%) were estimated present in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).
11140		population	eng	This species does not appear to be particularly abundant anywhere (with the possible exception of some areas in the Philippines).
11140		threats	eng	Small numbers of Fraser's dolphins are taken regularly or opportunistically by harpoon in the Lesser Antilles, Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Kahn 2004), the Philippines, Taiwan and probably elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994). A few have been taken in drive fisheries in Taiwan and Japan (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1994) investigated directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Some of the hunters take only dolphins, for bait or human consumption and the species taken include Fraser's dolphins. Around 800 cetaceans are taken annually by hunters at the seven sites, mostly during the inter-monsoonal period of February-May. <br/><br/>Some Fraser’s dolphins are killed incidentally in the tuna purse-seine fishery in the eastern tropical Pacific (Gerrodette and Wade 1991): 26 were estimated taken during the period 1971 - 75. A few are also taken in gill nets in Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and likely in other tropical gillnet fisheries as well. Some are killed by anti-shark nets in South Africa (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994; Cockcroft 1990). Other incidental catches in purse seines (Philippines), gillnets, driftnets (Taiwan), and trap nets (Japan) are also known (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994).
11140		threats	eng	This species very seldom occurs in European waters, and there are no known major threats in the region.
11141		conservation	eng	Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Operational difficulties in observing bycatch and potentially significant annual fluctuation in catch rates warrant further observer studies of these and other trawl fisheries (Morizur <em>et al.</em> 1999, NMFS Stock Assessment Report: Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico). The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.
11141		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Operational difficulties in observing bycatch and potentially significant annual fluctuation in catch rates warrant further observer studies of these and other trawl fisheries (Morizur <em>et al.</em> 1999; Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.
11141		distribution	eng	Atlantic white-sided dolphins are found in cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from about 38°N (south of Cape Cod) in the west and the Brittany coast of France in the east, north to southern Greenland, Iceland, and southern Svalbard (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999; Cipriano 2002). The range includes the U.K. and the northern coasts of Scandinavia, although they rarely enter the Baltic Sea. They also sometimes move quite far up the Saint Lawrence River of eastern Canada, and they have been seen as far south as Strait of Gibraltar (Hashmi and Adloff 1991, 1992).
11141		distribution	eng	Atlantic white-sided dolphins are found in cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from about 38°N (south of Cape Cod) in the west and the Brittany coast of France in the east, north to southern Greenland, Iceland, and southern Svalbard (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999, Cipriano 2002). The range includes the U.K. and the northern coasts of Scandinavia, although they rarely enter the Baltic Sea. They also sometimes move quite far up the Saint Lawrence River of eastern Canada, and they have been seen as far south as Strait of Gibraltar (Hashmi and Adloff 1991, 1992).
11141		habitat	eng	Atlantic white-sided dolphins are found primarily in waters of the continental shelf and slope, but they also occur in oceanic waters across the North Atlantic. Along the continental slope of North America, they seem to associate with high sea-bed relief along the continental shelf (Palka <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/>Calves are born over an extended period around the summer season, with apparent peaks in June and July.  These dolphins often associate and feed with large baleen whales (fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with pilot whales and a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and white-beaked dolphins). Atlantic white-sided dolphins feed mostly on small schooling fish (such as herring, mackerel, cod, smelt, hake, and sandlance), shrimp, and squid.
11141		habitat	eng	The Atlantic white-sided dolphin is found primarily in waters of the continental shelf and slope, but it also occurs in oceanic waters across the North Atlantic. Along the continental slope of North America, it seems to associate with high sea-bed relief along the continental shelf (Palka <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>These dolphins often associate and feed with large baleen whales (fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with pilot whales and a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and white-beaked dolphins). Atlantic white-sided dolphins feed mostly on small schooling fish (such as herring, mackerel, cod, smelt, hake, and sandlance), shrimp, and squid.
11141		population	eng	This species is quite abundant throughout its range. There are an estimated 51,640 (CV=38%) Atlantic white-sided dolphins off the eastern North American shoreline (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006) and about 96,000 (CV=54%) off the west coast of Scotland (MacLeod 2004). The number of Atlantic white-sided dolphins in the western North Atlantic, from the southern Gulf of Maine and north-eastward on the continental shelf and slope to Cabot Strait was about 27,000 in July - September 1995 (Palka <em>et al</em>. 1997) and was at least 11,740 (CV = 47%) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Kingsley and Reeves, 1998). There is currently little evidence for separate subpopulations (Mikkelsen and Lund 1994).
11141		population	eng	This species is quite abundant throughout its range.There are an estimated 51,640 (CV=38%) Atlantic white-sided dolphins off the eastern North American shoreline (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006), and about 96,000 (CV=54%) off the west coast of Scotland (MacLeod 2004). There is currently little evidence for separate subpopulations (Mikkelsen and Lund 1994).
11141		threats	eng	Some hunting for this species occurred in the past, especially in Norway. Some dolphins are still taken in Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and eastern Canada (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999). Recent catches in Faroe Islands were 333 and 310 in 2004 and 2005, respectively (NAMMCO 2005). No assessment is associated with the Faroese hunting of white-sided dolphins, but there is no evidence that this aspect of the drive fishery has a long history, such as that of the pilot whale component (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Incidental mortality in fishing gear has been documented off Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Ireland. Gaskin (1992) judged Atlantic white-sided dolphins to be less vulnerable to capture in pelagic near-surface drift nets and fixed groundfish gill nets than are many other small cetaceans. They may, however, be especially susceptible to capture in midwater trawl nets (Addink <em>et al</em>. 1997). Substantial numbers have been bycaught in pelagic trawl fisheries for horse mackerel and mackerel south-west of Ireland (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Morizur <em>et al</em>. (1999) investigated marine mammal bycatch in 11 pelagic trawl fisheries operated by four different countries in the Northeast Atlantic. One of the main marine mammal species identified in bycatches was <span style="font-style: italic;">L. acutus</span>. Mean dolphin catch rate for all fisheries combined was 0.048+0.013 per tow (one dolphin per 20.7 tows), or 0.0185+0.0019 per hour of towing (one dolphin per 98 h of towing). All dolphin by-catches occurred during the night. White-sided dolphins were observed feeding around the net during towing; this behaviour may make them more vulnerable to capture. Operational difficulties in observing bycatch and potentially significant annual fluctuation in catch rates warrant further observer studies of these and other trawl fisheries. Substantial numbers have been by-caught in trawl fisheries south-west of Ireland (Couperus 1997a, b), and takes have also been recorded in gill-net and trawl fisheries along the US Atlantic coast (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors.
11141		threats	eng	Some hunting for this species occurred in the past, especially in Norway. Some dolphins are still taken in Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and eastern Canada (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999). Recent catches in Faroe Islands were 333 and 310 in 2004 and 2005, respectively (NAMMCO Annual Report 2005). <br/><br/>Incidental mortality in fishing gear has been documented off Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Ireland. Gaskin (1992) judged Atlantic white-sided dolphins to be less vulnerable to capture in pelagic near-surface drift nets and fixed groundfish gill nets than are many other small cetaceans. They may, however, be especially susceptible to capture in midwater trawl nets (Addink <em>et al.</em> 1997). Substantial numbers have been bycaught in pelagic trawl fisheries for horse mackerel and mackerel south-west of Ireland (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).  <br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors
11142		conservation	eng	Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Although known to occur, bycatch rates seem to be poorly documented and warrant more intensive research. The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.
11142		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Although known to occur, bycatch rates seem to be poorly documented and warrant more intensive research. The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.
11142		distribution	eng	This is the most northerly member of the genus <em>Lagenorhynchus</em>, and it has a wide distribution (Kinze 2002). White-beaked dolphins inhabit cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from Cape Cod and France, north to central Davis Strait, southern Greenland, Svalbard, and east to Novaya Zemlya. The range includes Iceland, Faroe Islands, the U.K., and most Scandinavian waters. There are a few extralimital records in the Baltica Sea.
11142		distribution	eng	This is the most northerly member of the genus <em>Lagenorhynchus</em>, and it has a wide distribution (Kinze 2002).  White-beaked dolphins inhabit cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from Cape Cod and Portugal, north to central Davis Strait, southern Greenland, Svalbard, and east to Novaya Zemlya.  The range includes Iceland, Faroe Islands, the U.K., and most Scandinavian waters (but apparently does not include the Baltic Sea, although there are a few extralimital records there).
11142		habitat	eng	White-beaked dolphins inhabit continental shelf and offshore waters of the cold temperate to subpolar zones, although there is evidence suggesting that their primary habitat is in waters less than 200 m deep. The species is found widely over the continental shelf, but especially along the shelf edge. A change in habitat use has been documented in U.S. waters, where white-beaked dolphins were observed primarily on the continental shelf prior to the 1970s, but mainly occurred over slope waters during the 1970s.  This shift was associated with changes in finfish abundance and a shift in the distribution of Atlantic white-sided dolphins, <em>L. acutus</em> (Katona <em>et al.</em> 1993, Kenney <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>The ecology of white-beaked dolphins has received little detailed study (Kinze 2002).  Calving peaks in summer to early autumn (May to September), but not much else is known about reproduction in this species (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999). White-beaked dolphins feed on variety of small pelagic schooling fishes, but also demersal species (such as cod, haddock, poorcod, bib, hake, and whiting), squid, and crustaceans (for review, see Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999). They sometimes associate, while feeding, with large whales (such as fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and Atlantic white-sided dolphins) (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).
11142		habitat	eng	White-beaked dolphins inhabit continental shelf and offshore waters of the cold temperate to subpolar zones, although there is evidence suggesting that their primary habitat is in waters less than 200 m deep. The species is found widely over the continental shelf, but especially along the shelf edge. A change in habitat use has been documented in U.S. waters, where white-beaked dolphins were observed primarily on the continental shelf prior to the 1970s, but mainly occurred over slope waters during the 1970s. This shift was associated with changes in finfish abundance and a shift in the distribution of Atlantic white-sided dolphins, <em>L. acutus</em> (Katona <em>et al</em>. 1993; Kenney <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>The ecology of white-beaked dolphins has received little detailed study (Kinze 2002). They feed on variety of small pelagic schooling fishes but also demersal species (such as cod, haddock, poorcod, bib, hake, and whiting), squid, and crustaceans (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999). They sometimes associate, while feeding, with large whales (such as fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and Atlantic white-sided dolphins) (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999).
11142		population	eng	<em>Lagenorhynchus albirostris</em> is reasonably abundant. There are few actual estimates of abundance, but there may be a hundred thousand or more throughout their range (Øien 1996, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>At least a few thousand white-beaked dolphins inhabit Icelandic waters and up to 100,000 are found in the northeastern Atlantic including the Barents Sea, the eastern part of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea north of 56°N (Øien 1996). A survey of the North Sea and adjacent waters in 1994 provided an estimate of 7,856 (CV=0.30) white-beaked dolphins (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2002). In 2005 there were an estimated 22,700 (CV=0.42) in the European Atlantic continental shelf waters, including 10,600 (CV=0.29) in the same area surveyed in 1994 (P. Hammond pers. comm. 2007). Kinze <em>et al.</em> (1997) maintained that the white-beaked dolphin is much more common in the North and Baltic Seas than its relative, the Atlantic white-sided dolphin and Northridge <em>et al.</em> (1997) found that white-beaked dolphins are relatively common in European waters compared with white-sided dolphins, or compared with US waters.
11142		population	eng	There are few actual estimates of abundance, but there may be a hundred thousand or more throughout their range (Øien 1996, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Published estimates indicate there are at least several thousand white-beaked dolphins in portions of the north-western Atlantic, shoreward of the 200-m contour between St. Anthony, Newfoundland, and Nain, Labrador (Alling and Whitehead 1987) and in coastal and offshore waters east of Newfoundland and south-east of Labrador. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, white-beaked dolphins (2,500 in 1995 and 1996) occurred only in the Strait of Belle Isle and the extreme north-eastern Gulf (Kingsley and Reeves 1998). <br/><br/>At least a few thousand white-beaked dolphins inhabit Icelandic waters and up to 100,000 the northeastern Atlantic including the Barents Sea, the eastern part of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea north of 56°N (Øien 1996). A survey of the North Sea and adjacent waters in 1994 provided an estimate of 7,856 (CV=0.30) white-beaked dolphins (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 2002). In 2005 there were an estimated 22,700 (CV=0.42) in the European Atlantic continental shelf waters, including 10,600 (CV=0.29) in the same area surveyed in 1994. Kinze <em>et al</em>. (1997) maintained that the white-beaked dolphin is much more common in the North and Baltic Seas than its relative, the Atlantic white-sided dolphin, and Northridge <em>et al</em>. (1997) found that white-beaked dolphins are relatively common in European waters compared with white-sided dolphins, or compared with US waters. A 2006 survey in an area from the Georges Bank to the upper Bay of Fundy to the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence estimated 2,003 animals (CV=0.94) (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008)
11142		threats	eng	Although not a target of any large commercial fisheries, there has been a long history of small-scale hunting for white-beaked dolphins in some countries, such as Norway, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and Labrador, mostly for food (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999); hunting in some areas continues today (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993), e.g. some hunting continues off the south-west coast of Greenland (Kinze 2002) and opportunistically off the coast of Canada (Lien <em>et al.</em> 2001). During the early 1980s an estimated 366 white-beaked dolphins were taken annually by the residents of 12 Labrador harbours (Alling and Whitehead 1987). <br/><br/>White-beaked dolphins are known to be taken in a range of fishing gear throughout the range of the species (Dong <em>et al.</em> 1996, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).  In Norwegian waters where the species is abundant and fishery effort is high, bycatches of white-beaked dolphins are too rare to be detected in fishery operations monitored for marine mammal bycatches (A. Bjørge pers. comm. 2006). In the UK bycatch observer programme, no white-beaked dolphins have been recorded (S. Northridge pers. comm. 2006). Thus, recent bycatch monitoring programmes support the conclusion of Jefferson <em>et al.</em> (1993) that although known to be occurring, incidental catches are not thought to be high enough to represent a serious threat to this species.<br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, white-beaked dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors.
11142		threats	eng	Although not a target of any large commercial fisheries, there has been a long history of small-scale hunting for white-beaked dolphins in some countries, such as Norway, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and Labrador, mostly for food (Reeves <em>et al<em>. 1999); hunting in some areas continues today (Jefferson <em>et al<em>. 1993), e.g. some hunting continues off the south-west coast of Greenland (Kinze 2002) and opportunistically off the coast of Canada (Lien <em>et al<em>. 2001). During the early 1980s an estimated 366 white-beaked dolphins were taken annually by the residents of 12 Labrador harbours (Alling and Whitehead 1987). <br/><br/>White-beaked dolphins are known to be taken incidentally in a range of fishing gear throughout the range of the species (Dong <em>et al<em>. 1996; Reeves <em>et al<em>. 1999). In Norwegian waters where the species is abundant and fishery effort is high, bycatches of white-beaked dolphins are too rare to be detected in fishery operations monitored for marine mammal bycatches (A. Bjørge pers. comm.). In the UK bycatch observer programme, no white-beaked dolphins have been recorded (S. Northridge pers. comm.). Thus, recent bycatch monitoring programmers support the conclusion of Jefferson <em>et al<em>. (1993) that although known to be occurring, incidental catches are not thought to be high enough to represent a serious threat to this species.<br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, white-beaked dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al<em>. 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors.</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
11143		conservation	eng	The species is on Appendix II of CITES. <br/><br/>Recommended actions for conservation include cooperative research on biology and abundance, more comprehensive statistics on the use of Peale’s dolphin as bait and continued development of alternative sources of bait (the availability of legal bait has already diminished considerably the potential impact of crab-fisheries). Critical neritic habitat should be identified and protected for this species.
11143		distribution	eng	Peale's dolphins are apparently confined to South America, from the southern tip to about the latitudes of Santiago, Chile (33°S), and northern Argentina (38°S) (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997a; Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999; Goodall 2002). The distribution may extend south well into Drake Passage. They are regularly seen around the Falkland Islands.
11143		habitat	eng	Peale’s Dolphin occupies two major habitats: open, wave-washed coasts over shallow continental shelves to the north; and deep, protected bays and channels to the south and west. In the channels, this is an 'entrance animal', associated with the rocky coasts and riptides at the openings to fjords, where the highest water temperature recorded was 14.7°C. Peale's dolphins show a high degree of association with kelp beds (Macrocystis pyrifera), especially in the channel regions (Viddi and Lescrauwaet 2005). They swim and feed within, inshore and offshore of the kelp forests, using natural channels for movement. Over much of its range Peale's dolphin is sympatric with the dusky dolphin although their usages of habitats are slightly different. These two species are often difficult to differentiate at sea (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997b; de Haro and Iniguez 1997). Throughout the northern part of their range, they inhabit the waters of the wide continental shelf off Argentina and the narrower shelf off Chile. Although Peale's dolphins have been observed in waters at least 300 m deep, they appear to prefer shallower coastal waters (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Very little is known about the biology of this species. Peale’s dolphins associate with other cetacean species, especially Commerson’s dolphins. Calves have been reported from spring through autumn. The few stomachs that have been examined contained mostly demersal fish, octopus, and squid species that occur in shallow waters and in kelp beds. Some shrimps have also been found in stomachs.
11143		population	eng	No information is available about the abundance of <em>L. australis</em>. However, this species is reportedly the most common cetacean found around the coast of the Falkland Islands and some parts of Chile (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997a; Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). The dolphins in Beagle Channel, the Magallanes, and southern Tierra del Fuego have been harpooned for crab bait since the 1970s. The scale of this killing was great enough to cause reduced abundance by the late 1980s (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994).
11143		threats	eng	There is considerable concern about numbers of Peale's Dolphins that are hunted with harpoons in the Strait of Magellan and around Tierra del Fuego, where the meat is used as bait in crab traps (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994). Although direct hunting of dolphins has been prohibited in Chile since 1977, crab traps for centolla (southern king crab) <em>Lithodes antarctica</em> and centollon (false king crab) <em>Paralomis granubosa</em>, are still set with dolphin meat. Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. (1977) estimated some 2,350 dolphins, including both <em>L. australis</em> and <em>Cephalorhynchus commersonii</em>, were killed during the 1976/1977 crab-fishing season to bait crab traps used in the Strait of Magellan and the Chilean part of the Beagle Channel; this level of take across a number of years could have had a significant impact on the population. No recent estimates are available on the number of marine mammals killed for bait (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999; Lescrauwaet pers. comm.), but it is thought to be lower than in the past (Goodall 2002). Dolphin takes in the Argentinean sector stopped after the early 1980s (Goodall 2002).<br/><br/>Peale's dolphins are incidentally entangled and drowned in nets (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). There are reports from Queule and Mehuin (Chile), southern Patagonia, northeastern Tierra del Fuego and southern Santa Cruz (Argentina) that local fishermen may incidentally catch Peale's dolphins (Reyes 1991; Brownell <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the northern part of their Pacific range, however, Peale's dolphins seem to be rarely taken (Goodall 2002). Their close dependence on kelp forests may render them vulnerable to habitat loss (Viddi and Lescrauwaet 2005).
11144		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.
11144		distribution	eng	Hourglass dolphins are distributed in a circumpolar pattern in the higher latitudes of the southern oceans (Goodall 1997; Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997; Brownell and Donahue 1999). They range to the ice-edges in the south, but the northern limits are not well-known (they are found to at least 45°S, although some occasionally reach 33°S). The most southerly sightings are from near 68°S, in the South Pacific (Goodall 1997; Brownell and Donahue 1999). This is the only small delphinid species regularly found south of the Antarctic Convergence.
11144		habitat	eng	Normally seen far out to sea, <em>L. cruciger</em> has also been observed in fairly shallow water near the Antarctic Peninsula and off southern South America. It occurs within 160 km of the ice edge in some areas in southern part of the range (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Most sightings of these dolphins are in an area around the Antarctic Convergence, between South America and Macquarie Island. The species seems to prefer surface water temperatures between 0.6° - 13°C (mean 4.8 °C; Goodall 1997) or even down to -0.3°C (Goodall 2002). <br/><br/>The stomach contents of the five specimens of hourglass dolphins that have been examined contained small fish (including myctophids), squids, and crustaceans. They often feed in aggregations of seabirds and in plankton swarms.
11144		population	eng	In the only abundance estimate for this species, Kasamatsu and Joyce (1995) combined data gathered in sighting surveys conducted from 1976/77 to 1987/88 to produce an abundance estimate of 144,300 (CV =17%) for waters south of the Antarctic convergence.
11144		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
11145		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The most significant international conservation measure for this species was the United Nations (U.N.) moratorium on high-seas driftnet fishing implemented in 1993. In the eastern North Pacific, the U.S drift gillnet fishery has been required since 1996 to use acoustic warning devices (pingers) to reduce cetacean bycatch; however, low levels of bycatch of <em>Lagenorhynchus obliquidens</em> have continued (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005).
11145		distribution	eng	Pacific white-sided dolphins inhabit temperate waters of the North Pacific and some adjacent seas (Sea of Japan, southern Okhotsk Sea, the southern Bering Sea and southern Gulf of California) (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999; Van Waerebeek and Würsig 2002). Their range includes continental slope waters of the Western North Pacific as far south as southern China, shelf and slope waters of the eastern North Pacific from the Gulf of Alaska southward to Baja California, Mexico, and deep offshore waters of the North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N latitude (Hobbs and Jones 1993).
11145		habitat	eng	Pacific white-sided dolphins inhabit temperate oceanic waters across the North Pacific, as well as shelf and slope waters of the North Pacific continental margins (see distribution plots in Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006), and in some inland waterways (e.g. British Columbia; Heise 1997). <br/><br/>Pacific white-sided dolphins feed on a wide variety of small pelagic schooling fish (e.g., lanternfish, anchovies, saury, horse mackerel, and hake), as well as cephalopods. They are commonly associated with other marine mammal species, particularly northern right whale dolphins, Risso's dolphins, and California sea lions (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999).
11145		population	eng	Two separate estimates of abundance have been made for waters of the central North Pacific, suggesting that 900,000-1,000,000 Pacific white-sided dolphins may inhabit this oceanic region (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993; Miyashita 1993); however, precision was low for both studies, and vessel attraction probably resulted in a substantial overestimation of population size (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993). In the eastern North Pacific, the distribution of this species has been documented to vary dramatically with oceanographic conditions (Heise 1997, Forney and Barlow 1998), and abundance estimates along the U.S. West Coast have ranged from about 13,000 to 122,000 (Forney <em>et al</em> 1995, Barlow and Forney, in press). The average abundance in this region during 1996-2001 was estimated to be about 24,000 (Barlow and Forney, in press).<br/> <br/>Separate subpopulations have been identified in the southern portions of the species range, off the west coast of North America (Lux <em>et al</em>. 1997) and in Japan (Hayano <em>et al</em>. 2004).
11145		threats	eng	Historically, the greatest threats to Pacific white-sided dolphins were the high-seas drift gillnet fisheries for salmon and squid, which operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N (Hobbs and Jones 1993). Effort in these fisheries increased during the 1970s and peaked during the 1980s before an United Nations moratorium went into effect in January 1993. Bycatch estimates are only available for a subset of the total fishing effort. The Japanese squid driftnet fishery killed an estimated 6,100 animals during 1989, and all fisheries combined killed an estimated 5,759 during 1990 (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed on the order of 100,000 Pacific white-sided dolphins. Although there is great uncertainty in the total population size, these bycatch levels may have caused some, but not substantial, population depletion (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Smaller catches (e.g. at least 194 in 1987) are reported from the Japanese land-based salmon drift net fishery, and small numbers are taken yearly in seines, set nets, and trap nets around Japan (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pacific white-sided dolphins have never been primary targets of Japanese drive fisheries, but they were harpooned in Japanese waters during the 1940s, and cull programs killed at least 466 Pacific white-sided dolphins in Japanese waters between 1976 and 1980. The Japanese government is currently (2007) considering a renewed direct harvest of this species (Kasuya pers. comm.). The potential for renewed directed takes in Japanese waters, coupled with evidence for population substructure, particularly at the southern ends of this species' range, may require the re-examination of the threat to this species.<br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific, a total of 424 Pacific white-sided dolphins were estimated killed in the U.S. West Coast shark and swordfish driftnet fishery between 1988 and 2002 (Perkins <em>et al</em>. 1994; Julian and Beeson 1998, Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). Additional low levels of mortality have been documented for bottom-set gillnets in California coastal waters, for drift gill nets in British Columbia and Alaska, and for trawl fisheries in Alaska; however, no overall mortality estimates are available for these fisheries. Pacific white-sided dolphins are rarely taken in the tuna purse seine fishery in the eastern tropical Pacific, because most of the fishing takes place south of the range of these dolphins (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). None of these sources of eastern North Pacific mortality appears of a sufficient magnitude to have caused a population decline in this region.
11146		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Subpopulation definitions and numbers are unknown for New Zealand and other areas, and intensive photo-identification, genetic and survey studies are recommended. <br/><br/>Bycatch in gillnets occurs at an unknown level and needs to be investigated.
11146		distribution	eng	Dusky dolphins are widespread in the southern Hemisphere (Brownell and Cipriano 1999). They occur in apparently disjunct subpopulations in the waters off Tasmania, southern Australia, New Zealand (including the Chatham and Campbell Islands), central and southern South America (including the Falkland Islands), and southwestern Africa. They also occur around some oceanic island groups (e.g., Tristan da Cunha, Prince Edward, Amsterdam, and St. Paul Islands).
11146		habitat	eng	This coastal species is usually found over the continental shelf and slope (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Aguayo <em>et al</em>. 1998). The distribution of dusky dolphins along the west coast of South Africa and both coasts of South America is associated with the continental shelves and cool waters of the Benguela, Humboldt and Falkland Currents. Around New Zealand, these dolphins are associated mainly with various cold water currents (Brownell and Cipriano 1999). Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. (1995) suggested that dusky dolphins may be limited to water shallower than 200 m. Off Argentina, dusky dolphins have been sighted from the coast to almost 200 nautical miles offshore, but the present information does not allow us to conclude whether this species' distribution tends to be more coastal than offshore or vice versa due to the bias in coastal effort (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997). They seem to prefer waters with sea surface temperatures between 10°C and 18°C (Brownell and Cipriano 1999). Inshore/offshore shifts in abundance have been noted for Argentina and New Zealand. They do move over deep waters in some areas (e.g., New Zealand), but always along continental slopes.<br/><br/>Dusky dolphins take a wide variety of prey, including southern anchovy near the surface in shallower waters, as well as midwater and benthic prey, such as squid, hake, and lanternfishes. They may also engage in nocturnal feeding, in association with the deep scattering layer. New Zealand dolphins appear to engage in feeding deeper in the water column than do those from Argentine waters (Cipriano 1992; Würsig <em>et al</em>. 1997).
11146		population	eng	There are few abundance estimates available for any significant portion of the range (Brownell and Cipriano, 1999). The total number of dusky dolphins in the one area off the Patagonian cost was estimated to be close to 7,252 individuals (Dans <em>et al</em>. 1997), and the number given by Schiavini <em>et al</em>. (1999) for the area between Punta Ninfas and Cabo Blanco, Argentina is 6,628. Some subpopulations are thought to have been seriously depleted by human activities (e.g., those off Peru, Van Waerebeek 1994.).<br/><br/>There is a hiatus in distribution spanning about 1,000 km along the Chilean coast, and the animals off Patagonia are smaller than those off northern Chile and Peru, suggesting that the subpopulations in western and eastern South America are separate. It remains uncertain whether the groups around oceanic islands in the western South Pacific (Campbell, Auckland, and Chatham), South Atlantic (Gough and the Falklands), and Indian Ocean (Amsterdam, Prince Edward, and St. Paul) are discrete or regularly mix with animals in other areas (Brownell and Cipriano 1999).
11146		threats	eng	Dusky dolphins are known to be taken directly in the multi-species small cetacean fisheries of Peru and Chile. An expanded directed fishery for dolphins and porpoises may have started in Peru after the demise of the anchoveta fishery in 1972. Although most dusky dolphins are taken in the directed net fishery they are also taken by a harpoon fishery (Brownell and Cipriano, 1999). It has been calculated that the fishing industry from just one port kills more than 700 dusky dolphins each year. <br/><br/>Large catches (approximately 10,000) of small cetaceans were reported from the coastal waters of central Peru in 1985 (Read <em>et al</em>., 1988). In the 1991-1993 period, an estimated 7,000 dusky dolphins were captured per year, a level thought to be unsustainable. Of 722 cetaceans captured mostly in multi-filament gillnets and landed at Cerro Azul, central Peru, in 87 days during January- August 1994, 82.7% were dusky dolphins. The total kill estimate for a seven- month period, stratified by month, was 1,567 cetaceans. Data collected at 16 other ports showed that high levels of dolphin and porpoise mortality persisted in coastal Peru at least until August 1994. It is believed, but not confirmed, that this level of exploitation has diminished since dolphin hunting was banned by law in 1996, due in part to depletion of the regional population (Van Waerebeek and Würsig 2002). The current level of takes is unknown. The absence of abundance data precludes any assessment of impact on subpopulations (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In New Zealand, some dusky dolphins are entangled in gill nets. Incidental mortality at one fishing port was estimated to be 100 to 200 animals per year (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). The highest rates of incidental catches off the Patagonian coast mostly occur in mid-water trawling for shrimp. At present, this fishery is declining in use, but in 1984, it reached a peak and the number of dolphins caught was estimated at between 442-560, decreasing during the following years. Mortality estimates for 1994 reached a minimum value of 36 dolphins per year, mostly females and young adults. Thus, incidental mortality during 1984-86, would have led to a maximum annual mortality close to 8% of the present estimated regional population size. The effect would have been severe, considering that the catches affected mostly females of the highest reproductive value (Dans <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Incidental mortality in mid-water trawls off Patagonia in the mid-1980s was estimated at 400–600 dolphins per year, primarily females, declining to 70–215 in the mid-1990s (Dans <em>et al</em>. 1997). Several hundred continue to die each year in various types of fishing gear off Argentina (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 2000). The estimated annual incidental kill of dusky dolphins in fishing gear around New Zealand was within the range of 50–150 during the mid-1980s (Würsig <em>et al</em>. 1997).
11147		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas (at least 21). Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed.
11147		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central and south Peru, and northern Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It may occur in adjacent parts of Bolivia, surrounding Lake Titicaca, although this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded at 300 m at the coast, close to Lima, up to 5,000 m asl.
11147		habitat	eng	It is associated with very rocky areas, and can be found in a wide variety of habitat types wherever suitable rocky sites exist. It chooses shelters in rocky crevices, usually with one entrance. It is an herbivorous species. The gestation period is 140 days, and the usual litter size is one. Lactation takes about eight weeks. In Peru mating takes place from October through November (Kleiman <em>et al.</em>, 1979; Pearson, 1948).
11147		population	eng	It is a common species.
11147		threats	eng	This species is locally hunted for food but populations are generally not declining, and this is not considered to be a major overall threat to the species.
11148		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
11148		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Peru, southern and western Bolivia, northern Chilie and western Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It occurs between 2,500 m asl to 5,100 m asl. The distribution limit of this species in western Bolivia needs to be revised. This species is not present in southern Peru (H. Zeballos pers. comm.).
11148		habitat	eng	Species is a habitat generalist (Cofre and Marquet 1999). Inhabits rocky mountain areas as well as rock outcrops in steppe habitat (Galende and Trejo 2003). This herbivorous species is specialized and restricted to rocky habitats where it colonizes rock crevices. Available habitat is patchy (Walker <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It occurs up to 4,800 m asl (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006)
11148		population	eng	Species occurs in low local abundances (Cofre and Marquet 1999). It is a very common species although it has a patchy distribution, populations may fluctuate in relation to extreme seasonal weather.
11148		threats	eng	It is locally hunted by people for meat and fur although, in general, this does not significantly impact populations  (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006). There appear to be no major threats to this species.
11149		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered in Argentina. It occurs in a few protected areas, more or less half of the known distribution is protected in park.
11149		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Argentina and adjacent Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
11149		habitat	eng	It occurs up to approximately 4,000 m asl. It is found in rocky outcrops in mountainous areas. Very little is known about this species
11149		population	eng	Very little is known about this species
11149		threats	eng	This species has been traditionally hunted for food and its fur. This is a continuing threat to the species.
11160		conservation	eng	None.
11160		distribution	eng	This endemic Australian species is known only from a single skull found in the Lake Mackay area on the Western Australia – Northern Territory border. It has not been recorded since the collection of this specimen in 1932. There are oral history records presumed to be of this species up to the early 1960s (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988).
11160		habitat	eng	It inhabited desert sand plains and dunes with spinifex (<em>Triodia</em>) hummock grassland (Burbidge <em>et al</em>. 2008).
11160		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct.
11160		threats	eng	Important factors in the decline of hare-wallabies are predation by introduced cats and foxes, and possibly changed fire regimes (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
11161		conservation	eng	The populations that are in the decline, such as in the Pilbara and those in central Queensland, require close monitoring to ensure that they do not decline in the future at a major rate.<br/><br/>There is no existing management program for the Spectacled Hare-wallaby in the Northern Territory (Langford and Pavey 2002). Management priorities for this region and others include: increase protection of vegetation types poorly represented in the reserve system (e.g., Lancewood/Bullwaddy thickets of Northern Territory, <em>Eucalyptus</em> woodland of northern and central Northern Territory and central Queensland); enter into protective agreements with landowners having populations of <em>L. c. leichardti</em> on their properties; determine locations, size and factors threatening populations, particularly in Western Australia and Queensland; more detailed ecological studies of the species e.g., habitat requirements, home range, dispersal patterns, social organisation, reproductive physiology, natural cycles in population size; determine response to different fire regimes and to different land management practices (e.g., grazing, clearing, burning, dingo baiting) in order to establish appropriate management techniques and conservation options, especially on pastoral land; assess current population densities and viability in different parts of the range; study effects of introduced predators (particularly cats and foxes) on population size and distribution; detailed study of population genetics required to clarify taxonomic status of various populations and extent of genetic variation within populations. This species has also been recorded from Kakadu National Park, and probably occurs in Katherine Gorge National Park (Langford and Pavey 2002).<br/><br/><em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> is present within the Barrow Island Nature Reserve, where it appears to be secure (Burbidge and Johnson 2008).
11161		distribution	eng	This species is found mainly in Australia, where it is occurs as two distinct subspecies: <em>Lagorchestes conspicillatus conspicillatus</em> and <em>L. c. leichardti</em>. The species has been recorded on New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) (Hitchcock 1997), but little is known about its presence there.<br/><br/><em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> is restricted to Barrow Island, Western Australia. It is extinct from Hermite and Trimouille Islands, of the Montebello Islands (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>L. c. leichardti</em> formerly occupied almost half of the Australian continent, and was found as far south as the MacDonnell Ranges (Northern Territory, 24°S) and Rockhampton (Queensland) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Its distribution is now extremely patchy. In Western Australia it is now rare and reduced to a few isolated populations in the Pilbara and Kimberley regions (very rare in the latter) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Northern Territory it still occurs sparsely in the Tanami bioregion; near Newcastle Waters it is found in Acacia woodland, whereas near Borroloola in the Gulf Coastal bioregion it occurs in savanna woodland (Langford and Pavey 2002). It has disappeared from the southern-most parts of its range, now rarely occurring south of 21°S – a range contraction of more than 200 km. <em>L. c. leichardti</em> is common in suitable habitat between 16<sup>o</sup>-18<sup>o</sup> S (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Queensland it is widespread, recorded from Weipa on Cape York west to Dajarra and south to Rolleston near Rockhampton. Its extent of occurrence has not altered markedly in Queensland, although there is strong evidence of a marked decline in abundance in the south-eastern parts of its range (i.e, the central highlands area), and area of occupancy may have declined 20-30% due to broadscale clearing and development (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
11161		habitat	eng	<em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> occurs throughout Barrow Island and shelters in large <em>Triodia</em> hummocks (Burbidge and Johnson 2008; A. Burbidge pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>L. c. leichardti</em> occupies a wide variety of habitat types including: open forests, open woodland, tall shrublands, tussock grasslands and hummock grasslands. In the central part of its range in Northern Territory, it particularly favours <em>Acacia shirleyi</em>/<em>Macropteranthes kekwickii</em> thickets (Lancewood/Bullwaddy) with an open understorey. In the drier southern parts of its range it commonly occupies spinifex (<em>Triodia</em> spp.) sandplains interspersed with low shrubs and a diversity of either soft grasses, sedges, or forb species. In the northern part of its range in Northern Territory and in Queensland it occupies open woodlands or open forests (generally <em>Eucalyptus</em> spp., <em>Erythrophleum chlorostachys</em>, <em>Terminalia canescens</em> or <em>Lysiphyllum cunninghamii</em>), with a tussock grass understorey. Predominant grass species in central and northern Queensland include <em>Themeda triandra</em>, <em>Bothriocloa ewartiana</em> and <em>Heteropogon contortus</em>. This species frequently feeds in areas regenerating after fire (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>It is generally a solitary species, but up to three may be seen feeding together. Breeding occurs throughout the year. Young leave the pouch at about five months, and females become reproductively active at twelve months (Langford and Pavey 2002).
11161		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed, but common in some parts of its range (uncommon elsewhere). It is rare in the Pilbara and Kimberly regions of Western Australia.
11161		threats	eng	The reasons for decline of <em>L. c. leichardti</em> are probably many and varied in different parts of the range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). There is little direct evidence to determine the exact factors, but these probably include introduced predators (foxes in southern parts of the range and possibly cats), and competitors, the pastoral industry (particularly sheep in the Pilbara and cattle in the central southern Kimberley and Queensland) and changes in fire regimes (central Australia). In central Queensland, intensive land use coupled with the effects of the long drought conditions have led to a decrease in the number of shelter sites (tussock grasses reduced in structure) and thereby increasing the probability of predation by dingoes (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Here, too, the species seems to be stable where stocking rates are conservative: property sizes in the area are large enough to have flexible stocking rates and allow for paddock spelling. Fire is also used as a management tool – summer mosaic burns of which the stock and wallabies take advantage. Properties in the area have been managed in a constant manner for the last 60 years (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In the Northern Territory, spectacled hare-wallaby populations seem secure in the belt of Lancewood/Bullwaddy woodland extending between 16<sup>o</sup> and 18<sup>o</sup> S. However, clearing of woodland for grazing, uncontrolled burning and logging of <em>Acacia shirleyi</em> forests are considered threatening processes for the species in this region (Langford and Pavey 2002).<br/><br/><em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> on Barrow Island has a limited range and is potentially threatened by the introduction of predators (e.g., feral cats).
11162		conservation	eng	The Rufous Hare-wallaby is listed both country-wide and in the Northern Territory.<br/>Australia: Endangered (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999).<br/>Northern Territory: Extinct in the Wild. (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000).  <br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.  <br/><br/>There have been a couple of Recovery Plans for this species (Lundie-Jenkins 1995; Langford 1999), as well as an update (Richards 2005). Specific objectives for the recovery of the species within the 2005-2010 period come directly from Richards (2005), and include:<br/><br/>1. Protect the wild Bernier and Dorre Island populations and their habitat;<br/>2. Maintain captive breeding populations;<br/>3. Maintain the introduced Trimouille Island population;<br/>4. Reintroduce to mainland and island sites;<br/>5. Conduct a population viability analysis of wild and reintroduced populations;<br/>6. Research taxonomic status and genetic structure;<br/>7. Enhance community participation and education; and<br/>8. Secure ongoing funding for the implementation of the Recovery Plan.<br/><br/>The primary success of these will depend, in part, on preventing introduced predators from disrupting reintroduced populations and the prevention of large fires in areas where this species is present because they have the potential to destroy whole populations (Richards 2005).
11162		distribution	eng	The Rufous Hare-wallaby was formerly found throughout spinifex deserts of central Northern Territory and Western Australia and north-western parts of South Australia. There are four recognised taxa:<br/><br/><em>Lagorchetes hirsutus hirsutus</em> formerly occurred only in the south-west of Western Australia. It is extinct. <br/><br/><em>L. h. bernieri </em> is restricted to Bernier Island, Western Australia. <br/><br/><em>L. h. dorreae</em> is restricted to Dorre Island, Western Australia. Whether there are separate subspecies on Bernier and Dorre Islands is a moot point; Western Australian scientists do not recognise two subspecies for the purposes of listing, <em>bernier</em> is considered to have priority (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). <br/><br/>An unnamed subspecies of <em>L. hirsutus</em> from the Tanami Desert on the Australian mainland is now limited to captive colonies and as experimental reintroduction/translocation programs (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This undescribed subspecies was once widespread in central Australian deserts. Captive colonies of this subspecies exist in Dryandra Conservation Reserve (south-east of Perth) and at Shark Bay. There is also a colony on Trimouille Island (520 hectares), Western Australia as a consequence of a translocation from the Tanami Desert to that site in 1998; the subspecies now ranges throughout the island (Langford and Burbidge 2001; Johnson and Burbidge 2008).
11162		habitat	eng	The mainland habitat was mainly in spinifex (<em>Triodia</em> spp.) hummock grasslands of the central deserts (Northern Territory, Western Australia, and South Australia). Tanami Desert colonies formerly associated with saline palaeo-drainage system, sand dunes, and tight fire patterns. Large areas of spinifex desert appear suitable provided that exotic predators and rabbits are at low densities or controlled and fire is properly managed (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>The species typically carries a single young, usually two per year, with a pouch life of approximately four months (J. Richards pers. comm.). The species can survive up to five years in captivity (Langford and Burbidge 2001).
11162		population	eng	There are no recent population estimates for Dorre and Bernier Islands. There were estimated to collectively hold 4,300 - 6,700 animals prior to 1994 (Richards 2005). Populations on these islands fluctuate with environmental conditions (Johnson and Burbidge 2008).<br/><br/>The translocated population on Trimouille Island began as 30 individuals in 1998, and were last estimated to number more than 120 (although this estimate was made not from trap data, but from tracks and droppings) (Richards 2005).
11162		threats	eng	This species declined on the mainland through habitat alteration due to rabbits, grazing and frequent and extensive wildfire. Predation by cats and foxes has acted to drive remnant populations to extinction. Island populations have a limited distribution and are threatened by the potential introduction of predators.
11163		conservation	eng	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be investigated to determine whether it is possibly still extant.
11163		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to south-eastern Australia. The last specimen was collected in 1890 (Strahan 2008).
11163		habitat	eng	This little-known species appears to have inhabited open grassland plains (Strahan 2008).
11163		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct.
11163		threats	eng	It has been suggested that an important factor in the decline of hare-wallabies has been the alteration of grassland habitat through trampling and grazing by sheep and cattle. The removal of aboriginal Australians from large areas by European settlers may also have contributed to loss of hare-wallabies by resulting in the removal of regular winter burning regimes and increasing the likelihood of devastating lightening-caused fires in summer months.
11170		conservation	eng	The are no conservation measures in place and it seems that none are needed at present.
11170		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern, central and eastern Argentina, southern and western Paraguay, and southeastern Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
11170		habitat	eng	This species is native to the pampas and adjoining semiarid Monte and Chaquenean regions of Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. Te species is tolerant to some degree of habitat modification.
11170		population	eng	Due to extensive hunting and pest control measures, concern has been expressed about this species (Weir 1974). However, it seems that although some populations have been eliminated, other ones have expanded into areas recently cleared for grazing.
11170		threats	eng	In Argentina this species was classified as a national plague in 1905 and was eradicated from many areas (Godoy, 1963). It is also hunted commercially for meat and fur, as a result it has disappeared from most prime grasslands and agricultural areas in Argentina (Jackson 1996).
11171		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Bernier and Dorre Islands are both protected areas, as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced. Regular monitoring of populations is needed (annually or biannually). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005-2010 period (Richards 2005). Recommendations in this plan include: protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations; maintain captive populations; use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild, current and potential reintroduced populations, and; enhance community participation and education. The recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period (2005-2010) (Richards 2005). Some of these, like the reintroduction to Arid Recovery, should be established "in different regions where climatic fluctuations may be out of synchrony" (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997).
11171		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it was formerly present on the mainland from south-western parts of the country to the lower Murray River region. It is now restricted to the offshore Bernier and Dorre Islands in Shark Bay, Western Australia (Prince and Richards 2008). A small population was recently reintroduced to Faure Island (Prince and Richards 2008).
11171		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of dense scrub and bushes, beneath which it forms runs and shelters (Prince and Richards 2008). <br/>Females generally give birth annually to a single young (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2001). Males and females can reach sexual maturity within their first year, but typically not until the second year (Prince and Richards 2008). In the wild, Banded Hare Wallabies can live at least six years (Prince and Richards 2008).
11171		population	eng	There are no recent population estimates for this species. Surveys in 1988/89 indicated a total population of about 7,700 animals, equally divided between the two islands (Short and Turner 1992), and 9,700 in 1991/92 (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is a reasonably long lived species. The population fluctuates with rainfall. Two recent translocation attempts to the mainland failed due to cat predation and drought (Prince and Richards 2008). A small population was recently reintroduced to Faure Island, and it is showing signs of success (Prince and Richards 2008).
11171		threats	eng	The current major threats to the populations of the species include: the accidental introduction of predators (introduced cats and foxes), fire, and disease (Richards 2005). Introduced rats and mice are also a concern, but to a lesser degree than introduced predators. Extreme fluctuations in populations on islands are a threat, but this threat is seen as minor relative to the risk exotic predators being introduced (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). With weather events becoming ever more unpredictable and all locations for the species being located in Shark Bay, these fluctuations are a cause for concern. The species presumably was extirpated from mainland Australia by a combination of habitat loss and predation by introduced feral cats.
11175		conservation	eng	Present in a number of protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Juami-Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu National Natural Park (293,000 ha) (INDERENA, 1989; Defler 2004)<br/>La Paya National Natural (442,000 ha) (Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al</em>. 1999; Defler 2004 )<br/>Cahuinarí National Natural Park (575,500 ha) (Defler 2004)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete National Natural Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range) <br/>Nukak National Natural Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,103 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
11175		distribution	eng	In Colombia, <em>Lagothrix lagotricha</em> is known throughout the Amazon lowlands north-east to the Río Uva, a left bank affluent of the Río Guaviare in Vichada (Defler 2004). It extends east to the Río Orinoco and it may occur in Venezuela to the south of the Orinoco between the Ríos Orinoco and Cassiquiare (Linares 1998). Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) reported that <em>Lagothrix</em> had never been collected in Venezuela, but that it should be found in the Territorio Federal Amazonas to the south of the Ventuari. It extends part way up the Rio Negro in Brazil – to the north at least as far the Ro Carauari. It does not occur in the eastern part of the Negro-Solimões interfluvium, but the exact boundaries of its occurrence there are not known. In Ecuador and Peru, it occurs north of the Rio Amazonas – Napo (<em>L. poeppigii</em> occurs to the south) (Tirira 2007). In Ecuador, the altitudinal range is 200 m to 1,400 m above sea level (Tirira 2007).
11175		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland primary <em>terra firma</em> forest, and occasionally also in secondary and disturbed/fragmented habitats. The enter flooded forests at certain times of the year to feed on fruits.<br/><br/>Izawa (1975, 1976) and Nishimura and Izawa (1975) studied this species on the Río Peneya, a tributary of the Río Caquetá, Colombia. Nishimura and Izawa (1975) observed a group from 42-43 individuals (11 adult males, 15 adult females, 11 or 12 juveniles, and 6 dependant infants) at Puerto Japó, Río Peneya, using home ranges greater than 400 ha. At another site (Puerto Tokio) they saw six groups which they believed ranged in size from 25-70 animals. They estimated a home range of 1,100 ha for the Puerto Japón group. Defler (1989, 1995, 1996, 1999; Defler and Defler 1996) studied a group on the Río Apaporis, Colombia. It ranged over 760 ha, largely (90%) overlapping with three neighbouring groups. Nishimura (1990b) studied the ranging and social behavior of two groups at Puerto Tokio. Group A had 45 individuals and ranged over 450 ha, ands group B had 13 individuals and used a home range of 350 ha over about 10 months of his observations. Other studies of woolly monkeys have shown that their diet consists mainly of fruits, but includes also young leaves, petioles, and flowers (Ramirez 1988).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight mean 9.0 kg (8.0-10.0 kg, n=3); adult female weight mean 5.75 kg (5.0-6.5 kg, n=6) (Ford and Davis 1992).
11175		population	eng	Common, but naturally at low densities. Nishimura and Izawa (1975) estimated a density of 5.5 individuals/km² on the Río Peneya, Colomibia. Defler (1989) recorded the same density on the Rio Apaporis.
11175		threats	eng	Relatively wide-ranging, susceptible to hunting, but still occurs in a number of very remote regions. There is also some habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (including illegal crops).
11179		conservation	eng	It is an abundant species throughout most of the distribution area, but is listed as Critically Endangered in Ukraine where it partly inhabits protected areas.
11179		conservation	eng	It is an abundant species throughout most of the distribution area, but is listed as Critically Endangered in Ukraine where it partly inhabits protected areas. Approximately 17% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
11179		distribution	eng	Distributed in plain and mountain steppes and semi-deserts in Eurasia from Dnepr River to Tuva and to Tien Shan in the south. Occurs from sea level to 2,800 m.
11179		distribution	eng	<em>Lagurus lagurus </em>are recorded in Ukraine, Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, China and Mongolia, mainly distributed in plain and mountain steppes and semi-deserts from Dnepr River to Tuva and to Tien Shan in the south. Occurs from sea level to 2,800 m. Regional distribution: Dzungarian Govi Desert, Shargyn Govi in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Trans Altai Govi Desert and Uvs Lake Depression in northern Great Lakes Depression (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).
11179		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppes and semi-deserts, where it forms large colonies that dig branched burrows extending over hundreds of square meters. Feeds on narrow-leaved cereals and absinths. Also consumes bulbs, tubers and sometimes insects. Breeds up to six times a year, typically with 5-6 young in each litter (maximum 14). Marked population fluctuations are a characteristic feature of this species; during population peaks it is nomadic.
11179		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppes and semi-deserts, where it forms large colonies that dig branched burrows extending over hundreds of square meters. Feeds on narrow-leaved cereals and absinths. Also consumes bulbs, tubers and sometimes insects. Breeds up to six times a year, with 5-6 young in each litter (maximum 14). Marked population fluctuations are a characteristic feature of this species; during population peaks it is nomadic.
11179		population	eng	A typical steppe rodent. Very abundant at the beginning of the 20th century in Ukraine (Migulin 1938), but now restricted to easternmost regions. In Russia populations are fragmented, but the species remains a considerable pest of arable and pasture land. Declines in some populations may be related to climate change, specifically to increasingly moist conditions. Since the 1960s, irrigation and planting of trees to protect fields has changed the microclimate for this species.
11179		threats	eng	Destruction and alteration of habitats by humans (including climate change); pesticides.
11179		threats	eng	Destruction and alteration of habitats by humans (including climate change); pesticides. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock, and possible competition for resources with other rodent species in some areas. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. None of the above are thought to constitute a major threat to the species at present, although they may have a negative impact on local populations.
11186		conservation	eng	The species is found in a number of protected areas and is included in the appendix II of CITES, thus regulating international trade of products derived from the guanaco. <br/><br/>Chile: Species protected by the Ley de Caza, Criaderos y Uso <em>in situ</em>(Law on hunting, breeding and <em>in situ</em> use).  However, personnel for law enforcement are insufficient. Only 4% of the habitats of guanaco have effective protection (8354 sq. km., in 8 National Parks and 4 Reserves). Additionally there are fiscal and private areas in which hunting is prohibited, either with relict populations (7750 sq. km.), or to protect the species (1212 sq. km.). A National Management Plan does not exist.<br/><br/>Peru: Recent legislation ratifies the classification of the guanaco in Peru as "Endangered" as of 2004. Active management of populations is carried out by CONACS (Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos National Council for South American Camelids), and local communities. <br/><br/>Bolivia: A team of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) is working with the government, local authorities and local people to strengthen the management of protected areas. The government has issued an official notice to law enforcement offices in the region concerning the protection of guanaco. The main conservation aim has been achieved thanks to the permanent presence of trained indigenous parabiologists in the remaining range of the species (Cuéllar, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Argentina: A National Management Plan (Plan Nacional de Manejo del Guanaco) has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest guanaco densities. This plan was coordinated by the Dirección de Fauna Silvestre (Federal Wildlife Agency), with the participation of various local institutions, and has a main focus towards Patagonia.  The federal wildlife conservation law (Ley Nacional de Conservación de la Fauna) and various provincial acts provide a legal basis for the protection and use of the species. In Patagonia, guanaco conservation activities include sustainable use of the species in the wild, regulation of hunting quotas, and closing of some access routes and oil trails. Protected areas in the Patagonian steppe would encompass 10% of the guanacos if effective, but most of the protected areas are rather nominal as they contain livestock, there are no wardens and poaching is common. The percentage of the area under effective protection in the Patagonian steppe was estimated to be less than 1% (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the central provinces there are 11 protected areas (either national, provincial or private). However, the progress made in legislation and management tools, implementation of actions is needed.
11186		distribution	eng	Guanaco is a widespread species with an extensive, though discontinuous, range from the north of Peru to Navarino Island in southern Chile. Most of guanacos are found in Argentina. Although its range covers most of Patagonia, guanaco populations appear to be more scattered towards the north of the region (Chubut, Río Negro, Neuquén and southern Mendoza provinces) than in Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego (Walker <em>et al.</em>, unpublished data). Through northern Patagonia, guanaco distribution extends highly fragmented in relict populations in La Pampa and southwestern Buenos Aires provinces. Through central and northern Argentina guanaco distribution is restricted to the western half of the country, along the pre-Andes and Andean mountains up to the border with Bolivia (Baigún <em>et al.</em> 2007), although a relict population has been recently reported in the arid Chaco of northwestern Córdoba (Schneider <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). In Chile, the largest guanaco populations are concentrated in the Magallanes and Aysén regions in the south (with the highest numbers on the Tierra del Fuego island) and Tarapaca region in the north. In Bolivia, a relict population of guanaco persists in the Chaco region (Cuéllar and Fuentes 2000) and recent observations of guanacos have been reported in the southern highlands between Potosi and Chuquisaca (Nuñez, unpublished data). Although Pinaya (1990) reported the presence of guanacos in southeastern Tarija, these records need to be confirmed. In Paraguay, a relict population has been reported in the northwestern Chaco (Villalba 2004). Peru is the northernmost part of guanaco distribution at approximately 8°30'S, at the Calipuy National Reserve in La Libertad department. To the south, populations reach the Salinas Aguada Blanca National Reserve in Arequipa and Moquegua departments (16°10'S). A guanaco population was recorded in the Nevado Salcantay area, in the Anta district (Wheeler 2006, Veliz and Hoces 2007).
11186		habitat	eng	Most of the guanacos are distributed across the phytogeographic provinces of the Monte and Patagonia, arid and semi-arid shrublands and grasslands comprising over 700,000 km². Guanacos are also found in the Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal and the southern Pampa. There are both migratory and sedentary populations across the guanaco range.<br/><br/>Adult guanacos weigh 80-120 kg and their breeding system is a resource defense polygyny. An adult male defends a territory where a group of females and their offspring (chulengos) feed, from the intrusion of other males (Franklin 1982, 1983). In a recent study, it was shown that vigilance and foraging accounted for almost 90% of the diurnal time budget of territorial male and female guanacos, but guanacos benefited from living in groups as individual foraging time increased with group size as well as collective vigilance against pumas, suggesting that predation risk is a strong component modeling guanaco social structure (Marino and Baldi 2008). <br/><br/>Guanacos are generalist herbivores of intermediate selectivity (i.e. they include a large proportion of both grasses and shrubs in their diets) (Raedeke and Simmoneti 1988, Fraser 1998, Puig <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2001, Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The domestic sheep was the main ungulate species introduced across the guanaco range, reaching 22 million heads within 50 years in the Argentine Patagonia. Both guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences. Over 80% of their diets are identical (Puig <em>et al</em>. 2001). Although both species can include over 100 plant species in their diets, only 17 species made up 80% of the diets, and in Patagonia two grass species represented 40% of both guanaco and sheep diets (Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Across the extensive Patagonian rangelands, competition with sheep, hunting, and habitat modification have resulted in guanacos occupying marginal, low quality lands in terms of vegetation cover and the availability of the most important plant species in their diet, since sheep ranching monopolized the most productive areas (Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2001). A preliminary study in the Bolivian Chaco showed that the guanaco is a generalist feeder, responding to the seasonal availability of fruits, flowers and leaves, including a variety of cacti (Cuéllar, unpublished data). In this region guanacos compete for forage and spatial resources mainly with cattle and horses (Cuéllar, unpublished data).
11186		population	eng	Although in the Argentine Patagonia guanaco distribution is rather continuous, densities are typically low (<5 guanacos/km²) or very low as in many parts of Chubut, Rio Negro and Neuquén (<2 guanacos/km²) while higher density populations are scarce and spatially structured (Baldi <em>et al.</em> 2001, Baldi <em>et al.</em> in press, Novaro <em>et al.</em> 2007, Puig <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2003). A global estimate for continental Patagonia was reported by Amaya <em>et al.</em> (2001) after aerial censuses, but the numbers are used as a reference as the errors associated to sampling were too large to be conlclusive about the results. For the rest of Argentina, population densities are below 1 guanaco/km² and the population is highly fragmented (Baigún <em>et al.</em> 2007, Puig and Videla 2007), with some relict populations in La Pampa, Córdoba and Buenos Aires provinces. Other high-density populations occur in southern Chile reaching up to 43 guanacos/km² at Torres del Paine National Park (Sarno and Franklin 1999) but in the rest of the range populations are small and highly scattered.<br/><br/>The global estimate for the guanaco population is below 600,000 animals, and almost 90% of the population is found in Argentina. However, differences in survey methodology and effort invested across such a vast area make necessary to be cautious about the figures, and these should be taken as a reference. In particular, a more reliable estimate is needed for the continental Argentine Patagonia, as most of the guanacos are found in that region and its number greatly affects global population size. Also for Chile the estimate is rather speculative as it results from scattered information instead of planned surveys (B. González, unpublished data). As a general rule, it is recommended to use the distance sampling method, either for ground or aerial surveys, as it is based on more realistic assumptions than the fixed-width strip transect methods which tend to underestimate population numbers (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, where numbers are too low as in relict populations, total counts or less systematics methods can be appropriate. Also, extrapolation of local densities to larger areas must be careful and made according to sampling effort. Accurate estimates of local densities are not sufficient at the time to estimate abundance for larger areas unless the sampling effort is properly disseminated throughout the region. <br/><br/>Country: Guanaco population<br/>Argentina: 466,000–520,000 <br/>Bolivia: 150-200<br/>Chile: 66,000<br/>Paraguay: 100<br/>Peru: 3500<br/>TOTAL: 535,750–589,750.
11186		threats	eng	Guanacos are still numerous and widely distributed but continued the precipitous decline initiated in the 19th century. Over-hunting, range degradation either due to overstocking with domestic livestock or extractive activities, and interspecific competition for forage have all played a significant role in the demise of guanacos all across the distributional range (Raedeke 1979; Franklin 1982, Miller <em>et al.</em> 1983, Cunazza <em>et al.</em> 1995; Cuellar and Fuentes 2000, Puig <em>et al.</em> 2001, Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2001; Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Bolivia the current major threat is habitat loss after the sport hunting was halted in 2001 (Cuéllar, unpublished data). In Chile, recreational hunting and poaching are major threats, while in Argentina they are still widely spread. Also in Peru guanacos are seriously affected by poaching and subsistence hunting. In addition, health studies conducted in mainland Patagonia have shown that guanaco populations are relatively disease-free but are themselves susceptible to common diseases of domestic livestock (sheep, cattle, and horses) (Karesh <em>et al</em>. 1998; Beldomenico <em>et al</em>. 2003; Uhart <em>et al</em>. unpublished. data). Castillo (2006) came to a similar conclusion based on the study of parasite load in free ranging Peruvian guanacos.<br/><br/>Today the guanaco occupies only 40% of its original range (Puig 1995; Franklin <em>et al</em>. 1997) and the distribution has become fragmented into smaller, relatively isolated populations. Although the species is not threatened with demographic extinction at a continental scale, it is ecologically extinct in most of its remaining range (Novaro <em>et al</em>. 2000), and some southern populations are under serious risk of local or even regional extirpation (Cunazza <em>et al</em>. 1995), and it has been predicted that the northern subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">L. guanicoe cacsilensis</span> will become extinct in Peru within 30 years if current hunting off-take rates are not curtailed (www.conopa.org). Spatial fragmentation is a threat to guanaco populations. Human activities such as hunting, mining, oil exploration and extraction, fencing, and the development of infrastructure and habitat loss often impose barriers to animal movements and prevent travel by individuals between populations. The loss of connectivity results in small, closed and isolated populations under increasing risk of collapse due to either loss of genetic variation, environmental or demographic stochasticity – the latter highly relevant to the very small populations in the Chaco region (Cuéllar <em>et al.</em> 2001). Recent findings are showing that low genetic variation may lead to reproductive failure and congenital malformations (Franklin and Grigione 2005, Zapata <em>et al.</em> 2008, Marin <em>et al.</em> in preparation).<br/><br/>Increasing pressure by private landowners in Patagonian rangelands may result in a threat to the remaining high-density guanaco populations if management is not properly planned and implemented. Live-shearing and subsequent release of wild guanacos could contribute to their conservation only if the effects of this activity are properly assessed and management is applied accordingly. If not ecologically sustainable, the viability of the most important guanaco populations will be taken into risk and hence the global population might collapse. Since 2003, around 11,000 guanacos have been captured at 7 ranches in just one Patagonian province (Baldi <em>et al</em>. in press). Careful evaluation of current management practices involving live shearing is urgently needed.<br/><br/>Land desertification due to overgrazing coupled with more severe and frequent droughts associated to climate change are threats requiring urgent attention as they can have global, major effects on guanaco abundance throughout the range. Severe droughts can have drastic effects on local guanaco populations as it was documented for eastern Patagonia (R. Baldi, unpublished data). In addition, models on climate change predict a sharp decrease in rain precipitation within the next 50 years in the arid Southern South America (Nohara <em>et al.</em> 2006). Therefore, it is crucial to favour the ecological functionality of guanaco populations through adequate management as a step to mitigate additional effects of climate change in the near future.
11200		conservation	eng	<strong>International</strong>:  <br/>The porbeagle shark is included on Annex 1 (Highly Migratory Species) of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which lists ?Family Isurida? (former name for Family Lamnidae) among other oceanic sharks. The UN Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks establishes rules and conservation measures for high seas fisheries resources and has been in force since 2001. It directs States to pursue co-operation in relation to listed species through appropriate sub-regional fisheries management organisations or arrangements. No progress with implementation of shark fisheries management appears to have been achieved. <br/> <br/>In 2004, the EU rejected a proposal from Germany for the EU to submit an Appendix II listing proposal to the 13<sup>th</sup> Conference of Parties to CITES, with the objective of ensuring the sustainability of fisheries supplying international trade. There is no regulation of the international trade demand for meat that is driving many fisheries. However, the porbeagle is one of the subjects of CITES Decision 13.42, directed to Parties, which states that Parties should take note of the species-specific recommendations in document CoP13 Doc. 35 Annex 2 with a view to ensuring that international trade is not detrimental to the status of these species (<a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a>). The relevant section reads: ?The Animals Committee concluded that North Atlantic populations have been severely depleted and noted that quotas in EU waters apply only to non-EU fleets through access agreements. As these quotas are far higher than can be supported by the stock and do not restrict fishing effort they are not considered to be an effective management measure in this case?. The Animals Committee recommended the following: <br/> <br/>a) ICCAT members are encouraged to collect and report data on catches and discards of porbeagle sharks, as per ICCAT Resolution 95-2, which has yet to be complied with, and undertake stock assessments in order to develop management recommendations. Other relevant Regional Fishery Management Organizations are encouraged to establish and implement similar programmes.  <br/> <br/>b) The US and Canada are encouraged to enhance existing management for their shared porbeagle stock by establishing a cooperative, bilateral research and fisheries management programme. <br/> <br/>c) The World Customs Organization (WCO) is encouraged with urgency to establish a harmonized international code for porbeagle sharks. <br/> <br/>Two Regional Fisheries Organisations, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states (e.g., USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More are likely to follow suit.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 1,500 t for porbeagle in the target shark fishery. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, bycatch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). The porbeagle TAC was reduced to 1,000 t in 1997 (O?Boyle <em>et al</em>. 1998), then to 1,700 t during the two years 2000 to 2001 while additional scientific information was collected (DFO 2001b). As a result of these studies, it was concluded that the population was seriously depleted (to 10 to 20% of virgin biomass) and would require a greatly decreased fishing mortality if recovery is to occur. An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth. However, annual catch levels of about 1,000 t would be sustainable over the long term once the population has recovered. These DFO analyses, which are the basis for the regional assessment, are contested by COSEWIC (2004), who notes that the quota for 2002 to 2007 of 200 to 250 t represents a substantial reduction from catches in the mid-1990s, but even this amount now corresponds to a high exploitation rate because of the low population abundance. It is highly uncertain if this quota reduction will be sufficient to halt the porbeagle decline, and if so, to what extent the population will recover, given that there is uncertainty in estimating FMSY and the quota, the low number of mature animals remaining in the population, that at its current low abundance the population may experience depensation (Allee effects), and that reduction in fishing pressure is not always sufficient for population recovery (Hutchings 2001). COSEWIC (Committee on the status of endangered wildlife in Canada) designated porbeagle as Endangered in 2004 (COSEWIC 2004). <br/> <br/>Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas in the US EEZ for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle. Commercial fishers require an annual shark permit, and finning is prohibited. <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Norway is allocated a quota of 200 t of porbeagle in European Community (EC) waters, reduced in 1985 from the 500 t established in 1982 (Gauld 1989). Since 1985, the Faeroe Islands can also take 125 t from EC waters (originally 300 t in 1982, 150 t in 1984a). These quotas currently exceed total landings from shelf areas in the region and yield no management benefit.  <br/> <br/>Annex V of the Convention on the Protection and Conservation of the Ecosystems and Biological Diversity of the Maritime Area [also called OSPAR (Oslo-Paris) Convention] requires OSPAR to develop a list of threatened and/or declining species and habitats in need of protection or conservation in the OSPAR maritime area (Northeast Atlantic). OSPAR member states were invited in 2001 to submit proposals for inclusion on this list. In response, Portugal ? on behalf of the Azores, proposed to list porbeagle <em>Lamna nasus</em> in the wider Atlantic because of its biological sensitivity, keystone importance and the severe decline in its population. This proposal has not yet been adopted. <br/> <br/>The status of the largely unmanaged, unmonitored Northeast Atlantic stock is likely worse than the seriously depleted Northwest stock, with stringent conservation and management action (fisheries closure and stock assessment) needed urgently to enable stocks to rebuild to levels where sustainable commercial and recreational fisheries are possible.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/>The species is listed on Annex III, ?Species whose exploitation is regulated? of the Barcelona Convention Protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological diversity in the Mediterranean, signed in 1995 but not yet ratified. The Mediterranean population of this species was also added in 1997 to Appendix III of the Bern Convention (the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats) as a species whose exploitation must be regulated in order to keep its population out of danger. No management action has yet followed these listings. The draft action plan for the conservation of cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea (Anonymous 2002) has identified porbeagle as a species that urgently needs development of a management programme for sustainable fisheries.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southern Oceans</strong>:  <br/>In 1991, Australia brought in legislation that prevented Japanese longliners fishing in the EEZ from landing shark fins unless they were accompanied by the carcass. Since 1996, these vessels have not fished in the Australian EEZ.  <br/> <br/>The Southern African population of porbeagles is largely unmonitored and little data is available on bycatch levels in the longline fisheries of this region. However, all foreign flagged vessels in the South Africa fishery are required to have 100% observer coverage, whereas domestic vessels are required to have 20% observer coverage (C. Smith, pers.comm). The bycatch must be monitored and this porbeagle assessment reviewed within five years of the opening of this fishery. <br/> <br/>A small, regulated fishery is permitted by New Zealand, which included porbeagles in its quota management system in October 2004, with a TAC set at 249 t (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are no other management measures applicable to the Antarctic and Southern Ocean, since CCAMLR appears not to be monitoring or managing this species.
11200		distribution	eng	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1 to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers.comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 and 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances travelled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nautical miles (nm), with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002). Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004). <br/> <br/>Follow link below for Figure 1: Distribution map for <em>Lamna nasus</em>.
11200		habitat	eng	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for <em>Lamna nasus</em> (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December to February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8 to 9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004). <br/> <br/>Follow link below for Table 1: summary of life history parameters for <em>Lamna nasus</em>.
11200		population	eng	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of subpopulations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for figures 1 to 7 (catch rates and landings data).
11200		threats	eng	This section is taken primarily from the review in Anonymous 2004, which refers in detail to other key sources.  <br/> <br/>The main threat to the porbeagle shark is unsustainable fisheries (target and bycatch) utilising its very high value meat. It is also a valued target game fish species for recreational fishing in Ireland and UK. The low reproductive capacity and high commercial value of both mature and immature age classes makes this species highly vulnerable to over-exploitation and population depletion. Well documented declines in this extremely valuable species during the past fifty years in the North Atlantic, which is the major reported source of world catches, has taken place during a period of rising fishing effort and market demand, and improved fisheries technology.  <br/> <br/>Porbeagles are a valuable secondary target of many fisheries, particularly longline fisheries, also gill nets, driftnets, pelagic and bottom trawls, and handlines. Examples include the demersal longlines for Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides in the southern Indian Ocean and by the Argentinean fleet (Victoria Lichtstein, CITES Management Authority of Argentina, in litt. to TRAFFIC Europe, 27 October 2003), and longline swordfish and tuna fisheries in international waters off the coasts of Argentina and Uruguay (Domingo undated). Despite the large amount of fishing activity capturing porbeagles in the Southern Hemisphere, New Zealand is the only country that reports landings to FAO, indicating that the southern catch is largely unreported.  <br/> <br/>The high value of porbeagle shark meat means that most ?bycatch? is exploited. The exception is in those high seas tuna and billfish fisheries where vessels? holding space is too limited to enable even valuable shark carcasses to be retained; in these cases the fins alone may be retained (e.g., the Japanese longline fishery for southern bluefin tuna off Tasmania and New Zealand, the pelagic fishing fleets of other countries in the southern Indian Ocean and probably elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere (Compagno 2001)). Northeast Atlantic. <br/> <br/>Porbeagle has been fished in this region by many European countries, principally Denmark, France, Norway and Spain. There has never been any restriction on fishing effort on this stock. The Northeast Atlantic fishery began when Norway started targeting porbeagle in the 1930s using longlines. Norwegian landings first reached a peak of 3,884 t in 1933. About 6,000t were taken by the Norwegian fleet in 1947, when the fishery reopened after the Second World War, followed by a progressive drop in landings to between 1,200 and 1,900 t from 1953 to 1960. The collapse of this fishery led to the redirection of fishing effort by Norwegian and Danish longline shark fishing vessels into the Northwest Atlantic. Norwegian landings from the Northeast Atlantic subsequently decreased from 160 to 300 t per annum in the early 1970s to only 10 to 40 t per year in the late 1980s/early 1990s, while average Danish landings fell from over 1,500 t in the early 1950s to less than 100 t throughout the 1990s (DFO 2001a, Gauld 1989).  <br/> <br/>French and Spanish longliners have operated directed fisheries for porbeagle since the 1970s. Reported landings from the main French fishing grounds in the Celtic Sea and Bay of Biscay decreased from over 1,092 t in 1979 to 3 to 400 t in the late 1990s. Spanish vessels appear to have taken porbeagle opportunistically both in the early and late 1970s and since 1998. Landings off Spain tend to be greater during the spring and autumn, with a drop in the summer (Mejuto 1985, Lallemand-Lemoine 1991). It is unclear, however, whether the very variable early landings data from the Spanish fleet (from nil to nearly 4,000 t per year) represents huge variations in catches, possibly the result of ?boom and bust? fisheries removing different segments of the stock, or differences in catch reporting. Bonfil (1994) estimated that 50 t of porbeagle were taken as a supplementary catch in the Spanish longline swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic during 1989. The long line fishery in the Bay of Biscay (ICES Area VIII), directed at the more abundant blue shark, also landed about 30t of mainly porbeagle and some shortfin mako <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em> during 1998 to 2000. ICES data (Heessen 2003) indicate that annual landings from Area IXa into mainland Portugal peaked at almost 3,000 t in 1987 to 1988 and have since declined (these records do not appear in the FAO statistics). <br/> <br/>Reported landings from the historically most important fisheries, around the UK and in the North Sea and adjacent inshore waters have decreased to very low levels during the past 30 to 40 years, while catches from the offshore ICES sub-regions west of Portugal, west of the Bay of Biscay and around the Azores have increased since 1989. This is attributed to a decline in heavily fished and depleted inshore populations and redirection of effort to previously lightly exploited offshore stocks. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>This species has virtually disappeared from Mediterranean records. In the North Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Sea Serena and Vacchi (1997) reported only 15 specimens of porbeagle during a few decades of observation. Soldo and Jardas reported only nine records of this species in the Eastern Adriatic since the end of 19<sup>th</sup> century until 2000. Recently two new records were reported (A. Soldo unpublished data). Orsi Relini and Garibaldi (2002) reported two newborn porbeagles were caught as bycatch of the swordfish longline fishery in the Western Ligurian Sea. A young porbeagle, considered to be very recently born was reported in the central Adriatic Sea (Orsi Relini and Garibaldi 2002). A young specimen was also caught in the central Adriatic during big-game fishing. On the basis of its length, it is suggested to be of an age 1 to 17 months (Marconi and De Maddalena 2001). These records indicate a possible nursery area in Central Mediterranean. During research of bycatch in the western Mediterranean swordfish longline fishery no porbeagles were caught (De La Serna <em>et al</em>. 2002). Only 15 specimens were caught during research conducted in 1998 to 1999 on bycatch of sharks in large pelagic fisheries: catches were reported only in the southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea, mainly by driftnets (Megalofonou <em>et al</em>. 2000). Official statistics for Mediterranean area show that the only landings in the Mediterranean were reported in 1996 by Malta: 1 t (FAO 2002). Porbeagles are also popular as recreational species (big game fishing) in some areas of Mediterranean.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Porbeagle fishing in the Northwest Atlantic started in 1961, when the fleet of Norwegian shark longliners began operating off the coast of New England and Newfoundland after the Northeast Atlantic stocks had been depleted. Catches increased rapidly from about 1,900 t in 1961 to more than 9,000 t in 1964. By 1965 many of the vessels had switched to other species or moved to other grounds because of the population decline. The fishery collapsed after only six years, landing less than 1,000 t in 1970. Smaller landings were also reported by Faeroese fishing vessels from around the same time and throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Norwegian and Faeroese fleets have been excluded from Canadian waters since the establishment of Canada?s EEZ in 1995. Canadian and US authorities reported all landings after 1995. Porbeagle sharks are now taken almost exclusively by a Canadian directed longline fishery. Bycatch in swordfish longline fisheries and various inshore fisheries are minimal, rarely exceeding 40 t in recent years (DFO 2001a). <br/> <br/>Following the collapse of the fishery in the 1960s, it took ~25 years for recovery to ~30% of virgin biomass to take place. Three Canadian vessels entered the targeted Northwest Atlantic fishery in 1994. Catches of 1,000 to 2,000 t per year throughout much of the 1990s reduced population levels to a new low in under ten years: the average size of sharks and catch rates (number/hook) were the smallest on record in 1999 and 2000. By 2000, catch rates of mature sharks were reduced to 10% of the 1992 peak, and immature catch rates to 30% of the 1991 peak. The biomass in 2000 was estimated as 11 to 17% of virgin biomass and fully recruited F estimated as 0.26 (DFO 2001a). The current porbeagle population is seriously depleted and will require a greatly reduced fishing mortality if recovery is to occur (DFO 2001). The 2001 stock assessment by the Canadian Department of Fisheries states: ?An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth.? Following this advice, the Canadian quota was reduced to 250 t for the period 2002?2007 to allow population growth and recovery. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle in the US EEZ.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southern Oceans</strong>: <br/>Little information is available for southern ocean porbeagles. Landings from the Southern Hemisphere are only reported to FAO by New Zealand in the Pacific southwest. New Zealand reported landings were 150 to 300 t per year between 1998 and 2003 (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/> <br/>Records of captures of porbeagle by the Uruguayan pelagic tuna longline fleet declined significantly during 1981 to 1998 (A. Domingo undated). During the 1980s, only the two most valuable shark species were retained for their meat: porbeagle and mako <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>, representing about 10% of the total longline catch and peaking at 150 t and 100 t landed, respectively, in 1984. By the early 1990s, landings of these two species had fallen to around 10% of that peak, although shark fin prices were rising and blue sharks Prionace glauca and eight other species of large sharks were now also being retained in large quantities. This was accompanied by a decrease in CPUE from 110 kg/1,000 hooks (1988) to 1 kg/1,000 (1999) in the Uruguayan tuna and swordfish fleet. This is not, however, necessarily due to population decrease but to changes in fleet operating maneuvers (area and depth) and an increase in mean temperatures of water masses in the area (A. Domingo pers. comm.). There is bycatch of porbeagle shark in the Chilean artisanal and industrial longline swordfish Xiphias gladius fishery within and outside the Chilean EEZ, between 26 and 36°S (E. Acuña unpublished data; Acuña <em>et al</em>. 2002). There are no good estimates for captures in the Southeastern Pacific off Chile; several times porbeagle has been included as <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>. Acuña <em>et al</em>. (2002) determined during a one year sampling period that <em>L. nasus</em> catches were around 3.5% of the total catch of fishes (in numbers) in the Chilean swordfish fishery, with a size range between 75 and 245 cm TL.  <br/> <br/>Porbeagles recently showed up as bycatch of demersal longlines for the Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides in the southern Indian Ocean (Compagno 2001). Porbeagles are rarely seen in South African waters; being occasionally caught in research vessel longline cruises (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm). An experimental tuna longline fishery operated in South African waters from 1997 until March 2005. Porbeagles were seldom caught in the experimental fishery. Catches were mainly along the southwest coast of South Africa and observed catch rates were approx. 0.014 sharks per 1,000 hooks. Since March 2005 the fishery has been commercialized with the allocation of 17 swordfish-directed vessels and 26 tuna-directed vessels. The current foreign flagged vessels in the commercial fishery target yellowfin tuna in the warm Agulhas current and are unlikely to catch significant quantities of porbeagle. In contrast, foreign flagged vessels, especially Japanese, which target Southern Bluefin Tuna to the south of South Africa, land substantially more quantities of porbeagle as bycatch (C. Smith, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for table 1: bycatch of porbeagle in South African pelagic longliners; and table 2: seasonal trend in bycatch.
11202		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology, ecology, threats, and conservation measures. There is a need to monitor the species to record changes in population abundance and distribution. There is need to establish suitably managed protected areas for this species.
11202		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Oku, Cameroon, at elevations of 2,100 to 2,900 m asl.
11202		habitat	eng	This little-known species appears to be endemic to the montane rainforest of Mount Oku.  Only about 100 km² of suitable forest habitat remains on Mount Oku (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.
11202		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens. The population size and the species abundance is not known.
11202		threats	eng	The restricted range of this species is threatened by continuing habitat loss, through clearance of land for agricultural use (including grazing) and presumably through some logging activities.
11203		conservation	eng	Further research is required to confirm the loss of the population on Cima, as well as resurvey of populations on the main island (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).&#160; Control of introduced rodents would be beneficial to this species as it would reduce impact on the adult breeding part of the population.
11203		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran archipelago where it is only known from Porto Santo and adjacent islet of Ilheu de Cima (Seddon 2008; Cameron, pers. comm., 2010). &#160;Cameron and Cook's recent survey work in 2001 on Cima did not refind this population (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010) and so there is a possible reduction in the range that requires further research.&#160; The remaining population on Porto Santo is restricted to three small hills at eastern end of the island.
11203		habitat	eng	This species is found on the underside of stones on grassy areas, mainly on the eastern peaks of the island.
11203		population	eng	There is evidence that adult shells are being predated by introduced rodents, hence the populations are known to be in decline.
11203		threats	eng	Rodents catch and eat this species, making characteristic holes through the apical whorls of the shell to extract the animal (Seddon 2008).&#160; Habitat management in this area of Porto Santo has changed over the years, with increasing impact from tourist developments, such that the grassland may be degrading in quality.
11205		conservation	eng	Presently a protected species. <br/>Listed in Schedule II (Animal and plant species of Community interest whose conservation requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation) and Schedule V (Animal and plant species of Community interest in need of strict protection) of the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations, 2006 (Government of Malta). <em>Lampedusa melitensis</em> is listed as a ‘priority species’ in Schedule II.<br/>Listed in Annex II and Annex IV of the ‘Habitats Directive’ (European Union). <em>Lampedusa melitensis</em> is listed as a ‘priority species’ in Annex II.<br/>Conservation Actions Needed<br/>The prime threat is destruction of habitat due primarily to natural causes (slope processes). There is a need to assess and understand this threat in order to take appropriate action for the conservation of the species.<br/>Research Needed<br/>Surveys to determine exact number, location and area of boulders with this species. Quantitative estimates of population size. Studies on basic biology. Studies on natural processes resulting in boulder instability.
11205		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Maltese Islands where it occurs in a single locality on the western coastal cliffs. The species is limited to a few large boulders lying on clay slopes at the foot of an escarpment, part of the sea-cliffs on the western coast of the island of Malta. These boulders have detached from the overlying cliff edge and form ‘islands’ of karstic rock surrounded by clay and non-karstic steppic habitat. There is evidence that the species used to occur on the karstic cliff edge but has been displaced from this habitat by another more competitive 'clausiliid' species <em>Muticaria macrostoma</em> (or introgressed with this species), and now only survives on boulders that became detached from the cliff edge before they were colonised by <em>Muticaria</em> (Thake 1985, Giusti <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><p></p>
11205		habitat	eng	Few large boulders lying on clay slopes at the foot of an escarpment, part of the sea-cliffs, and these boulders are resting on clay that is susceptible to slumping and downhill sliding.
11205		population	eng	No quantitative estimates have been made but given the very restricted area of habitat, estimated at a few hundred individuals. Population assumed to have declined as originally used to occur on a karstic cliff edge but has been displaced by, or has introgressed with, <span style="font-style: italic;">Muticaria macrostoma</span>, and now only survives on boulders that became detached from the cliff edge before they were colonised by <span style="font-style: italic;">Muticaria</span> (Giusti et al, 1995).
11205		threats	eng	Restricted to one locality where it lives in a very precarious habitat consisting of boulders lying on clay at the foot of an escarpment on the western sea-cliff coast of Malta. The boulders are subject to slumping and downhill sliding due to natural slope processes. Susceptibility to stochastic events. This is a protected species and is not in trade, although it was sought after by collectors  in the past. There may be some illegal collecting for shell collections.
11206		conservation	eng	No information available.
11206		distribution	eng	Ireland, Great Britain north to Scotland, Atlantic coast of   Portugal (maybe extirpated), France, North Sea north to Scotland and about Bergen (Norway), North and Baltic Sea basins; Mediterranean along French and western Italian coasts   (maybe all extirpated). Occasional records in Adriatic and Ionian Seas and along coasts of Iberian Peninsula. Migrates into rivers of this area. Landlocked populations known from Lakes Ladoga and Onega (Russia), Loch Lomond (Scotland), some lakes in Finland and possibly Lough Neagh (Ireland).
11206		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in coastal waters and estuaries and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predatory, with anadromous and landlocked populations. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to spring. Migration is mainly nocturnal and ceases at low temperatures. Spawning season starts when water temperature rises above 9°C, which depends on latitude, starting in late March in France and mid-June in Finland. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig shallow nests in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2½-3½ years. Ammocoetes feed on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis (from late summer to late autumn), most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea in spring. At sea, adults prey on a wide variety of fish species, mostly Clupeidae and Gadidae. Feeds on body tissues of prey, which is usually killed while its flesh is excavated. Adults feed for 2 (rarely 1) summers before migrating to the spawning grounds. Individuals feeding for only a single summer before breeding are smaller. Landlocked population of Loch Lomond feeds for only one summer, then stops feeding and migrates in autumn to spawning grounds in River Endrick.
11206		population	eng	Abundant.
11206		threats	eng	No major threats known.
11209		distribution	eng	Formerly thought to be endemic to Miller Lake (16 km northeast of Mt. Thielson), Klamath County, Oregon. Recent surveys documented subpopulations in Miller Creek, Jack Creek, and the upper sections of the Williamson and Sycan rivers (Lorion <em>et al</em>. 2000).
11213		conservation	eng	No information available.
11213		distribution	eng	Great Britain north to Scottish highlands, rivers draining to North Sea north to Scotland and about Stavanger (Norway), Baltic Sea basin, Atlantic as far south as Adour drainage (France, Spain) and an isolated population in Tagus (Portugal), Mediterranean basin in France and western Italy (south to about Tevere drainage). Locally in Ireland, upper Volga, upper Danube and some of their tributaries, and Pescara drainage on Adriatic coast of Italy.
11213		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>:<br/>Found in the lowland, piedmont and montane zone in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depends on latitude when temperature exceeds 9°C, starting in February in Italy and mid-June in Finland. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Dies after spawning. Single individuals may survive until September. Ammocoetes stage usually lasts 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>-3 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, starts metamorphosis in June-July (fully transformed individuals usually found in September), overwinters and spawns following spring. There are indications that <em>L. planeri</em> might be an heterogeneous (polyphyletic) assemblage of several lineages evolved independently from different populations of <em>L. fluviatilis</em> (see family introduction).
11213		population	eng	Abundant.
11213		threats	eng	No major threats known.
11227		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution may coincide with the Karoo National Park. Further research is needed on the distribution, population numbers and potential threats of this species.
11227		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few widely scattered localities in the Great Karoo in western South Africa (Branch 1998). However, its exact distribution throughout this region is unknown.
11227		habitat	eng	This species inhabits karooid sandy vegetation, where it can often be found underground in burrows (Branch 1998).
11227		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
11227		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Agricultural expansion may threaten this species through habitat loss and degradation.
11244		distribution	eng	Found in the Ozark Mountains where it is restricted to the upper Little Red River. There have been recent collections from several places in the catchment.
11244		habitat	eng	Occurs in coarse to muddy sand in water depths of up to 1.3 ft in flowing water.
11244		threats	eng	Species is threatened by reservoir construction, limited range and low population numbers, water pollution and channel modification.
11250		conservation	eng	This species was listed as threatened in 1993 and a recovery plan was drafted (USFWS 2000). Williams <em>et al.</em> (2010) lists this species as threatened according to the AFS assessment. It has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3 - Imperiled to Vulnerable, and State/Province Status Ranks of S2 - Imperiled for Alabama, and S1S2 - Critically Imperiled to Imperiled for Georgia and Tennessee (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>A specific recovery plan has been created for the Mobile River basin  (USFWS 2000) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect  habitat integrity and quality of river and stream segments that  currently support or could support imperiled aquatic species, (2)  consider options for free-flowing river and stream mitigation strategies  that give high priority to avoidance and restoration, (3) promote  voluntary stewardship as a practical and economical means of reducing  nonpoint pollution from private land use, (4) encourage and support  community-based watershed stewardship planning and action, (5) develop  and implement programs and materials to educate the public on the need  and benefits of ecosystem management, and to involve them in watershed  stewardship, (6) conduct basic research on endemic aquatic species and  apply the results toward management and protection of aquatic  communities, (7) develop and implement technology for maintaining and  propagating endemic species in captivity, (8) reintroduce aquatic  species into restored habitats, as appropriate, (9) monitor listed  species' population levels and distribution and periodically review  ecosystem management strategy, (10) coordinate ecosystem management  actions (more detail in USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Chewacla and Opintlocco Creeks in the Tallapoosa River drainage flow through the Talladega National Forest. The tributaries to the Sipsey Fork in the upper Black Warrior Drainage originate and flow through the Bankhead National Forest. The USDA Forest Service in Alabama is keenly aware of the presence of these mussels within their jurisdiction and are working to protect them.  It has funded mussel surveys in streams under its jurisdiction, and has revised and implemented protective stream management zone guidelines on National Forest lands in Alabama (USFWS 2000).  This species has been recently reported from the Conasauga River inside and adjacent to the Cherokee and Chattahoochee National Forests, Marray/Whitfield Cos., Georgia, and Polk Co., Tennessee (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Critical habitat has been designated in Georgia in the Tallapoosa River  and Oostanaula complex; in Alabama in the Cahaba River, Tallapoosa  River, Uphapee complex, Coosa River, Hatchet Creek, Shoal Creek, Kelly  Creek, Cheaha Creek, Yellowleaf Creek, Big Canoe Creek, and Lower Coosa  River; and in Tennessee in the Oostanaula complex (744 occupied, 134  unoccupied km) (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Further research is required (population and distribution trends, and monitoring of populations and threats) and conservation measures - specifically effective and enforced site and species protection - should be implemented to ensure adequate protection of this species.
11250		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is the Alabama River near Claiborne, Monroe County, Alabama. Historically, it was recorded from the Sipsey and Buttahatchie Rivers in the Tombigbee River drainage; Black Warrior River and its tributaries (Sipsey Fork, Brushy and Capsey Creeks); Cahaba River and its tributaries (Little Cahaba and Buck Creek); Alabama River and a secondary tributary, Tatum Creek; Chewacla and Opintlocco Creeks in the Tallapoosa River drainage; and the Coosa River and its tributaries (Choccolocco and Talladega Creeks). The current distribution of the species is believed to be limited to the headwaters of the Sipsey Fork of the Black Warrior River drainage; Tatum Creek in the Alabama River drainage; Little Cahaba River in the Cahaba River drainage; Conasauga River in the Coosa drainage and one site in the main channel; and Chewacla and Opintlocco Creeks in the Tallapoosa River drainage (USFWS 1993, 2000). The total area of occupancy is estimated to be between 50-250 miles of stream length.  Mirarchi <em>et al. </em>(2004) cite the species as being endemic to eastern reaches of Mobile Basin in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee, including the Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Cahaba River systems with widespread but small and isolated populations.  It has been extirpated from the Tombigbee in Mississippi (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has been extirpated from 31-41% of its historic range (USFWS 2003), with even greater reductions since then (Bogan pers. comm. 2011). Although its range potentially extends over an area of more than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>, within this range, the species is only found in a <span class="copy">few dozen widespread but isolated occurrences. Taking these discontinuities into account, the extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
11250		habitat	eng	Historically, this species was found in large rivers to small creek habitats (USFWS 2000).  Van der Schalie (1938, 1981) indicates that it generally occupies creeks and smaller rivers. It is typically found in areas with at least some current, though usually not in swift current, and substrates of sand and mixtures of sand and gravel without heavy silt accumulations (Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008); yet, it has been found associated with swift-flowing riffles and gravel-cobble substrates in the Conasauga River. Recently, it has been found in stable sand and in gravel in small streams above the Fall Line (USFWS 2000).<br/><em><br/></em>It&#160;is a long-term brooder, gravid from late summer or autumn to the following spring. Ortmann (1924) reported one female<em> </em>gravid with eggs during mid-May, which he noted was “entirely abnormal”. This is one of only four freshwater mussel species known to produce superconglutinates. The superconglutinates of this species are fusiform in shape, larger at one end than the other, creamy white with a dusky stripe dorsally and no eyespot (Haa<span style="font-style: italic;">g </span>and Warren<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1999). It is discharged into paired mucus tubes that remain attached to the female parent, at least for a period. Females also display mantle flaps mimicking fish. While displaying, the female either positions itself with the posterior one-third to one-half of its shell above the substrate or lies completely out of the substrate on its dorsum (Haag<em> et al</em>. 1999, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).&#160;Maximum age is 15 years according to Haag and Rypal (2010).
11250		population	eng	Historically, this species was widespread throughout the Mobile River basin in the Tombigbee, Black Warrior, Cahaba, Alabama, Tallapoosa, and Coosa Rivers in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee (USFWS 2003). Currently, it is limited to eight occurrences which are scattered throughout the historic range, including the upper Cahaba River and Little Cahaba River (Jefferson/Shelby/Bibb Counties, Alabama); and Coosa River and its tributaries, including Duck Creek (Walker County, Georgia), Euharlee Creek (Bartow County, Georgia), Conasauga River (Murray/Whitfield County, Georgia and Polk County, Tennessee), and Holly Creek (Murray County, Georgia), Terrapin Creek and South Fork Terrapin Creek (Claiburne County, Alabama); Yellowleaf Creek and Muddy Prong (Shelby County, Alabama); Kelly Creek and Shoal Creek (Shelby/St. Clair County, Alabama), Choccolocco Creek (Calhoun County, Alabama) and its tributaries Cheaha Creek (Talladega/Clay County, Alabama), and Tallasahatchee Creeki (Talladega County, Alabama); Sipsey Fork of the Black Warrior River drainage in Alabama; and the Tallapoosa River and tributaries, including Uphapee Creek (Macon County, Alabama), Choctafaula Creek (Macon/Lee County, Alabama), Chedwacla Creek (Macon/Lee County, Alabama), Opintlocco Creek (Macon County, Alabama), Cane and Little Cane Creeks (Cleburne County, Alabama), Muscadine Creek (Cleburne County, Alabama), Big Creek (Haralson County, Georgia) (USFWS 1993, 2000, 2003).  In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, it is known historically from the Etowah, Oostanaula, and Conasauga River drainages but has not been collected live recently except in the Conasauga (Williams and Hughes 1998). This species has been recently reported from the Conasauga River inside and adjacent to the Cherokee and Chattahoochee National Forests, Murray/Whitfield Cos., Georgia, and Polk Co., Tennessee; as well as Holly Creek, adjacent to the Chattahoochee National Forest, Murray Co., Georgia (Johnson <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>All populations are small and localised and there is a potential of additional, unknown, relict populations in small to moderate-sized streams (USFWS 2000).&#160;Population size cannot be estimated due to insufficient information. However, this species has experienced a 50% reduction in range over the last 25-50 years (Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
11250		threats	eng	Previously the species was overutilised for commercial, recreational, scientific or educational purposes but mussel harvesting is now illegal (USFWS 1993), so this is now a historical threat.   In Tennessee and Kentucky mussel harvesting still occurs but not for this species, however incidental take may occur.&#160;<br/><br/>Habitat modification, sedimentation and water quality degradation represent the major threats to this species. Disappearance from significant portions of its range are primarily due to changes in river and stream channels due to dams, dredging, or mining, and historic or episodic pollution events.  The species is not known to survive in impounded waters and more than 1,700 km of large and small river habitat in the Basin have been impounded by dams for navigation, flood control, water supply, and/or hydroelectric production purposes (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>In the Mobile River basin, the greatest threats are dams (for navigation, water supply, electricity, recreation, and flood control), channelisation (causing accelerated erosion, altered depth, and loss of habitat diversity, substrate stability, and riparian canopy), dredging (for navigation or gravel mining), mining (for coal, sand, gravel, or gold) in locally concentrated areas, point source pollution (industrial waste effluent, sewage treatment plants, carpet and fabric mills, paper mills and refineries in mainstem rivers), and non-point source pollution (construction, agriculture, silviculture, urbanisation)&#160;(USFWS 2004). <br/><br/>The threats listed above may result in the imminent death of individuals or populations and/or inhibit reproduction.  Isolated imperiled populations in the Mobile River basin are likely to be vulnerable to random accidents, such as toxic spills, and to naturally catastrophic events, such as droughts and floods, even if land use and human populations were to remain constant within isolated watersheds (USFWS 2000).
11263		conservation	eng	No wide-ranging conservation actions have been undertaken for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G3 - Vulnerable (NatureServe 2009). Further research and surveys are suggested to monitor this species' status to ensure appropriate conservation measures are implemented if the range declines further.
11263		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Altamaha River system north to the Cooper-Santee River System in South Carolina (Johnson 1970) and Cape Fear basin, North Carolina (Bogan 2002).  This species occurs in the Savannah River Basin, the Wateree River and the Santee River both in the Cooper-Santee River Basin and the Waccamaw River of the Pee Dee River Basin in South Carolina (Bogan and Alderman 2004) and Bogan (2002) list it for the Waccamaw.
11263		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas with little or no current, in sand to soft mud. It is particularly common in sloughs, oxbows, lakes, mouths of streams and backwater areas (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).
11263		population	eng	Historically, this species is known from seven occurrences in the Ocmulgee River system (no recent specimens, see Sukkestad <em>et al.</em> 2006) of Georgia, one in the Oconee River system, six in the Altamaha River system, one in the Ogeechee River system, six in the Savannah River system, one in the Wateree River, and three in the Santee River system. In a recent survey of the Altamaha River drainage it was found at about 60 occurrences of 276 sites surveyed (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).  Bogan and Alderman (2004) list the South Carolina distribution as in the Savannah River basin, the Wateree River and the Santee River both in the Cooper-Santee River basin; and the Waccamaw River of the Pee Dee River basin.  Recently found in low numbers in three sites in the Pee Dee River drainage (Pocotaligo River at Brewington Lake; Lynches River, Waccamaw River) in South Carolina (Catena Group 2006). <br/><br/>This species is not very common in South Carolina, and most likely is restricted to the coastal plain there (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000) including the Pee Dee basin where it is rare (Catena Group 2006). This was the second most common mussel (over 1,800) observed during a recent survey of the Altamaha River system in Georgia (G.Keferl pers. comm. 2000).  Population information is not available for other occurrences.<br/><br/>This was the second most common mussel (over 1,800) observed during a recent survey of the Altamaha River system in Georgia (G. Keferl pers. comm. 2000).  Population information is not available for other occurrences.  In the ACF basin, it was recently collected from 25 of 324 sites (15 live, 59 shells) in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia in the mainstem of the Apalachicola River and mainstem and tributaries of the Flint and Chipola Rivers but not in the Chattahoochee River system in Florida and Georgia only (Brim-Box and Williams 2000).  This species was found in shallow habitats in low numbers (maximum 2 at two sites) at three sites in a 61 site survey of the Pee Dee basin in South Carolina (Catena Group 2006), but this species may have been under-detected at some of the sites, as most of the survey efforts focused on deep water habitats.
11263		threats	eng	Threats include excessive siltation, destabilization of banks and sandbars, chemical pollution, and extremely low water levels.
11279		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Wami River.
11280		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
11280		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes bicarinatus</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known from the Lower Zaire River and near Libenge in Ubangi region.
11280		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
11280		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
11280		threats	eng	No information available.
11281		conservation	eng	The estimated extent of occurrence is mainly unprotected area though it appears to comprise part of the Shimba Hills and Tsavo West national parks.
11281		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be restricted to south east coastal region of Kenya, between Mombasa and Taita.
11281		habitat	eng	It is found in residual pools in drying stream beds.
11281		population	eng	No information available.
11281		threats	eng	The cited area of occurrence experiences frequent severe drought which is a threat to the regional wetlands. The Taita Hills forests (located to the north of the species extent of occurrence) which probably forms the regional water catchment has been undergoing destruction which is detrimental to the sustainability of the regional streams/wetlands and their biodiversity.
11283		conservation	eng	No information available.
11283		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in streams in the Usambara Mountains, Kyngani and Wami Rivers and Muhaza (North of Pangani). An estimate of the total range including Zanzibar suggests this species has an extent of occurrence of 13,000 km. It is found in streams in five river basins. Records for Malagarasi streams and delta are discounted. Brown believes there has been a decline in the species to the extent that the distribution is now severely fragmented.
11283		habitat	eng	This species thrives in streams.
11283		population	eng	No information available.
11283		threats	eng	Threats to this species include pollution by sedimentation, agricultural run-off and deforestation in the water-shed around the river.
11284		conservation	eng	No information available.
11284		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
11284		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It has been reported from tributaries and swamps near Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Its distribution extends over much of Africa.
11284		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Ituri river basin with a doubtful record for Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Lanistes graueri</em> is likely endemic to central Africa, where it is known from DRC. The species has also been reported from Tanzania, but his occurrence should be checked. The area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are difficult to determine, however these may be much larger than the thresholds used in the criteria because the species can utilize a range of habitats.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from tributaries and swamps near Lake Tanganyika.
11284		habitat	eng	No information available.
11284		habitat	eng	Noted to thrive in tributaries and swamps.
11284		population	eng	No information available.
11284		threats	eng	No information available.
11284		threats	eng	Primary pollution and sedimentation in Burundi.
11285		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. There is insufficient survey data available for the species and more information on its range and population status would be useful.
11285		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes intortus</em> is known from only three localities on the lower Zaire River. The sites are distant from each other, but suitable habitat does not occur throughout the river. The two localities in the lower reaches of the river are separated by areas of rapids between these, but it is likely to occur in more areas between Kinshasa and Banana, a distance of at least 300 km. The species was last recorded in 1970.
11285		habitat	eng	It is present in the lower Zaire River; occurs in swampy margins of the river.
11285		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
11285		threats	eng	No information available. The species occurs in the lower Zaire River, and it is unlikely to be under serious threat across its whole range at present. Threats are likely to be localised because the species occurs in the margins of this large river.
11286		conservation	eng	No information available.
11286		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.
11286		habitat	eng	It is found in soft substrate, dredged from depths of 46-82m.
11286		population	eng	No information available.
11286		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by general habitat threats to Lake Malawi benthos (such as sedimentation, and dredging by fishermen).
11287		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Appropriate surveys are required at appropriate times using appropriate techniques.
11287		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species. Appropriate surveys are required at appropriate times using appropriate techniques.
11287		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes neavei</em> occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. The species is cryptic and may have a more extensive range than currently known. There are insufficient surveys to confirm its range in Democratic Republic of Congo.
11287		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes neavei</em> occurs in DRC and Zambia. The species is cryptic and may have a more extensive range than currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It has been recorded in southeast DRC (Lubembe region) and Lac de Retenue. There are insufficient surveys to confirm its range in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in Zambia (Ndola area).
11287		habitat	eng	Found in seasonal pools and lake fringes (Brown 1994).
11287		habitat	eng	It is found in seasonal pools and lake fringes (Brown 1994).
11287		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
11287		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
11287		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown. It is likely that threats will be localised.
11287		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown. It is likely that threats will be localised.
11288		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Protecting the river basin from deforestation or pollution events.
11288		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes neritoides</em> is endemic to the Republic of the Congo. At present it is known only from the type locality on Kouilou River between the Crystal Mountains and coast.
11288		habitat	eng	It is apparently adapted for a life at or above the surface of rapidly flowing water. This species is recorded from small river less than 50 km in length. Highly oxygenated waters required. It lives clinging to rocks within the river. This habitat is unusual for the genus, as most other species are from lakes, seasonal pools and swamps.
11288		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is unlikely to be abundant at its type locality. In the initial survey, it was looked for at other sites on river but was not found.
11288		threats	eng	This is a range restricted species only known from the type locality in the Congo Republic. It requires good water quality; it is vulnerable to any pollution (mining, logging, oil pollution) upstream of the site.
11290		conservation	eng	No information available.
11290		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi, with a fragmented distribution (Brown 1995).
11290		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species. It has been dredged from 10 to 90 feet.
11290		population	eng	No information available.
11290		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to the changing habitats at edge of lake margin and pollution.
11291		conservation	eng	No information available.
11291		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to east Tanzania. It is found at Dar-es-Salaam, Mahenge and Ifakara (Brown 1994)
11291		habitat	eng	No information available.
11291		population	eng	No information available.
11291		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation as a result of agricultural and domestic activities.
11304		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
11304		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the mountains of Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), and northern East Kalimantan.
11304		habitat	eng	These animals are found in primary forests up to 1,000 m.
11304		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
11304		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber.
11305		conservation	eng	It is found in severak protected areas, including Gunung Gading National Park, Pasoh Forest Reserve, and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Han pers. comm.), as well as Kuiburi National Park (Steinmetz pers. comm.). It is protected in Indonesia.
11305		distribution	eng	This lowland species is found on Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and southern Thailand, probably below 500 m (Giman and Han pers. comm.), as well as Sumatra and Java (Lekagul and McNeely 1988) and adjacent islands. This species has been recorded up to 1,500 m.
11305		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species (Saiful and Nordin 2004; Saiful <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is found mostly in tall, primary forest, but can tolerate secondary habitat (Han and Steinmetz pers. comm.). In Gunung Gading it probably feeds on the buds of Raffleisa flower (Han pers. comm.). It is found in limestone hills in Kanthan Ipoh in Peninsular Malaysia (Han pers. comm.). There is a recent record from lowland evergreen forest in Kuiburi National Park at about 300 m (Steinmetz pers. comm.). It is believed that they have a specialized diet, preferring cool areas (Han pers. comm.).
11305		population	eng	This species is not common (Han pers. comm.). This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful <em>et al</em>. (2001) at the Field Studies Centre of the University of Malaya, Ulu Gombak, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. The vegetation at this site is lowland dipterocarp forest that has been logged twice thus it is a mixture of primary and secondary forest.
11305		threats	eng	This species can tolerate secondary forest (but not all secondary habitats), thus there are no major threats to this species (Han pers. comm.).
11306		conservation	eng	This is a protected species in Indonesia. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
11306		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the mountains of western Sumatra, and eastern Java on Idjen Mts. (Indonesia).
11306		habitat	eng	This is a ground squirrel living in primary and secondary forests and scrub.
11306		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
11306		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
11307		conservation	eng	This is a protected species in Indonesia and probably occurs in Siberut National Park.
11307		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Mentawai Archipelago (Siberut, Sipora, North and South Pagai islands) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
11307		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species, but close relatives are diurnal and terrestrial, prefer secondary forests and are probably found in scrub and forest edge They live in burrows or nest in fallen trees.
11307		population	eng	This species is probably abundant on Siberut island.
11307		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, although degraded forests may provide suitable habitat. Further, <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus tiomanicus</em> may compete with this species.
11339		conservation	eng	In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).<br/>Found in protected areas.
11339		distribution	eng	S Canada, USA (including SE Alaska, and except extreme southern parts), NE Mexico, Bermuda (Simmons 2005)
11339		habitat	eng	Silver-haired bats prefer temperate, northern hardwoods with ponds or streams nearby. The typical day roost for the bat is behind loose tree bark. Silver-haired bats appear to be particularly fond of willow, maple and ash trees (most likely due to the deeply fissured bark). Hollow snags and bird nests also provide daytime roosting areas for silver-haired bats. Less common daytime roosts include buildings, such as open sheds and garages; however, due to their solitary nature and adaptation to woodland roosts, these bats rarely invade buildings in large enough numbers to cause alarm. During the winter months, silver-haired bats that hibernate find shelter in northern areas inside trees, buildings, rock crevices, and similar protected structures (Naumann 1999).<br/>ourtship and mating of silver-haired bats occurs in autumn when both sexes congregate for migration. Fertilization is delayed until the next spring. Births occur after a gestation period of 50 to 60 days. At parturition, the female roosts with her head facing upward. The tail membrane is bent forward to form a basket, in which the young are caught as they leave the birth canal. Two young are produced, usually between late June and early July (Naumann 1999).<br/>Silver-haired bats are insectivorous. Their diet mainly consists of flies, beetles, and moths. However, these bats feed opportunistically on any concentration of insects they come across. They have a short-range foraging strategy, traveling over woodland ponds and streams. Silver-haired bats do not always feed in mid-flight; they have been caught in mouse traps, suggesting ground foraging, and they have been reported to consume larvae on trees (Naumann 1999).
11339		population	eng	Silver-haired bats have been reported to be one of the earliest fliers in the evening, sometimes appearing in broad daylight. However, other sources claim that these bats are late-evening fliers. The flying time of silver-haired bats is believed to be adjusted by the bat so that it will not conflict with the flying times of the red, hoary, or big brown bats. Silver haired-bats are believed to be one of the slowest flying bats in North America (possibly second to western pipistrelles), with a flight speed of 4.8-5.0 m/s (Naumann 1999).<br/>The adults usually appear singly, but can occasionally be found in pairs or small groups. During the summer, the bats are believed to segregate by sex. During late summer and autumn, however, silver-haired bats join in groups containing both sexes to migrate to the southern parts of their range. Some silver-haired bats are also known to hibernate in the northern locations (Naumann 1999).<br/>It is rare in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
11339		threats	eng	Silver-haired bats have no special endangered or threatened status; however, activities such as logging and deforestation may pose a threat for the bat in the future (Naumann 1999).
11340		conservation	eng	Legal Status: Approximately 4% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
11340		distribution	eng	Inhaits open landscapes (steppes, grasslands) on planes and mountains (up to 2000 m asl) in Russian Federation, NE China, and C and E Mongolia.
11340		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppe, forest and semi-desert habitats in Mongolia, associated with poa-wormwood and poa vegetation. Known to inhabit grasslands in China and and dry steppes and grasslands in Russia around the borders of the country. The density and height of vegetation influences habitat selection in this species, and they will favour short vegetation between 30 and 130 mm in height.  It has been shown that population growth rates are slower in areas of short grass where little food is available. However, if vegetation is too long, this can disrupts social interactions and predator detection, causing a lowered growth rate. This is a keystone species in the steppe ecosystem, aerating soil through burrowing and encouraging plant diversity. This diurnal species lives in dens with many entrances and separated chambers. Family den might be up to 30 m long. Feed on vegetative and underground parts of plants, and may hoard more than 10 kg of those per family.
11340		population	eng	This species experiences cyclic population outbreaks every 3-14 years. The frequency of outbreaks varies regionally, for example, in eastern regions it occurs roughly every 4 yrs. In the last 50 years, 17 severe outbreaks have been recorded in Inner Mongolia (written in 2004), and the frequency of outbreaks has increased over the past 20 years compared to the previous 20 years, co-inciding with a 5 fold increase in livestock numbers. They are also prey for many carnivores including foxes, Pallas' cats and polecats, but predation pressure doesn't influence population size except during low density years.
11340		threats	eng	Considered a pest as population outbreaks of this species can compete with livestock for resources and spread disease. However, such outbreaks are more likely to occur in overgrazed areas, so they cause little additional environmental damage. Poisoning campaigns using Bromadiolone are being phased out because they have little effect on this species, but impact significantly on non-target species, e.g. livestock and humans. Underwent a major range expansion during the twentieth century, and experiences population fluctuations cycling over 9-11 years (Dawaa <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
11341		conservation	eng	This species is present in Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve. Surveys are needed, as poisoning of small mammals on the Tibetan Plateau may have negatively impacted populations of this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
11341		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the southern region of Qinghai province (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 3,700-4,800 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
11341		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist meadows in high mountain grasslands (Smith and Xie 2008).
11341		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
11341		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Poisoning of voles and other small mammals on the Tibetan Plateau may have reduced the density of this species but new surveys are required to confirm this.
11342		conservation	eng	Approximately 1% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia is abundant and listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research and management of habitats is recommended.
11342		distribution	eng	Distributed in three main areas. Westernmost form <em>L. m. vinogradovi</em>, distributed in Buryatia (Russian Federation) and Northern Mongolia (recorded along the Orkhon and Selenge rivers in north-eastern Hangai Mountain Range and parts of Valley of the Lakes (Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989). Central area is the biggest, in NE and C China (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1997). Easternmost area is in Korean peninsula.
11342		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky lowland and mountain steppe up to 3,000 m and meadows in forest-steppe habitats.  Usually found away from woods but near water sources.  They are especially common in dense brush along the banks of lakes, rivers and streams.  Feeds on the underground parts of plants, in Buryatia mostly on fat roots of Stellera chamaejasme. Sometimes uses green plants and herbs. They are highly social and live in extended family groups.  Members occupy a common burrow to which they remain strongly attached.  In summer groups consist of one breeding male for every one to two breeding females plus the young of 1-3 generations.  Total numbers of individuals per burrow averages 8.7, but ranges between 3-22.  Reproduction occurs between March and August yielding litters of 2-4 young.
11342		population	eng	No data are available at present.
11342		threats	eng	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats to the species at present.
11343		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a threatened species by Queensland and by Australian law. Its entire range is within the Epping Forest National Park. The Recovery Plan for this species is in its third edition (see Horsup 2004). The following management actions are underway or planned:<br/><br/>1) Control threats and manage habitat. Predator control ? A 20-km predator fence was built in 2002 to prevent a repeat of dingo predation that killed at least 15 wombats in 2000. Monitor and control competitors ? The Eastern Grey Kangaroo is the major competitor for food and its numbers are being monitored. Habitat management ? Introduced buffel grass is regularly slashed to promote green growth and native species. Fire management ? Annual burns are undertaken to reduce fuel loads and promote plant diversity. Supplementary feed and water provisioning ? Feed and water stations are now being used by wombats, particularly in dry times (Treby <em>et al.</em> 2007). Permanent management presence on Epping Forest National Park ? A volunteer caretaker program ensures twice daily monitoring of the dingo fence.<br/><br/>2) Accurately monitoring wombats. Population censuses ? Three censuses each year minimize disturbance and maximize the accuracy of the result and involve collecting wombat hair on sticky tape to extract DNA (see Banks <em>et al.</em> 2003). Burrow monitoring ? This is undertaken every six months and monitors activity levels at burrows as an ?early warning system?. Trapping ? This was the major means of censusing prior to development of the DNA technique and is now only undertaken when necessary (e.g., to attach radio-collars).<br/><br/>3) Translocation. Locate sites for the establishment of future Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat colonies and develop translocation techniques on Epping Forest National Park.<br/><br/>4) Develop captive techniques on other wombat species. Southern Hairy-nosed Wombats are being used to improve wombat captive breeding and reproductive monitoring techniques. There are no Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats in captivity.<br/><br/>5) Monitor wombat biology and ecology. This includes ongoing studies of diet, reproduction, habitat utilization, behavior, and burrow architecture.<br/><br/>6) Manage the recovery team. A full-time Recovery Manager is responsible for coordinating and implementing the Recovery Plan, making all relevant information available to recovery personnel, obtaining funding for the Recovery Plan, and undertaking research and monitoring.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
11343		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it formerly ranged from Deniliquin in south-central New South Wales north to Mount Douglas in central Queensland. It is currently restricted to Epping Forest National Park, 120 km north-west of Clermont in central Queensland (Horsup and Johnson 2008). The species' range at Epping Forest National Park covers 500 ha, or less than one sixth of the park (Horsup 2004; Horsup and Johnson 2008). Fossils of this species have been found as far south as Victoria.
11343		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of deep alluvial soils and open eucalypt woodlands along inland river systems. The species requires a supply of perennial native grasses near to its burrows (Horsup 1999).
11343		population	eng	The current population of Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats is 115 animals (Horsup and Johnson 2008). The population had fallen as low as 30-40 individuals in the early 1980s, but the exclusion of cattle from its range in 1982 led to a steady increase in numbers. Periods of drought can greatly reduce the population (as in the mid 1990s) (Horsup and Johnson 2008). In 2000 Dingoes eliminated 15-20 individuals and a 20-km-long fence now encompasses the entire population (Horsup and Johnson 2008).
11343		threats	eng	The species declined through extensive broad-scale habitat destruction and competition with cattle and sheep, particularly during droughts (Horsup 2004). It is currently threatened by its small colony size, making it vulnerable to local catastrophes (disease or wildfire), demographic and environmental stochasticity, inbreeding and subsequent loss of genetic variation, and by native competitors and introduced predators (Horsup 2004). Introduced buffel grass is taking over its natural habitat within Epping Forest National Park.
11345		conservation	eng	Research actions. This species is found in protected areas.
11345		distribution	eng	Colombia and Venezuela; Central Chile, Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Central Argentina; Hawaii (USA); Guatemala and Mexico throughout the USA to Southern British Columbia, Southeastern Mackenzie, Hudson Bay and Southern Quebec (Canada); Galápagos Islands (Ecuador) (Simmons 2005). Panama (Samudio pers. comm.). Also in Brazil.
11345		habitat	eng	Insectivorous, migratory. Poorly known. Authorities disagree as to the bat's preference for coniferous versus broadleaf trees. Hoary bats are thought to prefer trees at the edge of clearings, but have been found in trees in heavy forests, open wooded glades, and shade trees along urban streets and in city parks (Anderson 2002).
11345		population	eng	Common. Hoary bats are solitary. They roost 3 to 5 m above ground during the day, usually in the foliage of trees. They prefer dense leaf coverage above and an open area below. They also prefer trees that border clearings. They have been seen roosting in a woodpecker hole in British Columbia, in the nest of a gray squirrel, and under a driftwood plank. Occasionally they are found clinging to the overhangs of buildings and in caves in the latter part of the summer. They often have trouble finding their way out of the caves and die there (Anderson 2002).<br/>Hoary bats reach their peak activity at about five hours after sunset, although they may occasionally be seen flying on warm winter afternoons. Their flight is strong and direct, reaching speeds of thirteen miles/hr. While hunting, they soar and glide. They forage about the tree tops, along streams and lake shores, and in urban areas where there are lots of trees. These bats stop to rest between meals at night. Feeding is the only time that hoary bats appear to associate with other bat species. Hoary bats often form groups when hunting for insects (Anderson 2002).
11345		threats	eng	Hoary bats are widespread and secure over much of their range (Anderson 2002). Deforestation and human disturbance are threats in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
11346		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
11346		distribution	eng	Bolivia, Northern Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil to Western North America; Trinidad and Tobago; Galápagos (Ecuador) (Simmons 2005). Not in Chile (Barquez pers. comm.). Cozumel Island (Reid pers. comm.).
11346		habitat	eng	Insectivorous. Found in cities, trees. Probably a migratory species.
11346		population	eng	Solitary, but sometimes can be found in large groups (Acosta and Lara 1950). Common and widespread. Because avoid mist nets can be underrepresented. Easily detected by acoustic methods.
11346		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
11347		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Mexico.
11347		distribution	eng	Eastern North America, Bermuda (Simmons 2005). Northeastern Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
11347		habitat	eng	They tend to choose habitats that are sparsely to moderately populated by humans and are rare in heavily urbanized areas. Mating takes place in flight and copulation usually occurs in August or September. The sperm is stored until the spring, usually March or April. Female red bats possess four mammary glands while most other chiropterans have two. Female red bats give birth to one litter of twins each year, unlike most bats which give birth to single young. Newborn bats are hairless and weigh approximately 1.5 g. The young learn to fly at about five weeks old. Like all mammals, female red bats nurse their young until the young are able to fend for themselves. It takes young red bats about five weeks to learn how to fly and forage on their own (Myers and Hatchett 2000).<br/>Lasiurus borealis choose roosting sites in dense foliage. They may be visible hanging from branches or leaves but their coloration helps to camouflage them from predators. Their red coat is particularly helpful at camouflaging them in sycamore, oaks, elm, and box elder trees and they seem to prefer these trees as roost sites (Constantine, 1996). Sites that have been used as roosting areas range from 2 to 40 feet off the ground. The roosting sites of solitary bats have not been as well studied as those of more gregarious bats. Some field workers believe that red bats defend feeding territories. (Constantine, 1966; Fenton, 1985)<br/>Red bats are insectivorous. They capture insects while flying like many other insectivorous bats (Myers and Hatchett 2000).
11347		population	eng	Red bats are migratory, arriving in the northern climates in mid-April and leaving in late October. There are records of bats hibernating in the northern parts of their range, but they typically migrate to warmer regions. When red bats hibernate they choose hollow trees. They maintain body temperatures just above freezing and cannot withstand prolonged periods of below freezing temperatures. They may lose up to 25% of their pre-hibernation weight by spring, severely depleting fat reserves (Fenton, 1985).
11347		threats	eng	Red bats are secure over most of their range and are not considered threatened (Myers and Hatchett 2000).
11348		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Panama, research actions.
11348		distribution	eng	Restricted to Panama and Costa Rica. One locality for Costa Rica (Dinerstein 1985). Captures in Central Amazonia (Sampaio <em>et al.</em> 2003). A record from French Guiana was subsequently reidentified as atratus (Handley, 1996).
11348		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
11348		population	eng	There is no information on population.
11348		threats	eng	Not known.
11349		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Parque Estadual da Ilha do Cardoso. Further surveys are needed in the surrounding area, using appropriate methodology, to improve understanding of the species distribution and ecology and to clarify its relationship to other species of <em>Lasuriurus</em>.
11349		distribution	eng	Known only from type locality: Brazil, eastern Sao Paulo, Parque Estadual da Ihla do Cardoso (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
11349		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. Probably its natural history is similar to other species of <em>Lasiurus<em>. As an aerial insectivore of uncluttered space, sampling methodology needs to be appropriate.</em></em>
11349		population	eng	Rare. Nowak (1999) reports that <em>Lasiurus ebenus</em> is known only from a single specimen from the vicinity of Sao Paulo in southeastern Brazil, in a region that is undergoing intensive human habitat destruction.
11349		threats	eng	The region of Sao Paulo is undergoing intensive human habitat destruction.
11350		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Belize and Mexico
11350		distribution	eng	Southern Texas, Eastern and Southern Mexico south to Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Also found in Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas and Suriname.
11350		habitat	eng	Bats of the genus <em>Lasiurus</em> generally occur in wooded areas and roost in foliage. Occasionally these bats roost in tree holes or buildings. In the U.S. <em>L. ega</em> is associated with introduced palms, which is thought to be a reason for its recent expansion northward. They can be found alone or in groups with up 20 individuals. They can be found in degradeted areas and roofs made with palm (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999).
11350		population	eng	Common. They disappeared from the native trees (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999).
11350		threats	eng	No major threats.
11351		conservation	eng	Research is required on distribution, abundance,  basic ecology and threats.
11351		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities. This species occurs in extreme southeastern Panama, but the extent of its range into northwestern Colombia is unknown; also occurs in southern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Lowlands only (Reid, 1997).
11351		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. Caught in a mist net set across a stream through tall evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Probably its natural history is similar to other species of <em>Lasiurus</em>. It is assumed to be an aerial insectivore of uncluttered space on the basis of its morphology.
11351		population	eng	Rare; known only from a few specimens (Reid, 1997). As an aerial insectivore this species is difficult to capture using current survey methodologies and so may be more abundant than currently thought.
11351		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
11352		conservation	eng	Research actions. It is found in some protected areas.
11352		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Honduras to Sinaloa (Mexico) and through Texas to Florida and New Jersey (USA) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,600 m (Reid, 1997). Found in Costa Rica.
11352		habitat	eng	This species can be found in coniferous and broadleaf forest and dry thorn scrub (Reid 1997). It roosts in Spanish moss, under dead palm leaves or dry corn stalks. This species appears to be more social than other <em>Lasiurus</em> species, and may form nursery colonies. It usually forages 3 to 4 m above ground over open, grassy areas, and 100 or more bats may aggregate when feeding (Barbour and Davis 1969). Northern populations reproduce in May to June, and litter size is 2 to 4 (Reid 1997).
11352		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common in suitable habitat (Reid, 1997; Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
11352		threats	eng	No major threats.
11353		conservation	eng	Research actions.
11353		distribution	eng	Florida and Texas to Oklahoma and Virginia; Pennsylvania and New York (USA); Bermuda. N Veracruz (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).
11353		habitat	eng	Seminole bats are insectivorous. They feed at dusk, while in flight, on flies, beetles, dragonflies, bees, wasps, and crickets. They are quick and direct when flying, feeding mostly near the tops of trees at about 6 to 15 m. However, it is not uncommon to see them over open ponds, along forest edges, or near lights, presumably where insects accumulate. Like most microchiropterans, seminole bats find their insect prey through echolocation (Genoud, 1990).<br/>Generally, seminole bats are found in lowland forest stands of mixed deciduous and pine trees. Although several bats may be found hanging together, roosting alone is more common. They hang 1.5 to 6.1 m above the ground on the southwest side of trees, clinging to the inside of clumps of Spanish moss (<em>Tillandsia usneoides</em>), leaves, or loose bark. The area directly below the moss where they hang is clear of other branches. This allows these bats to drop down to begin their flight. The ground beneath them is covered with leaf litter and other organic debris. This reduces the amount of sunlight that is reflected on them when hanging.<br/>Roosting is more common in pine trees, especially during parturition and lactation. The trees that are selected for roosting are taller and larger in diameter than other trees near the roost area. Selected trees are also tend to be near forest edges that permit easy flight paths. (Constantine 1958 and 1966, Barbour and Davis 1969, Menzel <em>et al.</em> 1998)
11353		population	eng	<em>L. seminolus</em> is a solitary bat species. Individuals usually roost alone and remain in the roost whenever the temperature is below 21°C. If the relative humidity increases, they are able to fly at lower temperatures. A sighting was reported at 20°C when the relative humidity was 38%. They do not hibernate, but do go into torpor. These bats fly throughout the year and have been spotted on warm days in the middle of winter. Seasonal migration does occur within their range in the southeastern United States. There are fewer seminole bats in the northern portions of their range during the winter, but in the south they are one of the most abundant bats active at that time of year. They have been known to join groups of migrating birds on southward migrations. No studies have yet been done to determine how they navigate their migration route. The possibilities include visual landmarks, smells, or winds. (Constantine 1958, Neuweiler 2000)<br/>There have been no longevity studies on seminole bats. It has been noted that more females than males have been recorded in the older age class, which indicates a higher male mortality rate. If seminole bats survive the perils of youth, it is likely that they will live for many years. (Kunz and Racey 1998).
11353		threats	eng	Since these bats roost primarily in Spanish moss, the gathering of this moss could affect roosting behaviour. No studies have been done to determine whether there has been an impact, but educating moss collectors about these roosting requirements could help seminole bats (Walker 2002).
11357		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, although the catchments within which it is distributed are mostly covered by the remit of several protected areas. This species has been given a Global Heritage Status of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2009), although it has been given regional asssessments of 'critically imperiled' in Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina and Virginia.&#160;A recent Red List assessment has been given of Near Threatened (NT) (Version 2.3) in 1996.&#160;Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.<br/><br/>Further research is suggested to resolve taxonomic issues for this species and gather information on the specific ecology and threats of this species.
11357		distribution	eng	<em>Lasmigona holstonia</em> occurs in the Ohio and Tennessee River drainages. In the Ohio River drainage, it has been reported only from the New River system in Virginia and West Virginia (Pinder <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Tennessee River drainage, <em>L. holstonia</em> is known from headwaters in southwestern Virginia, western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee downstream to the Paint Rock River system in northeastern Alabama (Clarke&#160;1985). There are also a few records from headwaters of the Duck River, central Tennessee (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). In the Cumberland River drainage <em>L. holstonia</em> is known from headwaters of the Caney Fork (Parmalee and Bogan 1998) (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).&#160;Its distribution was originally thought to extend to the Moblie River and its basin, but recent genetic analysis has found this form to represent a distinct species (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
11357		habitat	eng	This&#160;is a species of small to medium creeks, often found in very small streams where no other mussels occur. Ortmann (1918) reported the species from larger rivers (i.e., Holston and Hiwassee) but only from small side channels. It is usually found in areas with at least some current, usually in sandy substrates, though may also be found in mud or gravel (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/>This species<em>&#160;</em>is a long-term brooder. In the upper Tennessee River drainage gravid females have been reported with embryos in August and mature glochidia in September and May of the following year (Ortmann 1921, Clarke 1985). Fishes reported to serve as glochidial hosts in laboratory trials include <em>Ambloplites rupestris</em> (Rock Bass) (Centrarchidae); <em>Cottus carolinae</em> (Banded Sculpin) (Cottidae); <em>Campostoma anomalum </em>(Central Stone-roller),<em> Luxilus chrysocephalus</em> (Striped Shiner), <em>Pimephales notatus </em>(Bluntnose Minnow), <em>Semotilus atromaculatus</em> (Creek Chub) and an unidentified species of <em>Notropis </em>(Cyprinidae); and <em>Etheostoma caeruleum</em> (Rainbow Darter), <em>Etheostoma rufilineatum</em> (Redline Darter) and <em>Etheostoma simoterum</em> (Snubnose Darter) (Percidae) (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).
11357		population	eng	This species is declining in parts of its range. It is considered to be endangered in Alabama (Williams <em>et al.&#160;</em>2008).
11357		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but most likely include disturbance through sedimentation and agricultural run-off, and&#160;habitat degradation as a result of pollution from domestic, agricultural and industrial sources. The sensitivity of this species to disturbance has yet to be characterised&#160;(K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
11369		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Its range is protected within a World Heritage Site. Conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> snakes should take into account both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.
11369		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Te-Nggano of Rennell Island, Solomon Islands (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). The total extent of occurrence of this species is about 155 km²<sup></sup>.
11369		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be viviparous and highly seasonal in reproduction, but data supporting this is limited (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987).  It has never been observed on land, suggesting that it may be completely aquatic (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). Unlike other members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda,</span> it eats fish of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris</span> (gobies). The species is sexually dimorphic with larger and heavier females. The lake has a depth of 44 m, and is a mixture of brackish, fresh and salt water. The average distance from the lake shore to the ocean is 2 km.
11369		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species, but its range is restricted to a small geographic area. There have been no surveys for this species since 1987.
11369		threats	eng	As this species inhabits a single lake, any threats or disturbance to this lake may have serious consequences for it. At present there is little information on current threats. The main threats to this species may be anthropogenic threats in the near future, such as coastal development, pollution and harvesting, or natural events such as extreme weather leading to influx of sea water into the lake.
11374		conservation	eng	This is the only fruit bat to be accorded the highest form of protection under the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, amended in 2006 (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). The species has been recorded from protected areas including Kalakkad-Mundunthurai National Park in Tamil Nadu and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala. Thorough survey, ecology, population monitoring, habitat assessment, foraging distances and public awareness among the local tribal people is urgently recommended. There is a need to identify key roosting sites and to protect these localities.
11374		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India and is presently known from localities in Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala State and in Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve, Kardana Coffee Estate, Megamalai, High Wavy Mountains in Tamil Nadu State (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its occurrence in Uppinangadi in Karnataka reported by R. Krishnan and A. Chakravorty (pers. comm. to Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) requires verification and is therefore not considered here for the assessment. It has been recorded from elevations of 800 m to 1,100 m asl. The extent of occurrence of this species is 101-5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 501-2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). More specifically, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> (2004) calculate the extent of occurrence as being around 1,100 km² based on the location of roosts, while they calculate the area of occupancy as 10.05 km² based on the estimate by Singaravelan and Marimuthu (2003) of a foraging distance of 0.8 km from the roost
11374		habitat	eng	It is a cave dwelling bat that is very sensitive to disturbance (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is found in montane evergreen forest and coffee/cardamom plantations (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2004). The fig it eats has been identified as <em>Ficus racemosa</em>, but Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> (2004) infer from nuts from the roost that the bat also feeds on the fruits of <em>Eleaocarpus serratus</em>, <em>E. tuberculatus</em> and <em>Dichapetalum gelanioides</em>.
11374		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are poorly known. However, Agoramoorthy (2000) and Singaravelan and Marimuthu (2003) note populations of 250-350 individuals of this species in the caves they observed. Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> (2004) report counting 50-400 bats in day and night roosts. In the recent past there has been observed a significant decline in its population (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
11374		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for local consumption as traditional medicine, for extraction of oil to cure asthma and disturbance to roosting sites by humans in High Wavy Mountains (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani <em>et al. </em>2004). Tree cutting in coffee estates where permanent roosts are identified is a major threat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Singaravelan and Marimuthu 2003).
11375		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I
11375		distribution	eng	Known as the "living fossil", this species occurs in the Indo-West Pacific in the vicinity of the Grand Comoro and Anjouan islands, the coast of South Africa, Madagascar, and Mozambique.
11375		habitat	eng	<em>L. chalumnae</em> is a nocturnal hunter, sheltering within caves throughout the day and foraging at night on squid and other fish species.
11377		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions specific to the species. However, some parts of the range lie in protected areas, so some habitat protection is provided.
11377		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Atlantic islands: Canary Islands and Madeiran archipelago. it is found at intermediate elevations on Madeira in laurisilva zone. On the Canary islands, it is known from El Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera and Tenerife in the laurisilva forests (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).
11377		habitat	eng	This species occurs on ferns and amongst moss and lichen on the trunks of laurels (Seddon 2008) in laurisilva forest.
11377		population	eng	There is no data on population trend, but it is presumed to be stable. It is rarer than the introduced species <span style="font-style: italic;">Lauria cylindracea</span> on Madeira, occurring in the Laurisilva forests.
11377		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to the species which lies on five different islands in two different island groups.
11378		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g.. Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo). Other than studies into the possible effects of human activity on population dynamics of this bat, and additional research into the range of this species, no conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.
11378		distribution	eng	This widespread African bat is broadly distributed south of the Sahara from Gambia (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Senegal, through much of West and Central Africa, to southern and central Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996) and Somalia in the east (Funaioli and Simonetta, 1966); from here it ranges southwards as far as northern Zambia (Ansell 1978) and northern Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988; Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999). It is typically a lowland species found below 2,000 m asl.
11378		habitat	eng	This species is widespread in riparian habitats in low lying acacia woodland, thorn scrubland and savanna (Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999). It is generally associated with open habitats and is probably absent from undisturbed rainforest (Koopman pers. comm. in Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999). It usually roosts as individual animals in tree hollows, but has been recorded roosting in buildings (Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987; Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999).
11378		population	eng	Although there is little information on the abundance of this species, it is probably uncommon (Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999).
11378		threats	eng	While Vonhof and Kalcounis (1999) state that the effects of human activity on population dynamics of this bat are unknown, there do not appear to be any major threats to the species.
11379		conservation	eng	No information available.
11379		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found on shores of Tanzania, DRC, Zambia, but not Burundi. There are 36 known sites and it is possible that further surveys may locate more sites for this species.
11379		habitat	eng	It is found among rocks and boulders in wave swept zone, especially 0-5 m, but found as deep as 20 m.
11379		population	eng	Population densities on order of 1-10 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> on appropriate substrates (large boulders in shallow water) (E. Michel pers. comm.).
11379		threats	eng	The species is recognized as being threatened by sedimentation in Tanzania; exclusion from Burundi possibly due to sedimentation.
11380		conservation	eng	No information available.
11380		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. The type locality is at Ujiji. It is present on all shores, and known from 56 locations. It is possible that further surveys may locate more sites for this species.
11380		habitat	eng	It is abundant in the littoral zone of the lake, where it browses on algae on wave-beaten rocks.
11380		population	eng	No information available.
11380		threats	eng	Sedimentation is the most crucial threat to the species.
11381		conservation	eng	It is considered rare in Queensland and is protected by state legislation. Some sites from where it is known occur in National Parks.
11381		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs south from Mistake Mountains (southeastern Queensland) to Gosford (northeastern New South Wales).
11381		habitat	eng	The species has a marked preference for mesic forests in areas of high rainfall and deeper soils on mid slopes or plateaux. It hides amongst leaves and other ground cover on the forest floor, and is largely terrestrial. It breeds in ephemeral waterbodies in these areas. It lays about 300 eggs in a foam nest. Tadpoles are cannibalistic.
11381		population	eng	It is widespread, and abundant in suitable habitat. There is no information on population size, structure, dynamics or genetic variation.
11381		threats	eng	In the past clearing of wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest significantly reduced the habitat of the species and much of its remaining habitat has been logged. Logging of wet sclerophyll forest continues to be a threat. It is considered rare in Queensland because of its restricted distribution.
11384		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas, including the Kadadu National Park and the Thevenard Island Nature Reserve.
11384		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it occurs from Cape York in the east to the Pilbara, in Western Australia, although the distribution is discontinuous (Moro and Kutt 2008). There are populations present on Thevenard Island and Serrurier Island (the latter is a translocated population – intentionally introduced for conservation purposes), both in Western Australia (Lee 1995; Moro and Kutt 2008).
11384		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in areas of open tussock and hummock grassland, acacia shrubland, and savanna woodland, on alluvial clay or sandy soils (Lee 1995; Moro and Kutt 2008). Females give birth to two litters annually. Litters contain up to four young and the gestation period lasts about 30 days (Moro and Kutt 2008).
11384		population	eng	The population is rare and scattered on the mainland with large annual fluctuations (Moro and Kutt 2008). It is common on islands (Moro and Kutt 2008). On islands, populations rise and fall in relation to rainfall and climatic conditions, but this may not be true of mainland populations. A study of the species at Kakadu showed that large population fluctuations had little to do with environmental factors (Moro and Kutt 2008).
11384		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species. The Thevenard Island form is threatened by possible competition with the House Mouse (<em>Mus musculus</em> or <em>Mus domesticus</em>, there in not total agreement about which represents the House Mouse in Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.)) (Lee 1995). A recently constructed oil base has also been constructed, covering about 10% of the island, and it appears to be a threat.
11385		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas.
11385		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the arid and semi-arid areas of central Australia, from the plains of Lake Eyre Basin to the Northern Territory. It is absent from the Central Desert. It is also not found continuously throughout range; patchy distribution.
11385		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in arid areas where it is associated with tussock grasslands, cracking clay plains, and low shrublands on plains with loam, clay, or stony soils (Reid 2008). It is rarely recorded from mulga woodlands, spinifex grasslands, rocky-hills, and areas of sand dune (Reid 2008). Females give birth to a litter of between three and four young, and reproduction is believed to be generally related to rainfall (Reid 2008).
11385		population	eng	Population levels fluctuate with rainfall.
11385		threats	eng	There are no major, widespread threats to this species. High levels of grazing, particularly by sheep, is a localized threat. Feral cats and red foxes may be a localized threats.
11387		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. Research to establish the species extent of occurrence, population status and habitat requirements is urgently needed.
11387		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Bismarckburg, Togo. It probably also occurs in Ghana as the type locality is very close to the border. The elevational range is not known. <em>Leimacomys</em> was first collected by R. Büttner or his local assistant in 1890 and the locality given as Bismarckburg, which was the colonial district headquarter located east of the modern town of Yegué, about 20 km east of KRNP in Togo (08°15'N; 00°40'E). Only two specimens were preserved at the Humboldt Museum in Berlin and were subsequently described as a new species, but they remain the only known specimens today (Dieterlen 1976; Denys 1993; Misonne 1966). In the 1990s, two expeditions attempted to rediscover <em>Leimacomys buettneri</em> but without success (Decher pers. comm.).
11387		habitat	eng	The type locality is in the forest zone. The dentition and stomach contents point to a partially insectivorous diet the short tail suggests a terrestrial life style (D. Kock pers. comm.). Nothing else is known of habits or habitat.
11387		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known. The species has not been recorded since it was first described. There have not been surveys using appropriate techniques, hence it is difficult to draw any conclusions because of the poor capture rate.
11387		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it occurs in a remote region that is not known to be threatened at present.
11450		conservation	eng	The NZ Department of Conservation (DOC) through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan administers conservation management of the species and permits appropriate research, including a collaborative program with Auckland Zoo which has recently established a new facility for breeding and maintaining the species. Recent declines and the positive identification of chytrid fungus has stimulated urgent research and management of the species, including pathology, population monitoring, captive management and molecular research. This involves DOC and Canterbury, Massey, Otago and Victoria Universities.
11450		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Whareorino range in the west and Coromandel ranges in the east on North Island, New Zealand. Ranges from 400-1,000m asl.
11450		habitat	eng	A terrestrial and nocturnal species, it occurs mostly at higher altitudes in forested ranges and more open sub-alpine scrub. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which undergo direct development without a larval stage.
11450		population	eng	Formerly, this species was recorded in the tens of thousands, but declines since 1996 have reduced the numbers throughout their range. The decline was first noted in 1996; one study population on the Tapu Ridge declined by 88% (433 frogs down to 53 frogs) over the period 1996-2002.
11450		threats	eng	The definitive cause of the decline of this species is still not known, though disease of some kind is the most likely cause, in particular chytridiomycosis. Chytrid fungus infection was first identified in this species in September 2001 (specimen collected June 2001 at Te Moehu). Declines of species were documented through most of its range-central Coromandel (1996-1998), northern Coromandel (2000-2001) and Whareorino (2001).
11451		conservation	eng	A tuatara-proof fence has been constructed around the frog's habitat. Regular population monitoring is also in place, and an island habitat restoration programme is under way. The prevention of accidental colonization by introduced mammalian predators is necessary. Translocation of some frogs to a second island is under consideration. The NZ Department of Conservation (DOC) through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan administers conservation management of this species and permits appropriate species research.
11451		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a single rock stack on Stephens Island in New Zealand. Translocation to an adjoining man-made rock stack on Stephens Island has been attempted but with limited success.
11451		habitat	eng	It is found on boulder banks near the summit of Stephens Island. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which undergo direct development without a larval stage.
11451		population	eng	The total population numbers less than 300 individuals.
11451		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are introduced mammalian predators (e.g. <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and possibly disease (chytridiomycosis has been recently identified in the closely related <em>L. archeyi</em>). Tuatara (<em>Sphenodon punctatus</em>) also prey on the species.
11452		conservation	eng	The NZ Department of Conservation (DOC), through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan, administers conservation management of this species and permits appropriate species research. Possible declines, and the identity of chytrid fungus in <em>Leiopelma archeyi</em>, have stimulated urgent research and management of the two species, including studies on pathology, population monitoring, captive management and molecular research. This involves DOC and Canterbury, Massey, Otago, and Victoria Universities. Recent studies have suggested that this species might comprise cryptic species, and hence taxonomic research is recommended to resolve this taxonomic issue.
11452		distribution	eng	This species is known from numerous localities in northern North Island, New Zealand.
11452		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic species can be found alongside forested creeks and watercourses, mostly in native forest, but surviving to some extent in modified habitats such as farmland and exotic forest. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which then undergo direct development without a larval stage.
11452		population	eng	It is a common species.
11452		threats	eng	Disease (chytridiomycosis) will most likely be a major threat to this species in the near future, as it has recently been identified in the related <em>L. archeyi</em>. This species co-exists with introduced mammalian predators (such as <em>Rattus rattus</em>, <em>Mustela erminea</em>), but their long-term impact on the species is uncertain. Habitat loss, due to the conversion of native habitat to pine plantations, is certainly a threat, as is the siltation of breeding streams that takes place as a result of logging and road building activities.
11454		conservation	eng	The Prince Regent is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve; a protected area managed to combine both conservation and sustainable use of natural resources (UNESCO 2005).
11454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Prince Regent and upper Roe Rivers, in the Kimberley region (Western Australia).
11454		habitat	eng	<em>L. macrolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits clear, flowing streams over sandstone bottoms.  It is also common in open rocky pools with minimal aquatic vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Not much is known about its biology, but breeding presumably takes place during the dry season (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
11454		population	eng	It is reasonably common within its range, and is one of the most abundant species in Camp Creek, a tributary of the lower Prince Regent River (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
11454		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
11455		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This  species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and  the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. Further survey work on the south coast in remote ravines to determine if the species is still extant.</span></span></span>
11455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where all records in the last 50 years are from the fossil deposits at Canical on the Pta de Sao Lourenco (Seddon 2008). Wollaston (1878) recorded that it was almost unique as living shells, but gave no locality and no-one has located this species despite intensive surveys between 1978 and 1999, some specifically for the species in areas believed to have been recorded by Wollaston (1878).
11455		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, but probably around crags based on similar looking species.
11455		population	eng	This species has not been recorded living in the last 150 years.
11455		threats	eng	The threats are uncertain, as the precise location maybe erroneous, but probably habitat change due to urban development on the south coast.
11456		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">There are no known conservation actions for the species. Further survey work on the central habitats close to the last records, especially in remote ravines to determine if the species is still extant and if it has a wider range.&#160; </span></span></span>
11456		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, the type locality was from the head of  the Ribeira de Sta Luzia. It was recorded in recent surveys at a single site in  central Madeira. It was previously recorded by Waldén (1983) from a single  site, which is thought to be close to the current site.
11456		habitat	eng	Wollaston (1878) suggests it is in leaf-litter on rock ledges of large crags. However, Coles (pers. comm. 2008) found it on rock ledges in damp areas. Uncertain whether Wollaston (1878) recorded it from shaded crags within laurisilva forest, as past records suggest the known site at that time was wooded.
11456		population	eng	The species is not considered abundant, and there are very few recent records in recent surveys at the single site known in central Madeira. Therefore it is not possible to establish trends.
11456		threats	eng	The site is close to a road where declining quality of habitats is inferred, as the road creates an area with pollution from run-off, and the species lives in damp habitats with leaf-litter, which would be vulnerable to seepage.
11457		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This  species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and  the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. There are no known actions for this species, and the habitats do not lie in a protected area, so it remains vulnerable to development of the site for tourism and infrastructure to support tourism in the region.</span></span></span>
11457		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo, where it is only known from the south-west part of the mainland (Seddon 2008), a restricted area where it is found close to the coast.
11457		habitat	eng	This species is found amongst vegetation on coastal slopes, especially on small crags and around rocks within the spray zone. It also occurs in fissures in the rocks.
11457		population	eng	The species is currently thought to be stable.
11457		threats	eng	The threats to the species lie in development of the sites where it lives for recreation and tourism (cafes, footpaths, hotels), as most sites lie at the end of the long beach that dominates the south coast of Porto Santo.
11458		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This  species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and  the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. Further survey work on required to determine if the species is still extant.</span></span></span>
11458		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira. It is common as a fossil in Quaternary deposits on Pta do São Lourenço. The only living records are from Ribeira de Sta Lucia by Wollaston (1878) and there are no records since despite frequent general surveys in 1920's, 1930's, 1970's, 1980's, 1990's and 2000's.
11458		habitat	eng	This species was described as found in leaf-litter on rock ledges on tall cliffs.
11458		population	eng	There are no records since 1878 despite frequent general surveys in 1920's, 1930's, 1970's, 1980's, 1990's and 2000's.
11458		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. gibba</span> has not been recorded for nearly 140 years, so it is assumed that degradation and loss in the last known habitats due to increasing urbanisation may have lead to the loss of this species.
11459		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This  species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and  the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. No conservation areas have yet been designated for <em>Leiostyla lamellosa</em> as it is difficult to know whether (and if so where) it survives. Some of the possible habitats have limited protection for the landscape (Riberio de Sta Luzia). Other potential habitats are within the National Park, where habitat disturbance is under control of the Regional Government.&#160;<br/>Conservation actions include surveys in remote and inaccessible regions to determine whether the species is till extant.</span></span></span>
11459		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the main island of Madeira. Wollaston (1878) commented that it was at several sites including Ribeira de Sta Luzia and Vasco Gil and that it was common as a fossil at Caniçal. Since 1878, the region of Vasco Gil has largely been modified with conifer plantations and Eucalyptus forest replacing the native vegetation. Although Wollaston noted that <em>L. lamellosa</em> was present as a fossil, Cook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1993) did not find any specimens during their survey of the Caniçal sands. Recent surveys between 1970s and 1990s have failed to find any living specimens.
11459		habitat	eng	There are very few records, but was originally found in moist places at intermediate elevations on the south side of island in the laurisilva zone and from leaf-litter at the base of large perpendicular crags.
11459		population	eng	There have been no recent records for this species.
11459		threats	eng	Some of the habitats have been modified since it was last recorded in 1878.
11460		conservation	eng	This species has sparse distribution on Porto Santo, so recommended conservation actions include management of the known sites areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat and subpopulations.
11460		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Porto Santo. Wollaston (1878) found <em>L. calathiscus</em> on the summits of Pico Branco and Pico do Facho. This species can still be found on Pico de Facho, Pico Branco and Pico de Castello (Seddon 2008). Fossil shells have been obtained from Porto do Frades, Porto do Morena and the Fonte de Areia; this species must have been present since the Late Pleistocene and during the late Weichelselian it was more common at lower altitudes (Cameron <em>et al</em>. 2006).</p>
11460		habitat	eng	<p>This species is usually found in the leaf-litter around the base of the trees and low crags or on dead branches and occasionally in crevices on crags. Generally it was found in association with <em>L. monticola</em> in the old conifer plantations.</p>
11460		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, although the species can be abundant when present in some habitats (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).
11460		threats	eng	As this region is subject to tourist activities, the habitat is changing, which might affect the species.&#160; Other possible threats come from deforestation, as some sites are in plantations.
11461		conservation	eng	The species requires well-shaded habitats, so measures that protect Laurisilva forest will benefit the species.&#160; Habitat monitoring is required at known sites to identify future changes in habitat quality, as at present the species is not threatened, but it has a restricted range, that could be vulnerable to declines if habitat quality declines in future.
11461		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is known from the northern central mountains and western parts of the main island, where it is mainly found at intermediate elevations (Seddon 2008).
11461		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp, shaded places, usually in laurisilva woodland, often on fronds of ferns and amongst leaf-litter, and near shaded crags and rocky areas (Seddon 2008).
11461		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species, although it is probably stable, as the majority of the habitats are in protected areas or inaccessible areas.
11461		threats	eng	Some of the habitat is in the central part of the island within the Natural Park protected area and as such the declining quality of habitat has been stopped, and as the major threat is loss of habitat, the species is considered to be less threatened than other taxa, as it is present in more valleys, and needs shaded, damp habitats, which can be provided by a variety of trees in addition to Laurisilva.
11462		conservation	eng	This species lies in a protected area where there had been little change for over 30 years. Recent intensive fires mean that the species needs urgent reassessment,  as it may have been impacted by the fires in August 2010, hence it is  uplisted to Endangered until surveys reconfirm the current status.
11462		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is only found on the summit areas of central Madeira at the extreme end of Ribeira do Santa Lucia and Pico Arreiro (Seddon 2008).
11462		habitat	eng	This species is found close to rock crags, often amongst small stones and sticks in moist places near streams and leaf-litter on ledges of crags (Seddon 2008).
11462		population	eng	There is no data on population trend.
11462		threats	eng	The main threat to this species are fires and overgrazing impacting the area around.
11463		conservation	eng	Since the area of Pico Branco was designated a protected area, the threats have now been removed (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010), however the species would benefit from a non-sampling based monitoring programme to establish future trends and re-occurrence of threats.
11463		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo on the north slopes of Pico Branco in an area about three km by two km (Seddon 2008). No fossil material has been found of this species (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)
11463		habitat	eng	This species was found in the crevices and in the leaf-litter on the rock ledges; <span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla monticola</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla calathiscus</span> were living in the same habitat (Seddon 2008).
11463		population	eng	There are no recent data to establish population trends, but it is believed to be stable.
11463		threats	eng	There are no current threats following the designation of the region as a protected area. Although fire is a possible threat,&#160; it probably would not impact the species over the entire area, given the presence on rock crags and in fissures.
11464		conservation	eng	Conservation actions include habitat monitoring for indication of population trends, and non destructive-sampling based methods for population monitoring. The area would benefit from protected area status.
11464		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo. It has been recorded by Wollaston (1878) from the Pico de Ana Ferreira and Espigao; Wollaston (1878) discounted the records listed in Paiva from other areas. The pecies is still present on Pico de Ana Ferreira and Espigao, two hills at the western end of the island of Porto Santo (Seddon 2008).
11464		habitat	eng	This species was found in the crevices and in the leaf-litter on the rock ledges of the low crags within grassland.
11464		population	eng	The species has been present on these two hills for at least 140 years, and so is seen as being stable.
11464		threats	eng	These two hills do not lie in a protected area, although Espigao is further from the tourist area, Pico do Ana Ferreira is closer to the tourist area, and so is subject to more pressure. The threats are not considerable, mainly light recreational use and although fire is a possible threat, it probably would not impact the species over the entire area, given the presence on rock crags and in fissures.
11465		conservation	eng	Thi species is known from two closely adjacent localities, which lie in laurisilva forests that are protected in the Parque Natural da Madeira. No conservation action plan specifically for this species and habitat monitoring is recommended on the valley and the Caldeiro Verde, one site where the species is known.
11465		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it is known from two small tributary valleys on the north central part of the island (NMW collections and Coles collection) (Seddon 2008).
11465		habitat	eng	This species is found living on ferns or in the litter beneath ferns in moist places at intermediate elevations in the laurisilva zone (Seddon 2008). It is often found in the spray zone of large waterfalls.
11465		population	eng	There is no population trend data, however it is believed to be stable, based on the lack of disturbance of the habitats.
11465		threats	eng	The major threat is disturbance to the damp microclimate in these deep  ravines, by extraction of water feeding the rivers or through increased  frequency of drought events.
11466		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known and none considered necessary, although habitat monitoring for other threatened species in this habitat would benefit this species.
11466		distribution	eng	This species is present in a restricted area along the North Coast of Madeira, where it is known from at least 12 sites along the coast between Porto Moniz and Sao Vicente, but it is probably present at inaccessible portions of the cliffs.
11466		habitat	eng	This species occurs under dry leaves on rock ledges, behind <span style="font-style: italic;">Sempervivum</span> on rock faces, within debris on rock ledges on dry crags.
11466		population	eng	There is no population trend data, but the species is quite frequent in collecting surveys in correct habitats, so it is probably stable.
11466		threats	eng	The threats to the cliff type habitats are disturbance by modifications to the road which runs along the base of these sea-cliffs, however this impacts a small part of the range, and hence the threats are not viewed as being sufficiently high to endanger the species.
11468		conservation	eng	Part of the range falls within a designated protected area, however there are no known actions for this species. Conservation  actions include habitat monitoring for indication of population trends and forest management to ensure presence of large trees is maintained.
11468		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, it is only found at intermediate elevations in the Laurisilva forest of central Madeira, on the southern valleys only at the extreme end of Ribeira do Santa Lucia and below Pico Arreiro, on the northern valleys and other scattered locations (Seddon 2008). It has a restricted extent of occurrence of 300 km<sup>2</sup> and is known from six locations (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).</p>
11468		habitat	eng	<p>This species is mainly found on the tree trunks of large Laurisilva trees (Seddon 2008).</p>
11468		population	eng	There is insufficient data to obtain population trends.
11468		threats	eng	The species lives on mature trees and so there is a possible risk due to ageing trees in the laurisilva zone (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010). The major threats are the loss of the large trees and the lack of regeneration of large trees and in recent years, there have been major storm events that have the potential to damage large trees (Seddon and Abreu, pers. comm., 2010), so if these events increase in frequency, it may impact this species. Other possible threats include degradation of habitat with changing humidity conditions (off-take of water and changing climatic patterns) and possible disturbance from fire.
11469		conservation	eng	The species requires regular review to ensure that litter and our recreational activities do not impact the species.
11469		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo; it is currently limited to the peaks (Pico do Castello, Pico Branco, Pico do Facho). Fossil shells are scarce, but have been obtained from Porto do Frades and the Fonte de Areia; these may vindicate Paiva’s claim (which Wollaston did not believe) to have found this species’ fossil (Seddon 2008).
11469		habitat	eng	It is generally found on summits, in the leaf-litter or on dead branches. It is found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">L. calathiscus</span> in the old conifer woods, which are plantations established early last century. It can also be present in leaf-litter on rocky slopes near coast.
11469		population	eng	There are no evidence of declining populations at present.
11469		threats	eng	Possible threats lie in risk of grassland fire and habitat change, due to tourist activities around some of the sites.
11470		conservation	eng	The main conservation measure is to continue the protection of the site, as this status has seen habitats protected from possible threats such as quarrying. Habitat monitoring for indication of population trends is also recommended.
11470		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo; it is only known from the Ilhéu de Baixo.
11470		habitat	eng	This species is reported from crevices of exposed rocks in the spray zone on the coastal cliffs on the island (Wollaston 1878).
11470		population	eng	The population trend is uncertain, but is thought to be stable, as the islet has few visitors.
11470		threats	eng	The most likely threat would be quarrying, however, as this is an offshore islet, which is protected this seems a remote threat. Other threats probably includes increased frequency/intensity of fire given recent events on Madeira.
11471		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring would be necessary in order to establish whether populations are declining. Any road widening scheme on the north coast cliff road needs to review the potential impacts on this species.
11471		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it is mainly restricted to the northern coastline, where it is present at over 11 locations, and could be present in the more inaccessible cliffs between the recording points (Seddon, pers. comm, 2010).&#160; The most frequent records come from the north-west coast between São Vicente and Porto Moniz.
11471		habitat	eng	This species is found in dripping <span style="font-style: italic;">Marchantia polymorpha</span> on the sea- cliffs above the sprayzone, usually in wet flushes or edges of waterfalls.
11471		population	eng	Population trend data is not available, however believed to be stable at present.
11471		threats	eng	The major threats lie in the disturbance of habitats, which are quite restricted in ecological type. The risks come from road widening schemes along the coastal cliffs.
11472		conservation	eng	Although the species range lies in a protected area, it does not prevent storm damage. Surveys are needed to establish the impact of the recent fires and storms on this species which lives on rock ledges and on crags.
11472		distribution	eng	This species is found in central highlands of Madeira, where it is found at four closely localised sites (Seddon 2008).
11472		habitat	eng	This species is found on rock ledges and on crags in the summit regions of Pico Arriero and Pico Ruivo.
11472		population	eng	<p>The species is rare. It is usually found in specialist surveys targeted at the species. Since the fire in August 2010, the status is uncertain (C. Abreu, pers. comm., 2010).</p>
11472		threats	eng	Until recently, there was no evidence of declining quality of habitat over the previous 15 years, and the summit areas in the centre of the island are protected. However, there was &#160;a severe fire in the region where this species is located in August 2010, and surveys are needed to establish the impact on this species which lives on rock ledges and on crags, however, it is suspected that the species may have been impacted. Storm have also damaged the habitat of this species.
11473		conservation	eng	This species is very poorly known, so there are no conservation actions in place, although it requires surveys based on the Museum collection material to establish status and then field surveys to relocate the range and hence establish populations and conservation status. This species was not listed in 1983 (Wells<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1983), and reviewed  again in 1990 and thought to be threatened (Wells and Chatfield  1992).
11473		distribution	eng	This species is very poorly known from little shell material in  Museum collections. There is no map for this species (Seddon 2008), as  it was described from "Madeira".
11473		habitat	eng	This species is very poorly known, the habitats are uncertain, but likely to be rock crags and on rock ledges amongst leaf-litter.
11473		population	eng	This species is very poorly known, there is no population trend data.
11473		threats	eng	This species is very poorly known, so the threats are uncertain.
11474		conservation	eng	The species is under taxonomic review, and research is needed regarding its true distribution across the islands due to taxonomic uncertainty.
11474		distribution	eng	This species occurs in all the islands of the Azores, except Corvo.
11474		habitat	eng	<em>Leiostyla fuscidula</em> lives in forested habitats, where it can be found under dead leafs, as well as under heaps of rocks and stone walls, from xeric, littoral habitats, e.g. Ilhéu de Vila Franca do Campo (Martins 1995), to the endemic forest, e.g. Cabeço da Bola, Pico island (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is common under rocks, mainly at lower altitudes; in forests it can also be found on the underside of the leafs of live <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>, but more commonly hiding in the curled, dry leafs of that same plant.
11474		population	eng	Morelet (1860) states that this species is common under leafs and stones on all islands. Backhuys (1975) referred the high variability of the taxon but was cautious about extending its range to all islands, for he left out the islands of Santa Maria, Graciosa and Corvo. It will be provisionally mapped here in the first islands, pending the results of the revision under way; the specimens from Corvo seem quite different and will not be included here.
11474		threats	eng	Due to its wide range of habitats, no threats are foreseen.
11475		conservation	eng	There is a lack of information regarding this species. Research is needed relating to its taxonomy, population and threats.
11475		distribution	eng	This species is found on São Miguel, Terceira and São Jorge islands, Azores.
11475		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla vermiculosa</span> lives in forested habitats.
11475		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla vermiculosa</span> is an uncommon species, found in forests.
11475		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
11480		conservation	eng	Protected by law, listed as rare species in Red List of Russian Far East. Occurs in protected areas.
11480		distribution	eng	Larch taiga of E Siberia; from the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma Rivers southeastward onto the Kamchatka Peninsula, and southward through the Verkhoyansk and Cherskogo Mtns and the Omolon River to the upper Amur River basin and region east of Lake Baikal; also on islands in the New Siberian Arch (Novosibirskiye Ostrova).
11480		habitat	eng	Found mostly near marches in larch taiga. In Southern Yakutia (Chulman River) prefer open mild and ovemoisured areas with moss, grass and shrubs (Revin, 1983). In Kolyma found in herb and cereal meadow near larch forest and in ling near lakes. In Kamchatka found in tundra on old vulcano Uzon (Kronotsky State Reserve) and on western coast in shrub habitats. Feeds mostly on green mosses (Dicraium, Drepanocladus, and Hyloomnium). Also consumes lings, cotton grass, and insects during summer. Gives 2-4 litters per year, under snow reproduction has not been recorded. Litter size in overwintered females is 5-9, in young females 3-6.
11480		population	eng	Rare, but widespread species. Doesn't have population outbreaks as other lemming species.
11480		threats	eng	Rare species with sporadic distribution and low reproduction rate. Major threats are unknown.
11481		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.
11481		distribution	eng	The Norway lemming is endemic to Norway, western and northern Sweden, northern Finland, and the Kola peninsula (Russia). It is found on at least some islands. During population outbreaks, it may migrate as far as the Baltic (Hansson 1999). The southern border of the range is not stable due to large migrations that occur occasionally.
11481		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of alpine and subarctic habitats including peat bogs, dwarf shrub heaths, and sparsely-vegetated slopes and ridges. Habitat use varies seasonally: in summer it prefers very moist habitats, whereas in winter it must use other habitats as wet areas freeze. During mass outbreaks, it can be found in forests, farmland, and even on frozen lakes. Large numbers of migrating lemmings may accumulate next to rivers and lakes that bar their passage, and many drown attempting the crossing (Hansson 1999).
11481		population	eng	It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. The species declined in Sweden in the last decades of the 20th century, but it is thought to have remained stable in other parts of its range (Hansson 1999). It is typical for northern lemmings to have population booms every 20-30 years. In Sweden, intensive grazing was thought to be a problem for the species, but perceived population declines may have been a result of natural population fluctuation: long low phases are common for populations in Sweden, and some large populations have been found in Sweden in recent years (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
11481		threats	eng	It has been speculated that heavy grazing by semi-domesticated reindeer may have a negative impact on the species' habitat in Sweden (Hansson 1999). Climate change may threaten the species in the future (Nowak 1999). At present, the species is not under major threat.
11482		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
11482		distribution	eng	Distributed across the Palaearctic tundra zone from the White Sea to Kolyma (Russian Federation); also found on New Siberia Island and Wrangel Island.
11482		habitat	eng	An abundant species in tundra habitats. Populations reach maximum densities in lowland tundra with substantial moss and sedge cover. Also distributed in wetlands on shrubby tundra foothills, and in wetlands at the edge of the forest zone (Arkhangelsk, Northern Urals, Gyda peninsula, Taimyr). Lives in burrows, forming large colonies. Digs its own burrow, or occupies existing burrows of other species. In winter makes tunnels under snow cover and builds large spherical nests. Feeds on sedges, cotton-grass, green mosses and various shrubs. Reproductive peak starts in June and ends in August, however, during periods of low population density reproduction is extended and starts immediately after snowmelt. Animals that have overwintered die off by the end of the following breeding season. During summer produces 4-5 litters with 5-6 young in each. Like <em>Lemmus lemmus</em>, this species has large population fluctuations with a 3-4 year cycle; however, migrations are less pronounced. In summer dispersal occurs and preferred foraging habitat changes.
11482		population	eng	A widespread and common species; has marked population cycles with periodicity of 3-4 years.
11482		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species known at present. Climate change may be a problem in the future.
11484		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to establish whether this species is extinct.</p>
11484		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands; Wollaston (1878) only found this species on the north-east side of Madeira in Ribeira do Fayal. It has not been found in recent surveys, and hence the localities have not been confirmed. However, it is abundant in the fossil beds of Caniçal, suggesting it was once more widespread on Madeira (Cook<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1993).</p>
11484		habitat	eng	This species is found under stones on steep grassy slopes, amongst <span style="font-style: italic;">Sempervivum </span>on crags at high elevations and in the litter of ledges and at the base of perpendicular crags (Wollaston 1878) .
11484		population	eng	<p>It has not been found in recent surveys, and hence the localities have not been confirmed.</p>
11484		threats	eng	The treats to this species are unknown.
11485		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for the species, although part of the range falls into a Site of Conservation Interest (SCI) (Pico Branco) and so this area has an habitat management plan.
11485		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, it is restricted to Porto Santo, where it is found at the eastern end of island. Wollaston (1878) notes that Paiva’s record from Canary Islands is erroneous.
11485		habitat	eng	This species is found in grass tussocks, amongst rocks and litter and in screes, mainly in unshaded areas.
11485		population	eng	There are no recent data on population trends, however the species is present at lower density than other species in the same family.
11485		threats	eng	The habitat has been subject to changing land-use practice (grazing and recreational use) and some  development (roads and hotels) on the island, and as such the quality of the habitat has  declined, although some areas (Pico Branco) are now defined as protected areas.
11486		conservation	eng	The area in which this species has been recorded is not protected. There is a need to monitor population trends of this species within its high elevation distribution.
11486		distribution	eng	This species is known from ten specimens collected by Eisentraut in the 1960s at Lake Oku on the Banso Highlands, on Mount Oku, western Cameroon at 2,100 to 2,300 m asl. Collections in similar habitats in Nigeria have failed to find this species.
11486		habitat	eng	It is found in sub-Afroalpine grassland above the forest line. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
11486		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
11486		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present in its high elevation habitat, although it may be locally affected by livestock grazing of grasslands. It is plausibly threatened by future climate change related events.
11487		conservation	eng	It may occur in some very small protected areas, but this would need to be confirmed.
11487		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterranean endemic species. It is mostly confined to a narrow coastal strip in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, northwest and north of the Atlas Mountains (Carleton and Van der Straeten, 1997). There are also two records from the base of the Atlas Mountains. It occurs from sea level to the Plateau Central, at least up to 1,000 m (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
11487		habitat	eng	It occurs in Mediterranean scrubland and woodland (Carleton and Van der Straeten 1997), and is also found in arable lands. The species has been recorded from rocky outcrops in vegetated coastal dunes, juniper scrub, argon sage grassland and argon savanna. It is also found in agricultural areas and in open forest. The species is active during the day and is therefore rarely found in owl pellets.
11487		population	eng	In some years the species is very common, but in other years densities are very low.
11487		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is an attractive rodent that is kept by some people as a pet, but although some animals are collected from the wild and exported for the pet market, it is also very easy to breed in captivity so this trade is not considered a serious threat to the species.
11488		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within the species range (e.g., Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, and Mole National Park, Ghana)
11488		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the 'Guinea and Doka woodland' of central Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana (Van der Straeten 1975; Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002); it possibly also occurs in Sierra Leone. The distribution area is probably larger than is currently known.
11488		habitat	eng	This is a dry savanna species. Presumably the species can persist in areas with some disturbance.
11488		population	eng	It is not abundant, but is regularly found in suitable habitat.
11488		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
11489		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kameia and Luanda protected areas of Angola.
11489		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Angola with its range extending into northwestern Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
11489		habitat	eng	This is a savanna species (Miombo Woodland). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
11489		population	eng	It is widespread across Angola, and is presumed to be common.
11489		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
11490		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
11490		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality and one specimen collected at Paloich, 12 miles north of Niayok, Upper Nile Province in eastern Sudan.
11490		habitat	eng	It is a moist savanna species. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
11490		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
11490		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
11491		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Comoe National Park in Côte d'Ivoire.
11491		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Côte d'Ivoire, a few sites in Mali and it is known from a single record in Senegal. The species is presumed to occur in Ghana and Guinea but no specimens have been recorded to date. In Mali it has been recorded from 500 to 700 m asl; it probably is present at higher elevations in Guinea.
11491		habitat	eng	It is found in dry savanna in northern Côte d'Ivoire. The species is associated with the 'Sudan Savannah Zone'. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
11491		population	eng	It is locally common in Côte d'Ivoire in suitable habitat, and is reported to be common in Mali.
11491		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
11492		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in a large number of protected areas.
11492		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and quite possibly Rwanda; the precise range limits are not well known. It has an altitudinal range of 500 to 1,300 m asl.
11492		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-arid areas, such as dry river beds, open grasslands with Acacias and <em>Euphorbia candelabra</em>, and rarely in dense grasslands. In southeastern Sudan, it occurs in regions where rainfall is 800 to 1,200 mm per annum. It may also favour rocky outcrops. In moister areas, this species is found in fire climax grasslands and moist savanna. This is a granivorous species.
11492		population	eng	In Uganda where it is parapatric with <em>L. striatus</em>, <em>L. macculus</em> is less numerous. In northern parts of the range (e.g., Ethiopia) it is very common (L. Lavrenchenko pers. comm.) , but it is certainly less common than other species, and there are not as many specimens from this area in museums
11492		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
11493		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. There is an urgent need to resolve the taxonomy of this species complex; it may comprise at least two species based on chromosonal data (Castiglia <em>et al</em>. 2002).
11493		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern Namibia, South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, North-West Province and Limpopo Province), Swaziland, Zimbabwe, central and northern Botswana, Angola, Mozambique, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and southern Kenya; the range is not fully resolved. The species has been recorded at elevations of up to 1,200 m asl, but it is mostly found below 1,000 m.
11493		habitat	eng	This species tolerates a wide range of savanna habitats, but tall grass is essential. It vacates recently burnt areas, but returns as soon as the grass recovers. It often occurs in agricultural areas, especially fallow fields. It is absent from montane grasslands and forests. This species is terrestrial and predominantly crepuscular, it forms nests at the base of grass clumps.
11493		population	eng	It is relatively common to very common, and occurs in high densities in suitable habitat (15 animals per hectare, but even higher if there is supplementary food available [A. Monadjem pers. comm.]).
11493		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
11494		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas in this region. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species.
11494		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (Zambezi) and Solwezi in Zambia, but it is quite probably more widespread and presumably ranges into Angola.
11494		habitat	eng	It is found in dry <em>Cryptocephalum</em> Forest (a very dense type of forest). This unique habitat extends into Angola, but it is not found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
11494		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known, but there are specimens in several collections.
11494		threats	eng	The forest is being cleared, particularly near urban areas, for charcoal production.
11495		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed as this is a species compex.
11495		distribution	eng	This taxon has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Burkina Faso west to Ethiopia and south into northern Angola, through Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania into northeastern Zambia and northern Malawi. It has been expanding its distribution in response to habitat change, and the current range is therefore larger than it would have been historically. It is found from sea level to high altitudes (1,700 m asl and possibly higher).
11495		habitat	eng	It does not occur in closed high forest, but in areas of former forest that have been cleared for agriculture, or by logging, the taxon is present. It occurs in open places in a wide range of habitats including grasslands, secondary forest, open dry forest and savanna; also found in cultivated lands.
11495		population	eng	It is very common in open areas.
11495		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this taxon.
11496		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in a number of protected areas including six national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Isalo, Kirindy-Mitea, Tsimanampetsotsa, Zombitse, and Vohibasia), three special reserves (Beza Mahafaly, Kalambatritra and southern Pic d'Ivohibe), and the Berenty Private Reserve. It has also been reported recently from the unprotected forests of Ankoba, Ankodida, Anjatsikolo, Bereny, Mahazoarivo, Masiabiby, and Mikea (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Many of the best remaining forest patches within the range of <em>L. catta</em>, and where it appears to occur at the highest densities, are found on sacred lands (Sussman <em>et al</em>. 2003)
11496		distribution	eng	The Ring-tailed Lemur is found in the dry forests and bush of southern and south-western Madagascar. The north-western boundary is north of the Mangoky River at Belo sur Mer or Mahababoky and slightly more inland within the Kirindy-Mitea National Park. The south-eastern limit ends at the divide between the western and eastern watersheds, which is aligned with the division between western dry and eastern humid vegetation types. All records from the Andohahela National Park are from the extreme western portion, at the ecotone between dry and humid forests. The north-eastern limit is more complex; the most north-easterly site is Ankafina, but this is from an animal collected in 1881 (see Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). A seemingly isolated population also occurs at altitudes up to 2,600 m in the mountains of Andringitra on the south-eastern plateau (Goodman and Langrand 1996; Yoder <em>et al</em>. 1999). Throughout the range of this species, its distribution is best described as patchy. Sussman <em>et al</em>. (2003) consider that the overall geographical distribution of Ring-tailed Lemurs has not changed much over the past 50 years, and may even be wider than previously thought.
11496		habitat	eng	This species inhabits many habitat types throughout its range in the southern third of Madagascar, including spiny bush, lowland gallery forest, anthropogenic savanna, dry deciduous forest, rock canyons and upland inland areas. Indeed, at the upper portion of its elevation range on Andringitra, the species occurs in a zone above the forest line and in a vast expanse of vertical rock, with up to 400-m tall talwegs, surrounded by ericoid savanna. It encounters the most extreme climatic conditions on the island from the hottest and driest to the coldest (Andringitra Massif). It has a varied diet, and does not seem to be constrained by available water sources (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). This is the best-studied of Madagascar's lemurs; its biology and ecology have been summarized most recently by Jolly (2003) and Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. (2008).
11496		population	eng	Population densities vary with habitat type, but are generally low, ranging from 100 individuals/km² in the dry forests of the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve to 250 individuals/km² and 600 individuals/km² in the gallery forests and secondary forests of the Berenty Private Reserve, respectively (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
11496		threats	eng	Habitat loss and hunting are the greatest causes of concern. The Ring-tailed Lemur has a strong preference for gallery forests and for Euphorbia bush, but these habitats are already restricted in southern Madagascar and continue to diminish due to annual burning practices that help create new pasture for livestock. Subsequent over-grazing and the felling of trees for charcoal production further impact wildlife populations. This species is also hunted for food in certain areas and frequently kept as a pet.
11498		conservation	eng	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park, and may be present in other protected areas. Further surveys are needed to better determine both the distribution limits of this species, and whether it can persist in modified habitats.
11498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia, where it is found in northern, central, and southwestern parts of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005). There are no specimens from the southeastern peninsula, but it may occur there.
11498		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial species that lives in burrows in the ground, but may climb. It is present in upper lowland to upper montane tropical moist forest. It has only been trapped in intact forest, it is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. It is a folivorous species. It has small litters, possibly with only a single young.
11498		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens. It may be difficult to trap as it is folivorous. However, it is possible that the species has a naturally low population density.
11498		threats	eng	Populations are generally secure in at higher elevations, however, lowland populations are threatened by habitat loss resulting from human settlement, timber and firewood extraction and conversion of land to agricultural use.
11499		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas including Gunung Palung National Park (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Mount Kinabalu National Park (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004).
11499		distribution	eng	On the island of Borneo this species is known from Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), and southwest Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is also occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Penang island, and Tuangku island (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has not been recorded from Brunei, but this is presumably due to sampling effort rather than the species absence.
11499		habitat	eng	This is a primarily arboreal species occupying a wide variety of lowland and foothill secondary and primary forests. It has been recorded from rubber plantations and other disturbed wooded areas. It has been taken at 550 m on the slopes of Mt Kinabalu in Sabah (Md Nor 2001).
11499		population	eng	It appears to be a common species over much of its range. It is considered a common species in primary rain forest in a Mount Kinabalu National Park Survey (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004).
11499		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as it is relatively common and widespread, and seems to be able to adapt to disturbed wooded habitats.
11500		conservation	eng	It is present in two protected areas in Bolivia, Madidi and Apolobamba National Parks, and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. No direct conservation measures for this species are currently needed.
11500		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in southeast Peru and west central Bolivia (La Paz Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of about 1,100 to 2,500 m (N. Bernal pers. comm.).
11500		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary moist forest along the eastern slopes of the Andes where a lot of leaf litter is present. The species does not occur in cultivated areas.
11500		population	eng	It is a common species.
11500		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by temporary slash and burn agriculture (including coca) growing, although it can successfully colonize these areas once they have been abandoned and secondary growth has occurred.
11503		conservation	eng	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the states of Paraná (Brazil, Paraná SEMA, 1995), and São Paulo (Brazil, São Paulo SMA, 1998). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Considerable efforts are being devoted to environmental education and also research, management and protection of the Superagüi National Park.<br/><br/>There is no captive breeding programme for the species (Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002).
11503		distribution	eng	The Black-faced Lion Tamarin occupies the southernmost limits of the distribution of the callitrichids. The type locality is on the north-eastern part the island of Superagüi, on the coast of the state of Paraná. Other groups have been found elsewhere on the island, except in the extreme north and some higher elevations in the south-west (Persson and Lorini 1991, 1993). These authors found <em>L. caissara</em> on the mainland, in parts of the valleys of the Rio Sebuí and the Rio dos Patos, limited in the north by the Rio Varadorzinho, and to the west by the Serra da Utinga, Morro do Bico Torto, Morro do Poruquara, and Serra do Gigante. Persson and Lorini (1991, 1993; Lorini and Persson 1994a,b) estimated that its entire range is less than 300 km². Four groups have been found to the north, also on the coast, in the municipality of Cananéia in the state of São Paulo (Persson and Lorini 1993). Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992) reported four localities in the extreme south-east of São Paulo, two in the basin of the Rio do Turvo (Rio do Turvo and Morro do Teixeira, localities 1 and 3, map p.922), and two further north in the region of Itapitangui (localities 13 and 14, map, p.922), opposite the Ilha Cananéia. As a result of interviews of local people, Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992) also indicated that <em>L. caissara</em> may occur further inland, at two localities: the Rio Taquari (locality 11, map p.922) and the Rio Ipiranguinha (locality 12, map p.922). The latter may refer to Jacupiranga State Park (100,000 ha, although a large part of it is no longer forested), but none of these localities have been confirmed. Field surveys by Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) in the municipalities of Jacupiranga and Pariqueraçu failed to obtain any evidence of the existence of <em>L. caissara</em>. However, they were able to confirm its presence between the villages of Ariri and Taquari, in the municipality of Cananéia, as had been reported by Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992), and Valladares Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) have suggested that its range may extend only a short distance north.<br/><br/>The distirbution of <em>L. caissara</em> is reviewed by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2002b).
11503		habitat	eng	Lowland seasonal rain forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil with rainfall of about 2,000 mm a year, sub-xeromorphic <em>restinga</em> (sandy soil forest), low (8-10 m) inundated forest (<em>caxetais</em>), and secondary forest (Rylands 1993). Golden lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects) (see Rylands 1993; Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a).<br/><br/>Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the behavioural ecology of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callithrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads.<br/><br/>Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). In the Superagüi National Park, <em>L. caissara</em> have been found to use very large home ranges (321 ha), travelling from 1,082 to 3,398 m a day (Prado 1999).<br/><br/>The first bevioural ecological study of this study of this species was carried out by Prado (Prado and Valladares-Padua 1997; Prado 1999; Prado <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.
11503		population	eng	Lorini and Persson (1994a,b) estimated a total population not exceeding 260 animals, divided into three subpopulations: that on the island of Superagüi (about 120 individuals), and two on the adjacent mainland, in the valleys of the Rios Patos and Branco (estimated at 35 individuals), and the valleys of the Rios Varadouro and Araçauba (estimated 100 individuals). As noted already, the northern limits to the range of <em>L. caissara</em> identified by Lorini and Persson (1990) were extended north into the state of São Paulo to the Serra do Cordeiro through the surveys of Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992), but many localities were based on reports, which have yet to be confirmed (Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000). The northernmost confirmed localities to date are those in the region Ariri, municipality of Cananeia (Rodrigues 1998), and Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) indicated that under any circumstances the populations there are extremely scarce. Both Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992) and Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) found difficulties in surveying the region using interviews as a guide (people knew little or confused the species, felt intimidated, and in some cases were hostile).<br/><br/>A more recent population estimate for the Island of Superagui, based on transect work between 2000 and 2002, is 183 animals (Amaral <em>et al.</em> 2003); there are no recent population estimates for the mainland. The total current population is therefore for unlikely to exceed 400 animals at present.<br/><br/>Population densities are in the order of 1.5 individuals/km² or 0.30 groups/km² (Lorini and Persson 1994a). Amaral <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported an individual density of 1.66 individuals/km² or 0.38 groups/km² on Superagui.
11503		threats	eng	With a very restricted distribution and few individuals known to exist, this species is perhaps the rarest and most threatened of all the callitrichids, despite the fact that part of the island of Superagüi, along with the Ilha de Peças, was decreed a national park (without knowledge of the existence of the lion tamarins) of 21,400 ha in 1989. The threats to, and conservation strategies for, surviving <em>L. caissara</em> populations have been discussed by Câmara (1993, 1994) and Vivekenanda (1994). The main threats come from forest destruction and degradation due to agriculture, squatters, hunting and extractivism, especially for palm hearts, and, most seriously, from burgeoning human occupation through land speculation and tourism (see Vivekananda 2001).<br/><br/>A study by Dietz <em>et al</em>. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third. There is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of <em>L. caissara</em>, most notably on the mainland.
11505		conservation	eng	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fonseca <em>et al.</em> 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the state of São Paulo (Brazil, São Paulo SMA, 1998). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The species is recorded from Morro do Diabo State Park (34,441 ha, of which 23,800 ha is forest), and Caetetus State Ecological Station (2,178 ha). A new (federal) Ecological Station of 5,500 ha was decreed in July 2002 – Mico-Leão-Preto Ecological Station in São Paulo. It covers three forest fragments containing Black Lion Tamarins.<br/><br/>The isolation and small size of the existing populations is being addressed through metapopulation management, which includes the captive population founded on individuals taken from the Morro do Diabo State Park, in the 1970s and later, in 1983-1985 as part of the rescue operation in the inundation area of the Rosana hydroelectric dam (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 2002a). Current efforts are focussing on the genetic health of these populations (translocation, managed dispersal and re-introduction) (Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000; Valladares-Padua, Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002), environmental education (Pádua and Valladares-Padua 1997; Pádua <em>et al</em>. 2002), the preservation of remaining forest fragments, with and without lion tamarins, and the creation of corridors to link forest patches to establish larger areas of continuous forest (Pádua and Valladares-Padua 1997; Cullen Jr. <em>et al</em>. 2001; Valladares-Padua <em>et al</em>. 2000; Valladares-Padua, Ballou <em>et al</em>. 2002; Valladares-Padua, Padua <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There is a well-managed captive breeding programme, although it has not been as successful as those for <em>Leontopithecus rosalia</em> and <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, probably because of a very reduced founder stock (Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, it is growing and, despite having few founders, is now also contributing significantly to the metapopulation management programme currently udnerway by Valladares-Padua and his team (Valladares-Padua and Ballou 1996; Valladares-Padua and Martins 1996; Valladares-Padua 1997; Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000; Medici 2001; Valladares-Padua, Ballou <em>et al</em>. 2002). The first translocation of a wild <em>L. chrysopygus</em> group was carried out in 1995, and the first experimental re-introduction, was carried out in July 1999 by combining an adult male born in the Jersey Zoo, UK, with two wild females (Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000).
11505		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred along the north (right) margin of the Rio Paranapanema, west as far as the Rio Paraná, and between the upper Rios Paranapanema and Tieté in the state of São Paulo (Coimbra-Filho 1976a,b; Hershkovitz 1977). Today, it is known only from 11 widely separated forest patches covering 444 km². <em>L. chrysopygus</em> occurs in two state protected areas, the Morro do Diabo State Park, municipality of Teodoro Sampaio, and the Caetetus State Ecological Station, municipality of Gália, (Coimbra-Filho 1970a,b, 1976a,b; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973, 1977; Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 1994). All surviving populations are in the central to western part of its former range and concentrated in the region called the Pontal de Paranapanema, except for Buri, municipality of Buri, discovered in recent surveys in the eastern part, approximately 200 km east of the Caetetus Ecological Station, by Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000). Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2002b) reviewed the distributions of all four lion tamarins.
11505		habitat	eng	Seasonal rain forest of the inland extension of Atlantic forest in the state of  São Paulo, at altitudes up to 900 m (Coimbra-Filho 1976b; Rylands 1993; Valladares-Padua 1997). Lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending only on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects (see Rylands 1993; Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a).<br/><br/>Coimbra-Filho (1970a,b, 1976a; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1977) studied their bevaviour in the wild, and Rylands (1993) and Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the ecology, diet and behaviour of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callithrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads. Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. For <em>L. chyrsopygus</em>, Carvalho and Carvalho (1989) obtained a mean group size of 3.6 (range 2-7, n=9) in the Morro do Diabo State Park. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). In the Morro do Diabo State Park, they have been found to have ranges exceeding 100 ha (113-199 ha: Valladares-Padua 1993; Valladares-Padua and Cullen Jr. 1994). Passos (1997) recorded a home range for his study group in the Ceatetus State Ecological Station of 277 ha.<br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male 575 g (n=4) (Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984).
11505		population	eng	<em>Leontopithecus chrysopygus</em> is now known to survive in 11 localities in the state of São Paulo. The population in the Morro do Diabo State Park contains 23,800 ha of forest and a population estimated at approximately 820 animals (Valladares-Padua and Cullen Jr. 1994). The Caetetus Reserve contains about 2,000 ha of forest (population estimated at about 40 individuals), but the other nine localities consist of fragments of between 400 and 800 ha, and together harbour about 114 individuals. The total population is estimated at about 1,000 animals spread through 11 isolated forests, 10 of which are certainly too small to be viable in the mid- to long-term.
11505		threats	eng	This species is now highly fragmented occurring in 11 populations, only one of which is ostensibly viable – the Morro do Diabo State Park. The key threat for this species is the isolation and small size of the existing populations. A study by Dietz <em>et al</em>. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third. There is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of <em>L. chrysopygus.</em>*
11506		conservation	eng	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the state of Rio de Janeiro (Bergallo <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The first conservation initiatives for <em>Leontopithecus rosalia</em> began with field surveys and initiation of a breeding programme for the species by Adelmar Coimbra-Fillho and Alceo Magnanani in the late 1960s (Coimbra-Filho and Magananini 1972; Magnanini and Coimbra-Filho 1972; Coimbra-Filho 1976a,b). Kleiman (1972) set up an international breeeding programme and studbook for the captive populations in 1972, and initiated the The Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program (GLTCP) of the National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, in 1983. The GLTCP is still active and includes field research, reintroduction, environmental education, and habitat restoration programmes, centered on the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, created in 1972 in Rio de Janeiro (Magnanini 1978).<br/><br/>Golden Lion Tamarins occur in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (5,500 ha, of which 2,760 ha is forested), União Biological Reserve (3,260 ha, of which 2,400 ha is forested), Bacia do Rio São João / Mico-leão-dourado Environmental Protection Area (150,700 ha), and Taquara Municipal Natural Park (19,000 ha) (Burity <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>There is active management of the Poço das Antas and União Biological Reserves, and a stable, managed population in captivity maintained at about 490 animals. However, there is little room for expansion for the population, considering the extreme fragmentation and reduced forest cover within its range. Current and future conservation efforts are attacking this problem with reforestation and the establishment of corridors.<br/><br/>There is an International Committee for the Conservation and Management of lion Tamarins, set up in 1990 by the Brazilian Government (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade of the Ministry of the Environment) (see Rambaldi <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Reviews of the conservation measures and programmes in place and underway for the lion tamarins are provided by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2002a), Rambaldi <em>et al.</em> (2002), Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002b), Beck <em>et al.</em>  (2002), Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2002), Padua <em>et al.</em> (2002), and Kleiman and Rylands (2002b).
11506		distribution	eng	The centre of the range of <em>L. rosalia</em> is the basin of the Rio São João, state of Rio de Janeiro. The original distribution was first clarified by Coimbra-Filho (1969, 1976) and Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier (1973, 1977). It covered the majority of the lowland coastal region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, below 300 m above sea level. The easternmost record for the species is Mangaratiba, on the coast in the south-east of the state. The original distribution included all or parts of the following municipalities: Mangaratiba, Itaguai, Nova Iguaçú, Nilópolis, São João do Meriti, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Magé, São Gonçalo, Niterói, Itaborai, Maricá, Araruama, Silva Jardim, Saquarema, Rio Bonito, Cachoeiras de Macucu, São Pedro da Aldeia, Cabo Frio, Casimiro de Abreu, Macaé, Conceição de Macabu, Campos, and São João da Barra.<br/><br/>From his surveys carried out between 1962 and 1969, Coimbra-Filho concluded that <em>L. rosalia</em> was extinct in all but seven (Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, Aruarama, Casimiro de Abreu, Rio Bonito, and São Pedro da Aldeia) of the 24 municipalities of its original range. The exhaustive survey by Kierulff (1993a,b; Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996; Kierulff and Rylands,2003) which covered the entire range of the species during 18 months between 1990 and 1992, showed that they remain in only 104.5 km² of forests in three regions: 1) near the coast (the Centro Hípico de Cabo Frio, with an estimated 29 individuals, and Campos Novos, with an estimated 36 individuals); 2) the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and adjacent forests (with an estimated 360 individuals); and 3) on the hillsides of the Serra do Mar (with an estimated 74 individuals), there largely restricted to lowland forest patches. A further nine localities contained 12 isolated groups, totaling 60 individuals. These subpopulations were registered in just four of the municipalities reported by Coimbra-Filho (1969): Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, and Aruarama, the latter two, however, maintaining only a single group each (Kierulff 1993a).<br/><br/>Burity <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported the occurrence of <em>L. rosalia</em> in the municipality of Duque de Caxias, near the Rio Taquara, in the Taquara Municipal Natural Park (19,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro, a westward extension of its current known range.
11506		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland seasonal rain forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil, with an average annual rainfall of around 1,500 mm a year (Rylands 1993). Golden lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending only on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects).<br/><br/>Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the behavioural ecology of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callitrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads. Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. For <em>L. rosalia</em>, Dietz and Kleiman (1986) recorded a mean group size of 5.8 (range 3-11, n=21) at the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). At the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, <em>L. rosalia</em> groups use home ranges that average 45 ±16 ha (range 21-73 ha) (Dietz <em>et al.</em> 1997). At the União Biological Reserve, home ranges average 150 ±72 ha (range 65-229 ha) (Kierulff 2000).<br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.
11506		population	eng	In 2003, the species was downlisted from Endangered from Critically Endangered, as a result of nearly thirty years of conservation efforts, involving numerous institutions, through the Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program (GLTCP) of the National Zoological park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, and the Associação Mico-Leao-Dourado, Rio de Janeiro. Conservation efforts have included the establishment of a new population through translocation of 47 individuals in six groups, each isolated and evidently otherwise doomed in tiny isolated forests elsewhere, to a new protected area, the União Biological Reserve. Currently, about one-third of the wild population are descendants of a reintroduction programme. The re-introduction of captive-born Golden Lion Tamarins has contributed significantly not only to the numbers of living in the wild, but also to the protection 3,100 ha of forests within their range (Beck <em>et al.</em> 1986, 1991, 1994; Stoinski <em>et al.</em> 1997; Beck and Martins 1999, 2001).<br/><br/>Early estimates of population size ranged from 200-600 (Coimbra-Filho 1969; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973, 1977), but it was only in 1991-1992 that a full and thorough census was carried out by Kierulff (1993a,b; Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996). Not including the population in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, the total number of individuals estimated was 272 in 55 groups. They were divided amongst 14 forests - four main subpopulations with six or more groups each and 12 groups isolated in 10 forest fragments each of 200 ha or less in area. The total area of forest containing Golden Lion Tamarins was 104.5 km². The majority of groups (29) were located in the municipality of Silva Jardim (53%), 24 groups were located in Cabo Frio (43%), and one group each were found in the municipalities of Saquarema and one in Araruama. At the time, the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve was known to harbor about 290 lion tamarins (Kierulff 1993a), giving a total population of 562 (range 470-631), close to the estimate of Coimbra-Filho in 1969.<br/><br/>During Kierulff?s (1993) census, the population of re-introduced lion tamarins was 118 individuals, but by December 2000, the number had risen to 359 (Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a,b). A translocation programme, begun in 1994, established a new and thriving population in the União Biological Reserve, with six introduced groups resulting in a population of over 120 lion tamarins in the Reserve by mid-2001 (Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a). The forests targeted for re-introduction are now believed to be at carrying capacity, and Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira (1996) estimated that the União Biological Reserve (at 2,400 ha the second largest single block of lowland forest in the state, after the marginally larger Poço das Antas Biological Reserve with 2,760 ha of forest) can hold no more than about 158 lion tamarins (33 groups).<br/><br/>Since 1997, the numbers in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve have been declining due to predation, and only 220 lion tamarins were recorded in December 2000 (see Franklin and Dietz 2001).<br/><br/>The current estimate of <em>L. rosalia</em> in the wild is now over 1,000. There are only very few forests available for further expansion of the population: Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira (1996) identified a further four areas (two forest blocks, Rio Vermelho with 9 km², and the Morro de São João with 16 km², and two areas of fragmented forests, one of 16 km² along the BR101 at Gaviões and the other of 12 km² bordering the municipalities of Casimiro de Abreu and Silva Jardim) totalling 7,500 ha which could hold a further 500 lion tamarins (about 100 groups). Occupying all the habitat available, the Golden Lion Tamarin population as a whole would still remain below the minimum viable of 2,000 argued by Seal <em>et al.</em> (1991) and Ballou <em>et al.</em> (1998). Metapopulation management and reforestation are key strategies for the continued survival of this species in the wild (Kierulff 1993a; Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996).<br/><br/>Recorded population densities include:<br/>Poço das Antas Biological Reserve - 12 individuals/km² or 1.96 groups/km² (Dietz <em>et al</em>. 1994)<br/>Adjacent to Poço das Antas Biological Reserve - 5.1 individuals/km² or 1.17 groups/km² (Kierulff 1993a,b)<br/>União Biological Reserve - 3.5 individuals/km² or 0.46 groups/km² (Kierulff 2000)<br/>Campos Novos - 8.5 individuals/km² or 2.35 groups/km² (Kierulff 1993a,b).
11506		threats	eng	In the past, major threats included forest loss and fragmentation along with a capture for pets and trade. Today, the main factor is reduced numbers and limited possibilities for growth in the few fragmented and degraded forests that remain in their restricted range.<br/><br/>Deforestation in the state of Rio de Janeiro began in the 16th Century, with successive cycles of development supporting sugar cane plantations, coffee plantations, and in the last century particularly cattle breeding, besides persistent logging, charcoal production, and clearing for urbanization. The state is one of the most populous regions of Brazil, and today <em>L. rosalia</em> is limited to some few and isolated forest patches. Approximately 20% of the original range of <em>L. rosalia</em> is still forested, but 60% of this total is comprised of patches of 1,000 ha or less, 96% of which are less than 100 ha. The average size of the forest patches is 35 ha: smaller than the home range of a single lion tamarin group (Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996). Fires, set by cattle farmers adjacent to the remaining forest patches in the region, are a constant threat.<br/><br/>A study by Dietz <em>et al</em>. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third.
11509		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. The species is protected across most of its range, with hunting banned in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Trinidad, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela, and hunting regulations in place in Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Part of the species range includes protected areas, including some capable of maintaining long-term viable populations (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission).
11509		distribution	eng	The ocelot is widely distributed from Mexico through Central and South America south to NE Argentina and southern Brazil and Uruguay, found in every country except Chile.  Only a small remnant population is found north of the Rio Grande in the United States, estimated at 80-120 animals (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In Mexico it has disappeared from much of its historic range on the west coast.  There are report of the species up to 3000 m but there are likely outliers.
11509		habitat	eng	The species occupies a wide spectrum of habitats including mangrove forests and coastal marshes, savanna grasslands and pastures, thorn scrub, and tropical forest of all types (primary, secondary, evergreen, seasonal and montane, although it typically occurs at elevations below 1,200 m) (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and shows a higher level of habitat plasticity than previously thought (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>The ocelot is a medium sized felid (11 kg), with a litter size of 1.4 kittens (1–4), and typically nocturno-crepuscular activity, but that could also be active during daytime (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005, Oliveira 1994). Throughout much of its range (including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica and Belize) this tends to be the most abundant cat species. The ocelot also reaches higher density estimates than its sympatric smaller species, usually >>0.15/km², and also negatively impact its small guild members. Its diet includes small mammals, birds and reptiles, but larger sized prey (>800 g), such as agoutis, armadillos, pacas, etc. are vital for the species persistence in an area. Average mean weight of mammalian prey is 1.4 kg (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in press).
11509		population	eng	Ocelot population densities throughout its entire range from 5 to 100/100 km², and are typically much higher than other small sympatric felids (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Ocelots exert a negative effect on the population of the smaller sympatric species (the ocelot effect) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press).  Vulnerable in Colombia (Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006) and Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000). In Brazil, populations outside the Amazon are listed as VU (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005).
11509		threats	eng	The ocelot has been described as being tolerant of disturbed habitat and persists in wooded patches near human settlements. However, recent studies have depicted a more specialized animal operating under rather harsh environmental constraints (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Although widespread commercial harvests for the fur trade ceased decades ago, some illegal trade still persists. At present the major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation, illegal trade (pets and pelts), and retaliatory killing due to depredation of poultry (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
11510		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. Hunting of the species is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In the Amazon, field records suggest that populations are extremely low - therefore these areas should not be perceived to be safeguards for the species as it is for other felids (Oliveira 2004). Populations in protected areas are expected to be very low, likely because of the impact of higher ocelot (<em>L. pardalus</em>) densities (Oliveira pers. comm.). Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats. This species needs to be evaluated at the subspecies level due to genetic diversity within the species. A reassessment on the taxonomy of this species is an urgent research priority as the northern portion of the population might be a distinct species (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
11510		distribution	eng	The oncilla is distributed from Costa Rica (north) to southern Brazil and NE Argentina (30 degrees south) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are records from the Amazon basin, but the distribution could be discontinuous and patchy, and the species extremely rare (Oliveira 2004). The species is absent from the Colombian Llanos and the Paraguayan Chaco (Payan <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been recorded from Costa Rica and northern Panama, but not from the remainder of the Darien Peninsula connecting Central America to South America. Although the species has been collected as high as 4,800 m (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 1986), this is likely an outlier, as there are very few records at or slightly above 3,000 m (T. Oliveira, per. comm.).
11510		habitat	eng	This species is found in a broad range of habitats, but is especially associated with denser cover (Oliveira pers. comm.). In Costa Rica the species is almost entirely confined to montane forests along the flanks of Volcanos and other high mountains from 1,000 m up to the treeline (paramo) and occupy cloud forest and high elevation elfin forests (J. Schipper pers. comm.). Their distribution pattern in Costa Rica and Panama closely resembles that of the oak (<em>Quercus</em> sp.) dominated forests (J. Schipper pers. comm.). While in Central America and parts of northern South America it may be most common in montane cloud forest, it is mostly found in lowland areas in Brazil, being reported from rainforests to dry deciduous forest, savannas, semi-arid thorny scrub, and degraded secondary vegetation in close proximity to human settlement (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2008). The use of lowland Amazonian forests is practically unknown and requires attention. <br/><br/>The little spotted cat is a small-sized (2.4 kg) solitary felid, with an average litter size of 1.12 kittens (1–4) (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005). Diel activity pattern is mostly nocturno-crepuscular, but with considerable amount of daytime activity. However, it could also be highly diurnal in some areas of Brazil. Prey base consists mostly of small mammals, birds and lizards, with average prey size at <100 g, but does include larger sized prey (>1 kg). Home range data from the few studies that have been carried out suggests that they are small - 0.9-2.8 km² for females and 4.8-17 km² for males (although studies from Brazil’s Emas National Park suggests ranges can be larger).  However, these ranges are larger than would be expected from body size (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press).  Densities vary 1-5/100 km², and in the Amazon may be as low as 0.01/100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission). Little spotted cat occurs at low population densities throughout most of its range, especially on what would be expected by a felid of its size. Its numbers/densities are negatively impacted by the larger ocelot, its potential intra-guild predator/competitor (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2008, in press, in submission).
11510		population	eng	Estimated population densities vary greatly. In the Amazon density is very low, expected at approximately 0.01/100 km². Camera-trap surveys in other portions of its range indicates that the species generally occurs in densities between 1-5/100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission). In Central America the species rarely shows up in camera traps even where they are known to occur, suggesting that they either avoid traps or are naturally rare and elusive in that area (Schipper pers. comm.). A similar trend is also found in several areas in Brazil, where authors found it in most areas as in intrinsically low numbers, not camera-trap shyness (Oliveira pers. comm.) The oncilla is negatively impacted by ocelot numbers and does not seem to attain effective population size for long term persistence in any Conservation Unit possibly due to the “ocelot effect” (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Thus, it is found mostly outside protected areas in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest biomes, which are both under severe threats, and where ocelots are absent or have declined (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in submission). It seems that where ocelots are rare or absent the average population density ranges from 5-20 indiv/100 km² but expected to be much lower than 5/100 km² where ocelots are present (high density estimates, ca. 20/100 km², are obtained only in very few and isolated areas) (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in submission).  This species is vulnerable in Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000), Brazil (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in Colombia (MAVDT, 2005; Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
11510		threats	eng	The oncilla was heavily exploited for the fur trade decades ago, following the decline of the ocelot trade. Although international trade ceased, there is still some localized illegal hunting, usually for the domestic market. Current threats to this species include habitat loss, fragmentation, roads, illegal trade (pets and pelts), retaliatory killing due to depredation of poultry. Populations are severely fragmented and are being reduced severely by habitat conversion to plantations and pasture. Change in native species dynamics (predator/competitor) could represent another previously undetected potential threat (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007). There is hybridization with Geoffroy's cat in the southernmost part of its range and with the pampas cat in central Brazil; this may be a natural or anthropogenic process and the extent of this as a threat is unknown (Eizirk <em>et al.</em> 2007).
11511		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. This species is protected across most of its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Populations in protected areas are expected to be very low, likely because of the impact of the higher ocelot densities (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press, in submission).  Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats.
11511		distribution	eng	The margay ranges from the tropical lowlands of Mexico south through Central America and the Amazon basin and southern Brazil and Paraguay (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs marginally in northern Argentina and in Uruguay along riverine forest (Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007).  It generally occurs from 0-1,500 m; however, it has rarely been recorded up to 3,000 m in the Andes (Oliveira 1994).
11511		habitat	eng	The margay is strongly associated with forest habitat/tree cover, both evergreen and deciduous, although it has been occasionally reported outside forested areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It seems to be absent from the semi-arid scrub of the Caatinga domain in Brazil, with the possible exception of some evergreen forest enclaves (Oliveira pers. comm.). It appears to be less tolerant of human settlement and altered habitat than its close relatives, the ocelot and oncilla, but does make use of it. This species is thought to be more arboreal and better adapted to live in trees than other cat species. Margay will use highly disturbed forest, abandoned plantations and other agroforestry systems which provide sufficient tree cover (Schipper pers. comm.; Oliveira pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The margay is a small-sized (3.3 kg) solitary felid, with an average litter size of 1.09 (1–2) (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005). Activity pattern is predominately nocturno-crepuscular, with few records of daytime activity. Prey base consists mostly of small mammals, birds and reptiles, with average prey size at <200 g, but does include larger sized prey (>1 kg). Although margays are highly arboreal, most prey recorded are terrestrial (Oliveira 1998). The limited information on home range size varies from 1 to 20 km².  The margay occurs at low population densities throughout most of its range, and its numbers/densities are negatively impacted by the larger ocelot, its potential intra-guild predator/competitor (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press, in submission).
11511		population	eng	This species is predominantly rare throughout their range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In general, margays occur at densities <5 indiv/100 km², but have been estimated as high as 20 indiv/100 km² in some highly localized areas (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission).  Where ocelots co-occur, margay densities are expected to be much lower than 5 per 100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission). The margay is negatively impacted by ocelot numbers and does not seem to attain effective population size for long term persistence in any Conservation Unit outside the Amazon basin possibly due to the “ocelot effect” (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Thus, viable populations are expected to occur mostly outside protected areas or where ocelot numbers are low.  With the exception of the Amazon mega-reserves, it is not expected to be adequately protected anywhere else.  Margays are undergoing a continuing decline due primarily to habitat loss to deforestation (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  Considered Vulnerable in Brazil (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000), and Near Threatened in Colombia (Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006) and Threatened in Mexico (SEMARNAT 2002) and Costa Rica (MINAE).
11511		threats	eng	The margay has been one of the most heavily exploited Latin American cats decades ago. Margays began to appear in international trade at a time of concern over the level of exploitation of the ocelot, and species of spotted cats in trade were rarely verified. Illegal hunting for domestic markets or for the underground skin trade has been reported to be a continuing a problem in some areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Current threats to this species include habitat loss, fragmentation, roads, illegal trade (pets and pelts - animals sometimes enter the pet trade), and retaliatory killing (animals are often shot due to depredation on poultry). Populations, especially outside the Amazon basin, are severely fragmented and are being reduced by habitat conversion to plantations and pasture. The species is susceptible to disease outbreaks (in Tamaulipas, MX there is an ongoing threat from disease). In Brazil, populations of the Atlantic forest are more threatened than those of the Amazon (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007)
11518		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas over its wide range (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
11518		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from northeastern South Asia, into central and southern China, and parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and West Bengal in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from Guizhou to Zhejiang and Guangdong, Sichuan, south Gansu, south Shaanxi, Hubei and Hainan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Lao PDR, northern and central Viet Nam, with an isolated population present in northern Thailand (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded from close to sea level to around 1,400 m asl.
11518		habitat	eng	This mainly terrestrial large species is found in both primary and secondary closed canopy moist lowland evergreen and montane forest. It has been recorded at the forest edge and can be found in disturbed habitats close to forested areas. It generally occurs at higher altitudes than <em>Leopoldamys sabanus</em> where they are sympatric (Marshall 1977). Lives in burrows on the forest floor and has been recorded inside hollow logs.
11518		population	eng	It is a common species.
11518		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted, but this seems unlikely to be causing any population declines. In South Asia, the species may be affected by habitat loss and degradation due to small-scale logging, non-farmland management and harvest for local consumption (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
11519		conservation	eng	It is present in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary and may be present in Phu Hin Rong Kla National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
11519		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from a few locations in limestone areas of northern and south western Thailand, north of the peninsular region. The range may extend into adjacent areas of Myanmar and Viet Nam, however, these populations might represent a seperate species (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has a rough elevational range of 100 to 800 m.
11519		habitat	eng	Of the few specimens collected, some have been taken from wooded limestone cliffs and others from lowland bamboo forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
11519		population	eng	The population abundance is not well known. According to Wiles (1981) this species is rare in lowland bamboo forest in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary in southwestern Thailand.
11519		threats	eng	There are possibly no major threats to the limestone areas where this species is found. There may be some trapping, but probably not a level that would threaten the species.
11520		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas across its range. There is a need for further research to elucidate the taxonomic status of this species complex. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In South Asia, it is not known from any of the protected areas and surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
11520		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, and is widespread in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been reported from only two locations, one each from Bangladesh (exact location unknown) and India (Gandhigram in Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh) at about 300 m elevation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from Thailand, northern Viet Nam, Lao PDR, southern and south-western Cambodia, southern Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, and smaller islands off the Sunda Shelf [except Bali]) and the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It can be found up to 3,100 m asl on the slopes of Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia.
11520		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in lowland forest habitats (infrequently in montane habitats), and probably at lower altitudes than <em>L. edwardsi</em> (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is similar to <em>L. edwardsi</em> in ecology, being semi-arboreal (Gorog <em>et al</em>. 2004), and foraging on the ground as well as in the canopy (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2004). The diet consists of insects, fruit, and other vegetable matter (as well as snails) (Lim, 1970). In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and subterranean species, occurs in tropical, subtropical, wet montane temperate forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
11520		population	eng	This is generally a common species over most of its range. Md Nor <em>et al</em>. (2001) recorded 103 specimens between 500 and 1,350 m on Mount Nuang, Hulu Langat, Selangor, Malaysia, making it by far the most abundant species found during the survey.
11520		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia, There are no major threats, although it may be susceptible to forest loss in some parts of its range. It is also hunted, and is one of the most common murids in markets in Lao PDR. In South Asia, the species could be affected by habitat loss and degradation due to shifting agriculture, small-scale logging and harvest for local consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
11521		conservation	eng	It is possibly present within Siberut National Park, however, about 40% of suitable habitat at this site has been disturbed (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed to determine the current status of this species.
11521		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mentawai Archipelago Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found on the islands of North Pagai, South Pagai, Sipora, and Siberut (Musser and Newcomb 1983).
11521		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that needs large trees in tropical lowland rain forest. It seems probable that only small patches of suitable habitat remain on these islands.
11521		population	eng	It was formerly common, but the population status is now unclear.
11521		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been extensively deforested through extraction of timber and firewood and conversion to agricultural land, much of the area is now mixed fruit plantations.
11522		conservation	eng	The majority of the specimens were collected from the Reserva Biologica de Monte Cano, however, as livestock can be found throughout the reserve, it is not thought that this offers much protection to the species. Improved area management is therefore required. More research is needed into the threats and habitat status of this species. Monitoring of population trends is recommended.
11522		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Paraguana Peninsula, Estado Falcon, Venezuela. The species may be restricted to the tropical dry forest areas on the peninsula, which is predominantly desert scrub habitat, hence its distributional area is likely to be smaller than the 2,500 km²<sup></sup> estimated.
11522		habitat	eng	Most individuals of this species were collected from the Monte Cano area, where the vegetation is tropical dry forest and thorn scrub, in contrast to the desert scrub which dominated most of the peninsula. The species was only found in shaded areas within the dry forest, and most specimens were collected close to creek-beds.
11522		population	eng	This species has been reported as not abundant, with a low fecundity and hence reproductive rate.
11522		threats	eng	Markezich and Taphorn (1994) see the greatest immediate threat to this species as habitat fragmentation resulting from goat and cattle intrusion into the reserve. Furthermore, petroleum refineries are becoming a major industry on the Paraguana Peninsula, resulting in increased human population in the area, and associated infrastructure development. Pollution from the refineries may also pose a threat to the species.
11533		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
11534		conservation	eng	Most of the conservation actions on behalf of the Olive Ridley at national and international levels have been based on the species’ listing under the <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">Endangered </span>category in the IUCN Red List. As an Appendix I species under CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) the international trade of skins from the species, which fuelled the large scale commercial exploitation of the Olive Ridley from the 1960s into the 1980s was effectively halted. Other relevant international instruments that list the Olive Ridley as threatened and hence obligate its conservation by member states include: the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC). CMS-promoted Memoranda of Understanding for the conservation and management of marine turtles and their habitats have been signed by the Olive Ridley’s range states in the Indian Ocean and South East Asia (known as IOSEA) as well as in other regions such as the Atlantic Coast of Africa under the Memorandum of Understanding concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa where 21 out of 26 range states participate.<br/><br/>On the basis of the species’ classification in the IUCN Red List or in national endangered species lists, local legislatures of range states confer protection to the Olive Ridley. Although this sanctions law-enforcement, the implementation remains patchy at the global scale because of paucity in enforcement capabilities. Successful conservation has usually relied on well-coordinated national programs in combination with local and non-governmental organizations incorporating public outreach. Statutory use and enforcement of the Turtle Excluder Devices in the shrimp trawlers has also proven critical in some areas with high levels of interaction with this fishery.<br/><br/>Despite the legislative efforts to protect the Olive Ridley, human impacts continue to be significant. In some areas (such as West Africa and South East Asia), extensive monitoring needs to be implemented to identify regions and stressors requiring priority actions. Bycatch and illegal take particularly from the coastal, artisanal fisheries need to be evaluated through adequate on-board observer programs and properly addressed. The beetle infestation of the Escobilla rookery must be adequately evaluated and acceptable measures of biological control of the insect need to be implemented. The impact from the increasing development of much of the range state’s coastline has to be evaluated and suitable mitigation measures implemented.
11534		distribution	eng	The Olive Ridley sea turtle has a circumtropical distribution, with nesting occurring throughout tropical waters (except the Gulf of Mexico) and migratory circuits in tropical and some subtropical areas (Atlantic Ocean – eastern central, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest, western central; Indian Ocean – eastern, western; Pacific Ocean – eastern central, northwest, southwest, western central) (Pritchard 1969). Nesting occurs in nearly 60 countries worldwide. Migratory movements are less well studied than other marine turtle species but are known to involve coastal waters of over 80 countries (see Table 1 in the attached PDF, see link below). With very few exceptions they are not known to move between ocean basins or to cross from one ocean border to the other. Within a region, Olive Ridleys may move between the oceanic and neritic zones (Plotkin <em>et al.</em> 1995, Shanker <em>et al</em>. 2003) or just occupy neritic waters (Pritchard 1976, Reichart 1993).
11534		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitats</span><br/>Like most other sea turtles, Olive Ridleys display a complex life cycle, which requires a range of geographically separated localities and multiple habitats (Márquez 1990). Females lay their nests on coastal sandy beaches from which neonates emerge and enter the marine environment to continue their development. They remain in a pelagic phase, drifting passively with major currents that disperse far from their natal sites, with juveniles sharing some of the adults’ habitats (Kopitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) until sexual maturity is reached (Musick and Limpus 1997). Reproductively active males and females migrate toward coastal zones and concentrate near nesting beaches. However, some males appear to remain in oceanic waters and mate with females en route to their nesting beaches (Plotkin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Kopitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Their post-breeding migrations are complex, with pathways varying annually (Plotkin 1994) and with no apparent migratory corridors, swimming hundreds or thousands of kilometers over large ocean expanses (Morreale <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), commonly within the 20°C isotherms (Márquez 1990). In the East Pacific, they are present from 30°N to 15°S and often seen within 1,200 nautical miles from shore although they have been sighted as far as 140°W (IATTC 2004). Western Atlantic Olive Ridleys appear to remain in neritic waters after breeding (Pritchard 1976, Reichart 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Demographic features / Reproduction</span><br/>The species displays three modes of reproduction: arribada, dispersed nesting, and mixed strategy (Bernardo and Plotkin 2007). The first mode represents a synchronous, mass nesting behaviour that may include hundreds to thousands of females over a period of days and occurs in fewer than a dozen places worldwide. The more common form of nesting is dispersed or “solitary” with no apparent synchronicity between individual events. At some localities, a mixture of these two forms of nesting can also occur. In general, individual Olive Ridleys may nest one, two or three times per season, with approximately 100–110 eggs per clutch (Pritchard and Plotkin 1995). For this assessment we have used an average number of 2.5 nests/female/season and 105 eggs/nest. In contrast to other sea turtle species, the reproductive cycle is nearly annual (over 60% of turtles nest every year; Márquez 1990). Solitary nesters oviposit on 14 day cycles whereas arribada nesters approximately every 28 days (Pritchard 1969, Kalb and Owens 1994, Kalb 1999). Kalb (1999) found that within a nesting season solitary nesters use multiple beaches for oviposition but arribada nesters display nest site fidelity. There are extreme variations in hatching rates between nesting beaches, however, in general they are much higher in solitary nesting beaches where around 80% is common and sometimes even higher (Gaos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is widely recognized that survivorship is extremely low on high-density arribada nesting beaches because of density-dependent mortality (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991) leading to hatching rates as low as 1 to 8% (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991). Moreover, turtles return approximately every month during a discrete nesting season (three to six months) and nests that remained intact during the previous month are again at risk when new waves of turtles crawl ashore. On solitary nesting beaches, where density-dependent mortality is not a factor, hatching rates are significantly higher (Castro 1986, Gaos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Post-hatching survivorship is unknown and there is no information available on recruitment rates. Presumably, like other sea turtles, Olive Ridleys experience high mortality in their early life stages. Juveniles are believed to occur in similar habitats as the adults (i.e,. pelagic waters) where they forage on gelatinous prey such as jellyfish, salps and tunicates (Kopitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
11534		population	eng	<p>For the purposes of Red List assessments, generation length is defined as the “average age of parents” (IUCN 2001). Since this information is not available from direct observation of sea turtle species we derived a comparable value from estimates of age at which 50% of the breeders are expected to have survived, using information for age at sexual maturity and adult survival rates. An important caveat is that, while it is known that different populations of the same species can attain sexual maturity at different ages (Heppell <em>et al.</em> 2003) and therefore different values would need to be taken into account for different regions, the information is only available for a single region and we have had to assume the estimated values are generally applicable on a global scale. The only published study on growth and age for Olive Ridleys (Zug <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates a mean age at sexual maturity for North-central Pacific Ridley sea turtles of around 13 years (range of 10-18 years). We calculated the time it would take for a cohort of breeders to reach 50% of its original size from S<sup>n</sup> =50%, where <span times="" new="" roman="">n is years since age at first reproduction, and S is annual survival. Solving for n, n = ln(0.5)/ln(S). As extensive estimates of annual survival rates for female nesters are only available from the better studied sister taxon, <em>Lepidochelys kempii</em>, (TEWG 2000) we used these, which have a range of 85-92% per year. Thus, n<sub>50% </sub>= 4-9 yrs and our derived average age of female Olive Ridley parents is 17-22 years. We additionally assumed that this value would be the same for male parents. For simplicity, we have used a value of 20 yrs for the species’ generation length in this assessment.</p>
11534		threats	eng	Like other long-lived species, Olive Ridleys are prone to population declines because of slow intrinsic growth rate in combination with anthropogenic impacts. These can accumulate over a protracted development through various life stages, multiple habitats (nesting beaches, migratory routes and pelagic foraging zones) and vast geographic expanses.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Targeted exploitation</span><br/>Egg harvest. Olive Ridleys and their eggs have been harvested, mostly unsustainably, worldwide. However, the current impact is difficult to evaluate because of other simultaneous factors such as incidental take in commercial fisheries. Nonetheless, there is documentation of recent egg use causing declines (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). From México to Colombia, Olive Ridley eggs have been and still are used for personal and commercial use (Lagueux 1989, Arauz 2000, Campbell 2007, Cornelius et al. 2007). Laws regulating turtle egg use vary among countries, and even where laws prohibit egg use, illegal use of Olive Ridley eggs is believed to be widespread because enforcement is either non-existent or insufficient. On unprotected solitary nesting beaches (most are unprotected), egg extraction often approaches 100%. Human use of turtle eggs for consumption and domestic animal consumption historically was widespread in the Indian Ocean and continues today largely wherever Ridleys nest (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Egg use has been reported in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Andaman Islands, Pakistan and Malaysia and is believed to have caused the decline of Olive Ridleys in these countries (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Even at monitored beaches a proportion of the eggs are still lost to poaching.<br/><br/>Directed take of adults. In the East Pacific, although Olive Ridley turtle fisheries are now closed, illegal take of adult turtles still occurs widely with an unknown level of impact. There is evidence that thousands of Olive Ridleys are still taken each year along the Pacific coast of México (Frazier et al. 2007). In the West Atlantic, the direct take of adults has diminished over time to negligible levels (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In the Indian Ocean, the use of adult Olive Ridleys and their eggs for personal use has been and continues to be widespread (Frazier 1982, Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and market-driven harvesting of eggs and females from nesting beaches are considered the greatest threat (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Personal, subsistence use of adult Olive Ridley turtles is widespread worldwide (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Olive Ridleys and/or their eggs are used along the entire coast of West Africa (including Macaronesia) and sold in local and regional markets (Fretey 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bycatch in fisheries</span><br/>The incidental capture of Olive Ridleys occurs worldwide in trawl fisheries, longline fisheries, purse seines, gill net and other net fisheries and hook and line fisheries (Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The impact of the incidental capture of Olive Ridleys in fisheries has been well documented for some regions but not for others. In some locations where by-catch statistics are unavailable from fisheries, cause and effect has been used to implicate a fishery in the decline of Olive Ridleys. The incidental capture of Olive Ridleys in the shrimp trawl fishery in the western Atlantic, is believed to be the main cause of the significant population decline observed there since the 1970s and currently the number of Olive Ridleys by caught in trawl fisheries off the coasts of Surinam and French Guiana is believed to be approximately a couple of thousand turtles annually (Godfrey and Chevalier 2004, Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Gillnets and other fishing methods in this region also capture Olive Ridleys incidentally but to a lesser extent than shrimp trawl fishery (Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Bycatch in trawl fisheries off Sergipe State in Brazil is considered the most pressing threat to that population (Thomé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In the eastern Atlantic, the incidental capture of Olive Ridleys by commercial fisheries is thought to be a significant threat but very little systematic data is available (Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Incidental mortality of Olive Ridleys is worst along the coast of Orissa, India with arribada Olive Ridleys gathering to nest were fishing effort is high. Every year since the early 1980s, thousands or tens of thousands of Olive Ridleys have stranded dead on the Orissa beaches, presumably as a result of incidental capture in shrimp trawls (Pandav 2000). A gill net fishery also operates in the region and contributes to the ridley mortality along this coastline. Incidental capture in fisheries is also believed to be a serious threat in the eastern Pacific (Frazier et al. 2007) where Olive Ridleys aggregate in large numbers off shore from nesting beaches (Kalb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Kalb 1999), but the information available is incomplete (Pritchard and Plotkin 1995, NMFS/USFWS 1998). Incidental capture of Olive Ridleys in this region has been documented in shrimp trawl fisheries, longline fisheries, purse seine fishery and gill net fisheries (Frazier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Incidental capture of sea turtles in shrimp trawls is a serious threat along the coast of Central America, with an estimated annual capture for all species of marine turtle exceeding 60,000 turtles, most of which are Olive Ridleys (Arauz 1996). Recent growth in the longline fisheries of this region are also a serious and growing threat to Olive Ridleys and have the potential to capture hundreds of thousands of Ridleys annually (Frazier et al., 2007). Bycatch of Olive Ridleys is high in Indonesian tuna long-lines and shrimp trawls although mortality appears to be low (WWF Indonesia, unpublished data).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat impacts</span><br/>Degradation, transformation and destruction of natural conditions at nesting beaches from coastal developments continue to threaten the long-term survival of many Olive Ridley rookeries. Transformation of nesting habitat comes from the construction of new aquaculture ponds, fishing harbours and tourist facilities, as well as growth of existing coastal villages which are increasing in many parts of the world within the range of the Olive Ridley, particularly along the east coast of India (Pandav and Choudhury 1999) and in some zones in coastal México to Central America (Cornelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). These impacts contribute stress directly through the loss of nesting habitat or indirectly through changes in the thermal profiles of the beach, increased light pollution (Witherington 1992) and sewage effluents.<br/><br/>Global warming has the potential to impact the habitats and ecosystems of Olive Ridley populations worldwide (Hays <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Weishampal 2004) but the specific impacts are purely speculative at this time. Most accounts have focused on the impact of global warming on incubation temperatures of eggs, which influence the sex ratio of the embryos (Hays <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Diseases and predation</span><br/>Extremely little is known about diseases and their effects on Olive Ridley abundance. The only disease identified in the literature for Olive Ridleys is fibropapilloma, a herpes-virus found in sea turtles nearly worldwide (Herbst 1994). The incidence of fibropapilloma is not believed to be high in Olive Ridleys but has been observed in Olive Ridleys nesting in Costa Rica (Herbst 1994) and in México (Vasconcelos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). At some individual rookeries, the predation by wild pigs and/or feral dogs can be substantial (e.g., in the Andaman Islands; Andrews et al. 2001). Infestation of developing eggs by fly and beetle larvae can cause significant mortality of embryos. In an extremely worrying case, the beetle larvae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Omorgus suberosus fabricius</span>) has become a plague in the world’s largest arribada rookery in Escobilla, México where it is provoking steep drops in the hatching efficiency of the clutches laid, from a typical 30% for this colony (Márquez 1990) to less than 5% in some areas (López-Reyes and Harfush 2000). When combined with the relatively low hatching rates of high-density arribada beaches and the destruction of eggs laid by previous nesters, this problem could provoke the rookery’s decline.
11542		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species.
11542		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from a single locality in Western Cape (southeast of Mamre) and a few localities&#160;<span lang="PT-BR">in <st1:place w:st="on">Northern Cape Province&#160;(10 km east of Springbok; Wolfhok; Garies; near Loeriesfontein) (Woodhall 2005). The EOO is approximately 28,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The ecology is fairly specialised making the area of occupancy considerably smaller, however, there are no major threats causing either decline or fluctuation in the remote habitat of the species (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/></st1:place></p>
11542		habitat	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidochrysops</span> has a remarkable life history; the larvae feed on plants for the first two instars, then induce ants to carry them to their nests where they feed on the ant brood, pupating in the tunnels of the ant nest&#160;(Henning and Henning 1989).&#160;This species inhabits remote, specialised patches of Nama Karoo; where flat, sandy ground is covered by low bushes and succulents (Woodhall 2005, Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
11542		population	eng	The extremely unusual ecology of this species during its development makes assessing population status and trends difficult. Therefore, there is no detailed information on its population status.
11542		threats	eng	Much of South Africa's Nama Karoo is unprotected and under threat from over grazing (McGinley 2008), however this species occurs in remote parts of South Africa (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and the habitat is not under any major threat from overgrazing or from the other threats facing lycaenids in South Africa, such as the introduction of an Argentine ant (<em>Iridomyrmex humilis</em>&#160;(Mayr)) (Samways 1993).
11548		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place for this species. Research is urgently needed to confirm the taxonomy of this species (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) which in turn should help to clarify the distribution of this butterfly and allow it to be shifted from the category of Data Deficient.
11548		distribution	eng	<p>This species was previously only known from a total of five localities in the <st1:place w:st="on">Northern Cape Province</st1:place>&#160;of South Africa (8 km north of Steinkopf, on the road to Vioolsdrif at 2,000 ft; between Spektakelpas and Steenboksfontein; Kamieskroon district; Garies&#160;district) (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994), giving an extent of occurrence of approximately 12,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, it has not been seen near Steinkopf for many years and it is also uncertain whether or not other golden/dark Namaqualand subpopulations belong to this species, which adds to distributional uncertainty (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/></p>
11548		habitat	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidochrysops</span> has a remarkable life history. Larvae feed on plants for the first two instars, induce ants to carry them to their nests where they feed on the ant brood, and eventually pupate in the tunnels of the ant nest (Henning and Henning 1989).&#160;The remote habitat of this species is flat, stony and dry areas; the vegetation consists of mesembryanthemums and other low shrubs (succulent <st1:place w:st="on">Karoo</st1:place>), at altitudes of around 600-700 m (Pringle&#160;<em>et al</em>. 1994).
11548		population	eng	This species is known to be strongly seasonal, which probably causes the species to be under-reported. Consequently, the population status and trends are difficult to assess.
11548		threats	eng	There are no real threats to this species except for climate change. It is found in remote, somewhat upland habitats and so threats from over-grazing and habitat loss are minor, but range shift in response to climate change may threaten the species in the future (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
11552		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species at present. However, further research is suggested to inform future reassessments of this species and fill current knowlegde gaps on its distribution, population, ecology and potential future threats.
11552		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from the type locality on the northern slopes of&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gydo</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;in the&#160;Ceres district of the Western Cape Province of&#160;South Africa and from nearby Waboomsberg (Woodhall 2005). As this is the only recorded locality, this gives the species a very limited extent of occurrence (EOO) (under 100 km<sup>2</sup>). The area of occupancy is also very small and probably virtually equal to the EOO. However, this species is not threatened as it occurs in very remote areas (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and so is not undergoing any continuing decline or fluctuation in distribution. It has presumably always had a restricted distribution and cannot be classified as threatened under either criteria B or D2 at present.<br/></p>
11552		habitat	eng	This species is found high on the northern slopes of the mountain in rocky areas of remote mountain fynbos.&#160;Specimens are usually found in the vicinity of their larval host plants and males defend territories on rocky knolls for hours on end (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).
11552		population	eng	This species is known only from its very restricted distribution, where it appears to be fairly stable. There is no detailed population information available but there are no threats that could be causing population decline or fluctuation.
11552		threats	eng	The mountainous area inhabited by this species is characteristically rugged and remote and therefore at less risk from human encroachment (Samways 1993). This holds true today with the remoteness of this species' habitat, meaning it does not face any major threats (Henning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
11576		distribution	eng	Restricted to a few springs on the White River system in one small area of Nevada.
11579		conservation	eng	East Clear, Chevelon, and Nutrioso creeks have all been designated as Critical Habitat. Much of this species habitat is under federal ownership. The remaining localities fall under the ownership of the Bureau of Indian Affaris - Hopi Reservation, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service - Apache Sitgreaves and Coconino National Forests, Arizona Game and Fish Department - Sipe White Mountain Wildlife Area and Wenima Riparian Corridor along with areas of private ownership.<br/><br/>The lower reach of Chevelon Creek, the White Mountain Hereford Ranch (through which Rudd Creek flows), and the Wenima property (through which the Little Colorado River flows) are currently owned and managed by the Arizona Game and Fish Department. <br/><br/>Genetic data indicate the importance of maintaining all remaining populations (Tibbets <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Future management needs to be directed to conserving exisiting populations and their watersheds, establishment of refugium sites within historical habitats, ameliorate the effects of non-native fishes in spinedace habitats, and clearly delineate key management areas.<br/><br/><em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.
11579		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidomeda vittata </em> formerly occurred throughout the upper sections of the Little Colorado River system in eastern Arizona (Minckley 1973; Lee <em>et al. </em>1980, Page and Burr 1991). At present it occurs in the mainstem Little Colorado River and in its north-flowing tributaries, including portions of East Clear, Chevelon, Rudd, and Nutrioso creeks, in Coconino, Navajo, and Apache counties (USFWS 1987; Federal Register, 23 September 1994, p. 48899). Recent surveys could not locate this species in Silver Creek, and very few were found in Nutrioso and Rudd creeks. This species is considered rare in the East Clear Creek watershed, Chevelon Creek, and the mainstem Little Colorado River (USFWS, Arizona Ecological Services Field Office). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 8,532km<sup>2</sup>.
11579		habitat	eng	<em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> habitat types include rocky and sandy, runs and pools of creeks and small rivers. Water clarity ranges from clear to turbid with substrate types including sand, gravel, silt, and bedrock (Minckley 1973; Rohde cited in Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980). Water temperature is equivocal to that of the trouts habitat. This species is most commonly found in slow to moderate water currents, with fine gravel substrates. It prefers unshaded pools with rocks and undercut banks, as oppose to deep, heavily shaded poools and shallow open areas (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1989; Minckley 1984). During dry periods, these fishes retreat to springs and pools in intermittent streambeds (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2003).
11579		population	eng	<em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> is represented by four extant occurrences (subpopulations).<br/><br/>At present, the total adult population is unkown. It has been described as uncommon and highly localized (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>Historical distribution is similar to the current distribution except that the species possibly may have occurred in the Zuni River watershed south of Gallup, New Mexico (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1989). The species was last captured in Silver Creek during 1997, and so may be extirpated from Silver Creek and its tributaries.<br/><br/>Genetic data has not yet shed any light on the nature or timing of the decline that appears to have occurred (Tibbets <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>Populations fluctuate dramatically from year to year, probably reflecting periodic drought and varying water availability. Overall, however, populations are thought to be on the decline.
11579		threats	eng	The decline in population numbers of <em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> is attributed to habitat loss and alteration due to dam and road construction, water extraction, stream channelisation, introduction and spread of exotic competitive and predatory species (Blinn <em>et al.</em> 1993), and chemical manipulation of fish populations in native streams (USFWS 1987). Within the Nelson Reservoir in eastern Arizona, introduction of brown trout is likely to pose more of a threat than the the rainbow trout (Sweetser <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Long-term drought in addition to current and planned water acquisitions, are limiting the amount of water available for the fish. Additionally, non-native fishes (rainbow trout, green sunfish) and crayfish compete with spinedace and predate upon them (USFWS, Arizona Ecological Services Field Office; Bryan <em>et al.</em> 2002).
11616		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is known to occur in the Manongarivo Special Reserve, and probably also in the Tsaratanana Strict Nature Reserve.
11616		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sambirano region of north-western Madagascar, its distribution centering on Ambanja. The limits of the range with the recently described <em>L. sahamalazensis</em> to the south are unclear.
11616		habitat	eng	This lemur has been the subject of only brief field studies. It inhabits humid forests that are subject to a short dry season each year, as well as subhumid forests that are subject to a long dry season. In dense primary forest it appears to favor tree holes for daytime sleeping, but will seek out vegetation tangles in more open deciduous forest. Births occur from August through November, mothers typically producing a single young.
11616		population	eng	Common, more so in secondary forest than in primary forest.
11616		threats	eng	The main threats are believed to be habitat loss due to rice and coffee cultivation, as well as illegal logging. This species is sometimes hunted for food.
11617		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is currently known to occur in Ankarafantsika National Park.
11617		distribution	eng	This species is found in the dry deciduous forests of western Madagascar. As here understood, the range extends north of the Betseboke River to the Mahajamba River (with the newly described <em>L. otto</em> occurring north of the Mahajamba apparently in the Bongolava Massif to the Maeverano).
11617		habitat	eng	Home ranges appear to be about one hectare in size. Several individuals can be found sleeping in the same shelter during the day, but they tend to be solitary foragers during the night (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
11617		population	eng	Common where found. This species has been studied in the dry deciduous forests in and around the Ankarafantsika National Park, where it has been reported at an approximate density of 60 individuals/km² (Warren and Crompton 1997).
11617		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to fires set to create new pasture for livestock, and it is also hunted for food in some areas.
11618		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Protected areas in which it is known to occur include one national park (Andohahela) and the Berenty Private Reserve. Consideration should be given to the establishment of protected areas in the middle of the species' range. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
11618		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Didiereaceae (spiny forests) and gallery forests of southern Madagascar. As here understood, with the description of lemurs west of the Menarandra and Linta Rivers as <em>L. petteri</em>, <em>L. leucopus</em> is now confined to the region between the Menarandra River and the Mandrare River. Sea level to 300 m.
11618		habitat	eng	This species has been studied principally in gallery and Didiereaceae dry forests near the Berenty Private Reserve (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
11618		population	eng	Common. Population densities in both spiny and gallery forest of the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar have been estimated at several hundreds of animals per square kilometre.
11618		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss due to annual burning practices to create new pasture for livestock, and subsequent over-grazing and the felling of trees for charcoal production.
11619		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Occurs at least in Ranomafana National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
11619		distribution	eng	With the recent descriptions of several new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> from eastern Madagascar, the range of <em>L. microdon</em> has become unclear. Based on the interpretation of the distributions of Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species now occurs south of the Namorona River perhaps to the Manampatrana where replaced by <em>L. jamesi</em>, but this remains unclear.
11619		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of eastern rainforests.
11619		population	eng	The population status of this species is now unclear, in light of major taxonomic reshuffling in the genus <em>Lepilemur</em>. Whereas L. microdon formerly was a widespread taxon in Madagascar's eastern rainforests, under current arrangements its range is much more restricted.
11619		threats	eng	Unknown, although slash and burn agriculture is the main cause of forest loss in the eastern forests. Hunting pressure is also known to be high, and includes hunting with spears, and by chopping down trees known to have nest holes.
11620		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in two national parks (Mantadia and Zahamena), two special reserves (Analamazaotra and Mangerivola), and two strict nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
11620		distribution	eng	With the recent descriptions of several new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> from eastern Madagascar, the range of <em>L. mustelinus</em> has become unclear. Based on the interpretation of the distributions of Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species now occurs north of the Mangoro and Onive Rivers (with <em>M. betsileo</em> apparently occurring to the south) north at least to the Onibe, and possibly further. Louis <em>et al</em>. (2006) assigned the sportive lemurs from Mananara-Nord, south of the Antainambalana River, to <em>L. seali</em>. In the past these have been attributed to <em>L. mustelinus</em>. The Maningory is here arbitrarily assigned as the limit between L. mustelinus and L. seali, but clearly this requires further investigation.
11620		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests. Given the taxonomic confusion that exists between this species and other newly described species of <em>Lepilemur</em>, it is difficult to ascribe particular biological paramaters to one or the other forms with any certainty.
11620		population	eng	Based on current understanding of the species' range, the taxon remains widespread and apparently common to uncommon throughout its eastern rain forest range.
11620		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to slash and burn agriculture. Hunting pressure in this region is high, and includes hunting with spears, and by chopping down trees known to have nest holes.
11621		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in the Andranomena Special Reserve and the Analabe Private Reserve, and may also be found in the Kirindy-Mitea National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
11621		distribution	eng	This species is found in the dry forests of western Madagascar. As here understood, the species occurs north of the Mangoky (with <em>L. hubbardi</em> occurring south of this river) north to the Tsiribihina River where its range apparently meets that of <em>L. randrinanasoli</em>.
11621		habitat	eng	This species is found in the dry forests of western Madagascar.
11621		population	eng	The population status of this species is now unclear in light of recent taxonomic reshuffling in the <em>Lepilemur</em> species of western Madagascar.
11621		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat lost to expanding livestock populations is likely to be a threat.
11622		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species exists only as small populations in the Sahafary region and is not in any protected areas. The Andrahona Forest, a small mountain rising out of the lowlands, is apparently a sacred forest, but it is tiny and showing signs of incursions. Additional survey work further north may reveal the presence of the species in other remaining forest patches.
11622		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar?s far northern regions, north of the Irodo River, where it is now believed restricted to the small remaining patches of forest near the villages of Madirobe and Ankarongana in the Sahafary region, and in the immediate vicinity of Andrahona, a small mountain emerging out of the surrounding lowlands about 30 km south of Antsiranana (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Below 300 m.
11622		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
11622		population	eng	Unknown, but the population is unlikely to number more than a few hundred individuals.
11622		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss due to charcoal production and hunting (particularly by charcoal burners).
11633		conservation	eng	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be investigated to determine whether it is possibly still extant.
11633		distribution	eng	This species formerly ranged widely through central and western Australia (Robinson 2008). The last specimen was collected near Mount Crombie in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Lands (Robinson 2008). No current location for the species is known.
11633		habitat	eng	It was found in arid areas of central Australia. The species made large nests of sticks in caves and overhangs (these persist today) (Robinson 2008). There may have been stick nests also in more open areas.
11633		population	eng	This species is probably extinct, but if it does persist its numbers would almost certainly be very small. There are no confirmed reports of this species since 1933, however, there is a reliable record from 1970 and continued, occasional reports of fresh vegetation being added to old stick-nests (Robinson 2008).
11633		threats	eng	The species appears to have been a herbivore that was unable to compete with grazing by introduced sheep, cattle, and rabbits (Robinson 2008). Feral cats may have been a threat.
11634		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in a number of protected areas. Translocated populations have been established on suitable islands and on the mainland (mainland populations are within fenced areas). Remaining populations are monitored. A captive-breeding programme is in place. Other island translocations are recommended. Cataracts are a problem among captive populations, and are the subject of population genetics studies, the results of which have shown that this is a single-locus disorder (Barclay <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Other genetic studies include the genetic fitness of translocated populations. These studies show that most of the measurable variation in the relict has been transferred to most of the introduced populations (B. Sherwin pers. comm.). There are recommendations for augmentation of some populations (Barclay <em>et al.</em> in prep.), and a population viability analysis has been performed to assess the optimal rates of transfer between populations (Barclay <em>et al.</em> in press).
11634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally on the Franklin Islands, Western Australia. It was formerly distributed throughout much of the southern, semi-arid Australia, from the west coast of Western Australia to western New South Wales (Lee 1995). There are several translocated populations: Salutation Island (introduced/translocated), Heirisson Prong (reintroduced) (Western Australia); St. Peter Island (introduced/translocated), Reevesby Island (reintroduced), the Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs (reintroduced), Venus Bay Conservation Park (reintroduced) (South Australia); Scotia Sanctuary (reintroduced) (New South Wales).
11634		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of perennial succulent and semi-succulent shrubland. Animals shelter in seabird burrows and amongst rocks (Lee 1995). On islands, the species lives in family groups of 10 to 20 individuals in large nests constructed of sticks. Females give birth to between one and three young after a gestation period of 44 days (Robinson 2008). Reintroduced populations on the mainland live in family groups of about 5-6 individuals.
11634		population	eng	There are about 600 individuals on Salutation Island, probably about 1,000 on the Franklin Islands, and 1,000 on St. Peter Island. There are about 300 in the Arid Recovery Reserve (but it is uncertain whether this population is viable), a small number in Scotia Sanctuary, and less than 10 at Heirisson Prong (J. Richards pers. comm.). Total population size may be (about 4,000 individuals including juveniles).
11634		threats	eng	Island populations are relatively secure (no introduced predators), but the threat of an accidental arrival of an introduced predator is a major concern as is severe drought and the possibility of an extensive fire and disease. Feral cats and foxes are a threat on the mainland, but these are excluded from the reintroduction sites. Introduced rodents may present a threat.<br/><br/>This species declined on the mainland due to habitat destruction by introduced herbivores (sheep and rabbits), and the effects of severe drought. It is also presumed to have declined as a result of predation by introduced cats and foxes (Lee 1995).
11638		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Algeria, Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Liberia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa (Cape province only), and Tunisia, and hunting regulations apply in Angola, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Ghana, Malawi, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Zaïre and Zambia (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br><br>Servals occur in a number of protected areas across their range, including: El Kala N.P. (Algeria), Feidja N.P. (Tunisia), Ifrane N.P. (Morocco), Comoé N.P. (Côte d?Ivoire), WAPO complex (Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Togo), Zakouma N.P. (Chad), Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks (Ethiopia), Odzala N.P. (Congo Republic), Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Aberdare Mountains N.P. (Kenya), Serengeti and Selous National Parks (Tanzania), Moremi G.R. and Chobe N.P. (Botswana), and Kruger N.P. and Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (South Africa) (Hunter and Bowland in press). Odzala N.P. in Congo Republic could be a key site for protecting serval as it is the only currently known protected population in the Gabon-Congolian savanna region, which are isolated from the Miombo woodlands south of the Congo River (P. Henschel pers. comm.).
11638		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Algeria, Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Liberia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa (Cape province only), and Tunisia, and hunting regulations apply in Angola, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Ghana, Malawi, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Zaïre and Zambia (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Servals occur in a number of protected areas across their range, including: El Kala N.P. (Algeria), Feidja N.P. (Tunisia), Ifrane N.P. (Morocco), Comoé N.P. (Côte d’Ivoire), WAPO complex (Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Togo), Zakouma N.P. (Chad), Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks (Ethiopia), Odzala N.P. (Congo Republic), Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Aberdare Mountains N.P. (Kenya), Serengeti and Selous National Parks (Tanzania), Moremi G.R. and Chobe N.P. (Botswana), and Kruger N.P. and Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (South Africa) (Hunter and Bowland in press). Odzala N.P. in Congo Republic could be a key site for protecting serval as it is the only currently known protected population in the Gabon-Congolian savanna region, which are isolated from the Miombo woodlands south of the Congo River (P. Henschel pers. comm.).
11638		distribution	eng	The serval occurs widely through sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of tropical rainforest and the Saharan desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). North of the Sahara, there are recent records from Morocco (Cuzin 2003) and from northern Algeria (K. De Smet pers. comm.). They went extinct in Tunisia, but a population has been reintroduced into Feijda N.P. (K. De Smet, in Hunter and Bowland in press), with animals of East African stock (F. Cuzin pers. comm.).
11638		habitat	eng	In sub-Saharan Africa, servals are found in well-watered savanna long-grass environments and are particularly associated with reedbeds and other riparian vegetation types. They also range up into alpine grasslands, up to 3,800 m on Mount Kilimanjaro (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Hunter and Bowland in press). Servals can penetrate dense forest along waterways and through grassy patches, but are absent from the rainforests of Central Africa, and from desert environments. In North Africa, they are found from semi-desert to cork oak forest on the Mediterranean coast (De Smet 1989; Cuzin 2003). Servals are able to tolerate agricultural areas provided cover is available (Hunter and Bowland in press), and may also benefit from forest clearance and the resulting encorachment of savanna at the edges of the equatorial forest belt (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). Serval specialize on small mammals, in particular rodents, with birds of secondary importance (Hunter and Bowland in press).
11638		habitat	eng	In sub-Saharan Africa, servals are found in well-watered savanna long-grass environments and are particularly associated with reedbeds and other riparian vegetation types. They also range up into alpine grasslands, up to 3,800 m on Mount Kilimanjaro (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Hunter and Bowland in press). Servals can penetrate dense forest along waterways and through grassy patches, but are absent from the rainforests of Central Africa, and from desert environments. In North Africa, they are found from semi-desert to cork oak forest on the Mediterranean coast (De Smet 1989; Cuzin 2003). Servals are able to tolerate agricultural areas provided cover is available (Hunter and Bowland in press), and may also benefit from forest clearance and the resulting encorachment of savanna at the edges of the equatorial forest belt (Ray <i>et al.</i> 2005). Serval specialize on small mammals, in particular rodents, with birds of secondary importance (Hunter and Bowland in press).
11638		population	eng	Outside northern Africa, where it is considered to meet the Red List criteria for Endangered (Cuzin 2003) and the Sahel, where it is rare (Clement <em>et al.</em> 2007), the serval is commonly recorded from most major national parks and reserves. Their status outside reserves is uncertain, but they are inconspicuous and may be common in suitable habitat as they are tolerant of farming practices provided there is cover and food available (Hunter and Bowland in press). The minimum density of servals in optimal habitat in Ngorongoro Crater was 0.42 animals/km² (Geertsema 1985).
11638		threats	eng	The major threat to serval is wetland habitat loss and degradation. Wetlands harbour comparatively high rodent densities compared with other habitat types, and form the core areas of serval home ranges. Of secondary importance is degradation of grasslands through annual burning followed by over-grazing by domestic hoofstock, leading to reduced abundance of small mammals (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>International legal commercial trade is generally declining (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although skins are still traded in large quantities in some countries, such as Senegal, Gambia and Benin (O. Burnham and I. Di Silvestre, in Hunter and Bowland in press), and exported to North Africa (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). Serval pelts seen in trade in Morocco could come from elsewhere, or could indicate the species continued existence in that country (Arce and Prunier 2006).  Trade in West Africa appears to be primarily for ceremonial or medicinal purposes. For example, they are highly valued for traditional medicine in Nigeria, where, among markets surveyed in five south-west Nigerian towns in 1994, servals were the second most commonly offered mammalian species (Sodeinde and Soewu 1999 in Hunter and Bowland in press). <br/><br/>Although serval very rarely prey upon livestock (and indeed may even be beneficial to crop farmers due to their predilection for rodents), in rural areas throughout Africa, they are sometimes persecuted for taking poultry and indiscriminate predator control methods practiced by pastoralists frequently kill them (Hunter and Bowland pers. comm.).
11653		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is known for this species, however part of the range does lie in a Special Protected Area (Laurisilva of Madeira) as well as in Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) ( Maciço Montanhoso Central da ilha da Madeira). &#160;Habitat monitoring for impact of severe weather events on the species habitat and possible impact of predators (rodents) on this species.
11653		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran archipelago, recorded as living and subfossil on Madeira, with possible subfossil records from Porto Santo (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Seddon 2008). &#160;It is known from four main valleys, three in central Madeira and one at the north coast, with several closely located sites within these valleys (Seddon 2008, map 112, p. 175).
11653		habitat	eng	This species is found in the laurisilva forest at intermediate and high elevations. Wollaston (1878) also describes the species as abundant in the chestnut woodland above Funchal, however this was not found in surveys in Cameron, Cook or Seddon over the last 40 years. It is usually amongst leaf-litter on rock crags, in deep crevices on crags or at the base of trees.
11653		population	eng	There are no recent data on population trends, but the species is often rare, present only with a few individuals per sample, so it is assumed to live at low density.
11653		threats	eng	There has been some changes in the habitats on the northern valleys over  the last 100 years, relating to off-take of water for irrigation to the  south side of the island.&#160; There is also some development for tourism along the  tops of the valleys via the levadas. However, much of the laurisilva forest is now in protected areas, hence the loss is more minimal. There may be some impact from storms in February 2010 and the fires in August 2010.
11655		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring for impact of grassland management changes, recreational activity or fires on the species habitat and possible impact of predators (rodents) on this species are recommended.
11655		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran archipelago; it is restricted to the eastern part of the island of Porto Santo where it is found in two locations, one on an off-shore islet (Fora) and one on the mainland on Pico do Concelho (Seddon 2008, p. 83).&#160; Each subpopulation is considered to be a separate subspecies by Mandhal-Barth (1950).
11655		habitat	eng	This species is found in open grassland under rocks and in rocky areas on the eastern summit of Pico do Concelho.
11655		population	eng	The species is not common in the area on&#160;Pico do Concelho. It is is quite small, and other species of&#160;<em>Leptaxis</em>&#160;(<em>L. nivosa</em>), tend to be more dominant.
11655		threats	eng	<p>This species is vulnerable to predation by introduced rodents and changes in grassland management and burning.&#160;</p>
11656		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. It is recommended that the remaining natural habitat surrounding the outside of the crater be protected from further clearance by human activities.
11656		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L.caldeirarum</span> is only found on São Miguel island, Azores.
11656		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis caldeirarum</span> lives in secondarily forested areas and native vegetation, where it is extremely rare. In secondarily forested areas, it was collected near Mosteiros (north 37º 52' 31"; west 025º 49' 28"; 240 m) and Candelária (north 37º 49' 56"; west 025º 49' 43"; 150 m), two separate ravines descending from outside the crater to the sea. There is no reliable information on the distribution of the species amidst native vegetation, except that it is extremely rare.
11656		population	eng	<p>Restricted to the Sete Cidades volcanic complex, on the western tip of the São Miguel island. Morelet (1860) stated that this species was very rare; Backhuys (1975) did not find any specimens. Data resulting from a survey (A. Martins pers. comm. 2010) showed that it is indeed very rare and that it lives around the crater of Sete Cidades, from about 500 m (rim of the crater) to about 150 m (Candelária, north 37º 49' 56"; west 025º 49' 43").<br/><br/><br/></p>
11656		threats	eng	The rarity of this species was recorded since it was first found (Morelet 1860). It was re-discovered in the 1980s and remains extremely rare. The exiguity of its range and the severe habitat fragmentation within it due to human activity (clearing forest for pasture) may be a severe threat. It has been found living in stands of native vegetation, where it also remains apparently extremely rare, although no quantitative studies are available.
11657		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
11657		distribution	eng	This species is found on Terceira island (type locality) and Graciosa island (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989), Azores.
11657		habitat	eng	On Terceira island, <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis terceirana</span> lives in secondarily forested areas and in disturbed environments such as the side of the road under hydrangeas, stone walls or amidst the herbaceous vegetation. On Graciosa, it was found in secondary forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Persea indica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum undulatum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, with undergrowth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>.
11657		population	eng	Morelet (1860:159) states that the species is very abundant, although Backhuys (1975: 238) failed to collect it; it has been collected in Fonte Dionísio (N 38º 43.680'; W 027º 07.331'; 350 m) and Pico da Serreta (N 38º 45'; W 027º 21'; 200 m) on&#160; Terceira island. On Graciosa island it is has been reported from Pedras Brancas (N 39º 02.420'; W 028º 00.030'), Feteira (N 39º 02.440'; W 028º 00.480'); Ribeira da Luz (N 39º 01.190'; W 027º 59.060') and Pico Timão (N 39º 02.250'; W 028º 00.650) (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989)
11657		threats	eng	Due to its wide range of habitats, no threats are foreseen.
11663		conservation	eng	The known range of the species is partly within a high security military area, which affords its habitat good protection. Maintenance of its habitat, since it is only known from one area, is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality, as is currently assumed.
11663		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Restinga da Marambaia, in Rio de Janeiro State, southern Brazil. It has only been recorded around sea level.
11663		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the ground, near ponds on sandy bank vegetation. It creates foam nests on the ground next to temporary pools, and the tadpoles then develop in the pools. It also occurs in sandy dunes along the coast with low vegetation.
11663		population	eng	It is a common species.
11663		threats	eng	The restricted range of this species makes it more susceptible to threatening processes. Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism is a significant threat.
11689		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.
11689		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan and confined to the Yaeyama islands (Ishigaki-jima and Iriomote-jima).
11689		habitat	eng	The species is found in mountain-hill streams with sandy bottom.
11689		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
11689		threats	eng	The development of dams and altering of land for agricultural purposes is causing habitat loss for this species, as is the associated pollution from these procedures.
11691		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
11691		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). Specimens allocated to this species have been recorded from the Owen Stanley Range, Mount Dayman, Mount Sisa, and Mount Victory in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 400 to 1,600 m asl.<br/><br/>There is also a record from 1,000 m in the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Provice, Indonesia, but this likely represents an undescribed species and is not included here.
11691		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that has been recorded in secondary forest and old rural gardens; presumably it is also found in primary tropical forest habitats. This species is both insectivorous and carnivorous, and the mean litter size is 1.75 young (Flannery 1995).
11691		population	eng	This species is not known from many specimens. It is not believed to be very common, but it may be locally common in certain places and in certain years.
11691		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted by local people, presumably for food, although this is not considered to be a major threat to the species.
11692		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, taxonomy, natural history, and threats to this species.
11692		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from the Eastern Highlands and the Huon Peninsula. It is found between 1,200 and 2,800 m asl.
11692		habitat	eng	This species has been found in mature and late-regrowth tropical forest. Animals have been collected from a burrow close to a stream (Flannery 1995).
11692		population	eng	It is rarely collected, so it may not be that common.
11692		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is eaten, but this is not a major threat.
11693		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and population status of the species.
11693		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), where it is known from the type locality close to Sturt Island Camp on the lower Fly River. It has recently been collected by Tanya Leary on the Darai Plateau, and is known now from the slopes of north-western Basavi (collection in the Bishop Museum, Hawaii). It has been collected from sea level to 1,400 m asl.
11693		habitat	eng	There appears to be nothing known about the habitat or ecology of this species. Collected in lowland hill forest on limestone karst.
11693		population	eng	The species may be more common than previously thought. The type series consisted of four females. Tanya Leary collected a pregnant female and a subadult male.
11693		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to the species. It may have a restricted range.
11696		conservation	eng	The Weddell seal is not listed as endangered or threatened.  Weddell seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and any future commercial harvest would be regulated by these international agreements (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).
11696		distribution	eng	Circumpolar and widespread in the Southern Hemisphere, Weddell seals are the world’s southern-most breeding mammal and occur in large numbers on fast ice, right up to the shoreline of the Antarctic continent. They also occur offshore in the pack ice zone north to the seasonally shifting limits of the Antarctic Convergence. A small population lives all year on South Georgia. Weddell seals are present at many islands along the Antarctic Peninsula that are seasonally ice-free. Vagrants have been recorded in many areas north of the Antarctic in South America, New Zealand and southern Australia (Kooyman 1981, Rice 1998, Bengtson 2002).
11696		habitat	eng	Adult males reach 2.9 m in length, while females reach 3.3 m. Adults in their prime weigh 400 to 450 kg, with females being somewhat heavier than males. Adult female weight fluctuates dramatically during the year with significant weight loss occurring after birth during lactation. Newborns are about 1.5 m long and average 29 kg. Females become mature at 3-6 years of age and males at 7-8 years. The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is 70-80%. Gestation lasts 11 months, including a delay of implantation of 2 months. Longevity is approximately 25 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Weddell seal pups are born from September through November and nursed for seven to eight weeks. Animals at lower latitudes pup earlier than animals living at higher latitudes. Males set up territories in the water around holes in the ice used by females to enter and leave the water. The only copulation that has been observed occurred underwater. The behavior of animals breeding in the pack ice or in the sub-Antarctic is not well known.<br/><br/>Weddell seals are not very social when out of the water, avoiding physical contact most of the time. However, they are loosely social; when in the shore-fast ice habitat they tend to congregate in groups along recurrent cracks, leads, and near access holes to the water. There is debate over whether or not this species is migratory or if there is just dispersal of weaned pups, juveniles and some older animals. Some individuals remain in residence year round in the fast ice at latitudes as high as 78°S in McMurdo Sound. Others, particularly newly weaned and subadult animals, move north from the continent and spend the winter in the pack ice. Seals living in fast ice areas or facing freezing over of access holes and leads, abrade and grind the ice to maintain access to and from the water. They bite at the ice and then rapidly swing the head from side to side to grind away the ice with their teeth. Seals living in areas where extensive grinding of ice is necessary for much of the year have accelerated wearing down of their teeth and decreased life expectancy. Predators include killer whales and leopard seals.<br/><br/>Weddell seals are prodigious divers, reaching over 600 m depth, and can undertake dives of at least 82 minutes. Deep dives are regularly used for foraging on Antarctic cod, and long dives occur when the animals are searching for new breathing holes, cracks and leads. In addition to Antarctic cod, the diet of Weddell seals primarily consists of <em>Notothenid</em> fishes. Squid and other invertebrates are also taken as small percentages of the diet.
11696		population	eng	The global population of Weddell seals has been variously estimated at 500,000 to one million or more (Erickson and Hanson 1990). This is a widespread species and, as with other Antarctic seals inhabiting the pack ice, population assessments are very difficult and expensive to conduct and therefore infrequently undertaken. Also, most past surveys do not account for seals in the water and unavailable for counting. To date a circumpolar survey has not been completed and reported. Published reports are limited to ship-based surveys of seals that produced a density estimate that is later extrapolated for the amount of land-fast sea ice present at the time (Erickson and Hanson 1990).
11696		threats	eng	Weddell seals served as an important source of food for men and dogs throughout the early periods of Antarctic exploration. They continued to be taken to feed sled dogs at one base in to the 1980s. Local populations of seals no doubt suffered declines from these harvests, but in the case of the population in McMurdo Sound the population has recovered in the 20 years since the harvest ended. At present, there are no immediate or significant threats to the Weddell seal.<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. However, Learmonth <em>et al</em>., (2006) suggest that Weddell seal numbers may decline with increasing temperatures if Antarctic sea ice is significantly reduced. Loss of sufficient areas of fast ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators (possible), and access to preferred foraging areas because of changes from warming could lead to population declines of Weddell seals. This is in contrast to a paper by Proffit <em>et al</em>. (2007), which reports that the localized cooling and increased sea ice extent in the Ross sea is associated with decreased reproduction and lower weaning mass of Weddell seals in McMurdo Sound. Thus, the overall effects of global climate change on Weddell seals is unknown.<br/><br/>Two of the four species of Antarctic ice seal, the leopard and crabeater tested positive for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV). Weddell seals were tested and did not have any antibodies, and Ross seals were not tested. A mass mortality of crabeater seals occurred in 1955, and many animals displayed viral illness symptoms prior to death (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>Seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic has increased steadily in the last 30 plus years, and is currently at all time high levels. The effects of increased vessel noise, disturbance from vessels passage, and close approach by people in small boats and on land or ice on Weddell seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are unknown. There is also a risk of injury to a small number of animals from collision with boats or crushing from large vessel passage through and disruption of ice fields. There are no reports of significant fisheries interactions.
11697		conservation	eng	A protected population exists at Emory Peak, Big Bend National Park, Texas (USFWS 2000). Further regular surveys are needed to determine important roost sites, abundance, and trends. Conservation of this bat will require maintenance of relatively large areas of wild Agave. Identification and protection of currently and formerly occupied roost sites and protection of foraging habitat in at least several areas throughout the range are important conservation needs. Populations need to be defined, and movement patterns need to be better understood. Accurate censusing methods need to be developed.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001, and is priority species of the Bat Conservation Program (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
11697		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeast Arizona, south New Mexico, and west Texas (USA) to south Mexico and Guatemala (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,500 m (mostly 1,000 to 2,200 m) (Reid, 1997).<br/>The range includes medium to high elevations in northern and central Mexico, southwestern Texas (southern Brewster and Presidio counties), and southwestern New Mexico, at elevations of about 500 to 3,000+ meters. Most occurrences in Mexico are at elevations of 1,000-2,200 meters, but this bat been captured at an elevation of 3,780 meters (Arita 1991), and the type specimen was caught near snow line at 17,816 feet (5,747 meters) on Mt. Orizaba, in Veracruz, Mexico (USFWS 2000). In Texas, the species is known from the Big Bend National Park and Chinati Mountain area. Two specimens of <em>Leptonycteris </em>taken in Hidalgo County, New Mexico (in 1963 and 1967), were determined to be <em>L. nivalis</em>. The presence of this species in New Mexico was reconfirmed in Hidalgo County in 1992 (Hoyt <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species formerly was thought to occupy a much larger area, extending into southern Mexico and Guatemala, but specimens collected from those areas have been assigned to <em>L. yerbabuenae</em> (Arita and Humphrey 1988). The only colonial roost in the U.S. is a cave at Emory Peak, at an elevation of 2,290 meters, in the Chisos Mountains, Texas. Simmons (2005) described the range of <em>L. nivalis</em> as extending to southern Mexico and Guatemala, and she also included southeastern Arizona in the range. However, no actual records for Arizona are known, and Arita (1991) showed the range as extending only as far south as Puebla and northern Guerrero.
11697		habitat	eng	This species can be found in pine-oak and deciduous forest and desert scrub (Reid, 1997). This species usually favors higher and cooler regions than <em>L. yerbabuenae</em> (Arita, 1991). It usually roosts in large groups (up to 10,000) in caves or mines; occasionally found in buildings, hollow trees, or culverts. Emerges well after sunset and feeds on pollen and nectar, principally of agaves and various cacti. Bombax, Ceiba, Ipomoea, Calliandra, Pinus, and grasses are also important food sources in Central Mexico (Gardner, 1977). Fruit and insects are sometimes taken. Northern populations migrate south in winter; numbers found in caves fluctuate greatly from year to year, indicating eruptive movements in addition to seasonal migration. Single young are born in May or June (Hensley and Wilkins, 1988; Reid, 1997).<br/>Single known U.S. roost at Emory Peak (Texas): 10,650 bats in 1967, 5,000 in 1968, 3,900 in 1969, 0 in 1970, 8025 in 1971, 1000 in 1983, 4,942 -5,990 in 1988, 5,000+ in 1991, 0 in 1992, and 2,859 in 1993 (Matthews and Moseley 1990, see USFWS 2000); number fluctuates widely from one year to the next; fluctuation may be in part due to some counts being made before or after the main period of bat occupation of the cave (Cockrum and Petryszyn 1991). Texas population may be a "spill-over" colony present during years of high population or reduced food supply. See Arita (1993) for general information on conservation status and population size in Mexico. Reliable estimates for Mexican populations are not available, but Arita and Prado rated this species as widespread and scarce in Mexico.<br/>Long-term trend is unclear. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy probably have not changed much, but the number of occurrence or subpopulations and population size may have dramatically decreased in some locations during the last three decades. Wilson <em>et al.</em> (1985) found that this species was either completely absent or present in reduced numbers in known roosts. The number of bats found represented only a fraction of the total reported in previous studies. For example, in an abandoned mine in Nuevo Leon, Mexico, where an estimated population of 10,000 was observed in 1938, no individuals of <em>L. nivalis</em> were found in 1983 (Wilson 1985). Another mine in Nuevo Leon had a ceiling covered with newborn bats in 1967, but only one bat was found in 1983. A few other roosts had reduced numbers of bats compared to findings during previous surveys. These changes could indicate a decline in the overall population, but they might reflect movement of bats among different roosting sites in different years, or they could result from seasonal changes in bat distribution (survey dates varied). <br/><br/>Abundance at one of the two known roosting sites in the United States (a cave in Big Bend National Park) fluctuates widely from year to year (0 to 10,000+ individuals). No significant trend can be ascertained from these data, which are the best available for the species. Reasons for the fluctuations are not understood, but they could reflect annual variations in food resources in different parts of the range (USFWS 2000).<br/>Habitats include desert scrub, open conifer-oak woodlands, and pine forests in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones, generally arid areas where agave plants are present (USFWS 2000). Colonies roost in caves (or similar mines and tunnels), sometimes in culverts, hollow trees, or unused buildings. Roosting habitat requirements are not well known.
11697		population	eng	This bat is uncommon or rare (Reid, 1997). The number of occurrences or subpopulations is unknown but probably exceeds 20; Arita (1991) mapped a few dozen collection sites in Mexico. One known colonial roosting site exists in the United States, but there could a one or more additional sites that have not yet been detected. The number of occurences or subpopulations with good viability is unknown but likely there are not very many. Several caves in central Mexico were known to contain considerable numbers in the past but now contain only small colonies or none at all (see USFWS 2000). Probably declining in number of occurrences or subpopulation and in overall population size, but the rate of decline is unknown; better information is need.
11697		threats	eng	Primary threats include disturbance of roosts, loss of food sources through clearing of land for agriculture and human exploitation of agaves (e.g., for production of alcoholic beverages), and direct killing by humans. Other threats may include negative effects of ingestion of pesticides applied to plants, competition for roosts and nectar, natural catastrophes, disease, and predation; however, these are not believed to be major limiting factors, though some of them could become significant for populations reduced to small size by other factors (see USFWS 2000). These bats are sensitive to disturbance in their roosting sites (they often quickly take flight upon human entry; Wilson 1985, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1985) and, in general, roosting caves are becoming increasingly subject to human destruction and disturbance. Human disturbance and destruction of roost sites is a common occurrence in Mexico. The availability of roost sites free from disturbance may be a significant limiting factor. Special precautions should be taken when mine and cave surveys are conducted. In June and July when the young are very small, disturbance can cause them to lose their grasp on the rock and fall to their death. During hibernation, disturbance will cause an increase in metabolism; this use of fat reserves may cause starvation prior to spring (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). A major problem for bats all over Mexico is that uninformed citizens frequently destroy all bats in a roost, believing them to be vampire bats. Foraging habitat can be degraded or destroyed by harvesting of agave (an important food resource). It has been estimated that bootleg mescal makers are eliminating between 500,00 and 1,200,000 wild paniculate agave a year in Sonora alone. Agave plant parts are harvested just before they bloom; this prevents flowering and can prevent reproduction by the affected plant (an agave plant grows for 10 to 20 years, flowers only once, then dies). However, there are few places in Sonora or elsewhere in Mexico where wild Agave harvesting has eliminated a significant percentage of nectar-producing genets, and plants harvested by indigenous people generally produce vegetative offshoots that may eventually produce flowers (Nabhan and Fleming 1993). Populations of unharvested plants persist in many areas that are not easily accessible to humans. The negative impact of agave harvest probably is not as great as was previously believed. On the other hand, reduced pollination resulting from decreased bat populations may eventually lead to a reduction in agave distribution and abundance. Some foraging habitat has been degraded or destroyed by expansion of agriculture and other land uses. Large areas of both the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental and the Mexican Plateau have been converted to agriculture or rangeland. This species may experience predation from owls, hawks, snakes, and mammals, but natural levels of predation likely are inconsequential to the overall status of the species. However, increased populations of domestic and feral cats and other predators near human habitations may affect the survival of colonies, particularly maternity colonies (USFWS 2000).
11699		conservation	eng	Needs conservation of maternity caves and habitat type.
11699		distribution	eng	This species occurs in dry areas in northeast Colombia, north Venezuela, Margarita Island, Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba (Netherlands Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).
11699		habitat	eng	This bat roosts in caves and mines, often in colonies of several thousand. It emerges about an hour after sunset to feed on nectar and pollen. It lands on the flowers or may hover for short periods to feed. Night roosts, including buildings, are used after feeding (Reid, 1997). Asociated with thorn scrub with columnar cactus and Agave plants (Soriano and Mantilla pers. comm.). The ecosystem is rare and dispersed throughout its range. This species is "keystone" in its ecosystem as a pollinator and seed disperser of agave and cactus (and other plants associated with the habitat type). The species is migratory and colonies are sexually seperated. Breeds on islands and resricted to specific breeding caves.
11699		population	eng	It is generally uncommon (Reid, 1997) and restricted to narrow habitat types.
11699		threats	eng	Conversion of the ecosystem, which is rapidly being developed. Narrow range of habitat type, which is coastal - where much human expansion is occurring. Caves are very specific and threatened by vandalism. Maternity colonies are extremely vulnerable.
11700		conservation	eng	Priority for conservation work is given over to determination of dispersal and distribution together with&#160;categorising&#160;threats.&#160;The relationships between this and other species without toe discs needs study. This species would make a good candidate for monitoring. Areas in which it occurs require stakeholder agreements for sensitive management.&#160;It is found in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park, which is at least well managed for biodiversity conservation.
11700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern South Africa in the southern KwaZulu-Natal Province highlands, and marginally in Eastern Cape Province. It is not found on the steep slopes of the escarpment, but usually occurs between 1,000 and 1,830 m asl. Known from 11 localities, with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 10,567 km<sup>2 </sup>and an area of occupancy (AOO) estimated at 0.5% of the EOO (50 km<sup>2</sup>). This AOO estimate is based on known breeding sites (14 sites, five occurring in a close cluster and the other nine occurring in relative isolation from each other, with >40 km between them) adding up to 2.95 km<sup>2</sup> and the expectation that more will be discovered (see Armstrong 2001), as it is suspected that not all breeding sites are known. There is a continuing decline in AOO as the temporary wetlands it inhabits are being drained for agriculture and construction.
11700		habitat	eng	It occurs in grassland, keeping to areas away from trees, and breeds in upland bogs, grassy wetlands and marshes, generally using semi-permanent water. Eggs are presumably laid in a nest on the ground near water.
11700		population	eng	This species is cryptic and not commonly encountered. It is considered to be severely fragmented as over 50% of individuals are in isolated patches, and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.
11700		threats	eng	It has a small range, and lives in a habitat which is continually declining in quality due to threats of afforestation, inappropriate fire regimes, cattle in vleis trampling and eutrophication, overgrazing, as well as the spread of alien plants that lower the water table (leading to drying out of breeding sites).
11783		conservation	eng	The short reach of the Locust Fork where this species still persists is surrounded by private lands (Hartfield 1994). A captive breeding population has been established at the Southeast Aquatic Research Institute but breeding in captivity has not been successful (USFWS 2000). An ongoing captive propagation program started at the Tennessee Aquarium Research Institute should continue. Augmentation of the population in Locust Fork, using propagated juveniles, began in 2003 and continues. Reintroductions elsewhere should be considered where suitable habitat is found (Mirarchi et al. 2004).<br/><br/>This species was listed as federally endangered in the U.S. in 1998 (USFWS 1998). A recovery plan was drafted with the objective to delist the species (USFWS 2005):<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Recovery Criteria</span>:<br/>Reclassification of the Cylindrical Lioplax (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lioplax cyclostomaformis</span>), Flat Pebblesnail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepyriam </span><span style="font-style: italic;">showalteri</span>) and Plicate Rocksnail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoxis ampla</span>); and the Painted Rocksnail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoxis taeniata</span>), Round Rocksnail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoxis ampla</span>), and Lacy Elimia (<span style="font-style: italic;">Elimia crenatella</span>) will require confirmation of stability or increase in their existing populations for 10 or more years, establishment of captive populations, and identification or establishment of at least two additional populations for each species. Delisting of all six species will require the confirmation of at least three stable or increasing populations for each species for 10 or more years. Before either reclassification or delisting may be considered, threats to the species will be removed and plans should be developed and implemented to protect and monitor water and habitat quality in the watersheds where they occur.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Actions needed</span>:<br/>(1) Protect habitat integrity and water quality. <br/>(2) Develop mitigation strategies that give high priority to avoidance and restoration. <br/>(3) Promote increased levels of voluntary stewardship to reduce non-point source pollution from private land use. <br/>(4) Encourage and support community based watershed stewardship planning and action. <br/>(5) Develop and implement public education programs and materials defining ecosystem management and stewardship responsibilities. <br/>(6) Conduct basic research on endemic species and apply the results of this research to management. <br/>(7) Develop and implement technology for maintaining and propagating endemic species in captivity. <br/>(8) Reintroduce imperiled aquatic species into restored habitats, as appropriate. <br/>(9) Monitor listed species populations. <br/>(10) Coordinate ecosystem management actions.<br/><br/>A specific recovery plan has been created for the Mobile River basin (USFWS 2000) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect habitat integrity and quality of river and stream segments that currently support it could support imperiled aquatic species, (2) consider options for free-flowing river and stream mitigation strategies that give high priority to avoidance and restoration, (3) promote voluntary stewardship as a practical and economical means of reducing non-point pollution from private land use, (4) encourage and support community based watershed stewardship planning and action, (5) develop and implement programs and materials to educate the public on the need and benefits of ecosystem management, and to involve them in watershed stewardship, (6) conduct basic basic research on endemic aquatic species and apply the results toward management and captivity, (8) reintroduce aquatic species into restored habitats as appropriate (9) monitor listed species population levels and distribution and periodically review ecosystem management strategy, (10) coordinate ecosystem management actions.<br/><br/>Further research is recommended to determine the extent of the existing population and an estimate of extant individuals. All populations should be monitored&#160; periodically and habitat degradation identified and mitigated.<br/><br/>A survey for potential reintroduction sites within the Black Warrior River drainage should be conducted. An ongoing captive propagation program started at the Tennessee Aquarium Research Institute should continue. Augmentation of the population in Locust Fork, using propagated juveniles, began in 2003 and continues. Reintroductions elsewhere should be considered where suitable habitat is found (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
11783		distribution	eng	In the past, this species has been reported by Goodrich (1938, 1941) from forks of the Black Warrior River, Walker County, the Black Warrior River in Jefferson County (including Valley Creek, Burch 1989) and at Tuscaloosa Co.; the Little Black Warrior River and the Tombigbee River (Stein 1976).<br/><br/>The current range of the species is limited to a short reach of the Locust Fork of the Black Warrior River in Jefferson and Blount Counties, Alabama (Hartfield 1994, USFWS 1995, 2000, 2004, 2005). Recent status surveys have located Plicate Rocksnail populations only in an approximately 88 km (55 mile) reach of the Locust Fork of the Black Warrior River, Jefferson and Blount counties, Alabama (USFWS 2005). The latest survey information indicates that the snail has recently disappeared from the upstream two-thirds portion of that habitat and now appears to be restricted to an approximately 32 km (20 mile) reach in Jefferson County (USFWS 2005). As such the current extent of occurrence falls well within the Critically Endangered category threshold.<br/><br/>Three subpopulations can be considered as one location, due to the threat of pollution and impoundment potentially severely impacting the entire location.
11783		habitat	eng	This species requires shallow flowing water over gravel, cobble, or bedrock in the strong currents of rapids and shoals (Hartfield 1994, USFWS 2000, 2005).
11783		population	eng	Extensive surveys have located only one population. Historically, there were many more (Hartfield 1994, USFWS 2005). The current population consists of subpopulations on fifteen shoals in 30 km reach of Locs Fork (Black Warrior drainage), Jefferson County, between Kimberly and Sayre (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, USFWS 2000, 2004, 2005). There are less than three shoals with a high density of snails.<br/><br/>It appears to be declining in the Locust Fork of the Black Warrior River where it recently occurred in about an 88 km stretch, but now exists in about a 32 km reach (USFWS 2005). Biologists conducting recent surveys have noted the disappearance of the species from one reach of stream since the work began on the species (P. Hartfield pers. comm. 1996). A 50% reduction in range has occurred in the last decade.<br/><br/>Decline since the early 20th century is documented as the species has disappeared from over 90% of its historic range where it formerly occurred in the Black Warrior River, Little Warrior River and Tombigbee River (USFWS 2004, 2005).
11783		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat modification. A proposed impoundment within the reach of habitat for the existing population would bisect the current known range (USFWS 1995). Other impacts which threaten this species include channel modification, agriculture, silviculture, cattle grazing, mining, drainage from unpaved roads, industrial and residential development (Bogan and Pierson 1993). Curtailment of habitat and range in the Mobile River Basin's larger rivers (Coosa, Alabama, Tombigbee and Black Warrior) due to extensive construction of dams and inundation of the snails shoal habitats by impounded waters (snails have disappeared from all portions of historic habitats that have been impounded by dams). Short and long-term impacts of point and non-point source water and habitat degradation continue to be a primary concern, compounded by population isolation and localization (USFWS 2004, 2005).<br/><br/>In the Mobile River basin, the greatest threats are dams (navigation, water supply, electricity, recreation, and flood control), channelization (causing accelerated erosion, altered depth, and loss of habitat diversity, substrate stability, and riparian canopy), dredging (for navigation or gravel mining), mining (for coal, sand, gravel and gold) in locally concentrated areas, pollution-point source (industrial waste effluent, sewage treatment&#160; (USFWS 2000).
11790		conservation	eng	The Tehuantepec jackrabbit is listed as critically endangered in the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.  Conservation laws are not enforced by local authorities in Oaxaca, Mexico.
11790		distribution	eng	According to Chapman <em>et al.</em> (1983) this species existed only from Salina Cruz, Oaxaca to the extreme west of the State of Chiapas, Mexico.  Recently, Tehuantepec hares have not been found in Chiapas (Retana and Lorenzo 2002).  The area occupied in the past was apparently 150 km², but increasing clearance for agriculture is destroying most of its habitat.  The former distribution of the Tehuantepec jackrabbit is not documented in detail, but Nelson (1909) estimated the leporid's historic range along the Mexican Pacific Coast on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from Salina Cruz in Oaxaca to Tonalá in Chiapas, as an area of perhaps only 5,000 km².  Four populations of Tehuantepec hare persist, and the extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km².  This hare inhabits altitudes at no more than 500 m.
11790		habitat	eng	At present, this jackrabbit is restricted to grasslands with open shrub and tree cover, and coastal grassy dunes which never exceed a 4-5 km wide strip along the shores of salt water lagoons on the north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec.  It co-exists with the eastern cottontail <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> and is crepuscular and nocturnal.  Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an over story of sparse bushes (<em>Byrsonima crassifolia, Opuntia decumbens, Opuntia tehuantepecana</em>), and scattered trees (<em>Crescentia</em> spp.) are the vegetation communities selected by Tehuantepec jackrabbits.  Tehuantepec jackrabbits are also found in coastal grassy dunes with <em>Sabal mexicana</em>.  Grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are dominated by <em>Paspalum</em> and <em>Bouteloua</em>.  Annual home range and core area sizes averaged 55.5 ha (range 27.6-99.7 ha) and 8.5 ha (range 2.1-13.3 ha) for adult jackrabbits of both sexes (n=10) using the 95% and 50% fixed kernal isopleths, respectively.  Similar home range size between sexes and home range overlap with more than one individual suggest that Tehuantepec hares have a polygamous mating system and a non-territorial social organization.  The length of the breeding season may extend from February to December, with a peak in reproduction during the rainy season (from May to October).  Mean litter size is two, with a range of one to four embryos (Farías pers. comm.).  Data are from museum specimens of Tehuantepec jackrabbits at the Colección Nacional de Mamíferos from the Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México of females that were pregnant (Farías pers. comm.).  The total length is 59.5 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  This species reaches maturity at six to seven months for both sexes (Farías 2004).
11790		population	eng	Population size is estimated as less than 1,000 individuals.  The four populations are rare and all are isolated from each other.
11790		threats	eng	The species' habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands.  In addition, the species is shot by numerous parties of hunters coming from cities up to 200 km away to shoot deer by spotlighting at night.  The extent of occurrence of Tehuantepec jackrabbits is jeopardized by habitat alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, agriculture, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements in savannas.  Predation was the major cause of mortality for radio-marked jackrabbits and accounted for 94% of juvenile deaths and 67% of adult deaths during a 29 month study.  Human-induced fires in the savanna accounted for 20% of adult deaths.  Poaching accounted for 13% of adult deaths, and for 6% of juvenile deaths. There is also low genetic variation.  Habitat reduction has been estimated at 8-29% over the last 24 years (Cuáron and de Grammont pers. comm.).
11791		conservation	eng	Regional declines in <em>L. timidus</em> populations suggest that research be conducted to determine the cause(s).  Several areas have been suggested: interspecific competition with <em>L. europaeus</em>, pathogenic impact, and the effects of hybridization (Thulin 2003).  In Ireland, the cause(s) of population declines require investigation (Dingerkus and Montgomery 2002).  The current situation of the endemic Irish hare (<em>L. t. hibernicus</em>) needs to be investigated specifically (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  In China, it occurs in Honghe, Xingkaihu, and Sanjiang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).<br/><br/>This species is listed under the Bern Convention, Appendix III as well as the European Union Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  This species is regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).
11791		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas within its European range. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the Habitats and Species Directive. In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> is proven or suspected to be declining, research should be carried out to determine the potential causes. Monitoring is required to determine if the species is declining in the Alps.  Monitoring of the endemic Irish hare (<em>L. t. hibernicus</em>) is already underway. Genetic investigations into the taxonomic status of this subspecies are also underway. A number of reasons for decline have been suggested: interspecific competition with <em>L. europaeus</em>, the impact of pathogens, and the effects of hybridization (Thulin 2003). In Ireland, the cause(s) of population change require further investigation, but agricultural intensification appears to be one of the main concerns.
11791		distribution	eng	Mountain hares range from Fennoscandia, the Baltic and east Poland to the Pacific Ocean, from 75°N in the far north of Russia and Scandinavia, south to 40-50°N. There are isolated populations in the Alps from France to Slovenia, Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, Italy, the Kurile Islands, and Hokkaido, Japan. It has been introduced into the Faeroes, England, and various Scottish Islands; some introduced on Spitzbergen later died out. It occurs at altitudes of 250 to 3,700 m (Sulkava 1999).
11791		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>L. timidus</em> extends from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the eastern edge of Poland and Scandinavia (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The northern most populations can be found at 75°N in Russia and Scandinavia, extending south to 40-50°N (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Isolated populations are located in Hokkaido (Japan), Ireland, the Kurile Islands, Sakhalin, Scotland (Flux and Angermann 1990), and the Alps regions of Austria, Italy, Germany, France, Slovenia, and Switzerland (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Introduced populations can be found in England, the Faeroes (Denmark), several Scottish islands (Flux and Angermann 1990).  On Spitsbergen Island, introduced populations failed to persist (Flux and Angermann 1990).
11791		habitat	eng	<em>L. timidus</em> inhabits tundra and taiga, particularly pine, birch, and juniper (Flux and Angermann 1990). Moors and bogland are the preferred habitats for this species in Ireland and Scotland (Flux and Angermann 1990).  However, <em>L. timidus hibernicus</em> will also utilize cultivated land, rich agricultural area, in Ireland (Thulin 2003).  <em>L. timidus</em> occupies lowland woodlands of open steppe in southern Russia along with reed belts around lakes (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In Mongolia, it occurs in forests located on the Altai, Hingan, Hentei, Hovsgol, and Hangai mountain ranges (Mallon 1985). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>L. timdus</em> varies in relation to the type of habitat it occupies (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>Calluna</em> (heather) constitutes the bulk of the diet in Scotland, while birch, juniper, poplar, willow, and <em>Vaccinium</em> are selected in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  If present, <em>L. timidus</em> will consume palatable grasses and clovers (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/><em>L. timidus</em> is a nocturnal species that will increase daytime activity during summer months (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Home range for this species ranges according to locality (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In Scotland, home ranges as small as 10 ha have been observed, while in Finland it was reported that home ranges could be as large as 305 ha (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/>In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> coexist, <em>L. timidus</em> will retreat to areas of higher elevation (Thulin 2003).  The reason for this is believed to be competitive exclusion, <em>L. timidus</em> yields habitat to <em>L. europaeus</em> (Thulin 2003).<br/><br/>Litter size of <em>L. timidus</em> is variable (two to six) according to the number of litters and the latitude (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  Gestation time is between 47-55 days (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  The breeding season is February to August (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).   <em>L. timidus</em> reaches maturity at one year of age.  Longevity for <em>L. timidus</em> is nine years (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Natural mortality for juveniles is 80%, while adult mortality is 58% (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Total length of this species is 45.7-61.0 cm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).<br/><br/><em>L. t. hibernicus</em> is the only endemic hare of Ireland (Reid and Montgomery 2007).  Contrary to other mountain hare populations, this subspecies "occurs at all altitudes and can be found in most habitats throughout Ireland" (Reid and Montgomery 2007).  <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> typically forages on grasses (Reid and Montgomery 2007).
11791		habitat	eng	Mountain hares occupy tundra and open forest, particularly of early successional stages. In Scotland and Ireland heather moors and bogland are favoured habitats, and in southern Russia copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes. The diet varies with the habitat. In Scotland and Ireland much heather, <em>Calluna</em>, is eaten, but this is not a major food item elsewhere in Europe where willow, aspen, birch, juniper, poplar, and <em>Vaccinium</em> are favoured (Flux and Angermann 1990). Palatable grasses and clovers are taken when available. Mountain hares are nocturnal, but there is increased daylight activity in summer when nights are short, or in winter when food is scarce (Flux and Angermann 1990). In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> coexist, <em>L. timidus</em> retreats to areas of higher elevation, presumably as a result of competitive exclusion (Thulin 2003).
11791		population	eng	<em>L. timidus</em> is an abundant species within its range (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Populations appear to be stable across much of its geographic distribution, with fluctuations occurring in northern Europe and possible declines in the Alps (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Population declines have been observed in Russia and in the extreme, southern portions of Sweden, <em>L. timidus</em> has disappeared entirely (Thulin 2003).  <em>L. timidus</em> is found at low densities in tundra areas (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  In Northern Ireland, historical game bag records indicate that there has been a substantial decline in hare abundance (Dingerkus and Montgomery 2002).  Populations of <em>L. timidus</em> are subject to periodic crashes where the cause is potentially parasitism, predation, or starvation (Angerbjorn and Flux 1995).
11791		population	eng	Long-term population trends in Europe appear generally stable, with fluctuations in population density occurring over a multi-year cycle (typically peaking every 4 or 7-8 years in Scandinavia and every 10 years in Scotland and northern Russia). Periodic population crashes occur, potentially as a result of disease (tularaemia, a bacterial infection), parasitism, predation, or starvation (Angerbjorn and Flux 1995, Sulkava 1999). Population densities of 1-10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> are typical in range states (e.g., Scotland and Finland). Population declines have occurred in Russia, and in the far south of Sweden the species has completely disappeared (Thulin 2003). The isolated Alpine population may be declining (Sulkava 1999).
11791		threats	eng	It is hunted as game, but current hunting rates appear to be sustainable in most parts of its European range. <em>L. timidus</em> has successfully hybridized with <em>L. europaeus</em> in areas where the latter has been introduced (Thulin 2003). The pathogens European Brown Hare Syndrome (EHBS) and tularemia may be problematic, but research is required to determine how great an impact they have on wild populations (Thulin 2003). Competitive exclusion of the mountain hare by the European brown hare may restrict the distribution of the former (Thulin 2003), and anthropogenic climate change may affect competitive relationships between these two species. The discovery of an introduced population of <em>L. europaeus</em> to Ireland could pose a threat to the Irish subspecies <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> (N. Reid pers. comm. 2006).
11791		threats	eng	There are several potential threats identified for this species.  <em>L. timidus</em> has successfully hybridized with <em>L. europaeus</em> in areas where the latter has been introduced (Thulin 2003).  The pathogens, European Brown Hare Syndrome (EHBS) and Tularemia, are considered problematic, but require research to determine how great an impact they inflict (Thulin 2003).  Competitive exclusion occurring between the mountain hare and the European brown hare could be restricting the distribution of the former (Thulin 2003).  The discovery of an introduced population of <em>L. europaeus</em> to Ireland could pose a threat to <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> (Reid pers. comm.).
11792		conservation	eng	Research should be concentrated on determining population numbers and range, as well as efforts to establish trends and monitoring.  Population decline in New Mexico prompted the listing of <em>L. callotis</em> as threatened in 1975 by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 2006).  Efforts have been made to monitor population status and trends in New Mexico, as well as, encouraging shrub control and non-detrimental grazing practices by local landowners within <em>L. callotis</em> habitat (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 2006).  Range reduction, indicated by climate change models, is expected to be more severe in the northern portion of this species' range.  Is it suggested that assessments be made of the population density of <em>L. c. gaillardi</em> and habitat transformation, to determine that impact future changes will have on its survival (Martinez-Villeda 2006).
11792		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus callotis</em> is nearly endemic to Mexico, distributed from southwestern New Mexico (USA) to northern Oaxaca (Mexico) (Hall 1981, Best and Henry 1993, Villa-Ramirez and Cervantes 2003).  <em>L. callotis</em> has been observed at an elevation of 2,550 m in Puebla and 750 m in Morelos (Best and Henry 1993).  <em>L. c. gaillardi</em> has a discontinuous distribution that extends from southwestern New Mexico, USA to north-central Durango, Mexico (Best and Henry 1993).  In Mexico, there are two isolated populations, one in central Chihuahua and the other extending from south-central Chihuahua into Durango (Martinez-Villeda 2006).  Its distribution in southwestern New Mexico is restricted to two locations in Hidalgo County at elevations between 1,500-1,600 m (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In 1950, there was a potential sighting of two <em>L. c. gaillardi</em> on the west side of the Huachuca Mountains in Arizona (Hoffmeister1986).  The total range in the USA is estimated to be 120 km² (Bednarz and Cook 1984).  <em>L. c. callotis</em> is distributed from the central part of east Durango toward the plains of the central part of Mexico, along the axis Neovolcanic to northern Guerrero and Oaxaca (Best and Henry 1993, Villa-Ramirez and Cervantes 2003).
11792		habitat	eng	<em>L. callotis</em> is restricted to high grasslands in New Mexico (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In the area surrounding the valleys inhabited by this species, overgrazing has caused the presence of shrub to increase, resulting in the increase of <em>Lepus californicus</em> and exclusion of <em>L. callotis</em> (Bednarz and Cook 1984).  This problem has been identified in parts of Mexico, as well (Best and Henry 1993).  In Zacatecas (Mexico) it lives in plains of open grasslands. In Queretaro (Mexico) it is associated with cultivated areas and corrals (potreros). <br/><br/>Breeding season varies from the middle of April to August and the average litter size is 2.2 (range 1-4) (Anderson 1972; Bogan and Jones 1975; Bednarz 1977).  <em>L. callotis</em> is capable of producing at least three litters per year during the breeding season (Bednarz 1977).  It is common to observe individuals in pairs, particularly in the breeding season.  <em>L. callotis</em> is strictly nocturnal (Flux and Angermann 1990).  An average total length for this species is 55.0 cm (Best and Henry 1993).  Their diet is almost exclusively grasses, but may consist of roots during dry seasons (Bednarz 1977).
11792		population	eng	In 1976, the density of <em>L. callotis</em> was estimated at 1/31.6 ha in New Mexico, producing a maximum population of 340 hares (Bednarz 1977).  Between 1976 and 1981, the restricted population in New Mexico has experienced a nearly 50% decline due to habitat change (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This decline has been accompanied by an increase in the presence of <em>L. californicus</em> and <em>Sylvilagus audubonii</em> (Best and Henry 1993).  <br/><br/>Population information for Mexico is scarce (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There has been an observed decline in population numbers for Durango (Best and Henry 1993).  A survey conducted from 1998-1999 on the semi-desert and plains grasslands habitats in Chihuahua, Mexico determined <em>L. callotis</em> densities of 0.01/ha and 0.06/ha, respectively (Desmond 2004).
11792		threats	eng	Changes in habitat due to overgrazing negatively impact <em>L. callotis</em> resulting in <em>L. californicus</em> encroachment (Flux and Angermann 1990, Desmond 2004).  In some places, there is competition with <em>L. californicus</em>.  Additional threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation and exotic predation.  In some places the animal competition (livestock), habitat fragmentation and human-induced fires represent important threats for their populations.  A model generated for climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% range reduction from the current potential range for this species (Martinez-Villeda 2006).
11793		conservation	eng	A China Key List - II protected species in China as of 1991, but as of 1995 there was no apparent law enforcement.  No habitat has been conserved for this species.  Recovery management is needed to reverse population declines (Luo 1988).  This species was regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A2cd+3cd; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
11793		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus hainanus</em> is endemic to the island of Hainan, China (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Formerly, L. hainanus occupied most of the lowlands of Hainan Dao, except possibly in the northeast.  In 1995 it was located only at Bang Xi and Da Tien deer ranches in the central west coastal zone.  Historic locations of <em>L. hainanus</em> specimens were found from sea-level and approximately 300 m (Lazell <em>et al.</em> 1995).
11793		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus hainanus</em> inhabits grasslands of the western regions on Hainan (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The eastern region of the island is not considered suitable for this species (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In 1995, <em>L. hainanus</em> was found only at deer ranches close to ranger stations, which provide some protection from poaching.  They are also found on flat, dry farm land that is scattered with second growth scrub or plantains (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species is characterized as tame, probably the result of few native carnivores present within its range (Lazell <em>et al.</em> 1995).  <em>L. hainanus</em> is predominantly a nocturnal species, but is known to forage during the day (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is exclusively a ground-dweller (Luo 1988).  <em>L. hainanus</em> reaches a maximum length of 40.0 cm (Lazell <em>et al</em>. 1995).
11793		population	eng	Formerly characterized as abundant, <em>Lepus hainanus</em> is now experiencing population declines (Lazell <em>et al.</em> 1995).  In 1995 it was estimated at 157 ±68 km² at Da Tien and 62 (no replicates) per km² at Bang Xi.  There are probably no more than two km² of optimal habitat remaining, so that total population may be no more than 250-500.
11793		threats	eng	Over harvesting and the expansion of agriculture present a major threat to Lepus hainanus (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Greater than 90% of its original habitat has been destroyed.  Artificially cleared deer ranches provide nearly all the extant habitat.  As of 1995, poaching for meat and skins continued.
11794		conservation	eng	<em>L. insularis</em> is listed in the Mexican official norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.  Other has been checked off on the conservation measures list regarding research actions and has been identified as "genetic."
11794		distribution	eng	<em>L. insularis</em> is known only from Espiritu Santo Island in the Gulf of California (Thomas and Best 1994). It occupies elevations ranging from sea level to 300 m (Nelson 1909).  The Nature Conservancy states that the island has 23,383 acres or approximately 95 km², the total extent of occurrence for this species .
11794		habitat	eng	This species prefers open areas and is common on rocky slopes, mesetas, dunes and sandy valleys (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <em>L. insularis</em> inhabits tropical scrub of cactus (<em>Pachycerus, Stenocereus, Opuntia</em>) and shrubs (<em>Prosopis, Ambrosia</em> and <em>Acacia</em>) in dunes with grasses and halophytic plants (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).  Most active during crepuscular hours, but is known to be active at all hours of the day (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <em>L. insularis</em> forages on a wide variety of grasses, herbs, forbs, and will consume "the fleshy part of short cacti (<em>Stenocereus</em>) and young stems of shrubs (<em>Prosopis</em>)” (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>The total length is 57.4 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).
11794		population	eng	The species is common on the island. The population is considered stable (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 1983).
11794		threats	eng	The major threats associated with <em>L. insularis</em> are disturbance by humans, loss and disturbance of habitat by exotic fauna, and competition with domestic fauna.
11795		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of this species in relation to <em>L. arcticus</em> and <em>L. timidus</em>.  Research should also be conducted in the areas of habitat and population status, harvest levels, and trends.  There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
11795		distribution	eng	The geographic range of <em>L. othus</em> consists of west and southwest Alaska (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It occupies elevations from sea level to approximately 660 m (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Previously, distribution included the Chukotkan region of Russia; however, molecular phylogeny suggests that this population of hare is more closely allied with <em>L. timidus</em> (Waltari <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The Alaskan hare has not been studied extensively, probably because of its restricted and isolated distribution along the Arctic tundra region of western Alaska.  The distribution is almost entirely north of treeline, including the North Slope of Alaska, although verifiable records of this range extension are lacking.
11795		habitat	eng	<em>L. othus</em> normally occupies open tundra (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Diet is likely to be the same as that of other arctic hares: dwarf willow, grasses, sedges and heath plants.<br/><br/>The total length is 56.5-69.0 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  <em>L. othus</em> produces one litter per year (Best and Henry 1994).  It averages 6.3 young per litter (Anderson and Lent 1977).  Gestation length is approximately 46 days (Anderson and Lent 1977).
11795		population	eng	Population is more or less continuous and is thought to be stable and healthy.  Populations may undergo cyclic fluctuations.  However, little/no monitoring of populations is ongoing.
11795		threats	eng	Southern populations may be subject to habitat loss, perhaps climate change as well, although this is highly speculative.
11796		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Talimuhuyanglin (Tarim), Aerjinshan, and Luobupoyeluotuo Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  Due to increased human activity, it is suggested that efforts be made to conserve habitat and that harvesting limits be implemented (Smith and Xie 2008).  Additionally, the lack of gene flow between isolated populations raises concern with regard to genetic variability.  This issue should be monitored to avert inbreeding depression.  This species is regionally listed in China as Vulnerable under criteria A1cd (Wang and Xie 2004).
11796		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus yarkandensis</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  "The Yarkand hare is restricted to the Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, between latitudes 36-42°N and longitudes 76-92°E (Flux and Angermann 1990)."  This species relies on oases of vegetation that are supported by streams descending from the surrounding mountains of the Taklamakan desert (Gao 1983; Luo 1988).  This habitat preference produces a ring shaped distribution around the Taklamakan desert (Gao 1983; Luo 1988).
11796		habitat	eng	Lepus yarkandensis prefers habitat that consists of "Chinese tamarisk or poplar forest and brushwood along the margins of the rivers, which produce 'islands' of vegetation as they run into the desert (Flux and Angermann 1990)." It will utilize reedy meadows within its range as well (Flux and Angermann 1990). However, this species tends to avoid agricultural fields (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Diet consists of grass and crops. There is no information on home range.  Total length of this species is 28.5-43.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Breeding season extends from February possibly into September (Smith and Xie 2008).  Litter sizes range from two to five young, with two to three litters per year (Smith and Xie 2008).
11796		population	eng	This species is considered locally common (Smith and Xie 2008).  However, it is suspected that it is experiencing population declines as human activity increases within its range.
11796		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus yarkandensis</span> is a game species and between 1958 and 1981 about 10,000 furs were produced annually (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Increasing human activity (petroleum exploration and local development) within its range is resulting in population declines (Li <em>et al.</em> 2005).  A recent study of population genetic structure found low gene flow among three sampled populations (Li <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It is inferred that increasing isolation of hare populations will exacerbate this situation, potentially resulting in genetic drift and inbreeding depression.
11797		conservation	eng	Recommended conservation actions are (Ballesteros <em>et al.</em> 1996):<br/>- Research to determine the effects of habitat change, predation pressure, and illegal hunting.<br/>- Develop a global hunting plan for all regional reserves and private hunting areas, accommodating specific characteristics of the situation for the species.<br/>- Avoid any restocking with other hare species within the extent of occurrence of <em>L. castroviejoi</em>.<br/>- Development of direct or indirect predator control, especially in conjunction with foxes and domestic dogs and cats.<br/>- Restoration of altered habitat that is no longer suitable for <em>L. castroviejo</em>i.<br/><br/>The establishment of corridors among local populations should be considered to bolster interbreeding within the metapopulation (Acevedo <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Research should also be conducted to improve knowledge of reproduction and genetic structure (Alves pers. comm.).  Although <em>L. castroviejoi</em> is listed as endangered in Spain, it is still hunted as a game species in some regions (Cantabria and Leon) (Alves per. comm.).<br/><br/>The ability to implement policies to manage and conserve this species should be easy, because a substantial portion of its area of occupancy lies within reserves (Ballesteros <em>et al</em>. 1996).
11797		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>L. castroviejoi</em> is limited to the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest of Spain (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It occupies elevations of 1,000 to 1,900 m between Sierra de los Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (Flux and Angermann 1990, Ballesteros 2003).  The total distribution is approximately 25 - 40 km from north to south, 230 km east to west (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is estimated that the extent of occurrence is 5,000 km² (Ballesteros 2003).  This species is considered fragmented, as it occupies highly specialized patches of habitat that is scarce (Ballesteros, in press).
11797		habitat	eng	Little is known about the home range, population density, and food preferences, but they are likely to be similar to those of European hares in comparable habitat.  No information is available on reproduction (Alves pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>L. castroviejoi</em> occupies an elevational range of 1,300-1,900 m, descending in winter to 1,000 m to avoid snow.  This habitat consists of heathland where the dominant vegetation forms are <em>Erica, Calluna</em>, and <em>Vaccinium</em> and shrub where the cover consists of <em>Cytisus, Genista</em>, and <em>Juniperus</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990, Alves and Niethammer 2003).  A habitat suitability model determined that <em>L. castroviejoi</em>, "selects areas characterized by a high percentage of broom and heather scrublands, high altitude and slope, and limited human accessibility (quantified as distance to roads variable) (Acevedo <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Its habitat also includes cleared areas of mixed deciduous forest of <em>Fagus</em> and <em>Quercus</em> (Palacios 1977).  <em>L. castroviejoi</em> also selects habitat that has been burned and areas where broom has been cleared within Somiedo Natural Park (Ballesteros <em>et al</em>. 1996).  Nocturnal censuses with spotlights in Somiedo Natural Park determined average densities of 6.83/100 ha (Gonzalez-Quiros <em>et al</em>. 1992).
11797		population	eng	<em>L. castroviejoi</em> is experiencing a decline in relation to specific portions of its distribution that are disturbed by human activities and excessive hunting (Ballesteros <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Fragmentation, resulting from the patchy distribution of suitable habitat, has produced a dispersed metapopulation of this species (Ballesteros, in press).  A habitat suitability model indicated that <em>L. castroviejoi</em> was experiencing a decreasing population trend of 16.67% and a 4.17% increase within its metapopulation structure, with no appreciable change for 70.82% of the populations (Acevedo <em>et al.</em> 2007).
11797		threats	eng	There has been excessive hunting at the western edge of its distribution where hares are isolated from the rest of the population during the summer (Palacios and Ramos 1979). <br/><br/>In addition to over harvesting, this species is subject to predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides) and habitat change (Ballesteros <em>et al.</em> 1996).
11798		conservation	eng	This species is present in Abiata-Shalla Lakes National Park and Gambela National Park (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).  There are few data available on this species.  It is therefore recommended, that research be conducted on population numbers/range, biology, and ecology for <em>Lepus fagani</em>.
11798		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus fagani</em> extends across the western region of the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1986).  The distribution of <em>L. fagani</em> is allo- or parapatric with that of <em>L. microtis</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  <em>L. fagani</em> can be found at elevations ranging from 500-2,500 m (Happold pers. comm.).
11798		habitat	eng	There are no actual data on the habitat or ecology of this species (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is assumed that <em>Lepus fagani</em> inhabits steppes, grasslands, and grassy sections of woodlands, within its distribution (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Total length of this species is 45.0-54.0 cm (Happold pers. comm.).
11798		population	eng	There are no data currently available regarding the population status of <em>Lepus fagani</em>.
11798		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
11856		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of the species.
11856		distribution	eng	Restricted to southern and central Argentina (Gardner . Ranging from the province of  Mendoza in the north to Santa Cruz in the south, the species is found in xeric environments of the Patagonia and Monte phytogeographic provinces.
11856		habitat	eng	Inhabits treeless, grassland (pampas) areas. The diet probably consists of mice, small birds, and, where present, insects and fruit. Anatomical features of this opossum, such as the skull, suggest that it is more carnivorous than its relatives. One specimen was caught in a trap with a bird in its mouth.
11856		population	eng	L. halli, is known from a few skeletons of captured animals and several isolated fragments recovered from owl pellets in Argentina. Recently, more than 300 remains were found in owl pellets and associated bones, comprising the largest known collection of L. halli (Martin 2005).
11856		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations are threatened by livestock and agriculture.
11871		distribution	eng	The species is reliably known from three islands in Furneaux Group, which is a cluster of hundreds of islands surrounding a main island, Flinders Island (c. 60x20 km). Flinders Island is one of the three. It is likely to be present on many of the smaller islands but very few of the islands have been searched for snails at all (K. Bonham, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>There are 12 recorded localities: two recorded from the 19th century (locality has not been resampled by collectors <br/>capable of finding species since then), and the remainder post-1950, mostly post-1980 (K. Bonham unpub. data, Australian Museum collections). There are likely to be many more discovered, probably hundreds, with further searching. Extent of occurrence (EOO) estimated at 2,050 km². The species occurs throughout a group of islands; the approximate total area of land on island group has been used as the EOO. Area of occupancy is difficult to estimate due to species’ unreliable population densities and lack of searching. It is likely to exceed 200 km²  but this is a very rough “guesstimate” (K. Bonham, pers. comm). There is no knowledge of any range decline.
11871		habitat	eng	Coastal scrub, scrub forests, gullies in wet forests. The species is very small (<em>ca</em>. 2 mm). It also persists in narrow bush areas which have been surrounded by houses, pastures etc for 50+ years.
11871		population	eng	It is impossible to estimate population size. The species sometimes occurs in extremely dense subpopulations, while others are of low density. Possibly there are millions of individuals. <br/> <br/>Some population decline is probable through land clearance, but the extent of this is unknown due to difficulty of predicting inland habitat.
11871		threats	eng	Unknown. Possible threats include land clearance and, in more disturbed places, replacement by introduced snails.
11873		conservation	eng	No information.
11873		distribution	eng	From lower Rhine and northern Germany eastward to southern Baltic basin; Black Sea basin south to Rioni drainage, northern and western Caspian basin (south to Kura drainage); Aegean Sea basin (from Maritsa to Nestos). Absent in Italy, Adriatic basin, Great Britain and Scandinavia (except southernmost Sweden). Widely introduced in France, upper Rhine drainage, locally in Great Britain and Switzerland and invasive in western Siberia (Ob basin in Russia and Kazakhstan).
11873		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland riverine habitats especially oxbows and other water bodies only connected to rivers during floods. Often found in ponds, steppe lakes and small water bodies not connected to rivers. May occur in any habitat with few or no predators. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at one year; spawns only for a single season. Spawns in May-September, when temperature reaches 16°C. Females may spawn about once every three weeks. Males are territorial; they clean the spawning site and guard the eggs, which are attached in strings around roots, reeds, aquatic vegetation or any material drifting on the water surface. Feeds mostly on zooplankton and terrestrial insects. Stunted populations may form in predator-free habitats. Often quickly reaches newly-created water bodies by still unknown mechanisms. Scales were used to produce Essence d'Orient, which was used for coating artificial pearls.
11873		population	eng	Abundant.
11873		threats	eng	Drainage of wetlands
11884		conservation	eng	No information.
11884		distribution	eng	Baltic, Black, northern Caspian and North Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Seine and lower Loire drainages (France). Absent in Scandinavia north of 69°N. In Asia, eastward to Lena drainage and Aral basin. Introduced to Great Britain and northern Italy.
11884		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually in large lowland rivers and nutrient-rich lakes. Migrates to tributaries for spawning in moderate current on gravel or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 5-6 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 10°C. Females spawn only once each season. Adults often undertake long spawning migrations. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females. Females attach the sticky eggs to gravel or submerged plant material. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for deeper waters when growing. Reaches up to 130 mm SL during first year. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animals and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Sometimes hybridises with <em>Aspius aspius</em>.
11884		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually in large lowland rivers and nutrient-rich lakes. Migrates to tributaries for spawning in moderate current on gravel or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 5-6 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 10°C. Females spawn only once each season. Adults often undertake long spawning migrations. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females. Females attach the sticky eggs to gravel or submerged plant material. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for deeper waters when growing. Reaches up to 130 mm SL during first year. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animals and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Sometimes hybridises with <span style="font-style: italic;">Leuciscus </span><em>aspius</em>.
11884		population	eng	Abundant.
11884		threats	eng	No major threats known.
11887		conservation	eng	No information available.
11887		distribution	eng	North, Baltic, White and Barents Sea basins; Caspian basin, in Volga and Ural drainages; Black Sea basin, from Danube to Dniepr drainages; Atlantic basin, in Seine drainage; Mediterranean basin from Rhône to Arc drainages (France).   In Danube main river in Romania, only very localised, in Scandinavia north of 69°N and most of central Finland.
11887		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Moderate to fast-flowing large streams to large rivers with rock or gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on shallow gravel beds, often in small tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons during life. Migrates often some tens of km to spawning sites, which are often situated in tributaries. Spawns in March-April when temperature reaches 9°C. Males form large aggregations, each male defending a small territory. Females spawn only once a year and, in some populations, during a very short period (3-5 days). Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae live along shores. Early juveniles are benthic and inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. When growing, they leave the shores for faster-flowing waters. They reach up to 85 mm SL during first year. Year class strength is closely related to high spring temperatures and absence of spring floods. Juveniles overwinter in cavities along the shores. Adults form dense swarms during winter in lower parts of rivers or in backwaters. Often migrates to spawning streams in autumn and overwinter there. Feeds on small invertebrates.
11887		population	eng	Abundant.
11887		threats	eng	No major threats known.
11911		conservation	eng	On the FHH-list in the EU, protected in some European countries.
11911		conservation	eng	The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be mapped and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has decreased. Most of the remaining threats are more local and need local action. In a large part of its range only isolated populations are found. It is needed to increase the amount of available habitat at these locations in order to secure the presence of this species in the long term.
11911		distribution	eng	<em>Leucorrhinia albifrons</em> is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to Scandinavia and to southwestern France. The species is scarce to fairly common in eastern and northeastern Europe (including southern Scandinavia). It has strongly declined in Germany, the Netherlands (one population left), Austria, Switzerland, France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Ukraine (two localities). The species is rare in these countries and most remaining populations are isolated.
11911		distribution	eng	South Fennoscandia, Central Europe, and Russia to Siberia.
11911		habitat	eng	<em>L. albifrons</em> is found in acid peaty lakes and pools and mesothrophic to weakly eutrophic lakes. The species has a preference for habitats that are largely unshaded but surrounded by forest. The species can co-exist with fish, however, it is either found in acidic waters, which are non-suitable for fish, or in habitats with abundant floating and emergent vegetation, which gives shelter to predation by fish.
11911		habitat	eng	Many kinds of mostly shallow waters with floating vegetation, not in too nutrient-rich waters.
11911		population	eng	The species is fairly common in northern Poland, the Baltic states, Russia, Sweden and Finland. However, it is very rare and has strongly declined to the west and south of this area. The populations seem to be stable at a low level in parts of western Europe, but are still declining in other areas (e.g. France).<br/>The northern and eastern populations are frequently large, but the western and southern populations are relatively small.
11911		population	eng	Very large: a common species.
11911		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to eutrophication.
11911		threats	eng	The major decline in western Europe was largely caused by the large-scale conversion of peat bog systems for agricultural purposes (mainly first half of the 20th century) and the eutrophication of mesothrophic lakes (mainly second half of the 20th century). Other smaller or more regional threats are/were pollution by pesticides, fish farming, drainage of and/or tree plantations in peaty areas, development of tourism infrastructure. It seems that the major decline of this species largely ceased but it is likely that the species is still declining in parts of its range.
11912		conservation	eng	On the FHH-list in the EU, protected in some European countries.
11912		conservation	eng	The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be mapped and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has decreased. Most of the remaining threats are more local and need a local actions. In a large part of its range only isolated populations are found. It is needed to increase the amount of available habitat at these locations in order to secure the presence of this species in the long term.
11912		distribution	eng	<em>Leucorrhina caudalis</em> is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to western Europe. The species is scarce to fairly common in northeastern and eastern Europe including parts of southern Fennoscandia. The species experienced a strong decline in western and parts of Central Europe. It is now rare in this part of its range and many populations are isolated.
11912		distribution	eng	Southern Fennoscandia, Central Europe, and eastwards to Western Siberia.
11912		habitat	eng	<em>Leucorrhinia caudalis</em> is most frequently found at oligotrophic to weakly eutrophic lakes or bogs in forest with a rich vegetation of aquatic plants and often with floating leaves. In west and Central Europe the species is often found in oxbows, fishponds, peat excavations, gravel pits or quarries. Unlike the other <em>Leucorrhinia</em> species it often occurs in waters that are rich in fish.
11912		habitat	eng	Normally woodland waters with abundant floating vegetation.
11912		population	eng	The species is very rare in western and parts of central Europe and has strongly declined. However, it is moderately represented to the northeast of these areas. The species is nowhere really common and at many sites only small numbers are found but abundance can be high at suitable habitats.
11912		population	eng	Very large.
11912		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to eutrophication and acidification.
11912		threats	eng	The decrease in the number of suitable habitats due to intensive water management, eutrophication and pollution was the main threat to this species. It seems that the major decline of this species largely ceased and in some parts of its range it seems to be slowly increasing being able to colonize oxbows, peat excavations, old quarries, and gravel pits.
11928		conservation	eng	The Ministry of Environment started to protect this species in 1993, and collection is prohibited by law. But this is not enough for the protection of habitats from destruction. Some NGOs have begun to conserve this insect and its habitats, for example at Okegaya Pond, Shizuoka Pref., Imuta Pond, Kagoshima Pref. and Noyori-shin Pond, Oita Pref.
11928		distribution	eng	China (central and north), Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and offshore islands) and Korea.
11928		habitat	eng	Old and stable ponds with a moderate growth of emergent vegetation in lowland hill areas. An area of open water is also necessary.
11928		population	eng	Current population size is estimated at < 5,000.
11928		threats	eng	Filling up of ponds to build houses and factories, and reforming to artificial ponds with concrete banks have much diminished the habitats. Destruction of grassy fields caused decrease of this species because the females and immature males need such fields as refuges. Introducing alien animals like <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> (Crustacea) and <em>Micropterus salmoides</em> (carnivorous fish) is a serious problem because of direct predation and habitat destruction.
11929		conservation	eng	The best-known population of <em>L. jesseana</em> is protected in Gold Head Branch State Park, but most other lakes of historical occurrence are not protected.<br/><br/>Research is urgently needed to determine the present extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. Surveys in appropriate habitats would be quite feasible and perhaps could be conducted during one flight season. Research is also needed on habitat needs of larvae, in comparison with other <em>Libellula</em>, although larvae may be indistinguishable from those of <em>L. auripennis</em>. Should be sought in ecologically similar lakes all over north Florida and in adjacent Georgia and Alabama.<br/><br/>The Palm Beach County record is quite anomalous, as <em>L. jesseana</em> habitat is not typical of that area, and should be confirmed or discredited.
11929		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the following areas in Florida in the United States of America:<br/>- Washington County, lake 2.1 mi N Bay County on hwy 77, 1980 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods, University of Texas collection)<br/>- Bay County, 3.5 mi E Crystal Lake, 1992 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Bay County, 0.5 mi E Crystal Lake, 1990 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Bay County, pond on hwy 388, 1975 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Clay County, Gold Head Branch State Park, Sheeler Lake (J. Daigle collection 1986, University of Texas collection 1992, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 1995, D.R. Paulson collection 2004)<br/>- Clay County, Gold Head Branch State Park, Pebble Lake, 1986 (J. Daigle collection, S. Dunkle collection)<br/>- Clay County, Gold Head Branch State Park, 1950, 1951, 1986, 1989 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Putnam County, lake E of S-21 on S-20, 1974 (University of Texas collection), 1979 (Dunkle collection, Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Putnam County, Morris Lake (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 1975, University of Texas collection 1976)<br/>- Putnam County, Clear Lake, 1974, 1976 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods, University of Texas collection)<br/>- Putnam County, near Interlachen, 1969 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Putnam County, Minnow Lake, 1969 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Volusia County, Enterprise, 1921 (Williamson 1922)<br/>- Seminole County, no locality, 1939 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Lake County, no locality, 1958 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Orange County, Apopka, Lake Alma, 1976 (J. Daigle collection)<br/>- Orange County, Winter Park, 1935 (D.R. Paulson collection, Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Orange County, Windemere, 1939 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Orange County, Maitland, 1935 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Palm Beach County, no locality, 1937 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods) (perhaps in error)
11929		habitat	eng	The species is found in clear sandy lakes and ponds with little aquatic vegetation but with a shoreline belt of tall maidencane (<em>Panicum hemitomon</em>) and/or sedges and St. John's Wort (<em>Hypericum</em>).
11929		population	eng	Even at optimal habitats, populations of <em>L. jesseana</em> seem small and the population trend remains unknown.
11929		threats	eng	Eutrophication and other types of water pollution from human settlement at and near lakes, ongoing in much of <em>L. jesseana</em> range in Florida, continue to threaten the habitat. Ground-water depletion because of irrigation could dry up some of the shallower ponds, which is also continuing to happen on the sandy ridges of Florida.
11930		conservation	eng	Unknown.
11930		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Libellulosoma minuta</em> is known, recorded from "Eastern Madagascar" but without the precise locality information.
11930		habitat	eng	Unknown.
11930		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
11930		threats	eng	Unknown.
11933		conservation	eng	They are known to be present in Tai N.P., although their presence in Sapo N.P. in Liberia requires confirmation. Further research is needed to more accurately determine the limits of their distribution, particularly as to whether they occur in neighbouring Guinea, and to better understand the threats facing this species (Taylor and Dunham in press).
11933		distribution	eng	Known only from north-eastern Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. They are likely to occur in suitable habitat in S Guinea (Taylor and Dunham in press).
11933		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary and secondary forests, and are found mainly in swamp forest and streambeds with deep sandy soils where earthworms are abundant. Although present in secondary forests, the lack of den sites may restrict their distribution (Taylor and Dunham in press).
11933		population	eng	Reliable information on their population status is not available (the first live specimen was only taken in 1989 from Nimbo When), but they are declining in many areas. Populations in Taï N.P. estimated at approximately 1.5/km² (Taylor and Dunham in press).
11933		threats	eng	Threats include habitat loss from agriculture, logging and mining, and hunting with dogs, shotguns, and snares. They may also be vulnerable to the use of pesticides in forest plantations, as worms are known to accumulate toxins at levels dangerous to mammalian predators (Taylor and Dunham in press).
11966		conservation	eng	Conservation of forest. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
11966		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Chiapas, Mexico, south through eastern Guatemala, southern Belize, Honduras, the Isthmus of Panama, through western Venezuela and Guianas, to northern Peru, Bolivia, and Amazonian Brazil (Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Lowlands to 1,000 m (Reid, 1997). A disjunct population occurs in southestern Brazil. In Bolivia known up to 500 m (Aguirre pes comm), in Ecuador to 900 m and in Peru to 800 m.
11966		habitat	eng	Poorly known. Usually recorded in lowland evergreen forest and plantations (Reid, 1997). This bat visits flowers and probably feeds on nectar, pollen, and insects (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Tschapka 2004). Known from lowland moist forest (Ochoa pers. comm.). In Bolivia occurs in montane forests (Aguirre pers. comm.).
11966		population	eng	This is a naturally rare species throughout its range. Rare but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
11966		threats	eng	In Bolivia considered vulnerable. Conversion of forests to pasture (deforestation). The disjunct population in southeast Brazil is threatened by deforestation.
11979		conservation	eng	This species is only known from two protected areas, Ranomafana National Park and the Andringitra National Park. The vulnerability of benthic prey communities to sedimentation implies that prevention of erosion and sedimentation is of paramount importance for conservation of this species. New and existing sites for the species must be protected from the effects of sedimentation wherever possible, either by inclusion of forested catchments in the protected areas network or by other means (e.g., effective terracing of agricultural fields and maintenance of vegetated riparian zones) (Benstead <em>et al</em>. 2001).
11979		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs in the eastern humid forest and central highlands. This species has only been recorded from a few localities in Madagascar (10 sites listed in Benstead and Olson 2003), including the Antsanpandrano Forestry Station on the Ankarata Massif, a site 15 km north of Antanifotsy village (Andringitra), a site 10 km north of Andekaleka, one specimen was caught in an eel trap at Ranomafana Est, 60 km east of Fianarantsoa; and a site 35 km south of Antsirabe. Its amphibious lifestyle is an impediment to the study of its distribution, which is poorly known. The altitudinal range is 450–2,000 m. There have not been many appropriate surveys in the intervening areas between the known localities, though it is likely present in appropriate habitat.
11979		habitat	eng	This species is a semi-aquatic carnivore, occurring along streams and rivers. The main habitat requirements are permanent, clean and fast flowing water. This species is thought to feed on freshwater crayfish, aquatic insect larvae and small crustaceans. However, it has once been found in streams within a pine plantations (which potentially keep siltation down similar to native vegetation), although this does not seem to be the case in other areas within its range (S. M. Goodman pers. comm.).
11979		population	eng	This species is only known from a few sites. Only two sites (Antsanpandrano and Ramonafana) have had repeated survey work.
11979		threats	eng	This species apparently requires clean and fast flowing water and is therefore vulnerable to siltation and soil erosion caused by deforestation. Agricultural expansion is fragmenting the upland forests, thereby isolating fast-flowing riverine habitat. Previously, collection and removal of the plant <em>Aponogeton</em>, which <em>L. mergulus</em> is closely associated with, was thought to cause an adverse reaction from the population (Nowak 1999); however, this has since been refuted (Benstead and Olson 2003). Accidental capture in fish traps has also been recorded.
11980		conservation	eng	The species is found in Mt. Kitanglad Nature Park.
11980		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mindanao island (Philippines) where it is restricted to high elevations from 2,000 to 2,800 m. It has been recorded from Mt. Apo, Mt. Kitanglad and Mt. Malindang (Musser and Heaney 1992; Musser 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).
11980		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary montane and mossy rainforest (Musser 1994; Musser and Heaney 1992) and has some elevational sympatry with <em>L. bryophilus</em> though <em>L. sinuanus</em> occurs in drier and slightly more disturbed habitats.
11980		population	eng	It is a common species in high-elevation forest (L. Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data).
11980		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is not under threat.
11982		conservation	eng	No information available.
11982		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species occurs in all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).
11982		habitat	eng	It is found in silt and sand at 4-30 meters.
11982		population	eng	No data, but fairly uncommon even on appropriate habitat.
11982		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation is a potential threat.
11987		distribution	eng	Found on the east coast of North America from Nova Scotia (Canada) south to the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico).
11990		conservation	eng	In 1996 this species was assessed as EN B1 + 2c.
11990		distribution	eng	<em>L. nigricauda</em> is endemic to China, and is found only in Lake Dianchi, Yunnan Province.  The lake is approximately 300 km².
11990		habitat	eng	<em>L. nigricauda</em> is a benthopelagic species.
11990		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
11990		threats	eng	An explosion in the human population around Lake Dianchi beginning in the 1950s has caused high levels of water pollution, from both industry and human settlement.  There was also extensive land reclamation at this time.
11995		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
11995		distribution	eng	This species is found in the San Pedro de Atacama Valley in Antofagasta, Chile, Salta in Argentina, and probably also in the state of Potosi, Bolivia.
11995		habitat	eng	This species is omnivorous and is found in the interior desert and into the puna shrubland.
11995		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
11995		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
12000		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
12000		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern desert zone of Antofagasta, Chile.
12000		habitat	eng	This species is found in hot coastal desert habitat.
12000		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
12000		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats affecting this species.
12009		habitat	eng	Is a sand dune obligate.
12073		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
12073		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Panama, principally the Pacific versant (Patton 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid 1997).
12073		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in dry, deciduous forest, thorn scrub, and weedy fields. Appears to tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance.<br/><br/>Most of its ecology is similar to <em>L. salvini</em> (Reid 1997). It eats palm nuts (<em>Scheelea rostrata</em> and <em>Bactris balanoides</em>), other seeds, green plant material, and insects. Breeding occurs from December to May in central Panama (Reid 1997).
12073		population	eng	It is common to abundant (Reid 1997). Population density may reach 11 mice per hectare (Fleming 1970).
12073		threats	eng	No major threats known. However, it could be subject to agrochemicals in part of its range (Samudio pers. comm.).
12074		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
12074		distribution	eng	From extreme south Texas, United States (just north of the Rio Grande River) southward throughout most of central Mexico (Patton 2005).
12074		habitat	eng	It prefers dry shrubland habitat. Occupies dense brushy areas along ridges that are remnants of old banks of Rio Grande.<br/><br/>Like other pocket mice, it forages for seeds and stores them in the fur-lined cheek pouches. In southern Texas, its diet includes seeds of hackberry, mesquite, and other shrubs. It is nocturnal, staying in burrows during the day. The entrance to the burrow is often covered with leaves or other vegetation, or with a small mound of soil. This species breeds throughout the year, but peak reproductive period appears to be during the fall or winter. The number of young varies from two to eight, with an average litter size of four (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
12074		population	eng	It is common but limited (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
12074		threats	eng	None known.
12075		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
12075		distribution	eng	This species is known from the west central coast of Mexico, from Sonora to Chiapas, and from the east coast of Mexico in Veracruz, and from the extreme northwest Guatemala (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,000 m (in Chiapas and Guatemala) (Reid 1997).
12075		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry, deciduous forest, thorn scrub, and brush. It is often found among cacti and acacia, or along streams in otherwise dry areas (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal, solitary, and terrestrial. The diet includes seeds (of <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Ficus</em>, <em>Convolvulus</em>, <em>Liepenus</em>, <em>Prosopis</em>, and <em>Alicarpus</em>), green plant material, and arthropods (spiders, beetles, crickets, and moths). Seeds about the size of garden peas are preferred. The relative proportion of vegetable and animal foods in the diet varies widely among different populations, which suggests opportunistic feeding (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984, in Reid 1997). Breeding occurs almost year-round, except early in the dry season (Reid 1997)
12075		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997).
12075		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the decline in deciduous forest habitat.
12076		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
12076		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chiapas (Mexico) south to central Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).
12076		habitat	eng	It occurs in deciduous forest, brush, and weedy fields; often near rocks or walls (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>This mouse constructs elaborate burrow systems with several entrances; seeds transported in the cheek pouches are stored in the burrow or in shallow pits nearby (Fleming and Brown 1975). In Costa Rica, the large seeds of the Buttercup Tree (<em>Cochlospermum vitifolium</em>) are favored; other seeds, including poisonous seeds of Guanacaste (<em>Enterolobium cyclocarpum</em>), and insects (bettle pupae) are also eaten (Fleming 1974). This species detects seeds by odor and can locate seeds buried in dung (Reid 1997). Individuals are solitary and fight fiercely if placed together in captivity, but in wild home ranges may overlap. Breeding occurs from January to June in Costa Rica, with females producing 1 or 2 litters per year. Mean litters size is 3.8 young. Life span is usually less than a year in the wild; a few individual may survive for 18 month (Reid 1997).
12076		population	eng	It is common and widespread (Reid 1997). Population density may be as high as 9 individuals per hectare (Reid 1997).
12076		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species range.
12077		conservation	eng	This species is protected under Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOl-2001).
12077		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeast Jalisco (Mexico) (Patton 2005). Its altitudinal range is 960 to 1,615 m (Genoways 1973 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003).
12077		habitat	eng	This species can be found in xerophytic montane areas and pine-oak forest (Genoways 1971 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003). Weeds, low brush, cornfields, grass, and several trees compose the typical habitat of the Jaliscan spiny pocket mouse (Genoways 1973 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003). Some specimens were caught in the immediate vicinity of a highway (Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003). Current agricultural use has greatly modified the landscape (Genoways 1971 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003).<br/><br/>The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known.
12077		population	eng	This species is known from few localities and is considered rare due to a low numbers of specimens (Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003).
12077		threats	eng	The species is reported as having a small range that is subject to increasing habitat disruption (Nowak 1999). The pine-oak forest in this region is severely fragmented due to timber extraction.
12078		conservation	eng	Conservation of caves and karstic habitats in forested areas.
12078		distribution	eng	South America but enters Panama near the Colombian border, south to northern Bolivia, and the southern Amazon Basin of Brazil, east to Belem. To 1,400 m elevation (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12078		habitat	eng	Roosts include caves and crevices and is found in rainforest, gardens, and plantations. Also recorded in secondary forest and savanna in South America. The diet has not been recorded, but is probably similar to that of genus <em>Lonchophylla</em> (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
12078		population	eng	Widely distributed and relatively uncommon, however, can be locally common near rock outcrops and caves.
12078		threats	eng	Disturbance of caves and rock outcrops, and deforestation in some parts of the species range, however, this is not considered to be a major threat.
12112		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
12112		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
12112		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
12112		population	eng	No information available.
12112		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
12114		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.
12115		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.
12117		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Victoria.
12118		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.
12119		conservation	eng	The baiji is designated in the First Category of National Key Protected Wildlife Species and has full legal protection throughout its range. Protection from deliberate killing or injury appears to be effective but, as noted above, prohibitions on harmful fishing methods are generally not very effective and there is no evidence that baiji are protected in any way from the mortality, injury, and health impairment caused by the other threats listed above.<br/><br/>Since the late 1980s, the primary strategy to prevent the baiji's extinction was to capture as many dolphins as possible and to introduce them into "semi-natural reserves", one of which (Tongling) was approved by the Chinese government in the 1980s, and the other (Shishou) in the 1990s. The approach of using semi-natural reserves as components of a broad-based conservation strategy was endorsed by international panels of scientists in 1986 (Perrin and Brownell 1989) and 1993 (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1993, Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1994). It was premised on the assumption that the total dolphin population in the 1980s was approximately 300 and declining. Importantly, it was also premised on the expectation that an <em>ex situ</em> breeding population, preferably housed at two or more sites, would provide surplus animals for replenishment or reestablishment of the wild population, and not be viewed as an end in itself (Perrin and Brownell 1989, Ralls 1989, Perrin 1999).<br/><br/>However, the expectation that sufficient numbers of baiji could be caught and placed in the reserves to establish a viable <em>ex situ</em> population has proven unrealistic. Six capture expeditions, each lasting 2 to 3 months, were conducted between Chenglingji and Gongan in the 1990s. In 1995 a female baiji was caught and released in the Shishou reserve, a 21 km oxbow channel of the Yangtze River (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1998). Less than seven months later her carcass was found entangled in the escape-prevention net at the outlet of the reserve. At that time, one other baiji was in captivity - a male (Qi Qi) that had been rescued from fishing gear and rehabilitated in 1980. This animal remained in its dolphinarium tank at the Institute of Hydrobiology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Wuhan until it died in 2002. At the time of this writing (August 2004; update in April 2007), no Baiji were in either of the semi-natural reserves or in the dolphinarium at Wuhan.<br/><br/>Scientific opinion has been divided on how to proceed with baiji conservation efforts. The Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission reviewed the status of the baiji in 2000, but members were unable to reach consensus on whether further attempts at live-capture should or should not be made (IWC 2001). The IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group recommended in 2003 that: (1) available resources should be devoted to eliminating the known threats to the species in its natural habitat; (2) immediate action should be taken at national, provincial and local levels to fully enforce the bans on rolling hooks and electric fishing; and (3) if the capture/translocation effort continues, capture operations should be improved to prevent dolphin injury or mortality, water quality in the reserve should be kept at a high standard and finless porpoises should be removed to ensure against deleterious interactions between them and the dolphin(s) (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003). The Chinese Ministry of Agriculture has developed a baiji conservation plan emphasizing the <em>ex situ</em> approach (Ministry of Agriculture 2001, Wang and Zhang 2002).<br/><br/>With the intention of improving the status of fishery resources, the central Chinese government has, since 2001, banned fishing in the entire middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (including appended lakes and tributaries) between 1 April and 30 June. This measure, if effective, could give some seasonal relief to baiji from one of the more serious lethal threats to their survival. In addition, serious efforts have been made in recent years to protect baiji and improve their habitat in the Xin-Luo National Baiji Reserve (established in 1992) and in two smaller reserves run by provincial governments (Zhenjiang and Tongling sections). In the Xin-Luo Reserve patrol boats monitor fishing activity, collect baiji sightings, rescue injured animals, and investigate dolphin deaths. Several shore-based monitoring sites have been established in the reserve to observe baiji. Perhaps the most important work carried out by reserve staff is that of enforcing the ban on electric fishing.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
12119		distribution	eng	In recent times, this species has been endemic to the Yangtze River of China. Some individuals were seen in the Fuchun River, immediately south of the Yangtze, during the great flood of 1955 but disappeared from that area after construction of a hydropower station in 1957 (Zhou 2002). Baiji also occurred historically in Dongting and Poyang Lakes, both appended water bodies of the Yangtze (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1977, Chen <em>et al</em>. 1980), but apparently do so no longer (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2000, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). Their upstream limit in the Yangtze changed from the Three Gorges area approximately 35 km above Gezhouba Dam near Yichang in the 1940s to approximately 170 km below the dam site near Jingzhou (formerly called Shashi) in the 1990s (Zhou 2002, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). These dolphins were once observed as far downstream as the river mouth near Shanghai (Zhou and Li 1989). No dolphins were found downstream of Jiangyin, located 256 km upstream of the mouth, during surveys in 1997-99 (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). (See Figure 1 in the attached PDF showing the Yangtze River and the locations used to describe the distribution of the baiji).
12119		habitat	eng	Generally found in eddy counter-currents below meanders and channel convergences (Hua <em>et al</em>. 1989, Zhou and Li 1989, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). Baiji prey on fish of many sizes and various species, including both surface and bottom feeders (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997).
12119		population	eng	The first estimate of abundance based on quantitative survey data (1979-81) was made by Zhou (1982), who guessed that there were only about 400 animals all told. On the basis of surveys conducted in 1985-86, Chen and Hua (1989) made an educated guess that the total population was around 300. Surveys by Zhou and Li (1989) between 1982 and 1986 suggested that there were 100 baiji in a 770 km segment of the lower Yangtze from Hukou to the river mouth, compared with 78 to 79 dolphins counted by Chen and Hua (1989) in the same segment in 1985-86. Repeated surveys of a 500 km segment of the lower Yangtze (Nanjing-Hukou) in 1989-91 produced a maximal count of 12 individuals, leading Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1998) to infer a total abundance of about 30 baiji in that river segment. Those authors reasoned that if the species still inhabited its historical range of about 1,700 linear kilometers of river, with a density similar to that found in their study area, the total population in the early 1990s would have been only about 100. Attempted comprehensive surveys of the entire species' range in 1997-99 resulted in a maximal count (November 1997) of 13 dolphins (including one calf), leading to the generally accepted view that abundance had continued to decline and that the total population was by that time very small. The sighting rate in the three years of surveys declined at an annual rate of about 10% (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). Informed guesses in the early 2000s were that there could be only "a few dozen" (Zhou 2002) and "very likely ? less than a hundred" (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003) baiji left (also see Wang 2000, IWC 2001, Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although no credible time series of counts or abundance estimates is available to provide a rigorous evaluation of trends, there is an overwhelming consensus that the baiji population declined rapidly over the past several decades.<br/><br/>During surveys in the late 1990s baiji were found mainly in several segments of the Yangtze between Tongling and Dongting Lake, such as the Tongling section, the Poyang Lake mouth area, and the Honghu section (Wang 2000, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>More recent evidence suggests that this species might already be extinct. The last documented sighting (supported by photographic evidence) was in 2002 and the last confirmed stranding was in 2001 (Turvey <em>et al</em>. in prep.). In November and December 2006 a comprehensive visual and acoustic survey failed to find a single baiji in the Yangtze River (Turvey <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Two research vessels covered the known habitat of baiji from Yichang to Shanghai in both the upstream and downstream directions (for quadruple coverage). In addition, one vessel towed a hydrophone to listen for baiji whistles and clicks during the downstream survey. Although Dongting and Poyang Lakes were not covered in the 2006 Yangtze mainstem survey, no baiji have been seen since 2000 by researchers studying finless porpoises in those lakes. A few undocumented sightings have been reported since 2004, but there are no photographs or physical evidence for the species? continued existence. The preponderance of evidence indicates that the baiji is very close to extinction or might already be extinct.
12119		threats	eng	The range contraction and the decline in baiji abundance were caused by a combination of factors, including: possibly some level of direct exploitation historically; incidental mortality from interactions with fisheries; vessel traffic, management of navigation channels, and harbor construction; and loss or degradation of habitat by water development, land use practices, and pollution.<br/><br/>During China's "great leap forward" the baiji's traditionally venerated status as "goddess of the river" was denounced and baiji skin was used to produce handbags and gloves (Zhou and Zhang 1991).<br/><br/>Entanglement in fishing gear was estimated in the 1970s to 1980s to have been responsible for at least half of observed mortality (Lin <em>et al</em>. 1985, Zhou and Li 1989, Chen 1989, Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Longlines with thousands of unbaited hooks used for snagging bottom fish ("rolling hooks") accounted for 7 of 13 entanglement deaths recorded in the lower Yangtze between 1978 and 1985 (Zhou and Li 1989) and 15 of 28 in the middle reaches between 1973 and 1983 (Zhou and Wang 1994, also see Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Additional deaths from entanglement in rolling hooks were documented in the 1990s (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998). Baiji often have scars and open wounds from rolling hooks, and hook remains are sometimes found in the stomachs of dead animals (Lin <em>et al</em>. 1985, Zhou and Li 1989). Deaths also result from entanglement in gill and fyke nets (Zhou and Wang 1994). According to Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1998), both rolling hooks and fyke nets are banned in the Yangtze "because both are harmful to fisheries resources, and because of incidental killing of Baiji", but enforcement of these prohibitions is "very difficult" and therefore incidental mortality is likely to continue. <br/><br/>Electric fishing, although "strictly banned" in the Yangtze (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998), is widely practiced, particularly in the centre of the baiji's distribution (IWC 2001). By the early 2000s this fishing method had come to be viewed as the most important and immediate direct threat to the baiji's survival (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). The electric shocks kill baiji outright (Chen and Hua 1989, Wang Ding in IWC 2001: 276) and unselectively kill other aquatic organisms, including the baiji's prey.<br/><br/>Propeller strikes have killed and injured baiji (Zhou and Zhang 1991, Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997) and are considered an increasing threat in view of the rapid industrial and economic growth of China, with its associated expansion of traffic on the Yangtze (Chen 1989, Chen and Hua 1989, Zhou and Li 1989, Zhou 1992, Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>Explosives, used to deepen or widen river channels or for fishing, are another cause of baiji mortality (Lin <em>et al.</em> 1985, Zhou and Li 1989, IWC 2001).<br/><br/>Water development has transformed the baiji's habitat in important ways, e.g., by interrupting their movements upstream of dams, eliminating their access to tributaries and appended lakes, and reducing fish productivity (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). A dead baiji found at the bottom of a gate for a ship lock in a Yangtze tributary may have been killed accidentally by the structure (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Chen and Hua (1987) predicted that the controversial Three Gorges Dam, completed in the early 2000s, would eliminate counter-current habitat for approximately 200 km downstream and degrade the existing counter-current systems for another 160 km downstream. Further, stratification in the reservoir will cause the water released below the dam to be cooler than previously, potentially affecting baiji and their prey. The downstream effects of Gezhouba Dam were not as extreme as those predicted for Three Gorges Dam because the former is a low-head, run-of-the-river structure (Zhong and Power 1996), meaning that sediment is allowed to pass through (which allows the formation of the counter-currents where baiji are generally found - see above) and no reservoir forms. Another effect of Three Gorges Dam will be to facilitate large ship traffic in the upper reaches of the Yangtze and thereby increase the amount of underwater noise and the incidence of vessel collisions with baiji (Chen and Hua 1989).<br/><br/>Industrial expansion and intensified agriculture (both facilitated by water development) have already caused major ecological problems in the Yangtze system. For example, Dongting and Poyang Lakes have become much shallower because of siltation from deforestation and agricultural development; in fact, it has been suggested that Dongting Lake could disappear altogether within a decade (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).<br/><br/>Pollutant loads in the Yangtze are expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of modern agricultural practices. Approximately 40% of China's industrial and agricultural output comes from the Yangtze basin, with more than 16 billion cubic meters of wastewater discharged into the river annually, of which more than 12 billion cubic meters is industrially polluted and largely untreated (Zhou<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1998).
12124		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
12124		threats	eng	This species is traded in substantial numbers in East Asian food markets.
12125		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES<br/><br/>The most significant conservation measure for this species was the United Nations (U.N.) moratorium on high-seas driftnet fishing. In the eastern North Pacific, the U.S drift gillnet fishery has been required since 1996 to use acoustic warning devices (pingers) to reduce cetacean bycatch, although low levels of bycatch of Lissodelphis borealis have continued (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005).
12125		distribution	eng	The northern right whale dolphin is found in deep, temperate waters of the North Pacific Ocean, between about 30°N and 50°N.
12125		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species includes deep oceanic waters from the outer continental shelf across the temperate North Pacific. They are sometimes seen nearshore, especially where deep water approaches the coast (such as underwater canyons), and apparently prefer "coastal-type" waters in the California Current system (see Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). Ferrero (1998) observed in the central North Pacific that sea surface temperature was the most influential habitat parameter, with <em>L. borealis</em> occupying warmer waters than either Phocoenoides dalli or Lagenorhynchus obliquidens. <br/><br/>Groups of northern right whale dolphins mixed with other marine mammals, especially Pacific-white-sided dolphins (with which they share a nearly identical range) and Risso’s dolphins, are not uncommon (Baird and Stacey 1991). <br/><br/>Although market squid and lanternfish are the major prey items for northern right whale dolphins off southern California, a variety of other species are taken by this species throughout the range. These include various species of cephalopods, hakes, sauries, and several species of surface and midwater fishes.
12125		population	eng	Estimates of abundance are available for a subset of the range of northern right whale dolphins. Across the oceanic North Pacific, Buckland <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated 68,000 (CV=71%) and Miyashita (1993) estimated 307,000 northern right whale dolphins, with wide confidence limits, from sighting data, whereas Hiramatsu (1993) estimated about 400,000 dolphins for the same region based on bycatch data. All estimates have high uncertainty, and Buckland (1993) considered the two higher estimates to be positively biased. In the eastern North Pacific, the distribution of this species has been documented to vary seasonally (Forney and Barlow 1998), and abundance estimates along the U.S. West Coast have ranged from about 9,000 to 21,000 dolphins (Forney 1995, Barlow and Forney, in press). The average abundance in this region during 1996-2001 was estimated to be about 11,000 (CV = 26%); Barlow and Forney, in press).
12125		threats	eng	<em>Lissodelphis borealis</em> experienced very high levels of fishery-induced mortality in international high-seas, large-scale driftnet fisheries, from about 38°N to 46°N and 171°E to 151°W. Assessing the impact of this mortality is complicated by the possible existence of a coastal population off California and the Pacific Northwest that is separate from offshore populations that were subject to high levels of bycatch (Dizon <em>et al</em>. 1994). Total numbers killed by the North Pacific squid driftnet fleets of Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea in the late 1980s were estimated at about 15,000-24,000 per year, and this mortality is considered to have depleted the oceanic population by an unknown amount. Using a variety of assumptions about population estimates, growth rates, and bycatch levels, Mangel (1993) presented a range of analyses that indicate declines of less than 30% were most likely, although more severe declines of up to 45-75% could not entirely be ruled out under certain scenarios, including a few biologically unrealistic ones. The UN moratorium on large-scale high-seas driftnets that came into effect in 1993 relieved this pressure to a considerable extent, but the continued use of driftnets to catch billfish, sharks, squid, and tuna inside the exclusive economic zones (EEZ) of North Pacific countries and some continued illegal fishing on the high-seas results in the killing of unknown numbers of northern right whale dolphins each year.<br/><br/>Incidental catches have also occurred in Japanese and Russian purse seines, Japanese salmon driftnets, and U.S. shark and swordfish driftnets. Small numbers have been killed in commercial and experimental salmon drift-net operations in the western and central Pacific (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). An estimated 386 northern right whale dolphins were killed between 1990 and 2002 in U.S. driftnets targeting sharks and swordfish off the California, Oregon and Washington (Julian and Beeson 1998, Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). A short-lived Canadian experimental driftnet fishery for flying squid killed a total of 13 in 1986 and 1987 (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). Northern right whale dolphins have also been observed entangled in net debris in the western Pacific. The total reported take of northern right whale dolphins by Japan in 1987 was 261 individuals, of which 254 were discarded as bycatch (Government of Japan 1989).<br/><br/>Northern right whale dolphins have never been subject to extensive directed hunt, although they have sometimes been taken in Japan’s small-cetacean fisheries. In the western Pacific, coastal fisheries off Japan have taken them for many years, with 465 reported killed in the harpoon fishery in 1949. Although this fishery mainly targets other small cetaceans, northern right whale dolphins continue to be taken (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994).
12126		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Because no population estimates are available, mortality rates and their effect on the population(s) are unknown. More research is clearly needed.
12126		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is poorly known, though it appears to be circumpolar and fairly common throughout its range (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Lipsky 2002). Southern right whale dolphins are found only in cool temperate to subantarctic waters of the Southern Hemisphere, mostly between about 30°S and 65°S. The southern limit appears generally to be bounded by the Antarctic Convergence. The range extends furthest north along the west coast of continents, due to the cold counter clockwise currents of the Southern Hemisphere. The northernmost record is at 12°S, off northern Peru.
12126		habitat	eng	Southern right whale dolphins are observed most often in cool, deep, offshore waters with temperatures of 1-20°C. They are only occasionally seen nearshore, and this is generally where deep water approaches the coast (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rose and Payne 1991).<br/><br/>The southern right whale dolphin feeds primarily on squid and fish (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994).
12126		population	eng	There are no estimates of abundance for the southern right whale dolphin, and virtually nothing is known of the subpopulation structure or status of the species. Preliminary boat surveys and the rapid accumulation of stranding and fishery interaction records in northern Chile suggest that the southern right whale dolphin may be one of the most common cetaceans in that region (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994; Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>., 1991). Aguayo <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported that <em>L. peronii</em> are very common between Valparaiso and 76°W, i.e. just off the Chilean coast.
12126		threats	eng	Southern right whale dolphins have been directly taken in recent years in Peru and Chile for crab bait and for human consumption (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). There are no estimates of the mortality levels.<br/><br/>The only incidental catch of any magnitude that is known is in the swordfish gillnet fishery off Chile. There is concern that large numbers are being killed in the driftnet fishery for swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>) that began in northern Chile in the early 1980s (Reyes and Oporto 1994). They are also known to be taken incidentally in driftnets along the coasts of Peru (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993).
12130		conservation	eng	This species was previously categorised as - Vulnerable on the 1996 Red List (A2ce), and Endangered before. Targeted surveys are needed to determine the present status. Further research is required to ascertain the taxonomy and distribution.
12130		distribution	eng	This species formerly was limited to specific stretches of the Duck River, Tennessee (most recently Bedford to Humphreys Cos.); it can no longer be found from the Caney Fork where formerly it occurred near the mouth (Burch 1989) in Smith Co., though it may be in deep water of Cumberland (Bogan and Parmalee 1983).  Currently it is likely to be extinct as it has not been seen in in more than twenty years. It was endemic to Caney Fork but the population was destroyed by USACE Center Hill dam on Caney Fork. Recently, specimens were possibly found by Dillon and Johnson (2004), although&#160;R. Minton (pers. comm. 2009) believes this species is extinct and that the individuals recorded were of a different taxa,  possibly<em> armigera</em>. Thus, taxonomic clarification of this species and the recently collected specimens is needed in order to resolve the Red List status of this species.
12130		habitat	eng	Nothing specific has been published for this species. It is likely to occur in the vicinity of riffles in flowing water in coarse particle substrata (i.e., cobbles, boulder, bedrock).
12130		population	eng	Burch (1989) cites forks of the Cumberland River; Caney Fork, Tennessee, near the mouth (from Goodrich, 1940) in Smith Co.  Davis (1974) found it inhabiting the Duck River from Bedford to Humphreys Co.&#160;The Caney Fork population has long been extirpated and the  Duck River population was the last to disappear (Bogan and Parmalee 1983). The taxonomic status of recently collected specimens needs evaluation (Dillon and Johnson 2004).
12130		threats	eng	In the past the major threat to this species was habitat loss through impoundment.
12131		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List in 1996, version 2.3 (under A1ce). Before that it was assessed as Endangered in 1994, 1990, and 1988 (IUCN 2009). It has a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G2 (imperiled), a Tennessee State Rank of S2, and an Alabama State Rank of S1 (critically imperiled) (NatureServe 2009). However, a 2003 study proposed a change in classification to G3G4 (vulnerable to apparently secure) (Minton and Lydeard 2003).<br/><br/>Recent plans were announced to modify releases of water from the Tims Ford Hydroelectric Plant and Dam, which affects the entire Elk River watershed, in order to improve habitat conditions for endangered molluscs (Tennessee Valley Authority 2008). This was implemented in 2008.<br/><br/>Before the conservation status of this species can be accurately assessed further work on taxonomic relationships is needed. It is also critical that population trends are established and monitored, both before and after further modifications to the Tims Ford Dam (and others that may impact this species), in order to detect a change in status.
12131		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Elk and Tennessee River drainages in Alabama and Tennessee, US. Recent surveys recorded it from the Elk River, as well as Bear, Cypress, and Sugar Creeks in Colbert, Lauderdale, and Limestone Cos., Alabama (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Other species of the same genus have partially overlapping ranges<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>For example, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. salebrosa </span>has a wide range extending into other states (Kentucky and Alabama), so that synonymy with this species would reduce the listing to Least Concern. <br/><br/>See Minton and Lydeard (2003) for molecular analysis of <span style="font-style: italic;">lima </span>and other species. Results from this are only preliminary and more sampling needs to be done especially for <span style="font-style: italic;">salebrosa</span>.
12131		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small- to moderate-sized rivers with rocky substrates. It appears intolerant of silty conditions (NatureServe 2009).
12131		population	eng	Populations in the Elk River have suffered declines due to habitat alteration from impoundment and sedimentation from gravel mining (NatureServe 2009).
12131		threats	eng	The construction of hydroelectric dams—such as the Tims Ford Dam, completed in 1970—has altered the Tennessee and Elk River systems with deleterious consequences for many freshwater species. The Tims Ford Dam near Winchester, TN, impounds the lower 25–31 miles of the Elk River. Periodic releases of water from the reservoir have altered the downstream river habitat, including lowering water temperatures by 10–15°C; reducing dissolved oxygen levels; and causing large daily fluctuations of flow of up to two orders of magnitude (Tennessee Valley Authority 2008).<br/><br/>This and other threats, including sedimentation from agriculture and mining, as well as increases in populations of introduced predators, have caused large declines in both species diversity and population density of molluscs in the Elk River, including this species (Tennessee Valley Authority 2008, NatureServe 2009).
12133		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place. It is recommended that population trends are surveyed in the future in order to carefully monitor the status of the population.
12133		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Tennessee River and most tributaries in eastern Tennessee and Ohio River (Burch and Tottenham 1980).  Burch (1989) cites branch of the Ohio River near Cincinnati to lower part of river; lower Wabash River; lower parts of East Tennessee head streams of Tennessee River to Marshall Co., Kentucky; and Black and Spring Rivers, Arkansas.  Based on combined molecular (COI) and morphological analyses, however, Minton and Lydeard (2003) showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">Lithasia 'verrucosa</span>' from Arkansas is distinct from <span style="font-style: italic;">L. verrucosa </span>from the Wabash and Ohio rivers and distinct from the morphologically similar, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. lima </span>from the Tennessee River. Minton and Lydeard (2003) indicated that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. verrucosa </span>from Arkansas may be an undescribed species. Distribution may be patchy, however, with the multiple impoundments  along the Tennessee River but the species survives in dam tailwater  habitats throughout the drainage. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
12133		habitat	eng	The species is found in the freshwater habitat of dam tailwater throughout the drainage areas.
12133		population	eng	Although declines have occurred  historically, and range may shrink as a result of taxonomic revision  mentioned above, the species remains stable in modified habitat below  impoundments.
12133		threats	eng	Threats of habitat loss as a result of impoundment have resulted in a patchy distribution of the species. However, it is unlikely that there are other threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
12142		conservation	eng	About 10% of the population is in protected areas. Important protected-area populations occur in areas such as Mago National Park (Ethiopia), Sibiloi, Tsavo and Meru National Parks and Samburu Game Reserve (Kenya) and Mkomazi Game Reserve and Tarangire N.P. (Tanzania). However, the northern subspecies remains poorly represented in protected areas.
12142		distribution	eng	The Gerenuk formerly occurred widely in the semi-arid bushland of North-east Africa, reaching the northern limit of its continental distribution in the arid thornbush of southern Djibouti. It apparently still occurs in this area in stable numbers. It still occupies large parts of its historical range in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, but little information is available on its current distribution in Somalia (East 1999).
12142		habitat	eng	Inhabits bushland, thickets, semi-arid and arid thornbush (below 1,600 m), avoiding dense woodlands and very open grass-dominated habitats. One of the most exclusive browsers, Gerenuk are largely independent of water (Leuthold in press).
12142		population	eng	Recent population estimates are available for substantial parts of the Gerenuk’s range, mainly from aerial surveys. Summation of the available estimates gives a total of 24,000. Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that this is probably a substantial underestimate of actual numbers, because of undercounting from the air and the lack of population estimates for regions such as the Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia. Estimates of population density obtained by aerial surveys are generally low, e.g., 0.01-0.06/km² in areas such as the Awash Valley, Borana and Chew Bahir, Tsavo, and Mkomazi; and 0.2-0.3/km² in Sibiloi, Samburu and Murule. Ground surveys in areas where the species is common have produced density estimates of 0.3-l.4/km².<br/><br/>Assuming an average correction factor of 3.5 for undercounting bias in aerial surveys, and that areas for which population estimates are unavailable support an average density of 0.5/km² where the species is known to be common and 0.05/km² elsewhere, East (1999) produced an estimated total population of 95,000. The largest surviving populations occur in south-western Ethiopia and the northern and eastern rangelands of Kenya. Population trend is generally stable in protected areas, with a few notable exceptions such as the declining population of Tsavo National Park, and gradually decreasing elsewhere.
12142		threats	eng	The Gerenuk’s shyness and preference for cover enable it to withstand hunting pressures to some degree, and it can be favoured by the spread of thickets which occurs when grasslands are overgrazed by livestock. These attributes have enabled it to survive widely in regions such as the Ogaden in the complete absence of protection. Nevertheless, it cannot persist indefinitely as human and livestock populations increase and subsistence hunting pressure escalates. If current trends continue, it may eventually disappear from large parts of its present distribution until it is largely restricted to effectively protected and managed areas of suitable habitat. Such areas currently comprise only a small part of its remaining range. The largest protected population, in Tsavo National Park, has been reduced by rinderpest and drought (East 1999).
12143		conservation	eng	There has been a lot of research into threats to the species and movement towards a conservation strategy. Its range includes several protected areas. As an introduced species in New Zealand it has the potential to spread chytridiomycosis to areas inhabited by native frogs. There is a cooperative program between Taronga Zoo and a range of NSW agencies and NGO’s, involving breeding and release at a number of sites close to Sydney. This program is currently under review.
12143		distribution	eng	This Australian species has been recorded along the south-east coast from East Gippsland in Victoria, north to approximately Byron Bay in north-east New South Wales (Gillespie 1996; White and Pyke 1996). Most records are from elevations below 100m asl. North of Sydney, there were a few high-elevation records of the species and almost all records were east of the Great Divide (the only discrepant records are from Armidale and Ebor) (White and Pyke 1996). On the Southern Tablelands, the species does not appear to occur above 800m asl (Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996) and in Victoria the species does not appear to occur above about 670m asl (Gillespie 1996). Populations occur on two offshore islands in New South Wales, Bowen Island in Jervis Bay (Osborne and McElhinney 1996) and Broughton Island north of Port Stephens (New South Wales NPWS Atlas 1998). It remains unknown whether or not these populations are relictual or the result of assisted translocation (Mahony 1999). It has been introduced to New Zealand and is widespread across northern North Island, and pet traders have moved it between the North and South Islands. It is also introduced to New Caledonia and New Hebrides (Tyler 1979).
12143		habitat	eng	The natural habitat requirements of the species have proved difficult to define because it has been associated with almost every type of water body except fast-flowing streams (Pyke and White 1996). There also appears to be some confusion over whether or not forested habitats are utilized by the species (Lemckert 1996; Gillespie 1996). Pyke and White (1996) examined sites where <em>L. aurea</em> is known to have been present, and compared the habitat at sites where breeding was identified with that at locations where breeding was not identified, in New South Wales. Sites which supported breeding populations were found to contain waterbodies which are still, shallow, ephemeral, unpolluted, unshaded, with aquatic plants and generally free of <em>Gambusia</em> and other predatory fish (but not always); adjacent terrestrial habitats consisted of grassy areas and vegetation no higher than woodlands, and a range of diurnal shelter sites. Breeding occurred in a significantly higher proportion of sites with ephemeral ponds rather than sites with fluctuating or permanent ponds, and where predatory fish were absent. Mahony (1999) commented on the limitations of the study and suggested that the results do not necessarily identify the requirements of the species prior to declines. It is worthy to note that the use of ephemeral breeding sites was not a feature associated with members of the bell frog group in earlier habitat descriptions (Mahony 1999). Pyke and White (1996) suggest that the habitat requirements of <em>L. aurea</em> in New South Wales and Victoria differ. In New South Wales the species occupies disturbed habitats and breeding largely occurs in ephemeral ponds (Pyke and White 1996). However, in Victoria it occupies habitats with little human disturbance and commonly breeds in permanent ponds as well as ephemeral ponds (Pyke and White 1996). Goldingay (1996) argued that this is because most natural habitats are degraded or lost in New South Wales. In Victoria the species is predominantly found on the coastal plains and low foothills of the hinterland where it has been recorded in a range of lentic and terrestrial habitats (Gillespie 1996). Breeding has been documented from dams in both forested and cleared areas, swamps in farmland, gravel pits, billabongs, marshes, coastal lagoon wetlands, wet swale herb lands and isolated stream-side pools (Gillespie 1996). These habitats are mostly permanent, but include some ephemeral waterbodies (Gillespie 1996). All habitats are characterized by stationary water (Gillespie 1996). Virtually all isolated waterbodies are free of native fish species and typically have dense emergent vegetation (Gillespie 1996). It can be found in a variety of terrestrial habitats including lowland forest, banksia woodland, wet heath land, riparian scrub complex, riparian shrubland, riparian forest, damp forest, shrubby dry forest and cleared pastoral lands (Gillespie 1996). It is seasonally active and has been observed from September to early May (Daly 1995). Males call between September and March. Spawn is laid amongst aquatic vegetation and has been observed in December, January and February (Daly 1995). Counts of eight egg masses ranged from 2,463-11,682 eggs (van de Mortel and Goldingay 1998). Eggs hatch within three days and metamorphosis can take from 2-11 months (Daly 1995); however, six weeks appears to be an average duration for the field (R. Goldingay pers. comm.).
12143		population	eng	This species was formerly considered to be common throughout its range (Tyler 1992). Since about 1960, declines in the distribution and abundance of the species have been observed to the extent that it may now be regarded as rare (White and Pyke 1996). In New South Wales, the species has disappeared completely from all highland areas above 250m asl and coastal populations have been reduced in number and are more isolated from other populations (White and Pyke 1996). Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson (1996) observed that the species had declined in the Australian Capital Territory and had not been recorded from the Southern Tablelands since 1980. Declines in abundance have been observed in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory (White and Pyke 1996; Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996; Lewis and Goldingay 1999; Goldingay and Lewis 1999), although no similar decline in distribution and abundance in Victoria is so far apparent (Gillespie 1996). Recent censuses of populations throughout the distribution of the species indicate that many are small, with most estimates being less than 20 adults (White and Pyke 1996). In New Zealand, where the species has been introduced, there are many thousands of individuals, but local declines have been observed with chytridiomycosis and introduced <em>Gambusia</em> fish being implicated.
12143		threats	eng	The cause(s) of the apparent declines observed in populations of all taxa within the <em>L. aurea</em> complex are unclear (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Investigations of disappearances among the group have primarily focused on <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. castanea</em> and two major directions in research have been pursued: the role of increased ultraviolet radiation; and the impact of the introduced fish, <em>Gambusia</em> (Mahony 1999). It is also possible that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Hoskinstown and Homebush Bay in Sydney, New South Wales.
12144		conservation	eng	Protection of breeding sites in state forests, national parks and other conservation parks and reserves is in place. However, a management plan for the conservation of this species is needed.
12144		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from Cordalba State Forest in south-east Queensland south to Ourimbah, approximately 100km north of Sydney in New South Wales. The Darkes Forest records are erroneous. They have been recorded from sea level up to at least 150m asl, and possibly a little higher. The area of occupancy is thought to be less than 500km².
12144		habitat	eng	It inhabits the leaf-litter and low vegetation of forests and prefers wetter forest types in the southern half of its range, but extends also into open and drier forests in north-east New South Wales and south-east Queensland (Lemckert <em>et al.</em> 2006). It breeds after heavy rains anywhere from September to May (spring to autumn in the southern hemisphere), preferring larger temporary pools, and flooded areas for breeding (Lemckert and Slatyer 2002). Eggs (about 500-600) are laid in loose clumps among waterweed. The larvae are free swimming.
12144		population	eng	It has decreased at Ourimbah on the central coast of New South Wales, but elsewhere there have been no reports of declines or disappearances. It is still found throughout the Ourimbah Valley. Additional populations have been found in Queensland as a result of increased surveying. It is listed as rare in Queensland and New South Wales.
12144		threats	eng	Recently, the development of an extensive highway system and rapidly expanding coastal lowland development has increased threats to this species. Several populations have been directly affected by road construction and fragmentation by roads and housing is probably significantly restricting movements between populations.
12145		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still survives, particularly in the southern tablelands, and in areas of suitable habitat between the northern and southern populations. Research into possible causes of this species' disappearance and the decline of similar species (<em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. raniformis</em>) is urgently needed.
12145		distribution	eng	Some uncertainty surrounds the taxonomic status of the northern (<em>L. flavipunctata</em> of Courtice and Grigg 1975) and southern populations of <em>Litoria castanea</em>. Thomson <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggest that the northern and southern populations represent one species consisting of two disjunctive isolates separated by a distance of about 500km (see also map in Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996). The northern population was known from a relatively restricted distribution centred around the town of Guyra on the New England Tableland at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,500m asl (White and Ehmann 1997a; Mahony 1999). It occupied the headwaters of the west flowing Booroolong Creek and to a lesser extent those of the east flowing Anne River and Sarah River (Heatwole <em>et al.</em> 1995). Near Armidale, the species has been recorded from Commissioners Waters, a tributary of the east flowing Gara River (Heatwole <em>et al.</em> 1995). There are 13 known sites in the region (most above 1,000m asl) all of which have been verified by examination of museum specimens or photographs (Mahony 1999). The southern population has a restricted distribution between Canberra and Bombala on the Southern Tablelands at altitudes between 700 and 800m asl (Mahony 1999). The southern population was broadly sympatric with <em>L. aurea</em> in the north of its range and with <em>L. raniformis</em> in the south-west of the region (Mahony 1999).
12145		habitat	eng	<em>Litoria castanea</em> occupies similar habitat to <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. raniformis</em> which includes permanent ponds, swamps, lagoons, farm dams and the still backwaters of rivers usually with tall reeds present (Courtice and Grigg 1975; White and Ehmann 1997a, b). The species was also found in ponds or slow moving streams with overhanging grassy banks in the absence of reed beds (Courtice and Grigg 1975). <em>Litoria castanea</em> was found to over-winter in the hollow centres of rotting logs and in the earth surrounding the roots of uprooted trees (Courtice and Grigg 1975), and in the base of sedge tussocks (Humphries 1979). Little is known about the biology of this species; however, it is likely to be similar to that of <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. raniformis</em> (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Individuals reach sexual maturity at three years and live for six years.
12145		population	eng	There are no verified records of the northern population after 1975 (White and Ehmann 1997a) and the last specimen to be placed in the museum was collected in 1973 (Australian Museum Register in Mahony 1999). The southern tablelands population suffered an extensive decline, with no confirmed records since 1980 (Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996; Mahony 1999). It is not yet considered extinct because of the lack of surveys of potential habitat, especially in areas between the northern and southern populations.
12145		threats	eng	The cause(s) of the apparent declines observed in populations of all taxa within the <em>L. aurea</em> complex are unclear (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995), although chytridiomycosis must be strongly suspected. Investigations of disappearances among the group have primarily focused on <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. castanea</em> and two major directions in research have been pursued: the role of increased ultraviolet radiation; and the impact of the introduced fish, Gambusia, which is native to southern and eastern USA (Mahony 1999). However, it is likely that disease, such as chytrid fungus ora viral infection, contributed to the decline of this species (W. Osborne pers. comm.).
12146		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
12146		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs on the coast and in adjacent upland areas of New South Wales and southern Queensland, up to 800m asl.
12146		habitat	eng	This species occurs in various habitats. It is often around swamps and lagoons, especially paperbark (Melaleuca) swamps behind coastal sand hills. It is also common in wet and dry sclerophyll forests and urban bush land. It tends to occur on the ground or in low vegetation. By day it hides under rocks or loose bark on trees. It breeds after heavy spring and summer rains in still ephemeral waters (mostly). Males call from low vegetation and the ground near the edge of water. Spawn is entangled in vegetation in very shallow water; larvae are free swimming.
12146		population	eng	This is a common species.
12146		threats	eng	Development along the New South Wales and Queensland coasts is a threat to the species' habitat.
12147		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Recently it has sometimes been bred in captivity in Melbourne Zoo.
12147		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeast Australia, from southeastern New South Wales to eastern Victoria.
12147		habitat	eng	Mostly found in a wide range of habitats, usually along rocky streams. Males are often found some distance from water. It also utilizes pastoral lands. Males begin calling late in August (end winter) through to the end of February (summer), in warmer climates they may call through to the beginning of May. Oviposition occurs in streamside pools and backwaters. Eggs adhere to submerged rocks and sediment; larvae are free-swimming.
12147		population	eng	It is locally abundant. However, declines were recorded in high-altitude forests of northeastern New South Wales.
12147		threats	eng	Fairly resilient to alterations in habitat as they are frequently found along streams bordering urban and farming areas. Specimens have, however, been found infected with a chytrid fungus.
12148		conservation	eng	There is a need for continued and strengthened protection of habitat in the Wet Tropics, including an improved management plan that involves dealing with the threat posed by feral pigs. Further research into the reasons for the decline of this species in pristine habitat is necessary.
12148		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion in north Queensland, from Paluma to Cooktown (Hero and Fickling 1994; Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) at altitudes between 180 and 1,300m asl (McDonald 1992). It includes three deeply divergent mitochondrial DNA lineages, distributed from Paluma to Tully River, Tully River to Lamb Range, and Mount Lewis to Big Tableland (Schneider, Cunningham and Moritz 1998).
12148		habitat	eng	<em>Litoria nannotis</em> is a habitat specialist, restricted to rocky stream habitats in rainforest or wet sclerophyll forest where there is fast-flowing water, waterfalls and cascades (Liem 1974b; McDonald 1992). It is a stream dwelling and breeding species (Hodgkison and Hero 2001), but, unlike most stream-breeding frog species that live in the adjacent forest and use the stream habitat for breeding, the stream is the primary habitat for both male and females throughout the year (Hodgkison and Hero 2001, 2002). On several occasions the adults and juveniles were noted to form small aggregations (4-6 individuals) amongst large boulders behind waterfalls (Liem 1974b; J-M. Hero pers. obs.). Gravid females and males with nuptial pads are encountered all year round (Martin and McDonald 1995). Unpigmented eggs numbering 136-216 (1.98-3.4mm in diameter) are laid in gelatinous egg masses under rocks in water (Liem 1974b; Hero and Fickling 1996). Liem (1974b) described the larva and noted that it is one of the few species of frog known to exhibit larval adaptations to torrent environments of Australia, such as a streamlined body shape, large suctorial mouthparts and a muscular tail. Richards (1992) also provided information on the larvae of the <em>L. nannotis</em> group.
12148		population	eng	This species was first noted to have declined in 1990 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993), since it had apparently disappeared from most upland sites south of the Daintree River. The species occurred at all lowland sites, and at upland sites north of the Daintree River during summer surveys in 1991–1992. In 1994 it was sighted at several locations above 600 m asl on Mount Father Clancy. Lowland populations surveyed in Tully Gorge appeared to be relatively stable between 1995 and 1998 (J.-M. Hero pers. comm.). At the southern end of its range it was last observed in Mount Spec State Forest in 1991 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993); however, adults occurred at a lower elevation site in a different creek system (Crystal Creek Stone Bridge, 300m asl) from January 1994 to September 1995 (J.-M. Hero pers. comm.). This species is currently known to have stable populations at lowland sites (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, McDonald and Alford 1999).
12148		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the decline are unknown. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988, and habitat destruction is no longer a major threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyattt 1999). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by <em>L. nannotis</em> (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there has been very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).
12149		conservation	eng	The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988. This species is a priority for immediate survey work to determine whether or not it still survives at the localities from which it has previously been recorded. Research is also needed into the possible reasons for the decline of the species. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis or some other disease, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
12149		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, formerly occurred across two thirds of the Wet Tropics from Douglas Creek near Cardwell to Alexandra Creek, Thornton Peak north-east Queensland (Hero and Fickling 1994) at altitudes between 380 and 1,020m asl (McDonald 1992).
12149		habitat	eng	This species is a rainforest specialist, endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) found in upland rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest along fast-flowing streams where there is white water from riffles and cascades (Liem 1974b; McDonald 1992). It is usually found perched on rocks or overhanging vegetation adjacent to the water (Liem 1974b). Little is known about the life history of this species. Mating calls have been heard from October to March (Liem 1974b). From 86-90 large unpigmented eggs (1.9-2.5mm diameter) are laid under rocks in riffles (Richards 1993a; Hero and Fickling 1996). Richards (1992) described the tadpole and noted that it is one of the few species of tadpole known to exhibit adaptations to torrent environments of Australia, including a streamlined body shape, large suctorial mouthparts and muscular tail. Tadpoles commonly overwinter in upland streams, although those hatching in early summer can metamorphose before the next autumn (Richards 1992).
12149		population	eng	It was once moderately common in suitable habitat, but it has undergone a catastrophic decline. Adults were last recorded in April 1990, and tadpoles and metamorphs were last recorded in November 1990 on the Carbine Tableland (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, this species had apparently disappeared from sites on the Atherton Tableland much earlier (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). It was recorded from various sites on the Atherton Tableland prior to 1973 (Liem 1974b), but was not encountered in Danbulla State Forest during 1989-1992 or at any Atherton Tableland site during surveys conducted between 1991 and 1992 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). No information is available on population structure or genetic variation (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). The species might now be extinct.
12149		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the decline of this species are unknown, although chytridiomycosis must be strongly suspected. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction, or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988; therefore, habitat destruction is no longer a threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by this species (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).
12150		conservation	eng	It is listed as Endangered in Queensland, and a few protected areas cover parts of its range.
12150		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from the Kadanga State Forest in south-east Queensland to Gibraltar Range in north-eastern New South Wales. There is also an isolated population (genetically distinct, which also exhibits call differences) at Kroombit Tops in Queensland. It has been recorded from 200-1,000m asl.
12150		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shaded rainforest gullies and closed forest in association with fast-flowing rocky streams. It hides amongst rocks and thick vegetation, or is active at night on the ground and on low shrubs bordering streams. In winter adults form aggregations under rocks. Breeding occurs in spring and summer, and oviposition occurs in shallow water in quiet pools. About 360-730 eggs are laid cemented to rocks, twigs or the pool floor. The larvae metamorphose after 2-2.5 months.
12150		population	eng	Some declines have occurred in south-east Queensland (Brisbane Forest Park and Conondale Ranges). It occurs at low densities at some sites where seemingly suitable habitat exists.
12150		threats	eng	Large areas of habitat have been and continue to be degraded by introduced stock (cattle and pigs), invasion of weeds, and timber harvesting. Upstream clearing and urban development have affected downstream flow regimes and water quality. Sick and dead individuals infected by chytrid fungus have been found at Main Range, Conondale Range and Kroombit Tops in Queensland, and this might be the major cause of declines in suitable habitats.
12151		conservation	eng	It is recognized as Endangered in Queensland and New South Wales, and therefore protected by state legislation. Its range includes Gara River Nature Reserve and Mount Mitchell State Forest. This species is a priority for immediate further survey work to determine whether or not it might possibly still survive at the localities from which it has previously been recorded, and both taxonomic and survey work is required to determine the status of the possible northern populations. Research is also needed into the possible reasons for the decline of the species. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis or some other disease, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
12151		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic was formerly known from five streams draining the east of the Northern Tablelands, from 800-1,120m asl, from Gibraltar Range to Armidale, northern New South Wales (Tyler and Davies 1985a). The distribution map does not include northern populations that might belong to this species (see additional information under Notes on Taxonomy).
12151		habitat	eng	This species is known to occupy open forest and wet sclerophyll forest (Heatwole <em>et al.</em> 1995). Little is known about the breeding biology of this species. However, morphological similarity to <em>Litoria pearsoniana</em> and <em>L. phyllochroa</em> suggests that ecological similarities are likely (Gillespie and Hines 1999).
12151		population	eng	Despite searches of the historic localities and other streams with similar habitat within the region (Mahony 1997), the species has not been seen since 1973. If the northern populations do not belong to this species (see Notes on Taxonomy), then it is possible that it is extinct.
12151		threats	eng	The causes of the apparent declines are unknown. However, most of the historic sites and other streams in the region have undergone substantial alteration and suffered significant habitat disturbance through clearance of vegetation, grazing and timber harvesting (H.B. Hines pers. comm.). Introduced predatory fish species (Eastern Gambusia <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> and salmonids) occur in streams formerly occupied by the species and might have displaced frog populations by predation upon larvae (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Given the vulnerability of other members of the <em>L. citropa</em> group to trout predation, these fish are likely to have had a significant impact on populations of this species. In addition, chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a cause of the decline.
12152		conservation	eng	This species is protected by state legislation. As an introduced species in New Zealand it has the potential to spread chytrid to areas inhabited by native frogs. Its range includes several protected areas. In Tasmanian legislation the species is listed as "Vulnerable". Werribee Open Range Zoo is supporting ongoing field monitoring of a naturally occurring population, in conjunction with the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment. Melbourne Zoo also maintains a breeding population in captivity.
12152		distribution	eng	This species was formerly distributed across a large area of south-east Australia, including Tasmania, from 0-1,300m asl (Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996). In New South Wales and the Australia Capital Territory its range was centred on the Murray and Murrumbidgee River valleys and their tributaries. It occurred throughout the Southern Tablelands and was also recorded on the Central Tablelands as far north as Bathurst (Ehmann and White 1997). It was widespread across Victoria, absent only from the west desert regions and the east alpine regions (Littlejohn 1963, 1982; Hero, Littlejohn and Marantelli 1991). In South Australia the species is known to occur along the lower Murray River valley, the lower south-east to near Keith, and a small introduced population, in the Adelaide Hills (Tyler 1978). In Tasmania, the species occurred broadly across the north and east of the island and on the Bass Strait Island (Brook 1979), and in pockets in the south of the state. This species has also been introduced to New Zealand, where it is widespread across North and South Islands and on Great Barrier and Stewart Islands.
12152		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in association with dams, ponds and marshes, either amongst sedges and other semi-aquatic vegetation, or sheltering under logs and rocks up to 1300m asl (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). It appears to be associated with permanent waterbodies though it is unclear whether, like <em>Litoria aurea</em>, the species also utilizes ephemeral pools (Mahony 1999). It occurs both in woodland and areas of improved pasture (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Little is known about the biology of this species; however, it is likely to be similar to that of <em>L. aurea</em> (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Males call from August to April (Hero, Littlejohn and Marantelli 1991). The species breeds in permanent ponds or swamps, usually with extensive areas of sedges and rushes from which adults call (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). About 1,700 eggs are laid in a loose clump (Hero, Littlejohn and Marantelli 1991, Hero and Warrell unpubl.). The larvae are free swimming and develop over summer and autumn (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Metamorphosis takes place between late summer and autumn, although larvae may overwinter and metamorphose the following season (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995).
12152		population	eng	It was once a common species, but serious declines have occurred in sections of the range (Mahony 1999). Ehmann and White (1997) noted that in New South Wales the species had disappeared from sites in the central and southern highlands. It is currently widespread throughout the Murray River valley but has disappeared from a number of sites along the Murrumbidgee River (Mahony 1999) and there are no recent records from the Monaro District near the Victorian border (G. Gillespie pers. comm.). It persists in isolated populations in the greater Melbourne area, and isolated populations are known from a few sites in central Victoria and Gippsland. A similar decline has been noted in Tasmania, and it is now almost absent from the midlands of Tasmania. In New Zealand, where the species is introduced, there are many thousands, although local declines due to chytridiomycosis and/or introduced <em>Gambusia</em> fish have been observed.
12152		threats	eng	The cause(s) of the apparent declines observed in populations of all taxa within the <em>L. aurea</em> complex are unclear (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Investigations of disappearances among the group have primarily focused on <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. castanea</em> and two major directions in research have been pursued: the role of increased ultraviolet radiation; and the impact of the introduced fish, <em>Gambusia</em> (Mahony 1999). As for <em>L. aurea</em>, <em>L. raniformis</em> has disappeared from sites where <em>Gambusia</em> is present (Mahony 1999; W. Osborne pers. comm.). The dates of introduction of <em>Gambusia</em> to many regions are not well documented and this lack of information has hampered research into declines (Mahony 1999). Introduced <em>Gambusia</em> fish are also a threat to the introduced populations in New Zealand. It is also possible that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of some species (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Mount Compass, South Australia, but was first identified in New Zealand from populations of this species in Christchurch. The drainage of wetlands in Tasmania is a particular threat.
12153		conservation	eng	Listed as endangered in Queensland, and therefore protected by state legislation. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988. A recovery plan is in place.
12153		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) and occurs from Broadwater Creek National Park to Amos Bay, north Queensland, at altitudes between sea level and 1,180m asl (McDonald 1992). Three genetic lineages of <em>Litoria rheocola</em> have been identified, based on mitochondrial DNA, distributed from Kirrama Range to Palmerston National Park; Bartle Frere to Harris Peak; and from Mt Lewis to Big Tableland (Schneider, Cunningham and Moritz 1998). Each of these lineages carries substantial genetic variability (Schneider, Cunningham and Moritz 1998).
12153		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest specialist, restricted to fast-flowing rocky creeks and streams in rainforest as well as wet sclerophyll forest (Liem 1974b; McDonald 1992). Within these streams they are often found in the slower more open sections, away from waterfalls (Hodgkison and Hero 2002). Individuals can be found on rocks, logs and vegetation in or adjacent to streams (Hero and Fickling 1994). There are differences in habitat use between males and females of the species. Females and juveniles use streamside vegetation more frequently than males. In contrast, males display strong fidelity to the rocky stream environment. Calling males and gravid females have been observed throughout the year (Liem 1974b). Breeding has been observed in most months, except during cold winter nights, and seems to reach a peak between November and March (Liem 1974b; Dennis and Trenerry 1984). Males call from rocks or boulders in creeks or from vegetation overhanging water along streams and creeks (Liem 1974b). The males also appear to display inter-male spacing, with males rarely found within 1m of each other, which is possibly a territorial response to low availability of females (Hodgkison and Hero 2002). A number (46-63) of unpigmented eggs (2.4-2.6mm in diameter) are laid in compact gelatinous clumps under rocks in water (Liem 1974b; Hero and Fickling 1996). Larvae can be found in fast-flowing sections of streams and adjacent pools in highly oxygenated water, clinging to rocks and other substrates (Liem 1974b; Hero and Fickling 1994). Liem (1974b) described the larvae of this species as torrent dwelling, having flattened bodies, large suctorial mouthparts and muscular tails. Richards (1992) and Hero and Fickling (1994) also provided detailed information on the larvae of this species.
12153		population	eng	This species was first noted to have declined in 1989 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). In 1990 several sites were sampled between the Kirrama Range and Cooktown. <em>L. rheocola</em> was common at all foothill and lowland sites and was recorded at some upland sites in the Kirrama Range in April and on the Carbine Tableland in January of that year (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). It was abundant in Danbulla State Forest (at 700m asl) in September 1982, but was not recorded there during monitoring between 1989 and 1992 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). It has since disappeared from most upland sites south of the Daintree River (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reported only two adults at Bobbin Falls on the Atherton Tableland, although the species has been found regularly in that area between 1998 and February 2000 (R. Retallick pers. comm.) and 2001-2002 (K.R. McDonald pers. comm.). At O’Keefe Creek, Big Tableland, this species has occasionally reappeared near a 400m asl site, but has not established resident populations and is absent at another monitoring site at  600m asl (McDonald and Alford 1999). Adults and larvae remained common at upland sites north of the Daintree River (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993) but disappeared in 1993 (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). Interestingly, the lowland populations still exist (McDonald and Alford 1999).
12153		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the decline of this species are unknown. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988; therefore, habitat destruction is no longer a threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). In recent experiments involving the translocation of larvae and adult frogs to sites previously occupied by the species, a clear pattern was evident in the disease results, and nearly all of the animals found dead showed signs of chytridiomycosis (Retallick 1999, 2000, 2001). It is unknown as to whether this disease was solely responsible for the disappearance of <em>L. rheocola</em> at these sites. Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by <em>L. rheocola</em> (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there has been very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).
12154		conservation	eng	The range of the species is within a few protected areas. It is listed as Endangered in Australian legislation. A monitoring programme for this species has been established, but further research is required to determine the reasons for the observed declines. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, the establishment of a captive-breeding programme might be required, while <em>in situ</em> conservation measures should include control of invasive trout species at least within protected areas.
12154		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted predominantly to the western fall of the Great Divide, from Lake Eildon in the Central Highlands of Victoria to Mount Kosciuszko in New South Wales, at altitudes of 200-1,100m asl (Gillespie and Hollis 1996; Victorian Wildlife Atlas unpublished data). The area of occupancy of this species is believed to be less than 5km².
12154		habitat	eng	This species is associated with a range of vegetation communities from montane forest at high altitudes to wet and dry forest at moderate to low altitudes, respectively (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). The extent of riparian forest at known localities ranges from virtually non-existent, with scattered riparian tree or shrub species, to a dense canopy of <em>Leptospermum</em> spp. shading the stream (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). The species is found almost exclusively in association with rock habitats along streams and occurs along sections of streams with steep banks, invariably in steeply dissected country or gorges with numerous rapids and waterfalls (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). <em>L. spenceri</em> is restricted to riffle and cascade stream sections with exposed rock banks, resulting in a highly patchy distribution along most streams (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). Adults and juveniles most likely remain in the vicinity of the stream, rarely venturing far from riparian zone (Gillespie 1997). Frogs have been seen basking on rocks mid-stream (Ehmann, Ehmann and Ehmann 1993). Adults have been found between September and May, and calling males have been heard in October, November and early December (Hero 1990, 1991; Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Gillespie 1993) and February (G. Gillespie, in Hero, Watson and Gillespie 1995). Clutches consist of 200-1,000 eggs (Gillespie 1997). Oviposition sites are in narrow spaces beneath large river stones within the stream and eggs are hidden as they adhere to the underside of the rock (Gillespie 2001b). The seasonal distribution of size classes of frogs and breeding activity (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Gillespie 1993) suggest that eggs are laid in late spring/early summer and tadpoles reach metamorphosis in late summer/autumn (Hero, Watson and Gillespie 1995). Hero, Watson and Gillespie (1995) described the tadpole. At lower altitudes, sexual maturity is reached 18 months and 3.5 years after metamorphosis by males and females, respectively (Gillespie 2001a). At higher altitudes, sexual maturity is reached at least 3.5 and 4.5 years by males and females, respectively (Gillespie 1997).
12154		population	eng	Despite extensive systematic surveys throughout eastern Victoria and southern New South Wales (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Gillespie 1992; Gillespie and Hollis 1996; Hunter and Gillespie 1999) this species has only ever been found in 19 streams, and has always been considered rare (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991). The species is now believed to be extinct in four of these streams, and has declined substantially in distribution and abundance along most others (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). The remaining streams comprise 12 discrete isolated populations (Gillespie and Hollis 1996; Hunter and Gillespie 1999). Two populations are known to have died out over the past five years. Monitoring has been conducted at eight populations since 1994 and has recently been expanded to include 15 streams (G. Gillespie pers. comm.). With the exception of the historic site on Buffalo Creek, Mount Buffalo National Park, monitoring of sites where it is extinct ceased in 1998 (G. Gillespie pers. comm.). Most extant adult populations have remained relatively stable since 1993; however, a population at Bogong Creek, Mount Kosciuszko National Park suffered a precipitous decline in 1996 (Gillespie 1997). It is at a higher elevation than other populations and was the only high-density population known prior to the decline (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). Gillespie and Hines (1999) estimate the largest population to contain approximately 1,000-1,500 adults in the Upper Goulburn River with the sizes of all other populations comprising less than 1,000 adults.
12154		threats	eng	Declines occurred in the 1970s and early 1980s (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991). Gillespie and Hollis (1996) suggest that, based upon the known demography of the species, this species probably suffered population declines over a wider area earlier in the 20th century, and possibly late in the 19th century. Human disturbances to streams, such as gold dredging, forest roads and recreational pressures are correlated with the general pattern of decline of this species (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). Trout species (Rainbow Trout <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and Brown Trout <em>Salmo trutta</em>) occur throughout the geographic range and are able to exert significant predation pressure on larvae (Gillespie 2001a). Trout are believed to be a major cause of population declines of this species (Gillespie 2001a). Several moribund frogs have been located from four populations (Gillespie and Hines 1999) and recently identified as being infected with the chytrid fungus (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1998; Gillespie and Hines 1999). However, the role of the fungus in the population dynamics of this species remains to be resolved (Gillespie and Hines 1999).
12155		conservation	eng	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. verreaux</span> includes several protected areas. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. alpina</span> is listed as endangered; therefore, it is protected by State and National legislation. Most of its habitat is within National Parks.
12155		distribution	eng	This is an Australian endemic species. The subspecies L.v. verreaux occurs in eastern Australia, from mid southeast Queensland to the northern Tablelands of New South Wales and the central and southern coast of New South Wales. It is also in the eastern corner of Victoria. The extent of occurrence of the subspecies is approximately 236,400km2. It occurs from near sea level (below 50m asl) to probably at least 800m asl. Museum and field notes indicated that the subspecies L.v. alpina was once widespread and abundant throughout much of the high country of southeast Australia. Recent searches have been conducted for the subspecies at 150 locations, including historical locations, throughout Alpine National Park (Victoria), Kosciuszko National Park (New South Wales), Bimberi Nature Reserve (New South Wales) and Namadgi National Park (Australian Capital Territory). The extent of occurrence of the subspecies is approximately 3,200km2 (map in Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999).
12155		habitat	eng	The subspecies L.v. verreaux is common in a wide variety of habitats including coastal swamps and lagoons, wet and dry sclerophyll forest. It is most often associated with permanent water, ie. ponds, dams, lakes, creeks and waterholes. It calls year round. Males call from ground up to several metres from water or on vegetation near water. About 500-1,000 eggs are laid in jelly clumps attached to submerged vegetation in ponds. L.v. alpina occurs mainly in woodland, heath, grassland and herb field at montane, sub alpine and alpine altitudes (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995). Breeding populations occur on plains or open valleys where there are stream side pools, fens and bogs (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995) but are also be associated with artificial waterbodies such as small dams and reservoirs (e.g. four of the seven extant populations of L. v. alpina located in Kosciuszko NP) (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). During the non-breeding season, individuals may be found amongst litter, under logs, beneath flat stones in streambeds or in rocky areas near streams (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995). Calling occurs from late winter to early summer (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1991). An average of 328 eggs (Hero unpublished) are laid in pools around submerged vegetation in large jelly-like clumps (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995). Free-swimming larvae hatch within a few days and complete development in pools (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). Tadpoles have been recorded from Nov. to Jan. and metamorphosis from Dec. to Jan (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 1998).
12155		population	eng	The subspecies L.v. verreaux is locally abundant, although some declines have been recorded in the Canberra region in the past 20 years. L. v. alpina was once abundant, but is now known only from seven locations in New South Wales with most sites between 1,200m and 1,500m asl. No L. v. alpina were recorded from Baw Baw Plateau, Davies Plain, and Bogong High Plains in Victoria (Hunter and Osborne unpublished data), but several small populations were encountered to the southeast of Mount Hotham and a more extensive population was recorded on the Dargo High Plains, all between 1,300 and 1,600m asl. Surveys at numerous locations in the Bimberi Range (ACT) failed to locate this species and no tadpoles were observed.
12155		threats	eng	The nominal subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. verreauxii</span>, is threatened by drought and loss of habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. alpina</span> is one of a number of Australian alpine amphibians, including, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudophryne corroboree</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pengilleyi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Philoria frosti</span>, which have experienced pronounced population declines for unknown reasons (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). There is no single aspect of the field biology of these species, which stands out as a feature in common, that might help explain the declines (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudophryne pengilleyi</span> is still widespread and abundant at lower altitudes, but there are few remaining substantial populations of the other three species (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). Osborne <em>et al.</em> (1999) reviewed some of the possible factors contributing to population declines at high altitudes including long term weather patterns and pathogens such as the chytrid fungus (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1999).
12156		conservation	eng	The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected within protected areas since 1988. This species is a priority for immediate survey work to determine whether or not it still survives at the localities from which it has previously been recorded. Research is also needed into the possible reasons for the decline of the species. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
12156		distribution	eng	This species was first located in 1976 and later described by Davies and McDonald (1979). It is known from four localities-Alexandra Creek (TR165); Hilda Creek (near Thornton Peak, Cape Tribulation National Park); Roaring Meg Cascades (via Mount Sorrow TR165); and Bluff Creek (Mossman Gorge Daintree National Park), north-east Queensland (Hero and Fickling 1994; M. Cunningham pers. comm.).
12156		habitat	eng	This species is known to be a rainforest specialist endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001). As a stream-dwelling/stream-breeding species (Hero and Fickling 1994) it prefers fast-flowing streams in upland rainforest between 640 and 1,000m asl (McDonald 1992), although it might be present at lower altitudes (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). It has been found on granite boulders in notophyll vine forest in the splash zone near turbulent fast flowing water (Davies and McDonald 1979). There is no information on breeding season, timing of reproduction, or egg deposition sites. The tadpoles of the species have not been described but are thought to be torrent-adapted and similar to that of a sympatric species, <em>Litoria nannotis</em> (Davies and McDonald 1979). Unpigmented eggs (M. Cunningham unpubl.) are presumably laid in water under rocks in the stream.
12156		population	eng	It was once moderately common in suitable habitat, but it has undergone a dramatic decline. Despite recent efforts to locate the species, it has not been seen since 1991 (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2002), and it might now be extinct. However, few searches for the species have been undertaken at historical sites (J-M. Hero and M. Cunningham pers. comm.).
12156		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the decline of this species are unknown, although chytridiomycosis must be strongly suspected. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988; therefore, habitat destruction is no longer a threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral and infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Feral pigs have been suggested as a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, feral pigs are unlikely to have a direct impact due to the close association of this species with rocky cascades in streams (M. Cunningham pers. comm.).
12241		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for the species. It would benefit from population monitoring and education of local people to increase awareness of the species. This species was listed as 'Near Threatened' in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España </span>(Verdú and Galante 2009).
12241		distribution	eng	This is a restricted range species that is present in France and Spain.&#160;&#160;Originally described from a type locality of Ascain,&#160; Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) give records from France (Pyrénées-Atlantique; Grottes de Sare (close to Ascain) UTM grid square XN37) and Spain (Province Navarra; UTM Grid square XN37).&#160;V. Prie confirms it is present in another 5 localities in France (pers. comm. 2009), and that it is present in subterranean groundwaters.&#160;In Spain, the species was recorded from the south entrance to Valcarlos, Province Navarra in two sites in a pipe and trough.
12241		habitat	eng	Freshwater groundwater systems and in the outflow points such as springs, water-pipes and troughs. In Spain, in province Navarra, this species is known from sites which are exploited for water from the freshwater spring.
12241		population	eng	Population trends are not known.
12241		threats	eng	The habitats of the species are vulnerable to groundwater pollution and to exploitation for water, and at least one location is currently undergoing exploitation.&#160; These outflow sites where the species has been recorded are vulnerable to improvement of the water sources, concreting and capping the site, hence destroying or degrading the habitat. &#160;The major threats for the future threats include over-abstraction of water and potentially in future years, drought events drying the entire springs, if groundwater recharge to the aquifer is reduced.
12242		habitat	eng	Shore species - littoral zone
12245		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Austria. It is listed on the Austrian Red List as Endangered (EN). It is also present in the National Park Donauauen.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>
12245		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Austria. It occurs in the Pannonian hills and flats regions, specifically from the River Danube in Austria and has been recorded from six sites.
12245		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that occurs in river deposits and gravel beds as well as in groundwater sources.
12245		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare and has recently experienced a population decline.
12245		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the abstraction of ground water for drinking, the lowering of ground water levels and pollution, mainly from agricultural practices. The building of power stations and hydrological dams may also degrade this species' habitat.
12246		conservation	eng	The crabeater seal is not listed as endangered or threatened. Crabeater seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals and any future commercial harvest would have to be regulated through these international agreements (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).
12246		distribution	eng	The distribution of crabeater seals is tied to seasonal fluctuations of the pack ice. They can be found right up to the coast of Antarctica, as far south as McMurdo Sound, during late summer ice break-up. They occur in greatest numbers in the seasonally shifting pack ice surrounding the Antarctic continent. As vagrants they travel as far north as New Zealand and the southern coasts of Africa, Australia, and South America. Crabeaters have been known to occasionally wander far inland and die in the dry valleys adjacent to McMurdo Sound. A live animal was found 113 km from open water at an elevation of 920 m above sea level, and carcasses have been found as high as 1,100 m above sea level (Kooyman 1981, Rice 1998, Bengtson 2002).
12246		habitat	eng	Adults reach 2.6 m in length and weigh an estimated 200-300 kg. Neonates are thought to be at least 1.1 m and 20-40 kg. The mean age of sexual maturity in females varies from 2.5 to 4.2 years and these variations may be related to changes in food abundance (Bengtson and Laws 1985). Births occur mainly during the second half of October. Annual mortality is about 14.5% (Laws 1977b).<br/><br/>There are no specific rookeries and females haul-out singly on ice to give birth. Adult males attend female-pup pairs and stay with the female until her estrous one to two weeks after the pup is weaned. Mating has not been witnessed and presumably occurs in the water. Females are reported to bite males around the mouth and flippers and this may account for the abundant small scars on the faces of older males.<br/><br/>Pups are born from September to December (Southwell <em>et al</em>. 2003) in a soft woolly coat that is greyish-brown in colour and has been described as light, milk coffee brown, with darker colouring on the flippers. They are weaned in approximately three weeks (Southwell 2004) at which time they are moulting or just beginning their moult from the lanugo coat. The pup sheds into a sub-adult pelage similar to that of the adult.<br/><br/>Mortality is high in the first year, possibly reaching 80%. Much of this mortality is attributed to leopard seal predation, and up to 78% of crabeaters that survive through their first year have injuries and scars from leopard seal attacks. The presence of long scars and sets of parallel scars which are readily visible on the pale, relatively unmarked pelage of crabeaters, are testimony to the frequency of these attacks on young of this species. Leopard seal attacks appear to fall off dramatically after crabeaters reach one year of age.<br/><br/>Recent research has revealed that crabeater seals can dive to 430 m and stay submerged for 11 minutes, although most feeding dives were to 20-30 m, and shorter in duration. Foraging occurs primarily at night, and instrumented seals have been recorded to regularly dive continuously for periods up to 16 hours. Dives at dawn and dusk are deeper than at night, and indicate that crabeater feeding activity is also tied to the daily vertical migrations of krill. They have a general pattern of feeding from dusk until dawn, and hauling-out in the middle of the day.<br/><br/>Crabeater seals feed primarily on Antarctic krill, <em>Euphausia superba</em> and 95% of their diet is made up of this species. Small amounts of fish and squid are also part of the diet. All of the post-canine teeth are ornate, with multiple accessory cusps that interlock to form a network for straining krill from the seawater. A ridge of bone on each mandible fills the gap in the mouth behind the last upper post-canine teeth and the back of the jaw, which helps prevent the loss of krill from the mouth when feeding. Crabeater faeces are routinely a pinkish red, from their krill diet and reddish stains are frequently seen on the ice near where they are hauled-out.<br/><br/>Crabeaters are frequently encountered alone or in small groups of up to three on the ice or in the water. However, much larger groups of up to 1,000 hauled-out together have been observed. They can be seen swimming together in herds estimated to be up to 500 animals, breathing and diving almost synchronously. They are the only Antarctic phocid species that is highly gregarious. The moult is in January and February. A large proportion of the animals in an area are thought to be hauled-out during the annual moult.
12246		population	eng	The crabeater seal is a widespread species and, and as is the case for other Antarctic seals inhabiting the pack ice, population assessments are very difficult and expensive to conduct and therefore infrequently undertaken. Published global population estimates range from 2 million (Scheffer 1958) up to 50-75 million animals (Erickson <em>et al</em>. 1971). However, early estimates were based on very limited sampling and were highly speculative. The most recent global estimate, from analysis of ship and aerial sighting surveys carried out around the continent between 1968 and 1983, provided a point estimate for global crabeater seal population size in the pelagic pack ice of the Southern Ocean of 7,000,000 animals (Erickson and Hanson 1990). But, the authors acknowledged this estimate was negatively biased due to inadequate correction for haulout and suggested a more reasonable estimate was likely to be in the order of 11-12 million. This estimate is likely to have considerable uncertainty associated with it. A recent regional survey in East Antarctica between 64-150°E indicated a 95% confidence interval of 700,000-1,400,000 around a point estimate of 950,000 animals (Southwell <em>et al</em>. in press). Given this uncertainty, only large changes in crabeater seal population size could be confidently detected from repeated surveys.
12246		threats	eng	Crabeater seals are considered to be the most abundant seal species and one of the most numerous large mammals on earth.<br/><br/>A mass die-off was reported from an area near a base on the Antarctic Peninsula in 1955. About 3,000 animals were trapped in areas 5-25 km from open water and most died over a two to three month period. None of the animals examined appeared to be starving, and numerous abortions of foetuses were noted. A disease outbreak was suspected, but never identified. In the 1980s a study revealed antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV) in crabeater seals from this area. Leopard seals have also tested positive for antibodies to CDV. Weddell seals have been tested, but thus far there has not been a positive result. Ross seals have not been tested. Outbreaks of a similar distemper virus in the North Atlantic led to mass die-offs of harbour seals in the 1980s (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>Several brief episodes of commercial harvesting of crabeaters ended when they were determined to be economically unsuccessful. Commercial harvest of krill may pose a threat to crabeater seals, if it ever becomes established at a large scale. There are currently no direct threats from human activity throughout most of the species’ normal range (Bengtson 2002).<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. However, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggest that crabeater seal numbers may decline with increasing temperatures if Antarctic sea ice is significantly reduced. Loss of sufficient areas of pack ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators (possible) and access to preferred foraging areas because of changes from warming could lead to population declines of crabeater seals. The effects of loss of large amounts of ice on the Antarctic continent, general climate warming, or sea level rise on Antarctic ocean circulation and productivity and on Antarctic marine resources such as seals are unknown.<br/><br/>Seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic has increased steadily in the last 30 plus years, and is currently at all-time high levels. The effects of increased vessel noise, disturbance from vessels passage, and close approach by people in small boats and on land on crabeater seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are unknown. There is a small risk of injury to animals from collision with boats or crushing from large vessel passage through ice fields.<br/><br/>There are no reports on significant fisheries interactions.
12263		conservation	eng	More biological research is required. The species has been recorded from Ilha Grande state park in Rio de Janeiro state. It is important that the species habitat is protected.
12263		distribution	eng	The type locality is Minas Gerais, Brazil, at Jaboticatubas, Serra do Cipo. It is also found in Rio de Janeiro State. The species is apparently confined to southeastern Brazil (Dias <em>et al</em>. 2002, Brito <em>et al</em>. 2004).
12263		habitat	eng	Poorly known. The species is a nectarivore, and may be an important pollinator. This is the only <em>Lonchophylla</em> species that is found in both the Cerrado and in the Atlantic Forest, in the transition between the two. The species has not been found in more humid areas and may have a disjunct distribution (Aguiar pers. comm.). It roosts in small colonies of two to five  individuals (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
12263		population	eng	The species is rare. Since the description of this species in 1978, it has not been recorded in Minas Gerais (cerrado) despite surveys (Aguiar and Marinho-Filho pers. comm.). Subsequent collections have all been from Atlantic Forest. The species has been collected from several localities in Rio de Janeiro State.
12263		threats	eng	The region of the type locality in the Atlantic Forest has seen severe deforestation and fragmentation and the Cerrado region has suffered severe and rapid habitat change in recent years.
12264		conservation	eng	An action plan is in preparation for this species (Aguiar pers. comm.). The species cerrado habitat, including karstic environments and areas of calcareous soils, needs to be protected. Rabies control programs need to be modified to reduce threats to the species. Rabies control teams need to be trained to recognize the species. Local awareness programs should emphasize the ecological role of the species. Additional surveys are required to confirm the species distribution.
12264		distribution	eng	<em>Lonchophylla dekeyseri</em> is the only endemic bat species of the cerrado habitat in Brazil. Type locality is given as eight kilometres north of Brasilia, Federal District (Coelho, 1998; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). While the species appears to be fairly widespread, the distribution appears to be patchy within its geographic range.
12264		habitat	eng	The species lives in caves in dry forests associated with calcareous outcrops and appears to require caves to roost. In a study, population sizes changed throughout the year; the population of Dois Irmãos cave was larger in September and October, probably due to the recruitment of young, and in March and April, due to the return of pregnant females. In all populations the number of females exceeded that of males and the number of adults was greater than that of young. The species is closely associated with karstic environments (Aguiar and Machado, 2004). <br/><br/>Young individuals were captured from July to November and adults were captured throughout the year. Lonchophylla dekeyseri occurred in relatively small populations and demonstrated fidelity to the shelter, remaining for at least one year in the same cave. The reproductive pattern presented by the species was seasonal monoestry, with young being born in the dry season, probably due to the greater food availability at this time of the year. A nursery system seems to occur, as the females were never observed carrying their young. Females were found to occur in greater numbers than males, suggesting harem formation. Emergence from the shelter occurred in the first hours after dusk; returning just before dawn during the rainy season and returning around midnight and just before dawn during the dry season. The activity pattern observed was unimodal, changing to bimodal in the dry season. Activity period could be related to the blossoming and nectar production patterns of the flowers visited by <em>L. dekeyseri</em>. The females carry the young with them (Aguiar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Diet is primarily pollen and insects; seeds were found less frequently in the feces analysis. Lonchophylla dekeyseri feeds upon pollen in the dry season, when this resource is more plentiful, and consumes more insects and fruits in its diet during the rainy season, when nectar is scarce and insects are abundant. Bat hair analysis showed 7 types of pollen, mainly from Pseudobombax sp., Bauhinia sp. and Lafoensia sp. Bat-pollinated plants flowered during the dry season with sequencial peaks, probably a mechanism which may avoid competition for pollinators by other plants maximizing pollinator efficiency. The occurrence of more than one type of pollen in the same bat hair sample was common, indicating visits to several plant species during only one night (Coelho, 1998).
12264		population	eng	Expected to decline in response to increasing habitat destruction. Between September 1997 to August 1998, Coelho (1998) captured 152 specimens in 46 nights in three caves located in the Apa do Cafuringa, in the northwestern region of the Federal District of Brazil. The populations appear to be patchily distributed.
12264		threats	eng	The species distribution is patchy as cerrado habitat is severely and rapidly being degraded and destroyed . Calcereous soils are among the most threatened. The species appears to require caves to roost and is thus associated with karstic environments which are threatened by mining. Roosts are threatened by rabies control programs.
12265		conservation	eng	Cave conservation.
12265		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east Ecuador, northeast Peru (Simmons, 2005), and records from Colombia are erroneous (Davalos pers. comm.).
12265		habitat	eng	This bat feeds on nectar, insects, and probably fruit and pollen. It roosts in small groups in caves. It is found in mature and secondary rainforest but not in secondary or disturned forests.. Occurs in caves (Hill 1980).
12265		population	eng	It is uncommon to rare (Tirira, in prep.). Expected to decline in response to increasing human habitat destruction.
12265		threats	eng	Cave destruction. Associated with tropical humid forests which are rapidly being converted within its range.
12266		conservation	eng	Occurs in a few protected areas in Northern Peru.
12266		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwest Peru, and southwest Ecuador (Simmons 2005).
12266		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species. It does not eat fruit (Solari pers. comm.).
12266		population	eng	It is rare, known from approximately 10 individuals (Solari pers. comm.). It is expected to decline in response to increasing human habitat destruction.
12266		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to agriculture is a primary threat.
12267		conservation	eng	The species specific habitats, especially in the northeastern part of the range, need to be protected.
12267		distribution	eng	Southeastern Brazil (Simmons 2005). The species is widespread in Brazil.
12267		habitat	eng	Feeds on nectar, insects, and probably fruit and pollen. Probably roosts in small groups in hollow trees and in small caves. Found in the rainforest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is found in tall, humid forest. In the northeastern part of its range, it occupies very specific habitats - high plateaus that sustain humid forest in generally semi-arid regions.
12267		population	eng	Poorly known. It is common throughout its range or locally common.
12267		threats	eng	The species specific habitats in the northeastern part of the range are severely threatened.
12268		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
12268		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Nicaragua to Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru (Simmons, 2005).
12268		habitat	eng	This bat feeds on nectar, insects (including beetles and moths), and probably fruit and pollen. It roosts in small groups in caves and cave-like structures. A roost was reported under a jungle of huge boulders along a stream. It is one of the most common long-tongued bats in parts of the Amazon basin. It is found in rainforest, gardens, and plantations (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Reid, 1997; Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Gestation period between March and April (Eisenberg 1989).
12268		population	eng	It is common to rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997). In mid-elevation (600 to 800 m) it is fairly common (Reid, 1997).
12268		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
12269		conservation	eng	Maintain habitat. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
12269		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in South America and occurs in Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyana Shield, eastern Peru, Ecuador, and northern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Principally it was caught below 850 m elevation in Venezuela (Handley, 1976). Also Panama (Handley 1976).
12269		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with streams and moist areas. Although tolerant of man-made clearings, this species prefers multistratal tropical evergreen forests (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It feeds on nectar, insects, and probably fruit and pollen. This species probably roosts in small groups in hollow trees and in small caves (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12269		population	eng	Poorly known though may be relatively common.
12269		threats	eng	Deforestation, although not a major threat.
12270		conservation	eng	Conservation of caves and karstic habitats. This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. In Mexico is listed as trheatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). It is found in protected areas in Belize (Miller pers. comm.).
12270		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This species is broadly distributed from Oaxaca  and Veracruz(Mexico) south to SE Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador; Trinidad; perhaps New Providence Isl (Bahama Isls), see Jones and Carter (1976) (Simmons 2005). Lowlands, it was not taken above 1,500 m elevation (Reid, 1997). Occurs in Nicaragua (Medina <em>et al.</em> , in press).
12270		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and is most frequently encountered in multistratal tropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Usually found in mature, evergreen forest, occasionally deciduous forest and agricultural areas (Reid, 1997). This bat is an aerial and gleaning insectivore, it occasionally consumes fruits. It roosts in caves or tunnels, such as mine tunnels and forms colonies of 12 to 25, sometimes up to hundreds (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961; Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Activity begins well after sunset, in full darkness. This bat is an extremely agile flier and may stop and hover in front of a mist net or escape through small gasps. It is sometimes caught in nets across streams or paths through forest (Reid, 1997).
12270		population	eng	Uncommon; widespread. These bats may be geographically limited to areas with caves or rocks (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Can be locally abundant near caves where roosting occurs with up to 500 individuals (Lassier and Wilson, 1989).
12270		threats	eng	Associated with cave and karstic habitats which may be threatened by disturbance within forests. In Bolivia this species is considered Vulnerable (it is not known from a protected area and it is in a fragile ecosystem).
12271		conservation	eng	Cave conservation - cease non disriminant vampire controle.
12271		distribution	eng	This species occurs is restricted to a relatively small region to the extreme northwestern portion of Amazonian Venezuela, south of the Orinoco (Ochoa pers. comm.).
12271		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It feeds on insects (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). No more information is known of this species, but it is probably similar to <em>Lonchorhina aurita</em>. Habitat is gallery forest through savanna.
12271		population	eng	This species might be rare. Only males are known - and in an area rapidly being converted to cattle ranching. Species is endemic and restricted. Form large colonies in caves, and tunnels in rocks (which makes them susceptible to persecution).
12271		threats	eng	Vampire bat control has had a profound effect on populations of this species. Destruction of caves and tunnels is a problem. Vampire bat control is not species specific and effects many species of non-vampire bats.
12272		conservation	eng	Conservation of grantic outcrop formations (In Chiribiquete).
12272		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southeast of Colombia (Simmons, 2005). Known from two localities in Colombia. One specimen is from 200 m elevation (Camacho and Cadena 1978).
12272		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It feeds on insects (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Associated with tropical humid forests which are undisturbed. This species is extremely rare. Associated with Amazon Basin (Chiribiquete) (Muñoz and Mantilla pers. comm.). Lives in cave formations, in grantic outcrops and tepui like formations.
12272		population	eng	Expected to decline in response to habitat destruction.
12272		threats	eng	The habitat type where this species occurs is rapidly being converted (Muñoz and Mantilla pers. comm.). Illicit crops and armed conflict are a problem in the area.
12273		conservation	eng	Recorded from a few protected areas, but most of its range is unprotected.
12273		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Venezuela, and southeast Colombia (Simmons, 2005). 80-300 m asl (Ochoa pers. comm.)
12273		habitat	eng	Resticted to lowland rainforests and gallery forests in savanna (Ochoa pers. comm.). This species appears to be confined in rocky areas where trees occur in savanna. It apparently roosts in rock crevices during the day. It feeds on insects (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Associated with caves in grantic formations (Ochos pers. comm.). Cave dwelling.
12273		population	eng	In Venezuela it is frequent (Linares, 1998). Where the species is found is it common, but occurs sporadically throughout its range.
12273		threats	eng	Cave persecution. Habitat loss due to gold mining and logging.
12274		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within its range, although it presence has not been reported from any of these.
12274		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonian Brazil, south of Amazon River (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). The species has also been reported from Peru. J. Patton (pers. comm.) however, considers the Peruvian report as invalid identification of the species.
12274		habitat	eng	This species has been collected at Alter do Chao, Santarem, within white sand grassland and gallery forest (J. Patton pers. comm.). Further information is not available.
12274		population	eng	There is no information on the population or abundance of this species.
12274		threats	eng	The main threat to<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. emiliae </span>is deforestation (J. Patton pers. comm.).
12302		conservation	eng	The species is included in CITES Appendix II. Additional research is needed to clearly delineate the impact that various forms of water pollution, agricultural and other development along riparian habitats, industrial and housing development in coastal areas, cumulative impacts related to loss or alterations of wetlands, large flood control structures, and interactions that these and other factors have on otter populations.
12302		distribution	eng	L. canadensis currently occurs throughout the United States of America and Canada. Originally this species is thought to have ranged from 250-700 N latitude and from 530 to 1660W longitude. In the USA, this species is present in states bordering the Great Lakes, Atlantic ocean and Gulf of Mexico, and in the forested regions of the Pacific coast in North America (Lariviere and Walton 1998). It is also present throughout Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands and the north slope of the Brooks Range (Magoun and Valkenburg 1977). Urbanization and pollution caused reductions in range area and are now absent or rare in Arizona, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, and West Virginia (Melquist and Dronkert 1987; Park 1971; Polechla 1990). Reintroductions have expanded the distribution of this species in recent years, especially in the Midwestern United States (Melquist and Dronkert 1987). In Canada, North American river otters occupy all provinces and territories, except for Prince Edward Island (Melquist and Dronkert 1987).
12302		habitat	eng	Historical records indicate that river otters were well established throughout most major drainages in the continental United States and Canada prior to European settlement (Hall 1981). The continent’s largest otter populations occurred in areas with an abundance and diversity of aquatic habitats such as coastal marshes, the Great Lakes region, and glaciated areas of New England (Nilsson 1980; Toweill and Tabor 1982; Melquist and Dronkert 1987). In addition, riverine habitats in interior regions supported smaller, but viable, otter populations (Nilsson 1980). <br/><br/>North American river otters prefer bog lakes with banked shores containing semi-aquatic mammal burrows and lakes with beaver (Castor canadensis) lodges, and they avoid water bodies with gradually sloping shorelines of sand or gravel (Reid <em>et al.</em> 1994b). In Maine, use of watersheds by river otters is negatively associated with the proportion of mixed hardwood-softwood stands in forested areas adjacent to waterways and positively associated with the number of beaver flowages, watershed length, and average shoreline diversity (Dubuc <em>et al</em>. 1990). In Idaho, river otters prefer valley over mountain habitats, and they select valley streams over valley lakes, reservoirs, and ponds (Melquist and Hornocker 1983). Logjams are used intensively where present (Melquist and Hornocker 1983). In Florida, abundance of North American river otters is lowest in freshwater marshes, intermediate in salt marshes, and highest in swamp forest. During the dry season, L. canadensis will retreat from marshland and move to permanent ponds where water is available and food is more concentrated (Humphrey and Zinn 1982). In Idaho and Massachusetts, habitat features preferred for latrine sites include large conifers, points of land, beaver bank dens and lodges, isthmuses, mouths of permanent streams, or any object that protrudes from the water (Melquist and Hornocker 1983; Newman and Griffin 1994).<br/><br/>The diet of the North American river otter is comprised mostly of fish that are abundant, midsized, and close to shore (Larsen 1984; Stenson <em>et al</em>. 1984), as well as amphibians (mostly frogs) and crustaceans (mainly crayfish) (Knudsen and Hale 1968; Reid <em>et al</em>. 1994a; Sheldon and Toll 1964). Small mammals, mollusks, reptiles, birds, and fruits are consumed opportunistically (Gilbert and Nancekivell 1982; Greer 1955; Hamilton 1961; Morejohn 1969; Verbeek and Morgan 1978; Wilson 1954). North American river otters have few natural predators in the water: alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus), and killer whales (Orcinus orca). They are considerably more vulnerable on land or ice where bobcats (Lynx rufus), cougars (Felis concolor), coyotes (Canis latrans), dogs (Canis familiaris) and wolves (Canis lupus) can kill adults (Melquist and Dronkert 1987; Melquist and Hornocker 1983; Route and Peterson 1991; Toweill and Tabor 1982). Most mortality, however, is human-related and includes trapping, illegal shooting, road kills, and accidental captures in fish nets or set lines (Jackson 1961; Melquist and Hornocker 1983).<br/><br/>North American river otters can reach 13 years of age in the wild and up to 25 years of age in captivity (Melquist and Dronkert 1987; Stephenson 1977). Females usually do not reproduce until 2 years of age, although yearlings occasionally produce young (Docktor <em>et al</em>. 1987; Hamilton and Eadie 1964). Males are sexually mature at 2 years of age (Hamilton and Eadie 1964). North American river otters usually breed from December to April (Hamilton and Eadie 1964; Liers 1951), gestation lasts 61-63 days, and young are born between February and April (Hamilton and Eadie 1964; Melquist and Hornocker 1983). Litter size may reach five (Park 1971) but usually ranges from one to three (Docktor <em>et al</em>. 1987; Hamilton and Eadie 1964; Tabor and Wight 1977).
12302		population	eng	By the early 1900’s, unregulated trapping, water pollution, and other degradations of aquatic and riparian habitats had caused otter populations to decline throughout most of their historic range (Nilsson 1980; Toweill and Tabor 1982; Melquist and Dronkert 1987). Improvements in water quality and furbearer management strategies, including implementation of reintroduction projects, have enabled the reestablishment of otter populations to various aquatic habitats in portions of their former range. Reintroduction projects have been especially useful in restoring otter populations to riverine habitats in interior regions. <br/><br/>Methods for determining relative abundance of North American river otters include track counts in the snow (Reid <em>et al.</em> 1987; St-Georges <em>et al.</em> 1995), radioactive isotopes (Knaus <em>et al</em>. 1983; Testa <em>et al</em>. 1994), catch/unit effort (Chilelli <em>et al</em>. 1996), and scent-station surveys (Humphrey and Zinn 1982). Density estimates of river otters range from 1 otter/1.25-3.60 km of coastline in Alaska (Testa <em>et al</em>. 1994) to 1 otter/3.9 km of waterway in Idaho (Melquist and Hornocker 1983).
12302		threats	eng	Threats to otter populations in North America vary among regions and are influenced by type, distribution, and density of aquatic habitats and characteristics of human activities. Prior to settlement of North America by Europeans, otters were widespread among aquatic habitats throughout most of the continent (Hall 1981). Unregulated trapping and loss or degradation of aquatic habitats through filling of wetlands and development of coal, oil, gas, tanning, timber, and other industries resulted in extirpations or declines in otter populations in many areas (Toweill and Tabor 1982, Melquist and Dronkert 1987). Nilsson (1980) reviewed the status of otters in the United States and determined that populations were extirpated in 11 states and had experienced severe declines in 9 other states. The most severe population declines occurred in interior regions where fewer aquatic habitats supported smaller fewer otter populations. Although the distribution of otters became reduced in some regions of southern Canada, the only province-wide extirpation occurred on Prince Edward Island (Polechla 1990). <br/><br/>During the 1970’s, improvements in natural resource management techniques coincided with increased concern about otter declines in North America (Endangered Species Scientific Authority 1978). Consequently, many wildlife management agencies developed strategies to restore or enhance otter populations, including the use of reintroduction projects (Ralls 1990; Serfass <em>et al.</em> 1993). Since 1976 over 4,000 otters have been reintroduced among 21 states. Also, 29 states and all Canadian provinces except Prince Edward Island have viable populations that sustain annual harvests. Annual harvest numbers of Northern river otters are similar for Canada and the United States (Obbard 1987), with most pelts being used in the garment industry (Toweill and Tabor, 1982). In the late 1970s, annual harvest in North America reached ca. 50,000 pelts, for a value of U.S. $3 million (Melquist and Dronkert, 1987). Otters are incidentally harvested by traps set for beavers (Toweill and Tabor, 1982), and therefore management plans should consider both species simultaneously (Polechla, 1990). While current harvest strategies do not pose a threat to maintaining otter populations, harvest may limit expansion of otter populations in some areas (Lariviere and Walton 1998). <br/><br/>Oil spills present a localized threat to otter populations, especially in coastal areas. Water pollution and other degradation of aquatic and wetland habitats may limit distribution of otters and pose long-term threats if enforcement of water quality standards are not maintained and enforced. Acid drainage from coal mines is a persistent water quality problem in some areas that eliminates otter prey prevents thereby inhibits recolonization or expansion of otter populations. Recently, there has been discussion of the long-term genetic consequences of reintroduction projects on remnant otter populations (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1998). Similarly, many perceived threats to otters such as pollution and habitat alterations have not been rigorously evaluated. <br/>The threat of disease to wild otter populations is poorly understood and has received little study (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1995). Lontra canadensis may be victim of canine distemper (Harris 1968; Park 1971), rabies (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1995), respiratory tract disease, and urinary infection (Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984; Route and Peterson 1991). In addition, North American river otters can contract jaundice, hepatitis, feline panleucopenia, and pneumonia (Harris, 1968). North American river otters host numerous endoparasites such as nematodes (Hoberg <em>et al</em>. 1997), cestodes (Greer 1955), trematodes (Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984), the sporozoan Isopora (Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984), and acanthocephalans (Hoberg <em>et al</em>. 1997; Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984). Ectoparasites include ticks (Eley 1977; Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1992), sucking lice Latagophthirus rauschi (Kim and Emerson 1974), and the flea Oropsylla arctomys (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1992).
12303		conservation	eng	It is listed in Appendix I of the CITES (Nowak 1991). The marine otter is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
12303		distribution	eng	The marine otter <em>Lontra felina</em> lives along the Pacific coast of South America from 6°S to 56°S along the Chilean coast to Cape Horn, Straits of Lemaire and Isla de Los Estados in Argentina (Brack Egg 1978, Brownell 1978, van Zyll de Jong 1972). It is also present in isolated populations in the Strait of Magellan and on Staten Island in Argentina (Cabrera 1957, Parera 1996).
12303		habitat	eng	Lontra felina is the only species of the genus Lontra that is found exclusively in marine habitats. It uses coastlines with range extending approximately 30 m inland and 100-150 m of sea offshore (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979). The species inhabits marine areas exposed to heavy seas and strong wind (Cabello 1978; Ostfeld <em>et al.</em> 1989) and prefers rocky shores with caves that are above water at high tide, as well as areas with large algae communities offering a wide abundance and diversity of prey species (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979). Sandy beaches offer marginal habitat (Sielfeld 1989) and typically are used only for travel between dens and water (Ebensperger and Castilla 1992). Marine otters are, for the most part, restricted to marine waters, but may occasionally travel up freshwater rivers in search of prey (Brownell 1978; Cabello 1978; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). Because not all coastlines are suitable, marine otters are found in disjunct populations throughout their distribution range (Redford and Eisenberg 1992).<br/><br/>The marine otter diet is composed mostly of invertebrates, including crustaceans (decapods, shrimps, and crabs) and mollusks (bivalves and gastropods), and vertebrate prey, including fish from the families Blennidae, Cheilodactylidae, Gobiesocidae, and Pomacentridae, and occasionally birds and small mammals (Cabello 1978; Castilla and Bahamondes 1979; Ostfeld <em>et al</em>. 1989; Sielfeld 1990a). Along the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile the diet of marine otter consisted of 25 species; 52% (13/25) of the species identified were crustaceans, 40% (10/25) were fish, and 8% (2/25) were mollusks. Crustaceans were found in 78% of 475 spraints, 100% of 929 prey remains, and 90.8% of prey determined by direct observation, fish in 20% of spraints and 9.0% of prey determined by direct observation, and mollusks in 2% of spraints and 0.2% of prey determined by direct observation. Observed seasonal variation in prey availability was reflected in the otter diet. Fourteen prey species were trapped; 43% (6/14) were crustaceans and 57% (8/14) fish, crustaceans were 93% of 566 trapped individuals, fish 7%. L. felina showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability rather than to their energy input (Medina <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Some analyses have found that fruits (Greigia sphacelata, Fascicularia bicolor) may also be consumed on occasion (Brownell 1978; Cabello 1978; Medina 1995). Marine otters may compete with gulls (Larus) and the South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) for similar species of prey fish (Cabello 1978). The most important natural predator of the marine otter is the killer whale (Orcinus orca; Cabello 1978), but adults also may be killed by sharks (Parera 1996) and birds of prey may capture juveniles when on land (Cabello 1983). <br/><br/>The marine otter is most likely a monogamous species. Mating typically occurs during December or January (Caballo 1978) with gestation of 60-65 days (Housse 1953; Sielfield 1983). Parturition usually occurs from January to March. It takes place in a den or on shore between rocky outcroppings and vegetation. The litter size varies from two to four young, with two being observed most frequently. Young marine otters remain with their parents for approximately ten months. Adults transport their young by carrying them in their mouths or resting the young on their bellies as they swim on their backs. Both adults in the monogamous pair bring prey back to the den to feed their young (Parera 1996). When not breeding, marine otters are mostly solitary. The group size is seldom more than two to three individuals. Its activity pattern is generally diurnal, with peaks of activity noted in early morning, mid-afternoon, and evenings. Marine otters are much more agile in the water than on land.
12303		population	eng	The population of Lontra felina probably consisted of <1,000 individuals (Nowak 1991). Its largest population remains in the west coast of Chiloe Island and in southern parts of Chile (Cabello 1978). During 1999-2000, in southern Chile, an average of 3.8 observable otters/km were recorded, with significant differences between sites but no systematic trends with regard to seasons. Observable pups were recorded year-round (Medina-Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2006). Along the Peruvian coast the population is estimated to be 200-300 marine otters (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979).
12303		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, pollution, and poaching/excessive hunting are the major threats to marine otters in South America (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979; Chehebar 1990; Estes 1986; Iriarte and Jaksic 1986). The original range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lontra felina</span> has decreased considerably because of excessive hunting (Redford and Eisenberg 1992) and the species has been nearly exterminated from the regions of Cape Horn and southern Tierra del Fuego (Brownell 1978) as well as from the northern extremities of its former range (Chehebar 1990). Illegal trade in pelts was still relatively frequent in southern Chile in the 1990s (Macdonald and Mason 1990), as the price paid for a single pelt was equivalent to the wages an unskilled worker could earn in 2-3 months, and the probability of being caught and fined for poaching was very low (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1983). The largest populations of marine otters remain along the west coast of Chiloé Island and in southern parts of Chile, where there is not only very little information about hunting, habitat conservation, and the status and distribution of otter populations, but little enforcement of otter protection measures. In Argentina, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. felina</span> is on the verge of extinction and may persist only on the eastern coast of Tierra del Fuego and on Staten Island (Chehebar 1990; Parera 1996).<br/><br/>In addition to hunting, marine otters may be killed incidentally by fishing activities (Brownell 1978), or persecuted and killed directly for alleged damage to local fish, bivalves, and shrimp populations (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1983; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). Fishery overexploitation of crabs and mollusks in some regions of the coast may be a major threat to otters due to the reduction of available food sources.
12304		conservation	eng	<em>Lontra longicaudis</em> is listed as endangered in the Appendix I of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Emmons, 1990) and by the Mexican Ministry of Ecology (Ceballos and Navarro 1991). It is also listed as endangered by the United States Department of Interior. The neotropical otter is listed as a priority species by the Fundacion Vida Silvestre Argentina (Bertonetti and Parera 1994). This species is currently protected in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad, Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela (Aranda 1991; Brack-Egg 1978; Chehebar 1990; Mondolfi and Trebbau 1978). Neotropical otters are not legally protected in Guyana and Honduras, and no information is available on the distribution or legal status of neotropical otters in Belize, El Salvador, French Guiana, and Guatemala (Chehebar 1990). <br/><br/>Conservation priorities for the neotropical otter should focus on field surveys of current populations, identification of key habitats, protection of areas where high populations remain, and stricter regulations to prevent release of toxic waste in riverine systems (Mason and Macdonald 1990).
12304		distribution	eng	Lontra longicaudis occurs from northwestern Mexico south to Uruguay (Gallo 1991), Paraguay, and across the northern part of Argentina to Buenos Aires province (Chehebar 1990; Cockrum 1964; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It is widespread in the northern and central parts of Argentina (Bertonatti and Parera 1994).
12304		habitat	eng	The Neotropical river otter lives in variety of habitats including natural systems such as deciduous and evergreen forests, warm and cool climate rainforests, and coastal savanna swamps (Emmons 1990). Habitat requirements include ample riparian vegetation (Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Redford and Eisenberg 1992), and abundant potential den sites (Soldateli and Blacher 1996). It favours clear, fast-flowing rivers and streams, and may be rare or absent from sluggish, silt-laden lowland rivers. It occurs mostly from 300 to 1,500 m of altitude, but has been found up to 3,000 m (Eisenberg 1989; Emmans 1990; Melendres 1978; Redford and Eisenberg 1992) and in Costa Rica and Uruguay it occurs below 300 m. The greatest abundances of Neotropical otters are in areas with extensive aquatic networks, low chemical and organic pollution, and low human density (Bardier 1992; Blacher 1987). However, this is a versatile species that tolerates environmental modifications well, and has been found occupying areas close to human activity such as irrigation ditches, rice fields and sugar cane plantations (Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Macdonald and Mason 1992). <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on fish, with crustaceans and mollusks contributing to large portions of diet in some areas (Bardier 1992; Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Gallo 1986; Helder-Jose and Ker De Andrade 1997; Passamani and Camargo 1995; Soldateli and Blacher 1996). Fish consumed are mostly from the families Cichlidae, Anostomidae, Characidae, and Pimelodidae (Passamani and Camargo 1995; Spinola and Vaughan 1995). Small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects are consumed opportunistically (Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Parera 1993; Passamani and Camargo 1995). <br/><br/>It may compete with sympatric Pteronura brasiliensis, however, competition effects may be buffered by use of different habitat, denning sites, size of prey, and by the more crepuscular habits of L. longicaudis (Carter and Rosas 1997; Duplaix 1978). Known predators include anacondas (Eunectes) and jaguars (Panthera onca) (Duplaix 1978; Parera, 1996a), but caimans (Caiman), dogs, and birds of prey may also prey on neotropical otters (Dunstone and Strachan 1988; Parera 1996b). <br/><br/>Breeding occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities (Parera 1996a). Gestation is 56 days (Bertonatti and Parera 1994), and litter size varies from one to five young ones (Bertonatti and Parera 1994), usually two or three (Parera 1996a).
12304		population	eng	The species seems to be widespread, and its range does not seem to have changed, but there is no data available about population size, composition or distribution, so changes cannot be determined.
12304		threats	eng	Excessive hunting of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. longicaudis </span>for its pelt in the period 1950-1970 resulted in local extinction over parts of its former range (Brack-Egg 1978; Donadio 1978). Although current hunting and population status are unknown (Emmons 1990), continued illegal hunting (Chehebar 1991), habitat destruction through mining and ranching, and water pollution are likely to be responsible for its rareness (Alho and Lacher 1991; Alho <em>et al.</em> 1998; Chehebar 1990; Gallo 1986; Melendres 1978). Neotropical otters show little fear of humans (Parera 1993), and are sometimes killed incidentally in fishing operations (Dunstone and Strachan 1988) or kept in captivity by fishermen who use trained otters to aid in fishing practices (Parera 1996a).
12305		conservation	eng	<em>Lontra provocax</em> is listed in Appendix I of the CITES. The Chilean Red Data Book of Vertebrates lists the species as being in danger of extinction. It is also listed as Threatened in the Argentine National Wildlife List (Consejo Asesor Regional Patagonico de la Fauna Silvestre) (Porro and Chehebar 1995). Recommended conservation measures include population monitoring, enforcement of anti-poaching legislation, habitat maintenance to conserve abundant mature plant cover along shorelines and establishment of water use restrictions for fishing and boating access (Chehebar 1985; Porro and Chehebar 1995, 1996). <br/><br/>Reintroduction of southern river otters into areas where they were previously exterminated due to excessive hunting could be successful in the above mentioned enforcement of legislation and monitoring programs are carried out (Porro and Chehebar 1995; Medina 1996a). Conservation of the southern river otter will require better education, time allowance for populations to recover, and re-establishment of populations in native habitat (Medina 1996a, 1996b).
12305		distribution	eng	L. provocax occurs in Argentine and Chilean Patagonian region, between 36°S and 52°S latitude (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986). In Chile, the southern river otter is found from Mahuidanche river (39°S) in the province of Colchagua to the Strait of Magallanes. L. provocax once had an extensive distribution from the Cauquenes and Cachapoal Rivers to the Magellan region in Chile. Currently, the distribution of L. provocax is limited by habitat degradation and human disturbance (Medina 1996). In Argentina, the southern river otter is present along the Andes from the southern part of the province of Neuquen down to Tierra del Fuego (Cabrera 1957; Redford and Eisenberg 1992).
12305		habitat	eng	<em>L. provocax</em> is predominantly a freshwater species occurring in freshwater lakes and in rivers and streams. Rest and den sites are found in areas with dense vegetation and an abundance of above-ground roots, small rocks or broken stones, which provide suitable crevices from which the animal can view the adjacent water without being exposed. In the Nahuel Huapi National Park, there were significant heterogeneities in its distribution between river basins, between habitats, between lakes relative to dispersal routes and topography. Their distribution is governed by the distribution of crustacean prey, absence of human habitation, and the presence of introduced American mink Mustela vison, because although there was a positive relationship between the occurrence of mink and huillin in Lake Nahuel Huapi, there was a negative relationship in their occurrence between other lakes. <br/><br/>It also occurs in marine habitats along southern Chile (Sielfeld 1983). Habitat in the Patagonian archipelago consists mainly of rocky coasts and canals protected from waves, where coastal strips of vegetation such as Drimis winteri, Notofagus betuloides, and Maytenus magellanica are present; these features, as well as reduced human disturbance, are thought to be favorable for the establishment of dens (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986; Medina 1996a, 1996b; Sielfeld 1983). In Argentina, L. provocax is associated with dense mature forest with thick undergrowth extending close to shore. Both the above-ground root systems of mature or fallen trees and the dense vegetation cover are important components of L. provocax habitat; absence of these key features may result in absence of otters, even if abundance of prey is not limiting (Chehebar <em>et al</em>. 1986). <br/><br/>The southern river otter diet consists mainly of fish including such species as Cheridon australe, Cyprinus carpio, Galaxias, Notothenia, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Percichthys trucha, Percillia gillissi, Salmo trutta, as well as some crustaceans including Aegla, Camilonotus, Lithodes antartica, Munida, Paralomis granulosa, Parastacus pugnax, and Sammastacus spinifrom. Opportunistic consumption of mollusks (Diplodon chilensis, Fissurela) and birds has also been reported (Chehebar 1982; Chehebar and Benoit 1988; Medina 1996a, 1996b, 1997; Sielfeld 1983). <br/><br/>Breeding is thought to occur in July and August, and young are born in September and October (Housse 1953). In parts of the species? southern range, young can be observed all year (Parera 1996). Litter size average one or two young, but may litters of up to four young have been observed (Sielfeld 1983).
12305		population	eng	L. provocax is rare in Lanin, Puelo, and Los Alerces National Parks (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986). Only three core populations remain in the species range: Nahuel Huapi National Park, the coast of Beagle Canal in the Tierra del Fuego National Park, and on Staten Island (Chehebar 1985; Porro and Chehebar 1995). Density of southern river otters averages 0.73 individuals (range 0.71-0.75) per km of coastline in southern Chile (Sielfeld 1992).
12305		threats	eng	The southern river otter population has been confirmed from seven isolated areas all of which are threatened by a variety of factors. It has been exterminated through much of its Chilean range by habitat destruction and disturbance through removal of riverbank vegetation, dam construction, river and stream canalization, drainage for agriculture and dredging, as well as excessive hunting practices (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986; Housse 1953; Medina 1996a, 1996b; Porro and Chehebar 1995). Populations have been confirmed in only seven isolated areas all of which are threatened by the above-listed concerns, especially dredging impacts on coastal morphology and the large scale of forest destruction in southern Chile that may be affecting several of the freshwater habitats through severe flooding and deposition of soil on the river beds. While illegal, hunting continues to be prevalent in Chile, particularly south of the Chiloe region, as a single otter pelt may pay the equivalent of 2-3 months wages for an unskilled worker (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1983). Otters are also harvested illegally with shellfish-baited hooks, puyero nets, lances, shotguns, foothold traps, and dogs (Medina, 1996b). Introduction of salmonid species may have an impact on otter diet as they may out compete native fish species and salmonids may be too fast for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. provocax </span>to catch (Chehebar 1985; Chehebar and Benoit 1988; Medina 1996a). Impacts of this shift in prey fish species require further research. <br/><br/>Concern about competition for food and space between <span style="font-style: italic;">Lontra provocax</span> and the introduced American mink <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela vison</span> was raised when otter abundances were noted to be lower in areas where American mink were present (Chehebar 1985; Chehebar <em>et al</em>. 1986). It has been concluded, however, that competitive effects are unlikely to pose a major threat to the otter as the two species exhibit low overlap in diet (<26%) and habitats used (5-22%), suggesting that they may coexist with little competition (Chehebar and Benoit 1988; Chehebar <em>et al</em>. 1986; Medina 1997). Large scale destruction of forests in southern Chile may be affecting several of its freshwater habitats through severe flooding and deposition of soil on the river beds.
12308		conservation	eng	Further research in to the ecological requirements of the species is needed.  Its range includes several protected areas.
12308		distribution	eng	This species is known from fragmented localities across eastern Africa in Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m asl.
12308		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species found in a wide variety of habitats including forest, semi-desert, dry and moist savanna or woodland. It is often found in rocky areas. It is unclear as to whether the species has a single or two to three young in a litter.
12308		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
12308		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
12309		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II and as Class B under the African Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
12309		distribution	eng	This species is primarily found in central Africa, from the Cross River, Nigeria, through to the Nile, north of the Congo River and the Lualaba River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its range encompasses south-east Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, south-western Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Uganda, western Kenya, and extreme north-western Tanzania. Although primarily a lowland species, it can be found up to 1,600 m in strictly equatorial zones.
12309		habitat	eng	This species is found in both primary and secondary forest. It is arboreal, spending most of the time in the upper canopy (Waser 1977; Shah 2003). Diet consists mainly of fruit and seeds; preferred species include false nutmeg (<em>Pycnanthus</em>), breadfruit (<em>Treculia</em>), dwarf dates (<em>Phoenix</em>), <em>Erythrophleum</em> fruit and seeds, and oil palm (<em>Elaeis</em>) (Waser 1977; Olupot <em>et al.</em> 1998; Poulson <em>et al</em>. 2001; Shah 2003). This species has non-territorial home ranges of approximately 2-4 km², and there is extensive overlap between groups (Waser 1977; Olupot <em>et al</em>. 1998; Shah 2003).
12309		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout much of its range. Densities are estimated to be between 18 and 77 animals per sq km, and 10-20 individuals per sq km are usual in the mixed primate communities of Cameroon and Gabon. The highest density (77/km²) was recorded in a Ugandan gallery forest, where only two marginally sympatric species were present.
12309		threats	eng	Habitat loss through agricultural expansion, and hunting for bushmeat, are the major threats to this species.
12310		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and as Class B according to the African Convention. It is present in Salonga National Park, Lukuru Community Reservation and the proposed Lomako conservation area.
12310		distribution	eng	This species is found south of the Congo River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in rainforest in lowland areas of the south-west Congo Basin and into Angola (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies (following Grubb <em>et al</em>. 2003): <em>L. a. aterrimus</em> is found in the central Congo basin; <em>L. a. opdenboschi</em> is found in north-eastern Angola and south-western Democratic Republic of the Congo.
12310		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and secondary moist forests. In Salonga National Park, it has been observed in swamp forests, but does not occupy swamp in Lomako (McGraw 1994). It utilizes all forest levels (especially the middle canopy layers), but seldom descends to the ground (Horn 1987; McGraw 1994). Its diet consists largely of fruits and seeds, with high rates of nectarivory in some months of the year in Salonga; foraging activity is concentrated in the early morning (Horn 1987; McGraw 1994; Gautier-Hion and Maisels 1994).
12310		population	eng	Although widespread, its population size is not really known and further details are needed. Densities of 70 individuals/km² have been recorded in some localities.
12310		threats	eng	Little is known about the status of this species. However, it is subject to intensive, uncontrolled hunting for its meat in most parts of the range, and it is also vulnerable to loss of forest habitat.
12349		conservation	eng	This species is known from a National Park but the degree to which this helps to conserve the species is not certain.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of other protected areas.
12349		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Marais Mukaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurs above 2,000 m asl.
12349		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane <em>Cyperus latifolius</em> swamps and relatively dry short grasslands with <em>Hagenia abyssinica</em> and <em>Kotschya africana</em> trees. It has not been recorded in modified habitats.
12349		population	eng	Only five specimens have ever been captured. This species may be very rare, however, the region is not well surveyed.
12349		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through logging and directed fires.
12350		conservation	eng	Although the species is found in several protected areas, its conservation is not secured.  Further research into population numbers, range, threats, and conservation measures is needed. This species needs to be monitored. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
12350		distribution	eng	This species is found on both sides (west and east) of Lake Kivu (Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo) between 1,800 and 2,500 m asl. There is also a single record from Bwindi (Uganda).
12350		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane rainforests and swamps. It is not believed to occur in modified habitats.
12350		population	eng	It is thought to be very rare.
12350		threats	eng	The species is presumably threatened by habitat loss, resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
12351		conservation	eng	It is protected by the Bale Mountain National Park. Research into potential conservation measures is needed. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
12351		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and central Ethiopia, west of the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Dieterlen, 1987), and in the Bale Mtns, east of the Rift Valley, where it is found at elevations of 3,100 to 4,300 m asl.
12351		habitat	eng	It inhabits high altitude grasslands. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12351		population	eng	This species is abundant where it is found, but it has a very restricted range.
12351		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to habitat degradation due to overgrazing of vegetation by domestic livestock and fires.
12352		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Bwindi National Park in Uganda. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
12352		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Albertine Rift Valley of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda around Lake Kivu, at elevations of 1,900 to 2,500 m asl. It has also been recorded from Bwindi National Park in Uganda.
12352		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense primary montane forest, especially in <em>Albizia gummifera</em> - <em>Carapa grandiflora</em> - <em>Parinari excelsa</em> forest. It has also been recorded in secondary forest and sparse bamboo stands covered with grass. Areas with little streams may be preferred.
12352		population	eng	This species is thought to be extremely rare.
12352		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are poorly known. It seems probable that habitat destruction by logging and burning is a threat to this species, particularly at lower elevations of its range.
12353		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is within a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of many populations currently allocated to this species.
12353		distribution	eng	This species has a broad distribution, ranging from north-east Angola, through the Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania, Kenya and southern Sudan, south to Malawi, northwest and northeast Zambia, and northern Mozambique (Dieterlen 1976). There is an isolated range in Ethiopian highlands north and west of the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found up to 4,500 m asl.
12353		habitat	eng	It is found in wet, montane secondary forests and grassy areas close to forests. This species is terrestrial and omnivorous.
12353		population	eng	It is common and abundant.
12353		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Isolated populations may be threatened by habitat loss.
12354		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
12354		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the lowland forests of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Medje, Irangi, Bafwasende, and Tungula [Dieterlen 1987]). The range limits are not known. It has been recorded from 700 to 1,000 m asl.
12354		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary lowland forests, and also in cultivated areas. This species is insectivorous.
12354		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species.
12354		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in many different habitat types, and presumably habitat degradation is unlikely to have a severe effect on this species.
12355		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
12355		distribution	eng	This species inhabits west central lowland rainforest to the north and west of the Congo river and Ubangi river, westwards to the Sanaga river. It is found in Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko Island) and Cameroon southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko Island), Gabon, Congo, southwest Central African Republic, and northern Democratic Republic of Congo (between the Ubangi River in the west and the Aruwimi River in the east; Basoko (01*13'N, 23*35'E), near the confluence of the Aruwimi River with the Congo River, is the easternmost record). The species is not found on the right side of the Congo River, where intensive surveys have been carried out between the mouth of the Aruwimi River and Kisangani to the southeast); elsewhere it occurs only on right side of Congo River. Typically found below 700 m
12355		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland rainforests, preferring the grassy open areas in the forest belt. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12355		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
12355		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.
12356		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; in vieew of its wide range it is probably present in some protected areas.
12356		distribution	eng	This species is largely distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It is found from Sierra Leone in West Africa to Tanzania and Kenya in East Africa and southward to northern Angola. The eastern range limits are not well resolved. In Tanzania its distribution is patchy, and it is found around high mountains in the appropriate altitudinal and climatic habitat.  At Mount Nimba (Guinea) it occurs up to 1,600 m asl.
12356		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense, moist grasslands, secondary growth, agricultural fields, abandoned farmlands, swamps and grassy plantations where there is abundant low cover. In primary and secondary forests, it occurs only in patches of grassland and herbaceous cover, most especially in open areas. It is a terrestrial and nocturnal, crepuscular species. This species has both an insectivorous and omnivorous diet.
12356		population	eng	It is common and abundant.
12356		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12357		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
12357		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution in the western Rift Valley and bordering mountains in western Uganda, Burundi (Bururi Forest), Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been recorded from Ruwenzori in the north to the Itombwe massif (Congo). It is confined to forested mountains on both sides of the Rift Valley, at elevations of 1,600 to 3,880 m asl.
12357		habitat	eng	This species inhabits undergrowth in montane forests, cleared areas in forests, old and new bamboo forests, and it is found amongst rocks in afro-alpine vegetation (Senecio, Lobelia). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12357		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, and is often the most numerous of small rodents surveyed.
12357		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
12361		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of the species.
12361		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Flannery (1995) states that it is found along the Central Cordillera from the Lake Habbema region (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to the Owen Stanley Range (Papua New Guinea) in the east; it has also been recorded from the Torricelli Mountains. It ranges from 80 to 2,700 m asl.
12361		habitat	eng	The species is found in tropical forest. Animals have been recorded using arboreal nests in tree ferns, and in moss nests among rocks (Flannery 1995). The female probably gives birth to between two and four young.
12361		population	eng	It is a common species in parts of its range.
12361		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
12375		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and is protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance Act No. 2, 1937 and subsequent amendments including Act No. 49, 1993 at the species level (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><em>L. t. tardigradus</em> exists in Sinharaja World Heritage site and seven nature/forest preserves, as well as one proposed forest reserve, while at least one population of <em>L. t. nycticeboides</em> resides in Horton Plains National Park. Despite living in these areas, the survival of the species depends on reduction of habitat loss and the concurrent establishment of corridors between forest fragments. The eradication of local reliance on lorises for traditional “medicine” and use as superstitious scapegoats can only be achieved through education (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004). Reliable population estimates and a monitoring program are needed for all Sri Lankan loris populations.<br/>Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) list the following necessary research actions for this species: genetic and taxonomic, life history, population surveying, epidemiology, trade, population genetics, limiting factors, behavior and ecology.  Also listed are the following needed management actions: habitat management, wild population management, monitoring, public education, limiting factor management, work in local communities, and Population and Habitat Viability Assessment.
12375		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and south-western Sri Lanka, and is typically found in the southern “wet zone” of the island, up to the central “intermediate zone” (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004).<br/><br/><em>L. t. tardigradus</em> <br/>Found in south-western Sri Lanka, from Colombo (although no known population still exists in this city) in the north to Ranna on the south coast. The subspecies has recently been recorded at several locations in Sri Lanka: Maimbulakanda Nature Reserve in Gampaha District, Western Province; Oliyagankele Forest Reserve, Masmullah, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Proposed Forest Reserve, Matara District; Kanneliya, Polgahaivalakande, and Kottawa Forest Reserves and Pitigala forest patches, Galle District, Southern Province; and in Godakawela, Ratnapura District, and Sinharaja World Heritage site.<br/><br/><em>Loris tardigradus nycticeboides </em><br/>Found in central Sri Lanka, where it is known from the Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya District, Central Province. Extent of occurrence is less than 300 km<sup>2</sup>.
12375		habitat	eng	<em>Loris tardigradus tardigradus</em> is found in wet lowland forests (Schulze and Meier 1995), tropical rain, swampy coastal and evergreen forests, and wet zone lowland forest up to 470 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>Loris t. tardigradus</em> has only been observed to eat animal prey. Although they will eat fruit in a captive setting, they will always choose animal prey first. In addition to insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, grasshoppers), they relish lizards and geckos. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas characterised by <em>Humboldtia laurifolia</em>, a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants, providing abundant food for lorises. Lorises occurred at densities of 0.08-0.55 animals/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage, branches of small size (<5 cm) and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts this species; it is not found in home gardens, and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.<br/><em>Loris t. nycticeboides</em> may possibly be more carnivorous than the lowland subspecies. As is this case with other primates at high altitudes, it also may occur at lower densities. The forest where it occurs has been classified as cloud forest, montane forest and evergreen forest at altitudes greater than 1,500 m (Schulze and Meier 1995), from 1,650 to 2,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Of actual sightings, the highest was at 2,134 m and the lowest at 1,829 m altitude. Temperatures in its habitat have been recorded from 15.4°C (May/June) to -4°C (Dec/Jan) (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003; Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2005; Nekaris and Bearder 2006).
12375		population	eng	All populations are thought to be in decline. Population estimates suggest that there are approximately 1,500 animals of <em>L. t. tardigradus</em> in 3,000 ha of extremely fragmented forests, and about 80 animals in Horton Plains of <em>L. t. nycticeboides</em>. According to Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) the total population of <em>L. t.</em> nycticeboides is unknown, yet this species has declined by greater than 80% in the last 200 years and is predicted to decline by >20% in the next 10 years. <em>L. t. tardigradus</em> is predicted to decline by greater than 10% in the next 5 years (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). These declines are based on the 1:1 relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number. The country has lost 97% of its forest cover (Mill 1995; Myers <em>et al</em>. 2000), thus dramatically reducing the population.
12375		threats	eng	The threats imposed by humans on Sri Lankan <em>Loris</em> include habitat loss, road kill, and hunting for the pet trade, traditional “medicine,” and superstitious killing. Also, lorises have been electrocuted on un-insulated power lines. <em>Loris t. tardigradus</em> exists in few isolated forest patches that are also under severe encroachment by humans. Recent population studies estimate low numbers in forest patches and it is evident that both subspecies are in decline (Nekaris 2003, 2006).<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) list the following threats for <em>L. t. nycticeboides</em>: “land and water pollution, habitat loss due to agriculture, dairy husbandry, and vegetable cultivation, as well as local and commercial trade for eyes and meat by tea plantation workers, and possible village level trade for folk medicine”. While for <em>L. t. tardigradus</em> major threats are: “deforestation due to urbanization, and local, domestic, and commercial trade for meat” (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12383		conservation	eng	None in place, not found in a protected area.
12383		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Known only from three specimens from two locations in Edea and Yabassi.
12383		habitat	eng	Unknown.
12383		population	eng	Unknown.
12383		threats	eng	Unknown.
12392		conservation	eng	The African Elephant has been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1989, but the populations of the following Range States have since been transferred back to Appendix II with specific annotations: Botswana (1997), Namibia (1997), South Africa (2000) and Zimbabwe (1997). These annotations have been recently replaced by a single annotation for all four countries, with certain specific sub-annotations for the populations of Namibia and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>The African Elephant is subject to various degrees of legal protection in all Range States. Although up to 70% of the species range is believed to lie in unprotected land, most large populations occur within protected areas. <br/><br/>Conservation measures usually include habitat management and protection through law enforcement. Successful management at the site level can result in the build-up of high elephant densities. This is often perceived as a threat to their local habitats, as well as to other species and to elephant populations themselves. Management interventions to reduce elephant numbers and local densities have been limited and most recently been undertaken through contraception or translocation. Large-scale culling has not been performed as a population management option since Zimbabwe discontinued the practice in 1988 and South Africa did likewise in 1994.<br/><br/>The sport hunting of elephants is permitted under the legislation of a number of Range States, and the following countries currently (2007) have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies: Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>Some community-based conservation programmes in which revenue from the sport hunting of elephants reverts directly to local communities have proved effective in increasing tolerance to elephants, and thus indirectly in reducing levels of human-elephant conflict.<br/><br/>An increasing number of transboundary elephant populations are co-managed through the collaboration of relevant neighbouring Range States. Large-scale conservation interventions are also planned through the development of conservation and management strategies at the national and regional level.
12392		distribution	eng	African Elephants currently occur in 37 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (see accompanying map, sourced from Blanc <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). They are known to have become nationally extinct in Burundi in the 1970s, in The Gambia in 1913, in Mauritania in the 1980s, and in Swaziland in 1920, where they were reintroduced in the 1980s and 1990s.<br/><br/>Although large tracts of continuous elephant range remain in parts of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa, elephant distribution is becoming increasingly fragmented across the continent. <br/><br/>The quality of knowledge available on elephant distribution varies considerably across the species' range. While distribution patterns are well understood in most of Eastern, Southern and West Africa, there is little reliable information on elephant distribution for much of Central Africa.
12392		habitat	eng	The African Elephant is very catholic in its range, and tends to move between a variety of habitats. It is found in dense forest, open and closed savanna, grassland and, at considerably lower densities, in the arid deserts of Namibia and Mali. They are also found over wide altitudinal and latitudinal ranges – from mountain slopes to oceanic beaches, and from the northern tropics to the southern temperate zone (approximately between 16.5° North and 34° South). See also the list of habitats.
12392		population	eng	Although elephant populations may at present be declining in parts of their range, major populations in Eastern and Southern Africa, accounting for over two thirds of all known elephants on the continent, have been surveyed,and are currently increasing at an average annual rate of 4.0% per annum (Blanc <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, 2007). As a result, more than 15,000 elephants are estimated to have been recruited into the population in 2006 and, if current rates of increase continue, the number of elephants born in these populations between 2005 and 2010 will be larger than the currently estimated total number of elephants in Central and West Africa combined. In other words, the magnitude of ongoing increases in Southern and Eastern Africa are likely to outweigh the magnitude of any likely declines in the other two regions.
12392		threats	eng	Poaching for ivory and meat has traditionally been the major cause of the species' decline. Although illegal hunting remains a significant factor in some areas, particularly in Central Africa, currently the most important perceived threat is the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by ongoing human population expansion and rapid land conversion. A specific manifestation of this trend is the reported increase in human-elephant conflict, which further aggravates the threat to elephant populations.
12398		habitat	eng	One location in limestone sink with water of salinity 4.6 ppt at one meter below surface.
12399		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
12400		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
12401		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
12419		conservation	eng	It is strictly protected under international legislation and conventions: CITES Appendix I (Reservation by Russian Federation), Bern Convention Appendix II, EU Habitats and Species Directive Annexes II and IV, and EC 338/97 Annex A. Additionally it is protected under national law in many range states. A European Breeding Programme (EEP) for self-sustaining captive populations was started in 1985. Monitoring programmes have been established in many range states in Europe. Road barriers and tunnels under roads are required to reduce the impact of road kills (especially in countries like Germany where road kills are the main threat). Much more monitoring is required, but also better survey techniques are required. For example, the population on the Shetlands is well-surveyed, and survey results show no indications of decline, but evidence from other sources (breeding holts, changes in diet, etc.) indicate that declines are in fact happening (J. Conroy pers. comm. 2006).
12419		conservation	eng	The Eurasian otter is strictly protected under international legislation and conventions. It is listed in Appendix I of the CITES, Appendix II of the Bern Convention, Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directives and Appendix I of the Bonn Convention  (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) which recommends highest degree of protection to it. It is also listed as endangered species in many of its range countries in Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand. The species is listed as Critically Endangered in Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>A European Breeding Programme (EEP) for self-sustaining captive populations was started in 1985. Monitoring programmes have been established in many range states in Europe. Several reintroduction programme has been initiated in Europe such as in UK, Sweden and Netherlands which was successful in bringing back the otters into its former habitats.
12419		distribution	eng	The Eurasian otter has one of the widest distributions of all Palaearctic mammals (Corbet, 1966). Its range covers parts of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Its current distribution in Europe is marked by a large corridor, reaching from Central Denmark, via the Western parts of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Eastern parts of France, Switzerland, the Western pmts of Austria to Central Italy, where the otter is extinct or reduced to small and sometimes isolated populations. Information for Russia, which forms a link between Europe and Asia, is fragmented. It seems that the otter is distributed throughout the country with the exception of the tundra and the northern regions with permanent frost. The southern border of the Eurasian otter's range in the Near and Middle East is formed by Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Iran. It is also reported from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia in Africa in the north of Sahara. In south Asia the species has been reported from all most all the countries especially from Himalayan River systems of Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar and eastward throughout South East Asia up to Japan where it believed to be extinct. <br/><br/>There are several open questions for the Southeast Asian region. It seems that the Eurasian otter reached the island of Sumatra but, did not reach the island of Java. Conroy <em>et al.</em> (1998) are not sure if the evidence of otters on the island of Borneo really relates to the Eurasian otter. Its occurrence has been confirmed from South Korea, Southern China, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Bangladesh (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988, Hussain 1999). In India it occurs in Northern, North East and from Southern India. Formerly widely distributed in Japan, it is now believed to be extinct (Ando <em>et al</em>. 2007). Once widespread in the rivers of northern Mongolia (Mallon 1985), along the rivers of Mongol Altai Mountain Range, and along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Bannikov 1954; Dulamtseren 1970; Sokolov and Orlov 1980). It has also been reported from downstream of the Tengis River in northern parts of Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Tsagaan 1975; 1977) and around the Eröö River Basin in western Hentii Mountain Range (Tsendjav 2005). The Eurasian otter can also be found occasionally along the Tes River in northern Hangai.
12419		distribution	eng	The Eurasian otter has the widest distribution of all otter species. Its range covers parts of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Originally the species was widespread throughout Europe, but it declined dramatically in the 1960s and 1970s, and has disappeared from parts of central and northern Europe (it is probably extinct in Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, and Switzerland: Prigioni 1999). It is not found on most of the Mediterranean islands due to the lack of appropriate habitat, although it is found on Corfu (Greece). Little is known about the original distribution in Africa and Asia. Otters have been found in brackish waters below sea level in the Netherlands, and up to 2,400 m in the Pyrenees. Outside Europe they have been recorded up to 4,120 m in Tibet (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004).
12419		habitat	eng	It is known from a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas. It is very adaptable, using saltwater as well as freshwater habitats, and even sewerage systems in urban areas. In most parts of its range otter distribution is correlated with presence of riverbank vegetation. Otters in different regions may depend upon different features of the habitat, but the important component of otter habitat, for breeding purposes, is the presence of holes in the river bank, including cavities among tree roots, piles of rock, wood or debris. The Eurasian otter avoids deep water. Their distribution in coastal areas is strongly correlated with the presence of freshwater. The location of breeding holts is not confined to river banks; there is evidence to indicate that sometimes the species breeds well away from water and the pups are moved to holts on the river banks once they are a few months old (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004).
12419		habitat	eng	The Eurasian otter live in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas independent of their size, origin or latitude (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In Europe they are found in the brackish waters from the sea level up to 1,000 m in the Alps (Ruiz-Olmo and Gosalbez 1997) and above 3,500 m in the Himalayas (Prater 1971) or 4,120 m in Tibet (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In the Indian sub-continent, the Eurasian otters occur in cold hill and mountain streams. During summer (April - June) in the Himalayas they may ascend up to 3,660 m. These upward movements probably coincide with the upward migration of the carp and other fish for spawning. With the advent of winter the otters come down to lower altitudes (Prater 1971). In a study conducted in Thailand in Huai Kha Khaeng where the Eurasian, smooth-coated and small-clawed otters live sympatrically, Kruuk <em>et al</em>. (1994) found that the Eurasian otters used rapidly flowing upper parts of the river. In Sri Lanka the Eurasian otter was live in the headwaters of all the five river systems but not in the estuaries (de Silva 1996).<br/><br/>In most parts of its range, its occurrence is correlated with bank side vegetation showing importance of vegetation to otters (Mason and Macdonald 1986). Otters in different regions may depend upon differing features of the habitat, but to breed, they need holes in the river bank, cavities among tree roots, piles of rock, wood or debris. The Eurasian otters are closely connected to a linear living space. Most portion of their activity is concentrated to a narrow strip on either side of the interface between water and land (Kruuk 1995). Otter distribution in coastal areas especially the location of holts, is strongly correlated with the presence of freshwater (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989, Beja 1992). <br/><br/>Within the group home range, shared by resident adult females, each had her own core area. Resident males had larger home ranges in more exposed parts of the coast which overlapped with other males and with at least two female group ranges. Male and female transients moved through group ranges, relegated to less favoured holts, habitat and food. In freshwater home ranges are longer for both sexes (Kruuk 1995). Erlinge (1969) suggested that males were hierarchical and territorial, influenced by sexual factors, while female ranges were influenced by food and shelter requirements of the family group. Green <em>et al</em>. (1984) and Kruuk (1995) found that adult males spent most of their time along the main rivers, whereas adult females occupied tributaries or lakes, as they did in Austria (Kranz 1995). Rosoux (1995) found no sexual differences in habitat utilization and considerable overlaps in range. Young animals usually occupied peripheral habitat, but Green and Green (1983) found differences between immature and mature young males, the later having access to all available habitat and the other restricted to marginal habitat, supplemented by visits to the main river when vacant, temporally or spatially. While males generally have larger ranges than females in the same habitat, sizes vary according to the type and productivity of the habitat, and methods of measuring ranges vary from study to study. <br/><br/>Like most <em>Lutra</em> species, fish is the major prey of Eurasian otters sometimes exceeding more than 80% of their diet (Erlinge 1969, Webb 1975, Ruiz-Olmo and Palazon 1997). In addition to fish a whole range of other prey items have been recorded in their diet in variable proportions. These include aquatic insects, reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals, and crustaceans (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 1980, Adrian and Delibes 1987, Skaren 1993). In a study conducted in Sri Lanka, Silva (1996) reported that the overall diet of the Eurasian otters consisted of 81.2% of crab, 37.5% fish and 8.7% frog. In addition to these the diet also included small quantities of water snakes, birds, small mammals and insects. <br/><br/>The percentage of crab in the diet of the Eurasian otters in Sri Lanka varied from 72% to 85%, and fish from 25-31%. There was significant seasonal variation in the diet in different habitats. The relative importance of fish in the diet was significantly higher in the reservoirs and lakes than the rivers and streams. Crabs were more important to otters inhabiting streams than those inhabiting rivers and lakes. Crabs were eaten more than fish during the monsoon (de Silva, 1997).  However, in Huai Kha Kheng, Thailand 76% of the spraint had fish, 64% amphibians and 7% crab (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994). The Eurasian otter is capable of taking fish as large as 9 kg (Chanin 1985), however, many studies in Europe have revealed that the fish consumed by the Eurasian otters are relatively small with a median length of 13 cm (Kruuk 1995).<br/><br/>The Eurasian otter is largely solitary and the adult otters tend not to associate with other adults except for reproduction. The family group of mother and offspring is the most important unit of otter society. In Shetland, where several adult animals used the same stretch of coast, encounters between adults were rare (Kruuk 1995) and the species was strikingly non-social. Kranz (1995) found evidence of social group formation beyond the occasional associations of two or more family groups, which suggests that under some circumstances otters of all ages and sexes may form temporary mutually tolerant gatherings.<br/><br/>In most of its range the Eurasian otter is predominantly nocturnal (Green <em>et al</em>. 1984). The exception is Shetland, where otters were entirely diurnal (Kruuk 1995). Green <em>et al</em>. (1984) found that activity was largely circumscribed by the solar rhythm so that the duration of activity varied through the year with night length. The reverse situation was found in Shetland with activity restricted by the day length (Kruuk 1995). Some workers have found a break in activity in the middle of longer nights or days and single peak around midnight or midday in shorter nights or days, although up to four activity periods per night has been recorded. Kruuk (1995) links otter activity to that of prey species, with the favoured marine species more vulnerable in daylight and those in freshwater easier to catch at night. In coastal habitats, tidal patterns influence otter activity, with significant preference shown for feeding at low tide, both in Shetland and on the Scottish west coast (Kruuk 1995).<br/><br/>The Eurasian otter attains sexual maturity at around 18 months in males and 24 months in the case of females, but in captivity it is usually 3 to 4 years (Reuther 1991). They are non-seasonally polyoestrous (Trowbridge 1983), mating in captivity has been observed at all times of the year (Reuther 1999). The gestation period is approximately 63-65 days, the litter size varies from 1 to 5, and the life expectancy is around 17 years (Acharjyo and Mishra 1983).
12419		population	eng	Expanding throughout most of its European range following historic declines up until the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s; although in the European part of Russia there have been recent marked declines, and isolated populations in countries like Turkey, Italy, Georgia, Armenia are still declining. The UK population started to recover in the 1960s (Battersby 2005). The population in Portugal is stable and did not show much decrease historically (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Norway, although the range is increasing on the south-western coast, the population appears to have declined again since the mid 1990s (T. Heggberget pers. comm. 2006).
12419		population	eng	In spite of several studies, the status of its population is not known from many parts of its range, particularly from Africa and Asia. The overall estimate of the population in United Kingdom was 10395 individuals in 2004 (JNCC 2007). The status of its distribution has been reviewed by Conroy and Chanin (1998) which gives a complete picture of its occurrence, though information on its abundance is lacking in this review. As far as its abundance is concerned limited information is available so as to get a clear picture of its status. In Shetland, otters averaged 1/km of shore, but each otter used several, overlapping km of shore. An estimated nine adult female produced a mean of total 5.6 litters/year. The estimated juvenile female per 100 female attaining the first reproduction was 33.7 individuals in Shetland (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989). In central Finland between 1985 and 2003 the temporal and spatial variation in the density of otter population was 52 otters, including 16 cubs in 11 litters in an area of 1,650 km² in 2002?2003. Harris <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated the density of otters in England as one adult per 27 linear km of river (1/24 km in the ?high density? area of Scotland. However, such information is lacking from other range countries. There is absolutely no information about its population status from Asia where it is believed to be under tremendous pressure because of poaching.
12419		population	eng	In spite of several studies, the status of its population is not known from many parts of its range, particularly from Africa and Asia. The overall estimate of the population in United Kingdom was 10395 individuals in 2004 (JNCC 2007). The status of its distribution has been reviewed by Conroy and Chanin (1998) which gives a complete picture of its occurrence, though information on its abundance is lacking in this review. As far as its abundance is concerned limited information is available so as to get a clear picture of its status. In Shetland, otters averaged 1/km of shore, but each otter used several, overlapping km of shore. An estimated nine adult female produced a mean of total 5.6 litters/year. The estimated juvenile female per 100 female attaining the first reproduction was 33.7 individuals in Shetland (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989). In central Finland between 1985 and 2003 the temporal and spatial variation in the density of otter population was 52 otters, including 16 cubs in 11 litters in an area of 1,650 km² in 2002–2003. Harris <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated the density of otters in England as one adult per 27 linear km of river (1/24 km in the ‘high density’ area of Scotland. However, such information is lacking from other range countries. There is absolutely no information about its population status from Asia where it is believed to be under tremendous pressure because of poaching.
12419		threats	eng	The aquatic habitats of otters are extremely vulnerable to man-made changes. Canalisation of rivers, removal of bank side vegetation, dam construction, abstraction of water for irrigation, draining of wetlands, agricultural activities and associated man-made impacts on aquatic systems are all unfavourable to otter populations. Pollution is major threat to the otters in western and central Europe, the main pollutants posing a danger to otters are the organochlorines dieldrin (HEOD) and DDT/DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the heavy metal mercury. Coastal populations are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Acidification of rivers and lakes results in the decline of fish biomass and reduces the food resources of the otters. The same effects are known to result from organic pollution by nitrate fertilisers, untreated sewage, or farm slurry. In addition, major causes of mortality from several countries are drowning, road kills, and poaching. Fyke nets set for eels and other fish as well as creels set for marine crustaceans are very attractive to otters, and many that try to enter these traps are entangled and drowned. A further potential threat is strangulation by transparent, monofilament drift net. A potential risk comes from traps designed to kill other species, especially underwater cages constructed to drown muskrats. Illegal hunting is still a problem in many parts of their distribution range. In several European countries political pressure especially by fishermen has resulted in granting of licenses for killing otters (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004). Illegal killing for the trade of pelts is on the increase in Ukraine and Danube Delta, and probably in the eastern parts of its global range (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006).
12419		threats	eng	The aquatic habitats of otters are extremely vulnerable to man-made changes. Canalisation of rivers, removal of bank side vegetation, dam construction, draining of wetlands, aquaculture activities and associated man-made impacts on aquatic systems are all unfavourable to otter populations (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004). In South and South East Asia, the decrease in prey species from wetlands and water ways had reduced the population to an unsustainable threshold leading to local extinctions. The poaching is one of the main cause of its decline from South and South East Asia, and possibly also from the North Asia.<br/><br/>Pollution is major threat to the otters in western and central Europe, the main pollutants posing a danger to otters are the organochlorines dieldrin (HEOD) and DDT/DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the heavy metal mercury. Coastal populations are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Acidification of rivers and lakes results in the decline of fish biomass and reduces the food resources of the otters. The same effects are known to result from organic pollution by nitrate fertilisers, untreated sewage, or farm slurry. <br/><br/>In addition, major causes of mortality from range countries are drowning and road kills. Fyke nets set for eels or for fish as well as creels set for marine crustaceans have a great attraction to otters and a high risk to those that successfully try to enter these traps. <br/><br/>A further potential threat is strangulation by transparent, monofilament drift net. A potential risk comes from traps designed to kill other species, especially underwater cages constructed to drown muskrats. Illegal hunting is still a problem in many parts of their distribution range. In several European countries political pressure especially by fishermen has resulted in granting of licenses for killing otters (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor, 2004).<br/><br/>There is an ongoing discussion about the problem of reintroduction of otters. In recent years it is feared that it may contaminate the genetic structure of the native population (Mason 1992, Reuther 1998).
12420		conservation	eng	The Spotted-necked Otter is present in a number of protected areas across its range.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrictis&#160;maculicollis</span>).
12420		distribution	eng	The Spotted-necked Otter ranges from Guinea Bissau, the most westerly recorded range limit (Reuther <em>et al.</em> 2003), eastwards to south-west Ethiopia, and then southwards, in the west, to the northern border of Namibia, north-west Botswana and north-west Zimbabwe, and in the east, through west Kenya and Tanzania, Malawi, part of Mozambique, to eastern South Africa (Rowe-Rowe and Somers 1998; d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). They are absent from Swaziland, and apparently locally extinct in Burundi, Ghana, Togo, and Lesotho (although they may never have occurred in this country) (d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). The distribution of the species in West Africa, and possible presence on Bioko Island, is discussed by d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe (in press).
12420		habitat	eng	The Spotted-necked Otter inhabits freshwater habitats where water is unsilted, unpolluted, and rich in small fishes (d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). While common in the great lakes of central and East Africa, they are also found in streams, rivers and impoundments up to altitudes of 2,500 m (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Adequate riparian vegetation in the form of long grass, reeds, or bushes is essential to provide cover during periods of inactivity. Unlike African Clawless Otter, they do not occur in marine or estuarine waters.
12420		population	eng	Abundance and density appear to be dependent on the availability of fish; consequently, this species is common or fairly common in the fish-rich central African lakes, but generally uncommon or rare in the rest of Africa where fish faunas tend to be poor (Rowe-Rowe 1990, 1995; d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). In an area that included a highland stream and man-made lakes in South Africa, Perrin <em>et al.</em> (2000) estimated 1 otter/1-2 km of stream, while in less suitable habitat Rowe-Rowe (1992) estimated 1 otter/6-11 km.
12420		threats	eng	The Spotted-necked Otter is decreasing throughout its range, mainly as a result of the alteration or degradation of freshwater habitats and riparian vegetation, exacerbated by the loss of habitat as a consequence of increased agricultural activity (Rowe-Rowe 1990, 1992, 1995). Bioaccumulation of organochlorines and other biocontaminants has been recorded in Spotted-necked Otters (Mason and Rowe-Rowe 1992).<br/><br/>Otters are also killed for food or skins, as a perceived threat to poultry, or as a competitor for fish (Rowe-Rowe 1990). Occasionally, they are accidentally caught and drowned in gill nets and fish traps (Stuart 1985; Rowe-Rowe 1990). Introduction of alien fish species that out-compete the smaller indigenous fish was identified as a main threat for the Lake Victoria population (Kruuk and Goudswaard 1990).
12421		conservation	eng	<em>Lutra sumatrana</em> is listed in Appendix II of the CITES. It is legally protected in all the range countries. In Thailand all the otter species have been protected since 1961 under Wild Animals Preservation and Protection Act and are listed as endangered species in Thailand Red Data Book (Nabhitabhata and Chan-ard, 2005). In Viet Nam, otters are protected and their hunting and use is strictly banned. In Cambodia, the hairy-nosed otter is listed as ?Rare? and is fully protected. In Sarawak all otter species are protected by the First Schedule [Section 2(1)] PART II on Protected Animals from the Wild Life Protection Ordinance, 1998.
12421		distribution	eng	The hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana, Gray 1865) is the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. It is endemic to South Asia. The type specimen came from Sumatra. Once believed to be extinct, the hairy nosed otter has been rediscovered from many parts of Southeast Asia such as Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. Historically, it occurred from southern Indochina to Malaysia (Sebastain 1994, 1995) and Thailand (Lekagul and Mcneely 1988, Kanchanasaka 2000). In Thailand it has been reported from Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest (Kanchanasaka <em>et al.</em> 1998). From Viet Nam it has also been reported from U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta (Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2001, Nguyen 2005, Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2007) and from Cambodia it has been reported from Tonle Sap wetlands (Long 2000, Poole 2003, Olsson 2007). It has been reported from Malaysia at Terengganu in 2003 and from Maur in 1995. It has been recently reported in Sumatra, Indonesia (Lubis 2005). Historical records of its occurrence comes from the coast off of Penang Island (Harrison 1984), and from accidental road kill in Brunei in 1997 (Sasaki 2006). Historically it has also been reported from Myanmar as evident from the skin present in the British museum. From this, the possible range of hairy-nosed otter can be worked out which is eastward from Northeast India (Indo-china), Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia.
12421		habitat	eng	In Thailand it lives in Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forests (Kanchanasaka <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Viet Nam it has also been reported from the low lying peat swamp forests of U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sage <em>et al</em>. 2004) and from Cambodia it has been reported from Tonle Sap wetlands (Poole 2003, Heng 2007). It inhabits freshwater and coastal areas, especially mangroves in Indonesia. Wayre (1974, 1978) considered that the Hairy-nosed otter mainly inhabited mountain streams above 300 m, Medway (1969) recorded it in the sea off Penang. <br/><br/>The hairy nosed otter principally predate on fish (85.5%) followed by water snake and they also supplement their diet with frog, lizard, turtle, crab, mammal and insect, although these may not be that important in its diet (Kanchanasaka 2007). Fish belonging to the families Channidae, Belontiidae, Anabantidae, Notopteridae, Synbranchidae, Clariidae, Nandidae, were identified in the fecal samples from Thailand. The main prey selected were three-spot gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus), common climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), and snakeheads (Channa sp) (Kanchanasaka 2007).<br/><br/>Not much is known about its breeding behaviour but there is indication that it breeds in November-December in the Mekong delta. Kanchanasaka <em>et al</em>. (2003) found that gestation was around 2 months as with other otters, and cubs were seen in December to February, and one family observed consisted of both parents and a cub.
12421		population	eng	In its distribution range the species is considered as rare. It has been studied in Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest in Thailand (Kanchanasaka <em>et al.</em> 1998), U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Viet Nam (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sage <em>et al</em>. 2004) and in Tonle Sap from Cambodia (Poole 2003, Heng 2007). However, their abundance or group sizes are relatively not known. In U Minha National Park though it was estimated that there were around 50-230 individuals. The species is believed to be extremely rare in Peninsular Malaysia (Sebastian 1995) and reported from scattered localities in the Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
12421		threats	eng	The hairy-nosed otter has limited distribution range. In Thailand, the otters are found in the Toa Daeng peat swamp forests, and also from near the mouth of the Bang Nara River which is low lying and tidal. In Viet Nam, the species have been reported from low lying peat swamp forests dominated by Melaleuca cajuputi in lower Mekong. In Cambodia, the species mainly live around the Tonle Sap Lake where the otters live mainly in the flooded forest and scrub surrounding the lake. Like many predators the hairy-nosed otter occurs in low density and the number and frequency of sightings are very few. <br/><br/>In recent years, the tropical peat swamp forests are under severe threat due to fire and other anthropogenic activities such as plantation for oil palm, food crops such as rice, corn and soyabean, and fish farming. In Viet Nam the entire Mekong Delta has been converted into rice fields reducing the habitat of otter and other wildlife species into few pocks. In Malaysia, fire reduced 70% of the Binsulok Forest Reserve and 10% of the Klias Forest Reserve. This has affected the surrounding environment and the biodiversity. In Indonesia over the last 20 years, the ecosystem has been reduced from almost 30 million hectares to only about 15 million hectares, and most of what remains has already been logged selectively. Such levels of habitat modification have profound effect on the native biodiversity.<br/><br/>In its entire range the hairy-nosed otter is under increasing pressure due to intensive poaching (Yoxn 2007). In Cambodia, around the Tonle Sap Lake, poaching of otters and other wildlife are common practice (Somanak 2007). In Viet Nam otters are hunted for illegal wildlife trade, and also for meat and medical use. Similar is the case in other range countries.<br/><br/>The principal threat to the fauna of Southeast Asian region is the burgeoning human population, and resultant biomass demand which puts pressure on natural resources. Unavailability of adequate prey species and suitable undisturbed habitat are putting additional pressure on all wildlife species including hairy-nosed otter.
12427		conservation	eng	Since 1977, the smooth-coated otter is listed on Appendix II CITES. However, most range countries are not able to control the clandestine trade leading to extensive poaching. Nevertheless, it is a protected species in almost all the range countries which prohibits its killing.<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otter, once common in the wetlands and low lying areas of South Asia, is now restricted to a few protected areas. Creation of networks of Protected Areas, identification of sites as wetland of national and International importance under Ramsar Convention has to some extent halts the degradation of its habitat. <br/><br/>Over the years the IUCN SSC Otter Specialist Group has developed a cadre of biologist across Asia to conduct field surveys and has popularize otter conservation by promoting otter as ambassador of the wetlands. However, concerted effort to conserve this species is needed. For the long term survival of the species, policy based action, research on factors affecting its survival, habitat based action on creation and where required expansion of protected areas and communication and awareness building actions are needed.
12427		distribution	eng	The smooth-coated otter is distributed throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia. Its distribution is continuous from Indonesia, through Southeast Asia, and westwards from southern China to India and Pakistan, with an isolated population in Iraq (Pocock 1941, Medway 1969, Hussain 1993). Though its current status in the Middle East is not known, its presence has been confirmed from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Southwest China, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Mason and Macdonald 1986, Corbet and Hill 1992, Wozencraft 1993).
12427		habitat	eng	The smooth-coated otter is essentially a plain?s otter. In the Indian subcontinent they are adapted to live even in the semiarid region of north-western India and Deccan plateau (Prater 1971). Generally, it uses large rivers and lakes, peat swamp forests, mangroves and estuaries, and it even uses the rice fields for foraging (Foster-Turly 1992). In south-east Asia rice fields appear to be one of the most suitable habitats in supporting its viable populations (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, they were more abundant in the mangroves of Kuala Gula, Malaysia as compared to the rain forest rivers (Shariff 1984). <br/><br/>Along the large rivers in India, the smooth-coated otters prefer rocky stretches since these stretches provide sites for den and resting. River stretches with bank side vegetation and marshes are used in proportion to their availability especially in summer as they provide ample cover while travelling or foraging. Open clayey and sandy banks are largely avoided as they lack escape covers (Hussain 1993, Hussain and Choudhury 1995, 1997). In the Tarai areas of the upper Gangetic plains the smooth-coated otters use seasonally flooded swamps during monsoon (July-September) and in early winter (October-February). Winter being the breeding season, the swamps are extensively used as natal den sites and nursery. By February-March the swamps begin to dry and the fish biomass appears to be depleted, consequently the otters move to the perennial rivers (Hussain 1997). In west Java, the smooth-coated otters prefer mangroves and tidal stretches of the rivers and rice fields. Freshwater swamps and coastal stretches lacking vegetation are avoided (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). In rice fields and pond areas they prefer sites having moderate diversity of vegetation. Rivers with moderate to slow or stagnant water and water bodies having a width of 10-40 m are preferred. In Huai Kha Khaeng, Thailand, the smooth-coated otters extensively use the slowly meandering river near the dam and the dam itself (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otter is predominantly a fish eater, but supplements its diet with shrimp/crayfish, crab and insects, and other vertebrates such as frog, mudskippers, birds and rats (Prater 1971, Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain and Choudhury 1998).  In general, its diet is similar to that of Eurasian otter. The range of fish in the diet varies from 75% to 100% (Tiler <em>et al</em>. 1989, Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain 1993, Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hussain and Choudhury 1998).<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otters exhibit the typical opportunistic feeding behaviour similar to the Eurasian otter. Along the major rivers in India they eat more fish, often making up to 94% of the total diet (Hussain and Choudhury 1998), while along the coast in mangrove habitats and in rice fields it ranges between 75-100% (Foster-Turly 1992, Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). In west Java otters inhabiting mangrove areas eat more of crustaceans, around 22% of the scats contain remains of crab and shrimp where as in the paddy fields in Malaysia, along with fish they tend to eat more rice field rats Rattus argentiventer,  represented in 23% of the spraints (Foster-Turly 1992). <br/><br/>Hussain (1993) identified 12 fish species from the spraint of smooth-coated otter from Chambal river, of which seven species were eaten throughout the year. Rhinomugil corsula (Mugilidae) and Rita rita (Bagaridae) were the preferred species. At least eight species of fish were identified from the spraints from Malaysia (Foster-Turly 1992).  Some of these include Gourami (Trichogater spp.), climbing perch (Anabis testudineus), catfish (Clarius spp.), snakehead (Channa spp.) and mudskipper (Gobioidei). Along the rice field they ate large amount of most common fish (Trichogater and Anabis spp.). The size of the fish consumed varied from 5-46 cm, often ranging between 15-30 cm (Wayre 1978). No significant relationship was found between the calorific values of the fish and the quantities consumed. Thus, the prey selection by smooth otter is mainly influenced by its availability (Hussain 1993).<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otter attains sexual maturity at twenty-two months in captivity (Desai 1974). Yadav (1967) observed first litter at four years of age. In captivity they mate during August to October in water followed by prolonged playful bouts between partners (Desai, 1974, Naidu and Malhotra 1989). Copulation takes place several times daily. Males are polygamous mating with up to four females (Desai 1974). In the wild in northern India mating occurs in August-September and littering in November-December (Hussain 1993). Desai (1974) observed litter size of 2-5 (mean = 3.25). Similarly, Naidu and Malhotra (1989) observed litter size 1-5. The breeding schedule of smooth otters in the wild in India corresponds with the captive records (Hussain 1993, 1996). Evidences of littering have been recorded in October and the cubs were seen out of the den in February. The mean litter size along the Chambal river was three (Hussain 1996).<br/><br/>Based on the percentage of active telemetry recordings, Hussain (1993) observed that the overall activity pattern of smooth-coated otters along the Chambal River in India was in the form of a bimodal curve in which two period of high activity were separated by a period of relative inactivity. This pattern of activity varied considerably among seasons. In summer, the relative period of inactivity was greater than in winter or monsoons. A significant difference was also found between day and night time activities in different seasons. Otters were more diurnal during winter than in summer or monsoon. <br/><br/>Hussain (1993) observed daily movements of four radio-implanted smooth otters of different age and sex within their home range. Two types of movements were identified; small-scale movements associated with foraging in a restricted area close to dens, and more extensive travels between dens and foraging sites. Most of the movement was restricted between 250 to 1500 m. A typical group of smooth-coated otter consisting of male, female, and up to four young ones require 7 to 12 km of river for their territory and an even longer stretch of shoreline if living along the coast (Wayre 1974). During a radio-tracking study along the Chambal River, India, the home range of all the otters tracked overlapped intensively. Among the radio-implanted otters, the maximum home range was observed in sub-adult male and the minimum in juvenile female and male. Among the non-tagged otters, the home range of female with cubs was estimated as 5.5 km. In case of the adult male it was estimated to be approximately 17 km (Hussain 1993). Along the Chambal River, the home range length and area of smooth-coated otter was less than that of Eurasian otter, in Perthshire, Scotland and Northern river otter Lutra candensis in Idaho (Melquist and Hornocker, 1983), but larger than that of Eurasian otter (Erlinge 1967) in Sweden.
12427		population	eng	Because of secretive and nocturnal behaviour of smooth-coated otter, reliable estimates of its population are not available. In Southeast Asia it is found in large groups (Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain 1993, Hussain, 1996) where the basic family group consisted of adult female and her offspring, father and older siblings often join the group (Lekagul and McNeely 1988, Hussain 1995). The group size of otters varies considerably between months and seasons, the group being large during the monsoon (Hussain 1996). Along the Chambal river in Central India the group size ranges from 1-9 individuals (mean=4.62). During a study conducted in the Corbett Tiger Reserve, in North India an estimate of 41 individuals (35 adults and 6 juveniles) with a mean of 5.1±1.55 was recorded from the 85 km of river stretch within the Reserve (Nawab and Hussain 2007).
12427		threats	eng	Major threats to Asian otter population are loss of wetland habitats due to construction of large-scale hydroelectric projects, reclamation of wetlands for settlements and agriculture, reduction in prey biomass, poaching and contamination of waterways by pesticides. In most Asian countries increased human population during the last century, inadequate and ineffective rural development programmes have not been able to address the problems of poverty, forcing people to be more and more dependent on natural resources (Badola, 1997). Consequently, most of the wetlands and waterways do not have adequate prey base for sustaining otter populations. Wetlands and waterways are polluted by eutrophication and accumulation of persistent pesticides such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates through agricultural runoffs. Increased pesticide use is not only regarded as a major obstacle to the development of rice-fish culture, but also poses a danger to all predators feeding on aquatic prey in the area (Melisch 1996). In the entire south and southeast Asia there is severe conflict between otters and humans, because of poverty and recent increase in aquaculture activities leading to indiscriminate killing of otters. Many important habitats of smooth otter have been lost to development activities. In south east Asian countries, there does not seem to be any intentional otter trapping (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996) though it is prevalent in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
12433		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Estonia, Finland and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.
12433		distribution	eng	Locally but widely distributed in central Europe as far north as southern Finland, and across to Asia. Divided into three races: <em>dispar</em> formerly in Britain, <em>batavus</em> in the Netherlands (both single brooded), and <em>rutilus</em> (double brooded). The latter is declining in many European countries while <em>batavus</em> is reduced to two sites.
12433		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern England via the Netherlands and northern Germany to Finland, southwestern France and from the north of Italy to Turkey. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore found in the temperate and subtropical parts of the palaearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
12433		habitat	eng	Grows in a wide range of damp habitats (wetlands).
12433		habitat	eng	The Large Copper occurs in marshy habitats and on the peaty banks of lakes, rivers and streams and more to the East also on waste lands. Nectar plants are important, especially for the females. Eggs are laid on large sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.) like <em>R. crispus</em>, <em>R. obtusifolius</em> and Water Dock (<em>R. hydrolapathum</em>), but never on Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>) or Sheep's Sorrel (<em>R. acetosella</em>). The young caterpillars first eat from the underside of the leaves, making the characteristic ?windows?.  Later caterpillars feed on the whole leaf. They hibernate when half-grown between withered leaves at the base of the foodplant. They are sometimes associated with ants (<em>Myrmica rubra</em> and <em>Lasius niger</em>). The Large Copper has several sub-species in Europe. The largest of them, <em>L. d. batava</em>, is confined to the extensive wetlands in the north of the Netherlands. The males of this subspecies occupy territoria in the warmest places in depressions in the vegetation. Their caterpillars feed only on Water Dock (<em>Rumex hydrolapathum</em>). There are two smaller subspecies, <em>L. d. rutila</em> and <em>L. d. carueli</em>, that use other large sorrels as foodplants. The subspecies <em>L. d. batava</em> has one generation a year and the other subspecies two or sometimes even three. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), water-fringe vegetation (14%), fens, transition mires and springs (11%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), blanket bogs (5%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%).
12433		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. The species has several subspecies, some of them being extremely local and endangered (e.g. <em>L. dispar batavus</em>) or even extinct (<em>L. dispar dispar</em> is reported extinct in United Kingdom). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece, Italy and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
12433		threats	eng	Where the species lives in marshland, it is threatened by reclamation, groundwater extraction or desiccation. Grassland and wasteland habitats become unsuitable if they are abandoned and become invaded by shrubs and trees.
12436		conservation	eng	The species is not listed on CITES.<br/><br/>Wild dogs are legally protected across much of their range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and wild dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal protection. Outside reserves, legal protection may have questionable value when it concerns a species that comes into conflict with people, often in remote areas with poor infrastructure. Under such circumstances, legal protection may serve only to alienate people from conservation activities.<br/><br/>The occurrence of wild dogs in protected areas is described in detail in Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> (1997). The largest populations inside protected areas occur in Tanzania: Selous Game Reserve and Ruaha National Park; South Africa: Kruger National Park; Botswana: Chobe National Park and Moremi Wildlife Reserve; and Zimbabwe: Hwange National Park.<br/><br/>Virtually no conservation measures have been implemented specifically for wild dogs. The establishment of very large protected areas (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Kruger National Park), as well as conservancies on private and communal land, has ensured wild dogs' persistence in parts of eastern and southern Africa, and maintenance of such areas remains the highest priority for wild dog conservation. Attempts are underway to re-establish wild dogs in a network of very small reserves in South Africa, but this approach will demand intensive management in perpetuity and need not, at present, be used as a model for wild dog conservation elsewhere.<br/><br/>Conservation priorities include: (i) to maintain and expand connectivity of habitat available to wild dogs, particularly in northern Botswana/eastern Namibia/western Zimbabwe, South Africa/western Mozambique/south-east Zimbabwe, northern South Africa/south-east Botswana/south-west Zimbabwe and southern Tanzania/northern Mozambique; (ii) to work with local people to reduce deliberate killing of wild dogs in and around these areas, and also in smaller populations in Senegal, Cameroon and Kenya; (iii) to establish effective techniques for protecting small wild dog populations from serious infections such as rabies and distemper; (iv) to carry out surveys to establish the status of other potentially important populations, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Sudan, and (v) to continue long-term monitoring of 'sentinel' populations to identify emerging threats. Re-establishment of extinct populations through reintroduction currently has a low priority in most areas, although natural recolonizations should be encouraged.<br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>There are more than 300 wild dogs in captivity in 55 zoos, as listed on ISIS and as many as 200 additional animals occur in zoos and private collections, particularly in South Africa.<br/><br/>Early attempts to reintroduce captive-bred animals to the wild were hampered by the dogs' poor hunting skills and naive attitudes to larger predators. However, recent reintroductions have overcome this problem by mixing captive-bred dogs with wild-caught animals and releasing them together. This approach has been very valuable in re-establishing packs in several fenced reserves in South Africa, but is not considered a priority in other parts of Africa at present. Nevertheless, captive populations have important roles to play in developing conservation strategies for wild populations, through research (e.g., testing of vaccination protocols), outreach and education.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Several pieces of information are needed to enable more effective conservation of African wild dogs. These include: 1) establishing which techniques will be most effective and sustainable for protecting wild dogs from disease, including whether vaccinating wild dogs against rabies and distemper can ever be safe and effective, and whether other methods (including control or vaccination of domestic dogs) can reduce the risks to wild dogs; 2) determining the true impact of wild dogs on livestock under different conditions of husbandry, and the effectiveness of techniques to reduce this; 3) establishing the true impact of wild dogs on managed wild game and the effectiveness of techniques to resolve conflicts with game ranchers; 4) surveys of wild dog distribution and status are also required, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Sudan; 5) genetic research would be valuable to establish the distinctiveness of wild dog populations remaining in west, central and north-east Africa; and 6) the reasons for and degree of fluctuation in packs and populations need to be better understood. In addition, several aspects of wild dogs' basic biology require further study, particularly: 1) mechanisms of ranging and dispersal; 2) causes of increased mortality among dispersers; 3) reasons for large home range; 4) mechanisms of sex-ratio biasing; 5) paternity; and 6) communication.
12436		distribution	eng	Historical data indicate that African Wild Dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from desert (Lhote 1946) to mountain summits (Thesiger 1970), and probably were absent only from lowland rainforest and the driest desert (Schaller 1972). They have disappeared from much of their former range – 25 of 39 former range states no longer support populations (Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is virtually eradicated from West Africa, and greatly reduced in central Africa and north-east Africa. The largest populations remain in southern Africa (especially northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, eastern Namibia, and Kruger National Park, South Africa) and the southern part of East Africa (especially Tanzania and northern Mozambique). Details of current distribution and status are in Woodroffe <em>et al</em>. (1997) and Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al</em>. (2004).
12436		distribution	eng	Historical data indicate that African Wild Dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from desert (Lhote 1946) to mountain summits (Thesiger 1970), and probably were absent only from lowland rainforest and the driest desert (Schaller 1972). They have disappeared from much of their former range: 25 of 39 former range states no longer support populations (Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is virtually eradicated from West Africa, and greatly reduced in central Africa and north-east Africa. The largest populations remain in southern Africa (especially northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, eastern Namibia, and Kruger National Park, South Africa) and the southern part of East Africa (especially Tanzania and northern Mozambique). Details of current distribution and status are in Woodroffe <em>et al</em>. (1997) and Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al</em>. (2004).
12436		habitat	eng	African Wild Dogs are generalist predators, occupying a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannas and upland forest. While early studies in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, led to a belief that wild dogs were primarily an open plains species, more recent data indicate that they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania; Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe; and northern Botswana). Several relict populations occupy dense upland forest (e.g., Harenna Forest, Ethiopia: Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). African Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert (Lhotse 1946), although they appear unable to establish themselves in the southern Kalahari (M.G.L. Mills, unpubl.), and montane habitats (Thesiger 1970; Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001), although not in lowland forest. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than by the loss of a specific habitat type.<br/><br/>African Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. Whereas they weigh 20?30 kg, their prey average around 50 kg, and may be as large as 200 kg. In most areas their principal prey are Impala (<em>Aepyceros melampus</em>), Greater Kudu (<em>Tragelaphus strepsiceros</em>), Thomson's Gazelle (<em>Gazella thomsonii</em>) and Common Wildebeest (<em>Connochaetes taurinus</em>). They will give chase of larger species, such asCommon Eland (<em>Tragelaphus oryx</em>) and African Buffalo (<em>Syncerus caffer</em>), but rarely kill such prey. Small antelope, such as dik-dik (<em>Madoqua</em> spp.), Steenbok (<em>Raphicerus campestris</em>) and duiker (tribe Cephalophini) are important in some areas, and warthogs (<em>Phacochoerus</em> spp.) are also taken in some populations. Wild dogs also take very small prey such as hares, lizards and even eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet.
12436		habitat	eng	African Wild Dogs are generalist predators, occupying a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannas and upland forest. While early studies in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, led to a belief that wild dogs were primarily an open plains species, more recent data indicate that they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania; Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe; and northern Botswana). Several relict populations occupy dense upland forest (e.g., Harenna Forest, Ethiopia: Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). African Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert (Lhotse 1946), although they appear unable to establish themselves in the southern Kalahari (M.G.L. Mills, unpubl.), and montane habitats (Thesiger 1970; Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001), although not in lowland forest. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than by the loss of a specific habitat type.<br/><br/>African Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. Whereas they weigh 20–30 kg, their prey average around 50 kg, and may be as large as 200 kg. In most areas their principal prey are Impala (<em>Aepyceros melampus</em>), Greater Kudu (<em>Tragelaphus strepsiceros</em>), Thomson's Gazelle (<em>Gazella thomsonii</em>) and Common Wildebeest (<em>Connochaetes taurinus</em>). They will give chase of larger species, such asCommon Eland (<em>Tragelaphus oryx</em>) and African Buffalo (<em>Syncerus caffer</em>), but rarely kill such prey. Small antelope, such as dik-dik (<em>Madoqua</em> spp.), Steenbok (<em>Raphicerus campestris</em>) and duiker (tribe Cephalophini) are important in some areas, and warthogs (<em>Phacochoerus</em> spp.) are also taken in some populations. Wild dogs also take very small prey such as hares, lizards and even eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet.
12436		population	eng	African Wild Dogs are rarely seen, even where they are relatively common, and it appears that populations have always existed at very low densities. Ginsberg and Woodroffe (1997) used population densities in well-studied areas to estimate the size of remaining populations. These estimates suggest that between 3,000?5,500 free-ranging wild dogs remain in Africa.<br/><br/>Estimated sizes and trends of national wild dog populations in Africa, updated from Woodroffe <em>et al.</em> (1997), can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004).
12436		population	eng	African Wild Dogs are rarely seen, even where they are relatively common, and it appears that populations have always existed at very low densities. Ginsberg and Woodroffe (1997) used population densities in well-studied areas to estimate the size of remaining populations. These estimates suggest that between 3,000–5,500 free-ranging wild dogs remain in Africa.<br/><br/>Estimated sizes and trends of national wild dog populations in Africa, updated from Woodroffe <em>et al.</em> (1997), can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004).
12436		threats	eng	The principal threats to African Wild Dogs are conflict with human activities and infectious disease. Both of these are mediated by habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wild dogs, people and domestic dogs. The important role played by human-induced mortality has two long-term implications. First, it makes it likely that, outside protected areas, wild dogs may well be unable to co-exist with the increasing human population unless better protection and local education programmes are implemented. This will be a serious problem for wild dog populations outside protected areas. Second, wild dog ranging behaviour leads to a very substantial "edge effect", even in large reserves. Simple geometry dictates that a reserve of 5,000 km² contains no point more than 40 km from its borders – a distance well within the range of distances travelled by a pack of wild dogs in their usual ranging behaviour. Thus, from a wild dog's perspective, a reserve of this size (fairly large by most standards) would be all edge. As human populations rise around reserve borders, the risks to wild dogs venturing outside are also likely to increase. Under these conditions, only the very largest unfenced reserves will be able to provide any level of protection for wild dogs. In South Africa, proper fencing around quite small reserves has proved effective in keeping dogs confined to the reserve (although fencing has costs, as well as benefits, in conservation terms).<br/><br/>Even in large, well-protected reserves, or in stable populations remaining largely independent of protected areas (as in northern Botswana), wild dogs live at low population densities. Predation by lions, and perhaps competition with hyaenas, contribute to keeping wild dog numbers below the level that their prey base could support. Such low population density brings its own problems. The largest areas contain only relatively small wild dog populations; for example, the Selous Game Reserve, with an area of 43,000 km² (about the size of Switzerland), contains about 800 wild dogs. Most reserves, and probably most wild dog populations, are smaller. For example, the wild dog population in Niokolo-Koba National Park and buffer zones (about 25,000 km², larger than the state of Israel) is likely to be not more than 50–100 dogs. Such small populations are vulnerable to extinction. "Catastrophic" events such as outbreaks of epidemic disease may drive them to extinction when larger populations have a greater probability of recovery – such an event seems to have led to the extinction of the small wild dog population in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya-Tanzania border. Problems of small population size will be exacerbated if, as seems likely, small populations occur in small reserves or habitat patches. As discussed above, animals inhabiting such areas suffer a strong "edge effect". Thus, small populations might be expected to suffer disproportionately high mortality as a result of their contact with humans and human activity.<br/><br/>There are no commercial uses for wild dogs, other than non-consumptive ecotourism.
12436		threats	eng	The principal threats to African Wild Dogs are conflict with human activities and infectious disease. Both of these are mediated by habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wild dogs, people and domestic dogs. The important role played by human-induced mortality has two long-term implications. First, it makes it likely that, outside protected areas, wild dogs may well be unable to co-exist with the increasing human population unless better protection and local education programmes are implemented. This will be a serious problem for wild dog populations outside protected areas. Second, wild dog ranging behaviour leads to a very substantial "edge effect", even in large reserves. Simple geometry dictates that a reserve of 5,000 km² contains no point more than 40 m from its borders ? a distance well within the range of distances travelled by a pack of wild dogs in their usual ranging behaviour. Thus, from a wild dog's perspective, a reserve of this size (fairly large by most standards) would be all edge. As human populations rise around reserve borders, the risks to wild dogs venturing outside are also likely to increase. Under these conditions, only the very largest unfenced reserves will be able to provide any level of protection for wild dogs. In South Africa, proper fencing around quite small reserves has proved effective in keeping dogs confined to the reserve (although fencing has costs, as well as benefits, in conservation terms).<br/><br/>Even in large, well-protected reserves, or in stable populations remaining largely independent of protected areas (as in northern Botswana), wild dogs live at low population densities. Predation by lions, and perhaps competition with hyaenas, contribute to keeping wild dog numbers below the level that their prey base could support. Such low population density brings its own problems. The largest areas contain only relatively small wild dog populations; for example, the Selous Game Reserve, with an area of 43,000 km² (about the size of Switzerland), contains about 800 wild dogs. Most reserves, and probably most wild dog populations, are smaller. For example, the wild dog population in Niokolo-Koba National Park and buffer zones (about 25,000 km², larger than the state of Israel) is likely to be not more than 50?100 dogs. Such small populations are vulnerable to extinction. "Catastrophic" events such as outbreaks of epidemic disease may drive them to extinction when larger populations have a greater probability of recovery ? such an event seems to have led to the extinction of the small wild dog population in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya-Tanzania border. Problems of small population size will be exacerbated if, as seems likely, small populations occur in small reserves or habitat patches. As discussed above, animals inhabiting such areas suffer a strong "edge effect". Thus, small populations might be expected to suffer disproportionately high mortality as a result of their contact with humans and human activity.<br/><br/>There are no commercial uses for wild dogs, other than non-consumptive ecotourism.
12471		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.
12471		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern, central and eastern Thailand and neighbouring Laos (Moravej and Böhme 2008). In Thailand it has been found in the provinces of Chachoengsao, Chaiyaphum, Chanthaburi, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Nong Khai, Phetchabun, Phitsanulok, Nakhon Ratchasima, and Loei.
12471		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical deciduous dry forests, but it is not an obligate forest-dweller as it has also been found in cultivated areas.
12471		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
12471		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be affected by any major threat. Habitat destruction of the forests in which this species inhabits is likely to be taking place. However, this species seems to be able to survive in agricultural areas as well. Therefore deforestation cannot be considered a major threat.
12472		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but monitoring of this species should be carried out because it is restricted to one mountain range.
12472		distribution	eng	This species is a Thai endemic from the Saraburi and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces, and is found along the Dong Phaya Fai mountains (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).
12472		habitat	eng	This species inhabits various environments including montane evergreen rainforests and low limestone hills. It has also been found in intensively cultivated and degraded areas (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).
12472		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
12472		threats	eng	Although deforestation is taking place in Thailand, this species is not a forest obligate and therefore this is not a major threat to this species.
12518		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II.  In Canada, the national and provincial governments manage harvests by region (Govt of US 2007b), using closed seasons, quotas, limited entry and long-term trapping concessions (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In the US, trapping takes place only in Alaska, and harvest quotas are increased during periods of population increase and decreased during periods of cyclic decline (Govt of US 2007b).<br/><br/>The population of the contiguous US was listed as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 2000, requiring the US government to develop a recovery plan and identify critical habitat for lynx (Nordstrom 2005).  Critical habitat designations only apply to federal lands or federally funded or permitted activities on private lands, but not to private activities on private lands.  This designation gives the federal government the authority to manage activities that affect the designated habitat. In February 2008, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed a revised designation of  critical habitat of 42,753 square miles of critical lynx habitat as follows:<br/><br/>Maine:  Approximately 10,633 square miles in portions of Aroostook, Franklin, Penobscot, Piscataquis and Somerset Counties.<br/><br/>Minnesota:  Approximately 8,226 square miles in portions of Cook, Koochiching, Lake, and St. Louis Counties, and Superior National Forest.<br/><br/>Northern Rocky Mountains:  Approximately 11,304 square miles in portions of Boundary County in Idaho; and Flathead, Glacier, Granite, Lake, Lewis and Clark, Lincoln, Missoula, Pondera, Powell and Teton Counties in Montana.  This area includes the Flathead Indian Reservation, National Forest lands and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands in the Garnet Resource Area.<br/><br/>North Cascades:  Approximately 2,000 square miles in portions of Chelan and Okanogan Counties which includes BLM lands in the Spokane District.<br/><br/>Greater Yellowstone Area:  Approximately 10,590 square miles in Gallatin, Park, Sweetgrass, Stillwater, and Carbon Counties in Montana; and Park, Teton, Fremont, Sublette, and Lincoln Counties in Wyoming.<br/><br/>The Kettle range of Washington state was not included due to lack of recent evidence of reproduction, and the reintroduced population of Colorado and Utah in the southern Rockies was also not included due to lack of evidence that it is self-sustaining.  The designation is proposed but not final, and significantly increases a 2006 designation of  1,841 square miles of critical habitat for the lynx within the boundaries of Voyagers National Park in Minnesota, Glacier National Park in Montana, and North Cascades National Park in Washington (US FWS 2008).<br/><br/>To reduce accidental taking of lynx in traps set for other furbearers, the Fish and Wildlife Service has recommended various measures to trappers (e.g., avoid using hares or rabbits as bait) (Goldman and Krauze 2003).
12518		distribution	eng	Throughout North America, Canada lynx are generally considered to be distributed in two broad spatial and demographic patterns.  The contiguous Northern Taiga population covers most of Canada east from Newfoundland and Labrador to Alaska.  The southern Boreal population consists of small, widely isolated populations south of the 49 degree parallel in the "Lower 48" states of the US, and in Canada including northwestern New Brunswick and Cape Breton island in Nova Scotia (Parker 2001).  Its range is coincident with that of their main prey, the snowshoe hare <em>Lepus americanus</em> (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  While still occurring in 95% of their historic range in Canada (with the exception of far eastern Canada) (Poole 2003), in the contiguous United States, lynx historically occurred in 24 states (McKelvey <em>et al.</em> 2000), possibly ranging as far down the Rocky mountain chain to include a 25th, New Mexico (Frey 2006).  Widely extirpated, the US Fish and Wildlife Service has identified six "core" areas for recovery where there is evidence of lynx reproduction within the last 20 years: northern Maine and New Hampshire; northeastern Minnesota; northwestern Montana and northeastern Idaho; the Kettle and Wedge mountain ranges of Washington state; the northern Cascade range of Washington state; and the Greater Yellowstone area of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho.  A reintroduced population in the southern Rocky mountains of Colorado state is another core area; 204 lynx from Canada and Alaska have been released since 1999, and there is evidence of reproduction (Nordstrom <em>et al.</em> 2005) and lynx have ranged up to 4,310 m, with an average elevation of 3,170 m (Wild <em>et al.</em> 2006).  A reintroduction in northern New York state was not successful (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
12518		habitat	eng	Canada lynx are found only in boreal forest, and their main prey species, the snowshoe hare Lepus americanus, depends largely on patches of sucessional growth (Buskirk <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Hares make up 60-97% of their diet, at an average rate of one every 1-2 days (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). The lynx-hare cycle was first discovered from harvest records of the Hudson’s Bay Company dating back to the early 1800's. Numbers of snowshoe hares peak approximately every ten years in the northern part of their range, and lynx numbers follow the same pattern with a short lag, typically 1-2 years. The fluctuations can be drastic, with hare abundance reaching 2,300/km² during the peaks, and crashing to 12/km² during the lows.  While the populations of many prey and predator species are cyclic and roughly synchronous in the northern latitudes, the hare-lynx correlation is particularly close (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Three primary variables drive the cycle: vegetation quality, and both hare and lynx numbers.  Historically, lynx trapping pressure also influenced the amplitude of the cycle (Gamarra and Sole 2000).<br/><br/>In the southern parts of their range, predator and prey communities are more diverse, and snowshoe hares are less important as prey species (Buskirk <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Ungulates to not figure prominently in the lynx's diet other than as carrion, although they preyed on caribou calves in Newfoundland after the hare population crashed (Bergerud 1983).<br/><br/>Lynx home ranges average 15-50 km², although they can be much larger, and tend to be larger on the southern periphery of their geographic distribution, suggesting that these areas are marginal habitat.  Average lynx densities range from 1-45 animals (including young) per 100 km², and fluctuate with hare abundance (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
12518		population	eng	The Canada lynx is primarily found in Canada, where it is managed and trapped for its fur.  It is considered endangered only in New Brunswick, and has been extirpated from Prince Edward Island and maiinland Nova Scotia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Parker 2001).  In the US, the Canada lynx is abundant in Alaska, but in the "Lower 48" states populations are small and threatened.  Lynx were reintroduced apparently unsuccessfully in northern New York state in the late 1980s, and more recently, apparently successfully, in Colorado (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>In the northern parts of their range, lynx populations undergo dramatic fluctuations roughly every ten years, following apparently regular cycles of increase and decline of their primary prey, the snowshoe hare Lepus americanus, a pattern evident in lynx fur trade records dating back to the early 1800s (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In the southern parts, lynx and hares appear to maintain a relatively stable but low density (Parker 2001).<br/><br/>Schwartz <em>et al.</em> (2003) documented reduced genetic variation in lynx populations from the peripheral areas of its distribution.
12518		threats	eng	In most of Canada and the US state of Alaska, trapping of Canada lynx is managed for the fur trade.  Trapping can reduce lynx populations and have the greatest impact when hare populations cyclically crash.  In response to concerns about over-harvest during the cyclic low of the lynx-hare cycle in the 1980s, most Canadian provinces and Alaska implemented management measures which led to reduced harvests (Mowat <em>et al.</em> 2000).  In the early 1980 (1980-1984), an average of 35,669 Canada lynx pelts were exported from the US and Canada.  That fell to in the late 1980s (1986-1989) to an average annual export of 7,360.  Exports have trended lower and fluctuated less severely since then, with annual exports from 2000-2006 averaging 15,387 (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  Historical information suggests that, despite minimal harvest controls for much of the last century, lynx-hare cycles have been largely stable in the northern part of their range and no permanent range decrease has been detected (Mowat <em>et al.</em> 2000, Poole 2003).  <br/><br/>In eastern Canada where lynx are rare and protected, the primary threat is considered to be interspecific competition from the eastern coyote, which expanded its range into eastern North America in the last few decades (Parker 2001).<br/><br/>In the contiguous US, the primary threat is habitat fragmentation.  Logging practices and fire suppression can reduce hare and lynx abundance.  Lynx are also threatened by interspecific competition from other predators whose populations have increased in recent decades, and may be killed accidentally in snares set for other species, or on roads.  Maintenance of connectivity with the abundant northern population is considered essential for recovery (Ruediger <em>et al.</em> 2000, Nordstrom 2005).  Hybridization with bobcats has been found by genetic analysis in Minnesota (Schwartz <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12519		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II and protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix III).  Hunting for commercial purposes (other than sport hunting) is permitted only by Russia, according to a recent survey of 37 range states (Govt of US 2007).  While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007).  Detailed recommendations for conservation of European subpopulations are given in IUCN (2007).
12519		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II and protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix III).  Hunting for commercial purposes (other than sport hunting) is permitted only by Russia, according to a recent survey of 37 range states (Govt of US 2007).  While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007).    Since 2009, the Lynx is a legally protected species in Afghanistan, banning all hunting and trading of this species within the country. Detailed recommendations for conservation of European subpopulations are given in IUCN (2007).
12519		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II, protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and strictly protected under the EU Habitats & Species Directive (Annexes II and IV). Conservation measures in place and recommended for the European populations are as follows:<br/><br/>1. Jura.<br/>Lynx is legally protected in both countries. Stock-raiding animals can however be removed. For this, similar criteria have been established in France and Switzerland. In practice, depredation is much more pronounced in the French than in the Swiss Jura. The Ministries of Environment are responsible for the management of the species. There is co-operation on scientific and administrative level, but no systematic common monitoring and no common management plan for the entire population. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Continuation and improvement of monitoring, genetic surveillance of the population, law enforcement, improve connectivity to other lynx populations or occurrences.<br/><br/>2. Vosges-Palatinian.<br/>In France as well as in Germany, lynx is fully protected by law. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Improve potential corridors, mitigate the problem of illegal killings, continue monitoring and cross-border co-operation.<br/><br/>3. Alpine. <br/>Lynx is at present protected in all Alpine countries. In Switzerland, Slovenia, and France lynx causing too much damage to livestock can be removed. With the exception of Austria, national environmental agencies have the authority for  lynx management. In Austria, the owners of the hunting grounds are responsible for the management of the species, but are supervised by the states (Bundesländer), which have the legal power. With the exception of Switzerland, national management plans are lacking. Current management practices: In the early 1990s, scientists from all Alpine countries formed an expert group to survey the status of and co-ordinate actions for the Alpine lynx population. The SCALP (Status and Conservation of the Alpine Lynx Population) defined common standards to interpret the monitoring data collected, and has developed a Pan-Alpine Conservation Strategy (PACS, Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2003), which was adopted by the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Promote the expansion of the area occupied, improve law enforcement, continue monitoring of demographic and genetic parameters, increase acceptance of lynx by local people. To prevent genetic problems, conservation priority should be given not only the expansion of the range (fusion of the two subpopulations), but also the genetic exchange of individuals between different populations, e.g. between all reintroduced populations and the source population.<br/><br/>4. Bohemian-Bavarian.<br/>Lynx of the Bohemian-Bavarian population are fully protected by law. Co-operation and exchange of information amongst scientists has started some years ago, and the establishment of a discussion platform for management issues was suggested (CELTIC – Conservation of the European Lynx: Management and International Cooperation). However, there is no common management approach yet. In Germany and Austria, wildlife management is in the responsibilities of the federal states (Bundesländer), and as there are no national management strategies for lynx, it is difficult to implement international co-operation. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Find solutions against the widespread illegal killing, improve connectivity first within the population, but then also to neighbouring occurrences, get a clear commitment and a more strenuous involvement of the authorities.<br/><br/>5. Dinaric.<br/>Lynx was granted legal protection in Croatia in 1998. By becoming a member state of the European Union in 2004, Slovenia has ratified the EU Habitats Directive and hence legally protected lynx. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, no proper legislation exists. National management plans are in place in Croatia (since 2005) and in preparation in Slovenia, however a coherent strategy for the entire population is missing. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Develop a cross-border conservation strategy (including defining the legislation in Bosnia-Herzegovina), improve and continue the monitoring of lynx and prey, increase prey base. A specific survey in southern Bosnia-Herzegovina is required to clarify whether there is a connection between the Dinaric and the Balkan population. This knowledge would be of great importance for the assessment of the Balkan lynx, which might be considered a different subspecies.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian.<br/>In all countries but Romania, lynx is completely protected by law, though since only recently in Slovakia (2001). Until 2000, the annual legal harvest was almost 15 animals in Slovakia and considered a threat to the population. In Poland, lynx received full protection in 1995. Of the Carpathian population, Romania is therefore the only country left were lynx is legally hunted. Yet the number of lynx shot has been very modest compared to the number of lynx estimated and the potential quota set per year. It is however assumed that there is no control over the real extent of hunting, as numbers differ in the literature found. The 2003 Carpathian Workshop on Large Carnivore Conservation aimed to start the elaboration of a Carpathian Action Plan for large carnivores, a measure recommended by the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention. According to this action plan the countries are then requested to draft and implement national action plans. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Improve the monitoring and census systems, habitat conservation, public education, conduct field research in different parts of the Carpathians to find out more about the species' biology in this region, develop a general strategy for the lynx in the entire Carpathians.<br/><br/>7. Scandinavian.<br/>The Nordic countries apply more or less the same census methods and management regime, namely the controlled hunting of the species in certain areas where livestock depredation is considered too high. As a matter of fact, depredation is intense: Up to 10,000 sheep and several ten thousands of reindeer have yearly been killed by lynx from 1996-2001 in the area of the Nordic population. Whereas in Norway, sheep depredation is the most extensive, reindeer is the species mainly affected in Sweden. In both countries, the state pays for domestic animals killed. Sweden has implemented a management plan in 2000, Norway a government white paper in 1997, which sets the management guidelines (a new edition is in place since 2004). The harvest numbers in each of the two countries were around 90 lynx per year in 1996-2001. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Change sheep husbandry in Norway, set the hunting quotas at sustainable level.<br/><br/>8. Karelian.<br/>The lynx is protected in Finland since 1995. Complete protection can however be derogated in accordance with article 16 of the EU Habitat Directive (resulting in a kind of quota hunting). Finland maintained the same level of harvest throughout the 1990s, with no change after 1995. The level (59 lynx annually in 1996-2001) is however considered sustainable. A management plan has been implemented in Finland in 1996. In Russia, lynx is a game species. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Establish a monitoring system in Russia, find solutions to mitigate human-livestock-carnivore conflicts in Finland, set the annual quotas on the basis of good census data, establish co-operation between the countries.<br/><br/>9. Baltic.<br/>Lynx is only hunted in Estonia and Latvia (reservation for including the lynx in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive) as well as in Russia, in all other countries the species is fully protected. Legislation has in most of the countries strongly improved in the past few years due to harmonizing national laws with requirements of the European Union during the process of accession. Both Estonia and Latvia have prepared and implemented a lynx management plan. Such a plan is also planned for Lithuania. Furthermore, a cross-border network of researchers, conservationists, state officials and other stakeholder representatives from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania was created in 2000 under the umbrella of the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe LCIE: the Baltic Large Carnivore Initiative. A report on the status of the large carnivore conservation in the Baltic States including an action plan for the Initiative for 2001-2005 has been published. The report focuses on how the national management plans fulfil the guidelines and recommendations in the European Action Plan. There is however no such framework and strategy yet that would include all countries sharing the population. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Expand the population towards the south (southern half of Latvia and Lithuania), improve the connectivity within the population in the south-western part and create a broad corridor towards the occurrences in north-eastern Poland across Lithuania along the border with Belarus, improve and coordinate the monitoring of the species, develop a comprehensive conservation strategy based on a metapopulation concept and considering habitat quality and connectivity, continue with the Baltic Large Carnivore Initiative.<br/><br/>10. Balkan.<br/>The species is fully protected by law in all range countries. No national management plans exist, however it is one of the aims of an ongoing cross-border conservation project to develop a recovery strategy for the Balkan lynx from which national actions can be derived. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Conduct a systematic field survey covering the whole potential distribution area, establish a standardised monitoring of lynx and prey species, research the ecology and life history of the Balkan lynx, define taxonomic status, raise public awareness, law enforcement, habitat and prey base enhancement.
12519		distribution	eng	The Eurasian lynx has a very broad distribution from western Europe through the boreal forests of Russia, and down into central Asia and the Tibetan plateau (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Populations in the southeast of its range (Europe and southwest Asia) are generally small and widely separated, whereas the bulk of its historic range from Scandinavia through Russia and Central Asia is largely intact.<br/><br/>In Europe, it was probably absent from some of the larger islands such as Ireland and Sicily and from countries with few forests. It was also absent from the Iberian Peninsula, where the smaller Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> occurs. Lynx have been extirpated from most of western Europe. In central Europe, they survive only in the Carpathian Mountains and a small area of the south Dinaric Mountains in Greece, Macedonia and Albania, although larger populations persisted in Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, and European Russia. Lynx have been released in several areas of Europe in an effort to reintroduce this elusive predator including in Switzerland, Slovenia, Italy, Czech Republic, Austria, Germany and France (IUCN 2007).
12519		distribution	eng	The Eurasian lynx is one of the widest ranging of all cat species. It was once distributed throughout Russia, central Asia and Europe. It was probably absent from some of the larger islands such as Ireland and Sicily and from countries with few forests. It was also absent from the Iberian Peninsula, where the smaller Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> occurs. From this extensive distribution, lynx were exterminated from almost all of western Europe. In western and central Europe, they survived only in the Carpathian Mountains, the southern Dinaric Mountains in Macedonia and Albania, and parts of Fennoscandia and the Baltic (where populations were heavily reduced), although larger populations persisted in European Russia. Human activities reduced the lynx to its minimum numbers in the 1950s. Lynx have been released in several areas of Europe in an effort to reintroduce this elusive predator, including in Switzerland, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Austria, Germany and France. Lynx occurring in Europe can be viewed as belonging to a number of distinct populations (LCIE 2007):<br/><br/>1. Jura.<br/>Countries: France and Switzerland. Description: This population stretches across the Jura Mountains from central-eastern France north of the Rhone to western Switzerland between Geneva and Basel.<br/><br/>2. Vosges-Palatinian.<br/>Countries: France and Germany. Description: Distributed along the French Vosges Mountains and in the German Palatinian Forest and its surroundings.<br/><br/>3. Alpine (comprising two segments - Western Alps and Eastern Alps).<br/>Countries: Switzerland, Slovenia, France, Italy, Austria. Description: Two main extant populations can be identified: One in the western to central Swiss Alps (mainly in the cantons of Valais, Vaud, Fribourg and Berne), stretching into the French Alps, and the western Alps in Austria (Vorarlberg); the other one in the western part of Slovenia (west of the Jesenice-Ljubljana-Triest highway), stretching into the adjacent regions of Italy (Tarvisiano) and Austria (Carinthia). Outside these two sub-populations, a more scattered distribution with no permanent lynx presence exists in France (south-east of the country, from the lake of Geneva as far south as to the department of Hautes-Alpes), eastern Italy (Friuli VG, Veneto (Bellunese), and Austria (northern Kalkalpen, Upper Carinthia, Niedere Tauern).<br/><br/>4. Bohemian-Bavarian.<br/>Countries: Czech Republic, Germany, Austria. Description: The population stretches in the triangle of the three range countries: in the western Czech Republic (Sumava Mts., NW-part of the Cesky les Mts. = Oberpfälzerwald, the Sumava foothills, S-Novohradske Mts.; in the north more isolated, small but constant occurrence in the Brdy highlands in connection with the core population), eastern Germany (Bayerischer and Oberpfälzer Forest, Fichtelgebirge, Frankenwald), and northern Austria (Böhmerwald, Mühlviertel, Waldviertel).<br/><br/>5. Dinaric.<br/>Countries: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Description: From central-southern Slovenia (S and SE of the Jesenice-Ljubljana-Triest highway) over Croatia (Gorski Kotar and Lika) up to West Bosnia (no data available for sporadically present areas).<br/><br/>6. Carpathian.<br/>Countries: Romania, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria. Description: The distribution area covers at present almost the entire mountain chain of the Carpathians, and is further expanding into Serbia, and most probably south into Bulgaria.<br/><br/>7. Scandinavian.<br/>Countries: Sweden, Norway. Description: Lynx occur from central-south to north-east Norway and almost all over Sweden. <br/><br/>8. Karelian.<br/>Countries: Finland, Russia. Description: The population stretches from the Republic of Karelia over to Finland where it is only permanently present in the south-east of the country. The occasional presence in northern Finland is consistent with the situation in Murmanskaya Oblast, where indications are also much more scarce compared to Karelia. <br/><br/>9. Baltic.<br/>Countries: Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Russia. Description: In the north (Estonia, north-eastern Latvia, and northern Belarus) the distribution is coherent with Russia. The rest of the range (southern Latvia, Lithuania, main parts of Belarus, Poland, the Ukraine, and Kaliningrad) is highly fragmented.<br/><br/>10. Balkan.<br/>Countries: Albania, FYR Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, potentially Greece. Description: Scattered distribution. Lynx occurs in the Albanian Alps and central-central east Albania, in western FYR Macedonia (mainly in the areas in and between the national parks Mavrovo, Galicica and Pelister, but most probably also in the Shar Planina Mts. bordering with Kosovo), as well as in Serbia (Kosovo and Metohija province) and Montenegro. From time to time single, unconfirmed observations in the border regions of Greece with FYR Macedonia and Albania.
12519		habitat	eng	Throughout Europe and Siberia, lynx are associated primarily with forested areas which have good ungulate populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Central Asia lynx occur in more open, thinly wooded areas. The species probably occurs throughout the northern slopes of the Himalayas, and has been reported both from thick scrub woodland and barren, rocky areas above the treeline. On the better-forested southern Himalayan slopes, there are only a few records from Nepal (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Karan Bahadur Shah pers. comm. 2008).  Lynx occur sporadically throughout the Tibetan plateau, and are found throughout the rocky hills and mountains of the Central Asian desert regions (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Eurasian lynx is the largest lynx, and the only one to primarily take ungulate prey, although they rely on smaller prey where ungulates are less abundant (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In European Russia and western Siberia, where roe deer are absent, mountain hares and tetraonids form the basic prey base. Hares and birds are important prey also in other Central Asian regions where habitats are dryer and less forested (Breitenmoser and Breitenmoser-Würsten 2008, Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Lynx kill ungulates ranging in size from the 15 kg musk deer to 220 kg adult male red deer, but show a preference for the smallest ungulate species in the community (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Home range size varies widely (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), but averaged 248 km² for males (n = 5) and 133 km² for females (n = 5) in a radio telemetry study in Poland?s Bialowieza forest (Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 1997).  Densities are typically 1-3 adults per 100 km², although higher densities of up to 5/100 km² have been reported from eastern Europe and parts of Russia (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
12519		habitat	eng	Throughout Europe and Siberia, lynx are associated primarily with forested areas which have good ungulate populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Central Asia lynx occur in more open, thinly wooded areas. The species probably occurs throughout the northern slopes of the Himalayas, and has been reported both from thick scrub woodland and barren, rocky areas above the treeline. On the better-forested southern Himalayan slopes, there are only a few records from Nepal (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Karan Bahadur Shah pers. comm. 2008).  Lynx occur sporadically throughout the Tibetan plateau, and are found throughout the rocky hills and mountains of the Central Asian desert regions (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Eurasian lynx is the largest lynx, and the only one to primarily take ungulate prey, although they rely on smaller prey where ungulates are less abundant (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In European Russia and western Siberia, where roe deer are absent, mountain hares and tetraonids form the basic prey base. Hares and birds are important prey also in other Central Asian regions where habitats are dryer and less forested (Breitenmoser and Breitenmoser-Würsten 2008, Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Lynx kill ungulates ranging in size from the 15 kg musk deer to 220 kg adult male red deer, but show a preference for the smallest ungulate species in the community (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Home range size varies widely (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), but averaged 248 km² for males (n = 5) and 133 km² for females (n = 5) in a radio telemetry study in Poland’s Bialowieza forest (Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 1997).  Densities are typically 1-3 adults per 100 km², although higher densities of up to 5/100 km² have been reported from eastern Europe and parts of Russia (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
12519		habitat	eng	Throughout Europe and Siberia, lynx are associated primarily with forested areas which have good ungulate populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Central Asia they occur in more open, thinly wooded areas. Small ungulates are the lynx's primary prey (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cat Specialist Group 2002). In Europe, the lynx's preferred diet includes roe deer and chamois. Lynx will also take larger ungulates such as red deer, moose, or wild boar occasionally. Where ungulates are not available, birds, hares and rodents form important prey. In Norway, Sweden and Finland, lynx also kill significant numbers of semi-domesticated reindeer. Depredation on sheep is also a problem in some countries.
12519		population	eng	Lynx in Europe were widely extirpated within the past several hundred years, reaching a nadir in the 1950s. Populations were reintroduced from the late 1970s onward, and the total number of lynx in Europe (excluding European Russia) is c.8,000. Populations in central and southern Europe remain very small and fragmented, although there are larger populations in Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, and European Russia (Breitenmoser <em>et al</em>. 2000). The lynx's stronghold is a broad strip of southern Siberian woodland stretching through eastern Russia from the Ural mountains to the Pacific.  There is little information on population status and trends from the lynx's wide Asian range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cat Specialist Group 2002). For the European populations, detailed status and trend information can be found on <ahref="http://www.kora.unibe.ch/en/proj/elois/online/index.html">ELOIS</a> (the Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe).
12519		population	eng	The European lynx population (excluding Russia) has been estimated at 8,000.  Populations in central and southern Europe are small and fragmented, although there are larger populations in Fennoscandia and the Baltic states (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2000). Lynx in Europe occur in ten distinct subpopulations (IUCN 2007).  Detailed status and trend information can be found on www.kora.unibe.ch/en/proj/elois/online/index.html (ELOIS, the European Lynx Online Information System).<br/><br/>The lynx's stronghold is a broad strip of southern Siberian woodland stretching through eastern Russia from the Ural mountains to the Pacific, and the Russian lynx population has been estimated at 30,000-35,000 (Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Although large portions of its range lie in China, status there is poorly known, and the government considers the population to be decreasing in a recent global survey of lynx status (Govt of US 2007).  While lynx presence in the Chinese region of Inner Mongolia is uncertain, in the country of Mongolia Matyushin and Vaisfeld (2003) estimate the lynx population at 10,000.<br/><br/>In a survey of 37 lynx range state governments, 30% considered their national populations to be decreasing, 35% stable, 14% stable to slightly increasing, 16% increasing, and 8% unknown (Govt of US 2007).  The population in Afghanistan is considered to have decreased (Habibi 2004).
12519		threats	eng	Lynx are vulnerable to destruction of their ungulate prey base. Hunting pressure may also play a role in lynx population declines. Habitat destruction through clear-cutting can have a negative effect on lynx abundance. There is no information beyond harvest reports on which to base an assessment of the biological impact of commercial trapping for furs, and thus its significance as a threat is difficult to judge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cat Specialist Group 2002). The lynx's disappearance in lowland Europe was due to human persecution, deforestation, loss of prey species, expansion of agriculture and an increase in human populations. Although the lynx is not endangered, these threats still affect it today throughout Europe. Habitat loss, loss of prey due to logging and hunting, and human population pressures have serious negative impacts. Humans still present a major threat to the lynx, particularly to small or reintroduced populations. These groups can be devastated by traffic accidents or by unsustainable hunting and poaching. In Norway in 1998, licensed hunters killed 112 lynxes out of a total population of just 400-500. This scale of hunting may be unsustainable, particularly when compounded by illegal hunting. Threats to specific European populations are detailed below:<br/><br/>1. Jura<br/>Illegal killing, traffic accidents, limited dispersal.<br/><br/>2. Vosges-Palatinian.<br/>Illegal killing in the Vosges Mts., in general small population size with a rather limited potential to expand.<br/><br/>3. Alpine.<br/>Threats include illegal killing, infrastructure development (especially road constructions), vehicle and train collisions, and limited dispersal. A potential threat for the population in the Alps is the narrow genetic base: all of the relatively few founder animals came from the same region and some of them were probably closely related. First genetic analysis indicated that the Alpine population has a reduced allelic diversity compared to the Carpathian source population, and that it has today the smallest level of heterozygosity of all European lynx populations.<br/><br/>4. Bohemian-Bavarian.<br/>Illegal killing, habitat fragmentation due to road constructions.<br/><br/>5. Dinaric.<br/>Legal and illegal shooting, collisions with vehicles/trains, limited prey base.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian.<br/>Potentially illegal killing and habitat fragmentation due to infrastructure developments and wood cutting.<br/><br/>7. Scandinavian.<br/>Illegal killing, potentially legal harvest.<br/><br/>8. Karelian.<br/>Potentially harvest.<br/><br/>9. Baltic.<br/>Population fragmentation (in the south-west of the range), potentially illegal killing.<br/><br/>10. Balkan.<br/>Small population number, limited prey base and habitat degradation (especially in Albania), probably illegal killing.
12519		threats	eng	While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007a, IUCN 2007).
12520		conservation	eng	<em>Lynx pardinus</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix I, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is also fully protected under national law in Spain and Portugal, and is classed as Critically Endangered on the national Red Lists of both countries (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Public awareness and education programs have helped change attitudes towards the lynx particularly among private landowners in lynx areas. Two international seminars have been held, in 2002 and 2004, to establish a coordinated strategy to save the Iberian lynx from extinction (Olszanska and Breitenmoser 2004). A captive breeding programme has been started in Spain. In Portugal, the National Action Plan foresees a re-introduction programme. The construction of facilities for breeding and reintroduction has been prepared (ICN 2003, Sarmento <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In the short term, <em>in situ</em> conservation efforts must concentrate on preserving the last two breeding populations in Coto Doñana and Andújar-Cardeña. Priority must also be given to maintaining several large areas (of at least 500 km²) of suitable habitat to harbour new lynx populations. The central and western regions of Sierra Morena and the Toledo Mountains, as well as other areas in Spain and Portugal naturally rich in rabbits, will be vital for this purpose. All lynx habitat must be strictly protected from further destructive infrastructure projects. Captive breeding is of critical importance for lynx recovery. In addition to providing a vital gene bank for the survival of the species, captive lynxes will be needed to recolonise the many areas where populations have collapsed. Efforts to stimulate rabbit recovery must also be intensified. Without sufficient prey density, lynx populations will continue to decline and reintroductions will not be feasible (in spite of recent rabbit conservation measures in Doñana National Park, such as restocking, protection of burrows and vegetation management, rabbit numbers remain low). An adaptive conservation process based on careful monitoring of the last populations and the results of the measures implemented is necessary to facilitate the survival of the Iberian lynx. Recovery plans in all regions where the lynx has occurred over the past decade also need to be rapidly implemented (IUCN 2007).
12520		distribution	eng	The Iberian lynx is restricted to the Iberian peninsula, confined to scattered groups in the southwestern quadrant of the Iberian peninsula as a result of the fragmentation of their natural habitat by agricultural and industrial development. Only two or three groups in Spain are considered to have populations which could be viable in the long term.  It is possibly extinct in Portugal (IUCN 2007).
12520		habitat	eng	The Iberian lynx occurs in Mediterranean woodland and maquis thicket. It favours a mosaic of dense scrub for shelter and open pasture for hunting rabbits (ICONA 1992). Palomares <em>et al.</em> (1991) examined habitat preferences of lynx in the Coto Doñana area of south-western Spain, including the national park and environs. Lynx were generally absent from cropland and exotic tree plantations (eucalyptus and pine), where rabbits were also scarce. In the park, radiotelemetry showed that more than 90% of daytime resting spots used by lynx were located in thick heather scrub (Beltrán <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>The Iberian lynx is a specialised feeder, with rabbits (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>) accounting for 80-100 per cent of its diet. Other species occasionally taken include rodents, hares, partridges, ducks, geese, juvenile deer, and fallow deer, but these do not form an important part of the lynx's diet. Lynx often kill other carnivore species, including those regarded as pests by humans, such as feral cats and foxes, but do not eat them. The lynx's highly specialised diet makes it a naturally vulnerable species and the rapid decline in rabbit populations since the 1950s has had a direct impact on lynx numbers (IUCN 2007).
12520		population	eng	The Iberian lynx occurs only in isolated pockets of Spain and possibly Portugal. The latest survey results from Spain suggest a minimum of 84 and a maximum of 143 adults surviving in two breeding populations: iin the Coto Doñana and near Andújar in the eastern Sierra Morena. The Doñana population numbers 24-33 adults and the Sierra Morena is the stronghold of the species with an estimated 60-110 adults. These populations are isolated from one another making them even more vulnerable. None of the remaining potential populations in East Montes de Toledo, West Sistema Central and some areas of central and western Sierra Morena is thought to include animals that breed regularly. Current numbers are not sufficient for the survival of the species in the long term and experts agree the cat is now on the brink of extinction. The latest population estimates represent a Spanish decline of more than 80 per cent since the last survey (1987-1988) suggested as many as 1,136 lynxes. A similar decline of 80 per cent was estimated in Spain for the period 1960-1978 (IUCN 2007). <br/><br/>In Portugal a sign search, camera trapping and box trapping survey conducted in 2002 by the Instituto da Conservacao da Natureza failed to detect a single lynx (Sarmento <em>et al.</em> 2004). The most recent evidence of the presence of lynx in Portugal comes from the discovery of a scat in the Guadiana area in 2001, which was identified by molecular analysis (Pires and Fernandes 2003). During the 1990s, a national survey based on personal interviews and dead animal records suggested a population of about 40 lynxes fragmented in small subpopulations in five different areas: Algarve mountains, Sado Valley, Guadiana, S. Mamede and Malcata. However, further local field surveys indicated the absence of resident animals, pointing to a pre-extinction scenario (Pinto 2000, Fernandes <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sarmento <em>et al.</em> 2004)
12520		threats	eng	The Iberian Lynx is a naturally vulnerable species because of its dependence on only one prey species, the rabbit, and its narrow habitat spectrum. The dramatic decline in rabbit populations, caused by habitat changes and myxomatosis since the 1950s and Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD) since the late 1980s, has therefore had a direct impact on lynx numbers. Over-hunting of rabbits and other human activities have further compounded the problems of prey scarcity. In recent years, prey scarcity has been compounded by high rates of non-natural mortality and habitat destruction and fragmentation. <br/> <br/>Habitat destruction, deterioration and alteration have impacted negatively on the lynx for centuries. Notable examples since the middle of the 20th century include the planting of Mediterranean scrublands with pines and eucalyptus and more recently the over stocking of deer and livestock on private estates and the opening up of roads and forest tracks in previously remote areas. The lynx's preferred habitat mosaic has also suffered at the hands of afforestation and scrub clearance schemes, road building, dam construction, and the building of holiday homes. New infrastructure projects continued to fragment lynx populations and created new barriers in corridor areas between the remaining populations in the 1960s. More than forty separate lynx populations in Spain and Portugal appear to have collapsed since the early 1980s. WWF Spain/Adena has identified 53 different public works that will affect important areas for the Iberian lynx. Heavier and faster traffic is also taking an unacceptably high toll on lynx each year as juveniles venture away from their areas of birth in search of new habitats. This high mortality has been an important factor in the decline of the species, particularly in the areas surrounding Doñana National Park. <br/><br/>The Iberian Lynx received protection against hunting in the early 1970s and since then hunting has dropped off. However, some lynxes are still shot and killed in traps and snares set for smaller predators, particularly on commercial hunting and shooting estates (IUCN 2007).
12521		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II.  The Mexican subspecies <em>L. rufus escuinapae</em> was listed on CITES Appendix I until 1992, when it was downlisted to Appendix II on the grounds that it is not a valid taxa (Govt of US 2007).  Bobcats are legally harvested for the fur trade in 38 US states, and in seven Canadian provinces.  In Mexico, the bobcat is legally hunted in small numbers as a trophy animal (Govt of US 2007). There appears to be little illegal international trade (Govt of US 2007), although within the US Millions and Swanson (2006) used molecular forensics techniques to determine that skins reported as originating from an area wiith a higher bag limit were probably illegally taken from an area with a lower limit.
12521		distribution	eng	Bobcats occur mostly in the United States, but also into southern Canada and northern Mexico.  Historically, bobcats ranged throughout the contiguous US, but were extirpated from parts of the midwest and East coast (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although they appear to be recolonizing or becoming more abundant (Govt of US 2007).  Their range in Canada has been expanding northward with forest clearance (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  While generally favoring low and mid-elevations, in the western US they have been trapped at elevations up to 2,575 m (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In Mexico, radio-collared bobcats were located at 3,500 m on the Colima Volcano in western Mexico (Burton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12521		habitat	eng	In the US, the bobcat ranges through a wide variety of habitats, including boreal coniferous and mixed forests in the north, bottomland hardwood forest and coastal swamp in the south-east, and desert and scrubland in the south-west. Only large, intensively cultivated areas appear to be unsuitable habitat. Areas with dense understory vegetation and high prey density are most intensively selected by bobcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The requisite features of bobcat habitat typically include areas with abundant rabbit and rodent populations, dense cover, and shelters that function as escape cover or den sites (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In Mexico, bobcats are found in dry scrub and grassland, as well as tropical dry forest including pine, oak and fir (Monroy-Vilchis and Velazquez 2003, Arzate <em>et al.</em> 2007, C. Lopez-Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).  <br/><br/>Like its close relative <em>Lynx canadensis</em> the bobcat preys primarily on lagomorphs (rabbits), but is much less of a specialist.  Rodents are commonly taken, and bobcats are capable of taking larger prey, including young ungulates (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Home ranges vary with ecological setting, from 6 km² for female bobcats in southern California to 325 km² for male bobcats in upstate New York.  Bobcats in northern and western portions of the United States are consistently larger than those in the south, possibly because the warmer climates provide a less variable prey base (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Density estimates include 48/100 km² in Texas (Heilbrun <em>et al.</em> 2006); 25/100 km² in Arizona (Lawhead 1984); 25-30/100 km² in NW Mexico (Moreno <em>et al.</em> in press); <9/100 km² in Idaho (Knick 1990);  and 11/100 km² in Virginia (minimal estimate, M. Kelly pers. comm. 2007).  Bobcat densities in the northern parts of their range are generally lower than in the south (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  However, the first density estimate for bobcats in Mexico is low, at five individuals per 100 km² (Arzate <em>et al.</em> 2007).
12521		population	eng	In the early 1980s, state wildlife authorities estimated the total US bobcat population at 725,000 to 1 million (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  There have been no subsequent national population estimates, but bobcats are considered to be increasing by the national governments of both the US and Canada (Govt of US 2007).  In a few midwestern US states bobcats have a limited distribution.  The population in Mexico is not well known; it appears to be very rare in some areas in central Mexico (A. Caso pers. comm. 2007).
12521		threats	eng	World demand for bobcat fur rose gradually in the late 1960's and early 1970's and jumped in the mid-1970's after CITES entered into force, when the pelts of cats listed on Appendix I became legally unobtainable for the commercial fur trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The bobcat is now the leading felid in the skin trade, with most exports coming from the US.  From 1990-1999, annual exports averaged 13,494; in 2000-2006 the average climbed to 29,772, with an all-time high of 51,419 skins exported in 2006 (UNEP-WCMC 2008).<br/><br/>The US government has found that trade is not detrimental to bobcat survival and is well-managed by state authorities.  They have petitioned CITES numerous times, most recently in 2007, to remove the bobcat from the CITES Appendices, arguing that the bobcat does not meet the biological criteria for CITES listing and that their research indicates that importing governments should be able to reliably distinguish bobcat skins from other species to prevent illegal trade (Govt of US 2007).  However, the proposal was rejected by majority vote of the Parties to CITES (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat loss is viewed as the primary threat to bobcats in all three range countries.  There is concern in the northeastern US about interspecific competition with expanding coyote populations (Moruzzi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Litvaitis and Harrison 1989, Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006).  However, in Florida, where coyotes have also increased, Thornton <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that bobcats and coyotes favoured different prey species, with coyotes taking larger ungulates and bobcats rodents and smaller mammals.<br/><br/>In localized areas bobcats take domestic livestock and are persecuted as pests (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
12525		conservation	eng	Protection of forests is needed.
12525		distribution	eng	Bangladesh, Burma, China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan), India, and Japan (Ryukyus).
12525		habitat	eng	Montane forests.
12525		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12525		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
12548		conservation	eng	Internationally, this species is listed under Appendix II in CITES. Regionally, India lists it as schedule II under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001) amended up to 2002. The species is also protected in national wildlife acts of Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Thailand, and Myanmar.<br/><br/>Stump-tailed macaques are found in a number of protected areas throughout their range, including: Balpakram National Park, Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Murlen National Park (India); Huay Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand). They may possibly occur in Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary (India), and in Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR).
12548		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cambodia, south-western China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces), north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura provinces), Lao PDR, north-western Peninsular Malaysia, northern Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. It appears to be absent from most of Myanmar and Thailand; records are only from the far north of Myanmar and from the border ranges between the two countries south into the peninsula, with a few dubious records in central and north-western Thailand. It was formerly found in eastern Bangladesh as well, but may now be extinct there. In China it is found south of 25°N. The species has been introduced to Hong Kong. In north-eastern India, it has long believed to be restricted to the south bank of the Brahmaputra River (Choudhury 1988), yet Srivastava and Mohnot (2001), J. Das (pers. comm.) and Chetry <em>et al.</em> (2003) report possible records of this species from Namdapha National Park, though they were morphologically distinct from other representatives of the species, and could represent an undescribed subspecies.
12548		habitat	eng	This species ranges from tropical semi-evergreen forest to tropical wet evergreen forest and tropical moist deciduous forest. It prefers dense evergreen forests (Choudhury 2001). Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) report it from lowland semi-evergreen forests to monsoon and montane forests. In India it occurs at elevations of 50-2,700 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; Choudhury 2001, 2002; Srivastava and Mohnot 2001), between 200 and 2,200 m in Myanmar (Htun pers. comm.), and up to 2,400 m in China (X. Jiang pers. comm.); in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia it is predominantly found above 400 m, while in karst limestone environments it is found in much lower elevations (R. Timmins pers. comm.). It is considered arboreal as well as terrestrial, and is diurnal. It feeds primarily on seeds and fruits. It has a generation time of 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It eats fruit, insects, small vertebrates, and immature leaves, and will also raid crops for potatoes and rice. It occurs widely in the hill and mountain areas of Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Thailand it is widespread but discontinuous, in forests associated with limestone, and other forest habitats (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). In China it is found in broadleaved evergreen forests, and sometimes in secondary forests close to farmlands (X. Jiang pers. comm.)
12548		population	eng	Populations in South Asia and in Myanmar are few and fragmented (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; S. Htun pers. comm.). This species is suspected to be extinct in Bangladesh, having last been recorded there in 1989 (M. Feeroz pers. comm.). It is very scarce all over its range in north-eastern India (Choudhury 2001). However, it is common in the mountains of Nagaland, Manipur, and eastern Mizoram (Choudhury 2001). In China the species is still common in Yunnan, though the populations are thought to be lower in the eastern portions of its range (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002); there is an estimated 3,500 individuals remaining in the country, but in many places, the populations have gone extinct locally (Chang pers. comm.). There are no available population estimates for this taxon in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand (R. Boonratana pers. comm.), although the population is likely to be large, as the species is frequently encountered throughout the range of distribution in these countries. <br/><br/>Populations of this species are critically threatened in India, declining in Myanmar, stable in Thailand, and declining rapidly in China and Viet Nam. There are some declines in Lao PDR and Cambodia. Future declines are predicted to be faster in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, India, Myanmar and China due to habitat loss and/or hunting.
12548		threats	eng	Habitat disturbances affecting this species' survival include selective logging, timber and firewood collection for charcoal, building roads, dams, power lines and fisheries, deliberately set fires, fragmentation, and soil loss/erosion. These animals are hunted and traded for food, sport and traditional “medicine,” and accidental mortality due to trapping occurs. There is a local trade for bones, meat for food and the live animals as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>In India much of its habitat is affected by Jhum cultivation (shifting or slash-and-burn) (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001). It has also been indiscriminately hunted to the brink of extinction over almost its entire distribution in this country (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, this species is heavily targeted for use in traditional “medicine,” both in country and for trade with China. Within Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia, hunting levels for food is also very high. Habitat loss is a relatively lower threat compared to hunting (R. Timmins pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, logging and timber extraction are major threats. Commercial rubber plantations, hunting, and trade of animals parts with China are all major threats to this species.<br/><br/>In China, hunting and habitat loss have reduced in population of this species, and it is locally extinct in some places.<br/><br/>In Thailand, habitat loss is a major threat, while hunting is prevalent, but not a significant threat to the species (R. Boonratana pers. comm.).
12549		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Appendix II of CITES (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is legally protected in all countries of occurrence. For the populations that reside in India, the species is listed under Schedule II, part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002) (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Bangladesh it is listed as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. In Myanmar it is legally protected according to the 1994 Wildlife Protection Law. In Thailand the species is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act, 1960.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from at least 41 protected areas in northeastern India, and maybe four others (Choudhury 2001), and may also be found in the following protected areas: Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR); Langtang National Park, Makalu Barun National Park (Nepal); Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Huay Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Khieo Widlife Sanctuary (Thailand); Pu Mat National Park (Viet Nam).
12549		distribution	eng	<em>M. assamensis</em><br/>This taxon occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, southwestern China (Guangxi, Guizhou, Tibet and Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, northwestern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam. It is found from central Nepal east into northern Myanmar and southeast through southernmost China to the upper Mekong in Tibet, and in the east into southern Guizhou to Hoi Xuan in Viet Nam and Thateng in Lao PDR; the range continues south through the Myanmar/Thailand border ranges as far as Chongkrong, as well as to the Sunderbans in Bangladesh. There is a gap in northeastern India between the two main population pockets, specifically between central Bhutan and the south side of the Brahmaputra; the east bank of its upper course, the Dhibang, marks the division between the two subspecies (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. a. assamensis</em><br/>This taxon occurs in Bhutan, southwestern China (Guangxi, Guizhou, Tibet, and Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura), northern Lao PDR, Myanmar, northwestern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam. Found north along the Dihang River and its Tibetan tributary the Ngagong (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>M. a. pelops</em><br/>This taxon occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, northern India (Assam, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Nepal. Found from central Nepal through Sikkim and northernmost West Bengal into central Bhutan and the Sunderbans; apparently occurs as well north of the Himalayan crest in the Bhong Valley (Groves 2001).
12549		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal and omnivorous, and at times both arboreal and terrestrial. It prefers dense forest (Choudhury 2001), and does not usually occur in secondary forest. <br/><br/>It is found in tropical and subtropical semi-evergreen forests, dry deciduous and montane forest (Srivistava and Mohnot 2001; R. Boonratana pers. comm.). Particular habitats and niches vary some depending on the subspecies. This species is found from the floodplains to the high mountains, up to 2,800 m, and sometimes 3,000 m in the summer (Choudhury 2001), and perhaps up to 4,000 m (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is generally an upland species, and usually associated with hill areas above 1,000 m. In the wetter east the species may also frequent areas that do not or only marginally reach 1,000 m and may occur even in the lowlands. In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species is predominantly associated with high altitudes, usually above 500 m. In forests on limestone karst the species occurs in much lower elevations (R. Timmins pers. comm.). The generation of this species is 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003)
12549		population	eng	There is little information available on the global population, but it is thought to be relatively high. There is decline in the wild populations in certain countries, but not throughout the distribution. It is probably the most common macaque species in Lao PDR, where it is widespread through hill and mountain forest ranges, though no population estimate is available (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Nepal the taxon is also restricted to less than 300 mature individuals, distributed in eight subpopulations, with no subpopulation having more than 50 mature individuals. There is no information on population estimates from Thailand (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). In northern Myanmar it is a very common species, but information from the eastern part of the country is not available (S. Htun pers. comm.). Due to hunting pressure, macaques in Viet Nam are scarce. However, there is no precise information for this species on population and status (R. Timmins pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>M. a. assamensis</em> is relatively widespread in its extent of occurrence (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India, the population was found to have a group density of 1.11/km<sup>2</sup>, and an average group size of 13.93 individuals (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is the most abundant monkey in the mountains of Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhury 2001). In China, there are estimated to be over 3,000 individuals (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002).  <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>M. a. pelops</em> is only found in adjacent populations in India, Bhutan, and adjacent China. There are likely less than 1,000 individuals remaining (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>A subpopulation of <em>M. assamensis</em> is endemic to Nepal and relegated to a single population there, and is considered as a possible new subspecies (M. Chalise pers. comm.). However, further taxonomic clarification is needed.
12549		threats	eng	The threats to this species' habitat include selective logging and various forms of anthropogenic development and activities, alien invasives, and hunting and trapping for sport, “medicine,” food, and the pet trade. Additionally, hybridization with adjacent species poses a threat to some populations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although it has a wide distribution, the species is considered to be threatened in most parts of its range. Habitat destruction is the primary cause of the decline. <br/><br/>Habitat destruction poses the greatest risk to this species in northeastern India (Srivistava and Mohnot 2001). However, it has been hunted in the Himalayan regions of North Bengal, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh, where it frequently invades crops (Srivistava and Mohnot 2001). Locals use skulls as an “evil eye” in front of houses in northeastern India (Das pers. comm.). There has been extensive habitat loss over the last 15 years in several states of northeastern India (from 30-60%), with major impacts on <em>M. a. assamensis</em>. <br/><br/>The Nepal population of <em>Macaca assamensis</em> is threatened due to its restricted distribution of less than 2,200 km<sup>2</sup> extent of occurrence and 914 km<sup>2</sup> area of occupancy and continuing decline in area, extent and quality of habitat, the number of locations and in the number of mature individuals—the latter two conditions being inferred from threats to habitat and population from degradation and hunting, respectively. Given its restricted extent of occurrence, threats on its population and habitat, and small numbers in fragmented patches, the Nepal population of this macaque is categorized as Endangered.<br/><br/>In Thailand habitat loss is the primary threat, hunting for food less so (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). It is protected only in temples.  <br/><br/>In eastern Myanmar habitat loss is the primary threat, but hunting is presumed to occur. They are hunted to make footwear, and the skins are taken to Tibet as it is more profitable than taking it to Yunnan province of China. In northern Myanmar, hunting and habitat loss due to conversion are the major threats. There is more than 30% decline in forest cover over the last 30-35 years. The combination of habitat loss and hunting heavily impacts the subpopulations, and the threats are likely to continue in the next three decades if the demand for this continues in Tibet (S. Htun pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the primary threat is hunting for food and for bones to make balm and/or glue. The bones are not used within Lao PDR, but sold to Viet Namese and traders within Lao PDR. The balm is used for pain relief and other speculative “medicinal” purposes. The trade also goes into China (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). This species has declined in Viet Nam and Lao PDR in the last 30-35 years by more than 30%, and is expected to continue to decline in the future.<br/><br/>In Tibet the habitat is good, but there is some hunting, and no detailed data exists for <em>M. a. pelops</em> from that region of China (Z. Zhou <em>et al.</em> pers. comm.). For <em>M. a. assamensis</em>, hunting is a major threat. Logging has ceased, but was a major threat for the last 30 years. Conversion to pastures is still ongoing, but not a significant threat. There are extensive habitats still left for this subspecies and the taxon is relatively safe.
12550		conservation	eng	This species is listed as CITES Appendix II. In Taiwan it is listed as a category II (rare and valuable) protected species and is protected by Wildlife Conservation Law. The species occurs in 5 national parks and 12 nature reserves/protective areas, and 11 major wildlife habitats/refuges provide less disturbed habitats for the species. <br/>Recent conservation measures appear to be working, with numbers believed to be on the rise; however, this increase is also contributing to the level of conflict with humans (for example crop raiding, and even a few instances of monkey attacks on people). Elsewhere, the species is becoming dependent upon food handouts (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
12550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan. The main distribution rests on the central mountain range, with some local subpopulations scattered in peripheral lowland forest remnants. The extent of occurrence, estimated by the total forested area in Taiwan, was 19,501 km<sup>2</sup>. Although once thought to have once been associated with coastal areas, it is now largely confined to inland hills owing to human activity.<br/> <br/>Introduced feral subpopulations have become established at four localities in Japan: Oshima (south of Tokyo), Nojima (south of Nagoya), Wakayama prefecture (south of Osaka, where it has hybridized with <em>Macaca fuscata</em>), and the Shimokita Peninsula (northern Honshu) (Fooden and Wu 2001).
12550		habitat	eng	The primary habitat of the species is broadleaved evergreen forest. It also inhabits mixed broadleaf-coniferous forest, coniferous forest and bamboo forest (Fooden and Wu 2001). The species is adaptable and, though always associated with forested areas, can be found in secondary forest and remnant forest patches, and can enter agricultural areas for food (Hai Yin Wu pers. comm. 2006). The species ranges in elevation from sea level to 3,600 m although in a survey the species was found most often in broadleaved forest at 1,000-1,500 m elevation (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>It is terrestrial and arboreal, diurnal, and feeds on fruits, leaves, berries, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates.<br/><br/>Reproduction is strongly seasonal in this species. Birth occurs between February and August, with birth frequency peaking during April and June (Fooden and Wu 2001; Hsu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Females first give birth at 4 or 5 years of age. Annual birth rate is around 0.70 (Fooden and Wu 2001), in lowland broadleaved forest, it is reported to be 0.69 in a wild troop (Wu and Lin 1992) and 0.78 in a provisioned subpopulation (Hsu <em>et al. </em>2006). Annual birth rate may be lower in troops inhabiting higher elevation (Fooden and Wu 2001).
12550		population	eng	In a survey done along 37 routes (1,211.8 km in total), the estimated density was higher in broadleaved forest, and the estimated island-wide population was approximately 10,000 ± 5,000 troops (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2002). The local density is highly variable, depending on forest disturbance and hunting. In recent years, the species has been reported as increasing, but the reason for this is unknown and could be an artefact due to increased survey work in natural areas (Hai Yin Wu pers. comm. 2006). There has not been extensive monitoring, but the global population does not appear to be significantly declining (Hai Yin Wu pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>At one time it was found in large groups of up to 100, in recent years average group size has become much smaller (typically 2-10) owing to human pressures (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
12550		threats	eng	There are no major threats. However, the local populations species may be impacted by habitat loss for agriculture and development, especially in lower elevations. Also, there is some illegal hunting and non-target trapping, but not at a level to constitute an overall threat to the species. Monkey-human conflict in agricultural fields and around villages can be intense against the species and its protected status.
12551		conservation	eng	The species is included in Appendix II of CITES. It is listed on Schedule I, Part I, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002, and Schedule III, Bangladesh Wildlife (Protection) Act A 1974 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Myanmar it is a “normally” protected species. It is a protected on Appendix 2B on Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range and is relatively common in captivity (M. Richardson pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is a need for further survey work to assess the current population status of the various island forms. In particular, following the Indian Ocean Island tsunami of December 2004, a targeted survey is required to establish their current status on the Nicobars.
12551		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, India (Nicobar Islands), Indonesia (including Bali, Bangka, the Batu Islands, Bawean, Belitung, Java, Kalimantan Borneo, the Kangean Islands, Karimata, Karimunjawa, Lingga, Lombok, the Natuna Islands, Nias, Nusatenggara, the Riau Archipelago, Simeulue, Sumatra, Sumba, Sumbawa, and Timor), Lao PDR, Malaysia (including the Peninsula as well as Sabah and Sarawak Borneo), Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), the Philippines (Balabec, Basilan, Cagayan Sulu, Culion, Jolo, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Palawan, and Samar), Singapore, Thailand (including offshore islands), Timor-Leste and Viet Nam. On mainland Southeast Asia, there is a hybrid zone with <em>Macaca mulata</em> in central areas that makes it difficult to determine the northern limits of its range. The species has been introduced to Kabeana Island, Indonesia, the Pacific island of Palau, Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, and to New Guinea (Groves 2001) (these introduced populations are not included in the distribution map). <br/><br/><em>M. f. fascicularis</em>  <br/>Occurs in Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia (including Bali, Bangka, the Batu Islands, Bawean, Java, Kalimantan Borneo, Karimata, Lingga, the Natuna Islands, Nias, Nusatenggara, the Riau Archipelago, Sumatra, Sumba, and Timor), Malaysia (including the peninsula as well as Sabah and Sarawak Borneo), the Philippines (western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago), Singapore, southern Thailand (including offshore islands), and southern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. aureus</em> <br/>Occurs in southernmost Bangladesh, Lao PDR, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago) and west-central Thailand (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. umbrosus</em> <br/>Occurs on Nicobar Islands of India (Little Nicobar, Great Nicobar and Katchall), where it is found up to 600 m (Umapathy <em>et al</em>. 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>M. f. fuscus</em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Simeulue, off the northwestern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. condorensis</em>  <br/>Occurs on Con Son Island, off the coast of southern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. tua</em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Maratua, east of Borneo, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. philippensis</em><br/>Occurs in the Philippines. Found on the islands of Balabac, Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Busuanga, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Culion, Leyte, Luzon, northeastern Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Palawan, Samar and Sibuyan (Groves 2001; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/><em>M. f. lasiae </em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Lasia, off the northewestern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. karimondjawae</em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Karimunjawa and (probably) nearby Pulau Kemujan, Java Sea, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. atriceps</em><br/>Occurs on Khram Yai Island, off the southeastern coast of Thailand (Groves 2001).
12551		habitat	eng	The species is extremely tolerant of a range of habitats, including mangrove and swamp forests, and can be found in agricultural areas near forest (secondary growth, secondary forest, and primary forest) (Thomas 1898; Fooden 1991, 1995; Rabor 1986; Goodman and Ingle 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994). On the Nicobars, <em>M. f. umbrosus</em> is found in mangroves and coastal forests dominated by <em>Pandanus</em> species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <em>M. f. aureus</em> is found in evergreen forests and coastal mangroves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species has been reported as occurring to elevations of up to 1,000 m on Java, Borneo, and Sumatra (Indonesia), and up to 1,800 m in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). On the mainland, it generally occurs at lower elevations: up to 700 m in Thailand, while in Cambodia and Viet Nam it generally occurs below 300 m. This species is semi-terrestrial, diurnal, and omnivorous (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).
12551		population	eng	This is a widespread and often abundant species, and is sometimes commensal with humans. In the Philippines, it ranges from being locally common to uncommon, though this is largely dependent upon hunting pressure. In Bangladesh, the population has been estimated at less than 100 total individuals, and a population on the Teknaf Peninsula has been completely decimated due to development activities (ship-building) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/>There is a paucity of information available on the population status of several island forms. Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated about 4,800 individuals of <em>M. f. umbrosus</em>, but nothing is known about the status following the December 2004 tsunami. The islands of Katchall and Little Nicobar were submerged during the tsunami, and it is believed to have affected the habitat of this taxon; on the other hand, Shankaran <em>et al</em>. (2005) state that these macaques were not affected seriously on Greater Nicobar Island. The disaster could have impacted their populations on these two islands due to the fruiting <em>Pandanus</em> being affected by the tsunami (M. Singh pers. comm.). The population on Con Son (<em>M. f. conderensis</em>) likely numbers less than 1,000 individuals, and a number of other island forms probably have a similar status.
12551		threats	eng	Across much of the range, the major threat to the species is hunting. In mainland Southeast Asia, such as in Cambodia and Viet Nam, females are taken into breeding facilities and males are exported internationally primarily for use in laboratory research. A potential related issue is the release of confiscated long-tailed macaques from the border area of Viet Nam and China (which is where most of the current international trade is being recorded) into the native range of other macaque species. In the Philippines, the species is subject to a high level of hunting, where it is taken for local consumption and hunted for sport. It is also persecuted as a pest. Habitat loss is also a localised threat, but the species can persist in a variety of habitats and very adaptable.
12552		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES – Appendix II, and had been officially protected from hunting in Japan since 1947. It is known from most of the National and Quosi-National Parks in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu: Ashizuri-Uwakai NP, Aso NP, Bandai-Asahi NP, Chubu-Sangaku NP, Daisetsuzan NP, Fuji-Hakone-Izu NP, Hakusan NP, Jo-shin-Etsu Kogen NP, Karishima-Yaku NP, Minami Alps NP, Nichinan Kaigan Quasi NP, Nikko NP, San-In Kaigan NP, Seto Inland Sea NP, Seto Naikai NP, Takasakiyama NP, Towada-Hachimantai NP (M. Richardson pers. comm.). The species is quite common in captivity (ISIS, 2007).
12552		distribution	eng	This species is present in Japan on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the islands of Awaji, Shodo, Yaku, Kinkazan (Miyagi Prefecture), Kojima (Miyazaki Prefecture) and others. It was previously found on Tane Island, where it is now extinct (Abe 2005).
12552		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broad-leaved deciduous and evergreen forest, from subtropical lowlands to sub-alpine regions of up to 1,500 m asl (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on fruit, leaves, berries, seeds, small animals, insects, and cultivated crops, and bark (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005).
12552		population	eng	This species is endemic to Japan.  It is common, widespread and increasing in recent years, although a few populations in Tohoku District are threatened (Ministry of the Environment, 2007). Population density is usually larger in broad-leaved evergreen forests than in broad-leaved deciduous forests (Abe 2005). On Yaku Island, a survey conducted in 1991 and 1992 (Yoshihiro <em>et al.</em> 1998) estimated 131 troops containing 2,000-3,850 individuals in a coastal area of 12.7 km².
12552		threats	eng	There are no major threats at the species level. There are two localities where hybridization with the introduced <em>Macaca</em> spp. is known to occur: Taiwanese Macaque (<em>Macaca cyclopsis</em>) in Wakayama Prefecture; and Rhesus Macaque (<em>M. mulatta</em>) in Chiba Prefecture (Abe <em>et al.</em>  2005). However, in the former case, most individuals have been removed (Watanabe pers. comm.). Each year, over 10,000 individuals are killed to prevent agricultural damage (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005), and this situation may require more careful population management.
12553		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in 4 protected areas (Bantimurung National Park, Bulu Saraung National Park, Hasanuddin National Park, Karaenta Nature Reserve); however, the total protected area in the extent of occurrence is only 87 km<sup>2</sup>. There is an urgent need to address the cement mining of karst areas as this and other species have been protected by the prior inaccessibility of these formations.
12553		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on the south-western peninsula (Selatan) of Sulawesi Island (Okamoto <em>et al.</em> 2000), south of the Tempe depression, in Indonesia.
12553		habitat	eng	In the north of its range this species is found in rainforest as well as deciduous forests and karst islands, while in the southern parts it tends to occur in mosaics of forest with some grasslands, probably due primarily to habitat availability. They occur below 2,000 m. It is diurnal and frugivorous, but will also consume leaves and arthropods. Females reach sexual maturity in 6-7 years, and inter-birth intervals averaged 32 months (Okamoto <em>et al.</em> 2000).
12553		population	eng	From 1983 to 1994 population estimates for moor macaque apparently went from 56,000 individuals to under 10,000 (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2001), but they may or may not still be in decline. However, the survey methods used in these two population estimates were different, and the level of decline over three generations is more likely to be between 50 and 80%, than greater than 80% (J. Burton pers. comm.). The well-studied population that lives in Karaenta Nature Reserve reached a density of 70 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> as of 1998 (Okamoto <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1992, Supriatna <em>et al.</em> (1992) conducted an extensive survey and found only 3,000-5,000 individuals (2,500 mature) of the species. They estimated densities to be 25-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (18.7SD).
12553		threats	eng	The major threat to moor macaques and other Sulawesi macaques seems to be habitat disturbance and fragmentation (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is poisoned and trapped by local farmers where they are considered crop raiders. Increasing human settlement has marginalized the species to karst areas that cannot be developed. However, cement mining is destroying these areas and may be a serious threat to all species persisting in karst in the near future. These animals are frequently kept as pets by local people.
12554		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is also listed in Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 and in Schedule I, Part I in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002), on Category II of the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act (1989), and is protected with all other primates in the Nepalese National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. Protection status varies widely throughout the species range. <br/>Rhesus macaques reside in a large number of protected areas throughout their range.
12554		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is found throughout most of southern Asia, in eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, central and southern China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Tibet, and Yunnan, as well as the island of Hainan), northern and central India (in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, northern Pakistan, northern Thailand, and Viet Nam. <br/><br/>It occurs to the north of the Krishna River in central and eastern India and to the north of the lower Tapti River in western India, north into Afghanistan, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and northeast into China, where it extends to the Yangtze and north of its middle course to about 33°N, 110°E. It is absent north of the lower Yangtze, but there is an additional, possibly introduced population in northern China north of the lower Hwang He (Yellow River), formerly occurring as far as Beijing (Groves 2001). <br/>    <br/>There are introduced populations (mostly not mapped) in areas within this region as well as outside it, for instance south of the Krishna River in India; Kowloon and a few small islands near Hong Kong; and to various other locations worldwide, including parts of Florida, USA and on Cayo Santiago island near Puerto Rico (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
12554		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal and omnivorous, and alternatively arboreal and terrestrial. It resides in a range of habitats, including temperate coniferous, moist and dry deciduous, bamboo, and mixed forests, mangroves, scrub, rainforest, and around human habitations and developments, including cultivated areas, temples, and roadsides (Choudhury 2001; Srivastava and Mohnot 2001). In Pakistan this monkey remains in mountainous regions with forest cover; it is typically associated with Himalayan moist temperate forest (Roberts 1997). It is found at elevations up to 4,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Due to hunting in Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species does not occur in commensal situations there, and is restricted to forest areas where it is generally associated with riverine environments over a range of altitudes (Timmins pers. comm.). In western and northern parts of its range it seems to occur in a wider array of environments. It is highly adaptable to man-made habitat. Its generation time is 12 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12554		population	eng	This species is widely distributed in south, southeast and east Asia. Populations are sizable, but increasingly commensal with humans, resulting in some fragmentation of the distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It can be abundant in many places, including in cities. Hunting of this species in Lao PDR and Viet Nam has severely depressed populations in these countries although it still remains widespread. In Namdapha National Park, India, this species was found to have a group density of 0.44 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, with an average group size of 12.3 individuals (Chetry <em>et al.</em> 2003). The average group size in other parts of India is much higher (Siddiqui and Southwick 2004). Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) consider this species to be rare in the forests of north-eastern India.
12554		threats	eng	This species is generally unthreatened, though its original habitat is increasingly being lost to development. While <em>M. mulatta</em> exists easily around humans, the increasing level of cohabitation has been associated with waning levels of human tolerance for the animals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Confiscation for laboratory testing is a mostly localized threat, but it is considerable in certain areas (A. Kumar pers. comm.). Capture and release of laboratory and “problem monkeys” from rural and urban areas into natural forests is a major threat to wild macaques.<br/><br/>In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the major threat to the species is hunting, although loss of forest in river valleys has also likely impacted the species (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Indochina hunting pressure is high, and thus tolerance to human disturbance is low.<br/><br/>Introduction, through release of confiscated <em>M. fasicularis</em>, is at least a localized threat in parts of the species' Viet Namese range (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Tolerance of the species varies locally, from heavily hunted and persecuted, to worshipped and fed.
12555		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.
12555		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Kalimantan Borneo, and Sumatra), Malaysia (including the Malay Peninsula and Sabah and Sarawak Borneo), and southern peninsular Thailand. There are small, introduced populations on Singapore and in the Natuna Islands (Groves 2001). The precise geographic boundary between <em>M. nemestrina</em> and <em>M. leonina</em> is not well defined. There are populations of the two taxa found on either side of the distribution limit in the Isthmus of Kra, but many of these populations are the result of release by humans. The two species hybridize in a small area of southern peninsular Thailand, as well as on the islands of Phuket and Yao Yai (Groves 2001).
12555		habitat	eng	This is a predominantly terrestrial animal, although it readily climbs and forages in the forest canopy. It is diurnal and frugivorous. It occupies lowland primary and secondary forest, as well as coastal, swamp and montane forest. It prefers dense rainforest at all elevations, but is equally at home in agricultural land.
12555		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range, but numbers have been severely reduced in many places due to hunting and habitat loss.
12555		threats	eng	These animals are threatened by loss of habitat, which is very serious in many parts of its range. There is extensive loss of lowland forest in Malaysia and Indonesia to expanding oil palm plantations, as well as to logging and agricultural expansion. This species is also frequently shot as a crop pest (M. Richardson pers. comm.) and hunted for food.
12556		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas (Gunung Lokon, Gunung Amban,Tangkoko Batuangus, Dua Saudara, and Batu Putih). However, there is urgent action needed to stop the encroachment into protected areas especially Tangkoko, which represents the most likely viable natural remaining population of the species to survive. <em>M. nigra</em> is relatively common in captivity.
12556		distribution	eng	This species occurs on northeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia and the adjacent islands of Pulau Manadotua and Pulau Talise. It was historically found on Pulau Lembeh as well but has probably been extirpated from there. On Sulawesi it is found on the northern arm east of the Onggak Dumoga River and Mount Padang to the tip of the peninsula (Groves 2001). There is a sizeable introduced population on Pulau Bacan in the Maluku Islands (Indonesia).
12556		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforests at moderate elevations. It is frugivorous, but will also eat immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize).
12556		population	eng	Density is estimated to be approximately 3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, except in Tangkoko Batuangus where it is approximately 60 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (J. Supriatna pers. comm.). The introduced population on the island of Pulau Bacan in the Moluccas probably numbers at least 100,000 individuals (Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 1998), but is not considered in this assessment.
12556		threats	eng	There is extensive habitat loss within its range. Hunting for bush meat is a major threat, so although the habitat appears to be intact in many places much of it is currently unoccupied. Some animals are also caught for the live animal trade. Extensive illegal ?small scale? open area mining for gold, using mercury, within the parks is a regional threat. Shifting cultivation by local communities is an increasing threat. This is probably the most threatened primate species on Sulawesi (J. Burton pers. comm.).
12557		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/><em>Macaca ochreata ochreata</em> occurs in the following protected areas: Rawa Aopa Watomahai, Padang Mata Osu, Tanjung Peropa, Tanjung Batikolo and Faruhumpenai Nature Reserve (Riley <em>et al</em>. 2007). <em>Macaca ochreata brunnescens</em> occurs in the following protected areas: Buton Utara, Buton Lambusango Nature Reserve, and Napabalano.
12557		distribution	eng	This species is found on Sulawesi, Indonesia, and on the adjacent islands of Muna and Butung; it possibly occurs on the islet of Palau Labuan Blanda, as well. <br/><br/><em>Macaca ochreata ochreata </em><br/>Occurs on Sulawesi. Found on the whole of the southeastern peninsula, extending to the north of the lakes region. In the east, the border between <em>M. o. ochreata</em> and <em>M. tonkeana</em> is the La River; in the west, <em>M. o. ochreata</em> extends west along the coast, across the Karaena River in its lower course, but does not reach into the uplands further inland (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Macaca ochreata brunnescens </em><br/>Occurs on Muna, Butung, and possibly the neighbouring islet of Palau Labuan Blanda (Groves 2001).
12557		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforests at moderate elevations, up to 800 m. It is frugivorous, but will eat immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize).
12557		population	eng	Density estimates from four locations range from 10 to 40 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (J. Supriatna pers. comm.). Group size ranges from 12 to 30 individuals.
12557		threats	eng	There is extensive habitat loss within its range. Shifting cultivation by local communities is an increasing threat, as are oil palm and cacao plantations, as well as cotton cultivation, are displacing the natural habitat. Expanding human settlements are also a problem. There is extensive illegal ?small scale? open area gold mining, using mercury, within protected areas. All of these factors are combining to increase the rate of habitat loss. Animals are also poisoned for crop raiding.
12558		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II.  Conservation strategy for commensals would be to protect patches of scrub forests in hilly terrains with temples (M. Singh pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>M. r. radiata</em> occurs in numerous protected areas, including: Aralam Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Bannerghatta National Park, Bhadra Sanctuary, Bondla Sanctuary, Chimmony Sanctuary, Chinnar Sanctuary, Dandeli Sanctuary, Eturnagaram Sanctuary, Gundlabrahmeshwaram Sanctuary, Idukki Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kudremukh National Park, Lanja Madugu Sivaram Sanctuary, Mollem National Park, Mollem Sanctuary, Mudumalai NP, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Mukurthi National Park, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Nagarahole National Park, Nagarjuna-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Nellapattu Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Radhanagari Sanctuary, Ranganthitu Sanctuary, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Silent Valley National Park, Sri Venkateswara National Park, Tansa Sanctuary, Thattekkad Sanctuary, Wynaad Sanctuary, and others (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. r. diluta</em> occurs in Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Kalakkad Sanctuary, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Periyar Sanctuary, Point Calimere Sanctuary and Shendurney Sanctuary(Molur <em></em>et al. 2003)
12558		distribution	eng	This species occurs in peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu). It is found from the southern tip of India up to the southern banks of Tapti River in the north, and to the Krishna River in the northeast. <br/><br/><em>M. r. radiata</em><br/>It occurs in peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu). It is found in the major portion of the species’ range south to the Palni Hills and southeast as far as Timbale, inland of Pondicherry.<br/><br/><em>M. r. diluta</em><br/>It occurs in southeastern coastal India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu). It is found from the south tip and southeastern coast of India, north to Kambam in the Western Ghats, at the southwestern foot of the Palni Hills in the centre and Pondicherry in the east.
12558		habitat	eng	This species is both arboreal and terrestrial. It is found in all forest types from scrub to evergreen and deciduous forest, plantations, agricultural lands, and urban areas, and is tolerant of disturbed habitats (Corbet and Hill 1992; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It prefers elevations below 2,000 m, but may be found up to 2,600 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. r. radiata</em> is widely distributed and is mostly commensal, while <em>M. r. diluta</em> is more restricted in its distribution, is mostly forest-dwelling, and does not occur as abundantly as the nominate subspecies (A. Kumar pers. comm.). This species is mainly frugivorous, preferring ripe fruits, but will also eat leaves, insects, and cultivated crops such as potatoes, carrots, peas, radishes, beans, cauliflowers, grain, rice, peanuts, squash, coconuts, and coffee beans.
12558		population	eng	There is a very high global population, and the species is locally abundant, including in anthropogenic habitat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species is largely commensal and densities in forests are quite low. There has been a significant decline reported around Mysore in recent years: 41% in the last 20 years in certain habitats and an overall 21.5% decline in 20 years in commensal areas (Singh and Rao 2004; M. Singh pers. comm.). Decines have also been noted at Dharwad (M. Singh pers. comm.). This declining trend could be true in other parts of its range due to increased intolerance by humans (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.).
12558		threats	eng	It is locally hunted, with an active local trade in live animals for research and road shows (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Human-animal conflict in agricultural and urban areas is an increasing threat to the species.
12559		conservation	eng	There should be management of private lands, which hold perhaps a quarter of the remaining populations: this would ideally include maintaining coffee and cardamom plantations where populations remain (the species cannot persist on tea plantations). The second major need is to improve the remaining fragments that are not in conflict with agriculture. Further management of this species requires the remediation of the effects of habitat disturbance and fragmentation, including the linking of forest fragments and the manipulation of demographic structures. Because females often choose new males as mates, and the dispersal of new males is restricted due to habitat isolation, such mating opportunities should be offered through the translocation of males between groups. Small populations might also be receptive to certain tree species that, while offering shade to the farmers who grow coffee, also offer fruits and seeds on which these monkeys can subsist (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Areas where lion-tailed macaques occur consist of protected areas, nominally-protected areas, and unprotected areas. In Karnataka the list of protected areas includes the Brahmagiri Sanctuary, Kudremukh National Park, Mookambika Sanctuary, Pushpagiri Sanctuary, Sharavathi Valley Sanctuary, Someshwara Sanctuary, and Talakaveri Sanctuary. In Kerala the protected areas include the Aralam Sanctuary, Chimmony Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Periyar Sanctuary, Shendurney Sanctuary, and Silent Valley National Park, and in Tamil Nadu protected areas include Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kalakkad Sanctuary, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is a proposed Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu (Megamalai), in which the species occurs.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES, and Schedule I, Part I, of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). The following are recommended research actions (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003): genetic research, life history, epidemiology, and limiting factor research. Management actions recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003) are: limiting factor management, wild population management and monitoring, public education, captive breeding, and captive management (research and preservation of live genome).
12559		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats hill ranges in southwestern India from the Kalakkadu Hills (8°25’N) north to Anshi Ghat (14°55’N) (Fooden 1975), in the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Although the species has a relatively wide range, its area of occupancy is small and severely fragmented (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12559		habitat	eng	Mainly arboreal, this species prefers the upper canopy of primary tropical evergreen rainforest (Singh <em>et al</em>. 2002) but may also be found in monsoon forest in hilly country and in disturbed forest. It is even known to persist in areas with human-planted fruit trees such as Jack fruit, guava, passion fruit, and others, although populations fluctuate based on fruit tree availability within a forest fragment. They range in elevation from 100 to 1,800 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). They are frugivorous/insectivorous.<br/><br/>The species seems largely to be a seasonal breeder, with births temporally clumped along with the fruiting season dictated by monsoonal climate (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the wild females first give birth at about 80 months, and have an inter-birth period of about 34.3 months. The generation length is approximately 13 years.
12559		population	eng	The total wild population is estimated to be less than 4,000 individuals, made up of 47 isolated subpopulations in seven different locations; these subpopulations tend to be small and in forest fragments that are isolated from each other (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Singh <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Few subpopulations have the structure and habitat suitable for self-sustainment, where 10-15 groups share or connect their home ranges and interbreed. In the Sirsi-Honnavara rainforests of the northern Western Ghats in Karnataka, for instance, a subpopulation consisting of 32 groups in a contiguous tract of habitat exists where less than 6 groups survived 20 years prior in the early 1980s (Kumara and Singh 2004). The forests of Kerala host up to 1,216 adult lion-tailed macaques, according to a large study using estimates from forest sightings (Easa <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Tamil Nadu, the Anaimalai Hills support about 500 individuals, though only two subpopulations there are composed of more than 2 groups, one has 7, the other 12 (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2002). Overall the species is declining in forest fragments, and stable in protected areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12559		threats	eng	The major threat to this species today is habitat fragmentation, with many of these fragments being further decreased. In the past, habitat loss was due mainly to timber harvest and the creation of exotic plantations such as tea, eucalyptus and coffee. Habitat degradation seems to the biggest threat to the conservation of lion-tailed macaques wherever they occur in Kerala (Easa <em>et al</em>. 1997). In private forests and plantations, change in land use is a problem for the species. Hunting is a second major threat, especially in certain parts of its range. In one location, Coorg, with a large area of remaining wet evergreen habitat, the species is highly threatened by non-subsistence and subsistence hunting for food (Kumara and Singh 2004). In some areas, primate meat is preferred as food, and so the animals face serious hunting threats (Kumara and Singh 2004). A local trade exists for pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003), and in Coorg the animals were often hunted in the past for “medicinal” uses. Certain features of the reproductive biology and ecology of this species (such as large inter-birth periods, seasonal resource availability, and female competition for mating opportunities) combine to make it intrinsically rare in the wild. The populations already reduced to low numbers are in special need of active management (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2006).
12560		conservation	eng	Although protected internationally under CITES Appendix II, this is the only endemic species not protected by law in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/><em>M. s. sinica</em> and <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> are known to occur in numerous protected areas, including: Attidiya-Belanwila Sanctuary, Buddaragala Sanctuary, Dombagaskande Forest Reserve, Elehara Forest Reserve, Flood Plains National Park, Gal Oya National Park, Kanthale Naval Sanctuary, Kaudulla National Park, Kitulgala Sanctuary, Kurulukelle Sanctuary, Madura Oya National Park, Menikdena Archaelogical Reserve, Minneriya-Giritale National Park, Moragaswewa National Park, Muthurajawela S. Polonnaruwa Sanctuary, Remmalakanda Forest Reserve, Rendenigala Sanctuary, Ritigala Nature Reserve, Ruhuna National Park, Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sirigiriya Sanctuary, Somawathie National Park, Thangamalai Sanctuary, Udawalawe National Park, Udawattekele Sanctuary, Wasgamuwa National Park, Wilpattu National Park, Yala National Park (Sri Lanka). <em>M.  s. opisthomelas</em> is not found in any protected areas, though it formerly occurred in Horton Plains National Park.
12560		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is endemic to Sri Lanka. The subspecies <em>M. s. sinica </em>is found in the north and east of the island, <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> in the south-west, and <em>M. s. opisthomela</em>s in the central part. The species and the subspecies are very fragmented in their distribution, with the wet zone form, <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em> being highly restricted to less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> in extent of occurrence and less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> in area of occupancy (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).
12560		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of forest types (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003) at all altitudes up to about 2,100 m (Corbet and Hill 1992). <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> is found in lowland and midland tropical rainforest and wet zone lowland forests, <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em> in montane tropical rainforest, and <em>M. s. sinica</em> in dry evergreen forest near water (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is mainly arboreal and diurnal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is frugivorous, but also consumes flowers and insects, and has been known to raid crops and garbage dumps (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12560		population	eng	Studies on <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> suggest that the animals live in smaller troops as forests become increasingly disturbed in the wet zone, and the home range becomes much wider.<br/><br/>Very little is known about the population of <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em>, though some studies exist for <em>M. s. sinica</em> (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>M. s. sinica</em> has been affected in the past by stochastic events.
12560		threats	eng	The chief threat to this species is habitat loss owing to the encroachment of plantations, and fuel wood collection. Other threats include shooting, snaring and poisoning of the animals, as they are considered to be crop pests (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003).<br/><br/>According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country lost 50% of its forest cover and more than 50% if the last 10 years (1994-2003) are included. There is a 1:1 relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number. Therefore, the species is reduced numerically minimally by 50% (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). Much of the original forested habitat of <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> in the southwest rainforest areas has been converted to agriculture, home gardens and plantations. These habitats are inimical to macaque survival because the animals are not tolerated by humans (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition, 80% of hill country forests were lost to tea plantations during the 19th century. <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em> has been reduced numerically by >80% over 200 years. This trend is continuing as high elevation natural forests are being converted to agriculture (vegetable plots and dairy pasture) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003) The Mahaweli Development Scheme has destroyed much dry-zone forest habitat of <em>M. s. sinica</em> (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. s. aurifrons </em>and <em>M. s. sinica</em> are kept as pets, which is a threat in the dry zone (Nekaris pers. comm.). The animals are increasingly being used as target practice by the Sri Lankan and Tamil armies (Santiapillai and Wijeymohan 2003).
12561		conservation	eng	<em>M. sylvanus</em> receives some protection under national and international legislation. Collection and export of <em>M. sylvanus</em> are regulated by a system of permits in Morocco, but enforcement of the legislation is inadequate. Deag (1977) mentions a maximum quota for trade of 100 macaques per year in Morocco. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (EC 338/97, Annex B). In 2000, the European Community suspended imports of <em>M. sylvanus</em> from Algeria and Morocco under the provisions of Article 4.6b of EC Regulation 338/97 because such trade was deemed to have a harmful effect on the species' status. <br/><br/>Over the last few decades there have been repeated surveys of the species in the wild, mainly carried out by scientists from outside the range states. The national authorities are aware of these surveys but do not always support or agree with the outcome (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). The Moroccan authorities initiated studies on the ecology, demography and genetics of the Moroccan Middle Atlas population to run from 2006-2008 (M. Mouna pers. comm. 2006, N. Menard pers. comm. 2008). These studies are conducted by N. Menard’s team and will provide new information on population demographics and density.<br/><br/>In both Morocco and Algeria, the national forestry departments are responsible for the management and the protection of flora and fauna. There has been much debate about appropriate management of M. sylvanus. The national forestry department in Morocco contends that there are too many macaques in the region (due to the disappearance of predators such as the leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>), and that they are responsible for the degradation of cedar forests through their bark stripping behaviour. Consequently culls and translocations have been carried out in some areas (F. Cuzin pers. comm.  2007). However, field studies and surveys indicate that the population is declining and that bark stripping behaviour is potentially induced by water shortage (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2003), although the latter assertion is controversial as bark-stripping has been observed to occur when drinking water is freely available and water content in bark is lower than that found in other available food resources (Menard and Qarro 1999). An alternative hypothesis is that Barbary Macaques strip cedar bark when some nutrients they search for are unavailable in other food resources (N. Ménard unpubl. data).<br/><br/>A number of activities have been undertaken to increase public awareness and reduce illegal trade in this species. AAP (a Netherlands-based sanctuary for exotic animals) has initiated a project to combat illegal trade of Barbary Macaques into Europe, involving inter alia awareness raising among potential buyers, cooperation with authorities in the consuming countries and training of customs officers in Spain (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). In Algeria, the ecological association Amazer-N’-Kefrida carried out public education and awareness raising campaigns in 2006 and 2007, against illegal trade, commercial uses, and improper artificial feeding of Barbary Macaques, closely collaborating with the Gendarmerie Nationale (National Gendarmery), the Algerian Customs, the Laboratory of Ecology and Environment of the Université de Béjaïa, the General Forests Directorate, and the National Parks (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Most habitats of <em>M. sylvanus</em> in Algeria have national park status. This is not the case for all the habitats in Morocco. A part of the Rif mountains has national park status, and there are plans to make the cedar/mixed forest in the central Middle Atlas a national park, but a large part of the species' habitat in Morocco lies outside protected areas. Protected areas containing populations of this species include the Toubkal National Park, Eastern High Atlas N.P., Ifran N.P., Talassemtane N.P., Bou Hachem Reserve and Djebel Moussa N.P. in Morocco, and the Djurdjura, Taza, Chréa, and Gouraya National Parks in Algeria. However, the parks in Algeria and Morocco suffer from significant human impact, and all these areas required much stricter protection than is currently in place. Barbary Macaques breed well in captivity. The possibility of reintroducing animals to northern Tunisia, where they went extinct in the 1900s, should also be studied.
12561		conservation	eng	<em>M. sylvanus </em>receives some protection under national and international legislation. Collection and export of <em>M. sylvanus</em> are regulated by a system of permits in Morocco, but enforcement of the legislation is inadequate. The National forestry department Eaux et Forets is the responsible authority (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). Deag (1977) mentions a maximum quota for trade of 100 macaques annually in Morocco. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (EC 338/97, Annex B). In 2000, the European Community suspended imports of <em>M. sylvanus</em> from Algeria and Morocco under the provisions of Article 4.6b of EC Regulation 338/97 because such a trade was deemed to have a harmful effect on the conservation status of the species. These import suspensions remain in force under the most recent EC suspensions regulation (EC252/2005). <br/><br/>Over the last few decades there have been repeated surveys of the species in the wild, mainly carried out by scientists from outside the range states. The national authorities are aware of these surveys but do not always support or agree with the outcome (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). The Moroccan authorities have planned a new survey on the Moroccan Middle Atlas population in 2007 (M. Mouna pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>Most habitats of <em>M. sylvanus</em> in Algeria have national park status. This is not the case for all the habitats in Morocco. A part of the Rif mountains has national park status, and there are plans to make the cedar/mixed forest in the central Middle Atlas a national park, but a large part of the species' habitat in Morocco lies outside protected areas. In both Morocco and Algeria, the national forestry departments are responsible for the management and the protection of flora and fauna. There has been much debate about appropriate management of <em>M. sylvanus</em>. The national forestry department in Morocco believes that there are too many macaques in the region (due to the disappearance of predators such as the leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>), and that they are responsible for the degradation of cedar forests through their bark stripping behaviour. There has even been talk of culling or translocating a part of the population (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). However, field studies and surveys indicate that the population is declining, and that bark stripping behaviour is probably induced by water shortage (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2003). The forestry department plans to start a new research project on the status of the Barbary macaque in the central Middle Atlas region, but some scientists have expressed concern that this is not necessary and may postpone the action needed to protect the species (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). AAP (a Netherlands-based sanctuary for exotic animals) has initiated a major project to combat illegal trade of Barbary macaques into Europe, involving <em>inter alia </em>awareness raising among potential buyers, cooperation with authorities in the consuming countries and training of the customs officers in Spain. This project is carried out in collaboration with IUCN Netherlands, who are currently working to protect cedar forests in Morocco (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The Gibraltar population is intensively managed, receiving supplementary food and vetinary care (Hodges and Cortes 2006).
12561		distribution	eng	The Barbary Macaque is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert, the only native species of primate to occur in Europe, and the only member of the genus Macaca that can be found outside Asia. The species was once an inhabitant of parts of Europe and all of North Africa (Delson 1980; Camperio Ciani 1986). In historic times it was it was widespread throughout north Africa from Libya to Morocco, but its current distribution is limited to small relict patches of forest and scrub in Algeria and Morocco (Fa 1984; Camperio Ciani 1986; Menard and Vallet 1993; Scheffrahn <em>et al.</em> 1993). A semi wild population lives in Gibraltar, which is a long established introduced population (Fa 1981; von Starck 1990; Hodges and Cortes 2006). <br/><br/>In Morocco, <em>M. sylvanus</em> can still be found in the Rif mountains (northern Morocco) and the Middle and High Atlas mountains (central and southern Morocco). In Algeria, it is found in the Tellian Atlas (Petite Kabylie and Grande Kabylie mountains, and an isolated population in the Chréa National Park) (northern Algeria). More specifically, in Morocco the High Atlas populations (two anciently separated populations) are found in the Bou Tferda valley to Demnat region and around the Ourika Valley, respectively; the Rif populations are primarily on Mounts Lakraa, Tissouka, Tazoute, Bouhacham, and Djebel Moussa. In Algeria, from west to east, Barbary Macaque populations are distributed as follows: (a) Chiffa gorges (Chréa National Park); (b) Djurdjura forests and rocky cliffs (Djurdjura National Park, Grande-Kabylie); (c) Akfadou forests, including a small ‘subpopulation’ recently settled in degraded forests and maquis, near El-Kseur (Grande-Kabylie and Petite-Kabylie); (d) Cap Carbon, Aiguades and Pic des Singes (Gouraya National Park; Béjaïa, Petite-Kabylie); (e) Chaabet-el-Akhra Gorges (Kherrata; Béjaïa, Petite-Kabylie); (f) ‘Massif des Babors’ forests (Sétif and Béjaïa, Petite-Kabylie); (g) Guerrouch forest (Taza National Park; Jijel, Petite-Kabylie). Additionally, a Barbary Macaque population might still occur in Djebel Bouzegza (Boumerdes, Grande-Kabylie) (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007).    <br/><br/>The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Cuzin 2003), but in Morocco at least it is most common at altitudes above 1,000 m (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).
12561		distribution	eng	The Barbary macaque is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert, the only species of primate to occur in Europe (apart from <em>Homo sapiens)</em>, and the only member of the genus <em>Macaca</em> that can be found outside Asia. The species was once an inhabitant of parts of Europe and all of North Africa (Delson 1980, Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1986) but the current distribution of the Barbary macaque is limited to relict forest areas in Algeria and Morocco (Fa 1984, Camperio Ciani 1986, Menard and Vallet 1993, Scheffran <em>et al.</em> 1993). A semi wild population lives in Gibraltar, which is a long established population that is almost certainly introduced (see discussion below) (Fa 1981, von Starck 1990, Hodges and Cortes 2006). In Morocco, <em>M. sylvanus</em> can still be found in the Rif mountains (northern Morocco) and the Middle and High Atlas mountains (central and southern Morocco). In Algeria, it is found in the Petit and Grande Kabylie mountains (northern Algeria) (Taub 1977). It occurs from sea level to 1,900 m, but in Morocco at least it is most common at altitudes above 1,600 m (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In mainland Europe, macaques were widespread during the Pleistocene, but disappeared thereafter. However, there are no fossil or subfossil remains known from Gibraltar, suggesting that the species is not native to this promontory (Hodges and Cortes 2006). It has been speculated that macaques may have been introduced to Gibraltar in early historic times, by the Phoenicians, Romans, or Moors, who kept these animals as pets (von Starck 1990), but there is no conclusive evidence to support this (Hodges and Cortes 2006). The first definite records date from the 1700s onwards, when the island was occupied by the English (Hodges and Cortes 2006). The population was driven close to extinction by disease or persecution on a number of occasions, but each time was replenished by animals imported from North Africa (von Starck 1990). Genetic studies have confirmed that the current population are descendants of a mixture of Algerian and Moroccan stock (Modolo <em>et al.</em> 2005).
12561		habitat	eng	In Algeria, occupied habitats include mixed cedar and oak forests, humid Portuguese oak (<em>Quercus faginea</em>) and cork oak (<em>Quercus suber</em>) mixes and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation (Taub 1977). Moroccan habitats include high cedar forests (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>), cedar/holm oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) mixtures, pure holm oak forests and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation. In the High Atlas mountains the population of Barbary macaques is restricted to the Ourika valley, where only a small relict population survives (Taub 1977) in a habitat of holm oak and juniper (<em>Juniperus phoenica</em>) scrub on steep mountain slopes. The Rif mountains of Morocco contain a few fragmented and small populations in disjunct remnants of mixed woodland (Taub 1975, Deag 1974, Waters <em>et al</em>. 2007). The cedar/oak forests of the Middle Atlas region contain the largest remaining population of <em>M. sylvanus</em>, and are considered to be optimal habitat for the species (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001). In cedar habitats, macaques can reach densities of 25-40 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> or greater, whereas in habitats without cedar much lower densities of 5-7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> are reported (Fa 1984, Mehlman 1989). All the areas occupied by the macaque are under growing pressure from human activity and the habitat availability for the <em>M. sylvanus</em> has severely decreased over the last decades (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005, van Lavieren 2006).<br/><br/><em>M. sylvanus</em> live in social groups of up to 30 individuals of both sexes. Life span in the wild is known to be up to 22 years of age (Lindenfors 2002). Females reach sexual maturity between 2.5 and 4 years of age and males between 4.5 and 7 years of age. Average age at first birth is 4.8 years for females (Lindenfors 2002), and the birth interval is two years (Taub 1974 in Fa 1984).
12561		habitat	eng	This species shows a preference for high-altitude cedar forests, and is also found in oak forests, coastal scrub, and overgrazed rocky slopes with vestigial vegetation.  It is confined to inaccessible rocky areas, gorges, and montane areas (from sea level up to approximately 3500 m) due to habitat use conflicts with humans in more favourable areas. All the areas occupied by the macaque are under growing pressure from human activity and habitat availability for M. sylvanus has decreased markedly in recent decades (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005, van Lavieren 2006). <br/><br/>In Algeria, occupied habitats include mixed cedar (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>) and oak forests; humid zen oak (<em>Quercus canariensis</em>) and cork oak (<em>Quercus suber</em>) mixes; Algerian fir (<em>Abies numidica</em>), cedar  and zen oak mixed forests; and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation (Taub 1977; F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). Moroccan habitats include high cedar forests (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>), cedar/holm oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) mixtures, pure holm oak forests and cliffs and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation. The cedar/oak forests of the Middle Atlas region contain the largest remaining population of <em>M. sylvanus</em>, and are considered to be optimal habitat for the species (Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 2001). In habitats with cedar, macaques can reach densities of 25-40 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> or greater, whereas in habitats without cedar much lower densities of 5-7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> are reported (Fa 1984; Mehlman 1989). In all occupied habitats, there is a species of oak available (F. Cuzin pers. comm., 2007). <br/><br/>Its diet is primarily composed of cedar (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>) and the oak (<em>Quercus</em> sp.), which make up over 50% of its total intake. It eats fruits (33% of its intake), tree leaves (16%), and other plant parts (24%). <br/><br/><em>M. sylvanus</em> lives in social groups of up to 80 individuals of both sexes with a modal size of 40 individuals (Ménard 2002). Life span in the wild is known to be up to 22 years (Lindenfors 2002). Females reach sexual maturity between 3.5 and 4 years of age and males between 4.5 and 7 years of age. In the wild, average age at first birth is 5.3 years for females (Ménard and Vallet 1993, 1996; Lindenfors 2002), and the birth interval is 1.3 years (Taub 1974 in Fa 1984; Ménard and Vallet 1993, 1996).
12561		population	eng	In 1999 the total number of remaining macaques was estimated at around 15,000 individuals (Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999), although this estimate was based on incomplete data. The Moroccan population was more recently estimated to be 6,000-10,000 individuals (Ross 2004), whereas in 1975 it was about 17,000 (Taub 1975). In Algeria, the population was estimated at 5,500 30 years ago (Taub 1977) but may currently be less, although exact numbers are unknown (Hodges and Cortes 2006). On Gibraltar, the population has been maintained at c.200 individuals in recent years (Hodges and Cortes 2006). <br/><br/>According to Moroccan authorities the number of macaques has increased over the last decade (van Lavieren 2006). However, a number of detailed surveys have documented marked declines in population density, along with losses of a number of sites (Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999; Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 2005; van Lavieren 2006). The remaining subpopulations in the Rif mountains and High Atlas mountains of Morocco are fragmented and sometimes small. Fourteen isolated populations were identified in the High Atlas (Cuzin 2003). Algerian subpopulations are also fragmented (Mehlman 1989; Fa 1984; Von Segesser <em>et al</em>. 1999). In 1999, just seven widely separated isolated populations existed, whereas 35 years ago they were found in at least six additional localities in Algeria (Von Segesser <em>et al</em>. 1999). The remaining isolated populations are now completely separated by distances of 50-100 km, with no corridors. The only area where <em>M. sylvanus</em> is thought to occur in relative abundance is the cedar forest area of the central Middle Atlas, which represents the largest refuge of the North African forest ecosystem. In the 1980s it was estimated that 65-75% of the world's remaining population of <em>Macaca sylvanus</em> lived in this area (Camperio Ciani 1986). The populations in the Middle Atlas outside the central region were found to be much lower in density (Taub 1975). The central region of the Middle Atlas thus has a crucial role in the survival of the species. In the mid-1970s, population densities in the central Middle Atlas cedar forest were variously estimated at 60-70 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Deag 1974) or 43 per km<sup>2</sup> (Taub 1975). Subsequent studies showed that the population density in this region declined from 44 to 25 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> over the last two decades of the 20th century (Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 1999). In 2005, surveys in the Middle Atlas showed an average density of 15 to 20 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (van Lavieren 2006), in some areas dropping to an average density of 7-10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys conducted in 2006-2007 show that some habitat fragments contained only one or a few small groups. The population density in these fragments was little more than 0 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> and local extinction appears imminent (N. Ménard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>These data indicate that, in the central Middle Atlas (the global stronghold of the species), average population density has declined by c.50-80% over the last 30 years. Because of political unrest, many other macaque populations have not been censused since 1990 (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007), so the population trend in these areas cannot be quantified but a declining trend is suspected.
12561		population	eng	In 1999 the total number of remaining macaques was estimated at around 15,000 individuals (Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999), although this estimate was based on incomplete data. The Morocco population was more recently estimated to be 6,000-10,000 individuals (Ross 2004), whereas in 1975 it was about 17,000 (Taub 1975). In Algeria, the population was estimated at 5,500 30 years ago (Taub 1977), but is currently much less, although exact numbers are unknown (Hodges and Cortes 2006). On Gibraltar, the population has been maintained at c.200 individuals in recent years (Hodges and Cortes 2006). Consequently, the global population of <em>M. sylvanus</em> is now estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (Hodges and Cortes 2006). According to Moroccan authorities the number of macaques has increased over the last decade (van Lavieren 2006). However, a number of detailed surveys have documented marked declines in population density, along with losses of a number of sites (Von Segesser <em>et al</em>. 1999, Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005, van Lavieren 2006). The remaining subpopulations in the Rif mountains and High Atlas mountains of Morocco are fragmented and small. The same can be said for the Algerian subpopulations (Mehlman 1989, Fa 1984, Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999). In 1999, just seven widely separated isolated populations existed, whereas only 35 years ago they were found in at least 6 additional localities in Algeria (Von Segesser <em>et al</em> 1999). The remaining isolated populations are now completely separated by distances of 50-100 km, with no corridors. The only area where <em>M. sylvanus</em> is thought to occur in relative abundance is the cedar forest area of the central Middle Atlas (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1995, van Lavieren 2006), which represents the largest refuge of the North African forest ecosystem. It was estimated that 65-75% of the world' s remaining population lived in this area (Camperio Ciani 1986). The populations in the Middle Atlas outside the central region are much lower in density (Taub 1975). The central region of the Middle Atlas thus has a crucial role in the survival of the species. In the mid-1970s, population densities in the central Middle Atlas cedar forest (the stronghold of the species) were variously estimated at 60-70 individuals per km<sup>2 </sup>(Deag 1974) or 43/km<sup>2</sup> (Taub 1975). More recent surveys showed that the population in this region declined from 44 to 25 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> over the last two decades of the 20th century (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1999) - a decline of 43% over 20 years. The most recent surveys in the Middle Atlas show an average density of 15 to 20 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (van Lavieren 2006), in some areas dropping to an average density of 7-10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005). Thus over the last 30 years a decline of 53-79% in the average population density is apparent, with declines in some areas being even greater.
12561		threats	eng	Major threats to <em>M. sylvanus</em> include habitat destruction and degradation (including dessication) and illegal live trade (Fa 1984; Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2005; van Lavieren 2004; Hodges and Cortes 2006). Severe habitat loss and degradation have been caused by domestic and industrial consumption of wood, use of fire, clearing for cultivation and overgrazing by sheep and goat herds (Taub 1977, Fa <em>et al.</em> 1984, Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1986, Menard and Vallet, 1993). Additionally, in the last ten years the drought in Morocco has prompted shepherds to settle near water sources. As shepherd tribes move into the forest region, they often enclose open water sources with cement wells so they can extract water for their herds. As a result, macaques and other wildlife have been excluded from water sources in areas where it was previously accessible to them (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Live trade is the second largest threat to the wild <em>M. sylvanus</em> population. Most of the specimens taken from the wild are for the international pet trade. In comparison with the international trade, offtake for local purposes is low. <em>M. sylvanus</em> seems to be rarely used for food, except for some reports in Algeria (Deag 1977). In the 1960s, a large number of macaques was captured for the use in laboratories in Casablanca, Tangier and Spain (Deag 1977), but this is no longer permitted in Morocco (A. Camperio Ciani pers. comm. 2003). <em>M. sylvanus</em> are kept fairly frequently as pets in Morocco (van Lavieren 2004). Reports of capture for the international pet trade date back to 1977 (Deag 1977). Since then, the trade has increased markedly (van Lavieren 2004). Sanctuaries and zoos in Europe have become overstocked with Barbary macaque infants offered to them by authorities and ex-owners, most infants coming straight from the wild (van Lavieren 2004). Infant <em>M. sylvanus</em> are very “cute” and are offered openly and covertly for sale on markets all over Morocco (van Lavieren 2004), resulting in frequent impulsive purchases mainly by tourists. Prices of up to 200 Euro per animal have been recorded (van Lavieren 2004). This problem has become so severe that there is only one animal sanctuary in Europe that continues to accept Barbary macaques, leading to many confiscated animals being euthanised (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). It is estimated that 300 infants are taken annually from the Moroccan habitats (van Lavieren 2004). According to van Lavieren (2004) the maximum sustainable annual offtake of macaques in the Central Middle Atlas region lies between 200 and 250 individuals. If the estimate of 300 macaques taken from the wild is more or less correct (van Lavieren 2004) the offtake exceeds sustainability by up to 50% annually. Further potential threats include persecution, and predation by feral dogs (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). The shooting of monkeys as a result of crop raiding and cedar bark stripping was reported by Deag (1977), but the current status of this activity is unknown.
12561		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to intensive logging, charcoal-burning, firewood-collecting, and land clearance for agriculture at lower altitudes. Habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing by livestock (a problem which is exacerbated by drought) is particularly likely to affect the long-term future of this species. Illegal live trade is also a serious problem. Additional threats include persecution, predation by feral dogs, inappropriate artificial feeding with sweet or salty foods by tourists and local inhabitants, and pollution of the wadis (rivers) associated with forests (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006, F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). The shooting of monkeys as a result of crop raiding and cedar bark stripping was reported by Deag (1977), but the current extent of this activity is unknown. Conflicts with local people have been reported in Algeria, as a result of crop-raiding by macaques (e.g., villages in Djurdjura National Park in the Grande-Kabylie region: F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). The importance of different threats varies in different parts of the species' range; it is difficult to generalize. <br/><br/>The destruction and degradation of the macaque’s forest habitat is the most serious threat to the species. Severe habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation have been caused by domestic and industrial consumption of wood, use of fire, clearing for cultivation and overgrazing by sheep and goat herds (Taub 1977, Fa 1984, Camperio Ciani 1986, Menard and Vallet, 1993). This is exacerbated by poor forestry management (often <em>Cedrus atlanticus</em> is favoured and efforts are made to reduce <em>Quercus ilex</em>, but the latter is a crucial resource for macaques: Ménard and Vallet, 1986, 1997).). Additionally, in recent years shepherds have increasingly settled near water sources. As shepherd tribes move into the forest, they often enclose open water sources with cement wells so they can extract water for their herds. As a result, macaques and other wildlife have been excluded from water sources in areas where it was previously accessible to them (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Live trade is also a significant threat to the wild <em>M. sylvanus</em> population. Most of the specimens taken from the wild are for the international pet trade. In comparison with the international trade, offtake for local purposes is relatively low, although <em>M. sylvanus</em> are kept fairly frequently as pets in Morocco (van Lavieren 2004) and local commercial use (remunerated photography in tourist areas and restaurants) has been reported in Algeria (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). <em>M. sylvanus</em> seems to be rarely used for food, except for some old reports in Algeria (Deag 1977). Reports of capture for the international pet trade date back to 1977 (Deag 1977), and since then the trade has increased markedly (van Lavieren 2004). Sanctuaries and zoos in Europe have become overstocked with Barbary Macaque infants offered to them by authorities and ex-owners, most infants coming straight from the wild (van Lavieren 2004). Infant <em>M. sylvanus</em> are offered openly and covertly for sale on markets all over Morocco, and prices of up to 200 Euro per animal have been recorded (van Lavieren 2004). Prices of about 100 Euros per animal have been recorded in Algeria, with Chaabet-el-Akhra gorges (Béjaïa) and Yakouren (Akfadou) being critical locations where illegal trade occur (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). It is estimated that up to 300 infants are taken annually from the Moroccan habitats (van Lavieren 2004). The maximum sustainable offtake of macaques in the Central Middle Atlas region has been estimated at between 200 and 250 individuals per year (van Lavieren 2004). If the estimate of 300 macaques taken annually from the wild is correct, then the offtake exceeds sustainability by up to 50% per year in this population.
12562		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. There is little information available regarding its status in protected areas, although L. Yongcheng (pers. comm.) reports that it is found in at least 60 nature reserves within its range in China. It is almost never seen in captivity outside of Asia, and is quite rare in zoos even there (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
12562		distribution	eng	<em>Macaca thibetana</em> occurs in east-central China (Anhui, Fujian, southern Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, northern Sichuan, Tibet, northern Yunnan, and Zhejiang). It is found in China from 25-33°N, 102°30’-119°30’E; the range extends south into Guangxi at 23°48’N, about 110°E, and as far west as the Yangtze Gorge in western and north-western Sichuan (Groves 2001). Reports from Arunachal Pradesh, India appear to be based on misidentifications (S. Molur pers. comm.).
12562		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in broadleaf evergreen forest, both primary and secondary, as well as subtropical and deciduous forest. The species ranges from 1,000 to 2,500 m in elevation (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is predominantly terrestrial (Corbet and Hill 1992) and diurnal, and prefers to sleep in caves. It is frugivorous, but will also consume flowers berries, seeds, leaves, stems, stalks, and invertebrates.
12562		population	eng	The global population of this species is very large, and in some regions it is very common.
12562		threats	eng	There has been serious deforestation across its range, but recent measures seem to have stabilized the situation, and the future decline of the species will probably not be as serious as its past decline. Locally, non-targeted hunting is a minor threat, as is trapping.
12563		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It exists in a number of protected areas, including: Lore Lindu National Park (2,290 km<sup>2</sup>); Morowali Nature Reserve (2,250 km<sup>2</sup>); Peg. Faruhumpenai (900 km<sup>2</sup>); Towuti Nature Recreation Park (687 km<sup>2</sup>); and Danau Matano Nature Recreation Park (331 km<sup>2</sup>).
12563		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Sulawesi and the Togian Islands, Indonesia. It is found in the central part of Sulawesi south to Latimojong, southwest to the base of the Toraja highlands (where it interbreeds with <em>M. maura</em>), southeast to the lakes region of the southeastern peninsula, and northwest to the isthmus between Palu and Parigi (where it interbreeds with <em>M. heck</em>i) (Groves 2001).
12563		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforests at moderate elevations from sea level up to 2,000 m. It is frugivorous, but will eat immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize).
12563		population	eng	This species is common in appropriate habitat. Densities are estimated at 3-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (WCS unpubl. data).
12563		threats	eng	The species is often poisoned and trapped as an agricultural pest. Other threats include hunting for food, collection for use as pets and habitat conversion, especially due to oil palm and cacao plantations, and human settlements, all of with are projected increase in the coming decade.
12568		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and has been protected by national law since 1970. It occurs in at least one protected area, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, and perhaps others.
12568		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sulawesi, Indonesia. Animals are limited to the central section of the northern peninsula, from Gorontalo in the south and between Baroko and Bolaangitang in the north, east to the Onggak Dumoga River and the Mount Padang region.
12568		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforest at moderate elevations, and in hill forest up to 2,000 m. It is mainly frugivorous (70% of its diet), but it also eats immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize) (Kohlhaas 1993).
12568		population	eng	Very little is known of the population of this species. A density of 25-30 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (WCS unpubl. data) was observed within a national park.
12568		threats	eng	Hunting for bush meat is a major threat, particularly during Christmas when the meat is frequently given as a gift; thus, although the forest habitat appears to be intact, much of it is currently unoccupied. Shifting cultivation by local communities is an increasing problem, and there is some decline in habitat quality. There is extensive illegal “small scale” open area mining for gold, using mercury, occurs even within protected areas.
12570		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in at least 6 protected areas: Dolangan Reserve, Mas Popaya Raja Reserve, Panua Reserve, Pangi Binanga Reserve, Pinjam/Tanjung Mantop Reserve, Tangale Reserve (M. Richardson pers. comm.). There is a need to expand existing protected areas. There are no specimens reported in captivity.
12570		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northwestern Sulawesi, Indonesia, from the base of the northern peninsula (Isthmus of Palu) northeast to just east of Gorontalo (Groves 2001).
12570		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species (this is one of the least studied of the Sulawesi macaques). It is presumably diurnal and frugivorous, semi-arboreal and occurs in primary and secondary tropical rainforest.
12570		population	eng	Very little is known of the populations of this species. Densities are estimated to be 20-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, with group sizes of approximately 10-20 (Supriatna and Hendras 2000). Density is 6.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in forest areas (WCS unpubl. data).
12570		threats	eng	The greatest threat to the species is loss of habitat, which is increasingly fragmented. Additionally, the species is captured, poisoned, shot and persecuted by local farmers who consider the animals crop raiders.
12573		distribution	eng	Historically, this species was widely distributed in the Clarence, Richmond and Brisbane River systems of coastal north-eastern New South Wales and southern Queensland, but naturally occurring populations were probably near to extinction in the Richmond and Brisbane River systems by the end of the 1930s. The last authenticated capture of an Eastern Cod from the Richmond River system was in 1971. Since the late 1960s small numbers have been caught from tributaries including the Nymboida, Little Nymboida, Boyd and Mann Rivers, where some pristine habitats remain. They have also been reported from the Guy Fawkes River. The Mann-Nymboida sub-catchment of the Clarence River harbours the only wild naturally reproducing population of this species. [All this information was obtained from: Department of the Environment and Water Resources (2007)].
12573		habitat	eng	This species prefers clear rocky streams and rivers with slow flow and abundant instream cover.
12576		distribution	eng	Found throughout most of the Murray-Darling River system of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, except for the upper reaches of the southern tributaries. Has been introduced into many lakes and dams throughout Victoria and New South Wales.
12576		habitat	eng	Live in a wide range of habitats, from clear, rocky streams to slow flowing, turbid rivers and billabongs.
12576		population	eng	Their abundance has been drastically reduced across their natural range and they are now considered rare in many Victorian tributaries.
12589		conservation	eng	Take is prohibited in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Missouri, Tennessee, but allowed with the necessary permit in Alabama, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix III (United States of America).
12589		distribution	eng	The Alligator Snapping Turtle is endemic to the US occurring in rivers that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.
12589		habitat	eng	Some natural habitat has been drained and replaced by agriculture in recent years, however, actual habitat loss, in terms of loss of rivers and their banks, may be small (Ewert 1997). The turtle has been found in reservoirs throughout their range and dyking of rivers to create winter waterfowl refuges has increased potential habitat in Arkansas and the lower Mississippi Valley and may offset some of the degraded habitat (Ewert 1997).
12589		population	eng	The species range is greater than 10,000 km² but population densities are likely to be low throughout this area (Ewert 1997), It is naturally rare in northern extremes of its range. Klemens and Behler (1997) report that there is good anecdotal evidence that the species is undergoing a long-term, non cyclical decline throughout much of its range.
12589		threats	eng	The main threats include habitat alteration; exploitation by trappers for a large domestic market and a growing international market for its meat; pollution and pesticide accumulation (Holt and Tolson 1993).
12590		conservation	eng	The majority of known colonies occur in protected areas (e.g., national parks or heritage listed mine sites), however, there are a number of notable exceptions. The mine roosts the species relies on for breeding in the Pilbara region of Western Australia are not protected and no formal monitoring plan has been implemented (Armstrong and Anstee 2000; K. Armstrong pers. comm). The breeding populations at Claravale Station, Northern Territory and Kings Plains Station, north Queensland occur on private pastoral property with no conservation status (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Current management activities take into account the results of population genetic studies, which have shown that colonies constitute separate metapopulations (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1994, 1999). Activities include a captive breeding programme, long-term population studies and monitoring in Queensland, and population studies in Western Australia. In the late 1980s, a massive international campaign to prevent destruction of caves used by this bat at Mount Etna failed and this population has subsequently declined. <br/><br/>The species was evaluated in a Recovery Outline published in "The Action Plan for Australian Bats" (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). That Action Plan downgraded the category of threat from Vulnerable to Lower Risk (near threatened) due to supposed uncertainty regarding the genetic boundaries for many of the known maternity sites and the inability to match <em>Macroderma gigas</em> to IUCN criteria. In 2001, apparently in response to the comments in the Action Plan, the species was delisted from the category of Vulnerable by the Australian federal government Threatened Species Scientific Committee, and no longer falls under the protection of the Commonwealth Government’s endangered species legislation. Legislation, however, in at least two of the three range states (Western Australia and Queensland) maintains <em>Macroderma gigas</em> in threatened or vulnerable categories (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is a need for increased regulation of cave tourism and visitation (B. Thomson pers. comm.). Mining companies are increasingly inserting non-barbed wire fences in crucial sections to avoid mortality (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Identification and direct protection of unprotected maternity colonies is a priority. More ecological research and particularly identification of maternity sites is necessary (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
12590		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Its current range is discontinuous with geographically disjunct colonies distributed across northern tropical and subtropical coastal and inland regions (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.). There are scattered historical records through arid Western Australia, southern Northern Territory, northern South Australia, and western and south-western Queensland.
12590		habitat	eng	Although it occurs in rainforest areas, the Ghost Bat is mainly found in the arid zone near rock outcrops, and roosts in caves, mines, and rock clefts. The species also occurs throughout the tropical savanna, in savanna woodlands, and in mangroves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It generally forages within 1-2 km of the roost site. Most of the prey are large invertebrates such as beetles, but it is also known to take small vertebrates including other bats, birds, lizards, and snakes (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 1985). In captive feeding experiments some fruit will be eaten only when no animal food is available (Douglas 1967). Most prey is taken to a feeding perch in trees, rock overhangs, or cave entrances (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Ghost bats move between a number of caves seasonally or as dictated by weather conditions. Thus they require a range of cave sites (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Most maternity sites appear to require multiple entranced caves (L. Hall pers. comm.). Maternity colonies are limited within the range of this species, and include mines, especially in the Pilbara. Generation length is probably around four years and recruitment is very low (L. Hall pers. comm.).
12590		population	eng	Current total population estimates are between 7,000 and 9,000 individuals, and varies in each of the three range states. The population in Queensland is located in only 4-5 highly disjunct localities and is estimated at less than 1,000 animals, with its major colony at Mount Etna having declined in the last 10 years. The Northern Territory population is thought to be more or less stable at 2,500-3,500 individuals and is distributed among at least 6-7 main population centres, but the largest colony (at Kohinoor Mine, Pine Creek) is potentially threatened by mine collapse. In Western Australia Ghost Bats occur in two separate regions: in the Pilbara, there are <em>c.</em>600 individuals (N. McKenzie pers. comm.), whereas the Kimberley population is inferred to be about 3,000-4,000 individuals (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Population Structure:<br/>The species has undergone a major population genetic analysis, with nearly all major known localities included with the exception of the Kimberley, Western Australia and some Northern Territory populations. These studies have shown that <em>Macroderma gigas</em> populations are highly structured, being genetically distinct at both regional and local scales (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1994, 1999; Armstrong <em>et al.</em> in prep).  Populations at the southern limits of the species range are geographically isolated separated by a minimum distance of 300 km. This geographic isolation is reflected in the genetic data with populations at Mt Etna, Cape Hillsborough, and Camooweal in Queensland and the Pilbara in Western Australia being highly divergent genetically and implies virtually no movement of individuals among these sites (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1999). Recently expanded studies within the Pilbara have revealed strong structure between eastern and western populations (Armstrong <em>et al.</em> in prep).  Populations within the Northern Territory and far north Queensland are also highly distinct from each other and other population centres, however, there is less structure among populations within these regions with the data implying greater connectivity occurring via male mediated gene flow (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1999). While only two samples were obtained from the Kimberley region, one caught in the far west (Tunnel Creek) the other in the east (Cave Springs near Kununurra), sequence data showed the Kimberley bats were distinct not only from all other Australian populations but also from each other (Worthington-Wilmer 1996).
12590		threats	eng	This species is very vulnerable to disturbance in its roost sites. Cave tourism has been identified as a problem, but the most serious threat is from quarrying and reworking of old mine areas. In some cases, the collapse of disused mines may also be a threat. Habitat modifications for livestock may be a problem in some areas, as may competition for prey with introduced foxes and feral cats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Barbed wire fences on cattle stations and lantana cause some direct mortality (Armstrong and Anstee 2000). For the populations at the southern limits of the species' range, the general paucity of suitable roost sites, the geographic distance between existing colonies, and the evident complete lack of gene flow indicates that these populations are totally isolated and will not be rescued by immigration or recolonised should local extinctions occur (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.).
12592		conservation	eng	The Sulawesi palm civet is known from several protected areas including Rawa Aopa National Park, Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve, Mangolo Recreation Forest, and Lore Lindu National Park (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12592		distribution	eng	The Sulawesi palm civet is endemic to Sulawesi (Wozencraft 2005), where it was previously thought to occur only in north and central parts of the island. It is now known to occur also in the southeast of Sulawesi, as individuals were recorded at Rawa Aopa National Park, Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve and Mangolo Recreation Forest (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2003).
12592		habitat	eng	The ecology of the Sulawesi palm civet remains to be fully studied. It has been recorded in lowland forest, lower and upper montane forest, grasslands and near farms (Wemmer and Watling 1986; Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987; Musser, 1987; Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003; Maneros pers. comm.). This species does not appear to be a habitat specialist as it is not restricted by elevation or disturbance regime, although all sites where it has been recorded in savanna, grassland, or agricultural areas surrounded by forest. It is, nevertheless more commonly found in forested as opposed to agricultural areas (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species feeds on small mammals, fruit, and occasionally takes birds and farm animals, as well as grass. It is also suggested that they have a home range of about 150 ha (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12592		population	eng	The population status of the Sulawesi palm civet is unknown. Records of this species are scarce due to its solitary nature and nocturnal habits (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2003) compounded by a lack of spotlighting surveys, that would presumably find the species. It is known from 28 individuals, 14 of which were recorded in the 19th century, while the most recent records are from Mount Klabat in North Sulawesi and Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi (Wemmer <em>et al</em>. 1983; Wemmer and Watling 1986). It appears to be more common in forests than in agricultural areas (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12592		threats	eng	Little is known of threats to the Sulawesi palm civet but it is suspected to be threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, as Sulawesi has one of the highest rates of forest loss in the world (Myers 1992). Between 1985 and 1997 the northern peninsula of Sulawesi experienced a forest loss of 58.5%, 72.3% for the central peninsula, and 67.3% for the southeastern peninsula (World Bank 2001). Although this species appears to be a generalist that can probably tolerate some degree of disturbed habitat, there is no good evidence that populations can survive independent of tall forest. The fragmentation of forested lands will likely limit movement (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003) and could expose these animals to greater mortality through increased interaction with humans as road kill and conflicts over taking small livestock (Duckworth pers. comm.).
12594		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
12594		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, to the Natuna Islands, Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), the Philippines, the island of Sulawesi to the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and through much of the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia) including the islands of Halmahera, Buru, Seram and Ambon. It is present on the Kai Islands and the Aru Islands and throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea) and Fergusson Island (Papua New Guinea). It is present on the island of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and is found throughout much of the Solomon Islands. It ranges across much of northern Australia (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). <br/>In the Philippines this species was recorded from Batu-bato, Biliran, Bohol, Boracay, Busuanga, Cagayan de Sulu, Calauit, Caluya, Camiguin, Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Albay, Aurora, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Kalinga, La Guna, Quezon, Rizal, Sorsogon, Tarlac provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi , Masbate, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Reinard, Sanga-sanga, Seimirara, Siargao, Sibay, Sibutu, Sibuyan, Simunul, and Siquijor (Alcala and Alviola 1970; Catibog-Sinha 1987; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
12594		habitat	eng	It is found in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, it has also been reported from paperbark woodlands, mangroves, swamp forest, plantations, rural gardens and urban areas. In the Philippines, it occurs in virtually every habitat from sea level up to at least 2,250 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), preferring disturbed habitats.<br/>It usually roosts as single animals, or in small groups, under large leaves (such as palm fronds), under branches and loose bark, in bamboo or in abandoned buildings. The females give birth to a single young three times per year (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
12594		population	eng	It is a common species (Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is abundant in disturbed areas but rare in old growth forest. In the Philippines, it is abundant and widespread, with populations stable or increasing (Utzurrum 1992; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
12594		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12595		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation measures are needed as a whole. Within India, it is considered to be vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The species has been recorded from protected area in India namely Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh. Survey, population monitoring, habitat management and awareness to policy makers are critical recommendations for India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12595		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern South Asia and southern China, to much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is found in India (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southern China, it is found in Mengla, Xishuangbanna and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, possibly Cambodia (reports of this species from Cambodia cannot be confirmed [Kock 2000]) and Peninsular Malaysia, and from here occurs in Indonesia (the Mentawi Islands, Sumatra and Java). It has been recorded from elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.
12595		habitat	eng	This species is found to prefer lowland and montane forest. It occurs in secondary habitats and also in old fruit orchards, villages, and banana plantations, rarely recorded in mangroves also common in association with humans, particularly under roofs of houses. Roosts singly or as a few animals, commonly in rolled up banana leaves. Not recorded roosting in caves (Bates and Harrison 1997).
12595		population	eng	This is generally a locally common species. Nothing much is known of its population in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12595		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is inferred to be locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial extraction of bamboo and the conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12596		conservation	eng	<p>Further studies on biology and threats are needed.</p>
12596		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus aral</span> is widely distributed throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Present in most of the Ganges drainage, but scarcer in numbers in Nepal.
12596		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. aral</span> occurs in running and stagnant waters. Found in fresh and brackish waters and deltas of large rivers, common in ponds and slow flowing rivers with vegetation in plains. Inhabits still waters with silt or mud substrate. Believed to be common in rice paddy fields. Nocturnal feeder, on insects and worms.in lowland habitats and at moderate elevation in all the larger river systems of the Indian subcontinent.
12596		population	eng	<p>No information available. The species is present in a number of drainages.<br/></p>
12596		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be wide-ranging threats that impact the entire population.
12597		conservation	eng	The occurrence of <em>M. margarita</em> in protected areas is not well known but does occur in national forests in several states. More effort is needed to search for the species within its range and peripheries. Any survey for it should involve catching as many <em>Macromia</em> as possible throughout a day.
12597		distribution	eng	The species is found in six states in the United States of America and Donnelly (2004) approximated its extent of occurrence to be 8,000 km², with an estimated area of occupancy of more than 2,000 km².
12597		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes clear mountain or Piedmont streams and rivers in eastern United States of America (Dunkle 2000).
12597		population	eng	Probably small populations of <em>M. margarita</em> are scattered through its range, but numbers and details are poorly known.
12597		threats	eng	No obvious threats known except general lowering of water quality within its range. Preferred habitat and scarcity may indicate that it is more susceptible to siltation and pollution than other species of <em>Macromia</em>.
12598		conservation	eng	Necessary conservation measures include the control of water pollution and use by humans and the prevention of the introduction of non-indigenous crayfish. Establishments of nature reserves are recommended.
12598		distribution	eng	The species shows a disjunct distribution with the largest populations in southern France and northwest Iberia. Only single and old records are known from these two distribution centres. The whole area inhabited by this species reaches about 470,000 km². The two main distribution centres cover about 92,000 km² in France and 64,000 km² in northwest Spain (Galicia) and north Portugal.
12598		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and rivers at the slowly or nearly standing parts, even when induced by hydroelectric dams. Hydroelectric dams can support good populations when they are elongated and look like large rivers. The species is very scarcely reproducing in completely standing waterbodies.
12598		population	eng	The species has been reported with certainty from 14 departments in south and southwest France, but it is currently known only in 12 of these. Only in four departments it is not uncommon. In Iberia, flourishing populations are known in Galicia and north Portugal. In the rest of the western half of the Iberian Peninsula it is known from scattered and often isolated localities were it is found in low numbers. <em>Macromia splendens</em> is often difficult to find and is fairly rare. However, new findings (Chelmick 2006, Cordero Rivera 2000, Malkmus 2002, French INVOD inventory 2007) show that it is considerably less rare than previously believed.
12598		threats	eng	Water pollution, drought and introduction of non-indigenous crayfish (J.-L. Dommanget pers. comm. 2008). The dramatic droughts of which Iberia now suffers repeatedly, that convert river barrage in lake-like habitats, will inevitably lead to the reduction of many populations in this area in the next decade. In addition, the introduction of exotic crayfish in the Tarn river in France led apparently to a significant decrease of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia</span> population during the last decade and this will probably continue in the future (J.-L. Dommanget pers. comm. 2008). Places where the species occurs are often favoured by tourists for swimming. A general degradation of water quality is noted almost everywhere throughout the species' range.
12602		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
12602		distribution	eng	This species is known from China (Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Hong Kong and Taiwan), Japan and Viet Nam (Okudaira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Wilson 2003).
12602		habitat	eng	It occurs in small forested streams with gravel and sandy substrates.
12602		population	eng	No information currently available regarding population&#160;numbers; however, Wilson (2003) reported their populations were stable in 2006.
12602		threats	eng	No major threats are known to affect this species.
12615		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as thretened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
12615		distribution	eng	Tabasco (Mexico) south to Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Northeastern Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Venezuela, Guianas and Suriname.
12615		habitat	eng	Live in colonies with until 70 individuals. Feed on aquatic insects. The species is water dependent (Meyer <em>et al</em>. 2005)
12615		population	eng	Rare in Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.) and Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
12615		threats	eng	Deforestation is a localised threat.
12616		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.
12616		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
12616		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.
12616		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 69% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The shallow sand stations where this species used to occur were rarely sampled after 2002. However, during the past decade this species was also very rarely observed or was absent in other suitable habitats.
12616		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
12620		conservation	eng	This species is present within Kakadu National Park. Recommended actions include: the estimation of the global population of this species and assessing the relationship of it to the one possible major threat, changes to the fire regime, by monitoring of the abundance of the species across a range of sites of varying fire history.
12620		distribution	eng	The Black Wallaroo is restricted to the sandstone escarpment and plateau of western Arnhem Land in Australia's Northern Territory. Its range is about 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which is unusually small for a mammal of its size (Telfer and Calaby 2008). Much of its range lies within Kakadu National Park.
12620		habitat	eng	The Black Wallaroo occurs in a range of vegetation types from closed forests and Eucalyptus open forests to heaths and hummock grasslands, but almost always in areas characterized by large boulders (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
12620		population	eng	There are no estimates of total population numbers, however, neither is there any evidence of a decline in range or abundance. Its elusive behaviour and habitat of rugged terrain make it a difficult species to survey (Telfer and Calaby 2008). This species is common within suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Telfer and Calaby 2008). Aboriginal informants have provided information that suggest the population is stable.
12620		threats	eng	Recent changes in fire regimes may have led to alteration of vegetation structure or floristic composition in the sandstone massif (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This is a cause for concern (Telfer and Calaby 2008) as there is no information on how this might affect populations of this species (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There are minor levels of ongoing Aboriginal hunting, but this is not considered a threat to the species.
12625		conservation	eng	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be investigated to determine whether it is possibly still extant.
12625		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia, where it was generally restricted to south-eastern South Australia. The last wild individuals were recorded in 1924, although a few captives survived until around 1937. Surveys conducted by the South Australia National Parks and Wildlife Service suggest that the species persisted until the early 1970's (Smith and Robinson 2008).
12625		habitat	eng	This species was found in areas of open country. It lived at the edge of Stringy-bark heath in grassy areas too wet in winter to support eucalypt cover (Smith and Robinson 2008).
12625		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct.
12625		threats	eng	Introduced predators, competition from livestock, bounty and sport hunting, and direct killing for the animal's pelt have resulted in the extinction of the species.
12626		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. There have been few detailed biological studies. Continued fox control is crucial to maintaining their populations. There is a need to monitor abundance at selected sites throughout range.
12626		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-western Australia.
12626		habitat	eng	It is found in open forest and woodland, mallee, heathland, low open grasses, and scrubby thickets (Morris and Christensen 2008). The species avoids pastureland and forests with dense undergrowth (Morris and Christensen 2008).
12626		population	eng	This species was very common in the early days of settlement and at times very large numbers were traded commercially for skins (for example, 122,000 in 1923, 105,000 in 1924). They remained common in the larger uncleared areas until the 1970s, when fox populations began to increase dramatically (Morris and Christensen 2008). Spotlight surveys in 1970 and 1990 within the jarrah forests of the Darling Range suggested a decline from around 10 per 100 km of transect to approximately 1 per 100 km (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Clearance for agriculture has severely fragmented the population and reduced its range. The population has increased in the last ten years or so due to fox control. The global population is on the order of 100,000 individuals.
12626		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Clearance for agriculture has severely fragmented the population and reduced its range. Foxes reduced Western Brush Wallaby numbers, and the species increases in abundance in areas where foxes have been controlled (overall the species has increased in number over the past 10 years or so due to fox control).
12627		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. Advisable conservation measures include the completion and implementation of a Recovery Plan, studies to determine optimal survey methods, a detailed survey of populations, and the targeted fox control programs.
12627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in New South Wales, Australia (formerly as far south as the Illawarra). It is present in suitable forests scattered throughout the escarpment, but it is no longer found in coastal forests. Upper altitudinal sites include the Dorrigo Plateau, Gibraltar Range, and Barrington Tops. It occurs up to 1,000 m asl. Feral populations exist on Kauwau Island, New Zealand (Maynes 2008).
12627		habitat	eng	It is found within wet sclerophyll forest with dense understorey, but with access to forest with a grassy understorey. The species is often found in dry sclerophyll forests and rainforest (Maynes 2008). It is nocturnal and usually solitary (Maynes 2008).
12627		population	eng	It is rare and patchily distributed. There are no recent population estimates. In 1992, the total number of adults was estimated at between 1,000 and 10,000 individuals. There appears to be no evidence of a decline.
12627		threats	eng	Forest fragmentation combined with predation from foxes appear to be the principal reasons for the decline of the species. Grazing and burning regimes that affect availability of shelter are a disadvantage to populations (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Reintroductions of the species have been unsuccessful due to fox predation.
12643		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. Because of the very minor conservation problems facing this taxon, no conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.
12643		distribution	eng	A widespread species occurring in Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
12643		habitat	eng	The Round-Eared Sengi occupies arid areas, such as deserts, dry grasslands and shrublands (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Home range areas can be up to one square kilometer. The presence of this sengi is often indicated by long, straight trails composed of small oval bare spots where it lands while racing along the paths. The trails are used to swiftly travel between preferred areas within its home range (Sauer and Sauer 1972).
12643		population	eng	It is believed that over much of its range its numbers are relatively low (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). There are no data on population dynamics of this species, but it is expected that populations will vary greatly in the arid habitats that it occupies, and there are no reasons to believe that these variations, if they indeed occur, are abnormal.
12643		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species. Habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small-holder and industrial agriculture, mineral extraction, and urban development. Changes in habitats due to desertification and bush encroachment may adversely alter habitats for sengis, but at present these changes do not appear widespread or serious.
12644		distribution	eng	Cocteau’s Skink was found on the desert islands of Brancho and Razo in the Atlantic Ocean.
12644		population	eng	The species has not been recorded since the early 20th century.
12644		threats	eng	This species was hunted by the human inhabitants of neighbouring islands who reportedly used this reptile as food.  The fat was used in medicine.  Severe and prolonged droughts have also been listed as a possible contributing factor in the extinction of this species.
12646		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Ankarafantsika National Park. There is a need to manage the habitat of this species, undertake further studies of the species natural history and implement control measures for feral cats and dogs in the species range.
12646		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known only from Ankarafantsika National Park and its immediate surrounds (Carleton and Goodman 2003). It has possibly been sighted at Bongolava, although this requires confirmation (D. Rakotondravony pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of about 100 to 400 m asl.
12646		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from dry deciduous forest in Ankarafantsika. It is a nocturnal and almost completely arboreal species, which lives in burrows during the day time (Carleton and Goodman 2003). It can be found in slightly degraded forest.
12646		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range, although trapping success is low.
12646		threats	eng	This species is threatened by predation by feral cats and dogs (L. Dollar pers. comm.), loss of habitat to wildfires and selective logging.
12647		conservation	eng	This widely distributed species has been recorded from at least six protected areas including Kirindy Mitea, and Tsimanampetsotsa, Andohahela, and Ankarafantsika National Parks. Further research into the taxonomy, population and distribution of this species is needed.
12647		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western and southern Madagascar where it is widely distributed in the dry deciduous forests and grasslands. It ranges from sea level up to around 915 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
12647		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, terrestrial species is found in spiny forests and dry deciduous forests. It can occur in heavily moified habitats outside of forests. Animals spend the day in burrows excavated under rocks, tree stumps and other ground cover. A litter of two to three young are born after a gestation period of around 24 days (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
12647		population	eng	It appears to be a relatively common species.
12647		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is wildfires in the region.
12650		conservation	eng	The Bilby is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs in a number of protected areas. A national recovery plan was completed for the species, and the conservation measures which follow are adapted, and/or taken directly, from it (Pavey 2006). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>The recovery plan stresses the need to survey for the species to achieve an accurate extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. Methods need to be developed to improve the monitoring of distribution and abundance in order to compile trends. There should also be a monitoring program for exotic Bilby predators, and control measures of these species should be intensified, especially at priority sites. Research into threats such as predators, altered fire regimes, and habitat degradation in various forms is needed to determine their relative importance. <br/><br/>Management of captive populations and reintroductions into predator-free or predator-controlled sites should continue. Captive programs need to maintain the current levels of genetic diversity. Further research into husbandry should proceed. Finally, the Bibly recovery team needs to continue its efforts to improve recovery management and promote awareness of Bilby recovery among stakeholders and the public.
12650		distribution	eng	The Bilby formerly occurred over 70% of the mainland Australia. Wild populations are now restricted predominantly to the Tanami Desert (Northern Territory), the Gibson and the Great Sandy Deserts (Western Australia), and one outlying population between Boulia and Birdsville (south-west Queensland) (Johnson 2008). It has gone extinct from portions of southern Queensland within the last few decades.<br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations in: Currawinya National Park (Queensland); Scotia Sanctuary (New South Wales); Arid Recovery at Roxby Downs, Venus Bay Conservation Park, Thistle Island, Yookamurra Sanctuary (South Australia); Dryandra Woodland, François Peron National Park (Western Australia).
12650		habitat	eng	Habitat of the extant populations includes tall shrublands and open woodlands of the semi-arid regions, and the hummock grasslands and sparse forblands in the arid areas of Australia (Pavey 2006). However, from its former range, the Bilby appears able to live in habitats from the driest desert areas to the temperate areas such as those found in the south, east, and west of the country (Pavey 2006). This species is dependent on fire, as it feeds on many disturbance (e.g., fire) promoted plants, such as seed from <em>Yakirra australience</em> (R. Southgate pers. comm.). It is also able to occupy recently burnt areas, as it uses burrows for refuge (R. Southgate pers. comm.).
12650		population	eng	About 500 individuals on Thistle Island, 500 in Arid Recovery, 100 in Venus Bay, 200 in Peron, 40 in Scotia, 200-500 in Queensland. There are fewer than 1,000 individuals in the Northern Territory and 5,000-10,000 in non-reintroduced Western Australia. The global population might be under 10,000 individuals. The species is wide-ranging and patchily distributed. The population estimates of Bilbies in the Northern Territory and Western Australia are very approximate, as there are no published numbers in peer-reviewed journals (R. Southgate pers. comm.). It is known from aerial surveys that Bilby signs (diggings) in the areas where Bilbies are persistent occur less than 15 to 20 km apart (R. Southgate pers. comm.).
12650		threats	eng	The current Bilby distribution is associated with a low abundance or absence of foxes, rabbits, and livestock. Major threats relate to predation from foxes, habitat destruction from introduced herbivores, and changed fire regimes (Pavey 2006). Predation pressures from feral cats and dingoes occurring in association with pastoral practices may be a threat to the Bilby. Feral cats have affected the success of reintroduced populations. Additional threats to the Bilby include mining and other development, and road mortality (Pavey 2006).
12651		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
12651		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to the deserts of central Australia. The last confirmed collection of a specimen was in 1931 near Cooncherie in north-eastern South Australia (Johnson 2008). A skull of unknown age was found in 1967 in a Wedge-tailed Eagle's nest south-east of Alice Springs (Johnson 2008). Aboriginal oral history suggests survival possibly into the 1960s (Johnson 2008).
12651		habitat	eng	The species occurred in sandy and loamy deserts with Triodia hummock grassland and sparse low trees and shrubs (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
12651		population	eng	This species is presumed to be extinct. It died out completely only about 35 years after Hedley Finlayson considered it to be common (Johnson 2008).
12651		threats	eng	Predation from introduced species such as cats and foxes, as well as competition with rabbits for food and degradation of habitat is thought resulted in the extinction of this species. They were also possibly affected by changes in fire regime.
12652		conservation	eng	It is found in seeral proteced areas, such as Sierra del Pinacate Reserve and Vizcaino protected area.
12652		distribution	eng	This species is known from north Sinaloa and southwest Chihuahua (Mexico) north to south Nevada and south California (USA); Baja California and Tamaulipas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
12652		habitat	eng	This species feeds at night primarily on moths and immobile diurnal insects such as butterflies and katydids, which it locates by vision, even at low ambient light levels. It uses warm diurnal roosts in caves, mines, and buildings. Depending on the season, the bats roost singly or in groups of up to several hundred individuals, hanging separately from the ceiling rather than clustering. Females congregate in large maternity colonies of about 100 to 200 individuals in the spring and summer, utilizing different mines or different areas within mines from those occupied in the winter. A few males are found in these colonies, although large male-only roosts also form. The single young is born between mid-May and early July, following a gestation of almost nine months (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
12652		population	eng	This bat is locally common in restricted localities (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
12652		threats	eng	Human entry into mines or cave roosts and closure of mines for hazard abatement and renewed mining are the primary threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrotus</span>. Loss of desert riparian habitat (as in the development of golf courses and housing areas in the Coachella Valley) are also responsible for population declines. At North east of Mexico there is one subpopulation isolated to their range that could be in risk (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
12653		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
12653		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sonora and Hidalgo (Mexico) south to Guatemala; Bahamas Islands; Jamaica; Cuba; Cayman Islands (northwest of Jamaica); Hispaniola and Beata Islands (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,400 m (Reid, 1997).
12653		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry areas, rarely in evergreen, lowlands forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in large caves and mine tunnels, occasionally in buildings, in groups of 1 to 500. Individuals hang by one or both feet from high ceilings near the roost entrance and do not cluster. This species does not crawl on feet and thumbs like many bats, but can walk rapidly in an upside-down position. Activity starts 1 to 2 hours after sunset; when foraging, flight is slow and maneuverable, usually within 1 m of the ground. Fruit and insects are eaten; animal prey is gleaned by mouth from the ground or vegetation and carried to a night roost  (Reid, 1997). A second foraging flight occurs about 2 hours before sunrise (Reid, 1997).
12653		population	eng	This bat is rare and local in southeastern Mexico and possible north Central America; large aggregations are found in parts of west Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Very common in Cuba and Dominican Republican (Mancina and Inchaustegui pers. comm.).
12653		threats	eng	None.
12654		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation. The entire island of Polyaigos is protected and southern Milos is also protected by the European network of protected areas. The species has been monitored for many years. Snake tunnels have been constructed at four sites, and more are planned; studies have showed that these are an effective method to reduce road kills in this species. Agreements have been reached with the mining company to reduce road traffic, especially at night.
12654		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Cyclade Islands (Milos, Syphnos, Kimolos and Polyaigos) of Greece. It is found from sea level up to 400m asl (the highest point on the islands).
12654		habitat	eng	It can be found throughout the islands on dry, sunny hillsides and in traditionally cultivated land, in densely vegetated areas close to water with rocky outcrops, and also in pools of water. Its most important habitat is small creeks. The female lays a clutch of between four and 11 eggs.
12654		population	eng	The population probably totals around 3,000 individuals, with about 2,500 of these on western Milos. Subspecies <em>syphnoensis</em> (from island of Syphnos) is very rare, with only occasional specimens recorded. The population is now more or less stable, but over the last 30-40 years there have been significant declines as a result of collecting and road kills.
12654		threats	eng	It is threatened by illegal collection of animals, direct persecution when encountered, accidental mortality on roads and ongoing habitat loss through mining and quarrying concessions. Illegal collection, mortality and mining are still ongoing, but at a lower level than before as a result of regulation and conservation measures. Fires (caused by humans) and tourist development are also important threats. In the species' stronghold in western Milos there are tourist developments causing habitat loss and increased shortage of water.
12655		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys of the original collection site are needed to gather more information about this species.
12655		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series collected on Mount Kunupi in the Weyland Range, Papua Province, Indonesia, by Georg Stein in 1931. It is possibly restricted to the Weyland Range (Flannery 1995). It was collected between 1,400 and 1,800 m asl.
12655		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is not known, but it presumably lives in montane forest.
12655		population	eng	It is known only from the type series of four animals.
12655		threats	eng	There are no major threats known.
12656		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but may occur in Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.
12656		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from many scattered localities across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has an altitudinal range of between 660 and 1,900 m, but is most common between 1,200 and 1,550 m asl.
12656		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to areas of mid-montane tropical forest (Flannery 1995). Usually collected on the ground along creeks and rivers. Animals live in burrows on the forest floor. It may be intolerant of habitat disturbance.
12656		population	eng	It is a naturally scarce species, and is thought to occur at low population densities, which makes it difficult to determine whether it has undergone any recent population declines. This species is common in the Holocene fossil record and probably underwent significant declines (Flannery 1995), but that was probably a long time ago and the population is now considered to be stable.
12656		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is over-exploited in parts of its range from hunting by local people, presumably for food.
12659		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. <em>P. arion</em> is one of the best investigated butterfly species in Europe. Ecological demands are relatively well known especially in Western Europe, but special attention for the species in habitat management is only given in a few, mainly Western European countries (e.g. United Kingdom). Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Belgium, Denmark and in the United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. The species and its habitat are legally protected in many countries. <em>P. arion</em> has been reintroduced in the United Kingdom. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. It requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008).
12659		distribution	eng	From notthern Spain and eastwards to Italy, Greece and southern Scandinavia. Extinct in the United Kingdom due to the loss of the short turf habitat when rabbits died out during the myxamotosis crisis. Recently successfully reintroduced to a dozen or so sites in southwestern England.
12659		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Europe from north and central Spain via France to Denmark, south of Sweden and south of Finland and from the south of Italy and Greece to Siberia, Mongolia, China and Japan. Re-introduced successfully into a number of areas in southern England. 0-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
12659		habitat	eng	Found in grassy places with flowers, especially thyme (<em>Thymus</em>) the larval food plant. Usually in dry habitats which, presumably, favours species of the the ant genus <em>Myrmica</em> on which the larvae also feed. Frequently amongst bushes or woodland edges.
12659		habitat	eng	The Large Blue occurs locally on dry, open grasslands on limestone. It is one of the larger, more conspicuous blues. The females lay their eggs on different species of thyme (<em>Thymus</em> spp.), but also on Marjoram (<em>Origanum vulgare</em>). The caterpillars feed on the buds and flowers of the foodplant. After a few weeks they leave their foodplant and allow themselves to be taken by workers of the antspecies <em>Myrmica</em> <em>sabuleti</em> and sometimes of <em>M. scabrinodis</em>, to the ants nest. The caterpillars feed on the ant grubs, hibernating and pupating there as well. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (9%), coniferous woodland (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), heath and scrub (6%).
12659		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). Based on the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien 2008), this species has declined in European grasslands, one of its main habitats, since 1990 as well as in the last ten years by more than 90%.
12659		threats	eng	In many parts of Europe this species is restricted to nature reserves. Here the main threat is inappropriate management, as this species is very susceptible to small changes in grazing pressure or other changes in management. Where the species is more widespread, loss of habitat by agricultural intensification and abandonment, as well as afforestation, are the main threats.
12662		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Ukraine and Romania, the species only occurs in protected areas. In France and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. The species has been re-introduced in the Netherlands in 1990. Like for other <em>Phengaris</em> (former <em>Maculinea</em>)-species, the ecological demands of this species are relatively well known.
12662		distribution	eng	Occurs in one or two small areas of northwest Spain with the main distribution area being from central eastern France, Switzerland, Germany (absent from the north) and eastwards.
12662		distribution	eng	This species occurs especially in Central Europe: some populations in the north of Spain, east of France, north of Switzerland, south and central Germany, south of Poland, the north of the Balkans. 0-1,600 m. It is furthermore present east to central and southern Urals and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
12662		habitat	eng	Occurs in damp habitats where the foodplant Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>) is found.
12662		habitat	eng	The Dusky Large Blue occurs on damp, moderately nutrient-rich grassland and rough vegetation. The butterflies are usually found on or near the foodplant Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>). Having lived on the flowerheads of this plant for a few weeks, the small caterpillars go down to the ground, in order to be carried away usually by workers of the ant Myrmica rubra to an ant nest. There, they remain feeding on ant grubs, hibernating and pupating in the early summer. The newly-emerged butterflies leave the nest. The Dusky Large Blue is one of the most specialized of the “ant blues” being most adapted to one species of host ant. Populations adapted <em>Myrmica scbrinodis</em> as main host ant are very rare. It has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (36%), water-fringe vegetation (15%), blanket bogs (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).
12662		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
12662		threats	eng	The main threats on a European scale come from agricultural improvements (like drainage) and abandonment. As the species also occurs a lot along roadverges, changes to the roads and the management of the verges can have a negative impact as well.
12664		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. As the species in not mobile, it needs areas with large and well connected patches of habitat. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In France and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. The species has been re-introduced in the Netherlands in 1990. The habitats of <em>P. teleius</em> are legally protected in many countries, but since many populations are not in nature reserves no special attention is given to the habitat demands. Like for other <em>Phengaris</em> (former <em>Maculinea</em>)-species, the ecological demands of this species are relatively well known.
12664		distribution	eng	This species occurs in widely scattered populations in Central Europe: in France, north of Switzerland, north of Italy, south and central Germany, south of Poland, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary and further eastwards to Mongolia, Korea and Japan. 0-1,600 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
12664		habitat	eng	The Scarce Large Blue can be found in moderately nutrient-rich meadows whit Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>). In northern Europe, it occurs in open, short vegetation, but in the warm, southern regions, it is also found in rough vegetation. The butterflies tend to keep near the foodplants. The small caterpillars only feed on the flowerheads for two or three weeks. They then go down to the ground where they wait to be picked up by worker ants of the genus <em>Myrmica</em> and carried off to the ants' nest. There they feed on ant grubs. The caterpillars also hibernate and pupate in the ants' nest. The species of host ant varies in different parts of its range. The Scarce Large Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (38%), mesophile grasslands (16%), blanket bogs (12%), water-fringe vegetation (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%).
12664		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
12664		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in agricultural management, like drainage, improvement or abandonment.
12667		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and no animals are held in captivity. The decline of this species can only be reversed by the establishment of secure protected areas within its range and/or the establishment of a secure, self-sustaining captive population (East 1999). Given the recent discovery of this species in the Ogaden, further surveys to better understand the range of this species are required.
12667		distribution	eng	The range of the Silver Dik-dik is usually given as being confined to the central coastal plain of Somalia, where its range does not appear to extend for more than 10 km inland from the coast (Simonetta 1988; East 1999). Recently, this species has been reliably reported (and photographed) further up the Shebelle River valley and in the valley bottoms of its seasonal tributaries in the Ogaden of Ethiopia (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
12667		habitat	eng	The Silver Dik-dik occurs in very low, dense thickets growing along the central Somali coastal littoral on fertile, sandy soils under a powerful offshore wind which has a cooling and moisturising effect (Kingdon 1997). In the south-eastern part of the Ethiopian Ogaden, Silver Dik-dik have been observed in dense to semi-dense Acacia-Commiphora bushland (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
12667		population	eng	East (1999) produced an estimated total population of 30,000, perhaps an overestimate, since hunting pressures and other disturbances are relatively high within the Silver Dik-dik’s restricted range. In the Ethiopian Ogaden, where this species is probably on the very edge of its range, a density of 1–2 individuals was estimated in an area of less than 2,000 m² (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
12667		threats	eng	The habitat of the Silver Dik-dik is threatened by increased human presence and activity, e.g., during the worst period of the civil war many people fled along the coastal roads which were also used by large numbers of heavily armed fighters and their vehicles. Its skins are highly valued for handcraft products.
12668		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a few protected areas (e.g., Awash and Yangudi Rassa National Parks in Ethiopia).
12668		distribution	eng	Endemic to north-east Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia) with marginal occurrence in north-east Sudan and possibly the border region of north-east Kenya (East 1999; Yalden in press).
12668		habitat	eng	Found in various types of semi-desert scrub. Occurs from sea level to 1,500 m and perhaps up to 2,000 m (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984, Künzel <em>et al</em>. 2000).
12668		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population at 485,600 individuals, based on an average density of two individuals per km² over an area of occupancy of 242,800 km² and suggested that the order of magnitude could be in the hundreds of thousands, and that the population was generally stable. Several authors have reported much higher local densities. Laurent and Laurent (2002) said that Salt’s dikdik is still widespread in Djibouti, but has declined over the last 20 years. Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. (2006) found this species quite common in surveyed areas of the Ogaden (Ethiopia).
12668		threats	eng	Subsistence hunting is a factor across the range. Hunting pressure is no doubt heavier in areas of civil and military conflict. In Somalia, hunting of all dikdik species is more intensive, with meat, skins and live animals exported to the Gulf states (Amir 2006). Habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing by domestic livestock affects areas across north-east Africa, but is not reported to be a significant adverse factor for this species.
12669		conservation	eng	Guenther's Dik-dik occurs in a number of protected areas, such as Omo, Mago, Yabelo and Nechisar (Ethiopia), Kidepo Valley (Uganda) and Sibiloi, Marsabit, Samburu and Meru (Kenya), in which it is common. The bulk of its population occurs in unprotected rangelands.
12669		distribution	eng	The range of Guenther’s dikdik is centred on the driest, hottest arid and semi-arid scrublands in North-east Africa. The distribution includes northern and southern Somalia, the eastern and southern lowlands of Ethiopia, south-eastern Sudan (east of the Nile R.), north-eastern Uganda, and north and western Kenya, north of the Tana River (East 1999; Hoppe and Brotherton in press).
12669		habitat	eng	Guenther's Dik-dik inhabitats dry, hot arid and semi-arid scrublands, and suitable cover seems to be an important habitat requirement as they are seldom seen far from cover (Hoppe and Brotherton in press). They range from sea level to about 2,100 m asl (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996)
12669		population	eng	Guenther’s dikdik is common throughout most of its range. Estimates of this species’ population density obtained from road counts were 0.7-1 .1/km² in the Haud Plateau, Somalia and the Ogaden region, Ethiopia (various authors in East 1999). In Omo N.P., Ethiopia, a higher density of 23.8 per km² was observed in 1988 within a 75-ha study area (Ono <em>et al.</em> 1988). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 511,000 animals. The population trend is generally stable.
12669		threats	eng	There are no major threats are reported in spite of the fact that the species is hunted and part of its range is found in countries with a recent history of armed conflict.
12670		conservation	eng	The range of Kirk's Dik-dik includes protected areas such as Bush Bush N.P. (Somalia), Samburu, Meru, Tsavo, Masai Mara, Amboseli and Lake Nakuru National Parks (Kenya), Serengeti, Arusha, Tarangire and Mkomazi (Tanzania) and Etosha (Namibia). It is also common on private farmland in Namibia (East 1999). The most urgent research action required is a thorough evaluation of the taxonomic status of the identified cytotypes; if these are confirmed to represent distinct species, then the status of the various forms will require reassessment.
12670		distribution	eng	Kirk’s dikdik occurs in two separate regions, from southern Somalia to central Tanzania and in northern Namibia and adjoining south-western Angola (Kingswood and Kumamoto 1997; East 1999; Brotherton in press).
12670		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from dry scrubland to thickets within moister savanna woodlands and grasslands. (East 1999).
12670		population	eng	Population density estimates of Kirk’s dikdik were reviewed by Kingswood and Kumamoto (1997), East (1999) and Brotherton (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 971,000 animals. This suggests that its total numbers may be in the hundreds of thousands or millions. The population trend is stable over large parts of the range, but is decreasing in some densely settled areas.
12670		threats	eng	There are no obvious major threats to Kirk's Dik-dik, although they have been affected by the expansion of agricultural settlement and excessive hunting in some areas (East 1999). However, their ability to exist in scrub and over-grazed areas has made their populations resilient to the vegetation changes that have accompanied human population growth, and may have even favoured them in the short-term (Brotherton in press).
12695		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - brackish waters of coastal marshes, estuaries, tidal flats and lagoons.
12696		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
12702		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
12702		distribution	eng	This species is found in Liberia (possibly), Côte D'Ivoire and southern Ghana.
12702		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary tropical evergreen rainforest, where it prefers damper places such as valley bottoms, moist lower slopes, stream banks and areas of wet mud. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12702		population	eng	This species is uncommon but regularly found.
12702		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not well known.
12703		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
12703		distribution	eng	This species ranges through West Africa from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west to Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Togo or Benin.
12703		habitat	eng	It is found in moist lowland rainforest and moist shrubland. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12703		population	eng	This species is common.
12703		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12704		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
12704		distribution	eng	This species range appears to be divided into two main areas. It is found from Nigeria to central Congo and central Gabon; and from western Congo to northern Angola and Uganda. There is also a single record from Zambia. The range of this species may be contiguous between the two main areas, and the current distribution may reflect a lack of collecting in central Congo. The species is found up to 2,230 m asl, although it prefers low and middle elevation forests.
12704		habitat	eng	It is found in all lowland rainforest habitats. This species favours stream edges and muddy basins where it can be extremely common. It is much less common in well drained forest (J. Kerbis). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12704		population	eng	It is a common species.
12704		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12712		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
12712		distribution	eng	This species is known from north and central South Africa, south-western Botswana, most of Namibia, and into very southern Angola.
12712		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits a wide range of habitats including dry savanna, subtropical dry shrubland, hot and temperate desert.
12712		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species, but can also be locally abundant. It is rarely captured.
12712		threats	eng	Overgrazing by small holder and nomadic livestock can threaten this species in some areas.
12721		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
12721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea. It is widespread along the Central Cordillera, to south-eastern Papua New Guinea and the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has an altitudinal range of 1,100 to 2,700 m asl.
12721		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest, degraded forest, areas of re-growth, and old rural gardens. Animals live in dens or burrows, sometimes amongst rocks. Females give birth to a single young, which probably has a long period of dependency (Flannery 1995).
12721		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
12721		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in some parts of its range by hunting dogs.
12722		conservation	eng	It is found in Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
12722		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Maokop section of the New Guinea Central Cordillera (Papua Province, Indonesia), where it has been recorded from two localities between the Mount Wilhelmina area in the east and Mount Carstensz in the west. It is possible that it will be recorded from more locations, however, there are likely to be relatively few sites within the high altitude range of this species. It has been recorded from 3,500 to 4,050 m asl (a fossil record was found in a cave at around 2,950 m asl) (Flannery 1995).
12722		habitat	eng	This species occurs in alpine grasslands and barren areas above the tree line. Animals live in terrestrial dens (e.g., amongst piles of rocks), and it is thought to be a slow breeding species. Little more is known about the natural history of this species.
12722		population	eng	It is known only from a few modern specimens, but is very common in the Holocene fossil record.
12722		threats	eng	This high altitude species is threatened by hunting for food by local people, predation by wild dogs, and by global warming (increasing fire frequency).
12723		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but it is probably in Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
12723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea, from the Bele River and Gunung Ki in Papua Province, Indonesia, to Mount Victoria in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It is sympatric with <em>M. rothschildi</em>, but not with <em>M. aroaensis</em>, which occurs at lower elevations. This species is found between 2,450 and 3,850 m asl.
12723		habitat	eng	It is restricted to upper montane forest, subalpine herbfield and grassland (Flannery 1995). Animals form nests in terrestrial burrows and dens (piles of rocks, etc.). A female has been recorded with a single young (Flannery 1995).
12723		population	eng	It is not abundant and probably found only at low densities.
12723		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for food by local people and predation by hunting dogs (it is a large species - over 2 kg).
12724		conservation	eng	It has been recorded at Baiyer River Sanctuary, Papua New Guinea and in Lorentz National Park, Indonesia. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, and ecology of this species.
12724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges along the Central Cordillera from the Weyland Range (Papua Province, Indonesia) to the mountains of the southeast (Papua New Guinea); it is absent from the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has an altitudinal range of 1,200 to 3,700 m asl.
12724		habitat	eng	This largely arboreal, or scansorial, species is found in tropical moist forest. Animals have been recorded inside a cave (Flannery 1995). It lives in tree hollows and feeds on plant shoots. Females give birth to a single young.
12724		population	eng	It is commonly found, although it is not very abundant.
12724		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food by local people, however, this does not seem to have caused appreciable declines in populations of this species.
12751		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
12753		conservation	eng	Listed under Appendix I of CITES and as Class B under the African Convention. This species is found in Korup National Park (Cameroon) and the Cross River National Park (Nigeria). It is also found in the southern, nominally-protected part of Bioko. Any area containing adequate populations should be immediately protected, and all populations need to be rigorously protected against hunting - for example, the drills inhabiting the forests of the Mbe Mountains and on the Obudu Cattle Ranch, Nigeria. A number of animals are held in captivity, but all of the mainland subspecies.
12753		distribution	eng	The distribution on the Drill is uncertain, but it appears to have a very restricted distribution in western and south-western Cameroon (including Korup National Park) and south-eastern Nigeria, between the Cross River and Sanaga River. There is one record from just south of the lower Sanaga at Ongue Creek (Grubb 1973). It is also present in the south-western corner of Bioko Island.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>M. l. leucophaeus</em> occurs on the mainland, between the Cross River and Sanaga River valleys; <em>M. l. poensis</em> occurs only on Bioko Island.
12753		habitat	eng	Drills are a semi-terrestrial species, found in lowland, submontane rainforest up to 1,000 m. They occur in mature secondary forest, but only infrequently in young secondary forest. Drills are omnivorous and forage extensivly on the ground probably consuming a large variety of invertebrates. They have a flexible social organization, and live in harems of up to 25 individuals which periodically come together to form bands consisting of up to 200 animals.
12753		population	eng	They are not common in any part of their range, but they manage to persist in a number of areas where they were presumed to be extinct. On Bioko, Drills have declined by a little over 30% over the period 1986-2006; fewer than 5,000 are estimated to remain on Bioko (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).
12753		threats	eng	This species occupies a relatively small range, and is severely threatened by habitat loss. They have been totally displaced in the heart of their range, in Cameroon between Douala and Edea, due to clear-felling for chipboard factories and settlement. Reafforestation has involved the planting of non-palatable exotic species such as <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Gmelina arborea</em>. Logging roads open areas to cultivators, causing further habitat loss, and allowing increased access by hunters. They are hunted for their meat, and all members of a harem are often shot en masse. Excessive hunting has resulted in a particularly marked declines in Nigeria and on Bioko. They are also frequently killed in defence of crops such as bananas, cocoa, and manioc, and this is likely to increase as cultivation expands.
12754		conservation	eng	Mandrills are listed under Appendix I of CITES, and as Class B under the African Convention. Several reserves are located within the Mandrill's range, the most important of which is Lope National Park in Gabon. Other areas containing Mandrills need immediate protection, both legal and practical, against logging and hunting. Surveys are urgently needed to determine where viable populations exist.
12754		distribution	eng	This species is found in moist evergreen rainforest in central west Africa, south of the Sanaga River (Cameroon) through to mainland Equatorial Guinea, western Gabon, and south-western Congo (Brazzaville) to the Kouilou River, and down to the Congo River. Inland, the Ivindo River and Ogooue River in Gabon limit its distribution to the east. In Cameroon, it is not known to occur east of the Dja river. It does not occur in the forests of south-east Cameroon or east of the Congo River. Telfer et al's (2003) study indicate that the Ogooué River, Gabon, bisects the range of the two populations, seperating them into two distinct populations 1) Cameroon and northern Gabon and 2) southern Gabon.
12754		habitat	eng	Mandrills are found in evergreen rainforest, stretching between 100 and 300 km inland from the Atlantic coast, as well as in montane forest, and thick secondary forest. Mandrills are known to stretch to forest fragments in savanna and have been known to go into plantations. They are semi-terrestrial and forage primarily at less than 5 m off the ground. They are omnivorous and diets are diverse, including fruits, buds, leaves, roots, insects, fungus, and seeds. Mandrills prefer fruits when they are available, although in their primary forest habitat the fruiting of trees and lianas is irregular, leading to periodic fruit shortages: when this occurs they are highly reliant on having abundant herbaceous growth to eat. When food is scarce (e.g. during and at the end of the dry season), they also raid crops from farms.<br/>Mandrill home ranges may be 30-50 sq km.
12754		population	eng	Total numbers of this species are unknown, but it has undoubtably declined in recent years. It is generally rare, and in some places has been locally exterminated. The largest remaining populations are probably to be found in Gabon.<br/>In the mid-1970s, numbers in the Wonga-Wongue National Park were said to be "fair-sized". Mandrills live at relatively low densities.
12754		threats	eng	This species is affected by the destruction of its evergreen forest habitat since this reduces the capacity of environments to support Mandrill populations. However, the most immediate threat is posed by hunting for their meat (which is highly prized in Gabon). Commercial bushmeat hunters pose a particular threat to populations which are located close to main roads and towns. Mandrills appear to be most seriously threatened in Congo (Brazzaville).
12761		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. A zero annual export quota has been established for specimens removed from the wild and traded for primarily commercial purposes. It is protected by national legislation in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. This widespread species is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need for further research into current population levels of this species throughout its known range.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, all pangolins are legally protected.<br/><br/>In India, this species is included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.<br/><br/>In Pakistan, this species is protected under the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation, and Management) Ordinance, 1979 and the North-West Frontier Province Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation, and Management) Act, 1975.<br/><br/>Hunting of this speices is prohibited in Sri Lanka (Broad <em>et al</em>. 1988) and Nepal (Gaski and Hemley 1991).
12761		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Asia from parts of eastern Pakistan through much of India (excluding northeastern portions of the country) south of the Himalayas, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (CITES 2000; Schlitter 2005). There have been dubious records in Myanmar (sources quoted in Allen 1938) and southern China (Yunnan) which almost certainly refer to <em>Manis javanica</em> (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, this species was historically found throughout the country, excluding the coastal parts of Khulna, Barisal, Pauakhali, Noakhali and Chittagong Districts. The species is presumed extinct in Kushtia, Jessore, Pabna, Bogra, Rangpur, Dinajpur, Rajshahi, and most parts of Dhaka and Comilla (Khan 1985).<br/><br/>In India, this species is widely distributed from the plains and lower hills south of the Himalayas to extreme southern India (Tikader 1983). There have been recent records from Kerala and Kanyakumari; Tamil Naidu; Delhi; Gwalior and Achanakur Wildlife Sanctuaries (Madhya Pradesh); Bandipur, Bhadra, Dalma and Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuaries; Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka); Buxa Tiger Reserve (West Bengal); Catugao Wildlife Sanctuary (Goa); Chambal National Park (Madhya Pradesh); Gir National Park (Gujarat); Keolodeo Ghana Wildlife Sanctuary (Rajasthan); Kotgarh and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuaries and the Sunabedh Plateau (Orissa); Singalila Wildlife Sanctuary (West Bengal); Achanakuar Wildlife Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh); and the Himalayan foothills of Uttar Pradesh (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>This species is very locally distributed in Pakistan, where it has been recorded in Sialkot, Jhelum and Gujrat Districts in the northwest of the Punjab, extending across the Salt Range into Kohat District, and from Campbellpur District up to Mardan and Peshawar in the North West Frontier Province (Roberts 1977; CITES 2000). It was found in the Potwar Range upwards into the Rawalpindi foothills (up to 750 m asl). Further south, the species appears to be absent from the Indus River floodplain, however, there are records from the right bank of the Indus in the hilly regions in the western part of the Dadu and Larkana deserts (Baluchistan) and extended southward through Las Bela and Mekran. It also occurs east of the Indus in Hyderabad district and Tharparkar, extending eastwards to Kutch (Roberts 1977; CITES 2000). The species was described in 1986 as rare (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, this species is locally found throughout the lowlands, up to 1,100 m asl in hill regions, coinciding with the range of termites (Phillips 1981; WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).
12761		habitat	eng	There is little known about the natural history of this species, but records are from various types of tropical forests, open land, grasslands, in addition to in close proximity to villages (Zoological Survey of India, 1994). The species is thought to adapt well to modified habitats, provided their termites and ants that are their primary food source remains abundant and they are not hunted. The species is a specialist feeder on termites and ants (Prater 1971; Roberts 1977; Tikader 1983). It is generally solitary and nocturnal (Roberts, 1977). Animals live in burrows often under large rocks, with the entrance to the burrow often hidden with dirt (Roberts, 1977). Females usually give birth to one young, although twins are apparently not unknown, with a gestation length of 65-70 days (CITES 2000). Longevity in the wild is unknown, although the record longevity in captivity is 13 years 2 months (Jones, 1982).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal, and solitary, except during mating season, when adult males and females share the same burrow. The species is mainly terrestrial, but in some habitats is arboreal, using its prehensile tail and claws to climb trees.
12761		population	eng	There is virtually no information available on population levels of any species of Asian pangolins. These species are rarely observed due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000).<br/><br/>This species is thought to occur in small numbers in Bangladesh, where this species was described as rare in 1986 (Khan 1985). In India, the overall status the species is not well known (Tikader 1983). This species was relatively uncommon in Pakistan (Roberts 1977). It is reportedly of variable abundance in Sri Lanka, but nowhere common (Phillips 1981). Overall, the species is thought to be in significant decline due to hunting for food and medicine.
12761		threats	eng	The species can adapt to modified habitats, although a large proportion of its range has high human population density. The principal factor affecting the species is exploitation, largely for meat and for medicinal purposes, with the scales thought to have aphrodisiac properties. Trade in <em>Manis crassicaudata</em> parts appears to be mostly at a subsistence or local level, with little international trade currently reported. Records of trade in this species outside of the confirmed range states are presumed to be misidentifications of other <em>Manis species</em> (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Throughout Asia, pangolin meat is highly favoured as a local source of food. In addition, pangolin skins are used to manufacture leather goods such as boots and shoes. Scales are used whole, or in powdered form, in preparing traditional medicines. In Bangladesh, the species is regularly collected in hill forest areas for the scales and as a source of meat, and possibly disappeared in many parts of Bangladesh due, in a large part, to hunting (Khan 1985; CITES 2000).<br/><br/>There is limited evidence of trade, either legal or illegal, in <em>Manis crassicaudata</em>, but very little is known about its status across its range, its life history, or how well it adapts to human threats (CITES 2000). There is evidence that the species is being severely impacted by hunting in India and at the same time its status in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka appears to be decreasing. Given the level of trade that appears to be occurring in other Asian pangolin species (especially <em>Manis javanica</em> and <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>), it is reasonable to assume that as these two species become rarer and more difficult to obtain, that more trade could shift to <em>Manis crassicaudata</em> (CITES 2000).
12762		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g. Ituri Forest Reserve and the Salonga National Park, in Democratic Republic of Congo, National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea, and Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire) (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation in many range states.
12762		distribution	eng	Discontinuously distributed in humid forests in West and Central Africa. Recorded from Senegal (though there is no evidence of its presence in Gambia) eastwards through Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana; there is no information from Guinea Bissau or Togo (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). Sayer and Green (1984) recorded the species from Batia on the border of the Pendjari N.P. in the north of Benin, and referred to sightings in neighbouring Burkino Faso and Niger (although the species is not included in Lamarque 2004). The presence of this species in Nigeria is unclear, but it may occur in the south. Occurs on the island of Bioko (Kingdon and Hoyt in press).<br/><br/>From the eastern bank of the Sanaga River in Cameroon the species is fairly continuously distributed throughout the Congo Basin to Uganda (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). In Kenya, it has been observed on the lakeshore in west Kenya, close to the Uganda border (see Kingdon 1971). The latter author also published an authenticated record from the Mahale Mts, where their presence has been confirmed recently by camera-traps (C.A.H. Foley pers. comm.). There are no records from Sudan or Burundi (Kingdon and Hoyt in press), and they are believed extinct in Rwanda (Brautigam <em>et al.</em> 1994).
12762		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical moist and swamp forest, and in forest-savanna-cultivation mosaic habitats. It is also found in some areas in the uplands of Itombwe, where soils are suitable for its digging. It feeds on ants, termites and other insects. A terrestrial species, animals spend the daytime resting under piles of plant debris, in thicket, under fallen tree roots, in partially opened termitaries, or in burrows (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). The females give birth to a single young.
12762		population	eng	This is mostly a solitary, nocturnal species which is difficult to census, and there is no reliable information on population abundance or densities.
12762		threats	eng	As with other pangolins, this species is subject to widespread exploitation for bushmeat and traditional medicine (Bräutigam <em>et al.</em> 1994). Fa <em>et al</em>. (1995) noted that survey records of Giant Pangolin meat in the markets of Bioko were misleading as only 10% made it to market. The species is occasionally recorded in international trade: between 1996 and 2005, CITES trade reports documented a single animal exported from Cameroon in 1999 and another from Gabon in 2004 (Kingdon and Hoyt in press).
12763		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II; a zero annual export quota has been established for specimens removed from the wild and traded for primarily commercial purposes. It is protected by national legislation in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. It is found in protected areas in its range, but has been hunted out of some protected areas in its range, especially in Thailand (Anak pers. comm.). Much more effective enforcement of existing laws is critical for the conservation of this species (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Some protected areas in Viet Nam are heavily trapped for this and other species.<br/><br/>In Singapore, the species is protected under the Wild Animals and Birds Act (Domestic Law) 1904 and Endangered Species Act (Import/Export, CITES Law).<br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Viet Nam for <em>Manis javanica</em>.<br/><br/><em>Manis javanica</em> has been protected in Indonesia since 1931, under Wildlife Protection Ordinance No. 266 of 1931 (promulgated by the Dutch administration), as well as under Act. No. 5 of 1990, regarding Conservation of Natural Resources and Their Ecosystems; Decree of the Minister of Forestry No. 301/kpts-II/1991 and Decree of the Minister of Forestry No. 822/kpts-II/1992.<br/><br/><em>Manis javanica</em> is completely protected in west Malaysia under the Protection of Wild Life Act, 1972; a protected species, banned from local trade, in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998; and protected in Sabah under the Wildlife Conservation Bill, 1997.<br/><br/>In accordance with the Protection of Wildlife, Wild Plant and Conservation of Natural Areas Act 15(A), <em>M. javanica</em> is categorized as a Completely Protected Animal in Myanmar.<br/><br/>In Thailand, all <em>Manis</em> spp. are classified as Protected Wild Animals under the 1992 Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535.<br/><br/>The legal status of pangolins in Lao PDR is unclear, as a result of internal contradictions in Lao PDR laws applicable to wildlife and wildlife trading. However, Provincial and District Agricultural and Forestry Offices in Lao PDR have been confiscating large numbers of pangolins, so there is evidently a perceived legal basis for doing so (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).
12763		distribution	eng	This species ranges over much of mainland Southeast Asia, from southern Myanmar through central and southern Lao PDR, much of Thailand, central and southern Viet Nam, Cambodia, to Peninsular Malaysia, to Sumatra, Java and adjacent islands (Indonesia) to Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei) (Schlitter 2005). The northern and western limits of its range are poorly known. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,700 m asl.<br/><br/>This species is distributed in southern Myanmar (Corbet and Hill 1992; Salter 1983), but is absent from lowland areas due to human agricultural expansion and hunting (Duckworth pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>The species historically occurred throughout Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Bain and Humphrey 1982; WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999), but has since been lost from much of the lowland areas due to human agricultural expansion and hunting (J.W. Duckworth and R. Steinmitz pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, there are records from throughout the central and southern parts of the country. There are older records from Kontum Province, Tay Ninh Province and Quang Nam Province (Bourret 1942; Peenen <em>et al</em>. 1969). There are more recent records (summarised by (Newton 2007)) from: Ha Tinh Province (Timmins and Cuong 1999); Kein Giang and Ca Mau Provinces (in U Minh Thuong National Park) (CARE, 2004); Dong Nai, Bin Phuoc and Lam Dong Provinces (Cat Tien National Park) (Murphy and Phan 2001); Quang Binh (Le <em>et al</em>. 1997b); and Dak Lak (Le <em>et al</em>. 1997a; Dang <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>The species is evidently widespread in Lao PDR, with recent records from a wide range of areas below around 600 m altitude, with the possibility that in Lao PDR the species is restricted to the Mekong plain and adjacent foothills to around 900 m, with a possible occurrence on the Bolaven Plateau, including Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area in the south at least as far north as Nam Kading (Deuve and Deuve 1963; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The species is widespread in Peninsular Malaysia, primarily in forest, but also in gardens and plantations, including rubber (Medway 1977). It is also found on the island of Penang.<br/><br/>The species is still found in the wild in Singapore (CITES 2000; Lim and Ng 2007).<br/><br/>This species is reportedly widespread on Borneo, from sea level to 1,700 m on Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985), although it appears to be absent from the extensive peat swamp forests of Sarawak (CITES 2000). In Sabah, the species is rarely seen, although is evidently widely distributed, being known by local people throughout Sabah (Davies and Payne 1982). The species is presumably present in Brunei (Medway 1977).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, the species is widespread on Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Kiau and Lingga archipelago, Bangka and Belitung, Nias and Pagi islands, Bali, and adjacent islands (Corbet and Hill 1992).<br/><br/>In the northern part of the range, the species probably does not occur not above 600 m asl (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). In Sabah it has been recorded up 1,700 m asl (Giman pers. comm. 2006). In Sumatra and Java it is found only up to about 400 m asl (Boeadi pers. comm. 2006), though there is a specimen in the Natural History Museum (London) at 1,500 m asl from Lombok (P. Newton pers. comm.). In the northern parts of its range, the species overlaps with the range of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>, which is generally said to occupy higher altitudinal habitats, though recent interviews with in Viet Nam suggest that they can be found in the same areas of forest, and that the differences between them are ecological, relating to diet and habitat use, rather than altitude (P. Newton pers. comm.).
12763		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and secondary forest, and is found in cultivated areas including gardens and plantations, including near human settlements. ). Hunters interviewed in Viet Nam reported that they are found in a variety of habitats, though areas with primary forest support more pangolins, probably because they contain more older, larger trees with hollows suitable for sleeping and for use as den sites (P. Newton pers. comm.).  In Sabah, they may be able to survive in forest remnants for up to 7 or 8 years, and they have been known to forage on human rubbish (Han pers. comm. 2006). The population in Singapore is in very low quality forest, in which they have been able to survive for decades and become very abundant (Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>As with other pangolins, this species is nocturnal, solitary and a specialized feeder on ants and termites. Inference from other species indicates that one young is born at a time, after a gestation period of at minimum 130 days.<br/><br/>Hunters in Viet Nam consistently reported that <em>Manis javanica</em> is a more arboreal species than <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>, and that they are adept climbers, with prehensile tails. They often climb to access ants nests in trees. They sleep in hollows either in, or at the base of, trees, rather than excavating their own burrows in soil (as <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> does).<br/><br/>Lim and Ng (2007), recorded the activity budget of a radio-tracked individual, with the following results: maternal care following the birth of a single offspring was for approximately 3-4 months. Three natal dens were used, all associated with hollows in large trees (>50 cm DBH). Home-range size was estimated as being 6.97 ha. Daily activity was 127 +-13.1 minutes, with peak activity between 03h00 and 06h00.
12763		population	eng	Virtually no information is available on population levels of any species of Asian pangolins. These species are rarely observed due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). There appear to be no comprehensive population estimates available, although records are reportedly rarer in many range states.<br/><br/>It is extremely rare in the northern part of its range (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.), less so in the southern part (Boeadi pers. comm.). There have been massive declines in the northern part of its range (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It is very common in parts of Singapore (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.), where Lim and Ng (2007) estimated the range size of one individual, but made no estimate of total population size or density. In Sabah it is relatively common (Han and Giman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In three areas of Viet Nam where interviews were conducted (Khe Net Protected Area, Ke Go Nature Reserve and Song Thanh National Park), hunters reported that populations had massively declined in the last few decades, but particularly since about 1990 when the commercial trade in pangolins began to escalate (Newton 2007). In all three areas, the species was described as now being extremely rare. The intense biodiversity survey effort and extremely limited number of confirmed records of pangolins throughout Viet Nam?s protected areas adds weight to this observation (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In three separate areas within the range of <em>Manis javanica</em> in Lao PDR (Xe Pian, Dong Phou Veng and Khammouan Limestone NBCA), villagers have recently reported that pangolin populations have declined, in some areas to as little as one percent of the level 30 years ago due to hunting (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>There is no recent data on the status of this species in Myanmar (WCMC <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/><em>M. javanica</em> is considered threatened and becoming increasingly rare in Thailand (Bain and Humphrey 1982; Steinmitz pers. comm. 2006).
12763		threats	eng	Threats to Asian pangolins include rapid loss and deterioration of available habitat and hunting for local use and for international trade in skins, scales, and meat. Evidence suggests that pangolins, in general, are able to adapt to modified habitats (e.g., secondary forests), provided their termite food source remains abundant and they are not unduly persecuted. However, whilst secondary habitats may be suitable, on the basis of hunters? reports in Viet Nam and the evidence of Lim and Ng (2007) in Singapore, it seems that the availability of tree hollows, which is higher in undisturbed forest, is also extremely important for this species (P. Newton pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species is intensively used, for its skin, meat and scales, and is evidently subject to heavy collection pressure in many parts of its range. The species may be harvested for local (i.e. national-level) use, as well as for international export either before or after processing. Observations in mainland Southeast Asia indicate that there is very heavy unofficial, or at least unrecorded, international trade in pangolins and pangolin products, although it is not possible at present to disentangle this trade from local use (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). The majority of utilization and trade data on pangolins in Asia do not distinguish reliably between the Asian species of pangolin (<em>Manis crassicaudata</em>, <em>Manis culionensis</em>, <em>Manis javanica</em>, <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>). The two most commonly traded species (<em>Manis javanica</em>, <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>) have significant populations in some of the same countries (especially Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Viet Nam), and because both species are imported into China, it is often not possible to determine which species is referred to in both local use and export (WCMC<em>et al</em>. 1999). The lack of accurate population and harvest data across this species? range, makes it difficult to assess the level and impact of harvest. The total from national use and international trade indicate that, at a minimum, several tens of thousands of animals were harvested and traded annually during the 1990s (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999). Figures, discussed in detail in Broad <em>et al</em>. (1988) and WCMC and IUCN SSC (1992), indicate that trade of this magnitude also took place at least up until the mid-1980s (e.g. over 185,000 skins reported in international trade by CITES in the period 1980-85 alone). An estimate in the late 1950s and early 1960s indicates that scales of some 10,000 pangolins (<em>Manis javanica</em>) per year were exported from Borneo (Harrison and Loh 1965).<br/><br/>The trade routes and degree are both sophisticated and extensive occurring over land and by sea. Most of the trade concerns <em>Manis javanica</em>, but traders do not distinguish between the species. Scales are used medicinally and the skins are used as a leather, but the medicinal use is greatest. In the past animal parts were used to cure skin diseases, but now it is used in China to cure cancer. The increased wealth in China is leading to a large increase in rates of exploitation of this species. In all of Lao PDR, the population crashed more than 90% in the last 10 years (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). More recently, since Lao PDR and Thailand populations have greatly reduced, hunted animals are brought in from Indonesia and large numbers of live animals to be exported to China have been seized (GMA, Indonesia Workshop 2006). Indonesia has been illegally exporting great numbers of live animals, some of which come from east Kalimantan (Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>The population in the southern part of Thailand crashed because of trade, however, in the western part of Thailand it is more stable due to presence in protected areas (Anak pers. comm. 2006). In the last few years many animals have been confiscated from illegal traders (Han pers. comm. 2006).  This species is hunted by specially trained dogs, which can smell it out, making hunting much more effective ? such pangolin dogs are highly valued (up to USD 2000)  (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Every hunter interviewed in Viet Nam (n = 84) reported that they now sell all pangolins that they catch (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices are so high that local, subsistence use of pangolins for either meat or their scales has completely halted in favour or selling to the national/international trade (P. Newton pers. comm.). The only occasions on which a hunter might eat a pangolin is if it is already dead when they retrieve it from a trap ? then they would use the meat and sell the scales (P. Newton pers. comm.). The price per kg of pangolin (in Viet Nam, at least) has escalated rapidly (at a rate greater than that of annual inflation) since the commercial trade in wild pangolins began to expand in about 1990 (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices paid to hunters now exceed US$95 per kg (Viet Nam,  P. Newton pers. comm.); US$45 per kg (Cambodia, C. Phallika pers. comm. to P. Newton) and US$17 per kg (Indonesia, D. Martyr pers. comm. to P. Newton).
12764		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II; a zero annual export quota has been established for specimens removed from the wild and traded for primarily commercial purposes. It is protected by national or subnational legislation in Bangladesh, China, India, Lao, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, and Viet Nam. This wide ranging species is present in some protected areas, but protected area designation alone is not sufficient to protect this species. Greater enforcement and management to prevent poaching in protected areas is urgently needed. Large seizures of illegal animals do occur, but the trade continues largely unabated.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, all pangolins are legally protected.<br/><br/>On Taiwan, all Manis species have been protected since August 1990 under the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Law. <br/><br/>This species is listed as a Class II protected species in China?s Wild Animal Protection Law (1989), and also as a Class II protected species in China in the Regulations on the Conservation and Management of Wild Resources of Medicinal Plants and Animals (1987).<br/><br/>In Thailand, all Manis species are classified as Protected Wild Animals under the 1992 Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535.<br/><br/>In India, this species is completely protected, as it is included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.<br/><br/>Hunting of this species is prohibited in Nepal (Gaski and Hemley 1991).<br/><br/>The legal status of pangolins in Lao PDR is unclear, as a result of internal contradictions in Lao PDR laws applicable to wildlife and wildlife trading. However, Provincial and District Agricultural and Forestry Offices in Lao PDR have been confiscating large numbers of pangolins, so there is evidently a perceived legal basis for doing so (WCMC <em>et al.</em> 1999).
12764		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Himalayan foothills in eastern Nepal, Bhutan and northern India, northeastern Bangladesh, across Myanmar to northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, northern and northeastern Thailand, and through southern China (south of the Chiangjiang) to Hainan and Taiwan. The limits of its range are poorly known, and complicated by high levels of exploitation. The species exists at high altitudes, especially in the southern and western parts of its range, possibly occurring at much lower altitudes in northeast. Its latitudinal range is thought likely to overlap considerably with that of <em>Manis javanica</em>, with <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> tending to occur in hills and mountains and the latter more generally found at lower altitudes, though recent interviews with in Viet Nam suggest that the two species can be found in the same areas of forest, and that the differences between them are ecological, relating to diet and habitat use, rather than altitude (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species has been recorded in northeastern India from Sikkim eastward (Tikader 1983). The species occurs in eastern Nepal and Bhutan at the foothills of the Himalayas, apparently confined to elevations below approximately 1,500 m in Nepal (Frick 1968; Mitchell 1975).<br/><br/>The species has been recorded in north and central Lao PDR, however, there are too few locality records to determine the geographic and altitudinal range of the species in the country with any accuracy (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Evans 1996).<br/><br/>The species occurs throughout southeast China from the southern border as far north as Changjiang (the Yangtze River), including on the island of Chusan at the mouth of the Changjiang (Allen and Coolidge 1940). This species is distributed widely in China in the provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, and Fujian, and in the Autonomous Regions of Hainan Island, Guangxi Zhuang, and Tibet (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is recorded in several sites in central and northeast New Territories, as well as on Hong Kong (Lantau Island), although not on the smaller outlying islands (Reels 1996).<br/><br/>On Taiwan, the species occurs on the periphery of the Central Mountain Range, the Western Foothill Range, the Taoyuan Tableland, the Ouluanpi Tableland, the East Coast Mountain Range, the Tatun Volcano Group, Taipei Basin, Puli Basin, and the Pingtun Plain (Chao Jung-Tai 1989; Chao Jung-Tai <em>et al</em>. 2005). The upper limit of occurrence is around 2,000 m asl (Chao Jung-Tai 1989).<br/><br/>The species is probably widespread in northern Myanmar, although there are few records and the exact distribution is not well known (Salter 1983; Corbet and Hill 1992; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The only records of the species in Thailand are from: Doi Inthanon (formerly Doi Angka) in Changwat, Chiang Mai (northern Thailand), sometime in 1937 and 1939 (Allen and Coolidge 1940); Doi Sutep, Chiangmai (northern Thailand) in 1901; and Mukdaharn in northeastern Thailand.<br/><br/>All records of the species in Viet Nam are from the northern half of the country, as far south as Quang Tri Province, up to 1,000 m asl (Bourret 1942; Peenen <em>et al</em>. 1969; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006; P. Newton pers. comm.).
12764		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including primary and secondary tropical forests, limestone forests, bamboo forests, grasslands and agricultural fields, and grasslands (Chao Jung-Tai 1989; Gurung 1996). The species digs its own burrows, or enlarges passages made by termites. Indications are that home range is relatively large, although concrete data are lacking (Heath and Vanderlip 1988). Hunters interviewed in Viet Nam indicate that <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> digs its own, long burrows underground, which they use both to eat termites and in which to sleep (P. Newton pers. comm.). The main way in which they catch this species is to dig them out of these burrows, so this evidence is probably reliable (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species is solitary, nocturnal (sometimes crepuscular), and largely terrestrial although it is fully capable of climbing trees and, like other pangolins, swims well (Heath and Vanderlip 1988; Chao Jung-Tai 1989). In addition, little is known of the species? life history, although in China and Taiwan, young (normally one, occasionally two) are reportedly born in spring (Allen and Coolidge 1940; Chao Jung-Tai 1989). Hunters in Viet Nam reported that they never find this species in trees, and so it seems likely that it is far more terrestrial than the more arboreal <em>Manis javanica</em> (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The diet consists of ants and termites (Heath and Vanderlip 1988). It has been noted that in China, there appears to be a close correlation between the its distribution and the distribution of two termite species (Coptotermes formosanus and Termes (Cyclotermes) formosanus) that are assumed to form a major component of its diet (Allen and Coolidge 1940).
12764		population	eng	Virtually no information is available on population levels of any species of Asian pangolins. These species are rarely observed due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). There have been few documented records, and therefore there is very little information available on the population status anywhere in the species' range, but it appears to be decreasing over much of its range. <br/><br/>A 1993 survey conducted in the Royal Nagarjung Forest in Kathmandu, Nepal, determined that there was a healthy population there, however, the general trend elsewhere in Nepal was dramatically declining, due to increased access to hunting areas and loss of habitat (Gurung 1996). <br/><br/>This species was reported in the 1980s as common in the undisturbed hill forests of Arunachal Pradesh, however, little is known about the total population in India (Tikader 1983; Zoological Survey of India 1994).<br/><br/>Reports from the late 1980s and early 1990s suggest that the total population of this species in Taiwan was decreasing due to poaching and habitat destruction (Chao Jung-Tai 1989; Chao Jung-Tai <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>The species is very rare in Viet Nam (Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). There is a ?confirmed record? we found is for Ba Na National Park, which straddles the provinces of Quang Nam and Da Nang (Frontier Viet Nam, 1994). Hunters in Viet Nam reported that they still find <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> in Cuc Phuong National Park (in Quang Binh province), in Khe Net Nature Reserve, and in Ke Go Nature Reserve (Ha Tinh province) (P. Newton pers. comm.). However, all hunters reported that the species is extremely rare, and that populations have declined dramatically in the last two decades (P. Newton pers. comm.). In 2007, P. Newton (pers. comm.) found recent (i.e., less than 1 month old) signs of pangolin activity (recently-dug burrows) in Cuc Phuong National Park ? these were almost certainly those of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>, as the park is well outside of the range of <em>Manis javanica</em>. In Khe Net and Ke Go, hunters reported that numbers of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> were lower than those of <em>Manis javanica</em>, probably because the former is easier to hunt. If this is the case, then in places where both species occur, populations of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> are likely to be more heavily depleted.<br/><br/>The species has been so heavily hunted in Lao PDR that field sightings are exceptionally rare, and the only recent field sightings (during 1994-1995) was of an individual in Nam Theun Extension PNBCA (Proposed National Biodiversity Conservation Area) and one seen in a village in Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA during the same period (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). Manis pentadactyla is less often recorded in trade in Lao PDR than Manis javanica, perhaps due to its lower abundance in the wild (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).
12764		threats	eng	Threats to Asian pangolins include rapid loss and deterioration of available habitat and hunting for local use and for international trade in skins, scales, and meat. Evidence suggests that pangolins, in general, are able to adapt to modified habitats (e.g., secondary forests), provided their termite food source remains abundant and they are not unduly persecuted. The species is intensively used, for its skin, meat and scales, and is evidently subject to heavy collection pressure in many parts of its range. The species may be harvested for local (i.e. national-level) use, or for international export either before or after processing. Observations in mainland Southeast Asia indicate that there is very heavy unofficial, or at least unrecorded, international trade in pangolins and pangolin products. The species trade levels are significant across its range, although precise estimates are unknown (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Of particular significance is that <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> is reported to be an easier species to locate and hunt in the wild (P. Newton pers. comm.). This is because it is more terrestrial, and is thus: a) easier to track their scent using specialised hunting dogs (the scent of <em>Manis javanica</em> is often lost at points at which the animal climbed a tree); and b) has conspicuous soil burrows that are more easily accessed than the tree hollows favoured by <em>Manis javanica</em> (P. Newton pers. comm.). For these reasons, the hunting threat to <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> is perhaps even greater than that to <em>Manis javanica</em> (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Every hunter interviewed in Viet Nam (N = 84) reported that they now sell all pangolins that they catch (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices are so high that local, subsistence use of pangolins for either meat or their scales has completely halted in favour or selling to the national/international trade (P. Newton pers. comm.). The only occasions on which a hunter might eat a pangolin is if it is already dead when they retrieve it from a trap ? then they would use the meat and sell the scales (P. Newton pers. comm.). The price per kg of pangolin (in Viet Nam, at least) has escalated rapidly (at a rate greater than that of annual inflation) since the commercial trade in wild pangolins began to expand in about 1990 (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices paid to hunters now exceed US$95 per kg (Viet Nam,  P. Newton pers. comm.).
12765		conservation	eng	Although it has been locally exterminated in some areas, it occurs in many national parks and other protected areas (e.g. Kruger National Park, South Africa). While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, and is protected in a number of range states (e.g. Botswana), there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation over much of its distribution.
12765		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from eastern Chad from north of the forest block through parts of southern Sudan and most of East Africa to southern Africa (to about 30 degrees south). Also recorded from north-eastern Central African Republic and from south-western Ethiopia (though not from Somalia) (Swart in press). It is unclear if the distribution of this species overlaps with the range of the Giant Pangolin <em>S. gigantea</em> in the mosaic forest savanna north and south of the forest blocks.
12765		habitat	eng	It is a mostly solitary, terrestrial species that is present in various woodland and savanna habitats, often with thick undergrowth, and also in floodplain grasslands. The range is largely determined by an abundance of ants and termites of a few specific types. It can be found in farmed areas. Animals spend the daytime in underground dens. The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation of approximately 140 days; females give birth to one young per year (Swart in press).
12765		population	eng	This species is very widely but patchily distributed. Given its nocturnal and secretive nature, their abundance is probably underestimated. Density in the Kruger N. P. region has been estimated at 0.24/km² (Swart in press).
12765		threats	eng	This species is selectively hunted for meat and scales (for charms), and is used for traditional medicine in a number of countries (Bräutigam <em>et al.</em> 1994; Swart in press). Other recorded threats to the species include poisoning with pesticides and electric fences (Swart 1996; in press).
12766		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g. Ituri Forest Reserve). While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation in many range states.
12766		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the forested regions of West and Central Africa, from Sierra Leone eastwards through south-eastern Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and south-west Ghana, there being an apparent gap in distribution until west Nigeria. They then occur eastwards through southern Cameroon, and much of the Congo Basin forest block to the Semliki valley (and thus, just possibly, into Uganda) (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Their presence in Cabinda (Angola) is possible (J. Crawford-Cabral pers. comm.).
12766		habitat	eng	This is the most arboreal of the African pangolin species, found in tropical moist riverine and swamp forest, never far from water (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). In Nigeria, it has been recorded both in secondary rainforests, in altered forests (bush), and in farmlands (agricultural areas of former lowland rainforests) (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999). It feeds on ants, termites and other invertebrates. The gestation period is about 140 days, after which the females give birth to a single young. Breeding is almost continuous.
12766		population	eng	There is no quantitative data available on densities or abundance. This is the least frequently recorded of all African pangolins, though it may be less rare than available records suggest. The species is extremely shy, almost strictly arboreal, and mainly restricted to little-known and little-penetrated habitats (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
12766		threats	eng	It is threatened by selective hunting for meat, medicinal and cultural use, although to a far lesser degree than <em>Phataginus tricuspis</em> or <em>Smutsia gigantea</em>. According to CITES trade reports for the period 1996-2005, trade in live animals, specimens or skins is reported in nearly every year, with 40 specimens exported from the Central African Republic in 2000 (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
12767		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation in many range states.
12767		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Guinea in West Africa through Sierra Leone and much of West Africa to Central Africa as far east as southwestern Kenya and north-western Tanzania and as far south (west of Lake Tanganyika) as north-western Zambia and northern Angola; also on Bioko (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). There are no confirmed records from Senegal, The Gambia or Guinea-Bissau (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
12767		habitat	eng	This largely nocturnal and semi-arboreal species is found in lowland tropical moist forest (primary and secondary), and savanna/forest mosaics; also favours cultivation and fallow land where not hunted (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Sodeinde and Adedipe (1994) noted that Tree Pangolins were often reported caught on abandoned or little-used oil palm trees in secondary growth. This suggests that the species can adapt to at least some degree of habitat modification. It feeds on ants, termites and other invertebrates. The gestation period is about 150 days, after which the females give birth to a single young, which are carried by the female (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
12767		population	eng	This is the most common of the African forest pangolins, reaching relatively high densities in suitable habitat (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
12767		threats	eng	Tree Pangolins are subject to widespread and often intensive exploitation for bushmeat and traditional medicine, and are by far the most common of the pangolins found in African bushmeat markets. For example, during the course of six months fieldwork in Cameroon in 2002-2003, this species was the fourth most harvested species across 47 sites sampled, after the Brush-tailed Porcupine <em>Atherurus africanus</em>, Blue Duiker <em>Philantomba monticola</em> and Giant Pouched Rat <em>Cricetomys emini</em> (Fa <em>et al.</em> 2006). Tree Pangolins are commonly recorded in international trade: according to CITES trade reports, during the period 1996 to 2005, 30 live animals were exported from Togo in 1996 and 16 in 2002, and five each in two successive years (1999 and 2000) from Cameroon (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
12774		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
12775		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
12776		conservation	eng	Limits on exportation of animals have been imposed, and the trade has been  greatly reduced. Plans to implement a controlled, sustainable trade through a  trade quota should be encouraged, and would help ensure the survival of its  habitat, as well as probably being more effective than complete trade bans. This species is being maintained in captivity by about 35 zoos  and other institutions and is being bred in captivity by public institutions and  many private individuals.  It  does not occur in protected areas, but it is found near to the Réserve Spéciale  d'Analamazaotra. The species was recently recorded from a cluster of unprotected forest localities to the south of Moramanga. These forests are under severe pressure and should be considered as conservation priorities for protection (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
12776		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution in east-central Madagascar, centred on the Torotorofotsy area (c. 7km north-west of Andasibe) and the Andromena Forest at the Samarirana River. Several other small forest fragments north and south of Moramanga are populated by the species as well. Its recorded altitudinal range is 920-960 m asl.
12776		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary rainforest only, and usually found in damp, swampy areas, often associated with screw pine (<em>Pandanus</em>) forest. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are flushed by rain into swamps, temporary ponds, and flooded forest, where they develop further.
12776		population	eng	It is extremely localized, being very abundant in tiny areas, often of just a few hectares.
12776		threats	eng	It is restricted to a fragment of forest surrounded by degraded land, and the remaining forest is under threat from subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, fires, and expanding human settlements. Recent surveys indicate that the habitat is being degraded in all the areas where the species occurs, and in 2001 a significant amount of the remaining suitable habitat at Torotorofotsy was affected by fire (although three years later the species was still common in the affected areas). However, the remaining habitat for the species is now severely fragmented. It is also possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but so far such harvesting has not had a visible effect on its populations.
12795		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Lore Lindu National Park, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine both the full extent of the species range, and its tolerance to habitat disturbance.
12795		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and northeastern Sulawesi (Indonesia), where it occurs from near sea level to 1,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is only known from a few areas but it may be quite widespread outside of the known locations.
12795		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in lowland tropical evergreen rain forest (Musser 1990; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been collected from naturally disturbed riverside forest, but it is not known if it can occur in modified habitats.
12795		population	eng	It is a fairly common species, but it is difficult to trap without targetted effort (G. Musser pers. comm.).
12795		threats	eng	It is believed to be threatened by habitat degradation, resulting from deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural use.
12796		conservation	eng	Gunung Nokilalaki is in Lore Lindu National Park. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it does occur more widely in central Sulawesi.
12796		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur from 1,600-2,285 m on Gunung Nokilalaki and from a single specimen farther south in the Mamasa Area (02°56'S, 119°22'E). It is likely to occur in other montane regions of central Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12796		habitat	eng	This arboreal species appears restricted to montane rainforest, such as on the steep slopes of Gunung Nokilalaki, and has not been found in lowland forest (Musser 1981; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known whether it might survive in slightly degraded habitats.
12796		population	eng	It is common on Gunung Nokilalaki.
12796		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture at higher elevations.
12797		conservation	eng	The known range of the species is within Lore Lindu National Park (Musser and Carleton 2005). Further research is needed to determine if the species is more widely distributed.
12797		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Sulawesi, Indonesia, where it has been recorded at elevations of between 1,800 and 2,272 m on the slopes of Gunung Nokilalaki. It probably occurs elsewhere in mountainous areas of central Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12797		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in montane rain forest, but has not been recorded from lowland tropical evergreen forest (Musser 1981; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.
12797		population	eng	It is presumably a fairly common species, but it is arboreal and difficult to trap without targeted effort (G. Musser pers. comm.).
12797		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture at higher elevations.
12798		conservation	eng	This species is protected in France and in Spain. It is listed in the Annex 4 of the Habitat Directive and the Annex II of the Bern Convention. Species Action Plans have been elaborated in France (2009) and Spain (2005). <br/><br/>It is necessary to take major actions if we want to ensure the survival of this species: surveys in southwest France will allow to discover remaining populations, research on the ecology (water quality requirement, host fish, population genetics), management of the habitat, in particular of the dams and water quality, the restoration of host fish populations, designation of special protected areas and captive breeding programmes.
12798		distribution	eng	This species was originally known to be widespread in Europe extending in the north to Denmark, east to Italy and to Portugal in the West. Nowadays, it only occurs in France and Spain and is extinct in the rest of Europe (Araujo and Ramos 2001). The current range of this species is recorded from part of the rivers Charente, Vienne and Creuse in France and part of the Ebro river in Spain. Therefore, the species is known from four locations, namely the Charente, Vienne, Creuze and Ebro rivers, with a possible fifth one which has to be confirmed (Dronne river in France). In parts of the range the species has been extinct for hundreds of years (UK), whereas in other regions the decline and disappearance happened in the last century.
12798		habitat	eng	This species occurs in slow-flowing large rivers. It is dependent on well-oxygenated gravel substrate for juvenile development. It relies on the presence of its fish host (which is believed to be the Common sturgeon<span style="font-style: italic;"> Acipenser sturio</span>, nearly extirpated in most western European rivers). Nevertheless, the Mediterranean populations (Ebro river) may reproduce thanks to an other fish host (River Blenny <span style="font-style: italic;">Salaria fluviatillis</span>).
12798		population	eng	Currently in France, reproduction is very scarce in the Ebro and Vienne rivers and therefore these subpopulations are decreasing. In the other rivers, no recruitment is observed at all and most of the subpopulations will have disappeared in the next 20-50 years. The subpopulation from the Oise river (France) was probably extirpated in the last few years.
12798		threats	eng	Main threats are/were due to human activities, either by direct killing of individuals or by habitat modification. In particular, dams seriously threat this species, both through habitat modification (siltation) and impeding the migration of the host fish. River regulation, dredging, water pollution and pesticides (there are very large irrigated fields along the banks of the Ebro) and water availability are among the most important reasons for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. auricularia</span>’s decline. Irrational water use in the area is behind all these problems and represents the main threat to the species (Araujo and Ramos 1989).
12799		conservation	eng	<p>To date, many pearl mussel rivers within the EU have been designated as Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), and the species is protected under national legislation in most countries with various levels of restriction. In most cases, both national legislation and SAC status have resulted in some improvement on direct damage to mussels such as pearl fishing, and some protection against plans or projects that would be likely to damage&#160; populations, but conservation actions are generally lacking through lack of real engagement in how such rivers and their catchments need to be managed in order to rehabilitate and sustain their mussel populations for the future. It is obvious that if damaging activities are not removed and prevented into the future within pearl mussel catchments, that designation of SACs for the species will not have lead to any protection whatsoever.</p>    <p>Part of the problem of protection of the species within SACs is the design of the directive, which restricts SACs to habitats of importance, so that buffer zones that would be of great value in conservation action cannot be part of any designation. There is in theory a requirement to protect SACs from ex-situ damage, but this has not been effectively operated to date.&#160; </p>    <p>A strong negative indicator of the future prospects of this species has been the very poor response of the various competent authorities to dealing with the damaging effects of intensification of agriculture and coniferous forestry in pearl mussel catchments. </p>    <p>Agricultural and forestry operations continue to intensify in parts of pearl mussel catchments, and need to be reduced to levels that are compatible with the life cycle of the pearl mussel. Recent intensification has resulted from both economic drivers and environmental policy. Pressure on dairy farmers to intensify operations and increase herd sizes has led to use of previously marginal land. A policy for compensation of farmers for more compatible practices should be urgently undertaken, as part of a management plan on a catchment by catchment basis. Any compensation payments made to farmers in <span style="font-style: italic;">Margaritifera</span> catchments should be for practices that are compatible with favourable conservation status into the future.</p>  <p></p><p>In general, damage leading to unfavourable <span style="font-style: italic;">Margaritifera</span> status has been from cumulative effects of intensification of agriculture over many years. The most important conservation action for any population has to be the production and thorough implementation of a catchment management plan that undertakes measures at source and/or pathway between the land activities and the habitat within the river. <br/></p><p>Other conservation actions include captive breeding in situations where populations have become severely depleted. This should never take place without a detailed catchment management plan to allow for the return of captive bred mussels to the wild. <br/> </p>  <p>&#160;It is hoped that the Water Framework Directive may help develop policies, legislation and management strategies that could work towards managing damaging land uses and improving water and habitat quality. It is imperative that recoverable pearl mussel populations are given the highest priority and that everyone involved in the implementation of this Directive understands the very demanding habitat requirements of the pearl mussel.  </p><p>&#160;</p>    <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
12799		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">The following are the most recent revised estimates of current population status of </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>M. margaritifera </em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">in Europe. The information is mainly from Geist (2005), and compiled by Geist partly based on data and references in </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Alvarez-Claudio </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2000)</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">, </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Araujo and Ramos (2000), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Larsen (2001), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Young </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2001a), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Velasco Marcos </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2002), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Reis (2003),</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Morales </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2004), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Rudzite (2004),</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Sachteleben </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2004)</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">, Dolmen and Kleiven (2008) and updated information according to personal communications with M. Porkka, C. Greke, M. Rudzite, D. Telnov, St. Terren, G. Motte, J. Reis, E. Moorkens, I. Killeen, M. Young, G. Cochet, F. Renard-Laval, E. Holder, P. Durlet, T. Ofenböck, J. </strong>Hruška<strong style="font-weight: normal;">, N. Laanetu, L. Henrikson, T. Von Proschwitz, E. San Miguel Salán, R. Araujo, and from personal survey work.</strong><strong><br/><br/></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>: There are 29 sub-populations with 50,000 individuals.Only three of these are large sub-populations and there is a strong decline. Less than 5 of the sub-populations with limited juvenile recruitment.    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>: There are 5-6&#160; sub-populations with 2,500-3,000 individuals. The sub-populations are almost extinct with a lack of juvenile recruitment. There has been conservation programmes for these sub-populations since 2002.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>: There are 6 sub-populations with 80,000 individuals. Three of these sub-populations are at frontier streams plus the 3 further sub-populations have more than 20% of juveniles but only one of these is large (60,000 individuals).&#160; <br/></p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark</span>: There is a maximum of 1 sub-population&#160; with an unknown number of individuals. This sub-population is probably extinct, as it was last recorded in1970.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia</span>: There is 1 sub-population with 35,000-40,000 individuals. There has been a lack of juvenile recruitment for at least 40 years.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span>: There are 50 sub-populations with 1,500,000 individuals. The largest remaining sub-population is in the Lutto drainage, Northern Finland. Seventy-five percent of the sub-populations were lost in the 20th century. Eleven important populations remain; some populations with few juveniles, but probably only a few functional populations.</p>      <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: There are now 84 sub-populations maximum with 100,000 individuals. It is scarce in most of its former range; it was originally abundant in more than 200 rivers. At present it is found in less than 10 rivers with juveniles; sub-populations are still present in Massif Amoricain (18), Massif Central (57), Morvan (6), Vosges (1) and Pyrenees (2) but there are serious declines; there is one big population in Dronne (16,000 individuals) with little recruitment and the other populations are mostly small with 10 to 100 individuals, maximum of 300 individuals.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: There are 69 sub-populations&#160; maximum with 144,000 individuals. The largest sub-populations with over 10,000 individuals are in Bavaria but there are serious declines. There is only one recovering population with more than 20% juveniles in Northern Germany. Several conservation and breeding programmes have started.</p>        <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Great Britain</span>: There are more than 105 sub-populations with over 12,000,000 individuals. The best populations are in Scotland but 2/3 of the originally known 155 populations are extinct. Overall there are still over 12,000,000 mussels with one river estimated at having 10,000,000 alone. There are 10 rivers with significant numbers of juveniles and common or abundant adults, and 5 others with some juveniles but scarce adults. In England 10 pearl mussel rivers remain (the best sub-population has over 100,000 mussels but few juveniles and evidence of decline). In Wales there are 10 pearl mussel rivers (the best has less than 1,000 mussels).<br/></p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Republic of Ireland</span>: There are 139 rivers with sub-populations with 12,000,000 individuals. The best rivers have between 2 and 3 million individuals, however most have just a few thousand. There is a serious decline with few recruiting sub-populations. </p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northern Ireland</span>: Ninety percent of the sub-populations have been lost.&#160; <em><br/></em></p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Latvia</span>: There are 8 sub-populations with 25,000 individuals. There is a serious decline, as no sub-population with juvenile recruitment remains.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Lithuania</span>: There is possibly 1 sub-population which the status of is unknown.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Luxembourg</span>: There is 1 sub-population with 1,000-1,500 individuals. This species is&#160; almost extinct in Luxembourg.&#160; <br/></p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>: There are 340-350 sub-populations with probably 300 million individuals. There is a serious decline, especially in the South, however the exact distribution, total numbers and juvenile status is unclear.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Poland</span>: There are no remaining sub-population in Poland and it is considered Extinct here.<br/></p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>: There are 6 sub-populations with more than 1,000,000 individuals. There is a severe decline, with 3 large populations (22,000; 50,000; 1 million) with evidence for juvenile recruitment remaining , but serious declines expected in two of them due to recent construction of man-made dams.</p>          <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>: There are more than 8 sub-populations with more than 100,000,000 individuals. There is a serious decline, however 4 populations of over 1 million individuals remain.</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>: There are 19 sub-populations; at least 17 in Galicia, 1 in Asturias and 1 in Salamanca; but the number of individuals is unknown. There is a serious decline as there is probably no more than 2 reproductive sub-populations with significant numbers of juveniles.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>: There are more than 400 sub-populations with more than 8,000,000 individuals. There are serious declines; at least 50 populations have significant numbers of juveniles less than 50mm in size.<br/></p>
12799		habitat	eng	<p>Sustainable populations of the freshwater pearl mussel are restricted to near natural, clean flowing waters, often downstream of ultra-oligotrophic lakes. A small number of records are from the lakes themselves. </p>    <p><em>Margaritifera </em>requires stable cobble and gravel substrates with very little fine material below pea-sized gravel. Adult mussels are two-thirds buried and juveniles up to 5-10 years old are totally buried within the substrate. The lack of fine material in the river bed substrate allows for free water exchange between the open river and the water within the substrate. The free exchange of water means that oxygen levels within the substrate do not fall below those of the open water. This is essential for juvenile recruitment, as this species requires continuous high oxygen levels.</p>    <p>The clean substrate must be free of inorganic silt, organic peat, and detritus, as these can all block oxygen exchange. Organic particles within the substrate can exacerbate the problem by consuming oxygen during the process of decomposition. The habitat must be free of filamentous algal growth and rooted macrophyte growth. Both block the free exchange of water between the river and the substrate and may also cause night time drops in oxygen at the water-sediment interface.</p>    <p>The open water must be of high quality with very low nutrient concentrations, in order to limit algal and macrophyte growth. Nutrient levels must be close to reference levels for ultra-oligotrophic rivers. Phosphorus must never reach values that could allow for sustained, excessive filamentous algal growth.</p>    <p>The presence of sufficient salmonid fish to carry the larval glochidial stage of the pearl mussel life cycle is essential.</p>    <p>Intact natural catchments prevent fine sediment and nutrient losses to the river. As fine sediment losses become chronic, siltation of the substrate can provide a rooting medium for higher plants. Nutrients can also accumulate in the sediment (and may be chronically or intermittently available in the open water), promoting the growth of algae and macrophytes. This exacerbates the stressful environment for the adult and juvenile mussels, and as more adults are lost, further niches for macrophyte growth become available. There is a resultant trophic cascade in the habitat, where oligotrophic conditions succeed to eutrophic conditions and the suite of invertebrate species changes accordingly.&#160; Thus, the conservation targets for mussel populations include maintenance of free water exchange between the river and the substrate and minimal coverage by algae and weed. The&#160; most important requirement is the maintenance of recruitment i.e. the river bed structure required to breed the next generation. Nutrients in the sediment are problematic as they are used by rooted plants. Dissolved nutrients in the water column tend to lead to algal growth. Both come from chronic and/or periodic loss of dissolved nutrients from the catchment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
12799		population	eng	<p>This species is a special case in having approximately 200,000,000 mature  individuals but due to habitat degradation having very little  replacement as adults die. Functional extinction is widespread throughout most of the range. Most sub-populations are isolated and genetic exchange between sub-populations is unlikely by natural means. Across most of the range adults that die will not be replaced due to habitat changes that cannot support juveniles, so most sub-populations have not recruited for many years. <br/></p><p>The following are the most recent revised estimates of current population status and estimated past (90 years) and future (90 years) population and individual number estimates of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. margaritifera</span> in Europe. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">The information is mainly from Geist (2005), and compiled by Geist partly based on data and references in </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Alvarez-Claudio </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2000)</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">, </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Araujo and Ramos (2000), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Larsen (2001), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Young </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2001a), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Velasco Marcos </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2002), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Reis (2003),</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Morales </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2004), </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Rudzite (2004),</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Sachteleben </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>et al</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">. (2004)</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">,  Dolmen and Kleiven (2008) and updated information according to personal  communications with M. Porkka, C. Greke, M. Rudzite, D. Telnov, St.  Terren, G. Motte, J. Reis, E. Moorkens, I. Killeen, M. Young, G. Cochet,  F. Renard-Laval, E. Holder, P. Durlet, T. Ofenböck, J. </strong>Hruška<strong style="font-weight: normal;">, N.  Laanetu, L. Henrikson, T. Von Proschwitz, E. San Miguel Salán, R.  Araujo, and from personal survey work.</strong> (Moorkens pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</p>Overall in the last 90 years for Europe there has been a decline of 81.5%, for EU Countries a loss of 87%.&#160; The overall Global loss over the same period is 61.5%<br/><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>: There are currently 29 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 3. There are currently 50,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 5,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 1,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 82% over last 3 generations)<br/></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>: There are currently&#160; 5-6 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 2,500-3,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 300,00 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>: There are currently&#160; 6 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 1. There are currently 80,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 8,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 1,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 0% over last 3 generations)</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark </span>(maximum): There is currently&#160; 1 sub-population. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 1 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently an unknown number of individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 10,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0.  (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia</span>: There is currently 1 sub-population. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 1 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 35,000-40,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 400,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span>: There are currently 50 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 200 and the estimated future number of populations is 5. There are currently 1,500,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 50,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 100,000.(Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 78% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: There are currently 84 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 200 and the estimated future number of populations is 10. There are currently 100,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 50,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 10,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 96% over last 3 generations)</p>  <p></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: There are currently 69 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 100 and the estimated future number of populations is 1. There are currently 144,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 25,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is10,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 94% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Great Britain</span>: There are currently&#160; 105 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 200 and the estimated future number of populations is 10. There are currently 12,000,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 20,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 1,000,000. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 90% over last 3 generations)</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Republic of Ireland</span>: There are currently 139 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 150 and the estimated future number of populations is 6. There are currently 12,000,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 20,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 600,000.(Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 96% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Latvia</span>: There are currently 8 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 40 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 25,000 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 5,000,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Lithuania</span>: There is currently possibly 1 sub-population. The past status of the sub-populations is unknown and it is not possible to estimate the future number of sub-populations. The past, current and future number of individuals is unknown or not possible to estimate.&#160; (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Luxembourg</span>: There is currently 1 sub-population. The estimated past number of sub-populations is more than 1 and the estimated future number of populations is 0. There are currently 1,000-1,500 individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 200,000 and the estimated future number of individuals is 0. (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generations)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>: There are currently&#160; 340-350 sub-populations. The estimated past number of sub-populations is 750 and it is not possible to estimate the future number of sub-populations. There are currently 300 million individuals. The estimated past number of individuals is 1,000 million and it is not possible to estimate the future number of individuals.  (Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 60% over last 3 generation, based on 40% loss and 20% not recruiting)</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Poland</span>: This species is considered Extinct in Poland so there are currently no sub-populations or individuals. The estimated number of sub-populations and number of individuals in the past 90 years is 0. It is not possible to estimate the future number of sub-populations or individuals.&#160;&#160; Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 100% over last 3 generation)</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>: There are currently 6 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 3. There are currently 1,000,000 individuals. The past number of individuals is unknown and the estimated future number of individuals is 100,000. Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 50% over last 3 generation, predicted to be another 2 subpopulations extinct in next 3 generations )</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>: There are currently 10 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is around 100 and the estimated future number of populations is approximately 3. There are currently 100,000,000 individuals. The past number of individuals is unknown and the estimated future number of individuals is 30,000,000.&#160; Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 90% over last 3 generation</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>: There are currently 19 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is 2. There are currently individuals. The past, current and future number of individuals are unknown or not possible estimate.&#160; Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 89% over last 3 generation</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>: There are currently 400 sub-populations. The past number of sub-populations is unknown and the estimated future number of populations is approximately 50. There are currently 8,000,000 individuals. The past number of individuals is unknown and the estimated future number of individuals is approximately 1,000,000. Estimated loss of recruiting subpopulations 81% over last 3 generations.&#160; Based on present subpopulations of 551, of which only c. 100 considered viable and recruiting, with original number of subpopulations in 1920's being over 1000.<br/></p>    <p>Total estimate across Europe for 2010:&#160; 1282 sub-populations, 423 million individuals</p><p>Total estimate across Europe for 1920:&#160;&#160; 2613 sub-populations, 2000 million individuals</p><p>Total estimate across Europe for 2100:&#160;&#160; 204 sub-populations, 47 million individuals.  </p>    <p><br/> <br/> </p>
12799		threats	eng	<p>There are a number of factors leading to the decline and loss of pearl mussel populations (Moorkens 1999, Araujo and Ramos 2001). <span style="font-style: italic;">Margaritifera</span> is highly demanding of very clean river habitats in order to be self-sustaining, but it lives for over 100 years, and thus non-sustainable populations of adult mussels can persist for many years after negative changes in the habitat have occurred. While a range of possible causes of decline can exist (e.g. direct habitat damage, acidification of rivers (particularly in Scandinavia) and depletion of mussels from pearl fishing activities), the overwhelming majority of population declines in Europe have been due to sediment accumulation in the river bed gravels, cutting off the supply of oxygen to juvenile mussels. New generations of mussels cannot be recruited, while older adults that were born before the habitat deterioration remain alive as they are filtering open rather than interstitial water. The source of pressures that lead to this decline come from the catchment into the river, thus protection and rehabilitation of mussel populations is impossible without effective catchment management that is protective to the juvenile mussel habitat. The best populations are known from low-intensively managed isolated catchments with little influence from man. However, some famous historical populations persist in low numbers in large, lowland rivers, where adults may be living in habitats that could not possibly sustain juveniles.<br/></p>    <p>The loss of pearl mussel populations mostly occurs from continuous failure to produce new generations of mussels because of the loss of clean gravel beds, which have become infiltrated by fine sediment and/or over-grown by algae or macrophytes. These block the required levels of oxygen from reaching young mussels. Juvenile mussels spend their first five to ten years buried within the river bed substrate.&#160; </p>        <p>&#160;Other ways in which mussel populations can decline and be lost is through adult mussel kills, or loss of host fish which are essential to the life cycle of <em>Margaritifera</em>. Further details of the life cycle can be found in Moorkens (1999).</p><p>Fine sediment, once introduced to a pearl mussel river, can continue to cause very serious effects on a long term basis (Ellis 1936, Marking and Bills 1979, Killeen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1998, Araujo and Ramos 2001, Naden <em>et al</em>. 2003<em></em>). Direct ingestion of silt by adult mussels can lead to rapid death. Turbidity, particularly from fine peat entering the water, causes adult mussels to clam up (they close their shells tightly and do not filter water through their siphons), a response that provides a protection against ingesting damaging fine particles. If the river water remains strongly turbid for a number of days, mussels can die from oxygen starvation, either from remaining clammed, or from ingesting contaminated water while stressed. During a time of year when water temperatures are high, oxygen depletion in the body occurs more rapidly, and mussels die more quickly. The evolutionarily primitive <em>Margaritifera</em> gills and the annual brooding of young in all four of the gills demand a continuous, high supply of oxygen. Even if the adult mussels survive an initial silt episode, food/oxygen deprivation from clamming will have caused them to become stressed, from which they will take a long time to recover. If during that recovery period, there are further incidents of mobilisation of this or other silt, then the stressed mussels will be more susceptible to death than mussels in a cold river in unstressed conditions. Thus, they may continue to die over a period of several months. Higher temperatures throughout the summer further exacerbate this problem.</p>    <p>Once a silt load enters a river that holds a pearl mussel population, it can continue to cause harm. Silt causes river changes, which in turn change the dynamics of the river into the future (Dietrich<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1989, Colosimo and Wilcock 2005, Curran and Wilcock 2005<em></em>). Increases in fine material in the bed and suspended in the water column, and consequent changes in channel form, may affect mussels in many ways and at various stages in their life cycle. The direct kill to adults is only the first stage in the damage that silt causes to the population. Sediment that infiltrates the substrate decreases oxygen supply in the juvenile habitat, which prevents recruitment of the next generation. The sediment subsequently provides a medium for macrophyte growth, a negative indicator in pearl mussel habitats. Macrophytes then smother the juvenile habitat even further, and the macrophytes trap more sediment, exacerbating the problem in the long term. One of the most essential requirements for pearl mussel conservation is the removal of the risk of any sediment reaching the river, as any one single incident has such long term ramifications.</p>      <p>Silt infiltration of river bed gravels can also have a negative effect on the essential species of fish that host the mussel glochidial stage (Levasseur <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/></p>    <p>As with siltation, nutrient enrichment can have serious and ongoing impacts on both juvenile and adult mussels. Increased inputs of dissolved nutrients to mussel rivers tend to lead to filamentous algal growth, unless combined with siltation, where macrophyte growth can dominate. Filamentous algae can lead to the death of juvenile mussels, through blocking oxygen exchange with the sediment, and cause adults to become stressed, as a result of night time drops in oxygen. Even if filamentous algae are destroyed in a flood, adult mussels may not make a full recovery before the algae re-grows. Adult mussels may eventually die as a result of oxygen/food deprivation. <br/></p>  <p>Death and decomposition of filamentous algae contributes fine particulate organic matter to the river substrate. This further blocks water exchange between the river and the substrate and causes additional oxygen depletion through the process of decomposition. Decomposition also releases dissolved nutrients, promoting further primary productivity. Inputs of organic material, such as slurry, to the river have a similar effect on the mussel substrate as dying/decomposing algae and macrophytes.</p>      <p>Major pressures that are leading to damage of river bed substrate from infiltration of inorganic silt, organic fine peat and decaying organic detritus and from eutrophication are listed below.&#160; These are pressures that are present in many <em> </em>catchments and their cumulative effects have had very severe impacts on mussels.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Modification of cultivation practices </strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Agricultural improvement </strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: any practice that leads to exposure of bare ground and/or fertiliser applications increase can increase the fine sediment and nutrient load to the river. The cumulative effects of such practices can have very severe impacts on mussels.</p>    <p>Liming of land has a negative effect on <em>Margaritifera</em> populations, through direct toxic effects, and through increased growth rates leading to shortened life expectancy and, thus, loss of reproductive years (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1991, Skinner <em>et al</em>. 2003). In some countries, acidification problems are so severe that liming is considered to have a more positive than negative effect (Henrikson <em>et al</em>. 1995). However, water chemistry data from declining Irish pearl mussel rivers indicate high peaks of calcium and conductivity levels that are likely to have been caused by liming.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Use of pesticides</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Toxic pollution can have very serious and long term effects on a pearl mussel river. Of particular concern is agricultural, including forestry, pesticides. Chemical sheep dip is considered to be a very serious ongoing risk to pearl mussel populations, and the most likely cause of a number of major mussel kills (Cosgrove and Young 1998, Moorkens 1999, Skinner <em>et al</em>. 2003, Young 2005). Organophosphates and synthetic pyrethroides used in sheep dipping are highly toxic to species that are a lot less sensitive to nutrient and silt pollution than <em>Margaritifera</em>. The pearl mussel is too endangered to justify specific laboratory toxicity testing, but this should not be used as a reason to be ambiguous about the threat such pesticides present to <em>Margaritifera</em>. Pesticides present the greatest risk when used in a form that requires dissolving in large quantities of water, which is why sheep dip is the most obviously damaging. <br/></p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Fertilisation</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: any applications of chemical fertiliser or manure can lead to direct run-off of dissolved and particulate nutrients, as well as gradual nutrient release from the soil. The vast majority of Irish pearl mussel populations now exceed the recommended range of nutrient levels for this species. The most seriously damaging nutrient is most probably phosphorus, as it is the limiting nutrient in most Irish pearl mussel rivers.&#160; Phosphorus promotes algal growth.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Overgrazing by sheep, cattle or other animals </strong></li></ul>      <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Overgrazing by sheep in mountainous moor and blanket bog habitats in the upper reaches of pearl mussel catchments has led to loss of vegetation and exposure of peaty soils. This problem has been very serious in some catchments, particularly in parts of the west of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The bare peaty soil erodes easily and releases fine sediment into the river. Similarly, overgrazing by cattle and other animals along the banks of pearl mussel rivers has lead to, and continues to cause, bank erosion. Furthermore, drinking access for cattle causes direct damage and death to mussels, as well as encouraging further bank erosion and sediment mobilisation. <br/></p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Restructuring agricultural land holding</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Removal of hedges, copses and scrub from lands surrounding pearl mussel rivers is linked with possible kills of adult mussels and declines in the quality of juvenile habitat. These land changes lead to exposure of bare ground that causes the release of silt into the river. They are often accompanied by drainage. Drains themselves can continuously erode and be a source of fine sediment. These newly drained areas are more conducive to agricultural practices of greater intensity than before, thus the problem is exacerbated and ongoing.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>&#160;General forestry management</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Forestry planting, drainage, ground preparation, clear-fell, replanting, thinning and all management practices associated with clear fell plantation have been a major source of both silt and nutrients in pearl mussel catchments. The drainage and other preparations of land for planting and the practice of clear felling leads to exposure of bare ground that can erode and release silt into the river. Fertilisation of forestry leads to a release of nutrients into the watercourse, especially on peat and peaty soils. These nutrients, alone or in association with other nutrient sources, raise the trophic level of the river above limits that are tolerable for the mussel. Brash left on site during and following harvesting operations provides further, long-term inputs of damaging nutrients. Ongoing forestry operations do not allow for recovery of the <em>Margaritifera </em>habitat and the future for pearl mussel rivers with continued forestry operations is bleak. Restoration of pearl mussel populations will only be possible if there are significant initiatives to remove clear-fell forestry from <em>Margaritifera </em>catchments. Even given such a commitment, major mitigation works will be necessary during the removal of the forestry and restoration to low-intensity or semi-natural land uses. </p>    <p>Acidification has been well documented as a threat to salmonid populations both internationally (e.g. Maitland <em>et al</em>. 1987, Lacroix 1989, Henrikson <em>et al</em>. 1995) and in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Allott<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1990, Bowman and Bracken 1993<em></em>, Kelly Quinn <em>et al</em>. 1997). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>, acidification is linked with coniferous plantations in acid-sensitive areas rather than industrial pollution. As salmonid hosts can come from anywhere within the pearl mussel catchment, protection of the entire catchment from acidification is essential.</p>    <p>Acidification has also been noted as a direct threat to <em>Margaritifera </em>from the first international IUCN red data book for invertebrates (Wells <em>et al</em>. 1983). Work carried out in <st1:place w:st="on">Scandinavia</st1:place> has provided evidence for pearl mussel decline from acidification (Eriksson <em>et al</em>. 1981, 1982, 1983; Okland and Okland 1986, Henriksen<sup> </sup><em>et al</em>. 1995, Raddum and Fjellheim 2004). A lowering of pH directly influences pearl mussels through a gradual destruction of their calcareous shell, and also their genital organs (causing infertility), and through problems with regulation of acid-base mantle fluid homeostasis (Vinogradov <em>et al</em>. 1987).</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>&#160; Stock feeding</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: The introduction of nutrients to <em>Margaritifera </em>catchments through the importation of artificial stock feed, e.g. silage, allows increases in the stock numbers. This in turn can cause trampling damage, soil erosion and nutrient releases.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Leisure fishing </strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: If anglers are allowed to enter rivers at pearl mussel beds, serious trampling damage can occur. Systematic physical changes to rivers for the purposes of enhancing fish numbers for angling can also be very damaging to pearl mussel habitat, including bank reinforcement, and the installation of weir and croy structures. Damage occurs during construction, and through changes to flow patterns, leading to scouring of stable gravels and loss of mussels and their habitat in some parts of the river. In other areas ponds are created where silt accumulates with further loss of juvenile and adult habitat.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>&#160;Taking / removal of fauna</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl</st1:place> fishing has been a major problem in the past, and kills from pearl fishing have been observed in recent years in spite of the practice being illegal under EU law.</p>    <p><em>Margaritifera margaritifera</em> has been exploited for its pearls since Roman times, for leisure and commercial gain, and Ireland's mussels were well known sources of pearls for many years (Cranbrook 1976, Lucey 2005). Pearl fishing has been cited as a threat to pearl mussels across most of its range, and in countries with very low numbers of individuals such as Germany, there are historical records of pearl fishing causing population decline. Recent records of pearl fishing in Ireland are anecdotal, and generally involve Scottish visitors, some of whom come from families that traditionally made a visit to known haunts at periodic intervals. The decline in pearl mussels and the lack of sufficient recruitment has made any pearl fishing unsustainable and the use of tongs to open mussels for pearls has been shown to be damaging (Moorkens and Costello 2004). Thus pearl fishing is outlawed in the EU and any illegal fishing is considered to pose a threat to that population. <br/></p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Quarries/ Sand and gravel extraction</strong></li></ul>    <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl</st1:place> mussel populations have been damaged in the past and continue to be damaged both directly through removal of gravel from pearl mussel river beds, and indirectly through silt and other pollution from quarrying activities. Severe episodes of silt lead to adult mussel kills, large and small releases of silt destroy juvenile habitat. Another common problem is the release of calcium from limestone quarries, which increases growth rate in adult mussels, thus shortening mussel lives and reducing the long fertile period required for pearl mussel life history strategy.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li>&#160;<strong>Peat extraction</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Hand and machine cutting of peat, including the drainage channels used in the process, leads to losses of pearl mussel juvenile habitat from infiltration of river bed substrate by fine peat particles released from bare soil.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li>&#160;<strong>Mines</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Pollution of water courses from open cast and underground mining by mined heavy metals, and chemicals used in the process of extraction of mined products has led to the loss of pearl mussel populations.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li>&#160;<strong>Discharges</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Urbanised areas, human habitation</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: <em>Margaritifera</em> is a species of near natural conditions. Continuous urbanisation, discontinuous urbanisation and dispersed habitation have all been associated with depressed water and habitat quality in pearl mussel rivers. Lack of appropriate water treatment (water must reach the river at reference levels), including even small elevation in BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) levels, and even minor increases in ortho-phosphate levels can lead to loss of juvenile habitat. Inappropriately plumbed washing machines can lead to serious nutrient elevations and subsequent filamentous algal growth.</p><p><br/></p>    <ul><li><strong>Industrial and commercial areas </strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Pearl mussels have already been lost from intensively industrialised areas, but local and more rural industries such as meat processors and creameries operate adjacent some extant pearl mussel rivers. High BOD levels and other pollutants have led to loss of juvenile habitat and severe depletion of adult mussels.</p><p><br/></p><ul><li><strong>Land reclamation<br/></strong></li></ul>    <ul><li><strong>&#160;Disposal of household waste</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>&#160;Disposal of industrial waste</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>&#160;Disposal of inert materials<br/></strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: There is evidence of reduced habitat quality for <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl</st1:place> mussels in rivers where land fill sites are present in the catchment. Decreased habitat quality is also found in rivers where household and other waste is dumped into or adjacent the river instead of being properly disposed of, and in rivers where inert materials such as builder's rubble have been used as infill within the flood plain area to raise and level the ground for more intensive usage.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Communications networks</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Paths, tracks, cycling tracks</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Routes, autoroutes</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: There is evidence of reduced habitat quality for <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl</st1:place> mussels in rivers where functioning flood plain has been impeded by hard surfaces of roads or paths. It has been reported (Hruska 1999) that juvenile mussels require a direct connection between the groundwater contributing to the interstitial gravels and the unimproved low nutrient vegetation in the flood plain. Building of hard surfaces can release damaging silt into the river. Hard surfaces near a pearl mussel population can also lead to run-off of pollutants into the river. These are permanent effects, i.e. both from construction and operation so<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> road development is considered to present a significant threat to this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Bridges, viaducts</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: There is evidence of reduced habitat quality for pearl mussels in rivers where bridges have been built, even where they have clear spanned the river. In general, the most negative effects have occurred where structures were not spaced wide enough and, thus, not enough flood plain habitat has been left on either side of the river (see above). The damage is exacerbated where flow changes have occurred, and consequent hard measures such as revetments, walls or rock armouring have been built along the banks in the vicinity of the bridge to prevent bank erosion. Building of bridges can release damaging silt and nutrients into the river. The bridge and nearby road can also lead to run-off of pollutants into the river. These are permanent effects, i.e. both from construction and operation. Other permanent effects include excessive shading under the bridge, and disturbance to adult mussels and reproduction on a long term basis. Where the population of mussels is dense, the mussels form an intrinsic part of the river bed structure, and damage at one area can then cause knock-on long term damage to beds of mussels upstream and downstream of the structure.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Energy transport</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: There is evidence of mussel kills where pipe lines have been routed across river beds, from instream works in the river causing silt episodes, and also in silt from bare ground where the pipe has been dug on either side of its entry into the river. to the swathe of habitat removal required before and after it crosses the river.</p><p>&#160; </p>  <ul><li><strong>Improved access to site</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: There is evidence of increased dumping and pearl fishing at pearl mussel beds that are in close proximity to sites with easy access.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Sport and leisure structures</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: There is evidence of increased silt and nutrient releases and depressed pearl mussel habitat where golf courses, sports pitches and camp sites have been developed nearby.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Pollution</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Water pollution, particularly nutrient pollution, leading to increased primary productivity, is associated with agriculture, coniferous clear fell forestry, industrial effluents and insufficient treatment of domestic, municipal or industrial sewage. Very small increases, above natural background nutrient loads can lead to damage. In particular, the normal background ortho-phosphate&#160; reference level&#160; (generally 0.005mg/l P in Ireland) is considered to be essential to the maintenance of oligotrophic waters for reproducing pearl mussel rivers (Moorkens 2006). Small increases in ortho-phosphate can lead to deleterious algal and/or macrophyte growth, so maintaining low levels at all times is considered to be essential. One large input of ortho-phosphate can lead to an algal incident, which in turn leads to detritus/particulate organic matter, causing adult and juvenile deaths and increases the trophic status of the river on a long term basis. Growing algae causes problems by blocking oxygen exchange between the substratum and the water column and through night time depletion of oxygen. Decaying algae causes detritus that not only clogs the interstices, but also causes oxygen depletion because oxygen is used up during its decomposition.</p>    <p>&#160;An increase in trophic status can lead to major habitat changes, particularly a change from <em>Fontinalis</em>-dominated flora/macrophytes to <em>Myriophyllum</em> and <em>Ranunculus</em>-dominated flora where nutrient pollution is accompanied by siltation. These macrophytes are indicative of poor <em>Margaritifera</em> habitat and provide conditions for trapping further silt and continued loss of habitat as a result of changes of flow, sediment and nutrient dynamics (Barko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, Wood 1997, Masden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Clarke 2002). Phosphorus that resulted in macrophyte growth continues to be released and mobilised as the macrophytes decompose (Barko and Smart 1980, Rooney <em>et al</em>. 2003).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Drainage</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Canalisation</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Both arterial drainage of the river and catchment and field drainage associated with agriculture and forestry impact on pearl mussels. Arterial drainage, canalisation, boulder removal, etc. has destroyed river habitat by replacing natural channel reach patterns of pools and riffles with more uniform runs that suit neither the pearl mussel nor its host fish (Moorkens 1999, 1996; Hastie<em> et al</em>. 2000, Valovirta 2001). Bank reinforcement actions often accompany or are deemed necessary following canalisation. They are a response to external damage to river banks at the site of reinforcement or that has taken place elsewhere but has had ramifications at the site of reinforcement. The reinforcement structures in themselves can affect river dynamics both upstream and downstream of the works (Fischenick, 2003, O'Grady 2006). Hard reinforcement measures are considered to be damaging activities in pearl mussel rivers.</p>    <p>&#160;The increased drainage network has led to an increase in the release of silt into river channels hosting pearl mussels, with the subsequent destruction of juvenile habitat. Drainage of peaty catchments has been shown to increase run-off rates and flood peaks (Müller 2000). Such hydrological changes lead to instability in mussel habitat and increased disturbance.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Flooding</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Modification of hydrographic functioning</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Management of water levels</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Destruction and damage to habitats in the catchments of pearl mussels, such as through bog drainage and in-filling of floodplains has changed the hydrology of some rivers. A small number of pearl mussel rivers are also regulated above the populations. Flow regulation can have serious negative effects on pearl mussel populations (McAllister <em>et al</em>. 1999, Araujo and Ramos 2001). These manifest mainly in two ways. Firstly, consistent but unnatural flows, particularly more prolonged low flows can cause stress to adult and juvenile mussels by raising temperature, reducing oxygen, concentrating pollutants and providing conditions for silt deposition and algal growth. Secondly, rapid changes in flow regime such as where sluices or dams are opened and closed regularly, is damaging to pearl mussel populations. This may be due to the energy effort of individuals, concentrated on digging into substrate or moving around leading to a state of continuous stress. Where rapid changes are occurring at very sensitive times of the year, loss of&#160; annual glochidial production or newly dropped juvenile mussels can occur. These phases of the life cycle normally occur at periods of low flow, and losses in a natural system through flooding are rare events.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>&#160;Dumping, depositing of dredged deposits&#160; </strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Dredging has taken place in the past in the large lowland pearl mussel habitats, with large numbers of dead mussels being found afterwards. Kills are likely to have included pearl mussels in the range of the dredging through habitat destruction, and mussels downstream, through siltation.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Erosion</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Erosion of river banks is a serious cause of silt entering the river. Its cause is rarely natural, even when no immediate explanation is obvious, but rather a knock-on effect from river bed or bank changes elsewhere. Where cattle or sheep are allowed to enter the river, serious erosion can occur. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Interspecific faunal relations</strong></li></ul>  <ul><li><strong>Genetic pollution </strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Loss of host fish is regularly cited as a potential reason for pearl mussel decline (Araujo and Ramos 2001, Anon 2005). A study on the status of host fish populations and on fish species richness in European pearl mussel populations (Geist <em>et al</em>. 2005) characterised typical fish communities in pearl mussel streams and revealed that a lack of host fish only seems to be limiting pearl mussel reproduction in specific areas. Intact and functional pearl mussel populations were found to occur under extremely oligotrophic conditions with lower host fish density and biomass than in disturbed populations without juvenile recruitment. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>, adequate numbers of host fish occur in at least some rivers with inadequate <em>Margaritifera</em> recruitment, however, where nutrient levels have increased,  more host fish may be required as compensation for lower glochidial production rates in stressed mussels (Geist 2005). A comparison of trout versus salmon dominated rivers of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region> quickly shows that 100% of pearl mussel rivers are associated with salmon and sea trout. Thus, while brown trout make an effective host fish, the rivers occupied by <em>Margaritifera</em> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>, are of naturally low productivity dominated by salmonids that went to sea to get nutrition. Salmon and <em>Margaritifera</em> have been cited as symbiotic in their relationship, with both species providing a beneficial role for the other (Ziuganov and Nezlin 1988, Ziuganov <em>et al</em>. 1994). Pearl mussels filter the river water and increase its purity, and salmon gills host mussels during their glochidial stage. Pearl mussels have also been shown to prevent early senility in salmon and thus extend their life expectancy (Ziuganov 2005). It is likely that host fish numbers in ultra-oligotrophic situations were never very high, as pearl mussels are naturally adapted to live in rivers with low food levels and very low productivity (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1991), but an unnatural decline in host fish will inevitably threaten <em>Margaritifera</em>. As well as habitat decline and acidification, impediments to fish movement from artificial barriers can result in losses of mussel populations (Bogan 1993).</p>    <p>Genetic pollution through the introduction of fish stocks not native to the catchment is considered to be a problem, as there appears to be a strong level of adaptation between genetic mussel and fish stocks.</p><p><br/></p>    <p>All the pressures referred to above are ongoing and will remain as threats to the population in the future, and in some cases are likely to be exacerbated.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In addition, the following are likely threats:</p>  <ul><li>&#160;<strong> Climate change</strong></li></ul>    <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: Climate change is likely to further threaten the survival of <em>Margaritifera</em>. Increased temperatures will lead to a higher metabolic rate and consequently a shorter life expectancy and thus reduced reproductive episodes per individual. This may exacerbate an already lowered recruitment level. The likely scenario of increased summer droughts and winter storm and flood events may negatively affect the species by increasing the frequency of stressful 'natural' events. These may result in increased siltation incidents during flooding. Habitat space may be reduced as a result of loss of river bed in drought conditions, or instability of gravel beds that are currently stable, through frequent flooding. Climate change may have an as yet unforeseen affect on the salmonid host species or on the food web that they rely upon. Changes in sea level may increase the salinity of a higher percentage of the lower reaches of some mussel rivers, which would have particularly serious ramifications for populations that have now become restricted to the bottom end of rivers. Hastie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) predict that a number of Scottish populations may be lost as a result of climate change.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;</p>  <ul><li><strong>Antagonism arising from introduction of species</strong></li></ul>  <p><strong>Explanation</strong>: The potential for exotic species spreading into pearl mussel rivers could result in major declines to the native pearl mussel, such as continued spread of exotic <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span> (Laughton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
12803		conservation	eng	This species was listed as endangered on February 5, 1988 (USFWS 1988). On September 24, 1993, it was reclassified as threatened (USFWS 1993) because of the discovery of additional populations and because the Kisatchie National Forest is actively controlling beaver populations and provides for streamside zones along the banks of perennial and intermittent streams. These streamside zones are managed for water quality and wildlife with timber harvest being limited to selective cutting for wildlife habitat improvement.  The remaining parcels are owned by the Air Force or are privately owned. A recovery plan was also drafted (USFWS 1989).<br/><br/>AFS&#160;have listed this species as Threatened (Williams&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2010). It has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperilled, and State/Province Status Ranks of S1 - Critically Imperilled for Louisiana and SH - Possibly Extirpated (Historical) for Arkansas (NatureServe 2009). &#160;Further research regarding taxonomy, population trends, ecology and threats impacting this species is required. Conservation strategies including site and species protection through the implementation of policies and legislation are suggested in order to protect this species. Species reintroduction and augmentation of populations from <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> propagation could also be beneficial in the long run.
12803		distribution	eng	Vidrine (1993) reported this species to be rare from small streams in central Louisiana and included such sites as Spring Creek (Bayou Cocodrie drainage), and Catahoula Ranger District streams flowing into the southern end of the Red River.  This species is currently restricted to two subpopulations on opposite sides of the Red River drainage in central Louisiana (Shively 1999, Vidrine 1993).  Johnson and Brown (1998) claim the species is limited to 22 headwater streams in the Red River basin of central Louisiana. Based on museum records there are indications that it may have historically occurred throughout the headwater streams of the Bayou Le Boeuf drainage (USFWS 1990). Populations in Alabama are now ascribed to <em>Margaritifera marrianae</em> (Johnson 1983). The species is extirpated in Arkansas. The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 250 km<sup>2</sup>, with an area of occupancy of between 20 to 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
12803		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in small sandy creeks with stable sand and gravel substrates in clear-flowing shallow water (Vidrine 1993). Shively and Vermillion (1998) found mussels on "consolidated gravel outcroppings where streams cut into the base of a slope, or in sand substrate along the outside of bends in the stream or along logs in the streams."  Mussel density is related to water depth, substrate size, substrate compaction, and water velocity.  Mussels are rare in deep, stagnant pools with silt-covered bottoms, and more common in shallow, wide areas of streams with higher current velocities and in sediments with larger particle sizes.  Mussel beds are also more likely to occur in sections of the stream where the substrate was more stable through time (Johnson and Brown 2000).  Mussels are more common in riffles with stable substrata such as gravel than in pools (suboptimal habitat) (Bolden and Brown 2002). Bauer (19<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); ">87) estimates a generation time of about 20 years for this species.</span>
12803		population	eng	Vidrine (1993) reported this species to be rare from small streams in central Louisiana and included sites such as Spring Creek (Bayou Cocodrie drainage), and Catahoula Ranger District streams flowing into the southern end of the Red River.  A 1998 survey of the streams in Rapides Parish found it extant at eleven streams, and a 1999 survey of the streams in Grant Parish found it extant in thirteen streams, but 95% were concentrated in four of these streams (Shively 1999, Shively and Vermillion 1998).  Johnson and Brown (1998) claim the species is limited to 22 headwater streams in the Red River basin of central Louisiana.  Bolden and Brown (2002) utilized specimens from Jordan Creek in the Kisatchie National Forest in central Louisiana for a translocation study.<br/><br/>Number of individuals found at three of the streams in Rapides Parish has been high since 1985 (average estimate is over 2,000 individuals per site) (Shively and Vermillion 1998). In Grant Parish it was found in 60% of the total stream lengths searched (Shively 1999). See Shively (1999) and Shively and Vermillion (1998) for more detailed information on abundance.  Most populations are found in Long Branch, Bayou Clear, Loving Creek, and Little Loving Creek (USFWS 1990). Bolden and Brown (2002) cite this species in aggregations of 20 to 40 mussels per square meter and sometimes in beds as dense as 300 per square meter.<br/><br/>It has been reported that this species has declined by 80% over the last 25 to 50 years (K. Cummings, A. Bogan and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
12803		threats	eng	The scattered occurrence of the Louisiana pearlshell in headwater streams suggests a historic range including most, if not all, of the Bayou Boeuf headwater systems, and that impoundments have eliminated populations in intervening areas (USFWS 1990). Kincaid Reservoir impounds the uppermost headwaters of Bayou Boeuf. Inundation by beaver dams is a significant threat to the species as well, as the species is especially sensitive to impoundments,  and at least one population was eliminated due to beaver dam flooding (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Small localized populations are especially vulnerable. Habitat within the Kisatchie National Forest has been affected by sedimentation resulting from silviculture practices, road construction and maintenance, and cattle grazing under an open range policy. Sedimentation from gravel pit mining activities have also resulted in impacts to the species' habitat, particularly in the Indian Creek drainage (USFWS 1990).&#160;Where clear cuts extend to the stream bank, there is increased sedimentation from erosion and scouring of the substrate resulting from increased water velocity. Removal of the canopy may also adversely affect the habitat of this species. Due to the high visibility of this species in shallow waters where it is  often evident protruding from the substrate, it is vulnerable to  collection.  <br/><br/>This species only occurs in soft water oligotrophic small creeks in a small area in Louisiana and is highly intolerant of adverse impacts from poor water quality (USFWS 1990).
12812		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from a protected area; although, Manu National Park is between the two known records. There is a need to research its distribution, especially to determine the range limits. Additionally, there is a need to research potential threats in the vicinity of the known localities.
12812		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from two localities (Cuzco, Peru) (Gardner, 2007).
12812		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species. It is nocturnal and may be arboreal. The diet of Marmosa is largely comprised of insects and fruits but also lizards, bird eggs and small rodents. The second locality where was captured this species is a mixture of forest and bamboo (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
12812		population	eng	Unknown. The species is known only from the holotype and six additional individuals (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
12812		threats	eng	There are no major threats. In the one western locality, there are natural gas fields in the Camisea region which are being extracted; however, this is localized. Within the projected range, there is not a high rate of deforestation. In the vicinity of the eastern locality, there are threats including expanding coca crops.
12813		conservation	eng	Found in multiple protected areas.
12813		distribution	eng	This species is found in Mexico from southern Sonora to Oaxaca and Chiapas, the Yucatán, and the Tres Marías Islands (Garder 2005).  It occurs from lowlands to 2,100 m (Reid 1997). Armstrong and Jones (1971) implied that this species occurs in Guatemala, but there are no published records to vouchered Guatemalan records.
12813		habitat	eng	This marsupial can be found in desert scrub, deciduous forest, and dry hills. It is semiarboreal and may spend more time on the ground than other mouse opossums. It is known to eat insects, figs, and probably cactus fruits. This species nests in dry leaves and stems, lined with plant down in forks of small trees and bushes (Wilson, 1991). Other nest sites include hollows in cacti or tree limbs, abandoned birds’ nests, and a single record of a nest among litter at the base of a fig tree (Armstrong and Jones, 1971). In western Mexico, the breeding season is from August to October, and litters of 8 to 13 have been recorded (Reid, 1997).
12813		population	eng	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
12813		threats	eng	There are no major threats, however, its main habitat, deciduous forest, is being deforested.
12814		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
12814		distribution	eng	This species is found from Surinam, Brazil, eastern Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Colombia (Gardner, 2007). The species is likely more widely found between known records, but there are very few records. It has an altitudinal range of 100 to 1,000 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
12814		habitat	eng	This species is found in the lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997), where it presumably feeds on insects and fruit. The species is forest dependent.
12814		population	eng	This species is rare, but widespread. It is known from 10 localities and 20 specimens (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12814		threats	eng	There are no major threats. There is deforestation in some of its range.
12815		conservation	eng	In Venezuela, the species has not been recorded from Cerro Santa Ana National Monument, though it is not very well protected. The few other protected areas within its distribution in Venezuela do not contain the appropriate habitat. In Colombia, it may occur in Macuira National Park.
12815		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to dry areas surrounding the Golfo de Venezuela in the Departamento La Guajira, Colombia, and the Estados Zulia and Falcón, in northwestern Venezuela, at elevations below 90 m (Gardner and Creighton 2007, Rossi 2005, Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).
12815		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species. It is usually found in arid lands, generally associated to tropical thorn or very dry forests. The species occupies territories characterized by mean annual temperatures higher than 24ºC and mean annual rainfall between 250 and 500 mm (López-Fuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). In the Península of Paraguaná (Venezuela), a reproductive peak occurred in June and July, during the dry season. Post-lactating females were detected from July to February. The rearing period lasted 60 days and the mean litter size was 7.9 young. There was no reproductive activity from March to May (Thielen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
12815		population	eng	This species is relatively common in appropriate habitat.
12815		threats	eng	The northern part of its Venezuelan range has a high pressure of human settlements, especially on Península de Paraguaná.
12816		conservation	eng	All three places are National Monuments (the most strict figure of protected area of Venezuela) and the areas are restricted to access with helicopters due to their isolation.
12816		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Guyanan highlands of southern Venezuela (Gardner 2007). The species is restricted to three isolated tepuis (Duida-Marahuaca, Jaua-Sarisariñama, and Auyantepui) at elevations between 1,300 and 2,200 m (Gardner and Creighton 2007, Ochoa 1985, Rossi 2005, Tate 1933).
12816		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid forests in highland tepuis. As expected from the paucity of specimens in natural history collections, there are not studies available about the ecology and natural history of this species.
12816		population	eng	This species is rare; there have been many surveys in the Guyanan highlands of southern Venezuela with no records of this species.
12816		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
12817		conservation	eng	There is no information about the conservation actions currently in place.
12817		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Estado Falcón in Venezuela. It is known only from the type locality, near La Pastora, 14 km ENE of Miremire, elevation 150 m (Handley and Gordon 1979).
12817		habitat	eng	Specimens were captured in a mature evergreen forest with many vines and epiphytes, and with a closed subcanopy at 10 m and an irregular upper canopy at 25–30 m. Individuals were caught on the ground at the base of a tree (Handley and Gordon 1979).
12817		population	eng	There is no information about the size and trend of the population.
12817		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
12819		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
12819		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Andes of Colombia (Departmento Cundinamarca), the Cordillera de Mérida, the Serranía de San Luis, and the Cordillera de la Costa in Venezuela, and the island of Trinidad at elevations between 650 and 2,400 m (Cordero 2001, Rivas and Salcedo 2006, Gardner 2007).
12819		habitat	eng	This species mainly inhabits montane forest and cloud forest above 1,000 m, but can occur at lower elevations. It is found in evergreen forest and clearings (Emmons and Feer 1997), often near water. This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial. Although alleged to be insectivorous or omnivorous (Emmons and Feer 1997, Cordero 2001), no analyses of relevant dietary data have been published (Voss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
12819		population	eng	This species is locally common in some areas (Emmons and Feer 1997), and relatively rare in other places (Lord 2000).
12819		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation from human activities.
12820		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species. This species does not occur in any protected areas.
12820		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the neighbourhood of the type locality in Antioquia, Colombia, 9 km south of Valdivia (Gardner, 2007). This species was found at 1,400 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
12820		habitat	eng	Marmosops species mainly inhabit either lowland or montane tropical rainforest. They are nocturnal and arboreal, feeding on insects and fruit.
12820		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens. Nothing is known about populations except that the species is suspected to be restricted to that region as the surrounding environs have been converted to agriculture.
12820		threats	eng	The type locality and surrounding areas where this species are suspected to occur are threatened by conversion of forest habitat to agriculture and to pasture.
12821		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
12821		distribution	eng	This species is found from Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, western Brazil, and Bolivia (lowlands of Pando Department only) (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Gardner, 2005). This species is primarily found above 1,500 m (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12821		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rainforest and cloud forests above 2,300 m, although they may be found at less than 1,000 m. This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on insects and fruit. It is found in mature, closed canopy, evergreen forest. It is not usually found in disturbed or secondary forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12821		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, yet occasionally locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12821		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
12822		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
12822		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Brazil, where it is found from Bahia to São Paulo (Gardner, 2007).
12822		habitat	eng	Nocturnal; probably uses ground and low understory. This species has been trapped arborally and terrestrially, in both primary and secondary forests. It includes fruit and insects in its diet. Found in humid lowland Atlantic coastal forests, montane coastal forest to 800 m, and semi-deciduous forests of the cerrado and caatinga of the Brazilian Plateau. During an annual cycle there is a complete turnover in the male population. Since there is one breeding season per year, they conclude that the males exhibit a nearly semelparous breeding strategy (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). To 800 m elevation on coastal mountains and to 1,300 m on the Brazilian Plateau; possibly confined to forests of southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12822		population	eng	A common species.
12822		threats	eng	No major threats to this species.
12823		conservation	eng	In Darien National Park, Chagres National Park, and Fortuna forest reserve.
12823		distribution	eng	The species is only known from 3 locations in western Panama, the Darien in Panama, and the Panama Canal mid-elevation forest, from 600 to 1,500 m.
12823		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid-elevation evergreen forest and second growth, and is usually encountered between 500 and 1,300 m (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It inhabits the jungle understory and is frequently found in fallen trees. This marsupial appears to be more terrestrial than other species, and is usually trapped on the ground in moist areas, near or under logs or among rocks. It is occasionally caught on logs 1 to 2 m above ground. The diet includes insects and plant material. A lactating female was noted in March (Reid, 1997).
12823		population	eng	Very common in its limited range.
12823		threats	eng	No major threats exist at this time. Very limited range, so if the protected areas are deforested, it would be a severe threat for this species.
12824		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
12824		distribution	eng	It occurs across the Guiana Shield in Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana and south through northern Brazil (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Gardner, 2007).
12824		habitat	eng	This marsupial is strongly associated with moist habitats, and prefers moist tropical forest. It is nocturnal; arboreal and terrestrial; solitary. Feeds on insects and fruit. This species appears to forage both in the trees and on the ground in the forest understory usually in tall, open-understory, terra firme forest. They are slower-moving than most other mouse opossums and they are often found sitting still perched on a low shrub or a branch of a treefall. When disturbed they run a few feet up into a sapling, where they stop and can be caught by hand. Found in mature, closed canopy, evergreen forest, not often in disturbed or secondary forest. Embryo counts vary from six to seven (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Found at elevations up to 1000 m asl in Venezuela, although it can reach 2000 m asl.
12824		population	eng	Usually uncommon to rare; occasionally locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
12824		threats	eng	No major threats.
12825		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and is known from Khunjerab National Park in Kashimir (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix III (India). Survey, limiting factors studies and monitoring are recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
12825		distribution	eng	This species is present in Central Asia, northwestern South Asia and western China. In Central Asia, it is present in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, possibly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. In South Asia, it is found in much of Afghanistan, northern Pakistan and northwestern India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is present in Xinjiang (Tian Shan mountains) (Smith and Xie 2008). It ranges from 3,200 to 4,850 m asl.
12825		habitat	eng	It is crepuscular, diurnal, semi fossorial and gregarious species. It is found to occupy alpine scrub and meadows, and rocky areas with dwarf juniper (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
12825		population	eng	In the 1960s, populations were estimated at about 600,000 including: 200,000 in the Pamirs, 170,000 in Central and Western Tien Shan, 130,000 in Alai, and 100,000 in Gissaro-Darvaze (Bibikov 1996). There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
12825		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The habitat is locally threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock, conversion of lands for agriculture and civil unrest (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has been heavily trapped for the fur trade. In some parts of Nuristan, they are eaten as common fare and in other sections certain parts of the body are used as a medicinal food (Habibi 2003).
12826		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas. It occurs in Annapurna National Park and three other protected areas in Nepal. The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and listed in Appendix III of CITES (India). Survey, taxonomic research, limiting factors studies and monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
12826		distribution	eng	This species is present in northwestern South Asia, and western, central and southern China. In South Asia, this species has been recorded widely distributed in the Himalaya of India, Nepal and Pakistan at elevations of 3,500 to 5,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).In China, it is found in Qinghai, Xizang, western Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2005).
12826		habitat	eng	This species is adapted to alpine meadows, grassland and desert conditions with very low rainfall, typically inhabiting steep bush-dotted slopes and gentle slopes where soil can be readily excavated (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It lives in small or large colonies, depending on local resources (Smith and Xie 2008). They excavate unusually deep burrows, which are shared by colony members during hibernation. Litter size is reported to be two to eleven young, after a gestation period of one month. Females become reproductively active only in their second spring.
12826		population	eng	This species is often common.
12826		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the species is locally threatened by hunting for food and medicinal use, mortality from domestic predators, habitat disturbance resulting from civil unrest, and overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
12827		conservation	eng	Listed in Red list of Uzbekistan, harvesting is prohibited. Two State Reserves (Aktash and Aksu-Dzhabagly) were established to protect the species. Reproduction in captivity with following return to nature did not succeed.
12827		distribution	eng	Distribution is limited to western Tian Shan, where the range is separated into two parts. First area is in the west of Talass Alatau (both northern and southern slopes), in upper Pskem, Ugam and Badam rivers to Sairamsu river basin in the east. In the upper Sairamsu river distributed together with <em>Marmota caudata</em>. Second area is in western part of Chatkal Range (upper Angren River, right feeders of Tersy River, Big Chimgan etc) and north-eastern part of Kuraminsky Range. The separation between two areas is more than 100 km (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
12827		habitat	eng	Distributed from mid- and high mountain steppe belt to alpine meadows, from 2000 to 3400 m. Also found in light juniper cover. In more dry part of the range (Chatkal Range) lives near ground water exits and snow patches. Life cyle timing depends on the altitude and aspect. Hibernation starts in different parts of the range from from mid-August to first decade of September. Hibernation ends depending on snow melting time. Burrows are up to 2.5 - 3 m in length and have 3-4 exits. There are about 4-5 temporary (feeding) burrows that have only 1 exit. Feeds mainly on underground plant parts, but sometimes consume insects. Mating occurs in burrows or right after spring emerging. Litter size is 2-7 young in northern part of the range and 1-4 in southern.
12827		population	eng	Total population size was less than 60,000 in 1990s, but declining due to agricultural activity. Average density was up to 50 individuals per 1 km sq. in northern part of the range and 10 individuals per 1 km sq. in southern part of the range (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995). In 1998 was estimated as 22,000 (Anon. 1998).
12827		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural activity.
12828		conservation	eng	It is listed as Endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act (23Jan1984) and by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) it is listed as Endangered (01 May 2000). <br/><br/>There is a recovery plan that recommends captive breeding and introductions as a means of restoring the species. One occurrence is partially protected by an Ecological Reserve and a Critical Wildlife Area (Wildlife Management Area).<br/><br/>Key marmot colonies should be protected by designation as Wildlife Management Areas or by landowner agreements. The draft recovery plan (Vancouver Island Marmot Recovery Team 1990) states that "current known population size and distribution, together with available genetic and demographic data, suggest that direct management may be required to reduce the vulnerability of the species to extinction. However, a complete inventory may show intensive management is not essential and therefore a high priority."<br/><br/>Detailed research is needed on dispersal characteristics, hibernacula requirements, and survivorship and reproduction in natural and logging clearcut habitats.
12828		distribution	eng	This marmot is endemic to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Historical and confirmed modern distribution records are confined to mountains in the central and southern part of the island, with occurrence in natural habitat typically at elevations of 900-1,450 m asl (Nagorsen 1987), although populations in clearcuts may extend to lower elevations. Occurrences are concentrated on a few mountain ridges in the Nanaimo-Cowichan Lake region of Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Vancouver Island Marmot Recovery Team 1990). There is some evidence that marmots have disappeared from some parts of their historical range, but huge areas of potential habitat have never been formally surveyed. Opinion is divided on the likelihood of discovering new, significant populations.
12828		habitat	eng	Subalpine herbaceous communities with steep slopes support the largest populations (Nagorsen 1987). Common tree species in these communities are <em>Abies lasiocarpa</em>, <em>Tsuga mertensiana</em>, and <em>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</em>; shrubs and herbs include <em>Vaccinium</em> spp., <em>Luetkea pectinata</em>, <em>Alnus sinuata</em>, <em>Erigeron peregrinus</em>, <em>Rhododendron albiflorum</em>, <em>Phlox diffusa</em>, <em>Anaphalis margaritacea</em>, <em>Aster foliaceus</em>, <em>Lupinus arcticus</em>, and <em>Pteridium aquilinum</em> (Milko 1984). Preferred lush forb/grass meadows are relatively rare on Vancouver Island; they generally are restricted to steep, south-facing slopes where avalanches and snow creep inhibit the growth of trees (Nagorsen 1987). Fire also creates favourable meadow habitat on subalpine slopes. Most marmot occurrences are on south- and west-facing slopes (Bryant and Janz 1996). Colonies have also been found in coniferous forest, logging clearcut slash, road banks, and cleared ski runs. In fact, half of the world's <em>M. vancouverensis</em> were living in clearcuts in 1997, compared to about 25% in the mid-1980s and none prior to high elevation logging that began in the late 1960s. Individual marmots occasionally take up residence in valley-bottom gardens (Munro 1985). <br/><br/>Marmots prefer areas with sufficient soil for burrowing, and with large rocks or stumps for burrowing under and for lookout sites. Burrows are usually below rocks in or near meadows. Young are born in underground burrows.<br/><br/><em>M. vancouverensis</em> is colonial. Colonies are relatively small and inhabit small habitat patches. Most are made up of one to three family units, and the average size before the young-of-the-year emerge is about eight individuals (Bryant 1990). Meta-populations of this species consist of a patchwork of colonies, each of which experiences periodic extinctions and recolonizations (Bryant and Janz 1996). Dispersal is a key ingredient of this pattern; the appearance of individual marmots in unusual habitats far from known colonies indicates that<em>M. vancouverensis</em> is capable of extensive dispersal through forested lands (Munro 1985). Year-to-year persistence of family groups has been measured at 43% in natural sites and at 13% in logging slash sites (Bryant 1990). Most mortality apparently occurs during hibernation. Survivorship varied dramatically from year to year in Bryant's (1990) study, but a small sample size prevented any accurate determination of a mean rate. <br/><br/>Predation on <em>M. vancouverensis</em> has not been studied, but potential predators include <em>Canis lupus, Martes americana, Gulo gulo, Felis concolor, Ursus americanus, Buteo jamaicensis, Aquila chrysaetos, Accipiter gentilis</em>, and <em>Bubo virginianus</em> (Bryant 1990).<br/><br/>Grasses and sedges are the most important food in early spring; forbs make up the bulk of the summer diet. Small fruits are also eaten. Hibernates from early October to early May.
12828		population	eng	Bryant (2005) reported the following: "Population counts began in 1979 and have continued, with variable coverage and intensity, until the present. Marmots expanded into new habitats created by clearcut logging of high-elevation primary forests during the 1980s; numbers increased to an estimated 300-350 individuals by 1986, with about half of these living in clearcuts (Bryant and Janz 1996). The temporary population expansion was followed by precipitous decline and near-extinction in the wild (Bryant 2000). Fewer than 130 marmots were known to be alive by 2004, including 93 in captivity and about 35 in the wild (unpublished minutes, Vancouver Island Marmot Recovery Team, November 2004)."<br/><br/>Since 1972, the species has been found at 47 sites on 15 mountains (Bryant and Janz 1996). However, only four occurrences are known to be extant.<br/><br/>Population trends are difficult to determine because estimates of numbers and sizes of colonies before the 1970s are not available and only one or two relatively thorough censuses have been done (these only in the central part of the range). Numbers of adults were above average during the early 1980s and were reported as near or below average since 1990 by Bryant and Janz (1996). Recent data indicate a significant decline during the 1990s. Data for 1997 indicated a 60% decline in numbers during the past decade and a similar reduction in geographic range in the last several decades (Bryant <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>A thorough and systematic inventory of all of Vancouver Island, especially the western and northern mountains, is needed to determine the actual present status.
12828		threats	eng	No obvious threats have been identified, although long-term environmental changes, prehistoric hunting, and recent forestry activities could have impacted populations. Predation on so small a population is considered as a significant threat.<br/><br/>Logging activities adjacent to colonies have created temporarily attractive habitat to marmots and have undoubtedly resulted in an increase in marmot populations. Bryant (1990), however, feared that logging clearcuts may be deleterious in the long run; there is evidence that, although they provide attractive summer habitat, they offer poor conditions for successful hibernation. They may thus act as "sinks" preventing dispersing marmots from reaching adjacent mountain ridges (Bryant 1996). This would decrease genetic outcrossing as well as preventing former colony sites from being recolonized. More research is needed. Bryant (1990) concluded that the known population of <em>M. vancouverensis</em> is not viable using existing criteria.<br/><br/>Bryant and Page (2005) concluded that predation was the proximate cause of recent declines in wild Vancouver Island marmot populations, that losses were highly concentrated in late summer, and that previous studies exaggerated the importance of winter mortality. We suggest that high predation rates were associated with forestry and altered predator abundance and hunting patterns.
12829		conservation	eng	Hunting is permitted between August 11th and October 15th (MNE, 2005). Occurs within some protected areas (approximately 16% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research, legislation and education is recommended.
12829		distribution	eng	Distributed in mountain (up to 4000 m) steppes and alpine meadows in W Siberia, and Tuva (Russia), W Mongolia (Mongol Altai Mountain Range), E Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China (Xinjiang).
12829		habitat	eng	Inhabits mountain steppes and alpine meadows (up to 4000 m) spreading over gentle slopes.  Fewer live in stony mountain steppes strewn with boulders. Where the Gray Marmot lives in sympatry with the Siberian Marmot, the Gray Marmot occupies only tips of ridges characterized by alpine vegetation while the Siberian Marmot inhabits productive highland valleys. This species, like most marmots, is highly social, and lives in colonies with many burrows.  Summer and winter burrows are usually separate; winter burrows are deeper, while summer burrows are just as long, but not as deep; both types may hold 2-3 marmots, but in winter, up to 10. Marmots eat a wide variety of food plants, which vary with season. Early spring foods include Artemisia frigida; by late spring and early summer their diet consists mainly of grasses; and by late summer, herbaceous vegetation. Sometimes can eat animals.  Mating begins in early May and ends by the beginning of June.  Gestation lasts 40 days. Reproduces once a year, litter size is 2-6 pups.  Hibernation is initiated at different times in different places, from August to October, and appears influenced by local weather and food resources. Hibernation lasts 7-8 months.  Enemies include large raptors, wolves and other smaller predators such as foxes, steppe polecats, and Pallas’ cats.
12829		population	eng	Not abundant in northern parts of the range. In 1990, the Mongolian population size was estimated to be 600,000 (Demberel and Batbold, 1991).
12829		threats	eng	Unsustainable hunting for meat and for use in traditional medicines, although no international trade is believed to be occurring at present. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock.
12830		conservation	eng	At present, there are no special conservation measures except hunting prohibition. In the early 1980s re-introductions were carried out in a number of locations. In the European part of the range the bobak marmot occurs in protected areas, where it survived during the period of severe population decline in the early to mid 20th century.
12830		distribution	eng	At the beginning of the 20th century the species was distributed along whole steppe zone from W Ukraine through Russia and Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River. However, in the first half of the 20th century hunting and habitat loss (ploughing of steppes and conversion to arable land) significantly reduced the range of bobak marmot in the European steppes.  By the 1940s the European range of the bobak marmot had become fragmented into isolated populations in unused land and protected areas. Currently the majority of the range is in the Urals and N Kazakhstan.
12830		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of steppe habitats, including lowland, mixed grass, arid, and wormwood (<em>Artemisia</em>) steppes. Forms colonies consisting of several families. Burrows are complex, and may be up to 4-5 m in depth. There are summer and winter burrows, both with pronounced mounds. Does not stock up for winter; instead hibernates for at least six months a year. Enters hibernation at different times in differents parts of the range, leaves hibernation in late March-April. Feeds on green parts, bulbs, flowers and shoots of grasses. Sensitive to moisture in food and in overly dry conditions enters estivation. Reproduces once a year with litter size of 4 to 7 young.
12830		population	eng	Formerly the species was common and abundant along the whole steppe zone from W Ukraine to the Irtysh River. By the 1940s the European population and range had declined dramatically, and the species was restricted to isolated fragments of habitat in uncultivated areas and nature reserves. In the 1960s in both Russia and Ukraine hunting was prohibited, and marmot populations in these countries subsequently increased and are now considered stable. In N Kazakhstan, by contrast, the population has not recovered and remains at low density, but in central Kazakhstan the population is increasing. The species was reintroduced to a number of locations in the early 1980s, and the species has also naturally recolonised many areas.
12830		threats	eng	Severe population and range reductions in the early to mid 20th century were caused by excessive hunting and habitat loss (cultivation of steppe grassland). Some illegal hunting continues.
12831		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M.c. doppelmayri</span> (distributed in Baikal Region) is protected by National Law. Also occurs in some protected areas. Further research, legislation and hunting management is recommended.
12831		distribution	eng	Distributed in mountain (up to 1900 m) and arctic tundras in E Siberia. The range consist of three isolated areas: Baikal Region, Verkhoyanskoe and Kolymskoe Highlands, and Kamchatka.
12831		habitat	eng	Inhabits meadows with low mountain forest. Lives in colonies with many burrows. Winter burrows have depth up to permafrost. Nesting cell has big amount of grass to keep warmth. Before hibernation makes a layer of silt up to 25 cm above wintering cell; exits close with soil and grass plugs. Hibernation starts in September-October, and lasts till May. Two - three families (20-30 animals) hibernate together. Feed on a wide variety of plants, and also consumes invertebrates. Mating occurs before they emerge in spring, and reproduction in May - June. Litter size is 3-11 young.
12831		population	eng	Not abundant across the range.
12831		threats	eng	Unsustainable hunting for meat, although no international trade is believed to be occurring at present. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock.
12832		conservation	eng	In Mongolia hunting is permitted between August 10th and October 15th depending on population size (MNE, 2005). Hunting was completely banned during 2005 and 2006 by the Ministry of Nature and Environment. <br/>Occurs within protected areas across the range (approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia). <br/>Listed as Rare species (EN) in Russia and protected by law.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place<br/>•This species is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws and Hunting Laws. However, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date. <br/><br/>Conservation measures required<br/>•Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature.  <br/>•Conduct further ecological research and monitor population trends, in order to develop a sustainable harvest management programme. <br/>•Protect habitat through community based initiatives.<br/>•Develop a public awareness programme to highlight the threat status and protective legislature in place for this species.<br/>•Review and assess the effectiveness of reintroductions into areas of its former range.
12832		distribution	eng	Distributed in piedmont and mountain steppes and alpine meadows (up to 3800 m) in Tuva, and Transbaikalia (Russia), Mongolia, and China (Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang). In Mongolia M. s. sibirica is distributed in eastern steppe habitats and Hentii Mountain Range, <em>M. s. caliginosus</em> occurs in northern, western and central Mongolia, including Hangai, Hövsgöl and Mongol Altai mountain ranges (Adiya, 2000).
12832		habitat	eng	Inhabit open steppe, semi-desert, forest-steppe, mountain slopes and valleys. Siberian marmots are a keystone species in the communities they inhabit, living in large colonies. The Tarbagan Marmot resembles the Bobak Marmot of E Europe and C Asia in mode of life and habits.  Marmots of all ages forage on grasses, but also on 10-15 species of herbs and a few woody plants such as sagebrush.  Autumn hibernation is initiated in September, but is influenced by summer food conditions and fall weather.  Both Bobak and Tarbagan marmots hibernate in groups from 5-20 in a single burrow.  Enemies include wolves, red foxes, and several species of large eagles and hawks.  The Tarbagan Marmot may carry and transmit bubonic plague, and is therefore subject to stringent control measures in many parts of its range. Mating begins in April, after they have aroused from hibernation.  Gestation lasts 40-42 days.  Young appear above ground in June; typical litter size is 4-6, occasionally 8.  Molting of winter hair in adults occurs about 2.5-3 weeks after the birth of young. Light brown in coloration, with dark guard hairs on the head and on the tail tip. Adults have a head-rump measurement of 50-60 cm and typically weigh 6-8 kg, reaching a maximum of 9.8 kg (Adiya, 2000). During hot summers can migrate looking for fresh vegetation, in mountains has vertical migrations for 800-1000 m.
12832		population	eng	Once common in Mongolia, hunting has fragmented its distribution and led to an estimated 70% decline in population size during the 1990s (Batbold, 2002). Numbers are believed to have since declined even further (K. Olson pers. comm.). In Russia the species is rare and declining.
12832		threats	eng	Hunting records from 1942-1960 indicate that illegal trade reached a peak of 2.5 million individuals killed during 1947 (Stubbe, 1965). At least 104.2 million marmot skins were prepared in Mongolia between 1906 and 1994 (Batbold, 1996). Recent surveys estimate that actual trading numbers presently exceed hunting quotas by more than three times, and over 117,000 illegally traded marmot skins were confiscated in 2004 (Zahler <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Outbreaks of plague also constitute a threat, and human plague cases are known to have occurred as a result of marmot hunting (Batbold, 2002). However, outbreaks are becoming less frequent as the population size declines.
12835		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of national parks within its range. It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected under national law in a number of range states (e.g., Slovenia). Subspecies <em>latirostris</em> requires strict protection in Slovakia and Poland.
12835		distribution	eng	The Alpine marmot is endemic to Europe. Its core range extends through the Alps of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Isolated subpopulations are found in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Vosges, Black Forest, Appenines, High Tatras, and Romanian Carpathians. A number of these isolated subpopulations (those in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Vosges, Black Forest, and Appennines, and eastern Alps) are the result of introductions. The marmot has inhabited the Alps and High Tatras continuously since the end of the last Ice Age, and was reintroduced to the Romanian Carpathians (three attempts in 1973, the third attempt was successful) and Slovenia (in 1953). It occurs as two subspecies: <em>M. m. marmota </em>in the Alps (and most introduced subpopulations) and <em>M. m. latirostris </em>in the High Tatras. A hybrid population exists in the Low Tatras, the result of introductions of both subspecies. Likewise populations in the Appenines are hybrids of both subspecies. It occurs at altitudes of 600-3,200 m (Preleuthner 1999).
12835		habitat	eng	It inhabits alpine meadows and high-altitude pastures, typically on south-facing slopes from 1,200-3,000 m (although it is occasionally found at lower altitudes). Colonies inhabit deep burrow systems in alluvial soil or rocky areas (Preleuthner 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, primarily composed of green parts of grasses, sedges, and herbs (Krapp 1978).
12835		population	eng	<em>M. m. marmota </em>is abundant in at least parts of its core range in the Alps, although some subpopulations may be under threat (e.g. in the Jura and in Germany). Reported population densities for <em>M. m. marmota </em>range from 24-36 individuals per 100 hectares (Gran Paradiso, Italy) to 40-80 individuals per 100 hectares (Tessin, Switzerland). In Romanian Carpathians, the population is estimated at 1,500 individuals. It is known from three areas in Romania: Retezat, Fagaras and Rodna. In Retezat and Fagaras the populations are stable; in Rodna the population is very small and is threatened by poaching (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). The population is Slovenia is expanding (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). Subspecies <em>M. m. latirostris </em>has a restricted range (it occurs at higher elevations in a small region of the High Tatras) and is considered to be rare and threatened (Preleuthner 1999).
12835		threats	eng	Marmots were previously hunted for meat, fur, and fat (which was used for cosmetics and medicines). Hunting continues today, but is primarily a leisure activity (Preleuthner 1999). In Slovenia and Austria, hunting levels are sustainable, but in Austria at least populations living below the timberline are threatened by loss of open habitats through abandonment of high-altitude cattle grazing (Spitzenberger 2002, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with introduced <em>M. m. marmota</em> is a potential future threat to remaining pure-bred populations of <em>M. m. latirostris</em> in the High Tatras.
12835		threats	eng	Marmots were previously hunted for meat, fur, and fat (which was used for cosmetics and medicines). Hunting continues today, but is primarily a leisure activity (Preleuthner 1999). In Slovenia and Austria, hunting levels are sustainable, but in Austria at least populations living below the timberline are threatened by loss of open habitats through abandonment of high-altitude cattle grazing (Spitzenberger 2002, B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with introduced <em>M. m. marmota</em> is a potential future threat to remaining pure-bred populations of <em>M. m. latirostris</em> in the High Tatras.
12842		conservation	eng	No information available.
12842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found on shores of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).
12842		habitat	eng	It is found in mixed rock and sand substrates. Leloup collected dead shells in dredged material (soft substrates) however also seen on hard substrates such as cobbles or boulders and firm substrates such as Phragmites roots.
12842		population	eng	No information available.
12842		threats	eng	This species is likely to be sensitive to sedimentation and pollution.
12847		conservation	eng	The nilgiri marten is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and Appendix III of CITES (India). <br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas. Some of these include Rajamala Eravikulam National Park (Madhusudan 1995), Mukkurthi National Park (Yoganand and Kumar 1995, 1999), Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley National Park (Christopher and Jayson 1996), Sholayar (Vijayan 1979), Upper Bhavani (Gokula and Ramachandran 1996), Brahmagiri (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989), Kalakkadu-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa, 2001), Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kurup and Joseph, 2001), and Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (Balakrishnan, 2005). It was also sighted in Silent Valley National Park, Attappadi Reserve Forest, Muthikkulam South Reserve Forest, and Nilambur South Reserve Forest by Balakrishnan (2005).<br/><br/>Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) recommended field surveys to locate remaining populations and determine if existing reserves give adequate protection. Accordingly, a systematic survey has been conducted following the recommendation of the action plan. Although poaching incidents are not frequent in protected areas, measures to regulate hunting outside of these areas are ineffective, especially in lowland forests (Balakrishnan 2005). There is a need for more survey work, and more protected areas, especially in the lower altitudes of its range, and in particular the forests contiguous to Silent Valley National Park (Balakrishnan 2005).
12847		distribution	eng	The nilgiri marten is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Balakrishnan 2005). The species is habitat specific and localized within its distribution. This species has been recorded across a wide range of elevations from 300 to 1,400 m with an average of around 990 m for preferred habitat (Mudappa 1999; Balakrishnan 2005). Most of the records known for this species are from protected areas (Muddapa pers. comm.).
12847		habitat	eng	The nilgiri marten has been reported from moist tropical rainforests (Mudappa 1999), montane evergreen forests (Yoganand and Kumar 1999), and moist deciduous forests adjoining wet evergreen forests (J. Joshua pers. comm.), as well as somealtered habitats such as coffee and cardamom plantations (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989) and acacia plantations (Yoganand and Kumar 1999). The majority of sightings have come from areas with little canopy and sub-canopy cover, far from human paths and in relative proximity to water (Balakrishnan 2005). <br/><br/>This species is partly frugivorous and insectivorous (Balakrishnan 2005), but will prey opportunistically on almost any small bird or mammal (Pocock 1941), including Indian chevrotain and monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis; Mudappa 1999), mouse deer (Moschiola memmina; Mudappa 2002), and it occasionally even feeds on nectar (Hutton, 1944).
12847		population	eng	The population trend for the nilgiri marten is unknown, but it is thought to naturally occur at low densities, or indeed lower densities than the closely related yellow throated marten (Duckworth pers. comm.). This species was considered rare by Pocock (1941), but more recently was seen regularly (12 sightings) in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in India between May 1996 and December 1999 (Mudappa 2002).
12847		threats	eng	The nilgiri marten is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation throughout its area of occupancy. These threats, as well as hunting, are all detrimental to this species, especially in the lower altitudes of its range (Balakrishnan 2005).
12848		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the Habitats Directive, and it occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. In The United Kingdom it is listed under the Wildlife and Countryside Act. Hunting controls need to be implemented and enforced across its range.
12848		distribution	eng	The pine marten has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, being found throughout most of Europe, Asia Minor, northern Iraq and Iran, the Caucasus, and in westernmost parts of Asian Russia (Western Siberia). It is widespread in continental Europe, with the exception of most of Iberia and Greece, and parts of Belgium and the Netherlands (Bright 1999, Matos and Santos-Reis 2003). It is found on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily (Bright 1999). It was introduced historically to the Balearics (S. Roy pers. comm. 2006). It was formerly widespread in the British Isles, but is now restricted to northern Britain and Ireland, where it is still locally common (Battersby 2005, S. Roy pers. comm. 2006). Altitude ranges from sea-level to the timber line (2,300 m in the Pyrenees: Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
12848		distribution	eng	The pine marten has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, being found throughout most of Europe, Asia Minor, northern Iraq and Iran, the Caucasus, and in westernmost parts of Asian Russia (Western Siberia). It is widespread in continental Europe, with the exception of most of Iberia and Greece, and parts of Belgium and the Netherlands. It is found on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.  It was introduced historically to the Balearics (S. Roy pers. comm.). It was formerly widespread in the British Isles, but is now restricted to northern Britain and Ireland, where it is still common (S. Roy pers. comm.). Altitude ranges from sea-level to the timber line (2,300 m in the Pyrenees).
12848		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodlands, as well as scrub. Optimal habitat appears to be woodlands with an incomplete canopy and dense understorey vegetation. Pine martens have a predominantly carnivorous diet, consuming voles, mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, and amphibians. Carrion is a major food source in the winter. Bee nests, mushrooms, and berries are also sometimes eaten. Solitary, but not highly territorial. The home ranges very often overlap partially or even totally. Female may mate with several males while on heat. There is delayed implantation after 165-210 days. In the eastern parts of distribution area (Ural Mts) it can hybridize with sympatrically distributed sable <em>M. zibellina</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
12848		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodlands, as well as scrub. Optimal habitat appears to be woodlands with an incomplete canopy and dense understory vegetation. Pine martens have a predominantly carnivorous diet, consuming voles, mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, and amphibians. Carrion is a major food source in the winter. Bee nests, mushrooms, and berries are also sometimes eaten. Solitary, but not highly territorial. The home ranges very often overlap partially or even totally. Female may mate with several males while on heat. There is delayed implantation 165-210 days. In the eastern parts of distribution area (Ural Mts) can hybridize with sympatrically distributed sable  <em>Martes zibellina</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
12848		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodlands, as well as scrub. Optimal habitat appears to be woodlands with an incomplete canopy and dense understory vegetation. Pine martens have a predominantly carnivorous diet, consuming voles, mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, and amphibians. Carrion is a major food source in the winter. Bee nests, mushrooms, and berries are also sometimes eaten. Solitary, but not highly territorial. The home ranges very often overlap partially or even totally. Female may mate with several males while on heat. There is delayed implantation 165-210 days. In the eastern parts of distribution area (Ural Mts) can hybridize with sympatrically distributed sable  <i>Martes zibellina</i> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
12848		population	eng	In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it remains widespread, and it is fairly abundant owing to its large range. Population declines and range contractions occurred in many parts of its distribution, yet it was difficult to quantify these population declines because historical data were lacking for many range states. Hunting bags in Russia were 80% lower in the late 20th century than they were in the 1920s (Grakov, 1993), and Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. The pine marten has also declined in the Netherlands, and has become extinct in many parts of the British Isles where it formerly occurred. In northern and central Europe, this species declined from the 1950s to the 1980s, but has since stabilized and is now regionally increasing due to implementation of hunting controls. Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. Since 1990, in the Russian Federation the population has been increasing again in forested areas; in 1999 the number was estimated as 170,000 (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In the United Kingdom the range is extending southwards again, but population numbers are lacking.
12848		population	eng	In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it remains widespread, and it is fairly abundant owing to its large range. Population declines and range contractions occurred in many parts of its distribution, yet it was difficult to quantify these population declines because historical data were lacking for many range states. Hunting bags in Russia were 80% lower in the late 20th century than they were in the 1920s (Grakov 1993), and Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. The pine marten has also declined in the Netherlands (Bright 1999), and has become extinct in many parts of the British Isles where it formerly occurred (Battersby 2005). In northern and central Europe, this species declined from the 1950s to the 1980s, but has since stabilized and is now regionally increasing due to implementation of hunting controls. Since 1990, in the Russian Federation the population has been increasing again in forested areas; in 1999 the number was estimated as 170,000 (A.Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In the United Kingdom, the species' range has increased in Scotland in recent years, but the population trend has not been quantified (Battersby 2005).
12848		threats	eng	Major threats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping, incidental poisoning, and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats. The marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range. Its decline in Britain was due to persecution, and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected. Efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths.
12848		threats	eng	Threats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping, incidental poisoning, and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats. The marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range. Its decline in Britain was due to persecution, and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected. Efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths.
12855		conservation	eng	The species is recorded from a number of protected areas, including the massive Hoggar - Massif National Park, Algeria.
12855		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the central Sahara regions of Algeria (Tassili n'Ajiers, Hoggar, Tefedest and Mouydir), and around the plateau of Tademait and the Mzab Valley. It is also present in northeastern Mali, northern Niger, and northwestern Chad. The species was reported from Libya by Wilson and Reeder (2005).  It inhabits montane regions and high plateaux of Algeria, from 500 to 2,300 m asl.
12855		habitat	eng	It is only found in rocky habitats, where it lives in rock fissures. Colonies are generally situated on the slopes of mountains or on the borders of wadis. According to Kowalsi and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), the terrain in which this species is found usually has a relatively rich vegetation cover, which develops in places where water accumulates during rains. The species is diurnal, and solitary, but pairs come together to breed. Of five litters studied, four had two young each, while the fifth had five young. There are two litters a year.
12855		population	eng	There is little known about the population of this species, but it is generally thought to be fairly common throughout its range. Colonies are apparently widely dispersed, and population densities of less than 1 per ha have been given (Nowak, 1999).
12855		threats	eng	While there are no major threats to this species the overgrazing of vegetation could be a potential threat. Extended periods of drought could also be a threat, as the species apparently shows limited physiological adaptation to its arid environment, requiring plants with more than 50% water content, and relying on its behavioural patterns to avoid dry conditions.
12860		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Amatitlan.
12863		conservation	eng	There are protected areas in the region that this species might occur in (e.g., Akagera Park in Rwanda).
12863		distribution	eng	Published records for this species are from southwestern Kenya, northern Tanzania and Rwanda. The Rwanda records are from owl pellets (six to seven specimens). It is a lowland species.
12863		habitat	eng	It is found in moist savanna. This does not appear to be a commensal species.
12863		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens, and from the low trapping success, it appears to be uncommon to rare, however, this may be an artefact of the methodology used.
12863		threats	eng	The habitat is being fragmented, but not enough to consider this a major threat. Likewise, fire is part of the natural cycle and not a major threat (one of the areas where this species was recorded was burnt, completely transforming the habitat and the fauna).
12865		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
12865		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to southern Africa. It is found in South Africa (Eastern, Northern and Western Cape Provinces, Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, North-West Province and Limpopo Province), Lesotho, southern and western Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, central and northern Namibia to southern Angola. There are disjunct subpopulations in Angola-Namibia and Zimbabwe-Mozambique. The species is found from sea level to 1,600 m asl.
12865		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species occurs in a wide range of habitats: semi-desert, Karoo shrublands, highveld grasslands, dry savanna to moist savanna. It is also found in cultivated fields and is a commensal species. Known to be a transmitter of plague and bilharzia.
12865		population	eng	It is a very common species.
12865		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12866		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, no other measures are needed.
12866		distribution	eng	This species occurs mostly in subsaharan northern Africa, but there is an isolated subpopulation in west central  Morocco. The main range is Gambia, Senegal, Guinea, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Sudan, Ethiopia, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, western Uganda and northern Kenya. It is mainly a lowland species but can be found up to 1,500 m asl.
12866		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, mainly moist and dry savannas and dry forest in the west, also moist and dry shrublands. It is a commensal species found in close association with human habitation and also in gardens and cultivated lands.
12866		population	eng	It is very common.
12866		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12868		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
12868		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in subsaharan Africa, except for the southwestern portion of continent. It has a very wide elevational range.
12868		habitat	eng	In Central Africa it is very commensal, only occurring in areas where there are people. It tends to follow roads and is transported around Africa accidentally by vehicles.
12868		population	eng	It is an extremely common, commensal species.
12868		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12869		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
12869		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the extreme northwestern parts of Botswana and northeastern Namibia (Caprivi area) in the region of the confluence of the Okavango and Kwito rivers. It is also found in eastern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998). It is a lowland species found up to 400 m asl.
12869		habitat	eng	This species apparently inhabits reedbeds, grassy swamps and marshes (de Graaff 1981; Skinner and Smithers 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12869		population	eng	It is locally common.
12869		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12876		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
12891		conservation	eng	It is present in Kinabalu National Park. Survey work is necessary to assess whether this species does occur more widely in northern Borneo.
12891		distribution	eng	The species is known from Mt. Kinabalu (Md Nor 2001) and Gunung Trus Madi (Musser and Carleton 2005) in Sabah, northern Borneo (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely through the northern mountain block on Borneo.
12891		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species living in lower and upper montane tropical forest, the highest part of the species range reaches subalpine areas (Md Nor 2001).
12891		population	eng	It is known from many specimens, suggesting it may be common in suitable habitat.
12891		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although this is less severe at the very high elevations.
12892		conservation	eng	It is present in Mt. Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
12892		distribution	eng	The species is known from a few scattered localities in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), on the island of Borneo. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently known. It occurs between 900 and 1,400 m on Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah (Md Nor 2001).
12892		habitat	eng	This is a poorly-known species for which little is known about the habitat or ecology. In general it is a terrestrial species living in primary rain forest, it may show a preference for microhabitat with a high number of large trees (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004).
12892		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known. It has only been collected a few times.
12892		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but it may be threatened by deforestation at lower elevations.
12893		conservation	eng	It it present in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
12893		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to montane forests on volcanoes of west and central Java. The type locality is at 1,830 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possible that the species could be found on adjacent peaks after appropriate surveys, however, its presence here needs to be confirmed.
12893		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from tropical montane forest. It is relatively disturbance-tolerant and can be found at the forest edge.
12893		population	eng	It is common and abundant, and easily trapped.
12893		threats	eng	There appear to be no immediate threats to this species.
12894		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine the geographic range and population status of this species.
12894		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities: the type locality in central Sulawesi (Rantekaroa, Quarles Mts. at 1,829 m); and Gunung Tanke Salokko at 1,500 m in the south-east peninsula of Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005). It probably occurs in a few other parts of Sulawesi.
12894		habitat	eng	This is a scansorial species found in montane primary evergreen forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12894		population	eng	It is known only from one specimen at the type locality, but from a larger series at Gunung Tanke Salokko where it may be common.
12894		threats	eng	A major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to shifting agriculture at high elevations.
12895		conservation	eng	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park and presumably is also present in a number of other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species, and tolerance to habitat modification.
12895		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout Sulawesi, Indonesia, from sea level to 1,006 m (Musser and Holden 1991).
12895		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in tropical lowland evergreen rain forest (Musser 1991). It can be found in disturbed habitats close to forested areas.
12895		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
12895		threats	eng	It is threatened to some degree by habitat degradation. It may possibly be threatened by hunting in the northern peninsula.
12896		conservation	eng	This species is present in Kerinci Seblat National Park, and may be found in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
12896		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only from the central portion of the western mountain range of Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality, Korinchi Peak, is at 2,225 m.
12896		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary upper montane or moss forest, and possibly in subalpine or shrubland vegetation. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
12896		population	eng	The population abundance is not well known. The species is known from relatively few specimens.
12896		threats	eng	No direct effects of human disturbance, aside from the secondary knock-on effects of habitat degradation at lower altitudes.  Lower montane forest will act as a buffer zone, helping to protect this species.
12897		conservation	eng	It is present in Selangor Wildlife Reserve, and probably occurs in several other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
12897		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Malay Peninsula (and possibly peninsular Thailand, south of the isthmus of Kra), and rarely occurring below 900 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12897		habitat	eng	It is found only in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12897		population	eng	Md Nor (2001) recorded 13 specimens from Mt. Nuang, Hulu Langat, Selangor province.
12897		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
12898		conservation	eng	It is present in Kerinci Seblat National Park.
12898		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the mountains of western Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005). At the type locality, Korinchi peak, it has been recorded at elevations between about 900 and 1,500 m, but was apparently not recorded at higher elevations during the course of survey work (Robinson and Kloss 1916, 1918).
12898		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting tropical evergreen forest, at low to middle montane regions.
12898		population	eng	This species is common at the time of collection (Robinson and Kloss 1916), and perhaps even locally abundant.
12898		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any threats at the highest elevations at which it occurs, but forest loss due to logging is certainly a major threat at lower elevations.
12899		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, although there are some within the distribution range.
12899		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the highlands of southern Viet Nam and adjacent southern Lao PDR between 190 and 1,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Bergmans (1995) reported a possible specimen from Ayun, Lao PDR, which would extend the range further north, however, the identity of this specimen needs to be confirmed.
12899		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary broad-leafed evergreen forest (Adler <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has been reported also from scrubby areas, but it has not been found at disturbed sites by K. Aplin (pers. comm.) and is believed to be sensitive to habitat degradation.
12899		population	eng	It is a common species.
12899		threats	eng	It is considered to be threatened at lower elevations by forest degradation resulting from shifting cultivation.
12900		conservation	eng	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park and Morowali Nature Reserve and probably several other protected areas.
12900		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12900		habitat	eng	It is found in most forest formations on Sulawesi, from coastal lowland up to montane summits (Musser 1987; Musser and Carleton 2005), and has been recorded from secondary and slightly disturbed forest. It is terrestrial, and feeds on fruit, insects, and snails (Musser 1982).
12900		population	eng	This is a common species (Durden 1986).
12900		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be affected by extensive habitat loss, but seems able to survive in lightly degraded habitats.
12901		conservation	eng	It is present in Kinabalu National Park and probably in several other protected areas. However, there is little enforcement and management of many of these, and several are susceptible to deforestation. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species does occur more widely in hill forest regions of Borneo.
12901		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sabah and Sarawak (northern Borneo), and East Kalimantan (eastern Borneo), below 1,700 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) gave records from Gunung Kinabalu and near the lower S. Padas in Sabah, and from the Kalebit uplands, upper S. Tinjar, Gunung Dulit and Gunung Sidong in Sarawak, as well as from Labuhan Kelambu and the upper S. Belayan in East Kalimantan. It probably occurs more widely in hill forests at elevations higher than about 300 m.
12901		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial (Md Nor 2001) and is apparently restricted to hills occurring in dipterocarp and lower montane forests.
12901		population	eng	There is no reliable population information. Md Nor (2001) recorded 16 specimens from Mt. Kinabalu in Borneo.
12901		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be affected by extensive habitat loss.
12902		conservation	eng	Part of Siberut is protected as the Siberut National Park, but it is not clear if this species is present in this reserve. There is an urgent need for improved habitat protection on the Mentawai Islands. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species.
12902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of South Pagai, North Pagai, Sipora, and Siberut in the Mentawai Archipelago, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12902		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species in tropical primary lowland forest.
12902		population	eng	There is no current information on the population status of this species.
12902		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss due to logging.
12903		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
12903		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Palawan Faunal Region, Philippines (Balabac, Palawan, Busuanga, Calauit, and Culion islands), from sea level to 1,550 m (Esslestyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; P. Widmann pers. comm.; J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).
12903		habitat	eng	It occurs in forested lowland and lower montane habitats, including primary, secondary, agricultural areas, and also tree plantations (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1972/1973; Hoogstraal 1951; Musser <em>et al</em>. 1979; Sanborn 1952).
12903		population	eng	The species is common in forested habitats and plantations.
12903		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
12904		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
12904		distribution	eng	This species is found in peninsular Thailand south of the Isthmus of Kra, Peninsular Malaysia, Riau Archipelago, Sumatra, and the island of Borneo (Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,100 m.
12904		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and disturbed lowland evergreen tropical forest. It is not present outside of forest areas.
12904		population	eng	It is common in appropriate habitat. Md Nor (2001) recorded 34 specimens between 500 and 1,100 m on Mt. Nuang, Hulu Langat, Selangor province (Malaysia).
12904		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
12905		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
12905		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Southeast Asia including, southern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, southern and southwestern Cambodia, throughout Viet Nam (including Thom and Phu Qoc Islands off the south coast), extreme southern Yunnan, China, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and many smaller islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is a lowland species that ranges from around sea level to 1,680 m asl (Mount Kinabalu) (Nor 2001).
12905		habitat	eng	This is generally a lowland, exclusively terrestrial species. It is present in primary forest and forest edge habitats (including adjacent gardens (Marshall, 1977)), but does not appear to be present in secondary forest (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2006). It lives in burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It is a nocturnal species that feeds on roots, fallen fruit, insects, and small vertebrates (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size ranges from 2-5 (Smith and Xie 2008).
12905		population	eng	The abundance of this species ranges from locally common to quite rare depending on the population surveyed (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2006). Nor (2001) recorded 17 specimens between 700 and 1,200 m asl on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo, Sabah, Malaysia. Wells <em>et al.</em> (2004) recorded nine specimens in Kinabalu National Park.
12905		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
12906		conservation	eng	The only known locality is apparently in a protected area (Morowali Nature Reserve), although it is possible that it also occurs outside this protected area.
12906		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Gunung Tambusisi, central Sulawesi, from 1,430-1,830 m (Musser 1991; Musser and Carleton 2005).
12906		habitat	eng	It is found in upper and lower montane forest (Musser 1991).
12906		population	eng	This species is known from eleven individuals trapped on the forested slopes of Gunung Tambusisi during the period March 5-15, 1980 (Musser 1991). There is no information on current population status.
12906		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and logging activities.
12907		conservation	eng	It is recorded from several protected areas, such as Mt. Kinabalu National Park.
12907		distribution	eng	This species is found in peninsular Thailand (south of the Isthmus of Kra), the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and other islands off the northern coast of Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12907		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in forest, as well as in rice paddies (but only where surrounded by forest) (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is mostly a lowland species on Borneo, but can be found as high as 2,100 m (Md Nor 2001; Musser and Carleton 2005).
12907		population	eng	It is common in appropriate habitats.
12907		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is widespread habitat loss in the lowlands of Sumatra and Borneo.
12908		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but it is probably in Lorentz National Park (Indonesia). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
12908		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it has been recorded from scattered localities ranging from the Lake Habbema area (Indonesia) in the west to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between altitudes of 1,200 and 3,000 m asl.
12908		habitat	eng	It is found in montane moss forest habitat. Animals have been captured under logs (Flannery 1995).
12908		population	eng	It is known from only a few animals, but is probably not uncommon. It is likely a species that is difficult to trap.
12908		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is a small species that is not sought by hunters. It may be somewhat threatened in parts of its range by forest disturbance.
12913		conservation	eng	This taxon needs to be locally and regionally recognized as a potentially threatened species; for this, more field surveys, ecological studies and educational and management work with communities focusing on habitat destruction and hunting are needed.  Monitoring of use by local communities may yield more specimens and show its contribution to subsistence. Since its distribution range coincides with the Vilcabamba-Amboró Conservation Corridor, the species may become a symbol or conservation object for this initiative. In Peru, the species can be found in the appropriate habitat in Otishi and Manu National Parks, as well as in Machu Picchu Historic Sanctuary. In Bolivia it has been found in six protected areas: Madidi, Apolobamba, Pilón Lajas, Cotapata, Isiboro Secure and Carrasco, but probably also occurs in Amboro.
12913		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern Peru (Junin, Cuzco, and Puno) and northern Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba). Recent published accounts from Peru only reported its presence in the Cordillera of Vilcabamba (Emmons <em>et al.</em> 2001), in the S of Manu (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1993), and in Machu Picchu (ParksWatch 2004). An ongoing survey in Peru has found the species in eleven new localities, within and outside protected areas of the southeastern Andes. Recent surveys in Bolivia found the species in a number of locations within protected areas along the Andes from La Paz to Cochabamba. Extent of occurrence extends for 83,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Ongoing geographic surveys in Peru (Barrio in prep.) will define more precisely the actual range, but most probably it will not increase significantly its extent of occurrence.
12913		habitat	eng	Records from Bolivia include ‘ceja de selva’ elfin forest and grasslands (3,600 m), cloud montane forest ‘Yungas’ forests, and sub Andean forests (1,400 m), although local reports may extend that from 4,000 to 1,000 m (Rumiz <em>et al.</em> 2007). Records from Peru include the same vegetation types as in Bolivia, but without records in grasslands or over 3,500 m (Barrio in prep.). Details on its ecology are unknown, although it seems to be solitary, active at day as well at night, and expected to be a browser frugivore in the forest understorey. Oxalis sp. has been identified among plant species eaten by Mazama chunyi. Nothing is known of reproduction or life in captivity
12913		population	eng	There are no estimates of abundance, population size or subpopulation ranges. Points from Bolivia may be grouped into 5 to 7 locations distributed in Madidi, Apolobamba, Cotapata and Carrasco, and marginally (needing confirmation) in Pilón Lajas, Isiboro Secure and Amboró. Points from Peru can be grouped in 7 to 9 locations distributed in Sandia, Carabaya, Quispicanchi, Paucartambo, Calca, Urubamba, La Convención, and Satipo, but include old collecting / report sites that are currently densely settled and degraded. Several sites of potentially good habitats recently surveyed in Peru showed its presence in most available habitat studied. Current distribution and abundance need to be further assessed. Decreasing population trend is inferred from habitat destruction.
12913		threats	eng	Habitat destruction occurs due to small scale cattle ranching and agriculture practiced by local communities through forest cutting and burning of montane grasslands and shrublands. Coca plantations may be the main cause of habitat destruction in some areas of La Paz and Cochabamba in Bolivia, and in Puno and Cuzco in Peru. Mining, road construction and colonization expand habitat loss. Hunting occurs as a source of meat and medicinal products at local level but needs assessment. A grid analysis of the conservation status of habitats within the extent of occurrence estimated in Bolivia suggest that 58,6% of the extent of occurrence is in good and very good status; and 41.4 % suffers degradation (25.5% regular, 15.9 % critical and very critical). On going assessments in Peru (Barrio in prep.) suggest a similar situation.
12914		conservation	eng	Some populations are present in Colombian Central Andes protected areas and Ecuadorian Andean national parks and ecological reserves, but hunting still occurs and its effect on the populations is unknown. Brocket deer are a highly preferred hunting trophy and its meat is considered a delicacy by campesinos and indigenous groups in the Andes.  M. rufina is considered a near threatened species in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000, Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al</em>. 2006), and in Ecuador (Tirira 2001). M. rufina is protected under the Colombian law according to “Decreto 2811 de 1974”. This species is not included in the CITES appendices. This taxon needs to be locally and regionally recognized as a potentially threatened species; for this, more field surveys, ecological studies and educational / management work with communities focusing on habitat destruction and hunting are needed.
12914		distribution	eng	Following (Czernay 1987) M. rufina is restricted to the Andes. It was originally found in montane forest and paramos at altitudes between 1500-3500 m.a.s.l. (Eisenberg and Redford 1999), from the Central Andes in Colombia to Huancabamba valley in northern Peru. It is currently restricted to remnant forest patches and paramos in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In Colombia it occurs in the states of Nariño, Huila, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Tolima, Risaralda, Quindío, Caldas, and Boyacá (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000). M. rufina has not been recorded for the Oriental Andes of Colombia (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 1986, Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although M. rufina is not included in the list of mammals of Antioquia state (Cuartas-Calle and Muñoz-Arango 2003), photographic evidence of its presence and of its being hunted was recorded at the “Páramo de Belmira” in the Central Andes of Antioquia (Delgado-V. Obs. Pers. 2003), which is the northern most record for this species. In Ecuador it was recorded in the western and eastern Andes along the Chimborazo region axis (Tirira 2001). In Peru it is distributed on the eastern flank of the Andes in the watersheds of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>The southern limit of M. rufina is the Huacabamba valley which also acts as a biogeographical barrier for other mammal species (Hershkovitz 1959, 1982, Eisenberg and Redford 1999). The northern limit of their distribution is not well known.
12914		habitat	eng	Records from Ecuador include ‘ceja de selva’, elfin forest, and grasslands (3,600 m), cloud forest / montane ‘Yungas’ forests, and sub Andean forests (1,400 m). Records from Peru include the same vegetation types as in Ecuador and Colombia, but without records in grasslands or over 3,600 m. The main habitat of M. rufina is paramos and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. The paramos are high altitude grasslands (Boom <em>et al.</em> 2001), which are dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants from the genus Espeletia (Luteyn 1992). The tropical montane cloud forest is a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions causing cloud and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest vegetation (Bruijnzeel and Veneklaas 1998). These forests support ecosystems of distinctive floristic and structural forms with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1963). <br/><br/>Along its distribution, M. rufina shares the same habitat with the northern pudu (Pudu mephistophiles) (Hershkovitz 1982); the mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) (Lizcano <em>et al</em>. 2002); and the Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus) (Peyton 1999). Details of its ecology are unknown, although it seems to be solitary, active by day as well as at night, and expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey. They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They live either alone or in pairs and normally within a small territory. They usually defecate in latrines probably located at the boundaries of their territories. <br/><br/>The Brocket deer is a frequent visitor of salt licks (Lizcano and Cavelier 2004). In the Central Andes of Colombia its diet is composed of 40 species of plants mainly herbs, from which it prefers plants of Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata (Lizcano 2006). They rely on their small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when detected. Occasionally they present freezing behavior before escaping. Nothing is known of reproduction or life in captivity. Oxalis sp. has been identified among plant species eaten by Mazama rufina. No research has been conducted to study the home range.
12914		population	eng	Its density is low ranging from 0.06 (individuals/km²) in mature forest to 0.3 (individuals/km²) in ecotone paramo-montane forest. Its preferred habitats are paramo and forest-paramo ecotone over secondary and mature forest (Lizcano 2006). Collection sites in Colombia may be grouped into 3 to 5 locations distributed in the National Park Los Nevados, Las Hermosas, Nevado del Huila, and Doña Ana, and potentially in Pichachos, Macarena, Sumapaz, and Chingaza. Collection sites of Ecuador correspond to locations at Sangay and Podocarpus National Parks. In Peru collection sites are in and around Tabaconas – Namballe (Maravi <em>et al.</em> 2003). Current distribution and abundance need to be further assessed. A decreasing population trend is inferred from habitat destruction..
12914		threats	eng	Habitat destruction occurs due to small scale cattle ranching and agriculture practiced by local communities through forest cutting and burning of montane grasslands and shrublands. Illegal plantations of opium and Coca may be the main cause of habitat destruction in some areas of Colombia (Alvarez 2007). Mining, road construction and colonization expand habitat loss. Climate change might also result in area or quality decrease of available habitat for the species in the future, since cloud forests and paramos are broadly affected by atmospheric temperature increase (Foster 2001). Hunting occurs as a source of meat and medicinal products at the local level but needs assessment. They are preyed on by a small number of South American predators, such as puma and feral dogs.
12920		distribution	eng	Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Parana states in Brazil.
12920		habitat	eng	Atlantic rain forest; breed in bamboo internodes (Lencioni in prep.).
12920		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12920		threats	eng	Deforestation.
12921		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need to survey forests in the vicinity of the type locality. Then studies are needed to establish the species' range of distribution, biology, population trends and to evaluate threats.
12921		distribution	eng	Espirito Santo state in Brazil.
12921		habitat	eng	Atlantic rain forest.
12921		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12921		threats	eng	Deforestation.
12922		distribution	eng	<em>Mecodema punctellum</em> is known only from Stephens Island, New Zealand.
12922		habitat	eng	A large, lightless, black ground beetle, 38.5 mm long and 11.7 mm wide (Britton 1949). Habitat unknown. Possibly sheltered under large logs (McGuinness 2001).
12922		population	eng	The species has not been seen since 1931 (Gibbs 1999) despite searches in 1961 (P. Johns, pers. comm. 1999), 1971, 1974/5, 1976, 1981, 1990 (Gibbs and Allen 1990) and 1996. D’Urville Island was searched in 1997 without success (I. Millar, pers. comm. 2000).It is now believed to be extinct.
12922		threats	eng	Possibly habitat loss led to the extinction of this species. No large logs are left on Stephen’s Island (J.I. Townsend, pers. comm. 1999).
12927		conservation	eng	This species was listed as federally endangered in the U.S. in 1993.  <br/><br/>A specific recovery plan has been created for the Mobile River basin (USFWS 2000) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect habitat integrity and quality of river and stream segments that currently support or could support imperiled aquatic species, (2) consider options for free-flowing river and stream mitigation strategies that give high priority to avoidance and restoration, (3) promote voluntary stewardship as a practical and economical means of reducing nonpoint pollution from private land use, (4) encourage and support community-based watershed stewardship planning and action, (5) develop and implement programs and materials to educate the public on the need and benefits of ecosystem management, and to involve them in watershed stewardship, (6) conduct basic research on endemic aquatic species and apply the results toward management and protection of aquatic communities, (7) develop and implement technology for maintaining and propagating endemic species in captivity, (8) reintroduce aquatic species into restored habitats, as appropriate, (9) monitor listed species population levels and distribution and periodically review ecosystem management strategy, (10) coordinate ecosystem management actions (more detail in USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>The population in the Conasauga River is present in the portion of the river that flows through the Cherokee National Forest. One record from the Sipsey Fork drainage is in the Bankhead National Forest.  Ths U.S. Forest Service has funded mussel surveys and has implemented improved stream management zone guidelines in Alabama National Forests (USFWS 2000).  Critical habitat has been designated in Alabama in the Coosa River, Hatchet Creek, Shoal Creek, Cheaha Creek, Yellowleaf Creek, Big Canoe Creek, and the lower Coosa River; in Georgia in the Oostanaula complex; and in Tennessee in the Oostanaula complex (115 occupied, 404 unoccupied km) (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/><em>Medionidus parvulus</em> was considered endangered throughout its range by Williams <em>et al</em>. (1993) and in Alabama by Lydeard <em>et al.</em> (1999). Garner <em>et al. </em>(2004) listed it as extirpated from the state.<em> M. parvulus</em> was listed as an endangered species under the federal Endangered Species Act in 1993 (Williams<em> et a</em>l. 2008).<br/><br/>This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009). Williams <em>et al.&#160;</em>(2010) lists this species as Endangered according to the American Fisheries Society assessment.<br/><br/>Further research is suggested into the distribution and population trends of the species (including monitoring), habitat and ecology as well as threats.
12927		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is listed as the Coosa River, Alabama, and the Chatooga River, Georgia. Historically, the species has been reported from the Cahaba River, the Sipsey Fork of the Black Warrior River, and the Coosa River, and their tributaries, in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee (USFWS 2004).  Recent records include a single specimen in the headwaters of the Sipsey Fork in 1985, a single specimen taken by Hanley from the Little River in 1981, and the Conasauga River, however, recent surveys did not find the species in the Cahaba River (USFWS 1993) and it is no longer extant in the Cahaba River, Alabama (McGregor <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has been listed as extant in only a single location, in headwaters in Georgia (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, its presence has been confirmed in the Conasauga River (Murray/Whitfield  County, Georgia and Bradley County, Tennessee) (Parmalee and Bogan 1998), and  its tributary, Holly Creek (Murray County, Georgia) (USFWS 2000, 2004).  Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) recently reported this species from Holly Creek, adjacent  to the Chattahoochee National Forest, Murray Co., Georgia. Based on these occurrences, it has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy which could be as low as 20 km<sup>2</sup>, but it likely to range between 20-100 km<sup>2</sup>.
12927		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in sand and gravel in highly oxygenated, clear streams with moderate to strong flow in streams and small rivers (Shelton pers. obs. 1997, USFWS 2000).<em> </em>It is believed to be a long-term brooder. It has been observed gravid in April and May in tributaries of the upper Coosa River (Johnson pers. comm. 2010). Glochidial hosts of the species<em> </em>are unknown (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).
12927		population	eng	This species was widespread with sporadic distribution in the Mobile basin. In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, it is known historically from the Coosa and Conasauga River drainages, but has not been collected live recently except in sites listed below (Williams and Hughes 1998).  Since its listing, presence has been confirmed only in the Conasauga River (Murray/Whitfield County, Georgia and Bradley County, Tennessee) (Parmalee and Bogan 1998), and its tributary, Holly Creek (Murray County, Georgia) (USFWS 2000, 2004).  Johnson <em>et al</em>. (2005) recently reported this species from Holly Creek, adjacent to the Chattahoochee National Forest, Murray Co., Georgia.<br/><br/>All populations are small and localised (USFWS 2000).&#160;The species is common in portions of the Conasauga River, Polk County, Tennessee, and rare elsewhere (D. Shelton pers. obs. 1997). Population estimates are not known.<br/><br/>The population in the Conasauga River appears to be stable at the present time. The species appears to be declining elsewhere to the point that it only occurs in Conasauga basin headwaters. The species has been eliminated from the Cahaba and Black Warrior River drainages, as well as from the Coosa River and many of its tributaries (USFWS 2004), including all occurrences in Alabama (Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The decline is estimatd to have occured between the last 25 to 50 years (J. Cordeiro pers.comm. 2011). It is vital to establish a rate of decline as this may lead to an uplisting of this species in the future.
12927		threats	eng	Habitat modification, sedimentation and water quality degradation represent the major threats to this species. The species may also be threatened by habitat over-utilisation for commercial, recreational, scientific or educational purposes as well as disease and predation (USFWS 1993). Unrestricted cattle access is a direct threat in portions of the Conasauga River in Bradley and Polk Counties, Tennessee. During recent surveys a gravid female was found in the center of the stream crushed. This site was in an area bordered by grazing land and unrestricted cattle access (Shelton pers. obs. 1997).  Disappearance from significant portions of its range are primarily due to changes in river and stream channels due to dams, dredging, or mining, and historic or episodic pollution events.  The species is not known to survive in impounded waters and more than 1,700 km of large and small river habitat in the Basin have been impounded by dams for navigation, flood control, water supply, and/or hydroelectric production purposes (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>In the Mobile River basin, the greatest threats are dams (for navigation, water supply, electricity, recreation, and flood control), channelisation (causing accelerated erosion, altered depth, as well as loss of habitat diversity, substrate stability, and riparian canopy), dredging (for navigation or gravel mining), mining (for coal, sand, gravel, or gold) in locally concentrated areas, point-source pollution (industrial waste effluent, sewage treatment plants, carpet and fabric mills, paper mills and refineries in mainstem rivers), nonpoint-source pollution (construction, agriculture, silviculture, urbanisation) (USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Sensitivity to any of the threats listed above may result in the death of individuals or populations and/or hinder the species' ability to reproduce.  Isolated imperiled populations in the Mobile River basin are likely to be vulnerable to random accidents, such as toxic spills, and to naturally catastrophic events, such as droughts and floods, even if land use and human populations were to remain constant within isolated watersheds (USFWS 2000).
12928		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large creeks to medium sized rivers in sand and gravel substrates and with slow to moderate currents.
12929		distribution	eng	It is only known from the Ochloknee River system.
12929		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large creeks to medium sized rivers in sand with some gravel and moderate current.
12930		conservation	eng	A historic occurrence is known from O'Leno State Park on the Santa Fe River.&#160;This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperiled, and a State/Province Status Rank of S1 - Critically Imperiled for Florida (NatureServe 2009). Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) lists this species as endangered according to the AFS assessment. Further research is required regarding this species' habitat and population trends, and the impacts of threats to this species. Site protection and restoration would enable this species a degree of security.
12930		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Florida portion of the Suwannee River system (Johnson 1977), and known from 11 historical occurrences. For example, it is listed from the Withlacoochee, Suwannee, and Santa Fe drainages.  It occurs in the lower Withlacoochee, from its confluence with the main stem downstream to about Levy County, and in the upper Santa Fe river system (above the sinks), including both main stem and New River sites. It is apparently absent from large sections of these areas, particularly in the Suwannee main stem. It is one of only a few unionids restricted to Florida. Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be between less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> to 250 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy is likely to be between 4 and 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
12930		habitat	eng	It has been reported from mud and sand in slight to moderate current (Heard 1979, Johnson 1977), and in medium-sized creeks and rivers in muddy sand, sand and gravel, in slow to moderate current (Deyrup and Franz 1994). Like most members of the genus, it is most often found in mid-channel habitats in coarser sediments (Brim Box pers. obs. 2000).
12930		population	eng	This species is endemic to the Florida portion of the Suwannee River system, where it is known from eleven historical occurrences. It was historically known from four occurrences on the main stem of the Suwannee River, one on the Withlacoochee River, five in the Santa Fe River and one in the New River. The only recent live collections of this species are from the Santa Fe River in 1981 and the New River in 1987 and 1994. In addition, a dead shell was located at the type locality (Suwannee River, Ellaville) in 1981. It may be extirpated from the Withlacoochee River and main stem of the Suwannee River.<br/><br/>Johnson (1977) stated it was abundant at the type locality in the Suwannee River in Florida but known from only small numbers of specimens elsewhere.  Recent collections have been infrequent and few so the species has little or no viability remaining. Of the fourteen historical records located, only one contained over twenty specimens. The last site to harbour large populations yielded only three specimens in two surveys during 1987. Only one live specimen has been collected in the last decade throughout its historical range.<br/><br/>This species is exceedingly rare and is in significant decline. Only one individual from a single site has been collected in the last decade, although multiple sites throughout the Suwannee River system have been surveyed for unionid mussels (J. Brim Box pers. obs. 2000).
12930		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are sedimentation due to agricultural and silvicultural activities; phosphate mining (upper Suwannee River main stem); industrial pollution (pulp mill in the Withlacoochee watershed) and localized municipal pollution; fairly high density residential development; watershed development. These threats have contributed to excessive eutrophication in the Suwannee main stem and have caused declines in the population. Overharvesting by shell collectors and biologists has been a distinct possibility; in the past 20 years, 20 specimens of this threatened species have been retained for collections at the GEXEMPSITE alone. Given already stressed populations throughout most or possibly all of its range, overcollecting can potentially contribute significantly to this species' decline.<br/><br/>The species is probably highly sensitive to runoff, sedimentation and habitat modifications; typical liabilities of filter-feeders (e.g., to excessive pollutants, eutrophication, etc.). Disappearance of host fish is a possibility.
12937		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Bale Mountains National Park, the other locality is not protected. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
12937		distribution	eng	The species is known from two localities; the type locality south of Goba, in the Bale Mountains, and also from Mount Badda in the Chilalo Mountains, both in Ethiopia. Both of the known localities occur at 3,300 m asl.
12937		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of high elevation shrubland.
12937		population	eng	It is only known from the holotype, and one other specimen, and owl pellets from the second locality (Yalden, unpublished).
12937		threats	eng	There is some grazing and human caused fires in the Bale National Park which is threatening the species' habitat.
12938		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in India including Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve and Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Orang National Park in Assam, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh. In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from several protected areas. In South Asia populations of this species should be monitored. Captive breeding techniques are known for this species and captive stocks exists in Germany. Public awareness to mitigate threats to this species is recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12938		distribution	eng	This very widely recorded species ranges through much of South Asia, southern and Central China, and throughout the Southeast Asian mainland. In South Asia it is known from Afghanistan (Qachcar and Darunta [Habibi 2003]), Bangladesh (Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Khulna and Rajsahi divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central Nepal), Pakistan (Baluchistan and Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, Northern, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded in Fujian, Sichuan, Guangdong, Hainan, Xizang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Hunan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia the species occurs in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,000 m asl.
12938		habitat	eng	This species is found in variety of habitats ranging from dry arid lands to hot humid forests to coastal areas. It roosts in small to large colonies ranging from a single individual to several hundred individuals in caves, old buildings, thatched huts, old disused wells, temples, forts, tunnels, mines, cow sheds. It flies rather silently and close to the ground and feeds on a variety of insects that vary seasonally, also small vertebrates and also other bat species. It breeds once in a year. Usually a single young is born after a gestation period of about 150 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
12938		population	eng	Overall this is a common species. Its population status is stable in Sri Lanka (W. Yapa pers. comm.), increasing in Bihar (Y.P. Sinha pers. comm.), decreasing in certain parts of northern India such as Rajasthan (colonies recorded in 1970s missing in the 1990s [as observed by I. Prakash pers. comm. and by Senacha pers. comm.]) (Molur <em>et al</em> 2002).
12938		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in parts of its range due to disturbance and loss of roosting sites due to renovation of old temples, buildings and old forts. Populations are also threatened by mining activities and hunting for local consumption (medicine and food) in India and Viet Nam.
12939		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place, however, the species may occur in many protected areas, but the few protected areas it has currently been recorded from include Tadoba Tiger Reserve, Melghat Tiger Reserve, Pench National Park in Maharashtra and Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal. It is presumably present within a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. Public awareness activities are needed to mitigate threats to this taxon (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12939		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed over much of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is predominantly distributed in the Western Ghats and northeastern parts of India, and in Sri Lanka. It is known from Bangladesh (Khulna division), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)  In Southeast Asia, it ranges throughout virtually the entire mainland, and most of insular Southeast Asia, including the major islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and Halmahera (all to Indonesia), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and throughout Philippines except for the Batanes/Babuyan region. There are records in the Philippines for Biliran, Bohol, Busuanga, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Abra [Lawrence 1939)], Aurora, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna Province [Taylor 1934; Ingle 1992], Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental [Sanborn 1952], Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental, South Cotabato, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). In South Asia this species has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,600 m asl.
12939		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in humid areas and dense tropical moist forest. It roosts in small colonies in caves, old and disused buildings, temples, lofts of thatched huts, tiled roofs, hollows in large trees and disused mines (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has a low and fast flight and feeds on Lepidopterans, coleopterans, hymenopterans and other insects but does not feed on vertebrates. One young is born between April to the month of June (Bates and Harrision 1997). Rarely occurs in the same location with <em>M. lyra</em>. Individuals hang separately until disturbed, when they huddle together (S. Molur pers. obs.). In the Philippines, it is found in lowland primary and secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991). Known to roost in caves, tree-hollows, and hollow logs (Taylor 1934; Lawrence 1939; Rabor 1986; Ingle 1992; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Lepiten 1995). On Palawan, the species occurs in bamboo thickets, secondary forest, and primary forest (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
12939		population	eng	It is a common species in South Asia. In the Philippines, the species is widespread and locally common to uncommon in primary and secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is always encountered in small groups, though sometimes cumulative numbers are in the hundreds (L. Heaney, Esselstyn, and Balete pers. comm. 2006).
12939		threats	eng	Over much of the species range there are no major threats to populations as a whole. In Southeast Asia, there are localized threats to caves, especially due to guano mining and limestone quarrying. In South Asia, the primary forest habitats of this species are under threat, usually deforested for timber, firewood and agricultural purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Roosts in large hollow trees and old buildings are under threat due to human interference from being cut down or broken down or cleaned up. Populations in some areas are also under threat from being exploited for medicinal purposes where the bat oil is used for massaging ailing newborns and infants (S. Molur pers. obs.).
12940		conservation	eng	This species is considered endangered by Mexican government (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
12940		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands of north Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found between 2,400 and 3,500 m.
12940		habitat	eng	This species is found in highland cloud and pine-oak forests, between 2,400 - 3,500 m.  It generally observed in leaf litter and humus on the forest floor. Apparently, its diet consists of berries (Nowak 1999).
12940		population	eng	This species is not common.
12940		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation, primarily from timber extraction.
12941		conservation	eng	This species is listed as threatened under Mexican law.
12941		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern slopes of Sierra Madre Oriental (2,000 - 3,500 m), from south-eastern Hidalgo to central Veracruz, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12941		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud and pine-oak forest.
12941		population	eng	There is no information on the population.
12941		threats	eng	This species is severely threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from deforestation for agriculture.
12942		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
12942		distribution	eng	This species is known from the high Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero, México, at 3,000 - 3,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
12942		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest from 3,000 - 3,500 m.
12942		population	eng	This species is considered rare.
12942		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from timber extraction within its range.
12945		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
12945		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Java, although recent records from Bali and Lombok are attributed to this species (Maharadatunkamsi and Maryanto 2002).
12945		habitat	eng	<em>M. kusnotoi</em> is found in montane tropical evergreen forest. The type locality is at 700 m, but the species is probably known from higher elevation (e.g. recorded from Gunung Kelatakan). It is probably a foliage roosters, and lives either singly or in small groups.
12945		population	eng	This species is not common throughout its range.
12945		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to logging and mining, is a major threat to this species.
12946		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
12946		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Borneo, Sumatra, Malaysia, and Thailand. It probably occurs also in northeastern India (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
12946		habitat	eng	It is a forest associated species found in a variety of habitats from lowland evergreen forest to disturbed secondary forest. In Peninsula Malaysia the species moves roosting sites to follow food availability (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
12946		population	eng	This species is widespread but uncommon (P. Bates and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) throughout its range.
12946		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although deforestation is occurring in some parts of its range.
12947		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. It is classified as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. There is a debate over the taxonomic status of two species of the genus Megaerops, with additional taxonomy, survey, ecological studies needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12947		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and West Bengal) at an altitude range of 100 to 2,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), from Thailand (Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Amphoe Pak Thong Chai, Sakaerat Environmental Research Station), Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Some previous records of <em>Megaerops ecaudatus</em> may actually represent <em>M. niphanae.</em>
12947		habitat	eng	In Thailand it is found from 140 to 240 m asl in a variety of habitats including pristine forest and farmland adjacent to forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia, little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumably it is found in deciduous forests, coniferous forests, bamboo forests and subtropical mixed forests across the foothills of Himalaya.
12947		population	eng	In Thailand the species is locally rare and is possibly nomadic (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The population size and trends for this species are not known in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
12947		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It may be locally affected by deforestation in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Threats to this species not known in India.
12948		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, it appears to be present in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park on Sumatra.
12948		distribution	eng	This species is found from southwestern Peninsular Malaysia to northern Borneo (Francis 1989) and the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), where it has been recorded only on Mindanao Island (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces). Maharadatunkamsi and Maryanto (2002) also list this species from two localities, Jambi and Riau districts in Sumatra, Indonesia.
12948		habitat	eng	It is known only from primary and lightly disturbed lowland forest from 800 to 1,200 m asl, this species is probably absent from montane and mossy forest above 1,500 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), although it is found in upper lowland forest. However, on Mindanao, there is not much suitable habitat remaining and where it does occur, it is in areas of human conflict (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Malaysia the species is found in primary forest foraging in the canopy (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006). In Sumatra it has been found in mixed gardens (U. Sinanga pers. comm. 2006).
12948		population	eng	Limited information is available on the species’ population status and trends. On Mount Katanglad (Mindanao) individuals were found in second growth forest at 875 m asl, where it was reported that "a fair number were caught". It is considered to be moderately common in suitable habitat and is probably widespread in suitable habitat in Borneo (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006).
12948		threats	eng	In the Philippines, the species is confined to rapidly-disappearing lowland forest on Mindanao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is also subject to forest loss in Malaysia and Sumatra due to agricultural expansion, plantations, logging and fire (T. Kingston and D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm. 2006).
12949		conservation	eng	Protection of forest by state management.
12949		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Kauai, Hawaiian Islands.
12949		habitat	eng	Moist gullies in boggy upland plateau.
12949		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12949		threats	eng	No pressing threats in current range.
12951		conservation	eng	Protection of forest habiitats by state and federal management.
12951		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.
12951		habitat	eng	Breeds in the phytotelmata of <em>Astelia</em> and <em>Freycinetia</em> plants in wet upland forests.
12951		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12951		threats	eng	No pressing threats in current range.
12953		distribution	eng	Was known from the Hawaiian islands of Lanai and Maui.
12953		habitat	eng	Upland ridges.
12953		threats	eng	Feral ungulates; ants.
12954		conservation	eng	Protection of forests and streams by state management.
12954		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.
12954		habitat	eng	Headwater stream pools in mountainous terrane.
12954		population	eng	There probably are less than 1,000 individuals remaining at present.
12954		threats	eng	Degredation of watershed by feral ungulates and introduced Poeciliid fishes.
12958		conservation	eng	Protection of forests and streams by state management.
12958		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.
12958		habitat	eng	Swift midreach sections of rocky upland streams in mountainous terrain.
12958		population	eng	Probably less than 1,000 individuals remain at present.
12958		threats	eng	Degradation of watershed by feral ungulates, and introduced poeciliid fishes.
12959		conservation	eng	Protection of forests and streams by state management.
12959		distribution	eng	Endemic to the islands of Molokai, Maui and Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.
12959		habitat	eng	Seepage fed side pools along mid and terminal reach overflow channels of rocky upland streams.
12959		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12959		threats	eng	Degradation of watershed by feral ungulates; alteration of stream terminal reaches for agriculture; introduced poeciliid fishes.
12960		conservation	eng	Protection of wetlands by state and federal management.
12960		distribution	eng	Endemic to the islands of Oahu, Lanai, Molokai, Maui and Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.
12960		habitat	eng	Coastal wetlands and stream terminal reaches.
12960		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
12960		threats	eng	Destruction of wetlands by resort development; alteration of stream terminal reaches for agriculture; introduced poeciliid fishes.
12961		conservation	eng	Protection of forest by state management.
12961		distribution	eng	Islands of Lanai and Maui, Hawaiian Islands.
12961		habitat	eng	Upland ridges.
12961		population	eng	Unknown.
12961		threats	eng	Feral ungulates; ants.
12977		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, however, in view of the species wide range it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
12977		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of West and Central Africa. It is distributed from Sierra Leone in the west, through southern West Africa, to Cameroon and from here south and east into Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and western Uganda.
12977		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with lowland tropical moist forest, although it has also been recorded from swamp forest, moist savanna and mosaic forest-grassland habitats (Bergmans 1997). It appears to be confined to forest with a closed canopy, but within this habitat it has been recorded suspended from plantain leaves, shrubs and inside human habitations (Rosevear 1965). In Cameroon, it is common within commercial banana plantations (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). Little is known about roosting behavior, however, it does not seem to roost in groups. This is the obligate nectivorous bat species in Africa.
12977		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
12977		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation, often resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use or the harvesting of timber and firewood.
12980		conservation	eng	None.
12980		distribution	eng	This species was known from Martinique.
12980		habitat	eng	Very little known, possibly occurred in forest and plantations in the 19th Century.
12980		population	eng	Extinct.
12980		threats	eng	Most likely extinct due to the introduction of mongoose - although it has been suggested that the eruption of Mt. Pele in 1902 might have played a role in its final decline.
12981		conservation	eng	None.
12981		distribution	eng	This species was known from St. Lucia.
12981		habitat	eng	Unknown.
12981		population	eng	Extinct.
12981		threats	eng	Presumably went extinct due to mongoose introductions, as the last historical record slightly predates the introduction of the mongoose.
13006		conservation	eng	Humpbacks have been protected from commercial whaling in the North Atlantic by the IWC since 1955, in the Southern Hemisphere since 1963 (although spatial and temporal regulation of catches in the Antarctic occurred prior to this), and in the North Pacific since 1966. The last substantial catches occurred in 1968. Despite having been severely depleted to a world population in the low thousands at that time, humpbacks have since recovered strongly to a world population that is estimated at over 60,000 animals and is increasing. <br/><br/>Humpback Whales enjoy additional protective measures, such as sanctuaries, in a number of countries. The species is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.
13006		conservation	eng	Humpbacks have been protected from commercial whaling worldwide since 1963, and there have been very few catches after 1967.  Despite having been severely depleted to a world population in the low thousands at that time, humpbacks have since recovered strongly to a world population which was at least 60,000 in the mid-1990’s and has been increasing since. Humpback whales enjoy additional protective measures in some countries, such as sanctuaries.
13006		distribution	eng	The Humpback Whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all the major ocean basins (Clapham and Mead 1999), and all but one of the subpopulations (that of the Arabian Sea) migrate between mating and calving grounds in tropical waters, usually near continental coastlines or island groups, and productive colder waters in temperate and high latitudes. <br/><br/>Humpbacks in the North Atlantic range in summer from the Gulf of Maine in the west and Ireland in the east, and up to but not into the pack ice in the north; the northern extent of the humpback's range includes the Barents Sea, Greenland Sea and Davis Strait, but not the Canadian Arctic. They occur mainly in specific feeding areas, as noted below. In the winter the great majority of whales migrate to wintering grounds in the West Indies, and an apparently small number use breeding areas around the Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>In the North Pacific their summer range covers shelf waters from southern California, to the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and southern Chukchi Sea, the Aleutian chain and Kamchatka, Kurile Islands, Okhotsk Sea and northeastern Japan. Wintering grounds are off the coasts of Mexico and Central America, around the Hawaiian Islands, the Bonin Islands, Ryukyu Islands and the northern Philippines, and possibly around additional island groups in the western North Pacific.<br/><br/>Humpbacks are abundant throughout the Antarctic in summer south to the ice edge, but not within the pack ice zone. In the winter, Southern Hemisphere whales aggregate into specific nearshore breeding areas in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific, two of which extend north of the equator, i.e. off Colombia in the eastern Pacific and in the Bight of Benin in the Atlantic. Some wintering grounds are fairly localized, e.g. around island groups, and some are more diffuse, e.g. along the western coast of southern Africa and the southern coast of West Africa. <br/><br/>There is a resident year-round population in the Arabian Sea, which is genetically distinct from that of the southern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>Humpbacks rarely enter the Mediterranean and are considered only visitors there (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
13006		distribution	eng	The humpback whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all the major ocean basins (Clapham and Mead 1999), and all but one subpopulation (that of the Arabian Sea) migrate between mating and calving grounds in tropical waters, usually near continental coastlines or island groups, and productive colder waters in temperate and high latitudes.  <br/><br/>Humpbacks are abundant throughout the Antarctic in summer south to the ice edge, but not within the pack ice zone. In the winter, Southern Hemisphere populations are aggregated into specific nearshore breeding areas in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific, two of which extend north of the equator, e.g. off Colombia in the eastern Pacific and in the Bight of Benin in the Atlantic. Some wintering grounds are fairly localised, for example around island groups, and some are more diffuse, for example along the western coast of Southern Africa and the southern coast of west Africa. <br/><br/>In the North Atlantic, they range in summer from Gulf of Maine in the west and Ireland in the east, and up to but not into the pack ice in the north; the northern extent of the humpback’s range includes the Barents Sea, Greenland Sea and Davis Strait, but not the Canadian Arctic. They occur mainly in specific feeding areas.  In the winter the great majority of whales migrate to wintering grounds in the West Indies, while an apparently small number of animals still utilize a historical breeding area around the Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>Humpbacks rarely enter the Mediterranean and are considered vagrant there.
13006		habitat	eng	With a few exceptions, such as the Arabian Sea population, humpback whales undertake long migrations between breeding grounds in tropical coastal waters in winter to feeding grounds in middle and high latitudes, mainly in continental shelf waters.  <br/><br/>In the Southern Hemisphere, humpbacks appear to feed mainly in the Antarctic, where the diet consists almost exclusively of krill (<em>Euphausia superba</em>), although some feeding in the Benguela Current ecosystem on the migration route west of South Africa has been observed (suspected prey species are <em>E. lucens</em> and <em>Themisto jaudichaudi</em>). <br/><br/>Limited data on diet in other areas is available.  Humpback whales caught off Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1950s and 1960s were found to be consuming mainly capelin (<em>Mallotus villotus</em>). Those caught off California in the early 20th century were eating mainly euphausiids and sardines.  In areas of Alaska and the North Atlantic, humpback whales have also been observed feeding co-operatively on schools of herring (<em>Clupea harengus</em>), sand lance (<em>Ammodytes</em> spp.) and (more rarely) mackerel (<em>Scomber scombrus</em>), by herding the school together with bubble nets, clouds or curtains.
13006		habitat	eng	With few exceptions, such as the Arabian Sea population, humpback whales undertake long migrations between breeding grounds in tropical coastal waters in winter to feeding grounds in middle and high latitudes, mainly in continental shelf waters (Clapham 2002).<br/><br/>In the Southern Hemisphere, humpbacks appear to feed mainly in the Antarctic, where the diet consists almost exclusively of krill (<em>Euphausia superba</em>) (Mackintosh 1970), although some feeding in the Benguela Current ecosystem on the migration route west of South Africa has been observed (Best <em>et al</em>. 1995; suspected prey species are: <em>E. lucens</em> and <em>Themisto gaudichaudii</em>).<br/><br/>Limited data on diet in other areas is available. Humpback Whales caught off Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1950s and 1960s were found to be consuming mainly Capelin (<em>Mallotus villotus</em>) (Mitchell 1973). Those caught off California in the early 20th century were eating mainly euphausiids and sardines (Clapham <em>et al</em>. 1997). In areas of Alaska and the North Atlantic, Humpback Whales have also been observed feeding co-operatively on schools of Herring (<em>Clupea harengus</em>), Sand Lance (<em>Ammodytes</em> spp.) and (more rarely) Mackerel (<em>Scomber scombrus</em>), by herding the school together with bubble nets, clouds or curtains (Hain <em>et al</em>. 1982).<br/><br/>The timing of acquisition of tooth rake marks attributable to Killer Whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>) indicates that Humpback Whale calves, but usually not subadults and adults, are subject to predation by this species (Mehta <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13006		population	eng	The humpback whale is better studied than other balaenopterid species, and migratory destinations are well known for some subpopulations. <br/><br/><strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>A comprehensive assessment of North Atlantic humpback whales was completed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 2002, from which most of the information below is drawn.<br/><br/>Six distinct feeding aggegrations have been identified: Gulf of Maine; Gulf of St Lawrence; Newfoundland/Labrador; West Greenland; Iceland; North Norway (including Bear Island and Jan Mayen).  Genetic and photo-ID data indicate that the six feeding aggregations represent relatively discrete subpopulations, fidelity to which is determined matrilineally.  However, because whales from different feeding grounds all mix in a common breeding area in the West Indies, there is male-mediated nuclear gene flow between the subpopulations.<br/><br/>Humpbacks were heavily exploited in the past by pre-modern whaling in their breeding grounds in both the West Indies and the Cape Verde islands, and by modern whaling in their feeding grounds, especially off Iceland and off Norway in  the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Catches of pre-modern whaling are estimated primarily from trade records.  Catches of early modern whaling also need to be estimated, because most of the catch records were not divided by species. <br/><br/>An estimated 3,200 were taken from Iceland and 2,000 from northern Norway during 1880-1916.  About 1,500 humpback whales are reported killed in the North Atlantic since 1916, from a variety of areas including the British Isles, Faeroes, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and eastern Canada, as well as Norwegian pelagic catches.<br/><br/>Population modelling exercises show that the recent abundance and increase rate of humpback whales in the North Atlantic are too large to represent a recovery from depletion by the estimated past kills.  This suggests that either:<br/>(i) past kills have been substantially underestimated; or<br/>(ii) there has been some increase in the environmental carrying capacity for humpback whales; or<br/>(iii) whaling had a negative impact on the population, over and above the effects of the actual removals, in ways that are not understood; or<br/>(iv) some combination of the above factors.<br/><br/>Whichever of the above hypotheses pertains, the increase rate of 3% per annum implies that humpbacks are considerably more abundant in the North Atlantic today than they were in 1940.  This is consistent with anecdotal evidence of the relatively low numbers observed prior to 1960.<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong><br/>Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimate mean generation time at 22 years.
13006		population	eng	The Humpback Whale is better studied than other balaenopterid species, and migratory destinations are well known for some subpopulations. <br/><br/><strong style="font-style: italic;">North Atlantic</strong><br/>A comprehensive assessment of North Atlantic Humpback Whales was completed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 2002, from which most of the information below is drawn (IWC 2002, 2003). <br/><br/>There is a distinct but relatively small winter aggregation in the east around the Cape Verde Islands – the site of fairly extensive 19th century Yankee whaling (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2002). The major present-day North Atlantic breeding and calving area in the West Indies extends from Cuba in the west down the island chain as far as Venezuela; the largest breeding aggregations occur on Silver and Navidad Banks near the Dominican Republic, with much lower concentrations in Samana Bay (Dominican Republic), off the northwest coast of Puerto Rico, and around the Virgin Islands and the eastern Antilles. Some humpback whales have also been sighted in high-latitude waters during the winter, indicating that not all individuals migrate to the southern wintering grounds every year. <br/><br/>Six distinct feeding aggregations have been identified: Gulf of Maine, Gulf of St Lawrence, Newfoundland/Labrador, West Greenland, Iceland, North Norway (including Bear Island and Jan Mayen). Genetic and photo-identification data indicate that the six feeding aggregations represent relatively discrete subpopulations, fidelity to which is determined matrilineally. However, because whales from different feeding grounds all mix in a common breeding area in the West Indies, there is male-mediated nuclear gene flow between the subpopulations.<br/><br/>The best available abundance estimate for the West Indies group of breeding aggregations is 10,752 in 1992-93 (CV 0.068) with an estimated annual rate of increase of 3.1% (SE 0.5%) (Stevick <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is no estimate of abundance for the Cape Verde Islands breeding aggregation, but to date a total of 72 individuals have been identified there (J. Allen pers. comm. 2007). As of 2007, only one photographic match has been made from the Cape Verde Islands to a feeding ground (off Iceland), but the matching exercise is only partially complete.<br/><br/>Animals from the West Indies breeding area are found in all six known feeding aggregations. However, genetic evidence suggests that part of the Icelandic and Norwegian feeding aggregations consists of whales that winter outside the West Indies. Though some of these likely migrate to the Cape Verde Islands, the population found there in winter is too small relative to the number of animals thought to be breeding somewhere other than the West Indies, and at present the identity of this additional breeding area (or areas) remains unresolved. <br/><br/>Higher rates of increase have been estimated in some feeding areas (e.g. 6.5% for the Gulf of Maine; Barlow and Clapham 1997). <br/><br/>Humpbacks were heavily exploited in the past by pre-modern whaling in their breeding grounds in both the West Indies and the Cape Verde Islands, and by modern whaling in their feeding grounds, especially off Iceland and Norway in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Catches by pre-modern whaling are estimated primarily from logbook and trade records. Catches by early modern whaling also need to be estimated because most of the catch records during the first few decades were not divided by species. <br/><br/>Catches in the West Indies (including Bermuda) are documented from 1664 to the present day, but the main period was 1826-1928, during which about 8,600 whales were estimated to have been killed. Whaling in the Cape Verde Islands occurred primarily during 1850-1912 with a total estimated kill of about 3,000 animals. An estimated 3,200 were taken from Iceland and 2,000 from northern Norway during 1880-1916. About 1,500 Humpback Whales are reported killed in the North Atlantic since 1916, from a variety of areas including the British Isles, Faeroes, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and eastern Canada, as well as Norwegian pelagic catches.<br/><br/>Population modelling exercises show that the recent abundance and increase rate of humpback whales in the North Atlantic are too large to represent a recovery from depletion by the estimated past kills. This suggests that either:<br/><br/>(i) past kills have been substantially underestimated; or<br/>(ii) there has been some increase in the environmental carrying capacity for humpback whales; or<br/>(iii) whaling had a negative impact on the population, over and above the effects of the actual removals, in ways that are not understood; or<br/>(iv) some combination of the above factors.<br/><br/>Whichever of the above hypotheses pertain, the increase rate of 3% per annum implies that humpbacks are considerably more abundant in the North Atlantic today than they were in 1940. This is consistent with anecdotal evidence of the relatively low numbers observed prior to 1960.<br/><br/><strong style="font-style: italic;">North Pacific</strong><br/>The following subpopulations have been identified (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2008):<em><br/></em><ul><li><em style="text-decoration: underline;">Eastern North Pacific</em>. Winters off the coast of Mexico (Baja California, Gulf of California, mainland) and summers off the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington.</li><li><em style="text-decoration: underline;">Central North Pacific</em>. Winters in the central North Pacific and Hawaiian Islands; summers in Alaska (Prince William Sound) and British Columbia. </li><li><em style="text-decoration: underline;">Western North Pacific</em>. Winters in the western North Pacific, in the Bonin Islands, Ryukyu Islands and the Philippines, and possibly in other island areas in the southwestern North Pacific; summers off Kamchatka, in the Bering Sea and along the Aleutian Islands, west of the Kodiak Archipelago.</li></ul><br/>There are two additional subpopulations, one that winters off Central America and summers off California, the other that winters around the Revillagigedo Islands and summers in unknown areas but possibly in the Bering Sea or near the Aleutian Islands (Urbán <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/><br/>Some interchange of individuals between the known North Pacific breeding grounds has been documented (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2008).<br/><br/><em style="text-decoration: underline;">Abundance: Eastern North Pacific</em>. Recent information is summarized in the NOAA stock assessment report (Anon. 2005a). The abundance of humpbacks was estimated from shipboard line transect surveys in the waters of California, Oregon and Washington during 1996-2001 to be 1,314 (CV 0.30) animals. Mark-recapture from photo-identification in the same area yielded an estimate of 1,391 whales in 2002/03, with an increase of about 8% per year over the period 1991-2003. Mark-recapture from photo-identification in the Mexican Pacific yielded an estimate of 1,813 (CI: 918-2505) for the Mainland Mexico and Baja California subpopulation, and 914 (CI: 590-1193) for the Revillagigedo subpopulation (Urbán <em>et al</em>. 1999). The recently completed SPLASH (Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance and Status of Humpback Whales in the North Pacific) project resulted in estimates by various methods of ~1,400-1,700 for the California-Oregon feeding area and ~6,000-7,000 for the Mexican wintering areas (Calambokidis <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/><em style="text-decoration: underline;">Abundance: Central North Pacific</em>. Based on mark-recapture analysis of photo-identification data in the Hawaiian wintering ground, the abundance was estimated at 4,005 (CV 0.095) whales in 1993 (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 1997). Older mark-recapture estimates for this stock exist, but their lack of comparability renders their use for estimating an increase rate questionable. Aerial surveys designed to be comparable across years yielded a trend estimate of 7% per year from 1993-2000 (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). SPLASH yielded wintering estimates for the Hawaii wintering ground by various methods of 7,120-10,425 (Calambokidis <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Summer feeding areas for this stock have been identified in Prince William Sound (Alaska), southeastern Alaska and off British Columbia, but the abundance estimates for the known feeding grounds total only about 2,000 (Angliss and Outlaw 2005a). This suggests that more feeding areas are yet to be found. In view of their current high abundance in the Hawaiian Islands, the sparseness of historical accounts of humpback whales in Hawaii prior to the 20th century is surprising. It may be a relatively new wintering ground (Herman 1979). The SPLASH estimates for the combined Southeast Alaska and British Columbia feeding areas are around 3,000-5,000 (Calambokidis <em>et al.</em> 2008)<br/><br/><em style="text-decoration: underline;">Abundance: Western North Pacific</em>. Abundance in 1991-93 was estimated at 394 (CV 0.084) from photo-identification data (Angliss and Outlaw 2005b). Humpback whale sightings from Japanese cetacean surveys in the western North Pacific, including those conducted in conjunction with the Japanese scientific whaling programme (JARPN), have not yet been analyzed to provide abundance estimates. The recent SPLASH survey covered the range more broadly and resulted in estimates by various methods of 938-1,107 (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 2008) <br/><br/>Humpback Whales were severely depleted by whaling throughout the North Pacific until they were protected by the IWC from 1966 onwards. Illegal Soviet catches continued until 1971 (Doroshenko 2000). Humpbacks were taken by pre-modern whalers in Japan before the 20th century, but so far no series of catch estimates have been compiled for the pre-modern period. About 21,000 humpback whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Pacific in the 20th century, of which about 14,000 were in the eastern North Pacific and 7,000 in the west (IWC 2006a). Included in these figures are about 2,500 humpbacks taken illegally by USSR fleets during 1961-65, that were concealed at the time, mainly in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea (Doroshenko 2000). In addition, nearly 20,000 unspecified whales were caught in the early 20th century, of which a substantial number probably were humpbacks. The latter were taken primarily in the eastern North Pacific, except that the locations of about 9,000 unspecified whales taken by American pelagic whalers during 1911-1919 have not yet been ascertained.<br/><br/>No comprehensive assessment of North Pacific humpback whales has been conducted by the IWC Scientific Committee. The evidence suggests that North Pacific Humpback Whales have been increasing, following depletion by whaling, but that this recovery is not yet complete. Given catches of nearly 7,500 during 1961-65, a minimum estimate for the 1960 population would be about 8,000, but the population level in 1940 was probably lower than today. A large-scale international collaboration (the SPLASH project) involving photo-identification and genetic sampling was conducted across the entire North Pacific in 2004-06. The results have been recently analyzed and yielded a best estimate for the entire North Pacific of  18,302 (average of estimates of 17,558 for wintering and 19,056 for summer feeding areas). A 4.9% annual increase is suggested for the period since 1991-93.<br/><br/>The low SPLASH population estimate for the western North Pacific subpopulation of around 1,000 is a cause for concern. <br/><br/><strong style="font-style: italic;">Northern Indian Ocean</strong><br/>A resident stock, which apparently does not migrate, is found in the Arabian Sea. Genetic differences, and the lack of photographic matches with other areas, suggest that this is an isolated subpopulation; in addition, analysis of illegal Soviet catch data from the 1960s indicates that this population has a distinctly boreal reproductive cycle (Mikhalev 1997). A population estimate of 56 animals (95% CI 35-255) from photo-identification data may be negatively biased due to incomplete coverage (IWC 2005). A total of 242 whales was taken illegally by Soviet whalers in 1965-66 (Mikhalev 1997).<br/><br/><strong style="font-style: italic;">Southern Hemisphere</strong><br/>A comprehensive assessment of Southern Hemisphere Humpback Whales by the IWC Scientific Committee is nearing completion (IWC 2005, 2006b, 2007). Traditionally the IWC managed humpback whale stocks on the basis of the six Antarctic Areas (I through VI) but the Scientific Committee now recognizes seven major breeding stocks, A through G, some of which are tentatively further subdivided into substocks. <br/><br/>The wintering grounds of these are: <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">A</span> (Southwest Atlantic): coast of Brazil <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">B</span> (Southeast Atlantic): the coast of West Africa from the Gulf of Guinea down to South Africa <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">C</span> (southwestern Indian Ocean): coasts of eastern South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar (southern, western and eastern coasts), Mayotte, the Comoros and other western Indian Ocean island groups;<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">D</span> (southeastern Indian Ocean): northwestern Australia<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">E</span> (southwest Pacific) northeastern Australia, New Caledonia, Tonga and Fiji.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">F</span> (central South Pacific): Cook Islands and French Polynesia<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">G</span> (southeast Pacific): Ecuador, Galápagos, Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.<br/><br/>Apart from stocks A and D, there is evidence of substructure within the stocks, with subunits that are spatially and genetically isolated to varying degrees. <br/><br/>The extent of mixing of the C stock wintering off the coasts of Mozambique (the C1 substock), Madagascar (the C3 substock) and the western Indian Ocean island groups (the C2 substock) remains unclear.<br/><br/>The structure of stocks E and F is particularly unclear: there appear to be at least six separate subpopulations (eastern Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Cook Islands, and islands further east), and it is unclear how these should be grouped if at all. <br/><br/>The structure of stock B is also unclear: there appears to a northern substock (B1) wintering off the coast off Gabon, the Congos and Cabinda (Angola) and in the Bight of Benin, and a southern substock (B2) with a diffuse or ill-defined wintering area off southern Angola, Namibia, and western South Africa, although animals seen in the southern area may include those on migration to and from wintering grounds to the north. Feeding occurs in the Benguela Current area; this may include animals wintering there but also animals stopping to feed during their migration. <br/><br/>The winter distribution of the G stock extends into the Northern Hemisphere, and may overlap with the distribution of North Pacific stocks; several photo-id matches have been made between the Antarctic Peninsula and Central America, although whether there is temporal overlap between these whales and their northern conspecifics is unclear. Tourist observations of mother-calf pairs around the Galápagos during January to March, if confirmed, suggest that North Pacific animals may also use this area. Phylogenetic analyses (Baker <em>et al</em>. 1994) reveal that maternal lineages in the eastern Pacific cross between the Northern and Southern Hemisphere populations, such that there has been some interchange between the hemispheres, but not necessarily in recent times.<br/><br/>For most of the breeding stocks, recent estimates of abundance on their wintering grounds have been obtained from line-transect surveys and/or capture-recapture analyses using photo-identification data. For some stocks, direct estimates of the rate of increase are available from recent time-series of abundance data. The available estimates of recent abundance and trends for wintering grounds are listed in Table 1 (see attached PDF). The total estimate of 36,600 for the Southern Hemisphere is negatively biased, because no abundance estimate is available for stock F, and the estimate for stock B covers only part of the wintering range for a discrete period. Furthermore, it is possible that the entire population does not migrate to the wintering grounds, as evidenced by, for example, an apparent excess of males in winter censuses. Rate of increase estimates are available for five stocks, ranging from 4.6% p.a. to 10.5% p.a.<br/><br/>The abundance of Humpback Whales during summer in the Antarctic south of 60°S has also been estimated from data from the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) (later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research, SOWER) programme surveys. A part of the Antarctic has been surveyed each year since 1978/79, yielding 3 sets of circumpolar surveys. The abundance estimates for each circumpolar survey are listed in Table 2 (see attached PDF). All three circumpolar estimates are probably underestimates of the hemispheric population, because not all humpback whales will have been south of 60°S during the surveys, and major summer concentration areas north of 60°S in the South Atlantic (to the east of South Georgia and in the vicinity of the South Sandwich Islands and around Bouvet Island) are not included. <br/><br/>The summer feeding areas of each stock cannot be delineated with much precision, but a combination of photo-identification, genetic, satellite tracking and old Discovery mark data suggest the following relationships: Breeding stock A (Brazil) feeds in the South Georgia/South Sandwich area in Area II (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006); breeding stock D (W. Australia) feeds in Antarctic Area IV ands perhaps eastern Area III; breeding stock G (southeast Pacific) feeds along the Antarctic Peninsula and around the South Shetlands, and in the Magellan Strait; breeding stock E (eastern Australia and at least some island groups of western Oceania) feeds in Antarctic Area V. The feeding areas of the other stocks could not be delineated at this stage.<br/><br/>Humpback Whale stocks were heavily depleted throughout most the Southern Hemisphere in the early 20th century by a combination of coastal catches in their wintering grounds and catches from land stations and by pelagic fleets in their Antarctic feeding grounds. Approximately 220,000 Humpback Whales were taken in total, of which about 100,000 since 1940; almost half of these latter consisted of illegal takes by the USSR (Zemsky <em>et al</em>. 1996, Allison 2006). <br/><br/>During 1908-1963, recorded catches outside the Antarctic (north of 40°S) have been: about 30,000 off the western coasts of southern Africa (primarily Gabon and Angola); nearly 20,000 off the eastern coasts of southern Africa (Natal, Mozambique and Madagascar) and in the western Indian Ocean; 28,000 off western Australia; about 15,000 off eastern Australia, New Zealand and southwest Pacific Islands; and about 2,000 each from the western and eastern coasts of South America. After 1904, a further approximately 27,000 whales were taken from land stations in South Georgia and over 12,000 from the South Shetlands. Pelagic whaling fleets operated during 1925-66, taking over 83,000 humpbacks. This includes more than 48,000 animals taken by the USSR, of which all but 2,710 were taken illegally (primarily from Areas IV and V); of this total, some 25,000 Soviet catches were taken in just two whaling seasons (1959/60 and 1960/61).<br/><br/>Due partly to the difficulties of assigning feeding areas, and hence past catches, to breeding stocks, the IWC Scientific Committee has completed population assessments only for stocks A, D, and G. The assessment of D was considered preliminary due to likely mixing in the feeding grounds with stock E and possibly other stocks. <br/><br/>The A stock (southwest Atlantic) is estimated to have been depleted rapidly from an initial level of 25,000 in 1904 to less than 2,000 in the 1920s, by catches from South Georgia land stations. Continued catches from South Georgia and pelagic fleets further depleted the stock to a few hundred animals by the mid-1960s when whaling ceased. The stock has recovered strongly since then to over 6,500 today.<br/><br/>The B stock (southeast Atlantic) was depleted by large catches in its wintering grounds off Gabon, Congo, Angola, Namibia and western South Africa, with open-boat whaling beginning in the 19th century and modern whaling beginning in 1909. Catches in Gabon and Congo were not continuous, but occurred in bursts as the stock(s) apparently began to recover between periods of intensive whaling. Nearly 30,000 humpbacks are recorded caught off the western coasts of sub-Saharan Africa during 1909-1960. The last large catches were made by Norwegian and French whalers off Gabon and São Tomé who took over 4,000 humpbacks during 1951-54. A final attempt at commercial exploitation in 1959 off Gabon caught just 160 whales.<br/><br/>After an initial burst of heavy catching off Mozambique and South Africa totalling nearly 8,000 whales during 1908-15, the C stock (southwest Indian Ocean) was subject to continuous but relatively low catches from Natal, South Africa between 1920 and 1962 and two discrete episodes (1937-39 and 1949-50) off Madagascar (Angot 1951). While catches off Natal remained relatively low after 1915, catches were far higher during the two episodes off Madagascar. Catches by pelagic expeditions in and outside the Antarctic probably also had an impact on this stock.<br/><br/>The D stock (southeast Indian Ocean) is estimated to have been reduced from a pre-whaling population of about 20,000 in 1910 to about half this level by 1940, mainly by catches from and off western Australia. Following a brief respite during WWII, the stock was further depleted (notably by illegal Soviet catches) to perhaps fewer than 1,000 animals by the mid-1960s, but recovered to about 10,000 by 1999. The current population size is very likely more than the 1940 level, and very likely more than half the pre-whaling level, subject to a caveat over the potential for mixing of stock D and other stocks in the feeding grounds (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>The E stock (eastern Australia/western Oceania) was heavily affected not only by catches totalling nearly 15,000 during 1909-62 from shore-station whaling in eastern Australia and elsewhere, but also by Soviet illegal pelagic catches of over 30,000, taken in Area V during the late 1950s and early 1960s.<br/><br/>The F stock (Oceania) was not subject to whaling in its wintering grounds but was probably affected by illegal Soviet catches in Areas V and VI. However, because the migratory destinations of this stock are unclear, assignment of these catches to the F stock has been difficult.<br/><br/>The G stock (southeast Pacific) is estimated to have been rapidly depleted from a pre-whaling level of about 10,000 animals in 1910 to a few hundred animals by the mid 1920s, mainly by catches from land stations on the South Shetland Islands. Pelagic catches in the putative feeding ground of this stock (Antarctic Area I) were relatively few, because of its distance from ports of approach, and because pelagic whaling was prohibited in Antarctic Areas I and VI (the then-Sanctuary) from 1935-55. The stock is estimated to have increased during 1925-55, but to have been knocked back down to the low hundreds by a new wave of pelagic catching that followed the opening of the Sanctuary in 1955. The stock is estimated to have increased since the end of humpback whaling in the mid-1960s, to its current level of about 4,000, which is well above the 1940s level but well below the pre-whaling level.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Generation time</em>: 22 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The time window for applying the reduction criterion (A1) for a threatened category is 1941-2007.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Global population</em>. All the new assessments of humpback whale stocks conducted by the IWC Scientific Committee to date indicate that the stocks concerned have recovered to levels at or above their 1940 level. Because the IWC Scientific Committee has not yet conducted assessments for the North Pacific and for four of the seven recognized Southern Hemisphere stocks, it is not yet possible to formally gauge the world population level relative to the 1940 level. However, given the increase rates observed in several of the unassessed North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere stocks (Table 1; see attached PDF), there is little reason to suppose that the world population is still below 50% of the 1940 level (the threshold for Vulnerable status under the reduction criterion) <br/> <br/>Despite the encouraging global status, concern remains about apparently discrete and small subpopulations of humpback whales for which information about their status is lacking; these include the Arabian Sea (isolated from the southern Indian Ocean), the western North Pacific, and South Pacific subpopulations in portions of Oceania (breeding stocks E and F).
13006		threats	eng	Although commercial whaling seriously depleted all humpback populations, the species has demonstrated remarkable resilience, and most populations have increased since the end of whaling, although there are several populations that remain small and for which no increase has yet been detected, such as the population in the Arabian Sea, the population breeding near South Pacific islands, and the western North Pacific population. Humpback whales have been protected from commercial whaling worldwide since 1966, and there have been few catches since 1968. <br/><br/>Today, small numbers only are taken by a 'subsistence' whaling operation off St Vincent (1-2 animals per year); it is possible that other small unreported catches occur elsewhere.<br/><br/>The government of Japan announced plans to resume humpback whaling in the Antarctic from the 2007/08 season, starting with an experimental catch of 50 animals per year under scientific permit (Government of Japan 2005). The impact of these catches on small unrecovered stocks of humpbacks in Oceania that feed in the whaling grounds of Area V is not clear.<br/><br/>Also, in humpback habitat off the coasts of Brazil, Gabon, Angola, Mozambique and Madagascar (Breeding Stocks A, B, and C), there is a great deal of ongoing and planned offshore oil and gas development, with potential impacts. <br/><br/>Humpback Whales are subject to entanglements, often fatal, in fishing gear. They are also vulnerable to injury by ship strikes, which can also be fatal. The documentation of such incidents is best for US waters. For the Atlantic coasts of the US during 1999-2003, there were 19 reports of death or serious injury caused by entanglements and seven cases of death or serious injury due to ship strikes (Anon. 2005b). For US Pacific waters (mainly Alaska) during 1999-2001 there were 13 reports of deaths and serious injuries due to entanglement and 3 reports of deaths due to ship strikes (Anon. 2005a).<br/><br/>Japanese Annual Progress Reports submitted to the IWC during 2003-06 listed 3-5 Humpback Whales caught annually in fishing gear, mainly coastal trap nets (Miyashita and Kato 2006). <br/><br/>In most areas, the observed increases in Humpback Whale abundance in recent times implies that human-caused mortality is not sufficient to threaten the populations concerned. However, the situation should be kept under review for populations that are still small and for which no increase has been detected, such as the in western North Pacific and parts of Oceania.
13006		threats	eng	Although commercial whaling seriously depleted all humpback populations, the species has demonstrated remarkable resilience, and most populations have increased since the end of whaling, although there are several populations which remain small and for which no increase has yet been detected, such as the populations breeding near South Pacific islands, and the western North Pacific population.  Humpback whales have been protected from commercial whaling worldwide since c.1963, but illegal catches by Soviet fleets continued in the Antarctic and North Pacific until 1973. <br/><br/>Today, small numbers only are taken by a “subsistence” whaling operation off St Vincent (1-2 animals per year); it is possible that other small unreported catches occur elsewhere. However, the government of Japan has announced plans to resume humpback whaling in the Antarctic from the 2007/08 season, starting with an experimental catch of 50 animals per year under scientific permit. The species is not currently hunted in European waters.<br/><br/>Humpback whales are subject to entanglements, often fatal, in fishing gear. They are also vulnerable to injury by ship strikes, which an also be fatal.  The documentation of such incidents is best for US waters.  For the Atlantic coasts of the US during 1999-2003, there were 19 reports of mortality or serious injury caused by entanglements and 7 cases of mortality or serious injury due to ship strikes.  For US Pacific waters (mainly Alaska) during 1999-2001 there were 13 reports of mortalities and serious injuries due to entanglement and three reports of mortalities due to ship strikes.
13032		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including: Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Gandhi National Park, and from Periyar Tiger Reserve.
13032		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India, where it is known only from three sites: Kalakad in the Agasthyamala Hills; the Indira Ghandi National Park in the Anaimalai Hills, Tamil Nadu; and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala. The altitudinal range of the species is reported to be 900-1,200m asl.
13032		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and associated with leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover of moist evergreen tropical forest; it has been collected in patches of degraded tropical forest close to primary forest. It breeds in pools in streams where calling males have been observed (Daltry and Martin 1997). There is little further information on its breeding biology or larval ecology.
13032		population	eng	This is an extremely rare species that was only recently rediscovered. The population is fragmented and is presumed to be declining.
13032		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is conversion of forested areas to cultivated land (including eucalyptus, coffee, and tea plantations); the development of dams within the region may pose an additional threat.
13038		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
13038		habitat	eng	Fully terrestrial
13046		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
13046		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Central American lowlands from easternmost Honduras through Panama; in South America, from  north and west Colombia, including the Chocó (Cadena <em>et al.</em> 1998), to southwest Ecuador and northwest Venezuela (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13046		habitat	eng	Occurs in overgrown fields, brushy second growth, and edges of evergreen and semideciduous forest (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).<br/><br/>This rodent is partially diurnal activite; it is terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on fruit, seeds, and insects. This rat is generally most common in areas of dense undergrowth and around fallen logs. It is usually a dominant part of the rainforest’s small mammals. It runs about actively on the ground or on fallen logs; if frightened, it may bounce away with a series of high jumps (Emmons and Feer 1997). This rat is easily observed during the afternoon or early evening around buildings in forest clearings (Reid 1997). Captives are voracious insect eaters, eagerly pursuing and catching butterflies, moths, beetles, and cicadas (Gardner 1983). Breeding appears to occur year-round, but probably peaks in wet season; litter size is 1 to 6 young, averaging 3.5 (Reid 1997).
13046		population	eng	This species is common to abundant.
13046		threats	eng	No major threats at this time.
13047		conservation	eng	The species occurs in one protected area (Tirira, in prep).
13047		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 400 to 1,200 m (Tirira in prep.).
13047		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical lowland rainforest. It is nocturnal and terrestrial (Tirira, in prep.).
13047		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Tirira, in prep.).
13047		threats	eng	No major threats at this time.
13048		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to try to determine whether this species still persists.
13048		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Lomas de Atocongo, a group of low lying hills close to Lima in the west central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It was recorded between 600 to 800 m.
13048		habitat	eng	It is known only from the distinct Coastal Lomas ecosystem (with desert or dryland habitat). It has not been recorded from modified habitats. It is terrestrial and probably nocturnal.
13048		population	eng	It has not been recorded since 1949 despite intense searches for the species. The population is believed to have significantly declined, and the species (if it is still extant) is considered to be still declining because of extensive habitat loss within its small range.
13048		threats	eng	The area that the species is known from has been heavily disturbed through pastoral (goats) grazing and mining activities. The very specific habitat that the species was recorded from is considered to be almost entirely converted.
13053		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the population of Brazil, which is included in Appendix II, and the population of Ecuador, which is included in Appendix II and is subject to a zero annual export quota until an annual export quota has been approved by the CITES Secretariat and the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group).
13053		habitat	eng	Found in the Amazon River basin. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
13057		distribution	eng	<em>M. arfakensis</em> is possibly endemic to the Prafi River valley, 20–30 km west of Manokwari, Irian Jaya.
13057		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been drastically altered due to the development of an oil palm industry.  The introduction of at least one exotic species, the walking catfish, may also pose a threat to the population.
13058		distribution	eng	<em>M. boesmani</em> is endemic to the Ayamaru Lakes in the central Vogelkop Penninsula, Irian Jaya.
13058		habitat	eng	This species' freshwater habitat consists of three lakes, the largest of which is 7 km long and 2 km wide.
13058		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is subject to broad fluctuations in water levels.  It is thought that these fluctuations have become more severe in recent years.  However, the main threat to the species is harvesting of individuals (mainly males) for the international aquarium fish trade.  It has been estimated that up to 1 million fish per annum have been captured.
13065		distribution	eng	<em>M. lacustris</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system of Papua New Guinea.
13065		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat is about 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.
13065		threats	eng	The introduction of gill nets and outboard motors on the lake along with the development of oil drilling and logging in the area over the last ten years are the main threats to this species.
13070		distribution	eng	<em>M. oktediensis</em> is endemic to Ok Tedi River and its tributaries in western Papua New Guinea.
13070		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is pollution of its habitat by effluents discharged from Ok Tedi copper mine.
13072		distribution	eng	<em>M. parva</em> is endemic to Lake Kurumoi which is situated in the narrow neck of land at the base of the Vogelkop Penninsula, Irian Jaya.
13072		habitat	eng	The freshwater habitat of this species consists of a small lake of about 500 x 800 m.
13072		threats	eng	The main threat to the population comes from severe habitat alteration caused by an infestation of introduced tilapia.
13079		conservation	eng	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park. Further research is needed into  the distribution of this species and whether it can persist in modified or disturbed habitats.
13079		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Rano Rano at 1,830 m (1°30'S, 120°28'E), and Gunung Nokilalaki between 1,950 and 2,286 m (1°16'S, 120°10'E), in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is probably also occurs in upper montane forest on other mountains in the central core of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13079		habitat	eng	This diurnal and terrestrial species is found in cool, wet, and mossy habitats within tropical upper montane rain forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It feeds mostly on earthworms and fungus gnats (Durden and Musser 1992). It has not been recorded from modified habitats.
13079		population	eng	This species has been recorded once at the type locality, and 35 times from Gunung Nokilalaki (Durden and Musser 1992). It appears to be common within suitable habitat (G. Musser pers. comm.).
13079		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats within the known range. It is possible that it is threatened in other mountain areas where it occurs, but this requires verification.
13110		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on the Sabah Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 as Melogale personata not as Melogale everetti, and this needs to be updated. The species was recorded from Mount Kinabalu National Park in 2002 (Dinets 2003), but given that all records are from this area, surveys are needed to look for additional populations.
13110		distribution	eng	The Bornean ferret badger is endemic to the island of Borneo, where it is suspected to occur in Kalimantan, Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak (Wozencraft 2005) However, the only confirmed records seem to be from Mount Kinabalu and surrounds in Sabah (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985) with only one subsequent sighting reported from there by Dinets (2003) at 1,950 m. Museum individuals have been determined to have been from two other points outside the massif, in Penem Pang and Tuaran. However, the age of these specimens, how they were acquired, and therefore the reliability of the two locations, is unknown. This species is considered high montane, found from 900 to 3,700 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), and these outlying locations are near low-lying coastal areas.
13110		habitat	eng	it is mostly carnivorous, but will eat some plant matter; it feeds on earthworms, lizards, small birds and rats, and reportedly eat fruit as well. It was recorded foraging in a small roadside garbage dump in montane broadleaf forest (Dinets, 2003). This species is fossorial and lives in preexisting holes, rather than digging new ones (Taylor, 1989). It is nocturnal and feeds primarily on small animals such as insects, earthworms, snails, frogs, and sometimes carcasses of small birds and mammals, eggs, and fruit (Chian and Sheng, 1976; Long and Killingley, 1983; Ewer, 1985; Neal, 1986; Chuang, 1994).
13110		population	eng	Nothing is known about the Bornean ferret badger population status or size within the massif.
13110		threats	eng	The only recorded sightings of Bornean ferret badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. Much of the massif has been converted to other uses, e.g. agriculture, but it is unclear to what level, if any, this species depends upon extensive, old-growth, or any sort of forest; some other Melogale spp. are very adaptable to forest fragmentation and degradation (see account for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. moschata</span>), but the same cannot be assumed for this species. If it truly extends down to the lowlands and if it is in any way dependent upon extensive or old-growth forest, then it will have lost a large part of its recent habitat through the heavy conversion of natural forests in Sabah lowlands in the last few decades. There is no information on its susceptibility to whatever hunting levels occur in its range. It is not significantly traded, but it is no doubt caught in non-selective traps. In sum, several plausible threats operate but it is unclear if any are threats at the population level.
13114		conservation	eng	All three present known localities are in Manusela National Patk. Additional survey work is needed to determine whether this species might be present at lower elevations.
13114		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seram island (Indonesia), where it is found from 650 to 1,830 m, and is known from three localities: Mt. Manusela (type locality), Mt. Hoaulu, and near Kanikeh (Helgen 2003). It Is likely to occur more widely in other montane areas in Seram, but most of these areas are poorly surveyed
13114		habitat	eng	This species was orginially recorded, in 1920, in primary rainforest, but two specimens were also recorded in a banana plantation by Kitchener in 1987, indicating the species might be able to tolerate disturbed habitat (Helgen 2003). This is an aroboreal species that descends to the ground to forage at night (Helgen 2003).
13114		population	eng	This species is known from 10 specimens in three localities (Helgen 2003).
13114		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be deforestation due to logging. It is also likely to be impacted by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
13115		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, habitat, ecology, and threats to this species. There is also some doubt as to whether or not it is distinct from <em>M. rufescens</em>, and further taxonomic research is a priority.
13115		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea, and from Choiseul Island in the Solomon Islands. The elevational range of the species is unknown.
13115		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species has not been recorded. It is suspected to have similar habits to <em>M. rufescens</em>, and occur in disturbed habitats, rural gardens, and possibly within houses (Flannery 1995).
13115		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
13115		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
13116		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
13116		distribution	eng	This species is present in coastal areas of northern and central eastern Australia including many offshore islands. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m asl. This species is also present in the Trans Fly region of New Guinea (in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea).
13116		habitat	eng	It is present in areas of tall grassland, sedgefields, open woodland, grassy glades within tropical moist forest, swamps, mangroves and vine thickets (Kerle 2008). It is a common pest of sugarcane fields. It breeds throughout the year with litters of up to five young (Kerle 2008).
13116		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
13116		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13117		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas. Taxonomic work to resolve the status of Cape York Melomys is required.
13117		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape York Peninsula, including the McIlwraith and Iron Ranges, and some offshore islands of Queensland, Australia (Leung 2008).
13117		habitat	eng	It is a largely scansorial species of tropical moist forest. Animals nest in tree hollows during the day. The species breeds throughout the year producing a number of litters; females usually give birth to two young (Leung 2008).
13117		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, but suitable habitat is limited (Leung 2008).
13117		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13118		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine whether this is a species complex.
13118		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from tropical forests of north-eastern Queensland south to central coastal New South Wales (Moore and Burnett 2008).
13118		habitat	eng	It is found in closed tropical moist forest, semi-deciduous vine thicket, bottle tree scrub, and wooded swamps in Queensland, but in the south of its range it also occurs in wet sclerophyll forest and coastal woodlands; also in mangrove forest. The species can breed throughout the year, with females giving birth to up to three young after a gestation period of about 38 days (Moore and Burnett 2008).
13118		population	eng	It is common and often abundant where it occurs. It is less common in New South Wales where habitat for the species is limited (Moore and Burnett 2008).
13118		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13119		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species.
13119		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it occurs in the Central Cordillera Range. It ranges in altitude  from 1,800 to 2,600 m asl.
13119		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from high altitude moss forest (Flannery 1995).
13119		population	eng	It is fairly common at most of its known localities.
13119		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Its high altitude habitat lies above the agricultural zone and is not threatened by conversion to cultivated land. It is, however, locally threatened in the west of its range by loss of habitat through mining operations (gold, silver, copper, etc.).
13120		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Manusela National Park. Further information in general is needed into this species, particularly details are needed into any threats to the species or its habitat.
13120		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to Seram island, Indonesia, where it is known only from the type locality of Mt. Manusela at 1,830 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may be present at other locations, although this needs to be confirmed, but the species is almost certainly restricted to suitable habitat at elevations above 1,800 m.
13120		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be arboreal, and has been found in upper montane, mossy forest in limestone country (Helgen 2003). It is unlikely to occur in heavily modified areas.
13120		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens collected in 1920 (Helgen 2003).
13120		threats	eng	The species is presumed to be threatened by logging operations; desiccation of montane forest through clearance of lowland habitats, and competition, and possible disease transmission from the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
13122		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas (e.g., top end of the Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
13122		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to the mountains of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges from Lake Habbema (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to the Huon Gulf and to Mount Kemp in the southeast (Papua New Guinea) in the east. It has been recorded at elevations between 1,000 and 3,200 m asl.
13122		habitat	eng	It has been collected in mid-montane primary and disturbed moss forest (Flannery 1995). The species has a small litter size.
13122		population	eng	It can be locally abundant.
13122		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13123		conservation	eng	Probably occurs in some protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
13123		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the south side of the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Northern records of the species are isolated, however, this area has not been well-surveyed and the species may have a more extensive range, but all the specimens north of the Cordillera need to be examined critically. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,400 m asl.
13123		habitat	eng	This scansorial species has been found living in tree hollows in tropical moist forest. Menzies (1996) reports that it is found on tree-less offshore islands. It can also occur in disturbed habitats. The female gives birth to two young.
13123		population	eng	It can be locally very abundant.
13123		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Much of the lowland habitat is being logged, but this is not a severe threat to it.
13124		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the species' distribution, abundance, natural history, and sensitivity to logging.
13124		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is patchily distributed from the Gobe on the southern highlands gulf border east to Milne Bay, on the southern side of the Central Cordillera. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl.
13124		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland, swamp, and hill forest. It is tolerant of some degree of disturbance.
13124		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
13124		threats	eng	The range of this species is currently being logged and at least half of it is concessioned to be logged, which will presumably be a major threat, although its sensitively to that level of disturbance is also unknown (the species is tolerant of some degree of disturbance).
13125		conservation	eng	The range falls within the Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed to determine its sensitivity to logging.
13125		distribution	eng	This species is present on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it ranges from the Mimika River in the west to the Darai Plateau and Mount Bosavi area in the east. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,500 m asl.
13125		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and gallery forest (these are remnant forest patches in the savanna). It is not known if this species is sensitive to habitat disturbance or not.
13125		population	eng	This is a common species.
13125		threats	eng	There is extensive logging already happening or proposed for much of the southern watershed, but it is not clear if this poses a major threat or not.
13126		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
13126		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it has been recorded from scattered localities throughout the Central Cordillera, from the Arfak Mountains in the west to the Mount Dayman area in the southeast (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between 1,200 and 2,200 m asl.
13126		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that has been recorded from montane tropical forest and old rural garden plots (Flannery 1995). This species has a low reproductive rate; females give birth to a single young (Flannery 1995).
13126		population	eng	This is a common species.
13126		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
13127		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species, and to determine its sensitivity to heavy disturbance.
13127		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known from the lowlands in the south-eastern and north-eastern portions of the country. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 700 m asl.<br/><br/>There is a record from Yapen Island and two more from Papua Province, Indonesia (Flannery 1995a,b), but these are not mapped here and require further examination (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13127		habitat	eng	It is a largely terrestrial species confined to lowland tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995). It occurs in disturbed areas. A captive female gave birth to two young.
13127		population	eng	This is a common species.
13127		threats	eng	Much of the habitat is being lost due to oil palm expansion, logging, and nickel mining. These may not be major threats, however, as the species tolerates disturbed areas.
13128		conservation	eng	It is currently not present in protected areas, although a protected area has been proposed for Obi. There is clearly a need for more effective habitat protection, and for additional survey work on both islands to determine its current status.
13128		distribution	eng	This is known only from Obi and Bisa islands, south of Halmahera, Indonesia (Flannery 1995; Helgen 2003). All known specimens have been taken from lowland areas.
13128		habitat	eng	Flannery (1995) collected this species in secondary growth along Durian Creek near Madupolo on the island of Bisa. Surrounding slopes were covered with either gardens or young regrowth, although some forest persisted in the creek valley. Flannery (1995) observed it feeding on fruit of <em>Piper aduncu</em>, up to 3 m above ground; some individuals were trapped on the ground, among rocks and ferns on a creek bank.
13128		population	eng	It is known by the holotype from Obi, and a small series from Bisa. Flannery (1995) noted it was common around their camp on Bisa.
13128		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to logging, although it seems somewhat tolerant of habitat disturbance.
13129		conservation	eng	This widespread species is presumed to occur in some protected areas.
13129		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and has been recorded from a number of islands in Cenderawasih Bay (Indonesia), the Bismarck Archipelago, and Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
13129		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that is common in disturbed forest habitats and close to villages. Females give birth to a single young.
13129		population	eng	It is a common species.
13129		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13130		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and possible threats to this species.
13130		distribution	eng	This species is present on the island of New Guinea, where it is found from north-western Papua Province, Indonesia to eastern Papua New Guinea. Within this area it has been recorded from the Mamberamo River, Wau area, Cyclops Mountains, and localities in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea. It has also been recorded on the island of Yapen in Cenderawasih Bay, Indonesia. It has an elevational range of 320 to 1,400 m asl.
13130		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland forest habitats. It nests in burrows and appears to be solitary (Flannery 1995). Females give birth to a single young.
13130		population	eng	This species is common.
13130		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13131		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and possible threats to the separate populations.
13131		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it is widespread along the Central Cordillera, Huon Peninsula, and the Torricelli Mountains (Flannery 1995; Menzies 1996). It has an altitudinal range of 900 to 3,000 m asl.
13131		habitat	eng	It is a partly terrestrial species that is found in primary tropical forest and disturbed areas including old rural gardens (Flannery 1995). The species appears to have a low rate of fecundity; females generally give birth to two young (Flannery 1995).
13131		population	eng	It is a common species; abundant in some areas.
13131		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13132		conservation	eng	Bramble Cay is not currently a protected area. A recovery plan has been drafted by Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service (Latch in prep.) Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service is currently monitoring the population and assessing cay dynamics. Recovery objectives include: establish a Bramble Cay Melomys monitoring program; clarify the extent of, and manage threats to, the Bramble Cay Melomys; improve understanding of Bramble Cay Melomys taxonomy, biology and ecology; respond to any sharp decline in the Bramble Cay Melomys population; facilitate community participation in Bramble Cay Melomys recovery. (P. Latch pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Additional studies include: clarify taxonomy of Bramble Cay Melomys; undertake surveys on other Torres Strait islands to locate any further populations; develop a captive breeding and reintroduction proposal if needed and identify possible new introduction site/s. Additional management actions needed, include:  monitor the dynamics of Bramble Cay at regular intervals; investigate the feasibility of stabilising Bramble Cay; monitor for presence of exotic pests and disease; reduce the risk of exotic species establishing on the cay; engage the Traditional Owners in all aspects of the recovery process; promote Bramble Cay Melomys recovery to the Torres Strait and wider Australian communities (P. Latch pers. comm.).
13132		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bramble Cay, a small coral cay in the Torres Strait, Australia (Lee 1995; Dennis 2008). It has not been located on other islands despite intensive surveys (Lee 1995).
13132		habitat	eng	<em>Melomys rubicola</em> is nocturnal (P. Latch pers. comm.). It lives amongst the vegetation on the cay and uses burrows as refuges (P. Latch pers. comm.). The cay, as measured in 2004, is approximately 5 ha in size with a vegetated portion 2.2 ha (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). It has one of the most restricted distributions of any mammal species. Little is known of the species' biology and ecology (P. Latch pers. comm.).
13132		population	eng	No recent, published information is available (P. Latch pers. comm.), but there are probably less than 50 mature individuals.
13132		threats	eng	The main threat is to its habitat. The island is eroding through natural processes (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, unpublished data), and it is possible that a major storm could eliminate all suitable habitat (Lee 1995). The introduction of any exotic plant, predator, or disease is also a significant threat to this very small, isolated population. Inbreeding depression, while potentially a threat to a small population such as this, is considered a lower risk than natural disasters or invasive species (Dickman <em>et al.</em> 2000).
13133		conservation	eng	It is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies into the differences between populations of this taxon are needed.
13133		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and  Papua New Guinea), Salawati and Misool islands (Indonesia), and the Bismarck Archipelago (including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland). It has been recorded from sea level up to 2,400 m asl.
13133		habitat	eng	This largely arboreal species ranges from primary forest (where it is generally rare), into secondary and degraded forest, areas of cane grass, rural gardens and villages. The species can be found living in houses. Females give birth to between one and four young.
13133		population	eng	It is common in disturbed habitat and in primary forest.
13133		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13139		conservation	eng	There are no recommended conservation measures for this species.
13139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from the islands of Duke of York, Mioko, New Britain, Tolokiwa, Umboi, Dyal, and New Ireland (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It is found from sea level up to 1,600 m asl. It may also occur on Sakar and Lavongai.
13139		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from disturbed forest and gardens (including stands of banana trees) and cocoa plantations. It "thrives in close association with humans where cultivated bananas occur in much higher density than do wild bananas in primary forest" (Bonaccorso <em>et al.</em> 2005). It appears to be rare in primary tropical forest. The species roosts primarily in foliage, but also on rocky outcrops. Individuals have home ranges of about 5 hectares and are highly territorial (Bonnacorso <em>et al.</em> 2005). It probably has two litters of a single young annually  (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).
13139		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species.
13139		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13140		conservation	eng	The population numbers of this species should be assessed.
13140		distribution	eng	This species is present in Solomon Island chain (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands). The subspecies <em>Melonycteris woodfordi woodfordi</em> is found on the islands of Bougainville and Buka of Papua New Guinea, and the islands of Oblari, Alu, Choisel, Fauro, Mono, and Santa Ysabel in the Solomon Islands. The subspecies <em>M. w. aurantius</em> is found on Nggela and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). The species occurs from sea level to 1,100 m asl.
13140		habitat	eng	It is known from primary tropical forest, but is also commonly found in disturbed habitats including secondary forest, rural gardens, and coconut plantations (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It roosts in foliage in small groups or individually and likely forages over a relatively small home range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
13140		population	eng	It is a common species.
13140		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats, although habitat loss due to deforestation may adversely affect the species. Because this species does not require caves and does not roost in large colonies, it is immune to many of the threats faced by cave roosting bats of the region (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
13141		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the population status, distribution, and habitat requirements of this species.
13141		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from Guadalcanal, Kolombangara, Malaita, New Georgia, the Russell Islands, San Cristobal, Vangunu, and Vella Lavella (Flannery 1995).
13141		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary montane tropical forest (Mount Makarakomburu, Guadalcanal) and in many other habitat types (e.g., lowland forest, disturbed areas).
13141		population	eng	Flannery (1995) reports that it is moderately common at some localities, but quite rare at others. The species is widespread.
13141		threats	eng	Although this species is known from a variety of habitats including disturbed forest, habitat degradation due to logging and agricultural expansion probably threaten this species in parts of its range.
13143		conservation	eng	Sloth bears are reported to exist in 174 Protected Areas in India, which include 46 National Parks and 128 Wildlife Sanctuaries (Chauhan 2006).  Populations appear to be reasonably well protected inside these PAs, but faced with deteriorating habitat conditions outside PAs (Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1990, Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Reduced cover and food resources outside PAs (Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2004) have led to increased bear–human conflicts, including frequent maulings (Bargali <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is estimated that half to two-thirds of the sloth bears in India live outside protected areas. About half the occupied range in Sri Lanka is outside protected areas (Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>Sloth bears are listed in Appendix I of CITES and are completely protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act.  They are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in the other range countries.  However, they can be killed to protect life or property.  Given the aggressive nature of this animal, and the increasing number of encounters between bears and people, these bears are widely feared.  Although education may help to reduce bear-human conflicts and enhance a conservation ethic among locals, the root of the problem is largely related to deteriorating habitat, which increases the chance of interaction between people and bears.  Thus, habitat improvements (government or community-based reforestation) would be helpful in alleviating such conflicts.
13143		distribution	eng	Sloth bears are present in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan.  Until recently they were also known to occur in Bangladesh, but their continued existence there is uncertain: the last documented records are from the late 1990s. In historic times, sloth bears never ranged further west than Gujarat, India, and probably no further east than the states of northeastern India, although some unverified reports suggested that they once occurred in the southwestern corner of present day Myanmar (Erdbrink 1953). Although still widely present in its former range, its distribution is now highly fragmented.
13143		habitat	eng	Sloth bears subsist primarily on termites, ants, and fruits. This is the only species of bear adapted specifically for myrmecophagy (ant and termite-eating; Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999b, Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004).  The ratio of insects to fruits in the diet varies seasonally and geographically (Baskaran <em>et al</em>. 1997, Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Bargali <em>et al</em>. 2004,  Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 2002). <br/> <br/>Sloth bears occupy a wide range of habitats on the Indian mainland including wet or dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands (Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1995, Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 2002, Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2004, Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. in press).  They are primarily a lowland species. Most sloth bear range in India and Nepal is limited to habitats below 1,500 m, although the species may occur as high as 2,000 m in the forests of the Western Ghats (Johnsingh 2003).  In Sri Lanka, sloth bears are confined to the remaining dry forests in the north and eastern parts of the island, mostly below 300 m (Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In areas where cover is sparse, and where daytime temperatures are high (a large part of the range), the bear is largely nocturnal or crepuscular and will shelter in rock outcrops, thickets, and tree cavities during the heat of the day.  Although sloth bears may be active during the day in protected areas, they tend to be almost exclusively nocturnal in disturbed and fragmented forests interspersed with human habitations (Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Studies in Nepal and Sri Lanka suggest that sloth bears avoid areas where human disturbance is high, so crop depredation by sloth bears is typically rare (Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. in press).  Conversely, in some parts of India, sloth bears routinely raid peanut, maize, and fruit crops (e.g., Changani 2002).  Chauhan (2006) suggests that such crop depredations may occur because these habitats are severely affected by human exploitation, including the extraction of several food sources for bears.  <br/><br/>Sloth bears typically breed during June-July, and females give birth, usually to one or two cubs, during November –January (Laurie and Seidensticker 1977, Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1999, Chauhan <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Cubs typically ride on the mother’s back during their first nine months, presumably to reduce the risk of predation.  Cubs remain with their mothers for 1.5–2.5  years.
13143		population	eng	A mark-resight based population estimate is available for one park in Nepal; density was estimated at 27 bears/100 km² for the whole park, and as high as 72 bears /100 km² in a core area (Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999a).  Other population estimates (guesstimates) exist for many other parks and reserves, but these were based on uncertain methodology (mainly just expert opinion gleaned from interviews and questionnaires).  Good information is available on area of occupied range in India (Chauhan 2006, Yoganand <em>et al.</em> 2006), Nepal (Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999a), and Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Some attempts have been made to apply estimated densities in various protected areas to occupied area to obtain a rangewide population estimate.  Depending on methods and data employed in this process, rangewide estimates vary from <10,000 to somewhat >20,000 (Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999b, Chauhan 2006, Yoganand <em>et al</em>. 2006).  None of these estimates are considered reliable enough to track changes in population size.
13143		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are habitat loss and poaching (Johnsingh 2003, Chauhan 2006). Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuel wood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (e.g., teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads (Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1990).  Poaching, mainly for the commercial trade in bear parts, has been reported (Servheen 1990, Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999b), but its current extent and impact on bear populations is uncertain.  Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g., male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration; Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1990, Chauhan 2006).  Capture of live cubs for use as "dancing bears" remains a significant threat in some parts of the range (Seshamani and Satyanarayan 1997).  Also, in some parts of the range, encounters between people and sloth bears have led to numerous human injuries and many deaths (Rajpurohit and Krausman 2000, Bargali <em>et al</em>. 2005, Chauhan 2006).  Such incidents tend to occur where people frequently use bear habitat, and where the habitat has thus become severely degraded.  Bears that attack or threaten to attack people may be destroyed.  <br/><br/>The only natural threats to sloth bears are tigers (<em>Panthera tigris</em>) and possibly leopards (<em>P. pardus</em>).  In fact, the threat of tiger predation may account for the very aggressive nature of sloth bears (Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Sloth bears have been observed fending off approaches by tigers, but they have also occasionally been observed as a prey item of tigers (e.g., Gopal 1991).
13144		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas (R. Timmins and W. Duckworth pers. comm.; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994).
13144		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in suitable habitat in Cambodia, Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000), Thailand, Viet Nam, Myanmar and China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). In China it is found in southern Yunnan, while in Myanmar it occurs west to the Irrawaddy river and north to approx 20 degrees according to Moore and Tate (1965), but probably also further north to Yunnan.
13144		habitat	eng	This squirrel forages on the ground in forests and along the forest edge, it also frequents cultivated areas. It lives at elevations up to 1,200 m. It is known to enter rice and corn fields in order to dig up and eat the planted grain. It is often caught in traps baited with bananas. Although this species spends most of its time on the ground, occasionally it may be seen running along railings or up and down slanting or broken bamboos, but never far from the ground.
13144		population	eng	This species is extremely abundant in suitable habitat (R. Timmins and W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
13144		threats	eng	This species is threatened at only the very local scale by total habitat conversion due to agriculture, but it can tolerate disturbed habitat (R. Timmins and W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
13145		habitat	eng	Occurs in ponds of varying salinity.
13146		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Waccamaw, a shallow coastal plain lake in Columbus County, southeastern North Carolina.
13159		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
13159		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern sands of the Rub al Khali in Saudi Arabia and Oman. It probably also occurs in the southern part of the United Arab Emirates. Its distribution is poorly known and the map should be considered provisional.
13159		habitat	eng	It occurs in sandy deserts. It is a very poorly known species.
13159		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
13159		threats	eng	There is very little information on this species, but it occurs in an inhospitable location where there are unlikely to be any significant threats.
13160		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
13160		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the eastern region of Xinjiang province (Turfan Basin) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations usually above 1,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
13160		habitat	eng	This species occurs in semi-desert or xeric grasslands and mountainous areas (Smith and Xie 2008). It creates multiple burrows, usually at the base of shrubs (Smith and Xie 2008).
13160		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
13160		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
13161		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
13161		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones crassus</em> occurs across north Africa from Morocco to Egypt south to Sudan; also in Asia through the Arabian Peninsula north to Turkey and east to western Pakistan. There are also records of this species from Niger and the headwaters of the Nile, Sudan. The species also possibly occurs in Mali (L. Granjon and S. Aulagnier pers. comm.).
13161		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species (Amr 2000), prefering dry habitats in sandy or hammada deserts, and absent from mountain areas with a Mediterranean climate, where it inhabits burrows.  It can be gregarious or solitary (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species feeds on various plant species and dung from camels and donkeys; desert locusts and crickets amongst other insects are also eaten. Foraging can take place up to 10 km from the burrow. The breeding season occurs from November to June, gestation lasts upto 31 days and one to five young are born (mean 3.3) (Qumsiyeh 1996). The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000). The species' peak elevation is under 1,000 m. A habitat generalist in deserts, not found in rocky microhabitats.
13161		population	eng	It is a common species.
13161		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13162		conservation	eng	In Turkey, the species is not in any protected areas, but there is one nearby (Agri Mountain N.P.). Listed as rare species in Red List of Armenian SSR (1990). In 1958 nature reserve "Gorovanskie peski" was established where <em>Meriones dahli</em> is one of the major protected species. More conservation measures for this species are urgently needed.
13162		distribution	eng	This species is known only from local sandy habitats in the border area of Armenia and Turkey. Possibly Azerbaijan, because it was found near Sadarak village, which is near the border of Armenia and Republic of Nakhichevan (a part of Azerbaijan). In Turkey it is known from only one location (on the plain north of the Ağri Mountain) in Turkey (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007, Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006).The range consists of several separated areas. <br/><br/>In 1960s total area of occupancy was less than 300 ha (Adamyan <em>et al.</em>, 1976). In 1970-80 the area of occupancy sharply declined due to agricultural activity.
13162		distribution	eng	This species is known only from local sandy habitats in the border area of Armenia and Turkey. Possibly Azerbaijan, because it was found near Sadarak village, which is near the border of Armenia and Republic of Nakhichevan (a part of Azerbaijan). In Turkey it is known from only one location (on the plain north of the A?ri Mountain) in Turkey (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007, Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006).The range consists of several separated areas. <br/><br/>In 1960s total area of occupancy was less than 300 ha (Adamyan <em>et al.</em>, 1976). In 1970-80 the area of occupancy sharply declined due to agricultural activity.
13162		habitat	eng	Inhabit areas of hillocky, slightly fixed sands from 600 to 1000 m. In coastal sands lives among tamarisk shrubs with mixed grasses and herbs. In piedmont area dominate <em>Calligonus</em> and <em>Achillea</em> shrubs with mixed grasses and herbs. Feed on green parts and seeds of various plants. Winter supplies consist mainly of seeds. <br/>There are two types of burrows: permanent and shelter. Shelter burrows are simple and shallow, consist of one passage without widening. Permanent burrows are more complex, with 4-5 exits, passage length could be up to 7 m. Nest is at 0,5-2 m below the ground. In wintering burrow up to 5 individuals can hibernate.<br/>Reproduction starts at the end of March - beginning of April. Gestation is 20-22 days. There are two reproduction peaks, in April and in July, however, adult females can have 3 litters per season. Litter size is 2-7, more often 4-6.
13162		population	eng	In Armenia, estimates in the 1960s found 20 to 90/ha and in the 1990s, 2-5/ha in the 1990s. It is rare in Turkey (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Armenia total number used to fluctuate from 500 to 6000 individuals (Dyatlov <em>et al.</em>, 1987). More recently, Saakyan (Biodiversity Centre <http: www.biodiversity.ru="" programs="" rodent="" species="" meriones_dahl.html="">) noticed extensive habitat loss due to agricultural activities and estimates that current population size in Armenia is not more than 500-1000 individuals in total. Population size is still declining due to human activities.
13162		threats	eng	This is a rare animal restricted to sandy habitats with sparse, shrubby vegetation. It is susceptible to cutting of vegetation for firewood. Overgrazing and agricultural expansion are likely to threaten the population.
13163		conservation	eng	The species has been reporetd from Desert National Park, Rajasthan, India. Life History studies are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13163		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the Thar desert of India, Iran and Pakistan. Within India it is seen in Gujarat, Haryana, and Rajasthan, while in Pakistan known from Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and North West Frontier Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It ranges from 75 to 300 m in elevation and is very widely distributed in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is questionably present in Afghanistan at Kelat-i-Ghilzai between Ghazni and Kandahar (Habibi 2004).
13163		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, fossorial, social and colonial (5-20 individuals) species. The species forms superficial to deep burrows in plains, prefers hammocky landscapes on sandy plains with higher density of bushes  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Typical habitats include alluvial plains, uncultivated clay flats, sandy plains, interdunal regions, gravelly depressions with grasses and other vegetation (S. Chakraborty in litt. 2005). The species can also be found in acacia forest and hedges. It has been found to occupy the edges of cultivated fields (S. Chakraborty in litt. 2005).
13163		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13163		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, small-scale logging operations, invasions of alien plant species directly impacting the habitat, collection of fuel wood. It is also threatened by pest control programmes,  natural disasters (such as drought and floods) and harvest for local consumption (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13164		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place. The species is found in many protected areas. No specific conservation measures are recommended for this species.
13164		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones libycus</em> has a wide global range, occurring in North Africa (from Western Sahara and Mauritania to Egypt) and in Asia (from the Arabian peninsula east to China). Occurs up to 1,700 m (Roberts 1997).
13164		habitat	eng	<em>M. libycus</em> occupies desert habitats, generally in areas with stabilized dunes (desert and semi-desert habitats). It becomes most abundant in unflooded river plains and it is often found close to wadis and dayas. It is sometimes found in arable land. It is a highly mobile species, frequently changing burrows or even migrating should forage conditions deteriorate.
13164		population	eng	It is a common species across its range.
13164		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is considered a pest in some areas, as it may feed on crops.
13165		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in different parts of its range.
13165		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in different parts of its range. Approximately 17% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
13165		distribution	eng	Distributed in sand deserts in the western Caspian Sea region (Russian Federation), Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Iran, northern Afganistan, northern China and Mongolia.
13165		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in sand deserts in the western Caspian Sea region (Russian Federation), Kazakhstan, Central Asia, northeastern Iran, northern Afghanistan, northern China and Mongolia. In Mongolia, the species occurs throughout southern Mongolia and in Great Lakes Depression in the west of the country.
13165		habitat	eng	Distributed in sand deserts, including fragmented alluvial and deluvial sands. Most abundant in hilly deserts and sandy areas with shrub cover, including small sand tracts in the steppe zone in the western part of the range. In spring and summer it is nocturnal, but in autumn (while foraging for winter) it remains active all day. Burrows are usually excavated under the roots of shrubs. Congregates in large colonies with pronounced social structure. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes on insects. Breeding period differs in northern and southern parts of the range. In northern parts it lasts from April til September, with two peaks in spring and autumn. In southern parts the reproductive period occurs from February or March til beginning of October, and in favourable conditions it may last throughout the year. Females that are at least a year old usually give birth to three litters per year; young females give birth once, rarely twice a year. Litter size is about 6 young.
13165		habitat	eng	Distributed in sand deserts, including fragmented alluvial and deluvial sands. Most abundant in hilly deserts and sandy areas with shrub cover, including small sand tracts in the steppe zone in the western part of the range. In spring and summer it is nocturnal, but in autumn (while foraging for winter) it remains active all day. Burrows are usually excavated under the roots of shrubs. Congregates in large colonies with pronounced social structure. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes on insects. Breeding period differs in northern and southern parts of the range. In northern parts it lasts from April until September, with two peaks in spring and autumn. In southern parts the reproductive period occurs from February or March until beginning of October, and in favourable conditions it may last throughout the year. Females that are at least a year old usually give birth to three litters per year; young females give birth once, rarely twice a year. Litter size is about 6 young.
13165		population	eng	It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. Depending on winter weather conditions and the availability of essential fodder crops, density could fluctuate by ten times or more. Like other gerbil species, <em>Meriones meridianus</em> is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases. Population size in this species is monitored by plague control agencies.
13165		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species.
13166		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas (eg. Hazar Ganji antional Park, Baluchistan, Pakistan). In South Asia, field surveys, life history studies, habitat management and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13166		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Caucasus (including the southeastern foothills of the lesser Caucasus and the Talysh Plateau in Azerbaijan) in the west, through northeastern Iraq and Iran to Turkmenistan, Afghanistan (Habibi 2004) to Pakistan where it is widely distributed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges up to 3,250 m asl.
13166		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial, gregarious, omnivorous species. It generally occurs in arid, rocky, mountainous region, favouring dry stone embankment in highlands. It has been found to occupy dry stone embankments of upland cultivation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13166		population	eng	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in semi-deserts and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes. There is little information available for the remainder of the species range.
13166		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this species, although some populations might be threatened by prolonged periods of drought (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
13167		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
13167		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of the southwestern Arabian Peninsula, from near Mecca in Saudi Arabia south to near Aden in Yemen (Al-Jumaily, 1998; Harrison and Bates, 1991). In Saudi Arabia the species has been reported from 1,350 to 2,200 m asl.
13167		habitat	eng	This jird occurs lives in large burrows amongst bushes, prefering raised areas bordering agricultural land, though it can be found in a variety of habitats. It is active in the evening and early morning. Burrows are shared with other rodents and lizards.
13167		population	eng	This species is apparently common in the Yemen mountains.
13167		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is reported to cause damage to agricultural fields, and also acts as a disease reservoir of human infections.
13168		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in southern Israel.
13168		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones sacramenti</em> is endemic to the Negev and the coastal region of northern Sinai (Egypt) and Israel, including Palestine.
13168		habitat	eng	The species lives in coastal dunes with limited vegetation cover, it lives in small family groups. They have also been reported to be more generalist, inhabiting clay and sandy deserts, bush country, arid steppes, low plains, cultivated fields, grasslands, and mountain valleys. They are terrestrial and construct burrows in soft soil. Their diet consists of green vegetation, roots, bulbs, seeds, cereals, fruits and insects. More folivorous than other <em>Meriones</em> species.
13168		population	eng	Little information is known. The species tends to occur at relatively low densities.
13168		threats	eng	The eastern sections of the species' range are under threat from urbanization, which has caused a reduction in available habitat of around 10 to 15% over the last ten years (G. Shenbrot pers. comm. 2005). Habitat has also been lost through conversion to agricultural areas, particularly in southern Israel. Much of the species range also falls within a politically unstable area.
13169		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas.
13169		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas. Listed as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997). Approximately 23% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
13169		distribution	eng	Distributed from cis-Caucasia through Kazakhstan to Tajikistan, Mongolia, and N Xinjiang and Nei Mongol regions of China (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
13169		distribution	eng	This species global distribution extends from CIS-Caucasia (Russian Federation) through Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, to Tajikistan, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, and northern Xinjiang and Nei Mongol regions of China (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>Within Mongolia, its regional distribution has been recorded from the lower drainage of the Bodonch and Bulgan rivers in Dzungarian Govi Desert, and north-western Aj Bogd Mountain Range in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).
13169		habitat	eng	Inhabits shrubby thickets in flood-plains and forest belts (in Astrakhan semidesert); also oases and shrubby semi-deserts with some grass cover. In NW parts of the range it is expanding its range and occupying new lands that have appeared as the Caspian Sea  has dried out; however, in the Aral Sea region the species' range has stayed the same despite the availability of new lands. Lives in family groups, occasionally forming small colonies without social structure. Besides seeds, a considerable proportion of its diet is made up of vegetative parts of plants. Reproduction starts in February to March (western parts of the range) or March to April (eastern parts of the range) and lasts for about six months. Breeding intensity decreases during hot months. Females that have overwintered usually give birth to three litters per year; young females generally start reproduction in June. Litter size is about 4-5 young.<br/><br/>Tamarisk gerbils have head-rump measurements averaging 15-18 cm and a tail length of approximately 15 cm (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Dorsal coloration varies from yellow through to sandy or grey, in some cases it may be dark brown, with a white or pale underside. The hairs on its back have black tips, giving the sides of the body a lighter appearance. The tail hairs become long and bushy towards the tip (Nowak, 1991).
13169		habitat	eng	Inhabits shrubby thickets in flood-plains and forest belts (in Astrakhan semidesert); also oases and shrubby semi-deserts with some grass cover. In NW parts of the range it is expanding its range and occupying new lands that have appeared as the Caspian Sea  has dried out; however, in the Aral Sea region the species's range has stayed the same despite the availability of new lands. Lives in family groups, occasionally forming small colonies without social structure. Besides seeds, a considerable proportion of its diet is made up of vegetative parts of plants. Reproduction starts in February to March (western parts of the range) or March to April (eastern parts of the range) and lasts for about six months. Breeding intensity decreases during hot months. Females that have overwintered usually give birth to three litters per year; young females generally start reproduction in June. Litter size is about 4-5 young.
13169		population	eng	It is a common species within much of its range, although populations undergo fluctuations in density every 2-3 years. Usually does not form colonies, but in Kazakhstan density could reach 30-50 individuals per hectare. A considerable pest of grain-crops, melons and gourds. In Central Asia population density considerably increase during cereals ripening. Same as other gerbil species is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases agents. Population size is under observation of plague control services.
13169		population	eng	It is a common species within much of its range, although populations undergo fluctuations in density every 2-3 years. Usually does not form colonies, but in Kazakhstan density could reach 30-50 individuals per hectare. A considerable pest of grain-crops, melons and gourds. In Central Asia population density considerably increases during the time of year when cereals ripen. Like other gerbil species it is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases agents. Population size is under observation of plague control services.
13169		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
13169		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. In parts of the range (e.g. in Mongolia) habitat degradation, particularly through trampling and browsing of tamarisk by domestic camels may be a local problem. Low levels of human disturbance, and competition for tamarisk with domestic camels, may also constitute local threats. Drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
13170		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas. No specific conservation measures are recommended.
13170		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones tristrami</em> has a global range that extends from Anatolia and the Caucasus south to Jordan, Syria, Israel, northwest Iran and Iraq. Although it has been recorded on the Greek Island of Kos, it has not been recorded there over the last ten years despite repeated surveys (G. Mitsain pers. comm. 2007).
13170		distribution	eng	Occurs on the island of Kos (Greece); also in Asia Minor, the Middle East, Transcaucasia and northwestern Iran (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.
13170		habitat	eng	Found in steppe and semi-desert habitats. The distribution of this species is reported to be limited to areas receiving more than 100 mm rainfall annually, though there are some exceptions including northeast Jordan and eastern Syrian desert habitats. Occurs in the edges of cereal fields (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). It inhabits a variety of soil types and the burrows vary in complexity, it does not store food so always leaves its burrow to feed on grain, seeds, and green plant parts (Harrison and Bates 1991). Breeding occurs through the year peaking between April and September with a gestation period of 25-29 days and one to seven young born (average 3.6) (Qumsiyeh 1996). The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000).
13170		habitat	eng	Prefers deserts and dry steppes.
13170		population	eng	In 1996, the species was reported to be common in Israel and one of the most common jirds in the hills with Mediterranean climate in the region, it may become a pest in some regions  (Qumsiyeh 1996). During surveys in 1996 and 1997 in suitable habitat at Badia, Jordan, this species was the least commonly encountered species (Scott and Dunstone, 2000), although Amr (2000) describes the species as common in Jordan. In Azerbaijan, the species is considered common in semi-deserts and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes and the plateau of the Talysh. Population numbers fluctuate greatly and the species may become a minor agricultural pest in some areas. The species' density was less than 1/ha in Jordan (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).
13170		population	eng	One of the most common jirds throughout much of its global range.
13170		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
13170		threats	eng	There are no serious threats affecting this species at present.
13171		conservation	eng	Abundant species, that occur in many protected areas (approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research on population size and trends is recommended.
13171		distribution	eng	Distributed in dry steppes of SE Mongolia and adjacent territories of Russia and China. In Mongolia: Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, southern Hangai Mountain Range, along the Orhon and Selenge river basins in north eastern Hangai Mountain Range, Middle Halh Steppe, Northern Govi, and Eastern Mongolia. In N China: Nei Mongol, Liaoning, Hebei, N Shanxi, N Shaanxi, E Gansu, Ningxia. In Russia: southern Transbaikalia and south of Tuva.
13171		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppe, semi-desert and desert habitats, frequently occurring in areas with clay soils, or cultivated fields, at railroad mounds, and other grasslands. Not found in mountainous terrain. Active during both day and night, although primarily diurnal during winter. Does not hibernate or estivate. Density of the Mongolian Gerbil is quite variable over its range, but it can occur at extremely high densities under some conditions.  Colonial, its normal social unit is the family group.  Families live together and mutually defend their burrow system, and all members contribute to gathering food stores (which can weigh as much as 20 kg).  Burrow structure is not complicated.  Burrows can extend 5-6 m in length and have nest chambers situated at 45 cm in depth (summer) or 150 cm in depth (winter).  Diet consists of seeds and greens, but they also consume fruits of desert plants. If food conditions significantly worsen, can migrate up to 50 km. Reproduction time differs around the range, in northern parts (Russia) it is shorter (March to August), while in southern parts (China) it is from February until September; litter size 2-11 (average about six).
13171		population	eng	No data are available at present.
13171		threats	eng	Persecuted as a pest, also threatened by wildfires and possibly by habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. These are not considered to be major threats to the species at present.
13172		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
13172		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones vinogradovi</em> has a limited range from Turkey through Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, through to Iran. In the Mediterranean region it is known from eastern Turkey (from Aralik and Dogubeyazit (Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006)) and one record from Syria (A. Karatas unpublished data). Some existing records are problematic and the species' distribution needs to be clarified (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007).
13172		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones vinogradovi</em> has a limited range from Turkey through Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, through to Iran. In the Mediterranean region it is known from eastern Turkey (from Aralik and Dogubeyazit (Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006)) and one record from Syria (A. Karatas unpublished data). Some existing records are problematic and the species' distribution needs to be clarified (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2007).
13172		habitat	eng	A variety of habitats are occupied by this social, burrowing jird, including semi desert, bare mountains and wastelands. It is diurnal in spring and winter becoming more nocturnal in summer. Diet consists of seeds and grasses. After a gestation period of 21-23 days, in captivity seven or eight young are born, females mature at three months and may produce up to five litters annually (Harrison and Bates 1991).
13172		population	eng	In 1957, it was abundant in Syria and numerous in Nakhichevan Republic (Azerbaijan). Turkey population is seldom found with surveys.
13172		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
13173		conservation	eng	It is not known ifthe species is present within any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
13173		distribution	eng	It ranges from northeastern Iran (map provisional for this country), the arid steppes of northern Afghanistan (Hassinger 1973; Habibi 2004) and southern Turkmenistan (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13173		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Presumably it lives in somewhat dry or even arid habitats. Hassinger (1973) collected a specimen at a threshing platform, riddled with burrows, and a second specimen amongst a set of ruins.
13173		population	eng	Unknown.
13173		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
13198		conservation	eng	In Georgia, the species occurs in two protected areas (Borejomi-Haragauli NP and Kintrish Reserve); three national parks are present within the Turkish range. The species is listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Georgia.
13198		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to north-east Anatolia (the cities of Ordu Giresun, Rize, Trabzon, Artvin, Kars, Bayburt, and Gumushane), Turkey, and the western spurs of the Trialeti Mountain Ridge, Meskhetian and Lazistanian ridges, Georgia. It is present at altitudes of sea level-1,800m asl.
13198		habitat	eng	It is a habitat specialist, found mainly in beech (<em>Fagus orientalis</em>), coniferous (<em>Abies nordmanniana</em> and <em>Picea orientalis</em>), box forest (Buxus sp.), in Mediterranean shrub forest, mixed forests, the subalpine belt and in alpine meadows. The species tends to avoid large streams and lives mainly in the tributaries of rivers, usually no more than 1-1.5m in width and about 20-30cm in depth in spring. These brooks flow in dense shade and their banks are covered with dense arboreal and herbaceous vegetation (including the large fern <em>Mateuccia strutiopteris</em>). The banks contain a thick layer of leaf and branch litter, dense moss, and grass. It breeds in the streams. In general, this salamander avoids anthropogenically altered landscapes.
13198		population	eng	It is generally rare (but can be locally common) within suitable habitat. Populations of this species in Georgia display significant fluctuations, and the population in Turkey has probably declined significantly over the past decade. In Karst streams are locally abundant and occur is small "caves" along stream edges.
13198		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a major threat across the species range. In Georgia, the destruction of forests (tree felling), use of brooks as roads for the transportation of cut trees, and destruction of habitats by cattle are known causes of population declines. In Turkey, only around 12% of suitable forest habitat remains within the species range (Özhatay, Byfield and Atay 2003), and suitable subalpine and alpine meadows are being degraded through road construction and "summer house" tourism in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains (Magnin and Yarar 1997). Additionally, several dams are being constructed on streams used by this species. This species is collected for the pet trade.
13209		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Dongzhai niaolei, Jiyuanmihou, Taibaishan, Foping, Jinfoshan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), but it is not known if it is present in any other protected areas. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Vulnerable A2cd (Wang and Xie 2004).  Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.
13209		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of China known from Shaanxi, Shanxi, Gansu, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Henan (CSIS 2008). The subspecies <em>Mesechinus hughi hughi</em> occurs in southern Shaanxi and Sichuan, <em>M. h. miodon</em> occurs in Shaanxi and Gansu, and <em>M. h. sylvaticus</em> occurs in Shanxi and is known only from the Zhongtiao mountain region (Smith and Xie 2008).
13209		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry steppe (Stone 1995). There is no information regarding the ecology of this species (Stone 1995).
13209		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species, however, it is probably experiencing a decline resulting from overharvesting.
13209		threats	eng	Harvesting for food and medicine is thought to constitute a threat to this species.
13211		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas including Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park, and Gurig National Park. In Western Australia, targeted surveys are needed into the distribution and abundance of the species. In Western Australia and Queensland, there is a need to resolve taxonomy.
13211		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed discontinuously in the northern coastal regions of Western Australia (Kimberlies region), Queensland, and Northern Territory. It is present also on the offshore island of Melville, Northern Territory (Lee 1995). Found from sea level to 700 m asl.
13211		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, mostly terrestrial, species found in eucalypt forest, tropical moist forest, and open coastal forests (Lee 1995; Rankmore and Friend 2008). It nests in trees and is generally found in forest with a dense understorey. It can be found in eucalyptus open forest and woodland and can also be found in nut orchards. The female gives birth to a litter of between one and three young after a gestation period of 43-44 days (Rankmore and Friend 2008).
13211		population	eng	This species is uncommon and patchily distributed throughout its range. It is particularly rare in Queensland and Western Australia.
13211		threats	eng	Lee (1995) suggests that grazing by introduced ungulates and changes in fire regimes since European settlement may have reduced the abundance of food trees and shrubs in the forest understorey. Habitat fragmentation is a major threat, especially on Melville Island, where there are plans to clear much of the forest in the next five years. The species is particularly sensitive to fire throughout its range and the subsequent changes to forest understorey and the loss of tree holes. Feral cats are a localized threat.
13212		conservation	eng	It is present in Prince Regent River Nature Reserve, Western Australia (Lee 1995). Further studies into the distribution, population, natural history, and threats to this species are needed. Populations should also be monitored.
13212		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is now restricted to coastal areas in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and the offshore islands of Carlia, Conilurus (Margaret), Hidden, Uwins and Wollaston (Lee 1995). The species was formerly distributed across much of northern Australia. It was last recorded from Northern Territory in 1969.
13212		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in tropical rainforest (including vine thickets), eucalypt-dominated woodlands over tussock grasslands (McKenzie and Kerle 2008). This species has also been found in rugged sandstone screes, beaches, and blacksoil plains with pandanus (Woinarski 2005). Its diet consists of seeds, fruits, invertebrates, grass, and leaves, as it forages both arborealy and on the ground (Woinarski 2005). Females give birth usually to two, but sometimes three young (Lee 1995; McKenzie and Kerle 2008).
13212		population	eng	The species is sparsely scattered, but not rare (and possibly underestimated) (McKenzie and Kerle 2008). Large population declines occurred in the past due to habitat loss. The current population trends are unknown.
13212		threats	eng	It has declined through habitat degradation caused by cattle, black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>), and changes in fire regime. Current threats may include grazing by cattle, feral cats, and changes in fire regime.
13215		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Wildlife Refuge Cayos Anamaria.
13215		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cayos de Ana Maria, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Another population exists on the coastal mainland at Jucaro Este (Soy pers. comm.)
13215		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is reported as being restricted to swamps, marshland and small islands off the southern coast of Cuba (Nowak 1999). This species builds communal shelters in mangrove trees (Nowak 1999).
13215		population	eng	This species is locally common where there is adequate shelter (mangrove roots or ground cover), but is restricted to a small area (Soy pers. comm.).
13215		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is hunting; the species is accidentally captured in traps designed to catch the larger <em>Capromys pilorides</em> by fisherman who frequent the islands (Soy pers. comm.). There is some level of competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>, however, the extent of this threat is unknown.
13216		conservation	eng	The entire island where this species is found is completely protected by the Lanzanillo-Pajonal-Fragoso Wildlife Refuge.
13216		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Cayo Fragoso (22°41’N, 79°27’W), Archipiélago de Sabana, Villa Clara, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
13216		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is reported as being restricted to mangrove areas where roots provide shelter. This species builds communal shelters in mangrove trees (Nowak 1999).
13216		population	eng	This species is locally common on Cayo Fragoso, Cuba. However, the total number of mature individuals is not over 2,500.
13216		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is illegal hunting by fishermen who frequent the islands (Soy pers. comm.). There is some level of competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>, however, the extent of this threat is unknown.
13217		conservation	eng	Occurs in PN Cienaga de Zapata.
13217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ciénega de Zapata, Matanzas Province, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
13217		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It may live on dry islets and forest outcrops in the Zapata Swamp, however, the inaccessibilty of this region has made it very difficult to study in the past.
13217		population	eng	This species was last seen in 1937 (Soy pers. comm.), although unconfirmed tracks and droppings have been reported in the Zapata Swamp (Alvarez and Gonzalez 1991).
13217		threats	eng	Threats include introduced fauna (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and others) and accidental fires, which pose a major threat to the habitat where this species is presumed to be found.
13218		conservation	eng	The islands where this species occurs is a Faunal Refuge (Cayos de San Felipe Faunal Refuge).
13218		distribution	eng	This species is known from specimens collected at the type locality: Cayo Juan Garcia (21°59?N, 83°31?W), Archipiélago de los Canorreos, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It was last seen in 1978 when 43 animals were collected from the island.
13218		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species. It seems to prefer coastal forests.
13218		population	eng	Very little is known of the populations. Intensive trap surveys have not captured any individuals in recent efforts (Soy pers. comm.).
13218		threats	eng	It has been suggested that the reasons for the Little Earth Hutia's decline may have been hunting by humans, competition with introduced rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>), and habitat loss from fires (Alvarez and Gonzales 1991). A military installation was previously located on these islands and it is believed that during this time hunting was intensive from military personnel. Today fisherman use the island and many accidental fires have resulted from their cooking fires (Soy pers. comm.).
13219		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. Research is required to determine population trends and conservation requirements.
13219		distribution	eng	The main distribution area of the golden hamster is the fertile, agricultural and densely populated Aleppinian plateau in Syria, 280-380 m above sea level. The plateau area covers c.10,000-15,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The Turkish and Syrian sites may form a connected distribution area, but data to confirm this cannot easily be obtained because of restricted access to the military-protected border zone between Syria and Turkey (Gattermann <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
13219		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found in arable fields with annual crops such as wheat, barley, chickpeas, lentils, and vegetables (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Records of steppe populations probably result from confusion with the Turkish hamster <em>Mesocricetus brandti </em>(Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001). The golden hamster is a solitary, nocturnal and omnivorous (Qumsiyeh, 1996) species inhabiting burrows which can reach up to nine metres long (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001). Anecdotal evidence from farmers indicates hibernation might occur between November and February (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001). Reproductive activity possibly begins in February. A female with two to three week old juveniles was recorded in late March (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001).
13219		population	eng	Reported to be much rarer than the grey hamster (Qumsiyeh, 1996). During two short expeditions to the main distribution area in Syria only a limited number of individuals were found (Gattermann <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Distribution is presumably patchy but the hamsters may be locally abundant based on biological surveys and observations of local farmers; data are insufficient for confirmation (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001).
13219		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by increasing human settlements is the main threat to the golden hamster in Syria. The impact of natural predators on hamster populations is probably negligible. Golden hamsters are considered one of the most important agricultural pests and animals are trapped or poisoned in February as soon as burrow entrances become visible. Farmers apply large quantities of rodenticides provided by the government. In May and June most fields are harvested, burnt and ploughed; sheep feed on remaining plants making it increasingly difficult for hamsters to find cover, nutrition or sufficient food for winter storage (Gattermann <em>et al.</em>, 2001). This species is considered a pest in Syria.
13220		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
13220		distribution	eng	Brandt's Hamster has the largest distributional area in the genus <em>Mesocricetus</em>. It occurs in Anatolia, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan; Šidlovskij 1967), southeastern Daghestan (Russian Federation) (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em> 2002). and northwest Iran (Qazvin in the east, Lurestan in the south; Lay, 1967). Reports for north Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and north Israel (Musser and Carleton, 2005) are erroneous (Shehab <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is found from sea level to 2,600 m, however, the primary range is above 1,000-2,200 m.
13220		distribution	eng	The Turkish hamster has the largest distributional area in the genus <em>Mesocricetus</em>. It occurs in Anatolia, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan; Šidlovskij 1967), SE Daghestan (Russian Federation) (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em>, 2002). and northwest Iran (Qazvin in the east, Lurestan in the south; Lay, 1967). Reports for north Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and north Israel (Musser and Carleton, 2005) are erroneous (Shehab <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is found from sea level to 2,600 m, however, the primary range is above 1,000-2,200 m.
13220		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dry open steppe habitat with cereals and wormwoods, or cereals and herbs. Also can also be found in agricultural lands. Feeds on herbs and cereals, sometimes consumes insects and other invertebrates. Hibernates and make supplies for winter. Those supplies include cereals, herb roots, bulbs, and leaves. Depending on the type of ground burrows can be from 50 cm to 2 m deep, and from 6 to 10 m long. Burrows have several passages, nesting cell, supply cell and toilet cell. Often has burrows within colonies of Microtus arvalis and Microtus socialis. Reproduces 2-3 times per year. In good years up to 4 litters at foothills have been registred. Litter size is 4 to 20 young, 10 on average. Pregnancy is 16-17 days.
13220		population	eng	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in semi-deserts, foothills, mountain steppes and mountain grasslands (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is included in the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982) as rare/endangered (Biodiversity Assessment for Georgia, 2000). In Georgian lowlands it is more rare than in the highlands; in Turkey it is always rare. Lately in the Caucasus populations have decreased due to anthropogenic factors (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008)..
13220		threats	eng	Locally controlled as a pest. The species is widespread but rare and although habitat is grazed there is no evidence that overgrazing affects the species at present (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). Agriculture in Turkey is destroying much natural steppe habitat (Yigit, N. pers. comm. 2007).
13221		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this poorly-known species; if there is evidence of declines, appropriate conservation measures should be instated (Nechay 2000). The species is included on the Red Lists of Romania and Bulgaria, and is protected by Romanian legislation.
13221		distribution	eng	<em>Mesocricetus newtoni </em>is a European endemic. It is restricted to lowlands (up to 460 m) along the right bank of the lower Danube river in northern Bulgaria and Romania, Dobrudja (Vohralík 1999). Its extent of occurrence is small (<50,000 km<sup>2</sup>), but its area of occupancy is unknown.
13221		habitat	eng	It is found in relatively dry habitats including barren, rocky steppe and steppe grassland, <em>Medicago, Taraxacum </em>and cereal fields, vineyards, gardens, and scrubby slopes (Vohralík 1999). Its diet is probably similar to that of other hamster species.
13221		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout its small range. Population densities fluctuate, but outbreaks are localised and infrequent. Long-term population trends have not been quantified but are believed to be declining. In Romania, the population was estimated at around 3,000 mature individuals (Murariu 1995).
13221		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of intensive agriculture. The agricultural utilisation of abandoned fields and steppe-like habitat is very likely to have a negative impact on the species (V. Vohralik pers. comm. 2006), although the species does inhabit some anthropogenic habitats. In Dobrudja intensive agriculture is ongoing (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), and agricultural intensification may have increased since the accession of Romania to the European Union.
13221		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of intensive agriculture. The agricultural utilisation of abandoned fields and steppe-like habitat is very likely to have a negative impact on the species (V. Vohralik pers. comm. </em>2006), although the species does inhabit some anthropogenic habitats. In Dobrudja intensive agriculture is ongoing (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), and agricultural intensification may have increased since the accession of Romania to the European Union.
13222		conservation	eng	Doesn't require any conservation measures.
13222		distribution	eng	Russia, dry steppes along the northern slopes of Caucasus from Dagestan to Don River and Sea of Azov. Known only from one record in Georgia.
13222		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry cereal and cereal and herb steppes, agricultural places, especially forest lines between fields. Avoids callows and real forests. Active mostly in dusk and night, but in spring and summer also diurnal. Makes deep burrows with one ore several exits. Hibernates from 4 to 6 months depending on the altitude and winter temperatures. In spring and beginning of summer feeds on green herbal parts, in autumn switches to seeds, beens, and root vegetables. Makes supplies for winter up to 16 kg. In mountains reproduces usually twice a year, in lowlands 3-4 times per year. Litter size is 4 to 24 young, 12 on average.
13222		population	eng	Abundant, population is stable. Significant crop pest.
13222		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Important agricultural pest.
13223		distribution	eng	Found only in Lake Bemapaza on Détroit Isle, near Nosy Bé island.
13227		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf litter on rock ledges on cliffs and under rocks in rock slide.
13232		conservation	eng	No information.
13232		distribution	eng	Black and Azov Seas; lower South Bug and freshwater Lake Siut Giol on Romanian coast.
13232		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons on sand or rock bottom. Often very deep in summer (down to 100 m). Rarely in pure freshwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in February-May, only once a year. Eggs large, deposited under or between stones. Feeds predominantly on fish.
13232		population	eng	Very abundant along the coast.
13232		threats	eng	Locally threatened by periods of hypoxia following algal blooms.
13233		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas, including Madidi National Park in Bolivia.
13233		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil and Bolivia (J. Patton pers. comm.). Emmons (1993) limits the range of Makalata didelphoides to the Guiana region, including that part of Amazonian Brazil north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro and south of the Amazon from at least the Rio Xingu eastward to the border of Bolivia (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000).
13233		habitat	eng	The species prefers lowland seasonally flooded tropical evergreen forest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999) and is common in secondary forest and gardens (J. Patton pers. comm.). It is strictly nocturnal, nests in hollow trees and feeds on seeds (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). The maximum litter size is two (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
13233		population	eng	This species is not uncommon throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).
13233		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
13234		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
13234		distribution	eng	This species is considered to be widespread throughout northern and western Amazonia (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It occurs in two large overlapping areas: the first in northern Peru to northern Bolivia and eastward to the middle reaches of the Rio Jurua; the second in central Amazonia, Brazil, from the middle part of the Rio Jurua eastward to the upper Rio Urucu, and then north of the Rio Solimoes to the Rio Jau west of the Rio Negro. It is also known French Guiana, Suriname from three single localities in northern Bolivia, southern Venezuela and northern Guyana (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,000 m asl (Orlando <em>et al</em>. 2003).
13234		habitat	eng	It is present in evergreen forest and low cloud forest. This species is most common around tree falls or disturbed areas and around villages where they inhabit house rafters (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Reproduction occurs through the year with litter size ranging from 1 to 3, with the majority producing a single young (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
13234		population	eng	The spiny tree rats of the genus Mesomys are common components of the arboreal fauna (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
13234		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
13235		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo. Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
13235		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Yambrasbamba (1,980 m asl), in the Andean foothills in northern Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
13235		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane tropical cloud forest. Nothing further is known about its habitat or ecology.
13235		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
13235		threats	eng	The habitat type that this species has been recorded from is under a lot of pressure from human encroachment. The species has been found in one of the most deforested areas in Peru.
13236		conservation	eng	There is a need to confirm the taxonomic status of this species.
13236		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type description, and the locality is not known (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005), however, is somewhere in Brazil.
13236		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
13236		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
13236		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
13237		conservation	eng	This rodent has been not collected from any protected areas, but several occur in its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).
13237		distribution	eng	This species is known from Xingu, south of the Rio Amazonas, Amazonas State, in eastern Brazil (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Additional records include Patton <em>et al.</em> (2000) and Orlando <em>et al</em>. (2003) which exclude the range north of the Amazon.  It has been recorded in lowlands only, below 300 m asl (J. Patton pers. comm.).
13237		habitat	eng	It occurs in Terra firme forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997); little else is known about the ecology of the species.
13237		population	eng	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (J. Patton pers. comm.).
13237		threats	eng	There are no known threats, though based on the range map, the portion in the northern part of its range would be impacted by agricultural expansion/forest conversion.
13240		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forests habitats.
13240		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This species occurs from Nicaragua south through Panama to Peru, Bolivia, and Amazonian Brazil; also Trinidad. Lowlands to 1,100 m (Reid, 1997). Includes Venezuela, Guianas, and Suriname.
13240		habitat	eng	Poorly known. Usually recorded in mature evergreen forest in Venezuela (Handley, 1976); also in disturbed lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It makes leaf tents in young bifid palms and arums (Kunz <em>et al.</em>, 1994), a group of three bats was roosting under a tent made from a single broad palm leaf about 150 cm high; the leaf had been cut in a broad V from its opposite edges to the midrib. Often found in low-lying areas with numerous palms; and has also been found roosting in a hollow tree (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Roosts in at least six different species of plants (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.).
13240		population	eng	Not uncommon but widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997).
13240		threats	eng	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.
13241		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13241		conservation	eng	The species is poorly known. However, its distribution spans most of the North Atlantic and strandings do occur on the west and east coasts of the Atlantic ocean. Range states should be encouraged to conduct more coordinated research efforts (Culik 2004).
13241		distribution	eng	Sowerby's beaked whales are known almost exclusively from the colder waters of the North Atlantic, from at least Massachusetts, USA to Labrador, Canada in the west, and from Iceland to Norway in the east (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).  This is the most northerly distributed of the Atlantic species of <em>Mesoplodon</em>, and most records are north of 30°N.  Based on unconfirmed records, the range may include (probably as a stray) the Mediterranean Sea.  Records from the shallow Baltic Sea are considered extralimital.  The species appears to be more common in the eastern North Atlantic than in the western.  Based on strandings, the area of northern Europe appears to be the center of abundance.  There is a single record from Florida in the Gulf of Mexico, but this appears to represent an extralimital wandering.  As with other members of the genus, they occur almost exclusively in deep waters past the continental shelf edge.
13241		distribution	eng	Sowerby's beaked whales are known almost exclusively from the colder waters of the North Atlantic, from at least Massachusetts, USA to Labrador, Canada in the west, and from Iceland to Norway in the east (Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). This is the most northerly distributed of the Atlantic species of <em>Mesoplodon</em>, with most records north of 30°N. There are a number of strandings or sightings considered to be extralimital in the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Gulf of Mexico side of Florida.
13241		habitat	eng	As with other members of the genus, these whales occur almost exclusively in deep waters past the continental shelf edge. Although it is one of the most commonly stranded <em>Mesoplodon</em> species, there have been few sightings at sea, and it is poorly known. De Buffrénil (1995) mentioned that two sightings were north of Scotland and west of the Orkney Islands, in waters several 100 m deep. Hooker and Baird (1999) observed groups of Sowerby's Beaked Whales in the Gully, a submarine canyon off eastern Canada, on four occasions. Sightings were in water depths of between 550 m and 1,500 m.<br/><br/>Ostrom <em>et al</em>. (1993) evaluated the diet of Sowerby's beaked whales, based on isotopic comparisons among northwestern Atlantic cetaceans. They feed on squid and fish, including Atlantic cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>).
13241		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the natural history of this species beyond what has been learned from occasional sightings and strandings (see Pitman 2002), which have generally involved singles and pairs.  However, in several sightings observed at sea off Nova Scotia, groups ranged in size from 3-10 and some were of mixed composition.  Mass strandings of up to six individuals of this species have been recorded.  Recorded dives lasted 12-28 minutes (Hooker and Baird 1999).  These whales often bring their heads up out of the water at a 45° angle when surfacing, and often arch their backs relatively high when diving.  Breaching, spy-hopping, and fluke-slapping have been observed in sightings at sea.  There have also been some instances in which the animals approached vessels.<br/><br/>Although it is one of the most commonly stranded <em>Mesoplodon</em> species, there have been few sightings at sea, and it is poorly known. De Buffrénil (1995) mentioned that two sightings were north of Scotland and west of the Orkney Islands, in waters several hundred metres deep. Hooker and Baird (1999) observed groups of Sowerby's beaked whales in the Gully, a submarine canyon off eastern Canada, on four occasions. Sightings were in water depths of between 550 and 1500 m. Sowerby's beaked whales feed on squid and small fish, including Atlantic cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>).  Ostrom <em>et al.</em> (1993) evaluated the diet of Sowerby's beaked whales, based on isotopic comparisons among northwestern Atlantic cetaceans.
13241		population	eng	Very little is known of the population biology of this species. It is one of the most commonly seen mesoplodonts in some parts of its range.
13241		population	eng	Very little is known of the subpopulation biology of this species, other than the fact that it is not rare.  It is one of the most commonly seen mesoplodonts in some parts of its range. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).
13241		threats	eng	There is little specific information on the status or threats to this species (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  However, some are known to have been incidentally killed by whalers in Newfoundand, Iceland, and in the Barents Sea.  A few entanglements in fishing gear (e.g. driftnets) have been documented. Like other beaked whales, this species is likely to be  susceptible to acoustic trauma caused by loud anthropogenic sounds like those generated by navy sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006)
13241		threats	eng	There is little specific information on the status or threats to whales of this species (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, some are known to have been incidentally killed by whalers in Newfoundland, Iceland, and in the Barents Sea. A few entanglements in fishing gear (e.g., driftnets) have been documented. Waring <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported that for 1989-1998 observed bycatch in pelagic drift gillnets along the US East Coast amounted to 24 Sowerby's beaked whales. These were caught exclusively in the area from Georges Canyon to Hydrographers Canyon, along the continental shelf break and continental slope during July-October. This fishery has now been closed. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13242		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13242		distribution	eng	To date, Andrews' beaked whale is known only from a few dozen stranding records between 32°S and 55°S; most of these have come from the South Pacific and Indian oceans (well over half are from New Zealand – Mead 1989; Baker 2001). Strandings have occurred in southern Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Tristan de Cunha, the Falkland Islands, Macquarie Island, Argentina and Uruguay. The overall range may be circumpolar in the Southern Hemisphere; however, there is a gap in the known distribution between the Chatham Islands, east of New Zealand and the west coast of South America.
13242		habitat	eng	Essentially nothing is known of the biology of this species, other than the few facts that have been gleaned from stranded individuals (Baker 2001). It is presumed to be a creature of deep, offshore waters (Pitman 2002).<br/><br/>Andrews' beaked whales are assumed to feed primarily on cephalopods, like other members of the genus (Baker 2001). Based on the concentration of stranding records in this area (Baker 2001), the waters around New Zealand may represent an area of concentration for the species.
13242		population	eng	There have been no confirmed sightings at sea, and no population genetic analyses have been done. As such, nothing is known of the population status of Andrews' beaked whale.
13242		threats	eng	No threats are known (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003), but there are a number of potential threats.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13243		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13243		distribution	eng	Apparently limited to the North Pacific Ocean, Hubbs' beaked whale is known from central British Columbia to southern California in the east, and from Japan (including the Sea of Japan) in the west (Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although the vast majority of records are of strandings, sightings have been made off the coast of Oregon and Washington (Mead <em>et al</em>. 1982, Heyning 1984). This is an oceanic species, and the range is thought to be continuous across the North Pacific, although this is not confirmed (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13243		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the biology of this species (Mead <em>et al</em>. 1982, Heyning 1984; Mead 1989; Pitman 2002), as only a few reliable sightings at sea have been made. Aside from their distribution in the North Pacific, the specific habitat preferences of Hubbs' beaked whales are not known with any certainty. However, like other members of the genus, the species is found in deep oceanic waters (Pitman 2002).<br/><br/>Hubbs' beaked whales feed on squid (including the genera <em>Gonatus</em>, <em>Onychoteuthis</em>, <em>Octopoteuthis</em>, <em>Histioteuthis</em>, and <em>Mastigoteuthis</em>) and some deepwater fishes (Mead <em>et al</em>. 1982).
13243		population	eng	There are no abundance estimates.
13243		threats	eng	Hubbs' beaked whale has occasionally been taken by Japanese whalers in several small cetacean fisheries. Whale meat products from this species are occasionally found for sale on the Japanese market (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2001). Incidental catches in drift gillnets occur sporadically off the coast of California. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13244		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The species is poorly known with respect to abundance, migratory patterns, bycatch and direct catch rates. It should be ensured that artisanal whale fisheries operate within sustainable limits and do not export products illegally.
13244		conservation	eng	The species is poorly known with respect to abundance, migratory patterns, by-catch and direct catch rates. Range states should be encouraged to conduct more coordinated research efforts.
13244		distribution	eng	Blainville's beaked whales (also referred to as densebeaked whales) occur in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans (Mead 1989). This species has the most extensive distribution of any species of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em>, and is also the most tropical of the genus (Pitman 2002; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Sightings are common around some oceanic archipelagos, like the Hawaiian (USA) and Society Islands (French Polynesia). They occur in many enclosed seas with deep water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Sea of Japan. However, there are only rare records of this species occurring in the Mediterranean, and therefore the species is considered to be a vagrant there.
13244		distribution	eng	Blainville's beaked whales occur in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans (Mead 1989). This species has the most extensive distribution of any species of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em>, and is also the most tropical of the genus (Pitman 2002, MacLeod<em> et al.</em> 2006). Like other beaked whales, they are found mostly offshore in deep waters, but they  may sometimes occur reasonably close to shore (MacLeod and Zuur 2005). Sightings are also common around some oceanic archipelagos, like the Hawaiian (USA) and Society Islands (French Polynesia).  They occur in many enclosed seas with deep water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Sea of Japan.  However, there are only rare records of this species occurring in the Mediterranean, and therefore the species is considered to be a vagrant there.
13244		habitat	eng	Like other beaked whales, these whales are found mostly offshore in deep waters, but they may sometimes occur reasonably close to shore (MacLeod and Zuur 2005). A detailed analysis of habitat preferences in the Bahamas, where this species is commonly encountered, indicated that Blainville’s beaked whales were found preferentially in waters of intermediate depth gradients and depths between 200 and 1,000 m (continental slope waters). These may be areas of increased prey availability caused by interactions of currents and local topography (MacLeod and Zuur 2005). Observations around Hawaii seem to indicate that animals prefer water depths of 700-1,000 m (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2006). Ritter and Brederlau (1999) sighted <em>Mesoplodon densirostris</em> 24 times between September 1995 and August 1997 off La Gomera, Canary Islands. Of the seven sightings for which such information was recorded, mean depth was 320 m (SD = 270 m), and mean distance from shore was 4.39 km (SD = 1.85 km).<br/><br/>Squid are apparently the main food items, but some deepwater fish may be taken as well. Like most other ziphiids, they are thought to be suction feeders (Heyning and Mead 1996).
13244		habitat	eng	There is more information available on the behavior and ecology of Blainville’s beaked whale than for any other species of <em>Mesoplodon</em> (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is a subpopulation of this species that is being studied in detail in the Bahamas (Balcomb 1981, MacLeod and Zuur 2005). Individual whales have been identified, based on natural marks. This represents only the second case that a beaked whale subpopulation has undergone long-term behavioral and ecological study (the other case is northern bottlenose whales in the Gully). Groups of 3-7 Blainville's beaked whales have most often been recorded, although singles or pairs are most common.  In the Bahamas, adults are generally grouped into what appear to be ‘harems’, with a single adult male accompanying several adult females.  Subadults appear to stay in separate groups.  The harems tend of occur in more productive waters over the continental shelf canyon walls, while subadults tend to occur in less productive waters inshore and offshore of these areas.<br/><br/>Although there is not a great deal know of habitat preferences for beaked whales, there is more known for this species than for any other in the genus.  A detailed analysis of habitat preferences in the Bahamas, where this species is commonly encountered, indicated that Blainville’s beaked whales were found preferentially in waters of intermediate depth gradients and depths between 200 and 1,000 m (continental slope waters).  These may be areas of increased prey availability caused by interactions of currents and local topography (MacLeod and Zuur 2005).  Observations around Hawaii seem to indicate that animals prefer water depths of 700 - 1000m  (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2006). Dives of up to 1,400 m and over 54 minutes have been recorded in Hawaiian waters (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2006). Squid are apparently the main food items, but some deepwater fish may be taken as well. Like most other ziphiids, they are thought to be suction feeders (Heyning and Mead 1996) .
13244		population	eng	Overall, the species appears to be fairly common in most tropical seas, and it is one of the most common of all the species of <em>Mesoplodon</em> (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Estimates of abundance are generally not available for most areas, but there are estimated to be 2,138 (CV=77%) in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2003). In the northern Gulf of Mexico, an estimated 106 (CV=41%) mesoplodonts occur, and these are considered to be either <em>M. densirostris</em> or <em>M. europaeus</em> (Mullin and Fulling 2004). Ferguson and Barlow (1999) estimate a total abundance of 32,678 beaked whales in the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em> in the eastern Pacific (corrected for missed animals). The majority of these are <em>M. peruvianus</em> and <em>M. densirostris</em> (Pitman and Lynn 2001).
13244		population	eng	Overall, the species appears to be fairly common in most tropical seas, and it is one of the most common of all the species of <em>Mesoplodon</em> (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Estimates of abundance are generally not available for most areas, but there are estimated to be 2,138 (CV=77%) in Hawaiian waters (Carretta <em>et al.</em> 2006). Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).
13244		threats	eng	No incidental or directed catches of this species have been recorded in European waters, although they have been recorded elsewhere in the species' global range. <br/><br/>Like other beaked whales, this species appears to be highly vulnerable to mortality associated with naval sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006). Subadult whales, found in more offshore waters, may be more susceptible (Anonymous 2001).  At least one animal died in September 2002 during a naval exercise conducted around Gran Canaria, Canary Islands (Vidal Martin pers. comm.). Another two specimens live stranded during a naval exercise off the Bahamas in March 2000 (Rowles <em>et al.</em> 2000). High intensity Low Frequency Active Sonar (LFAS) was used by US and NATO vessels in both these areas, respectively, which apparently led to a multi-species mass stranding in the Bahamas, including both <em>M. densirostris</em> and <em>Ziphius cavirostris</em> (Balcomb and Claridge 2001).<br/><br/>Concerns regarding the impact of man-made debris in the marine environment are increasing. Pollution in the form of plastic debris has been recently recognised as a major threat to marine wildlife, in terms of ingestion and entanglement. On 27 February 1993, a 419 cm adult female Blainville's beaked whale was found washed ashore in an advanced state of decomposition at Mar Grosso Beach (32°07'S, 52°02'W), Sao Jose do Norte, southern Brazil (Secchi and Zarzur 1999). Stomach analysis revealed the presence of a blueish bundle of plastic threads occupying a large part of the main stomach chamber. Both stomach and intestines were completely free of parasites, as well as food remains and faeces, indicating that the whale had not fed for some time.
13244		threats	eng	Some Blainville's beaked whales have been taken incidentally by Japanese tuna boats off the Seychelles and Western Australia, as well as directly by small cetacean hunters in various areas. Dolar (1994) investigated directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines from archived reports and visits to sites where such fisheries are conducted. Hunters at Pamilacan Island take some small whales, including <em>Mesoplodon densirostris</em>. Dolphins and whales are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Jefferson <em>et al</em>. (1993) reported that some specimens have been incidentally taken in the North Pacific by Taiwanese fishermen, and accidentally by Japanese tuna fishermen in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>In 1993, an adult Blainville's beaked whale was found washed ashore in southern Brazil (Secchi and Zarzur 1999). Stomach analysis revealed the presence of a bluish bundle of plastic threads occupying a large part of the main stomach chamber. Both stomach and intestines were completely free of parasites, as well as food remains and faeces, indicating that the whale had not fed for some time. The ingested plastic may have resulted in a false sensation of satiation for the animal, which could have reduced the whale's appetite and meal size and, in turn, led to the death of the whale. This form of pollution may be increasing and could be a threat to the species.<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of Blainville’s beaked whales (Balcomb and Claridge 2001, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). A stranding of two Cuvier’s beaked whales in the Gulf of California was also closely correlated with a seismic survey (Malakoff 2002). The mechanistic cause of the strandings is not well understood, but gas bubble formation (Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2005) from a behaviourally mediated response to sound has been proposed (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13245		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species.
13245		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13245		distribution	eng	Although sometimes depicted as a North Atlantic endemic, this species is probably continuously distributed in deep waters across the tropical and temperate Atlantic Ocean, both north and south of the equator (Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Most records are from the east and Gulf coasts of North America, from New York to Texas, but Gervais' beaked whales are also known from several of the Caribbean islands. This is the most commonly-stranded beaked whale in the southeastern United States. In the eastern Atlantic, they are known from Ireland to Guinea-Bissau in West Africa. There is only one record of this species entering the Mediterranean, and it is considered a vagrant (Podesta <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are also strandings at Ascension Island in the central South Atlantic (Mead 1989), and along the coast of Brazil (de Oliveira Santos <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is speculation that its Southern Hemisphere distribution could extend to Uruguay and Angola .
13245		distribution	eng	Although sometimes depicted as a North Atlantic endemic, this species is probably continuously distributed in deep waters across the tropical and temperate Atlantic Ocean, both north and south of the equator (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Most records are from the east and Gulf coasts of North America, from New York to Texas, but Gervais' beaked whales are also known from several of the Caribbean islands.  This is the most commonly-stranded beaked whale in the southeastern United States.  In the eastern Atlantic, they are known from Ireland to Guinea-Bissau in West Africa. There is only one record of this species entering the Mediterranean, and it is considered a vagrant there (Podesta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13245		habitat	eng	Gervais' beaked whales have only been reliably identified alive in the wild on a few occasions (Pitman 2002), mostly in the eastern Atlantic, although many <em>Mesoplodon</em> sightings in the Gulf of Mexico are thought to have been of this species.  Around the Canary Islands, they sometimes lift their heads out of the water upon surfacing.  Live-stranded individuals have been held in captivity for short periods of time.<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, the species prefers deep waters based on the presence of prey from such habitats in stomach contents and a lack of sightings near shore (Mead 1989). Strandings and the few possible sightings suggest that the species prefers tropical and subtropical waters (MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, Gervais’ beaked whales are known to feed primarily on squid, although some fish may be taken as well (Norman and Mead 2001).  Growth layer group counts in the teeth of one specimen suggest they live to at least 48 years of age (Mead 1984).
13245		habitat	eng	The favored habitat of Gervais' beaked whales appears to be warm temperate and tropical waters (Norman and Mead 2001). Like other members of the genus, the species prefers deep waters based on the presence of prey from such habitats in stomach contents and a lack of sightings near shore (Mead 1989). Strandings and the few possible sightings suggest that the species prefers tropical and subtropical waters (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, Gervais’ beaked whales are known to feed primarily on squid, although some fish may be taken as well (Norman and Mead 2001). There is also a record of a mysid shrimp found in the stomach of a stranded specimen. Stable isotope analysis has found that this species feeds at a similar trophic level to other <em>Mesoplodon</em> species with which it is sympatric, but at lower trophic level than Cuvier’s beaked whale which suggests that it feeds on smaller prey than this latter species (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13245		population	eng	No estimates of abundance exist for the species; however, estimates indicate that 106 (CV=41%) beaked whales of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em> occur in the northern Gulf of Mexico, considered to be either <em>M. densirostris</em> or <em>M. europaeus</em> (Mullin and Fulling, 2004). Based on the frequency with which they strand, they are presumed to be relatively common in waters along the east coast of North America.
13245		population	eng	No specific estimates of abundance exist; however estimates indicate that 106 (CV=41%) mesoplodonts occur in the northern Gulf of Mexico, which are considered to be either <em>M. densirostris</em> or <em>M. europaeus</em> (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006). Based on the frequency with which they strand, they are presumed to be relatively common in waters along the east coast of North America. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).
13245		threats	eng	Specimens of Gervais’ beaked whale have been entangled and killed in pound nets off New Jersey. Like other beaked whales, this species is highly sensitive to disturbance and mortality from loud anthropogenic sounds such as naval sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006). Several  atypical mass strandings of beaked whales, including Gervais' beaked whales, were associated with naval activities: mid to late 1980s on the Canary Islands (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006), in March 2000 on the Bahamas (Rowles <em>et al.</em> 2000, Anonymous 2001) and again in September 2002 during a naval NATO maneuver involving low frequency sonar around the Canaries (Vidal pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Finally, all beaked whales seem to be susceptible to the ingestion of plastic bags, which are of widespread occurrence at sea and have been linked to detrimental health effects in several cetacean species.
13245		threats	eng	This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In particular, several atypical mass strandings of beaked whales, including Gervais' beaked whales, were associated with naval activities: mid to late 1980s on the Canary Islands (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), in March 2000 on the Bahamas (Rowles <em>et al</em>. 2000, Anonymous 2001) and again in September 2002 during a naval NATO manoeuvre involving low frequency sonar around the Canaries (Vidal pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several species, including <em>Mesoplodon europaeus</em>, indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13246		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13246		distribution	eng	The ginkgo-toothed beaked whale is known from only a few dozen widely-scattered strandings and captures (no confirmed sightings) in temperate and tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific Ocean, from Sri Lanka east to the shores of North America (California) and the Galápagos Islands (Mead 1989; Pitman 2002). There have been a few records from New Zealand and Australia, indicating that this species also inhabits the southern Indo-Pacific. Most records are from the seas around Japan. Sightings of what may have been this species were also made in the Arabian Sea. It is generally hypothesized that the range is continuous across the Pacific and at least to the eastern Indian Ocean, but until the species can be reliably identified at sea, its true distribution will probably remain unknown (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13246		habitat	eng	Ginkgo-toothed whales are found in the tropical and warm temperate waters of the Indo-Pacific. Like other species in the genus, ginkgo-toothed beaked whales are thought to occur primarily in deep, offshore waters.<br/><br/>These whales are presumed to be primarily squid eaters but may also take some fish.
13246		population	eng	There are no estimates of abundance, but the species does not appear to be very common anywhere. There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
13246		threats	eng	Ginkgo-toothed beaked whales have occasionally been taken by Japanese and Taiwanese whalers, and some have been caught in deepwater drift gillnets. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of ginkgo-toothed beaked whales (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13247		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13247		distribution	eng	Gray’s beaked whale is primarily a southern Hemisphere cool temperate species, which is apparently circum-Antarctic in occurrence (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Most records are from south of 30°S. There are many sighting records from Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters, and in summer months they appear near the Antarctic Peninsula and along the shores of the continent (sometimes in the sea ice). Many of the stranding records are from New Zealand, southern Australia, South Africa, Argentina, Chile, and Peru. The area between the south island of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands has been suggested to be a “hot spot” for sightings of this species (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is one record of a Gray’s beaked whale straying into the Northern Hemisphere, a stranding record in the Netherlands (Boschma 1950). This was almost certainly an extralimital occurrence.
13247		habitat	eng	Gray's beaked whale primarily occurs in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Some sightings have been made in very shallow water; usually of sick animals coming in to strand (Gales <em>et al</em>. 2002, Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Like other mesoplodonts, Gray’s beaked whales are thought to feed mainly on cephalopods in deep waters.
13247		population	eng	This species may not be as rare as some other species of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em>, based on the number of records. In particular, they seem to be fairly common around New Zealand based on the frequency of strandings (Baker 1999). However, there are no estimates of abundance. There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
13247		threats	eng	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a cold water species, Gray’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.
13248		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13248		distribution	eng	Hector's beaked whale is considered to be a Southern Hemisphere cool temperate species (Mead 1989). The records (mostly strandings) are from southern South America, South Africa, southern Australia, and New Zealand. The single confirmed sighting record is from southwestern Australia (Gales <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been speculated that the species has a continuous distribution in the Atlantic and Indian oceans at least from South America to New Zealand. Although there are no current records from the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, the range may prove to be circumpolar. These animals may be relatively common around New Zealand.<br/><br/>Previously, it was supposed that this species may also be vagrant in southern California, where there were several strandings and a possible sighting from 1975 to 1979 (Mead 1981, Mead and Baker 1987, Rice 1998). However, the California specimens were recently recognised as a new species <em>Mesoplodon perrini</em>, which is found in the eastern North Pacific (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 1998; Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2002).
13248		habitat	eng	In the only known confirmed identification of this species alive at sea, a single individual was observed in shallow waters, nearshore in Western Australia – almost definitely atypical for the species (Gales <em>et al</em>. 2002). Hector's beaked whale presumably occurs in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf, as do other members of the genus.<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet, but Hector's beaked whales are known to feed on squid, like most other beaked whales.
13248		population	eng	There is no information on populations of this species.
13248		threats	eng	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might have an impact on this species.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a temperate water species, Hector’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.
13249		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13249		distribution	eng	Strap-toothed beaked whales apparently have a continuous distribution in cold temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere, mostly between 35° and 60°S; there have been strandings in South Africa, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and the Falkland Islands (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). The seasonality of strandings suggests that this species may migrate. Like all beaked whales, they occur mostly in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf. There is some evidence of sexual segregation in distribution.
13249		habitat	eng	Like all beaked whales, these whales occur mostly in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf. The diet is comprised nearly entirely of oceanic squids, some occurring to great depths (Sekiguchi <em>et al</em>. 1996).
13249		population	eng	There is little information available on the status of the strap-toothed whale, but based on the number of strandings, it is probably not a rare species compared to its congeners. <br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
13249		threats	eng	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a cold to temperate water species, the strap-toothed whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13250		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are known.
13250		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13250		distribution	eng	True's beaked whales appear to have a disjunct, anti-tropical distribution (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Northern Hemisphere, they are known only in the North Atlantic, from records in eastern North America (Nova Scotia to Florida), Bermuda, Europe to the Canary Islands, the Bay of Biscay, and the Azores. They also occur at least in the southern Indian Ocean, from South Africa, Madagascar, southern Australia and the Atlantic coast of Brazil (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species does not generally occur within 30° north or south of the equator, which may indicate that the northern and the southern subpopulations are isolated from one another. This is supported by morphological and coloration differences (Ross 1969, Ross 1984).
13250		distribution	eng	True's beaked whales appear to have a disjunct, antitropical distribution (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).  In the Northern Hemisphere, they are known only in the North Atlantic, from records in eastern North America (Nova Scotia to Florida), Bermuda, Europe to the Canary Islands, the Bay of Biscay, and the Azores. They also occur at least in the southern Indian Ocean, from South Africa, Madagascar, southern Australia and the Atlantic coast of Brazil (MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species does not generally occur within 30° north or south of the equator, which may indicate that the northern and the southern subpopulations are isolated from one another. This is supported by morphological and coloration differences (Ross 1969, Ross 1984). This peculiar disparate distribution pattern suggests that there may actually be separate species or subspecies in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; however, this is not confirmed.
13250		habitat	eng	<em>M. mirus</em> is probably a deep water pelagic species, like other ziphiids (Houston 1990).<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, stranded animals have had squid (mostly <em>Loligo</em> spp.) in their stomachs. They may also take fish, at least occasionally. Stable isotope analysis has found that this species feeds at a similar trophic level to other <em>Mesoplodon</em> species with which it is sympatric, but at lower trophic level than Cuvier’s beaked whale and the northern bottlenose whales which suggests that it feeds on smaller prey than these latter species (MacLeod 2005).
13250		habitat	eng	Since True’s beaked whale has rarely been identified alive in the wild, and is not one of the most commonly-stranded species, there is little information available on its natural history (see Pitman 2002). Groups observed at sea have consisted of up to three individuals. They may show their beaks when surfacing. Known mainly from stranded specimens, <em>M. mirus</em> is probably a deep water pelagic species, like other ziphiids (Houston 1990). <br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, stranded animals have had squid (mostly <em>Loligo</em> spp.) in their stomachs.  They may also take fish, at least occasionally. Stable isotope analysis has found that this species feeds at a similar trophic level to other <em>Mesoplodon</em> species with which it is sympatric, but at lower trophic level than Cuvier’s beaked whale and  the northern bottlenose whales which suggests that it feeds on smaller prey than these latter species (MacLeod 2005).
13250		population	eng	Until recent years, True’s beaked whales had been only rarely identified at sea, and there are no estimates of abundance. The species is not rare, however, at least in the North Atlantic. Abundance of beaked whales is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).
13250		population	eng	Until recent years, True’s beaked whales have been only rarely identified at sea, and there are no estimates of abundance. However, the species is not thought to be rare in the North Atlantic. <br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
13250		threats	eng	Almost no information is available on the threats and status of this species. It appears never to have been hunted. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g., for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/><br/>As a temperate water species, the strap-toothed whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of <em>Mesoplodon mirus</em> indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items. This may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001).
13250		threats	eng	Almost no information is available on the threats and status of this species.  It appears never to have been hunted.  Mesoplodonts have been taken occasionally by whalers but are not presently the main targets of any hunt. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g. for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. Like other beaked whales, this species is likely to be sensitive to disturbance and mortality from loud anthropogenic sounds such as naval sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>As a temperate water species, True's beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its prefered water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al.</em> 2006).  <br/><br/>Finally, all beaked whales seem to be susceptible to the ingestion of plastic bags, which are of widespread occurrence at sea and have been linked to detrimental health effects in several cetacean species.
13251		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13251		distribution	eng	The pygmy beaked whale is known from a handful of specimens and several dozen sighting from the eastern tropical/warm temperate Pacific, including the Gulf of California (Urban-Ramirez and Aurioles-Gamboa. 1992, MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). These records extend from about 30°S to 28°N, and suggest that the species may be an eastern Pacific endemic. However, there is a single record of a stranding in New Zealand (Baker and Van Helden 1999), possibly suggesting that this species may have a more extensive distribution than previously believed. Alternatively, the New Zealand record may be an extralimital wandering.
13251		habitat	eng	Like other members of the genus, it occurs in deep waters beyond the continental shelf.<br/><br/>The diet consists of small mid-water fishes, oceanic squids, and shrimps. Presumably these are taken at moderate to great depths.
13251		population	eng	There are no estimates of global abundance for this species. Ferguson and Barlow (1999) estimate a total abundance of 32,678 beaked whales in the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em> in the eastern Pacific (corrected for missed animals). The majority of these were Mesoplodon peruvianus and Mesoplodon densirostris (Pitman and Lynn 2001).
13251		threats	eng	Some pygmy beaked whales are caught incidentally in drift gillnets for sharks off Peru (Reyes <em>et al</em>. 1991).. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g., for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. <br/><br/>There is no information on global abundance or trends in abundance for this species. It is not believed to be uncommon but it is potentially vulnerable to low-level threats and a 30% global reduction over three generations cannot be ruled out<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of a number of beaked whales including several <em>Mesoplodon</em> species and <em>Indopacetus pacificus</em> (Balcomb and Claridge 2001, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006, Wang and Yang 2006). Sound impacts may be important for all ziphiid species.<br/><br/>Pygmy beaked whales have been recorded ingesting plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13252		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
13252		distribution	eng	Stejneger's beaked whales are found in continental slope and oceanic waters of the North Pacific Basin, from southern California, north to the Bering Sea, and south to the Sea of Japan (presumably including at least the southern Okhotsk Sea – Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). This appears to be primarily a cold temperate and sub-arctic species, and this is probably the only species of the genus common in Alaskan waters. It is most commonly stranded in Alaska, especially along the Aleutian Islands. Also, there have been a large number of strandings (at least 34) from along the Sea of Japan coast of Japan, and many fewer along the Pacific coast. The large peak in strandings in this area in winter and spring suggests that the species may migrate north in summer (Mead 1989; Yamada 1997).
13252		habitat	eng	Stejneger's beaked whale ranges in subarctic waters, mostly beyond the edge of the continental shelf, in slope and oceanic waters (Houston 1990; Loughlin and Perez 1985). They are presumably deep divers, feeding in the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones, mainly on squids of the families Gonatidae and Cranchiidae. Examination of stomach contents supports this idea (e.g., Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995).
13252		population	eng	There are no estimates of abundance, but the species does not seem to be rare, especially off the Aleutian Islands and in the Sea of Japan. It has been hypothesized that there may be a resident subpopulation in the Sea of Japan and southern Okhotsk Sea (Yamada 1997, Kakuda and Yamada 2001).
13252		threats	eng	Stejneger's beaked whales were hunted in a Japanese fishery, along with Cuvier’s beaked whales. They are not presently the main targets of any hunt. <br/><br/>In the past, some individuals were taken in the Japanese salmon driftnet fishery in the Sea of Japan and in driftnets off the west coast of North America. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water, is probably the most significant threat.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a cold water species, Stejneger’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.
13254		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
13254		threats	eng	Main threat is habitat fragmentation and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
13257		conservation	eng	Removal of riparian invasive alien plants is beneficial for this species. Currently it is known only from a site where alien invasive trees have been removed. Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
13257		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Cape, South Africa. Until recently, this species was thought to be possibly extinct, having not been recorded since 1920. However, it was rediscovered in December 2003 in Dutoitsrivier, near Villiersdorp (Samways and Tarboton 2006) at one site which had been restored through the removal of alien invasive trees.
13257		habitat	eng	Bush-fringed pools in river braids (Samways 2006 in press) with the water weed <em>Aponogeton</em>.
13257		population	eng	Its current population size is not known, however it is possibly stable at present.
13257		threats	eng	The streams in the Ceres area (where it was recorded in 1920) have been radically transformed and indeed some no longer flow due to over-extraction of water for the fruit industry. Other threats come from shading of the habitat by alien invasive trees (<em>Acacia mearnsii</em>) and damming of streams. Alien fishes, especially the rainbow trout (<em>Onycorhynchus mykiss</em>), may also be a threat.
13296		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research is needed on the distribution of this species
13296		distribution	eng	This species is found from eastern Central America from Belize to Panamá and adjacent Caribbean islands (Gardner, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,600 m (Reid, 1997). There has been 1 specimen from Guatemala in 1930s, and very few records from Belize.
13296		habitat	eng	This marsupial can be found in evergreen forest, second growth, and gardens. It is mainly arboreal and is active in subcanopy or understory levels (Reid, 1997). It sometimes descends to the ground to feed or travel from tree to tree. It feeds on insects, small vertebrates, and fruit (Reid, 1997). This species may invade houses near forested areas and is sometimes found in groups (Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989 in Reid, 1997), although most records are of solitary individuals. Leaf nests are built in vine tangles. A female suckling 11 young was noted (Tate, 1933 in Reid, 1997).
13296		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
13296		threats	eng	None.
13297		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species. This species occurs in several protected areas.
13297		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Bolivia (Anderson, 1997) and the surroundings of the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso and northwestern Argentina in the Province of Salta (Gardner, 2007).
13297		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist forests, including montane mossy forest and ecotones between the Yungas and the Chacoan (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1989). It is nocturnal and arboreal. This species forages in trees and on the ground (Nowak 1999).
13297		population	eng	The status of its populations is unknown (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13297		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
13318		conservation	eng	High priority should be given to resolution of the taxonomic status of disjunct populations. A further priority for research conservation action is to obtain accurate monitoring through calls of males for this species. As its name implies, it is a very small frog and this research will be challenging. Agulhas National Park is the only statutory protected area in which it occurs, although it is also present in various other local authority and private nature reserves. However, additional habitat protection is needed in view of the species’ fragmented distribution.
13318		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the coastal lowlands (from 15 m up to 80 m asl) in the south-western part of Western Cape province, South Africa, where it formerly ranged from Cape Town east to the Agulhas Plain (with an extent of occurrence of 1,399 km²<sup></sup>). However, it is now extinct on the Cape Flats near Cape Town, except at one locality at Kenilworth Race Course. Its eastern distribution is much more fragmented than is shown on the map (four locations), since it occurs only in very isolated localities (area of occupancy 7.36 km²<sup></sup>, which is considered to be declining).
13318		habitat	eng	This species lives in sandy, coastal fynbos heathland, and it is not generally found in anthropogenic habitats. It is associated with seepage pools and seasonal vleis, and depends on black, acidic waters for breeding. Providing that the water remains of this quality, it can tolerate very limited habitat disturbance. When their wetland habitat dries up, they bury themselves and&#160;aestivate&#160;through the dry season. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation, and larval development is slow.
13318		population	eng	It occurs at high densities at breeding sites, which are few and far between. The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be&#160;severely&#160;fragmented as over 50% of individuals are in isolated patches, and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.
13318		threats	eng	It has a very restricted range in an area that is subject to the impacts of urbanization, agricultural expansion, the spread of alien vegetation (leading to drying out of breeding pools), and drainage of breeding habitats. Three of the four locations in which it occurs are under constant pressure from development.
13319		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
13319		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina between Jujuy and Santa Cruz Provinces, and in Chile in Aisen Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
13319		habitat	eng	It occurs in arid and semiarid lowlands and valleys (Tognelli <em>et al.</em> 2001). In south western Argentina, it prefers riparian habitats, forested areas, or sandy forested flats (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, the species lives in areas without ground vegetation cover where thornbushes (<em>Schinus fasciculatus, Condalia microphylla</em>) are the predominant vegetation (Rood 1970). In the Monte Desert of Mendoza Province, Argentina, species burrows were found near plants with low branches (Ojeda and Mares 1989; Tognelli <em>et al.</em> 1995) and specifically with the plant species <em>Condalia microphylla</em> (Tognelli <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>It reproduces from August to April with the majority of litters born between September and October (Rood 1970).<br/>In captivity, the mean gestation period was 54-60 days (Rood 1970) with a  mean litter size of three (range 1-5; Rood 1972).
13319		population	eng	Locally it can occur in high abundance (Cofre and Marquet 1999).
13319		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Several local extinctions were reported due to over-predation by the minor grison (<em>Galictis cuja</em>), a small native mustelid (Rood 1970, 1972).
13320		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, like Sahama National Park in Bolivia. No immediate conservation measures are needed for this species.
13320		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano of southwest Bolivia and northeast Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has not been collected from southern Bolivia and bordering northern Argentina but it is expected to occur there. It has an elevational range of 3,500 to 4,000 m asl.
13320		habitat	eng	It is usually found in flat areas of Puna grassland. In Chile it has been recorded exclusively from boggy habitat. The species lives in colonies in burrows, which it may excavate itself or it may utilize abandoned <em>Ctenomys</em> burrows. It has been recorded from areas with some habitat disturbance caused by low-density traditional grazing.
13320		population	eng	It is locally common where there are colonies. It has been recorded in colonies of 15 to 30 individuals occupying small areas (Marquet <em>et al.</em>, 1993).
13320		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.
13321		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least two protected areas.
13321		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north western Argentina in Tucuman, Catamarca, and Salta Provinces between 3,000 to 4,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
13321		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands, in rocky areas in the Andean Highlands.
13321		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
13321		threats	eng	Overgrazing of grassland by goats and sheep is a major threat.
13323		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It is present in seven national parks (Andohahela, Ankarafantsika, Baie de Baly, Isalo, Tsingy de Namoroka, Vohibasia, and Zombitse), five special reserves (Andranomena, Bemarivo, Beza-Mahafaly, Kasijy, and Maningoza), the Berenty Private Reserve, and other privately-protected forests within the Mandena Conservation Zone. Also occurs in Kirindy Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). According to ISIS (2007), this species is maintained in a number of captive collections in Europe and the United States, the international studbook held by the Duke University Primate Center.
13323		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from about the Onilahy River along the entire west coast to the north perhaps as far as Ankarafantsika National Park. A disjunct population is also found in the southeast up to the littoral forests of the Mandena Conservation Zone (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
13323		habitat	eng	<em>M. murinus</em> inhabits lowland tropical dry forest, sub-arid thorn scrub, gallery forest, spiny forest and secondary forest formations. They are also present in plantations. Studies at Ampijoroa also indicate that individuals may take shelter in three to nine different tree holes within their range and remain in a given shelter for several days in succession. Females tend to share nests with several conspecifics, while males tend to sleep alone (Radespiel <em>et al.</em> 1998). After a gestation of approximately 60 days, typically two young are born.
13323		population	eng	<em>M. murinus</em> is adaptable, widespread, and abundant, making it one of the least threatened of Madagascar’s lemurs. Recent density estimates range from 167 individuals/km² (Ampijoroa forestry station adjacent Ankarafantsika National Park) to 712 individuals/km² (Kirindy Forest/CFPF), suggesting that this species remains one of Madagascar’s most abundant small mammals (Radespiel 2000; Eberle and Kappeler 2001).
13323		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Although <em>M. murinus</em> is reported to inhabit secondary forests and degraded habitats, there is some evidence that decreased habitat quality may have adverse effects on population dynamics. According to Ganzhorn and Schmid (1998), fewer large tree holes in secondary forests result in fewer opportunities to save energy through periods of torpor, and may increase levels of stress and mortality. In the west of the range, habitat is being lost due to yearly burning for slash-and-burn and cattle grazing. There is some limited offtake for the pet-trade, especially in Fort-dauphin.
13324		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is present in eight national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, and Ranomafana) and six special reserves (Ambatovaky, Ambohitantely, Manombo, Nosy Mangabe, Pic d’Ivohibe, and Tampoketsa-Analamaitso) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
13324		distribution	eng	For the present time, the range of this species is tentatively considered to include much of the eastern rainforest, at least from Tolagnaro in the south to Tsaratanana in the north. The <em>Microcebus</em> recorded from Daraina is currently assigned to this species pending further taxonomic investigation. Ranges from sea level to 2,000 m asl.
13324		habitat	eng	<em>M. rufus</em> is reported to occur in rain forests, and also in secondary forest formations, bamboo forests, old plantations and even eucalyptus groves. They have also been recorded in the marsh around Lake Alaotra. This species sleeps in tree holes and leaf nests during the day, and has even been observed to use old bird nests. Mating takes place in September and October, and 1-3 young are born following a two month gestation period (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
13324		population	eng	Reported to occur at high densities.
13324		threats	eng	No major threats, although habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture may be leading to some localized declines.
13325		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported to occur in two national parks (Tsingy de Bemaraha and Tsingy de Namoroka) and a nature reserve (Tsingy de Bemaraha). There are no specimens reported in captivity at this time (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Research priority is surveying between known points of distribution, and whether the species occurs more widely in mangroves requires further investigation.
13325		distribution	eng	This species is reported to have a disjunct distribution range between the northern banks of the Tsiribihina River north to Baie de Baly in western Madagascar and to occur in the forests of Belo sur Tsiribihina and Aboalimena, the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and Nature Reserve, and the Tsingy de Namoroka National Park (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Also possibly recorded from Besalampy (which is mangrove habitat). Ranges from sea-level to 900 m.
13325		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from dry deciduous forest in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Nature Reserve and the Andramasy forests north of Belo sur Tsiribihina, as well as along the border of heavily degraded deciduous forest and savanna at Aboalimena (Rasoloarison <em>et al.</em> 2000). They have been recorded in mangroves in two localities, neither of which were near primary deciduous forest (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 1998; J. Ganzhorn pers. comm.). Its ecology and behavior remain to be studied.
13325		population	eng	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species. It is probably not as common as <em>M. murinus</em>.
13325		threats	eng	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat. It is currently known mainly from protected areas.
13332		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
13332		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from three disjunct localities in Somalia, although it is probably much more widely distributed both in Somalia and in suitable habitat in adjacent parts of Ethiopia and Kenya.
13332		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in rocky plains and open, sparse semi-desert grassland. The species is nocturnal and takes refuge in burrows during the daytime (Nowak, 1999).
13332		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. It is infrequently caught in traps.
13332		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is possible that overgrazing of its habitat by nomadic livestock might be a threat in parts of its range.
13340		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a numer of protected areas including the Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Marojejy National Park, Ankarafantsika National Park, Bora Special Reserve and de Manongarivo Special Reserve. It is also present in Kirindy CFPF. Further studies into the taxonomy, biology, ecology, population and distribution of this species are needed.
13340		distribution	eng	This species is present in south-western, western, north-western and north-eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 30 and 950 m asl.
13340		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in a wide range of forest types including lowland humid forests, western deciduous forests, gallery forests and at the edge of the spiny bush. It has been recorded from secondary forest and at the edge of agricultural areas.
13340		population	eng	In certain places it can be locally common.
13340		threats	eng	It is threatened by mining, clearance of forests for conversion to pasture and agricultural land and fire (for forest clearance).
13343		conservation	eng	This species is present in the protected areas of Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Ranomafana National Park, and Marojejy National Park. Further research is needed into the abundance and range of this species.
13343		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the montane humid forest zone of eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 1,200 and 2,100 m asl.
13343		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that shows a marked preference for higher-altitude montane forests. It has been collected in significantly degraded habitat close to the forest edge (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Based on morphology, it is probably a semi-fossorial species.
13343		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. It may be difficult to trap.
13343		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, or its habitat, within its elevational range.
13344		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Mangerivola Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park and Andohahela National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species. A further review of known specimens of <em>M. majori</em>, <em>M. longicaudata</em> and <em>M. principula</em> is needed to elucidate the range of these three species.
13344		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, ranging from Montagne d'Ambre in the north south to Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of 645 to 2,000 m asl.
13344		habitat	eng	It is a scansorial species that is present in eastern tropical humid forest, from lowlands to high-elevation rainforest. It may be found in slightly degraded forest.
13344		population	eng	It is a relatively common species, especially at higher elevations.
13344		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
13349		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve and Andohahela National Park. No further conservation measures are needed at present.
13349		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar from Montagne d'Ambdre south to Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of between 100 and 1,990 m asl.
13349		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of tropical humid forest. It is generally restricted to relatively intact forest.
13349		population	eng	It is a very common species.
13349		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
13350		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of reserves including the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Ranomafana National Park; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Mangerivola Special Reserve and Midongy du Sud National Park. A further review of known specimens of <em>M. majori</em>, <em>M. longicaudata</em> and <em>M. principula</em> is needed to elucidate the range of these three species.
13350		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern humid forests of Madagascar from Marojejy in the north south to Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of 440 to 1,950 m asl
13350		habitat	eng	It is an scansorial species that is present in eastern tropical humid forest. It may be found in slightly degraded forest.
13350		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
13350		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
13355		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of proteceted areas including the Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Mantadia National Park; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park and Ranomafana National Park. Further studies into the population, biology and ecology of this species are needed.
13355		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the tropical humid forests of eastern Madagascar from Zahamena south to around Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of between 440 and 2,000 m asl.
13355		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical humid forest where it is adaptable to some habitat modification (e.g., grazing by cattle within the forest).
13355		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
13355		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
13356		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from two protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. It has been recorded in the future protected area of Makira. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, population, biology, ecology and threats to this species.
13356		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few sites in north-eastern Madagascar. There is some doubt about a record from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve as it was collected from an owl pellet. It has been recorded between 500 and 940 m asl.
13356		habitat	eng	It is a poorly-known species that has only been recorded in the eastern lowland rain forests. It is possibly a a semi-fossorial species which is believed to be forest dependent. The ecology of the species is not known.
13356		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens and has been rarely recorded.
13356		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation and habitat fragmentation, through conversion to cultivated areas and general logging activities.
13369		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution, population status, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
13369		distribution	eng	This rarely-recorded species is known from several separate localities in central and south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is unknown whether the species exist between the known sites. It ranges between 380 and 1,500 m asl.
13369		habitat	eng	Animals have been captured in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, and in secondary forest – Eucalyptus savanna mosaic habitat. While it is believed to be terrestrial, little more is known about this species.
13369		population	eng	It is known only from six specimens collected from different localities. This species is considered to be difficult to trap and is not thought to be abundant.
13369		threats	eng	It is suspected that this species ranges more widely than is currently known, and that there are no major threats to this species.
13373		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range. In Japan, the species is listed as threatened in a number of prefectures.
13373		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas within its range.
13373		distribution	eng	The harvest mouse has a large range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, where it occurs from northern Spain and Great Britain through Europe, eastern Fennoscandia, and Russia to northern Mongolia, China, northeast India, Myanmar and Vietnam (Corbet 1978, Panteleyev 1998, Spitzenberger 1999). It is present in Japan and on the border between southern Sweden and south-east Norway, where it is regarded as possibly introduced (van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005, van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt.</em> 2006). In Europe, it is largely absent from Iberia, the southern part of Italy and the Alps, and it occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. It is typically a lowland species, although it occurs at altutudes of up to 1,700 m in Europe (Spitzenberger 1999).
13373		distribution	eng	The harvest mouse has a large range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, where it occurs from northern Spain and Great Britain through Europe, eastern Fennoscandia, and Russia to northern Mongolia, China, the Korean peninsula, northeast India, Myanmar and Viet Nam (Corbet 1978, Panteleyev 1998, Spitzenberger 1999); also Japan and Taiwan. It is present on the border between southern Sweden and south-east Norway, where it is regarded as possibly introduced (van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005, van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>In Europe, it is largely absent from Iberia, southern part of Italy, the Alps, and it occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. It is typically a lowland species, although it occurs at altitudes of up to 1,700 m asl in Europe (Spitzenberger 1999).<br/><br/>It is restricted to the northern parts of Mongolia, including Mongol Altai, Hövsgöl, Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia.<br/><br/>In Japan, the species is found on Honshu (Miyagi and Niigata Prefectures southwards), Shikoku, Kyushu, as well as the Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishinoshima, and Nakanoshima), Awaji, Teshima, Innoshima, Osaki-kamishima, Tsushima, Shimoshima (Amakusa Islands), Fukue (Goto Islands), and Kuchinoerabu (Osumi Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species is likely found more widely on small islands in the vicinity of the known distribution in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species is found from sea level up to 1,200 m asl in Japan.
13373		habitat	eng	It is found in wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003).
13373		habitat	eng	Present in a wide variety of habitats, including alpine grasslands, tall grass fields, bamboo stands, wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and grain or rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). Their diet includes seeds, green vegetation, insects, and bird's eggs.
13373		habitat	eng	Present in a wide variety of habitats, including alpine grasslands, tall grass fields, bamboo stands, wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and grain or rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kry?tufek 2003). Their diet includes seeds, green vegetation, insects, and bird's eggs.
13373		population	eng	Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Juškaitis, pers. comm. 2006).
13373		population	eng	Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Juškaitis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is considered to be common in South Asia.
13373		population	eng	Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kry?tufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kry?tufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Ju?kaitis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is considered to be common in South Asia.
13373		threats	eng	In Europe the species is common in wetlands (e.g. rice fields) and other habitats (e.g. abandoned agricultural land). There are no serious threats to the survival of the species here, although local population declines have occurred in some areas as a result of loss and degradation of wetland habitats (Spitzenberger 1999).
13373		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range. In Europe the species is common in wetlands (e.g. rice fields) and other habitats (e.g. abandoned agricultural land). There are no serious threats to the survival of the species, although local population declines have occurred in some areas as a result of loss and degradation of wetland habitats (Spitzenberger 1999).
13375		conservation	eng	Conservation of habitat and research is necessary to understand the basic ecology of this species.
13375		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the cerrado and shrub savanna regions of west-central Brazil and Bolivia and the Amazon forests of Peru (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
13375		habitat	eng	Poorly known. This genus feeds mostly on insects and small fruits.
13375		population	eng	Rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Known from very few (6) specimens/records.
13375		threats	eng	Conversion of cerrado habitats to agriculture may be affecting the species.
13376		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss and protect from disturbance. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
13376		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This species ranges from Oaxaca and Veracruz, Mexico, through the Isthmus, across northern South America and south to Amazonian Brazil; also Trinidad (Reid, 1997). It is found in lowlands to 700 m altitude; most specimens have been caught below 150 m asl in Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997). In Brazil it reaches the SE part of the country (TAVARES pers. comm.).
13376		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist evergreen and deciduous lowland habitats (Reid, 1997). This bat roosts in the hollow trunks of trees, caves, mines, and old buildings. Group size is usually small; a colony may contain up to ten individuals; although a sea cave in Veracruz, Mexico, contained about 300 individuals; one male may occur with nine females, suggesting a polygynous mating system (Medellin <em>et al.</em>, 1985). Greatest activity occurs in the first 2 hours after sunset, with a second activity peak after midnight. Bonaccorso (1979) caught twice as many in subcanopy mist nets than in ground-level mist nets. About equal amounts of fruit and arthropods (spiders, beetles, ants, bugs, and flies) are eaten (Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1983). Although occasionally caught in secondary forest and clearing, this species appears to be sensitive to habitat disturbance: the large group in Veracruz disappeared as the surrounding forest was cut and burned (Medellin <em>et al</em>. 1985). Births usually coincide with the onset of rainy season, and a second pregnancy may follow later in the year (Reid, 1997). Occurs in moist forest and gallery forests in lowlands. Omnivorous. (Ochoa pers. comm.).
13376		population	eng	This is a rare species throughout its range. Rather uncommon and local (Reid, 1997). Widely distributed but not common in Trinidad (Goodwin and Greenhall,1961). Locally common in dry forests in Costa Rica (Bernal Rodiguez and Pineda pers. comm.). Rare in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.)
13376		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range. Habitat loss is a localised threat given its strong association with forests and apparent sensitivity to habitat disturbance.
13377		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Conservation of habitat (primary forests). The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
13377		distribution	eng	Occurs througout Honduras south to Peru, the Guianas, Brazil, and Bolivia; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). May be present in Colombia. Range is confined to eastern flanks of the Andes. Known from 0-300 m asl (Ochoa pers. comm.), and in Ecuador up to 500 m (Pine <em>et al.</em> 1996).
13377		habitat	eng	Forest interior species. Poorly known; probably restricted to mature, evergreen forest. Roosts in hollow trees; occasionally caught in harp traps or mist nets set across forest trails. These bats feed on large insects and occasionally fruit; they forage by gleaning large insects such as cockroaches, dragonflies, and katydids from the vegetation or ground, and they carry their prey back to a feeding roost before eating (Emmons and Feer, 1997). A small spotted frog was found in the stomach of one individual from Panama (Reid, 1997).<br/>Has been found in secondary forested areas near primary forest (Ochoa pers. comm.), but seems to prefer primary forest. Roost in hollow trees. Record of males, females and juveniles roosting together (Solari pers. comm.). Some records of ecoparasites (Solari pers. comm.).
13377		population	eng	This species is relatively rare, which could be either an artifact of sampling methodology or local fluctuations in abundance. Apparently very rare and patchily distributed (Reid, 1997).
13377		threats	eng	In Bolivia this species is considered vulnerable as it occurs in fragile ecosystems (montane forests and flood plains Aguirre 1998). Loss of primary forest, and reduction and fragmentation of habitat are localised threats, but there are no major threats throughout its range at present.
13378		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
13378		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Honduras south through the Central America to Amazonian Peru and Brazil; also along Atlantic Coast to Espirito Santo, Brazil (Peracchi and Albuquerque, 1993); also Trinidad. It prefers lower elevations, below 1,500 m (Reid, 1997). Also Ecuador.
13378		habitat	eng	The species is associated with primary forest. Its activity is concentrated near streams or moist areas (Eisenberg, 1989). It roosts in hollow trees, buildings, and under bridges and feeds on insects, mainly katydids, cockroaches, June beetles, and Lepidoptera larvae, which are gleaned from vegetation. Fruit is taken during the dry season only (Whitaker and Findley, 1980; Wilson, 1971). This bat is attracted to katydid calls and is much more likely to be caught in mist nets baited nets (where it is seldom captured). Equal numbers of male and female (noncalling) katydid remains have been found at roosts, indicating that the bats can find prey using cues other than male songs.
13378		population	eng	Apparently rare (Reid 1997) and with a scattered distribution. Locally common in Costa Rica and Nicaragua (Rodriguez-Herrera, Pineda and Medina pers. comm.)
13378		threats	eng	Deforestation, although this is not considered as a major threat.
13379		conservation	eng	Conservation of intact forest habitat. This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
13379		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador (Simmons, 2005), Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Suriname and Trinidad.
13379		habitat	eng	It is broadly tolerant of both multistratal evergreen forests and dry thorn forests. This bat forages near streams, and it roosts in hollow trees, logs, caverns, or houses in groups of up to twelve. It is a mixed feeder, taking fruit when in season as well as insects (Eisenberg, 1989).
13379		population	eng	Relatively uncommon and widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997).
13379		threats	eng	Deforestation although this is not considered to be a major threat.
13380		conservation	eng	Retention of forest. This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
13380		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Honduras to Bolivia and southern Brazil; also in Trinidad. Lowlands to 800 m (Reid, 1997). It is broadly distributed over northern South America (Eisenberg, 1989).
13380		habitat	eng	It is found in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest, however, has been found  in agricultural areas with scattered trees. Roosts singly or in small groups in hollow trees or caves, often with other species of bats (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961); occasionally found in caves or mines. The diet includes insects (76%) and plant material (24%), like fruits (Flemming <em>et al.</em>, 1972). Pregnant females have been recorded in March and April in Costa Rica (Reid, 1997).
13380		population	eng	Uncommon.
13380		threats	eng	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.
13381		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas - but always rare and at low densities.
13381		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Belize to north Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Amazonian and northeastern Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; It is also found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005). In Bolivia found to 1,000 m (Aguirre pers. comm.). Found in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Also occurs in central forest of western pacific in Panama (Samudio pers. comm.).
13381		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen and dry deciduous lowland forest. Its roosts include hollow trees and buildings. This species seems to be most active for an hour after sunset and an hour before dawn (Reid, 1997). In Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela found also in secondary forests though seems to prefer primary habitats (Velazco pers. comm.)
13381		population	eng	It is apparently rare and local in Central America (Reid, 1997) and South America (Tavares pers. comm.). In Ecuador it is rare (Tirira, in prep.).
13381		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range. Considered Vulnerable in Bolivia.
13382		conservation	eng	Conservation of locations for type locality and surrounding forests.
13382		distribution	eng	This species is found from northwestern Brazil to adjacent Colombia (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
13382		habitat	eng	This genus is mainly insectivorous (Gardner, 1977), however, nothing else is known of the ecology of this species.
13382		population	eng	It has a rare and restricted distribution (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Known from only two specimens and has not been seen since the 1940's.
13382		threats	eng	Only known from two specimens, so it may have a restricted range in which it is affected by deforestation.
13383		conservation	eng	Forest retention. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
13383		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cozumel Island, Mexico; eastern Chiapas and southern Yucatan Peninsula, northern Guatemala, and Belize through Central America to Venezuela, northeastern Peru and Brazil. Lowlands only (Reid, 1997). Has not been recorded from either Suriname or Guyana. Also found in Northern Peru and Bolivia (Aguirre pers. comm.)
13383		habitat	eng	Poorly known. It is found in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest and forest edge. Small groups roost in hollow trees. Moths are includes in the diet (Howell and Burch, 1974).
13383		population	eng	It is apparently rare and with a scattered distribution.
13383		threats	eng	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.
13384		conservation	eng	Conservation of caves and karstic regions. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
13384		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed in Central, and South America - and occurs in two disjunct populations. The northern area of occupancy occurs from Nayarit and Veracruz, Mexico, south through Central America to Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, Venezuela, and Trinidad. A second area of occupancy occurs in southeast Brazil around Sao Paulo and Parana. It prefers low elevations, below 800 m (Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).<br/>In Venezuela know up to 1,100 m (Lew pers. comm.). Known from one yet unpublished point in Bolivia (Aguirre pers. comm.) (Aguirre and Tennan pers. comm.). Occurs in Panama (Samudio pers. comm.).
13384		habitat	eng	Poorly known. Found in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest. Roosts in hollow trees and caves in groups of up to 75, it is capable of tolerating other species (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Occasionally caught in mist nets or harp traps set over streams (Reid, 1997). These bats feed on large insects and occasionally fruit; they forage by gleaning large insects such as cockroaches, dragonflies, and katydids from the vegetation or ground, and they carry their prey back to a feeding roost before eating (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This is a rare and poorly known species. Occurs in moist tropical forests and also know from secondary forests nearby (Ochoa pers. comm.)
13384		population	eng	This seems to be a very rare species throughout its range. Not common and local (Reid, 1997). Gleaning insectivore - sampling bias may underestimate populations.
13384		threats	eng	Associated with caves and karstic habitats, the southern disjunct population is severely threatened by habitat loss.
13388		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
13388		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the mountains of central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the Arfak mountains (Indonesia). It ranges from 1,000 to 3,950 m asl.
13388		habitat	eng	The Striped Bandicoot occurs in mid-montane and montane tropical moist forests and subalpine grasslands. It can be found in both primary and secondary forest. Females have been recorded with three or four young (Flannery 1995).
13388		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
13388		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for food, especially with dogs. It is also threatened by predation by feral dogs.
13389		conservation	eng	It is not known if Mouse Bandicoots are present in any protected areas. Further studies into the range, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
13389		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from a single locality and a series of three specimens collected (by George Stein in 1931) from Gunung Sumuri in the Weyland range of Papua Province, Indonesia on the island of New Guinea (Stein 1932). It is likely to be a restricted to a small area, however, it is not known how many mountain tops the species occurs on. The type locality has not been revisited since the initial collection. It was collected at 2,500 m asl.
13389		habitat	eng	The Mouse Bandicoot is a montane tropical moist forest species.
13389		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is unknown.
13389		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known.
13390		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
13390		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of south-eastern Papua New Guinea, from Fane in the west to Mount Simpson in the east (Flannery 1995). It ranges from 1,200 to 2,650 m asl.
13390		habitat	eng	Papuan Bandicoot has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest in rugged montane areas. Females typically have a single young.
13390		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but it can be uncommon at some collecting localities.
13390		threats	eng	Papuan Bandicoot is hunted for food by local people, but this is probably not a major threat as it is a small animal and not likely to be highly sought after.
13391		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation actions are in place for this species.
13391		distribution	eng	This pipefish is known only from a juvenile specimen collected in the Tawarin River, northern Irian Jaya, Indonesia in 1903 (Dawson 1985, Kuiter 2000).
13391		habitat	eng	Size at maturity and maximum length are presently unknown. The single collected specimen was a juvenile and measured 67.5 mm standard length (Dawson 1985).
13391		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
13391		threats	eng	Current or potential threats to this species are not known.
13392		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
13392		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microphis spinachioides</span> is known only from the type locality in Papua New Guinea (Kuiter 2000). It has been found in the Sepik and May rivers and is also known from the Ramu River (Coates 1993).
13392		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. It reaches at least 150 mm standard length (Dawson 1985). Presently it is known from 35–100 km upstream from the mouth of the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea (Dawson 1985).
13392		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
13392		threats	eng	Current or potential threats to this species are not known.
13393		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in Guinea, and the Mont Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in Côte d'Ivoire. The full extent of the impact of mining and bycatch (in fish traps and nets) on the species is not known and requires investigation. Research on basic biology and conservation needs will determine the types and feasibility of realistic conservation measures.
13393		distribution	eng	Endemic to a small region of West Africa. Known only from the Nimba mountains of Liberia, Guinea (Kuhn 1964) and Côte d'Ivoire (Vogel 1983), and the mountains of the Putu Range, Liberia (Kuhn 1971). This is a very restricted area, with the most distant recorded localities only 380 km apart.
13393		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and semi-aquatic species. Very small creeks, larger streams and small swamps in primary and secondary rain forest in hilly country (Vogel 1983). Also occurs in regions where primary and secondary forest has been replaced by cocoa and coffee plantations, provided dense vegetation remains along streams. May occur in rice cultures (Kuhn 1964).<br/><br/>Efficient swimmer and diver, even though tail and feet are not specially adapted for aquatic life (Guth <em>et al</em>. 1959). Nimba Otter-shrews can remain underwater for over 10 minutes (when escaping from danger) by lowering the metabolic rate. The strong sensitive vibrissase are used for locating underwater prey. The less specialised feet and tail probably allows exploitation of a broader ecological niche compared with other species of otter-shrews. Foraging occurs along the river-banks and also in open water. The diet is mainly crabs and catfish, with a few insects (Kuhn 1964) and tadpoles; small mammals were not consumed (Vogel 1983). Otter-shrews carry captured crabs onto the land before eating them; the crab is then attacked from behind, minimising the chances of being bitten by the pincers, and the skeleton is crushed at the junction of the cephalothorax and abdomen (Vogel 1983). In captivity, the daily consumption was about 40 g fish per otter-shrew.<br/><br/>Evidence from the rare captures, and from predatory behaviour, suggest that the Nimba Otter shrew is rather solitary and territorial. However, a pair kept over several months in the same enclosure did not exhibit aggressive behaviour (Vogel 1983). Mean litter size (births and embryo numbers): 2.6 (range 1–4, mode = 2, n = 11) (Kuhn 1971, Vogel 1983, P. Vogel unpubl). Gestation: >50 days. The birth of a pup allowed the following observations (P. Vogel, unpubl): at birth, young naked, but whiskers present. Dorsal pelage on day 11, eyes open on day 23, and first solid food eaten on day 40.
13393		population	eng	Generally uncommon, with local density usually low; very rare where hills not present. In the Nimba region, a census of drowned animals from fish bow nets resulted in about one otter-shrew per 10 km² per year. In 1970, otter-shrews were frequently found close to village; by 1990, rarely found within 3–5 km of villages (P. Vogel pers. obs.).
13393		threats	eng	Suitable habitat is threatened by mining, agricultural development and increased human activities. Mining activities in Liberia have devastated large regions of suitable habitat (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990) and wetland rice agriculture introduced in 1980 to the Nimba region has resulted in large-scale habitat destruction (P. Vogel, unpubl). Habitat conservation is considered to be ineffective. The increased use of fish traps and nets are a serious problem as human density increases.
13394		conservation	eng	Present in the Virunga National Park. Basic biology and conservation research will determine the types and feasibility of realistic conservation measures.
13394		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Africa. Found only in the Rwenzori region (Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo), and west of Lake Edward and Lake Kivu (Democratic Republic of Congo) (Rahm 1966; Bronner and Jenkins 2005).
13394		habitat	eng	Found in streams and small rivers of varying size in the rainforest zone from 800 to 900 m (n=4) and in montane forest up to 2,200 m (n=4) (Rahm 1960). Also recorded in streams in gallery forest surrounded by secondary savanna (elephant grass) from 1,000 to 1,200 m. It digs tunnels and constructs hay or grass sleeping chambers within them. <em>Micropotamogale</em> spp. have been recorded eating insects, insect larvae, worms, crabs, fish and small frogs.<br/><br/>Within the Potamogalinae, the webbed feet of <em>M. ruwenzorii</em> reveal a peculiar strong adaptation for aquatic life: even the forefeet are proportionally very big, the thumb and little finger elongated (Verheyen 1961). Similar morphological adaptations are found in only a few other insectivorous small mammals such as <em>Limnogale mergulus</em> (Tenrecidae), <em>Nectogale elegans</em> (Soricidae) and <em>Galemys pyrenaica</em> (Talpidae) which are always separated from species without webbed feet on generic level. Swimming is done according to the paddling mode including pectoral and pelvic stroke (as in polar bear) in cross gate. Only when diving the feet may be used synchronously (Rahm 1961) as observed in the Pyrenean Desman (Niethammer 1970). The tail seems not to be use for propulsion. There are several periods of activity each night; grooming occurs after each activity period (Rahm 1961).<br/><br/>Foraging occurs in water. The preferred prey are crabs with a carapace width <5 em, aquatic insects, oligochaete worms and fish (<em>Clarias</em>, etc.). An otter-shrew weighing 135 g eats an equivalent of 80 g of food per night. Manipulation of food is performed only with the mouth, not with the forefeet. Faecal pellets (<em>ca</em>. 2-5 em long, diameter 0.9 em) contain fragments of chitin from the crab and insect prey (Rahm 1961).<br/><br/>No information exists on social or reproductive behavior. Embryo number: 1 (n=2) or 2 (n=1) (Rahm 1960, Stephan pers. comm).
13394		population	eng	Little quantitative information; locally not rare.
13394		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to getting caught in fish traps. The main threat, however, is loss of habitat in its restricted range through human activities.
13401		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to locate populations of this species, and to record additional details on natural history and possible threats.
13401		distribution	eng	This little known species has only been recorded from four localities in northern Angola (the type locality of Dundo) and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Luluabourg, Banana/Netonna, and Thysville).
13401		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with moist savanna and forest mosaic habitats. Populations most probably remain south of the Central African rain forest block. Whether or not it does occur in woodlands to the south, which seems more likely, remains to be discovered (Bergmans 1989). The specimen from Thysville was found roosting under a rock near the entrance to a cave (Bergmans 1989).
13401		population	eng	It is currently only known from four specimens. Some of these records are old, and the species does not appear to have been recorded since the 1950s.
13401		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but may include general habitat loss through ongoing deforestation.
13402		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. In general, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
13402		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa, Central Africa and East Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia, throughout much of West Africa to Cameroon, from here it is distributed into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, Uganda and western Ethiopia and Kenya. It is found as far south as central Angola.
13402		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of primary and secondary habitats. Populations are typically found in savanna woodlands, but can be encountered in tropical moist forest, swamp forest, bushland, edaphic grasslands and mosaics of these habitats. Animals usually roost in small numbers amongst dense vegetation. This species is an opportunistic forager of fruits and flowers, travelling widely each night to find food, and could be of economic importance for pollination.
13402		population	eng	This is generally considered to be one of the most common African bats. Large numbers are often recorded from fruit trees.
13402		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
13407		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in the southern distribution but only one in the northern distribution.
13407		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, mostly 2,500 to 4,000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
13407		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subalpine and páramo formations (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other member of the genus (<em>M. minutus</em>).
13407		population	eng	It can be locally common.
13407		threats	eng	Major threats are deforestation and agriculture in páramo areas in some parts of its range (R. Anderson pers. comm.).
13408		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
13408		distribution	eng	This species occurs from north Venezuela, through Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, to west central Bolivia (Musser and Carletob, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 4,000 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em> 1999; Tirira, in prep.).
13408		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in lower montane, subalpine forest (Musser and Carleton, 2005) and paramo (B. Rivas pers. comm.). This species is terrestrial and arboreal, it is found in high mountain habitats, frequently near rocks, especially in cloud forest. Presumably it feeds on seeds and vegetation (Lord, 1999).
13408		population	eng	This mouse is common throughout the range.
13408		threats	eng	Major threats are deforestation in some parts of its range (R. Anderson pers. comm.).
13409		conservation	eng	Occurs in Monteverde National Park, Talamanca National Park and other protected areas.
13409		distribution	eng	Southern Nicaragua south through western Colombia (Emmons and Feer 1997). Lowlands to 2,600 m (Reid 1997).<br/>Only one specimen from Nicaragua in 1917, but may not be actually have been found there.
13409		habitat	eng	Mainly in evergreen forest.
13409		population	eng	Locally abundant. In Panama, not common, but nor is it rare; it has been seen throughout its range in Panama in recent years.
13409		threats	eng	No major threats known. However, it does not tolerate heavy deforestation.
13410		conservation	eng	Further work to assess the conservation status of this species is needed.
13410		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon basin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil west of Rios Negro and Jurua (Wilson and Reeder, 2005)
13410		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
13410		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
13410		threats	eng	The major threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
13411		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. Needs taxonomic research.
13411		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwest Ecuador, northern Colombia, and western Panama (800-1600 m in Panama) including the Darien (Reid 1997).
13411		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Generally found in evergreen forest, in Panama only above 800 m, and in Colombia and Ecuador in the lowlands (Emmons and Feer 1997).
13411		population	eng	Very common in its range in Panama.
13411		threats	eng	Parts of its range are extensively deforested (Emmons and Feer 1997), although this does not appear to be a major threat at present.
13412		conservation	eng	Research is needed into its taxonomy, distribution, populations status, and threats.
13412		distribution	eng	This species is found in Colombia, between the Magdalena River and the Cordillera Oriental. It is possibly also in Panama and Venezuela.
13412		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known.
13412		population	eng	No population information could be found.
13412		threats	eng	Unknown.
13417		conservation	eng	It is not known whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed. Ideally conservation measures would involve protection of Muskeget Island by direct purchase or management agreements with landowners.
13417		distribution	eng	This species' range is limited to Muskeget Island, off the west coast of Nantucket, Massachusetts, United States (Tamarin and Kunz 1974). Historically this vole also occurred on nearby Adams and South Point islands, which can be regarded as part of Muskeget Island in the broad sense. Muskeget Island has changed shape, size, and position over time; it has moved more than 1,000 feet eastward since the 1800s (Surfrider Foundation, State of the Beach 2005; www.surfrider.org).
13417		habitat	eng	The principal habitat for these voles are meadows dominated by beach grass (<em>Ammophilia breviligulata</em>) and poison ivy (<em>Rhus radicans</em>) (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). They burrow in coarse loose sand, also on loose soil under or near any shelter (e.g., driftwood). Young are born in nests in underground burrows or under other cover. They breed from spring to fall. Gestation lasts about one month. Individual females produce up to several litters of four to five young per year. Most live probably less than one year.<br/><br/>Home range is less than one acre. Cats, short-eared owl, northern harrier, and common garter snake are predators. Beach voles feed on beach grass stalks. They may also utilize seeds, and leaves of various plants and some insects. They are probably chiefly diurnal.
13417		population	eng	This species occurs only on one island. The population reportedly fluctuates between about 3,000 and 10,000 individuals but evidently does not exhibit regular long-term (3-4 year) cycles (Tamarin 1977). Density is about 12 per acre in low years, 37 per acre in peak years (density varied 5.8 fold over five years in another study).
13417		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present, but its very restricted range makes it vulnerable to threatening processes. Potential threats include introduced predators, habitat disruption by humans, and island erosion.
13418		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas in both Portugal and Spain. It is protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex II and Annex IV).
13418		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus cabrerae</em> is endemic to the Iberian peninsula (Portugal and Spain), where it has a fragmented range (Palomo 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from 0 to 1,500 m, although it is most common below 1,200 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, R. Pita unpublished data).<br/><br/>In Spain, populations in the south have recently disappeared (Muñoz, L.J.P. pers. comm.2007).
13418		habitat	eng	It occurs in pastures, fields and open clearings in woodland, tending to prefer damper areas than the common vole. It is often found in proximity to water (Palomo 1999) and on road verges (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2006, Pita <em>et al.</em> 2006). Meadows and perennial grassland communities are the most favourable microhabitats for this species (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13418		population	eng	Many subpopulations are small, fragmented, and subject to major inter-annual fluctuations  (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Mira <em>et al.</em> 2005). Subfossil remains have been found outside the species' current distribution, suggesting a range contraction (Palomo 1999), and it is considered that the species occupies a relict distribution (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Population densities are moderate by comparison with other arvicoline rodents, typically varying between 17 and 350 individuals per hectare (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is often found in isolated patches inhabited by a few individuals, often an adult couple and its offspring.
13418		threats	eng	Agricultural intensification, including overgrazing, has presumably contributed to range contractions and fragmentation over the last few decades (Palomo 1999). There is increased pressure on streams and other wetland areas the species occurs in. There is suspicion that interspecific competition with <em>Arvicola sapidus</em> may be a problem (Pita <em>et al.</em> 2006).
13425		conservation	eng	Surveys are recommended to determine the nature and extent of any threats to the population  of <em>M. abbreviatus</em> (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations on both islands are fully protected. Both St. Matthew Island and Hall Island are included in the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.<br/><br/>The population is not currently being monitored. Factors affecting population size and distribution are unknown. Current research needs include: 1) population size and trend estimates 2) habitat preferences 3) reproductive capacity 4) long-term population viability assessment 5) further assessment of taxonomic status.
13425		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hall Island (subspecies <em>abbreviatus</em>) and St. Matthew Island (subspecies <em>fisheri</em>), in the Bering Sea, Alaska, United States. Its range on each of the islands is not known.
13425		habitat	eng	On St. Matthew Island, this vole is most abundant in moist lowlands and on lower slopes; also in the <em>Elymus</em> community along beach ridges and the driftwood zone; it has been found up to about 240 m asl in moist, well-drained areas as well as around ponds and seepages. Burrows are in well vegetated rocky outcroppings. The species is not found in dry lowlands or in areas with much standing water (Rausch and Rausch 1968).<br/><br/>On Hall Island, limited data indicate a mean litter size of seven, with most females producing only one litter (Rausch and Rausch 1968). Diet on St. Matthew Island includes <em>Deschampsia</em>, <em>Artemesia, Rumex, Salix, Sedum</em>, and <em>Saxifraga</em>. Insular voles are important prey for such predators as long-tailed jaeger, snowy owl, glaucous gull, and arctic fox, they are occasionally preyed on by polar bears.
13425		population	eng	This species is represented by two occurrences or subpopulations on different islands. Populations fluctuate widely. Beals found the voles "abundant everywhere" in 1944 (Rausch and Rausch 1968). The population was apparently at near maximum density in 1954 but was "very low" in 1957 (Klein 1959). The numbers were also low, and concentrations dispersed, in 1963 (Rausch and Rausch 1968). On the mainland, Batzli and Henttonen (1990) reported moderate tundra vole densities of 4-50 per hectare. The total area of St. Matthew Island is approximately 31,475 hectares (this area includes Pinnacle Island) and the total area of Hall Island is 1,443 hectares (Brewer 1996). The estimated population based on these densities would be between 131,672 - 1,645,900 individuals.<br/><br/>The long-term population trend is unknown but appears to be stable. On a short-term basis, populations fluctuate from very low to very high (Rausch and Rausch 1968), but no predictable trend has been documented.
13425		threats	eng	No immediate threats are known, but the restricted range of this species increases its vulnerability to outside threats. <br/><br/>Fay noted that previously occupied habitat was destroyed by reindeer introduced in 1944 on St. Matthew Island (Rausch and Rausch 1968). Reindeer population numbers increased to approximately 6,000 in 1963, but by the summer of 1966 only 42 remained and by the 1980s the population had completely died out.<br/><br/>The Arctic fox (<em>Alopex lagopus</em>) is native to St. Matthew. According to Rausch, predation appears to take place during years of high vole populations rather than when vole numbers are low; however, additional studies are needed to verify this pattern (Rausch and Rausch 1968). Predation by long-tailed jaegers and snowy owls occasionally occurs (Rausch and Rausch 1968). In any event, such predation is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the long-term viability of the vole population.
13426		conservation	eng	The species is present in a large number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are required.
13426		distribution	eng	The field vole is a widespread Palaearctic species, ranging from western Europe eastwards through Russia to Lake Baikal in south-east Siberia. In Europe, it is present in Great Britain and western, central and northern parts of the continent, but absent from Iceland, Ireland and southern Europe (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
13426		distribution	eng	The field vole is a widespread Palaearctic species, ranging from western Europe eastwards through Russia to Lake Baikal in south-east Siberia. It is present in Great Britain, central and northern parts of the continent (Portugal, Spain, France, Switzerland, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovenia and Serbia), but it is absent from Iceland, Ireland southern Europe (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). The Mediterranean populations may be a separate species, but more taxonomic work is needed to confirm this. It occurs from sea level to 2,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
13426		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including grasslands, woods, upland heaths, dunes, marshes, peat-bogs and river-banks, tending to prefer damp areas.  It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, field-margins and young forestry plantations, but is absent from heavily grazed areas (Zima 1999). The field vole is predominantly herbivorous, feeding on grasses and herbaceous plants, and gnawing bark in the winter. Exceptionally, animal prey (e.g. dipteran larvae) are taken (Krapp and Niethammer 1982).
13426		population	eng	It is generally common, although it may be locally rare in marginal parts of its range in western and central Europe. In some areas, population density fluctuates markedly over a cycle of approximately three to four years. In peak years it can cause damage to pastures, orchards and forestry plantations (Zima 1999).
13426		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species over much of its range.
13427		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.<br/><br/><em>M. c. scirpensis</em> is a federally Endangered species in the United States, with an extant recovery plan. In California, there are several subspecies of conservation concern: <em>M. c. mohavensis</em>, <em>M. c. sanpabloensis,</em> <em>M. c. scirpensis</em>, <em>M. c. stephensi</em>, and <em>M. m. vallicola</em>.
13427		distribution	eng	Occurs from southwestern Oregon through central and western California (United States), and south into northern Baja California (Mexico). There are two disjunct populations in the Mohave Desert and White Mountain/Panamint ranges (California, USA).
13427		habitat	eng	Inhabits grasslands and wet meadows at low elevations. Also, coastal wetlands and open oak savanna with good ground cover.
13427		population	eng	Populations tend to be stable in coastal areas (around 200 individuals/ha), but in more strongly seasonal habitats densities vary dramatically over 2 to 5-year cycles, ranging from virtual absence to typical peaks of 450 individuals/ha.
13427		threats	eng	None to the species as a whole. <br/><br/>However, 4 subspecies (2 disjunct populations previously mentioned, one in northern Baja California, and one in the Los Angeles area) are of conservation concern.
13428		conservation	eng	The species is found in many protected areas.
13428		distribution	eng	The species is found from the northern Caucasus Mountains (southern Russia) and southern Caucasus from Georgia south through southern Armenia and Azerbaijan (Achverdjan <em>et al.</em>, 1992) and in adjacent east Black Sea Mountains of northeast Turkey (Krystufek and Vohralík, 2001). The species also possibly occurs in northwest Iran.
13428		habitat	eng	Populates alpine meadows at about 2,000 m. In Turkey, elevation ranges from 2,200-2,600 m. It can be found in grazing pastures.
13428		population	eng	The species is common.
13428		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13429		conservation	eng	Rare species, protected by local law.
13429		distribution	eng	Known only from Evoron-Chukchagyr voog (lower Amur River, Russia).
13429		habitat	eng	Poorly studied species. Inhabits flood plains with dominance of lings and herbs.
13429		population	eng	There are no data available.
13429		threats	eng	Unknown.
13430		conservation	eng	Approximately 14% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. Common species in China and Russia; listed nationally as Least Concern.
13430		distribution	eng	Distributed in moist meadows of forest and forest-steppe zones in Trans-Baikal region, Amur River Basin (Russian Federation), NE Mongolia, E China and Korea. In Mongolia, around the Ulz River Valley, Hustai Mountain Range in Mongol Daguur Steppe, and around Eröö River Valley in western Hentii Mountain Range. Also distributed in Eastern Mongolia and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range.
13430		habitat	eng	Common to wet environments, especially lakeshores, riverbanks and streams surrounded by heavy vegetation.  Although favoring waterside habitats they may invade adjacent agricultural areas and undeveloped lands when over crowded or forced out by rising water levels in spring and early summer.  Reproduction occurs from April-November with up to six litters of five offspring per litter in favorable years.  Gestation lasts about 20 days, and the interval between litters is 40-45 days.  Females reach sexual maturity by 3.5-4 months, with males maturing a little later.
13430		population	eng	No data are available at present. In some parts of the range recorded acute population fluctuations.
13430		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
13431		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
13431		distribution	eng	Distributed in several separated regions: in tundra and forest-tundra from White Sea to Kolyma River; in Alaska peninsula; in steppes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgizia, SW Siberia, Yakutia, Mongolia and Northern China. It occurs at altitudes of up to 4,000 m.
13431		habitat	eng	Inhabits tundra, plains and mountain steppes and meadows. In the forest zone (including mountain forests) and semideserts it occupies open grassy areas. It reaches maximum density in cereal and grass steppes, and alpine and water meadows. Lives in groups, during periods of high population density may form colonies. Feeds on various wild and cultivated plants, tends to prefer legumes. Reproductive period lasts throughout the warmer months of the year; in tundra zones reproduction often starts under snow cover (in Karsk tundra in February-March). Has up to 5 litters per year in southern parts of the range, and up to 4 in mountains and northern areas. Litter size is usually up to 12 young. Considerable pest of crops in Siberia and Kazakhstan and pastures in Central Asia. A natural carrier of several diseases including encephalitis, plague and rabbit fever.
13431		habitat	eng	Inhabits tundra, plains and mountain steppes and meadows. In the forest zone (including mountain forests) and semideserts it occupies open grassy areas. It reaches maximum density in cereal and grass steppes, and alpine and water meadows. Lives in groups, during periods of high population density may form colonies. Feeds on various wild and cultivated plants, tends to prefer legumes. Reproductive period lasts throughout the warmer months of the year; in tundra zones reproduction often starts under snow cover (in Karsk tundra in February-March). Has up to 5 litters per year in southern parts of the range, and up to 4 in mountains and northern areas. Litter size is usually up to 12 young. Considerable pest of crops in Siberia and Kazakhstan and pastures in Central Asia. A natural carrier of several diseases including encephalitis, plague,and rabbit fever.
13431		population	eng	Populations undergo fluctuations in density; in mountainous areas populations are patchy and density varies.
13431		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
13432		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the western portion of the Sierra de la Pinas National Park, which has a much higher level of protection than Laguna Magdalena National Park.
13432		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highland meadows of central Chiapas, México, and central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 2,600 to 3,100 m (Reid 1997).
13432		habitat	eng	This rodent can be found in montane forest and pasture. It favors low-lying, damp areas in pine-oak forest and small clearings (Reid 1997). It is possibly diurnal or crepuscular, and terrestrial. Unlike most voles, which travel on runways through grassy areas, this species can be found in deep forest and does not appear to use runways. It probably eats plant material, although details of the diet have not been reported. A pregnant female, caught in January, had one embryo (Smith and Jones 1967; Reid 1997).
13432		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid 1997).
13432		threats	eng	Habitat modification is a big threat to this species in Laguna Magdalena protected area in Guatemala, mainly due to overgrazing by sheep.
13433		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
13433		distribution	eng	Distributed in piedmonts and mountains in NE Yakutiya from lower Yenisei River to upper Indigirka and Kolyma Rivers (Yano-Oymyakon and Yukagiri highlands) (Russian Federation).
13433		habitat	eng	Inhabit dry steppe areas on river slopes without forests, among cereal and mixed grass vegetation on sandy an stone-sandy soils. Colonial. Burrows are shallow, always above permafrost. Wintering burrows with one ore several nests. In summer feed mostly on grasses, when those dry out, switch to lings and horstails. Store roots. Reproduction is very intensive, by mid-summer adult females can give up to 5 litters.
13433		population	eng	No data available.
13433		threats	eng	Unknown.
13434		conservation	eng	This species needs taxonomic work and perhaps further surveys.
13434		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the type locality and a series of around four specimens. A second survey was conducted in the same area and failed to find the species although found closely related to <em>Microtus socialis</em> (Krystufek and Kefeliojlu, 2002). The type locality was in a garden within the city of Shiraz (Iran) described over 80 years ago, and so the species may be threatened if it is restricted to the vicinity of the type locality (D. Kock pers. comm.).
13434		habitat	eng	Very little information is available; the species is known only from the type locality in a city garden.
13434		population	eng	Unknown.
13434		threats	eng	Unknown.
13435		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Qinghaihuniaodao, Wanglang, Wolong, Changshanerhai, Nujiang (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), and is likely to occur in Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
13435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Xizang, and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies high mountains within its range (Smith and Xie 2008).
13435		habitat	eng	This species occurs in alpine meadows and shrubby mountainsides (Smith and Xie 2008).
13435		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
13435		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
13436		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
13436		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Central Asia, northwestern South Asia and western China. In Central Asia, it is present in eastern Tajikistan, southwestern Kyrgyzstan and western Uzbekistan. In South Asia, it is found in Afghanistan (Habibi 2003) and north western Pakistan (Roberts 1997) at elevations of 3,000 to 3,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from northwestern Xizang and southwestern Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008).
13436		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, terrestrial and herbivorous, that is found in temperate forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) and mountain steppe habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).
13436		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13436		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
13438		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
13438		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, occurring in northwest China (Xinjiang province), Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan,  Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13438		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest, forest-steppe and scrub meadow (Smith and Xie 2008).
13438		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
13438		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
13439		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.
13439		distribution	eng	This species is present in northern South Asia, and much of western China. In South Asia, it is present in India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir) and Nepal (Western and Eastern Nepal) at altitudes above 4,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is found on the Tibetan Plateau of Xinjiang, Xizang and Qinghai (Smith and Xie 2008).
13439		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal and fossorial vole that inhabits temperate forests, and high altitude grassy habitats, especially along watercourses. It prefers high rocky mountains with scattered patches of grassland completely covered in snow part of the year. It lives in colonies, digs deep burrows, especially in the banks of streams and lakes. It has also been recorded living among rocky crevices (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).
13439		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13439		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia it is locally threatened by loss of habitat (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
13440		conservation	eng	In Mongolia, approximately 24% of the species' range occurs within protected areas. In China, it occurs in several nature reserves including Qinghaihuniaodao, Taibaishan, Wanglang, and Wolong (CSIS 2008). In Mongolia this species was regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). Further studies are needed to determine the distribution of this species.
13440		distribution	eng	The distribution limits of this species are uncertain, as it is difficult to distinguish it from <em>M. oeconomus</em>.  It occurs in the provinces of Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), and Ningxia in China (CSIS 2008).  Its range in Mongolia encompasses the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Dzungarian Gobi Desert, and Trans Altai Gobi Desert regions (Sokolov and Orlov 1980).
13440		habitat	eng	In China, this species occurs in saline desert and alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008). A survey conducted in southern Gansu recorded highest trap rate of this species in rocky areas within habitat characterized as intermediate between shrubland and shrubland/grassland (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Mongolia, its habitat includes desert and semi-desert regions.
13440		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
13440		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In Mongolia, there is possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Also, the drying of water sources and droughts also affect this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. In China, this species is considered a pest in southern Gansu (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13442		conservation	eng	Approximately 38% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China listed as NE. In Russia common species. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.
13442		distribution	eng	Distributed in open forest and steppe habitats to east from Baikal Lake Basin (Russia), in NE Mongolia (Mountain Range and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range), NE China and Amur River Basin.
13442		habitat	eng	Occupies densely vegetated mountain foothills and riverbanks.  Especially active in early morning and late evening.  Digs burrows in dense vegetation, leaving obvious heaps of discarded soil around the entrance to its burrow with mounds 50-100 cm across and 15-20 cm high.  The passage to the burrow is only 20-30 cm long and leads directly to a round, 35 cm diameter nest chamber that is about 25 cm high.  They construct special food storage chambers, which they fill with roots and bulbs before winter. Feeds on grass vegetation. Reproduction little known, females with seven and nine embryos have been reported.
13442		population	eng	No data are available at present.
13442		threats	eng	No available data, although habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires may constitute a threat (but probably not a major one).
13443		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
13443		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in mountains from the extreme south of Utah and Colorado, through central Arizona and New Mexico, USA, and throughout the interior of north and central México in the Sierra Madre mountains, as far south as central Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005; Ceballos and Oliva 2005). It ranges in elevation from 1,200 to 4,115 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005; Reid 2006).
13443		habitat	eng	This rodent is associated with coniferous forest, occurring in “islands” of mountain-top forest habitat surrounded by a "sea" of inhospitable lower-elevation desert. Some of these mountain-top populations have been isolated from other populations since the end of the last ice age (about 20,000 years ago). <br/><br/>The species uses grass for food and cover; it can eat the green vegetable portion (leaves and stems). It is well adapted for dry conditions. It occurs in some of the driest habitats of any species of vole. This rodent has one of the lowest reproductive potentials of any North American vole (although pregnant females may have up to six embryos), averaging only about 2.4 embryos. This small number is not surprising in light of the fact that <em>M. mexicanus</em> has only two pairs of mammary glands rather than four pairs as found in most other voles. Limited data suggest that most reproduction occurs during the warmer, wetter months and that unlike many other species of <em>Microtus</em>, reproduction may cease during the winter (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
13443		population	eng	The overall population trend is unknown, but many populations are isolated and some are declining.
13443		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, but many of the populations are isolated and declining.
13444		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
13444		distribution	eng	Arctic and subarctic waterlogged tundra from the Ural Mountains to the Kolyma lowlands (Russian Federation).
13444		habitat	eng	Inhabits waterlogged tundra, sedge and <em>Sphagnum</em> marshes, waterlogged banks; avoids anthropogenic landscapes. Lives in colonies with shallow burrows in dry areas. Nest chambers are usually sited on hillocks, on the ground, or on shrub branches. The species feeds on sedges, leaves and stalks in summer and roots in winter. Reproduction occurs from May to August, in favourable years from March til October. Females that have overwintered give birth to up to 3 litters per year. In the Urals fecundity is lower than in Yakutia.
13444		population	eng	Data on population size are lacking, but as in most rodent species populations fluctuate. Severe springs may cause population reduction; heavy rains and floods cause short-distance migrations.
13444		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13445		conservation	eng	Approximately 12% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia abundant and listed as Least Concern. Further research is recommended to establish status and conservation measures required.
13445		distribution	eng	Distribute in lower and middle mountain zones up to 3000 m asl in Transbaikalia, Mongolia, and NE China (N Nei Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Jilin). In Mongolia found in Mönkh Saridag Mountain in Hövsgöl Mountain Range. Also distributed in Hentii Mountain Range, parts of Hangai Mountain Range, Mongol Daguur Steppe, Middle Halh Steppe, Eastern Mongolia and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989).
13445		habitat	eng	Inhabits forest and forest-steppe habitats feeding on green vegetation. Feeds on both green and underground parts of plants. Sometimes makes supplies of bulbs and roots up to 2 kg.
13445		population	eng	This species is abundant in its range, and characteristically displays boom-bust population structure dynamics.
13445		threats	eng	No available data, although habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires may constitute a threat.
13446		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas.
13446		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Kyushu, Sado Island, and Notojima Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species occurs from lowland to high alpine areas (e.g., found at most elevations on Mount Fuji).
13446		habitat	eng	The primary habitat includes cultivated fields (including rice paddies), immature conifer plantations, riverine areas, pastures, and natural pine forests (<em>Pinus pumila</em>) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13446		population	eng	It is a very common species.
13446		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
13447		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered in Russia and protected by law.
13447		distribution	eng	Known only from vicinity of the type locality: Muya Valley, Vitim River Basin, Buryatia, Russia (Meyer <em>et al</em>. 1996).
13447		habitat	eng	Inhabits meadows and boggy forests. In meadows lives near shrubs. Also found in cut-over lands and fire-sites. Avoids forests with mosses. Reproduction season is from April to September. Average litter size is 8 young.
13447		population	eng	No data available.
13447		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown. Very small distribution area.
13448		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
13448		distribution	eng	Distributed in piedmont steppes in E Transcaucasia.
13448		habitat	eng	Poorly studied, habitat preferences and ecology similar to those of Microtus daghestanicus.
13448		population	eng	No data available. Population density is high enough for the species to be considered as crop pest.
13448		threats	eng	Unknown.
13449		conservation	eng	Not known to be present in any protected areas. It is included on the Mexican Red List of 2001.
13449		distribution	eng	This species is found in north central Oaxaca, Mexico, on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de Juárez (1,500 to 2,500 m), including Vista Hermosa, Santiago Comaltepec, La Esperanza (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13449		habitat	eng	This species can be found in evergreen rainforest; it also has been recorded in dense cloud forest and disturbed vegetation consisting of various grasses and wild strawberry (<em>Fragaria</em> sp.) within cloud forest, pine forest (<em>Pinus</em> sp.), and an ecotone of cloud and pine forest (Frey and Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Captive specimens ate grasses but preferred the stems and leaves of wild strawberry (Frey and Cervantes 1997). A female taken in February was lactating. Litter size may be limited to a single young (Frey and Cervantes 1997).
13449		population	eng	There is no information about population status.
13449		threats	eng	This species is losing habitat to deforestation in parts of its range. It is estimated to have lost 1-5% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (Carton de Granmont and Cuaron pers. comm.).
13451		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>arenicola </em>(from the Netherlands) is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and both <em>M. oe. arenicola</em> and <em>M. oe. mehelyi  </em>(the latter from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia) are listed on Annex IV.  Recommended conservation measures include conducting surveys to determine the size and distribution of the isolated population, and defining management plans to maintain and improve the habitat (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006)
13451		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>arenicola </em>(from the Netherlands) is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and both <em>M. oe. arenicola</em> and <em>M. oe. mehelyi  </em>(the latter from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia) are listed on Annex IV. In North America, the following subspecies are regarded as being of conservation concern (all are island forms): <em>M. o. punakensis</em> (S1); <em>M. o. amakensis</em> and <em>M. o. elymocetes</em> (S2); and <em>M. o. innuitus</em>, <em>M. o. popofensis</em>, <em>M. o. sitkensis</em>, and <em>M. o. unalascensis</em> (S3).
13451		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus oeconomus </em>is a Holarctic species, with a wide range extending from north-west Europe in the west to Alaska in the East. In Europe, its main range extends from eastern Germany and northern Fennoscandia through Poland, Belarus, and northern and central European Russia. Isolated relict populations are found in the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, the Finnish coast, and Austria, Slovakia and Hungary (van Apeldoorn 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). A lowland species (occurs up to at least 1,300 m: EMA Workshop 2006).
13451		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus oeconomus </em>is a Holarctic species, with a wide range extending from north-west Europe in the west to Alaska in the East. In North America, restricted to Alaska and northwest Canada. In Europe, its main range extends from eastern Germany and northern Fennoscandia through Poland, Belarus, and northern and central European Russia; isolated relict populations are found in the Netherlands, southern Norway and northern Sweden, the Finnish coast, and Austria, Slovakia and Hungary (van Apeldoorn 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In China found in northern Xinjiang and northern Nei Mongol. In Mongolia found in northern areas including Mongol Altai, Hangai, Hövsgöl Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985).
13451		habitat	eng	It typically inhabits damp, densely-vegetated areas along the edges of lakes, streams and marshes; may be found in tundra, taiga, forest-steppe, and even semi-desert. Wet meadows, bogs, fens, riverbanks and flooded shores are all important habitats (Tast 1982, van Apeldoorn 1999). Feeds on green vegetation.
13451		habitat	eng	It typically inhabits damp, densely-vegetated areas, in close proximity to water. Wet meadows, bogs, fens, riverbanks and flooded shores are all important habitats (Tast 1982, van Apeldoorn 1999).
13451		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species, although in some areas (e.g. parts of Europe, some North American islands) its status is less favourable.
13451		population	eng	Range and population declines are evident in parts of Europe, although the species is stable or increasing in other areas. The species' range is contracting along its south-west edge in Poland, and relict populations in Hungary, Austria, Slovakia and the Netherlands are diminishing (van Apeldoorn 1999). In other areas, populations are stable (albeit with cyclic fluctuations in Fennoscandia and central Europe), and in Lithuania the population is increasing and expanding into new areas (van Apeldoorn 1999, L. Balciauskas and R. Juškaitis pers. comm. 2006).
13451		threats	eng	At the global level this species faces no major threats.
13451		threats	eng	In the Netherlands, population declines have been attributed to a combination of habitat degradation and competitive exclusion (van Apeldoorn 1999). The population in Slovakia has shown population declines which are attributed to habitat destruction caused by the construction of the Danube River Dam (EMA Workshop 2006). Degradation of wetlands due to agricultural expansion is a further threat.
13452		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
13452		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Canada and Alaska (United States), south through the northern half of the United States, to Oregon, northern Utah, central New Mexico, Kansas, northern Missouri, Georgia, and South Carolina; also disjunctly (by 500 km) in Florida and in Chihuahua, Mexico (Hall 1981). Its range has expanded southward in the Great Plains since the mid-1960s as the climate has become cooler and more mesic (Frey 1992).
13452		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of habitats from dry pastures and wooded swamps to marshes and orchards. Needs loose organic soils for tunneling. Builds extensive underground tunnels. Nests in these tunnels under rocks or logs, and in self-constructed grassy clumps. Breeds throughout year. Peak breeding activity occurs April-October. Gestation lasts about 21 days. Litter size is 1-9 (average 4-5). Litter size is smaller in fall than in spring/summer, there may be 5-10 litters per year.<br/><br/>Home range seldom exceeds 0.25 acres (Banfield 1974). Successful homing of 11 of 848 voles displaced 1.2 km indicates that dispersal distance probably is more than 1 km (Ostfeld and Manson 1996). Diet consists mainly of vegetable matter, such as grasses, roots and seeds. Active day and night throughout the year. <br/><br/>This species can an affect old-field succession through seedling predation (Ostfeld and Canham 1993). It may inflict serious damage on apple trees by feeding on bark and vascular tissues of lower trunks and roots (Tobin and Richmond 1993). Expanding populations apparently are displacing the southern bog lemming via competitive exclusion in southeastern Kentucky (Krupa and Haskins 1996).
13452		population	eng	This species is widespread in North America and common in many areas. In recent decades, its range has expanded southward in Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky (Krupa and Haskins 1996). High densities of 50-60 per acre are not unusual; average densities are probably closer to 8-10 per acre (Baker 1983).
13452		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13453		conservation	eng	This species' range falls partially into several protected areas within its distribution. It is considered vulnerable under Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
13453		distribution	eng	This species occurs on eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental (from 500 to 2,150 m), from southeast San Luis Potosi to northern Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13453		habitat	eng	This species can be found in cloud forest, grassland, and agricultural lands. Typical habitat has been described as marshy meadows and grassy swales (Ramirez-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 1991). <br/><br/>These voles live in habitats similar to their northern congeners but have a much reduced litter size. Jalapan pine voles feed mainly on roots and the bases of stems of annual plants and possibly some grasses (Hall and Dalquest 1963).
13453		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. However, a population in Xalapa has become extinct due to urbanization within this area (Ceballos and Olivia 2005).
13453		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are habitat loss from urbanization and agriculture.
13454		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.
13454		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus levis </em>has a large range extending from east and southeastern Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. Generally a lowland species, recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm.).
13454		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus levis </em>has a large range extending from east and south-east Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. Generally a lowland species, recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.).
13454		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus levis </em>has a large range extending from east and south-east Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to the Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. A lowland species, it is recorded from 60 m to 1,100 m (Petrov and Ružić 1982).
13454		habitat	eng	It occurs in a range of habitats including farmland, meadows, and open woodland. In southern parts of its range it tends to occur in damp habitats in close proximity to rivers and lakes (Zima 1999).
13454		population	eng	It is a relatively common species. Population densities fluctuate on an annual basis, and peak densities of as high as 200,000 burrow openings per hectare have been recorded in F. Y. R. Macedonia (Zima 1999).
13454		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
13455		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
13455		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sakhalin Isl. Found only in northern and central parts of the island.
13455		habitat	eng	Lives in colonies. Inhabits open landscapes or places with small number of trees. Also found in peatmoss bogs in mountain larch forests and tundra light forest. In dry places digs burrows, in wet areas uses small burrows in hillocks. In winter nests above ground were found. Can swem. Feeds on marsh and meadow herbs and shrubs. Also consumes molluscs and bird eggs. Stores supplies up to 10 kg. Reproduces in warm time of the year. Usually has 1 or 2 litters with 4-7 young in each.
13455		population	eng	No data available.
13455		threats	eng	Unknown. Recent oil related infrastructure development may influence the area of occupancy.
13456		conservation	eng	The species has been found in one reserve in Azerbaijan (Zuvandinskiy Nature Sanctuary), and has several other protected areas in its range.
13456		distribution	eng	This species is found only in forest zone of mountains bordering the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, in southern Azerbaijan (Talysh Mountains) and northwestern Iran (Elburz Mountains). The species could potentially be found somewhat further east in the forests south of the Caspian Sea.
13456		habitat	eng	The species is found in humid subtropical forest of piedmont and lower mountain zone (600 - 1000 m), and prefers forest clearings in early successional stage. The species has not been recorded outside of forest, and is likely to be dependent on forest. In Talysh found only in beech and hornbeam forests, with <em>Parrotia persica</em> and <em>Quercus castanefolia</em>. Inhabit steep slopes and deep ravines coverd with shrubs, ferns and mosses. Leads semi-subterranean life. In contrast to many other vole species doesn't make passes between exits of the burrows. Feeds on underground plant parts. Most probably lives in family groups. Family area is small, limited to a single burrow with several exits (2 to 6). Reproduction starts in the end of March, litter size is 1-4 young.
13456		population	eng	Population size is slightly declining due to forest clearance, overgrazing.
13456		threats	eng	There is deforestation in this area.
13457		conservation	eng	The species is not protected under any legislation in South Asia. It has been recorded from Lang Tang National Park and Kanchanjunga National Park in Nepal. Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended for the species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13457		distribution	eng	This species is present in northern South Asia and southwestern China. In South Asia, this species has been recorded in Bhutan, India (West Bengal and Sikkim) and Nepal (Central, Eastern and Western Nepal) at altitudes above 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it is present in southern Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008) at 2,100 to 3,700 m asl.
13457		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, fossorial, gregarious vole, living in groups of up to 20 individuals. It inhabits alpine meadows and dense vegetation growing at the edges of rhododendron and coniferous forest. It lives under rocks, bushes or leaf litter on the forest floor. It rarely ventures out in the open and is mostly found in tunnels (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005; Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><br/>[[[From Mammals of China (Andrew Smith), Copied verbatim…<br/><br/>Inhabits alpine meadows and dense vegetation growing at the edges of rhododendron and coniferous forest between 2,100-3,700 m.  Eats green vegetation and seeds to a lesser extent.  Pregnant females reported with 2-3 embryos. ]]]<br/><br/>It is a diurnal, fossorial, gregarious vole, living in groups of up to 20 individuals. It lives in tropical, sub tropical, temperate forests and grasslands, specifically in rhododendron and coniferous forests and in upland meadows. It lives under rocks, bushes or leaf litter on the forest floor. It rarely ventures out in the open and is mostly found in tunnels (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13457		population	eng	Little is known about the abundance of this species.
13457		threats	eng	In South Asia, habitat loss and degradation due to small-scale logging, invasive alien species, and to some extent predation by domestic dogs and cats pose as threats to this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13458		conservation	eng	There are no special conservation measures, however the species occurs in several protected areas.
13458		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas. There are no special conservation measures.
13458		distribution	eng	"The species is distributed in plains and low mountain dry steppes from the Dnepr River and Crimea east to Lake Balkhash and NW Xinjiang in China, south through Caucasus and E half of Turkey (Kizilirmak River may be W boundary) to NW Syria, Lebanon (restricted to Mt Lebanon), N Iraq, and NW Iran" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented. All the isolated populations are represented by separate subspecies. In the European part of the range two subspecies are present: <em>Microtus socialis nikolajevi</em> Ognev, 1950 from left bank of Dnepr to the Crimea and SE Rostov district; <em>Microtus socialis parvus</em> Satunin, 1901 in cis-Caucasia, Stavropol region, Krasnodar Territory and Dagestan.
13458		distribution	eng	"The species is distributed in plains and low mountain dry steppes from the Dnepr River and Crimea east to Lake Balkhash and NW Xinjiang in China, south through Caucasus and E half of Turkey (Kizilirmak River may be W boundary) to NW Syria, Lebanon (restricted to Mt Lebanon), N Iraq, and NW Iran" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented. All the isolated populations are represented by separate subspecies. In the European part of the range two subspecies are present: <em>Microtus socialis nikolajevi</em> Ognev, 1950 from left bank of Dnepr to the Crimea and SE Rostov district; <em>Microtus socialis parvus</em> Satunin, 1901 in CIS-Caucasia, Stavropol region, Krasnodar Territory and Dagestan. Elevation sea level up to 2,480 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.)
13458		habitat	eng	Found in steppe habitats. Lives in complex colonies formed by polygynic families. Burrows are complex but shallow, with a number of entrances and living and storage chambers. Above-ground activity is limited, especially in summer. This species mainly feeds on cereals and legumes. In autumn seeds predominate in the diet. May occasionally feed on insects and molluscs. Reproduction occurs year round, females produce up to five litters with 6-8 young in each.
13458		habitat	eng	Lives in complex colonies formed by polygynic families. Burrowes are complex, but shallow, with a number of entrances and living and storage chambers. Above-ground activity is limited, especially in summer. This species mainly feeds on cereals and legumes. In autumn seeds predominate in the diet. May occasionally feed on insects and molluscs. Reproduction occurs year round, females produce up to five litters with 6-8 young in each.
13458		population	eng	It is a common species with relatively stable populations, with some population fluctuation from year to year. Considered as one of the main pests in agricultural landscapes. However high population densities are recorded only in long-fallow lands, winter crops and herbs, and in natural sites with dry-steppe vegetation. Population peaks tend to occur in years with humid summers and repeated warm winters (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).
13458		population	eng	It is a common species with relatively stable populations, with some population fluctuation from year to year. Considered as one of the main pests in agricultural landscapes. However, high population densities are recorded only in long-fallow lands, winter crops and herbs, and in natural sites with dry-steppe vegetation. Population peaks tend to occur in years with humid summers and repeated warm winters (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).
13458		threats	eng	Widespread and abundant in the most of the range. However, several isolated populations (e.g. <em>M.s. gorensis</em> and <em>M.s. astrachanensis</em>) are declining because of desertification and landscape degradation due to overgrazing (Shilova 1995). These changes can be reversed through steppe vegetation restoration (Kasatkin <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13458		threats	eng	Widespread and abundant with no major threats in the most of the range. <br/><br/>Several isolated populations (e.g. <em>M. s. gorensis</em> and <em>M. s. astrachanensis</em>) are declining because of desertification and landscape degradation due to overgrazing (Shilova 1995). These changes are reversible with restoration of steppe vegetation (Kasatkin <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13459		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
13459		distribution	eng	This species is found on isolated mountains in Central and Western Kopet-Dag Mountains in SW Turkmenistan, mountains in Iran in the northeast (Khorassan Province, 5 km N Kashmar, USNM) and south (Kuh-e Laleh-Zar and Kuh-e Hazar Mtns south of Kerman), and the Hindu Kush of northern Afghanistan (Parvan Province, Shibar Pass, FMNH). Records in Afghanistan are possibly <em>Microtus ilaeus</em>.
13459		habitat	eng	Dry montane steppe habitats. In Turkmenia found along river valleys, at moist areas with trees and shrubs (poplar, willow, elm, and dewberry). Elevation ranges from 300 to 2000 m. Feed on green parts of different plants. Colonial, family area is 3-5 m square with 2-5 exits (Malygin, 1983). Pregnant females were found starting from April. It is possible that there is summer break in reproduction. Overwintered females give 2-3 litters per year. Average number of embryos is 6 (Marinina, 1981).
13459		population	eng	No data available.
13459		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Range reductions could occur due to further climate aridification.
13461		conservation	eng	The single site at which the species is known to occur is not protected, although the species has been legally protected under the local Tyrolean provincial law since 2006. There is no current national or EU legislation, but the species is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. There are currently no management plans in place (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Recommended conservation actions include the following: conduct surveys to determine the size and distribution of the rediscovered population; continue searching similar sites in the German and Austrian Alps to look for other populations; protect habitat at the rediscovery site.
13461		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus bavaricus</em> is endemic to the Northeastern Alps. Previously it was known from only one location in the district of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria, Germany. The last record of the species at this site was in 1962. A population discovered in Northern Tyrol, Austria in 1976/1977 was much later (2000) assigned to <em>Microtus bavaricus</em> based on genetic and karyological analysis (Haring <em>et al.</em> 2000, Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2000). This population was confirmed to exist there still in 2004. Genetic and karyological analyses of both captured individuals and museum specimens have confirmed that the Austrian population belongs to <em>Microtus bavaricus</em> (Haring <em>et al.</em> 2000, Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2000, Martínkova <em>et al.</em> 2007). Intensive surveys in Germany have failed to find the species, and both of the former known sites have been lost (one as a result of urbanization, the other due to deforestation and the replacement of natural vegetation with fertilized pasture)(H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). The species is now known only from Rofan Mountain, Northern Tyrol, Austria where it occurs in altitudes between 730 and 1,100 metres a.s.l. Given the extensive surveys that have been carried out, the species is unlikely to be found elsewhere (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).
13461		habitat	eng	The original site was in an area of Alpine meadows. However, the species was rediscovered in an open mixed forest dominated by spruce with abundant brooks (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).
13461		population	eng	Fewer than 50 individuals have been collected (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).
13461		threats	eng	Habitat at the type locality was lost following the construction of a hospital. The forests in which <em>M. bavaricus</em> lives in Northern Tyrol were used probably since medieval times as cattle pasture. This practice stopped in 2005, when in parts of the valleys the forest was replaced by fertilized and fenced cattle pastures. Through this <em>M. bavaricus</em> lost large parts of its known habitat. Habitat loss is expected to go on, as the open forests will become denser through lack of cattle browsing and intensification of forestry practices (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).
13462		conservation	eng	Some of the known records are from protected areas. Research on population status and trends, habitat requirements and ecology are required.
13462		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus felteni</em> occurs in southern Serbia, F. Y. R. Macedonia, Albania and northern Greece (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005), where it has been recorded from 360-2,050 m (Kryštufek 1999). The species occurs in a relatively narrow range.
13462		habitat	eng	It is primarily known from mountain forests, although it is very occasionally found on arable farmland at lower altitudes (Kryštufek 1999). This species is poorly known, but is likely to have a broad habitat tolerance (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).
13462		population	eng	It is a little-known and rare species throughout its relatively small range. Population trends are not known. There is some evidence of range shrinkage in the south of its range indicating population declines (Greece) (C. Stamatopoulos unpublished data). The species has been rarely collected and is known from only around fifteen localities.
13462		threats	eng	No major threats are known. The species is not likely to be affected significantly by habitat loss (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).
13463		conservation	eng	A lowland species, therefore across most of its range it does not occur in protected areas. In some parts, however, it does occur in protected areas (for example in Greece, and in Libya where most of the species' range lies within the Kouf National Park). No conservation measures are required - this species is considered an agricultural pest.
13463		conservation	eng	A lowland species, therefore across most of its range it does not occur in protected areas. In some parts, however, it does occur in protected areas (for example in Greece). No conservation measures are required - this species is considered an agricultural pest.
13463		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus guentheri </em>is restricted to the south-east Balkans and Turkey and Northern Libya. Within Europe, it has a discontinuous range in southern Serbia (Serbia and Montenegro), F. Y. R. Macedonia, parts of southern and eastern Greece, southern Bulgaria, and Turkish Thrace, and has been recorded from 150 m to 500 m above sea level (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).
13463		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus guentheri</em> occurs from the south-east Balkans and Turkey through Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, with an isolated range segment in northern Libya. Within Europe, it has a discontinuous range in southern Serbia (Serbia and Montenegro), F. Y. R. Macedonia, parts of southern and eastern Greece, southern Bulgaria, and Turkish Thrace, and has been recorded from 150 m to 500 m above sea level (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). The relict population occurring in the Cyrenaican Plateau of Libya is found at altitudes of up to 1,500 m, and is considered by some authors to be a separate species <em>M. mustersi</em>. For the current assessment <em>M. mustersi</em> is considered part of <em>Microtus guentheri</em>.<br/><br/>Taxonomic difficulties with this species mean the geographic distribution needs further work and should be considered as provisional at this stage.
13463		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry grasslands with sparse vegetation on well drained soil. These include both natural and man-made habitats (e.g. dry meadows and pastures) (Kryštufek 1999).
13463		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry grasslands with sparse vegetation on well drained soil. These include both natural and man-made habitats (e.g. dry meadows and pastures) (Kryštufek 1999). Around the type locality it prefers grassy meadows and riverbanks.<br/><br/>In Libya, it occurs in montane valleys of grassland in isolated pockets of the Cyrenaican Plateau, as well as in agricultural areas such as maize fields. This population is zoogeographically distinct, as there are no populations known from coastal Egypt, the only region where this species could have dispersed through (Ranck, 1968). The population in the Plateau is likely a Pleistocene relict, existing here due to the remaining boreal conditions at this high elevation, the only suitable habitat remaining for <em>Microtus</em> species.
13463		population	eng	A common species in south-west Asia; populations fluctuate due to rainfall. In Europe, it occurs in scattered subpopulations which often undergo large fluctuations with steep declines. However, local extinctions have not been recorded. The species is considered locally common in parts of the Balkans. In Asiatic Turkey, very high population densities have been recorded in peak years (Kryštufek 1999). In some localities (e.g. in Israel) it is a serious pest species (B. Kryštufek pers. comm.2007).
13463		population	eng	In Europe, it occurs in scattered subpopulations which often undergo large fluctuations with steep declines. However, local extinctions have not been recorded. The species is considered locally common in parts of the Balkans. In Asiatic Turkey, very high population densities have been recorded in peak years (Kryštufek 1999).
13463		threats	eng	No major threats.
13463		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13464		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. The core range of the species' range in Slovakia and Poland falls within protected areas. Habitat and population monitoring is required to ensure that the species is stable and not declining.
13464		distribution	eng	The Tatra vole is a European endemic. It is restricted to the Carpathian mountains of Slovakia, Poland, Romania and Ukraine, where it is found at altitudes of 650 to 2,350 m (Martínková and Dudich 2003, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Its extent of occurrence is 18,322 km², and its area of occupancy is approximately 840 km<sup>2</sup> (Martínková and Dudich 2003).
13464		habitat	eng	The Tatra vole is found in two types of habitat: first, humid areas in climax upper montane forest (usually located in inverse valleys); and second, humid rocky meadows in the subalpine zone. The species is never found outside natural habitats (e.g. in agricultural land). No population fluctuations or population outbreaks are known (Jurdíková <em>et al.</em> 2000, Martínková <em>et al.</em> 2004).
13464		population	eng	It is a rare species that occurs in isolated subpopulations. However, there is no evidence to suggest that range or numbers are decreasing at present. The total population has been estimated to number 200,000-250,000 individuals (Martínková and Dudich 2003), and is probably stable (N. Martínková pers. comm. 2006). There is very little information on the current status of subspecies <em>M. t. zykovi</em> in the Eastern and Southern Carpathians. Populations are severely fragmented. This is partly natural, as the species is restricted to an intrinsically fragmented habitat type (high mountains), but fragmentation may have been exacerbated by the loss of woodland in mountain valleys through human activities in historical times.
13464		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any major threats causing significant declines at present. The species requires old, mature forests below the timberline, hence any logging in those areas would be harmful. Its habitat in the subalpine zone, above the timberline should be safe in the near future. Much of its range in the Slovak and Polish mountains falls within protected areas, and there are not thought to be any major developments planned in this area in the near future. However, forest habitat is sometimes lost through natural events (e.g. in 2004 a big storm in the High Tatras destroyed a large 1-2 km wide belt of forest at about 1,000 m above sea level, within the range of the vole: N. Martínková pers. comm. 2006).
13486		conservation	eng	Not legally protected under international legislation. Known to occur in protected areas within Greece.
13486		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus thomasi </em>is endemic to the south-eastern Balkans, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, mainland Greece, and the island of Euboea (Greece) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Its occurrence in Albania has now been confirmed (E. Giagia pers comm. 2007). Occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
13486		habitat	eng	It prefers open areas with deep soil, in which it digs extensive burrows. Recorded habitats include meadows and pastures on karst limestone, and high mountain pastures. It is also found on arable farmland (Kryštufek 1999).
13486		population	eng	It is sporadic, but is considered locally common in at least parts of its range. Densities of 383 individuals per hectare have been recorded in Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina) (Kryštufek 1999). In some parts of its range it is considered a pest.
13486		threats	eng	No major threats.
13487		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
13487		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Triangle Island, British Columbia in Canada, south to Humbolt Bay, California in the United States; east in British Columbia to Chilliwack; in Washington to Sauk, Nisqually Flats, and Clark County; in Oregon to Salem, Eugene, and Prospect. It occurs from sea level to about 1,830 m asl in Olympic Mountains, to about 915 m asl in Cascades, Oregon.
13487		habitat	eng	It occupies a variety of habitats, but typically occurs in salt and fresh marshes, moist meadows (sometimes dry grass), wetlands along streams; alpine and subalpine meadows. Constructs extensive underground burrow systems and runways through grass. Burrow entrance may be underwater. <br/><br/>Nests may be on or below soil surface. The length of breeding season depends on stage in multiannual abundance cycle. Gestation lasts 21-24 days. Litter size averages 4-7 in different areas. In captivity, young are weaned at 15-17 days, first estrus at 35-80 days (Cornely and Verts 1988). Diet includes various kinds of green vegetation; grasses, sedges, and forbs, mint bulbs.
13487		population	eng	Densities as high as 800 per hectare have been recorded, but populations fluctuate widely.
13487		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13488		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. It is often considered a pest as it damages crops.
13488		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. It is often considered a pest as it damages crops. On Orkney, despite recent declines the vole remains abundant, and simulation modelling suggests that the population is likely to remain viable without requiring specific conservation measures (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001).
13488		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus arvalis</em> has a large range extending from Spain across much of western, central and eastern Europe to the Middle East and central Russia (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Isolated populations exist in Iberia, Guernsey and the Orkney Islands. It is absent from much of southern Europe, Fennoscandia, northern Russia, Iceland and the British Isles (with the exception of the Orkney Islands, where it was introduced prehistorically). The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Spitzenberger 2002).
13488		habitat	eng	Found in a wide variety of open habitats including moist meadows, forest steppe, moist forest and sometimes agricultural areas.  It feeds mainly on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, and is a serious agricultural pest in some areas (Zima 1999).
13488		habitat	eng	It is typically found in dry, open habitats such as natural alpine grassland above the timber line (Spitzenberger 2002), grazed pastures, arable land, field margins and meadows. Wet grassland and tall grasses are avoided. It feeds mainly on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, and is a serious agricultural pest in some areas (Zima 1999).
13488		population	eng	It is a common species throughout much of its range, with population densities of over 1,000 individuals per ha reported in peak years. Population densities may fluctuate markedly from year to year.
13488		population	eng	It is a common species throughout much of its range, with population densities of over 1,000 individuals per ha reported in peak years. Population densities may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In most areas, populations are apparently stable, although the Orkney subspecies <em>Microtus arvalis orcadensis</em> has declined in recent years (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001).
13488		threats	eng	The decline on Orkney has been attributed to land-use changes (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001). Elsewhere it is not under threat.
13488		threats	eng	The species is not under threat.
13489		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation measures are needed.
13489		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus subterraneus</em> occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).
13489		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus subterraneus </em> occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).
13489		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus subterraneus</em> occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kry?tufek 1999).
13489		habitat	eng	It is found in a broad range of habitats including broadleaf and coniferous woodlands, meadows and pastures, and rocky areas in the high mountains. It tolerates both dry and damp conditions (Kryštufek 1999).
13489		habitat	eng	It is found in a broad range of habitats including broadleaf and coniferous woodlands, meadows and pastures, and rocky areas in the high mountains. It tolerates both dry and damp conditions (Kry?tufek 1999).
13489		population	eng	It is widespread and common throughout most of its range. Despite fluctuations, the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Kryštufek 1999).
13489		population	eng	It is widespread and common throughout most of its range. Despite fluctuations, the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Kry?tufek 1999).
13489		threats	eng	No major threats.
13490		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.
13490		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus multiplex </em>is endemic to Europe, where it occurs in the southern part of the Alps, from southeast France through Switzerland to northern Italy (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,800 m (Hausser 1995, Kryštufek 1999). Populations further east (e.g. in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia) are now referred to as a separate species, <em>Microtus liechtensteini</em> (Spitzenberger 2002, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
13490		habitat	eng	It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em>, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs in dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Hausser 1995). The species eats roots and bulbs, and can feed on grasses (le Louarn and Quéré 2003). The number of young averages 2.7 in Switzerland (Salvioni 1986).
13490		population	eng	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline. The local abundance can be high, up to 100 individuals per hectare in southern France (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).
13490		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning (Kryštufek 1999).
13491		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas. The Sicilian subspecies (<em>nebrodensis</em>) needs more genetic investigation to determine its taxonomic status.
13491		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus savii </em>is endemic to Europe, where it is found throughout northern Italy (with the exception of the extreme north-east, but including Sicily). It occurs marginally in southern Switzerland. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m. Some southern Italian populations previously ascribed to this species have been described as a new species, <em>Microtus brachycercus</em> (Contoli 1999, Castiglia <em>et al.</em> 2008). The distribution limits between <em>M. savii</em> and <em>M. brachycercus</em> require clarification.
13491		habitat	eng	It is found in the majority of terrestrial habitat types, with the exception of high mountains, dense woodlands, and some very sandy, rocky or wet areas. It occurs in many anthropogenic habitats including pastures, arable land, gardens, and urban areas (Contoli 1999).
13491		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species, dominating small mammal communities within its range, and providing a key food source for many predators. Periodic population booms occur in cultivated areas, and the species is considered an agricultural pest. The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Contoli 1999).
13491		threats	eng	No major threats.
13493		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
13493		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in the Iberian Peninsula (everywhere except the north-west) and southern France (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,250 m (Palomo 1999).
13493		habitat	eng	It occurs in open habitats with relatively deep, loose soil, where it constructs underground burrows (Palomo 1999). It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats, including pastures, arable land, and orchards. It is also found in shrubland (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).
13493		population	eng	It is widely distributed throughout its geographic range, and can reach high enough densities in some areas to be considered an agricultural pest (particularly in orchards). Population densities of 400-600 individuals per ha exceptionally have been recorded, but lower densities are more typical (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).
13493		threats	eng	Pest control can cause very significant local population declines (Palomo 1999). However, there is no evidence of global declines as a result of this.
13494		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.
13494		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus lusitanicus </em>is endemic to Europe, where it occurs in central and northern Portugal, northwest Spain, and in the extreme south west of France. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,050 m (Palomo 1999, Mira and Mathias in Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).
13494		habitat	eng	It is found in a diverse range of habitat types, including natural habitats (borders of small rivers, chestnut and oak woodland) and agricultural areas (pastures, arable land, rice fields, and orchards). It requires soft and humid soils with dense vegetal cover, where it constructs its burrows. It is often found near to small stone walls (Palomo 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). There are 2.2 young per litter (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).
13494		population	eng	It is very abundant, and is considered an agricultural pest in orchards in some parts of its range. Population densities appear relatively constant, with no cyclic fluctuations. In Spain, there have been no studies on population dynamics in natural habitats, but in orchards population densities of 100-200 individuals per hectare are typical (and exceptionally densities greater than 300 individuals per hectare have been recorded) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
13494		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Pest control measures can cause local population declines (Palomo 1999).
13522		conservation	eng	The species has been reported from the Desert National Park, Rajasthan. Survey, epidemiology and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it has been recorded from India (Gujarat, Rajasthan) and Pakistan (Baluchistan, North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is widespread.
13522		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in thorny scrub in hot deserts, and semi deserts. It has been found to occupy dry sandy and rocky areas away from cultivated lands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13522		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13522		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species.
13523		conservation	eng	Mt. Popa is designated a protected area, although the species probably only occurs on the lower slopes of this mountain.
13523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Myanmar (Ellerman 1961; Musser and Carleton 2005). It was recorded recently at Mt. Popa near the type locality of Pagan, but was absent from surrounding areas (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13523		habitat	eng	It occurs in sandy plain area with degraded, scrubby vegetation.
13523		population	eng	It is suspected to be locally common in the central dry zone of Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13523		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, as although the habitat of this species is heavily degraded, this does not seem to have had a major impact on the species and may even have had a beneficial effect in expanding its range.
13524		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected areas. Survey, limiting factor research, habitat management and captive breeding are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13524		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India, known only from the small Singharh plateau (about one km²), near Pune in Maharashtra (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). No specimens of this new species were collected by Mishra and Dhanda (1975) from the other nearby sample areas (Khandala, Bhor, and Mulshi). It has been reported from an elevation of about 1,270 m asl and is restricted to a single location based on surveys and available habitat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mishra and Dhanda (1975) observed the species using burrows.
13524		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests and tropical scrub. It has been found to occupy bushy scrub and sometimes found to build nests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13524		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
13524		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are general loss of habitat, overgrazing of vegetation and disturbance from tourism (the area contains important archaeological sites) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13525		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has been recorded in several protected areas in South Asia. Survey, life history studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13525		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, endemic South Asian field rat, known from India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It is found from sea level up to 2,670 m asl altitude (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13525		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous forests,tropical grasslands, irrigated croplands and grasslands with gravel. Agriculture lands, water courses, embankments, dry rocky hills. It has been found to occupy gravelly areas, bunds of fields and largely cultivated areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13525		population	eng	This is one of the most common rats trapped in agricultural fields closer to the plains in Coorg (S. Molur pers. comm.).
13525		threats	eng	Although several factors could affect the species, major threats are not identified.
13556		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional research into the taxonomy of this species is needed.
13556		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa and Central Africa (although seemingly absent from much of the Congo basin), to southern Sudan and western Ethiopia in the east, from here it ranges southwards through East Africa to Zambia and Angola, with the southernmost record from south-central Mozambique. It is found at elevations of up to 2,300 m asl.
13556		habitat	eng	Animals are generally associated with forest-savanna mosaic habitats. This species can, however, be encountered in tropical moist forest that is close to savanna areas (Happold 1987). Small colonies of nine to twelve individuals have been found roosting in cracks beneath the bark of dead trees, and within houses (Rosevear 1965; Kingdon 1974; Brosset 1966; Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998)
13556		population	eng	Although the species is difficult to catch, it is not considered to be especially rare.
13556		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
13559		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss and roost disturbance. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
13559		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Colombia, then in the north coastal region of Venezuela to the Guianas, and follow the coast of Brazil to southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989). In Brazil, it occurs in Distrito Federal, Goias and Matto Grosso do Sul.
13559		habitat	eng	Poorly known. This species inhabits in dry and semideciduous forest, and mature evergreen forest (Reid, 1997) and cerrado (Aguiar pers. comm.). Usually roosts in groups of 2 to 20 in wet limestone caves (most captures are made in or around roosts). Also has been reported in hollow logs (LaVal, 1977). It probably gleans prey from vegetation. Whitaker and Findley (1980) found remains of large scarab beetles and a bird in feces of 4 individuals. Small lizards and katydids are also taken. Single young are born at the onset of the rainy season (Reid, 1997).
13559		population	eng	Rare to locally common in central Brazil (Zortea and Aguiar pers. comm.),  but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13559		threats	eng	Habitat loss and roost disturbance. Studies show that Phyllostominae are particularly sensitive to disturbance (Fenton <em>et al</em>. 1992; Medellin <em>et al</em>. 2000).
13560		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss, a systematic taxonomic review is necessary as are ecological studies. Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
13560		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Campeche and Chiapas, Mexico, south over most of the Neotropics, including northeastern Brazil, northern Peru and northern Bolivia; also in Trinidad (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). Lowlands only. In Brazil, it has been recorded in Esprito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais states (Zortea and Tavares pers. comm.).
13560		habitat	eng	Poorly known. It is found in dry deciduous, semideciduous and multistratal tropical evergreen forests, also in plantations, and clearings near forest (Reid, 1997). Also in Cerrado (Aguiar and Zortea pers. comm.). It frequently forages in natural openings or man-made fields, and it roosts in hollow tree trunks, rotting logs, and hollow tree stumps, prefering humid areas; it is occasionally found in buildings in Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997). Small groups cluster together in the roost. Probably gleans insects from vegetation, the diet consisting mainly of beetles, with some flies, moths, spiders, whipscorpions, and small lizards (Humphrey <em>et al.</em>, 1983; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Pregnant females have been recorded in April in Costa Rica (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1970; LaVal, 1977). Mimon crenulatum is often mist-netted in male-female pairs, suggesting that pairs forage together (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13560		population	eng	Uncommon but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Rare in Guatemala and Belize (Perez and Miller pers. comm.).
13560		threats	eng	The species is affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range although this is not a major threat.
13561		conservation	eng	In Europe, it is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of the range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation. There have been a number of LIFE-funded projects for this species in Spain, Italy, Romania and Germany.<br><br>The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.<br><br>Care is required when fencing caves to minimise mortality. Further research is required into the causes of the recent mass mortality events.
13561		conservation	eng	In Europe, it is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of the range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation. There have been a number of LIFE-funded projects for this species in Spain, Italy, Romania and Germany.<br/><br/>The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>Care is required when fencing caves to minimise mortality. Further research is required into the causes of the recent mass mortality events.
13561		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation. There have been a number of  LIFE-funded projects for this species in Spain, Italy, Romania and Germany.
13561		distribution	eng	A southern Palaearctic species; patchily distributed over its range in some huge and vulnerable colonies. It typically occurs at altitudes of up to 1,400m (commuting up to 2,600m).
13561		distribution	eng	Occurs from south-western Europe and north and west Africa through Anatolia and the Middle East to the Caucasus. In Africa it is known from records in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya), and west Africa (Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Cameroon).  It is patchily distributed over its range in some huge and vulnerable colonies.<br/><br/>It typically occurs at altitudes of up to 1,400 m asl (commuting up to 2,600 m asl).
13561		habitat	eng	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies and spiders. It is a colonial species that roosts almost exclusively in caves and mines, often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large and warm caves are preferred. Solitary animals and small groups may sometimes occupy other types of shelter. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). Schreiber's bat is a migrant species which changes its roosts frequently, long-distance movements occur occasionally (longest recorded distance 833 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13561		habitat	eng	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies. It is a colonial species that roosts mostly in caves and mines (although it can also be found in man made tunnels, ruins and other buildings), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large warm caves are preferred during the nursing season. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). Schreiber's bat is a migrant species which changes its roosts several times during the year; long-distance movements occur occasionally (longest recorded distance 833 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13561		population	eng	In southern Europe and Asia Minor it is widely distributed and common, but it has lost the northern parts of its range since the 1960s. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 80,000 animals in Bulgaria and 100,000 in India). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals (exceptionally up to 33,000 animals in Spain and Romania). Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in most of south-east Europe and the Middle East it appears to be stable, whereas very significant recent declines have occurred in northern parts of the European range. In south-west Europe there have been recent mass mortality events.<br/><br/>Extinction has occured in Germany and Ukraine. In Switzerland the species has declined since the 1960s and is now close to extinction, and in Austria the hibernating population has declined from 2,500 to 1-2 individuals and all maternity colonies have been lost. In Romania, half of the roosts have disappeared since the 1960s. However, no decline has been recorded in large colonies in Croatia and Bulgaria. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal; there are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy and Australia and a possible incidence in Iran. A herpesvirus was found but not identified as the cause of the die offs. Hundreds of individuals were found dead in spring. Mortality up to 60% in one year (2002) was reported in France (Roué and Némoz 2002), and 40% mortality occurred in Spain during the same period including 1,000 dead individuals out of 6,000 in one colony. A number of sites were subsequently deserted. Outside Europe, it is the second most common bat species in Turkey and Iran, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatash and M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The population in Iran is probably stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Populations in the Caucasus are considered Near Threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).
13561		population	eng	In southern Europe and Asia Minor this species is widely distributed and common, but it has lost the northern parts of its range since the 1960s. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 80,000 animals in Bulgaria). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals (exceptionally up to 33,000 animals in Spain and Romania). Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in most of south-east Europe and Turkey it appears to be stable, whereas very significant recent declines have occurred in northern parts of the European range. In south-west Europe there have been recent mass mortality events.<br/><br/>Extinction has occured in Germany and Ukraine. In Switzerland the species has declined since the 1960s and it is now close to extinction, and in Austria the hibernating population has declined from 2,500 to 1-2 individuals and all maternity colonies have been lost. In Romania, half of the roosts have disappeared since the 1960s. However, no decline has been recorded in large colonies in Croatia and Bulgaria. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal; there are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy. A herpesvirus was found but not identified as the cause of the die offs. Hundreds of individuals were found dead in spring. Mortality up to 60% in one year (2002) was reported in France (Roué and Némoz 2002), and 40% mortality occurred in Spain during the same period including 1,000 dead individuals out of 6,000 in one colony. A number of sites were subsequently deserted. Outside Europe, it is the third most common bat species in Turkey, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). Populations in the Caucasus are considered Near Threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).
13561		threats	eng	Disturbance and loss of underground habitats and pesticide use may threaten this species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The cause of recent mass mortality events is unknown. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.
13561		threats	eng	In Africa there are no known threats to the species. In Europe, the disturbance and loss of underground habitats and pesticide use may threaten this species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). <br/><br/>The cause of recent mass mortality events is unknown. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal. There are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy, Australia and a possible incidence in Iran. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.
13562		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range, it is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas.
13562		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Philippines through the island of Java (Indonesia), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), Sulawesi (Indonesia), Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia to eastern Australia, including several Torres Strait Islands. It occurs throughout the Philippines except Babuyan/Batanes group with specimens recorded from Bongao, Bohol, Capiz, Catanduanes, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Bulacan, Kalinga (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Maguindanao, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Negros, Panay, Polillo, and Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) being found from sea level to about 925 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species has also been recorded from Samar (J. C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2006), Cebu (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006) and on Isarog at 1,450 m asl (Sedlock unpubl. data). It ranges from sea level up to 1,500 m asl in New Guinea. Given that specimens of this species may have been misidentified as another species, it may be found to range more widely than is currently known (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
13562		habitat	eng	This species roosts in colonies in caves and tunnels, and may also be found roosting in tree holes. It forages for insects in rainforest, <em>Meleleuca</em> swamps and dry sclerophyll forests (Strahan 1995; Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).  It has a gestation period of about four and a half weeks after which a single young is born. The species may migrate seasonally.<br/>In the Philippines, the species is often dependent on caves (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it forages over the canopy in secondary and primary lowland areas, including agricultural areas (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952; Taylor 1934). It has also been documented in montane forest on Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
13562		population	eng	It is generally a common species. Maternity colonies of hundreds of thousands of individuals may be encountered (Flannery 1995). In the Philippines, the species is common in appropriate habitat with caves (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is also common in Sabah and elsewhere in Indonesia.
13562		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is presumably locally threatened by disturbance of maternity caves. In the Philippines, limestone quarrying is destroying roosting habitat and it is also threatened by disturbance caused by guano mining there, however, individuals reoccupy caves once the disturbance ceases.
13563		conservation	eng	This species is presumably present in a number of protected areas. In Tanzania it is present in the Manga Forest Reserve of Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further studies are needed to better define the range of this species.
13563		distribution	eng	This species is present in Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa. It is known from a number of discrete ranges, the largest of which stretches down south-eastern Africa, from Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, down to South Africa (where is extends along the south coast). It is also known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo near the borders with Uganda and Rwanda (although this population needs to be confirmed as <em>Miniopterus fraterculus</em>), and recorded from localities in Tanzania, Zambia, and Kenya. A small recorded range in Kenya near the border with Tanzania probably does not represent <em>Miniopterus fraterculus</em>.
13563		habitat	eng	The species' distribution in KwaZulu-Natal indicates a wide range of habitats from drier Valley bushveld and Lowveld to moister Mistbelt (including forest habitats), where suitable cover is present in the form of caves, overhangs, and unused mine and railway tunnels (Taylor, 1998). Roosts in caves, overhangs, disused mines, railway tunnels and similar habitats (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In KwaZulu-Natal it has been found in damp sandstone caves, a solution cave of poorly consolidated glacio-fluvial boulder clay, a rocky overhang over a forest stream, a rock fissure, a railway tunnel as well as from unused mine adits (Taylor, 1998).
13563		population	eng	It is common and widespread.
13563		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species on the African mainland.
13564		conservation	eng	No breeding colonies are known from protected areas. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
13564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan where it is known from Amami-Oshima, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu Island, Okinawa Island, Kume Island, Ishigaki, and Iriomote (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In 1933, the species was collected from Kii Peninsula (Honshu), but it now appears to be extinct there (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13564		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves and mines, with colonies numbering over several hundred bats. They forage over forests.
13564		population	eng	There were many large maternity colonies in the past , but now many appear to have become small or extinct. On Okinawa Island, one maternity colony of 1,000 females in the southern district, and three winter colonies of 100, 500 and 1,000 individuals in the northern district were observed until several years ago, but now the maternity colony has disappeared. On Iriomote Island there are only two colonies (3,000 and 100 individuals respectively) known (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). There may be one breeding colony on Tokunoshima, but there is no information for Amami-Oshima. There is no known breeding colony on Ishigaki.
13564		threats	eng	Roost disturbance from humans/tourists (e.g., some caves have electricity lined in for tourist activities), and the threat of development around caves represent the main threats.
13565		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a need to limit disturbance of important roosting caves. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species in West Africa.
13565		distribution	eng	This species has been patchily recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa, It has been reported from Liberia and Guinea in West Africa; from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa; from Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa; and from Namibia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique in southern Africa. The distribution of this species is somewhat unclear due to confusion with records of <em>Miniopterus schreibersii</em> (Simmons 2005).
13565		habitat	eng	Although this species has been recorded from tropical moist forest, Skinner and Cimimba (2005) suggest that the availability of roosting sites (caves and similar habitats) and a plentiful food supply are more important to this species than the vegetational association. It roosts in small numbers, with Churchill <em>et al.</em> (1997) reporting a cluster of 50 animals.
13565		population	eng	This is generally considered to be a locally rare species, although it can be common in some areas.
13565		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species. Some roosting caves are disturbed by tourism activities.
13566		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> (2001) recorded it in Viet Nam at Pu Mat National Park, Cuc Phuong National Park, and at Toong Ching. The urgent priority with this species is to resolve Miniopterus taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to it. There is a need to protect important roosting and foraging sites of this species.
13566		distribution	eng	This species appears to be widely distributed from Myanmar in the west (recorded from Hpo-an and Mawlamyine; Bates <em>et al.</em> 2000), through southern China (including Hainan Island) and much of Southeast Asia, as far east as the island of New Guinea. Within this range it has been recorded from many island localities including Sumatra (a single locality; Indonesia), western Java (Indonesia), northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia and Kalimantan, Indonesia), Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and Seram (Indonesia). A number of records of <em>Miniopterus schreibersii</em> have been reidentified as <em>Miniopterus magnater</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,100 m asl, but this is not clear given identification problems.
13566		habitat	eng	This is a cave roosting species, often found roosting with other bat species. It possibly forms large colonies. It has been recorded foraging generally above the canopy in primary and secondary tropical forest, and also close to human settlements. Bonaccorso (1998) and Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) noted that they may be seen hawking insects around street lights, but this is not certain given identification problems.
13566		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
13566		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is presumed to be threatened by cave disturbance and degradation in some parts of its range.
13567		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. The urgent priority for this species is to resolve Miniopterus taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to it.
13567		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Thailand and the Malay Peninsula, to Java, with scattered localities on the islands of Borneo and New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), as far east as Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. It is perhaps also present in the Solomon Islands. On Borneo, there are three records from Sabah (Tepadong caves, Batu pute and Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary; Lackman-Ancrenaz and Ancrenaz 1997), and at least two records from Kalimantan -  Betung Kerihun National Park (Soedjito 1999) and from Gunung Niut Nature Reserve, West Kalimantan (Simons 1987). On Java, it has been recorded from the Cibodas Botanical Gardens, Mount Gede Pangrango National Park. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,600 m. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
13567		habitat	eng	This species roosts in limestone caves, tunnels, and rock crevices. It is frequently found as tightly packed groups in clusters of mixed bat species. Bonaccorso (1998) mentions a mixed colony of 10,000 bats, containing this species, on the island of New Britain. It is an aerial insectivore that forages in lowland tropical dipterocarp forest. One of the five adult females captured at the Ulatawa Plantation in January 1997 was in early term pregnancy (Bonaccorso 1998). However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
13567		population	eng	It is locally abundant in the highlands of the western half of Papua New Guinea, and in lowland areas with caves on the islands of New Britain and New Ireland (Bonaccorso 1998) However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
13567		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Limestone extraction and human disturbance of roosting caves may adversely affect the species in some areas.
13568		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Kambai Forest Reserve in Tanzania by Cunneyworth (1996). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this poorly known species.
13568		distribution	eng	This little known African species has been recorded from very few locations over a wide area. It has been reported from a small area on the border between Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a single locality in southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from a small area of coastal Kenya and Tanzania.
13568		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.
13568		population	eng	There are very few records of this species.
13568		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
13569		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13569		distribution	eng	This widespread species is distributed from patchy records in South Asia, into much of mainland Southeast Asia, and part of Insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Nicobar Islands) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Aul and Vijayakumar 2003, Korad <em>et al. </em>2007, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani 2006). In China it has been recorded from Hong Kong, Guangdong, Hainan and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it ranges from southern Myanmar, through Thailand (including the island of Terutau), Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northern Cambodia. In Insular Southeast Asia the species has been recorded from Indonesia (Java Sulawesi, West Timor, Ambon, Seram and Batjan) and possibly from East Timor. In South Asia it has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13569		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species roosts in limestone caves, under culverts, in crevices in trees in colonies comprising up to 700 individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). On the Nicobar Islands, it is observed to roosts in forest caves in large numbers (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Myanmar it has been recorded roosting in limestone caves, and in both degraded forest and agricultural areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).
13569		population	eng	In South east Asia, this species is widespread and locally common. There are large colonies in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), it is common in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.), and there are probably a few hundred in Viet Nam (Borissenko <em>et al. </em>2003). In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13569		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia there are no major threats to this species. In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also threatened by disturbance and loss of roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13570		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are required into the distribution, ecology, possible threats, and current status of this species.
13570		distribution	eng	The Loyalty Bent-winged Bat is known only from the islands of Lifou and Maré in the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia (Flannery 1995). This is a narrow distribution for species in the genus <em>Miniopterus</em> (Flannery 1995).
13570		habitat	eng	There is nothing recorded about the natural history of this species (Flannery 1995).
13570		population	eng	The population abundance of Loyalty Bent-winged Bats is not known (Flannery 1995).
13570		threats	eng	This species is threatened by destruction and human disturbance at roost sites (Kirsh <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13571		conservation	eng	This wide ranging species is presumably present in some protected areas. Important roosting and foraging sites should be identified and protected. An urgent priority is to resolve <em>Miniopterus</em> taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and ecology of this species.
13571		distribution	eng	The species occurs from the Philippines to the islands of Sulawesi and Sanana (Indonesia), and from there east to the islands of Biak-Supiori and Yapen (Indonesia), New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), a number of islands in Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands (Nendo, Nggele Sule, Rennell and San Cristobal islands), and as far south as the islands of Espiritu Santo and Efate in Vanuatu (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It has also been recorded also on Buton Island (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006) and Sanana Island, Sulawesi (Simmons 2005). However, some of these may be erroneous, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).<br/>It is found throughout the Philippines with records from Bohol, Cebu, Guimaras, Leyte, Lubang, Luzon, Palawan, Mindanao (Maguindanao, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Samar, and Tablas (Hollister 1912; Lawrence 1939; Peterson 1981; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it occurs from sea level up to 430 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has been recorded between sea level and 1,600 m over its entire range.
13571		habitat	eng	Apparently this bat roosts only in caves and forages in agricultural areas and disturbed lowland forest near sea level (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Palawan it has been recorded in old growth forest (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is an aerial insectivore that catches insects above the forest canopy, in open areas, in disturbed forest and in some agricultural areas.
13571		population	eng	It is locally abundant where cave systems are available in lowland, hill or lower montane forest (Bonaccorso 1998). In the Philippines, this is a moderately common species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found roosting in large colonies in caves on Buton Island (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006).
13571		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range, however, locally it is affected by disturbance of caves.
13572		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appedix II of CITES, and as Class B under the African Convention. It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.
13572		distribution	eng	The Southern Talapoin is found in the coastal watersheds south of the Congo River, notably the Mebridege River, Loge River, Cuanza River, Nhia River, and Cuvo River (but spilling over into the upper reaches of the Cuango River). According to Groves (2001), this species is found on the coast of Angola, south to about 13'S, and into the Democratic Republic of Congo as far as the Cuango River and both sides of the Kasai River.
13572		habitat	eng	This is a strictly riverine species that is limited to dense evergreen vegetation on the banks of rivers that often flow through Miombo (Brachystegia) woodland or, increasingly, cultivated areas. The home ranges of this species are likely to be larger, and densities lower, than is the case with <em>M. ogouensis</em> because forest strips are narrower and resources scarcer. Climatic fluctuations have likely reinforced this species' primary adaptation to 'strip living'. Longer dry seasons and less extensive flooding under generally cooler and drier climates may have favoured more terrestrial habits than are apparent in <em>M. ogouensis</em>. It mainly feeds on fruits, but also on seeds, young foliage, and invertebrates.
13572		population	eng	Very little is known about the population status of this species, but it is not likely to be threatened.
13572		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
13581		conservation	eng	Northern elephant seals are fully protected on their Mexican and US rookeries, and when they are within the 200 mile EEZ of the United States and Mexico.
13581		distribution	eng	Northern elephant seals are found in the eastern and north central North Pacific. Breeding takes place on offshore islands and at a few mainland localities from central Baja California to Northern California. The species breeds at over fifteen discrete locations, of which a dozen are well-known and distributed mostly in islands of southern California (USA) and Baja California (Mexico) (Condit <em>et al</em>. in press). A few pups are born in Oregon, Washington and southern British Columbia. Año Nuevo, in Central California, is a major breeding site.<br/><br/>Northern elephant seals migrate to and from their rookeries twice a year, returning once to breed from December to March and again later for several weeks to molt, at different times depending on sex and age. They also show up at additional coastal sites as far north as southern Oregon for moulting. Their post-breeding and post-moult migrations take most seals north and west to oceanic areas of the North Pacific and Gulf of Alaska twice a year. Adult males tend to travel further north and west than adult females. Wanderers have been found as far away as Japan and the Midway Islands.
13581		habitat	eng	Northern elephant seals are huge and imposing animals. Significant sexual dimorphism exists in size and secondary sexual characteristics. Males are three to four times heavier, and nearly 1.5 times the length of adult females. Adult males reach 4.2 m in length and a maximum weight of 2,500 kg. Mean length for males is 3.85 m and mean weight is 1,844 kg. Maximum weight is seen when the bulls are newly arrived for the breeding season after a summer and fall largely spent feeding.<br/><br/>The mean length of adult females is 2.65 m, and they can reach a length of 2.82 m. Mean mass is 488 kg, with a maximum recorded mass of 710 kg, both values are from shortly after females give birth. Newborn pups are about 1.25 m long and weigh 30-40 kg. Pups are born in a long woolly black lanugo coat that is shed without the epidermis starting at about 4-5 weeks and usually lasting several weeks until after the pup is weaned. After molting, the newly weaned juvenile’s coat is made up of short hairs like those found on adults and they are counter shaded dark gray above and silver gray below.<br/><br/>Body weight of adults fluctuates dramatically due to the demands of fasting during the breeding season. Adult females can lose almost half their mass during lactation, when they take their single pup from birth to weaning in approximately 25 days. The situation is similar for breeding males, which also lose about half their mass while ashore for periods that can exceed three months.<br/><br/>Females reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 years and males at 7-9 years. Gestation lasts 11.3 months, including a delay of implantation. The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is 95 %. Longevity is above 14 years for males and 21 years for females (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Northern elephant seals are highly polygynous, but not strictly territorial. Males compete for access to females by ranking themselves in a hierarchy. There is much male-male fighting, vocalizing, and displaying during the breeding season, when bulls may be ashore for months at a time. One of the most impressive displays occurs when a male rears up on his hindquarters, thrusts one half to two-thirds of his body upward and produces a distinctive clap threat vocalization as a challenge to other bulls. The sound is a rolling, resonant, metallic-sounding series of backfire like sounds punctuated with pauses.<br/><br/>Females give birth within a few days of coming ashore, from late December to March. Females have a throaty sputtering growl, made with the mouth wide open, which is used as threat gesture. Females and pups have a warbling scream call that they use to call to each other, and in the case of the pup, to notify its mother when it is disturbed. Mother and pup form a strong bond immediately after birth, and females aggressively bite other pups that approach them, occasionally killing them with bites to the head. However, bulls are a greater source of pup mortality as they regularly crush pups when they charge through aggregations of mothers and pups to chase off or fight encroaching males, or when approaching females for mating. Occasionally, bulls suffocate pups by stopping on top of them and not moving again soon enough.<br/><br/>Northern elephant seals hold the record as the deepest-diving pinniped. Time-depth recording devices have documented dives to an astounding 1580 m by an adult male. They also have extreme breath holding ability and have been recorded to dive for as long as 77 minutes. Rest intervals at the surface are usually short, lasting only several minutes between routine dives that last 20-30 minutes and reach 300 to 800 m in depth. After leaving the rookeries, most of these seals spend 80-90% of their time underwater, helping explain why they are infrequently seen at sea.<br/><br/>During migration, females travel further west, but males travel further north. Most of the males go all the way up to the coast of Alaska and the Aleutians, while females move into the deep waters of the Pacific.<br/><br/>Fifty-three species of prey have been identified in the diet of northern elephant seals. More than half of these species are squid. Other prey includes various fishes, such as Pacific whiting, several species of rock fish, and a variety of small sharks and rays. They have also been reported to feed on pelagic red crabs. Approximately 70% of their prey comes from mid and deep water zones in open ocean habitat far offshore.<br/><br/>Great white sharks and killer whales are predators on northern elephant seals. Recent work at the Farallon Islands off of central California has revealed that large great white sharks aggregate around the islands in the fall when juvenile elephant seals return for their annual moult. Seals that swim at or near the surface as they are approaching or departing the islands are particularly vulnerable to ambush attacks by fast-rising sharks that patrol near the bottom in waters seven to ten meters deep.
13581		population	eng	The northern elephant seal population continues to expand rapidly (R. Condit <em>et al</em>. in press). In 2005, 42,589 pups were counted, an increase of 14,699 (53%) over the number observed in 1991. Based on pup production, total population size in 2005 was estimated to be 171,000, compared to 113,000 in 1991. This is a mean annual growth rate of 3.0% yr1. In 1977, fewer than 14,000 pups were born (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1994), so annual growth from 1977 to 1991 was 5.2% yr-1.<br/><br/>Population growth was due primarily to growth at colonies in southern California. Three colonies accounted for 88.2% of the growth in pups produced: increases in pup production of 5,683 for San Nicolas Island, 4,096 for Santa Rosa Island and 3,459 for Piedras Blancas.
13581		threats	eng	The northern elephant seal was hunted to the brink of extinction in a surge of commercial exploitation in the late 1800s. Estimates are that as few as 20 animals survived the period of commercial harvesting. Fortunately, for the species, their pelagic nature and the fact that most seals spend 80% or more of their lives at sea, and that they all do all not return to their rookeries at the same time, ensured that enough seals were at sea to support continuation of the species when sealers undertook wholesale slaughters at rookery sites. Following a slow recovery in the early 1900s, northern elephant seals began to recolonize formerly used sites throughout the 1980s.<br/><br/>Incidental take in a variety of coastal net fisheries does occur, but at low levels. This is assumed to be because northern elephant seals move offshore rapidly after leaving colonies to minimize their risk of shark predation. Most of the prey of the northern elephant seal is either of low commercial value or minimally harvested in fisheries. If the population continues to expand there will likely be new rookeries on mainland beaches, and there will be additional challenges to keep conflicts with humans and domestic and feral animals to a minimum. The risk of transfer of diseases, such as morbillivirus from domestic animals to northern elephant seals, is unknown, but the species is considered to be one of several pinnipeds at high risk of disease outbreaks because of their rapidly expanding population and environmental changes associated with global warming (Lavigne and Schmitz 1990). Tourism at several mainland locations in the United States is extremely popular but highly regulated and is not considered a major threat to the species. Tourist access to nearly all of  the islands occupied by elephant seals is controlled by law or otherwise regulated in the United States and Mexico, although a number of Mexican islands are inhabited either year round or most of the year by fishermen and their families.<br/><br/>As the species has now recovered from a very small number of survivors, it has likely lost a considerable amount of diversity from passing through this genetic bottleneck, and may now be at greater risk from disease outbreaks and environmental change.
13583		conservation	eng	Any future exploitation within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60ºS) would be regulated by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, while north of this area the Convention on Antarctic Marine Living Resources and various national measures for the islands and continental areas on which the species breeds and occurs apply. The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance provides protection for southern elephant seals on South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Listed on CITES Appendix II.
13583		distribution	eng	Southern elephant seals have a nearly circumpolar distribution in the southern Hemisphere. Although they reach the Antarctic continent and even very high latitude locations such as Ross Island, they are most common north of the seasonally shifting pack ice, especially in Subantarctic waters where most rookeries and haul-outs are located. Notable exceptions include the northern breeding colonies at Peninsula Valdés, in Argentina and on the Falkland-Malvina Islands.<br/><br/>Some pups are also born on the Antarctic continent. Southern elephant seals prefer sandy and cobble beaches, but will haul-out on sea ice, snow and rocky terraces and regularly rest above the beach in tussock grass, other vegetation, and mud wallows. At sea, females and males tend to disperse to different feeding grounds. Wandering and vagrant southern elephant seals reach southern Africa, southern Australia, New Zealand and Brazil in South America. An Indian Ocean record at Oman on the Arabian Peninsula represents a northernmost record.
13583		habitat	eng	The southern elephant seal is the largest pinniped species. Adult males typically reach 4.5 m and a maximum of 5.8 m in length, and weigh 1,500-3,000 kg, with a maximum weight of about 3,700 kg. The literature contains numerous accounts of much larger males, with maximum lengths of 6-7 m, but these dimensions usually include hind flippers, whereas the standard length in use today is from tip of nose to tip of tail. Adult females are similar in size and weight to northern elephant seal females weighing 350-600 kg with exceptionally large females reaching 800 kg. Newborn pups are about 1.3 m and 40-50 kg. Pups are born in a long woolly black lanugo coat that is shed at about 3 weeks of age, to reveal a silver gray counter-shaded coat that is yellowish gray ventrally.<br/><br/>Females reach sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years and males reach sexual maturity at an age of 4 years. However, few males breed until they reach the age of least 10 years (Jones 1981). Ninety percent of males die before the age of 10 years while 90% of females die before the age of 14 years (McCann 1980, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Pregnant females arrive from September to October, and usually give birth within five days of their return. Pups are nursed for an average of 23 days and then are abruptly weaned when the female departs to sea. Females come into estrous about four days before they wean their pup and mate, starting a new reproductive cycle before completing their current effort. Pups remain on the breeding beaches for eight to ten weeks, during which time they complete the moult of their lanugo coat, before departing to sea.<br/><br/>Elephant seals have an annual cycle with two well-defined pelagic phases, with transitions being marked by moult and reproduction. Adult males and females come ashore to reproduce from August to October. This species provide one of the most extreme examples of polygyny among mammals. The social units are harems, each held by a single dominant male that monopolizes access to up to 120-150 sexually receptive females for a period of approximately two months. Early in the breeding season males establish dominance hierarchies on beaches via impressive displays, which include rearing up on the hindquarters and lifting almost  two-thirds of the body straight up to fight with a peer or issue vocal challenges to nearby bulls.<br/><br/>Vocalizations include a booming, loud call of the adult male in the breeding season, variously called a bubbling roar, a harsh rattling sound, and a low pitched series of pulses with little variation in frequency. Adult females have a high-pitched yodeling call which they use when distressed, and to call their pups. They will also utter a low pitch, sputtering growl. Pups call to their mothers with a sharp bark or yap, which is also used when interacting with other seals.<br/><br/>Southern elephant seals spend a large percentage of their lives at sea and only return to land to give birth, breed and moult. At sea, they range far from their rookeries and predominantly feed between the Subantarctic convergence and the northern edge of the pack ice, south of the Antarctic convergence. Adult males typically venture further south than females, and are known to forage at the seaward edge of the Antarctic continental shelf.<br/><br/>Foraging elephant seals combine exceptionally deep diving with long-distance traveling, covering millions of square kilometers while traversing a wide range of oceanographic regions during periods of up to seven months at sea. The seals spend most of their at-sea time in particular water masses that include frontal systems, currents and shifting marginal ice-edge zones. Studies of foraging locations suggest that seals are sensitive to fine-scale variation in bathymetry and ocean surface properties (sea-ice concentration, sea surface temperature).<br/><br/>Southern elephant seals are prodigious divers and routinely reach the same depths as their northern counterparts. Dive depth and duration vary during the year and between the sexes, but normally range from 300 to 500 m deep and from 20 to just over 30 minutes in duration. A maximum depth of 1430 m was recorded for a female, following her return to sea after the moult. Another post-moult female dove for an astonishing 120 minutes, which is by far the longest dive ever recorded for a pinniped.<br/><br/>Prey consists of approximately 75% squid and 25% fish. Antarctic <em>Notothenia</em> fishes are thought to be important prey when these seals are near the Antarctic continental shelf. Most feeding by females occurs in deep ocean areas at mid-water depths. Adult males pass through female feeding areas on their way south to Antarctic continental slope and shelf waters, where their diving activity suggests they pursue more benthic prey.<br/><br/>Killer whales, and in lower latitudes, large sharks are predators on this species. Leopard seals are also known to kill southern elephant seals.
13583		population	eng	No recent integrated estimate is available throughout the entire distribution. The worldwide population of southern elephant seals was estimated to be 650,000 in the mid 1990s. Colonies in the South Atlantic, which include the largest breeding aggregation located at South Georgia, are stable or growing, while those in the Southern Indian and Pacific Oceans have decreased by up to 50%. There is some evidence that weaning mass is lower at Macquarie, Heard and Marion Islands, and Iles Kerguelen, than in the South Georgia and Peninsula Valdés (Argentina) populations, suggesting that the Indian and Pacific Ocean populations may have a reduced food supply.<br/><br/>Traditionally, three distinct populations have been distinguished: South Georgia, Macquarie and Iles Kerguelen. However, elephant seals breeding at Península Valdes on the mainland of South America and at the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands are thought to be a distinct population from those at South Georgia. Similarly, the elephant seal populations at the Prince Edward Islands and Iles Crozet are also considered to be distinct from those at Iles Kerguelen and Heard Island, and the small populations in the Tristan de Cunha Islands and Gough Island may also be distinct. Additionally, some colonies have unknown affiliations (e.g. Bouvet). Thus, there may be at least five and perhaps more, distinct breeding populations, although their foraging areas overlap quite extensively at sea (SCAR 1991, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Bailleaul 2007, Biuw 2007).<br/><br/>The most important southern elephant seal populations in the world have been either stable or decreasing sharply in the last 50 years (Hindell and Burton 1987, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1992, Pistorius <em>et al</em>. 2004). Today, some of those that were in decline are apparently returning to a positive trend (Boyd <em>et al</em>. 1996, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1999).The Valdés population has grown and now is stable (Campagna and Lewis 1992, Lewis <em>et al</em>. 1998). The reason for the differences in the trends in various areas is not known with certainty, but different levels of food availability associated with various oceanographic features seems to have played a role.
13583		threats	eng	Southern elephant seals were hunted for thousands of years by aboriginal and native peoples in Australia and South America. More recently, they were subjected to intensive commercial harvests starting in the early 19th century and not ending until 1964 at South Georgia. They were prized for their large quantity of blubber that could be rendered to fine, valuable oil.<br/><br/>There are few threats and conflicts today, as southern elephant seals live far from human population centres and have minimal interactions with commercial fisheries. Intensive fishing could potentially deplete important prey stocks. However, relatively little is known about their feeding habits. There is no evidence that recent declines for animals breeding in the Indian and Pacific Oceans are related to fisheries in the Southern Ocean (SCAR 1991). However, development of new fisheries at high latitudes in the future could have a significant impact on elephant seal populations (SCAR 1991, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>In the South Orkney Islands a few young male elephant seals were killed for dog food in the 1950s and early 1960s when they were ashore moulting. Southern elephant seals that haul out at mainland sites could come in contact with feral dogs and other terrestrial carnivores and be exposed to a variety of diseases including morbiliviruses.<br/><br/>The possible effects of global climate change on southern elephant seals are not well known. Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggest that while the effects of global climate change are uncertain, that the species is likely to decline as a result of habitat and ecosystem changes.
13584		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is believed to be present in five national parks (Isalo, Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namaoroka, Vohibasia, and Zombitse), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, the Andranomena Special Reserve, the Analabe Private Reserve, the Kirindy Forest (now Kirindy-Mitea National Park), and the Ampataka Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
13584		distribution	eng	Coquerel’s Giant Mouse Lemur is found in lowland dry forests of western Madagascar, from sea level to 700 m. One nucleus is in the south-west between the Onilahy River to the south and the Tsiribinha River to the north, including Vohibasia and Zombitse National Parks and Isalo National Park. To the north of the Tsiribihina River, it has also been reported from the the Andranomena Special Reserve and Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, and recent sightings confirm its presence in Tsingy de Namoroka National Park and in the region of Sahamalaza (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein). Farther north, the newly described <em>M. zaza</em> inhabits the Sambirano region
13584		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry deciduous forest, and is found near rivers and ponds in dense forest. <em>M. coquereli</em> is adaptable and can survive in secondary forest. The species is typically solitary, choosing to forage alone, but tends to nest communally; it spends daytime hours in a spherical nest of up to one-half meter in diameter, usually placed 2-10 m high in the fork of a large branch or among dense lianas. Reproductive activity of <em>M. coquereli</em> in the Kirindy Forest begins in November. Gestation lasts about three months and two infants (occasionally one) leave the nest after about three weeks (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein).
13584		population	eng	Population densities reported from Marosalaza range from 30 to 50 individuals/km² but, in the latter study, reached as high as 210 individuals/km² in forests running along rivers (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein). In Kirindy, Kappeler (1997) recorded 120 individuals/km², but the population underwent an inexplicable decline after being steady for several years.
13584		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in fairly high densities in some parts of its range, its western dry deciduous forest habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented where habitat loss has been marked due to slash-and-burn agriculture and charcoal production, and it may be taken for food in some parts of its range in western Madagascar.
13595		conservation	eng	Disease protocols are in place. A Recovery Plan is being developed for this species. Its range includes a few protected areas and it is protected wherever it occurs in State Forests. There is a cooperative program between Melbourne Zoo and the NSW North-East Threatened Frog Recovery Team to develop husbandry protocols for the species. It is now thought that this species encompasses more than one taxonomic form. The Zoo has frogs from northern and southern populations and has bred the former.
13595		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted to the eastern slopes of the Great Divide, from the Cann River catchments in far East Gippsland, Victoria, to tributaries of the Timbarra River near Drake, New South Wales (Gillespie and Hines 1999). It occurs from 20 to over 1,400 m asl, from low to high altitudes from south to north (Gillespie and Hines 1999).
13595		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in association with permanent streams through temperate and sub-tropical rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest, and rarely in dry open tableland riparian vegetation (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), and also in moist gullies in dry forest (Gillespie and Hines 1999). The ecological requirements of adults and larvae are poorly known. In northeast New South Wales, statistical modelling was used to investigate the relationship of this species with 24 environmental predictors (NSW NPWS 1994, in Gillespie and Hines 1999). The species showed a preference for the interiors of large forest tracts in areas with relatively cool mean annual temperatures. These sites are typically free from any disturbance with a thick canopy and relatively simple understorey (Gillespie and Hines 1999). <em>Mixophyes balbus</em> occurs in first order streams and occasionally springs; it is not associated with ponds or ephemeral pools (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Calling has been recorded from September to April (F. Lemckert pers. comm.). Males call from beside small streams, often from under leaf-litter or within holes (Lemckert and Morse 1999). Reproductive biology is very similar to that of <em>Mixophyes fleayi</em> (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Both species construct a nest in shallow running water that occurs between pools in relatively wide, flat sections of mountain streams (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998), and 500-550 pigmented eggs (2.8 mm diameter) are deposited in a shallow excavation in the streambed or pasted directly onto bed-rock (Watson and Martin 1973, Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). The stream microhabitats used by this species for oviposition are limited (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). The free-swimming tadpole of the species has been described by Watson and Martin (1973) and Daly (1998). Tadpoles develop in pools and shallow water with the aquatic phase of the life cycle lasting approximately one year (Daly 1998).
13595		population	eng	<em>Mixophyes balbus</em> was formerly more frequently encountered in the northern part of its range than south of Sydney, although this might reflect limited historical searches in the region (Gillespie and Hines 1999). The species has only been found in Victoria on three occasions (Tennyson Creek, Cann River and Jones Creek) and is now thought to be extinct in that state (Gillespie and Hines 1999). The species has declined and disappeared from a number of locations in New South Wales where it was previously common (Mahony 1993, Anstis and Littlejohn 1996, Anstis 1997). Surveys in southeast New South Wales since 1990 have located individuals at only a few sites (Lemckert <em>et al.</em> 1997, Daly 1998). The estimated population number is less than 10,000, and where populations have been recorded recently, the species appears to be in low numbers (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).
13595		threats	eng	Several potentially threatening processes have operated at sites where this species has been found, or up-stream in catchments. Logging and associated forest management practices have been carried out in some catchments where <em>M. balbus</em> historically occurred, or currently occurs (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). The health and stability of extant populations in these disturbed catchments is unknown. Forest grazing and land clearance for pasture upstream have also occurred in some catchments (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Mahony <em>et al.</em> (1997) report that the species is not known from any localities with disturbed riparian vegetation or significant human impacts upstream. This might indicate that the species is highly sensitive to perturbations in the environment. However, populations of this species have also disappeared in catchments with seemingly minimal human disturbance (Mahony <em>et al.</em> 1997). Also, Lemckert (1999) was unable to detect a negative impact of selective logging on this species. Trampling by domestic stock is likely to have deleterious impacts on oviposition sites of the species (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, different degrees of suspended sediments have not been found to affect growth and survivorship of<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> tadpoles (Green <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <em>Mixophyes balbus</em> tadpoles have been found in sympatry with native fish, and probably have survival strategies to avoid predation by them (Gillespie and Hines 1999). However, the impact of introduced fish, such as Eastern Gambusia (<em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>), carp (<em>Cyprinus</em> spp.) and salmonids is unknown (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Mahony <em>et al.</em> (1997) did not observe introduced fish at any sites where they found <em>M. balbus</em>. In other reports though, introduced fish (salmonids) have been recorded at sites where <em>M. balbus</em> has declined (Anstis 1997). However, <em>M. balbus</em> has also disappeared from many streams that do not contain introduced fish species (Gillespie and Hines 1999), and so disease, such as chytridiomycosis, might also be a factor in its decline.
13596		conservation	eng	There are no conservation methods in place specifically for this species, but it is protected where it occurs in National Parks, for example in Lamington National Park. It is often bred in captivity in Australian zoos.
13596		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from the Clarke Range in mid-eastern Queensland to Gosford in mid-eastern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 214,000km2.
13596		habitat	eng	The species is usually associated with wet sclerophyll or rainforest. It frequents disturbed and artificial habitat including adjacent farmland. It appears to be quite resilient to disturbance, perhaps due to its broad habitat utilisation. However it does not tolerate complete forest clearing. It breeds in late spring and eggs are deposited among leaf-litter and on rocks/undercut banks overhanging water. Hatchling larvae fall, wriggle or are washed into pools. It has been found breeding in farm dams near forested areas.
13596		population	eng	The species appears to be stable and has suffered no known decline within its range.
13596		threats	eng	Clearing of forest is a threat to the species' habitat. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to this species, and the chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Mount Glorious, Queensland.
13597		conservation	eng	This species is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Much of its habitat is protected within national parks and state forests. Further research and monitoring is needed. It is bred in captivity in Australia.
13597		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is narrowly and disjunctly distributed in wet forests from the Conondale Range in south-east Queensland, south to Yabbra Scrub in north-east New South Wales (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). While the majority of records for the species are from altitudes above 400m asl, it is also known from lowland rainforest (200m asl, Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999; 90 and 150m asl, H. Hines and L. Shoo unpubl.).
13597		habitat	eng	Fleay’s barred-frog is associated with montane rainforest (Corben and Ingram 1987) and open forest communities adjoining rainforest (H. Hines pers. comm.). It occurs along stream habitats from first to third order streams (i.e. small streams close to their origin through to permanent streams with grades of 1 in 50) and is not found in ponds or ephemeral pools (Mahony, Knowles and Pattinson 1997). However, larvae may be found in isolated pools in dry creek beds, and adults may also be found in the vicinity of these pools. At some locations where the species has been recorded, riparian vegetation has been disturbed and replaced by weeds, although this is considered marginal habitat (Mahony, Knowles and Pattinson 1997). Breeding has been recorded in all months between July and March (Corben and Ingram 1987; H. Hines unpubl.). Males call from under leaf-litter, from exposed rocks in streambeds or from the edges of pools beside streams (Corben and Ingram 1987). Calling activity is related to temperature and stream conditions (W. O’Reilly and H. Hines unpubl.). Reproductive biology is very similar to that of <em>Mixophyes balbus</em> (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Both species construct a nest in the shallow running water that occurs between pools in relatively wide, flat sections of mountain streams (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). Between 652 and 1290 (C. Morrison pers. comm.) eggs are deposited in a shallow excavation in the streambed or pasted directly onto bedrock (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). This species does not appear to breed during and immediately after heavy rain when water flow is high, presumably due to the lack of suitable oviposition sites and the threat of nests and larvae being washed downstream (W. O’Reilly and H. Hines unpubl.). Larvae are described in Meyer, Hines and Hero (2001) and Anstis (2000).
13597		population	eng	Corben (in McDonald 1991) reported declines in the Conondale Range in the late 1970s. Ingram and McDonald (1993) reported that the species has not been seen in the Conondale Range since the summer of 1990-1991. Since Ingram and McDonald’s (1993) review, targeted surveys have been undertaken (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999). In Queensland, populations are currently known from the Conondale Range, Lamington Plateau and the northern section of Main Range, the Mount Barney area and Currumbin and Tallebudgera Creek below Springbrook Plateau (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Despite targeted surveys, there have been no records of the species from the extensively developed Mount Tamborine area since 1976 (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). There is a museum specimen of this species collected from Bunya Mount in 1970 (H. Hines unpubl.); however, recent surveys have failed to locate the species in this area (H. Hines pers. comm.). In New South Wales the species is known from Lever’s Plateau (Border Ranges), Yabbra and Tooloom Scrubs, Mount Warning, Terania Creek in Nightcap Range and Sheepstation Creek in the Border Ranges (Mahony, Knowles and Pattinson 1997; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). This species has disappeared from some locations, though whether populations have declined at other locations is difficult to assess due to a lack of information on the abundance of the species at historical sites (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The very low numbers recorded from many well-surveyed sites suggests that declines in abundance may have occurred (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999).
13597		threats	eng	The reason(s) for declines or disappearance of populations are not known. Large areas of the species’ habitat have been, and continue to be, degraded by feral animals (e.g. pigs in the Conondale Range), domestic stock, and invasion of weeds (i.e. Mistflower, <em>Ageratina riparia</em> and crofton weed <em>A. adenophora</em>) (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Upstream clearing, timber harvesting and urban development (e.g. Mount Tamborine) are all likely to have affected flow regimes and water quality (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). A chytrid fungal infection has been identified as the cause of illness and death of this species on Main Range and Lamington Plateau (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations tend to be characterized by low density and are often isolated from other populations (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999). The stability of small populations and the effect of isolation on genetic variation within each population are unknown.
13598		conservation	eng	This species is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Much of its habitat is protected within national parks and state forests. Research and monitoring protocols are in place for this species.
13598		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is distributed from Belli Creek near Eumundi, south-east Queensland, south to Warrimoo in mid-eastern New South Wales (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). It is currently known from mid to low altitudes below 610m asl. In south-east Queensland, it is currently known from scattered locations in the Mary River catchments downstream to about Kenilworth, Upper Stanley River, Caboolture River and Coomera River (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999).
13598		habitat	eng	This species occurs in upland and lowland rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest, and adjacent farmland (Ingram and McDonald 1993). Populations have been found in disturbed areas with riparian strips including cattle farms and regenerating logged areas (Hero and Shoo pers. obs.). They have also been recorded from eucalypt plantations (Lemckert and Morse 1999) and in streams within partially to nearly completely cleared lands (Lemckert and Brassil 2000; Lemckert 2002). It is a stream-breeding species. Eggs are deposited out of water, under overhanging banks or on steep banks of large pools (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). The stream microhabitats used by the species for oviposition are limited (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). Hero and Fickling (1996) and Morrison and Hero (2002) reported clutch sizes for the species as 4184 (n=1) and 1343-3471 (n=13), respectively, and egg diameter ranges between 1.7 and 1.8mm (n=5) (Morrison and Hero 2002). Larvae are described in Meyer, Hines and Hero (2001) and Anstis (2000).
13598		population	eng	During the early 1980s, the giant barred-frog declined and disappeared from at least two streams in the Conondale Range (Corben, in McDonald 1991). The Bunya Mount (Straughan 1966) and Cunningham’s Gap (Straughan 1966) previously supported this species, but these and nearby sites have recently been the subject of targeted surveys and intensive monitoring without locating the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Assessing the extent of the decline is difficult because of the lack of baseline data on its distribution and abundance (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The species has suffered major declines in the southern portion of its range in the Sydney Basin Region (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; White 2000) where extant populations were recorded at only two of the 14 historical sites surveyed (White 2000). There are no recent records from the Blue Mountains and the species is currently only known from five populations in the Watagan Mountains area (White 2000). A population was recently located in the southern Nambucca River catchments (NSW NPWS 1994). North of this there is currently a large population in the Dorrigo-Coffs Harbour area, North Washpool and Bungawalbin State Forest (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). In far north-east New South Wales, it is known from only three broad areas (Mebbin, Whian Whian and Richmond Range), despite intensive surveys (Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999). Goldingay, Newell and Graham (1999) reported that the density of these populations was relatively low with an average abundance of 4.2 individuals per 100m of stream transect between 1997 and 1998 and an average of 3.4 individuals over the same transects in 1999 (Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999).
13598		threats	eng	Many sites where this species occurs are the lower reaches of streams, which have had major disturbances such as clearing, timber harvesting and urban development in their headwaters (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). In the Dorrigo area, Lemckert (1999) found that it was less abundant in recently logged areas and sites where there was little undisturbed forest. The impacts of feral animals, domestic stock, weed invasion and disturbance to riparian vegetation, all potential threats to current populations, are unknown (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Populations now generally exist in small, isolated patches of forest. The effect this may have on genetic variation within populations and the general health of individuals is unknown. The species does colonize and use plantations and vegetated streams in otherwise cleared agricultural lands. This is positive for the survival of the species, but also indicates that such sites can be of some significance and any clearing of this vegetation may be of some significance.
13602		distribution	eng	Restricted to a few springs in Nevada (Muddy River system).
13603		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Quasi National Park on the island is primarily for shoreline habitats. It is listed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
13603		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it occurs only on Sado Island at most elevations on the island.
13603		habitat	eng	It is present in a range of habitats, including temperate forest, shrubland, grassland and cultivated fields (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13603		population	eng	It is a common species, and its population is currently thought to be stabilising.
13603		threats	eng	The species mainly occurs in alluvial plain with deep soil, where agricultural reclamation has been carried out since the 1970s and consequently the species' preferred habitats have decreased. The habitat alteration continues but the pace is currently slowing down. Therefore, it is expected that their population is stabilizing although still in decline. Unlike the situation with <em>Mogera etigo</em>, there are no competitors, and therefore the species is probably not in decline as with the conspecific on the Etigo Plain.
13604		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected area, although it occurs adjacent to Quasi National Park. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
13604		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found only on the Echigo Plain (Niigata prefecture) on Honshu. The main range is the region surrounded by the line connected with Shibata, Gosen, Niitsu, Kamo, Sanjo, Yahiko and Niigata, excluding coastal areas with sandy soils (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). The elevational range is from sea level up to 30 m asl.
13604		habitat	eng	The range is confined to the low alluvial plain of some 870 km² with deep, soft soils.
13604		population	eng	It is common within its range, though it is thought to be declining.
13604		threats	eng	Populations and habitats are diminishing due to the conversion of ridges of cultivated fields (the species preferred habitat), through the increasing use of agricultural machines, to inappropriate habitats with hard soils. The use of agricultural pesticides also damages the habitat.
13610		conservation	eng	Lake Kutubu is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar 2004).  Mesh-size regulation and no-fishing zones have been implemented within the lake (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
13610		distribution	eng	<em>M. furva</em> is known only from Lake Kutubu, Papua New Guinea.  Lake Kutuba has a surface area of 51.3 km².
13610		habitat	eng	<em>M. furva</em> is a benthopelagic, solitary species, that tends to bury itself in the mud.  It inhabits the narrow vegetated margins of the lake.
13610		population	eng	This species has probably the lowest natural population densities of any fish species within its only known habitat, based on population estimates done by Jenkins (1997).
13610		threats	eng	Lake Kutubu is threatened by overfishing and nearby oil development; gill netting and outboard motors were introduced in the 1980s and commercial oil production commenced in June 1992.  Road links and regular flights, associated with the development of oil and logging, have increased the potential for urbanisation and tourism in the area, which is likely in the future.  The increase of these industries have also caused an increase in agriculture and fisheries production.  Invasive aliens have been introduced to waterbodies in the area, and there is a worry that these could be harmful to the endemic species in the lake (Ramsar 2004).
13619		distribution	eng	<em>M. spilota</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system of Papua New Guinea.
13619		habitat	eng	The freshwater habitat of this species is about 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.
13619		threats	eng	The introduction of gill netting and outboard motors on the lake since the 1980s, and the development of oil drilling and logging in the area over the last ten years are the main threats to the population.
13620		conservation	eng	Lake Kutubu is a Ramsar site.  Mesh size regulation and no-fishing zones in place in the lake (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
13620		distribution	eng	<em>M. variegata</em> is known only from Lake Kutubu, Papua New Guinea.  Lake Kutuba has a surface area of 51.3 km², but as <em>M. variegata</em> is restricted to a narrow band of vegetation around the lake margins, its actual Extent of Occurrence is probably much smaller.
13620		habitat	eng	<em>M. variegata</em> is a benthopelagic species restricted to vegetation at the lake margins (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
13620		population	eng	The species is found in only one location and the quality of this habitat is declining, causing a decline in the global population of <em>M. variegata</em>, although detailed numbers are not known.
13620		threats	eng	Lake Kutubu is threatened by overfishing and nearby oil development; gill netting and outboard motors were introduced in the 1980s and commercial oil production commenced in June 1992.  Road links and regular flights, associated with the development of oil and logging, have increased the potential for urbanisation and tourism in the area, which is likely in the future.  The increase of these industries have also caused an increase in agriculture and fisheries production.  Invasive aliens have been introduced to waterbodies in the area, and there is a worry that these could be harmful to the endemic species in the lake (Ramsar 2004).
13621		distribution	eng	<em>M. vitta</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system.
13621		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is approximately 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.
13621		threats	eng	The lake supports six villages on its shore with a human population estimated at 2,000-3,000 in 1996.  Gill nets and the use of outboard motors have been introduced on the lake since the 1980s.  There has also been rapid economic development in the form of oil drilling and logging in the area in recent years.
13629		conservation	eng	This species is protected in France. More research on the population, distribution and threats is needed.
13629		distribution	eng	<em>Moitessieria juvenisanguis</em>&#160;is endemic to France and is restricted to the type locality in the&#160;department&#160;Aude (France) and to the Douctdouyre bassin in&#160;departement&#160;Ariège.
13629		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
13629		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
13629		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Groundwater recharge maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited combined with droughts in the region, as domestic water supplies from villages and towns are largely taken from springs and aquifers.
13631		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span> is listed as a protected species in France.
13631		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span> is endemic to France, where is is found widely in the departments of Ardèche, Gard, Vaucluse, Drôme, Var, Alpes de Hautes-Provence, Alpes Maritimes and Alpes de Haute-Provence.
13631		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span> inhabits subterranean waters.
13631		population	eng	There is no population data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span>.
13631		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
13633		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a protected species in France. There are currently no known conservation actions. However habitat monitoring and    further survey to determine the  geographical range of this species would    be recommended.
13633		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix rayi</em>&#160;is considered to be endemic to France and has been recorded from four Departments (Côte d'Or, Nièvre, Haute-Marne and Yonne), where it is present in scattered localities.
13633		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
13633		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
13633		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
13634		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in France.
13634		distribution	eng	This species is present in Southern France where it is recorded widely from both the Mediterranean and Atlantic drainages.
13634		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters and underneath the riverbeds, where it is mostly collected alive.
13634		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, but it seems common at least under the riverbeds.
13634		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
13635		conservation	eng	This species is nationally protected in France. In Italy is is considered to be Least Concern, given the number of locations.
13635		distribution	eng	In France, it is known from four departments, Aude, Pyrénées-Orientales, Ariège, Tarn and in Italy it is known from 17 locations in the NW regions of Liguria and&#160; Piemonte, but the distribution is not continuous.
13635		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters, and possibly in the water flowing under the riverbeds.
13635		population	eng	There are no population data available.
13635		threats	eng	This species is living in subterranean waters and is sensitive to water pollution and reduction in the groundwater table through extraction. Gradual eutrophication of the rivers may affect sub populations living underneath the riverbeds.&#160; In the long term increased frequency of seasonal droughts may impact the species through falling levels of groundwater degrading habitat.
13636		conservation	eng	There is no conservation actions for this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population size, distribution and threats of this species.
13636		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix corsica</em> was originally described from France, based on records from a single site on Corsica. Its distribution is doubtful as it has not been found again since and further research is required to confirm the presence of the species is maintained at the reported location.
13636		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
13636		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
13636		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Falls in the water levels in the aquifer degrading the habitat maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
13637		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation. There have been no recent studies of this species. Must define the area of occurrence.
13637		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Colombia.
13637		habitat	eng	Hight and dense forests in Argentina. Restricted to forests.
13637		population	eng	Open air insectivores (López-González 2004).There are not enough captures to southern cone (Barquez - pers. comm.).In Paraguay it is found near floodable lands (López-González 2004).
13637		threats	eng	Deforestation.
13638		conservation	eng	More information on habitat and ecology required to determine necessary conservation measures (Burneo pers. comm.)
13638		distribution	eng	This species is known only from west central Ecuador (Simmons, 2005). Known from two localities (Burneo pers. comm.).
13638		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It feeds on insects (Tirira, in prep.).
13638		population	eng	This bat is rare, known from only two localities (Tirira, in prep.). Difficult to sample (Burneo pers. comm.)
13638		threats	eng	The species occurs in swamp area which is under threat from agriculture and aquaculture (Burneo pers. comm.). Both localities where the species was found have been converted to agriculture (Burneo pers. comm.).
13639		conservation	eng	Avoid loss of forest habitats.
13639		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central and South America. This bat is distributed through Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guianas, Surinam, and northestern Brazil, and Trinidad (Simmons 2005). This species appears to occupy the northern portions of the range of South America, and is replaced by <em>C. abrasus</em> farther south (Eisenberg 1989). Lowlands to 1,500 m.
13639		habitat	eng	It occurs at low elevations in association with multistratal tropical forest in Venezuela (Handley 1976); present in deciduous and evergreen forest and clearings, often near water (Reid 1997). It has been found roosting in small groups (Reid 1997) or in colonies of fifty to seventy-five (Goodwin and Greenhall 1961) in hollow branches and buildings (Reid 1997). Activity begins soon after sunset; most records are from individuals caught in mist nets set over streams or ponds (Gardner <em>et al.</em> 1970; Valdez and LaVal 1971).
13639		population	eng	This bat is indistinguishable in the field from <em>C. paranus</em>. Aerial insective, appears to be rare but may be a relict of sampling bias.
13639		threats	eng	Deforestation.
13640		conservation	eng	Roost sites should be protected from disturbance.
13640		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Neoplatymops mattogrossensis</em> is not especially well documented. It is known to occur in five general areas from southeastern Venezuela and southwestern Guyana southward to eastern and central Brazil, in Rio Branco and from Mato Grosso to Bahia (Willig and Jones 1985; Emmons and Feer 1997). There is also one record from Itaituba in Para state in the central Amazon. (Bernard pers. comm.), and also in Paraiba (Sousa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is one Colombian record.
13640		habitat	eng	This molossid is a microhabitat specialist (Willig, 1983). In Venezuela its local distribution is restricted to areas containing rocky outcrops where it roosts close to the ground in narrow horizontal crevices beneath granitic exfoliations (Handley, 1976; Peterson, 1965; Sazima and Taddei, 1976). The geographic distribution of flat-headed bats may be in part determined by presence of appropriate roost sites (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Small holometabolous insect taxa compose the diet of this species; coleopterans were the predominant food items; Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Orthoptera, and Balttodea have also been found. The peculiar aerodynamic characteristics of Neoplatymops result in low agility for a volant mammal and increased foraging maneuverability for a molossid (Freeman, 1981). As a result, this flat-headed bat occupies an atypical molossid niche (Willig and Jones, 1985). It is an aerial insectivore that exploits uncluttered space.
13640		population	eng	It is widespread and may be locally common to rare in different parts of its range. Within its range, its distribution is highly scattered.
13640		threats	eng	Given its dependence on specialised roost sites, it is vulnerable to disturbance at these sites.
13641		conservation	eng	Found in Parque Nacional Iguacu, which is a protected area.
13641		distribution	eng	Colombia, Venezuela, Guyanas, Surinam, Amazonian Brazil, Peru, northern Argentina. Also found in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil (Lim and Gregorin pers. comm.) (Simmons 2005). Distribution in Paraguay excluded (Simmons 2005). Distribution in southern Brazil corrected according to Reis <em>et al.</em> (2006).
13641		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
13641		population	eng	It is uncommon in the southern portion of its distribution (Barquez pers. comm.)
13641		threats	eng	Populations found in the Atlantic Forest are subject to habitat loss.
13642		conservation	eng	Research actions.
13642		distribution	eng	Panama to Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, French Guiana, Surinam, Venezuela, and Guyana (Simmons 2005). Distribution expanded to include Espirito Santo in Brazil (Reis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Excluded from dry chaco in Paraguay (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999; Lopez 2004)
13642		habitat	eng	Most capures in forests and rivers (Barquez pers. comm).
13642		population	eng	There is no information on population.
13642		threats	eng	Not known.
13643		conservation	eng	Research actions.
13643		distribution	eng	Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, southern Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina, Uruguay (Simmons 2005). Distribution in most of Uruguay excluded according to Gonzalez (pers. comm.), it is found only in western Uruguay.
13643		habitat	eng	Insectivorous, may be found in human dwellings and live in small groups. In Argentina reproduction beween october and November (Barquez pers. comm.).
13643		population	eng	Abundant species (Barquez pers. comm.).
13643		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13644		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Needs taxonomic review.
13644		distribution	eng	This species is found from Tamaulipas, Michoacan, and Sinaloa (Mexico) to Peru, northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Venezuela, Surinam and Guianas; Trinidad (Simmons 2005).
13644		habitat	eng	Roosts in buildings, hardly captured outside the roosts. Found in tropical deciduous forests, evergreen, shrubs, oak forest and secondary vegetation(Santos and Castro-Arellano, 2005).
13644		population	eng	In a study carried out in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, found that the colonies in this species can exceed more than five hundred, being present both sexes. Between April to July the proportion of males overcome the females, while in other months the females prevailed. <em>M. rufus</em> have seasonal reproduction. Females arrived by July and the number increases until November. Pregnant females were captured between September, October, November and February. Lactating females were observed in August, October, November, December and February. Active males were observed in all months, being overcome by males with abdominal testes only in July (Esberard 2002).
13644		threats	eng	None known.
13645		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
13645		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Jalisco (Mexico) to Nicaragua; Cozumel Island (Mexico); and southern Venezuela (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid, 1997). The species does not occur in Honduras and El Salvador.
13645		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It can be found in dry, semideciduous forest, evergreen forest and towns. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). Found in mesophyllum forests, pine, pine-oak and oak forests (Santos and Castro-Arellano, 2005)
13645		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
13645		threats	eng	In southern Mexico the species is estimated to had 45% of habitat reduction (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.). Overall there are no major threats at this time.
13646		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research actions.
13646		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Honduras to Costa Rica; eastern Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela; Brazil; Paraguay; Uruguay; and northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
13646		habitat	eng	<em>M. currentium</em> primarily is a forest dweller. Its distribution closely follows tropical rainforest habitat along the Caribbean lowlands in Central America as far as northern Honduras, where forest becomes restricted on the coast (Burnett <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is insectivorous (Muñoz Arango 1990).
13646		population	eng	Poorly studied. Poorly known. Relatively common.
13646		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
13647		conservation	eng	Check the taxonomy in Central America.
13647		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Chiapas (Mexico) south to Venezuela, Peru and Mato Grosso (Brazil) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid, 1997). Because of the taxonomic issues the distribuition is not certainly known in Central America. There are no records for Colombia, Ecuador.
13647		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It can be found in dry, semideciduous forest, evergreen forest and towns. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
13647		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
13647		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
13648		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research actions.
13648		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Sinaloa and Coahuila (Mexico) to Peru, northern Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Surinam and Guianas; Greater and Lesser Antilles; Florida Keys (USA); Margarita Isl (Venezuela); Curaçao and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles); Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005).
13648		habitat	eng	Found in urban areas. Large colonies found in palm leaves, refuges (Barquez pers. comm.). They roosts in attics on the islands (Rodriguez Duran pers. comm.).
13648		population	eng	Abundant species (Barques and Diaz pers. comm.).
13648		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13649		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss, found in protected areas.
13649		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Guerrero, Oaxaca (Mexico); Nicaragua and Costa Rica; Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).
13649		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry and semideciduous forest. It roosts in caves, buildings, and hollow trees (Marinkelle and Cadena, 1972). Eats insects, including beetles and moths. A large group was flying from riparian forest at dusk; the bats appeared in single file, flying about 20 m above ground (LaVal, 1977).  <em>M. pretiosus</em> usually is a nonforest dweller that occupies open areas such as grassland savannas, dry woodlands, and cactus and thorn scrub (Dolan, 1989; Dolan and Carter, 1979). In Nicaragua, Miller’s mastiff bats have been observed flying over streams, foraging high over trees in a coffee plantation, flying over a concrete water tank, and emerging from a hollow tree over a stream (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1971). In Costa Rica, <em>M. pretiosus</em> was active over a watering hole in a stream (La Val, 1977). Four Miller’s mastiff bats had an average of 631 moth scales per gram of fecal material; parts of coleopterans also were present (Freeman, 1979).
13649		population	eng	This bat apparently is uncommon (Reid, 1997). <em>M. pretiosus</em> is polyestrus (Dolan, 1989). In Nicaragua, three females were pregnant in March, three were pregnant on April, one was pregnant on July, and three were pregnant and flying juveniles were present in mid-August (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1971). In Costa Rica, some females were pregnant in May, July, and October, and subadults were present in July and October (La Val, 1977; La Val and Fitch, 1977). Lifespan is unknown (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 2000).
13649		threats	eng	None known. Seems more associated with tropical dry forests than the other <em>Molossus</em>.
13650		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research actions.
13650		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Sinaloa and Michoacan (Mexico) to Colombia, Guyana, Surinam, and French Guiana; Trinidad (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands to 2,400 m (usually below 1,000 m).
13650		habitat	eng	Aerial insectivore. This species can be found in evergreen and dry deciduous forest, pasture, and populated areas (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves and houses, often in large groups. In Costa Rica, 76 individuals were captured from a single roost (Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989). A long-term study in Yucatan, Mexico, found this species to be the most commonly encountered molossid in the region (Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1990). Individuals are most active during the first 2 hours after sunset and again before dawn. The diet consists mainly of moths, with some beetles and other insects taken. In Yucatan, pregnant females have been recorded from March to June (Reid, 1997). A large colony in Puerto Viejo contained at least some pregnant females in most months of the year round reproduction. However, a far large percentage were pregnant in May than in later months. (LaVal and Rodriguez-H., 2002). May be found in rural and urban areas.
13650		population	eng	This bat is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997). Need acoustic survey, not as abuntant as <em>M. rufus</em> (Miller pers. comm.)
13650		threats	eng	None known.
13653		conservation	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is legally protected throughout its range. Two protected areas have been established specifically for monk seals in the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Archipelago and the Northern Sporades Islands National Marine Park in Greece. There are plans to set up additional nature reserves to protect more habitat for monk seals in the region.<br><br>Throughout the range of the species, widespread action has been taken to sensitize the local human population towards monk seal conservation, to restrict fishing gear and relocate the most adverse fishing practices, to develop monitoring programs and intervention protocols and to increase on-site capability to rehabilitate sick and injured individuals, particularly pups. Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties are in force to protect monk seals internationally, and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientist and managers to discuss monk seal conservation issues and problems. Israels (1992) summarizes 30 years of this conservation history, and provides details on accomplishments and failures to meet objectives. Currently, there is in force a UNEP/Mediterranean Action Plan (issued first in 1978 and revised in 1988) for the conservation and management of monk seals in the Mediterranean and a CMS plan for the recovery of the monk seal in the eastern Atlantic (issued in 2005).<br><br>However, all of the above actions have been insufficient to change the overall declining trend of this species. Most conservation initiatives occur only on paper and do not translate into real and effective conservation action in the field. As a consequence, most of the small subpopulations that survived three decades ago, when conservation of the species was already identified as being a priority are now extinct (Aguilar 1999). Today, human encroachment of haulout habitat, adverse interactions with fisheries and impoverished genetic variability are the main threats affecting the species. Unless there is urgent ion action, the extinction risk of the species is high (van Blaricom <i>et al</i>. 2001).
13653		conservation	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is legally protected throughout its range. Two protected areas have been established specifically for monk seals in the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Archipelago and the Northern Sporades Islands National Marine Park in Greece. There are plans to set up additional nature reserves to protect more habitat for monk seals in the region.<br/><br/>Throughout the range of the species, widespread action has been taken to sensitize the local human population towards monk seal conservation, to restrict fishing gear and relocate the most adverse fishing practices, to develop monitoring programs and intervention protocols and to increase on-site capability to rehabilitate sick and injured individuals, particularly pups. Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties are in force to protect monk seals internationally, and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientist and managers to discuss monk seal conservation issues and problems. Israels (1992) summarizes 30 years of this conservation history, and provides details on accomplishments and failures to meet objectives. Currently, there is in force a UNEP/Mediterranean Action Plan (issued first in 1978 and revised in 1988) for the conservation and management of monk seals in the Mediterranean and a CMS plan for the recovery of the monk seal in the eastern Atlantic (issued in 2005). The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>However, all of the above actions have been insufficient to change the overall declining trend of this species. Most conservation initiatives occur only on paper and do not translate into real and effective conservation action in the field. As a consequence, most of the small subpopulations that survived three decades ago, when conservation of the species was already identified as being a priority are now extinct (Aguilar 1999). Today, human encroachment of haulout habitat, adverse interactions with fisheries and impoverished genetic variability are the main threats affecting the species. Unless there is urgent ion action, the extinction risk of the species is high (van Blaricom <em>et al</em>. 2001).
13653		conservation	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is protected throughout its range. Two protected areas have been established for monk seals, the Desertas Islands in the Madeira archipelago, and the Northern Sporades Islands national marine park in Greece. There are future plans to set up nature reserves to protect more habitat for monk seals in the region.<br/><br/>Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties are in force to protect monk seals internationally, and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientists and managers to discuss monk seal conservation issues and problems. Israels (1992) summarizes 30 years of this conservation history, and provides details on accomplishments and failures to meet objectives. Other measures in place include Action Plans completed in 1978 and 1988 for the conservation and management of monk seals, and the 2005 plan for the recovery of the monk seal in the eastern Atlantic.<br/><br/>Many actions have been taken on a local scale including outreach and education programs, restrictions on gear and location for fisheries, development of monitoring programs and protocols, and increasing the capability to rehabilitate sick and injured animals (Gonzalez 2004).
13653		distribution	eng	Mediterranean monk seals were once widely and continuously distributed in the Mediterranean, Black and adjacent seas, and in the North Atlantic waters from Morocco to Cap Blanc, including the Canary Islands, Madeira Islands and the Azores (Aguilar 1999). A few individuals, possibly vagrants, have been recorded in Senegal, the Gambia and the Cape Verde Islands in the south end of the distribution range, as well as in Portugal and Atlantic France in the northern end (Ronald and Healey 1982, Israels 1992, Aguilar 1999).<br/><br/>Today the distribution is widespread, but fragmented into an unknown but probably relatively large number of very small breeding subpopulations. In the Mediterranean, the stronghold for the species is on islands in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, and along the coasts of Greece and western Turkey. The two surviving colonies in the south-eastern North Atlantic are at Cabo Blanco (also known as Cap Blanc or Ras Nouadhibou) on the border of Mauritania and Western Sahara, and the small colony at the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Islands group (Aguilar 1999, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Many locations where seals are infrequently or regularly seen, or were seen in the recent or historic past, are reported in the literature and catalogued in reviews and status updates, see Sergeant <em>et al</em>. (1978), Israels (1992) and UNEP/MAP (2005).
13653		distribution	eng	Mediterranean monk seals were once widely and continuously distributed in the Mediterranean, Black and adjacent seas, in North Atlantic waters off northwest Africa south to Cap Blanc, and possibly Senegal and Gambia. They also were found at the Cape Verde Islands, Canary Islands, Madeira Islands and Azores, and north as vagrants to Portugal (Ronald and Healey 1982), and Atlantic France (Israels 1992).  <br/><br/>Today the distribution is wide but extremely fragmented with three surviving small breeding populations located at opposite ends of the historic range. In the Mediterranean, the stronghold for the species is on islands in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, and along the coasts of Greece and western Turkey. The two surviving colonies in the southeastern North Atlantic are at Cabo Blanco (also known as Cap Blanc or Ras Nouadhibou) on the border of Mauritania and Western Sahara, and the small colony at the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Islands group (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Many locations where seals are infrequently or regularly seen, or were seen in the recent or historic past, are reported in the literature and cataloged in reviews and status updates, see Sergeant <em>et al.</em> (1978), Israels (1992), UNEP/MAP (2005).
13653		habitat	eng	Mediterranean monk seals are medium-sized phocids that reach 2.3-2.8 m (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Adults weigh from 240-300 kg, and newborns 15-26 kg (Boulva 1979, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002), with records of a male reaching 400 kg and a pregnant female reaching 302 kg (Sergeant <em>et al.</em> 1978). <br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals once hauled out on open beaches, but this is now rare, and throughout their range they use caves with sea entrances for hauling out and pupping (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Sea caves used by seals often have submerged entrances or some other barrier to provide protection from waves. In a study that covered 250 km of coastline inhabited by monk seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Turkey, 282 caves were searched. Of these, 39 showed evidence of monk seals, including 3 that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively being used. Use of these caves increased in October coincident with the autumn pupping season in Turkey (Gucu <em>et al. </em>2004). The maximum number of seals from this small Turkish population found in a cave in at one time was 3 (Gucu <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Sea caves are also used extensively at Cabo Blanco, particularly northwest of the cape. Two caves separated by 1.1 km accounted for 84% of the births in the area from 1993-1997 (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 1999).  In contrast to the situation in Turkey, counts at one cave in the Las Cuevecillas section of the Cabo Blanco colony recorded up to 89 seals hauled out at one time, and never less than 5 animals present (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Female Mediterranean monk seals probably become sexually mature at three to four years. One female at Cabo Blanco became pregnant at 2.5 years and gave birth at 3.7 years, the youngest age known for this species (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 2000b). Females can give birth in successive years. The annual reproductive rate in Mediterranean monk seals is very low at 0.3-0.43 pups to each sexually mature female (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 1999). Pup survival is low (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 2000a). <br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals take a wide variety of prey primarily from shallow water habitats (Sergeant <em>et al.</em> 1978, Kenyon 1981). In the eastern Mediterranean, they have been reported to take a variety of fish, octopus and loggerhead sea turtles (<em>Caretta caretta</em>) (Margaritoulis <em>et al.</em> 1996). Examination of two seals from the Aegean Sea yielded five species of prey. By weight 94% of the contents were cephalopods including musky octopus (<em>Eledone moschata</em>) and globose octopus (<em>Bathypolypus sponsalis</em>) (Salman <em>et al.</em> 2001).
13653		habitat	eng	Mediterranean monk seals are medium-sized phocids that reach 2.3-2.8 m in length (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Based on a large number of seals examined after a mass mortality at Cabo Blanco, average adult lengths were estimated at 2.42 m in females and 2.6 m in males. Pups up to 3 months of age averaged 1.08 m with a range of 0.74-1.38 m (Samaranch and Gonzalez 2000). In the Mediterranean, a study on a limited sample size produced somewhat larger lengths for adult females (2.65 m) than for adult males (2.41 m); newborn pups averaged about 99 cm (Boulva 1979). Adults weigh from 240-300 kg, and newborns 15-26 kg (Boulva 1979, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002), with records of a male reaching 400 kg and a pregnant female reaching 302 kg (Sergeant <em>et al</em>. 1978).<br/><br/>In islands or mainland areas devoid of terrestrial predators, Mediterranean monk seals once hauled out on open beaches; it is unclear whether they ever used locations along the northern African coast, where large predators, like lions or hyenas, occurred. Today, they use caves with sea entrances for hauling out and pupping throughout their range, although adults, particularly males, may also sporadically haulout on open beaches (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Sea caves used by seals almost always have submerged entrances to avoid entrance by terrestrial predators, but the use of particular caves probably changes periodically if their structure is altered as a consequence of variations in the shape of the inside beach or of rock slides , as has been seen to occur at Cabo Blanco (González <em>et al</em>. 1997). Maximum counts at one cave in the Cabo Blanco colony had up to 89 seals hauled out at one time, and never less than 5 animals present (Gonzalez <em>et al</em>. 1997). In a study that covered 250 km of coastline inhabited by monk seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Turkey, 282 caves were searched. Of these, 39 showed evidence of monk seals, including 3 that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively being used at the time of the survey. Use of these caves increased in October coincident with the autumn pupping season in Turkey (Gucu <em>et al</em>. 2004). The maximum number of seals from this small Turkish subpopulation found in a cave in at one time was 3 (Gucu <em>et al.</em> 2004). The numbers in caves are highest at low and rising tides.<br/><br/>Pups are born all year-round, but in the Cap Blanc colony most are born from summer to early winter, with a small peak of births in October; 84% of the births took place in only two caves separated by 1.1 km (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pastor and Aguilar 2003). In Turkey?s Cilician Basin, 11 newborns observed, 10 of which were born between August and November, and another 6 documented births in Turkey fall in this same time period. While pups may be born throughout the year, this definition may mask more restricted birthing periods on a smaller geographic scale.<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seal pups moult an average 64 days after birth in the case of females and an average 82 days in the case of males; the moult occurs partly in the water and takes an average of 15 days to be completed (Badosa <em>et al</em>. 2006). Pups begin to catch fish toward the end of their nursing period (Pastor and Aguilar 2003). Pups are weaned when they are around 4 months old, with up to 5 months reported (Pastor and Aguilar 2003, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fostering and milk stealing are common patterns. At the Cabo Blanco colony, in 26.6% of the suckling episodes observed in mother?pup pairs of known identity, pups suckled from females other than their mothers. Some females nursed more than one pup, at least occasionally, and in some cases a pup was fostered long-term by an alien female (Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Pups enter the water and begin diving during their first week and from that point onwards spend 55-74% of their time at sea. Three pups tagged with time depth recorders spent more time at sea and diving at night than during the day; most dives were to the bottom for relatively long periods, probably indicating foraging. The mean depth of dive was 11.6 m and its mean length was 149 seconds (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Females caring for pups will go off to feed for up to 17 hours, with an average time of 9 hours (Gazo and Aguilar 2005). Female Mediterranean monk seals probably become sexually mature at three to four years of age. One female at Cabo Blanco became pregnant at 2.5 years and gave birth at 3.7 years, the youngest age known for this species (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 2000b). In males, the process of developing the mature pelage pattern of bulls is gradual; it involves at least two annual moults and can be completed by the age of 4 years (Badosa <em>et al</em>. 2006). Females can give birth in successive years. Although birthing is not seasonal, individual females have been documented to give birth close to the same time in successive years, within a 15 day span (Pastor and Aguilar 2003). The annual reproductive rate in Mediterranean monk seals is extremely low at 0.25-0.43 pups to each sexually mature female, both in the Cabo Blanco colony and the Turkey coast (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 1999, Gucu <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Pup survival is low; just under 50% survive their first two months to the onset of their moult, and most mortalities occurred in the first two weeks. Survival of pups born from September to January is 29%. This very low survival rate is associated with mortality caused by severe storms, and high swells and tides, but impoverished genetic variability and inbreeding may also be involved. Pups born during the rest of the year had a survival rate of 71% (Gazo, <em>et al</em>. 2000a). Few pups are successfully weaned in the winter. Adult females moult an average of 134 days after parturition, and sometimes begin the moult prior weaning their pup (Pastor and Aguilar 2003).<br/><br/>Little is known about adult diving. The maximum depth and duration of diving for one lactating female was 78 m and 15 minutes, respectively (Gazo and Aguilar 2005). Neves (1998) observed two types of diving in shallow near shore waters, which were thought to be associated with spot feeding and transit feeding. When spot feeding, seals dove as though headed into a current for 8-12 minutes, surfaced at about the same location, and usually repeated this pattern for approximately 3 hours. Transit feeding dives lasted 5-7 minutes, during which the seal moved continuously along a shoreline apparently foraging.<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals take a wide variety of prey primarily from shallow water habitats (Sergeant <em>et al</em>. 1978, Kenyon 1981). In the eastern Mediterranean, they have been reported to take fish such as striped red mullet (<em>Mullus surmuletus</em>), seabream (<em>Dentex</em> spp.), bogue (<em>Boops boops</em>), flathead mullet (<em>Mugil cephalus</em>), octopus (<em>Octopus</em> spp.) (Sergeant <em>et al</em>. 1978), and even loggerhead sea turtles (<em>Caretta caretta</em>) (Margaritoulis <em>et al</em>. 1996). Examination of two seals from the Aegean Sea yielded five species of prey; by weight, 94% of the contents were cephalopods including musky octopus (<em>Eledone moschata</em>) and globose octopus (<em>Bathypolypus sponsalis</em>) (Salman <em>et at</em>., 2001). In the Atlantic, at the Desertas Islands off Madeira, visual observations of monk seals with prey at the surface included seals eating golden-grey mullet (<em>Liza aurata</em>), parrot fish (<em>Sparisoma cretense</em>), barred hogfish (<em>Bodianus scrofa</em>), salema (<em>Sarpa salpa</em>), cuttlefish (<em>Sepia officinalis</em>) and crabs (<em>Pachygrapsus</em> spp.). Other prey reported includes eels (<em>Anguilla</em> spp.), limpets (<em>Patella</em> spp.) and rays (<em>Raja</em> spp.) (Neves, 1998).
13653		habitat	eng	Mediterranean monk seals are medium-sized phocids that reach 2.3-2.8 m in length (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Based on a large number of seals examined after a mass mortality at Cabo Blanco, average adult lengths were estimated at 2.42 m in females and 2.6 m in males. Pups up to 3 months of age averaged 1.08 m with a range of 0.74-1.38 m (Samaranch and Gonzalez 2000). In the Mediterranean, a study on a limited sample size produced somewhat larger lengths for adult females (2.65 m) than for adult males (2.41 m); newborn pups averaged about 99 cm (Boulva 1979). Adults weigh from 240-300 kg, and newborns 15-26 kg (Boulva 1979, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002), with records of a male reaching 400 kg and a pregnant female reaching 302 kg (Sergeant <i>et al</i>. 1978).<br><br>In islands or mainland areas devoid of terrestrial predators, Mediterranean monk seals once hauled out on open beaches; it is unclear whether they ever used locations along the northern African coast, where large predators, like lions or hyenas, occurred. Today, they use caves with sea entrances for hauling out and pupping throughout their range, although adults, particularly males, may also sporadically haulout on open beaches (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Sea caves used by seals almost always have submerged entrances to avoid entrance by terrestrial predators, but the use of particular caves probably changes periodically if their structure is altered as a consequence of variations in the shape of the inside beach or of rock slides , as has been seen to occur at Cabo Blanco (González <i>et al</i>. 1997). Maximum counts at one cave in the Cabo Blanco colony had up to 89 seals hauled out at one time, and never less than 5 animals present (Gonzalez <I>et al</I>. 1997). In a study that covered 250 km of coastline inhabited by monk seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Turkey, 282 caves were searched. Of these, 39 showed evidence of monk seals, including 3 that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively being used at the time of the survey. Use of these caves increased in October coincident with the autumn pupping season in Turkey (Gucu <i>et al</i>. 2004). The maximum number of seals from this small Turkish subpopulation found in a cave in at one time was 3 (Gucu <i>et al.</i> 2004). The numbers in caves are highest at low and rising tides.<br><br>Pups are born all year-round, but in the Cap Blanc colony most are born from summer to early winter, with a small peak of births in October; 84% of the births took place in only two caves separated by 1.1 km (Gazo <i>et al</i>. 1999, Pastor and Aguilar 2003). In Turkey?s Cilician Basin, 11 newborns observed, 10 of which were born between August and November, and another 6 documented births in Turkey fall in this same time period. While pups may be born throughout the year, this definition may mask more restricted birthing periods on a smaller geographic scale.<br><br>Mediterranean monk seal pups moult an average 64 days after birth in the case of females and an average 82 days in the case of males; the moult occurs partly in the water and takes an average of 15 days to be completed (Badosa <i>et al</i>. 2006). Pups begin to catch fish toward the end of their nursing period (Pastor and Aguilar 2003). Pups are weaned when they are around 4 months old, with up to 5 months reported (Pastor and Aguilar 2003, Aguilar <i>et al</i>. 2007). Fostering and milk stealing are common patterns. At the Cabo Blanco colony, in 26.6% of the suckling episodes observed in mother?pup pairs of known identity, pups suckled from females other than their mothers. Some females nursed more than one pup, at least occasionally, and in some cases a pup was fostered long-term by an alien female (Aguilar <i>et al</i>. 2007). Pups enter the water and begin diving during their first week and from that point onwards spend 55-74% of their time at sea. Three pups tagged with time depth recorders spent more time at sea and diving at night than during the day; most dives were to the bottom for relatively long periods, probably indicating foraging. The mean depth of dive was 11.6 m and its mean length was 149 seconds (Gazo <i>et al</i>. 2006).<br><br>Females caring for pups will go off to feed for up to 17 hours, with an average time of 9 hours (Gazo and Aguilar 2005). Female Mediterranean monk seals probably become sexually mature at three to four years of age. One female at Cabo Blanco became pregnant at 2.5 years and gave birth at 3.7 years, the youngest age known for this species (Gazo <i>et al</i>. 2000b). In males, the process of developing the mature pelage pattern of bulls is gradual; it involves at least two annual moults and can be completed by the age of 4 years (Badosa <i>et al</i>. 2006). Females can give birth in successive years. Although birthing is not seasonal, individual females have been documented to give birth close to the same time in successive years, within a 15 day span (Pastor and Aguilar 2003). The annual reproductive rate in Mediterranean monk seals is extremely low at 0.25-0.43 pups to each sexually mature female, both in the Cabo Blanco colony and the Turkey coast (Gazo <i>et al</i>. 1999, Gucu <i>et al</i>. 2004).<br><br>Pup survival is low; just under 50% survive their first two months to the onset of their moult, and most mortalities occurred in the first two weeks. Survival of pups born from September to January is 29%. This very low survival rate is associated with mortality caused by severe storms, and high swells and tides, but impoverished genetic variability and inbreeding may also be involved. Pups born during the rest of the year had a survival rate of 71% (Gazo, <i>et al</i>. 2000a). Few pups are successfully weaned in the winter. Adult females moult an average of 134 days after parturition, and sometimes begin the moult prior weaning their pup (Pastor and Aguilar 2003).<br><br>Little is known about adult diving. The maximum depth and duration of diving for one lactating female was 78 m and 15 minutes, respectively (Gazo and Aguilar 2005). Neves (1998) observed two types of diving in shallow near shore waters, which were thought to be associated with spot feeding and transit feeding. When spot feeding, seals dove as though headed into a current for 8-12 minutes, surfaced at about the same location, and usually repeated this pattern for approximately 3 hours. Transit feeding dives lasted 5-7 minutes, during which the seal moved continuously along a shoreline apparently foraging.<br><br>Mediterranean monk seals take a wide variety of prey primarily from shallow water habitats (Sergeant <i>et al</i>. 1978, Kenyon 1981). In the eastern Mediterranean, they have been reported to take fish such as striped red mullet (<i>Mullus surmuletus</i>), seabream (<i>Dentex</i> spp.), bogue (<i>Boops boops</i>), flathead mullet (<i>Mugil cephalus</i>), octopus (<i>Octopus</i> spp.) (Sergeant <i>et al</i>. 1978), and even loggerhead sea turtles (<i>Caretta caretta</i>) (Margaritoulis <i>et al</i>. 1996). Examination of two seals from the Aegean Sea yielded five species of prey; by weight, 94% of the contents were cephalopods including musky octopus (<i>Eledone moschata</i>) and globose octopus (<i>Bathypolypus sponsalis</i>) (Salman <i>et at</i>., 2001). In the Atlantic, at the Desertas Islands off Madeira, visual observations of monk seals with prey at the surface included seals eating golden-grey mullet (<i>Liza aurata</i>), parrot fish (<i>Sparisoma cretense</i>), barred hogfish (<i>Bodianus scrofa</i>), salema (<i>Sarpa salpa</i>), cuttlefish (<i>Sepia officinalis</i>) and crabs (<i>Pachygrapsus</i> spp.). Other prey reported includes eels (<i>Anguilla</i> spp.), limpets (<i>Patella</i> spp.) and rays (<i>Raja</i> spp.) (Neves, 1998).
13653		population	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is the most endangered pinniped species in the world, with an estimated total population size of 350-450 animals, with 250-300 in the eastern Mediterranean within the largest subpopulation, of which about 150-200 are in Greece and about 100 in Turkey (Güçlüsoy 2004). Approximately 130 seals currently inhabit the Cabo Blanco area (Western Sahara-Mauritania); in the early 1990s this subpopulation was estimated at about 317 seals but a mass mortality event in 1996 reduced numbers to nearly a third (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1999, Aguilar 1999). Approximately 20-23 inhabit the Desertas Island, Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, UNEP/MAP 2005). The subpopulation at Cabo Blanco is the only large extant aggregation of the species and is unique in that it still preserves the structure of a colony (Aguilar 1999); the other subpopulations are composed of loose groups of extremely reduced size (usually less than 5 individuals). A recent review of monk seal occurrences reported from 1999-2005 suggests that at all other locations and countries about 14 additional seals can be accounted for (10 of the 14 in Algeria, plus an unspecified number of vagrants (UNEP/MAP, 2005)).
13653		population	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is the most endangered pinniped species in the world, with an estimated total population size of 350-450 animals, with 250-300 in the eastern Mediterranean within the largest subpopulation, of which about 150-200 are in Greece and about 100 in Turkey (Güçlüsoy 2004). Approximately 130 seals currently inhabit the Cabo Blanco area (Western Sahara-Mauritania); in the early 1990s this subpopulation was estimated at about 317 seals but a mass mortality event in 1996 reduced numbers to nearly a third (Forcada <i>et al</i>. 1999, Aguilar 1999). Approximately 20-23 inhabit the Desertas Island, Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, UNEP/MAP 2005). The subpopulation at Cabo Blanco is the only large extant aggregation of the species and is unique in that it still preserves the structure of a colony (Aguilar 1999); the other subpopulations are composed of loose groups of extremely reduced size (usually less than 5 individuals). A recent review of monk seal occurrences reported from 1999-2005 suggests that at all other locations and countries about 14 additional seals can be accounted for (10 of the 14 in Algeria, plus an unspecified number of vagrants (UNEP/MAP, 2005)).
13653		population	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is the most threatened pinniped species in the world, with an estimated population of 350-450 animals. The largest remaining population is that of the eastern Mediterranean, with 250-300 individuals, of which c.100 occur in Turkish waters (Güçlüsoy 2004). Approximately 100 to 130 seals are found at Cabo Blanco in Western Sahara and Mauritania, and approximately 20-23 at Desertas Island, Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002, UNEP/MAP 2005). The population at Cabo Blanco was estimated at 317 seals before the loss of an estimated 70% in a mass mortality event in 1997 (Forcada 2000).  Following this event, 24 pups were born at Cabo Blanco in 1997, comparable to the rate of births in 2004 and 2005, but this number rose significantly in 2006 to 46 births (Cedenilla and de Laminoa 2006). A recent review of monk seal occurrences reported at all other locations and countries from 1999-2005 yielded a minimum of 14 additional seals, with 10 of the 14 in Algeria, plus an unspecified number of vagrants (UNEP/MAP 2005).
13653		threats	eng	Mediterranean monk seals have a long history of interaction with humans that includes exploitation for subsistence needs, commercial harvest, and persecution as a competitor for fisheries resources. Once abundant, monk seals were written about and illustrated in the literature and depictions of classical antiquity. They became the target of a commercial harvest for skins and oil by the Portuguese as early as the 15th century along the coast of northwest Africa (Israels 1992).<br/><br/>Reasons given for the recent population decline include increased human population displacing seals from their habitat, mortality due to fisheries bycatch and persecution, and the possible effects of toxics and pollutants (Boulva 1979).  Exacerbating these factors are political instability and wars, the challenge of implementing effective conservation for a species in a complex multi-national environment, weak enforcement of agreements and international laws, diseases, genetic consequences of inbreeding, and other catastrophes such as oil spills and collapse of occupied pupping caves (Israels 1992).<br/><br/>Interactions with fisheries are of great conservation concern, particularly for the population in the eastern Mediterranean, where seals are killed through net entanglement and deliberately killings by fishermen. They possibly suffer from depletion of fish stocks, anti-seal methods designed to protect aquaculture facilities, and illegal dynamite fishing (Güçlüsoy 2004). Monk seals have been entangled in a wide variety of fisheries gear including set-net, trawl net, and long-line. They seem most vulnerable to set-nets placed on the bottom, and can also become entangled in abandoned and discarded nets (Tudela 2004).<br/><br/>The deaths of 130 seals over a 10-year period ending in 1999 highlighted the significance of deliberate killing as a source of mortality (Tudela 2004). Deliberate killing of monk seals by humans was attributed to 1/3 of all mortalities of 79 stranded animals in Greece, and is considered the single most important source of mortality (Androukaki <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The genetic diversity of Mediterranean monk seals is amongst the lowest found in pinnipeds. Only Hawaiian monk seals and northern elephant seals have lower diversity. The consequences of mating between closely-related individuals include congenital defects leading to stillborn pups and a decreased reproductive rate, both of which have been documented in the Cabo Blanco colony. Additionally, low fitness and increased susceptibility to disease may be a problem (Pastor <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Morbillivirus was isolated from Mediterranean monk seals after the mass mortality at Cabo Blanco in 1997. The virus most closely resembled dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) that was previously implicated in the 1991 mass mortality of striped dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea (Osterhaus <em>et al.</em> 1992, Van de Bildt <em>et al.</em> 1999). Although this virus was already circulating in monk seals prior to the mass mortality, there is doubt that it caused the deaths.  Dinoflagellate-produced saxitoxins were found in tissues from animals that died during the 1997 event, and the suddenness of death of the animals and other symptoms suggest that the cause of death was from the toxins rather than an epidemic of morbillivirus. Additionally, toxic algal blooms (red tides) are favored by oceanographic conditions near Cabo Blanco, and were reported from nearby Morocco the southeastern North Atlantic during a 25-year period leading up to the mass mortality. Canine distemper virus is present in stray dog populations in Aegean Turkey at a level of approximately 9% in the population. This may be a source for future infections of wild carnivores, including monk seals through contacts in harbors and along shorelines (Gencay <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Contaminant burdens have always been suspected to be a threat to the Mediterranean monk seal, and should be investigated and routinely monitored (Boulva 1979, Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993). Tissues collected during the 1997 mass mortality and analyzed for PCBs and DDT detected levels of pollutants comparable to those found in other marine mammals not believed to be experiencing contaminant related health or reproductive effects (UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals are at an unknown but suspected high level of risk from oil tanker and other ship accidents, spills and groundings. Animals could be oiled or coated in fuels and lubricants, exposed to other toxic or environment-altering chemicals or products, and experience disturbance at haul outs or coastal feeding areas. Mauritania is planning to explore offshore oilfields which would lead to increased vessel traffic in the area, and greater chance for accidents, disturbance, and collisions near important habitat. Three accidents or spills have occurred near monk seal habitat in the recent past, including a supertanker that spilled oil off of Morocco in 1989 (Israels 1992), an oil spill in the Madeira Islands in 1994 (UNEP 2005), and the grounding of a bulk carrier near Cabo Blanco in 2003 (UNEP 2005). None of these spills or accidents had any known impacts on monk seals, but they underscore the threat of significant impacts from a major maritime accident near an important monk seal site (UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Human disturbance has been identified as a primary factor in the decline in numbers of monk seals through displacement of animals from habitat. Traditionally, this was the result of expanding human populations and coastal development. Since the 1970s, a new threat has emerged in the form of people seeking out monk seals to view at the few remaining locations. Tourism has grown to become one of the most significant hazards faced by monk seals, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean (Johnson and Lavigne 1999). Besides disturbance, tourist activities increase the risk of vessel accidents, spills, transmission of disease, and the discharge of pollutants and waste near the seals.
13653		threats	eng	The Mediterranean monk seal is one of the most endangered species of mammals (IUCN, 1996), and was ranked as a marine mammal species in imminent peril of extinction in a recent analysis (Vanblaricom <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals have a long history of interaction with humans that includes exploitation for subsistence needs, commercial harvest and persecution as a competitor for fisheries resources or because it produced damage to fishing gear. Once abundant, monk seals were written about and illustrated in the literature and depictions of classical antiquity. Along the coast of northwest Africa, they became the target of a commercial harvest for skins and oil by the Portuguese as early as the 15th century (Israels 1992).<br/><br/>Reasons for the recent population decline leading to the species status as critically endangered include increased human pressure displacing seals from their habitat, destruction of caves used for hauling out and breeding, continued mortality due to fisheries by-catch, deliberate aggression by fishermen to eliminate a competitor, even in countries and areas where the species is legally protected, disease, pollution and impoverished genetic diversity (Aguilar 1999).<br/><br/>Interactions with fisheries are of great conservation concern, particularly for the subpopulation in the eastern Mediterranean, where seals are killed through net entanglement and deliberately killings by fishermen. They could also suffer from depletion of fish stocks in this area as well as being harassed by anti-seal methods designed to protect aquaculture facilities. Illegal dynamite fishing might also kill seals (Güçlüsoy 2004, 2004). Monk seals have been entangled in a wide variety of fishing gear including set-nets, trawl nets and long-lines. They seem most vulnerable to set-nets placed on the bottom and can also become entangled in abandoned and discarded nets (Tudela 2004). The deaths of 130 seals over a 10-year period ending in 1999 pointed out the significance of deliberate killing as a source of mortality (Tudela 2004). Deliberate killing of monk seals by humans was responsible for 1/3 of all mortalities of 79 stranded animals in Greece and is considered the single most important source of mortality for this species (Androukaki <em>et al</em>. 1999). Adverse fishing interaction is not a source of concern for the Atlantic subpopulations (Aguilar 1999).<br/><br/>Analyses of 42 DNA microsatellite loci have show that, as a consequence of a severe bottleneck, all subpopulations have suffered a dramatic decrease in genetic variability over the last few centuries. Indeed, the genetic diversity of Mediterranean monk seals is amongst the lowest found in pinnipeds; it is comparable to Hawaiian monk seals and northern elephant seals. The potential consequences of mating between closely-related individuals include congenital defects leading to stillborn pups and a decreased reproductive rate, both of which have been documented in the Cabo Blanco colony. As a consequence, extremely low genetic variability and inbreeding have been pointed out as the main cause for the non-recovery of subpopulations that are not subject to significant human pressure, such as that in Cabo Blanco (Pastor <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2007). Additionally, low fitness and increased susceptibility to disease may be an effect of genetic erosion that can compromise a population and lead to extinction. The mass mortality event of 1997 may have decreased the genetic diversity in the Cabo Blanco seals by 12% (UNEP 2005), and reduced the subpopulation?s genetic diversity to a point where it cannot reproduce fast enough to overcome random events that effect survival (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1999). Unless this factor is taken into account, usual conservation measures may prove ineffective.<br/><br/>Morbillivirus was isolated from Mediterranean monk seals after the mass mortality at Cabo Blanco in 1997. The virus most closely resembled dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) that was previously implicated in the 1991 mass mortality of striped dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea (Osterhaus <em>et al</em>. 1992, Van de Bildt <em>et al</em>. 1999). Canine distemper virus is present in stray dogs in Aegean Turkey at a level of approximately 9% in the population and this might be a source for future infections of monk seals through contacts in harbours and along shorelines (Gencay <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, although this virus was already circulating in monk seals prior to the mass mortality, there is some doubt as to whether it was responsible for the deaths that occurred. Indeed, the active virus was found in pups that went into a rehabilitation centre because their mothers had died, and none of them showed clinical signs and all survived the event without specific treatment. Dinoflagellate-produced saxitoxins were found in tissues from animals that died during the die-off and the suddenness of death of the animals and the general clinical symptoms suggest that the cause of death was from the toxins rather than a morbillivirus epidemic (Hernández <em>et al</em>. 1998). Toxic algal blooms (red tides) are favoured by oceanographic conditions near Cabo Blanco and were reported from nearby Morocco the south-eastern North Atlantic during a 25-year period leading up to the mass mortality. Toxic algal blooms are unpredictable and following the catastrophic loss of monk seals in 1997 must be considered a serious threat to the species (Reyero <em>et al</em>. 2000, UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Contaminant burdens have always been suspected to be a threat to the Mediterranean monk seal and thus monitoring pollutants has been considered a high priority (Boulva 1979, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, information is only available on organochlorine pollutants, which were analyzed in the blubber of individuals collected during the 1990s from the Cabo Blanco and the Greek subpopulations. Residue levels were found to be very low in the former subpopulation and moderate to high in the latter (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2007); the toxicological implications of these residues at the population level are unknown.<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals are at an unknown but suspected high level of risk from oil tanker and other ship accidents, spills and groundings. Animals could be oiled or coated in fuels and lubricants, exposed to other toxic or environment-altering chemicals or products and experience disturbance at haulouts or coastal feeding areas. Mauritania began oil extraction in offshore fields located about 400 km south of Cabo Blanco in 2006. This leads to increased tanker traffic in the area, and a greater chance for accidents, disturbance and collisions near important habitat. Three accidents or spills have occurred near monk seal habitat in the recent past, including a supertanker that spilled oil off of Morocco in 1989 (Israels 1992), an oil spill in the Madeira Islands in 1994 (UNEP 2005), and the grounding of a bulk carrier near Cabo Blanco in 2003 (UNEP 2005). None of these spills or accidents had any known impacts on monk seals, but they underscore the threat of significant impacts from a major maritime accident near an important monk seal site (UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Human disturbance has also been identified as a primary factor in the decline in numbers of monk seals through displacement of animals from habitat. Traditionally, this was the consequence of expanding human populations and coastal development, but since the 1970s ?eco-tourism?, with organized or spontaneous tours of people seeking out monk seals to view at the few remaining locations, has grown to become one of the most significant hazards faced by monk seals in the eastern Mediterranean (Johnson and Lavigne 1999). Besides disturbance, tourist activities increase the risk of vessel accidents, spills, transmission of disease, and the discharge of pollutants and waste near the seals.<br/><br/>Additional risks to Mediterranean monk seals come from political instability and wars in some parts of their range, the challenge of implementing effective conservation for a species in a complex multi-national environment, weak enforcement of agreements and international laws, collapse of occupied pupping caves and reduction of the carrying capacity of the environment as a consequence of fishing overexploitation (Aguilar 1999).
13654		conservation	eng	The Hawaiian monk seal has been listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act since 1976. That law contains a number of provisions to protect the seals and their critical habitat. They are also covered by a general prohibition against unpermitted taking by the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1973. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Virtually all of the land and waters in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands is included in one or more protected areas (the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands State Marine Refuge, the Kure Atoll State Wildlife Refuge, the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve and the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument) where human activities that could effect the seals or their habitats are either prohibited or strictly controlled.<br/><br/>Numerous efforts have been undertaken to identify sources of mortality for monk seals and to take management actions to mitigate factors that may be causing the continued population decline and preventing recovery (NMFS 2007). Important management efforts include: 1) cleaning up of marine debris and toxic chemicals; 2) minimizing human activities that could disturb seals hauled out on beaches; 3) removal of sharks suspected to be preying on seals; 4) translocation of adult males to adjust the sex ratio where mobbing was a problem; and 5) regulating fisheries to reduce the likelihood of direct and indirect interactions. In spite of these efforts the population has continued to decline. With the current low abundance, low survival rates, and declining trend there is a real chance that this species will go extinct in the foreseeable future. For that reason plans are being made to develop a facility where young seals can be cared for in captivity for a period of time in hopes that when they are released back to the wild they may have a better chance for survival.
13654		distribution	eng	Hawaiian monk seals occur throughout the Hawaiian Island chain. Their six main reproductive sites are in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands at Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisianski Island, Laysan Island, and French Frigate Shoals (National Marine Fisheries Service 2007). While sightings were previously rare in the main Hawaiian Islands, monk seals are now regularly seen there and births have been documented on all of the major islands (Baker and Johanos 2004). Sightings outside of the main range have occurred at Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island (Ragen and Lavigne 1999).<br/><br/>Hawaiian monk seals are non-migratory, and tend to remain near the atoll where they were born. However, some seals will relocate temporarily or permanently to other sites in the island chain, and long distance wanderers have been recorded.
13654		habitat	eng	Adult Hawaiian monk seals reach lengths of about 2.1 to 2.4 m and weigh 170-240 kg with females being somewhat longer and heavier than males. Pups are about 1 m and 16-18 kg at birth and when weaned 6 weeks later they weigh 50-100 kg (Kenyon 1981, Antonelis <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Monk seals are generally solitary, both on land and at sea. Even when seals gather together on land, they are not normally gregarious and only mothers and pups and recently weaned seals regularly make physical contact. On land, Hawaiian monk seals haul-out and breed on substrates of sand, coral or volcanic rock. Sandy beaches with shallow protected water near shore appear to be preferred for pupping (Westlake and Gilmartin 1990).<br/><br/>At-sea movements and habitat use of Hawaiian monk seals have been investigated using satellite-linked dive recorders and animal-born video cameras that have been put on seals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Results show that they forage within atolls, in the shallow waters surrounding atolls and islands and farther offshore at submerged banks and reefs (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 2006). Seals carrying cameras searched for and preyed on benthic fish and invertebrates in areas of rubble and consolidated bottom material, along areas of transition of benthic habitat types, and also in deepwater coral beds (Parish <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002).<br/><br/>Most dives that have been recorded have been less than 150 meters deep, although some individuals dove to more than 550 m (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 2006). Monk seals are known to eat a variety of fishes, eels, cephalopods and crustaceans (Goodman-Lowe 1998).<br/><br/>While the habitats of the Hawaiian monk seal are distributed over thousands of kilometers, the terrestrial habitat available for their use in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands is very limited. The total area of emergent land is only about 13.5 km² and only a fraction of that is suitable for use by seals (Ragen and Lavigne 1999).
13654		population	eng	Monk seals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands are well studied, with nearly all animals individually identifiable (through natural marks or flipper tags) and observed each year (Baker 2006). Less is known about the population biology of seals in the main Hawaiian Islands. The status of the Hawaiian monk seal through to 2006 was reviewed in detail in the recently revised Recovery Plan for the species (National Marine Fisheries Service 2007). For this IUCN review process, the Plan?s data were updated to include all information from 2007 and additional analyses were conducted by scientists from the National Marine Fisheries Service?s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (Albert Harting, Thea Johanos-Kam, and Jason Baker, personal communication).<br/><br/>Female monk seals first give birth at five to ten years old. Births occur during all months of the year, with a peak in March-April. Age specific fecundity rates for mature animals are relatively low, 50-70%, and appear to differ among atolls (Harting <em>et al</em>. 2007). Males in this polygynous species patrol the water adjacent to rookeries, or haul-out near females with pups. Male dominated sex ratios have occurred at some colonies, and that has resulted in mobbing of estrus females that have been severely injured or killed in such events (NMFS 2007).<br/><br/>The generation time for Hawaiian monk seals, estimated as the average age of reproducing individuals, is 15 years. The best estimate of the total number of seals of all age classes in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands in 2007 is 935, with 546 of them being sexually mature. Adding to this a minimum estimate of 77 seals of all ages in the main Hawaiian Islands (not including Niihau) indicates a total population size of approximately 1,012, of which approximately 591 are sexually mature (assuming the age structure is similar in the northwestern and main Hawaiian Islands). <br/><br/>The earliest information on monk seal abundance comes from 1958 (Kenyon and Rice 1959, Rice 1960). These early data were not an estimate of total population size. They were counts of animals (not including pups) on beaches at a particular time, summed. Seals that were not hauled out at the time researchers visited the islands were not enumerated. Comparing the 1958 count (916 animals) to a beach count using similar methods in 2007 (293) suggests that the population has declined by 68% in 49 years.<br/><br/>Since 1983 the abundance of monk seals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands has been estimated each year by having researchers spend enough time at each atoll to individually identify and count all, or nearly all, seals using that location. The total abundance estimate for 1983 was 1,488, which when compared to the total abundance estimate of 935 for 2007 indicates a decline of 37% in 24 years. <br/><br/>Since 1999 the population has been declining at a rate of 4.1% per year. Because detailed data are available on survival, reproduction, and age-structure of the population it is possible to use a stochastic simulation model (Harting 2002) to project likely abundances in the future. Using the model to project abundance three generations forward from the 1983 estimate (to 2028) predicts an overall reduction of 86% (from 1,488 to 201). Projecting abundance three generations forward from the most recent estimate (from 2007 to 2052) predicts a decline of 96% (from 935 to 37). These projections are derived using estimates of demographic rates from recent years and assume that those rates are representative of future conditions. Any changes in those rates (whether positive or negative) will of course alter the predicted trajectories.<br/><br/>Based on recorded births of pups, monk seal numbers in the main Hawaiian Islands appear to have increased in recent years (Baker and Johanos 2004). However, the number of animals in the main Islands is small, and the current status of the species depends primarily on the situation in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
13654		threats	eng	Recovery of Hawaiian monk seals has been affected to an unknown degree by disturbance from military activities in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands including the alteration, development and occupation of bases on several key islands that started before World War II (Ragen and Lavigne 1999). However, the military has left the area and the vast majority of monk seals live where they are isolated from most direct human contact. The only permanent structures remaining in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands are U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service facilities at Tern Island and Midway Atoll and remnants of former Coast Guard facilities at Kure Atoll.<br/><br/>Current threats to monk seals are thoroughly reviewed and analyzed in NMFS (2007). The most crucial threats in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands at this time are: 1) food limitation that could be due to changes in oceanographic conditions, competition with fisheries, or competition with other predators; 2) entanglement in marine debris, largely fragments of net and line discarded by North Pacific fisheries; and 3) predation by sharks, especially on pre-weaned and recently weaned pups. An emerging threat in this region may be the loss of terrestrial habitat due to sea level increases resulting from global warming (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2006). The situation in the main Hawaiian Islands is somewhat different, with the main threats there being: 1) interactions with recreational fishing gear especially hookings and entanglements in gillnets; 2) possible transmission of diseases from domestic pets and livestock to seals; and 3) disturbance of seals that haul out on beaches heavily used by people.
13655		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
13655		distribution	eng	The Caribbean Monk Seal once inhabited the Caribbean Sea, northwest to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as from the Bahamas to the Yucatan Peninsula, south along the Central American coast and east to the northern Antilles. Extralimital records and fossil remains from the southeastern United States also exist.
13655		habitat	eng	The species occupied a marine environment, with rocky or sandy coastline and islands being used for shelter and breeding areas. Their diet included eels, lobsters, octopus, and other reef fish. Like other true seals, the Caribbean Monk Seal was sluggish on land. Its lack of fear for man and an unaggressive and curious nature also contributed to its demise. Very little is known about the reproduction and longevity of this animal. Live pups were probably born in early December because several females killed in the Yucatan during this time of the year had well-developed fetuses.
13655		population	eng	The species was first discovered by Columbus in 1494, and early records testify to its abundance in several parts of the Caribbean (The Extinction Website 2007). It was not until 1850 that a specimen was collected and a scientific description made. By 1887, the species was rare, though the Triangle Keys west of Yucatan remained a stronghold of the species until 1915, when about 200 animals were killed there (The Extinction Website 2007). The last record from Texas was in 1932, and the last reliable records from anywhere were of a small colony at Seranilla Bank, a group of tiny coral islands halfway between Jamaica and Honduras, in 1952. An aerial survey in 1973, conducted by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, found extensive fishing activity throughout the former range of this seal. A later cruise through the Gulf of Mexico and around the Yucatan Peninsula failed to find any <em>M. tropicalis</em> in the area. Unconfirmed sightings of Caribbean Monk Seals by local fishermen and divers (see for example Boyd and Stanfield (1998)) almost certainly refer to wandering Hooded Seals, which have been positively identified on Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
13655		threats	eng	Intensive exploitation began during the voyages of Columbus, and continued for centuries afterwards, as the seals were killed for their skins and oil. In more recent years, the seal was also subject to persecution from the fishing industry.
13692		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
13692		distribution	eng	Found in eastern Brazil from the states of Pará south to Santa Catarina (Gardner 2007).
13692		habitat	eng	In the Atlantic forest of Brazil this species was found to make nests in the forks of trees or in bushes. In the Brazilian cerrado it is restricted to gallery forest and is found to be terrestrial and active during the day. Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Found usually near water. Feeds on insects; in captivity will voraciously kill and eat small vertebrates (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13692		population	eng	It is uncommon.
13692		threats	eng	No major threats.
13693		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. dimidiata</span> occurs in a number of protected areas in Brazil.
13693		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Uruguay, southeastern Brazil, southeastern Paraguay and central and northern Argentina (Gardner 2007). The populations from the Atlantic Forest assigned traditionally to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sorex</span>, are now considered as conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. dimidiata</span> (Vilela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, Solari 2010).
13693		habitat	eng	This species is found in pastures, wetlands, pampas grasslands, and riparian areas next to waterways. Founded also in Atlantic coast rainforest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999, Emmons and Feer 1997).
13693		population	eng	This species can be common in the appropriate habitats (see Pine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). Remaining populations of this species have been reduced to isolated fragments of their former range. In southeastern Brazil, northeastern Argentina and southern Paraguay, the population may be larger than thought as surveys have been inadequate.
13693		threats	eng	No major threats occur to the species, although numerous populations are threatened by habitat conversion to agriculture or urbanized areas.
13694		conservation	eng	Presumed to occur in several protected areas throughout its range.
13694		distribution	eng	Found discontinuously south of the Amazon in eastern Peru and central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).
13694		habitat	eng	Found only in terra firme forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Found from sea level to 300 m (Patton pers. comm.). Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Found around fallen logs in lowland evergreen rainforest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13694		population	eng	The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population. Apparently rare, known from only a few individuals and localities (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13694		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
13695		conservation	eng	This species is likely to occur in several protected areas, however, more surveys to establish range of occurrence and occupation, and ecology are needed in order to assess it.
13695		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to southeast Brazil, where it is found in Rio Grande do Sul, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Espírito Santo (Gardner, 2007).
13695		habitat	eng	Rain and subtropical forests of the Atlantic Coast.
13695		population	eng	Very little is known of populations of this species. A population reduction is suspected based on a severe drop reduction in extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat by deforestation.
13695		threats	eng	The loss of habitat is suspected to have caused a decline in various populations.
13696		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas.
13696		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Gardner 2007). This species is found from lowlands up to 1,500 m.
13696		habitat	eng	This species seems to prefer moderately disturbed habitats (Anderson 1982). It is found in a variety of habitats, including forest and cerrado. There are no information available on habits, behaviour, food or reproduction (Anderson 1997).
13696		population	eng	This species is estimated to be widespread with locally low densities.
13696		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, there is local habitat destruction which might be reducing some populations.
13697		conservation	eng	Does not occur in any protected areas and surveys are needed to establish the extent of occurrence, ecology, and abundance.
13697		distribution	eng	This marsupial is known from northeastern Brazil on Ilha Marajó, Pará, and possibly one small island to the west, Ihla Caldeirão (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).
13697		habitat	eng	Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Habitat and behaviour is not known, but is possibly is similar to <em>Monodelphis domestica</em>.
13697		population	eng	Apparently rare, known only from several individuals.
13697		threats	eng	The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population.
13698		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas in both Peru and Bolivia.
13698		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern Andes slopes of southeastern Peru and western Bolivia (Gardner, 2007). It is found from 1,900 to 3,200 m (Solari and Tarifa, in prep.).
13698		habitat	eng	This species is found only in montane forest, no records either in secondary forest or outside of forest. This species is among the least arboreal of the Didelphids, and is usually found on the ground, though it can climb (Nowak, 1999). It is nocturnal, and its diet consists of small rodents, insects, carrion, seeds, and fruit (Nowak, 1999). This is a montane species (Solari, 2004).
13698		population	eng	Unknown. There are not many records.
13698		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The forest in much of its range is under protection, although there is localized forest loss.
13699		conservation	eng	This species is suspected to occur in at least one protected areas. More information is needed about habitat protection, ecology, extent of occurrence and occupation, and abundance in order to assess this species.
13699		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from east central Brazil including the states of Goiás, Mina Gerais, and São Paulo (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).
13699		habitat	eng	Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular.
13699		population	eng	Apparently uncommon or rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
13699		threats	eng	The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population, however, the extent of this decline is unknown.
13700		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
13700		distribution	eng	Found in the Southeast of Brazil, including the States of Espiritu Santo (southern portion), Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Santa Catarina and is reported from Argentina (Gardner, 2007).
13700		habitat	eng	Found in lowland Atlantic humid coastal forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular.
13700		population	eng	Uncommon (GMA Brazil). The species may be more common than surveys suggest due to inadequate sampling (Viera and Brito pers. comm.).
13700		threats	eng	No major threat. Habitat loss is a threat in parts of the species' range and some populations are in decline.
13702		conservation	eng	This species may be in a protected area. Further research is known on the ecology, distribution and threats to populations.
13702		distribution	eng	This species is known from only five specimens and is only found in eastern Brazil, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais (Gardner, 2007). The Peruvian distribution referred to in Gardner, 1993 referred to a similar, undescribed species (Gardner, 2005).
13702		habitat	eng	Unknown but presumed to occur in Atlantic forests.
13702		population	eng	Unknown, known only from 5 specimens.
13702		threats	eng	Unknown, but the region is suffering from deforestation which might impact populations.
13703		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to determine whether or not this species is still extant.
13703		distribution	eng	Known only from São Paulo State, Brazil and Provincía Misiones, Argentina (Gardner 2007).
13703		habitat	eng	Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Habitat and behaviour is not known.
13703		population	eng	Known only from two specimens(Gardner 2008); a single individual collected before 1842 (Emmons and Feer 1997) and one specimen from Argentina (Pine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). The loss of habitat will most probably caused a decline in the population.
13703		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat, however, the magnitude is unknown.
13704		conservation	eng	The narwhal is actively hunted only in Canada and Greenland. In Canada, the quota system that had been in place since the 1970s was replaced by a community-based management system implemented in the late 1990s and early 2000s (COSEWIC 2004). The hunt is managed by local hunter and trapper organizations with harvest limits established in some communities.  Compliance has been questionable (COSEWIC 2004). Under this system, removals from some summering aggregations are probably sustainable, however there is concern that removals from other summering aggregations may not be (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In Greenland, a quota system was introduced in 2004 by the Greenland Ministry of Fisheries and Wildlife. The quota was set at 300 narwhals (of which 294 were taken), divided among municipalities of West Greenland. Compliance has reportedly been good (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). Narwhals are legally protected in Russia and Norway. The species is listed in Appendix II of CMS.
13704		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES and CMS Appendix II.<br/><br/>The European Union (EU), with stronger CITES rules than other countries, has established an import ban on tusks (active since December 2004). Although Denmark belongs to the EU, it is unclear whether the ban on trade in narwhal ivory between Greenland and Denmark is being enforced.
13704		distribution	eng	Narwhals primarily inhabit the Atlantic sector of the Arctic and are rare in the Pacific sector. The principal distribution is from the central Canadian Arctic (Peel Sound – Prince Regent Inlet and northern Hudson Bay), eastward to Greenland and into the eastern Russian Arctic (around 180°E). They are rarely observed in the far eastern Russian Arctic, Alaska, or the western Canadian Arctic. In summer, narwhals spend approximately two months in high Arctic ice-free shallow bays and fjords and overwinter in offshore, deep, ice-covered habitats along the continental slope (Heide-Jørgensen and Dietz 1995). These disjunct seasonal distributions are connected by extensive annual migrations (over 1,000 km) which last approximately two months (Koski and Davis 1994, Dietz <em>et al.</em> 2001, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al.</em> 2002, Innes<em> et al.</em> 2002, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al.</em> 2003).
13704		distribution	eng	Narwhals primarily inhabit the Atlantic sector of the Arctic. The principal distribution is from the central Canadian Arctic (Peel Sound – Prince Regent Inlet and northern Hudson Bay) eastward to Greenland and into the eastern Russian Arctic (around 180°E). They are rarely observed in the far eastern Russian Arctic, Alaska, or the western Canadian Arctic. In summer, narwhals spend approximately two months in high Arctic ice-free shallow bays and fjords; they overwinter in offshore, deep, ice-covered habitats along the continental slope (Heide-Jørgensen and Dietz 1995). The whales migrate annually between these disjunct seasonal areas of concentration, with the migratory periods lasting approximately two months (Koski and Davis 1994; Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2002; Dietz <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003).
13704		habitat	eng	In all areas of their occurrence, narwhals prefer deep or offshore waters (Hay and Mansfield 1989). Narwhals from Canada and West Greenland have high site fidelity to the winter pack ice of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in regions along the continental slope with high gradients in bottom temperatures, predictable open water (< 5%) and relatively high densities of Greenland halibut (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2004a). The wintering grounds may be the most important habitat for narwhals. Intense benthic feeding behavior has been documented between November and March in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2003; Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005a), in contrast to low feeding activity during the summer period. This suggests a major portion of the annual energy intake is obtained in winter (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2004a; Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005a). This may also be true for the Greenland Sea, but has yet to be documented.<br/><br/>Fish, squid, and shrimp make up the narwhal’s diet (Hay and Mansfield 1989; Heide-Jorgensen 2002), especially Arctic fish species, such as Greenland halibut, Arctic cod, and polar cod (the latter of which are often associated with undersides of ice) (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005a). Narwhals feed mostly in deep water and possibly at or near the bottom. Dives of up to nearly 1,500 m and 25 minutes are documented (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2003), and there are some seasonal differences in the depth and intensity of diving (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2002; Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2003). Predators include killer whales, polar bears, and possibly occasionally Greenland sharks and walruses (Hay and Mansfield 1989).
13704		habitat	eng	In all areas of their occurrence, narwhals prefer deep or offshore waters (Hay and Mansfield 1989). Narwhals from Canada and West Greenland have high site fidelity to the winter pack ice of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in regions along the continental slope with high gradients in bottom temperatures, predictable open water (< 5%), and relatively high densities of Greenland halibut (Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>Fish, squid, and shrimp make up most of the narwhal diet (Hay and Mansfield 1989, Heide-Jørgensen 2002), especially Arctic fish species, such as Greenland halibut, Arctic cod, and polar cod (the latter of which are often associated with undersides of ice) (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005).  Narwhals feed at times in deep water and possibly at or near the bottom.  Dives of up to nearly 1,500 m and 25 minutes are documented (Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2003), and there are some seasonal differences in the depth and intensity of diving (Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2002, Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2003).
13704		population	eng	The global population is probably in excess of 80,000 animals. The narwhals that summer in the Canadian High Arctic constitute the largest fraction, probably in excess of 70,000 animals (Innes <em>et al.</em> 2002, NAMMCO/JCNB 2005).
13704		population	eng	The global population is probably in excess of 80,000 animals. The narwhals that summer in the Canadian High Arctic constitute the largest fraction, probably in excess of 70,000 animals (Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In addition, some thousands of narwhals probably summer in the bays and fjords along the East Baffin Island coastline (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). Another summering aggregation, centred in northern Hudson Bay, numbers about 3,500 animals (COSEWIC 2004). Two summering aggregations in West Greenland (Inglefield Bredning and Melville Bay) total over 2,000 animals (Heide-Jørgensen 2004; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005) and in East Greenland a rough estimate of the total number of animals in the summering aggregations is >1,000 (Gjertz 1991; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). Surveys in Central West Greenland in late winter estimated 2,800 animals in 1998 and 1999 (Heide-Jørgensen and Acquarone 2002), however, these surveys covered unknown proportions of whales from different summering aggregations in West Greenland (likely Inglefield Bredning) and possibly Canada. Some areas in Canada with summering aggregations remain unsurveyed, although these likely contain small numbers.<br/><br/>The estimated generation length for the narwhal according to Taylor <em>et al</em>. (2007) is 24 years, which means that the 3-generation window is 1936-2008.
13704		threats	eng	Narwhal populations are potentially threatened by hunting, climate change, and industrial activities. Narwhals were never the targets of large-scale commercial hunting except for a brief period of perhaps several decades of the early 20th century in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Mitchell and Reeves 1981). They were hunted opportunistically by commercial whalers, explorers and adventurers in many areas. For many centuries, narwhals have been hunted by the Inuit for human food, dog food and tusk ivory (Born <em>et al</em>. 1994). The mattak (skin and adhering blubber) is highly prized as food and provides a strong incentive for the hunt (Reeves 1993), but in recent years the cash value of ivory and the need for cash to buy snowmobiles have both greatly increased. Potential future threats include habitat degradation from oil exploration and development (e.g., in West Greenland) and increased shipping in the high Arctic (NW and NE passages), all of which is bound to increase with the dramatic, ongoing reduction in sea ice.<br/><br/>In West Greenland, catches have declined since 1993 with no significant sex bias. Heide-Jorgensen (2002) estimated the annual catch rate at 550 between 1993 and 1995. In 2004, the estimated catch in West Greenland was 294 (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005), including whales that were struck and lost. In contrast to West Greenland, there has been an 8% increase in catches in East Greenland since 1993 (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). <br/><br/>The narwhal is actively hunted only in Canada and Greenland. In the eastern Canadian Arctic, the average reported landed catch per year from selected communities was 373 between 1996 and 2004 (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In Canada the majority of the communities take a greater proportion of males than females throughout the seasons. Annual catch statistics in Canada substantially underestimate the total numbers of narwhals killed due primarily to the incomplete reporting of whales that are struck and killed but lost (IWC 2000; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005; Nicklen 2007). <br/><br/>Narwhals supplied various staples in the traditional subsistence economy. Today the main products are mattak and ivory (Reeves 1993; Reeves and Heide-Jørgensen 1994; Heide-Jørgensen 1994; Nicklen 2007). Narwhal tusks from Canada and Greenland are sold in specialty souvenir markets domestically and also have been exported. However, in Greenland, the export of tusks is currently banned. In Canada, the quota system that had been in place since the 1970s was replaced by a community-based management system implemented in the late 1990s and early 2000s (COSEWIC 2004). The hunt is managed by local hunter and trapper organizations with harvest limits established in some communities. Compliance has been questionable (COSEWIC 2004). Under this system, removals from some summering aggregations are probably sustainable, however, there is concern that removals from other summering aggregations may not be (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In Greenland, a quota system was introduced in 2004 by the Greenland Ministry of Fisheries and Wildlife. The quota was set at 300 narwhals (of which 294 were taken), divided among municipalities of West Greenland. Compliance reportedly has been good (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005) although there is concern that catch limits may be set too high (IWC 2007, p. 52). <br/><br/>The effects of climate change on narwhals are uncertain. Narwhals are well adapted to a life in the pack ice as indicated by the fact that there is very little open water in their winter habitat (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005b). They spend much of their time in heavy ice and are vulnerable to ice entrapments where hundreds can become trapped in a small opening in the sea ice (savssat) and die. This occurs when sudden changes in weather conditions (such as shifts in wind or quick drops in temperature) freeze shut leads and cracks they were using. When entrapped whales are discovered by hunters, they normally are killed. A recent assessment of the sensitivity of all Arctic marine mammals to climate change ranked the narwhal as one of the three most sensitive species, primarily due to its narrow geographic distribution, specialized feeding and habitat choice, and high site fidelity (Laidre <em>et al</em>. in press).
13704		threats	eng	Narwhal populations may be limited or threatened by hunting, climate change, and industrial activities such as commercial fishing and oil exploration. Narwhals were never the targets of large-scale commercial hunting except for a brief period of perhaps several decades of the early 20th century in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Mitchell and Reeves 1981). They were hunted opportunistically by commercial whalers, explorers and adventurers in many areas. Narwhals have been hunted by the Inuit for human food, dog food and tusk ivory (Born <em>et al.</em> 1994). The mattak (skin and adhering blubber) is highly prized as food and provides a strong incentive for the hunt (Reeves 1993, Heide-Jørgensen 1994).  <br/><br/>The effects of climate change on narwhals are uncertain. Narwhals are well adapted to a life in the pack ice as indicated by the fact that there is very little open water in their winter habitat (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005).  Narwhals spend much of their time in heavy ice and are vulnerable to events called ice entrapments where hundreds of whales become trapped in a small opening in the sea ice and die.  This occurs when sudden changes in weather conditions (such as shifts in wind or quick drops in temperature) freeze shut leads and cracks they were using.  When live entrapped whales are discovered by Inuit hunters, they normally take advantage of the event by killing the animals. A recent assessment of the sensitivity of all Arctic marine mammals to climate change ranked the narwhal as one of the three most sensitive species, primarily due to its narrow geographic distribution, specialized feeding and habitat choice, and high site fidelity (Laidre <em>et al.</em> in press).
13719		conservation	eng	Fond in protected areas.
13719		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lesser Antilles from Anguilla to St. Vincent and Barbados. There are fossils records from Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005). It is known from sea level to 550 m (Schwartz and Jones, 1967). It is not found in Puerto Rico (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.).
13719		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in a variety of situations. The area where it occurs was described as a steep and wooded ravine near sugar cane fields; also it was trapped in banana groves, across a trail that separated wood-lands from a Theobroma grove, and in dense rainforest. It roosts in caves. Females taken on Dominica between March and April were gravid (Homan and Jones, 1975).
13719		population	eng	There is no information on population.
13719		threats	eng	Mining and tourism in the caves.
13720		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
13720		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and southern Bahamas Islands (Simmons, 2005).
13720		habitat	eng	The species forms large colonies containing up to a few hundred thousand individuals. It rest in hot caves during the day, where it normally roost in association with, but spatially separated from, bats of other species (Rodriguez-Duran, 1998; Silva-Taboada, 1979). This bat begins to leave its roost after dark. It is morphologically specialized for consumption of nectar; also include pollen. In some dry areas, this bat visit columnar cacti that bloom at night. In addition, it also consumes insects and occasionally ingests fruit. Dates on reproduction are scarce; births apparently occur at two different times during the year. On Puerto Rico, pregnant females are known from February through July and again in September and October (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13720		population	eng	It is common and broadly distributed on Puerto Rico (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13720		threats	eng	Mining, human disturbance (recreation and tourism).
13721		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action plan directed towards this species. The species is known from Sanjay Gandhi National Park. Research is required to understand the precise distribution, population trends, life history and specific threats to the species.
13721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is known from Robbers' cave and Dhobi&#160; Falls in&#160; Mahableshwar and Kanheri falls near&#160; Kanheri Caves, Mumbai (Silas and Dawson 1961) and Tamhini and Tailbail areas in Pune (Neelesh Dahanukar, Mandar Paingankar and Rupesh Raut pers. obs.), Maharashtra State.<br/><br/>The species is known from five localities but it is suspected to be present in more localities as well. The expected extent of occurrence (EOO) of the species is 30,000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 1,500 km² (about 5% of the&#160; EOO based on habitat requirement of the species).
13721		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monopterus indicus </span>inhabits swamps and marshy areas with soft mud associated with hill streams and it is adapted to burrowing habits. During the early monsoon it migrates upstream and breeds in the hill stream. During the monsoon season the young and adults are often found under the rocks in rapidly flowing hill streams. The fish feeds on earthworms (Neelesh Dahanukar, Mandar Paingankar and Rupesh Raut pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Since marshes, swamps and associated hill streams are essential habitats for this fish, habitat alterations caused by urbanization and recreational activities in the mountain tops could affect the species severely. Such changes are common in the northern Western Ghats where the species is distributed.
13721		population	eng	The species is very rare (Menon 1999, Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.). However, there is no information on the trends in the population changes.
13721		threats	eng	Marshes and swamps and associated hill streams are essential  habitats for the fish, habitat alterations caused by urbanization, deforestation and  recreational activities in the mountain tops could affect the species  severely. Such changes are common in the northern Western Ghats where  the species is distributed.
13836		conservation	eng	<p>All populations of this species are included in the regional nature reserve, which provides some protection. Studies relating to the population size and the biology and ecology of the species are recommended.<br/></p>
13836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Spain where it is distributed across the Montserrat Saw, Sant Llorenç de Munts Saws, the Garraf and possibly the Montseny.
13836		habitat	eng	This species is abundant on cliffs and steep rocks covered in conifer, deciduous and sclerophyll forests. It is found in communities with <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifragetum catalaunicae</span>, and is also present in groves of evergreen oaks, oak woods and stony areas.
13836		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, and no observed, inferred or projected conclusion can be drawn.
13836		threats	eng	Fire is the main threat to this species. Changes in the habitat due to changes in forestry management practices is a potential threat to this species. Shells of this species are collected, but these can be found fairly easily, which prevents collectors from taking live specimens.
13837		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history, and threats to this species.
13837		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan bat species ranges widely from West Africa to the East African coast. In West Africa, it is distributed from the Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west, through to Nigeria and Cameroon in the east. From Cameroon, it occurs patchily eastwards through the Congo Basin to Uganda, and to coastal parts of Kenya, Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar) and Mozambique in the south.
13837		habitat	eng	This species appears to be associated with tropical lowland forest. It appears to be quite adaptable and can be found roosting in trees, buildings and similar sites (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13837		population	eng	This is a common species.
13837		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation, presumably mostly through logging and mining activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
13838		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation actions are currently needed for the species as a whole.
13838		distribution	eng	This bat is widely distributed over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal, the Gambia and Mali in the west, to the Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia in the east; from here it ranges southwards through much of eastern and southern Africa, as far south as eastern South Africa and Swaziland. The species appears to be largely absent from the Congo Basin.
13838		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with savanna habitats (both moist and dry), although it may sometimes be encountered at the edges of woodland. It is commonly found roosting in buildings, hollow trees and rock crevices.
13838		population	eng	This is a common species.
13838		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Some colonies roosting within buildings are possibly threatened by general persecution.
13839		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this poorly known species.
13839		distribution	eng	This species has been patchily recorded in Central Africa. It is found from southern Cameroon, east into the northern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda. Earlier records of this species from Ghana and Nigeria are now allocated to <em>Tadarida trevori</em> (Simmons 2005).
13839		habitat	eng	This species is associated with mature tropical lowland moist forest. Colonies roost in hollow trees.
13839		population	eng	The species has been rarely collected. While a single large colony of approximately several dozen bats has been reported, it is suspected to generally occur in much smaller roosts.
13839		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, largely resulting from logging activities and conversion of land to agricultural use.
13840		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Freeman, 1981), and may be present in additional protected areas. There is a need to protect suitable large roosting trees in savanna. Further research is needed to better understand the distribution, natural history and major threats to this species.
13840		distribution	eng	This African bat has been patchily recorded from West Africa (Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Burkina Faso) and Central to East Africa (Cameroon, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda and Sudan). A record from the Gambia appears to be in error (Koopman 1989; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13840		habitat	eng	This species is found in open and dry savanna and Saharan grasslands. It might be associated with large rivers, especially in the north eastern part of the range. Animals often roost in fissures and cracks of tree trunks (including <em>Vitex doniana</em> [Freeman 1981]) and large branches of savanna trees.
13840		population	eng	This species is rarely recorded. Animals are usually found singly or as small groups of up to 12 bats.
13840		threats	eng	In part of its range this species is threatened by habitat loss, mostly the cutting of larger roosting trees from savanna. It may also be threatened by encroaching desertification in the northern limits of its range..
13841		conservation	eng	There is a need to protect large trees and other known roosting sites for this species (this does not apply to populations on Madagascar). In Madagascar, it is known from Beza Mahafaly and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Parks.
13841		distribution	eng	This widespread lowland, savanna species ranges from West Africa eastwards to East Africa and southwards into southern Africa. It has been recorded from the Arabian Peninsula (found in hollow trees). It is present on Madagascar, where it is generally distributed in the drier western and southern habitats of the island below 150 m asl (Ratrimomanarivo <em>et al.</em> 2007).
13841		habitat	eng	This is an open aerial species of woodland and lowland savanna, with most records from the southern part of its range associated with major rivers and extensive swamps (Smithers 1983; Dunlop 1999). In Madagascar it is found in dry woodland and savanna habitats (Ratrimomanarivo <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species prefers roosting in total darkness as evidenced by a roost in Maun, Botswana that was located in an attic (Smithers 1983). It has also been observed roosting in long, narrow cracks in trees and in the joints of a concrete bridge (Smithers 1983; Dunlop 1999). In Madagascar, captures of this species have been from roosts in buildings (within crevices between cement walls or bricks), within the leaves of coconut palms, in large tree hollows and shallow rock crevices, and it does not appear to be associated with deep cave day-roosts (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007; Ratrimomanarivo <em>et al.</em> 2007).
13841		population	eng	It is generally considered to be rare. In southern Africa it is gregarious, and occurs in colonies numbering hundreds (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). Roosts of this species in West and Central Africa are unknown. In Madagascar, no large colonies have been found and it is thought to be a locally common species with a patchy distribution. The maximum recorded colony was near Amboasary of 600 individuals.
13841		threats	eng	This species is thought to be locally threatened by general persecution, collection for food and habitat loss.
13842		conservation	eng	This species has been found in protected areas and occurs in the Betung Kerihun National Park in Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo (E. Meijaard pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand (Bumringsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
13842		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo and perhaps Java (Indonesia) (Simmons 2005). It is probably found throughout Borneo (C. Francis pers. comm.). It has been recorded at many localities in Sarawak (M. Gumal pers. comm.).
13842		habitat	eng	This species is often found near rivers but it is not wholly dependent on them. The primary habitat for this bat is forest, it roosts in tree hollows and has been observed to fly high in/above the canopy and has been captured over rivers (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is found in lowland forest in Thailand and Indonesia.
13842		population	eng	This species is rare in Thailand. Its population status elsewhere is unknown.
13842		threats	eng	Deforestation for logging, agriculture, and plantations represents a major threat to this species, as well as forest fires.
13843		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
13843		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan bat is widely, but patchily, recorded in West, Central and East Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone and Guinea in the west, through West Africa to Cameroon, and from here east to southern Sudan, Uganda, and western Kenya with an additional record from western Ethiopia. It ranges as far south as the southern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is a lowland species.
13843		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with tropical lowland forest habitats. It can be found roosting in small numbers in tree cracks or within man made structures such as thatched houses and sheds (Sanderson 1940; T.S. Jones in Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
13843		population	eng	This is a common species.
13843		threats	eng	In general there are no threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by habitat loss, primarily deforestation resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
13844		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known bat.
13844		distribution	eng	This little known species was collected from "Niangara, northeastern Belgian Congo" (Democratic Republic of the Congo near the border with Sudan) (Allen <em>et al</em>. 1917; Lang and Chapin 1917).
13844		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known. It is currently unclear whether the holotype was collected in savanna or tropical moist forest (Freeman, 1981), however, it appears to have been reported to roost in tree hollows (Lang and Chapin 1917).
13844		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
13844		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown.
13845		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and systematics of this species.
13845		distribution	eng	This species is present in Central Africa and parts of Southern Africa. It has been recorded from eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Zambia, Rwanda, northern Mozambique and possibly from Malawi. Previous records from Madagascar and Botswana are now considered to be erroneous (Simmons 2005).
13845		habitat	eng	This species is associated with mature Miombo woodland. Roosting takes place in hollow trees and buildings.
13845		population	eng	This is a locally common species that can be found in large colonies of up to hundreds of individuals within buildings, but is more often present in smaller numbers.
13845		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range, often through general deforestation and the conversion of suitable habitat by shifting agricultural practices.
13846		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest within the range of this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this bat.
13846		distribution	eng	This little-known species has only been recorded from Ghana and Cameroon (with type locality of '15 km S Kumba'), with no records from the intervening countries of Togo, Benin and Nigeria. Koopman (1993) included "perhaps Sierra Leone" as part of the distribution, however, J. Fahr (pers. comm. 2004) indicates that there is no evidence of the species' presence.
13846		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest habitats. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.
13846		population	eng	It is considered to be a very rare species.
13846		threats	eng	The species is considered to be threatened by loss and degradation of forest habitats within its known range, largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use and the extraction of firewood and timber.
13847		conservation	eng	Legislation to conserve this species is being established at a national level but needs to be implemented. Further research to understand this species population and ecology is required.
13847		distribution	eng	The species is found in Indonesia (Sulawesi) and the Philippines (Simmons 2005). In the Philippines, records are from  Mindanao (South Cotabato, and Misamis Oriental provinces), and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has also been collected on Buton (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006). The record from Luzon, Benguet province, represents an undescribed species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
13847		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology of this species are mostly unknown, although it is probably found in lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It forages over water and also cultivated areas.
13847		population	eng	The population status and trends are unknown. Surveys for this species in the Philippines have been inadequate and inappropriate, given that it is a high flying forager. It is known from very few records scattered over a large area.
13847		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation through felling of trees and agriculture. Mining and encroachment of industrial development are also threats.
13848		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
13848		distribution	eng	This species ranges through parts of West and Central Africa. It occurs from Sierra Leone in the west, through Liberia, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Togo, to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko and Rio Muni), the Central African Republic with a record from the eastern part of The Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is possibly present in other countries, such as Benin, Nigeria and Congo, however, this needs to be confirmed.
13848		habitat	eng	In general this is a lowland tropical moist forest species that roosts in hollow trees. There is little information on the adaptability of this species to habitat modification.
13848		population	eng	Within Central Africa this is a very common species, and is believed to have quite large colonies.
13848		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by deforestation, often through conversion of land to agricultural use or by extraction of timber and firewood.
13849		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
13849		distribution	eng	This widespread bat species has been recorded from much of Western and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa (where it has been recorded from most countries) to Cameroon, and from here south into southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and east into Uganda, Rwanda and western Kenya. It is present on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea.
13849		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest (both primary and secondary), and has also been recorded from cocoa plantations. Usually found roosting as small groups in hollow trees, under roof or in road culverts and drains (Happold, 1987).
13849		population	eng	It appears to be quite abundant in parts of its range.
13849		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by habitat destruction, often through conversion of land to agricultural use or timber extraction.
13850		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, however, it has been recorded from some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little-known bat.
13850		distribution	eng	This species has been patchily recorded in parts of West and Central Africa. In West Africa It has been recorded from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Comoe in Ghana, and Agege in Nigeria; in Central Africa it has been recorded from the Central African Republic, parts of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda.
13850		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland forest, and may be a forest-savanna mosaic specialist. In Nigeria, they have been observed flying over a fish pond close to tropical moist forest (Happold 1987). Colonies roost inside hollow trees (Lang and Chapin 1917; Jeffrey 1975).
13850		population	eng	Little is known about the abundance of this apparently rare species, but it is presumed that colony size is likely to be small.
13850		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by habitat loss, resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, and the extraction of firewood and timber.
13873		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
13873		population	eng	Population trend is considered to be declining based on food market turnover. In 1996–97 this species represented 10 tons/day during the peak season, but then disappeared from markets in 1998.
13874		population	eng	The population is considered to be declining. A commonly traded species In east Asian food markets, where supply reached peaks of 30 tons/day in April–May of 1996–97, but disappeared from markets by 1998.
13877		conservation	eng	Protect the caves. Found in protected reas. Only one protected hot cave in Jamaica (Davalos pers. comm.)
13877		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Greater Antilles, and adjacent small islands (Simmons, 2005). Presence of fossilized specimens indicates that at one time the range of this species extended from the Bahamas as far south as Antigua and Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles (Lancaster and Kalko, 1996). Today, this bat is known only from the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico) (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/>Locally extinct from Abaco, Exuma and New Providence (Bahamas), Gonave (Haiti), Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda (Lesser Antilles) (Turvey pers. comm.).
13877		habitat	eng	This species roosts mostly in hot caves, where each bat typically hangs by itself from ceiling. Individuals occasionally gather in small clusters in cooler sections of caves, and sometimes solitary bats are found in an apparent state of shallow torpor in places where air temperature may fall as low as 20 Celsius degrees. This bat normally begins to exit the cave after dark, between 22 and 55 min after sunset (Silva-Taboada, 1979). It is insectivorous, but foraging behavior has not been studied in detail. Moths are by far the most common food, in addition to moths, beetles are also eaten. It appears to hunt along forest edges and around the crowns of trees. It typically gives birth only once each year to a single offspring. On Cuba, pregnant females are found from March to June (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13877		population	eng	It is locally common; in hot caves it can attain high densities (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13877		threats	eng	Breeding sites are rare. Threats to hot caves. In Puerto Rico is urban development (Rodriguez pers. comm.). In Jamaica is guano collection (Davalos pers. comm.). In Dominican Republic is mine exploration (Inchaustegui pers. comm.).
13878		conservation	eng	Conservation and protection of cave habitat, although this will not guarantee protection of the species (Davalos pers. comm.). Found in protected areas.
13878		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout south Texas, south Arizona (USA), and Baja California (Mexico) south to northwest Peru and north Venezuela; Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles); It is also found on Trinidad; Margarita Island (Venezuela) (Simmons, 2005). It is discontinuous throughout its range in localised colonies (Molinari pers. comm.).<br/>As a species complex was previously much more widespread, local extinctions have occurred throughout most of its range (Davalos pers. comm.). Its area of occupancy is relatively small (Molinari pers. comm.).
13878		habitat	eng	Occurs in specialised roosts in deep caves of karstic regions, this habitat is very rare (Molinari pers. comm.). A minimum population is required to maintain the temperature of the cave at around 40 centigrade, once the minimum threshold of individuals required to maintain the temperature. If the temperature is reduced, offspring do not survive (Molinari pers. comm.). In Ecuador occurs in cloud forest. At around 3,000 m in the Andes (Molinari pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This bat feeds on insects, chiefly moths, its prey usually has body lengths of 5 to 6 mm. It often forages over water, on forest edges, gaps, or open spaces. It roosts in deep caves, where it hangs singly, separated from their neighbors, in colonies of up to several thousand, but usually of only a few individuals. In north Amerca, large concentrations are found in caves in October and November, but disappear by January - such movements are not always seasonal.  Females produce one young per year, between April to June. Nursing females roost separately for males and non-reproductive females (Ceballos and Galindo, 1984; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997; Rezsutek and Cameron, 1993; Villa-R., 1966).
13878		population	eng	It is locally common, and it is rarely in large groups (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). The population of Venezuela is likely to occur in only ten caves (Molinari pers comm.). Found in hot caves (Rodriguez pers. comm.).
13878		threats	eng	Cave collapse can cause localised extinctions, cave vandalism occurs in many countries, they are very sensitive to disturbance (Davalos and Molinari pers. comm.). In Belize tourism in caves is causing problems (Miller pers. comm.). In Guatemala there are problems with fire in caves (Jose Cajas pers. comm.).
13879		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect cave roosts of this species in Mauritius by re-grilling important sites.
13879		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Mauritius and Rèunion. There is a single doubtful record for Madagascar (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 1995), two old records for South Africa (both near Durban in 1833 and undated), and an old record from taken between the district of Shoa and Lake Rudolph in southern Ethiopia (Hayman and Hill 1971; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It is now considered most likely that specimens taken outside of the Mascarene Islands were vagrants, and that the species should be considered endemic to Mauritius and Rèunion (Skinner and Chimimba 2005; Goodman 2007).
13879		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from scrubland, woodland and agricultural areas. It is a cave roosting species.
13879		population	eng	Goodman (2007) found bats allocated to this species to be common at several sites on Mauritius and La Réunion.
13879		threats	eng	It is threatened by disturbance of roosting caves, and the removal of protective grills over the caves for landfill purposes.
13880		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park, Australia, as well as Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Western Province, Papua New Guinea). Species boundaries need to be checked to assess difference between Australian and New Guinea/Moluccan populations, which appear to have different bone structures and weights (T. Reardon and N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
13880		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the islands of Halmahera and Ambon in the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), through New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and a single location in Papua Province, Indonesia), on the islands of Fergusson and New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and throughout much of northern Australia. It is found from sea level to 300 m asl.
13880		habitat	eng	This species is present in a wide variety of habitats ranging from arid and semi-arid areas, through savanna type habitats to forested areas, including tropical moist forest. It seems to use fragmented habitat remnants (M. Pennay pers. comm.). It can be found in urban areas (Bonaccorso 1998). This species roosts in tree hollows and caves, and has been found roosting in buildings in colonies of up to 50 animals (Bonaccorso 1998; McKenzie and Bullen 2008).
13880		population	eng	It is a common species.
13880		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13881		conservation	eng	It is doubtful that the type locality is in a protected area. Survey work is required to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
13881		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Soekaranda, Deli, northern Sumatra, Indonesia, below 250 m asl. It has not been recorded again since its description in 1907.
13881		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the ecology of this species, but it is probably similar to other <em>Mormopterus</em> species.
13881		population	eng	The population status and trend are unknown.
13881		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
13882		conservation	eng	As this species is more commonly found roosting in buildings than natural settings it is not found in many of the protected areas in Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, there is no need for any conservation measures at present as this species appears to be widely distributed and is locally abundant.
13882		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995) and very widespread across the island with a known distribution extending from the coast up to the high plateau at 1,400 m in Anjozorobe (J. Ranivo pers. comm.).
13882		habitat	eng	It is usually found roosting in synanthropic settings but also uses caves and rock fissures (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006). A nursery colony with over 1,000 young bats was observed in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). In eastern Madagascar it feeds mainly on coleopterans and hemipterans (Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006) and forages in open areas (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the south-east it has been netted near water in gallery and spiny forest (Goodman 1999). It frequently shares synanthropic roosts with other molossid species (Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006).
13882		population	eng	There are no quantitative data available on populations of this species; however, it is assumed to have a high population size because it is widespread and roosts in large colonies in buildings.
13882		threats	eng	This species is not threatened by loss of native forests because it forages in open areas associated with agriculture. It is locally persecuted when roosting in buildings although this is not yet a major threat. Some colonies are subject to hunting and although this is though to have resulted in abandonment in at least two cases (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008), harvest levels do not appear a major threat.
13883		conservation	eng	It occurs within three protected areas in Peru (Solari pers. comm.). Research actions.
13883		distribution	eng	Peru, Northern Chile (Simmons 2005).
13883		habitat	eng	May be found in small numbers in urban areas (Solari pers. comm.). It flies relatively low compared with other molossus, some were predated by cats (Solari pers. comm.).
13883		population	eng	There is no information on population.
13883		threats	eng	Not known.
13884		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. Research in population, threats, habitats.
13884		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba (Simmons, 2005).
13884		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). Found in Cuban dry forests (McGinley 2007). Found disturbed habitats and secundary forests (Mancina pers. comm.).
13884		population	eng	Is really abundant, more than 1,000 individuals per colony (Mancina pers. comm.).
13884		threats	eng	Habitat loss, degradation (human induced).
13885		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species, particularly on the effects of habitat loss to it.
13885		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland through eastern New South Wales. The type specimen is supposedly from Norfolk Island, but it has never been recorded since (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
13885		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from dry eucalypt forest and over rocky rivers in rainforest and wet schlerophyll forest habitats (Hoye <em>et al.</em> 2008), particularly in complex habitats (G. Richards pers. comm.). There is a record of a small colony in a house (T. Reardon pers. comm.). One generation is approximately 5-7 years (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Its call is very distinctive, and rarely recorded despite extensive survey (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
13885		population	eng	It has only been recorded as scattered individuals, and they appear to be genuinely rare. There have been just 120 reliable records of this species since 1914. Its range is approximately 90% in New South Wales in areas that are well surveyed. This would suggest a population of less than 10,000 mature individuals (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
13885		threats	eng	This species is suspected to be threatened by habitat loss including harvesting of timber, coastal development, and possibly inappropriate fire regimes.
13887		conservation	eng	Type locality is within a protected area.
13887		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Urubamba River, San Miguel Bridge, Peru (Simmons, 2005).
13887		habitat	eng	Very little known on habitat and ecology, may prefer montane forest based on habitat at type locality (Davaros pers. comm.). Occurs at 3,000 m and may roost in caves (Velazco pers comm.).
13887		population	eng	This species is rare - only nine or ten specimen collected,  areas with suitable habitat in a neighbouring national park surounding the locality have been surveyed using a range of methodolgies and failed to find the species (Velazco pers. comm.). May be micro endemic (Aguirre pers. comm.). The species is considered 'endangered' in the national red list of Peru (Velazco pers. comm.).
13887		threats	eng	Known only from one location.
13888		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas throughout Australia. The most urgent research need is to assess the species limits within this complex and formally describe species that are likely within it.
13888		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It occurs from eastern Queensland south to Victoria and across much of the southern and central portions of the country to south-western Australia, with the exception of the Nullarbor Plain.
13888		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats including forests, open woodland, mallee, and shrubland. It is often more common in wet habitats. It forages predominantly on insects at canopy level or over open land. These bats roost in tree-hollows, roof cavities, lengths of waterpipe, as well as other man made structures. Colonies contain up to about 100 animals. Captive individuals have been known to live for 15 years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Females usually give birth to a single young.
13888		population	eng	It is a common species. However, in portions of its range it is uncommon (e.g., in the north-east and parts of its westernmost range).
13888		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In portions of its range, however, it is threatened by habitat destruction. In the eastern parts of its range clearance of forest for agriculture and coastal development are threats (L. Hall and M. Pennay pers. comm.), and in parts of the west clearing for agriculture, degradation of woodland habitat, and salinification of habitat adversely affect the species (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
13891		conservation	eng	In Japan there are conservation management plans in progress for this species. However the majority of mainland sites have no form of protection. More surveys are needed particularly along the coast of southern and eastern China to determine the full distribution of this species. More data is needed on its habitat requirements.
13891		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the coastal regions of Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the east coast of Honshu, Japan. There is a single record from an inland site in Gutoushan, Guangdong, China.
13891		habitat	eng	The majority of the populations are associated with brackish marshes, but populations have also been found in coastal freshwater streams. In Hong Kong the adults have been recorded in mangrove habitat, but the larvae have never been found there. Larvae of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Mortonagrion hirosei</span> have a relatively high survival rate in brackish water of saline concentrations of up to 15%.
13891		population	eng	This is a very localised species but often abundant where it occurs.
13891		threats	eng	This species is principally threatened due to habitat loss due to coastal development, including fisheries and urbanisation.
13894		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is on the China Red List as Endangered (A1cd, B1c), and on the China Key List. Captive breeding, primarily for commercial musk production, occurs in various places in China, and might have some conservation benefit. However, to date, there is little evidence that the availability of musk from captive-bred animals has had a positive conservation impact in terms of reducing poaching pressure (Parry-Jones and Wu 2001, Green <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007).
13894		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central and southern China (Shaanxi, Gansu and Henan, south to southeastern Tibet, Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiangxi; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003; Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2004). It extends to the eastern Himalayas and into northeastern Viet Nam, and perhaps northern Lao PDR (there is unresolved historical information that this species also used to exist in Lao PDR (Chebinaud 1942; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
13894		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coniferous or broad-leaved forests, or mixed forests and shrublands at high elevations (2,000-3,800 m). In Viet Nam it is found in karst habitats (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Animals are most active between dusk and dawn, alternately resting and feeding. Forest Musk Deer eat leaves, grasses, moss, lichens, shoots, twigs. These animals are shy, sedentary, and remain within a defined home range throughout the year. Males utilize their large musk gland to defend their territory and attract mates. When alarmed they make great leaps with wild changes of direction. They can adroitly jump into trees to forage. Their main predators include leopard, marten, fox, wolf, lynx and especially humans. Gestation lasts 6.5 months, after which one or two young are born. During the first two months, the young deer lie hidden in secluded areas, independent of their mothers except at feeding times. They are weaned within 3-4 months and reach sexual maturity by 24 months.  Animals may live up to 20 years. Home ranges of <em>M. berezovskii</em> were reported to be 5-10 ha in China by Sheng and Liu (2007).
13894		population	eng	Estimating population sizes or trends for musk deer is very difficult, and has rarely been done satisfactorily. Population estimates over large-scale areas are subject to considerable uncertainty (and this is exacerbated in China by uncertainty over taxonomy). The population in China was guessed at over one million in the 1960s; in 1978-1980 at less than 600,000; and in 1992 at 100,000 to 200,000 in 1992 (Sheng 1998). However, the basis for these estimates is unclear, though the strong declining trend is likely to be correct. In the late 1990s, the population in Viet Nam was estimated at 200, but it is now very rare (Do Tuoc pers. comm.).
13894		threats	eng	The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of a brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 2007). Musk deer appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003). The Viet Namese population is heavily hunted by local people for medicinal use, and is thought to persist in the country in only four localities (Do Tuoc pers. comm.).
13895		conservation	eng	This species listed on CITES Appendix II in China, and on Appendix I in the other countries within its range.  It is on the China Red List as Endangered (A1d+2cd+3cd), and was recently changed from category II to category I on the China Key List in February 2003. Captive breeding, primarily for commercial musk production, occurs in various places in China, and might have some conservation benefit. However, to date, there is little evidence that the availability of musk from captive-bred animals has had a positive conservation impact (Parry-Jones and Wu 2001, Green <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007).
13895		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the highlands of central China (the Helan mountains form the northern edge of the distribution), south and west to the Himalayas, extending to eastern Nepal, Bhutan, and northeastern India (Sathyakumar 2002; Wemmer 1998). Records from Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwestern India and western Nepal refer to <em>Moschus cupreus</em> and <em>M. leucogaster</em>. This species is found at elevations of 2,000-5,000 m asl.<br/><br/>Within China, which comprises the bulk of its range, it is found in southern Gansu, southern Ningxia, Qinghai, western Sichuan, southern Tibet, and northern Yunnan.
13895		habitat	eng	This species is found on barren plateaus at high altitudes, where it occupies meadows, fell-fields, shrublands or fir forests.  In western Sichuan, where it overlaps the distribution of <em>M. berezovskii</em>, the alpine musk deer inhabits the higher elevations (above 2,000 m asl, usually above 3,00 m asl), compared with the 1,000-2,500 m altitudinal range of <em>M. berezovskii</em>. It feeds mainly on grasses, shrubs, leaves, moss, lichens, shoots, and twigs (Green 1987). Its main predators include yellow-throated marten, fox, wolf, and lynx. It is generally solitary and crepuscular (Harris and Cai 1993).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs primarily in November-December, with the resulting offspring being born from May to June. After birth, young deer lie hidden in secluded areas, essentially independent of their mothers except at feeding times. This hiding period may last up to 2 months. Gestation is variously reported at from 150-195 days (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993) and give birth to one offspring (twins are sometimes reported by documentation is lacking).  Fawns wean at 3-4 months, are sexually mature at 16-24 months. <br/><br/>Alpine musk deer are sedentary, tending to remain within defined home ranges. In females these are about 125 acres in size, while male musk deer will control a territory which encompasses the ranges of several females, possibly defending it against other males. The species is not known to migrate. Communication between individuals is thought to be based primarily on their sense of smell, due to the high development of the glands of musk deer. It is primarily silent, musk deer will emit a loud double hiss if alarmed. Population densities can reach 3-4 animals per square kilometer (Smith and Xie 2008), but are not always this high.
13895		population	eng	Estimating population sizes or trends for musk deer is very difficult, and has rarely been done satisfactorily. Population estimates over large-scale areas are subject to considerable uncertainty (and this is exacerbated by uncertainty over taxonomy). A widely repeated but poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 individuals in the 1960s and 1970s (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003, Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2004), but Sheng (1998) reported no more than 100,000 within China in the 1990s.<br/><br/>Liu and Sheng (2002) estimated population sizes in three Chinese nature reserves in the mid 1990s using extrapolations from counts of pellet groups, but provided few details. They estimated 183-227 in the Helan Mountain Nature Reserve in Ningxia, 131-160 in the Shoulu Mountain Nature Reserve in Gansu, and 4,717-5,798 in the Xinglong Mountain Nature Reserve in Gansu. More recent reports suggest that musk deer have become very rare in the Helan Mountains (Liu, Z.S., East China Normal University pers. comm., 2006).<br/><br/>Anecdotal evidence points to a continued decline in abundance within China. Although population estimates contained in Yang <em>et al</em>. (2003) are unreliable, data on musk purchased by local Traditional Chinese Medicine companies probably reflect real trends, and these suggested dramatic declines in musk deer populations during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in Sichuan, Yunnan, Qinghai, Tibet, and Shaanxi.
13895		threats	eng	The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 1991; 2007).<br/><br/>Musk deer also appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).
13896		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II in China, and on Appendix I in the other countries within its range. It is on the China Red List as Endangered (A2cd+3cd), and the China Key List as category II. This species has become nominally protected in Myanmar with the creation Khakaborazi National Park, but enforcement of hunting has a long way to go (Than Zaw and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
13896		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China (northwestern Yunnan and southeastern Tibet), northern Myanmar, northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh), Bhutan, and eastern Nepal (Grubb 2005). It is reported at elevations of 2,600-4,200 m. Within Yunnan, China, it is distributed in Gongshan, Fugong and Bijiang counties (Wang, Y.X., unpublished data, 2008).
13896		habitat	eng	This species is found near the tree line in rhodendron and coniferous forests, forest-edge and rocky ridges at high elevations (2,600-4,200 m). This is a poorly-known form; all life-history attributes are likely similar to those of the Alpine Musk Deer (<em>M. chrysogaster</em>).
13896		population	eng	Estimating population sizes or trends for musk deer is very difficult, and has rarely been done satisfactorily. Population estimates over large-scale areas are subject to considerable uncertainty (and this is exacerbated by uncertainty over taxonomy). No rigorous population estimates exist within China. According to Wang (1998), the species is very rare, making up less than 10% of musk deer found even within Yunnan, with even fewer reported from Tibet. Yang <em>et al</em>. (2003) considered the species quite rare, perhaps on the verge of extinction. This species is very rare within Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm.). Musk glands were exported from Myanmar, and there have been many skin samples from Myanmar as well. There is one recent camera trap record from Khakaborazi National Park, Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm.).
13896		threats	eng	The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 2007). There is hunting and illegal trade for musk glands from Myanmar to China (Than Zaw pers. comm.). The threat from trade is increasing (Than Zaw pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Musk deer appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).
13897		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. The Sakhalin subspecies (<em>M. m. sachaliensis</em>) is listed in Red List of Russian Federation as Category I (Critically Endangered). It is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000). Hunting in mongolia has been prohibited since 1953, and it is protected as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE, 1996). It is listed in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997). It is also on the Chinese Red List as Endangered A1cd, and is included on the China Key List - II.<br/><br/>In Russia it is present in a number of protected areas. Approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. The following conservation measures are in place in Mongolia:<br/>• More than 1.5 million hectares of the range of this species is included within Horgo Terkhiin Tsagaan Nuur National Park (Hangai Mountain Range), Hövsgöl Nuur National Park (Hövsgöl Mountain Range), and Gorkhi Terelj National Park, Bogd Khan Uul Strictly Protected Area, and Khan Hentii Strictly Protected Area in Hentii Mountain Range (Wemmer, 1998).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are needed through its range (Wang <em>et al</em> 1993; Wemmer <em>et al</em> 1998):<br/>• Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature, particularly relating to trade in musk through increased vigilance within protected areas and by customs agents at border crossings.<br/>• Conduct further ecological research and monitor population trends, including on population dynamics, dispersal, and the effects of harvesting. No national surveys of Siberian musk deer population size have been conducted for over 30 years (Homes, 2004).<br/>• Regulate illegal logging and human-caused fires within its range (R. Reading pers. comm.).<br/>• Organise a workshop including representatives from Mongolia, China, Russia and the Koreas to focus international efforts on conservation and to agree upon realistic yet effective solutions to threats faced by this species (Homes, 2004).<br/>• Identify substitutes for musk which would be acceptable in traditional forms of East Asian medicine (Homes, 2004).<br/><br/>The species is successfully bred in captivity at musk deer farms, especially in Russua (in the Altai and Moscow regions) and China.
13897		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the Russian Federation (Siberia and the Far East), extreme eastern Kazakhstan, northeastern and northwestern China, Mongolia, Republic of Korea and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Tsendjav, 2002). Records from Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Viet Nam refer to other species in the genus <em>Moschus</em>. Four subspecies occur in Russia: <em>M. m. moschiferus</em> (Siberia); <em>M. m. turovi</em> (Russian Far East); <em>M. m. arcticus</em> (Verkhoyansk Ridge); and <em>M. m. sachalinensis</em> (Sakhalin Island). In Mongolia, <em>M. m. moschiferus</em> is found regionally in the forested habitats in the northern Mongol Altai mountain range (Togtokhbayar <em>et al</em>., 2000), Hangai mountain range (Sosorburam, 1970; Dulamtseren, 1977; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989), Hentii and Hövsgöl mountain ranges, and possibly around Han Höhii Mountain in the western Hangai mountain range (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989; Wemmer, 1998; Tsendjav, 2002). Two subspecies are found in China: <em>M. m. moschiferus</em> in Xinjiang (Altai mountains), Nei Mongol, and Heilongjiang; and <em>M. m. parvipes</em> along the border with North Korea in the Lesser Xing’an and Changbai mountain ranges, as far west as Ordos Plateau. <em>M. m. parvipes</em> occurs widely in both North and South Korea.
13897		habitat	eng	Inhabiting mountainous taiga (broadleaf and needle forest), these animals are typically found in forests of dense birch (<em>Betula</em> spp.) and larch (<em>Larix</em> spp.), and shrub-covered slopes in sub-alpine zones (Dulamtseren, 1977; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989; Tsendjav, 2002). In Russia it inhabits the mid-mountain belt where it prefers dark coniferous forest with dense shrubs and rocky outcrops, using such rocky areas to escape from predators (Prohod’ko, 2002). However, lichens are the main part of Siberian musk deer diet, accounting for up to 99% of the food intake in winter. During the rest of the year the percentage of lichen in the diet is still high, but these deer also consume grasses, leaves and mushrooms. When feeding it is able to climb on inclined trunks up to 3-4 m above ground. Population density is highly correlated with the availability of food and hiding places. The average population density is about 0.6 animals per square kilometre, although under favourable conditions this may be as high as 4-8.5 animals per square kilometer (Prohod’ko, 2002). It has a thick coat for insulation and is well adapted for walking through deep snow.  They are preyed upon by a suite of predators including lynx, wolverine, yellow-throated marten, and rarely wolf, tiger, and bear. When chased, musk deer head for rocky terrain, and will try to reach an inaccessible crag or a shelter. If neither is available, the animal begins to run in circles. Although they can run exeptionally fast, musk deer tire after only 200-300 metres.<br/><br/>They are solitary, though they sometimes occur in small groups (no more than 3 individuals) of a female with her young. In the Altai, family groups consist usually of an adult permanent couple and the young of the year. The territory of female and young lies within the territory of a male. Sometimes the group includes young males up to 2 years old, that are submissive to the adult male, but actively participate in making and protecting common territory (Prohod’ko, 2002). They are primarily active at dusk and dawn. While foraging, a musk deer may travel 3-7 km per night, generally returning to the same spot (a "lair") every morning. Individuals inhabit home ranges between 200 and 300 hectares in size, sticking to the boundaries steadfastly. The size of the home range decreases markedly during the second half of winter. Seasonal migrations are minimal if present at all. Reproduction starts in December, although some females do not mate until March (Prohod’ko, 2002). Females gestate for just over 6 months, and give birth to 1-3 offpsring, usually in May and June. Young wean at 3-4 months, and are mature at 15-17 months. Animals live in the wild for 10-14 years.
13897		population	eng	During the 1920s and 1930s numbers were sharply reduced through hunting. In the 1970s the Mongolian population size was estimated to be between 60,000 and 80,000 animals (Dulamtseren, 1977). In 1986, the Institute of Biology of the Mongolian Academy of Science assessed musk deer population sizes in over 53,000 hectares across 63 units of six provinces, resulting in an estimate of approximately 44,000 individuals. The population size in Mongolia continued to decrease: between 1990 and 2000, densities fell from six per 5 km², to one per 5 km² in one observed population (Tsendjav and Bujinkhand, 2000; Tsendjav, 2002). Likewise, all populations in Russia are considered declining. Population estimates from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in 1999 put the Sakhalin population at about 600-650 individuals (still declining), the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000 individuals, and the population in the Russian Far East at up to 150,000 individuals (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). Equivalent data appear not to be available for China or the Koreas, but these species is believed to be declining heavily there also. It is believed to be contracting in range in China, and had apparently disappeared from Xinjiang by the end of the 19th century.
13897		threats	eng	As the common name suggests, males secrete musk from a preputial gland (the “musk-pod”). This musk forms the basis for many perfumes, and is highly valued for traditional medicines (Wemmer, 1998). Each male produces only around 25 g of musk (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989; Tsendjav, 2002). Although this musk can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac.  <br/><br/>Illegal, unsustainable hunting for musk is the principal threat to this species. An estimated 25,000 adult males were killed through harvesting and illegal hunting between 1990 and 2001 (Homes, 2004). As hunting is often indiscriminate of sex and age, four to five Siberian musk deer are estimated to be killed per musk-pod harvested (Green, 1987). As cheaper, synthetic alternatives for making perfumes are becoming more popular, use of musk in the perfume industry is decreasing, but its value for cardiac, circulatory and respiratory traditional medicines remains high. During the 1970s, the international market value of musk reached up to $45,000 USD per kg. Between 1995 and 2001, the number of traders in musk increased six-fold, following a similar increase in the market price of musk-pods (Zahler <em>et al</em>., 2004). Resource extraction such as mining is not causing a substantial loss of habitat at present, but the resulting human disturbance from this activity does constitute a threat. Habitat fragmentation may also threaten the species (Tsendjav and Bujinkhand, 2000).
13901		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II (China) and Appendix I (all other countries), but this does not prevent rampant trade in musk deer. It is considered to be rare in China. Perhaps through taxonomic uncertainties, it is on the China Red List as Not Evaluated, and the China Key List - II. The high value of the parts in trade mean that conservation requires effective hand-on anti-poaching activity. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
13901		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Himalayas of Bhutan, northern India (including Sikkim), Nepal, and China (southwest Xizang) (Groves <em>et al</em>. 1995; Grubb 2005). Its occurrence in China is almost marginal (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003, where treated as <em>M. chrysogaster</em>).
13901		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high alpine environments, with Groves <em>et al</em>. (1995) recording a lowest altitude of 2,500 m asl. It is poorly known, but its natural history is likely to be similar to that of <em>M. chrysogaster</em>. <em>M. chrysogaster</em> is found on barren plateaus at high altitudes, where it occupies meadows, fell-fields, shrublands or fir forests. It feeds mainly on grasses, shrubs, leaves, moss, lichens, shoots, and twigs (Green 1987). It is generally solitary and crepuscular (Harris and Cai 1993).
13901		population	eng	Little is known of the species’s current status. There are very few in China, reflecting the small range there (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is believed to be declining throughout its range because of over-harvesting.
13901		threats	eng	There is a high trade in musk deer parts, particularly pods, into China and elsewhere in north-east Asia (see accounts for other <em>Moschus</em> species). Many relatively high-volume illicit wildlife trade links pass through <em>M. leucogaster’s</em> range, so it is certain to be under some level of threat from trade. The unstable taxonomy hampers abilities to assess threat levels directly to species, especially as parts like pods are not readily identifiable to species anyway.<br/><br/>Besides hunting for meat, which is considered a delicacy locally, hunting of the muskdeer is primarily for trade of musk glands. The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means.<br/><br/>There is also some forest loss within its range for agriculture, timber and human settlement.
13904		conservation	eng	This species is presumably known from many protected areas, including the Kau Wildlife Management Area, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea.
13904		distribution	eng	This widely-distributed species has been recorded from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. In Indonesia, it has been recorded from many islands including Sulawesi, Halmahera, Morotai, Ambon, Buru, Seram, Salawati and Biak, and is present in Fak-fak, Jayapura, Manokwari and Merauke Districts of Papua Province. In Papua New Guinea, it has been recorded in Chimbu, East New Britain, East Sepik, Eastern Highlands, Gulf, Madang, Manus, Milne Bay, Morobe, New Ireland, North Solomons (Bougainville and Nissan Islands), Oro, Sandaun, Southern Highlands, West New Britain and Western Provinces. In the Solomon Islands, it has been recorded on the islands of Fauro, Guadacanal, Malaita, New Georgia, Nggela Sule, Pavuvu, San Cristobal, Davo, Shortland, Uki Ni Masi, and Vella Lavella (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b; Corbet and Hill 1992).
13904		habitat	eng	Lesser Sheath-tailed bats roost under palm leaves and in limestone caves, under rock overhangs and house roofs. They forage in a wide-variety of primary and secondary habitats, including tropical broadleaf forest, mangroves, coconut groves, rural gardens, and villages (Bonaccorso 1998). The species is insectivorous. Females are believed to give birth to two young annually.
13904		population	eng	It is locally common and widespread (Bonaccorso 1998).
13904		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13916		distribution	eng	Known only from the upper Dan River system of the Roanoke drainage in the Blue Ridge and outlying mountains in Patrick County, Virginia; recently found in the Little Dan River in North Carolina.
13922		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas, such as the National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea and Niokola-Koba National Park in Senegal.
13922		distribution	eng	Endemic to West Africa, occurring from Gambia and Senegal west and south through Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, and Nigeria (Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). A record from Cameroon (Jeannin 1936), presumably results from confusion with Banded Mongoose (Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). The Niger R. presumably forms the eastern limit.
13922		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Guinea woodland (Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). In Gambia, this species is associated with denser coastal woodland (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998) and dry parts of dense, partly swampy riverine forest (T. Wacher, in Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). Insectivorous.
13922		population	eng	This species has been considered the most abundant carnivore in the Guinea savanna (Booth 1960). In Senegal, the day-time frequency of observations along roads was 0.08/100 km (Sillero-Zubiri and Marino 1997).
13922		threats	eng	There are no known major threats, although they are sometimes recorded sold as bushmeat (e.g., Ziegler <em>et a</em>l. 2002).
13923		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Central Menabe provisional protected area, Kirindy Mitea National Park, and Andranomena Special Reserve (at extremely low densities).
13923		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the dry decidous forests of the central and southern Menabe regions of western Madagascar from sea level to about 125 m asl. It is found between the Tsiribihina River in the north to south of the Manombo River (Razafimanantsoa 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). The precise southern limits of the range of the nominate subspecies remain unclear (Woolaver <em>et al</em>. 2006), but it does not extend south of the large Mangoky river, a significant biogeographical boundary. <em>M. d. lineata</em> has recently been rediscovered south of this river (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and further research is necessary to clarify the species limits of the two forms
13923		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, terrestrial and arboreal species found in dry deciduous forest. During the night, animals sleep in burrows, or holes in both fallen and standing trees and in similar shelters. This is a social species usually found in family groups of 6-8. The gestation period for this species is between 74 and 106 days after which a single young is born (Razafimanantsoa 2003).
13923		population	eng	This can be a locally common species. In central Menabe, densities range from 0.25- 2.9 /ha (Rabeantoandro 1997; Razafimanantsoa 2003). From live-trapping and village surveys, Woolaver <em>et al.</em> (2006, 2006) found <em>M. d. decemlineata</em> to be distributed throughout the largest area of connected forest in central Menabe and most of the larger forest fragments in southern Menabe; these authors estimated a minimum of 2,000–3,400 adults in central Menabe and 6,400–8,650 adults in southern Menabe. The species seems to occur at much lower densities between the Mangoky and Fiherenana Rivers, in the range of <em>M. d. lineata</em>.
13923		threats	eng	This species is threatened by conversion of its forest habitat to cultivated land and pasture, selective logging and also by incidental mortality caused by hunting dogs (Razafimanantsoa 2003). Feral dogs are known predators of this species.
13924		conservation	eng	<em>M. crinifrons</em> is listed on Appendix I of CITES. On the Chinese Red List this species is termed Endangered A2bcd (Smith and Xie 2008), and it protected by the 1988 Chinese National Wildlife Law under category I. It presumably exists in some protected areas, but no active conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Recommended conservation actions include initiation of research to determine status and threats throughout the species' range. Activities should include field reconnaissance, population censuses, demographic surveys, ecological studies and investigations into human use of the animals. The highest priority is to conserve the forest habitat of this species, and to bring poaching under strict control.
13924		distribution	eng	This species is now restricted to eastern China (in southeastern Anhui, northern Fujian, northeastern Jiangxi, and western Zhejiang (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990, Wu <em>et al</em>. 2007), with a few outlying records from eastern Zheijiang. Its range formerly extended from the coastal region of Ningbo at the mouth of the Yangtze River, westward to Guangdong province (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Records from Yunnan and Myanmar refer to <em>Muntiacus gongshanensis</em>. Animals are restricted to altitudes of 200-1,000 m asl.
13924		habitat	eng	This species occurs mostly in heavily forested mountain areas, with abundant undergrowth (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990), as well as mixed forest and scrub (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi, East China Normal University pers. comm.). The species appears to be a generalist browser/frugivore, its diet includes a wide variety of tree leaves and twigs, forbs, grasses, and fruits. Zheng <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that most sign of <em>M. crinifrons</em> in a study area in Suichang county, Zhejiang province was found in mixed forests, although conifer forests increased in importance during winter. <em>M. crinifrons</em> seemed to prefer relatively high tree canopy cover in relatively high elevation (> 800 m) zones with little human disturbance. They apparently display rather limited dispersal capability (Wu <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2006, 2007).<br/><br/>The reproductive cycle is aseasonal, and some females conceive new litters while still lactating. Young are born throughout the year. Gestation is 210 days, and mothers give birth to single fawns. Sexual maturity is reached at one year (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993).
13924		population	eng	This species is endemic to China. In 1989 the total Chinese population was estimated around 5,000-6,000 individuals by Ohtaishi and Gao (1990); Sheng (1998) estimated the population to number approximately 7,000 to 8,500. However, the basis for these population estimates is not known. Hunting and habitat destruction have negatively affected its geographic distribution and abundance (Sheng, 1998). A possible decrease in numbers during the late eighties was inferred by Ohtaishi and Gao (1990). Among the three main distribution centers of this species in eastern China there has developed a degree of genetic differentiation that Wu <em>et al</em>. (2006) attributed to the reduction of female-mediated gene flow stemming from habitat fragmentation. Although Wu <em>et al</em>. (2007) found a comfortingly large degree of nuclear genetic diversity; they nevertheless confirmed the earlier conclusions of Wu <em>et al</em>. (2005, 2006) based on mtDNA that the species had been fragmented into subpopulations. The species is believed to be in decline because of hunting and habitat loss.
13924		threats	eng	Numbers of this species continue to decline due to deforestation, expanding agriculture, hunting, and other human disturbances. The species is hunted for venison and skin. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) reported that 500 animals were being killed annually for skins which were sold to local markets during the 1980s. Sheng (1998) reported that yearly harvest may have exceeded this figure. There are no current data available regarding human predation on the species, but considering the chronic nature of the poaching problem in China there is no reason to assume that the species is not affected by it.<br/><br/>The species is hunted for venison and skin. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) reported that 500 animals were being killed annually for skins which were sold to local markets during the 1980s. Sheng (1998) reported that yearly harvest may have exceeded this figure. There are no current data available regarding human predation on the species, however, considering the chronic nature of the poaching problem in China there is no reason to assume that the species is not affected by it.
13926		conservation	eng	This species has been found within two large protected areas in Myanmar, Hkakaborazi National Park and Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006); other areas of suitable habitat exist outside the protected area system in Myanmar but have not been surveyed using suitable methods. Neither have tracts of potentially suitable highlands in other proposed or declared protected areas such as Hukaung Tiger Reserve and Bumphabum Wildlife Sanctuary. The protected areas of Myanmar’s ‘Northern Forest Complex’ are evolving their management and full support is needed to ensure their success. This needs to tackle the issue of professional hunting parties as an urgent priority, and hunting by local inhabitants with sensitivity. It is known from two protected areas, Nujiang and Gaoligong reserves, in China, although it is not protected as a species there (Wang 1998).<br/><br/>A immediate need is to dispel the confusion surrounding this species' taxonomic validity, generated through inspection of part of its mtDNA, compounding the, to date, only weak discussions of its morphological distinctiveness, and to establish and communicate the diagnostic characteristics of the species. This requires re-evaluation of the types and other specimens in China, a review of as much modern material is available in Myanmar (specimens and photographs), and analysis of specimens held in internationally-accessible institutions (most or all of which are still catalogued under earlier names).<br/><br/>An analysis of sensitivity to hunting is needed, which should focus on the relative abundance of this and other muntjac species within heavily hunted areas.
13926		distribution	eng	<em>Muntiacus gongshanensis</em> was described from Yunnan province, south-western China (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1990), within which its distribution spans the latitudinal range of about 25°–28°10′N (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1994). It also occurs in Kachin state, northern Myanmar: there are several specimens over the latitudinal range of 26°46′N–28°10′N in NHM and FMNH (note specimens are not catalogued under the name <em>M. gongshanensis</em>; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Recent reports by Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1998) and Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999b, 2000), where <em>M. gongshanensis</em> was considered synonymous with <em>M. crinifrons</em>, presumably refer to this species (Grubb 2005), although insufficient morphological characters are given to allow a firm identification. However, from the same area come many recent camera-trap photographs morphologically consistent with <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, specifically from Hkakaborazi National Park and Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary, which lie within the specimen-validated latitudinal range (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data). <br/><br/>Gongshan muntjac also probably inhabits southeastern Tibet: Chen <em>et al</em>. (2007) reported animals from Modog and Damu counties, close to the China, India and Myanmar border, in the range 28°33′–29°29′N, 95°20′–97°05′E. They based their identification (as <em>M. crinifrons</em>) solely on mtDNA and no morphological voucher seems to be available (small pieces of pelt may have been preserved), and no characters were discussed other than that the pelt was dark. Specimen-based records, again as <em>M. crinifrons</em> with <em>M. gongshanensis</em> explicitly considered a synonym, from this general area were reported by Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004), from the rivers Pailong and Yigong (30°07′N, 95°02′E) and the Modog are to the south, and from near Zayu at 29°56′N, 94°48′E; again, no morphological characters were given sufficient to allow identification to species. Gongshan muntjac or another species (but not <em>M. vaginalis</em>) may also occur much further to the west, in India: Inglis (1952) referred to melanistic (“very dark brown”) muntjacs, sometimes almost black, in the Darjeeling district (27°02′N, 88°16′E); one was at this time mounted in the Darjeeling museum. Whether this specimen is still extant is unclear, and no analysis more substantial seems to have been published on these animals. Also in India, Johnsingh (2004) stated that <em>Muntiacus crinifrons</em> was discovered in Arunachal Pradesh; the actual location and basis for identification remain unpublished, but this seems more likely to refer to <em>M. gongshanensis</em> than to <em>M. crinifrons</em> (but again could also potentially refer to some other taxon such as one of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex). <br/><br/>Camera-trapping studies in Lao PDR and Viet Nam have many images not referable to northern red muntjac <em>M. vaginalis</em> or to large-antlered muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em>. Many are certainly of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex of species, but given the external similarity of some specimens of the later to <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, some photographs may in fact be <em>M. gongshanensis</em> or a closely related taxon (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on extensive examination of various camera-trapping programmes’ images). No certain specimen evidence has yet come to light which would support this.<br/><br/>In sum, if these records in Tibet, India and even Lao PDR and Viet Nam do refer to <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, they indicate a much wider geographic range than the so-far specimen-validated distribution in Gaoligongshan (Yunnan, China) and Kachin state (Myanmar).
13926		habitat	eng	<em>M. gongshanensis</em> has been camera-trapped between 1,250 and 2,750 m asl in Northern Myanmar (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). A paratype was collected at 3,000 m asl in northwestern Yunnan (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1990). Specimens in the NHM and FMNH from northern Myanmar were reportedly taken between 900 and 1,850 m asl. Wang (1998) gave the species' elevation as 2,000 m asl, in alpine broadleaf forests, coniferous forests and mixed forests, and in Tibet it occurs at 1,800–2,600 m asl. Camera-trapped animals in Myanmar have been found from subtropical forests through temperate thick mountain forests up to Himalayan alpine shrubland (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). The Darjeeling area of India (where the species is not confirmed to occur) contains many rugged mountains, as do all other sites where the species is known or expected to occur. It is uncertain if <em>M. gongshanensis</em> is widely syntopic with other muntjac species. Camera-trap results from northern Myanmar suggest that it occurs largely above the altitudinal ranges of other species there (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data). No ecological separation between Gongshan and northern red muntjacs in the Gaoligongshan was discussed by Ma <em>et al</em>. (1994), but Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004) considered that red muntjac generally lived at lower altitudes than Gongshan muntjac in south-east Tibet. Gongshan muntjac’s use of degraded and fragmented forest has not been assessed.
13926		population	eng	<em>M. gongshanensis</em> has been regularly captured by camera-trapping studies in appropriate habitat across a wide spread of sites within two protected areas in Kachin state, northern Myanmar; capture rates appear roughly equivalent for those of other muntjac species elsewhere in Myanmar and Asia, suggesting a large population which is well above criteria for threatened status (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data). Moreover, substantial areas of Kachin state in the altitudinal range known to be occupied by this species have not been surveyed by methods appropriate to find the species since the Vernay–Cutting Expedition (Anthony 1941). Overall population status depends to a significant degree on the geographic range of the taxon, which is poorly clarified at present, but is likely to be significantly larger than has so far been documented (see Distribution). There is no empirical evidence of population trends.
13926		threats	eng	The major threat appears to be from hunting throughout the known range of the species. In Myanmar the species is hunted (non-specifically within general ungulate hunting) for meat, but also for skins which are used widely for clothing. In Hkakaborazi National Park, some hunting is by the relatively small number of permanent inhabitants of the park, who trade wildlife and plant products for basic livelihood support, such as salt. More serious are organised non-local heavily armed parties of professional poachers who enter the protected area for months at a time and hunt intensively to supply the wildlife trade. The numbers of such groups per year seem to be increasing. Hunting patterns in other areas supporting the species are not well known, but it is likely that anywhere in this region with a large population of ungulates remaining attracts heavy hunting from outsiders (Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rabinowitz and Saw Tun Khaing 1998; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Heavy hunting pressure from hill tribes was reported from Yunnan Province (R. Wirth pers. comm. 1990), and although there are no current data available from China, hunting is thought to remain a major threat there. The Chinese population has been considered rare and small, and threatened by hunting (Wang 1998), but this assumes a far more limited distribution than is likely. Much of the Myanmar range is within an area which has seen remarkable stability of forest cover (Renner <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, this healthy situation may change in the near future, as some other forests of northern Kachin state (which have not been surveyed for the species, and so may hold, or have held, it) have recently been devastated (Eames 2007). Although habitat needs, and thus the effects of forest fragmentation and degradation are essentially unknown, it is unlikely that viable populations can survive outright forest conversion. It is also likely that in areas where forest is being fragmented, negative effects of hunting on populations of this muntjac are compounded and so populations decline, whatever intrinsic ability the species has to use fragmented areas. Protected area coverage, and retention of little-encroached habitat, is also relatively good in the Gaoligongshan of China at high altitudes (Lan and Dunbar 2000).
13927		conservation	eng	The species is reasonably well protected within its presumed breeding season in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). The species is presumed to be found within protected areas throughout its range; in Thailand, it is largely confined to protected areas (because most suitable habitat is now within protected areas), but it almost certainly will be found to persist both in and out of them in Myanmar.<br/><br/>There is a need for taxonomic work, including a re-evaluation of recent field and captive animals (there is a small captive population within Thai zoos) presumed to be <em>M. feae</em> with reference to the holotype, to determine that such animals are indeed this species. Diagnostic characters for the species also need to be clarified in light of recent discoveries of other muntjacs superficially similar in various morphological characteristics. Confirmation in particular is needed of camera trap records from Thailand and Myanmar as referring to this species rather than to any other darkish muntjac, and suggestions of the species' occurrence in China and far northern Myanmar need to be investigated (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). The species' status, habitat associations, and elevational limits need to be established (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>.
13927		distribution	eng	Although the distribution of this species is usually given as from the Isthmus of Kra north and east through southern Myanmar and the adjacent Thai borderlands (Groves and Grubb 1990; Grubb 2005), there was until recently scant evidence of clearly identifiable records (i.e. those accompanied by information on diagnostic characters) from either country (i.e. some range localities appear to be based solely on reports from local people; Tun Yin 1967). Recent discoveries of new species of muntjac and extensions of known range for other muntjac species mean that some previous Thai and Myanmar localities for ‘<em>M. feae</em>’ (see Groves and Grubb 1990) should be viewed with caution. The presence in China remains unconfirmed (see taxonomic note). This leaves only the type locality of east of Moulmein, Myanmar; Muang district (9.08°N, 99.14°E), Surathani Province; and Raheng, Pangna Province (northeast of Phuket island), based on the origin of Thai captive animals and a Gairdner specimen in the Natural History Museum (NHM), London. Two other Gairdner specimens in the NHM, London are incomplete lacking skulls and heads (one of these was reportedly obtained at 300 m asl) and therefore cannot morphologically be confirmed as being this species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).  <br/><br/>Photographs of several muntjacs from Kaeng Krachan National Park (Thailand) appear to be of this species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on Dusit Ngoprasert/WCS unpublished data). Camera-trapping in the western forest complex of Thailand has apparently documented the species on several further occasions, and animals have also been observed in the field (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008), but identification of these animals could be considered provisional because it has been assumed that only two muntjac species inhabit this part of Thailand (<em>M. feae</em> and <em>M. vaginali</em>s); this might not be the case. Animals have usually been identified on the basis of dark pelage and especially the blackish tail (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008), but such characters do not rule out some other muntjac species confirmed from neighbouring areas, including ,i>M. gongshanensis</em> and some animals in the ,i>M. rooseveltorum</em> species complex (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The most northerly of the recent records assigned to this species is from Mae Wong National Park in montane forest at 1,450 m asl (16° 4' 46'' N, 99° 7' 4'' E) (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).  <br/><br/>One photograph from 1,250 m asl in Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Myanmar shows a male with some features similar to <em>M. feae</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS unpublished data), and may refer to this species, particularly in the light of suggestions that the species is in China (see taxonomic note). This site lies far from the generally accepted Myanmar range of <em>M. feae</em> and raises the possibility that the species might have a much wider range in Myanmar than generally assumed. This record is not included in the distribution map (which should be considered highly provisional in any case). This record would also indicate sympatry with <em>M. gongshanensis</em>.
13927		habitat	eng	The limited information available suggests that the species is tied to evergreen forests of the hills and mountains of western Thailand and adjacent Myanmar (and perhaps further afield). The elevational range of the species is uncertain. In Myanmar evergreen forests are found down to the lowlands because of a relatively wet climate throughout the year, but on the more seasonal eastern Thai side lower elevations are predominantly clothed in drier often deciduous forest types. Its ecology appears to be similar to other muntjacs and it seems to share some of the widespread socio-ecological traits of other muntjacs, i.e. is predominantly solitary and favours fruits and leaves in its diet (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). <br/><br/>Towards the centre of their known Thai range, in Kuiburi National Park, Fea’s appears to be relatively common in evergreen forest, being camera-trapped more frequently than northern red muntjac even at elevations of 300 m asl. In open forest types, however, northern red muntjac clearly dominates, and Fea’s doesn’t appear to use deciduous forest types much (if at all), for example in Kuiburi NP they come right to edge of open habitat but don’t cross the line out of evergreen forest. In contrast, northern red muntjac overlaps with Fea’s in evergreen forest, including high elevation, although Fea’s may be the more common in montane evergreen forest above 1000 m asl (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; but see note under Distribution about provisional status of such records). Further north in Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary the species appears to be commoner (based on cameras, sightings and interviews) than northern red muntjac in forest habitats up to at least 1,000 m asl (there has been little survey work at higher altitudes), although sign abundance of muntjac species certainly declines with increasing altitude, especially above 1,000 m asl (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008). In contrast within Huai Kha Khaeng WS which lies at a similar latitude to Thung Yai WS, but further east, Fea’s muntjac is rare even in montane evergreen forest. This may be due to a rain shadow effect which leaves forest in the east drier than forests in Myanmar or close to the border in westernmost Thailand (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).
13927		population	eng	Taking Thai records assigned to <em>M. feae</em> as truly representing the species, it is not infrequently camera-trapped and observed in evergreen forests of the mountains in Western Thailand, especially the Klong Saeng forest complex, Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuiburi National Park; and at least in the latter two areas, in evergreen forest, appears as or more common than northern red muntjac (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; but see note under Distribution about provisional status of such records).
13927		threats	eng	The species may be threatened at some level by a decrease in available habitat and by hunting. Most remaining habitat for the species in its presumed Thai range is now effectively protected and many of the surviving forest blocks are large. Therefore it seems unlikely that the species is in serious threat from either factor at the present there (but note the uncertainty over range and the identification of many records) (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008). The apparent commonness of Fea’s muntjac at low elevations in Kuiburi National Park, where hunting of this and northern red muntjac occurs, suggests a similar degree of tolerance to hunting pressure as the later species (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).<br/><br/>The Thanintharyi (= Tensasserim) region of Myanmar is currently relatively intact, but the ongoing and projected conversion of forests to oil palm plantation in southern Myanmar (Leimgruber <em>et al</em>. 2005) is some level of threat. Such conversion could destroy all large blocks of forest in the lowlands and adjacent lower hills, which includes some of the elevation range of the species. Forest and thus deer at higher elevations would probably remain secure. Altitudinal distribution of the species is too little understood to allow adequately assessment of this threat.<br/><br/>In northern Myanmar (not confirmed to be within the species' range), muntjacs are commonly hunted, particularly for pelts (Than Thaw pers. comm. 2006); hunting levels in the known Myanmar range can also be assumed to be high. In Thailand, Feas’ muntjac is apparently not specifically targeted by hunters, perhaps because of scarcity relative to <em>M. vaginalis</em> in many of the areas supporting most of the hunting, and its primary range in higher elevations which are not visited frequently by hunters (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).
13928		conservation	eng	Taxonomic uncertainties within this species-complex forestall any analysis of conservation needs for the individual species. Populations of this species-complex occur in probably most protected areas of the Annamite range and northern highlands of Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). The species-complex also occurs in several protected areas in Myanmar (Schaller and Rabinowitz 2004). If there are localised taxa within this species-complex then conservation measures additional to support and consolidation of the existing protected area system may be warranted.<br/><br/>Whatever actual taxonomic pattern is found within the species-complex, management of hunting will need to recognise that hunters cannot be expected to recognise muntjacs to species in the field: some methods are non-selective (e.g. snares) while active projectile hunting (e.g. guns, bows, blow-pipes) would be severely reduced in their harvest efficiency if identification had to precede shooting. The only realistic site-based management tool for this species-complex is likely to be the declaration of suitably-sized ‘core areas’, site in ecologically appropriate areas, where all hunting using methods suitable for muntjacs, including under hitherto traditional rights, is prevented. Lao protected area legislation apparently provides for ‘core areas’ within each national protected area although few if any have yet been declared. Each protected area within the species-complex’s range should therefore have at least one large (several hundred km², in the absence of any empirical knowledge of muntjac spatial ecology) core zone declared and enforced. This measure implemented in conjunction with well considered hunting management in peripheral forest areas might also benefit the ongoing dietary needs of local people, who could harvest in a controlled manner animals outside core zones, and who, in parts of montane Lao PDR that have been effectively studied, are being forced into involuntary veganism because the lack of effective wildlife management and sensible hunting quotas, has meant wildlife stocks have fallen severely (Krahn and Johnson 2007).
13928		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is very unclear (see taxonomic note). The type was collected in 1929 at Ban Muangyo (=Muong Yo, now locally known as Ban Yo) in northern Lao PDR, in Phongsali Province (Osgood 1932). The only additional localities pertain to a few specimens proposed by analysis of mtDNA to refer to <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>, found at 19°49’N, 103°45’E in northern Lao PDR (Amato <em>et al</em>., 1999a, 2000), and even these cannot be taken as certain, in case more than one species shares similar mtDNA. A female found in the Xe Sap NPA in southern Lao PDR by R. Steinmetz and Tanya Chanard in the late 1990s shows many morphological similarities to <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Published range descriptions (e.g. Groves and Schaller 2000; Grubb 2005) are hypothetical because under current uncertainty, there is no way objectively to determine the range of any taxon within this species-complex, including of <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> itself (see taxonomic note).<br/><br/>Many incomplete specimens, predominantly skulls and partial skins (largely not mutually associated), and camera-trap photos, all of which present characters apparently diagnostic or characteristic of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex, have been collected over a large range of northern Indochina highlands (Lao PDR and Viet Nam), the northern and central Annamite range of Indochina (Lao PDR and Viet Nam), and northern Myanmar. A few specimens at the Viet Nam National University, Hanoi, suggest a presence east of the Red River. Records of <em>M. putaoensis</em> from northeastern India (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003), initially identified morphologically, have been confirmed by recent genetic analysis of five specimens as <em>M. putaoensis</em> (James <em>et al</em>. press). There has been insufficient work in the southern Annamites of Viet Nam and in northern parts of Thailand to rule out presence of the species-complex there, which is possible (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Ma <em>et al</em>. (1986) listed <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for China (seemingly for the first time) with the following statement '<em>M. lachrymans teesdalei</em> described by Lydekker (1915) as having relatively small preorbital pit and premaxillae separated from nasals should be <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>'. Although Lydekker's animal is definitely <em>M. reevesi</em>, Ma <em>et al</em>. (1986) were correct in <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> having the said features. Thus, some records identified as <em>M. reevesi teesdalei</em> in southern China may in fact not be of that taxon and could, given the features of this 1986 description, refer to animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex. Presence of the species-complex in southern China is extremely likely as specimens and photographs of animals in the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam have been obtained close to the Chinese border (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/>The camera-trap and specimen evidence suggests that in some, perhaps many, areas of Indochina two (or more) taxa within this species-complex are sympatric, or at least parapatric in a mosaic pattern. The situation is less clear in Myanmar, although the presence of multiple taxa there is also possible (see account for <em>M. putaoensis</em>). Contrary to various statements in the literature (e.g. Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999b) animals of this species-complex are not highly localised, but rather appear to be widespread, although this does not rule out that there might be individual species with small ranges. <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> may yet be found to occur throughout the range of the complex, but equally it could be much more localised. Specifically, despite the molecular genetic analysis of a relatively large number of specimens from Myanmar and adjacent India (Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999a; James <em>et al</em>. press), there is no suggestion of animals with DNA similar to the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> holotype in these countries. <br/><br/>There have been various unsubstantiated claimed localities for species-level identifications of both <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> and <em>M. truongsonensis</em> in the grey literature. Notably, an animal observed in captivity at ‘Lak Sao’ (= Ban Lak-20), Lao PDR, 18°20'N, 106°00'E and identified by Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999a) as <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>, should not at present be identified; this animal presented several key external characteristics at variance with the holotype of <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> (Timmins 1996; Amato <em>et al</em>. 2000; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> may well occur in this area, because there are camera-trapped animals and one sight record, with distinctive reddish pelage (rather than the darker, less red, and more contrasting pelage assumed to be shown by <em>M. truongsonensis</em>; but note that the pelage of the nominal taxon <em>M. puhoatensis</em> is unknown), from a number of localities in the Northern Annamites of both Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Ma <em>et al</em>. (1986) listed <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for China, but the identification was revised to <em>M. reevesi</em> by Groves and Grubb (1990) who apparently examined four purchased skins of this species in the Kunming Institute of Zoology (thus extending this species range significantly to the west). There is no description of the skins in the above sources, and given the current understanding of muntjac systematics it would likely be hard to diagnose the specific identity of the skins (especially if heads and tails were incomplete or missing) without molecular analysis, their species identity is thus probably best treated as indeterminate at present.<br/><br/>The type localities for available names in this species-complex are:<br/>1. <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>: Ban Muangyo, Phongsaly Province, Lao PDR, ca. 21°31'N, 101°51'E (Osgood 1932).<br/>2. <em>M. truongsonensis</em>: Viet Nam, "in the west of Quang Nam province"; "collected from four houses in three locations in Hien District, West Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam. The three locations are: Hien, the district capital, A Tin village, and A Plo village (15°56'59''N, 107°34'18''E)" (P. M. Giao <em>et al</em>. 1998). Although this information is not given in the original description (Nguyen An Quang Ha 1997) it can reasonably be used to restrict the more general indications in the original description because there is no doubt that the two sources refer to the same collected material.<br/>3. <em>M. puhoatensis</em>: the Pu Hoat area in Que Phong District, Nghe An Province, Viet Nam (Binh Chau 1997).<br/>4. <em>M. putaoensis</em>: “purchased … at Atanga village, 30 km east of Putao (27°21'N, 97°24'E), northern Myanmar” (Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999b).
13928		habitat	eng	In Lao PDR this species-complex is probably restricted to higher elevations (over 1,000 m asl) and forests at the evergreen end of the spectrum; it may be absent from forest even above 1,000 m asl in drier western areas. In Viet Nam it occurs also down to lower altitudes (perhaps to the foothills) especially on the eastern slope of the Annamites and probably also in northeastern areas (east of the Red River) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In Myanmar the species-complex appears to occur between at least 700 and 1,250 m asl (see <em>M. putaoensis</em> 2008 account). Social ecology is likely to be similar to other species of muntjac, which are generally solitary and territorial.<br/><br/>The complex is widely sympatric with northern red muntjac <em>M. vaginalis</em>, although at high elevations over about 1,500 m asl that species appears to become scarce or naturally absent within Indochina, whereas the <em>rooseveltorum</em> complex ascends to over 2,000 m asl in at least northern Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on photographs and other unpublished data of S. Swann/FFI).
13928		population	eng	Over 50 specimens (not all now extant) and close to 100 camera-trap photographs of the species-complex are known to R.J. Timmins from Indochina (pers. comm. 2008), suggesting it is relatively common in both Lao PDR and especially Viet Nam. Camera-trapping in northern Myanmar suggests that the species-complex is also at least locally common there (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS unpublished data). Results from camera-trapping in Lao PDR (Nan Et–Phou Louey NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data A. Johnson/ WCS; Nakai-Nam Theun NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on Watershed Management Protection Agency unpublished data; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.) and Viet Nam (Hoang Lien Son mountain range: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data S. Swann/FFI) show that the species-complex is at least locally common at these sites, and it could be so over much of its range. In other areas, mostly south of the previous list of areas, such as Pu Mat NR; Thua-Thien Hue province; and Quang Nam province (Viet Nam), and Bolikhamsai province (Lao PDR), the species-complex has been camera-trapped less frequently than <em>M. vaginalis</em> in each area, but this may reflect ecological factors of sampling areas, such as habitat and altitude range (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on various unpublished datasets; SFNC 2000; Robichaud and Stuart 1999).
13928		threats	eng	The main threat to the species-complex is hunting. Especially within Lao PDR and Viet Nam, there is indiscriminate snaring throughout its known range, for local meat consumption and a thriving bushmeat trade (see Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the best protection from hunting at present is the ‘cushioning’ effect of large forest blocks, where the costs of extracting wildlife of low to medium commercial value from the centre are higher than the income from selling it, and where habitat is so extensive it is simply more difficult to hunt out cryptic, non-gregarious species, than it is in smaller forest blocks. Because most such blocks within the complex’s geographical range are centred on rugged terrain, with higher elevations forming the core of such areas, these muntjacs are likely to be significantly less threatened than are sympatric ground-dwelling mammals with altitudinal ranges limited to lower elevations. <br/><br/>In localized areas, especially of northern Indochina, the species-complex is likely to be affected by habitat loss. Here, most ethnic groups practice shifting cultivation and in recent decades there has been a clear net loss and fragmentation of forest: such shifting cultivation is not now in a balanced cycle (for rotational systems), or never was (frontier systems). The adaptability of the species-complex to degraded or fragmented habitats is not well known, although evidence from northern Lao PDR suggests that animals there persist in landscape-scale mosaics including extensive secondary, degraded forest fragments and cultivation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In general it appears that muntjacs (particularly <em>M. vaginalis</em> and <em>M. reevesi</em>) adapt well to secondary and degraded habitats and in fact may reach higher densities in such areas than they do in unencroached habitats. More serious than losses to shifting cultivation, in the most recent years and the immediate future, is likely to be the large-scale replacement of natural forests (albeit mostly heavily degraded) with rubber plantations to supply the burgeoning Chinese market. This is affecting large areas of the northern highlands of Lao PDR and elsewhere, and will have three linked negative effects on ground-dwelling mammals: direct loss of habitat (it is unlikely that rubber plantations will support even mediocre densities of this species-complex, although this is not yet known), decline and destabilisation of the forest resource-base (including wild-meat sources) for subsistence-level communities, leading to higher hunting levels in remaining wildlife areas (C. Wood pers. comm. 2005 to J.W. Duckworth, based on emerging patterns across several provinces in Lao PDR’s northern highlands); and shrinkage of the size of natural habitat blocks and thereby reduction and, locally, loss, of the cushioning effect.
13930		conservation	eng	Short-furred Dasyures occur in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and natural history of this species.
13930		distribution	eng	The Short-furred Dasyure has a wide distribution across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is also present in the Aru Islands (Indonesia) and on the island of Yapen (Indonesia). It occurs from sea level to about 1,800 m asl.
13930		habitat	eng	The Short-furred Dasyure is largely dependent on mature tropical hill forest, and other reasonably intact forest types (it does not occur in secondary forest). Short-furred Dasyures are found in lower to mid-montane forests below 1,800 m (Van Dyck 2002). They are known to use both arboreal and subterranean nests (Woolley 1989). This species breeds throughout the year and females carry up to four young in the pouch (Woolley 2003).
13930		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
13930		threats	eng	Predation by feral dogs are believed to be the only threat to this species, however, it is not considered a major threat.
13931		conservation	eng	Broad-striped Dasyures are not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
13931		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to areas on the southern side of the Central Cordillera in south-eastern Papua New Guinea (Van Dyck 2002). It ranges between 600 and 1,400 m asl.
13931		habitat	eng	This species is found in hill forest to lower montane mature tropical moist forest. They are known to nest underground and are terrestrial and scansorial, and mostly active at night (P. Woolley pers. comm.). Breeding probably occurs throughout the year and females have up to four young in a litter (Woolley 2003).
13931		population	eng	The Broad-striped Dasyure has a restricted range and it may not be common. The species is known from only approximately 23 wild-caught specimens. Two have been caught in mist nets, but it can be trapped on the ground.
13931		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of forest to cultivated land, and by predation by hunting dogs. A nickel mine has been proposed within the species’ range and oil palm plantations are replacing the rural gardens and expanding into new areas.
13935		conservation	eng	It may occur in protected areas in the region.
13935		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of Ethiopia, occurring on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is known from only about ten sites. The species has been recorded at elevations of between 1,900 and 3,400 m asl.
13935		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in upland grasslands, however, it has also been reported as commensal in Simien. It is presumed to be a nocturnal, granivorous species. However, if the species is insectivorous, it may explain the lack of trap records. The dentition of this species indicates that they may dig their own burrows.
13935		population	eng	Only thirteen specimens are known, and it appears to be a very rare species. During extensive collecting from 1968 to 1998, Yalden found no specimens in samples totalling over 6,300 rodents. Muller trapped a few in houses in Simien, but it was not recorded in more recent trapping there. Very extensive trapping in the Bale Mountains has failed to record it. Duane Schlitter (pers. comm.) has only ever trapped one in highly grazed grasslands north of Addis Ababa.
13935		threats	eng	The quality of the habitat may have been affected by conversion to agricultural use (the area is heavily populated and used by farmers), and it is suggested that this species may have declined as a result (it is thought to have become less common in the last 50 years).
13936		conservation	eng	This species has been reported from some protected areas, including Krau Wildlife Reserve (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has also been recorded from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary and Ton Nga-chang Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand (Bumringsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
13936		distribution	eng	There are records of this species from the Malay Peninsula, three localities in Sabah, Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), and two from Thailand (Bumringsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
13936		habitat	eng	It has been caught in lowland dipterocarp forest and hill forest (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is found mostly in primary forest. This bat roosts in foliage, not caves. Nothing is known about roost size, but roosts are likely to be small.
13936		population	eng	This species is locally rare and occurs at low densities.
13936		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires.
13937		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from some protected areas. There is a need for additional studies over the range of this little known species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13937		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern South Asia, into southern and central China and eastern mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia it has been recorded from India (Sikkim) and Nepal Himalaya (Mid Western and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Gansu, Hainan, Yunnan, Guizhou and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia there are records from Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and possibly northern Cambodia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from 2,000 to around 4,154 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13937		habitat	eng	Little is known overall about the habitat or ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Sikkim the species was collected at 2,000 m asl in a agricultural area with forest; in Nepal it was collected at 1,154 m asl (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Viet Nam it has been captured in montane primary forest at 1,800 m asl (Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Thailand is has been found in montane areas at around 2,000 m asl (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is believed to be a tree, or foliage, roosting species (Smith and Xie 2008). This species hunts close to ground (Bates and Harrison 1997).
13937		population	eng	In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia it is known from only a few specimens (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
13937		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain poorly known. It is presumably threatened to some degree by habitat degradation in Southeast Asia. In South Asia the threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13938		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in Nepal like Royal Chitwan National Park. Population and ecological studies recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present in a number of Southeast Asian protected areas.
13938		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from southern and northern South Asia, into southern China, most of mainland Southeast Asia, and parts of insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia the species is presently known form India (Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Nepal (Western Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central Province) in South Asia (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Nicobar Islands, it has been recorded from Great Nicobar, Trinket, Nancowrie, Kamorta, Tillangchong, Katchal, Bompuka and Teressa islands (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In South Asia, it has been recorded from 250 up to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it ranges in Jiangxi and Hainan, extending to Zhongnan peninsula (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present through nearly all of mainland Southeast Asia and has been recorded from the island of Bali (Indonesia), northern Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Philippines. In the Philippines, it has been recorded from Biliran, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Luzon (Camarines Sur province), Mindanao (Bukidnon Province), Sibuyan, and Siqujor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), Balbalasang, Kalinga Province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) and has an elevation range from 250 to 1,500 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It has also been recorded from Samar using a tunnel trap at 100 m asl (Gonzales unpublished data 2004); from Negros (Cariño unpublished data 2004), Polillo, and on Panay along a river at 1,140 m asl (Ramayla and Garcia pers. comm. 2006).
13938		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is a forest dweller and roosts among leaves of cardamom plantations in forested tracts and in caves. It roosts in small colonies of two to five individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It hunts for small insects among the cardamom plantations and is a low and agile flyer (Bates and Harrison 1997, Aul and Vijayakumar 2003). In China, it is found in agroforestry areas at intermediate elevations. They roost in foliage, small caves or rock shelters (Smith and Xie 2008). In the Philippines, this species is found in primary lowland forest, lightly disturbed lowland and lower montane forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Lepiten 1995, Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1991, Ruedas <em>et al.</em> 1994). It has also been recorded from secondary forest elsewhere (G. Csorba pers. comm. 2006).
13938		population	eng	In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). It is moderately common in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13938		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, although it is unlikely to be threatened throughout its range. Although it might be threatened by deforestation (generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses), it has been recorded from some modified habitats and seems to be somewhat adaptable in parts of its range.
13939		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Rawa Aopa National Park, Kakanauwe Forest Reserve, and Lambusanga Forest Reserve (Sulawesi, Indonesia), and Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea (D. Wright pers. comm.). Additional information on population numbers and distribution would be beneficial, as the species is generally poorly known.
13939		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from Flores and possibly the Sumbawa islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands, from south-eastern Sulawesi and on the Peleng Islands, and on the Moluccan Islands of Batjan, Buru, Ambon, Ceram, and Gorong (all Indonesia). It has been recorded from scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and has been recorded from the islands of Umboi and New Britain (both Papua New Guinea). In Australia, it is known from a number of localities in northern Queensland up to the Iron Range area and then south between the Shiptons Flat-Cedar Bay area and Mount Zero near Paluma (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Schulz <em>et al.</em> 2008). It was thought previously to have an altitudinal range of between 400 and 2,800 m asl., but it has recently been found at sea level in West New Britain (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
13939		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a range of tropical moist forest types (including rainforest with a eucalyptus undergrowth), and from dry and wet sclerophyll woodland. It has been found also in degraded forest habitats. It roosts as solitary animals, or in small groups, amongst dead leaves and other foliage, in caves, or in disused buildings (Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
13939		population	eng	It is generally not uncommon, but typically occurs at low densities (20-30 per 1 km<sup>2</sup>). Bonaccorso (1998) mentions that only eight specimens were taken on New Guinea between 1959 and 1990.
13939		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range (e.g., Sulawesi) by agroforestry practices and clear-cutting of forests. It may additionally be threatened by predation by domestic and feral cats in parts of its range (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
13940		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.  Research is needed in the areas of taxonomy, population status, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.
13940		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and is known only from the type locality in Heilongjiang province (Smith and Xie 2008).
13940		habitat	eng	This species is often found in hilly areas (Nowak 1991). No further information is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
13940		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
13940		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
13941		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. This species has not been recorded again from the type locality. Taxonomic, ecological and population studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13941		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India and has presently been recorded from Sairep in Mizoram and Jairipanee in Mussourie, Uttarakhand (Bhattacharyya 2002; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,692 m asl. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not estimated as there is limited information on the species distribution and in taxonomy (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13941		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it has been recorded in thick montane forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13941		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Bhattacharya 2002; Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).
13941		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for human settlements in Mussourie (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The threats affecting the species in Mizoram are not known (Bhattacharya 2002).
13942		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and this species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. Further studies into the natural history of this species are needed.
13942		distribution	eng	This widely recorded species largely ranges from northern South Asia, through southern China and northern mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been reported from Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, much of Lao PDR, parts of Viet Nam, and seemingly disjunctly in Peninsular Malaysia. In South Asia it has been recorded from 1,450 up to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
13942		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests, tropical broadleaved forests and banana plantations. It roosts among banana leaves and bases of banana plants, and under tree bark (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is found at mid-elevations, and appears to be adapted to a variety of habitats (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the natural history is not well known, however, it has been recorded from pristine hill evergreen forest in Thailand and Lao PDR (S. Bumrungri and C. Francis pers. comm.).
13942		population	eng	In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia it is considered to be uncommon to rare.
13942		threats	eng	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and converted for agricultural use and disturbance to roosting sites (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia and China nothing known about the threats to this species (P. Bates pers. comm.).
13943		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Due to natural rarity conservation measures required. Further research on all aspects of ecology and population trends is strongly recommended.
13943		distribution	eng	Due to complex taxonomy distribution can not be accurately described. Currently accepted distribution includes NE India, Nepal, S China, W Thailand. Additionally, one specimen has been reported from Pu Mat, Viet Nam (Hendrickson <em>et al.</em>, 2001). A specimen reported by McBee <em>et al.</em> (1986) from Thailand was mis-identified and represents a new species. Many of the specimens reported as this species may represent a separate species (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
13943		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the ecology of this species. It is found in forests. In China this species is known to roost in caves, in trees, and in houses. It forages in both forested and open areas (Smith and Xie in press).
13943		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species at present.
13943		threats	eng	No available data, although as logging activity increases, habitat loss may constitute a threat in the future.
13944		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of taxonomy, population status, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii); D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
13944		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008).
13944		habitat	eng	It is restricted to temperate forests located within the mountainous regions of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008).
13944		population	eng	It is characterized as uncommon (Smith and Xie 2008).
13944		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species since it is restricted to primary forests, although there is no longer significant deforestation going on at higher elevations in Taiwan.
13945		conservation	eng	Francis (1997) found this species in Krau Wildlife Reserve.
13945		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Malay Peninsula and three or four localities in Sabah, Borneo. It can be expected in Thailand, but as yet there are no records (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
13945		habitat	eng	It has been caught low-flying over streams in lowland dipterocarp forest. Presumably it is a foliage rooster, not known from caves. Nothing is known about roost size, but it is probably small.
13945		population	eng	This is a rare species (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
13945		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat to this species.
13947		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Krau Wildlife Reserve, and Hala-bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) and other protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve what may be a species complex.
13947		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Nias island in Indonesia.
13947		habitat	eng	Primary habitat is lowland dipterocarp forest from sea level up to 1,540 m asl, but also apparently other habitats, having been recorded in banana plantations. It was once netted in the centre of Samarinda City (Yasuma and Andau 2000).
13947		population	eng	This species is locally uncommon (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
13947		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although habitat loss due to logging, plantations, agriculture and forest fires may impact some populations, some of which are declining (C. Francis pers. comm.)
13948		conservation	eng	This species urgently requires additional surveys, covering the entire island (particularly in the fragments of primary forest remaining in the north and south), and ideally using other trapping techniques (mist-netting is not appropriate). This species is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
13948		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen collected in 1962 from Tsushima Island, Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). There is also a possibility that a bat collected on Yaku Island represents the same species (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
13948		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected in a cave, although it could be a tree-hollow or foliage dwelling species dependent on large trees.
13948		population	eng	Recent surveys on Tsushima Island, including both cave searches in winter (2005; K. Armstrong pers. comm.) and mist-netting efforts about 10 years ago during the summer (Maeda pers. comm.), have not recorded this species. The species could possibly be extinct.
13948		threats	eng	There is only a small patch of intact forest remaining on Tsushima, but there are very few caves available for roosting.
13949		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and this species has not been recorded form any protected areas. Ecological and population studies recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas.
13949		distribution	eng	This species is present in northern South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. It does not appear to be present in China. In South Asia this widely distributed species is presently known from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), and has been recorded from 1,200 m to 2,650 m asl. In Southeast Asia it is present in northern and eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
13949		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in montane forests on the mountain slopes and roosts among trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). One or two young are born (Bates and Harrison 1997). In northern Myanmar, it has been found altitudes ranging from 615 to 1,230 m asl (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, it appears to have been recorded from somewhat disturbed areas.
13949		population	eng	It has only been caught in small numbers in all parts of the range (Francis pers. comm.).
13949		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened due to habitat loss and disturbance to roosting sites mainly due to human unrest in the areas where it occurs (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, the threats to this species are not known (P. Bates pers. comm.).
13950		conservation	eng	The species is known from protected areas.
13950		distribution	eng	Resricted to southern part of Russian Far East, the Korean Peninsula, Sakhalin Island, and the Kuriles. Within Japan, it has been recorded from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima Island, Yakushima Island and Iki Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>In China it has been reported from the provinces of Nei Mongol, Jilin and Heilongjiang (Smith and Xie, in press), but this needs verification; it is possible that these records should be attributed to another <em>Murina</em> species (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008).
13950		habitat	eng	It roosts mainly in tree hollows, but also roosts in leaves, hollow bark, and in caves.
13950		population	eng	This species is widely distributed but is locally rare. Surveys have only found this species at low density.
13950		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of forest throughout its range, although it is unlikely to be a major threat at present.
13952		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within its range (e.g., Digya National Park in Ghana) in which this species is presumed to occur.
13952		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from eastern Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Togo. Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) suspect that the species may be distributed in Ghana or Sierra Leone. It is a lowland species.
13952		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the 'Guinean Savanna Zone' bordering the tropical rain forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
13952		population	eng	It is locally abundant. The description is based on a large series of animals.
13952		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13953		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It occurs in several protected areas. There is a need for taxonomic studies to conclusively determine the distribution of <em>Mus booduga</em> and the similar <em>Mus terricolor</em>.
13953		distribution	eng	The range of this largely South Asian species is difficult to define, as it is often confused with <em>Mus terricolor</em>. It has been recorded widely in India Sri Lanka, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal, Bangladesh (although distribution here is unclear) and central Myanmar. It is found from sea level up to 4,000 m asl elevation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13953		habitat	eng	This species is common in ricefields and other irrigated croplands in India. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Myanmar, it lives in drier, sandy habitat and scrubby areas, and is a serious pest in cropland areas (such as peanut crops).
13953		population	eng	It is reported to be a common and abundant species in India. It is also abundant in Myanmar (K. Aplin pers. comm.).
13953		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
13954		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g., Ruwenzori National Park, Virunga National Park and Kibali Forest).
13954		distribution	eng	This species is a montane Albertine Rift endemic occurring in the Kivu region of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and adjacent parts of Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. It is normally found above 1,500 to 3,000 m asl. The species has been recorded from (north to south) the Upper Ituri region west of Lake Mobutu and on both sides of the Rift Valley. Specific locations include Ruwenzori (Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda), Virunga Volcanoes, mountains west of Lake Edward (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and on both sides of Lake Kivu (Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Rwanda, western Burundi). An extralimital record from the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya needs verification (and is not mapped here).
13954		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense moist forest, swampy forest, bamboo forest, and even secondary forest, low afroalpine area. Records of this species from forests below 1,000 m asl need verification, especially those from the Ituri Forest and Irangi (Democratic Republic of the Congo). It is a herbivorous, and occasionally omnivorous, species.
13954		population	eng	It is generally rare in the cultivated zone west of Lake Kivu, and it is less common than <em>M. minutoides</em> on Idjwi Island, Lake Kivu. Population numbers fluctuate, but is normally the second to third most common species of <em>Mus</em> in trap records. It may be locally abundant in certain habitats.
13954		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13955		conservation	eng	The species range may possibly coincide with the Luanda National Park in Angola.
13955		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northeastern and central Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998) and southern and western parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The precise extent of the species range is not known. It has been found at elevations of between 900 and 1,400 m asl.
13955		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumed to occur in savanna, and may possibly be found in forest habitats.
13955		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
13955		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
13956		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.  In China, it occurs in Changshanerhai and Tongbiguan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008). Research should be conducted to determine the status of a potentially distinct species in central Myanmar. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
13956		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout southern China and south-east Asia. It is known from Okinawa Island, Japan (it is not known whether this population was introduced (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005)) to Taiwan, Province of China, southern China (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Hainan Island, and Hong Kong provinces) (Smith and Xie 2008), Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Thailand (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from the Malay Peninsula, and in Indonesia in Sumatra, Java, Madura and Flores Islands in Nusa Tenggara; all places where they may possibly have been inadvertently introduced (Musser and Newcomb 1983), but they may also represent relictual populations (although those on Flores are definitely introductions). The spotty distribution of this species on the Sunda Shelf is best explained by inadvertent human introductions (Musser and Newcomb 1983).
13956		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grasslands, scrub and secondary growth as well as other grassy agricultural fields such as rice paddies where it feeds on seeds and invertebrates (Smith and Xie 2008). They are mainly active at night, although they sometimes also are active for brief periods during the day (Smith and Xie 2008).
13956		population	eng	It is patchily distributed but locally abundant in suitable habitat (Aplin and Lunde 2006).
13956		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
13957		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas (eg. Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal in India). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species.
13957		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Pakistan and northern India, through Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern China (Anning and Ruili, both localities in Yunnan [Smith and Xie 2008]) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from northern Sumatra and central and eastern Java, both to Indonesia, where it may represent either introduced or natural, relictual populations (Ken Aplin pers. comm.). It is found from sea level to roughly around 2,000 m asl.
13957		habitat	eng	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal, fossorial and sometimes terrestrial species. It occurs in all types of habitats except deserts. It is often found in fields and tall grassland habitat close to rivers. It has been found to occupy irrigated and cultivated fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it occurs in secondary growth, grass, brush, rice fields and other agricultural areas (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, this species is found in open areas in deciduous dipterocarp forest, grasslands and paddyfields (Marshall 1977). This species is often sympatric with <em>Mus caroli</em> (Marshall 1977).
13957		population	eng	It is a common species, and can be locally very abundant.
13957		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
13958		conservation	eng	It is presumed to be present in many protected areas. It is possibly present in some protected areas in northeastern India (eg. Namdhapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh), and is almost certainly present in some protected areas in Southeast Asia. It is categorised as a vermin (Schedule V) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species. In South Asia, general taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13958		distribution	eng	This species is found in two distinct populations, one centered on northeastern South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, northeastern India and Nepal [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]) and northwestern Myanmar, and a second ranging through central and eastern Myanmar, southern China (Yunnan, west of the Salween River [Smith and Xie 2008]), Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. Both populations are widespread but patchily distributed. The northwestern population ranges from around 50 to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005), while the southeastern population occurs from about 200 to 1,500 m asl.
13958		habitat	eng	It is present in a wide variety of primary and secondary forest types. In South Asia it is found in subtropical dry deciduous forests, shola grasslands,temperate coniferous and broadleaved forests, and has been found to occupy arable land near <em>Lantana</em> bushes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Southeast Asia it is only found in forested areas and occasionally in moderately disturbed areas such as upland gardens in forests. In China, it has been reported from upland rice fields and other disturbed habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).
13958		population	eng	The species is abundant.
13958		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
13959		conservation	eng	It is present in Kreinci Seblat National Park. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species might occur more widely in the mountains of western Sumatra.
13959		distribution	eng	The species is found only in the mountain chain along western Sumatra. The elevational limits are not well defined, but the type locality is Korinchi Peak at 3,050 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may extend further along the mountain chain in western Sumatra than current records suggest.
13959		habitat	eng	This species is found in upper montane rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13959		population	eng	There is no information on current population status. The most recent collection is a series from the 1980s.
13959		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats at the high elevations at which it occurs.
13960		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has been recorded from Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Mukurthi National Park in Tamil Nadu. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). There is a need to develop captive breeding and husbandry techniques for species recovery actions (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13960		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in India, restricted to four fragmented locations (Eravikulam National Park, Avalanche, Kalapatti and Coonoor) at elevations ranging from 1,540 to 2,400 m asl (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Pradhan 2002; Pradhan and Kurup 2001).
13960		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical evergreen montane forest and shola grasslands. It has been found to occupy high altitude evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13960		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
13960		threats	eng	Outside of protected areas the habitat quality is affected due to general human interference (conversion of land to other uses).
13961		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. However, it has been recorded from Yala National Park. Surveys and population monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13961		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known from one location each in Central Province (Kumbalaghamuwa), North Eastern Province (Kumana), Southern Province (Buttawa in Hambantota and Yala National Park) and Uva Province (Galge in Monaragala) (Phillips 1935; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). It is found at about 1,000 m asl.
13961		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry thorny scrub forest. It has been found to occupy low country dry and intermediate zone and semi-evergreen forest (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13961		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13961		threats	eng	Increased use of pesticides in agriculture, human disturbance and presence of domestic predators have been observed to be major threats for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13962		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the known range of this species.
13962		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the vicinity of the type locality close to the Gounda River, Central African Republic.
13962		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from savanna habitat within the lowland rain forest.
13962		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
13962		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
13963		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
13963		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Senegal and southern Mauritania, through Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, southern Niger and Benin to northern Nigeria; the eastern range limits are not fully documented and the species may be found in northern Cameroon and Chad, although this needs to be confirmed. The distribution is known to be disjunct. It is a lowland species.
13963		habitat	eng	It occurs in the 'Sudanian-Sahel Savanna Zone, and it is also a commensal species found in houses and stores.
13963		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
13963		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13964		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
13964		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern South Africa (Northern Cape Province, North-West Province, Gauteng and Limpopo Province), western Zimbabwe, Botswana, southwestern Zambia, central and northern Namibia and southern Angola. It generally recorded at elevations close to 1,000 m asl but it has also been found up to 1,600 m in Gauteng, South Africa..
13964		habitat	eng	This species tolerates a wide range of habitats in semi-arid savannas. It generally avoids open microhabitats. Further details are needed on whether this species is present in agricultural land.
13964		population	eng	It is an abundant to very abundant species. This species may undergo population explosions during periods of high food availability, and is considered to be one of the most abundant small mammals in the Kalahari.
13964		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13966		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.
13966		distribution	eng	<em>Mus macedonicus</em> occurs in the south Balkans, Asia Minor, the Caucasus (Transcaucasia), and the Middle East south to Israel and Jordan and east to Iran (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found from sea level to 500 m (Macholán 1999).
13966		distribution	eng	<em>Mus macedonicus </em>occurs in the south Balkans, Asia Minor, the Caucasus (Transcaucasia), and the Middle East south to Israel and Jordan and east to Iran (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found from sea level to 500 m (Macholán 1999).
13966		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including cultivated farmland, orchards, olive groves, road verges, sand dunes, arid Mediterranean shrubland, wadis, and densely-vegetated riverbanks. It is absent from dense forests, and avoids areas of human habitation (Macholán 1999).
13966		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including cultivated farmland, orchards, olive groves, road verges, sand dunes, arid Mediterranean shrubland, wadis, and densely-vegetated riverbanks. It is absent from dense forests, and avoids areas of human habitation (Macholán 1999). In Israel and Jordan it is reported from a few localities east and west of the Jordan River (Qumsiyeh 1996). It is restricted to the Mediterranean areas which receive more than 400 mm of rain per annum (Harrison and Bates 1991).
13966		population	eng	It is common throughout its range (Macholán 1999).
13966		population	eng	This species can be very common.
13966		threats	eng	No major threats.
13966		threats	eng	No major threats to this species.
13967		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia.
13967		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Ethiopian Highlands at elevations of between 1,500 and 3,400 m asl. The distribution range of this species is incompletely known. It has been recorded from Ethiopia into Eritrea and southwards to southwestern Uganda and southwestern Kenya (Musser and Carleton 2005). The range in Uganda and Kenya is unclear and is not mapped here.
13967		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane forests, scrublands and grasslands on the Ethiopian plateau. It is not a commensal species, but it typically inhabits secondary scrubland and can easily adapt to grasslands that have recently been cleared.
13967		population	eng	It is common and widespread at middle altitudes in Ethiopia.
13967		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The clearance of forest fuel and cropland appears to be a minor threat to the species habitat.
13968		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in a number of protected areas including Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal.
13968		distribution	eng	This form has been recorded from Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Ghana. There is currently no evidence that the species occurs in Nigeria, but the eastern limits to the range are unknown. This is a lowland species.
13968		habitat	eng	The species occurs in savanna habitat along the Niger River in Mali and has also been recorded in rural gardens.
13968		population	eng	It appears to be common in suitable habitat.
13968		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13969		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. However, it has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park in Central Province. General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13969		distribution	eng	This is endemic to Sri Lanka where it is known from several locations in Central Province, North Western Province, Southern Province, Western  and Uva Province (Phillips 1935; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). It occupies an altitutdinal range of 165 to 2,310 m asl and is widely distributed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13969		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical montane, low-land evergreen forest; primary and secondary forest. It has been found to occupy wet undergrowth in low country, wet and mountain wet zones, rainforests, wet patana grasslands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13969		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13969		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation due to expansion of farmland, human encroachment, and predation by domestic animals (eg. cats) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13970		conservation	eng	It occurs in a large number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed to resolve the northern distribution limits of this species.
13970		distribution	eng	This species appears to range from South Africa and Swaziland northwards into Central Africa and East Africa. The northern limits of the distribution are difficult to define as <em>Mus minutoides</em> appears to form an unresolved species complex with the similar <em>Mus musculoides</em>, and the possible distribution of these taxa between Tanzania, southern Sudan in the north and northern Congo in the west is especially unclear. Typical examples of <em>Mus minutoides</em> have been recorded up to 2,400 m asl (Sinner and Chimimba 2005).
13970		habitat	eng	Typical examples of this species have been recorded in Southern Africa from fynbos habitats, savanna, grassland, rocky habitats, vlei and riverine associations, recently burnt grassland, fallow land and suburban areas (though they rarely enter buildings) (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
13970		population	eng	It is abundant to very abundant. Population densities of up to 28 animals/ha recorded and presumably even higher densities in favorable conditions (Ara Monadjem pers. comm.).
13970		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13972		conservation	eng	Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas. A highly successful colonist of artificial environments; no conservation measures are required.
13972		distribution	eng	<em>Mus musculus</em> was originally a Palaearctic species, but through its close association with humans it has been widely introduced across the globe (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species is widespread over all continents, except Antarctica, and has become established in North and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, and many oceanic islands (Macholán 1999). The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
13972		distribution	eng	Originally a Palaearctic species; through its close association with humans it has been widely introduced and has become established in North and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, northern Australia, and many oceanic islands (Macholán 1999).
13972		habitat	eng	House mice are typically commensal, and are found in a very wide range of man-made habitats including houses, farm outbuildings, other types of buildings, and even coal mines and frozen meat stores. Sometimes it is feral in areas where it has been introduced, and in some parts of its native range it maintains wild populations in outdoor habitats such as arable land, pastures, coastal sand dunes, salt marshes, and scrubby road verges (Macholán 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). House mice tend not to be found in forests and deserts (Macholán 1999).
13972		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species; common except in some extreme habitats (e.g. at high altitude) (Macholán 1999).
13972		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
13973		conservation	eng	It is possible that there are protected areas within the range of this species, but until the distribution is better documented this cannot be confirmed. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
13973		distribution	eng	The distribution of this African species is uncertain, largely because of confusion with <em>Mus minutoides</em>. It is present in southeastern Zambia and Limpopo Province in South Africa, and might be present in southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Zimbabwe, western Mozambique and southern Tanzania although records from these locations require further investigation. The altitudinal range of this species is not known.
13973		habitat	eng	This species is believed to occur in savanna habitat, and has been recorded from rocky montane grassland in Limpopo Province (Newberry and Bronner 2002). Little additional details are available on the natural history of this species.
13973		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is unclear, in part because it is often confused with <em>Mus minutoides</em>.
13973		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It is possible that it could be a widespread species with few or no major threats.
13974		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Willem Pretorius Reserve and Golden Gate National Park, South Africa. Further genetic and taxonomic research is recommended for this species.
13974		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from South Africa (Free State and northern Eastern Cape Provinces) and Lesotho. It has been reported across a wide area. This is a high altitude species.
13974		habitat	eng	It occurs in high altitude short, open grassland. It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species that nests amongst rock piles or in old termite mounds. The species can tolerate some habitat disturbance, as it is recorded occurring in heavily grazed areas.
13974		population	eng	The current population size is not known, although specimens formerly allocated to <em>M. minutoides</em> are reportedly not abundant in the Free State.
13974		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13975		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species.
13975		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded north of the Oubangui River in the Central African Republic. It is known only from the type series of animals that were collected at three localities. This is a lowland species.
13975		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in savanna habitat within tropical moist forest.
13975		population	eng	Although the abundance of this species is not known, it may be locally common.
13975		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
13976		conservation	eng	Globally, it is presumably present in many protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species complex. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram in India. Survey, life history studies and monitoring are recommended for the South Asian populations of the species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13976		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal), Bhutan (Putlibir), Myanmar, southern China (southeast Xizang, Yunnan, south Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi), Thailand, southwest Cambodia, Lao PDR, and central and northern Viet Nam (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008). It is found between 200 and around 2,000 m asl.
13976		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, semi-arboreal and terrestrial species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species occurs mostly in montane forests (Marshall 1977; Musser and Newcomb 1983), it occurs in both primary and secondary forest. It can be found at the forest edge, but is closely associated with forest habitats. It builds globular nests in dry grass (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith 2008).
13976		population	eng	In general, this species seems to be relatively uncommon.
13976		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is present in secondary and modified areas of forest.
13977		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. However, it is known from the following protected areas in India, Sri Lankamalleshwara Wildlife Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh), Melghat Tiger Reserve and Tadoba Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13977		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India (recorded from Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu) (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is very widely distributed from 500 to 1,500 m asl.
13977		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical thorn scrub forest, plain grassland with sparse vegetation, rocky, semi-arid, scrub,bush, dry forest patches. It has been found to occupy rocky areas with scrub near fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13977		population	eng	This is a common species.
13977		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by loss of habitat, overgrazing of habitat, and general development activities (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13978		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India: Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sri Venkateshwara National Park all in Andra Pradesh and  Mudumulai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13978		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India, where it is found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra (including Pune), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. It is widely distributed from sea level up to 2,000 m asl (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; C. Srinivasulu and B. Srinivasulu in litt. 2005).
13978		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial, in some places ruderal species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous, scrub forest. Found in all habitats except cold desert in the northeastern States. It has been found to occupy dry, open areas, gritty and gravelly soil, fields, synanthropic habitats, pasture lands, plantations, dry lands with pulses and oilseed cultivations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13978		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
13978		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
13979		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has not been recorded from any protected area in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
13979		distribution	eng	It is endemic to South Asia, where it occurs very widely in India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Southern Nepal), Pakistan (Baluchistan and Sindh) (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It ranges from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
13979		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal and terrestrial, in some places ruderal species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous, scrub forest. It is generally found in all habitats, except cold desert. It has been found to occupy sandy, gravelly, rocky habitat, semi-arid, grassland, dry cultivation, scrub, range land sparse vegetation, intensive agriculture, plain grassland, thorn scrub desert (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
13979		population	eng	It is common in some areas.
13979		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
13980		conservation	eng	The range includes a number of protected areas in which the species is believed to occur.
13980		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Guinea (Mount Nimba) and Sierra Leone; eastwards through Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, possibly Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Haut-Zaïre), southern Sudan, west central and southern Ethiopia. There are unconfirmed records of this species from Senegal. The altitudinal range is not known.
13980		habitat	eng	It is associated with grassland clearings in high forest, or more open woodlands. It is not known if this species is commensal.
13980		population	eng	In view of its wide range, this species is presumed to have a relatively large population.
13980		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13981		conservation	eng	In Namibia, it has been found in the Waterberg and Khadoum protected areas. In Botswana, it has been recorded from the  Okavango and Moremi in Botswana.
13981		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana (although there is a single record from southern Botswana) and two records from western Zambia. It has been recorded at an elevation of 1,100 m asl.
13981		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. In Botswana it has been recorded from the fringes of pans and wetlands in relatively arid habitats (dry savanna). In Namibia, it occurs in dry savanna and also in short grassland. This may be an insectivorous species.
13981		population	eng	There is no information available on population status. The species is poorly represented in museum collections, suggesting that it is not abundant, however, this may also reflect a lack of collecting effort.
13981		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
13982		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
13982		distribution	eng	This species has a genuinely fragmented distribution in mainland Southeast Asia and is recorded in Myanmar, Thailand, south west Cambodia, central Lao PDR, and north west Viet Nam (Musser and Carleton 2005).
13982		habitat	eng	It is found in dry grass and pygmy bamboo in dry dipterocarp forest (Marshall 1977). It is tolerant of habitat disturbance, although they require forest cover.
13982		population	eng	Although patchily distributed, it can be locally abundant.
13982		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats.
13983		conservation	eng	There are many protected areas in which this species is presumed to occur.
13983		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northeastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania. It occurs up to at least 1,830 m asl (Mount Elgon, Kenya).
13983		habitat	eng	This species is associated with open clearings in lowland and montane forest, and also within savanna areas. It is not known if this species is a human commensal.
13983		population	eng	It is presumably a common species.
13983		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to the species.
13984		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected area within its range. The population may be declining and this should be monitored.
13984		distribution	eng	<em>Mus spicilegus</em> is endemic to Europe, occurring from Lake Neusiedl on the Austro-Hungarian border through Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova, and Ukraine, extending eastwards to as far as Rostov in the extreme south-west of Russia. In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Serbia and Bulgaria, with an isolated subpopulation occurring in Montenegro, Greece and Albania. This subpopulation has a fragmented range within a very narrow strip of coastal habitat, and there are only three known localities (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It typically occurs from sea level to 200 m (Macholán 1999).
13984		distribution	eng	<em>Mus spicilegus</em> is endemic to Europe, occurring from Lake Neusiedl on the Austro-Hungarian border through Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova, and Ukraine, extending eastwards to as far as Rostov in the extreme south-west of Russia. In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Serbia and Bulgaria, with an isolated subpopulation occurring in Montenegro, Greece and Albania. This subpopulation has a fragmented range within a very narrow strip of coastal habitat, and there are only three known localities (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). It typically occurs from sea level to 200 m (Macholán 1999).
13984		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of open habitats including natural steppe grasslands, pastures and cereal fields, orchards, open woodland, woodland edges and clearings. It avoids forests and human settlements. It feeds on grain and seeds, which it hoards in the winter in a soil-covered mound built above its nest chamber; a single mound may be up to 400 cm in diameter (although 100-200 cm is more typical) and contain up to 10 kg of grain (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998). Groups of 4-14 mice cooperate to build these mounds (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998).
13984		population	eng	It remains common in suitable habitats, but is suspected to be undergoing population decline in some areas. Densities of 1-20 mounds per hectare are typical, but densities of up to 60-100 mounds per hectare may be reached in particularly favourable habitat. On average, each mound is inhabited by five to six individuals (Macholán 1999). In Slovakia the range appears to be expanding.
13984		threats	eng	It is feared that loss of steppe grassland and agricultural intensification may cause population declines (Macholán 1999). However, in Romania at least, this species is considered an agricultural pest (Popescu and Murariu 2001).
13985		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific measures are recommended.
13985		distribution	eng	<em>Mus spretus </em>is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring in south-west Europe and North Africa from Morocco to Libya (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic islands (Spain), and southern France. Its vertical range is from sea level to 1,800 m (L.J. Palomo pers. comm. 2006).
13985		distribution	eng	<em>Mus spretus</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring in south-west Europe (southern France, much of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, Spain) and North Africa from Morocco through northern Algeria and Tunisia to northern Libya (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic islands (Spain), and southern France. Its vertical range is from sea level to 1,800 m (L.J. Palomo pers. comm. 2006).
13985		habitat	eng	It is found in grasslands, dry shrubland, cereal fields and open woodland. It is absent from dense forest, and tends to avoid human settlements (Macholán 1999). Their limited water requirements (half that of the house mouse) allows them to inhabit drier areas than other mice (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
13985		population	eng	It is common throughout its range, and populations are presumably stable. Typical densities are in the region of 3-12 individuals per hectare (Macholán 1999).
13985		threats	eng	No major threats.
13985		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13986		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
13986		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Sudan, much of Ethiopia, southern Somalia, and southwards through Kenya to central Tanzania (Dodoma), including the lower flanks of Mount Kilimanjaro (Musser and Carleton 2005). The distributional limits are unresolved, and it s possibly also present in Eritrea. The species is found at elevations below 2,000 m asl.
13986		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of dry savanna. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
13986		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
13986		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13987		conservation	eng	The species is presumably present within some protected areas. There is a need for taxonomic studies to conclusively determine the distribution of <em>Mus booduga</em> and the similar <em>Mus booduga</em>.
13987		distribution	eng	The range of this largely South Asian species is difficult to define, as it is often confused with <em>Mus booduga</em>. It is reported from Pakistan, India, southern Nepal and Bangladesh (Comilla District, Chittagong Province); with an introduced population present in a small area of Medan, northern Sumatra, Indonesia.
13987		habitat	eng	It is presumably found in a wide variety of habitats.
13987		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
13987		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13988		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a large number of protected areas (e.g., the Ruwenzori National Park).
13988		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Africa. It has been recorded from Ethiopia (Bale Mountains), southern Sudan (Imatong Mountains only), northeastern and northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique (Tete Province) and Angola (mainly north and northeast). The species does not appear to occur in Zimbabwe. It has been recorded at elevations of between 1,000 and 3,000 m asl.
13988		habitat	eng	In much of eastern Africa this species is restricted to isolated mountainous and highland areas. It has been recorded in many types of grasslands, scrublands, swampy areas and cultivated areas. Typical habitats of the species include grassy areas and slopes (Imatong Mountains, Sudan), cultivated secondary savanna, Imperata-Hyparrhenia grassland (Ruwenzori National Park) and grasslands in high and moderate rainfall areas (including burnt grasslands). It has also been recorded in wet montane grasslands at higher altitudes. In the Bale Mountains it is confined to forest habitats. On the Zomba Plateau of Malawi, grasslands are preferred and no individuals have been found in forest. It is a terrestrial and mainly noturnal species, but there is some diurnal activity. This species is omnivorous, but it is primarily insectivorous.
13988		population	eng	In montane grasslands in Malawi, <em>Mus triton</em> is the most abundant rodent. Population numbers of this species remain constant all year.
13988		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
13989		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. There is a need to monitor the population status of this species.
13989		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the mountains of western Java, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded at elevations between 2,000 and 3,000 m (Marshall 1977).
13989		habitat	eng	This species is found in upper montane tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from alpine scrub above the treeline.
13989		population	eng	The last specimens were taken by J. Marshall in the 1970s. The species is probably fairly uncommon, but there is no reason to think it has undergone a decline.
13989		threats	eng	It is unclear whether there are any major threats to the species; habitat loss is unlikely to pose a threat at such high elevations.
13992		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In many countries this species is included on national Red Lists.
13992		distribution	eng	The common dormouse occurs in Europe and northern Asia Minor (Turkey). In continental Europe, it is fairly widespread, although it is absent from Iberia, south-west France, and northern parts of Fennoscandia and Russia. It is also absent from eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Island populations occur in southern Britain and on Corfu and Sicily (Morris 1999, Rossolimo <em>et al.</em> (2001). In the Alps it occurs up to 1,920 m (Spitzenberger 2002).
13992		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous woodland, favouring forest edge, secondary growth, coppices, and other wooded areas with a dense shrubby understorey. It is also found in hedgerows in farmland. It is an arboreal feeder, foraging on flowers, insects and fruit.
13992		population	eng	Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in some areas it is declining, in others it is considered stable. In parts of its northern range (e.g., UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Denmark) populations are declining and fragmented as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. However in Lithuania it is a common and widespread species, and no decline has been observed (Juškaitis 2003). Population densities may reach c.10 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat, but densities are significantly lower in less favourable habitats (Morris 1999).
13992		population	eng	Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in some areas it is declining, in others it is considered stable. In parts of its northern range (e.g., UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Denmark) populations are declining and fragmented as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. However, in Lithuania it is a common and widespread species, and no decline has been observed (Juškaitis 2003). Population densities may reach c.10 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat, but densities are significantly lower in less favourable habitats (Morris 1999).
13992		threats	eng	In north-western parts of the species' range, habitat fragmentation as a result of forestry, urbanisation and agriculture is a major threat. It was formerly a popular pet in some parts of its range, but this is now illegal in many countries (Morris 1999).
14001		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist organic soils in wet campos.
14002		habitat	eng	Found in perennial marshes and moist organic soils in wet campos.
14003		conservation	eng	The species is including inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction). It is found in at least two proteced areas (Cuenca de los Rios Valle de Bravo, Malacatepec, Tilostoc y Temascaltepec and Chamela-Cuixmala Reserve). The protection of this species is being undertaken by the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14003		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, Guerrero and Morelos (Mexico) (Ceballos y Oliva, 2005). The maximum altitudinal record for the species is over 1,700 m (Alvarez-Castañeda and Lopez-Forment, 1995 in Tellez and Ortega, 1999).
14003		habitat	eng	This species has been found roosting in a sheltered, but not secluded, rocky overhang above a stream in a canyon. In addition, this bat was found roosting in a culvert and in a cave. Apparently, its occurrence is restricted to the arid thorn and tropical deciduous forest along the coast. These habitats have a clear summer rainy season (from July to October) and a remarkably dry season (from November to May). During this last period the majority of the trees lose their leaves. The dominant species in these habitats are Cordia alliodora, Caesalpina eriostachys, Lysiloma divaricata, Brosimun alicastrum, Tabebuia donnell-smithi. Reproductive records are limited. Two pregnant females were collected in Colima in September. A female captured in August was lactating (Tellez and Ortega, 1999).
14003		population	eng	This bat species was poorly studied until a few years ago, but the German-Mexican team as part of the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM) has carried out new studies. It is considered an uncommon species (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). They roost in small groups. They may have to undertake small-scale seasonal migrations in order to find flowering plants. They do not hibernate (Bergstresser 2002).
14003		threats	eng	Habitat loss including fires (Arroyo Cabrales pers. comm.).
14018		conservation	eng	It is legally protected in all range states (Schreiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989). In the Russian Federation only the Caucasus subspecies is red listed (Red Data Book of Russian Federation 2001). At least part of the population occurs within protected areas. <br/><br/>The following conservation actions are ongoing as of 2011:<br/><ol><li>General: conservation breeding program in the form of European Mink EEP program with about 250 mink in captivity is ongoing since 1992. Program is coordinated by Tallinn Zoological Gardens and Foundation Lutreola (Estonia).</li><li>Spain: (a) conservation breeding program since 2004; (b) pilot reinforcement since 2008 in Alava; (c) special program to control American Mink within and around the European Mink range is ongoing; (d) monitoring of European Mink in different autonomous communities such as La Rioja (2007 and 2011), Alava (2007, 2009) and Aragon (2008, 2009, 2010, 2012), Navarra 2004-2005, Castilla y León (Burgos 2004, 2010 and Soria 2007, 2010); (e) habitat restoration in Navarra (EU LIFE project); (f) road casualties study in La Rioja (2007), studies on the effect of road casualties, population dynamics.</li><li>France: in 2010 government program for conservation breeding and reintroduction was started for six years.</li><li>Germany: (a) conservation breeding program in Osnabrück managed by Association Euronerz under European mink EEP program, (b) two reintroduction programs: in Saarland and at Steinhuder Meer, Lower Saxony.</li><li>Estonia: (a) establishment of island population in Island Hiiumaa (Dagö) since 2000. At present small core population exists in the island, but it is not yet viable; (b) studies on reproductive physiology of the species, studies on survival and adaptation of the species in reintroduction programs, studies on genetics, studies on the impact of captive conditions to the stress of mink; (c) regular monitoring of the results of establishment of island population in Hiiumaa.</li><li>Romania: (a) since 2001 regular monitoring has been conducted in Danube delta; (b) in 2011, the strategic plan for European Mink conservation was elaborated in the European Mink handbook for the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (Marinov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/></li></ol>Studies have been undertaken to determine the mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability, the survival of released captive-born European Mink. New studies have been launched to study reproductive physiology, impact of captive conditions, options for artificial insemination, effect of behavioural personality types in mink to conservation breeding and reintroduction. There is an urgent need for a species action plan in the European Union for European Mink for better collaboration between different ongoing conservation activities.  Clearly national and regional authorities need to increase attention and allocate sufficient and continued resources for European Mink conservation, otherwise this species will disappear soon. There is a need for large-scale coordinated efforts to secure the survival of the last small remaining populations in different areas inside of the historical range of the species, but also restoration and/or establishment of new populations is required.<br/>Conservation breeding of the species needs all-European coordination so that all single-country initiatives collaborate. Current tendency for isolated one-country breeding efforts will lead to ineffective use of resources and of competence, but also to inability to reach the captive population size sufficient enough to maintain genetic diversity in captivity. For remaining <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> populations, the maintenance or restoration of sufficiently large areas of suitable habitats has to be secured by designation of new protected areas and improvement of management of existing protected areas. <br/><br/>The impact of the American mink on local European Mink populations has to be monitored and controlled, and whenever possible and feasible the alien mink populations should be removed. Local authorities have to pay more attention to the effects of the American Mink on the local fauna, including the European Mink. They should support further studies and actions to mitigate the effect of alien mink to the native mink species. For example, intensive control of American Mink is ongoing in Spain since 2001. More than 3,000 American Minks have been eradicated around and inside the European Mink distribution area. It is likely that without such a control of alien mink the native mink population in Spain would have vanished already (Gomez and Palazon pers. comm.).<br/><br/>For French and Spanish wild populations which appear to be highly inbred further research needs to be carried out to identify whether these seemingly genetically highly uniform populations suffer from inbreeding depression. The introduction of individuals from <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> stock from genetically diverse eastern populations has to be considered as a potential conservation measure, if further research confirms the need for this. In addition to genetic studies, comparative studies on ecology and behaviour of the disjunct mink populations (Spanish/French, Romanian and eastern European) should also be conducted to support the findings of genetic studies. The <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation breeding program has to be enhanced and promoted, as it guarantees the survival of the species in case <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> efforts temporarily fail. It also provides opportunities for the restoration of already vanished wild populations and reinforcement of existing populations whenever needed. Better coordination between different <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> actions over political borders is needed. Special studies have to be conducted to find the most feasible way to incorporate the western low-variability populations into the joint program with high-diversity eastern population.&#160; <br/><br/>There is also a need for developing an all-European conservation breeding program with secured long-term funding. Further studies are needed about the current status of the European mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern parts of Europe.
14018		conservation	eng	It is legally protected in all range states (Schreiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989). In the Russian Federation only the caucasus subspecies is Red listed (Red Data book of Russian Federation 2001). At least part of the population occurs within protected areas. <br/><br/>The following conservation actions are ongoing as of in 2011:<br/><ol><li>General: conservation breeding program in the form of European Mink EEP program with about 250 mink in captivity is on-going since 1992. Program is coordinated by Tallinn Zoological Gardens and Foundation Lutreola (Estonia).</li><li>Spain: (a) conservation breeding program since 2004, (b) pilot reinforcement since 2008 in Alava, (c) special program to control American Mink within and around of the European Mink range is on-going, (d) monitoring of European Mink in different autonomous communities as La Rioja (2007 and 2011), Alava (2007, 2009) and Aragon (2008, 2009, 2010, 2012), Navarra 2004-2005, Castilla y León (Burgos 2004, 2010 and Soria 2007, 2010), (e) habitat restoration in Navarra (EU LIFE project),&#160; (f) road casualties study in La Rioja (2007), studies on the effect of road casualties, population dynamics.</li><li>France: in 2010 government program for conservation breeding and reintroduction was started for six years.</li><li>Germany: (a) conservation breeding program in Osnabrück managed by Association Euronerz under European mink EEP program, (b) two reintroduction programs: in Saarland and at Steinhuder Meer, Lower Saxony.</li><li>Estonia: (a) establishment of island population in Island Hiiumaa (Dagö) since 2000. At present small core population exists in the islands, but it is not yet viable; (b) studies on reproductive physiology of the species; studies one survival and adaptation of the species in reintroduction programs, studies on genetics, studies on the impact of captive conditions to the stress of mink; (c) regular monitoring of the results of establishment of island population in Hiiumaa.</li><li>Romania: (a) since 2001 regular monitoring has been conducted in Danube delta, (b) in 2011, the strategic plan for European Mink conservation was elaborated in the European Mink handbook for the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (Marinov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<br/></li></ol>Studies have been undertaken to determine the mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability, the survival of released captive-born European Mink. New studies have been launched to study reproductive physiology, impact of captive conditions, options for artificial insemination, effect of behavioral personality types in mink to conservation breeding and reintroduction. There is an urgent need for species action plan in European Union for European Mink for better collaboration between different on-going conservation activities.  Clearly national and regional authorities need to increase attention and allocate sufficient and continued resources for European Mink conservation, otherwise this species will disappear soon. There is a need for large-scale coordinated efforts to secure the survival of the last small remaining populations in different areas inside of the historical range of the species, but also restoration and/or establishment of new populations is required.<br/>Conservation breeding of the species needs all-European coordination so that all single-country initiatives collaborate. Current tendency for isolated one-country breeding efforts will lead to ineffective use of resources and of competence, but also to inability to reach to the captive population size sufficient to maintain genetic diversity in captivity. For remaining in situ populations, the maintenance or restoration of sufficiently large areas of suitable habitats has to be secured by designation of new protected areas and improvement of management of existing protected areas. <br/><br/>The impact of the American mink on local European Mink populations has to be monitored and controlled, and whenever possible and feasible the alien mink populations should be removed. Local authorities have to pay more attention to the effects of the American Mink on the local fauna, including the European Mink. They should support further studies and actions to mitigate the effect of alien mink to the native mink species. For example, intensive control of American Mink is on-going in Spain since 2001. More than 3,000 American Minks have been eradicated around and inside of European Mink distribution area. It is likely that without such a control of alien mink the native mink population in Spain would have vanished already (Gomez and Palazon pers. comm.).<br/><br/>For French and Spanish wild populations which appear to be highly inbred further research needs to be carried out to identify whether these seemingly genetically highly uniform populations suffer from inbreeding depression. The introduction of individuals from <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> stock from genetically diverse eastern populations has to be considered as a potential conservation measure, if further research confirms the need for this. In addition to genetic studies, comparative studies on ecology and behaviour of the disjunct mink populations (Spanish/French, Romanian and eastern European) should also be conducted to support the findings of genetic studies. The <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation breeding program has to be enhanced and promoted, as it guarantees the survival of the species in case <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> efforts temporarily fail. It also provides opportunities for the restoration of already vanished wild populations and reinforcement of existing populations whenever needed. Better coordination between different <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> actions over political borders is needed. Special studies have to be conducted to find the most feasible way how to incorporate the western low-variability populations into the joint program with high-diversity eastern population.&#160; <br/><br/>There is also a need for developing an all-European conservation breeding program with secured long-term funding. Further studies are needed about the current the status of the European mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern part of Europe.
14018		conservation	eng	Legally protected in all range states (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989) including the Russian Federation (Alexei Tikhonov pers. comm 2006). At least part of the population occurs within protected areas. Studies have been undertaken to determine the mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spain and France programmes have been started to control the American mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 by the European Zoo Association (the Catalonian Government's captive breeding programme is part of this European initiative). Efforts are being made to reintroduce European mink to areas where they formerly occurred in Germany and the Russian Federation. An introduction programme is underway on the island of Hiiumaa (to Estonia) in the Baltic, where the American species has been excluded. In France a national action plan for the conservation of the European mink was initiated by the Ministry of Environment and has been coordinated by the SFEPM (French Mammal Society). <br/><br/>Conservation needs vary throughout Europe, and include the following:<br/>·National and regional authorities need to increase attention and allocate sufficient resources for European mink conservation. Otherwise this species will disappear soon.<br/>·There is a need for large-scale efforts to secure the survival of the last small remaining populations in different areas inside of the historical range of the species, but also restoration and/or establishment of new populations is required. <br/>·For remaining <em>in situ</em> populations, the maintenance or restoration of sufficiently large areas of suitable habitats has to be secured by designation of new protected areas and improvement of management of existing protected areas. <br/>·The impact of the American mink on local European mink populations has to be monitored and controlled, and whenever possible and feasible the alien mink populations should be removed. Local authorities have to pay more attention to the effects of the American mink on the local fauna, including the European mink. They should support further studies and actions to mitigate the effect of alien mink to the native mink species. <br/>·Aleutian diseases and other pathologies must be monitored in all remaining <em>in situ</em> populations of the European mink. <br/>·For French and Spanish wild populations which appear to be highly inbred further research needs to be carried out to identify whether these seemingly genetically highly uniform populations suffer from inbreeding depression.  The introduction of individuals from <em>ex situ</em> stock from genetically diverse eastern populations has to be considered as a potential conservation measure, if further research confirms the need for this. In addition to genetic studies, comparative studies on ecology and behavior of the disjunct mink populations (Spanish/French, Romanian and eastern European) should also be conducted to support the findings of genetic studies.  <br/>·The <em>ex situ</em> conservation breeding program has to be enhanced and promoted, as it guarantees the survival of the  species in case in situ efforts fail. It also provides opportunities for the restoration of already vanished wild populations and reinforcement of existing populations whenever needed. <br/>·There is a need for developing an all-European conservation breeding program with secured long-term funding.<br/>·Further studies are needed about the current the status of the European mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern part of Europe.
14018		distribution	eng	<em>Mustela lutreola</em> is largely restricted to Europe. A century ago it was widespread throughout the continent, with a distribution extending from northern Spain in the west to the river Ob (just east of the Urals) in the east, and from the Archangelsk region in the north to the northern Caucasus in the south (Youngman 1990). However, over the last 150 years it has severely declined and been extirpated or greatly reduced over most of its former range (Maran 1999). The current range includes an isolated population in northern Spain and western France, which is widely disjunct from the main range in Eastern Europe (Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, central regions of European Russia and the Danube delta in Romania). It occurs from sea level to 1,120 m (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003).
14018		distribution	eng	The historical range of the European Mink extended from Finland to east of Ural Mountains, to northern Spain and Caucasian Mountains (Novikov 1939, Heptner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1967, Youngman 1990, Maran 2007). The relatively recent discovery of mink in France (1839) and in eastern Spain (1951) suggests late expansion of the species to the west (Youngman 1990, Michaux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). However, over the last 150 years it has severely declined and been extirpated or greatly reduced over most of its former range (Maran 1999, Maran 2007 and references therein).<br/><br/>The current range consists of few isolated fragments: in northern Spain and western France, in Danube delta in Romania, in the Ukraine and Russia (Maran 2007 and references therein). It occurs from sea level to 1,120 m (Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>The species is still extant in only a minor part of its former range and is in decline even in its currently remaining range enclaves. Only Romania and Vologotsk Region and Arkhangelsk Region can, perhaps, be regarded as exceptions. In Romania, the presence of the European Mink in Danube Delta was confirmed relatively recently (Gotea and Kranz 1999). The European Mink seems to be still widespread there. Repeated live-trapping surveys since 2001 indicate that mink inhabit the area of no more than 2,500 km² (e.g., Kranz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In Vologodsk Region, considering the rapid decline of the species in the neighbouring regions and the presence of the American Mink, it is not likely that the European Mink populations will hold there for long. In the Arkhangelsk Region, the population seems to exist in the northwest of the region, which is close to the northern limit of the range with very low abundance of the species. The presence of the American Mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) is likely to pose a serious threat to its long-term existence also there (Skumatov 2005, Maran 2007 and references therein).
14018		habitat	eng	European mink have specialised habitat requirements. They are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of lakeshores, rivers, streams and marshlands, and are rarely found more than 100 meters away from fresh water. They forage at night, hunting both on land and in water for a wide range of animal prey including small mammals, birds, frogs, molluscs, crabs, fish and insects (Youngman 1990, Maran 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Females become mature at 19 months (Youngman 1990).
14018		habitat	eng	European Mink have specialised habitat requirements. They are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of rivers, streams and sometimes, during warm seasons, they may inhabit lake-banks. It is rarely found more than 100 metres away from freshwater. There are no records of its presence at the sea coast.<br/><br/>They hunt both in riparian zones and in the water for amphibians, crustaceans (crayfish), fish, small mammals, insects and birds (Sidorovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998; Maran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998; Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, 2008). Females become mature for the next breeding season at 11 months (Maran unpublished).
14018		habitat	eng	European Mink have specialised habitat requirements. They are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of rivers, streams and sometimes, during warms season, they may inhabit lake-banks. It is rarely found more than 100 meters away from fresh water. There are no records of its presence on sea coast.<br/><br/>They hunt both in riparian zones and in the water for amphibians, crustaceans (crayfish), fish, small mammals, insects and birds (Sidorovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998; Maran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998; Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, 2008). Females become mature for the next breeding season at 11 months (Maran unpublished).
14018		population	eng	Its range has reduced by over 85% since the mid-19th century. The remaining population is small, fragmented and declining. The most viable population in Western Europe is in the Danube Delta. The current European Mink range in Russia consists of isolated distant habitat patches of different size. These fragmented populations are scattered across western Russia, the Urals, and the northern Caucasus. The only parts of the range where the American Mink is absent are rivers in the Archangelsk Region and Komi and probably also in Northern Caucasus. Everywhere else the populations of European Mink are vanishing or becoming increasingly fragmented and localized. The Russian population of European Mink has been estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 20,000 (Tumanov 2003, 2006), but this is not based on quantitative data as no large-scale census has been done. Hunting bags suggest that the European Mink is rapidly becoming less abundant by comparison with the American Mink: for instance, in Vologda and Kostroma regions the proportion of European Mink skins in the hunting bag of the two mink species decreased from 50–70% to 1–10% within the last 5–7 years (to 2006). For the whole of Russia, recent records refer only to the capture of single individuals or to local populations consisting of some ten of individuals (Skumatov and Saveljev 2006). The number of 20,000 mink in Russia seems to be an extensive overestimate of present population size.<br/><br/>Due to the intensive American Mink control measures during last decade the population in Spain (in Mediterranean basin) is quite stable. Still, remarkable fragmentation has been observed in its range in the north (Basque Country) and the population disappears because of the American Mink. At the same time, a slight expansion of the range to south and southeast has been observed in Aragon in the Ebro River basin (Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press).<br/><br/>The overwhelming majority of remaining populations are in decline and of low density. Therefore the size of the species' range leads to overestimation of the population status. It is likely that the overall number of mink has declined more than 90% since the beginning of the 20th century. Also, the presence of the American Mink in most of range fragments confuses the reports and makes the status projections to the future rather pessimistic.<br/><br/>Some national estimates of population abundance:<br/><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>: 500–1,000 individuals (Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: several hundred (S. Aulagnier and R. Libois pers. comm. 2006).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Danube </span>Delta: since 2003 until 2010 a total of 70 European Mink were life captured in the Romanian part of the delta; trapping success changed dramatically between years, the best year was 2010 with 24 mink captured. Hence for the last decade there are no signs of decline, neither in range nor in number as far as the Romanian part of the Danube Delta and adjacent lagoons in the south are concerned (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>: the species is considered to be extinct in former two small range fragments (Sidorovich pers comm. 2011).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>: the European Mink was recently re-discovered in Danube and Dniester deltas (de Jongh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>: in most of the country, in 61 regions (subcountry units) within the species historical range it is extinct or believed to be extinct (40 regions, 66%). In seven regions that species is known to be extant, and in nine regions it is believed to still  survive. From those, only for 12 regions the European mink is expected to survive for longer than 10 years. The American Mink is now present within the whole remaining range of the European Mink, though may be absent or very low in numbers in Northern Caucasus and in the north - approximately 64°–66°N, 44°–52°E (near Timanskiy kriazh, to Polar ring).</li></ul>
14018		population	eng	Its range has reduced by over 85% since the mid-19th century. The remaining population is small, fragmented and declining. The most viable population in Western Europe is in the Danube Delta. The current European Mink range in Russia consists of isolated distant habitats patches of different size. These fragmented populations are scattered across western Russia, the Urals, and the northern Caucasus. The only parts of the range where the American Mink is absent are rivers in the Archangelsk Region and Komi and probably also in Northern Caucasus. Everywhere else the populations of European Mink are vanishing or becoming increasingly fragmented and localized. The Russian population of European Mink has been estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 20,000 (Tumanov 2003, 2006), but this is not based on quantitative data as no large-scale census has been done. Hunting bags suggest that the European Mink is rapidly becoming less abundant by comparison with the American Mink: for instance, in Vologda and Kostroma regions the proportion of European Mink skins in the hunting bag of the two mink species decreased from 50–70% to 1–10% within the last 5–7 years (to 2006). For the whole of Russia, recent records refer only to the capture of single individuals or to local populations consisting of some ten of individuals (Skumatov and Saveljev 2006). The number of 20,000 mink in Russia seems to be extensive overestimate of present population size.<br/><br/>Due to the intensive American Mink control measures during last decade the population in Spain (in Mediterranean basin)&#160; is quite stable. Still, remarkable fragmentation has been observed in its range in the north (Basque Country) and the population disappears because of the American Mink. At the same time slight expansion the range to south and south-east has been observed in Aragon in Ebro River basin (Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press).<br/><br/>The overwhelming majority of remaining populations are in decline and of low density. Therefore the size of the species' range leads to overestimation the population status. It is likely that the overall number of mink has declined more than 90% since the beginning of 20th century. Also, the presence of the American Mink in most of range fragments confuses the reports and makes the status projections to the future rather pessimistic.<br/><br/>Some national estimates of population abundance:<br/><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>: 500–1,000 individuals (Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: several hundred (S. Aulagnier and R. Libois pers. comm. 2006).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Danube </span>Delta: since 2003 until 2010 a total of 70 European Mink were life captured in the Romanian part of the delta; trapping success changed dramatically between years, the best year was 2010 with 24 mink captured. Hence for the last decade there are no signs of decline, neither in range nor in number as far as the Romanian part of the Danube Delta and adjacent lagoons in the south are concerned (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>: the species is considered to be extinct in former two small range fragments (Sidorovich pers comm. 2011).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>: the European Mink was recently re-discovered in Danube and Dniester deltas (de Jongh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</li><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>: in most of the country 61 regions (subcountry units) within the species historical range it is extinct or believed to be extinct (40 regions, 66%). In seven regions that species is known to be extant, and in nine regions is believed still to survive. From those only for 12 regions the European mink is expected to survive for longer than 10 years. The American Mink is now present within the whole remaining range of the European Mink, though may be absent or very low in number in Northern Caucasus and in the north - approximately 64°–66°N, 44°–52°E (near Timanskiy kriazh, to Polar ring).</li></ul>
14018		population	eng	Since the mid-19th century, this species has undergone dramatic declines throughout its range, and is now extinct in most European countries. It now occupies less than 20% of its original range, and the remaining population is small and fragmented and continues to decline (Maran 1999). Recent population estimates include 500-1,000 individuals in Spain (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003), several hundred individuals in France (Fournier and Maizeret 2003, Stephane Aulagnier and Roland Libois pers. comm. 2006), and <1,000 individuals in the Danube Delta (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006). In Ukraine, at the beginning of the 21st century, the population was estimated at 350-400 individuals, with the majority of those found in the Danube Delta (>200 individuals) (Volokh 2004). The most viable population in western Europe is that of the Danube Delta, but even this population may be rapidly declining: in 250 trap nights (2006) only one animal was caught, compared to one in 20 nights in 2003 (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006). Other viable populations are found in the northeastern part of European Russia.<br><br>The current European mink range in Russia consists of isolated distant habitats of different size. These fragmented populations are scattered across western Russia, the Urals, and the northern Caucasus. The only parts of the range where the American mink is absent are rivers in the Archangelsk Region and Komi. Everywhere else populations of European mink are vanishing or becoming increasingly fragmented and localised, and in a greater part of historical range in Russian the European mink is not met any more. The Russian population of European mink has been estimated at c.20,000 (Tumanov 2003, 2006), but this is not based on quantitative data as no large-scale census has been done. Hunting bags suggest that the European mink is rapidly becoming less abundant by comparison with the American mink: for instance, in Vologda and Kostroma regions the proportion of European mink skins in the hunting bag of the two mink species decreased from 50-70% to 1-10% within the last 5-7 years (to 2006). For the whole of Russia, recent records refer only to the capture of single individuals or to local populations consisting of some ten of individuals (Skmatov and Saveljev 2006).
14018		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat to the European mink. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats is caused by by<em> inter alia</em> hydroelectric developments, channelisation and water pollution. Accidental trapping is also a threat, even though the fur of the European mink is less valuable than that of the American mink <em>Neovison vison</em>. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control coypu (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and small carnivores (e.g. polecat). Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas, and small remnant populations may be driven extinct by threats such as predation by feral dogs and accidental mortality in fish traps (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). Competition and direct aggression from the American mink is a further threat to depleted remnant populations (Maran 1999). The Aleutian disease could also have an impact, but diseased animals have not yet been found. In Spain and France, hybridization with <em>Mustela putorius</em> may be a threat (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2000).
14018		threats	eng	The decline and extinction of the European Mink cannot be explained with a single universal factor. The main factors operating the extinction have been (1) habitat loss, (2) over-exploitation and (3) impact of alien American Mink.<br/><br/>In the European continent, human activities have resulted in large-scale alteration of landscapes, which has had a substantial impact on various habitats and their species. The European Mink has proved to be sensitive to human-induced environmental change and disturbance. As the type and extent of human influence on the species and its biotope has varied over time and between regions in Europe, the set of factors contributing to the extinction has varied as well.<br/><br/>Several factors have often been acting in concert with a cumulative effect. The course of decline during the first half of the 20th century in central regions of Russia is a perfect illustration to this. There, the effect of over-exploitation was noticed almost throughout the entire European Mink range (this even resulted in a moratorium of hunting in several regions and even in reinforcement efforts in Jaroslav Region, where around 130 European Mink were translocated with the hope to recover the original, depleted population). In addition, extensive change of habitats in the mid-20th century further contributed to the decline. Thereafter, the invasion of the American Mink posed a very serious threat to the native mink. Large-scale introduction of American Mink in Russia, first planned to be conducted only in regions outside the European Mink's natural range, were ultimately performed also inside the native mink range. The reason for this was twofold: (1) the original mink has become too scarce for the fur-trapping industry, (2) higher value of American Mink fur in the market (Pavlov and Korsakova 1973). It is important to note that in these times the American Mink and European Mink were not regarded by the relevant authorities to be two distinct species. In the course of the introduction operation, 20,400 American Mink were released in the USSR until 1971, with around 4,000 of them being released into the range of the European Mink (Pavlov and Korsakova 1973). The intentional introduction of the alien species was strongly supported by rapidly developing mink fur-farming in the former Soviet Union – escapees from farms formed a continuous source of new founders for introduction. American Mink farming started in the 1920s; in 1972, 1.9 million female American Mink were kept in fur-farms and in 1973, 4.9 million mink were raised in 146 farms in the former Soviet Union (Abramov 1974). As the native mink populations were small and highly fragmented by over-exploitation and habitat loss, the fur-farm escapees, being ecologically more flexible (Maran 1991) easily invaded into the freely available ecological niche, thus making it impossible for the depleted European Mink to recover. Even more, the remaining European Mink groups were an easy target for intra-guild aggression (Maran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, 1998; Sidorovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2001). The magnitude of the effect of mink farming on the native mink is well illustrated by a recent study in Denmark (a country with a very high number of mink farms), which concludes that 86% of free-living American Mink are escapees from farms (Hammershoj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>Local key factors have changed with time also in many other countries. For instance the impact of over-hunting and/or habitat change weakened the populations and accelerated the impact of the subsequent spread of the American Mink and/or the impact of other factors. It might well be that sometimes the interchange of key factors in time and/or the concurrent impact of several factors has led to a synergistic effect on the European Mink. Further, the time from the introduction of the threat to the extinction of the species can be highly variable, resulting in the so-called extinction or decline lag (Baillie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). This, along with the interwoven effect of numerous factors, is likely to result in situations when it is hard or, in some cases, even impossible to identify the actual causes behind the extinction process.<br/><br/>The role of the alien American Mink deserves a special attention. Its role has been noted in several reports as a secondary or not at all important factor, usually emphasizing that the decline of the European Mink started before the invasion of American Mink (Lodé 2002, Lodé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Rozhnov 1992, Schubnikova 1982). Still, there are several records about local extinction of the European Mink concurrent with rapid expansion of the American Mink, e.g., in Estonia, Tver Region in Russia, Basque country (Zadorra river basin and northern Bizkaia) in Spain, Belarus (Cena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Katchanovsky 2002; Maran 1991; Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, 2004; Sidorovich 1991, 1993). Further, although there are “time-shot” records on the co-existence of the two mink species, no records demonstrating long-term sympatric coexistence of the two mink species have been traced. Numerous records reveal the local replacement of the European Mink with the American Mink, but no opposite events have been reported. Records on replacement of the European Mink with the American Mink are further supported by studies of behavioural interactions between the two mink species in the wild and well as in experimental conditions. All this evidences that the American Mink has played a special role in the demise of the European Mink. While most of the other agents which have been operating the extinction are relatively easy to stop by conventional conservation management, there is very little one can do to prevent the spread of the alien American Mink. This means that the presence of the American Mink in wide territories across Europe makes the efforts for species recovery a very complicated task.<br/><br/>In addition to the main factors behind the decline of European Mink populations, a number of other factors may pose a local threat to the remaining small populations, like hybridization, road casualties, Aleutian disease, secondary poisoning etc.<br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation is still a serious threat especially in the western population, both in France and in Spain (mostly in Cantabric rivers).
14018		threats	eng	The decline and extinction of the European Mink cannot be explained with single universal factor. The main factors operating the extinction have been (1) habitat loss, (2) over- exploitation and (3) impact of alien American Mink.<br/><br/>In the European continent, human activities have resulted in large-scale alteration of landscapes, which has had a substantial impact on various habitats and their species. The European Mink has proved to be sensitive to human-induced environmental change and disturbance. As the type and extent of human influence on the species and its biotope has varied in time and between regions in Europe, also the set of factors contributing to the extinction has varied.<br/><br/>Several factors have often been acting in concert with a cumulative effect. The course of decline during the first half of 20th century in central regions of Russia is a perfect illustration to this. There, the effect of over-exploitation was noticed almost throughout the entire European Mink range (this even resulted in a moratorium of hunting in several regions and even in reinforcement efforts in Jaroslav Region, where around 130 European Mink were translocated&#160; with the hope to recover the original, depleted population). In addition, extensive change of habitats in the mid-20th century further contributed to the decline. Thereafter, the invasion of the American Mink posed a very serious threat to the native mink. Large-scale introduction of American Mink in Russia, first planned to be conducted only in regions outside the European Mink's natural range, were ultimately performed also inside the native mink range. The reason for this was twofold: (1) the original mink has become too scarce for the fur-trapping industry, (2) higher value of American Mink fur in the market (Pavlov and Korsakova 1973). It is important to note that in these times the American Mink and European Mink were not regarded by the relevant authorities to be two distinct species. In the course of the introduction operation, 20,400 American Mink were released in the USSR until 1971, with around 4,000 of them being released into the range of the European Mink (Pavlov and Korsakova 1973). The intentional introduction of the alien species was strongly supported by rapidly developing mink fur-farming in the former Soviet Union – escapees from farms formed a continuous source of new founders for introduction. American Mink farming started in the 1920s; in 1972, 1.9 million female American Mink were kept in fur-farms and in 1973, 4.9 million mink were raised in 146 farms in the former Soviet Union (Abramov 1974). As the native mink populations were small and highly fragmented by over-exploitation and habitat loss, the fur-farm escapees, being ecologically more flexible (Maran 1991) easily invaded into the freely available ecological niche, thus making it impossible for the depleted European Mink to recover. Even more, the remaining European Mink groups were an easy target for intra-guild aggression (Maran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, 1998; Sidorovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2001). The magnitude of the effect of mink farming on the native mink is well illustrated by a recent study in Denmark (a country with a very high number of mink farms), which concludes that 86% of free-living American Mink are escapees from farms (Hammershoj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>Local key factors have changed with time also in many other countries. For instance the impact of over-hunting and/or habitat change weakened the populations and accelerated the impact of the subsequent spread of the American Mink and/or the impact of other factors. It might well be that sometimes the interchange of key factors in time and/or the concurrent impact of several factors has led to a synergistic effect on the European Mink. Further, the time from the introduction of the threat to the extinction of the species can be highly variable, resulting in the so-called extinction or decline lag (Baillie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). This, along with the interwoven effect of numerous factors, is likely to result in situations when it is hard or, in some cases, even impossible to identify the actual causes behind the extinction process.<br/><br/>The role of the alien American Mink deserves a special attention. Its role has been noted in several reports as a secondary or not at all important factor, usually emphasizing that the decline of the European Mink started before the invasion of American Mink (Lodé 2002, Lodé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Rozhnov 1992, Schubnikova 1982). Still, there are several records about local extinction of the European Mink concurrent with rapid expansion of the American Mink, e.g., in Estonia, Tver Region in Russia, Basque country (Zadorra river basin and northern Bizkaia) in Spain, Belarus (Cena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Katchanovsky 2002; Maran 1991; Palazón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, 2004; Sidorovich 1991, 1993). Further, although there are “time-shot” records on the co-existence of the two mink species, no records demonstrating long-term sympatric coexistence of the two mink species have been traced. Numerous records reveal the local replacement of the European Mink with the American Mink, but no opposite events have been reported. Records on replacement of the European Mink with the American Mink are further supported by studies of behavioural interactions between the two mink species in the wild and well as in experimental conditions. All this evidences that the American Mink has played a special role in the demise of the European Mink. While most of the other agents which have been operating the extinction are relatively easy to stop by conventional conservation management, there is very little one can do to prevent the spread of the alien American Mink. This means that the presence of the American Mink in wide territories across Europe makes the efforts for species recovery a very complicated task.<br/><br/>In addition to the main factors behind the decline of European Mink populations number of other factors may pose local threat the remaining small populations, like hybridization, road casualties, Aleutian disease, secondary poisoning etc.<br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation is still serious threat especially in western population, both in France and in Spain (mostly in Cantabric rivers).
14019		conservation	eng	It was recorded from Mt. Dempo in Sumatra (part of a protected area system (MacKinnon, 1997) in 1936 (Lunde and Musser, 2003). According to Boeadi (pers. comm. 1986) this species is found in Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park (15,000 ha) near Bogor, west Java - from where there are historical specimens (van Bree and Boeadi 1978). Schreiber <em>et al</em> (1989) recommends "field work in the mountains of southern Sumatra and Java to locate populations of the mountain weasel and to assess their conservation status and requirements, as well as continuation of conservation efforts on Gunung Slamat in central Java being desirable." Ecology is still too poorly known to recommend conservation measures in the continuing absence of the recommended surveys.
14019		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the highlands of southern Sumatra and Java, Indonesia: it occurs as far east on Java as the Ijang plateau (van Bree and Boeadi 1978, Meri et al.2007). On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province (Sody 1949), where it was found on Mt. Dempo (Lunde and Musser 2003) and recently was recorded north to Gon Kerinci (Holden 2006). ). The northern and central highlands of Sumatra have not been surveyed well enough to say whether or not it occurs there (Meiri <em>et al.</em> 2007). The altitudinal range of this species on Sumatra is 1,000 to 3,000 m (Lunde and Musser 2003, van Bree and Boeadi 1978, Holden 2006).
14019		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to high altitudes of 1,000-2,200 m (Lunde and Musser, 2003), within which habitat use is unclear. Also, there is a recent sighting at 3,000 m, in scrub above the forest line (Holden, 2006).
14019		population	eng	Nothing is known about this species’s abundance. It is known from 15 specimens (only twelve of which have locality data) and one field sighting: nine records from Java and four from Sumatra (van Bree and Boeadi, 1978, Lunde and Musser, 2003, Holden 2006, Meiri <em>et al.</em> 2007).
14019		threats	eng	There are no obvious potential major threats to this species: it is not sought for trade; it lives in Sumatra above the altitudes where general snaring and trapping of ground mammals is intense and where deforestation is heavy; natural habitat on Java in this altitudinal band is heavily fragmented but relatively stable; and the species' dependence, if any, on old-growth, extensive, or even any sort of forest is unknown (Meiri <em>et al.</em> 2007). Doubtless on both islands some are fall victim to non-selective hunting methods, but there is no reason to consider these numbers are large.
14020		conservation	eng	The black-footed ferret captive breeding program was initiated in October 1985 by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department in cooperation with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Eighteen black-footed ferrets were captured between 1985 and 1987 from the last-known population in Wyoming to start a captive breeding population (Miller <em>et al.</em>, 1996), with the ultimate goal of reintroduction. Seven of those 18 individuals contributed unique genetic material for captive breeding and are considered founders. There are currently six institutions (one federal facility and five zoos) participating in the propagation program under the supervision of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Beginning in 1985, more than 6,000 black-footed ferrets have been born in captivity. Beginning in 1991, ferrets have been reintroduced at sites in eight Western U.S. states (Montana, South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Kansas, and New Mexico) and one site in Mexico (Bard, 2002; Bronson <em>et al.</em>, 2007). The species is listed on CITES Appendix I and in listed in the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
14020		distribution	eng	Historically, black-footed ferrets were found throughout the Great Plains, mountain basins, and semiarid grasslands of west central North America - from southern Canada to northern Mexico wherever its prey, prairie dogs, were located (Hillman and Clark, 1980). The species was extirpated from most of its former range mainly as a result of prairie dog control programs and sylvatic plague ? an exotic disease which was introduced to wild population. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only 3 of which are self sustaining.  The three self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; 4 populations of limited success in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; 8 populations of recent initiation in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and 3 declining or extirpated populations in Montana.
14020		habitat	eng	Black-footed ferrets are limited to open habitat, the same habitat used by prairie dogs: grasslands, steppe, and shrub steppe. It depends largely on prairie dogs: ferrets prey on prairie dogs and utilize their burrows for shelter and denning (Hillman and Clark, 1980). It has been estimated that about 40-60 hectares of prairie dog colony are needed to support one ferret. See Biggins <em>et al.</em> (in Oldemeyer <em>et al</em>. 1993) for information on evaluating areas as potential ferret habitat; factors include size of prairie dog complex, prairie dog population density, spatial arrangement of prairie dog colonies, potential for disease in prairie dogs and ferrets, potential for prairie dog expansion, abundance of predators, future resource conflicts and ownership stability, and public and landowner attitudes.
14020		population	eng	At present there are no known nonintroduced wild populations (Nowak, 2005), and only three of the populations contain mature individuals which were born in the wild. This species nearly went extinct in the late 1980s and existing populations are the success of massive efforts to reintroduce the species back to its native habitat. Captive breeding has been successful. Only several hundred individuals exist in captivity and in reintroduced populations in several US states and Mexico (Bard 2002). <br/><br/>Reintroduction began in 1991 with the release of a group of ferrets into the Shirley Basin of Wyoming. Since 1987, over 6,000 ferret kits have been produced through captive breeding and since 1991, over 2,000 ferrets have been released at 18 sites. All populations are sampled and counted two times a year as part of a management and recovery protocol. There are currently (spring count 2008) nearly 300 ferrets in captivity and approximately 500 breeding adults in the wild, less than 250 of which were actually born in the wild. These minimum population estimates occur in the spring.  Maximum population estimates occur in the fall, include young of the year, and consist of an estimated 1,000 ferrets in the wild and 300 captive adults.
14020		threats	eng	The extreme dependence of this mustelid on prairie dogs (<em>Cynomys</em>) made it especially vulnerable to extinction as its prey were persecuted as agricultural pests during most of the 20th century (Biggins and Godbey, 2003). Populations rapidly declined as a result of widespread extermination of prairie dogs and the spread of canine distemper and plague (Biggins and Godbey 1995, Biggins <em>et al.</em> 1998). Plague is an exotic disease that did not exist in North America prior to 1900.  It can impact the ferret directly via infection and subsequent mortality, and indirectly through mortality to prairie dogs and resultant dramatic declines in the ferrets? prey base.<br/><br/>Populations of black-footed ferrets declined throughout this century to near extinction by the late 1970's (Biggins and Schroeder 1988). A small remnant population (around 100 animals or less; Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989) was discovered in 1981 near Meeteetse, in northwestern Wyoming, but that population was decimated by canine distemper and plague (<em>Yersinia pestis</em>) in 1985 (Forrest <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Another major threat for this mustelid is loss of habitat for conversion of grasslands to agricultural uses; the remaining habitat is now fragmented by great expanses of cropland and human development. In addition, the genetic diversity of the present introduced population is less than 90% of that present in the species prior to their decline in the wild. This decrease in genetic diversity has lead to increased inbreeding and may lead to decreased fitness due to inbreeding depression, including immune system dysfunction and reduced reproductive success (Bronson <em>et al</em>. 2007).
14021		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Pulliainen 1999), and is protected under national and sub-national legislation in a number of range states (e.g. Sichuan, China: Yi-Ming <em>et al.</em> 2000). Monitoring is required to quantify the population trend in Europe.
14021		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Pulliainen, 1999), and is protected under national and sub-national legislation in a number of range states (e.g. Sichuan, China: Yi-Ming <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Monitoring is required to quantify the population trend in Europe.
14021		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Pulliainen, 1999), and is protected under national and sub-national legislation in a number of range states (e.g. Sichuan, China: Yi-Ming <i>et al.</i>, 2000). Monitoring is required to quantify the population trend in Europe.
14021		distribution	eng	The weasel has a very large circumboreal distribution, taking in much of Europe and North Africa, Asia and northern North America. An introduced population exists in New Zealand. It is found throughout Europe and on many islands, including the Azores, Britain (but not Ireland), and all major Mediterranean islands. The populations on the Azores and many Mediterranean islands are widely considered introduced (Dobson 1998, R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to at least 3,860 m. It is also found on Honshu, Hokkaido, Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Sakhalin Islands (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14021		distribution	eng	This species has a circumboreal, Holartcic distribution, taking in much of Europe and North Africa, Asia and northern North America. It has been introduced in New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azore Islands, and apparently also Sao Tome off west Africa (Sheffield and King 1994). It is found throughout Europe and on many islands, including the Azores, Britain (but not Ireland), and all major Mediterranean islands. The populations on the Azores and Mediterranean islands (Malta and Crete) are widely considered introduced (Dobson, 1998; McDonald pers. comm.). It is also found on Honshu, Hokkaido, Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Sakhalin Islands in Japan (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005) and northern Mongolia (Bannikov, 1954; Dulamtseren, 1970).
14021		habitat	eng	Weasels tolerate a wide range of habitats, including forests, farmlands and cultivated fields, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows and forests, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, and coastal dunes (Sheffield and King 1994, Pulliainen 1999). This species is a specialist predator of small mammals (especially rodents), although it will also occasionally feed on birds’ eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, worms, and carrion (Sheffield and King 1994). Habitat selection is usually determined by local distribution of rodents. Foraging individuals avoid open spaces, where they are most vulnerable to predation by raptors (Sheffield and King 1994). They prefer dense, rank grassland where microtines (voles and lemmings) are abundant (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006).
14021		habitat	eng	Weasels tolerate a wide range of habitats, including forests, farmlands and cultivated fields, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows and forests, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, and coastal dunes (Sheffield and King, 1994; Pulliainen, 1999). This species occurs from sea level to at least 3,860 m. It forms dens in crevices among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in abandoned burrows of other species. This species is a specialist diurnal predator of small mammals (especially rodents), although it will also occasionally feed on birds? eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, worms, and carrion (Sheffield and King, 1994). Food may be stored for the winter (Danzig, 1992). Habitat selection is usually determined by local distribution of rodents. Foraging individuals avoid open spaces, where they are most vulnerable to predation by raptors (Sheffield and King, 1994). They prefer dense, rank grassland where microtines (voles and lemmings) are abundant (McDonald pers. comm.).
14021		habitat	eng	Weasels tolerate a wide range of habitats, including forests, farmlands and cultivated fields, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows and forests, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, and coastal dunes (Sheffield and King, 1994; Pulliainen, 1999). This species occurs from sea level to at least 3,860 m. It forms dens in crevices among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in abandoned burrows of other species. This species is a specialist diurnal predator of small mammals (especially rodents), although it will also occasionally feed on birds’ eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, worms, and carrion (Sheffield and King, 1994). Food may be stored for the winter (Danzig, 1992). Habitat selection is usually determined by local distribution of rodents. Foraging individuals avoid open spaces, where they are most vulnerable to predation by raptors (Sheffield and King, 1994). They prefer dense, rank grassland where microtines (voles and lemmings) are abundant (McDonald pers. comm.).
14021		population	eng	In the European part of its range, there are documented population declines in some areas (e.g. Britain: Battersby 2005), and suspected declines in others. Although it has a wide distribution, it is considered rare in North America (Sheffield and King 1994). In Eurasia, it is relatively common, but not often seen (Sheffield and King 1994). Local densities of 0.2 to 1.0 individuals per hectare can occur in favored habitats when prey are abundant (Sheffield and King 1994).  However, over wider areas, the average density may be as low as 1 to 7 per 100 hectares (Goszczynski 1977). Populations fluctuate both seasonally and annually, sometimes involving large increases of up to 10-fold, concurrently or within 9 months of a population peak of small rodents, and lasting 6 to 18 months (Sheffield and King 1994).
14021		population	eng	In the European part of its range, there are documented population declines in some areas (e.g. Britain: Battersby, 2005), and suspected declines in others. Although it has a wide distribution, it is considered rare in North America (Sheffield and King, 1994). In Eurasia, it is relatively common, but not often seen (Sheffield and King, 1994). Local densities of 0.2 to 1.0 individuals per hectare can occur in favored habitats when prey are abundant (Sheffield and King, 1994).  However, over wider areas, the average density may be as low as 1 to 7 per 100 hectares (Goszczynski, 1977). Populations fluctuate both seasonally and annually, sometimes involving large increases of up to 10-fold, concurrently or within 9 months of a population peak of small rodents, and lasting 6 to 18 months (Sheffield and King, 1994). Thought to be rare (though sometimes locally fairly common) throughout the range in the southeastern U.S., but actual status is uncertain (Handley 1991).
14021		threats	eng	Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides (Sheffield and King 1994) and persecution. The weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment) in parts of Europe, as open fields undergo succession.
14021		threats	eng	Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides (Sheffield and King, 1994) and persecution. The weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment) in parts of Europe, as open fields undergo succession.
14025		conservation	eng	Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) affirm that the tropical weasel may occur in several of the large national parks of Amazonia. It has been reported to occur in the Tambopata Reserve Zone (Emmons pers. comm), and unconfired reports exist from Cocha Cashu and Alto Purus (Emmons pers. comm).
14025		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the Amazon Basin in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, southern Colombia and northern Bolivia. The limits of the range are poorly know as so few specimens have been described.
14025		habitat	eng	The Amazon weasel has been reported mainly from humid riparian forests (Izor and De la Torre, 1978).
14025		population	eng	Nothing is known of the populations of this species as it is seldom encountered even where it is known to occur.
14025		threats	eng	Almost nothing is known of the threats to this species, although it could be inferred that habitat conversion of the Amazonian rain forests is a threat in some portions of its range.
14026		conservation	eng	One specimen has been collected near the administrative centre of the Cueva de los Guacharos National Park (9,000 ha; Rodriguez, 1988). The Parque National de Huila (158,000 ha) and Parque National de Purace (83,000 ha) are also close to collecting sites of <em>M. felipei</em> (Liebermann pers. comm.).
14026		distribution	eng	Since the discovery of the Colombian weasel, only five specimens have been obtained from western Colombia (provinces of Huila and Cauca) and northern Ecuador (Nowak, 2005). The species was thought to be endemic to the Cordillera Central of Colombia, but another specimen was found from Andean Ecuador (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).
14026		habitat	eng	Hardly anything is known of its habitat preferences (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). The few specimens have been obtained from an altitude, between 1,750 and 2,700 m, where cloud forests predominate. One Colombian weasel was collected in the upper Suaza river valley (Cueva de los Guacharos National Park). This part of the Suaza river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools (Rodriguez, 1988).
14026		population	eng	Nothing is know of populations of this species. Less than 10 specimens are known of this species.
14026		threats	eng	The species occurs in a limited area where deforestation is rampant (Nowak, 2005). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) noted that it is among the rarest carnivores in South America. A great majority of the presumed range of the species has been deforested for agriculture.
14027		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). It is protected in Thailand. It is not a targeted species, as it is small and not sought for use for food or medicine, though it is utilized if unintentionally captured (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has been recorded in scattered protected areas across its range and likely occurs in many more unsampled parks and reserves (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). More field research would help determine the status, distribution, and conservation of this species (Grassman <em>et al</em>, 2002).
14027		distribution	eng	This species is found in "Myanmar, China (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi), India, Lao, Thailand, and Viet Nam" (Wilson and Reeder 2005; Zhang 1997). There are also two old specimens catalogued as from ‘Nepal’, but they probably did not come from within the boundaries of the modern country (Hinton and Fry 1923) and the species has not been found in Bhutan (Yonzon pers. comm.), which lies between Nepal and the species' known range. The occurrence of M. strigidorsa has been confirmed from scattered localities in and around northeastern India, northern and central Myanmar, southern China, northern Thailand, northern and central Lao and Viet Nam (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species has a wide altitudinal range of almost sea-level to 2,500 m (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). In Lao PDR, this species was historically found only at Phongsali (Delacour 1940), however, there are recent records from all but a couple of the remaining blocks of hill semi- and evergreen forest which have had biodiversity surveys exceeding a few weeks (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Tizard 2003, Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). In India, it has been recorded from Dampa in 1994, and in Namdapha Reserve (Datta 1999). It has been recorded from Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS) and various other sites recently in Thailand (Grassman <em>et al</em>. 2002, Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008).
14027		habitat	eng	The stripe-backed weasel probably lives mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has been recorded from other biotopes including dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland and farmland (Abramov <em>et al.</em>, 2008). Most records come from in or near larger extents of high elevation (1,000 m+) terrain. It sometimes occurs well below 1,000 m in such areas (down almost to sea-level in Viet Nam), but there are no records, except in Viet Nam, from at lower elevations in areas away from high altitude terrain (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14027		population	eng	In view of limited survey effort, the number of recent records indicates that the species is less rare than previously believed (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2002, Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Globally, there are several dozen historical specimens, their number significantly under-estimated in various 1960s-1990s texts thereby giving a misleading impression of rarity.
14027		threats	eng	Although usually perceived as a species under threat, there is no real evidence that it is. However, the habitat requirements of tropical Mustela populations remain effectively unknown, and it may be rash to extrapolate from primarily Holarctic information. About 3,000 to 4,000 pelts were harvested annually in China in the 1970s, with 50 skins were purchased in Nanning, Guangxi, in 1973 (Sheng Helin, 1998). The skins/dried corpses of M. strigidorsa were seen “2-5 times” (the middle class of frequency) in a survey of wildlife trade along the Yunnan-Viet Nam border in June-August 1997; the source was said to be Yunnan (Li and Wang, 1999). Outside China, the species is sold at least occasionally in Lao PDR (Hansel and Tizard, 2006) and Viet Nam. Even though this weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could still drive declines because many harvest methods (notably snares) are non-selective. As remaining natural habitats are yet further encroached, the proportion of the species’ occupied area in which it faces such threats will increase. However, the number of records from areas with already high hunting pressure indicate a resilience to such activities (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14034		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
14034		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
14034		habitat	eng	<em>Myaka myaka</em> prefers open water regions at greater depths, but ventures into the more shallow areas of the lake to spawn. It mainly feeds on phytoplankton and small insects. It is probably ovophilic mouth-brooder (Lamboj 2004). This species is demersal.
14034		population	eng	No information available.
14034		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
14048		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is not known to occur in any marine protected area. Protected area within the range of this species is needed.
14048		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is found only on the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and was recently reported from the Port Royal reefs off Jamaica indicating that it may be found in other Caribbean localities.
14048		habitat	eng	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is common within its restricted range in Venezuela in depths of 5 to 40 m; large adults are caught in 20 to 40 m; juveniles in shallow water over sandy bottoms near and on coral reefs and seagrass beds.
14048		population	eng	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is locally common in Venezuela and known only from a single specimen in Jamaica. There is no data, but is expected to decline because it is a target of fishery.
14048		threats	eng	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is targeted by fisheries in Venezuela. There is no data on the significance of this threat
14049		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. The species occurs within the Alto Golfo Biosphere Reserve, however enforcement of that area is severely lacking.
14049		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> occurs in the Eastern Central Pacific from southern La Jolla, California (USA) to Mazitlan (Mexico). There are unconfirmed records of the species from the Revillagigedos Islands (Mexico).
14049		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> is found on rocky reefs and in kelp beds (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Large adults are common in shallow water from southern California to Mexico (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967). Juveniles are unknown in California waters and few large adults have been taken there, probably as expatriates from a more southerly breeding population (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Large adults feed on fishes. Reported to prey on juvenile hammerhead sharks (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 1979). Its large size makes it an intense object of game fishing. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Currently there is a skewed sex ratio (males significantly fewer than females) for <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> in the Gulf of California, Mexico. <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> is an aggregating spawner (Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> 2005a) and Rosenblatt and Zahuranec (1967) suggested the breeding populations were restricted to the Mexican northwest.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Presumed to have slow growth rate. Sadovy (1996) suggested <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> could mature at age of six or seven years. Recorded maximum size is 198 cm TL, with a maximum weight up to 91 kg (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
14049		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> has a relatively restricted range and its population is currently in severe decline throughout the Gulf of California, Mexico. Once abundant, this species is now rare and interviews with fishermen indicated a 50 to 70% decline since 1950 in the Gulf of California. Naturally rare in the northern portion of its range.<br/><br/><strong>Abundance: Combined fisheries-dependent and fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Based on historical research, fishers’ anecdotes, systematic documentation of naturalist’ observation and grey literature, Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> (2005a) revealed that <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> in central Baja California was abundant in the past and probably dominated the rocky-reef fish community in terms of biomass. <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> declined dramatically in the 1970s and is now scarce and in danger of complete disappearance. Based on changes in the numbers of individuals within spawning aggregations, the population decline from 1940s to present could be greater than 99%. <br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of surveys with <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em>  encountered [n] by the total number of surveys carried out in a particular year [N]). The SF of <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> in the tropical eastern Pacific ranged from 0.49% in 2002 to 2.97% in 2000, with a mean value of 1.2%  (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 26th May 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with <em>M. jordani</em> encountered [n] by the total number of survey carried out in a particular year [N]) of M. jordani in tropical eastern Pacific) (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 26<sup>th</sup> May 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/><em>Baja California Sur, Mexico</em><br/>According to Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> (2005a) stated <em>M. jordani</em> comprised 45% of the total state finfish production between 1959 and 1960. By early 1972, the percentage had dropped to 6% (Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> 2005a). More recent estimates suggest that <em>M. jordani</em> comprises less than 1% of the total finfish catch (Rámirez-Rodriguez 1996). <br/><br/>Based on a questionnaire interview of 108 randomly selected fishers from three generations in 11 fishing communities of central Baja California in 2002, it was found that old (~ 55 years old) fishers caught up to 25 times as many <em>M. jordani</em> as younger (15 to 30 years old) fishers on their best-ever fishing day (regression r2=0.62, p<0.001)  (Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> 2005b). Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> (2005b) also suggested a decline in the average size of the largest <em>M. jordani</em>, based on largest catch data: old fishers: 84 kg; middle-aged (31 to 54 years old): 72 kg; young fishers: 63 kg.
14049		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> is heavily targeted by recreational and sub-national fisheries throughout its range (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is also incidentally caught by shrimp-trawlers in the Gulf of California. Recreational fishers from the US are a major contributor to overfishing remaining stocks. Coastal development in northern Gulf of California, in particular, Bahia La Cholla Marina, is predicted to double the number of fishing boats and promote reef habitat destruction.<br/><br/><strong>Status</strong><br/>Classified as vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society based on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000) because it is seen, but not abundant and has probable low productivity and spawning aggregations are heavily fished.
14050		conservation	eng	The grouper fishery is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council under the Snapper-Grouper Fishery Management Plan. Current regulations include a limited entry fishery where a limited number of commercial fishing permits are available, a seasonal closure during March and April to reduce the commercial catch and minimum size limits. These regulations have helped stocks to recover; the most recent stock assessments show that gag is not overfished or undergoing overfishing in the south Atlantic, but it is overfished in the Gulf of Mexico. Regulations are under consideration that would establish a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the commercial grouper fishery in the southeast.  A TAC will greatly enhance the sustainability of the grouper populations.<br/><br/>There are closed areas in the Gulf of Mexico (Madison-Swanson) and South Atlantic (<em>Oculina</em> HAPC) where spawning of gag probably occurs. In addition, US Amendment 14 to the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan of the South Atlantic Region will be implemented during 2007. This amendment implement protection to Oculina Banks which harbour spawning aggregation of this species. Spawning gag have been collected from several of the proposed South Atlantic MPAs.<br/><br/><em>M. microlepis</em>  was included on the Red List of the IUCN in 1996. <br/><br/>Classified as vulnerable by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)’s concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>In 1985,a minimum size limit of 18 inches was enforced in Florida. In 1990, the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council adopted a 20-inch minimum size, five-fish aggregate grouper bag limit for recreational fishers, and a commercial shallow-water quota of 9.8 million pounds in the Exclusive Economic Zone (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). On 19th June 2000, commercial and recreational minimum size limits were increased to 24 and 22 inch TL. At the same time, sales of gag were prohibited 15th February to 15th March, and two marine reserves in which fishing for reef fish and bottom oriented species was prohibited year round were established (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2001; http://www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2002-03-26-Gag%20Status%20Change%20Requested.htm; accessed on 15th Feb 2006).<br/> <br/>Based on the 1992-1994 catch curve and the assumption of constant fishing effort, the minimum size limits reduced projected landings in numbers to 86.5% of historical levels for 18 inch TL, 70.9% for 20 inch, and 43.4% for 24 inch TL.  Projected declines in landings weights were 96.8&, 90.7% and 73.7%, respectively (Bohnsack 2000).<br/><br/>Based on the results of the 2001 gag stock assessment and the October 2001 report of the Council's Reef Fish Stock Assessment Panel (RFSAP), the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) had requested since 26th March 2002 that NMFS reclassify the status of the gag stock in the Gulf of Mexico region from "undergoing overfishing" and "not overfished but approaching an overfished condition"; to "not undergoing overfishing" and "not overfished". GMFMC suggested that the stock of gag appeared to meet this classification even under the more conservative guidelines for determining overfished and overfishing status that resulted from the Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996 (SFA) (Tables 11 and 12). In the NMFS annual Report to Congress on the Status of Fisheries of the United States, this would change the status of gag as follows (http://www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2002-03-26-Gag%20Status%20Change%20Requested.htm; accessed on 15th Feb 2006).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 11</strong>: current status of <em>M. microlepis</em>; and <strong>Table 12</strong>: requested change in status.<br/><br/>GMFMC (2001) indicated that a substantial number of undersized <em>M. microlepis</em> was released, some potential regulatory measures might have les effectiveness on actually reducing mortality than would be preferred, due to release mortality. As a result, continued research on the caused of release mortality was recommended.<br/><br/>Goodyear (1996) indicated that large minimum sizes may cause the fishery to harvest the faster-growing component of each year class, thus could induce genetic selection for slow growth, depending on the heritability of growth. Such selection may lead the fish subject to high release mortality.  On the other hand, Johnson <em>et al.</em> (1997) suggested that small size limit would result in killing large fractions of the population before they spawn.<br/><br/>Bacheler and Buckel (2004) found that circle hooks significantly reduced gut hooking, and also suggested a trade between fishing in shallow water to reduce depth-related injuries to grouper and fishing in deeper water to minimize the catch of sublegal grouper.<br/><br/>Boyan (2000 in press) indicated that less than 2% of reported commercial catches occurred in the closed, fishery-protected area, and there was not enough enforcement to keep boast from illegal fishing.  Moreover, Boyan (2000 in press) further pointed out one-month closure failed to largely reduce commercial landings because spawning aggregation lasts for three months. In addition, increased 24 inch size limit only reduced 30-36% and 16% of the recreational and commercial takes, respectively.<br/><br/>Gilmore and Jones (1992) suggested that a closed season would be more likely to protect spawning stocks than size limitations. They also pointed out that the upper size limitations on grouper fisheries may be more effective in shallower waters.<br/><br/>Koenig <em>et al.</em> (2000) emphasized that shelf-edge fishery reserves are necessary to manage the gag fishery and to ensure optimum reproductive capacity.
14050		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is a western Atlantic species with a wide, disjunct distribution from North Carolina (USA) (with juveniles occurring as far north as Massachusetts) to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico and southern Brazil. Gag are rare in Bermuda and there is one record in Cuba; otherwise the species is not known from the Caribbean or northeastern Brazil.
14050		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is a reef-associated species usually found offshore on rocky bottom (rarely to 152 m),  and occasionally inshore on rocky or grassy bottom. Juveniles occasionally occur in estuaries and seagrass beds. It is the most common grouper on rocky ledges in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Adults are either solitary or in groups of 5 to 50 individuals. Gag appears to prefer habitats characterized by maximum structural complexity, such as living <em>Oculina</em> coral reefs, at depths between 70 and 100 m (McGovern <em>et al.</em> 1998). In southern Gulf of Mexico, juvenile females were caught inshore at depths of 1 to 10 m, and adult females and males, and transitionals were caught offshore at depths of 33 to 167 m (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Gag usually feed on fishes, some crabs, shrimps, and cephalopods. Juveniles (less than 20 cm) feed mainly on crustaceans that live in shallow grass beds. The principal prey items of estuarine gag included calanoid copepods, mysids, gammaridean amphipods, grass shrimp, penaeid shrimp, and fishes (Mullaney 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, maturity and growth</strong><br/>Gag are protogynous hermaphrodites, and females have been shown to outnumbered males 6:1 or greater in heavily fished areas. Females mature between ages III and VI, and no males less than age V were observed. Analyses of gonad condition suggested that gag spawn from December to May, with peak activity occurring during February and March (Hood and Schlieder 1992).<br/><br/>Maximum age assumed as 17 years by Hood and Schlieder (1992) and 20 years by Collings <em>et al.</em> (1987).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, females reach first maturity at 72.1 cm (FL) (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003) and spawns at depths of 50 to 53 m from early winter to mid-spring (January and March).<br/><br/>Gag have suffered a drop in the proportion of males from 17 to 1% in the last 20 years (Coleman <em>et al.</em> 1996), and McGovern <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported a decrease from 19.6% (1976 to 1982) to 5.5% (1994 to 1995), and also suggests a decrease in the size at first maturity.<br/><br/>51% of females at age IV had mature ovaries. Transitional males ranged in age from V to XI yrs (750 to 950 mm TL) (Collings <em>et al.</em> 1997). A dramatic change in age-size structure of gag population over 11 years (79 to 80 to 1991) and in 1991 minimum size adopted was 51 mm (TL).<br/><br/>Gag forms spawning aggregations in deep reefs built by <em>Oculina</em> coral. The fisheries targeted greater depth, that lead to dramatic change in sex ratio (15:1 female:male).<br/><br/>Collins <em>et al.</em> (1997) stated gag was a multiple and indetermine spawner.<br/><br/>Reproductive season begins in November or December and last till May or June (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/>In the South Atlantic Bight, gag spawned once a year in late winter to early spring, with peak spawning activity occurring in late March and early April (Collins <em>et al.</em> 1987). Spawning aggregations were concentrated at depths of about 80 m (ranged from 50 m to 120 m) (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996). Gag were in spawning condition from December to mid-May in southern Florida, January to May in northern Florida, and January to April in South Carolina, with peak spawning activity occurred from March to mid-April in all areas (McGovern <em>et al.</em> 1998). In southern Gulf of Mexico, gag spawns at depths of 50 to 53 m, from early winter to mid-spring, with peak spawning activity occurring between January and March (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. microlepis</em> were found to form large spawning aggregations at depths ranging from 50 to 120 m (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). Gag was documented to form spawning aggregations in the greater Caribbean region (Luckhurst 2003). Coleman <em>et al.</em> (1996) indicated that the status of spawning aggregation in the Gulf Coast was declining. At least one spawning site in the eastern Gulf of Mexico had been reported, where gag were observed to be attracted to high-relief sites for spawning aggregation (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Sexual pattern</strong><br/><em>M. microplepis</em> is a monandric (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003), protogynous hermaphrodite (McErlean and Smith 1964).  Females become sexually mature at five or six years (67 to 75 cm TL) and most change sex to male between 10 and 11 years old (95 to 100 cm TL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/>  <br/>In the south Atlantic Bight, the smallest mature female was 600 mm TL, with 28% of age 3 female had mature gonads. In southern Gulf of Mexico, 50% of female (n=161) reached first maturity at 72.1 cm FL (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In eastern Gulf of Mexico, the smallest mature female was 400 mm SL, and all females of size >550 mm SL were mature (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Also in eastern Gulf of Mexico, Hood and Schlieder (1992) found that female matured as early as age two, >70% were mature by age four, and all were mature by age six.<br/><br/>Size range for fish undergoing sex succession was 750 to 950 mm TL, with five transitionals aged five, six, seven, eight and nine years (Collins <em>et al.</em> 1997). In eastern Gulf of Mexico, size ranges of transitionals were reviewed to be 525 to 1,175 mm TL (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 1996). In eastern Gulf of Mexico, 50% of sampled females had changed into males at 103 cm FL; sexual transition seemed to occur at 85 to 111 cm FL (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Based on 12 out of 1,331 specimens, Hood and Schlieder (1992) found that gonads of age 5 to 13 gag (n=12, five of them were aged eight or nine years) were transforming into testes.<br/><br/>Sex change occurs near the time of spawning aggregation formation (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>McGovern <em>et al.</em> (1998) revealed that female gag might have been maturing at smaller sizes during 1994 to 1995 than during 1976, because this stock was stressed.<br/><br/><strong>Recruitment and fecundity</strong><br/>Based on four hours of a flood tide and sampling on the top 2 m of the water column, the total number of postlarval gag entering Price Inlet, South Carolina, over a 10-week period in 1983 and 1984 was estimated to be 365,400 and 904,050, respectively (Keener et al, 1988).<br/><br/>Fecundity of a 95 cm female was estimated at 1.5 million eggs (Heemstra and Randall 1993). A single <em>M. microlepis</em> at age eight produces as many eggs as 48 <em>M. microlepis</em> at age three (Collins <em>et al.</em> 1998). McErlean (1963) estimated the fecundity to be 655,000 to 1,457,000 eggs.<br/><br/>Sea surface temperatures affected by the Gulf Stream response to the Charleston Bump (a deep, rocky, bottom feature located on the Blake Plateau southeast of Charleston, South Carolina, USA) appeared to play a determining role in recruitment success in gag (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14050		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is a common species found in soft bottom and rocky ledges in the Gulf of Mexico and southeastern and south Brazil. Although heavily fished and presume to be overfished, the current trend and catch data is unclear.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with gag encountered [n] by the total number of survey carried out in a particular year [N]) of gag in tropical western Atlantic stayed low at <3% from 1993 to 2005, with a mean value of 1.4% (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 2nd Feb 06).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency of <em>M. microlepis</em> in tropical western Atlantic.<br/> <br/>According to interviews with grouper fishers in the early 1990s, the northwest Florida grouper fishers reported that there was a steady decline in the landings of gag over the past decades [all Gulf groupers were lumped in the landings data before 1986] (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/><em>Florida, USA</em><br/>Based on 64 dives from 1977 to 1982 by manned submersibles on the east of Florida continental shelf, none of gag sized <70 cm SL (Gilmore and Jones 1992).<br/><br/>According to manned submersible videotape observations done on the east coast of Florida, the percentage composition of gag of all reef fish on Jeff’s Reef decreased from 4.774% in 1980 (n=4,375) to 0.07% in 1995 (n=1,399) (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><em>South Carolina, USA</em><br/>Based on four hours of a flood tide and sampling on the top 2 m of the water column, the total number of postlarval gag entering Price Inlet, South Carolina, over a 10-week period in 1983 and 1984 was estimated to be 365,400 and 904,050, respectively (Keener <em>et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/><em>North Carolina, USA</em><br/>During a 200-hour hook-and-line fishing 20 to 60 miles offshore in water 12.2 to 42.1 m deep off Onslow Bay, North Carolina, from May to August 2003, 593 groupers were caught (total catch = 1,249) in which gag accounted for 9.3% (n=55) of the grouper catch (Bacheler and Buckel 2004).<br/><br/><em>Mexico</em><br/>From May 1996 to September 1997, <em>M. microlepis</em> comprised 6% in weight and 2% in number of all grouper catches (17 species) from technified boasts on Campeche bank, southeastern Gulf of Mexico (Colas Marrufo <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>During a 19-month survey at the northern coast of Yucantan in 2000 to 2001, 928 specimens of <em>M. microlepis</em> were caught by a small trawl net and all of the fish were found to be sexually immature juveniles (Renin <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Available data on the landings of <em>M. microlepis</em> quoted from different studies and sources show that the quantity of commercial and recreational catches of gag increased steadily from 1980 to 2004, with recreational catches comprised with an average of 55% in 1995 to 2004. As a result, both commercial and recreational fisheries have significant impacts on the stock of this grouper species.  <br/><br/><em>Stock assessment (1994) by Schirripa and Goodyear</em><br/>Based on virtual population estimates (VPA) tuned to the percent frequency of age three in recreational catch and natural mortality = 0.20, Schirripa and Goodyear (1994) estimated the abundance of <em>M. microlepis</em> in US Gulf of Mexico ranged from 5.7 million to 9.3 million fish in 1986 to 992.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: stock at age at beginning of year in US Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/>Of the seven Virtual Population Analysis models examined, no single model stood out as the best overall view of the stock (Schirripa and Legault 1997). Integrated Populations Analysis was employed to modeling the gag stock. The results suggested that the recruitment of <em>M. microlepis</em> was highly variable and the very young fish suffer little fishing mortality. However, older fish faced increasing fishing pressure with age such that very few fish survive longer than 10 years.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: calculated commercial landings (gutted weight) of <em>M. microlepis</em> from the US waters in the Gulf of Mexico from 1986 to 1992.<br/><br/>On the basis of the uncertainty associated with the sensitivity of the reproductive strategy of <em>M. microlepis</em> to overfishing, Schirripa and Legault (1997) felt that Spawning Potential Ratio (SPR) should be maintained well above the 20% minimum adopted by the Gulf Council in its definition of overfishing.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: estimated population size from VPA using the IPA method.<br/><br/>Turner <em>et al.</em> provided catch statistics for gag from 1986 to 2000.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 5</strong>: calculated commercial landings (gutted weight) of <em>M. microlepis</em> from the US waters in the Gulf of Mexico from 1986 to 2000.<br/><br/>The total catch (landings and discards, in terms of number of fish and metric tonnes) of gag in the Gulf of Mexico by sector for 1986 to 1999 are shown in Table 6 (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 6</strong>: total catch (landings and discards, in terms of number of fish and metric tonnes) of <em>M. microlepis</em> in the Gulf of Mexico by sector for 1986 to 1999.<br/><br/>Four sets of VPA runs (two catches-at-age by two selectively assumptions) and one set of additional runs contrasted the effects of the different growth curves sued in this assessment about index selectivity, two sensitivity runs were made (recruitment and commercial indices, and recruitment and recreational indices. Modeling results indicated that the catch-at-age used for 2 sets of analyses differed. The recruitment-and-mortality-modulated catches-at-age showed that larger catches of age 0 and lower catches of age 1 to 4 and 5 to 9. The estimated fishing-mortality rates in 1999 from the RMM catches-at-age were higher on age two and lower for age four. In the year-constant selectivity analyses, the selectivity patterns differed between the two catches-at-age. By an large, a wide range of fishing-mortality rates and associated abundances were estimated, concluding that there was uncertainty in the gag stock in 1999 in the Gulf of Mexico. And some of the estimates might be unrealistic based on what might be considered very large changes in abundance.<br/><br/>It was suggested that if the recruitment-and-mortality modulated (RMM) ageing approach is to be used in the future, consideration should be given to incorporating the ageing and assessment phases in the same routine so that a simultaneous solution for all parameters could be obtained in a statistical modeling approach. Recommendations on the use of statistical estimation systems should consider error assumption in catches and other inputs.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Historically, gag in Florida had often been confused with black grouper (<em>M. bonaci</em>), and commercially caught <em>M. microlepis</em> were also included in the “unclassified grouper” statistics before 1986 (GMFMC 2001).<br/><br/>In 1987 to 1997, <em>M. microlepis</em> accounted for an average of 19% (15 to 23%) of the total classified grouper landings (Schirripa 2000).<br/><br/>In 1973, gag from offshore water (>40 m depth) off North Carolina and South Carolina were almost always greater than 800 mm TL (the saturated large adult might prevent recruitment by social exclusion or by intraspecific predation). After 15-year intensive fishing, almost no individuals exceeding 800 mm TL could be taken from headboats in the Cape Lookout (Huntsman <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>When compared with sex-size data collected before the 1980s, sex-size-frequency data from gag collection in 1991 to 1993 indicated several changes in population structure: reductions in the average size of females and males, and the proportion of males (from about 17% to <2%) (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996). Koenig <em>et al.</em> (1996) also suggested that fishing selection for males during the spawning seasons is highly responsible for the above changes in the population of gag.<br/><br/>Gag accounted for over 80% of the total commercial landings by weight of <em>Mycteroperca</em> species in 1985 in offshore waters of Carolinas (Keener <em>et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/>According to the annual commercial fishery landings of the NMFS, the quantity of gag caught in the USA increased steadily from 55.8 mt to 1,616.4 mt in 25 years (Table 7) (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 2nd Feb 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 7</strong>: annual commercial fishery landings (NMFS) of <em>M. microlepis</em> caught in the USA.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, the estimated annual commercial landings were about 0.7 metric tonnes from 1986 to 1992, with size and age ranged from 9 to 55 inch TL, and 0 to 20 years (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994).<br/><br/>It was observed that GAG was a large part of the domestic catch of Gulf of Mexico grouper fishermen west of Florida, comprising almost all of the US Gulf of Mexico harvest of this species was from Florida (Schirripa and Goodyear <br/>1994).<br/><br/>Schirripa and Goodyear (1994) estimated the harvest of GAG by recreational fishers from 1979 to 1992 ranged from 0.2 million fish in 1979 to 0.8 million fish in 1985, with size and age ranged from 8 to 58 inch TL, and 0 to 18 years.  Stricter regulations enacted in 1990 reduced harvest to about 0.24 million fish (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994) (Table 8).  <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 8</strong>: the recreational harvest estimates for Gulf of Mexico gag in 1979 to 1990.<br/><br/>According to the NMFS, the annual recreational harvest estimates of both number and weight of <em>M. microlepis</em> increased steadily during the period between 1981 to 2004 (despite of the substantial increase in weight in 1984 [with proportional standard errors (PSE) of 53, which is associated with the annual estimates of landings by number]) (http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/recreational/queries/catch/time_series.html; accessed on 2nd Feb 2006) (Table 9).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 9</strong>: The annual recreational harvest estimates of both number and weight of <em>M. microlepis</em> between 1981 and 2004.<br/><br/>According to NMFS’s statistics on commercial and recreational fisheries landings, an average of 53% of the total landings were caught by recreational fisheries in 1987 to 2004 (Table 10).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 10</strong>: commercial and recreational fisheries landings (1987 to 2004).<br/><br/>In April and July 1996, 27.8% (n=155) of all GAG (N=559) caught by commercial hook-and-line fishery off northwest Florida was considered to be bycatch - undersized (< 508 mm TL) or those discarded by fishers as undersize fish.  Although the legal minimum size limit was 508 mm TL, some undersized fish (9.9% of all GAG) was landed as legal.  In addition, all undersized GAG were found to be immature female (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1997).  However, in another study (Bacheler and Buckel 2004), the sublegal grouper caught only accounted for a small percentage of the overall grouper catch (6.8%), and the proportion of sublegal caught per day decrease with depth.<br/><br/>From 1980 to 1999, 15,400 metric tonnes were landed in the southeastern U.S.. Landings per year increased over the period, but effort data are lacking. During this time, gag composed approximately 33 % of commercial landings of grouper, and 15 % of commercial reef fish landings in the Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/>In 1985, in off-shore waters of the Carolinas (US), gag accounted for over 80 % of total commercial landings for <em>Mycteroperca</em> species.<br/><br/>The US National Marine Fisheries Service classified gag as approaching a condition of overfishing in 1998. As a result, several actions including increasing the minimum size limit and a periodic closure during the spawning season from 15 February to 15 March was instituted and some marine protected areas were developed that included gag. <br/><br/>The status of the Campeche Bank gag stock remains largely unknown. Data on biology, landings, catch per unit effort, catch composition, and size trends for gag from Mexican waters are not available.<br/><br/>The Gulf of Mexico stock is currently classified as overfished, but the south Atlantic stock appears is in relatively good shape (NOAA Fish Stock Sustainability Index 2006).
14050		threats	eng	<em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is intensively fished by commercial fishermen, sport divers, and anglers particularly at the spawning aggregations.<br/><br/>Other threats include low productivity (Ault <em>et al.</em> 1998), protogyny, spawning aggregation formation, vulnerable to overfishing (Huntsman <em>et al.</em> 1999), and destruction or modification of the nursery areas (Renin <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Owing to the very narrow nature of the continental shelf, spawning aggregations are easily accessed and gag off Florida are subject to intense fishing pressure, particularly during late fall through early spring (McGovern <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Juveniles are often caught as a part of by-catch of the bait-shrimp fishery in grass bed habitat (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). From April to July 1996, 155 immature females (representing 75% of all grouper bycatch and 27.8% of all 559 gag) were caught as bycatch from commercial hook-and-line fishery off northwest Florida (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Although the commercial fishery catches larger fish (on an average) than does the recreational fishery, the recreational fishery accounted for about 78% of the total number of gag caught (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). Schirripa and Goodyear (1994) also suggested that the 20 inch minimum size regulation put on in 1990 had resulted in a marked increase in the numbers of gag subjected to the very uncertain discard mortality rate (Schirripa and Legault 1997).<br/><br/>Schirripa and Legault (1997) suggested that commercial discards were smaller than those from the recreational fishery due to less targeting in conditions where smaller sized fish were vulnerable.<br/><br/>Fitzhugh et al (2003) found that the youngest ages (three and four years) were taken in the recreational sector, followed by commercial hook-and-line (age five and six years) and finally commercial long-line sectors.  Fitzhugh <em>et al</em>. (2003) also supported earlier studies showing larger and older fish tend to be sampled from deeper water depths.<br/><br/>Fitzhugh <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that recruitment variation changes the adult age-structure.<br/><br/>The increase in the estimated total number of <em>M. microlepis</em> caught and released indicated that the regulation had some restrictive effect on the number of fish being kept illegally (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994).<br/><br/>Overfishing of adults and juveniles as well as the destruction or modification of their nursery had lead the <em>M. microlepis</em> to be regarded as a vulnerable species (Renin <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The dramatic decrease in the percentage of male in spawning aggregations (17% to 1% in 20 years) had caused concerns about sperm limitation, disruption of sex change processes, and excessive inbreeding (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2000, Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1999, Coleman <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>If spawning sites are traditional and the aggregation sites in northern Gulf of Mexico have been depleted by fishing, it is likely that continued aggregation fishing would eliminate other aggregations sites (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Chapman <em>et al</em>. (1999) commented the size-limited population of <em>M. microlepis</em> suffered from restricted gene flow among genetically differentiated population, reflecting the offsprings would be more likely to be genetically related due to inbreeding.<br/><br/>Fishing mortality of age five fish was estimated to be F (fishing) =0.21 for M (natural) =0.20, and F=0.25 for M=0.15 (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994).
14051		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is present within the Galapagos Marine Reserve, Ecuador. Cocos Island is protected but improved management is needed. There are no measures specific to <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em>.
14051		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is distributed in the eastern Pacific from the Isla del Coco off Costa Rica, Malpello of Colombia and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Reports from Panama and Peru have been discounted.<br/><br/>The species is present in all biogeographical regions of the Galápagos Islands (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004, McCosker and Rosenblatt 1975, Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is rare in other islands within its distribution.<br/><br/>A single specimen has recently been reported from the coast of Ecuador (Bearez and Prado 2003).
14051		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is found among rock walls, rocky reef drop-off, underwater lava ridges, and all kinds of well-structured vertical rock formations (Reck 1983). Juveniles are found in shallow sandy lagoons (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and in seagrass beds, mangrove lagoons, shallow lava reefs and inland lava ponds. Adults are mainly piscivorous, prey size increasing with predator size (Reck 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Maturity</strong><br/>First maturation occurs at 47.5 cm and at four-years of age, with sex inversion at 83.1 cm, possibly at 12 years of age. The species has an annual reproduction cycle, with spawning peaks in October and December (Coello and Grimm 1993).
14051		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is common in the Galapagos Islands, but rare at other island sites within its range, with the size and the percentage of captured individuals within the fisheries decreasing (Marconi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Density and Biomass</strong><br/>In the Galapagos, the estimated density of individuals is 2.97/500 m² within the marine reserve area, 2.86/500 m²  in the tourism area and 2.6/500 m² in the fishing zone (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>The biomass (g/150 m²) of <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> in lightly fished areas of the Galapagos was 2,959 (±413/±1SE) and 133 (±79.6), while density in lightly fished areas was 0.76 (+-0.096) and in heavily fished areas was 0.06 (±0.042) (Ruttenberg 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Trends</strong><br/>A decade ago, <em>M. olfax</em> was the most valuable and exploited fish in the Galapagos Islands artisanal fishery (Kasteleijin 1987), comprising over 40% of the catch (Reck 1983). Now, this species comprises <20% of the catch, and fishers indicate that the CPUE and average individual size have declined (Bustamente 1988).
14051		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The restricted range of <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> makes it particularly vulnerable to any threat.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Although <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> suffered a decrease from 30% to 11% of the total Galapagos capture fishery in 2000 (Guime, M.P. 2003). Nicolaides <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that the 2000 decrease reflected a change in the targeted resources (from April to December), with a shift in focus to sea cucumber and lobster (more profitable fisheries). Today, <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> accounts for approximately 5% of the total annual Galapagos catch by value (Nicolaides <em>et al.</em> 2002; Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
14052		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> was originally included as VU (A1d+2d) on the IUCN Red List in 1996. The species was also classified as Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society, based on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s (USFWS) concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000). However, it seems to be represented by only one contiguous population from the information available. It occurs in marine parks in Gulf of California. Due to its rarity and low abundance within its relatively small range, populations appear to be being seriously depleted by sportfishers who target its spawning aggregations. These spawning aggregations must therefore be identified, monitored and protected in marine reserves so that larval replenishment of this vulnerable species can be assured (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003).
14052		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is an eastern central Pacific species narrowly distributed from the Gulf of California south to Jalisco (Mexico), including provinces of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco.
14052		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is a reef-associated species found on rocky reefs at depths of ~8 to 50 m, being more common on fields of large boulders with gorgonians and black corals (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). The maximum size recorded was 68 cm SL (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967) and to around 25 pounds in weight. Heemstra and Randall 1993 state its maximum total length to be 105 cm.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>It is a voracious predator, feeding on crustaceans at night and on small fishes during the day (mexfish.com/fish/sawgrp/sawgrp.htm). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Spawning aggregations (0.17±0.17 individuals per 250 m²) occurred at depths from 20 to 40 m over areas of ~ 600 m² at two sites. Fourteen to 100 fish (of sizes ranging from 40 to 90 cm TL) were observed from April 1994 to May 2000 (over seven days) in the Gulf of California, with courtship behavior being noted (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). However these aggregations contain mixed species. Sala <em>et al.</em> (2003) is the only published article about the spawning aggregation and reproductive behaviour of M. prionura in the Gulf of California. Eight females collected from an aggregation in April 2000 were found to have full gonads with hydrated eggs.
14052		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is rare and low in abundance within a relatively small distribution range (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is more abundant in the central and northern Gulf of California than the southern gulf. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Its density in rocky habitats in 1999 to 2001 was 0.02±0.01 (mean±SE) individuals per 250 m² (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) dive observations from the tropical Eastern Pacific showed densities to remained very low from 2000 to 2005 (www.reef.org/data).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency in the tropical Eastern Pacific.
14052		threats	eng	The main threat to <em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is overfishing, including sportfishing and illegal spearfishing using lights and hooka breathing apparatus at night from La Paz to the Midriff Islands in the Gulf of California.  It is claimed that spawning aggregations are mostly unknown to commercial fishers, although they are targeted by sportfishers (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is incidentally caught along with other groupers.<br/><br/>The primary risk factors for this species are based on it being rare, a large species, probably with low productivity, probably protogynous, its spawning aggregations being vulnerable to overfishing, and it having a small range (see Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2000).
14053		conservation	eng	There are two small no-take zones in the Loreto Marine Park - Bajo del Murcielago and Bajo del Cochi (see Figure 3).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 3</strong>: Known marine protected areas within the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn,  unpublished data, University of California, Davis).
14053		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is distributed in the eastern central Pacific, ranging from the southwest coast of Baja California throughout the Gulf of California to Jalisco (Mexico).
14053		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is a reef-associated species that prefers rocky areas in shallow water at depths of about 50 m. The species is also found on seamounts (Buckhorn, M.L., pers. Comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Adults feed on schools of the flatiron herring, <em>Harengula thrissina</em>, and anchoveta, <em>Cetengraulis mysticetus</em> when available; if not, on other schooling or non-schooling fishes. Most individuals feed at dawn and dusk, with a peak in activity about 20 minutes after sunset. Juveniles feed throughout the day on a variety of benthic fishes and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>In Loreto, Mexico: Punta Lobos, on the northeast tip (specifically the north facing side of the point) is the “main” aggregation site (see Figure 1). This is considered the “main” site because the size classes and abundances are much higher than the other sites surveyed. Large (60 to 90 cm) leopard grouper on the south facing side have been recorded during the day but not in the afternoons. Surveys of Punta Lobos were conducted 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006. Spawning was observed directly in 2004 to 2006. El Bajo Tijeras is a large, flat sandy seamount to the south of Isla Carmen with a several shallow (45 to 60 ft. depth) rocky pinnacles. Surveys of these pinnacles, in 2001, recorded large leopard groupers in high abundances during the day at one pinnacle in particular. No dives were conducted in the afternoon so it was only presumed that spawning took place at that spot that year. Monitoring in subsequent years failed to record the same size classes and abundances there (COBI surveys) and at other nearby pinnacles. At Punta Coyote, just outside of Puerto Escondido, spawning has been observed directly in 2005 and 2006. Surveys conducted in 2006 recorded another large group (30 to 40 animals) of mature grouper (70 to 90 cm) at Danzante North Punta. Surveys were only conducted in the morning at this site but these grouper exhibited the same pre-courtship behaviour observed during morning surveys at Punta Lobos, so it is only presumed to be a spawning site at this time. (from M. Buckhorn, pers. Comm., University of California, Davis, 1 March 2007).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Known spawning aggregation sites of Mycteroperca rosacea in the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn, University of California, Davis).<br/><br/>This species was previously listed as a protogynous hermaphrodite, however, upon further study this species is now known to be gonochoric (Erisman and Hastings, In press).<br/><br/>In Loreto, Mexico, <em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> spawns from April through June. The species is an aggregate, broadcast spawner.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum age thus far recorded is 17 years in a 69 cm male (see Figure 2 and Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for:<br/><br/><strong>Figure 2</strong>: Age-length (total length, x-axis) relationship for Mycteroperca rosacea taken from the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn, unpublished data, University of California, Davis).<br/><br/><strong>Table 1</strong>: Life history table of Mycteroperca rosacea from specimens collected in the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn, unpublished data, University of California, Davis).
14053		population	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is common throughout the Gulf of California. <em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is one of the most important fishes to the Gulf of California fisheries. Observational data indicate a reduction in population abundance over the past 10 years of approximately 50% of the standing biomass from intense subsistence, artisinal, and recreational fishing throughout the range of the species. There is no indication that this activity (cause for reduction) has ceased. Data have been provided by M. Buckhorn, J. Rupnow, and J. Torre.
14053		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> are subsistence, artisinal, and recreational fishing.
14054		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is presumed to occur in several protected areas. In Turkey, there is a 30 cm minimum legal size.
14054		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is presume to occur in several protected areas. In Turkey, there is a 30 cm minimum legal size.
14054		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that occurs throughout the Mediterranean from Portugal to southern Angola; there are some reports from islands that require confirmation. Specimens from Madeira and the Azores (Portugal), Canary Islands (Spain), and Cape Verde have been examined by Heemstra (1991) and are identified to be <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>. The species is replaced by <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> in the western Atlantic.
14054		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that occurs throughout the Mediterranean from Portugal to southern Angola; there are some reports from islands that require confirmation. Specimens from Madeira and the Azores (Portugal), Canary Islands (Spain), and Cape Verde have been examined by Heemstra (1991) and are identified to be <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>. The species is replaced by <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> in the western Atlantic. First recorded occurrence in the Adriatic Sea (Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14054		habitat	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is a demersal species that occurs over rocky and sandy bottoms from 15 to 200 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles were found during construction of a new wharf in Catania harbour (Battiato 1983).<br/><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> feeds on molluscs (presumably cephalopods) and small fishes (Diatta <em>et al.</em> 2003, Freitas 1982).<br/><br/>Sex reversal for mottled grouper occurs at nine years old, 53 cm TL (Siau and Bouain 1994).<br/><br/>Siau and Bouain (1993) indicated that <em>M. rubra</em> began spawning at the end of spring in the Mediterranean, with sexual maturation and size and age of about 27 to 32 cm (TL) and 4 to 5 years.
14054		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is a demersal species that occurs over rocky and sandy bottoms from 15 to 200 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles were found during construction of a new wharf in Catania harbor (Battiato 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> feeds on mollusks (presumably cephalopods) and small fishes (Diatta <em>et al.</em> 2003, Freitas 1982).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex reversal for mottled grouper occurs at nine years old, 53 cm TL (Siau and Bouain 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Siau and Bouain (1993) indicated that <em>M. rubra</em> began spawning at the end of spring in the Mediterranean, with sexual maturation and size and age of about 27 to 32 cm (TL) and 4 to 5 years.
14054		population	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is a widespread, but generally uncommon species. It does appear commonly along the coast of Senegal (Seret 1981), but is rare in Tunisia (Bouain <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>Siau and Bouain (1983) report that fewer than two specimens occur in markets at Sfax (Tunisia) annually.
14054		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is a widespread, but generally uncommon species. It does appear commonly along the coast of Senegal (Seret 1981), but is rare in Tunisia (Bouain <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Siau and Bouain (1983) report that fewer than two specimens occur in markets at Sfax (Tunisia) annually.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries independent</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency of <em>M. rubra</em> in tropical western Atlantic (REEF data).
14054		threats	eng	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is found in fisheries throughout its range, but is not commonly captured due to its rarity.
14055		conservation	eng	There are no local laws protecting this species.
14055		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Palawan Island Group, situated between Borneo and the Philippines (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Since 165,000 years ago, due to rising sea levels, the land connection between the Borneo population and the Palawan population was disrupted (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). This species is found on Palawan Island, Busuanga, and Calauit, and is not found on some of the smaller outlying coral islands like Rasa and Malinau, and also not on the larger land-bridge island of Dumaran (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Corbet and Hill (1992) also list the species as occurring on Iloc island although some experts doubt this.
14055		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland forests, primary and secondary, disturbed habitat, including mixed grassland and second-growth forest (Hoogstraal  1951, Rabor 1986, Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).  The species can also be found in urban areas (GMA Philippines 2006). Little is known about the ecology of this species, though it is known to be found in a wide variety of habitats (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). "It has been recorded from lowland primary and secondary forest, in shrub- and grasslands, freshwater swamp forest, and even within settlements (Widmann and Widmann, 2004)." Dogs and cats do not seem to bother this species due to its potential to excrete a nauseating chemical from its anal glands (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). The main diet of this species consists of worms and soil arhtropods, requiring areas with soft soil for foraging (grasslands typically have extensive root systems which make digging difficult, and it is seen along small streams during the dry season) (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). This species is not restricted to primary forest, it seems that relatively high population densities can occur in secondary forests and shrublands (Widmann and Widmann, 2004), and it is even known to thrive in cultivated areas (Grimwood, 1976).
14055		population	eng	The species is geographically restricted and locally moderately common to uncommon in secondary and primary lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Since then it has been reported to be widespread and common in forest, second growth, and agricultural areas on Palawan Island (Kruuk 2000, Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is common in the lowlands, up to at least 300 m (Widmann and Widmann, 2004).
14055		threats	eng	It is rarely hunted by native people, due to its ability to excrete a pungent smell when attacked (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Although it probably has not suffered from conversion of primary to secondary forest or shrubland, further alteration to grassland or permanent agriculture may pose a threat to this species (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Car traffic may also pose a threat to this species (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). It is not known if diseases from domestic animals affect it (Widmann and Widmann, 2004)
14085		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas.
14085		distribution	eng	This species is native to South America, and has been introduced to North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia (not all these introduced locations are mapped here) (Bertolino 2005). It is patchily distributed throughout its historic range in association with mesic habitats and water bodies. Its distribution in the Patagonian steppe is likely the result of human introduction (Ojeda, Lessa, and Bidau pers. comm.).
14085		habitat	eng	This species prefers habitats near water, and is rarely observed more than 100 m away from rivers (Bertolino 2005).
14085		population	eng	It is increasing in number, and is considered a pest in parts of its range and has been the subject of eradication measures (Bertolino 2005).
14085		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species (Bertolino 2005). In parts of Argentina, however, it is considered endangered. Cattle ranchers have eliminated it from much of the centre of its native range.
14086		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species. Taxonomic work with fresh material is required to resolve the limits of the species. Westerman <em>et al.</em> (2006), working with limited samples, found that some populations of this species were highly divergent, nearly to a degree to be considered different species.
14086		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities across the northern and western parts of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) as well as from the islands of Salawati, Waigeo, and Yapen (Indonesia). It has been recorded from near sea level to 1,800 m asl.
14086		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary lowland and lower montane tropical forests.
14086		population	eng	There is no population information concerning this species.
14086		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be preyed upon by dogs and cats.
14087		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention. Surveys are needed to determine if and where the species can still be found, and sites where the species is found should be strictly protected.
14087		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention. Surveys are needed to determine if and where the species can still be found, and sites where the species is found should be strictly protected. This species is not found in any protected areas.
14087		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mediterranean region. The mouse-tailed dormouse is found in Bulgaria and Turkey (both European and Asian Turkey). It may also occur in eastern Greece. It is mainly a lowland species.<br/><br/>This species is found in southeast Bulgaria through Thrace (Kurtonur and Ozkan, 1990) and western Turkey (Storch, 1978). The exact limits are unknown in western Anatolia, where the species is presently known from only three separate localities. The species was first described as a fossil species in 1937, and was only described as an extant species in the late 1940s. Subfossil information from southern Turkey and Israel indicated a larger range over the last few thousand years. The last published records in Bulgaria are from 1985.
14087		distribution	eng	The mouse-tailed dormouse is found in Bulgaria and Turkey (both European and Asian Turkey). It may also occur in eastern Greece. It is mainly a lowland species.
14087		habitat	eng	It inhabits scrub and semi-open habitats with trees or bushes such as orchards, vineyards, hedgerows in arable land, and river banks. Although it is found in some extensively managed agricultural habitats, it is absent from intensively farmed areas. It is more terrestrial than other dormice, and its diet consists for the most part of seeds.
14087		population	eng	Little is known about this restricted-range species. In Turkish Thrace there are only definite records from a small number of sites, and none of these records are recent: despite intensive searches, the species has not been found during the last five years (Global Mammal Assessment SW Asia workshop 2005). Throughout its distribution the vast majority of suitable habitat has been converted to intensive agriculture, and the species' range is severely fragmented and subject to ongoing losses (Global Mammal Assessment SW Asia workshop 2005).
14087		population	eng	Little is known about this restricted-range species. In Turkish Thrace there are only definite records from a small number of sites. Until recently, despite intensive searches, the species was not found at all for at least 5 years (SW Asia workshop 2005).  Very recently (within the last three years) there were several specimens collected, but this species remains very difficult to find and collect (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). <br/><br/>Throughout its distribution the vast majority of suitable habitat has been converted to intensive agriculture, and the species' range is severely fragmented and subject to ongoing losses (SW Asia workshop 2005).
14087		threats	eng	The range of this species is in decline. In European Turkey, most of its habitat has been transformed by agriculture. In spite of intensive searches the species has not been found over the last five years. It is clear that the range is shrinking.
14087		threats	eng	The range of this species is in decline. In European Turkey, most of its habitat has been transformed by agriculture. In spite of intensive searches the species has not been found over the last five years. It is clear that the range is shrinking.<br/><br/>It is very difficult to determine what is happening with the range because it is the exact habitat preferences are not known. It has been declining since the Pleistocene. Only 50 animals are known in collections. The region in European Turkey and Bulgaria is intensively cultivated, with very little natural habitat remaining.
14088		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
14088		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the moutains in extreme northeastern Iran, the Kopet-Dag (Sumbar River basin) and Malyy Balkhan Moutains (Turkmenistan) through to Iskander, Uzbekistan. The distributional limits of this species are not well known.
14088		habitat	eng	Inhabit rocky desert in Kopet-Dag piedmonts, at about 1000 m asl, among shrubs, saltwarts, and almond trees. Active in dusk and night. Make shelters among rocks and abundant burrows. Based on data collected in captivity, prefers animal food. Reproduce most probably from end of April.
14088		population	eng	The species is apparently very rare, known from a dozen samples and some remains from pellets.
14088		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
14089		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place; it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. More research is needed.
14089		distribution	eng	The range is very poorly known. Found in eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan and north-west Iran (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Turkey only three localities are known. Elevation ranges from 1,500-2,800 m (Wilson and Reeder 2005).
14089		habitat	eng	The species has be found in forests of old pines within grasslands and in eastern Turkey in savannas with sparse trees.  Very poorly known species, virtually nothing known about biology or ecology.
14089		population	eng	The species is extremely rare. Less than 10 specimens exist in current collections. Last collected was in 1993; majority of information is available from owl pellets.
14089		threats	eng	Unknown.
14096		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
14096		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates, 1991; Al-Jumaily, 1998).
14096		habitat	eng	It is believed to inhabat bushland in the Yemen Mountains. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
14096		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
14096		threats	eng	There is very little information, but it is thought that it is unlikely that this species is facing significant threats as it occurs in a region of limited human impact.
14097		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect suitable areas of remaining natural habitat for this species, with additional research required into the persistence of populations in modified habitats (such as cocoa plantations). Further surveys are needed to identify additional localities for this species, and to better understand its natural history.
14097		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of the uplands of São Tomé Island of São Tomé and Príncipe. It is absent from the northern part of the island. It has only been recorded from three localities, and no colonies have been reported. Animals have been recorded between 300 and 1,200 m asl.
14097		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from montane and steep rocky, and steep sided areas. Animals have been reported from montane tropical moist forest (at 1,300 m asl), tropical lowland forest (Feiler [1984] recorded a specimen from natural forest at 800 m asl), from an area with remnants of original vegetation (just north of Pico de São Tomé) (Sayer <em>et al.</em> 1992), and from cocoa plantations. The species appears to prefer the forested mountain zones but may be found to live in plantation areas and avoids the coastal zone and the northern dry part of the island. (Bergmans 1997).
14097		population	eng	It appears to be a naturally rare species.
14097		threats	eng	Within the species relatively limited range it is threatened by ongoing habitat loss, presumably related to logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
14098		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In Zimbabwe it has been recorded from the Haroni and Rusitu protected areas, but the forest has still been declining at these localities over the past three decades. Further surveys are needed to better determine the full extent of this species range. There is a need to conserve remaining lowland forest throughout much of East Africa,
14098		distribution	eng	Bergmans (1997) reports that the species is known from the Shimba Hills in southeast Kenya, the Usambara and Nguru Mountains in Tanzania, several other unpublished localities in Tanzania and more recently from eastern Zimbabwe. All localities known with some accuracy are in East African Zanzibar-Inhambane costal mosaic: forest patches or in Undifferentiated Afromontane vegetation bordering on East African Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal mosaic (Bergmans 1997). The holotype specimen was caught over the Mukanda River, bordered by big thorn trees and fig trees, in the Shimba Hills, which are covered with a mosaic of open country and forest patches (Bergmans 1997).
14098		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known, however, it has been recorded from lowland forest. The roosting sites are currently not known.
14098		population	eng	There is little known about the population of this species. Nearly all collections have been of single specimens caught in mist nets.
14098		threats	eng	Although the natural history of this species is little known, there is considerable ongoing habitat loss within the species range (through logging, harvesting of firewood and conversion of land to agricultural use).
14099		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and it seems probable that it is present in a number of West African and Central African protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
14099		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in West Africa and Central Africa, ranging into western East Africa. It has been recorded from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa (with the exception of Benin), to Cameroon and from here ranging into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, extreme northwestern Zambia, Rwanda, Uganda and possibly southern Sudan. It is a lowland species found up to 800 m asl.
14099		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest (both primary and secondary), as may also be encountered in forest-grassland mosaic habitats. It appears to be somewhat adaptable as animals have been recorded from city gardens. It roosts singly or in small groups. Sub-adult males appear to be somewhat migratory.
14099		population	eng	Although the species is infrequently caught in ground level nets, it is commonly caught in canopy nets. In Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) its one of the most common fruit bats.
14099		threats	eng	There are generally no major threats to this species. It is threatened in parts of its range by severe habitat loss, presumably through general logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
14100		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
14100		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Branco (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2001).
14100		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in lowland evergreen tropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It can exist in altered areas close to natural forest. It scatters and hoards the fruits and nuts it consumes. Captive studies suggest the species could be monogamous (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Gestation is 99 days after which a litter, usually of two, is produced (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
14100		population	eng	This rodent is abundant in some areas.
14100		threats	eng	This species is over-hunted; it has caused local extirpation in some areas of Suriname and French Guiana. Also, this rodent is kept as a pet in some indigenous populations in Brazil.
14102		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this bat.
14102		distribution	eng	This species has been patchily recorded from eight localities in West and Central Africa. It has been reported from Côte d'Ivoire, Central African Republic and northern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is generally a lowland species, but has been found up to 1,250 m asl.
14102		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded at the edge of dry forest and dry savanna, and it appears to be a specialist of mosaic gallery forest. Colonies roost in hollow trees (Lang and Chapin 1917).
14102		population	eng	This appears to be a rare species, known from very few specimens.
14102		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by habitat loss, especially the removal of potential roost trees.
14103		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the species distribution, natural history, and adaptability to habitat degradation.
14103		distribution	eng	This bat is distributed in West and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Ghana in the west, through parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to western Uganda in the east.
14103		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical moist lowland forest, but possibly marginally occurs in modified habitats. Happold (1987) records that it seems to be solitary and has been found singly clinging to the bark of a tree, among the leaves of plantains and in the roof of a rubber packing shed.
14103		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a rare species. It is found roosting singly or in small numbers.
14103		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by general conversion of forest to agricultural land and logging activities.
14104		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas.
14104		distribution	eng	<em>Myopus schisticolor </em>has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, ranging from western Norway, through Sweden and Finland through northern and central Russia to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island (Russia) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs at altitudes from 600 to 2,450 m (Nowak 1999).
14104		habitat	eng	The species inhabits old spruce forest and taiga forest, where breeding tends to occur in areas with abundant mosses (<em>Pleurozium, Dicranum</em>, and <em>Hylocomium </em>spp.), which provide a critical winter food source. In the summer, marshy areas within forests and pine-bogs with a high dwarf shrub layer are used, and in years of high population density dry forests and even clear-cuts may be occupied (Sulkava 1999). The species is found in the taiga and not above the treeline.
14104		habitat	eng	The species's main habitat is old spruce forest, where breeding tends to occur in areas with a abundant mosses (<em>Pleurozium, Dicranum</em>, and <em>Hylocomium </em>spp.), which provide a critical winter food source. In the summer, marshy areas within forests and pine-bogs with a high dwarf shrub layer are used, and in years of high population density dry forests and even clear-cuts may be occupied (Sulkava 1999). The species is found in the taiga and not above the treeline.
14104		population	eng	Population densities in this species are typically very low, although infrequently there may be population irruptions and local migrations. Such events occured in northern Finland in 1910, 1957-58 and 1963 (Sulkava 1999). The sex ratio is female-biased (75% females : 25% males). In Fennoscandia local population declines may have occurred as a result of logging (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
14104		population	eng	Population densities in this species are typically very low, although infrequently there may be population irruptions and local migrations. Such events occurred in northern Finland in 1910, 1957-58 and 1963 (Sulkava 1999). In Fennoscandia local population declines may have occurred as a result of logging (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
14104		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The species may be locally affected by logging of old-growth spruce forest, its main habitat (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
14104		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The species may be locally affected by logging of old-growth spruce forest, its main habitat, in some parts of its range (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
14105		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the persistence of this species in modified habitats.
14105		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, northwestern Congo, and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko). The record from Eshobi, is now in Cameroon and not in southeastern Nigeria (Happold, 1987). This species may be more widely distributed than is currently known.
14105		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest habitats. It is not known if it can persist in secondary forest. It is diurnal, and arboreal, found mainly at lower levels in trees. Primarily solitary, though occasionally seen in pairs. Females with two embryos have been collected in Gabon and on Bioko.
14105		population	eng	This appears to be an uncommon species.
14105		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole, general deforestation is presumably a threat in parts of the species range.
14106		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
14106		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex einsentrauti</em> is endemic to the island of Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. This species occurs at elevations over 2,000 m asl; the type locality of Pic Santa Isabel is at 2,400 m asl.
14106		habitat	eng	This little known species has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest.
14106		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since 1968. There is a need for more field surveys to be undertaken.
14106		threats	eng	This species is threatened by continuing habitat degradation and human encroachment for settlement.
14107		conservation	eng	Although <em>M. geata</em> is present in a forest reserve, the only provides effective protection in the highest parts of the Ulugurus, where its habitat is heavily fragmented. There is a need to identify and conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
14107		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex geata</em> is only known from the type collection from the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania. It occurs at elevations between 1,500-2,000 m asl and possibly higher.
14107		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from montane forest.
14107		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Few surveys have been undertaken in the altitudinal range of this species.
14107		threats	eng	The populations of <em>M. geata</em> that occur at higher elevations are less likely to be threatened by human activities (such as logging and conversion of land to agricultural use) than those living at lower elevations. It is thought that this species is unlikely to be affected by a munitions factory and military activities in the Ulugurus.
14108		conservation	eng	All forests in South Africa are protected by law, although the degree to which they are protected may vary. This species is also present in protected areas such as the Diepwalle Forest Reserve and Tzutzu Kama Coastal Park.
14108		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex longicaudatus</em> is known from the southeastern parts of the Cape Province, South Africa. This species was only discovered in 1978. This species generally occurs at elevations up to 2,000 m asl. A population of the subspecies <em>Myosorex longicaudatus boosmai</em> from the Langeberg Mountains, occurs at much higher elevations (up to 3,600 m asl) than any other known populations (Dippenaar 1995).
14108		habitat	eng	<em>M. longicaudatus</em> is found in forests, forests edges, fynbos and boggy grassland. This species needs a moist microhabitat. It is restricted to pristine primary habitat that has not been degraded.
14108		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. The highest numbers of individuals are found at the forest edge<br/>(Dippenaar, 1995). Population numbers seems to fluctuate and there is an example of a survey finding no specimens in an area where a previous survey had caught quite high numbers.
14108		threats	eng	Climate change is considered to be the principal threat to this species. Habitat in neighbouring areas is arid and unsuitable for this species which depends on a moist habitat. Because of this <em>M. longicaudatus</em> would not be able to move to other areas if the climate in its current range became unsuitable. It is thought that coastal populations might be at less risk than non-coastal populations. The moist habitat of this species is fragmented.
14110		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
14110		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex schalleri</em> is known from a single specimen from Nzombe (Mwenga) in the Itombwe Mountains of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. No small mammal studies have currently been undertaken in this mountain range.
14110		habitat	eng	<em>M.schalleri</em> was collected from montane tropical moist forest.
14110		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
14110		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
14111		conservation	eng	Mount Ruwenzori is a National Park which is well protected on the Ugandan side. The Democratic Republic of the Congo side is thought to be less well protected.
14111		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ruwenzori Mountains of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There is an additional potential locality at Kibale in Uganda which is less than 100 km away, but this is unconfirmed. Its elevational range is approximately 1,800-4,000 m asl.
14111		habitat	eng	<em>M. blarina</em> inhabits montane forest at Mount Ruwenzori, from the base to the top of mountain. The lower forest zone is severely degraded but forest at higher altitudes is well protected and consists of primary forest. It is also found in bamboo forest, heath and grass tussock bogs.
14111		population	eng	<em>Myosorex blarina</em> is uncommon and when it is found it always occurs in very low numbers.
14111		threats	eng	This species is threatened by continuing general habitat decline on the Democratic Republic of the Congo side of the mountains.
14112		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Mount Oku Reserve. There is a need to maintain suitable areas of primary forest for this species. Additional research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
14112		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex okuensis</em> is endemic to Cameroon. It is known from Lake Manenguba, Mount Oku and Mount Lefo on the Bamenda Plateau. It occurs at elevations between approximately 1,800-2,300 m asl.
14112		habitat	eng	<em>M. okuensis</em> is found on the flanks of volcanoes with patches of primary montane forest. This species does not occur outside primary habitat.
14112		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
14112		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by general habitat loss and degradation resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
14113		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
14113		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex rumpii</em> is known only from the holotype collected in the Rumpi Hills of southwestern Cameroon.  It was recorded at an elevation of approximately 1,100 m asl. There may not have been any further surveys of this area since this time. Mount Kupe has been surveyed more recently and no shrews of the genus <em>Myosorex</em> were found there.
14113		habitat	eng	This species occurs in remnant montane tropical moist forest.
14113		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype collected around 1967.
14113		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, presumably largely through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use, and its restricted range.
14114		conservation	eng	This species is present in some conservation areas in the northern part of its range (such as Lake Saint Lucia). There is a need to maintain suitable habitat within the range of this species. Additional information is needed on the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
14114		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex sclateri</em> is found in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.
14114		habitat	eng	<em>M. sclateri</em> is found near water in subtropical swamps and coastal forests. Skinner and Chimimba (2005) report that it is present in grassland, wetland and reedbed habitats.
14114		population	eng	This species is not common but is regularly caught during surveys.
14114		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the development of human settlements, overgrazing and general habitat destruction.
14115		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
14115		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex tenuis</em> is known from Transvaal, South Africa, and is possibly present in western Mozambique.
14115		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of <em>M. tenuis</em>.
14115		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
14115		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
14116		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas throughout the range (approximately 18% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research is recommended.
14116		distribution	eng	Steppes and farmland of Russia on banks of Onon and Ingoda Rivers in the Upper Amur basin, NE Mongolia (eastern parts of Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges and Mongol Daguur Steppe; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), and NE China (S Heilongjiang, W Jilin, W Liaoning, E Nei Mongol, N Hebei, and N Shanxi; see Zhang <em>et al.</em>, 1997).
14116		habitat	eng	Found in rich dark soft soil habitats on cereal or mixed herb steppe and meadows, farmland, forest glades, and flood plains (Grehov, 1972).  Spacing between burrow entrances 1-3 m; diameter of the mound of soil demarcating burrows is 50-70 cm.  Burrows reach a depth of 30-50 cm, but may extend to 2 m deep in winter. Feeding passages may exceed 20 m (Schauer, 1987). Diameter of the feeding burrows is 11-12 cm. Each burrow belongs to only one animal, but two burrows could be connected at one point in case of male and female (Bannikov, 1953). Diet normally consists of underground roots. Stores consist mostly of wheatgrass (Agropyron), but also include pulsatilla, poppy, peony, dandelion, ling roots, bluegrass, and wormwood. Stored supplies could be up to 9 kg. Youngs mostly feed on green parts (Bannikov, 1953). Breeds in May-June, with young from a single litter of 1-5 young appearing in July. Youngs live with female and disperse in autumn when they reach 15 cm size.
14116		population	eng	Common, sometimes abundant in Russian part of the range.
14116		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be an major threats to this species.
14118		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jigongshan (Xinyang) and Pangquangou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and is likely to be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
14118		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread endemic of China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Shandong (Smith and Xie 2008), Nei Mongol, and Beijing (CSIS 2008).
14118		habitat	eng	This species occurs in steppe grasslands (Smith and Xie 2008), alpine grasslands and shrublands, agricultural lands, "banks and wasteland" (Zhang 2007). Recent studies suggest that this species acts as an "ecosystem engineer", increasing local environmental heterogeneity at the landscape level, aiding in the formation, aeration and mixing of soil, and enhancing infiltration of water into the soil thus curtailing erosion (Smith and Xie 2008). It is also an important prey base for other species (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Parturition starts in early spring (Smith and Xie 2008). One to seven offspring are produced per litter, with one to three litters each year (Smith and Xie 2008).
14118		population	eng	It has been characterized as an abundant small mammal of the Tibetan Plateau (Zhang 2007). Densities in Qinghai, in the 1980s, were estimated at 5-70nanimals/ha (Zhang 2007). In the 1990s as a result of eradication programs in Qinghai, populations were estimated at less than 31.6% of their former abundance (Zhang 2007).
14118		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. It was targeted in the 1990's as a pest species in the province of Qinghai, resulting in substantial declines (Zhang 2007). It is not known if the practice occurs in other provinces in which it occurs.
14119		conservation	eng	Secondary commercial species, but recently almost not hunted. Occurs in some protected areas. Further conservation measures in some isolated parts of the range are necessary.
14119		distribution	eng	Distributed in E Kazakhstan and south of Western Siberia (Russia). The range is fragmented and declining.
14119		habitat	eng	Inhabit steppes, including those with shrubs, rare forests, meadows and sometimes arable fields. Distribution is connected to soft meadow soils and rich grass vegetation. Avoid dry steppes, rocky and rubbly places. In mountains found up to 2750 m. Obligate subterranean species, with exeption of short foraging expeditions and juvenile dispersal. Burrows have several tiers. Upper level is feeding passages on 5-27 cm under the ground. Lower tier is at 40-110 cm, consist of short passages, store, nest and toilet cells. Diameter of the feeding burrows is 8-13 cm. In total passage length is up to 150 m. Individual areas are separated in spring, but later join one another (Mahmutov, 1972). In the burrows there are temporary and permanent (wintering) nests. The latter is always only one and suited at 15-30 cm below ground, near the main exit. Active usually during dusk and dawn. Feed on roots and green parts of several dozen of plants. In anropogenic places feeds on cultivated plants. Winter supplies (up to 8 kg) consist of roots, bulbs, and scions of different plants, mainly herbs. (Mahmutov, 1977). Does not hibernate. Mate from September-November till March-April (Mahmutov, 1970). Has one litter per year with 1-10, usually 3-5 young.
14119		population	eng	Common, in some parts rare, in other abundant species. Secondary commercial species.
14119		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to man-induced activity may significantly influence the area of occupancy in some isolates. Isolated parts of the range are still declining.
14120		conservation	eng	Listed in the China Red List as Least Concern.  Listed as a Rare species (category II =  Endangered) in the Red List of Russia (as <em>M. epsilanus</em>). Approximately 31% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
14120		distribution	eng	Distributed in Transbaikalia, E Mongolia (Halh River and Nömrög River Basin in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range), E and C China, and Russian Far East.
14120		habitat	eng	Inhabits arable fields, river valleys with meadows and steppe patches, derelict lands not used for 3-4 years, cereal and herbs meadows near mountain rivers and wells, steppes with oak and birch, foothills with rich vegetation, rare oak, aspen, black birch (Betula daurica) forests on top of hills. Specifically to Mongolia, mountain-steppe, steppe, desert and grassland regions are preferentially selected. Avoids rubbly soils. Burrows have two tiers. Feeding passages are on 12-20 cm under the ground. Lower tier is at 40-110 cm, consist of short passages, storae, nest and toilet cells. Diameter of the burrows of young zokors is 4-5 cm, those of adults is 8-12 cm. Active usually during dusk and dawn. Most intesive digging activity occurs in May-June, where youngs are dispersing. Mate in April - beginning of May (Kostenko, 1970). Has one litter per year with 2-4 pups. In Spring and first half of summer youngs live with female. By october (when the body size is about 20 cm) young start to dig their own burrows nearby mother's. Next spring they become mature and disperse. Feed on cereal roots and green parts. In anthropogenic places feeds on cultivated plants. Winter supplies (up to 10 kg) consist of roots, bulbs, and scions of different plants, mainly herbs. Sometimes consume animal food: in stomach of several animals were found remains of Apodemus and Phodopus (Kostenko, 1970).
14120		population	eng	Very rare in the northern and north-eastern (Russian Far East) parts of the range. Elsewhere in the range, no information is available.
14120		threats	eng	Agricultural reclamation destroys natural habitats.
14121		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Houhe Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
14121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Hubei, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Henan (CSIS 2008). It occurs at elevations generally ranging from 1,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
14121		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grasslands, scrub, forest, and possibly cropland habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Diet consists of grasses, roots, and sometimes crops (Smith and Xie 2008). One to five offspring are produced per litter, with a single litter produced each year (Smith and Xie 2008).
14121		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
14121		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14122		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wanglang Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1bc (Wang and Xie 2004).
14122		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Ningxia, Sichuan, and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008).
14122		habitat	eng	This species occupies grasslands, steppe, open field, and sometimes cropland (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>IT forages predominantly on grasses (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs between May and September, during which two litters are produced with litter sizes that range from two to eight (Smith and Xie 2008).
14122		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
14122		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14123		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation.  There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and the species is found in protected areas all over its range. It benefits directly or indirectly from a number of LIFE funded projects in Europe, and there are current research projects focussing on the species. Appropriate habitat management involves leaving old trees in sufficient numbers, as each individual colony uses up to 30 trees in the summer. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this species.
14123		distribution	eng	A western Palaearctic species, it occurs in central and southern Europe and temperate south-western Asia (Caucasus region and Asia Minor). It is found on several islands including Bornholm, Corsica, Elba, Capri, Sicily (Baagoe 2001). It has been recorded from sea level to as high as 1,500m in central Spain (Benzal and de Paz 1991).
14123		distribution	eng	A western Palaearctic species, it occurs in central and southern Europe and temperate south-western Asia (Caucasus region and Asia Minor). It is found on several islands including Bornholm, Corsica, Elba, Capri, Sicily (Baagoe 2001). It has been recorded from sea level to as high as 1,500 m in central Spain (Benzal and de Paz 1991).  Although only a single record has been recorded in central Montenegro, it is possibly present in most of the country (Milan Paunovic pers. comm. 2007)
14123		habitat	eng	This species has specialised habitat requirements, and is largely dependent on mature natural forests. In the south-west Asia region it is found in broadleaf forest and sometimes mixed forest (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Europe, it tends to prefer mature deciduous woodland of beech and oak with a high proportion of old trees. Densities of this species are highest in forests that are managed according to environmental (rather than strictly economic) principles. It is occasionally found in artificial habitats such as pasture, plantations (especially orchards) and rural gardens. In summer it roosts in tree-holes, or occasionally in buildings; bird and bat boxes are fairly readily accepted (Schlapp 1999). In winter it hibernates in underground habitats, and possibly also in hollow trees. It forages in woodland and along woodland edge for Lepidoptera, Diptera, Planipennia, and also non-flying insects. A sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14123		habitat	eng	This species has specialised habitat requirements, and is largely dependent on mature natural forests. In the south-west Asia region it is found in broadleaf forest and sometimes mixed forest (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Europe, it tends to prefer mature deciduous woodland of beech and oak with a high proportion of old trees. Densities of this species are highest in forests that are managed according to environmental (rather than strictly economic) principles. It is occasionally found in artificial habitats such as pasture, plantations (especially orchards) and rural gardens. In summer it roosts in tree-holes, or occasionally in buildings; bird and bat boxes are fairly readily accepted (Schlapp 1999). In winter it hibernates in underground habitats, and possibly also in hollow trees. It forages in woodland and along woodland edge for Lepidoptera, Diptera, Planipennia, and also non-flying insects. A sedentary species (Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005).
14123		population	eng	It is considered rare throughout its range, although in optimal habitat it may be regularly found, and it is a typical member of central European bat communities. In southern Europe and the Caucasus it is rare (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), and there has been only one confirmed individual in Iran (Sharifi <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are also few records from Turkey, where it has been found in groups of up to six individuals in six localities (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). Breeding colonies are small, numbering up to 10-30 individuals (K. Tsytsulina, J. T. Alcalde, A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). Populations are fragmented as a result of the loss in historic times of the majority of its forest habitat. There is very little information on recent population trends. However, one of the few colonies known from Spain has disappeared in recent years because of human disturbance (J. T. Alcalde and J. Juste pers. comm. 2006).
14123		population	eng	It is considered rare throughout its range, although in optimal habitat it may be regularly found, and it is a typical member of central European bat communities. In southern Europe and the Caucasus it is rare (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), and there has been only one confirmed individual in Iran (Sharifi <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are also few records from Turkey, where it has been found in groups of up to six individuals in six localities (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2007). Breeding colonies are small, numbering up to 10-30 individuals (K. Tsytsulina, J. T. Alcalde, A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). Populations are fragmented as a result of the loss in historic times of the majority of its forest habitat. There is very little information on recent population trends. However, one of the few colonies known from Spain has disappeared in recent years because of human disturbance (J. T. Alcalde and J. Juste pers. comm. 2006).
14123		threats	eng	Threats include inappropriate management and development of woodland habitats, intensive agriculture (e.g. use of pesticides on farmland adjacent to woodland occupied by the species) and human disturbance of roost sites. The loss of old trees with hollows is a particular problem. In Germany, infrastructure developments (and associated habitat fragmentation) and forestry are the main threats (Schulenberg 2005).
14123		threats	eng	Threats include inappropriate management and development of woodland habitats, intensive agriculture (e.g., use of pesticides on farmland adjacent to woodland occupied by the species) and human disturbance of roost sites. The loss of old trees with hollows is a particular problem. In Germany, infrastructure developments (and associated habitat fragmentation) and forestry are the main threats (Schulenberg 2005).
14124		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range states where that applies. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In some countries (including Spain, Portugal, and Italy) several colonies are protected by closing entrances to caves with fences. More colonies should be protected, however, the emphasis needs to be on better protection of cave sites generally rather than on 'gating' of cave entrances which is often detrimental to bats causing direct mortality and abandonment of caves.
14124		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In some countries (including Spain, Portugal, and Italy) several colonies are protected by closing entrances to caves with fences. More colonies should be protected.
14124		distribution	eng	A south-west Palearctic species, it occurs in southern Europe, southern parts of central Europe, and non-arid parts of southwestern Asia from Asia Minor, the Caucasus region and Palestine to Kashmir, the Altai mountains, Nepal, and parts of China. The subspecies <em>M.b. oxygnathus</em> occurs in Europe and western Anatolia: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy (including Sicily). Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine (including Krym), the Balkan Peninsula and parts of Turkey (Topál and Ruedi 2001). In the Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, the Russian Federation and Georgia it is confimed to occur no higher than 1,700m (K. Tsytsulina, M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). However, it is found at altitudes of up to 2,100m in the winter in southern Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
14124		distribution	eng	A south-west Palearctic species, it occurs in southern Europe, southern parts of central Europe, and non-arid parts of southwestern Asia from Asia Minor, the Caucasus region and Palestine to Kashmir, the Altai mountains, Nepal, and parts of China. The subspecies <em>M. b. oxygnathus</em> occurs in Mediterranean Europe and western Anatolia: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy (including Sicily). Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine (including Krym), the Balkan Peninsula and parts of Turkey (Topál and Ruedi 2001). In the Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, the Russian Federation and Georgia it is confimed to occur no higher than 1,700 m (K. Tsytsulina, M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). However, it is found at altitudes of up to 2,100 m in the winter in southern Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
14124		habitat	eng	It forages in scrub and grassland habitats, including farmland and gardens. Maternity colonies are usually found in underground habitats such as caves and mines, and sometimes in attics of buildings  (particularly in central Europe).<br/>It hibernates in winter in underground sites with a relatively constant temperature of 6-12ºC. The species is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 488 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005; previous reports of 600 km are erroneous).
14124		habitat	eng	It forages in scrub and grassland habitats, including farmland and gardens. Maternity colonies are usually found in underground habitats such as caves and mines, and sometimes in attics of buildings  (particularly in central Europe). In Iberia and in the Balkans it is mainly found in caves and other underground sites (e.g., mines). In Turkey and Syria maternity colonies are found in caves and in very old buildings (castles, inns, etc.). It hibernates in winter in underground sites with a relatively constant temperature of 6-12ºC. The species is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 488 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005; previous reports of 600 km are erroneous).
14124		population	eng	A gregarious species, it congregates in nursery and/or hibernating colonies of up to 500 individuals. There have been large population reductions since the 1950s in several areas, including central Europe, Israel, and central Asia, and there is evidence of ongoing decline in some parts of the range, although in other areas populations appear stable. In parts of its range it remains an abundant species. In Turkey it occurs in large clusters and is the second most common bat species (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2007). In Iran there is evidence of population decline, although it remains one of the most sighted species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The Spanish population is estimated to be smaller than 20,000 individuals, and is concentrated in the southern part of the country (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is declining, at a rate of one third over the last 10 years in important large colonies in Andalucia (Franco and Rodrigues de los Santos 2001). It is one of the rarest species in Portugal, where its population of c.2,000 individuals is declining (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is uncommon in the northern part of the range (Austria) but seems stable (Spitzenberger 2002). In France, the population of over 20,000 individuals experienced declines since the 1960s, but may now be stable (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). In the Balkans, it is regarded as stable (Mediterranean workshop 2007). In Romania, one well-known colony has declined by 95% as a result of disturbance by speleological tourism (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In South Asia the population is considered stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>It often occurs in mixed colonies with <em>Myotis myotis</em> and identification is sometimes problematic.
14124		population	eng	A gregarious species, it congregates in nursery and/or hibernating colonies of up to 500 individuals. There have been large population reductions since the 1950s in several areas, including central Europe, Israel, and central Asia, and there is evidence of ongoing decline in some parts of the range, although in other areas populations appear stable. It remains an abundant species.  In Turkey it occurs in large clusters and is the second most common bat species (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Iran there is evidence of population decline, although it remains one of the most sighted species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The Spanish population is estimated to be smaller than 20,000 individuals, and is concentrated in the southern part of the country (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is declining, at a rate of one third over the last 10 years in important large colonies in Andalucia (Franco and Rodrigues de los Santos 2001). It is one of the rarest species in Portugal, where its population of c.2,000 individuals is declining (Rodrigues<em> et al.</em> 2003). It is uncommon in the northern part of the range (Austria) but seems stable (Spitzenberger 2002). In France, the population of over 20,000 individuals experienced declines since the 1960s, but may now be stable (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). In Romania, one well-known colony has declined by 95% as a result of disturbance by speleological tourism (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). It often occurs in mixed colonies with <em>Myotis myotis</em> and identification is sometimes problematic.
14124		threats	eng	Changes in land management, especially agricultural pollution and other agricultural activities, can affect populations of this species. Disturbance to roosts in caves and buildings may also be a problem.
14124		threats	eng	Changes in land management, especially agricultural pollution and other agricultural activities, can affect populations of this species. Disturbance to roosts in caves and buildings may also be a problem.<br/><br/>In some caves used by speleologists in Spain, the disturbance affects more than 90% of the population and some large historical colonies in southern Spain have disappeared as a result. The Andalucian population decreased from 30,000 individuals to 14,000 between 1994 and 2002 (unpublished report submitted to Junta Andalucia government).<br/><br/>In Turkey and Syria caves are often used by herders and their livestock; the herders light fires in the cave entrances which disturb the bats.
14125		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.<br><br>Reserach into the distribution range, population size and trends is required.
14125		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.<br/><br/>Reserach into the distribution range, population size and trends is required.
14125		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.
14125		distribution	eng	A predominantly boreal Palaearctic species, distributed from Great Britain, western and central Europe and Fennoscandia through the Russian Federation and central Asia, including Mongolia and northeast China, to the northern Far East, including Japan,where it is found only on Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Myotis gracilis</em> Ognev, 1927). It has a scattered distribution in south-east Europe and Anatolia. In Mongolia it is known from the Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and along the Halh and Nömrög river basins in Ikh Halh Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Tinnin <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In China, in addition to the distribution in the northeast, there is a disjunct distribution in southwest Xizang. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800 m asl.<br/><br/>This species has a fairly limited range within the Mediterranean region. There is a record from central Italy (the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park; Russo pers. comm. 2006; Agnelli <em>et al.</em>2004), a record from eastern Montenegro close to the border with Serbia, and it is reported to occur in northern Greece and in Bulgaria. Within Turkey the species was primarily known from the Caucasus area in the northeast but recently Benda and Karatash (2006) published a record from central Anatolia. Occurrence of this species in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Macedonia has not yet been confirmed (M. Paunovic and B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).
14125		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis brandtii </em>is a boreal Palaearctic species, distributed from Ireland, central Europe and Fennoscandia through the Russian Federation and central Asia to the northern Far East. It has a scattered distribution in south-east Europe and Anatolia. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m.
14125		habitat	eng	It inhabits mixed and broadleaf forest, and sometimes coniferous forest, often in close proximity to water (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005; Gerell 1999). It is less often found near human habitation than its congener <em>M. mystacinus</em>. Summer roosts are in buildings, tree holes, and bird and bat boxes, but most often in tree holes. In winter it hibernates in caves, tunnels, cellars and mines. It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 618 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 2005). It hunts near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic insects, breeding in June and July (Sokolov and Orlov 1980).
14125		habitat	eng	It inhabits mixed and broadleaf forest, and sometimes coniferous forest, often in close proximity to water (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005, Gerell 1999). It is less often found near human habitation than its congener <em>M. mystacinus</em>. Summer roosts are sited in buildings, tree holes, and bird and bat boxes. In winter it hibernates in caves and mines. It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 618 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14125		habitat	eng	It inhabits mixed and broadleaf forest, and sometimes coniferous forest, often in close proximity to water (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005; Gerell 1999). It is less often found near human habitation than its congener <i>M. mystacinus</i>. Summer roosts are in buildings, tree holes, and bird and bat boxes, but most often in tree holes. In winter it hibernates in caves, tunnels, cellars and mines. It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 618 km recorded (Hutterer <i>et al</i>. 2005). It hunts near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic insects, breeding in June and July (Sokolov and Orlov 1980).
14125		population	eng	One of the more common species within northern parts of its regular distribution area in Europe. It is decreasing in NE Turkey, at the southern edge of its global range (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Mongolia there is no population data available on this species, but it is thought to be evenly distributed over a wide geographic range.
14125		population	eng	One of the more common species within northern parts of its regular distribution area. It is decreasing in Turkey, at the southern edge of its global range (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).
14125		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. Localized possible threats include changes in land-use practices (including woodland loss, infrastructure development and pesticide use). Human disturbance to roosts in buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the eastern Black Sea area, it prefers to roost behind window shutters in older buildings, and these sites are not provided in modern buildings. Another popular roost site in this region is barrels hung in trees for honey bee farming, and when the barrels are removed to check for honey, roosting individuals are disturbed (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).
14125		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. Localized possible threats include changes in land-use practices (including woodland loss, infrastructure development and pesticide use). Human disturbance to roosts in builidings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the eastern Black Sea area, it prefers to roost behind window shutters in older buildings, and these sites are not provided in modern buildings. Another popular roost site in this region is barrels hung in trees for honey bee farming, and when the barrels are removed to check for honey, roosting individuals are disturbed (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).
14126		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In Spain, fences are in place to protect several known colonies. Measures needed include protection of colonies (these measures should avoid the blocking of any cave entrances with gates and control of tourist access) and improvement of water quality.
14126		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In Spain, fences are in place to protect several known colonies. Measures needed include protection of colonies and improvement of water quality.
14126		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis capaccinii</em> is sparsely distributed from eastern Iberia, Spain through the northern Mediterranean to coastal Asia Minor and Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, and also in Mesopotamia from Turkey to Iran and in north-west Africa (limited to the Mediterranean fringe of western Maghreb: north Morocco and northwest Algeria). It occurs from sea level to 900 m.
14126		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis capaccinii</em> is sparsely distributed from eastern Iberia through the northern Mediterranean to coastal Asia Minor and Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, and also in Mesopotamia from Turkey to Iran and in north-west Africa. It occurs from sea level to 900 m.
14126		habitat	eng	It forages over wetlands and waterways (including artifical waterbodies, such as canals and reservoirs), also scrub. It generally roosts in underground habitats (principally caves). In the Balkans it is confined to karst areas. Movements between summer and winter colonies are mostly within a distance of 50 km (maximum 140 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14126		habitat	eng	It forages over wetlands and waterways (including artifical waterbodies, such as canals and reservoirs), also scrub. It generally roosts in underground habitats (principally caves). Movements between summer and winter colonies are mostly within a distance of 50 km (maximum 140 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005)
14126		population	eng	Locally it can be abundant. Generally, the population is fragmented, but these "fragments" may constitute robust parts of the overall population. Declines have been reported in many range states. In Spain, the population has declined by 30-50% in the last 10 years to fewer than 10,000 individuals. Only 30 colonies are known that comprise more than 20 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). At least six important colonies are threatened by the construction of buildings nearby and five colonies have disappeared over the last 10 years. In France the population has declined to very low numbers (an estimated 3,800 individuals). Colonies have been lost in the western part of the range in the last 15 years (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Colonies in central Romania known from the 1960s have disappeared, and the species is now restricted to the south. The species is almost absent in winter and probably hibernates in Bulgaria (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The Bulgarian population is estimated at c.20,000. In Croatia there are still some large colonies but these are threatened by pollution of karstic water bodies (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006), and the species is listed as Endangered in the Croatian Red Book of Mammals (Tvrtković 2006). In Turkey it has a decreasing population and is considered vulnerable; it is most often encountered in small groups, very occasionally up to several hundred individuals  (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). The species is naturally rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005) and north Africa (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). The size of colonies is smaller in the western part of the range (several hundreds of individuals in summer) than in the eastern part (up to several thousands in winter).
14126		population	eng	Locally it can be abundant. Generally, the population is fragmented, but these "fragments" may constitute robust parts of the overall population. Declines have been reported in many range states. In Spain, the population has declined by 30-50% in the last 10 years to fewer than 10,000 individuals. Only 30 colonies are known that comprise more than 20 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). At least six important colonies are threatened by the construction of buildings nearby and five colonies have disappeared over the last 10 years. In France the population has declined to very low numbers (an estimated 3,800 individuals). Colonies have been lost in the western part of the range in the last 15 years (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Colonies in central Romania known from the 1960s have disappeared, and the species is now restricted to the south. The species is almost absent in winter and probably hibernates in Bulgaria (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The Bulgarian population is estimated at c.20,000. In Croatia there are still some large colonies but these are threatened by pollution of karstic water bodies (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006), and the species is listed as Endangered in the Croatian Red Book of Mammals (Tvrtkovic 2006). In Turkey it has a decreasing population and is considered vulnerable; it is most often encountered in small groups, very occasionally up to several hundred individuals  (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). The species is naturally rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005) and north Africa (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). The size of colonies is smaller in the western part of the range (several hundreds of individuals in summer) than in the eastern part (up to several thousands in winter).
14126		threats	eng	Threats include changes in water quality through pollution and dam building, and loss of water bodies and watercourses. Damage or disturbance to caves (tourism, fires and vandalism) used as roosts may also be a problem, as the species is very dependent on caves. The species is collected for medicinal purposes in North Africa.
14126		threats	eng	Threats include changes in water quality through pollution and dam building, and loss of water bodies and watercourses. Damage or disturbance to caves used as roosts may also be a problem.
14127		conservation	eng	Protected in all European range states, and in some other parts of its global range. In Europe it is included in Annex II of the EC Council Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 1992 (EC Habitats Directive) requiring full protection and designation of Special Areas of Conservation to maintain it and its habitats. Other international treaties of relevance are the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention 1994), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention 1982) and Bern Convention Recommendation 36 (1992, Conservation of Underground Habitats). Most European range states are party to at least one of these treaties.
14127		conservation	eng	Protected in all European range states, and possibly in most of rest of range.  In Europe it is included in Annex II of the EEC Council Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 1992 (EEC Habitat Directive) requiring full protection and designation of Special Areas of Conservation to maintain it and its habitats. Other international treaties of relevance are the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention 1994), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention 1982) and Bern Convention Recommendation 36 (1992, Conservation of Underground Habitats). Most European range states are party to at least one of these treaties. Numbers in underground habitats have increased following site protection. Considerable effort has been applied to the conservation of known maternity roosts, but not always with success in view of requirements for renovation and maintenance of buildings used as roosts. Particularly in the Netherlands the use of bat detectors has more clearly demonstrated the distribution of the species and hence allowed more precise definition of foraging habitat requirements and the need for an adequate network of protected flightpaths between roosts and foraging sites. Under the Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats, the species is selected  for examination of its migratory behaviour.The Bern Convention has commissioned a Species Action Plan under its obligations to the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Current (2006) research in the Netherlands and Germany focuses on conservation requirements and migration.
14127		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis dasycneme</em> occurs from north-west Europe (north-western France and southern Scandinavia) south to Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and north Kazakhstan and east to the River Yenisey in central Russia, with a few records from China. Historic or subfossil records exist from Switzerland, Austria and the former Yugoslavia. Recorded from sea level to 1,500 m.
14127		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis dasycneme</em> occurs from north-west Europe (north-western France  and southern Scandinavia) south to Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and north Kazakhstan and east to the River Yenisey in central Russia, with few record from China. Historic or subfossil records exist from Switzerland, Austria and the former Yugoslavia. Recorded from sea level to 1,500 m.
14127		habitat	eng	This species feeds principally over open calm water, particularly canals, rivers and lakes, on small emerging and emergent insects, often taken from the water surface. It prefers water lined by open rough vegetation without trees.  Most of the known summer maternity roosts are in buildings, often in large attics and church steeples, in groups of 40-600. Some tree  and bat box roosts are recorded. It frequently hibernates in underground habitats ranging from natural caves to cellars and bunkers. It is a partial migrant, with winter and summer roosts often separated by more than 100 km (maximum recorded: 350 km, and it may need good habitat links between summer and winter roosts.
14127		habitat	eng	This species feeds principally over open calm water, particularly canals, rivers and lakes, on small emerging and emergent insects, often taken from the water surface. It prefers water lined by open rough vegetation without trees.  Most of the known summer maternity roosts are in buildings, often in large attics and church steeples, in groups of 40-600. Some tree  and bat box roosts are recorded. It frequently hibernates in underground habitats ranging from natural caves to cellars and bunkers. It is a partial migrant, with winter and summer roosts often separated by more than 100 km (maximum recorded: 350 km), and it may need good habitat links between summer and winter roosts.
14127		population	eng	It is rarely abundant, and ranks among the rarest bat species in Europe. Summer colonies usually less than 100, but can reach 500. In winter sites, usually roost singly or small groups of up to 10, few sites with more than 200 individuals (maximum 700). Although no quantitative data on population trends are available, the species is reported as seriously declining in much of Europe.
14127		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat change, including renovation and maintenance of buildings with roosts involving the use of chemicals for remedial timber treatment that are toxic to mammals. Few nursery roost sites are known and many of these have been lost, although numbers in hibernation sites have shown a slower decline in the Netherlands. Water pollution may also be a threat; the species already has a relatively restricted foraging habitat of broad, open flat water of canals, rivers and lakes with relatively open banks, with possibly some further  seasonal (summer) restriction within utilised habitat. Such restrictions in summer may be opportunistic rather than enforced, and it may be that the requirements for wider dispersal in spring, and possibly autumn, is more of a conservation problem than concentration in summer in good foraging habitat close to the roost. The requirements during migration are not known and may be a constraint (Limpens <em>et al.</em> 2000, Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001)
14127		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat change, including renovation and maintenance of buildings with roosts involving the use of chemicals for remedial timber treatment that are toxic to mammals. Few nursery roost sites are known and many of these have been lost, although numbers in hibernation sites have shown a slower decline in The Netherlands.  Water pollution may also be a threat; the species already has a relatively restricted foraging habitat of broad, open flat water of canals, rivers and lakes with relatively open banks, with possibly some further  seasonal (summer) restriction within utilised habitat. Such restrictions in summer may be opportunistic rather than enforced, and it may be that the requirements for wider dispersal in spring, and possibly autumn, is more of a conservation problem than concentration in summer in good foraging habitat close to the roost. The requirements during migration are not known and may be a constraint (Limpens <em>et al.</em> 2000, Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001)
14128		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.
14128		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.
14128		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis daubentonii</em> is distributed from Portugal, Ireland and Norway through Europe and northern Asia to the Far East (Korea and Japan). It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus.<br/><br/>In some parts of Europe it is more patchily distributed than the map suggests (e.g., Spain and Turkey). It has a patchy occurrence in Italy and is also not found throughout the Balkans, being absent from Montenegro and much of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania. It is recorded from the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia. In Japan, it is found only on Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in China it is known from the northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Nei Mongol. It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus. It is widespread throughout northern Mongolia, associated with rivers and water sources including the Bulgan River in northern Dzungarian Govi Desert. Also occurs in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe, northern Middle Halh Steppe, and northern parts of Eastern Mongolia (Stubbe and Chotolchu 1968, Dulamtseren 1970). <br/><br/>There are records from sea level to 1,400 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
14128		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis daubentonii </em>is distributed from Portugal, Ireland and Norway through Europe and northern Asia to the Far East (Korea and Japan). It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus. There are records from sea level to 1,400 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
14128		habitat	eng	It forages over natural and artificial water bodies (including fjords), sometimes in woodland or scrub. Summer roosts are in tree hollows, caves, buildings and other artificial structures (e.g. bridges, cellars) in mixed sex colonies. It winters in a wide range of underground habitats. Seasonal movements between winter and summer roosts are mostly within a distance of 100-150 km (Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005). The longest distance covered is 257 km (Tress <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em>2005).<br/><br/>Due to the distinct foraging niche this species occupies, this species is reliant on water sources. It is highly dependant on aquatic insects for food, hunting over large water bodies and taking prey from the surface waters. It feeds largely on Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera, usually foraging less than 2 meters above ground or water level.  The life span is not known in this species, but capture-mark-release experiments in the Khar Us Nuur region, recorded that the oldest individual recaptured was 4 years old. A ringing programme by the Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions from 1974 up to 2002 found that the oldest individual recaptured was 14 years of age (unpublished data).
14128		habitat	eng	It forages over natural and artificial water bodies (including fjords), sometimes in woodland or scrub. Summer roosts are in tree hollows, caves, buildings and other artificial structures (e.g. bridges, cellars) in mixed sex colonies. It winters in a wide range of underground habitats. Seasonal movements between winter and summer roosts are mostly within a distance of 100-150 km (Hutterer <i>et al. </i>2005). The longest distance covered is 257 km (Tress <i>et al.</i> 2004 in Hutterer <i>et al.</i>2005).<br><br>Due to the distinct foraging niche this species occupies, this species is reliant on water sources. It is highly dependant on aquatic insects for food, hunting over large water bodies and taking prey from the surface waters. It feeds largely on Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera, usually foraging less than 2 meters above ground or water level.  The life span is not known in this species, but capture-mark-release experiments in the Khar Us Nuur region, recorded that the oldest individual recaptured was 4 years old. A ringing programme by the Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions from 1974 up to 2002 found that the oldest individual recaptured was 14 years of age (unpublished data).
14128		habitat	eng	It forages over natural and artificial water bodies (including fjords), sometimes in woodland or scrub. Summer roosts are in trees, buildings and other artificial structures (e.g. bridges, cellars). It winters in wide range of underground habitats. Seasonal movements between winter and summer roosts are mostly within a distance of 100-150 km (Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005). The longest distance covered is 257 km (Tress <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005).
14128		population	eng	One of the most abundant bats in many parts of its range, and the only European bat species for which continuing population increase from the 1950s to present has been recorded. A very common species in central and eastern Europe and in northern Asia.
14128		population	eng	One of the most abundant bats in many parts of its range, and the only European bat species for which continuing population increase from the 1950s to present has been recorded. A very common species in central and eastern Europe including the Balkans, and in northern Asia. In Mongolia it is known to have a wide distribution and is commonly found. In Turkey it appears to be rare as there are only 4 known records (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007).
14128		threats	eng	Changes in water quality may reduce food supply, and loss of or damage and disturbance to roost sites in trees, buildings, other artificial structures, and underground habitats may cause temporary localised losses. However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this abundant and expanding species.
14128		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. Changes in water quality may reduce food supply, and loss of or damage and disturbance to roost sites in trees, buildings, other artificial structures, and underground habitats may cause temporary localised losses. However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this abundant and expanding species.
14129		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Protection of roosts and promotion of awareness about the lack of medicinal value of the species is required.
14129		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.
14129		conservation	eng	t is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br><br>Protection of roosts and promotion of awareness about the lack of medicinal value of the species is required.
14129		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis emarginatus </em>occurs in southern Europe and southern part of western and central Europe and non-arid parts of south-western Asia from Asia Minor, Caucasus region and Palestine to Oman, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; also in north-west Africa. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m, highest records in the Alps are 812 m (maternity colony) and 1,505 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).
14129		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis emarginatus </em>occurs in southern Europe from Portugal in the west to the Balkans in the east and southern part of western and central Europe and non-arid parts of south-western Asia from Asia Minor, Caucasus region and Palestine to Oman, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; also in north-west Africa (recorded from northern Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia)). In the eastern part of the Mediterranean it occurs in various parts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m, highest records in the Alps are 812 m (maternity colony) and 1,505 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).
14129		habitat	eng	It forages over scrub and grassland. Diet unique in Europe as it mainly feeds on spiders and flies. In summer, it roosts in underground habitats and, in central Europe, in buildings (in loft spaces). Sometimes roosts in summer with <em>Rhinolophus</em> species. It winters in underground sites. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species occurs in a variety of habitats, but in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Mainly a sedentary species, but movements of up to 105 km have been recorded (Schunger <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005)
14129		habitat	eng	It forages over scrub and grassland. It has an unusual diet in that it feeds mainly on spiders and flies. In summer, it roosts in underground habitats and in buildings (in attics). Generally roosts in summer with <em>Rhinolophus</em> species. It winters in underground sites. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species occurs in a variety of habitats, but in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Reportedly a sedentary species with movements of up to 105 km recorded (Schunger <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005), but may in fact move longer distances as winter roosts are not known in parts of its range where it occurs in summer.
14129		population	eng	Locally it can be rare or common. The species experienced a significant decline from the 1960s to the 1990s, but in recent time the numbers in several regions have increased and the species has spread into new areas. It lives in large colonies (up to 1,200 individuals in Austria in one maternity colony).
14129		population	eng	Locally it can be rare or common. The species experienced a significant decline from the 1960s to the 1990s, but more recently the numbers in several regions have increased and the species has spread into new areas. It lives in large colonies (up to 1,200 individuals in Austria in one maternity colony). It is included in the Red List of the Russian Federation as Vulnerable, on the basis of a past population decline of 30% or more inferred from a reduction in range. The species is of marginal occurrence in the Russian Federation.
14129		threats	eng	In Europe the species is mainly associated with agricultural landscapes, therefore all agricultural activities can affect populations of this species. Loss of and disturbance to roost sites in buildings and underground sites are also threats.
14129		threats	eng	In Europe the species is mainly associated with agricultural landscapes, therefore all agricultural activities can affect populations of this species. Loss of and disturbance to roost sites in buildings (including remedial timber treatment in attics) and underground sites are also threats. In the African part of the range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. The species is also collected for traditional medicine practices in North Africa.
14132		conservation	eng	Cave protection efforts have led to recent population increases. By 1991, the rangewide population was stable and perhaps growing, apparently due to successful cave protection efforts. Since 1981, the maternity colony population in Oklahoma has increased from 56,000 to almost 150,000 (Hensley 2003).<br/><br/>The recovery plan criteria for change from endangered status to threatened status is documentation of permanent protection of 90% of Priority 1 hibernacula and documentation of stable or increasing populations at 75% of Priority 1 maternity caves during a period of five years; recent studies indicate that these criteria have been met (Harvey and Currie 2002).<br/><br/>The Tennessee Valley Authority sponsored a recovery project that resulted in the protection of two critical maternity sites: the Hambrick and Nickajack caves in Tennessee. Blowing Wind Cave in northern Alabama, the most important summer cave known for gray bats, has been acquired by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and a gate has been placed across the entrance. Fern Cave, the largest known gray bat hibernaculum, has also been purchased by the Fish and Wildlife Service and is being managed for protection of the bats. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also has acquired and protects additional caves in Alabama. To protect habitat, The Nature Conservancy has established six voluntary protection agreements with private landowners for gray bat maternity sites. The National Park Service restricts human access to six gray bat maternity caves on its lands and monitors them for possible disturbance. The Indiana Bat and Gray Bat Comprehensive Plan contains a detailed list of caves that have been protected or are currently being managed.<br/><br/>Identify all caves used for different stages of the life history. Occupied caves should be protected from human disturbance. <br/><br/>A buffer of undisturbed vegetation should be left around the entrances of caves inhabited by gray bats; wooded travel corridors between roosting and foraging sites should be protected; the use of herbicides and pesticides in areas adjacent to foraging and roost sites should be carefully controlled and monitored for unanticipated adverse effects (Alabama Forestry Commission).
14132		distribution	eng	The range extends from southeastern Kansas and central Oklahoma east to western Virginia and western North Carolina, and from Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana south to southern Alabama and northwestern Florida (Decher and Choate 1995); occurs primarily in the cave region of Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Summer and winter ranges are essentially the same.
14132		habitat	eng	About 95% of entire known population hibernates in eight or nine caves, over half in one cave. Roost sites are nearly exclusively restricted to caves throughout the year (Hall and Wilson 1966, Barbour and Davis 1969, Tuttle 1976), though only a few percent of available caves are suitable (Tuttle 1979). Winter roosts are in deep vertical caves with domed halls. Large summer colonies utilize caves that trap warm air and provide restricted rooms or domed ceilings; maternity caves often have a stream flowing through them and are separate from the caves used in summer by males. Occasionally non-cave roost sites are used. Hays and Bingman (1964) reported a colony in a storm sewer in Pittsburg, Kansas and, in 1988, a maternity colony was discovered using a storm sewer in Kansas (Decher and Choate 1988). Harvey and McDaniel (1988) located a maternity colony in a storm sewer in downtown Newark, Independence County, Arkansas. There are occasional reports of mines (Sealander 1979, Thom 1981, Brack <em>et al.</em> 1984, Harvey and McDaniel 1988) and buildings (Gunier and Elder 1971) being used as roost sites. Winter caves are deep and vertical and provide a large volume of air below the lowest entrance that acts as a cold air trap (Tuttle 1976). Cold air flows in and is trapped during successive winters, providing mean annual temperatures 6 degrees C or more below the above-ground mean annual temperature (Tuttle 1978). Winter cave temperatures range from 6 to 11 degrees C (Tuttle 1979). In the summer, maternity colonies prefer caves that act as warm air traps or that provide restricted rooms or domed ceilings that are capable of trapping the combined body heat from thousands of clustered individuals (Tuttle 1975, Tuttle and Stevenson 1977). Cave temperatures range from 14 to 24 C. Undisturbed summer colonies may contain up to 250,000 bats, and average 10,000 to 25,000 (Tuttle 1979). Summer caves are nearly always located within 1 km of a river or reservoir over which the bats forage (Tuttle 1979). Tuttle (1979) showed that forested areas along the banks of streams and lakes provide important protection for adults and young. Young often feed and take shelter in forest areas near the entrance to cave roosts (Tuttle 1979). Do not feed in areas along rivers or reservoirs where the forest has been cleared (LaVal <em>et al</em>. 1977; Tuttle and Stevenson, in prep.). <br/><br/>Yearlings and adult males segregate into nomadic summer colonies that tend to roost in caves within a few kilometers of ones selected by adult females (Layne 1978).
14132		population	eng	Total population was estimated at 1.5 million in the early 1980s. About 10,000 are thought to occur in Florida in summer, a few hundred in winter (Humphrey 1992). Five gated maternity caves in Oklahoma each include 10,000 or 20,000 bats (Hensley 2003). Since listing, several critical hibernation caves have been gated, leading to stable and growing population in many areas.
14132		threats	eng	Abundance declined by at least 50% from the 1960s to the early 1980s (Brady <em>et al.</em> 1982). The number of occupied caves has substantially decreased. In Missouri, 26 of 66 caves used historically by this species and surveyed in 1994 showed no evidence of recent use. See Layne 1978 for information on decline in Florida.<br/><br/> Cave disturbance has been the major factor in the decline. Cave protection efforts have greatly reduced this threat.<br/><br/>Although there are apparently few current threats, the use of forestry insecticides and crop pesticides in areas adjacent to riparian corridors where gray bats forage may reduce the prey base or kill bats that ingest contaminated insects (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center). Some maternity and hibernating colonies are susceptible to human disturbance (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center). <br/><br/>Decline began with cave disturbance associated with saltpeter production during the Civil War. Some of the largest colonies were lost as a result of cave commercialization. Some caves were improperly gated.<br/><br/>The species is especially vulnerable due to its high fidelity to particular favoured caves, and it is very sensitive to disturbance, including the mere presence of humans with lights; disturbance may result in bats moving to less favourable roosting places. <br/><br/>Other threats include pesticides, deforestation, and impoundment of waterways (and subsequent cave inundation).
14133		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation in most range states. Also international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000.
14133		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation in most range states. Also international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range countries where those apply. Included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br><br>In Spain it is recommended that not only should the roosts be protected but also the surrounding countryside - a 20 km zone around the most important colonies should be maintained under traditional agricultural practices.<br><br>Research is required into the use of anti-parasitic drugs on livestock and their effect on dung beetles and other invertebrate fauna attracted to dung, as this bat species feeds on these invertebrates.
14133		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation in most range states. Also international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range countries where those apply. Included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>In Spain it is recommended that not only should the roosts be protected but also the surrounding countryside - a 20 km zone around the most important colonies should be maintained under traditional agricultural practices.<br/><br/>Research is required into the use of anti-parasitic drugs on livestock and their effect on dung beetles and other invertebrate fauna attracted to dung, as this bat species feeds on these invertebrates.
14133		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis myotis</em> is a western Palaearctic species; it occurs in western, central and southern Europe (with individual records from southern England and southern Sweden) and in Asia Minor and in the Levant.
14133		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis myotis </em>is a western Palaearctic species; it occurs in western, central and southern Europe (with individual records from southern England and southern Sweden) and in Asia Minor and in the Levant.
14133		habitat	eng	It forages over woodland edge, open woodland and pasture. It preys on large insects, mainly beetles and crickets, gleaned from the ground, also feeds on spiders. It roosts in underground sites all year in much of range, and in buildings (loft-spaces) in summer in northern parts. Occasionally it forms small colonies in trees. It is an occasional migrant; the longest recorded movement is 436 km (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2004).
14133		habitat	eng	It forages over woodland edge, open woodland and pasture. It preys on large insects, mainly beetles and crickets, gleaned from the ground, also feeds on spiders. It roosts in underground sites all year in much of range, and in buildings (loft-spaces) in summer in northern parts. Occasionally it forms small colonies in trees. It is an occasional migrant; the longest recorded movement is 436 km (Simon <i>et al.</i> 2004).
14133		habitat	eng	It forages over woodland edge, scrub, and pasture. It preys on large insects, mainly flightless beetles, gleaned from the ground. It roosts in underground sites all year in much of range, and in buildings (loft-spaces) in summer in northern parts. Occasionally it forms small colonies in trees. It is an occasional migrant; the longest recorded movement is 436 km (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2004).
14133		population	eng	A common species in most of its distributional range, populations of several regions are fluctuating in numbers. During the 1980s and 1990s in central Europe there were increases in numbers following major declines in earlier decades. It forms large nursery colonies (tens to thousands of individuals) in caves, in central Europe also in loft spaces. In Austria the population was estimated to be 76,000 individuals in 1999 and is still increasing (Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In France 37,000 individuals were recorded in summer 1995 (Roué and Groupe Chiroptères 1997); trend data are not available. A small population went extinct in Britain in 1990 (A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006)
14133		population	eng	A common species in most of its distributional range, populations of several regions are fluctuating in numbers. During the 1980s and 1990s in central Europe there were increases in numbers following major declines in earlier decades. It forms large nursery colonies (tens to thousands of individuals) in caves, in central Europe also in loft spaces. In Austria the population was estimated to be 76,000 individuals in 1999 and is still increasing (Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In France 37,000 individuals were recorded in summer 1995 (Roue and Groupe Chiropteres 1997); trend data are not available. A small population went extinct in Britain in 1990 (A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). In the Balkans and in Turkey it is stable.
14133		threats	eng	In Europe, it is a typical species of agricultural mosaic landscapes, therefore agricultural activities (e.g., pesticide use, intensification that leads to loss of scrubby patches, hedgerows, and small woods) can affect populations of this species. Loss of or damage to roost sites in underground habitats and buildings is a major problem in places.
14133		threats	eng	In Europe, it is a typical species of agricultural mosaic landscapes, therefore agricultural activities (e.g. pesticide use, intensification that leads to loss of scrubby patches, hedgerows, and small woods) can affect populations of this species. Loss of or damage to roost sites in underground habitats and buildings may also be a threat. However these are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.
14134		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Protection of cave roost sites is required.
14134		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.
14134		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis mystacinus </em>is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in western and central Europe, southern parts of Scandinavia, the British Isles, Morocco, northern parts of eastern Europe, western parts of the Caucasus and the Urals. The occurrence in south-east Europe is questionable but likely. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,920 m (Gerell 1999).
14134		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis mystacinus </em>is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in western and central Europe, southern parts of Scandinavia, the British Isles, Morocco, northern parts of eastern Europe, western parts of the Caucasus and the Urals. The occurrence in south-east Europe is questionable but likely. It is marginal in Africa, restricted to Moroccan mountains from the Rif in the north to the southern slope of High Atlas in the south. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,920 m asl (Gerell 1999).
14134		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, woodland edge and shrubland. Summer maternity roosts are typically sited in trees, buildings, and bird and bat boxes. It hibernates in small groups in underground sites (caves, mines, and cellars). It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 240 km recorded (Gerell 1999).  Movements of up to 625 km have been described, although the longest distance covered by a bat with certain species identification is 165 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14134		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, woodland edge, shrubland, open meadows, steppe and semi-desert habitats and wooded landscape near to water sources, but is generally more a house-dwelling than woodland bat, and is commonly sighted in parks, gardens and villages. They nest in colonies, living in trees, amongst rocks, and in livestock pens, and are also known to nest in caves, living there year round, and moving further back into the cave to hibernate during winter (Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Summer maternity roosts are typically sited in trees, buildings, and bird and bat boxes. It hibernates in small groups in underground sites (caves, mines, and cellars). It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 240 km recorded (Gerell 1999).  Movements of up to 625 km have been described, although the longest distance covered by a bat with certain species identification is 165 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a nocturnal species emerging to hunt at sunset, but has occasionally been sighted hunting during daylight hours. It hunts exclusively near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic flying insects, such as mosquitoes. Young are born in June/July.
14134		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, woodland edge, shrubland, open meadows, steppe and semi-desert habitats and wooded landscape near to water sources, but is generally more a house-dwelling than woodland bat, and is commonly sighted in parks, gardens and villages. They nest in colonies, living in trees, amongst rocks, and in livestock pens, and are also known to nest in caves, living there year round, and moving further back into the cave to hibernate during winter (Dulamtseren <i>et al.</i>, 1989). Summer maternity roosts are typically sited in trees, buildings, and bird and bat boxes. It hibernates in small groups in underground sites (caves, mines, and cellars). It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 240 km recorded (Gerell 1999).  Movements of up to 625 km have been described, although the longest distance covered by a bat with certain species identification is 165 km (Gaisler <i>et al.</i> 2003 in Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005). It is a nocturnal species emerging to hunt at sunset, but has occasionally been sighted hunting during daylight hours. It hunts exclusively near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic flying insects, such as mosquitoes. Young are born in June/July.
14134		population	eng	In Europe it is one of the more common species within the regular distribution area. It is very rare in North Africa, with only 25 specimens in 4 locations.
14134		population	eng	One of the more common species within the regular distribution area.
14134		threats	eng	Although not major threats, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other aspects of land management and development. It is also affected by loss of and damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats.
14134		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. Although not major threats, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other aspects of land management and development. It is also affected by loss of and damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats. In the African part of the species' range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. Species are also collected for medicine, but not at a level that constitutes a threat to the species.
14135		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br><br>Protection of cave roost sites is required.
14135		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Protection of cave roost sites is required.
14135		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.
14135		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis nattereri</em> is a western Palaearctic species. It is widespread in Europe, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia, eastern Ukraine and much of Russia. Also found in Morocco, western and south-western Asia Minor, Levant, Caucasus region (including northern Iraq), Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenia and Iran, northern Kazakhstan. Its altitudinal range is sea level to 2,000 m.
14135		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis nattereri</em> is a western Palaearctic species. It occurs in north-west Africa (coastal zone of Morocco and Algeria, extending inwards to western Atlas from sea level to 1200 m asl), and Europe from Portugal eastwards through the northern Mediterranean, and Ireland, southern Sweden and Finland into western Russia, Ukraine (including Crimea). Western and south-western Asia Minor, Levant, the Caucasus region (including northern Iraq), the Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenia and Iran, northern Kazakhstan. Its altitudinal range is sea level to 2,000 m.
14135		habitat	eng	It forages in woodland (including Mediterranean pine and oak forest: Amr 2000), shrubland and parkland, sometimes over water, pasture, and road verges. It occurs in humid areas, and in dry areas it is dependant on water bodies. Summer roosts are in hollow trees, buildings and occasionally underground sites. It hibernates in underground habitats (caves, cellars and mines). It is a sedentary species, movements between summer, autumn and winter roosts are up to 120 km (Masing <em>et al.</em> 1999 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14135		habitat	eng	It forages in woodland (including Mediterranean pine and oak forest: Amr 2000), shrubland and parkland, sometimes over water, pasture, and road verges. It occurs in humid areas, and in dry areas it is dependant on water bodies. Summer roosts are in hollow trees, buildings and occasionally underground sites. It hibernates in underground habitats (caves, cellars and mines). It is a sedentary species, movements between summer, autumn and winter roosts are up to 120 km (Masing <i>et al.</i> 1999 in Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005).
14135		population	eng	In Europe it is widespread but everywhere rare (Topál 2001). Colonies can reach 250-300 individuals in Jordan (Z. Amr 2000).
14135		population	eng	In Europe it is widespread but never in large numbers. Colonies can reach 250-300 individuals in Jordan (Z. Amr 2000). In North Africa there are very few records, so populations are presumably small.
14135		threats	eng	No major threats. However, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other changes in land management and development. Loss of or damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the African part of the range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. The species is collected for traditional medicinal purposes in North Africa.
14135		threats	eng	The species is affected by loss of woodland and other changes in land management and development. Loss of or damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem.
14136		conservation	eng	The most important hibernacula are protected, as are many hibernation sites that support fewer numbers of <em>M. sodalis</em>. Maternity roosts generally are not permanent and are not suitable for long-term protection. Summer roosts need to be identified. Hibernacula should be adequately protected from human disturbance. Known maternity roosts should be protected; compatible forest management is most important for ensuring long-term availability of suitable summer habitat (see management information).
14136		distribution	eng	The range extends west to the western Ozark region in eastern Oklahoma (Saugey <em>et al.</em> 1990) and Iowa (Clark <em>et al</em>. 1987), north and east to Michigan (Evers 1992, Kurta and Teramino 1994, Kurta 1995), New York, New England, and northern New Jersey, and south to northern Alabama and Arkansas, with accidental/non regular occurrences outside this range. The species has disappeared from or greatly declined in most of its former range in the northeastern United States (e.g., Trombulak <em>et al</em>. 2001). A disjunct population once existed in northwestern Florida, though old Florida records may represent accidental occurrences. <br/><br/>Most known maternity sites have been located in forested tracts in agriculturally dominated landscapes (e.g., Missouri, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999), but maternity colonies also exist to the south in heavily forested regions to at least eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina (Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2003). In summer these bats are apparently absent south of Tennessee. There is a July 1993 record for South Carolina (South Carolina Heritage Trust), but this record may lack adequate documentation; Menzel <em>et al</em>. (2003) did not report any records for the state.<br/><br/>Northern populations migrate south to Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, and West Virginia for winter. In winter, they are apparently absent from Michigan, Ohio, and northern Indiana where suitable caves and mines are unknown. The most important hibernating caves are: Bat Wing and Twin Domes caves (Indiana); Bat, Hundred Dome, and Dixon caves (Kentucky); and Bat Cave, Great Scott Cave, and Pilot Knob Mine (Missouri); Pilot Knob Mine is the largest colony (Lowe 1990). Half of the total population hibernates in southern Indiana.
14136		habitat	eng	This species is represented by many maternity occurrences and hibernacula, but the majority of the population hibernates at relatively few sites, including several caves and one mine in Missouri, southern Indiana, and Kentucky (Brady <em>et al.</em> 1983, USFWS 1999). About 85% of the total population hibernates in nine Priority 1 caves, which contain at least 30,000 bats; the remaining 15 percent of the population have been or currently are distributed among 50+ Priority II and III hibernacula (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001). About ninety wintering sites are known.<br/><br/>Maternity colonies consist of small, widely scattered colonies of females (rarely more than 100) and their young. These are more widely distributed and numerous than are major hibernacula. For example, individuals from one hibernaculum in New York used many roost trees (Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2006). Captures of reproductively active females or juveniles at 24 sites in 16 counties in Illinois indicate that maternity colonies of this species occur throughout the range of this species in that state (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1996). Maternity sites have been found in 13 counties in Kentucky (Kentucky Bat Working Group; http://www.biology.eku.edu/bats/indianabat.htm).<br/><br/><em>Myotis sodalis</em> hibernates in caves; maternity sites generally are behind loose bark of dead or dying trees or in tree cavities (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001). Foraging habitats riparian areas, upland forests, ponds, and fields (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001), but forested landscapes are the most important habitat in agricultural landscapes (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In hibernation, limestone caves with pools are preferred. Hall (1962) noted that preferred caves are of medium size with large, shallow passageways. Roosts usually are in the coldest part of the cave. Preferred sites have a mean midwinter air temperature of 4-8 C (tolerates much broader range) (Hall 1962, Henshaw and Folk 1966), well below that of caves that are not chosen (Clawson <em>et al</em>. 1980). Roost sites within caves may shift such that bats remain in the coldest area (Clawson <em>et al</em>. 1980); individuals may move from a location deeper in the cave to a site nearer the entrance as the cold season progresses; they may move away from areas that go below freezing. Hibernation in the coldest parts of the cave ensures a sufficiently low metabolic rate so that the fat reserves last through the six-month hibernation period (Henshaw and Folk 1966, Humphrey 1978). Relative humidity in occupied caves ranges from 66 to 95% and averages 87% throughout the year (Barbour and Davis 1969, Clawson <em>et al</em>. 1980). Because of these requirements, <em>M. sodalis</em> is highly selective of hibernacula. <br/><br/>During the fall, when these bats swarm and mate at their hibernacula, males roost in trees nearby during the day and fly to the cave during the night. In Kentucky, Kiser and Elliott (1996) found males roosting primarily in dead trees on upper slopes and ridgetops within 2.4 km of their hibernaculum. During September in West Virginia, males roosted within 5.6 km in trees near ridgetops, and often switched roost trees from day to day (C. Stihler, West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, pers. observ., October 1996, cited in USFWS 1999). Fall roost trees tend to be in sunnier areas rather than being shaded (J. MacGregor, pers. observ., October 1996, cited in USFWS 1999). In summer, habitat consists of wooded or semiwooded areas, often but not always along streams. Solitary females or small maternity colonies bear their offspring in hollow trees or under loose bark of living or dead trees (Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992). Humphrey <em>et al</em>. (1977) determined that dead trees are preferred roost sites and that trees standing in sunny openings are attractive because the air spaces and crevices under the bark are warmer. In Illinois, Garner and Gardner (1992) found that typical roosts were beneath the exfoliating bark of dead trees; other roost sites were beneath the bark of living trees and in cavities of dead trees. Kurta <em>et al</em>. (1993) found a large maternity colony in a dead, hollow, barkless, unshaded sycamore tree in a pasture in Illinois. In Michigan, a reproductively active colony occupied eight different roost trees (all green ash), all of which were exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day; bats roosted beneath loose bark of dead trees (Kurta <em>et al</em>. 1993). In western Virginia, a male used a mature, live, shagbark hickry tree as a diurnal roost; the bat foraged primarily among tree canopies of an 80-year-old oak-hickory forest (Hobson and Holland 1995). In Missouri, primary maternity roosts were in standing dead trees exposed to direct sunlight; there were 1-3 primary roosts per colony; alternate roosts were in living and dead trees that typically were within the shaded forest interior (Callahan <em>et al</em>. 1997). See Garner and Garner (1992) for detailed information on summer habitat in Illinois. Though maternity sites have been reported as occurring mainly in riparian and floodplain forests (Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992), recent studies indicate that upland habitats are used by maternity colonies much more extensively than previously reported. Garner and Gardner (1992) reported that 38 of 51 roost trees in Illinois occurred in uplands and 13 trees were in floodplains. Of the 47 trees in forested habitat, 27 were in areas having a closed (80-100%) canopy, and 15 were in areas having an intermediate (30-80%) canopy. A single roost tree was found in the following types of habitat: a heavily grazed ridgetop pasture with a few scattered dead trees, a partially wooded swine feedlot, a palustrine wetland with emergent vegetation, a forested island in the Mississippi river, and a clearcut around a segment of an intermittent stream where dead trees were retained for wildlife. Roosts were not found in forests with open canopies (10-30%) or in old fields with less than or equal to 10% canopy cover. In eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina, several maternity colonies were in sun-exposed conifer snags (roost sites were above the surrounding canopy); some of these snags fell and were not used in subsequent years (Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2003). Rarely maternity colonies have been found in crevices in utility poles or in bat boxes (e.g., Ritzi <em>et al</em>. 2005). See Menzel <em>et al</em>. (2001) for a review of forest habitat relationships. Known roost tree species include elm, oak, beech, hickory, maple, ash, sassafras, birch, sycamore, locust, aspen, cottonwood, pine, and hemlock (Cope <em>et al</em>. 1974, Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992, Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2003, Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2006), especially trees with exfoliating bark.<br/><br/>In Illinois, Indiana bats used the same, evidently traditional, roost sites in successive summers. Recapture of the same individuals within traditional roost sites during subsequent summers suggests site fidelity (Garner and Gardner 1992, Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1996). Relatively few individuals roost in caves at the mouths of which late summer swarming occurs (Cope and Humphrey 1977, Barbour and Davis 1969).
14136		population	eng	Total known population at major hibernacula was about 883,720 in 1960/1970, 679,170 around 1980, 473,970 around 1990, and 387,300 in 2003 (Clawson 2004). Census data from 1995-1997 indicate an abundance decline of about 60 percent since population surveys began in the 1960s; the most severe declines have occurred in Kentucky and Missouri, where the decline totals 430,000 individuals over the past few decades (Federal Register, 9 April 1999). In Indiana, bat numbers in 2001 appeared to be stable to slightly increasing. In Kentucky, their numbers appeared to be declining, but not so rapidly as in Missouri, where between 1975 and 1995, the number of Indiana bats at major hibernating sites declined from more than 120,000 to nearly 20,000 (USFWS 2001).<br/>Since 195O, the major winter colonies in caves in West Virginia, Indiana, and Illinois have disappeared. Wintering populations in Vermont have declined dramatically since the 1930s (Trombulak <em>et al.</em> 2001). The overall population at major roosts declined about 56% between 1960/1970 and 2003 (Clawson 2004). Hibernating populations in the southern part of the range have declined by 82% in the past 40 years, while those in the northern Midwest and Northeast have increased by 35% (Clawson 2004).
14136		threats	eng	A significant threat is human disturbance at winter caves, which causes aroused bats to deplete energy reserves (Mohr 1972, Engel <em>et al.</em> 1976). Handling of hibernating bats by researchers may result in the bats moving to the use of less suitable hibernacula, causing additional loss of fat reserves (Jones 1971 in Engel <em>et al</em>. 1976). In southern Indiana, Johnson <em>et al</em>. (1998) found that populations subject to high human visitation experienced increased weight loss in winter, but populations in each of two disturbed hibernacula increased in abundance, suggesting that "<em>M. sodalis</em> is affected by limiting factors other than, or in addition to, human visitation in winter." Vandalism and indiscriminate killing have been a problem at some caves. Commercialization of caves may result in excessive disturbance (Mohr 1972) or intentional elimination by cave owners (Hall 1962). Other threats include exclusion of bats by poorly designed gates (as formerly at Long's Cave in Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky), changes in cave temperatures induced by opening additional entrances (Matthews and Moseley 1990) or poorly designed barriers to human access (Richter <em>et al</em>. 1993). Improperly constructed gates can alter the air flow, trap debris, and block the entrance by not allowing enough flight space (Brady <em>et al</em>. 1982). Altered exchange of air with the outside environment can cause significant changes in cave temperature and humidity (Currie pers. comm., 1992) and may cause the bats to abandon the cave. Improperly constructed gates may also subject the bats to severe predation as they attempt to pass through the gates (Tuttle 1977). Despite protection at overwintering sites, populations continue to decrease in several portions of their range, suggesting that the species is being negatively affected by disturbance or loss of summer habitat. Loss and degradation of summer habitat and roost sites due to impoundment, stream channelization, housing development, clearcutting for agricultural use (Herkert 1992), or incompatible forest management practices that result in a shortage of the microhabitats used for maternity roosts may be the primary factors in recent population declines (Gardner pers. comm., 1992; Refsnider pers. comm., 1992; Currie pers. comm., 1992; see also Sparks <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14138		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. It is a poorly known species and further studies into its taxonomy, distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats are needed.
14138		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, the island of Borneo, the Indonesian islands of Java, Sulawesi, Mendanau, Kangean, Flores, the Togian Islands and Karakelong (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995) and Taiwan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are doubtful records of this species by Huynh <em>et al</em>. (1994) from Sa Pa and Hanoi in Viet Nam (Bates <em>et al</em>. 1999). Records of a <em>Myotis</em> species from New South Wales, Australia have been allocated to <em>M. adversus</em> but refer to <em>M. macropus</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.). The Vanuatu record is of unclear taxonomic affinity (T. Reardon pers. comm.), but is included here pending resolution of its taxonomic status.
14138		habitat	eng	It is presumed to have similar ecological requirements to <em>M. moluccarum</em> in that it is a lowland species associated with streams, lakes and other waterbodies from which it captures fish, frogs and other prey. It presumably roosts in small colonies in caves, man made tunnels and other subterranean habitats.<br/>In Taiwan this species occurs mainly at low to middle elevations, and is known to roost in caves and tunnels (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Extralimitally, they are known to feed over water, where they catch insects.
14138		population	eng	This species is not uncommon throughout its range.
14138		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be major threats affecting the species throughout its range. Deforestation due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is probably affecting some populations.
14139		conservation	eng	Research actions.
14139		distribution	eng	Known for two localities in Southwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
14139		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
14139		population	eng	There is no information on population (Barquez pers. comm.)
14139		threats	eng	Not known.
14140		conservation	eng	The species needs taxonomic review (Braquez pers. comm.). It is found in protected areas.<br/>In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14140		distribution	eng	Southern Veracruz (Mexico), Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, Equador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia (Simmons 2005).
14140		habitat	eng	Found in forests, urban habitats, and parks. Insectivorous.
14140		population	eng	Abundant through out its range. Not common in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14140		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
14141		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.
14141		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeast China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Fujian, Anhui and Guizhou provinces), extending to Thailand (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). The only location in Thailand is around 1,000 m asl
14141		habitat	eng	All of the known specimens of <em>M. altarium</em> have been collected from caves. Other than this roosting habitat, nothing is known of the natural history of this species.
14141		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
14141		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
14142		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place, and this species is not recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological and populations studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species has been recorded from protected areas in Cambodia and Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).
14142		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern South Asia, into southern China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Nagaland and West Bengal) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002); it has been recorded from around 1,100 m asl. In China it is known only from a single record from Yunnan (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from northern Thailand (Corbet and Hill 1992), probably through much of Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al.</em> 1999) and in southern Cambodia (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is unclear if this species is present in Viet Nam.
14142		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in montane forests and valleys (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from wet evergreen forest. In Viet Nam, one specimen has been taken in second growth along a river valley (Smith and Xie 2008).
14142		population	eng	In South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia it is widespread but uncommon to moderately common.
14142		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14143		conservation	eng	Protect the sites.
14143		distribution	eng	Southern Peru and Northern Chile (Simmons 2005).
14143		habitat	eng	Probably lives in rock crevices in Chile. This species hibernate.
14143		population	eng	There is no information on population.
14143		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
14144		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and possible threats to this species.
14144		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis ater</em> is known from a number of locations over a wide range from Southeast Asia to the Moluccas. The species, however, is difficult to identify externally, and some former records are no longer valid, while others need to be checked. Limits of the species’ distribution would greatly benefit from genetic work and the development of echolocation keys for <em>Myotis</em> in the region.<br/><br/><em>M. ater</em> is easily confused with <em>M. muricola</em>, and has at times been considered to be part of it (Koopman and Gordon 1992; Koopman 1993), but is treated here as distinct following Simmons (2005). Francis and Hill (1998) reviewed specimens from Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia and determined that the two likely occur sympatrically in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sulawesi. However, they did not make direct comparisons with material from Sulawesi, and they expressed some reservations about the identity of <em>M. ater</em> in Peninsular Malaysia (Francis and Hill 1998). <br/><br/>The only confirmed site for Borneo appears to be Mount Kinabalu and records elsewhere reported in Hill and Francis (1984) and Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) are either <em>M. muricola</em> or <em>M. gomantongensis</em> (Francis and Hill 1998). For this reason we conservatively map only this site on the island despite the fact that the species might actually be common throughout the island like <em>M. muricola</em> (Francis and Hill 1998), and because <em>M. ater</em> has not been recorded in recent surveys (Struebig <em>et al.</em> 2006; Suyanto and Struebig 2007). We map the species on Sulawesi, and elsewhere in the Wallacea (e.g., Ambon, Halmahera, Buru, and Seram) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995). Reports of the species inhabiting Papua New Guinea and Australia represent either <em>M. moluccarum</em> or <em>M. adversus</em> (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/><br/>The species is often said to occur in Sumatra, but there is no reliable information for it on this island. We map <em>M. ater</em> in Siberut off Sumatra, following Corbet and Hill (1992) pending further investigation. <br/><br/>Specimens previously reported to <em>M. muricola</em> from Culion Island, near Palawan and Camarines, Luzon, Philippines are <em>M. ater</em>. Another bat collected in Bukidnon, Mindanao, Philippines might also represent <em>M. ater</em> (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Subsequent records from Peninsular Malaysia confirm its presence (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003). There are no records of <em>M. ater</em> from Singapore (Pottie <em>et al.</em> 2005; Lane <em>et al.</em> 2006), but it is thought to have historically occurred here, based on its distribution in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia (Lane <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>The northernmost records of the species are from Viet Nam (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). A series of surveys of protected areas from 1997-2000 found <em>M. ater</em> in four of six of areas; the two where it was not found were the two sites that were surveyed most quickly (i.e., Huu Lien N.R. and Kon Cha Rang N.R.; Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>The only genetic study of <em>M. ater</em> in relation to other members of its genus used material from Huai Kha Khang Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand (Bickham <em>et al.</em> 1986). More work is needed to determine the extent of its occurrence in that country (for an overview of bat species distribution in Thailand see, Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em> 2006). Oddly, there have been several subsequent genetic studies of <em>Myotis</em> in the region, but none include <em>M. ater</em> (e.g., Ruedi and Mayer 2001; Bickham <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>With the species occurring in Viet Nam and Thailand it would not be surprising if it also was found in intervening Lao PDR. Although the species has not been recorded from here, Francis <em>et al.</em> (1999) report one specimen that could be <em>M. ater</em>.
14144		habitat	eng	Flannery (1995) reports that he observed the species appearing to emerge from village houses, and foraging along flyways within the village on the island of Sanana, Indonesia. It has been captured near fast flowing streams, agricultural areas, and secondary forest in Viet Nam (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is insectivorous.
14144		population	eng	The abundance, population size, and trends for this species are not known. The species is likely to be common in Viet Nam, but further investigation is needed (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999).
14144		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The fact that the species has been recorded in secondary forest, agricultural land, and near villages make it likely that the species is tolerant of human disturbance.
14145		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14145		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Arizona and New Mexico (USA) to Jalisco and Veracruz (Mexico); Guatemala (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,200 m (Reid, 1997).
14145		habitat	eng	This species has been taken in wet pine-oak forest; also in a variety of habitats including desert scrub, dry forest, and ponderosa pines (Reid, 1997). Day roosts have been reported; night roosts include buildings, mines, and caves (Barbour and Davis, 1969). Activity usually begins 1 to 2 hours after sunset, later than most myotis bats. The food consists mainly of moths gleaned from tree trunks or walls of buildings. In Arizona, single young are born in late June or July (Warner, 1982; Reid, 1997).
14145		population	eng	It is rare in Guatemala (known from one specimen); more common farther north in other places (Reid, 1997); in USA, it is common in appropriate habitat (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
14145		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
14146		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance of this species.
14146		distribution	eng	The type specimen of <em>M. australis</em> was collected in the nineteenth century from New South Wales, Australia, but may refer to a vagrant individual of <em>M. muricola</em>. A specimen from north-western Western Australia could also belong in this species (Koopman 1984).
14146		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not known.
14146		population	eng	It is known only with certainty from the type specimen.
14146		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
14147		conservation	eng	There are several protected occurrences in Florida; also Bat Cave in Kentucky. Several caves in Jackson County, Florida, are protected due to use by endangered <em>M. grisescens</em>. The species is afforded nominal protection via Florida's Cave Protection Act. Bat Conservation International, TNC, and the state of Florida were instrumental in protecting Judge's Cave; a few other maternity caves on private land in Florida have various levels of protection (Gore and Hovis 1992). South Carolina has used posting and controlled access to roost sites to protect this species (Bunch pers. comm.). One occurrence in Indiana is in a state park and is protected. In Texas, two maternity roosts are in state parks and one is in a national wildlife refuge, and populations are known to exist in other state parks and wildlife management areas, national forests, Big Thicket National Preserve, and Nature Conservancy lands. Determine status and trend in South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Protect roosting sites of all large (> 100) colonies, both breeding and wintering. Protect frequently used foraging habitat in their natural forested state. Obtain more information about summer and winter roosting requirements. Determine viability and importance of small maternity colonies. Develop techniques for monitoring with minimum disturbance. Determine effects of disturbance on survival and reproductive success. Determine dispersal distances and roosting sites for bats when away from the large cave colony sites. Determine importance of hollow trees and other non-cave sites as maternity roosts.
14147		distribution	eng	The range of this bat includes the southeastern United States, west to southeastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas (Mirowsky <em>et al.</em> 2004, Schmidly 2004), north in the Mississippi River drainage through Arkansas, Mississippi, western Tennessee, southeastern Missouri, and western Kentucky to southern Illinois (Hofmann <em>et al</em>. 1999) and southern Indiana, and east to southeastern Virginia (Hobson 1998), southern North Carolina, South Carolina (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2003), Georgia, and Florida (Jones and Mamming 1989). Summer and winter ranges are the same. Although widespread in southeast, the vast majority of the known population is concentrated in northern Florida, and the species is rare and local outside the Gulf coastal plain.
14147		habitat	eng	The number of occurrences or subpopulations with good or excellent estimated viability may be fewer than 30 (more than 50 percent of these are in Florida). Recent surveys (e.g., Hofmann <em>et al.</em> 1999, Mirowsky <em>et al</em>. 2004) suggest that the number of small maternity colonies may be quite large, but these are of uncertain viability. Only two large (more than 100 bats) winter colonies have been reported in recent years, but there are several small colonies throughout the species range. In Florida, large numbers form maternity colonies in caves; the species has been reported a few times in buildings. Maternity colonies also have been found in a small number of caves in Georgia and Alabama. In the rest of the deep south, these bats generally use buildings and other structures, mines, and hollow trees (e.g., water tupelo, black gum, water hickory, bald cypress) for spring and summer roosts. In Louisiana, a hollow water tupelo (<em>Nyssa aquatica</em>) studied in late summer and early fall contained about 50 individuals (Gooding and Langford 2004). By winter in this region they roost in small groups in outdoor sites, often over water, such as bridges, culverts, storm sewers, and boat houses, as well as in hollow trees (Barbour and Davis 1969). In Florida (and perhaps elsewhere) these bats also roost in caves in winter; apparently they may use different caves for summer and winter roosts (Gore and Havis 1992). In the north, the pattern of cave use is different. Kentucky populations winter in caves (often with <em>Myotis sodalis</em>) but are rare in most caves in the summer, when most roost in large hollow trees. The few old records from Indiana also were mostly from caves in winter. Summer roost sites are poorly known from this part of their range. At least one cave in Indiana had bats every month except May, June, and July (Mumford and Whitaker 1982). Only a few maternity colonies have been reported in this region: one was in the Kentucky cave already mentioned; additional maternity colonies exist in southern Illinois, where one was in a hollow-based water tupelo (<em>Nyssa aquatica</em>) (Hofmann <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>The key characteristics for maternity sites are high humidity and constant warm temperatures. Foraging habitat is riparian floodplain forests or wooded wetlands with permanent open water nearby (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1992). These bats may forage primarily over lakes, ponds, or slow-moving streams.
14147		population	eng	Considering the total number of maternity roosts, hibernacula, and other occupied roosts and habitat, there are certainly more than 100 occurrences or subpopulations (Gore and Hovis 1992; Horner and Mirowsky 1996; Clark pers. comm.). Total adult population size is unknown but is at least in the 100,000s. This species is still abundant in some places. Florida has at least 18 current or former maternity caves which, in past years, potentially contained 400,000 adult females; a 1991 survey found only eight maternity caves with a total of less than 200,000 adult females (Gore and Hovis 1992). The number of individuals estimated from known tree roosts and man-made structures is much smaller (less than 500; Clark pers. comm.; Gore pers. comm.), but it is difficult to locate such roosts, and undoubtedly there are more.
14147		threats	eng	Florida populations declined by about 50% from some 400,000 adult females in the 1950s (Rice 1957) to less than 200,000 females in 1991 (Gore and Hovis 1992). Not only did numbers of bats decline, but number of caves used as maternity roosts also declined by nearly 50% (from 15 to 18) in Florida over the same period. There is no indication that the population has stabilized. Some caves occupied in the early 1980s are no longer occupied (Gore and Hovis 1992). However, Brown (1997) reported that this species is adaptable and seems to be holding its own in the southeastern United States. <br/><br/>While the Florida population was thriving in the 1960s, Barbour and Davis (1969) reported that the Ohio River Valley population was steadily declining and apparently nearing extirpation. Current data from this northern range indicates that populations are still present in low numbers, although their status remains largely unknown. Indiana populations had declined considerably by 1980 (Mumford and Whitaker 1982), although populations were always small. Recent extensive searches in Illinois indicated that the population has become more restricted than in the past; only one hibernating colony was located, compared to nine previously known hibernating sites, and the bats were only found in four counties compared to six in the past. Georgia has 12 older records (before 1970), and only one record since 1970, but this change could be due to lack of searching. Recent field studies in coastal North Carolina, South Carolina, and eastern Texas have located populations of this species, but there are no baseline data with which to compare trends. Declines likely have resulted from various factors, especially human disturbance and physical alteration of caves used as hibernacula and maternity sites (Gore and Hovis 1992). Excessive human visitation may awaken bats and cause them to use up fat reserves. In maternity colonies, disturbance may cause females to abandon their young. Heavy collecting or banding may cause a population to vacate a site. Attempts to collect, even in winter, usually result in bats vacating at least temporarily (Mumford and Whitaker 1982). In addition, some caves have been made unavailable or degraded by the closing off of their entrances, installation of bat-impermeable barriers, forest removal around entrances, or by flooding by reservoirs. Loss of upland roosts increases vulnerability to mortality from sudden flooding. One cave formerly used by 11,000 individuals was turned into a public dump and virtually abandoned by bats. Clearing and draining of bottonland hardwood forest wetlands likely have reduced available habitat for summer roosting and foraging. The indirect effects of pesticide use are unknown.
14148		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kruger National Park, South Africa (Sinner and Chimimba 2005), Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve in the Central African Republic (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2001), and from the Manga Forest Reserve in Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999), and in view of the species wide range it is presumed to be present in many more protected areas. There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for this species as a whole.
14148		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. It from Sierra Leone and Senegal in West Africa, eastwards through Cameroon and Central Africa, to Ethiopia and East Africa, being recorded as far south as northeastern South Africa. Outside of Africa it has been recorded from southern Yemen.
14148		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from tropical moist forest (Rosevear 1965) and wooded savanna. Populations are often found close to rivers and streams, bordered by forest (Happold, 1987). The species roost singly or in groups of up to eight individuals within hollow trees, and among the leaves of bananas or other plants with broad leaves (Rosevear 1965, Brosset 1966; Happold 1987). Allen <em>et al.</em> (1917) noted that the species tended to avoid villages.
14148		population	eng	Although this species is difficult to catch it is possibly not very rare.
14148		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
14149		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas. Considered Vulnerable in the Japanese Red List.
14149		distribution	eng	This species is known from Siberia across to the Pacific Coast of Russia, southwards to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the provinces of Heilongjian and Jilin in northeast China, and Japan, where it is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Kochinoerabu and Yakushima Islands (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
14149		habitat	eng	It roosts in tree hollows, caves, and also in houses (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and forages in forest.
14149		population	eng	Naturally not abundant species.
14149		threats	eng	Deforestation, loss of old-growth forest, and human disturbance of wintering sites are major threats to the species.
14150		conservation	eng	Found in protected ares in Mexico, but not in Guatemala.
14150		distribution	eng	S Alaska Panhandle (USA) to Baja California and higher elevations in the Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts (Mexico); Guatemala (Simmons 2005).
14150		habitat	eng	California bats have a wide tolerance of habitat including semi-arid desert regions of the Southwest, arid grasslands, forested regions of the Pacific Northwest, humid coastal forests and montane forests (Banfield 1974; Nagorsen and Brigham 1993). There is little documented information available on reproduction and ontongeny in <em>M. californicus</em>. It is known that mating occurs in autumn. A single young is born in late June or early July. The young develop rapidly and can fly about one month after birth. California bats have a potential reproductive lifespan of 15 years (Nagorsen and Brigham 1993; Simpson 1993; Wilson and Ruff 1999). California bats are insectivorous, feeding mainly on flies, moths and beetles. They forage only on insects in flight and are slow, acrobatic flyers, detecting prey at close range (less than 1 meter) and using echolocation calls during approach. Specific diet remains constant throughout the year, but likely varies from area to area. In British Columbia,<em>M. californicus</em> has been observed feeding mainly on Trichoptera and some Coleoptera, while further south, in Oregon, consumption consists primarily of Lepidoptera and Diptera (Banfield 1974; Fenton and Bell 1979; Simpson 1993; Wilson and Ruff 1999).<br/>Found in roofs in Guatemala (Sergio Perez pers. comm.)
14150		population	eng	California bats roost alone or in small groups during the warmer months. They can be found in caves, mines, rocky hillsides, under tree bark, on shrubs, on the ground, and in buildings. Males and females roost separately during the warmer months. Females form small maternity colonies during pregnancy, birth, and lactation. During the winter months the sexes mingle and roost either solitarily or in small groups in caves, mines, and buildings. At high elevations and latitudes, they have been reported to hibernate in mines and caves during winter months, though they have been observed to be active for short time periods at temperatures below freezing, indicating that they occasionally emerge from torpor to feed. In forest populations, considerable switching of roosts has been documented, and a roost will seldom be re-used by the same bat once it has changed to a new one.
14150		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
14151		conservation	eng	Research actions.
14151		distribution	eng	Central and South Chile; Argentina (Simmons 2005).
14151		habitat	eng	It is insectivore. Found in Patagonian forests, coastal zones in Chile, and rock crevices.
14151		population	eng	Common.
14151		threats	eng	None known.
14152		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in protected areas throughout its wide range.
14152		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southeast China (Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan, Hunan, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces), extending to Thailand, Myanmar and Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It can be expected in northern Lao PDR, but this has not yet been confirmed. In Myanmar it is found between 50-1,000 m asl in elevation (P. Bates pers. comm.).
14152		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide range of habitats from lowlands through the hill country. It is known to hibernate in caves (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Most of the recent records in Southeast Asia (Bates <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2001) report it being netted near cave entrances in or adjacent to limestone areas with rivers and streams (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999, 2001).
14152		population	eng	This is a relatively common species in at least part of its range, for example Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.).
14152		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14153		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
14153		distribution	eng	South Alberta and Saskatchewan (Canada) south through Eastern Colorado and Western Kansas (USA) (Simmons 2005) to North and Central Mexico (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
14153		habitat	eng	The Western Small-footed Myotis has a wide ecological range, from rock outcrops on open grasslands to canyons in the foothills to lower mountains with yellow pine woodlands. Day roosts are variable, but include cracks and crevices in cliffs, beneath tree bark, in mines and caves, and occasionally in dwellings of humans. Night roosts are under a variety of natural and human-induced structures. Hibernacula include caves, mines, and tunnels.<br/>They begin to forage well before full dark, but not as early as the pipistrelle (<em>Pipistrellus hesperus</em>). Presently, not much is k nown about reproductive behavior of this species. Pregnant females have been encountered all through June; a single young is probably common. Scrotal (reproductive) males were captured in August and September. Pregnant females have been captured in mid-June.<br/>The western small-footed myotis feeds early in the evening on small flying insects such as flies, small beetles and winged ants. This species is highly maneuverable in flight, often foraging among boulders, along cliffs or shrubs and trees.
14153		population	eng	In New Mexico, the species occurs at low to moderate elevations to as high as 9,500 feet elevation.
14153		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
14154		conservation	eng	Research actions are needed. The holotype was stored in alcohol and prepared as a skin. Any possible DNA may be compromised. Additional fieldwork appears to support Goodwin's description, but DNA effort is not done (McCarthy pers. comm.).
14154		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Guatemala (Simmons, 2005), Alta Verapaz, Coban, 1,305 m.
14154		habitat	eng	Its biology is unknown; the type specimen was caught in the cathedral in Coban, Guatemala (Reid, 1997).
14154		population	eng	Its population is unknown (Reid, 1997).
14154		threats	eng	Not known.
14155		conservation	eng	Research actions.
14155		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Dominica, and Guadeloupe islands (Simmons, 2005).
14155		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
14155		population	eng	There is no information on population.
14155		threats	eng	Hurricanes, small distribution.
14156		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
14156		distribution	eng	This species occurs from San Luis Potosi (Mexico) to Costa Rica (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 750 m (seldom above 150 m). In Guatemala it is known from only two localities in the Peten (McCarthy pers. comm.).
14156		habitat	eng	This species can be found in deciduous and evergreen lowland forest and openings (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. Most often caught in harp traps (LaVal, 1977) or in mist nets over water. Activity starts early, soon after sunset (Reid, 1997).
14156		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997). Rare if you try to capture in mist nets. Rare in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.), bur recorded with acoustic methods (Pineda pers. comm.).
14156		threats	eng	There are no known threats throughout the species' range.
14157		conservation	eng	The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). It occurs in several protected areas.
14157		distribution	eng	Southern British Columbia, Southern Alberta, Southern Saskatchewan (Canada) to New Mexico (USA) and Baja California (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).
14157		habitat	eng	<em>Myotis evotis</em> is insectivorous. This bat is found in a wide range of habitats, but is most commonly found in mixed coniferous forests, from humid coastal areas to montane forests.  In southern British Columbia, long-eared myotis roost in tree cavities in dense forests. In adapting to forest management in certain areas of British Columbia, they have recently been found to roost in the stumps of clear-cut stands. Long-eared myotis prefer the stumps of ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine in these areas. In the large uninterrupted forests of the Pacific Northwest, <em>M. evotis</em> uses large snags for day roosts. These bats usually prefer snags that reach high into or above the forest canopy. In the badlands of the South Sasketchawan River Valley in Alberta, <em>M. evotis</em> are mostly found roosting in the crevices of sandstone boulders. Other places which function as day roosts are abandoned buildings, cracks in the ground, caves, mines, and loose bark on living and dead trees. (Chruszcz and Barclay, 2002; Chruszcz and Barclay, 2003; Manning and Jones, 1989; Nagorsen and Brigham, 1993; Vonhof and Barclay, 1996; Vonhof and Barclay, 1997; Waldien, Hayes, and Arnett, 2000)
14157		population	eng	Elevation ranges from sea level on the Pacific Coast to 2,830 meters in the mountains of Wyoming.<br/><em>M. evotis</em> is either solitary or roosts in colonies of up to 30 individuals. Both sexes use a variety of roost sites. In the Pacific Northwest, the variety of female roost sites exceeds that of any other bats in that area. In forest populations, these bats usually roost in large snags in canopy gaps, or else in stumps in clear-cut areas. These bats are thought to migrate short distances between summer and winter ranges, although winter ranges for long-eared myotis are unreported. (Manning and Jones, 1989; Vonhof and Barclay, 1996; Waldien, Hayes, and Arnett, 2000).
14157		threats	eng	Habitat loss. May be affected by the closure of abandoned mines without surveys, recreational caving, some forest management practices and activities that impact cliff faces or rock outcrops.
14158		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Qingliangfeng Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), and is also likely to occur in Yangzie, Tianmushan, Laoshan, and An'jilongwangshan Nature Reserves and may be present in other protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened, nearly meeting the listing for Vulnerable under criteria A4cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
14158		distribution	eng	This Chinese endemic species has a wide distribution occurring in Hong Kong and the provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangsu, and Jiangxi (Smith and Xie 2008).
14158		habitat	eng	It is a cave-dwelling species of bat (Smith and Xie 2008). It presumably forages in the surrounding habitat. Its tolerance of disturbed habitats is not known.
14158		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
14158		threats	eng	At present there are no known major threats to this species.
14159		conservation	eng	Islas Marias is a Protected Area (Reserve of the Biosphere).
14159		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Tres Marías Islands (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
14159		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
14159		population	eng	There is no information on population.
14159		threats	eng	Islas Marias is being used as a Federal Prison and there are several problems with the introduction of alien species (rats).
14160		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Surveys, population and habitat monitoring and ecological studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14160		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern South Asia, parts of Southeast Asia and East Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province), Bangladesh (Sylhet Division) (Khan 2001), India (Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharasthra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Punjab, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal [Das 2003]) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) and has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Indonesia (the islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and Bali) and the Philippines (Palawan, Negros, Sibuyan and Luzon). In East Asia, it is present in southern and central China, the island of Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula and the Tsushima Islands of Japan, where there are fewer than ten records and it is most likely a vagrant.
14160		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and montane primary forest as well as secondary habitats. It roosts in caves, tree foliage, amongst bushes and in houses. In winter they hibernate in caves. It has been recorded from sea level up to the foothills of the Himalayas (Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).
14160		population	eng	In South Asia, although is widely distributed it is a rare species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although it often roosts as only a few animals, in some caves it can be relatively numerous, with up to 40-50 individuals. It is probably only a vagrant in Japan, and is therefore not thought to have breeding colonies on Tsushima Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
14160		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation for timber, firewood and conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14161		conservation	eng	Research actions. Found in protected areas in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14161		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Sonora and Veracruz (Mexico) to Guatemala (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).
14161		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry and semideciduous forest and forest edge (Reid, 1997). It roosts in hollow trees and holes in thistle stems (Villa-R., 1966), under palm-thatched roofs (Hall and Dalquest, 1963), and in a coiled heliconia leaf. Group size is small, and individuals are well space when roosting. This species is sometimes seen flying around buildings and may use roofs as night roosts. Foraging flight is slow and erratic, at heights of about 2 to 4 m. It probably eats insects caught in flight, but feeding habitats and diet are unknown. Probably the young are born in May (Reid, 1997). Found in secondary forests in Mexico, can roosts in caves, tunnels, abandoned constructions.
14161		population	eng	This bat is uncommon to fairly common (Reid, 1997). Only known for the pacific coast in Guatemala (Sergio Perez pers. comm.). Rare in Mexico.
14161		threats	eng	There are no known threats throughout its range.
14162		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas throughout the range.
14162		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Siberia to the Korean Peninsula, and the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang in northeast China (subspecies M. f. frater Allen, 1923), and Japan, where it is found only on Honshu and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is also found in central and southern China in the provinces of Fujian, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Anhui (subspecies M. f. longicaudatus Ognev, 1927) (Smith and Xie, in press). The area is severely fragmented. Chinese population may represent a distinct species (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008).
14162		habitat	eng	In Japan it is found in tree hollows during the day, but also some breeding colonies over 100 individuals have been found in houses (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). One small colony was also found in a cave (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Russia was found in caves (during winter) and rock cracks. The type series collected in China were taken from holes in bamboo stems (Smith and Xie, in press).
14162		population	eng	Naturally rare species. There are no data on population size.
14162		threats	eng	Little information is available. Loss and degradation of forest habitats may be a problem.
14163		conservation	eng	This is a widespread species that is found in many of Madagascar’s protected areas, including those in the east and west of the island (Goodman 1999; Russ <em>et al.</em> 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14163		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar (Simmons 2005) where it is widely distributed across a range of different vegetation types (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995; Goodman 1999; Eger and Mitchell 2003; Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14163		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitat types where suitable roosting cavities are available (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can survive in caves that are located some distance from relatively intact forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005), but the largest colonies are associated with forest formations and this species probably requires forest or some type of standing vegetation to forage (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007).
14163		population	eng	Although widespread, there is a paucity of information on the population status of <em>M. goudoti</em>. It is frequently trapped in mist nets during bat surveys and appears to be at least locally abundant in west (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) but is more difficult to net, or is less abundant in the east (Russ <em>et al.</em> 2003; Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are few data available on roosting colonies but aggregations of up to 1,000 individuals have been recorded.
14163		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species although additional research is needed to determine the impact of forest degradation on its persistence in cave roosts.
14164		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from protected areas in Southeast Asia (eg. Co-Loa, Viet Nam). In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Ecological studies and population monitoring recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14164		distribution	eng	This species has a patchily recorded distribution in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, Northern, North Central and Southern provinces) and has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species is known from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam (with a record from Co-Loa [Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999]), Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (the Mentawai Islands [Pagai Islands], Riau Archipelago, Sumatra [Bukit Barisan Selatan protected area (Opo pers. comm.)] Java and Sumbawa [Maryanto, pers comm. 2006]) and the island of Borneo (records from Kalimantan [Indonesia] and Sarawak [Malaysia]).
14164		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species prefers dry forests but is also seen in mangrove forests. It roosts either solitary or in groups of few individuals among bamboo, cracks of tree trunks, and in old and ruined buildings. It is a low flyer, hunting over water surfaces even the sea. It feeds on small insects like the mosquitoes, gnats, flies and moths (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, this species is known to feed over open seas, and probably roosts in mangrove forests; it has also been found more inland, where its roosting and feeding habits are poorly known. In view of the species possible association with coastal habitats, it may be the species might be more widespread on Borneo around the islands coasts. Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) suggested that bats feeding over open water near Sandakan were probably this species. Borissenko and Kruskop (2003) recorded the species from the Bassac River in Cambodia and from Pnom-Penh, always near large water surfaces. The species has also been recorded from large cities, such as Rangoon and Bangkok, and there is also a locality from near Hanoi (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Rangoon and Bangkok, it is seen hawking for insects and fish over small ponds and lakes within the city. The species was found to roost in caves at Bukit Barisan Selatan (Opo pers. comm. 2006), and has been found roosting in limestone caves in Langkawi Island (Lim Boo Liat pers. comm. 2006).
14164		population	eng	This is a reasonably common, but locally distributed species. In South Asia, although it is a fairly common bat a declining trend in the population has been observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14164		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion for agricultural use and human settlements (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14165		conservation	eng	It is known from Pulau Weh Recreation Park and Temenggor Forest Reserve, though the extent of protection offered by these areas is minimal. It is also found in Khuan Kaowang Forest Park in Thailand but this is a very small park. There is a need to determine the distributional limits and population status of the species, as well as potential threats and tolerance to human disturbance.
14165		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sabang Island (Indonesia), a single record (Sungai Singgoh in Temenggor Forest Reserve, Perak State) from Peninsular Malaysia (Francis 1995), and a single specimen in Songkhla, Thailand (Bumrungsri <em>et al</em>. 2006).
14165		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. It seems to be associated with small streams (so probably somewhat dependent on water) and the understorey of rainforest. Resistance to human disturbance is unknown but it has been found in disturbed old growth forest in Thailand at an altitude of 100-200 m asl (Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em>, 2006). It probably feeds outside of fragmented forests (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). All of the known records are from below 500 m asl.
14165		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. The species has a distinct morphology, and is unlikely to have been misidentified.
14165		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss would be a likely threat to the species.
14166		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas. Within India, the species has been recorded from the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006) and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Further studies on distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14166		distribution	eng	This wide ranging species has been recorded from South Asia, southern China and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands [Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Car Nicobar], Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu) (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to around 800 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it is found in Guangdong, Hainan and Hong Kong (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore. Within insular Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Indonesia (the islands of Java, Lombok and Sulawesi), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Philippines, where it has been recorded from sea level to 800 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) although there is a record from 1,450 m asl on mount Isarog Camarines Sur Province, in the southeastern portion of Luzon Island. There are records from the Philippine islands of Bohol, Catanduanes, Luzon (Camarines Sur, Cagayan, Laguna, Pampanga, Quezon, and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Lanao del Norte Province, Misamis Occidental), Negros, and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Polillo (Gonzales pers. comm. 2006).
14166		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in prime forests and tea estates near to water source. It roosts in tunnels, caves, bridges, palm fronds, crevices in old buildings, cracks and hollows between wooden beams (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003) either singly or in small groups of a few individuals (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Myanmar the species has been recorded in lowland forests and agricultural areas adjacent to limestone karst, it has also been collected in a limestone cave in disturbed forest (Bates pers. comm. 2006). In Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003), Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) and the Philippines, it has been recorded near to streams in lowland forest, disturbed forest and agricultural areas. In the Philippines, it sometimes roosts in caves and in tunnels and has been reported roosting beneath a large rock over a stream (Taylor, 1934).
14166		population	eng	This is a moderately common species over much of its range. The abundance, population size and trends for this species in South Asia are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14166		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion for agricultural use. It is also threatened through disturbance of roosting sites (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14168		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Found in protected areas in Japan. <em>M. i. Yezoensis</em> is listed as Endangered, <em>M. i. Hosonoi</em> as Vulnerable, and <em>M. i. Fujiensis</em> as Near Threatened on the Japanese Red List.
14168		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Altai Mountains in Kazakhstan eastwards through Lake Baikal to the Ussuri region of Russia, and southwards in to Mongolia, northeast China (possibly present, see below), northern Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and to Sakhalin Island (Russia) and Japan. In Japan, the species is found on Honshu and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In Mongolia it is known from northern mountain habitats in the Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954). In northeast China it is reported from the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi and Gansu (Smith and Xie, in press); however, these records require confirmation as specimens may have been misidentified (K. Tsytsulina, S. Kruskop, Strelkov and Borissenko pers. comm. 2008).
14168		habitat	eng	Inhabits mountain forests. The species roosts in tree hollows, with occassional breeding observed in houses on Honshu (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In continntal part of the range roosts in rock cracks as well. Hibernates in different underground shelters. It feeds on flying insects low above ground and forest rivers.
14168		population	eng	Naturally rare, but widespread species.
14168		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species in most of its range, although in Japan the decline in old-growth forests is a problem.
14169		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures pertaining to this species. However, if there is a way to test the taxonomic validity or geographic origins of the specimen this could be very useful.
14169		distribution	eng	There is a lot of doubt surrounding the distribution of this species. It is only known from the type specimen, which may be incorrectly labeled (Koopman 1984). It was purportedly collected in Samoa, but this has not been confirmed. Another alternative is that the specimen was a vagrant to Samoa.
14169		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
14169		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
14169		threats	eng	There is no information about threats to this species.
14170		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. Found in protected areas.
14170		distribution	eng	Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Bolivia, Northern Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Trinidad (Simmons 2005).
14170		habitat	eng	Insectivorous. Biology poorly know, associated to Andes forests up to 1,100 m (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/>Middle and high areas.
14170		population	eng	Locally common.
14170		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14171		conservation	eng	A maternity colony in British Columbia is protected within Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve. <br/><br/>Weymer Cave and White Ridge Provincial Parks protect areas that support <em>M. keenii </em>hibernacula and roosting habitat. The former park has a draft management plan that identifies the need to protect the bat roosts, but also identifies recreational caving, hiking, and tourism as acceptable park activities (COSEWIC 2003).<br/><br/>Range-wide population surveys are needed. Coordinated surveys should be conducted in Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington. See British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection (2004) for specific protection needs and management recommendations.<br/><br/>This species is known only from a limited number of museum specimens. Virtually nothing is known about its biology (van Zyll de Jong 1985). Present research needs include the following: 1. Assess habitat preferences, including roosting and feeding areas, activity patterns, and food requirements. 2. Determine if there is any seasonal movement within the population. 3. Assessing whether this species hibernates, and if so, where and under what conditions. 4. Research the reproductive capacity of the species and evaluate its long-term population viability.
14171		distribution	eng	The range includes coastal Washington, British Columbia (including Vancouver Island, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and coastal mainland), and southeastern Alaska (e.g., Hoonah, Wrangell, Ketchikan) (Parker and Cook 1996; Simmons 2005). This species has one of the smallest distributional ranges of any North American bat (Van Zyll de Jong 1985).
14171		habitat	eng	The species is known from 25 locations in Canada, where only a couple maternity colonies have been identified (COSEWIC 2003). The only known hibernacula in British Columbia are on northern Vancouver Island where <em>M. keenii </em>has been found in 8 caves from 3 separate areas (COSEWIC 2003). The species is known from just a few locations in southeast Alaska.<br/><br/>The distributional range suggests an association with coastal forest habitat (van Zyll de Jong 1985; Nagorsen and Brigham, unpubl. manuscript). Apparently this bat is associated with mature forests (COSEWIC report), but it is not restricted to old growth (COSEWIC 2003). Across the range it has been found roosting in southwest-facing rock crevices, among geothermally heated rocks, in tree cavities, in bark crevices, and in buildings (D. Burles pers. comm.; Nagorsen and Brigham 1993; Parker and Cook 1996). Tree cavities and loose bark are important natural roost sites and may be limiting in some parts of the range (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). In British Columbia, one maternity colony (on Hot Springs Island in the Queen Charlotte Islands) is situated within geothermally heated rocks associated with hot spring activity (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). The only other known maternity colony in British Columbia was suspected to be in a tree located in a low elevation, southwest-facing cliff at Knoll Hill near Tahsis, Vancouver Island (COSEWIC 2003). Known maternity roosts and summer feeding areas in British Columbia are at elevations below 240 meters; known hibernation sites occur above 400 meters in caves over 100 meters long (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). These bats have been observed foraging over hot spring pools and clearings above scrubby salal (<em>Gaultheria shallon</em>).
14171		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. A maternity colony in British Columbia included about 40 reproductive females (COSEWIC 2003).
14171		threats	eng	Habitat quantity and quality are presumed to be declining (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004), but the rate of decline is unknown. Population estimates made at a British Columbia maternity colony during the 1990s indicate that it remained stable between 1991 and 2000 (COSEWIC 2003).<br/><br/>Logging activities and associated road building likely are reducing and fragmenting habitat; mineral extraction, forest fires, and pesticides also may be detrimental (Balcombe, 1988 COSEWIC report; British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). Disturbance during hibernation and while raising young is a major concern; disturbance may result from recreational activities (e.g., caving) or industrial activities (e.g., blasting for road construction) (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). Current levels of timber harvest could have a detrimental effect on the Alaska population by altering forest structure important to bats  (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1997). Bat activity is rare in clearcuts and second-growth forests of Southeast Alaska (Parker and Cook 1997, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1997).
14172		conservation	eng	There is a strong conservation easement held by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) on the second largest occurrence. TNC has a management agreement giving limited protection to the largest occurrence and one occurrence with apparently good viability is on National Park Service land in Arkansas. Several occurrences with fair to poor estimated viability in various states are either owned by TNC or are on Federal land.<br/><br/>Summer surveys throughout the species known range should be a high priority for inventory work. Winter hibernacula surveys should continue with emphasis on searching sites which have not been surveyed, improving counts in sites which have not been completely or thoroughly surveyed, and monitoring some portion of the known sites on a regular basis (perhaps every other year as recommended for Myotis sodalis sites) to establish baseline population trend data.
14172		distribution	eng	The range extends from New England, southeastern Ontario, and southwestern Quebec south and west to southeastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, northern Alabama, northern Georgia, and northwestern South Carolina (Menzel <em>et al.</em> 2003). Within this range, the distribution is very spotty, and the bulk of the occurrences and largest populations are in New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and western Virginia. Hall's (1981) map should be taken as potential range; there are no records of this species ever occurring in some parts of the indicated distribution (e.g., Illinois; Jim Herkert pers. comm.). This species is apparently extirpated in Connecticut and Ohio (where known from only one specimen). Elevational range extends to at least 700-800 meters in several states and to at least 1,125 meters in Kentucky (Best and Jennings 1997).
14172		habitat	eng	This species is most often detected during hibernation. In recent years, it has been counted at approximately 125 hibernacula. Recent surveys have greatly increased the number of localities above those known historically; the number of hibernacula may be significantly larger than currently known. Intensive cave and mine surveys have been undertaken in most states where the species occurs, but some sites probably remain unsearched in most states.<br/><br/>The total count for all hibernacula is approximately 3,000 individuals, with roughly 60% of the total number from just two sites in New York. Some of the occurrences probably have not been surveyed completely, and some individuals are undoubtedly missed within some sites because they are hibernating in portions of mines or caves that cannot be reached or easily observed.<br/><br/>This bat always has been considered to be relatively rare (Barbour and Davis 1969). Numbers are reduced in a few sites where older counts are available, and a few historical sites are apparently no longer occupied, but whether these observation reflect declines or changes in distribution is unknown. In Vermont, <em>Myotis leibii</em> has been consistently found in very small numbers and often not detected at all during periodic surveys of various hibernacula dating back to 1934 (Trombulak <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Habitat is mostly hilly or mountainous areas, in or near deciduous or evergreen forest, sometimes in mostly open farmland. In Pennsylvania, Mohr (1976) found this species mostly in heavy hemlock forests in the foothills of mountains that rise to 2,000 feet (600 meters). Unpublished data from the Kentucky Heritage Program indicate that summer roosts include caves, coal mines, buildings, and bridges over rivers (in expansion joints). Warm-season roosts include buildings, towers, hollow trees, spaces beneath the loose bark of trees, cliff crevices, and bridges. Tuttle (1964) reported two individuals found in April in Tennessee under a large flat rock at the edge of a quarry surrounded by woods and cow pastures. In Ontario, about 12 of these bats were found in July behind the door of a shed that was kept open (i.e., positioned against the wall) (Hitchcock 1955). They have been seen resting in limestone caves in West Virginia in spring and summer (Krutzsch 1966). <br/><br/>By far most records come from observations of bats hibernating in winter in caves and mine tunnels. Hibernation occurs in solution and fissure caves and mine tunnels (including coal, iron, copper, and talc mines). Situations near the entrance where the air is relatively cold and dry seem to be preferred (Barbour and Davis 1969), though sometimes deeper locations are used (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Roost sites often are deep in crevices, or under rocks on the cave floor, where the bats can be very difficult to find (Davis 1955, Krutzsch 1966, Martin <em>et al</em>. 1966). These bats are usually found singly or occasionally in small clusters, but many may be packed in a crevice; often they hang among other species (Marin <em>et al</em>. 1966). In tight places the body may be horizontal, even belly down. On cave walls, the forearms are somewhat extended rather than parallel to the body axis. Dunn and Hall (1989) noted that 52% of Pennsylvania hibernacula were small caves of less than 150 m (500 feet) in length. Like many other bat species, this one typically forages over ponds and streams.
14172		population	eng	Approximately 80% of the known occurrences are of poor estimated viability; just 7% are believed to have good or excellent viability. In most instances, surveys yield very few individuals of this species in any particular location.<br/><br/>Most occurrences have been counted only within the past decade or two and are not revisited regularly, making the assessment of population trend difficult. Many biologists believe that this species is basically stable, having declined little in recent times, but that it is vulnerable, especially in its cave hibernacula. The population at one site in Arkansas has increased in recent years, probably due to reduced winter disturbance following the installation of a cave gate.
14172		threats	eng	Some mines may be threatened by closure or collapse. Ceiling collapse may kill bats outright or, more significantly, alter cave microhabitat enough to make it unsuitable. A few cave occurrences are threatened or have been reduced in quality due to commercialization for tourism. <br/><br/>Threats to summer sites are unknown, but are likely to be moderate due to alteration of riparian habitats. Conversion of forested habitats to agricultural and residential uses has decreased the amount of preferred habitat in some areas, but the bats do make use of bridges and various other non-natural roost sites.<br/><br/>Improper gating of caves to protect bats may result in site abandonment. For example, the large colony of <em>M. leibii </em>at Fourth Chute Cave, Quebec, was driven out by blocking the flow of cold air (Mohr 1976). In contrast, gating of cave entrances in other locations (e.g., Aitkin Cave, Pennsylvania) has led to increases in <em>M. leibii</em> populations. With its small numbers and spotty distribution, isolated colonies of <em>M. leibii </em>are particularly vulnerable to extirpation by chance events, especially when concentrated during winter months. On the other hand, in contrast to certain other bats that assemble in vast numbers in relatively few sites, the population of <em>M. leibii</em> as a whole is not vulnerable to localized events. <br/><br/>This bat tends to hibernate near cave entrances; hence it may be vulnerable to freezing in abnormally severe winters. THREATS TO BATS IN GENERAL:  Perhaps the most serious threat to cave-dwelling bats is human disturbance during hibernation. Very low levels of noise, light, and heat from lanterns are sufficient to awaken hibernating bats, which then expend energy moving about and deplete critical reserves of body fat. When disturbance is repeated, bats (especially juveniles) are likely to perish. "By the end of the winter energy reserves may be insufficient to meet the demands of the first feeding forays, when emerging insects may be scattered and scarce, or the bats may be too weak to make long flights to their summer territories" (Mohr 1976). Such disturbance is equally lethal, whether caused by vandals, well-meaning spelunkers, or bat researchers. Intentional killing of bats in caves by clubbing, stoning, burning, bombing, etc. has been a significant cause of mortality. Documented examples are numerous (e.g. Tuttle 1979). Bats are sometimes exterminated from commercial caves, or if not, leave or move to suboptimal habitats due to increased disturbance. Poisoning by pesticides, heavy metals, and other environmental contaminants has been and may remain a significant threat. Destruction of roost and foraging habitat by reservoir inundation, strip mining (especially limestone), deforestation, drainage of wetlands, development, etc., and pollution or siltation of waterways with consequent decline in insect production are additional potential adverse impacts (Tuttle 1979).  Hundreds of thousands of bats have been destroyed by natural flooding of caves.
14174		conservation	eng	Research actions.
14174		distribution	eng	Argentina, Southeastern Brazil, Uruguay (Simmons 2005).
14174		habitat	eng	The species is found in various roosts types. Insectivore.
14174		population	eng	Abundant.
14174		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
14175		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India, such as the Balpakram National Park in Mizoram. Population monitoring and habitat management are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14175		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to South Asia, where it has been recorded from a few localities in Afghanistan (Lowgar and Nangarhar provinces), India (Jammu and Kashmir, and Meghalaya) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). A report from Maharashtra as reported by Molur <em>et al.</em> (2002) is erroneous. It has been recorded from 300 to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Wang (2002) records that the species is present in Guizhou, China (Smith and Xie 2008). Records for Viet Nam are generally considered to be dubious (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999) and are not included here.
14175		habitat	eng	This species roosts in large colonies of thousands of individuals in caves, cracks and crevices in old disused buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) and old tunnels and underground canals (Smith and Xie 2008) in primary or secondary forests. It is an early flyer and hunts over water surfaces (Bates and Harrison 1997).
14175		population	eng	Little is known about the population trends and abundance of this species.
14175		threats	eng	In South Asia, it is threatened by habitat loss, disturbance to roosting sites and accidental mortality due to ongoing conflicts within the species' range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14176		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss and human disturbance.
14176		distribution	eng	Alaska (USA) to Labrador and Newfoundland (Canada), south to Southern California, Northern Arizona, Northern New Mexico (USA). It is found in Mexico.
14176		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested lands near water, but some subspecies can be found in dry climates where water is not readily available. In those habitats, drinking water is provided by moisture on cave walls or condensation on the fur. Little brown bats live over a wide latitudinal and elevational range. (Havens and Myers 2006)
14176		population	eng	The lifespan of this species is extended by their ability to find food and inhabit a variety of roosts. These characteristics allow expansion of their habitat to new ranges, but also contribute to their survival. <em>M. lucifugus</em> live approximately 6 to 7 years and often live well beyond 10 years. A 31 year-old male was discovered in southeastern Ontario. Evidence indicates that males tend to live longer than females (Havens and Myers 2006)<br/>During the winter, hibernation time depends on altitude and location of the roosts. It usually starts between September and November and ends in March to May. They do not migrate long distances for hibernation roosts. Individuals travel only up to 100 miles. This species does not show territoriality at roosts, and large colonies of as many as 300,000 bats have been reported in a single roost. (Havens and Myers 2006)
14176		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no major threats to this species at present. It is the target of control measures due to the abundance of the species. These bats inhabit attics, roofs, trees, and other areas in close proximity to humans; therefore, homeowners have spent large amounts of money trying to eradicate <em>M. lucifugus</em> from these areas (Havens and Myers 2006).
14177		conservation	eng	In Russia and Japan occurs in some protected areas.
14177		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Russian Far East, NE China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan. In Japan, it is known from Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Hokkaido, Sado Island, Tsushima Island, and a 1999 record from Tokunoshima Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
14177		habitat	eng	It is found in caves, as well as man-made structures (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Roosts are close to water sourses. Often shares summer and winter roosts with other bat species. Hunt above fast rivers and coastal area. Prey on insects and other invertebrates in flight or catching from water surface.
14177		population	eng	In continental part rare, but regulary found species. In Japan it is often found in groups of over 100 individuals.
14177		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
14178		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Better regulation of cave use is required for this uncommon and cave dependent species, and comprehensive surveys of populations are required.
14178		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Borneo, Balambangam (Nor 1996) and Banggi islands, to the Philippines. It probably occurs throughout the Philippines; there are records from Cebu (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Guimaras, Luzon (Rizal Province and Mount Makiling between Batangas and Laguna provinces (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006)), Marinduque, Mindanao (Lanao del Norte Province, and Zamboanga Province), Negros, Palawan, Polillo and Tawi-tawi (Hollister 1913; Lawrence 1939; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
14178		habitat	eng	In the Philippines the species has been recorded roosting in caves near sea level (L. Heaney and R. Utzurrum unpubl. data) and foraging over freshwater, rivers and in agricultural areas.
14178		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, which occurs in caves or their immediate vicinity (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Palawan Island, the species was captured in small numbers in caves (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004), while surveys on Luzon failed to capture the species and it is considered uncommon there (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). The population is thought to be in decline.
14178		threats	eng	Cave disturbance is a major threat to the species. In the Philippines, caves can be blocked for example in Misamis Oriental, where the species was once abundant (Warguez pers. comm. 2006), on Negros caves are disturbed by guano miners (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006), they are dammed in other areas, and on Cebu large numbers of people partake in unregulated spelunking and often open up new areas to the sport.
14179		conservation	eng	Research actions.
14179		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Martinique, and Barbados (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).
14179		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). There is no information on habitat and ecology.
14179		population	eng	Roosts in caves (Timm and Genoways, 2003). Can be found in anthropogenic habitats (Rodriguez Duran and Kunz, 2001)
14179		threats	eng	Hurricanes.
14181		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006). Surveys, ecological and population studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas (eg. Vu Quang National Park, Viet Nam [Borissenko and Kruskop 2003]).
14181		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from South Asia, southern and eastern China, and both mainland and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known only from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram and Tamil Nadu) (Vanitharani 2006, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it ranges through much of southern and eastern, parts of the country (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, southern Thailand (although there are no published records (Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em>, 2006)), northern Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Peninsular Malaysia (it has been recorded at the Batu caves close to Kuala Lumpur). It is also present on the island of Borneo, where it has been reported from Sabah (Kinabatangan area) (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,100 m asl.
14181		habitat	eng	Within India, it has been recorded roosting in caves, rocky crevices and subterranean habitats in forested areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Lao PDR, the species has been collected in hill forests at 1,000 m asl and in open forest at 500 m asl (Francis <em>et al.</em> 1996; in Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Viet Nam, the species has been recorded in heavily disturbed agricultural landscapes, at about 200 m asl. Animals have been found roosting in small colonies in a crevice of a bridge (Yasuma and Andau, 2000). In southern Thailand the species roosts in small colonies in lowland evergreen forest (S. Bumringsri pers. comm.).  In Myanmar it is known from around 1,850 m asl (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Malaysia it has been recorded in highly disturbed secondary habitat.
14181		population	eng	It is believed to be an uncommon species. In South Asia, the population abundance of this species is not known. There are only a relatively few individuals in each colony and the colonies and localities are scattered (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
14181		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites by increase in tourism and habitat loss due to tourism related developmental activities (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). The threats to the species over the rest of its range are not known, although it has been reported from degraded forest in parts of its range.
14182		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this poorly known species.
14182		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from two very disjunct sites, the type locality of 'Didessa River mouth, Walaga' in Ethiopia (Hill and Morris 1971) and from Numan, Adamawa Province, in northeastern Nigeria (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1988).
14182		habitat	eng	Animals have been reported from caves and other subterranean locations in dry and moist savanna habitats. The specimen from Nigeria was 'mist-netted in the Sudan savanna, in a region of short grass and acacia bush, with some silk cotton trees, near the River Benue' (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1988).
14182		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
14182		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear. It may be threatened by cave disturbance and subsistence harvesting for food.
14183		conservation	eng	This species is presumably present in a number of Southeast Asian protected areas.  In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas like the Murree National Park in Pakistan and the Langtung National Park in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further studies are needed on distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and population monitoring.
14183		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded throughout much of northern South Asia, central and southern China and most of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is presently known from Afghanistan (Balkh, Faryab, Kabul, Konarha and Kunduz provinces), Bhutan (no exact location, Das 2003), India (Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal (Central Nepal) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab), and has been recorded between 1,230 and 2,700 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been found in Xizang, Sichuan, Yunnan in mainland China, and has been reported from the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it appears to be present throughout the mainland and widespread in insular Southeast Asia being recorded from Indonesia (the Mentawi Islands, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Sulawesi, Ambon and Bunguran), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and throughout the Philippines, with records from Biliran, Busuanga, Leyte, Luzon (Cagayan, Laguna, Rizal and Kalinga Provinces [Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004]), Maripipi, Negros (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Specimens from Culion Island and Camarines Sur Province (Luzon Island) previously referred to this species are now considered to represent Myotis ater (Heaney 2005). The specimen previously reported from Bukidnon, Mindanao is of uncertain identity (Heaney 2005). In the Philippines, it has been recorded from near sea level to 1,600 m asl (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2004).
14183		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and secondary montane and lowland forests, scrub, secondary growth and gardens. It roosts either singly or in small groups of few individuals among tightly rolled leaves of the broad-leaved trees especially banana, also in caves and tree hollows. It is a fast and early flyer, with bats often encountered in the forest understory and in gaps along streams (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2004; P. Bates and G. Csorba pers. comm. 2006; Sedlock pers. comm. 2006; Smith and Xie 2008).
14183		population	eng	This is a common bat in Southeast Asia, and is particularly abundant at higher elevations (Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). In South Asia, the localities and the colonies are scattered with small populations per colony. A declining trend in the population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is only a single record of this species from the island of Ambon, Indonesia.
14183		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia, there are no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species as a whole, although some populations are locally threatened by habitat degradation (largely from mining and logging operations, and ongoing human settlement). In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. This species is also considered to be locally threatened at some localities due to scientific collection for research purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14184		conservation	eng	Needs conservation attention on islands.
14184		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northeast Venezuela, and Curaçao and Bonaire Islands (Netherlands Antilles) (Simmons, 2005). Maybe in Aruba. Found also in Northeast Colombia.
14184		habitat	eng	This bat is strongly insectivorous, it especially feeds on small aerial insects (like flies or moths) that catch in open areas. It is generally found in small colonies (Linares, 1998).
14184		population	eng	It is common, however, it has a restricted range and confined.
14184		threats	eng	Threatened on islands by conversion to tourist resorts and general development.
14185		conservation	eng	Needs taxonomic revision. Occurs in several protected areas. The northern population in Mexico needs protection - subspecies (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
14185		distribution	eng	Nayarit and Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil; Trinidad and Tobago; St. Martin, Montserrat, Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons 2005).
14185		habitat	eng	Insectivorous. Low, middle, and higher elevation forests, gardens, agricultural areas; nocturnal; flies in more open areas, along trails, streams, etc.; roosts in trees, rock crevices, buildings.
14185		population	eng	Abundant and widespread.
14185		threats	eng	No major threats.
14186		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
14186		distribution	eng	<em>M. oreias</em> is known only from the type locality, Singapore. This species is known only from the damaged holotype, redescribed by Francis and Hill (1998), who noted that the type locality is questionable.
14186		habitat	eng	The ecology and habitat preferences of this species are not known.
14186		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
14186		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
14187		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
14187		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Venezuela to Bolivia, Panama, and Costa Rica (Simmons, 2005). In Bolivia found to 3,800 m, 3,100 in Venezuela - down to 1,800. Colombia 1,600-2,600 m . 2,600-3,900 m in Peru. Seems to be restricted to Andean Montane formations.
14187		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen highland forest and forest edge. Pregnant females have been recorded in February and July (Gardner <em>et al.</em>, 1970; Reid, 1997). Found in montane forests and strongly associated with mountains. Seems to tolerate a range of human disturbance.
14187		population	eng	It is uncommon to fairly common (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
14187		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
14189		conservation	eng	It is included in one protected area Reserve of the Biosfere "La Laguna".
14189		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south Baja California (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
14189		habitat	eng	This species can be found in arid tropical and lower Sonoran life zones. It has been reported in desert matorral, tropical deciduous forest, oak forest, and pine-oak forest. It roosts in caves and empty houses; an estimated 5,000 females and young were found in a large cave; also, a maternity colony of 100 females and young were found in the crevices of an abandoned house. This species can be found roosting with other bats species. It mates at the end of summer and during autumn, sometimes into the following spring. Pregnant females were found in May and June, with parturition occurring in late June and early July (Alvarez-Catañeda and Bogan, 1998).
14189		population	eng	It is locally common to uncommon (Alvarez-Catañeda and Bogan, 1998).
14189		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
14190		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species was regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1bcd (Wang and Xie 2004).
14190		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of China, occurring in the provinces of Beijing, Sichuan, Henan, Jiangsu (Smith and Xie 2008), and Anhui (CSIS 2008). It is also known from Shaanxi (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Shaanxi, a captured bat with substantial sequence divergence (6.7%) and smaller size may represent a cryptic species for this taxon (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14190		habitat	eng	This is a cave-dwelling species (Smith and Xie 2008), but has also been recorded roosting in dwellings (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006). Based on wing shape and call design it is presumed that this bat is suited to flying in cluttered habitats (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006), presumably forests.<br/><br/>Moderately long ears, wing shape, and dietary composition suggests that foraging may in part occur by gleaning (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Examination of droppings indicates that this species forages on predominantly beetles (80% by volume), as well as <em>Hemiptera, Lepidoptera</em>, and <em>Diptera</em> (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).  There were single indications of a mite, lepidopteran larva, and dragonfly wing fragment (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14190		population	eng	There are currently no data on the population status of this species.
14190		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It may be reasonably adaptable to disturbed habitats since it has been recorded roosting in buildings.
14191		conservation	eng	The species is including inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction). The protection of this species is being undertaken by the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14191		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Zacatecas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). Its extent of occurrence has been calculated between 95 and 465 km² (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm. )
14191		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of <em>Myotis planiceps</em>. Apparently, this species is confined to montane forests. Possibly, it roosts in crevices. It is insectivorous; some stomach contents contained insects. No reproductive data are known (Matson, 1975).  Habitat loss between 16 - 21% over the last ten years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.)
14191		population	eng	It is considered at the moment that are less than 250 mature individuals (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
14191		threats	eng	Habitat loss due its very restricted roost habit in yacca trees accompanied by pynion pines (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
14192		conservation	eng	Some of the recorded localities are from protected areas. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
14192		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and has been recorded from Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It seems to prefer lower mountain forests down to 200-300 m asl.
14192		habitat	eng	It occupies only primary forest, mainly at low-lying elevations. It roosts only in tree holes so is a microhabitat specialist. It is absent from many areas that lack large trees with hollows.
14192		population	eng	This species has been recorded widely within Japan, but most of the localities are from lowland primary intact forest. It is likely that at one time the species was more widespread, but has now been restricted to primary forest enclaves in the face of human encroachment on its habitat. Within the forest patches where they occur, they are somewhat common.
14192		threats	eng	Deforestation of the evergreen old-growth forests in warm temperate regions, primarily for agriculture, conversion to conifer plantations, logging and infrastructure development for expanding human settlements, is a major threat.
14193		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tianmushan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if the species is present in any other protected areas. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.
14193		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China (including Hong Kong and Hainan), Lao PDR, Hong Kong, and Viet Nam (Simmons 2005).  In China, this species occurs in the provinces of Anhui, Beijing, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Yunnan, Zhejiang (Smith and Xie 2008), Jiangxi (CSIS 2008), and may be present in Hunan and Jiangsu. The distribution in Lao PDR and Viet Nam is very scattered (Csorba, G. pers. comm.). In 2004, 27 specimens of this species were collected on Hainan, which the authors noted were smaller than those of mainland specimens (Li <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14193		habitat	eng	This species is strictly dependent on water since its diet comprises of a large proportion of fish. This is the most specialized, fish eating bat within the region. It has low tolerance to human disturbance (Csorba and Bates 2006).
14193		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species. This species is considered rare (Csorba, G. pers. comm.).
14193		threats	eng	It is a widely distributed habitat specialist, which has low tolerance to human disturbance. Highly dependent on water sources for its food, water pollution (domestic and commercial/industrial) in China (the bulk of its distribution) is a major threat. In Southeast Asia, water sources are not as degraded and therefore, it does not face a similar threat as it does in China. This species may be hunted for food locally.
14194		conservation	eng	It has been recorded on Borneo from Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997) and is found also in other protected areas throughout its range. This species has only been rarely collected and appears to have an ecology that is different from other <em>Myotis</em> and therefore needs to be studied further.
14194		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and extreme southeastern Thailand (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006), Sabah in northern Malaysian Borneo, and also from Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo (Puri 1997). Specimens from Sumatra were identified as <em>M. annectans</em> by Hill and Topal (1973) and the species may not occur there. The one locality in Thailand is at 100 m asl.
14194		habitat	eng	It is probably a understorey, forest dependent species. It has been recorded from caves, and found roosting in a small group under a house in forest on Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). They often forage over small streams in forest, and so perhaps it is water dependent. They have also been found roosting under rock near streams and also in fallen logs (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It was collected from pristine lowland evergreen forest in Thailand near a peat swamp, and was also found in peat swamp in Peninsular Malaysia (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006). There are no caves in the vicinity of the locality in Thailand suggesting that it may roost elsewhere (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
14194		population	eng	This is a fairly uncommon species.
14194		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires represents a major threat to this species.
14195		conservation	eng	Needs taxonomic revision (Barquez pers. comm.). Occurs in many protected areas.
14195		distribution	eng	Honduras south to Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia; Trinidad (Simmons 2005).
14195		habitat	eng	Insectivorous. Found in colonies.
14195		population	eng	Abundant. Not present in Chaco (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004) Locally common for Mesoamerica.
14195		threats	eng	None known.
14196		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.
14196		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cambodia, Thailand, and possibly Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003), and is known from one locality in Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).
14196		habitat	eng	This species uses disturbed habitats, in Thailand it is found in tree hollows and house roofs, and bamboo.
14196		population	eng	This species is known from only a small number of individuals in any country.
14196		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
14197		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Argentina (Barquez and Diaz pers. comm.).
14197		distribution	eng	Southeastern Brazil, Southeastern Paraguay, Northeastern Argentina (Simmons 2005). There is one locality in Uruguay (Gonzalez - com pess).
14197		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
14197		population	eng	Not common.
14197		threats	eng	Deforestation. Habitat loss.
14198		conservation	eng	Poorly known species with very restricted range and which requires legal protection and a conservation management plan. Research on status and ecology is needed. Public awareness campaigns may also be valuable.
14198		distribution	eng	As an extant species known only from southern part of Caucasus region (Armenia) and northwestern part of Zagros Mts. in Iran. Fossil of the species described from Hungary.
14198		habitat	eng	Little known, probably forest and shrubland, and roosting in caves, rock cracs and buildings.
14198		population	eng	Unknown. Rarely found species (up to ten recorded localities of occurrence).
14198		threats	eng	Not known. Possibly changes in land management, including development and impact of war, etc, and damage to roost sites in caves and buildings.
14199		conservation	eng	There appear to be no conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this bat. Further studies are needed into the abundance, biology and ecology of this species.
14199		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, where it has been recorded from ten localities between 1,300 and 2,500 m asl.
14199		habitat	eng	This species is associated with humid Afromontane forest. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
14199		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species that is known from only about 20 specimens.
14199		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is being impacted through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging.
14201		conservation	eng	Habitat management. It occurs in several protected areas.
14201		distribution	eng	Eastern United States and Canada west to British Columbia, Eastern Montana, Eastern Wyoming; south to Alabama, Georgia, and Florida Panhandle (Simmons 2005)
14201		habitat	eng	Northern bats are associated with boreal forests. In British Columbia they are found in the wet forests of the interior cedar-hemlock biogeoclimatic zone. In areas of North America and Canada these bats choose maternity roosts in buildings, under loose bark, and in the cavities of trees. Caves and underground mines are their choice sites for hibernating. (Trouessart, 1999)
14201		population	eng	During the summer northern bats are commonly found in higher densities around the northern areas of their range, as they are especially reliant upon the richly forested habitats in the north around this time (Altringham, 1996). Occasionally, these bats may be found roosting with other bat species, although they are much less social than other members of the genus <em>Myotis</em>. The sexes roost separately; however, reproductive females may form small maternity colonies of less than 60 individuals (Altringham, 1996).
14201		threats	eng	Timber harvesting may interfere with these bats' ability to utilize trees for nursery colonies and day roosts. It also may prove detrimental to their foraging habits in forested areas (Thomas, 1993). Use of chemical and biological insecticides is another source of concern affecting their food supply. A less vital, yet very real threat to <em>M. septentrionalis</em> is the disturbance they face in the caves (where recreational "caving" is popular) or mines (which are often closed after being abandoned) where they hibernate. A solution to the problem of disturbance at hibernacula is to put up gates that permit the bats to pass while excluding humans. (Thomas, 1993)
14202		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from the Annapurna Conservation Area in Nepal. Surveys are needed and habitat management in Nepal is recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14202		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia. It is presently known from India (Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central) at an elevation of around 1,350 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be greater than 20,000 sq km, however, the area of occupancy has been estimated as less than 2,000 sq km based on the likely availability in habitat in the locations it has been recorded in.
14202		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forests on hill sides and in valleys (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14202		population	eng	There is little information available on the population of this species.
14202		threats	eng	The habitat where the species occurs is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses, especially in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14203		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological studies, population and habitat monitoring recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14203		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern South Asia, eastern and southeastern China, and parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from India (Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from 914 to 2,770 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from much of the east and southeast of the country, including the island of Hainan. In Southeast Asia, the species is widespread on the mainland, being reported from northern and eastern Myanmar, northern and southern Thailand, much of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, possibly Cambodia, and Peninsular Malaysia. It has also been found in Sabah (Malaysia) on the island of Borneo.
14203		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts in caves, and crevices in old buildings in small groups of few individuals. It can be found in the montane forests of Himalayas (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is a high flyer and is also seen foraging near human dwellings (Bates and Harrison 1997). In China, the species has been collected in lowland second growth forests over streams and at the mouth of caves. Colonies of up to 1,200 individuals have been reported (Smith and Xie 2008). Duckworth <em>et al.</em> (1999), report that in Lao PDR most records of this species are near limestone. In Viet Nam the species has been recorded from secondary as well as primary forest habitats (N. Furey pers. comm.). In Thailand bats have been found over small streams in dry evergreen forests (S. Bumringsri pers. comm.). It has been found between 1,000 and 1,600 m asl in Myanmar.
14203		population	eng	This species is generally widespread and not uncommon. In South Asia, the abundance and population size for this species are not known; however, a declining trend in the population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14203		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats as a whole to this species, however, there have been some localised declines. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14204		conservation	eng	Research actions.
14204		distribution	eng	Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Northern Brazil, Bolivia, Northeastern Argentina, and Paraguay (Simmons 2005).
14204		habitat	eng	This species is not suficient known. Found in hollow trees.
14204		population	eng	Very rare.
14204		threats	eng	Not known.
14205		conservation	eng	This species is not believed to be present in any protected areas. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine the status of the species relative to <em>M. macrotarsus</em> from the Philippines. Protection of known roosting sites and important foraging areas is needed.
14205		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded on the islands of Gebe, Waigeo, Batanta, and Kei Ketjil, Indonesia. It was collected in the Kai Islands in 1907 and in July 1993. It was collected in November 1991 by Flannery from Semingit Cave, on the island of Gebe. In 2000, three males were collected from Lopintol, cave II, Waigeo (Meinig 2002), and this species, or a similarly-bodied one, is reported to also be present on the island of Batanta (2005 <em>in litt.</em> communication from M. Farid to K. Helgen; as it appears in Helgen 2007). It has only been recorded below 250 m asl.
14205		habitat	eng	This is a cave roosting species. It is considered to be water dependant, and possibly preys on fish species. The animals found on the Kai Islands in 1993 were in a small colony, and the species was sharing the roost with five other bat species. The colony on Gebe was consisted of about 100 individuals in a limestone cave, surrounded by tall forest. This colony shared the roost with four other bat species. At the time of the collection, one of two adult females was carrying a single young.
14205		population	eng	Small roosting colonies of up to 100 individuals have been observed.
14205		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but may include disturbance of cave roosting sites.
14206		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in US and Mexico.
14206		distribution	eng	Chiapas (Mexico) to Southwestern South Dakota (USA) and British Columbia (Canada) (Simmons 2005).
14206		habitat	eng	The fringed bat occurs in a variety of habitats from desert-scrub to fir-pine associations. Oak and pinyon woodlands appear to be the most commonly used vegetative associations. Roost sites may be in caves, mines, and buildings. There are periodic changes in roost sites within a maternity roost because of thermoregulatory requirements of the bats; for example, clusters of bats move in response to temperature changes in different parts of the roost. Fringed bats are known to migrate, but little is known about the magnitude of movements. Females prepare physiologically for hibernation during the post-lactation period of late summer and early autumn, prior to migration. Individuals may awake from hibernation periodically throughout winter.<br/>Diet includes beetles and moths. These bats forage close to the vegetative canopy, and have relatively slow and highly maneuverable flight.
14206		population	eng	Common. Primarily at middle elevations of 1,200-2,150 m in desert, grassland, and woodland habitats; has been recorded at 2,850 m in spruce-fir habitat in New Mexico, and at low elevations along Pacific Coast. Roosts in caves, mines, rock crevices, buildings, and other protected sites. Nursery colonies occur in caves, mines, and sometimes buildings.
14206		threats	eng	No major threats throughout the species' range. In South Mexico, it is found the sub species <em>aztecus</em> which has a habitat loss of around 40% (de Grammont pers. comm.)
14207		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Baeten <em>et al.</em> 1984) and in view of its East African range, it seems likely that it is present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the range of this species in West and Central Africa.
14207		distribution	eng	This species has been patchily recorded in sub-Saharan Africa. In West Africa the species has currently only been reported from the northwestern uplands of Liberia (Koopman 1995), while in Central Africa it is known only from a few records in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1966; Baeten <em>et al.</em> 1984). The species is much more widely recorded in East Africa, ranging from Ethiopia in the north, through Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe through to southern South Africa.
14207		habitat	eng	In general, animals have been reported from dry and moist savanna, and mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It seems possible that the species is also found in tropical moist forest in Liberia and the Virunga National Park (the Democratic Republic of the Congo), however, this needs confirmation. The species roosts in caves and abandoned mines. It appears to prefer larger caves that are relatively undisturbed, usually ones that contain large pools of water (Herselman and Norton, 1985).
14207		population	eng	This is a common species with colonies often consisting of thousands of animals.
14207		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
14208		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
14208		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Honduras to Kansas and southeastern California (USA) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,300 m (Reid, 1997).
14208		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in evergreen or pine-oak forest and pine forest at mid and high elevations; also at lower elevations in riparian habitats near desert scrub (Reid, 1997). It roosts in tight clusters in caves, mine tunnels, buildings, and under bridges. Colonies number 50 to 15,000 individuals (Reid, 1997). This bat leaves the roost about 30 minutes after sunset and flies directly to water to drink before foraging. It usually forages just above the vegetation, with fast, direct flight. Females return to the day roost within 2 to 3 hours and feed again before dawn. Insects eaten include beetles, flying ants, and moths. Some northern populations hibernate in winter, others migrate. In Kansas, single young are born in June to July. In Veracruz, Mexico, pregnant females were caught in March and December (Hall and Dalquest, 1963; Fitch <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Reid, 1997).
14208		population	eng	This bat is uncommon in Central America, to common in the southwestern USA (Reid, 1997).
14208		threats	eng	Cave issues, like mining and tourism.
14209		conservation	eng	There is presence of the species in Las Islas del Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve and Isla Rasa Reserve. The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction). The protection of this species is being undertaken by the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM).
14209		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coast of Sonora and Baja California (Mexico), chiefly on small islands (Simmons, 2005).
14209		habitat	eng	The most common habitat where this species occurs is interstices in rock slides, but only a few small islands contain large rock slides. Caves and crevices are used regularly. When disturbed, it seeks shelter in a wide variety of places. It has been found under flat stones just above the high tide mark and under turtle shells not exposed to direct sun. Crustaceans comprise the major food for <em>M. vivesi</em>, but this bat may eat either fish or crustaceans. The presence of predators, population pressure, temperature, and relative inclination of roost all are factors that influence the presence or absence of <em>M. vivesi</em> at any locality. Gestation takes 55 to 65 days. Some pregnant females were found in March, April and May. Females from Baja California give birth to a single young between May and June (Blood and Clark, 1998).
14209		population	eng	The species was considered as rare in 1994 by the Mexican Government (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Its larger population was found in Isla Partida and has being estimated between 12,000 and 15,000 individuals (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
14209		threats	eng	Habitat loss and alien species (like rats and cats).
14210		conservation	eng	Forest management practices. Occurs in several protected areas.
14210		distribution	eng	Jalisco to Veracruz (Mexico); Alaska Panhandle (USA) to Baja California (Mexico), east to Northern Nuevo León (Mexico), South Dakota (USA), and Central Alberta (Canada) (Simmons 2005).
14210		habitat	eng	These bats are found in forested regions. They establish roosts in trees, rock crevices, fissures in stream banks, and buildings. Caves and mines are not used in the day, but <em>M. volans</em> can be captured there at night (van Zyll de Jong, 1985). Large nursery colonies, which may number in the hundreds, are formed by this species. These colonies occur most commonly in trees. Mating occurs before the bats enter hibernation in late August or September. Mature females produce one offspring, although it is unknown at what age sexual maturity is reached. Time of parturition varies with latitude. Young are born in late June and July. It is speculated that most juvenile males are sexually active. Banded individuals have been recorded living to 21 years of age (Barbour and Davis, 1969; Nagorsen and Brigham, 1993; van Zyll de Jong, 1985).
14210		population	eng	Occurs in colonies of 2,000-5,000 individuals throughout much of its range. Habitats vary from desert floodplains and rocky canyonlands to the cave country from central Texas to southcentral Kansas. In summer, this species congregates in caves, mines, and less often in buildings. Most individuals in populations in Arizona and California appear to be migratory and most in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas appear to be permanent residents that hibernate in caves during winter. Flight is stronger, more direct, and with less flutter than most other bats of the genus. These bats begin emerging from the daytime roost well before dark, fill their stomachs within about 0.5 hour of foraging, and retire to some shelter such as a building, cave, or mine for a night resting period.
14210		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range. Long-legged myotis may be affected by closure of abandoned mines without adequate surveys and certain forest management practices. Residues of DDT and its metabolites have been found in this species in Oregon.
14211		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area and Kruger National Park in South Africa, and seem likely to be present in additional East or southern African protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
14211		distribution	eng	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded over much of East Africa and southern Africa, parts of southern Central Africa, and with a single West African locality in southeastern Guinea. In East and southern Africa it is distributed from Ethiopia and the Sudan in the north, through Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi, to Zambia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and northeastern South Africa. In Central Africa it is largely confined to southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Angola, Rwanda and Burundi and western Uganda. It has not \been recorded from Namibia or Botswana.
14211		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from a range of habitats including tropical dry forest, montane tropical moist forest, both dry and moist savanna, shrublands, and high altitude grassland. Animals have been encountered roosting in buildings, caves and dense vegetation (including rolled banana leaves).
14211		population	eng	Although this species is widespread, it does not appear to be particularly common.
14211		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
14213		conservation	eng	At the moment has not been listed in any conservation measure by the Mexican Government (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). The species occurs in several protected areas.
14213		distribution	eng	Hidalgo, Morelos and Baja California (Mexico) north to British Columbia (Canada), east to Montana and Western Texas (USA) (Simmons 2005).
14213		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, ranging from juniper and riparian woodlands to desert regions near open water (Nowak, 1991). One is almost guaranteed to find this species wherever there are rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, etc. In fact, it is more closely associated with water than any other North American species of bat (Barbour and Davis, 1969). When not near water over which to forage, these animals can be found in the thousands roosting in caves, attics, buildings, mines, underneath bridges, and other similar structures. Little is known about the migration of this species. However, it has been recorded in Texas as well as in its normal range during the winter season (Allen, 1994). This bat is a very efficient insectivorous feeder that begins foraging at dusk and usually finishes two hours after sunset (Barbour and Davis, 1969).
14213		population	eng	Common.
14213		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
14214		conservation	eng	No information.
14214		distribution	eng	Baltic coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia and southwestward to eastern Poland. Western coast of Sweden to northern coast of Norway, eastward to White and Barents Sea basins. In Siberia eastward to about Anadyr estuary. Northern North America. Landlocked populations in Sweden, central Finland and Karelia.
14214		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold brackish and moderately saline water near coast; enters coastal rivers up to 200 km inland. Also landlocked in lakes. Spawns in shallow waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Diurnal in winter, largely nocturnal in summer. Lives up to 14 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Males are territorial. Spawns on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. After spawning, female leaves the nest. Juveniles move to shallow water in autumn and again to deeper water in spring, where they remain in summer. Feeds on invertebrates and fishes.
14214		population	eng	Abundant
14214		threats	eng	No major threats known.
14222		conservation	eng	The Numbat is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Both of areas where the species occurs naturally as well as the reintroduction sites are protected areas. A recovery plan was prepared and is being implemented (Friend 1994). <br/><br/>In 1985 this species was only known from Dryandra and Perup, but captive breeding and reintroduction programs have greatly helped to reduce the risk to this species (Friend 2008). Fox control programs are seen as essential to the recovery of this species. Objectives for recovering listed by Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) included increasing the number of self-sustaining populations to at least nine and the number of animals to over 4,000. This has not been achieved however, and with the current, mysterious decline at Dryandra, the Numbat is still highly threatened.
14222		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally Dryandra and Perup in south-western Western Australia. This species was formerly widespread across southern semi-arid and arid Australia. There are reintroduced populations in Dragon Rocks Nature Reserve, Batalling State Forest, Tutanning Nature Reserve, and Boyagin Nature Reserve (all Western Australia). There are two fenced, reintroduced populations; Yookamurra Sanctuary (South Australia) and Scotia Sanctuary (New South Wales).
14222		habitat	eng	Numbats formerly occurred in semi-arid and arid woodlands (Eucalyptus and Acacia) and grasslands (Triodia and Plectrachne). Now they are restricted to eucalypt woodlands in the wettest periphery of the former range. This species is generally solitary and is active during the day foraging mostly on termites from dead trees, logs, and in the leaf litter. The presence of hollow logs was probably less important to the species before the introduction of foxes; they are now seen as being of prime importance (Friend 2008). At night shelter is sought from the burrows of other animals or a bed of grass inside a hollow log.
14222		population	eng	The global population is probably under 1,000. The population at Dryandra has declined drastically, from an estimated peak of approximately 600 in 1992 to 50 today (carrying capacity at the site may be about 300). There have been no declines in Perup (where the habitat is different), and possibly some increase. There are 500-600 reintroduced within the reserves, but none of these is yet considered secure.
14222		threats	eng	The introduction of the predatory red fox has had a profound impact and continues to be a major threat today (Friend 2008). Changed fire regimes, especially in arid grasslands and habitat destruction in some areas is a concern (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Introduced rabbits and raptors (native species whose numbers are overly elevated in fragmented woodlands) are also threats. Frequent fires can be a threat due to the reduction in the number of logs, which the species uses as shelter. The causes of the declines at Dryandra are unknown; fox control may have increased the number of feral cats in the region; the concentration of raptors may also be a problem.
14224		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from many protected areas. It is listed on several national red data lists, and is protected as a national heritage species in some provinces in Argentina. There is a need to improve fire management practices, especially in sugarcane plantations and within the regions of grassland habitat occupied by this species.
14224		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> has been recorded from Honduras in Central America, south through South America to the Gran Chaco region of Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. Within Central America, the species has disappeared from much of its range, with recent sightings generally confined to highland regions. The giant anteater is considered the most threatened mammal of Central America; it seems to be extinct in Belize and Guatemala, and probably also in Costa Rica. In South America, this species is extinct in Uruguay (Fallabrino and Castiñeira 2006) and in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil (Cherem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004); it is classified as Critically Endangered in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Fontana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) but will be categorized as Extinct in the next update of this state's Red List (C. Kasper pers. comm. 2009). Its presence in Ecuador west of the Andes needs to be confirmed.
14224		habitat	eng	This terrestrial anteater is found in tropical moist forest, dry forest, savanna habitats and open grasslands; it has also been reported from the Gran Chaco (Meritt 2008, Noss <em>et al.</em> 2008). Animals are generally solitary. Once per year, the female gives birth to a single young. Gestation length is about 190 days. The mother carries the offspring on its back for approximately six months. As it is not possible to determine their age once they reach adult size and long-term population studies on giant anteaters are lacking, there are no data on the longevity, survival rates, or reproductive rates of wild giant anteaters. The generation length is therefore unknown.
14224		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> is locally uncommon to rare.
14224		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> is at risk from habitat loss in parts of its range, and this is a significant threat to Central American populations in particular. Where this species inhabits grassland habitats it is particularly susceptible to fires. Animals are sometimes killed on roads or by dogs. Giant anteaters are hunted for food throughout their distribution, and are additionally  hunted as a pest, for pets or for illegal trade in some parts of their range.
14225		habitat	eng	This species is a slave-making ant that conducts slave raids with group recruitments and sting fighting. Forms colonies with the host ant <em>Leptothorax unifasciatus</em>. Colonies inhabit narrow galleries between and underneath small stones on rocky hill slopes in deciduous forest (birch and spruce forests).
14254		conservation	eng	The islands where this species is found occur in a mutliple-use protected area (Archipiélago de los Canarreos).
14254		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen from Cayo Maja and from several collections following (Soy pers. comm.).
14254		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been described as arboreal, living in mangrove trees.
14254		population	eng	Very little is known about the populations of this species.
14254		threats	eng	Although little is know about threats to this species, it can be inferred that hunting has been a serious threat to this species as with other hutia.
14255		conservation	eng	The species occurs in one protected area (La Cañada).
14255		distribution	eng	Known distribution is limited to the northern sector of Isla de la Joventud, Cuba. Its extent of occurrence is less than 480 km<sup>2</sup>.
14255		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known.
14255		population	eng	No population information could be found.
14255		threats	eng	This species has been severely affected by hunting and deforestation for agriculture and cattle.
14256		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (PN Pico Cristal, PN La Mensura, PN Alejandro de Humbolt, PN Turquino, PN Desembarco del Granma, PN Sierra Maestra).
14256		distribution	eng	This species is known from the far eastern provinces of Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
14256		habitat	eng	The species is found only in primarly and secondary forest habitats.
14256		population	eng	Populations are extremely fragmented and the species is not abundant anywhere within its range.
14256		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and fragmentation all pose serious threats to this species. The species has been in decline for the last 30 years (Soy pers. comm.)
14257		conservation	eng	The species occurs in one multiple-use protected area (Sur de la Isla).
14257		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to lowland forests southwest of the central savanna of the Isla de la Joventud (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
14257		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but is thought to use climbing plants or vines between trees for shelter, nests and substratum (Borroto Paez and Ramos Garcia 2003).
14257		population	eng	In recent expeditions, no evidence of this species has been found (Borroto Paez and Ramos Garcia 2003).
14257		threats	eng	The species is presumably hunted, however, it is unclear if there are many left in the wild to hunt. Introduced species (feral cats, <em>Rattus rattus</em>) are also a major threat.
14258		conservation	eng	Occurs in numerous protected areas.
14258		distribution	eng	This species occurs across the entire mainland Cuba (Soy pers. comm.).
14258		habitat	eng	The species is completely arboreal and is a specialized folivore (leaf eater). It is forest dependent, and occurs in both primary and secondary forest.
14258		population	eng	This species is locally common. Where appropriate habitat remains, it is reported to be have one of the most dense hutia populations in Cuba (Borroto Paez and Ramos Garcia 2003).
14258		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and fragmentation of habitat have affected the species in some portions of its range. It is hunted in some areas, but to a lesser degree than other  hutia. It is often eaten by dogs near human settlements.
14259		conservation	eng	No information available.
14259		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found along all four countries shorelines (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC). See West (1999) for locality details.
14259		habitat	eng	It is found in silty and sandy substrates, especially near river deltas. 7-70 meters deep.
14259		population	eng	No information available.
14259		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation appears to be the most crucial threat to the species according to information from Tanzania.
14260		conservation	eng	Rats have been eradicated from both Big South Cape (where the species was last seen) and neighbouring Putauhina Island. Following these eradications, there have been several reports of bat sightings from Putauhina, and in 1999 Colin O'Donnell recorded <em>Mystacina</em>-like echolocation calls from the island that do not belong to <em>M. tuberculata</em> (O'Donnell 1999). There have also been two unconfirmed reports of bats being seen on Big South Cape. The identity of the bats being seen still must be confirmed, and although <em>M. tuberculata</em> is thought to have once inhabited these islands, the nearest populations of it or the only other New Zealand bat species (<em>Chalinolobus tuberculatus</em>) are more than 50 km away. For this reason, there is a real possibility that <em>M. robusta</em> still survives in low numbers (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Rats continue to be eradicated from all islands in this group, and more surveys for <em>M. robusta</em> are planned (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).
14260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand. There have been no confirmed sightings of the species since 1967 when it was found on Big South Cape Island (near Stewart Island). It might still persist here or on other small privately-owned islands near Stewart Island.<br/><br/>It is known from subfossil remains on both North Island and South Island. By the time of European arrival, <em>c.</em>200 years ago, the species was probably already restricted to small islands off the coast of Stewart Island.
14260		habitat	eng	Although the habitat preferences of this species are incompletely known, it is presumed to have similar requirements to <em>Mystacina tuberculata</em> in that it was a forest species that was largely restricted to undisturbed old-growth forest. Remains of this species in limestone caves suggest that it roosted in caves, and it is possible that the species also roosted in tree cavities, although there is no direct evidence for this (Lloyd 2001).
14260		population	eng	It has not been recorded since 1967 and is possibly extinct.
14260		threats	eng	Evidence from owl middens indicates a marked decline in this species following the introduction of the Kiore or Pacific Rat (<em>Rattus exulans</em>) to New Zealand, and it seems probable that this introduction largely resulted in the demise of <em>Mystacina robusta</em> (Lloyd 2001).
14261		conservation	eng	<em>Mystacina tuberculata</em> is protected by New Zealand's Wildlife Act of 1953. Conservation is occurring using guidance from a national Bat Recovery Plan (Molloy 1995), with on-going assessments and annual work plans being co-ordinated by the national Bat Recovery Group. Management includes eradications of introduced predators from offshore islands (rats have already been eliminated from islands containing two large offshore populations), predator control at mainland sites (this is just beginning), habitat protection, trial translocations to new habitats, and general advocacy. This species occurs in a number of protected areas. More research is needed to determine the area of occupancy for the species.<br/><br/>There are three subspecies and five evolutionary significant units (ESUs) recognised by the New Zealand Bat Recovery Group and the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Lloyd 2003a,b). The national (non-IUCN) listings for these populations are as follows (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2007):<br/><br/>Northern lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata aupourica</em>, nationally endangered <br/>Eastern lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata rhyacobia</em>, at risk <br/>North-western lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata rhyacobia</em>, at risk <br/>Southern North Island lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata tuberculata</em>, nationally critical<br/>South Island lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata tuberculata</em>, nationally endangered<br/><br/>Fortunately, the population of <em>Mystacina tuberculata rhyacobia</em> on the central North Island is much bigger than originally thought. Other populations, however, cannot be considered secure such as northern and southern subspecies (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).
14261		distribution	eng	New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat is endemic to New Zealand where it was once widespread on North Island and South Island. It now occupies less than 30% of its historical geographic range (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.). The species is currently distributed on North Island in the Omahuta-Puketi Forest, the Waipoua and Warawara Forests, and throughout tracts of indigenous forest remnants ranging from Taranaki to East Cape and south to the Tararuas (Lloyd 2001, 2005). On South Island, populations are known from the Oparara Basin and Eglinton Valley, with calls recorded from Punakaiki (Lloyd 2001, 2005) and the Dart Valley (B. Lawrence pers. comm.). Large populations of this species are also present on the offshore islands of Little Barrier Island and Codfish Island (Lloyd 2001, 2005). Lesser short-tailed bats range from close to sea level to the upper altitudinal limits of forest cover (Lloyd 2001, 2005).
14261		habitat	eng	Lesser short-tailed bats are associated with old-growth temperate forest, with large trees available for colonial roosts, abundant epiphytes and deep leaf-litter (Lloyd 2005). Colonial breeding trees per colony number only 20-30 and they have very specific physical and microhabitat charcteristics, which are now very rare in New Zealand forests because of the history of logging (Sedgeley 2003, 2006). The species has been recorded at low numbers in logged forest, shrubland, pine plantations, and farmland in areas adjacent to undamaged old-growth forest (Lloyd 2005). Although the species primarily roosts in tree cavities, there are records of the species using caves for roosting (Lloyd 2005). <br/><br/>It is primarily insectivorous but also comsumes nectar, pollen, and fruit (Lloyd 2005). Lesser short-tailed bats undergo periods of torpor and seasonal hibernation (Lloyd 2005). The species is thought to undertake a lek mating system, but this has yet to be proven (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.). Females annually give birth to a single young (Lloyd 2001, 2005).
14261		population	eng	Large numbers have been recorded in undamaged old-growth forest (Lloyd 2001, 2005). The largest colonial roost recorded consisted of >6,000 animals (Lloyd 2005). The overall population of lesser short-tailed bats probably exceeds 30,000 individuals with several populations containing more than 1,000 bats (Lloyd 2005).<br/><br/>The geographic ranges of the colonies are <em>c.</em>150 km<sup>2</sup> a piece, and only about a dozen subpopulations are known (O'Donnell <em>et al.</em> 1999; Christie 2003; Lloyd 2005). Within these, the range of the 'irreplaceable colonial breeding sites' are much smaller (17 ha in one study; Christie 2003). Colonial breeding trees per colony number only 20-30 and they have very specific physical and microhabitat charcteristics, which are now very rare in New Zealand forests because of the history of logging (Sedgeley 2003, 2006).<br/><br/>The central North Island populations are large, but they are fragmented and we have little understanding of current trends there. Two of the three subpopulations that are being studied continue to decline (i.e., Oparara and Tararua). In fact, the Oparara bats (only 1 of 2 subpopulations in South Island) have not been detected for a few years now, despite considerable survey effort.
14261		threats	eng	Old-growth roost trees are very important to the species. Lesser short-tailed bats are thought to have declined through forest clearance following human settlement of New Zealand.<br/><br/>Predation by introduced stoats and rats has also been, and continues to be, a major threat to this species. This is evident from the increase in bats on Codfish Island following the removal of Pacific rats, as well as increases in the Eglinton Valley following the initiation of comprehensive rat and stoat control. Stoats and rats are also known to visit colonial roosts, and are suspected as the reason for the critical status of the Tararua, Oparara, and Northland subpopulations in areas where no logging has occurred. Furthermore, these bats disappeared from the southern Titi Islands when ship rats were introduced.  <br/><br/>Populations of this species also appear to be minimally impacted by poisoning through consumption of bait distributed in New Zealand forests to control invasive vertebrate species, and also through secondary poisoning resulting from consumption of invertebrates that have fed on poisoned bait (Lloyd 2005).
14262		conservation	eng	Conservation actions needed for this species include further survey work, research into the life history of the species, PHVA analysis, and increased public awareness of the species is recommended. The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
14262		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread across South Africa and Lesotho. There are no museum records from Swaziland, where extensive trapping for the last 10 years has not detected the species suggesting that it does not occur in this country.
14262		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shrubland and grassland areas. A major requirement of the species is black loam with good vegetation cover. They breed once or twice a year and live up to 6 years.
14262		population	eng	The current size of the population is not known, however, the low capture rate experienced during surveys suggest that numbers are extremely low. The population is expected to further decrease as a result of habitat loss over the next decade.
14262		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of agriculture. Grazing pressure is also contributing to the loss of habitat for this species.
14263		conservation	eng	There are species actions plans in various European countries. In the UK, the species is listed on the Biodiversity Action Plan requiring monitoring of the habitats on a regular basis. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">This is a naturally rare species and is difficult to  record. The species is thought to be declining throughout much of its range so more data on the species distribution, population and habitat trends and threats are of importance to monitor this.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span>
14263		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is mainly found in the Northern European area whereas it is scattered in the lowlands of Central and Eastern Europe and is possibly extinct in many of its former localities. Fauna Europaea lists the following countries: Belgium, Great Britain, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Northern Ireland, Poland, Sweden, The Netherlands, Ukraine (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). However, it is frequently under-recorded, as surveys for the species need to be carried out at the right time of the year.<br/><br/>Outside Europe the species is recorded from south part of West Siberia, northern part of Central Siberia (eastward to Ob mouth), northern Kazakhstan (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span>
14263		habitat	eng	The species prefers water bodies with very clear water, which is free from fine sediments and nitrate or phosphate pollution, and a firm substratum on which the snail can crawl. A preference for hard water has been noted in the U.K., although calcium levels in Llyn Tegid are relatively low (H. Jones, in litt.). They inhabit generally small, mesotrophic to eutrophic lakes with a dense vegetation.<br/>A population of <em>M. glutinosa</em> in one of the lakes (Lake Bolstaholm) was monitored over two seasons. In spring, individuals live on rocks where they feed on epilithic algae and propagate, then die. In late summer the new generation hatches and is mainly found on leaves of water lilies. During this time they grow, feeding either on epiphytic algae or on decaying leaves. In late autumn, having reached their adult size, they descend to deeper water to hibernate.
14263		population	eng	In northern Europe it reproduces early, when sea-ice is melting and this is the only time to find mature individuals. The species is only a short-lived species, so assessment period over 10 years. There are no comprehensive data about population available. However it is thought that there is a regional decline in population size. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Although as it is a naturally rare species it is difficult to  record. Recent surveys have failed to locate this species at a former site near Oxford (Kennington Pit) in the U.K. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is present only in a single mesotrophic lake in  Wales, Llyn Tegid. This is a 50% decline in terms of sites in the U.K. supporting the species (UK BAP report). The last record of the species in the Czech Republic is from 1950s. In Ireland it has been lost from 50% of the<span id="result_box" class="long_text">  sites in the last 30 years and is mainly found in the Royal and Grand Canals (Bryne <em>et al</em>. 2009). E. Moorkens and I. Killeen considered that&#160;the Irish populations were  globally important suggesting that they represented up to 50% of the  global population (Bryne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> In Germany it is found in the north. In Schleswig-Holstein there are very     few populations left. The Red List indicates a 90% decline since 1960 in the Netherlands (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In Finland the species has a restricted range as it has in Norway, where it is confined to the south-east. However, in Sweden the species has a large range, with scattered sites along the Baltic  Sea.</span></span></span>
14263		threats	eng	A main threat is from habitat degradation from eutrophication and changes in water levels.
14264		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are planned for this species.
14264		distribution	eng	Several locations exist across Kwaulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and Western Cape Provinces from Kosi Bay to the Breede River system (Skelton 2001).
14264		habitat	eng	Estuarine species with juveniles that require freshwater reaches for growth and safety. Adults breed at sea, after maturing sexually in estuaries (Skelton 2001).
14264		population	eng	It inhabits probably all estuaries within its range and therefore has a large overall population size. Very little is known about population trends.
14264		threats	eng	Instream dams and alien fish have impacted on their range in lower reaches of rivers.
14288		conservation	eng	This species has only been recorded from a few protected areas: Parc National de Marojejy (Pont and Armstrong 1990), Tampolo littoral forest (Ifticence <em>et al.</em> 2005) and near to Parc National de Masoala (Russ and Bennett 1999) and Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra (Russ and Bennett 1999). Additional study is needed to develop an understanding of local population densities and precise habitat requirements.
14288		distribution	eng	This species and family is endemic to the island of Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is found in the humid zone of eastern and north-eastern Madagascar and appears to be most common at elevations lower than 500 m (Schliemann and Goodman 2003) although it has been recorded at Andasibe (ca. 970 m).
14288		habitat	eng	Numerous studies refer to an association between <em>M. aurita</em> and the <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> plant which it is presumed to use for roosting (Schliemann and Goodman 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, there is only a single account of this reported in the literature (Schliemann and Maas 1978). Additional evidence for this association comes from observations of a captive individual (Göpfert and Wasserthal 1995) and the markedly similar upper elevational limits of both bat and plant species in eastern Madagascar (Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). The distinctive round sucker organs attached to its thumb and hind foot is used for adhering to smooth surfaces (Göpfert and Wasserthal 1995; Schliemann and Goodman 2003). Its foraging habitats are not well documented, but it has been netted inside and outside relatively intact littoral forest (Goodman 1999; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007). It appears to be able to survive in highly modified habitats and Russell <em>et al</em>. (2008) consider it to have benefited from deforestation.
14288		population	eng	Despite its relatively wide distribution and apparent use of highly disturbed habitats there are few population data available. Russell <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimated an effective population size of between 100,054 and 132,742 individuals. In some areas, <em>M. aurita</em> is locally common (P. A. Racey pers. comm.), but it is rarely trapped in large numbers during surveys (Russ and Bennett 1999; Ifticene <em>et al.</em> 2005; Rakotondraparany and Medard 2005; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007).
14288		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is occasionally eaten by people when harvesting <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> plants (H. J. Razafimanahaka pers. comm.)
14290		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
14294		conservation	eng	The red goral is listed on Appendix I of CITES, and as a Class I Protected Species in China. Legally it received total protection in 1987 (Zhang, 1991). It is known in at least four protected areas, all in Tibet: Gangxiang, Muotuo, Xiaca and Medoq. A small herd has been breeding successfully in Shang Hai Zoo. Conservation measures proposed for China: 1) Enforce the existing protection laws for this species. 2) Establish the proposed protected areas for this species that have not yet been acted on by the government of Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). These are: a) an area of 200 km diameter, with its centre at “big turning point of Yarlung Zangbo Jiang” (Zhang, 1987); and b) an “International Mountain Research Centre” in Yegon county with eight nature reserves in the area surrounding Nanjabarva Peak (Mountaineering and Scientific Expedition, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1985). These reserves would include parts of the four counties mentioned above, and contain the core range of red goral, an area that is relatively pristine and has a widespread, complex mountain ecosystem plus a diverse fauna and flora. Obviously efforts should be made to encourage the Government of TAR to make a decision and then to organize the necessary surveys for these proposals.<br/><br/>In India, the red goral is legally protected under Schedule TIT (revised March 1987) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972). It occurrence in protected areas in India is not known, and more surveys are needed to determine its conservation needs in this country.<br/><br/>This species is largely or perhaps entirely within protected areas in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006), notably the Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Hkakaborazi National Park.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.
14294		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Myanmar, China (southeast Tibet and Yunnan), and northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh) (Grubb, 2005, Singh, 2002, Mishra, 2006). This species is found at higher elevations than most gorals, between altitudes of 2,000-4,500 m (Zhang 1987; Rabinowitz 1999; Smith and Xie 2008). <br/><br/>According to Shackelton (1997), this species, sometimes referred to as <em>N. cranbrooki</em>, has a narrow distribution, and inhabits the largest remaining native coniferous forests up to 4,000 m in the eastern Himalayas of southeastern Tibet. According to summer surveys carried out in this region from 1987 to 1988 (Zhang 1987, Zhang, 1991) the distribution area is between about 27° to 29°30'N and 96° to 98°E, in four prefectures of Tibet (Bomi, Nying, Mainling and Medog; Zhang 1987). This current range in southeastern Tibet is believed to be reduced considerably and is now confined to an area of less than 8,000 km² in Tongmai (Bomi), Dongjiu, Pelung, and Bayu (Linzhi) and Medog, around the junction of the Pelung Zangbo and Yarlung Zangbo rivers (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986; Zhang 1987; 1991). This goral is also known to occur in Gongshan county, southeastern Yunnan (Liu 1987; Wang 2003).<br/><br/>In Myanmar the species is confined to the northernmost part of the country, and in India it is restricted to Arunachal Pradesh, near the Chinese and Myanmar borders.
14294		habitat	eng	The red goral inhabits forest, ragged crags, scrub and meadows from 2,000 m up to 4,500 m in summer (Smith and Xie 2008). The elevation and range where red goral is found supports one of the largest tracts of primary coniferous woodland in Asia, which along with its rocky outcrops, form the species' primary habitat (Zhang, 1987; Wang  1998; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). Red gorals migrate seasonally, moving in the winter (typically, November through to March) to lower-elevation mixed deciduous and coniferous forests or glades and thickets below the snow line (Zhang, 1987; Wang 1998; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999; Rabinowitz, 1999).  Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days (Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares during the mating season. This species is typically solitary, but occasionally the animals are seen in small groups of 2-3, typically a female and her offspring, sometimes accompanied with a male, or a female with her offspring from the previous two years (Zhang, 1987; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). Mates in December, and young are born in June after a six month pregnancy (Smith and Xie 2008).  The diet consists primarily of lichens; however, it also feeds on grasses and weeds as well as tender stems, leaves, and twigs from shrubs, although no long term studies on diet have been done (Zhang, 1987; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). The gestation length is 170-218 days, with single births. Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately three years, with a lifespan of up to 15 years or so.
14294		population	eng	Random sampling during summer field studies from 1987 to 1988 provided some information on the red goral population in Xizang (Zhang, 1991). Total numbers were estimated to be 810 to 1,370 individuals, distributed as follows: 120 to 180 for Linzhi, 60 to 220 for Bomi, 320 to 380 for Zayu, 220 to 450 Medog, and 90 to 140 for Manling (Zhang, 1991). Wang (1998) suggested that total numbers in China were less than 1,500. The species is rare in Myanmar because of a naturally restricted range, compounded by the effects of trade-driven hunting (Than Zaw and W. Duckworth pers. comm., 2006). There is little information on its status in India. Given its small range, the total population size is probably less than 10,000 mature individuals.
14294		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat loss caused by rapid forestry expansion are the major threats. Since the opening up of and the economic reforms in Tibet, hunting has had a major negative impact on the population of red goral. This is due primarily to the increasing number of immigrants and modern hunting weapons. It was said that in the three provinces of Pelung, Dingjiu and Bayu in the Linzhi county, only about 150 individuals of this species had been hunted annually before the early 1980s. Although a hunting ban was in effect over the last five years, poaching is still common and takes place most often when animals move down to their winter ranges (Zhang, 1991). Hunting is the major threat to the species in Myanmar, reflecting the same factors as listed above for China (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). It is valued when found (W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). Horns are valued medicinally in China (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006).
14295		conservation	eng	All gorals are listed on Appendix I of CITES. <br/><br/>In Russia, it is listed as Category I of the Russian Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). It is protected in five Nature Reserves: Lazo Reserve harbours some, Sikhote-Alin Reserve has about 200, Zheleznyakovsky Sanctuary about 50, Vasilkovsky Sanctuary about 50, and an unknown but small number in Ussuri Reserve (Myslenkov and Voloshina, 1989). Captive breeding programs are being carried out in Lazo and Sikhote-Alin Reserves. Conservation measures proposed for Russia: 1) Reintroduce goral in appropriate areas formerly inhabited by the species to help restore its range. 2) Enlarge the size of the Sikhote-Alin Reserve to include the area south along the coastline. 3) Prohibit boats from approaching protected shores, keeping a distance of at least 0.5 km. <br/><br/>In North Korea, two areas proposed as Biosphere Reserves (Poore 1986), Mount Myohyung Nature Reserve (37,500 ha) 180 km NE of Pyongyang and Mount Paektu (Paekdu) Biosphere Reserve (132,000 ha; 41°56’N, 128°10’E), are reported to have goral. These proposed reserves lie across the border from the Changbaishan Biosphere Reserve in Jilin (China). Its status within North Korea is Indeterminate. Conservation measures proposed for North Korea: 1) Surveys of population status and distribution, followed by 2) development of conservation actions. <br/><br/>In South Korea, the Amur goral has been designated as a Natural Treasure by the Cultural Property Preservation Law in 1968, while hunting of all species was banned throughout the mainland between 1972 and 1981 (Won, 1979). Mount Seorak National Park, which contains goral, was approved as a Biosphere Reserve in 1982, and is protected by the National Monument Protection Law (No. 2233) of 1910, the law of Forestry (act 67.68) of 1908, and the National Park Law of 1962. Goral is found in two protected areas in South Korea; in Mount Seorak National Park, and rarely in Mount Odae National Park. Goral was designated as Natural Monument No. 217 on 14 November 1968 and theoretically receives full protection. Conservation measures proposed for South Korea: 1) Fully re-evaluate the species’ status. 2) Determine the feasibility of providing adequate protection through enforcing current protection measures, creating additional protected areas, or both. 3) Determine if captive breeding may also be required. However, without adequate habitat protection, this measure would be basically academic.<br/><br/>In China, long-tailed goral are categorized as a Class II species. It occus in most of the nature reserves located within its range in the North China and the Northeast China Regions. These include Taoshan and Jinpuohu (Heilongjiang); Chanbaishan and Zuojia (Jilin); and Suzihe (Liaoning).<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.
14295		distribution	eng	Long-tailed goral are found in eastern Russia (Primorsky and Khabarovsk Territories), northeastern China, the Republic of Korea, and the Democratic People’s Republic (DPR) of Korea (Grubb, 2005). In Russia, long-tailed goral were previously distributed along almost the entire southern half of Sikhote-Alin range, (i.e. the entire Primorsky Territory and southern part of Khabarovsk Territory) and on the southern end of the Bureya range, although its occurrence in this last area is uncertain. In the 1960s and 1970s goral were repeatedly observed along the left tributaries of the Khor river, along the Kafen, Chuken and Sukpay rivers, on the western slopes of Central Sikhote-Alin (approximately 47°N, 137°E) (Dunishenko, 1983). The third part of this species range occupies mostly the eastern slope of Sikhote-Alin along the coast of the Sea of Japan, between 43°40'N and 45°N, and also all the southern end of Sikhote-Alin range (Myslenkov and Voloshina, 1989). The fourth part occurs along the Chinese-Russian border in the Khasan region. A fifth area reportedly exists along the same border south of Khanka lake. Its distribution within these parts is patchy because goral are confined to specific habitat—steep rocky slopes covered with sparse, montane broad-leaved forest, from sea level to about 1,000 m (Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961).<br/><br/>In China the long-tailed  goral is found in the northeast, and stretches along the Xiao Hinggan Ling mountains (Lesser Khingan range), along the lower reaches of Sungari and Amur rivers in eastern Jilin and Heilong Jiang, and eastern Liaoning, and includes the Changbaishan range (Jilin) on the border with North Korea (Wang 2002, Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>In DPR Korea, little is known of the recent distribution of this species (Shackleton, 1997). It is likely that it occurs (or occurred) in the Hamgyong mountains which lie inland from the northeastern coastline, and in the Taebaek mountains in the southwest and which continue into the Republic of Korea. A third area where it may occur is the Nanghim mountains in the north-central part of North Korea. These are extensions of the Changhai mountains from Jilin (China).<br/><br/>In the Republic of Korea, it is restricted to the Seorak mountains at the northern end of the Taebaek range (Won 1997).
14295		habitat	eng	The species inhabits steep mountainous areas and will sometimes use evergreen forests near cliffs, but primarily stays within rugged, rocky terrain. It inhabits steep and rocky terrain in evergreen and deciduous forests, especially with exposed grassy ridges from about 500-2,000 m asl. It eats a wide range of plant material: grass, herbs and shoots, leaves of small trees, nuts, and even some fruit. Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares during the mating season. They typically live in small groups of 4-12 individuals, with older males usually solitary. Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days. It keeps to steeper slopes where it is very agile over rocky crags and cliffs. The gestation length is 250-260 days (Myslenkov and Voloshina, 1989). Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately three years, with a lifespan of up to 15 years or so. Mating takes place in early winter, and one, or rately two-three, kids born about six months later.
14295		population	eng	In 1977, the total number in Russia was estimated at 600 to 750 animals (Bromley, 1977). Myslenkov and Voloshina (1989) indicated no decline in numbers or disappearance of any known local population, and that numbers along the Sea of Japan may have been slowly increasing. Lazo District has about 300 animals, Terneisky District around 250, Olginsky District 80, and Dalnegorsky District 15 to 20 goral. Population density in several places, for example in Sikhote-Alin Reserve, reaches 35 animals/km². In South Korea, less than 50 animals are estimated to remain on Konbong mountain in Konsong-gun, Kangwon Province, near the demilitarised zone (DMZ) (Won, 1988). <br/><br/>There are no estimates for DPR Korea. Won (1997) estimated less than 50 animals, but the basis for this is unclear. There are no reliable populations estimates for long-tailed goral in China. Smith and Xie (2008) considered it to be much reduced in numbers.
14295		threats	eng	The threats in Russia are poaching, which may be increasing. In DPR Korea and the Republic of Korea, major threats to its survival include habitat loss due to forestry, agriculture, and poaching. Threats in China include hunting, snaring, habitat degradation, and competition from domestic livestock (Smith and Xie 2008). Hunting is both for traditional medicine, and meat.
14296		conservation	eng	<em>Naemorhedus goral</em> is listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral goral</em><br/><em>N. g. goral</em> is listed as a Class II protected species and receives some protection in the Qomolangma Nature Reserve on the border with Nepal. Conservation measures proposed for China: 1) Determine status and distribution before 2) developing a detailed conservation strategy.<br/><br/>Goral in Bhutan are known to occur in Doga, and Royal Manas National Parks (Green, 1987b), and appear to be well protected in Jigme Dorji National Park (Wollenhaupt, 1989d, Johnsingh 2005), and Black Mountains and Thrumsingla National Parks. Although Doga National Park was established mainly to protect this goral, the habitat is so degraded by exploitation that the Park is of almost no conservation value for the species (Blower, 1986; Wollenhaupt, 1989a) and has since been removed from the country’s protected areas system. Conservation measures proposed for Bhutan: Surveys to determine numbers and distribution.<br/><br/>In India, both the Western Himalayan goral (<em>N. goral bedfordi</em>) and the Eastern Himalayan goral (<em>N. g. gopal</em>) are listed as Lower Risk/near threatened, which allows adult male goral to be hunted under special license. This status has essentially been applied to all forms of goral and accepted by all states except Nagaland and in Himachal Pradesh where goral are legally and completely protected. Some 50 protected areas in India are reported to include some goral (Singh, 1985; Rodgers and Panwar, 1988; Pandey 2002), including  Jammu and Kashmir - Kishtwar National Park, Nandni and Surinsar Mansar Wildlife Sanctuaries, and possibly in Limber Game Reserve and Overa-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary (latest surveys fail to document species’ presence); Himachal Pradesh- Great Himalayan National Park, Bandi Churdar, Chail, Daranghati, Darlaghat, Gamgul Siahbehi, Kalatop-Khajjiar, Kanawar, Khokhan, Kugti, Lippa Asrang, Majathal, Manali, Naina Devi, Nargu, Raksham Chitkul, Renuka, Rupi Bhaba, Sangla valley, Sechu Tuan Nala, Shikari Devi, Shilli (locally threatened), Simbalbara, Simla Water Catchment, Talra, Tirthan and Tundah (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttaranchal (Negi 2002) - Corbett, Nanda Devi, Rajaji and Valley of Flowers National Parks, Askot, Sonanadi, Binsar, Musorriie, Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park; Megahalaya - Balphakram National Park; and Assam - possibly in Buxa Tiger Reserve. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Establish the proposed Srikhand National Park (Himachal Pradesh) which includes the range of <em>N. g. bedjordi</em>. 2) Develop a management program for goral living outside protected areas. Habitat alteration and disturbance by heavy grazing and hunting will continue to negatively affect goral populations throughout northern India. However, it is apparently able to survive in areas of substantial human farming and grazing activity, as long as patches of rugged, brush-covered slopes are maintained. 3) Develop a management plan to prevent overhunting in non-protected areas, and to increase effective protection in parks and sanctuaries, if viable populations are to be maintained.<br/><br/>In Nepal, goral occurs in eight National Parks (Khaptad, Lake Rara, Langtang, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area), Royal Bardia, Royal Chitwan, Sagarmatha, and Shey-Phoksundo; Wegge and Oli 1997), as well as within the Annapurna Conservation Area, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and Parsa Wildlife Reserve. Conservation measures for Nepal include:  1) In some areas, consider a management program for sustainable, low level, subsistence hunting by local villagers and trophy hunting, after goral population censuses and productivity studies have been made. Basic research on the relationship between habitat type and goral abundance is vital if subsistence cropping is to be promoted. 2) DNPWC could perhaps conduct a case study of this relationship within one of the park buffer zones. This would not only provide the much needed data, but also might deflect some of the local concern about crop damage caused by this species). <br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral bedfordi</em><br/>The subspecies in Pakistan is legally protected, as are all wild mammals in the country, but enforcement of the laws is not satisfactory. A proposal has been made (Green 1993) that Margalla Hills NP should include a 3,100 ha enclosure for captive breeding and reintroductions. In 1988, between 40 and 60 goral were reported in this National Park (Maqsood, 1989). Known protected areas with goral include: NWFP – Haripur (previously Abbottabad) District: Makhunal GR, Surrana GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Mansehra District: Manshi WS (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Mardan District: Sudham GR; Swat District: Giddar Baik WS, Daggar GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Boner District: Totalai GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Nowshera District: Manglot WS or Nizampur GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); ad Jammu and Kashmir - Muzaffarabad District: Salkhala WS, Ghamot GR, Machiara GR, Qazi Nag GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1986); and Federal Capital Territory - Margalla Hills NP (Maqsood, 1989). Conservation measures proposed for Pakistan: 1) Secure the protection of the population in the Margalla Hills NP. 2) Establish several other focal areas (see General conservation measures proposed above). 3) To this end, there is an urgent need to obtain more information about the actual distribution and status of the species. 4) Identify areas suitable for protection at the same time that censuses are made. 5) Develop and implement conservation management strategies, including populations on private lands.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.
14296		distribution	eng	The Himalayan goral is found across the Himalayas including Bhutan, China (southern Tibet), northern India (including Sikkim), Nepal, and northern Pakistan (Grubb 2005) and possibly western Myanmar (though in this assessment we treat gorals in Myanmar, and in northeast India east and south of the Brahmaputra, as <em>Naemorhedus griseus</em>, pending further resolution of their taxonomy).<br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral goral</em><br/>This subspecies, also referred to <em>N. goral hodgsoni</em> in China (Smith and Xie 2008), has a narrow distribution zone in China that is located in the border area of Tibet. Specimens have been collected from Cuona, Gyirong (Zongga) and Zhangmo. In Bhutan, goral occurs throughout the northern third of the country. Goral are also found across most of the southern slopes of the Himalayas of northern India from Jammu and Kashmir to eastern Arunachal Pradesh, as far as the Brahmaputra.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>N. goral bedfordi</em> and <em>N. g. goral</em> are apparently separated by Nepal, with the former occurring in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, and the latter in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh (Sathyakumar 2002). In India, the Himalayan goral is apparently patchily distributed along the Himalayan mountain ranges in Jammu and Kashmir, with reports of its presence in Dachigam National Park (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>., unpublished data), Kisthwar National Park and possibly in the Limber Wildlife Sanctuary. It is still widely distributed and locally common in the Sutlej and Beas River catchments of Himachal Pradesh (Cavallini 1992; Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986; Gaston 1986; Gaston <em>et al</em>. 1981, 1983). Reports also confirm its continued presence between 1,600 and 2,100 m in the Simla Water Catchment Reserve and the Chail and Majathal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuaries in Himachal Pradesh (Gaston <em>et al</em>. 1981; Lovari and Apollonio 1993). Goral is also widespread in Uttaranchal Pradesh (Singh 1985; Negi 2002). Goral are present at elevations of 1,800 to 2,000 m in much of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (Green 1985), 1,680 to 3,600 m in Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986), and 1,900 to 2,500 m at Kunj Kharak (northeast of Corbett National Park), Uttaranchal. It is found between 900 and 2,750 m in the eastern Himalayan states of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. <br/><br/>In Nepal, Himalayan goral are widely distributed on the forested slopes up to the timberline (Wegge and Oli 1997). Goral are found in northern Myanmar, although their species status remains uncertain, and no recent distribution data are available. <br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral bedfordi</em><br/>In Pakistan, this goral occurs in the outer Himalayan foothills that form the western extremity of the species’ range. Roberts (1977) stated that within the Federal Capital Territory and the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab Province, it inhabited the Murree foothills and the Margalla range. However, its present occurrence in Punjab is doubtful (Chaudhry, unpublished data). Roberts (1977) also mentioned the occurrence of the species in Azad Jammu and Kashmir in parts of the Neelum Valley beyond Ath Muqam (District Muzaffarabad), while Qayyum (1985) and the Zoological Survey Department (1986) describe it in the District of Kotli, at three places in the District of Muzaffarabad, and in the region of Poonch. In the NWFP, its range extends from the Districts of Abbottabad, Mansehra, Mardan, Kohistan and Swat, to the areas of Dir, Malakand and Nowshera which possibly still form the western limit of its range. The main surviving population in Pakistan is probably in the Indus Kohistan region between Swat and the Kunhar Valley catchment (Roberts 1977). The gray goral has been recorded from 1,000 up to 4,000 meters.
14296		habitat	eng	The species inhabits steep mountainous areas and will sometimes use evergreen forests near cliffs, but primarily stays within rugged rocky terrain. Himalayan gorals feed on grassy ridges and steep rocky slopes, but hide in forest or rock crevices; it seeks shelter under rock overhangs. Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days. Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares durring the mating season. Males usually single; otherwise found in pairs or small parties. They typically live in small groups of 4-12 individuals; older males are usually solitary. The diet consists of grasses, leaves, twigs, fruits, and nuts. The gestation length is 170-218 days, with single births. Males and females reach sexual maturity at three, sometimes two years (Hayseen <em>et al</em> 1993), with a lifespan of up to 15 years.
14296		population	eng	<em>Naemorhedus goral goral</em><br/>No estimate of population size is available in China, but numbers are thought to be small (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). In India, densities have been variously estimated: 2.6/km² in Kedarnath Sanctuary in Uttaranchal (Green 1987a), 1.2/km² in Daranghati Sanctuary, 1.5/km² in Rupi Bhaba Sanctuary, and 4.6 to 10.5/km² in Majathal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary (Lovari and Apollonio, 1993), all in Himachal Pradesh (Pandey 2002). If suitable habitats are available in the absence of excessive hunting - even with moderate human disturbance (e.g. grass and fodder cutting) - goral can occur in good numbers. Its forested habitat makes censusing populations difficult in Nepal.<br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral bedfordi</em><br/>There is no total estimate of population size for <em>N. g. bedfordi</em>. Two hundred animals were counted during a wildlife census by the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1987). A total of 233 were estimated in the NWF in 1992 (NWFP, 1992). During this census, no goral were recorded in Abbottabad or Swat Districts. Eight-hundred ninety-three were estimated in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Qayyum, 1986-87). Margalla Hills National Park contains an estimated 40 to 60 goral, and the population was believed to be slowly increasing (Maqsood, 1989).
14296		threats	eng	The main threats come from habitat destruction, hunting, and possibly from competition with livestock (Maqsood, 1989).<br/><br/>In China, hunting is probably the main threat to its survival; however, the extent is unknown. It may be limited due to the predominant religious beliefs of Tibetan people, which reduces hunting. In Bhutan, although some parts of the range are in reasonable condition, in other areas, its habitat is being destroyed by overgrazing by livestock, and in the area previously in Doga National Park, by grass burning during the dry season (Blower, 1985a).  <br/><br/>In India, within protected areas, the status of goral populations is probably satisfactory. Nevertheless, they are often hunted for meat even within many of the protected areas. The most significant threat to them is severe habitat disturbance and alteration, particularly in the lower portions of the Himalayas and in northeastern India. However, limited disturbance and habitat alteration that creates or maintains some shrub and forest cover, may not be greatly detrimental to the survival of goral populations. In Nepal, the threats are poaching, and habitat destruction resulting from logging, agriculture and livestock grazing.
14303		conservation	eng	The Chinese goral is listed on Appendix I of CITES<br/><br/>In China, the taxon is a Class II protected species. Protection is not very effective because local people are mostly ignorant of the legislation. It is probably occurs in many protected areas within Yunnan, Guizhou, and eastern Tibet, but the degree of actual protection is unknown. The conservation priority for China is to control hunting so that populations can recover.<br/><br/>Populations in Thailand are all within protected areas and appear to be stable (A. Pattanavibool, R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, goral is believed to occur in only three protected areas: Doi Chiang Dao, Om-Koi/Mae Tun, and Salawin Wildlife Sanctuaries. Conservation measures proposed for Thailand: It is critical to determine the status and distribution of goral immediately so that steps can be taken to protect the remaining populations.  <br/><br/>Some populations are within protected areas within Myanmar where for the most past they are not heavily hunted (Than Zaw pers. comm.2006). However, in the 1980s, poaching was common in the proposed Kyaukpandaung National Park (Blower, 1985b; FAO, 1983a), and also in the proposed Natma Taung National Park (Blower, 1985b; FAO, 1983b).  It probably is found in Tamanthi, or Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuaries and in the proposed Alaungdaw Kathpa Wildlife Sanctuary.<br/><br/>In India is presumably occurs in several protected areas, including the Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh. It is a priority to carry out more surveys for this species in northeastern India to assess conservation needs.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.
14303		distribution	eng	This species is found in Myanmar (western and eastern), most of China (except the far north and west), northeastern India (east and south of the Brahmaputra), northwestern Thailand, and extreme northern Viet Nam (Lovari 1997). There have been suggestions that this species is found in central Lao PDR (Shackleton 1997), however, this information is incorrect (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; W. Duckworth, pers comm. 2006). It might possibly occur in extreme northern Lao PDR, and records from Bangladesh require confirmation. In Thailand, it is restricted to hills along the Ping River, including on Doi Mon Chong (1,600 to 1,970 m), Northern Tak Province, to the west of the Bhumibol Dam (Nabhitabhata, 1983; Lovari 1997). The southern extent of this species in Myanmar is also uncertain (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The long-tailed goral is a widespread species found through much of southern, southeastern and central China, in Gansu and Shaanxi, Sichuan, and western Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). It also occurs in the adjacent mountain ranges of Defan and Weining in northwestern Guizhou, and in Guinan in eastern Qinghai (Li <em>et al</em>., 1989). Isolated populations are scattered through the subtropical deciduous forests of the low mountains and hills of southern Shaanxi, southern Anhui, south of Zhejiang and north of Fujian, in eastern Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan to the northern part of Guangdong and most parts of Guizhou and eastern Guangxi (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1997). Long-tailed gorals are also found from the Helan mountains (Ningxia) to include the Luliang and Heng mountain ranges of northern Shanxi, and the Daqinshan north of Hohhot (Inner Mongolia), and east as far as the mountain regions of north Hebei (north and west of Beijing) and the Taiyue mountains south of Yuci (Shanxi).
14303		habitat	eng	The species inhabits steep areas and plateaus in mountainous areas and will sometimes use subtropical mixed forests and evergreen-deciduous forests near cliffs, but primarily stays within rugged rocky terrain. Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days. Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares durring the mating season. They typically live in small groups of 4-12 individuals, with older males usually solitary. The diet consists of grasses, leaves, twigs, and nuts. The gestation length is 170-218 days, with single births. Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately three years, with a lifespan of up to 15 years or so.
14303		population	eng	There has been no estimate of total population size, but numbers are believed to be declining in much of its range due to hunting. There is a single local density estimate of ca. 5 goral/km² in Om-Koi Wildlife Sanctuary on Doi Mon Chong mountain, Tak Province, Thailand (Lovari and Apollonio, 1993). It is probably reasonably numerous in places where conservation is effective, though there are few such places through most of its range.
14303		threats	eng	The decline in numbers is believed to be due to mainly to over-hunting, and goral are frequently hunted or snared by the local people for meat, fur and medicines. These animals are hunted in the northern portion of Myanmar for their pelts (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). The species used to be hunted in Thailand, but not so much now. Populations in Thailand are all within protected areas and appear to be stable (A. Pattanavibool, R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). It is not so much affected by habitat loss as it is largely confined to rugged, inaccessible areas. However, competition with livestock might be a problem in some places.
14316		distribution	eng	Known only from a restricted area from the southern Kaokoveld in northern Namibia.
14316		habitat	eng	Possibly a hypogean species (living in underground water), collected incidentally in surface springs.
14325		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary in Sarawak (Han pers. comm.).
14325		distribution	eng	This species is found on Sumatra, Java, Borneo and adjacent islands. It is found up to about 1,070 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14325		habitat	eng	It prefers mature forest though it is also known to occur in secondary and selectively logged forest in the Malaysian part of Borneo (Han pers. comm.). It feeds on mosses, and is usually found on tree trunks (Han pers. comm.). This species is not easily trapped because it is not attracted to bananas or other fruit (Han pers. comm.).
14325		population	eng	It is a moderately common species in suitable habitat but it is difficult to trap (Han pers. comm.). It is known from only five specimens from Sarawak (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14325		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural conversion and logging, though this is not a major threat (Han and Giman pers. comm.).
14326		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas (e.g. Kouf National Park, Libya). No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. Yaxonomic research is required to determine whether this taxon in fact represents a number of different species.
14326		distribution	eng	This species is found in isolated pockets of appropriate habitat in coastal north-east Libya and central coastal Egypt. It is widespread in the eastern Mediterranean and ranges north into Turkey. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.
14326		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry steppes, semi-desert, and occurs marginally in desert habitats. It is also found in cultivated fields. Strictly fossorial.
14326		population	eng	It is a widespread, relatively common species that is considered a pest in some areas.
14326		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Regular ploughing of fields disturb the burrows of this species and may have a negative impact on local populations.
14327		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas.
14327		distribution	eng	May occur on Lesbos (Greece) (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999), also occurs on east Aegean islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada (Turkey) (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Found throughout most of Anatolia, and in Armenia and Georgia. Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.
14327		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Turkey, Armenia, and Georgia, and also on the east Aegean islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada (Turkey) (Wilson and Reeder 2005). May occur on Lesbos (Greece) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Elevation range is from sea level to over 3000 m.
14327		habitat	eng	A strictly subterranean species that dwells in open, dry steppe habitat.
14327		population	eng	The species is common.
14327		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present, although large-scale agriculture is a concern.
14328		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas within its range. Taxonomic research is required (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).
14328		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas within its range. Taxonomic research is required (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006).
14328		distribution	eng	The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in north-west Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).
14328		distribution	eng	The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in northwest Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).
14328		distribution	eng	The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in northwest Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kry?tufek 1999).
14328		habitat	eng	The mole rat inhabits steppe grassland, meadows and pastures, in areas with a deep layer of loose, freely-draining soil in which it digs its extensive burrows. It is absent from ploughed land and arable monocultures, although it may be found in agricultural lanscapes where there is a mixture of pastures, small crop-fields and orchards. It has a slow reproductive rate, raising litters of only 2-4 young (Kryštufek 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).
14328		habitat	eng	The mole rat inhabits steppe grassland, meadows and pastures, in areas with a deep layer of loose, freely-draining soil in which it digs its extensive burrows. It is absent from ploughed land and arable monocultures, although it may be found in agricultural lanscapes where there is a mixture of pastures, small crop-fields and orchards. It has a slow reproductive rate, raising litters of only 2-4 young (Kry?tufek 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).
14328		population	eng	It has undergone range contractions and population declines in Europe. However, there are still areas where it is locally quite abundant. Population densities typically fall in the range of 1-13 individuals per hectare, but values of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been reported (Kryštufek 1999). <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is regarded as a superspecies that contains a number of forms that are  well-differentiated at both a genotypic and phenotypic level, although their taxonomy remains unresolved. Some of these forms have very restricted ranges, and presumably small populations (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).
14328		population	eng	It has undergone range contractions and population declines in Europe. However, there are still areas where it is locally quite abundant. Population densities typically fall in the range of 1-13 individuals per hectare, but values of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been reported (Kry?tufek 1999). <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is regarded as a superspecies that contains a number of forms that are  well-differentiated at both a genotypic and phenotypic level, although their taxonomy remains unresolved. Some of these forms have very restricted ranges, and presumably small populations (Kry?tufek 1999, B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006).
14328		threats	eng	The mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss and land-use changes related to agricultural intensification and increased urbanisation and infrastructure development. It disappears when natural grasslands or pastures are ploughed up. When it was more common, it was an agricultural pest, and it is still persecuted as such in some areas (Kryštufek 1999).
14328		threats	eng	The mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss and land-use changes related to agricultural intensification and increased urbanisation and infrastructure development. It disappears when natural grasslands or pastures are ploughed up. When it was more common, it was an agricultural pest, and it is still persecuted as such in some areas (Kry?tufek 1999).
14331		distribution	eng	Collected in Roadside Cave (Walsingham Tract), Hamilton Parish.
14331		habitat	eng	Found in a (marine) limestone cave located 110 m inland from Harrington Sound. It has no visible connection with the sea or other caves. Tides in the pool are 57% of those in the open ocean with a lag time of 80 min. The water in the pool is very clear with no visible particles. The cave may serve as a refugium for rare and less competitive species.
14331		population	eng	Known only from two specimens.
14333		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it seems probable that it is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to determine if there have been any local declines in this species resulting from the loss of food trees.
14333		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and western parts of Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west, through each country in West Africa to Cameroon, with a single record from the southern region of Central African Republic. It is generally a lowland species, but has been recorded up to 1,200 m asl.
14333		habitat	eng	This species is generally considered a species of lowland rain forest, but has also been recorded from moist savanna (Guinea Savanna), savanna mosaic habitats, and into drier Sudanian woodland and savanna. Populations have also been recorded from gallery forest and isolated forest patches. It seems to be relatively adaptable to cultivated areas, with animals recorded from tree plantations, botanic gardens, farm areas, and rural gardens. The species shows some migratory patterns with both sexes moving between forest and savanna habitats.
14333		population	eng	This species can be abundant, although this partly depends on migration patterns.
14333		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no current major threats to this species as a whole. The species is dependent on certain food trees where they visit flowers, and habitat degradation might be a problem in parts of the range.
14336		conservation	eng	This species is vulnerable to disturbance, and as such was listed as Vulnerable by Moliner Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001).&#160; Restoration of habitat and protection of the inhabited area would benefit this species.
14336		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands where it is found on Tenerife in the valley of Guimar.
14336		habitat	eng	This species is present in the "piso basal", typical vegetation of lowland canary islands and degraded lowland forest.
14336		population	eng	This species is very rare (only 16 specimen have been collected in 4 years, only two of them alive).
14336		threats	eng	This species is present in degraded forest, so it is assumed that the threats in the three sites are related to forest exploitation. The area where it occurs (valley of Guimar) is much affected by the various activities of the nearby human population.
14341		conservation	eng	The habitat requires conservation in order to protect the species. Further data would be required for long-term monitoring of the habitat trends. This species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish Red List by Verdu and Galante (2009) and is on the register of Endangered Species for Canary Islands. Actions recommended include the provision of a protected area from Monte del Faro to Montana Colorada.
14341		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is only found in Gran Canaria, on the peninsula of La Isleta at 3 sites: Monte Faro, Montana del Vigio and Malpais [UTM 28RD5510].
14341		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species is found in typical lowland Canary island vegetation.
14341		population	eng	Population trend information is not available. There are very few live specimens known (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).
14341		threats	eng	The major threat comes from habitat destruction as the result of military activities within the military range. In the future there are proposals to remove the military range and use the site for urban expansion.
14342		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
14342		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to La Gomera, where it is widespread.
14342		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Laurel forest and in degraded regions nearby, between 720 and 1,080 m asl.
14342		population	eng	As most of the population lives in the natural laurel forest, the population sis thought to be stable, except perhaps for the fringes of occurrence in degraded forest where logging and recreational activities may disturb the species.
14342		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14352		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is protected by law throughout its range (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). In some portions of its range its legal protection suffers from governmental and institutional deficiencies, including lack of conservation funds and knowledge, and poor and inappropriate management (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). It is known to occur in 16 protected areas: Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, Gunung Palung Nature Reserve, Kendawangan Nature Reserve, Kutai National Park, Lesan Protection Forest, Muara Kaman Nature Reserve, Mandor Reserve, Tanjung Putting National Park (Indonesia); Bako National Park, Gunung Pueh Forest Reserve, Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve, Klias National Park, Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sungei Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Ulu Segama Reserve (Malaysia). It formerly occurred in Pulau Kaget Nature Reserve (Indonesia), but is now extirpated there.<br/> <br/>This species is almost never seen in captivity outside of Asia, as, owing to their dietary specialization on particular leaves and other vegetable material, they are hard to keep alive (E. Meijaard pers. comm.).
14352		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo, occurring in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). It was orignally found over the whole of coastal Borneo, as well as on the satellite islands of Berhala, Sebatik and Pulau Laut (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>N. l. larvatus </em><br/>It has the same range as the species as a whole, with the exception of northeastern Kalimantan.<br/><br/><em>N. l. orientalis</em><br/>It is restricted to northeastern Kalimantan, Indonesia.
14352		habitat	eng	This species is associated with riparian-riverine forests, coastal lowland forest, including mangroves, peat swamp, and freshwater swamp forest (Boonratana 2000). It rarely ranges far from its local habitat?s waterway (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). It has been suggested that it is restricted to the coastal areas and areas near rivers because the interior has soils that are low in minerals and salts, which are a necessary part of its diet (Bennett and Sebastian 1988). It is found at low elevations, up to no more than about 350 m asl (Meijaard and Nijman 2000).<br/><br/>The species is mostly folivorous (about 52% of all feedings) and frugivorous (about 40% of all feedings), and prefers young leaves and unripened non-fleshy fruits. Monthly diet of this species changes with availability throughout the year (Yeager 1989). Boonratana (2000) observed this species swimming across the Kinabatangan River in northern Borneo, and frequently across its tributaries. The home range size of a focal one-male group was 220.5 ha (Boonratana 2000). Boonratana (2000) reports that this species never entered agricultural lands, nor areas used intermittently as log dumps for logging operations carried out in the area before and during the study. This species returned to the river every night at the study site of Sukau, moving inland during the day (Boonratana 2000). It avoids areas with heavy deforestation, such as agricultural land (Salter and MacKenzie 1985). Where there is no hunting the species can persist in disturbed forests and secondary habitats.
14352		population	eng	In Sarawak, less than 1,000 animals are thought to remain in patchily distributed populations. In Sabah, the only remaining large populations are in the Kinabatangan flood plain, and around Dewurst Bay in the Eastern Deltas. Brunei estuaries support one population. The species is in greater abundance in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), where Meijaard surveyed the population. The Indonesian populations range in size from over 1,000 to less than 100, depending on past and current threats (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). The Pulau Kaget Nature Reserve population in South Kalimantan has reportedly been extinct since 1997 (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). Also, the population in the Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan which would have numbered in the thousands up until the early 1990s, has now been decimated due to conversion of the coastal swamps to shrimp farms (E. Meijaard pers. comm.).
14352		threats	eng	Because of this species? association with riverine and coastal habitat, the major cause for its recent decline is thought to be habitat destruction. People favour these animals? habitats for logging, cultivation, and settlement. The planned land use for Central Kalimantan cited by E. Meijaard illustrates this tendency, with much of the riverine forest being marked for conversion. Clearing riverbanks and mangroves has a significant impact. Forest fires, especially those along the rivers, have a major impact on distribution. The 1997-1998 Bornean forest fires were thought to have destroyed the greatest proportion of remaining habitat of any primate in Kalimantan.<br/><br/>The species is relatively lethargic and easily hunted; with little effort entire populations can be hunted to extirpation. Opportunistic hunting of <em>Nasalis larvatus</em> for food occurs; the species is also hunted for bezoar stones, an intestinal secretion used in traditional Chinese medicine. Hunting has been felt most significantly in the Bornean interior, but is increasing in coastal areas (Meijaard and Nijman 2000).
14357		conservation	eng	The mountain coati is not included in the species lists of any protected area. The species is protected by game species resolution in Venezuela but is not protected in Ecuador or Colombia (Glatston, 1994).
14357		distribution	eng	The mountain coati is found in the Andes in Colombia, western Venezuela and Ecuador. The species is found from 1,800 m to as high as 4,260 m (Tirira 2007, Linares 1998)
14357		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the ecology of this species. It is known to be a high altitude specialist living in the cloud forest and paramo of the Andes at elevations over 2,000 m. It is assumed that it is similar to other procyonids in that it is somewhat arboreal and omnivorous. Five principal food categories were found in mountain coati's diet: invertebrates, vertebrates, fruits, vegetable remains and undetermined food items (Rodríguez-Bolaños <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
14357		population	eng	The population of the mountain coati is unknown but it is believed that it is not common.
14357		threats	eng	This species has limited distribution and is undoubtedly affected by deforestation. In many parts of the Andes the cloud forest is being converted to agriculture and the paramo is being planted with pine forest (Bisbal, 1987).
14358		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
14358		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, and Bahamas Islands (Simmons, 2005).
14358		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). Gervais's funnel-eared bats live in forested tropical lowlands and foothills. They typically roost in large colonies in warm, humid mines or deep caves (Thompson 2004).<br/>The mating system of <em>N. lepidus</em> is not kown. They are thought to be monoestrous, with the breeding season occurring in December and January. They have one large young at a time after an 8 to 10 month gestation period. There seems to be an extended embryonic development and the young are relatively large when born, weighing almost 50% of the mother's weight at birth (Thompson 2004). In Cuba roosts in hot caves wide distribuition in all island (Silva-Taboada, 1979).
14358		population	eng	They roost in small to large colonies, which may be sexually segregated while young are developing into maternity roosts and male roosts (Thompson 2004).
14358		threats	eng	Cave mining and tourism.
14359		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
14359		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Providencia Islands (Colombia) (Simmons, 2005).
14359		habitat	eng	This bat is an obligate cave roosting species. Its biology is poorly known. It is insectivorous. A female with an embryo was caught in December; and two lactating females were found in July (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005). 15 to 17 caves used by the species in Cuba.
14359		population	eng	This bat is frequent to locally common (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  Not so abundant in Dominican Republic (Inchaustegui pers. comm.).
14359		threats	eng	Threats to the caves (mining, tourism).
14360		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
14360		distribution	eng	Islands of Lesser Antilles north of St Lucia Chanel: Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Martinique, Montserrat, Nevis, Saba, and Sait Maarten (skeletal remains only) (Tejedor 2006).
14360		habitat	eng	Only found in dark humid caves. Usually in the most remote portions of the cave system. Often capured in xerophitic habitats among dry forest scrub (Pedersen 2005). Ocurs from sea level to middle elevation.
14360		population	eng	Locally common in at least four islands (L. Davalos pers. comm.)
14360		threats	eng	Cave issues (mining and tourism), hurricanes, volcanic eruptions.
14361		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
14361		distribution	eng	This species is known from Islands of the Bahamas (Simmons, 2005).
14361		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). These bats are found exclusively in Bahamian dry-deciduous forests. Deep caves, where hot and moist conditions are maintained continuously, are the single most important habitat requirement. During their active hours Bahaman funnel-eared bats forage for insects in the dense understory of surrounding forests. Nothing is known of the reproduction or mating systems of Bahaman funnel-eared bats, but they are most likely polygynous. (Burns and Yahnke 2006)<br/>Generally colonies of Bahaman funnel-eared bats leave their roost 30 minutes after sundown. Bahaman funnel-eared bats are such agile flyers that they are rarely caught in mist nets. For this reason, little is know about their natural history (Burns and Yahnke 2006).
14361		population	eng	Females form maternity colonies in which they give birth to and care for their young. Females are completely responsible for the care of their young. Giving birth to just one offspring per event means that females allocate all of their efforts to the single young. (Burns and Yahnke 2006). Nothing is known of the longevity/lifespan of Bahaman funnel-eared bats.
14361		threats	eng	Restricted to caves. Climatic changes.
14362		conservation	eng	Restricted entirely to cave habitats. Conservation of cave habitats and karstic regions is important for species. The species distribution includes well preserved areas, where it can be abundant in karstic areas or where caves occur. Its population is unlikely to be declining at a rate to qualify it for inclusion in any of the threat categories. This is one of the few bats which is completely (also morphologically) dependent on caves. Caves are also currently threatened by vampire control programs - which are non specific and kill all bats in caves. These are also fragile species and die easily.
14362		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and French Guiana; also in Trinidad and Tobago, Curacao and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles) (Simmons 2005). Its  upper elevation range was thought to be around 548 m (Eisenberg 1989) but there are records from 1,000 m.
14362		habitat	eng	The species tolerates both dry and wet habitats, but most specimens are encountered in dry deciduous forest (Eisenberg 1989). Occasionally found in rainforest, but more often in more arid habitats of deciduous or dry forest, and in gardens and plantations (Emmons and Feer 1997). The species feeds on insects. It roosts in the dark recesses of humid caves, where they hang singly or in groups of well-separated individuals, sometimes in colonies of thousands. They may be restricted to regions with caves and karstic environments  (which are absent in much of the Amazon basin). They fly with a fluttering flight low over the ground, and use the large tail membrane to catch insects. Completely cave dependent - and to a specific cave type (Davalos and Ochoa pers. comm.).
14362		population	eng	Widespread. The species is an aerial insectivore and as such under sampled by mist netting; the species is known from few specimens.
14362		threats	eng	Destruction and vandalism of caves. If associated with karstic environments, it may be vulnerable. Very little known about general ecology and habits.
14363		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
14367		conservation	eng	Populations occur in a number of protected areas (Caucasian Biosphere Reserve, Sochi National Park, Riza Relict National Park, Pitzunda-Mussera Reserve, Gumista Reserve, Lagodechi Reserve and numerous others). There is a strong need to eradicate the raccoon <em>Procyon lotor</em> from the region to prevent further declines.
14367		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from south Russia Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey The distribution range covers the western Transcaucasia from the vicinity of the town Tuapse in the west up to the Chorokh River in the south-east. From Tuapse the distribution range crosses the Great Caucasus Range and stretched on the foothills up to the confluence of the rivers Urushten and Lesser Laba. This species is recorded in Turkey (Çamlıhemşin), southwest from Adjaria. Isolated populations are found on the southern slope of the eastern Caucasus in the region of Lagodekhi and Vartashen, as well as on the eastern slope of Adjaro-Imeretinsky Range in the vicinity of the town Borzhomi (Georgia).
14367		habitat	eng	It is associated with Colchis type forests with an evergreen underwood. Animals can be found in beech woodlands, chestnut groves, as well as in the cherry-laurel and azalea groves. It has been recorded from modified areas, including recently deforested areas, tea plantations, secondary hornbeam forests. The species is well adapted to living in mountainous fast-flowing streams. The female lays clutches of about 13 eggs in August.
14367		population	eng	It is common, but not a numerous species (up to three animals per km2).
14367		threats	eng	The species has undergone significant recent declines, largely due to predation from the introduced North American Raccoon <em>Procyon lotor</em>; competition with raccoons for prey (fishes); and habitat loss, most especially because of development along the Black Sea coastline (including tourism).
14368		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention; <em>N.n cetti </em>and <em>N.n. corsa</em> are listed on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in some range countries. It is present in many protected areas throughout its range. Restoration of habitat in non-protected areas of the Netherlands since ca. 1985, including creating habitat such as ditches for the prey species of frog <em>Rana temporaria</em>, has resulted in significant increases of <em>Natrix natrix</em> and <em>Rana temporaria</em> populations since ca. 2000 (Cornelius C. De Haan pers. comm.). The construction of corridors underneath roads could aid in significantly reducing mortality on roads for some populations (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). The subspecies <em>N.n. natrix</em> is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland; the subspecies <em>N.n. helvetica</em> is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
14368		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout most of Europe, being absent only from Ireland, Scotland, northern Scandinavia, southeastern Spain, the Balearic Islands (Spain) and Crete (Greece). It also ranges from European Russia eastwards into Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, China and Mongolia. It occurs in Cyprus (the Troodos Mountains), in most of Turkey, the Caucasus, and in northwestern Syria (only known from a couple of localities where it is very rare). In Iran it has been recorded from Mazandaran Province, Ghilan Province, East Azerbaijan Province and Central province (Latifi, 1991). It is present in North Africa, where it occurs in isolated localities in northern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia. It ranges from sea level up to 3,060m asl.
14368		habitat	eng	It is found in humid as well as dry areas with abundant vegetation. It can mostly be found close to water bodies, and is present in woodland (both deciduous and mixed), meadows, hedgerows, coastal areas, and suburban areas (especially gardens). The species can lay between 10 and 52 eggs. Populations recognized as <em>N.n. gotlandica</em> eat marine fish and may be found at sea.
14368		population	eng	It is a common species but with fragmented populations through parts of its range, especially in southern areas. In some regions it is very common (up to 120 specimens recorded per hectare in the Donetsky Range, Ukraine). The endemic taxa from Sardinia, Corsica, Cyprus and Milos are all very localized and threatened.
14368		threats	eng	It is locally threatened in parts of its range by water pollution impacting prey populations (principally amphibians), drainage of wetland habitats (in Switzerland 90% of wetland habitats have been drained [Andreas Meyer pers. comm.]) and general intensification of agricultural methods. Some subspecies are considered to be threatened. On Milos, the species is threatened also by mining activities (Alexander Westerström pers. comm.). As with many snakes this species is generally persecuted by people. Roadkill is a threat in many areas, and habitat fragmentation through development.
14378		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).
14386		conservation	eng	This species is presumably found in protected areas throughout its range.
14386		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guianas, southeast Venezuela (State of Bolivar), and north Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
14386		habitat	eng	The species prefers dense humid forest. It is a nocturnal rodent and occurs in lowland areas where it feeds on seeds, insects and fruit (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The litter size ranges from two to four (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
14386		population	eng	The populations in this genus undergo great fluctuations in abundance throughout the annual cycle (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Collection data indicate that the species is likely to be common.
14386		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
14387		conservation	eng	Found in Darien National Park.
14387		distribution	eng	This species is known only from easternmost Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 550 m to 800 m.
14387		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in grass and low brush bordering evergreen forest (Reid 1997). Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial and probably nocturnal and solitary (Reid 1997). It is associated more with gaps than with intact forests.
14387		population	eng	It is rare and local (Reid 1997). Very little is known about its population.
14387		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
14388		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
14388		distribution	eng	The species occurs from west central Brazil to Andean foothills and lowlands of southeast Colombia, east Ecuador, east Peru, and north and central Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
14388		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species; it occurs in boundary areas between forest and open spaces in lowland regions. The species feeds on seeds, insects and fruit (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The litter size ranges from two to four (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
14388		population	eng	Populations in this genus undergo great fluctuations in abundance throughout the annual cycle (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This species is common; it occurs in a wide variety of habitats from garden plots to primary forest (Patton pers. comm.).
14388		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
14473		conservation	eng	This species is present in Mariusa National Park and others protected areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
14473		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Trinidad Island and adjacent mainland area of northeast Venezuela; the exact limits of its distribution are unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14473		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland tropical rainforest, in areas of inundated dense tall grass and forest near water (Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is tolerant of secondary habitat, including agricultural areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on arthropods, crabs, and other invertebrates, it also eats fruit and fungi. This water rat is adapted for swimming and is almost always found near water. It makes nests under logs or roots or in dense vegetation (Emmons and Feer 1997). Its home range is 0.3 to 1.6 individuals/ha (Lord 1999).
14473		population	eng	It is a common species (J. Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14473		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
14474		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in its range.
14474		distribution	eng	This species occurs from east Colombia, to northwest and south Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, north and central Brazil, and perhaps lowlands of east Peru; distributional limits need specimen-based verification (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
14474		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits in lowland rainforest, streamside, cerrado, caatinga. It is tolerant to locally disturbed areas and agricultural lands (collected there in the cerrado). It is mainly restricted to areas near water. This species has been found to feed on melons in garden plots (Patton pers. comm.).
14474		population	eng	This species is very common.
14474		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
14475		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in a number of protected areas.
14475		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeast Brazil (Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul States), to northeast Argentina (Misiones Province), and eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
14475		habitat	eng	This is a semi aquatic and insectivorous rodent, strongly associated to water courses inside forests (Vieira pers. comm.).
14475		population	eng	Locally common (Emerson pers. comm.).
14475		threats	eng	Habitat loss is affecting the species in some parts of its range (Vieira pers. comm.).
14485		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States: Florida everglades (12 counties). Historically the species also occurred in Texas (Flint 2000), but is no longer recorded from there.
14485		habitat	eng	Within the Everglades it is found in dry limestone hammock sinkholes, sedge marshes and rock pools where it is shade loving (Bick 2003).
14485		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
14485		threats	eng	Major habitat is the beleaguered Everglades, which is being changed by water diversion, extensive peat fires, and exotic trees and fish. Airboats in a refugia might possibly kill many adults.
14486		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
14486		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western part of the Cordillera Transvolcanica, México in south Jalisco and north Michoacán, and from an isolated, disjunct location to the east near Colima.
14486		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Its range is within high elevation oak and pine forest habitat.
14486		population	eng	No population information could be found. However, it is not considered to be very common.
14486		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from timber extraction and agriculture.
14487		conservation	eng	This species is present in at least one protected area within its range, the Michilia Biosphere Reserve. It is protected by Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
14487		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Madre Occidental if México, from south Durango to north Jalisco and Aguascalientes. (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14487		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is associated with conifer forest on the western slope of the Sierra Madre.
14487		population	eng	No information on population could be found, although is reported to be uncommon (Glendinning 1992).
14487		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to timber extraction throughout its range.
14489		distribution	eng	Occurs in Baq-e-Loveh pool.
14489		habitat	eng	A cave-dwelling species.
14491		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Thai law. More information about the threats to this species and its ecology is needed.
14491		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Mae Khlong basin in one subterranean stream, in the Sai Yok Noi (=Tham Nam Tok) cave, 3 km north-northwest of Nam Tok (14°15'N, 99°04'E) Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. Its extent of occurrence is estimated at 50-100 km² and the area of occupancy at ca. 1 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
14491		habitat	eng	It is a cave-restricted species, inhabiting a headwater stream with a relatively low volume of water flowing over rocks, alternating with small pools and gravel-bottomed shallow reaches. Some individuals were seen adhering to rocks in fast-flowing, well-aerated water or swimming in the pools. This fish exhibits agonistic behaviour upon encounter. It feeds on benthic microorganisms.
14491		population	eng	The species is found in low numbers and the population has undergone a decline since it was described.
14491		threats	eng	Disturbance from cave visitors is the main threat to this fish. Harvest for the aquarium trade is an occasional threat. Although the species is protected by law there is still occasional fishing in the area (C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm. 2011).
14494		conservation	eng	No information available.
14494		distribution	eng	Europe north of Caucasus, Pyrénées and Alps, from Loire and Rhône drainages eastward; British Isles (except northern Scotland), southern Sweden and Finland (northward to about 66°N); Danube and Vardar drainages. Several similar species in Asia, as far as Japan (including <span style="font-style: italic;">B. toni</span>, which earlier was considered conspecific).
14494		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually in flowing stretches of streams and medium-sized rivers with gravel to stone bottom, but also in a variety of other habitats, including sandy canals and lake shores. Spawns on gravel, sand or among aquatic vegetation. Larvae and small juveniles prefer sand bottom and slow current, shifting to gravel bottom and fast current when growing. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time usually at one year in central and southern Europe, 2-3 years in nutrient poor habitats and in northern Europe; most individuals spawn 1-2 seasons. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 10°C, usually early morning. Open substrate, multiple spawner. Eggs are released in open water, often close to surface, drift and adhere to different substrates; they are often covered by sand or detritus. Individual females may spawn every day for a short period. Benthic larvae. Feeds on relative large benthic invertebrates (gammarids, chironomids, insect larvae). Tolerant to moderate organic pollution and stream canalisation, very sensitive to pollution by heavy metals.
14494		population	eng	Abundant.
14494		threats	eng	No major threats known.
14506		conservation	eng	New Zealand has only ten per cent of its wetlands remaining. The farmer that owns the Tomarata wetland had not drain ed it, and fenced it to keep stock out. As a result the Black Mudfish has survived.
14506		distribution	eng	Black Mudfish are found from the Mokau River catchment in the south up to Kaitaia in the north (see the NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes at http://www.niwascience.co.nz/rc/freshwater/fishatlas/species/black_mudfish). <br/> <br/>Tomarata wetland where the species was rediscovered is located approximately 60 kilometres northeast of central Auckland, south of Mangawhai Heads. The wetland is private land located adjacent to the Lake Tomarata Scenic Reserve.
14506		habitat	eng	Black Mudfish live primarily in swamps and wetlands. They live up to eight years and can grow up to 124mm long. When the water runs low they aestivate.
14506		population	eng	A survey of Black Mudfish (<em>Neochanna diversus</em>) was undertaken in the Te Henga and Tomarata wetlands during September 2004 as part of the Auckland Regional Councils State of Environment monitoring programme. A large and healthy population was found. They are quite abundant in the Waikato region, particularly in Whangamarino Swamp, and also occur on the Hauraki Plains. (For further details see the NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes at http://www.niwascience.co.nz/rc/freshwater/fishatlas/species/black_mudfish).
14506		threats	eng	Freshwater fish like the Black Mudfish are sensitive to a wide range of environmental impacts such as habitat loss, pollution and sedimentation. In addition to the threat to Black Mudfish from land drainage and development, these fish are also threatened by the presence of Gambusia, an aggressive and prolific introduced fish that have a similar distribution pattern to Black Mudfish. Observations of their behaviour in tanks showed that large Gambusia would readily eat mudfish fry, and that they chased and nipped juvenile mudfish. Adult mudfish were not harassed, and even gave some of their own back to the Gambusia. (For further details on threats from gambusia see the NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes at http://www.niwascience.co.nz/rc/freshwater/fishatlas/species/black_mudfish).
14507		conservation	eng	Under the New Zealand 'threat of extinction' classification system, <em>N. apoda</em> is ranked as a chronically threatened species in Gradual Decline.  There is now a recovery plan in place for the brown mudfish, along with other <em>Neochanna</em> species.  The long-term goal of this recovery plan is to maintain and improve the geographic range, habitat and genetic diversity of all the species.  It sets in place actions for managing listed key mudfish sites (selected to include large populations, key scientific sites and sites to cover the full geographic range of each species) (Department of Conservation 2003).
14507		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand.  It is widespread in the southern half of the North Island, from Opunake (Taranaki) southwards west of the ranges and round from Pahiatua (Wairarapa) southwards east of the ranges.  It is locally common and widespread in the South Island on the West Coast from Karamea to the area around the Saltwater and Okarito Lagoons in South Westland.  It is present at altitudes up to about 200 m.
14507		habitat	eng	<em>N. apoda</em> is a benthopelagic, amphidromous species that can be found in a great diversity of habitats; small, gravelly streams, overgrown weedy creeks, weed-choked roadside and farm drains, swamps, sphagnum bogs and small pools of water lying in the floor of lowland podocarp forest.  They are generally found in clear, rather than muddy waters.  This species aestivates in the mud when the water in its habitat dries up, and therefore can be found in ephemeral habitats (McDowall 1990).
14507		population	eng	The New Zealand Department of Conservation has stated a "gradual decline" in population numbers of this species over the last few years (Department of Conservation, 2003).  <em>N. apoda</em> has disappeared from many areas and persists in often small fragmentary forest wetlands whose long-term survival is now precarious (McDowall 2007).
14507		threats	eng	All mudfish species are threatened by the loss of approximately 85-90% of New Zealand's wetlands.  Loss and degradation of habitat through activities such as drainage schemes, irrigation and land development are the biggest agent of decline for these species (Department of Conservation 2003).  As a result, there are now extensive areas of countryside where former mudfish habitats have been entirely destroyed, and sometimes relict mudfish populations may be found only in tiny wetland remnants that have escaped development (McDowall 2006).    <br/><br/>New threats, the significance of which have yet to be established, include the potential effect of invasive fish species such as <em>Gambusia affinis</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em> on <em>N. apoda</em> (Department of Conservation 2003).
14514		distribution	eng	Found in Pedu Reservoir and mining pools in northwestern Penisular Malaysia.
14515		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Tempe in south Sulawesi.
14519		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I and protected by national legislation over most of its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Hunting is banned in Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, and Viet Nam, and hunting regulations apply in Lao PDR (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It occurs in many protected areas.
14519		distribution	eng	The clouded leopard is found from the Himalayan foothills in Nepal through mainland Southeast Asia into China (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The clouded leopard historically had a wide distribution in China, south of the Yangtze, but recent records are few, habitat is fast disappearing, illegal hunting of this species has been prolific and its current distribtution in China is poorly known (Wozencraft <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  The clouded leopard is extinct on the island of Taiwan (Anon. 1996).  It still occurs marginally in Bangladesh: Khan (2004) reported that local people still see clouded leopards in the mixed-evergreen forests of the northeastern and southeastern parts of the country.<br/><br/>The clouded leopards of Sumatra and Borneo were recently diagnosed as a separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">Neofelis diardi</span> (Buckley-Beason <em>et al.</em> 2006, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2006, Eizirik <em>et al.</em> submitted), the Sundaland clouded leopard.  Sundaland refers to the Malay peninsula and the islands of Sumatra, Borneo and Java.  Clouded leopards do not occur on Java.  Because of limited samples from Peninsular Malaysia, it is unclear which species of clouded leopard occur here - on the basis of a single skin, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2006) ascribed Peninsular Malayasia to the mainland clouded leopard, but indicated that more samples were needed for confirmation.<br/><br/>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).
14519		habitat	eng	The clouded leopard is intermediate in size between large and small cats, with wild females from Thailand weighing 11.5 (Austin and Tewes 1999) to 13.5 kg (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005), and males 16 (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005) to 18 kg (Austin and Tewes 1999).  Its coat is patterned with distinctive large cloud shaped markings, its canines are exceptionally elongated, as is its tail - for a large cat, the clouded leopard is highly arboreal (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They are strongly associated with forest habitat, particularly primary evergreen tropical rainforest, but there are also records from dry and deciduous forest, as well as secondary and logged forests. They have been recorded in the Himalayas up to 2,500 m and possibly as high as 3,000 m.  Less frequently, they have been found in grassland and scrub, dry tropical forests and mangrove swamps (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Radio-tracking studies in Thailand have showed a preference for forest over more open habitats (Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>A study in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park found that clouded leopards preyed upon a variety of arboreal and terrestrial prey, including hog deer, slow loris, bush-tailed porcupine, Malayan pangolin and Indochinese ground squirrel (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Other observations include mainly primate prey, but also muntjac and argus pheasant (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Clouded leopards are primarily nocturnal, with crepuscular activity peaks (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Two radio-telemetry studies in different parks in Thailand have found that adult male and female clouded leopards had similar home range sizes between 30-40 km² in size (95% fixed kernel estimators), with smaller intensively used core areas of 3-5 km² (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).  While both studies found substantial home range overlap between males and females, as is typical of most felids, Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) also found that the ranges of their two radio-collared males overlapped by a significant amount (39%).  Although both studies found similar home ranges, clouded leopards in Phu Khieu National Park travelled approximately twice the average daily distance (average 2 km) than clouded leopards in Khao Yai National Park (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Clouded leopards may occur at higher densities where densities of the larger cats, tigers and leopards, are lower (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2001, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Rao <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14519		population	eng	The clouded leopard is most strongly associated with primary tropical forest which is rapidly disappearing across its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and clouded leopard skins have been observed in large numbers in illegal wildlife trade in Southeast Asia (Nowell 2007).  Increasing use of camera traps has helped to better document its distribution and recent research efforts should help improve understanding of its population status (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).
14519		threats	eng	Clouded leopards prefer closed forest (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007), and their habitat in Southeast Asia is undergoing the world's fastest deforestation rate (1.2-1.3% a year since 1990: FAO 2007).  <br/><br/>The clouded leopard is hunted for the illegal wildlife trade - large numbers of skins have been seen in market surveys, and there is also trade in bones for medicines, meat for exotic dishes and live animals for the pet trade.  Wild animals are likely the primary source, but there is also some illegal trade from captive animals (Nowell 2007).
14520		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia; Everglades National Park, Florida; Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary (National Audubon Society), Florida; Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park, Florida; and other Florida managed areas. It is protected from trapping and hunting in Florida and Georgia.<br/><br/>The precise distribution of all occurrences needs to be determined. Representative subpopulations should be monitored. Occupied marsh habitats, including appropriate upland buffers and incoming drainage systems, are in need of further protection.
14520		distribution	eng	The Round-tailed Muskrat occurs in Florida and south-central and southeastern Georgia, ranging west to at least the Choctawhatchee River in Walton County, Florida (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). It is apparently most common in the Everglades region of Florida and the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia.<br/><br/>Bergstrom <em>et al.</em> (2000) concluded that the range is fairly continuous within suitable habitat from north-central Florida into south-central Georgia. There seems to be a gap of about 80 km between the Grand Bay population in south-central Georgia and the Okefenokee population to the east, though apparently suitable habitat is present in the gap (Bergstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). The apparent gaps at the northern range limit may be the result of a combination of the fragmented, isolated distribution of palustrine wetlands and the generally low population densities causing localized extinction (Bergstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Habitats in Georgia may be peripheral dispersal sinks, occupied only following periods of exceptionally high densities in more central populations (Bergstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). New localities in south-central Georgia (mainly the Grand Bay population) are closer to being contiguous to the previously described range of subspecies <em>apalachicolae</em> to the southwest in north Florida than to the range of subspecies <em>exoristus</em>, known from the eastern Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia (Hall 1981).  The possibility exists that a large and viable population survives in the 30,000 ha of wet prairies and islands of the Okefenokee Swamp (only a fraction of which is actually suitable habitat); Harper (1927) estimated the population at 10,000, but Porter (1953) found very few signs of active houses and recent observations by T. Hon conform with Porter's findings. Georgia colonies that were reported in years past from southern Thomas County (W. Baker pers. comm.) and southwestern Lowndes County (T. Hon pers. comm.) were not found in recent aerial surveys (Bergstrom <em>et al</em>. 2000). Harper (1920) documented <em>Neofiber </em>in "prairie" habitats on the eastern side of the Okenfenokee Swamp. Schantz and Jenkins (1950) reported <em>Neofiber </em>skulls in barn owl pellets near Woodbine, Camden County (on the Satilla River, about 20 miles from the Atlantic Coast).
14520		habitat	eng	Round-tailed Muskrats are a semi-aquatic species, preferring heavily vegetated freshwater habitats and restricted to permanent water bodies free of freezing (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). Typically they occur in shallow grassy salt/freshwater marshes. In Florida, dense stands of maidencane (<em>Panicum hemitomon</em>) and pickerelweed (<em>Pontederia lanceolata</em>) provide preferred habitat (Layne 1978); other habitats include salt marshes on Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and on Cape Sable (status in salt marshes on the northern Gulf coast needs further study). Pocosins and Carolina bays with a history of fire (i.e., not succeeding toward dense shrub bog) provide ideal habitat (Bergstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). At Grand Bay, Georgia, Round-tailed Muskrats inhabit floating mats of bog like vegetation surrounded by open-water emergent marsh dominated by sedges such as <em>Carex</em> and <em>Eleocharis</em> spp.; these finer sedges are preferred house-building materials, whereas the coarser grass <em>Panicum </em>is preferred in Florida. The species is most abundant in areas with water 6-18 inches deep and a sandy, peaty, or soft substrate deep enough to allow burrowing to water during dry periods (Birkenholz 1972, Porter 1953).<br/><br/>Dome-shaped houses, used for shelter and rearing young, are built among emergent vegetation; most house repair and new construction occur in spring. In south-central Georgia, houses are attached to the surfaces of floating mats of <em>Sphagnum</em> and organic muck or to the bases of shrubs or small trees (Harper 1927, Birkenholtz 1963, Bergstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). In sugarcane fields, houses, if present, are smaller and more rudimentary. Round-tailed Muskrats also build extensive tunnel systems in drained muck soils of sugarcane fields and agricultural areas. <br/><br/>These muskrats construct floating feeding stands near house sites. In Georgia, denuded areas usually close to the edge of the mat were used as feeding stations. Round-tailed Muskrats are able to disperse between areas of suitable habitat across roads and small expanses of upland habitat and via ditches (Birkenholz 1963).<br/><br/>This species breeds year-round, with a peak in late fall. May-November live-trapping in sugarcane fields yielded the largest number of juveniles and subadults in May (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). Gestation lasts 26-29 days. Litter size is 1-4 (average two); 4-6 litters per year. Sexually mature in 90-100 days. Reproductive potential is relatively low.<br/><br/>Round-tailed Muskrats are apparently colonial in both marshes and muck fields. There is an average of about two houses for each individual, and generally no more than one adult uses each house. Burrow systems are occupied usually by single adults, a pair, a female and young, or one to two subadults (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). Home range is less than 2.5 acres. They are vulnerable to various reptilian, avian, and mammalian predators.<br/><br/>They eat roots and stems of aquatic and semi aquatic vegetation; major food plants include arrowheads, pickerelweed, <em>Nymphaea</em> water lilies, maidencane, cut-grass, sedges, and grasses (<em>Panicum, Sporobolus, and Echinochloa</em>). In sugarcane fields, diet apparently is dominated by the sprouts, stalks, and roots of sugarcane, and by sedges and grasses (see Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). They are primarily nocturnal.
14520		population	eng	In Florida, this species is locally common on St. Johns marsh in Brevard County, near Hawthorne in Putnam County, and in the Lake Okeechobee region. Highest densities reported are for sugar cane fields in south Florida. In the sugarcane-growing region of Florida, the species is most common in western and northeastern Palm Beach County. It is apparently rare to absent and of spotty occurrence along the upper west Gulf Coast of Florida (Taylor and Suwannee counties south to Hillsborough County), in west-central Florida (Hillsborough, Polk, Manatee, Sarasota, and DeSoto counties), and in northeastern Florida (Nassau and Duval counties, and portions of Baker, Clay, and St. Johns counties); populations may be limited in certain formerly occupied coastal marshes where canals and reduced flows have allowed salt water intrusion (Layne 1978). Porter (1953) found <em>Neofiber </em>to be nearly or completely absent from many areas throughout Florida that previously supported dense populations. See Lefebvre and Tilmant (1992) for further details on the distribution in Florida. <br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but certainly is at least many thousands. This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations throughout much of its former range. Wetlands destruction has slowed in Florida but still occurs. With improved wetland protection, the rate of decline likely is much less than 30% over 10 years or three generations. Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992), but the extent of decline is uncertain.<br/><br/>Average density is 50 individuals per acre, although peak densities can reach 100-120 per acre (Birkenholz 1972). On smaller natural marshes in central Florida, may reach maximal densities of 250-300/ha, whereas on larger marshes (>1,000 ha) maximal densities are reported as 50/ha (Birkenholz 1963). Ecological densities in Georgia (1-3/ha; Bergstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000) are much lower than the maximal densities reported for Florida (Bergstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>Average home-range sizes for 23 radio-tracked Round-tailed Muskrats ranged from 1.263-2,071 m<sup>2</sup> in isolated wetlands in south Florida (Schooley and Branch 2006), with individuals using 10-15 different rest sites within each home range. Muskrats typically used lodges for diurnal rest sites when their marsh habitat was inundated with water but switched largely to burrows when marshes dried up.  <br/><br/>Local populations often fluctuate tremendously, probably in response to water-level fluctuations and changes in habitat conditions (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). May wander or disperse a few or several hundred metres from permanent water. In the dry prairie region of south Florida (on and around Avon Park Air Force Range), Round-tailed Muskrats occupied 35.7% of 457 isolated wetlands in either one or both years of a survey. Local extinction (within a wetland patch) and recolonization occurred in many cases. Patch occupancy increased as patch size, spatial connectivity, and habitat quality increased (Schooley and Branch 2007). Cattle grazing can reduce habitat quality by removing key food and house-building plants such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Panicum</span> sp. Dry prairie habitat of high quality—as the matrix surrounding isolated wetland habitats of Round-tailed Muskrat—was judged to facilitate recolonization of patches, whereas pine plantations were barriers to recolonization (Branch and Schooley 2005).
14520		threats	eng	The statewide population in Florida probably has declined as a result of wetland loss (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). Land fills, marsh drainage, and salt water intrusion have reduced the available habitat and further isolated some colonies (Layne 1978). Isolated populations are very vulnerable to extirpation caused by natural fluctuations in water levels (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992); these receive inadequate protection.
14521		conservation	eng	No information.
14521		distribution	eng	Azov and Black Sea basins. Usually close to estuaries. Invasive in rivers of northern Black Sea basin, recorded in 1997 from middle Vistula (Poland), which it reached from Dniepr via a navigation canal. In Danube upriver to Hungary, in Dniepr up to Belarus.   Accidentally introduced in lower Rhine and actually invasive there. Introduced in Lake Balaton (Hungary) around 1970.
14521		distribution	eng	Azov and Black Sea basins. Usually close to estuaries. Invasive in rivers of northern Black Sea basin, recorded in 1997 from middle Vistula (Poland), which it reached from Dniepr via a navigation canal. In Danube upriver to Hungary, in Dniepr up to Belarus. Introduced in Lake Balaton (Hungary) around 1970.
14521		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium sized rivers and streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mostly found on open sand or mud bottom. One of the most abundant fish species in lowland rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July, locally until September, when temperature rises above 13°C. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Males have completely black body with yellow fin margins during spawning season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males excavate nests under any kind of hard substrate and guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.
14521		population	eng	Very abundant and expanding range.
14521		threats	eng	No major threats known.
14524		conservation	eng	No information.
14524		distribution	eng	Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins. Invasive in Baltic basin, which it reached via navigation canals. Reached westwards to German Baltic coast in 2002. Recently recorded in lower parts of rivers in Gulf of Gdansk (Poland). Also moving upwards in rivers of its original range; in Volga upstream to Moscow and north to Lake Rybinskoye; in Dniepr up to Belarus, in Danube reached Austria in 2000. Accidentally arrived in North America in 1991 and lowermost Rhine (Netherlands) in 2004 with ballasts water in ships.
14524		distribution	eng	<p>Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins. Invasive in Baltic basin, which it reached via navigation canals. Reached westwards to German Baltic coast in 2002 and to Elbe estuary (North Sea basin) in 2009. Recently recorded in lower parts of rivers in Gulf of Gdansk (Poland). Also moving upwards in rivers of its original range; in Volga upstream to Moscow and north to Lake Rybinskoye; in Dniepr up to Belarus, in Danube reached Austria in 2000 and Germany 2005. Accidentally arrived in North America in 1991 and lowermost Rhine (Netherlands) in 2004 with ballasts water in ships. In 2006 first recorded in upper reaches of Rhine drainage close to canal connecting it with Danube. Meanwhile has colonized the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine and is slowly invading the upper Rhine.</p>
14524		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on sand or rock bottom. To 50-60 m deep in Black Sea during winter. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4, females at 2-3. Spawns in April-September. Males have entirely black body during spawning season. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season every 18-20 days. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until eggs hatch, in 2-3 weeks. Males usually die after spawning season. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish. Egg clutches are supposed to be occasionally transported attached to the hull of ships, facilitating the invasion of new areas.
14524		population	eng	Very abundant and expanding range
14524		threats	eng	No major threats known.
14528		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into possible future threats to this species from climate change.
14528		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded from the localities of Mount Wilhelm, Mount Erimbari, Mount Kaindi, and Lake Louise. It has been collected between 2,350 and 3,100 m asl.
14528		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from montane areas including forest, dense bracken, and long grass on moss-covered ground (Flannery 1995).
14528		population	eng	It is abundant in some areas.
14528		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species in its high altitude habitat. However, it could be adversely affected by future global warming because of increased fire frequency.
14530		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Toba in Sumatera.
14541		conservation	eng	Speckled Dasyures occur within a number of protected areas. Further studies into the natural history of the species are needed.
14541		distribution	eng	The Speckled Dasyure occurs in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 1,200 and 3,900 m asl, but it primarily is found above 2,000 m (Flannery 1995; Helgen 2007).
14541		habitat	eng	Speckled Dasyures occur in montane and moss tropical forest and also in subalpine grassland. It is a diurnal species that is both terrestrial and arboreal (Flannery 1995). There is some evidence which suggests that this species breeds throughout the year; the maximum litter size is four (Woolley 2001).
14541		population	eng	Speckled Dasyures have been found to be locally abundant in the past. They are thought to be more common at higher elevations than at lower elevations. An attempt in 1988 to collect this species in the area where a large number were obtained by the Third Archbold Expedition (1938-1939) was unsuccessful (P. Woolley pers. comm.).
14541		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
14549		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Australia by State Conservation agencies under numerous independently enacted state laws, the earliest dating back to 1889. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of  1999 provides protection for all pinnipeds in Australia. The Australian Sea Lion was listed as a Threatened species in the Vulnerable category in 2005. In South Australia, it was listed in February 2008 as Vulnerable under the National Parks and Wildlife Act of 1972. Fisheries are regularly monitored for evidence of marine mammal by-catch (Shaughnessy 1999).  Australian fisheries have also attempted to reduce marine mammal by-catch through the development of several action plans and the development of a code of conduct for responsible fishing for at least one fishery. Several NGOs monitor by-catch issues and have prepared publications on ways to reduce marine mammal mortality in Australia?s fisheries (see Shaughnessy <em>et al</em>. 2003).
14549		distribution	eng	Australian Sea Lions are found in southern and southwestern Australia from just east of Kangaroo Island west to Houtman Albrolhos in Western Australia. Vagrants have come ashore in Eastern Australia, as far north as the middle of New South Wales. Australian Sea Lions breed on at least 73 islands and at several mainland sites (McKenzie <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Five sites account for approximately 60% of the annual pup production.
14549		habitat	eng	Australian Sea Lions are sexually dimorphic, with adult males reaching 1.25 times the length and 2.5-3.5 times the weight of adult females. Very little information on sizes of adult males is available, and some values in the literature may be overestimates. Adult males reach lengths of at least 2.5 m and weights of 200 to at least 300 kg.  Females are 1.3 to just over 1.8 m and weigh from 61-105 kg.  At birth, pups are approximately 60-70 cm long and weigh 6.4-7.9 kg.  Pups are dark chocolate brown to charcoal in colour at birth and lighten to a smoky gray. The crown is paler than the rest of the body and there is a dark mask across the face. The postnatal moult starts when pups are 8-10 weeks old and is completed in several weeks; pups in their juvenile pelage resemble adult females. <br/><br/>Females become sexually mature at 4.5-6 years of age and males at 6 years or more. The mean age of breeding females is 11 years (McIntosh 2007). The oldest breeding female recorded was aged 24 years, while the maximum longevity recorded is 26 years for females and 21.5 years for males (McIntosh 2007). Age-specific survival probabilities are high (0.98) after six years of age and are similar for males and females (McIntosh 2007).  <br/><br/>Australian Sea Lions are unusual among pinnipeds in having a supra-annual pupping interval (Gales <em>et al</em>. 1994, Gales and Costa 1997), with females producing pups every 17-18 months (mean breeding interval is 17.5 months, range 16.0-19.9).  Females mated about 7-10 following the birth of a pups. Like most other pinnipeds, there is a 4-6 month period of delayed implantation of the blastocyst following conception. This leads to a prolonged (active) placental gestation of up to 14 months, the longest for any pinniped (Gales and Costa 1997). The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is ~71 % (Higgins and Gas 1993). Pups can be born at any time of the year, with females at a given site being loosely synchronous with each other and pupping generally occurring over a 5-7 month period at a given locale (Higgins 1993).  Even neighbouring sites can be on entirely different breeding schedules.  Males are sequentially polygynous, establishing territories around individual females, herding them in an effort to keep them from departing until the onset of estrous.  This pattern is repeated until the male is compelled to go to sea and forage, after which he returns and repeats the strategy.  Males defend their territories with guttural clicking, growling and barking vocalizations, posturing, and by fighting with rivals.  Pups can be trampled when males are fighting or moving rapidly to confront rivals and control females, and killed outright in aggressive acts. <br/><br/>Pups are continuously attended for the first 9-10 days after birth.  Over the next 5 months females make foraging trips that average 48.5 hours in length, followed by pup attendance periods that average 33 hours. Females suckle their pups for 15-18 months, usually weaning them a month before giving birth again. Some females care for their offspring for up to three years, and can be seen with a juvenile and a new pup. Adult female Australian Sea Lions behave aggressively toward pups that are not their own. Pups will play at the shoreline and in tide pools while their mothers are away, and following their postnatal moult, will actively swim on their own.<br/><br/>Adult female Australian Sea Lions are benthic, diurnal foragers (Costa and Gales 2003).  They routinely transit to foraging locations by swimming along the bottom.  Mean depth of dives from a series of lactating females tagged with time depth recorders ranged from 41.5-83.1 m; maximum depth of dives ranged from 60-105 m.  Mean duration of dives ranged from 2.2-4.1 minutes, and the longest dive recorded lasted 8.3 minutes.  Australian sea lions are fast, powerful swimmers and often ?porpoise? out of the water when moving rapidly at the surface.<br/><br/>These sea lions are considered non-migratory and probably spend most of their lives near their natal colony. The greatest distance travelled by a tagged animal is approximately 250 km. Genetic distinctiveness has been reported between nearby colonies, indicating a high degree of site fidelity and female philopatry (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2008). At sea, Australian Sea Lions spend nearly all of their time in waters over the continental shelf. <br/><br/>Australian Sea Lions are thought to concentrate their efforts on shallow-water benthic prey, but also take a wide variety of fishes, such as rays, small sharks, Australian salmon, and whiting. Other prey includes squid, cuttlefish, small crabs, and occasionally (perhaps rarely) penguins, flying seabirds and small sea turtles.  Fishermen complain of sea lions robbing lobster traps and fishing nets. Large prey items may be taken to the surface and shaken into portions that can be swallowed.<br/><br/>Predators include Great White Sharks (Shaughnessy <em>et al</em>. 2007) and presumably Killer Whales (Ling 2002).
14549		population	eng	The total population of Australian Sea Lions is estimated to be 13,790 individuals based on an estimated total pup production of 3,380 (2,674 in South Australia and 706 in Western Australia) and a multiplication factor of 4.08 pups per breeding cycle (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 2003, Goldsworthy and Page 2007).
14549		threats	eng	Australian aborigines have taken Australian Sea Lions for subsistence purposes for thousands of years.  Early European colonists also took sea lions for food and other products, although numbers recorded in sealing logbooks were small (Ling 1999).  Harvests by sealers in the 17th and 18th centuries reduced the population and extirpated them from areas around the Bass Strait and Tasmania.  <br/><br/>Although now protected, the population has not rebounded fully in numbers or reoccupied all of its former range. Conflicts and interactions with fisheries exist. A high level of entanglement in abandoned and lost fishing gear and in marine debris has been reported, with a range of 0.2 to 1.3% of the population are entangled in these materials (Shaughnessy <em>et al</em>. 2003, Page <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Other animals become entangled in fishing gear, particularly bottom-set gillnets of commercial shark fishers. A risk assessment of sea lion by-catch in shark gillnets indicated that there is a high risk of subpopulation extinction with even low levels of by-catch (Goldsworthy and Page 2007). A substantial sea lion tourist industry has developed; this activity is regulated at sea lion colonies in parks to minimize disturbance during the breeding season. Extensive disturbance can cause Australian Sea Lions to abandon colony sites.
14560		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Dumoga-Bone National Park.
14560		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities on Sulawesi, Indonesia at 225 and 1,000 m asl.
14560		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forest. Two specimens were mist-netted high over a river but there is no other information known.
14560		population	eng	This is a rare species, known from only 7 specimens (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988; Bergmans 2001). Extensive mist-netting efforts have failed to find the species, although appropriate survey methods may not have been used (the only mist-netted specimens came from above the canopy).
14560		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging and expanding agriculture is a major threat. Hunting of what appears to be a rare and restricted range species is also a threat, four of the seven known specimens are from markets.
14563		conservation	eng	Survey work, and control of the introduced goats, are the most urgent priorities for this species. Unfortunately, international conflict arose between Taiwan, China and Japan over territorial claims to the Senkaku Islands during the 1970s, when rich mineral sources, mainly petroleum and natural gas, were discovered on the continental shelf surrounding the islands. This conflict has made it nearly impossible to conduct research into the goat problem on Uotsuri-jima (Yokohata <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
14563		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Uotsuri-jima, a small island (3.8 km²) in the Senkaku Archipelago, of the Ryukyus in Japan (Motokawa, <em>et al.</em> 2001). The island rises to 362 m asl.
14563		habitat	eng	The one specimen was collected from coastal grassland. Most of Uotsuri-jima is covered with subtropical forest dominated by <em>Livistona chinensis</em>, and there are cloud forests at higher elevations (Yokohata <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has only recently been described and very little is known about its ecology.
14563		population	eng	Only one specimen has been collected in 1979. However, there has been no recent survey work, and nobody has returned to the island to conduct surveys since 1991 when only a tunnel was found.
14563		threats	eng	In 1978 a pair of goats was introduced to Uotsuri-jima, since when this population has increased dramatically. The species could potentially be seriously threatened by habitat degradation due to the introduction and establishment of these feral goats on the island (Yokohata, 1999) which cause soil erosion by overgrazing.
14564		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in the following managed areas: Archbold Biological Station, Hendry Ranch, Ocala National Forest, Tiger Creek Preserve, Saddle Blanket Lakes Scrub Preserve, Lake Arbuckle State Forest and State Park, Lake Louisa State Park, Highland Hammock State Park, and Bok Tower Gardens. However, few localities are protected from future development (Christman 1992).
14564		distribution	eng	The range is restricted to central Florida, in the southeastern United States, where the species is locally abundant on high sandy ridges of Lake, Marion, Orange, Polk, Highlands, and Osceola counties (Christman 1992). Formerly this skink was more widespread throughout the Lake Wales Ridge region. It is most common on the Lake Wales and Winter Haven ridges in Highlands, Polk, and Lake counties; uncommon on the Mount Dora Ridge, including sites within the Ocala National Forest (see USFWS 1998).
14564		habitat	eng	This species occurs only on Florida's central ridges, at elevations of 27 m or more, in St. Lucie fine and Lakeland yellow sands. It inhabits loose sands of sand pine-rosemary scrub, less often longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill) or turkey oak "barrens" adjacent to scrub, especially high pine-scrub ecotones (Telford, cited in USFWS 1998). Sometimes this lizard occurs in areas with dense undergrowth and extensive canopy closure (Mushinsky, cited in USFWS 1998). It is basically fossorial (usually within 8 cm of surface) but sometimes can be found under logs, leaf litter, and other surface debris (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Well-drained sands in open glades free of rooted plants are optimal, whereas dry, porous sands are unfavourable; moisture under leaf litter is important in regulation of body temperature and for successful egg incubation. Eggs are laid in the sand or under logs or other cover.
14564		population	eng	This species occurs in more than 40 scrub sites, but most are small remnants of once larger tracts of suitable habitat. As of 1997, there were 114 "locality records" (USFWS 1998). The total adult population size is unknown but surely must exceed a few thousand. These lizards can be locally common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The area of occupancy and number of occurrences or subpopulations have been considerably reduced by habitat destruction, with further decreases expected. According to some estimates, 60 to 90% of the scrub ecosystem already has been lost (see USFWS 1998). USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining." Further decreases in available habitat are expected, but reliable data on trends are lacking (USFWS 1998).
14564		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction for commercial and residential development, agricultural (citrus) development (USFWS 1987), and phosphate mining. Conversion of habitat to citrus production is the primary threat (P. Moler pers. comm. 1995). Habitat degradation due to fire exclusion is another threat (USFWS 1998).
14569		conservation	eng	No information available.
14569		distribution	eng	The only living specimens have been found in Lake Tanganyika. Fossil shells have been recorded from Lakes Edward and Albert basins (potential relict endemic).
14569		habitat	eng	Individuals found on soft substrate or more commonly in huge shell beds of empty shells and living animals. Reproduction is by brooding one or two very large young, thus estimate population growth rates could be slow and shell beds are result of long-term accumulation. Shells are large, thus individual growth could be slow. This species is found up to 65 meters deep.
14569		population	eng	No information available.
14569		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
14576		conservation	eng	None.
14576		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two islands (Todos Los Santos Islands) in Baja California Norte, México (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14576		habitat	eng	The vegetation of Todos Los Santos Island is coastal scrub. It includes open herbaceous areas dotted with clumps a few meters in diameter of <em>Bergerocactus emory</em>, <em>Encelia californica</em>, and <em>Opuntia prolifera</em>. This vegetation is typical for flat areas, including most of the north island, but it is absent at the lighthouse and dwellings on the north island and absent from hilltops, valleys, and low plateaus of the south island. Climate is similar to the adjacent mainland, but with more fog and humidity.<br/><br/>The species is terrestrial, and is considered generalist herbivore (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001). There is little known about the natural history of <em>N. anthonyi</em> (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14576		population	eng	No known population information. Five visits, from 1988 to 1990, produced no evidence of extant individuals (Cortez-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14576		threats	eng	Predation by feral cats has been cited as the primary reason for extirpation of this species (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14577		conservation	eng	None.
14577		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Baja California Sur: Coronados Island (26°06’N, 111°18’W), México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14577		habitat	eng	Unknown.
14577		population	eng	No population information could be found. No extant individuals, midden piles, or other evidence have been observed in recent expeditions (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993).
14577		threats	eng	Depletion of food resources and predation by feral cats has been cited as likely causes of the extirpation of this species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993).
14580		conservation	eng	None.
14580		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Baja California Norte, México: San Martín Island (Cortez-Calva <em>et al</em>. 2001).
14580		habitat	eng	The island is in the Upper Sonoran life zone, and the coastal scrub vegetation includes the succulent <em>Dudleya anthonyi</em> (Crassulaceae), <em>Lycium</em>, lichens, and cacti. The island has no fresh water. The rough volcanic surface of the island has numerous caves, crevices, and cavities that are, or were, occupied by wood rats. This rodent was terrestrial and was a herbivore (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14580		population	eng	Some naturalists that visited the island in the past have noted that this species was abundant. However, recent survey efforts have failed to produce the species (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).
14580		threats	eng	Predation by feral cats has been cited as a primary threat to the extirpation of this species (Cortes-Calva <em>et al</em>. 2001).
14581		conservation	eng	Management guidelines resulting in the protection of Allegheny woodrat habitats are needed throughout the range. In particular, attention needs to be given to maintaining dispersal corridors among isolated populations. Continuing research on causes of the decline is also needed.<br/><br/>Examples of protected occurrences include those in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Falls Ridge (a TNC preserve in Virginia), and the Deam Nature Preserve in Indiana. Many populations receive fairly good de facto protection in numerous areas with inaccessible cliffs and caves. Many additional occurrences are in state game areas and national forests and parks; these may afford some protection.<br/><br/>Rangewide surveys are needed to better determine status and trends. Areas with woodrats should be protected from excessive human traffic. Mining and logging operations should not be permitted in areas with woodrat populations.
14581		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from western Connecticut (formerly (not mapped here)), southeastern New York (virtually extirpated (not mapped here)), northern New Jersey, and northern Pennsylvania southwestward through western Maryland, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and northern and western Virginia (from the Blue Ridge westward) to northeastern Alabama (observed in several cave systems) and northwestern North Carolina (Hall 1981), with isolated populations north of the Ohio River in southern Ohio (where recent surveys failed to locate this species and so are not mapped here; W. Peneston pers. comm., cited by Mengak 2002) and southern Indiana (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). Although Hall (1981) showed <em>N. magister</em> in the northwestern corner of Georgia, the Tennessee River is generally accepted as the southern range limit.
14581		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is rocky cliffs and talus slopes. These woodrats make midden mounds and stick piles among rocks, but secluded nest sites generally are not within stick houses (see Hayes and Harrison 1992).<br/><br/>Throughout its range, this species is associated with extensive rocky areas such as outcrops, cliffs, talus slopes with boulders and crevices, and caves. It occasionally uses abandoned buildings but generally avoids humans. It generally occurs at higher elevations (to about 1,000 m) and is rarely found in lowlands or open areas. Because it is a habitat specialist, geographic range portrayals grossly exaggerate its true distribution. For example, the global range map shows approximately 40% of the land surface of Pennsylvania as included in Allegheny woodrat distribution, when in fact the Pennsylvania surface rock habitat currently occupied by woodrats covers less than one percent (0.77%) of the state (Hassinger pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In southern New York, New Jersey, and adjacent Pennsylvania, woodrat habitat "consists of extensive boulder fields at the base of ridges with rock outcrops. These talus slopes consist of large boulders (10-20 ft. [3-6 m] across) piled in several layers. <em>Neotoma</em> lives among the cave like spaces formed by the piled boulders" (Sciascia 1990). <br/><br/>Referring to the mountainous area of Pennsylvania, Merritt (1987) wrote, "limestone caves, rocky cliffs and accumulations of residual sandstone boulders marked by deep crevices with underground galleries represent favored habitat." Hall (1985) pointed out that good habitat is found "specifically at water gaps where cliff faces and boulder piles are usually abundant." Unpublished data from Pennsylvania Natural Diversity Inventories (eastern and western offices) make frequent references to woodrat occurrences in sandstone, limestone, or shale outcrops and cliffs, usually with crevices or abundant boulders; also solution caves and abandoned limestone quarries and mines. Associated forest is varied, including cove hardwoods, hemlock-birch, oak-pine, and various combinations of oaks, maples, hickories, beech, and yellow poplar (tulip-tree). Grape, mountain laurel, rhododendron and ferns are frequently mentioned. <br/><br/>In West Virginia, woodrats are common in caves, rock shelters, outcrops with deep crevices, and riverbanks with an abundance of sandstone rocks and boulders. <br/><br/>"In Maryland, this species is found predominately in cliffs, caves and rocky areas in the three western-most counties, and along cliffs of the Potomac River to the vicinity of Washington, D.C." (Feldhammer <em>et al.</em> 1984). In western Maryland "Pottsville Sandstone outcrops [provide] massive, blocky boulders and extensive cliffs with numerous crevices and miniature cave-like situations" (Thompson 1984). <br/><br/>In Indiana, extant populations are restricted primarily to south-facing limestone bluffs on the Ohio River, where there are den sites in the rock and dense red-cedar (Cudmore 1983, Scott Johnson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Kentucky, "cliffs with deep crevices, caves, or large boulders piled in such a way as to form numerous retreats and shelters are favored" (Barbour and Davis 1974). In Tennessee, "rocky cliffs, caves and fissures or tumbled boulders on the sides of mountains are the preferred habitat" (Hamilton 1943), and in North Carolina it is "rocky places and abandoned buildings at elevations above 3,000 ft (900 m)" (Adams 1987). Castleberry <em>et al</em>. (2001) suggest that forest clearcutting has minimal impact on woodrat movements, home range, and habitat use, as long as sufficient intact forest is retained adjacent to colonies. They mention, however, that harvesting methods that selectively remove important mast-producing tree species may represent the greatest threat from forest management.<br/><br/>A large house of sticks, leaves, and miscellaneous debris is built, usually within a cave, crevice, or other well-protected place. This may be a mound like a muskrat house (typical construction in the range of other subspecies), but is more often open, giving the impression of a large bird's nest (Poole 1940). Outside diameter is about 35-60 cm (Patterson 1933) and the inner cavity is about 12 cm across (Poole 1940). The nest is lined with shredded bark of grape, red cedar, hemlock, or basswood, grass, fur, rootlets, and sometimes feathers (Poole 1940, Merritt 1987).<br/><br/>Woodrats are basically solitary and unsociable, frequently fighting one another. Each lives alone in its house, except when breeding and raising young. Poole (1949) found "a great deal of individuality" in temperament, behaviour, food preferences, etc., among his captive Allegheny woodrats. When upset, woodrats may chatter their teeth or stomp their hind feet (Wiley 1980). <br/><br/>Near the nests are found piles of sticks and trash called middens. Part of the materials found in woodrat houses and middens appears to be cached food in the form of nuts, seeds, berries, cuttings of vegetation, and mushrooms. But there may also be miscellaneous bits of trash, including rags, bits of metal, bones, pieces of glass, paper, etc. Newcombe (1930) and Poole (1940) compiled lists of such materials. The function of this compulsive collecting is unknown. <br/><br/>Though solitary and territorial, woodrats most often occur in clusters due to patchiness of the rock outcrop, talus, and cave habitat, and conform to the concept of a metapopulation (Hassinger <em>et al</em>. 1996). Home ranges are small, 0.26-0.6 ha (Wright and Hall 1996); usually less than about 90 m across (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Poole (1940) reported movements of 183 m and 92 m by two woodrats in Pennsylvania. Foraging movements, while often focused within rock habitat, may extend beyond the protection of rocks up to 160 m from the den site (Wright and Hall 1996). Den shifts tend be less than 100 m with a median of 40 m (Wright 1998), and woodrats, particularly females, often live their entire lives in the same outcrop (Feller, pers. obs., 1998). There are reports of large unidirectional movements of displaced woodrats, e.g., 1 km and 4 km (McGowan 1993), as well as naturally dispersing individuals, 0.3-1 km (McGowan 1993), 1 km (Feller, pers. obs., 1995), and up to 6 km (Wright pers. comm., 1998). While woodrats can travel long distances between patches, as distances increase, the chance of successful emigration between patches is likely to decrease, particularly in the absence of protective rock crevices. Barriers to dispersal are not clearly known, as woodrats have been documented to traverse seemingly inhospitable terrain, including roads, small streams, and small fields, though movements are largely within rock habitat (Feller, pers. obs.; Mengak pers. comm., 1998; Wright pers. comm., 1998). However, woodrats display unwary behaviour when crossing roads (Feller, pers. obs.), and road kills have been documented (Feller, pers. obs., 1993; McGowan 1993). <br/><br/>Predators include owls, skunks, weasels, foxes, raccoons, bobcats and large snakes. Humans have been killing woodrats for thousands of years - first for food, and much later out of prejudice, because of a resemblance to European rats. <br/><br/>White-footed mice compete with woodrats for food (Rainey 1956), and in Indiana, opossums, raccoons and turkey vultures may compete for den sites (Cudmore 1983). Woodrats support many ecto- and endoparasites, including fleas, ticks, mites, chiggers, botflies, nematodes, and tapeworms (Cudmore 1985). Bubonic plague (Schwartz and Schwartz 1959) and rabies (Dowda <em>et al</em>. 1981) have been reported in wild woodrats. Woodrats are primarily vegetarian, and food preferences vary widely among individuals. Leaves, twigs, fruits, and seeds of many plants are eaten. They are primarily nocturnal.
14581		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but likely is much larger than 10,000. Populations are localized and generally quite small (less than ten), apparently exhibiting a typical metapopulation structure. For example, in Pennsylvania the Allegheny woodrat population consists of 78 disjunct metapopulations (Butchkoski 2004). This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (probably more than 200). The number of occurrences or subpopulations with good viability probably is substantially smaller than the total number of extant occurrences.<br/><br/>Populations in the northeastern United States have declined, while those in the southern portion of the range appear to have remained relatively stable. However, woodrats appear to be rare in Tennessee (Kennedy and Harvey 2001), and few specimens have been reported from Alabama, where present status is poorly known.<br/><br/>The species has disappeared from Connecticut, New York, most of eastern Pennsylvania, and all but one site in New Jersey. This decline has apparently been occurring for many years. Early sources (e.g., Newcombe 1930) remarked on the woodrat's decreasing range and abundance, and the most recent reports from Connecticut date from the 1930s (Goodwin 1935). Such a decline might be expected in the wake of human settlement, but in recent decades woodrat decline has been dramatic in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Apparent extirpation has occurred in at least 100 sites in northern Virginia (Buhlmann pers. comm., 1992). <br/><br/>Since the late 1960s woodrats in Pennsylvania have disappeared from sites where they once occurred, particularly in eastern and northwestern Pennsylvania; surveys of more than 360 sites from which woodrats have been reported yielded 20 metapopulations, but five of these metapopulation areas no longer support woodrats, and seven of them have fewer active colonies than in the past (C. Fergus, no date; www.pgc.state.pa.us, accessed April 2006). The species has disappeared from the southeastern portion of Pennsylvania and has declined in much of the rest of the state; at present, populations exist throughout much of Pennsylvania's south-central and southwestern counties, with a few remnant populations in eastern counties; mapped distribution indicates that the species no longer occurs in roughly half of the historically occupied range (Pennsylvania Game Commission website, woodrat information last updated in 2006).<br/><br/>In New Jersey, several populations have been extirpated for at least 20 years; the single known remaining population has been relatively stable in recent years, based on trapping results in 1999-2001 (New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife).<br/><br/>Woodrats were documented throughout their historical range in southeastern New York as recently as the mid-1960s, when they appeared to occupy all available habitat; those populations were extirpated by 1987; currently, the only woodrats in the state are immigrants that occasionally occupy a small patch of habitat on the New York-New Jersey border (this is the northern extreme of the habitat for the last remaining New Jersey woodrat population) (New York State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2005 revised draft). Reintroductions attempted in the early 1990s were unsuccessful.<br/><br/>This species may be represented by only one population in Ohio, or possibly it is extirpated; recent surveys failed to locate woodrats there (W. Peneston pers. comm., cited by Mengak 2002).<br/><br/>In Maryland, woodrat populations have been in decline for over two decades and continue to decline (Dan Feller, Maryland Natural Heritage Program pers. comm., cited by New York State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2005 draft).<br/><br/>In the early 1980s, extant populations in Indiana were reported from 20 sites (18 bluffs, two caves) adjacent to the Ohio River; in 1991-1992, live trapping surveys at 17 sites yielded a total of 101 woodrats at 12 (11 bluffs, one cave) of the 17 sites (Johnson 2002). Abundance in Indiana appears to have declined in recent decades. Population density for six sites in Indiana averaged 27.5/km of cliff habitat during the early 1980s (Cudmore 1985). During the 1990s density averaged about 11 individuals/km at 12 Indiana sites (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Woodrat populations in the core of the range in West Virginia (Castleberry 2000), Virginia (Mengak 2000), and Kentucky (Thomas 1998) currently appear to be secure.<br/><br/>Cudmore (1983) estimated population densities of 8.3 to 71.9 woodrats per 1,000 m of cliff along the Ohio River in Indiana. According to Burt and Grossenheider (1976), populations of 5-8 adults per hectare are probably high.
14581		threats	eng	Possibly widespread deforestation and habitat fragmentation contributed to the initial decline of the species, isolating populations and eliminating dispersal and travel corridors (Sciascia pers. comm., 1994). Deforestation and associated reduction/elimination of food resources currently may be a threat to some local woodrat populations. Causes of the continuing decline are not yet fully understood, but some hypotheses have been offered. Probably the explanation lies in a combination of these and other factors that may differ locally in importance (Linzey 1990).<br/><br/>Parasitism by the raccoon roundworm (<em>Baylisascaris procyonis</em>) has been identified as a significant cause of mortality and a probable major factor in the decline in several states (McGowan 1993; Hicks pers. comm., 1994; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1997; LoGiudice 2000). Although rarely fatal to raccoons, infestation may cause cerebrospinal nematodiasis in other species and has caused declines in some populations (Kazacos 1983). New York released and monitored woodrats in formerly occupied areas and all the animals died (50 total, including the released adults and their progeny); 11 of the 13 recovered carcasses were infected by the roundworms (McGowan 1993; Hicks pers. comm., 1994). Stone observed that woodrat decline in New York coincided with a marked increase in raccoon numbers (Linzey 1990). Hayes (unpublished research proposal) suggested that woodrats may be especially vulnerable for two reasons: 1) among other novel items, woodrats are known to carry back to their nests the faeces of other animals, which might include raccoon scats contaminated with <em>B. procyonis</em> eggs, and 2) a "relatively long generation time increases the probability that individuals will become infested prior to reproduction." Both of these reasons recently have been documented (McGowan pers. comm., 1994). Additionally, McGowan (pers. comm., 1994) found that woodrats may colonize areas where an infected woodrat has recently died, thus perhaps maintaining spread of the parasite. <br/><br/>Hall (1988) noticed a correlation between the spread of the gypsy moth (<em>Lymantria dispar</em>) and loss of woodrats in Pennsylvania. "There is a possibility that acorns make up a significant part of the food supply of the species in Pennsylvania. Acorns may be important as a winter food source since they can be stored for long periods of time. Studies conducted by the Pennsylvania Game Commission show that acorn production drops to zero for several years following defoliation. Gypsy moth infestation has resulted in considerable mortality of oaks, especially along the poorer soils of rocky ridge tops. These are the areas where many rocky sites are found, which are ideal woodrat habitats." In support of his argument, Hall noted that at three other sites where woodrats survived, other winter food sources were available. <br/><br/>In a similar theory, McGowan (pers. comm., 1994) speculated that the 1930-1940s permanent loss of the American chestnut (<em>Castanea dentata</em>) may be a factor. This chestnut was extremely hardy and a bountiful producer of mast, and its previous distribution essentially mirrors the historic distribution of the woodrat. Loss of this stable and predictable food source may have led to the continuing woodrat population decline.<br/><br/>Nawrot and Klimstra (1976) argued that the disappearance of a similar species, <em>N. floridiana illinoensis</em>, was likely due to two unusually severe winters. "Despite a tolerance of <em>Neotoma</em> to many environmental conditions, severe winter weather appears to be a major factor in sudden woodrat population declines. Fitch and Rainy (1956) recorded a drastic decline in <em>Neotoma floridiana</em>abundance in Kansas after two winters of below-average temperatures and prolonged snow and ice cover. Significantly, this decimated population was unable to make substantial gains and continued to decline gradually for several years." Weather also has been proposed as a factor in <em>Neotoma magister</em> decline, a view that is supported by the fact that the decline has been in the northern part of the range. Records in Pennsylvania and West Virginia over the past thirty years indicate "below normal" temperatures in critical months accompanying the observed shrinkage in range (Linzey pers. comm., 1994).<br/><br/>In some areas, including caves popular with spelunkers, human disturbance has been implicated in the disappearance of woodrat populations (e.g., Kirkland 1986). These woodrats do seem to avoid areas of human habitation or heavy human use, but many sites where they have disappeared are remote and rarely visited by people. <br/><br/>Habitat is generally inaccessible and undesirable for development, but strip mining of coal and limestone is a potential threat in many areas. Monty and Feldhamer (2002) stated that increased predation by great horned owls has been proposed as a threat, but owl predation seems highly unlikely as a reason for the decline. Populations often are small and isolated, hence highly susceptible to extirpation (Mengak pers. comm., 1994).
14582		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
14582		distribution	eng	Southwestern USA and central and western Mexico, from sea level to 2,500 m. Occurs from extreme southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado south through Arizona, western New Mexico, Sonora, Chihuahua, and into northern Sinaloa. Also in a small area of southeastern California and northeastern Baja California, and on Tiburon and Turner islands.
14582		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid areas, with preferred areas including rocky mountainsides, arid scrublands and cactus flats, pinyon-juniper woodlands on slopes, and desert habitats.
14582		population	eng	Reported densities range from 1 - 12.7 individuals/ha, and may be related to the number of suitable nest sites and occurrence of other woodrat species.
14582		threats	eng	None known.
14583		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Mexico. Part of the population is present within the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.
14583		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwestern Tamaulipas and adjacent San Luis Potosí, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14583		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. This species is likely restricted to a microhabitat. Its range is within cloud forest.
14583		population	eng	This species is very rare.
14583		threats	eng	This species is threatened by timber extraction and conversion of forest to coffee plantations.
14584		conservation	eng	None.
14584		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cedros Island, Baja California Norte, México (Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999).
14584		habitat	eng	The principal habitat types are coastal scrub, sand dune scrub, chaparral, juniper scrub, and pine forest. It occurs in all vegetation zones and habitat types except sand dunes and the barren slopes near the town of Cedros (Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999). <br/><br/>Nests are composed of dry leaves wedged so tightly into the living leaves that the collector was unable to overturn the nest. Nets materials and construction styles vary greatly in different parts of the island depending upon the plant species available. In April, two females collected were pregnant (Banks 1964 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999).
14584		population	eng	This species apparently is uncommon. Based upon trapping results, this species is more frequent in the dense prickly pear “orchard” at Punta Norta than at other locales. Ten individuals were captured in 560 trap nights of general trapping (Mellink 1993 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999).
14584		threats	eng	Elimination of shrubs for firewood on the southern part of the island and predation by domestic cats and dogs have been cited as primary threats to this species (Mellink-Bijtel 1992 in Alvarez-Castaneda and Yensen 1999).
14585		conservation	eng	Found in Salaqui National Park in Honduras. More information is required regarding the ecological requirements and possible threats faced by the species.
14585		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-west Nicaragua and north-western Honduras (Musser and Carleton 2005). Found up to 2,000 m.
14585		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Thought to be found in rock outcrops.
14585		population	eng	Rare and local, known from only a few specimens (Reid 1997).
14585		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but its habitat preference is thought to be for rocky outcrops, which are not under threat.
14586		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, a portion of its range is within protected areas.
14586		distribution	eng	The species' range appears to be uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is mapped to include western Arizona east of the Colorado River, and northwestern Sonora, Mexico. It ranges in elevation from sea level to 2,200 m.
14586		habitat	eng	It is primarily restricted to habitats surrounding the Colorado River and its major tributaries, where its dens are typically found at the bases of cliffs and rock outcorppings, and in high desert.
14586		population	eng	This species is common.
14586		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. It is sympatric with <em>Neotoma albigula</em>, which may limit its population numbers through competition for den sites.
14587		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
14587		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme western United States, from the Columbia River in western Oregon southwards to the inner Coastal Range of west-central California, and north Sierra Nevadas, east-central California.
14587		habitat	eng	A habitat specialist found in heavy chaparral; hardwood, conifer, and mixed forests, typically in densely wooded areas with heavy undergrowth; riparian woodlands. Builds house of debris on the ground or in a tree; houses tend to be in situations that are shaded, relatively cool, and in good cover, and they may be used by many generations over several years. After breeding, males live in tree dens apart from females. <br/><br/>One study found that each woodrat averaged 1.8 houses/home range. Loosely colonial, with partially overlapping home ranges; several individuals may live in the same area, though individuals (aside from females with young) typically live in separate houses. Adult home range averages around 2,000sqm. Predators include hawks, owls, bobcat, coyote, long-tailed weasel, etc. Stick houses provide cover for many vertebrate and invertebrate commensals. <br/><br/>Most young are born from February (especially in south) to May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Usually one litter per year. Litter size is 1-4, usually 2-3. Weaning begins at three weeks (Carraway and B. J. Verts. 1991, Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981). Diet includes a wide variety of plants. Feeds on seeds, nuts, acorns, fruits, green vegetation, inner bark, and fungi. This woodrat stores food. It is primarily nocturnal.
14587		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density is up to about 45/ha in optimal conditions; more typically 1-3 dozen/ha.
14587		threats	eng	Generally populations are negatively affected by grazing and the removal of undergrowth or shrubby vegetation, but these are not major threats to the species overall.
14588		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Several protected areas are located within its range.
14588		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mexican Plateau (from 1,160 to 2,320 m), from southeast Chihuahua to south San Luis Potosí and north Querétaro, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14588		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to rocky and desert habitats; animals occurs rocky ledges, hidden by cacti and shrubs, along shallow ravines. Nets made of sticks and grasses were noted in deep crevices. <br/><br/>Two pregnant females obtained in late March each carried one embryo; another three pregnant females collected during July and August; two was carrying one embryo each and the other carried two embryos. Lactating females were trapped in July and August (Hrachovy <em>et al.</em> 1996).
14588		population	eng	No population information was found.
14588		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is estimated to have lost 8-17% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 12 years (C. de Granmont and  A. Cuaron pers. comm.).
14589		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. Many of the island populations are considered endangered by Mexican law.
14589		distribution	eng	Arid and semi-arid areas of western United States and southward to northwestern Sonora and through the Baja California peninsula (Mexico), including the islands of Espiritu Santo, San Francisco, San Jose, Danzante, Carmen, Angel de la Guardia, and Margarita. In the US, range includes southern California, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, western Utah, and extreme western Colorado and Arizona.
14589		habitat	eng	Occurs in desert scrublands and coastal sage scrub habitats. Requires succulent vegetation, especially <em>Opuntia</em> and <em>Yucca</em>, as a source of water. Nests in these plants or in crevices of nearby rock outcroppings.
14589		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat. On islands with cliffs, it is very common, but on other islands it is considered to be very rare.<br/><br/>Reported densities range from 1.4 individuals/ha (January in the San Gabriel Mountains) to 30 individuals/ha (June-July in coastal sage).
14589		threats	eng	No known threats to the species. However, the <em>Neotoma lepida</em> complex has a number of extinct populations on the islands in the northwestern part of Mexico and many of the remaining island populations are likely vulnerable to habitat change or to introduced species, such as cats.
14590		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is need to determine if there are separate species. There are several protected areas within its range.
14590		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeast Utah and central Colorado, USA, southwards through west and interior México, to the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and west Honduras (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,100 to 4,000 m (in southeastern Mexico and north Central America) (Reid 1997).
14590		habitat	eng	Occurs in rock outcrops, cliffs, and rocky slopes. In the US, the vegetation associated with these habitats includes pinyon-juniper woodland, scrub oak, ponderosa pine, and mixed deciduous-coniferous forest. This species is poorly known in Central America. It is found in highland pine-oak forest and open woodland; favors dry, rocky areas in coniferous forest and forest openings but also occurs in cool, evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal and mainly terrestrial, but it climbs well. Individuals are aggressive toward each other and tend to be solitary (Wilson and Ruff 1999). The diet consist in primarily of green plant material (including yucca), supplemented with fruit, seeds, and fungi. Unlike other wood rats, this species seldom constructs large stick nests, although piles of sticks may be found at den entrances. Dens are usually located in rock crevices and house spherical or cup-shaped nest of shredded bark (Finley 1958). Each active nest is occupied by one adult male or an adult female and her young (Wilson and Ruff 1999). The gestation period is about 33 days; and the litter size is 1 to 4 young, averaging about 4 (Reid 1997; Wilson and Ruff 1999). Females born early in the year are capable of breeding and bearing young later in the same year. Sexual maturation in males proceeds more slowly (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
14590		population	eng	Common in North America (Wilson and Ruff 1999); generally uncommon and local in Central America (Reid 1997).
14590		threats	eng	None known.
14591		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
14591		distribution	eng	Southern Great Plains of the United States and northeastern Mexico. In the US from southeastern Colorado to south-central Kansas, southward through western Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. In Mexico, the range is primarily northern Chihuahua, northeastern Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, and the northeast sector of San Luis Potosi.
14591		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats charactized by grasses, shrubs, and cactus. Associated with rocky habitats in some parts of the range.
14591		population	eng	Populations somewhat variable, ranging from 0-31.1 individuals/ha over a 30-month period. These changes are correlated with cactus density.
14591		threats	eng	None known.
14592		conservation	eng	This species is considered endangered by the Mexican government (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
14592		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Veracruz, Perote, (2,377 m), México (Musser and Carleton, 2005).The total geographic range is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. This species range is limited to the eastern volcanic slopes of Orizaba and Cofre de Perote (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14592		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The area around Perote is characterized by xeric shurb, pine-oak forest, cloud forest, and tropical rainforest in the deep ravines (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14592		population	eng	This species is rare within a restricted range (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14592		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive conversion to agriculture, which may have already contributed to its decline and the isolation of its populations (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).
14593		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures underway.
14593		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Jalisco, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14593		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in the valley bottoms, in tropical deciduous forest.
14593		population	eng	This species is not common.
14593		threats	eng	In 2007, a very large dam (El Cajon) was built downstream from this species' primary range. It is expected that inundation of the rivers caused by this dam will result in extensive habitat loss for this species.
14594		conservation	eng	A more accurate estimation of its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population trends are needed.
14594		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-west Sonora and north-west Sinaloa, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from sea level to 150 m (Jones and Genoways 1978).
14594		habitat	eng	This species primarily occurs typically in tropical decidious forest. Its nests usually were found along streams in thick brush or low trees. This species is mainly nocturnal. It feeds on fruits and leaves. Some individuals have been reported living in holes near a dry, sandy creek bed. Some pregnant females were reported in January, February and December, all carried two embryos. A female taken in April was both lactating and pregnant with three embryos. Lactating females were found in February, March, April, August, and November (Jones and Genoways 1978).
14594		population	eng	This species is rare.
14594		threats	eng	It is estimated that 60% to 70% of this species' range has been converted to agriculture (primarily for tomato and onion crops).
14597		conservation	eng	None known. Likely occurs in a number of protected areas within its range.
14597		distribution	eng	From central and eastern California (United States) south into northwestern Baja California, Mexico (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14597		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences are similar to other members of the <em>Neotoma</em> group, prefering areas with dense vegetative cover, including chaparral, coastal scrub, and woodlands (Carraway and Verts 1991). <br/><br/>Like other woodrats, <em>N. macrotis</em> builds large houses of sticks, bark, leaves and man-made objects discovered while foraging. Found on the ground, in trees and on hill slopes. Houses average one meter in diameter by one meter tall and consist of several chambers for food storage and nesting. These stick houses are typically inhabited by a single adult or female with pups.
14597		population	eng	Population densities are known from descriptions of <em>N. fuscipes</em> which is significantly more abundant in areas of dense vegetative cover, with estimates of 35 individuals per hectare, compared to 5 individuals/ha in open areas (Cranford 1999).
14597		threats	eng	As a specialist in areas of dense vegetative cover, the large-eared woodrat is especially susceptible to habitat clearing caused by fire and livestock grazing.
14600		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas within its range.
14600		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cordillera Transvolcanica, México. It occurs from west central Michoacán eastwards to central Veracruz (Musser and Carleton 2005), at an altitudinal range of approximately 2,500 to 4,300 m (Davis and Follansbee 1945 in Williams <em>et al.</em> 1985).
14600		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to boreal habitats of the transvolcanic belt of central Mexico, and is restricted to "sacaton" grass and open pine forest (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1985).
14600		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat, however, it is sensitive to changes in habitat.
14600		threats	eng	This species is threatened by urbanization and deforestation due to timber extraction, agricultural activities, grazing, and human recreational activities.
14601		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas in Peru and two in Bolivia. Further general research into this species is needed.
14601		distribution	eng	This montane species ranges from central Peru (Junín Department), south through northernmost Chile and west Bolivia, to northwest Argentina (see Anderson, 1997; Bárquez, 1983; Pardiñas and Ortiz, 2001; Sanborn, 1947; Musser and Carleton, 2005).  It is mostly found between 2,500 to 4,600 m.
14601		habitat	eng	This species is associated with streams and wetlands with dense cover, in the Altiplano grasslands and shrubby steppe. It is not present in disturbed or cultivated areas. Embryo counts from Peruvian specimens ranged from one to two (Bárquez, 1983; Pearson, 1951; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is an herbivorous species. It is very associated to particular wetland areas.
14601		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
14601		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range through modification of the species' wetland habitat, for example through extraction of water for irrigation purposes.
14602		conservation	eng	It is well represented in several protected areas, but only a few of the protected areas in which it occurs receive any protection against poaching, logging and agricultural encroachment. Its survival will probably become increasingly dependent on effective protection in protected areas such as Tai National Park in Côte d’Ivoire and the forest parks in Ghana.
14602		distribution	eng	The Royal Antelopes ranges from south-western Guinea (the Kounounkan Massif perhaps representing the westerly known limit), Sierra Leone, Liberia, south-eastern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, to the Volta R., Ghana (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Records from the forests east of the Volta River in north-east Ghana remain questionable (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Fischer <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported what they considered to be reliable observations of the tracks of Royal Antelopes in Comoé N. P. in north-east Côte d’Ivoire.
14602		habitat	eng	The world’s smallest antelope species is nocturnal, timid and very secretive. It occupies moist lowland forest and secondary vegetation habitats, forest edges and other areas with dense undergrowth; its range extends into forest-savanna mosaic to the north of the main forest block in West Africa. The Royal Antelope is often encountered more in logged forest with some undergrowth than in primary forest and it is frequently encountered in farm bush (it often persists in farming areas, despite heavy hunting pressure).
14602		population	eng	Reported to be locally abundant, East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 62,000, perhaps a significant underestimate. Population trend is difficult to assess, but is apparently stable at least in some protected areas. Overall population trend is probably decreasing as human populations and associated pressures on natural habitats and wildlife continue to grow over most of its range (East 1999).
14602		threats	eng	Major threats are difficult to establish, but they are certainly at risk from bushmeat hunting. However, human attitudes towards this species vary in different parts of its range. For example, in Sierra Leone it is rarely shot, but is occasionally caught in snares set for duikers. In Liberia, where it is regarded as the epitome of cunning by rural people, there are widespread taboos on the hunting or consumption of the royal antelope among the country’s clans and ethnic groups. In contrast, in Côte d'Ivoire, it forms a significant component of bushmeat (East 1999).<br/><br/>Although affected by habitat destruction it can persist in relatively small forest patches within agriculturally developed areas.
14603		conservation	eng	Major protected-area populations include those in Dja and Lobeke-Mongokele (Cameroon), Monte Alen (Equatorial Guinea), Dzanga-Sangha (Central African Republic), Odzala (Congo), Lope (Gabon), Okapi reserve, Maiko and Kahuzi-Biega (Congo-DRC), and Kibale and Semliki (Uganda).
14603		distribution	eng	Bates' Pygmy Antelope are found in three disjunct regions: southeastern Nigeria, east of the Niger River to the Cross River; south and southeast Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River) to southwestern Central African Republic (west of the Sangha River), Gabon, and northwestern and southwestern Republic of Congo; and northeastern DR Congo, north and east of the Congo-Lualaba, extending marginally into southwestern Uganda (Feer in press).
14603		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of moist lowland forest, this species prefers dense, low undergrowth along rivers, tree falls within mature forests, areas regenerating after logging or cultivation, road sides, village-gardens and plantations (Feer in press). They are folivorous, and most often solitary.
14603		population	eng	This species can reach very high densities within localized areas of favourable habitat, e.g., >35.0/km² in an area of coffee and cocoa plantations bordered by secondary forest in northeastern Gabon (Feer 1979). Typical densities over more extensive areas are in the order 1.5-2.2/km² (East 1999, and references therein).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated the total population at 219,000. The population trend is stable over extensive parts of its range where human population densities are low, but shows a tendency to decrease in areas where hunting pressures are very high.
14603		threats	eng	Although hunted for bushmeat, they are not commonly found in urban markets (Feer 1979). The species’ dependence on secondary growth and ability to utilize plantations should enable it to withstand degradation of primary forests better than species which are dependent on undisturbed forests. its long-term survival may nevertheless become increasingly dependent on protected areas.
14604		conservation	eng	Important protected populations occur in areas such as Aberdares N.P. and Mount Kenya N. P. (Kenya), Udzungwa N.P. and Selous G. R. (Tanzania), Lengwe N. P. (Malawi), Maputo G. R. (Mozambique) and Tembe N. P., Mkuzi G. R. and Ndumu G. R. (South Africa).<br/><br/>In 1995, a total of 39 captive-bred suni were released in an area of dense bush in north-eastern Kruger National Park which is believed to comprise suitable habitat, but by early 1998 there was no evidence that this reintroduction had been successful (East 1999).
14604		distribution	eng	The Suni formerly occurred widely in forests and thickets in coastal regions and the hinterland from Kenya to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. In Kenya, it occurs about as far north as Mt Kenya and the Aberdares, and, along the coast, as far north as the lower Tana R.; their southerly limit of distribution is around L. St Lucia in NE KwaZulu-Natal (c. 28°S) (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). They probably also occur in Swaziland, although their occurrence is not confirmed (Monadjem 1998). There are no confirmed records from Zambia. Recorded from Zanzibar and some adjacent islands (Mafia and Chapani, the type locality), but not Pemba (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
14604		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of coastal forests and thickets, dry deciduous thickets, montane forests to 2,700 m and other areas with thick undergrowth. In some areas it probably benefits from the expansion of secondary thicket habitat which has resulted from human activity (e.g. on Zanzibar), and it readily colonises degraded forests.
14604		population	eng	This species occurs at relatively high population densities in areas where it is common, e.g., ground surveys have revealed densities of 13.0-17.0/km² in areas such as Zanzibar Island and Lengwe National Park; it occurs at lower densities in South Africa, e.g., 0.9/km² in Mkuzi Game Reserve (various authors in East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 365,000 (East 1999). The population trend is probably stable over large parts of its range, but decreasing in settled areas where hunting pressures are very high and in some protected areas with an overpopulation of nyala.
14604		threats	eng	This is a very resilient species which generally withstands moderately high hunting pressure, although overhunting has probably reduced its numbers over much of its range in Kenya, and localized overhunting causes low densities in areas such as the immediate vicinity of villages. Loss of habitat to the expansion of agriculture and settlement and hunting by poachers and uncontrolled dogs have eliminated the Suni from much of its former range in South Africa where it is now a rare species. It is also threatened by reduction of shrub cover caused by increasing numbers of nyala (<em>Tragelaphus angasii</em>) in some protected areas and private game farms.
14626		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
14626		distribution	eng	<em>Neritilia manoeli</em> is known only from Principe Island, São Tomé Island (collected in 1992), and Cameroon (Bibundi and Victoria, on aquatic plants).
14626		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater near coasts.
14626		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
14626		threats	eng	No information available.
14627		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
14627		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but more information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.
14627		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
14627		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina cristata</em> ranges from Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon and Gabon. In central Africa, this species has a wide range along coastal region.
14627		distribution	eng	This species is present from Sierra Leone to Gabon.
14627		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone to Gabon..<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species has a wide range along the coast of this region.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal areas, in particular Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire.
14627		habitat	eng	Found in coastal areas.
14627		habitat	eng	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.
14627		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in coastal areas.
14627		population	eng	No information available.
14627		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
14627		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
14627		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats
14627		threats	eng	No information available.
14628		conservation	eng	In southern Africa, ecological impact studies are required for all coastal developments affecting the environment.
14628		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
14628		conservation	eng	No information available.
14628		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is known from Somalia to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the mangrove swamps and lagoons of East Africa's coastal strip (Kenya and Tanzania). No specific locality in the region is mentioned in the traced literature for where the species has been recorded.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from south Somalia (at the mouth of the Giuba River).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the coastal lowlands of Mozambique and eastern South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal southwards to Port St Johns in eastern Cape) (Appleton 2002).
14628		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> In the southern region, it is recorded from the coastal lowlands of Mozambique and eastern South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal southwards to Port St Johns in Eastern Cape) (Appleton 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> From Somalia to South Africa.
14628		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Somalia (mouth of the Giuba River).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is more common  southwards  in  the mangrove swamps of eastern Africa's coastal strip  (till southern Africa).
14628		habitat	eng	It thrives in mangrove swamps.
14628		habitat	eng	Lowest reaches of rivers, particularly at the estuarine/freshwater interface. Usually found on hard substrates.
14628		habitat	eng	This species thrives in mangrove swamps and lagoons.
14628		population	eng	No information.
14628		population	eng	No information available.
14628		population	eng	This species is widespread and found at low densities.
14628		threats	eng	Along the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa residential, recreational and industrial development and dune mining for titanium is degrading estuarine habitats.
14628		threats	eng	Major threats include Alcoa titanium and dune mining, and sedimentation mainly occurring in the southern African region. Residential and recreational development (marina construction) in South Africa and aquaculture in Tanzania (Rufiji River delta), both of which lead to habitat destruction. In Mozambique, tractor harvesting for prawns is also destroying habitat.
14628		threats	eng	Possibly some sedimentation in the region.
14629		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution. <br/>Particularly we need to know how this species has been affected by the two dams on this river, which have also had problems of drying up. This species seems to be the only one of the genus which is freshwater - we do not know if it can also live in the brackish habitats that the other species of this genus prefer.
14629		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa. It is present in Côte d'Ivoire, known only from the Bandama River.
14629		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocks in rapids, strong current, in the main flow area of the Bandama River, Cote d'Ivoire. This may be a true freshwater species.
14629		population	eng	No information available.
14629		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is water abstraction from the river. Also pollution and dams are likely to be threatening it.
14631		conservation	eng	As a condition of building Ivie Reservoir, the Colorado River Municipal Water District is required to release water from both Spence and Ivie reservoirs according to a schedule that is intended to maintain suitable watersnake habitat. These water releases include both continuous daily flows and flushing flows designed to maintain stream channels (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). In conjunction with reservoir construction several artificial riffles have been built, and these now support populations of Concho Watersnake. The primary concern is balancing the need for habitat protection with an increasing human demand for the diversion of more water for residential and industrial use.
14631		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Colorado and Concho River drainages in Texas, in the south of the United States (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). The probable historical range is estimated to have included, at a minimum, the Colorado River from Spence Reservoir downstream to the vicinity of Lake Buchanan; Elm, Bluff, and Coyote Creeks (Runnels County); and the entire Concho River (Tom Green and Concho counties) and its headwater tributaries, Dove Creek, Spring Creek, and the South Concho River (Irion and Tom Green counties) (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). The historical range included about 450 stream km. The current range includes 396 stream km and about 25 km of lake (e.g., lakes Spence, Ivie, and Moonen [=Ballinger Municipal Lake]) (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998).
14631		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits fast-flowing rocky streams and their margins, particularly shallow riffles and where flat, unshaded and unsilted rocks are at or close to the water's edge; it also occupies the shorelines of lakes, ponds, and impoundments (Werler and Dixon 2000). Individuals take cover under rocks or in vegetation along shore (Conant 1975, Tennant 1984, Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Ernst and Ernst 2004, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Juveniles use medium to large, flat rocks on unshaded shore for hiding, rocky shallows for feeding (species may be absent where juvenile habitat is lacking); adults inhabit rocky riffles as well as wider range of habitats in pools and lakes, and they use woody vegetation and flood debris along stream banks for basking and cover (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). At a large lake, snake presence was associated with rocky low gradient shorelines with silt substrate; retreat sites generally were within three metres of water but up to 15 m for gravid females (Whiting <em>et al</em>. 1997). Hibernation sites include crayfish burrows and rock piles (Werler and Dixon 2000).
14631		population	eng	This species is represented by a small number of distinct occurrences (subpopulations) (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. As indicated by sample sizes in various field studies, this snake is locally abundant in proper habitat (Greene <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1999; Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake has been eliminated from a small portion of its historical range (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "stable." This snake is more abundant and more widely distributed than was previously thought (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Dixon 1993).
14631		threats	eng	Reservoirs have flooded many miles of former stream habitat. Below dams, restriction of stream flow and prevention of floodwater scouring have resulted in siltation of rocky streambeds, encroaching vegetation, and loss of riffle habitat required by young snakes (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Habitat fragmentation has left some populations isolated. Populations in reservoirs may not be viable or effectively connect adjacent riverine populations (USFWS, Federal Register, 2 August 1999). However, natural riffle habitat is not as essential as was previously believed; populations have survived for decades along reservoir shorelines. This species also has been found at all six artificial riffles constructed in 1989 in the 17 mile stretch of the Colorado River between the Robert Lee Dam and Bronte (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Diversion of water has reduced water levels and instream flows in some areas, threatening the fish preybase for the snake. An inadequate instream flow regime remains one of the most serious threats to the snake due to the prevalence of drought in Texas (USFWS, Federal Register, 2 August 1999). Pollution and degradation of water quality is a potential threat in certain areas. Non-point source pollution in the vicinity of San Angelo, petroleum production, refining, and transportation in the watershed, treated sewage disposal, pesticide use, and feedlot activities have been identified as water quality concerns that could affect the snake's habitat (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Despite all of these threats, this species has proven to be reasonably adaptable, and there is no evidence of a significant decline in numbers.
14660		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It requires the conservation of appropriate habitat in the face of marshland drainage and agricultural expansion. Research is needed to gain more information on geographic distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, threats and conservation needs.
14660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the marshlands of southeastern Iraq in the Tigris and Euphrates Valleys. It has been recorded only from marshes at the confluence of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the vicinity of Al-Qurna, and also downstream near Basra. It possibly occurs in Al-Hawizeh marsh to the east straddling the Iraq-Iran border. It might occur widely in the lower Tigris and Euphrates Valleys, although its range is likely to be limited.
14660		habitat	eng	It is poorly known, but it appears to be a terrestrial species which prefer moist habitats, such as marshes and swamps.
14660		population	eng	It is known from only a few records, so it is apparently a rare species.
14660		threats	eng	The marshlands of southern Iraq were extensively drained and destroyed during the years leading up to the Iraq War in 2003 (UNEP 2003). By 2000, the marshes had been all but destroyed (Richardson and Hussain 2006). This has included agricultural expansion. However, by September 2005 the high volume of good-quality water entering the marshes from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, a result of two record years of snowpack melt in Turkey and Iran, allowed 39% of the former marshes to be reflooded (Richardson and Hussain 2006). Although reflooding does not guarantee restoration success, field surveys found a remarkable rate of re-establishment of native macroinvertebrates, macrophytes, fish, and birds in reflooded marshes (Richardson and Hussain 2006). However, the future availability of water for restoration is in question, which suggests that only a portion of the former marshes may be restored (Richardson and Hussain 2006). Also, landscape connectivity between marshes is greatly reduced, causing concern about local species extinctions and lower diversity in isolated wetlands (Richardson and Hussain 2006). There is no information on how these massive land-use changes have affected <em>Nesokia bunnii</em>, but as a species believed to be dependent on marshes, its populations must have suffered significantly.
14661		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. In South Asia, It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
14661		distribution	eng	This very widespread species is present in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia and China. In North Africa it has been recorded from Egypt, where it is largely confined to the western part of the Nile Delta (Hoath 2003). In the Middle east it has been recorded from the Jordan Rift Valley, along the plains of the Tigris River in Syria, Iraq, Iran and possibly Turkey (these need verification). It is present as an isolated population at Oqair and Saihat in eastern Saudi Arabia. It is very widespread over much of Iran. In Central Asia, it appears to be mostly associated with river plains, and appears to be distributed in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Presence in Kazakhstan needs verification (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) In South Asia, the species is distributed in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, northern India, Nepal and Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present from sea level to at least 1,600 m asl.
14661		habitat	eng	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, arable land, pastures, plantations. It has been found to occupy soft, moist soil for burrows, natural grasslands, cultivated fields, orchards (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Iran, the species typically lives in moist soils near permanent water sources in areas of dense vegetation, for example agricultural areas. In Egypt the species inhabits semi-desert areas. The animal creates a large number of burrows and tunnels. The species is suggested to have a gestation period of 17 days after which a litter of one to 10 young are born. In China, it inhabits mountainous areas where they are especially common in agricultural land (Smith and Xie 2008).
14661		population	eng	In general it is locally abundant, and can be an agricultural pest in some areas. In 1996, the species was reported to be common around oases and springs near the Dead Sean and in Wadi Araba. In Israel, Jordan and probably Egypt, the species may have been more widespread in the past, however, as the species is adapted to moist habitats and desert conditions have expanded, it is now found in isolated pockets where suitable habitat remains. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14661		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Habitat loss has been reported from Israel and Jordan.
14662		conservation	eng	A conservation plan for <em>Nesolagus netscheri</em> had been proposed in the past, but was never funded (Flux 1990). The discovery and protection of a population of rabbits is necessary for conservation, and surveys of the distribution of the rabbit and its presence in reserves and private land (Flux 1990).<br/><br/><em>N. netscheri</em> had been locally reported as fairly common, by locals, in the protected area Gumai Pasemah Wildlife Reserve in Sumatra Selatan (Flux 1990).  However, a return trip to the area discovered that a feral colony of <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> was mistakenly identified as <em>N. netscheri</em> by the locals on the northern side of the reserve (Flux 1990).  It has been caught by camera traps in Kerinci Seblat National Park (Fauna and Flora News 1998) and Bukit Barisan National Park (BBC News 2007).
14662		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). The majority of records are from west-central and southwest Sumatra, with one record from Gunung Leuser NP (Flux 1990). <br/><br/><em>N. netscheri</em> occurs at a minimum elevation of 600 m and maximum elevation of 1,600 m (Flux 1990).
14662		habitat	eng	Most records of <em>Nesolagus netscheri</em> are from land being cleared for coffee or tea plantations, rabbits were noticed as the forest was cleared at elevations between 600 m and 1,600 m (Flux 1990).  The preferred habitat of<em> N. netscheri</em> is montane forest with volcanic soil (Flux 1990).  This species has low tolerance to human disturbance (Meijaard and Sugardjito 2005).  <br/><br/>Its diet consists of understory plants, and it is not seen feeding in clearings (Flux 1990).  It is nocturnal, residing during the day in burrows most likely built by other animals (Flux 1990; Schneider 2001).  HB length is 36.8-41.7 cm (Flux 1990).
14662		population	eng	Population size and density are unknown for this species, though density is suspected to be naturally low (Flux 1990).  It is a rarely seen species, that has likely never been common in its range as there is little local knowledge of the species (Flux 1990). It is known from only seven locations (Flux 1990).<br/><br/>A sighting in January 2007 with a camera trap was the most recent since 2000, and the previous record was from 1972 (BBC News 2007).
14662		threats	eng	The main threat to <em>Nesolagus netscheri</em> is the clearing of mountain forest for agriculture, primarily coffee, tea and cocoa plantations (Flux 1990). It is not apparently hunted routinely, probably due to its natural rarity (Flux 1990).
14663		conservation	eng	It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
14663		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Mahé and Silhouette Islands in the Seychelles, occurring at relatively high elevations above 350m asl, though one individual was recently found at 95m asl.
14663		habitat	eng	It is restricted to relatively undisturbed habitat in wet rocky areas along streams or dry streambeds. The recent low-altitude records were from secondary forest, but it shows a strong preference for higher altitudes and undisturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development, the eggs being laid among rocks.
14663		population	eng	It is less common than other members of the family Sooglossidae.
14663		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species, but it is not thought to be seriously threatened in its higher altitude habitat. It might be inherently at risk because of its small range.
14671		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas, including Ranomafana National Park, Mantadia National Park and Analamazaotra Special Reserve.
14671		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the middle- and high-altitude humid forest regions of central, eastern and north-eastern Madagascar, from Manongarivo east to Tsaratanana and the mountains ringing the Andapa Basin south to Andohahela National Park (Ryan 2003). It has an altitudinal range of 750 to 2,300 m asl.
14671		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial, diurnal species of middle- and montane humid forest. Animals use a number of burrows which are often situated under logs, brush piles and other ground cover. Individuals may be found scavenging at rubbish pits and camps within the forest. The litter size is presumably one or two young. This species may be found outside of the forest feeding on crops in tavy fields, although usually only when these are adjacent to forested areas (Ryan 2003; D. Rakotondravony pers. comm.).
14671		population	eng	Based on standard trapping techniques, this species can be common at certain sites.
14671		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through clearance of forest for cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
14672		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
14672		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Hispaniola.
14672		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species.
14672		population	eng	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
14672		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.
14673		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
14673		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Cuba, including the Isle of Pines.
14673		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species.
14673		population	eng	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
14673		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.
14674		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
14674		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Haiti.
14674		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species.
14674		population	eng	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
14674		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.
14676		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
14676		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Haiti.
14676		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species, it was the smallest of the <em>Nesophontes</em>.
14676		population	eng	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
14676		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.
14706		conservation	eng	The species is extinct.
14706		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Galápagos Islands. It was found on Santa Cruz (= Indefatigable) Island (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Patton and Hafner, 1983). It is extinct, last recorded in 1930 (Musser and Carleton, 1993). Recent field work by R. Dowler during 1997 did not find the species (Dowler <em>et al</em>. 2000).
14706		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
14706		population	eng	This species is extinct.
14706		threats	eng	The introduction of the black rat (Rattus rattus) is the main cause of the extinction of this species.
14707		conservation	eng	Control exotic species and access to the island, and enact a program to prevent the introduction of common rats.
14707		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Fernandina (= Narborough) Island in the Galápagos archipelago (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Type material was discovered from fresh owl pellets (Hutterer and Hirsch, 1979).
14707		habitat	eng	The species has been found at various sites on the island, from the coastal area to the top of the volcano. However, the highest trap success occurred along the rim of the volcano where the vegetation was most dense. It is terrestrial and nocturnal. There is no information about its diet. This species co-occurs with N. narboroughi. It has been captured in lowland and highland areas on Fernandina Island. Also found at high-elevation (around 1,300 m) along the volcano rim where the vegetation is primarily Scalesia spp., and was most dense (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
14707		population	eng	This rat is locally common (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
14707		threats	eng	The main current threat to the species is possible introduction of exotic species, in particular <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>.
14708		conservation	eng	There are not conservation measures.
14708		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Galápagos Islands. It was found on Santa Cruz (= Indefatigable), and Baltra (= South Seymour) Islands (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
14708		habitat	eng	There is little information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
14708		population	eng	The last documented record was in 1934 (Patton and Hafner, 1983). This species is extinct (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
14708		threats	eng	The introduction of the black rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) is the cause of the probable extinction of this species.
14709		conservation	eng	To preserve this species it is to important develop an eradication or control program of the introduced species (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>).
14709		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Galápagos Islands. It occurs on Santiago (= San Salvador, James) Island (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
14709		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is terrestrial and nocturnal. There is no information about its diet. This species co-occurs with black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) and domestic mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>). It has been captured in lowland areas (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). This endemic rice rat occurs in dry forest and shrubs areas with a large quantity of the endemic cactus (Opuntia galapageia), which indicates a relationship exists between this plant and the presence and survival of the rice rat <em>N. swarthi</em> (Charles Darwin Research Station, 2005).
14709		population	eng	This rat is locally common (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Two new populations were discovered on the northern coast of the Island during a monitoring expedition in March 2005, population densities at these sites are low, but they represent a significant increase in the known population of the species. This range extension does not alter the highly endangered status of this species. No other populations of N. swarthi were found while searching for potential sites on western Santiago (Charles Darwin Research Station, 2005).
14709		threats	eng	This species is threatened by non-native rodents introduced to Santiago Island, including <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>.
14734		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected areas in Turkey; it is not known if the species occurs in protected areas in other parts of its range. It is protected by national legislation in Iran.  More research is needed to understand the natural history and distribution of this species in order to develop conservation measures.
14734		distribution	eng	This species is present in the vicinity of Beytussebbap (Vilayet Hakkari), south-east Anatolia, Turkey and in the Kurdish region of northern Iraq. There are two old records for north-western Iran, but current presence should be verified (Ted Papenfuss, pers. comm. 2008). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500-2,000m asl.
14734		habitat	eng	It breeds in montane streams (egg laying) during the spring. Adults are known to leave the streams for surrounding areas after breeding, but the terrestrial habitat remains unknown. It is presumed that the adults occur under rocks and other cover during the winter.
14734		population	eng	There is no information on its population status for Turkey.  Very little is known about this species because there has been little research within its range.
14734		threats	eng	Very little is known about this species.  It is likely to be relatively susceptible to habitat change including habitat loss, pollution, and drought. In Turkey, the construction of several dams is planned within the species range. The area of distribution in Turkey is expected to undergo significant development over the next 10 years, and presumably the species will be impacted by these changes.
14735		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Turkey. There is a need to develop national legislation to mitigate the pollution of stream habitats in eastern Turkey.
14735		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Vilayets Mus, Bitlis and Malatya in Eastern Anatolia, Turkey.  Of the two confirmed subspecies, <em>N. s. strauchi</em> is found in the streams surrounding the south and west of Lake Van along the ridges of the mountains of Akdag and Mus guneyi daglari.<em>N. s. barani</em> is found in areas near the town of Poturge and is restricted to Kubbe Mountain on the Malatya-Puturge road (Pasmans et al 2006). It is present at altitudes of 1,000-2,000m asl.
14735		habitat	eng	It is known only from the small, cool mountain streams in which it breeds. The borders of these streams may or may not be wooded. Animals spend the winter months on land under stones and in burrows. The terrestrial habitat of this species is not well known. The female lays between 10 and 20 eggs in a clutch. It can survive some habitat modification (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
14735		population	eng	This species is locally common within its limited suitable habitat (Kaya, pers. comm. 2008).
14735		threats	eng	In general, this species lives at high elevations where there is a low human population and few threats. In the eastern part of the species range, close to Bitlis, the species is presumably threatened by pollution of streams and rivers with domestic detergents and sewage. Construction of a dam is planned on the river catchments where the western subspecies in the Kubbe Dagi occurs (G. Eken pers. comm.). This species has been recorded in the pet trade, although it is not known if this is a threat to wild populations (Bogaerts <em>et al</em>., 2006).
14740		conservation	eng	It occurs in three protected areas, two in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.), and one in Colombia, Paramillo National Park (C. Delgado pers. comm.). It may be present in other protected areas throughout its range (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
14740		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of west Colombia and north Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Colombia it occurs in the Cordilleras Central and Occidental (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,800 to 3,750 m.
14740		habitat	eng	It is semiaquatic and riparian; it feed on aquatic insects. This water mouse has been captured near clear streams in rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This genus has the least specialized habitat of its tribe. It is predated by foxes (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
14740		population	eng	This species is difficult to collect, but is not rare.
14740		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat disturbance due to deforestation.
14741		conservation	eng	This species is yet to be found in any protected areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
14741		distribution	eng	This species is known just for two localities. The type locality is western Venezuela, Tachira State, 14 km southeast Pregonero, Río Potosí, Paso Hondo, 1,050 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005), and a new record: near La Azulita (08°43'N, 71°27'W, 1,200 m) (J. Ochoa and P. Soriano pers. comm.).
14741		habitat	eng	This rodent is semiaquatic, and it feeds on aquatic invertebrates.
14741		population	eng	This species is rare (J. Ochoa pers. comm.). It is known from only three specimens from two localities.
14741		threats	eng	There is strong pressure from habitat destruction including deforestation, dams, and agriculture (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
14742		conservation	eng	This species is found in Nouragues Nature Reserve in French Guiana (Catzeflis pers. comm.).
14742		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four localities in French Guiana (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001) and one in Amapá, northeast Brazil (Nunes, 2002). It occurs in lowlands (less than 300 m in altitude) (Catzeflis pers. comm.).
14742		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from moist creek side forest on level sandy soil just a few centimeters away from the water (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). In Brazil, the single specimen was taken in open vegetation with a few scattered trees and scrub, patches of gallery forest are in the area, but the nearest forest watercourse was at least 1 km away, the first occurrence reported in absence of water.
14742		population	eng	The remains of small crabs found along streams in a study area suggested that this species was not uncommon locally, but intensive trapping effort produced no additional specimens (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is not common in French Guiana (Catzeflis pers. comm.) and difficult to capture.
14742		threats	eng	Prospectors ("garimpeiros") in the area might be affecting this species by polluting the watercourses (Catzeflis pers. comm.).
14743		conservation	eng	It is present in the Manu National Park and Alto Purus Reserve. General research into the habitat, ecology and distribution of this species is needed.
14743		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in lowland east Peru. It has been recorded from Madre de Dios and Ucayali Departments (see Pacheco and Vivar, 1996; Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1993) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded at elevations of 200 to 400 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
14743		habitat	eng	This water mouse has been captured near to clear streams in bamboo forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; E. Vivar pers. comm.). It feeds on aquatic insects and perhaps crabs. It is not present in modified areas.
14743		population	eng	It is rare or difficult to capture (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
14743		threats	eng	The area and habitat that this species has been recorded from is undisturbed, and there appear to be no immediate threats to this species.
14744		conservation	eng	It is found in Canaima National Park in Venezuela, and it may be present in Mochima National Park (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
14744		distribution	eng	This species has been found at five widely separated localities in Venezuela and Guyana (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 1,400 m.
14744		habitat	eng	This rodent is semiaquatic. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates. This water mouse has been captured near clear streams in rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
14744		population	eng	This species is uncommon and patchily distributed. It is known only from 5 locations within its broad distribution.
14744		threats	eng	There is strong intensive habitat destruction and aquatic contamination due to deforestation, mines and agriculture (J. Ochoa pers. comm.) occurring within the range of the species which is inferred to be causing a population decline.
14765		threats	eng	This species is traded in some numbers in the East Asian food trade. It is uncommon to rare in the wild, not known to inhabit effectively protected areas, and has a life history particularly sensitive to exploitation of adults.
14812		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
14812		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occuring in Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and possibly northern Guizhou provinces (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations between 2,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
14812		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high montane forest (Smith and Xie 2008).
14812		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
14812		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14813		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from Namdhapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas outside of India. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14813		distribution	eng	This species is limited to northeastern India, northern Myanmar and southwestern China. Within India, it has been recorded from Arunchal Pradesh (at Gandhigram and the Anzong Valley in the Mishmi Hills) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In northern Myanmar, it has been recorded from the Adung Valley and Nyetmaw River region in Kachin State (Musser and Carleton 2005). In China, it has been reported from Yunnan west of the Salween river (the northwestern Gaoligong mountains) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs from around 2,000 to 2,800 m asl.
14813		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. In Southeast Asia and China It is a montane temperate to cool conifer forest species. In South Asia, it occurs in tropical forests, temperate forests, montane moist deciduous forests. (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can probably persist in secondary forest, although it is not thought to occur outside of forest habitats.
14813		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well known, only a few specimens have ever been collected.
14813		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this montane species. There seems to e little habitat disturbance within its range.
14814		conservation	eng	It is present in Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand. In China, it is present in Xishuangbanna (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and many other protected areas see CSIS (2008) for a complete list. Taxonomic revision of the subspecies is needed. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
14814		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in China (but not on islands off the coast), extending to northern Myanmar, northwest Thailand (summit Doi Inthanon, Chiengmai Province), and extreme northwest Viet Nam (summit Mount Fan Si Pan west of the Red River); it may also occur on summits of mountains in northern Lao PDR, although there is as yet no confirmed record (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an elevational range of between 150-4,000 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992).
14814		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane mossy forest in Thailand, and is present in a wide range of habitats from forest to cultivated land in China (Corbet and Hill 1992). In China, the species is found in both primary and secondary forest, though it is about twice as common in primary forest (Wu <em>et al.</em> 1996).
14814		population	eng	Large museum collections suggest that this species is common in the highlands of northern Myanmar and China (Musser 1981). In a survey by Wu <em>et al.</em> (1996) in Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, southern China this species was by far the most abundant in both primary and secondary forest. It is known from only a handful of specimens in Thailand and Viet Nam.
14814		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
14815		conservation	eng	This species is present in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), but it is not known if it occurs in any other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
14815		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is restricted to elevations below 2,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008), becoming common at 1,300 m asl (Yu 1993).
14815		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broad-leaf forests and its edge habitat, and scrub (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size is 2-3 (Yu and Lin 1999).
14815		population	eng	This species has a population density of 2-5 per hectare (Yu and Lin 1999).
14815		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
14816		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas throughout its range.
14816		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found in peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, as some offshore islands; including the Mergui Archipelago, Anambas islands, Sumatra, Nias, Billiton, Bangka, Borneo, Java, Bali, and small islands off the northern tip of Sabah (Musser and Carleton 2005). This generally lowland species reaches 1,530 m on the slopes of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Indochina this species occurs only south of the Isthmus of Kra (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14816		habitat	eng	This species is frequently trapped in both the canopy and on the ground, showing no preference for either (Wells et <em>al</em>. 2004). It prefers primary forest habitats but it is relativley tolerant of disturbance and may be found in secondary wooded habitats. It is not found outside of forested areas.
14816		population	eng	It is generally a common species (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004; Md Nor 2001).
14816		threats	eng	The habitat of this species, especially in lowland areas, is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land (such as oil palms).
14817		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Yushan National Park (Yu 1993; Yu 1994) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). Further studies regarding population and habitat status, are needed.
14817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is typically restricted to highlands between 2,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
14817		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary hemlock forests, and is sometimes found in secondary habitats as well (Smith and Xie 2008). It is usually found in association with large logs on the forest floor (Smith and Xie 2008).
14817		population	eng	In a survey conducted from 1989-1990, this species was characterized as common in Yushan National Park (Yu 1993).
14817		threats	eng	In the past there was some deforestation in the highlands of Taiwan, however, that has now mostly ceased and there are no longer any known threats to this species.
14818		conservation	eng	In China and Southeast Asia, it might be present in some protected areas, such as the Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve in China. It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in South Asia It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. General field surveys, research into the distribution, natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14818		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central and eastern Nepal and India (West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunchal Pradesh), into southern China (Xizang, Yunnan and perhaps ranging into adjacent Sichuan and Guizhou) and northern Myanmar (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It may be present in Bhutan, but this needs to be confirmed. It occurs from around 2,000 to 3,700 m asl
14818		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet montane coniferous forest, rhododendron forests and bamboo shrubs (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has been caught along streams and rocky outcrops (Anthony, 1941). It may be able to persist in disturbed habitats, although this needs to be confirmed.
14818		population	eng	It is probably a common species.
14818		threats	eng	In China and Southeast Asia it seems unlikely that there are any major threats to this species in its remote range. Hunting for subsistence use has been observed to be the major threat for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
14819		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
14819		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in southwestern Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan, and a single record in central Yunnan from Ailao Mountain (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging from 2,300-3,000 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992).
14819		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forests, at high elevations (Smith and Xie 2008).
14819		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
14819		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
14820		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas. It is not known from any  protected area in South Asia. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In South Asia, general field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14820		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nepal, possibly Pakistan, northern India (Arunchal Pradesh, Assam Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttarachal and West Bengal), possibly Bangladesh, southern China (Xizang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan, Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Hong Kong, Macao), Lao PDR, Viet Nam (including a number of offshore islands such as Con Son), Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Bali) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005 Musser and Carleton 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008). It is absent from Borneo and other islands on the Sunda Shelf (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from around sea level to over 2,200 m asl.
14820		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of forest types throughout its range. It has been trapped in gardens and other forest edge habitats. This species is found in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest in Dujiangyan Region of Sichuan Province, China. In Lao PDR, it is found in evergreen, pine, deciduous, and secondary forests (Marshall 1977). In South Asia, it occurs in tropical evergreen, temperate broadleaf, grass and bushy land, riverbeds in hilly forest. It has been found to occupy evergreen broadleaved forests, shrubs, rocks, also found near water (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is sympatric with <em>N. confucianus</em> over an extensive part of its range (Allen, 1940).
14820		population	eng	This species is very common in Southeast Asia. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14820		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species other than total loss of forest cover. In South Asia it is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14821		conservation	eng	It may occur in Khao Yai National Park, but as far as is known it has not yet been recorded. This species is in need of further survey work to establish whether it really is endemic to, and more widespread on, the Korat Plateau.
14821		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Korat Plateau in south east Thailand (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is likely to be confined to this karst area of Thailand, but is currently known only around the immediate vicinity of the type locality.
14821		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with limestone cliff habitat. It was collected halfway up the face of a forested limestone cliff outside the entrance to a cave, while another record is from "high above the valley floor, in scrubby vegetation at the base of vertical limestone cliffs" (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
14821		population	eng	It is patchily distributed, being tied to karst habitats, but there is no current information on population status.
14821		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss and degradation, particularly of the limestone forest, although it may be shown to occur in the nearby Khao Yai National Park where there is improved habitat protection.
14822		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in several protected areas. It is not known from any protected area in India. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14822		distribution	eng	This species is found in Myanmar, Thailand (north of the Isthmus of Kra), southwestern Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and northeastern India (Margherita in Assam [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]). It is present in southern China (a single site in Yunnan) (Smith and Xie 2008). It has an altitudinal range of roughly 200 to 1,600 m asl.
14822		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal, but commonly captured on the ground. It is primarily found in tropical evergreen rainforest formations, but there are records from mixed deciduous seasonal forest (Marshall 1977). Throughout its range, this species is found with N. fulvescens in the same habitats (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It can be found in lightly disturbed, but not secondary forest (Guy Musser pers. comm.). In South Asia, it can be found in both primary and secondary habitat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005)
14822		population	eng	In Southeast Asia, it is widespread but not particularly abundant at any site. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14822		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is generally being deforested over its range for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
14823		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, and presumably in several other protected areas.
14823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western and central Java (Musser and Carleton 2005). Elevation range is probably above 1,000 m.
14823		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14823		population	eng	It is relatively common, and easy to trap.
14823		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be affected by habitat loss given its presence at upper elevations on Java.
14824		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in South Asia. General taxonomic research, field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
14824		distribution	eng	This South Asian species is widely distributed in Bhutan, India, Myanmar and Nepal from sea level up to 3,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005).
14824		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs temperate coniferous, temperate broad leaved forest, tropical evergreen, subtropical dense evergreen and riverine forests in vicinity of streams. It has been found to occupy riverine forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14824		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14824		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and fragmentation through fires, jhuming (a form of shifting cultivation) and general encroachment have been observed to be the major threats for this species in parts of South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14825		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Bukit Raya National Park (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Mt. Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.
14825		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is found in the highlands of the island of Borneo. It has been recorded between 940 and 3,360 m on the slopes of Mt. Kinabalu, and possibly occurs throughout the upland forests of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14825		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that is presumably found in forest and scrubland at higher elevations.
14825		population	eng	It is probably a fairly common species.
14825		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It may be threatened by habitat loss at lower elevations.
14826		conservation	eng	It is recorded from several protected areas across its range.
14826		distribution	eng	This species is found in west-central and southern Myanmar, north-western Thailand (Doi Pui and Doi Suthep, Chiengmai province), southern Cambodia (Elephant Mts.), southern Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and China, where according to Smith <em>et al</em>. (2008) it is found only on Hainan island. It has also now been confirmed from the mountains of northern Lao PDR (D. Lunde pers. comm.). Records exist from 1,300 to 2,200 m in Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003), though they do occur at higher elevations elsewhere, perhaps up to 3,000 m. It is probably more widely distributed in southern China border regions.
14826		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to montane rainforest habitats in Indochina, beyond the range of <em>N. confucianus</em>, and sympatric in some places with <em>N. fulvescens</em> and <em>N. langbianis</em> (Musser and Carleton 2005). Lunde <em>et al</em>. (2003) captured most individuals on the ground, although two were caught on woody lianas threading through dense stands of bamboo.
14826		population	eng	This species is never very abundant, although there are several large series of museum specimens.
14826		threats	eng	There are no major threats, other than some habitat loss at lower elevations.
14829		conservation	eng	In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 - restricted range in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
14829		distribution	eng	S Mexico (only Chiapas) to Guianas, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
14829		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of vegetation types throughout its range, but it is always located near streams, bodies of water or other moist places. Bulldog bats typically roost in hollow trees, foliage and man-made structures. Members of this species have been found in association with the mastiff bat <em>Molossus molossus</em>; the roost can easily be identified by the musky odor of the lesser bulldog bat (Nowak 1999). Natural and urban areas (Barquez 2006, 1999). <em>N. albiventris</em> have been noted foraging with 8-15 conspecifics. Studies of the activity pattern of this species show a peak in activity immediately after sundown (Hooper and Brown 1968).
14829		population	eng	Abundant. Needs taxonomic review (Barquez - pers. comm.) The species is uncommon in its northern range (Arroyo Cabrales pers. comm.). Can be found from sea level up to 1,100 m (Hood and Pitochelli, 1983).
14829		threats	eng	No major threats.
14830		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
14830		distribution	eng	Sinaloa (Mexico) to the Guianas, Suriname, Brazil, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru; Trinidad; Greater and Lesser Antilles; S Bahamas (Simmons 2005).
14830		habitat	eng	Hollow trees, caves, piscivore, can eat aquatic insects. Observed in groups larger than 30 individuals in Brazil (Barquez 1999). They roost near streams, coastal marine habitats, major river basins, or other moist places. Bachelor males roost apart from females. Males residing with female groups stay for two or more reproductive seasons (Mulheisen and Berry 2000). Females bear a single young each pregnancy. This species tends to have pregnancies occuring from September until January, and lactation is first seen in November and continues until April. This is a general pattern, however, and it can vary with geographical location. Reproduction corresponds to seasons of greatest food availability (Mulheisen and Berry 2000).
14830		population	eng	Abundant. Rare in Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.). Large roosts of hundreds of bats have been reported. They may also roost in smaller groups of up to 30 individuals and forage at night in groups of 5 to 15 animals (Mulheisen and Berry 2000).
14830		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range. In Guatemala fishfarmers are killing this species (Cajas pers. comm.). Water bodies pollution (Armando Rodriguez pers. comm.). In Belize the water level changed and restricted the range (Miller pers. comm.). Deforestation (Uribe and Castro-Arellano, 2005).
14854		conservation	eng	It is found in at least four protected areas in Argentina.
14854		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Argentina, from southern Río Negro Province to central Santa Cruz Province (see Pardiñas and Galliari, 1998a:Fig. 5) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
14854		habitat	eng	Rocky areas and steppe.
14854		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, finding some populations as abundant (Meseta de Somuncura).
14854		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
14856		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
14856		threats	eng	The trade volume of this species has increased in Malaysia, whilst habitat has decreased. In East Asian food markets it was traded at levels of 2–3 tons/day in 1999, after proportionally very high mortality during transport.
14859		distribution	eng	This species has been found only in Lagoa Amarela, Minas Gerais.
14860		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Tucuruí Reservoir in the State of Pará, Brazil and from Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela. May be more widespread in South America.
14861		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
14861		distribution	eng	This poorly known species was restricted to arid areas of central Australia. Abundant subfossil data suggest a very wide distribution in arid central and western Australia.
14861		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not well known. The country in the area of collection is open gibber plain, desert grassland and low shrubland. Alternatively it may have been found in nearby sand ridge country (Dixon 2008).
14861		population	eng	It is believed to be extinct (Dixon 2008). The species is known only from two specimens collected at Charlotte Waters, Northern Territory, in 1896, and also from remains in the northern Flinders Range, South Australia and nearby open plains (Dixon 2008).
14861		threats	eng	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, but may be related to predation by introduced species such as foxes and feral cats.
14862		conservation	eng	It is not present in any national parks, however, Cape Arnhem is an Indigenous Protected Area managed by the Dhimurru Land Management Aboriginal Corporation, and much of its range on Groote Eylandt is also proposed as an Indigenous Protected Area (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There is a need to establish a monitoring program for this species. More information is needed about threats to this species.
14862		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is restricted to coastal areas in north-eastern Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt in Northern Territory. The type specimen was reportedly collected on the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland some time prior to 1867, however, the species has not since been recorded here (Winter and Allison 1980; Lee 1995; Woinarski and Flannery 2008). There is a possibility that it is found in northern Queensland. There is one isolated record from Maningrida, north-central Arnhem Land, but the area of suitable habitat around this record is limited (J. Woinarski pers. comm.).
14862		habitat	eng	It occurs in a range of vegetation types on sandy substrates (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). It is patchily distributed, but appears to be most abundant in dunes and sandsheets, supporting coastal heathlands, shrublands, and tussock grasses (Woinarski <em>et al.</em> 1999; Woinarski and Flannery 2008). This species is difficult to trap, and is most easily detected by its tracks (Woinarski 2005). The gestation period is about seven weeks, and the females can give birth to up to five young (Woinarski and Flannery 2008).
14862		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Woinarski and Flannery 2008).
14862		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Feral cats, strip-mining for manganese, and changes in the fire regime are possible threats.
14863		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Strzelecki Regional Reserve, South Australia, and may be present in the Innamincka and in Stuart National Park (Lee 1995). Currently, this species is the focus of some research activities in New South Wales and a conservation project in South Australia. Further studies are needed into the threats and conservation measures for this species.
14863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is now restricted to north-east South Australia, south-western Queensland, and a small area of north-western New South Wales (Lee 1995; Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). It formerly also occurred over much of South Australia and southern Northern Territory (Lee 1995).
14863		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in sand plains and sand ridges. It burrows in large sandy dunes (Lee 1995). Animals live in small groups (Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). In captivity it breeds throughout the year, with one to five young being born after a gestation period of 38 to 41 days (Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). It breeds after rainfall events.
14863		population	eng	It is a rare species overall (Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species can be eruptive along with high rainfall. The distribution is patchy within its extent of occurrence.
14863		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline of this species are not known (Lee 1995). It can survive in severely degraded habitat. The species co-occurs with dingoes, which may control feral cat and fox populations; so, dingo control may be a threat. Populations and habitat fluctuate depending upon rainfall events.
14864		conservation	eng	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be reviewed to determine whether the species is possibly still extant.
14864		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia, where it appears to have ranged through much of the central and western arid parts of the country (Dixon 2008).
14864		habitat	eng	It appears to have been associated with hard clay soils of arid and semi-arid areas, with a vegetation cover of acacia and eucalypt woodlands, hummock grassland, and low scrubland (Dixon 2008).
14864		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct. It is known from very few specimens and remains collected at widespread localities. It was collected in Western Australia in the 1840s. The last specimens of this species were collected in 1901-1902 from the Northern Territory (Dixon 2008).
14864		threats	eng	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, but may be related to predation rates by introduced predators such as foxes and domestic cats.
14865		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
14865		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia where it is known only from two specimens: one collected at Moore River, Western Australia, and a second collected at an unrecorded locality (Dixon 2008).
14865		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are unknown. The land surrounding the Moore River originally consisted of coastal heathland, woodland, and open forest (Dixon 2008).
14865		population	eng	This species is believed to be extinct. It is known only from two damaged specimens, the last probably being collected in 1843 or 1844 (Dixon 2008).
14865		threats	eng	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, however, most of the land in the vicinity of Moore River has been cleared of native vegetation through conversion to agricultural use. It is possible that the species may have suffered predation from introduced predators such feral cats.
14866		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
14866		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia. The species was described in 1922 from a single skull thought to have been collected on the Darling Downs, Queensland, in the 1840s (Watts 2008).
14866		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species remain unrecorded.
14866		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct, and is known only from a single skull.
14866		threats	eng	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, but may be related to predation rates by introduced predators such as foxes and domestic cats.
14867		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
14867		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in the arid and semi-arid central and western areas of the country (Breed 2008).
14867		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in arid areas of spinifex-covered sand plains and dune systems. Animals spend the day in deep burrow. Females give birth to three or four young.
14867		population	eng	It is a common species. It is an eruptive species that persists across its range in low densities during most years (Breed 2008).
14867		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Feral cats are a localized threat (the population is five to six times higher within the Arid Recovery Reserve than outside). The species fluctuates in terms of population numbers (being eruptive in some years), but this is not seen as a threat.
14868		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas at northern extent of range: Ethabuka Reserve and part of Diamantina Lakes National Park. Monitoring of populations is needed. Populations in southern areas require some protection. Further studies into the effects of introduced predators and rabbits, and the impact of lower rainfall on the species are needed.
14868		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Channel Country Biogeographic Region (BGR) spanning north-east South Australia and south-west Queensland, Australia. Habitat of extant populations is dominated by open, smooth stony and clay plains with smaller areas of overlying sand, usually vegetated with ephemeral grasses, forbs, and herbs, though some taller perennial vegetation may be sparsely present. The species' range is currently restricted to 25% of the Channel Country BGR. There are also historic records from other parts of central Australia (Stony Plains BGR, Central Ranges BGR, MacDonnell Ranges BGR, and the Nullarbor BGR). Outlying populations in the Nullarbor and MacDonnell Ranges BGRs appear to have occurred prior to the 1950s. The species has not been recorded in the Stony Plains BGR since 1970, despite a period of intensive survey work here. There is some doubt about the reliability of outlying records. Finlayson (1961) questioned these and suggested the distribution was confined to what can be considered the Stony Plains and Channel Country BGRs. However, the species has been identified from a number of sub-fossil regurgitated owl pellet material collected from caves on the Nullarbor BGR, and the Flinders Ranges at the south-eastern edge of the Stony Plains BGR (Watts and Aslin 1981). <br/><br/>It is not clear if range contraction is continuing as many records in Queensland are from one-off surveys, and a recent Queensland assessment for prioritization for conservation action considered this species of “Least Concern” because it was not known to be in decline (EPA Queensland 2005; 'Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework'). In South Australia the population appears to be restricted to the north-east corner of the state, where populations that have been repeatedly visited since 1992 appear to be relatively stable. Areas of what would now be considered ideal <em>Notomys cervinus</em> habitat in the Stony Plains BGR are much smaller/fewer and more fragmented compared to the Channel Country. It is likely therefore that the species had a much smaller area of occupancy making it more prone to localized extinction during past periods of environmental stress, eventually leading to total extinction from the western side of Lake Eyre. If only the northern half of the Stony Plains BGR is considered as the species’ past range then the extent of occurrence would have declined by approximately 75% and the potential area of occupancy by a further 20%. The overall decline of the species from its pre-European area of occupancy is probably over 50% since the 1950s.
14868		habitat	eng	It is present in the gibber plains and claypans (hard substrate) of the north-eastern Lake Eyre Basin which forms part of the Channel Country Biogeographic Region of north-east South Australia and south-western Queensland (Breed 2008). It lives in burrows in small family groups. The species is believed to reproduce opportunistically with suitable conditions; females give birth to between one and five young after a gestation period of 38 days (Breed 2008).
14868		population	eng	This species is sparsely scattered in suitable habitat (Breed 2008). Exceptional rainfall events followed by high plant productivity results in elevated population levels probably by an order of magnitude (Canty and Brandle 2008). If decline is continuing it is likely to be the result of local extinctions from isolated suitable habitat patches during prolonged dry periods. If the extant potential area of occupancy (18,000 km<sup>2</sup>) is used to estimate min and max population size, the result is a range: 4,500 – 180,000 depending on seasonal conditions (using densities of 0.25-10 animals/km<sup>2</sup> estimated from field records; Canty and Brandle 2008).
14868		threats	eng	No major, widespread threats to this species have been identified, though excessive trampling by domestic and feral ungulates can severely degrade the vegetated patches of sand in which this species burrows. This leads to de-stabilization of these areas making them prone to wind and water erosion (Canty and Brandle 2008). Higher stocking rates for sheep and cattle prior to 1950 may have been a significant factor in their historical decline. Placement of artificial waterpoints in areas of prime habitat may be a continuing threat to some populations. <br/><br/>Global warming has potential to be a threatening process for this species (contraction of the species from Mulka to Clifton Hills may be related to the lower rainfall that this region receives). Modelling by Chapman and Milne (1998) for the Kowaris <em>Dasycercus byrnei</em>, a species occupying the same habitat and distribution as <em>N. cervinus</em>, predicted a 92-98% contraction, with remaining areas in habitat not currently occupied by Kowaris.<br/><br/>Smith and Quinn (1995) in their investigation of rodent decline across Australia concluded that hyperpredation in combination with low productivity landscapes was a major factor in the decline and continued suppression of many rodent species. Introduced carnivores such as foxes and cats were indicated as primary species acting as hyperpredators when their populations were maintained at high levels by more common prey species such as European Rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cunniculus</em> or Long-haired Rats <em>Rattus villosissimus</em>. Rabbits, foxes, and cats are relatively rare on the open gibber inhabited by <em>N. cervinus</em>, though proximity of suitable habitat to isolated sand dunes and drainage channels alters this balance in many areas. Introduced predators may have been significant in their decline of <em>N. cervinus</em> over their historical range, particularly if they were using better vegetated habitats. There have been no studies to indicate that they are significantly impacted by these introduced predators at their present locations.
14869		conservation	eng	It is well represented within a number of protected areas.
14869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges throughout the wheat belt and semiarid mallee/eucalypt areas of South Australia, Western Australia, and Victoria (Breed <em>et al.</em> 2008). The distribution is currently fragmented, restricted to remaining habitat within agricultural areas.
14869		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in mallee scrub type habitats. The species has extensive burrow systems.
14869		population	eng	It is a widespread species, but currently has a fragmented distribution. Occasionally eruptive, but not to the extent of <em>Notomys aquilo</em> (Breed <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14869		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Habitat loss was a threat historically, and past land clearing has resulted in a fragmented distribution, which leaves the species more vulnerable to stochastic events. Habitat degradation through grazing might be a threat.
14872		conservation	eng	Most of the remaining known populations are on federal, state, or private conservation lands, such as Apalachicola National Forest, Florida; Camp Blanding Military reservation, Florida; Ocala National Forest, Florida; Fort Stewart, Georgia; Ichauway Plantation, Georgia; Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge; the ITT Rayonier property, Georgia; and the Katharine Ordway Preserve-Swisher Memorial Sanctuary. Surveys at the periphery of its range, and in appropriate habitat between populations, are needed to investigate the perceived decline (R. Franz pers. comm.).
14872		distribution	eng	This species can be found in northern Florida, westward to the vicinity of the Ochlocknee River, and northward into southern Georgia, USA. The known Georgia distribution is limited to three widely disjunctive areas (Dodd 1993b; Dodd and LaClaire 1995). In Florida, specimens have been recorded as far south as Hernando and Orange Counties and from the Atlantic coast westward to the west side of Apalachee Bay (Christman and Means 1978; Campbell, Christman and Thompson 1980). In Georgia, specimens have been recorded from as far north as Screven and Jenkins Counties, south-east to Wilcox County (Dodd 1993b) and westward to Baker County (L.V. LaClaire pers. comm.). More than 30 occurrences are known across its range, with the majority from Florida. Further surveys might turn up additional occurrences (Dodd 1993b).
14872		habitat	eng	This species can be found in sandhill habitat, scrub, scrubby flatwoods, mesic flatwoods, and isolated, ephemeral wetlands within these habitats (for example in sinkhole ponds, depression ponds and marshes, and ditches). It can tolerate selective logging as long as the ground is not roller-chopped or otherwise prepared. The larvae and adults are aquatic, although the adults emigrate to surrounding wooded areas near breeding ponds if the ponds dry up. It breeds in shallow temporary ponds associated with well-drained sands, and the eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.
14872		population	eng	It varies from rare to locally common depending on the availability of a breeding pond. The total number of individuals is unknown. It sometimes occurs in very low densities, but some local breeding populations encompass many thousands of individuals (Johnson 2002). Evidence suggests that the total population is declining.
14872		threats	eng	There are many potential threats to this species. For example, conversion of terrestrial habitat for agriculture, silviculture, or commercial or residential development, drainage or enlargement (with subsequent introduction of predatory fish) of aquatic habitat, and loss of aquatic habitat from lowering of the water table as a result of water consumption by humans. Other key threats include habitat alteration resulting from suppression of fire, highway mortality during migration, habitat degradation from off-road vehicle traffic, and collection for the pet trade. Population disjunction might exacerbate existing threats through lack of gene flow, genetic drift, and inbreeding depression.
14876		conservation	eng	<em>Notopteris macdonaldi</em> is protected by local wildlife laws. Further field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution, biology, and ecology of this species. Major roosting sites of this species should be protected. Studies into the impact of hunting on populations of this species are needed (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
14876		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Fiji and Vanuatu where it has been recorded from the islands of Anatom, Efate, Erromango, Mota Lava, Santa Maria, and Tanna (Vanuatu), as well as Vanua Levu, Taveuni, and Viti Levu (Fiji) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). This is a lowland species in Vanuatu (Medway and Marshall 1975) and Fiji, although it also common in montane forest in Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005); it has been recorded up to 1,100 m asl. The species occurred in Tonga, but was extirpated following the arrival of Polynesians (Koopman and Steadman 1995).
14876		habitat	eng	This species roosts as large colonies in caves. This species forages in lowland forest and intermediate altitude vegetation (Pernetta and Watling 1978; Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). It also commonly occurs in mossy montane forest, and it has been recorded from lowland, patchy secondary forest, and rural gardens (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). Its presence at high altitudes on the three main Fijian islands (Ingleby and Flannery 1991; Flannery 1995), might indicate altitudinal migration, "since the availability of flowers and fruits (which they may also consume) is seasonal, it is quite likely that the species will use forest at different altitudes, depending on the season." (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14876		population	eng	There is no information about the population status of the species in Vanuatu. Fiji likely holds more than half of the global total, where it is present on all three main islands (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the only known breeding caves (four in total) are all on Viti Levu, which has a favourable geology. Individuals on Vanua Levu and Taveuni probably migrate to the nurseries on Viti Levu, which is within their range of movement. The caves on Viti Levu hold 200-2,000 individuals each (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007).
14876		threats	eng	It is not known to be exploited in Vanuatu. This species is vulnerable to direct exploitation and potential disturbance at roosting sites by vandalism, guano mining, recreation, or quarrying (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Specifically, large numbers of bats are still taken from one cave in Fiji with shotguns for consumption (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). Tourism is also a potential threat to nursery colonies in at least two of the four known maternity caves (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14878		conservation	eng	Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggest that the following research actions are proposed for all marsupial moles: undertake GIS and BIOCLIM analysis of Museum records; examine reproductive, dietary and other aspects of all available specimens; develop and implement region-wide community survey for all marsupial moles; undertake field survey of key localities; establish local community-based recording and reporting schemes at key localities.<br/><br/>The Recovery Plan Objectives and Actions for this species are (Benshemesh 2004): 1) Resolve taxonomic issues; 2) Describe the distribution, abundance, and lineages; 3) Determine population trends; 4) Provide preliminary information on threat of fire, introduced predators (foxes and cats), and grazing; 5) Describe activity patterns and behaviour 6) Obtain ecological information from Aboriginal elders; 7) Examine diet, reproduction, and general condition of surfacing animals; 8) Prepare for captive individuals brought to Desert Park; 9) Manage the recovery process with a recovery team; 10) Downlist species from endangered to a lower category of threat.<br/><br/>No management actions can be defined until additional research has been completed (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Benshemesh 2004).
14878		distribution	eng	Kakarratul, or Northern Marsupial Mole, has been collected from twelve localities in the Gibson, Little Sandy, and Great Sandy Deserts of Western Australia, Australia. In 2000 specimens were also collected at Wallal Downs on the coast between Broome and Karratha, and at Kunawarritji Community (Benshemesh 2004). Both this species and <em>Notoryctes typhlops</em> have been recorded in the vicinity of Warburton and may be sympatric there (Benshemesh 2004). All specimens north of Warburton and west of the Northern Territory border have been identified as <em>N. caurinus</em>. In addition, both species may be found in the Tanami Desert, however, this is unclear (Benshemesh 2004). <br/><br/>There are very few specimens (around 20), but six of these have been collected in the past decade or so, despite an enormous increase in the number of people visiting its range in four-wheel drive vehicles. Maxwell <em>et al.</em>’s (1996) description of two of the records indicates the importance of chance in obtaining specimens of this fossorial species. An animal was found on Talawanna Track west of Cotton Creek, Western Australia, in October 1995 (Western Australia Museum), having been excavated by a bulldozer about one metre below the surface. Another came from near Nifty Mine in March 1996 after it was found nearly dead on the surface after heavy rain.
14878		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species, living in underground burrow systems within sand dunes, interdunal flats, and in sandy soils along river flats. It occasionally emerges to the surface, especially after rain (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is not able to travel large distances across hard ground, thus continuous areas of suitable habitat are likely important (Benshemesh 2004).<br/><br/>In 1998 a live specimen was captured on the surface at Punmu in Rudall River National Park and kept briefly in captivity. Study of this individual showed that the species has an unusual metabolism and can vary its body temperature as a probable adaptation to its fossorial way of life (Withers <em>et al.</em> 2000).
14878		population	eng	Population estimates are not available due to the lack of data, which can be attributed to the elusiveness of this species (Benshemesh 2004). There is historical information that indicates that this species was common.
14878		threats	eng	Little is known about major threats to this species. It is an arid zone Critical Weight Range species (Burbidge and McKenzie 1989); around 90% of such taxa have either become extinct or have declined seriously in range and/or abundance. Operating threatening processes include predation by foxes (which are capable of taking animals on or near the surface) and feral cats. Changed fire regimes in the spinifex-dominated sandy deserts may also be affecting the species. Other potential threats to this species include predation by dingoes, and habitat changes caused by the trampling of cattle and camels (Benshemesh 2004). Climate change may also be a threat to this species in the future, as projected changes in rainfall and temperature would cause changes in biota (Benshemesh 2004).
14879		conservation	eng	This species is found in Watarrka National Park and Uluru Kata Tjuta National Park (Langford and Pavey 2002).<br/><br/>The Recovery Plan Objectives and Actions for this species are (Benshemesh 2004): 1) Resolve taxonomic issues; 2) Describe the distribution, abundance, and lineages; 3) Determine population trends; 4) Provide preliminary information on threat of fire, introduced predators (foxes and cats), and grazing; 5) Describe activity patterns and behaviour; 6) Obtain ecological information from Aboriginal elders; 7) Examine diet, reproduction, and general condition of surfacing animals; 8) Prepare for captive individuals brought to Desert Park; 9) Manage the recovery process with a recovery team; 10) Downlist species from endangered to a lower category of threat.
14879		distribution	eng	Itjaritjari, or Southern Marsupial Mole, is known from the central deserts of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, Australia. Both it and <em>Notoryctes caurinus</em> have been recorded in the vicinity of Warburton and may be sympatric there (Benshemesh 2004). All specimens north of Warburton and west of the Northern Territory border have been identified as <em>N. caurinus</em>. In addition, both species may be found in the Tanami Desert, however, this is unclear (Benshemesh 2004). Recent technique of cutting trenches in sand dunes to reveal burrows has extended the known distribution into the Simpson Desert.
14879		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species; it burrows within sand dunes, interdunal flats, and in sandy soils along river flats. It occasionally emerges onto the surface, especially after rain (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species remains largely underground. This species is not able to travel large distances across hard ground, thus continuous areas of suitable habitat are likely important (Benshemesh 2004). The diet of this species consists primarily of ants (and their eggs) and termites (Langford and Pavey 2002).
14879		population	eng	Population estimates are not available at this time, although populations are being investigated, and in most areas they do not appear to be especially sparse. They do appear to be confined to large and continuous dunefields (J. Benshemesh pers. comm.). There are new techniques that allow for easier collection of data on this species, and possibly <em>N. caurinus</em> as well (Benshemesh 2008; J. Benshemesh pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Langford and Pavey (2002) claim that the population of this species is less than 10,000 individuals, and that there is an estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years. Both Pearson and Turner (2000) and Benshemesh (2004) have questioned any decline.
14879		threats	eng	Little is known about major threats to this species. It is an arid zone Critical Weight Range species (Burbidge and McKenzie 1989); around 90% of such taxa have either become extinct or have declined seriously in range and/or abundance. Operating threatening processes may include predation by foxes (which are capable of taking animals on or near the surface) and feral cats (Benshemesh 2008). It may be hunted by dingoes (there is evidence of presence in fox and dingo scat). In the past, the species was hunted by Aboriginal people. Other potential threats to this species include changed fire regimes, and habitat changes caused by the trampling of cattle and camels (Benshemesh 2004). Climate change may also be a threat to this species in the future, as projected changes in rainfall and temperature would cause changes in biota (Benshemesh 2004).
14883		distribution	eng	Has a small range in streams in Texas (Brazos River drainage).
14884		distribution	eng	Confined to the Cahaba River, Alabama.
14891		distribution	eng	<em>Notropis orca</em> was known from the Rio Grande, occurring from the mouth of the river to northern central New Mexico.
14891		habitat	eng	This was a subtropical, demersal freshwater species formerly found in the main channel of the Rio Grande, usually over sand and often in turbid water.
14891		threats	eng	The most important factor in bringing about decline of this species may have been the dewatering of the habitat though diversions, dams, and droughts. In addition, dams may have changed the character of the habitat, to the point of making it unsuitable for the species, for example, by altering downstream rates of flow, temperature regimes, and stream morphology. Dams also prevent floods, which may be critical to the phantom shiner, particularly regarding reproduction. Another contributing factor in the demise of this species is pollution, including that from agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources.  Predation by and competition with introduced fishes probably also contributed to extinction of phantom shiner.
14895		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, <em>Notropis semperasper</em> was previously assessed as Data Deficient on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3. <br/>Regulations regarding the discharge of chemical effluents perhaps need to be reviewed and tightened. Species interactions between <em>Notropis semperasper</em> and <em>N. telescopus</em> needs to be monitored (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991).
14895		distribution	eng	This species range includes the Ridge and Valley Provinces of the Upper James River drainage in Virginia. It has the smallest range of the three species endemic to the James River drainage (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Jenkins and Burkhead (1975) estimated that this species occupies 432 river kilometers, of which 35km were lost in creating Lake Moomaw. This species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence less than 20,000km<sup>2</sup>.
14895		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in relatively pristine streams. It may also be found in large, clear creeks and medium sized rivers with a moderate gradient, hard substrate and little siltation. It prefers slow to moderate currents of runs, pools near flowing water, and backwaters, but it occasionally can be found in swifter water (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). It may spawn over <em>Nocomis</em> nests.
14895		population	eng	Jenkins and Burkhead (1994) mapped about 38 collection sites, which may represent several distinct subpopulations.<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown, but it has been described as rare to common, although is generally found to be uncommon (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>This species may have been extirpated from some parts of its historical range as a result of increased siltation near the lower boundary of the Valley and Ridge (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised this species as "Vulnerable".
14895		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by a number of threats to its habitat including impoundment and pulp mill effluents. These threats are already known to have altered the quality of the habitat in the Jackson River and upper James River. This species may also be threatened by competition from the recently introduced, and rapidly spreading, <em>Notropis telescopus</em> (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).
14896		distribution	eng	Formerly found in the upper Rio Grande, Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico, and Pecos River, New Mexico. Subspecies <em>simus</em> of the Rio Grande was last collected in 1964 in New Mexico; and is now regarded as extinct. Subspecies <em>pecosensis</em> Gilbert & Chernoff, 1982: Pecos River drainage of eastern New Mexico, just south of Santa Rosa to Carlsbad (Chernoff <em>et al</em>. 1982); currently, Pecos River from Fort Sumner to Artesia (Hatch <em>et al</em>. 1985).
14899		distribution	eng	Occurs only in two small sections of streams (tributaries of the Little Tennessee River) in Tennessee (one site represents a reintroduction). Was extirpated in another tributary.
14903		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found to occur in the Hot Springs National Park (Petersen and Justus 2005), and <em>Noturus lachneri</em> was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria B1+2cd) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the impact that threats are having on the population of this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and distribution range is needed to establish trends in rates of decline.
14903		distribution	eng	The small, discontinuous range is restricted to the upper Saline River system and a small unnamed tributary of the Ouachita River below Remmel Dam, in central Arkansas (Robison and Buchanan 1988. See Robison and Harp (1985) for localities).<br/><br/>Range extent is not more than a couple of hundred square kilometers (e.g. see map in Robison and Harp 1985).<br/><br/>Known area of occupancy may be less than 100 square kilometers or not much more than this.
14903		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in moderate to high gradient creeks and small rivers. It shows a preference for clear, cool water over gravel-rubble and sand substrates, with alternating pools and riffles. It is usually seen in shallow pools, buried in gravel/cobble or in debris and vegetation along edges, sometimes in very shallow riffles under large rocks (Robison and Allen 1995). It may seek smaller tributaries for spawning. Young have been found in a pool over shale bedrock in a small tributary (Robison and Harp 1985).
14903		population	eng	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). Robison and Harp (1985) mapped 17 collection sites that represent probably not more than 15 distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown and would be difficult to determine due to the secretive habits of madtoms. This species is never abundant at any locality within its range (Robison and Harp 1985). <br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations apparently have not decreased by more than 25% compared to the historical situation. Trend in population size is unknown.<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorized the status as "threatened" (not "currently stable").<br/><br/>Trends are not well documented, but this species may be declining.<br/><br/>Some local extirpations may be temporary. For example, madtoms can rapidly recolonize from large, deep pools stream reaches from which they have been extirpated as a result of drought (Gagen <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>In a study by Gagen <em>et al.</em> 1998 of six sites, densities of 17.2 - 204 individuals per 100m<sup>2</sup> were noted. In dried up stream reaches, densities of 32 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> were found.
14903		threats	eng	This species has undergone local extirpations due to factors such as bridge repair and construction, commercial gravel operations, stream chennelisation and clearcut logging (Robison and Buchanan 1988). Impoundments for a water supply for Little Rock and Benton are a potential threat (Robison and Buchanan 1988). Due to the restricted range of this species, these threats are thought to be having a significant impact on the population of this species.
14908		distribution	eng	Known only from Big Darby Creek, Pickaway County, Ohio.
14908		habitat	eng	Occurred in the riffle area of a stream where the substrate was composed of sandy gravel with occasional small stones up to 10 cm in diameter (NatureServe 2006). Was presumably a bottom-feeder. The species apparently made local, seasonal upstream and downstream migrations (Matthews and Moseley 1990).
14908		population	eng	Possibly extinct.
14908		threats	eng	Unknown.
14918		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. No specific conservation actions are known. It occurs in a number of national parks and protected areas within its range (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). However, in Spain the two known colonies are outside protected areas (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). More information is needed on population size and trends, ecology, and potential threats.<br/>.
14918		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. No specific conservation actions are known. It occurs in a number of national parks and protected areas within its range (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). However, in Spain the two known colonies are outside protected areas (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). More information is needed on population size and trends, ecology, and potential threats.
14918		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus lasiopterus</em> has a very scattered distribution through central and southern Europe and north Africa (Morocco, Libya, and possbily Algeria) through Asia Minor to the Caucasus, northern Iran and Kazakhstan. Of the Mediterranean islands, recorded on Sicily. The species is easy to detect with bat detectors, so it is known that the species' distribution in Europe is genuinely extremely patchy. Until 1999, it had been recorded in 120-130 localities in Europe (Benzal 1999). It occurs up to 1,900 m in Switzerland.
14918		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus lasiopterus</em> has a very scattered distribution through central and southern Europe (Iberia to the Balkans, Urals) and north Africa (Morocco (only two records in northwest Morocco), Libya (five records in Cyrenaica), and possibly Algeria (possibly one record in Algeria identified as <em>Nyctalus noctula</em> by Loche 1867, the specimen is lost)). There are an increasing number of records from Turkey (Karatas <em>et al.</em> 2007, Yigit <em>et al</em>. in press). Outside the Mediterranean region the range extends eastwards through Asia Minor to the Caucasus, northern Iran, Kazakhstan and the Urals in Russia. Of the Mediterranean islands, recorded on Sicily. The species is easy to detect with bat detectors, so it is known that the species' distribution in Europe is genuinely extremely patchy. Until 1999, it had been recorded in 120-130 localities in Europe (Benzal 1999). It occurs up to 1,900 m in Switzerland
14918		habitat	eng	It forages over mixed and deciduous forest and wooded river valleys (the latter especially on migration). It is highly dependent on mature forest. It is largely insectivorous, but is also reported to take small passerines in the southern part of the range during migration. In summer it roosts in hollow trees, and occasionally in buildings. Rock crevices may also be used as hibernacula in winter. It sometimes roosts with other species such as <em>N. noctula</em>. Nursery colonies are usually relatively small (up to 35 females). Females give birth to a single pup per litter. It is considered to be migratory in the north-east of its range, but there is very little data. Vagrants have been recorded well outside the normal range (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Some areas in the western part of the range appear to be occupied exclusively by males, according to capture results. Its foraging range may be greater than 30 km in a single night.
14918		habitat	eng	It forages over mixed and deciduous forest and wooded river valleys (the latter especially on migration). It is highly dependent on mature forest (the species needs a number of old trees to support a colony, hence any tree removal is a threat). It is largely insectivorous, but is also reported to take small passerines in the southern part of the range during migration. During the bird migration seasons, passerines are likely to form a major part of the diet. Faeces collected during these times are composed 90% of feathers (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007). Tracking the species using radar in Spain it is now known that it flies up to several hundred metres presumably to catch migratory birds. <br/><br/>In summer it roosts in hollow trees, and occasionally in buildings. Rock crevices may also be used as hibernacula in winter. It sometimes roosts with other species such as <em>N. noctula</em>. Nursery colonies are usually relatively small (up to 35 females). Females give birth to a single pup per litter. It is considered to be migratory in the north-east of its range, but there is very little data. Vagrants have been recorded well outside the normal range (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Some areas in the western part of the range appear to be occupied exclusively by males, according to capture results. Its foraging range may be greater than 30 km in a single night.
14918		population	eng	The patchy distribution and low population density in most of range suggest a relatively small global population. Breeding colonies are typically small (up to 35 females), and few are known. Only two larger-sized (50-100 females) breeding colonies are known in the world. It is rare throughout the range in the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There is a strong population in northern Hungary. The species is difficult to survey, and difficult to capture with mist nets as it hunts 10-20 m above the ground (K. Tsytsulina <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The population trend is unknown.
14918		population	eng	The patchy distribution and low population density in most of range suggest a relatively small global population. Breeding colonies are typically small (up to 35 females), and few are known. Only two larger-sized (50-100 females) breeding colonies are known in the world. It is rare throughout the range in the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). There is a strong population in northern Hungary. The species is difficult to survey, and difficult to capture with mist nets as it hunts 10-20 m above the ground (K. Tsytsulina in litt. 2005). The population trend is unknown.
14918		threats	eng	Little is known about potential threats, but loss of mature woodland and loss of or disturbance to roost sites (in old trees and buildings) may have a negative impact on the species. Some individuals were found dead at wind farms in Spain (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and all pups were found dead in 2005 at one of the two known colonies in Spain (located in a city park). The cause of these deaths was not known (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). In Spain cutting of old trees which are used as roosts is a threat.
14918		threats	eng	Little is known about potential threats, but loss of mature woodland and loss of or disturbance to roost sites (in old trees and buildings) may have a negative impact on the species. Some individuals were found dead in wind farms in Spain (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and all pups were found dead in 2005 at one of the two known colonies in Spain (located in a city park). The cause of these deaths was not known (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006).
14919		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions known.
14919		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions known, but a review of the species' status and summary of existing knowledge is currently (2006) in preparation.
14919		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus leisleri</em> is largely a western Palaearctic species (Europe and north-west Africa), with scattered records in the western parts of the eastern Palaearctic (Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Himalayas). It is widely distributed in Europe from southern Scotland and Ireland more or less along southern edge of the Baltic Sea south and parts of Mediterranean coast to western Russia. It is present on Madeira and the Canary Islands (on Tenerife and La Palma only) but absent from southwestern Italy and Sicily, eastern Spain, most of Fennoscandia and northern Russia. In North Africa it is recorded from Mediterranean montane Morocco and Algeria and there is one record from Cyrenaica (Libya). It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m.
14919		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus leisleri</em> is largely a western Palaearctic species (Europe and north-west Africa), with scattered records in west parts of the eastern Palaearctic (Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Himalayas). It is widely distributed in Europe from Portugal and the British Isles to western Russia. It is present on Madeira and the Canary islands but absent from southwestern Italy and Sicily, eastern Spain, most of Fennoscandia, the northern Baltic and northern Russia. It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m.
14919		habitat	eng	It forages over woodland, pasture, and river valleys, where it feeds on flies (including mosquitos), moths and beetles. It is linked to old trees. Summer nursery roosts are located in tree holes, plus buildings and bat boxes. Nursery colonies usually number 20-50 females, occasionally up to 1,000 (e.g., in Ireland: Stebbings and Griffith 1986). In winter it hibernates mainly in tree holes, or occasionally in underground sites or buildings, often in large groups. Females migrate over distances up to 1,567 km (Ohlendorf <em>et al.</em> 2000).
14919		habitat	eng	It forages over woodland, pasture, and river valleys, where it feeds on flies (including mosquitos), moths and beetles. It is linked to old trees. Summer nursery roosts are located in tree holes, plus buildings and bat boxes. Nursery colonies usually number 20-50 females, occassionally up to 1,000 (e.g., in Ireland: Stebbings and Griffith 1986). In winter it hibernates mainly in tree holes, or occasionally in underground sites or buildings, often in large groups. Females migrate over distances up to 1,567 km (Ohlendorf <em>et al.</em> 2000).
14919		population	eng	It is widespread although patchily distributed in Europe. Common in parts of range (e.g., Ireland), scarce in other parts (Stebbings and Griffith 1986). Local extinctions have been reported for the central part of Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although the species remains common in other parts of Russia and the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). In North Africa it is limited by the distribution of suitable habitat, but is particularly abundant in Djurdjura, NE Algeria. There is no information about trends.
14919		population	eng	It is widespread although patchily distributed in Europe. Common in parts of range (e.g., Ireland), scarce in other parts (Stebbings and Griffith 1986). Local extinctions have been reported for the central part of Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although the species remains common in other parts of Russia and the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). There is no information about trends.
14919		threats	eng	Threats include disturbance to and destruction of roosts in trees and buildings, and loss or degradation of foraging habitat. However, these are not thought to be major threats at present.
14920		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.
14920		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.
14920		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus noctula</em> has a wide Palaearctic distribution, including Europe and southern Scandinavia to the Urals and Caucasus; Turkey to Israel and Oman; western Turkmenistan, western Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan to south-west Siberia and the Himalayas, south to Myanmar, Viet Nam, and western Malaysia. Its occurrence in North Africa is questionable (see below), and a record from Mozambique is considered dubious. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (Strelkov 1997a, 1997b). Has been found at 1,900 m asl in the western Alps during migration (Aellen 1962 in Gebhard and Bogdanowicz 2004).<br/><br/>"It is possible that <em>N. noctula</em> occurs in Africa but this needs confirmation. A record from Algeria (two specimens collected from a hollow tree in Cheliff plain) was published by Loche (1858), but these specimens were lost with the rest of Loche's collection. According to Palmeirim (1982), it is possible that these specimens belonged to N. lasiopterus, a species which does occur in North Africa and which was considered to be conspecific with <em>N. noctula</em> by earlier zoologists. There are also some doubts as to the place of origin of some specimens of <em>N. noctula</em> in the BMNH (Palmeirim 1982) and in the RMNH (Jentink 1888). One of these was mentioned by Dobson (1878) as having been bought in Algiers. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) suggest that all of them were bought from professional dealers, which means that their localities may be unreliable" (M. Happold pers. comm. 2007).
14920		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus noctula</em> has a wide Palaearctic distribution, including Europe and southern Scandinavia to the Urals and Caucasus; Turkey to Israel and Oman; western Turkmenistan, western Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan to south-west Siberia and the Himalayas, south to Myanmar, Vietnam, and western Malaysia. Its occurrence in North Africa is questionable (see below), and a record from Mozambique is considered dubious. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (Strelkov 1997a, 1997b). Has been found at 1,900 m in the western Alps during migration (Aellen 1962 in Gebhard and Bogdanowicz 2004).<br/><br/>"It is possible that <em>N. noctula</em> occurs in Africa but this needs confirmation. A record from Algeria (two specimens collected from a hollow tree in Cheliff plain) was published by Loche (1858), but these specimens were lost with the rest of Loche's collection. According to Palmeirim (1982), it is possible that these specimens belonged to <em>N. lasiopterus</em>, a species which does occur in North Africa and which was considered to be conspecific with <em>N. noctula</em> by earlier zoologists. There are also some doubts as to the place of origin of some specimens of <em>N. noctula</em> in the BMNH (Palmeirim 1982) and in the RMNH (Jentink 1888). One of these was mentioned by Dobson (1878) as having been bought in Algiers. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) suggest that all of them were bought from professional dealers, which means that their localities may be unreliable" (M. Happold pers. comm. 2007).
14920		habitat	eng	It forages over wetland, woodland and pasture, feeding on larger moths, beetles and flies. Summer colonies are in tree holes, sometimes in buildings. Winter hibernacula are in rock crevices, caves, occasionally artificial structures. Maternity colonies number 20-50 females (occasinally up to 100), but winter groups in rock crevices, caves and artificial structures can be large, to 10,000 in one instance (Germany) (Harrje 1994, Mayer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Tree holes and bat boxes are also used as wintering sites. Seasonal migrations between breeding area and hibernation range which is situated in central and southwest Europe normally cover distances of less than 1,000 km. The longest recorded movements is 1,546 km (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14920		habitat	eng	It forages over wetland, woodland and pasture, feeding on larger moths, beetles and flies. Summer colonies are in tree holes, sometimes in buildings. Winter hibernacula are in rock crevices, caves, occasionally artificial structures. Maternity colonies number 20-50 females (occasionally up to 100), but winter groups in rock crevices, caves and artificial structures can be large, to 10,000 in one instance (Germany) (Harrje 1994, Mayer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Tree holes and bat boxes are also used as wintering sites. Seasonal migrations between breeding area and hibernation range which is situated in central and southwest Europe normally cover distances of less than 1,000 km. The longest recorded movement is 1,546 km (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
14920		population	eng	A widespread species, relatively common throughout much of its range.
14920		population	eng	A widespread species, relatively common throughout much of its range. Very abundant, not declining and considered least concern in the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). Common in winter in Austria, with no sign of decline (Spitzenberger 2002 and F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been documented local declines in the Netherlands, and there are suspected to have been substantial declines in the United Kingdom since the 1940s, although the population trend now appears to have stabilised (Bogdanowicz 1999, Battersby 2005). Within its Iranian range and based on very limited information, the species appears to be rare (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).
14920		threats	eng	No major threats at present.
14920		threats	eng	The species is affected by loss of tree roost holes in northeastern Europe. In Romania and Hungary colonies are being lost due to renovation of buildings and human disturbance in buildings. Local declines in the Netherlands were linked to loss of wetlands (Bogdanowicz 1999). These are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.
14921		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Chinese and Japanese Red Lists as Near Threatened, and as a Rare Species in Russia.
14921		distribution	eng	Palaearctic, marginally Oriental. This species is known from eastern China (provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Henan, Zhejiang, and Anhui (Smith and Xie, in press), the Korean peninsula and Japan, where there are records from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Iki Island, Fukue Island, Okinawa, and Tsushima Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In the Russian Far East known from several visual and echolocation observations.
14921		habitat	eng	It roosts in tree hollows and forages in the forest (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). They are nocturnal and feed on flying insects.
14921		population	eng	Most of the records over the last 30 years in Japan have come from Hokkaido, northern Honshu, Iki Island, Fukue Island, and Okinawa.
14921		threats	eng	Deforestation and human disturbance considered one of the major threats in Japan.
14922		conservation	eng	There is no specific national legislation. It is protected under Bern Convention and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. There are proposals for protection and monitoring of roosts, public awareness (with special reference to roosts), reduction of adverse agricultural practices, preservation and restoration of natural habitat, use of lights that attract insects (e.g. mercury), and further studies of the species' biology (Rainho <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14922		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctalus azoreum</em> is restricted to the Azores archipelago (Portugal), where it occurs on Faial, Pico, San Jorge, Graciosa, Terceira, San Miguel and Santa Maria islands, where it occurs from sea level to 600 m (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006). Its extent of occurrence is estimated at <em>ca</em>.2,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
14922		habitat	eng	It forages over a variety of habitats on the islands, favouring natural and semi-natural habitats. But it frequently feeds around artificial lighting (e.g. streetlamps). Most maternity colonies are probably located in buildings, trees and rock crevices.
14922		population	eng	Surveys in 2002, 2003 and 2004 found the species quite abundant on San Miguel, Faial, Terceira and San Jorge, but rare on Graciosa and extremely rare on Santa Maria. It is absent from Flores and Corvo. There is no quantitative information on population trend, but it is suspected that the species may be declining as a result of habitat degradation, destruction of or exclusion from roosts (both in trees and buildings), and human persecution. Local environmental groups report that numerous colonies have recently disappeared (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006). The total population is estimated at 2,000-5,000 individuals, and there are probably fewer than 1,000 individuals on San Miguel, where the species is most abundant (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, J.M. Palmeirim, A. Rainho and L. Rodrigues pers. comm. 2006).
14922		threats	eng	Human persecution, and the destruction of roost sites, are likely to be the main threats (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006). Habitat loss and degradation, use of pesticides, and the spread of exotic plant species may also have a detrimental effect on the species. It is suspected that the extreme scarcity of the species on Santa Maria is attributable to habitat loss and degradation. This species is particularly vulnerable to persecution because it flies during the day, making colonies obvious and easy to find (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006).
14923		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Detailed surveys, ecological studies, population and habitat monitoring, protection against poaching are the main recommendations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
14923		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar and Paktika provinces), India (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand), Nepal (mid western Nepal) and Pakistan (Roberts 1997). It has been recorded at an altitudinal range of 680 to 1,692 m asl. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 sq km and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 sq km (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14923		habitat	eng	This species is found in riparian habitat and arid flood plains with rich undergrowth in the Himalaya. It roosts among rocky cliffs, crevices among rocks and overhanging vegetation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14923		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14923		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural use, mining and quarrying activities. It is also threatened due to hunting for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
14925		conservation	eng	Not listed in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Raccoon dogs occur in national parks and other wildlife protection areas in Japan, where hunting and some other activities are prohibited. Raccoon dogs occur in national parks also in Finland (although they are hunted in some parks). Elsewhere across their range, they occur in numerous protected areas and wildlife sanctuaries. <br/><br/>In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is legally hunted, hunting is permitted year round (e.g., Sweden, Hungary and Poland). However, in Finland, females with pups are protected in May, June and July, and in Belarus hunting is allowed from 1 October to the end of February. In Japan, hunting/trapping of the species requires a licence or other form of permission and can only occur within the designated hunting season (November 15 to February 15). The raccoon dog on Mukojima island (18.4 km²), Hiroshima prefecture, is designated as a natural monument under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, and permission from the Director-General of the Agency of Cultural Affairs is required for capturing the animals on the island.<br/><br/>There have been no conservation measures developed for the raccoon dog to date.<br/><br/>In Japan, around 40 zoos hold captive animals and successful breeding has been reported (e.g., Kobe Municipal Zoo). Captive raccoon dogs still exist on fur farms in Finland.
14925		distribution	eng	The historical distribution of this species was the Far East, from northern Indochina to the southeast corner of Russia, also in Mongolia. In the Japanese Archipelago, the species was confined to Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Awaji island, Sado island and other islets of Japan except those south of Kyushu (e.g., Okinawa islands, Nansei islands, Miyako islands and Ogasawara islands). There has been a recent introduction in Yakushima island (S. Azuma pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Today, the species has been widely introduced. It is now widespread in northern and eastern Europe, thriving in moist forests with abundant undergrowth. The northern limit of distribution lies in areas where the mean temperature of the year is just above 0°C, the snow cover about 800 mm, the duration of the snow cover 175 days and the length of the growing season 135 days (for example, in Finland the northern limit of permanent distribution is between 65°N and the Arctic Circle). If winters become milder, the raccoon dog may expand its range northwards.
14925		habitat	eng	Two features are typical of the habitat of Raccoon Dogs: 1) they are often found near water; and 2) during autumn they are more or less dependent on fruits and berries, which affects their habitat selection. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to subalpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitat and uses less Cryptomeria plantation throughout year, while riparian areas are often used (M. Saeki and D.W. Macdonald, unpubl.). In urban areas, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, the Raccoon Dog favours open landscape, especially damp meadows and agricultural land and avoids dark forests (Judin 1977). <br/><br/>In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favour moist forests and shores of rivers and lakes, especially in early summer (Korneev 1954; Nasimovic and Isakov 1985; Kauhala 1996). In late summer and autumn, they favour moist heaths with abundant berries (Morozov 1947; Kauhala 1996). In the Finnish archipelago, however, they favour barren pine forests where they feed on crowberries (<em>Empetrum nigrum</em>) (Kauhala and Auniola 2000).
14925		population	eng	Abundance is unknown in the Far East outside of Japan where it is common. Population estimates have never been<br/>conducted in the latter country, but indirect indices (e.g., road-kills per km of the National Expressways and harvest<br/>density per prefecture), suggest that relative abundance is high in south-western parts of Japan (i.e., Kyushu, Shikoku, and Chugoku) and low in Hokkaido, Chubu, and extremely urban areas (M. Saeki and D.W. Macdonald<br/>unpubl.). See also Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004; Table 5.4.2).
14925		threats	eng	Road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper and rabies) and pollution (organtins, lead, PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs) remain the major threats to the species across its range. <br/><br/>The Russians introduced Raccoon Dogs into the wild in the European part of the former Soviet Union because they wanted to establish a valuable new fur animal in the wild. Raccoon Dog furs continue to be commercially sold, although today they are produced in fur farms. While the species is still commonly farmed for fur in Finland, Raccoon Dogs are no longer farmed in Sweden (J.-O. Helldin pers. comm.) or Hungary, where the last fur farm was closed in 1995 (M. Heltai pers. comm.). In Japan, Raccoon Dog fur is also used in the production of calligraphic brushes, stuffed animals, and other products.
14926		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species.
14926		distribution	eng	This African bat is widely distributed over much of West and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa and the Congo Basin to western Uganda, southern Sudan, western Kenya, northern Tanzania and Burundi. It is distributed as far south as southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola. It is typically a lowland species.
14926		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of habitats, from lowland tropical moist forest, through gallery forest and moist savanna (Happold 1987). It can be found in remnant forest patches in more open woodland (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). During the day this species roosts, usually singly, in fallen logs and hollow cavities of trees, especially those with an opening close to the ground (Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987). It is unclear whether the species can persist in more degraded habitats.
14926		population	eng	This is a common species.
14926		threats	eng	It parts of its range it is presumably threatened by conversion of forest to agricultural land, and the logging of roost trees.
14927		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any direct conservation measures in place, or if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
14927		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered records in East Africa. It has been recorded from northern Somalia in the north of its range, through southern Ethiopia and Sudan, into Kenya and Tanzania in the south.
14927		habitat	eng	This species appears to be associated with savanna habitats, although two localities in more arid areas suggest that it is also found in semi-desert.
14927		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but it seems to be common where it has been recorded.
14927		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known, however, it is likely that there are no major threats to the species, as it has been recorded from an extensive habitat that is not severely declining.
14928		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. There is a need to protect roosts of this species, and to better determine the eastern limits of the species range.
14928		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges from Senegal and the Gambia, through most of West Africa, as far east as central Nigeria. There is a single uncertain record from Cameroon which requires verification.
14928		habitat	eng	This species is mostly associated with both moist and dry savanna habitats. It has been recorded in the vicinity of urban areas, close to grassland, and within cleared forest areas (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Colonies generally roost in caves, but have been recorded from hollow trees and buildings (cellars and roofs) (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Colony size ranges from a few dozen to hundreds of animals.
14928		population	eng	It can be a locally common species.
14928		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, often resulting from conversion of savanna to agricultural use.
14929		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
14929		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal, through West and Central Africa, to southern Sudan, southeastern Kenya and eastern Tanzania, with scattered records as far south as Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is a lowland species.
14929		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of lowland habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest (often found near to swampy sites) to drier savanna areas and Miombo woodland (Rosevear 1965; Fenton <em>et al.</em> 1990; Hickey and Dunlop 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It generally roosts in hollow trees, but is also found in man made structures such as houses (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 1990, 1993), disused water towers (Fenton <em>et al.</em>1990, 1993) and culverts (Rosevear, 1965). Animals might also roost in hollow fallen logs, and holes or small caverns in rocks (Rosevear, 1965; Hickey and Dunlop 2000).
14929		population	eng	It appears to be a rare, or rarely recorded, species. The species occurs in small colonies, but is usually found only as single animals or in pairs.
14929		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, particularly the logging of large trees used for roosting. Some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food.
14930		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in a number of protected areas (including the Udzungwa Mountains National Park of Tanzania [Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005]). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
14930		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range, encompassing much of sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of the Horn of Africa and parts of southern Africa. There is an apparently disjunct population in western Mauritania close to the border with Senegal, and a isolated record from central Mali.
14930		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest, into moist savanna, dry savanna, papyrus swamps and marsh. Colonies roost in hollow trees, dense bushes, caves, holes in termite colonies and similar habitats. Colonies range in size from individual and pairs of animals to up to 20 bats.
14930		population	eng	This is a very common bat.
14930		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, largely through the conversion of forest to agricultural use.
14931		conservation	eng	There do not appear to be any direct conservation measures in place, however, the species has been recorded from some protected areas (e.g.. Comoe National Park and Tai National Park both in Côte d'Ivoire). Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
14931		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from Liberia in the west, to western Tanzania in the east, with records as far south as northeastern Angola. The species appears to be known from around 27 localities. It is typically a lowland species.
14931		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, occurring marginally in gallery forest and moist savanna habitats. It roosts in hollow trees. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
14931		population	eng	This species appears to be relatively rare. It is usually found as small groups of animals.
14931		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation including loss of roosting trees.
14932		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Pangadaran which is a protected area and Gunung Pangrano.
14932		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Java, Nusa Penida and the Kangean Islands of Indonesia (Simmons 2005). There are two records of this species that are erroneous: one from Bali (Kock and Dobat 2000) and one from Timor (Corbet and Hill 1992). This species is also reported from West Timor (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
14932		habitat	eng	It is probably quite forest dependent, however, roosting caves are sometimes adjacent to coconut plantations. Generally <em>Nycteris</em> bat species like fallen tree hollows, hollow bases of trees, culverts, and live in small groups of less than five. They have been found to roost singularly or in pairs in caves (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
14932		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
14932		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss, due to logging and agriculture.
14933		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
14933		distribution	eng	This widespread African species ranges from Senegal in the west, to Somalia in the east, being recorded as far south as northern Botswana. It has been recorded between sea level and 2,200 m asl.
14933		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest into both moist and dry savanna. While it most often roosts in hollow trees, it has also been recorded roosting in small caves and in thatched house roofs. In the Parc National du ‘W’ in Niger Republic, 300 km west of Sokoto, they have been found roosting in groups of 10-20 individuals in thatched huts and others were found in abandoned mine shafts (Poché, 1975). Happold (1987), notes that they are solitary or live in small groups.
14933		population	eng	This is a very common species. In southern Africa, colonies are small, typically consisting of fewer than 10 animals.
14933		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this species. In parts of its range it is threatened by general habitat loss, presumably mostly through the conversion of land to agricultural use.
14934		conservation	eng	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from the Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this somewhat enigmatic species. There is a need to monitor to presence of this species at its known localities.
14934		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West and Central Africa, where it has been patchily recorded from Guinea, Liberia (at Voinjama) and Côte d'Ivoire in the west, and from Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa (at Avakubi), with the southern-most record from northern Zambia (close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo).
14934		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest, possibly ranging into moist savanna habitats. It is a tree roosting species, known to occur in small numbers of up to three animals.
14934		population	eng	This appears to be an extremely rare species, that is only known from a dozen or so specimens. It is not difficult to catch and efforts have been made to locate more specimens.
14934		threats	eng	The species appears to need rather large trees, and is presumably threatened by deforestation resulting from logging activities and the conversion of forest to agricultural use.
14935		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, general ecology and threats to this species.
14935		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded in West and Central Africa, with some records from East Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in the west, through south Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, to Uganda and western Kenya. It ranges as far south as northern Angola. Generally a lowland species, but can be found up to 2,100 m asl.
14935		habitat	eng	The bat has been recorded from both dry and moist lowland forest, gallery forest and moist savanna. It has been found roosting in standing trees in small family groups (Rosevear 1965; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
14935		population	eng	It is considered to be a rather rare bat, colony sizes tend to be small.
14935		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known, but it seems likely to be locally threatened by deforestation in parts of its range.
14936		conservation	eng	May occur within some protected areas. No specific conservation measures are known.<br><br>Protection of the roost sites is required and also legal protection of the species should be improved. Further research is required on the population size and trends.
14936		conservation	eng	May occur within some protected areas. No specific conservation measures are known.<br/><br/>Protection of the roost sites is required and also legal protection of the species should be improved. Further research is required on the population size and trends.
14936		distribution	eng	Broadly distributed across savanna and riparian zones. Mostly found in sub-Saharan Africa; also found in Morocco, Libya, Egypt (primarily down the Nile River valley, but also into Sinai) and the Middle East (Israel, Palestine and Jordan). Elevation from sea level to 2,000 m.
14936		habitat	eng	A savanna species with wide habitat tolerance. Occurs in moist and dry savanna, also ranging into desert, arid rocky areas, and riparian strips. Essentially a cave-roosting species but also roosts during the day in mine adits, aardvark holes, rock crevices, culverts under roads, roofs and hollow trees, typically in open savanna woodland (Smithers and Labao Tello 1976, Skinner and Smithers 1990, Taylor 1998).
14936		population	eng	Fairly common through most of its range. However, an uncommon species in the Mediterranean region. In Morocco only three small colonies (usually 10 to 30 and occasionally up to 100 individuals) are known (Stéphane Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Nothing is known about population trend.
14936		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation affect the species. Roost disturbance and degradation are the main threats in the Mediterranean region. These are not considered major threats at present.
14937		conservation	eng	The species range includes several protected areas.
14937		distribution	eng	This species' distribution includes Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia) and throughout Borneo (Simmons 2005).The type locality for this species is Bidi caves, Sarawak, Borneo Malaysia.
14937		habitat	eng	It has been collected from primary Dipterocarp forest and peat swamp forest (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It roosts in small groups in fallen tree hollows and similar man-made hollows such as culverts as well as crevices of large boulders and in limestone caves.
14937		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
14937		threats	eng	The major threat for this species is habitat loss due to deforestation for logging, plantations, agriculture, as well forest fire.
14939		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas (e.g.. Kruger National Park, South Africa). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this poorly known species.
14939		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Zimbabwe, South Africa, to Zambia, north-west Mozambique and Malawi. It may range into southwestern Tanzania, however, it has yet to be recorded in this country. Its is generally a lowland species.
14939		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known, however, populations have been recorded in semi-arid savanna woodland, where it roosts in hollow trees (particularly Baobabs), sandstone caves, rock fissures, and some buildings (Ansell 1967; Cotterill 1996; Sinner and Chimimba 2005).
14939		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well known. It has been recorded in colonies of a few dozen individuals, otherwise animals have been recorded individually.
14939		threats	eng	It is possibly locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss (particularly through conversion of land to cotton farming), pesticide use, and disturbance of roosting sites.
14941		conservation	eng	In Viet Nam this species is protected at the highest possible level (Appendix IB, Decree 32, 2006); in China, it is listed as Class 1 protected (involving potentially severe penalties); and in Cambodia it is listed on the Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries Species List as prohibited to hunt from 08 January 1994. The species has been recently transfer from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris and Nijman 2007). There is a need for close monitoring of harvesting rates of this species, not only in Viet Nam, but also in Cambodia and Lao PDR where rates of take could increase in future. <br/>Pygmy lorises are represented in at least 50 captive collections, and reported in at least two-dozen protected areas, but these reports need to be ground-sourced with systematic surveys (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008).
14941		distribution	eng	This species is found east of the Mekong River in eastern Cambodia, southernmost China (southeastern Yunnan), Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (Streicher 2004). The western limit of distribution in Lao PDR and Cambodia is uncertain, but it appears to be absent or at least naturally very scarce in the extreme west of the Mekong plain. In China, the species has only been recorded in southeast Yunnan, although it is not clear if these are wild animals or captured animals brought into China from Viet Nam (MacKinnon 2008).
14941		habitat	eng	This species has been sighted in a wide variety of habitats, including primary evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, forest on limestone, secondary and highly degraded habitats, and bamboo thickets (Ratajszczak 1998; Streicher 2004). It is found up to 1,500 m (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987).<br/><br/><em>Nycticebus pygmaeus</em> is nocturnal and forages alone. Its feeding habits have not been well studied in the wild, but it is known that the species is omnivorous in natural conditions. A study of released pygmy loris food choices showed insectivory 40% of the time, gummivory 30% of the time, and feeding on unidentified plant exudates the rest of the time. Flowering trees are most attractive to these animals (Streicher 2004). This species appears to be more insectivorous than <em>Nycticebus coucang</em>, which may explain its ability to survive better in secondary habitat that lack big fruiting trees (Ratajszczak 1998). They may also take geckos, small arboreal mammals, eggs, and chicks (Ratajszczak 1998). This species appears to be a seasonal breeder, giving birth in the winter months (Ratajszczak 1998).
14941		population	eng	Ratajszczak (1998) mentioned that hundreds of this species were being traded in markets, but based on the smaller numbers of pygmy lorises now found in Viet Namese markets, as well as the increased difficulty noted in making field encounters, researchers have concluded that wild populations are probably in major decline (Fitch-Snyder and Vu 2002; Streicher 2004). In Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, 90 survey nights returned only seven sightings of this species; in Ben En National Park, only eight animals were encountered over ten night walks by four teams, each covering several kilometers per night. In Lao PDR, Duckworth (1994) recorded only four individuals during a survey in Phou Xang He protected area (about 0.05-0.10 individuals/km). It is possible that this species was under-recorded, however, as villagers claimed that this species was common throughout the area, and their accounts may also be historical (Duckworth 1994). The species is widespread in forested areas in Lao PDR, where exploitation of lorises is lower than in neighboring Viet Nam.
14941		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, the pygmy slow loris is heavily exploited for traditional “medicine” as well as for the pet trade (Nekaris and Nijman 2007), including international trade, at levels that are not sustainable; it is also used as a food source by many (Streicher 2004). Some hunting involves the use of elaborate traps, as well as snares. In Cambodia, it is generally used for so-called “medicinal” purposes. Levels of exploitation in Lao PDR are significantly lower. Habitat loss, due to agriculture (cashew plantations, corn, rice paddies and so forth), and human settlement, may be resulting in localized declines.
14942		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.
14942		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread over the inland parts of the country. It is known from 40 to 480 m asl in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
14942		habitat	eng	This species is present in drier habitats within inland Australia. It roosts in tree hollows and building roofs (Parnaby 2008). Females give birth to one or two young after a seven month gestation period (Parnaby 2008).
14942		population	eng	It is a common species within its limited habitat (Parnaby 2008).
14942		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Agricultural activities and modified fire regimes within its arid habitat probably adversely affects the species by eliminating trees with cavities (Parnaby 2008). It may be also locally threatened by disturbance of roosting sites.
14943		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas.
14943		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread in northern, central, and eastern parts of the country.
14943		habitat	eng	This species forages close to waterbodies within arid open woodland and plains. It roosts in colonies of a few individuals to around 20 animals in tree holes, disused buildings, and other available structures (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14943		population	eng	It is a common species (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14943		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
14944		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss.
14944		distribution	eng	Northern Veracruz (Mexico) to Nebraska, the Great Lakes, and Pennsylvania, south to Florida and the Gulf coast (USA) (Simmons 2005).
14944		habitat	eng	The Evening Bat is a forest-dwelling species that roosts in tree crevices and behind loose bark, as well as in buildings. This species rarely enters caves but does participate in swarming activities at some cave entrances in late summer. They historically used tree hollows, but as forests have been cut, many have moved into wooden buildings. <br/>Mating probably occurs in late summer and early fall, with the sperm being stored in the uterus of the female during the winter. Ovulation and fertilization occur in the spring. Females give birth to 1 to 3 pups (usually twins) during June.<br/>Evening bats leave their roost near dusk. Individuals begin flying at a height of 12 to 23 m, but as darkness falls they come much lower to the ground. They have a slow and steady flight. During feeding maneuvers, the tail and wing membranes are used to capture and restrain prey (Linzey and Brecht 2005).
14944		population	eng	The evening bat lives in eastern deciduous forests, from the East Coast west to eastern Nebraska and south through East Texas to northern Mexico. It inhabits elevations from sea level to 300 m.  The average life span in the wild is probably about two years, although there are records of some individuals surviving for over five years (Watkins, 1972).
14944		threats	eng	Evening bats have declined in Indiana, but it appears to be relatively abundant in Missouri and Iowa. Its population trends have not been monitored, and its status is unknown over much of its range. <em>N. humeralis</em> is not listed as a species of special concern by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, though it is considered endangered in Indiana, the area where it has been best monitored.
14945		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
14945		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from around Brisbane to Melbourne, mostly east of the Great Dividing Range, and has been reported also from the Cairns region of Queensland (Tidemann and Parnaby 2008). It is known from sea level to 720 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
14945		habitat	eng	It forages in tall, wet forests or rainforest but has also been captured in areas of open woodland. It has been recorded roosting in tree hollows and roofs (Tidemann and Parnaby 2008). Females give birth to a single young.
14945		population	eng	This species is sparsely scattered in suitable habitat (Tidemann and Parnaby 2008).
14945		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss due to urban development and logging, including the selective removal of large trees (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
14946		conservation	eng	The species is presumably present in a number of protected areas within its range. There is a need to identify and protect important populations of this species. Further studies are needed into the ecology, distribution, abundance, and reproduction of this species.
14946		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a patchy distribution in coastal areas between northern Queensland and south-east New South Wales. It ranges from sea level to 500 m asl, and above, along the coast and in coastal ranges. The range of this species is poorly understood because of identification issues (D. Lunney pers. comm.).
14946		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest, dry and wet sclerophyll woodland, and eucalypt forest. Its roosting habits are poorly known, but it has been found roosting in tree hollows, crevices, and under bark. Females give birth to a single young (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hoye and Richards 2008).
14946		population	eng	It is sparsely scattered in suitable habitat (Hoye and Richards 2008).
14946		threats	eng	It is suspected to be threatened by clearance and fragmentation of suitable forest habitat. In addition to the degradation of foraging habitat, the loss of roosting trees due to logging is also likely to be a threat (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
14947		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Local education programmes on bat species would benefit the conservation of this species.
14947		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from West Timor (Indonesia), south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), Dolak Island (Papua Province, Indonesia), and in Australia where it occurs in north-eastern Queensland, Northern Territory, and northern Western Australia. It presumably ranges more widely in little-surveyed parts of Papua Province, Indonesia. The species occurs from sea level to 2,200 m asl in New Guinea, but is usually found below 100 m asl (Bonaccorso 1998).
14947		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest, sclerophyll forest, coastal forests, and savanna. In the Kimberley, it is only recorded in mangroves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It forages along rivers and edges of quiet bays, along paths and roads, and around lights in urban areas. It roosts in hollow trees and buildings. Colonies may consist of a few individuals to several hundred animals. Females gives birth to one or two young (Bonaccorso 1998; Hall 2008).
14947		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
14947		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
14953		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed over a wider part of the potential range of <em>N. rabori</em> to more acurately determine the status of its population, and to determine whether it occurs on Panay. It is known to occur in North Negros Forest Reserve (Tamblyn <em>et al.</em> 2005). More adequate conservation measures are needed at known sites.
14953		distribution	eng	The tube-nosed fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the islands of Cebu (Vinciguerra and Muller 1993), Negros and Sibuyan; it might also occur in Panay, although there has been a lack of sampling there to confirm this (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has also been recorded from Karakelong in the Talaud Islands (Indonesia), and on Siao and Greater Sangihe in the Sangihe Islands (Indonesia) (K. Helgen pers. comm.), but these records represent tentative identifications. The elevational range is from sea level to 1,300 m asl. On Negros, it has been recorded from 200 to 1,300 m asl.
14953		habitat	eng	It is found in or adjacent to forest (sea level to 1,300 m), in both primary and secondary forest (Vinciguerra and Muller 1993).  <em>N. rabori</em> was previously thought to be confined to high-quality forest, but it is tolerant to a wider range of habitats than previously suspected, having been recorded from degraded habitats on Negros, and persisting in very degraded habitats on Cebu. During recent collections, the species has tended to be found near bodies of water.
14953		population	eng	The tube-nosed fruit bat has been collected (mist-netted) infrequently on Cebu and Negros. It might be less common in degraded habitat than in old growth forest, but it does seem to be able to persist in degraded areas (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). It is more widespread on Negros and Cebu than previously suspected (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). On Negros, where it had been known only from a population on the southern part of the island, surveys have located 30 individuals at eight sites between 1998 and 2004 (Carino 2004). During survey, the highest number of individuals of <em>N. rabori</em> was recorded in Ban-ban, Ayungon municipality, with a total capture of nine individuals during 26 Mar to 10 Apr 1999 (Cariño 2004). Mount Siburan (Sibuyan Island) may have numbers of the tube-nosed fruit bats in the high hundreds, Negros may have low thousands of individuals and Cebu may have numbers in the low hundreds, where the population of that island has been found only in five small sites (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). The number of mature individuals could be less than 2,500.
14953		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat, and has been severe across much of the range of <em>N. rabori</em>, although the rate has slowed due to the fact that there is little remaining primary forest. Most of the lowland forest habitat, which is the most suitable for the species, has been destroyed in two out of the three islands on which the species is known to occur. Although it has recently been recorded from some areas of secondary forest, the remaining populations are under intense pressure since very little forest remains and there is a continuing decline in area and quality of this forest. Hunting is not suspected to be a threat as, according to surveys, local people are unfamiliar with this tube-nosed fruit bat.
14954		conservation	eng	This species is likely to be found in some protected areas.
14954		distribution	eng	It has been recorded at scattered localities throughout the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and on the islands of Misool, Salawati, and Kairiru (Indonesia) plus Admosin in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. The record from Halmahera, Indonesia by Dollman (1930) is in error and no longer mapped. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
14954		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary rainforest, swamp forest, and rural gardens. Animals roost in foliage, either singly or in small groups. It is a frugivorous species, likely to be a fig specialist (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Pregnant females have been recorded in January and February.
14954		population	eng	This is probably a common species. It appears to have a low population density, but is widespread throughout New Guinea.
14954		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is not actively hunted.
14955		conservation	eng	The Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve is within the range of this species. Further taxonomic studies are needed to resolve the relationship between it and <em>N. certans</em>.
14955		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Arfak Mountains on the Vogelkop Peninsula in western New Guinea. It has also been reported by Meinig (2002) as occurring on Mansuar Island, Indonesia. The precise altitudinal range is not known.
14955		habitat	eng	It is presumed to have similar habitat requirements to <em>N. certans</em>, and occur in primary and secondary forest, forest edge, and rural gardens in hill forests and at lower montane elevations. It is also presumed to occur in moss forest at mid-motane elevations, although Meinig (2002) reports capturing this species at 5 m asl.
14955		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
14955		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
14956		conservation	eng	The distribution limits of this species are not known. Further studies into the taxonomy, ecology, threats, and distribution of this species are needed.
14956		distribution	eng	This species is mostly known from either side of the highlands of central New Guinea. It has been recorded from less than 10 localities and only about twenty specimens. The type locality is the Lorentz River (the single locality in Papua Province, Indonesia). Records from north of the central highlands (Bonaccorso 1998) may not represent this species, but are included here until further details become available. It has been recorded from sea level up to 100 m asl.
14956		habitat	eng	All records of this species have been associated with freshwater swamps and rivers. Bonaccorso (1998) captured a  postlactating female that was not reproductively active in January.
14956		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
14956		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species faces any threats. The species is not likely to be hunted (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
14958		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status, range and population numbers, ecology, biology, and threats to this species (Mickleburgh <em>et al. </em>1992).
14958		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Malaita and San Cristobal in the Solomon Islands (Simmons 2005).
14958		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary tropical moist forest.
14958		population	eng	It is presumably common in suitable habitat.
14958		threats	eng	It is restricted to just two islands, and the threats to this species are not known.
14959		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species is uncertain. Studies are needed into the ecology, biology, and threats to it.
14959		distribution	eng	The precise distribution of <em>N. masalai</em> is unknown, and there may be confusion with other species in the genus. It appears to be endemic to the island of New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. The type locality of this species is Ralum, New Ireland (3 31' S, 152 22' E). The species might extend through the Bismarcks, perhaps the north coast islands of Papua New Guinea, and possibly even the east Papuan Islands (relevant museum samples from these regions need to be investigated; K. Helgen pers. comm.).
14959		habitat	eng	There is no information regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.
14959		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
14959		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species faces any threats.
14960		conservation	eng	This species is present in Manusela National Park.
14960		distribution	eng	This species is confined to highland regions of the islands of Buru and Seram in Indonesia. It is not present on the island of Ambon. The geographically mislabelled specimen from the island of Menado is not considered here as part of the range of the species.
14960		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from mid-montane forest on each island.
14960		population	eng	It is only known from a small number of specimens.
14960		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cut logging and probably also mining are the main threats to this species (Dudun pers. comm.). This species is probably not hunted, as it is too small.
14961		conservation	eng	Research is needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainty and to confirm, if possible, the existence of this species.
14961		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single female specimen probably collected in the late 19<sup>th</sup> century on Santa Cruz (Nendö) Island in the Solomon Islands, or certainly from within the Santa Cruz Island Group. It was apparently last seen on Nendö in 1907 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Several subsequent biological expeditions to the region have not recorded this species (Flannery 1995).
14961		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.
14961		population	eng	It is known from a single specimen, and it may now be extinct. Extensive surveys in the 1980s and 1990s failed to find any <em>Nyctimene</em> species on Nendö Island (Flannery 1995). There appears to be no other published information about these surveys. Of particular interest would be information about the survey effort, techniques, and habitats covered. This is important because even a slight difference in these variables can change results. <em>N. major</em> in New Britain and Bougainville, for example, were captured in large numbers seasonally, feeding on beach front fruiting trees, whilst no captures were made just 200 m inland in forest areas (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
14961		threats	eng	Disturbance by humans may have led to the extinction of this species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). There was extensive logging here in the past.
14962		conservation	eng	This species is likely to be found in some protected areas. Work is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations in the Kei Islands, the Bismarcks, and the Solomon Islands. The distribution and conservation status of the Kei Islands populations should also be investigated.
14962		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the islands of Halmahera, Obi, Batjan, Waigeo, and Salawati (all Indonesia), and eastwards to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Aru and Kei Islands (Indonesia). It ranges from sea level to 1,900 m asl (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
14962		habitat	eng	It is generally found in primary rainforest, being less common in secondary forest, sago palm forests, native gardens, plantations, Melaleuca savanna and monsoon forests. Animals roost singly or in mother-infant pairs within vegetation. Pregnant females have been collected on New Guinea in January, February, July, August, and September, each with single embryos.
14962		population	eng	It is common and widespread. Bonaccorso (1998) and Flannery (1995a) reported that it was one of the most abundant fruit bats found in the primary rain forests of Papua New Guinea.
14962		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is unlikely to be hunted (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
14963		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas (e.g., Loralindu, Gamoga-bone). Records from Moa Island, Queensland, Australia and New Guinea need further identification and/or taxonomic work and are currently treated as <em>N. robinsoni</em>.
14963		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the islands of Sulawesi, Seram, Mangole, Sanana, Buru, Ambon, and Tanimbar (all Indonesia), and from the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia) though it may no longer be present here (K. Helgen pers. comm.). Records from Moa Island, Queensland, Australia probably refer to <em>Nyctimene robinsoni</em>. Mainland New Guinea records are possibly misidentifications of <em>N. robinsoni</em>, and are marked on the map as possible range of <em>N. robinsoni</em>. A record from Numfoor Island, Indonesia, represents a separate, undescribed Geelvinck Bay bat taxon (K. Helgen pers. comm.). This species ranges from sea level to at least 1,800 m asl.
14963		habitat	eng	This species is fairly reliant on good primary tropical moist forest. It roosts singly, in trees (where it appears like a leaf when roosting). It is primarily frugivorous, but may also take insects. Of the four females collected on Sanana in mid-November by Flannery (1995), two were found to be pregnant.
14963		population	eng	It is common in less disturbed environments.
14963		threats	eng	Deforestation is a serious threat, and indeed the species may be extirpated from Timor due to near complete loss of primary moist forest (K. Helgen pers. comm.). This species also is hunted for food in parts of its range, and is occasionally found for sale in markets.
14964		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some areas by local religious beliefs. People on Mount Telefomin regard it as extremely bad luck to kill the species. It is presumed to occur in some protected areas. Work is needed to assess the taxonomic validity of the species.
14964		distribution	eng	This species ranges through the highlands of central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and East New Britain (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It occurs from 800 to 2,800 m asl.
14964		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, forest edge, and rural gardens in hill forests and at lower montane elevations. It also occurs in moss forest at mid-motane elevations. It flys higher than other Nyctimene species (as evidenced by capture in sub-canopy nets). Animals roost singly or in pairs in foliage. It is a frugivorous species. In Morobe and Eastern Highlands Provinces, pregnant females have been found in November and in February.
14964		population	eng	It is widespread in mid-montane forest. Bonaccorso (1998) suggests they may be locally abundant and secure in montane habitats.
14964		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is minimal hunting of it (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
14965		conservation	eng	It is not known if Dobson's tube-nosed bat is present in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine the status and threats to the species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). More information about distribution and ecology should also be a priority.
14965		distribution	eng	Dobson's tube-nosed bat is present in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from many islands in the Provinces of East Sepik, Madang, Milne Bay, Morobe, New Ireland, East New Britain, West New Britain and North Solomons (the latter via S. Hamilton pers. comm.). In the Solomon Islands it has been recorded from most of the islands as far south as Malaita and Guadalcanal (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). The species ranges from sea level up to 900 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).
14965		habitat	eng	Dobson's tube-nosed bat occurs in primary tropical lowland forest and can be found in disturbed forest, plantations, and rural gardens. It roosts singly, or as small groups, in vegetation (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). This species is able to disperse and persist on small isolated islands (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
14965		population	eng	Dobson's tube-nosed bat can be abundant in parts of its range. It is less common where other species of Nyctimene are present (Flannery 1995).
14965		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
14966		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic and identification work is needed regarding the Torres Strait and New Guinea populations.
14966		distribution	eng	This species is found from eastern Queensland down to northern New South Wales, Australia. Records from Moa Island, Queensland, Australia previously referred to as <em>Nyctimene cephalotes</em> are probably <em>N. robinsoni</em>, but these require further identification and/or taxonomic work. Mainland New Guinea records of <em>N. cephalotes</em> are also thought to be misidentifications of <em>N. robinsoni</em>, and are marked on the map as possible range of <em>N. robinsoni</em>.
14966		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical forest and orchard habitats. This species roosts in trees and dense foliage. It is generally solitary but may be found in small groups. Females give birth to a single young (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14966		population	eng	It is a common species, but patchily distributed in the south of its range (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2008).
14966		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has the potential to be a pest of fruit orchards in some parts of its range (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2008). Barbed wire fences are a source direct mortality (L. Hall and B. Thomson pers. comm.).
14967		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species (Bonaccorso 1998).
14967		distribution	eng	The Umboi tube-nosed bat is present in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Papua New Guinea it is found on the Bismarck Archipelago and on Bougainville Island (Bonaccorso 1998). It is present over most of the Solomon Islands north of Malaita (Simmons 2005). The species ranges from sea level to 1,800 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).
14967		habitat	eng	The Umboi tube-nosed bat is associated with closed-canopy, primary tropical moist forest. It is rarely present in secondary growth forest or plantations (Bonaccorso 1998). Animals roost in trees and dense foliage.
14967		population	eng	It is generally a common species (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
14967		threats	eng	The Umboi tube-nosed bat is threatened in the Bismarck Archipelago by logging (Bonaccorso 1998).
14969		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Although a recovery plan is in place for this species, further research into the cause of the decline of this species is necessary.
14969		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) from Paluma to Cooktown, north Queensland, at altitudes between sea level and 1,200m asl (McDonald 1992). The species includes two divergent genetic lineages separated by Barron Creek-the diversity within each lineage is very low (M. Cunningham pers. comm.).
14969		habitat	eng	This species is a rainforest specialist (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). In montane areas the species prefers fast-flowing rocky streams although they also frequent slower watercourses where ample vegetation exists along the margins (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). At low elevations, it favours rock soaks, narrow ephemeral streams and rock outcrops in larger watercourses (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). It may also be found on rocks, boulders and vegetation in or adjacent to streams (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). <em>N. dayi</em> is a spring and summer breeder (Davies and Richards 1990) with peak breeding activity from October to April (Hero and Fickling 1997; Hodgkinson and Hero 2002). Davies and Richards (1990) provide a detailed description of the developmental biology of the species. Males call at night from rocks and low foliage along rapidly flowing stretches of creek. The competition for females may necessitate territorial behaviour in males, as they have never been found calling in a group or within 1m of another male (Hodgkinson and Hero 2002). Amplexus is axillary and eggs are laid in a cohesive clump under rocks in rapidly flowing water (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). One clutch collected contained 107 unpigmented eggs (egg diameter 2.3-2.6mm, capsule diameter 3.3-3.5mm, n=5) (Davies and Richards 1990). Larvae can be found on or under rocks in fast-flowing sections of stream and show adaptations to living in torrents, such as large suctorial mouthparts and muscular tails (Davies and Richards 1990; Fickling and Hero 1994). After hatching they aggregate under a rock until their digestive tracts are fully formed (Davies and Richards 1990). After several days they begin to graze on benthic algae and may drift downstream. Larvae from eggs laid in early summer complete development in 3-4 months, while those eggs laid in late summer may overwinter and metamorphose the following summer (Davies and Richards 1990).
14969		population	eng	<em>Nyctimystes dayi</em> has disappeared from upland sites throughout the Wet Tropics and was last recorded from Mount Spec State Forest in 1990 and the Kirrama Range in 1989 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993; M. Cunningham pers. comm.). Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) noted that the species was still common at most foothill and lowland sites and recorded adults and larvae from upland sites north of the Daintree River. These populations subsequently disappeared in 1992 and 1993 (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). At one monitoring site at O’Keefe Creek, Big Tableland, this species has occasionally reappeared near a site at an altitude of 400m asl, but it has not established resident populations and is absent from a monitoring site at 680m asl (McDonald and Alford 1999). Interestingly, the lowland and foothill populations still exist (McDonald and Alford 1999).
14969		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the decline of the species are largely unknown. Although in the past habitat destruction may have been a factor, clearing or logging has not taken place in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, where the species occurs, since 1988 (McDonald and Alford 1999). Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) first noted a decline of the species in pristine rainforest habitats in 1989. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction or changes in water quality (pH, conductivity, temperature, dissolved oxygen and metal ions) as the primary causes of the decline. However, in a study by Hodgkinson and Hero (2002) cold temperatures were found to reduce the activity of <em>N. dayi</em> and it was suggested that prolonged exposure to cold, dry conditions (particularly at high altitudes) may inhibit the breeding and survival of the frogs and influence recruitment in local populations. Current research is examining the possibility that disease, possibly a virus or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger,  Speare and Hyatt 1999; McDonald and Alford 1999). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Tully, Queensland. Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by <em>N. dayi</em> (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there has been very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).
14993		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the range of this species.
14993		distribution	eng	Central and South America. The species distribution is poorly understood but is thought to have a disjunct population in South America. This species is found from Sonora and Tamaulipas (Mexico) is absent from central america, but it is distributed in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil (Simmons 2005). There are no records from the Brazilian Amazon. Known altitudinal range is from sea level to 3,150 m; mostly known records are from below 1,000 m elevation (Jones and Arroyo-Cabrales, 1990). Further work is needed to confirm the distribution of this species.
14993		habitat	eng	This species can be found in decidous tropical forest, shrubs, thorn forests and dry forests (Arita, 2005); and has been regarded as a lowland bat (Alvarez and Aviña, 1964). Individuals presumably spend the day in crevices within a cave (Sanborn, 1951); a male from southeastern Brazil was found roosting in the attic of a house (Taddei and Garutti, 1981). The diet is thought to consist mainly of soft-bodied insects as has been reported for related species of <em>Nyctinomops</em>. Alvarez (1963) recorded skull of this species found in owl pellets.
14993		population	eng	Apparently uncommon, and sparsely distributed in disjunct populations. Aerial insectivore thus population status poorly known due to difficulties in sampling this species. Not abundant in Mexico (Arita, 2005)
14993		threats	eng	Deforestation in some parts of its range although this is not a major threat. In south of Mexico there was a 45% of habitat reduction in 10 years (de Grammont pers. comm.)
14994		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas along its range.
14994		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Guerrero (Mexico) to New Mexico, Arizona, California (USA) and Baja California (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,250 m (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
14994		habitat	eng	This species is insectivorous; it eats a variety of insects (Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Diptera, and Neuroptera). During the dry season it utilizes water sources with open access and a large available surface area from which to drink. It leaves its roosts after dark and is usually not taken in mistnets until two or three hours after sunset. It roosts in caves, rock crevices in cliff faces, and man-made structures. Colonies usually number fewer than 100 individuals. It gives birth to only one young per year, usually in early July, and the young are flying in mid to late August (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
14994		population	eng	It is limited and uncommon (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
14994		threats	eng	Habitat loss and use of pesticides (the species eats moths that are affected by pesticides).
14995		conservation	eng	It is found within several protected areas.
14995		distribution	eng	This species is found from Tamaulipas and Jalisco (Mexico) to Venezuela and the Guianas, northwest Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil; Trinidad; Cuba (Simmons 2005). Distribution extended to include northern Uruguay (Gonzalez 2001). Expansion of range in southern Argentina according to Barquez <em>et al.</em> (2006). There are no records for Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
14995		habitat	eng	<em>N. laticaudatus</em> occupies diverse tropical and subtropical habitats. It has also been captured in disturbed and urban areas (Avila-Flores <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is insectivourous. It is found up to 1,500 m (Reid 1997)
14995		population	eng	<em>N. laticaudatus</em> may form resident colonies throughout the year, in some cases in stable numbers, although population dynamics are complex, and phylopatry is low (Avila-Flores <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is rare or uncommon throughout most of its geographic range. However, it is relatively common in some areas, especially within the Yucatan Peninsula (Bowles <em>et al.</em> 1990; Jones <em>et al.</em> 1973).
14995		threats	eng	No major threats.
14996		conservation	eng	No conservation measures cited. Found in protected areas.
14996		distribution	eng	SW British Columbia and Iowa (USA) to SW Mexico; Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam to Peru, N Argentina and Uruguay; Cuba; Jamaica; Hispaniola (Simmons 2005). Not found either in Rio Grande do Sul (Reis <em>et al.</em> 2006) nor Uruguay (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004)
14996		habitat	eng	<em>N. macrotis</em> is a seasonal migrant throughout much of its range and it is insectivourous (Milner <em>et al.</em> 1990; Barquez 1999). Found in urban areas (Barquez 1999). In North America is found in dry forests and pine forests. In South America and Antillas is found in tropical evergreen forests. From sea level up to 2,600 m (Arita, 2005)
14996		population	eng	Common species (Barquez pers. comm.). Not very common in Mexico (Arita, 2005). Common in Dominican Republic (Sixto Inchaustegui pers. comm.)
14996		threats	eng	No major threats.
14999		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. More research needed into its population dynamics.
14999		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland and lower montane forests from south Jalisco and south Veracruz, Mexico, south to central Panama, excluding the Yucatán Peninsula (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid 1997).
14999		habitat	eng	It is found in evergreen and semideciduous forest and tall second growth (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>This mouse is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. Its short limbs and broad body give it a waddling gait on the ground, but may aid in balance on vertical vines and branches, where it appears to be more agile. The diet includes figs, fruit of madders and borage (<em>Cordia diversifolia</em>), seeds, and insects. Several individuals were seen catching small white moths among the rafters of a house in Costa Rica. Nests were found in tree hollows in Veracruz (Hall and Dalquest 1963, in Reid 1997). Entrances of 3 to 8 cm diameter were preferred, leading to larger hollows 15 to 32 cm wide (Reid 1997). This species is usually silent in the wild (Reid 1997). Litter size is 1 to 4 young, averaging 2, and reproduction may take place year-round (Reid 1997).
14999		population	eng	This species is generally common.
14999		threats	eng	None known.
15000		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas.
15000		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it is found in the tropical parts of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland (H. Parnaby pers. comm.), Northern Territory, and Kimberley and along the coast of Western Australia. It is also present on offshore islands of the Melville, Bonaparte Archipelago, Groote Eylandt, and the Sir Edward Pellew Group (McKenzie and Churchill 2008). There is at least one recent record from the tip of the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, so it may be more widely distributed (T. Reardon pers. comm.), but the taxonomy of this species requires clarification (H. Parnaby pers. comm.).
15000		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in rainforest patches, open Eucalyptus forests, in mangroves, and over freshwater lagoons and waterholes (McKenzie and Churchill 2008). At least west of, and including, the Dampier Peninsula, it has only been found in mangroves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It has been found roosting in foliage and under the roof of a house (McKenzie and Churchill 2008). Females may give birth to a litter of two young.
15000		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, although its habitat is limited (McKenzie and Churchill 2008).
15000		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
15001		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in northern Australia and has been recorded from the Kau Wildlife Area in Papua New Guinea. Further studies are needed into the distribution, status, and threats to this species on New Guinea. Additional taxonomic research is also needed.
15001		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern Australia and the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). In Australia it is present in north Western Australia, north Northern Territory, coastal Queensland, and north-east New South Wales. On New Guinea, it has only been recorded from a few widely scattered localities. It ranges from sea level to 500 m asl in Queensland (L. Hall pers. comm.), but probably occurs 0-400 m asl elsewhere.
15001		habitat	eng	This species forages for insects in rainforest and sclerophyll woodland, and it is often associated with waterbodies in these habitats (Bonaccorso 1998; Parnaby and Churchill 2008). In the Kimberley and Pilbara, it is found in rainforest and riparian zones (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Animals roost communally in hollow tress, dense foliage, or in houses. Females often give birth to twins (Parnaby and Churchill 2008).
15001		population	eng	In Queensland it is common and widespread, and in the west of the range it is common but localised (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). In New Guinea, it is known only from a few specimens.
15001		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species. However, they require a range of available roosting sites for survival (Parnaby and Churchill 2008). The status of populations on New Guinea needs further investigation (Bonaccorso 1998). Riparian zones are being degraded throughout Australia, which may pose local threats (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
15003		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in many protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations in Tasmania.
15003		distribution	eng	This species is present over much of Australia (including Tasmania), being absent only from the north-east of the country. It is known from sea level to 1,580 m asl, but is most common at lower altitudes, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
15003		habitat	eng	It is present in a wide range of habitats being found in semi-arid areas, mallee, woodland, wet forest, alpine areas, tropical forest, and urban areas (Lumsden and Turbill 2008). Animals roost in cavities and crevices in trees, underneath the bark of trees, or in roofs of houses (Lumsden and Turbill 2008). Females commonly give birth to twins.
15003		population	eng	This is a very common species over much of its range, though less so in the northern part of the range (B. Thomson and N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Colonies may contain 200 animals, but most are found in solitary roosts or roosts of less than 30 individuals (Lumsden and Turbill 2008).
15003		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
15004		conservation	eng	This species is known to be present in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations in West Australia.
15004		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is present in eastern Australia from south-eastern South Australia northwards through Victoria and eastern New South Wales to south-eastern Queensland. There is also a disjunct population in south-western Western Australia. The species is known from sea level to 1,240 m asl, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
15004		habitat	eng	This species forages in sclerophyll forests and woodland (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008), including forest remnants (L. Lumsden and M. Pennay pers. comm.). It seems to need the dense understory of tall forest (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). This species roosts in tree holes, crevices, and under roofs. Maternity colonies typically consist of between 10 and 20 females, males tend to be solitary (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females often give birth to twins.
15004		population	eng	It is a common species (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).
15004		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In some areas, the loss of large old trees due to forest thinning is a threat to this species (Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1988; D. Lunney pers. comm.).
15005		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in Hadewaia-Labelkang Game Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
15005		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen collected before 1991 in Indonesia; Lesser Sundas (Nusa Tenggara), Lembata Island (= Lomblen Island), Desa Hadakewa, Kampong Merdeka (08°22'S, 123°31'E).
15005		habitat	eng	Congenerics typically are not water dependent, but are often found in dry savanna woodland below 1,000 m asl. It usually lives in small colonies.
15005		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
15005		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss is likely to be a threat.
15006		conservation	eng	Introduced owls have now been eradicated from Lord Howe Island and programmes to eradicate rats are underway (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Extensive surveys for this species have not located any remaining animals (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Contemporary reports by locals, however, of two sizes of bats flying at dusk, the larger currently unidentified (N. Carlile pers. comm.), indicates the need for further survey work. If it were found to be extant, further studies would be needed into the abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
15006		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lord Howe Island, New South Wales, Australia.
15006		habitat	eng	The only known specimen (an incomplete skull) was collected from a ledge in a cave that may have been an owl roost (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
15006		population	eng	It is known only from an incomplete skull that was considered to be a sub-fossil until a recent re-examination indicated that it was from the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Richards 2008).
15006		threats	eng	The reasons for its decline are unclear, however, it is possible that this species was predated by introduced owls and rats.
15007		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Harp trap surveys need to be conducted in order to better understand the distribution and abundance of this species. Further studies are also needed into the natural history and threats that may be acting on the species.
15007		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from seven localities. It has been reported from between 1,900 and 2,200 m asl.
15007		habitat	eng	This species roosts in trees and caves, as solitary animals or in small groups. It is probably an insect gleaner within its mid-montane forest habitat (Bonaccorso 1998).
15007		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens.
15007		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known. It is possibly threatened by loss of suitable forest and cave habitats.
15008		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Crater Wildlife Management Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species. There is also a need for clarification of the taxonomic status of this species, which may represent a species complex (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
15008		distribution	eng	This species is present on the island of Salawati (Indonesia) where it is known from a single record, the island of New Guinea (widespread in Papua New Guinea, but only one record from the Indonesian side), the island of New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), and possibly from Sudest Island (Papua New Guinea). It is likely that the species occurs more widely in Papua Province, Indonesia, New Guinea. It ranges from sea level to 2,600 m asl.
15008		habitat	eng	It is found in wet primary and secondary tropical forests, or in forest clearings. The species roosts in small groups in foliage, including dried bamboo, or in caves. Two of four females collected in July in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea, were lactating (Bonaccorso 1998).
15008		population	eng	It is the most common <em>Nyctophilus</em> species in New Guinea. It is now known from a larger number of localities, and is probably not sampled properly by using mist-nets.
15008		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Bonaccorso (1998) believed it was unlikely to suffer sharp declines from disturbance or loss of a roost cave.
15009		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of national parks (T. Reardon pers. comm.). Research is needed into its conservation status, distribution, natural history, and threats to the species, particularly the proportion of its range in which habitat destruction or degradation of habitat quality occurs.
15009		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia, but it is absent from the south-west part of the island.
15009		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, probably restricted to the lowlands (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
15009		population	eng	This species is widespread and moderately common within its range (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
15009		threats	eng	Forest clearance for eucalypt plantations, agriculture, and commercial logging are major threats to at least the roost sites of this species (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
15010		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas in Australia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and threats to this species complex. Although logging continues, large reserves exist and restrictions are now imposed on clearing land in the far south-western part of the range of this species (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
15010		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Morobe and Western Provinces of Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). Records of this species from the island of Timor (Indonesia and East Timor) and Sudest (Papua New Guinea) are currently considered to be uncertain (Corbet and Hill 1992; Bonaccorso 1998). This species is also found in southern and eastern Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales). In New South Wales, there is likely a break in its distribution where it crosses the Darling River around 30 S, 146 E (M. Ellis pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level to 1,600 m asl.
15010		habitat	eng	In New Guinea, this species occurs in coastal sclerophyll woodlands and mid-montane forests. In Australia it is most commonly found in closed eucalypt woodland, but also occurs in open forest, savannas and mallee-type habitats in arid and semi-arid areas. In the south-east of Australia it occurs from semi-arid mallee and cypress country to iron-bark and mixed eucalyptus woodlands (L. Lumsden and M. Pennay pers. comm.). In the south-west of West Australia, it occurs in tall forest, in the goldfields of West Australia it is found in arid and open woodlands (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows and under bark. Females give birth to one or two young (Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). In New South Wales, this species is restricted to only larger remnants (M. Pennay pers. comm.) and is most abundant in the extensive areas of structurally complex box-ironbark-cypress woodland on the western slopes and plains (Turbill and Ellis 2006). The generation length of this species is likely to be 4-5 years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
15010		population	eng	In Australia, this species has a patchy distribution, often uncommon but sometimes locally common, and is known from only a few specimens in Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).
15010		threats	eng	In Australia, it is threatened by loss of habitat through clearance of native vegetation for conversion to agricultural land. It may also be threatened by logging operations, grazing by livestock, and changes in fire regimes (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The threats to this species in Papua New Guinea are not known (Bonaccorso 1998). In the wheatbelt of West Australia, its preferred habitat has been almost completely cleared for agriculture and the remnants are, or will be, salinity affected (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
15011		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
15011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it is found in northern Western Australia, northern Northern Territory, and at Lawn Hill Gorge, Queensland.
15011		habitat	eng	This species is associated with watercourses through rocky areas surrounded by melaleuca and pandanus, gallery forest or <em>Livistona</em> palms (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008).
15011		population	eng	Though previously considered rare, this species is now known to be locally common within its range.
15011		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
15019		conservation	eng	Gomez Moliner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) considered this species to be Vulnerable A2c (Version 2.3).&#160; No actions were proposed other than conservation of the habitat. This species would benefit from limiting the impact of tourist activity and habitat monitoring.
15019		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands where it is restricted to a small region on the east coast of Gran Canaria.
15019		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the piso basal in dry conditions.
15019		population	eng	There are no population data, but the population is thought to be declining, due to the declining quality of habitat.
15019		threats	eng	The maint threat is the disturbance from recreational activities leading to   declining quality of habitat.
15023		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Escambia River drainage system, confined to the main channel. This species is only present in three counties.
15023		habitat	eng	This species requires moderate currents with sand and gravel substrates.
15023		threats	eng	Silt loading clogging the gills of this species is a threat, as is channel management.
15026		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
15026		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
15046		conservation	eng	Research is needed in the areas of ecology, reproduction, population status, and distribution.  Conservation measures should be drafted and implemented for this species (Smith 2008).  This species was regionally assessed, in China, as Endangered under criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).  This species occurs in Aerjinshan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008).
15046		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona koslowi</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  A 1999 survey concluded that <em>O. koslowi</em> occurs in three localities; "(i) the Valley of the Winds, where the type specimens were collected (the exact location is not clear, but it is conjectured to be in the central or west Kunlun Mountains); (ii) the juncture of the Kunlun and Kala-Kunlun mountains, which is located south-east of Mount Kongke; and (iii) in the Arjin Mountain Nature Reserve, including the areas verified in 1984, 1988 and during the current survey.  During the present investigation, it was verified that the distribution is nearly continuous between Aqik Lake, Yueya River and Tuzi Lake.  The distance between these three limits is 800 km east to west, running parallel to the Kala-Kunlun mountains, where the distribution of Koslov's pika is limited and discontinuous" (Li <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is speculated that its distribution may extend further west than is currently known.  This species was previously recorded in two additional localities, "Kuzyuk-Kakty Pass" and near Arkatag village by the Przehevalski expedition in 1884 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The locality of Ikhe-Tsaidemin Nur requires confirmation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species occurs at elevations of 4,200-4,800 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
15046		habitat	eng	This species occupies alpine meadow tundra and digs holes in the swelling mounds of saline loess on the Guldsha Pass (Büchner 1894).  The burrows constructed by this species are shallow (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  These pikas live communally at high densities (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>Ochotona koslowi</em> is characterized as general herbivore and is a diurnal species of pika (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The total length of this species is 22.0-24.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Only a single litter is produced each year (Zheng 1986), with four to eight young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).
15046		population	eng	<em>Ochotona koslowi</em> was found to be locally abundant in a recent survey (Smith 2008).  However, this species has been characterized as rare (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15046		threats	eng	It was speculated that <em>Ochotona koslowi</em> populations may have been negatively affected by vertebrate control programs in the region (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Regional assessment in China indicated that this species is threatened by severely fragmented extent of occurrence and continuing decline in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy and area, extent and/or quality of habitat (Wang and Xie 2004).
15047		conservation	eng	Research is needed in the areas of ecology, reproduction, behavior, and threats (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Additionally, efforts are needed to establish population status, as this species has not been recorded since the 1960's (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species has been regionally assessed, in China, as Vulnerable under criteria D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
15047		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona muliensis</em> is endemic to China and known only from western Sichuan, China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occupies elevations up to 3,600 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
15047		habitat	eng	This species "inhabits thicket and steppe habitat" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This habitat preference differs from that of <em>O. gloveri</em>, which prefers rocky terrain (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 22.2 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
15047		population	eng	This species has been characterized as rare and has not been recorded in 40 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  There are only a small number of specimens of <em>Ochotona muliensis</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15047		threats	eng	It has been suggested "that chemical control directed at other vertebrate species," may be a threat to this species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15048		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Nujiang and Gaoligongshan (Yunnan) Nature Reserves in China (CSIS 2008).  Due to the general lack of data regarding the population status, behavior, ecology, and reproduction research in these areas should be undertaken.  This species has been regionally assessed in China as Near Threatened, nearly meeting the criteria for Vulnerable under criteria A2c+3c (Wang and Xie 2004).
15048		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona forresti</em> ranges from northwest Yunnan, southeast Tibet (China) to northern Myanmar, to Assam, and Sikkim (India) and Bhutan (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). The mapped range in Myanmar is totally speculative (Duckworth and Thaw pers. comm.). The distribution information in South Asia is not understood as there is taxonomic confusion (S. Molur pers. comm.)  <em>O. forresti</em> occupies elevations of 2,600-4,400 m (Feng <em>et al.</em> 1986).
15048		habitat	eng	Little or nothing is known regarding the behavior, ecology, and reproduction of <em>Ochotona forresti</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). <em>O. forresti</em> inhabits mountain slopes facing toward the sun at elevations of 2,600 to 4,400 m in the forest belt (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).  These high altitude habitats are typically coniferous or mixed broadleaf and conifer forests and shrubland (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is speculated that this species of pika creates burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 15.5-18.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
15048		population	eng	The current population status of <em>Ochotona forresti</em> is unknown.
15048		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
15049		conservation	eng	This species likely occurs in Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve.  Little is known about the behavior, ecology, reproduction of <em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990) and the actual distribution is uncertain (Smith and Xie 2008).  Research in these areas should be undertaken.  This species has been regionally assessed as  Endangered, in China, under criteria A1c; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
15049		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em> has a restricted distribution (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is only known from Mount Gaoligong, northwest Yunnan Province in China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  O. gaoligongensis is thought to be endemic to China, but may occur in Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008).  It can be found at approximately 3,000 m in elevation (Smith and Xie 2008).
15049		habitat	eng	There is little information regarding this species of pika (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em> occurs in talus and rocky habitat in forested areas (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The total length of this species is 16.5-17.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
15049		population	eng	There are no conclusive data on the population status of <em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em>.  It is speculated that it the species is rare based on preliminary investigations (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15049		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
15050		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for <em>Ochotona iliensis</em>.  Research is needed in the areas of ecology, reproduction, and behavior (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Furthermore, data is needed to assess the distribution and population status (Li and Smith 2005).  A recovery plan should be implemented to prevent extinction (Li and Smith 2005).  This species has been regional listed, in China, as Endangered under criteria A2abc; C2a(i) (Wang and Xie 2004).
15050		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona iliensis</em> is endemic to China, known only from the Borohoro Shan in Xinjiang, China (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species has a highly fragmented distribution, within a restricted geographic range (Li and Smith 2005).  It is found at elevations between 2,800-4,100 m (Li and Smith 2005).  Census work conducted in 2005 estimated that over the past decade the area of occupancy has declined to approximately 7% (previously 17%) of the extent of occurrence for this species (Li and Smith 2005).  <em>O. iliensis</em> is no longer found at 57% of the previously inhabited sites (Li and Smith 2005).
15050		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona iliensis</em> inhabits "talus areas on high cliff faces" (Li and Smith 2005).  <em>O. iliensis</em> exhibits low population densities (Li and Smith 2005).  Typically a diurnal species, but may exhibit nocturnal activity (Li and Smith 2005).  This species constructs haypiles and is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Li and Smith 2005).  Only one to two litters are produced each year, but litter size for this species is unknown (Li and Smith 2005).  The total length of <em>O. iliensis</em> is 20.3-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
15050		population	eng	Population declines have been observed for several locations inhabited by this species (Li and Smith 2005).  A recent census indicated that <em>Ochotona iliensis</em> may be extirpated from Jilimalale and Hutubi South Mountains (Li and Smith 2005).  Populations have declined in the regions of Jipuk, Tianger Apex, and Telimani Daban (Li and Smith 2005).  Only one examined site, the Bayingou region, showed signs of previously observed abundance (Li and Smith 2005).  An estimated 2,000 mature individuals existed in the early 1990's (Li and Smith 2005).
15050		threats	eng	The exact causes for recently observed population declines are not known, but it is speculated that an increase in grazing pressure and global atmospheric pollution resulting in climate change are negatively impacting <em>Ochotona iliensis</em> populations (Li and Smith 2005).  Low population densities and reproductive rates coupled with the relatively limited ability to disperse impede the ability of the species to recover from declines (Li and Smith 2005).
15051		conservation	eng	This species may be present in Changthang and Karakoram Wildlife Sanctuaries in India (Mallon 1991).  No conservation measures are currently in place for <em>Ochotona nubrica</em> and none have been proposed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
15051		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona nubrica</em> occurs in the trans-Himalayan region from the mountains in south Xizang, China, across the Tibetan plateau and into Ladakh, India (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><em>O. nubrica</em> occurs at elevations between approximately 3,000 to 4,500 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
15051		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona nubrica</em> inhabits alpine and subalpine desert scrub, where it is assumed to be burrowing, rather than talus-dwelling (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990, Smith and Xie 2008). The subspecies <em>O. n. lhasaensis</em> occurs in alpine steppe (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/><em>O. nubrica</em> forms well defined family group territories, but little is known about reproductive biology (Smith and Xie 2008). The total length of this species is 14.0-18.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is characterized as a habitat generalist (Smith and Xie 2008).
15051		population	eng	There are few data regarding the population status of this species.  In Nubra Valley, the type locality, it was characterized as common by locals during a survey conducted in 1980-1986 and again in 1989-1991 (Mallon 1991).
15051		threats	eng	There are no threats to the status of <em>Ochotona nubrica</em> known at this time.
15052		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  The subspecies <em>Ochotona pusilla pusilla</em> has been characterized as rare by the Red Book of the Bashkir Autonomous Republic, Soviet Union (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Research should be conducted to determine the current status of the European populations of this subspecies.
15052		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species.  <em>Ochotona pusilla</em> is known "from the upper Volga River and southern Ural Mountains south and east to the border of China," Kazakhstan, and Russia (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The westernmost extent of <em>O. pusilla</em> is the easternmost edge of the European continent (Smith 1994).  Despite its presence in Europe, it is routinely left off European mammal lists (Smith 1994).  However, "the range of this species has contracted significantly in historical times" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The past distribution extended into western Europe during the Pleistocene, with a new specimen record extending its northern-most presence to Cumbria county in the UK (Fisher and Yalden 2004).  By the onset of the Holocene, <em>O. pusilla</em> still occurred in Hungary.  This distribution moved eastward, so that by the 10th century it occurred in the Ukraine and by the 18th century it could be found “between the Don and the Volga” and finally, “only east of the Volga” by the 19th century (Smith 1994).  The cause for distribution contraction has been two-fold; 1) naturally occurring climate change from the Pleistocene to Holocene; and 2) anthropogenic changes like overgrazing and agriculture (Smith 1994).
15052		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona pusilla</em> is a burrow-dwelling species of pika that occupies steppe habitat, "found primarily in moist soil which is verdant with thick grass and bushes" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  As a steppe dwelling species, <em>O. pusilla</em> is an excellent indicator for the general health of steppe ecosystems (Smith 1994).  This species of pika constructs haypiles (Ognev 1966).  It is unusual "in that it is frequently nocturnal" and "vocalizations are usually heard at late dusk and through the night" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The total length of this species is 15.3-21.0 cm (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <em>O. pusilla</em> has one to thirteen young per litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The number of litters per year varies according to the age of the female (Shubin 1965).  Adult pikas can yield three to five litters per year, whereas yearlings only produce one to three litters (Shubin 1965; Smirnov 1982).  Females will mature in four to five weeks, whereas males become mature after a year (Shubin 1965).  The reproductive periodicity will vary yearly according the weather conditions (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Gestation is approximately 22-24 days (Shubin 1965).
15052		population	eng	Population densities of <em>Ochotona pusilla</em> vary spatially and temporally and may vary according to habitat quality (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Populations were described as "common" to "very numerous" for several regions within its distribution (Ognev 1966).  The Red Book of the Bashkir Autonomous Republic, Soviet Union characterized some of the European populations of <em>O. p. pusilla</em> as "rare" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15052		threats	eng	Habitat modification is the likely cause for the recorded distribution decline (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The species at one time extended west across the European steppes, and it may have been extirpated from this region due to agricultural intensification.
15053		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place to protect <em>Ochotona thomasi</em>. Research is needed to determine the effects of pest control on the pikas, to establish whether any other threats exist, and to determine current population statuses.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A2c+3c (Wang and Xie 2004).
15053		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona thomasi</em> is endemic to China, occurring on isolated mountains of the east Qilian mountain range in Gansu, Qinghai, and northwest Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). <br/><br/><em>O. thomasi</em> occurs between elevations of 3,400 and 4,020 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
15053		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona thomasi</em> inhabits meadows and shrubby areas, and is a diurnally active, generalized herbivore (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>The ecology of <em>O. thomasi</em> is not well known, but it is assumed to be similar to <em>O. cansus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). <em>O. thomasi</em> may live in small family groups (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is between 10.5 and 16.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
15053		population	eng	<em>Ochotona thomasi</em> is known to be a rare species that occurs in isolated mountains, but nothing is known about the status of those populations (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15053		threats	eng	Because <em>Ochotona thomasi</em> has not been well studied, little is known about the possible threats to its habitat and populations. It is possible that the species may be at risk due to the inadvertent killing of <em>O. thomasi</em> in an attempt to control other pest species that occur in its range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15062		conservation	eng	<em>Ochotona huangensis</em> is a relatively, poorly understood species of pika (Smith and Xie 2008).  Research in the areas of population status, ecology, reproduction and biology are needed.  This species was assessed as <em>Ochotona thibetana huangensis</em> by the IUCN SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group in 1996, as  Endangered under criteria A2d (ver. 2.3 1994).  The China regional assessment currently lists this species as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).  This species occurs in Neixiangbaotianman, Shennongjia, Pangquangou, Taibaishan, Foping, Wolong (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005).
15062		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic range of <em>Ochotona huangensis</em> consists of the mountainous regions of Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan (Hoffmann and Smith 2005), Shanxi, Henan, and Hubei provinces (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. huangensis</em> is sympatric with <em>O. thibetana</em> in Qinling Mountains and northwestern Sichuan, and <em>O. cansus</em> in Xunhua, Qinghai, and southern Gansu (Yu and Zheng 1992).  This species occupies elevations up to 2,700 m, but may be found at heights of 4,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
15062		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona huangensis</em> occupies several habitat types.  These include mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, to coniferous forests and shrublands, and periodically this species can be located in grassland habitat (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species of pika builds complex burrow systems and is a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 12.5-17.6 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
15062		population	eng	There is no information regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona huangensis</em>.
15062		threats	eng	The threats to <em>Ochotona huangensis</em> are not known, although it could be subject to poisoning like other burrowing pikas in China.
15087		conservation	eng	It occurs within Noel Kampf and very few protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Vulnerable for Argentina (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006) even though it is considered a pest in some commercial forests (Rodriguez, 1993).
15087		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chilean Andes and into Argentina from 34o15’ to at least 40oS (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). It occurs south up to 38oS (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.)
15087		habitat	eng	Scansorial, it occurs in bush, scrublands and rocky areas (Ojeda pers. comm.).
15087		population	eng	There has been a population decline in the last years.
15087		threats	eng	The habitat shows a high rate of deforestation by forestry and agricultural activities. This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Red List  but is considered a pest in some commercial forests (Rodriguez, 1993). The reliance of this species on disappearing dense woodlands is implied by its extinctions from several localities in central Chile since pre-Colombian times (Simonetti and Saavedra, 1998).
15088		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place to protect this rodent.
15088		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chile, on the western slope of the Andes between Vallenar and Curico, to 1,200 m asl. (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
15088		habitat	eng	Coastal and central scrubland (matorralo) (Ojeda pers. comm.).
15088		population	eng	This is an abundant species (Ojeda pers. comm.).
15088		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species at present.
15089		conservation	eng	It does not occur within protected areas.
15089		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chile in the coastal mountains of Valparaiso, Aconcagua, and Coquimbo Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
15089		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky and dense coastal scrublands (R. Ojeda pers. comm.).
15089		population	eng	It is thought that there has been a population decline in the last 10 years.
15089		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion and livestock grazing. Urban expansion is also a threat for the species (R. Ojeda pers. comm.).
15090		conservation	eng	Research is needed to Further trapping efforts should directed to mountain tops.
15090		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Mocha Island off the coast of central Chile in Arauca province (Wilson and Reeder, 2005). Although a recently described species, the first collection of it was made in 1959 (Saavedra <em>et al.</em> 2003).
15090		habitat	eng	The island supports dense vegetation that is biogeographically related to mainland Valadivian forest. It occupies only a few square kilometers of forest habitat.
15090		population	eng	This species has not be trapped since Hutterer (1994) despite several attempts (Saavedra <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It is thought that the population is now extremely small.
15090		threats	eng	The islanders rely heavily on the vegetation for their subsistence which has led to significant degradation of the natural habitats. Human activity has resulted in the almost total deforestation of lowlands which are now dominated by grasslands. The Valdivian forest is now restricted to the highest elevations and subject to logging.
15091		conservation	eng	It is found in some protected areas.
15091		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of northern Chile, through east-central and southeast Bolivia, and northwest Argentina. The species may be absent from some higher elevation areas in the middle of the range. It is found from 2,000 and 5,000 m asl.
15091		habitat	eng	It is found in xeric conditions, such as Puna, including a wide variety of habitats with appropriate rocky hiding places. It is scansorial, makes superficial burrows and feeds on cacti, (Ojeda pers. comm.).
15091		population	eng	The species is very common in appropriate habitat.
15091		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species and it can tolerate living in areas of high human population.
15093		conservation	eng	It occurs within very few protected areas.
15093		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina (between 28° and 32°S (Ojeda pers. comm.)) along the foothills and lower montane slopes of the Andes, and portions of the Monte Desert of Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, and northern Mendoza Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It is found in two disjunct areas (Ojeda pers. comm.).
15093		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky areas (Ojeda pers. comm.).
15093		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
15093		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to mining and cattle ranching (Ojeda and Lessa pers. comm.).
15106		conservation	eng	Coastal Alaska Natives have hunted walruses for subsistence purposes in the United States under an exemption from the Marine Mammal Protection Act since 1972.  No quotas or limits have been established, but all animals taken are required to be harvested in a non-wasteful manner. Quotas on harvest have been imposed in Canada and in the Russian Federation. Walrus hunting in east Greenland has been banned and is regulated in other areas of Greenland. In the Laptev Sea, only natives and members of scientific expeditions are allowed to kill walruses (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).
15106		conservation	eng	The population of Canada is listed on CITES Appendix III. Since 1972 coastal Alaska Natives have hunted Walruses in the United States for subsistence purposes under an exemption provided in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. No quotas or limits have been established, but all animals taken are required to be harvested in a non-wasteful manner. Alaska Natives work with the responsible management agency (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) to co-manage Walrus hunting. Regulations on harvest are in place in Canada, the Russian Federation, and Greenland. Norway prohibits all hunting at Svalbard (North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission undated).
15106		distribution	eng	Walruses have a discontinuous circumpolar Arctic and sub-Arctic distribution (Fay 1981, Rice 1998). The Pacific subspecies is normally found from the Bering and Chukchi Seas to the Laptev Sea in the west and the western Beaufort Sea in the east, with vagrants south into the North Pacific Ocean to Japan and to southcentral Alaska (Fay 1982). The Atlantic subspecies occurs in numerous subpopulations from the eastern Canadian Arctic and Greenland to the western Kara Sea, including the Barents, White and Pechora Seas, and Svalbard and Franz Josef Land (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006, North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission, undated). Historically, Atlantic walruses occurred south to the Gulf of St Lawrence in the northwestern North Atlantic. Vagrants have been reported from New England, Iceland and in western Europe south to the Bay of Biscay. All subspecies of Walruses are found in relatively shallow continental shelf areas and seldom occur in deeper waters.
15106		distribution	eng	Walruses have a discontinuous circumpolar Arctic and sub-Arctic distribution. The Pacific subspecies is found in the Bering and Chukchi Seas to the East Siberian Sea in the west and the western Beaufort Sea in the east. The Atlantic subspecies occurs in numerous subpopulations from the Eastern Canadian Arctic to the western Kara Sea, including the Barents and White Seas, and Svalbard and Franz Josef Land. Vagrants have been reported from Iceland, and from Norway south to the Bay of Biscay. The Laptev walrus is confined to the Laptev Sea north of central Russia.  All three subspecies of walruses are found in relatively shallow continental shelf areas, and rarely occur in deeper waters (Scheffer 1958, Fay 1982, Rice 1998, Kastelein 2002).
15106		habitat	eng	Walruses are highly gregarious animals and are frequently found in close knit groups that regularly number in the tens to many hundreds, and aggregations of animals including many groups of these sizes can number in the low thousands.  Walruses also haul out on ice floes and beaches on islands or remote stretches of mainland coastlines forming dense groups of animals lying pressed together and on top of one another. At sea, walruses can be found alone or in large aggregations.<br/><br/>Courtship and mating occurs in the winter. It is believed that walruses are polygynous, the males forming a type of lek, or establishing small aquatic territories where they vigorously vocalize and display adjacent to females hauled-out on ice floes. Males have an unusual adaptation for producing bell-like sounds underwater. A pair of elastic pharyngeal pouches in the neck can be inflated with air to serve as resonance chambers that make this unique sound. There is also intense male-male fighting at this time. Tusks are used for interspecific aggression, defense against predators, which include polar bears and killer whales, and for aids in hauling-out on ice, but not for digging up food. <br/><br/>Walruses are one of the largest pinnipeds.  Males reach about 3.6 m and 880-1560 kg, females about 3 m and 580-1039 kg.  Newborns are 1-1.4 m and weigh 33-85 kg. Although females can ovulate at four years of age, the majority do not give birth until they are 7-8 years old and usually only produce one calf every three years. Gestation lasts 15 months, including a delay of implantation time of 3-3.5 months. The period of calf dependency is long, regularly taking two years, and can extend longer if a female does not give birth every three years. Males become sexually mature between 7-10 years old, but are not physically and socially mature enough to successfully compete for breeding opportunities until they are approximately 15 years old. Longevity is approximately 40 years (Fay 1981).<br/><br/>Walruses are primarily bottom feeders and shallow divers. Most prey taken is found in the upper few centimeters of sediment, or on or just above the bottom. A wide variety of benthic invertebrates, with several species of clams, make up the majority of food for most animals. Their diet also includes other species of mollusks, and many species of worms, snails, soft shell crabs, amphipods, shrimp, sea cucumbers, tunicates, and slow-moving fish. Some individuals regularly prey on seals, small whales, and seabirds, and occasionally scavenge marine mammal carcasses (Fay 1982).
15106		habitat	eng	Walruses are one of the largest pinnipeds. In the Pacific, males reach about 3.6 m in length and weigh 880-1,557 kg; adult females are about 3 m and 580-1,039 kg. In the Atlantic adults are slightly shorter and lighter. Newborns are 1-1.4 m and weigh 33-85 kg (Fay 1981). Walrus are characterized by their large tusks, which are well-developed in both males and females. Tusks are used for interspecific aggression, defense against predators (Polar Bears and Killer Whales) and as an aid for hauling-out on ice. <br/><br/>Courtship and mating occur in the winter. It is believed that Walruses are polygynous and that the males establish small aquatic territories where they vigorously vocalize and display adjacent to females hauled-out on ice floes (Fay 1981).<br/><br/>Walruses haul out on ice floes and beaches on islands or remote stretches of mainland coastlines. They are very gregarious animals and are frequently found in tight groups that number from the tens to the thousands. Pacific Walruses spend most of their lives associated with sea ice and migrate with the ice as it expands and moves south in the winter and breaks up and retreats in the spring and summer. Males often separate from the females in late spring and during the summer they use land haulouts some distance from sea ice, while the females, their calves, and most of the juveniles follow the retreating sea ice edge north (Fay 1982). The situation is somewhat different for Atlantic Walrus, with animals of all sex/age categories using terrestrial haulouts during summer months (Born 2005). At sea, Walruses can be found alone or in aggregations.<br/><br/>Walruses are primarily bottom feeders and shallow divers (Fay 1982, Born 2005). Most prey taken is found in the upper few centimeters of sediment, or lives on or just above the bottom. A wide variety of benthic invertebrates, with several species of clams, make up the majority of food for most animals. Their diet also includes other species of molluscs, and many species of worms, snails, soft shell crabs, amphipods, shrimp, sea cucumbers, tunicates, and slow-moving fish. Some individuals prey on seals, small whales and seabirds and may occasionally scavenge marine mammal carcasses.
15106		population	eng	The Pacific Walrus population recovered from a depleted state in 1950 to historical high levels in the 1980s (Fay <em>et al</em>. 1997). The Bering-Chukchi segment of the population was estimated at approximately 230,000 in 1985 (Gilbert 1989) and 201,000 in 1990 (Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 1992). However, characteristics of Walrus behaviour and difficulties associated with conducting surveys resulted in estimates with low precision (Gilbert 1999). The current population size in the Bering-Chukchi region is unknown (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2002). The number of Pacific Walrus in the Laptev Sea region was estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals according to a report cited in Fay (1982), but the current abundance in that region is also unknown.<br/><br/>Changes in the abundance of Atlantic Walrus in various regions during the past 45 years are unclear (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006, North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission undated). Modelling indicates that the Walrus populations in West Greenland and the North Water have been in steady decline, while the population in East Greenland has been increasing (Witting and Born 2005). Walrus numbers at Svalbard have increased slowly during 1993-2006 (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 2008). The current total abundance of Atlantic Walrus is very poorly known, but the most recent information suggests a population size of perhaps 18,000-20,000 (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006, North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission undated). The current global population trend is unknown.<br/><br/>Although female Walrus can ovulate at four years of age, the majority do not give birth until they are 7-8 years old and usually only produce one calf every three years. Gestation lasts 15 months, including a delay of implantation time of 3-3.5 months. The period of calf dependency is long, regularly lasting two years and sometimes longer. Males become sexually mature between 7-10 years old, but are not physically and socially mature enough to successfully compete for breeding opportunities until they are approximately 15 years old. Longevity is approximately 40 years (Fay 1981).<br/><br/>The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (2006) gives the generation time for Atlantic Walrus, calculated as the average of ages of the youngest and oldest animal giving birth, as 21 years. However, because young animals are more common in the population and older females may exhibit reproductive senility this does not correspond to the IUCN definition. The average age of female Pacific walrus in the Alaska Native harvest is approximately 15 years (Garlich-Miller <em>et al</em>. 2006), which provides a more reasonable estimate of the generation time.
15106		population	eng	The Pacific walrus population recovered from a depleted state in 1950 to historical high levels in the 1980s (Fay <em>et al.</em> 1997). The population was estimated at over 230,000 in 1985 (Gilbert 1989), and 201,000 in 1990 (Gilbert <em>et al.</em> 1992). However, difficulties with associated with conducting these surveys greatly reduced the precision of these estimates (Gilbert 1999). The current population level is unknown (Angliss and Lodge 2004). The Atlantic walrus has been extirpated from some areas but estimates are that between 10,000 and 19,000 animals occur from the eastern Canadian Arctic to the Kara Sea (Born <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kastelein 2002). The Laptev population was estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals according to a report cited in Fay (1982), and the current status is unknown. The walrus is a vagrant in the marine region covered by the European Mammal Assessment.
15106		threats	eng	All three walrus populations were severely depleted by episodic commercial hunting that was heaviest from the 18th  through the mid-20th centuries. Native people of the Arctic have depended on walruses for food, hides, ivory, and bones since first contact, and subsistence harvests of all three subspecies continue today in most parts of their ranges. <br/><br/>Direct conflicts with fisheries are low; however trawl fisheries can disturb important benthic feeding area (Born 2003).  Human disturbance at land-based haul-out sites, low-level aircraft over-flights, and near-shore passage of vessels can have serious effects on walruses out of the water, as they are highly susceptible to disturbance, and easily panicked into stampedes. Fay and Kelly (1980) documented an instance of a mass mortality of approximately 1,000 animals from a stampede event at Saint Lawrence Island. The cause of the stampede is unknown; however this mass mortality event underscores the risks of any source of disturbance to aggregations of hauled-out walruses.    <br/><br/>Global warming and any associated reduction in the extent, timing, and characteristics of seasonal sea ice cover could negatively effect walrus populations. Declining sea ice reduces suitable strata for pupping and breeding aggregation, and limits access to offshore feeding areas (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Moore 2005). In contrast Stirling and Derocher (1993) suggest that climatic warming could result in more favorable conditions for bearded, harp, and harbor seals and walruses if it causes sea ice to become less consolidated in winter, and the summer open water period to lengthen. <br/><br/>Reduction in sea ice could also lead to the addition of commercial sea lanes in rarely visited portions of the walruses’ range, with increased risk of spills and discharge of pollutants, disturbance, and coastal development (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993, Tynan and Demaster 1997, Moore 2005).
15106		threats	eng	Native people of the Arctic have depended on Walruses for food, hides, ivory and bones since first contact, and subsistence harvests of both subspecies continue today in most parts of their ranges. All Walrus populations were severely depleted by episodic commercial hunting that was heaviest from the 18th through to the mid-20th centuries.<br/><br/>Direct conflicts with fisheries are uncommon (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2002); however, trawl fisheries could disturb important benthic feeding areas (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006). Human disturbance at land-based haul-out sites, low-level aircraft over-flights and near-shore passage of vessels can have serious effects on Walruses out of the water, as they are highly susceptible to disturbance and easily panicked into stampedes (Fay and Kelly 1980).<br/><br/>Global warming and any associated reduction in the extent, timing, and characteristics of seasonal sea ice cover could negatively affect Walruses, especially the Pacific population. Declining sea ice reduces suitable strata for pupping and breeding aggregation and limits access to offshore feeding areas (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Moore 2005, Laidre <em>et al</em>. in press). In the Atlantic where the use of coastal haulouts is more widespread, reduced sea ice cover could increase feeding opportunities for Walruses (Born 2005).<br/><br/>Reduction in sea ice could also lead to the addition of commercial sea lanes in currently rarely visited portions of the Walruses’ range, with increased risk of spills and discharge of pollutants, disturbance and coastal development (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Tynan and Demaster 1997, Moore 2005). A history of poor international cooperation, crude population monitoring methods and delayed management responses has led to speculation that future management actions in response to population declines of Pacific Walruses may not be taken soon enough to be effective (Fay <em>et al</em>. 1989).
15117		distribution	eng	Recorded from a pool near Lake Chau in Uruguay, now also known from ponds in Venezuela, and may be more widespread.
15131		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. Needs taxonomic revision.
15131		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Panamá to western Colombia and Ecuador; Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Guyana, north and central Brazil; Amazonian drainage of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia (Musser and Carleton 2005). Below 700 m in Panama.
15131		habitat	eng	This rodent tolerates dry and deciduous forest and tropical evergreen forest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>The species is arboreal. Its mean litter size is 4.5 young; the species becomes sexually mature at about three months (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
15131		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Patton <em>et al. </em> 2000).
15131		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15132		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures.
15132		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Federal District, Universidade de Brasília, Fazenda Agua Limpa; Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 1993).
15132		habitat	eng	The species occurs in gallery forest.
15132		population	eng	The information about its population is unknown.
15132		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat destruction.
15133		conservation	eng	This rodent is found in several protected areas.
15133		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela (see Linares 1998), western Guyana, north-west Brazil, eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-east Bolivia (Anderson 1997). However, range limits are poorly documented (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15133		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical evergreen forests.
15133		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
15133		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15134		conservation	eng	The species probably occurs in several protected areas in Venezuela.
15134		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland Coastal Range and slopes of Cordillera de Mérida of north and west Venezuela (see Linares, 1998), west to Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta of northeast Colombia, perhaps including the slopes of Cordillera Oriental (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 1,800 m in Venezuela (Linares 1998).
15134		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, arboreal and occurs in tropical and subtropical rainforest and dry forest. This rodent eats on seeds and green fruits (Linares, 1998).
15134		population	eng	It may be rare but is widespread in many localities (Linares, 1998).
15134		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15135		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15135		distribution	eng	This species is widespread through much of Bolivia, northern Paraguay, and west central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range up 200 to 2,100 m.
15135		habitat	eng	This mouse is arboreal, solitary and has nocturnal activity. It is found in mature and secondary rainforest, dry forest, savanna, scrub, gardens and plantations. It feeds on fruit and green seeds and uses all levels of the forest, including occasionally the ground. It is most numerous in dense viny vegetation. It nests in tree holes, in dense masses of vines or epiphytes, and among palm leaves. It often invades houses in the forest and seems particularly fond of thatched roofs (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
15135		population	eng	It is often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
15135		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15136		conservation	eng	This rodent is not known from any protected areas but it may occur in several throughout its range.
15136		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Brazil south of the Amazon River; range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15136		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical rainforest.
15136		population	eng	This species is known from several localities; it apparently is not very rare (Catzeflis pers. comm.).
15136		threats	eng	The major threat is deforestation by agricultural expansion.
15137		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Manu National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
15137		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east slopes of Peruvian Andes; its limits are unresolved (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,000 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
15137		habitat	eng	The species is found in lower montane forest, and has only been recorded from primary forest on the eastern Andean slopes. It is nocturnal. It has been sometimes recorded in human dwellings adjacent to forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
15137		population	eng	The species is rare, perhaps due to its arboreal habits (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
15137		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15138		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least Nouragues and Saul nature reserves in French Guiana (Catzeflis pers. comm.). Other protected areas exist within its range.
15138		distribution	eng	The species range extends from eastern Venezuela (Bolívar State; see Linares, 1998), across the Guianas (not yet collected from Suriname) to extreme northeastern Brazil, north of the Amazon (Amapá and Amazonas States) (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Voss <em>et al.</em> 2001).
15138		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in secondary forest and gardens.
15138		population	eng	This species can be common locally in secondary degraded forests.
15138		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15139		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
15139		distribution	eng	This species broadly distributed in Amazonian from occurs from southern Venezuela, Guianas, and Amazonian region of western Brazil, eastern Peru, and extreme north Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15139		habitat	eng	During a study along the Rio Jurua River the species was found primarily in varzea forest (88%), two specimens were found in edge of igapo forest and two in highly disturbed second growth edges to seasonally flooded forest habitats.
15139		population	eng	This species is apparently relatively common. Patton <em>et al.</em> (2000) caught 50 individuals in a survey in Jurua forest, Brazil.
15139		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15140		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
15140		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme east Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana to Amazonas, Brazil (see Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
15140		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest (terra firme and swampy lowland tropical forest). It has been caught in Pit-fall and Arboreal traps (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
15140		population	eng	This rodent can be fairly common in primary forest (Catzeflis pers. comm.).
15140		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15141		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
15141		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the savannas of northeast Colombia, central and north Venezuela, and Trinidad (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Venezuela, it is found in the north from Zulia and Falcon to the peninsula Paria and Delta Amacuro, and also along the banks of the Orinoco River from Apure to Delta Amacuro (Lord 1999).
15141		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical rainforest as well as dry forest; it is found mostly in secondary forest, gallery and inundated palm forest and disturbed areas (Linares 1998). In Colombia it occurs in the savannas (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It is semi arboreal, omnivorous and nocturnal.
15141		population	eng	This species is locally common in Venezuela although it is difficult trap. The population status in Colombia is not known.
15141		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15142		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15142		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the lower Andean slopes of east Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru, including contiguous lowlands of west Amazonia (see Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species has not been recorded from Bolivia, though it could occur there. The distribution is poorly known.
15142		habitat	eng	This mouse is arboreal and nocturnal. The species has been found in secondary forest and highly disturbed habitats, including old garden plots and riverine shrubs (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
15142		population	eng	The species is uncommon or rare, but there are sampling issues due to its arboreal habits. There are not many known localities.
15142		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15143		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout the range. This species needs further taxonomic research.
15143		distribution	eng	This species occurs in tropical rainforests from south-western Costa Rica to central Brazil, including Guianas, Trinidad and Tobago; east Andean slopes of west-central Colombia to south-central Peru and into Bolivia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15143		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is present in tropical rainforests (Musser and Carleton 2005), including terra firme and varzea forest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Its nests are located near the ground (Hershkovitz 1960) and its litter size ranges from two to four young.
15143		population	eng	This rodent apparently is uncommon, but widely distributed in Rio Jurua (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Central America it is uncommon (Reid 1997), and in Venezuela it is rare (Lord 1999).
15143		threats	eng	There are no major threats known.
15164		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
15164		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan African species is widespread from Nigeria in the west to Kenya in the east, and southwards to Angola, and possibly Zambia. It is found at around 2,000 to 3,000 m asl.
15164		habitat	eng	It is found in tall, moist and dense grasslands, shrubby vegetation at the edge of gallery forest in forest clearings, along the borders of marshes and in farmlands, plantations and previously cultivated areas. In East Africa and Central Africa, it is found at the edge of montane forests in dense vegetation.
15164		population	eng	The species lives at very variable population densities, with no clear pattern of abundance.
15164		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
15165		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
15165		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western parts of the rainforest zone in West Africa. It has been recorded from the Loma Mountains in Sierra Leone eastwards to southeastern Guinea (including Mount Nimba), Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and central Ghana.
15165		habitat	eng	This species is a good climber and is found in open areas with dense overgrowth and grass in the rainforest. It has also been recorded from cultivated areas bordering rainforest (Guinea).
15165		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species. It is known only from a few localities in each of the countries where it has been recorded.
15165		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
15168		conservation	eng	It is recommended to conduct first biological studies and population estimates, as well as moderate species monitoring.&#160;It was classified as LR/nt by Mollusc Specialist Group (IUCN, 1996), NT in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009; pag. 45) and LC in the Andalusia Invertebrates Red Book (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperon and Moreno 2008; pag. 1307).&#160;Most of its range is included in the Grazalema and Los Alcornocales Natural Parks. This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
15168		distribution	eng	This is an Andalusian endemic species cited in several localities from the eastern part of Cádiz and the western part of Málaga (Arrébola 1998).
15168		habitat	eng	This species has been mainly found in limestone, uncultivated and shady areas, mountainous or not, with low anthropogenic influence. Typically it appears in holm and cork oak woodlands near watercourses and fairly dense herbaceous cover. It lives under stones or in relation with natural vegetation (Arrébola, 1995, 1998).
15168		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
15168		threats	eng	Apart from fires, no specific threats are known, but more research is needed to understand better this species and the potential threats it faces.
15184		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area of the Galápagos islands. Research should be conducted to determine where suitable caves are located within this species' distribution and whether this species is found within those caves. Genetic assessments should also be conducted to determine relationships between populations among different cave systems on the same island and potentially between islands.
15184		distribution	eng	This species is only known from four brackish caves on Santa Cruz Island of the Galápagos.
15184		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky caves in fresh and brackish waters. This unique habitat type is found as small, isolated patches scattered throughout the islands.  It is found from 0.5-5 m but may be found as deep as 10 m. It is viviparous (Møller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is found in groups of 4-20 individuals.
15184		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
15184		threats	eng	The presence of freshwater intrusion in brackish caves in active volcanic areas is likely to be ephemeral, however, rainfall varies greatly over the ENSO cycle (increases dramatically during ENSO events). In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes including changes in freshwater regime, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
15187		conservation	eng	This species is believed to have become extinct prior to 1983 and as such there are no conservation actions possible.
15187		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) (Bank <em>et al., </em>Fauna European 2006) where it was only known from the upper part of River Drim, however it has not been seen since before 1983 (Radoman 1985).
15187		habitat	eng	This species was originally thought to be living in sediments within springs feeding the River Drim.
15187		population	eng	This species was only known by dead shells.
15187		threats	eng	After a great drainage of the Drim River, surveys could not find this species anymore (Radoman 1985).
15188		conservation	eng	The Okapi is a totally protected species under Congolese law and the species is a national symbol, appearing on the insignia of the Congolese National Parks Institute, ICCN (Hart in press).<br/><br/>The Okapi Faunal Reserve and Maiko National Park continue to support significant populations, with the Okapi being widespread and common within Okapi Faunal Reserve in central lturi, and the Okapi has become the flagship species for the conservation of the lturi ecosystem. Strengthening protection of these two protected areas is the single most important means to ensure long-term survival of Okapi (East 1999; Hart in press).<br/><br/>Since a small population of Okapi still occurs in the northern sector of the Virunga N.P., in the Congolese portion of the Semliki Forest (M. Languy, in Hart in press), reintroduction to Uganda’s now well-protected Semliki Forest National Park should be considered (East 1999).<br/><br/>A number of animals are held in captivity, both in Epulu (headquarters of the Okapi Faunal Reserve) and in international collections.
15188		distribution	eng	The Okapi is endemic to the forests of DR Congo, occurring between about 500 m and 1,500 m elevation over a fairly large range, on both sides of the Congo River. The primary strongholds of Okapi include are the Ituri / Aruwimi and adjacent Nepoko basin forests, and the forests of the upper Lindi, Maiko and Tshopo Basins; the species is also well known in the Rubi-Tele region in Bas Uele (Hart in press). <br/><br/>In Uganda, it formerly occurred in the Semliki Forest, but is not known to survive there (East 1999).
15188		habitat	eng	The Okapi is limited to closed, high canopy forests, occuring in a wide range of primary and older secondary forest types. It does not range out into gallery forests or into the forest islands on the savanna ecotone and it does not persist in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. Although they will use seasonally inundated areas when the substrate is still wet, they do not occur in truly inundated sites or extensive swamp forest (Hart in press). Tree fall gaps are selected foraging sites for Okapi during the early stages of regeneration (Hart and Hart 1989).
15188		population	eng	Okapi density in the Okapi Faunal Reserve varied from 0.1-1.2 animals/km², with an average density of 0.45 animals/km² and a total estimated population of about 6,500 Okapi in the 13,700 km² reserve; somewhat lower densities were recorded in northern and central Maiko, where some 4,000 Okapi were estimated to occur (Hart and Hall 1996). The total global population is probably in the order of 35,000-50,000 animals (Hart in press).
15188		threats	eng	Given that Okapi can coexist with small-scale, low-level human occupation of the forest, but disappear in areas of active settlement or disturbance, the major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. According to Hart (in press), approximately one-third of the Okapi’s known area of occupancy is likely to be at risk by major incursions during the first quarter of this century. Areas at high risk include the south-eastern Ituri Forest, the Kisangani area, Rubi-Tele, and the western limits of the species' range in the Ebola R basin.<br/><br/>Hunting (meat and skins) is also a threat to the species, and they decline rapidly in areas where there is persistent use of cable snares. The Mbuti hunter-gatherers in the Ituri Forest hold Okapi in high esteem. While this has not prevented them from killing Okapi, it has elevated this to a special event that requires post-hunt purification (Hart in press).
15189		conservation	eng	It occurs in two small private reserves; it is likely to occur in Chingaza National Park (C. Delgado pers. comm.). Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
15189		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwest Colombia; it is patchily distributed in northern part of the Central Cordillera and central part of the Eastern Cordillera (Eisenberg 1989; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005); it has an altitudinal range of 2,800 to 3,200 m asl (Delgado and Zurc 2005).
15189		habitat	eng	This species occurs in bamboo forest and occasionally in high montane forest (C. Delgado pers. comm.). It was found in the diet of the crab eating fox (Delgado, 2002).
15189		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown (C. Delgado pers. comm.). It is difficult to capture during surveys due to the impenetrable habitat (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
15189		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation within its known localized distribution (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
15190		conservation	eng	O. edax occurs in Sierra Nevada National Park, and possibly others. Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
15190		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central part of the Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela. It is found at high altitude above 2,000 m asl. (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
15190		habitat	eng	It is known only from a single area; this species is nocturnal and arboreal. It is living in thickets of bamboo and its diet is unknown.
15190		population	eng	Its population is unknown; it is difficult to survey due to the impenetrable habitat in which it occurs.
15190		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
15239		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oligolepis keiensis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to monitor population trends and the status of its estuarine habitat.
15239		distribution	eng	The Kei Goby <em>(Oligolepis keiensis</em>) occurs from Mozambique to the Sundays Estuary in the Eastern Cape (South Africa), as well as around the Seychelles and Madagascar.&#160; This species has a severely fragmented distribution (A.K. Whitfield pers. comm. 2008).
15239		habitat	eng	The Kei Goby is a benthic species, most commonly found in estuaries.&#160; In the warm-temperate and subtropical regions of South Africa, this species appears to be exclusively found in estuarine environments, as there are no records from freshwater or marine systems.&#160; Its main food items include crustaceans and polychaetes.&#160; It is most abundant on sandy mud substrata in the middle and upper reaches of permanently open estuaries (salinity 5–15 psu), but may also be found in some temporarily closed estuaries (A.K. Whitfield pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Estuaries with a perennial river flow appear to be the favoured type (A.K. Whitfield pers. comm. 2008).
15239		population	eng	A study by Harrison (2005) found the Kei Goby to be one of the most frequently captured species in open subtropical estuaries in South Africa.
15239		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Kei Goby.&#160; Due to its preference for perennial river flow systems, changes to the flow regime of freshwater systems by activities such as abstraction may pose a threat to this species.&#160; It is also likely to be impacted by threats such as water pollution from industrial and domestic activities, dredging, and shipping traffic.&#160; However, these are localised threats and not known across the entire distribution of this species.
15241		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.
15241		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and southern Peru and northern and central Bolivia. It is found at elevations of 1,700 to 4,000 m.
15241		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from humid shrubland and cultivated areas in Peru. It can be found close to stream vegetation.
15241		population	eng	The species undergoes seasonal population fluctuations.
15241		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It can adapt to traditionally cultivated areas.
15242		conservation	eng	It is present in at least eight small protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.
15242		distribution	eng	This species ranges in western Peru. It is also present in the high northern Peruvian inter-Andean valleys near Chachapoyas, Amazonas Department. It has an elevational range from 400 to 2,850 m.
15242		habitat	eng	It is present in dry coastal and semi arid biomes, shrubland, inter-Andean valleys and inundated areas. It can be found in secondary or disturbed habitat, but it is not present in cultivated areas.
15242		population	eng	It is uncommon. The species has seasonal population fluctuations, influence by El Niño effect.
15242		threats	eng	It is threatened by displacement in its habitat by introduced murids (such as <em>Rattu</em>s). There is some habitat loss in the south of the species range.
15243		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in several protected areas in Paraguay.
15243		distribution	eng	This species occurs in dryer habitats of southeast Bolivia, west Paraguay, southwest Brazil, and north Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15243		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Chaco and Cerrado close to aquatic habitats (Weksler pers. comm.).
15243		population	eng	It is a common species.
15243		threats	eng	There are no major threats in Brazil.
15244		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
15244		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul state) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15244		habitat	eng	This species occurs along small hills; reproduces between spring and mid-autumn producing 2-4 young per litter (Gonzalez 2001).
15244		population	eng	This species is locally common.
15244		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15245		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
15245		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the east Andean slopes of south Colombia, through Ecuador, Peru, and west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997), to northwest Argentina (Tucumán Province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Ecuador it has an altitudinal range of 600 to 3,350 m.
15245		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical, subtropical and montane forest; also it occurs close to paramo (Barnet, 1999). Most of the Bolivian records are from the Yungas Forest (Anderson 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15245		population	eng	It is locally common to uncommon.
15245		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat lost are affecting the species although they are not a major threat (M. Weksler and D. Tirira pers. comm.).
15246		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas.
15246		distribution	eng	Central and Southeastern Brazil; range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15246		habitat	eng	Known from Cerrado habitats and moist forest, usually associated with gallery forests and scrub.
15246		population	eng	Little is known about populations of this species.
15246		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat across the species range, however, this is not currently a major threat.
15247		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
15247		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Paraguay (Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998), southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul to Bahia), Uruguay, and northern to south-central Argentina; range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15247		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in a variety of habitats usually near to water, in Uruguay it is reported from tall grasses in marshlands and in Argentina in brushy arid areas (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This species occurs in scrublands and some hilly regions (Gonzalez 2001). It is adaptable to agricultural areas (at least in Argentina) (Weksler pers. comm.). It seems to be primarily herbivorous but occasionally feeds upon invertebrates.  Births from spring to autumn with 3-7 (average 5) young per litter (Gonzalez 2001). Reservoir of several hantavirus (central plata and lechiguaras) (D'Elia, G., comm. Pers.)
15247		population	eng	This species is commons in the southern distribution but less common in the north (Weksler pers. comm.).
15247		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15248		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15248		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west and east versants of south México, through Central America, to Peru, north and central Venezuela, the Guianas, and northernmost Brazil in South America (Musser and Carleton 2005). Lowlands to 2,000 m but usually only to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).
15248		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and occurs in lowland dry forest and rainforest, in brush, tall grass, at the forest edge and open areas. It is tolerant to disturbance. Litter size is 2 to 6 young, averaging 4 (Hall and Dalquest 1963).
15248		population	eng	It is locally common and widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).
15248		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15249		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15249		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Táchira, Andes of extreme west Venezuela, and Cordillera Oriental of east Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15249		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial and occurs in high montane forest and paramo (Linares 1998).
15249		population	eng	It is locally common (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
15249		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species; however, deforestation and habitat loss affect its area of occupancy.
15250		conservation	eng	It's found in several protected areas.
15250		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Chile and northwestern Argentina, southwards along the Andes to approximately to 50°S latitude; extralimital in east-central Argentina (Buenos Aires Province); range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15250		habitat	eng	Forest (subantarctic and valdivian), matorral and steppe. It is reservoir of the hanta virus.
15250		population	eng	This is a abundant species.
15250		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
15251		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
15251		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Patagonian regions of Chile and Argentina, including Tierra del Fuego (Musser and Carleton 2005) and neighbouring islands.
15251		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subantartic forest.
15251		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
15251		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
15252		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
15252		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout northwestern Brazil, south of the Solimoes-Amazon Rivers, and in the contiguous lowlands of Peru and Bolivia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15252		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical rainforest; it is found on primary, forest edges and secondary growth habitats. Although this species is distributed widely within the Rio Juruá basin (Brazil), it has a very restricted and unique habitat range. It is thought that animals grow rapidly and reach maturity quickly, breeding in successive bouts, in the dry season. Litter sizes based on embryo counts ranged from 2 to 8, with a mode of 4.
15252		population	eng	This species is extremely common in the appropriate habitat.
15252		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
15253		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
15253		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east Paraguay, north Argentina, and Atlantic Forest region, central and southeast Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul to Paraíba, interior to Goías and Distrito Federal; also Ilha Grande; see Andrades-Miranda <em>et al.</em>, 2001, and Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998) and Uruguay (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).
15253		habitat	eng	This rodent is adaptable to agricultural advances Weksler and Bonvicino (2005). This is one of the least specialized species in diet and microhabitat requirements in a study of seasonal niche dynamics of coexisting rodent species of the cerrado habitat. During the dry season, the species preferred open areas with apparent soil and absent or rare herbs, shrubs and trees, the latter never more than 10%, it also occurred in grassy areas with dense, continuous herbaceous cover with up to 30% arboreal cover, or partially continuous herbaceous cover with up to 10% arboreal cover. The species is vegetarian. In Uruguay, this nocturnal, primarily herbivorous species occurs in mesic subtropical forest with closed canopy with sparsely vegetated understory and in drier thorn woodlands, where it breeds in late summer and autumn producing two to four embryos.
15253		population	eng	This species is very common. For additional information see Weksler and Bonvicino (2005).
15253		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15254		conservation	eng	The Costa Rican population are mainly found in protected areas.
15254		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Costa Rica and western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 840 to 3,000 m (Reid 1997).
15254		habitat	eng	It is found in lower montane and montane wet forests (Musser and Carleton 2005); it occurs in second growth, brush, and cloud forest openings (Reid 1997). Found largely in edge habitat.
15254		population	eng	This mouse is common (Reid 1997).
15254		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15255		conservation	eng	None.
15255		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen of the type locality: Lesser Antilles, Saint Vincent (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15255		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about this species. Bones have been present in Amerindian kitchens suggesting it may have been fairly common.
15255		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since 1892.
15255		threats	eng	Black rats, brown rats, and mongoose are present on the island and likely resulted in the extinction of the species.
15259		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population and threats is needed to determine whether this species is being impacted upon by threat processes. Site management to control for invasive species is recommended.
15259		distribution	eng	This species is only known to inhabit Stewart (Rakiura) Island and Codfish Island, south of the South Island, New Zealand (Patterson and Daugherty 1990). It is also known from Betsy Island in the Stewart Island archipelago (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010). It has been recorded at altitudes between sea level and 700 m (Patterson and Daugherty 1990). <br/><br/>Stewart, Codfish and Betsy Islands have areas of 1,815 km²,14 km², and 0.06 km² respectively. &#160;Therefore this species has an inferred extent of occurrence of 1,829 km².
15259		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand dunes, grasslands, wetlands, scrub and rocky areas, and forest clearings (Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010,&#160;D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010). The predominant habitat on Stewart Island is temperate rain forest.&#160;<br/><br/>A specimen of this species in captivity gave birth to two live young (Patterson and Daugherty 1990).
15259		population	eng	Daugherty <em>et al.</em> (1994) described this species as rare; however it is now considered one of the most common lizard species in the Stewart Island archipelago (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).
15259		threats	eng	The threats to this species include predation and habitat degradation by invasive mammals. Deer and possum have been introduced to Stewart Island and have altered the vegetation structure, while introduced cats and rats may prey on the lizards. Kiore, the Pacific rat, was exterminated from Codfish Island in 1998, however, it is still present on Stewart Island (Atkinson and Towns 2001).
15260		conservation	eng	Population modelling has indicated a severe threat of extinction within ten years from 2003 (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>A recovery plan has been created by the New Zealand Government, which includes a series of measures to be implemented from 2006-2016 (Norbury <em>et al.</em> 2006). The top research priority is to conduct a study to determine that the skink populations are recoverable <em>in situ</em> by removing the mammalian predators. <em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation priorities include the implementation of a Captive Management Plan, the creation of a large scale fenced habitat and mammalian eradication in the ranges, and the monitoring of populations (Norbury <em>et al.</em> 2006). This management plan is now being implemented and the results of which are being continually assessed; however the species is still considered at risk of extinction (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).
15260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand (Norbury 2001). It had been previously found throughout central Otago, South Island (Whitaker and Loh 1995), however, its range has declined dramatically over the last 100 years, and now constitutes only 10% of this former extent (Norbury 2001).<br/><br/>The current distribution includes the two widely separated areas of Macraes Flat and the Lindis Pass region, near the far east and west margins of its former distribution (Roughton and Seddon 2006). This species occurs between 200 and 1,000 m above sea level.<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is 2,227 km²<sup></sup>.
15260		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal and inhabits rocky outcrops and stream canyons within the tussock grasslands of Central Otago (Towns and Daugherty 1994). <br/><br/>This species is heliothermic, and requires a long time to reach optimal temperature due to its large body size. Therefore, it only tends to bask during periods of optimal temperature (Roughton and Seddon 2006) and will retreat to the rock crevices when it becomes too hot (Patterson 1997).<br/><br/>There is evidence that this species engages in long-range movements between rock outcrops (Patterson 1997).&#160;Females are known to give birth to two to three offspring at a time (Patterson 1997).
15260		population	eng	This species is described as rare (Norbury 2001). The population has been estimated to be around 2,000 individuals (Whitaker and Loh 1995). The larger subpopulation lives between Macraes Flat and Sutton, with the subpopulation in the Lindis Pass area being much smaller (Patterson 1997).
15260		threats	eng	The 90% loss in range over the past century has been attributed to heavy predation as well as degradation of the grassland habitat by grazing and agricultural development (Norbury 2001). A change in farming practices from extensive pastoralism of native grasslands to over-sowing with exotic grasses and intensive grazing is thought to be one of the driving forces in this species decline (Towns and Daugherty 1994). This habitat modification resulted in a series of impacts, such as the removal of shrub cover around the outcrops, which had provided a food source of berries for the skinks, a reduction in cover and therefore increased vulnerability to predators, disturbance of habitat by livestock, and the removal of vegetation by rabbits (Towns and Daugherty 1994).<br/><br/>Furthermore, with the arrival of humans in the region around 150 years ago came introduced predators such as cats and ferrets (Roughton and Seddon 2006). <br/><br/>In a study on skink predation, Norbury (2001) found that the introduction of rabbits has contributed to skink population decline due to an increase in predator abundance, a decrease in refuges, and a decrease in food and shelter for the lizards. Avian and mammalian predators that are known to prey on the Macraes population of skinks include magpies, Australasian harriers, New Zealand falcon, feral cats, ferrets, stoats, weasels, ship rats, Norway rats, mice, and European hedgehogs (Tocher 2006).<br/><br/>Other contributions to the decline of this species may be poisoning from pest control efforts and habitat degradation from mining (Roughton and Seddon 2006).
15263		conservation	eng	The preferred management option for the next five years for this species includes the installation and maintenance of bait stations against rodents, as well as a survey of the skinks' distribution (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Population monitoring is also recommended.
15263		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Three Kings Islands off the north coast of New Zealand (Towns and Daugherty 1994), north-west of Cape Reinga. The Three Kings Islands is a group of ten small islands, totalling 7.1 km²<sup></sup> in area. &#160;Three Kings Islands are considered to be one location based on the threat of catastrophic climatic events and predation by invasive species able to move between all the islands (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species inhabits nine of the ten islands, namely Great Island, North East Island, West Island, Stella Rock, Hinemoa Rock, Archway Rock, Tutanekai Rock, Arbutus Rock and South West Island (Parrish and Gill 2003). <br/><br/>This species is listed as Range Restricted (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Subfossil remains from Northland, suggested by Worthy (1991) as possibly from this species, were associated by size, and were not the result of definitive identification (D. Chapple pers. comm).
15263		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest areas, scrub and low-growing ground cover. It is found in semiarid habitats, including rocky slopes (Neilson 2002). The species has been recorded in pohutukawa forest, and in patches of pukanui-dominated low forest close to open scrub (Parrish and Gill 2003). The species was found to be scarce in kanuka forest and dense broadleaf forest (Parrish and Gill 2003). <br/><br/>This species is omnivorous and has been credited as helping to disperse the seeds of the endemic small tree <em>Alectryon excelsus grandis</em> (de Lange <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species may also feed on invertebrates and the spilled regurgitations of sea birds and will readily eat carrion (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species is diurnal for much of the year, but can at times become nocturnal (G. Parrish pers. comm., Towns <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has a mean clutch size of 4.5 eggs (Parrish and Gill 2003), and young are born in January or February (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).
15263		population	eng	This species is described as relatively common by Neilson (2002). The species has been described as abundant on Great Island of the Three Kings Islands (de Lange <em>et al.</em> 1999), as abundant on the four largest islands of the Three Kings, as common to abundant on the Princes Islands (Parrish and Gill 2003), and as abundant throughout its range; it also still occupies its entire known historic range (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species' population is listed as Stable (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>These skinks may reach densities of 10-13 per m² (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).
15263		threats	eng	The habitat on the largest of the Three Kings Islands, Great King (4.08 km²<sup></sup>), was greatly altered during Maori habitation (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Goats later introduced also modified the vegetation; however, these exotics were removed in 1946. Capture frequencies are much higher in scrub than in forest, indicating that numbers may be in decline somewhat on Great King Island as the forest continues to regenerate (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>At present, there are no major threats to this species; however, predation by invasive species could become a major threat in the future if any colonize the islands. Towns <em>et al.</em> (2002) describe that the primary threats to this species are catastrophic climatic events and the colonisation of the islands by introduced predators. As the Three Kings Islands are separated by less than one kilometre, introduced predators such as Norway rats could swim between the islands once established on one of them (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).
15268		distribution	eng	<em>O. torobo</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kiikori River system.
15268		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is approximately 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.
15268		threats	eng	The lake supports six villages along its shore with a total human population estimated at 2,000-3,000 in 1996.  Gill nets and the use of outboard motors have been introduced onto the lake since the 1980s and there has been rapid development of oil drilling and logging in the area in recent years.
15269		conservation	eng	Ross seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and are not listed as threatened or endangered.
15269		distribution	eng	Ross seals have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctic. They are usually sighted in summer in dense consolidated pack ice where they haulout to breed, moult and rest. Recent satellite tracking suggests that some Ross seals may move north to the open ocean in autumn (Nordøy and Blix 2001). Vagrants have been reported from South Sandwich, Falkland, Scott, South Orkney, Kerguelen, and Heard Islands, and South Australia (Rice 1998, Thomas 2002).
15269		habitat	eng	At maturity, Ross seals are the smallest of the four Antarctic phocids. Based on a small sample of measured animals, Ross seal males reach 1.68-2.09 m in length and 129-216 kg and females are slightly larger at 1.96-2.5 m in length and 159-204 kg. It is estimated that pups are about 1 m and 16 kg at birth; eight suckling pups examined in November were109-138 cm in length and 40-75 kg. Age at sexual maturity is thought to be 3-4 years for females and 2-7 years for males (Ray 1981). Adults reach physical maturity at approximately 9 years of age and can live to at least 20 years (Skinner and Klages 1994).<br/><br/>Most pups are born in November, with a peak from early to mid-November (Southwell <em>et al.</em> 2003). Weaning takes place at about one month, although little is known of the relationship between mother and pup. Nursing pups have been seen swimming between ice floes. Mating is thought to occur in the water, but has not been observed. Ross seals are usually found singly on the ice. Moulting is believed to occur in January, at which time many Ross seals appear to fast (Skinner and Klages 1994). During summer Ross seals exhibit a diel haulout pattern with most seals hauled out on the ice at midday (Ray 1981, Bengtson and Stewart 1997, Southwell 2003). Satellite tracking suggests that some Ross seals may move north to the open ocean in autumn (Nordøy and Blix 2001).<br/><br/>Little is known about the activities of Ross seals in the water, although recent work with one female has revealed that when in the water, diving was continuous with dives averaging 110 m in depth and 6.4 minutes in duration, and were to a maximum of 212 m and up to 9.8 minutes. The seal’s dives were deepest at twilight and shallowest at night, and it hauled out during the day (Bengtson and Stewart 1997). The diet of Ross seals consists of 64% cephalopods, 22% fish, and 14% other invertebrates including some krill (Ray 1981). Skinner and Klages (1994) identified only Antarctic silverfish (<em>Pleurogramma antarcticum</em>) in 20 animals examined; no other fish were present. Several species of squid were also recorded, but many stomachs were empty when the animals were collected in January, suggesting fasting during the post-breeding moulting period.<br/><br/>Killer whales and leopard seals are presumed to be predators of the Ross seal.
15269		population	eng	Ross seals typically haulout in dense consolidated pack ice over large geographic areas. Because these areas can usually only be reached by ice-breaking ships or long-range aircraft, it is difficult to estimate population size and trends with high certainty. Published global population estimates range from 20,000-50,000 (Scheffer 1958) up to 220,000 animals (Gilbert and Erickson 1977). However, early estimates were based on very limited sampling and were highly speculative. The most recent global estimate, from analysis of ship and aerial sighting surveys carried out around the Antarctic Continent between 1968 and 1983, provided a point estimate for global Ross seal population size in the pelagic pack ice of the Southern Ocean in the order of 130,000 animals (Erickson and Hanson 1990, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). No indication of the uncertainty around this estimate was given. A more recent regional survey in the pack-ice off east Antarctica between 64-150ºE indicates that broad-scale estimates are likely to have considerable uncertainty around them. The best estimates for this regional survey were in the order of 50,000, 95% confidence limits ranged from 20 000 to 227 000 (Southwell <em>et al</em>. 2008). Given this uncertainty, only gross changes in Ross seal population size could be confidently detected from repeated surveys.
15269		threats	eng	Ross seals are typically found hauled out singly in dense consolidated pack ice in very low concentrations and can usually only be reached by ice breakers. It has been estimated that as few as 200 sightings of the species were all that were known prior to 1972 (Ray 1981). Small numbers of animals have been collected for commercial purposes, scientific studies and museums, but otherwise interactions with humans have been few. When wandering outside the pack ice zone, Ross seals could come in contact with commercial fishing operations, but there are no reports of interactions to date.<br/><br/>Two of the four species of Antarctic ice seals, Leopard seals and crabeater seals, tested positive for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV). Weddell seals were tested and did not have any antibodies and Ross seals were not tested. The susceptibility of Ross seals to CDV is unknown, but it is present in the Antarctic, probably having arrived with sled dogs before the advent of vaccines. A mass mortality of crabeater seals occurred in 1955, and many animals displayed viral illness symptoms prior to death (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. However, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggest that Ross seal numbers may decline with increasing temperatures if Antarctic sea ice is significantly reduced. Loss of sufficient areas of consolidated ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators and access to preferred foraging areas because of changes from warming could lead to population declines of Ross seals. The effects of loss of large amounts of ice on the Antarctic continent, general climate warming or sea level rises on Antarctic Ocean circulation and productivity and on Antarctic marine resources such as seals are unknown.
15309		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. The species is protected by national legislation across most of its range, with hunting prohibited in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Paraguay, and hunting regulations in place in Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs in a number of protected areas (13 in Argentina: Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Research into its ecology, distribution, taxonomy, and threats is needed (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
15309		distribution	eng	The pampas cat, named after Argentine grasslands, ranges throughout most of Argentina and southern Uruguay beyond into the dry forests (chaco, cerrado) of Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil, and north through the Andes mountain chain through Ecuador and possibly marginally into southwestern Colombia (Silveira 1995, Ruiz-Garcia <em>et al.</em> 2003, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Pereira <em>et al.</em> (2002) found few recent records for this species in the Argentine pampas region, however.  Most records (83.5%) are from a semi-arid climatic strip that enters northwestern Argentina as a continuation of the Andes mountains and expands further south towards the coastal areas by the Atlantic ocean.<br/><br/>In the high Andes, although it has been recorded at over 5,000 m (Nowell and Jackson 1996), most records are from lower elevations, in comparison to the similar-appearing Andean cat L. jacobita .  In northern Argentina, the mean elevation for pampas cat records was 3,567 +/- 67, as compared to 4,236 +/- 140 for the Andean cat (Perovic <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
15309		habitat	eng	The pampas cat has a wide distribution outside the moist forests of South America, being associated only with more open habitats.  It typically inhabits dry scrub and grassland, but can also be found in dry woodland as well as swampy wetland (Silveira 1995, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Its prey includes small mammals as well as ground-dwelling birds (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In the high Andes the diet is based on mountain viscacha and small rodents (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Based on the first radio-telemetry study taking place in Brazil's Emas National Park, pampas cats are primarily diurnal wth some crepuscular and occasionally nocturnal activity.  Home ranges (90%MCP) averaged 19.47 +/- 3.64 km² (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005).
15309		population	eng	Silveira <em>et al.</em> (2005) suggest that the species’ similarity to the domestic cat in Brazil is one reason for the scarcity of records in that country, as camera trapping in Emas National Park has found them to be relatively common, although this may be a localized abundance.  Average densities may range from 2-10 adults per 100 km² (T. de Oliveira pers. comm. 2008).   In Brazil and Argentina the species is considered Vulnerable (Diaz and Ojeda 2000, Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Genetic analysis of pampas cats from the high Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina found six highly divergent groupings; subspecific partitioning is an important research need for conservation of this species.
15309		threats	eng	Habitat loss (to agricultural cropland) and degradation (by livestock grazing) is considered the major threat to this species throughout most of its range.   Retaliatory killing for poultry depredation is also a threat, as is hunting for traditional cultural purposes in the high Andes (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  A zone of hybridization between <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colocolo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tigrinus</span> has been demonstrated by genetic analysis in central Brazil (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1999, Eizirik <em>et al.</em> 2007).  A number of deaths by road kill have been observed (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. Pereira pers. comm. 2008).
15310		conservation	eng	Included in CITES Appendix I. The species is fully protected across its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.
15310		distribution	eng	The Geoffrey's cat ranges from southeastern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina east of the Andes and southern Brazil (below ca. 30oS), Uruguay all the way to the Strait of Magellan in Chile, from sea level to 3,300 m (Oliveira 1994, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cuellar <em>et al.</em> 2006, Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007).
15310		habitat	eng	Described as occurring in a wide variety of habitat types of the subtropical and temperate Neotropics, including scrubby woodland, dry forests and savannas of the Chaco, Patagonian scrub, Monte desert/semi-desert, wooded parts of the Pampas grasslands, marshlands, etc. in both pristine and disturbed areas (Oliveira 1994). It uses both open and closed habitats, but seems to be more associated with areas of denser cover in the predominately open areas of most of its range. The Geoffroy's cat is distributed throughout the pampas grasslands and arid Chaco shrub and woodlands, and up around the Salinas Grandes (alpine saline desert of north-western Argentina) to 3,300 m in the Andes (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Most of its range is arid or semi-arid (Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2006), but it also occurs in wetlands (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  It is not found in either the tropical or temperate rainforests. It likely has a patchy distribution in the southern grasslands, where it is more likely to occur in forest fragments and riparian vegetation (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It is sympatric throughout its range with the pampas cat (L. colocolo).<br/><br/>In a radiotelemetry study in wet pampas grassland of Argentina, Manfredi <em>et al.</em> (2006) found mean home range size from 2.5-3.4 km², with male ranges 25%  larger than females.  In Chile's Torres del Paine National Park, in beech forest, home ranges were larger, at 2.3-6.5 km² for two females, and 10-9-12.4 km² for two males (Johnson and Franklin 1991).  In Argentina's Lihue Calel National Park, Pereira <em>et al.</em> (2006) found female home ranges of 2.5 km² during a drought period; a single female who had been radio-collared before the drought increased her home range by a factor of two, although no obvious differences in mean daily distance travelled were observed.  Six radio-collared cats died of starvation during the drought period, when hare abundance fell from 5.6  to <0.8 per 10 km.<br/><br/>Manfredi <em>et al.</em> (2004) found diet to vary by location in Argentina, consisting primarily of small rodent, but including other locally abundant species such as birds.  In Chile, rodents and hares were primarily taken (Johnson and Franklin 1991).  Plains vizcachas are also prey (Branch 1995).  In southern South America, where vizcachas have become extinct, introduced brown hares (Lepus europaeus) are the major prey, although densities of both hares and Geoffroy's cats were observed to decline markedly during a drought period (Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Fish and frog remains were found in the stomachs of Geoffroy's cats from Uruguay and Brazil (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Bisceglia <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that small mammals were the most frequent prey of Geoffroy´s cats in Lihue Calel, representing at least the 63% of the food items throughout the year. <br/><br/>Geoffroy's cat is a small solitary felid (4.3 kg), with an average litter size of 1.5 kittens, and predominantly nocturnal activity pattern. It seems to be the most abundant felid of the temperate Neotropics (Oliveira and Cassaro 1995, Lucherini <em>et al</em>. 2006).
15310		population	eng	Although it is considered to be relatively common, its status is not well known. Heavy commercial hunting pressure from the 1960's to the late 1980's is believed to have reduced populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species is considered Endangered in Chile where it occurs only in a small area in the south.  In Brazil and Argentina it is considered Near Threatened, although relatively common in the pampas region (J. Pereira pers. comm. 2008), while in Bolivia it is considered the second most abundant felid, after the ocelot (Cuellar <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Density estimates include:<br/><br/>Brazil 10/100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission)<br/>Bolivian Chaco 2-42/100 km² (Cuellar <em>et al.</em> 2006)<br/>Argentina (Lihue Calel National Park) 3-26/100 km² (Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2006) during a drought but 139.9 +/- 35.5 per 100 km² two years later (J. Pereira pers. comm. 2008)<br/>Chile (Torres del Paine National Park) 7-12/100 km² (W. Johnson pers. comm. in Nowell and Jackson 1996)
15310		threats	eng	Large numbers of pelts were exported from South America for the international fur trade from the 1960s to 1980s, but little trade took place after 1988 and the species was upgraded to CITES Appendix I in 1992 (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Cats are still killed as pests or livestock predators, and these pelts may be seen in local illegal trade. Currently, habitat loss and fragmentation, and retaliatory killing (poultry depredation) remains as the main threats. Further research is needed on this species to understand the impact of numerous potential threats within its range.<br/><br/>During a health evaluation of Geoffroy´s cats (Uhart <em>et al.</em> 2005) at two different protected areas in Argentina (Campos del Tuyu Wildlife Reserve and Parque Nacional Lihue Calel), antibodies to infectious peritonitis, feline panleukopenia, canine distemper virus, feline callicivirus, toxoplasmosis and dirofilariasis were found in tested animals. Adult parasites recovered from necropsied animals and eggs in fresh faeces revealed the presence of various nematode families, including Ascarididae, Trichuridae, Capillariideae, Rictulariidae, Spiruridae and Ancylostomatidae; cestodes from families Taenidae and Anaplocephaliidae and oocists of Eimeriidae (Beldomenico <em>et al.</em> 2005). These results suggest exposure (recent or past) to common domestic carnivore diseases, and indicate a potential risk to these Geoffroy´s cats´ populations.
15311		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II and protected by national legislation in Argentina and Chile (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/>It is recorded in 16 protected areas in Chile, but many are too small to support viable populations (Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2003).  It is known from three national parks in Argentina: Lanin, Nahuel Huapi, and Los Alerces (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although densities may be low.  The most important conservation measure for this species is providing connectivity between native forest patches across areas currently under management as plantation forest.  It is also important, in areas such as Chiloe Island where they are considered livestock pests, to improve chicken coops and reduce conflict (J. Sanderson pers. comm.)  Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
15311		distribution	eng	The guiña, the smallest felid in the Americas, also has the smallest distribution, being found primarily in central and southern Chile and marginally in adjoining areas of Argentina.  The guiña is the only small felid to occur over most of its range, although on the eastern limit, in Argentina, it is sympatric with the Geoffroy’s cat (Lucherini <em>et al.</em> 2001).  It is also found on the large island of Chiloe off the coast of southern Chile (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Its extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 177,000 km² (J. Schipper pers. comm. 2007), but its area of occupancy is much smaller and fragmented due to loss of its native temperate forest habitat; Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated that there were 24 separate subpopulations in central Chile.
15311		habitat	eng	The species is strongly associated with the moist temperate mixed forests of the southern Andean and Coastal ranges, particularly the Valdivian and Araucaria forests of Chile, which is characterized by the presence of bamboo in the understory. It ranges up to the treeline at approximately 1,900 (Miller and Rottmann 1976) to 2,500 m. In Argentina, the species has been recorded from moist montane forest which has Valdivian characteristics, including a multi-layered structure with bamboo, and numerous lianas and epiphytes (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <em>L. guigna</em> is also relatively tolerant of altered habitats, being found in secondary forest and shrub as well as primary forest, and on the fringes of settled and cultivated areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The presence of primary forest corridors is likely an important component of their long term persistence in human dominated landscape (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002, Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> 2003, Acosta-Jamett and Simonetti 2007).<br/><br/>In southern Chile, where it is found in beech Nothofagus forest, Freer (2004) found that areas of dense shrubby understory (thicket-forest) were preferred over primary forest.<br/><br/>On Chile's Chiloe Island, in a largely agricultural landscape, Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2002) found home ranges of 6.5 km² and 1.2 km² for females.  Freer (2004) reported smaller home ranges (MCP95) of 1.3 km² for males and 1 km² for females from two national parks in southern Chile.<br/><br/>guiñas in southern Chile fed primarily on small mammals, especially rodents, but birds were also frequently taken.  They scavenge opportunistically on carrion (Freer 2004).
15311		population	eng	In fragmented areas in central Chile, Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated approximately 2,000 individuals in 24 subpopulations.  Of these, 22 (90%) are estimated to hold fewer than 70 individuals, and 13 (44%) less than 10.  Status in southern Chile is more secure, where human activity is less and there are several large protected areas, and Dunstone <em>et al.</em> (2002) obtained high densities of 1 adult/sub-adult guiga per square kilometer.  The population in Argentina is considered small (M. Lucherini pers. comm. 2007).
15311		threats	eng	The major threat to the guiña is logging of its temperate moist forest habitat, and the spread of pine forest plantations and agriculture, particularly in central Chile.  Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> (2003) found lower densities in plantation forest, which was only used if it was close to native forest or had native forest regeneration in the understory.<br/><br/>They are also viewed negatively as a poultry depredator, with 81.4% of 43 families interviewed in a rural area of southern Chile considering it “damaging or very damaging”, although there was only a single recent report of a guiña killing 12 hens in a henhouse (Silva-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2007).  On Chiloe Island, two out of five radio-collared cats were killed while raiding chicken coops during the first study of this species (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).
15319		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Nagara River.
15324		conservation	eng	There are no measures currently in place to protect O. zibethicus. Common and considered "secure" (S5) or "apparently secure" (S3) throughout entire US range. One subspecies of concern: O. Z. ripensis (S2 in Texas). Status in Mexico needs to be assessed.
15324		distribution	eng	This species occurs in North America, from northern Canada and Alaska south through the United States, except the arid regions of the southwest and Texas, and the Florida peninsula. Introduced to Czech Republic in 1905 in order to establish fur farms, it is now present throughout the Palaearctic, Mongolia, China, northeast Korea, and Honshu Island, Japan. Also introduced in Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15324		habitat	eng	Muskrats are found in brackish and fresh-water lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and marshes. Depending on the location, they will either dig burrows into waterside banks, or construct houses of vegitation. Houses are built so that the main chambers are above water level, but can only be entered through underwater tunnels. Separate structures are constructed for feeding and nesting (Feldhamer, 1999 in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Muskrats exhibit many morphological adaptations for aquatic life, including lips that close behind incisors to allow gnawing under water, partially webbed hindfeet, and the ability to stay submerged for up to 20 minutes. Muskrats are primarily herbivorous, feeding on aquatic vegiation such as cattails and horsetails. During periods of food scarcity, individuals will also consume animal matter such as mussels, turtles, mice, birds, frogs and fish (Wilner <em>et al.</em>, 1980)
15324		population	eng	The muskrat is common to abundant in suitable habitats, with average densities of 40 individuals per hectare (Feldhamer, 1999 in Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
15324		threats	eng	The majority of muskrat mortality is caused by humans. Muskrats are extensively trapped for their pelts, which are of increasing economic value around the world. High population densities of muskrats often result in destruction of local habitat, including damage to river banks caused by burrowing, and the reduction of aquatic vegetation due to over consumption for food and building materials. As a result, muskrats are often treated as a pest species and are trapped, hunted or poisoned to control population levels.
15330		conservation	eng	The Bridled Nailtail Wallaby is listed a threatened species under Australian law. It is currently known only from protected areas. A recovery plan has been developed for the 2005-2009 period (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Recommendations from the recovery plan (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005), include: managing existing bridled nailtail wallaby populations to maintain or increase current population levels; monitoring existing and future translocated populations; further translocations; maintaining captive breeding populations; and greater community and stakeholder education and involvement.
15330		distribution	eng	The Bridled Nailtail Wallaby is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally in Taunton National Park (Scientific) near Dingo in central Queensland. Two self-sustaining translocated populations also exist: Idalia National Park (Queensland) and Avocet Nature Refuge (Queensland) (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). There are two other recently translocated populations: BHP Threatened Species Sanctuary at Western Plains Zoo (New South Wales) (not mapped) and Scotia Sanctuary (New South Wales).
15330		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open, edge habitats of eucalypt forest and brigalow scrub and grasses. Breeding can take place at any time of year, and in good conditions females may raise up to three young in a year (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005).
15330		population	eng	This is a rare species that probably numbers less than 1,100 mature individuals in the wild. The population at Taunton is stable (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005) or increasing (Evans and Gordon 2008) since the mid 1990s when it was at its lowest point of 450 individuals. The population at Taunton had risen following the exclusion of cattle to about 1,400 in December 1991 (Davidson 1991). Then a severe drought in the early 1990s reduced the population (Clancy and Porter 1994; Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005; Evans and Gordon 2008). More recently (2002/2003) another severe drought struck, and populations may periodically fluctuate in response to rainfall, or the droughts could major mark stochastic events.<br/><br/>The population at the Idalia is about 450 individuals (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). There is no estimate for the size of the Avocet population, but it is said to be self-sustaining (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). The recovery plan considers the Western Plains Zoo and Scotia populations as “intensively managed predator-free enclosures” (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005), and these would not be considered self-sustaining in terms of the IUCN criteria.
15330		threats	eng	Historically Bridled Nailtail Wallabies declined for a variety of reasons. In Queensland, competition with sheep and land clearance appear to have been the largest factors (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005; Evans and Gordon 2008). In the southern part of its range introduced rabbits might also have competed for resources (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). Introduced predators probably had some impact on the species, but it is unclear to what degree. Foxes are capable of preying upon the species, especially the young. However, the largest declines of  Bridled Nailtail Wallabies in Queensland pre-date the arrival of foxes and foxes are not rare or absent from their current locations (Evans and Gordon 2008). Foxes may have been more of a factor in the demise of the species in New South Wales, and the role played by introduced cats, if any, is largely unknown. Current threats to species include the decline in habitat quality due to invasive weeds, introduced predators (a threat because any loss to such a small population is major), and the potential risks from severe drought, extreme fire, and disease.
15331		conservation	eng	None.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
15331		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to western and central Australia. Aboriginal oral histories indicate that is persisted possibly into the 1950s. There is a doubtful record from the early 1960s.
15331		habitat	eng	It was found in stony hills, mulga country, and open woodland (Burbidge 2008).
15331		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct.
15331		threats	eng	This species was likely extirpated by predation from introduced foxes and cats. Habitat degradation, including changing fire regimes and the impact of rabbits and introduced stock, may have had an impact. In part of their range (south-western Western Australia and parts of New South Wales), pastoral expansion were likely to have been detrimental to the species.
15335		conservation	eng	Control of pollution, gravel pitting, water harnessing and irrigation are needed.
15335		distribution	eng	From southwest Turkey to western Turkmenistan.
15335		habitat	eng	Streams.
15335		population	eng	This species has been reported from 26 different streams, either in single specimens or under flourishing populations (> 1,000 exuviae).
15335		threats	eng	Water pollution, gravel pitting in stream major beds, stream drying due to water harnessing and irrigation, and urbanization.
15336		conservation	eng	The paucity of recent records suggests that the species has declined both in numbers and localities. Research on its distribution and its habitat requirements is therefore much needed.
15336		distribution	eng	The species has a very limited distributional area, roughly from northern Israel to Adana, Turkey (Dumont 1991, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Schneider <em>et al</em>. 1987, Suhling and Müller 1996). According to Schneider (1987), the record from Iran by Blom (1982) of <em>O. macrodon</em> refers to <em>O. forcipatus</em>. Worldwide less than 20 records of <em>O. macrodon</em> are known. Most old sites have not been researched in the last decades.
15336		habitat	eng	The species is found in larger lowland rivers. Details on its habitat preferences are lacking.
15336		population	eng	Detailed information on abundance is lacking for all sites.
15336		threats	eng	Its habitat is heavily influenced by pollution, grind mining, and the creation of barrage lakes.
15337		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
15337		distribution	eng	From south-eastern Arizona, south-central New Mexico, and west Texas (United States), south through north-central Mexico to Zacatecas and Aguascalientes (Mexico).
15337		habitat	eng	Desert scrub and dry grassland, piedmont with gravelly or rocky substrate. Dominant vegetation includes creosote bush, tarbush, and snakeweed (Hinesley 1979). <br/><br/>This species digs burrows or uses those abandoned by other animals. Young are born in underground burrows.
15337		population	eng	This species is common.
15337		threats	eng	None known.
15338		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
15338		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in grassland and shrub steppe habitats of western North America (Canada, United States), extending into northeast Mexico.
15338		habitat	eng	Found in short-grass prairie, desert sagebrush, and dune habitats. Also is found in corn fields.
15338		population	eng	Fairly common and widespread. Little known about population dynamics, but apparently occurs at low densities. Very abundant in corn fields.
15338		threats	eng	None known.
15339		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
15339		distribution	eng	Southwestern United States and adjacent northwest Mexico; from western Nevada, southern California, and southern Arizona (United States), south to northern Baja California, Sonora, and northern Sinaloa (Mexico).
15339		habitat	eng	This species is found in desert scrub, rocky soils, creosote, semi-desert.
15339		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout its range. It generally has low densities, with 1.83 individuals/ha recorded in Nevada.
15339		threats	eng	None known.
15362		conservation	eng	Short sections of a few streams are protected by the Natchez Trace National Parkway, and the Alabama locality is in the Freedom Hills Wildlife Management Area.
15362		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from 11 counties in the states of Alabama and Tennessee. The species may also occur in Kentucky.
15362		habitat	eng	Sparse gravel pockets in fissures of a rocky stream bed (Carle 1981). Second order streams that are mostly shaded, with relatively stable substrates and riffle areas (Tennessen 1994). Probable two year life cycle.
15362		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15362		threats	eng	The larval habitat, consisting of chert pebble debris in limestone bedrock streams (Donnelly pers. comm.) is very specialized.
15363		conservation	eng	Saint Croix River, one of the important locations for <em>O. anomalus</em>, is protected in Saint Croix National Scenic Riverway in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Because of specialized habitat requirements, the species is considered rare in most states in which it occurs (US Fisheries and Wildlife Service: www.ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=I0LZ). Listed in some of them: Minnesota (S1S2), Wisconsin (Endangered). Further surveys needed all across range.
15363		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and seven states in the United States of America.
15363		habitat	eng	Species occurs at fast-flowing, medium-sized, warm water rivers (100 to 800 ft wide) with abundant gravel and excellent water quality in heavily forested watersheds.
15363		population	eng	<em>O. anomalus</em> is locally common in scattered populations across fairly wide range. Many populations are established by searching for exuviae (moulted exoskeletons), and those found in some numbers at some locations. Some gomphids have to be surveyed by larvae and/or exuviae, as adults spend much of their time in locations (e.g., high in trees or far out over large rivers) inaccessible to collectors and observers.
15363		threats	eng	Lowering of water quality through various types of pollution is a threat to this species.
15364		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed on a European scale; the species is already protected under the EU Habitats Directive (Annex II). Local measures should be applied for those populations that are under threat.
15364		conservation	eng	The species is included on the Habitat Directive of the European Union and further research into population numbers and range are needed.
15364		distribution	eng	<em>Ophiogomphus cecilia</em> occurs from west Europe east to lake Baikal. The species is widespread in Central and northeast Europe but is scarce to moderately represented in western parts of its range. Old records from the Iberian Peninsula are recognized as incorrect (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species has declined strongly during the first three-quarters of the last century in parts of its range and became extinct in several regions. In west and south Europe it is limited to the Loire basin in France, the Po river in Italy and scattered populations in the Balkan Peninsula. Since the 1990s, the species has shown an increase in at least the Netherlands and Germany, in both countries it became rare in the last century. This increase is probably a result of an increased water quality and a more natural management of river systems.
15364		distribution	eng	The species is known from Europe and Western Siberia.
15364		habitat	eng	<em>Ophiogomphus cecilia</em> inhabits rivers and rivulets, mostly with sandy beds.
15364		habitat	eng	The adults are found in running waters that are at least partly unshaded. It is found in rivers and brooks in the lowland with a sandy bottom. The species is largely absent from stony mountain brooks or rivers with a strong current or in muddy rivers.
15364		population	eng	A lot of records from Central and Eastern Europe but it is rather uncommon in Western Siberia.
15364		population	eng	The species is fairly common in most of its European range. The densities vary strongly from site to site but it is frequently locally abundant.
15364		threats	eng	There are no serious threats to the species in the core of its range at present. Most of the decline in the last century was probably due to water pollution and large-scale channelisation of rivers and brooks. In the south, the species is presently threatened by increased use of river water for irrigation (for example in the Po floodplain) and canalisation of water courses which causes high fluctuations of water levels and seasonal drying. In some river systems waves caused by large boats might lead to an increased mortality of emerging adults.
15364		threats	eng	Water pollution and water harnessing may threaten the species in future, although none are known at prestent.
15365		conservation	eng	The Conasauga River runs through fairly rugged country in national forests in Tennessee and Georgia, so it is somewhat protected. The species is also state-listed in Georgia, and its occurrence is presently being surveyed (G. Beaton, pers. comm. 2008).
15365		distribution	eng	<em>Ophiogomphus edmundo</em> is found in three states in the United States of America including these locations: Conasauga River in adjacent Tennessee and Georgia plus four additional localities in these two states.  It has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of less than 1,000 km² (G. Beaton pers. comm. 2006).
15365		habitat	eng	Species is found in clear, moderately flowing mountain streams.
15365		population	eng	The population size of <em>O. edmundo</em> is probably rather small because of its limited range and habitat preference. At localities where species are known, it is presumed hundreds of larvae are present but adult population at any given time remains unknown.
15365		threats	eng	<em>O. edmundo</em> is currently, and will continue to be, affected by impoundments, channelization, siltation, and pollution of water.  Logging and vacation home development may both pose threats, although they do not seem to be severe in the immediate future.
15366		conservation	eng	Occurrences protected on the St. Croix River, administered by the St. Croix International Waterway Commission, and in Baxter State Park, Maine; there are probably occurrences in other state and provincial parks.
15366		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States.
15366		habitat	eng	Big, clear, strongly flowing, clean rivers with gravel/sand bottoms, rarely small rivers. The species apparently cannot breed in conditions found below dams (Dunkle 2000).
15366		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15366		threats	eng	Current threats appear moderate over much of the species' northern range, but habitat threat is probably major to the south. Potential threats of habitat degradation are the impoundment of running waters by human activities such as poorly drained roads, damming, and also natural activities such as beaver damming (often a transient effect), channelization leading to scour of microhabitats, toxic or organic pollution, introduction of exotic species.
15367		conservation	eng	Populations of <em>O. I. Incurvatus</em> are found in the Pisgah National Forest of North Carolina, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center of Maryland, and a Clemson University research area and the Savanna River Plant in South Carolina.
15367		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Occurs in the piedmont/foothills on either side of the Appalachians from Alabama to Maryland (NatureServe 2006).
15367		habitat	eng	Clear streams at low elevations in the open, with sandy or gravely riffles (Dunkle 2000).
15367		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15367		threats	eng	Larvae are susceptible to alterations in stream flow due to clear cutting/deforestation, agriculture, and development that produce flood scouring, siltation and pesticide use (NatureServe 2006). Chemical control of gypsy moths might be a problem (NatureServe 2006).
15389		conservation	eng	Permits are required by provincial conservation agency to collect any animals and there is some degree of protection of habitat in place by the State. Recommended conservation measures include increasing public awareness of the species, further research on population numbers, range, biology of the species, and habitat status.
15389		distribution	eng	Only recorded from South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Ngele Forest. This forest is known to be naturally patchy, which has led, and continues to lead to the destruction of the smaller patches. The main forest area is fragmented by a national road.
15389		habitat	eng	<em>O. roseus</em> is confined to indigenous, Afromontane forest, where it occurs amongst moist leaf litter or under or in fallen and rotting logs. <br/> <br/>Generation length in onychophorans is generally longer than in most invertebrates. No data exist for <em>O. roseus</em>, but for other members of the family in South Africa, gestation is approximately 12-13 months. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938). In <em>O. cinctipes</em> only about 40 young are produced by each female in a year (Purcell 1899).
15389		population	eng	Populations can be inferred to have decreased in association with the decrease in area of occurrence, and to continue decreasing with current and future degradation of Ngele Forest. No information is available on population size or density. It appears that there are no subpopulations outside of the Ngele area, although there may be subpopulations in different forest patches within the Ngele complex.
15389		threats	eng	Area of occurrence and occupancy are known to have decreased, and the quality of the habitat is known to have been affected by the removal of a large proportion of timber, the spread of alien invasive plants, and the construction of a national road through the forest.
15392		conservation	eng	The area where this species has been collected is a protected area. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.
15392		distribution	eng	This Thailand endemic has only been found in the province of Lampang in northern Thailand; the type locality is Muang Ngow. (Smith 1918, 1943).
15392		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known. However, other members of the genus are well-known for living in forest streams with clear water.
15392		population	eng	There are no data available on the population size and trends for this species as only two specimens of have been found (Cox 1991).
15392		threats	eng	It is unknown if any threat process is impacting this species. Deforestation and water pollution are likely to be threats to this species, however, not enough is known about this species to assess if these threats are affecting it.
15409		conservation	eng	River health programmes and in-stream flow requirement assessments are in operation in most areas in South Africa.
15409		distribution	eng	Save River in Zimbabwe south to the Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. No recent records in Zimbabwe and possibly extinct there.
15409		habitat	eng	Typically found in pools below fast flowing waters, juveniles often in very shallow water running over sand or gravel bars.
15409		population	eng	During the 1980/90s numbers assessed in Mpumalanga were very low. A significant increase in population numbers has occurred during the last decade. In recent Swaziland surveys it was abundant in suitable swift flowing habitats.
15409		threats	eng	Flow regulation and water pollution in parts of the Limpopo River have significantly reduced the species range. In Zimbabwe regulation of flows by dams, sedimentation of habitats, pollution from agriculture and alien fishes (<em>Micropterus</em> spp.) have probably effected its decline.
15419		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The Action Plan for the Conservation of Freshwater Populations of Irrawaddy Dolphins (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-c) notes that multiple-use protected areas will play a key role for conserving freshwater populations of Irrawaddy dolphins. Protected areas could be a particularly effective conservation tool due to the fidelity of the species in freshwater systems to relatively circumscribed areas, as this can facilitate management. The Action Plan also provided details on strategies for mitigating bycatch that included (1) establishing core conservation areas where gillnetting is banned or severely restricted; (2) promoting net attendance rules and providing training on the safe release of entangled dolphins; (3) initiating a program to compensate fishermen for damage caused to their nets by entangled dolphins that are safely released; (4) providing alternative or diversified employment options for gillnet fishermen; (5) encouraging the use of fishing gears that do not harm dolphins by altering or establishing fee structures for fishing permits to make gillnetting more expensive while decreasing the fees for non-destructive gears; and (6) experimenting with acoustical deterrents and reflective nets.
15419		distribution	eng	Irrawaddy dolphins have a discontinuous distribution in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific, almost exclusively in estuarine and fresh waters (Stacey and Arnold 1999; Arnold 2002). They occur from Borneo and the central islands of the Indonesian Archipelago north to Palawan, Philippines, and west to the Bay of Bengal, including the Gulf of Thailand. There are freshwater subpopulations in three large rivers: Ayeyarwady (up to 1,400 km upstream) in Myanmar, Mahakam (up to 560 km upstream) in Indonesia, and Mekong (up to 690 km upstream) in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR, and two marine-appended brackish water bodies or lakes: Chilika in India and Songkhla in Thailand. The fine-scale range of the species is poorly documented throughout much of its range in estuarine waters.
15419		habitat	eng	Irrawaddy dolphins prefer coastal areas associated with the muddy, brackish waters at river mouths, ranging offshore as far as the extent of the freshwater plume – often only a few km but more than 60 km at the Meghna River mouth in Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005). In rivers and mangrove channels, the species is most often observed at channel confluences and divergences and downstream of sharp meanders. They have been seen in the same area as finless porpoises in coastal waters of Bangladesh and Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005), and Ganges River dolphins in the waterways of the Sundarbans mangrove forest (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2006).
15419		population	eng	No range-wide survey has been conducted for this species; nor is there a synoptic estimate of total numbers from local or regional surveys. Statistically rigorous abundance estimates are available for only a few portions of the range: 77 (CV = 27.4%) in Malampaya Sound, Philippines (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004); at least 125 (95% CI = 114-152) in the Mekong River (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2007); 70 (CV = 10%; 95% CL = 58-79) in the Mahakam River, Indonesia (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007); 58-72 in the Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-a); 5,383 (CV=40%) in coastal waters of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005); and 451 (CV=9.6%) in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al,/i>. 2006). <br/><br/>Recent surveys indicate dramatic range declines in the Mekong, Mahakam and Ayeyarwady freshwater subpopulations (IWC 2001, Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-b). All three of these subpopulations were classified as Critically Endangered in the 2004 Red List because the numbers of reproductively mature individuals were estimated to be < 50 and continuing population declines were projected based on known and potential threats. Two other geographically isolated subpopulations – one living in inner Malampaya Sound, Palawan, Philippines, and the other in Songkhla Lake, Thailand, were classified as Critically Endangered, also in 2004, due to their low numbers and limited ranges.
15419		threats	eng	The estuarine and freshwater occurrence of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to threats from the human activities that occur in these environments. Threats include direct mortality from fisheries interactions (particularly gillnet entanglement), vessel strikes, and habitat loss and degradation (<em>e.g.</em> declining or altered freshwater flows due to dam and embankment construction, environmental contamination). Live captures for aquarium display also have been a conservation issue in some local areas. Irrawaddy dolphins have been hunted directly in the past, at least in the Mekong and Mahakam Rivers, but are revered by local people in many areas of Asia. <br/><br/>Irrawaddy dolphins are caught accidentally in fishing nets in almost all areas where they have been studied (Smith <em>et a</em>l. 2007-b). The most detailed information on bycatch comes from the Mekong River where, of 15 confirmed human-caused deaths 2001-2005, 13 (87%) were due to gillnet entanglement (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2007). Based on reports from local fishermen and the retrieval of eight carcasses along the Mahakam River between 1995 and 2005, Kreb <em>et al</em>. (2007) documented 48 deaths, 66% of them from entanglement in large-mesh (10 –17.5 cm) gillnets. Mortality also has been recorded in drift gillnets targeting elasmobranchs in coastal waters of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005) and bottom-set gillnets targeting crabs in Malampaya Sound (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004). Fishermen in some areas report the dolphins are released if found still alive (Smith and Hobbs 2002, Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007), but in the case of drowned animals, the oil may be used for medicinal purposes or the flesh eaten (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>There have been no systematic observer schemes in freshwater or coastal regions, but evidence of bycatch and increased use of gillnets is cause for concern (IWC 2000). Fishing with electricity is considered a dire threat to the Ayeyarwady subpopulation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-a). <br/><br/>Many dams have been proposed that are likely to degrade the channels inhabited by Irrawaddy dolphins in the Mekong River Basin. Of greatest concern are the large run-of-the-river dams (dams without a reservoir that generally preserve a relatively natural flow regime) proposed for the Mekong mainstem near Stung Treng and Sambor (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996; Mekong Secretariat 1995). Dam projects in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam threaten not only dolphins but also fisheries and therefore human livelihoods (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-b). A recent report of a high dam planned for the headwaters of the Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar, in Myitsone just below the confluence of the Mali Hka and N’Mai Hka tributaries, provides reason for concern about its effects on the population of Irrawaddy dolphins downstream (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>Deforestation and gold, sand and gravel mining are causing major changes to the geomorphologic and hydraulic features of rivers and marine-appended lakes where Irrawaddy dolphins occur (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-b). Increased sedimentation resulting from deforestation in surrounding watersheds has resulted in declining water depths in Songkhla, Chilika and Semayang Lakes. The last of these water bodies is appended to the Mahakam River and previously supported dolphins throughout most of its breadth. Now it contains suitable habitat only in a small area near the channel connecting it with the mainstem (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007). Between 1992 and 1997 the maximum depth of Chilika Lake declined from 3.4 to 1.4 meters and the accumulation of sediments led to shrinkage of the opening channel and a dramatic decline in salinity. A new channel dredged in the northern portion of the lake in 2000 apparently has mitigated at least some of the problems caused by sedimentation (Pattnaik <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat loss and population fragmentation in several areas have resulted from the proliferation of fixed fishing gears. In the middle and southern portions of Songkhla Lake about 27,000 Sai nong or sitting traps and 13,000 Sang sai or barrier traps create more than 8000 linear km of barrier in multiple rows. These fishing structures are left in place year-round and restrict dolphin movements such that their habitat is substantially reduced and the potential for demographic interaction with individuals in the Gulf of Thailand is eliminated (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004).
15421		conservation	eng	The eastern North Atlantic subpopulation is included in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. The proposal to list all subpopulations of the killer whale in Appendix II was endorsed in 2002 by the Working Group of the CMS in Bonn (see Proceedings), as all the subpopulations were migratory and could profit from cooperative protective measures. Because killer whales are cosmopolitan in distribution, they may be present in virtually any marine protected area worldwide.  Further studies on subpopulation structure, abundance and life history are needed.
15421		conservation	eng	The species is in Appendix II of CITES and Appendices I and II of CMS. The eastern North Atlantic as well as the eastern North Pacific subpopulations are included in Appendix II of CMS. <br/><br/>Further studies on subpopulation structure, abundance and life history are needed for most regions. Regional subpopulations of killer whales can be small and highly specialized, and therefore vulnerable to over-exploitation and habitat deterioration. Several small subpopulations have already been recognized as having a high risk of extinction. Many similar small subpopulations may exist worldwide but have not yet been fully identified and described. There are likely several subpopulations that qualify for a threatened category, and steps should proceed to assess their status.
15421		distribution	eng	The killer whale is the most cosmopolitan of all cetaceans, and may be the second most widely-ranging mammal species on the planet, after humans. Killer whales can be seen in virtually any marine region, from the equator to polar waters. Although they are generally more common in nearshore areas and in higher productivity areas and/or higher latitudes, there appear to be no hard and fast restrictions of water temperature or depth on their range. The distribution extends to many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. However, there are only extralimital records from the Baltic Sea and no records from the Black Sea.
15421		distribution	eng	The killer whale is the most cosmopolitan of all cetaceans and may be the second-most widely-ranging mammal species on the planet, after humans (Rice 1998). Killer whales can be seen in virtually any marine region, from the equator to polar waters. Although they are generally more common in nearshore areas and in higher-productivity areas and/or higher latitudes, there appear to be no hard and fast restrictions of water temperature or depth on their range. The distribution extends to many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. However, there are only extralimital records from the Baltic Sea and no records from the Black Sea.
15421		habitat	eng	Killer whales may occur in virtually any marine or estuarine habitat, but are most common in areas of high marine productivity, particularly at higher latitudes and near shore (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999, Forney and Wade 2006). Sightings range from the surf zone to the open sea. Although they do not migrate, movements can be extensive; for instance, some killer whales have been documented to have moved between Alaska and central California, a distance of more than 2000 km. In the Antarctic, they readily enter areas of floe ice in search of prey (Pitman and Ensor 2003).  Killer whales in some areas congregate seasonally in coastal channels to forage and occasionally enter river mouths. <br/><br/>Killer whales are known to feed on a wide array of prey types, including most marine mammal species (except river dolphins and manatees), seabirds, sea turtles, many species of fishes (including sharks and rays) and cephalopods (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999, Ford and Ellis 1999, Ford 2002). Killer whales have a diversity of foraging tactics, including intentional beaching to gain access to seals onshore. They are known to use cooperative techniques to herd fish and to attack large prey (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999, Baird 2000).  <br/><br/>Although a generalist as a species, at least some subpopulations specialize on particular types of prey (Bigg <em>et al.</em> 1990, Baird 2000). Studies in coastal waters of the eastern North Pacific, from California to Alaska, have described three distinct ecotypes of killer whales, referred to as residents, transients, and offshores.  Although distinguished by ecological differences, there are also differences in coloration, external morphology, behavior and acoustics.  The three ecotypes maintain social isolation from each other despite overlapping ranges.
15421		habitat	eng	Killer whales may occur in virtually any marine or estuarine habitat but are most common in areas of high marine productivity, particularly at higher latitudes and near shore (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Forney and Wade 2006). Sightings range from the surf zone to the open sea. Movements can be extensive. For instance, some killer whales have been documented to have moved between Alaska and central California, a distance of more than 2000 km. In the Antarctic, they readily enter areas of floe ice in search of prey (Pitman and Ensor 2003). Killer whales in some areas congregate seasonally in coastal channels to forage and occasionally enter river mouths. <br/><br/>Killer whales are known to feed on a wide array of prey, including most marine mammal species (except river dolphins and manatees), seabirds, sea turtles, many species of fish (including sharks and rays) and cephalopods (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Ford and Ellis 1999; Ford 2002). They have a diversity of foraging tactics, including intentional beaching to gain access to seals onshore. They are known to use cooperative techniques to herd fish and to attack large prey (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Baird 2000). <br/><br/>Although a generalist as a species, at least some subpopulations specialize on particular types of prey (Bigg <em>et al</em>. 1990; Baird 2000). Studies in coastal waters of the eastern North Pacific, from California to Alaska, have described three distinct ecotypes of killer whales, referred to as residents, transients, and offshores. Although distinguished by ecological differences, there are also differences in coloration, external morphology, behavior and acoustics. The three ecotypes maintain social isolation from each other despite overlapping ranges. The northeastern Pacific residents are salmon specialists and have a strong preference for one species, the chinook salmon (Ford and Ellis 2006). Transients in coastal waters of the northeastern Pacific appear to focus their foraging on pinnipeds and small cetaceans and occasionally take baleen whales. Killer whales in coastal Norway specialize on herring (Simila <em>et al</em>. 1996) and in the Strait of Gibraltar on bluefin tuna (Cañadas and de Stephanis 2006). Some killer whales in New Zealand may forage selectively on rays and other elasmobranchs (Visser 1999). In the Antarctic, the standard-type killer whales appear to specialize on minke whales, one smaller type eats mostly seals, and yet another small form appears to be a fish-eater (Pitman and Ensor 2003).
15421		population	eng	Although killer whales occur worldwide, densities increase by 1-2 orders of magnitude between the tropics and the highest-sampled latitudes in the Arctic and Antarctic (Forney and Wade 2006). Killer whales tend to be more common along continental margins; however, there is some variation in this general pattern that appears linked to ocean productivity. Killer whales appear to be less common in western boundary currents, such as the Gulf Stream or the Kuroshio than in more productive eastern boundary currents, such as the California Current. Known areas of locally higher density often coincide with greater oceanographic productivity (e.g. off Argentina). <br/> <br/>Killer whale populations have been relatively well-studied in the North Pacific. In the eastern tropical Pacific, a line-transect survey resulted in an estimate of 8,500 (CV=37%) (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). A catalogue of 86 individuals exists for waters around the Baja Peninsula, Mexico (Guerrero-Ruiz <em>et al</em>. 1998). In waters of Hawaii, a line-transect survey estimated 430 (CV=72%) (Barlow 2003). The southern resident subpopulation that inhabits the inland waters of Washington and southern British Columbia recently numbered 90 whales; it is apparently depleted and considered to be endangered (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2000; K. Balcomb pers. comm., Krahn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The northern resident subpopulation of British Columbia recently numbered 216 (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2000; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). The west coast transient subpopulation catalogue included 314 individual whales (Ford and Ellis 1999; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). A photographic catalogue of offshore type killer whales identified 211 individuals from British Columbia to California (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2000; Black <em>et al</em>. 1997), but this is likely an underestimate of the subpopulation size. A line-transect survey extending out to 300nm offshore resulted in an estimate of 466 (CV=35%) in California and 898 (CV=35%) in Washington and Oregon (Barlow 2003); these estimates likely include whales from the aforementioned west coast transient, southern resident, northern resident, and offshore subpopulations. A line-transect survey from the Aleutian Islands to the Gulf of Alaska resulted in an estimate of abundance for transient killer whales of 251 (CV=51%) (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006), while the AT1 transient subpopulation (which inhabits Prince William Sound and waters of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska) numbers only 11 animals (Matkin <em>et al</em>. 1999; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). A Gulf of Alaska resident killer whale catalogue includes 507 individuals (Matkin <em>et al</em>. 1999) while a line-transect survey from the Aleutian Islands to the Gulf of Alaska resulted in an estimate of 991 (CV=51%) (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006). Line-transect surveys suggest there are at least hundreds of killer whales in the western North Pacific, including waters around Japan (Miyashita 1993). Preliminary studies suggest as many as 700-800 killer whales may be in Russian waters of the Pacific, but an abundance estimate has yet to be calculated (Miranova <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Line-transect surveys have resulted in estimates of abundance in several regions in the North Atlantic, including an estimate of 133 (CV=49%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), 3,100 (CV=63%) in Norwegian waters (Øien 1990), and 6,618 (CV=32%) in Iceland and Faroes Islands waters (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990; Sigurjónsson <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Several analyses of line-transect surveys have yielded abundance estimates for killer whales around Antarctica (Ohsumi 1981; Hammond 1984; Kasamatsu and Joyce 1995); however, some of the estimates have been considered biased by methodology and survey coverage (Branch and Butterworth 2001). More recent analyses that account for some of these biases resulted in an estimate of about 25,000 for waters south of 60ºS (Branch and Butterworth 2001); however, there are still uncertainties related to coverage of areas in the pack ice, so true abundance could be higher. Densities are known to vary locally within Antarctic waters, ranging from very abundant to uncommon (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2002; Pitman and Ensor 2003), and it has been recognized that killer whale densities are higher closer to the ice edge, where the smaller-type killer whales can occur in large aggregations of tens to hundreds of animals (Berzin and Vladimirov 1983; Pitman and Ensor 2003). Photo-identification studies have found 25-30 whales around Marion Island (Keith <em>et al</em>. 2001). In other parts of the southern Hemisphere, an estimate of 119 (CV=20%) has been made in New Zealand waters (Visser 2000), and 30 have been identified off Argentina (Lopez and Lopez 1985; Iñíguez 2001). <br/><br/>Although the available data are far from complete, abundance estimates for the areas that have been sampled provide a minimum worldwide abundance estimate of about 50,000 killer whales. It is likely that the total abundance is higher, because estimates are not available for many high-latitude areas of the northern hemisphere and for large areas of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. However, this population abundance refers to several forms of killer whales that may be recognized as different species or subspecies in the future (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2004).
15421		population	eng	Although killer whales occur worldwide, densities increase by 1-2 orders of magnitude between the tropics and the highest sampled latitudes in the Arctic and Antarctic (Forney and Wade 2006). Killer whales tend to be more common along continental margins; however, there is some variation in this general pattern that appears linked to ocean productivity. Killer whales appear to be less common in western boundary currents such as the Gulf Stream, than in more productive eastern boundary currents such as the California Current. Line-transect surveys have resulted in estimates of abundance in several regions in the North Atlantic, including an abundance estimate of 3,100 (CV=63%) killer whales in Norwegian waters (Øien 1990), and an estimate of 6,618 (CV=32%) whales in Iceland and Faroes Islands waters (Sigurjónsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990).
15421		threats	eng	Killer whales have been exploited at low levels in several regions world-wide (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993). Norwegian whalers in the eastern North Atlantic took an average of 56 whales per year from 1938 to 1981.  Fishermen in many areas see killer whales as competitors, and intentional shooting of whales is known to occur. This problem is especially serious in Alaska, where depredation of longline fisheries is extensive (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Killer whales are still taken in small numbers in coastal fisheries in Japan, Greenland, Indonesia, and the Caribbean islands (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>After 1976, Iceland has been involved in live-captures of killer whales for export. During the period 1976-1988, 59 whales were collected, of which 8 were released, 3 died and 48 (an average 3.7 per year) were exported (Reyes 1991 and ref. therein). In 1991, the lcelandic government announced that once current permits for live-capture expire, no new ones would be issued (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Bycatch in trawl and driftnet fishing operations occur, but are considered rare (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999). Persistant, bioaccumulating contaminants have recently been found to present a serious potential risk to some killer whale subpopulations. Large-scale catastrophic oil spills have the potential to cause significant mortality of killer whales. Oil spills may also have an indirect effect by reducing prey abundance.<br/><br/>Disturbance may be a matter for concern in areas inhabited by killer whales and supporting whale-watching industries (Reyes 1991).  Moving boats can disrupt activities such as foraging and resting, and underwater boat noise could affect social and echolocation signals of the whales or otherwise interfere with foraging (Erbe 2002, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2002).  For example, close approaches by whale-watching vessels have been shown to result in avoidance responses by resident killer whales in British Columbia, which may have energetic costs for whales frequently subjected to whale watching activity (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2006).  Fast-moving boats in the proximity of killer whales also present a risk of collision or injury from propellers.  Visser (1999) reported propeller scars observed on killer whales in New Zealand.  <br/><br/>There have been large-scale reductions in predatory fish populations (Myers and Worm 2003, Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (Jackson et al. 2001). The effects on killer whales of reductions in fish populations due to overexploitation are unknown. In some areas, populations could be vulnerable owing to dietary specialization. The depletion of the Mediterranean bluefin tuna stock is considered a source of concern for the survival of the Gibraltar killer whales (Cañadas and de Stephanis 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect killer whales, and may affect some subpopulations more than others through changes in prey availability.
15421		threats	eng	Killer whales have been exploited at low levels in several regions world-wide (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Norwegian whalers in the eastern North Atlantic took an average of 56 whales per year from 1938 to 1981. The Japanese took an average of 43 whales per year along their coastal waters from 1946 to 1981. The Soviets, whaling primarily in the Antarctic, took an average of 26 animals annually from 1935 to 1979 and then took 916 animals in the 1979/80 Antarctic season (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Reyes 1991). Killer whales are still taken in small numbers in coastal fisheries in Japan, Greenland, Indonesia, and the Caribbean islands (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Fishermen in many areas see killer whales as competitors, and intentional shooting of whales is known to occur. This problem is especially serious in Alaska, where depredation of longline fisheries is extensive (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Yano and Dahlheim 1995; Donohue <em>et al</em>. 2003). Depredation of long-line catches appears to be a recent and increasing phenomenon, and now occurs in many regions (e.g., Aleutian Islands Alaska, South Georgia, Crozet Island, and several other southern ocean island areas, Australia, and other locations in the south Pacific). <br/><br/>During the period 1976-1988, 59 whales were captured alive off Iceland, of which 8 were released, 3 died and 48 (an average 3.7 per year) were exported to aquaria (Reyes 1991). Live-captures of several killer whales have also taken place in Japanese waters (Reyes 1991). Bycatch in trawl and driftnet fishing operations occur, but are considered rare (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999).<br/><br/>Persistent bio-accumulating contaminants have recently been found to present a serious potential risk to some killer whale subpopulations. Ross <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that total PCB concentrations were very high in three killer whales subpopulations (2 resident and 1 transient) frequenting the coastal waters of British Columbia, Canada. Transient killer whales were particularly contaminated due to their high trophic position in the marine ecosystem. PCB levels in most killer whales sampled were greater than levels established at which adverse effects occur in harbor seals, suggesting that the majority of free-ranging killer whales in this region are at risk of toxic effects. The southern resident and transient killer whales of British Columbia and Washington can be considered among the most contaminated cetaceans in the world (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Habitat disturbance may be a matter for concern in areas inhabited by killer whales and supporting whale-watching industries (Reyes 1991). Moving boats can disrupt activities such as foraging and resting, and underwater boat noise could affect social and echolocation signals of the whales or otherwise interfere with foraging (Erbe 2002; Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002). For example, close approaches by whale-watching vessels have been shown to result in avoidance responses by resident killer whales in British Columbia, which may result in energetic costs for whales frequently subjected to whale watching activity (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2006). Fast-moving boats in the proximity of killer whales also present a risk of collision or injury from propellers. Visser (1999) reports on propeller scars observed on killer whales in New Zealand and their possible causes of mortality. <br/><br/>Large-scale catastrophic oil spills have the potential to cause significant mortality of killer whales. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska was strongly correlated with the subsequent loss of several whales from a pod that had been seen swimming through light oil slicks early in the spill (Dahlheim and Matkin 1994). Oil spills may also have an indirect effect by reducing prey abundance.<br/><br/>There have been large-scale reductions in predatory fish populations (Myers and Worm 2003; Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). There have also been dramatic declines in marine mammal populations throughout the world. The effects of such reductions in prey populations (both fish and marine mammal) and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of killer whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>Due to their dietary specialization, some populations of killer whales could be especially vulnerable to a reduction of their food supply. In British Columbia and Washington State, many salmon stocks have significantly declined as a result of over-fishing, habitat degradation and reduced ocean survival. This is likely to affect fish-eating resident killer whale populations in that region (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2005). Mammal-hunting killer whales in British Columbia likely experienced periods of reduced prey availability due to depletion of pinniped populations prior to 1970 (Ford and Ellis 1999). The depletion of the Mediterranean bluefin tuna stock is considered a source of concern for the survival of the Gibraltar killer whales (Cañadas and de Stephanis 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may negatively affect certain killer whale subpopulations more than others through changes in prey availability (see e.g. Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
15422		conservation	eng	This species was assessed by NatureServe as G1   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends of this species is needed.
15422		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the <st1:city w:st="on">Beargrass, Pond </st1:city>and Harrods Creeks, on the <st1:state w:st="on">Ohio</st1:state> River in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jefferson County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky, USA</st1:state></st1:place> (Rhoades 1944, INHS Crustacean Collection, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be 990 km².
15422		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams in riffle areas, primarily under large rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
15422		population	eng	There have been no population studies published to date, although it can be abundant on suitable substrate (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15422		threats	eng	Urbanization could be considered a threat to this species.&#160; The main stream that it is found in has been converted to cement ditches, with sewage and industrial run-off present.&#160; However, it is still being collected in good numbers. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, an invasive species<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>is present in the main channel of the Ohio River, but so far seems not to have made it into Beargrass Creek   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15423		conservation	eng	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed this species&#160;as 'endangered' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), while NatureServe have assigned a heritage rank of G1G2&#160;(NatureServe 2009)&#160;to this species.&#160;&#160;A federal recovery plan exists for the species, although the remit of this is unknown&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to fully evaluate whether the effects of construction and sedimentation are negatively impacting this species. </p>
15423		distribution	eng	This species was first found in Mill Creek, a tributary of the Cumberland River in Davidson County, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1948). It is now also known from Sevenmile Creek in Williamson County, Tennessee&#160;(Miller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 1,700 km².
15423		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species&#160;is a hard water stream, which flows over sand, rubble and limestone ledges in its upper reaches, which is mostly through&#160;pasture and cultivated lands (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city>&#160;1948). It has silty, muddy banks, with shade provided by reeds and trees. The two creeks in which this species is found&#160; have banks 3 - 5 m high and Mill Creek is between 5-15 m wide (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1990). It is thought that this species&#160;does not inhabit turbid waters and so sedimentation may result in habitat becoming unsuitable (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1990).
15423		population	eng	There are insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;has been found to be common in some degraded sites&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). There has been no documented decline of the Nashville crayfish since it was located in the early eighties. This species seems to be maintaining itself in areas of the main channel of the Mill Creek that are not heavily polluted and where it is the dominant species&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15423		threats	eng	There are some concerns for this species&#160;due to urban development and stream modifications such as dry-bed retention dams in the Mill Creek drainage (Miller&#160;<em>et al. </em>1990). In both Mill Creek and Sevenmile Creek, there are numerous bridges and pipelines and other evidence of urban development. Both streams are also affected by sedimentation as a result of local construction (Miller&#160;<em>et al</em>. 1990).&#160; This species was once collected in degraded habitat in relatively good numbers at one site where the site was full of rubbish, however there was some cobble and rock substrate where the species was found (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). No measurements of water chemistry were taken, but the water was found to be relatively clear, rather than turbid (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15424		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>  This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
15424		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the state of Kentucky and was first found in Crooked Creek, and subsequently in Brushy Fork and Camp Creek in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Crittenden County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state></st1:place> (Prins and Fitzpatrick 1965, Taylor and Schuster 2004).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 210 km².
15424		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small to medium sized creeks ranging from 2 to 10 m with bottom substrates of bedrock, cobble and some mud (Taylor and Schuster 2004). This species may also be found in pools (Rhoades 1944). During collection in January 1964, it was found that some tributaries of Brushy Creek were nearly dry. Pools that were left were 5 - 10 ft wide and 5 - 20 inches deep. However, this is attributed to unusually low rainfall in autumn and early winter of 1963/1964 (Prins and Fitzpatrick 1965). Many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span>will hide away under rocks in pools when water levels drop. Crayfish were found amongst detritus in the bottom of pools and under rubble (Prins and Fitzpatrick 1965).
15424		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (Taylor and Schuster 2004).
15424		threats	eng	<em></em>This species inhabits a rural area where there are no known threats. However there is a possible threat posed by the introduction of species not native to this drainage such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, which used to be commonly used as a bait species by fishermen. One introduction, or an expansion of the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> which is occurring in nearby areas, perhaps as close as 10 miles (T. Jones pers. comm. 2009) could be detrimental to this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> has negatively affected many species where it has been introduced, and has out-competed, and sometimes hybridized with species native to the drainage.&#160; The last collections in the Crooked Creek drainage were in 2003 where 2 individuals were collected (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, the Ohio River has been recovering for 15 years since the main channel was altered causing a drop in pollution levels (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
15425		conservation	eng	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed <em></em>this species as 'threatened' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and it has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<em></em>.&#160;</p><p>Monitoring of the remnant subpopulations of this species is needed to assess the likelihood of becoming threatened in the near future.<br/></p>
15425		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was first found in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cherry</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Jackson County, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs and Barr 1972). It is known from approx 25 localities within three counties in <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee; one cave in&#160; </st1:state><st1:placename w:st="on">Putnam</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>, one cave in <st1:placename w:st="on">Smith</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>, and <st1:placename w:st="on">10 caves within Jackson</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename>, on both sides of the <st1:place w:st="on">Cumberland river</st1:place>, and is considered to have a severely fragmented distribution (Buhay and Crandall 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately less than 2,700 km<sup>2</sup>.
15425		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is restricted to caves (Buhay and Crandall 2008).&#160; From what is known, this is a relatively specialized habitat type and there are few available flowing subterranean streams available to this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15425		population	eng	<p>The rarity of collections by Thomas Bar, held in USNM is likely to be a true reflection of the relative sparseness of the species (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009). Very few individuals were encountered in surveys   conducted by Buhay (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
15425		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The restricted cave environment,  such as that occupied by this species, presents a number of potential threats. Caves are often subject to surface run-off and can easily bring in contaminants such as sewage or faecal contamination, pesticides or herbicides, and hazardous materials via accidental spills or deliberate dumping such as road salting (Lewis 2001). Sedimentation resulting in habitat alteration is a common threat caused by construction, farming, logging, and other development that disturbs the groundcover. It can block recharge sites in caves and alter flow velocity and volume (Lewis 2001). Flooding can be a serious threat to cave dwelling species as it changes stream flow. Stream back-flowing is another source of contamination introduction into cave habitats, as is local exploration for oil, water or gas, which may encounter cave passages (Lewis 2001). However at the present time, it is noted there is no documented decline in this species as a result of threats.<br/><br/>A recent study by Buhay and Crandall (2005) showed this species  exhibited little difference between historical and current genetic  diversity estimates, although there is inferred decline in the quality  of cave habitat (Lewis 2001, Buhay and Crandall 2008).
15426		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007)
15426		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the Tradewater River drainage in Caldwell, Crittenden, Livingston, and Union, Counties in Kentucky, and Hardin County, Illinois, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1989, Rhoades 1944). <br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2,600 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
15426		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits streams with substrates of cobble (Hobbs 1989) and rocky pools (Boyd and Page 1978).
15426		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. Page (pers. comm. 1992) stated, however that this species&#160; is&#160; reasonably plentiful where it occurs and estimates more than 10,000 individuals exist across its range. During a 1972&#160; -1975 survey of Big Creek, Illinois, the number of individuals collected at 15 stations ranged from 1 - 459 (Boyd and Page 1978). In addition, there is currently estimated to be fewer than 50 miles of stream inhabited by this species in Illinois (G. Kruse pers. comm. 1998). However, the majority of the range occurs in Kentucky.</p>
15426		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Hybridisation is reported, however. in one specimen between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes placidus</span> in Big Creek, Illinois (Boyd and Page 1978). Subsequent collections have never revealed further examples of this hybridization (C. Taylor pers. comm.).
15427		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). Further research is required to determine abundance of this species, and a more precise distribution.
15427		distribution	eng	<p><em></em>This species is limited to the Prairie section of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Noxubee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> and in other tributary systems of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> northward to the Catalpa Creek basin in Kemper, Noxubee, Lowndes, <st1:placename w:st="on">Choctaw</st1:placename>, and Oktibbeha Counties (Cooper and Hobbs 1980<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>, MMNS database). Single records from the <st1:place w:st="on">Upper  Pearl</st1:place>, Upper Big Black, and Sucarnoochee watersheds did not contain form 1 males and are thus not substantiated   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 4,500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
15427		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in streams which are sluggish to moderately flowing, roadside ditches and woodland ponds (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).
15427		population	eng	<p><em></em>   There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species can be abundant at a site   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Only three collections, with 1 - 6 individuals per collection, were made since 1990, but that may be due to limited sampling effort   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
15427		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species include habitat degradation resulting from sedimentation and agricultural run-off.&#160; In addition, this species is likely undergoing localized declines due to urbanization and alterations to the hydrological regime   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Finally, reservoirs may contribute to population fragmentation in parts of the range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
15428		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>A significant proportion of this species&#160;occurs in the Ouachita National Forest (ONF); however conservation measures for this species are urgently required given its small range and the significance of threats (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15428		distribution	eng	This species was,&#160;in 1976, found in only one tributary of the Kiamichi River, LaFlore County, Oklahoma, USA (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976). However, in a recent extensive survey it has now been found in seven tributaries in the upper 45 km of the Kiamichi river (Jones and Bergey 2007). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 300 km<sup>2</sup>.
15428		habitat	eng	This species has a strong preference for riffles and pool habitats, dominated by cobble, boulder and gravel substrates with maximum depths rarely more than one metre (Jones and Bergey 2007). In dry months, this species&#160;utilizes pool areas when riffles are absent. The availability of riffle habitats probably contributes to the limited range of this species, as it cannot migrate further down the Kiamich River due to the low abundance of cobbles, and wide riffle zones (Jones and Bergey 2007). In the summer, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>constructs small burrows under large boulders and cobbles, providing suitable conditions for aestivation (Jones and Bergey 2007).
15428		population	eng	In the study by Jones and Bergey (2007), a total of 696 individuals were captured. Thus, this species is recognized as being locally abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15428		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the growing demands for freshwater from the Kiamichi&#160;River. The surface water produced by this river is the primary source of human drinking water in the region, with five water resource development projects already in place along the river (Jones and Bergey 2007). A significant proportion of this species&#160;occurs in the Ouachita National Forest (ONF), where silviculture is an important industry (Jones and Bergey 2007). It has been calculated that at least 70% of every stream that this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>inhabits, lies within the ONF. This silviculture has brought increased sedimentation and turbidity to the streams where this species&#160;is located (Jones and Bergey 2007), although its impact on this species' populations is unknown (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2010).
15429		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
15429		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern Ohio and southern Indiana, USA (St. John 1988, St. John 1991, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In 1962 this species was found in 32 counties in Ohio and Indiana (Rhoades 1962). However, by 1988 a survey showed that this species had been extirpated from three of these 32 counties (St. John 1988). In the same survey, however, this species&#160;was found in five new counties in Indiana (St. John 1988). In a study in 1991 on the&#160;distribution of this species in Ohio, St. John (1991) found that the ratio of<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>to<span style="font-style: italic;"> O. rusticus </span>had decreased in nine out of 15 sites and was now absent in one of the counties where it had previously been found.&#160;The present extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 16,400 km², although a reduction in EOO of 4,349 km² from 1962 to 1991 has been recorded. This reduction in range is due to the range expansion of the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> (St. John 1988, St. John 1991, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).
15429		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the clear tributaries of streams and prefers clean, rocky-bottomed streams, preferring small to medium sized streams (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In the presence of <em>O. rusticus</em> it is found in small wooded riparian streams, and in the absence of<em> O. rusticus </em>it expands its range into fourth order streams up to 20 m across (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
15429		population	eng	This species&#160; is slowly being replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>as the more dominant crayfish species in certain parts of its range (St. John 1991, St. John 1988). In addition, a population reduction has been seen in certain areas of Ohio. Where<em> O. rusticus</em> is not present, this species is common to abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15429		threats	eng	The range expansion of the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> is encroaching on the historic range of this species&#160;in certain areas, with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span>&#160;slowly replacing this species as the more dominant species&#160;(St. John 1988; St. John 1991; Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). Increasing levels of pollution have been found to compound this threat as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> is the more resilient of the two species (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).<br/>St. John's (1991) sites were recently revisited and it was found that almost every one of the historic sites to be extant, with equivalent numbers (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).This species has been known, however, to&#160;coexist with <em>O. rusticus</em> in some parts of its range, especially outside of Ohio,&#160;effectively taking up a different niche form when it is in the presence of it (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
15430		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>Further survey work is recommended for this species, as channelization in this agricultural area may have resulted in some localized declines&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).In addition,&#160;further&#160;research into the effects of point and diffuse discharge into the water course is required to ensure populations of this species are not being affected.
15430		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Little Wabash River system in southeastern Illinois, USA (Page 1985). This represents an extent of occurrence of approximately 2,085 km<sup>2</sup>.
15430		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>inhabits second to forth order streams and has a preference for shallow riffles with large flat stones, mud and woody debris (Page 1985).
15430		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;is found to be uncommon within its range (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It is approximately 25 years since the last intensive survey for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
15430		threats	eng	The Little Wabash River flows through several urban areas and areas of intensive agriculture. This has led to some discharge of heavy metals,&#160;faecal&#160;matter, excess nutrient input from farmland and pollution from some oil well operations (Illinois EPA 2006). The effect this is having on populations of this species is not known however. There is some channelization in its range, but as long as there is some woody debris, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is still present (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor and pers. comm. 2009).
15431		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as 'endangered' (Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em> 2007); NatureServe has assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the threats to this species is needed.
15431		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range and is known from Robinson, Beason and Snake Creeks, which are western tributaries of the Tennessee River in Hardin and McNairy Counties, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1948, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2007). &#160;This species is also found in Chambers and Seven Mile Creek, in Alcorn County Mississippi (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009) and also the Houston Branch and Shiloh Branch in Hardin County (S.Adams, pers. comm 2010). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 666 km<sup>2</sup>.
15431		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small to medium sized slow flowing creeks, streams and large pools. This species' type locality had a substrate of red clay and gravel with a few rocks forming riffles. The heavily shaded water was between 0.3 and 1.8 m deep, with water-side vegetation (Hobbs 1948).&#160; It has subsequently been found under rocks and in leaf litter.
15431		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although is regarded as&#160;common in areas of suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15431		threats	eng	Sedimentation poses the biggest threat to the species in the Mississippi part of its range, but this is not considered to be an expanding threat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009); the area that this species inhabits is largely rural. The species has been collected in areas with active pasture and agricultural impacts, where it was still found in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). However, fishing is popular in the Tennessee River above and on Pickwick Lake, which is a maximum of 15 km from the mouths of the tributaries. This activity poses the potential threat of invasive crayfish species from bait release. There is a known population of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. virilis</span>, an invasive species of crayfish, upstream of Pickwick Lake (Taylor and Schuster 2004, USNM 4873). There has also been extensive head cutting of streams and channelisation which is now a reasonably widespread threat within this species range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010).
15432		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Rank Status of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and acknowledge this species has taxonomic problems.
15432		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Sucarnoochee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage, Mississippi (Fitzpatrick 1972) but may extend into the upper reaches of the Chickasawhay and Leaf River drainages, and the tributaries of the east and west banks of the lower <st1:placename w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state></st1:place>, USA.</p><p>    </p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 11,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>  <p></p>
15432		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams which are moderate to swiftly flowing, dominating riffle areas and sparganum beds (Fitzpatrick 1972). This species is dependent on cobble or woody debris for cover and is largely dependent on the availability of this  (Taylor pers. comm 2009).
15432		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. <br/></p>
15432		threats	eng	<p><em></em>This species is threatened by the widespread intensive agriculture in the Sucarnooche River basin. This has caused high levels of sedimentation, in addition to high&#160; chlorophyll and nitrogen levels in the water (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species is smaller, with lower fecundity and smaller eggs, than most other species from its subgenus (Adams 2008).&#160; At one site, several ovigerous females carried empty eggshells and one male had deformed gonopods, suggesting possible water quality problems (Adams 2008). </p>
15433		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
15433		distribution	eng	This species was originally known from only seven localities in the Kisatchie Bayou drainage in the Natchitoches and Sabine parishes, Louisiana, and in Upshur County, Texas, USA. It is now thought to be sparsely distributed in several&#160; Red River tributaries in northeast Texas and in central Louisiana (Walls 2009).&#160; It has been recorded at 21 sites in 8 counties all in the Cypress Creek drainage (D. Johnson, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The species range is additionally regarded as being very disjunct   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Specimens of this species from Coal County, Oklahoma, were interpreted by Walls (1972) as intergrades between this crayfish and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. (H.) difficilis</span>.<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 7,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
15433		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams of various sizes and substrates, but mostly on flowing clear sandy bottomed streams, under debris and rocks, and seldom in reed beds, but almost always with leaf litter (Walls 1972, Walls 2009).
15433		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is now absent from 4 historical sites, indicating recent  population declines in the Louisiana portions of its range<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009). </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
15433		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by the possible conversion of surrounding forests into agricultural land (wlf 2008). This will increase run off and sediment loads into the streams (wlf 2008). Additionally, the loss of shade and the creation of impoundments will also affect the habitat suitability and dispersal abilities of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(wlf 2008)<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>This species is now absent from 4 historical sites, indicating recent population declines in the Louisiana portions of its range<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; These sites have become buried in silt due to increased sediment loads.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
15434		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further research and monitoring on this species is recommended to clarify threats posed.&#160;<br/><br/><br/><em></em>
15434		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Spring River drainage system in Lawrence, Randolf, Fulton and Sharp counties, Arkansas, and Oregon County, Missouri , USA (Pflieger 1996). Although this species is known from upwards of 20 sites (Flinders and Magoulick 2005), this is reduced to 5-10 locations based on the threat of an invasive species. The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated at just over 2,800 km².
15434		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits clear streams with riffles and runs, with gravel or rubble substrate (Pflieger 1996), but is also found in high numbers in pools and spring fed streams (Dukat and Magoulick 1999). In some parts of its range this species is found in higher numbers in non-permanent freshwater habitats than it is in those which are permanent (Flinders and Magoulic 2003).
15434		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been collected in one instance in densities of up to 5 individuals m<sup>-2 </sup>(Flinders and Magoulick 2007).&#160; However, this is not thought to be true across its range, where at many locations when collected, it is one of the less common species (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15434		threats	eng	This species is under threat from the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span>, which has entered the South fork of the Spring River drainage and is rapidly spreading (B. DiStefano, pers. comm. 2009). It has already displaced two species, <em>Cambarus hobbsi</em>&#160;and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. eupunctus,</span> after entering the system some time between 1990 and 2000, and has been moving at a rate of 28 km over 10 years. It is not yet present in the range of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, but is getting closer (B. DiStefano, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
15435		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/>Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, whether it is being impacted by any other threats and the impacts of current threats.
15435		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a restricted range in the tributaries of the Ouachita River in Polk and Montgomery Counties, Arkansas, and the Red River in LeFlore and McCurtain Counties, Oklahoma, USA (Fetzner 2008).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just above 2,100 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
15435		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in stony or rocky permanent streams (Fetzner 2008).
15435		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
15435		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by forestry activities and sedimentation from road construction in the basins of the Ouachita and Red rivers (wildlifearkansas 2008). However, the area is rural, there are no known documented impacts and habitat quality is stable (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
15436		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Missouri Department of Conservation, the University of Missouri, Columbia, and the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit are working together to find the mechanism behind the range and population decline and are planning a conservation strategy for this species&#160;(DiStefano 2008).<em><br/></em>
15436		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the upper St. Francis River in central Missouri, USA. The range of this species has contracted in the past 30 years and it has been extirpated from significant portions of Big Creek and its tributaries (DiStefano<em> et al.</em> 2002,&#160;DiStefano 2008). A recent comprehensive survey (Riggert <em>et al.</em> 1999) confirmed the narrow range of this species, but also that the range has been reduced over the last 30 years, presumably related to the invasion of <em>Orconectes hylas</em> from a&#160;neighbouring&#160;drainage. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just above 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
15436		habitat	eng	This species is found under shallow burrows and small rocks in rocky streams and pools (Pflieger 1996, DiStefano 2008).
15436		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;is common in the few streams where it occurs (DiStefano 2008). However, a global population decline can be inferred from its significant range contraction. A decline has been observed over 7 years in Carver Creek, and it seems likely that declines are occurring in other nearby creeks (DiStefano 2008).
15436		threats	eng	The range of this species&#160;has reduced significantly in the past 30 years. This is considered to be due to the encroachment of the more aggressive, invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes hylas</span> (DiStefano 2008, Rahm <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes  hylas</span> represents a plausible threat to the continued persistence of this species&#160;(DiStefano 2008). Furthermore, the St. Francis River watershed is periodically contaminated by heavy metals released by nearby mining activities, reducing the habitat quality of the river (DiStefano 2008).
15437		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Crandall (1998) recommends that the status of this species&#160;be moved from 'watch list' to 'rare' in the Rare and Endangered Species of Missouri Checklist. The Missouri Department of Conservation, University of Missouri Columbia, and the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit are currently monitoring this species with an effort to understand the mechanisms of declines for this species (DiStefano 2008)
15437		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the headwaters of the St. Francis River system in Iron, Genevieve, and Madison counties in Missouri, USA (Fetzner 2008, DiStefano 2008, Williams 1954). The range of this species is observed to have been retracting (DiStefano 2008). This species&#160;has been extirpated from two-thirds of its type locality stream: Stouts Creek (DiStefano&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2002). A recent survey (Riggart<em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;1999) examining 17 museum collections confirmed its narrow range but also that its range has been reduced in the last 30 years, presumably related to the introduction of&#160;<em>Orconectes hylas</em>&#160;from a neighbouring drainage.&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 3,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
15437		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks in rocky streams and from shallow depths on pebble and cobble substrates (Williams 1954, DiStefano 2008).
15437		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in the streams where it occurs and has been found in densities of up for 4 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (DiStefano 2008). However, a population decline can be inferred from the range reduction this species is experiencing&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15437		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species&#160;is heavy metal pollution caused by mining in the region (DiStefano 2008). However, there is no evidence this has had an adverse effect on this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> The invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes hylas</span> has been introduced into at least three streams in the range of<em> </em>this species and has eliminated the native crayfish from these streams (DiStefano 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes hylas</span> poses a continued and plausible threat to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
15438		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">blacki </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
15438		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from only six localities in Beauregard and Calcasieu parishes, Louisiana (Fetzner 2008).
15438		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. blacki </span>occurs in small to medium sized permanent streams with a sand and mud substrate (Fetzner 2008).
15438		population	eng	There is no population data avaliable for this subspecies.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
15438		threats	eng	The main threat to this crayfish subspecies is pollution from agricultural run off such as sedimentation and chemical pollution (wlf 2009).
15439		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
15439		distribution	eng	This species was first found at the Brier Fork of the <st1:place w:st="on">Flint River</st1:place> in Madison County, Alabama (Cooper and Hobbs 1980). It is now known to be restricted to the Flint River Watershed, <st1:city w:st="on">Madsion County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state> and the head waters of the Flint River in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lincoln   County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place> (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).<br/><br/>It is known from only 7 localities, primarily in the Flint River (Tennessee system) in Madison County, Alabama (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and Lincoln County, Tennessee. In Tennessee, Williams and Bivens (2001) documented it in the Highland Rim province in the headwaters of the Flint River system in Lincoln County.   This species has a distribution of approximately 2539 km<sup>2</sup>.
15439		habitat	eng	This species is found in stream habitats, most commonly along the edges amongst leaf litter (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).&#160; The streams in which it has been found support a wide variety of crayfish species due to high levels of habitat heterogeneity (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).&#160; Furthermore, these streams get much deeper during flooding in winter and spring (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).
15439		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
15439		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats impacting this species. This species inhabits a rural area, however, urbanization of the growing Huntsville metropolitan area may impact the species in the future   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
15440		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>  <em><em><em></em></em></em>
15440		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the North Canadian drainage (mainstem only) in Oklahoma. It was first found in Oklahoma in 1951, although a valid description of the crayfish didn't occur until 1975 from a New Mexico record; it was also found in Oklahoma in 1975. It occurs from Harper County (where the North Canadian is known as the Beaver River), through Woodward, Blaine from a record from 1951, Dewey and Okfuskee Counties, Oklahoma. Though it may occur in other parts of Oklahoma, as extensive survey work in this state has not been done. The species also occurs in the Arkansas River in Muskogee and LeFlore Counties, near it's junction with the North  Canadian River. Although Conchas Reservoir is on the Canadian River in New Mexico, the species has not been collected in the Canadian River in Oklahoma (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 93,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
15440		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both streams and lakes (Hobbs 1989), in woody debris piles on sand bottomed low gradient rivers (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Additionally, it occurs in warm, eutrophic water (among filamentous green algae in an area with high cattle use) at the western edge of the Oklahoma range. It did not extend further westward into the intermittent headwaters. It also occurs in reservoirs along the North Canadian River e.g. Canton Reservoir in Blaine County and Fort Supply Reservoir in Woodward County (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).
15440		population	eng	This species is known from a number of collections. It is abundant within the North Canadian River in areas of suitable habitat (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
15440		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>was introduced to the Conchas Lake reservoir approximately 25 years ago (Bouchard 1980), which drains into the Canadian river where this species is found. However there are no records of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> in the North Canadian River at this time (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
15441		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/>    <p><span class="datalabel">Further research this species range and assessments of population size are recommended, as are evaluations of responses to stream habitat degradation (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009)<span class="datalabel">.</span></p><p></p>
15441		distribution	eng	<p><em></em>This species is known from six localities in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Yazoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992, Adams 2008). More specifically, it is known from the Yalobusha, Yocona, and Little Tallahatchie drainages in Calhoun, Yalobusha, Lafayette, and Panola counties. An additional record of one female from the upper <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl River</st1:place> drainage requires further collections to verify the identification.&#160; Another unsubstantiated record of the species from <st1:place w:st="on">Tallahatchie</st1:place> County was reported in Fitzpatrick (1996). If these are substantiated, they would represent substantial range expansions.&#160; <br/></p><p>    </p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 1,466 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>  <p></p>
15441		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This species is endemic to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Yazoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It inhabits streams with sand, silt or compacted clay substrates in channels from 7 - 10 m wide, at various depths ranging from several centimetres to one meter (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992). Water flow can be either slow or moderate. However, <em></em>this species seems to exhibit a range of tolerances for different habitats. Cowpen Creek, for example, is narrow, varying from 2.4 to 9.2 meters width, its bed is compacted clay with undercut ledges, and it has water temperatures up to 28<sup>o</sup>C (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992).</p>
15441		population	eng	<p><em></em>This species was found to be uncommon in five of six collections, obtaining three or fewer specimens per site (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). Most stream sampling within the range has not produced this species (<st1:place w:st="on">S. Adams</st1:place>, pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
15441		threats	eng	<p><em></em>This species seems to be able to tolerate somewhat degraded conditions, as two of the streams it inhabits are used by small holder livestock farming (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992). It is likely to be affected by row-crop agriculture, deforestation, roads, channelization, and head-cutting. In addition, large reservoirs currently fragment this species' range   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
15442		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), although new records mean this will be updated shortly (C. Taylor, pers comm. 2009).<br/>Further research on this spceis is recommenced to clarify its abundance, distribution and threats       (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15442		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Alabama River basin in Dallas, Lowndes, Montgomery, Perry, and Wilcox Counties, Alabama (Cooper and Hobbs 1980), in a limited portion of the lower Tom Bigby and central Alabama drainages.<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 12,400 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
15442		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams less than one meter deep with a sluggish to moderate current, coupled with a sand and clay substrate (Cooper and Hobbs 1980). This species has been found underneath debris and roots of trees along the banks of the stream bed (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).
15442		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is known to be uncommon in sites at which it is present     </p><p>(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p></p>
15442		threats	eng	There are no known immediate threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. There are large areas of timber harvesting in its range and is thus likely to be undergoing localized declines due to increased siltation and alterations the hydrological regime   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
15443		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the subpopulations is needed to determine the status at each site.
15443		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from Rockcastle and Pulaski Counties, and possibly McCreary County, Kentucky (Buhay and Crandall 2008), although historical sites were not accessible for recent genetic studies. This species is also found on both sides of the Cumberland River, which fragments the distribution (J. Buhay pers. comm. 2010). With intensive field surveys, it is believed more cave localities will be found for this species (Buhay and Crandall 2008). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,600 km².    <p> </p>
15443		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species (Buhay and Crandall 2008).
15443		population	eng	No formal census surveys have been done for this species, although genetic diversity is significant, suggesting severe fragmentation of populations (Buhay and Crandall 2008).
15443		threats	eng	Major road construction has been recognized as an imminent threat to many populations of this species (Buhay and Crandall 2008) and is impacting all the subpopulations of this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).
15446		conservation	eng	All the subspecies, except <span style="font-style: italic;">Orcula austriaca austriaca</span>, are red-listed in Austria (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).<br/><br/>No conservation actions are required for this species as a whole under this assessment. Research to resolve the taxonomic confusions surrounding the subspecies is recommended.
15446		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Austria, with some subspecies having extremely restricted distributions. For example <span style="font-style: italic;">O. austriaca pseudofuchsi</span> is known only from one locality (less than 10 km²), <span style="font-style: italic;">O. austriaca goelleri</span> from five localities (less than 10 km²) and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. austriaca faueri</span> from two localities (less than 10 km²).
15446		habitat	eng	The species has a preference for grassy, calcareous rock ledges.
15446		population	eng	The population of this species is currently unknown, and there is no data available on population trends.
15446		threats	eng	Threats have been identified as habitat destruction through the afforestation of spruce (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>trees.
15447		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the species, although it is listed on the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and&#160; Reischütz 2007) as Endangered (EN).<br/>Habitat destruction in the form of the afforestation of spruce trees has been identified as a major threat which is resulting in a decline in the population. As there are only six known sites with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of just 35 km<sup>2</sup> and area of occupancy (AOO) of just 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>, known sites require protecting from these activities to halt the decline. The creation of suitable habitats in the area to attempt to reverse the current trend is also proposed. Continuing the monitoring of the population size and trends is needed to accompany this.
15447		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Austria, where it is found in a very restricted range on the margin of the eastern Alps.
15447		habitat	eng	This species is found in a mountainous-subalpine area, at the foot of steep calcareous rock walls and on grassy rock ledges.
15447		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is not known. However, it is only known from six fragmented localities and the general trend is declining.
15447		threats	eng	Threats have been identified as biotope destruction through the afforestation of spruce (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>trees.
15448		conservation	eng	The species is listed as Near Threatened (NT) on the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007). Conservation actions are not required at present, however, due to the fact that the population is observed to be in decline, monitoring of the population trend is necessary to see if this continues. If this is the case, conservation actions may be required, such as through habitat protection in known sites by restricting identified threats such as afforestation, detrimental tourism activities and pasturing.
15448		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Upper Austria and Styria; found in the northern Alps between the rivers Traun and Enns.
15448		habitat	eng	This is a sub-alpine species, found under mossy boulders on wooded slopes or on grassy calcareous rock ledges or rock surfaces.
15448		population	eng	The population is known from about 40 localities, but is decreasing.
15448		threats	eng	Identified threats to the species are through alpine pasturing, tourist activities and afforestation with spruce trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>).
15452		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Leopardus jacobitus</span>). The Andean Cat also has full protection at national level across its entire range, as described below.  However, law enforcement is problematic, and recently hunted specimens have been observed in the field and for sale in special markets to be used in religious ceremonies.  Traditional cultural reverence for the Andean Cat should be the foundation of a conservation education program to reduce hunting pressure (Lucherini <em>et al.</em> 2003, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Conservation also depends on maintaining and restoring colonies of the main prey species, Mountain Vizcachas (<em>Lagidium</em> spp.), which historically have been destroyed or severely reduced (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The Andean Cat Conservation Action Plan (Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2004) lists protected areas where Andean Cat presence is confirmed and suspected.<br/><br/>The action plan has six objectives:<br/><br/>To determine the current distribution and relative abundance of Andean Cat populations, and the threats that affect the species and natural ecosystems;<br/><br/>To carry out scientific research to provide basic information on Andean Cat biology and ecology;<br/><br/>To mitigate impacts of human activities on the Andean Cat and natural ecosystems through community education and participation;<br/><br/>To strengthen the management of protected areas where the Andean Cat is present, promote the establishment of new areas or corridors and encourage the development of conservation initiatives in the region;<br/><br/>To promote the implementation and adequacy of conservation legislation and policies regarding the Andean Cat and natural ecosystems; and<br/><br/>To continuously evaluate the actions developed in the implementation of this plan. <br/><br/>National legislation<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>The Andean Cat is protected by National Law 22421 of wildlife conservation and its Statutory<br/>Decree 666/97. Also, Resolution N°63/86 of the Secretary of Agriculture.<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Along with other wild species of fauna and flora, the Andean Cat is protected by the Supreme<br/>Decree N°22641, promulgated in 1990, which establishes a general and undefined ban for the<br/>pursuit, capture, storing and conditioning of wild animals and its derivative products.<br/><br/>Chile<br/>All felid species are fully protected since 1972 by Law N° 19473. The illegal hunting of felines in<br/>Chile is penalized with fines up to US$ 6.000 and imprisonment up to 3 years.<br/><br/>Peru<br/>In Peru the Andean Cat is considered a threatened species and its hunting, commerce and<br/>possession (live or dead animals or its parts) is prohibited (Supreme Decree N°013-99-AG, <br/>1999).
15452		distribution	eng	The Andean Cat has a restricted distribution, being found only in the higher elevations of the Andes moutains, in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru.  In Argentina, while the average elevation of occurrence was estimated at 4,236 m (Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003), it has also been found at lower elevations, with a new record of 1,800 m in the southern Andes (Sorli <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In Chile, Napolitano collected confirmed scats of the Andean Cat from 3,714 to 4,414 m, but the probability of finding scats increased with altitude.  In Bolivia, Villalba <em>et al.</em> (2008) consider it to occur generally only from 4,100 m and higher, and most records from Peru were collected at 4,000 m or higher (Cossios <em>et a</em>l. 2007).  While range in Chile appears to be less extensive (Iriarte 1998, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008) than previously inferred (Scrocchi and Halloy 1986), in Peru, where it was previously thought to be only of marginal occurrence in the far south, new research has extended its range over 800 km north into the center of the country (Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Andean Cat has only been observed in the wild a few times by scientists (Scrocchi and Halloy 1986, Sanderon 1999, Sorli <em>et al.</em> 2006), and there are few museum specimens (Garcia-Perea 2002), but the number of recent distribution records has greatly increased due to the efforts of the Andean Cat Alliance (www.gatoandino.org), a network of specialist researchers.
15452		habitat	eng	The Andean Cat is restricted to the arid, sparsely vegetated areas of the high Andes above the timberline, primarily in the most most rocky and steep terrain (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its distribution is similar to the historic range of the Short-tailed Chinchilla (<em>Chinchilla chinchilla</em>) and current range of the Mountain Vizcacha (<em>Lagidium</em> spp.) (Yensen and Seymour 2000), which are its major prey (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2007, Napolitano <em>et al</em>. 2008).  Most recent information about the species has come from analysis of scats found at latrine sites near rocky areas and caves (Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).   <br/><br/>The Andean Cat is perhaps a solitary species, but may be seen in pairs or with cubs during mating season and after births respectively (Villalba <em>et a</em>l. 2004). Mating season, according to local people in Bolivia, is between July and August (Villalba and Bernal 1998); howeve,r is possible that this period is extended until November or December due to small cubs have been observed in October and April (Villalba 2002, E. Delgado pers. comm.). The period between October and March corresponds to the spring and summer season in the southern hemisphere, and during these seasons it is common to record births for other wildlife species and it is the period of major productivity of vegetation (Villalba <em>et a</em>l. 2004).  Two kittens were seen by Villalba (2002), and what appears to be an older single cub by Sorli <em>et al.</em> (2006).  <br/><br/>Most of the reported sightings of Andean Cats have been mainly during daytime; however, current studies on the species through camera traps and observations of a radio-collared Andean Cat indicate that the activity of the species is mainly at night or crepuscular (Villalba 2002, Lucherini <em>et al</em>. 2004, L. Villalba unpublished data). The crepuscular or nocturnal habits of the Andean Cat are likely related with feeding habits of its main prey, the Mountain Vizcacha, which is considered a diurnal and crepuscular species (Galende <em>et a</em>l. 1998).<br/><br/>Data on territoriality is absent, however, as occurs with most felids (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), it is possible that male territories are larger than those of females and that there could be a certain degree of territory overlapping between the sexes.  Because the conditions of the Andean Cat habitat are severe and naturally fragmented, it is probable that territory and home ranges are very large; in fact the results of the radio-tracking of a female Andean Cat, between April and December 2004, gave a home range of 65.5 km² (95% minimum convex polygon: L. Villalba unpublished data). <br/><br/>The Andean Cat is a medium-sized felid; from measures of skins the total length in adults varies from 740 to 850 mm and in sub-adults varies from 577 to 600 mm; tail length is from 410 to 485 for adults and 330 to 420 mm for sub-adults. Only two records on the weight are available, the first from a sub-adult specimen from Peru, which weighed 4 kg (Pearson 1957, García-Perea 2002) and the second is from an adult female from Bolivia which weighed 4.5 kg (Delgado <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Andean Cat fur is mainly ash grey with brown-yellowish blotches that are distributed as vertical lines at both sides of the body, giving the appearance of continuous stripes. The tail of the Andean Cat is very characteristic. It is very long (66 - 75% of the head and body length), thick and cylindrical, with a fluffy aspect and with 6 to 9 wide rings of dark brown to black colour (García-Perea 2002). The legs also have dark and narrower blotches or stripes, but they don’t form complete rings.<br/><br/>Apparently the species is not sexually dimorphic in terms of fur color, but comparisons among Andean cat skulls carried out by García-Perea (2002) suggest that sexual dimorphism is present. Differences between juvenile and adult specimens were also found, with juveniles having a lighter coloration and more and smaller blotches (García-Perea 2002). Because of these features, sub-adult or juvenile Andean Cats can be confused much more easily with Pampas Cats (García-Perea 2002).
15452		population	eng	The Andean Cat is rare compared to its close relative the Pampas Cat.  Although the Pampas Cat looks quite different in other parts of its wide range, in the high Andes it is similar in appearance to the Andean Cat, to the extent that local people find it difficult to distinguish the two (Villalba <em>et al.</em> in submission) as well as scientists, who have developed diagnostic keys (Garcia-Perea 2002, Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Palacios 2007).  Several studies have found records of the Pampas Cat much more frequently than the Andean Cat (Lucherini and Vidal 2003, Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) found reduced genetic diversity in the Andean Cat compared to the sympatric Pampas Cat, suggesting a "smaller current or historic population size."<br/><br/>The only population estimate available was for a 25,000 ha area in northern Chile, around the Salar de Surire National Monument, where Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimated five individuals to occur based on genetic sampling, for a density of one per 5 km².<br/><br/>There are no known Andean Cats in captivity.
15452		threats	eng	The Andean Cat Conservation Action Plan (2004) considers traditional hunting the top threat, followed by prey reduction and habitat loss and fragmentation.<br/><br/>The Andean Cat (as well as the pampas cat) is considered a sacred animal according to indigenous Aymara and Quechua traditions.  Throughout much of its range, dried and stuffed specimens are kept by local people for use in harvest festivals (Iriarte 1998, Sanderson 1999, Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Hunting for such cultural practices may represent a significant threat to the species.  In Argentina's Catamarca province, 69% of people interviewed (n=13) said they had hunted small cats (Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The Mountain Chinchilla was likely to have been a major prey species for the Andean mountain cat, but the species was hunted nearly to extinction for the fur trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Its main prey is now the Mountain Vizcacha (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008), which lives in patchily distributed small colonies and has also been reduced by hunting pressure. This may result in a highly fragmented distribution for the Andean Cat.  Genetic analysis suggests that the Andean Cat had a historic or a currently small population size (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).  <br/><br/>Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) found that Andean Cats were much more dependent on Mountain Vizcachas than sympatric Pampas Cats, which took a wider variety of prey.  However, Pampas Cats were more abundant that Andean Cats, even at higher altitudes (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008), and inter-specific competition for Vizcacha prey could negatively impact the Andean Cat (Lucherini and Luengos Vidal 2003, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat alteration and destruction, mainly by extensive mining, resource extraction for fuel, and to a lesser degree cattle grazing is increasingly affecting its populations in some parts of its range (Villalba <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Hunting by local people who consider the Andean Cat a predator of their small domestic livestock has been frequently reported particularly in some regions of Argentina, Chile and Peru (Iriarte 1998, Cossíos and Madrid 2003, Lucherini <em>et al</em>. 2003). These cats are also killed by dogs accompanying local shepherds.  Cossios <em>et al.</em> (2007) also reported the hunting of Andean and Pampas Cats for food and for traditional medicine in central Peru.<br/><br/>Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) found that the probability of finding sign of the Andean Cat decreased with proximity to human settlement.<br/><br/>Cossios and Angers (2007) found that the genetic diversity of Andean Cats was extremely low across their range.
15457		conservation	eng	No information available.
15457		distribution	eng	Present within the Lake Victoria drainage and Lake Kanyaboli. It has been introduced into several dams and waters, including the Pangani system (Lake Jipe). It is still present in some of the satellite lakes of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. It is, however, virtually extinct from the main Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.
15457		habitat	eng	This species was originally (before competitive exclusion by the introduced species) confined to water less than 20 m deep and was most abundant in sheltered gulfs and bays where the bottom is composed of soft algaceous mud (Witte and de Winter 1995). It is a plankton feeder, using the mucus-trap mechanism combined with the combing action of the pharyngeal teeth. It is non selective all organisms of a size capable of being retained are passed into the stomach (Trewavas 1983). Breeding fish are found throughout the year and distinct spawning areas can be identified in the lake. Females brooding eggs often move off to the shelter of macrophyte beds or swampy areas. The young become independent at a length of about 15 mm when they are often found in channels in papyrus swamps (Trewavas 1983). Max Size: 248 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).
15457		population	eng	Declining.
15457		threats	eng	Displacement by introduced fishes notably Nile perch and Nile tilapia. Heavy fishing pressure: over-fishing was reported by Horril (2000) as the cause for population decline, reduction in harvestable size and size at first maturity. Marked reduction of diatoms from the phytoplankton of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga at the expense of 'unpalatable' <em>Cyanobacteria</em>. Massive <em>Typha</em> species infestation of the spawning and nursery grounds. Increased siltation due to agricultural and cattle grazing practice in the area. Clearance of water-laden woodlands for agriculture (land encroachment), especially in the northwest, and for fuel wood. Pollution from domestic and agricultural effluents.
15458		conservation	eng	No information available.
15458		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria drainage (endemic). It has not been recorded in the Tanzanian part of the Lake since the 1990s (Seehausen and Bouton 1997, Mkumbo 1999). The species is, however, still found in some localized portions of the lake and in satellite lakes, mainly Burigi, Katwe, and Kirumi pool (Katunzi and Kishe 2002). It is also found in Nyumba ya Mungu Dam and several inland ponds following probable introductions.
15458		habitat	eng	Most abundant on exposed and sandy shores where there is considerable water movement. It also occurs in the calm waters of water lily swamps (Lowe McConnell 1956). Found at a depth range of 0–40 m but most commonly in water less than 10 m deep (Witte and de Winter, 1995). The young fish feed on planktonic algae and may ingest small copepods. The adults feed predominantly on bottom algae but they also feed directly on plankton (Trewavas, 1983) and may graze algae from rocks and aquatic plants (Witte and de Winter 1995). It spawns on firm or sand habitats and breeding males may occasionally be seen guarding their circular nests in water a few feet deep at the edge of the lake. Young are brooded until about 15 mm long. Brooding females have been caught in the rushes and among vegetation near the edges of the lake (Lowe McConnell 1956). Max Size: 246 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).
15458		population	eng	The population has declined. It supported a commercial fishery in Lake Victoria prior to the nineteen fifties but later declined to low levels prompting restocking (Oguto Ohwayo 1990). Trawl surveys during 1969/70 established catch rates of 1.5 kg/hr (Mkumbo 1999) but these rates have not been possible since that time as it has been virtually eliminated from main Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga due to predation by the introduced Nile perch (Ogutho-Ohwayo 1990), and through ecological displacement by introduced Nile tilapia and <em>Tilapia zilii</em> (Twongo 1995). Present-day sub-populations are highly fragmented within the satellite lakes, where they are free from predation by the Nile perch.
15458		threats	eng	Over-fishing, particularly using illegal methods and gear. Competition for habitats and food with exotic species (introduced Nile tilapia), and predation by the introduced Nile perch.
15459		conservation	eng	It is protected by law in Thailand. Habitat restoration in dammed streams is urgently needed, with translocation of some stock from healthy streams nearby.
15459		distribution	eng	This fish is only known from Doi Inthanon National Park, Chiangmai Province northern Thailand in the upper Chao Phraya basin.
15459		habitat	eng	The species inhabits torrent streams with rocky bottoms and clear water under forest cover, including waterfalls, especially in rapids. It occurs between 600 and 1,500 metres above sea level at moderately low temperatures.
15459		population	eng	The species is locally uncommon in at least five streams in the Doi Inthanon National Park, Chiang Mai Province.
15459		threats	eng	Although this species is found within a National Park and it is protected by law, it is still threatened by habitat degradation by small dams, siltation caused by deforestation and dams, weirs degrade or convert its habitats. Local fishing is a secondary threat in some streams.
15478		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
15485		conservation	eng	About one-quarter of the population occurs in protected areas, including: Simien and Bale Mountains (Ethiopia), Tsavo (Kenya), North and South Luangwa (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Namib-Naukluft (Namibia) and Matobo (Zimbabwe). It occurs in lesser numbers in a large number of other protected areas throughout its range which contain smaller areas of suitable habitat. Very large numbers survive on private farmland in Namibia.
15485		distribution	eng	The Klipspringer has a wide distribution from north-eastern Sudan, Eritrea, northern Somalia and the Ethiopian Highlands southwards through East and southern Africa to South Africa, and along the west coast in Namibia and south-western Angola. Isolated populations occur in the Central African Republic (two separate areas in the northern and western uplands) and south-eastern DR Congo (East 1999; Roberts in press). In Nigeria, they occur in and around the Jos Plateau (East 1999), and also in the east in the Gashaka-Gumpti N. P. (Nicholas 2004). The only country in which they formerly occurred, but are now probably extinct, is Burundi.
15485		habitat	eng	Klipspringers are dependent on rocky and mountainous terrain, occurring up to 4,380 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). The Rift Valleys and the Southern African escarpments provide extensive suitable habitat and are central to its distribution. Klipspringers are primarily browsers.
15485		population	eng	The Klipspringer can reach relatively high population densities within continuous areas of favourable habitat, e.g., 10.0-14.0/km² in a 9.6 km² area of escarpment, ridge top and gorge in Simien Mountains National Park (Ethiopia). More typically, the Klipspringer’s habitat is discontinuous within a given area and its abundance is closely related to the extent of suitable rocky terrain. Its overall population density is frequently in the range 0.01-0.1/km² in protected areas within which it is common in restricted areas of suitable habitat. Higher densities occur in areas with more extensive Klipspringer habitat, e.g., 0.15-0.30/km² in Lengwe (Malawi) and Karoo, Mountain Zebra and Royal Natal National Parks and Giant’s Castle Game Reserve (South Africa) (various authors in East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 42,000 animals, which is probably conservative. Population trend is stable in many protected areas and on private land, but tending to decrease in areas where small, isolated populations are subjected to uncontrolled hunting and competition with livestock. The numbers of the western klipspringer are unknown but are unlikely to exceed a few thousand at most, in view of its very restricted distribution. This subspecies’ population is probably decreasing, at least in Nigeria.
15485		threats	eng	There are no obvious major threats to Klipspringers across their range. Their habitat is of little value to humans and it persists outside protected areas in regions where subsistence hunting pressure is not intense. The Klipspringer’s adaptation to the inaccessible hillsides and cliffs in these areas enables it to avoid most competition from domestic herds. Small, isolated populations within relatively small areas of rocky habitat are more vulnerable to hunting and competition from goats, and many of these populations have been eliminated in settled regions.
15491		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Titicaca, a high elevation Andean lake at 3,812 m.
15492		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Chungara, a high elevation Andean lake at 4,517 m.
15493		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Lauca River.
15494		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Lauca River.
15509		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
15509		threats	eng	Traded in East Asian food markets in huge numbers of animals of all sizes. It is exported in large quantities from Indonesia despite official protection.
15541		distribution	eng	The Stock Island tree snail presently occurs on Stock Island in the Florida Keys. It is confined to the northwest region of the island on several trees in a municipal parking lot.
15541		habitat	eng	The species lives on trees and shrubs in tropical hardwood hammocks. It is found on a large diversity of tree species, such as <em>Acacia farnesiana</em> (sweet acacia); <em>Bursera simaruba</em> (gumbo limbo), <em>Chrysobalanus icaco</em> (coco plum) and <em>Ficus aurea</em> (strangling fig) amongst others.
15543		conservation	eng	Searches must continue, especially for the larval habitat. Continued removal of alien trees must also continue. Trout should no longer be released and those present should be removed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable.
15543		distribution	eng	Formerly, this species was recorded from various localities in the Western Cape, including Table Mountain. Clearly it was never an abundant species (Pinhey 1979, 1984b). A great deal of searching time was devoted to this species between 1993 and 2011 but it was never rediscovered since 1977, suggesting that it may be under severe threat or even extinct.
15543		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high montane streams and kloofs. However, specific habitat preferences are not known. It may be a montane specialist, in which case it may not be particularly threatened; or it may be a lower elevation species, in which case it may be seriously threatened. More data are needed.
15543		population	eng	There is no information available at all on current population size or trends. It has not been seen since 1977.
15543		threats	eng	It is not clear why this species has not been rediscovered as its upland habitat is largely found in protected areas. However, it may breed at lower elevations where it is affected by threats as plantation forestry, alien invasive trees, alien trout and, in Du Toit’s Kloof, from fish farming.
15544		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
15544		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northwestern Panama to Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997); in Costa Rica, it is found up to 3,200 m (Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2004). Found also in Santa Fe National Park and Veraguas province and Bahia Honda.
15544		habitat	eng	It is poorly known. This species occurs in forests, clearings and agricultural areas. It sometimes damages crops of bananas, rice, and cassava (Reid 1997).
15544		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997); but in Bahia Honda (Pacific coast) and Santa Fe NP it is rare.
15544		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
15545		conservation	eng	It is not clear whether or not this species occurs within protected areas, although such occurrence is not considered essential to secure it because of its ability to thrive in agricultural lands.
15545		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north central Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,450 m (Hafner and Hafner 1987).
15545		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest, second growth, and agricultural areas, in both humid and seasonally dry regions (Reid 1997). This species can damage crops including banana and cassava, rubber trees and young palms in primary forest (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989). <br/><br/>Pregnant females have been taken from November to February, and litter size is 2 or 3 young (Reid 1997).
15545		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997).
15545		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
15546		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine its current status, distribution, and habitat requirements (specifically the degree to which this species tolerates disturbance). It is protected as a 'threatened species' under Mexican law.
15546		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is confined to a few localities in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca (Goodwin 1969; Ceballos and Oliva 2005). The type locality is Zanatepec (Patton 2005). Ceballos and Oliva (2005) state it is found from sea level to 30 m asl, but Goodwin (1969) states that the species is known from the "foothills", and when the collecting localities are mapped, they clearly include areas higher than 30 m asl.
15546		habitat	eng	Goodwin (1969) states that this species is known from arid tropical habitats, and the region where it has been recorded still contains some dry forests, although one of the collecting localities (Ingenio Santo Domingo) in the gazetteer to Goodwin (1969) is described as a sugar refinery surrounded by sugarcane fields, which makes it at least possible that this species is tolerant of some degree of disturbance. Nothing more is known about the natural history of this species (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
15546		population	eng	There is no current information about its population status; the most recent collecting record appears to be from the early 1960s, and it is unknown whether this species has even been looked for since that time.
15546		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. The range of this species has been, and continues to be, heavily modified. Deforestation for plantation agriculture and grazing by cattle are occurring and are possible threats, but nothing is known about this species' tolerance to habitat disturbance.
15547		conservation	eng	It occurs in Darien National Park, Panama. Taxonomic work is needed to determine whether or not this species includes <em>O. thaeleri</em>, which if true, would expand its range.
15547		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Panama (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid 1997).
15547		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in evergreen forest, clearings, and agricultural areas. It is active in the early morning, evening, and at night. More mounds are produced in the rainy season than in the dry season (Reid 1997).
15547		population	eng	It is locally abundant (Reid 1997).
15547		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
15548		conservation	eng	It is not clear whether or not this species occurs within protected areas, although such occurrence is not considered essential to secure it because of its ability to thrive in agricultural lands.
15548		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Costa Rica in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Talamanca (Reid 1997). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (Reid, 1997).
15548		habitat	eng	Found in agricultural areas, roadsides, and clearings (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>It may be active by day or night but is most active in the morning. This is the only species in the genus for which the burrow structure is known, through radio tracking studies and tunnel excavations. Each burrow contains a central nest with adjacent food storage areas and excrement chambers. Straight tunnels radiate from the nest area like spokes of a wheel and lead to foraging areas. Several foraging areas are in active use at the same time; each area is honeycombed with shallow feeding tunnels and marked by the characteristic above-ground mounds. Individuals are solitary, each with a nonoverlapping home range of about 240 m<sup>2</sup> (Sisk and Vaughan 1984, in Reid 1997). A lactating female was noted in March (Reid 1997).
15548		population	eng	This species is locally common (Reid 1997)
15548		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
15549		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
15549		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south Tamaulipas and the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, to Belize, Guatemala, and northwestern Honduras (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997).
15549		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in forest openings, sandy, coastal regions, and agricultural areas with well-drained soil. It is mainly nocturnal, but it sometimes feeds during the day. Burrows are about 10 cm in diameter, and mounds are usually small. A pregnant female with 2 embryos was caught (Hall and Dalquest 1963 in Reid 1997).
15549		population	eng	This species is locally common to abundant (Reid 1997).
15549		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
15550		conservation	eng	This species is probably found in one protected area in Colombia, Cuena Quebrada Mutata Forest Reserve. It is not known from any other protected areas (R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).
15550		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Serranía de Baudó (extreme north-west Colombia) (Patton 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 100 to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).
15550		habitat	eng	It occupies open habitats with well-drained soils (Emmons and Feer 1997). It also occurs in tropical rainforest, mainly in lowlands. It is probably both diurnal and nocturnal, fossorial, and solitary. It is herbivorous and feeds on underground plant parts, such as tubers and stems, and on above ground parts pulled down from below. The presence of pocket gophers is shown by their shallow foraging tunnels, which appear as low humps snaking between damaged plants.
15550		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but populations are patchily distributed (Emmons and Feer 1997).
15550		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species; it occurs in a remote area (R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).
15568		conservation	eng	The Scimitar-horned Oryx is listed on CMS Appendix 1. A global captive breeding programme was initiated in the 1960s. In 2005 there were at least 1,550 captive animals held in managed breeding programmes around the world (Gilbert 2005). In addition, a large number, probably >4,000 are kept in a private collection in the United Arab Emirates. Additional animals are likely held on private game ranches in the USA. As part of planned reintroduction projects, animals have been released into fenced protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma National Park 1985, Sidi Toui National Park 1999, Oued Dekouk National Park 1999), Morocco (Souss-Massa National Park 1995), and Senegal (Ferlo Faunal Reserve 1998, Guembuel Wildlife Reserve 1999). Reintroduction is currently also planned at a site in Niger.
15568		conservation	eng	The Scimitar-horned Oryx is listed on CMS Appendix 1. A global captive breeding programme was initiated in the 1960s. In 2005 there were at least 1,550 captive animals held in managed breeding programmes around the world (Gilbert 2005). In addition, a large number, probably >4,000 are kept in a private collection in the United Arab Emirates. Additional animals are likely held on private game ranches in the USA. As part of planned reintroduction projects, animals have been released into fenced protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma National Park 1985, Sidi Toui National Park 1999, Oued Dekouk National Park 1999), Morocco (Souss-Massa National Park 1995), and Senegal (Ferlo Faunal Reserve 1998, Guembuel Wildlife Reserve 1999). Reintroduction is currently also planned at a site in Niger. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
15568		distribution	eng	May formerly have been widespread across North Africa, at least in arid and Saharan areas, but now Extinct in the Wild over all its range. Captive herds are kept in fenced protected areas in Tunisia, Senegal and Morocco (Sous Massa National Park (probably outside the known historical range) as part of long-term reintroduction programmes.
15568		habitat	eng	Primarily inhabits sub-desert, annual grassland steppe areas. Found in rolling dunes, grassy steppes and wooded inter-dunal depressions, rarely entering true desert or true Sahelian bush. The Scimitar-horned Oryx is well adapted to arid areas.
15568		population	eng	An estimated 500 Oryx survived at least until 1985 in Chad and Niger, but by 1988 only a few dozen individuals survived in the wild and since then there have been no confirmed reports of any wild oryx surviving in the wild (Morrow in press).<br/><br/>There are captive populations in fenced protected areas in several former range states: in Tunisia, there were 130 in Bou Hedma N.P. in 2005, 25 in Sidi-Toui N.P. (2006), and 12 in Oued Dekouk N.P. (2006); in Morocco, there were 240 in Souss-Massa N.P. in 2005; and in Senegal, there were 18 at Guembeul and 12 at Ferlo in 2004 (see Morrow in press, and refs therein). These populations are all maintained in fenced enclosures of varying sizes and are subject to different degrees of management. None is eligible for consideration as a released population for assessment purposes.
15568		threats	eng	Overhunting and habitat loss, including competition with domestic livestock, have been reported as the main reasons for the extinction of the wild population of Scimitar-horned Oryx (Mallon and Kingswood 2001, Devillers and Devillers-Terschuren 2005, Morrow in press).
15569		conservation	eng	Protective legislation in all countries with reintroduced populations is adequate. Almost all released animals occur in protected areas. Captive population is well-managed, with an international studbook. In addition, large numbers are kept in private collections, especially in Qatar, UAE and Saudi Arabia. The Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi is funding the reintroduction into Jordan and is considering releases in Iraq. A regional Arabian Oryx conservation strategy was developed in 2007. The Coordinating Committee for the Conservation of the Arabian Oryx is an inter-governmental body charged with coordination of conservation efforts within the Arabian Peninsula. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
15569		conservation	eng	Protective legislation in Saudi Arabia, Oman and Israel is adequate. Occur in protected areas, as above. Sites in Israel and Bahrain are also protected. Captive population is well-managed, with an international studbook. In addition, large numbers are kept in private collections, especially in UAE and Saudi Arabia. The government of UAE is funding a reintroduction into Jordan and is considering releases in Yemen. A regional Arabian Oryx conservation strategy was developed in 2007. The Coordinating Committee for the Conservation of the Arabian Oryx is an inter-governmental body charged with coordination of conservation efforts within the Arabian Peninsula.
15569		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred through most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to Kuwait and Iraq. Arabian Oryx range had already contracted by the early years of the 20th century and the decline accelerated thereafter. Before 1920, oryx distribution was separated into areas over 1,000 km apart: a northern population, and a larger southern population in and around the Rub Al Khali and the plains of central-southern Oman. Oryx disappeared from the north in the 1950s. In the south, their range steadily decreased due to hunting and by the 1960s oryx were restricted to parts of central and southern Oman. The last wild individuals were probably shot in 1972 on the Jiddat al Harasis.<br/><br/>Currently, there are reintroduced populations in Oman (Arabian Oryx Sanctuary), Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd Reserve, 2,900 km² and Uruq Bani Ma’arid Reserve, 5,500 km²); and Israel (three locations in Northern Arava and Negev Desert). A release programme in Abu Dhabi, UAE, began in 2007.
15569		distribution	eng	<p>The Arabian Oryx formerly occurred through most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to Kuwait and Iraq. The species' range had already contracted by the early years of the 20th century and the decline accelerated thereafter. Before 1920, oryx distribution was separated into areas over 1,000 km apart: a northern population in and around the Nafud, and a larger southern population in the Rub Al Khali and the plains of central-southern Oman. Oryx disappeared from the north in the 1950s. In the south, their range steadily decreased due to hunting, and by the 1960s oryx were restricted to parts of central and southern Oman. The last wild individuals were probably shot in 1972 on the Jiddat al Harasis.<br/> <br/> Arabian Oryx have been reintroduced to Oman (Arabian Oryx Sanctuary, from 1982); Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd Reserve, 2,244 km² from 1990; Uruq Bani Ma’arid Reserve, 12,000 km² from 1995), Israel (three sites in the Northern Arava and Negev Desert, from 1997); United Arab Emirates (Arabian Oryx Reserve, Abu Dhabi, from 2007); and Jordan (Wadi Rum, beginning 2009). </p>    <p>Reintroductions in Kuwait, Iraq and Syria have also been proposed. There is a small introduced population on Hawar Island, Bahrain and large semi-managed populations at several sites in Qatar and UAE. </p>
15569		habitat	eng	Inhabits sandy and stony deserts.
15569		population	eng	Current total population is estimated at approximately 1,000: Oman (approximately 50); Saudi Arabia (approximately 600: 400 in Mahazat as Sayd and 200 in Uruq Bani Ma’arid); United Arab Emirates (approximately 200), Israel (over 100) and Jordan (c.50). The population in Oman reached a high point of 450 before illegal live capture began and severely reduced numbers. Now only males remain. In Saudi Arabia, numbers are roughly stable in Uruq Bani Ma’arid, but have declined in Mahazat As Sayd, which is completely fenced and where animals have exceeded carrying capacity. There has been a slow, but steady increase in the Israeli population. Numbers in the Arabian Oryx Reserve, Abu Dhabi are also increasing slowly.<br/><br/>An estimated 6,000-7,000 animals are held in captivity worldwide, mostly within the region. Some of these are maintained in large fenced enclosures, including those in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria (Al Talila Reserve) and UAE.<br/><br/>Current population trend is stable or increasing slowly.
15569		population	eng	Current total population is estimated at approximately 1100: Oman (approximately 50); Saudi Arabia (approximately 950; 800 in Mahazat as Sayd and 160 in Uruq Bani Ma’arid); and Israel (90-100). The population in Oman reached a high point of 450 before illegal live capture began and severely reduced numbers. Now only males remain. In Saudi Arabia, numbers are roughly stable in Uruq Bani Ma’arid, but declining in Mahazat As Sayd, which is completely fenced and where animals have exceeded carrying capacity. There has been a slow, but steady increase in the Israeli population. About 100 animals have been released at Umm Al Zumul, UAE, since 2007.<br/><br/>An estimated 6000-7000 animals are held in captivity worldwide, mostly within the region. Some of these are maintained in large fenced enclosures, including those in Syria (Al Talila), Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE.<br/><br/>Current population trend is stable/decreasing.
15569		threats	eng	The Oman population has been devastated by illegal live capture for sale to private collections and has been rendered totally ineffective. Some poaching has been recorded in Uruq Bani Ma’arid. Other populations in protected areas are generally secure from poaching but the security of animals that wander outside release sites cannot be guaranteed, except perhaps in Israel. Drought and overgrazing have reduced habitat quality in places and limited the choice of potential release further release sites.
15569		threats	eng	The Oman population has been devastated by illegal live capture for sale to private collections and has been rendered totally ineffective. The security of animals that wander outside the other protected areas where they have been released cannot be guaranteed, except perhaps in Israel. Drought and overgrazing have reduced habitat quality in places and limited the choice of potential release further release sites.
15571		conservation	eng	Most remaining populations of Beisa Oryx occur outside protected areas (with only 17% of the population in Pas). The largest populations occur in the Awash N.P. in the Awash Valley and Omo-Mago-Muruie-Chew Bahir (Ethiopia) and Sibiloi National Park and the unprotected northern rangelands (Kenya).<br/><br/>About 60% of Fringe-eared Oryx are in protected areas, particularly in Tsavo, Kajiado and Kilifi (Kenya) and Tarangire and Mkomazi (Tanzania).<br/><br/>More effective protection and management of the remaining populations in areas where the species still occurs in substantial numbers but its populations are in decline, such as the Awash Valley, Omo-Mago-Chew Bahir, northern Kenya and Tsavo, would greatly enhance the long-term survival prospects of this species (East 1999).<br/><br/>Populations of Beisa Oryx are maintained in captivity.
15571		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred widely in the semi-arid and arid bushland and grasslands of North-East Africa, from north-east Sudan throughout arid areas of Eritrea, Ethiopia, north-east Uganda and Kenya to Djibouti, Somalia and north-east Tanzania (Wacher and Kingdon in press). Their distribution has declined markedly in numbers and distribution, especially at the margins of its range, e.g., Uganda and Somalia, but still occur quite widely in areas of Ethiopia, northern and eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania where human and livestock densities are low (East 1999).<br/><br/>There is no recent confirmation of Beisa Oryx occurrence in Eritrea, where its status is uncertain. Likewise, the failure to locate any oryx during a 1995 aerial survey of Bokora Corridor, Matheniko and adjoining areas of Karamoja suggests that it has either disappeared completely from Uganda or at best survives in very small numbers (East 1999).<br/><br/>Fringe-eared Oryx are distributed entirely south of the Tana River in eastern Kenya and north-east Tanzania, with a major centre of distribution in Tsavo (East) and the Galana Ranch region (Cobb 1976), spreading west and south to Mkomazi, Amboseli and sporadically appearing in Serengeti (Wacher and Kingdon in press).
15571		habitat	eng	Occurs widely in the semi-arid and arid bushland and grasslands of North-East Africa. The condition of grazing and state of the soil influence seasonal movements (Wacher and Kingdon in press). They occur to altitudes of 1,700 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Both subspecies eat a wide range of grass species and growth stages, taking more browse during the dry season (Wacher and Kingdon in press). Drinks regularly when water available, but can get by on water-storing melons, roots, bulbs, and tubers, for which it digs assiduously.
15571		population	eng	Population estimates are available from aerial surveys of large parts of the species’ range. Summation of these estimates suggests total populations of about 25,000 Beisa and 8,000 Fringe-eared, but this makes no allowance for unknown levels of undercounting bias and areas for which no estimates of numbers are available. Citing various authors East (1999) indicates that population densities estimated from aerial surveys are typically low, e.g., 0.05-0.10/km² in areas such as the Awash Valley and Tsavo and 0.15-0.20/km² in areas such as Omo-Mago-Murule-Chew Bahir, Mkomazi and Tarangire.<br/><br/>East (1999), correcting for undercounting bias, gives estimated total populations of about 50,000 Beisa Oryx and 17,000 Fringe-eared Oryx (East 1999). Population trends are probably gradually downward over most of the species’ current range, with exceptions in areas such as Sibiloi and Laikipia (Beisa Oryx) and Kajiado, Tarangire and Mkomazi (Fringe-eared).
15571		threats	eng	Poaching (for meat and hides) and encroachment by settlement and livestock remain the major threats to this species, especially since the majority of the population remains outside protected areas.
15573		conservation	eng	The largest numbers occur on private land (about 45% of the population), especially in Namibia, and in protected areas (35%) such as Namib-Naukluft and Etosha (Namibia), Central Kgalagadi-Khutse Game Reserves and Gemsbok National Park and surrounds (Botswana) and Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (South Africa). All of these populations are stable or increasing.<br/><br/>The Gemsbok is of major economic value to the wildlife industry in southern Africa. It is a key trophy species on game farms and an important component of game-capture activities. In South Africa it is in great demand among farmers because of its trophy value. It has been introduced widely to areas outside its natural range, e.g., Gemsbok numbers have increased dramatically on bushveld farms in the north of the country, mainly due to introductions from Namibia. Kalahari Gemsbok National Park supports South Africa’s largest Gemsbok population.
15573		distribution	eng	The Gemsbok formerly occurred widely in the semi-arid and arid bushland and grassland of the Kalahari and Karoo and adjoining regions of southern Africa, with a marginal intrusion into south-west Angola (East 1999; Knight in press). The extensive contraction of its distribution and decline of its numbers which accompanied the expansion of human activities in Southern Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries have been partly compensated in the last 10 - 20 years by the widespread reintroduction of Gemsbok to private land and protected areas. Today, they remain widely, albeit patchily, distributed in south-western southern Africa, although populations in Angola are now considered extirpated, even from the former stronghold in Iona N.P. (East 1999). They have also been introduced in small numbers to areas outside their natural range, such as private game ranches in Zimbabwe (East 1999).
15573		habitat	eng	Adapted to waterless wastelands uninhabitable for most large mammals, Gemsboks inhabit semi-arid and arid bushland and grassland of the Kalahari and Karoo and adjoining regions of Southern Africa. They are is equally at home on sandy and stony plains and alkaline flats. It ranges over high sand dunes and climbs mountains to visit springs and salt licks.<br/><br/>Although they are predominantly grazers, they broaden their diets in the dry season to include a greater proportion of browse, ephemerals and Acacia pods. They drink water regularly when available, but can get by on water-storing melons, roots, bulbs, and tubers, for which it digs assiduously. Adaptations to living in a desert environment are summarized by Knight (in press).
15573		population	eng	Population estimates are available for almost all of this species’ range. Summation of these estimates gives a total population of 326,000, but actual numbers are probably higher because of an unknown level of undercounting bias in aerial surveys. Assuming an average correction factor for undercounting bias of 1.3 would give a total population estimate of 373,000. Overall population trend is increasing in private farms and conservancies and protected areas, and stable elsewhere (East 1999).
15573		threats	eng	Presently there are no major threats to the survival of the species. In the past its numbers and its distribution decline significantly due to the expansion of human activities in Southern Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries. Yet, in the last two decades there has been widespread reintroduction of Gemsbok to private land and protected areas, For example, in Namibia the largest numbers occur on private farmland, where the estimated population increased from 55,000 in 1972 to >164,000 in 1992 (East 1999). <br/><br/>Despite this favourable trend, in some areas such as south-western Botswana its distribution is increasingly restricted to protected areas, to the point where there are now two discrete concentration areas within this region, in Central Kgalagadi-Khutse Game Reserves and within and to the north and east of Gemsbok National Park. Outside these protected areas, it occurs mainly in areas of the Kalahari without cattle (East 1999).<br/><br/>Its ability to meet its survival needs within a relatively small area of semi-arid or arid savanna, even during severe droughts, enable it to occupy much smaller mean annual ranges than migratory species such as blue wildebeest and red hartebeest. The gemsbok’s independence of surface water and non-migratory behaviour have enabled it to largely escape the adverse effects of veterinary cordon fencing (East 1999).
15575		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.
15576		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.
15577		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.
15578		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.
15579		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Sindenreng in Sulawesi.
15583		conservation	eng	None.
15583		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Nayarit State, México: María Madre Island (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15583		habitat	eng	This species occurred in damp areas near springs and close to the summit of Maria Madre. This habitat has abundant herbaceous vegetation in the undergrowth (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003).  <br/><br/>Nelson’s rice rat may have fed on seeds, fruits, weeds, and occasionally small fish and invertebrates (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003).
15583		population	eng	This species is known only by the four specimens of the type series. After extensive trapping that produced only a few specimens, <em>O. nelsoni</em> was believed to be rare (Nelson 1899 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003). More recent trapping in the type locality revealed only <em>Rattus rattus</em> (Wilson 1991 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003), and this species is currently considered extinct (IUCN, 2006).
15583		threats	eng	The extinction of the species may have been caused by <em>Rattus rattus</em> (Wilson 1991 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003).
15584		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
15584		distribution	eng	This species occurs from montane forests of easternmost Panamá, north and westernmost Venezuela, the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, and northern Peru (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded at 900 to 3,300 m (Percequillo, in prep.; Tirira, in prep.). Emmons and Albuja (1992) reported the species as less as 70 m in altitude, but this may be anomalous.
15584		habitat	eng	This species is omnivorous, terrestrial and nocturnal; it occurs in primary and secondary montane forest.
15584		population	eng	This species is common.
15584		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time; however, deforestation is an important influence on its area of occupancy.
15585		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15585		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland to lower montane forests from south Tamaulipas and Oaxaca, México, through Central America, to western Colombia and Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005). Found below 2,500 m (in Mesoamerica generally below 1,500 m).
15585		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal and terrestrial in forest and forest edge (Reid 1997).
15585		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Reid 1997) to moderately common.
15585		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time; however, deforestation is an important influence on its extent of occurrence.
15586		conservation	eng	It occurs in Llanganates National Park, Ecuador, possibly two others (D. Tirira pers. comm.). Geography range study is required for Peru.
15586		distribution	eng	The species known distribution is disjunct. It occurs in eastern Ecuador and northern Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005) It is known from 1,000 to 2,900 m (Tirira in prep.).
15586		habitat	eng	It occurs in mosaic of paramo or temperate plants, subtropical vegetation, second growth and primary forest (Rageot and Albuja 1994).
15586		population	eng	In Ecuador this species is uncommon (Tirira in prep.). In Peru it is known from one locality (Percequillo, in prep.).
15586		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15587		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas (Tirira pers. comm.). Further taxonomic surveys are required.
15587		distribution	eng	This species distribution is disjunct. It occurs in east and south Ecuador, north Peru; range extent uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 1,800 m (Tirira, in prep.)
15587		habitat	eng	It is not well known. In Ecuadorian Andes the species occurs in cloud forest (Musser <em>et al.</em> 1998). Probably it is terrestrial and nocturnal.
15587		population	eng	The species is rare in Ecuador (Tirira, in prep.).
15587		threats	eng	In Ecuador, eastern habitat is well preserved; but western habitat has been destroyed (C. Boada and D. Tirira pers. comm.).
15588		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
15588		distribution	eng	This species occurs from east Honduras, through east Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, to west Colombia and west central Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).
15588		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in lowland evergreen to lower montane cloud forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). Sometimes it is trapped up to 1.5 m above ground, but usually it is found on the ground, either under logs, around the roots of large trees, or among rocks along streams (Reid 1997).
15588		population	eng	This species is uncommon to rare (Reid 1997).
15588		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation, especially in the west of Colombia and Ecuador.
15591		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.
15591		distribution	eng	This species is known from cloud forest elevations in the Sierra Madre Oriental (from Tamaulipas to Veracruz), the Sistema Montañosa (north Oaxaca), and the Sierra Madre del Sur (south Oaxaca), México (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).  This species is found at 1,500-2,500 m asl.
15591		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in cloud forest (Musser and Carlton 2005). It has been known to tolerate anthropogenic disturbance (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
15591		population	eng	No population information could be found.
15591		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its cloud forest habitat.
15592		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
15592		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme southern Texas, USA; México (excluding north central plateau region), south through most of Central America, to northwestern Colombia; Jamaica (where population is extinct), Isla Cozumel; and disjunct populations in southern Baja California Sur and west central Sonora (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from lowlands to 2,000 m (Reid 1997).
15592		habitat	eng	It is found in cattail marshes and wetlands, including floating reed beds in deep water; also found in small bodies of standing water. It is less common in thorn scrub, brush, forest, and forest edge. Sometimes it invades rice fields and sugar cane (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This rat is a good climber and is sometimes is found above ground. It can swims or dives when is disturbed. The diet includes green plant material, insects (ants, beetles, and caterpillars), seeds (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984; Hall and Dalquest 1963). Nests are woven among reeds about one metre above ground or water level. Breeding may occur year around; the gestation period is about 25 days (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Litter size is 2 to 7 young, averaging 3.8 to 5 (Reid 1997; Wilson and Ruff 1999).
15592		population	eng	This rodent is common and widespread, but seemingly rare in the United States. Estimated at 2 - 12 individuals/acre (5-30 individuals/ha).
15592		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations are presumably impacted by the draining of wetlands within its range.
15593		conservation	eng	In Costa Rica, it is found in several protected areas, including Amistad and Talamanca.
15593		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highlands of Costa Rica and westernmost Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15593		habitat	eng	This species primarily occurs in highlands and cloud forest (Musser and Carlton 2005). This species is poorly known, but is thought to consume arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and may be important spore dispersers (Mangan and Adler 2000).
15593		population	eng	Common in wet highland forest.
15593		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, deforestation is a threat to some populations.
15594		conservation	eng	Very little is known about this species. Further research needs include taxonomic and ecological studies.
15594		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-east Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found in lowlands (Reid 1997).
15594		habitat	eng	This species has been found in dense cane on a riverbank (Jones and Engstrom 1986), and in a banana plantation on very wet, red clay (Thomas 1905). Its biology is poorly known; it is possibly semiaquatic (Reid 1997).
15594		population	eng	Although it is known from only 3 specimens, it likely to be more widespread than these records would indicate.
15594		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
15595		conservation	eng	Control exotic species and access to the island, and enact a program to prevent the introduction of common rats.
15595		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. It occurs only on Sante Fe (= Barrington) Island, and previously occurred on San Cristobal (= Chatham) Island (Musser and Carleton, 2005). <em>A. galapagoensis</em> was first described from specimens collected from Santa Cruz Island by Charles Darwin in 1835. Later studies suggested that <em>A. baur</em>i from Santa Fe, and <em>A. galapagoensis</em> were so similar that they may be considered conspecific (Patton and Hafner, 1983).
15595		habitat	eng	Its ecology and natural history are poorly known. It is terrestrial and solitary.
15595		population	eng	This species includes two populations: <em>A. g. galapagoensis</em> occurs in San Cristobal Island, which is extinct (Dowler <em>et al.</em> 2000; Tirira 2001); and <em>A. g. bauri</em> occurs in Santa Fe Island, where it is common (Dowler <em>et al</em>. 2000; Tirira 2001).
15595		threats	eng	The history of the decline and likely extinction of the population on San Cristobal Island, with the increase and spread of introduced species has been well documented (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The introduction of exotic rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) or mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>) to Santa Fe Island remains the main threat to the species. History suggests that the species could easily go extinct due to invasive predators and competitor species and this should be a conservation priority.
15596		conservation	eng	In Venezuela the locality is within a protected area (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
15596		distribution	eng	This species is known from specimens in the eastern coast of the gulf of Maracaibo in Venezuela at sea level (Sanchez <em>et al. </em>2001; Sanchez Ojera and Vaz 2004) and from the type locality in Colombia.  Locals report a mangrove rat between the two locations but there are no voucher specimens (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
15596		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal environments of mangroves, freshwater inundated grasslands, and salt marsh; it is terrestrial and semi aquatic, and is omnivorous (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
15596		population	eng	This species is rare (Sanchez <em>et al</em>. 2001). In some places it is locally extinct because the species has been displaced by <em>Rattus rattus</em> (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
15596		threats	eng	The major threats are changes in species dynamics by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>; other human disturbances also are important in Venezuela (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
15597		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.). There is a general need to protect the habitat of this species.
15597		distribution	eng	This species is known from eleven specimens and from four localities in the northwest Ecuador (Percequillo, in prep.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,200 to 2,700 m (Tirira in prep.)
15597		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in subtropical montane and cloud forest. It is terrestrial and apparently has some affinity with water.
15597		population	eng	This species is rare (Tirira, in prep.). The last record known was in 1980 (D. Tirira pers. comm.)
15597		threats	eng	One of the known four localities has been completely converted to urban areas. Approximately 40% of its habitat may have been destroyed (Tirira pers. comm.). Because this species has not been recorded in recent times (since 1980) there is a likelihood other populations have also been severely diminished. Survey work is urgently needed to assess the status of the species.
15598		conservation	eng	This species is found in several reserves, but not national parks.
15598		distribution	eng	Possibly narrowly endemic, this species occurs in the Cordillera Central, central Colombia in the Antioquia, Quindio, and Risaralda Departments. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,800 m (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
15598		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial; it is found in primary premontane wet forest, secondary forest, croplands and pasture may also be suitable (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
15598		population	eng	This species appear to be abundant (or at least easily trapped) at most places where they have been found to date (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
15598		threats	eng	In the northern part of its range deforestation is prevalent (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
15600		conservation	eng	It is present in one protected area in Peru and at least four in Bolivia. There is a general need to protect the habitat of this species.
15600		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Andes from southeastern Peru to central Bolivia. It occurs between 1,000 to 2,600 m, with most of the records from 1,200 to 1,500 m (Percequillo, in prep.).
15600		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary Yungas humid forest. It is not present in cultivated areas.
15600		population	eng	It is a common species.
15600		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being lost through deforestation and conversion of land to agricultural use and is becoming fragmented, which could effect some populations - however, there are no major threats to the species.
15602		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
15602		distribution	eng	This species is limited to remaining Cerrado habitat formations in Minas Gerais and Goiás states, central Brazil (see Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
15602		habitat	eng	This species is reported from habitats from 700 to 900 m (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is a habitat specialist and occurs only in enclaves of forest in the cerrado (not gallery forests).
15602		population	eng	This rodent is known from only three localities: Rio Jordan, Chapada dos Veiadeiros National Park, and Anapolis (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998); there is no information about its population or abundance. Of the three locations where it has been recorded, two have been completed destroyed due to agricultural expansion.
15602		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation for conversion to agriculture, livestock and logging.
15603		conservation	eng	It is present in Tariquia Natural Reserve, Bolivia. It is present in two protected areas in Argentina. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology of the species.
15603		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes of south-central Bolivia and northwest Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found at elevations of 500 to 2100 m.
15603		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from undistrurbed Yungas and Tucumano Bolivian subtropical forest habitat; it is not known if occurs in secondary habitat.
15603		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
15603		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, however, numerous populations are threatened. Various populations are threatened by loss of habitat through conversion to agricultural use (crops). The habitat of this species in the Argentinean part of the range is severely threatened, where the species is largely restricted to protected areas. In Bolivia, more habitats are available.
15604		conservation	eng	It is present in three protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.
15604		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Peru through to west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997). This species is found at elevations of 1800 to 3200 m.
15604		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits primary and secondary cloud forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Anderson, 1997). It is not present in cultivated areas.
15604		population	eng	It is a common species.
15604		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being lost through deforestation and conversion of land to agricultural use. The habitat is becoming fragmented.
15605		conservation	eng	This species has been found in several protected areas throughout its range. Further taxanomic research should be carried out to split in three and those new species re-evaluated for threats and threat status.
15605		distribution	eng	This species occurs in tropical evergreen rainforest, from sea level to 1,524 m, of south and central Colombia, eastern Ecuador and Peru, eastwards to south Venezuela, Guianas, and northern Brazil (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
15605		habitat	eng	This is a forest-dwelling species. It is probably limited to pristine rainforest as it has never been found in secondary forest.
15605		population	eng	This mouse is widespread but locally rare.
15605		threats	eng	Potential current and future threat posed by logging. The prospectors (“garimpeiros”) are a threat to this species in French Guiana and Suriname.
15606		conservation	eng	This species range falls within several protected areas.
15606		distribution	eng	This species occurs in low to intermediate elevations of western México, from south Sinaloa to southwest Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15606		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The area in which it is found is characterized by coastal lowland forest.
15606		population	eng	This species is not considered to be rare.
15606		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
15607		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15607		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, and west-central Brazil (Acre and Mato Grosso States), 50 to 1,985 m (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15607		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits in tropical and subtropical evergreen humid forest. Although known from primary forest, many localities are within second growth forest. Able to tolerate moderate to severely modified forest, only absent from grasslands (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is terrestrial and solitary. This species is found in lowland rainforest and Andean foothills (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15607		population	eng	It is locally common. Most of the known localities are along the eastern Andean foothills and nearby lowlands (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
15607		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
15608		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Biological Reserve Saltinho.
15608		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Atlantic forest coast from Pernambuco State to northern Bahia State, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
15608		habitat	eng	This species has not been captured outside of forested areas and is cuurently confined to mosaics of severely fragmented remaining forested areas within a limited range.
15608		population	eng	This species is locally common.
15608		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction, fragmentation and deforestation for sugar cane plantations. This species has a limited range in an area where much of the forest has been converted to agriculture and livestock.
15609		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
15609		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only from north central Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura Departments) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It may range more widely than is currently known. It has been collected at around 1,500 to 2,000 m.
15609		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from secondary dry forest. It is not known from cultivated areas.
15609		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. Only a few specimens have been collected.
15609		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by clearance for cattle pasture.
15611		conservation	eng	Occurs in a few protected areas in Mexico and in the Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala.
15611		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of south Chiapas, Mexico, and central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found at 1,250 to 3,250 m (Reid 1997).
15611		habitat	eng	This species is known from evergreen and semideciduous forest and forest edge. It favors cool, wet, highland forest, often near water, but it is sometimes found in wet field or brush (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and terrestrial (Reid 1997). It has a very restricted range in cloud forest and pine-oak forest.
15611		population	eng	It is uncommon (Reid 1997).
15611		threats	eng	Habitat degradation in its restricted habitat is a major threat.
15612		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas, including Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica.
15612		distribution	eng	This species occurs in deciduous and evergreen tropical forests from central Tamaulipas to Oaxaca and the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, to Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from low elevations to 1,200 m (Reid 1997).
15612		habitat	eng	It is found in forest edge, and coffee groves, cane, brush, and grassy areas adjacent to evergreen or deciduous forest but is sometimes found in mature forest near tree falls and natural gaps (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and mainly terrestrial; it sometimes climbs on logs, low brush, or at the base of trees. Its litter size is 3 to 4 (Reid 1997).
15612		population	eng	This rat is generally uncommon; occasionally locally or seasonally abundant (Reid 1997).
15612		threats	eng	None.
15613		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas, including Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. Very little is known about this species, and research is needed.
15613		distribution	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest elevations from Chiapas, México, through Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, to north central Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found at 750 to 2,500 m (Reid 1997).
15613		habitat	eng	This species is found in evergreen and semideciduous forest and forest edge. It favors cool, wet, highland forest, often near water, but sometimes enters wet field or brush (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and terrestrial (Reid 1997).
15613		population	eng	It is uncommon (Reid 1997). In Mexico it has only been reported for 4 localities (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
15613		threats	eng	The species is threatened by declining habitat. In Mexico, it is considered to be near threatened.
15614		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas, Parque Estadual do Rio Doce (Brazil), and may occur in others in the range.
15614		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland forests of eastern Brazil (Ceará and Río Grande do Norte southwestwardly to São Paulo), east Bolivia (less than 500 m, per Anderson, 1997), and extreme southeast Peru (as buccinatus, per Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15614		habitat	eng	This rodent is tolerant of some habitat modification; it can be found in agricultural areas and in lowland moist forests.
15614		population	eng	This is a common species.
15614		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.
15615		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15615		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Costa Rica, through Panama, to west and north central Colombia, west Ecuador, and north Venezuela (Musser <em>et al.</em> 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,525 m.
15615		habitat	eng	This rat is most common in forested lowland, in areas of dense undergrowth and around fallen logs.This species adapts well to secondary vegetation and plantations (Emmons and Feer 1997), and it is tolerant to habitat disturbance.<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and insects. It runs about actively on the ground or on fallen logs; if frightened, it may bounce away with a series of high jumps. After the initial activity of the night, it may climb onto a branch at 1 to 2 m and rest motionless, head propped on the incisors against the branch. Breeding occurs year-round; litter size is 2 to 5 young, averaging 3.9 (Fleming 1971).
15615		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
15615		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species (R. Anderson pers. comm.).
15616		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Ecuador and Peru.
15616		distribution	eng	This species is known from west central Ecuador to west Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 500 to 1,800 m.
15616		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It is present in dry forest, desert, inter-Andean valleys and Lomas habitat. It is well adapted to secondary vegetation, plantations and cultivated areas.
15616		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Ecuador (Tirira in prep.). It is a common species in Peru. The populations fluctuate with seasonal and El Niño weather patterns.
15616		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15617		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
15617		distribution	eng	This species occurs in evergreen rainforest of Amazonia, from sea level to 2,000 m, from Guianas and south Venezuela (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1988) to central Brazil, including lowlands and Andean foothills of central Colombia, east Ecuador, east Peru, and north Bolivia (see Musser <em>et al</em>. 1998).
15617		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in disturbed habitats as well as primary forest.
15617		population	eng	This species is uncommon but widespread.
15617		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
15628		conservation	eng	Given complete protection by the Congolese government (Ordinance No. 79-244 of 16 Oct 1979). Present in the Okapi Faunal Reserve. This species is certainly a priority for further survey work to better understand its ecology, distribution and population status.
15628		distribution	eng	Endemic to DR Congo, where patchily distributed from the right bank of the Congo R. eastward to the Rift Valley. There are, as yet, no confirmed records from Uganda (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Occurs at elevations of 460 - 1,500 m asl.
15628		habitat	eng	A rainforest inhabitant, most specimens have been collected in forests dominated by <em>Gilbertiodendron</em> trees (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Nearly all specimens were obtained from local hunters who caught them with snares usually put out on trails near small rivers (Van Rompaey 1988). Piscivorous.
15628		population	eng	Considered among the rarest of African carnivores, and known only from around 30 museum specimens. In 53 hunts in the Ituri Forest only two individuals (or 1.8% of all carnivores) were captured (Hart and Timm 1978).
15628		threats	eng	Major threats are unclear, but they are hunted as bushmeat by the Bambuti pygmies; the meat is taboo to all, except male elders (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). It is not clear whether there are any pressing threats to its particular habitat.
15629		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Several protected areas are located within its range.
15629		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the coastal plain of south Nayarit to south Guerrero and in the interior of Michoacán and Guerrero along the basin of the Río Balsas, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).  It is found from sea level to 1,400 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
15629		habitat	eng	Although this species is poorly known, its distribution was observed to be restricted to areas of rock or accumulated brush in primarily arroyo forest (Ceballos 1990).  It is found in tropical deciduous forest, xerophilius shrub, grasslands, oak-pine forest, and riparian vegetation. It can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
15629		population	eng	A study in Jalisco by Ceballos (1990) showed <em>O. banderanus</em> to be common in arroyo forest (semideciduous) with densities ranging from 1.6 to 8 individuals/ha, and scarce in deciduous forest (<1 individual/ha).
15629		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from deforestation and agriculture.
15631		conservation	eng	No information available.
15631		distribution	eng	Coastal waters of White, Barents, Baltic and North Seas, Great Britain, western Ireland, Atlantic Ocean southward to Garonne estuary. Landlocked populations in lakes of coastal areas of North, Baltic, White and Barents Seas. North to about 68°N in Scandinavia.
15631		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic inhabitant of marine waters, estuaries and large lakes. Spawns in tributaries of lakes or along shallow shores of lakes and rivers, on sand, gravel, stones and plant material, preferably in fast-flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Anadromous individuals spawn at two years, landlocked ones often at one year. Anadromous individuals live up to seven years. Landlocked populations and large parts of anadromous populations usually reproduce only once in their life. Spawning migration starts in September-October, when mature fishes aggregate in estuaries to overwinter. Upriver migration starts in March-April when temperatures rise above 4-6°C and during rainy and stormy weather. Spawning migration reaches only the lower part of rivers. Older individuals and males migrate earlier than younger ones and females. Spawns in March-April at 4-12°C. Eggs are sticky and attached to substrate. Large numbers of eggs are washed from substrate and drift, with attached sand above river bottom. Eggs hatch in 20-35 days; larvae drift to estuaries. After spawning, adults migrate to sea, remain in coastal waters close to estuaries. Juveniles prefer fresh or brackish water until they mature. May reach high densities and experience large fluctuations in abundance. Feeds on zooplankton and small fishes, which often are juveniles of its own species.
15631		population	eng	Abundant.
15631		threats	eng	Water pollution and river impoundments.
15632		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is in the Red Lists of many European states, generally as Endangered, e.g. in Denmark. This species is present in several protected areas (e.g. in France) but wider countryside conservation measures are essential. <span lang="EN-GB">Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.
15632		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Europe, from southern Sweden to northern Spain, excluding the British Isles (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Denmark the species is registered from ten localities in 2008, all from southern and eastern part of the country. In France the species is reported from more than 300 localities and it is widespread distributed in the country (Tauzin 2000). According to Ranius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) in Europe there are 2,142 localities covering 33 countries.
15632		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in accumulations of wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood (red or white rot). Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions are not optimal. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but with shading more important under more continental conditions. Suitable trees occur in a wide variety of situations - old wood pastures, historic parklands, hedgerow trees, old avenues, orchards, etc, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<p>Oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp. is the most important tree for <span style="font-style: italic;">O. eremita</span>, followed by lime trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> spp., willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> spp., beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span> and fruit trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus</span> spp, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span> spp. In many regions, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span> spp., elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span> spp., chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>, aspen and poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> spp., birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> spp. and maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">platanoides</span> are also important host trees. Mulberry trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Morus</span> spp., common alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span>, plane trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus</span> spp., walnut trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans regia</span> and hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span> are other tree species which the beetle has been found developing in. Reports from conifer trees are rare (Ranius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Basically the tree species is not important; but what is important is that the trees have survived into old age and been colonised by non-pathogenic heartwood decay fungi; networks of trees are required in order to maintain population viability, to avoid the insidious effects of fragmentation and isolation.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
15632		population	eng	In Spain there are a small number of known populations scattered across the far northern mountainous areas: there was a single recent breeding site identified in Cantabria (Alexander 2005) but at least one other is also now known (K.N.A. Alexander, pers. comm.); otherwise only an old unlocalised record. Also known in Spain from a few sites in Navarra (San Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001) and the Basque Country. The species is common but vulnerable to loss of habitat in Poland. In Sweden it is relatively widespread in the south; in France it is widespread in the south but in the north is very localised; in Italy is rare; and in Finland there is a very small population. Overall the species is considered to be decreasing through loss of old trees suitable as breeding sites.
15632		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Encroachment of open forest and park habitats by development is also a threat to this species (P.F. Thomsen pers. comm. 2009).</p>
15633		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
15634		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
15635		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
15635		habitat	eng	Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
15640		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis manul</span>). Hunting of this species is prohibited in all range countries except Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996), where it has no legal protection despite being classified as Near Threatened in the country (Wingard and Zahler 2006).  Trophy hunters can purchase a hunting license to export trophies, from which $70 USD is allocated to the government (Mongolia Mammal Assessment, 2006).  While Mongolia has not recorded any trophy exports, skin exports have grown since 2000, with 143 reported exported in 2007 (UNEP-WCMC Cites trade database, 2008).   <br/><br/>Approximately 12% of the species? range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Mongolia Mammal Assessment, 2006), although Murdoch <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that the manul's preferred steppe-shrub habitat was under-represented in an important protected area in central Mongolia (the Ikh Nartiin Chuluun Nature Reserve), and that illegal hunting inside the protected area was frequent.  <br/><br/>In Russia, about 6% of the species' range is  protected, as follows: about 1% of it is situated the state nature reserves: "Altaisky" (Altai Republic), "Sayano-Shushensky" (Krasnoyarsk region), "Ubsunurskaya Kotlovina" (Tyva Republic), "Daursky" and "Sokhodinsky" (Chita RegionHowever, only the Tyvan and Daursky state reserv protect significant habitat.   About 4% of Pallas' Cat area is situated in the national parks: "Tunkinsky" (Buryatia Republic) and "Alkhanai" (Aginsky Buryatsky autonomus region, which will belong to Chita Region soon). About 0.5% of area is situated in federal wildlife refuges: "Altacheisky" (Buryatia Republic) and partly "Tsasucheisky Bor" (Chita Region).  Buryatia Republic also has regional protected areas where llas cats are found (Barashkova <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In China it is reported from the following nature reserves: Xuelingyunshan, Tuomuerfeng, Luoshan, Baijitan, Qinghaihuniaodao, Wanglang. Wolong, Zhumulangmafeng, Kalamailishan, Qitaihuangmobanhuangmo, Aerjinshan, Ganjiahu (Xinjiang), Luobupoyeluotuo (China Species Information Service 2008).<br/><br/>  Since 2009 this species is now a legally protected species in Afghanistan, banning all hunting and trade in its parts within the country.
15640		distribution	eng	The Pallas cat occurs primarily in the central Asian steppe grassland regions of Mongolia, China and the Tibetan Plateau, where an elevational record of 5,050 m was reported (Fox and Dorji 2007).  In Russia, Pallas's cat occurs sporadically in the Transcaucasus and Transbaikal regions, along the border with north-eastern Kazakhstan, and along the border with Mongolia and China in the Altai, Tyva, Buryatia, and Chita republics (Koshkarev 1998, Anon. 2008).  They are widely distributed in areas of uplands and intermountain depressions as well as mountain steppe in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan (Anon. 2008). Populations in the southwest of its range (the Caspian Sea region, and Afghanistan and Pakistan) are diminishing, isolated and sparse (Belousova 1993, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Habibi 2004, Anon. 2008)
15640		habitat	eng	Typical habitat for the Pallas cat is characterized by an extreme continental climate - little rainfall, low humidity, and a wide range of temperatures.  They are rarely found in areas where the maximum mean ten-day snow cover depth exceeds 10 cm, and a continuous snow cover of 15-20 cm marks the ecological limit for this species (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They are generally associated with grass and shrub steppe, and much of their habitat is montane.  They are absent from lowland sandy desert basins, although may penetrate these areas along seasonal river courses (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>In the grass and shrub steppe of central Mongolia, annual home ranges were found to be strikingly large for a small felid, although it is not clear if such large ranges are typical for the species (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Ongoing research there (S. Ross pers. comm. 2008) measured home ranges as follows:  <br/>Female = 100% MCP = 50.8 +/- 43.0 km²,  95% MCP = 27.1 +/- 23.6 km²; n = 10<br/>Male = 100% MCP = 158.5 +/- 179.2 km²,  95% MCP = 100.4 +/- 101.2 km² n = 8<br/>During the study Pallas cats were found to have a strong association with rocky, steep areas and were rarely found in open grasslands (where they may be more vulnerable to predation by sympatric carnivores: S. Ross pers. comm.. 2008). <br/><br/>Preliminary results based on radio-tracking of Pallas cats in Daursky state nature reserve (Chita region of Russia) shows that annual home range varies from 5 to 30 km² (n=3) (Kiriliuk <em>et al.</em> 2008 via pers. comm. A Barashkova 2008).<br/><br/>In China, Pallas cats feed predominately on pikas (Ochotona), small rodents (Alticola, Meriones, Cricetulus), birds (partridge-Pyrrhocorax), hares (Lepus) and marmots (Marmota), and appear to be most numerous where pikas and voles are abundant and not living under deep snow cover (Wozencraft <em>et al.</em> in press).  In Mongolia, preliminary analysis of scats indicated that gerbils (Meriones spp) and jerboas (Dipus sagitta and Allactaga spp) were the main prey, wih lambs of the Argali sheep (Ovis ammon) taken during the spring (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Populations may fluctate widely with their small mamal prey base (Purevsuren 2004).  Activity is predominantly crepuscular, although they can be active at any time (S. Ross pers comm. 2008).
15640		population	eng	Mongolia is probably the stronghold of Pallas's cat.  In the steppe grasslands of central Mongolia, Ross <em>et al.</em> (2007) radio-collared 27 cats, and estimated density (optimistically) at 7.5 +/- 2 manuls/ 100 km².  <br/><br/>Across the Tibetan plateau, Pallas's cat is considered widespread but nowhere very common (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The species is considered rare and uncommon in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Ladakh) and Iran (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Habibi 2004), and has disappeared from much of its former range around the Caspian Sea (Belousova 1993) and Pakistan's Balochistan province (Husain 2001).  Populations are small and threatened in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia's Krasnoyarsk region and Turkmenistan (Anon. 2008).<br/><br/>In Russia, the Tyva and Chita regions may have the largest populations, estimated at 2,000-2,200 and 2,100-3,000, respectively.  Populations in Altai and Buryatia republics were estimated at 450-550 and 250-350 (Barashkova <em>et al.</em> 2007).
15640		threats	eng	The most serious threat may be depletion of their prey base through poisoning and over-hunting.  Poisoning to control pika and marmot populations has taken place on a large scale in Central Asia where they are considered to be vectors for bubonic plague, and western and northern China where they are considered to compete with domestic stock for graze (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Their habitat is being widely degraded by domestic livestock and agriculture (IUCN Cats Red List Workshop, 2007).  While livestock had decreased during the 1990s in Russia and is believed to have led to improving status of Pallas cats in Russia (Barashkova <em>et al.</em> 2007), livestock is now spreading back across steppe areas with an improving economy, again posing a threat to the species.  Mining is also on the increase in Pallas cat habitat in Russia and other parts of Central Asia.  In Russia Pallas?s cat range is still quite fragmented and there is high level of risk to loss many subpopulations, especially in Buryatia Republic (A. Barashkova pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The manul has long been hunted for its fur in relatively large numbers in Mongolia, Russia and China, although international trade in manul pelts has largely ceased since the late 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Mongolia is the only range state which permits hunting of Pallas cats for "household purposes."  The permitting system is ineffective, and Pallas cat furs are illegally exported to China (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Wingard and Zahler (2006) estimate that there are approximately 1,000 hunters of Pallas's cats in Mongolia, with a mean estimated harvest of two cats per year.  Pallas cats are also shot because they can be mistaken for marmots, which are commonly hunted, and trapped incidentally in leghold traps set for wolves and foxes and snares set for marmot and hares (S. Ross pers. comm. 2008)  Their fat and organs are used as medicine in Mongolia and Russia, and they are killed by domestic dogs (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007 and A. Barashkova pers. comm. 2008).
15642		conservation	eng	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Occurs in protected areas in Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>Bat-eared Foxes are kept in captivity in North America, Europe, South Africa and Asia, although never in large numbers. There are no management programmes or studbooks for the species in any of these regions. Importations have occurred throughout the history of the captive population despite successful captive breeding since 1970. Bat-eared foxes can coexist well with other species and are frequently seen in African plains exhibits at zoos.<br/><br/>There is a conspicuous lack of information about both abundance and population trends in this species across its range. In southern Africa, little is known about dispersal of young and the formation of new breeding pairs. The causal factors for differences in home range size in different localities, group size and changes in density as a function of food availability are poorly known. In the Serengeti, behavioural evidence on group and pair formation and the existence of 'super families', consisting of one male and up to three closely related breeding females, raises interesting questions about regular inbreeding between males and their daughters from several generations (see Maas 1993a).
15642		distribution	eng	The Bat-eared Fox has a disjunct distribution range, occurring across the arid and semi-arid regions of eastern and southern Africa in two discrete populations (representing each of the known subspecies) separated by about 1,000 km. <em>O. m. virgatus</em> ranges from southern Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia down through Uganda and Kenya to south-western Tanzania; <em>O. m. megalotis</em> occurs from Angola through Namibia and Botswana to Mozambique and South Africa (Coetzee 1977; Kingdon 1977; Skinner and Smithers 1990). The two ranges were probably connected during the Pleistocene (Coe and Skinner 1993). This disjunct distribution is similar to that of other endemic, xeric species e.g., Aardwolf (<em>Proteles cristatu</em>s) and Black-backed Jackal (<em>Canis mesomelas</em>).<br/><br/>Range extensions in southern Africa documented in recent years (e.g., Stuart 1981; Marais and Griffin 1993) have been linked to changing rainfall patterns (MacDonald 1982).
15642		habitat	eng	In southern Africa, the prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground (Mackie and Nel 1989), but they are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid, semi-arid or winter rainfall (fynbos or Cape macchia) shrub lands, and open arid savanna. The range of both subspecies overlaps almost completely with that of <em>Hodotermes</em> and <em>Microhodotermes</em>, termite genera prevailing in the diet (Mackie and Nel 1989; Maas 1993a). In the Serengeti, they are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries but not short-grass plains (Lamprecht 1979; Malcolm 1986); harvester termite (<em>H. mossambicus</em>) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates are more abundant in areas occupied by bat-eared foxes, while grass is shorter and individual plants are more widely spaced (Maas 1993a).
15642		population	eng	The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farms in South Africa where they are occasionally persecuted. Within a circumscribed habitat, numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability (Waser 1980; Nel <em>et al.</em> 1984), breeding stage and disease (Maas 1993a,b; Nel 1993).
15642		threats	eng	In southern Africa the primary threats are hunting for skins or because they are perceived as being predators of small livestock. Commercial use is very limited, but winter pelts are valued and sold as blankets. They are also sold as hunting trophies in South Africa. Populations fluctuate due to disease or drought.
15643		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic and survey work is required to determine the relationship of the subspecies <em>O. c. monteiri</em>.
15643		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the KwaZulu-Natal Province in eastern South Africa, northwards into Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and southern Malawi (Chikwawa), and then into Tanzania and southern Kenya. Up to 1,800 m in eastern Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>There are three subspecies, <em>O. c. crassicaudatus</em> is known only from the KwaZulu-Natal region; <em>O. c. kirkii</em> Gray, 1863, ranges from Massangena, Mozambique, in the south to southern Malawi in the north; and <em>O. c. monteiri</em> is found in the Brachystegia miombo woodland zone from Angola in the west, to Zambia, Malawi and northern Mozambique in the east and from here north to Rwanda and western and south-eastern Kenya. <br/><br/>Some taxonomic authorities states that <em>O. c. monteiri</em> can be split into two groups with a <em>monteiri</em> group present from Angola, through the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern Mozambique, Malawi and southern Tanzania (Tabora). The distribution of the <em>argentatus</em> grouping is unclear, but it has been recorded from Rwanda, Kenya and Tanzania.
15643		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in coastal forest, woodland and riparian bushland. In the southern parts of the range (e.g. KwaZulu-Natal and the Limpopo Province), the species is found in riparian and coastal forest, whereas in the northern parts of the range it extends into bushland and open woodland (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). This species may possibly be found in timber plantations, and in western Swaziland have adapted to living in wattle forests. It is not uncommon in urban gardens and farmland where there is sufficient tree growth to afford them shelter and where there are orchards of tropical and semi-tropical fruits to provide food. Sleeps alone or in groups of 2-6 and generally disperses solitarily or in small groups at night to forage. It is presumed to give birth to between one and three infants per year (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).<br/><br/><em>O. c. monteiri</em> is known from Brachystegia woodlands and riparian forests. It extends over a wide range by using corridors of vegetation along rivers and streams. On the other hand, <em>O. c. kirkii</em> is mostly found in coastal forest, woodland and riparian bushland, and in the northern parts of the range it extends into bushland and open woodland. It is not uncommon in urban gardens and farmland where there is sufficient tree growth to afford them shelter and where there are orchards of tropical and semi-tropical fruits to provide food.
15643		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
15643		threats	eng	This species is expanding its range in some areas (e.g., in South Africa), and there are no current major threats. However, it may be locally threatened in parts of its range through the loss of suitable forest habitat. For example, although <em>O. c. monteiri</em>, was once common around Lake Victoria, it has now almost completely disappeared, together with the woodlands due to cultivation.
15644		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas including Tana River National Primate Reserve, Tsavo West National Park, Tsavo East National Park, Aberdares National Park, Mount Kenya National Park, Meru National Park, and Arabuke Sokoke Forest (Kenya) and Ngezi National Park, Jozani Chakwa National Park, Udzungwa Mountain National Park, and Lake Manyara National Park in Tanzania (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
15644		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Juba River in southern Somalia, southwards along the East African coast to the Ruvuma River, Tanzania, and inland from here to the Kenya highlands. The southernmost locality is Milo on the northern end of Lake Malawi. This species is present on Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia Islands, Tanzania. It may be present in Mozambique, but there are no confirmed records. There is also no indication that the species occurs in Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988). Recorded up to 2,500 m (Olson 1979). Sympatric with <em>Galagoides zanzibaricus</em>, <em>Galagoides cocos</em>, <em>Galago senegalensis</em>, <em>Galagoides granti</em> and <em>Otolemur crassicaudatus</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are four subspecies: <em>O. g. garnettii</em> appears to be restricted to Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia Islands; <em>O. g. panganiensi</em>s is present in Tanzania from the Mozambique border in the south to Tanga, Mount Kilimanjaro and Lake Manyara in the north; <em>O. g. lasiotis</em> ranges northwards from Tanga in Tanzania, along the Kenyan coastline to the Juba River in Somalia; it is also present in the Taita Hills and Kibwezi (north of Mount Kilimanjaro); and the subspecies <em>O. g. kikuyuensis</em> is restricted to the Kenyan highlands east of the Rift Valley (Nairobi, Aberdares and Mt Kenya).
15644		habitat	eng	Highly adaptable species, being found in mid- to high-canopy coastal and montane tropical forest, and in riverine gallery forest; also able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented forest, and found in cultivated areas and sometimes urban suburbs. They sleep in dense tangles or clumps of trees and are not reported to make nests or sleep in tree holes (Bearder <em>et al.</em> 2003). The females give birth to one or two young annually.
15644		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species (for example, on the Kenyan Highlands and on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba), but within its range it is somewhat patchily distributed and conspicuously absent from some forests (e.g., Matundu Forest Reserve, Tanzania). <br/><br/>In Kenya, <em>O. garnettii</em> were encountered at rates of: 0.1 ind/h by vehicle in Kipini Conservancy (north coast), 0.9 ind/h on foot in Irangi, Mt Kenya (2,000 m asl), 1.1 ind/h on foot in Makindu (960 m asl), 2.9 ind/h on foot in Isiolo (1,544 m asl), 5 ind/h and 7.1 ind/km on foot in Meru Forest (1,734 m asl), and 2,5 individuals/hour (estimate of 15 animals / ha) on foot in Tana River National Primate Reserve (230 m asl; Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.). In Tanzania, they were encountered at rates of: 0.6 ind/h on foot in Meia Meia (1,330 m asl), 2.0 ind/h on foot in Jozani Chakwa National Park, Zanzibar Island (5 m asl), 2.4 ind/h and 0.1 ind/km by vehicle in Tanga (15 m asl), and 2.7 ind/h and 1.3 ind/km on foot in Ngezi National Park, Pemba Island (10 m asl; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
15644		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Some subpopulations may be locally threatened by conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land.
15645		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. Additional survey work is required to establish its range, population status, ecology and threats.
15645		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Tjibadak in western Java, Indonesia (Simmons 2005). The species is represented by four specimens collected in western Java (two in 1939 and two in 1990). This species could be more widespread than is currently known.
15645		habitat	eng	The original specimen may have been taken from a barbet or woodpecker in a rubber tree. It is probably a high-flier, and not too reliant on specific habitat types. The elevational range is thought to be around 400 m asl.
15645		population	eng	There are no recent records and this species is very rarely found.
15645		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown.
15646		conservation	eng	The two known cave localities within India are not in protected areas (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). The species is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act amended 2006 (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). This species has been proposed to receive the highest level of protection under Cambodian wildlife law (Walston and Bates 2001). Further survey work to determine population numbers and range is required for this species. Also genetic evaluation of all known populations of this species and other <em>Otomops</em> would lead to a better understanding of their taxonomy and distribution.
15646		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three disjunct sites in India and Cambodia. In India, the species has been recorded from the type locality of Barapede Cave near Talewadi, Belagavi district, in Karnataka (Bates and Harrison 1997), and more recently from Phrang Karuh Cave, near Nongtrai village, Shella confederacy, Meghalaya (Thabah and Bates 2002). In Cambodia, it is known only from a recent collection in Chhep District, Preah Vihear Province (Walston and Bates 2001). It has been recorded from an elevation of 140 to 800 m (Bates and Harrison 1997).
15646		habitat	eng	The Barapede cave is located on a plateau above a moist deciduous forested valley at 800 m with high humidity inside (Alfred <em>et al</em>. 2006). The bats were found to live in small groups of 2 to 15 individuals both sexes in crevices throughout the cave (Bates and Harrison 1997, Alfred <em>et al.</em> 2006). The cave where a specimen was captured in north-east India is likewise situated on the edge of a plateau at 170 m in a tropical semi-evergreen forest and near cultivated areas (Thabah and Bates 2002). Walston and Bates (2001) report a single bat captured in lowland degraded mixed deciduous forest (nearby one of the few semi-evergreen patches in the area) at 140 m in Cambodia.
15646		population	eng	Ramakrishna <em>et al.</em> (2003) describe the colony in Barapede cave as numbering approximately 70+ individuals. They also state that females have been recorded carrying one foetus/young. Thabah and Bates (2002) report one specimen captured outside the Phrang Karuh cave in Meghalaya, India. Walston and Bates (2001) report a single bat captured in Cambodia. The population in Barapede Cave seems to fluctuate between 40 and 100 as reported by different workers, while the population numbers and trends in the two new locations are unknown.
15646		threats	eng	The species is threatened from tourism, human interference and collections for scientific purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The habitat close to the Barapede cave is threatened from submergence due to a proposed dam and from ongoing mining activities (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). The spread of alien plants species <em>Prosopis</em> sp. at the cave mouth is a visible hindrance to bat activities (M.S. Pradhan pers. comm. February 2003). Threats to the species at the two recently discovered new localities are not known.
15647		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. Additional survey work is required to establish its range, population status, ecology and threats.
15647		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality Dasa Apui (700 m asl), Alor Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (08°15'S, 124°43'E) (Simmons 2005; Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 1992).
15647		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a hollow in a tree (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 1992).
15647		population	eng	The single known specimen was collected in 1991.
15647		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
15648		conservation	eng	There is a need to reassess the status of all known roosts (and to locate additional localities) to ascertain numbers and status of colonies, so that key sites can be identified. There is a need to collect better information on the current status of populations in both Central and West Africa. Disturbance of key localities should be restricted or managed to reduce the impact on colonies. The species has been recorded from Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, it has been recorded from within a national park in Rwanda, and the former large colony at Mount Suswa, Kenya, is believed to be protected (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). This bat is protected by provincial ordinance in Kwa Zulu Natal, South Africa. An IUCN Species Action Plan has been developed for this species (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
15648		distribution	eng	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded from much of sub-Saharan Africa, and from Yemen (Hud Sawa cave, Ar-Rayadi Al-Gharbi Mountains) on the Arabian Peninsula (Al-Jumaily 1999; Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Africa it has been reported from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in West Africa, through Central Africa (recorded from Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and western Uganda) to East Africa (Djibouti [Mount Day], Ethiopia [Sof Omar limestone cave], Kenya and Tanzania) to southern Africa (Malawi, central Angola [Chitau], Zimbabwe, Zambia and eastern South Africa). It has recently been recorded in Eritrea (in a disused railway tunnel 8 km east of Asmara) for the first time (Kock and Zinner 2004). It is found at elevations from sea level to 2,900 m asl.
15648		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from a wide variety of habitats ranging from montane tropical moist forest to semi arid environments, and in some instances have been found to be common in urban and suburban areas, foraging in areas of intensive agricultural operations (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002). Animals often make long distance foraging flights during the dry season. While it seems as though there is no direct evidence of migration in this species, marked seasonal absence from some areas and from major colony sites during the dry season has prompted the suggestion of migration (e.g. Mutere, 1973). In southern Africa colonies tend to be small (numbering up to 30 animals) and are regularly recorded from buildings (see Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002). Other populations mainly roost in caves, disused tunnels, trees, hollows and on vegetation. Two of the most well known roosts for this species are the lava caves of Mount Suswa and Ithundu in Kenya.
15648		population	eng	Although this bat was once considered to be rare, with gaps in distribution, additional collecting has demonstrated local abundance in several areas (Long 1995; Taylor 1998; Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). For example, it is common around Durban in KwaZulu Natal Province of South Africa (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002), and is fairly common in Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. However, major colonies of this species (consisting of hundreds of bats) from caves in East Africa have declined severely and now have few or no bats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
15648		threats	eng	The leading threat to this species appears to be roost disturbance. Major colonies in East Africa, such as the population at Mount Suswa (Kenya), seem to have disappeared through disturbance of their cave habitats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Threats to these caves include guano mining (with associated changes to the cave microclimate), blocking of entrances, recreational caving and general tourism activities. It is possible that the collection of 4,954 bats by Mutere (1973) as part of a reproductive study may have contributed to a decline of the Kenyan populations. Populations in Durban (South Africa) have been found to use old buildings with attics as roosts, and it appears that the main threat to these populations is indirect poisoning through the application of toxic timber treatments (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002).
15649		conservation	eng	As it may be distributed more widely than is currently known, additional field surveys are needed to determine the full range of this species.
15649		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known from two sites in Gulf (Valilala River, near Kerema) and Oro (Mai-u River near Mount Suckling) Provinces (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from sea level to 300 m asl.
15649		habitat	eng	This species forages in the rainforest canopy, and is believed to roost in tree hollows within forest (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).
15649		population	eng	It is known only from 11 specimens, but the species is difficult to survey.
15649		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
15650		conservation	eng	As it may be distributed more widely than is currently known, additional field surveys are needed to determine the full range of this species.
15650		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from three locations: Tapu, on the Upper Ramu River Plateau, Madang Province; Kimi Creek Camp, Eastern Highlands Province; and Hohola, Port Moresby (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,980 m asl.
15650		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded flying above the mid-montane forest canopy, and over open habitats including urban areas (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). Roosting habits of this species are unknown.
15650		population	eng	It is known from six museum specimens collected at three localities.
15650		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
15651		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs from protected areas.
15651		distribution	eng	This is an Angolan endemic found in suitable habitat in north-east and central Angola. It occurs below 2,000 m asl.
15651		habitat	eng	It is found in low lying riverine habitats and upland plateau grasslands. It is usually found in grassland within forest/grassland mosaic. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
15651		population	eng	It is assumed to be relatively common.
15651		threats	eng	Open cast diamond mining is a threat to the species' habitat in the northern part of its range.
15652		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
15652		distribution	eng	This Subsaharan species is widely distributed in parts of Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa. It ranges from the area of the Albertine Rift and southern Kenya in the north of its range, as far south as eastern South Africa and Swaziland.
15652		habitat	eng	It occurs in well-watered savanna grassland, seasonally flooded grassland, wetlands in southern Africa below 1,000 m asl, but in higher elevation grasslands and heath in East Africa. The species can be found in pastureland but usually not when livestock is present.  They are usually found near streams.
15652		population	eng	It is common to abundant in suitable habitats.
15652		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by habitat degradation due to overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock.
15653		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes protected areas.
15653		distribution	eng	This species has a relic distribution on a few widely separated mountain ranges from Ruwenzori and the Albertine Rift Mountains in Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the Uluguru and Usambara Mountains in Tanzania, to the Nyikae Plateau in Malawi and Zambia. It has been recorded from 1,950 to 3,000 m asl. The range of the species has declined since the Pleistocene.
15653		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of montane or alpine grassland, montane forest, disturbed forest and transitional scrub at higher altitudes on mountain slopes.
15653		population	eng	It is quite a common species, and can even be reasonably abundant, although it is difficult to catch.
15653		threats	eng	Civil warfare and people living in the forest damaging the habitat, as well as fire from stray agricultural burning are major threats in parts of the species range.
15654		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
15654		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal and eastern South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, and the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe and into neighbouring areas of Mozambique. It is known from above 900 m asl.
15654		habitat	eng	It is known from grassland and marshes, as well as timber plantations.
15654		population	eng	It is a common species.
15654		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
15655		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
15655		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape region and eastern South Africa. It occurs from sea level up to at least 2,000 m asl. The species has been referred to in various publications as being recorded from Swaziland, however, the records for this country have no specimen basis (Monadjem, A. pers. comm.).
15655		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist habitats such as bogs, swamps, marshes, and moist grassland and shrubland areas. Its is not known if the species is present in farmland or other modified habitats.
15655		population	eng	It is considered to be quite uncommon. The population size is currently unknown, however, it is noted that there is very low trapping success for this species throughout its range.
15655		threats	eng	There are no known threats, and its habitat is quite well secured in protected areas.
15657		conservation	eng	Mount Oku is not within a protected area. The species' range in Nigeria is most likely not in a protected area.
15657		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Gotel Mountains (1,900 to 2,300 m asl) in Nigeria, and from Mount Oku (2,100 to 3,000 m asl) and another nearby volcano in western Cameroon.
15657		habitat	eng	It is known from grassland with ferns in montane forest clearings. It is not known if the species can persist in farmland.
15657		population	eng	It is a rare species.
15657		threats	eng	Clearance of the forest for agricultural use is a threat to the species' habitat.
15658		conservation	eng	Further surveys, monitoring of the population, and genetic and taxonomic research for this species is recommended. Its range includes a few protected areas.
15658		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. It is known from two disjunct populations, one in the southwest, and one in the south-central region. It has been reported as occurring in Lesotho but this appears to have been a misidentification.
15658		habitat	eng	It is found in shrubland and grassland habitat. It occurs in mountain fynbos, Drakensberg grassland, and in thickets. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
15658		population	eng	The population size is not known. Recent collecting efforts suggest that the eastern subspecies may be rare, and may be hybridizing with <em>O. irroratus</em>, however, further genetic and chromosomal research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the type populations.
15658		threats	eng	There are no major threats known, although hybridization may be a problem for the eastern subspecies.
15659		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
15659		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and eastern South Africa and from across Lesotho. It occurs above 2,000 m asl, but is usually found higher than 2,600 m asl. There are historical records from inselbergs in the Karoo at 1,500 m asl.
15659		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal inhabitant of montane and alpine grassland on both dry or wet bog soils with or without rocky outcrops. The species does not occur in modified habitats.
15659		population	eng	There have been estimates of the population at over 100 individuals/ha in suitable rocky habitats (Willan 1990).
15659		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
15660		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. There is a need for further investigation into the taxonomic status of populations currently included within <em>Otomys tropicalis</em>.
15660		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Sudan, to northern Malawi, through Uganda, into the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Ruwenzori Moutntains range), Rwanda and Burundi, central and southern Kenya and Tanzania. It is found up to 4,500 m asl. The distribution of populations formerly recognised as <em>Otomys orestes</em> is unclear, but are generally confined to the type locality area of Teleki Valley, near the summit of Mount Kenya, in Kenya from 3,200 to 4,500 m asl. Animals formerly recognised as <em>Otomys dollmani</em> are known only from the type locality of Mount Gargues, in the Matthews Range of Kenya, just north of Mount Kenya at about 2,100 m as
15660		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats from lowland to montane grassland and also from swamps. It is also known from plantations such as coffee and banana.
15660		population	eng	Overall, it is a very common species. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded at 42.5 individuals/ha in disturbed savanna habitats, but in areas with fire regimes in place the populations are found to be much lower.
15660		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species. It can be a pest species causing damage to tree plantations.
15661		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas, including the the Bale Mountains National Park and the Simien Mountains National Park (Ethiopia), Ruwenzori National Park (Uganda), Mount Elgon National Park (Kenya), and several protected areas in Tanzania. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic relationship between populations currently allocated to <em>Otomys typus</em>.
15661		distribution	eng	This montane species has been recorded from the Ethiopian highlands (1,900 to 4,100 m asl); Mubuku Valley, in the Ruwenzori Mountains of Uganda (at around 3,300 to 3,900 m asl); the Ugandan and Kenyan slopes of Mount Elgon (between 3,300 and 4,200 m asl) and the Udzungwa Mountains in east-central Tanzania and the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi and possibly north-eastern Zambia (between 1,800 and 2,200 m asl).
15661		habitat	eng	It inhabits mesic grassland, montane grasslands and alpine heaths. The species does not appear to persist in modified habitats, although more research is needed to confirm this.
15661		population	eng	A reasonably common species in good habitat.
15661		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock, habitat loss resulting from set fires, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the conversion of grassland to agricultural use.
15662		conservation	eng	It is recommended that there are further surveys, genetic research and research into the rat's life history. Its range includes a few protected areas.
15662		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the arid parts of the Eastern Cape, Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces in South Africa and ranges north to southern Namibia.
15662		habitat	eng	It is found in succulent Karoo habitat, and Namakaroo and fynbos scrub. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
15662		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat. The current population size is unknown, however, it is not considered to be facing any serious threats.
15662		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
15663		conservation	eng	The species presumably occurs in some protected areas across its range. No other specific measures are known, although it will be protected under national legislation in some of the range states.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
15663		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the southern desert and sub-desert belt of Western and Central Palaearctic from Morocco and Niger as far east as north-west India. It is possibly present in the whole of the desert area in the north of Africa where there is suitable habitat.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Niger, northern Sudan and Egypt.  In the Middle East it is found in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and a single locality from southeastern Turkey. It has an area of occupancy of  >20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and occupies an altitude of up to 2400 m (in Pakistan).
15663		habitat	eng	Occurs in desert and semi-desert habitats of the Palaearctic region. Its habitats are xeric, sparsely vegetated and rocky. It seems well adapted to arid climates (Gharaibeh and Qumsiyeh 1995).  Roosts in rock fissures or in human constructions (Gharaibeh and Qumsiyeh 1995). This is a ground-gleaning species.
15663		population	eng	Widespread but generally rare, with a scattered distribution. Mostly solitary animals, female colonies up to 18 individuals. Litter size usually 2. In Turkmenistan the species is considered least concern. Up to 2,400 m in Tadjikistan (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.).
15663		threats	eng	Although not a major threat this species is affected by pesticides.
15664		conservation	eng	This species has been found within a few protected areas. More information is needed particularly regarding population status.
15664		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, south to north Belize and northeast Guatemala (Peten Department) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid 1997).
15664		habitat	eng	This rodent has been found in deciduous and semideciduous forest and second growth (Reid 1997). This species is poorly known.<br/> <br/>It is highly arboreal. In captivity it is nocturnal, extremely shy, and prefers seeds to fruit (Reid 1997). It is a difficult species to trap.
15664		population	eng	This species is rare and only known from 18 specimens (Timm pers. comm.).
15664		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
15665		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas.
15665		distribution	eng	The Luzon pygmy fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on Luzon Island (Abra, Albay, Aurora, Bataan, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Kalinga, Isabela, Laguna, Mountain, Nueva Viscaya, Quezon, Quirino, Zambales provinces) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) occurring at an elevation range of 200-2,250 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are no records from nearby offshore islands (Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
15665		habitat	eng	This species is most common in primary and well-developed secondary, lowland, montane, and mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is also present in badly degraded forest. Data on reproductive biology has been documented (Heideman <em>et al</em>. 1993).
15665		population	eng	The abundance of <em>Otopteropus cartilagonodus</em> is variable and it is usually most common at middle elevations (Kock 1969; Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Ruedas <em>et al.</em> 1994; Utzurrum 1992; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
15665		threats	eng	This species is affected by deforestation at lower elevation within its range. However, it also occurs in montane forest which remains relatively intact (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). Overall, this species has clearly declined because of habitat loss, but it is not significantly threatened, especially as it can adapt to some secondary habitats.
15666		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Costa Rica, Guatemala, and the Yucatan.
15666		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Costa Rica north to the Yucatán Peninsula, south Tabasco, and north Chiapas, Mexico. There is also an isolated record from north central Guerrero, Mexico (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,900 m (Reid 1997).
15666		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from dry deciduous lowland forest and dense second growth to wet highland forest. It is often found near rocks and limestone outcroppings (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and may be seen on the ground or among vines and low vegetation. It usually forages 3 m or less from the ground (Lawlor 1982). The diet includes fruit of borage (<em>Cordia diversifolia</em>) and madders, seeds, and vegetable matter (Lawlor 1969). A nest found in an abandoned building in northwest Costa Rica was made of grass and lined with plant down. It was a shallow, open structure, about 15 cm wide. Pregnant females have been recorded at all months of the year, but most populations do not breed for 1 to 2 months during the dry season. Litter size is 2 to 4 young, averaging about 2. Young are highly precocious, almost half adult size at birth, and cling to the mother’s nipples until nearly full size (Reid 1997).
15666		population	eng	This species is fairly common (Reid 1997).
15666		threats	eng	None known.
15730		conservation	eng	Its distribution and abundance are increasingly centred on protected areas (about half the total population occurs in and around protected areas) and some other areas where human population densities are very low, such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Ivory Coast), Arly-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso), Mole and Bui (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), eastern Salamat (Chad), Bouba Ndjida, Benoue, Faro and adjoining hunting zones (Cameroon), Manovo- Gounda-St. Floris, Sangba and adjoining hunting zones (Central African Republic), Garamba, Upemba and Kundelungu (Congo-Kinshasa), Omo (Ethiopia), Murchison Falls, Lake Mburo and Kidepo Valley (Uganda), Masai Mara and Ruma (Kenya), Serengeti (Tanzania), Kafue, Bangweulu and Liuwa Plain (Zambia) and Golden Gate Highlands N. P. (South Africa).<br/><br/>Haggard’s Oribi occurs in Boni-Dodori National Reserve in Kenya and Bush Bush N.P. in Somalia, but there is no information available on its status.
15730		distribution	eng	The Oribi has a patchy distribution ranging from Senegal to Ethiopia and Eritrea and south through eastern Africa to Angola and the Eastern Cape of South Africa (East 1999; Brashares and Arcese in press). It still occurs widely within its former distribution but its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented as it is gradually eliminated from moderately to densely settled areas. They are now probably extinct in Burundi (East 1999).<br/><br/>Haggard’s Oribi is entirely isolated from other forms in coastal Kenya to southern Somalia (Hillman <em>et al.</em> 1998; East 1999).<br/><br/>The Kenya Oribi formerly occurred on the lower slopes of Mount Kenya but is now extinct (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1998; East 1999).
15730		habitat	eng	Oribi inhabit savanna woodlands, floodplains and other open grasslands, from around sea level to about 2,000 m asl. They reach their highest density on floodplains and moist tropical grasslands, especially in association with large grazers.
15730		population	eng	Oribi are locally common in suitable habitats at densities of 2-10 animals/km², but have been recorded at densities up to 45 animals/km² in exceptionally productive tropical grasslands and treeless floodplains (Brashares and Arcese in press, and references therein). Densities estimated from ground counts range from 0.1-0.4/km² in areas where it is uncommon or depleted (East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 750,000. Population trend is stable in many protected areas but decreasing in some others which receive minimal or no protection. Outside protected areas, population trend is gradually downwards in many parts of the Oribi’s range as human populations increase and settlement expands, although its populations are stable in some thinly settled, unprotected regions where hunting pressures are relatively low. <br/><br/>The total numbers of Haggard’s Oribi are probably in the thousands.
15730		threats	eng	It has been eliminated from substantial parts of its former range by the spread of agricultural settlement, livestock and increased hunting for meat. In the Comoé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire, Oribi experienced a decline of around 92% between 1978 and 1998 primarily due to poaching (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). It nevertheless shows considerable resilience to hunting in some parts of its range, although generally not to the extent of highly resilient species such as Bushbuck and Grey Duiker. Its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented as it is gradually eliminated from moderately to densely settled areas.
15733		conservation	eng	Argali are included on Appendix II of CITES, excepting the subspecies <em>O. a. nigrimontana</em> and <em>O. a. hodgsonii</em>, which are included on Appendix I. The United States Endangered Species Act lists argali as endangered, except in Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, where they are listed as threatened. (Threatened classification allows for importation of trophies from legally taken argali in those countries under specifically-authorized permits from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Permits for importation of trophies are generally not authorized for taxa listed as Endangered).<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>A trophy hunting program for argali in the Big Pamir operated from ~ 1966-1978, but was discontinued following the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, and to date, has not been re-established. Under this program, livestock grazing in high elevation habitats favoured by argali during summer was effectively prohibited, and poaching by local pastoralists reduced. However, domestic livestock grazing was concentrated on argali winter ranges, with the result that the overall effect on argali habitat of the hunting program was unclear (Petocz <em>et al</em>. 1978). All hunting in Afghanistan was banned by order of President Hamid Karzai in 2006. There do not, however, appear to be serious effort so to enforce the ban. In 2009.   argali were officially-listed as a Protected Species in Afghanistan, strictly prohibiting all hunting and trading of this species within the country. There are currently no protected areas within the distribution of argali in Afghanistan, although plans exist to establish one or more in the Big and Little Pamir areas. Land management regulations or restrictions in any such future protected areas are not yet known.<br/><br/>China<br/>Argali are classified as a Category II “key species” under the Chinese National Wildlife Law of 1988. As such, permits to take argali must be obtained from province-level authorities. In practice, only the trophy hunting programs have procured permits to take argali under this legislation (Harris 2007). <br/><br/>Argali occur in a number of Chinese nature reserves. In Xinjiang, they occur in occur in at least six nature reserves in Xinjiang (Du and Zhang 2006), including Arjin Shan, Kalamaili, Source of the 2 Altai Rivers (Altai mountains), West Tian Shan, Hami Shan (Tian Shan range) and Taxkorgan (Pamirs). On the Tibetan Plateau, argali occur in the 247,120 km² Qiangtang Reserve in Tibet and the 83,000 km² Kekexili Reserve in Qinghai, as well as in scattered populations within the Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve in Qinghai (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Gansu, argali occur in Yanchiwan Nature Reserve, and may occur in the Qilian Nature Reserve. Nature reserve designation in China does not necessarily preclude habitat conflicts, as grazing, mining, and other activities often take place.<br/><br/>A number of trophy hunting areas have been established with argali as the focal species. Hunting areas in Xinjiang include Baicheng, Bu’erjin, Fuyun, Hami, Hejing, Qiemo, Tacheng, Tashiku’ergan, and Tulufan counties; in Gansu in Aksai and Subei counties (Subei’s consisted of two distinct areas, the Hashiha’er area in the Qilian Mountains and the Mazong Shan area in the Gobi Desert abutting Mongolia). In addition, two hunting areas in Qinghai Province, focusing primarily on blue sheep, have argali populations: Dulan (within separate townships, Balong and Gouli) and Maduo counties. One hunting area in Inner Mongolia (Yabulei) contains argali. Hunting areas in China have generally succeeded in reducing poaching and in generating some local enthusiasm for argali, but have not yet succeeded in treating habitat conflicts (Harris and Pletscher 2002, Harris 2007). <br/><br/>India<br/>Argali are listed as a threatened species by the Government of India and are fully protected under Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife Act of 1978 (Fox and Johnsingh 1997). Poaching appears to have declined in recent years (Namgail 2004), but has evidently not been accompanied by an increase in argali. Little has been done to address the likely deleterious effects of displacement increasing numbers of livestock on argali in Ladakh.  Argali are rare but present in Khangchengzonga National Park in Sikkim (Sharma and Lachungpa 2003).<br/><br/>Kazakhstan<br/>Fedosenko (1999b) considered that some of the hunting concessions in Karaganda oblast protected argali well. Between 1990 and 2000, 75 argali rams were shot in the Karaganda area, and the approximately $900,000 earned was used for scientific studies, according to Fedosenko (1999b). However, Fedosenko (1999b) also believed that trophy hunting was having deleterious effects on breeding behavior and resultant productivity of females, and recommended a reduction in the yearly offtake quota. Trends in habitat conflicts with domestic livestock in Kazakhstan have not been well documented.<br/><br/>Kyrgyzstan<br/>A research and conservation plan for argali was approved by the government of the Kyrgyz republic on April 7, 2004 (Krygyz Republic 2004), but it is unclear if it has proceeded, and if so, what results have been achieved.  In February 2006, the United State Department Fish and Wildlife Service suspended their program of issuing import permits to US hunters taking argali in Kyrgyzstan, pending receipt of additional information on the status of the taxon there (M. Carpenter, USFWS pers. comm., 2006). Issuing permits was partially reinstated in 2007, with 10 permits allowed. <br/><br/>Mongolia<br/>Argali sheep are protected as “Rare” under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act No. 264) of the 2000 Mongolian Law on Animals (Wingard and Odgerel 2002). General hunting of argali has been prohibited since 1953, and is the species is further protected as “Rare” under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (Wingard and Odgerel 2002). Argali are included in Appendix II of CITES (UNEP-WCMC, 2006), with an export quota of 80 hunting trophies with horns and 44 skins and horns in 2005. Altai argali (<em>O. a. ammon</em>) were listed as Rare” in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books, and the species was upgraded to “Endangered” in Mongolia in the most recent nationwide assessment (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). Approximately 14% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within federal protected areas, including Altai Taivan Bogd National Conservation Park (NCP), Gobi Gurvan Saikhan NCP, Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area (SPA) sections A and B, Ikh Nart NR, Khokh Serkh SPA, Khoredal Saridag SPA, Khustai Nuruu NCP, Myangan Ugalzat Nature Reserve (NR), Sielkhem Uul NCP, Tsagaan Shuvuut SPA, Tsambagarav Uul NCP, and Turgen Uul SPA (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002b). Small populations likely occur in other federal and provincial (aimag) or county (soum) protected areas as well.<br/><br/>Although protected from general hunting, trophy hunters can purchase licenses. Under the Mongolian Hunting Fee Law of 1995, revenue generated from argali trophy hunting is divided among the federal government’s general funds (70%), the local province (20%), and the hunting organization (10%); specifically, US$ 18,000 for <em>O. a. ammon</em> trophies and US$ 9,000 for <em>O. a. darwini</em> trophies is allocated to local and federal governments (Wingard and Odgerel 2002).  Ostensibly this money should benefit local people, government agencies, and help implement important conservation actions for argali and the ecosystems they inhabit, but unfortunately, little of this money makes it back to local people or to the conservation of the species (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>., 2002a, Wingard and Zahler 2006). Indeed, because local governments generally receive no additional revenue from trophy hunting (the federal government simply reduces payments to local governments that receive trophy hunting permits), many local governments are actively establishing protected areas to prevent future hunting (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a). Recent reforms to Mongolian trophy hunting practices have led to proposals for community-based wildlife management programmes (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a). Initial efforts by WWF-Mongolia, the Argali Wildlife Research Center, Denver Zoological Foundation, and local governments stalled; however, after initiation of a Global Environment Facility Project in the region and no progress has been made in recent years. <br/><br/>WWF and the Ministry of Nature and Environment organised a workshop on ‘Conservation of Argali in Mongolia’ in 2000 that resulted in a Argali Conservation Management Plan in 2002. However, this plan has not yet been adopted by the government and is not being implemented.<br/><br/>Mongolia’s Argali Wildlife Research Centre, Denver Zoological Foundation, and Mongolian Academy of Sciences cooperate on a number of conservation and research projects, including an interdisciplinary research and conservation project in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Dornogobi Aimag in cooperation with the Dalanjargal Soum Administration.  That work, begun in the late 1990s, has resulted in several publications (e.g., Amgalanbaatar and Reading 2000, 2003, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2003, 2005; Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>., 2002a; 2002b, 2006; Tserenbataa <em>et al</em>. 2004, Wingard 2005), development of ecotourism to support conservation, a broad conservation education program, and active conservation management of the reserve by the Dalanjargal Soum Administration.  <br/><br/>Additional conservation measures are desperately required in Mongolia. Clark <em>et al</em>. (2006) outlined the following:<br/><br/>• Implement the recommendations outlined in the Argali Conservation Management Plan.<br/>• Improve enforcement of existing legislation that would help conserve argali. <br/>• Enhance conservation management in protected areas where argali are found at high population densities, and increase the capacity of protected areas personnel and other environmental law enforcement officers.<br/>• Work to improve the livelihoods of local communities in areas where argali are protected by local initiatives and re-initiate community-based approaches to argali conservation (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a).<br/>• Develop public education programmes to raise awareness of the status of and threats to the species. <br/>• Continue ecological research, monitor population trends, and study the impacts of threats, including work in the Altai and Khangai Mountains to complement research occurring in the Gobi Desert.<br/>• Implement the recommendations from the Mongolian Wildlife Trade Workshop as outlined in Wingard and Zahler (2006).<br/><br/>Major revisions to argali trophy hunting practices in Mongolia as outlined in Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. (2002a) could generate substantial revenue for conservation and ensure that local people benefit, greatly benefitting argali conservation.  However, the barriers to changing the way trophy hunting is managed and implemented in Mongolia are formidable.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Working with local people in the Khunjerab area toward mutually agreeable conservation solutions has been a contentious issue for many years. Successful resolution of competing claims with concerns for the interests of argali will ultimately be beneficial for conservation.<br/><br/>Russia<br/>Argali are listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, and hunting is legally banned; it is unclear how effective this legal protection is. Argali occur in the Altaisky Zapovednik, but most argali in the Russian Federation are outside of protected areas. Both Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) and Paltsyn (2001) suggested expanding the area under protected area status in the area. Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) suggested that the eastern portion of Sailguem Ridge near the Mongolian border could be a possible new protected area, as well as in the upper reaches of the Chagan-Burgazy River. Paltsyn (2001) noted that WWF has become a long-term program to promote sustainable development in the Altai-Sayan region, which could have benefits for argali.<br/><br/>Tajikistan<br/>Argali occur in Pamir National Park (26,000 km²), and the Zorkul Zapovednik (870 km²), although neither protected area is fully functional (Schaller and Kang 2008).  Trophy hunting began in 1987, the same year that local hunting was prohibited (Fedosenko 1999b). Quotas for trophy hunts have recently been 40-60/year (Schaller and Kang 2008), up from ~ 20/year in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Fedosenko 1999b). There are reports that additional animals are sometimes sold beyond the official quotas. Some hunting concessions actively protect argali and limit disturbance, others do not (Schaller 2003).<br/><br/>Sources disagree on the status of argali in Tajikistan. Protection from excessive human mortality and human disturbance appears to be strong in the southeastern corner of the country; somewhat less so in other portions of argali range (Schaller 2003). Argali have generally benefited from the substantial reduction in domestic livestock grazing in the high-elevation Pamirs following Tajikistan’s independence in 1991 (Fedosenko 1999a). However, poaching, by pastoralists, military, and border guards, may have increased since that time – perhaps in part due to the civil war of the mid 1990s -- and is only partly controlled by hunting concessions (Schaller 2003). Trophy hunts represent a substantial source of revenue that could be used for argali conservation; this appears to be occurring in some hunting concessions within Tajikistan, but not in others (Schaller 2003).<br/><br/>Uzbekistan<br/>Severtzov’s argali are protected with the Nuratinski SPA and a few individuals possibly survive in the Zaaminsk SPA.  The species is included in the Red Book of Uzbekistan and protected from general hunting, although limited trophy hunting is permitted and occurs irregularly. Unfortunately, little law enforcement to prevent poaching occurs outside of the protected areas. Strong anti-poaching activities, expansion of the Nuratinski SPA, and would help conservation efforts. Support for anti-poaching and pasture improvement efforts are crucial. <br/><br/>A captive breeding program for Severtzov’s argali occurs just outside Nuratinski SPA to supplement the wild population and provide animals for trophy hunters. Unfortunately, this facility is relatively small, has limited resources, and occasionally releases breeding males for trophy hunters. Nevertheless, this program demonstrates that, captive propagation is possible and could aid in restoring animals to portions of their range where protection from poaching and over-grazing occurs.
15733		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan, China (Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, possibly western Sichuan, Tibet, and Xinjiang), northern India (Ladakh, Sikkim, and Spiti), eastern Kazakhstan, eastern Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, northern Nepal (near the Chinese border), extreme northern Pakistan, Russia (Tuvan and Altai Republics in the Altai Mountains), eastern Uzbekistan, and eastern Tajikistan (Fedosenko and Blank 2005). There are no recent records of argali occurrence in Bhutan (Tschewang Wangchuck pers. comm., 2008). <br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>Argali were historically present in much of the Afghan Pamirs of the Wakhan district (Habibi 1977, Petocz 1973, Petocz <em>et al</em>. 1978), between the Panj (Amu Darya) and Wakhan Rivers, but were not known from elsewhere in Afghanistan during recent times. They currently occupy the western section of the Big Pamirs, most of the Little Pamirs, and are often found in the Wakhjir Valley as well (Harris and Winnie 2008, Schaller and Kang 2008). Their status in the eastern portion of the Big Pamir, where they were documented by Petocz (1978) in the early 1970s remains uncertain. They are occasionally reported from elsewhere within the Wakhan Corridor. These animals are considered to be <em>O. a. polii</em>.<br/><br/>China<br/>Argali are distributed in most mountain ranges of Xinjiang (Yu <em>et al</em>. 1999), including the Altai Shan, Arjin Shan, Kara-Kunlun Shan, Pamirs, and Tian Shan and associated ranges. Some authorities consider all these argali except those in the Pamirs to be <em>O. a. karelini</em>; others sub-divide these into other subspecies. Within the ranges of the Tibetan Plateau, argali are distributed discontinuously and irregularly (Liu and Yin 1993, Schaller 1998, Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007). Although present in ranges from the Himalaya to the Qilian Shan in Gansu, argali on the Tibetan Plateau appear to be rare where temperatures are exceedingly low, winter snows deep, and/or precipitation amounts too low to support grass (Harris 2007). However, relatively healthy populations occur in the Qilian and Kunlun Mountains of Gansu and Qinghai (although from written accounts, argali are rare in the drier, western portions of the Kunlun Shan [Feng 1990, G. Schaller, unpublished data, 2001]). Chinese sources report the species as present in extreme western Sichuan (Wang 2002) but recent documentation of this is weak. Most authors consider argali on the Tibetan Plateau (including the Qilian Shan in Gansu) <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em>, although some Chinese authors consider <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em> limited to southern Tibet, and consider argali north of that to be <em>O. a. dalailamae</em>. Argali are patchily distributed in Inner Mongolia (Bu <em>et al</em>. 1998). They are historically known from parts of Shaanxi and Ningxia Provinces (in the Helan Shan, which forms Ningxia’s western border with Inner Mongolia), but recent records suggest that they no longer occurs in either of these provinces (Liu Zhensheng, Gong Minghao pers. comm., 2008). These animals are variously described as <em>O. a. darwini</em> or <em>O. a. jubata</em>.<br/><br/>India<br/>Within India, argali are restricted to the eastern plateau of Ladakh, a nearby area in Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), and, separately, in northern Sikkim adjacent to Tibet (Fox and Johnsingh 1997, Bhatnagar 2003, Ul-Haq 2003, Namgail <em>et al</em>. 2004). Indian biologists consider these animals <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em>.<br/><br/>Kazakhstan<br/>In Kazakstan, argali (usually considered <em>O.a. collium</em>) are present in the Kazakhshiy and Melkosopoachnik regions, north of Lake Balkash, in the northeastern part of the country. Small populations are also present in the Kara-Tau Mountains (<em>O. a. nigrimontana</em>, although Shakula 2000 raised doubts about the validity of this subspecies), and the ranges of the West Tian Shan, both north and west of Almaty (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997).  <em>O. severtzovi</em> historically inhabited the Beltau Mountains and eastern portions of the Aktau range (Ishunin 1970), but the subspecies is believed to be extirpated from Kazakhstan (N. Beshko pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Kyrgyzstan<br/>In Kyrgyzstan, argali are present along the eastern quarter of the country toward the Chinese border from Kazakhstan in the north to Tajikistan in the south, as well as along portions of the eastern Tian Shan toward the Uzbek border (Fedosenko and Blank 2005). Animals in southern southeastern Kyrgyzstan are usually considered <em>O. a. polii</em>; some authorities consider those in northern Kyrgyzstan <em>O. a. karelini</em>, but geographic and morphological separation remains unclear.<br/><br/>Mongolia<br/>Argali are distributed widely, but patchily across a large portion of Mongolia. Historically, argali occurred in disjunct populations across all, but eastern Mongolia, in areas with rolling hills, mountains, rocky outcrops, canyons, and plateaus (Amgalanbaatar and Reading 2000, 2003, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Argali appear to be expanding their distribution in eastern Mongolia, but contracting and becoming even more fragmented in western Mongolia (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Amgalanbaatar and Reading 2000, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a, 2002b, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Large areas formerly occupied by argali in western Mongolia now lack the species. The species current distribution includes portions of the Altai, Trans-Alai, Gobi-Altai, Khangai, Khentie, and Khovsgol Mountain ranges, as well as isolated areas in the Gobi Desert (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002b, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). More specifically, isolated populations exist in the mountains of the Mongolian Altai and Gobi Altai Mountains, primarily the western and southern Khangai Mountains, near the source of the Arsain River in the Khovsgol Mountains, and the southernmost Khentii Mountains. Other populations persist patchily in the Dzungarian Gobi Great Gobi, Trans-Altai Gobi, Alashan Gobi, Middle Gobi, and eastern Gobi (Bannikov 1954, Dulamtseren 1970, Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2001, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a, 2002b, Fedosenko and Blank 2005, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006)).<br/><br/>Nepal<br/>Argali (usually considered <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em>) are known from the Damodar Kunda area of Mustang District, bordering Tibet (Shrestha <em>et al</em>. 2005). They may also persist in the Dolpo region, north of the Dhualagiri Range (Wegge and Oli 1997). <br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Argali in Pakistan are known only from Khunjerab National Park (KNP) and environs, including the Khunerab, Kilik, and Mintaka passes with China (Hess <em>et al</em>. 1997, Khan and Khan, n.d.). It is unknown whether argali (considered <em>O. a. polii</em>) use the mountains separating these areas from Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor to the west. <br/><br/>Russia<br/>Argali were formerly found in Zabaikal, Kuray, and the South-Chuya ranges and the Ukok plateau (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997). More recently, they are known only from Tuva and Altai Republics (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997, Paltsyn 2001, Maroney 2004). Russian authorities considered these <em>O. a. ammon</em>.<br/><br/>Tajikistan<br/>Argali are present through most of the eastern third of Tajikistan (Luschekina 1994, Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997, Schaller and Kang 2008), from the border with Xinjiang, China west to Langar in the south and Sarez Lake in the north. Authors agree that all argali in Tajikistan are <em>O. a. polii</em>.<br/><br/>Uzbekistan<br/><em>O. ammon severtzovi</em> was previously distributed over a wide area of Uzbekistan from the northeastern part of the Pamiro-Alaya mountain range rhought the low mountains of the Kyzylkum Desert. Historically, it occupied the mountains of Nuratau, Aktau, Koratau, Malguzar east of Turkenstanski in Pistalitau, Tamdytau, Bukantua, Kuldjuktau, and other low ranges in the Kyzylkum Desert (Ishunin 1970, N. Beshko pers. comm.). Today, the majority of animals surviving are restricted to the higher mountains of Nuratau, primarily with the Nuratinski Strictly Protected Area, north of Samarkand (Uzbekistan). Very small populations persist in the western Aktau, Tamdytau, and Malguzar Ranges (N. Beshko pers. commun.).
15733		habitat	eng	Argali inhabit mountains, steppe valleys and rocky outcrops (Reading <em>et al</em>., 1997; Schaller 1998; Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; Harris 2007); they also occur in open desert habitats at the south-eastern end of its range (Reading <em>et al</em>., 2003; Tserenbataa <em>et al</em>., 2004; Reading <em>et al</em>., 2005). Argali are sensitive to deep snow, particularly if forage is limiting; often migrating from high mountain habitats during winter, but are present all year round at lower elevations in the Gobi desert (Reading <em>et al</em>., 2005). Most argali live on alpine grasslands between 3,000-5,500 m, often descending lower in winter (particularly if snow accumulates to more than a few cm). In some areas, (e.g., Gobi desert of southern Mongolia, Karaganda area of Kazakhstan), they live in lower elevation, semi-arid areas.  They generally avoid forested areas (except in Kazakhstan, where they are presumed to occupy forests because of displacement from preferred habitats, Fedonsenko and Blank 2005). They prefer to occupy open areas with a gentle slope; females generally occupy steeper (cliff) terrain following lambing. Argali feed on grasses, sedges, and some herbs and lichens, and they regularly drink from open springs and rivers. Where sympatric with blue sheep they are more likely to occur in grass-dominated communities compared to the sedge-dominated communities occupied by blue sheep. Argali are gregarious and live in groups from 2-150 individuals. Wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) are their primary natural predator. Gestation is about 160 days, and females give birth to one offspring (twins are occasionally reported in the literature, but documentation is poor). Mothers separate from the herd to give birth and remain alone with her offspring for several days.  Females are sexually mature at 2 years, while males may not sexually mature until 5 years. Maximum life-span is 10-13 years (Fedosenko and Blank 2005).
15733		population	eng	Afghanistan<br/>There is no comprehensive population estimate for argali in Afghanistan. In the early 1970s, Petocz <em>et al</em>. (1978) accounted for approximately 1,260 argali in the Pamirs (including both Big and Little Pamir segments), from which they estimated a total abundance of about 2,500. During their survey in autumn 2004 (primarily of the Little Pamir), Schaller and Kang (2008) tallied 624 argali (87% of which were in the Little Pamir), and speculated that the total number in the Wakhan might be 1,000. Some of the argali tallied in the Little Pamir may periodically cross into Tajikistan, and thus possibly be counted within surveys there. Harris and Winnie (2008) estimated that they observed 120-210 individual argali in the western segment of the Big Pamir in November-December 2007. Eight-five individuals (all males) had been encountered by B. Habib in the Wakhjir Valley near the Chinese border in July of 2007, which likely were not part of the Big Pamir counts. Efforts to refine a population estimate for Big Pamir argali are currently underway, using DNA microsatellites extracted from fecal samples.<br/><br/>China<br/>Wang <em>et al</em>. (1997) put forward estimates of 29,000-36,000 for <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em> alone (in Tibet, Qinghai, and southeastern Xinjiang; although Wang [1998] subsequently wrote that such an estimate was probably a “significant overestimate”), with an additional 2,100-2,800 <em>O. a. darwini</em> (in Inner Mongolia), 600-700 <em>O. a. jubata</em> (in Inner Mongolia), 8,000-11,000 <em>O. a. karelini</em> (in the Tian Shan), 2,000-3,000 <em>O. a. polii</em> (in the Pamirs), and some additional <em>O. a. ammon</em> (in northern Xinjiang near the Mongolia border). This would suggest an estimate during the early 1990s of 41,700-53,500 argali in China. Later, as part of a nationwide attempt to generate numerical estimates for wildlife, Yu estimated the total number of argali in China to be between 23,298 and 31,910 (Yu Yuqun, Northwest Institute of Endangered Species, Xian, personal communication, 2004). Both of these estimates were extrapolations based on density estimates from limited areas, and neither was associated with sufficient explanation to asses their accuracy. Given the tendency for density estimates to be taken from areas known to have the densest concentrations and to use models that are usually biased high (Harris and Burnham 2001), these estimates are more likely to be biased high than low. <br/><br/>On the Tibetan plateau, Schaller (1998) considered that “…the total number of Tibetan argalis could be as low as 7,000”. For the Tibetan Autonomous Region, Liu and Yin (1993) estimated 5,000 argali.  For Gansu, in a letter to the US Fish and Wildlife Service dated May 17, 1991, Wang Zhangyun of China’s CITES Management Office suggested that there were as many as 20,000 argali in this province alone. In Qinghai, Zheng (2003) estimated a total population for Qinghai of 3,588. Earlier, Zheng and Zhu (1990) had estimated a population size of 665 (with a 95% confidence interval of 245) within selected study sites totaling approximately 600 km² of the Bu’erhanbuda Shan portion of the Kunlun Shan (based on 18 groups observed).<br/><br/>There are at least four written estimates of argali abundance in the Hashiha’er International Hunting Area of Gansu encompassing the northern slopes of the Danghenan Shan and the nearby Yemanan Shan in Subei County, Gansu. A provincial survey from 1990 estimated 1,452 argali (with unspecified confidence limits of  831-2,073; Gao Jun, Gansu Wildlife Protection Bureau, Lanzhou, unpublished data), an internal report of unclear origin estimated 1,525 (with confidence limits of 990—2,060; Zhao Lianghong, Subei International Hunting Area, unpublished data), Liu <em>et al</em>. (2000) cited a mean density figure of 0.482 (which is higher than either of the 2 density estimates underlying the above abundance estimates, and which equates to an abundance estimate of 4,479), and Liu (2001) estimated a population of 3,294 within Yanchiwan township (which roughly equates with the Hashiha’er hunting area boundary). All of these estimates relied on some variation of ground-based distance sampling, but in no case were sampling methods described, although Liu (2001) revealed that his density estimate was based on a sample size of 6, and the total number of animals observed was 60. A brief survey in April 1999 suggested that all these estimates were biased high (R. Harris, unpublished data). In an adjacent hunting area in Aksai county, Gansu, the 1990 provincial population estimate was 1,545 (with confidence limits of 1,127—1,963; Gao Jun, unpublished data), and the density estimate from Liu <em>et al</em>. (2000) suggested a population size of 3,879. In contrast, ~ 1-month-long surveys in both 2000 and 2003 with KIHA staff, focusing on what was believed to be the best argali habitat, documented 204-255 individual argali, and although some were no doubt missed, Harris <em>et al</em>. (2005) concluded that it was highly unlikely that the total population exceeded 500. <br/><br/>In Xinjiang, no estimates are available specifically for the Tian Shan or Altai Mountains (although estimates for the former are in the thousands, for the latter in the hundreds). In Taxkorgan County where Xinjiang shares the Pamir range with Tajikistan and Afghanistan, Schaller <em>et al</em>. (1987) documented only 87 argali and believed the population to be rather small. However, a later survey (Schaller and Kang 2008) yielded documentation of 851 argali in the Taxkorgan Nature Reserve and 1,448 argali north of it. In a separate survey during the same year (2005), Gong <em>et al</em>. (2007) surveyed selected drainages within Taxkorgan Nature Reserve, tallying 433 argali. Based on the area sampled and assumptions about suitable habitat, they extrapolated an estimate of 1,500-1,700 argali within the Reserve. No population estimates are available for argali in Inner Mongolia, but most populations appear to be isolated and small (Wang and Schaller 1996, Bu <em>et al</em>. 1998, Wang 1998). <br/><br/>Due to the lacking of consistent trend monitoring, population trends in China are largely unknown. A population monitored periodically over 12 years in Yeniugou, in the Kunlun Mountains south of Golmud in Qinghai apparently declined (Harris and Loggers 2004); no marked difference in abundance was noted in a population monitored in Aksai, Qilian Mountains in Gansu (Harris <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>India<br/>Argali are very rare in Sikkim (Sharma and Lachungpa 2003), and only occasionally move into the Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh from adjacent Ladakh (Pandey 2003). Fox and Johnsingh (1997) estimated that about 200 remained in Ladahk. Namgail (2004) counted 127 in a ~500 km² study area in the Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary and adjacent Tsokar Basin in spring 2003. Adding unpublished recent reports of an additional 120-140 argali elsewhere in Ladakh, he concluded that there might be slightly more than 200 argali in the Ladakh. Namgail (2004) cautioned against interpreting these later numbers as an increase of the 200 estimated earlier by Fox and Johnsingh (1997).<br/><br/>Kazakhstan<br/>Sources are currently unavailable from which an estimate of the total abundance of argali in Kazakhstan might be inferred. Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) estimated 8,000 to 10,000 in the northeastern distribution (of the putative subspecies <em>O. a. collium</em>), i.e., the Karaganda area, with perhaps 250 in the Kara Tau Mountains, and an unknown number in the West Tian Shan. Fedosenko (1999b) reported that Smirnov (1965, not seen) had estimated 16,000 argali in Karaganda during the early 1960s, but that later estimates in the 1970s and 1980s had put the number at 7,000 or even 5,000. A helicopter survey in November 1991 resulted in an estimate of 9,717 Karaganda argali, but whether this was a direct count or an extrapolation was not made clear by Fedosenko (1999b). Fedosenko (1999b) quotes R. Baidavletov as assuming a total abundance of 13,500 in the Karaganda area, including 6,500 in Karaganda oblast, 2,100 in Semipalatinsk oblast, 4,300 and the remainder in other oblasts as of the early 1990s. Magomedov <em>et al</em>. (2003) report tallying 449 individuals within a survey area of 1,544 km² in the upper course of the Baralbas River of Karaganda and Semipalatnisk, but declined to extrapolate this figure to areas not surveyed. Recent surveys in Kazakhstan revealed a disappointing picture of argali status (A. Subbotin pers. comm., 2008).  Uncontrolled killing by those who carry firearms appeard to be common; local militia and customs officials had come to areas inhabited by argali and killed dozens with gun-machines.  In the Kara-Tau Mountains, Shakula (2000) believed that the population could have been as low as 100 animals.<br/><br/>Kyrgyzstan<br/>There is little consensus regarding the abundance of argali in Kyrgyzstan. Luschekina (1994) counted 565 individuals in the western part of the Kokshalatau range in summer 1993. Based on these counts plus older, unpublished counts, she extrapolated an estimate of 6,000 argali in northeastern Kyrgyzstan. Magomedov <em>et al</em>. (2003) surveyed 190 km of transects in a similar area during spring 2002, tallying 717 argali. Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) reported “no more than 2,000” argali in Tian Shan (which may have included parts of Kazakhstan), and estimates of from 9,900 to 16,000 in the Pamir and Tian Shan of putative <em>O.a. polii</em> subspecies (which included parts of Tajikistan). Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) believed argali in both the Tian Shan and Pamirs were declining. According to Fedosenko (1999b), aerial surveys conducted during winters 1990 and 1991 tallied 5,493 argali, and estimated a total population of approximately 8,000 in the early 1990s. Fedosenko and Blank (2005) reported estimates of argali in Kygzystan as 10,000-12,000 in the Pamir and 5,000 in the Tian Shan, but without citing sources or methods. Based on extrapolations from counts in Aksai, Arpa-Naryn, Dzhety-Oguz, and Issyk-Kul oblasts, Kyrgyz government surveys have estimated approximately 15,900 argali in 2006, slightly lower than in previous years, and down from an estimated 26,000 in 2003.<br/><br/>Mongolia<br/>No rigorous population estimates exist for Mongolia nation-wide.  The Mongolian Academy of Sciences has conducted a few country-wide surveys; however, the methods used do not permit accurate population estimation.  Alternatively, they do provide some measure of population trends because similar methods were used.  The methods involved several teams of biologists driving and hiking in areas known to at least historically contain populations of argali sheep and discussions with local people and local government officials in these areas. These surveys yielded round number estimates (lacking measures of precision) of 40,000 in 1970, 50,000 in 1975, 60,000 in 1985, and between 13,000-15,000 in 2001 (Dulamtseren 1970, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002b, Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, unpubl. Data).  Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997 suggested that no more than 20,000 argali inhabited Mongolia in 1994.  The 2001 Academy of Sciences survey suggested that approximately 10,000 – 12,000 argali inhabited the Gobi Region of Mongolia (roughly corresponding to the range of <em>O. a. darwini</em>) and  3,000 – 5,000 argali inhabited the Altai Region (roughly the range of  <em>O. a. ammon</em> in Mongolia).  It is difficult to gauge the accuracy of these figures given the methods and data provided in government reports, but on regional distribution data, it does appear that argali continue to decline in western and central Mongolia, while populations in eastern Mongolia appear to be expanding.  Argali populations in southern Mongolia appear to be relatively stable.  Probably no more than a few thousand Altai argali (<em>O. a. ammon</em>) persist in Mongolia, while several thousand Gobi argali (the putative <em>O. a. darwini</em>) inhabit a growing range in the south and east.<br/><br/>Nepal<br/>No estimates of the number of argali in Nepal exist; it is likely to be a small number (Shrestha <em>et al</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Animals using the Khunjerab area of Pakistan may also use the Chinese side; the number of animals occurring in Pakistan remains unknown, but is likely to be small, possibly less than 100 (Hess <em>et al</em>. 1997). In 2002 or 2003, Khan and Khan (n.d.) report observing 34 argali. These authors also provide qualitative evidence of a general decline in argali abundance in the area. <br/><br/>Russia<br/>In the mid-1990s, Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) estimated that between 450-700 argali occurred in the Altai Mountains of southern Russia, distributed among numerous subpopulations none of which exceed 50 animals. Paltsyn (2001) reports counts of 80-85 argali within Altaisky Zapovednik (speculating that 100-110 individuals may have existed), 150-160 in headwaters of rivers of Sailugem Ridge (south of the Zapovednik, near the Mongolian border), and 40-45 individuals along the slopes of Chikhachev’s Ridge in the Tuvan Republic. <br/><br/>Tajikistan<br/>Numerous figures have been put forward for the total number of argali in Tajikistan; all suffer from methodological problems of one sort or another. Luschekina (1994) reported that helicopter surveys conducted in 1991 tallied 9,415 animals, with the estimated total in Tajikistan being 9,900-10,300. Density was highest in the eastern-most section, near the border with China where “engineering” works limited human access. Fedosenko (1999a), based on local information in the Saluistyk River area, believed this estimate to be slightly low, asserting that population size in the early 1990s was 11,500-12,000. Based on poaching records and political events within Tajikistan at the time, Fedosenko (1999a) hypothesized a decline to about 9,500-10,000 during the mid-1990s. Fedosenko (1999a) reported tallying 4,948 argali in southeastern portions of Tajikistan in 1999 where he had tallied only 1,242 in 1995, and concluded that the population in Tajikistan had increased to 13,000-14,000. Other estimates during the 1990s by K. Kasirov (quoted by Schaller 2003) were in the 8,000-9,000 range. Magomedov <em>et al</em>. (2002, 2003) surveyed 900 km of transects during late February and early March 2002 in southeastern Tajikistan, estimating that they tallied 5,951 individual argali. Extrapolations from these counts (based on poorly documented assumptions) yielded an estimate of 14,500 argali within southern and eastern study areas, and 39,900 for all of Tajikistan (their surveys evidently took place where Luschekina [1994] and Fedosenko [1999a] had earlier postulated this highest densities in Tajikistan). Schaller and Kang (2008) tallied 1,528 argali in summer 2003 within selected census blocks totaling 1,977 km² (and in winter 2005, counted 2,200 animals within their South Alichur block in Murgab). Schaller and Kang (2008) declined to project an estimate for all of Tajikistan, but believed that the 13,000-14,000 estimated by Fedosenko (1999a) was “of the correct order of magnitude”.<br/><br/>Uzbekistan<br/>Within Nuratinski Strictly Protected Area (SPA) of the Nuratau Mountains, about 1,200-1,300 argali survive. Outside of the protected area the Nuratau Mountains supports about 250-300 argali, of which ~150-200 occur in western Nuratau and 100 individuals occur in eastern Nuratau and the Koitash Range. Under 100 argali remain in the Tamdytau and Aktau Ranges. A few individuals may persist in the Malguzar Range near the Zaaminsk SPA. Therefore, a total of under 1,800 Severtzov’s argali persist in Uzbekistan, of which 90% occur in the Naratau Range (N. Beshko pers. commun.).
15733		threats	eng	The main threats are over-hunting and poaching (for meat); competition, displacement and possibly disease transmission by domestic livestock; and habitat loss. In general, argali appear to be extremely intolerant of human disturbance (Fedosenko 1999, Namgail 2004, Maroney 2006, Namgail <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007, Schaller and Kang 2008.) These threats appear to vary little among argali populations, even though habitats vary.<br/><br/>In Afghanistan, poaching is generally considered to be a continuing threat to argali, the presidential ban on hunting notwithstanding. Weapons are not uncommon in Afghanistan.<br/><br/>In China, poaching has been considered to be a substantial threat (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1997, Schaller 1998). In the mid-1990s however, a nationwide effort to confiscate guns from pastoralists substantially reduced the weaponry available for poaching. This, together with continued efforts to publicize the national law prohibiting killing protected species, appears to have reduced poaching during the last decade or so. At the same time however, efforts to regularize and sedentarize pastoralists generally increased habitat conflicts, because pastoralists typically intensified their use of productive grasslands preferred by argali, thus displacing them (Harris 2007). <br/><br/>Some of the strongest data suggesting interference competition from livestock as a limiting factor for argali comes from Ladakh, India, where Namgail <em>et al</em>. (2007) documented a group of argali shifting their habitat preference toward escape terrain and away from preferred foraging areas when livestock were present.<br/><br/>As elsewhere, livestock grazing and poaching were considered the principal limiting factors to argali in Kazakhstan by Fedosenko (1999b). There is general consensus that habitat conditions for argali improved after Kyrgyzstan’s independence in 1991, due to the collapse of the state-supported livestock sector and consequent reduction in grazing pressure in the Tian Shan and Pamirs (Farrington 2005). It is unclear whether relatively low livestock density near the Chinese border will continue. Poaching and competition with livestock are also considered threats in Kyrgyzstan (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997). After independence in 1991, the number of domestic sheep herded into argali habitat declined dramatically, which likely had a beneficial effect. However, since 2000 there have been informal reports that livestock numbers have again risen. <br/><br/>The main threat facing argali in Mongolia is poaching for subsistence (meat) and increasingly for their horns, which are increasingly being used as substitute horn in traditional Chinese medicine (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, Amgalanbaatar 2002b). Also important are the impacts from local, nomadic pastoralists who displace argali, whose livestock feed on the same forage as argali, and whose dogs chase and even kill argali (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997, 1998, 2003, 2005, Wingard 2005, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2006). More minor and localized threats include unsustainable trophy hunting (Amgalanbaatar 2002a, Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004, Wingard and Zahler 2006) and habitat loss resulting from rapidly increasing resource extraction (i.e., mining) (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1998, 1999, 2001, 2005). Subsistence poaching by miners general represents a greater threat than actual mining activities, but this may change as the number of mines continues to grow rapidly. These threats remain important due to poor or non-existence law enforcement throughout most of the range of the species in Mongolia. Very little money from trophy hunting currently supports conservation activities in Mongolia (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a, Wingard and Zahler 2006).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, in addition to disturbance from livestock (grazing in Khunjerab remains legal; Knudsen 1999, Khan and Khan, n. d.), increased access to the area through the Karakoram Highway is believed to have increase poaching pressure (Hess <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Unlike in Mongolia, domestic livestock herds in the Russian Altai were reported has having declined during the 1990s (Paltsyn 2001), providing a potential opportunity for expansion of the protected area network in the Altai-Sayan area. <br/><br/>In Uzbekistan, poaching represents the main threat facing Severtzov’s argali, which continues to occur even within protected area (N. Beshko pers. comm.). The second major threat to Severtzov’s argali is a loss of habitat and competition with domestic livestock for forage.  Finally, inbreeding and harsh climatic conditions represent threats for the very small, isolated populations in the Aktau, Tamdytau, and Malguzar Mountains (N. Beshko pers. comm.).
15735		conservation	eng	In Canada, more than 4,500 Rocky Mountain bighorns are fully protected within five National Parks (Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, Waterton, Yoho). An even larger number receive some level of protection in provincial parks and other protected areas in Alberta and British Columbia. Animals in protected areas are often especially vulnerable to poaching because they are habituated to humans and are also readily accessible. Outside national parks, both subspecies of bighorn sheep are covered by provincial or state wildlife acts, and many populations can be hunted under license. Harvesting both adult males and adult females may be permitted in some populations. Hunting quotas are determined each year, and in general regulations are strictly enforced. Management consists of regulating annual harvests, habitat improvement, annual censuses, translocation of animals, and promoting research. Between 200 to 250 male and 150 to 200 female Rocky Mountain bighorns are harvested annually in Alberta. In British Columbia, where only males are hunted: 60 to 65 Rocky Mountain and 40 to 45 California bighorns are shot each year, mainly by resident hunters (Hebert <em>et al</em>., 1985).  In much of Canada, male harvest is limited only by the availability of adult males that have reached a minimum curl size, possibly leading to artificial selection against large-horned rams (Coltman <em>et al</em>., 2003). <br/><br/>In the US, Bighorn sheep occur in the following 30 National Parks, Monuments, Recreation Areas and Wildlife Refuges: Arizona: Grand Canyon NP; Cabeza Prieta, Havasu, and Kofa WRs; Glen Canyon, and Lake Mead NRAs; Organ Pipe Cactus NM; California: Sequoia- Kings Canyon NP; Death Valley, and Joshua Tree NMs; Colorado: Mesa Verde, and Rocky Mountain NPs; Colorado, and Dinosaur NMs; Montana: Glacier, and Yellowstone NPs; Bison Range, and C.M. Russell NWRs; Bighorn Canyon NRA; Nevada: Desert NWR; Death Valley NM; Lake Mead NRA; New Mexico: San Andres NWR; North Dakota: T. Roosevelt NP; Oregon: Hart Mountain NWR; South Dakota: Badlands NP; Utah: Arches, Canyonlands, Capitol Reef, and Zion NPs; Dinosaur NM; Flaming Gorge, and Glen Canyon NRAs; Wyoming: Grand Teton, and Yellowstone NPs; Bighorn Canyon NRA. It also occurs in the large Anza-Borrego State Park (California). Most of these protected areas are in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts, and on the Colorado plateau. Numerous other federal lands administered by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management also contain bighorn. Fourteen state wildlife agencies have transplanted sheep onto more than 200 historic ranges. This has accounted for much of the recovery of bighorn sheep from historic low numbers in the 1960s. However, numerous other transplants have failed (Bailey, 1990), presumably for lack of careful evaluation of habitat conditions at potential transplant sites or because of disease transmitted by livestock. Animals in about half the herds are hunted, and all states with bighorn sheep have at least one hunted population. Usually, only adult males are taken as hunting trophies. The number of sheep permitted to be taken each year is conservative and is regulated by each state. All states require that legally taken trophy heads be marked for permanent identification. This practice allows easy identification of illegally taken animals and thus discourages poaching. <br/><br/>Improvement of habitat for bighorn sheep has been frequent, especially on federal multiple-use lands. Projects have been funded with combinations of federal, state, and private moneys. Natural water sources have been improved and artificial water sources created, especially in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of the Southwest. Further north, dense forest or shrub vegetation has been cleared, often by controlled burning, to provide open areas with forage for bighorn sheep. Some populations of bighorn are routinely baited and treated with drugs to control parasites including lungworm (<em>Protostrongylus</em> sp.). Such treatments concentrate sheep and may jeopardize wildness. Management and research biologists exchange information on bighorn sheep in annual meetings of the Desert Bighorn Council and biennial meetings of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council. Proceedings of these meetings are published. Three private organizations, the Foundation for North American Wild Sheep, the Rocky Mountain Bighorn Society and the Society for the Conservation of Bighorn Sheep, raise funds for research and management. At least 10 states auction and/or raffle one or two special bighorn hunting licenses to raise funds for these purposes. Its status within the United States is Not Threatened (but see below). <br/><br/>The status of most traditional subspecies and major ecotypes of bighorn sheep is satisfactory because they exist on 30 biological reserves and on many other protected areas. However, their status is not fully secure because at least 64% of the herds contain about 100 animals. Berger (1990) reviewed the history of some small bighorn populations and concluded that those numbering less than 50 animals usually became extirpated, but Wehausen (1999) provides an alternative interpretation and viewpoint. Further, the ecotypes of bighorn in the Chihuahuan desert and in shortgrass-badlands and riverbreak environments are not secure because there are few reserves or other protected lands within these two regions, and very few of these lands contain wild sheep. <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed for the United States: 1) Additional research on bighorn diseases, particularly in relation to domestic livestock, and on developing efficient methods for habitat management is desirable. 2) State and federal agencies should develop coordinated plans to enhance the long-term security of the numerous bighorn herds with less than 100 sheep. Strategies should include increasing herd size, expanding habitat and increasing herd mobility, and enhancing habitat quality and habitat protection in corridors between small herds (Bailey 1992). 3) Land management agencies, especially the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management, should formally recognize bighorn ranges in their management plans, including corridors for movement within and between herds. 4) Until disease relations are clearer, bighorn should be protected from contact with domestic sheep and domestic goatswhenever possible. 5) Greater recognition of the values and importance of ecotypic variation in bighorn sheep is needed. Federal agencies and state wildlife departments should seek a consensus on classifying the major ecotypes. Each state should furthermore classify its bighorn according to state ecotypes. Conservation of major ecotypes should proceed under the federal Endangered Species Act. Each state should be responsible for conserving another level of ecotypic diversity of bighorn sheep within its boundaries. 6) Increase the number of bighorn sheep in federally protected habitats in the Chihuahuan Desert and in the shortgrass-badlands and river breaks ecosystems. In the Chihuahuan Desert, options include: a) expanding protection of habitat and sheep from the San Andres National Wildlife Refuge to a greater portion of the White Sands Missile Range; b) formally recognizing and enhancing protection of the Big Hatchet Game Range, now on Bureau of Land Management land; c) establishing viable bighorn populations in Guadalupe Mountains and Big Bend National Parks; and d) establishing bighorn in a new biological reserve, probably in west Texas. 7) In the shortgrass-badlands and river breaks ecosystems, management options include: a) expanding bighorn populations and distributions in the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, the Bighorn National Recreation Area, and in Theodore Roosevelt and Badlands National Parks; and b) establishing bighorn populations in new biological reserves in eastern Wyoming or western Nebraska.<br/><br/>The species in Mexico is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Mexican bighorn occur in only two protected areas in Mexico, one of which (Isla Tiburon Wildlife Reserve (in the Sea of Cortez)) holds an introduced population. Peninsular bighorn is in only one protected area, Sierra de San Pedro Martir National Park, but Weem’s bighorn occurs in none. A small group (25 in 1992) of desert bighorn (<em>O. c. nehoni</em>) is held in captivity at Hermosillo. The high price ($30,000 to over $l00,000) that some hunters are willing to pay to hunt wild sheep has recently motivated private and communal landowners in Sonora and Baja California to begin desert sheep monitoring and management programs. In 1994, ranchers in Sonora started a captive breeding program by capturing 40 sheep and placing them in breeding enclosures. Six hunting permits were issued to private landowners for free-ranging bighorns in 1995, and each sold for $40,000. A private conservation organization has initiated a transplant of Weem’s bighorn from southern Baja California to Carmen Island. The excess sheep produced on this island, once the transplanted population increases to a viable size, will be used to re-establish extinct populations on the mainland. The participation of private landowners in wild sheep management programs in Mexico is a positive initiative. Private landowners have the funds to provide for monitoring wild sheep populations and to prevent further poaching. <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed for Mexico: At least five areas must be addressed for conservation of desert bighorn in Mexico (Sandoval, 1985): a) Effective law enforcement is a major problem facing the conservation of bighorn in Mexico. In large part, this is due to the very low financial support generally given to wildlife programmes. b) There is a general lack of technical expertise among wildlife personnel. c) A public education program, especially targeted towards the rural population, is necessary if conservation programmes are to be successful. d) Habitat management has generally been ignored, despite the fact that agricultural practices and forest use have had, and continue to have, significant negative effects on the bighorn. e) The further spread of exotic ungulates, such as Barbary sheep, in or adjacent to current and historic bighorn range should be curtailed. Proposals to deal with these include: 1) Increase the number of protected areas in Baja California and in Sonora on the mainland. Present protected areas are inadequate to protect sheep populations. Mexico’s burgeoning human population requires intensive exploitation of agricultural and natural resources, while coastal tourist development projects in Sonora and Baja California will have further deleterious impacts on wild sheep habitats. 2) Raise enforcement of anti-poaching efforts to adequate levels. This will require a well-equipped law enforcement division. 3) Develop a public conservation education programme, especially targeted towards the rural population. This could play an important role for future conservation of wild sheep and all other wildlife and natural resources. 4) Educate and employ a cadre of professional wildlife biologists.
15735		distribution	eng	The bighorn sheep ranges widely in western Canada, western United States, and northern Mexico.<br/><br/>In Canada, the bighorn sheep (<em>O. c. canadensis</em>) is distributed throughout the Rocky Mountains in Alberta and British Columbia, south from the Peace River to the Canada-USA border. Two small populations also have been introduced to central British Columbia outside their normal distribution. Populations of a second subspecies, California bighorn sheep (<em>O. c. californiana</em>), are scattered through central British Columbia from north of Anahim lake, south along sections of the Chilcotin, Chilco and other western tributaries of the Fraser river south of William’s Lake and west to just north of Lillooet, and also south from around Kamloops along both sides of the Okanagan valley to the border with Washington State (USA) and as far west as Granby, British Columbia. Populations around Kamloops and Granby have been introduced, mostly into historically occupied habitat.<br/><br/>In the United States, the bighorn sheep is widely distributed from Montana and Idaho south through Wyoming and northern Utah, to Colorado and New Mexico. These bighorn herds comprise most of the traditional <em>O. c. canadensis</em> for which Thorne <em>et al</em>. (1985) estimated a population of greater than 19,000. To the south, desert bighorn (traditionally <em>O. c. nelsoni</em>, <em>O. c. cremnobates</em>, and <em>O. c. mexicana</em>) inhabit southern portions of California, Nevada, Utah and New Mexico, much of Arizona, and west Texas. Weaver (1985) estimated 16,000 desert bighorn in this area. However, there are few bighorn and few herds (mostly transplants to reintroduce bighorns in areas where they were extirpated) within the Chihuahuan desert of New Mexico and west Texas. To the west, bighorn occur in scattered populations in the Columbia plateau and Great Basin ranges of Washington, Oregon, southwest Idaho, and northern Nevada. These herds comprise most of the traditional <em>O. c. californiana</em>, for which Thorne <em>et al</em>. (1985) estimated greater than 2,800 animals. East of the Rocky Mountains, bighorn exist in scattered herds in badlands and river-breaks in eastern Montana, North and South Dakota, northeast Wyoming, Nebraska, and outside of historic range in southeast Colorado.<br/><br/>In Mexico, the bighorn sheep was originally distributed in the northern states of Nuevo Leon, Coahila, Chihuahua, Sonora, Baja California and Baja California Sur. Desert bighorn in Mexico is now restricted to three states: Mexican bighorn (<em>O. c. mexicana</em>) in northwestern Sonora and on Tiburon island in the Sea of Cortez; Peninsular bighorn (<em>O. c. cremnobates</em>) in the northern two thirds of Baja California; and Weems’ bighorn (<em>O. c. weemsi</em>) in the southern third of Baja California Sur.
15735		habitat	eng	These animals are sexually segregated outside the rut.  Group sizes usually range from 5 to 50 for males and from 5 to 100 for ‘nursery’ groups of females, lambs and young males.  <br/><br/>They mostly eat grass, but they also consume forbs and browse – diet varies widely over the large geographical range of the species.  Females gestate for 175 days, and give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy.  Females can first conceive at 18 months of age and males are rarely successful at obtaining paternities before about 3 years of age.  Very few females live more than 15 years and very few males survive past 12 years.
15735		population	eng	The total population of all bighorn sheep in Canada is estimated to be <em>ca.</em> 15,500 to 15,700 individuals. Of this total, <em>ca.</em> 11,500 to 11,700 are estimated to be Rocky Mountain bighorns [Alberta 10,300 (K. Smith, <em>in litt</em>., 1994), and British Columbia 1,500 to 1,700 (Hebert <em>et al</em>., 1985)], and <em>ca.</em> 4,000 California bighorn whose individual populations range in size from 15 to 2,400 animals. Most populations of both subspecies are either increasing or stable. <br/><br/>In 1990, there were estimated to be greater than 42,700 bighorn sheep in over 340 recognized herds, in 14 of the states in the United States. However, 64% of the herds recently had less than 100 animals (Thorne <em>et al</em>., 1985; U. S. Bureau of Land Management, n.d.), but most of these populations have since increased.<br/><br/>Only rough population estimates are available for Mexico. Previous estimates of 4,500 in all of Baja California, and perhaps 1,000 on ten separate ranges in Sonora (Sandoval, 1985) were inaccurate. A helicopter survey of the northern two thirds of Baja California in April 1992 by the Bighorn Institute, revealed there were probably greater than 2,500 wild sheep in the entire peninsula (J. Deforge pers. comm., 1992). Personnel from the Arizona Game and Fish Department and the Centro Ecologico de Sonora, conducted a helicopter survey of the principal mountain ranges of Sonora, Mexico in November 1992. Based on this survey, during which 528 sheep were classified by age and sex, R.M. Lee (pers. comm., 1992) estimated <em>ca.</em> 2,000 wild sheep for Sonora. The total estimate of all desert bighorn sheep in Mexico in 1992 was therefore <em>ca.</em> 4,500 animals.
15735		threats	eng	Epizootics have occurred periodically, especially in Rocky Mountain bighorn, and together with over-harvesting and competition from livestock at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, reduced numbers significantly. Most populations recovered with the aid of wildlife management and conservation efforts, but pneumonia and mange epizootics still occur today, particularly in populations that come into contact with domestic sheep and goats. Poaching of large trophy males is a problem in many areas, including within national parks. <br/><br/>In the US, small (< 100) numbers in many herds, and diseases from domestic sheep are major threats, while in Mexico the threats are poaching, competition from domestic livestock, and habitat degradation (Sandoval, 1985).
15739		conservation	eng	<em>Ovis orientalis</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <em>Ovis orientalis ophion</em> and <em>Ovis vignei vignei</em>, Appendix II as <em>Ovis vignei</em>).<br/><br/>  In Afghanistan, O. orientalis was placed on the country’s first Protected Species List in 2009, prohibiting all hunting and trading of this species within the country.<br/><br/>In Iran, Caprinae are the only game mammals that can be hunted under licences issued by the Department of the Environment. Other large mammals such as cheetah (<em>Acinonyx jubutus</em>), Persian fallow deer (<em>Dama mesopotamicus</em>), roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>), red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), gazelles (<em>Gazella bennetti</em>) and wild ass (<em>Equus hemionus</em>), are protected species and hunting them is prohibited except under special licence. The hunting season for Caprinae lasts four months beginning each year in September, but each licence is valid only for five days from its date of issue. Hunters with non-automatic and semi-automatic weapons (all weapons with a calibre of <6 mm and all shot guns are prohibited) can obtain a licence and are permitted to shoot a wild sheep or a wild goat. Each hunter can obtain up to four licences per hunting season, and may shoot three males and one female. Unfortunately the exact numbers of Caprinae shot each year by hunters are not available. According to recent data, between 2,200 and 3,200 licences were issued each hunting season, and a rough estimate of the number Caprinae legally shot each year would be between 2,000 to 3,000 animals. However, more than twice this number are estimated to be killed by poachers annually. Hunting is permitted in protected areas but requires a special licence. Because Caprinae populations are not harvestable in most areas, licences are almost never issued for protected areas except for Kabudan island, located within Lake Uromiyeh. Here, the Department of the Environment staff harvest between 200 and 500 Armenian mouflon annually.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>This subspecies is found in Garnishlo and Kolahgazy Wildlife Refuges, and in Tangsayad Protected Area.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>Laristan sheep are known to occur in Khabr-va-Rochon Wildlife Refuge and in Geno and Hormod Protected Areas. Some authors believe that Laristan sheep also inhabit Bamou National Park (estimated number 1,150) (Valdez and DeForge, 1985).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category II in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves (Sokolov and Syroechkovsky, 1990b): Kaplankyr (Turkmenistan); Ustyurt (about 600 head) (Kazakhstan). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection (Republican State Board For Conservation and Utilisation of Flora, Fauna, and Protected Lands) plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b). Conservation measures proposed: Reduce significantly poaching. If this can be controlled, the existing measures will be sufficient as long as they are maintained. This urial also occurs in two National Parks, three Wildlife Refuges, and three Protected Areas in Iran. Hunting in all these areas is prohibited and domestic animals are under control. Hunting under licence is allowed from September to February outside these areas.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category I in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves: Dashti Turn (Tajikistan), Kugitang (Turkmenistan) and Surkhan (Uzbekistan). In 1991, 14 were reported in Surkhan NR but only five in 1993 (Kh. Mengliev pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b), and Tajikistan planned to allow hunts for this urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Halt all hunting. 2) Carry out surveys and censuses. 3) Reconsider the potential for hunting programs only if they are sustainable and will clearly improve conservation status of markhor. If not, maintain a hunting ban and provide further protection. 4) Establish reserves at Babatagh (when fighting ceases) and at Baisuntau in Uzbekistan. 5) Examine the possibility of re-establishing a population in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve. Reduce significantly 6) poaching and 7) competition with livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and placed in Category II of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). Approximately half the total population lives in protected areas in Turkmenistan. Kopet Dagh Nature Reserve was established primarily for preservation of this subspecies, and they are also found in Siunt-Khasardag and Badkhyz Nature Reserves. The Turkmenistan Government planned hunts for two of this urial in 1995. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the enforcement of existing protective measures both in and outside protected areas. 2) Decrease poaching. 3) Ensure any hunting programs are sustainable and based on sound biological data. Occurs in the Arjar Valley Wildlife Reserve in Afghanistan (Shank <em>et al</em>., 1977), and seasonally (summer) in Kohe Burocinal and Kohe Argosa nearby the Band-e Amir National Park (Shank and Larsson, 1977). In the 1970s plans were considered to locate a viable urial population to develop a limited hunting reserve involving local participation, as had been achieved for Marco Polo sheep. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Carry out extensive surveys of Afghan urial populations and distributions in the Hindu Kush. 2) Re-consider the options proposed by Petocz (1978).<br/><br/>Pakistani protected areas reported to contain mostly very small numbers of Afghan urial include: NWFP - Dera Ismail Khan District: Sheikh Buddin NP (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Kohat District: Borraka WS (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987) Rakh Topi GR (Malik, 1987); Peshawar District: Nizampur GR (Malik, 1987); District Abbottabad: Surrana GR. BaZz&istarz - Las Bela District: Hingol NP, Dureji WS, Khurkhera WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990), Dureji WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Khuzdar District: Dhrun NP, Chorani WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Kharan District: Ras Koh GR, Raghai Rakshan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Kalat District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP, and possibly Sashan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Quetta District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990; though presence in this NP not confirmed by Virk, 1991); Sibi District: Ziarat Juniper WS (Baluchistan Forest. Dept., 1990); Pishin District: Masalakh WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990). Sind - Dadu District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date); Karachi District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date). As a result of the protection given by Kirthar NP, the urial population within its boundaries has increased recently. However, except for Kirthar NP, Hingol NP, Dhrun NP and Dureji WS, the protection measures for the other sanctuaries and reserves may not be effective at the present time. WWF-Pakistan has recently initiated a participatory management program in the Shirani tribal area, which includes protection for Afghan urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine the current distribution and numbers of Afghan urial, as well as its status in all protected areas, as soon as possible. 2) Immediately, focus intensive protection measures on a few of the already existing, but well controllable sanctuaries, to protect and rebuild viable populations. Apart from the national parks, Takatu hills (District Quetta) and Gharsa Nallah may be good focal areas. The proximity of Takatu hills to Quetta should offer the opportunity for effective protection. 3) To maximise the efficient use of resources, conservation actions for urial, wild goat, and straighthorned markhor, could be combined where their distributions overlap. 4) Some areas might ultimately be used for controlled trophy hunting programs once populations have been restored, providing economic incentives to tribal people as part of the management plan (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>In Iran, the Armenian mouflon is found in Uromiyeh Lake National Park, three Wildlife Reserves, and 10 Protected Areas. The contentious hybrid populations occur in Kavir, Khogir and Sorkheh Hesar National Parks; in Dodangeh Wildlife Reserve; and in Alborz-e-Markazy, Lar River, Varjim and Jajrud Protected Areas. Hunting is allowed under permit outside the protected areas between September and February each year, while within them, domestic livestock grazing is strictly controlled. The population on Kabudan Island, which lies within Uromiyeh Lake National Park, was introduced 90 years ago. In recent years the Kabudan Island population built up to over 3,000 sheep and vegetation was badly damaged. Two leopards (Pan therapardus) were released in an attempt to control the sheep population, and after a few years numbers decreased and stabilised at around 1,000 sheep. The leopards reportedly produced at least one young, but no more sightings or signs were recorded after 1984. The population of wild sheep has since increased and control of the sheep population has been initiated, with Department of Environment staff removing 200 to 500 animals per year. Listed in Category I of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). In Armenia, it has been forbidden to hunt them since 1936. Armenian mouflon is found only in two protected areas, the Khosrov Nature Reserve in Armenia created for this mouflon’s protection but which fails to fulfil this task because of territorial changes, and the Ordubad Sanctuary (Nakhichevan, Azerbaijan). A captive breeding program has been initiated at the Zoological Institute of Armenia. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine current numbers, status and distribution as soon as possible. 2) Expand Khosrov Nature Reserve to include areas which had been used previously by sheep, and 3) reorganize the Orbubad Sanctuary into a state reserve. 4) Control livestock and eliminate, or significantly reduce poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The Ladakh urial is listed in Appendix I of CITES, as a threatened species by the Government of India, and is a fully protected (Schedule I) species in Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar, 1979). Some illegal hunting probably still takes place, although such activity is now apparently well controlled in the upper Indus valley area near Leh. Hemis National Park (Jammu and Kashmir) contains the only urial population currently found in a protected area in India. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the number of protected areas and establish those proposed ones in which Ladakh urial are known to inhabit in Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gya-Miru (12 1 urial counted in 1984), Rizong (145 counted in 1984) and Karakorum Wildlife Sanctuaries (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991a). Gya-Miru includes the easternmost known distribution of the species. 2) Enlarge Hemis National Park to include areas of critical habitat along the Indus river west of its confluence with the Zanskar river. This step is very important for urial conservation. 3) Increase measures to combat poaching by road labourers and construction officials along the new road running between two important subpopulations in the Hemis National Park, (Fox 1987, Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991a, Mallon and Bacha 1989). Develop a management strategy to 4) strictly control hunting and 5) minimise competition from livestock grazing. If the above proposed sanctuaries are notified and adequately protected, and if livestock grazing is well managed, they should begin to provide the necessary protection for more than half of the remaining Ladakh urial and their range in India. However, because of the linear distribution of urial along major valleys, and its close proximity to human activity, the inclusion of critical urial habitat within the central core areas of large conservation units is not practical. Alternatively, “mini-core areas” may be required to target the protection of small areas of critical urial habitat. Ladakh urial occur in very few protected areas in Pakistan: NWFP - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP (Anonymous, 1986); Northern Areas - Gilgit District: Danyore GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Satpara WS (Rasool, no date). These areas probably protect few urials; for example only two individuals were reported in Chitral Gol NP in 1986. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Ban all hunting of this urial. 2) Rigorously protect all areas with populations ~20 animals which can be controlled. 3) Initiate an intensive conservation program in the Kharpacho hills near Skardu, inhabited in 1983 by 14 animals and in 1985 by 18 animals. Its close proximity to Skardu makes it easy to control and offers opportunity to demonstrate wildlife protection to the public (Hess in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES under <em>Ovis vignei</em>, and like all mammals, it is legally protected in the Punjab. Protected areas reported to contain this urial include: Punjab - Chakwal (previously Attack) District: Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988), Kala Chitta CR, Khari Murat GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Chakwal District: Chinji NP, Chhumbi Surla WS; Jhelum District: Jalalpur Sharif WS, Rakh Kundal WS, Diljabba Domeli GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date), Chhumbi Surla WS (Chaudhry, unpubl. data); Khushab District: Sodhi WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Mianwali District: Kala Bagh Sanctuary. Kala Bagh Sanctuary is a WWF-Pakistan Sanctuary, privately owned and protected by the Maliks of Kala Bagh (Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977; Roberts, 1967a, 1977, 1985; Mirza <em>et al</em>., 1979; Zool. Survey Dept., no date). This population, estimated at 500 in 1966, 1970 and 1974 (Mountfort, 1969; Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977), increased to over 750, before crashing due to an unknown epidemic transmitted by domestic camel. The population has since recovered and numbers 850 animals at present (Malik A.Y. Khan, 1992 pers. comm. to A. A. Chaudhry). Conservation measures proposed: 1) Enforce protection measures in the relatively accessible protected areas; this is urgently required. 2) Kala Bagh Sanctuary could be selected as a focal area. Animals from this population could be used for a re-introduction program. Only one area is protected (Kalabagh game Reserve) and managed by the community The Punjab government has declared 12 protected areas of different categories in the range of distribution of Punjab urial. Law enforcement in these protected areas is poor, and there are no legal restrictions on domestic livestock.
15739		conservation	eng	<em>Ovis orientalis</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <em>Ovis orientalis ophion</em> and <em>Ovis vignei vignei</em>, Appendix II as <em>Ovis vignei</em>).<br/><br/>In Iran, Caprinae are the only game mammals that can be hunted under licences issued by the Department of the Environment. Other large mammals such as cheetah (<em>Acinonyx jubutus</em>), Persian fallow deer (<em>Dama mesopotamicus</em>), roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>), red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), gazelles (<em>Gazella bennetti</em>) and wild ass (<em>Equus hemionus</em>), are protected species and hunting them is prohibited except under special licence. The hunting season for Caprinae lasts four months beginning each year in September, but each licence is valid only for five days from its date of issue. Hunters with non-automatic and semi-automatic weapons (all weapons with a calibre of <6 mm and all shot guns are prohibited) can obtain a licence and are permitted to shoot a wild sheep or a wild goat. Each hunter can obtain up to four licences per hunting season, and may shoot three males and one female. Unfortunately the exact numbers of Caprinae shot each year by hunters are not available. According to recent data, between 2,200 and 3,200 licences were issued each hunting season, and a rough estimate of the number Caprinae legally shot each year would be between 2,000 to 3,000 animals. However, more than twice this number are estimated to be killed by poachers annually. Hunting is permitted in protected areas but requires a special licence. Because Caprinae populations are not harvestable in most areas, licences are almost never issued for protected areas except for Kabudan island, located within Lake Uromiyeh. Here, the Department of the Environment staff harvest between 200 and 500 Armenian mouflon annually.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>This subspecies is found in Garnishlo and Kolahgazy Wildlife Refuges, and in Tangsayad Protected Area.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>Laristan sheep are known to occur in Khabr-va-Rochon Wildlife Refuge and in Geno and Hormod Protected Areas. Some authors believe that Laristan sheep also inhabit Bamou National Park (estimated number 1,150) (Valdez and DeForge, 1985).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category II in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves (Sokolov and Syroechkovsky, 1990b): Kaplankyr (Turkmenistan); Ustyurt (about 600 head) (Kazakhstan). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection (Republican State Board For Conservation and Utilisation of Flora, Fauna, and Protected Lands) plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b). Conservation measures proposed: Reduce significantly poaching. If this can be controlled, the existing measures will be sufficient as long as they are maintained. This urial also occurs in two National Parks, three Wildlife Refuges, and three Protected Areas in Iran. Hunting in all these areas is prohibited and domestic animals are under control. Hunting under licence is allowed from September to February outside these areas.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category I in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves: Dashti Turn (Tajikistan), Kugitang (Turkmenistan) and Surkhan (Uzbekistan). In 1991, 14 were reported in Surkhan NR but only five in 1993 (Kh. Mengliev pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b), and Tajikistan planned to allow hunts for this urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Halt all hunting. 2) Carry out surveys and censuses. 3) Reconsider the potential for hunting programs only if they are sustainable and will clearly improve conservation status of markhor. If not, maintain a hunting ban and provide further protection. 4) Establish reserves at Babatagh (when fighting ceases) and at Baisuntau in Uzbekistan. 5) Examine the possibility of re-establishing a population in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve. Reduce significantly 6) poaching and 7) competition with livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and placed in Category II of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). Approximately half the total population lives in protected areas in Turkmenistan. Kopet Dagh Nature Reserve was established primarily for preservation of this subspecies, and they are also found in Siunt-Khasardag and Badkhyz Nature Reserves. The Turkmenistan Government planned hunts for two of this urial in 1995. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the enforcement of existing protective measures both in and outside protected areas. 2) Decrease poaching. 3) Ensure any hunting programs are sustainable and based on sound biological data. Occurs in the Arjar Valley Wildlife Reserve in Afghanistan (Shank <em>et al</em>., 1977), and seasonally (summer) in Kohe Burocinal and Kohe Argosa nearby the Band-e Amir National Park (Shank and Larsson, 1977). In the 1970s plans were considered to locate a viable urial population to develop a limited hunting reserve involving local participation, as had been achieved for Marco Polo sheep. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Carry out extensive surveys of Afghan urial populations and distributions in the Hindu Kush. 2) Re-consider the options proposed by Petocz (1978).<br/><br/>Pakistani protected areas reported to contain mostly very small numbers of Afghan urial include: NWFP - Dera Ismail Khan District: Sheikh Buddin NP (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Kohat District: Borraka WS (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987) Rakh Topi GR (Malik, 1987); Peshawar District: Nizampur GR (Malik, 1987); District Abbottabad: Surrana GR. BaZz&istarz - Las Bela District: Hingol NP, Dureji WS, Khurkhera WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990), Dureji WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Khuzdar District: Dhrun NP, Chorani WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Kharan District: Ras Koh GR, Raghai Rakshan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Kalat District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP, and possibly Sashan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Quetta District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990; though presence in this NP not confirmed by Virk, 1991); Sibi District: Ziarat Juniper WS (Baluchistan Forest. Dept., 1990); Pishin District: Masalakh WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990). Sind - Dadu District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date); Karachi District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date). As a result of the protection given by Kirthar NP, the urial population within its boundaries has increased recently. However, except for Kirthar NP, Hingol NP, Dhrun NP and Dureji WS, the protection measures for the other sanctuaries and reserves may not be effective at the present time. WWF-Pakistan has recently initiated a participatory management program in the Shirani tribal area, which includes protection for Afghan urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine the current distribution and numbers of Afghan urial, as well as its status in all protected areas, as soon as possible. 2) Immediately, focus intensive protection measures on a few of the already existing, but well controllable sanctuaries, to protect and rebuild viable populations. Apart from the national parks, Takatu hills (District Quetta) and Gharsa Nallah may be good focal areas. The proximity of Takatu hills to Quetta should offer the opportunity for effective protection. 3) To maximise the efficient use of resources, conservation actions for urial, wild goat, and straighthorned markhor, could be combined where their distributions overlap. 4) Some areas might ultimately be used for controlled trophy hunting programs once populations have been restored, providing economic incentives to tribal people as part of the management plan (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>In Iran, the Armenian mouflon is found in Uromiyeh Lake National Park, three Wildlife Reserves, and 10 Protected Areas. The contentious hybrid populations occur in Kavir, Khogir and Sorkheh Hesar National Parks; in Dodangeh Wildlife Reserve; and in Alborz-e-Markazy, Lar River, Varjim and Jajrud Protected Areas. Hunting is allowed under permit outside the protected areas between September and February each year, while within them, domestic livestock grazing is strictly controlled. The population on Kabudan Island, which lies within Uromiyeh Lake National Park, was introduced 90 years ago. In recent years the Kabudan Island population built up to over 3,000 sheep and vegetation was badly damaged. Two leopards (Pan therapardus) were released in an attempt to control the sheep population, and after a few years numbers decreased and stabilised at around 1,000 sheep. The leopards reportedly produced at least one young, but no more sightings or signs were recorded after 1984. The population of wild sheep has since increased and control of the sheep population has been initiated, with Department of Environment staff removing 200 to 500 animals per year. Listed in Category I of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). In Armenia, it has been forbidden to hunt them since 1936. Armenian mouflon is found only in two protected areas, the Khosrov Nature Reserve in Armenia created for this mouflon’s protection but which fails to fulfil this task because of territorial changes, and the Ordubad Sanctuary (Nakhichevan, Azerbaijan). A captive breeding program has been initiated at the Zoological Institute of Armenia. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine current numbers, status and distribution as soon as possible. 2) Expand Khosrov Nature Reserve to include areas which had been used previously by sheep, and 3) reorganize the Orbubad Sanctuary into a state reserve. 4) Control livestock and eliminate, or significantly reduce poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The Ladakh urial is listed in Appendix I of CITES, as a threatened species by the Government of India, and is a fully protected (Schedule I) species in Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar, 1979). Some illegal hunting probably still takes place, although such activity is now apparently well controlled in the upper Indus valley area near Leh. Hemis National Park (Jammu and Kashmir) contains the only urial population currently found in a protected area in India. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the number of protected areas and establish those proposed ones in which Ladakh urial are known to inhabit in Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gya-Miru (12 1 urial counted in 1984), Rizong (145 counted in 1984) and Karakorum Wildlife Sanctuaries (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991a). Gya-Miru includes the easternmost known distribution of the species. 2) Enlarge Hemis National Park to include areas of critical habitat along the Indus river west of its confluence with the Zanskar river. This step is very important for urial conservation. 3) Increase measures to combat poaching by road labourers and construction officials along the new road running between two important subpopulations in the Hemis National Park, (Fox, 1987; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon and Bacha, 1989). Develop a management strategy to 4) strictly control hunting and 5) minimise competition from livestock grazing. If the above proposed sanctuaries are notified and adequately protected, and if livestock grazing is well managed, they should begin to provide the necessary protection for more than half of the remaining Ladakh urial and their range in India. However, because of the linear distribution of urial along major valleys, and its close proximity to human activity, the inclusion of critical urial habitat within the central core areas of large conservation units is not practical. Alternatively, “mini-core areas” may be required to target the protection of small areas of critical urial habitat. Ladakh urial occur in very few protected areas in Pakistan: NWFP - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP (Anonymous, 1986); Northern Areas - Gilgit District: Danyore GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Satpara WS (Rasool, no date). These areas probably protect few urials; for example only two individuals were reported in Chitral Gol NP in 1986. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Ban all hunting of this urial. 2) Rigorously protect all areas with populations ~20 animals which can be controlled. 3) Initiate an intensive conservation program in the Kharpacho hills near Skardu, inhabited in 1983 by 14 animals and in 1985 by 18 animals. Its close proximity to Skardu makes it easy to control and offers opportunity to demonstrate wildlife protection to the public (Hess, in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES under <em>Ovis vignei</em>, and like all mammals, it is legally protected in the Punjab. Protected areas reported to contain this urial include: Punjab - Chakwal (previously Attack) District: Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988), Kala Chitta CR, Khari Murat GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Chakwal District: Chinji NP, Chhumbi Surla WS; Jhelum District: Jalalpur Sharif WS, Rakh Kundal WS, Diljabba Domeli GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date), Chhumbi Surla WS (Chaudhry, unpubl. data); Khushab District: Sodhi WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Mianwali District: Kala Bagh Sanctuary. Kala Bagh Sanctuary is a WWF-Pakistan Sanctuary, privately owned and protected by the Maliks of Kala Bagh (Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977; Roberts, 1967a, 1977, 1985; Mirza <em>et al</em>., 1979; Zool. Survey Dept., no date). This population, estimated at 500 in 1966, 1970 and 1974 (Mountfort, 1969; Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977), increased to over 750, before crashing due to an unknown epidemic transmitted by domestic camel. The population has since recovered and numbers 850 animals at present (Malik A.Y. Khan, 1992 pers. comm. to A. A. Chaudhry). Conservation measures proposed: 1) Enforce protection measures in the relatively accessible protected areas; this is urgently required. 2) Kala Bagh Sanctuary could be selected as a focal area. Animals from this population could be used for a re-introduction program. Only one area is protected (Kalabagh game Reserve) and managed by the community The Punjab government has declared 12 protected areas of different categories in the range of distribution of Punjab urial. Law enforcement in these protected areas is poor, and there are no legal restrictions on domestic livestock.
15739		distribution	eng	This species occurs as Urial or Arkar in Afghanistan, northwestern India (Kashmir), northeastern and southeastern Iran, southwestern Kazakhstan, Oman (where it is possibly introduced), Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Intermediate Laristan sheep occur in southern Iran, and Mouflon are found in Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, northern Iraq, western Iran, and eastern Turkey, with an isolated population in south-central Turkey.<br/><br/>The subspecies are distributed as follows:<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>Restricted to a very small area directly southwest of Esfahan in east-central Iran.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>This sheep is a resident of southern and southeastern Iran. The purest Laristan sheep are found in Hormod Protected Area, whereas those east of 55°E in the Khabr and Baft mountains in Kerman Province have been suggested to be hybrid populations – Kerman sheep (<em>Ovis vignei blanforcti</em> x <em>Ovis gmelinii laristanica</em>).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Found in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan where it inhabits the ravines surrounding the Ustyurt plateau and Kaplankyr, and on the Mangyshlak Peninsula where it is found in the moderately high mountains of Karatau, the precipices and ravines of Northern Aktau (all in Mangysklan and to the south to Kara-Bogaz-gol) and similar habitat in Karagie, Kaunda, Kazakhla, Kulandaga, Kazakhly-Sora and other areas. This urial also occurs on rolling hills and on gentle mountain slopes in northeast Iran. The purest form of this urial is found in Golestan, Gorkhod, Serany and Tandoreh Protected Areas (see also Armenian mouflon <em>Ovis orientalis gmehii</em> above). The population was estimated to be at least 20,000 animals in the mid-1970s (Valdez and DeForge, 1985), of which around 15,000 were estimated to inhabit Golestan National Park alone (Kiabi, 1978).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/> Bukhara urial occurs in Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is found on the north sides of the Amu Darya and Panj rivers, where it inhabits the Kugitang and Baisuntau mountains, the Babatagh and Karatau ranges, the Vakhsh range on the east bank of the Vakhsh river, and the southwestern part of the Pamir (Luzhevsky, 1977; Sapozhnikov, 1976). The taxonomic status of the last population is uncertain; it may belong to Ladakh urial (<em>O. o. vignei</em>).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Found in Turkmenistan, where its distribution stretches south-eastwards in scattered populations from the Large (about 39°40’N and 54°30’E) and Small Balkhan mountains north of Nebit-Dagh, through the Kopet-Dagh mountains, in the mountains on the right bank of the Tejen, in an area between the Kushka and Murgab rivers, and in the ravines and rolling hills of Namansaar, Yer Oilanduz (Badkhyz) as far east as Southern Karabil (about 36°20’N and 64°30’N). Urial populations were known to occur throughout the Hindu Kush and the mountains of central Afghanistan, extending from the Zebak mountains in the north to the Seyah Koh range in the southwest. The largest concentration was in the Ajar Valley Reserve, from where animals were known to migrate into distant valleys near the Band-e Amir National Park. Its presence was established in the Zebak ranges during 1976 surveys, but it was not known how far the species ranged into Badakshan. East of Kabul, the urial was found in the Kohe Safi region of Kapisa Province (Petocz, 1973). Specimens collected from hunters show that its range extended towards the Lataband Pass area near Kabul. The sub-species was also reported from the Safed Koh range in Heart and Badghis Provinces. For Pakistan, a distribution map for this urial in the North West Frontier Province is given by Malik (1987). It shows the occurrence of the subspecies in the Districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Northern Waziristan, Karak, Kohat, Orakzai, Kurram, Peshawar, Mardan, Abbottabad, and Swat. Malik (1987) described the populations as being extremely scattered and at low densities in the Districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Abbottabad and lower -Swat. Urial densities in the Tribal lands are believed to be slightly higher. It is not certain whether animals inhabiting the hills along the west bank of the Indus (Districts Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan) are Afghan or Punjab urial (Schaller and Mirza 1974). Data for animals in this area are included in this account. Urial are widely distributed up to 2,750 m on gentler slopes of the major mountain ranges in Baluchistan. According to the most recent report by Roberts (1985), these include the Chiltan hills (Districts of Quetta and Kalat), the Hinglaj ranges (District Khuzdar), the Karhan hills (District Karhan), the Mekran Coast ranges (District Gwadar), the Takatu hills (Districts of Pishin and Quetta) and the Toba Kakar range (Districts of Pishin and Zhob). On a map published by the Zoological Survey Department (no date) additional areas are indicated: Kirthar range (Districts of Dadu and Las Bela), the mountains north of Nok Kundi (District Chagae), Takht-i-Sulaiman (Districts of Zhob and South Waziristan), the western edge of the Indus at Kalabagh (District Mianwali), the Mahsud mountains (Districts of North and South Warizistan), and the Marri mountains (District Kohlu). The last four areas lie within the distribution area for the subspecies given by Schaller (1977), but were not mentioned in Roberts’ (1985) more recent report. Because of the different and partially contradictory information of the above authors, it appears that the actual knowledge on the status and distribution of Afghan urial north of 32°N is inadequate. The most recent distribution map is given in Virk (1991). In Sind, the Afghan urial occurs in the Kirthar mountains, especially in the Mari-Mangthar range (District Karachi) and in Dumbar, Kambuh and Karchat mountains (District Dadu).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>This sheep, with a small black neck ruff is a resident of the mountain foothills and rolling steppe of northwest and southwest of Iran. In the recent past, its range extended eastward from northwestern Iran to central Alborz and Zagros. The purest Armenian sheep are found in Marakan, Kiamaky, Arasbaran, Uromiyeh lake (Kabodan Island), Angoran and Bijar. Armenian sheep also occur in Oshtorankoh and Haftad Goleh. The purported hybrid population, Alborz red sheep (<em>Ovis gmelinii gmelinii</em> x <em>Ovis vignei urknl</em>) (Valdez <em>et al</em>. 1978) occurs in north-central Iran in the Alborz mountains near Tehran, east to the Parvar Wildlife Reserve and south into the Kavir Desert (Siah Kuh range). The exact western, eastern and southern limits of its distribution are undetermined. In Iraq, populations occurred in the extreme northern region in the Zagros mountains and along the northeastern border with Iran. Nothing known of current distributions. In the former Soviet Union, the sheep inhabits the Transcaucasus, specifically the Zangezur (Zangezrskiy) range in Armenia and Nakhichevan, and possibly just into the extreme southwestern tip of Azerbaijan. However, most occur on the Nakhichevan side of these mountains from 40°N, 45°E to 38°30’N, 46°30’E.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>In India, this urial occurs only in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), where it is distributed discontinuously in a narrow band along the valley-bottom, to the foothill boundary of the Indus and Shyok-Nubra rivers, and some of their major tributaries. Most urial are found along the Indus valley westward from the village of Likchey to that of Khalsi, with additional herds around the junction of the Nubra and Shyok valleys (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983, 1991). In Pakistan, Schaller (1977) gave the major river valleys of the KunarlChitral river, Indus, Gilgit river and Shyok as the main range of Ladakh urial, and Roberts (1985) presented a similar picture. However, these distribution maps seem no longer valid, indicating instead the recent historical and not the current distribution. Ladakh urial is still widely distributed, but only in very small isolated populations. In Chitral District, it still inhabits the west (right) bank of the Kunar river, from Chitral southwards to Drosh (Anonymous, 1986). Localities on the east bank of the Kunar river, as well as from north of Chitral (Anonymous 1986; Zool. Surv. Dept., 1987) are not confirmed. Also, Malik (1987) presents a distribution map showing that it occurs on the east bank of the Kunar river, but does not mention this occurrence in the text. In Gilgit District, Hess (in press) was able to locate only one place where urial survived in 1985-86; reliable informants told him about a population of 27 animals on the right side of the lower Miatsil river (Hispar valley). Also Rasool (unpubl. data) has information about 10 to 15 urial from the main Hunza valley, which may represent animals of the same population described by Hess. There is no evidence of its presence within the whole area along the Gilgit and Indus rivers upstream from Gilgit to downstream from Chilas. Most occurrences of the taxon in northern Pakistan are from Baltistan District. Besides Schaller’s (1977) map, additional records exist for the Kharpacho hills close to Skardu, and from a reliable report for the Tormik valley and the area near Rondu (Hess, in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em> <br/>The distribution area of this subspecies in Pakistan is enclosed by the Indus and the Jhelum rivers and the forest belt of the Himalayan foothills. The taxonomic status of urial living along the west bank of the Indus, adjacent to the Punjab urial’s range, is uncertain (Schaller and Mirza, 1974). Punjab urial is found in small scattered populations in the Kala Chitta and in the Salt range up to 1,500 m asl, and in the Districts of Attack, Chakwal, Jhelum, Mianwali, and Khushab. At present the 2, and perhaps only, major populations of Punjab urial inhabit the Kala Chitta hills (District Attack) and the Kala Bagh Sanctuary of the Jabbah Valley (District Mianwali). Pakistan: Salt and Kala Chitta Ranges, Punjab Province. Limited to two areas in Punjab: Kala Chitta Range:Total estimated area of Kala Chitta Range = 322 km², Current area of occupancy in Kala Chitta Range = 100 km², two subpopulations and Salt Range : Total estimated area of Salt Range = 4,334 km², Current area of occupancy in Salt Range = 1,265 km², 14 subpopulations
15739		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderately to very arid habitats, especially grasslands, but they also occur in agricultural fields and woodland areas (Valdez, 1982). This species is herbivorous, feeding on grasses and shrubs, and also grains. The Punjab urial (<em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em>) is the principal mammalian game species of the scrub forest in Salt and Kala Chitta Ranges. In the Salt Range it is typically associated with lower rounded stony hills sparsely covered with wild olive (<em>Olea ferruginea</em>) and phulai (<em>Acacia modesta</em>). The distribution of the sub-species in Pakistan is between the Indus and Jhelum rivers at elevations of 250-1,500 m. The Punjab urial is a gregarious, sexually dimorphic, non-territorial, promiscuous ungulate. The reproductive cycle begins with the rut in mid October and November with a peak of activity in the first half of November. Females give birth to one or two lambs in early April.  Main predators are leopard and jackal.
15739		population	eng	The global population of this species has not been estimated. The population trend across its range is likely to be a significant decrease, probably as much as 30% over three generations.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>The total number estimated in ex-Soviet republics  at the beginning of the 1990s was ca. 6,000 animals. Numbers had declined sharply before the mid-1960s when 3,000 were estimated for Kazakhstan, and continued to decline to 2,000 by the 1970s and 1,500 at the beginning of the 1980s (Lankin 1982; Savinov and Bekenov, 1977). In the early 1980s 800 were estimated in Turkmenistan, of which 500 were found along the shores of Kara-Bogaz Gol and 300 in the southern ravines (Zarkhidze and Gorbunov, 1983). Following protection resulting from its listing in the USSR Red Data Book, numbers of this subspecies began to increase in the latter half of the 1980s with some populations reestablishing themselves naturally. However, since the early 1990s the populations appear to have once more declined. About 300 were thought to inhabit Uzbekistan in 1983 but have since declined (0. Tsaruk, <em>in litt</em>., 1994) with ca. 40 near the border with Turkmenistan (B. Dyakin pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). There are no recent estimates in Iran.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Numbers have fluctuated slightly since the 1970s (Frolov and Golub, 1983; Luzhevsky, 1977), and by the late 1980s the total number estimated was only 1,000 animals (Prisyazhniuk, 1990). However, Sokov (1989) mentioned > 1,000 for Tajikistan alone, so together with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan there might have been up to some 1,200 animals. However, numbers are believed to be decreasing now, and in some areas populations are very small. For example, in Uzbekistan on the western slopes of the Kugitangtau on the Turkmen-Uzbek border, there may be as few as 100 individuals (B. Dyakin, Department of Hunting Management, Uzbekistan pers. comm. to E. Mukhina), with only five counted in May 1993 in the Surkhan Nature Reserve (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>The estimate for the total population in Turkmenistan in the late 1980s and early 1990s was between 10,500 and 11,000 urial. Numbers had increased slightly from the estimates of 7,000 to 9,000 made in the 1970s (Babaev <em>et al</em>., 1978), when there were 2,000 in the Kopet-Dagh Reserve, with about 1,500 in the Badkhyz Reserve (Gorelov, 1978). Although about half the total numbers probably still occur within protected areas, outside them these urial exist mainly in relatively low densities. Recent evidence reports a significant decline in numbers in the eastern Kopet Dagh and in Badkhyz, with only 150 to 200 in Big Balkhan and 300 to 350 in the western Kopet Dagh (V. Lukarevsky, in litt., 1994). No total population census based on surveys is available for Pakistan. In the past, Roberts (1985) estimated that perhaps 2,500 to 3,000 Afghan urial lived in Baluchistan, with 1,000 (0.2/km²) inhabiting the Torghar hills of Toba Kakar range (District Zhob) according to Mitchell (1988). About 150 animals inhabit the Takatu hills near Quetta (A. Ahmad, unpubl. Data), and the situation in the Dureji hills (District Zhob) may be a little better (Virk, 1991). Malik (1987) estimated a total of 310 to 340 Afghan urial for the whole of NWFP, whereas the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP 1992) reported a more recent total of only 80 urial (68 from Kohat, two from Mardan and 10 from Abbottabad), suggesting a severe decline over five years. For Sind Province, a census carried out by Mirza and Asghar (1980) estimated a population of 430 urial for Kirthar NP. Based on a census in the Mari-Lusar-Manghtar range and in the Karchat mountains in 1987, K. Bollmann (unpubl. data) estimated between 800 and 1,000 urial (0.26-0.32/km²) for the whole of Kirthar NP. About 150 to 200 animals live in the Mari-Lusar-Manghtar range, and 100 to 150 in the Karchat mountains; i.e. 1.7 to 2.5 urial/km² (Edge and Olson-Edge, 1987). The overall density within the subspecies’ distribution is probably much lower than this. There is no estimate in Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>No current total population estimate is available in Iran. The population on Kabodan Island, on Uromiyeh Lake, is probably the largest and the current estimate for this is around 2,250 sheep. An estimate of numbers for the hybrid is not available. No estimate in Iraq. Current numbers are unknown for Turkmenistan, but probably 11,000 individuals. It was numerous until the 1950s when herds of up to 200 could be seen. It has since declined, and by the end of the 1960s there were 1750 in Azerbaijan and Armenia. For a brief period,numbers did increase until the late 1970s when the population in Nakhichevan ASSR alone numbered 1,000 to 1,200 animals (Alekperov and Kuliev, 1981).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The total population in India is estimated to be between 1,000 and 1,500 animals (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983, 1991). The Ladakh urial has declined dramatically in the last 60 years, especially during the military conflicts between 1947 and 1962 (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983). According to some reports from around 1900, the Ladakh urial used to be a common animal of northern Pakistan. Schaller (1976) estimated that < 1,000 were left in Pakistan and Roberts (1985) gave “intelligent guesses” of 500 to 600 animals for Baltistan and 700 to 800 for Gilgit-Hunza. All these estimates are much greater than present numbers. Hess (in press) estimated the total population of Ladakh urial in Pakistan for 1988-87 to be only 200 to 400 animals. In 1992, a total of 57 urial were estimated (NWFP, 1992); 29 in Dir and 28 in Chitral. The total estimated for the Northern Areas for 1993 was 400 to 500 urial (G. Tahir, Wildlife Wing, Northern Areas Forest Dept., in ht. to G. Rasool). In 1992, a total of 57 urial was estimated by NWFP Forest Department personnel (NWFP, 1992); 29 in Dir and 28 in Chitral. There are probably ~600 Ladakh urial in Pakistan.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Kala Chitta Range (100 urials, 2 subpopulations) and Salt Range (800 urials, 14 subpopulations) (Caprinae SG 2004). Schaller (1977) estimated a total world population of ~2,000 Punjab urial and a complete census made in 1976-77 by Mirza <em>et al</em>. (1979) estimated 2,157. Estimates by Chaudhry (unpubl. data) in 1992, give a minimum total population of 1,550 throughout its whole range. For Punjab, Chaudhry <em>et al</em>. (1988) reported a significant decline in urial numbers over only one year; from 733 in 1986 to 528 in 1987. A total of only 12 were reported for Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988).
15739		threats	eng	Overall, this species is threatened mainly by poaching and competition with livestock. Specific threats to particular subspecies are:<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Poaching remains a major threat and is the cause of the latest decline in the ex-Soviet republics. It is carried out by locals, especially around the limited waterholes used by the urial, using both firearms and snares (Fedosenko, 1986; Gorbunov, 1986). In Iran the threats include habitat destruction, poaching and competition from livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>The decrease in numbers is attributed to poaching and competition with domestic livestock, coupled with droughts and severe winters. The Babatagh mountains have been a centre in the civil war in Tajikistan and poaching is totally uncontrolled. The winters of 1968-69 and 1971-72 were especially harsh in Tajikistan, and many urial carcasses were found in spring 1969 in the Kugitangtau.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>In Turkmenistan, poaching is the main threat, but there is also competition from domestic livestock for forage and water. In Afghanistan, this urial avoids rugged mountainous terrain where it might gain some protection, and instead competes directly with livestock that are seasonally brought into their habitat. Urial populations near major urban centres have declined significantly due to indiscriminate hunting pressure. In Pakistan, overhunting, livestock overgrazing, and habitat degradation caused by fuelwood gathering and by agriculture, are the main threats to this urial. Afghan urial may be more susceptible to such threats than are wild goats inhabiting the same areas because of species-specific differences in habitat preferences (Edge and Olson-Edge, 1987). Throughout its range in Baluchistan, Afghan urial faces severe hunting pressure and competition from domestic sheep and goat, and lives in extremely scattered and small populations (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>Habitat loss and competition from domestic livestock, together with poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>Hunting has been relatively strictly controlled recently in India (especially in the Indus valley), but the urial’s habitat is very accessible and susceptible to overuse by livestock herding and other human activities. Urial occupy the low relatively accessible areas along the major valley corridors, all of which have, or soon will have, roads. The resulting effects of increased hunting and eventual human settlement associated with irrigation projects and increased livestock numbers, will require effective conservation and management actions if Ladakh urial is to survive (Fox<em>et al</em>., 1994). Its future status thus remains questionable due to increasing development activities in the major valleys of Ladakh. In Pakistan, most urial habitat is close to human settlements and also not very steep, therefore easily accessible to hunters and for grazing by livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>The habitat of Punjab urial is declining in area because of agriculture, urbanization, roads and other human developments.  It is declining in quality because of overgrazing by domestic livestock. Lambs are poached at birth to keep as pets. They are a status symbol and although capture is illegal, the Pakistani government is now selling licenses to keep urial as pets. Some are hybridized with mouflon and domestic sheep. Adult rams are poached for their trophy value. Apart from the protected population in the Jabbah valley (700 urial), the Punjab urial suffers heavy hunting pressure and has declined drastically in only a short period in some areas of Pakistan (Chaudhry <em>et al</em>., 1988). It persists only in small populations and at low densities (Roberts, 1985). In addition, competition and transmission of diseases from domestic animals are major threats. Lambs are kept as pets, ram horns are a prized trophy, the meat is eaten.
15740		conservation	eng	The Kamchatka sheep (<em>O. n. nivicola</em>) was listed as Category III in the Russian Red Data Book (Ivanenko, 1999 <http: nature.ok.ru="" index.htm="">). Despite this, some have been hunted recently by foreign trophy hunters. Sheep in the Koryak and Chukchi ranges are listed under <em>O. n. koriakum</em> as Category II in the Russian Red Data Book (1983). The other subspecies are considered as game animals and a limited number of licenses are being sold in Yakutia and Kamchatka, many to foreign hunters. Approximately 1,300 Putoran sheep are protected in the Putoran Reserve, about 600 of the Kamchatka subspecies occur in Kronotsky Reserve, while for Okhotsk sheep, about 1,700 are protected in the Magadan Reserve and 1,200 in Dzhugdzhur Reserve. Conservation measures proposed: 1)  Establish the several reserves for conservation of the Yakutian subspecies in the Tuora-Siz range (Lower Lena river) and in the Chersky range. Reserves would also be valuable in Chukotsk, Koryak Uplands and’in Kamchatka for the conservation of their respective populations. 2) Undertake censuses of numbers to verify distributions and population estimates. At the same time, 3) the taxonomy of snow sheep subspecies and their respective distributions requires clarification (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997).
15740		distribution	eng	This species is found in Russia, where they occur in the Putorana Mountains, north central Siberia, northeast Siberia from Lena River east to Chukotka and Kamchatka (Baskin 1985, Grubb, 2005, Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/> <br/>The snow sheep is distributed throughout most of the mountain regions of eastern Siberia (Russia). The main distribution area begins just east of the Lena River and stretches as far as the Tenkany mountains on the Chukotsk peninsula on the western edge of the Bering Strait (Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002). This sheep also occurs in the volcanic mountains running down the Kamchatka peninsula, and the southern limit of the species appears to be in the Yablonovoi Range, south of the Lena River (Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002, Bunch <em>et al</em>. 2006). In addition, a totally isolated population, referred to Putoran snow sheep (<em>O. n. borealis</em>) is restricted to the Putoran Mountains south of the Tamyr peninsula (about 66° to 70°N and 92° to 98°E), east of the Yenisey River, and separated from the nearest Yakutian population by about 1,000 km (Sipko <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002).
15740		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky, mountainous areas, above 1,700 m asl in the Putoran Plato, and above 2,000 m asl in the rest of its range. It is generally non-migratory, but it makes seasonal short distance movements. At the beginning of spring pregnant females leave herds and in late May and June they give birth to a single young. In June herds the regroup. The old males form small groups and live separately until late autumn, while remaining animals form mixed herds. Mating is in November – December, after that during whole winter snow sheep stay in mixed groups (15 – 20 individuals). Their diet consists primarily of grasses, but also of lichens, mosses, and willow sprouts. Females are sexually mature at 2 years, while males are not until age 5. Mating is reported to occur in December with lambs born in late June (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993). Baskin (1985) reports that their maximum lifespan is much longer than that of other wild <em>Ovis</em>.
15740		population	eng	As of the mid 1980s, the total snow sheep population size was estimated to be between 85,000 and 95,000; comprised of 12,000 to 13,000 Kamchatka sheep (<em>O. n. nivicola</em>), 55,000 to 60,000 Yakutian sheep (<em>O. n. zydekkeri</em>), 10,000 to 12,000 Okhotsk sheep (<em>O. n. alleni</em>), 3,000 to 3,500 Koryak sheep (<em>O. n. koriakorum</em>), 3,000 to 3,500 Chukotsk sheep (<em>O. n. tschuktschorum</em>), and 3,500 Putoran or Norilsk sheep (<em>O. n. borealis</em>) (Revin 1982; Revin <em>et al</em>., 1988; Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997). More recently, numbers of Putoran sheep have been reported to be  increasing (Sipko 1999), but population trends for other subpopulations are not available. There are now some new data on size populations of snow sheep. According to Kamchatka Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (2007), the latest population estimate of <em>O. n. nivicola</em> is about 7,000 individuals, of which 150 are hunted each year. The Putoran snow sheep (<em>O. n. borealis</em>) is a protected subspecies, and its population size has increased during the last decade and currently stands at about 5,500 individuals (Natural Resources Ministry of Russian Federation, Natural World Heritage Commission, 2008). The population size of Chukotsk sheep is estimated as 1,500 individuals. Its population density varies from 0.3 to 3.5 individuals per 1,000 ha, and in some parts of its range (Rarytkin, Zolotoy, and Elekay Ranges, Northern and Southern Vapanaivaam Mountains) only single individuals are registered (Red List of Russian Federation 2000). There is no recent estimate of the overall population size for the species, and its trends are unknown.
15740		threats	eng	Poaching is said to take at least 6,000 snow sheep annually, but mainly affects animals living close to human settlements. The overall affect of this hunting on the population is not known. Sheep on the Chukchi peninsula also compete with reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>).
15777		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure, Alder trees bordures and pathway.
15777		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure and riverine trees.
15777		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure and riverine trees through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
15777		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive and in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure, riverine <em>Alnus </em> and <em>Salix</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> are required. For Germany a conservation action plan has been published (Ott <em>et al.</em> 2007).
15777		distribution	eng	<em>Oxygastra curtsii</em> is largely confined to southwestern Europe. The species is very rare in North Africa, occurring in Morocco in three localities only. Its European EOO exceeds 1 million km² and over 1,500 localities have been recorded and its total AOO exceeds most likely 2,000 km². Its main area of distribution is found in the Iberian Peninsula and France. In Italy it is known from only 20 streams and lakes and records from only three localities have been published since 1990 but this is most likely due to the lack of surveys. The species has declined in the northern margin of its range and has been lost from the UK and the Netherlands, although it probably has always been very rare in these countries. In Germany and Luxembourg it remains confined to only one river at the border between these two countries.
15777		distribution	eng	<em>Oxygastra curtsii</em> occurs mainly in southwestern Europe. It is very rare in North Africa, occurring in Morocco only.
15777		distribution	eng	<em>Oxygastra curtsii</em> occurs mainly in southwestern Europe. It is very rare in northern Africa, occurring in Morocco only.
15777		distribution	eng	Southwest Europe. Very rare in North Africa.
15777		habitat	eng	Slow flowing streams.
15777		habitat	eng	Slow flowing streams; pools and ponds.
15777		habitat	eng	The species reproduces in slow flowing streams and by exception in standing waters such as lakes, pools and ponds.
15777		population	eng	In Europe, this species is very rare in Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and uncommon in Italy, northeastern and eastern France, rather common to common in the southwestern half and the Mediterranean fringe of France (Grand and Boudot 2006). The species is  scattered with a rather low density over the whole Iberian Peninsula, but is much more present in the west than previously believed. It is Regionally Extinct in the United Kingdom (last recorded in 1957) and the Netherlands (1982).
15777		population	eng	In northern Africa, the species is known only from three streams in Morocco. The status of the populations here is unknown.
15777		population	eng	Very rare in Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Morocco. Uncommon in Italia, northeastern and eastern France, rather common to common in the southwestern half and the Mediterranean fringe of France. Scattered with a mean rather low density over the whole Iberian Peninsula, but decidedly much more present in the west than previously believed. Regionally Extinct in the United Kingdom (last recorded there in 1957) and The Netherlands.
15777		threats	eng	A general decrease is to be expected almost anywhere in the future (but much less in a large part of the southwestern half of France and western Iberia than elsewhere, due to both mountainous features and a lower agricultural pressure), owing to extensive water quality degradation and large scale stream transformations (alteration of structure and functioning, including canal construction), removal of trees bordering the streams (<em>Salix, Alnus</em>), global warming and subsequent frequent summer droughts and stream drying up.
15777		threats	eng	Water pollution, stream calibration.
15777		threats	eng	Water pollution, stream calibration, and suppression of riverine trees are threats to the species.
15777		threats	eng	Water pollution, stream calibration, suppression of riverine trees.
15778		distribution	eng	Known only from the Marolambo Rapids, Nosivolo River, a tributary of the Mangoro River.
15778		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
15778		threats	eng	The species' restricted range makes it particularly susceptible to habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
15782		conservation	eng	There is not included in any proteceted area.
15782		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15782		habitat	eng	Found in mountain forest/yungas
15782		population	eng	There are only three specimens collected. There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
15782		threats	eng	In that area there exists deforestation and overgrazing, however, the possible effects of habitat loss and reconfiguration on populations of this species are still unknown.
15783		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas.
15783		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme eastern Brazil (Alagoas, Ceará, Pernambuco) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15783		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical  dry shrublands and open habitat.
15783		population	eng	Very little is known of populations of this species
15783		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15784		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Emas National Park, and National Park of Brasilia. It is possible that it occurs in additional protected.
15784		distribution	eng	This species occurs in low areas of east Paraguay, and south central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It was found in Serra da Canasta state park in Brazil (Queirolo pers. comm.)
15784		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marshy areas and in humid grasslands, up to approximately 1,200 m (Queirolo pers. comm.). It is diurnal, and insectivorous, ecologically equivalent to <em>O. nasutus</em> but not as high elevation range (Vieira pers. comm.). Also, it occurs in the border between dry grasslands and wetlands (Vieira pers. comm.).
15784		population	eng	This species is locally abundant, most common in wet grasslands (Vieira pers. comm.).
15784		threats	eng	The major threat is drainage of wetlands for development.
15785		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some areas which are protected.
15785		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Argentina (Misiones).
15785		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. It has been found in moist forests of the Mata Atlantica region in Brazil.
15785		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species.
15785		threats	eng	Little is known of the threats but the natural habitats within the range have been severely altered, however, the species may be adaptable.
15786		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect the distinct area of Comarapa. Further research is needed in this area to try to find additional populations.
15786		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity, about 2, 600 to 3,000 m, central Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The type locality is: Cochabamba Department, 28 km (by road) west Comarapa, 2,800 m; 17°51'S, 64°40'W (Hinojosa <em>et al.</em>, 1987). This species is believed to have a very restricted range.
15786		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, nocturnal and diurnal; it has only been recorded from disturbed cloud forest. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates and may use its long claws to dig these from the litter.
15786		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens in a single location.
15786		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include clearance of cloud forest for cattle pasture. The range of the species is divided by a road, along which human colonization is taking place, further fragmenting the habitat.
15787		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs within several protected areas.
15787		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province) and southeastern Brazil (in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul) (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Christoff and Bonvicino pers. comm.).
15787		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest habitat and borders between forest and cultivated land (Christoff, Jung and Sheibla pers. comm.).
15787		population	eng	This rodent is very common in its range (Christoff, Jung and Sheibla pers. comm.).
15787		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
15788		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
15788		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south central Peru to northern Bolivia, as far south as Cochabamba and east into west Santa Cruz Departments (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of around 400 to 2,500 m in Bolivia, and 500 up to 1,900 m in Peru.
15788		habitat	eng	It ranges from lowland cerrado and mixed forest, into Yungas and montane forest and regrowth following logging. It is present in savannas, grassland and fields, in primary and secondary habitat including disturbed areas.
15788		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
15788		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15789		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Aparados da Serra National Park and contiguous to Serra Geral National Park, in Rio Grande do Sul State. It likely is present in other protected areas.
15789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Uruguay and adjacent southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul to São Paulo states) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15789		habitat	eng	This rodent is found above 400-500 m depending on latitude, it occurs in wetlands, coastal sandbanks, pasturelands and the edges of streams (Gonzalez 2001). This is a diurnal and crepuscular species, and it diet is insectivore (Vieira pers. comm.).
15789		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (Vieira pers. comm.).
15789		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
15790		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. There may be a need to further research the three subspecies of <em>O. paramensi</em>s.
15790		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the middle to upper east Andean slopes, in southeast Peru, west central Bolivia, and northwest Argentina; it has an altitudinal range of around 1,000 to 4,000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In northern parts of its range it is found at higher elevations than in the southern parts. In Argentina can be found from 700 m.
15790		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, diurnal, and terrestrial. It is found in elfin forest, Polylepis forest, upper montane forest, Yungas and Tucumano Boliviano forest habitats. It can be found in primary and secondary forest habitats. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates and may use its long claws to dig these from the litter.
15790		population	eng	It is a common species.
15790		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It seems to adapt well to disturbed areas.
15791		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
15791		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil, Minas Gerais State, Rio Jordão, Paranaíba, from 700-900 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15791		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in Araucaria forests with open fields and grassland, with temperate climate.
15791		population	eng	Little is know of populations of this species.
15791		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15792		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in Argentina.
15792		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15792		habitat	eng	It is found in open grasslands.
15792		population	eng	Is an abundant species.
15792		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
15793		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas.
15793		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in southeast Peru and northwest Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba Departments), it has an altitudinal range of 610 to 3,500 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
15793		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, diurnal, and terrestrial. It is present in primary and secondary <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and humid montane forest. It may be present in cultivated areas, although this requires verification. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates and may use its long claws to dig these from the litter.
15793		population	eng	It is a rare species in Peru, but is more common in Bolivia.
15793		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is somewhat adaptable to habitat disturbance.
15803		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I.  Recommended conservation actions include further population surveys, ecological research, strengthening of existing management of protected areas, creation of new protected areas, establishment of a collaborative captive breeding program, and enlisting the co-operation of local landowners in maintaining this species (Wemmer 1998). Some measures must be implemented to develop privately owned protected areas in order to preserve these last populations. These measures must include exoneration of taxes by government agencies and other fiscal incentives to stimulate private conservation action (González, <em>et al.</em>, 2002.)
15803		distribution	eng	The pampas deer occurs in insular populations in western, northern, and central Argentina, eastern Bolivia, central and southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Prior to the 1800's, the species was abundant throughout the grasslands of South America (Wemmer 1998). The Pampas deer was a widespread species occupying a range of open habitats, including grasslands, pampas and the Brazilian savanna known as the Cerrado, in eastern South America from 5º to 41ºS (Cabrera 1943; Jackson 1987; Merino <em>et al.</em> 1997; González <em>et al</em>. 1998; 2002; González, 2004; Weber and González 2003). However, the area encompassed by these habitats has been dramatically reduced to less than 1% of that present in 1900 (González <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Currently, Pampas deer populations are generally small and highly isolated (Jackson and Langguth 1987; González <em>et al</em>. 1998: 2002). The largest extant populations are found in Brazil, in the northeast cerrado ecosystem where about 2,000 individuals live, and in the Pantanal where 20,000 to 40,000 exist (Pinder 1994), and was rediscovered in the South a small population in Paraná State estimated  in less of 100 individuals Braga et al.2005, . In Uruguay there are two main populations: El Tapado (Salto Department) with 800 individuals, and Los Ajos (Rocha Department) with approximately 300 deer (Weber and González, 2003 ). At the turn of the century, the Argentinean population was likely very large since over 500,000 km² of grassland habitat was available. However, today only three small populations remain: Corrientes (Ituzaingo Department) with about 170 individuals (Merino and Beccaceci, 1999), in San Luís Province) with approximately 800-1000 individuals (Merino <em>et al</em>. 1997) and coastal Bahía de Samborombóm (Buenos Aires Province) with about 200 individuals (Merino <em>et al</em>. 1997) and  in Santa Fé  “Bajos Submeridionales” area there is a small population estimated less 50 individuals lives in an area of 23,000 ha. (Vera Department, Pautasso <em>et al</em>. 2002a and b).  A small population may still be extant in the southeastern part of Bolivia (Weber and González, 2003). Small populations of Pampas deer may still be extant in the National Park Noel Kempff Mercado (Santa Cruz Department), in southwestern Bolivia (Anderson 1985; 1993; Tarifa 1993). However, it is restricted to relatively small patches of suitable habitat and may have become locally extinct in some of them.
15803		habitat	eng	The species occupies a range of open habitats, in particular grassland areas and the cerrado shrublands. In Argentina, coastal salt marshes are also utilized.
15803		population	eng	There is not update information of total population size there are partical estimation for population specifically in the Southern part of South America. The general trend is not possible to estimate for the species. The populations from Argentina and Uruguay show a decline trend (González <em>et al.</em>, 2002). A minumum estimate for the total population size is 20,000 (Pinder, 1994), while the miximum population size is estimated at 80,000 (Pinder, 1994) individuals.
15803		threats	eng	Habitat conversion for agriculture and competition with domestic livestock have been reported as threats to the pampas deer (Wemmer 1998). Other threats include over-exploitation for food, hides, and sport, predation by feral dogs, and possibly bovine disease (Wemmer 1998).
15837		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
15837		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Lake Skadar basin (Serbia-Montenegro) and to the Drin river basin including Lake Ohrid (Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)). It is also recorded in the Aoos river basin in western Greece. In Italy was introduced in Serchio River and was found also in Lake Massaciuccoli were it is quite common, but still reported in this lake as <span style="font-style: italic;">Rutilus rubilio</span> (P.G. Bianco pers. obs.). The species has commercial value in Lake Skadar, and is very frequent in the basin of Moraca River and in River Vijose in Albana, which originate in Greece as River Aoos. It has also been introduced&#160; into France.
15837		habitat	eng	It is a small cyprinid living in rivers as well as in lakes.
15837		population	eng	Quite abundant.
15837		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (dams), water pollution.
15838		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
15839		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
15865		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It has recently been recorded from Banc d'Arguin National Park, Mauritania (Z. Boratynski pers. comm. 2011).
15865		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
15865		distribution	eng	This species has a widespread distribution in northern Africa, encompassing parts of Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt.
15865		habitat	eng	It is found in deserts and semi-deserts with a solid, non-sandy, substrate.
15865		population	eng	It is a common species.
15865		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
15866		conservation	eng	<em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> received protection under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) and has been classified as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe (2009).<br/><br/>By installing and maintaining effective barriers in the river system, the plan to protect <em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> focuses on preventing the invasion of signal crayfish into the 20 remaining native subpopulations still free of the exotic species. When these subpopulations are stabilized, work will be done to remove signal crayfish from areas containing both crayfish species and additional barriers will also be installed. The plan requires government agencies to increase cooperative efforts with local landowners because much of the habitat is on private lands (Millar 2004).<br/><br/>Culverts at Spring Creek Road have been replaced using a design to prevent signal crayfish migration. The fish hatchery at Sucker Creek has been removed and a barrier installed. Restoration has been carried out on eroded areas. A recovery plan calls for future repairs on water impoundments to be done with imported boulders to improve Shasta Crayfish habitat instead of locally dredged materials. Removal or controls of muskrat populations throughout the watershed are to be undertaken (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). Continued study of Shasta Crayfish ecology, and monitoring of Signal Crayfish are being carried out (Millar 2004).
15866		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known only from Shasta County, California, USA. It is more specifically known from isolated portions of the Pit River drainage. The current range is greatly reduced to much smaller and more isolated stream sections in the same watersheds (Millar 2004). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 13 km<sup>2</sup>.
15866		habitat	eng	<em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> prefers rocky, gravelly bottoms, usually volcanic rubble (Bouchard 1978). This species has been found in spring pools and slow to moderately flowing waters, and also in cold clear lakes with little annual fluctuation in temperature (Eng and Daniels 1982). It requires a constant, steady, and untainted flow of fresh water to survive (American Fisheries Society Endangered Species Committee 1996). <em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> grows to 90mm total length and females reach maturity at 5 years old (Millar 2004).
15866		population	eng	By 1990, <em>Pacifastacus fortis</em>  was restricted to seven isolated localities, mostly in the headwaters of spring-fed tributaries of the Pit River. The Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>) had become established throughout much of the study area within 12 years. In one site <em>P. leniusculus</em> probably contributed to the precipitous decline of this species, from 2000 - 3000 in 1980 to about 370 (+ 135) in 1991 (Light <em>et al</em>. 1995). Relict distribution exist today but no evidence the species had a wider range during historic times (Eng and Daniels 1982).&#160; Historically, distribution was more or less continuous throughout the Fall River, Hat Creek, and the segment of the Pit River that joins these drainages (Light <em>et al.</em> 1995).&#160; It was described in 1898 from the Fall River at Fall River Mills and Hat Creek at Cassel with subsequent collections from the Fall River system in 1934, 1964, 1973-1974; with collections in 1975 from all three river systems (headwaters of the Fall River, Sucker Springs Creek on the Pit River, Crystal Lake on Hat Creek).&#160; In 1978-1980 it was found in numerous locations in the Fall River system including the type locality as well as Sucker Springs Creek and the Pit River and in Crystal, Baum, and Rising River lakes on the Hat Creek system.&#160; Resurveys in 1985-1986 found no major changes in distribution but noted a declining population in Crystal Lake occurring with a large population of introduced <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em> in only five years plus new observations in Eastman Lake at the Lava Creek overflow, the Fall River at the mouth of Spring Creek, and Tritton Reservoir. Most recently in 1990-1991, Light <em>et al</em>. (1995) found it in a total of 14 sites comprising seven noncontiguous subpopulations separated by dams, gradient barriers and many stream km; mostly in the same areas as historically but now isolated in patches rather than distributed continuously. The marginal locations (Fall River, Pit River mainstem near sucker Springs, and Baum Lake) have not yielded specimens since 1980, though these represented washdowns or strays from nearby populations.
15866		threats	eng	This species faces a number of threats within its restricted range. This species has undergone significant habitat fragmentation as a result of water diversion and impoundments associated with 4 major hydroelectric dams (NatureServe 2009). Though range extent is still as it was historically, distribution is no longer continuous and the amount of occupied area within its range is significantly reduced (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1998, Light <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). <span style="background-color: white;">T</span>he population of this species is now considered to be highly fragmented and split into isolated subpopulations as a result of dam construction (Millar 2004). Exotic and invasive species also pose another major threat to this species: it is likely that the decline of this species is linked to the spread of <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em> (Fetzner 2008) as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes virilis</span>, both of which have the characteristics typical of expanding populations (Daniels 1980, Light <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).<em> Pacifastacus fortis</em> is also subject to increased predation from non-native species such as muskrats, bullfrogs, and several species of introduced game fish (Millar 2004).
15867		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of GX by NatureServe (2009) and 'endangered possibly extinct' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
15867		distribution	eng	<em>Pacifastacus nigrescens</em> was originally described from the vicinity of San Francisco, and reported from the hills on the north side of San Francisco Bay. This species was once common in the creeks surrounding the San Francisco bay; however, it has not been observed since the Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>) was introduced to California (probably 1800s- Bouchard 1977) and is believed to be Extinct (Rogers 2005).   There have been no authenticated collections in 20th Century. Specific searches by Riegel (1959) and Bouchard (1977) found no extant populations. In 1980 and 1981 searches by McGriff also found no extant populations. All localities had populations of either <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus </em>or <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> (both <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>plicated in the extinction of this species) and the habitat was greatly modified especially by urban development in the last hundred years (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).&#160;   <defanghtml_span style="font-size: 11pt;" calibri="" ,="" sans-serif="" ;="" color:="" rgb(31,="" 73,="" 125);=""><u2:p></u2:p></defanghtml_span><defanghtml_span style="font-size: 11pt;" calibri="" ,="" sans-serif="" ;="" color:="" rgb(31,="" 73,="" 125);=""><u2:p></u2:p></defanghtml_span>
15867		habitat	eng	<em>Pacifastacus nigrescens</em> was found in streams (NatureServe 2009).
15867		population	eng	<span class="copy">Specific searches by Riegel (1959) and Bouchard (1977) found no extant populations. In 1980 and 1981 searches by McGriff also found no extant populations. All localities had populations of either <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus </em>or <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> (both implicated in the extinction of this species) and the habitat was greatly modified especially by urban development in the last hundred years. This species is now thought to be Extinct (NatureServe 2009).
15867		threats	eng	<em>Pacifastacus nigrescens</em> is restricted to the San Francisco Bay region of northern California, but has disappeared as a result of urbanization and interactions with introduced crayfish species such as the Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus) </em>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> (NatureServe 2009).
15870		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
15870		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Tyrrhenian catchment of Central Italy.
15870		habitat	eng	Lives in small rivers with fast running water and stony substrate. It reproduces from late April to July according to the water temperature in different rivers. Also found in lakes.
15870		population	eng	The species is threatened mainly by introduction of the congeneric alien <em>P. bonelli</em>, which caused local extinctions in at least the river basins of Ombrone, Amaseno and Mignone in central Italy.
15870		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water extraction, and invasive species (<em>Padogobius bonelli</em>, in particular).
15873		conservation	eng	Some specialized marine protected areas will be proposed for this species in Turkey. It occurs in marine protected areas. Fishing regulations are recommended since it is a late maturing protogynous hermpaphrodite. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
15873		distribution	eng	This species is present in the western Atlantic from the United States to Argentina, including the Gulf of Mexico but not the Caribbean Sea. It is present in the eastern Atlantic from the English Channel to western Sahara, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and Marmara, but not in the Black Sea.
15873		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over rock, rubble or sand substrata (young are frequently found on seagrass beds and over the continental shelf) (Fischer et al. 1987) down to about 250 m depth, often above 100 m. This is a carnivore, it feeds on crustaceans, fishes and molluscs. In juveniles, crustaceans emerge as the dominant group, followed by<br/>molluscs and teleosts (Castriota <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>The reproduction occurs from April to June and the sexual maturity is at 24 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Red porgy exhibits protogynous hermaphroditism, with sex reversal occurring when fish are 4-6 years old, while reproductive maturation begins at the age of 3 years (Vassilopoulou and Papaconstantinou 1992, Kokokiris <strong>et al.</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1999). Males follow two patterns of testicular development. Some individuals develop testicular tissue and their ovary degenerates before sexual maturation (primary males), while others mature and function as females for a few reproductive cycles and then change sex to males (secondary males) (Kokokiris <em>et al.</em> 1999). The females have an asynchronous ovarian pattern of oocyte maturation and ovulation (Kokokiris et al. 2000). This species spawns small batches of eggs from early winter to late spring. In the east part of the Mediterranean Sea, the peak of the spawning activity is observed between March and April (Vassilopoulou and Papaconstantinou 1992, Kentouri <em>et al.</em> 1995).
15873		population	eng	The maximum total length of this species is 82 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization catch statistics show a steady increase in landings over the past 50 years with a fluctuation between 1,700 and 4,300mt from 1996 to 2005. It is unclear whether this steady increase is only due to increased effort or perhaps improvements in data collection.<br/><br/>In south-west coast of Turkey this species was very abundant but declined to around 1/15th of its original population size (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). It is common in Algeria (M.H. Kara pers. comm. 2007), Turkey (C. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007) and France (Francour pers. comm. 2007).
15873		threats	eng	This species is commercially very important. It is also a species of great commercial importance for the Mediterranean Sea aquaculture industry, due to its high market demand, good growth rates and adaptability in culture conditions. The main drawbacks for the extensive commercial production of this species are associated with its skin discoloration (Pavlidis<em> et al.</em> 2002) and with diseases including bacterial, viral and parasitic infections. One parasitic problem recently observed in cage-cultured red porgy is the infestation with the gill monogenean, <em>Microcotyle</em> sp. (Katharios <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species is the focus of semi-industrial (Spain, Sicily, Egypt and Cyprus), artisanal and recreational fishing efforts. The main catching methods are beach seines, trawl nets, bottom long lines, spear fishing and handlines. It is regularly (Greece, Turkey and Maghreb) or occasionally present on the markets, although rarely seen in the Adriatic Sea. It is marketed fresh or refrigerated (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>This widespread species supports important commercial fisheries in many countries of the Mediterranean Sea (Potts 2002) although seems to be fairly resilient.
15875		conservation	eng	This is a nationally protected species. Its habitat (8310-4) is protected under the EU Habitat Directive.
15875		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, known from the Departments of Ardeche and Gard.
15875		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
15875		population	eng	There are no population data available.
15875		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
15876		conservation	eng	There are no known conseravtion actions for this species.
15876		distribution	eng	<em><span lang="EN-US">Paladilhia </em><span style="font-style: italic;">pleurotoma</span><span lang="EN-US"> is a species which is  widespread in southern France, west of the Rhône valley and east of the Hérault valley.
15876		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
15876		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species
15876		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
15880		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored. Present in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.
15880		distribution	eng	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.
15880		habitat	eng	Streams in lowland rain forest (<em>ca</em>. 400 m).
15880		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15880		threats	eng	Deforestation.
15881		conservation	eng	<em>P. gigantula</em> is present in Guanacaste National Park, Costa Rica. Additional populations should be sought, with research on biology of this unusually long-bodied species.
15881		distribution	eng	The species is known from Costa Rica and Nicaragua:<br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province., Peralta, 320 m (Calvert 1931)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste Province, Estación Pitilia, N side Volcán Orosi, 680 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>Nicaragua: Rio San Juan, 68 km downstream from San Carlos (Daigle 2002)
15881		habitat	eng	The species has a preference for rain forest streams.
15881		population	eng	Only small numbers of <em>P. gigantula</em> have been found at known localities.
15881		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought (latter increasingly likely with global climate change) are continuing threats although they do not seem to be causing a problem at present.
15882		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
15882		distribution	eng	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.
15882		habitat	eng	Doubtless small streams in rain forest.
15882		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15882		threats	eng	Deforestation.
15883		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Mexico (Nuevo León and San Luis Potosí to Veracruz and Oaxaca).
15883		habitat	eng	Lowland forest streams.
15883		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15883		threats	eng	Deforestation.
15884		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
15884		distribution	eng	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.
15884		habitat	eng	Small rocky streams in lowland rain forest (760 m).
15884		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15884		threats	eng	Deforestation.
15917		conservation	eng	More surveys are needed to better establish this species geographic, elevational, and habitat associations (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
15917		distribution	eng	The species is recorded only by the type series from Mt. Mantalingajan, Palawan island (Philippines) at approximately 1,370 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
15917		habitat	eng	This is a montane species (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
15917		population	eng	The population status of this species is poorly known. It is probably highly restricted in distribution. The species was not encountered on Cleopatra's Needle, the only montane site surveyed recently (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). Since the collection of the original series, there have been no adequate surveys near the type locality or in other appropriate areas (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
15917		threats	eng	Its presumed habitat (montane forest) is currently unthreatened (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
15918		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
15918		threats	eng	This species is highly valuable in food trade.
15925		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and habitat status of the species would be valuable.
15925		distribution	eng	This species was previously known only from the type locality in northeast Gabon. Recent records are from two localities in Congo, Brazzaville: Odzala and La Lefini (unpublished records in Paris Museum of Natural History).
15925		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest areas.
15925		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
15925		threats	eng	Unknown, but most likely forest destruction.
15932		conservation	eng	Until recently, the only protected area harbouring bonobos was the 33,346 km² Salonga National Park (ICCN 2006). Although legally protected, law enforcement in the DRC is negligible, and conservation efforts are hampered by corruption, isolation as well as persistent political and economic instability. The only active and permanent presence on the ground is assured by NGOs and research projects. NGOs are working to strengthen ICCN’s limited capacity in Salonga National Park. Elsewhere, NGOs are using participatory approaches to guide local communities towards the sustainable use of natural resources for long-term conservation.<br/><br/>In the context of the Congo Basin (Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) 2005), an international project for the protection of forests, DRC possesses three landscapes important for bonobo conservation: Lac Tele-Lac Tumba Landscape (Congo and DRC); Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape (DRC); and Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape (DRC).<br/> <br/>Within these landscapes are areas with established protection status such as Salonga National Park (since 1970) and Luo Scientific Reserve (since 1990). However, significant portions of bonobo habitat such as the Lomami-Lualaba and the Lomela-Sankuru areas are not included in the landscapes defined by CBFP.<br/><br/>Due to the combined efforts of the ICCN (DRC’s national conservation authority) and international NGOs, two additional areas obtained official protected status in 2006: Faunal Reserve of Lomako-Yokokala (RFLY) (Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape), and Tumba-Lediima Natural Reserve (RTL) (Lac Tele-Lac Tumba Landscape). Others are under consideration and protected only by local commitments: Yasa-Bososandja wildlife sanctuary (1998) (Myers Thompson 2001), and Kokolopori (reserve to be gazetted in 2007) (BCI 2007).<br/><br/>Although these areas still harbour sizeable numbers of bonobos, the threats cited above put all populations at risk irrespective of the conservation status of the area. Conservation education programmes are essential to help curb poaching and illegal trade, not only in areas adjacent to wild populations but also in urban centres such as Kinshasa or Kisangani, where the demand for bushmeat and pets is generated. Lola Ya Bonobo, a sanctuary for confiscated bonobos in Kinshasa, welcomes 15,000 visitors per annum, half of which are school children, who can influence local attitudes (ABC 2006).<br/><br/>In sum, for effective protection of bonobos, commercial hunting must be halted, intensification rather than expansion of local agriculture must be supported, and local industries must be actively persuaded to support rather than subvert conservation. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the species’ overall distribution and abundance.<br/><br/>Despite the fact that bonobos breed well in captivity, and captive propagation programmes exist in North American and European zoos, only conservation measures <em>in situ</em> can be considered useful attempts to contribute to the species’ survival in the wild.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
15932		distribution	eng	The bonobo has a discontinuous range in the low-lying central Congo Basin of Equatorial Africa, south of the Congo River. Their range extends from the Lualaba River in the East, to the Kasai/Sankuru Rivers in the South, and to the west as far as to the Bolobo village and around the Lake Tumba/Lac Ndombe area. Although the extent of their potential range is estimated at approximately 500,000 km² (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 2003), recent evidence of previously unsurveyed areas has detected bonobo presence throughout their historical area of distribution. Bonobos occur in small populations whose gene flow is determined by riverine barriers. Due to the bonobos’ dispersal patterns, the effective population size of males is smaller than that of females. Analyses of population genetics suggest that bonobo populations have a stable population history (Eriksson <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2004). Despite new surveys by various NGOs, the southern part of the Congo Basin, including the area south of the Kasai River, has not been surveyed.
15932		habitat	eng	The entire range of bonobo distribution is characterized by moderate variations in elevation (300 to 700 m). They inhabit a mosaic of primary and secondary forests, as well as seasonally inundated swamp forests, with a humid, stable climate. A single bonobo community (usually 30 to 80 individuals) occupies a home-range of 20 to 60 km² of forest, with extensive overlap between community ranges resulting in small core areas. Over 50% of their diet is comprised of fruits and seeds, with leaves, flowers, and piths, some of which provide considerable amounts of protein and other nutrients (Hohmann <em>et al</em>. 2006). Animal proteins deriving from both vertebrate (e.g., duikers) and invertebrate prey (e.g., termites, caterpillars) are also ingested. Nests are built in trees at heights between 5 and 50 m (Fruth 1995). Both habitat and nesting preferences are pronounced, and ground nests have been reported (Reinartz <em>et al</em>. 2006).
15932		population	eng	From studies based on nest counts along standardized line transects, population densities have been calculated for a number of areas (see Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: population densities for <em>Pan paniscus</em>.<br/><br/>There are no substantive data concerning total numbers, although speculative estimates give numbers for a total population size between 29,500 (Myers Thompson 1997) and 50,000 (Dupain and Van Elsacker 2001). Recent surveys indicate that these numbers may still be underestimates. In any case, any number indicating total population size should be considered with the highest caution.
15932		threats	eng	The collective threats impacting the wild bonobo population today include: commercial poaching (for bushmeat, pets or medicinal purpose); residue of civil warfare (military sanctioned hunting, availability of modern weaponry and ammunition); human population changes (growth and movement); habitat alteration (commercial logging and agriculture, traditional slash-and-burn agriculture, increase of fallow land); and lack of education (insufficient awareness among certain urban and rural populations, and national politicians).<br/><br/>Commercial poaching has to be considered the most prominent threat. In some areas local taboos against bonobo hunting still exist, in others they are disintegrating due to changing cultural values associated with transient and immigrant human populations. Although commercial hunting is targeted at large-bodied ungulates and monkeys, the growing predominance of bushmeat commerce as an income-generating activity has led to increases in the number of commercial bushmeat hunters. These hunters, aided by military and local administration, are active in all areas, including those with legally protected status such as Salonga National Park. The importance of Salonga National Park as a significant reservoir of bonobos will be rapidly compromised if current hunting trends continue. Between 2003 and 2006, Hart <em>et al</em>. (2007) recorded evidence of hunting across the park in 51% of survey grids. Hunting pressure was considered to be high in the north and east of the park, and bonobo mortalities as a direct consequence of hunting were recorded. Bonobos are slow-breeding and thus particularly susceptible to loss caused directly by poaching or indirectly by snaring.<br/><br/>Infectious diseases are yet to be quantified but are undoubtedly an important threat to wild bonobo populations, and of particular concern in areas where bonobos live side-by-side with humans. The risk of transmission increases with increasing human population density as well as increasing proximity with wildlife.
15933		conservation	eng	Chimpanzees are listed under Appendix I of CITES and as Class A under the African Convention. Chimpanzees are protected by law in most countries and they are present in numerous national parks throughout their range, although many populations occur outside protected areas. Nonetheless, stricter enforcement of wildlife laws, and more effective management of protected areas are urgently needed. Engagement with the extractive industries are predominant in Central Africa towards curtailing the bushmeat trade is essential. Some marked success in co-management and other arrangements have been implemented and these should be duplicated and extended (Morgan and Sanz in prep.). <br/><br/>Conservation education and promotion of economic alternatives to hunting and land-extensive agriculture should also be supported. Major resources are required to identify appropriate conservation actions in the face of the spread of Ebola (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Finally, a combination of factors has led to a poor understanding of the current population status of <em>Pan troglodytes</em>. Much of the range has not been surveyed, survey methods have been inconsistent, and many of the surveys are now out of date. Older survey data are particularly unreliable as Ebola, commercial hunting and extractive industries are known to have caused dramatic declines in some areas (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). New surveys using consistent methods are greatly needed throughout most of the range of <em>Pan troglodytes</em> (Kuehl <em>et al</em>. in prep.). These will enable the conservation community to better understand the true impact of Ebola, the bushmeat trade, habitat degradation and destruction, and to effectively set priorities.
15933		distribution	eng	Chimpanzees have a wide but discontinuous distribution in Equatorial Africa between 13 degrees North and 7 degrees South. They occur from southern Senegal across the forested belt north of the Congo River to western Uganda and western Tanzania, from sea-level to 2,800 m asl. The four subspecies recognized here are distributed as follows:<br/><br/><em>P. t. verus</em> (Schwarz, 1934) is found in West Africa from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> (Gray, 1862) is found only in Nigeria and Cameroon, north of the Sanaga River.<br/><br/><em>P. t. troglodytes</em> (Blumenbach, 1799) ranges from Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, to the Congo River/Ubangi River (Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/><em>P. t. schweinfurthii</em> (Giglioli, 1872) ranges from the Ubangi River/Congo River in Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to western Uganda, Rwanda and western Tanzania (with small, relict populations in Burundi and southeastern Sudan).
15933		habitat	eng	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).
15933		population	eng	Little recent survey work has been carried out over much of the chimpanzee’s range, and so population estimates are crude. The most recent estimate of total population size is 172,700 to 299,700 (Butynski 2003). Approximately 6,400 to 9,600 eastern chimpanzees were estimated to occur outside the DRC, with about 5,000 in Uganda. DRC was estimated to have 70,000 to 110,000. Central African chimpanzees were estimated to number 70,000 to 116,500. In the west, <em>P. t. verus</em> is patchily distributed and number between 21,300 and 55,600 with the greatest number estimated to be found in Guinea (Kormos <em>et al</em>. 2003); <em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> is the least numerous taxon with a total population of less than 6,500 individuals remaining (B. Morgan and J. Oates pers. comm. 2006). The only relatively large and secure population of <em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> is in Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria, with an estimated population of up to 1,500 (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003).
15933		threats	eng	The four subspecies face similar threats but to varying degrees in different regions. <br/><br/>Major threats include:<br/><strong>1. Habitat destruction and degradation</strong>, with varying impacts on populations and caused mainly by: <br/>(a) slash and burn agriculture: deforestation across West and Central Africa has severely reduced chimpanzee habitats. It is estimated that more than 80% of the region’s original forest cover has been lost (Kormos <em>et al</em>. 2003). Rapid growth in human populations across Africa is expected to lead to continued widespread conversion of forest and woodland to agricultural land.<br/>(b) Logging, oil and gas mining: increased accessibility to remote areas through road building poses a risk to chimpanzee populations through habitat degradation and fragmentation and potential increased poaching in areas previously not seriously impacted by such anthropogeniic pressures. In western Central Africa deforestation rates are low but selective logging is, or will be, carried out in the majority of forests outside of national parks. Logging generally, but not always, has a negative impact on chimpanzee density due to habitat alteration (removal of important food trees) and disturbance (Plumptre and Johns 2001, White and Tutin 2001).<br/><br/><strong>2. Poaching</strong>. Due to low population densities and slow reproductive rates, hunting often leads to the rapid local extirpation of chimpanzee populations. The main reasons for hunting are:<br/>(a) for meat: Chimpanzees currently constitute 1 to 3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets in Côte d’Ivoire (Caspary <em>et al</em>. 2001), and commercial hunting, often facilitated by logging, has caused declines in chimpanzee populations in some areas (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999, Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/>(b) pet trade: Although the pet trade is illegal in all range countries that are signatories to CITES, it persists illegally across Africa. The capture of an infant chimpanzee usually implies the death of its mother and often other members of the community.<br/>(c) medicinal purposes: In some localities, chimpanzees are hunted traditionally for medicinal purposes. Some range countries, such as Guinea, still officially permit the capture of chimpanzees for scientific research.<br/>(d) snares/crop-protection: People kill chimpanzees intentionally to protect their crops (S. Kamenya pers. comm. 2007). Chimpanzees may also be maimed or killed unintentionally when caught in snares set for other animals, such as baboons or cane rats (e.g., Reynolds 2005, C. Duvall pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>3. Disease</strong>. The main cause of death in chimpanzees at Gombe, Mahale and Taï is infectious disease (e.g., Goodall 1986, Nishida <em>et al</em>. 2003, Hanamura <em>et al</em>. 2006). Because chimpanzees and humans are so similar, chimpanzees succumb to many diseases that afflict humans (Butynski 2001). The frequency of encounters between chimpanzees and humans and/or human waste is increasing as human populations expand, leading to higher risks of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees. If not properly managed, research and tourism also presents a risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees. In the past 15 years, Ebola haemorrhagic fever has killed chimpanzees in Côte d’Ivoire (Formenty 1999), and repeated epidemics have caused dramatic declines of ape populations in remote protected areas in Gabon and the Republic of Congo (Huijbregts <em>et al</em>. 2003, Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Walsh, unpubl.). While recent surveys have not always distinguished between the nests of chimpanzees and gorillas, the pooled density of apes in several large areas has declined by 50 to 90% following Ebola epidemics (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 2004, Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2006, Lahm <em>et al</em>. 2006, P. Walsh, unpubl.).
15935		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15935		distribution	eng	<em>P. t. verus</em> (Schwarz, 1934) is found in West Africa from Senegal to Nigeria.
15935		habitat	eng	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).
15935		population	eng	<em>P. t. verus</em> is patchily distributed and number between 21,300 and 55,600 with the greatest number estimated to be found in Guinea (Kormos <em>et al</em>. 2003).
15935		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15936		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15936		distribution	eng	<em>P. t. troglodytes</em> (Blumenbach, 1799) ranges from Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, to the Congo River/Ubangi River (Democratic Republic of Congo).
15936		habitat	eng	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).
15936		population	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15936		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15937		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15937		distribution	eng	<em>P. t. schweinfurthii</em> (Giglioli, 1872) ranges from the Ubangi River/Congo River in Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo, to western Uganda, Rwanda and western Tanzania (with small, relict populations in Burundi and south-eastern Sudan).
15937		habitat	eng	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).
15937		population	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15937		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
15939		distribution	eng	Originally reported from the Malabon River, Rizal, Philippines, an area which has since been 'reclaimed'. It has supposedly also been collected in the sea at Culion Island, off Palawan, Philippines (see account on FishBase). Recently collected in Bali, Sulawesi and Singapore (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.). According to FishBase there are also supposedly records from Fiji and Papua New Guinea.
15939		habitat	eng	Found in brackish waters and mangrove areas, usually in areas with soft muddy bottom and around aquatic plants. Is reputed to be one of the smallest fish in the world (about 1 to 1.5 cm in length).
15939		threats	eng	The species used to frequent shady river banks in the Malabon River, Rizal Province, Luzon, Philippines (the type locality), however, the area has been 'reclaimed' and the remaining waters in the area are heavily polluted; hence the species is considered extinct in the Philippines (R. Froese, pers. comm.).
15944		conservation	eng	This species has been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1975. The species occurs in a Biosphere Reserve in the Tonle Sap Lake, and a Ramsar site in northeastern Cambodia, although neither of these sites offers real protection for the species. In Cambodia, it is illegal to capture, sell, or transport the species, although bagnet fisheries in the area still catch and sell the species. In Thailand, fishing for this species is regulated based on a quota license of less than 20 catches annually (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2010). The species is also protected in Laos (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2003) although this does not prevent the species being fished there.<br/><br/>The Thai Department of Fisheries began releasing captive-bred  individuals in 1985. Between 2000 and 2003, approximately 10,000  captive-bred fish were released into the Mekong. Captive-bred individuals are no longer released into the Mekong, however they are  released into reservoirs in Thailand. Large fish are now caught regularly in some Thai reservoirs but there is no evidence of self-sustaining populations. The fish have also been artificial  hybridized with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hypophthalmus </span>for aquaculture purposes.
15944		distribution	eng	This is a Mekong endemic species (Rainboth 1996). Historically, it was distributed throughout the Mekong River basin from the coast of Viet Nam to northern Lao PDR. Past reports of the species occurring as far north as southern Yunnan Province in China (Smith 1945, Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991) remain unconfirmed. The species' migration patterns are unknown. However, based on catch information provided by Roberts (1993) and others, it is believed that this fish migrates from the deep pools of the lower Mekong, upstream into northeast Cambodia and possibly up to Lao PDR or Thailand to spawn (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001). At least one spawning site is known (northern Thailand/Lao PDR), with a further possible spawning area in northeast Cambodia (Z. Hogan, pers. comm. 2003). There may have been other (lost) spawning sites in the middle and lower reaches of the Mekong (M. Kottelat pers. comm.). Its extent of occurrence is estimated at around 4,150 km² (Z. Hogan, pers. comm. 2003).
15944		habitat	eng	The species is one of the world's largest freshwater fish, measuring up to three meters in length and weighing in excess of 300 kg (Smith 1945, Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991). It is a migratory species. From October to December each year, the species moves out of the lower Mekong, it is believed to migrate upstream into northeastern Cambodia and possibly Lao PDR, or Thailand to spawn (Z. Hogan et al. 2001).  <br/> <br/>The fish was bred in captivity for the first time in 2001. Individuals artificially spawned from wild-caught parents have been released into the Mekong since 1985, however this practice is now thought to have stopped and fish are now only introduced into reservoirs and not into the Mekong (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2011). The fish almost certainly spawns upstream of Chiang Khong, Thailand. Possible spawning sites include the Kok River near Chiang Saen, Thailand, although this site requires confirmation (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011). Previously known spawning sites in the Mekong River are between Loei and Nong Khai Provinces, and in Ubon Ratchathani Province before the river fully enters Lao<br/><br/>First maturation is 17 years, from artificial breeding recorded of the first offspring from wild spawners in the Thai Department of Fishery's ponds. Generation length for captive fish is possibly 35 years, but this is probably not representative of the wild fish. For wild individuals, generation length has been reported as less than ten years, however this  is difficult to verify. The best estimate of generation length is  between 10 and 15 years (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2003), but this is a very uncertain estimate and further research on the life history of this species is needed to confirm this.
15944		population	eng	The current population size is unknown. A rate of population decline of over 80% can be estimated from combining annual catch data over the last thirteen years in the Mekong River Basin area: <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>From Thailand, there were 428 fish landed between 1983 and 2009. The species is targeted during the spawning season in Thailand and Lao (for roe). In 2010, no specimens were caught as fishing was banned. There is a quota set each year (catchment wide); in 2010 the quota was zero.<br/><br/>1983 - 2 landings<br/>1990 - 65 landings<br/>1993 - 22<br/>1994-96 - zero<br/>2004 - 7<br/>2009 - 1<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>In Chiang Khong (northern Thailand), the catch has declined from a peak of 69 fish in 1990 to just seven fish in 1997 (Sretthachuea 1995, Hogan 1998). In 1999, 20 fish were captured in Chiang Khong, however no fish were caught in the area in 2001 (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001) or in 2002. In Nong Khai Province (northeast Thailand) 40-50 fish were caught per year in the early 1900s. However, since that time the number of fish caught has declined. In 1967, fishermen captured 11 fish in the area (Pookaswan 1969), and by 1970, the species occurred only rarely as bycatch in the beach seine fisheries (Pholprasith and Tavarutmaneegul 1998). Today, very few individuals are reported from Nong Khai Province.<br/> <br/>In Luang Prabang (northern Lao PDR) the catch declined from 12 fish per year to just three fish caught in 1968. No fish were caught in 1972, 1973, or 1974 (Davidson 1975) and there has been no significant catch of the species reported since that time (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001).  There are no recent data available on <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gigas </span>catches in this area, but catches here are likely to be rare (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2011).<br/> <br/>In the Khone Falls (southern Lao PDR), a few fish were reported by fishermen each year prior to 1993, almost all of them in the first half of the year. No fish were reported in 1993. The status of the species in the Khone Falls area has not been assessed since 1993 (Baird, pers. comm. 2003). Since 2005, there have been some catches in the Khone Falls area; around 0-2 fish are caught each year as they move upstream and possibly over the falls (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2011). <br/> <br/>In the Tonle Sap River (Cambodia), four fish were captured in the bagnet fishery in 1999 and eleven fish reported in 2000. Fishermen report that they catch a few individuals each year (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001, Pengbun <em>et al</em>. 2001). No recent data are available from this area, but it is still likely that less than 10 Giant Catfish are caught here each year (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2011).<br/> <br/>Anecdotal information suggests that the species was once present in the Mekong Delta (Viet Nam), but is now reported as being very rare. One fish was caught close to, but not in, Viet Nam in 2003 (Z. Hogan, pers. comm. 2003). No significant fishery for the species exists in Viet Nam (Lenormand 1996).<br/> <br/>Overall annual catch data for the Mekong River area indicate that around ten years ago 40-50 fish were caught each year. By 2003, the figure had dropped to approximately 5-8 catches per year (Z. Hogan, pers. comm. 2003). Since 2003, efforts to gather catch data for Giant Catfish have reduced and as a result very little data is available for recent years. However annual catches are still likely to be very low. The Tonle Sap River is one of the last places where the fish is caught in appreciable numbers. Although the species has been disappearing from Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam, there is little information on population trends in Cambodia (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001). In 2001 and 2002, no specimens were caught in northern Thailand. Annual catch figures for the Tonle Sap River in Cambodia over recent years were, four in 2000, 11 in 2001 and five in 2002.
15944		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is overfishing. The major future threat to this fish is the damming of the main stream Mekong River. Proposed dams that could impact the species if they are built include the Pak Lay, Pak Beng, Sayaboury, Luang Prabang, Latsua and Don Sahong in Laos, and the Stung Treng and Sambor in Cambodia. It is believed that sedimentation is not a threat the species, as the areas where it spawns have relatively strong currents and would stop excessive sediments from settling (W. Rainboth pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Alongside overfishing, main threats to the species include habitat loss and degradation (for example, as a result of damming of the Mun River and clearance of flooded forest in the Tonle Sap Great Lake), and genetic introgression with cultured stocks.
15945		conservation	eng	In 1989 <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> was listed as a Class II protected species by the provincial government of Yunnan, China.
15945		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins in Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam.
15945		habitat	eng	<em>P. sanitwongsei</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species which inhabits large rivers surrounded by rainforest.  <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> uses deep pools as refuges in the dry season.
15945		population	eng	Two sub-populations may be separated by the Khone Falls, over which <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> does not appear to migrate (Poulsen 2001).<br/><br/>Local fishermen report declines in sightings/catch of <em>P. sanitwongsei</em>; one interviewee said that <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> had disappeared from his catch, while another (ex-chair of the Giant Catfish Fishermens Club) said that 'fifteen years ago 100 <em>P. sanitwongsei </em> were caught per year…five years ago about 5-20 fish were caught per year…recently the catch has declined further and the fish has disappeared' (Meynell 2003).<br/><br/>Generation time is not known, but that of the closely related <em>Pangasianodon gigas</em> is estimated at 10-15 years.
15945		threats	eng	Overfishing for food and to a lesser extent the aquarium trade, has depleted the natural population of <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> (Wang 1998).  <br/><br/>This species is likely to have been affected by the destruction of rapids and reefs as part of the Upper Mekong Navigation Improvement Project, and by the construction of dams.  Projects such as these affect the natural flood/drought cycles throughout the river, and therefore the migratory behaviour of fish such as <em>P. sanitwongsei.</em>
15951		conservation	eng	<em></em>    <p><em>P. leo</em> is included in CITES Appendix II; the Endangered Asiatic Lion subspecies <em>P. leo persica</em> is included in CITES Appendix I. <br/> <br/> In Africa, Lions are present in a number of large and well-managed protected areas, and remain one of the most popular animals on the must-see lists of tourists and visitors to Africa. Most range states in East and <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Africa</st1:place> have an infrastructure which supports wildlife tourism, and in this way Lions generate significant cash revenue for park management and local communities and provide a strong incentive for wildland conservation.<br/> <br/> Regional conservation strategies have been developed for Lions in west and central Africa (IUCN 2006a) and eastern and southern <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> (IUCN 2006b). The West and Central African Lion Conservation Strategy focuses on three primary objectives to address threats that directly impact Lions: to reduce Lion-human conflict, and to conserve and increase Lion habitat and wild prey base. The objectives of the Eastern and Southern African Lion Conservation Strategy are articulated around the root issues in Lion conservation, including policy and land use, socio-economics, trade, and conservation politics. For example, the policy and land use objective is "to develop and implement harmonious and comprehensive legal and institutional frameworks that provide for the expansion of wildife-integrated land use, Lion conservation and associated socio-economic benefits in current and potential Lion range." The trade objective is "to prevent illegal trade in Lions and Lion products while promoting and safeguarding sustainable legal trade." Both regional strategies share common priorities of conserving and restoring Lion populations, improving management capacity, and increasing the flow of benefits to communities living with Lions. These strategies should be used by governments to guide national Lion action plans, policies and programs, and by the conservation community to guide their project development. By setting out common priorities to guide action on both national, community and landscape levels, the regional conservation strategies have the potential for broad and significant improvement of Lion status and management (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/> For the Asiatic Lion, resolving human Lion-conflict is a high priority, as well as establishing a second wild population (Jackson 2008).</p>
15951		conservation	eng	<em>P. leo</em> is included in CITES Appendix II; the Critically Endangered Asiatic lion subspecies <em>P. leo persica</em> is included in CITES Appendix I. <br/><br/>In Africa, lions are present in a number of large and well-managed protected areas, and remain one of the most popular animals on the must-see lists of tourists and visitors to Africa. Most range states in East and Southern Africa have an infrastructure which supports wildlife tourism, and in this way lions generate significant cash revenue for park management and local communities and provide a strong incentive for wildland conservation.<br/><br/>Regional conservation strategies have been developed for lions in west and central Africa (IUCN 2006a) and eastern and southern Africa (IUCN 2006b).  The West and Central African Lion Conservation Strategy focuses on three primary objectives to address threats that directly impact lions:  to reduce lion-human conflict, and to conserve and increase lion habitat and wild prey base.  The objectivs of the Eastern and Southern African Lion Conservation Strategy are aarticulated around the root issues in lion conservation, including policy and land use, socio-economics, trade, and conservation politics.  For example, the policy and land use objective is "to develop and implement harmonious and comprehensive legal and institutional frameworks that provide for the expansion of wildife-integrated land use, lion conservation and associated socio-economic benefits in current and potential lion range."  The trade objective is "to prevent illegal trade in lions and lion products while promoting and safegarding sustainable legal trade."  Both regional strategies share common priorities of conserving and restoring lion populations, improving managemetn capacity, and increasing the flow of benefits to communities living with lions.  These strategies should be used by governments to guide national lion action plans, policies and programs, and by the conservation community to guide their project development.  By setting out common priorities to guide action on both national, community and landscape levels, the regional conservation strategies have the potential for broad and significant improvement of lion status and management (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>For the Asiatic lion, resolving human lion-conflict is a high priority, as well as establishing a second wild population (Jackson 2008).
15951		distribution	eng	Lions are found in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa.  In 2005-2006 the Wildlife Conservation Society and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map and assess current lion range in sub-Saharan Africa (IUCN 2006a,b; Bauer 2008).  Extent of occurrence is estimated at over 4.5 million km², 22% of historical range.  Most lion range is in eastern and southern Africa (77%).  Current lion status is still unknown over large parts of Africa, 7.6 million km².  <br/><br/>The lion formerly ranged from northern Africa through southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe, where it apparently became extinct almost 2,000 years ago, and east into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Today, the only remainder of this once widespread population is a single isolated population of the Asiatic lion <em>P. leo persica</em> in the 1,400 km² Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary. Lions are extinct in North Africa, having perhaps survived in the High Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996, West and Packer in press).
15951		distribution	eng	Lions are found in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa.  In 2005-2006 the Wildlife Conservation Society and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map and assess current lion range in sub-Saharan Africa (IUCN 2006a,b; Bauer 2008).  Extent of occurrence is estimated at over 4.5 million km², 22% of historical range.  Most lion range is in eastern and southern Africa (77%).  Current Lion status is still unknown over large parts of Africa, 7.6 million km².  <br/><br/>The Lion formerly ranged from northern Africa through southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe, where it apparently became extinct almost 2,000 years ago, and east into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Today, the only remainder of this once widespread population is a single isolated population of the Asiatic Lion <em>P. leo persica</em> in the 1,400 km² Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary. Lions are extinct in North Africa, having perhaps survived in the High Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996, West and Packer in press).<br/><br/>The map (provided by the Wildlife Conservation Society) shows Lion range as derived from mapping workshops associated with two regional Lion conservation strategies. In West and Central Africa, known and probable range are shown (IUCN 2006a).&#160; In Eastern and Southern Africa, known, occasional and possible range are shown (IUCN 2006b). Both strategies are available online from the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group website<a href="The%20map%20%28provided%20by%20the%20Wildlife%20Conservation%20Society%29%20shows%20lion%20range%20as%20derived%20from%20mapping%20workshops%20associated%20with%20two%20regional%20lion%20conservationo%20strategies.%20%20In%20West%20and%20Central%20Africa,%20known%20and%20probable%20range%20are%20shown%20%28see%20IUCN%202006a%29.%20%20In%20Eastern%20and%20Southern%20Africa,%20known,%20occasional%20and%20possible%20range%20are%20shown%20%28see%20IUCN%202006b%29.%20%20Both%20strategies%20are%20available%20online%20from%20the%20IUCN%20SSC%20Cat%20Specialist%20Group%20website%20%20http://www.catsg.org/catsgportal/bulletin-board/20_bulletin-board/home/index_en.htm"> http://www.catsg.org/catsgportal/bulletin-board/20_bulletin-board/home/index_en.htm</a>  <p>&#160;</p>
15951		habitat	eng	<p>The Lion has a broad habitat tolerance, absent only from tropical rainforest and the interior of the <st1:place w:st="on">Sahara</st1:place> desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). There are records of Lion to elevations of more than <st1:metricconverter productid="4,000 m" w:st="on">4,000 m</st1:metricconverter> in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bale</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> and on Kilimanjaro (West and Packer in press). Although Lions drink regularly when water is available, they are capable of obtaining their moisture requirements from prey and even plants (such as the tsama melon in the <st1:place w:st="on">Kalahari desert</st1:place>), and thus can survive in very arid environments. Medium- to large-sized ungulates (including antelopes, zebra and wildebeest) are the bulk of their prey, but Lions will take almost any animal, from rodents to a rhino. They also scavenge, displacing other predators (such as the Spotted Hyaena) from their kills. <br/> <br/> Lions are the most social of the cats, with related females remaining together in prides, and related and unrelated males forming coalitions competing for tenure over prides. Average pride size (including males and females) is four to six adults; prides generally break into smaller groups when hunting. Lions tend to live at higher densities than most other felids, but with a wide variation from 1.5 adults per 100 km² in southern African semi-desert to 55/100 km² in parts of the Serengeti (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Pride ranges can vary widely even in the same region: e.g., from 266-4,532 km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park of South Africa (Funston 2001), and 20,500 km² in the Serengeti (West and Packer in press). <br/> <br/> In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the habitat of the Asiatic Lion is dry deciduous forest. The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gir</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> and Wildlife Sanctuary is surrounded by cultivated areas and inhabited by the pastoralist Maldharis and their livestock. Domestic cattle have historically been a major part of the Asiatic Lion's diet, although the most common prey is the chital deer. Mean pride size, measured by the number of adult females, tends to be smaller than for African Lions: most Gir prides contain an average of two adult females (Nowell and Jackson 1996).</p>
15951		habitat	eng	The lion has a broad habitat tolerance, absent only from tropical rainforest and the interior of the Sahara desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). There are records of lion to elevations of more than 4,000 m in the Bale Mountains and on Kilimanjaro (West and Packer in press).  Although lions drink regularly when water is available, they are capable of obtaining their moisture requirements from prey and even plants (such as the tsama melon in the Kalahari desert), and thus can survive in very arid environments. Medium- to large-sized ungulates (including antelopes, zebra and wildebeest) are the bulk of their prey, but lions will take almost any animal, from rodents to a rhino. They also scavenge, displacing other predators (such as the Spotted Hyaena) from their kills. <br/><br/>Lions are the most social of the cats, with related females remaining together in prides, and related and unrelated males forming coalitions competing for tenure over prides. Average pride size (including males and females) is four to six adults; prides generally break into smaller groups when hunting.  Lions tend to live at higher densities than most other felids, but with a wide variation from 1.5 adults per 100 km² in southern African semi-desert to 55/100 km² in parts of the Serengeti (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Pride ranges can vary widely even in the same region: e.g.,  from 266-4,532 km²  in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park of South Africa (Funston 2001), and 20,500 km² in the Serengeti (West and Packer in press). <br/><br/>In India, the habitat of the Asiatic lion is dry deciduous forest.  The Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary is surrounded by cultivated areas and inhabited by the pastoralist Maldharis and their livestock.  Domestic cattle have historically been a major part of the Asiatic lion's diet, although the most common prey is the chital deer.  Mean pride size, measured by the number of adult females, tends to be smaller than for African lions: most Gir prides contain an average of two adult females (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
15951		population	eng	<p>There have been few efforts in the past to estimate the number of Lions in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>. Myers (1975) wrote, "Since 1950, their [Lion] numbers may well have been cut in half, perhaps to as low as <st1:metricconverter productid="200,000 in" w:st="on">200,000 in</st1:metricconverter> all or even less". Later, Myers (1986) wrote, "In light of evidence from all the main countries of its range, the Lion has been undergoing decline in both range and numbers, often an accelerating decline, during the past two decades". In the early 1990s, IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group members made educated "guesstimates" of 30,000 to 100,000 for the African Lion population (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/> <br/> The most quantitative historical estimate of the African Lion population in the recent past was made by Ferreras and Cousins (1996), who developed a GIS-based model to predict African Lion range and numbers, calibrated by surveying experts about the factors affecting Lion populations. First they correlated vegetation (Leaf Area Index) with Lion densities, using known values from 37 studies in 19 African protected areas, and mapped potential Lion range. Then the reduction effect of human activities on Lion range and numbers were estimated. Lion experts were surveyed in order to develop and rank a set of factors which would lead to lower Lion densities as well as Lion absence. These included agriculture, human population density, cattle grazing, and distance from a protected area, and were derived from GIS databases of varying age. For example, in areas identified as main cattle grazing areas Lion density was reduced by 90%, and in areas identified as having widespread agricultural cultivation or high human population density (> 2.5 people/km²) Lions were considered absent. Lion density was reduced by 50% in areas with low human population density (1-2.5 people/km²). Because of the age of their data sources on extent of agriculture and pastoralism, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) selected 1980 as the base year for their predicted African Lion population of 75,800. They emphasized the need for ground-truthing their estimate by censusing Lions, particularly outside protected areas.<br/> <br/> Two recent surveys have provided current estimates of the African Lion population, with some ground-truthing. The African Lion Working Group, a network of specialists affiliated with the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, conducted a mail survey and compiled estimates of 100 known African Lion populations. Not included were populations of known existence, but unknown or unestimated size. The ALWG African Lion population estimate is 23,000, with a range of 16,500-30,000 (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). The second survey was carried out by Philippe Chardonnet and sponsored by the International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife and Conservation Force (Chardonnet 2002). He also compiled estimates for 144 individual African Lion populations, grouped into 36 largely isolated subpopulations. His methodology included extrapolation of estimates of known populations into areas where Lion status was unknown, and his total figure is not surprisingly larger: 39,000 Lions in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>, with a range of 29,000-47,000.<br/> <br/> Approximately 30% of the individual population estimates compiled by the African Lion Working Group were based on scientific surveys. Techniques for these surveys included total count based on individually identified body features, sampling by use of calling stations playing recordings of hyaena and/or Lion prey, and mark-recapture methods including radio telemetry, photo databases, and spoor counts (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). Seventy percent of their population figures were derived from expert opinion or guesstimate. In the other survey, 63% of Chardonnet's (2002) individual population estimates were based on expert opinions or guesstimates. Twelve percent of Chardonnet's (2002) estimates were based on scientific surveys, and a further 25% were derived from extrapolation of variables from nearby populations and catch-per-unit effort-estimates based on Lion trophy hunting.<br/> <br/> Estimating the size of the African Lion population is an ambitious exercise involving many uncertainties. The three main efforts (Ferreras and Cousins 1996; Chardonnet 2002; Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004) all use different methods. The African Lion Working Group compiled individual population estimates primarily from protected areas (23,000 Lions: Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). In 1980, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted 18,600 Lions to occur in protected areas. This was probably an underestimate as not all protected areas inhabited by Lions at that time were included. Still, the comparison suggests that the number of Lions in African protected areas has remained stable or possibly increased over time. But Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted that most Lions in 1980 were found outside protected areas. Chardonnet (2002) finds that unprotected areas still comprise a significant portion (half) of the Lion's current African range. Comparison of Ferreras and Cousin's (1996) prediction of 75,800 Lions in 1980 (roughly three Lion generations ago) to Chardonnet's (2002) estimate of 39,000 Lions yields a suspected decline of 48.5%. This calculation suggests a substantial decline in Lions outside protected areas over the past two decades. Ferreras and Cousins (1996) may have over-estimated the African Lion population in 1980, as their number was derived from a model rather than actual Lion counts, and so it is possible that the rate of decline of the African Lion population may be lower. A group exercise led by WCS and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group estimated that 42% of major Lion populations were declining (Bauer 2008). The rate of decline is most unlikely to have been as high as 90%, as reported in a series of news reports in 2003 (Kirby 2003, Frank and Parker 2003).<br/> <br/> Genetic population models indicate that large populations (50-100 Lion prides) are necessary to conserve genetic diversity and avoid inbreeding, which increases significantly when populations fall below 10 prides. Male dispersal is also an important factor in conserving genetic variation (Bjorklund 2003). These conditions are met in few wild Lion populations, although there are at least 17 Lion "strongholds" >50,000 km² in extent (Bauer 2008). <br/> <br/> Outside sub-Saharan Africa, the Asiatic Lion <em>P. leo persica</em> occurs as an isolated single wild population in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>'s <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gir</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The Gir Lion population had been reduced to a very low number in the early years of the 20th century, possibly fewer than <st1:metricconverter productid="20. In" w:st="on">20. In</st1:metricconverter> 1936, 234 Lions were estimated, falling to approximately 100 iin the 1970s, and estimates in the 1980s and 1990s around 200 adults (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In 2005, the population was estimated at 359, +/- 10, including cubs, based on, according to the Chief Minister of Forests for <st1:place w:st="on">Gujarat</st1:place> state, a total count of Lions by direct sighting in a block-system methodology. This is an increase from 327 reported in 2001 (Anon. 2006). The Wildlife Protection Society of India reported 34 Lion deaths in 2007, due to poaching, electrocution, falling into open wells, and death by motor vehicle and unknown causes. Single populations are vulnerable to extinction from catastrophic events, and it has long been recommended by scientists to establish a second wild population in Madhya Pradesh's Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, but this has not yet been done (Jackson 2008). The Asiatic Lion shows reduced genetic variation due to small population size (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is feared that the size of the population is larger than the estimated carrying capacity of the habitat and prey base (Nowell and Jackson 1996).</p>
15951		population	eng	There have been few efforts in the past to estimate the number of lions in Africa. Myers (1975) wrote, "Since 1950, their [lion] numbers may well have been cut in half, perhaps to as low as 200,000 in all or even less". Later, Myers (1986) wrote, "In light of evidence from all the main countries of its range, the lion has been undergoing decline in both range and numbers, often an accelerating decline, during the past two decades". In the early 1990s, IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group members made educated "guesstimates" of 30,000 to 100,000 for the African lion population (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>The most quantitative historical estimate of the African lion population in the recent past was made by Ferreras and Cousins (1996), who developed a GIS-based model to predict African lion range and numbers, calibrated by surveying experts about the factors affecting lion populations. First they correlated vegetation (Leaf Area Index) with lion densities, using known values from 37 studies in 19 African protected areas, and mapped potential lion range. Then the reduction effect of human activities on lion range and numbers were estimated. Lion experts were surveyed in order to develop and rank a set of factors which would lead to lower lion densities as well as lion absence. These included agriculture, human population density, cattle grazing, and distance from a protected area, and were derived from GIS databases of varying age. For example, in areas identified as main cattle grazing areas lion density was reduced by 90%, and in areas identified as having widespread agricultural cultivation or high human population density (> 2.5 people/km²) Lions were considered absent. Lion density was reduced by 50% in areas with low human population density (1-2.5 people/km²). Because of the age of their data sources on extent of agriculture and pastoralism, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) selected 1980 as the base year for their predicted African lion population of 75,800. They emphasized the need for ground-truthing their estimate by censusing lions, particularly outside protected areas.<br/><br/>Two recent surveys have provided current estimates of the African lion population, with some ground-truthing. The African Lion Working Group, a network of specialists affiliated with the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, conducted a mail survey and compiled estimates of 100 known African lion populations. Not included were populations of known existence, but unknown or unestimated size. The ALWG African lion population estimate is 23,000, with a range of 16,500-30,000 (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). The second survey was carried out by Philippe Chardonnet and sponsored by the International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife and Conservation Force (Chardonnet 2002). He also compiled estimates for 144 individual African lion populations, grouped into 36 largely isolated subpopulations. His methodology included extrapolation of estimates of known populations into areas where lion status was unknown, and his total figure is not surprisingly larger: 39,000 lions in Africa, with a range of 29,000-47,000.<br/><br/>Approximately 30% of the individual population estimates compiled by the African Lion Working Group were based on scientific surveys. Techniques for these surveys included total count based on individually identified body features, sampling by use of calling stations playing recordings of hyaena and/or lion prey, and mark-recapture methods including radio telemetry, photo databases, and spoor counts (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). Seventy percent of their population figures were derived from expert opinion or guesstimate. In the other survey, 63% of Chardonnet's (2002) individual population estimates were based on expert opinions or guesstimates. Twelve percent of Chardonnet's (2002) estimates were based on scientific surveys, and a further 25% were derived from extrapolation of variables from nearby populations and catch-per-unit effort-estimates based on lion trophy hunting.<br/><br/>Estimating the size of the African lion population is an ambitious exercise involving many uncertainties. The three main efforts (Ferreras and Cousins 1996; Chardonnet 2002; Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004) all use different methods. The African Lion Working Group compiled individual population estimates primarily from protected areas (23,000 lions: Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). In 1980, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted 18,600 lions to occur in protected areas. This was probably an underestimate as not all protected areas inhabited by lions at that time were included. Still, the comparison suggests that the number of lions in African protected areas has remained stable or possibly increased over time. But Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted that most lions in 1980 were found outside protected areas. Chardonnet (2002) finds that unprotected areas still comprise a significant portion (half) of the lion's current African range. Comparison of Ferreras and Cousin's (1996) prediction of 75,800 lions in 1980 (roughly three lion generations ago) to Chardonnet's (2002) estimate of 39,000 lions yields a suspected decline of 48.5%. This calculation suggests a substantial decline in lions outside protected areas over the past two decades. Ferreras and Cousins (1996) may have over-estimated the African lion population in 1980, as their number was derived from a model rather than actual lion counts, and so it is possible that the rate of decline of the African lion population may be lower.  A group exercise led by WCS and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group estimated that 42% of major lion populations were declining (Bauer 2008).  The rate of decline is most unlikely to have been as high as 90%, as reported in a series of news reports in 2003 (Kirby 2003, Frank and Parker 2003).<br/><br/>Genetic population models indicate that large populations (50-100 lion prides) are necessary to conserve genetic diversity and avoid inbreeding, which increases significantly when populations fall below 10 prides.  Male dispersal is also an important factor in conserving genetic variation (Bjorklund 2003).  These conditions are met in few wild lion populations, although there are at least 17 lion "strongholds" >50,000 km² in extent (Bauer 2008).  <br/><br/>Outside sub-Saharan Africa, the Asiatic lion <em>P. leo persica</em> occurs as an isolated single wild population in India's Gir Forest.  The Gir lion population had been reduced to a very low number in the early years of the 20th century, possibly fewer than 20.  In 1936, 234 lions were estimated, falling to approximately 100 iin the 1970s, and estimates in the 1980s and 1990s around 200 adults (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In 2005,  the population was estimated at 359, +/- 10, including cubs, based on, according to the Chief Minister of Forests for Gujarat state, a total count of lions by direct sighting in a block-system methodology.  This is an increase from 327 reported in 2001 (Anon. 2006).  The Wildlife Protection Society of India reported 34 lion deaths in 2007, due to poaching, electrocution, falling into open wells, and death by motor vehicle and unknown causes.  Single populations are vulnerable to extinction from catastrophic events, and it has long been recommended by scientists to establish a second wild population in Madhya Pradesh's Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, but this has not yet been done (Jackson 2008).  The Asiatic lion shows reduced genetic variation due to small population size (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 1987).  It is feared that the size of the population is larger than the estimated carrying capacity of the habitat and prey base (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
15951		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to Lions are indiscriminate killing (primarily as a result of retaliatory or pre-emptive killing to protect life and livestock) and prey base depletion. Habitat loss and conversion has led to a number of populations becoming small and isolated (Bauer 2008). <br/> <br/> The economic impact of stock raiding can be significant: Patterson <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimated that each Lion cost ranchers in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region> living alongside Tsavo East National Park US$290 per year in livestock losses. Likewise, annual losses of cattle to Lions in areas adjacent to <st1:placename w:st="on">Waza</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> comprised only about 3.1% of all livestock losses, but were estimated to represent more than 22% of financial losses amounting to about US$370 per owner (Bauer 2003). Consequently, Lions are persecuted intensely in livestock areas across <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>; their scavenging behaviour makes them particularly vulnerable to poisoned carcasses put out to eliminate predators. Little actual information exists on the number of Lions killed as problem animals by local people, even though this is considered the primary threat to their survival outside protected areas. Implementation of appropriate livestock management measures, coupled with problem animal control measures and mechanisms for compensating livestock losses, are some of the primary responses to resolving human-Lion conflict (Frank <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/> Trophy hunting is carried out in a number of sub-Saharan African countries and is considered an important management tool for providing financial resource for Lion conservation for both governments and local communities. However, there is concern that current management regimes can lead to unsustainable offtakes (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/> Disease has also been a threat to Lion populations (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/> <br/> In parts of southeastern Tanzania there have been alarmingly high incidences of people killed by Lions, with up to 400 human Lion-related fatalities recorded from 1997-2007 (Ikanda 2007).</p>
15951		threats	eng	The main threats to lions are indiscriminate killing (primarily as a result of retaliatory or pre-emptive killing to protect life and livestock) and prey base depletion.  Habitat loss and conversion has led to a number of populations becoming small and isolated (Bauer 2008).  <br/><br/>The economic impact of stock raiding can be significant: Patterson <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimated that each lion cost ranchers in Kenya living alongside Tsavo East National Park US$290 per year in livestock losses. Likewise, annual losses of cattle to lions in areas adjacent to Waza National Park in Cameroon comprised only about 3.1% of all livestock losses, but were estimated to represent more than 22% of financial losses amounting to about US$370 per owner (Bauer 2003). Consequently, lions are persecuted intensely in livestock areas across Africa; their scavenging behaviour makes them particularly vulnerable to poisoned carcasses put out to eliminate predators. Little actual information exists on the number of lions killed as problem animals by local people, even though this is considered the primary threat to their survival outside protected areas. Implementation of appropriate livestock management measures, coupled with problem animal control measures and mechanisms for compensating livestock losses, are some of the primary responses to resolving human-lion conflict (Frank <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Trophy hunting is carried out in a number of sub-Saharan African countries and is considered an important management tool for providing financial resource for lion conservation for both governments and local communities.  However, there is concern that current management regimes can lead to unsustainable offtakes (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Disease has also been a threat to lion populations (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In parts of southeastern Tanzania there have been alarmingly high incidences of people killed by lions, with up to 400 human lion-related fatalities recorded from 1997-2007 (Ikanda 2007).
15952		conservation	eng	Establishment of at least one other wild population is advisable for population safety, for maximizing genetic diversity, and in terms of ecology (re-establishing the lion as a component of the fauna in its former range). However, there are problems in attempting this: a previous attempt to establish a second subpopulation in the Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary in eastern Uttar Pradesh appeared to be succeeding, as the population grew from three to 11 animals, but then the lions disappeared, presumably shot or poisoned (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Madhya Pradesh has now been selected as the best candidate area.  Communities will require resettlement to make room for the Lions, but this time great care is being taken to make the process participatory and to attempt to satisfy local needs, and not engender hostility toward Lion conservation.<br/><br/>Included on CITES Appendix I. This subspecies is fully protected in India (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
15952		distribution	eng	The range of the lion in North Africa and South-West Asia formerly stretched across the coastal forests of northern Africa and from northern Greece across south-west Asia to eastern India. Today the only living representatives of the lions once found throughout much of South-West Asia occur in India's Gir Forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996) but there are now also some groups outside Gir Forest - Girnar, coastal subpopulation, Bali Tana subpopulation.
15952		habitat	eng	Asiatic lions are genetically distinct from the lions of sub-Saharan Africa, although the difference is not large, being smaller than the genetic distance between human racial groups (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The Gir is dry deciduous forest dominated by teak, the predominance of which is partially due to the silvicultural practices of the Gujarat State Forest Department, which permits logging and replants clear-cut areas with teak (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The forest, which covered about 2,600 km² at the turn of the century, has since shrunk to less than half this size. Most of the remaining forest is included in the Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
15952		population	eng	Current total population size is about 350 animals. Was increasing, but is now stable as has reached its expansion limits and there are now increasing poaching incidents. At least 100 animals are outside the Gir Forest protected area. Total number of mature animals is about 175.
15952		threats	eng	The Asiatic lion currently exists as a single subpopulation, and is thus vulnerable to extinction from unpredictable events, such as an epidemic or large forest fire.<br/><br/>There are indications of poaching incidents in recent years (there are reports that organised gangs have switched attention from tigers to these lions). There have also been a number of drowning incidents after lions fell into wells.
15953		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. The jaguar is fully protected at the national level across most of its range, with hunting prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, United States, and Venezuela, and hunting restrictions in place in Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>With habitat fragmentation a major threat, and taxonomic research suggesting little significant differences among jaguar populations, an ambitious program has been launched to conserve a continuous north to south habitat corridor through the species range (Rabinowitz 2007).<br/><br/>Addressing livestock management and problem animal issues is a high priority for conservation effort in many jaguar range countries.
15953		distribution	eng	The jaguar is the largest cat of the Americas, and the only living representative of the genus <em>Panthera</em> found in the New World (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Historically it ranged from the southwestern US (where there are still some vagrants close to the Mexican border) through the Amazon basin to the Rio Negro in Argentina.  Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at 8.75 million km², with its stronghold the rainforest of the Amazon basin, which comprises 88% of its EOO.  However, ecological models indicate that much of the Amazon is of low suitability for the jaguar, compared with the Pantanal, Paraguayan Chaco, and Caatinga (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2007).  The Jaguar has been virtually eliminated from much of the drier northern parts of its range, as well as northern Brazil, the pampas scrub grasslands of Argentina and throughout Uruguay.  It is now estimated to occupy only about 46% of its historic range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Populations in Colombia are divided by the Andes (Ruiz-Garcia <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2002) presented a group exercise to define the most important areas for conservation of viable jaguar populations (Jaguar Conservation Units or JCUs).  These 51 areas add up to 1.29 million km², or 13% of jaguar range.
15953		habitat	eng	The species is strongly associated with the presence of water. Habitats range from rainforest to seasonally flooded swamp areas, pampas grassland, thorn scrub woodland, and dry deciduous forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Belize, jaguars are reportedly more abundant in lowland areas of relatively dense forest cover with permanent water sources than in open, seasonally dry forests.  Although jaguars have been reported from elevations as high as 3,000 m (Brown and Lopez Gonzalez 2001),  they typically avoid montane forest, and have not been found in the high plateau of central Mexico or above 2,700 m in the Andes.  Jaguars take a wide variety of prey species but large-sized ungulates are preferred when available (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>A 13 year old wild female was found with cub (Brown and Lopez-Gonzalez 2001).<br/><br/>Density estimates ranged from 1.7-4 adults per 100 km² in studies in Brazil, Peru, Colombia and Mexico summarized by Sunquist and Sunqujist (2002).  Density estimates by Silver <em>et al.</em> (2004) from five different study sites ranged from 2.4-8.8 adults per 100 km², with the highest densitiy found in Belize's Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Reserve (rainforest), a density similar to the 6-8 per 100 km² found by Rabinowitz and Nottingham (1986).  That study found home ranges of females of 10 km², overlaped by male home ranges which varied from 28-40 km² and also overlapped extensively.  In other areas jaguar home ranges have been over 1,000 km² (T. de Oliveira pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Soisalo and Cavalcanti (2006) used GPS-telemetry to check density estimates derived from a common camera trap methodology in the Brazilian Pantanal, and cautioned that the method may over-estimate population size.  Telemetry data indicated a density of 6.6-6.7 adult jaguars per 100 km², while densities derived from Maximum Distance Moved (MMDM) extrapolations from camera trap captures were higher at 10.3-11.7/100 km².<br/><br/>Jaguar densities in the Paraguayan Gran Chaco are 2.27–5.37 per 100 km² (Cullen Jr. <em>et al.</em> in submission), and in the Colombian Amazon, 4.5/100 km² in Amacayacu National Park and 2.5/100 km² in unprotected areas (Payan 2008).  In Brazil, densities are 2 per 100 km² in the savannas of the Cerrado,  3.5/100 km² in the semiarid scrub of the Caatinga, and 2.2/100 km² in the Atlantic Forest (Silveira 2004, in litt. To T. de Oliveira 2008).
15953		population	eng	Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2002) found that 70% of estimated jaguar range (over 6 million km²) was considered to have a high probability for survival.  Most of this area consists of the Amazon basin rainforest, and adjoining areas of the Pantanal and Gran Chaco.  However, while the latter two were found by ecological models to be highly suitable for jaguars, the Amazon was found to be of low suitability (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Jaguar densities in the Brazilian Pantanal are estimated at 6.6-6.7 adults per 100 km² (Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006), and in the Bolivian Gran Chaco 2.2–5 per 100 km² (Maffei <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In the Amazon basin in Colombia, jaguar density was estimated at 4.5/100 km² in Amacayacu National Park and 2.5/100 km² in unprotected areas (Payan 2008).  In Madidi National Park in the Bolivian Amazon, density was estimated at 2.8/100 km² (Silver <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Other high probability areas for long-term jaguar persistence include tropical moist lowland forest in Central America:  the Selva Maya of Guatemla, Mexico and Belize; and a narrow strip of the Choco-Darien of Panama and Colombia to northern Honduras.  Densities in the Belizean Selva Maya rainforest were estimated at 7.5-8.8/100 km² (Silver <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The Talamanca Mountains of Costa Rica and Panama also host a populations, but the long term persistence is uncertain (Gonzalez-Maya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Eighteen percent of jaguar range (1.6 million km²) was estimated to have medium probability of long-term survival.  These areas are generally adjacent to high-probability areas and include a large portion of the northern Cerrado, most of the Venezuelan and Colombian llanos, and the northern part of Colombia on the Caribbean coast.  In Central America and Mexico, medium-probability areas include the highlands of Costa Rica and Panama, southern Mexico, and the two eastern mountain ranges of Mexico, Sierra de Taumalipas and the Sierra Madre Oriental.<br/><br/>The remainder of jaguar range was classified as low probability for jaguar survival, and of most urgent conservation concern. These areas include the Atlantic Tropical Forest and Cerrado of Brazil;  parts of the Chaco in northern Argentina; the Gran Sabana of northern Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana; parts of the coastal dry forest in Venezuela; and the remainder of the range in Central America and Mexico.<br/><br/>Some of the most important areas for jaguar conservation (Jaguar Conservation Units) fell within parts of jaguar range where probability for long-term survival was considered low, and so represent the most endangered jaguar populations.  These include the Atlantic Forests of Brazil, northern Argentina, central Honduras, and the Osa peninsula of Costa Rica (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).  The Atlantic Forest subpopulation in Brazil has been estimated at 200+/- 80 adults (Leite <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Jaguar populations in the Chaco region of northern Argentina and Brazil, and the Brazilian Caatinga, are low-density and highly threatened by livestock ranching and persecution (Altrichter <em>et al.</em> 2006, T. de Oliveira pers. comm. 2008).
15953		threats	eng	Deforestation rates are high in Latin America and fragmentation of forest habitat isolates jaguar populations so that they are more vulnerable to human persecution (Nowell and Jackson 1996). People compete with jaguars for prey, and jaguars are frequently shot on sight, despite protective legislation (Nowell and Jackson 1996). An estimated 27% of jaguar range has a depleted wild prey base (WCS 2008).  Jaguars are also known to kill cattle, and are killed by ranchers as pest species. The vulnerability of the jaguar to persecution is demonstrated by its disappearance by the mid-1900's from the south-western US. <br/><br/>Commercial hunting and trapping of jaguars for their pelts has declined drastically since the mid-1970's, when anti-fur campaigns and CITES controls progressively shut down international markets (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  However, although hunting has decreased there is still demand for jaguar paws, teeth and other products.
15954		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. Legal international traffic is limited largely to exports of skins and hunting trophies under a CITES Appendix I quota system by 13 African countries (2005 CITES quota is 2,590).  Leopards are protected under national legislation throughout most of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In Africa, although Leopards occur in numerous protected areas across their range, the majority of the population occurs outside of protected areas, necessitating a need for improved conflict mitigation measures (including livestock management, conflict resolution) (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  In West Asia, leopards are essentially restricted to protected areas, many of which are too small to support viable populations, and need expansion through buffer zones and connectivity through corridors (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, 2007).  In Indo-Malaya and China, leopards need better protection from illegal trade in skins and bones (Nowell 2007).
15954		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. Legal international traffic is limited largely to exports of skins and hunting trophies under a CITES Appendix I quota system by 13 African countries (2005 CITES quota is 2,590).  Leopards are protected under national legislation throughout most of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In Africa, although Leopards occur in numerous protected areas across their range, the majority of the population occurs outside of protected areas, necessitating a need for improved conflict mitigation measures (including livestock management, conflict resolution) (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  In West Asia, leopards are essentially restricted to protected areas, many of which are too small to support viable populations, and need expansion through buffer zones and connectivity through corridors (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, 2007).  In Indo-Malaya and China, leopards need better protection from illegal trade in skins and bones (Nowell 2007). Leopards are protected in Afghanistan having recently been placed on the country?s Protected Species List (2009), prohibiting all hunting and trading of the species within Afghanistan.
15954		distribution	eng	The leopard occurs across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as remnant populations in North Africa, and then in the Arabian peninsula and Sinai/Judean Desert (Egypt/Israel/Jordan), south-western and eastern Turkey, and through Southwest Asia and the Caucasus into the Himalayan foothills, India, China and the Russian Far East, as well as on the islands of Java and Sri Lanka (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist 2002; Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>In sub-Saharan Africa, leopards remain widely, albeit now patchily, distributed within historical limits (see Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press, and references therein). Ray <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimated that leopards have disappeared from at least 36.7% of their historical range in Africa. The most marked range loss has been in the Sahel belt, as well as in Nigeria and South Africa.  They have been locally extirpated from areas densely populated with people or where habitat conversion is extreme (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press). They are likely extinct on Zanzibar, where there have been no confirmed records since 1996 (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, a tiny relict population persists in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Cuzin 2003), and there was a probable observation on the Morocco-Algerian border in Figuig in 2007 (F. Cuzin pers. comm.), while a population was recently found in the Ahaggar of south-eastern Algeria, a region from which they had not previously been recorded (Busby <em>et al</em>. 2006). Leopard are likely extinct in Egypt, although they may occur in the Eastern Desert (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>A 2006 Arabian Fauna Conservation Workshop estimated there were fewer than 200 leopards remaining on the Arabian peninsula, in three confirmed separate subpopulations:  the Negev desert, the Wada'a mountains of Yemen, and the Dhofar mountains of Oman.  Presence in Saudi Arabia is uncertain (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006).  <br/><br/>I. Khorozyan (pers. comm. 2008) compiled detailed country information on the distribution of the Endangered Persian leopard as follows:<br/><br/>Russian North Caucasus: mountain ridges in the headwaters of the Avarskoe Koisu and Andiiskoe Koisu rivers (Republic of Dagestan). Possibly exists in the Chegem River canyon (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic); Erzi Reserve, Assa River valley (Republic of Ingushetia); Armkhi River basin (Republic of North Osetia-Alania), headwaters of the Sharoargun and Argun rivers (Chechen Republic) (Akkiev and Mokaev, 2006; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007; Lukarevsky <em>et al.</em>, 2007). <br/><br/>Georgia: Vashlovani Reserve in the south-east; Arkhoti River canyon in the upper part of the Assa River basin and the headwaters of the Andiiskoe Koisu River in the north-east (Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>., 2007). Some anecdotal records from south-western Georgia are either unreliable or can be attributed to individuals coming from north-eastern Turkey (Arabuli, 2006; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007).<br/><br/>Armenia: south-western and southern parts of the country from Khosrov Reserve to the Armenian-Iranian state border throughout the Geghama, Zangezur, Aiotsdzor, Bargushat and Meghri ridges. The range boundaries are the Azat River in the north-west; Vardenis Ridge in the north; semi-desert of the Ararat Valley in the west; state border with Azerbaijan and the alpine meadow/nival belt transition zone in the south-west and east; Arax River basin along the Armenian-Iranian border in the south. Until the early 1970s it lived also in north-eastern parts of Armenia (Khorozyan <em>et al</em>., 2005; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007).  <br/><br/>Azerbaijan: Talysh Mts. in the extreme south-east, Akhar-Bakhar Ridge of the Iori-Mingechaur Highland in the north-west and the Zangezur Ridge in the Nakhichevan Republic along the state border with Armenia in the west (Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>., 2007).   <br/><br/>Nagorno-Karabakh Republic: distribution in Shushi, Mardakert and Hadrut districts and in the adjoining Kelbajar district was recorded in 1941-1967 (Alekperov, 1966; Sludsky, 1973). Up-to-date information on leopard status is impossible to obtain for the political tension between Armenia and Azerbaijan over this republic, even though it plays a vital role as a corridor between the southern (Armenia, Azerbaijan?s Nakhichevan Republic), central (Iori-Mingechaur Highland in Azerbaijan and Vashlovani Reserve in Georgia) and northern (Russian North Caucasus) parts of the Caucasus (Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007). <br/><br/>Iran: virtually all country, except the vast deserts of Desht-e-Kevir and Desht-e-Lut in central and eastern parts. Particularly common in the Alborz Mts. along the southern fringe of the Caspian Sea. Quite common in protected areas (e.g., Tandooreh, Sarigol, Bafgh, Golestan, Kolah?ghazy, Touran, Kavir, Khojir, Khabr and Bamu national parks; Kiamaki and Naybandan wildlife refuges; Jahan Nama, Central Alborz, Varjin, Arasbaran, Dena and Bahram?gur protected areas) and some unprotected lands (Chapur-Ghoymeh, Safee Abad-Dozain or Minoo Dasht, Ramsar, Khaeez and Darestan-Rudbar) (Joslin and Shoemaker 1988; Kiabi <em>et al</em>., 2002; Farhadinia <em>et al</em>. 2007; Abdoli <em>et al</em>. 2008; M Farhadinia and A. Ghoddousi pers. comms., 2008). <br/><br/>Turkey: north-east (around the Artvin city), east (vicinities of Mt. Ararat or Agri) and south-east (Bitlis Ridge). Possibly exists in the mountains of the Black Sea coast and south-westwards to the Taurus Mts. (H. Diker pers. comm., 2008). It is unclear whether leopards still survive in western Turkey.<br/><br/>Turkmenistan: western Kopetdag Ridge, central Kopetdag Ridge, eastern Kopetdag Ridge, Badkhyz Reserve and Giaz-Gyadyk Ridge (Lukarevsky, 2001). <br/><br/>Afghanistan: central (Hindu Kush, Kohe Baba, Kohe Paghman and Safed Koh ranges of the central highlands), north-eastern (Wakhan corridor) and northern (Darkad peninsula of Badakshan) parts of the country (Habibi, 2004).<br/><br/>In the Central Asian republics, leopard distribution is poorly known.  Historically, leopards had a wider distribution in Turkmenistan, and were found in parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.  An old male leopard was killed by a local hunter in January 2000 in Kazakhstan, the first record of the species in this country, in a location over 600 km from possible occurrences in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and over 1,200 km from known occurrences in Turkmenistan.  It is aplso possible that the leopard travelled along the foothills of the Pamirs, then proceeded via the Ugam and Pskem ranges into the Talas river valley.  Habitat appears to be suitable, but the existence of any leopard subpopulation in any of these three countries is uncertain (Shakula 2004).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, the leopard is thinly distributed in montane areas, and there have only been a handful of confirmed records in recent years (Ahmed 2001).<br/><br/>Leopards occur widely in the forests of the Indian sub-continent, through Southeast Asia and into China, although they are becoming increasingly rare outside protected areas.  They are not found on the islands of Borneo or Sumatra (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
15954		habitat	eng	The leopard has the widest habitat tolerance of any Old World felid, ranging from rainforest to desert.  In Africa, they are most successful in woodland, grassland savanna and forest but also occur widely in mountain habitats, coastal scrub, swampy areas, shrubland, semi-desert and desert. They range from sea level to as much as 4,600 m on Mt Kenya (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). In Southwest and Central Asia, leopards formerly occupied a range of habitats, but now are confined chiefly to the more remote montane and rugged foothill areas. Through India and Southeast Asia, Leopard are found in all forest types, from tropical rainforest to the temperate deciduous and alpine coniferous (up to 5,200 m in the Himalaya), and also occur in dry scrub and grasslands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Leopards have extremely catholic diets including more than 90 species in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from arthropods to large antelope up to the size of adult male Eland <em>Tragelaphus oryx</em> (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  Densities vary with habitat, prey availability, and degree of threat, from fewer than one per 100 km² to over 30 per 100 km², with highest densities obtained in protected East and southern African mesic woodland savannas (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>A study in Thailand found a home range of 8.8 km² for a radio-collared female, and 17.3-18 km² for two adult males  (Grassman 1998).  Important prey species were hog badger Arctonyx collaris (45.9%), muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (20.9%) and wild pig Sus scrofa (6.3%).
15954		population	eng	The leopard is an adaptable, widespread species that nonetheless has many threatened subpopulations. While still numerous and even thriving in some marginal habitats from which other big cats have disappeared in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, in North Africa leopards are on the verge of extinction. <br/><br/>There are no reliable continent-wide estimates of population size in Africa, and the most commonly cited estimate of over 700,000 leopards in Africa (Martin and de Meulenaar 1988) is flawed.  In India, based on pugmark censuses (a methodology which has been criticized as inaccurate), 9,844 leopards were estimated in 2001.  Many populations are believed to be increasing, and there are high levels of human-leopard conflict (Singh 2005).<br/><br/>Several Asian subspecies are included on the Red List, with population information as follows:<br/><br/>Amur leopard P.p. orientalis CR C2a(ii),D: 14-20 (Anon. 2007)<br/>Arabian leopard P.p. nimr CR C2a(I): <200 (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006)<br/>Javan leopard P.p. melas CR C2a(i): 323-525, with <250 mature breeding adults (A. Ario pers. comm. 2007)<br/>Sri Lankan leopard P.p. kotiya EN C2a(i): 700-950 (Kittle and Watson 2007)<br/>Persian leopard P.p. saxicolor EN C2a(i): 871-1290 (Khorozyan <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>. 2007)
15954		population	eng	The leopard is an adaptable, widespread species that nonetheless has many threatened subpopulations. While still numerous and even thriving in some marginal habitats from which other big cats have disappeared in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, in North Africa leopards are on the verge of extinction. <br/><br/>There are no reliable continent-wide estimates of population size in Africa, and the most commonly cited estimate of over 700,000 leopards in Africa (Martin and de Meulenaar 1988) is flawed.  In India, based on pugmark censuses (a methodology which has been criticized as inaccurate), 9,844 leopards were estimated in 2001.  Many populations are believed to be increasing (Singh 2005), and there are high levels of human-leopard conflict (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>Several Asian subspecies are included on the Red List, with population information as follows:<br/><br/>Amur leopard P.p. orientalis CR C2a(ii),D: 14-20 (Anon. 2007)<br/>Arabian leopard P.p. nimr CR C2a(I): <200 (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006)<br/>Javan leopard P.p. melas CR C2a(i): 323-525, with <250 mature breeding adults (A. Ario pers. comm. 2007)<br/>Sri Lankan leopard P.p. kotiya EN C2a(i): 700-950 (Kittle and Watson 2007)<br/>Persian leopard P.p. saxicolor EN C2a(i): 871-1290 (Khorozyan <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>. 2007)
15954		threats	eng	Throughout Africa, the major threats to Leopard are habitat conversion and intense persecution, especially in retribution for real and perceived livestock loss (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). In intact rainforest, the chief threat to Leopards is probably competition with human hunters for prey; the tremendous volume of wild meat harvests denudes forests of prey and may drive localized extinctions. Nonetheless, Leopard are somewhat tolerant of habitat conversion, and may persist close to large human populations provided they have suitable cover and prey (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>Leopard come into conflict with people across their range. A rapidly increasing threat to Leopards is the poisoning of carcasses targeting carnivores, either as a means of predator control or incidentally. <br/><br/>The impact of trophy hunting on populations is unclear, but may have impacts at the demographic and population level, especially when females are shot. In Tanzania, which allows only males to be hunted, females comprised 28.6% of 77 trophies shot between 1995 and 1998 (Spong <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Skins and canines are still widely traded domestically in some central and West African countries where parts are used in traditional rituals and sold openly in villages and cities (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). Djibouti is an important conduit for Leopard skins from East Africa that are bought mainly by French military personnel and carried illegally to Europe. <br/><br/>In West Asia, small leopard subpopulations are threatened primarily by habitat fragmentation, killing in defence of livestock, and poaching for trade (Habibi 2004, Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In Indo-Malaya, leopards are threatened primarily by habitat loss (deforestation) as well as poaching for illegal trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In India, leopards are feared for their attacks on people (Singh 2005).
15955		conservation	eng	In 2010, the Year of the Tiger on the Asian lunar calendar, Tigers were the focus of substantial conservation effort and investment. At a “Tiger Summit” held in St. Petersburg, Russia in November 2010, the 13 Tiger Range Countries adopted a Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP 2010). The goal is to effectively double the number of wild Tigers by 2022 through actions to: i) effectively preserve, manage, enhance and protect Tiger habitats; ii) eradicate poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of Tigers, their parts and derivatives; iii) cooperate in transboundary landscape management and in combating illegal trade; iv) engage with indigenous and local communities; v) increase the effectiveness of Tiger and habitat management; and vi) restore Tigers to their former range. The Tiger Summit was attended by Heads of State including Russia, China, Laos, Nepal and Bangladesh, and represents a policy commitment to Tiger conservation of unprecedented significance.<br/><br/>The future of Tiger range depends upon the Asian governments creating effective Tiger landscapes by conserving large areas of suitable habitat. Within these landscapes, the most urgent need is to first secure the source sites—protected areas with viable Tiger populations—where most of the global Tiger population is now clustered, and many of which are currently too threatened to deliver their potential as the wellspring of species recovery (Walston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010b).
15955		conservation	eng	Tigers have been the focus of substantial conservation effort and investment.  Most range countries have developed or are developing national tiger conservation action plans (see Country Action Plan section of the Save the Tiger Fund website), and have called for IUCN to facilitate an international tiger conservation strategy (Nowell <em>et al.</em>, 2007).  A unique international conservation body, the Global Tiger Forum, brings together tiger range state governments with other governments and NGO members (GTF, 2007).<br/><br/>Tigers are included on CITES Appendix I, banning international trade, and all tiger range states as well as countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well (although implementation has been uneven, and some legal loopholes remain (Nowell, 2007).  At the 14th Conference of the Parties to CITES, stronger enforcement measures were called for, as well as an end to tiger farming (the production of tiger products from captive tigers) (Nowell <em>et al.</em>, 2007).<br/><br/>National governments have invested huge resources in tiger conservation, including India, which has had a special Project Tiger program since the early 1970s.  Increasingly, international inter-governmental organizations such as the World Bank are also supporting tiger conservation.  Nongovernmental organizations have been very active.  S. Christie (in Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006) analyzed tiger conservation funding by non-governmental organizations in the years 1998-2002.  Over $23 million USD was invested, primarily in India, Russia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Nepal.  The Save the Tiger Fund, funded in part by ExxonMobil, has invested 12.6 million USD in tiger conservation from 1995-2004 (Gratwicke <em>et al.</em>, 2006).<br/><br/>To address the threat posed by habitat loss and fragmentation of the tiger population, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Panthera Foundation announced plans on January 30 2008 to establish a 5,000 mile-long "genetic corridor" from Bhutan to Myanmar that would conserve a large contiguous tiger population.  It would span eight countries and represent the largest block of tiger habitat left on earth.  The proposed corridor includes extensive areas of Bhutan, northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia, along with potential connectivity to Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. It was endorsed by the King of Bhutan, his Majesty Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who requested other heads of state to support similar efforts.<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about the effectivess of conservation measures for tigers in the areas they work in (Tiger Conservation Landscapes), and compiled the results to indicate conservation effectiveness across tiger range.  Scores for 22 conservation measures are given below; high scores indicate high effectiveness and widespread implemenation.  Measures at the top of the list are widely implemented and considered effective.  Measures in the middle require more effort, and measures at the bottom are perceived to be ineffective.  Individual Tiger Conservation Landscapes which received the highest conservation effectivenss scores were in India, Bhutan, Nepal and Malaysia.  Malaysia also had a number of Tiger Conservation Landscapes with the lowest scores, indicating lack of effective implementation.  <br/><br/>Conservation Measure                  Effectiveness score<br/><br/>Education of local people          170<br/>Education of school children     164<br/>Training of protected area staff  159<br/>Anti-poaching patrols      153<br/>Monitoring of tigers in the field  152<br/>Enforcement of protected area policies  149<br/>Provisioning or monetary support to protected area staff  141<br/>Enforcement of existing laws regarding tigers  135<br/>Local publicity about tigers   133<br/>Monitoring of prey populations  129<br/>Anti-trafficking enforcement  104<br/>Ecotourism ventures  104<br/>Compensation programs  99<br/>New laws/policies for tigers  93<br/>Conflict management/mitigation  90<br/>Monitoring of trade in tiger parts  80<br/>New/upgraded protected area  78<br/>Translocation of local people out of protected area  76<br/>Habitat restoration  68<br/>Habitat enhancement  58<br/>Captive breeding facility  24<br/>Reintroduction of tigers  8
15955		distribution	eng	The tiger once ranged widely across Asia, from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  Over the past 100 years tigers have disappeared from southwest and central Asia, from two Indonesian islands (Java and Bali) and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia.  Tigers have lost 93% of their historic range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  <br/><br/>Tigers are currently found in twelve Asian range states:  Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam.  They may still persist in North Korea, although there has been no recent confirmed evidence. <br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2006) undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map current tiger range.  Priority areas for tigers were delineated and are called Tiger Conservation Landscapes, or TCLs.  TCLs are defined as areas where there is sufficient habitat to conserve at least five tigers, and tigers have been confirmed to occur in the past decade.  The range map shows the TCLs, and maps can be viewed in detail at the Save the Tiger Fund website: http://www.savethetigerfund.org/am/customsource/tiger/mapping/index.cfm<br/><br/>A total of 76 TCLs were delineated, with a total area of 1,184,911 km².  TCLS vary in size, with the largest 269,983 km² in the Russian Far East and the smallest 278 km² in India.  Most TCLs are small: 61 (80%) are less than 10,000 km² in area, and the median area for the entire set is just 2,904 km².  Rabinowitz (1999) and Karanth and Nichols (2002) emphasize the importance of large core zones (>3,000 km²) with a healthy prey base for conservation of viable tiger populations.<br/><br/>However, tiger range is actually smaller than the total area of TCLS, because most TCLS contain area of non-tiger habitat where tigers cannot live (average 55% non-habitat, ranging from 20-70% of a TCL).  The average amount of legally protected area within a TCL is shown below.<br/><br/>However, tigers do occur outside the TCLs.  The exercise also identified 543 Fragments with Tigers - areas of habitat with confirmed tiger presence, but considered too small to support a long-term population.  Also, 491 Tiger Survey Landscapes were highlighted - areas where tiger status is unknown, but where there is some reason to believe tigers might still be present, and which are large enough to support at least five tigers.<br/><br/>The Indian sub-continent (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Bhutan, western Myanmar) is the bioregion with the most TCLS (40) and the highest number of TCLs assessed as being of global importance and of top priority for conservation (11).  Total TCL area 227,569 km².  Median TCL size 2,154 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 15.8%.<br/><br/>The Indochina bioregion (Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam) has a smaller number of TCLs (20, with 6 of top priority) but the largest TCL total area of the four bioregions.  Total TCL area 540,758 km².  Median TCL size 5,288 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 29.2%.<br/><br/>The Southeast Asia bioregion supports 15 TCLs, with 3 of global priority.  Total TCL area 145,285 km².  Median TCL size 3,884 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 36.5%.<br/><br/>The Russian Far East bioregion (which includes small areas of northeastern China and North Korea) has just two TCLs, but includes the world's largest (269,983 km²).  Total TCL area 271,297 km².  Median TCL size 135,649 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 9.9%.<br/><br/>Tiger range has been shrinking not only historically, but also more recently.  Comparison of current TCL area with a previous estimate a decade ago (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1997) finds that tiger range has shrunk by 41% in the past ten years.  This discrepancy is due in part to technical reasons including a better state of knowledge and improved tiger detection methodologies (Karanth <em>et al</em>., 2003, Sanderson <em>et al</em>., 2006).  However, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> (2007) consider tiger poaching and habitat loss to be important causes of this recent decline. <br/><br/>Although tiger range loss has been serious and steep, Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) still consider 77% of current range to consist of "known and secured breeding populations of tigers in areas large enough for a substantive population."  Roughly half of all TCLs are big enough to support an estimated 100 tigers or more, with the largest seven TCLs offering the potential to support 500 or more tigers.  Even if tiger populations in these landscapes are below carrying capacity, these areas provide opportunities to increase tiger populations with appropriate conservation measures (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 2006).
15955		distribution	eng	The Tiger once ranged widely across Asia, from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Over the past 100 years Tigers have disappeared from southwest and central Asia, from two Indonesian islands (Java and Bali) and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia. Tigers have lost over 93% of their historic range (Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Walston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010b). Tigers are currently found in thirteen Asian range states: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam. They may still persist in North Korea, although there has been no recent confirmed evidence.<br/><br/>In 1994, the first comprehensive assessment to delineate Tiger range was carried out (Dinerstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Priority areas for Tiger conservation were estimated to total 1.64 million km² in 159 Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs), roughly equivalent to discrete meta-populations, not including Russia (later estimated at 270,0000 km²<sup></sup>: Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and China. While this was generally considered representative of current distribution, Tiger presence was confirmed in just 47% the TCUs, and 89% were scored as undergoing medium to high levels of poaching of Tigers and their prey. <br/><br/>This exercise was revised and updated ten years later, and in delineating Tiger Conservation Landscapes (TCLs), greater emphasis was placed on actual records of Tiger presence and breeding (Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). TCLs were defined as areas where there is sufficient habitat to conserve at least five Tigers, and Tigers have been confirmed to occur in the past decade. Tiger range was estimated at 1.1 million km²&#160; in 76 TCLs (again, roughly equivalent to discrete meta-populations). This represented a 41% decline from the range described a decade earlier (in South and Southeast Asia, a drop from 1.55 million km²<sup></sup> to 914,000 km²: Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006: 63), attributed primarily to poaching pressure (Dinerstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Habitat loss due to deforestation was also to blame, notable particularly in Sumatra and Myanmar (Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In India, landscapes with Tigers found to be much smaller and more fragmented than in the original assessment (Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006: 63 and Figure 4.12).<br/><br/>Records of Tigers were collected over a ten-year period (1995–2004), a period which may have been too liberal for places like Cambodia which underwent a sharp rise in poaching pressure in the 1990s (Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006: Appendix 6). While 53% of the TCU survey respondents reported evidence of Tiger breeding in the time period 1995–2004, out of over 2,500 point records collected in 2005, just 8% had confirmed evidence of breeding Tigers (Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006: 11-17). Large areas of habitat were defined as Tiger landscapes based on suitability, but given data paucity on Tiger presence there were often few records of breeding and actual Tiger occupancy to substantiate these (Sanderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006: Figures 2.3 and 4.8).<br/><br/>A review of land management within Tiger Conservation Landscapes described the TCLs as “potential habitat for Tigers” and found only 21% of their area to be legally protected.&#160; Management effectiveness was generally poor in the protected areas, with regulatory, budgetary and enforcement constraints, and hunting cited as the main threat.&#160; Significant portions of the TCLs are designated concessions for resource extraction (timber, oil and gas, minerals, etc.) (Forrest <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/><br/>Tiger range was revisited again in 2009, by which time the extent of the Tiger’s range collapse had become evident. “Vast areas of Southeast Asia [were] recently found to be void of Tigers and depleted of prey by hunters” (Walston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010a: 5). The exercise used a different methodology to prioritize areas for Tiger conservation.&#160; Source Sites were defined as areas with confirmed current presence of Tigers and evidence of breeding, population estimates of >25 breeding females, legal protection, and embedded in a larger habitat landscape with the potential to hold >50 breeding females. An extensive review of scientific literature as well as correspondence with Tiger scientists and protected area managers resulted in the identification of just 42 source sites totalling approximately 90,000 km²<sup></sup>. Many Southeast Asian countries, previously considered to have large areas with Tigers, are now considered, on the basis of extensive survey effort over the past decade or more, to have essentially no healthy breeding populations: Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam and Bhutan have no confirmed source sites (although some sites with potential), and Laos just one (Walston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010a,b).<br/><br/>On the range map accompanying this Red List assessment, the Source Sites are delineated as Extant range, and the Tiger Conservation Landscapes as Probably Extant, as they are based primarily on “realistic inferences (e.g., based on distribution of suitable habitat at appropriate altitudes and proximity to areas where the taxon is known or thought very likely to remain extant,” as defined by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species).
15955		habitat	eng	Tigers are found mainly in the forests of tropical Asia, although they historically occurred more widely in drier and colder climes. One subspecies, the Amur Tiger <span style="font-style: italic;">P.t. altaica</span>, persists in the Russian Far East. Photos of Tigers up to 4,500 m have been obtained in Bhutan (Wang 2008).<br/><br/>Availability of a sufficient prey base of large ungulates is the Tiger's major habitat requirement: "wild pigs and deer of various species are the two prey types that make up the bulk of the Tiger's diet, and in general Tigers require a good population of these species in order to survive and reproduce" (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Based on studies, Karanth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) estimate that Tigers need to kill 50 large prey animals per year. Tigers are opportunistic predators, however, and their diet includes birds, fish, rodents, insects, amphibians, reptiles in addition to other mammals such as primates and porcupines. Tigers can also take ungulate prey much larger than themselves, including large bovids (water buffalo, gaur, banteng), elephants and rhinos (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Tigers are generally solitary, with adults maintaining exclusive territories, or home ranges. Adult female home ranges seldom overlap, whereas male ranges typically overlap from 1–3 females, a typical felid pattern of social organization. Tiger home ranges are small where prey is abundant - e.g., female home ranges in Chitwan averaged 20 km², while in the Russian Far East they are much larger at 450 km² <sup></sup>(Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Similarly, reported Tiger densities range from 11.65 adult Tigers per 100 km² where prey is abundant (India's Nagarhole National Park) to as low as 0.13–0.45 per 100 km² where prey is more thinly distributed, as in Russia's Sikhote Alin Mountains (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
15955		habitat	eng	Tigers are found only in the tropics of Asia.  According to a recent comprehensive range mapping exercise (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006), most tiger range is found in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (700,991 km², or 60% of tiger range).  The second most common habitat type is temperate and broadleaf mixed forest (251,516 km², or 21% of tiger range), and the third is tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (122,599 km², or 10% of tiger range).  Other habitat types in which tigers are found include coniferous forest, mangrove forest, and tropical grass and shrubland.  Photos of tigers up to 4,500 m have been obtained in Bhutan (Wang 2008).<br/><br/>Availability of a sufficient prey base of large ungulates is the tiger's major habitat requirement: "wild pigs and deer of various species are the two prey types that make up the bulk of the tiger's diet, and in general tigers require a good population of these species in order to survive and reproduce" (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  Based on studies, Karanth <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate that tigers need to kill 50 large prey animals per year.  Tigers are opportunistic predators, however, and their diet includes birds, fish, rodents, insects, amphibians, reptiles in addition to other mammals such as primates and porcupines.  Tigers can also take ungulate prey much larger than themselves, including large bovids (water buffalo, gaur, banteng), elephants and rhinos (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/><br/>Tigers are generally solitary, with adults maintaining exclusive territories, or home ranges.  Adult female home ranges seldom overlap, whereas male ranges typically overlap from 1-3 females, a typical felid pattern of social organization.  Tiger home ranges are small where prey is abundant - eg, female home ranges in Chitwan averaged 20 km², while in the Russian Far East they are much larger at 450 km² (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  Similarly, reported tiger densities range from 11.65 adult tigers per 100 km² where prey is abundant (India's Nagarhole National Park) to as low as 0.13-0.45 per 100 km² where prey is more thinly distributed, as in Russia's Sikhote Alin Mountains (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).
15955		population	eng	Scientific efforts to monitor tiger populations and estimate their size have increased in recent years (Gratwicke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A collation of national tiger estimates is given below.  While some national populations can be estimated with confidence (notably Russia, India and Nepal), most are admittedly more speculative, ranging from application of site-specific density estimates over large areas to outright guesstimates.  Putting all these national estimates together, the global tiger population is estimated to range from 3,402-5,140.  <br/><br/>A previous compilation of national estimates to determine the global population estimated 5,000-7,000 tigers (Seidensticker <em>et al.</em> 1999).  While most of these previous estimates were rough and lacked the scientific rigor that has gone into some recent estimates, so that a direct comparison is unreliable, a global population decline is suggested, as would be expected given the documented range reduction of 41% over the last decade (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In terms of conserving the wild tiger's genetic biodiversity, population biologists prefer to work with a number that approximates the actual breeding population, the number of animals which raise offspring to reproductive adulthood, or effective population size (Ne).  The number of breeding tigers in one population was equivalent to just 40% of the actual adult population, based on long-term demographic studies in Nepal's Chitwan National Park (Smith and McDougal, 1991).  Therefore, the tiger's effective population size could be in the range of 1,361-2,056 reproductively successful adults.<br/><br/>National tiger population estimates<br/><br/>Bangladesh: Tigers are now largely restricted to the Sundarbans mangrove forest.  Estimating tiger density based on prey density, Khan (2004) estimated the population at 200.  A higher estimate of 419 was obtained by the Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests, which carried out a joint census with their Indian counterparts (MoEF 2004), using a methodology of identifying individual tigers from their tracks which has been criticized as yielding inaccurate results (Karanth <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Based on the first data on home range collected from two radio-collared female tigers (11.5 and 13.9 km²), Barlow <em>et al.</em> (2007) roughly estimated there could be 95-286 female tigers in the Sundarbans.  Estimate used for global population:  200-419<br/><br/>Bhutan:  Dorji and Santiapillaai (1989) estimated Bhutan's tiger population at 151 (based on track counts) to 250 (extrapolating to unsurveyed areas).  However, the density they used for their extrapolation (1 adult per 40 km²) was high for the more high-altitude parts of their range.  In Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (where tigers have been recorded up to 4,500 m), Wang (2008) estimates, from camera trapping, a density of one tiger per 200 km².  A similar density for the central Himalayan region was obtained from track surveys by McDougal and Tsering in the late 1990s, 1 tiger/185 km².  Overall, their surveys estimated 67-81 adult tigers in Bhutan; this figure is used in the Govt of Bhutan's 2005 National Tiger Action Plan (Sangay and Wangchuk, 2005), although further research is necessary to clarify tiger abundance and distribution in the country (S. Wang pers. comm. 2008).  Estimate used for global population: 67-81<br/><br/>Cambodia:  Several NGOs working on tiger conservation held a meeting in 2004 to review data for the Tiger Conservation Landscape delineation exercise (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  Based on their work, using a range of methodologies including camera traps and field surveys by biologists and community wildlife rangers, Cambodia's tiger population was estimated at 11-50 tigers (Chheang <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>China:  The Govt of China, State Forest Administration, distributed a presentation at the 2007 International Tiger Symposium held April 2007 in Kathmandu, Nepal.  The total tiger population in China was estimated at 37-50, broken down as follows.  Amur tiger <em>P.t. altaica</em> (northeastern China) 18-22; Bengal tiger P.t. tigris (Motuo county, Tibet) 8-12; Indochinese tiger <em>P.t. corbetti</em> (southern Yunnan province) 11-16; South China tiger <em>P.t. amoyensis</em> (southern China) no definite evidence of continued persistence (Govt of China 2007, GTF 2007).  <br/><br/>India:  India's previous national tiger censuses were based on recognition of individual tiger tracks, and in 2001-2002 estimated the population at 3,642 tigers.  This methodology was criticized by leading tiger scientists for being inaccurate and inefficient (Karanth <em>et al.</em> 2003).  A new methodology has been developed as recommended by the 2005 tiger action plan (Govt of India 2005), using GIS mapping systems to extrapolate tiger densities derived from camera trap and sign-based indices of abundance.  The Indian tiger population is now estimated at 1,411 (range 1,165-1,657 (Jhala <em>et al.</em> 2008).  The Indian Sundarbans tiger population was not estimated.  Because of the difference in methodology, it is not clear how much of the reduction from the 2001 estimate is due to actual loss of tigers as opposed to a more accurate census result. <br/><br/>Indonesia:  The Sumatran tiger occurs in about 58,321 km² of forested habitat in 12 potentially isolated Tiger Conservation Landscapes totalling 88,351 km² (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), with about 37,000 km² protected in ten national parks (Govt of Indonesia 2007b).  The tiger population was estimated at 400-500 in the first and second national tiger action plans (Govt of Indonesia 1994, 2007a), and at 342-509 in six major protected areas (estimates from Shepherd and Magnus 2004).  However, incorporating more recent research (Linkie <em>et al.</em> 2006, Govt. of Indonesia 2007b), covering most of tiger estimated habitat (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), suggests the population could be 441-679 (see Red List assessment of <em>Panthera tigris sumatrae</em> for details).  Understanding of Sumatran tiger status will improve when research in the three Tiger Conservation Landscapes in Riau province by Sunarto <em>et al.</em> (2007) is complete.  Estimate used for global population: 441-679<br/><br/>Lao PDR:  No population estimates are available, and Lao PDR is not included in the global population estimate.  Tigers are known to occur in five (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999) to seven areas (GTF 2007).  One of the largest is the 3,446 km² (+ 854 km² proposed extension) Nam Et - Phou Louey National Protected Area.  Based on camera trapping, tiger density there was estimated at 0.2-0.7 per 100 km², a relatively low density suggesting a population of only 7-23 tigers in the reserve (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Tigers and their large ungulate prey have have been depleted by hunting pressure across the country, and tiger numbers are likely to be low (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999).  <br/><br/>Malaysia:  Based on typical prey biomass in tropical rainforests, energetic needs of tigers, estimated tiger densities from studies carried out in Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, and others in tropical Asia, and available tiger habitats in Peninsular Malaysia, Kawanishi <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated the national tiger population at 493-1,480 adult tigers.  The lower bound coincides with the previous population estimate for the country (Topani 1990) and is the number selected as feasible by the country's national tiger action plan (DWNP 2008).  However, based on density estimates derived from camera trapping in six sites in Malaysia during the late 1990s, Lynam <em>et al.</em> (2007) suggest a lower  population, "up to several hundred." Estimate range used for global population: 300-493<br/><br/>Myanmar: The national tiger population was estimated at approximately 150, according to extensive surveys covering much of the country (Lynam 2003).  Most tigers (approximately 100) are found in the large Hukaung Tiger reserve in the north of the country (Lynam <em>et al.</em> in prep.).  Tigers have lost much of their historical range in Myanmar, and where they persist are at very low densities.  The other important area for tigers is the forest complex found in northern and southern Taninthayi Division (approx. 50) (Lynam 2003).  <br/><br/>Nepal:  According to government representatives attending the 2007 International Tiger Symposium of the Global Tiger Forum, a 2006 exercise, based in part on camera trapping, estimated 350-370 tigers.  The same number was obtained in 2005 and also in 1999-2000, and the population is considered stable (GTF 2007). <br/><br/>North Korea:  There have been no surveys since 1998, when tiger tracks were reported along the border with China (Miquelle 1998).<br/><br/>Russia:  In 2005 a comprehensive winter snow tracking census estimated 331-393 adult/sub-adult tigers.  977 fieldworkers covered 1537 transect routes totalling 26,031 km.  Using a similar methodology, 330-371 adult tigers were estimated in 1996.  The more recent number probably reflects more intensive survey effort (Miquelle <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Thailand: Tigers occur in 15 spatially disjunct forest complexes in Thailand (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999), and were recorded in six out of seven forest complexes where camera trap surveys were carried out (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006).  The best area for tigers is Huai Kha Khaeng National Park, with an estimated 113 tigers (Simcharoen <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Extrapolating the density obtained from Huai Kha Khaeng (3.98 tigers per 100 km²) to the large 18,000 km² Western Forest complex, the largest habitat block for tigers in Thailand,  Simcharoen <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated it could hold 720 tigers, with the potential to harbor 2,000 if prey densities were to increase.  However, this estimate should be treated as speculative pending further data from other parts of the Western Forest complex, where conditions are unlikely to be as good as in Huai Kha Khaeng.  For example, the distribution map in Thailand's national tiger action plan portrays appoximately half of the Western Forest complex population as low density in comparison to the Huai Kha Khaeng population (Tunhikorn <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In other Thai forest complexes, including Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2001) and the Dong Phayayen-Khai Yai complex (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006), tigers were few, occurring at much lower densities than would have been predicted on the basis of habitat quality.  Rabinowitz (1993), using presence/absence surveys and a modified arbitrary density estimate of 1 tiger per 100 km², estimated the Thai tiger population at no more than 250.  Estimate range used for global population: 250-720.<br/><br/>Viet Nam:  According to government representatives attending the 2007 International Tiger Symposium of the Global Tiger Forum, a 2004-2005 exercise estimated not more than 100 tigers in areas along the borders with Lao and Cambodia (GTF 2007).
15955		population	eng	The thirteen Tiger Range Countries have come together in an unprecedented pledge to double the world’s Tiger population by 2022, the next Year of the Tiger on the Asian lunar calendar, with a goal of achieving at least 6,000 Tigers. This figure was based on a baseline global population of 3,200, agreed upon at a preparatory workshop held in Kathmandu, Nepal in October 2009; 3,200 Tigers was the IUCN Red List population estimate at that time. Since then, Tiger Range Countries have adjusted their baseline national Tiger estimates, finalized in the Global Tiger Recovery Program adopted at the International Tiger Forum in St Petersburg, Russia in November 2010 (GTRP 2010). These estimates now total approximately 4,000 adult Tigers (see Table, which updates the GTRP’s figure for India based on its most recent national census results [Jhala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011]).<br/><br/>However, estimates of the Tiger populations in 42 protected source sites where there is evidence of breeding total 2,154 Tigers (Walston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010a, modified from their 2,126 to include the most recent published estimates from Nepal of Tiger populations in Chitwan, Bardia and Shuklaphanta). Although this is not a complete estimate of the global Tiger population (for example, most Amur Tigers in Russia are found in unprotected areas), generally Tiger status outside the source sites is poor and poorly known. IUCN Guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2010) define population as the number of mature individuals, defined as “individuals known, estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction.” While in general this refers to all reproductive-age adults in the population, the Guidelines also “stress that the intention of the definition of mature individuals is to allow the estimate of the number of mature individuals to take account of all the factors that may make a taxon more vulnerable than otherwise might be expected.” Tigers require large populations to persist, and the survival rate of breeding adult females is a key parameter, with models suggesting population declines when mortality of breeding females rises over 15% (Chapron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Population declines in recent years have been most pronounced outside protected areas (Walston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010b). The IUCN Guidelines advise that “mature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted.” For the purposes of Red List assessment, the estimated population in the Source Sites is used as a proxy for the breeding population of adult Tigers.<br/><br/>In 1998, the global Tiger population was estimated, less rigorously, at 5,000 to 7,000 Tigers (Seidensticker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). Although to some extent the new numbers represent improved knowledge, it is clear that there have been substantial population declines, with Tigers all but eliminated from much of their recent forest range, particularly in Southeast Asia.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for further&#160;information about national Tiger population estimates.
15955		threats	eng	Illegal trade in high-value Tiger products including skins, bones, meat and tonics is a primary threat to Tigers, which has led to their recent disappearance from broad areas of otherwise suitable habitat, and continues at unsustainable rates.<br/><br/>Asia is a densely populated and rapidly developing region, bringing huge pressures to bear on the large wild areas required for viable Tiger populations. Conversion of forest land to agriculture and silviculture, commercial logging, and human settlement are the main drivers of Tiger habitat loss. With their substantial dietary requirements, Tigers require a healthy large ungulate prey base, but these species are also under heavy human subsistence hunting pressure and competition from domestic livestock.<br/><br/>Tiger attacks on livestock and people can lead to intolerance of Tigers by neighbouring communities and presents an ongoing challenge to managers to build local support for Tiger conservation. In some areas there have been many human deaths - for example, 41 people were killed by Tigers in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh during an 18-month period in 2001–2003 (Khan 2004).
15955		threats	eng	Tiger range has contracted by 41% over the last decade (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  The sharpest decrease in area occurred in India, where landscapes with tigers were found to be much smaller and more fragmented than previously assessed in 1997.<br/><br/>While the reduction in range is due in some measure to improved knowledge of tiger distribution over the past decade, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> (2007) consider habitat loss and poaching for trade to be primary causes of a significant decline in tiger range and numbers.  <br/><br/>Asia is a densely populated and rapidly developing region, bringing huge pressures to bear on the large wild areas required for viable tiger populations.  Conversion of forest land to agriculture and silviculture, commercial logging, and human settlement are the main drivers of tiger habitat loss.  With their substantial dietary requirements, tigers require a healthy large ungulate prey base, but these species are also under heavy human subsistence hunting pressure and competition from domestic livestock.  Karanth and Stith (1999) consider prey base depletion to be the leading threat to tigers in areas of otherwise suitable habitat.<br/><br/>In the early 1990s, it was feared that poaching of tigers for the use of their bones in traditional Asian medicine would drive the tiger to extinction (Nowell, 2000).  Despite strong international action to eliminate it, illegal trade persists (Nowell, 2007).  Tiger bone has long been considered to hold anti-inflammatory properties, with some support from Chinese medical research, but many consider the effect to be more psychological than pharmacological (Nowell and Xu, 2007).  Although all countries have banned use and manufacture of tiger bone, illegal production persists in several Asian countries, especially in China, Malaysia, and Viet Nam (Nowell, 2007).  In China there are several operations engaged in intensive breeding ("farming" of tigers), with the captive population reportedly reaching 5,000.  They are pressuring the government to allow them to produce tiger products, and several are already engaged in illegal production of tiger bone wine.  Market surveys indicate that medicinal use of tiger bone has decreased since China banned tiger bone in 1993.  Tiger farming perpetuates and threatens to re-ignite consumer demand (Nowell and Xu, 2007).<br/><br/>There are other illegal markets for tiger products, especially skins, but also teeth and claws (particularly in Sumatra: Shepherd and Magnus, 2004; Ng and Nemora 2007), contributing to poaching pressure.  But many tigers are also killed by people seeking to protect life and livestock.  Conflict-killed tigers can also feed into the illegal trade.  Many tiger products in trade are faked, a legal "grey area" in several countries which also perpetuates consumer demand (Nowell, 2000).<br/><br/>Tiger attacks on livestock and people can lead to intolerance of tigers by neighbouring communities and presents an ongoing challenge to managers to build local support for tiger conservation.  In some areas there have been many human deaths - for example, 41 people were killed by tigers in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh during an 18-month period in 2001-2003 (Khan 2004).<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about threats to tigers in the areas they work in, and compiled the results to indicate threat prevalence across tiger range.  The top twelve threats are listed below, with their Vulnerability Scores:  high scores indicate the threat is severe (e.g., it is reducing tiger populations), is urgent, and is widespread across tiger range.<br/><br/>Threat                              Vulnerability Score<br/><br/>Lack of law enforcement  1943<br/>Hunting of tiger prey        1936<br/>Low tiger population size    1909<br/>Incidental hunting of tigers  1545<br/>Lack of habitat connectivity  1510<br/>Habitat degradation           1499<br/>Export of tiger parts to other areas     1462<br/>Habitat destruction    1386<br/>Directed hunting of tigers    1325<br/>Resource exploitation  1229<br/>Local trade in tiger parts    1030<br/>Lack of legal protection      586 <br/><br/>Source: Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006: 14)
15962		distribution	eng	Confined to Java. Camera tapped in (2004) in Gunung Gede National Park.  Other onfirmed records from Gunung Halimun, Ujung Kulon, (Western Java) and Meru Betiri (East Java).
15962		population	eng	Population estimates are not certain, but certainly less than 250 mature individuals (possibly even less than 100)
15962		threats	eng	Human population growth and loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion.
15966		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to expansion of oil palm plantations and planting of Acacia plantations. Illegal trade, primarily for domestic market. Prey-base depletion.
15967		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix I of CITES. The Chiru is legally protected in China and India, but enforcement of the law over the vast area of its habitat has been problematic, but enforcement efforts have recently been intensified (Zhen 1999; China Daily 2004), public awareness of the Chiru within China has increased, and some populations have evidently begun to respond (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 2003). Occurs in Qiantang, Kekexili, Arjin Shan and Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserves and Jung Kunlun provincial nature reserve. Since 2002, IFAW has organized and sponsored an annual workshop for nature reserve staff and other officials from the three Chinese provinces where the majority of the population is concentrated (Tibet, Qinghai, Xinjiang).
15967		distribution	eng	Formerly ranged across the whole Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Range decreased and now absent from all or most of the eastern plateau; the main stronghold of the species is in the remote Chang Tang area of north-western Tibet (Schaller 1998). A small number occur seasonally in northeast Ladakh, in the extreme north of India. Formerly occurred in a small area of northwest Nepal (Schaller 1977).
15967		habitat	eng	Inhabit high altitude plains, undulating hills plateaux and montane valleys at elevations of 3,700-5,500 m (Schaller 1998). Most populations are highly migratory or nomadic (Schaller 1998; Schaller <em>et al.</em> 2006), moving hundreds of kilometres between summer and winter ranges. Some populations migrate over much shorter distances (Harris and Miller 1995). Males and females are usually separate except for the mating period. Females congregate to give birth in traditional birthing grounds, some of which e.g. Central Kunlun have only recently been identified. The ecological parameters of these sites are not fully understood.
15967		population	eng	Numbers were estimated at <75,000 by Schaller (1998). Following that, Feng (1999) estimated a population size of 100,000 to 120,000, while Xi and Wang (2004) guessed 150,000. However, these figures are speculative and rigorous population estimates over the entire Chiru range are urgently needed.
15967		threats	eng	Chiru have long been hunted for their underfur (shahtoosh), which is renowned for its quality and which has traditionally been transported to Srinagar in Kashmir, where it is woven into an extremely fine fabric used to make shawls. This hunting escalated to a commercial scale in the late 1980s and 1990s, becoming the major threat to Chiru and leading to a severe decline in numbers (Wright and Kumar 1997). Measures to restrict illegal hunting and smuggling of the product have become increasingly effective, though the problem has not been eliminated. Horns of the males have also been traditionally used as gun rests, and to a limited extent in traditional Chinese medicine. Other important threats include expansion of livestock herding into remote and previously unused areas (Fox and Bårdsen 2005), road building (facilitating the above and illegal hunting), fencing of pastures on the Tibetan plateau, and construction of the Beijing-Lhasa railway which threatened to divide Chiru range. Engineering measures, including ?underpasses?, now appear to be having some beneficial effect. Chiru are also vulnerable to severe winter conditions. An exceptional snowstorm in Qinghai in 1985 caused high mortality and led to their disappearance from some areas especially in the eastern part of their range (Schaller and Ren 1988).
15968		habitat	eng	Occurs on the upper shore-line; also occurs below low-water level in mangrove swamps, under stones or matted algae. On land it occurs in moist earth under stones on hillsides.
15968		threats	eng	Could be affected by the development of tourist facilities.
15975		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Rutong Protection Forest. Further surveys are needed into the distribution, and persistance of this species to severe hunting pressure and habitat modification.
15975		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Flores island, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded between sea level and high elevations on Flores.
15975		habitat	eng	It is believed to occur in a range of forest types, including disturbed areas and secondary growth, but is not expected to be present in heavily cleared areas.
15975		population	eng	The abundance is not known, but it may be a common species. Populations may be declining, but this needs to be confirmed. It is known by extant specimens as well as subfossil fragments 3000-4000 years old (Musser and Carleton 2005).
15975		threats	eng	The large species is directly hunted for food, but it is unclear if this is resulting in significant population declines. It is possibly not heavily impacted by habitat loss due to the rugged nature of Flores island. Cats and dogs are considered predators on this species (Suyanto 1998).
15993		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4, Bern Convention Annex 2 and CITES Appendix I. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. In France and Italy, not all populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.
15993		distribution	eng	Only occurs on Corsica and Sardinia. Its elevational range is between 400-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
15993		habitat	eng	The Corsican Swallowtail is a butterfly of open, grassy slopes, often with some scattered rocks and bushes and of slopes with low-growing scrub. Just as the Swallowtail, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. machaon</span>, these butterflies show hill-topping behaviour, the males assembling on hilltops or other prominent features in the landscape, waiting for the females to arrive. In Corsica, they are found on three different foodplants, Giant Fennel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula communis</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruta corsica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Peucedanum paniculatum</span>, different populations being strictly bound to one type of foodplant. However, in Sardinia, the caterpillars are only found on Giant Fennel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula communis</span>). The Corsican Swallowtail has one generation a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. On Corsica reported to do well after forest fires. Habitats: heath and scrub (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%).
15993		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
15993		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
16012		conservation	eng	No information available.
16012		distribution	eng	The species is known from the eastern African coastal zone and rivers.
16012		habitat	eng	Epibenthic on sand and mud substrates. Often found in weedy areas of intertidal zone and in the mangroves. Enters estuaries, lagoons and rivers (Maugé 1986).
16012		habitat	eng	Found over sandy and muddy bottoms, often in weedy areas of the intertidal zone; also in mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and rivers.
16012		population	eng	No information available.
16012		threats	eng	No information available.
16018		conservation	eng	It is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. This species is protected in the Niokolo-Koba National Park (Senegal), where densities of 2-15 individuals/km² have been estimated, and in Outamba-Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone.
16018		distribution	eng	This west African species ranges from southern Mauritania and Mali to Guinea and north-western Sierra Leone (see Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998 for discussion about occurrence in this country). Along its eastern limits, the Guinea baboon may be hybridising with the larger Olive Baboon <em>Papio anubis</em>.
16018		habitat	eng	This species inhabits woodlands, savanna, and Sahelian steppe within reach of water. It also inhabits gallery forests and secondary forest in the south of its range. Rich food resources and good protection in the Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal allow large aggregations of harem groups, numbering 10-200 (sometimes >500) individuals, to forage together. Guinea Baboons eat seeds, shoots, roots, fruits, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and eggs. Where agriculture has expanded, rice, maize, yams, groundnuts, and other cultivated crops are also taken.
16018		population	eng	They are reported to be common in many parts of their range (e.g., The Gambia and south-eastern Guinea-Bissau), and although patchily distributed even appear to be relatively abundant in a few places.
16018		threats	eng	Outside the Niokolo-Koba National Park, this species has undergone widespread declines as a result of extensive agricultural expansion, tree-felling, and direct hunting for crop protection and for meat in Guinea. In the past, large numbers were exported for laboratory use, particularly in Senegal.
16019		conservation	eng	It is listed under Appendix II of CITES, and is classed as Vermin in the African Convention along with all other species of baboon. A 'pure' subpopulation of this species is found in the Simien Mountains National Park, while <em>P. hamadryas-P. anubis</em> hybrids occur in the Awash National Park. In addition, the species occurs in the proposed Yangudi Rassa National Park, the Harar Wildlife Sanctuary, and a number of Wildlife Reserves in the lower Awash valley and in northern Eritrea (although it is important to note that the Awash reserves are all affected by agricultural schemes).
16019		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-east Africa. It is principally found in Ethiopia, although its range extends from the Red Sea Hills and Suakin (Sudan) through Eritrea and Djibouti (especially in the Goda Mountains) to northern Somalia. It is also found in the Red Sea Hills in the south-west Arabian Peninsula opposite the Horn of Africa. Historically, its range extended into Egypt, but not into recent times (i.e., post 1500AD; see Osborn and Osbornová 1998).
16019		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid subdesert, steppe, hillsides, escarpments, and mountains bordering the Red Sea, generally at altitudes up to 1,500 m. However, it appears to be seasonally migratory in at least some parts of its range in Ethiopia, where bands may move up into neighbouring mountainous areas (up to 3,300 m in the Simien Mountains National Park) in the wet season. This species is dependent on water, and is never found far from water sources. It is an opportunistic omnivore, and seasonally important foods include grass, buds, invertebrates, and the fruits of desert plants (notably heglig <em>Balanites</em> and buffalo thorn <em>Ziziphus</em>). The basic social unit consists of one male and several females.
16019		population	eng	This species is abundant, with the majority of the population in Ethiopia, and may even have increased because of loss of predators and small-scale agriculture. Kunzel <em>et al.</em> (2000) estimated the total population in Djibouti at around 2,000 animals, and that the population was stable.
16019		threats	eng	There are no major range-wide threats at present, although locally it may be at risk through loss of habitat due to major agricultural expansion and irrigation projects. In addition, adult males are hunted for their skins (which are used to embellish ceremonial cloaks in Ethiopia). They were formerly trapped in large numbers for medical research.
16021		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix II of CITES. It is listed as Vermin under the African Convention. It is present in many protected areas. Research into the boundaries and possible reasons for separation into distinctly eastern and western subspecies could be useful.
16021		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Somalia, coastal Kenya, and northern Tanzania southwards to the Zambezi valley, and across south-central Africa to central Angola (Benguela) (Jolly 1993). There are hybrid zones with <em>Papio anubis</em> near Sultan Hamud, Kenya (2°02'S, 37°23'E), Amboseli National Park (Kenya) and Mkomazi Reserve in Tanzania. There is a broad clinal hybrid zone between Laikipia District, just to the north-east and east of Mt. Kenya, and the Lower Tana River, Kenya coast. Baboons in this >200-km wide region are intermediate and cannot be readily allocated to either <em>P. anubis</em> or <em>P. cynocephalus</em> (baboons become increasingly “yellow-like” in their phenotypes towards the Kenya Coast; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Sympatric with <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em>, <em>Erythrocebus patas</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are three subspecies: <em>P. c. cynocephalus</em> occurs in the central and south-eastern parts of the range including Zambia east of the Luangwa, Malawi, northern Mozambique, and most of Tanzania; <em>P. c. ibeanus</em> is found in southern Somalia, and south-east and coastal Kenya; <em>P. c. kindae</em> is found on the upper Zambezi in south-western Zambia.
16021		habitat	eng	Over a great part of this species' range, it is specific to fire-climax Miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em>) woodland. Both within this zone and especially to the north-east, it also occupies dry bushland, thickets, steppes, and the coastal littoral (including mangroves); able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated area. It is an opportunistic omnivore which primarily feeds on the seeds, flesh, and pods of the leguminous trees including <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Albizia</em>, mopane (<em>Colophospermum</em>), and tamarind, all of which are seasonal staples. In addition, Miombo fauna such as mopane worms and various other insects are equally important at times. In addition, this species also eats grasses, shoots, fungi, lichens, and many invertebrates. It prefers foods with an unusual chemistry, implying that this species has acquired special digestive adaptations. This may help to explain why the boundaries of its distribution do not follow any geographic discontinuities but coincide very closely with the distribution of a plant community (Jolly 1993; Kingdon 1997).<br/><br/>The Yellow Baboon typically forages in extended, well-spaced troops which can occasionally number up to 300 animals (with an average of 30-80). During the calving season, many young antelopes and hares are caught.
16021		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally common, but patchily distributed over its extensive range.
16021		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it has been locally displaced by agriculture and tree clearance in some parts of the range (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). In addition, it is commonly exported from East Africa for medical research.
16022		conservation	eng	It is listed under Appendix II of CITES. Occurs in numerous protected areas across its range.
16022		distribution	eng	This species ranges all over southern Africa, up to the Zambezi valley (and including south-west Zambia; see Ansell 1978), Caprivi, and southern Angola littoral. Altitudinal range is from sea level to >2,100 m<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>P. u. griseipes</em> occurs in south-west Zambia, Botswana (Okavango Delta), Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, south of the Zambezi; <em>P. u. ursinus</em> occurs in the remainder of the range, in all provinces in South Africa and throughout Namibia.
16022		habitat	eng	The Chacma Baboon occupies all types of woodland, savanna, steppes and subdesert, montane regions (such as the high elevations of the Drakensberg), Cape Fynbos and Succulent Karoo. Cliffs, hills or large trees are necessary night-time retreats. In some habitats, such as in the Namib Desert, habitat choice is infuenced by predation risk. This species is totally dependent on drinking daily, and water availability limits its overall range in Namibia. However, one troop in the Kuiseb Canyon, Namib Desert, balanced its water requirements with moisture from nearby plants and conserved water by resting and sleeping during the hottest part of the day. Through this adaptation to their arid environment they temporarily overcame restrictions imposed by the need for regular drinking and were observed to survive without water for up to 11 days and even longer. In dry localities, artificial water supplies have allowed substantial expansion of territority. This species is an opportunistic omnivore, and shows a local preference for bulbs, shoots, roots, seeds, or fruits. Invertebrates, small vertebrates, seashore life, fungi, and lichen are eaten as and when available. Occasionally, they may take small antelopes or the young of species like Impala <em>Aepyceros melampus</em>. Crops (maize, tomatoes, citrus and root crops) are raided in settled areas. Lambs and small stock are taken in some ranching areas.<br/><br/>Troops average between 20 and 50 animals, but may total up to 130 individuals. Multi-male hierarchies are normal, though smaller troops may only have a single male (in one study in the Drakensberg, one-male groups made up 50% of groups recorded above 2,100 m).
16022		population	eng	This species is common and widespread. Densities can range from 3 or 4 up to 40/km² in some protected localities.
16022		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although problem animals may be shot as vermin. Animals are also hunted locally as parts of dead baboons are offered for sale in markets in South Africa for traditional medicinal use, but this is not considered a major threat
16023		conservation	eng	This species needs protection from persecution by farmers and conservation of its remaining habitat. This species was recently searched for and was not found within its range (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002), despite a previous study finding the species to be abundant. More field work needs to be undertaken to better understand the status of this species.
16023		distribution	eng	This species is known from south Jalisco (Mexico), in the Sierra del Tigre (Patton 2005).
16023		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in pine-oak forests with iron-rich soils (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16023		population	eng	This species was recently searched for and was not found within its range (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002). A previous study in 1997-1998, focusing on burrowing habitats of this gopher, found the species to be abundant in its range (S. Alvarez pers. comm.).
16023		threats	eng	It is persecuted by farmers as a pest. Its habitat is being deforested for timber and agriculture.
16024		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Part of its range falls within a protected area.
16024		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima (Mexico) (Patton 2005). It occurs from sea level on the Pacific coast to above 3,200 m (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16024		habitat	eng	This rodent is predominantly a montane species, occurring in soils mostly of volcanic origin in the pine-oak forests, and is most abundant at higher elevations in meadows supporting grasses and forbs. Burrows sometimes extended into adjacent forest. It occurs near corn and open fields where the soil is sufficiently deep. It can be found in semitropical environments in larger canyons dissecting the western slope of the coastal range where it is associated with tropical shrubs, especially in cultivated areas. Roots of xerophytic shrubs, grasses, and forbs are eaten by <em>P. bulleri</em> (Soler-Frost <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>It is known to tolerate anthropogenic disturbance.
16024		population	eng	This species is abundant within its range (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16024		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
16025		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within this species' range.
16025		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south-central USA and north-eastern Mexico. It occurs from the Arkansas River drainage in south-eastern Colorado and western Kansas southward to south of the Rio Grande in eastern Chihuahua and north-eastern Durango.
16025		habitat	eng	Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are found in light soils such as the sandy/silty soils of valleys and river bottoms. When forced to inhabit rocky or dense soil areas this species does poorly and has lower population densities. Throughout its range, these areas of suitable soil correspond with mesquite and cactus communities in the west, and grassland communities in the east. <br/><br/>The burrow system of this species may be up to 76 m long, including a main shaft with several shorter tunnels branching off to serve as foraging routes, as well as a deeper tunnel area with the nest and food storage areas. These burrows are occupied by one individual, except during the mating season when a pair may inhabit a burrow.  <br/>The diet consists mainly of the underground portions of plants and low-growing green vegetation. Females typically have two litters per year, one in early spring and the other in late summer, with 1-3 young in each litter (Davidow-Henry 1989).
16025		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
16025		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, like many other gophers, this species is considered an agricultural pest and may cause damage to orchards and crops. As a result populations are often reduced by trapping and use of rodenticide (Davidow-Henry 1989). Populations may also be controlled by managing for the presence of large predatory birds including hawks and owls.
16026		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas.
16026		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt at the southern end of the Mexican Plateau from the states of Jalisco and Colima in the west to Hildago and the state of Mexico in the east (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002). It ranges in elevations from about 300 m to 3,370 m asl. It is found usually at 2,000 m asl or higher in most of its range, but in Colima and south-western Jalisco populations occur at lower elevations.
16026		habitat	eng	This gopher prefers volcanic soils (>1 m in depth) (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its primary habitat includes pine and oak forests and grasslands, but it can also live in degraded habitats and agricultural lands.
16026		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range.
16026		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement. This species also is persecuted as a pest in parts of its range. Isolated populations in Colima, Lago de Morenos in Jalisco, and in Querétaro are particularly at risk.
16028		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas that overlap with this species' range.
16028		distribution	eng	Merriam's Pocket Gopher is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in the southern part of the Valley of Mexico, Sierra de Las Cruces, Sierra de Ajusco, the Popocatépetl-Iztaccíhutl range, and from Lerma to western Puebla in the Valley of Toluca (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species ranges in elevation from 1,800 m to 4,000 m asl (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16028		habitat	eng	This species lives in grasslands (sacatonal), and temperate forests of pine and oak. It is also known to occur in agricultural lands and rangelands (Whisson and Villa-C 1994).
16028		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed, but common to abundant.
16028		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement.
16039		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to confirm the taxonomic status, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
16039		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Vinh, Nghe An Province, in central Viet Nam.
16039		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.
16039		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species as it is known only from the holotype.
16039		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
16042		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
16042		distribution	eng	This species is known by a single museum specimen collected from Sibatwa at 2,000 m asl in the Itombwe Mountains, in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1908. There appear to have been no additional field surveys in this area since the early 1900s.
16042		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in montane forest.
16042		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
16042		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
16043		conservation	eng	Kasangaki <em>et al.</em> (2003) recorded the species from the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in southwestern Uganda. It is also knonw from the Ruwenzori National Park in Uganda, and Kibira National Park in Burundi. There is a need to prevent further loss of suitable habitat within the range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the species distribution and population status.
16043		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from the Albertine Rift region of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda. It has an elevational range of between 850 and 2,680 m asl.
16043		habitat	eng	Many of the records of this species are from montane tropical moist forest, including both primary and secondary forest. It has been recorded from areas of montane swamp at 2,200 m asl in Burundi, and from patches of mixed forest and bamboo habitat in other parts of its range.
16043		population	eng	This is a relatively rare species.
16043		threats	eng	There has already been considerable habitat loss within the lower elevations of this species range. Presumably this is largely the result of logging operations, and the general conversion of land to agricultural use. Habitat loss at Kibira, Burundi, seems to have been quite severe in recent years with approximately 25% of forest now cleared or degraded (Julian Kerbis pers. comm.).
16067		distribution	eng	Restricted to six hydrologically isolated anchialine caves in Bermuda.
16067		habitat	eng	Inhabits six caves in Bermuda, all which lack a direct connection with the sea. Chalk Cave and Christie's Cave are ca. 50 m from open water, Roadside Cave is 110 m and Tucker's Town Cave is 124 m from open water. Roadside Cave, Southdown Cave and Tucker's Town Cave have a tidal range of 57%, 48% and 62% respectively, that of the open water, and have tidal lag times of 80 min, 82 min and 58 min respectively. The most abundant population was found in Devonshire Cave, where 49 specimens were collected. Some of the specimens were observed swimming slowly along the substrate while the endopod of the maxilliped vibrated rapidly stirring up particles from the bottom.
16074		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
16074		distribution	eng	Distributed in Karakum desert (including those near Caspian Sea, Nebit-Dag), Kyzylkum desert (including Aral sea area), and Deshte-Kevir desert (NE Iran).
16074		habitat	eng	Inhabits sandy deserts with shrubs. Fast and agile runner (up to 9 m/sec), can jump up to 3 m long and 1.5 high. Orientational vertical jumps at the same place are characteristic to the species. Makes burrows in moist sand if dry qucksand layer above is not more than 15-20 cm thick. At the entrance there is a long sand emission (up to 1,5 m). Wintering and reproduction burrows are up to 5 m long and 3 m deep. All burrows entrances except one-day-use, are plugged with sand. Feed on young shrub shoots (especially white saxaul), grass, and seeds. Most probably doesn't consume animal food at all. Feeding route could be up to 700 m. Reproduce twice per season, young females do not reproduce on the year they are born. Litter size is 1-6, 3-4 in average. Enters hibernation when temperture reach -16 to -18 C (in southern Karakum in Decmber-January). Before that active even if night temperature is -20 C.
16074		population	eng	Population size can be quite high, up to 10-15 individuals per 1 km of tracking.
16074		threats	eng	Unknown.
16104		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), as well as Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). This species is likely to be found in 25 protected areas within its distribution (Ashraf <em>et al,</em> 1993). It was recorded from Kalakad-Mudanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) between May 1996 and December 1999 (Mudappa, 2002). More surveys are needed to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, due to concern about threats from commercial plantations of coffee, tee, Eucalyptus spp, and teak, as well as other development activities (Menon and Bawa, 1997; Rajamani <em>et al, </em>2002). Long-term protection of primary rainforests, both large tracts as well as fragments, is imperative to the conservation of this species (Rajamani <em>et al,</em> 2002). More surveys are urgently needed to determine the true abundance and distribution of this species. More information about possible threats would allow more certainty over its status.
16104		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern India (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), where it is found in the Western Ghats (Pocock 1939, Corbet and Hill 1992, Mudappa 1998).The distribution of this species has been poorly documented due to its nocturnal and arboreal habits (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002).
16104		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in evergreen forest and occasionally in coffee plantations (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). It was most common in altitudes above 1,000 m, though they were seen as low as 700 m (Mudappa, 2002).<br/><br/>It is largely arboreal and nocturnal, and mainly frugivorous, feeding on nearly 40 rainforest tree and liana fruit species, though it does supplement its diet with birds, rodents, and insescts (Pocock 1939). It is often found in coffee plantations (Pocock 1939). This species is often sighted in elevated (above 500 m) moist forest (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). It is nocturnal and predominantly arboreal, but is often found on the ground, as indicated by success in trapping and camera trapping (Mudappa, 2002). It is known mostly from tropical rainforests (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002), but has been recorded from coffee estates in Coorg and Anamalais (Ryley, 1913; Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993; Mudappa, 2001). In a survey conducted in the Western Ghats in 2001-02, all 23 sightings of this species were in evergreen forests, including five in high altitude montane evergreen forest or sholas (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). It was recorded in both undisturbed, large patches of contiguous forest, as well as in fragments surrounded by plantations of tea, and human habitations (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). They were recorded on forest trails and along main roads, often exposed to traffic (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). Rajamani <em>et al</em> (2002) found that this species may be more dependent on the structure and floristics of forests, rather than on altitude.
16104		population	eng	The population status is poorly known. It is not as rare as it was previously generally believed to be, at least in relatively undisturbed rainforest (Mudappa, 2002). It was the most frequently seen small carnivore in Kalakad-Mudanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) between May 1996 and December 1999 (Mudappa, 2002). The abundance of this species has been poorly documented due to its nocturnal and arboreal habits (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). Ryley (1913) found then to be fairly abundant in Coorg, though not nearly as common as <em>Paradoxerus hermaphroditus</em> (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). Recent studies suggest that this species is not as rare as it was thought to be (Mudappa, 2001; Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). It appears to be fairly common in Kakachi-Upper Kodayar (Ganesh, 1997) and other areas above 1,000 m within the KMTR in the Agasthyamalai hills and also in the Anamalai hills (Mudappa, 2001).
16104		threats	eng	Populations may be threatened by habitat destruction due to mining activities in Kudremukh (which has since been closed by the government), hydroelectric projects in Anamalais, and large-scale plantations of coffee, cardamom, and tea in and around protected areas (Ashraf <em>et al,</em> 1993). Hunting is unlikely to be a major threat to this species, however, illegal hunting is still common in privately owned plantations (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). As it is highly frugivorous and arboreal, fragmentation of rainforest habitat is likely a threat to this species (Mudappa, 2002). Due to its mainly frugivorous and arboreal habits, it can survive in heavily encroached areas provided some fragments remain with relatively unbroken canopy and adequate food resources, such as coffee and cardamom plantation, but not tea, Eucalyptus, or teak (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). The species is tolerant of fragmented landscapes (Mudappa in press).
16109		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed as endangered under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995.  In response to this, the Tasmanian Inland Fisheries Service has produced a recovery plan for this, and other, Galaxiidae species (Jackson 2004).  <br/><br/>The Tasmanian Inland Fisheries Act 1995 prohibits collecting of any freshwater species without permit.  <em>P mesotes</em> is a ‘priority species requiring consideration’ under the Tasmanian Regional Forest Agreement 1997, identified as requiring further research to determine its management requirements.  Arthurs and Woods lakes and their fish populations are included in technical studies being conducted by Hydro Tasmania for development of a Water Management Plan under the Water Management Act 1999 (Jackson 2004).<br/><br/>An informal minimum lake level agreement between Inland Fisheries Service (IFS) and Hydro Tasmania since 1995 is intended to keep the lake above a minimum water level of 735.40 meters above sea level to reduce the risk of high turbidity events. A minimum lake level agreement in place for Arthurs Lake to maintain angling amenity also reduces the potential for extensive habitat dewatering (Jackson 2004).<br/><br/><em>P. mesotes</em> was reintroduced to Woods Lake in late 2002, with 174 individuals released at two adjacent rocky sites (Jackson 2004).  What had changed to make it possible for the translocated fish to survive in Woods Lake any better than the previously resident stocks that had disappeared is unclear, as are the results of the transfer (McDowall 2006).   <br/><br/>Future conservation strategies include habitat management, monitoring of populations, trout management, genetic research and communication. Research into the habitat requirements and life history of <em>P. mesotes</em> is needed to determine appropriate habitat management, particularly of water levels. Woods Lake requires monitoring designed to determine whether the reintroduced fish establish a breeding population there (Jackson 2004).
16109		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia.  It was previously restricted to Arthurs Lake and Woods Lake on Tasmania's central plateau (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002), but today only the Arthurs Lake population remains (DEH 2005).  Despite extensive survey effort over the last decade, the species has not been recorded in Woods Lake since 1989. <br/><br/>When <em>P. mesotes</em> was found in both Woods and Arthurs Lakes, its area of occupancy was estimated to have been approximately 75 km². Based on the likelihood that the species no longer occurs in Woods Lake, its area of occupancy has declined to approximately 62 km². Additionally, the species' extent of occurrence was previously estimated to be approximately 180 km², but following its apparent disappearance from Woods Lake, the extent of occurrence for the Arthurs <em>Paragalaxias</em> is estimated to have declined to approximately 87 km² (DEH 2005).
16109		habitat	eng	<em>P. mesotes</em> is a demersal species that inhabits lacustrine habitats near the shore, amongst rocks or vegetation, down to a depth of 4-5 meters.   It is also found in pools of outlet streams.  Little is known about the biology of this species (Allen<em> et al.</em> 2002).
16109		population	eng	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.
16109		threats	eng	Habitat quality and availability for <em>P. mesotes</em> fluctuates in both Woods and Arthurs lakes as water levels change due to extraction for irrigation and hydroelectricity. Although the exact spawning habitat of this species is not known, other galaxiid species deposit eggs under rocks in shallow waters. These shallow areas are often subject to drying, and given that rocky areas occur around the shore in Woods Lake, it is possible that a slight drop in water level may expose a large width of shoreline, potentially displacing fish from important breeding habitat. Low water levels are also linked to high turbidity as a result of wind-driven sediment disturbance. Over the past decade, Woods Lake has experienced two events of extremely high turbidity, one in 1995 and one in mid 2000. High turbidity is considered to increase the risk of harmful algal blooms and fish gill erosion, which has the capacity to cause high mortality among fish populations (DEH 2005).<br/><br/>It is likely that Brown Trout (<em>Salmo trutta</em>) have been present in Woods Lake for over a century. Whilst they are likely to prey on <em>P. mesotes</em>, the degree of predation is not known. Given that the species remains common in Arthurs Lake, which also contains Brown Trout, it is unlikely that predation pressure alone is the cause of the species decline in Woods Lake (DEH 2005).  Rainbow trout is also present in both Arthurs and Woods lake (McDowall 2006).  <br/><br/>The two populations were fragmented by the construction of Arthurs Dam in 1965, which totally blocks flow from Arthurs Lake to Woods Lake under normal conditions. Movement of fish would probably have been in the downstream direction (Jackson 2004).
16110		conservation	eng	None known.
16110		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.
16110		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required such as perennial management of good quality running waters.
16110		distribution	eng	Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in Niger, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.
16110		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in Niger, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan; likely to be present in Egypt.
16110		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Air mountains of northern Niger. Likely to occur in Tibesti mountains in northern Chad (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in Niger (Air Mts), Sudan (Red Sea Hills), Egypt (Sinai), Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.
16110		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in northern Niger (Air Mts.), Sudan (Red Sea Hills), Egypt (Sinai), Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.
16110		habitat	eng	Present in deposition pools within seasonal streams within wadis in mountain areas; stagnant and near-stagnant but permanent waters in desert environments.
16110		habitat	eng	Running waters in desert environments (wadis).
16110		habitat	eng	Stagnant and near-stagnant but permanent waters in desert environments.
16110		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
16110		threats	eng	Drought in the Air region is causing ground water levels to decline but this is not thought currently to be heavily impacting the permanent water systems. In the south of the Air region overgrazing is causing increased sedimention and uranium mining is also taking place but the impacts of these threats are currently unknown. (Mahamane pers. com.).
16110		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution) and drought.
16110		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.
16110		threats	eng	Water management by locals (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution) and drought are threats to the species.<br/><br/>Drought in the Air region (Niger) is causing ground water levels to decline but this is not thought currently to be heavily impacting the permanent water systems. In the south of the Air region overgrazing is causing increased sedimention and uranium mining is also taking place but the impacts of these threats are currently unknown. (Mahamane pers. comm.).
16114		conservation	eng	The range falls within the Lorentz National Park and probably other protected areas.
16114		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is widespread from the Vogelkop Peninsula (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west, along the Central Cordillera and outlying ranges, to south-eastern Papua New Guinea in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 500 to 2,200 m asl (may occur at lower altitudes according to unconfirmed records).
16114		habitat	eng	This species has been collected on stream banks, in forests, in streamside vegetation and in rural gardens. It burrows into stream banks or under rocks. Females give birth to a litter of two young.
16114		population	eng	It is not common in heavily disturbed areas.
16114		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
16115		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.
16115		habitat	eng	Inhabits shallow inshore regions of the main lake and the lake ward inlets to the marginal swamps; over sand, sand with mud-detritus overlay and deep mud.
16118		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
16118		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
16118		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
16118		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.
16118		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
16119		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
16119		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
16119		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.
16119		population	eng	No information available.
16119		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
16121		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution and ecology of the species are needed.
16121		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three mountain ranges – the Cyclops, Princess Alexandra, and Bewani (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Although the extent of occurrence is mapped much more widely (without fine resolution), the actual extent of occurrence is suspected to be less than 200 km² in total. It is not found below 1,200 m asl, and ranges as high as 1,700 m asl.
16121		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from mossy and non-mossy tropical montane forest.
16121		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon.
16121		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for food by local people. Lower elevation forest is quite degraded, and this impacts the quality of forests at higher elevations in parts of this species' range.
16122		conservation	eng	It is not known if populations are present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to these populations.
16122		distribution	eng	This taxon has been recorded from three localities along the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from Mount Wilhelmina, Papua Province, Indonesia and from the Tifalmin valley in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea. Populations at each of the three known sites are considered to represent separate unpublished species (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It has been recorded from between 1,800 and 2,800 m asl.
16122		habitat	eng	It appears to be largely restricted to medium to high elevation forest; it has been recorded from an area of disturbed forest (Flannery 1995). Little more is currently known about the natural history species.
16122		population	eng	It is extremely abundant at the type locality on Mount Wilhelmina. There is no information about the population status at the other locations.
16122		threats	eng	It is not known whether or not there are major threats to this species. Populations appear to have restricted distributions.
16125		conservation	eng	No information available.
16125		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on soft substrates It is known from all four countries coastlines (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).
16125		habitat	eng	This species thrives from shore to about 60 meters in depth in fine sediment, rocky shores and sandy sites.
16125		population	eng	This species occurs in groups of 10s-100s of individuals in appropriate substrates.
16125		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
16126		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known to be in place for this species. Recommended actions include species-specific survey work to discover whether this species also occurs in Lake Malawi and development of a habitat conservation plan for the species.
16126		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Found on all four coastlines.
16126		habitat	eng	Restricted to mud, silt and sand substrates in moderate to deep water (10–150 m depth).
16126		threats	eng	Common threats in Lake Tanganyika are sedimentation and pollution.
16127		distribution	eng	Only known from the Kalk Bay Caves, Western Cape.
16129		conservation	eng	This species is found in Tam Dao, which is an undefined National Park, and has also been found in Ba Be National Park. There are two locations west of the Red River, Lao Cay and Yen Bai that are in a region proposed for a National Park. It is included under Viet Nam protective legislation. Setting up managed <em>ex-situ</em> assurance colonies among zoos and competent hobbyists is recommended.
16129		distribution	eng	This species was originally known only from the Tam Dao mountain ridge in northern Viet Nam. It has now been found in more than ten localities in Bac Kan, Ha Giang, Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang, Tay Nguyen, and Lao Cai Provinces, all in Viet Nam. It occurs from about 600-1,200m asl.
16129		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams in evergreen hill forest, including small natural and artificial impoundments. It breeds in small pools in streams where larval development takes place.
16129		population	eng	Its population apparently is relatively stable, and it is not particularly rare locally.
16129		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to agriculture and human settlement, pollution, and harvesting for food, medicine and the pet trade, are threats to this species.
16138		conservation	eng	The Dibbler is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs in a few protected areas. A recovery plan has been developed for the species for the 2003-2013 period (Friend 2004). Captive breeding has allowed for the translocation of Dibblers to three locations.<br/><br/>Recommendations in the recovery plan (Friend 2004), include: monitoring known populations; surveying for additional populations; protecting populations from threatening processes (including the prevention of exotic predators from the islands, controlling foxes and cats at mainland sites, implementing fire management, preventing the spread of <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>); studying the feasibility of eradicating introduced mice from Boullanger and Whitlock Islands; maintaining and expanding captive breeding populations for further translocations; and promoting awareness of Dibbler conservation among the public and among land managers.
16138		distribution	eng	The Dibbler is endemic to south-western Australia. It occurs naturally in Fitzgerald River National Park and on the islands of Boullanger and Whitlock (Friend 2004). The species also occurs as translocated populations on Escape Island, Peniup, and Stirling Range National Park (Woolley 2008).
16138		habitat	eng	Dibblers are associated with scrub and heath communities. The time since fire appears to be important with older aged areas being preferred. It is possible that the species will occupy younger vegetation when foxes are excluded (Friend 2004). Dibblers eat a variety of arthropods, and some small vertebrates. Females may produce two litters annually (at least in captivity and on the islands) of up to eight young (Woolley 2008).
16138		population	eng	The Dibbler is a rare species (Woolley 2008). The global population consists of about 500-1,000 mature individuals, but there have been some declines. The three island populations include a total of 200 individuals. The (reintroduced) adult population on Escape Island is about 30 individuals. The island populations have declined in the last few decades. Population size fluctuates significantly with rainfall. This species lives only for about one year.
16138		threats	eng	Introduced foxes and cats are known to prey on this species, and are found throughout its known mainland range, though they are not present on the islands. The plant disease <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> is a threat to Dibblers, as it adversely alters their habitat. Introduced mice are also a potential threat on Boullanger and Whitlock Islands, due to competition (Friend 2004). Because this species is dependent on habitat that has not been recently burned, frequent and intense fire is a major threat.
16166		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It may benefit from further research to clarify its distribution in the remote locations where it is found. This would also make monitoring of possible declines and fluctuations in range possible. However, in reality the remoteness of this butterfly's distribution makes such research very impractical and ongoing monitoring would be near impossible.
16166		distribution	eng	This species   is endemic to central Sulawesi,  Indonesia.   The type series originate from Parado at an altitude of 2,300 m; it is also known (Allyn Museum, Sarasota) from Bule-Bule and a number of localities in the region of Kanan Village, where it is quite common. It is considered likely that the species occurs in other localities in this remote region of central Sulawesi. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is likely to be approximately 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although this is less than the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species, this is probably the maximum area the insect has ever occupied and this restricted distribution is not uncommon for species radiations in Sulawesi. Furthermore, there is no evidence of decline or extreme fluctuation in the range of the species.
16166		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary montane rainforest. It occupies much the same habitats as the related, parapatric <span style="font-style: italic;">P. toxopei</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. dabrerai</span>. Adults fly slowly in thick vegetation and frequently feed at flowers. They are most often encountered on mountain ridges or in the region of creeks. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species.
16166		population	eng	Although infrequently encountered, this probably reflects a remote and inaccessible habitat. The taxon may be locally common and appears to be stable at present.
16166		threats	eng	<p>Due primarily to the remoteness and steepness of this species’ montane habitat, it is not under any major threat. There has been minimal habitat destruction where this species occurs and the terrain is unsuitable for major development.<br/></p>
16174		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It may be sympatric with <em>P. tenax</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. Further taxonomic work is needed to elucidate the identification and status of <em>P. raptor</em> relative to <em>P. tenax</em>.
16174		distribution	eng	This species is presumably present across most of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and is found on the islands of Waigeo and Salawati (both Indonesia). The type locality is on the Upper Fly River, southern Papua New Guinea. It may be sympatric with <em>P. tenax</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. A note in Helgen (2007) states: "<em>Paranyctimene tenax</em> may be widely distributed in the northern lowlands of New Guinea and <em>P. raptor</em> in the south (N. Irwin pers. comm.)." It ranges from sea level to 1,350 m asl.
16174		habitat	eng	This highly cryptic species is largely solitary. It can be found in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, rural gardens, and swamps. Animals roost in vegetation, and are not likely to be dependant on water. Females give birth to single young; pregnant females have been reported in January, February, April, May, July, August, and September.
16174		population	eng	Individuals of this species are commonly encountered. It may be sympatric with <em>P. tenax</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear.
16174		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Bonaccorso (1998) commented that its small size, solitary roosting behaviour and broad distribution safeguard it against most factors threatening fruit bat populations.
16176		conservation	eng	Population size and trends should be determined, augmented by search for additional subpopulations. Stability of appropriate habitats should be assessed. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. The systematic position of this genus should be established by further study.
16176		distribution	eng	Northeastern Mexico (San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to Puebla and Veracruz).
16176		habitat	eng	Forested streams in low mountains (200–1,200 m). The largest and most vividly coloured species in this small genus.
16176		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
16176		threats	eng	Deforestation.
16185		distribution	eng	Supposedly confined to the Pacific waters off the coast of California, but there is a questionable record of <em>P. affinis</em> from Siberia (Kobjakova 1967).
16185		habitat	eng	Lives as a symbiont, it inhabits the tubes and burrows of marine polychaete worms.
16190		conservation	eng	The forests of the Estación Ecológica de Bananal is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
16190		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the Serra da Bocaina, in the Serra do Mar in the state of Sao Paulo, south-eastern Brazil: Bonito (the type locality), at around 1,300m asl, where it might now be locally extinct as a result of the degradation of its natural habitat; and the Estación Ecológica de Bananal, at 1,100-1,900m asl.
16190		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of montane forest. If it is like other species of <em>Paratelmatobius</em>, it breeds in temporary ponds or streams, but this has not been confirmed.
16190		population	eng	This species is known from two specimens collected in 1931, and from 11 specimens that were caught in pit-fall traps in December 2003 and January 2004. Although it might be restricted to a small area, it was clearly overlooked until pit-fall traps were used as a monitoring technique.
16190		threats	eng	There is little direct information on the threats that it faces, though it is likely to be impacted by clear-cut logging. The loss of habitat around Bonito might have caused its local extinction there.
16191		conservation	eng	Its known range is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.
16191		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Alto do Itatiaia, at 2,200m asl in the Serra da Mantiqueira, on the border of the states of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro in south-eastern Brazil.
16191		habitat	eng	This species lives in montane forest, sheltering under rocks amongst moss. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it could use either streams or temporary ponds.
16191		population	eng	It was once common in an area of a few square metres in its only known locality. However, it has not been seen since 1978, despite suitable habitat remaining and significant survey efforts.
16191		threats	eng	Its disappearance is not related to any obvious threats, although it could well be susceptible to the effects of tourism and fire. Its disappearance from apparently suitable habitat is reminiscent of that of other high-altitude frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
16193		distribution	eng	Found in Towuti and Mahalona Lakes (also called Malili Lakes system), Sulawesi.
16194		distribution	eng	Found in Lake Wawontoa (part of the Malili Lakes system), Sulawesi.
16195		distribution	eng	Found in Lakes Towuti, Wawontoa and possibly Mahalona, Sulawesi, Indonesia.
16196		distribution	eng	Found in the Malili Lakes system (including Lake Towuti), Sulawesi.
16199		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
16200		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
16202		conservation	eng	Known to be present in some protected areas (mainly forest reserves of varying protection). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. There is a general need to maintain suitable forest habitat for this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
16202		distribution	eng	This species appears to be largely restricted to the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. It has been recorded from a number of locations including Mount Kilimanjaro (from 1,900 m asl to the heath zone [Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995]); the Usambaras range (sites include Amani, Lushoto, Magamba and Mazumbai); the Ulugurus (at Bagiro); the Udzungwa range (Kigogo); the Ukinga Mountains; and Katessa Forest.
16202		habitat	eng	This species is associated with montane tropical moist forest. It is presumably not found in human-modified habitats.
16202		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. Only a relatively few museum specimens exist.
16202		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not well known, however, it is possible that the species is confined to Eastern Arc habitats and might be dependent on primary forest. If this is the case, it is likely to be affected by the large-scale habitat loss that has occurred in the region as forests have been converted to plantations and for subsistence agriculture.
16203		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Kibale National Park).
16203		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, ranging from the Lualaba River to the Nile River (Victoria), and from the Mbomou River to the Lukuga River (north to south), at altitudes of up to 1,500 m asl.
16203		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical moist forest, where it preferably occurs in tall relatively mature forest, although it has also been recorded from fallow plantations (Rahm 1970). It is arboreal and usually encountered as a single animal or in a pair.
16203		population	eng	This species is commonly seen in mature forests. It is rare or absent in young forests regenerating after felling.
16203		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. In Parts of its range it is presumably threatened by habitat loss due to the conversion of land to agricultural use.
16204		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
16204		distribution	eng	This largely Central African species has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, extreme southern Sudan, northwest Tanzania and northern Zambia. The distribution is between 5°N and 8°S extending on the right bank of the Zaire River between (from west to east) the Ubangi River and Nile River and western shores of Lake Victoria, and south to the Mweru-Wantipa flats. There is an extralimital record from Maryal Bai and Malek in southern Sudan, and they may well be contiguous with the specimens collected further south. This species might also occur in Central African Republic, although this needs to be confirmed.
16204		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in the undergrowth and lower storey of tropical moist forest. Animals have been recorded from wooded savanna in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Rahm and Christiaensen 1963), and at the edge of plantations and along roadsides (Rahm 1966). It is arboreal and diurnal, with animals normally solitary but sometimes encountered in pairs or threes. Breeding seems to occur throughout the year, usually with a single young born.
16204		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitats.
16204		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
16205		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of large and well managed protected areas throughout the range, including Kruger National Park.
16205		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Central Africa, East Africa and northern parts of Southern Africa. It ranges from southwestern Tanzania to southern Mozambique and westwards to south-eastern Angola and northeastern Namibia, being found as far south as northeastern South Africa.
16205		habitat	eng	This is a savanna woodland species, occurring particularly in mopane woodland, Acacia woodland and mixed associations such as <em>Acacia</em>/<em>Terminalia</em>, <em>Acacia</em>/<em>Combretum</em> and others. They are less common in <em>Brachystegia</em>/<em>Julbernardia</em> and <em>Baikiaea</em> woodland probably because these do not provide tree holes necessary for resting and breeding sites. The species is arboreal and terrestrial, and living mainly in groups.
16205		population	eng	It is believed to be a common species.
16205		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
16206		conservation	eng	It is probable that this species is present within some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
16206		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of Cameroon and Nigeria, north of the Sanaga River. It has been recorded from very few sites, probably no more than five localities in total. It was more recently observed in the Gotel Mountains in Nigeria (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire 1989).
16206		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest, and forest fringes. This species is very poorly known, and there is limited information available on the ecology or habits of this species.
16206		population	eng	There is very little known about the abundance of this species. Prior to 1967, only two specimens were known, until the surveys of Eisentraut who, as Rosevear (1969) puts it, "found them to be a far more abundant animal than was previously thought". The Gotel mountains and some other mountain tops /ranges are relatively poorly surveyed.
16206		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. There are few details available on the possible adaptability of this species to habitat degradation.
16207		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
16207		distribution	eng	This East African species is distributed in extreme southern Kenya, through eastern Tanzania into northern Mozambique and southeastern Malawi.
16207		habitat	eng	This species is found in Savannah, forest, and thicket habitats and has been recorded from cultivated land, showing a preference for groves of sugar plum (<em>Uapaca</em> spp.) trees (Kingdon 1997).
16207		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
16207		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats as a whole to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.
16208		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Nyika National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
16208		distribution	eng	This species is limited to northern Malawi (Misuku Hills and Nyika Plateau region at around 2,000 m asl) and southwestern Tanzania (in the Poroto Mountains and Mount Rungwe). It has not been recorded from northeastern Zambia (Mafinga or Makutu Mountains), where it may have been expected (Ansell and Dowsett 1988).
16208		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known. It has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest. A single pregnant and lactating female was taken in September.
16208		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. Only a relatively few museum specimens exist.
16208		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss within its restricted range is possibly a threat.
16209		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
16209		distribution	eng	This largely East African species has been recorded from central and northeastern Tanzania, northwards to central Kenya, with probably extensions into southeastern Sudan (F. Dieterlen pers. comm.) and possibly also in Somalia (Varty [1990] recorded them in the riverine forests of the Jubba Valley, but this needs to be confirmed). It is found up to 2,500 m asl.
16209		habitat	eng	It is commonly found in dry thornveld habitat and thickets, and, according to Kingdon (1997) in wooded riverine strips in arid country. Apparently this is a fairly adaptable species, and is commonly found in cultivated areas and living in association with humans in the roofs of houses. The species has a litter size of two or three young.
16209		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
16209		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
16210		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
16210		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the coast of East Africa, ranging from southern Somalia (south of the Jube River) in the north, southwards to KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa, being found as far south along the coast as Lake Saint Lucia, with an isolated population in the Ongoye Forest. The species is also found on Mount Selinda in eastern Zimbabwe, and through much of Malawi, including Mount Mulanje (2,000 m asl). Within this range their occurrence is patchy and discontinuous due to their habitat requirements (Skinner and Smithers, 1990).
16210		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitat types including dry or moist evergreen forests, woodlands, riverine forest and thickets. It is arboreal and diurnal, and usually solitary. The species has one, or perhaps two, litters annually of one or two young.
16210		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
16210		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole, although much of its coastal forest habitat have now been deforested or degraded.
16211		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this poorly-known species.
16211		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Subsaharan Africa, ranging from Sierra Leone to Ghana (west of the Volta Basin); then from southeastern Nigeria (east of the Niger river) to eastern Congo; also recorded from three localities in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Bata, Medje, Niapa). This species is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It has been recorded up to 1,600 m asl on Mount Bintamane (Sierra Leone).
16211		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical moist forest, forest fringes, secondary growth around villages, and deserted farmland (Rosevear 1969). It is apparently a pest species in cocoa plantations. Despite the fact they seem to be relatively common and widespread, not a great deal is known about this species.
16211		population	eng	Rosevear (1969) noted that this species was the commonest and most widespread of all squirrels in West Africa, that it was well represented in museum collections, and not infrequently found as a pet.
16211		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.
16212		conservation	eng	The only site at which the species is known, Mount Namuli, is not protected. There is need to establish suitably managed protected areas for this species. Research on taxonomy is necessary as the species has been suggested to be a subspecies of <em>Paraxerus palliatus</em> (Smithers and Lobao-Tello, 1976).
16212		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Namuli in central Mozambique, north of the Zambezi River, where it occurs between 1,200 and 1,850 m asl (Smithers and Lobao-Tello 1976). It is not known if the species is present on surrounding mountains. Survey work outside the known range of this species has not been extensive, especially during the two decades of civil war in Mozambique.
16212		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with montane tropical moist forest habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
16212		population	eng	It is not particularly common.
16212		threats	eng	The forest on Mount Namuli is under threat from fires, cultivation, and harvesting for fuel wood. The species is apparently also hunted for subsistence food.
16217		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
16217		distribution	eng	Previously only known from Somalia, this species was recently rediscovered in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Tana (De Vos 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from the Jubb system, Somalia.
16217		habitat	eng	No information available.
16217		population	eng	No information available.
16217		threats	eng	No information available.
16218		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. Hunting of this species is prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (Yunnan only), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand. Hunting regulations are in place in Lao PDR, Singapore (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Further research is needed on its ecology, distribution and status (IUCN  Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
16218		distribution	eng	The marbled cat is found in tropical Indomalaya westward along the Himalayan foothills westward into Nepal and eastward into southwest China, and on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo.  There are few locality records of this species (Nowell and Jackson, 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).<br/><br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>
16218		habitat	eng	The marbled cat is primarily associated with moist and mixed deciduous-evergreen tropical forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and may prefer hill forest (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  A few sightings have been made in secondary forest or cleared areas near forest, but it is likely forest-dependent (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Grassman and Tewes (2002) reported the observation of a pair of adult marbled cats in a salt lick in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park.<br/><br/>It has never been studied, although Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) made a preliminary home range estimate of 5.3 km² for an adult female who was radio-collared and tracked for one month in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park.  The marbled cat probably preys primarily on rodents, including squirrels (Nowell and Jackson, 1996), and birds.
16218		population	eng	The marbled cat appears relatively rare compared to sympatric felids, based on the paucity of historical as well as recent records (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Azlan and Sharma 2006, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007), although Cambodia stands out for having a relatively high encounter rate (13 camera trap records, compared to 12 for the Asiatic golden cat and 4 for the clouded leopard: Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16218		threats	eng	The marbled cat appears to be forest-dependent, and its habitat in Southeast Asia is undergoing the world's fastest deforestation rate (1.2-1.3% a year since 1990: FAO 2007), due to logging, oil palm and other plantations, and human settlement and agriculture.  Although infrequently observed in the illegal Asian wildlife trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), it is valued for its skin, meat and bones, and indiscriminate snaring is prevalent throughout much of its range and is likely to pose a major threat (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  They have been reported as poultry pests (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2006).
16235		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
16236		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
16237		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
16238		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
16249		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4, Bern Convention Annex 2 and CITES Appendix II. In Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. The species is legally protected in many countries. In spite of this legal protection, there is often no special attention to the habitat management. As a consequence, many small lowland populations are declining. The production and implementation of species action plans are urgently needed.
16249		distribution	eng	This species occurs in most of the large mountainous areas in Europe: Spain, south of France, Switzerland, Austria, south of Germany as far as the Mosel, Italy, the Balkans and Greece, south of Norway, Sweden and Finland. 1,000-2,400 m, sometimes at lower altitudes. Its range extends to the Tian-Shan and Siberia and Mongolia; also from the Northern Urals to Transcaucasia, Turkey and the Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
16249		habitat	eng	The Apollo occurs in mountainous areas on steep, sunny slopes with sparse vegetation. In Europe, there are many different sub-species, forms and aberrations, because of the very divided nature of the distribution area and as a consequence, large isolation of populations. Separated by mountains, the populations develop independently of one another, so that quite marked differences arise. However, their ecology is similar. The butterflies are fond of visiting thistles and other flowering plants. The female lays its eggs singly or in small groups on or near the foodplant stonecrop (<em>Sedum</em> spp.). The eggs develop but the tiny caterpillar hibernates inside the eggshell or as newly hatched larva in its close vicinity. In spring it starts feeding on the buds of the foodplant. The caterpillars of later instars also eat the leaves. When it is time to pupate, the caterpillars look for a safe place between the stones, where they then spin a flimsy cocoon in which to change into a pupa. The Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (11%), screes (9%), coniferous woodland (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).
16249		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belarus, Latvia and Romania. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bulgaria, France, Norway, Spain and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
16249		threats	eng	This species is declining in areas of low altitude. These lowland populations suffer from fragmentation and isolation. Large and strong populations are still found in the high parts of the Alps and other high mountain ranges. The species is attractive to collectors, especially the subspecies of small lowland populations, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline.
16251		conservation	eng	Given the global and regional population trends, <em>P. autocrator</em> was listed on Afghanistan’s first Protected Species List in 2009, banning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan.
16270		conservation	eng	The range of the species several includes protected areas.
16270		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western South Africa, north to south-eastern Namibia and south-western Botswana. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
16270		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that is restricted to consolidated sands in semi-desert. They can also occur in pastureland.
16270		population	eng	It can be very common.
16270		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered to be a pest in agricultural areas.
16271		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
16271		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution from western South Africa northwards through extreme, northern Namibia. It has not been recorded from Angola. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
16271		habitat	eng	This diurnal species occurs in shrubland. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
16271		population	eng	It can be a locally common species in appropriate habitat.
16271		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16272		distribution	eng	This snail was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.
16272		habitat	eng	This was a forest species.
16272		population	eng	This species is now extinct.
16272		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> which was introduced onto the island in 1977.
16273		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.
16273		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16273		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16275		conservation	eng	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme. It is a long-term candidate for re-establishment in the wild.
16275		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16275		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16275		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16277		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.
16277		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16277		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16278		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.
16278		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16278		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16281		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.
16281		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16281		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16282		conservation	eng	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme. There is a realistic possibility of future re-establishment.
16282		distribution	eng	This species was widespread in central and southern Moorea, where it is an endemic. Now it is restricted to a few tiny isolated populations within the same range area.
16282		habitat	eng	Currently, the species is found  at low altitudes in disturbed habitat in lowland moist forest.
16282		population	eng	It is difficult to assess population numbers.
16282		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>is still the principal threat though there is evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. t. elongata </span>may be able to persist in low densities in the presence of the predator. The principal intrinsic threats are those associated with small populations.
16283		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands. Its distribution was limited to the valley of Fareaito.
16283		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16283		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16284		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.
16284		habitat	eng	This was a forest species.
16284		population	eng	This snail is now extinct.
16284		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the spread of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>, which was introduced into the islands in the 1990s.
16286		conservation	eng	Captive populations of this species are maintained in the international breeding programme.
16286		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16286		population	eng	There are no wild populations of this species remaining.
16286		threats	eng	The extinciton of the wild popualtions is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16288		conservation	eng	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme.
16288		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea and Tahaa (neighbouring islands which share the same lagoon), Society Islands.
16288		population	eng	The species now only exists in captivity.
16288		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16290		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16290		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16290		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16293		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.
16293		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16293		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16295		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.
16295		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16295		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16296		conservation	eng	The terrain and difficulty of access make conservation measures very difficult. A reserve was built in this valley for the purpose but was quickly destroyed by a rockfall. For the moment, vigilance is the best option. This species exists in the international breeding programme.
16296		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tahiti. The only known surviving population is in the Faaroa Valley on the Peninsula of Tahiti Iti.
16296		habitat	eng	The only known population survives on a patch of the semi-aquatic root plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Alocasia macrorhiza</span> in wet, lowland forest (<100 m altitude), although in the past the species could also be found at higher altitudes.
16296		population	eng	Only one population is known for certain and there may be less than 50 individuals remaining.
16296		threats	eng	The carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>has reached the valley but appears not to have progressed far in recent years for reasons unknown. This is the only current threat apart from the intrinsic factors associated with small population size.
16298		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16298		habitat	eng	This was a forest species.
16298		population	eng	This species is now extinct.
16298		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> which was introduced in the late 1980s.
16300		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16300		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16300		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16301		distribution	eng	Thhis species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16301		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16301		threats	eng	The xtinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16303		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16303		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16303		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16304		conservation	eng	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme. Some wild populations are regularly monitored.
16304		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. It is now restricted to only a few small populations in a few valleys around the island.
16304		habitat	eng	Habitat quality is not an issue for this species. Many populations survive in disturbed habitat, often not too far from human habitation.
16304		population	eng	Small subpopulations are scattered around Tahiti, mostly consisting of less than 50 individuals.
16304		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>but there is evidence that some populations have survived in spite of this introduced carnivorous species. The carnivorous flatworm <span style="font-style: italic;">Platydemus manokwari </span>has been found in one area where <span style="font-style: italic;">P. clara</span> persists but its imapct is unclear at the moment. The intrinsic problems associated with small population size also threaten the future of this species.
16306		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16306		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16306		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16307		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16307		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16307		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16308		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16308		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16308		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predtaion by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16309		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. Distribution restricted to Pirae Valley.
16309		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16309		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.<em></em>
16310		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16310		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16310		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16311		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16311		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16311		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16312		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16312		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16312		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16313		conservation	eng	This species is maintained in international breeding programme.
16313		distribution	eng	Believed endemic to Tahiti but also found (likely introduced) on three islands in the Australs Archipelago and two of the Cook Islands.
16313		habitat	eng	Generally this snail is found in lowland forest in disturbed habitat not far from human habitation.
16313		population	eng	This species is widespread on the islands where it is found, although it occurs in lower densities where the carnivorous <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">rosea</span> is present.
16313		threats	eng	The carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>remains the principal threat to this species, although evidence suggetst that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hyalina </span>can continue to survive in its presence. On Tahiti the Little Fire Ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata </span>may turn out to be a threat.
16314		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16314		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16314		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16315		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16315		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16315		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16316		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16316		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16316		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16317		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16317		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16317		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16318		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Bora Bora, Society Islands.
16318		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16318		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16320		conservation	eng	The species is maintained in the international breeding programme and it is a priority candidate for re-establishment into a predator-proof reserve.
16320		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. Its distribution was restricted to seven west coast valleys.
16320		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16320		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16321		conservation	eng	Because of the taxonomic uncertainties and the genetic uniqueness of certain populations there is an urgent need to initiate <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>breeding populations. However, for the moment the populations are not considered robust enough to remove the numbers required.
16321		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Tahiti. Formerly it had a widespread distribution across the island but now it is restricted to the highest altitudes.
16321		habitat	eng	All remaining populations of this species are restricted to high altitudes (above 950 m) and the associated cloud forest habitat. Before the arrival of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>this species was found in all the valleys at base altitude.
16321		population	eng	It is difficult to assess population sizes because of inaccessible terrain.
16321		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>remains the principal threat but appears to be less effective a predator at high altitude. That said, some of the populations are seriously threatened. There is also increasing habitat damage due to communications installation and roadside clearances to facilitate better views for tourists in one of the best areas.
16322		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. Its distribution was restricted to Faurahi Valley.
16322		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16322		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16324		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16324		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16324		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16325		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16325		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16325		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16327		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16327		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16327		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16328		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16328		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16328		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16329		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16329		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16329		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16330		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands
16330		population	eng	The species no longer exists in the wild.
16330		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16331		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16331		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16331		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16333		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16333		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16333		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16334		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahaa in the Society Islands.
16334		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16334		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16335		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16335		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16335		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16336		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16336		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16336		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16337		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahiti. Its distribution was limited to the Papenoo Valley.
16337		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16337		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16338		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16338		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16338		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea.</span>
16339		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.
16339		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16339		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16340		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands.
16340		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16340		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16341		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.
16341		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16341		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16342		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
16342		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16342		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16343		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.
16343		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16343		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16349		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.
16349		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
16349		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
16375		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park. There is a need for population monitoring.
16375		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, where it is found from sea level up to the tree-line (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16375		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical evergreen lowland and montane rainforests (Musser and Carleton 2005); all specimens originate from forest, though the species probably does occur in areas of low disturbance. It is terrestrial, but can be found in the understory and canopy of trees scavenging for food (Musser 1982). One specimen was taken in a leaf-nest on the ground, and they have also been trapped in strangler figs (G. Musser pers. comm.). It feeds only on fruit (Musser and Durden 2002).
16375		population	eng	It is known to be common in good habitat.
16375		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is likely to be habitat loss, due to agricultural expansion and logging. In the lowlands, much habitat has been converted to rice paddies. This is the largest rat species present on Sulawesi, and, in some parts of the range, such as in the north-east (where there are fewer muslim communities), they are eaten; however, this seems to be a localized threat.
16411		distribution	eng	Only one known location within a gorge in Tasmania. Known range (extent of occurrence) is about 2 km². Area of occupancy is very small, possibly as little as 50 hectares. It is unknown whether there are any other locations despite considerable searching. Unconfirmed records have been reported from elsewhere, however searches at that locality have failed to find the species present there and the record for that locality is not considered reliable (K. Bonham, pers. comm).
16411		habitat	eng	Currently known from rocky wet forest, scrub and mossy cliff faces. Nothing is known of life history parameters (age at maturity, life span, etc).
16411		population	eng	At least three subpopulations are known within the only known locality, divided by a river and an area of exotic vegetation (K. Bonham, pers. comm). The main subpopulation has densities of dozens of specimens per metre. It is likely that the population is at least several thousand individuals. There probably have been some losses over the past 100 years but this has largely stopped, and the extent of this decline is unclear
16411		threats	eng	Reason for past population decline is mainly clearing (which has now halted) but possibly also environmental degradation and exotic species invasion. Specifically, habitat alteration resulted from a dam being built upstream which resulted in more irregular water flows through the gorge, high floods stripped the rocks directly by the waterside of vegetation. There was also some clearing of parts of habitat: most of what remains is not clearable because it is just bare steep rock covered with shrubs and mosses (K. Bonham, pers. comm). However, any humidity changes resulting from this (and I believe there have been some because there are documented minor vegetation changes) have had no discernable impact on the snail in about 70 years since the dam was built. <br/> <br/>The gorge is a major recreational reserve, the single most significant "park" for a large city. It is unlikely that its reserve status will be revoked. Currently there are no known threats to the species.
16426		conservation	eng	It is present in Rutong Protection Forest. Further survey work is needed through Flores to determine whether it might be present in other montane parts of Flores.
16426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Flores island, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16426		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005), although it apparently has been recorded from slightly degraded habitats.
16426		population	eng	Recorded as common on Gunung Ranaka from 1,000 to 2,000 m in west Flores (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1998 Kitchener and Yani 1998).
16426		threats	eng	It is almost certainly affected by habitat loss, since it exists at higher population densities in intact habitat rather than degraded habitat.
16458		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
16458		distribution	eng	This species appears to be patchily distributed Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. The distribution in Somalia is unclear, but the type locality is in Somaliland between Goree Bunder and Nogal (09 deg N and 47 deg E). In Ethiopia, it has been recorded at elevations from sea level to 1,200 m asl (although Yalden <em>et al</em>. [1996] indicate the species may possibly occur to 2,200 m asl).
16458		habitat	eng	Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1976) states that this species is an inhabitant of rocky cliffs (sheltering in rock fissures) in desert or semi-desert areas, and that it is sometimes found in association with hyraxes. A specimen in Djibouti was collected in an area comprising sand and rocks with low scrub and grass and some well established trees and bushes (Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2002). Five captive-born litters contained a single young, although a sixth contained two.
16458		population	eng	In Djibouti, the species is fairly common and widely distributed. Population densities of 76 individuals per hectare have been given (Nowak 1999).
16458		threats	eng	It is considered likely that the species has few threats.
16467		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout the range, many with good management. Further research is needed into harvest levels for this species.
16467		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, western Zambia, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, south of the Zambezi River, and in South Africa in the Limpopo Province, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, although they are absent from the eastern parts, Free State, extreme north-western KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and Northern Cape. It has not been recorded from Lesotho.
16467		habitat	eng	Throughout their range they occur only where there is suitable substrate, as they are unable to burrow in hard substrates and prefer lighter sandy soils. If they do occur in these areas, it is usually where there are intrusions of sandy alluvium, such as along rivers, or in patches of sandy soil overlaying hard ground. They are commonly seen on open sandy ground or sandy scrub, overgrazed grassland, on floodplain grassland or pans, and in cultivated areas.  <br/>The species is nocturnal, and forage in groups of two to six individuals.
16467		population	eng	It is generally common, though estimates of abundance are lacking.
16467		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Springhare have great value as a source of protein, and Butynski (1975) estimated that, in Botswana, 2.5 million springhare were taken annually for food by the indigenous peoples.  The San secure them by hooking them out of their burrows using a pole with a barb on the tip, as do the Ndebele in Zimbabwe using a burred seedpod lashed to the end of a pole which is screwed into the fur so tightly that the springhaas can be withdrawn. The San also use the skins to make water and food containers, mats or karosses, and the best thread is made from the tail sinews. In agricultural areas, springhare can become a problem; Butynski (1973) estimated that 10-15% of maize, sorghum, beans and groundnuts grown in Botswana were destroyed by springhare.
16469		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
16469		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series (two syntypes) collected "above Tura... at 2,500 feet [762m asl]" in the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, north-eastern India.
16469		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species associated with semi-evergreen forest. Information on its breeding habits and larval habitat and ecology are currently unavailable, but it probably breeds in streams by larval development.
16469		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
16469		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
16470		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Konya Wild Life Sanctuary (Maharashtra), Cotigao Wild Life Sanctuary (Goa), Indira Ghandi National Park and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu), Ponmudi Hills and Silent Valley National Park (Kerala). The species is the focus of ongoing studies from 1998 to the present (S. D. Biju pers. comm.).
16470		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India, where it has a very fragmented range. It occurs at elevations of 300-1,800m asl.
16470		habitat	eng	It is a semi-arboreal species generally associated with montane moist evergreen forest. Breeding takes place on the ground at stream banks, and the larvae develop in water.
16470		population	eng	There is no reliable information available on the population status of this species, although it is locally uncommon and believed to be declining.
16470		threats	eng	It is threatened by the conversion of its forest habitat to non-timber plantations (including coffee and tea), the collection of timber and wood for subsistence use by local people, and the construction of roads and dams.
16474		conservation	eng	Environment Australia Listing: Lower Risk (least concern) on an Australia-wide basis, 2002; Australian Society for Fish Biology Listing: Lower Risk (least concern).
16474		distribution	eng	<em>Pegasus lancifer</em> is a temperate, inshore endemic species (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989) whose extent of occurrence includes the southern coast of Australia between Rottnest Island, Western Australia and Lakes Entrance, Victoria including Tasmania (Palsson and Pietsch 1989, Edgar 1997). <br/> <br/>No information is available on the species’ area of occupancy. <br/> <br/><u>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002)</u>  <br/>146 specimens (Standard Length 18–119 mm), collected from depths of 0–56 m, ranging in geographical distribution from off Lakes Entrance (37°53’S, 148°E), Victoria, southwards to Hobart (43°07’S), Tasmania and north-westwards to Rottnest Island (32°S, 115°30), WA, collected between 1909 and 1996.
16474		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong> <br/>Adult <em>Pegasus lancifer</em> are mainly bottom-dwelling fish that are most often found on sand or mud amongst or near seagrass (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994) or near low rubble reef (Kuiter 1996). They occur at a variety of depths from intertidal shallows to ca. 55 m (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/><strong>Behaviour</strong> <br/><em>Pegasus lancifer</em> camouflages itself by rapidly changing colours to match its surroundings and occasionally burrows into the substrate to escape predators. In spring, the species enters sandy bays to breed, sometimes congregating in small numbers. Juveniles are pelagic before taking on the adults’ bottom mode of existence (Kuiter 1985, Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). This species is mostly buried during the day, and active at dusk. Males have ornamental patches on the edges of their pectoral fins for displaying to females (Kuiter 1996). Spawning involves the pair swimming upwards together, to several meters from the substrate. They quickly dart back after the release of eggs and sperm, which floats to the surface. These activities have been observed to occur towards dusk on high tides (Kuiter 1993). Seasonal migrations are suggested by the fact that they are trawled with prawns only during certain times of the year (Kuiter 1985). They often crawl over the seabed on their paired fins in search of small crustaceans, worms and molluscs on which they feed (Kuiter 1985, Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/><strong>Size</strong> <br/><em>Pegasus lancifer</em> reaches a maximum length of 12 cm (Kuiter 1996).
16474		population	eng	Possibly occurs in the following Australian marine protected area: Great Australian Bight Marine Park, SA (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). No information from elsewhere.
16474		threats	eng	Presently, the only known threat to this species is direct take as bycatch in bottom trawls, where <em>P. lancifer</em> is trawled with prawns during certain times of the year (Kuiter 1985). <br/> <br/>It is also possible that trawling may also exert indirect effects on habitat used by <em>P. lancifer</em>, and that inshore development may affect their distribution, given depth records from 0–56 m. <br/> <br/>There is no known trade for this species at the present time but it may enter the traditional medicine trade along with other pegasids in the future (Vincent 1997).
16476		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>may be found in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Philippines as well as Australia. No other conservation measures are known.
16476		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>occurs throughout the Indo-West Pacific: Delagoa Bay, Mozambique to Saudi Arabia (Persian Gulf) and throughout Gulf of Manaar to Bay of Bengal; along the east coast of Myanmar; north to Japan, south to tropical Australia and Papua New Guinea (Froese and Pauly 2009).</p>
16476		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>is reported to reach a maximum of 180 mm (Palsson and Pietsch 1989) and inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms where they are often found in association with prawns (Conlu 1986). They are usually found between 2–30 m depth, but have also been found on the surface and at a depth of 73 m (Palsson and Pietsch 1989).<br/>&#160;</p>
16476		population	eng	The lack of data for population sizes of pegasids such as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>that was highlighted by Vincent (1997) still exists. One study recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>in low densities (Smith 1986).
16476		threats	eng	Sea moths may possess characteristics that make them unsuited to heavy exploitation, such as low population densities and established long-term pair bonds of one male and one female that mate repeatedly (Kuiter 1985, Herold and Clark 1993).<br/><br/>Sea moth species began appearing in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in the 1980s, and are now traded by several South East Asian countries, including southern China and Hong Kong, although the scale and impact of the trade remains unclear (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999, Vincent 1997).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans</span> is caught incidentally in illegal trawl gear in the Philippines and is sold for use in TCM (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Approximately 130,000–620,000 P. volitans were landed in north-western Bohol, central Visayas region of the Philippines in 1996, with an additional ~42,000–62,000 caught for the live aquarium trade (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Total bycatch in the Philippines was significantly female biased, with only 36% males (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Given the reported monogamy amongst sea moths (Herold and Clark 1993) this could reduce the proportion of paired males thereby reducing the effective population size.
16484		conservation	eng	Grey Rhebok are reported to occur in at least 29 provincial reserves and six national parks in South Africa, and in Malolotja Nature Reserve in Swaziland, and Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho (East 1999).
16484		distribution	eng	The Grey Rhebok is endemic to a small region in southern Africa, inhabiting montane and plateau grasslands of South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. In South Africa, their distribution is discontinuous and patchy, and they no longer occur north of the Orange River in the Northern Cape, or in parts of the North West Province. They formerly occurred widely in the highveld of western Swaziland, but have disappeared from parts of their former range; they remain fairly common in Malolotja Nature Reserve and still survive locally in unprotected areas. In Lesotho, they probably occurred widely in the past, but have been reduced to a few scattered remnant populations. It responded well to protection in Sehlabathebe National Park in the 1980s (East 1999; Avenant in press).<br/><br/>Although believed to have occurred formerly in hilly country around Gaborone in south-east Botswana, there is no conclusive evidence for their presence in this country (Smithers 1971).
16484		habitat	eng	Grey Rhebok are associated with rocky hills, grassy mountain slopes, and montane and plateau grasslands in southern Africa. They are predominantly browsers, and largely water independent, obtaining most of their water requirements from their food (Avenant in press).
16484		population	eng	Summation of available population estimates gives a total of >9,800, but this excludes substantial areas for which estimates are unavailable. East (1999) suggested a total population of about 18,000, of which at least one-quarter is in protected areas and more than 30% on private land. Overall population trend is generally stable (especially in protected areas), but decreasing in some parts of the range. The largest population is that in the Ukahlamba-Drakensberg Park (2,000-3,000).<br/><br/>Estimated population densities of the Grey Rhebok in protected areas are generally in the range 0.5-1.7/km², but occasionally lower (e.g., 0.2-0.3/km² in Addo- Zuurberg and Karoo National Parks), or higher (e.g., 4.3/km² in Bontebok National Park) (summarized in East 1999).
16484		threats	eng	there are no known major threats, but localized declines have taken place due to habitat alteration, hunting pressure, and predation by uncontrolled dogs (East 1999; Avenant in press).
16494		conservation	eng	No information.
16494		distribution	eng	Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins; Baltic basin from Vistula to Neva drainages, southern Sweden and Finland, Lakes Ladoga and Onega. Occasionally on Baltic coast west of Vistula and on Finnish coast north of 61°N.
16494		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surface of open waters of large rivers and lakes. Abundant in reservoirs (Don, Volga). Semi-anadromous individuals forage and spawn in pelagic. freshened parts of sea or lower parts of rivers, in main channel or floodplains. Lacustrine populations spawn in open water of lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to nine years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years, 200-300 mm SL. Semi-anadromous individuals start entering rivers in July (Don). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is resumed with breaking up of ice in April-May. Resident individuals are found in rivers year-round. Spawns in May-June, earlier in southern drainages (April in Syr-Darya) at temperatures above 12°C. Eggs are semi-pelagic and drift with the current (in rivers). Eggs hatch after 3-4 days. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Juveniles may migrate to estuaries during first summer. Feeds on zooplankton, terrestrial invertebrates and small fish.
16494		population	eng	Abundant in large rivers and dams (resevoir).
16494		threats	eng	No major threats known.
16498		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most European range states. Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV and Pelobates fuscus insubricus is listed on Annex II of the EU Natural Habitats Directive as a priority species. The species is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. A conservation programme is in place for the isolated population in central France. Populations benefit from pond creation and respond well to habitat restoration. In Sweden 99% of the population was lost between 1959-1989, however the species is now recovering due to reintroduction and population augmentation.
16498		distribution	eng	This is a lowland species found throughout much of the plains and hilly regions of Europe, including from eastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium and eastern France, east through Germany, Denmark, Sweden (northern limits) and Central Europe and Eastern Europe to western Siberia (Russia) and northwestern Kazakhstan. It ranges from sea level up to 675m asl. There is a very isolated population in Argenton-sur-Creuse in central France, and another isolated population (the endemic subspecies, <em>Pelobates fuscus insubricus</em>) in the Po Valley of northern Italy.
16498		habitat	eng	It is mostly present in open areas, generally avoiding moist soils. It inhabits clear spaces in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests (and their edges), groves, steppes, fields, meadows, sand dunes, heath land, gravel pits, parks and gardens. Spawning sites are mostly permanent, small still waterbodies including ditches, ponds and lakes. It may occur in modified habitats such as rice fields (in Italy). Nocturnal and habitat specific.
16498		population	eng	Populations are reported to be declining or rare in some European countries (e.g.. Italy, Sweden, Denmark, Slovenia, Hungary). It is generally common in Poland. The species is common and widespread in the European part of the former Soviet Union. It is extinct in Switzerland.
16498		threats	eng	The species seems to be may be sensitive to water quality and soil structure. Pollution of wetlands by industry, domestic sewage and agriculture (including eutrophication), drainage of breeding pools and introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish are major threats to the species. The species is also threatened by loss of terrestrial habitats (such as meadows) by factors such as intensive agriculture (e.g., over-stocking of cattle) and mortality on roads (and off-road driving). The species is collected in small numbers for the pet trade.<br/><br/><em>Pelobates fuscus insubricus</em> is a highly threatened subspecies. There are now 12 populations and in recent years it has declined strongly. In some areas it is threatened by the introduced crayfish. chytrid may be a problem (and may be now) in the near future. There is an Action Plan for this species in the Bern Convention.
16502		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
16503		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
16503		threats	eng	There is significant trade in this species for local consumption in Papua New Guinea.
16506		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this little-known species.
16506		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to swampy regions between Lake Victoria and the Albertine Rift Valley. It has been recorded from Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda and possibly occurs in Burundi and Tanzania.
16506		habitat	eng	The species is known from swamps, and may be semi-aquatic.
16506		population	eng	Only eight specimens are known.
16506		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known.
16507		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need for further studies into the natural history and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
16507		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to some of the Ssese Islands (the islands of Kome, Bugala and Bunyama) in the Ugandan part of northwestern Lake Victoria. It is the only species of <em>Pelomys</em> on the islands and it is not known from the mainland.
16507		habitat	eng	This species is found on abandoned farmland, it has not been recorded from natural grassland or forest.
16507		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
16507		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear. It is possible that this species is threatened by the resumption of agricultural activities within its preferred habitat.
16508		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
16508		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Angola and western Democratic Republic of the Congo.
16508		habitat	eng	It is found in grassland savannas. The species may occur close to, but not inside, rainforests. In Angola it has been found on the coastal plains, the Escarpment zone and on the western Angolan Plateau. It is also found in old gardens and corn fields with grass patches. Little is known about the biology of this species.
16508		population	eng	It is a common species.
16508		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
16509		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
16509		distribution	eng	This species has a large distribution range, covering much of central-southern Africa.
16509		habitat	eng	This species is found in savanna habitats with permanent cover of grass or bushes. In drier regions it is confined to permanent damp areas. It is also found in cultivated areas.
16509		population	eng	It is widespread and common but generally not abundant.
16509		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
16510		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed in parts of the species ramge.
16510		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Katanga region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and in northern Angola. A single specimen has also been collected on Mount Mahale in Tanzania, and there is a single record from northern Zambia. It is found from the lowlands to elevations of up to 2,160 m asl.
16510		habitat	eng	It is found in moist savanna with tall grasses, on slopes near to rivers and in wooded valleys. This species is found close to cultivated land,
16510		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known. It has a scattered distribution and is rarely trapped.
16510		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
16511		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
16511		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
16527		conservation	eng	All <em>Pelusios</em> terrapins are protected by Seychelles law. Research into the status of <em>P. seychellensis</em> was recommended as a high priority in the 1989 Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Action Plan (Swingland and Klemens 1989). Despite intensive surveys since 196, no individuals have been found.
16527		distribution	eng	<em>P. seychellensis</em> is known from only three specimens collected in 1895 from an unknown locality in the Seychelles. The precise origin of the type specimen is unknown, but it is suspected to have been Mahé.
16527		habitat	eng	Not known.
16527		population	eng	Unknown.
16529		distribution	eng	Apparently confiend to Lake Turkana.
16529		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic.
16559		conservation	eng	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921, and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of the rabbits (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). The Center for Conservation of Amami Wildlife was established in 1999, and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. furnessi</span> was listed under the Japanese Endangered Species Act in 2004 (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  <br/><br/>Control of exotic predators has been addressed by a program started in 2005 by the Ministry of the Environment, which seeks to eradicate the introduced mongoose (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). Control of feral cats and dogs is also needed (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Because of the limited area of <em>P. furnessi</em>’s natural range, habitat preservation is very important (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). The cessation of forest road construction would discourage the spread of predators into the rabbit’s range and restrict logging of mature forests. These logging practices destroy prime habitat for <em>P. furnessi</em> and fragment local populations (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). Government subsidies intending to support the local economy have inhibited rabbit conservation, as they have provided financial support for forest road construction (Sugimura 1988) and clearing for farmland (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). Ninety percent of the mature forest area is privately or locally owned, the remaining 10% is owned by the national government (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000).
16559		distribution	eng	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> occurs only on the Japanese islands of Amami-Oshima (712 km² total land area) and Tokuno-Shima (248 km²), in Kagoshima prefecture, in the Nansei archipelago (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  The rabbit is estimated to have a distribution on Amami Island of 301.4 km² (Yamada and Cervantes 2005), and 33 km² on Tokuno, based on data collected using fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000).  The area of both islands combined is 960 km², but less than half of the area constitutes suitable habitat (Yamada and Cervantes 2005 ).  The rabbit’s distribution is fragmented into four separate populations, three of which are very small. (Yamada 2004).  The elevational distribution is from sea level to 694 m on Amami and 645 m on Tokuna (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  <br/><br/>Range size declined on Amami Island by 20-40% from 1977-1994 (Yamada 2008).
16559		habitat	eng	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> originally lived in dense primary forest, prior to widespread deforestation (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  No studies have been conducted to measure the impact of the deforestation that began in the 1950's on P. furnessi abundance, but old forest area was reduced by 70-90% of the area since 1980 by logging (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <em>P. furnessi</em> currently lives in coastal cycad cover, mountain habitat with oak cover (Yamada and Cervantes 2005), broad leafed evergreen forests and cutover areas where perennial grasses dominate (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/><em>P. furnessi</em> has a diet of 12 species of herbaceous plants and 17 shrub species, consuming mostly acorns and the sprouts and young shoots of plants (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). <br/><br/><em>P. furnessi</em> burrows underground usually in densely covered forest valleys (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  They are primarily nocturnal (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). The total length of males of this species is 45.1 cm. Females are on average 45.2 cm in length (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). <em>P. furnessi</em> has two breeding seasons each year (March-May and September-December), with a single kitten bred at a time (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). At birth, neonates are 15.0 cm in length (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).
16559		population	eng	Total population size for Amami island from estimates in 2003 was between 2,000 and 4,800 individuals, reduced from a 1993-1994 estimate of 2,500-6,100 individuals.  These estimates were based on fecal pellet counts (Sugimura and Yamada 2004).  No index of abundance is known for the population on Tokuno, which has a much smaller area of occupancy.
16559		threats	eng	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> is threatened by invasive predatory species and human caused habitat destruction.<br/><br/>The introduction of the mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>), which probably occurred on Amami Island in 1979, has presented a serious threat to <em>P. furnessi</em>, which evolved in isolation in absence of large active predators (Yamada 2002). Feral cats and dogs on both islands present a similar threat (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat destruction, in the form of logging, has decreased the area of old growth forest to less than 10-30% of the area that existed in 1980 (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000). Forest road construction, for the purpose of logging, encourages predator expansion in forests (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). Construction of resort facilities (e.g. golf courses) on Amami island have caused concern because the plans required destruction of rabbit habitat (McDowell 1996).
16563		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas throughout its range.
16563		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, and throughout Borneo, and Sumatra.
16563		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves and lives in large colonies with more than 100 individuals. It inhabits secondary and primary lowland to hill forest (Medway 1983).
16563		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout its range.
16563		threats	eng	This species is most likely affected by limestone extraction. Deforestation for agriculture, plantations, logging and due to fire is occurring through a lot of the species' range, but at present they are not considered major threats for this species.
16564		conservation	eng	The melon-headed whale does not regularly occur in the European Mammal Assessment region, so there are no conservation measures for the species in this area.
16564		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to assess the impacts of potential threatening processes.
16564		distribution	eng	Melon-headed whales have a pantropical distribution (Perryman 2002). The distribution  coincides almost exactly with that of the pygmy killer whale in tropical/subtropical oceanic waters between about 40°N and 35°S (Jefferson and Barros 1997). A few high-latitude strandings are thought to be extralimital records, and are generally associated with incursions of warm water. These include specimens from Cornwall in England, Cape Province in South Africa, and Maryland, USA (Perryman <em>et al.</em> 1994, Rice 1998).
16564		distribution	eng	Melon-headed whales have a pantropical distribution (Perryman 2002). The distribution coincides almost exactly with that of the pygmy killer whale in tropical/subtropical oceanic waters between about 40°N and 35°S (Jefferson and Barros 1997). A few high-latitude strandings are thought to be extralimital records, and are generally associated with incursions of warm water. These include specimens from Cornwall in England, Cape Province in South Africa, and Maryland, USA (Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rice 1998).
16564		habitat	eng	Melon-headed whales usually occur in groups of 100-500 (with a known maximum of 2,000 individuals).  Melon-headed whales are highly social. This species is sometimes involved in mass strandings, generally containing many dozens or even hundreds of animals. The largest ones known have included about 250 animals.<br/><br/>Most sightings are from the continental shelf seaward, and around oceanic islands; they are rarely found in temperate waters. However, they do occur nearshore in some areas where deep water approaches the coast (see Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1997, Wang <em>et al.</em> 2001).  In the eastern tropical Pacific, the distribution of reported sightings suggests that the oceanic habitat of this species is primarily in the upwelling modified and equatorial waters (Perryman <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet of this species, though they are known to feed on several species of squid, shrimp and small fish.
16564		habitat	eng	Most sightings are from the continental shelf seaward, and around oceanic islands; they are rarely found in temperate waters. However, they do occur in some nearshore areas where deep water approaches the coast (see Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1997; Wang <em>et al</em>. 2001a, b). In the eastern tropical Pacific, the distribution of reported sightings suggests that the oceanic habitat of this species is primarily in the upwelling modified and equatorial waters (Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet of this species, though they are known to feed on several species of squid, shrimp and small fish.
16564		population	eng	This species is relatively common in some areas of its range, although few abundance estimates are available.
16564		population	eng	This species is relatively common in some areas of its range, such as parts of the Philippines, and is regularly seen in waters around the Hawaiian Islands and around some archipelagos in the western tropical Pacific (such as the Tuamotus-Marquesas Islands). Only a few abundance estimates are available, however. <br/><br/>There are estimates of 45,400 (CV=47%) animals in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993); 3,451 (CV = 55%) in the Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2004); 2,947 animals (CV = 111%) in Hawaii (Barlow 2006); and 921 (CV = 80%) in the eastern Sulu Sea, Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2006). Photo-identification data from the Hawaiian Islands indicate some site fidelity, with repeated re-sightings of individuals, although movements among the main Hawaiian Islands have been documented (Huggins <em>et al</em>. 2005; Baird pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
16564		threats	eng	Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of melon-headed whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect melon-headed whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Although no regular, large hunts are known, this species is taken occasionally in the subsistence fishery for small cetaceans near the island of St. Vincent in the Caribbean, in Taiwan and in the Japanese dolphin drive fishery. They continue to be taken in a long-lived and well-established harpoon fishery for sperm whales and various small cetaceans near Lamalera, Indonesia. Four melon-headed whales were taken during the 1982 fishing season. Small-boat fisherman also occasionally harpoon or net this species near Sri Lanka and in the Philippines (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994). Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1994) investigated the fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Hunters at several sites took melon-headed whales for bait or human consumption. Whales are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Around 800 cetaceans of various species are taken annually by hunters at the seven sites, mostly during the inter-monsoonal period of February-May. <br/><br/>Mortality from incidental captures in the purse-seine fishery for yellowfin tuna in the eastern tropical Pacific will probably continue at a very low level (Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994). Information is scant, but at least small numbers of these pelagic animals are known to be taken in nets throughout the tropics. Especially considering that bycatch of small cetaceans in general is a large and growing problem in Asia (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 2002), low numbers of reports may be misleading. However, no particular conservation problem has been identified.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). An anomalous movement of melon-headed whales into a bay in Hawaii was associated with military sonar (Southall <em>et al</em>. 2006), and the frequency of mass stranding events for this species have increased in the last 30 years (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
16564		threats	eng	Threats include declines in prey species, incidental mortality in fishing gear, and noise pollution.
16569		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Bernier and Dorre Islands are both protected areas, as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced. Further studies are needed on the impact of pathogens on Bernier Island. Regular monitoring of populations is needed (annually or biannually). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005-2010 period (Richards 2005). Recommendations in this plan include: protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations; maintain captive populations; use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild, current and potential reintroduced populations, and; enhance community participation and education. The recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period (2005-2010) (Richards 2005). Some of these, like the reintroduction to Arid Recovery, should be established "in different regions where climatic fluctuations may be out of synchrony" (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997).
16569		distribution	eng	The Western Barred Bandicoot is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally on Bernier and Dorre Islands in Shark Bay, Western Australia (Friend 2008). This species formerly ranged over much of southern Australia. There are reintroduced populations in Shark Bay (Heirisson Prong and Faure Island) and Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs, South Australia.
16569		habitat	eng	Vegetation types occupied on Bernier and Dorre Islands include Triodia grasslands and scrub communities on vegetated dunes, and on sandplains, although the species is particularly abundant in sandhills behind beaches. On the mainland, this species was recorded from semi-arid areas with a variety of vegetation types, including scrub, open bluebush and saltbush plains and stony hills (Friend 2008). Females give birth to between one and three young, and can have up to four litters per year (Richards 2004).
16569		population	eng	The population size fluctuates with rainfall. The overall population is under 10,000 mature individuals. There are perhaps about 5,000 in total on Bernier and Dorre Islands, where the species is considered abundant (Friend 2008). The population appears to be stable on the two islands. There are over 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, over 20 on Faure Island, and about 40 in Arid Recovery. There is also a captive colony at Return to Dryandra Field Breeding Facility, and a small number of animals are held at Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre (Richards 2005).
16569		threats	eng	The current major threats to the natural populations of the species include: the accidental introduction of predators (introduced cats and foxes), fire, and disease (Richards 2005). These same threats apply to varying degrees to the reintroduced populations. Extreme fluctuations in populations on islands are a threat, but this threat is seen as minor relative to the risk exotic predators being introduced (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). With weather events becoming ever more unpredictable and all but one location for the species being located in Shark Bay, these fluctuations are still cause for concern. Introduced rats and mice are also a concern, but to a lesser degree than introduced predators.<br/><br/>This species probably declined through predation by introduced cats, dogs, and foxes, modification of vegetation by rabbits and stock, and possibly changed fire regimes in parts of the range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Pathogens are a problem in Bernier Island (they seem to be endemic in the population, though discovered recently); the impact of these diseases on the population size is unknown and needs to be studied. The pathogens are also found within captive colonies.
16570		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
16570		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to western and central Australia. It was last collected in 1943. Aboriginal history indicates survival into the 1950s and perhaps the early 1960s (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988).
16570		habitat	eng	The species was associated with spinifex grassland areas in arid, sandy areas.
16570		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct.
16570		threats	eng	Its population decline was probably due to introduced predators: cats and foxes. Changes to the fire regime have also been blamed for species losses in inland arid areas of Australia – the gradual patchwork burning by aboriginal people was replaced by intensive "lightening-caused" wildfires which destroyed habitat diversity. Rabbits also likely had a major impact on its habitat.
16572		conservation	eng	Eastern Barred Bandicoot occurs in protected areas. The most important conservation measure for the species as a whole is the control of fox populations in Tasmania. <br/><br/>Recovery efforts on the mainland are complex, multi-disciplinary, and involve many organisations and individuals; several research projects are under way, including collaborative projects with universities, covering biology and ecology of reintroduced populations, establishment at new sites, and population dynamics of foxes at bandicoot release sites; there is considerable community interest and involvement in the recovery program, especially with releases onto private land. A Recovery Plan for the mainland subspecies has been developed (Watson and Halley 2000). <br/><br/>Management actions underway for the mainland population include: captive breeding, ongoing since 1988. The Zoological Parks and Gardens Board (ZPGB) now manages this aspect of the recovery program, and bandicoots are bred at facilities in Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales. There are four reintroduction sites in Victoria, but only one, Woodlands Historic Park near Melbourne, has a reasonably secure population (>700 animals). The others are small, highly vulnerable, and will rely on supplementary releases for the next few years. Not all of these sites contain sufficient habitat for populations to be self-sustaining in the short- to medium-term; habitat management through fencing, tree planting, native grassland management, weed and rabbit control variously occur at all sites; intensive predator control is maintained at all release sites, with regular poisoning, shooting and destruction of dens and other refuges.
16572		distribution	eng	The Eastern Barred Bandicoot is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it occurs over much of Tasmania and in a few reintroduction sites in Victoria (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008). At one time, this species occurred from Melbourne west across the volcanic plain to south-eastern South Australia. It is now extinct in South Australia. Four small reintroduced populations exist in Victoria, including one of >700 animals has been established near Melbourne (only this one appears on the map). The Tasmanian population is most widely distributed in the northern and eastern parts of the island (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008). The species ranges in elevation from sea level to 950 m in Tasmania, but it is usually found much lower there and on the mainland (Seebeck 2001).
16572		habitat	eng	In Tasmania, populations inhabit open grasslands and areas of pastoral development with patches of dense groundcover (Seebeck 2001; Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008). On the mainland, the species formerly occupied the native grasslands and grassy woodlands of the western volcanic plains of Victoria. Reintroduced populations have been established in grasslands and grassy woodlands, often dominated by exotic plant species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Females give birth to between one and five young (but usually 2 or 3) (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008).
16572		population	eng	The Tasmanian population is reasonably widespread and fairly common. The population near Melbourne has declined, as have the other reintroduced populations, and the total number of individuals on mainland Australia is likely less than 200, although these numbers fluctuate depending on rainfall.
16572		threats	eng	Eastern Barred Bandicoots probably disappeared from the mainland due to introduced predators and habitat destruction from introduced herbivores. Predation from red foxes is thought to have been particularly detrimental, and the recent introduction of foxes to Tasmania could pose a major threat to the species here. Introduced sheep and rabbits also cleared large areas of bandicoot habitat on the mainland, which must have led to reduced populations. In Tasmania populations are fragmented in parts of its range, but this is probably not a major threat (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008).
16580		conservation	eng	No information.
16580		distribution	eng	Throughout Europe to northernmost extremity of Scandinavia, except Iberian Peninsula, central Italy and Adriatic basin; Aegean Sea basin: Maritza and from Struma to Aliakmon drainages; Aral Sea basin; in Siberia, in rivers draining to Arctic Ocean eastward to Kolyma (replaced by P. flavescens in North America). Introduced in Ebro delta (Spain), central and southern Italy, Lake Skadar (Montenegro, Albania), Amur (Siberia), Australia and South Africa.
16580		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A very wide range of habitats from estuarine lagoons, lakes of all types to medium sized streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 21 years, usually to about six years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-4 years. Spawns in February-July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperature reaches about 6°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. A female usually spawns with several males, once each year. The female circles the spawning site, followed by one male, while other males remain stationary. The egg strand is released as the female swims in spiral clockwise movements, folding herself into a U-shape. All eggs are released and fertilised within about 5 seconds in a single strand, which becomes twisted around and entangled with spawning substrate. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic, live in open water and feed on pelagic organisms. They may be widely distributed by currents. An opportunistic diurnal feeder, preying mainly at sunrise and sunset, using all available prey. Larvae and small juveniles usually prey on planktonic invertebrates. During first summer, many juveniles come near shores to feed on benthic prey. Often becomes piscivorous at about 120 mm SL. Stocks with different life-histories may co-occur in some lakes (littoral, benthic feeding, pelagic zooplanktivorous), sometimes with different spawning sites and times.
16580		population	eng	Abundant.
16580		threats	eng	No major threats known.
16586		distribution	eng	Has a small range in the Coosa and Cahaba River systems, Georgia and Alabama.
16587		distribution	eng	Widely but disjunctly distributed in mountains and uplands of the Tennessee (very rare) and Cumberland (probably extirpated) River drainages, Virginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, and (at least formerly) Kentucky.
16591		distribution	eng	The range includes medium to large streams of the Ohio River Basin from western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio southwestwards to Tennessee.
16593		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Little River system of Oklahoma and Arkansas.
16618		conservation	eng	Permits are required by a national conservation agency to collect fauna. It is suggested that prohibition of access or limited access to caves should be implemented.
16618		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Table Mountain Wynberg and Bats Cave systems in Western Cape, South Africa. Two subpopulations likely to be effectively separated by two isolated cave systems.
16618		habitat	eng	In Wynberg Cave, the main galley where specimens were collected is about 30 m below the surface. The walls of the cave are constantly damp, the cave is continuously dark, and the only vegetation is small greyish lichen (Lawrence 1931). <br/> <br/>Generation time and reproductive trends are likely to be similar to other members of the genus. Gestation is approximately 12-13 months, and only about 20 young are produced by each female in a year. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938).
16618		population	eng	Evidence suggests that population/s are very small. However, there is no real evidence that populations have declined. <em>P. alba</em> has only ever been collected from Wynberg and Bats Cave systems. There is thus no evidence that the area of occurrence or the area of occupancy has changed, or that it will change in the future (if these habitats are adequately protected).
16618		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are over-collection for research purposes or by cavers, atmospheric pollution within the caves from carbides and tobacco smoke, and human disturbance of the species.
16619		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Africa, Western Cape, along the coastal region of the George / Knysna area, and in the Tsitsikamma Forest in the Eastern Cape.
16619		habitat	eng	<em>P. clavigera</em> is confined to indigenous, Afromontane forest, where it occurs amongst moist leaf litter or under or in fallen and rotting logs. <br/> <br/>Generation time and reproductive trends are likely to be similar to other members of the genus. Gestation is approximately 12-13 months, and only about 40 young are produced by each female in a year. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938).
16619		population	eng	The population is likely to have declined in response to the destruction and degradation of the habitat at several of the localities. Several subpopulations have been recorded, but the status of all of these is unknown.  <br/> <br/><em>P. clavigera</em> has been collected from six localities. Tsitsikamma Forest is unlikely to have undergone any detrimental change or to undergo such change in the near future. The other localities fall within state forests (Diepwalle, Harkerville, Saasveld), which are sustainably logged. These forests have some alien plant invasive problems, they are largely surrounded by plantations, and have been fragmented through road construction and afforestation. The Swart River area, between George and Knysna is an unprotected area that has undergone considerable development over the past 10 years.
16620		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of Lion's Hill (Signal Hill), Cape Peninsula, Western Cape, South Africa. Details of this locality are as follows: the Cape Town side of Signal Hill, two small valleys cutting into the south-east slopes of that part of Lion's Hill known as the Saddle, the lower portion lying between Lion's Head and Lion's Rump; and from another valley, situated on the same side of the hill but much nearer Table Bay, and east of the signal station on the highest point of Lion's Rump.
16620		habitat	eng	The species was collected from Fynbos habitat, in small ravines, under stones. Generation time and reproductive trends are likely to be similar to other members of the genus. Gestation is approximately 12-13 months, and only about 40 young are produced by each female in a year. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938).
16620		population	eng	The population is likely to have declined in response to the destruction and degradation of the habitat. Currently. there is no evidence of subpopulations anywhere. <br/> <br/><em>P. leonina</em> has only ever been collected from one location - Signal Hill. This area has been changed through the development of houses and roads, the development of recreation areas and the establishment of exotic plantations. Levels of air pollution have increased radically over the past 100 years. The habitat will have been fragmented by plantations, but the original extent of occurrence is unknown, which makes it difficult to estimate the amount of fragmentation that has occurred.
16629		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is present in many protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>It seems that the ’Mount Kenya Potto’ <em>P. p. stockleyi</em> either occurs at low densities or is highly local in its distribution, or (probably) both. There is also, of course, the possibility that this taxon is extinct. Determining the geographic range, abundance, and conservation status of this subspecies is a priority for primate conservation action in Kenya (see Butynski and De Jong 2007).
16629		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range from about Sierra Leone and south-eastern Guinea to south-western Kenya, at elevations of 600 to 2,300 m asl, with an isolated population east of the rift valley (Butynski and De Jong 2007; Pimley and Bearder in press). Surprisingly, there are no records at all for Tanzania (see Butynski and De Jong 2007).<br/><br/>There are four subspecies: the nominate <em>P. p. potto</em> (here taken to include the form "<em>juju</em>")  is found in West Africa from Sierra Leone to the Niger River in Nigeria (there are no confirmed records for Senegal, Gambia or Guinea-Bissau); <em>P. p. edwardsi</em> is found from the Niger River in Nigeria east through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (not found on Bioko), Congo, and then south of the Congo River through Democratic Republic of Congo as far east as Irneti and as far south as Angola; <em>P. p. ibeanus</em> occurs from east and south of the Ubangi River, and north and east of Congo River, DR Congo, eastwards extending east of the Lualaba River to north-west Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda to the Kakamega and Nandi forests and surrounds in south-western Kenya (see Butynski and de Jong 2007); and <em>P. p stockleyi</em> is known only from the type locality, Mount Kenya, at 1830 m, and is isolated from the nearest <em>P. p. ibeanus</em> population by at least 170 km (Butynski and de Jong 2007). A Potto obtained by Peirce (1975) at Muguga (2100 m) on the southern slopes of the Aberdares Range may well represent the latter subspecies.<br/><br/><em>Pseudopotto martini</em>, originally described as a new genus but here included in the synonymy of <em>P. potto</em>, is currently known only from one skeleton (which came from a specimen that died at Zurich Zoo) and two skulls, as well as some undocumented sightings, around Mount Kupe, Cameroon, at 820-940 m altitude. However, this animal was never observed once on Mt Kupe during the course of two years of field work (E. Pimley pers. comm.), and only <em>P. potto</em> (some with long tails) were recorded.
16629		habitat	eng	This species inhabits all strata of lowland and montane tropical moist forest, swamp forest, and other lowland forest types. It is commonest in secondary and colonising forests, and along the margins of these forests. Its diet shows distinct seasonal variation: gums are dominant during drier periods, with insects, snails, and fruits (such as figs, <em>Musanga</em>, <em>Parinari</em>, <em>Uapaca</em>, and <em>Myrianthus</em>) taken during the rains. Pottos are solitary animals, but do display some degree of sociality (Pimley <em>et al.</em> 2005; AMJP). Charles-Dominique (1977) recorded females ranging over 3-9 ha, and males over 9-40 ha with their ranges overlapping that of one or more females; however, Pimley <em>et al</em>. (2005; IJP) found no significant difference in the range area of pottos between males (mean = 30.6 ha ± 2.97) and females (mean = 31.5 ha ± 7.25). The females give birth to one young annually. Wild pottos in Gabon lived to at least nine years of age (Charles-Dominique 1977).
16629		population	eng	Pottos are widespread and common. Density averages 8 – 10 animals/km² at Makokou, in north-east Gabon (Charles-Dominique 1977) and 4.7 animals/km² in mixed secondary forest and farm bush on Mt. Kupe, Cameroon (Pimley 2002). Butynski and De jong (2007) summarize encounter rates and densities for <em>P. p. ibeanus</em>, noting that densities range between <2 and 28 individuals/km².<br/><br/>The recently described <em>P. p. stockleyi</em> is known only from a single specimen collected in 1938.
16629		threats	eng	Pottos are known to be widespread in secondary and primary forests, and even in disturbed forest near human habitation. There are probably no major threats resulting in a range-wide population decline, but localized declines are likely taking place due to habitat loss from clear-cutting and intensive agriculture, and from hunting.
16631		conservation	eng	This species is not listed as threatened or endangered; some historical localities are on public land but habitat is unprotected. Further surveys are needed in potential habitat throughout its historical range and in contiguous potential habitat. Areas likely to support populations are the mountain slopes of the Tehachapi and San Gabriel ranges that front on the Mojave Desert (Williams, 1986). All known occurrences should be protected, but no data are available to determine the type of protection needed, other than protection from development. Information is needed on basic biology, ecology, and the taxonomic relationship between the two subspecies.
16631		distribution	eng	The white-eared pocket mouse is known from two disjunct mountain ranges in southern California in the United States: the San Bernardino Mountains in San Bernardino County (subspecies <em>alticolus</em>), and the Tehachapi Mountains, in Kern, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties (subspecies <em>inexpectatus</em>), at elevations of about 3,500-6,000 feet (1,070-1,830 m asl). The two subspecies are separated by the San Gabriel Mountains.
16631		habitat	eng	Available information indicates that habitat is primarily open grassy/weedy/dry bracken areas among sagebrush and other shrubs in ponderosa/Jeffrey pine, pinyon/juniper, or montane hardwood-conifer associations. Secondary habitat is also open areas in Joshua tree and high desert shrub associations and old-field communities of herbaceous plants in high desert scrub associations, arid annual grassland (e.g., rangeland dominated by introduced grasses), and a fallow grain field dominated by Russian thistle (Sulentich, 1983; Williams, 1986; Best, 1994).<br/><br/>At higher elevations, this rodent is found in yellow pine forest with bracken fern and pinyon-juniper woodland habitats. At lower elevations, chaparral and coastal sage scrub habitat is occupied. It is a nocturnal species, remaining in burrows during the day and emerging at night to forage on a variety of plant and animal matter. Seeds are carried in cheek pouches to underground storage chambers.
16631		population	eng	Despite focused surveys, no specimens of subspecies <em>alticolus</em> have been obtained since the 1930s; this subspecies appears to be rare or extinct. Subspecies <em>inexpectatus</em> is also uncommon (D. F. Williams, cited by Best, 1994). Searches from 1979-1981, involving 81,938 trap nights, yielded only three specimens from a single locality (D. F. Williams). Trapping by Sulentich (1983) produced 11 specimens from two localities on the eastern side of Tehachapi Pass, in an area where a single specimen was caught in 1975 (Williams, 1978). Since 1978, occurrence at three localities has been verified; several historical sites for <em>inexpectatus</em> were not searched and probably still are occupied (D. F. Williams). The current population trend is unknown, but the species already appears to have declined to a small extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size.
16631		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are related to its increased vulnerability to habitat modification due to its restricted and patchy distribution (Nowak, 1999). Habitat is used for timber production, but the effect of this is unknown. The species may be threatened by cattle grazing, but the effects of different levels of grazing are not known. Many of the mountain valleys within the potential range of subspecies <em>alticolus</em> are privately owned and have been developed or inundated by reservoirs; with exception of a Forest Service fire lookout tower, the area surrounding Strawberry Peak is privately owned and largely developed (Winter, 1998).
16633		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16633		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and central Arizona, extending southward to northwest Sonora, Mexico (Hall 1981; Hoffmeister 1986).
16633		habitat	eng	Found in desert scrubland and desert grassland, where it prefers flat habitats with scattered shrubs or bunchgrasses and fine-textured, firm soils.
16633		population	eng	This species is common. Extreme temporal fluctuations in populations, in response to temporal variation in levels of precipitation (M. Price pers. comm.).
16633		threats	eng	No known major threats. However, because of the temporal variation in populations, severe habitat fragmentation could pose a threat (M. Price pers. comm.).
16634		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16634		distribution	eng	From eastern Minnesota southward to Utah, southeastern Arizona, New Mexico, west Texas (United States), and into northern Chihuahua (Mexico).
16634		habitat	eng	Generally confined to areas of sandy or sandy-loam soils, where it typically associates with either grassland or shrubland habitats. May also occur in agricultural fields.
16634		population	eng	This species is locally common but patchily distributed.
16634		threats	eng	No major threats.
16635		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. <br/><br/>One subspecies <em>P. f. goodpastori</em> is considered threatened in Arizona  due to its very isolated and restricted range.
16635		distribution	eng	Central and Southern Great Plains and intermountain west in the U.S., extending southward throughout the Mexican Plateau. A disjunct population occurs in Sonora, Mexico along the Gulf of California.
16635		habitat	eng	Occurs in semi-arid or arid grasslands and shrublands.
16635		population	eng	This species is abundant and common.
16635		threats	eng	No known major threats.
16636		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16636		distribution	eng	The species' distribution extends from southeast Oregon and western Utah in the United States, to north Sonora and Baja California Sur in Mexico.
16636		habitat	eng	The general habitat for most species of <em>Perognathus</em> is arid plains and desert-like country. This species is nocturnal, spending daylight hours in burrows and emerging at night to feed on a variety of vegetation and insect species.<br/><br/>The subspecies of <em>P. longimembris</em> currently of conservation concern occurs in grassland, alluvial sage scrub, and coastal sage scrub habitats.
16636		population	eng	Generally common. However, the population in Baja California Sur is extremely small.
16636		threats	eng	None known.
16637		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16637		distribution	eng	From southwestern Oklahoma through western and southern Texas and eastern New Mexico (United States), and into far northeastern Chihuahua, northern and eastern Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas (Mexico).
16637		habitat	eng	Occurs in short-grass prairie, desert scrub, and arid brushland. Is able to live in disturbed habitat, such as grazed pastureland.
16637		population	eng	Apparently common, although localized in distribution within range.
16637		threats	eng	No major threats.
16645		conservation	eng	None.
16645		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Sonora, San Pedro Nolasco Island (27°58’N, 111°24’W), México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16645		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. San Pedro Nolasco is the only island in the Gulf that supported 2 species of <em>Peromyscus</em> (<em>P. pembertoni</em> and <em>P. boylii glasselli</em>). No other mammals occurred on the island. <br/><br/><em>P. pembertoni</em> was collected on a steep, grass-covered hillside on the east side of the island (Burt 1938 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Calva 2003). Dominant plants are: elephant tree/torote (<em>Bursera microphylla</em>), pitayita (<em>Echinocereus websterianus</em>), liga (<em>Euphorbia magdalenae</em>), Adam’s tree/palo adan (<em>Fouquieria diguetii</em>), leatherplant/matacora (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>), biznaguita/fishhook cactus (<em>Mammillaria multidigitata</em>, <em>M. tayloriorum</em>), malva rosa (<em>Melochia tomentosa</em>), chain-fruit cholla/cholla (<em>Opuntia fulgida</em> var. <em>fulgida</em>), cardon (<em>Pachycereus pringlei</em>), slipper plant/candelilla (<em>Pedilanthus macrocarpus</em>), jojoba (<em>Simmondsia chinensis</em>), and pitaya dulce/organpipe cactus (<em>Stenocereus thurberi</em>) (Alvarez-Castañeda and Calva 2003).
16645		population	eng	This species is extinct.
16645		threats	eng	Unknown.
16651		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Occurs in protected areas.
16651		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range, occurring in humid montane and cloud forests in central Veracruz, central Guerrero, through Oaxaca and east Chiapas, México, to Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador (Musser and Carleton 2005). It can be found from 500 to 3,200 m (Carleton 1979, in Reid 1997).
16651		habitat	eng	This mouse is found in temperate montane regions. It favors edges and secondary growth of wet highland forest (Reid 1997). It can live in disturbed habitat of coffee and sugar cane plantations (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).<br/><br/>It is largely insectivorous and includes ants, weevils, crickets, and beetles in the diet; a few seeds (<em>Solanum</em> sp. and others), and green plant material are also eaten (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984, in Reid 1997).
16651		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997).
16651		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. However, deforestation could pose a threat in the future.
16652		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. The population on San Pedro Nolasco Island has protected status under Mexican law.
16652		distribution	eng	Occurs in mountainous regions over a wide area of western United States, and south into central Mexico, including San Pedro Nolasco Island in the Sea of Cortez. Is it usually found above 2,000 m.
16652		habitat	eng	Habitats vary from desert to montane forest, but restricted to locations where there are rock outcroppings, boulders, brush piles, and fallen trees. Usually places nest in natural cavities, rocky crevices, or under brushpiles.
16652		population	eng	This species is common.
16652		threats	eng	None known. However, on San Pedro Nolasco Island, a related species <em>Peromyscus pembertoni</em>, has gone extinct.
16653		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001)
16653		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Orizaba Basin on the border of Veracruz and Puebla, in east central México (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality is Perote, Veracruz (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from 2,250 to 2,500 m elevation (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16653		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Dominant vegetation associations include grasslands and arid scrub in bottom lands and coniferous forests at higher elevations. This species is restricted to flat bottoms with areas of fine sandy soil that support grasses and a few trees (<em>Juniperus dippeana</em>) and Yucca. It has not been collected in rocky areas (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females showed no signs of reproductive activity in March, June, September, or October (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16653		population	eng	Before 1950, this rodent was known from seven specimens. This species was considered rare because only one specimen was collected by Hall and Dalquest (1963). <em>Peromyscus bullatus</em> exhibits very specific and strong habitat selection, and its preferred habitat is uncommon and restricted (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16653		threats	eng	A restricted range, a highly discriminating choice of habitat, low densities, and habitat deterioration may pose serious threats this species (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005). This area is experiencing severe habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture.
16654		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
16654		distribution	eng	Restricted to southern California (United States) and northern Baja California (Mexico). Elevational range sea level to 2,440 m.
16654		habitat	eng	Occurs in chaparral, coniferous and oak woodlands, coastal sage scrub, and laurel and redwood forests. <br/><br/>Finds cover in natural holes and crevices and uses burrows of other animals. Often lives in stick nests built by wood rats. Young are born in complex nests of grasses, weeds and sticks located under logs or other debris.
16654		population	eng	Can be locally common.<br/><br/>Low, but stable densities, with populations up to 104 individuals/ha depending on habitat and season. Appears to associate with <em>Neotoma fuscipe</em>s, with densities possibly correlating with abundance of <em>Neotoma dens</em>.
16654		threats	eng	None known.
16655		distribution	eng	This species is known from Montserrat Island, Baja California Sur, Mexico. (Alvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 1998).
16655		habitat	eng	This island is desert scrub.
16655		population	eng	This species is very rare.
16655		threats	eng	This species is severely threatened by feral cats in its very restricted range. Predation by feral cats has already caused the extinction of <em>Chaetodipus rodinorus fornicatus</em> on the same island.
16656		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16656		distribution	eng	Western United States and adjacent northwestern Mexico. In the United States from Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming southward California, Arizona, and New Mexico. In Mexico, northern Baja California and northwestern Sonora.
16656		habitat	eng	Habitat specialists. Occur in arid shrublands and grasslands, specifically where bare rock is present such as canyon walls, but not in association with any particular type of vegetation.<br/><br/>Because of its patchy distribution (which is not reflected in the range map), this species likely has a much smaller area of occupancy than indicated by its extent of occurrence.
16656		population	eng	This species is locally common in suitable habitat.<br/><br/>Densities up to 42.9 individuals/ha have been recorded, with higher numbers occurring on isolated buttes.
16656		threats	eng	None known.
16657		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas.
16657		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tortuga Island, Baja California, Mexico (Cortez-Calva and Alvarez-Castaneda 2001).
16657		habitat	eng	This island is desert scrub.
16657		population	eng	This species is relatively common on the island.
16657		threats	eng	Given this species' extremely restricted range, it is threatened by stochastic threats such as El Niño/La Nina events, cyclical rattlesnake predations, and the high possibility of the introduction of feral cats to the island.
16658		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. Approximately one-third of its range is in protected areas.
16658		distribution	eng	This species is known from west Chihuahua and southeast Coahuila, south to central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its range follows the Sierra Madre Occidental and Oriental, and surrounds the deserts of Chihuahua and Sonora.
16658		habitat	eng	This species is found in pine and oak forests, desert scrub, and grasslands. This species is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.
16658		population	eng	This species lives at low densities.
16658		threats	eng	There are no known threats. However, deforestation of the pine and oak woodlands could pose a threat in the future.
16659		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16659		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-western United States and north-central and north-western Mexico, including several islands in the Gulf of California. Occurs from 35 - 2,130 m elevation
16659		habitat	eng	Occurs in a variety of habitats, but generally prefers desert shrublands, rocky foothills, and plains with scattered vegetation and sandy soils.
16659		population	eng	This species is common. Populations tend to be stable and relatively low in density.
16659		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16660		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within this species' range. The population of this species on Carmen Island is protected by Mexican law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
16660		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Baja California Sur and Carmen Island, México (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2003).
16660		habitat	eng	<em>P. eva</em> is generally associated with patches of succulent vegetation and stony areas. It has been found in natural arid tropical scrub containing matorral sarcocaule such as cholla (<em>Cilindro opuntia</em>), palo Adan (<em>Fouquieria diguetii</em>), lomboy (<em>Jatropha cinerea</em>), viejito (<em>Mammilaria</em>), cardon (<em>Pachicereus pringlei</em>), and pitaya agria (<em>Stenocereus gummosus</em>). This rodent has also been collected in fields of chili, corn, oranges, palms, sugarcane, and tamarind, and in areas with secondary vegetation.<br/> <br/>Pregnant females were captured during February, March, June, and July; and lactation was observed mainly in February, April, and July. Breeding was observed in July. The number of embryos averaged 3 (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2003).
16660		population	eng	The population of <em>Peromyscus eva</em> increases more during the cooler months October to February than other species of rodents. On the slopes of the Sierra de la Laguna, the relative abundance of <em>P. eva</em> is closely related to elevation and vegetation (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2003).
16660		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, the population on Carmen Island may be threatened by  population decline from introduced species and predation by feral cats.
16661		conservation	eng	This species requires more research to understand more about its basic biology, population status, and threats.
16661		distribution	eng	This species is known from wet and cool forests along the eastern flanks of the Sierra Madre Oriental from extreme south-east San Luis Potosí to north central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 650 - 2,900 m asl.
16661		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in moist, mountainous regions of east-central Mexico. This species is found in oak-pine and cloud forest (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16661		population	eng	No population information could be found.
16661		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, little is known about potential threats other than deforestation.
16662		conservation	eng	Ocurs in the Sierra de las Minas biosphere reserve in Guatemala. Needs further taxonomic research.
16662		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south Alta Verapaz and north-east Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, although the exact limits of its distribution are unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,200 to 2,700 m.
16662		habitat	eng	This mouse can be found in mature cloud forest, and is most common along steep banks of streams and in low-lying areas with numerous tree ferns and mosses (Reid 1997). It is also known from secondary habitats.<br/><br/>It is usually terrestrial, occasionally on low logs or fallen trees. One female was pregnant with 2 embryos in December (Reid 1997).
16662		population	eng	It is locally common to common (Reid 1997).
16662		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It does, however, have a relatively small range, in which suitable habitat is decreasing due to forest loss.
16663		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16663		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mountainous areas from the Mogollon Plateau in southwestern New Mexico, USA, south to western Chihuahua and southeastern Coahuila, through interior México to central Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005). The species occurs from elevation of 1,829 to 3,110 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
16663		habitat	eng	Reported from a variety of habitats between 1,829 - 3,110 m, it may prefer foothills covered with shrubby vegetation. It is typically associated with rocky habitats, especially with dark lava flows. However, it has also been found in an array of habitats ranging from cultivated land to coniferous mountain-top forests.
16663		population	eng	It status is unknown in the United States, but most of its range is in Mexico where it is considered common.
16663		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
16664		conservation	eng	This species' range occurs within the Islas del Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether populations of this species exist on Ángel de la Guarda Island (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004). If populations are found they should be secured by controlling introduced competitors and predators, a captive breeding program should be instigated with the possibility of translocating individuals to Estanque Island where cats (or rather the single cat) was recently removed (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004), and ways to mitigate possible increased human activity due to the Mexican government's plans to make the Gulf of California a major tourist destination should be explored (Álvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 2006).
16664		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ángel de la Guarda Island in the northern Gulf of California, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It was historically also found on three nearby, smaller islands (i.e, Granito, Mejía, and Estanque).
16664		habitat	eng	These islands are desert scrub.
16664		population	eng	Although this species was apparently common in the mid-1960s, population declines have been observed over the past three decades to the extent that no population is currently known to be still extant, and the species could in fact be extinct. On Ángel de la Guarda Island, it was last recorded in 1991 (Mellink <em>et al.</em> 2002); populations are thought to be extremely low on this island due to predation by feral cats, and the species may possibly have been extirpated (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004). No individuals have been recorded in several recent surveys on the Islands of Mejía and Granito (Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003), and the species is likely extirpated from these islands (Mellink <em>et al.</em> 2002; Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003). The species is said to be extirpated from Estanque Island (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004).
16664		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include competition with introduced rodents, predation by feral or domestic cats, and intrinsic factors due to its small population size and limited distribution. There is a risk that more human activity will result from the Mexican government's plans to make the Gulf of California a major tourist destination, which will substantially increase the chances of detrimental introduction of non-native species (Álvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 2006).
16665		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Mexico and Guatemala. Taxonomic research is needed as there is confusion with <em>P. mexicanus</em> and other <em>Peromyscus</em> species.
16665		distribution	eng	This species occurs in high elevations in mountains of south Chiapas, México, and southwest Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,300 to 3,000 m (seldom below 2,000 m) (Reid 1997).
16665		habitat	eng	This mouse can be found in wet highland oak forest with numerous epiphytes and is rare or absent from highly disturbed or logged areas (Reid 1997). It is mainly terrestrial and is often trapped on the ground near fallen logs or at the base of trees, occasionally along low branches or logs (Reid 1997).
16665		population	eng	It is common to abundant (Reid 1997).
16665		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although some of the parks that comprise the core area of the species are not adequately protected from habitat loss.
16666		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Guatemala. Research is needed on the taxonomy and basic biology and ecology of this species because very little is known about it.
16666		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Pacific coastal plain and adjacent foothills from south Chiapas, México, to south Nicaragua, west of Lake Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from sea level to 1,675 m (usually below 1,000 m) (Reid 1997; Musser and Carleton 2005).
16666		habitat	eng	This species can be found in tall evergreen forest, riparian areas in deciduous forest, second growth, and shaded coffee fields (Reid 1997). Prefers shady, cool areas.<br/><br/>It is terrestrial; it is often trapped near fallen logs and around the roots of trees or by rocks. Pregnant females were found from March to August in Nicaragua; litter size is 2 to 4 young, mean 2.7 (Reid 1997).
16666		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat (Reid 1997).
16666		threats	eng	Very intensive agriculture and tourism development are reducing this species' habitat.
16667		conservation	eng	Part of this species' range occurs within a protected area.
16667		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a grassland transition zone (from 1,000 to 2,000 m), from central Coahuila to northernmost Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16667		habitat	eng	The optimal habitat for the species is the grassland transition floral zone. This vegetation type separates the Chihuahuan desert scrub below and montane chaparral above. Conspicuous plants are <em>Dasylirion</em>, <em>Nolina</em>, and <em>Yucca</em>, interspersed with various grasses. <br/><br/>Trapping success was better on the slopes than in the arroyo, and a greater number of specimens were collected in the grassland transition vegetation (Alvarez-Castañeda 2002). Litter size averaged 2.9. In captivity, average gestation period while lactating was 33.5 days (range, 30–40 days). Average age at first estrus is 69 days (Alvarez-Castañeda 2002).
16667		population	eng	This species is considered rare (Alvarez-Castañeda 2002).
16667		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
16668		conservation	eng	This species is protected as an endangered species in Mexico (NOM--59-ECOL-2001)
16668		distribution	eng	This species occurs on three islands in the northern Gulf of California, México: San Lorenzo Norte (also called Animas), San Lorenzo Sur, and Salsipuedes.
16668		habitat	eng	The habitat on these islands is desert scrub.
16668		population	eng	On Salsipuedes and San Lorenzo Norte the population is now stable, on San Lorenzo Sur house cats are contributing to a decline in the population.
16668		threats	eng	This species is threatened by predation by feral cats and house cats, and by the development of fishing camps that leads to an increase in the number cats and other introduced species (such as rodents).
16669		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
16669		distribution	eng	Eastern two-thirds of United States and adjoining portions of southern Canada, southward into southern Mexico. However, it does not occur in the coastal plain areas of the southeastern states or in Florida.
16669		habitat	eng	Occupies a variety of habitats throughout its extensive range. In the eastern part of its range, it reaches highest densities in low to mid-elevation dry forests with shrubby understory and is also abundant in brushy fields. In contrast, in the southwestern U.S. it inhabits semi-desert vegetation.
16669		population	eng	Often the most abundant species in eastern woodlands and in hedgerows bordering agricultural fields. Densities vary seasonally and multi-annually, with one study in suboptimal habitat reporting densities ranging from a low of 20.1 individuals/ha during fall of one year to a peak of 57.5 individuals/ha in fall of following year.<br/><br/>It has drastically increased its distribution over the last few decades.
16669		threats	eng	None known.
16670		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
16670		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Nuevo León and west Tamaulipas, in and along the Sierra Madre Oriental, to central Veracruz, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Distrito Federal, and Morelos, México (Houseal <em>et al</em>. 1987; Schmidly <em>et al</em>. 1988; Bradley <em>et al</em>. 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 690 to 3,100 m (Carleton 1989; Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16670		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky habitats within pine, pine-oak, gallery, and pak woodlands. It has been collected from 690 m to 3,100 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal. It feeds on grains, fruits, and green vegetation; it will also consume worms, insects, molluscs and small vertebrates, particularly in early spring (Ceballos and Galindo-L. 1984). Piles of acorn shells may be found at burrow entrances or in small hollows under roots or stones (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 1982). Nests are made from plants and other materials, and are located in rock crevices, tree hollows, and brush piles (Ceballos and Galindo-L. 1984). Dalquest (1953) reported that a leaf nest was found 1 m above ground in a hollow oak tree. Reproduction generally occurs from May through November (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). The number of young per litter varies from one to six, with an average of four (Romo 1993).
16670		population	eng	This species can be common in parts of its range (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16670		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.  However, deforestation within the pine and oak forests could pose a threat in the future.
16671		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001). The range of this species is within Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
16671		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Islas Marías group: San Juanito, María Madre, María Magdalena, and María Cleofás, located off the central western coast of México (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2005).
16671		habitat	eng	This species is present in several habitats, but mainly in tropical deciduous forest. Often, <em>P. madrensis</em> has been found in the interior highlands, near dry riverbeds, and on the surrounding hillsides. This mouse lives under logs, projecting roots, rocks, and small ledges. Pregnant and lactating females and juveniles of both sexes were found in March (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2005).
16671		population	eng	This mouse is abundant in all habitats on María Cleofás Island, the least disturbed island in the chain. On other islands, this species is rare. No individuals were collected in 1991 on María Magdalena Island (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2005); this species may be extirpated from this island.
16671		threats	eng	This species may be threatened due to  competition for resources with introduced fauna (including <em>Capra hircus</em>, <em>Odocoileus virginianus</em>, and <em>Rattus rattus</em>) (Wilson 1991). There is a federal prison on María Madre, and the island houses more than 5,000 people, as well as cattle, horses, goats, sheep, donkeys, rabbits, poultry, and cats (Lopez-Forment <em>et al.</em> 1996). The population of <em>P. madrensis</em> on this island is likely the most threatened by introduced fauna.
16672		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
16672		distribution	eng	This is the most widespread North American rodent. It is found throughout southern Canada, the United States, and north and central Mexico, including Baja California. It is absent from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastal plains of the United States, but its range does extend to the coast in east Texas.
16672		habitat	eng	This species is ecologically diverse, with its 57 subspecies divided into two ecotypes: long-tailed, large-eared forest inhabitants and short-tailed, small-eared inhabitants of open country. Altogether, it is found in virtually every habitat within its range (tundra, taiga, temperate and boreal forests, swamps and bogs, prairies, deserts, and scrublands).
16672		population	eng	It is extremely abundant in some habitats, varying both seasonally and annually.
16672		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16673		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de Cuchumatanes National Park, however, this park is rapidly being cut down and is not well protected. The species would benefit from an increased level of protection of its forest habitat.
16673		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and nearby vicinity (2,950 m) in the Huehuetenango Department, Guatemala, about 7 km northwest of Santa Eulalia, Yaiquich (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 2,900 to 3,000 m.
16673		habitat	eng	This mouse can be found in mature, highland forest, where it seems to be restricted to cold, wet oak forest with scattered pines, abundant epiphytes and fallen trees, and a deep layer of leaf litter (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial, and burrows through the leaf litter under and along decaying logs and tree roots. It appears to require a deep layer of litter, as it was not found in similar forest without deep litter at a slightly lower elevation (2,800 m). At 2,900 m, nightly frost slows decomposition of litter, while at 2,800 the litter layer is shallower due to warmer conditions (Reid 1997). Pregnant females were taken in May, with 1 to 3 embryos (mean of 1.8) (Carleton and Huckaby 1975). All individuals caught in December were nonreproductive (Reid 1997).
16673		population	eng	It is locally common in well-preserved forest, but not in deforested areas.
16673		threats	eng	This mouse is highly threatened due to intensive logging in its small known region of occurrence. Fire is also a potential threat because of the small size of its region of occurrence. Climate change and/or a strong El Niño year, either of which could dry out the area, are other potential threats as the species requires wet leaf litter.
16674		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
16674		distribution	eng	This species occurs in forests in the mountains of central Guerrero, south and north central Oaxaca, and the Estado de Mexico, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
16674		habitat	eng	This species is found in highland pine and oak forests with a preference for riparian areas. It can tolerant anthropogenic change.
16674		population	eng	No population information could be found.
16674		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.  However, deforestation within the pine and oak forests could pose a threat in the future.
16675		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs within a protected area.
16675		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-east Puebla, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is only known from two specimens: the type locality of Ciudad Serdan and a single skin from Tehuacan at 1,700 m (Hall 1981).
16675		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. This area was originally characterized by arid shrubland. This species is thought be specific to one vegetation type.
16675		population	eng	No population information could be found. Only two specimens are known. The last specimen was seen 60 years ago.
16675		threats	eng	The area where the species is found is experiencing loss of native vegetation due to agricultural conversion.
16676		conservation	eng	In the Sierra de Juarez, there is a community-based forest management program which helps to protect its habitat.
16676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierras de Zempoaltépec, Juárez, and Mazteca (ca. 1,500 to 2,500 m) of north-central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16676		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits montane forests in regions characterized by steep slopes, lateritic soils, high rainfall and heavy cloud cover, and relatively low insect and avian diversities and abundances. It occurs in montane rainforest and evergreen cloud forest. Both forest types have a dense, herbaceous understory and bamboo in common (Rickart and Robertson 1985). This species is not tolerant of major habitat conversion.<br/><br/>A seasonal breeding peak was found from March to July (corresponding to the transition between dry and wet seasons). However, at least some reproduction occurs throughout the year. Litter size range is 1 to 3 (mean size 2.8 in wild animals; 1.8 in laboratory). The sex radio (male : female) for 41 individuals born in captivity was 1.93:1; whereas that of 246 snap-trapped specimens from the Cerro Pelon region was 1.54:1. The length of gestation in the laboratory has been estimated at 1 month (Rickart and Robertson 1985).
16676		population	eng	This species is frequent to common (Rickart and Robertson 1985).
16676		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation for small-holder agriculture and expanding human settlements.
16677		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.
16677		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Durango to Coahuila, and south through interior México to Chiapas (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 100 to 2,600 m (Baker 1952; Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982).
16677		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in dry, rocky, desert areas (Reid 1997). It is semi-arboreal. <br/><br/>In San Luis Potosi, Mexico, it is known to emerge at dusk to climb and feed on the fruit of Joshua trees and prickly pear cacti. Ball-like nests of woven grasses are made in thorny terminal branches of Joshua trees. This species is rather noisy and can be located by their constant squeaking (Dalquest 1953). Breeding takes place from June to January; litter size is about 3 (Reid 1997).
16677		population	eng	This species can be common in the northern part of its range, but in Chiapas (southern most extent of its range), it is known from very few specimens taken in the late 1800s (Reid 1997)
16677		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
16678		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16678		distribution	eng	This species' range is mostly within Mexico, but there is a disjunct population in the mountains of southeast Arizona (Chiricahua, Graham, and Santa Catalina Mountains). In Mexico, this species occurs in the central Cordillera Transvolcanica (east Jalisco to central Veracruz), northwards along Sierra Madre Oriental to south Nuevo León and along Sierra Madre Occidental to west Chihuahua (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16678		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in rocky habitats within mesic deciduous and coniferous forests. It iis found throughout the pine-fir zone and intermixed grasslands in high mountains. <br/><br/>This species is noctural and omnivorous (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005). The home range for the species was aproximately 410 m<sup>2</sup>. Mean litter size is 3.7 to 3.8 embryos (Baker 1956; Davis 1944), with a maximum of 5 embryos. Pregnant females have been recorded in January, April, May, July, August, and November; lactating females have been reported only in November; and juveniles in June and July. One fertile cross between <em>Peromyscus melanotis</em> and <em>P. maniculatus</em> produced a litter of males, which were fertile when backcrossed to females of <em>P. maniculatus</em> (Clark 1966), but another similar mating failed to produce offspring. Of 137 interspecific crosses between <em>P. melanotis</em> and <em>P. maniculatus</em>, none produced offspring (Bowers 1974).
16678		population	eng	This mouse is not common to uncommon (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).
16678		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
16679		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine this species population status and habitat preferences.
16679		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an elevational range of between 700 and 1,900 m.
16679		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The area in its range is characterized by tropical lowland deciduous forest and pine/oak forest.
16679		population	eng	No population information could be found.
16679		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, primarily due to agriculture.
16680		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
16680		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south central Arizona, USA, through west Sonora to central Sinaloa, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It can be found from sea level to 1,160 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
16680		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dense mesquite thickets mixed with other woody vegetation and grasses between sea level and 1,160 m elevation. Ground cover in its habitat tends to be dense and the substrate typically has a litter layer of dead vegetation. <br/><br/>It is strictly nocturnal, foraging mostly on the ground for seeds, small fruits, and insects. It appears to breed throughout the year, probably with less activity during the hot summer months and most actively in late winter and early spring. Embryo counts average about 2.6 (range 2 to 4) (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
16680		population	eng	It is common in appropriate habitat (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
16680		threats	eng	Habitat is localized and fragmented.
16681		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Mexico and parts of Central America. Needs research into its taxonomy.
16681		distribution	eng	This species occurs in México, along the Atlantic coast from south San Luis Potosí to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and along the Pacific coast, from the Guerrero-Oaxaca border to central Chiapas; the upper foothills and middle elevation mountains in Guatemala, through El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, to the highlands of Costa Rica and west Panamá (Chiriquí region) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,000 m (usually 600 to 1,500 m) (Reid 1997).
16681		habitat	eng	This mouse occurs in semideciduous, secondary forest along streams. It is also found in rocky thorn scrub, evergreen and highland forest, coffee groves, and brush (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It climbs well but is largely terrestrial in habits. It does not swim and is reluctant to enter water. It is shy and secretive and is seldom seen at night, even where abundant. Stomachs of 27 individuals from Chiapas, Mexico contained 67% arthropods (primarily spiders, ants, crickets, and beetles), 23% seeds (Solanaceae and Compositae), and 10% green plant material (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984). Caches of coffee beans and others seeds were found under rocks, logs, and near burrows in San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Dalquest, 1953). Its burrows are located among the roots of trees, under logs, or in open areas of the forest floor. Breeding can take place year-round, although populations in seasonally dry areas are usually nonreproductive early in the dry season. Litters size is usually 2 to 3 young, mean 2.5 (Reid 1997).
16681		population	eng	It is widespread and often common or abundant (Reid 1997).
16681		threats	eng	None known.
16682		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
16682		distribution	eng	From north-central Colorado and southern Utah southward through western Texas, New Mexico, and eastern Arizona (United States), and northern Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon (Mexico).
16682		habitat	eng	Occurs in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, among rocky outcrops and boulders within pinyon-juniper-oak woodlands. Because suitable habitat is not found uniformly within the range, the species' distribution is highly fragmented.This species is semi-aboreal.
16682		population	eng	Widespread, but patchily distributed, rare to uncommon.
16682		threats	eng	Although a rare species with highly fragmented distribution, there is no information to suggest it is threatened. No major threats are known.
16683		conservation	eng	This species is present in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.
16683		distribution	eng	This species occurs in moist forests of south Tamaulipas and adjacent San Luis Potosí, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 800 m to 2,000 m.
16683		habitat	eng	This species has been observed at elevations ranging from approximately 800 m to 2,000 m in cloud forest and dry pine and oak woodlands (Baker and Phillips 1965). Specimens have been taken from deep leaf litter, rocks, and from borrows under limestone blocks and near logs (Baker and Phillips 1965).
16683		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant, at least within the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve (Castro-Arellano 2005).
16683		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation by timber extraction and conversion of forest to coffee plantations.
16684		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
16684		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern New Mexico, central and western Texas, and southern Oklahoma (United States), south along the Mexican Plateau and Cordillera Oriental to northern Jalisco and Hidalgo, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16684		habitat	eng	This species prefers rocky areas in a wide variety of arid or slightly humid habitats, including desert and grassland habitats, brush-covered foothills, pinyon-oak woodlands, ravines and rocky arroyos (Schmidly 1974).Aassociates with a variety of vegetation types, including chaparral, oak-juniper, catclaw, gramma-bluestem, cedar-oak, and pine-oak.<br/><br/>Immatures may use broader array of microhabitats than do adults (Etheredge <em>et al. </em>1989). Primarily terrestrial; arboreal activity rare (Mullican and Baccus 1990). Nests are in piles of rocks or debris. It feeds on a variety of seeds, including juniper berries, acorns, and hackberries, as well as insects. <em>P. pectoralis</em> breeds throughout most of the year. The average litter size is three, but ranges from two to five. The gestation period is about 23 days (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
16684		population	eng	This mouse is common (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
16684		threats	eng	None known.
16685		conservation	eng	Part of this species' range occurs in protected areas.
16685		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of Jalisco and Colima, along Río Balsas to interior Michoacán, and in northernmost Guerrero, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16685		habitat	eng	This species is found primarily in subtropical deciduous forest, riparian forest, and agricultural areas.
16685		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat.
16685		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
16686		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas and is not protected under Mexican law.
16686		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west-central Chihuahua, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16686		habitat	eng	This species is found in coniferous forests and some xerophilus shrubland (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
16686		population	eng	No population information could be found.
16686		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and open-pit mining within its restricted range.  This species has lost 20% of its habitat over the last 20 years (Sanchez-Cortero <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16687		conservation	eng	The Mexican government considers this species to be threatened (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998).
16687		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Baja California Sur, Coronados Island (26°06?N, 111°18?W), México (Alvarez-Castaneda 1998).
16687		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Coronados Island is 3 km long by 2.5 km wide and is of volcanic origin. On the east side, it is characterized by steep cliffs, with a long sand spit extending from the southwestern edge of the island toward the mainland. Dark lava boulders are particularly prevalent on the west slope (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). This species has been found in the sand spit, and among the rocks (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). The vegetation on the island is desert scrub.
16687		population	eng	No specimens were captured in 1989 in seven working days (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993 in Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). In 1994, 20 specimens were collected in one night.
16687		threats	eng	As on many of the islands in the Gulf of California, feral cats have been introduced to Coronados Island (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998; Alvarez-Casteneda and Ortega-Rubio 2003) and likely represent a predation threat and are causing population decline. The dissection of faecal pellets from feral cats indicates that they consume small rodents (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993 in Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). Another rodent species has already been extirpated on this island.
16688		conservation	eng	This species is listed as threatened in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
16688		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Santa Cruz and San Diego Islands in the southern Gulf of California, México (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001).
16688		habitat	eng	This species occurs along canyons with ground vegetation and cacti of several varieties, including cardon (<em>Pachycereus pringlei</em>) and cholla (<em>Cholla</em> sp.). Specimens collected on San Diego Island were caught on a rocky hillside with very little vegetation, only a few patches of bush, and some bush grass among rocks. Most rodents on Santa Cruz Island were collected in the bottom of canyons; very few were found in slopes and hills (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001). <br/><br/>The dominant vegetation on San Diego Island includes banderita (<em>Bouteloua radicosa</em>), chaparro amargoso (<em>Castela peninsularis</em>), <em>Euphorbia magdalenae</em>, zacate (<em>Heteropogon contortus</em>), matacora (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>), and cholla (<em>Opuntia cholla</em>). The vegetation on Santa Cruz Island includes torote (<em>Bursera microphylla</em>), campanilla (<em>Jacquemontia abutiloides</em>), matacora (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>), and tacote (<em>Viguiera deltoidea</em>).
16688		population	eng	This mouse is very common in suitable habitat (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001).
16688		threats	eng	Feral cats (<em>Felis sylvestris</em>) are present on Santa Cruz Island (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001), but are not yet present on San Diego Island.
16689		conservation	eng	None.
16689		distribution	eng	This species occurs from west-central Sinaloa through west Nayarit, México, from sea level to 250 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16689		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland tropical deciduous forest of the arid upper tropical zone west of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It most frequently occurs in primary deciduous forest, coastal scrub, flood plains, and lower river valleys, and is absent from drier hillsides. Mangroves swamps, palm groves, arroyos, and <em>Acacia</em> thickets have provided numerous captures (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>Pregnant females were caught in February and September. Juveniles were caught in May (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2001).
16689		population	eng	This species is frequent in suitable habitat (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2001).
16689		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture throughout its range and the application of rodenticides.
16690		conservation	eng	<em>P. slevini</em> is considered endangered by the Mexican government.
16690		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Baja California Sur, Santa Catalina Island, 17 mi (27 km) northeast Punta San Marcial, México (Musser and Carleton 2005)
16690		habitat	eng	This rodent has been found in the bottom of a draw, where the soil was sandy. Eight females captured in November were lactating and none was pregnant (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2002).<br/><br/>The main plants in Santa Catalina Island are: copal (<em>Bursera hindsiana</em>), torote (<em>B. microphylla</em>), palo Colorado (<em>Colubrina viridis</em>), incienso (<em>Encelia farinose</em>), palo Amarillo (<em>Esenbeckia flava</em>), golondrina (<em>Euphorbia polycarpa</em>), biznaga (<em>Ferocactus diguetii</em>) and others (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2002).
16690		population	eng	In his 1931 field notes, W. H. Burt indicated that this species was abundant and was even out in the daytime. In 1993 no specimens were collected, 15 were captured in 1995, and 4 were caught in 1998, using 480, 150, and 220 trap-nights, respectively (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2002).
16690		threats	eng	Mammal species composition on the Santa Catalina Island is expected to change, as <em>P. fraticulus</em> has been introduced and is known to be in competition with <em>P. slevini</em> (Alvarez-Castaneda and Cortes-Calva 2002).
16691		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.
16691		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the west flanks of the Sierra Madre Occidental, México, from southeast Sonora and extreme southwest Chihuahua to northeast Colima and west central Michoacán. It is found from low to middle elevations (15 to 1,980 m) (Musser and Carleton 2005).
16691		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid tropical lowlands and montane regions. At lower and middle elevations in Nayarit, it is found along arid, rocky hillsides, and at higher elevations it occurs in pine-oak forest (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Durango, it occupies areas from the tropical, deciduous forests of the western slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental to the thorn forests of the Pacific lowlands (Baker and Greer 1962 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Lactating females were caught in February and March; non-reproductive animals were trapped in the same months as well as in November (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982 in Roberts <em>et al</em>. 1998).
16691		population	eng	No population information could be found.
16691		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is estimated to have lost 4% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (C. de Granmont and A. Cuaron pers. comm.).
16692		distribution	eng	This species is known only from San Esteban Island in the Gulf of California (Mexico).
16692		habitat	eng	This island is desert scrub.
16692		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common.
16692		threats	eng	Given that this species is restricted to a very small island (<42 km<sup>2</sup>), it is likely to experience extreme fluctuations in population due to stochastic threats. There are no feral cats or other introduced species on this island.
16693		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species.  It occurs largely outside of protected areas (R. Timm, N. Woodman, J. O. Cajas pers. comm.).
16693		distribution	eng	This species is intermittently found in dry to semiarid lowlands of southeast Guatemala, southeast El Salvador, Honduras, and west Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It can be found at 200 to 1,000 m (Huckaby 1980). A sub-fossil record from 2,000 - 3,000 years ago from Guanacaste province, Costa Rica, was found in 1988, so its range may extend into northwestern Costa Rica (Woodman 1988)
16693		habitat	eng	This mouse is restricted to dry or semiarid rocky hills and valleys in dry, deciduous forest, brush, and thorn scrub (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial and always is trapped near rocks or boulders. In Nicaragua, a female with 3 embryos was caught in April (Jones and Yates 1983). Females were nonreproductive in December and January in Guatemala (Reid 1997).
16693		population	eng	It is local and usually uncommon; however, it is occasionally common (Reid 1997).
16693		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species (its rocky habitat is not farmed and it is found on rock walls). Adaptable to habitat modification.
16694		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.
16694		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern and central Oregon, northern Nevada, northern Utah, western and southern Colorado in the United States, south to northern Baja California, southeastern Arizona, and southern New Mexico; with a disjunct population in northern Texas (formerly regarded as a separate species, <em>P. comanche</em>) (Carleton 1989; Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993). It occurs from near sea level to above 2,300 m asl.
16694		habitat	eng	It occupies arid and semi-arid regions, and is most often found among rocks or on rocky slopes (but rocky terrain is not required) in a wide variety of habitats including: pinyon- juniper woodlands, chaparral and desert scrub areas, limestone cliffs, redwood forests, riparian woodlands. Nests among rocks; may also nest in trees. Individuals use multiple daytime sites (Hall and Morrison 1997).<br/><br/>It breeds primarily in spring and summer, throughout most of the year in Arizona and in some areas of California and Nevada (see Kirkland and Layne 1989). Average number of litters per year is 3.4 in central California. In New Mexico and Colorado, gestation lasts 25-27 days (non lactating) or about 40 days (lactating). Litter size averages about 3-4. Average life span is less than one year.<br/><br/>In California, the home range averaged 2.9 ha for eight males, 0.8 ha for seven females; the relatively large homes ranges may have reflected the effects of drought and reduced food availability (Hall and Morrison 1997). In New Mexico, median home range size was 0.4-1.6 ha, varying with sex and the method used. In northern New Mexico, based on short-term data, mean home range size (minimum convex polygon) was 0.41 ha (trapping data) or 0.93 ha (radio telemetry) (Ribble <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, nuts, berries, fungi, and insects. Often forages in trees. Active throughout the year. Primarily nocturnal.
16694		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe).
16694		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16695		conservation	eng	This species under special protection by the Mexican government (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).
16695		distribution	eng	This species occurs in isolated localities in the Sierra de Coalcomán, Michoacán, and in the Sierra Madre del Sur, Guerrero, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its range is restricted to the wetter areas on the west side of these mountain ranges (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).
16695		habitat	eng	This species can be found in pine-oak forest. In these areas, trees have thick mats of mosses and lichens and many epiphytes, including large bromeliads and orchids. Various herbs and saplings, rocks, and fallen trees (Carleton 1977, and Duellman1965 in Alvarez-Castañeda,2005) form the understory. Other species collected with this species are <em>Peromyscus boylii</em> and <em>Reithrodontomys fulvescens</em> (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).
16695		population	eng	This species is not very common.
16695		threats	eng	The area in which this species is found is used for timber extraction (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).
16696		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.
16696		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Yucatán Peninsula, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). There have been recent observations reported from Guatemala (Zarza <em>et al.</em> 2003). It occurs at lowland elevations (Reid 1997).
16696		habitat	eng	This mouse occurs in deciduous and semideciduous forest and second growth (Reid 1997). It is mainly terrestrial and can be trapped on the ground or on logs and low branches.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs year-round, but reproductive activity is greatest in the wet season. Litter size is 1 to 4, mean 2.8 (Reid 1997).
16696		population	eng	This species is common (Reid 1997).
16696		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16697		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not found in protected areas.
16697		distribution	eng	This species occurs in middle to high elevation cloud and pine-oak forest in central and southeast Chiapas, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,400 to 2,900 m (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). Specimens have been found in Guatemala that are probably <em>P. zarhynchus</em>, but these have not been confirmed (S. Perez pers. comm.).
16697		habitat	eng	This mouse occurs in wet highland cloud and pine-oak forest. It can be found in mature forest, second growth, and brushy, cutover areas. Below 2,200 m it is restricted to tall forest (Reid 1997). Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial and is usually trapped on the ground near large trees. Mean litter size is 2.0 (Reid 1997).
16697		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997).
16697		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from logging for timber, and by habitat conversion for agriculture. The remaining habitat is severely fragmented. This species has lost more than 50% of its habitat over the past 30 years (Sanchez-Cordero 2005).
16707		conservation	eng	Conservation of caves and karstic regions, and retention of forests. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
16707		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Veracruz, Mexico across Amazonian South America (Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana) to the Atlantic Forests of Brazil (Eisenberg 1989). It may range to moderate elevations of 850 m in Venezuela (Handley 1976). Absent from large areas of Amazonian Brazil, although this area has not been well sampled (Molinari pers. comm.).
16707		habitat	eng	It tolerates dry situations and although it prefers evergreen forest, the species does forage considerably in open fields. Roosting colonies are small, ranging from one to seven, and roosts are in caves and boulder crevices. The mating system is based on a monogamous pair, and the male defends his female against intruding males (Bradbury and Vehrencamp 1977). Forages high in open space above the canopy level. Associated with water (streams and rivers). Occurs in open fields outside forests. Associated with tree savannas. Roost in cave entrances in shady rocky areas (Davalos and Molinari pers. comm.).
16707		population	eng	Widespread but may be restricted by roosting sites; generally common (Emmons and Feer 1997). However, due to its high flight and feeding strategies, it is difficult to estimate population size using current survey methodologies. More than 200 records from Colombia (Molinari pers comm.). Population much less abundant than <em>P. macrotis</em> (Molinari pers comm.). The species is easily confused with <em>P. macrotis</em> (Aguirre pers. comm.).
16707		threats	eng	Association with caves but not restricted to them. There are no known threats at present. Need studies to obtain more details (Lim pers. comm.).
16708		conservation	eng	Forest retention and conservation of caves and karstic regions.
16708		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Peru, Colombia and eastern Brazil north to Venezuela and the Guyanas (Eisenberg 1989). It is found at low elevations (Eisenberg 1989).
16708		habitat	eng	Very little is known concerning the natural history of this species. Roosts are in caves, hollow trees, in hollow rotten logs on the ground (Eisenberg 1989) or under overhanging banks (Emmons and Feer 1997).
16708		population	eng	This species is poorly known. As an aerial insectivore the species forages in background cluttered space to open space, population size can not be inferred due to methodological bias.
16708		threats	eng	Deforestation and loss of cave and karstic habitat.
16709		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
16709		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Guerrero and Yucatán (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and south and eastern Brazil (Simmons 2005).
16709		habitat	eng	<em>P. macrotis</em> typically occurs in tropical deciduous forest, but individuals have been collected from semi-arid thorn scrub (Willig 1983) and evergreen forests (Handley 1976). Diet of <em>P. macrotis</em> comprises small beetles and flies (Bradbury and Vehrencamp 1976; Emmons and Feer 1990, Yee 2000). Found in urban areas (Diaz com pers). In Mexico it has been recorded in crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.)
16709		population	eng	Although few data exist concerning demographics of <em>P. macrotis</em>, populations currently are thought to be stable (Wilson 1996). This species occurs abundantly in some localities (Reid 1997), but may be less abundant but widespread in others (Arita 1993, Yee 2000).
16709		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16710		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas despite the fact that there are many throughout its range. The protected areas of the Central Province are not well managed, and many villagers access them to seek game and firewood. Thus, this species may be hunted out of the protected areas (L. Salas pers. comm.).
16710		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-eastern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. It is broadly distributed throughout its range but at low densities. It has been recorded from sea level and the upper limit of altitudinal range is probably about 1,000 m asl.
16710		habitat	eng	The Giant Bandicoot is the largest bandicoot in the world. It occurs in lowland tropical moist forest and gallery forests.
16710		population	eng	It is rarely encountered and the local abundance is suspected to be naturally low.
16710		threats	eng	<em>Peroryctes broadbenti</em> is threatened by hunting for food by local people and by habitat loss due to conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural land and commercial agriculture, especially oil palm plantations. Bushmeat has increased substantially in value – this species would sell for 84 Kina in the markets (J. Menzies pers. comm.).
16711		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
16711		distribution	eng	Raffray's Bandicoot is widespread throughout the highlands of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and it is also found on Yapen Island (Flannery 1995a,b). It occurs from 60 to 3,900 m asl, though it is most common at around 1,000 m asl (Flannery 1995a).
16711		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane and upper montane tropical moist forests, and montane grasslands. It is rarely found in secondary or regenerating forest, preferring undisturbed forest. Animals have been recorded from secondary forests, but the species is fairly intolerant of habitat disturbance. The average litter size is one or two young (Flannery 1995a).
16711		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
16711		threats	eng	Raffray's Bandicoot is hunted for food by local people throughout its range, but this is not seen as a major threat to the species.
16712		conservation	eng	There are no plans in place to cease the small-scale deforestation of habitat, or to stop the development of tourist lodges in the species habitat, although research is needed to see what effect this is having on <em>Petalura pulcherrima</em>.
16712		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; Cape York Peninsula and northeastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
16712		habitat	eng	Adults are usually found along rainforest streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
16712		population	eng	A scarce species with an unknown population trend.
16712		threats	eng	The continued change in how the habitat is managed is going to have a negative effect on the species, so to is the small-scale logging of the forest habitats.
16713		conservation	eng	This species is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz&#160; 2007). The known population requires monitoring to establish the severity of the observed population decline described by Reischütz & Reischütz (2009). If current biotope destruction continues to cause population declines throughout the range then conservation measures may be required in the future.
16713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria, being found in two sub-areas: southern Lower Austria and Styria with an extent of occurrence of 8,125 km<sup>2</sup>. Klemm (1974) noted approximately 60 known sites.
16713		habitat	eng	The species may be found on forest edges with tall herbs, on rocky grassland or in ruins.
16713		population	eng	According to Reischütz and Reischütz (2009) the population is decreasing.
16713		threats	eng	This species is known to be threatened by biotope destruction through both clear-cutting of suitable habitat and afforestation with spruce.
16714		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
16714		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single location in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia.
16714		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and probably prefers forest.
16714		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, as the only known record is the type specimen from 1901.
16714		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat conversion due to agriculture and logging.
16715		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
16715		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Brunei and Malaysia, in northern Borneo.
16715		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and nocturnal and probably prefers tall dipterocarp forest.
16715		population	eng	It is known from only a few lowland sites on Borneo. No recent surveys have been done for this species.
16715		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agriculture.
16716		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
16716		distribution	eng	This species is known from Selangor, in southwest Peninsular Malaysia.
16716		habitat	eng	It is found in rubber plantations and natural forests.
16716		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
16716		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss.
16718		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the extent of the north-west distribution, as the distruibution in Qinghai and Gansu may belong to <em>P. xanthotis</em>, not <em>P. alborufus</em>.  It occurs in the following nature reserves; Daozhendashahe, Mayanghe, Leigongshan, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Fodingshan, Maolan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taoyuandong, Shimenhupingshan, Badagongshan, Suoxiyu, Bamianshan, Mangshan, Foping, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Changshanerhai, Daweishan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan, Xiaoxi (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005). It likely occurs in many additional protected areas. A status survey of Kenting National Park (Taiwan) did not find the presence of this species, which once existed there (Pei 2004). In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
16718		distribution	eng	This species is found in China in the provinces of Shaanxi, Hunan (CSIS 2008), Guangxi, Sichuan, Gansu, Hubei, Guizhou, and Yunnan, and including Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). It is likely that this species' southern distribution extends into Myanmar; however, there are no known specimens collected from within the country. It occupies elevations ranging from 800-3,500 m asl, most often from 2,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). Observations confirm sympatric distribution with <em>Hylopetes alboniger</em>, <em>P. phillipensis</em> and <em>Trogopterus xanthipes</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).
16718		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense montane forest, limestone cliffs, and in Taiwan hardwood (preferred) and conifer forests (Smith and Xie 2008). They are nocturnal and nest in high tree hollows (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>This species has low fecundity, with litter sizes of 1-2 (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1993a; Smith and Xie 2008). They feed on acorns, other nuts, fruits and leafy vegetation, as well as insects, larvae and perhaps bird eggs (Smith and Xie 2008).
16718		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
16718		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting may be a threat in Taiwan where it is a major game species (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1993b).
16719		conservation	eng	This species is present in mant protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Indonesia.
16719		distribution	eng	This widely distributed Asian species is found in northern South Asia, southern and central China, and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded in Nepal, Bhutan and northeastern India at elevations of 3,000 to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is widespread in China, where it has been recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Xizang, Hunan, Hubei, Shaanxi and Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, this species is widespread throughout its range in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, and Sabah and Sarawak), Thailand, and Indonesia (Sumatra and Java). In Southeast Asia, it is found at elevations between 1,000 and 4,000 m asl (Peninsular Malaysia).
16719		habitat	eng	This montane species has been found in temperate pine forests, wet tropical evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It is found in tall trees, but also often in rhododendron scrub and on rock cliffs (Smith and Xie 2008). It nests in tree hollows (Smith and Xie 2008).
16719		population	eng	This species is locally common to abundant.
16719		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In Southeast Asia, this species could be threatened by large-scale industrial logging in montane areas.
16720		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas.
16720		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan and is known from Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is found in lowlands up to the subalpine zone.
16720		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and mature secondary forest, conifer plantations, and sometimes in urban areas (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16720		population	eng	It is a common species, with greater abundance in the lowlands.
16720		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16721		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.  However, it is not known from any protected areas. Survey, taxonomic research  and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
16721		distribution	eng	This species is limited to northern South Asia, southern China and western Southeast Asia. This species has been recorded from Bhutan, India and Nepal in South Asia at elevations of 1,500 to 2,240 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is found in southern Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species is only found in western and northern Myanmar.
16721		habitat	eng	This species lives in evergreen tropical and subtropical and broad-leafed forests from the lowlands up to 3,000 m. It seems to prefer deciduous forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). They occupy nests with a round entrance at heights of 5–15 m above the ground (Smith and Xie 2008). They are reported to have a generation time of 7–8 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16721		population	eng	It is a locally rare species over much of its range. In South Asia, there has reportedly been a quantitative decrease in the population (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
16721		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to non-timber plantations (cardamom and tea), small-scale logging, human encroachments, forest fires have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Habitat at the type locality is lost (S.S. Saha pers. comm. 2005). It is hunted as a subsistence food source in some areas.
16722		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The subspecies <em>singhei</em> occurs in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Sessa Sanctuary in Aruncachal Pradesh (Choudhury 2002). Survey, life history and limiting factor studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bhutan, India and Nepal at altitudes of 1,500 to 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005, Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). Choudhury (2002) observes the subspecies <em>singhei</em> as occurring in Arunachal Pradesh, India. It has a very thin range of montane forest of about 1.5 km based on the elevation range (J. Thapa pers. comm. 2005).
16722		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and crepuscular/nocturnal species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical montane, montane pine and rhododendron forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; T.K. Shreshta pers. comm. 2005). The generation time is estimated to be about seven or eight years.
16722		population	eng	The population of this species is declining with continuing habitat loss in the region.
16722		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to logging and mining operations, expansion of human settlements, construction of dams, and hunting for local consumption have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
16723		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). This is considered to be a species complex for which taxonomic revision is needed. Surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
16723		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species has been recorded from northern South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. This species has a large distribution in South Asia, being recorded from eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, eastern Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and northern India at elevations of 500 to 3,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Fujian, Guangxi and Guangdong (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is found on the mainland from Myanmar in the west, into western Thailand and south to Peninsular Malaysia. It is largely distributed in insular Southeast Asia on the island of Sumatra and Java (both to Indonesia) and Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia).
16723		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species. It occurs in moist evergreen broadleaf forest, temperate forest, coniferous forests, scrub forest, rocky areas as inland cliffs, mountain peaks (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).
16723		population	eng	It is often a locally common to abundant species.
16723		threats	eng	Habitat conversion due to logging, agriculture, dam construction, infrastructure development and urbanization is occurring throughout the range of the species. It has been harvested for the pet and fur trade in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
16724		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas in Southeast Asia. In India it is present in Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh; Valmiki Tiger Reserve, Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary in Bihar; Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka; Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam WS, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thathekad Bird Sanctuary in Kerala; Bori Wildlife Sanctuary, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh; Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan; Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. In Sri Lanka it is known from Horton Plains National Park, Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province and Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sabaragamuwa (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. A taxonomic review of populations currently allocated to this species is needed.
16724		distribution	eng	This widely distributed Asian species is found in South Asia, southern and central China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is seemingly patchily distributed in India and Sri Lanka. In China, it has been recorded from Hainan Island, Yunnan, Sichuan and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present on the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it is distributed over much of the mainland, being only absent from the Malay Peninsula. In South Asia it has been recorded from 500 to 2,000 m asl; in Southeast Asia it is known up to 1,000 m asl (Duckworth 1998).
16724		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal and nocturnal species. In South Asia it occurs in dry deciduous forests and evergreen forests. In addition to natural forest, it has been recorded from plantations. It is found to occupy tree canopies and holes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). On Hainan Island it has been found only in large patches of forest, where it was considered abundant (Smith and Xie 2008). On Taiwan they are most abundant in hardwood compared with coniferous forest (Smith and Xie 2008).
16724		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Southeast Asia where suitable habitat protection is in place (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1994; Duckworth 1998; Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). It could be in local decline in a few areas in India where it is under heavy hunting pressure (Rajamani pers. comm.). It appears to be in decline in the Western Ghats and also in northeastern India (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
16724		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. In Southeast Asia, the species seems to be very resilient to threats, but it could decline with increasing habitat loss; although there is no serious evidence of this except where forest is being completely replaced. In South Asia, habitat loss and degradation resulting from logging, shifting cultivation, expansion of human settlements and forest fires are considered to be threats for this species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is hunted for local consumption and medicinal purposes in South Asia and China.
16725		conservation	eng	This species is likely to occur in Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
16725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Qinghai, and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations at about 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
16725		habitat	eng	This species occupies spruce forests at high elevations in western China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is nocturnal, and uses burrows in trees for nesting, and does not hibernate (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It forages on young shoots and leaves, as well as pine nuts (Smith and Xie 2008). Parturition takes place in summer, litter size averages two (Smith and Xie 2008).
16725		population	eng	Records for this species suggest that its range and abundance are large (Smith and Xie 2008).
16725		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16726		conservation	eng	A community conservation area is being established in the range of this species. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and conservation measures for it are needed.
16726		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Somoro, and adjacent areas, in the Torricelli Mountains of north-western Papua New Guinea. Fossil records indicate that the species never occurred in the Bewani range, so appears to be confined to the Torricelli range. It has been recorded at 1,000 and 1,220 m asl. It may range as low as 300 m asl, although this requires confirmation.
16726		habitat	eng	This species has been found in primary, mid-montane tropical moist forests. It is also known from rural gardens close to forest (Flannery 1995).
16726		population	eng	It is known from very few records and appears to be a generally rare species. Only seven animals have been captured in the last 20 years.
16726		threats	eng	It is threatened by heavy deforestation due to human encroachment (i.e., conversion to gardens), and by hunting for meat by local people.
16727		conservation	eng	The Mahogany Glider is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Approximately 45 percent of remnant Mahogany Glider habitat occurs within protected areas, including: Edmund Kennedy National Park, Girringun National Park, Paluma Range National Park, Mahogany Glider Nature Refuge, Seafarm Nature Refuge, Chakoro Nature Refuge, as well as several Forest Reserves and State Forests (Parsons and Latch 2007; P. Latch pers. comm.). The distribution of Mahogany Glider habitat has been identified and mapped by the Environmental Protection Agency (P. Latch pers. comm.). Mahogany Glider habitat is protected from further clearing under Queensland government legislation (P. Latch pers. comm.). A detailed recovery plan has been developed for the species (Parsons and Latch 2007). <br/><br/>Recommendations from the recovery plan (Parsons and Latch 2007), include: updating Mahogany Glider habitat mapping and identifying areas for protection, restoration, and management; identifying, managing, and monitoring habitats threatened by encroaching rainforest; developing strategies to conserve Mahogany Glider habitat on private lands; implementing habitat recovery burns at key sites and improving weed control; reducing threats arising from transport and easement corridors; promoting a Mahogany Glider friendly-fencing scheme; determining the population genetic structure of Mahogany Gliders; and increasing public awareness and involvement in the recovery of the species.
16727		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to an area of coastal lowland forest between Crystal Creek, south-east of Ingham, north to the Hull River; a latitudinal range of approximately 122 km (Jackson and Claridge 1999; Jackson 2008). The distribution of the Mahogany Glider largely falls within the Wet Tropics biogeographic region over an area of approximately (P. Latch pers. comm.). All of its distribution is severely fragmented (Parsons and Latch 2007).
16727		habitat	eng	Occurring in habitat below 120 m elevation, the arboreal and nocturnal Mahogany Glider is highly mobile and dependent on continuous open forest or woodland. They feed primarily on nectar and pollen, gliding at night between feed trees and sometimes foraging close to the ground. They usually forage alone, possibly to avoid predators (Van Dyck 1993; Jackson 1998). They use tree hollows as dens for sleeping and rearing young (Jackson 2000a). First breeding occurs at around 12 - 18 months and young are weaned after 4 - 5 months (Jackson 2000b).
16727		population	eng	The Mahogany Glider is cryptic, elusive, and virtually silent. These attributes continue to hinder survey efforts to estimate total population size and to determine the southern, western, and northern limits of distribution. Consequently there are no published data on total Mahogany Glider abundance or distribution limits beyond modelling based on known records to date (P. Latch pers. comm.).
16727		threats	eng	Clearing of forest for sugar cane, bananas, pineapples, improved pasture, Caribbean pine, and aquaculture has had a dramatic impact on habitat and has lead to a corresponding reduction in the distribution and connectivity of the species. Only 20 percent of former available habitat remains (Blackman <em>et al.</em> 1994) and this is severely fragmented (Parsons and Latch 2007). Altered fire regimes, weed invasion, and intensive grazing threaten the structure and ecological integrity of remaining habitat fragments. The subsequent decline in habitat quality and isolation of populations are major threats to the species’ survival. Major roads disrupt movements of Mahogany Gliders and road kills have been recorded. Mahogany Gliders also can become entangled on barbed-wire fences resulting in fatalities (P. Latch pers. comm.).
16728		conservation	eng	Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: develop national recovery plan and establish recovery team. The Plan should incorporate the Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement, which should be published and implemented. It should also examine what amendments are needed to current forest management practices to enhance Squirrel Glider habitat; monitor persistence and abundance throughout range, particularly at peripheral and isolated sites. This is especially urgent for inland populations in New South Wales and Queensland, where range also needs to be documented more accurately; reassess the evidence of presence in coastal forests of southern New South Wales. Conduct further, carefully-targeted, surveys if necessary; use biochemical taxonomic techniques to examine the possible differences between coastal and inland populations; conduct further research into the ecological requirements of the species and the impacts of habitat alterations, including timber removal, silviculture and grazing; further habitat protection in State forests, parks, and on private property is needed, especially in areas of box-ironbark in northern Victoria and western New South Wales, and areas of grey gum-grey ironbark-spotted gum from near Sydney to the Queensland-New South Wales border.
16728		distribution	eng	The Squirrel Glider occurs in a broad band from Cape York Peninsula (Queensland) to central Victoria, extending to the coastal side of the Great Dividing Range between southern Queensland and central New South Wales. It is also possibly present in Bordertown, South Australia where it was last recorded in 1990 (van der Ree and Suckling 2008). It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,200 m asl.
16728		habitat	eng	This species is associated with dry open forest and woodland, tall coastal forest and Banksia woodland in the north-east of its distribution, and ionbark-lemon-scented gum-forest red gum association in north Queensland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). They are also in rainforest in south-east Queensland and urban environments such as suburban Brisbane.
16728		population	eng	It is patchily distributed, and can be locally common or scarce.
16728		threats	eng	There is steady attrition of quality and extent of habitat remnants due to removal of timber both for sawn products and firewood. There is also a lack of suitable hollows in most habitat remnants on the inland slopes and regeneration of trees and shrubs is hindered by grazing by stock, rabbits, macropods, and inappropriate fire regimes. Coastal developments and clearance of forest remnants in New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland also adversely affect this species (van der Ree and Suckling 2008).
16730		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Management of timber such that large areas of intact, contiguous forest remain is important for this species. Currently sap trees must be identified and preserved, but the effectiveness of this measure is uncertain (Goldingay 2008). Timber-harvesting and fire management should be aimed at maintaining tree-hollows.
16730		distribution	eng	The Yellow-bellied Glider is endemic to eastern Australia, where it occurs from the Mount Windsor tablelands (Queensland) in the north to the Victoria/ South Australia border (Goldingay 2008).
16730		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet sclerophyll, open coastal, and foothill forests. When not in their tree-hollow dens, Yellow-bellied Gliders spend about 90 percent of their time foraging (Goldingay 2008). Individuals of this species require unusually large areas of habitat. This species is particularly noted for feeding on eucalyptus sap, and sap trees are well marked and routinely visited by the gliders (Goldingay 2008). Females typically give birth to a single young annually (Goldingay 2008).
16730		population	eng	It can be a common species, but it is patchily distributed.
16730		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation due to timber-harvesting and agriculture are the main threats to this species. Due to past forest management there is a current dearth of available live hollow-bearing trees within Yellow-Bellied Glider habitats. Remaining dead trees are therefore an important resource, but these are at risk of collapse due to regular prescribed burning regimes and windthrow. In Queensland and New South Wales (and possibly Victoria) broad-scale land clearing has been stopped due to newly introduced vegetation management legislation. However, degradation to existing habitat (e.g., through fire, timber removal) within the habitat of isolated populations, but also between non-isolated populations, is a huge threat to the species (essentially inducing a fragmentation effect) throughout its range, due to its wide-ranging and extensive habitat requirements (T. Eyre pers. comm.).
16731		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas throughout its range. Further taxonomic studies are needed because <em>P. breviceps</em> might be composed of more than one species. It is very understudied; research into its ecology, habitat requirements, population status are also needed.
16731		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Moluccan Islands in the west (including the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, and Gebe) (all Indonesia); it is present on the islands of Misool, Salawati, Supiori, Yapen (all Indonesia); it is present on the Kai Islands and Adi Island (both Indonesia); the species is widespread throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); it is present on the islands of Bagabag, Karkar and New Britain (all Papua New Guinea); many of the Trobriand Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Louisiade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea); and ranges throughout much of northern, eastern and southern Australia, including the island of Tasmania (were it is introduced) and a number of offshore islands (e.g., Groote Eylandt). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 3,000 m asl.
16731		habitat	eng	This species is present where nesting hollows are available in various types of primary, secondary, and degraded forest. It has been recorded from plantations and rural gardens. Females give birth to two young.
16731		population	eng	It is locally common over much of its range. Populations in Australia are considered to be stable (Suckling 2008).
16731		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. Land clearance mainly for agriculture is a threat through many parts of its range. It is susceptible to bushfires.
16732		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area. Further taxonomic work is needed to determine its relationship to <em>P. breviceps</em>.
16732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Biak-Supiori and Owi, Papua Province, Indonesia.
16732		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary tropical forests on limestone substrate, and has been recorded from degraded and secondary forests, rural gardens, and plantations. It is largely arboreal but occasionally comes down to the ground. Females give birth to one or two young.
16732		population	eng	It is a common species.
16732		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is occasionally taken by dogs and cats, but this is not considered to be a major threat.
16733		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in several protected areas, including Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). Basic research on habitat use, abundance and distribution is needed.
16733		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Mindanao Faunal Region. There are records from Basilan, Dinagat, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known to occur from 500 to 1,600 m (Musser and Heaney 1992). There are no records from Leyte or Samar, and they are likely to be absent from these islands (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
16733		habitat	eng	This species is a ground squirrel and is found in lowlands to montane primary forest, although its abundance is higher in its preferred habitat (oak forest) at upper elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). The habitat at that altitude is in pretty good shape since it is cold, wet, and difficult to access.
16733		population	eng	This species seems to be most abundant in mid-elevation primary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Mt. Kitanglad, they are extremely common (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is also abundant in relatively undisturbed oak-dominated montane forest.
16733		threats	eng	This species is currently not threatened by habitat destruction, although there is some concern about the expansion of vegetable farming at high elevations. It is not hunted very often.
16734		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Sri Lanka - India: Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thathekad Bird Sanctuary in Kerala; Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu; Sri Lanka: Adam’s Peak Wildlife Sanctuary, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province and Sinharaja Forest Reserve and Sabaragamuwa Forest Reserve, Sabaragamuwa Province. Taxonomic studies, survey, ecological studies, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
16734		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Western Ghats of southern India and to the island of Sri Lanka at elevatons of 500 to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It has a wide distribution range in the two countries. In India, it is known from many fragmented locations in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, from Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary and Makutta in Coorg in Karnataka, while in Sri Lanka it has been recorded from many fragmented locations in Central, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern and Uva provinces (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
16734		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species. It occurs in evergreen, deciduous and montane forests. It occupies tree canopies and holes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Can survive in slightly modified habitat (semi deciduous), former evergreen areas. Forages in plantations adjacent to forests (N. Rajamani pers. comm.). Small, solitary, nocturnal  species living 15-20 m in canopy. Generation time may be 3-3.5 years based on other similar species (other Petaurillus).
16734		population	eng	It is very rare compared to the more commonly sighted Petaurista phillippensis.
16734		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to expansion of agriculture, small wood plantations, small-scale logging, infrastructure development and human settlements are major threats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Harvesting for local consumption is a minor threat (N. Rajamani pers. comm.).
16735		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range.
16735		distribution	eng	This species is found on Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia and northern Borneo.
16735		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and nocturnal. This species is found in lowland tall primary and secondary forest. It may also occur in tree plantations.
16735		population	eng	Population levels are unknown because it is difficult to survey this species.
16735		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss due to logging and agriculture.
16736		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
16736		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality in northern Sumatra, because the only known specimen from Borneo has been lost.
16736		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and arboreal, living in primary forest.
16736		population	eng	Population levels are unknown as this species is difficult to survey.
16736		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural conversion and logging.
16737		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, and it is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
16737		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Mentawai Archipelago (Sipura and North Pagai islands) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
16737		habitat	eng	<em>P. lugens</em> prefers forest.
16737		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, but likely in steep decline due to the rate of recent habitat loss on these islands.
16737		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversion.
16738		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.
16738		distribution	eng	This species is known from the island of Java in Indonesia.
16738		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal and arboreal. If this is a real species, it is probably found in lowland tall primary and secondary forest. It may also occur in tree plantations.
16738		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen described in 1776.
16738		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss due to logging and agriculture.
16739		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution and abundance of this species.
16739		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, and northern Borneo (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
16739		habitat	eng	This is nocturnal and arboreal, specialized to deciduous forest in northern Thailand and possibly elsewhere. This species is found in higher elevations in the north and lowland areas in the south.
16739		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
16739		threats	eng	In the southern part of its range, it is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and habitat conversion.
16740		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from protected areas across its range.
16740		distribution	eng	This species known from scattered localities on southern Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, northern and central Borneo, and islands off eastern Sumatra.
16740		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and nocturnal and it likely prefers lowland rainforest.
16740		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Further studies are needed into the distribution, and abundance of this species.
16740		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss due to logging and agricultural conversion.
16744		conservation	eng	Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: survey to clarify distribution, abundance, and habitat requirements, especially on the mainland; identify populations for regular monitoring; conduct research aimed at understanding species' conservation biology. The four known island populations are outside protected areas.
16744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in the north-west Kimberley of Western Australia. It is present on a few nearby islands: Bigge, Boongaree, Katers, and possibly Wollaston (based on a sight record). The only known localities on the mainland are in and around the Prince Regent Nature Reserve to the Mitchell Plateau (Pearson <em>et al.</em> 2008). There have been limited surveys of the mainland and offshore islands.
16744		habitat	eng	This species is found in rugged sandstone areas – screes and rock piles, near open woodland vine thickets.
16744		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat on the mainland, but this habitat is limited (Pearson <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population is abundant on Bigge Island (ca. 18,000 ha).
16744		threats	eng	The current threats to the species are unknown. Predation by feral cats may be affecting abundance on the mainland. Changed fire regimes may also be affecting the species. Future exploitation of bauxite deposits on the Mitchell Plateau could have a potential negative impact, though the deposits are not within its preferred habitat.
16746		conservation	eng	The Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs within a number of protected areas. A detailed recovery plan has been developed for the species within New South Wales (DECC 2008). <br/><br/>The recovery of this species is particularly complex and requires a consideration of threats and management interventions at a variety of spatial scales – from local to regional (Murray <em>et al.</em> 2008; DECC 2008). Threats also vary across the range of the species so that, for example, fox predation is considered less of a threat in the northern portion of the range than in the south (DECC 2008). Recommendations from the recovery plan (DECC 2008), include: further surveys to improve knowledge of the distribution and abundance of the species; identifying the main local and widespread threats and the interactions between these; monitoring the effectiveness of management responses; expanding existing predator and introduced herbivore control; maintaining and enhancing captive breeding programs for identified regional populations; and continuing and expanding community-based conservation programs.
16746		distribution	eng	The Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it occurs in south-eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, and as a tiny population in the East Gippsland of eastern Victoria.
16746		habitat	eng	Brush-tailed Rock Wallabies are found in structurally complex, rocky habitats. Often these areas are gorges, cliffs, rock outcrops, or boulder piles. Most of these sites have a northerly aspect, but this appears not to be as important as rock complexity that contains a number of refuges from predators (Murray <em>et al.</em> 2008). The rocky environments occur within a variety of vegetated landscapes from dense rainforest to dry sclerophyll or open woodland (Eldridge and Close 2008). This species occurs as small colonies, usually with less than 30 individuals, but sometimes more (Piggott <em>et al.</em> 2006). These colonies run the risk of becoming inbred. Highly structured breeding and male dispersal have helped reduce the risk of inbreeding (Hazlitt <em>et al.</em> 2004), but as these colonies become increasingly isolated they are at greater risk (Hazlitt <em>et al.</em> 2006a,b).
16746		population	eng	This species is sparsely distributed within abundant suitable habitat (Eldridge and Close 2008). It is difficult to estimate population sizes because it is nocturnal, and occurs in very rugged terrain. The species is declining at many localities and the overall population is in decline. The total population size is estimated to be between 15,000 and 30,000 individuals (DECC 2008). The stronghold for the species is within north-eastern New South Wales, containing as much as 80% of the total population – most of which is within the Macleay River and Clarence River gorges (DECC 2008). An estimated 2% of the population occurs elsewhere in New South Wales, 17% within Queensland, and less than 1% in Victoria (DECC 2008).
16746		threats	eng	There is a lack of data about the threats to the Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby (Eldridge and Close 2008). Predation by introduced foxes and competition with introduced goats are likely to be the greatest threats. Foxes prey on young rock wallabies and probably limit dispersal as well as recruitment. Introduced dogs and cats are also probably threats, but the habitat in which this species lives is not well suited to these predators. Habitat fragmentation and land clearance between colonies is also thought to limit dispersal and reduce numbers of individuals by exposing rock wallabies to higher rates of predation. As colony isolation increases so does the risk of inbreeding (Hazlitt <em>et al.</em> 2006a,b). <br/><br/>Hunting was perhaps the main factor in reducing the population and range of this species. A sustained commercially-driven period of hunting led to the decline of many populations and local extinctions, and may have been the primary cause of the initial decline, at least in central and southern New South Wales. Bounties were paid on over half a million rock-wallabies between 1894 and 1914 (Short and Milkovits 1990) and there was an extensive fur trade from pre-1890 to 1927 (Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species was also hunted extensively in the Grampians area of Victoria. The magnitude of hunting is apparent when one considers that the current population of the species is estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000 individuals, and in 1908 alone 92,590 skins were marketed by a single company (Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1997).
16747		conservation	eng	Proserpine Rock Wallaby is present in four protected areas, the Conway National Park, Dryander National Park, Gloucester Island National Park, and Proserpine State Forest on the Clarke Range (B. Nolan pers. comm.). It is listed as a threatened species under Australian law.<br/><br/>One Translocated/introduced population has also been established on Hayman Island from captive bred stock with additions required to this population from captive bred stock over the next 4 years (B. Nolan pers. comm.). Studies of reproduction and aging of pouch young have also been completed for this species in captivity (B. Nolan pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A recovery plan is in place (Nolan and Johnson 2000). Recommendations from the recovery plan include: monitor existing colonies, search for new colonies, and continue mapping the habitat; establish other colonies in suitable places from captive bred animals; minimize disease and incidental kills; and increase community awareness and involvement recovery.
16747		distribution	eng	This species occurs from a restricted area near Proserpine in north-east coastal Queensland, Australia, including the Conway National Park, Dryander National Park, Gloucester Island National Park, and Proserpine State Forest on the Clarke Range (B. Nolan pers. comm.). One translocated/introduced population has also been established on Hayman Island from captive bred stock with additions required to this population from captive bred stock over the next 4 years (B. Nolan pers. comm.).
16747		habitat	eng	Inhabits rock outcrops and cliffs within semi-deciduous microphyll/notophyll dry vine forest. It uses grassy areas in abutting open woodlands for food gathering in dry months of the year. It is nocturnal and commonly found between rock crevices and in caves during the day (Nolan and Johnson 2000).
16747		population	eng	This species has a small and declining population.
16747		threats	eng	It appears to have declined mainly as a result of loss of habitat, and the proximity of the species to settled areas leading to mortality from predation by domestic dogs and road kills (Nolan and Johnson 2000). It is threatened by increased tourist development and urbanization (Johnson and Eldridge 2008). It is additionally threatened by toxoplasmosis and consumption of introduced toxic plants (Nolan and Johnson 2000). There are also problems of hybridization with <em>Petrogale inornata</em>.
16750		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Yellow-footed Rock Wallaby recovery is a major focus of Operation Bounceback in the Olary Hills, and the Flinders and Gawler Ranges (South Australia). These efforts have resulted in major population increases in the Olary Ranges and parts of the Flinders Ranges. Continued fox and goat control is important for this species. For more than a decade there have been reintroductions of captive-bred Yellow-footed Rock Wallabies to sites in Queensland and South Australia (Lapidge 2000, 2005). These reintroductions have been very successful and should continue. Regular monitoring of sites in South Australia should continue as well as monitoring of reintroduced populations.
16750		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a highly disjunct and patchy distribution in South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland.
16750		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky outcrops and is often associated with permanent or semi-permanent water sources (Eldridge 2008). It is a highly social species that lives in small colonies usually of less than 20 individuals (Copley and Alexander 1997), but sometimes containing more than a hundred (Eldridge 2008). Dispersal between colonies is rare (Pope <em>et al.</em> 1996; Sharp 1997). Recruitment is low in this species due to high juvenile mortality (Eldridge 2008).
16750		population	eng	The population of Yellow-footed Rock Wallabies fluctuates depending on rainfall. There are estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals in the wild. A large section of the species range in South Australia has been surveyed (most years from 1993-2008), indicating that there are on the order of 6,000 individuals currently in South Australia. There are less than 100 individuals in New South Wales, and the size of the population in Queensland is unknown.<br/><br/>The overall population trend of the species is unknown. There has been evidence of a general population decline in the Flinders Ranges and a number of colonies in the Olary Hills and Gawler Ranges have gone extinct (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, populations have dramatically increased in some areas over the last few decades due to fox and goat control measures (including in the Olary Hills, and the Flinders and Gawler Ranges). Successful reintroductions of captive-breed individuals to areas in South Australia and Queensland have recently taken place (Lapidge 2000, 2005).
16750		threats	eng	Predation from introduced foxes is the greatest threat to Yellow-footed Rock Wallabies (Lapidge and Henshall 2001). Competition with domestic and introduced herbivores (particularly goats, rabbits, and sheep) and wildfire are major threats. Historically, this species declined due these threats and as a result of hunting for pelts from the 1880s to 1920s and land clearance for agriculture (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
16751		conservation	eng	All three subspecies and both races of Black-footed Rock Wallaby are listed as threatened under Australian law. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. The separate subspecies and races are managed separately. Some of the island populations should be sampled genetically – not all have been sampled and there is evidence of inbreeding with some locations. Regular monitoring of populations should be conducted in a coordinated fashion. Predator control measures (primarily fox baiting) need to be maintained and expanded within key areas for the species, as well as monitoring of fox populations. Fire management and habitat restoration should be implemented where feasible. <br/><br/>A number of reintroductions of have been carried out to date and management of the relevant threatening processes described above is particularly important when establishing new populations (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2007). <em>P. l. pearsoni</em> was endemic to North Pearson Island, but in 1960 it was accidentally introduced to South and Middle Pearson, where populations are now established (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). In 1974 this subspecies was translocated to Thistle Island and in 1975 to Wedge Island (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). <em>P. l. lateralis</em> has been reintroduced to Avon Valley National Park (2001), Paruna Sanctuary (2001), Walyunga National Park (2002), and Cape Le Grand National Park (2003) (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further reintroductions/ translocations are planned and these should proceed along with the maintenance of genetic variation within captive-breeding populations.
16751		distribution	eng	The Black-footed Rock Wallaby is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in rocky areas in the central, southern, and western portions of the country and includes a number of offshore islands. Many of the populations of this species are isolated from each other, and this separation has given rise to three recognized subspecies (<em>Petrogale lateralis lateralis</em>, <em>P. l. hacketti</em>, <em>P. l. pearsoni</em>) and two races (West Kimberley and MacDonnell Ranges). There have been a number of localized extinctions of this species over the last 100 years, but there are have also been several reintroductions, translocations, and even a couple of accidental introductions of the species as well.
16751		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of steep and rocky habitats. The vegetation in these areas varies widely from temperate rocky islands to pandanus lined gorges and spinifex covered hills in the central deserts (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). The diet of this species includes grass and some fruit, and it can survive without water for long periods, as its need is reduced by sheltering in caves during the day where relative humidity is higher (Langford and Pavey 2002). The species is long lived, with the average age of breeding females about 6 years (females mature at 1 year; animals live about 12 years).
16751		population	eng	The global population is probably over 10,000 mature individuals. Historically, the MacDonnell race of Black-footed Rock Wallaby began a steep decline in the 1930s, and this decline continues today, mainly in the smaller, isolated populations (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). Populations in 21 of 400 sites have disappeared in last 30 years (Gibson 2000), and there are fewer than 100 individuals in South Australia (10 in the north-western population and about 70 in the population further east). The MacDonnell Ranges race, however, remains widespread and common in the Northern Territory, due to a variety of factors, including: widespread, contiguous and variable habitat; an absence of rabbits and foxes, as they are found farther south; an inability of goats to persist; and 1080 baiting programs for dingoes. Likewise the West Kimberley race is described as “conspicuously abundant at several sites” because it is at the northern edge of fox distribution and does not suffer much predation (Eldridge and Pearson 2008).<br/><br/>The remaining subspecies of Black-footed Rock Wallaby have not fared so well or are very limited in distribution. The Black-footed Rock Wallaby in south-western Western Australia have declined massively during the 20th century, and many local populations have gone extinct (Pearson and Kinnear 1997; Eldridge and Pearson 2008). Barrow Island may hold about 100 individuals, though recent work suggests this population is much smaller (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Both <em>P. l. hacketti</em> and <em>P. l. pearsoni</em> are common within their tiny ranges. Estimates for <em>P. l. pearsoni</em> include approximately 500 individuals on Thistle Island and 200 on Wedge Island (both are introduced populations).
16751		threats	eng	The various subspecies of Black-footed Rock Wallaby face different threats. The main threat overall to this species is predation from introduced foxes, and foxes are known to have played a major role in the decline of the species historically. Competition with domestic and introduced herbivores (primarily sheep and rabbits) is a major threat as well as loss of habitat due to changes in the fire regime and introduced grasses.
16752		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas (e.g., Mungkanknju National Park). Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: survey to clarify distribution, abundance, and habitat requirements; identify populations for regular monitoring; conduct research aimed at understanding biology, ecology, and conservation requirements.
16752		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to a small area of the eastern Cape York Peninsula. It ranges in elevation from sea level to 400 m asl.
16752		habitat	eng	Its habitat is described as rocky outcrops, rocky gullies, and boulder piles, usually within open woodland (Maxwell <em>et al. </em>1996).
16752		population	eng	This species is rare, but recent surveys have found four new populations, and it might be underestimated (Eldridge <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16752		threats	eng	The habitat near some populations is adversely affected by cattle grazing and changes to the fire regime (Eldridge <em>et al.</em> 2008). Feral cats may also take a few young animals.
16753		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas (e.g., Mount Zero). Surveys are needed to determine the distribution and status of the species across its range. Populations should be identified for regular monitoring programmes. Studies are needed to understand the species biology and ecology, especially to determine its interaction with introduced herbivores (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
16753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seaview and Coane Ranges, west of Ingham in north-eastern Queensland, Australia (Eldridge and Close 2008).
16753		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocky outcrops, boulder piles, gorges, cliff lines, and rocky slopes.
16753		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range (Eldridge and Close 2008).
16753		threats	eng	Currently there is no decline in the extent or quality of the species' habitat, however, competition from domestic and wild introduced herbivores make be threat as well as increased pastoralism in the western part of its range. The species is vulnerable to possible effects of climate change which may favour more populous species of rock-wallabies in adjacent regions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
16761		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. Surveys are needed for a more accurate picture of its distribution and population status. Nabarlek populations should be monitored on a regular basis to determine population trends and assess possible threats. Research may be required to develop appropriate survey techniques as this species is nocturnal and prefers rugged terrain. The affects of fire on this species needs to be investigated and the development of fire management plans is also of high importance.
16761		distribution	eng	The Nabarlek is endemic to Australia, where it occurs essentially in two disjunct locations: the north-western Kimberley (Western Australia) and in Top End (Northern Territory). The populations in two regions have traditionally been referred to as separate subspecies, but these designations remain untested by modern morphometric or genetic analyses (Sanson and Churchill 2008).
16761		habitat	eng	This species is shy and mostly nocturnal (Woinarski 2002). It typically spends its days in caves and crevices. At night it forages in a variety of habitats from monsoon rainforests and vine thickets to open woodlands and hummock grasslands (Sanson and Churchill 2008).
16761		population	eng	The species is very patchily distributed, though it can be locally abundant. There seems to have been localized extinctions from the Northern Territory within the last 30-40 years. In Western Australia, the species is found on several offshore islands but is apparently very restricted, and on the mainland it is occurs as scattered populations. There is no sound evidence of an overall population decline in Northern Territory over the last ten years, and there is no population information from Western Australia.
16761		threats	eng	The current threats to this species are largely unknown. Changes to vegetation composition and structure as a result of altered fire regimes are thought to be the greatest threat facing Nabarleks. Introduced cats probably prey on Nabarleks, but it is unknown whether or not this constitutes a major threat. All four offshore islands do not have cats.
16776		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Etosha National Park, Skeleton Coast national Park, Ai-Ais, Namib-Naukluft National Park, Iona National Park and Augrabies National Park. Research is currently being done on the species in the Irongo Mtns, Omaruru. Taxonomic research to elucidate the status of the species complex is necessary.
16776		distribution	eng	This species is generally confined to the arid and semi-arid regions of southwestern Angola, Namibia and northern Namaqualand in South Africa. Coetzee (2002) gave the range as from 16 deg S to 12 E in southwestern Angola to 30 deg S to 18 deg E in Namaqualand. In northern central Namaqualand, the species occurs up to 1,200 m asl, but apparently does not ascend to the cloudy Eselfontein Plateau nor to the summits of the highest peaks (Shortridge 1942), which, as Coetzee (2002) explains, is due to colder and wetter nature of the plateau than the area inhabited to the northwest. In Angola, the species is absent from the semi-tropical western escarpment, and from the more moist savanna in the central parts of the country (Coetzee 2002).
16776		habitat	eng	The species is largely confined to the western escarpment and adjoining mountainous areas, as well as inselbergs on the pro-Namib plains of Angola and Namibia. The Namib dunes and the very arid unvegetated mountains and plains west of the 50-mm isohyet restrict their spread westwards, while the Kalahari sands limit their spread east. The largest part of the distribution range of this species occurs between the 50-600 mm isohyet, but they may be present along canyons entering the Namib Desert, where average rainfall is below 35 mm (Coetzee 2002). This species nests in rock crevices, while piled-up boulders provide nesting sites, which can be identified by the presence of accumulations of sticks and other vegetable matter. In Augrabies Falls National Park, in South Africa, the species inhabits rock shelters that hyraxes cannot enter (George and Crowther 1981), thanks to its broad and flattened skull. Diurnal, they live in colonies usually only of a few animals, though as many as 22 in an area of 170 m x 70 m have been recorded (Coetzee 2002). Breeding season varies, but is mainly in late spring and autumn. Litter size is a maximum of three, with two the norm. Gestation period is around three months (Coetzee 2002).
16776		population	eng	Relatively common where they occur. There are no published population densities.
16776		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, although in urban areas they are preyed upon by domestic cats.
16777		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes three protected areas.
16777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwest South Africa. The species occurs from 100 to 700 m asl.
16777		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in succulent shrubland.
16777		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
16777		threats	eng	The population is not considered to be facing any serious threats, it may possibly be threatened by nomadic livestock overgrazing in parts of its range.
16778		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
16778		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern South Africa, northwards through Namibia to southern Angola. It has been recorded from 100 to 2,000 m asl.
16778		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in semi-desert shrubland.
16778		population	eng	This is a common species.
16778		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
16779		conservation	eng	Most of this species range is within protected areas.
16779		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern South Africa and southern Namibia. It occurs from 100 to 2,000 m asl.
16779		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in semi-desert shrubland.
16779		population	eng	Forty years ago this species was considered to be rare, and was known with certainty from a single mountain. Now it is even considered to be common in some areas.
16779		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
16780		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
16780		distribution	eng	This southern African species occurs from southwestern Angola to northwestern Namibia. It occurs from 100 to 1,500 m asl.
16780		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in semi-desert shrubland.
16780		population	eng	It can be common but its population fluctuates.
16780		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
16781		conservation	eng	No information.
16781		distribution	eng	Both sides of North Atlantic, north to Iceland and along Norwegian coasts to Barents Sea (River Ura, Kola Peninsula). North Sea, Baltic and western and central Mediterranean basins, very rare in Baltic basin, only known to enter Odra, Vistula (Poland, Germany), Western Dvina (Latvia), Narova and Luga (Russia) drainages. Several landlocked populations in North America; none in Europe.
16781		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults at sea, off-shore; spawns in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, parasitic. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to winter. Spawns in couples in April-July, mostly in May and early June, when temperature reaches at least 15°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with strong current. Dies after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 51/2-71/2 years in freshwater. Feeds on diatoms and detritus, metamorphoses at 130-150 mm TL in late summer and migrates to sea. At sea, adults parasite a wide variety of fish species and even whales and other cetaceans. Usually does not kill its hosts, but feeds on small amounts of blood and body fluid for several days on a single host. Adults feed for about 3 years before migrating to spawning grounds. In 1921, the landlocked population of Lake Ontario entered the other Great Lakes of North America, 90 years after the opening of the Welland Canal in 1829. In combination with other factors, it caused a sharp decline of many native species and the extinction of three endemic Coregonidae. Expectedly, recent molecular studies suggest that the European and North American populations might be different species.
16781		population	eng	Abundant.
16781		threats	eng	No major threats known.
16799		conservation	eng	This species need studies of systematics and ecology, and better learn population and distribution.
16799		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a restricted area in the Serra do Mar, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo states, south Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
16799		habitat	eng	The morphology of this species suggests that it is arboreal (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It occurs in lowland forest (Bergallo pers. comm.) and occasionally is found in forest edge (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
16799		population	eng	The species is extremely rare known only from museum records (total = 11) consolidated by Maia Vaz (2000), who noted that the species has not been collected within the last sixty years and commented on its conservation status. An individual collected in 1998, from Rio de Janeiro, brings the total number of specimens to 12 and indicates that the species can persist even in slightly degraded habitat (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Note that many of these specimens were taken from the same locations - the species is known from only a few locations.
16799		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.
16801		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any officially protected areas, although three areas (less than 15 acres) are set aside to support a limited population. Two areas are in public ownership: Lookout Hill Fire Tower (Alabama Forestry Commission) and Haines Island (US Army Corps of Engineers). Long-term protection is best assured through private landowner cooperation, and Dodd (1991) recommended a series of management actions that would help to maintain the integrity of salamander habitat. It is protected as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act and is listed as a protected non-game species by the state of Alabama.
16801		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Red Hills of south-central Alabama, USA, between the Alabama and Conecuh Rivers (Petranka 1998). It is restricted to Tallahatta and Hatchetigbee geological formations. It can also be found in Butler, Conecuh, Covington, Crenshaw, and Monroe Counties (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980; Dodd 1991).
16801		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is slopes of mesic shaded ravines dominated by hardwood trees (big-leaf magnolia and southern magnolia with mountain laurel and oak-leaf hydrangea). It is often found in moderately steep areas with a northern exposure most often on high, steep, uncut slopes with high soil moisture content and full tree canopy (Dodd 1991). It lives in burrows that often open in leaf-litter-free areas near the base of trees or under siltstone outcroppings. Eggs are laid in cavities inside burrows (Means 2003). Embryos develop directly within the eggs. It can tolerate selective logging or clear-cutting as long as burrows are not destroyed mechanically, as by plowing, tilling, or other forms of intensive site preparation.
16801		population	eng	It is not rare (K. Dodd pers. comm. 1995), although current evidence indicates significant losses over the 63,000 estimated acres of formerly occupied habitat. Local abundance varies considerably, and population estimates are difficult to arrive at due to the secretive (fossorial) habits of the species and the isolated locations of populations.
16801		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been reduced by timber harvest; the conversion of mesic ravines to pine monocultures and the clearing of ridge tops above ravines destroys or degrades available habitat. Overcollecting may have caused a decline in some areas (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980; Jordan and Mount 1975). Nearly all habitats are on private timber company lands, and detrimental forestry practices continue (Dodd 1989, 1991), though some problems have been alleviated by management agreements (K. Dodd pers. comm. 1995). Feral pigs are a threat in some areas.
16846		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. The main threat to this species, oil palm development on Woodlark Island, should be prevented.
16846		distribution	eng	This species is known from Woodlark and Alcester (possibly introduced) Islands, and may be present on the island of Madau (all Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 410 m asl.
16846		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest. Animals shelter under epiphytes and in tree hollows during the day (Flannery 1995). Secondary regrowth provide the species with what locals say is their favorite food – nectar from a vine and a tree <em>Rhus taitensis</em> that quickly grows up in old gardens (F. Damon pers. comm.). Females give birth to a single young.
16846		population	eng	It was abundant in the 1990s on the island of Alcester (Flannery 1995); its current status there is unknown. On Woodlark Island it is more common in the drier eastern end of the island than elsewhere (Flannery 1995).
16846		threats	eng	The single major threat to the Woodlark Cuscus, and indeed the current way of life for humans on the island, is a planned oil palm development by a Malaysian biofuels company. There is some uncertainty about the scope of the project, but it is thought that no matter how large the project is, it will mark the beginning of the end for the native forests on the island (F. Damon pers. comm.). It is occasionally hunted for food by local people, but it is not a preferred food item (unlike pigs and fish). Hunting does not appear to be impacting population abundance. It is potentially threatened by the introduction of other <em>Phalanger</em> species to the islands, with the possibilities of competition and disease transmission (Flannery 1995).
16847		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.   <br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
16847		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the islands of Timor (Indonesia and Timor Leste), Wetar and Leti (both to Indonesia) through the Kai Islands and a number of the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including: Ambon, Buru, and Seram); it is present on the islands of Misool, Waigeo, Batanta, and Salawati (all Indonesia), and ranges over much of the northern part of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), including a number of offshore islands. It ranges as far east as the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, where it is present on many islands including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland. It also occurs on many of the Solomon Islands. <br/><br/>Many of the insular island populations are the result of prehistorical introductions, possibly including: Timor, Seram, Buru, Sanana, the Kai Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Island chain.
16847		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily in disturbed habitats such as secondary forest, plantations, and gardens. The species is also present in primary tropical forest. The female usually gives birth to two young.
16847		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
16847		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is threatened in some parts of its range by hunting for food by local people and by collection for the pet trade.
16850		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas. Further study into the taxonomy of this species (which may prove to be a species complex) is needed.
16850		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is separated into four distinct subpopulations, each of which may be a distinct species. It has been recorded between 1,200 and 2,200 m asl.
16850		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and slightly disturbed secondary upper montane tropical moist forests. It is believed to have a single young.
16850		population	eng	Overall, this species is abundant. However, while some subpopulations are abundant and secure, others are probably under considerable threat.
16850		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by local hunting for food.
16851		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to confirm the existence of this species. Hunting regulations may be needed to prevent its overexploitation.
16851		distribution	eng	This species is known from the areas of Telefomin and Tifalmin, Papua New Guinea. The species might be found further north-east or west of the known collection localities. The only place where it is known with certainty was largely destroyed by fire in 1998. It has been recorded from between 1,400 and 2,600 m asl (1,400-1,800 is the core elevation range). It occurs sympatrically with the other species.
16851		habitat	eng	It is found in mid-montane tropical moist oak forest and has a narrow altitudinal range. Little more is known about the natural history of this distinctive species.
16851		population	eng	It is known from only six specimens. An individual that is presumed to be this species was captured in 1997 (L. Salas pers. comm.), but was not collected. The area in which the species occurs has not been well surveyed.
16851		threats	eng	The habitat at the type locality was completely burnt in the 1998 El Niño event. This species is threatened by local hunting for food and loss of suitable habitat through human encroachment.
16852		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed into the ecology of this species.
16852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Obi, Bisa, Obi-Latoe in the north central Moluccan Islands, Indonesia.
16852		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forests, and it also occurs in gardens. Females give birth to a single young.
16852		population	eng	It is generally common in the islands where it occurs. Flannery (1995) reports that local people noted that the species had become rare in northern Bisa.
16852		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16853		conservation	eng	It occurs in one national park and in several management areas. The development of hunting regulations may be needed in parts of the species' range.
16853		distribution	eng	This species is found in mid-montane areas throughout the central mountain ranges, and Huon Peninsula, of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from 1,350 to 3,800 m asl.
16853		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary montane tropical oak forest. Females give birth to a single young.
16853		population	eng	Where it is not hunted it is abundant in suitable habitat.
16853		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened by hunting for food by local people in portions of its range. Significant habitat loss is taking place in parts of the species' range, mostly through deforestation for conversion of land to subsistence agriculture.
16854		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve.
16854		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, and Morotai (all Indonesia). Found from sea level to about 1,000 m asl.
16854		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary tropical moist forest, secondary forest, rural gardens, and other degraded habitats. It is an adaptable species.
16854		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, especially in the south.
16854		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened in some parts of its range by hunting (populations in non-Muslim areas).
16855		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two protected areas.
16855		distribution	eng	This species is widespread at high elevations in the central mountains of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,900 m asl.
16855		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid-montane and upper-montane tropical moist forests. It does not occur in secondary forests or gardens. Females give birth to a single young.
16855		population	eng	It is locally common.
16855		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened in some parts of its range by local hunting for food. Encroachment by human populations on the mountains is pushing a competing species (<em>P. carmelitae</em>) into the range of <em>P. sericeus</em>.
16856		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
16856		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Aru Islands, and the islands of Yapen, Misool, Salawati (all Indonesia). It has been thought to be absent from the southern lowlands of New Guinea, although it has recently been found at Serki, Papua New Guinea (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 2,700 m asl.
16856		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forests, as well as cultivated gardens. This species is unusual in that it spends much of its time on the ground, even having dens on the ground. It is an omnivorous species. Females give birth to a single young.
16856		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat.
16856		threats	eng	This species is threatened by feral dog predation and by humans hunting with dogs. It is the most commonly-hunted cuscus species. It is hunted for meat, medicinal purposes, and for the pet trade. It has been extirpated from some areas because of extensive hunting.
16857		conservation	eng	It occurs in several supposed wildlife management areas.<br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
16857		distribution	eng	This species is present in the lowlands of eastern and south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, the Trobriand Islands, and the Louisade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,250 m asl.
16857		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary, slightly degraded tropical moist forest. It is a fairly adaptable species and is also found in rural gardens.
16857		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
16857		threats	eng	This species is affected by hunting for meat and its pelt (and is traded), as well as loss of habitat through logging operations.
16858		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need to ensure that the widespread <em>Phalanger orientalis</em> is not introduced to Gebe Island. Further field studies of <em>P. alexandrae</em> are needed. Hunting regulations may be needed to conserve this species.
16858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gebe Island, Indonesia. It occurs from sea level to 300 m asl.
16858		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary tropical moist forest and secondary forest. This species has been caught in the trees near the airport.
16858		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
16858		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for food, mining, and habitat loss through conversion of forest to agricultural use. The habitat of this species is further threatened by degradation from feral pigs.
16872		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported from two national parks (Masoala and Zahamena), two nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena), the Ambatovaky Special Reserve, and the forests of Makira (which are slated for official protection), and it may occur in the Mananara-Nord National Park (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). May also occur in Marotandrano Special Reserve. Taxonomic studies to determine the status of the species, and further surveys on population numbers and range.
16872		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Madagascar from Toamasina north to and including the Masoala Peninsula. It ranges from sea-level to 1,050 m.
16872		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical moist forests. The ecology and behavior of this species have yet to be the focus of systematic field research.
16872		population	eng	Unknown, but it seems to be relatively widespread.
16872		threats	eng	The major threats probably include habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, and illegal logging.
16873		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in the Tsaratanana Nature Reserve and the Manongarivo Special Reserve, but these require strengthened protection. The corridor between Tsaratanana and Marojejy and Anjaharibe-Sud forest block should be maintained. Remaining forest in Ampasindava should be included in a Conservation Site. Additional surveys to the east of the range in existing forest blocks would be useful.
16873		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Sambirano region of northwest Madagascar, south of Ambanja, its range including the Ampasindava Peninsula and extending south to the Andranomalaza River. Occurs from sea level to 800 m.
16873		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland tropical moist forests. The ecology and behavior of this species have yet to be the focus of systematic field research, but as with other members of the genus they occur high up in the canopy of tall trees.
16873		population	eng	Quite common on Ampasindava peninsula in shade-grown coffee plantations around villages.
16873		threats	eng	The main threats include habitat loss due to slash-and-burn activities and for firewood collection and charcoal production.
16874		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in several national parks (Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namoroka, Zombitse, Vohibasia), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, and the Andranomena Special Reserve; it is also reported from the Analabe Private Reserve and the Kirindy Forest CFPF (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Forêts de Mikea is in the process of being declared part National Park and part Conservation Site. Taxonomy of the species, as with the genus, requires further investigation.
16874		distribution	eng	This species, which has the largest range of any <em>Phaner</em> species, is patchily distributed along a narrow strip of western Madagascar forests from just south of the Fiherenana River, including the Forêts de Mikea, north to Soalala, from sea level to 800 m (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The northerly populations appear isolated and may possibly represent distinct taxa.
16874		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland forest habitats, and also in exotic tree plantations, perhaps suggesting reliance on tall canopy trees and gum. This is the best studied of the four <em>Phaner</em> species; its biology and ecology are summarized by Schulke (2003) and Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> (2008).
16874		population	eng	Common. Population density estimates derived from studies in the Kirindy Forest and from Marosalaza are about 50-70 individuals/km² (Charles-Dominique and Petter 1980), but Ausilio and Raveloarinoro (1993) estimated densities of 300-400 individuals/km² in the forests of Tsimembo.
16874		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, charcoal production, and annual burning to create pasture, may be resulting in localized declines.
16875		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The species occurs in Montagne d’Ambre National Park, in three special reserves (Forêt d’Ambre, Analamerana, Ankarana), and in the Sahafary Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The status of the form in Daraina requires taxonomic investigation.
16875		distribution	eng	This species is apparently confined to the region of Montagne d’Ambre in northern Madagascar where it inhabits moist tropical forests from 50-1,500 m asl. There is a distinct population in Daraina that may represent a separate species.
16875		habitat	eng	It inhabits both tropical dry and moist forests. In Daraina, mostly seen in gallery forests in low-lying areas, whereas elsewhere they appeared to be more common at higher altitudes. The ecology and behavior of this species have yet to be the focus of systematic field research.
16875		population	eng	Common in Montagne d'Ambre, but elsewhere unknown.
16875		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss due to mining for sapphires, and yearly agricultural burning in Analamerana, Daraina and Ankarana.
16887		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Field surveys using appropriate sampling techniques (e.g., harp traps) are urgently needed to determine if this species is still extant. This is one of the highest priorities for surveys in Papua New Guinea (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Any important roosting or foraging sites should be protected.
16887		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded with certainty from Kamali on the lower Kemp Welch River, in the Central Province of South-eastern New Guinea in 1890. According to Flannery (1995) 45 individuals (probably a maternity colony) were collected by Dr. L. Loria, but only four of these specimens can now be accounted for. The species has been collected from below 100 m asl.<br/><br/>There is a record of an animal collected at Kapa Kapa by Dr. Loria, but this specimen has been lost. According to Bonaccorso (1998) a single specimen was collected in 1985 from the crown of a Pandanus tree in Rogut Village along the Tuman River in Central Province. This specimen was destroyed in 1992. However, in 1988, a careful examination of the specimen (PM 25374), including measurements, was done as part of an ongoing revision of bats in the genus <em>Nyctophilus</em> confirmed that it did not belong to <em>Pharotis imogene</em>, but instead represented <em>Nyctophilus microdon</em> (Parnaby pers. comm.).
16887		habitat	eng	It roosts communally in lowland sclerophyll woodland habitat, although it is not known whether the species roosts in trees or in caves (Bonaccorso 1998). Even the general habitat is not known for certain, but is assumed to be either savanna woodland, and/or lowland rainforest patches in savanna woodlands.
16887		population	eng	Bonaccorso (1998) believes that this species is still extant, but that it is very difficult to survey with standard collecting methods, and that surveying with harp traps near potential roost sites at known localities is needed.
16887		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss around human population centres such as the Kamali district by reduction of area and quality of the small rainforest patches in savanna woodland, both by encroachment by fire, and human activities, particularly fire wood collection (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). If the species roosts in tree cavities, loss of such trees by fire is a likely threat.
16888		conservation	eng	The Red-tailed Phascogale is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is currently found at a total of 40-50 sites, many of which are within protected areas, with fairly low threat. There is a need to study the effects of predator control on the species and to secure and establish further populations. Close monitoring of the Red-tailed Phascogale is important in order to detect and react early to any population declines.
16888		distribution	eng	The Red-tailed Phascogale is endemic to Australia. It was formerly very widespread but now is found only within south-western Western Australia.
16888		habitat	eng	This species is mainly nocturnal, arboreal and nests with tree hollows (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008). It occupies dense, mature woodlands containing Rock Sheoak (<em>Allocasuarina huegeliana</em>) and hollow-forming Wandoo (<em>Eucalyptus wandoo</em>). Females have up to 13 young in a litter, but only eight are raised (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16888		population	eng	Populations fluctuate with rainfall. Like several other dasyurid species, males die-off after mating, but females are capable of breeding for two or even three seasons (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are no demonstrated population declines currently, but there were large declines historically. Red-tailed Phascogales are not found at high densities and there are probably less than 10,000 mature individuals overall.
16888		threats	eng	The historical decline of Red-tailed Phascogale was probably due to forest clearance and fragmentation, changed fire regimes (whereby frequent fire eliminated nest sites), and the presence of introduced predators. The species now occurs in a number of protected areas that are secure from habitat destruction and people in the region are very careful with fire, so there is no longer frequent burning. Populations and habitat are still fragmented.<br/><br/>The effects of cats and foxes on populations are not fully understood. There is no evidence that fox control has helped this largely arboreal species (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). The current range of the species, however, seems to be associated with the presence of <em>Gastrolobium</em> and <em>Oxylobium</em>, which produce monosodium fluoracetate ('1080' poison), which is lethal to foxes (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16889		conservation	eng	It is found within three protected areas: Litchfield, Garig Gunak Barlu, and Kakadu National Parks. More surveys and monitoring are needed on the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and population trends of this species (Woinarski 2005). Targeted surveys for this animal, which is not readily trapped using standard methods (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
16889		distribution	eng	The Northern Brush-tailed Phascogale is found in the Top End of the Northern Territory, where it has been recorded from the Melville Island, Cobourg Peninsula, West Pellew Island, Kakadu National Park, Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, and Litchfield National Park (Woinarski 2005; Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16889		habitat	eng	It is solitary, nocturnal, and arboreal. It nests within tree hollows during the day, and forages both on the ground and in trees mostly for invertebrates, but also some small vertebrates (Woinarski 2005). There is little information on the habitat requirements of this species. Most recent records are from tall open forest of <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>-<em>E. tetrodonta</em> forests (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16889		population	eng	The total global population of this species is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals and it might be less than 2,500. The Northern Brush-tailed Phascogale was said to be very common historically, though currently there are only about 10 records known from the mainland in the last decade despite intensive survey work for the species (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are two recent records from Melville Island (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006), and two records from West Pellew Island (1988), but a recent survey of West Pellew was unable to locate it (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004).
16889		threats	eng	Inappropriate fire regimes which alter the understorey to increase the presence of tall grasses (especially exotic grasses) and habitat degradation associated with pastoralism are the main threats to the species (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008). The clearance of vegetation is a threat in the western portion of the mainland range and on Melville Island where exotic tree plantations are detrimental and expanding (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008). Introduced cane toads and cats might be threats (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16890		conservation	eng	Recommended actions for this species include: taxonomic work to assess the status of the various regional populations; developing survey techniques for this species to increase knowledge of its distribution, population status, and to allow for monitoring; identifying key habitats and populations; determining the relative importance of threatening processes throughout its range; and determining the potential impact of 1080 baiting on phascogales in south-east Australia.
16890		distribution	eng	Brush-tailed Phascogales are endemic to Australia, where they occur in the eastern portion of the country, and in western Kimberley and south-western Western Australia. They are not found on any islands in Western Australia.<br/><br/>The species is known from at least ten localities within northern Queensland and Cape York Peninsula, and they have most commonly been recorded around the Cooktown region (S. Rhind pers. comm.). There have been about 30 reports of phascogales since the 1970s, with records between 1976 and 1995 extending the known range south into northern Queensland by more than 500 km (S. Rhind pers. comm.). There are also records from the Rockhampton area (Ingram and Raven 1991). It was formerly widespread elsewhere in eastern and south-western Australia. The range has been reduced by about 50% since European settlement predominantly due to agricultural clearing, forestry practices, and deforestation associated with mining activities (Traill and Coats 1993; Rhind 2004). It is presumed to be extinct in South Australia.
16890		habitat	eng	This species is now largely confined to dry sclerophyll forests and open woodlands that contain hollow-bearing trees. It occurs more rarely in wetter forests. Brush-tailed Phascogales are arboreal, nocturnal, and largely solitary. Females typically give birth to eight young, or six to eight in south-western Australia (Soderquist and Rhind 2008). Males die soon after the breeding season, and females can live up to three years, but usually only produce one litter (Soderquist and Rhind 2008).
16890		population	eng	Abundance within its range is mostly unknown because the species eludes conventional faunal survey techniques. It is sparsely distributed and is typically reported from infrequent single sightings and/or captures. <br/><br/>There is little information on the Kimberley population, which is represented by only 23 records (S. Rhind pers. comm.). In south-western Australia, the population fluctuates markedly in response to climatic conditions (Rhind and Bradley 2002). The species may have declined in the south-west in the last ten years; there are fewer records in spite of increased survey effort. It is presumed to be extinct in South Australia (last reliable record is from 1967). In Victoria, there have been major declines in the past, but populations appear to have stabilized more recently. In New South Wales phascogales are most commonly encountered on the north coast, particularly from Taree to Port Macquarie and Coffs Harbour and parts of the Hunter Valley. It is uncommon to rare in northern Queensland.
16890		threats	eng	Reduction in area of occupancy for this species has been predominantly caused by gross habitat alteration including continued habitat clearing and fragmentation. Habitat alteration as a result of logging and mining has also been detrimental to the species. The greatest current threat is the increasing decline in the availability of hollow-bearing trees. Predation by foxes and cats is also a threat. Male die-off makes this taxon particularly vulnerable to stochastic events. Reproductively viable populations require large areas of suitable habitat in order to persist because male home ranges are often greater than 100 hectares (Soderquist and Rhind 2008).
16892		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas. Recommended actions for the species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Martin and Handasyde 1999; Gordon pers. comm.) include: complete and implement National Strategy for Conservation of the Koala (currently in draft form); develop appropriate PVA models applicable to the diversity of habitat types utilised by the species; conduct regional and local surveys of distribution, assessment of tree preferences and identification of key critical habitat areas for conservation; formulate and implement detailed regional management plans for the conservation of these populations; manage populations to prevent over-browsing at some sites in Victoria and South Australia; develop positive community involvement in Koala conservation and management.
16892		distribution	eng	The Koala was formerly common throughout the broad band of forests and woodlands dominated by <em>Eucalyptus</em> spp. extending from north Queensland to the south-eastern corner of mainland South Australia, Australia (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It currently ranges from northeastern, central, and southeastern Queensland with patchy populations in western areas, to eastern New South Wales including the coastal strip and highlands of the Great Dividing Range, the western plains and related riparian environments where suitable habitat occurs, Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. The geographic range has contracted significantly due to loss of large areas of habitat since European settlement. In Queensland, extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have contracted by about 30% (Gordon <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>It has been introduced to at least 12 islands including: Kangaroo (South Australia, 450,000 ha), French (Victoria, 17,470 ha), Phillip (Victoria, 10,116 ha), and Magnetic (Queensland, 5,200 ha) (Abbott and Burbidge 1995). It has also been introduced within the mainland in the Adelaide Region and along the Murray River (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
16892		habitat	eng	Koalas occupy forests and woodlands where there are acceptable food trees. They are largely nocturnal and feed almost exclusively on eucalypts, but preferred food tree species vary with locality and there are quite distinct regional preferences (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2008). They are able to persist in fragmented habitats, and even survive in isolated trees across a predominantly agricultural landscape. Females reach sexual maturity at two years of age and usually give birth to a single young per year. Individual Koalas have been known to live up to 18 years in the wild, but most live between 10 and 14 years (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2008).
16892		population	eng	Koalas are uncommon and patchily distributed in most of their Queensland range, but are common in south-eastern Queensland. Queensland populations have persisted where habitat occurs, although fluctuating markedly in size (Gordon and Hrdina 2005; Gordon <em>et al.</em> 2006). They are widespread and common in Victoria. In New South Wales, they are known to be common in the Pilliga (the species' stronghold is along the north coast), but they are uncommon elsewhere. All South Australian populations became extinct by 1920, and current populations have been introduced outside their original range with the exception of the extreme south-east of the state. The introduced populations have expanded and caused severe environmental damage on Kangaroo Island (current population estimates on Kangaroo Island are of 28,000 ? these animals are highly inbred, resulting from a very small original source population of 10 animals). The Koala was listed in the 2001 State of the Environment report of the Commonwealth as one of the eight pest species of Australia.<br/><br/>While remaining populations are widely distributed, habitat fragmentation and modification has resulted in an increased prevalence of predation, in addition to geographic and genetic isolation (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
16892		threats	eng	Current threats to this species include continued habitat destruction, fragmentation, and modification (which makes them vulnerable to predation by dogs, vehicle strikes, and other factors), bushfires, and disease, as well as drought associated mortality in habitat fragments. Public concern for the species is high. There are management problems with many populations; remnant populations living at high densities in isolated patches of habitat are at greatest risk (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2008). Effective management of some of the threats on the mainland could lead to excessive abundance and result in pest problems similar to those occurring on Kangaroo Island and in parts of Victoria.<br/><br/>The overall distribution of Koalas has been reduced since European settlement. This decline was primarily due to disease, bushfires, and widespread habitat destruction in the early decades of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Commercial harvesting also took place across the range towards the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th</sup> century (huge numbers, running into the millions, were killed for their pelts for a large export industry in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland). This was banned in Victoria in the 1890s, and it continued sporadically (and under regulation) in Queensland until 1927 (Hrdina and Gordon 2004). There is no evidence, however, that the early spate of commercial harvesting had any long-term impact on the overall population.
16893		conservation	eng	This species has been found in the past within areas now protected.
16893		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Papua Province where it is known from the Vogelkop Peninsula, Weyland Range and north-western slopes of the Central Cordillera, within the altitudinal range of 900 to 2,000 m asl. (Helgen 2007).
16893		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mature montane tropical moist forest. Nothing is known of the biology of this species. It may be active during daylight hours.
16893		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It was locally abundant in two localities in the 1930s. An attempt to collect this species in the Arfak Mountains in 1992 was unsuccessful, but skeletal remains were found in a raptor pellet (specimen in Australian National Wildlife Collection) (P. Woolley pers. comm.).
16893		threats	eng	It may be affected by forest disturbance (shifting agriculture and timber extraction), predation by feral dogs, and by local hunting for food.
16894		conservation	eng	It has been recorded within some protected areas. Further taxonomic research is needed.
16894		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the Central Cordillera of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) from the Arfaks in the west to the Huon in the east. It has been recorded from 1,625 m in the Arfaks and in the Central dividing range from 1,500 to 3,600 m asl.
16894		habitat	eng	It occurs in mature and disturbed tropical moist forest. This species is terrestrial and diurnal (Woolley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Wild-caught females generally have a full complement of young (4) in the pouch (Woolley 2003).
16894		population	eng	It is common.
16894		threats	eng	This species suffers predation by feral dogs, but this is not thought to be a major threat.
16899		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas within its range.
16899		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is only found on Honshu. It is found in the southern Kii Peninsula, as well as Chubu and Hokuriku Districts and northwards (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is found from sea level to the alpine zone in Tohoku District and the Kii Peninsula. In Chubu District, the species is found from 400 m asl to the alpine zone (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
16899		habitat	eng	The species is found primarily at higher elevations, in rocky areas and riverine habitats, and also artificial stone walls in farmlands and artificial dykes (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
16899		population	eng	It is fairly common only in suitable habitat. The species is difficult to trap.
16899		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
16900		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in protected areas.
16900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found only on Honshu (Niigata and Fukushima Prefectures and southwards), Kyushu, Shikoku, and Dogo Island (Oki Islands). It is found from about 400 m asl to lowland montane and alpine zones (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
16900		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forest. It prefers wet areas, and is found also in conifer plantations and farmlands in lowland montane areas. It is absent entirely from alluvial plains.
16900		population	eng	It is a common species.
16900		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
16925		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
16926		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
16939		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
16947		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, and harvest levels of this species should be carried out.
16947		distribution	eng	This species is only known from fewer than five locations in the Toliara region, south-west Madagascar (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 17,130 km²<sup></sup>.
16947		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forest and thornbush in southwestern Madagascar. A single individual or a pair is observed on large trees (Glaw and Vences 2007).
16947		population	eng	There are no specific population data available for this species, but populations numbers are thought to have declined in the 1990s due to heavy collecting for the pet trade (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).
16947		threats	eng	This species is likely experiencing the loss, degradation and fragmentation of its native habitat due to human activities including land clearing for agricultural uses such as cattle grazing and slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, logging and charcoal production (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 2000). Brushfires associated with tavy practices may also be degrading the habitat of this species. <br/><br/>This species is harvested for the international pet trade. Although trade is controlled by CITES, individuals are traded illegally (Nilsson 2005). Collection for the international pet trade caused declines in the population abundance of this species in the 1990s (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).
16957		distribution	eng	Has a restricted range in the New River drainage, Virginia, West Virginia and North Carolina.
16958		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
16958		distribution	eng	This species is found on São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico and Faial islands, Azores.
16958		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary. It has a mostly subterranean life, and can be found under dead leaves, but mostly in rotting branches and under half-buried stones. It feeds on earthworms. It is rarely found, mostly due to its habits and extremely cryptic colouration.
16958		population	eng	First thought to be restricted to São Miguel island (Morelet 1860) <span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia atlantica</span> was later found in São Jorge and Faial (Backhuys 1975) and Pico (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006); it lives also on Terceira (A. Martins pers. obs. 2010).
16958		threats	eng	Due to the extent of its distribution, no special threats are identified for this species.
16981		conservation	eng	In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas on New Guinea. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological and population studies recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
16981		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from northern South Asia, parts of Southeast Asia, and Melanesia. In South Asia this species is presently known from India (Sikkim) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) in South Asia,  recorded from 585 to 1846 m (Koopman 1983; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Padang District in western Sumatra (Indonesia) (Koopman 1983; Suyanto pers. comm. 2006), Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia), the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippnes. In the Philippines it has been recorded from Catanduanes, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur, and Laguna), Mindanao (Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces) and Negros (Kock 1981; Heaney <em>et al. </em>1998) where it has been found from 475-900 m asl (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), although there is a recent record of the species on Mount Isarog at 1,450 m asl. The species has also been reported as scattered records in New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the Bismarck Archipelago and Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea). It ranges here from sea level 2,100 m asl.
16981		habitat	eng	In South Asia, it is found in montane forests, is known to roost in tree hollows and coconut palms (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its behaviour of roosting in coconut palm is applicable to populations from New Guinea, but not in South Asia (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008). In the Philippines, the species occurs in primary and disturbed lowland forests (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) it has also been found in second growth forest along rivers on Polillo. In Southeast Asia, a specimen has also been collected in a peat swamp forest in Malaysia (Lim Boo Liat, unpublished data), and elsewhere in the region it has been recorded in degraded forest adjacent to good lowland and montane forest. In Melanesia, it seems to be a tree hollow roosting species, which has been recorded from both primary and disturbed tropical moist forests. It can be found in coconut plantations adjacent to forest. Up to 55 animals have been collected from a single tree (Bonaccorso 1998). It forages in the forest understorey and sub-canopy and over grassland (Bonaccorso 1998).
16981		population	eng	In South Asia, the population abundance of this species is not known. Only relatively few specimens have been collected (Sharoukh Mistry pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In the Philippines it is probably moderately common in primary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species can be locally common in New Guinea.
16981		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole in Southeast Asia (including New Guinea). In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
16997		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is protected within Baw Baw National Park, and the species is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring are currently in place. The implementation of a focused recovery plan is clearly needed, and this will probably need to include an <em>ex-situ</em> component.
16997		distribution	eng	This species is restricted entirely to the Baw Baw Plateau, located approximately 120km east of Melbourne, Victoria (Malone 1985a; Hollis 1995). Despite searches in close proximity to the plateau, and in similar environments (e.g., Mount Useful, Mount Torongo), the species has not been found elsewhere. Encompassing an area of approximately 80km², the Baw Baw Plateau between approximately 1,260 and 1,560m asl is contained within the Baw Baw National Park, except for approximately 3.5km² near Mount Baw Baw that is managed by the Victorian Alpine Resorts Commission (Hollis 1997). At lower elevations, between 960 and 1,300m asl, records of the species occur from montane forest along the south escarpment of the Baw Baw Plateau (G. Hollis pers. comm.). In 1983 and 1984, Malone (1985a) undertook a comprehensive assessment of the distribution of the species. It was found to be widely distributed and abundant in the west (Mt Baw Baw), central (Mt St Phillack) and north-west (Mt Whitelaw) parts of the plateau. There were fewer records from the east region (Mt St Gwinear), and the species was conspicuously absent from the south-east region. The distribution map shows the historical and not current range of the species. It has now disappeared from over 80% of its former occupied range.
16997		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat specialist. During the breeding season (September-December), calling males, gravid females and egg masses have been recorded, along seepage lines within or at the periphery of sub-alpine wet heathland and in gullies within montane vegetation communities (Malone 1985a; Hollis 1995). Calling activity has been recorded in early September, continuing as late as the last week in December (Malone 1985a; Hollis 1995; G.J. Hollis. pers. comm.). Oviposition (egg laying) appears to be confined to a shorter interval of 2-3 weeks during this period, when a peak in calling activity occurs (Malone 1985a, b; Hollis 1995). The timing of this peak in calling activity varies between breeding seasons (Hollis 1997). Calling activity may occur at any time of the day or night, with the greatest levels of activity being recorded during relatively warm, humid conditions (Hollis 1997). Very little calling activity occurs at temperatures near freezing (Malone 1985a) or when temperatures are high with low humidity (Hollis 1997). Egg masses are deposited in a transparent foam nest (8cm diameter and 3-4cm high) at the calling site, or nearby, during inguinal amplexus (Littlejohn 1963). The foam nest is produced by the female beating air bubbles into the mucous and eggs with flanged fingers during egg laying (Littlejohn 1963). The egg mass may be deposited at varying depths in vegetation, or below the ground surface, depending on the structural attributes of the site (Hollis 1997). Depths of over a metre have been observed, whilst others are deposited in vegetation very close to the surface (Hollis 1997). Clutch sizes reported in the literature range from 50-185 (see Littlejohn 1963; Malone 1985a, b; Tyler 1992). Ova are white and unpigmented and measure on average 4mm in diameter (Malone 1985b). Oviposition of more than one clutch may occur at a single site (Malone 1985b; Hollis 1997). It is also possible that females deposit a portion of their eggs at more than one site (Malone 1985a). Under natural conditions the embryonic period varies from 5-8 weeks, with individuals hatching at Gosner stages 22-23 (Malone 1985a, b). The larvae are non-feeding, hatching with a residual yolk mass that maintains them through to metamorphosis (Malone 1985a, b). Larvae usually remain at oviposition sites through to metamorphosis (Barker, Grigg and Tyler 1995; Hollis 1997). Upon hatching, however, larvae have also been observed to move small distances in shallow water from oviposition sites, while remaining covered under vegetation and/or woody debris (Hollis 1997), or to be washed into nearby pools (B.S. Malone pers. comm. in Hollis 1997).
16997		population	eng	Malone (1985a) estimated the adult male population on the plateau to be over ten thousand individuals. During a series of extensive annual surveys carried out since 1993, a considerable reduction in the abundance of the species has been observed (Hollis 1995, 1997; Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Malone (1985a) recorded calling males in 73% (64 of 88) of frost hollows surveyed in 1983 and 1984, compared with 46% (22 of 48) recorded by Hollis (1995) in 1993. In a subset of 35 frost hollows surveyed in both 1983 and 1993, Malone (1985a) recorded 3,694 males compared with 83 by Hollis (1995). Similarly, in a subset of 19 frost hollows surveyed in both 1984 and 1993, 885 males were recorded in 1984 compared with 19 in 1993. Hollis (1995) and Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) only recorded 2.2% and 2.1% of the number of males recorded by Malone in 1983 and 1984, respectively. Surveys during subsequent years (1994-1997) indicate that the species is currently restricted to the western half of the Baw Baw plateau (particularly to steeper montane-forested areas on the edge of the western plateau (W. Osborne pers. comm.), with a contraction of the distribution from eastern and western areas (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Twenty-four sites surveyed on the Baw Baw plateau originally by Malone (1985a) were re-surveyed annually by Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) for numbers of calling males present. At all sites, there was a very large reduction in the numbers recorded. The mean number of calling males recorded at 24 sites declined from 124 individuals in 1983 to between 1.5 and 3.3 individuals over the five years 1993 to 1997. In 1983-1984 the maximum population size recorded at a monitoring site was 667 individuals; by contrast, between 1993 and 1997 the largest population recorded was 41 individuals. In 1997 frogs were recorded at only six of the 25 monitoring sites. Overall, the current population size is estimated to be less than 250 adults, a tiny fraction of the number estimated only 20 years earlier by Malone (1985a).
16997		threats	eng	The dearth of information available on the population dynamics and demography of the Baw Baw Frog makes it very difficult to interpret the observed decline in the adult male population. This decline coincides with a recent global phenomenon of declining amphibians (e.g., Barinaga 1990; Blaustein and Wake 1990; Tyler 1991), and perhaps of more concern, with the reported decline of species restricted to mountain-top and alpine environments in Australia (e.g., Osborne 1990; Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993) and overseas. Numerous hypotheses have been generated to explain these declines, but few as yet have been investigated thoroughly. Those that have, or are currently being investigated, include climate change (Osborne 1990; Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993), ultraviolet radiation (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994), atmospheric pollution (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994) and pathogens (such as chytridiomycosis) (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994; Trenerry, Laurance and McDonald 1994), but there is growing scientific consensus that chytridiomycosis is often implicated. No thorough investigation of these hypotheses has yet been undertaken for the Baw Baw Frog. Forestry operations might also represent a threat to the species where it occurs in State Forest (W.S. Osborne pers. comm.). Willow (<em>Salix cinerea</em>), cattle, rabbits, Sambar deer, foxes, dogs and cats have been identified as invasive species that might be impacting the species (G.J. Hollis pers. comm.).
17003		conservation	eng	Basic information on this species habitat and ecology, distribution and abundances is needed.
17003		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to the Luzon Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found on Luzon island (Camarines Sur, Southern Sierra Madre, Quezon, Laguna, Cavite, Btatangas, Bicol Peninsula, and Bulacan provinces), Catanduanes island, and formerly occurred on Marinduque island (Steere 1890; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1998; Musser and Heaney 1992; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993).
17003		habitat	eng	On Mt. Isarog and Catanduanes, this species was found in disturbed lowland forest from sea level to 900 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species also uses coconut plantations where there are records of populations having been established for over 70 years.
17003		population	eng	This is a moderately widespread and moderately locally common species which has undergone declines in part of its range, including on the Bicol peninsula (L. Heaney pers. comm.)
17003		threats	eng	The species is hunted for food and is subject to habitat destruction (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, it is successful in coconut plantations, where it is sometimes considered a pest.
17004		conservation	eng	Resolution of taxonomic questions is needed to identify potentially important subpopulations.
17004		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to the Luzon Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005) where it is found only in northern and central Luzon island (Abra, Benguet, Kalinga-Apayao, Laguna, Nueva Viscaya provinces) (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). There are recently verified records also from Bataan/Zambales region (P. Ong unpubl. data), and Sierra Madre (P. Ong pers. comm.; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) from sea level to 2,000 m. It occurs also on Mt. Amuyao (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
17004		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest (Thomas 1898; Rabor 1955; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004/2005), as well as heavily disturbed scrub (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). It can also occur in some severely degraded or predominantly agricultural habitats, especially plantations.
17004		population	eng	This species is widespread and apparently relatively common in forests and is evidently able to withstand sustained hunting pressure over prolonged periods (e.g. it is moderately common in Mt. Amuyao and fairly heavily hunted there; L. Heaney pers. comm.) It occurs sympatrically with <em>Crateromys schadenbergi</em> in the southern Cordillera Central.
17004		threats	eng	The species is under heavy hunting pressure, it is taken for food (Pasicolan 1993; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). There is extensive forest loss, especially in the lowlands, but the species appears to persist in these areas.
17008		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.&#160; This species urgently needs a management plan.&#160; A higher level of formal protection of the island and active management for conservation is a high priority for this species.&#160; Further research on the population and distribution of this species  should be conducted to determine if it should be placed in a higher  threat category. An eradication plan for rats should be implemented immediately.&#160; Monitoring is also needed to detect whether this species is currently declining.&#160; <br/><br/><br/><em></em>
17008		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. bocourti</em> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known to exist only on a small islet off Ile des Pins, New Caledonia (Ineich 2009). While it is speculated that the species may also occur on other islets off the Ile des Pins, on Ile des Pins itself and even on Grande Terre, there are no data at present to support this (Ineich 2006). The species remained unrecorded and known only from the single type specimen since it was described in 1876 up until eight years ago when it was rediscovered, but still only remains known in the wild from two individuals.<br/></p>The islet on which the species has been found is <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 0.5 km²; the Isle of Pines is 152 km² (I. Ineich pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is estimated as the size of the islet (0.5 km²) and the area of occupancy is <0.5 km².
17008		habitat	eng	The Ile des Pins is dominated by coastal humid forest. Very little is known of the species' ecology. It is presumed to be diurnal and terrestrial, but there is some evidence of arboreal behaviour (one found 1 m above ground on a horizontal branch, another climbed quickly up a vertical trunk when released). It occupies low coastal forest. It is presumed to bask, as one was observed motionless in a patch of sunlight..
17008		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <em>P. bocourti</em>. Until recently, it was presumed extinct, as no observations had been made since the holotype was collected (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). However, in December 2003 and November 2005, Ivan Ineich from Muséum national d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris recorded two individuals on a small islet off Ile des Pins, New Caledonia (Ineich 2006).&#160; <br/><br/>The data available suggest that population density is low (or the species is very elusive). Given the very small size of the island on which it occurs, it is presumed that this is a relict population and that the species has been extirpated from Ile des Pins -and perhaps also Grande Terre- by a combination of habitat loss and predation by introduced mammals.
17008		threats	eng	The islet where both specimens were found is well preserved, as it is uninhabited and visited infrequently by people (Ineich 2006). However, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bocourti</span> faces a number of potentially serious threats, which are exacerbated by the fact that it is a small population and confined to a single, very small, low and easily-accessible island, and has a very large body size (up to 284 mm SVL). Foremost amongst these threats is habitat loss. This could happen from an accidental fire that destroys a substantial area of the island's forest, from a major cyclone that flattened the forest and/or&#160; caused extensive coastal erosion, or even from a random event such as a tsunami. The habitat is vulnerable to degradation from invasive weeds that could change the composition and structure of the forest with unpredictable consequences. Habitat degradation could also occur from illegal timber cutting. At present the only introduced mammal on the island is the ship rat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>), which is presumably exerting significant predation pressure on the skinks (large lizard species are markedly more vulnerable to rodents than small ones). If other introduced predatory mammals (e.g. cats) colonize the island they could have a serious impact. The status of invasive ants on the island is unknown but given their impact on lizards elsewhere in New Caledonia it is predicted they also would have a detrimental effect. There is a very high risk of illegal collection and trafficking.
17013		conservation	eng	Hunting of subspecies <em>P. v. vitulina</em> is currently only permitted in Norway and Iceland, where there may be an annual catch of 5,000-7,000. In the United Kingdom, shooting licenses may be issued in order to protect fishing activities. In the United States the harbour seal is protected from all but subsistence hunting by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which also prohibits importation of parts or products from all seals. Coastal reserves in Norway which exclude commercial fishing have been shown to reduce harbour seal mortality. Hunting is now prohibited in the Wadden Sea area (Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden) (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).
17013		conservation	eng	In the United States the harbour seal is protected from all but subsistence hunting by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which also prohibits importation of parts or products from all seals. Coastal reserves in Norway which exclude commercial fishing have been shown to reduce harbour seal mortality because of the generally restricted movements of this species along the Norwegian coast. Hunting is now prohibited in the Wadden Sea area (The Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Swedish waters) (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993), Swedish Baltic, Eire and UK (Harwood 1987).  Licensed killing to protect fisheries is allowed in UK, Canada and USA.  Illegal hunting probably occurs throughout the harbour seal's range. The harbour seal population in Svalbard is on the national Red List for Norway and is afforded complete protection.
17013		distribution	eng	Harbour seals are one of the most widespread of the pinnipeds. They are confined to coastal areas of the Northern Hemisphere, from temperate to polar regions. Five subspecies are recognized: <em>P. v. vitulina</em>  occurs in the eastern Atlantic from northern Portugal to the Barents Sea in northwestern Russia, and north to Svalbard; <em>P. v. concolor</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from the mid-Atlantic United States to the Canadian Arctic and east to Greenland and Iceland; <em>P. v. mellonae</em> only lives in several lakes and rivers in Quebec, Canada that drain into Hudson and James Bays; <em>P. v. richardii</em> is found in the eastern Pacific from central Baja California, Mexico to the end of the Alaskan Peninsula, and possibly to the eastern Aleutian Islands, and <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> ranges from either the end of the Alaskan Peninsula or the eastern Aleutians to the Commander Islands, Kamchatka, and through the Kuril Islands to Hokkaido in the western Pacific.
17013		distribution	eng	Harbour seals are one of the most widespread of the pinnipeds.  They are found throughout coastal waters of the Northern Hemisphere, from temperate to Polar Regions.  Five subspecies are recognized:  <em>P. v. vitulina</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic from Brittany to the Barents Sea in north-western Russia and north to Svalbard, with occasional sightings as far south as northern Portugal; <em>P. v. concolor</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from the mid-Atlantic United States to the Canadian Arctic and east to Greenland and Iceland;  <em>P. v. mellonae</em> only lives in a few lakes and rivers in northern Quebec, Canada, that drain into Hudson and James Bays (geological changes prohibit these seals from leaving this freshwater habitat); <em>P. v. richardii</em> is found in the eastern Pacific from central Baja California, Mexico to the end of the Alaskan Peninsula and possibly to the eastern Aleutian Islands, and;  <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> ranges from either the end of the Alaskan Peninsula or the eastern Aleutians to the Commander Islands, Kamchatka and through the Kuril Islands to Hokkaido in the western Pacific.
17013		habitat	eng	Adult males are up to 1.9 m long and weigh 70-150 kg, females 1.7 m and 60-110 kg.  At birth, pups are 65-100 cm and 8-12 kg (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are mainly found in the coastal waters of the continental shelf and slope, and are also commonly found in bays, rivers, estuaries and intertidal areas. On land, harbor seals are usually extremely wary and shy unless habituated to human activities and noise sources in their vicinity. It is almost impossible to approach them when they are ashore without stampeding them into the water.  Most harbour seal haul-out sites are used daily, based on tidal cycles and other environmental variables, although foraging trips can last for several days.  Although generally considered a non-migratory species with a high degree of site fidelity to a haul out, juvenile dispersal, emigration and establishment of new haul out sites are all possible reasons for long range movements of harbour seals (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are gregarious at haul-out sites. However, they usually do not lie in contact with each other. They will haul out on rocks, sand and shingle beaches, sand bars, mud flats, vegetation, a variety of man-made structures, glacial ice, and to a very limited extent sea ice in some areas.  They usually lie close to the water to permit a rapid escape from threats. Sex and age segregation is common in most populations (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1990). At sea, they are most often seen alone, but occasionally occur in small groups.  Localized aggregations can form in response to feeding opportunities and concentration of prey. <br/><br/>Male harbour seals become sexually mature when four to five years old. Female harbour seals usually become sexually mature when three to five years old. Gestation lasts 10.5-11 months, including a 2+-month delayed implantation.  Throughout the range, the time of birthing varies widely and may follow a latitudinal cline (Temte 1994). Peak pupping date varies from mid March to early September.  The mating system is promiscuous, or weakly polygynous, with males defending underwater calling sites (e.g. Van Parijs and Kovacs 2002).  Mating usually takes place in the water, with females coming into oestrus around a month after giving birth. Moult follows the pupping and mating season. The timing of onset of moult depends on the age and sex of the animal with yearlings moulting first and adult males last (e.g. Reder <em>et al</em>. 2003).   Most harbour seal monitoring programs are based on counts obtained during the moult and are therefore subject to possible biases due to changes in age and sex structure of the population.<br/><br/>Most pups shed their silvery gray lanugo coat in the uterus before birth.  Exceptions to this include pups born prematurely, and some that are born early in the breeding season. Pups usually enter the water rapidly after birth, and because of tidal inundation at many sites used for birthing, this often occurs in hours (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are generalist feeders that take a wide variety of fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans obtained from surface, mid-water, and benthic habitats (e.g. Olesiuk <em>et al</em> 1990, Payne and Selzer 1989).  Their diet is highly varied, and animals from different populations and areas show differences and there is also variation associated with seasonal changes in the abundance of prey (e.g. Harkonen 1987, Andersen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Generally, a few species dominate the diet at any one location and time of year. Although primarily coastal, dives to over 500 m have been recorded (Burns 2002).  Harbour seals also take many commercially important fish species such as Atlantic cod, many kinds of salmon, herring, and flatfishes to name a few, and this aspect of their foraging puts them into conflict with coastal fisheries.<br/><br/>Longevity is typically 35 years for females and 25 years for males, but is lower in <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> and <em>P. v. richardii</em> which are reported to live to approximately 20 years for males and 30 years for females.  Predators include killer whales, great white and Greenland sharks and possibly other shark species, Steller sea lions and walrus, gulls and ravens and in southerly locales feral dogs and eagles.  There is no information on polar bear, brown bear, and wolf predation on harbor seals, but all are possible predators.
17013		habitat	eng	Harbour seals are mainly found in the coastal waters of the continental shelf and slope, and are also commonly found in bays, rivers, estuaries, and intertidal areas. Although generally considered non-migratory species with a high degree of site fidelity to a haul out, juvenile dispersal, emigration, and establishment of new haul out sites are all possible reasons for long range movements of harbor seals (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are generalist feeders taking a wide variety of fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans obtained from surface, mid-water, and benthic habitats. Generally, a few species dominate the diet at any one location and time of year. Harbour seals also take many commercially important fish species such as Atlantic cod, many kinds of salmon, herring, and flatfishes, and this aspect of their foraging puts them into conflict with coastal fisheries. Although primarily coastal, dives to over 500 m have been recorded (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Male harbour seals become sexually mature when four to five years old. Longevity is typically 35 years for females and 25 years for males.
17013		population	eng	Combining recent estimates yield a world-wide population of 350,000 to 500,000 animals.  <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em>  of the western Pacific (approximately 7,000), and <em>P. v. mellonae</em> (120-600), of the seal lakes of the Ungava Peninsula, Canada, may be the subspecies most at risk due to low population numbers. Populations in Svalbard and the Baltic Sea, both in the hundreds, are also dangerously low, although they are not considered to be separate subspecies from <em>P. v. vitulina</em>.
17013		population	eng	Combining recent estimates yields a world-wide population of 350,000 to 500,000 animals.<br/>  <br/><em>P. v. vitulina</em> - Population dynamics of regional subpopulations vary dramatically, with recent large-scale declines in the northern UK populations (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 2001, Lonergan <em>et al</em>. 2007), rapid increases punctuated by major population crashes due to disease events in the Wadden Sea, southern England, Kattegat and Skagerrak populations and gradual increase after near extinction in the 1970s in the Baltic (e.g. Heide-Jorgensen and Harkonen 1988, Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2002, 2005, 2006). Populations in Svalbard and the Baltic Sea, are low, both in the hundreds, although they are not considered to be separate subspecies. There are some morphological differences at least in the Svalbard population (Lydersen and Kovacs 2005). Overall the population of <em>P. v. vitulina</em> has increased since the 1970s.<br/><br/><em>P. v. concolor</em> - Canadian populations declined during the 1970s from approximately 12,000 to 4,000.  They have probably been increasing since the early 1980s with the exception of the Sable Island subpopulation that declined from a maximum pup production of 600 in 1989 to <10 p.a. by early 2000s.  The Sable Island harbour seal declines are thought to be due to shark predation and competition with grey seals (Lucas and Stobo 2000, Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2003). Populations in West Greenland, Iceland and Norway are depleted as a result of hunting (Bjorge 1987, Hauksson 1992, Teilmann and Dietz 1994, Henriksen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Harbour seals in the eastern USA have increased at 6.6% p.a. since 1981, recovering from results of bounty hunting which ceased in the 1960s (Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2005). Overall the population of <em>P. v. concolor</em> has been stable or increasing since 1980.<br/><br/><em>P. v. richardii</em> - Population dynamics of regional subpopulations vary dramatically. Large-scale, long-term declines in Gulf of Alaska from the 1970s to the early 1990s with >60% declines, have apparently stabilized, with the population experiencing slight increases since the early 1990s (Pitcher 1990, Frost <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jemison and Kelly 2001, Boveng <em>et al</em>. 2003, Mathews and Pendleton 2006, Jemison <em>et al</em>. 2006). Long-term population increases from the 1970s up to early 1990s appear to have reached an asymptote in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. Overall the <em>P. v. richardii</em> populations has been stable or increasing since the early 1990s. <br/><br/><em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> - Population dynamics of this subspecies are not well documented, but the population in the Kuril Islands appears to have increased slightly from 2,000-2,500 in the early 1960s (Belkin 1964), and again increased to around 3,000-3,500 individuals in 2000 (Trukhin 2002).  Similarly, in the Commander Islands the subpopulation increased from around 2,000 in the early 1960s to around 3,000-3,500 in the early 1990s (Burdin <em>et al</em>. 1991) and is thought to be stable.  The population in Japan is small, estimated at 350 individuals in late 1980s, having declined due to heavy hunting pressure (Hayama 1988). This population is still thought to be subject to high by-catch rates in trap net fisheries and is shot by fishermen coastally Wada <em>et al</em>. 1991).   <br/><br/><em>P. v. mellonae</em> – This subspecies lives in lakes and rivers of the Ungava Peninsula, Canada. It is thought to number some 120-600 individuals and may be the subspecies most at risk to extinction, due to low population numbers and potential effects of hydro-electric developments (Smith 1997).
17013		threats	eng	Harbour seals live in coastal areas in some of the most heavily fished waters on earth, and as a result there are significant entanglement and by-catch issues, as well as effects on the food chains they depend on for their prey. <br/><br/>Historically there have been organized population reduction programs and bounties for taking seals in many parts of their range, and licenses, permits, and legal allowances are also available in a number of countries today to commercial fishermen to take animals that depredate nets, traps, and lines. Harbor seals may still be taken by subsistence hunters in Canada, Greenland, and the United States.  <br/><br/>Mass die-offs from viral outbreaks have claimed thousands of harbor seals.  In 1988 and 1989 more than 18,000 harbor seals are estimated to have died from a phocine distemper virus (morbillivirus) epidemic in European waters. Other disease outbreaks occurred both before and after this large epidemic in both Europe and the western North Atlantic, but resulted in much smaller levels of mortality. <br/><br/>Because many harbor seals live and feed in close proximity to large populations of humans they are exposed to and can accumulate high levels of industrial and agricultural pollutants. Immunosuppression is one effect regularly attributed to exposure to high levels of certain organochlorines, and these and other contaminants probably contribute to poor condition and overall fitness of a number of animals in some areas. Both chronic oil spills and discharges, and episodic large scale spills cause direct mortality, and have long term impacts on harbor seal health and their environment.
17013		threats	eng	Harbour seals live in coastal areas many of which are heavily fished. As a result there are entanglement and by-catch issues which may be significant in some populations e.g. in northern Japan (Burns 2002).  Over fishing, oceanographic regime shifts and global climate change may impact food chains harbour seals depend upon for prey.<br/><br/>Historically, there have been organized population reduction programs and bounty schemes in several range states of countries, largely because of perceived.  Hunting and/or licensed killing to protect fisheries still occurs in Norway, UK and Iceland and subsistence hunting is allowed in Greenland and the United States (Alaska). In Greenland and Iceland there are indications that hunting is responsible for continuing population declines.<br/><br/>Mass die-offs from viral outbreaks have claimed thousands of harbour seals on both sides of the Atlantic, but most notably in Europe.  In 1988 more than 20,000 harbour seals are estimated to have died from a phocine distemper virus (morbillivirus) epidemic in European waters (Dietz <em>et al</em>. 1989, Reijnders 1989).  A similar outbreak in 2002 killed approximately 30,000 (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006). Other disease outbreaks occurred both before and after this large epidemic in both Europe and the western North Atlantic, but resulted in much smaller levels of mortality.  Influenza from an avian source killed approximately 500 harbour seals in the North-eastern United States in 1979 and 1980 (Burns 2002). Potential for exposure to disease is probably increased by the natural behaviour of this species to haul out on near shore and at coastal mainland sites.  As a result terrestrial carnivores, waste from human populations as well as contact with human pets and feral animals associated with human populations creates an increased risk of exposure to communicable diseases.  <br/><br/>Because many harbour seals live and feed in close proximity to large populations of humans they are exposed to and can accumulate high levels of industrial and agricultural pollutants in some parts of their range (see Reijnders 1978, 1985, 1986, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007); while some northern populations have very low contaminant levels (e.g. Wolkers <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Immuno-suppression is one affect regularly attributed to exposure to high levels of certain organochlorines and these and other contaminants probably contribute to poor condition and overall fitness of a number of animals in some areas. Both chronic oil spills and discharges and episodic large scale spills cause direct mortality and have long term impacts on harbour seal health and their environment.  Some additional examples of threats and impacts to harbour seal populations are given below.<br/><br/><em>P. v. stejnegeri</em>, of the western Pacific, numbers approximately 7,000 animals. Fishery related mortality in the small Japanese population is a cause for concern (Wada <em>et al</em>. 1991).  However, low levels of human activity in the Kurils and protected status within nature reserves in the Commander Islands means that there is no obvious anthropogenic threat to the bulk of the population.  <br/><br/><em>P. v. mellonae</em> numbers only some 120-600 animals which are restricted to the Seal Lakes (Lac des Loups Marin) of the Ungava Peninsula, Canada. This subspecies is at risk due to low population numbers and unknown effects of James Bay II hydroelectric development which may reduce the water level in the seal lakes by 20 cm.  This might have impacts on mortality of seals in winter and altered hydrographic conditions could potentially affect the seals’ prey.<br/><br/><em>P. v. richardii</em> has shown dramatic reductions in the recent past in one large part of its range, Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound. Although part of this decline may be related to the effects of the Exxon Valdez disaster, the overall decline in Gulf of Alaska is unexplained.<br/><br/>Subpopulations of <em>P. v. vitulina</em> in the Northern UK have recently declined by around 50% in less than 10years.  The cause of this decline is unknown. The Icelandic population has declined by 5% p.a. since 1980, which is thought to be due to direct hunting. Populations in Svalbard and the Baltic Sea, which are both small are protected.  Competition with increasing gray seal populations may have been responsible for declines in the mid-latitudes and further increases in grey seal populations seem likely in the North Sea.  Rapidly increasing development of offshore wind generated power means that the levels of industrial activity and noise are increasing in the foraging areas of resident harbour seals.  To date, there is little information available to assess the potential impacts of such disturbance. <br/><br/>Historical population reductions of <em>P. v. concolor</em> along the USA coast were probably due to hunting that has now ceased. The rapid decline in the Sable Island population may have been due to a combination of shark predation (Lucas and Stobo 2000) and competition with grey seals (Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2003); the continued increase of grey seal populations in Canadian and US waters could produce a more widely spread decline.
17023		conservation	eng	In the United States the spotted seal is generally protected from all but subsistence hunting by Alaska Natives by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which also generally prohibits import and export of parts or products from all marine mammals.<br/><br/>Commercial harvesting of spotted seals from vessels of the Russian Federation ended in 1994. Small scale commercial and subsistence harvest from small boats and land occurs along the Russian Far East coast, but the size of the harvest is relatively small (V. Burkanov pers. comm.).
17023		distribution	eng	Spotted seals are found in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan and reach China in the northern Yellow and Bohai Seas. They are widespread in the Bering and Chukchi Seas and range north into the Arctic Ocean to about the edge of the continental shelf, west to about 170°E longitude and east to the Mackenzie River Delta in Canada (Shaughnessey and Fay 1977, Quakenbush 1988). They inhabit the southern edge of the pack ice from winter to early summer. In late summer and fall, spotted seals move into coastal areas, including river mouths. They breed mostly on sea ice and haul-out on sea ice when it is available, but they also haul out on beaches and sandbars (Burns 1970, Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2000). There are several sites along Asian coast where spotted seal breed on small remote islands (e.g., in Peter the Great Gulf, the Kuril Islands, and small islands along east coast of Kamchatka) (Burkanov 1988, 1990, Trukhin and Katin 2001, Kostenko <em>et al</em>. 2004, Vertyankin and Nikulin 2004).
17023		habitat	eng	Adult spotted seals are generally 1.5-1.7 m long and weigh 70-130 kg with little difference between the sexes (Bigg 1981).<br/><br/>In spring, spotted seals give birth to a single pup, mostly on the surface of sea ice but sometimes on land. Pups are born in a white lanugo coat that is shed at or before weaning which occurs about four weeks after birth. Mating occurs after pups are weaned. Spotted seals are annually monogamous and males defend lactating females on ice floes, and groups composed of a female with her pup and a male, called triads, are common during the breeding season (Quakenbush 1988).<br/><br/>In late-spring and summer many spotted seals leave the sea ice and haul-out on land to rest when they are not foraging. On some haulouts in Kamchatka the number of animals on shore may reach over 10,000 individuals (V. Burkanov pers. comm.). As sea ice reforms in October-November spotted seals again use the ice as their primary feeding and resting habitat (Burkanov 1990, Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2000). They are generalist feeders that take primarily a variety of fish species (walleye pollock, Arctic and saffron cod, rockfish, herring, sand lance, smelt, capelin, eelpout, salmonids and flounders), cephalopods (squid and octopus) and crustaceans (shrimp and crab) (Quakenbush 1988, Burkanov 1990).<br/><br/>Reported predators include Pacific sleeper sharks, killer whales, golden eagles, Steller’s sea eagles, ravens, gulls, polar and brown bears, wolves, Arctic foxes, walruses and Steller sea lions (Quakenbush 1988).
17023		population	eng	The abundance of spotted seals has never been well quantified. Poorly documented estimates suggest a total population size in the 1970s of perhaps 400,000, with 200-250,000 in the Bering-Chukchi Seas and perhaps 170,000 in the Okhotsk Sea (Bigg 1981, Quakenbush 1988). Mizuno <em>et al</em>. (2002) flew aerial line-transect surveys of a portion of the pack ice in the southern Okhotsk Sea in March 2000 and estimated there were 13,653 spotted seals in their 25,000 km² survey. There is no reliable estimate of the current total population size (Angliss and Outlaw 2007).<br/><br/>Female spotted seals become sexually mature at 3-4 years old and males at 4-5 years. Maximum longevity is at least 35 years (Quakenbush 1988).
17023		threats	eng	Subsistence hunting of spotted seals has no doubt occurred since humans first made contact with the species and they remain an important subsistence resource for coastal Natives in western Alaska (Quakenbush 1988). From the 1960s through the 1980s, the Soviet Union harvested several thousand spotted seals each year in both the Okhotsk and Bering seas, mostly from large commercial vessels (Heptner 1996). Commercial harvesting of this species no longer occurs in Russia.<br/><br/>Intensive harvesting of fish in the Okhotsk and Bering seas poses a risk to spotted seals as several of their main prey species are targets of commercial fisheries (Lowry and Frost 1985). Entanglement in commercial fisheries occurs occasionally in Japan and in the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea and small organized control kills to limit damage to fisheries regularly occur in Japan (Mizuno <em>et al</em>. 2001, Angliss and Outlaw 2007). In Kamchatka, spotted seals sometimes eat fish out of fishing gear and fishermen shoot small numbers in local areas to defend their landings and protect their equipment (V. Burkanov pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Oil and gas development may cause disturbance to and adversely affect the habitat used by the spotted seals (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Oil contamination poses poorly known risks to spotted seal populations. The greatest impacts would likely result if spills occurred during the pupping season, if food resources were negatively effected or if the spill was an event that affected a large area (St Aubin 1990). There is little information on contaminant burdens in this species, but concern would be greatest for animals living in the western part of the range where they occur near large population and industrial areas in China, Korea and Japan and in the Sea of Okhotsk.<br/><br/>Reduction in late winter and spring sea ice cover in the Sea of Okhotsk and the central and southern Bering Sea as a result of global climate change could be problematic for spotted seals as the majority of the population uses pack ice at the southern limit of the ice extent for pupping (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Changes to ice characteristics that effect its location, timing, stability, etc. could result in lower survival of spotted seal pups. Disruption or alteration of the patterns of primary productivity and abundance of key prey species could also have detrimental effects on ice dependent seals like the spotted seal (Tynan and DeMaster 1997; Laidre <em>et al</em>., in press).
17026		conservation	eng	The New Zealand government has provided protection to New Zealand Sea Lions with laws that date back to 1881. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1978 provided additional measures. The squid fishery responsible for the by-catch of sea lions was moved away from the main colonies in 1982 when the government established a 12 nautical mile exclusion zone around the islands (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>. 2003) and later management plans set maximum levels of fishing related mortalities, which, when exceeded, led to the early withdrawal of the fishery. Sea Lion escape devices (SLEDs) have also been mandated in the fishery. Some concerns remain regarding the health of the sea lions expelled from these devices. The uninhabited Auckland Fauna Reserve forms part of the habitat of New Zealand Sea Lions (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Tourism is regulated on islands and at some mainland beaches on the South Island. Given the recent steady decrease in pup production at the Auckland Islands, and the uncertainty about the influence of human activities on this trend, it is unknown if the current conservation measures are sufficient to protect the species.
17026		distribution	eng	The primary habitat of New Zealand Sea Lions is several sub-Antarctic islands south of New Zealand and their surrounding waters. The principal breeding colony accounting for 86% of annual births is at the Auckland Islands, with a smaller number breeding at Campbell Island (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2007). New Zealand Sea Lions regularly occur in small numbers at Stewart Island and on the southeast coast of the South Island of New Zealand, where there are occasional births (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, most of the animals hauling out on the South Island are males ranging in age from 2-11 years old. Wandering New Zealand Sea Lions also reach Macquarie Island. Historically, New Zealand Sea Lions had a more extensive range that appears to have included most of New Zealand.
17026		habitat	eng	New Zealand Sea Lions are large heavy-bodied sexually dimorphic animals. Adult males are 1.2-1.5 times longer and 3-4 times heavier than adult females. Adult males are 2.3-2.7 m long and may weigh from 320-450 kg, although these values might be high in the light of recent information that males are probably shorter than previously reported. Adult females are 1.8-2 m long and weigh 90-165 kg. Newborns are approximately 70-100 cm long and weigh 8-10 kg (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2006). Pups are born in a thick long dark brown lanugo with a lighter crown, nape, and mystacial area, and with a pale stripe on the top of the muzzle, originating on the crown. Female pups are lighter than male pups. Pups begin to molt their birth coat at 2 months and at the end of the molt look like adult females.<br/><br/>Males become sexually mature at the age of 5 years. The age of maturity for females is 3-4 years. Gestation lasts 12 months. Pup mortality at the end of one year is about 35%. Males live at least 23 years and females to at least 26 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993, Childerhouse 2007). The average age of reproductive females is 10.75 yrs (Childerhouse 2007).<br/><br/>The breeding season for the New Zealand Sea Lion begins in late November when adult males return and establish themselves on territories through displays, vocalizing, and fighting. Adult females arrive in early December and give birth on average within 2.1 days after returning to the rookery (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males may have as many as 25 females within their territories. The bulls are frequently challenged by newly arriving males and neighbors, and turn-over of males is a regular occurrence. Many territorial bulls depart in mid-January with the end of the pupping period (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The onset of estrous occurs 7-10 days after a female gives birth. Prior to this, the mother continuously attends her newborn pup. Following mating, females begin a phase of short foraging trips followed by pup attendance, typical of many otariids. Foraging trips average 2.7 days and are followed by 1.5 days of pup attendance and feeding ashore (Chilvers <em>et al</em> 2005). Also typical of many otariids, pups gather into groups while their mothers are away. Females and pups recognize each other through vocalizations and scent, and a small percentage of females will allow additional pups to nurse along with their own pup, which is unusual behavior for a pinniped. Pups are weaned at approximately 10 months. The primary causes of pup deaths within their first two months of life are trauma (35%), bacterial infections (24%), hookworm infection (13%), starvation (13%), and stillbirth (4%) (Castinel <em>et al</em>. 2007). Adult males are a significant source of mortality to pups, occasionally killing them outright and also through incidents of cannibalism. Pups are also trampled and killed by adult males challenging other males during territorial disputes.<br/><br/>New Zealand Sea Lions do not appear to be migratory, although they disperse widely over their range during the non-breeding season (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some animals can be found at the major rookeries and haul-outs year-round. At sea they are active divers that forage on both benthic and pelagic prey. Mean dives for female New Zealand Sea Lions are to 129 m and mean dive duration is 3.9 minutes. Maximum dive depths are over 600 m and dives have been recorded to last as long as 14.5 minutes (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2006a).<br/><br/>New Zealand Sea Lions take a wide variety of vertebrate and invertebrate prey. Frequently-taken species include: opalfish, octopus, munida, hoki, oblique-banded rattail fish, salps, squid and crustaceans. Prey is taken in both benthic and pelagic habitats. Antarctic, Subantarctic, and New Zealand Fur Seals are taken as prey by adult male sea lions. Penguins and sea lion pups are also occasionally taken.<br/><br/>Predators include sharks, Leopard Seals, and presumably Killer Whales. Pups are also cannibalized by adult males of their own species.
17026		population	eng	New Zealand Sea Lions have a highly restricted distribution and a small population that numbers approximately 11,855 animals (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2006). This equates to an adult population size of <10,000. Pup production has shown a decline of 30% in the last 10 years, but this was preceded by a few years of growth. Data from one of the main colonies shows no overall trend in pup production over the past 25 years (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2007).
17026		threats	eng	New Zealand Sea Lions were once more abundant, with a much more extensive range that included the North and South islands of New Zealand. The Maori people of New Zealand have traditionally hunted sea lions, presumably since first contact, as did Europeans upon their arrival much later. Commercial sealing in the early 19th century decimated the population in the Auckland Islands, but despite this, continued until the mid-20th century, when it was halted. The population may not have fully recovered from this period of overexploitation, although estimates of pre-exploitation population size are difficult to derive.<br/><br/>New Zealand Sea Lions have a highly restricted distribution, a small population, and most of the breeding activity is concentrated in two island groups in New Zealand's sub-Antarctic. This combination makes them vulnerable to disease outbreaks, environmental change, and human activities.<br/><br/>Commercial squid fishing near the two largest rookeries reported their first sea lion bycatch mortalities in 1978. In 1982, the fishery was moved at least 12 nautical miles away from the islands. However, this did not end mortality which from 1988 to 2007 ranged from 17-132 seals taken annually (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Chilvers 2008). Apart from direct mortality there is also the potential for prey competition and habitat modification from the fishing industry in the habitat of the New Zealand Sea Lion's breeding areas. Tourism at mainland sites and remote subantarctic islands can cause disruption to haul-out patterns and breeding activities.<br/><br/>Epizootic disease outbreaks at the Auckland Islands in 1998, 2002 and 2003 led to more than 50%, 33% and 21% early pup mortality respectively, and also led to mortalities of an unknown number of animals from other age classes during 1998. The source of the suspected bacterial agent and cause of the outbreak and subsequent mortality for the 1998 outbreak is unknown, however, the 2002 and 2003 outbreaks have been identified as cause by <em>Klebsiella pneumoniae</em> (Castinel <em>et al</em>. 2007).
17027		conservation	eng	The European Union adopted a Council Regulation 812/2004 entering into force in July 2004. This regulation is aimed at reducing the incidental catch of small cetaceans in fisheries in European Union waters. The regulation includes measures restricting Baltic Sea drift net fisheries, providing for mandatory use of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) in some EU gillnet fisheries in the Baltic Seas, and the use of onboard observers on vessels of over 15 m in length. Immediate actions to reduce the magnitude of bycatches are necessary. A review of the progress of implementing the regulation is scheduled for 2007. Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans, including harbour porpoises, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR (present Georgia, Russia and Ukraine), Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. In the North Sea incidental takes have been determined to be above the advised maximum level of removals.<br/><br/>Under the aegis of the ASCOBANS Secretariat, a special working group composed of representatives of international conventions, government ministries, fishermen and environmental groups has developed a recovery plan for the Baltic Harbour porpoise (Jastarnia Plan), which recommends a programme for bycatch reduction, research and monitoring, marine protected area establishment and an increase of public awareness. The overall aim is to restore the Baltic population of harbour porpoises to at least 80% of the Baltic’s carrying-capacity. A change in fishing methods and a reduction of fishing effort could significantly contribute to a lower bycatch rate.
17027		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>In the North Sea incidental takes have been determined to be above the advised maximum level of removals. The European Union adopted a regulation aimed at reducing the incidental catch of small cetaceans in fisheries in European Union waters. The regulation includes measures restricting Baltic Sea drift net fisheries, providing for mandatory use of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) in some EU gillnet fisheries in the North and Baltic Seas, and the use of onboard observers on vessels of over 15 m in length. A review of the progress of implementing resolution is scheduled for 2007.
17027		distribution	eng	Harbor porpoises are found in cold temperate to sub-polar waters of the Northern Hemisphere (Gaskin 1992, Read 1999). They are usually found in continental shelf waters, although they occasionally travel over deeper offshore waters. In the North Pacific, they range from central California and northern Honshu to the southern Beaufort and Chukchi Seas (including the Bering and Okhotsk Seas, and Sea of Japan). In the North Atlantic, they are found from the southeastern United States to southern Baffin Island (they apparently do not enter Hudson Bay) in the west, and from Senegal to Novaya Zemlya in the east.  They also occur around southeast and western Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, and this is the only cetacean species that currently regularly occupies the Baltic Sea. The species occurs in the Black Sea, Marmara Sea, and Sea of Azov, but with the exception of the adjacent northern Aegean Sea, they do not regularly occur in the Mediterranean Sea.
17027		distribution	eng	Harbour porpoises are found in cold temperate to sub-polar waters of the Northern Hemisphere (Gaskin 1992, Read 1999). They are usually found in continental shelf waters, although they occasionally travel over deeper offshore waters. In the North Pacific, they range from central California and northern Honshu to the southern Beaufort and Chukchi Seas (including the Bering and Okhotsk Seas, and Sea of Japan). In the North Atlantic, they are found from the southeastern United States to southern Baffin Island (they apparently do not enter Hudson Bay) in the west, and from Senegal to Novaya Zemlya in the east. They also occur around southeast and western Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, and this is the only cetacean species that currently regularly occupies the Baltic Sea. The species occurs in the Black Sea, Marmara Sea, and Sea of Azov, but with the exception of the adjacent northern Aegean Sea, they do not regularly occur in the Mediterranean Sea.
17027		habitat	eng	Throughout its range, <em>P. phocoena</em> is largely limited to continental shelf waters. They frequent relatively shallow bays, estuaries, and tidal channels less than about 200 m in depth. Carretta <em>et al</em>. (2001) found that the main distribution of porpoises in northern California was in waters of less than 60 m. Dives to at least 220 m have been recorded via telemetry (Bjørge and Tolley 2002, Otani <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/><br/>Harbour porpoises eat a wide variety of fish and cephalopods, and the main prey items vary regionally (see Smith and Gaskin 1974; Recchia and Read 1989, Fontaine <em>et al</em>. 1994, Gonzales <em>et al</em>. 1994, Aarefjord <em>et al</em>. 1995, Gannon <em>et al</em>. 1998, Read, 1999, Børjesson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Santos <em>et al</em>. 2004, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Although small schooling fish (e.g. herring) are important, demersal foraging is characteristic in many areas. <br/><br/>The ecology of Black Sea harbour porpoises may be unusual reflecting the high degree of geographic isolation of their habitat. Low water salinity, seasonal fluctuations of water temperatures and large amounts of anoxic waters below 100-250 m (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Surveys in 1994 and 2005 in the North Sea and adjacent waters have shown a major shift in distribution from northern to southern areas (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 2002, Hammond pers. comm.), a change that is reflect by increased in shore-based sightings (Camphuysen 2004, Thomsen <em>et al</em>. 2006).
17027		habitat	eng	Throughout its range, <em>P. phocoena</em> is largely limited to continental shelf waters. They frequent relatively shallow bays, estuaries, and tidal channels less than about 200 m in depth. Harbor porpoises eat a wide variety of fish and cephalopods, and the main prey items vary regionally. Although small schooling fish (e.g. herring) are important, demersal foraging is characteristic in many areas. The ecology of Black Sea harbour porpoises may be unusual reflecting the high degree of geographic isolation of their habitat.<br/><br/>Surveys in 1994 and 2005 in the North Sea and adjacent waters have shown a major shift in distribution from northern to southern areas (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2002, P.S. Hammond pers. comm. 2007), a change that is reflect by increased in shore-based sightings (Camphuysen 2004, Thomsen <em>et al.</em> 2006).
17027		population	eng	In the North Atlantic Ocean (including the Black and Azov seas), fourteen population units have been proposed (Donovan and Bjørge 1995), and in the North Pacific, several population units have been identified based on genetic studies (Chivers <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>There are no synoptic surveys covering the entire range within ocean basins, but abundance has been estimated for selected portions of the range. Abundance estimates have been summarized by Read 1999 (but see updates in Angliss and Outlaw 2005, Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006, Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). About 73,000 animals have been estimated to occur along the west coast of the USA (including 1,656 [CV=0.39] in the Morro Bay population, 1,613 [CV=0.42] in the Monterey Bay population, 8,521 [CV=0.38] from San Francisco to the Russian River, 17,763 [CV=0.39] in northern California and southern Oregon, 39,586 [CV=0.38] in Oregon and Washington, and 3,509 [CV=0.40] in Washington inland waters). In Alaska abundance is estimated at about 89,000 (including 10,947 [CV=0.24] in southeast Alaska, 30,506 [CV=0.21] in the Gulf of Alaska, and 47,356 [CV=0.22] in the Bering Sea) (see summary in Angliss and Outlaw 2005). In the western Atlantic, there are an estimated 75,438 [CV=0.42] in the Gulf of Maine/Upper Bay of Fundy to the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 27,000 for the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2007). Abundance has been estimated at 27,000 in Iceland (Stenson 2003) and 11,000 [CV=0.44] off North Norway - Barents Sea (Bjørge and Øien 1995). In the waters of the European Atlantic, abundance in 2005 was estimated at 385,600 [CV=0.20] (P.S. Hammond pers. comm.), of which about 335,000 [CV=0.21] were estimated in the North Sea and adjacent waters, where abundance was estimated at 341,000 [CV=0.14] in 1994 (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 2002). The abundance in the Baltic Sea is estimated at 599 (CV = 0.57) (Hiby and Lovell 1996). Line transect surveys have been conducted recently (since 2001) to estimate harbour porpoise abundance in different portions of the Black Sea. These suggest that total population size in the region may be at least several thousand and perhaps as much as 10,000-12,000 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Taken together, these numbers indicate that the global abundance of the harbour porpoise is at least about 700,000 individuals. <br/><br/>There is evidence of decline in abundance in some areas, e.g. in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006), in the Baltic Sea (see account for that subpopulation), and in inland waterways of Washington State, USA (Osmek <em>et al</em>. 1996).
17027		population	eng	In the North Atlantic Ocean (including the Black and Azov seas), fourteen population units have been proposed (Donovan and Bjørge 1995), and in the North Pacific, several population units have been identified based on genetic studies (Chivers <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/><br/>There are no synoptic surveys covering the entire range within ocean basins, but abundance has been estimated for selected portions of the species’ range.  Abundance estimates have been summarised by Read 1999 (see updates in Angliss and Outlaw 2005, Carretta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the waters of the European Atlantic, abundance in 2005 was estimated at 385,600 [CV=0.20] (SCANS-II P.S. Hammond pers. comm.), of which about 335,000 [CV=0.21] were estimated in the North Sea and adjacent waters, where abundance was estimated at 341,000 [CV=0.14] in 1994 (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2002). The abundance of the Baltic Sea stock has been estimated at 599 (CV=57%; 95% confidence interval = 200-3,300) (Hiby and Lovell 1995), of which about 50% or 300 would likely be mature (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Using a precautionary approach (Wade 1998), a minimum abundance estimate of mature animals would be the lower 20th percentile of the abundance estimate of mature individuals, equal to 192. Line transect surveys have been conducted recently (since 2001) to estimate harbour porpoise abundance in different portions of the Black Sea suggesting that total population size in the region may be at least several thousand and perhaps as much as 10,000-12,000 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>There is evidence of decline in abundance in some areas, for example in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) and the Baltic Sea. Although there are no reliable estimates of pre-exploitation subpopulation size, harbour porpoises were once numerous in the Baltic proper (see citations in Kinze 1995).
17027		threats	eng	The harbor porpoise has been hunted in many areas of its range, including some European waters. Many of these fisheries are now closed, but hunting of harbour porpoises still occurs in Greenland. In the Black Sea, large directed takes occurred during 1976-1983 before being banned by Turkey in 1983. Within that period, the total number of harbour porpoises killed was at least 163,000-211,000. Illegal direct killing of unknown numbers continued in some parts of the Black Sea until 1991 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Today, the most significant threat in most areas is incidental catches in fishing gear, primarily gill nets. Incidental mortality in fishing gear is likely to occur throughout the range of the species, but in European waters substantial incidental takes have been documented (summarized in Donovan and Bjørge 1995) for the North Sea (4,600/year) and the Celtic Shelf (1,500/year). More recent monitoring programmes of Danish set-net fisheries in the North Sea revealed an average of 5,591 porpoises taken annually in the period 1987-2001 (Vinther and Larsen 2002). However, most North Sea gillnet fisheries were not monitored for marine mammal bycatch (ICES 2002). In the Black Sea incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets is estimated to have been in the thousands annually through the 1980s (e.g. Birkun 2002). Almost all (>99%) of the porpoises are caught in bottom-set gillnets. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in recent times owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>Other types of threats include chemical pollution, vessel traffic, noise, and depletion of prey by overfishing. Due to its near shore distribution, the harbour porpoise is exposed to coastal sources of pollution throughout most of its range. Chemical pollution (PCBs) has been described as having adverse effects, especially in the Baltic. Porpoises from the Baltic Sea have up to 254% higher mean levels of PCBs than corresponding samples from the adjacent Kattegat and Skagerrak (Berggren <em>et al.</em> 1999, Bruhn <em>et al.</em> 1999), and a number of lesions and pathological changes have been reported from the Baltic Sea porpoises (Clausen and Andersen 1988).
17027		threats	eng	The harbour porpoise has been hunted in many areas of its range, e.g. in Puget Sound, the Bay of Fundy, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, Newfoundland, Greenland, Iceland, Black Sea, and the Danish Belt Seas. Many of these fisheries are now closed, but hunting of harbour porpoises still occurs in Greenland. In Greenland more than 700 per year were taken in 1990-1993 (Teilmann and Dietz 1995). In 2003 the reported catch had increased to 2,320 (NAMMCO 2005). Assessments of population impacts of these takes are not available.<br/><br/>In the Black Sea, large directed takes occurred during 1976-1983. Within that period, the total number of harbour porpoises killed was at least 163,000-211,000. Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans, including harbour porpoises, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR (present Georgia, Russia and Ukraine), Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. Illegal direct killing of unknown numbers continued in some parts of the Black Sea until 1991 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Today, the most significant threat in most areas is incidental catches in fishing gear, primarily gill nets. Incidental mortality in fishing gear is likely to occur throughout the range of the species, but substantial incidental takes have been documented (summarized in Donovan and Bjørge 1995) for the Gulf of Maine (1,200-2,900/year), Bay of Fundy (80-400/year), West Greenland (1,400/year), North Sea (4,600/year) Celtic Shelf (1,500/year), and also off central California during the 1980s and 1990s (tens to hundreds per year; Barlow and Hanan 1995). More recent monitoring programs of Danish set-net fisheries in the North Sea revealed an average of 5,591 porpoises taken annually in the period 1987-2001 (Vinther and Larsen 2002). However, most North Sea gillnet fisheries were not monitored for marine mammal bycatch (ICES 2002).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets is estimated to have been in the thousands annually through the 1980s (e.g., Birkun 2002a). Almost all (99%) of the porpoises are caught in bottom-set gillnets. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in recent times owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>Other types of threats include chemical pollution, vessel traffic, noise, and depletion of prey by overfishing. Due to its near shore distribution, harbour porpoises are exposed to coastal sources of pollution throughout most of its range. Chemical pollution (PCBs) has been described as having adverse effects (see Baltic subpopulation account). <br/><br/>An explosion at a gas-drilling platform in the Azov Sea in August 1982 resulted in the deaths of over 2,000 porpoises (Birkun 2002b).<br/><br/>Severe habitat degradation and prey depletion caused by intensive fishing in the Black Sea, together with explosive growth of populations of invasive species are considered important threats for local harbour porpoises (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Reduced prey availability coincided with two mass mortality events (in 1989 and 1990) that affected all three Black Sea cetacean species, but primarily harbour porpoises (Birkun 2002c). Severe pulmonary nematodosis, caused by <em>Halocercus spp</em>. and complicated by bacterial super-infection, was recognized as a primary cause of the deaths, which were mainly of young animals.
17028		conservation	eng	Only approximately half of the "core area" of vaquita distribution falls within the Upper Gulf of California and Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve, which was created in 1993. Moreover, the nuclear zone of the Reserve, which is the only area where all fishing is prohibited, appears to be grossly mismatched with vaquita distribution as no sightings of vaquitas were made inside this zone during the two large-scale systematic surveys in the 1990s (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 1995, Jaramillo-Legorreta 1999).<br/><br/>An International Committee for the Recovery of the Vaquita (CIRVA) was established in 1997 and has developed recommendations including: immediate prohibition of large-mesh gillnets throughout the species' known range, followed in sequence by bans on medium- and small-mesh gillnets; exclusion of gillnets and trawls within an enlarged biosphere reserve; and improved enforcement of fishing regulations in the northern Gulf generally. Considerable attention has also been given to development of less harmful fishing methods, alternative income-generating activities for fishing communities, and community-based education and awareness (Rojas-Bracho <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>On 29 December 2005 the Mexican Ministry of Environment declared a Vaquita Refuge that contains within its borders approximately 80% of all verified vaquita sighting positions. In the same decree, the State Governments of Sonora and Baja California were offered $(US)1 million to compensate affected fishermen. The results of this action cannot yet be evaluated.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
17028		distribution	eng	The vaquita is known to occur only in the northern Gulf of California, Mexico, mainly north of 30º45'N and west of 114º20'W (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 1995). The so-called ?core area? consists of about 2,500 km² centred at Rocas Consag, some 40 km northeast of the town of San Felipe, Baja California. This core area straddles the southern boundary of the Upper Gulf of California and California River Delta Biosphere Reserve. There is no evidence to indicate that the vaquita?s overall range has changed in historic times.<br/><br/>Endemic to upper quarter of Gulf of California, extent of occurrence (EOO) >2,000 km², area of occupancy (AOO) (core area) approx. 2,000 km².
17028		habitat	eng	The vaquita is a marine species that lives in a relatively shallow (<40 m), turbid and dynamic environment (Vidal 1995, Rojas-Bracho and Jaramillo-Legorreta 2002). Vaquitas feed on a variety of demersal or benthic fishes, squids and crustaceans. They have been observed singly and in small groups of up to 8 or 10 individuals (mean = 2), but many such groups can be loosely aggregated over several km².
17028		population	eng	The most recent estimate of total population size comes from a shipboard line transect survey in 1997 that was stratified to provide relatively intensive coverage of the core area but that also sampled adjacent areas to the south, east and north, including the shallow marginal bays and the even shallower Colorado River delta. Although imprecise because of variable sighting rates and other factors, the estimate of 567 (95% CI 177 to 1,073) was a great improvement on previous estimates and stands as the best currently available.<br/><br/>There is no immediate means of estimating trend, so it is necessary to impute the direction and rate of population change by reference to a population model laden with assumptions.<br/><br/>Naturally rare (Taylor and Rojas-Bracho 1999) and very difficult to detect and count (cryptic) (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 1995). No population subdivision is known or suspected, i.e. no subpopulations, but also no fragmentation. Most recent estimate of total population size (1997 shipboard line transect survey): 567 (95% CI 177 to 1,073) (Jaramillo-Legorreta <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Given the difficulty of sampling the vaquita population, generation time and percent mature (i.e., capable of reproduction) can only be estimated crudely and by analogy with the life history and population biology of the better-studied harbour porpoise (<em>Phocoena phocoena</em>). Thus reasonable default values for porpoises (phocoenids) would be 10 years and 55%, respectively.<br/><br/>Ongoing decline inferred from available information on abundance and bycatch rate. Even an unrealistically optimistic scenario - high end of 95% CI for population size (1,073), lower of two estimates of annual bycatch mortality for a single fishing port (39 porpoises) - indicates likely decline (Rojas-Bracho and Taylor 1999).
17028		threats	eng	Mortality in gillnets of various mesh size has long been recognized as the most serious and immediate threat to the vaquita?s survival (Vidal 1993, 1995; Reeves and Leatherwood 1994; IWC 1995:87, 167; Rojas-Bracho and Taylor 1999; Rojas-Bracho <em>et al</em>. 2006). The only available estimates of the vaquita bycatch rate are 39 (using one method) and 84 (using a different method) animals killed per year by boats from a single port (D?Agrosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). This alone would represent 7 or 15%, respectively, of the estimated total population size (Rojas-Bracho and Jaramillo-Legorreta 2002). Other potential threats that have been suggested but that appear not to be significant risk factors at present include inbreeding depression, pesticide exposure and ecological changes as a result of reduced flow from the Colorado River (Taylor and Rojas-Bracho 1999). The last of these may be important in the long term and deserves investigation.
17029		conservation	eng	The species is in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Better documentation of catches and new approaches to dealing with porpoise/gillnet interaction problems are clearly needed, in order to enable an assessment of the effects and suggest mitigation measures in the case of Burmeister's porpoise.
17029		distribution	eng	Burmeister's porpoises are distributed in shallow, coastal waters of South America, from southern Brazil (about 28°48’S), south to Cape Horn in Tierra del Fuego, and thence north to northern Peru (to about 5°01’S) (Brownell and Clapham 1999). It is unclear whether the distribution is continuous between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
17029		habitat	eng	This is essentially a coastal species, which sometimes frequents inshore bays, channels, and fjords of Tierra del Fuego, and is occasionally observed inside the kelp line. It is typically found shoreward of the 60-m isobath, but occasionally has been recorded in up to 1,000 m of water (Brownell and Clapham 1999). There have also been records from more offshore waters, 50 km from the coast of Argentina.<br/><br/>Feeding is on demersal and pelagic fish species, such as anchovies and hake, as well as various squid and shrimps (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1995).
17029		population	eng	There are no estimates of abundance or trends. Burmeister's porpoises are very difficult to detect in any but calm conditions, which may explain the rarity of field observations (Brownell and Clapham 1999).<br/><br/>Recent genetic studies have indicated that porpoises in Peru form separate subpopulations from those in southern Chile and in Argentina. The possibility of multiple subpopulations in Peruvian waters is also considered likely (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some evidence suggests that the Burmeister’s porpoises in the Pacific and Atlantic belong to separate subpopulations (Corcuera <em>et al</em>. 1995).
17029		threats	eng	It is widely known that Burmeister's porpoises are shot or harpooned for use as crab bait in southern Chile. However, because quantitative data are lacking, the extent of this problem is unknown. <br/><br/>The most extensive known takes occur in Peruvian waters, where Burmeister's porpoise is bycaught primarily in net fisheries, and where it has been used extensively for human consumption. Mortality in Peru was recently estimated as > 450 per year and the high mortality is cause for concern (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1997; Brownell and Clapham 1999). In southern Chile, porpoises may be killed directly by harpooning (Brownell and Clapham 1999).
17030		conservation	eng	<p>The Black Sea population of Harbour Porpoises has been listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals since 1996. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans, including Harbour Porpoises, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR (present Georgia, Russia and Ukraine), Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. The riparian states assumed international obligations to protect Black Sea cetaceans as contracting parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention), Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, Appendix II), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The Harbour Porpoise, <em>P. phocoena</em>, is mentioned in Annex II of the EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora. In 1996, the Ministers of Environment of Black Sea countries adopted cetacean conservation and research measures within the framework of the Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea (paragraph 62). The Harbour Porpoise is included as Data Deficient in the regional Black Sea Red Data Book (1999). However, in 2002 it was listed as Endangered in the Provisional List of Species of the Black Sea Importance, an annex to the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol of the Bucharest Convention. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  On a national level, Black Sea cetaceans, including harbour porpoises, are protected by environmental laws, governmental decrees and national Red Data Book listings. The harbour porpoise is listed in the Red Data Books of Bulgaria, Russia and Ukraine, which do not use the IUCN categories and criteria. In Russia and Ukraine, inscription in national Red Data Books means that the species should be monitored and managed by appropriate state/national programmes. Such a programme has existed in Ukraine since 1999 (the Delfin-programme adopted by the Ministry of Environment). Action plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in Ukraine (2001) and Romania (2003) but they have no legal effect. In 2003-05 nine coastal protected areas were joined to form the Ukrainian National Network for Cetacean Conservation, an informal network consisting of 19 institutions (operational units) situated in 17 localities along the seaboard of Ukraine. Those protected areas are (from west to east): the Dunaisky [Danube] Biosphere Reserve, Chernomorsky (Black Sea) Biosphere Reserve, Swan Islands Branch of the Crimean Nature Reserve, Cape Martyan Nature Reserve, Karadag Nature Reserve, Opuk Nature Reserve, Kazantip Nature Reserve, Azov and Sivash National  Park, and Meotida  Landscape Park. The inventory of cetacean habitats has been completed and a common methodology for cetacean monitoring has been introduced in these protected areas. The ACCOBAMS Implementation Priorities for 2002-06 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002) envisage the development of a pilot conservation and management project in the well-defined area between Cape Sarych and Cape Khersones, southern Crimea (Ukraine).
17030		distribution	eng	<p>The subspecies’ range includes the Black Sea proper, Azov Sea, Kerch Strait (<em>e.g</em>., Tzalkin 1938), Marmara Sea, Bosphorus Strait (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997), northern Aegean Sea (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2001) and also, very likely, the Dardanelles Straits (Harun Guclusoy 2006, pers. comm. to Frantzis) connecting the Marmara and northern Aegean Seas (see Figure 1 in attached PDF). The Black Sea population is completely isolated from the nearest <em>P. phocoena </em>population in the northeastern Atlantic by a wide range hiatus in the Mediterranean Sea (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; Although there is no agreement on when it happened (Kleinenberg 1956, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2001), it is clear that Harbour Porpoises came to the Black Sea via the Mediterranean which, therefore, must have had its own population in the past.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The range of the Black Sea subspecies includes territorial waters and exclusive economic zones of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine in the Black Sea; internal waters of Ukraine in the Black Sea (including the Dnieper-and-Boug Liman and Karkinitsky Bay); internal waters of Russia and Ukraine in the Azov Sea and Kerch Strait; internal waters of Turkey (TSS, including the Bosphorus Strait, Marmara Sea and, possibly, the Dardanelles); Greek territorial waters in the northern Aegean Sea (Thracian Sea, Kavala Gulf, Strymonikos Gulf, Agiou Orous Gulf, and Thermaikos Gulf); and possibly Turkish territorial waters of the northeastern Aegean Sea, at the exit of the Dardanelles Straits. Occasionally, Harbour Porpoises have been sighted in the Danube, Dnieper, Don and Kuban rivers, their estuaries, deltas and tributaries (<em>e.g</em>., in the Danube in 1984-1989 and 2003 or in the Ingulets, a confluent of the Dnieper, in 1999), and coastal freshwater, brackish and saline lakes and lagoons including the Yalpug and Sivash lakes, Berezansky and Grigorievsky lagoons, Tendrovsky, Yagorlytsky and Jarylgachsky bays, and the Gulf of Taganrog (Tzalkin 1940a, Geptner <em>et al</em>. 1976, Birkun 2006). All of these sites are situated in Ukraine and Russia, on the northern and northwestern coasts of the Black Sea and round the Azov  Sea.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The population of <em>P. p. relicta</em> may consist of three or more subpopulations including those that spend much of the year in geographically and ecologically different areas, e.g. the Azov Sea, northwestern Black Sea and Sea of Marmara. The Bosporus Straits, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles Straits serve as conduits between the Black and Aegean Seas. Water flow at the surface is into the Aegean, from the Black  Sea (Poulos<em> et al.</em> 1997). If porpoises were to leave the Black Sea, the conditions in the northern Aegean Sea (as compared to other parts of the Mediterranean) would remain similar to those of the Black Sea. The period of greatest similarity would be February and March (Poulos<em> et al.</em> 1997) and five out of the nine records from the Aegean occurred from mid January to the end of March (three were in summer and one in October; all age classes have been found in the small available sample). Further work is needed to determine whether the animals found in the northern Aegean  Sea represent a separate resident subpopulation.<br/><br/>  [Definition: Territorial waters of all six Black  Sea countries are defined as consisting of the 12-mile-wide submerged strip along the coast, and the offshore border of this strip constitutes the marine boundary for each country. In areas where the sea extends inland (gulfs, bays, etc.), the 12-mile rule does not apply. These water bodies constitute the so-called “internal (marine) waters” of the Black Sea countries.]
17030		habitat	eng	<p>Harbour Porpoises inhabit mainly shallow waters (0–200 m deep) over the continental shelf around the entire perimeter of the Black Sea, although they also occur quite far offshore in deep water. For instance, in late September – early October 2005, sizeable groups were observed in the central Black Sea, beyond the shelf edge some 38–215 km from the nearest coast in waters 450–2,170 m deep (Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2006). During warm periods they occur in the Azov Sea and Kerch Strait (Tzalkin 1940a; Kleinenberg 1956; Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in the Marmara Sea and Bosphorus (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). Both of these small seas (as well as the northwestern Black Sea shelf zone) may represent geographically disjunct breeding-calving-feeding areas while the straits (Kerch and Bosphorus) connecting the seas serve as migration corridors. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Harbour Porpoises undertake annual migrations, leaving the Azov Sea (Tzalkin 1938) and northwestern Black Sea (Birkun 2006) before winter and returning in spring. Such movements also may occur between the Black Sea and Marmara Sea; in the latter (along with the Bosphorus) there are no records for January-March (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). The primary wintering areas are in the southeastern Black Sea (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2006) including southern Georgian territorial waters and (perhaps) eastern Turkish territorial waters. These are also the well-known wintering grounds of Black Sea and Azov Sea populations of the Anchovy (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus</em>) – a principal prey species for Harbour Porpoises during the cold season (Kleinenberg 1956). Most of the Black Sea porpoise population may congregate there every year. In January 2005 the density estimated for Georgian waters was 1.5 porpoises per km<sup>2</sup> ( Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2006), i.e. 6–39 times higher than densities reported for any other Black/Azov Sea area surveyed in summer or autumn.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The mean group size varies from 1.4 to 7.7 in different areas (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003, 2004; Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2006) although during their seasonal migration, animals may remain for a few days at different sites (usually bays with abundant fish) forming dense aggregations of some hundreds of individuals, e.g. off the southern coast of Crimea in December-January 1994 (Laspi Bay), March 1995 (near Cape Meganom) and April 2005 (between Cape Aya and Cape Fiolent) (Birkun and Krivokhizhin unpublished data). Sometimes, early and rapid ice formation, arising immediately after an “Indian summer”, can prevent animals leaving the Azov  Sea and cause mass mortality due to ice entrapment (Kleinenberg 1956). The last recorded die-off of this kind occurred in November 1993 (Birkun and Krivokhizhin 1997); the number of animals could not be estimated. Black Sea harbour porpoises do not avoid waters with low salinity and high turbidity; they may occur in brackish bays and lagoons, and visit rivers and estuaries (all records occurring at warm times of the year).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The ecology of Black Sea Harbour Porpoises may be considered unusual. It reflects the high degree of geographical isolation of their habitat, relatively low water salinity, significant seasonal fluctuations of water temperature, and large amount of anoxic waters saturated with hydrogen sulphide, H<sub>2</sub>S, below 100-250 m. At least 14 fish species have been recorded in the stomach contents (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957, Tonay and Öz 1999, Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Birkun 2006), of which four are considered as the most important prey: Anchovy, Sprat (<em>Sprattus sprattus phalaericus</em>), Whiting (<em>Merlangius merlangus euxinus</em>) and gobies (Gobiidae)
17030		population	eng	<p>Total population size is unknown and therefore a synoptic region-wide survey is essential. Past Black Sea region-wide estimates based on strip transect surveys carried out in the USSR (1967-1974; Zemsky and Yablokov 1974) and Turkey (1987; Çelikkale <em>et al. </em>1989) have been shown to be fundamentally flawed for a number of methodological and analytical reasons, making their use as indicators of absolute abundance unwarranted (e.g., IWC 1992, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). Consideration needs to be given as to whether, despite the identified problems, any of the data from those earlier surveys can be used in comparisons with data from future well-designed surveys to infer population change. Other estimates also suffered from inadequacies of survey design, record keeping and statistical analysis. Nevertheless, it was generally recognized (e.g., Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976, Yaskin and Yukhov 1997) that during most of the 20th century, the abundance of Harbour Porpoises in the Black Sea was higher than that of Bottlenose Dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncatus ponticus</em>) and lower than that of Common Dolphins (<em>Delphinus delphis ponticus</em>).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate Harbour Porpoise abundance in different parts of the range. In particular, aerial surveys were conducted in the Azov Sea, Kerch Strait (2001, 2002) and northeastern shelf area of the Black Sea (2002); vessel-based surveys were performed in the Kerch Strait, the entire 12-mile-wide zone of the Ukrainian and Russian Black Sea (2003), Georgian territorial sea (2005), and central part of the Black Sea between the Crimea peninsula, Ukraine, and Sinop province of Turkey (September–October 2005). Results of those surveys (see Table 1 in the attached PDF, see link below) suggest that present total population size is at least several thousands and possibly in the low tens of thousands.<br/><br/>  <strong>Population Trend<br/></strong>In the 20th century, the number of Black Sea Harbour Porpoises was dramatically reduced by massive direct killing for the cetacean-processing industry that continued until 1983 (e.g. Smith 1982, IWC 2004). The numbers of animals taken were not recorded accurately; much of the catch data was recorded as numbers of animals undifferentiated to species (all three Black Sea small cetacean species were targeted) and by wet weight aggregates (e.g. pounds or tons of dolphin/porpoise landed). However, it can be inferred that the population size of <em>P. p. relicta</em> was reduced due to the direct kills (totalling some hundreds of thousands) by the time the total ban on dolphin hunting was enforced in the Black Sea region (see section “Threats”). It is strongly suspected that during the subsequent period from 1983-2006, not only did the population not recover but it declined markedly, primarily due to large-scale mortality in bottom-set gillnets (Birkun 2002a). In addition, there are other ongoing threats including human-induced habitat degradation (see “Threats” below). These threats are poorly managed in most Black Sea countries and therefore further decline of the population seems likely. It is also important to consider the effect on population trends of the mass-mortality events mentioned elsewhere in this assessment (gas platform explosion in 1982, die-off from ice conditions in 1993 and the two events in 1989 and 1990 possibly related to parasitic and bacterial infections).
17030		threats	eng	<p>Until 1983, unregulated hunting was the primary threat (IWC 1992, 2004). Very large numbers of harbour porpoises, as well as other cetaceans, were taken during the 20th century by all Black Sea countries for a variety of industrial uses (Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957). Although the total number killed is unknown, it may have been as many as four or five million for all species combined (e.g. see review in Smith 1982). It is widely accepted that all Black Sea cetacean populations, including Harbour Porpoises, were badly reduced by the directed fishery (IWC 1983, 1992, 2004). Catches of Harbour Porpoises were numerically fewer than those of Common Dolphins until 1964 when Harbour Porpoises became predominant (Danilevsky and Tyutyunnikov 1968, Smith 1982). Berkes (1977) reported that in Turkey, approximately 4,400 tons (4,400,000 kg) of cetaceans (all three species combined) were processed annually from 1971-73. He assumed an average weight per carcass of 50 kg (unspecified to species). Importantly, Berkes noted that shooting (the predominant method of dolphin killing in Turkey) could result in about half of the killed animals being lost due to sinking. If, following Berkes, one supposes that in the early 1970s the annual total of removals by the Turkish fishery amounted to 8,800,000 kg (including both processed and lost carcasses), or up to 176,000 animals of which 50% were Harbour Porpoises, this would imply at least 88,000 killed per year (of which 44,000 were landed). These very crude calculations suggest that Turkish catches of Harbour Porpoises in the early 1970s were at least as high as, and possibly much higher than, those estimated for 1976-1981&#160;(34,000-44,000 per year according to IWC, 1983, assuming that harbour porpoises accounted for 80% of the total). At least since 1991, there has been no evidence of illegal directed takes although such takes had been reported before that time (IWC 1992). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>At present, incidental mortality in fishing nets is the most serious threat (<em>e.g</em>., Birkun 2002a). Although all three Black  Sea cetacean species are 'bycaught', the majority (95%) of recorded cetacean entanglements are of porpoises. Unfortunately, absolute numbers of removals cannot be estimated from the available data. However, there are indications that the annual level of Harbour Porpoise bycatch may be in the thousands. Almost all (99%) of the porpoises are caught in bottom-set gillnets for Turbot (<em>Psetta maeotica</em>), Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) and sturgeon (<em>Acipenser </em>spp.). The peak occurs from April–June during the Turbot season in the Azov Sea and Kerch Strait and throughout the shelf area of the Black Sea, including territorial waters of all six riparian countries. Almost all (99.9%) recorded bycatches are lethal (BLASDOL 1999). Illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing is widespread in the Black and Azov Seas and a significant proportion of the bycatch may occur in such operations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>An explosion at a gas-drilling platform in the Azov Sea in August 1982 resulted in the deaths of over 2,000 porpoises (Birkun 2002b).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Large-scale pelagic and small-scale coastal fisheries may affect Black Sea harbour porpoises indirectly by reducing their prey populations and degrading their habitat. Primarily, this relates to anchovies and sprats in the Black Sea and gobies in the Azov  Sea. In particular, overfishing, eutrophication and the population explosion of an introduced predator, the ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>, led to a dramatic (<span lang="EN-US">8 to 12-fold) decline of sprat and anchovy abundance in the early 1990s<span lang="EN-US"> (Prodanov <em>et al.</em> 1997). This reduced prey availability coincided with two mass mortality events (in 1989 and 1990) that, although they affected all three cetacean species, primarily affected porpoises (Birkun 2002c). Severe pulmonary nematodosis, caused by <em>Halocercus </em>spp. and complicated by bacterial super-infection, was recognized as a primary cause of the deaths, which were mainly of young animals. For other species, it has been hypothesised that malnutrition along with immuno-suppression associated with PCB contamination provokes or intensifies the effects of epizootics (e.g. Mediterranean Striped Dolphins; Aguilar and Borrell, 1994). Reported levels of DDTs and HCHs in Black Sea Harbour Porpoises are higher than those in conspecifics elsewhere in the world (Tanabe <em>et al</em>. 1997). Chemical pollution is thus also a potential threat, particularly in the context of epizootics. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Black Sea Harbour Porpoises are also affected in some years by ice entrapment in the Azov  Sea (see section “Habitats and Ecology”).
17031		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The European Union adopted a Council Regulation 812/2004 entering into force in July 2004. This regulation is aimed at reducing the incidental catch of small cetaceans in fisheries in European Union waters. The regulation includes measures restricting Baltic Sea drift net fisheries, providing for mandatory use of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) in some EU gillnet fisheries in the Baltic  Seas, and the use of onboard observers on vessels of over 15 m in length. Immediate actions to reduce the magnitude of bycatches are necessary. A review of the progress of implementing the regulation was scheduled for 2007. </p>
17031		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">In the Baltic Sea area the historic range apparently included all of the Kattegat/Skagerrak area, the Gulfs of Riga, Finland, and Bothnia, and much of the Baltic Sea proper.&#160;&#160; However, in the latter half of the 1900s, the range was reduced considerably, and currently porpoises are considered to be virtually absent in the north-eastern Baltic (Koschinski 2002).&#160; </p>
17031		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> is a semi-enclosed, relatively shallow shelf sea with some deeper basins of more than 200 m depth. There is a gradient in salinity with declining salinity towards east and north. Winter sea-ice normally covers the northern and eastern parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place>.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> and vicinity, herring, sprat, and cod are the main prey items, and many prey species are benthic or demersal (Read 1999, Boerjesson <em>et al.</em> 2003).</p>
17031		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The abundance of the Baltic  Sea stock has been estimated at 599 (CV=57%; 95% confidence interval = 200-3,300) (Hiby and Lovell 1996), of which about 50% or 300 would likely be mature (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Using a precautionary approach (Wade 1998), a minimum abundance estimate of mature animals would be the lower 20<sup>th</sup> percentile of the abundance estimate of mature individuals, equal to 192. Scheidat <em>et al.</em> <span lang="EN-US">(2004) reported that on the Oderbank east of Rügen, Baltic harbour porpoise densities between May and August 2002 were high relative to nearby Mecklenburg and Kiel Bights. There is evidence that porpoises in the Kattegat –Skagerrak area migrate to the North Sea (Teilmann <em>et al.</em> 2004). &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Although there are no reliable estimates of pre-exploitation subpopulation size, harbour porpoises were once numerous in the Baltic proper (Kinze 1995).</span></p>
17031		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Historically, large commercial catches occurred when porpoises migrated through the Danish Straits, mainly during winter and spring months. Annual catch levels averaged about 1,000 porpoises during most of the nineteenth century, increasing to 2,000 at the end of the century with a subsequent declining trend during the twentieth century until catches increased again in the 1940s.&#160; According to Kinze (1995), historical directed catches in the Baltic proper might have been higher than the catches in the Danish Straits. </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Today, the most significant threat is incidental catches in fishing nets, primarily various types of gillnets (including both set gillnets and driftnets; Berggren 1994, Koschinski 2002). In addition to gillnets, harbor porpoises are also taken in smaller numbers in trawls (Berggren 1994). The current bycatch, known to be at least seven porpoises per year, is thought to be unsustainable, and Baltic porpoises may become extinct in the near future unless actions are taken to prevent future anthropogenic mortality (ASCOBANS 2000).&#160; Skóra and Kuklik (2003) recorded information on 62 observations of harbour porpoises in Polish waters during 1990-1999. Of these, 45 (75.6%) were reported bycaught in fishing gear, 10 observed at sea and 7 found dead on the shore. The bycatches occurred mostly in semi-driftnets (anchored at one end) set for salmonids and bottom-set gillnets set for cod.&#160; </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The annual bycatch in German Baltic fisheries is assumed to be between 3-5 porpoises (ICES 2005). Eight porpoises in Poland and two in Latvia were reported bycaught in 2003-2004 (ICES 2005). In Finland two porpoises were reported bycaught in the period 1986-1999. No bycatches were reported from Finland after 1999 (ICES 2003). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  Pollution is of particular concern in the Baltic Sea where toxic compounds (in particular PCBs) have been described as the likely source for reduced fertility and population decline in Baltic Sea pinnipeds (Helle <em>et al.</em> 1976, Helle 1980, Bergman and Olsson 1986, Bergman 1999). Porpoises from the Baltic Sea have up to 254% higher mean levels of PCBs than corresponding samples from the Kattegat and Skagerrak (Berggren <em>et al.</em> 1999, Bruhn <em>et al.</em> 1999), and currently, a number of lesions and pathological changes are reported from the Baltic Sea porpoises (Siebert <em>et al.</em> 1999, Clausen and Andersen 1988), including pneumonia, liver fibrosis, arthrosis, abscesses in muscles, lungs and other organs, skin lesions and heavy attacks from parasites (Siebert <em>et al.</em> 1999, Clausen and Andersen 1988). Therefore, pollution cannot be excluded as a contributing factor in the past decline in abundance in the Baltic  Sea. However, a recent decline of PCB concentration in Baltic Sea biota has been observed (Bignert <em>et al.</em> 2003).
17032		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The long period since the last survey (over 15 years) warrants urgent reassessment of the status of the two subpopulations hunted by the Japanese hand harpoon fishery.
17032		distribution	eng	Dall's porpoises are found only in the northern North Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas (Bering and Okhotsk seas, and Sea of Japan). They inhabit deep waters between about 30°N and 62°N (Jefferson 1988; Houck and Jefferson 1999), but may occasionally occur as far south as about 28°N off the coast of Baja California (Mexico), during unusually cold-water periods.<br/><br/>The <em>dalli</em>-type occurs throughout of the species’ range, from the west coast of North America to Japan. <br/><br/>The <em>truei</em>-type, identified by a broad lateral white patch, inhabits the western north Pacific, and migrates between wintering grounds off the Pacific coast of northern Japan and summer breeding grounds in the central Okhotsk Sea, and constitutes one population (IWC 2002).
17032		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mainly offshore deep waters colder than 18°C (Miyashita and Kasuya 1988), but may also occur in narrow channels and fjords in the western North Pacific (Jefferson 1988; Rice 1998). <br/><br/>Sex-biased dispersal is known to occur in this species, and this may have relevance in assessing the impact of takes on regional populations (Escorza Trevino and Dizon 2000).<br/><br/>Dall's porpoises are apparently opportunistic feeders, taking a wide range of surface and midwater fish and squid, especially soft-bodied species like lanternfish (myctophids) and gonatid squid. Occasional krill, decapods, and shrimps found in porpoise stomachs are not considered normal prey (Houck and Jefferson 1999; Jefferson 2002).
17032		population	eng	Dall’s porpoises are common in many parts of the North Pacific, and density is high in many areas of the range. The total abundance of the species is probably over 1.2 million individuals (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993). In Alaska, the abundance is estimated at 83,400 (CV=10%) (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Along the U.S. west coast, abundance estimates have ranged from about 35,000 to 134,000, averaging 86,000 animals (CV = 45%) between 1991 and 2005 (Barlow and Forney, in press). In the western North Pacific, the <em>truei</em>-type population migrating between the Pacific coasts of Japan and the central Okhotsk Sea is estimated at 217,000 (CV=0.23). The <em>dalli</em>-type population migrating between the Sea of Japan and the southern Okhotsk Sea is estimated at 226,000 (CV=0.15), and the <em>dalli</em>-type population summering in the northern Okhotsk Sea at 111,000 (CV=0.29) (IWC 1998). These estimates are subject to biases due to response to survey vessels. <br/><br/>The International Whaling Commission currently recognizes 11 populations of this species, based on differences in genetics, pollutant loads, parasite faunas, and distribution patterns of cow/calf pairs (IWC 2002). Three of them summer in the Okhotsk Sea, two in the Bering Sea, four in the North Pacific, and two off the US coast, but the wintering grounds are unknown for many of them. The populations cannot be reliably distinguished by their external appearance at sea except for the three summering in the Okhotsk Sea, which are distinguishable based on the pigmentation and location.
17032		threats	eng	The largest threats to this species have been incidental takes by salmon and squid drift net fisheries and direct takes by hand harpoon fishery in Japanese coastal waters. The driftnet salmon fisheries began in 1952 and continued until a United Nation moratorium on all high-seas driftnet fisheries came into effect (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). The large-mesh and squid driftnet fisheries operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N, increasing in effort during the 1970s and peaking during the 1980s prior to the moratorium. Bycatch estimates are only available for 1989-1990, when about 4,000 Dall's porpoise were estimated killed per year (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of Dall's porpoise, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993). The estimated annual take by Japanese salmon fisheries within the United States EEZ for the period 1981-1987 ranged from 741 (1987) to 4,187 (1982), with lower levels of additional takes in Bering Sea waters outside of the U.S. EEZ (IWC 1991; T. Jefferson pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Incidental catches on the order of thousands of porpoise per year are ongoing in several fisheries using gillnets in the Russian exclusive economic zone (Burkanov and Nikulin 2001). Small numbers of Dall's porpoises are also taken along the US West Coast in drift net and trawl fisheries (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>The Japanese hand harpoon fishery for Dall’s porpoise started in the 1910s (Ohsumi 1972; Sawadate 1983), made a great expansion around the World War II period (Wilke <em>et al</em>. 1953; Sawadate 1983), then remained lower at between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals until the 1970s (Kasuya 1982). Approximately 111,500 Dall’s porpoises were removed by hunting between 1986 and 1989 from two stocks centred in the Okhotsk Sea (IWC 1991). The Japanese government began to regulate the hand-harpoon hunt in 1989, and a catch quota was introduced in 1993. The fishery currently operates with a quota of 9,000 <em>dalli</em>-type Sea of Japan-southern Okhotsk Sea population and 8,700 <em>truei</em>-type Pacific coast-central Okhotsk Sea population (IWC 2002). The current level of reported takes are about 4% of the mean estimate of the size of the populations; however, these catch statistics might not be reliable (Kasuya 2007).<br/><br/>Environmental contaminants are also thought to be a threat, and high levels of organochlorines may reduce testosterone levels in males and affect calf viability, thereby influencing reproduction and survival (Subramanian <em>et al</em>. 1987, 1988).
17035		conservation	eng	Occurs within protected areas all over the area (approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia).<br/>Further research is recommended.
17035		distribution	eng	Distributed in steppes and semi-deserts in Kazakhstan, Tuva and Transbaikalia (Russia), W and C Mongolia, and N China (Heilongjiang, Nei Mongol, Xinjiang).
17035		habitat	eng	Occurs in grasslands, semi-desert and desert; more likely to be found living on soils with a firmer substrate than P. roborovskii.  Burrows (4-6 vertical entrances) lead to a nest chamber as deep as 1 m (but normally shallower) and food caches of seeds.  May occupy burrows of <em>Meriones</em>, rather than digging their own.  Diet primarily seeds and plants, but known to consume insects.  Nocturnal or crepuscular; do not hibernate.  Breeds from April-October, producing 3-4 litters of 4-8 young following a 20-22 day gestation period.  Juveniles may become reproductively active in their first year.
17035		population	eng	No data are available at present, although it is believed to be relatively common.
17035		threats	eng	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not major threats to the species at present.
17036		conservation	eng	Occurs within protected areas (approximately 18% of the species’ range in Mongolia).
17036		distribution	eng	Distributed in sand deserts and semi-deserts in Mongolia (Govi Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Govi, Eastern Govi, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans Altai Govi Desert and Alashani Govi Desert; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980) and adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Russia (Tuva) and N China.
17036		habitat	eng	Occurs in sandy deserts and grasslands; avoids areas with clay soil, those overgrown with shrubby vegetation, and barkhan sands. Burrows with a single opening (4 cm diameter) are dug between sand dunes or at their edge.  Burrows extend 90 cm deep and contain a single nest and 2-3 food caches.  Eats seeds (often filling their cheek pouches); also known to consume green vegetation and insects. Nocturnal; do not hibernate.  Reproduce from March-September (or even later).  Up to four litters ranging from 3-9 young are born following a 20-day gestation.  Young of the year may become reproductively active.
17036		population	eng	No population data are available, but it is believed to be common in the Gobi Desert. Rare in Kazakhstan and Russia.
17036		threats	eng	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats at present.
17037		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas.
17037		distribution	eng	Distributed in dry steppes and semi-deserts of SW Siberia, E Kazakhstan, and in one isolated area in Khakassia (Russia).
17037		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry plane and mountain steppes, including sandy, solty and rubbly ones. Solitary. Burrows have multiple passages with one or two cells. Wintering nest can be up to 1 m below the ground. Often uses other rodents' burrows, sometimes lives very close to other species. Does not hibernate. Feeds on seeds, insects and larvae. In winter accumulates a large amount of hypodermic fat that helps them to survive freezing temperatures. Reproduce during warm time of the year, sometimes in winter too. From April to September has 5-6 litters (in Kazakhstan), with 4-11 young in each. Young start to reproduce when their weight is about 20 g.
17037		population	eng	Precise data are unavailable. Population size fluctuations are significant. In some areas abundant and is a crop pest.
17037		threats	eng	Unknown. Habitat degradation may decrease the area of occupancy.
17056		distribution	eng	Recorded from various lakes in Turkey including Lakes Akgol and Beysehir.
17056		habitat	eng	Occurs in lakes.
17056		threats	eng	Threatened due to the introduction of other species.
17066		conservation	eng	No information.
17066		distribution	eng	Wide but highly disjunct range: lakes in Odra, Vistula, Dniepr, Volga (Oka and Kama systems) drainages, lakes in Arctic Ocean (from Northern Dvina to Kolyma drainages) and Pacific basins (from Amur to Korea and Japan). Introduced in Po drainage (Italy).
17066		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small lakes, shallows or isolated small bays of larger lakes, swamps, artificial ponds, with abundant vegetation, turbid water, with mud or clay bottom. Prefers still water or slow current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and usually over 40 mm SL. Spawns in May-July, when temperatures reach 7-9°C. Females lay 3-4 portions of adhesive eggs among underwater plants each one season. Embryonic development lasts 10-15 days. Commonly stays in shallows among vegetation in schools of 20-80 individuals. Survives extreme low oxygen concentrations in summer and winter. Spends winter in hibernation (in northern regions) or is inactive at temperatures close to 0°C. Feeds on a wide variety of prey, from plankton to benthic animals.
17066		population	eng	Abundant.
17066		threats	eng	No major threats known.
17067		conservation	eng	No information.
17067		distribution	eng	Basins of Atlantic, North and Baltic Seas, Arctic and northern Pacific Ocean from Garonne (France) eastward to Anadyr and Amur drainages and Korea, Ireland (possibly introduced), Great Britain northward to 58°N, Scandinavia and Russia northernmost extremity, Rhône drainage. Recorded from upper and middle Volga and Ural drainages, Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan) and upper Syr-Darya drainage (Aral basin), but these identifications require confirmation. Introduced elsewhere.
17067		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large Nordic lowland rivers and from small upland lakes to large oligotrophic lakes. Usually associated with salmonid fishes. Spawning takes place over clean gravel areas in flowing water or on wave-washed shores of lakes. Overwinters in coarse substrate or in deep pools with low current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, rheophilous. Lives up to 11 years, usually up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 10°C. Some individuals spawn even during autumn. Spawns in shoals, fractional spawner, females deposit the sticky eggs deep into clean gravel. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.
17067		population	eng	Abundant.
17067		threats	eng	Pollution and excessive stocking of species of <em>Salmo</em>.
17069		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that an area-based management plan is drawn up which not only protects the species’ locality, but also the waters upstream. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known, and to provide an estimate of abundance.
17069		distribution	eng	This species is known from a tributary of Little Henty River in Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). It potentially occurs in similar habitat in the surrounding area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). This species has an extent of occurrence of 60 km².
17069		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large streams and can be found living under stones and on roots and aquatic vegetation, especially in sheltered areas of slower current. This species occurs sympatrically with <em>Beddomeia zeehanensis</em> (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
17069		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
17069		threats	eng	Although this species may be impacted to some degree by land clearance for human development and forestry, the locality occurs in a wilderness area and the threats are thought to be minimal (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). However, it should be kept in mind that its localised distribution renders it especially vulnerable to new threat processes.
17072		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3), and is classified as Rare under Tasmania's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (DPIPWE 2009). The area in which this species occurs is enclosed by a national park, which may offer some protection to this species. In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, by means of an area-based management plan. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known, and to provide an estimate of abundance and an assessment of threat impacts.
17072		distribution	eng	This species is known from a tributary of the Tyenna River in Tasmania, Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). It potentially occurs in similar habitat in the surrounding area (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It has an extent of occurrence of 300 km<sup>2</sup>.
17072		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and is found in moss, on small waterfalls and in fern roots. The stream in which this species is found occurs in a beech forest plantation (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
17072		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
17072		threats	eng	This species may be threatened to a degree by habitat degradation and land clearance from forestry and sedimentation, but the locality is mainly wilderness and enclosed by a national park, so the likelihood that these threat are affecting this species is minimal (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). However, the fact that its habitat occurs within a beech forest plantation, together with its localised distribution, render it vulnerable to anthropogenic threats.
17074		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3). Its distribution falls within the Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park (Department of Environment, Parks, Heritage and the Arts 2009), which will offer some protection to its habitat. In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is advised that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, by means of an area-based management plan. Further field work is recommended to ascertain whether the distribution of this species is wider than is currently known, and to provide a current estimate of abundance.
17074		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small creek upstream from Kutikina Cave on the Franklin River in Tasmania, Australia. This species is only known from this locality and surveys of the surrounding areas have failed to find similar specimens (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
17074		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks and can be found under lichens at the stream edge, and in the litter and silt (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993).
17074		population	eng	Although this species has an extremely localised distribution, it has been described as common in the past (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, a more recent population estimate is unavailable.
17074		threats	eng	The locality of this species occurs within a national park, and therefore it is unlikely that it is being impacted upon by any serious threat processes. However, its localised distribution renders it especially vulnerable to new threat processes.
17078		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas near the type locality of this species.
17078		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from "Alto da Serra", Paranapiacaba, Santo Andre, in the State of Sao Paulo, south-eastern Brazil. It was collected at an elevation of around 1,000m asl.
17078		habitat	eng	Although there is no information available on the biology or ecology of this species, it is possible that it was a high-altitude stream-breeder.
17078		population	eng	It remains known from the holotype only, with no additional records for more than 80 years, despite repeated searches. It is now believed to be extinct.
17078		threats	eng	No explanation is currently available for the disappearance of this species.
17080		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
17081		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
17082		habitat	eng	Mostly aquatic - flowing creeks in rainforests. Terrestrial nest sites.
17083		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
17084		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
17096		conservation	eng	<strong>Legislation</strong> (Source: Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/>1. Totally protected species in South Australian Waters (since 1987). <br/>2. Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>3. Totally Protected Fish Status in Western Australian Waters (since 1991). <br/>4. Subject to Export controls since January 1st 1998, in the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em>. <br/>5. Listed as marine species under s248 of <em>The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)</em>. <br/>6. No Australian Society for Fish Biology listing. <br/> <br/><strong>More information</strong> (Source: Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003) <br/>Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection. <br/> <br/><strong>Protected areas</strong> <br/>All states of Australia are currently implementing systematic series of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Different states are at different stages of this process. The most important development for Leafy Seadragons is that a new MPA is close to being declared (it was released as a draft plan earlier in 2005) in southern Gulf St Vincent in the state of SA. The proposed MPA will include areas (e.g., Encounter Bay and northeastern Kangaroo Island) in which a large proportion of public sightings of seadragons occur. The protection of these areas could substantially decrease the perceived vulnerability of the species to human activities, in particular to commercial fishing. At this stage, however, levels of protection and locations of zones of high protection within the proposed MPA have not been finalised. Furthermore, MPAs offer no immediate protection against eutrophication and sedimentation threats to habitat from land-based sources.
17096		distribution	eng	Leafy seadragons appear to be most abundant in SA and southern WA. Until recently, the range was considered to form a continuous stretch of coastline from near Perth on the southern west coast of WA to Wilson’s Promontory in Vic (Kuiter 2000b).  Recent sightings of live animals by divers have extended the known range along the WA coastline as far north as the Abrolhos Islands, west of Geraldton (Baker 2002). Unconfirmed reports of sightings come from Bass Strait Islands (King Is., Kent Group) of NW TAS (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>The extent of occurrence can be approximated as the length of coastline along which it occurs (~ 14,000 km) and the width of the strip of habitat suitable for it to occupy along this coastline (less than 1 km in most places, and for this calculation assumed to be 0.1 km wide).  The extent of occurrence is therefore estimated to be 1,400 km². Seadragons have been sighted at numerous locations within the range but it is impossible to determine how fragmented occurrence is. Total area of occupancy is possibly less than 2,000 km² (given the approximate extent of occurrence calculated above), but at this time is unknown. <br/> <br/>The depth range of Leafy Seadragons is not well documented. Most reported encounters are with divers, and therefore necessarily in waters less than about 20 m. Seadragons have, however, been recorded down to 30 m in SA, WA and VIC (Kuiter 2000b).
17096		habitat	eng	Leafy Seadragons were until recently considered to occur predominantly near rocky reefs supporting stands of kelp or other macroalgae, where they have been observed feeding on mysids and other crustaceans (Kuiter 2000a). Recent telemetry using ultrasonic transmitters has shown, however, that this species is just as prevalent over shallow (5–15 m depth) <em>Posidonia</em> seagrass meadows and patches of sand amongst seagrass (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). <br/> <br/>Leafy Seadragons tracked over periods of up to 10 days typically remained within well-defined home ranges of up to 5 ha (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b).  Patterns of movement are characterised by short bursts (at average velocities of 2–17 m/h) punctuating long periods (up to 68 h) without movement. No diel pattern of movement is apparent (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). <br/> <br/>As with other syngnathids, male seadragons carry the fertilized eggs. For Leafy Seadragons, the male carries about 200 eggs on the exposed surface of the underside of its tail (there is no pouch).  <br/> <br/>This species can survive for at least two to three years in aquaria if supplied with its specific live food requirements (P. Quong, pers. comm. in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Longevity <em>in situ</em> is not known. <em>Phycodurus eques</em> attains a maximum length of about 35 cm (Kuiter 1993).Mating reportedly occurs during summer months (Kuiter 2000b). Genetic structure of populations has not been measured, nor has any aspect of reproduction been quantified (e.g., number of mates, number of broods per season). <br/> <br/><em>Phycodurus eques</em> is particularly well camouflaged, with a number of frond-like appendages that resemble kelp. The species also rocks back and forth with wave action, increasing its resemblance to coastal algae swept by coastal surge (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994).
17096		population	eng	No firm population estimates exist for Leafy Seadragons, but an approximate estimate can be made using certain assumptions. Just one estimate of density exists for this species, from a single location at one time. Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002a) estimated the density of Leafy Seadragons around West Island, in Encounter Bay, SA, using a mark/re-sighting method and a capture/recapture algorithm. The density of larger juveniles and adults at this site was 57 fish per ha. Small juveniles (< 100 mm) were not included in the study. In making a population estimate, the following estimations and assumptions were made: <br/> <br/>1. The site at which Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002a) worked was chosen because relatively frequent sightings had been made there previously. An average density across the distribution would be lower, probably much lower, and a figure of 5 fish per ha was used (approximately 10% of estimate by Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002a)). <br/> <br/>2. The coastline along which Leafy Seadragons occur is an estimated 14,000 km long. <br/> <br/>3. The species occurs most frequently in a thin strip of shallow water along the coastline, typically in stands of macroalgae or in seagrass meadows. This strip is estimated to be, on average, 100 m wide, giving a total of 140,000 ha of occupancy. <br/> <br/>At 5 fish per ha, the estimated total number of Leafy Seadragons is ~700,000. Confidence limits cannot be stated but the estimate is clearly based on very loose assumptions. The purpose of making such an estimate is to give perspective to the number of fish that might be removed from the wild (see Threats, below). <br/> <br/>Mapping of habitat at sites far from major population centres and research into variability in habitat use at different sites is required to make the estimate of total population size more rigorous.
17096		threats	eng	Leafy Seadragons lack a caudal fin and are weak swimmers; in conjunction with a lack of a dispersive egg phase, this potentially makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation as well as to incidental harvesting during commercial fishing (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). These are the two main threats. <br/> <br/>Leafy Seadragons are associated with seagrass beds and reefs supporting macroalgae (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). These habitats have been adversely affected by human activities and loss in quality and quantity of habitat has been documented (Baker 2003). The loss of habitat is most severe near major urban centres (e.g., Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne), where discharge of storm water and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation. Losses of seagrass have been particularly severe along the metropolitan coasts and are well documented (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria 1996). <br/> <br/>Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002b) report anecdotal evidence that Leafy Seadragons are killed as incidental bycatch in the trawling industry in SA. Fishers have indicated that on occasions they catch “large numbers” of Leafy Seadragons. This information remains at the level of anecdote however, and neither the rate nor distribution of incidental catch have been substantiated. Measurement of incidental catch in SA would be beneficial, in that bycatch rates, compared with <em>in situ</em> densities, could be used to establish the relative threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>The legal collection of wild specimens has little likelihood of causing long-term changes in population sizes. The small numbers taken under legally issued permits could result in the reduction or loss of groups of animals at particular sites, but this is unlikely to result in measurable effects on regional populations. If demand increases substantially, illegal collection could threaten local and perhaps regional populations, although this possibility should remain unlikely given the difficulties associated with illegal international export. <br/> <br/>This species is a major attraction for the dive industry in southern Australia, and it has been made the official fish emblem in the state of South Australia. Recreational divers often harass or disturb individuals (Kuiter 2000a). Suitable protocols for divers should be encouraged to protect local populations, but the disturbance probably does not harm the long-term prospects for regional populations.
17168		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss (GMA Brazil). The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Phyllostomus stenops</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
17168		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Chiapas, Mexico, and Belize, is patchily distributed through Honduras and the rest of Central America (not recorded in Nicaragua), to south Peru, Bolivia and southeastern Brazil, but appears to be absent from dry deciduous forest over much of southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). Lowlands to 2,600 m (Emmons and Feer, 1997). However, it has recenty captured in Pantanal and Cerrado (Aguiar pers. comm.).
17168		habitat	eng	Poorly known. It is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forests but is broadly tolerant of man-made clearings in Venezuela (Handley, 1976).This mixed feeder will take fruits as well as insects. It has been recorded feeding on larvae and pupae, and from the nest of a social wasp. One individual caught in Costa Rica had eaten fruit, especially those of cucurbit vines (LaVal, 1977). One was collected while it was attacking a large rat, apparently a Proechimys. Females bear a single young. These bats are found around streams and swamps or marshes. It is usually captured in mist nets set over streams in evergreen forest. The roost is undescribed (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
17168		population	eng	Uncommon to rare, but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Rare in Costa Rica (Pineda pers. comm.).
17168		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
17173		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
17173		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jamaica (Simmons, 2005).
17173		habitat	eng	This species is colonial and roosts in caves, often together with other bats species. The only major colony contains a few hundred individuals. A female with one embryo was caught in January; and a pregnant female captured in June (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its diet consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, and perhaps insects (Nowak, 1999); captive individuals thrived on a diet of bananas, mangoes, papayas, and various kinds of canned fruit nectars (Nowak, 1999).
17173		population	eng	It is uncommon to locally common, found in five caves (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
17173		threats	eng	The only major colony contains a few hundred individuals and is considered vulnerable to human disturbance (Nowak, 1999).
17175		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas, research focusing in species separation.
17175		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Isle of Pines, and Hispaniola (Simmons, 2005).
17175		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It diet consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, and insects (Gardner, 1977); three females taken in Haiti in December were pregnant with one embryo each (Nowak, 1999).
17175		population	eng	Abundant in Cuba and Dominican Republic (Mancina and Sixto pers. comm.)
17175		threats	eng	Mining, cave destruction.
17176		conservation	eng	Research actions, found in protected areas.
17176		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba; Hispaniola; as fossil, Isle of Pines (Cuba) (Simmons, 2005). Recently was recorded in Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac (A. L. Band pers. comm.).
17176		habitat	eng	This bat roosts in trees in small groups of no more than five individuals. It feeds on the fruit of wild native fig trees, dropping seeds across the forests and clearings (Silva-Taboada, 1979).
17176		population	eng	It is rare (Silva-Taboada, 1979). Solitary or scarce gregrarious (Mancina pers. comm.)
17176		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
17177		conservation	eng	<strong>Legislation</strong> (Source: Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/>1. Protected Species in NSW under <em>Fisheries Management Act 1994</em>. <br/>2. The <em>Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995</em> prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania (by non-permit holders). <br/>3. Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>4. Subject to Export controls since 1<sup>st</sup> January 1998, in the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em>. <br/>5. Listed as marine species under s248 of <em>The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)</em>. <br/>6. No Australian Society for Fish Biology listing. <br/> <br/><strong>More information</strong> (Source: Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003) <br/>All Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection.
17177		distribution	eng	Weedy Seadragons are found along much of the southern Australian coastline, from near Newcastle, NSW (approx 32° 56’S) southwards to Actaeon Island, TAS (43°32’S) and westwards through VIC and SA to Geraldton, WA (28°46’S) (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><em>Phyllopteryx taeniolatus</em> can be locally common in NSW, VIC and TAS. In Victoria it can often be seen in shallow areas of Port Phillip Bay (surrounded by the city of Melbourne) and Western Port. In NSW it is often found on sheltered reefs in waters exceeding 15 m, but is also found in shallower waters in large open bays (Kuiter 2000a). In TAS large numbers have been observed at a number of sites in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel, particular in the Blackman’s Bay/Kingston area (Martin-Smith and Davey, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>P. taeniolatus</em>.
17177		habitat	eng	Weedy Seadragons occur over rocky reefs supporting stands of kelp or other macroalgae, or over adjacent stretches of bare sand (Kuiter 2000a). <em>Phyllopteryx taenoliatus</em> is most commonly observed along reefs in areas abutting sand where it feeds on mysids and small crustaceans (Kuiter 2000b). Individuals have been shown to have broad, overlapping home ranges that can vary in length from 50–150 m, and be up to 50 m wide (Sanchez-Camara and Booth 2004). Baker (2000a) found that Weedy Seadragons also live in association with sponges. The species’ depth distribution ranges from shallow bays down to reefs at depths of up to 50 m. <br/> <br/>The extent to which the species occurs over seagrass meadows is unknown and needs investigation. The other large syngnathid from southern Australian waters, the Leafy Seadragon, was not considered to be associated with seagrass until recently. For that species, ultrasonic tracking of individuals demonstrated that they were at least as likely to occur over seagrass as over algae. Although this may not be true for Weedy Seadragons, it is important to establish any use of seagrass meadows because seagrasses are known to be adversely affected by pollution in southern Australia; habitat use is therefore important in the consideration of potential threats (see Threats, below). <br/> <br/>The breeding season for Weedy Seadragons is early summer and there is one brood per season. Males carry the eggs externally below their tail and the skin forms a cup on each egg during deposition. Incubation time is about eight weeks and up to about 250 young hatch. Some individuals mature in one year, but most usually breed in their second year when fully grown (Kuiter 1993). Baker (2000a) reports that brooding males have been observed in NSW from mid-winter to mid-summer, but never from February to June, despite sightings of over 350 seadragons during this period. <br/> <br/>In the Sydney area and in southern NSW, aggregations of between 20 and 40 seadragons have been observed, respectively (Baker 2000a). <br/> <br/><em>Phyllopteryx taeniolatus</em> feeds on mysids and other small crustaceans and attains about 45 cm in total length (Kuiter 1993).
17177		population	eng	No firm population estimates exist for Weedy Seadragons, but an approximate estimate can be made using certain assumptions. Estimates of densities can be obtained for several locations, although at this stage no analyses of trends in densities are available. <br/> <br/>From the study by Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004) near Sydney, NSW, using certain assumptions about the width of transects (recorded as 350 long, and assumed to be approximately 20 m wide), densities averaged 58 fish ha-1 at the 2 sites where most work was done. At a nearby site with fewer fish where less work was done, densities were about a quarter of these estimates. Densities at two sites in the Derwent estuary in TAS have been estimated using mark-recapture methods at 12–20 and 4–10 fish ha<sup>-1</sup> (M. Davey and K. Martin-Smith, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>In making an overall population estimate, the following estimations and assumptions were made: <br/>1. The sites at which Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004) worked were chosen because relatively frequent sightings had been made there previously. An average density across the distribution would be lower, probably lower even than the third site used by Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004) and the sites in TAS surveyed by Davey and Martin-Smith.  A figure of 5 fish ha-1 was used (approximately 10% of upper estimate by Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004)). <br/> <br/>2. The coastline along which Weedy Seadragons occur is an estimated 20,000 km long (including TAS). <br/> <br/>3. The species occurs most frequently in a thin strip of shallow water along the coastline, most frequently along the edge of reefs supporting stands of macroalgae. This strip is estimated to be, on average, 100 m wide, giving a total of 200,000 ha of occupancy. <br/> <br/>At five fish per ha, the estimated total number of Weedy Seadragons is ~ 1,000,000. Confidence limits cannot be stated but the estimate is clearly based on very loose assumptions. The purpose of making such an estimate is to give perspective to the number of fish that might be removed from the wild (see Threats, below). <br/> <br/>Mapping of habitat at sites far from major population centres and research into variability in habitat use at different sites is required to make the estimate of total population size more rigorous.
17177		threats	eng	The main threats to the weedy seadragon include; 1) intrinsic life history traits thought to limit dispersal, 2) habitat degradation, 3) collection for trade: <br/> <br/>1. Weedy Seadragons lack a caudal fin and are weak swimmers; in conjunction with a lack of a dispersive egg phase, this potentially makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation, which is the main threat to this species. <br/> <br/>2a. Both algae-covered reefs and seagrass meadows have been adversely affected by human activities and loss in quality and quantity of habitat has been documented (Baker 2003). The degradation of habitat is worst near major urban centres (e.g., Sydney, Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth), where discharge of storm water and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation. Losses of seagrass have been particularly severe along the metropolitan coasts and are well documented (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria 1996). Reefs have been more strongly affected by increased rates of sedimentation resulting from human activities such as sand dredging, land reclamation and coastal urban development (Baker 2003). <br/> <br/>2b. Urchin consumption of kelp beds and loss of giant kelp in TAS through climate change. <br/> <br/>3. The legal and/or illegal collection of wild specimens has little likelihood of causing long-term changes in population sizes, unless demand increases substantially. The small numbers taken could result in the reduction or loss of groups of animals at particular sites, but this is unlikely to result in measurable effects on populations. Weedy Seadragons have not been reported in surveys of incidental bycatch in trawl fisheries of southeastern Australia.
17216		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
17216		distribution	eng	Oaxaca and Veracruz (Mexico) to Guianas, Southeastern Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru; Trinidad; Margarita Island (Venezuela) (Simmons 2005). Not found in Paraguay (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004). One record in Tabasco, Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
17216		habitat	eng	Found in all kind of habitats.
17216		population	eng	Common and widespread.
17216		threats	eng	None known.
17217		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forest habitats.
17217		distribution	eng	This species ranges across Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Lim and Engstrom, 2000). Lowlands only.
17217		habitat	eng	The species strongly prefers multistratal tropical evergreen forest although it is occasionally taken in dryer habitats near streams. It roosts in small groups in tree cavities, or large groups in caves. These roosting congregations are divided up into smaller permanent social units consisting of harems of a single male and several females and their young, and groups of nonbreeding bachelors. Apparently it is strongly disposed to feed on fruits, but it may also take nectar and pollen, and large insects (Gardner, 1977). It also hunts aerially above the forest canopy. These bats emerge from their roosts at complete darkness and forage for about two hours before returning to the roost.
17217		population	eng	Moderately common.
17217		threats	eng	Deforestation in some parts of its range though this is not considered a major threat.
17218		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
17218		distribution	eng	Guatemala and Belize to the Guianas, Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru; Trinidad and Tobago; Margarita Island (Venezuela) (Simmons 2005). Not found in Paraguay (Lopez-Gonzales 2004).
17218		habitat	eng	Found in urban and rural areas, forests and houses.
17218		population	eng	Very abundant in South America. Common in Central America.
17218		threats	eng	None known.
17219		conservation	eng	Conservation of cave habitats.
17219		distribution	eng	The species is confined to northwestern Brazil and adjacent portions of Guyana, French Guiana and Suriname, Bolivar State in Venezuela, and Colombia (Eisenberg, 1989).
17219		habitat	eng	Little is known concerning this bat. Perhaps its ecology is similar to other <em>Phyllostomus</em>. Associated with caves and can known to roost with <em>Carollia</em>. This bat species is a gleaner.
17219		population	eng	Only know from a few individuals in 8 localities.
17219		threats	eng	Disturbance of caves and loss of cave habitat.
17220		conservation	eng	The species is present in seven protected areas (e.g. Lachay National Reserve). Further research is needed into its habitat and ecology.
17220		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the coast and lower Pacific slopes of west Peru, from Piura (Lavrentchenko and Dmitriev, 1994) to Arequipa Department (H. Zeballos pers. comm.). It is found at elevations of 50 to 2,100 m.
17220		habitat	eng	This species is known from sand and rock formations with sparse cover. Results of a 2000-2001 study suggested that P. amicus maintains low, highly dispersed populations in a harsh dry environment with sparse vegetation, and that this nocturnal species can reproduce at any time of the year (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In captivity, litter size varied between one and three pups and gestation time averaged 24 days (Arana <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17220		population	eng	It is a common species. In Lomas de Lachay the population density was between 0 to 12 individuals per hectare, higher population densities were observed during the wet season (June-August) (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
17220		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by urban expansion in some parts of its range.
17221		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least eight protected areas in Peru (e.g. Lachay National Reserve), and at least three protected areas in Ecuador.
17221		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east and west Andean slopes from central Ecuador (Tungurahua Province) to central Peru (Lima Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found at elevations of 1,500 to 4,000 m.
17221		habitat	eng	It is present in dry forest, shrublands, rocky areas and wet highlands. It is present in both primary and secondary habitat, and cultivated areas and pastoral areas. P. andium appears to be an irruptive species closely tied to rainfall patterns, it shows clear seasonal reproductive activity between July and September (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In captivity litter size varied between one and four young and gestation period average 24 days (Arana <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is a broadly omnivorous, nocturnal species (Arana <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17221		population	eng	It is a very common species. Results of a study in 2000-2001 in Lomas de Lachay gave a density of between 0-3 individuals per hectare (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
17221		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
17222		conservation	eng	The species is included in one protected area (Parque Provincial Ernesto Tornquist).
17222		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sierra de la Ventana, Southeast of the Buenos Aires province (Argentina). The altitudinal range is from 500 m to 2,200 m (max high of the Sierra de la Ventana).
17222		habitat	eng	Rocky areas in Sierra de la Ventana.
17222		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
17222		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened due overgrazing for horses.
17223		conservation	eng	It is present in the Cuesta de Sama and Tariquia National Reserves in Bolivia. Further studies are needed into this species.
17223		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the upper slopes of eastern Andes, from south central Bolivia to northernmost Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of about 2,100 to 4,500 m.  In Argentina it is only found in Jujuy and Salta.
17223		habitat	eng	It is present in primary and secondary Puna and dry forest and scrubland. It can be found in cultivated areas and pastureland. It is often found amongst rocks.
17223		population	eng	It is a common species in Bolivia, however, in Argentina it is considered rare.
17223		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The dry forest habitat of this species is susceptible to anthropogenic changes.
17224		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
17224		distribution	eng	This species occurs along coastal west-central Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005).
17224		habitat	eng	The species occurs in habitas associated with Chilean matorral.
17224		population	eng	It is considered abundant.
17224		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
17225		conservation	eng	It is present in the Huascaran National Park. Further research into this species is needed.
17225		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of Ancash Department, Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded between 2,600 and 3,000 m.
17225		habitat	eng	It is present in dry shrublands and rocky areas, but it is not present in open areas. It can be found at the edges of cultivated areas, but not in the areas themselves.
17225		population	eng	It is a rare species.
17225		threats	eng	It is threatened by clearance of shrub habitat for pastoral grazing. The species has a narrow distribution and is becoming increasingly fragmented in patches of remaining habitat.
17226		conservation	eng	It is present in the Santuario Historico Bosque de Pomac, a protected area. Further research in general is needed into this species.
17226		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sechura Desert, northwest Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded from around 50 m.
17226		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and is found in sandy areas with mesquite vegetation. It is not found in disturbed areas.
17226		population	eng	It is a rare species.
17226		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
17227		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
17227		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of central Ecuador, it has an altitudinal rage of 3400 to 4000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
17227		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus (shrublands, grasslands and rocky outcrops).
17227		population	eng	It is frequent to uncommon. Difficult to capture: during 50 sampling days between 8 May 1978 and 7 May 1980, inclusive, 241 individual small mammals were trapped belonging to 16 species near Papallacta, no <em>P. haggardi</em> were captured although they are known to occur in the area (Voss, 2003).
17227		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although deforestation, fragmentation and agriculture threaten some populations.
17228		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from three protected areas in Peru.
17228		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Pacific slopes of Andes from central Peru (Arana-Cardó and Ascorra, 1994) to north Chile (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs from 2,000 to at least 3,800 m.
17228		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas, shrubland, riverine areas, Polylepis forest and cultivated areas. It has been trapped among rocks, in stone walls, and along the banks of small streams.
17228		population	eng	It is a common species. Densities of 2.06 per hectare have been recorded in mountain scrub of Peru (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
17228		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
17229		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one protected area.
17229		distribution	eng	This species occurs in limited distribution within the Altiplano of northeastern Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005).
17229		habitat	eng	Rocky areas in Andean regions.
17229		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
17229		threats	eng	Populations can be threatened by mining activities in some areas, however, there are no major threats to the species.
17230		conservation	eng	It is present in four protected areas in Peru, many in Bolivia and several in Chile and Argentina.
17230		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Andean slopes, from south central Peru (Cuzco Department), through west Bolivia, to north Argentina (Catamarca Province). This species is found from 3,400 to 4,900 m in Bolivia. In Argentina is found from 1,500 m to 3,100 m (Jayat and Pacheco, 2006). The species has not been recorded in Chile.
17230		habitat	eng	This is a mouse of the high Andean bunchgrass and rocky areas, though it can occur at lower elevations in a few localities. It is strictly crepuscular. It is present in primary, secondary and cultivated areas and particolary in foggy grasslands.
17230		population	eng	It is a common species. In Peru it was found at a density of 1.47 per hectare (Pearson and Ralph, 1978).
17230		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
17231		conservation	eng	It is present in the Cuesta de Sama and Tariquia National Reserve in Bolivia. Further studies are needed into this species.
17231		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the upper east Andean slopes in west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of 1,300 to 3,875 m.
17231		habitat	eng	It is present in dry valleys where it is found in primary and disturbed dry shrubby habitat. It can be found in cultivated areas.
17231		population	eng	It is a very common species.
17231		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species; it is found in a wide variety of habitats including disturbed areas.
17232		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
17232		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west central Peru, in and along the Andes to Santa Cruz Province, south Argentina, and adjacent Magallanes Province, south Chile; latitudinal (15-51°S) and altitudinal ranges (sea level-5,600 m) exceptional as currently defined (Kramer <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Peru and Bolivia it ranges between 2,000 and 4,500 m.
17232		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of habitats, including wetlands, <span style="font-style: italic;">Polylepis </span>forest, altiplano, grasslands, shrublands, rocky areas and cultivated areas.
17232		population	eng	It is a common species.
17232		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
17233		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to confirm the extent of occurrence, to establish population sizes and trends, and to monitor possible threats.
17233		distribution	eng	La Vega and Monseñor Nouel provinces in Dominican Republic and Dept. L'Ouest in Haiti.
17233		habitat	eng	Forested mountain streams at around 2,000 m; larvae in cold, clear pools (Westfall 1976, Daigle 1993).
17233		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
17233		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
17278		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
17278		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is known from the Kunene and Okavango systems and the ephemeral systems inbetween and southern Angola. It is also found in the Caprivi area (part of the upper Zambesi system) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1992). It could occur further up the Zambesi but this needs to be confirmed.
17278		habitat	eng	A mainly benthic species but may occur on plants and sand substrate. This species occurs in permanent and ephemeral river and pan systems (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). The species can aestivate and is therefore able to survive periods of desiccation.
17278		population	eng	A locally common species (Curtis pers comm.). This species is recorded at moderate densities, 15 to 20 per square metre (Curtis and Appleton 1987)
17278		threats	eng	No threats known.
17279		conservation	eng	No information available.
17279		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from Kenya, through Somalia to southeast Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from northern Kenya and lower Tana river. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Somalia, and southeast Ethiopia near Dolo (Brown 1994).
17279		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Somalia, south east Ethiopia near Dolo (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Kenya and lower Tana River.
17279		distribution	eng	The species is present in northern Kenya and lower Tana River.  It is also reported from several other parts of Africa.
17279		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and swamps (Bacci 1951).
17279		habitat	eng	No information available.
17279		population	eng	No information available.
17279		threats	eng	No information available.
17279		threats	eng	Sedimentation is a possible threat.
17279		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation and drought.
17288		conservation	eng	The catchments of the East and South Alligator rivers, and the lower reaches of the East Alligator River fall within the Kakadu National Park (IUCN Category II).
17288		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia.  It is restricted to the East and South Alligator River systems and the upper reaches of the Katherine Rivers, in the Northern Territory (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  These river basins cover an area of approximately 80,430 km².
17288		habitat	eng	<em>P. midgleyi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is most common in well-shaded, rocky pools in clear, flowing creeks, usually with sandy bottoms and little aquatic vegetation present.  It occurs in small aggregations in the wild, and is believed to spawn during the middle wet season (December to January), (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17288		population	eng	This species is reported to be common within its range (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17288		threats	eng	The area which is inhabited by <em>P. midgleyi</em> is threatened by pollution from uranium mining, but this is currently believed to be under control (UNEP-WCMC 2002).  There are plans for water extraction from the lower reaches of the Katherine River, but as <em>P. midgleyi</em> is restricted to the upper reaches of this river it is unlikely to be affected (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
17314		conservation	eng	It is protected by national law in most European range states. It is also protected under international legislation in parts of its range through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, and is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.
17314		conservation	eng	It is protected by national law in most European range states. It is also protected under international legislation in parts of its range through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, and is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.
17314		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> has a large range extending from Iberia through southern Europe through the Near East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and India. The northern limit of its range in Europe was formerly <em>ca</em>.45°N, but the species has been expanding northwards. It arrived 1994 in Vienna/Austria (48°N),  and was more recently recorded to 50°N in France and 51°N in Ukraine. It has been expanding northwards in Russia for the last half century from 46°N to c.53°N, with the highest record made at almost  57°N (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
17314		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Africa, Europe and Asia. <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> has a large range extending from Iberia through southern Europe through the Near East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and India (Molur 2002). There is a single record from China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008). The northern limit of its range in Europe was formerly <em>ca</em>.45°N, but the species has been expanding northwards. It arrived 1994 in Vienna/Austria (48°N),  and was more recently recorded to 50°N in France and 51°N in Ukraine. It has been expanding northwards in Russia for the last half century from 46°N to c.53°N, with the highest record made at almost  57°N (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
17314		habitat	eng	It forages over variety of habitats, including agricultural and urban areas (including around street lights). It feeds on small insects, including Diptera, Psocoptera, and Coleoptera. Summer maternity colonies are located in crevices in buildings. Winter sites include rock crevices and cellars. In North Africa this species is usually associated with human settlements, forages in forest as well as semi-desert, common in the oases of the northern Sahara.  Found in temperate grassland and Mediterranean-type shrubland. Kuhl' s pipistrelle is probably a sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
17314		habitat	eng	It forages over variety of habitats, including agricultural and urban areas (including around street lights). It feeds on small insects, including Diptera, Psocoptera, and Coleoptera. Summer maternity colonies are located in crevices in buildings. Winter sites include rock crevices and cellars. Kuhl’s pipistrelle is probably a sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
17314		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species in the Mediterranean region and Middle East. Populations in South Asia seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Summer colonies typically number 30-100 individuals. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species' range is increasing and it is displacing <em>P. pipistrellus</em> (M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The northern border of the species' range is also expanding. It is very numerous in urban areas across much of its range.
17314		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species in the Mediterranean region and Middle East. Summer colonies typically number 30-100 individuals. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species' range is increasing and it is displacing <em>P. pipistrellus</em> (M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The northern border of the species' range is also expanding.
17314		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
17314		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Use of pesticides to eradicate mosquitos (especially in urban areas) may be a threat in places.
17315		conservation	eng	The species is protected through Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. Rainho and Palmeirim (2002) proposed the following actions: identification, protection and monitoring of roosts; preservation and restoration of natural habitats, reduction of pesticide use; and, study of the species' biology, ecology, genetics, and systematics. Palomo and Gisbert (2002) additionally recommend a public awareness campaign aimed at reducing disturbance of breeding colonies in private houses.
17315		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Madeira (Madeira, Porto Santo), and the western Canary Islands (La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Tenerife). Pipistrelles found in the Azores (Santa Maria, Flores, Corvo, Graciosa, San Jorge) probably belong to this species. It is found from sea level to 2,150 m in the Canary Islands, although it prefers lowlands on Madeira (Fajardo and Benzal 1999).
17315		habitat	eng	It forages over a wide range of habitats, including aquatic habitats, woodland and farmland (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It feeds on flying insects, including small moths and flies. Breeding colonies have been found in crevices in sea-cliffs and underneath the roofs of houses, as well as in bird boxes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Roost sites include rock crevices, bird boxes, and crevices in (often disused) buildings. It is often associated with human settlements.
17315		population	eng	On the islands of Madeira it is relatively abundant on Madeira and very rare on Porto Santo. The total population is estimated to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, and trends are unknown (Rainho <em>et al.</em> 2002). On the Canary Islands it is the most reported bat on all islands of occurrence, although no bat is abundant in the islands. Population size and trend have not been quantified (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), although declines are inferred as a result of threats including loss and degradation of habitats, pesticide use, and disturbance and destruction of roosts. On the Azores, <em>Pipistrellus</em> bats are rare or very rare on all islands of occurrence, and the total number of individuals is probably less than 300 (Rainho <em>et al.</em> 2002). The global population is naturally fragmented.
17315		threats	eng	Loss of natural habitat may be a threat, although the species is apparently adapted to man-made habitats. The use of agricultural pesticides may be a problem, and disturbance to roosts in buildings may also be of concern.
17316		conservation	eng	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is regarded as a species of special concern by Eurobats. Proposals for the conservation of the species in Europe (including research requirements) were made by Limpens and Schulte (2000) following a workshop in Germany in 1998. They recommended a Europe-wide census involving assessment of the species' population status and trends, identification of its mating, hibernation and maternity areas, investigation of migration routes, and identification of preferred resting areas on migration routes.
17316		conservation	eng	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is regarded as a species of special concern by Eurobats. Proposals for the conservation of the species in Europe (including research requirements) were made by Limpens and Schulte (2000) following a workshop in Germany in 1998. They recommended a Europe-wide census involving assessment of the species' population status and trends, identification of its mating, hibernation and maternity areas, investigation of migration routes, and identification of preferred resting areas on migration routes.
17316		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus nathusii </em>is a western Palaearctic migratory species. It is restricted to Europe, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia where it is found at latitudes of up to <em>ca</em>. 37-63°N. In Europe, it is generally widespread although absent from most of Iberia and Fennoscandia. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (eastern Germany, Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia: Vierhaus 2004). The first observation of <em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> breeding in Finland was made in 2006 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006) when a colony of c.10 individuals, including lactating females, was found close to the  southern coast some  50-60 km east of Helsinki. The species is typically associated with lowland areas but has been recorded up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Bogdanowicz 1999).
17316		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> is a western Palaearctic migratory species. It is restricted to Europe, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia where it is found at latitudes of up to <em>ca</em>. 37-63°N. In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread across southern Europe although apparently absent from most of Iberia (although there have been some new recent records in Spain which extend the known range) and Fennoscandia. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (eastern Germany, Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia: Vierhaus 2004). The first observation of <em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> breeding in Finland was made in 2006 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006) when a colony of <em>ca</em>.10 individuals, including lactating females, was found close to the  southern coast some  50-60 km east of Helsinki. The species is typically associated with lowland areas but has been recorded up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Bogdanowicz 1999).
17316		habitat	eng	It forages over a range of habitats including woodland edge, wetlands, and open parkland. Summer roosts are located in tree holes, buildings, and bat boxes, mainly in woodland areas. Winter roost sites include crevices in cliffs, buildings and around the entrance of caves, often in relatively cold, dry, and exposed sites. It is a migratory species, with movements of up to 1,905 km recorded (Petersons 2004). Migrations typically follow a NE-SW route (Bogdanowicz 1999).
17316		population	eng	It is abundant in northern parts of its range, and less common but increasingly recorded in southern and western parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies of up to 200 individuals have been recorded, but large winter aggregations are not known.
17316		population	eng	It is abundant in northern parts of range, and less common but increasingly recorded in southern and western parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies of up to 200 individuals have been recorded, but large winter aggregations are not known.
17316		threats	eng	Although not major threats, the species is affected by habitat fragmentation on migration routes, loss of and disturbance to roosts in buildings, loss of mature trees with cavities and/or loose bark etc., and water quality changes which may affect food supply.
17316		threats	eng	Although not major threats, the species is affected by habitat fragmentation on migration routes, loss of and disturbance to roosts in buildings, loss of mature trees with cavities and/or loose bark, etc., and water quality changes which may affect food supply.
17317		conservation	eng	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.<br/><br/>Adoption of bat-friendly practices in the construction and maintenance of buildings is a proposed action.
17317		conservation	eng	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.
17317		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus pipistrellus</em> is a widespread western Palaearctic species with a range extending from the British Isles through much of Europe (with the exception of northern Fennoscandia) to the Volga and Caucasus; and through parts of north-western Africa and south-west Asia to central Asia. Its detailed distribution, as distinct from that of the recently-differentiated <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, is still to be established. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
17317		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus pipistrellus</em> is a widespread western Palaearctic species with a range extending from the British Isles through southern Scandinavia, much of Europe (including all the Mediterranean countries, but with the exception of northern Fennoscandia) to the Volga and Caucasus; and through parts of north-western Africa (mountainous areas of Morooco, Algeria and Tunisia, also in Cyrenaica in Libya) and south-west Asia to central and eastern Asia (China, India, Myanmar). Its detailed distribution, as distinct from that of the recently-differentiated <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, is still to be established. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
17317		habitat	eng	It forages in a variety of habitats including open woodland and woodland edges, farmland, rural gardens and urban areas. It feeds on small moths and flies. Summer roosts are mainly found in buildings and trees, and individuals frequently change roost site through the maternity period. Most winter roost sites are located in crevices in buildings, although cracks in cliffs and caves and possibly holes in trees may also be used.  It is not especially migratory in most of its range, but movements of up to 1,123 km have been recorded (Buresh 1941 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). In at least parts of its range it seems to benefit from urbanisation (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).
17317		habitat	eng	It forages in a variety of habitats including open woodland and woodland edges, Mediterranean shrubland, semi-desert, farmland, rural gardens and urban areas. It feeds on small moths and flies. Summer roosts are mainly found in buildings and trees, and individuals frequently change roost site through the maternity period. Most winter roost sites are located in crevices in buildings, although cracks in cliffs and caves and possibly holes in trees may also be used.  It is not especially migratory in most of its range, but movements of up to 1,123 km have been recorded (Buresh 1941 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). In at least parts of its range it seems to benefit from urbanisation (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).
17317		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species, one of the most common bats in many parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies generally number 25-50 individuals, although colonies of as many as 200 have been recorded. In winter, it tends to occur singly or in small groups, although some very large groups have been recorded (e.g., up to 45,000 in caves in Romania and Slovakia) (Nagy and Szanto 2003). Significant declines have been recorded in some European countries (e.g. Britain), although in Britain at least the trend may now have stabilised (Battersby 2005).
17317		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species, one of the most common bats in many parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies generally number 25-50 individuals, although colonies of as many as 200 have been recorded. In winter, it tends to occur singly or in small groups, although some very large groups have been recorded (e.g., up to 45,000 in caves in Romania and Slovakia) (Nagy and Szanto 2003). Significant declines have been recorded in some European countries (e.g. Britain), although in Britain at least the trend may now have stabilised (Battersby 2005).  In Serbia in the urban areas <em>P. pipistrellus</em> has become less common due to displacement by <em>P. kuhlii</em> (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007). The same is also reported from the Russian Federation.
17317		threats	eng	As a high proportion of colonies are found in buildings, the species may be particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005). However this is not thought to be a major threat to the species at present.
17317		threats	eng	In parts of the range there is deliberate persecution as people do not want thousands of bats roosting in their buildings. As a high proportion of colonies are found in buildings, the species may be particularly vulnerable to other anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005).
17320		conservation	eng	Its range includes protected areas.
17320		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Ussuri region (Russia and China), the western half of China including Taiwan, Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Viet Nam, Myanmar, and India. In Japan, it is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the islands of Tsushima, Takarajima Yaku, Tane, Kuchino, Amami-oshima, Tokunoshima, Okinawa, Kakeroma, Miyako, Irabu, Ishigaki, Iriomote, and Yonaguni (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In China it is known from the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, Shanxi, Jiangsu, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Shandong, Anhui, Zhejiang, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Fujian, Taiwan, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macao, Guizhou, Xizang, Shaanxi, and Hainan (Smith and Xie, in press). There is a record from Sakhalin (Russia).
17320		habitat	eng	It roosts during the day in houses and buildings (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It appears to be absent from montane areas and forests where there are no structures for roosts (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is often found feeding under lights in disturbed habitats. Its preference for disturbed habitats has made it difficult to establish its preference for non-anthropogenic habitats.
17320		population	eng	It is a common species in China (Smith and Xie, in press). One of the most abundant bats in Hanoi and, supposedly, also in other human settlements and heavily disturbed areas of north Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003). In Japan, typical colony size ranges from a few, to a hundred individuals (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
17320		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
17321		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Kakadu, Litchfield, Nitmiluk, Djukbinj, and Garig Gunak Barlu National Parks.
17321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the wet-dry tropics of Australia where it occurs north of around 15°S on Cape York Peninsula in Queensland and in the Top End of the Northern Territory.
17321		habitat	eng	On Cape York the Forest Pipistrelle is largely associated with waterbodies in rainforests, savanna, and open woodland habitats. In the Top End of the Northern Territory it occurs throughout all environments, but appears to prefer tall eucalypt forests and woodlands (Hoye and Milne 2008). It is known to roost in rock shelters (T. Reardon pers. comm.), but is believed to primarily roost is tree hollows. Females give birth to a single young and may breed more than once a year (Hoye and Milne 2008).
17321		population	eng	It appears to be relatively common, particularly in the more northerly areas of its range.
17321		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. Habitat loss is a general threat, as is modification through livestock grazing and altered fire regimes (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
17323		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Matthews Range Forest Reserve and Marsabit National Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
17323		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Kenya, where it is known only from three localities (Mount Garguez; Marsabit Lake and Ngong). It may be present in adjacent Ethiopia, however, this needs confirmation.
17323		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with dry forest habitats. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
17323		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
17323		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
17324		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and this species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed in some South Asian parts of the species range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17324		distribution	eng	This species is generally distributed in southern and northern parts of South Asia, southern China, and western Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is known from India (Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central and Uva provinces. In China, the species has been recorded from Xizang, Yunnan, and Guangxi. In Southeast Asia it appears to have only been recorded from Myanmar. It ranges from sea level up to around 2,000 m asl.
17324		habitat	eng	This species roosts in small colonies of five or six individuals in roofs of buildings and cracks, hollows in trees, near human habitations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It feeds on small insects (Bates and Harrison 1997).
17324		population	eng	There is little information about the abundance of this species. Though widely distributed in South Asia, the population size is believed to be small and a declining trend in the population is inferred (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).
17324		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Southeast Asia. In parts of South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use and human interference to roosting sites (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17326		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in some protected areas. Important roosting and foraging sites should be identified and protected.
17326		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the island of Biak (Indonesia), through parts of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismark Archipelago, many islands of Milne Bay Province, and the island of Bougainville (all Papua New Guinea), to the Solomon Islands as far south as the island of Nendo (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). Its distribution on the island of New Guinea is poorly known. It has been recorded between sea level and 2,400 m asl.
17326		habitat	eng	This species roosts in caves, buildings, and bamboo clumps. Unlike <em>Pipistrellus papuanus</em>, it does not roost in holes in coconut palms. The species forages in tall primary and secondary tropical moist forest, even in urban areas. On New Guinea, this species has been recorded emerging from their roost at dusk to forage on aerial insects. A maternity colony of 200 bats in a cave was active in June on the island of New Ireland in the Bismark Archipelago (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998).
17326		population	eng	It is a common species.
17326		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
17327		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species.
17327		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Myanmar, Changyinku at 2,134 m asl.
17327		habitat	eng	The type locality is in secondary deciduous and some pine forest in a cultivated area (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).
17327		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
17327		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
17328		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. Research is required to determine population size, distribution, trends, and any threats or necessary conservation measures.
17328		distribution	eng	This species is known only from mountains of the North-Eastern Oman, Arabian Peninsula; and from Iran, where 12 individuals were reported from Baluchistan province in 2002 (Benda <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
17328		habitat	eng	In Iran bats were collected above a rest pool of a periodical river, surrounded by lowland desert and semi-desert habitats (ca. 130 m a.s.l.). Similarly as in other species of eptesicini-pipistrellini clade, <em>P. arabicus</em> is an aerial hawker: as the diet analysis has shown, the species is insectivorous.
17328		population	eng	Unknown.
17328		threats	eng	Unknown.
17331		conservation	eng	In South Asia there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Survey, ecological studies and impacts of roost disturbance need to be conducted (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
17331		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northeastern South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (West Bengal) and has been recorded from an elevation of 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Lekagul and McNeely (1977) erroneously reported Assam instead of West Bengal as the range of this species range (Srinivauslu <em>et al.</em> in press). In Mainland Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. The species is probably more widespread in Southeast Asia than is currently known (C. Francis pers. comm.).
17331		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in dry bamboo forests and mixed forests (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Viet Nam the species was collected in a disturbed area close to the Cuc Phuong National Park headquarters (Bates <em>et. al.</em> 1997). Remains of a single specimen have been collected from a cave in northeastern Thailand (Robinson and Smith 1997).
17331		population	eng	This species is widespread but not common.
17331		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia, there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the threats to this species remain unknown. However, disturbance to roosting sites by humans could affect the populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17332		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008) and Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve (Vanitharani 2006). Ecological studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17332		distribution	eng	This species is largely distributed in South Asia, with additional populations recorded in China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is presently known from Bangladesh (no exact location), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Uva and Western provinces) (Das 2003; Khan 2001; Korad <em>et al. </em>2007; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,153 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from south Guangxi and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, there are reports of this species from northern Myanmar, northern Viet Nam, and Sabah (Malaysia) on the island of Borneo (at 1,300 m asl).
17332		habitat	eng	This species can be found in varied habitats from arid regions to humid montane forests. It roosts in human habitations in both rural and urban areas, in old dilapidated buildings, crevices and cracks in walls, tree hollows, holes in trees, caves, wells, old temples, under overhanging ledges. It roosts either singly or in colonies of few hundred individuals. It is an early flyer and its flight includes numerous twists and turns and also goes straight and hunts mainly beetles, moths, flies and other insects. Two young are born after a gestation period of 50-55 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
17332		population	eng	This is a widely distributed and a common species and its population seems to be doing well over its range (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17332		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species however, it is locally threatened in some areas by hunting for local consumption and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17334		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to be present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
17334		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from a number of scattered localities along the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and from Goodenough Island, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is found between 700 and 2,900 m asl.
17334		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from tropical hill forests, mid-montane forests, and from native gardens. Animals have been recorded roosting in the hollows of trunks of Pandanus trees. It is an aerial insectivore. Two females collected in the month of June were lactating.
17334		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. Flannery (1995) found it to be common in the Kwiyawagi area of Papua Province, Indonesia. It is likely to be locally common.
17334		threats	eng	There are no known, major threats to this species. Much of the hill habitat used by this species are intact and are not considered to be threatened.
17335		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas including Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from some protected areas.
17335		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species is found throughout most of South Asia, parts of southern China and much of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province), Bangladesh (no exact location), Bhutan (no exact location), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, North Western Northern, Southern and Uva provinces) (Das 2003; Khan 2001; Korad <em>et al.</em> 2007; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Simmons 2005; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005; Vanitharani 2006). In South Asia, it has been recorded from 100 to 2,769 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it has been recorded from Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is present in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia.
17335		habitat	eng	This species is found in varied habitat types from forested regions, agricultural landscapes to urban areas. It roosts in trees, crevices and cracks in walls and ceilings of houses, tiles of huts, old buildings, temples, under bark and in holes of large trees, signboards, tree hollows in small groups of few individuals. It is an early flyer with a slow fluttering flight and hunts on flies, ants and other small insects. There are three breeding seasons and two young ones are born (Bates and Harrison 1997).
17335		population	eng	In South Asia, it is a widely distributed and common species and the population seems to be doing well in its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is fairly common in Viet Nam, even in cities and similar urban habitats.
17335		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
17338		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India such as Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and effect of pesticide overuse on this species. Public awareness activities need to be taken up highlighting the importance of this species in the agricultural ecosystem as the controller of insect pests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17338		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia and is presently known from Bangladesh (Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) (Das 2003, Vanitharani 2006, Korad <em>et al.</em> 2007, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,000 m asl. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17338		habitat	eng	This species is found in drier climes and near human habitations in both rural and urban landscapes. It roosts in cracks, crevices, holes in old temples, old disused buildings and tombs and in holes in large trees in colonies of 2-24 individuals. It is a late flyer, hunts close to its roosting site and flies steadily. Its diet varies seasonally feeding on beetles, moths, grasshoppers, crickets in winter, winged termites, beetles, moths, orthopterans, hymenopterans in summer and termites, beetles, moths, orthopterans and hymenopterans in monsoon and feeds on agriculturally important insect pests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species seems to breed almost throughout the year (Bates and Harrison 1997).
17338		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species and the population seems to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17338		threats	eng	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this species. As this species feeds on agricultural pests its population might be declining in parts of its range because of the use of chemical pesticides (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17340		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas. They are a
17340		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it has been recorded from nine prefectures in Honshu and Shikoku (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from 100 m to perhaps 1,500 m asl. The actual area of occupancy is considered to be extremely restricted.  Their suitable habitat of mature deciduous forests at low altitude, is limited and decreasing, and they have also not been found in many areas of apparently suitable habitat despite reasonable research efforts.
17340		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily in mature deciduous forests, and roosts in tree hollows (although there is one instance of them roosting in a cave).
17340		population	eng	It is a rare species.
17340		threats	eng	Destruction of primary lowland forest, upon which the species depends for roosting in tree hollows, has been responsible for declines seen in populations at lower elevations (and ongoing). They are not adaptable, and do not use buildings or other man-made structures to roost in.
17341		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss and human disturbance. Destruction of rocky areas due to renewed mining or other development activities can kill roosting bats and remove roosting habitat.
17341		distribution	eng	Washington to Southwestern Oklahoma (USA), and Baja California, south to Hidalgo and Guerrero (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).
17341		habitat	eng	Western pipistrelles inhabit a variety of habitats, ranging from rocky canyons, cliffs, and outcroppings to creosote bush flats. They are the most abundant of North American bats that are found in deserts, but are found at higher elevations in arid brush lands, grasslands, and even some forests. Western pipistrelles spend their days roosting in rock crevices, beneath rocks, in burrows, mines, and buildings. It has been suggested that western pipistrelles use burrows made by kangaroo rats (<em>Dipodomys</em> spp.) and other rodents (Barbour and Davis, 1969).<br/>Western pipistrelles spend their winter hibernating in mines, caves, and rock crevices. Water is a very important resource determining the distribution of this bat. Because of the high proportion of protein in their diet, the arid environment that they inhabit, and the subsequent high levels of evaporative water loss, western pipistrelles generally roost close to a water source. Availability of maternity roost sites is an extremely important factor in successful bat reproduction (Cockrum and Cross, 1964).
17341		population	eng	Western pipistrelles begin their foraging flights very early in the evening hours, making them one of the most diurnal of North American bats. They may also be encountered later in the evening (4 hrs after sunset), or closer to the morning. Occasionally, individual bats have been observed on wing during mid-day, during which time they seek out water to alleviate stress caused by the arid environment they inhabit. Because these bats fly slowly, they are restricted to small foraging circuits. They have a very slow, fluttery flight that can often be observed along cliff faces, among pinyon trees, or other desert shrubs. They are often mistaken for large moths (Peters 2003).
17341		threats	eng	Since reopening abandoned or inactive mines can negatively affect bat colonies, it has been recommended that multi-seasonal surveys be conducted prior to allowing any renewed mining. Human disturbance can be extremely detrimental to bat colonies, especially to non-volant young and hibernating adults, depending on the season and severity of the disturbance. Mines that are in close proximity to roads, towns, hiking trails or camp grounds are more susceptible to disturbance then those in remote areas with difficult access. There is a need for greater assurance that roosts will remain undisturbed and that future (potential) roost sites will be left when managing for bats in pinyon-juniper habitat. Ideally, management should aim to sustain adequate food, water, and roost sites in close proximity to one another (Klingel, 2000).
17342		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
17342		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo), Java, Kangean Island, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Island in Indonesia. Records from the Philippines (Palawan) represent <em>Hypsugo javanicus</em> (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
17342		habitat	eng	It inhabits wide, dry water course fringed by plantations and bamboo. It has been captured over a stream in amongst banana trees in a village garden, also over water in an irrigation canal. Three individuals have been captured by hand in banana leaves (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990).
17342		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
17342		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
17343		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known bats species.
17343		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from a few localities in West and Central Africa. It has been reported from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria and Cameroon. There are also uncertain records from east Sudan and Uganda, although the specimens in question are difficult to certainly allocate to <em>Pipistrellus inexspectatus</em> (Koopman 1975). The records of this species from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kenya are now allocated to <em>Pipistrellus eisentrauti</em> (Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995; Simmons 2005).
17343		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. The type locality is reportedly from Guinea woodland (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
17343		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
17343		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known.
17344		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas including Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17344		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from northern and central South Asia, southern China, and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Balkh, Faryab, Kabul, Konarha and Kunduz provinces), Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions,), India (Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab) (Das 2003; Korad <em>et al</em>. 2007; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005). In South Asia, it has been recorded up to 2,380 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from Xizang and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges widely, from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia to Singapore. With insular Southeast Asia, the species is distributed in Indonesia (Sumatra, Bangka, Java, Flores, Karakelang), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), on the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Camiguin, Luzon (Benguet , Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Quezon, and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Bukidnon, and Davao del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Reinhard, and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998). In the Philippines, it has been recorded from sea level to around 2,250 m asl (Mount Kitanglad).
17344		habitat	eng	This species is found in varied habitat types from primary and secondary forested regions, agricultural landscapes (including rubber plantations) to urban areas. It roosts in trees, crevices and cracks in walls and ceilings of houses, tiles of huts, old buildings, temples, under bark and in holes of large trees, signboards, tree hollows in small groups of few individuals. It is an early flyer with a slow fluttering flight and hunts on flies, ants and other small insects. There are three breeding seasons and two young ones are born (Sanborn <em>et al</em>., 1952; Bates and Harrison 1997; Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.; P. Bates pers. comm.).
17344		population	eng	This species is widely distributed, common and the population seems stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; C. Francis pers. comm.; Sedlock pers. comm. 2006).
17344		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats to this adaptable species. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. It is also threatened by disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17345		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
17345		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two locations in northern Myanmar.
17345		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from 'thick forest' (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).
17345		population	eng	This species is known only from two records (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).
17345		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
17346		conservation	eng	The species has been reported from protected areas; Gunung Palung National Park (Blundell 1996), and Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
17346		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kalimantan Tengah (Barito River), in Indonesian Borneo. It was also reported from Gunung Palung National Park (Blundell 1996), and collected by Engstrom in the Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997).
17346		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. Presumably it inhabits lowland and montane forest.
17346		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
17346		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss may be a threat if it inhabits lowland forest.
17347		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species. Rapid deforestation and expansion of palm-oil plantations in its only known locality makes this species a priority for taxonomic research and further surveys.
17347		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one location in Myanmar (Maliwun in Victoria Province, Tenasserim).
17347		habitat	eng	The species has been collected at just above sea level in a forest clearing in open grassland surrounded by evergreen forest (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).
17347		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. The species has not been recorded since 1915.
17347		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and logging is a possible threat.
17348		conservation	eng	Some substantial areas of suitable habitat for this species are protected. There is a need for further surveys and monitoring of it. Important roosting sites should be identified and protected.
17348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-western Western Australia, Australia.
17348		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high rainfall forests, dominated by Jarrah, Karri, Marri, and Tuart. Colonies of up to 30 animals have been found in hollow logs. It is a specialist of tall, mature forest (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
17348		population	eng	It is locally common, but appears to be rare in the north of its range and has not been recorded by extensive, recent surveys. There could have always been a natural difference in density from north to south, but it seems likely that the range of the species has been reduced by habitat loss and alteration (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
17348		threats	eng	This species is threatened by continued logging of mature forests, and clearance of privately owned forest that is for various reasons including housing development (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
17349		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.
17349		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Padang, Bali, and adjacent small islands). It is not known whether it occurs in Java.
17349		habitat	eng	The species has been caught foraging over open mud flats in coastal areas in Peninsula Malaysia, however, its roosting requirements are unknown (C. Francis pers. comm.). It is not known whether it is tolerant of any disturbance of its habitat.
17349		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
17349		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agriculture, plantations, logging and forest fires is occurring within the species' range, but it is not known whether this species is forest dependent.
17350		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
17350		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two specimens from the type locality: Tomohon, Minahassa, in northern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).
17350		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.
17350		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It has not been recorded again since it was first described.
17350		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
17351		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species, as it may well be declining, especially if reliant on primary habitat.
17351		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Java, Indonesia, but was incorrectly included in the fauna of China based on Wang (2002), who listed it from Yingjiang, Yunnan.
17351		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species.
17351		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
17351		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but if it is dependent on primary forest then deforestation will be a major threat.
17353		conservation	eng	Animals have been reported from the Mole National Park in Ghana (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and seemingly adaptable species as a whole.
17353		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in West and Central Africa, with an apparently disjunct population in East Africa. It ranges from Senegal eastwards, through most West African countries to Cameroon, from here it has been recorded from Equatorial Guinea (including the island of Bioko) and Gabon. In the east of the species range it has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and western Kenya (north of Lake Victoria).
17353		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats including tropical moist lowland forest, riverine forest, tropical dry forest and lowland and moist savanna. In Nigeria it is found in the rainforest zone extending northwards into derived and Guinea savanna zones (Happold, 1987). Happold (1987) suggests that the species might be associated with banana plantations.
17353		population	eng	This species is relatively common.
17353		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
17355		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in some protected areas.
17355		distribution	eng	This widespread species is distributed from the islands of Seram, Ambon, Batanta, Dolak, Biak-Supiori, Salawati, the Aru Islands, and the Kai Islands (all Indonesia) in the west of its range, through parts of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is also present on Fergusson Island and the Samarai Islands in Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea), on the islands of New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), ranging as far east as the island of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). It occurs from sea level to 1,300 m asl.
17355		habitat	eng	This species commonly roosts in buildings, tree hollows, and in small cavities in coconut trees (in groups of up to 50 animals) (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998). This species has been recorded from undisturbed lowland forest (D. Wright pers. comm.), but it is more commonly found as a human commensal species that seems to have benefitted from the modification of natural habitat as it is often found in towns, villages, and gardens, particularly in low-lying areas. It is an aerial insectivore that emerges shortly before dusk to forage in urban areas and plantations.
17355		population	eng	It is a very common species that is found in colonies of hundreds of individuals.
17355		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may suffer some localised persecution within towns, villages, and other settlements.
17356		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).
17356		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern South Asia, southern China and parts of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur and Nagaland), where it has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is restricted to Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, northern Thailand (requires confirmation Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006), Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
17356		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in primary and secondary forests. It roosts among banana and bamboo trees, deep holes in trees and roofs of thatched huts in forested areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Myanmar, it is predominantly found in limestone caves, although it has also been recorded from forest areas without karst habitats. It can be found in disturbed areas including agricultural land (P. Bates pers. comm.).
17356		population	eng	This species is relatively common in many areas in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.). In South Asia, although this is a widely distributed species a declining trend in its population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17356		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia there are no believed to be any major threats to this species as a whole (P. Bates pers. comm.). In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)
17358		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of dry coastal forest in much of East Africa.
17358		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen collected close to Dar es Salaam in Tanzania.
17358		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected from coastal dry forest. There is little additional information on the natural history of this species.
17358		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this bat.
17358		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. However, it may be confined to dry coastal forest habitat, which is significantly threatened by conversion to agricultural use and extraction of firewood and timber.
17359		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
17359		distribution	eng	This species is found on Borneo, Sulawesi, Buru and Amboina islands (Molucca Islands, Indonesia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines the species has been recorded from Luzon (Benguet province) and Mindanao (Davao del Sur, and Surigao del Norte provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
17359		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology of this species. A colony was found roosting under the eaves of an isolated house in lower montane forest in Sabah (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).
17359		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
17359		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
17360		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
17360		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (Anhui, Shanghai, Fujian, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Hunan, Guizhou, and Jiangsu), extending to Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Thailand (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is also found in Myanmar (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).
17360		habitat	eng	In Myanmar and Thailand the species is found in limestone outcrops surrounded by semi-evergreen rainforest and disturbed remnants of forests. It roosts in caves, but has also been found roosting in houses. Also found in Myanmar in dry deciduous forest and known from sea level up to 1,080 m asl (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Viet Nam it also inhabits limestone areas.
17360		population	eng	This species is widespread, never abundant but not rare (P. Bates pers. comm.) and can be locally abundant (C. Francis pers. comm.).
17360		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
17361		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
17361		distribution	eng	Recorded throughout Africa, with scattered records from southwest Asia. North African records include a disjunct distribution being recorded from a small part of eastern Morocco into western Algeria, Tunisia, a single record from eastern Libya (on the border with Egypt; Benda <em>et al.</em> 2004)  and then in a broad strip in Egypt including all of the Nile River valley and delta and extending to the Red Sea (but not in the south) and the westernmost part of the Sinai. West African records are from the Senegal coast and the Senegal/Mauritania border. The largest contiguous range consists of a strip stretching from northern Sudan down to northern Zimbabwe, which at its widest point ranges from western Zambia to western Mozambique. Occurs up to 1,100 m in Morocco.
17361		habitat	eng	Found in semi-desert and desert. Roosts under rocks and in buildings.
17361		population	eng	Unknown, because it is primarily known only from mist net captures.
17361		threats	eng	Use of pesticides against locusts is a threat.
17362		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Mole National Park in Ghana (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
17362		distribution	eng	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. It is distributed from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, with easternmost records from Ethiopia close to the Somalia border area. It is found as far south as northern South Africa and central Namibia. Other than records from southern Chad and northern Central African Republic, the species has not been recorded in Central Africa.
17362		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from savanna woodland, and both dry and moist savanna habitats. Animals have been reported roosting in tree crevices, under bark and in old buildings (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
17362		population	eng	This species is locally common.
17362		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
17364		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
17364		distribution	eng	This species is found on Sumatra and Borneo (Indonesia), through to the Philippines where it is known from a single specimen from Mindanao (Zamboanga del Sur Province) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It also occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and southernmost Thailand (Bumrungsri <em>et al</em>. 2006).
17364		habitat	eng	In Thailand and Malaysia the species has been mist netted whilst feeding over streams and open fields (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985) and Medway (1983) reported it in lowland foothills. It is found from about 100 m asl (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006), elsewhere its upper elevational range has been recorded as 1,200 m asl. This species is gregarious and roosts in hollow trees and plantations, roofs of rural areas, and occasionally is found with <em>Scotophilus kuhlii</em>.
17364		population	eng	This bat is rarely caught but as it is likely to be a high flying species it is probably under represented by surveys. It is known from only one individual in the Philippines.
17364		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
17365		conservation	eng	There is a need to confirm the taxonomic validity of this species. If this is a valid species, there needs to be research into its actual distribution and whether there are any extant populations. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
17365		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus sturdeei</em> is known only from Hahajima Island in the Bonin (= Ogasawara) Islands, Japan (Abe 2005). Some experts believe that this bat never actually occurred in Japan, and that the type locality is in error (Abe 2005). Therefore, the true distribution and country of origin are unknown.
17365		habitat	eng	Unknown.
17365		population	eng	Unknown. Only the type specimen presumably collected at the end of the 19th century is preserved (housed in the British Museum of Natural History) (Abe 2005), and there have been no further records for over a century.
17365		threats	eng	Unknown.
17366		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Mexico.
17366		distribution	eng	Nova Scotia, South Quebec (Canada), and Minnesota (USA), south to Florida (USA) and Honduras (Simmons 2005).
17366		habitat	eng	Eastern pipistrelles can be found in open woods near the edges of water, as well as over water. They are not usually found in open fields or deep forests (Schmidly, 1991; Nowak, 1991). They roost in rock crevices, caves, buildings, and tree foliage in the summer. During the winter, caves, mines, and deep crevices serve as hibernacula (Briggler and Prather, 2003; Sandel <em>et al.</em>, 2001). (Briggler and Prather, 2003; Nowak, 1991; Sandel <em>et al</em>. 2001; Schmidly, 1991).<br/>Eastern pipistrelles copulate between August and October while “swarming” in front of cave openings. This is the only time the sexes of this species are together- during this time females mate with multiple males (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998). (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998). Eastern pipistrelles are insectivores and are considered generalists (Hamlin and Myers 2004).
17366		population	eng	Eastern pipistrelles have a lifespan of 4 to 8 years in the wild (Nowak 1991). The known record for the oldest <em>P. subflavus</em> is 14.8 years. (Nowak 1991; Whitaker and Hamilton 1998) Eastern pipistrelles are obligate hibernators, in warmer climates they hibernate even though food is available (Briggler and Prather 2003). They enter the hibernaculum in late July-October and leave at the beginning of April (Fugita and Kunz 1984). They hibernate in the deepest part of the hibernaculum where temperatures are stable (Schmidly 1991). Eastern pipistrelles generally hibernate individually, but groups of 2 or 3 have been observed in Texas caves (Sandel <em>et al.</em> 2001). Eastern pipistrelles might choose hibercula based on the closeness to and abundance of forests available to them (Sandel <em>et al</em>. 2001). They also prefer hibernacula with east-facing openings (Briggler and Prather 2003). During the summer, female <em>P. subflavus</em> roost in maternity colonies with an average of 15 individuals. Males roost alone (Whitaker 1998).<br/><br/>Eastern pipistrelles are sporadic flyers with a short elliptical flight pattern (Patterson and Hardin 1969). They are often confused for moths (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998) (Briggler and Prather 2003; Fugita and Kunz 1984; Patterson and Hardin 1969; Sandel <em>et al.</em> 2001; Schmidly, 1991; Whitaker and Hamilton 1998; Whitaker 1998).
17366		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
17367		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.
17367		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern and south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania. It is known from near sea level to 1,500 m asl, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
17367		habitat	eng	This species is found in tall, mature, wet forest (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Animals have been recorded roosting in stem holes in Eucalyptus  and in buildings (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).
17367		population	eng	It is sparsely scattered within suitable habitat (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).
17367		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is probably declining due to habitat loss and removal of large trees (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
17368		conservation	eng	In Southeast Asia the species has been recorded from many protected areas. In South Asia, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006) and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 2008). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
17368		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found throughout much of South Asia, southeastern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province), Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and mid western), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Das 2003, Korad <em>et al</em>. 2007; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded form sea level to 769 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present over much of southeastern China, including the island of Hainan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is found throughout the mainland, ranging into Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Seram and Serasan), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), Borneo (Indonesia, Malaysia and possibly Brunei; the species is possibly more widespread than currently known [C. Francis pers. comm.) and the Philippines, where it has been recorded on Cebu (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Luzon (Rizal Province), Mindanao (Taylor 1934), Negros, and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) where it occupies an altitudinal range from sea level to 800-1700 m (P. Bates and L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
17368		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found from arid zones to wet and humid areas. It is equally abundant in forested areas, in rural and urban landscapes (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 2007). It roosts in hollows of trees, holes, crevices and cracks in walls and ceilings of old buildings, dead leaves of trees.  In Southeast Asia this is a largely forest species inhabits primary and secondary hill, montane and montane mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is adapted to highly disturbed habitats, gardens, and mangrove forests (P. Bates pers. comm. 2006). It is an early flyer, with a varied flight pattern from a jerky flight with many twists and turns to a slow fluttering and floating flight to an erratic flight as the evening progresses. Its diet is varied and seasonal. It feeds on beetles, cockroaches and wingless ants in winter, on a wide variety of insects in summer and on winter termites, moths, hymenopterans, dipterans and beetles during monsoon. There are two breeding seasons one in February-March and the other in July-August and between one to three young are born (Bates and Harrison 1997).
17368		population	eng	In South Asia, this species is widely distributed and common, and the population is stable and seems to be doing well (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is widespread and moderately common in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is locally very common in Myanmar and Lao PDR (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2005).
17368		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.
17369		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species is recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. Museum records need to be checked for identification.
17369		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded from south-eastern New Guinea and Samarai Island (10°37'S, 150°40'E) (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). It ranges between sea level and 200 m asl.
17369		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from coastal lowlands, but will forage in urban areas as an aerial insectivore (Bonaccorso 1998). It has been observed roosting in the ceiling of a house (a group of less than 20 individuals) (Flannery 1995a).
17369		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
17369		threats	eng	Disturbance or persecution of roosting animals may be a threat to this species.
17370		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas including Kakadu and Keep River National Parks, and the Prince Regent Nature Reserve (McKenzie and Milne 2008).
17370		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges along the northern coastline from Cape Bossut in Western Australia to Karumba in western Queensland. It is present on a number of islands (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
17370		habitat	eng	This species is primarily associated with mangrove habitats but it is also encountered in adjacent thickets and in riverine forest (McKenzie and Milne 2008).
17370		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (McKenzie and Milne 2008).
17370		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
17398		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Threatened on the list of Endangered and Threatened Species of New Mexico (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish Conservation Services Division 2005). Its current NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank is G1Q - Critically Imperilled, but with taxonomic uncertainty which may reduce its conservation priority (NatureServe 2009).&#160;Restriction of motorised vehicles around Middle Fork Lake was enforced in 1988 and barriers put up to keep vehicles away from the shoreline. The US Forest Service started monitoring this species as of 1995 (MacCarter 1996).<br/><br/>Further research on the threats, conservation and environmental tolerances of this species is needed.
17398		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Middle Fork Lake in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Taos County, New Mexico in the United States (Taylor 1987). The lake is 3,306 m above sea level and is the principal source for the Red River, a tributary of the Rio Grande (Taylor 1987). Despite sampling in nine other lakes in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, this species has only been found in Middle Fork Lake (Taylor 1987). The area of Middle Fork Lake is approximately 90 km²<sup></sup> (Taylor 1987), which represents the extent of occurrence of this species.
17398		habitat	eng	Middle Fork Lake, in which this species can be found, is a circular, glacial lake about 1,100 ft long. There is no submerged aquatic vegetation within the lake, and emerging grasses are only found in the shallows of rare sheltered embayments. This species was found in the outlet stream where dead wood and mud accumulated, and among emergent grasses at the edge of the lake in the mud (Taylor 1987).
17398		population	eng	This species is described as abundant within the Middle Fork Lake (Taylor 1987) and in 1996 it was described as “flourishing” (MacCarter 1996). Taylor (1987) found the species "in quantity", and B. Lang with the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (pers. comm. 2008) has found individuals from the edge to the centre of the lake following monitoring beginning in 1995 that resulted in two collections of four specimens in 1999.
17398		threats	eng	<p>Mining is common in the area and a mine is situated just outside the small basin where the clam occurs. Mining currently poses the greatest threat to the species (Cordeiro pers. comm.2011) including the runoff from placer mining (Taylor 1983). There is also the potential threat from water pollution from fish and forest fire management (Storch 1996). The increased pressures from human disturbance for recreational use may cause dewatering and shoreline destabilisation (erosion and sedimentation due to foot/vehicular traffic) and therefore threaten the species in the future (Taylor 1983, USFWS 1996). However, the remoteness and ownership of Middle Fork Lake (Carson  National Forest) may limit this threat (USFWS 1996). There is a future planned project, Questa Water System Improvements, to upgrade the sewerage and drinking water lines around the Questa village. Measures have been proposed to minimise changes in both water flow and pollution. The project proposal states that any changes or impacts are likely to be short-term (US Army Corps of Engineers 2008). There are also threats from stochastic natural events such as wildfires or drought (Taylor 1983, USFWS, 1996) which would result in loss of suitable habitat and the potential biological threat from Zebra Mussels if these are introduced in Middle Fork Lake via NMDGF fish stocking practices (NMDGF 1996).</p>
17399		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended on the species abundance, range and potential threats.
17399		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Tasmania, Australia (Korniushin 2000). It&#160; has been recorded at several locations such as Arthur’s Lake, Lake Sorell, Lake Butters, Lake Malbena, Lake Olive, and Lake Nugetena (Kuiper 1983, Korniushin 2000). The extent of occurrence is less than 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
17399		habitat	eng	This species is found in the littoral zone of freshwater lakes. Its presence in deeper water is unknown (Korniushin 2000).
17399		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
17399		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is affected by any major threats.
17400		conservation	eng	Further surveys are needed to determine if this species is still extant.
17400		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded from western Java, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It possibly occurs from lowland areas up to 1,200 m.
17400		habitat	eng	There is very little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumed to be a lowland tropical forest species.
17400		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens collected before World War II (Musser and Carleton 2005).
17400		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It is probably threatened by the ongoing loss of lowland forest habitat from Java.
17401		conservation	eng	It is almost certainly present in some of the protected areas within the range of the species. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, threats and persistance of this species in disturbed habitats.
17401		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Peninsular Malaysia, south of the Isthmus of Kra (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality is at around 1,000 m. It generally occurs from sea level to 1,200 m. It may be absent from higher elevation forests (K. Aplin pers. comm.). It is probably now confined to the protected areas within its range.
17401		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that is generally found in primary or tropical moist forest, but it has been recorded from secondary forest; although it is unclear about the disturbance to the forest at this locality.
17401		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but infrequently collected (G. Musser pers. comm.).
17401		threats	eng	It is presumably generally threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
17402		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas in Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17402		distribution	eng	The range of this species is poorly known. It occurs south of the Napo in Ecuador and Peru (Hershkovitz 1987). <em>Pithecia aequatorialis</em> is reported to be sympatric with <em>P. monachus</em> in northern Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).
17402		habitat	eng	<em>P. aequatorialis</em> occurs in moist subtropical lowland forest.<br/><br/>Sakis are medium-sized primates (1-3 kg). They are specialized morphologically for seed predation. The diet is made up of seeds, fruit pulp, young leaves, insects and flowers. Members of this genus form small, cohesive groups (2-9 individuals), generally comprising a single male-female breeding pair and several young. Day ranges (1,5-2 km) and home ranges are small (10-25 km), and sakis exhibit behaviours associated with territory defence (Norconk 2007).
17402		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
17402		threats	eng	In Peru, the main threat is hunting and habitat loss (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). They are sometimes found in the pet trade.
17460		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
17460		distribution	eng	This species is known a few isolated areas on Hispaniola.
17460		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is terrestrial and arboreal and inhabits subtropical and tropical forest, as well as rocky areas. It is known to live in rocky outcrops and hide in crevices among rocks. It is herbivorous (folivorous) and eats numerous plants and local crops.
17460		population	eng	Almost nothing is known about this species. On a recent survey near Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, the species was not uncommon, but was only found in isolated areas where they were considered to be an agricultural pest (Turvey pers. comm.). Populations have been drastically reduced, and are restricted to a few remaining areas of suitable habitat.
17460		threats	eng	Often killed as a crop pest and opportunistically hunted for food in Haiti. Increasing habitat destruction both within and outside of protected areas is a major threat. In addition, invasive species (mongoose, cats, dogs and rats) persecute and kill individuals of the species. These compounding factors have resulted in the extirpation of the animal from much of its former range.
17462		conservation	eng	None.
17462		distribution	eng	The species is known from recent fossil deposits in Hispaniola. It is possible at this species is the animal referred to as "Quemi" by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes who lived in Hispaniola between 1536-1546 (Miller 1929). There is also a remote possibility that this represents an animal referred to as "comadreja" which allegedly survived into the 20th Century (Woods <em>et al.</em> 1985)
17462		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about this species' habitat or ecology.
17462		population	eng	Extinct.
17462		threats	eng	The fossil deposits from which this is known from also contained rat remains. This suggests that the species persisted until the modern era and that the extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
17468		distribution	eng	Was formerly more widespread in the Colorado and Gila River systems in Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, now essentially restricted to the Virgin River system.
17468		threats	eng	Dams and water diversions have destroyed most of the habitat (eight major dams on the Salt, Verde, and Gila Rivers have effectively cut off natural water flow downstream) non-native Red Shiner has had a negative impact; also threatened by water developments associated with human population growth.
17474		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two protected areas: Wasur National Park (Indonesia) and Tonda Wildlife Management Area (Papua New Guinea). Further taxonomic research is needed.
17474		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the grassland and savanna areas of southern and south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from sea level to 250 m asl.
17474		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from both tropical grasslands and savannas. A female was reported with two half-grown young in September (Flannery 1995).
17474		population	eng	The Papuan Planigale is thought to be common in suitable habitat.
17474		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Papuan Planigales are probably affected by predation from cats. They also could be affected by habitat loss in the south-eastern part of their range through conversion of grassland to cultivated areas, but overall habitat for this species is probably expanding.
17481		conservation	eng	It is known from seven protected areas - Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (Nameer 2005), Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park (Jayson 2006) and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Jayson and Christopher 1995) in Kerala; Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Shankar 1998), Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Prabhakar 1998) and Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa <em>et al</em>. 2001) in Tamil Nadu. Taxonomic studies to understand the two disjunct populations is recommended apart from studies on ecology, habitat use, population and threats.
17481		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Western Ghats of India ranging from Shivamogge, Karnataka in the north (Rajagopalan 1968; Agrawal 2000) to Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala in the south (Jayson and Christopher 1995). The species occurs in two disjunct populations, north and south of the Palakkad gap of the Western Ghats, in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (S. Molur, P.O. Nameer and C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 9 September 2007). Although Jayson (2006) reports the occurrence of this species from 33 localities in Kerala, Western Ghats, direct evidence of its presence is only from three locations. Reports from other locations indicated as indirect evidences and questionnaire surveys need confirmation. In addition, it also occurs in other locations of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Western Ghats (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Nameer 2005). The species ranges from 600 to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
17481		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist-deciduous, semi-evergreen, evergreen and shola forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in riparian forests (Jayson 2006; S. Molur and P.O. Nameer pers. comm.).
17481		population	eng	Prabhakar (1998) reports occurrence of this species only in undisturbed rain forest patches of more than 20 km² in the Anamalais. Shankar (1997, 1998) reports occurrence of this species in undisturbed high altitude shola forest fragments of 60 to 600 ha. Mudappa <em>et al</em>. 2001 report trap success of less than 1% in undisturbed evergreen forests of Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu. Shortridge in Ryley (1916) reported the occurrence of this species from central Madikeri, Karnataka. However, S. Molur (pers. comm.) reports total absence of this species from plantations and forest fragments of Madikeri, except for 0.02% trap success in an undisturbed riverine forest adjoining Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka.
17481		threats	eng	Habitat loss, changes in land use are major threats to the species. It is very sensitive to change in quality of habitat and to human interference (Prabhakar 1997; S. Molur pers. comm.). In some areas of its occurrence it is threatened by harvest for medicinal purpose (Jayson and Christopher 1995).
17487		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
17487		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west of Peru (Simmons, 2005).
17487		habitat	eng	This bat is a pollen and nectar feeder (Cactus associated). It has been noted to shelter in caves. It feeds on cacti when it is in bloom. Pregnant females were captured in September. Decreased fruit and flower production by the columnar cactus (Weberbauerocereus) during prolonged droughts resulted in emigration or death within colonies of this species at Arequipa, Peru (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Graham, 1987). Associated with caves and bridges and man made constructions.
17487		population	eng	This species is rare.
17487		threats	eng	This bat can be adversely affected during El Niño events.
17512		conservation	eng	The species is protected under the French law but does not occur in any protected area. Further investigation about the distribution, population trend and ecological requirements of the species as well as impacts of potential threats should be carried out.
17512		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Alpes-Maritimes in France. It is only known from five localities which correspond to four locations.
17512		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy. It might also live in drier Mediterranean habitats as recent finding suggest.
17512		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species. It is only collected with a few specimen, nearly exclusively dead ones.
17512		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown. This species might be impacted by the ongoing urbanization in this  region and by all the activities from the increasing population. If the dry habitats are confirmed to be suitable, then fire might pose another threat.
17513		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species. Recommended actions include further survey work in the intervening region, as the species maybe more widespread within restricted range, and if so a revised conservation assessment would be merited.
17513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-west Portugal, where it is known from two locations near the coast, Caldas de Monchique and Bensafrim (Holyoak and Seddon 1985, Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988). The extent of occurrence is estimated as 300 km<sup>2</sup> (based on 20 x 15 km area).
17513		habitat	eng	The species was sieved from leaf litter and soil in a moist area close to the springs of Caldas de Monchique. It probably lies subterraneously.
17513		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
17513		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species, except quarrying.
17514		conservation	eng	This species is found in the Plitvice Lakes National Park. The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not exactly known, therefore research activities should focus on these two areas.
17514		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Croatia and is only known from one locality, from Milanovac Lake near Plitvice.</p>
17514		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean parts of rocky, mostly limestone, areas.
17514		population	eng	There are no data on the population size or trend.
17514		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are through the destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely as it is found in the Plitvice Lakes National Park.
17515		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in those countries where occurs. The Romanian populations can be found in protected areas.
17515		distribution	eng	This species has a typically disjunct distribution. It lives in a small area in Northern Italy as well as in the Bihor region, in Romania (Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989).   The known Italian localities are the following: 2 km west of San Giovanni Bianco; San Pellegrino Terme (15  km north of Bregamo); Piazza; Camerato Cornello, whereas the known localities in Romania are the following: Vadu Crisului gorge, caves sourrunding Vadu  Crisului (Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989), and Valei Butei  (<a href="http://www.ttk.pte.hu/kornyezettudomany/okologia/download/barnacikk/lpg2010.pdf">Lengyel and Páll-Gergely 2010</a>).    <p>The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. This is mainly because of the small shell size, the species can be collected only from soil samples. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating. The potential range of the species is relatively unexplored, so it can be assumed that further subpopulations will be found, that will increase extent of occurrence as well.</p>
17515		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species. <a href="http://www.ttk.pte.hu/kornyezettudomany/okologia/download/barnacikk/lpg2010.pdf">Lengyel and Páll-Gergely (2010)</a> found the species in the debris of a waterfall in the Valea Boghii.<br/></p>
17515		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life and small shell size of this species, there are no data on population trend. &#160;However, the population is thought to be stable.</p>
17515		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.<br/><br/></p>
17516		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria. The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not exactly known, therefore research activities should focus on these two areas.
17516		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Southeastern Bulgaria at the Black Sea coast. It has a very restricted area.&#160;This species lives between  0 and 20 m above sea level in Bulgaria (Vet and Popov 2007)&#160;.
17516		habitat	eng	<p>This species was found only in fluvial debris as empty shells, but knowing related species, we might suppose, that it occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats or under decaying leaf litter.</p>
17516		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life and small shell size of this species there are no data on population trend.&#160;&#160;However, the population is thought to be stable.</p>
17516		threats	eng	<p>This species most probably occurs in subterranean part of rocky habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical. Deforestation on its habitat can be a threat to this species, however this is not an ongoing threat.</p>
17517		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). There is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;&#160;The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not well known, therefore research activities are recommended on populations studies and distribution and on the ecology of the species.
17517		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the area of Lakonia in Peloponnese (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989). It is only found in one locality and has a small area of occupancy. The exact size of the area of occupancy is unknown.
17517		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone) areas.
17517		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species was described from a few individuals found in a single locality&#160;(Boeters&#160;<em>et al</em>. 1989). There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
17517		threats	eng	Real potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals.&#160;The reduction of the habitat where&#160;<em>Platyla</em>&#160;species are usually found (forests), could be a potential risk. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
17518		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure is the prevention of the spread of mongooses to islands where the species still survives. It occurs in the Ravilevu Nature Reserve and Bouma Natural Heritage Park, both on Taveuni, but neither of these actively protects wildlife.
17518		distribution	eng	This species once occurred widely in Fiji, but is now restricted to the mongoose-free islands of Ovalau, Gau, Taveuni, and Viwa. It used to occur on the two large islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, and on Bequa, but it is now extinct there. The last, unconfirmed, record from Vanua Levu was from the 1960s, when it was reported as part of the diet of mongooses in the Nadarivatu (Monosavu) area.
17518		habitat	eng	Although presumably originally a forest species, it is also found in anthropogenic habitats, including degraded forest, rural gardens, plantations, and even close to the beach. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development, although the eggs are very hard to find.
17518		population	eng	It occurs widely, but in small numbers, on Ovalau, Viwa, and Gau, and is fairly common on Taveuni.
17518		threats	eng	Introduced mongooses, released in 1883, caused a major decline, much of this having taken place by the early 20th century. It now survives only on mongoose-free islands. Mongooses are the only predators known to wipe the species out completely. It might also be impacted by introduced <em>Rattus praetor</em> and <em>Rattus exulans</em>, which arrived in Fiji some 2,500-3,000 years ago, as well as by <em>Bufo marinus</em> and introduced cats, but it is known to co-exist with all of these (on the small island of Viwa it has co-existed with <em>B. marinus</em> for over 30 years).
17519		conservation	eng	The small island of South Gigante, the only locality thus far known for this species, should be designated as a special protected area.
17519		distribution	eng	This species is known only from South Gigante Island, in the central Philippines.
17519		habitat	eng	It inhabits limestone karst forest and caves in forested lowlands. It breeds by direct development.
17519		population	eng	It is common at the type locality, especially in appropriate atmospheric conditions (heavy rains).
17519		threats	eng	Major threats are shifting agriculture, human encroachment of the forest over the limestone karst and caves, guano mining, and the quarrying of limestone. The latter two threats are especially detrimental to the habitat of this species.
17520		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas, but the protection of its unique habitat, the limestone karst and caves of southern Negros, should be prioritised in order to ensure the survival of the remaining populations of this species. Public education campaigns focusing on the significance of this species and its habitat are needed.
17520		distribution	eng	This species is known only from limestone karst and caves on southern Negros Island, at 20-400m asl, in the central Philippines.
17520		habitat	eng	It inhabits caves and limestone forest in lowland forests. Breeding takes place by direct development.
17520		population	eng	It is common in forested limestone areas. A recent survey conducted by researchers from Silliman University in the Phillipines found individuals in 86 of 147 caves surveyed, with 6-16 individuals in each cave (and the population was hence estimated to be about 800 individuals).
17520		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of shifting agriculture, human encroachment, guano mining, and the quarrying of limestone. The latter two threats are particularly detrimental to the very specific habitat of this species.
17524		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this single site.
17524		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Banahaw (Banahaw and San Cristobal peaks), on Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It ranges from around 700-1,700m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).
17524		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds and deposits eggs in arboreal ferns and pandanus. It breeds by direct development.
17524		population	eng	It is common to very common at the type locality, and populations appear to be stable at present.
17524		threats	eng	The immediate threats are relatively limited since it occurs in the high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less susceptible to deforestation and other human disturbance. The south-west side of Mount Banahaw is heavily impacted by religious pilgrims and tourists who damage habitat while building campsites. A new road-building project in the Municipality of Tayabas will no doubt result in increased access to the mountain and increased disturbance, especially at lower elevations. The collection of aerial ferns and tree ferns as ornamentals represents a possible threat, as these plants are the preferred microhabitats for reproduction.
17528		conservation	eng	Only a few protected areas are currently found in this region (as yet, though, there are no records from Pulag National Park), and there is a need for more effective management and protection of remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the Cordilleras.
17528		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras, on northern Luzon, in the Philippines. It ranges from around 500 to more than 900m asl (R. Brown, pers. comm.).
17528		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development. Limited ecological information is available for this species.
17528		population	eng	It is apparently common in appropriate forest habitats, but it is so rarely recorded or observed that concern regarding its current population status is warranted.
17528		threats	eng	It inhabits high-elevation forests, which are relatively less threatened by habitat conversion and agriculture and human encroachment. Regardless, some populations of this species are still subjected to these threats.
17534		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mount Kanlaon National Park. There is a need for the designation of remaining rainforests of southern Negros and Masbate as protected areas. The Masbate population should be the target for population status surveys in the near future, and there is a particular need to resolve the taxonomic status of this population.
17534		distribution	eng	This species occurs at high elevations (600-1,700m asl) on the mountains of Negros and possibly Masbate Islands (see taxonomic note), in the Philippines.
17534		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and breeding takes place by direct development.
17534		population	eng	It is common at high elevations in moist upper elevation rainforests, but it is rare or absent in disturbed habitats.
17534		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to the conversion of habitat to agriculture, logging, and large-scale disturbance of the remaining rainforest by geothermal explorations and related activities.
17537		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure needed at present is the designation of the remaining rainforests of the islands of Romblon and Tablas as protected areas. The population on Sibuyan Island is generally well protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species on Tablas and Romblon.
17537		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of Romblon, Tablas, and Sibuyan Islands in the Philippines from sea level up to 800 or 900m asl.
17537		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in lower montane and lowland forests, and breeds by direct development.
17537		population	eng	It is very common in forested areas on Sibuyan Island, but there is no information available on its population status on Tablas and Romblon.
17537		threats	eng	The populations on the smaller islands of Tablas and Romblon are particularly threatened by continuing habitat loss due to small-scale logging and conversion of lowland rainforest to agricultural land.
17546		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Mount Kanlaon National Park, but there is a need for further protection of the remaining rainforests of southern Negros. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species on Panay.
17546		distribution	eng	This species is known from the rainforests of Negros and Panay Islands, in the Philippines, between 600 and 1,800m asl.
17546		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds in aerial ferns and lays its eggs in the moist detritus that has accumulated in ferns. It breeds by direct development.
17546		population	eng	Populations have declined, even in the remaining preferred habitat on Negros, although the populations on Panay have not been recently surveyed.
17546		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to small-scale logging and the conversion of lowland rainforest to agricultural land.
17548		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas, such as the Aklan River Watershed Forest Reserve. However there is clearly a need for improved protection of remaining forest habitats on the island of Panay, and for rehabilitation of tracts of degraded forest.
17548		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western Panay Island, in the Philippines, from 400-1,750 m asl.
17548		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development in shrub layer vegetation, laying its eggs on the upper surfaces of leaves.
17548		population	eng	It is common to abundant in a few localities at high elevations, but scarce at lower elevations.
17548		threats	eng	Although populations occurring at higher elevations may currently be subject to fewer threats, populations found at lower elevations are threatened by extensive habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development.
17551		conservation	eng	The continued protection of the remaining forest on Polillo should be a priority in order to ensure the long-term survival of this species, while degraded forest habitats also need to be rehabilitated. Its range on Luzon Island includes Aurora Memorial National Park in Aurora Province.
17551		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowland rainforests of Polillo Island and the adjacent coast of Luzon Island in Aurora Province, in the Philippines. It has been recorded from 50-350m asl.
17551		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and is active in shrub-layer vegetation. It breeds by direct development.
17551		population	eng	The number of mature frogs possibly falls within the range of 100-300 individuals on Polillo Island. It is uncommon on eastern Luzon.
17551		threats	eng	Small-scale logging and the conversion of its major habitat, lowland rainforest, to agricultural land is a major threat. Recent field studies show that the Polillo Island population of this species is possibly in decline due to the continued destruction of the lowland dipterocarp forest. This species has recently been rediscovered on the adjacent mainland of Luzon, but populations there are also subject to high levels of disturbance.
17553		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas, but there remains a need for improved protection of the remaining rainforests on the islands of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao.
17553		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao Islands, in the Philippines, at 300-1,400m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
17553		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in nests in tree ferns and pandanus.
17553		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout its range. It occurs at very low densities in several localities, and is known to have declined, presumably due to habitat loss.
17553		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest due to small-scale logging and conversion to agricultural land.
17558		conservation	eng	Although present in several protected areas, including Pulag and Mount Data National Parks, remaining tracts of intact montane rainforest in the cordilleras require protection. The application and disposal of agricultural pesticides in the numerous vegetable farms needs to be monitored and regulated.
17558		distribution	eng	This species is found in a few localities of the central cordilleras, on northern Luzon Island in the Philippines. It might also occur on Mount Polis and Mount Pulog. It has been recorded from 1,850-2,200m asl.
17558		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development, presumably in shrub layer vegetation.
17558		population	eng	The number of mature frogs likely to occur at the type locality (Mount Data) falls within the range of 100-300 individuals. However, it has been found in other localities away from Mount Data in recent years, and so the total population of the species is not as small as was once thought.
17558		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is the continued loss of montane forests in the cordilleras due to conversion of habitat to vegetable farms, quarrying, mining of mineral resources, and real estate development. Pollution from agricultural pesticides, which are intensively used to maintain vegetable farms, is likely to be a major factor in the loss of some populations of this species from the remaining montane forests at the type locality.
17565		conservation	eng	The population of Uruguay is listed on CITES Appendix III.
17565		distribution	eng	Colombia to Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay, Northern Argentina, and Southern and Eastern Brazil; Surinam (Simmons 2005).
17565		habitat	eng	Frugivorous, but can eat insects and nectar. Found in small groups from 7 to 15 females in harem (Willig 1983).
17565		population	eng	Rare in Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.).
17565		threats	eng	None known.
17566		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in the tepuis. Reduce deforestation.
17566		distribution	eng	This species is found in the highlands of eastern Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname above 500 m (Valasco, 2005). This species is probably the only endemic to the Guianan highlands (Lim pers. comm.). Specimens previously reported from Colombia appear to have been misidentified (Simmons, 2005; Velazco, 2005).
17566		habitat	eng	This bat is basically frugivorous. This species is poorly known. Highland rain forest approximately 500-1,500 m (Velasco, 2005; Lim pers. comm.).
17566		population	eng	In Venezuela it is rare (Linares, 1998). Relatively common in the Guianas (Velazco pers. comm.). Can be locally common (Lim pers. comm.).
17566		threats	eng	None known. Deforestation, associated with gold and diamond mining. The species habitat is less vulnerable to logging because of its inaccessibility.
17567		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss.
17567		distribution	eng	The species is confined to Lowland areas (Patterson pers. comm.) of northern South America in the Amazonian portion of Brazil, the Guianas, southern Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Amazonian Peru and Bolivia (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Its westernmost limit is the flank of the Andes.
17567		habitat	eng	Strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest and moist sites. It is basically frugivorous and roosts in small groups of three to ten in leafy tangles, tree hollows, or caves. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally (Eisenberg, 1989).
17567		population	eng	Uncommon to locally common (Patterson pers. comm.).
17567		threats	eng	Habitat loss in some parts of the species range, though this is not considered a major threat.
17568		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in protected areas there is no enforcement in place.
17568		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of the Choco biogeographic region of Colombia, to northwestern Ecuador, from 35 to 305 m asl (Velazco, 2005).
17568		habitat	eng	This bat is basically frugivorous. Although well collected the ecology of the species is poorly known.
17568		population	eng	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.). Where habitat remains it seems to be relatively frequent. It had declined by 50% over the past decade because of habitat destruction.
17568		threats	eng	The choco region is being rapidly converted to agriculture which poses a serious threat to this restricted species. Illicit crops are a problem and habitat is rapidly being converted to coca for drug trade. Aerial spraying of defoliants may also be a threat.
17569		conservation	eng	Occurs in some conservation areas.
17569		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Panama, along both slopes of the Andes in Colombia, and only the western slope in Ecuador, and northern Venezuela, from 230 to just over 2,000 m (Velazco, 2005).
17569		habitat	eng	This bat is found in evergreen forest and forest edge of foothills and highlands. It has been found under palm leaves and in leaf clusters. It is basically frugivorous. The species is sympatric with <em>P. chocoensis</em>.
17569		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Panama (Reid, 1997) and is common in Colombia and Ecuador. Widespread in Andes (Velazco pers. comm.)
17569		threats	eng	Deforestation and land-use change.
17570		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.
17570		distribution	eng	The species ranges from Oaxaca and Veracruz, southern Mexico through the Isthmus, broadly across northern South America and the western portion of Brazil; also Trinidad (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid, 1997). Also Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
17570		habitat	eng	The species prefers moist habitats, such as evergreen forest, dry deciduous forest, semideciduous forest, forest edge, and fruit groves (Reid, 1997). It also occurs in Cerrado (Aguiar and Zortea pers. comm.) and tolerates man-made clearings. Evidence indicates the species is strongly frugivorous (Gardner, 1977); diet includes figs, Cecropia and Acnistus; occasionally consumes insects, including Lepidoptera (Howell and Burch, 1974; Bonaccorso, 1978). They roost in pairs or small groups high in the crowns of tree, caves, buildings, tunnels, hollow trees, under palm leaves, and among foliage. This species is not known to make tents. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally In Venezuela, the species may be very abundant in favorable habitat but can be netted in numbers only if nets are set in the canopy (Handley, 1976). In seasonally dry areas, it is usually caught in mist nets set over or near streams. Birth peaks occur in March-April and July-August (Ferrel and Wilson, 1991).
17570		population	eng	Fairly common (Reid, 1997).
17570		threats	eng	None known.
17571		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
17571		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Colombia to Peru, Bolivia, and northwestern Brazil, from 180 to 1900 m (Velazco, 2005).
17571		habitat	eng	This bat is frugivorous, thought it may eat some leaves (Molinari pers. comm.). It roosts in small groups in leafy tangles and in caves (Albuja 1999).
17571		population	eng	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.) and in Peru and Bolivia, however, little is known of the Brazilian population.
17571		threats	eng	None known.
17572		conservation	eng	Maintain habitat within the Atlantic Forest. Further research on this species basic ecology is important. Occurs in protected areas.
17572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Brazil (Koopman, 1993). The Guyanan record is erroneous. The northern limit of the range is the Tocantins River, the southernmost limit is Sao Paulo (Ditchfield pers. comm.).
17572		habitat	eng	The species is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest and moist sites.There are two records from  Cerrado habitat (Pedro and Taddei, 1998). It has also been captured in dry, semi-deciduous forest, but close to rivers (Ditchfield pers. comm.). It is basically a frugivorous species which roosts in small groups of three to ten in leafy tangles, tree hollows, or caves. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally (Eisenberg, 1989).
17572		population	eng	Can be locally common but not as common as <em>P. lineatus</em> and has been recorded in disturbed habitat (Faria pers. comm.).
17572		threats	eng	Much of the species range has been heavily developed, especially the Atlantic Forest however, as the species has been regularly captured in disturbed habitat this is not considered a major threat.
17573		conservation	eng	Research actions.
17573		distribution	eng	Northern Colombia, Northern Venezuela (Simmons 2005).
17573		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
17573		population	eng	There is no information on population.
17573		threats	eng	Not known.
17574		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
17574		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Costa Rica, Panama, western and northern Colombia and northern Venezuela (Velazco, 2005).
17574		habitat	eng	It feeds on fruit including figs, Acnistus, and Cecropia. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally (Gardner, 1977). This species is poorly known. Mostly founded in middle elevation forests.
17574		population	eng	It is fairly common in evergreen forest, fruit groves, and second growth of foothill and highland in Panama (Reid, 1997). Relatively common in Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela and Colombia.
17574		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
17585		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17586		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
17586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
17586		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.
17586		population	eng	This species appears to be increasing in numbers. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes decreased from three in 1979/80 to zero for 1987/88 and 1993/95, but then increased to more than 18 for 2006/08.
17586		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
17596		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Maintenance of natural habitat, especially forests with mature trees is required.
17596		distribution	eng	<em>Plecotus auritus</em> is endemic to Europe, where it is widely distributed south of 65°N and west of the Urals and north of the Caucasus. In the south it is confined to higher elevations. It occurs on the British Isles and in Sardinia. Patchy distribution in Iberia, Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. In the Alps, maternity colonies are found up to 1,920 m asl, hibernacula up to 2,350 m asl (Horácek and Dulic 2004).
17596		habitat	eng	It forages in the vicinity of the roost in deciduous and coniferous woodlands, along hedgerows, and in isolated trees in parks and gardens. It feeds mainly on moths and flies gleaned from foliage. In summer it roosts in colonies in buildings (attics, barns, churches, drainage channels), tree holes, and bat boxes. Solitary animals also roost in underground sites. In winter it hibernates in caves, mines, buildings and occasionally trees. A sedentary species, its longest recorded movement is 88 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003).
17596		population	eng	A common species in central Europe, but rare in the Mediterranean. Summer colonies usually number 10-50 females, sometimes up to 100. In winter it is generally solitary, although it may occasionally be found in very small clusters (2-3 animals). Nursery colonies of up to 10 (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). There have been no recorded population declines throughout most of its range, but it is decreasing in Turkey (A. Karatas pers. comm.).
17596		threats	eng	Loss of broad-leaved forest and particularly of mature trees is a threat in parts of its Mediterranean range (Balkans, Portugal, Spain and Turkey). It is affected locally by remedial timber treatment and loss of roost sites.
17597		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends, and improving agricultural habitats by protecting and restoring hedges and scrubby areas and reducing pesticide use.
17597		distribution	eng	<em>Plecotus austriacus</em> is restricted to Europe, excluding northern countries. Widespread south of 52-53°N, from south England to Moldova and the Black Sea Coast southwards to the Mediterranean coast (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One record in south Sweden. Found on Mediterranean and Atlantic islands: Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily and Madeira (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Highest confirmed record in the Alps 1,390 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).
17597		habitat	eng	It forages in lowland valleys and open agricultural landscapes in central Europe, and in a great variety of open and semi-open habitats in southern Europe. It feeds mainly on moths. In summer it typically roosts in buildings (attics, fissures, cavities, old castles), although solitary animals may roost in underground sites. In winter it hibernates in buildings, mines, and caves. It is a sedentary species, and no individual has been recorded to move further than 62 km (Gaisler and Hanák 1969 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
17597		population	eng	It is a common species in the Mediterranean, but relatively rare in the European part of Turkey (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). Summer colonies usually consist of 10-30 females. Winter clusters are usually small (2-3 animals), and the species is often solitary in this season. Population declines have been documented in parts of central Europe (Horácek <em>et al.</em> 2004); in Austria this species is listed as Vulnerable (Spitzenberger 2005) and in Croatia it is listed as Endangered (Tvrtkovic 2006). In Portugal there is no evidence of decline. Elsewhere in the range data on population trend is lacking.
17597		threats	eng	Some populations are affected by remedial timber treatment (poisoning by wood preserving chemicals) and loss of roost sites. Intensification of agriculture seems to have a negative impact on the species in central Europe, and may be responsible for population declines reported in this region. Agricultural intensification may also affect the species in other parts of the range.
17598		conservation	eng	Avoid human disturbance; it occurs in several protected areas.
17598		distribution	eng	S British Columbia (Canada) through W USA to Oaxaca (Mexico), east to Virginia (Simmons 2005).
17598		habitat	eng	C. townsendii are found in a variety of locations that range from coniferous forests and woodlands, deciduous riparian woodland, semi-desert and montane shrublands (Nowak, 1999). They are most common in evergreen forests in the warmer months (Kunz and Martin, 1982). Female bats usually only have one young a year (Tuttle, 1988). The newborns range in weight from 2.1-2.7 g. There is a strong maternal bond and the young bats squawk when the mother is away. The young bats, however, grow quickly, being able to fly within three weeks. After two months, many of the young bats have left the nursery roosts, with male bats leaving before female. In their first year, male bats are almost certainly incapable of breedding while female bats are able to reproduce at the age of four months (Barbourand Davis, 1969).<br/>These animals are sensitive to light and movement so if they are disturbed during the day, they awake and their ears begin to move as they try to indentify the intruder. If the disturbance occurs for more than a few seconds, the entire group takes flight (Barbour and Davis, 1969). Mating usually occurs in two phases. In the summer phase, both partners are alert and active, in a time known as the active phase. During the winter, or the passive phase, the females are torpid and the males seek out and find these females and mate with them. The females remain unattentive throughout the entire encounter (Fenton, 1985). These bats are insectivorous. They to emerge late in the day to feed (Barbour and Davis, 1969). Townsend's big eared bats feed on small moths and either capture these moths from leaves or catch them directly in the air along forested edges (Kunz and Martin, 1982).
17598		population	eng	During the winter months, they hibernate either individually or in groups composed of several hundred bats, and they hibernate in mines or caves. In the summer, these bats roost in a wide variety of locations, including limestone caves, lava tubes, and human-made structures. In the summer, the females form nesting roost. Males are solitary during the maternity periods. The maternity colonies consist of one or more small clusters, which rarely exceed 100 bats. Females are alert and active in the maternity roosts and prefer dark places for their roosts (Kunz, 1982).
17598		threats	eng	This species has declined due to direct killing by people and because of abandonment of roosts caused by disturbance due to explorers and vandals. Minimization of human disturbance is essential for <em>Corynorhinus townsendii</em> to remain in existence (Nowak, 1999). Human intervention may have helped conserved the population on the west coast of North America, because man-made structures provide a shelter for big-eared bats.
17599		conservation	eng	It is found in at least five protected area.
17599		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sonora and Coahuila to Michoacan Yucatán (Mexico); Cozumel Island (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,200 m (usually above 1,500 m outside Yucatán) (Reid, 1997). The records found in Yucatan peninsula are old records: the original data for location is questionable (Reid pers. comm.)
17599		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry lowland areas to highland pine-oak forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves and mine tunnels. Individuals hang well apart from one another, clinging to vertical surfaces with feet and thumbs, ears coiled back, and tail curled under to cover the lower belly. Numbers present in caves may vary throughout the year, and hibernating groups have been found in deep caves. Most southern and lowland records were obtained in the winter and may be due to seasonal migrations from cold, highland regions (Hall and Dalquest, 1963; Koopman, 1974). Diet probably consists of small, flying insect. Single young are born in March or June (Tumlinson, 1992; Reid, 1997).
17599		population	eng	It is rare in southeastern Mexico (known from few specimens); elsewhere uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
17599		threats	eng	Habitat loss and roost disturbance (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
17600		conservation	eng	More accurate information is needed on distribution and status. Range-wide investigation, in light of reported declines, is justified. States where surveys have been directed only at caves, or where no bat surveys have been conducted in recent years, should be targeted first for searches, and searches must be targeted at this species in particular. Abandoned buildings should be searched as potential roost sites (Finn 1996).<br/>Protect all colony sites with more than 10 bats present. Foraging habitat may be critical to species survival and should therefore be protected (protect mature floodplain and swamp forests; maintain large hollow tree component of such forests). Abandoned-building roost sites should be protected or, if need be, replaced with a potential alternate roost area on the site (Finn 1996).<br/>More accurate information is needed on general biology, foraging habitat, foraging behavior, and the importance of mature forests, hollow trees for roosts, and small maternity colonies.
17600		distribution	eng	The range extends from southern Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio (Handley 1991), Indiana, and Illinois south to Florida (primarily the panhandle and northern and central portions of the peninsula) and the Gulf of Mexico; west to Louisiana, Arkansas (known primarily from the Gulf Coastal Plain), eastern Oklahoma, and the eastern edge of Texas (Schmidly 2004) (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998; Lynch and Jones, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Elevational range in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park extends to at least 2,400 feet.
17600		habitat	eng	The number of occurences is certainly greater than 100, but the number of known extant summer and winter roosting sites with large numbers of bats (> 100) is only 6 to 8 in any one year, and these sites are clustered in Kentucky and North Carolina. As of 2005, the species had been recorded from 18 counties in Tennessee (Tennessee Bat Working Group).<br/><br/>Several occurrences are known from state or national parks, including the largest known hibernating colony and some large (>100 individuals) maternity colonies in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Two large hibernating colonies in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park are partially protected, one with a gate and the other with fencing. Additional protected occurrences include (but are not limited to) the following. One protected colony occurs in Carter Cave, Kentucky. A colony also occurs in Natural Bridge State Park in Kentucky. Sites on USFS property are required under NEPA to be considered when evaluating effects of management practices. One large maternity colony is within Mammoth Caves National Park. Arkansas has gated several caves with <em>Myotis sodalis</em> colonies, and these may also be potential roost sites for Rafinesque's long-eared bats (Harvey 1992). Two maternity colonies in old buildings in Illinois have been protected, and the buildings repaired to extend their useful life (Gardner 1992).<br/>This is a bat of forested regions. Hibernation in the north and in mountainous regions most often occurs in caves or similar sites; small caves are selected, and the bats stay near the entrance (often within 30 meters) and are thought to move about in winter (Handley 1959, Barbour and Davis 1969). Winter habitat in the south is poorly known, but usually this species is not found in caves during winter. In the Coastal Plain they are suspected to use hollow trees for cold weather and possibly winter roosts. In the southern portions of the range these bats often roost in buildings year round. Summer roosts often are in hollow trees, occasionally under loose bark, or in abandoned buildings in or near wooded areas. Nursery colonies are rare in caves, but are known to occur in Kentucky and Tennessee (Barbour and Davis 1969). A large nursery colony (87 adults in June of 1985) roosts in abandoned copper mines in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Currie 1992). <br/><br/>In Louisiana, Gooding and Langford (2004) found that roost trees were hollow <em>Nyssa aquatica</em> with triangular-shaped basal openings, and all were located within a 5-hectare tupelo stand.  In Mississippi, Trousdale and Beckett (2005) found that tree roosts were in hollow <em>Nyssa</em> spp. and <em>Magnolia grandiflora</em>. Most of the trees were still alive, relatively large, and were adjacent to streams or other bodies of water. Tree roosts were apparently rare within the study area, and <em>C. rafinesquii</em> showed roost fidelity to particular areas of forest. Six tree roosts were used by multiple individuals and several trees were reused within tracking sessions and among years.<br/><br/>In Louisiana, Lance <em>et al.</em> (2001) demonstrated that bridges, especially girder bridges, are important day-roost sites. Tagged bats in this study roosted under bridges 50% of the time and in black gum trees (<em>Nyssa aquatica</em>) 50% of the time. In Mississippi, small groups of females (mean of 5.6 adult females) used concrete bridges as maternity roosts; the bridges were much less used in fall and winter (Trousdale and Beckett 2004). It has been suggested that the species began using man-made structures in the coastal plain region only after large old hollow trees became scarce.<br/><br/>In Arkansas these bats are found in cisterns and wells rather than caves (Harvey 1992). In the mountains of South Carolina they roost in rock houses, abandoned gold mines, and hollow trees. In the coastal plain of North Carolina, they move into old buildings in the summer. They are known to use hollow trees as temporary night roosts between feeding bouts in the summer. In central Florida, a maternity roost was in an abandoned trailer that had been placed on a site in the early 1980s; it had been occupied for several years by the mid-1990s (Finn 1996). <br/><br/>Dilapidated buildings are inhabited more commonly than are intact occupied structures, and Clark (1987) reported that these bats roost in the darkest parts of such buildings. Others have reported that these bats choose more open and lighted daytime roosts than other kinds of bats (Handley 1959, Barbour and Davis 1969, Harvey 1992). Clark (1987) agreed that in caves and mines this species prefers areas receiving some natural light. The foraging habitat is primarily mature forest in both upland and lowland areas. In North Carolina and Virginia, foraging habitat for subspecies <em>Macrotis </em>is mature hardwood floodplain forest; sites along permanent water bodies, especially rivers, are preferred (Clark 1987). In the Upper Coastal Plain of South Carolina, where large contiguous tracts of mature bottomland hardwoods were common, most foraging activity of males nevertheless occurred in young pine stands; only 9% of foraging areas were in bottomland hardwoods (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001).
17600		population	eng	Population size is not known to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, but data are lacking for many areas. This bat never has been considered abundant. In general, it roosts in small numbers at scattered locations (e.g., in Alabama, the largest known colony includes only a few individuals). Population is thought to be 1,000-2,000 in each of Kentucky and South Carolina. This is one of the most common bats in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park; hibernation roosts include up to several hundred individuals (e.g., in 1993, two roosts included 454 and 699 bats); Harvey (1991) reported a hibernating colony of 570 individuals as well as smaller maternity roosts. In a cave in Kentucky, counts of hibernating <em>C. rafinesquii</em> ranged from 14-49, with summer colony size reaching a maximum of 118 bats (Hurst and Lacki 1999). In southern Mississippi, the number of bats present under occupied bridges ranged from 1 to 25 per bridge (Trousdale and Beckett 2004). In Florida, this bat is uncommon in the northern part of the state and rare in the south (Florida Bat Center, www.floridabats.org). In Georgia, it is widespread but rare (Georgia Wildlife Web). In much of the range thorough searches have not been completed and abundance is poorly known.<br/><br/>No range-wide statistics on trends are available, but four states (Georgia, West Virginia, South Carolina, and Tennessee) reported documented population declines, and populations in Indiana and Ohio probably have been extirpated. Four other states (Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, and North Carolina) reported suspected declines. In summary, the species is known or suspected to be declining in more than half (10 out of 18) of the states within its range. In most other states, data are unavailable to determine trends.
17600		threats	eng	Much historically occupied habitat was lost with the clearing of swampland forests. Present threats include: forest destruction (significant in parts of coastal plain); hollow tree removal during certain forest management practices (widespread; noted in Mississippi as important); decreasing availability of abandoned buildings through razing and vandalism (serious threat in coastal plain); insecticide applications, at least in past; vandalism of caves and mines, and closing or blasting mines shut (England <em>et al.</em> 1992). There is considerable potential for loss and degradation of roosting and foraging habitats by commercial logging practices in preferred habitat (Schmidly 2004).<br/><br/>This species is very intolerant of disturbance (natural or human) and may abandon roost sites or hibernation sites if subjected to disturbance. Disturbance in winter may arouse bats and cause them to use up fat needed to survive the winter (Harvey 1992). Tendency to roost in cave entrances makes this bat especially vulnerable to disturbance. One roost site was abandoned after the surrounding area was logged.
17601		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
17601		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). The holotype was collected at an altitude of 2,250 m asl on Mount An-ma Shan (Yoshiyuki 1991).
17601		habitat	eng	The holotype of this species was collected in forest at an elevation of 2,250 m asl in the central mountainous region of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). It roosts in caves, tunnels, buildings and trees (Nowak 1999).
17601		population	eng	This species is thought to be declining.
17601		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species since it appears to be restricted to primary forests, although there is no longer significant deforestation going on at higher elevations in Taiwan.
17602		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. A bat protection programme aimed at protecting caves used as roost sites from human disturbance was instigated in 1993 (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Protection of the species' woodland foraging habitat is also recommended (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
17602		distribution	eng	<em>Plecotus teneriffae</em> is endemic to the Canary Islands (Tenerife, La Palma, El Hierro and may also be on La Gomera, but presence there has not yet been confirmed although there is suitable habitat), where its extent of occurrence is less than 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It occurs at elevations between 100 and 2,300 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
17602		habitat	eng	It is highly associated with woodland habitats (coniferous and mixed), although it occasionally forages in more open and arid areas. Its diet consists primarily of moths. Recorded roost sites include volcanic tubes, caves, and crevices in abandoned buildings (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Tree holes and bat or bird boxes are never used (Benzal and Fajardo 1999). The La Palma maternity colony is located in a natural cave. This species is considered to be sedentary (Fajardo and Benzal 2002 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
17602		population	eng	Summer colonies usually consist of 10-30 females (the maximum number recorded is 37). Winter clusters are usually small (c.10 animals), and the species often roosts solitarily at this time of year. There are only two known breeding colonies (on La Palma and Tenerife respectively). The larger of these two (the La Palma colony) has declined almost 80% in number in recent years (Palomo and Gisbert 2002; J. Juste pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The population is estimated to be between 500 and 2,000 individuals (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007, based on information in the Spanish Red Data Book).
17602		threats	eng	The population declined in the 1950s after aerial fumigation for pest control. Current threats include use of pesticides on agricultural land near to the forests, loss of woodland habitat, and restoration of buildings that results in the disturbance of colonies and the destruction of roost sites (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The recent decline of the La Palma maternity colony has been attributed to disturbance, and it is known that at least one individual from this colony has been taken by private collectors (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Shafts into the mountains to collect water are increasingly being fenced which is detrimental to the survival of the bats.
17612		conservation	eng	This species requires it habitat to be preserved. More research is also recommended on it's population size, distribution and ecology.
17612		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, restricted to Picos de Europa massif. It has been found in the Duje valley, from Tielve to Aliva and upper Fuente-De cable railway. This valley constitutes the separation between the East and Central Massifs of Picos de Europa. It has also been found in the surroundings of the Enol Lake in the West Massif 20 km from the Duje valley.
17612		habitat	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Lives in open places of calcareous substrate, protected under stones or within herbaceous vegetation growing between bare rocks as well as in rock crevices. It can also be found on the rock surfaces, at the bottom of vertical walls.
17612		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
17612		threats	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span title="" wc="Dado que todas las poblaciones conocidas se enmarcan dentro del Parque Nacional de los Picos de Europa, y que su área de distribución probable abarca la mayor parte de sus roquedos, se considera que los factores de amenaza sobre esta especie son escasos y, en todo caso" xc="Since all known populations are part of the National Park Picos de Europa, and that its range probably covers most of its rocks, we believe that the factors of threat to this species are scarce and in any case " closure_uid_6zskj3="29">Since all known populations are part of the National  Park Picos de Europa, and that its range probably covers a wide part of the karstic area of this natural reserve, we  believe that&#160; threats to this species are scarce and in any case  very localized. Fires, and the development of roads and other infrastructures can be indicated as threats.</span>
17618		conservation	eng	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Malawi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the current status of this poorly known bat.
17618		distribution	eng	This species is largely known from scattered records in Central Africa. Most reports of this little-known species are from the 1950's in Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi and Zambia. A single specimen was collected in Malawi  in 1997. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl (Bergmans 1989).
17618		habitat	eng	Bergmans (1989) reports that all collecting localities are within the Wetter Zambezian miombo woodland (dominated by <em>Brachystegia</em>, <em>Julbernardia</em> and <em>Isoberlinia</em>) with the possible exception of Kasama in Zambia which is in the Mosaic of Zambezian dry evergreen forest and wetter miombo woodland. The skull morphology of this species indicates that it has a specialised diet. It may be an important pollinator.
17618		population	eng	It appears to be a rare, or at least a rarely recorded, species.
17618		threats	eng	Within the Angolan and Malawian parts of the species range it may be threatened by habitat destruction resulting from agricultural development, collection of timber and firewood, and setting of fires by poachers.
17622		conservation	eng	The recovery plan (USFWS, 1984) outlines the following strategy: (1) preserve any known populations and presently used habitat, (2) determine the feasibility of introducing the species back into rivers within its historic range and introduce where feasible, (3) conduct life history studies, (4) determine the number of individuals required to maintain a viable population, (5) investigate the necessity for habitat improvement and, if feasible and desirable, identify techniques and sites for improvement to include implementation, (6) develop and implement a program to monitor population levels and habitat conditions of presently established populations as well as introduced and expanding populations, (7) assess overall success of recovery program and recommend action.<br/><br/>There are no known occurrences in protected sites.  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been proposed for reintroduction into the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam (Knox and Sevier Cos., Tennessee) to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox Co., Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (Knox, Grainger, and Jefferson Cos., Tennessee), where this species currently does not exist (USFWS, 2006).<br/><br/>Williams <em>et al. </em>(in press, from K. Cummings pers. comm.) lists this species as endangered according to the AFS assessment.
17622		distribution	eng	Historically, this species was widely distributed in the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee drainages including the Wabash, Ohio, Kanawha, Cumberland, Holston, and Tennessee rivers (USFWS 1984). No live specimens have been found in the Wabash, Ohio, Kanawha, Cumberland, or Holston rivers since around the turn of the century. It possibly still exists in a very short reach of the Tennessee River mainstem below Pickwick Dam near Savannah, Tennessee, near river mile 207 because all of the most recent historical records were from the original Tennessee River channel (USFWS 1984, Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  The only other potential extant population is in the tailwaters of Wilson Dam on the Tennessee River where it is rare (Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004).  It historically occurred in the Wabash mainstem in Indiana (Fisher 2006).
17622		habitat	eng	This species was presumed to inhabit shoals and riffles in large rivers like the Tennessee (Bogan and Parmalee 1983).<em> </em>It is a species of flowing water in medium to large rivers. It is generally found in substrates composed of a mixture of sand and gravel, where current keeps silt accumulation to a minimum. It <em></em>is presumably a short-term brooder, gravid during spring and summer. Its glochidial hosts are unknown (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
17622		population	eng	The only recent record was the collection of fresh dead shells from a commercial shell pile in 1979 and 1982 below Pickwick Dam near Savannah, Tennessee (USFWS 1984). Both collections were older specimens. Currently the only known extant population is in the tailwaters of Wilson Dam on the Tennessee River in northwest Alabama where it is rare (Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>No live specimens have been collected in over 30 years and no estimates of population size or abundance have been made, but what few live specimens have been found have been single old individuals (USFWS 1989).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Trends</span>:<br/>Distribution has been greatly diminished with local and state extirpations, e.g. the Wabash in Illinois (Cummings and Mayer 1997) with all recent records bordering on historical and only one or two specimens found in the Tennessee River (USFWS 1989).<br/><br/>No live specimens have been found in the Holston River, Cumberland River, Ohio River, Wabash River, and Konawha River since before the turn of the 20th Century (USFWS 1989).  It is extirpated from Kentucky but formerly occurred in the Ohio and lower Cumberland rivers (Cicerello and Schuster 2003).   It historically occurred in the Wabash mainstem in Indiana (Fisher 2006).
17622		threats	eng	Smith (1971) ranked the causes of extirpation or declines in fish species as follows: siltation, drainage of bottomland lakes, swamps, and prairie marshes, desiccation during drought, species introductions, pollution, impoundments, and increased water temperatures. All of these factors render habitats unsuitable, cause extirpations, and lead to the isolation of populations thereby increasing their vulnerability to extirpation for many aquatic species (including mussels) throughout North America.<br/><br/>Zebra mussels, <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>, have destroyed mussel populations in the Great Lakes and significantly reduced mussels in many of the large rivers of eastern North America. Zebra mussels have the potential to severely threaten other populations especially if they make their way into smaller streams.  Pollution through point (industrial and residential discharge) and non-point (siltation, herbicide and fertilizer run-off) sources is perhaps the greatest on-going threat to this species and most freshwater mussels. Lowered dissolved oxygen content and elevated ammonia levels (frequently associated with agricultural run-off and sewage discharge) have been shown to be lethal to some species of freshwater naiads (Horne and McIntosh 1979). Residential, mineral and industrial development also pose a significant threat. Rotenone, a toxin used to kill fish in bodies of water for increased sport fishery quality, has been shown to be lethal to mussels as well (Heard 1970).  Destruction of habitat through stream channelization and maintenance and the construction of dams is still a threat in some areas. Impoundments reduce currents that are necessary for basic physiological activities such as feeding, waste removal and reproduction. In addition, reduced water flow typically results in a reduction in water oxygen levels and a settling out of suspended solids (silt, etc.), both of which are detrimental. Dredging of streams has an immediate effect on existing populations by physically removing and destroying individuals. Dredging also affects the long-term recolonization abilities by destroying much of the potential habitat, making the substrates and flow rates uniform throughout the system.  Natural predators include raccoons, otter, mink, muskrats, turtles and some birds (Simpson 1899, Boepple and Coker 1912, Evermann and Clark 1918, Coker <em>et al</em>. 1921, Parmalee 1967, Snyder and Snyder 1969). Domestic animals such as hogs can root mussel beds to pieces (Meek and Clark 1912). Fishes, particularly catfish, <em>Ictalurus</em> spp. and <em>Amieurus</em> spp., and freshwater drum, <em>Aplodinotus grunniens</em>, also consume large numbers of unionids.<br/><br/>USFWS (1984) lists the following reasons for decline: impoundment (for flood control, navigation, hydroelectric power production, and recreation), siltation (from strip mining, coal washing, dredging, farming, logging, and road construction), pollution (municipal, agricultural, and industrial waste discharges).<br/><br/>If any populations still remain, they are isolated and extremely small with poor viability in the Tennessee River with poor dispersal capability (USFWS 1989).
17625		conservation	eng	Many populations are protected within the Columbia River National Scenic Area (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993), but populations on national forest and private land might not be adequately protected.
17625		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA along the Columbia River Gorge in the Washington and Oregon Cascades, and as four populations near Mount Saint Helens and just south of Mount Rainier. It is found at altitudes up to 1,036m asl (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).
17625		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lava talus slopes in Douglas fir stands, and is typically found under canopy cover in talus of suitable size that has accumulated considerable amounts of humus. It rests under rocks and bark and in rotten wood (Stebbins 1985b), and moves deep under talus in cold weather or when it is dry or hot. Breeding occurs in the same habitats in late autumn or spring on warm rainy nights. This species does not tolerate the loss of canopy cover, which appears to allow congeners to out-compete it (Herrington 1985).
17625		population	eng	It can be common in optimal microhabitats. Washington State's Department of Fish and Wildlife had 67 unique records for this species as of 1997 (Dvornich, McAllister and Aubry 1997). Most of these sites are expected to be extant, though some of them might represent single populations. There are approximately 15 populations in Oregon. The total adult population size is unknown, but populations are small. Populations appear stable, and new populations are being discovered in Washington State (L.A. Hallock pers. comm.).
17625		threats	eng	It is threatened in some areas by logging (which changes the microclimate and composition of the talus slopes) and by the use of taluses for road construction (Herrington 1988; Pfrender 1993).
17626		conservation	eng	More than 90% of the populations of this species are believed to occur on lands administered by the Santa Fe National Forest; additional populations are known to occur on Santa Clara Pueblo, in Bandelier National Monument, and in the Valles Caldera National Preserve in Sandoval County (Cummer, Christman and Wright 2003), as well as on private land. Final approval of the Jemez Mountains Salamander Conservation Agreement in 2000 represents a commitment by the US Forest Service, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish to manage this amphibian in a manner consistent with this agreement, and with each other's policies, in order to reduce threats and ensure that the species is conserved (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 2000). It is listed as 'threatened' by the State Game Commission of New Mexico, and is protected from harvest by the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service special order "Animal Possession Restrictions" No. 10–230, 22 November 1999.
17626		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Jemez Mountains in Sandoval, Los Alamos, and Río Arriba Counties, New Mexico, USA, from 2,130-3,435m asl (Stebbins 1985b; Degenhardt, Painter and Price 1996; Petranka 1998). It exists as fragmented populations in six major zones of distribution within an area of approximately 650-780km² (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1994).
17626		habitat	eng	It can be found in moss-covered talus and under bark and beneath logs and rocks in and near mixed forests of fir, spruce, and aspen (Stebbins 1985b). It occurs underground except during periods of warm seasonal rains. It is assumed to lay its eggs underground as no egg clutch has ever been found in the wild. Populations decline but persist after clear-cutting and slashing of forest, and it also persists after wildfires but most likely in reduced numbers.
17626		population	eng	It is rare to common in suitable habitat, which is fragmented due to subsurface geology.
17626		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are intensive logging, slash removal, burning, road building, and establishment of tree plantations (Ramotnik and Scott 1988). The build-up of excessive fuel loads and resulting fires is also a threat. However, with recent conservation efforts, threats have been greatly reduced.
17627		conservation	eng	It occurs in two national forest wilderness areas and several proposed research natural areas, and also in about 50 United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service sites, but these are not well protected. Monongahela National Forest has a management plan for this species (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). An additional beneficial conservation measure would be the establishment of forested corridors between existing populations.
17627		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Allegheny Mountains from Cheat Mountain north to Back Allegheny and Cabin mountains, in Grant, Tucker, Randolph, Pocahontas, and Pendleton Counties, West Virginia, USA, generally from 908-1,463m asl (Pauley 1993), although one population extends to below 730m asl. Much of the remaining habitat is within Monongahela National Forest (Green and Pauley 1987).
17627		habitat	eng	This species can be found primarily in red spruce, yellow birch or spruce-dominated forests, and has been occasionally collected in mixed deciduous hardwood forests (Brooks 1945, 1948; Clovis 1979; Green and Pauley 1987). Bryophytes and downed logs are usually common in its habitat, and it occurs under rocks and in or under logs during the day, and sometimes among wet leaves. It is active on the forest floor at night and may climb lower portions of tree trunks (Brooks 1945, 1948; Green and Pauley 1987). Eggs have been found in and under rotting logs, and under rocks (Brooks 1948; Green and Pauley 1987), where they develop directly without a larval stage.
17627		population	eng	Approximately seventy occurrences are known (Pauley 1993; Petranka 1998), but these appear to be very small fragments of once larger populations. Recent surveys yielded some new localities, but the species was absent at some historical sites (USFWS 1990a). There is less than 10,000 acres of known occupied habitat. Populations generally are small (only a few include over a thousand individuals), and the US Fish and Widlife Service (USFWS 1990a) categorized its status as "stable".
17627		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to logging, mining, recreational development, and road construction. Competition with <em>Plethodon cinereous</em> might also be a limiting factor. However, these threats are all minimal and the population is probably stable.
17628		conservation	eng	Almost all populations are on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. Some protection is afforded in Klamath National Forest by an "Interim Management Direction" that specifies normal stream course protection measures designed to maintain water quality and fisheries habitat (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Once considered a Federal Candidate Species for listing, Siskiyou Mountains salamanders are recognized as a species of special concern by Oregon and California.
17628		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to an area of about 377km² in the Siskiyou Mountains in southern Oregon (mostly upper Applegate River drainage, Jospehine and Jackson Counties) and northern California (Siskiyou County: near Hutton Guard Station, the Cook and Green Guard Stations, along Joe and Dutch creeks in upper Applegate River drainage and along Seiad and Horse creeks in Klamath River drainage), USA (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). In Oregon, it is found at elevations of 490-1,463m asl (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).
17628		habitat	eng	This species, as with its sister species (<em>P. elongatus</em>; Welsh and Lind 1995), is highly associated with rocky talus slopes in areas of dense mature and late-seral forest (Welsh and Lind 1995; Bury 1998; Ollivier, Welsh and Clayton 2001). Most individuals occur in talus and rocky soils or slopes and, occasionally, are found under logs, in leaf-litter, and under other substrates if talus is nearby (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983; Bury 1998; Bury and Welsh 2005). Eggs (2-18) are laid on land apparently in cavities in talus (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).
17628		population	eng	It is locally abundant in a few sites and moderately common at many others (R.B. Bury pers. comm. 2003).
17628		threats	eng	The most serious threat appears to be gradual destruction of over story vegetation by clear-cutting in areas of rock outcrops and talus slopes, which results in drying out of the species' microhabitat (California Department of Fish and Game 1990).
17629		conservation	eng	All sites are in National Park holdings. Shenandoah Salamanders are listed as Endangered by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, and as Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
17629		distribution	eng	There are three isolated populations on Hawksbill Mountain, The Pinnacles, and Stony Man Mountain (including Bushytop and a subpopulation below Hemlock Springs Overlook), Shenandoah National Park, Page and Madison counties, Virginia, USA, generally above 800m asl (914-1,143m asl). Reports from further south on the Blue Ridge (Thurow 1999) appear not to refer to this species (Sites <em>et al.</em> 2004).
17629		habitat	eng	It can be found in the highest mountains of Shenandoah National Park; steep, northerly facing talus slopes in forested situations. It is tolerant of relatively dry conditions. It is mostly confined to pockets of soil and/or vegetative debris. Apparently, talus is sub-optimal habitat for this species, but it is excluded from forest habitat through competition with Eastern Red-backed Salamander <em>P. cinereus</em>. It is a terrestrial breeder, with direct development.
17629		population	eng	Its abundance is uncertain. It apparently has not declined compared with its historical status, and probably is not declining significantly at the present time (R. Highton pers. comm., 1995).
17629		threats	eng	Its range might be restricted by competition (inter-specific territoriality) with Eastern Red-backed Salamander, which excludes Shenandoah Salamander from moist deep soil adjacent to talus occupied by the latter (Griffis and Jaeger 1992). Deterioration of talus and the accumulation of organic matter might allow incursion of Eastern Red-backed Salamander into Shenandoah Salamander habitat. Recent work indicates that human-related factors, including acid deposition (direct effects and vegetation defoliation) and tree defoliation caused by introduced insect pests, such as gypsy moths and woolly adelgids, might be more important threats (draft recovery plan, 1994). Changes in climate could impact already marginal habitat and exceed salamander's tolerance.
17630		conservation	eng	Most populations are in the Ouachita National Forest, which affords this species some level of protection (Warriner 2002), and it is also state-listed as being a species of special concern.
17630		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Caddo Mountains, Ouachita Mountains region, south-western Arkansas, USA (Conant and Collins 1991; Petranka 1998), from 275-655m asl.
17630		habitat	eng	It is recorded as being "locally abundant in or near talus slopes or other rocky sites, particularly on north-facing slopes that support mature, mesic forests" (Petranka 1998). It moves into underground retreats under shaded talus or in abandoned mine shafts during hot, dry weather (Petranka 1998), during which large numbers have been found in abandoned mines on rock walls near water in summer (Saugey, Height and Heath 1985). It has also been found in secondary growth, mixed deciduous woods with some pine (Pope 1964). Eggs clusters have been found in mine shafts (Heath, Saugey and Heidt 1986).
17630		population	eng	It is locally common (Saugey, Height and Heath 1985; Petranka 1998). As of 2004, the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission had recorded about 20 occurrences. Several of these were regarded as having good to excellent viability at the time of last visitation, but most of the occurrences did not have recent information.
17630		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation represents a localized threat, and timber management activities and conversion of land to pine plantations probably also reduced suitable habitat for this species in the past (Warriner 2002).
17631		conservation	eng	Its entire known range is within the Ouachita National Forest, which affords some level of protection (Warriner 2002b). There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
17631		distribution	eng	This species is found in the higher elevations of the Fourche and Irons Fork mountains, Polk and Scott counties, Arkansas, USA; it is present at 503-730m asl (Conant and Collins 1991).
17631		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist, shady, hardwood and mixed deciduous pine forests; and lives under logs, forest litter, and rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
17631		population	eng	It is apparently locally common and even relatively abundant in some areas (Warriner 2002b); Duncan and Highton (1979) collected several dozens of individuals from multiple locations.
17631		threats	eng	It has probably been impacted by deforestation in the past, but its habitat is now better protected. Local populations are presumably still impacted by deforestation, but overall, it is probably relatively secure, although its restricted distribution renders it particularly susceptible to any new threats.
17632		conservation	eng	Some populations are fully protected (Petranka 1998). Nearly the entire known range is within Jefferson National Forest and Blue Ridge Parkway, but the management of these is not necessarily compatible with the conservation of this species. Surveys are needed to establish the extent of the species' range on private lands. They are recognized as a Federal species At Risk by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and listed as a Species of Concern by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
17632		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Blue Ridge Mountains, north-east of Roanoke, Virginia, United States. Most of the known range is within the Jefferson National Forest and Blue Ridge Parkway. It is primarily known from localities along the Blue Ridge Parkway between miles 78 and 84 (Bedford and Botetourt counties) in the Sharp Top, Flat Top, Onion, and Apple Orchard mountains and vicinity. It occurs at elevations above 550m asl (Mitchell 1991); it is also reported as generally occurring above 760m asl (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980).
17632		habitat	eng	It can be found in mature Appalachian hardwood forest, mainly on north-facing slopes and in coves and shaded ravines, and also in rhododendron thickets; found primarily under downed logs and rocks, and among wet leaf-litter, in middle to late successional stages of oak-maple woodland (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980, Mitchell 1991). It often climbs into vegetation, especially ferns, during June-September at night during foraging (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1993). It might be vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and clear cutting. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
17632		population	eng	Although it has a patchy distribution, it is seasonally common and can be locally abundant (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1993). Kramer <em>et al.</em> (1993) marked 250 Peaks of Otter Salamanders in a 10 x 10m plot and estimated a population size of 450 individuals; average density/field trip was 0.24 individuals/m².
17632		threats	eng	There is a potential local threat due to firewood collection. Sattler and Reichenbach (1998) found that clear cutting significantly reduced populations, due to emigration and/or mortality; juveniles appeared to be particularly impacted. Shelterwood cuts did not have any overall adverse impacts. Mitchell, Wicknick and Anthony (1996) found that timber-harvesting practices do not eliminate this species but may diminish population size and diet quality. Because of very low dispersal rates, intensive timbering and habitat fragmentation could be highly detrimental (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1993; Petranka 1998). Threats also include recreational development, defoliation by gypsy moths, and spraying to control gypsy moths (Mitchell 1991).
17633		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas, but further research is needed on its threat status and population status and trends.
17633		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Ouachita Mountains, in Arkansas and Oklahoma, USA (Duncan and Highton 1979; Conant and Collins 1991).
17633		habitat	eng	It can be found in mesic hardwood forests, usually on a northerly facing slope, where it is generally found under rocks or in or under logs. Breeding takes place terrestrially by direct development.
17633		population	eng	A map in Duncan and Highton (1979) indicates that there might be up to several distinct populations or perhaps just a few, depending on actual distributional discontinuities. It is often abundant in suitable conditions (Black 1974; Blair 1967; Spotila 1972). Duncan and Highton (1979) collected samples of at least a few dozen specimens from each of 10 locations, not including additional locations with <em>ouachitae</em>-<em>fourchensis</em> hybrids.
17633		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although populations might be impacted locally by clear-cutting logging.
17666		conservation	eng	This species was listed as federally endangered in the U.S. in 1987.<br/><br/>A recovery plan has been created for the species (and four others in the Tombigbee River) (USFWS 1989) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect the habitat where the species occurs, (2) determine habitat requirements and management needs and correct as necessary and feasible, (3) monitor existing populations at not more than 3-year intervals and recommend additional actions as needed, (4) solicit the assistance of the states, other Federal agencies, municipalities and conservation organizations in protecting the remaining habitat.<br/><br/>A specific recovery plan has been created for the Mobile River basin (USFWS 2000) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect habitat integrity and quality of river and stream segments that currently support or could support imperiled aquatic species, (2) consider options for free-flowing river and stream mitigation strategies that give high priority to avoidance and restoration, (3) promote voluntary stewardship as a practical and economical means of reducing nonpoint pollution from private land use, (4) encourage and support community-based watershed stewardship planning and action, (5) develop and implement programs and materials to educate the public on the need and benefits of ecosystem management, and to involve them in watershed stewardship, (6) conduct basic research on endemic aquatic species and apply the results toward management and protection of aquatic communities, (7) develop and implement technology for maintaining and propagating endemic species in captivity, (8) reintroduce aquatic species into restored habitats, as appropriate, (9) monitor listed species' population levels and distribution and periodically review ecosystem management strategy, (10) coordinate ecosystem management actions (more detail in USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>There are no known protected areas for the species. Research is needed into the continued distribution of this species, as well as threats; continued monitoring is needed, but is already implemented under the species recovery plan (see above).<br/><br/>This species has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of GH - Possibly Extinct, and State/Province Status Ranks of SH - Possibly Extinct for Mississippi and SX - Presumed Extinct in Alabama (NatureServe 2009). Williams <em>et al</em>. (2010) lists this species as possibly extinct according to the AFS assessment.
17666		distribution	eng	Historically, this species was known from the Tombigbee River near Pickensville, Alabama, and the East Fork Tombigbee River downstream of its confluence with Bull Mountain Creek. Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. (2004) cite former distribution in Alabama as the mainstem of the Tombigbee River.  A short section of the upper Tombigbee River in Mississippi (Hartfield and Jones 1989) contained a small persistent population until the mid-1980s but is now extirpated (Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004).  A single record from the Big Black River, Mississippi (Hartfield and Rummel 1985), is believed to be an error (USFWS 1989). The current range of the species appears to be limited to the East Fork Tombigbee River in Mississippi (USFWS 1989, 2000; Hartfield pers. comm. 1992) although <span class="copy">no recent specimens were found at this single known extant site in over a decade, despite intensive surveys in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1997, 1999, and 2001 with the last dead shells collected in 1989 and 1990 (Hartfield pers. comm. 2003).  It is extirpated from Alabama following construction of Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (Mirarchi<em> et al.</em> 2004).  It is considered historical in Mississippi in the Tombigbee River drainage (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005) with the unlikely potential that a living population might be found. The extent of occurrence is believed to be &lt;100 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Although specimens have not been found recently, this species may still be holding on with one or two populations but the exact area of occupancy, although very small, is not precise.
17666		habitat	eng	This species is found in riffles and shoals on sandy gravel to gravel-cobble substrates and with moderate to fast currents in lotic habitat (USFWS 2000, Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species requires clean freshwater. It is known only from flowing water in medium to large rivers. The preferred substrate of <em>P. curtum</em> is a mixture of sand and gravel or pure sand and may be found in water less than 1 m deep.&#160;It<em>&#160;</em>is probably a short-term brooder, gravid in spring and summer. Its glochidial hosts are unknown, but it may utilise members of the Cyprinidae (Haag and Warren 2003, Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).
17666		population	eng	Recent populations are all but extirpated with the last holdout at East Fork of the Tombigbee River (Itawamba/Monroe Co., Mississippi) (USFWS 2000) showing no live specimens in over a decade (Hartfield pers. comm. 2003).&#160;Population numbers are extremely low and live specimens have not been reported for over a decade (USFWS 2000, Hartfield and Jones 1989, USFWS 1989, Hartfield pers. comm. 2003).<br/><br/>The decline of the species has been over the last 25-50 years and has been hastened by the construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway. Construction of the waterway has adversely impacted the species by physical destruction during dredging, increasing sedimentation, reducing water flow, and suffocating juveniles with sediment (USFWS 1989).  A small population persisted until the mid-1980s in a short section of the upper Tombigbee River in Mississippi not directly modified by the waterway (Hartfield and Jones 1989) but it is believed to be extirpated as are all Alabama records (Mirarchi <em>et al. </em>2004). The species is nearly extinct and is considered extirpated in Alabama by construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (Mirarchi<em> et al.</em> 2004).
17666		threats	eng	The continued existence of <em>Pleurobema curtum</em> is dependant upon habitat in the tributaries of the Tombigbee River. The East Fork Tombigbee River is threatened by a clearing and snagging project, sand and gravel mining, the continued diversion of flows, and water removal for municipal use. Runoff of fertilisers and pesticides may adversely affect the species. Such runoff may exceed the streams' ability to assimilate, resulting in algal blooms and excesses in other aquatic vegetation. Pesticides which enter the stream are ingested by filter feeders such as <em>P. curtum </em>while being transported downstream (USFWS 1989). The species is nearly extinct and is considered extirpated in Alabama by construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (Mirarchi<em> et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The principal cause of population decline is habitat modification for navigation.  Waterway construction adversely affected this species by physical destruction during dredging, increasing sedimentation, reducing water flow, and suffocating juveniles with sediment.  Deposition continues in remaining portions of the Tombigbee River that have not already been impacted severely.  Water diversion is a continuing threat along with associated accumulation of sediment.  Runoff of fertilisers and pesticides adversely affects mussels and leads to eutrophication (USFWS 1989).<br/><br/>In the Mobile River basin, the greatest threats are dams (for navigation, water supply, electricity, recreation, and flood control), channelisation (causing accelerated erosion, altered depth; and loss of habitat diversity, substrate stability, and riparian canopy), dredging (for navigation or gravel mining), mining (for coal, sand, gravel, or gold) in locally concentrated areas, pollution- point source (industrial waste effluent, sewage treatment plants, carpet and fabric mills, paper mills and refineries in mainstem rivers), and pollution- nonpoint source (construction, agriculture, silviculture, urbanization)&#160;USFWS 2000). <br/><br/>Low population levels cause increased difficulty in completing successful reproduction. When individuals become scattered, the opportunity for the female to become gravid is greatly diminished. With low population levels, any impact is a major threat (USFWS 1989).  Isolated imperiled populations in the Mobile River basin are likely to be vulnerable to random accidents, such as toxic spills, and to naturally catastrophic events, such as droughts and floods, even if land use and human populations were to remain constant within isolated watersheds (USFWS 2000).
17670		distribution	eng	Historically this species was distributed throughout the Mississippi, Wabash, Tennessee, and Ohio River systems. Today the species is widely but very sporadically distributed. It has apparently been extirpated from much of its former range.
17670		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers but may occur in medium-sized lotic environments. It tends to occupy riffles or shoals in relatively shallow water and coarse-particle substrates, along sand bars, or in deep water (>4 m) with mud and sand bottoms.
17674		conservation	eng	Williams <em>et al.</em> (2011, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010) lists this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment.&#160;However, specific population information is lacking, therefore, further survey work is needed.
17674		distribution	eng	This species is known from small to medium coastal rivers in Louisiana and Mississippi (Vidrine 1993). The species was recently found in the lower section of the Pearl River in the south end of the LeFleur's Bluff State Park in Jackson, Mississippi (Wieland 2000) and a small stream within extreme south west Alabama (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
17674		habitat	eng	This species is known from small to medium coastal rivers in Louisiana and Mississippi (Vidrine 1993).
17674		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
17674		threats	eng	There is no specific threat information available for this species; it is likely that this species is being impacted upon by general freshwater threats within this region, however, these are not thought to constitute major threats at present.
17678		distribution	eng	This species was once known from the upper Mississippi River drainage and the St. Lawrence River drainage, from western New York west to Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Kansas, south to Arkansas and Alabama. Historically occurred throughout much of the Ohio River drainage. Now  sporadic occurrences in Ohio River and apparently extirpated from the Wabash and some other tributaries. Localized occurrences in the Green, Tennessee and Cumberland river reservoirs and a few Tennessee River tributaries.
17678		habitat	eng	primarily inhabits large rivers but may be found in medium-sized rivers. It is also tolerant of some reservoir environments.
17679		conservation	eng	This species was listed as endangered in the U.S. under the federal Endangered Species Act in 1993, and is widely considered to be endangered throughout its range (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 - Imperilled (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>A specific recovery plan has been created for the Mobile River basin (USFWS 2000) which contains the following objectives: (1) protect habitat integrity and quality of river and stream segments that currently support or could support imperiled aquatic species, (2) consider options for free-flowing river and stream mitigation strategies that give high priority to avoidance and restoration, (3) promote voluntary stewardship as a practical and economical means of reducing nonpoint pollution from private land use, (4) encourage and support community-based watershed stewardship planning and action, (5) develop and implement programs and materials to educate the public on the need and benefits of ecosystem management, and to involve them in watershed stewardship, (6) conduct basic research on endemic aquatic species and apply the results toward management and protection of aquatic communities, (7) develop and implement technology for maintaining and propagating endemic species in captivity, (8) reintroduce aquatic species into restored habitats, as appropriate, (9) monitor listed species' population levels and distribution and periodically review ecosystem management strategy, (10) coordinate ecosystem management actions (USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Critical habitat has been designated in Mississippi in the East Fork Tombigbee Rvier, Bull Mountain Creek, Buttahatchee River, and Luxapalila Creek; in Alabama in the Buttahatchee River, Luxapalila Creek, Coalfire Creek, Lubbub Creek, Sipsey River, Trussels Creek, Sucarnoochee River, Cahaba River, Alabama River, Bogue Chitto Creek, Uphapee complex, Coosa River, Hatchet Creek, Kelly Creek, Big Canoe Creek, and the lower Coosa River; in Georgia in Oostanaula complex; and in Tennessee in Oostanaula complex (637 occuppied, 577 unoccuppied km) (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Chewacla Creek, Tallapoosa River Drainage, flows through the Tuskegee National Forest.  This species has been recently reported from the Conasauga River inside and adjacent to the Cherokee and Chattahoochee National Forests, Murray/Whitfield Co., Georgia (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005).  A flood control project on Luxapalila Creek, Mississippi, was modified by the Corps of Engineers to protect listed mussel habitat in that stream (USFWS 2000).  Critical habitat has been designated in Mississippi in the East Fork Tombigbee River, Bull Mountain Creek, Buttahatchee River, and Luxapalila Creek; in Alabama in the Buttahatchee River, Luxapalila Creek, Coalfire Creek, Lubbub Creek, Sipsey River, Trussels Creek, Sucarnoochee River, Cahaba River, Alabama River, Bogue Chitto Creek, Uphapee complex, Coosa River, Hatchet Creek, Kelly Creek, Big Canoe Creek, and the lower Coosa River; in Georgia in Oostanaula complex; and in Tennessee in Oostanaula complex (637 occupied, 577 unoccupied km) (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Williams <em>et al.</em> (1993) lists this species as Endangered according to the AFS assessment.<br/><br/>Continued research is needed into the species distribution, habitat and threats as part of a targeted monitoring scheme. Species recovery, protection (also for habitat) and legislation is needed.
17679		distribution	eng	Formerly widespread throughout the Mobile River basin,<em> Pleurobema decisum </em>was known historically from the Alabama River and Bogue Chitto Creek; Tombigbee River and tributaries (Buttahatchie, East Fork Tombigbee, and Sipsey Rivers and Bull Mountain, Luxapalila, and Lubbub Creeks); Black Warrior River; Cahaba and Little Cahaba Rivers; two Tallapoosa tributaries, Uphapee and Chewacla Creeks; and the Coosa River and tributaries (Oostanaula, Conasauga, Etowah, Chatooga, and Coosawattee Rivers and Kelly, Talladega and Shoal Creeks) in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee (USFWS 2004).&#160; <br/><br/>The species is endemic to the Mobile River Basin, and is currently found in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi and Tennessee (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008). Currently, the species is known from most of the Mobile River Basin and is only absent in the Tallapoosa River drainage above the fall line. The species is present in isolated, diffuse localities in the river drainages Alabama, Coosa, Tallapoosa and Tombigbee where most remaining populations are in tributaries (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008). The species is known from Bogue Chitto Creek in Alabama River drainage; Buttahatchie, East Fork Tombigbee and Sipsey Rivers in the Tombigbee River drainage; and Chewacla Creek in the Tallapoosa River drainage (USFWS 1993, McGregor <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has recently been found in the Conasauga River, Whitfield and Murray Counties, Georgia in the upper Coosa River drainage (M. Hughes pers. comm. 1997).  In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, it is known historically from the Coosa, Etowah, Oostanaula, Conasauga, and Coosawattee River drainages but has not been collected there recently (Williams and Hughes 1998) except in the Conasauga (Johnson and Ahlstedt 2005).  Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> (2004) list distribution as endemic to Mobile Basin in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi including Alabama, Black Warrior, Cahaba, Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Tombigbee River systems with large populations remaining only in widely scattered localities in Tombigbee River system (may be extirpated from Black Warrior and Cahaba).  Jones <em>et al.</em> (2005) list the Tombigbee River drainage in Mississippi.  McGregor <em>et al.</em> (2000) failed to find this species in the Cahaba River, Alabama.<br/><br/>It is relatively common in localised reaches of the Buttahatchee and Sipsey Rivers and is rare to uncommon in other occupied streams. The species range is likely to comprise an area of up to 90,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but taking discontinuities in the species' range into account, the estimated extent of occurrence is probably closer to around 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of occupancy is estimated as between 1,000-2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
17679		habitat	eng	This species occurs in&#160;flowing water in large creeks and rivers. It is usually found in substrates composed of gravel with interstitial sand.&#160;Usually found in highly oxygenated streams with sand and gravel substrate in shoals of large rivers to small streams; may be found in sand and gravel in the center of the stream or in sand along the margins of the stream (Shelton pers. obs. 1995, USFWS 2000). <br/><br/>This species&#160;has been reported to reach sexual maturity when as small as 26.3 mm (Haag and Staton 2003) but grows to about 70 mm (2.8 in) long with a thick shell (USFWS 2000). It is a short-term brooder, gravid from late May to late July, with glochidia mature by the second week of June (Haag and Warren 2003). Haag and Staton (2003) estimated 94% of females in a population to be gravid during the peak of the brooding period. Glochidia are released in conglutinates that are ovate in outline, thin and orange or white (Haag and Staton 2003, Haag and Warren 2003). In addition to glochidia,<em> P. decisum</em> conglutinates are composed of undeveloped eggs, which are believed to help maintain the conglutinate integrity. Percentage of undeveloped eggs in <em>P. decisum</em> conglutinates has been reported to average 47% (Haag and Staton 2003). Annual fecundity was found to be variable in two Sipsey River, Alabama, populations, averaging 29,433 glochidia per female in one and 40,887 per female in the other (Haag and Staton 2003). One primary glochidial host, <em>Cyprinella venusta</em> (Blacktail Shiner) (Cyprinidae), and one secondary host, <em>Luxilus chrysocephalus</em> (Striped Shiner) (Cyprinidae), were reported based on laboratory trials (Haag and Warren 2003) (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008). Females first become gravid at 2-3 years, maximum age is 40 years, and the generation length of the species is 18-19 years (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2012).
17679		population	eng	This is a declining regional endemic which faces major threats. It had,  until recently, declined significantly to only a fraction of its former  range but recently a few new populations were discovered from the Conasauga River inside and adjacent to the Cherokee and  Chattahoochee National Forests, Murray/Whitfield Co., Georgia (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2005) on the  Conasauga, Luxapallila, and Tombigbee drainages. <br/><br/>However its former area of  occupancy included every major drainage system in the Mobile Basin  except the Mobile Delta. Unfortunately it is now limited to approximately six viable populations. <br/><br/>The Sipsey River in the Tombigbee River drainage and Chewacla Creek in the Tallapoosa River drainage support two of the most sizable populations. The known populations are isolated from each other.  The species continues to inhabit the East Fork Tombigbee River (Itawamba/Monroe Co., Mississippi), Bull Mountain Creek, Buttahatchee River (Monroe/Lowndes Co., Mississippi), Luxapalila and Yellow Creeks (Lowndes Co., Mississippi), Lubbub Creek, and Sipsey River (Greene/Pickens/Tuscaloosa Co., Alabama) in the Tombigbee River drainage.  It also inhabits a short reach of the Alabama River and Boque Chitto Creek (Dallas County, Alabama), Chewacla Creek (Macon Co., Alabama); Coosa River below Weiss dam (Cherokee Co., Alabama) and tributaries Kelly Creek (Shelby Co., Alabama), Big Canoe Creek (St. Clair Co., Alabama), Terrapin Creek (Cherokee Co., Alabama), and Conasauga River (Murray/Whitfield Co., Georgia) (USFWS 20002004).  <br/><br/>Johnson and Ahlstedt (2005) located specimens in 2005 in the Luxapallila drainage on the Mississippi/Alabama border.  This species was historically collected from the upper Tombigbee River in Sumter and Greene Cos., Alabama, prior to impoundment (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1992).  <br/><br/>The species is relatively common in localised reaches of the Buttahatchee and Sipsey Rivers, but is rare to uncommon in other localities (USFWS 2000, 2004).  Large populations remain only in widely scattered localities in Tombigbee River system (may be extirpated from Black Warrior and Cahaba) (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>TRENDS:<br/>The historical decline was approximately 70-80% over the last 25-50 years but recently has been closer to 60%. Until recently, this species was found in only a fraction of its former range with few new occurrences but recent populations have been found in the Conasauga, Luxapallila, and Tombigbee drainages (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).
17679		threats	eng	Habitat modification, sedimentation, and water quality degredation represent the major threats to this species. It may also be threatened by overutilisation for commercial, recreational, scientific or educational purposes (USFWS 1993).  Disappearance from significant portions of its range are primarily due to changes in river and stream channels due to dams, dredging, or mining, and historic or episodic pollution events.  The species is not known to survive in impounded waters and more than 1700 km of large and small river habitat in the Basin have been impounded by dams for navigation, flood control, water supply, and/or hydroelectric production purposes (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>In the Mobile River basin, the greatest threats are dams (for navigation, water supply, electricity, recreation, and flood control), channelisation (causing accelerated erosion, altered depth; and loss of habitat diversity, substrate stability, and riparian canopy), dredging (for navigation or gravel mining), mining (for coal, sand, gravel, or gold) in locally-concentrated areas, pollution- point source (industrial waste effluent, sewage treatment plants, carpet and fabric mills, paper mills and refineries in mainstem rivers), pollution- nonpoint source (construction, agriculture, silviculture, urbanisation) (USFWS 2000). <br/><br/>Isolated imperiled populations in the Mobile River basin are likely to be vulnerable to random accidents, such as toxic spills, and to naturally catastrophic events, such as droughts and floods, even if land use and human populations were to remain constant within isolated watersheds (USFWS 2000).
17689		conservation	eng	This species is now considered to be Extinct. The species was listed as endangered throughout its range as long ago as 1970 (Athearn 1970).
17689		distribution	eng	This species was formerly endemic to the Mobile River Basin in Alabama and Mississippi (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but is believed to be extinct (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The species was widespread in the Mobile Basin, and was absent only in the Coosa and Tallapoosa River drainages above the Fall Line (Williams<em> et al</em>. 2008). In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, it is known historically from the Etowah and Conasauga River drainages, but it has not been collected there recently and is presumed extirpated (Williams and Hughes 1998). Recent survey efforts in Georgia and Tennessee in the bordering Conasauga River have uncovered no live or dead shells and this last potential holdout for the species appears to also be extinct (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Neves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). The type locality is given as the Conasauga and Etowah Rivers in Georgia (Simpson 1914).
17689		habitat	eng	Little habitat information is available, although it has been collected in stretches of the Conasauga River where the normal depth is about one to two feet and where there is moderately strong current and a substrate composed of coarse sand and gravel (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). The species occured in riffles, runs and shoals of both small creeks and rivers (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008). The species was a short-term brooder and was gravid during late spring and summer. With the species now being presumed extinct, the fish larval hosts are unknown, but some species of <em>Pleurobema</em> use fish of the Cyprinidae family (Haag and Warren 2003).
17689		population	eng	This species has not been reported since the early 20th century (Mirarchi 2004).
17689		threats	eng	This species is now considered to be Extinct.
17690		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Apalatchacola River.
17690		habitat	eng	This species inhabits midsize streams to large rivers in silty-sand to sand and gravel substrates in slow to moderate currents.  Clean substrates offer less habitat.
17690		threats	eng	Changes in water quality threaten this species.
17692		threats	eng	Damming removed all habitat.
17693		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderate current rivers in small to medium -sized rivers, where it is found in silty-mud and silty-sand substrates.
17693		threats	eng	Siltation, water pollution (agricultural run-off, residential), channel alteration (dredging, road/bridge construction), dam construction for flood control are threats to this species.
17703		conservation	eng	Basic life history and ecology research of the species should be performed to better understand habitat requirements. Remaining populations should be monitored periodically and habitat degradation identified and mitigated. This species is tracked as S2 (imperiled) in Tennessee (TN NHP).
17703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to tributaries of the Tennessee River in north-central Alabama and parts of Walker County, Georgia. Historically, it was reported from tributaries in parts of Limestone,  Madison, and Morgan Counties, Alabama, and Walker, County, Georgia, but  it is believed extirpated from some of these areas.  For example, none  were found south of the Tennessee River in Morgan Co., Alabama, during a  survey in the mid-1990s (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 1,000 km².
17703		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to tributaries of Tennessee River in north-central Alabama and parts of Walker County, Georgia.
17703		population	eng	This species is locally abundant but is restricted to a very small area. In Georgia, it was known from Crawford Creek, Walker Co.; Peavine Creek, Catoosa Co., Little Chickamauga Creek, Catoosa Co., and West Chickamauga Creek, Catoosa Co. with only the Chickamauga and West Chickamauga Creek populations documented as extant recently.  In Alabama it is only known from a few sites in Limestone, Madison, and Morgan Cos., but could not be relocated recently in Morgan Co. and is still abundant at a few creeks in Limestone Co.
17703		threats	eng	Areas in which it occurs are almost exclusively used for intense agriculture, making its habitat susceptible to degradation from input of pesticides and fertilizers, as well as excessive irrigation and sedimentation.  Also, urban sprawl in Huntsville, Alabama, are encroaching on distribution and may represent future problems with point and non-point source pollution (Mirarchi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004).
17706		conservation	eng	This species is of moderate conservation concern (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) due to no recent records. Further work is required on the distribution and threat processes impacting this species.
17706		distribution	eng	This species' range includes small streams of northern Alabama in the vicinity of Muscle Shoals (Burch 1989). F.G. Thompson recorded the species in 1996 from Paint Rock river (FLMNH Museum Records). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 250 km².
17706		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small streams and shoals (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
17706		population	eng	This species is poorly known but endemic to the Tennessee River system in northwestern Alabama in small streams (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
17706		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
17708		distribution	eng	<em>Pleurodonte desidens</em> was endemic to the island of Martinique.
17793		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EC Habitats Directive. It occurs in a few protected areas.
17793		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Malta where it is found on the islands of Malta, Gozo, Filfola, Selmunett Islands (=Saint Pauls Islands) and the General's Rock (=Fungus Rock), and on the Italian islands of Linosa and Lampione. It has been introduced to the island of Lampedusa, Italy (Claudia Corti pers. comm.).
17793		habitat	eng	This species is found in scrubland, rocky areas, traditionally cultivated land and gardens. It lives in seabird colonies in some places. It is an egg-laying species.
17793		population	eng	This species is abundant in most places, and their populations are generally stable.
17793		threats	eng	Certain populations, such as the one on Lampione Island, might be intrinsically threatened because they are confined to small islands. But in general the species does not face any significant overall threats.
17795		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in the Parque Nacional de Cabrera and the Parques Naturales de Dragonera and Albufera des Grau. An education campaign is in place. There is a need to control visits to the islands where this species is present.
17795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands of Spain, where it is restricted to small, rocky islands off the larger islands of Menorca and Mallorca. It also occurs on the Cabrera Archipelago south of Mallorca. The species was once present on the islands of Mallorca and Menorca. It is a lowland species.
17795		habitat	eng	This species occurs in arid rocky areas and in scrubland. The females may lay three clutches annually consisting of one to three eggs.
17795		population	eng	It is extremely common on some islands, although populations may be small on some of the smallest islands. Until around 2000 years ago, the species was abundant on the islands of Mallorca and Menorca. Some small populations are still liable to be lost.
17795		threats	eng	It is believed that the introduction of cats and other predators resulted in the extirpation of the species from the main islands of Mallorca and Menorca. Extant populations are threatened by the translocation of invasive predators between islands by visitors, and the illegal capture of animals for the pet trade. This species may also be threatened through eating poisoned bait left for seagulls and rats, and the loss of vegetation on some islands due to overgrazing by goats. Some populations are inherently at risk because of their small sizes and restricted ranges.
17797		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Its range includes a few protected areas covering part or all of the islands on which it is found.
17797		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Aegean islands of Greece, where it is restricted to the Milos archipelago (Milos, Kimolos, Polyaigos and Antimilos), the Ananes archipelago, Falkonera island and Velopoula island. It ranges from sea level up to 685m asl.
17797		habitat	eng	It can be found in open areas of traditionally cultivated land, open scrubland, sand dune systems and damp marshy coastal areas. The females lay repeated small clutches of one to three eggs.
17797		population	eng	It can be abundant in coastal areas.
17797		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range. It was threatened by overcollection of animals in the past but this is no longer considered to be a threat.
17800		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Appendix II of CITES. A public education programme is in place with posters on the small islands. It occurs in some protected areas.
17800		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Ibiza and Formentera, and nearby rocky islets, in the Balearic Islands of Spain. It is known from 42 different populations. It has been introduced to Muella de Palma (Mallorca), Barcelona (where now extinct), Aleria town (southern Spain) and San Juan de Gaztelugatxe (northern Spain). It ranges from sea level up to 475 m asl.
17800		habitat	eng	This species is largely found in vegetated areas, such as cultivated land and gardens, close to and around human habitation. It also occurs in rocky areas, especially in coastal regions. The females lay between one and four eggs.
17800		population	eng	It can be common, especially on small islets. A few populations are declining, but overall it is stable.
17800		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this species. A number of islet populations are threatened by disturbance by visitors, introduction of cats and rats to the islands, and accidental poisoning with bait left for seagulls.
17821		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17821		habitat	eng	Semi-aquaric
17822		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17822		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - large rivers and tributaries, adjacent lagoons and forest ponds.
17823		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17823		distribution	eng	Confined to the Río Magdalena basin.
17823		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic.
17824		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17824		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
17825		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17825		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
17828		conservation	eng	This species is present in Mount Apo and  Mount Kitanglad National Parks.
17828		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mindanao island in the Philippines, occurring at an elevation range from 1,300 to 2,900 m asl, where it is so far known from Bukidnon, Davao del Norte and Davao del Sur provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known from Mount Apo, from the mountains of central Mindanao (including Mount Kitanglad), and the mountains in the south of the island in Davao del Sur province. There is no information available on the species in the east of the island Mindanao, but it is suspected to occur more widely across the mountainous parts of the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
17828		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary montane and mossy forest above 1,300 m (Musser and Heaney 1992) up to 2,900 m (Hoogstraal 1951; Poduschka and Poduschka 1985; Sanborn 1952; Rabor 1986; Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is not known whether or not it can survive in anthropogenic habitats (though much habitat at high elevations within its range remains intact).
17828		population	eng	This is the single most common small mammal from Mount Kalatungan and abundant on Mount Apo at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Because of its occurrence in high-elevation forests of low stature that have limited commercial value, current populations of this species are believed to be stable.
17828		threats	eng	There area no major threats to this species. It is found mainly in high elevation forest, and over 80% of its habitat is in its original condition (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
17829		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation programmes within the range of this species, and there is a strong need to establish protection efforts. The whole islands of Siargao and Bucas Grande are within the Siargao Protected Landscape and Bucas Grande Protected Landscape respectively, although these have offered almost no protection for forest. This species needs some effective protected areas to be established.
17829		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. Originally described from Dinagat island to the north of Mindanao (Heaney and Morgan 1982), the species has also been reported from the nearby islands of Bucas Grande and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).
17829		habitat	eng	This species lives in old growth lowland rainforest, second-growth forest, and "bonsai" forest (a low productivity area with stunted trees which are not economically valuable). On all three islands, it appears to be moderately tolerant of habitat disturbance. On the Bucas Grande, the species occurs in disturbed forest on limestone, and in patchy areas of forest adjacent to agricultural areas. It persists in reasonable numbers in fairly heavily degraded areas for example at edges of farms, but it does not occur where good forest is not nearby, or in areas completely dominated by humans (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
17829		population	eng	This species is moderately common in primary and secondary forest, but it is geographically restricted to three islands where habitat destruction has been extensive (Heaney and Morgan 1982; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; B. Tabaranza unpubl. data). There are no long-term population data, and so the extent of its ability to persist in secondary forests, or in more degraded habitats, is unknown (D. Balete and L. Heaney pers. comm.).
17829		threats	eng	The species original distribution has been and continues to be reduced by logging and firewood collection. Habitat loss due to mining of nickel and chromite in the remaining old-growth area is a threat in addition to quarrying of limestone for road building. The forest area of Dinagat is less than 50 km<sup>2</sup> and the entire island is a mining concession (D. Balete pers. comm.)
17830		conservation	eng	Protected occurrences include Archbold Biological Station, Merritt Island NWR, Katharine Ordway Preserve, Lyonia Preserve, Ocala National Forest, Highlands Hammock SP, Jonathan Dickinson SP, San Felasco Hammock SP, Tiger Creek Preserve, Withlacoochee SF, and Camp Blanding Training Site. See also Layne (1992) for a listing of preserves and managed areas inhabited by this mouse.<br/><br/>The current distribution, abundance, and population trends of this species need to be determined. Preservation and management of large tracts of suitable habitat are particularly needed. Maintenance of viable populations of gopher tortoises would benefit the mouse.
17830		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from St Johns, Clay, Alachua, Suwannee, and Taylor counties south to Sarasota County on the west coast (but not documented in Sarasota County in recent years), Highlands County in central Florida in the United States, and, at least formerly, Dade County on the east coast (now south to near Boynton Beach); an apparently isolated population also exists along the Gulf Coast in Franklin County, where its current status was unknown in the early 1990s (Layne 1978, 1992). The species was recorded near Clearwater in 1984, but it probably no longer occurs on the Pinellas peninsula (Layne 1992). It also has been recorded on Merritt Island on the Atlantic coast in Brevard County (see Jones and Layne 1993). Apparently the species is most continuously distributed in north-central peninsular Florida; mainly it is confined to the Lake Wales Ridge in the south-central region and to a narrow strip along the east coast (Layne 1978).
17830		habitat	eng	This mouse is restricted to fire-maintained, xeric, upland vegetation occurring on deep, well-drained sandy soils, including sand pine scrub, coastal scrub, scrubby flatwoods, longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill), south Florida slash pine-turkey oak (southern ridge sandhill), upland hammock, live oak (xeric) hammock, and drier pine flatwoods (Layne 1992). Transients sometimes are found in other habitats. The major habitats are the scrub and sandhill associations, with scrub being the primary habitat. Populations tend to be larger in sand pine scrub than they are in longleaf pine-turkey oak habitats (Layne 1978), apparently due to the greater acorn production in the former (Layne 1992). Populations decline as habitat becomes less openly vegetated, shadier, and more mesic. Habitats that support good populations of the Florida scrub jay indicate high quality <em>Podomys</em> habitat (Layne 1992). <em>Podomys</em> is generally a ground dweller. When inactive, it occupies underground burrows, often made within those of gopher tortoises. In south-central Florida, burrows were exclusively within gopher tortoise burrows (both active and inactive); within a period of 2-19 days, individuals used up to several different locations within a single burrow and used 1-3 different tortoise burrows (Layne and Jackson 1994). Young are born in nests in underground burrows.<br/><br/>Probably breeds throughout the year; reported as breeding June-March in Alachua County, Florida. Breeds mainly in fall and early winter (Layne 1992). Gestation lasts about 3-4 weeks (longer when lactating). Litter size averages around 2-3. Females probably seldom produce more than two litters each breeding season (Layne 1992). Young are weaned at 3-4 weeks. In the wild, only a small percentage of the population lives longer than one year, though longevity of several years is not uncommon in captives.<br/><br/>Home range averages about one acre or less. Mean distances between successive captures of adults in different habitats were 16 m, 25 m, and 40-50 m; home range size evidently is larger in less favourable habitats (see Layne 1992). In optimal conditions, 36 mice have been captured per 100 trap-nights (see Layne [1992] for further data from various habitats). <br/><br/>This species is omnivorous, diet includes seeds, nuts, fungi, insects, and other invertebrates; acorns are an important food source. Predation by various snakes, owls, and Carnivora probably is the major mortality factor (Layne 1992).
17830		population	eng	The population size is unknown but is presumably at least several thousand. This species is known from several dozen collection sites (see dot map in Jones and Layne 1993), but populations currently are not extant at all of these locations. Undoubtedly the species is continuing to decline due to habitat loss (Layne 1992). Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have declined; populations have been extirpated or greatly reduced in much of its former range (Layne 1978). The species has disappeared from the Miami area and the Pinellas peninsula.<br/><br/>Mean density in scrub and sandhill habitats was about 5-10/ha (up to 28/ha) (Layne 1992). Populations generally are highest in winter-early spring and lowest summer-early winter (Layne 1992)
17830		threats	eng	<em>Podomys floridanus</em> is moderately dependant on gopher tortoise (<em>Gopherus polyphemus</em>) burrows, and gopher tortoises in Florida are well documented to be in decline, as much as 80% by some estimates due to habitat destruction as well as Upper Respiratory Tract Disease (URTD). Gopher tortoises are listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red list and Federally considered Threatened. The resultant decline in new gopher tortoise burrow construction is cause for some concern in relation to <em>Podomys floridanus</em> conservation status. Red imported fire ants (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>) are a potential predatory threat to gopher tortoises and might be a direct threat to <em>Podomys</em> as well (Wetterer and Moore 2005).<br/><br/>Much of the species' habitat has been lost to real estate development, citrus groves, pine plantations, and vegetation changes resulting from fire suppression (Layne 1992). For example, data compiled for Highlands County by Peroni (1983) indicate that during the period from 1940-44 to 1981, approximately 64 percent of the xeric upland habitat suitable for <em>Podomys</em> was destroyed, and an additional 10 percent was disturbed. Since 1981, the rate of clearing of the remaining scrub and sandhill habitats for development and citrus has escalated sharply. In the northern portion of the range, many former sandhill and scrub sites have been converted to pine plantations. In addition, suppression of fire and the resultant successional changes have resulted in further reduction or elimination of <em>Podomys</em> populations in many remaining sandhill and scrub habitats. [Source: Northeast Florida Regional council; http://www.nefrpc.org/pdfs/srpp/appendixa.pdf]
17831		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Mont Roraima National Park.
17831		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Venezuelan side of Mount Roraima on the Guyana, Venezuela and Brazil border (Fonseca <em>et al.</em>, 1996, Musser and Carleton, 2005); it probably occurs on other neighbouring areas within Venezuela (Linares, 1998) as well as adjacent Brazil and Guyana.
17831		habitat	eng	This species occurs on upper montaine slopes (forest), 1,500 to 2,000 m altitude (Patton pers. comm.).
17831		population	eng	This rodent is known only by the original type series of 5 specimens and a single specimen reported by Pérez-Zapata <em>et al.</em> (1992).
17831		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
17877		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect important sites for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
17877		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the island of Salawati and the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Province, Indonesia on the island of New Guinea. The fossil record suggests that it was previously distributed throughout the western-most part of Papua Province. Its elevational range is sea level to a few hundred metres at most.
17877		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, presumably of lowland tropical moist forest. Animals have been collected from tree-hollows, and it is likely that the species is dependent on tree hole availability.
17877		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens.
17877		threats	eng	This species is threatened by severe habitat degradation, mostly because of conversion of forested areas to small-holder agricultural use. There has almost certainly been extensive logging, which poses a major threat to this hole nesting species.
17878		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but the range coincides with some protected areas (e.g., Mamberamo). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, habitat status, and threats to this species.
17878		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it has a wide range in northern parts of the island from the Weyland Range (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea) in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 400 to 1,500 m asl.
17878		habitat	eng	It is known from tropical moist forest habitats. Animals have been found in tree hollows. A female with two young has been recorded (Flannery 1995).
17878		population	eng	It is generally uncommon (Flannery 1995).
17878		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is suspected that northern populations are under threat from general habitat loss, mostly from conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land.
17879		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
17879		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from the Huon Peninsula, the Hagen and Bismarck Ranges, Mount Erimbari, and as far west as the Telefomin area (Flannery 1995). It ranges between 1,400 and 3,100 m asl.
17879		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane moss forest and in the alpine zone above the tree line (Flannery 1995). Females usually give birth to a single young.
17879		population	eng	It is most common at altitudes over 2,000 m asl (Flannery 1995).
17879		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
17882		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range. This species needs further study on its taxonomy and distribution.
17882		distribution	eng	This species is endemic the upper Sepik River drainage, Papua New Guinea, where it is known only from the Telefomin and Tifalmin valleys ranging from 1,400 to 2,300 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is listed as a species that is unrecorded from Papua Province, Indonesia, but it is expected to occur here (Helgen 2007).
17882		habitat	eng	Presumably it is found in tropical moist forest. It is a scansorial species and lives in holes on the ground. It is tolerant of disturbed habitat and lives in rural gardens.
17882		population	eng	It is a common species within its restricted range.
17882		threats	eng	This species has a small range size. It is killed by hunting dogs and actively hunted by local people for food. The altitudinal range of this species coincides with high human activity. If human population pressure increases in the area the species may begin to decline.
17883		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats.
17883		distribution	eng	Animals currently allocated to this species have been recorded over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). There are records from the Vogelkop Peninsula in the west (Papua Province, Indonesia) to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between 240 and 3,000 m asl.
17883		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both mature and regrowth tropical moist forest. It nests underground. Females give birth to two or three young (Flannery 1995).
17883		population	eng	This species is locally common.
17883		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
17884		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in some protected areas. In Australia, it is present in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. Taxonomic work is needed to determine the distributional limits of the species.
17884		distribution	eng	This little-known species is widespread in lowland and mid-montane New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), it has been recorded from the island of Yapen (Indonesia), and from the island of New Britain (Papua New Guinea) in the Bismarck Archipelago. There are also populations in two areas in north-eastern Queensland (Australia): in low elevation forest at Iron Range, and between Shiptons Flat to Koombooloomba (Menkhorst 2001). It ranges between sea level and 1,800 m asl.
17884		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in tropical moist primary and secondary forest (Flannery 1995b). It is found in burrows during the day. Litters of up to three young have been recorded (Flannery 1995b).
17884		population	eng	It appears to be a common, but rarely seen species on New Guinea. It is thought to be rarer on Yapen and New Britain (Flannery 1995a). In Australia it is thought to be common, though hard to trap (an assumption based mainly on collection from owl pellets) (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).
17884		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It seems to be fairly tolerant of habitat disturbance.
17885		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within the range (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance.
17885		distribution	eng	This species complex is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Specimens currently allocated to <em>P. sylvestris</em> have been recorded from the Arfak Mountains on the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province in the west, through to the Huon Peninsula and Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea in the east (Flannery 1995). The two western-most populations are likely to represent two separate, restricted range species. Populations of <em>P. sylvestris</em> in the east of its range are broadly distributed. It has been recorded from 1,300 to 2,800 m asl.
17885		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from both primary and disturbed montane tropical moist forest. Animals have been found in old rural garden habitats. It is partly arboreal, and groups of animals have been collected in burrows.
17885		population	eng	In parts of its range it is abundant in suitable habitat.
17885		threats	eng	This species is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this may not pose a significant threat. Eastern populations are not considered to be threatened; western populations may be threatened by their restricted range.
17932		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ozark Mountains where it is recorded from five counties, Izard, Marion, Newton, Searcy and Stone.
17932		habitat	eng	It is found at the base of dolomitic cliffs.
17938		conservation	eng	The 1992 USFWS status review for paddlefish determined that listing this species as threatened under the ESA was not warranted at that time. Tagging results of the five year MICRA paddlefish project and harvest reports from states with sport and commercial fisheries indicate that range-wide paddlefish populations exceed 10,000 individuals and can currently sustain harvests. <br/> <br/>In states with sport fisheries, paddlefish are managed by seasons and bag limits to ensure sustained harvests (MICRA 1993). Fourteen states currently have paddlefish sport fisheries. Six of these are supplemented by stocking programs (Graham 1997). The management authority for this species is the individual state fish and game agency responsible for waters within their jurisdiction. This species still supports commercial fisheries in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee where authorities believe the harvest is well managed and sustainable. However, there are individual subpopulations that have been overexploited.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.
17938		distribution	eng	Mississippi River basin from southwestern New York to central Montana and south to Louisiana; Gulf Slope drainages from Mobile Basin, Alabama (primarily below the Fall Line; Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996), to Galveston Bay, Texas (Page and Burr 1991). The historical range included occurrences in Canada in Lake Huron and Lake Helen and in 26–27 states in the United States (Parker 1988, Graham 1997).  <br/> <br/>Extirpated in Canada, there have been no Canadian records since the early 1900s (Parker 1988). However, Canada never was a significant part of the distribution (highly peripheral). <br/> <br/>For a more detailed description of this species’ range, see the <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.
17938		habitat	eng	Freshwater.
17938		population	eng	In 1992, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) announced a 12-month Ruling in the Federal Register declaring the listing of paddlefish as Threatened was not warranted in response to a petition to list this species as threatened or endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The assessment found that, historical and current scientific information, including fundamental information about population size and structure, growth rate, and fisheries harvest was almost completely lacking. Interviews with fisheries biologists indicated that while paddlefish were declining in some areas, in other areas they were expanding and occupying habitat from which they’d been formerly extirpated. While some state agencies listed the paddlefish as a species of concern others licensed commercial and sport anglers. <br/> <br/>The Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Association (MICRA) was established in 1991 to address the full spectrum of fisheries management issues in the Mississippi River Basin. MICRA launched a basin-wide, multi-year, coded wire tagging paddlefish study in the spring of 1995 to help address issues of paddlefish population size and large-scale movements. Twenty-two Mississippi River Basin states actively participate in the paddlefish project by: 1) hatchery-raising and tagging more than 1.3 million paddlefish for release into Basin waters since 1988; 2) collecting and tagging 11,281 wild adult paddlefish in 19,178 hours of sampling in Basin waters since 1995; and 3) collecting tag return and creel information in those states which allow sport and/or commercial harvests. <br/> <br/>Number of mature individuals in this range-wide population number considerably more than 10,000. Area of occupancy is very large. Substantial subpopulation mixing may occur due to large-scale movements of adult paddlefish.
17938		threats	eng	Competition, predation, diseases and parasites were evaluated in the 1992 review (USFWS 1992) and determined not to be limiting factors for paddlefish stocks. Although dams, habitat, and water quality concerns still occur in several locations, the majority of formerly occupied habitats remain available to this species. Continued application of existing U.S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, etc.) and current and future mitigation and habitat improvements designed to improve pallid sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats should benefit the paddlefish.
17939		conservation	eng	More research on the distribution and ecology is needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species is listed on the Bern Convention Annex 2.
17939		distribution	eng	Gallo’s Anomalous Blue occurs only in mountains of Calabria in the south of Italy, between 1,100-2,200 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
17939		habitat	eng	Gallo’s Anomalous Blue occurs both on flower-rich grassland and in woodland clearings. At higher altitudes, it is often found on rocky slopes and screes. This butterfly is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
17939		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. A population decline from 10-23% is reported from Italy. This species shows large population fluctuations (E. Balletto, pers. comm.).
17939		threats	eng	This species has a limited range in Europe and shows strong fluctuations. It is particularly sensitive to the adverse influences of grazing. Even though the effects of sheep overgrazing is particularly severe, even slight grazing by domestic stock can result in considerably diminished population densities, which soon fall well below 50% of the normal. A potential threat is over-collecting, although for the time being this is not an issue. (Balletto 1993).
17940		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.
17940		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the south of Spain, in the Sierra Nevada at 2,500-3,000 m and Sierra de la Sagra at 1,700-2350 m elevation. This is a European endemic species. Recently the populations in the Sierra de la Sagra (formerly described as <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyommatus sagratrox</span>) have been assigned to this species causing the duplication of the area of occupancy (AOO) for taxonomic reasons.
17940		habitat	eng	In the Sierra Nevada, the Nevada Blue can be found in open patches in dwarf Juniper scrub and on grassy vegetation growing between acid, slate rocks and schist. In the Sierra de la Sagra, the butterflies are found on dry, open calcareous slopes with short vegetation. Here, the climatic conditions are extreme, the ground being covered with snow for nine months of the year. One of the plants that can withstand these conditions, the kidney-vetch <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis vulneraria</span>, is the foodplant. The female lays its eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate in the ground in June. The later instars are often found in the company of ants. Habitats: screes (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).
17940		population	eng	The Nevada Blue is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
17940		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range. Its main threat comes from the building of tourist infrasructure and tourist activities. Considering its limited distribution it might become threatened in the long term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) there is no information on  possible changes to the climate envelope.
17941		conservation	eng	Using a butterfly-net is strictly forbidden in the Pondel-site, which supports the main population. Controls appear to be very efficient. The remaining sites should be well managed and the species should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species is listed on the Bern Convention Annex 2.
17941		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the Valle d'Aosta in the Italian Alps, where there are at most five populations. It occurs at 800-1,000 m elevation, sometimes as high as 1,600 m. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km² and the extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km². This is a European endemic species.
17941		habitat	eng	The Piedmont Anomalous Blue occurs on warm, dry, rocky slopes with groups of bushes and patches of grassy, species-rich vegetation, where nectar is abundant. The female lays its eggs on Mountain Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis montana</span>) and Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">O. viciifolia</span>). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and when still small, hibernate. In spring, they are attended by ants. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
17941		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
17941		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range and very limited dispersal possibilities. The main direct threats come from grassland abandonment, causing shrubs and trees to invade the habitat. It is uncertain whether trade in collected specimens is an additional threat.
17975		conservation	eng	The Bornean orangutan is a fully protected species in both Malaysia and Indonesia legislation. This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Although some major populations are found within the network of protected areas existing in Borneo, it is now well established that the vast majority of Bornean orangutans live outside protected forests. New mechanisms to ensure their long-term survival outside protected forests are urgently needed.
17975		distribution	eng	The Bornean orangutan is endemic to the island of Borneo where it is present in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as well as in three of the four Indonesian Provinces of Kalimantan.<br/><br/>Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout the island: it is apparently absent or uncommon in the south-east of the island, as well as in the forests between the Rejang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei).
17975		habitat	eng	Orangutans are the largest arboreal mammals found on earth today. They are semi-solitary animals, but complex social networks of loose relationships are maintained between members of a community. Males tend to disperse further than females at maturity. More than 500 plant species have been recorded in their diet. Fruits make up more than 60% of their average total intake (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2006). The diet also includes leaves, barks, flowers and insects. Orangutans are best described as “gardeners” of the forest (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999); they play a vital role in seed dispersal, especially for large seeds that are not dispersed by smaller animals (Ancrenaz <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fruit availability in the Bornean forest directly impacts all aspects of their life: ranging patterns, seasonal movements, health, social and reproductive behaviour.<br/><br/>The orangutan is the only primate species with two different forms of mature males (bimaturism). Flanged males are twice the size of the female; they possess a long coat of dark hair on the back, a facial disk, flanges and a throat sac used for “long calls”. These males are rather intolerant and aggressive towards other adult males. Unflanged males do not possess these secondary sexual characteristics; they are the size of an adult female, they do not emit long calls nor do they show mutual intolerance. These two types of male both sire offspring and contribute to the reproduction of a given population (Goossens <em>et al</em>. 2006a). The transition from the unflanged to the flanged form can happen anytime; this depends mostly on complex social cues that are not yet fully understood.<br/><br/>Bornean orangutan distribution is patchy throughout the island. Large rivers are impassable natural barriers and limit their dispersal (Goossens <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species occurs typically at relatively low abundance in the Bornean forests: from 0.5 to 4.0 ind./km² in most populations (review in Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, van Schaik <em>et al</em>. 2005). Bornean orangutans are more abundant in low-lying forests (below 500 meters asl) than in uplands. Flood-prone forests and peatswamps produce more regular and larger fruit crops than dry dipterocarp forests and harbour the highest orangutan densities. Bornean orangutans are vulnerable to habitat disturbances, although the taxon <em>P. p. morio</em> shows a relative and unexpected tolerance to habitat degradation in the northern part of the island (Ancrenaz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Females generally give birth to a single infant after a gestation period of approximately 245 days (Nowak 1999). Female Bornean orangutans reach maturity between 10 and 15 years old and reproduce every six to eight years on average (Nowak 1999, Wich <em>et al</em>. in press).
17975		population	eng	The most recent estimates for Bornean orangutan numbers are between 45,000 and 69,000 individuals living in 86,000 km² of suitable habitat (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Caldecott and Miles 2005). These estimates were obtained between 2000 and 2003. Since recent trends are steeply down in most places due to logging and burning, it is forecasted that the current numbers are below these figures (see Tables 1a, b and c).<br/><br/>Follow link below for Tables 1a, b and c: population size estimates for <em>P. p. wurmbii</em>, <em>P. p. pygmaeus</em> and <em>P. p. morio</em>.
17975		threats	eng	The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the twentieth century) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Goossens <em>et al</em>. 2006b).<br/><br/>Major threats include:<br/><br/><strong>1. Habitat losses</strong> with the destruction of vast areas of tropical forest throughout the island and their conversion to agriculture (mostly oil palm plantations - <em>Elaeis guineensis</em>, but also acacia, rice, subsistence crops, cocoa, etc). An overall loss of 15.5 million hectares of forest (24% of total forest area) was recorded between 1985 and 1997 in Sumatra and Kalimantan, while 37% of the total forest area was lost in Sabah between 1950 and 2000 (FAO 2000). In the lowlands (prime orangutan habitat) this figure is higher and reaches more than 60% (Holmes 2000). We consider that today only 86,000 km² of habitat remains available to the species throughout the island (which is about 740,000 km²). Protected areas home to significant orangutan populations are also threatened by habitat loss (Curran <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The rapid expansion of oil palm plantations in Borneo in response to international demand (the oil is used for cooking, cosmetics, mechanics, and more recently as source of bio-diesel) has accelerated habitat losses. Between 1984 and 2003, the area planted with palm oil on Borneo increased from 2,000 km² to 27,000 km²: about 10,000 km² is located in Kalimantan; 12,000 km² in Sabah and 5,000 km² in Sarawak. Many areas used to be prime habitat for the orangutans: eastern lowlands of Sabah, the plains between the Sampit and Seruyan rivers in central Kalimantan, etc.<br/><br/><strong>2. Fires</strong>. The El Niño climatic event has been occurring repeatedly in the last few decades, and is associated with severe droughts and forest fires. Ninety percent of Kutai National Park was lost to massive fires in 1983 and 1998 and its orangutan population was reduced from an estimated 4000 individuals in the 1970s to a mere 500 today (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999). Over 400,000 ha of peatland forest in South Kalimantan were burnt to ashes in six months during 1997-98 following the collapse of the Mega-Rice project, representing an estimated loss of 8,000 orangutans (Page <em>et al</em>. 2002). Large numbers of orangutans are also killed by people while fleeing the flames and smoke during and after the fires. As a result of the 1997-98 fires, we estimate that the Bornean orangutan population was reduced by 33% in just one year. The most recent drought of 2006 in Kalimantan is thought to have killed several hundred orangutans in just six months. Forest fires can also result in the arrival of “refugees” in surrounding remnant and the resulting crowding effect can have serious negative impacts on the resident population (Husson <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>3. Habitat exploitation and illegal logging</strong>. Although recent work in Sabah and East Kalimantan shows that orangutans can adapt and survive (at least in the short term) in commercial forest reserves exploited for timber according to sustainable logging practices (reduced-impact logging; FSC certification), it is well established that more aggressive and conventional logging practices have a negative impact on orangutan populations. Rampant legal and illegal logging results in the destruction of key food sources that sustain orangutans, and in the fragmentation of remnant subpopulations which subsequently become more prone to local extinction and catastrophes.<br/><br/><strong>4. Habitat fragmentation</strong>. Recent results from the orangutan PHVA show that Bornean orangutan populations of fewer than 50 individuals are not viable in the long-term and will most probably go extinct in the next 100 years (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Marshall <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Forest fragmentation further reduces the size of orangutan populations and makes them more prone to genetic drift and inbreeding as well as to local catastrophes, such as floods, fires, outbreak diseases, hunting pressure.<br/><br/><strong>5. Hunting</strong>. In some parts of the island, hunting has been a major threat and is directly responsible for local extinctions (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999). Even low levels of hunting for traditional purposes strongly reduce orangutan population densities (Marshall <em>et al</em>. 2006). Indeed, recent vortex models showed that a 2% hunting rate is not sustainable for this species (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Marshall <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Major reasons for hunting include: bushmeat trade, wanton killing as part of poaching for other forest products (such as gaharu or aloe wood), use of body parts for traditional medicine, pet trade and to mitigate conflicts with agriculture.<br/><br/><strong>6. Pet trade</strong>. Illegal export of animals continues. In early 2004 about 100 individuals of Bornean origin were confiscated in Thailand and 50 of them were repatriated to Kalimantan in 2006. Several hundred Bornean orangutan orphans who were confiscated by local authorities have been entrusted to different orphanages in both Malaysia and Indonesia. They are in the process of being rehabilitated into the wild.
17976		habitat	eng	Found among algae in spring seep in wet campo.
17978		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Measures are needed to reduce the level of bycatch of this species, and research is needed to monitor bycatch levels more accurately.
17978		distribution	eng	Franciscanas inhabit shallow coastal waters (and they sporadically enter the estuary of the La Plata River) of tropical and temperate regions of the western South Atlantic Ocean (Crespo 2002). They are found only along the east coast of South America (Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina), from the northern Golfo San Matias, central Argentina (ca. 42°10'S), to Espirito Santo, southeastern Brazil (18°25'S) (Siciliano 1994; Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is not distributed continuously throughout its range. Surveys (including beach surveys, museum specimens, and interviews with local people) indicate that franciscanas are extremely rare or absent in two areas of the northern parts of their range between Macaé (southern Rio de Janeiro State) and Ubatuba (northern São Paulo State) and in Espírito Santo State (Azevedo <em>et al</em>. 2002; Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002; Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003). The reasons for these gaps are unclear, but because the species prefers shallow, turbid waters (Brownell 1989; Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989), water transparency and depth may be among the factors responsible (Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17978		habitat	eng	Although sometimes described as a ‘river dolphin’, the franciscana is not a freshwater species. Franciscanas apparently do not migrate, although seasonal inshore/offshore movements have been documented in some areas (Bordino <em>et al</em>. 1999, Bordino 2002). Predation by both large sharks and killer whales has been documented (Praderi 1985; Ott and Danilewicz 1996; Santos and Netto 2005).<br/><br/>Franciscanas are generally found in turbid waters < 30 m deep (Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989, Secchi and Ott 2000). Although they are found mainly in marine waters and only occasionally in estuaries, they are relatively common in the Uruguayan part of the La Plata River estuary (Praderi 1986). Franciscanas are primarily coastal, ranging no farther offshore than the 30 m isobath. Some sightings have been made in waters seaward of the 50 m isobath and 55 km offshore, but the density offshore is very low. <br/><br/>Franciscanas feed on several species of shallow-water fish (e.g., sciaenids, engraulids, gadids, and carangids), cephalopods, and crustaceans (Brownell 1989; Di Beneditto and Ramos 2001; Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2002; Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002).
17978		population	eng	Morphological and molecular data strongly support the existence of two main subpopulations of franciscanas. Multivariate analysis of morphometric data revealed two subpopulations: a smaller form in the northern part of the species' range (north of 27°S) (those in the far north are of intermediate size) and a larger form in the coastal waters of southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (south of 27°S) (Pinedo 1991). Analyses of a highly variable region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) also supported these two geographic forms (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998). Ott (2002) and Lázaro <em>et al</em>. (2004) compared the mtDNA of franciscanas from Uruguay and Argentina with those published by Secchi <em>et al</em>. (1998). These studies found support for the existence of a large southern population (composed of animals from Rio Grande do Sul, Uruguay and northern Argentina) that is clearly differentiated from animals in the waters off Rio de Janeiro. In addition, they revealed fixed genetic differences between the populations that suggest essentially no effective genetic exchange (see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998; Ott 2002; Lázaro <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ott’s results also clearly showed that individuals inhabiting Paraná and São Paulo waters belong to a genetically distinct subpopulation. This is consistent with morphological data showing that size is not clinal, with animals from Paraná and São Paulo being smaller than those in adjacent populations to the south and north of those States (<em>e.g.</em>. Kasuya and Brownell, 1979; Di Beneditto and Ramos, 2001; Barreto and Rosas, 2006; Barbato <em>et al</em>., 2007) A pairwise analysis of haplotype distances between different geographic locations showed increasing differentiation in the haplotype frequencies with increasing distance, following an isolation-by-distance pattern (Lázaro <em>et al</em>. 2004). Furthermore, recent analysis indicated that haplotype frequencies of samples from Claromecó (in Argentina) were significantly different from those of the rest of the southern population (Ott 2002; Lázaro <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Secchi <em>et al</em>. (2003a) proposed four provisional management units (Franciscana Management Areas, or FMAs) with the following ranges: FMA I - coastal waters of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil (note: confirmation of the hiatus in the Espírito Santo State with increased survey effort will require further division of this FMA); FMA II - São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina states, Brazil; FMA III - coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil and Uruguay; and FMA IV - coastal waters of Argentina, including the provinces of Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and Chubut. <br/><br/>There is no current abundance estimate for the species as a whole, but there is an estimate for the management stock inhabiting FMA III (hereafter referred as the RS/URU management unit). During aerial surveys of coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State in 1996 (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2001), this stock’s abundance was estimated at 42,078 (95% CI 33,047-53,542). This extrapolated result must be used very cautiously, however, because it is based on a density estimate for only a small fraction of the coastline, representing approximately 0.7% of the possible range of the subpopulation (ca. 64,045 sq. km), and there is limited information on the distribution pattern of franciscanas within their total range. This and other estimates of franciscana density and abundance need to be interpreted cautiously as they could be either positively or negatively biased. The IWC Scientific Committee concluded, after reviewing the methods and limitations of franciscana surveys through 2003-2004, that it was not appropriate to consider them as providing minimum estimates of abundance (IWC 2005a).<br/><br/>While the overall abundance of the species would seem relatively high, in most areas the gillnet mortality alone is not thought to be sustainable. Secchi (2006) projected the four management units 25 years into the future based on a stage-structured matrix model using a variety of scenarios of fishing effort. Because there were estimates of franciscana density and abundance only for FMA III and IV (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2001; Crespo <em>et al</em>. 2004), Secchi (2006) used the density estimated for FMA III ( ) and applied a correction factor based on the ratio of capture per unit of effort (CPUE) between the other areas and FMA III. This was assumed to represent a valid index of abundance because the unit of fishing effort is the same and the fishing gears are similar among management units. The corrected densities were multiplied by the entire area of both FMA I and II to obtain the estimate of total abundance. Uncertainty in the parameter estimates was incorporated through appropriate probability distributions. The scenarios considered most realistic (i.e. those that aimed to compensate for underestimation of the bycatch and that modelled environmental stochasticity) resulted in relatively high probabilities that each management unit would decline by at least 30% below its initial size with the exception of FMA I. However, it should be noted that estimates of bycatch in FMA I come from only one fishing village and it is known that bycatch occurs in other parts of this FMA (e.g. Freitas-Neto and Barbosa 2003). <br/><br/>The modelling exercise described above is considered to underestimate the risk of decline of franciscanas. The most recent data on bycatch (<em>e.g.</em> Rosas <em>et al</em>. 2002; Bordino and Albareda 2005; A. Zerbini as summarized in IWC 2005b) indicate that the numbers caught annually in FMAs II and IV are roughly twice as high as the values used by Secchi (2006) in his projections. In addition, other sources of potential threat (risk factors, as described in the Threats section below) were not considered in Secchi’s study.
17978		threats	eng	The main problem facing the species is incidental mortality in gillnet fisheries (there is no indication of direct exploitation of franciscanas), which has been observed since at least the early 1940s (Van Erp 1969). In the 1960s, the bycatch in Uruguay alone was as high as 1,500-2,000 animals (Brownell and Ness 1969; Pilleri 1971). Current estimates total at least 2,900 animals per year in all four management stocks, combined (e.g., Ott <em>et al</em>. 2002; Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b), but the numbers used to get that total are thought to be underestimated to an unknown extent, primarily due to: (1) captures in other non-monitored types of fisheries (e.g., active gillneting, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997; shrimp trawling, Cappozzo <em>et al</em>. 2000); (2) under-reporting of bycatch by fishermen; and (3) dolphins captured sometimes falling from the net before or during haul-out (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b). Bycatch is higher in FMA III with estimates being above 1,300 animals incidentally caught annually (Ott <em>et al</em>. 2002; Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b, 2004), followed by FMA IV: approximately 800 individuals (Bordino and Albareda 2005), FMA II: > 700 dolphins (Rosas <em>et al</em>. 2002; IWC 2004), and FMA I: > 110 franciscanas (Di Beneditto 2003). <br/><br/>Stomach contents of franciscanas from Rio Grande do Sul have included many kinds of debris: discarded fishing gear such as pieces of nylon net (17% of 36 stomachs), cellophane, and plastic fragments (6%) (Bassoi 1997). This problem has also been reported in northern Argentina, where cellophane, fishing debris, and plastic were found in 45%, 32% and 16% of the stomachs (Bastida <em>et al</em>. 2000; Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002). The effects of such debris ingestion on health status of individual franciscanas have not been determined, and the subpopulation-level implications are uncertain. However, debris could have a negative effect in at least some areas. <br/> <br/>Other potential threats include various forms of habitat degradation (e.g. overfishing; destruction of benthic community and bycatch of small sciaenid fish – main franciscana prey – by trawling) (e.g. Bassoi and Secchi 2000; Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002; Rodríguez <em>et al</em>. 2002).
18067		distribution	eng	Known only from the Lake Tawar in northwestern Sumatera.
18095		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Basic biology and conservation research will determinre the types and feasibility of realistic conservation measures.
18095		distribution	eng	Central Rainforest Zone and peripheral areas from Nigeria (Cross River) eastwards through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, to western Uganda and western Kenya and Tanzania, and southwards to central Angola and northern Zambia (Corbet 1974). From sea level up to 1,800 m. Occurs in the preserved rainforest of Kakamega, Kenya.
18095		habitat	eng	Found in streams in equatorial rain forests. Lives along rather small slow-flowing forest streams, forest pools and mountain torrents (from an altitudinal range of  0–1,800 m)  where banks provide habitats for nest chambers (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990). Also along streams, bordered by gallery forest. Normally does not occur in large rivers, although one was found in the Ivindo river (Gabon) where it was several hundred metres wide. This species is an adept swimmer that feeds on crabs, fish and amphibians. It lives in riverbank burrows, which have an entrance below the water level. It shelters in its burrows during the day becoming active in the afternoon. It is possibly a solitary species with each adult occupying between 500–1,000 m of stream.<br/><br/>Very muscular tail enables efficient swimming by horizontal undulations (Kingdon 1974) as in fishes and crocodiles. This method of swimming is unique amongst aquatic mammals (e.g., seals arid whales) which usually swim by undulations in a vertical plane. Forelimbs not used for propulsion. Moving on land is rather clumsy. Body pelage groomed with comb-like structure formed by the fusion of second and third toes. Nocturnal with several bouts of activity each night (Dubost 1965, Nicoll 1985); rests during daytime in burrow in river bank. When disturbed, escapes in the water. Movements over long distances always by water, never over-land.<br/><br/>Foraging and food Forages in water, feeding only on aquatic prey. Hunts by dives, each lasting for only several seconds. Prey located using the sensitive vibrissae and odor; eyes apparently not used to locate I prey. Analysis of stomach contents and feces show that diet is mainly fishes, crabs, shrimps, and water insects; frogs rarely eaten (Dubost 1965). In captivity eats 15– 20 crabs per night (Durrell 1953).<br/><br/>Latrines probably used to mark boundaries of territory (Dubost 1965). The den, with the nest chamber, is entered from below or above water level and is usually placed under a tree.<br/><br/>Breeds during wet and dry seasons. One (n=3) or two (n=2) pups/litter. Probably two litters/year (Dubost 1965).
18095		population	eng	Mean density in good habitats may be 1 territorial animal /0.5 to 1 km length of stream with maximum densities of about 1 per 100 m river (Dubost 1965).
18095		threats	eng	Soil erosion caused by deforestation increases the opaqueness of waterways to the detriment of this species. This is a particular problem in Cameroon (Nicoll 1985), but a potential threat in the other range states undergoing rapid forest loss. If forest strips lining the banks of the inhabited waterways remain intact then viable population are thought to be maintained. This species is also widely hunted for its skin and is accidentally trapped (but the extent to which this last is a threat to survival is unknown).
18102		conservation	eng	In Victoria about half the species' range is within national parkland with much of the remaining part of its range in area available for timber harvesting and fuel-collection. About half of the species' range in New South Wales is within the South East Forests National Park and the rest is within state forest land.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Endangered nationally and also has state threatened species status as well. A National Recovery Plan was completed in 2000 (Nunan <em>et al.</em> 2000), and a State Recovery Plan for New South Wales was completed in 2002 (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002).<br/><br/>Numerous recovery activities have been conducted to date, and these need to continue along with other recovery actions. Recommendations for the recovery of this species include (Nunan <em>et al.</em> 2000; NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002): protect suitable habitat for the species, control predators through the controlled use of 1080 baiting, control introduced pigs through trapping, establish the distribution and abundance of the species (perhaps with new survey techniques), research the effects of habitat disturbance from timber harvesting and fire, research the biology of hypogeous fungi that it depends on, maintain and expand the captive colony, and promote public awareness of the species.
18102		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from three disjunct, fragmented populations, one in south-eastern New South Wales, and two in north-east Victoria: East Gippsland and the Great Dividing Range. Recorded from South East Forests National Park and Yambulla State Forest in New South Wales where it has never been trapped, but is known from hair and predator scat samples (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002). Recorded from 44 sites in East Gippsland: most lie between the Snowy River and Cann River in near-coastal East Gippsland and the adjacent uplands of the Snowy River. It ranges in elevation from 100 m to 1,100 m (Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008).
18102		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a variety of forest types ranging from montane wet sclerophyll forests at over 1,000 m altitude, to lowland sclerophyll forest at 100 m altitude. It is apparently confined to sites with a high soil moisture content throughout the year. The primary requirements of Long-footed Potoroos are a diverse and abundant supply of hypogeal fungal sporocarps throughout the year and dense cover to provide shelter and protection from predators (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008). Its diet is highly unusual for a mammal species, and consists almost entirely of fungi (up to 91%) (Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008).
18102		population	eng	This species is rare, cryptic, and difficult to find. The most recent National Recovery Plan refrains from estimating its population size due these factors, but states that it is unlikely to be more that a few thousand individuals, and it might only be a few hundred (Nunan <em>et al.</em> 2000).
18102		threats	eng	Major threats to the species include predation from foxes, dingoes, and feral dogs, which may lead to the low densities at which this species has been found (Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008). Introduced pigs might be competitors for this species' specialized food requirements. Inappropriate fire regimes might also affect the fungi on which this species depends. Logging activities appear to be detrimental to the species, but further research is required for confirmation (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002).
18103		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
18103		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia, where it once ranged from coastal South Australia westwards to Albany, Western Australia and northwards through the wheatbelt of Western Australia, at least as far north as the Geraldton region (Kitchener and Friend 2008).
18103		habitat	eng	The species is very poorly known. It is not believed to have occurred in forested areas (Kitchener and Friend 2008).
18103		population	eng	It is presumed to be extinct. The last known record was in the 1875 when five specimens were sold to the National Museum in Victoria (Kitchener and Friend 2008). Appropriate, targeted surveys have not recorded this species since.
18103		threats	eng	Presumably this species declined through feral cats and possibly disease.
18107		conservation	eng	The entire known population of this species exists within Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve (Friend 2008). <br/><br/>The most recent recovery plan, Courtenay and Friend (2004), lists the following needed actions for recovery of this species: monitor known populations, undertake protective actions (including fire exclusion, feral animal control, and dieback hygiene), search for additional populations especially outside Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve, undertake assisted reproduction techniques to enhance reproductive potential, and create new population through translocation. Also, controlling the rate of <em>Phytophthora</em> infection in the habitat of this species is important to the conservation of this species, as well as preserving corridors that link its current habitat with other suitable habitat (i.e., the strip of bushland linking Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve with the Boulder Hill area) by protecting it from fire and land clearing for grazing and agriculture.<br/><br/>A new introduction of a few individuals to Bald Island is underway by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia). Cat predation research in Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve is commencing. Extensive research is ongoing on biology and ecology. Surveys have not found any new populations.
18107		distribution	eng	Gilbert's Potoroo is endemic to south-western, Western Australia, and was long thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1994. It was taken by three collectors between 1840 and 1879 in the vicinity of King George's Sound (Albany), but exact locations are not known. Skeletal material is common in cave deposits between Cape Leeuwin and Cape Naturaliste. Sub-fossil skeletal specimens have been located in coastal sand dunes between these localities. It is currently restricted to Mt. Gardner promontory in Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve (Friend 2008).
18107		habitat	eng	This species is found in <em>Melaleuca striata</em> heath with a dense layer of sedges underneath (Courtenay and Friend 2004; Friend 2008). It apparently avoids areas where dieback disease caused by the root pathogen <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> has modified the structure and floristic assemblage of heathlands (Courtenay and Friend 2004).<br/><br/>Its diet is highly unusual for a mammal species, and consists almost entirely of fungi (>90%) (Courtenay and Friend 2004). There is little evidence of seasonality in reproduction of this species. Females begin having young at nine months of age. A single young is produced and stays in the pouch for three to four months (Friend 2008). The maximum longevity of both sexes exceeds 10 years (Friend 2008).
18107		population	eng	The population of Gilbert's Potoroo is thought to be 30-40 individuals (Friend 2008). There has been little change in successful trapping, and this probably indicates a stable population (Courtenay and Friend 2004; Friend 2008). All suitable habitat in this species' tiny range appears to be occupied (Friend 2008).
18107		threats	eng	Fire is the critical threat (present and future) to this species as the Mt. Gardner population is in an area of long unburnt and extremely fire prone vegetation, and a single fire event could potentially wipe out the species (except for the few individuals in captivity and on Bald Island) (J. Courtenay pers. comm.). This species is in the prey size range of both feral cats and foxes, and both are known to exist in the Two Peoples Bay area, thus this species is likely threatened by these predators (Courtenay and Friend 2004). <br/><br/>Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) states that the reasons for the decline of the species are unknown. Predation by foxes has probably been significant. Changed fire regimes may have altered habitat and/or exacerbated fox and cat predation by destroying dense cover. Gilbert's notes record it as "the constant companion" of Quokkas, <em>Setonix brachyurus</em> (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Unlike Gilbert's Potoroo, the Quokka, although declining, persists over much of its pre-settlement range. The difference has not been explained. Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) and Courtenay and Friend (2004), suggest that dieback disease caused by <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> threatens persisting populations by eliminating plant symbionts of hypogeal, mycorrhizal fungi which are the principal food of Gilbert's Potoroos. Altering vegetation structure and eliminating plants that provide food are direct threats to this species.
18113		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas. There is a need to establish protected areas and conserve suitable areas of forest within the range of this species.
18113		distribution	eng	This species is known only from seven collections made in the Mount Oku area (Mount Oku itself, Manenguba, Mount Lefo, Bambulini, Lake Oku) of Cameroon. It ranges between 2,700 and 2,900 m asl.
18113		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or secondary habitats, it is possible that it is limited to primary forest habitat.
18113		population	eng	Few specimens of this species have been collected. It is certainly not an abundant species.
18113		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation due to expanding agriculture, logging and collection of firewood and timber for building materials.
18114		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, but many of the forest reserves in Kenya are being deproclaimed.
18114		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from high plateaus and isolated mountains from northeastern Zambia (Nyika Plateau, Makutus, and Mafingas) and Malawi (Nyika Plateau), through Tanzania to southeastern Kenya. There is also a new record from northern Mozambique (Julian Kerbis Peterhans pers. comm.). It ranges between 1,000 and 2,200 m asl.
18114		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest, and appears to tolerate some disturbance (as densities are higher in secondary forest), but has not been collected outside of forest.
18114		population	eng	It is very common and stable. It is found in high densities on Taita, Kenya.
18114		threats	eng	Many of the forest patches (at least in Kenya) are threatened due to deforestation by logging activities, and clearance for agriculture (crops and livestock) and new settlements.
18115		conservation	eng	It occurs in a large number of protected areas.
18115		distribution	eng	This species has the most expansive geographic range of any <em>Praomys</em>. It occurs from central Nigeria through Cameroon and Central African Republic to southern Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, northeastern Angola, Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, and southward through eastern Tanzania to northern and eastern Zambia. There is a recent record of this species from Guinea (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is found from the lowlands up to 3,000 m asl (in Kenya).
18115		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in lowland rainforest and secondary forest, but also recorded in cultivated and fallow land, montane forests, and forest relicts on the margins of the rainforest zone. It is occasionally found in bamboo forest and around marshes and swamps. This is a terrestrial, nocturnal and crepuscular species. It may climb up small branches up to two metres off of the ground. It is mainly a frugivorous, but partly omnivorous species.
18115		population	eng	It is one of the most common species of small mammals in the rainforests of central and eastern Africa.
18115		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18116		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. This species needs to be refound and studied.
18116		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Lukolela in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is a lowland species.
18116		habitat	eng	It was apparently collected in lowland rain forest, probably on the right bank of the Congo River, however, this information is uncertain as specimens were also brought to the collector (Hatt 1934) from the left bank of the river. There are two places called Lukolela but these are on opposite sides of the river.
18116		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens.
18116		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
18117		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g., Kahuzi-Biega National Park).
18117		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from five localities in northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya and Uganda. It has been recorded at 500 to 1,650 m asl, and has not been recorded at higher altitudes.
18117		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rain forest and submontane forest, and is also found in secondary forest and fallow cultivated habitats within rainforest.
18117		population	eng	The abundance of this species varies according to habitat and altitude. In general it is not as common as the sympatric <em>Praomys jacksoni</em>.
18117		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18118		conservation	eng	Mount Cameroon is designated for protection (Etinde Reserve) and there are two reserves on Bioko.
18118		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Cameroon (Cameroon) and the mountainous island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It has been recorded at elevations from 1,100 to 2,135 m asl.
18118		habitat	eng	This species occurs only in montane forest.
18118		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
18118		threats	eng	Mount Cameroon is fairly intact and partly protected, whereas the forest on Bioko has been heavily impacted in the past by logging and clearance for agriculture (crops and livestock). Deforestation is still ongoing on Bioko despite the presence of two protected areas.
18119		conservation	eng	It may possibly occur in the Yangambi Forest and Floral Reserve.
18119		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality - Haut-Zaïre, Batiabongena (Masako Forest Reserve), (00°36'N, 25°13'E), in the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The altitudinal range is not known.
18119		habitat	eng	This species only occurs in wet and undisturbed high forest along rivers.
18119		population	eng	The population abundance is not known, however, 30 to 40 specimens were caught in traps right on the waters edge (even partly in the water), so it may be a common species.
18119		threats	eng	The forest was still reasonably intact when the first collections were made. There was a nearby village and some forest had been cleared. There is no recent information on what has happened in the area since last the collections were made.
18120		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Upper Niger National Park in Guinea (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002).
18120		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Senegal, possibly The Gambia, Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, central Guinea, the Mount Nimba region of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; the distribution limits are not fully unresolved. It occurs up 1,300 m asl and probably even higher (1,400 m).
18120		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and montane forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
18120		population	eng	It is abundant, and is often the commonest animal in collections. The global population is stable.
18120		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18121		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
18121		distribution	eng	This sspecies has been recorded from the Gambia River in the west, through Cameroon, to northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo; it is also found on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) and in northwestern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998). The precise range limits are unclear because this is a species complex. It ranges from the lowlands up to around 1,200 m asl.
18121		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical rain forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
18121		population	eng	It is a very common species.
18121		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18125		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Most remaining populations in western Java exist in nature preserves where they are mostly safe from habitat disturbance and hunting. These sites include Ujung Kulon National Park, Halimun National Park, and Gede-Pangrango National Park (Nijman 1997). Most populations seem to have stabilized, and although they are fragmented, some retain large numbers of individuals.
18125		distribution	eng	This species is found in western and central Java (as far east as the Gunung Slamet region) in fragmented pockets (Groves 2001).
18125		habitat	eng	This species was historically found from sea level to 2,565 m (V. Nijman pers. comm.), but is now mainly restricted to mountain habitat fragments. In the Pegunungan Dieng it is found in primary and secondary forests, at the edges and in the interior, and in lowland forests, forests on steep slopes and hills, and upper montane forest (Nijman and van Balen 1998). It is folivorous, but will also consume fruits, flowers, and seeds (Ruhiyat 1983).
18125		population	eng	Population size has been estimated at between 2,285 (Supriatna <em>et al</em>. 1994) and 2,500 animals (MacKinnon 1996) in approximately 30 isolated populations. However, there remains some disagreement as to the actual number of individuals currently remaining.
18125		threats	eng	<em>Presbytis comata</em> is threatened by habitat destruction (Nijman and van Balen 1998), such that the remaining populations are now mainly confined to montane forest patches, whereas the species once occurred across extensive lowland areas. Hunting is a persistent threat in many of the remaining population fragments.
18126		conservation	eng	This species is listed as CITES Appendix II. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and threats to this species. There is an urgent need to clarify the taxonomy and distribution of what is now considered <em>P. femoralis</em>, as there is very little information at this time. Since <em>siamensis</em> has been separated from <em>femoralis</em>, there has been confusion about what is known of <em>femoralis</em>, and what of that actually pertains to <em>siamensis</em>.
18126		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is found in Indonesia (east-central Sumatra), Singapore and the Malay Peninsula. In the latter it is restricted to the far south and to the northwest, extending north throughout peninsular Thailand and southern Myanmar (the two parts of the range are separated by that of <em>P. siamensis</em>). In Sumatra it is found between the Rokan and Siak Rivers (Groves 2001).    <br/><br/><em>Presbytis femoralis femoralis</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in southern Peninsular Malaysia (Johore) and (marginally) the island of Singapore (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis femoralis robinsoni</em><br/>This subspecies is found in the northwestern Peninsular Malaysia, southern Myanmar and peninsular Thailand. It is found from the Larut Hills, Perak north as far as 13°N in Phet Buri province, Thailand (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis femoralis percura </em><br/>This subspecies is found in Indonesia (east-central Sumatra) in a small area between the Rokan and Siak Rivers (Groves 2001).
18126		habitat	eng	Based on what is known of closely-related species, such as <em>P. siamensis</em> and <em>P. melalophos</em>, this species is found in mixed mangrove, primary freshwater, riverbank, primary lowland logged, scrub-grassland riverbank, and secondary riverbank habitats (Wilson and Wilson 1976; Crockett and Wilson 1980). It is primarily frugivorous, but also consumes immature leaves (Fleagle 1978). It is found in taller trees of swampy peat forest in Malay Peninsula (J. Hon pers. comm.), while in Singapore it is found in primary, secondary, swamp, and dryland rainforests (Lucas <em>et al. </em>1988).
18126		population	eng	It's overall abundance is poorly known. Less than 20 individuals of <em>P. f. femoralis</em> were known to survive on Singapore as of 2006, although a few of these were juveniles (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).
18126		threats	eng	Deforestation and conversion of habitat would appear to be the major threats to this species. It is particularly affected by oil palm plantations, which are expanding very rapidly within its range.
18127		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Indonesian law and is totally protected in Sarawak; it is included on Appendix II of CITES. It is known to occur in at least seven protected areas: Batang Ai National Park, Betung Kerimun National Park, Bukit Baka – Buki Raya National Park, Gunung Palung National Park, Kutai National Park, and the Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Indonesia); Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Malaysia). However, the level of protection that they offer, particularly in Indonesia, is insufficient and there is a need to reinforce wildlife management (E. Meijaard pers. comm.).
18127		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo. It occurs in Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak). It is found patchily in central and eastern Borneo, from central Sarawak to the southern coast, with a few populations in the west (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
18127		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. It has been found in primary lowland rainforest, and riverine and hill forest (Azuma <em>et al</em>. 1984), as well as occasionally in secondary and plantation habitats.
18127		population	eng	There are an estimated 13,400 animals in Sarawak (Lanjak-Entimau), with densities estimated to be 1.7 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (E. Meijaard unpubl. data). In some areas, such as the northwestern mountains (Lanjak-Entimau, Bantang Ai and Bentuang Kerima), the species seems to be common (V. Nijman pers. comm.), while it seems to be quite uncommon throughout other portions of its range, with little indication of explanatory variables. This may be reflective of a sampling bias as the animals are shy where hunted and generally difficult to see (V. Nijman and E. Meijaard pers. comm.). Other population estimates, from 10 different sites, include 1.5 groups/km<sup>2</sup> and 5.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (V. Nijman unpubl. data), though this is not consistent across its range.
18127		threats	eng	Hunting for meat and traditional “medicine” are threats to this species, as well as habitat loss. Much of its forest habitat is being lost very rapidly, especially due to oil palm plantations and other anthropogenic habitats.
18128		conservation	eng	This species is legally protected in Indonesia, though wrongly named <em>P. aygula</em>, a misidentification that may serve to subvert prosecution of offenders. <em>P. aygula</em> is the former name for <em>P. comata</em>, a species with which <em>P. hosei</em> has sometimes been incorrectly lumped in the past. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. The largest population in a protected area is found in Kayan Mentarang, East Kalimantan (Nijman 2005), and the next largest protected area that harbors <em>P. hosei</em> is the Betung-Kerihun / Lanjak Entimau trans-boundary reserves in West Kalimantan and Sarawak (Nijman 2004). These protected habitats do not prevent the decline of many forest species, including Hose’s sureli, however, due to the absence of meaningful enforcement of laws to prevent illegal hunting (Nijman 2005). The species occurs as well in Kutai National Park (Indonesia) and in Mount Kinabalu National Park (Malaysia). There are no specimens reported in captivity.
18128		distribution	eng	<em>Presbytis hosei</em> is found in northern Borneo, specifically northern Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), northern East Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Brunei Darussalam (Nijman 2004). The southern boundary of the species' range is not yet clear, and the distribution map should be regarded as provisional.<br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei hosei</em> may only be found around the lower Baram River in coastal Sarawak, Malaysia (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei everett</em>i is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). The range extends from about latitude 2°40’N to Mount Kinabalu and along the northwestern coast of Sabah into Brunei (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei sabana</em> is confined to central and eastern Sabah, and perhaps also in far northeastern Kalimantan (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei canicrus</em> is found on the eastern coast of Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia), from Kutai to Gunung Talisayan (Groves 2001).
18128		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland to hill dipterocarp rainforest (on Mount Kinabalu). It is known from sea-level up to approximately 1,000 m elevation, with records to 1,600 m (Goodman 1989) and possibly higher. Animals occasionally enter plantations. It is primarily folivorous, but will consume flowers, fruits and seeds, as well as eggs and nestlings.
18128		population	eng	A population in the Kayan Mentarang National Park in East Kalimantan was assessed by counts along transects as well as data from all other encounters. A follow-up census 7 years later concluded that densities had dropped by 50-80%, and the species had become rare to observe. It is suggested that hunting for various reasons was the principal cause of this decline (Nijman 2004, 2005).<br/><br/>In Brunei, average size is 6 individuals per group (Hon pers. comm.); this may be the last stronghold for this species. Densities for <em>P. h. sabana</em> are estimated at 2.1 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately 16 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>; estimates for <em>P. h. everetti</em> are 1.3 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately 10.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>; estimates for <em>P. h. canicus</em> are 2.3 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately 19 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (V. Nijman pers comm.).
18128		threats	eng	Though not totally impervious, Hose’s sureli is relatively tolerant of forest disturbance. However, hunting poses the biggest danger to this species. The hunting of surelis correlates with the presence of inland settlements, the timber industry, and a demand for lucrative “bezoar stones” (visceral secretions used in traditional “medicines”). These monkeys are also hunted for food and to deter crop-raiding (Nijman 2004).
18129		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II, and is protected by national law. It is known to occur in five protected areas: Berbak National Park, Bukit Barisan National Park, Bukit Sebelah Protection Forest, Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Way Kambas National Park (Indonesia).
18129		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sumatra (Indonesia), where it is found south of the Wampu and Simpang Kiri Rivers (except for the eastern coastal forests), and on Pulau Pini in the Batu Archipelago (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos melalophos</em> <br/>Found in southwestern Sumatra, from the upper Sungai Rokan south to the upper Sungai Hari and beyond along the Barisan Range into Lampung (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos mitrata</em><br/>Found in southeastern Sumatra, from Lampung north to the upper Musi River drainage, west of Palembang, and north to the Batang Hari River (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos bicolor</em><br/>Found in west-central Sumatra, in the highlands from the middle and lower Sungai Hari to the middle Sungai Inderagiri (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos sumatrana </em><br/>Found in western Sumatra and Pulau Pini in the Batu Archipelago. On the Sumatran mainland found in the northern highlands and west coast south of the Sungai Simpang Kiri north of Gunung Talamau, southeast to the Rokan River, and on the east coast from Sungai Wampu to the Sungai Barumun.
18129		habitat	eng	The species is tolerant of habitat conversion to a degree (V. Nijman pers. comm.), and can be found in disturbed and secondary forest areas. It has also been found in primary and secondary hill rainforest, shrub forest and plantations. This species is primarily folivorous, but will also consume fruits, flowers, and seeds. Its home range has been observed to be 14-29.5 ha and its daily distance moved is about 300-1,360 m.
18129		population	eng	This species is relatively common (Aimi and Bakar 1992) in its remaining and appropriate habitat, but its occurrence is very patchy and fragmented.
18129		threats	eng	There has been extensive loss of habitat, especially for oil palm plantations, and this is a serious threat. However, the species has some tolerance to forest conversion. Trapping of the species for the illegal pet trade is a threat across their range, with some incidental hunting for food. Forest fragmentation is a long-term consideration for population persistence (Manullang pers. comm.).
18130		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is protected by Indonesian law. It is only known from one official protected area, Siberut National Park. There are no specimens in captivity. Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement; formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible; protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971; conservation education, especially regarding hunting; the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.
18130		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Mentawai Islands, off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Fuentes 1996). The subspecies <em>P. p. potenziani</em> is found on Sipora, North Pagai, and South Pagai Islands, while the subspecies <em>P. p. siberu</em> is found on the island of Siberut (Brandon-Jones 1993).
18130		habitat	eng	These animals are found predominantly in primary forest areas, but also utilize secondary and cultivated habitats to a lesser extent. They are arboreal and favor the middle and upper canopies. As a colobine monkey, <em>P. potenziani</em> is highly folivorous, feeding on leaves (55% of diet), fruits and seeds (32%), and or flowers, bark, and sap (13%) (Fuentes 1996). A large proportion of its total diet, up to 35%, consists of "climber"-type vegetation. Its home range in a site on North Pagai Island was 25-40 ha (Fuentes 1996); elsewhere the home range has been recorded as 11.5-40 ha.
18130		population	eng	The Siberut subspecies is estimated to comprise 1,600-9,500 individuals (Whittaker 2006), based on a population density estimate of 1 to 4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Paciulli 2004). The southern subspecies has a much smaller population of only 100-800 individuals across the three islands. In 1980, there were an estimated 46,000 individuals on Siberut, representing a decline of 83 to 97% (Whittaker 2006). Further consideration had determined that these estimates may be higher due to difficulty of detection, and that the actual decline is closer to 50% (Whittaker pers. comm.). However, the animals may have adapted to hunting by becoming cryptic, causing current population estimates to be low (Whittaker 2006). Thus, there may be as many as 36,000 individuals for the species as a whole, representing a decline of only 43% (Whittaker 2006). They appear to reach their highest densities in forests logged 10 years ago (Whittaker 2006).
18130		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006), as well as conversion to oil palm plantations, forest clearing, and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Recently, hunting pressure has intensified because of increased access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles, anything larger is illegal in Indonesia (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade constitutes a minor threat to this species (Whittaker 2006).
18131		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), and is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is found in at least 10 protected areas including Betung Kerihun National Park, Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, Ganung Palung National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park, Kutai National Park, Pleihari Martapuri Nature Reserve, Tanjung Puting National Park, and the Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Indonesia); Sapagaya Forest Reserve, Ulu Segama Reserve (Malaysia) (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
18131		distribution	eng	The species occurs through most of the island of Borneo, in Indonesia (Kalimantan and Karimata Island), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), and possibly Brunei (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda rubicunda</em> <br/>Occurs in Indonesia (southeastern Kalimantan). Found roughly east of the Barito River and south of the Mahakam River (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda rubida</em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia (southwestern Kalimantan). Found roughly south of the Kapuas River and west of the Barito River (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda ignita</em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sarawak), and possibly Brunei. Found north of the Kapuas River into Sarawak, as far as the Baram River and the borders of Brunei (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda chrysea</em><br/>Occurs in Malaysia (Sabah). Confined to a very small area in eastern Sabah near Kinabatangan (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda carimatae </em><br/>Confined to Karimata Island, Indonesia (Yanuar <em>et al</em>. 1993).
18131		habitat	eng	<em>P. rubicunda</em> is almost wholly arboreal, having a clear preference for primary forest. This colobine species’ annual diet is mostly comprised of folivory on young leaves (36%), seed eating (30%), and combined frugivory on pulpy, seedy fruits and florivory (34%). This diet varies throughout the year as availability of food sources shifts (Davies 1991). In Sabah, a group of<em>P. rubicunda</em> was found to rely on lianas for about 32% of their total diet; the rest were tree species. Overall, the group exploited over 102 plant species over a single year (Davies 1984). It is also found in swamp forests (Chivers and Burton 1988), and evergreen forests (Bennett and Davies 1994). It occasionally visits native gardens in search of food (Yanuar <em>et al.</em> 1993). It is found in primary and secondary lowland forests, not above 2,000 m, and is able to tolerate forests that have regenerated after logging has taken place (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).
18131		population	eng	<em>Presbytis rubicunda</em> is endemic to Borneo and adjacent Karimata Island (Davies 1991). Twenty-five studies were compiled to show that density is 2.6 (+/- 1.4) groups/km<sup>2</sup>, and 16.5 (+/- 9.1) individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (V. Nijman pers. comm.). Density does not change with elevation up to 1,200 m; above this point, however, it quickly drops (V. Nijman pers. comm.).
18131		threats	eng	The species is threatened by hunting for meat and traditional “medicine”, as well as loss of habitat due to deforestation. Much habitat is being lost to expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, it is reasonably adaptable, and can occur in some secondary habitats.
18132		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is protected by Indonesian law. It is known to occur in at least one large national park, Gunung Leuser.
18132		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Sumatra (Indonesia) in Aceh Province north of the rivers Simpangkiri and Wampu (Wilson and Wilson 1976), where the range has recently been discovered to extend to the south bank of the Simpangkiri River (Aimi and Bakar 1996). A study on the behaviour of this species was performed at Ketambe Research Station, Leuser Ecosystem, Sumatra, Indonesia (3°41 N, 97°39 E) (Sterck <em>et al.</em> 2005). Another study on its behaviour was performed at two sites in Leuser Ecosystem, northern Sumatra, one of which was also Ketambe, and the other was Bukit Lawang (3°30 N, 98°6 E) (Wich and de Vries 2006).
18132		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from undisturbed primary rainforest near Ketambe Research Station in Sumatra (Sterck <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been recorded from a mosaic of primary and secondary forest with rubber plantations on its fringes (Wich and de Vries 2006), and in rubber tree plantations (Gurmaya 1986). It ranges in elevation from 0 to approximately 1,500 m, and the home range has been observed to be 12.3-15.7 ha.<br/><br/>These animals are primarily folivorous (Ungar 1995) but also feed on fruits and flowers, and occasionally on toadstools and the stalks of coconuts (Gurmaya 1986), as well as gastropods such as ground snails (Steenbeek 1999). Females are considered adult at an age of 60 months, roughly one year before the average age at which infants were born (74 months), and the youngest age at which a female in a study population gave birth (Sterck <em>et al</em>. 2005).
18132		population	eng	During a study of this species? behaviour by Sterck <em>et al</em>. (2005) 163 different individuals were recorded, in a study area of 200 ha.
18132		threats	eng	Hunting does not seem to be a significant threat, but loss of primary habitat due to logging and conversion to oil palm plantations is probably displacing some populations.
18134		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.  There is an urgent need to clarify the taxonomy and distribution of this species, as there is very little information at this time. Since <em>siamensis</em> has been separated from <em>femoralis</em>, there has been confusion about what is known of <em>femoralis</em>, and what of that actually pertains to <em>siamensis</em>.
18134		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Indonesia (eastern Sumatra and the Riau Archipelago in the Strait of Malacca), Peninsular Malaysia, and extreme southern peninsular Thailand. It is found throughout the Malay Peninsula except for the south and northwest. In Sumatra, it occurs in a few small sections of the eastern forests (between the Siak and Inderagiri Rivers, between the Rokan and Barimun Rivers, the Lake Toba region, and perhaps the Jambi district); in the Riau Archipelago it is found on Kundar, Bintang, and probably Batam and Galang Islands. Population isolates are known within the range of <em>P. femoralis</em> in Thailand and <em>P. melalophos</em> in Sumatra (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis siamensis</em><br/>Occurs in Malaysia and Thailand. Found in most of Peninsular Malaysia except for the south and northwest (Perak north to the Piah Valley; Selangor; Negri Sembilan; Pahang; Melaka), with a population isolate reported in Thailand at 6°22?N, 101°08?E within the range of <em>P. femoralis robinsoni</em> (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis rhionis </em><br/>Known for certain only from Pulau Bintang, in the Riau Archipelago, Indonesia; might occur on Pulau Batam and Pulau Galang as well (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis cana</em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia. Found in eastern Sumatra between the Siak and Inderagiri Rivers, and on Palau Kundur in the Riau Archipelago (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis paenulata </em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia. Found in east-central Sumatra, where it is confined to a small wedge of coastal forest and with a population isolate reported from near Lake Toba (Groves 2001).
18134		habitat	eng	There is very little information available on this species relating to habitat and ecology other than what can be inferred from closely related forms. The subspecies <em>P. s. rhionis</em> is known to occur in lowland wet forest, swamp forests, and secondary re-growth mixed rubber gardens (Yanuar 1993/1994).
18134		population	eng	There is very little information available on this species relating to abundance.
18134		threats	eng	It seems likely that deforestation and conversion of habitat are the major threats to this species, and hunting to a lesser extent. Oil palm plantations are expanding greatly within its range at the expense of lowland forest habitat.
18136		habitat	eng	Found in wells.
18137		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
18137		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality; a cave west of Ciudad Mante in the Rio Tamesi basin, Mexico, and one other cave about 26 km to the north (Miller 2005).
18137		habitat	eng	<em>P. lundbergi</em> inhabits subterranean waters.  Only one specimen has been taken from the type locality despite extensive subsequent exploration that demonstrated that the spring is the surface expression of a very deep, submerged cave system.  All specimens from the other locality were taken by cave divers from below 50 m water depth.  It thus appears that the preferred habitat of the species may be in deep portions of the aquifer, and it is only occasionally found in shallower portions of caves accessible to divers (Miller 2005).
18137		population	eng	<em>P. lundbergi</em> is thought to be rare at the two sites it has been found in; only five specimens have ever been seen (Hendrickson <em>et al</em>., 2001).
18137		threats	eng	Water extraction is the principal threat for this species as it depletes water of caves, especially when the caves are near human occupied areas.  The region in which its habitat of is situated is threatened by continued clearing of forest for timber, road construction, expansion of settlements, industrial development and agricultural expansion (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1997).  These activities could result in pollution of subterranean waters.
18144		conservation	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">P. maximus</span> is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in many protected areas. There is a need to decrease hunting pressure, and maintain habitat where viable populations occur.
18144		distribution	eng	This largest of all armadillo species ranges from northern Venezuela (east of the Andes) and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname), south to Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Srbek-Araujo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) recently confirmed its presence in Espirito Santo, Brazil, although the populations in southeastern Brazil seem to be very reduced. The species may be extinct in Uruguay, and is not listed at all for this country by Fallabrino and Castiñeira (2006). It has been recorded from sea level up to 500 m asl.
18144		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found close to water within undisturbed primary rain forest habitats. It excavates burrows, usually in grasslands or open areas of the forest. Nowak (1999) suggested that the species had declined by at least 50% over the last decade. In 1954, three individuals were found in an area of 16.7 km² in Espirito Santo, Brazil (Ruschi 1954). Home range size has been estimated to be at least 450 ha in Brazil (Carter and Encarnação 1983).
18144		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. maximus</span> appears to be naturally rare where it occurs, with a very patchy distribution. Surveys in Suriname over an 18 year period recorded seven individuals in an area of 650 km² (Walsh and Gannon 1967). The density has been estimated to be from 5.77 to 6.28 per 100 km² using camera trapping (Noss <em>et al.</em> 2004). The wild populations are decreasing.
18144		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. maximus</span> is threatened by hunting for meat (generally for subsistence) and deforestation of habitat. The illegal capture of Giant Armadillos for clandestine sale to wealthy animal collectors may also be a threat, but is difficult to quantify.
18145		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Priolepis robinsi</em>, however this species was collected within the marine protected area of Tayrona National Park.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
18145		distribution	eng	<em>Priolepis robinsi</em> occurs around Santa Marta in Colombia, and the island of Curaçao.&#160; In Santa Marta, the species is known from an area of no more than 200 km²; in Curaçao, it occurs in an area of no more than 300 km².&#160; It is not known to occur between these two sites and very little suitable habitat is available between these two areas (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).
18145		habitat	eng	<em>Priolepis robinsi</em> is found in areas with sandy, rubble, rocky and algae bottoms, to a depth of 27 m.&#160; It is also found in areas with large sponges, and in the nests of the sand tilefish, which are located beyond the reef base and made out of coralline rubble (<em>Malacanthus plumieri</em>) (Garzon-Ferreira and Acero 1991).&#160; This species may also been found on isolated coral heads in reef lagoons and on the fore reef.&#160; It feeds on small crustaceans and small fish.
18145		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis robinsi</span> is uncommon around the Santa Marta region (Garzon-Ferreira and Acero 1991) and the island of Curaçao (J. Van Tassell pers. comm. 2008).
18145		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis robinsi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Due to its coastal nature and restricted range, there is a potential threat from coastal development and water pollution.&#160; Currently, however, the species occurs within a protected area, so this is unlikely to be a problem.
18146		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II; populations in Bangladesh, India and Thailand are included on Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Prionailurus bengalensis bengalensis</span>). The species is protected at the national level over part of its range, with hunting prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia, Thailand and Taiwan, and hunting and trade regulations in place in South Korea, Lao PDR and Singapore (Nowell and Jackson 1996, A. Wilting pers. comm. 2008).   The species is on Afghanistan’s 2009 Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading of this species within the country.  It is found in numerous protected areas.
18146		distribution	eng	The leopard cat is a widespread species in Asia.  It is found throughout most of India west into Pakistan and Afghanistan (Habibi 2004), through the Himalayan foothills, across most of China, and north to the Korean peninsula and into the Russian Far East (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It is found throughout Southeast Asia, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Taiwan.  It is found on numerous small offshore islands of mainland Asia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  The leopard cat is the only wild felid found in the Japan, where it occurs on the small islands Tsushima and Iriomote, and the Philippines, where it occurs on the islands of Palawan, Panay, Negros and Cebu.  In the Philippines, there are recent (2007) unconfirmed reports from the island of Masbate.  It should be present in Guimaras due to proximity to Negros and Panay, but no presence was reported, and is therefore presumed to be extinct (R. Lorica and W. Oliver, unpub.).
18146		habitat	eng	The species can range up to 3,000 m in parts of its range, which extends into the Himalayas along river valleys. It occurs in a broad spectrum of habitats, from tropical rainforest to temperate broadleaf and, marginally, coniferous forest, as well as shrub forest and successional grasslands. The northern boundaries of its range are limited by snow cover; the leopard cat avoids areas where snow is more than 10 cm deep. It is not found in the cold steppe grasslands, and generally does not occur in arid zones, although there are a few records from relatively dry and treeless areas in Pakistan.  Leopard cats occur commonly in dense secondary growth, including logged areas, and have been found in agricultural and forest (rubber tree, oil palm, sugarcane) plantations. The species can live close to rural settlements. Leopard cats are excellent swimmers, and have successfully colonized offshore islands throughout their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>In the most comprehensive study, based on a large sample size of 20 radio-collared cats in Thailand's Phu Khieu Wildlife Sanctuary, mean home range size (95% MCP) was 12.7 km², larger than in other areas of Thailand (4.5 km²) (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005), on Borneo (3.5 km²: Rajaratnam 2000), or on Japan's Iriomote island (Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 2003).  There was no significant difference between male and female home range size.  Open and closed forest habitats were used in proportion to their occurrence, and activity patterns showed crepuscular and nocturnal peaks.   On Borneo, Rajaratnam <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that leopard cats hunted rodents in oil palm plantations, and used forest fragments for resting and breeding.  Murids dominate the diet (85-90%: Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005b, Rajaratnam <em>et al.</em> 2007).   Other small mamals, eels and fish have also been reported, as well as occasional scavenging of carrion (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
18146		population	eng	The leopard cat is the most frequently recorded small cat across most of its wide range, in comparison with sympatric species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007), and with its broad distribution has an abundant population.  However, it is probably declining due to habitat loss and hunting.  Large numbers of leopard cat furs were exported from China (averaging 200,000 skins per year in the late 1980s) (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Higher survival rates (92%) were recorded in a protected area with little human influence, compared with lower rates in areas with greater human activity (53-82%) (Haines <em>et al.</em> 2004).  While the leopard cat is more tolerant of disturbed areas than other small Asian felids, it likely undergoes higher mortality in such areas.<br/><br/>Island populations are most at risk of extinction, with the Iriomote cat P.b. iriomotensis listed as Critically Endangered, and the Visayan leopard cat P.b. rabori of the Philippine islands of Panay, Negros, Cebu and possibly Masbate listed a Vulnerable.  The small population (approximately 100) on Japan's 710 km² Tsushima Island, considered the same subspecies as occurs in northeastern mainland Asia, has decreased over the last 30-40 years (Izawa <em>et al.</em> 2007).
18146		threats	eng	In China, the centre of its range, commercial exploitation has been heavy: hundreds of thousands of Leopard Cat skins per year were exported in the 1980s.  Although commercial trade is much reduced, the species continues to be hunted throughout most of its range for fur, for food, and as pets.  They are also widely viewed as poultry pests and killed in retribution.  Island populations are small and seriously threatened in the Philippines and Japan. Leopard cats can hybridize with domestic cats, as is shown by the popular domestic breed, the "safari cat". Hybridization in the wild has been reported, but is not considered a significant threat.  Although the species is less dependent on forest cover than others, habitat loss and fragmentation is still a major threat across most of its Asian range (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
18148		conservation	eng	<p>Included on CITES Appendix I. The species is fully protected by national legislation over its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Thailand</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is known to occur in Berbak (Bezuijen 2000), Way Kambas (Anon 1996), Batang Gadis (Barita pers. comm.2006) and Kerinci Seblat National Parks (M. Linkie pers. comm. 2008) in Sumatra; the Danum Valley (Hearn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Tabin Wildlife Reserve (Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Kinabatangan Willdlife Sanctuary in Sabah (Lackman-Ancrenaz and Ancrenaz 1997), Deramakot Forest Reserve (Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), Tangkulap Forest Reserve and Maliau Basi (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010); Bukit Sarang Conservation Area (Giman pers. comm. 2006) and Loagan Bunut National Park (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) in Sarawak; Kutai and Kayan Mentarang National Parks (Wulfraat and Samso 2000), Bukit Suharto Protection Forest and Sabangau Peat Swamp Forest (Cheyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) in Kalimantan; Selangor and Pahang Peat Swamp Forest in Peninsula Malaysia (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and the Phru Tao Dang Peat Swamp Forest protected area in southernmost Thailand (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Brunei</st1:country-region> it has been recorded from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tasek</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Merimbun</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Heritage</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Conservation of this species depends on adequate habitat protection, and better understanding of its ecology and status in the remaining lowland and wetland forests. Therefore species specific field surveys focusing on these wetland and lowland areas are needed.</p>
18148		distribution	eng	The Flat-headed Cat has a restricted distribution, found only on Sumatra, Borneo and the Malayan peninsula (Malaysia and extreme southern Thailand).  It is a lowland species strongly associated with wetlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). The map is adapted from Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010); this online publication includes other more detailed maps as well.
18148		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species, with only a handful of observations and camera trap records.  Available information suggets that, like its close relative the fishing cat, the flat-headed cat is strongly associated with wetlands and preys primarily on fish.  Stomach contents of two dead animals contained mostly fish, and also shrimp shells.  They may also take birds and small rodents, and have been reported to prey on domestic poultry (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Most records for the Flat-headed Cat are from swampy areas, lakes and streams, and riverine forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). They also occur in peat-swamp forest (Bezuijen 2000), and have been observed in secondary forest (Bezuijen 2000, Bezuijen 2003, Meijaard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). All published observations of live animals have taken place at night or early morning, near water (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Bezuijen 2000, Bezuijen 2003, Meijaard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Over 80% of the records gathered by Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) were from elevations below 100 m asl, and over 70 % were recorded within a distance of <st1:metricconverter productid="3 km" w:st="on">3 km</st1:metricconverter> to larger water sources.  <br/><br/>The Flat-headed Cat takes its name from its unusually long, sloping snout and flattened skull roof, with small ears set well down the sides of its head.  It has large, close-set eyes, and relatively longer and sharper teeth than its close relatives.  Its claws do not fully retract into their shortened sheaths, and its toes are more completely webbed than the fishing cat's, with long narrow foot pads.  Muul and Lim (1970), commenting on the cat's feet and other features, termed it the ecological counterpart of a semi-aquatic mustelid.
18148		population	eng	<p>The Flat-headed Cat is closely associated with wetlands and lowland forests, habitats which are increasingly being occupied and modified by people (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It has never been studied, there are few records of the species, and it is generally considered rare, with a highly localized distribution around bodies of water (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Anon 1999, Bezuijen 2000, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Meijaard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Barita and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006, Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Although fishermen along the Merang river in south Sumatra (which has relatively intact peat forests) described it as common (Bezuijen 2000), they tend to use a single generic term for both flat-headed and leopard cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Prionailurus bengalensis</span>, a more abundant species (Bezuijen 2003). Most of the recent records come from Sabah in north-eastern Borneo, where it can be frequently be observed along the Kinabatangan River (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and where it has been several times photographed by camera-traps in Deramakot Forest Reserve (Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p>
18148		threats	eng	<p>Wetland and lowland forest destruction and degradation is the primary threat faced by the species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Causes of this destruction include human settlement, forest transformation to plantations, draining for agriculture, pollution, and excessive hunting, wood-cutting and fishing. In addition, clearance of coastal mangroves over the past decade has been rapid in Tropical Asia. The depletion of fish stocks from over-fishing is prevalent in many Asian wetland environments and is likely to be a significant threat. Expansion of oil palm plantations is currently viewed as the most urgent threat (IUCN Cats Red List workshop assessment 2007). Trapping, snaring and poisoning are also threats: E. Bennett (in Sunquist and Sunquist 2002) reported that skins were frequently seen in longhouses in the interior of <st1:place w:st="on">Sarawak</st1:place>, and Flat-headed Cats have been captured in traps set out to protect domestic fowl (Nowell and Jackson 1996).</p>
18149		conservation	eng	The Indian population is included on CITES Appendix I, while the Sri Lankan population is included on CITES Appendix II. The species is fully protected over most of its range, with hunting and trade banned in India, and Sri Lanka (although domestic trade is uncontrolled in Sri Lanka) (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Yala National Park in Sri Lanka (Nekaris 2003, Kittle and Watson 2004) and the Gir Forest National Park (Pathak 1990) and Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve (Dubey 1999) in India.
18149		distribution	eng	The rusty-spotted cat is found only in India and Sri Lanka.  In India, it was long thought to be confined to the south, but recent records have established that it is found over much of the country (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Patel and Jackson 2006, Manakadan and Sivakumar 2006, Patel 2006, Vyas <em>et al.</em> 2007), with a record from the foothills of the Himalaya in Jammu (Chakraborty 1978) requiring confirmation.
18149		habitat	eng	Rusty-spotted cats occupy moist and dry deciduous forest types as well as scrub and grassland, but are likely absent from evergreen forest in India (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although there are a few records from montane and lowland rainforest in Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1956, Nekaris 2003).  While dense vegetation and rocky areas are preferred (Worah 1991, Kittle and Watson 2004, Patel 2006), rusty-spotted cats have been found in the midst of agricultural and settled areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Mukherjee 1998, Nekaris 2003).  They are highly arboreal (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), and Patel (2006) observed cats pouncing down from tree branches when hunting prey.  Most observations have been at night (Mukherjee 1998, Nekaris 2003, Kittle and Watson 2004, Patel 2006, Vyas <em>et al.</em> 2007).  One cat was seen hunting frogs, but small rodents were the main prey reported from a series of observations by Patel (2006) and Nekaris (2003) - seeking out such prey is likely why the cats venture into cultivated areas.
18149		population	eng	Rusty-spotted cats have been observed increasingly frequently by researchers (Kittle and Watson 2004, Manakadan and Sivakumar 2006, Patel 2006, Vyas <em>et al.</em> 2007).  They have been described as abundant in some parts of India and Sri Lanka, and have been observed close to and within villages (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but that they were not known to occur in northern India until recent decades suggests rarity in some parts of the range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
18149		threats	eng	Habitat loss and the spread of cultivation are serious problems for wildlife in both India and Sri Lanka. Although there are several records of rusty-spotted cats from cultivated and settled areas, it is not known to what degree cat populations are able to persist in such areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996) - some villagers say rusty-spotted cats, unlike jungle cats, "keep to the forest" and do not prey on domestic fowl (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2006).  Kittle and Watson (2004) observed a rusty-spotted cat mating with a domestic cat and also saw a potential hybrid ("being slightly larger in size, with long legs and exhibiting unusual markings on a paler background").  There have been occasional reports of rusty-spotted cat skins in trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and rusty-spotted cats killed for food or as livestock pests (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Nekaris 2003).
18150		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Protected by national legislation over most of its range.  Hunting prohibited: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand.  Hunting regulations apply in Lao PDR. No protection outside protected areas: Bhutan, Viet Nam (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Fishing Cat is confirmed to occur in protected areas including the  Sundarbans (Bangladesh and India), Chitwan (Nepal), Corbett, Dudwha, and  Kaziranga (India) (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007), Khao Sam Roi Yot and Thale  Noi (Thailand: Cutter and Cutter 2009), Botum-Sakor (Cambodia: Royan 2009) and  Ujung Kulon and Pulau Dua (Java, Indonesia: A. Compost in Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009).<br/>Conservation of the species depends on adequate protection of remaining wild wetlands in Asia, and prevention of indiscriminate trapping, snaring and poisoning.
18150		distribution	eng	The Fishing Cat has a broad but discontinuous distribution in Asia, with large gaps - some the result of its association primarily with wetlands, some the result of recent extirpation, and some supposed due to a lack of confirmed records.  In Pakistan, the only known population was in the Indus river valley (Roberts 1977), but there are no recent records to confirm it still occurs.  The fishing cat has been extirpated in recent years from parts of India, including the Bharatpur region of western India (Shomita Mukherjee, Jamal Khan pers. comms. 2007), home to Keoladeo National Park, one of the few areas in India were fishing cats were studied (Mukerjee 1989, Haque and Vijayan 1993).  It has possibly disappeared also from the southern Western Ghats (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Shomita Mukherjee and Jamal Khan pers. comms. 2007).  However, there is also a new record from Umred, near Nagpur in central India, an area well outside of the fishing cat's known range, when a Fishing Cat that had been killed by a vehicle was found (Anon 2005).  It is primarily found in the terai region of the Himalayan foothills, and eastern India into Bangladesh, where it is widely distributed and locally common in some areas (Khan 2004), although in eastern India few prime habitats remain (Kolipaka 2006).  On the island of Sri Lanka, it occurs apparently all over the island, and has been found on waterways near the capital city of Colombo in degraded habitats (S. Mukherjee pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>In Southeast Asia, its distribution appears very patchy,with few recent records (Anak, W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz, Southeast Asia mammal assessment, 2003).  There are no confirmed records of the fishing cat from Peninsular Malaysia, but a 1999 camera trap image from Taman Negara National Park, an incomplete image showing only the animal's hindquarters, suggests the species occurrence here (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2003).  However, the fishing cat never occurred on Taiwan, where it was mistakenly reported in the past (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  Its possible occurrence (based on an old, unsubstantiated record) in southwestern China is unknown (J. Sanderson pers. comm. 2007).  On the island of Java, it has become scarce and apparently restricted to a few coastal wetlands (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996). Although commonly considered to occur on the island of Sumatra, there are no  definite historic records, recent records have been shown to be erroneous, and  its presence there remains to be confirmed (Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>
18150		habitat	eng	Fishing Cats are strongly associated with wetland. They are typically found in swamps and marshy areas, oxbow lakes, reed beds, tidal creeks and mangrove areas and are more scarce around smaller, fast-moving watercourses.  Along watercourses they have been recorded at elevations up to 1,525 m, but most records are from lowland areas.  Although fishing cats are widely distributed through a variety of habitat types (including both evergreen and tropical dry forest: Rabinowitz and Walker 1991), their occurrence tends to be highly localized (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Fishing cats are good swimmers, and unlike most other small cats may prey primarily on fish rather than small mammals.  A one-year study of scats in India's Keoladeo National Park found that fish comprised 76% of the diet, followed by birds (27%), insects (13%) and small rodents last (9%) (Haque and Vijayan 1993).  Molluscs, reptiles and amphibians are also taken (Haque and Vijayan 1993, Mukherjee 1989).  However, they are capable of taking large mammal prey, including small chital fawns (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), and have been seen scavenging livestock carcasses and tiger kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Predation on small domestic livestock and dogs has also been reported (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The only radio-telemetry study took place in Nepal's Chitwan National Park in the early 1990s.  Cats were active only at night and spent most of their time in dense tall and short grasslands, sometimes well away from water.  Home ranges of three females were 4?6 km²; that of a single male was larger at 16?22 km² (JLD Smith pers comm. in Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Fishing cats have been observed in degraded habitats, such as near aquaculture ponds with little vegetation outside the Indian city of Calcutta (P. Sanyal in Anon. 1989).
18150		population	eng	There is concern about the species status in Southeast Asia where it is very infrequently encountered and believed to be declining (Southeast Asia regional mammal assessment, 2003). There are very few records from camera trapping in Lao (Duckworth pers. comm. 2003) or Cambodia, although there are a sizeable number of confiscated live captive animals there (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005). There have been declines in Thailand (Anak pers. comm. 2003) where it is very rarely encountered (Steinmetz pers. comm. 2003) and was more common in the past (Anak pers. comm. 2003).  The fishing cat could not be confirmed in any reserves in Viet Nam during a survey of wildlife officers (Johnsingh and Nguyen 1995).  In 2004, the Fishing Cat SSP and the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden funded a field survey by Thai biologists Namfon Boontua and Budsabong Kanchanasaka to locate fishing cats in prime wetland areas in southern Thailand. Four months of camera trapping failed to find any sign of fishing cats despite confirmed presence of numerous other wildlife species. There have also been big declines in Lao PDR (W. Duckworth pers. comm), as well  as on the island of Java, where the population, possibly a valid subspecies  <em>Prionailurus viverrinus rizophoreus</em> (Sody 1936), may qualify as  Critically Endangered (Boeadi pers. comm.; Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996).  In India it has apparently been extirpated from large parts of its range in recent years (S. Mukherjee and J.A. Khan pers. comm. 2007), and it may no longer occur in Pakistan.
18150		threats	eng	Wetland destruction and degradation is the primary threat faced by the species (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Over 45% of protected wetlands and 94% of globally significant wetlands in Southeast Asia are considered threatened (Dugan 1993).  Threats to wetlands include human settlement, draining for agriculture, pollution, and excessive hunting, wood-cutting and fishing. In addition, clearance of coastal mangroves over the past decade has been rapid in Tropical Asia.  The depletion of fish stocks from over-fishing is prevalent in many Asian wetland environments and is likely to be a significant threat.  While fishing cats appear relatively tolerant of modified habitats, they are also vulnerable to accidental snaring, while generally not being a commercially valued species (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Widespread indiscriminate snaring, trapping and poisoning are believed to underlie recent declines in Southeast Asia, where fishing cats have not been found even in seemingly intact wetland habitats (Southeast Asia regional mammal assessment, 2003).  Kolipaka (2006) reported that fishermen have killed and eaten fishing cats which they say had taken fish from their nets.  Wetlands are under-represented in the matrix of Asian protected areas (W. Duckworth pers. comm.).  Fishing cat skins have been found in illegal trade in India for many years (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Anon 2005).
18151		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">   </span><em>Prionailurus&#160;iriomotensis</em>).
18164		conservation	eng	It is not known whether any of the localities are within protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
18164		distribution	eng	This Central African species is known from five widely dispersed localities. It has been recorded at Obala and Bitye in Cameroon, Mbaika and Boukoko in Central African Republic and from the Odzalla National Park in Congo. It has been recorded between 100 and 300 m asl.
18164		habitat	eng	It occurs in the open grassy areas of moist lowland tropical forest.
18164		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens from a few localities. It is difficult to trap, hence population surveys are hard to complete.
18164		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. There is not information about this species at present to determine threats.
18174		conservation	eng	Indonesia enacted legislation to protect sawfishes (and five other freshwater fish species) in Lake Sentani, West Papua, following severe depletion of populations in a gill net fishery (Compagno and Cook 2005a).  <br/> <br/>South Africa has outlawed the capture of all sawfish species for many years; first protection at KwaZulu-Natal provincial level was in 1978, national as critical in 1997. <br/> <br/>Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) lists Pristis microdon as a Protected species and Vulnerable in Queensland.India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected all species of sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001.  <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay and with the help of outside experts.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II.
18174		distribution	eng	A euryhaline species (except in Australia where it has only been recorded in freshwater) of the Indo-Pacific region. It has been recorded from southern Africa to Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago including Australia and the Philippines (Fowler 1941, Wallace 1967, Misra 1969, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a).  <br/> <br/>Freshwater records of <em>Pristis microdon</em> include rivers of South Africa, in the Shire, Zambezi, Sabie, and Lundi Rivers of Mozambique and Zimbabwe; Ganges and Bramaputra Rivers of India; possibly from the Chaophraya at Nantaburi above Paknam in Thailand; Perak, and possibly the Trembeling and Linggi Rivers in mainland Malaysia; the Kinabatangan and other large rivers in Sabah, Borneo; Grand Lac in Cambodia (Kampuchea); at Lake Naujan, Mindoro Island in the Philippines; Indragiri River near Rengat, Sumatra and Bandjermassing, Borneo in Indonesia; the Fly river system, Sepik and Laloki Rivers, and Lake Murray in Papua-New Guinea; Gilbert, Mitchell, Daly, Victoria, Ord, Fitzroy, Lynd, Walsh, Palmer, and Alligator Rivers, and Teogangini Creek in Australia (Boulenger 1909, Annandale 1909, Fowler 1941, Whitley 1940 and 1945, Smith 1945, Boeseman 1956, Alfred 1962, Stead 1963, Jubb 1967, Munro 1967, Misra 1969, Grant 1972 and 1978, Roberts 1978, Taniuchi 1979, Kottelat 1985, Merrick and Schmida 1984, Taniuchi and Shimizu 1991, Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a, Skelton 2001).
18174		habitat	eng	A large (to 700 cm) euryhaline sawfish with 18 to 23 evenly-spaced rostral teeth starting near the rostral base and extending over the entire length of the saw on each side; the posterior margin of the slender rostral teeth is grooved. It has broad nostrils with large nasal flaps, dorsal fins are high and pointed with first dorsal well forward of the pelvic-fin origins and the caudal fin lower lobe is small but distinct (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>This species, like the largetooth sawfish of the Americas, occurs far up rivers and in freshwater lakes throughout its range. However, it no longer occurs in a number of freshwater habitats where it was formerly recorded. The species is seen and very occasionally caught seasonally along with the bull shark <em>Carcharhinus leucas</em>, in rivers in Sabah, North Borneo, and, in lower stretches of the rivers, with the green sawfish <em>Pristis zijsron</em> (Compagno and Cook 2005b). <br/> <br/>The sawfishes are all ovoviviparous. The biology of this species is virtually unknown where it occurs, but, as with <em>P. perotteti</em>, it apparently breeds in fresh water. Size at maturity is unknown. Mature whole specimens are generally lacking in collections because of their size, but dried isolated rostra are generally well represented in collections although they often lack data (L. Compagno pers. obs).
18174		population	eng	Populations are becoming increasingly rare and fragmented and all those known are severely threatened by target and bycatch fisheries and deterioration of habitats. Many populations have been extirpated or nearly extirpated from large areas of their former range, with no or only very few observations reported in most range states since the 1960s, although they were reportedly common in many inshore waters at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th</sup> century.
18174		threats	eng	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, commercial and subsistence. Their morphology, particularly the long tooth-studded saw, makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including primitive fishing technology, and regardless of population size (which was probably always fairly small). When sawfish are taken in bycatch, they are often retained (particularly in areas where there is no legal protection) because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and rostral saws extremely valuable in international trade). They are also targeted opportunistically for the same reasons. Very large specimens have also been the target of trophy angling, e.g., in the Kinabatangan River, Sabah (L. Compagno pers. obs). <br/> <br/>According to the FAO online database, FIGIS, sawfish landings were recorded between 1962 and 2001, with a peak of 1759 t in 1978 worldwide, but most of these were outside the main Indo-Pacific range of this primarily freshwater species and some annual figures appear to be extrapolations from previous years. Reported landings have since declined steeply. Most reports suggest that numbers taken by fisheries from a great many localities have fallen noticeably since the 1960s, if not earlier.  <br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria, with most specimens sourced from Australia. The mortality rates associated with securing live sawfishes for this use is unknown. <br/> <br/>Major habitat impacts include river engineering (particularly dams), siltation from logging and agricultural activity upstream, and pollution from industries and mining operations. <em>P. microdon</em> has disappeared from many freshwater habitats (i.e., Chaophraya River, Thailand, for example, where it has not been reported in several decades (L. Compagno pers. obs). It was apparently wiped out along with other fishes in the Fly River system of Papua-New Guinea by recurrent, massive cyanide spills from heap-leach mining operations (Tyson Roberts, Bangkok personal communication 1996). Increased agricultural and industrial use of water in catchments reduces flow, closes river mouths and alters salinity, exacerbating the effects of climate change. This is currently very evident at St Lucia estuary in South Africa, which was once the major site for <em>Pristis</em>. Last and Stevens (1994) report that the species is highly vulnerable to gillnet fishing and that Australian populations may be threatened in streams by bycatch in poaching operations for barramundi <em>Lates calcarifer</em>.
18175		conservation	eng	The Nicaraguan government imposed a temporary moratorium on targeted fishing for sawfishes in Lake Nicaragua in the early 1980s (Thorson 1982), after the population collapsed following intensive fishing in the 1970s. The aim was to allow the population to recover, but no such recovery has occurred (McDavitt 2002 a). Protection was bolstered in 2006 with a Nicaraguan ban on fishing for sawfish, but only in Lake Nicaragua.Indonesia enacted legislation to protect sawfishes (and five other freshwater fish species) in Lake Sentani, West Papua, following severe depletion of populations in a gill net fishery (Compagno and Cook 2005).  <br/> <br/>The USA listed <em>Pristis pectinata</em> on the US Endangered Species List in 2003, following earlier protection in the State waters of Florida and Louisiana. This remnant population in the Gulf of Mexico is considered to have survived because of the benefits of large marine and coastal protected areas, including the establishment of the Everglades National Park in 1947, and as a result of a number of conservation measures during the 1990s, primarily species protection in Florida and Louisiana and a ban on all forms of entangling fishing nets in Florida State waters (Simpfendorfer 2002). The decline in this population may have ceased as a result of these measures. The state of Texas prohibited catch of smalltooth sawfish in concert with the ESA listing and has proposed similar action for largetooth sawfish based on similarity of appearance. A Smalltooth Sawfish Recovery Plan (under the ESA) is anticipated for release, comment, and implementation beginning in mid 2006 and is expected to include myriad conservation actions. <br/> <br/>All Australian sawfish populations are listed as Vulnerable or Endangered, either under Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) or by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB).  <br/> <br/>India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected all species of sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001.  <br/> <br/>No habitat protection measures have been identified specifically for sawfishes, but the large marine protected areas on Florida?s Gulf of Mexico coast have been identified (above) as a vital factor in the survival of Pristis pectinata on the US coast. Other protected areas, particularly those that include gill net bans, may have the potential to be similarly important for sawfish conservation. The US National Marine Fisheries Service is working to establish ?critical habitat? for sawfish pursuant to the Endangered Species Act listing. Habitat protection measures are likely to be part of the Smalltooth Sawfish Recovery Plan (see above). <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay and with the help of outside experts.<br/>                    <br/>All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II.
18175		conservation	eng	The species is currently protected in several areas as populations are under severe threat (Compagno and Cook 1995).
18175		distribution	eng	Possibly originally the most widespread <em>Pristis</em> species, but populations highly disjunct. Possibly less well adapted to freshwater than members of the <em>Pristis pristis</em> complex. Western Atlantic: North Carolina USA, to the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil (reported as far north as New York USA and as far south as Uruguay and northern Argentina). Eastern Atlantic: Mediterranean Sea and southern Portugal (now extirpated), Morocco to southern Angola (possibly northern Namibia), including Cameroon (Adams and Wilson 1995, Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Carvahlo <em>et al</em>. in press, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Fowler 1936 and 1941, Krefft and Stehmann 1973, Last and Stevens 1994, Misra 1969, Penrith 1978, Stehmann 1990, Vakily <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wallace 1967).  <br/> <br/>Recorded in freshwater (large rivers) in USA, Nicaragua, Colombia, Guyana, Brazil, Mali and Senegal (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Fowler 1936 and 1941, Thorson 1974, 1976a and 1982a, Thorson <em>et al</em>. 1966). Severe declines reported in several regions where it was formerly common, including eastern USA (Adams and Wilson 1996, Simpfendorfer 2002, Adams 2005). All species of sawfish seem to have been extirpated from the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean, although vagrants of this and other species may still occasionally enter the latter through the Suez Canal.
18175		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea there is a single definitive record of a smalltooth sawfish, <em>Pristis woermanni</em> Fischer, 1884 (also known as <em>P. pectinata</em>), described from Cameroon. The holotype (ZMH 6278), measures 785 mm in total length, and has 25/25 rostral spines. However, this may be a marine occurrence as no further locality information is available. Elsewhere this is a widespread species in warm tropical to subtemperate waters, recorded from the western Atlantic, eastern Atlantic, eastern Pacific, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific, but many of these records need verification. The species is currently protected in several areas as populations are under severe threat.
18175		habitat	eng	<em>Pristis pectinata</em> is a reef-associated, amphidromous species. It is an inshore and intertidal species, but may cross deep water to reach offshore islands; also ascends rivers and can tolerate fresh water. <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is commonly seen in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and river mouths. It is also found in rivers and lakes. <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is ovoviviparous with gravid females containing about 15-20 embryos. The embryos feed solely on yolk. It gives birth in shallow bays and estuaries.  The size at is birth 61 cm. It uses its saw to stir the bottom when feeding on bottom invertebrates and to kill pelagic fishes. <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is utilized as a food fish; oil is used to make medicine, soap and in leather tanning. Adults are stuffed for decoration. It has been reported to be aggressive towards sharks when kept in tanks.
18175		habitat	eng	<em>Pristis pectinata</em> is known from tropical and warm temperate nearshore ocean waters. Juveniles are common in very shallow waters, but adults occur to depths over 100 m (Poulakis and Seitz 2004, Simpfendorfer and Wiley 2005). They are thought to spend most time on or near the seabed, but occasionally swim at the surface. There are many records from coastal lagoons, estuarine environments and the lower, brackish drainages of rivers (Yarrow 1877, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Swingle 1971).  <br/> <br/>The diet of <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is primarily fish, but it also consumes crustaceans and other bottom dwelling organisms (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b). Breder (1952) summarized the function of the saw in the feeding strategy of <em>P. pectinata</em>, noting that prey is impaled on the rostral teeth then scraped-off on the bottom and consumed. <br/> <br/>This species is very large-bodied (550 cm, possibly 760 cm TL). Because it grows slowly, it is believed to mature late and large individuals are thought to be very old. The four-generation period could even be 100 years or more. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) suggest that large females produce between 15 and 20 young per year; the young are born at 70 to 80 cm TL (Simpfendorfer unpublished data). Size at maturity is estimated as 320 cm TL. Maximum life span is estimated to be 40 to 70 yrs and generation times are approximately 27 yr. Annual rate of population increase estimated as 0.08 to 0.13. (Adams and Williams 1995, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Simpfendorfer 2000, 2002, Adams 2005). <br/> <br/>Simpfendorfer (2000) estimated a population doubling time for <em>P. pectinata</em> of between 5.4 and 8.5 years under ideal conditions (no fisheries mortality, no population fragmentation, no habitat modification and no inbreeding depression arising from the genetic consequences of a small population size). He noted that the life history of these species makes any significant level of fishing unsustainable and that recovery from any population decline would be slow (taking decades to a point where extinction risk will be low, or centuries to recover to pre-European settlement levels in the USA).
18175		population	eng	No information available.
18175		population	eng	Populations are becoming increasingly rare and fragmented and all those known are severely threatened by target and bycatch fisheries and deterioration of habitats. Many populations have been extirpated or nearly extirpated from large areas of their former range, with no or only very few observations reported in most range states since the 1960s, although they were reportedly common in many inshore waters at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th </sup>century (Goode 1884, Henshall 1895, Jordan and Evermann 1996, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). <br/> <br/>Adams and Wilson (1996) examined the reduction in populations of <em>Pristis pectinata</em> in the USA, concluding that both population and range have been severely reduced. In the late 19th Century, one fisherman reported catching 300 sawfish in his nets in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA (Evermann and Bean 1898), but Snelson and Wilson (1981) reported the extirpation of sawfish from this formerly important site. The portion of the population that used to disperse north along the eastern coast of the USA as far as New York may have been completely lost. Bycatch rates in Louisiana shrimp trawlers declined steeply during the late 1950s and early 1960s and none have been reported since the 1970s (Simpfendorfer 2002). The Gulf of Mexico population is severely reduced, with isolated and very small populations perhaps totalling a couple of thousand individuals remaining off Florida and perhaps venturing to adjacent waters, compared with estimates of hundreds of thousands in the late 1800s (Simpfendorfer 2002). These now receive the USA?s strongest protection, but awareness of these measures is still poor and may leave individuals at risk for mortality based on curiosity or ignorance. The number or size of other remaining populations is unknown and not likely to be determined in the near future. The only population thought not to be in imminent danger of extinction, because it appears to have stopped declining and may now have stabilised at extremely low numbers, is that in the coastal waters on the Gulf coast of Florida, USA, where marine and estuarine protected areas and a gill net ban are in place, (Simpfendorfer 2000). This population is less than 5% (as little as 1%) of its size at the time of European settlement (Simpfendorfer 2002).
18175		threats	eng	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, because their long tooth-studded saw makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear.  <br/> <br/>There have been some large-scale target sawfish fisheries: in Lake Nicaragua in the 1970s, in the south-eastern United States in the 19<sup>th</sup> and early 20<sup>th</sup> century, and possibly in Brazil from 1960s to 1980s (bycatch is still landed in this range state). According to the FAO online database, FIGIS, sawfish landings were recorded between 1962 and 2001, with a peak of 1,759 t in 1978 worldwide. Most landings were from South America. A strong decline in reported landings took place between 1884 and 1995, partly masked by estimates of landings by FAO (it is unclear how these estimates were reached), despite some landings declared by Pakistan between 1987 and 1995, reaching 84 t in 1990. In West Africa, Liberia declared some landings between 1997 and 2000, ranging from 41 to 48 t. Landings are now only recorded sporadically and in very small quantities in world fisheries. <br/> <br/>Populations are now so depleted, however, that commercial targeting of sawfish stocks for meat is no longer economically viable. Most sawfishes have been and still are killed in broad-spectrum commercial and artisanal fisheries, particularly set net and trawl fisheries that target a very wide range of fishes and invertebrates. Sawfishes are retained in these fisheries, just as they were in former target fisheries, because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and rostral saws extremely valuable in international trade). They are also targeted opportunistically for the same reasons.  <br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria, although most specimens today are sourced from Australia. The mortality rates associated with securing live sawfishes for this use is unknown. Trophy angling for very large specimens has been reported (Compagno and Cook 2005, www.fishbase.org, Simpfendorfer 2002).  <br/> <br/>Degradation of this species? shallow coastal and brackish habitat is associated with high levels of human activity, including through pollution, prey depletion, and coastal or riverine developments, including mangrove clearance, canal development and seawall construction (Simpfendorfer 2002).
18175		threats	eng	The species has minor commercial importance.
18176		conservation	eng	The Nicaraguan government imposed a temporary moratorium on targeted fishing for sawfish in Lake Nicaragua in the early 1980s (Thorson 1982), after the population collapsed following intensive fishing in the 1970s. The aim was to allow the population to recover, but no such recovery has occurred (McDavitt 2002a). Protection was bolstered in 2006 with a Nicaraguan ban on fishing for sawfish, but only in Lake Nicaragua. <br/> <br/>In the USA <em>P. perotteti</em> is protected by several states (Florida, Louisiana), but not Federally. It has been proposed for inclusion in the US Endangered Species Act as either endangered or threatened (comment by LRH May 27th 2010).<br/><br/>The smalltooth sawfish <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is on the US Endangered Species List (ESA) (since 2003). This remnant population of <em>P. pectinata</em> in the Gulf of Mexico is considered to have survived because of the benefits of large marine and coastal protected areas, including the establishment of the Everglades National Park in 1947, and as a result of a number of conservation measures during the 1990s, primarily species protection in Florida and Louisiana and a ban on all forms of entangling fishing nets in Florida State waters (Simpfendorfer 2002). The decline in this population may have ceased as a result of these measures. The state of Texas prohibited catch of smalltooth sawfish in concert with the ESA listing and has proposed similar action for largetooth sawfish based on similarity of appearance.  <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of smalltooth sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay and with the help of outside experts. A similar ban on the largetooth sawfish has not been established to date. <br/> <br/>The Brazilian Environment Ministry edited a federal law (MMA-IN05/2004) that has also considered it a threatened species and indicated that it should be protected. Enforcement of this protection has been a great challenge. <br/> <br/>Further appropriate protection measures and fisheries controls are required to prevent this species from being extirpated where populations still persist. <br/> <br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II (comment by LRH May 27th 2010).
18176		distribution	eng	<strong></strong><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: USA (Texas (historically), Louisiana, and occasionally south Flo<strong></strong>rida), Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Caribbean Sea, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Historically reported from: Gibraltar, Spain, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zaire, Angola, and also possibly in the Mediterranean Sea.  Present reported range: Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.
18176		habitat	eng	A large-bodied euryhaline sawfish of warm-temperate and tropical waters (>18°C to at least 30°C). Mostly nearshore marine, brackish and freshwater (river and lake) environments (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b), but adults may occur across the continental shelf. Though not precisely known, it probably spends most of its time on or near the bottom. However, it is also commonly observed in the wild and in public aquaria swimming quite near the surface for extended periods of time. <br/> <br/>The largetooth sawfish is an adept predator, feeding on a variety of small bony fishes, which it stuns with its saw before consuming, and invertebrates, which it stirs with its saw from the substrate (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, McCormack <em>et al</em>. 1963, T.B. Thorson pers. comm). It is ovoviviparous and gives birth to 1 to 13 fully developed young per litter with 7 to 9 young being the most common litter sizes (Thorson 1976). Size at birth is about 76 cm TL (Nicaraguan specimens) or slightly less (around 60 cm TL) for northern Brazil (P. Charvet-Almeida pers. obs). In Lake Nicaragua the breeding season has been reported to be in early June and sometimes July. After a five-month gestation, young are born from early October to perhaps early December (Oetinger 1978). Size and age at sexual maturity for both males and females is 240 to 300 cm at about 10 years old (Thorson 1982b). Mean generation time for this species is thought to be about 16 years (Simpfendorfer 2000). Mean maximum adult size is at least 570 cm TL and as much as 700 cm TL (Almeida 1999), though specimens residing in Lake Nicaragua reach only about 430 cm TL maximum. It attains a maximum weight of at least 608 kg (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Oetinger 1978). Its lifespan in the wild is unknown, although its maximum age is thought to be around 30 years (Cook <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/> <br/>Demographic analysis for <em>P. perotteti</em>, based on life history parameters from the Lake Nicaragua stock, produces estimates of intrinsic rates of increase of 0.05 to 0.07 year<sup>-1</sup>, and population doubling times of 10.3 to 13.6 years (Simpfendorfer 2000). There is no information regarding its life history characteristics from elsewhere within its range.
18176		population	eng	The population size of this species remains unknown. Its abundance has been continuously declining over the past few decades to the point that it can now be considered rare or even extirpated in some areas where it was previously considered a common species. Probably the largest or one of the last largest populations survives in the northern region of South America (P. Charvet-Almeida pers. obs).
18176		threats	eng	This species has been fished intensively at various locations within its range, with a dramatic decline in local stocks noted as a result. In Lake Nicaragua (Nicaragua, Central America) Thorson noted large catches of largetooth sawfish during his preliminary visits to Granada in 1963 (T.B. Thorson pers. comm). However, intense fishing efforts for sawfish and the bull shark <em>Carcharhinus leucas</em> in the lake led to rapid decline of stocks of both species (Thorson 1974, 1976, 1980, 1982a, 1987). Taniuchi (1992) did not see any sawfish or bull sharks in the lake during his survey of Central American freshwater elasmobranchs. He noted that during the entire previous season only one of each species had been reported in the fishery. Tanaka (1994) did observe a few specimens of the largetooth sawfish in his studies of Lake Nicaragua. The fisheries for largetooth sawfish in Lake Nicaragua have been characterized by continued effort long after local stocks were practically non-existent. Products recovered from this species are typical of those for other species of sawfishes and include dried saws for curios (primary product), meat for human consumption, fins and to a lesser degree, hides for leather. It is unknown if useable fins are or were recovered from largetooth sawfish for the shark fin trade. Since stocks of the largetooth sawfish in Central America were fished down well before the current surge in interest in shark fins in the mid-1980s, the impact of the sharkfin trade on this species is uncertain but could be important in limiting recovery of the species. <br/> <br/>The occurrence of this species off the Brazilian coast is historically described as a vast coastal area ranging from the northern to southeastern coast, but recent reports indicate a distribution restricted to the northern coast (Menni and Stehmann 2000). It has been extirpated from the southeastern Brazilian coast and is in decline in other regions as a result of artisanal and commercial fishing. Habitat modifications probably also affect this species, especially mangrove forest reduction. According to FAO data (Food and Agricultural Organization) the contribution of sawfish to the total percentage of sharks and rays landed in the north Brazilian region is large (Bonfil 1994). <em>P. perotteti</em> is routinely fished in north Brazil, having its meat, fins and saws traded (Charvet-Almeida 2002). Local fishermen mention a local population declining over the past 15 years (Charvet-Almeida 1999). Both <em>P. pectinata </em>and<em> P. perotteti</em> are considered threatened species in Brazil (Rosa and Menezes 1996).
18177		conservation	eng	None known.
18177		conservation	eng	There are currently no management or conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II (comment added by LRH May 27th 2010).
18177		distribution	eng	A sketchily-known large sawfish of the Mediterranean (where it no longer occurs) and eastern Atlantic. It has been recorded from Portugal south to Angola and possibly to Namibia (Fowler 1936, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Krefft and Stehmann 1973, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Stehmann 1990, Compagno and Cook 1995a). Freshwater records of Common Sawfish are from Mali or Senegal in the Faleme River and possibly Gambia in the Gambia River (Compagno and Cook 1995a).
18177		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pristis pristis</em> is found in fresh or brackish water recorded from the lower Ogowe and its estuary (Séret 1990), Port Gentil and Nkomi lagoon (Mbega and Teugels 2003), and Lake Onangue (Gilbert <em>et al.</em> 1989, as <em>P. microdon</em>), but further definitive freshwater records are needed (and in particular voucher specimens). We have examined a photograph of a large saw (approximately 1 m in length) with fewer than 20 pairs of rostral spines (and therefore identified as <em>P. pristis</em>) that is presently in Lambaréné (Gabon). It may be from the Ogowe River, but more precise locality data is not available. Elsewhere this is a very widespread species, occurring circumglobally in warm tropical to subtemperate waters (often recorded as <em>Pristis perotteti</em> or even <em>P. microdon</em> in other areas, (Last and Stevens 1994; McEachran and de Carvalho 2002; and Carvalho and McEachran 2003).
18177		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, the common sawfish has been reported from the rivers Casamance, Gambia, Cacheu. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong></strong>  Elsewhere the species is reported from the rivers Ogowe and Congo.
18177		habitat	eng	<em>Pristis pristis</em> is a demersal, oceanodromous species that inhabits inshore coastal waters to moderate depth, also around off lying islands. It is also found in estuaries, lagoons, river mouths, and even freshwater. <em>Pristis pristis</em> feeds on fishes and bottom-living animals. It is ovoviviparous; the embryos feed solely on yolk (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997).
18177		habitat	eng	This species inhabits inshore coastal waters to moderate depth, also around off lying islands.  Found also in estuaries, lagoons, river mouths, and even freshwater. Feeds on fishes and bottom-living animals.  Ovoviviparous.  Freshwater populations occur to about 750 km up Amazon River; populations in Lake Nicaragua may be non-migratory.
18177		habitat	eng	Very little is known of this misnamed sawfish, which is actually quite rare. All sawfishes are ovoviviparous, but little else is known of the reproductive biology of the Common Sawfish. Its size at maturity is unknown, but its maximum length is about 5 m. Mature specimens are generally lacking in collections, small specimens are rare and isolated saws attributed to the species may be misidentified members of the <em>Pristis microdon</em> group. Virtually all aspects of its biology could benefit from additional field collections and museum preparations.
18177		population	eng	Fec assumed to be <100.
18177		population	eng	No available data.
18177		threats	eng	Common sawfish is presumably caught in inshore fisheries with net and line gear set for other species. It lives in places subject to heavy artisanal and commercial fisheries and will tend to be taken incidentally wherever it occurs. Some West African populations of sawfishes have recently been heavily depleted as a result of increased coastal elasmobranch fisheries effort (Mathieu Ducroq in litt.).
18177		threats	eng	<em>Pristis pristis</em> is extremely vulnerable to bycatch and is believed to be severely depleted in Africa, where elasmobranch fisheries effort has increased. Without timely intervention, there is a high probability that this sawfish will become extinct.
18177		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fishing pressure.
18178		distribution	eng	This cave cricket was first discovered at Samwell Cave, Shasta Co., northwestern California. Since its discovery specimens have also been collected from Potter Creek cave (approximately 20 miles from Samwell cave). Its distribution is now thought to be more widespread, however, further work is necessary to determine this. Its conservation status is currently under review.
18178		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to caves.
18182		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed. Catch, trade and transportation is forbidden in Laos (Kottelat and Whitten 1996) where it is a Schedule II species (I. Baird pers. comm. 2011), and is also listed in the Red Data Book for Viet Nam (Baird 2006). International trade is banned (CITES Annex I, since 1975).<br/><br/>The Cambodian government is regulating the use of large mesh gill nets in northeastern Cambodia. The species reportedly benefited from freshwater conservation zones established in southern Lao PDR during the 1990’s (Baird 2006), but some of these zones may no longer exist.&#160; The species would benefit from fishing regulations to control overharvest and protected areas to safeguard spawning sites.
18182		distribution	eng	Historically recorded from the Mekong in Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR (to at least northern Laos), and from Malaysia (the Pahang  and Perak basins). In Thailand it is known from the Menam and Chao Phraya basins.<br/><br/>In the Pahang River Basin of Malaysia, the species is either extirpated or extremely rare, and populations have dropped significantly in the Perak River Basin due to hydropower development and subsequent changes in stream hydrology (Baird 2006). Roberts (1992) and Baird (2006) state that the Mekong River supports the last relatively healthy population of the species. As recently as 1989 it was reported as “extremely abundant” in the Mekong, but subsequent accounts indicate a significant drop in abundance since (Roberts and Warren 1994; Roberts and Baird 1995; Singhanouvong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). Populations in many locations in Lao PDR appear to have declined significantly (Baird 2006).
18182		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits mainly the mainstream of large rivers, with sand or gravel substrates and abundant mollusc populations. Occurs in deep slow reaches.<span> Undertakes short distance spawning and trophic migrations in the Mekong basin (Baird 2006). <span><span><span><span><span><span><br/><br/>Adults of the species appear to prefer main river habitats, whereas juveniles will enter floodplain habitats during the rainy season. The species is omnivorous, feeding on zooplankton, aquatic plans, fruits, invertebrates, molluscs, shrimp, and crabs (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004; Baird 2006).<br/><br/>Age at maturity is unclear. Mattson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) reports that mature males weigh 5-20 kg; mature females weigh 10-50 kg. In captivity, male broodstock mature at 2-7 kg while female broodstock mature at 5-15 kg (Mattson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).<br/><br/>The species spawns during the dry season between November and February (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004; Baird 2006). Several spawning sites have been identified within the Mekong River basin.<span><span> Trophic migrations occurs throughout its occurrence range  which takes  place mainly at the onset of the flood season and are  mainly undertaken  by juveniles and subadults.<br/><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><br/>Young of the species move out of the Tonle Sap River and into the Mekong River in October and November (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Adult fish make upstream spawning migrations. One tagged individual moved 135 km upstream from the Tonle Sap River up the Mekong River (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).&#160; “Upstream spawning migrations take place between October and February from Kompong Cham in Cambodia to Chiang Khong in Thailand. At Chiang Khong, fishermen reported that Probarbus moves up the tributary Nam Ta in Laos to breed in March-April. Three <span style="font-style: italic;">Probarbus </span>species were also reported to migrate together, but spawn separately, in January-February at Sungkom, Nong Khai Province in Thailand” (Sohkeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).<br/><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
18182		population	eng	<span>In the Mekong  this important fisheries species is under serious  long-term decline and  this decline evidently is basin-wide and the most  obvious (but not  necessarily only) reason is overfishing with gillnets  during the  reproductive migrations and spawning periods (Roberts and Warren 1994; Baird 2006<span>).  The average weight of individual fish in catches has declined from 70 kg  or more to 5-20 kg  (Roberts and Baird 1995).<br/><br/>The species is thought to contribute around 0.3% of the total fish catch in the lower Mekong (c.3,030 tonnes per year; ICEM 2010).&#160;<span><span>The species contributes 65% of a large meshed (18-25 cm mesh)  fishery just below the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR<span><span><span>, however from 1993 to 1998 it declined from 64 to 27 <span>fish caught <span>per season <span>(Baird 2006).<span><br/><span><span><span><span><span><span><br/><span><span>Healthy populations may only occur in the Mekong basin (Roberts 1992) and even there populations have been declining. Populations have been locally extirpated in the Mekong basin (Baird 2006). <br/><br/>The species is believed to benefit from the protection of deep water pools in the mainstream of rivers in the dry season (Baird 2006; Baird and Flaherty 2005).<br/><br/>In 1945, populations had been thought to have been declining for at least the last 65 years (Smith 1945) in central Thailand. Roberts and Baird (1995) reported that just below the Khone falls it had declined by 80-90% between 1970-1995. Roberts and Warren (1994) reported that at Hee Island, above the Khone Falls, 100 individuals used to be caught per day, but that only 60 were caught per day in 1992, and in 1993 only a maximum of 22 were caught per day, and 92 in the whole season. More dramatically, the fishery at Say Island in Champasak Province above the Falls, the fishery for the species crashed crashed in 1993, although in the previous year they had caught 60 fish (Roberts and Baird 1995).<br/><br/>In Malaysia the species has been seriously impacted by dams in the Perak basin, which have destroyed a number of spawning sites (Baird 2006).<br/><br/>A population decline across the species range of 50% is inferred from catch data from the Khone falls area (Baird 2006), from loss of local populations in the Mekong basin, and from information from other parts of the species range.<br/><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
18182		threats	eng	This species is impacted by overfishing (primary the large-mesh gill net fishery; Allan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), habitat destruction, and large dams. Passage through mainstream hydro power dams is considered "Not viable" (M.R.C. 2009), and the species does not survive in reservoirs (Baird 2006).<br/><br/><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>The species is particularly vulnerable to over exploitation since adults from spawning aggregations are  targeted by fishermen on the spawning grounds (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2011).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
18183		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat and population trends is required, especially in relation to impacts of large mainstream dams. The species benefits from community conservation of deep pool habitats in the Mekong (Baird and Flaherty 2005; Baird 2006).
18183		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Mekong, and is only known from the Mekong mainstream from Nakorn Phanom Province (Thailand) and Sambor District, Kratie District (Cambodia). It is also found in the Sesan, Sekong and Srepok tributaries of the Mekong.
18183		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits mainly the mainstream of large rivers, with sand or  gravel substrates and abundant mollusc populations. Occurs in deep slow  reaches.<span> Undertakes short distance spawning and trophic migrations  in the Mekong basin (Baird 2006).  Trophic migrations occurs throughout  its occurrence range which takes  place mainly at the onset of the  flood season and are mainly undertaken  by juveniles and subadults. The  species spawns between November and January in the Mekong, and f<span><span><span><span>eeds on aquatic plants, insects and shelled molluscs <span><span> (Baird 2006).<span><br/><br/><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>The  species is  believed to benefit from the protection of deep water pools  in the  mainstream of rivers in the dry season (<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Baird and  Flaherty  2005<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>; Baird 2006).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
18183		population	eng	Populations of this fish have declined but the species is still seen regularly.<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span> Healthy  populations may occur in the Mekong basin (Roberts 1992) and even  there populations have been declining. I<span>n the Mekong  this important fisheries species is under serious   long-term decline and  this decline evidently is basin wide and the most   obvious (but not  necessarily only) reason is overfishing with  gillnets  during the  reproductive migrations and spawning periods  (Roberts and Warren 1994; Baird 2006<span>).<br/><br/><span>The species contributes 12.8% of a large meshed (18-25 cm mesh)  fishery just below the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR (Baird 2006)<span><span><span><span><span><span><span>, however from 1993 to 1998 it declined from 22 fish to 4 <span>fish caught <span>per season <span>(Baird 2006). In terms of weight, the catch declined by over 80% over the same period. A population decline of at least 50% is inferred across the global population of the species, though this is likely to be an underestimate.<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
18183		threats	eng	The species is impacted by overfishing, habitat destruction, and large  dams (both future mainstream dams and existing dams on the tributaries). Passage through mainstream hydropower dams is considered unlikely, and the species is not expected to do well in reservoirs  (Baird 2006).
18184		conservation	eng	Research and survey into the species' current distribution and population trends is required. The species is assessed as CR in the Thai Red Data book (Vidthayanon 2005).
18184		distribution	eng	<span>The species is endemic to the lower Mekong River, only found in the Lao PDR, Cambodian and Thai parts in a restricted part of the basin, <span>from the lower parts of the Mun River up to Nakhon  Phanom in Thailand (Roberts 1992) in the Mekong mainstream, and possibly the lower parts of other tributaries. <span>A record from Kompong Chhnang, on the Tonle Sap River in Cambodia, requires confirmation as this is well outside the species' previously known range (I. Baird pers. comm. 2011), however the species is present in the Mekong mainstream in Cambodia downstream as far as Stung Treng (observed in 2006; C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span>The Extent of Occurrence of the species is estimated at no more than 1,300 km<sup>2</sup>, based on its known locations from Stung Treng and upstream.</span></span>
18184		habitat	eng	Occurs in upland reaches of large and medium sized rivers. Found in upland reaches of Mekong basin, also to the mouth of the Mun River (Rainboth 1996), perhaps in the floodplain stretches of larger tributaries, and feeds on benthic organisms and insect larvae. Undergoes upstream movement for spawning (Vidthayanon 2005). The generation length is estimated at 2-3 years (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), however there is little ecological information available for the species.
18184		population	eng	Rainboth (1996) reported that it was abundant at the mouth of the Mun River in 1975, however it has not been reported within its known range since it was described in 1992. Whilst the species is apparently very rare, it is often mistaken for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">jullieni,</span> and is likely to be under-recorded (M. Kottelat and C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011). Populations are inferred to be declining due to fishery pressures and habitat degradation.
18184		threats	eng	Fishing and dams would present threats to the species. The scale of impacts from fisheries is uncertain; there are no data available, and representation of the species within catches is likely to be under-recorded.<br/><br/>Whilst at least two dams are proposed within the known within the mainstream range of the species (the dams at Ban Koum and Don Sahong), the construction of these is still in the planning stage, and the likely construction dates are uncertain; these are most likely to be beyond the three generation length period (generation length is estimated at 2-3 years) of the species. The impact of dams is also uncertain; whilst dams within the species' known range would impact upon species' movements, too little is known of the species' ecology and movement patterns to be certain of the proportion of the population that will be impacted by the dams if they were to be constructed. The impact of upstream dams on the species is similarly uncertain. Populations within the main Mekong tributaries, such as the Mun River (if these tributaries are utilised by the species), will be impacted by  existing dams, as well as those that are likely to be constructed in the  near future.
18188		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and a decline in quality of habitat (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to monitor the population trends and habitat status of this species, as well as the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. Site protection is also required to restrict access to the known locations of this species. <br/></p><p></p>
18188		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from only one locality in Orange County, Florida, and three in Seminole County, Florida (Franz and Lee 1982).   This species has estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 3,000 km².
18188		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in springs and underground streams (Hobbs 1989). These karst systems include sinkholes, underground streams, wells and caves (NatureServe 2009).
18188		population	eng	This species is found in small numbers (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18188		threats	eng	This species' habitat is likely to be under threat due to alterations in the hydrological regime, and water pollution leaching into the aquifer. The limited distribution of this species renders it even more vulnerable to such threats. Water quality conditions in Florida aquatic caves, are said to be 'poor and declining' (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009). All known occurrences are within close vicinity of Orlando city (NatureServe 2009) and so are likely to be affected by urban development, and pollution (industrial and domestic).
18189		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of GH by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine abundance, habitat ecology and any major threats impacting this species.
18189		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was located in Carrollton, Carroll County, Mississippi (Fetzner 2008). However, recent attempts to locate this species in Caroll County weere unsuccessful, as the habitat was not suitable. Furthermore, burrows, which may be from this species, were seen in Caroll County, Alabama, and targeted surveys are planned. In addition, it is thought that it may be locally Extinct in Mississippi (S. Adams. pers. comm. 2009).
18189		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower (Fitzpatrick 1978).
18189		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is thought that this species may be locally Extinct in Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
18189		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, it is thought that this species may be locally Extinct in Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
18191		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Monitoring of the range, and population trends of this species is needed to determine at what rate subpopulations are being lost.</p><p></p>  <p></p>
18191		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the coastal flatwoods in Franklin, Bay, Walton and Gulf counties, Florida (Hobbs 1942) in which this species is still present. This species has a distribution of approximately 4,000 km² which is severely fragmented as a result of urbanization (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). In addition this species may occur in Calhoun County, although this may represent a separate species, based on preliminary data (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
18191		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seasonal lentic (lakes, pools) situations and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989). It also inhabits depressions in the flatwoods where water stands during some periods of the year (Hobbs and Hart 1959, Hobbs 1942). When the depression becomes dry, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>constructs simple burrows (secondary burrower) (Hobbs and Hart 1959, Hobbs 1942).
18191		population	eng	Hobbs and Hart (1958) described this species as abundant within its small range. More recent accounts suggest this species is abundant where suitable habitat is available (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
18191		threats	eng	Although this species is not present in Panama City, it is impacted by ongoing urbanization on the outskirts of the city (NatureServe 2009,&#160;P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
18192		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). It is only known from a locality that may be a managed area, as the site was purchased by St. Johns River Water Management District and is being developed as a public recreation area, probably to be managed by the U.S. Forest Service (Franz pers. comm. 1992 cited in NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the population abundance this species. Protection measures are also needed for this species.
18192		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality at Silver Glen Springs, Astor Park, Marion County, Florida (Hobbs and Franz 1992). This species has a distribution of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
18192		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters in a cave chamber 213 m from its main entrance, consisting of a water depth of 49 m (Hobbs and Franz 1992). Individuals were observed sequestering in crevices or on the substrate. This cave system has a strong outflow current, and as a result there is no accumulation of organic detritus in the cave. Furthermore, the food source for this species may come from bacterial growth and the death of other cave species (Hobbs and Franz 1992). The life history of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is unknown, but due to the low levels of nutrients reaching the cave chamber due to the strong outflow current, it can be assumed that this species has a late reproductive maturity and a long life history making it susceptible to loss of individuals.
18192		population	eng	Although only three animals have been collected, Hobbs and Franz (1992) reported that the collectors observed several more sequestered in small crevices in the walls of the cave. A recent scientific dive, however, observed numbers comparable to those present when the species was first described (P Moler pers. comm. 2010)
18192		threats	eng	The cave where this species is present, is located in a recreation area in the Ocala Natural Forest (Florida Adventuring 2008). The pool outside of the cave was used frequently by tourists for snorkelling and scuba diving (Florida Adventuring 2008), although this has now been prohibited (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010). The entrance to Natural Well solution tube has been roped off to protect wildlife (Florida Adventuring  2008).&#160;Water pollution from tourists may also have a negative impact on this species (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
18193		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and more precise information on its range.
18193		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known only from the Jackson Prairie area, chiefly in Newton and Scott, Jasper, Smith and Rankin Counties, Mississippi (Adams 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately 3079 km<sup>2</sup>.
18193		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to be a primary burrower (Fetzner 2008). It is also known to occur in ditches, lawns, prairie soils and burrows are often found some distance from watercourses. Furthermore, it has been found found in disturbed and undisturbed habitats (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18193		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, furthermore, it is difficult to determine the abundance of this species as it is a primary burrower (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
18193		threats	eng	The TVA is upgrading a section of transmission line in Scott county, which will see heavy equipment moving through the Jackson Prairie area. The presence of heavy vehicles will cause the soils to compact, crushing the burrows of this species (carnegiemnh 2005). Additionally, the construction work that will take place, will cause increased run-off making the water turbid and increasing sedimentation (carnegiemnh 2005). <br/><br/>Conversion of prairie to agricultural land leads to extirpation of this species, and re-estalishment of prairie does not see the return of this species (Fitzpatrick 1996). Land use may pose a significant threat to this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
18194		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing decline in habitat quality (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the population trends and threats faced by this species.<br/></p><p></p>
18194		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lower Brazos River valley, Brazoria County, Texas between the San Bernard River and Oyster Creek, extending inland from the Gulf of Mexico approximately 32 km (Albaugh 1975). Extensive collecting has not revealed any further specimens although Albaugh (1975) believes this species once occupied a larger range. This species is surrounded by closely related species, so it is unlikely that this species could extend its range (Albaugh 1975, NatureServe 2009). Furthermore, this species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 218 km², and its range is severely fragmented (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18194		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species has been described as a ditch beside a road. The ditch was 100 m long and one metre wide, and commonly contains water up to 0.3 m deep, although it does dry completely when there is no rain (Albaugh 1975).
18194		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18194		threats	eng	No species-specific threats have been reported, although inter-specific competition and hybridization has been suggested as a potential cause of the extirpation of this species in its potential former range (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). There is no evidence for this however, but due to the localized nature of this population it is possible that this may be a threat. Additionally, due to the extremely localized distribution, habitat destruction is a major concern for this species (NatureServe 2009). An ongoing decline in the quality of this species habitat has been reported, but it is not clear as to the contributing factors (NatureServe 2009).
18195		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 NatureServe and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the population status of this species, as well as its current distribution and threats impacting upon it.
18195		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in Lowndes and Oktibbeha counties, Mississippi (Fetzner 2008), currently found in less than five locations (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010). This species has been extirpated from the type locality, as the habitat no longer exists due to habitat modification&#160; (B. Jones pers. comm. 2009). This species has an approximate distribution of 2,382 km<sup>2</sup>.
18195		habitat	eng	<span class="fieldLabel"><span class="copy">This species is found in relatively simple burrows in flatwoods or meadows in rich, well-drained soils with bedrock approximately seven meters below the surface. The species is a primary burrower (NatureServe 2009).</span>
18195		population	eng	Current records for this species are from 1968 and 1969 taken from 3 localities; though few samples were collected so it is difficult to specify population numbers (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009.). Furthermore<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>this species is considered rare and of special concern (Fitzpatrick 1996).
18195		threats	eng	It has been extirpated from the type locality, due to habitat modification (urbanization).&#160;Poison was historically used to control the numbers of this species, as it was considered a pest species due to problems it caused to crops (Lyle 1937); it is uncertain whether farmers in the region still use pesticides to eliminate the crayfish from farmland (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species is likely to still be threatened by urbanization due to the expansion of Starkville (a city in&#160;Oktibbeha county),&#160;and from modern agricultural practices such as row crop farming throughout its range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010); however this has not been extensively looked in to.
18196		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Surveys are needed to confirm the presence of this species.</p>
18196		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from its type locality, a single spring within&#160;Ocala Natural Forest, Lake County, Florida (Hobbs and Franz 1986).   This species has a distribution of less than 100 km².
18196		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters and springs (Hobbs and Franz 1986). This species is found in one pool where the water enters from numerous small openings and cracks, none of which are large enough for a person to enter (Hobb and Franz 1986). The spring is covered by numerous boils (upheaval of water at the surface) (Hobbs and Franz 1986). The substrate varies from sand to limestone rocks and boulders (Hobbs and Franz 1986). It is unknown how <span style="font-style: italic;">P. delicatus </span>receives nutrients, however there is loose debris that accumulates in stagnant areas near the spring boils (Hobbs and Franz 1986).
18196		population	eng	In a study conducted by Relyea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1976), one specimen was found outside of the subterranean system resting on a pile of loose debris and a second specimen was found at the main cave entrance by the main boil (an upheaval of water at the surface). Hobbs and Franz (1986) anticipate that the population of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is small and that is why so few have been recorded. One more specimen of this species was collected in 1986 while seining the vegetation around a spring pool (P Moler pers. comm. 2010).
18196		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by disturbance from tourism. The spring is a major tourist attraction which is used for fishing, snorkelling, swimming, and is popular with SCUBA divers (Ocala National Forest Visitor Centre 2008), resulting in degraded habitat.
18197		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the extent to which it is being impacted upon by threats within its range. In addition, site protection is required to prevent further degradation of the habitat of this species. <br/></p><p></p>
18197		distribution	eng	This sprecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the environs of Panama City, Bay County, Florida (Hobbs 1989). Within this area, its distribution is severely fragmented. Its range is bounded on three sides by the St. Andrews Bay system, and on the East by Callaway Creek and Bayou (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
18197		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in coastal plain flatwood forests, ditches and temporary ponds. Furthermore, it is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989).
18197		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18197		threats	eng	Groundwater drainage and urban development for residential housing have greatly reduced the habitat of this species, and continue to do so (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).
18198		conservation	eng	<p>Part of the range of this species is owned by The Nature Conservancy and managed specifically for this species. Furthermore, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further site protection measures are required to ensure further populations are not extirpated, and further research is needed to determine the population status of this species.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
18198		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is only known from five localities, all situated north of the Santa Fe River, east of the Suwannee River, and west of Ichetucknee Springs, Suwannee County, Florida (Relyea and Sutton 1975). Several dozen sites have been examined north of the Sante Fe River, but no individuals of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>have been recorded (Franz and Lee 1982).   This species has a distribution of approximately 277 km².
18198		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits subterranean waters. It is inferred that the five caves in which this species is found, are linked by passages which allow some genetic flow to occur (Streever 1996). The type locality is a fully flooded cave with a water temeperature of 21<sup>o</sup>C and has a maximum depth of 12.5 m (Streever 1996).
18198		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Franz and Lee (1982) recorded 500 specimens of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>from the type locality.
18198		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by human disturbance (Streever 1996), groundwater abstraction, pollution from mining, and pesticide and herbicide use in surrounding areas (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009). This mining activity is also known to destroy the cavern systems supporting this species (P Moler pers. comm. 2010). Furthermore, garbage dumping in the 1970s is thought to have caused the extirpation of this species from one site (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).
18199		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Part of the distribution of this species occurs within a National Park (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance, habitat ecology and major threats impacting upon this species.
18199		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is present in southern Mississippi between the Wolf and Pascagoula rivers (Fetzner 2008). Furthermore, it is known to ocur in George, Harrison, Jackson and Stone Counties, Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18199		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Fetzner 2008), and is a primary burrower (Hobbs 1971), occuring in sandy soils within the Gulf coast area (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18199		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, 10 records of this species have been reported near the type locality, the most recent being from 2007 (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18199		threats	eng	This species is impacted upon by urbanization, development and hurricanes on a local level, though is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18200		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and continuing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed, along with further research on the main threats. Site protection is needed to prevent further degradation of the habitat and loss of important nutrient sources.<br/></p><p></p>
18200		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from only two localities in Marion County, Florida (Hobbs and Lee 1976).   This species has a distribution of approximately 59 km<sup>2</sup>.
18200		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters in two caves. At the type locality, this species is located in a large, irregular shaped room (15 m long and 5 m wide), where the water levels fluctuate markedly (Hobbs and Lee 1976). The water temperature is around 21-22<sup>o</sup>C. The cave is used by bats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Myotis austroriparius</span>) as a maternity site in the spring, they are not usually present throughout the remainder of the year (Hobbs and Lee 1976). As many as 3,700 bats have been recorded using this cave (Hobbs and Lee 1976). The bats are a major source of nutrients for this species, and nearly all of the crayfish collected<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, have been sighted underneath the bat roosts (Hobbs and Lee1976).
18200		population	eng	In a study conducted by Hobbs and Lee (1976), between 23 and 32 individuals were recorded on two consecutive days from the type locality cave with far fewer (number not reported) from the other cave. All known populations are small although when last checked there was a viable population in the last two rooms of the type locality cave (Franz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). There is no population information available for the second cave.
18200		threats	eng	The type locality for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located on the north side of a quarry (Hobbs and Lee 1976). This activity could be causing water quality issues to the groundwater supplying the cave. The limited populations sizes, limited distribution, and fluctuation in water levels are all threats to this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18201		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). One of the springs in which this species is found is surrounded by a national wildlife refuge. Further research is needed on the population trends.<br/></p>
18201		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in two localities in Jefferson and Leon counties, Florida  and possibly in one other, but this is a questionable sighting and yet to be positively confirmed (Hobbs and Means 1972). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 98 km<sup>2</sup>.
18201		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean springs (Hobbs and Means 1972).
18201		population	eng	The Big Blue Spring population of this species may be very large (Hobbs and Means 1972).
18201		threats	eng	The springs in which this species is found, are tourist attractions but swimming is not recommended due to the presence of alligators. Further research is needed on the impact of tourism on these springs (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). This species is very likely susceptible to pollution of the groundwater aquifer (NatureServe 2009).
18202		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe, and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the threats affecting this species.
18202		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Gulf County, Florida, north of the Wetappo Canal (Hobbs 1942). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 770 km<sup>2</sup>.
18202		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from temporary ponds, pools, flatwoods and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942). It can burrow into substrate during droughts   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
18202		population	eng	It is not scarce where it occurs   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
18202		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat process (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).
18203		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the site specific threats for this species so appropriate conservation measures can be devised.<br/></p><p></p>
18203		distribution	eng	This species is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>known from only eight localities (five of which are within a 3-mile radius and may constitute one location) in Hernando and Pasco counties, Florida (Franz and Hobbs 1983). The range of this species is thought to extend from the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico in the west, to the Brooksville Ridge in the east (Franz and Hobbs 1983). The northern and southern limits are currently undefined (Franz and Hobbs 1983). All of the known localities of this species lie within 11.6 km of the Gulf of Mexico (Franz and Hobbs 1983). This species' distribution is severely fragmented (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 650 km².
18203		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters, in flooded cave systems (Franz and Hobbs 1983). It has has been found at depths between 16.7 and 69.9 meters underground (Franz and Hobbs 1983). Nutrients enter the caves through shafts from surface ponds (Franz and Hobbs 1983).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
18203		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18203		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by human disturbance and recreational activities. The caves in which it is found are frequently used by SCUBA divers (Florida Caves 2008). One of the sites in which this species is found is subject to sedimentation as a result of surrounding agriculture, industrial/domestic development, groundwater abstraction, recreational activities, and nutrient loads from agriculture and development (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commisssion 2009).
18204		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is needed on the population status at each site and appropriate conservation measures for each.<br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
18204		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>was formerly&#160;known from two localities in Miami, Dade County, Florida (Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994). These two sites were 24 km apart (Radice and Loftus 1995). This species was recently found again in 1992 (Radice and Loftus 1995), after last being recorded in 1968 and subsequently described three years later (Hobbs 1971).&#160;This species is now known from 14 -15 sites in southern Dade County, mostly from man-made groundwater wells (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010). All known occurrences are found within an area of 210 km<sup>2</sup> (30 km x 7 km NatureServe 2009).
18204		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean habitats (Radice and Loftus 1995). Nutrients enter the wells, through holes and crevices on the Florida pinelands and marshes, which allow plant and other detritus to filter down into the cave system (Radice and Loftus 1995). Loftus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) found that this species inhabits deep geological fomations, greater than 5 m beneath the Rocky Glades, with voids of various dimensions that flood periodically but always contain water. The drilling of groundwater abstraction wells seems to provide suitable habitat for this species (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
18204		population	eng	According to Radice and Loftus (1995), seven individuals have been recorded over a two month period, and several were recorded at the original site, although the exact number was not specified (Hobbs 1971).
18204		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by groundwater pollution from nearby urban areas, and salt water intrusion due to groundwater abstraction for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes (Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species is seemingly tolerant of well digging activity (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
18205		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Site area protection is urgently needed with restricted access to the cave.<br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
18205		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Devil's Sink Cave in Putnam County, Florida (Hobbs and Franz 1991).
18205		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean pools with large amounts of detritus (Hobbs and Franz 1991). The water depth varies between 31.7 m and 37.1 m with a water temperature of 22<sup>o</sup>C (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
18205		population	eng	This species is known from 15 specimens, one collection of seven and a second of eight individuals (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
18205		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by public access and recreational activities. The interior of the cave was described by Hobbs and Franz (1991) as being severely degraded by SCUBA divers on the eastern and southern sides. In the shaft area a Volkswagen car has been dumped (Hobbs and Franz 1991). In a recent dive by Tom Morris (1995), the silt cone from eroding sandstone around the pit to the sink, had grown to nearly cut off the entrance to the cave.
18206		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
18206		distribution	eng	This species is known from 95 sites in 7 counties (Angelina, Houston, Nacogdoches, Polk, San Jacinto, Trinity, Walker) in Texas, USA (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
18206		habitat	eng	This species can be found inhabiting flooded ditches, drainage ditches, temporary or semi-permanent pools and creeks (Hobbs 1990, D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010). Only one specimen has been taken from a creek which was presumed to be an unlikely habitat for this species. The creek is a clear stream with a bed-rock bottom (Hobbs 1990). This species outcompetes <span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutus</span> (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).
18206		population	eng	This species is dominant within its range (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).
18206		threats	eng	No known major threats to this species.
18207		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G3Q by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This is due to natural or anthropogenic factors affecting species continued existence, and restricted range (Criteria 4, 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). &#160;Further research on possible threats is recommended.</p>
18207		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span> is endemic to the Flint River drainage system in Baker, Crawford, Lee, Marion, Schley, and <st1:city w:st="on">Sumter</st1:city>&#160;Counties in the Coastal Plain Province, Georgia, <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This is an Extent of Occurrence of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
18207		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span> has been found in rivers that are approximately 4 m wide and at a depth of around 0.6 m with a mixed sandy and organic substrate (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1969).&#160; According to Hobbs (1981) it is restricted to lotic waters, of all sizes and does not shun swift water and may even be found in riffle areas. GA DNR (pers. comm., 2009) reports it from sand bottomed streams with macrophytes in clear, free flowing water; often in riffle habitat.<br/></p>
18207		population	eng	Hobbs (1981) collector found the species at 13 sites in Baker, Crawford, Lee, Marion, Schley, Sumter Counties, Georgia. It appears to be common at known localities.
18207		threats	eng	Patterns of mussel species diversity have been linked to deterioration of habitat due to pollution, sedimentation, oxygen levels and drainage network position in the tributaries of the <st1:place w:st="on">Flint River</st1:place>, Georgia (Gagnon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is possible that crayfish in the same area, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span>, are also being adversely affected by these threats.
18208		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe, and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe). Further research is needed on the population status of this species across its range.
18208		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the tributaries of the Tombigbee River in Kemper and Lauderdale county (Black 1968) and the middle reaches of the Sucarnoochee River system, Mississippi. In Alabama, it is only found in three localities in Sumter County (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is considered to be quite rare in Alabama (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). This species has severly fragmented populations (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
18208		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in permanent streams which are comparatively cool, flowing over a firm, sand substrate in a medium-sized stream habitat (Black 1968). Watercress vegetation was found at two collection sites, and trapped leaf litter seems to be the preferred substrate (Fitzpatrick 1996).
18208		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There have been a number of recent collections of this species by the Geological Survey of Alabama (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009), and subpopulations appear to be healthy and viable (Fitzpatrick 1996), however these are only a small portion of the total population (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
18208		threats	eng	The main threat impacting upon this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is water quality degradation through urbanization (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999). The Sucarnoochee watershed is comparatively rural, allowing this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>to exist at this location (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). This species is impacted by heavy deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) and agriculture in its range (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus jonesi</span>, which is also found in this area has been found with empty eggs which is possibly attributed to water quality problems (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18209		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range overlaps with a national park. Furthermore, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>  <p><br/></p>
18209		distribution	eng	This species is known from 100 sites in 13 Counties, all in the Neches River system, Texas (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). Three days of targeted surveying, produced 43 new sites for this species (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 10000 km<sup>2</sup>.
18209		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in moderately flowing, clear or weak coffee-coloured creeks with sandy and rocky bottoms. One specimen has been found in a pool in a roadside ditch (Hobbs 1990).
18209		population	eng	The species has been described as common and widespread throughout a national park in eastern Texas (Saenz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
18209		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. Furthermore, Saenz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) believed that this species is common, and hence its population is not be effected by removal of individuals for scientific research. Due to the unpolluted nature of this species type location, it is likely that low water quality would be detrimental to this species (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
18210		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as 'endangered', and it has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, critically imperilled, due to extremely restricted range (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). <br/><br/>The impacts of threats such as the agro-farming need to be assessed and protection to be provided if agricultural activities are having a major impact on this species. Furthermore, if farming is having an impact on the habitat of this species, then an area based habitat management and monitoring scheme needs to be implemented (S. Adams pers. comm 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required immediately for this species, as it is very likely to become extinct in the near future. Population abundance needs to be clarified to identify whether there are any individuals left of this species, and another comprehensive survey of the surrounding area should be undertaken to ensure that the given distribution is accurate. If there are individuals then life history data should be recorded to see whether this species is long lived (K- strategist) or if it is a rapid recoloniser (R-strategist). This will show the potential for this species to survive. Once this research is completed a species recovery action plan needs to be developed and then implemented (S. Adams pers. comm 2009).
18210		distribution	eng	This species is only  known from six specimens found at its type locality in the Atascosa River, Atascosa County, Texas. Since its description in 1960 only two additional samples have been collected, both from the same region of the river. This is despite concurrent searches being conducted in other suitable aquatic habitat of the region (Hobbs and Hobbs 1995).
18210		habitat	eng	This species has its type locality in a sluggish stream tributary which is extremely turbid, with little flow rate recorded. The substrate of this stream is sand and gravel with heavily silted pools present (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18210		population	eng	This species is extremely rare. Initial surveys were carried out in 1960 when one adult and three juveniles were recorded, since then futile searches have been made until two additional specimens were recorded in 1993, though other aquatic habitats were searched (Hobbs and Hobbs 1995). Further specimens have been collected by Sterling Johnson and Nathan Johnson near the type locality within the last two years, however the area is not believed to be thoroughly surveyed (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
18210		threats	eng	There are no major threats recorded for this species. However, extensive large scale farming occurs throughout the county within which it is found. As this species is not known from many individuals, it is very likely that this species is susceptible to small population size stochastic extinction risk (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
18211		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation&#160; (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the population status at each site and the main threats to each.<br/></p><p></p>
18211		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was known from four localities in Leon and Wakulla counties, Florida, but it has now increased its range to eight caves in Leon county and six in Wakulla (Dobson 1998), though, it has a fragmented distribution (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 500 km<sup>2</sup>. All the known sites are connected to the same aquifer (NatureServe 2009).
18211		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean habitats (Hobbs and Means 1972). The only habitat information for this species is from its type locality, which consisted of deep silt substrates, where this species was located to a depth of 150 feet into the cave with a water temperature of 22<sup>o</sup>C (Hobbs and Means 1972).
18211		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18211		threats	eng	Foot and vehicle traffic have caused erosion around at least one location (Gopher Sink). Furthermore, all locations are prone to potential pollution and detrital change. There is concern that this aquifer may be receiving pollutants from the Tallahassee area (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). A number of the caves in this species range have been described as 'poor and declining' in condition as a result of recreational activities and mining (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).
18212		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of endangered (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The US Fish and Wildlife Service established a natural refuge around one of the caves in 1997 (USFWS 2009). Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status is needed.</p>
18212		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in three unconnected caves in the Tennessee drainage system in Colbert, Lauderdale, and Morgan counties, Alabama (Hobbs 1967, Buhay and Crandall 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to be around 5,000 km².
18212		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in subterranean streams and pools (Hobbs 1967). This species is reliant on nutrients entering the cave such as leaf litter, from heavy rains which wash into the cave (Hobbs 1967). At one of the caves, there is a substantial Gray Bat <span style="font-style: italic;">(Myotis grisescens) </span>community, which is depositing bat guano into the cave, thereby increasing the availability of nutrients (USFWS 2009).
18212		population	eng	This species is very rare in the caves it occupies. Numerous surveys over the past 10 years have found zero to three individuals per trip   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
18212		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by droughts which limit the amount of nutrients entering the caves and causes the subterranean pools to dry out (Hobbs 1967). In 1997 the US Fish and Wildlife Service purchased 428 ha within the recharge area of the Key Cave and hence established the Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge. Cotton production in this area has since been replaced with soybean and corn production, and chemical use has been restricted. At present, 80% of the recharge area is agricultural land but will be converted to forest and native grassland. Despite this, urbanisation in the area continues and threatens to lower the water table with the expansion of impermeable surfaces (Kuhajda and Mayden 2001).
18213		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine over how much of its range this species is undergoing a decline.
18213		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from several small tributaries of Black Creek in Clay County, a tributary to the St. Johns River in Duval County, Florida (Franz and Franz 1979). It is also reported from Putnam County (NatureServe 2009), in the upper Etoniah Creek system (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010). It is known from three stream systems (Black and Etoniah creeks, and a small stream near Fort Caroline). There have been many collecting sites (over 30, mostly in Black Creek) within these systems. In addition, potential gene flow probably occurs among most or all sites within each system (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 1,600 km².
18213		habitat	eng	This species is found in headwater streams, and in small and large tributaries within its range (Franz and Franz 1979). It has been collected in cool, tannic-stained, flowing streams, and was found to be absent from sluggish flowing sections (Franz and Franz 1979).
18213		population	eng	This species has been collected from over 30 sites, mostly within the Black Creek system (Burgess and Franz 1978). In addition, potential gene flow probably occurs among most or all sites within each system (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009), and it was found in greatest density in headwater sections (Franz and Franz 1979).
18213		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is sensitive to human alterations of the headwater areas, and to water pollution such as siltation and sewage (Franz and Franz 1979). The Black Creek is situated close to the Jacksonville metropolitan area and so is under pressure from expanding urbanization. Land developers have cleared large tracts of land, and have built residential areas. Several areas of the creek have been altered by damming (Franz and Franz 1979). Flatwood areas have been drained, and extensive canal systems have been constructed and roads built. Erosion caused by the roads and canals has caused extensive siltation to occur in the headwater streams. The siltation has removed substrate detritus and eliminated the pools created by root mats and logs. Widespread run-off from surrounding dairy farms and human sewage have also created open sewers along several of the South Fork tributaries and no individuals of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>have been recorded in these areas (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18214		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the population abundance and trends of this species, also the threats impacting this species need to be identified and monitored.
18214		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus plumimanus</span> is known from Carteret, Craven, Duplin, and Jones counties, North Carolina (Fetzner 2008). Cooper and Braswell (1995) report that the species has apparently expanded its range into the lower Neuse River drainage.
18214		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus plumimanus</span> is a secondary burrower which can be found in temporary ponds, pools, and ditches (Hobbs and Walton 1958 and Fetzner 2008).
18214		population	eng	Known from seven to ten localities but more surely exist. Cooper and Braswell (1995) add nine new sites.&#160; LeGrand et al. (2006) cite rivers, ponds, ditches, and burrow pits in eastern Coastal Plain of North Carolina in Carteret, Craven, Duplin (extirpated), Jones, New Hanover, Onslow, and Pender Cos.&#160; Recent work by J. Cooper (1999) has shown the species to be often found in "prodigious numbers".
18214		threats	eng	There are no specific threats associated with this species, however as a secondary burrower it is likely that this species would be undergoing localised declines due to surface water abstraction.
18215		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
18215		distribution	eng	This species is known from two Mississippi localities in Chickasaw and Oktibbeha Counties, both localities are within ten miles of each other (Fitzpatrick 1978). This species has a distribution of approximately 1,050 km<sup>2</sup>.
18215		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species, but this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to be a primary burrower (Fitzpatrick 1978).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>
18215		population	eng	There is only one record of this species since its description (S. Adams pers comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
18215		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution.&#160; Furthermore, this species was minorly impacted by agriculture until the 1950's, from cotton farming; which are now mostly pasture (J.F. Fitzpatrick pers. comm. 1995).
18216		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, a more accurate distribution and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
18216		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>was previously&#160;found in the Okaloosa and Holmes counties, Florida (Hobbs 1940), and is now thought to occur in Okaloosa and Walton counties, with its occurrence in Holmes county questionable (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). It is known from a limited number of locations (likely less than five) with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 1,000km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
18216		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>is found in temporary bodies of water and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1940).
18216		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae</span>. Populations merge and divide as water levels fluctuate, especially seasonally.
18216		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution. However, the rural nature of habitats probably affords adequate protection at this time.
18217		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>      <p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered', based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is on the threats to this species.  </p>
18217		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is confined to the Upper Irons Fork of the Ouachita River basin in Polk County, Arkansas (Hobbs 1979). It is known from six localities (Hobbs and Robison 1988),   and has a distribution of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
18217		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and occurs in ditches and temporary pools (Hobbs 1979).
18217		population	eng	Initially, this species was known from only 20 adults and 99 juveniles. In 2008, 52 individuals were recorded in the Ouachita National Forest (US Forest Service 2008). Evidence of viability includes dozens of individuals including juveniles at a few sites (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18217		threats	eng	As this is a burrowing crayfish in a limited area, it is susceptible to habitat degradation coupled with the potential for such degradation throughout its range (Crandall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)
18218		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, although the species is listed under the Texas Rare, Threatened, and Endangered species list, but with no assessed status. The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Endangered with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2 assigned by NatureServe, due to the restricted range of this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is needed on the taxonomy.
18218		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Parkhill Prairie, in the Trinity River basin, Collin County, Texas (D. Johnson pers.comm. 2010).   This species has a distribution of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
18218		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower which lives in temperate grasslands (prairies). The soil in the type locality is calcareous clay which has been eroded to varying degrees (shallow to deep) (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18218		population	eng	One survey has been undertaken for this species, where 30 individuals were collected. Though, all individuals were passively collected, and no active searching has occurred (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18218		threats	eng	There are no known threats acting on this species. Furthermore,&#160; the prairie habitat within which this species occurs, is in an area of low development, however, future development or agriculture may have a large impact on this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
18219		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has gbeen iven a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
18219		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality in a fish hatchery near Smithville, Bastrop County, Texas (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
18219		habitat	eng	This species is found in artificial aquaculture ponds and a single stream (Johnson and Johnson 2008, NatureServe 2009).
18219		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
18219		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.
18220		conservation	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of GX by NatureServe and Endangered (possibly extinct) by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009).&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
18220		distribution	eng	<p>This species was known historically only from a single type specimen from an extremely vague type locality in Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1958). "It lives in lesser Georgia, in the rivulets of pure water which flow between little sand hills" (LeConte 1856). Hobbs (1981) notes it was known only from streams in the Sand Hills of southern Georgia. It is considered globally extinct.</p>
18220		habitat	eng	<p>There is no information on the habitat or ecology of this species. <br/></p>
18220		population	eng	This species is known from one specimen (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1958), collected at a vaguely described type locality and hasn't been found since: Despite 30 years of attempted collecting Hobbs (1981) reported conducting thorough searches for the species throughout its known range and areas of known habitat and failed to  find it.
18220		threats	eng	There is no threat information available; this species is considered Extinct.
18221		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, while The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as 'vulnerable' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the extent to which threats within its range are impacting upon it.
18221		distribution	eng	This species is known from the headwaters of the South Fork Edisto River and Salkehatchie River drainages in four South Carolina counties (Eversole 1995, Eversole and Jones 2004). No individuals of this species have been collected in any of the three adjacent drainage systems (Savannah River, Stevens Creek and Saluda River) despite extensive targeted surveys (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 1,000 to 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
18221		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in flowing, cool water streams with firm sand bottoms and trapped leaf litter. Furthermore, this species inhabits permanent streams which have high water quality, and individuals have also frequently been sampled from shrub dominated wetlands, such as aquatic grass beds (Eversole 1995).
18221		population	eng	A recent survey found that this species occurs at 19 locations, although quite possibly could occur at a few additional localities. Furthermore, it has been described as quite abundant at most localities (Eversole 1995).
18221		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, this species requires habitats with a high water quality such as the Edisto River, which is currently undammed. Any threat, such as pollution, which lowers the dissolved oxygen levels in the river would seriously impact the abundance of this species. In addition, the continued existence of the aquatic grass beds may be required for the continuation of this species (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
18222		conservation	eng	<p>  This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).&#160;Much of the distribution of this species is now owned and managed by The Nature Conservancy (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and how much of its range is impacted by land conversion to pine plantation.</p><p><br/></p>
18222		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>was&#160;known from two localities in the Escambia River sytem, Escambia County, Alabama, and a small area in the west of the pan handle of Florida (Hobbs 1942). Doubt has emerged in recent times, however, over the validity of the specimens collected from Escambia County, as these may belong to the closely related Procambarus capillatus. Thus the distribution of this species is now accepted as southwestern Escambia County and southeastern Baldwin County, Florida (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species has a distribution of approximately 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
18222		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary bodies of water, in flatwood forest and floodplains, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942).
18222		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18222		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by loss of flatwood forest as a result of land conversion to pine plantation. The Flatwoods Salamander (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambystoma cingulatum</span>) which is also known from this region, has undergone a significant decline in population numbers as a result of ongoing habitat degradation and modification (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).
18230		conservation	eng	Protected by law as a Category I species in China. There are several new Forest Police posts within the remaining area of distribution and illegal hunting is no longer an important factor. One subpopulation occurs in Bird Island (Niao Dao) National Nature Reserve (Jiang and Wang 2001).  The species is now regarded as a conservation priority by national and provincial governments.
18230		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred in western China from Qinghai Lake through Gansu to Ningxia and Ordos. Now confined to six isolated subpopulations around Qinghai Lake: Bird Island on the western side; Shadao-Gahai and Hudong-Ketu on the east; Yuanzhe on the south-east; near Gonghe across the mountians on the south side of the lake, and west of Tianjun, about 120 km north-west of the lake. The last two subpopulations were discovered in 2003 during surveys by scientists from the Chinese Academy of Science’s NW Institute of Plateau Biology and Institute of Zoology. Subsequent studies have confirmed that they represent separate subpopulations and not instances of nomadic groups of gazelles moving around the area.
18230		habitat	eng	Przewalski’s Gazelle inhabits steppe plateaux and open valleys, including broken and undulating terrain of stabilised dunes containing steppe vegetation. The habitat of the remaining population around Qinghai Lake lies at elevations of 3,194–5,174 m (Jiang and Wang 2001).
18230		population	eng	A thorough survey in September 2003 provisionally estimated a population of 500-600, an increase from earlier estimates. Subsequent work by IOZ, WCS, and others have confirmed this figure and revised it upwards to 700-800. There is a possibility that the total could be even higher.
18230		threats	eng	Gazelles on the eastern shore of Qinghai Lake have been fenced out of their main feeding grounds since 1994, and the population on the western shore declined from 37 to seven between 1992 and 1998 (Jiang <em>et al.</em> 2000). Most of their habitat has already been lost to the increasing human population, farming activities, and desertification. Predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>), especially in areas of dense fencing, appears to also be having a negative impact (Jiang and Wang 2001). Subpopulations are quite isolated and movement between them is increasingly difficult owing to intensive land use and physical barriers.
18231		conservation	eng	Occurs in Chang Tang, Kekexili, Arjin Shan, Qomolangma, and Sanjiangyuan nature reserves, China.
18231		distribution	eng	Occurs across virtually the whole Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (China), extending a small distance into two adjoining areas of India (Ladakh, Sikkim). Over 99% of its range lies in China (Jiang and Wang 2001). Occurs up to at least 5,750 m asl (Smith and Xie in press).
18231		habitat	eng	Inhabits high-altitude plains, hills, and stony plateaux. Also grazes in wetland margins. Lives singly or in small groups of 3 to 20 animals, gathering in larger herds during migrations to higher summer pastures (Smith and Xie in press).
18231		population	eng	Schaller (1998) suggested that the total population in China on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau may be around 100,000, but noted that numbers could not be estimated with any degree of accuracy.
18231		threats	eng	Habitat loss through development of rangeland and increases in domestic livestock is probably the principal threat. Some are killed for their meat and heads/horns are occasionally seen for sale. Fencing of rangeland is an increasing threat locally that restricts movement and access to forage and is systematically excluding gazelles from parts of their former range, especially in the east. Road building has also opened previously remote areas to grazing and (illegal) hunting. The much smaller Indian population also has been severely reduced mainly through past hunting followed by increased competition with livestock (Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006; Namgail <em>et al</em>. 2006).
18232		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas in Mongolia but most of the population occurs outside these. Given some legal protection in Mongolia and China, but enforcement is not fully effective. Currently proposed for inclusion on the appendices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS).
18232		distribution	eng	Occurs in eastern Mongolia and adjacent areas of Russia and north-eastern China. Smaller populations are still found in central and western Mongolia. There is a translocated population on Homin Tal steppe in Zavkhan Province of west-central Mongolia.
18232		habitat	eng	Inhabits rolling arid steppes and plains. Mongolian gazelle move constantly over their range, except during the rutting and birthing seasons.
18232		population	eng	Population estimates over the last 10 years have ranged from 400,000 to 2,700,000. The taxon is subject to population fluctuations due to disease and effects of severe winter conditions. Illegal hunting is heavy, in addition to the legal annual harvest. However, several recent authorities agree on a figure of approximately 1,000,000 in Mongolia, though some experts still believe this figure is much too high. Most of the current population is found in the eastern Mongolian steppes. Smaller populations are found in central and western Mongolia. Some move south into China in winter where up to 250,000 may occur. Around 80,000 are estimated to live year-round in China.
18232		threats	eng	Illegal hunting (in addition to the legal harvest) is an increasing threat. The species is harvested for meat and hides. Former tight control in Mongolia has weakened during the last decade and tens of thousands are killed illegally on top of the official harvest. <br/><br/>The Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway is double-fenced and has effectively cut off the smaller populations from the core population in eastern Mongolia. Outbreaks of disease and severe winters result in sporadic heavy mortality.
18240		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.<br/><br/><em>P. b. badius</em> has been recorded from the Gola Forest Reserves, Outamba-Kilimi National Park, and Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Sierra Leone; Sapo National Park, Liberia; and Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. This subspecies is reported to have disappeared in four forest reserves and at Marahoué National Park between the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in Côte d'Ivoire, mainly due to hunting (Sery <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>P. b. temminckii</em> has been recorded from a number of protected areas including: Abuko National Park, River Gambia National Park, Gambia; Basse Casamance National Park (where they may no longer survive), Saloum Delta National Park, Niokolo-Koba National Park Senegal; and Cufada National Park in Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/>Individuals of <em>P. b. waldroni</em> might be present in the forest between Ehy forest and Tanoe river, Côte d'Ivoire (McGraw 2005), and this region represents a priority for further survey work to ascertain whether any individuals may still survive in the wild.
18240		distribution	eng	This West African species is distributed as fragmented populations from Senegal to Ghana (Struhsaker 1975; Oates <em>et al.</em> 1994; Grubb in press; Groves in press).<br/><br/><em>P. b. temminckii</em> occurs to the west of the principal Upper Guinea rain-forest block in south-west Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau (Grubb in press) and north-west Guinea (Starin <em>et al</em>. in press). It is reported to be absent east of the Rio Grande (Rio Corubal) in Guinea-Bissau, except for a supposed sighting at Catio, near the border with Guinea (Monard 1938). Although mapped from the Fouta Djalon in Guinea (Booth 1958), there are no published records available to confirm this. Also reported from north-west Sierra Leone (Harding 1984), although this record is dubious (N. Ting pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The nominate <em>P. b. badius</em> is distributed as fragmented populations in Sierra Leone, adjacent parts of southern Guinea, Liberia, east to the Nzi-Bandama River system in western Côte d'Ivoire (Grubb in press; Groves in press). The exact boundary between <em>P. b. badius</em> and <em>P. b. temminckii</em> is unclear, but the two are believed to be geographically separated (Grubb in press). <em>P. b. badius</em> and <em>P. b. waldroni</em> meet at the Bandama River, Côte d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><em>P. b. waldroni</em> ranged from the Nzi-Bandama River system in south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire to south-western Ghana, though not quite reaching the Volta River (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2000; McGraw 2005). The taxon has been eliminated over most of its range, and no live specimens have been observed for over 25 years in the wild. However, based on recent evidence (a skin, tail and photograph), a few individuals might be present in the forest between Ehy forest and Tanoe river in Côte d'Ivoire (McGraw 2005). In March 2008, calls by what is believed to be Miss Waldron's Red Colobus were heard by a team of scientists from the Swiss Centre for Scientific Research in the Ehy Forest (Tanoé Swamps Forest) in Côte d’Ivoire, and  a fresh skin of a red colobus was recovered from a poacher (I. Kone pers. comm.).
18240		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in a variety of forest types including primary, secondary, and riverine or gallery forest.<br/><br/><em>P. b. badius</em> prefers primary or mature old growth moist forest, and is more dependent on forest habitat than <em>P. b. temminckii</em>. Group size ranges to as many as 90 animals, with an average of 53 in Tai National Park (S. McGraw pers. comm.).<br/><br/>As concerns <em>P. b. temminckii</em>, Galat-Luong and Galat (2005) and A. Galat-Luong (pers. comm.) report that the Saloum (Senegal) northern most red colobus population lived in the 1970s only in closed habitats (e.g., in forest, dry forest, forest fringe or gallery forest), but started in recent years to use more “open habitat” like gallery forests with interrupted canopy and even true wooded savanna, mangrove swamps and farmland, apparently because of reduction of forest cover in their original habitat.
18240		population	eng	There are no overall population estimates, but the species appears to be declining over the majority of its range. <br/><br/>There have been no confirmed sightings of Miss Waldron's Red Colobus in the wild since 1978 and surveys carried out from 1993 to the present have yet to confirm the survival of any living individuals (Oates <em>et al.</em> 2000; McGraw 2005). Since the announcement of the monkey’s probable extinction (Oates <em>et al.</em> 2000), new evidence from forests in extreme south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire suggests that a handful of individuals may have remained undetected in the forest between Ehy forest and Tanoe river, Côte d'Ivoire (Oates and McGraw 2002; McGraw 2005; I Kone pers. comm.). However, they are unlikely to represent a viable population (McGraw 2005; Struhsaker 2005).<br/><br/>In Senegal, there are probably fewer than 400-500 individuals of <em>P. b. temminckii</em> surviving in Saloum Delta National Park, and probably fewer than 100 in the isolated Niokolo Koba and north-west Guinea population (A. Galat-Luong and G. Galat pers. comm.).
18240		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss and hunting. Deforestation through logging, charcoal production, and clearance for agricultural land including plantations, has occurred over much of the species range, especially in the last century. In addition, both subsistence and commercial hunting have heavily impacted populations of this species, particularly of <em>P. b. badius</em> and <em>P. b. waldroni</em>. Improved access to forest interiors through logging roads has increased hunting pressure on this species. Much of the range of this species has been impacted by civil conflict since 1989 and it is not yet clear to what extent this has affected populations in Senegal (especially Basse Casamance), Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire.<br/><br/>Although hunting is also a threat to <em>P. b. temminckii</em> (particularly so in the south of its range), this subspecies appears to be somewhat less affected than <em>P. b. waldroni</em> and <em>P. b. badius</em>; in The Gambia monkeys are hunted more as farm pests than for consumption as meat, and red colobus are minor farm pests compared with baboons, green monkeys and patas (Starin 1989). The major threat to this subspecies is habitat loss as a result of forest conversion by agriculture, overgrazing, fires and tree-cutting, combined with decreasing rainfall in the part of West Africa inhabited by this monkey (Starin 1989; Galat-Luong and Galat 2005).
18245		conservation	eng	The Olive Colobus is listed as a Class A species under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
18245		distribution	eng	The Olive Colobus is confined to the forests of west Africa, and is discontinuously distributed from southern Sierra Leone and Guinea to south-east Nigeria. Oates' (1982) map shows a more or less continuous range from Sierra Leone to Ghana, extending just east of the Volta River, and again in Nigeria on the south bank of the Benue River just above its confluence with the Niger. He considered the distributional gap to be real rather than an artefact of collecting or observation (Groves 2001). In a few localities (e.g., Tai forest, Côte d'Ivoire), it is only locally distributed, but numerous. In a recent survey of Bénin and Togo, Campbell <em>et al.</em> (2008) found the Olive Colobus in 13 of the 26 localities surveyed in Bénin; no sightings were made in Togo by Campbell's team, although it was reported by hunters at one locality (see Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2008 for more details).
18245		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the high forest zone of West Africa and can be particularly common in areas of secondary growth within high forest, in swamp and palm forests. Olive Colobus are cryptic in colouration and behaviour, residing in small groups, usually as part of a large polyspecific association, and mainly occupying the lower and middle dense vegetation strata (Oates 1988; Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is found extensively in farmbush in parts of its range, and it appears that they can survive in small and degraded forest fragments. It prefers dense growth below 10 m, but may ascend to 30 m or even the canopy when feeding in the company of other species. The diet of the Olive Colobus is mainly comprised of young leaves, buds, and flowers (70%), as well as only 10% mature leaves. There is a strong preference for unripe fruits, although the quantities of fruits and seeds taken vary according to the season. It is almost always found in close association with other cercopithecus monkeys (<em>diana</em>, <em>mona</em>, <em>petaurista</em>, <em>cambelli</em>). This species is almost exclusively arboreal, and is very shy.
18245		population	eng	Although quite secretive, they remain common in many parts of its range.
18245		threats	eng	This species is probably declining due to loss of its forest habitats and hunting, especially in the far eastern part of its range, towards Nigeria.
18267		conservation	eng	The Pygmy Raccoon is legally protected in Mexico. It is included in the official Mexican list of threatened species as "En Peligro de Extinción" (SEMARNAT 2002). An island-wide ecological ordinance program (Programa de Ordenamiento Ecologico Local) that seeks to determine the pattern of land occupation, minimizing conflict and maximizing consensus among stakeholders, has recently been implemented and is in the process of being officially decreed. There are initiatives underway to establish two new protected areas on Cozumel Island. An invasive alien animal control programme is underway on Cozumel Island. This program has focused primarily on urban stray dogs and cats, and it is necessary to expand it to feral dogs and cats, house rats and mice, and <em>Boa constrictor</em>. There is work in progress for the establishment of a captive breeding program. An environmental education programme promotes the conservation of Cozumel endemic biota. A long term initiative for the study and conservation of Cozumel's native biota has been undertaken, promoted and sustained by a Mexican interdisciplinary multi-institutional team.
18267		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Cozumel Island (478 km<sup>2</sup>) off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004; Cuarón, in press).
18267		habitat	eng	Information on the ecology of the Pygmy Raccoon has been summarized in Cuarón <em>et al</em>. (2004), McFadden (2004), and de Villa-Meza <em>et al</em>. (in press). The Pygmy Raccoon prefers mangrove stands and sandy areas, but they are also found in semi-evergreen and subdeciduous tropical forests and agricultural areas. Abundance varies considerable among vegetation types. Main subpopulations are restricted to coastal areas of the island, and vast areas of the central part of the island are uninhabited or have very sparse subpopulations. The Pygmy Raccoon may inhabit areas that are in proximity to human settlements, as well as to paved and unpaved roads (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, McFadden 2004, García-Vasco 2005, Copa-Alvaro 2007).<br/><br/>Pygmy Raccoons are mainly nocturnal, although it is not uncommon to see them during daylight (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, García-Vasco 2005).  Generally it is a solitary mammal, which could sometimes form family groups (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jones and Lawlor 1965).<br/><br/>The Pygmy Raccoon is an omnivorous species, with preference for crabs but followed by fruits, insects, crayfish, and small vertebrates (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2006, Martínez-Godinez 2008). The relevance of the different food items varied importantly between seasons and sites, and following major changes in habitat quality due to hurricanes (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2006, Martínez-Godinez 2008).<br/><br/>The Pygmy Raccoon is particularly vulnerable to introduced pathogens and diseases such as mange, rabies and dog distemper from exotic animals (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, McFadden 2004, Mena 2007).  The parasites <em>Eimeria nutalli</em>, <em>Placoconus lotoris</em>, <em>Capillaria procyonis</em>, <em>Physaloptera</em> sp., a mite in the family Listrophoridae, and a trematode in the family Heterophyidae have been collected from <em>P. pygmaeus</em> individuals (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The identification of <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> in some Pygmy Raccoons suggests a recent spillover from domestic cats (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It has been identified that the Pygmy Raccoon has been exposed to infectious canine hepatitis, canine distemper and feline panleukopenia viruses (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mena 2007).  <br/><br/>Genetic information indicates that Pygmy Raccoon individuals share the same mtDNA haplotypes, suggesting a recent population bottleneck that might be related to the founder effect (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2008).
18267		population	eng	Total population estimates for <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, including juveniles, range from 323 (McFadden 2004) to a maximum of 955 individuals, including juveniles (Copa-Alvaro 2007). During 2006, a total of 105 different known individuals, including juveniles, were caught indicating that the total <em>P. pygmaeus</em> population is comprised by at least this number (Copa-Alvaro 2007). Considering that 59.4% of captured individuals are adults (McFadden <em>et al</em>. in review), then the estimated number of mature individuals ranges from 192 to 567 (62, when one considers the minimum number of known individuals). The average estimated population size and standard error for all pygmy raccoon subpopulations is 27.8 ± 5.5 individuals (McFadden <em>et al</em>. in review). Abundance estimates for the best known populations range from a low of 16 individuals (95% CI= 13-20) to a high of 48 individuals (95% CI = 39-79; McFadden <em>et al</em>. in review). Density estimates vary between sites and year of study, and range from 12.4 to 112 individuals/km² (Copa-Alvaro 2007, McFadden 2004).  A sexual proportion lightly skewed to females was recorded but was not significantly different from 1:1 (García-Vasco 2005). <br/><br/>The species is severely impacted by hurricanes and already depressed populations from a variety of human threats make it increasingly difficult for populations to recover following natural disasters. After major hurricanes, the density of pygmy raccoons can decline at a particular site by as much as 60% and the proportion of juveniles in the population can diminish significantly (Copa-Alvaro 2007).  The impact of hurricanes may vary among regions or vegetation types on the island (Copa-Alvaro 2007).
18267		threats	eng	Cozumel Island has been substantially developed for tourism. Cozumel is still relatively well-conserved, with close to 90% of the island covered by natural vegetation (Romero-Nájera 2004, Romero-Nájera <em>et al</em>. 2007), but the situation is deteriorating  rapidly. The interior of the island is less developed, but raccoons are rare or absent there (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, García-Vasco 2005, Copa-Alvaro 2007).  There is only a very small area of prime raccoon habitat and this is on the coast where most of the tourist development is taking place.  <br/><br/>The expansion and widening of the road system is fragmenting the vegetation of the island in at least three areas (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, de Villa-Meza <em>et al</em>. in press). The widening of roads is potentially increasing their barrier effect and exacerbating their impact on the conservation of Pygmy Raccoons and other native species (de Villa-Meza <em>et al</em>. in press). Most cases of Pygmy Raccoon mortality documented since 2001 have been the result of animals being run over by cars on the island?s highways (García-Vasco 2005).<br/><br/>Alien invasive predators, such as <em>Boa constrictor</em>, as well as domestic and feral dogs, may have an important impact on the Pygmy Raccoon population and it is confirmed that feral dogs predate on them (Martínez-Morales and Cuarón 1999, García-Vasco 2005, Bautista 2006).  Additionally, introduced carnivores to the island could easily become a source of parasites and pathogens that could potentially affect negatively Pygmy Raccoon populations (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mena 2007).  The introduction of congeners from the mainland (<em>P. lotor</em>), usually for pets, is a risk of genetic introgression and a potential source of parasites and pathogens (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Hurricanes are the main natural threat recognized for the Cozumel biota (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, Perdomo 2006, Barillas 2007, Copa-Alvaro 2007).  In the case of the pygmy raccoon, hurricanes cause drastic population decline, reduction in the proportion of juveniles, and cause injury and facilitate pathological change (Copa-Alvaro 2007, Mena 2007). The frequency, magnitude and duration of hurricanes in the Caribbean Basin is increasing (CITA), so they are an issue of major concern as there may be a synergistic effect with anthropogenic disturbance.<br/><br/>Hunting and collection of Pygmy Raccoons as pets is currently not an important threat.
18272		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Sergipe protected area.
18272		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the states of Sergipe, Bahia and Minas Gerais in northeastern Brazil (Pessôa and Reis, 2002).
18272		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in drier habitats than others in the genus. <em>T. a. albispinus</em> occurs in climax forest with some deciduous trees. <em>T. a. sertonius</em> inhabits typical ‘caatinga’, a climax forest of mainly deciduous trees characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions, with vegetation including plants of the families Cactaceae and Bromeliaceae (Pessôa and Reis, 2002). <em>T. a. minor</em> occurs in the Morro do Chapeu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range in the state of Bahia, an area with rock formations at 800-2,000 m asl. From 800 to 1,000 m, the vegetation is characteristically savanna, which grades into grasslands between 1,000 and 1,100 m. Some records indicate that females are pregnant between January and June; these specimens contained two to four embryos.
18272		population	eng	This species is abundant in forest.
18272		threats	eng	The major threat is  habitat destruction in the form of forest fragmentation and degradation.
18275		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas including indigenous areas throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.). This rodent is eaten locally by indigenous people but only for subsistence (J. Patton pers. comm.). No conservation measures are needed for this species.
18275		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Amazonia from southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, northern Bolivia, and the headwaters Region of the Río Jurua, west Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Its range also extends up to southern Colombia to the Río Caqueta, including the Amazon at Iquitos, Colombia (Patton, 1987, Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species reaches 500 m asl at the base of the Andes.
18275		habitat	eng	This rat has been recorded in terra firme forest, including naturally disturbed forest with either high density of bamboo or in second growth. It is commonly found in disturbed second growth forests, active and abandoned cultivated plots and various edge habitats. It is less frequently found in forest that floods occasionally, not seasonally. This rodent has not been found in varzea forest (J. Patton pers. comm.). The modal litter size was 2 (range one to four). It is not known whether reproduction is seasonal or largely aseasonal in Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
18275		population	eng	This rodent is common everywhere; there have been no population studies (J. Patton and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
18275		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time. This species does well in second growth and garden plots (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18276		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
18276		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwest Venezuela and north central Colombia, around the foothills of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Aguillera 1979; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is a lowland species; it is found from sea level to 300 m asl.
18276		habitat	eng	This spiny rat is found in deciduous forest or on forest edge. This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, fungi, and a few leaves and insects. It is tolerant to habitat degradation.
18276		population	eng	It is an abundant species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
18276		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
18277		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas throughout its range.
18277		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana (Patton, 1987), and is known only from lowlands up to 500 m asl.
18277		habitat	eng	This rodent is nocturnal and mainly frugivorous but it also eats seeds and fungi (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This rodent is common in primary and secondary forest and also much degraded habitats. It is present in different patch sizes should be available from grey literature from Lovejoy's plots north of Manaus (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.). This species can survive in agricultural landscape if there is some forest cover; its reproduction is seasonal in French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).
18277		population	eng	This rodent is common in natural and degraded habitats (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).
18277		threats	eng	In the past clear cutting was a threat in the Guianas; mining may have threatened the species in the Brazilian portion of its range.
18278		conservation	eng	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
18278		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Colombia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found from 100 to 500 m asl. (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
18278		habitat	eng	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.
18278		population	eng	There is no information available about the population status of this species.
18278		threats	eng	Mining and agriculture have lead to significant deforestation and habitat loss at the type locality.
18279		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tumucumaque National Park (C. Silva pers. comm.) and several other protected areas throughout its range.
18279		distribution	eng	This species occurs in scattered localities in eastern Amazonia, from the Guianan region of eastern Venezuela and French Guiana to the Carajas region of Pará State south of the Rio Amazonas, Montanhas de Tumucumaque National Park in Amapa State, and the left (east) bank of the Rio Negro near Manaus in central Amazonia, Amazonas State (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000); also in Peru (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1995). Its elevation range is below 500 m asl. altitude (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18279		habitat	eng	During a survey of the Jurua River, Brazil, many specimens were trapped in terra firme forests (28 of 57), they were also collected in locally inundated forest, secondary upland forest and abandoned gardens and were especially common in the latter (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). In the same survey, out of sampling months August to March, pregnant females were collected only in February and March. All litters comprised two young. Data are too limited to determine whether breeding is largely confined to the wet season or also extends through the dry period. Voss <em>et al.</em> (2001) also presents capture data for three different habitat plots in French Guiana, where the species is found equally in both secondary and primary forest (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2001).
18279		population	eng	This rodent is abundant in primary forest but absent in secondary forest in French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.). It is found in secondary forest in Rio Jurua in western Amazonia (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is a very abundant species in Tumucumaque National Parque (C. Silva pers. comm.).
18279		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
18280		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three protected areas in the north of its range.
18280		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of southwest Ecuador and northwest Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 5 to 800 m asl. in Ecuador.
18280		habitat	eng	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It occurs in dry lowland forest (C. Boada pers. comm.).
18280		population	eng	In Ecuador this species is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.); there is no information on its abundance in Peru.
18280		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation especially in the southern part of its range; introduced goats are causing destruction of low vegetation leading to erosion. Probably 20% of its habitat remains (C. Boada pers. comm.).
18281		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
18281		distribution	eng	This species is confined to coastal eastern Rio de Janeiro (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999), eastern slopes of the Serra do Mar (Lara and Patton, 2000). It occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
18281		habitat	eng	The species occurs in Restinga forest, primary and secondary forest (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
18281		population	eng	This rodent is locally common (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
18281		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
18282		conservation	eng	This species is found in Xingu indigenous area and Cristalino State Ecological Reserve. Studies would be useful to determine whether the retraction of the range will adversely affect the species (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18282		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil, south of the Amazon and east of the mouth of the Madeira (Patton 1987). Alberico <em>et al.</em> (2000) includes it in Colombia (not shown on map). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m.
18282		habitat	eng	This rodent is present in varzea and igapo forests. It has also been collected in gardens and secondary and primary forest (P. Costa pers. comm.). Most of the localities where it has been reported to occur are along margins of rivers, though this may be an artifact of collection methods.
18282		population	eng	It is expected to be abundant (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18282		threats	eng	The eastern Pará is currently under threat from deforestation and mining for iron and aluminium; other areas are experiencing expansion of soybean agriculture; the Cuiaba-Santarem highway also passes through part of the range. Its range is contracting from the south and south-east (A. Percequillo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Extrapolating deforestation rates (from Asner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) for Pará and the northern 58% of the Mato Grosso (which roughly matches the distribution map for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. goeldii</span>) for a three year period to ten years, the percent of habitat loss to the species’ is approximately 14%. However, Ewers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) show that Amazonian deforestation rates vary greatly over time and a three year period would likely be too short on which to base a ten year projection, but even with a more grim average yearly loss the species is unlikely to lose 20% of its habitat in a ten year period. In any case, even 14% is an extraordinary rate of habitat loss over such a large area, but it should be noted that habitat loss is unlikely to translate directly to population decline in this species because it is probably able to tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance. Also, these projections do not consider deforestation for the unmapped range in Colombia, which is likely to be occurring a lower rate.
18284		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas especially in the west (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
18284		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north central Venezuela, east of the Lake Maracaibo and at the foothills of Merida Andes (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is possible that the species occurs in Colombia. It is found from sea level to 800 m asl.
18284		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial, and nocturnal. It is present in both primary and secondary habitats.
18284		population	eng	This species is considered common (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
18284		threats	eng	The eastern part of  its range is undergoing habitat degradation, but overall there are no major threats.
18287		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
18287		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Venezuela and adjacent areas of Guyana and Brazil. The type locality, Mount Roraima in Bolivar Province, Venezuela is at an elevation of 2,000 m asl (Wilson and Reeder, 2005).
18287		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
18287		population	eng	There is nothing known about the population status of this species as it is known from only two individuals (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18287		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
18288		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
18288		distribution	eng	This species occurs from coastal portions of eastern Espirito Santo to eastern Sao Paulo (Pessôa and Reis, 1996) and Minas Gerais Statas, Brazil (Lara and Patton, 2000).
18288		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in lowland forest areas. The home range of adult males averages 1.37 ha and females 0.86. Females mature at 240 days and can produce four litters per year; longevity reaches thirty months (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
18288		population	eng	This species is locally abundant and common (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
18288		threats	eng	At present there are no major threats to this species.
18289		conservation	eng	It is probably present in several protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the distribution and taxonomy of this species.
18289		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Bolivia, northern Paraguay, and central Brazil (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs below 500 m, but is thought to have an upper limit near 1,000 m asl.
18289		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species. In Bolivia, it has been recorded from Cerrado and intermittent forest areas. It is present in both primary and secondary habitats.
18289		population	eng	This is a common species in Bolivia.
18289		threats	eng	In Bolivia, there do not appear to be any major threats to this species. The dry forest in Bolivia, Paraguay, and Brazil is rapidly declining due to forest conversion for agriculture, and a pipeline form Brazil will increase this threat (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18290		conservation	eng	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
18290		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, west of the Río Magdalena (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found from sea level to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The current distribution is not well known.
18290		habitat	eng	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.
18290		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species..
18290		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
18291		conservation	eng	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
18291		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Colombia, below 500 m in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
18291		habitat	eng	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.
18291		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
18291		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
18292		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine the actuall range, verify its occurrence in protected areas and tolerance to habitat modification.
18292		distribution	eng	This species occupies forest to the west of coastal mountain ranges in Bahia and Minas Gerais states, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
18292		habitat	eng	This species has been captured in Atlantic forest habitats. Very little is known about this species although it is suspected to be tolerant to some disturbance.
18292		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this species, however, similar species are very common in forested habitats (Emmons and Freer 1997).
18292		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species although deforestation and conversion of forest habitats to agriculture and pasture have severely reduced Atlantic forest habitats, which is suspected to be reducing populations.
18293		conservation	eng	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
18293		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Colombia east of Cordillera Oriental (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found from 0 to 500 m  (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
18293		habitat	eng	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.
18293		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
18293		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
18294		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002) and National Park of Brasilia, Distrito Federal.
18294		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil, in Goiás State (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002), Distrito Federal, north to Tocantins and Pará states (Weksler <em>et al</em>. 2001). Its altitudinal range reaches 1,000 m asl.
18294		habitat	eng	This rodent inhabits gallery forest within the Cerrado region (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. roberti</span> selects for specific microhabitats strongly associated with presence of babacu palms.
18294		population	eng	This species is locally abundant throughout its distribution and occurs only in unaltered vegetation (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002).
18294		threats	eng	The southern and southeastern portion of its range in Cerrado is under significant threat due to agricultural expansion. The species is also facing additional threat due to the Trans-Amazon highway (J. Patton pers. comm.) and also logging and fire in Tocantins (P. Costa pers. comm.). The species is less threatened in the northern (Amazonian) portion of the range.
18295		conservation	eng	This species is found in some protected areas (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995).
18295		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwest of Maracaibo Lake to Perija, from sea level to 800 m (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995). The species may occur in Colombia.
18295		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary, secondary and gallery forests. It can not tolerate agricultural areas (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995). Even though much of the species range is within protected areas, much of the habitat is unsuitable (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
18295		population	eng	The species is relatively abundant but it is known from less than ten locations (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995).
18295		threats	eng	The habitat outside national parks is seriously degraded; much of the land has been converted to pasture and agriculture (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995).
18296		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species at this time.
18296		distribution	eng	This is a lowland species; it occur in the Amazonian region of eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and southeast Colombia east across south Venezuela and adjacent Brazil to the vicinity of Manaus, west of Rio Negro (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
18296		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary forest and occasionally secondary and gallery forest (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
18296		population	eng	In Ecuador this species is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.) and in Venezuela it is rare when sympatric with P. guyannensis (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
18296		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
18297		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
18297		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Honduras to southwestern Ecuador (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Mostly a lowland species but there are a few unconfirmed records to 1,700 m in Ecuador (C. Boada pers. comm.). It is possible that the species occurs in northwestern Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
18297		habitat	eng	This large rat is found in lowland evergreen forest primary and second growth. Also occurs in deciduous forest, where it favors riparian corridors and low-lying areas. This species is tolerant to some degree of habitat destruction (e.g., partial deforestation and habitat fragmentation).<br/><br/>Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial and solitary. It travels along fallen logs or old walls but does not climb trees. At night it is often seen sitting quietly near buttress roots or logs. It walks slowly and sometimes freezes in a spotlight. This rat may use burrows during the day but often occupies shallow depressions under roosts and hollow logs, or in dense vegetation. The diet consists mainly of fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material, insects, and fungi. Palm nuts and other large seeds are carried to a sheltered spot to be eaten. Females give birth to 1 to 5 precocious young and may breed 4 times a year (Reid 1997).
18297		population	eng	This species is common, often abundant (Reid 1997).
18297		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat in some parts of its range, although this species is thought to be tolerant to a degree of habitat destruction or alteration (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
18298		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
18298		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west of the coastal mountain ranges in Bahia and Minas Gerais states, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
18298		habitat	eng	It is present in all types of forest and also savanna (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Y. Leite pers. comm.).
18298		population	eng	This species of rodent is locally abundant.
18298		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
18299		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas throughout its range.
18299		distribution	eng	The species occurs from southern Colombia (Caqueta and Florencia), eastern Ecuador and Peru throughout the western Amazon Basin east to the Rio Jurua and south to northern Bolivia (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species has the highest altitude for this genus (1,500 m asl) (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000)
18299		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found in disturbed second growth forests, active and abandoned cultivated plots and edge habitats (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000). Females are thought to breed in all seasons of the year (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is present in lowland rainforest and lower regions of upper tropical forest; this is an upland non-flooded forest specialist (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18299		population	eng	During a survey, <em>P. simonsi</em> was found to be common along the length of the Rio Jurua and well represented in the fauna of all four regional areas (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is common and easily recognizable (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18299		threats	eng	There are no major threats known at this time (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18300		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18300		distribution	eng	The species has been identified from central Peru south of the Río Marañon to northern Bolivia, east to western Brazil in Acre and Amazonas States (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.
18300		habitat	eng	This species is a specialist of varzea habitat in areas subject to seasonal flooding within the lowland Amazon (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Along the Rio Jurua, Brazil, P. steerei exhibits reproductive characteristics as might be expected for a species inhabiting seasonal habitats with early maturity, large litter sizes and a large percentage of young animals breeding (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size twice as large as other species of this genus and breeds at a much earlier age than others of the genus (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18300		population	eng	This rodent is common throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18300		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time. Only future threat would be if the rivers were all dammed and destroyed the varzea habitat (J. Patton pers. comm.).
18301		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within its range. More research is needed into its extent of occurrence and the population status of this species.
18301		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Trinidad (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
18301		habitat	eng	This species is found in seasonal marsh forests. It is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects.
18301		population	eng	There is no recent information regarding the population status of this species; it was abundant in appropriate habitat in the 1970s (Everard and Tikasingh 1973).
18301		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are unknown.
18302		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas and no further conservation measures are needed for this species.
18302		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Venezuela (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
18302		habitat	eng	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It constructs small dens. The species occurs in primary, secondary and gallery forest. It is tolerant to habitat disturbance (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
18302		population	eng	This species is considered common (Lord, 1999; M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
18302		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
18305		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), but it is not known if it is present in any other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
18305		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, known from southern Gansu and northern Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). Two recent specimens were collected at elevations of 2,440 and 2,550 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). A 2003 survey collected 16 specimens in Jiuhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2005), increasing known localities to three.
18305		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mountain forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
18305		population	eng	This species has been characterized as rare (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005).
18305		threats	eng	The species' forest habitat is threatened by expanding agriculture and logging, although these threats are decreasing.
18306		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting of this species is prohibited in Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Congo, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone and Democratic Republic of Congo, with hunting regulations in place in Gabon, Liberia and Togo (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Key protected areas for the species include: Gola F.R. (Sierra Leone), Mount Nimba Strict N.R. (Liberia, Côte d?Ivoire, Guinea), Sapo N.P. (Liberia), Taï and Comoé National Parks (Côte d?Ivoire), Gashaka Gumti N.P. (Nigeria), Korup N.P. and Dja Faunal Reserve (Cameroon), Lopé N.P. and Ivindo N.P. (Gabon), Odzala and Nouabale-Ndoki National Parks (Congo Republic) and Dzangha-Ndoki National Parks (CAR), Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth and Bwindi Impenetrable National Parks (Uganda), and Aberdares N.P. (Kenya) (Butynski and Ray in press).<br/><br/>There is a need for further survey work to acquire reliable population density estimates in various forest types, including disturbed habitats, in order to help better determine the population status across the range of the species.
18306		distribution	eng	The African golden cat is endemic to the forests of Equatorial Africa. There are no confirmed records from The Gambia and Guinea Bissau, nor from Togo and Benin (Ray and Butynski in press), which suggests a separation between Western and Central African populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
18306		habitat	eng	While the Neotropical and Indomalayan regions have several sympatric forest-dependent felid species, this is Africa?s only one.  The African golden cat occurs mainly in primary moist equatorial forest, although on the periphery of its range it penetrates savanna regions along riverine forest.  It also occurs in montane forest and alpine moorland in the east of its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Ray and Butynski in press).  The golden cat also has the distinction of being Africa?s least studied felid, and only its diet has been researched.  Two studies of scats ? from the Ituri forest of the Congo (Hart <em>et al.</em> 1996) and the Dzanga-Sangha forest of the Central African republic (Ray and Sunquist 2001) ? found similar results.  Rodents and squirrels were the main prey item (70 % and 62% respectively), followed by small and medium-size duikers (antelopes) (25% and 33% respectively.  Primates made up 5% of the prey items in both studies, and there have been several observations by primate researchers of African golden cats hunting arboreal primates (Ray and Butynski in press).  The same general diet items were reported by Kingdon (1977) from Uganda?s Bwindi National Park.  Birds are also taken, and pangolin remains were frequently found in scats from the Ivory Coast?s Tai National Park (D. Jenny pers. comm., in Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In southern Sudan a female with two kittens was observed hunting bats as they swooped for insects feeding on fallen mangoes (Seth-Smith 1996 in Ray and Butynski in press).  African golden cats have turned up in the diet of leopards, the only other felid to occur in African moist forest.  African golden cat remains were found in five of 196 leopard Panthera pardus scats from Gabon?s Lopé National Park (Henschel <em>et al.</em> 2005); a single carcass killed by a leopard was found in the Ituri (Hart <em>et al.</em> 1996).
18306		population	eng	Africa's most poorly known cat, it is infrequently observed in the wild, and generally considered rare. However, skins are rather more frequently encountered (in museums, and among hunters and bushmeat markets), indicating that the species may not be as rare as field records suggest (Ray and Butynski in press) and possibly the threat of significant trade.
18306		threats	eng	Loss of habitat is an obvious threat to this species. Deforestation has destroyed suitable habitat and driven declines of prey species in large areas of the African golden cat range, particularly in West and East Africa (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Ray and Butynski in press). An additional threat stems from the bush meat trade, which figures largely in the region?s economy, and is depleting populations of the prey base of the African golden cat. There appears to be little direct hunting of golden cats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). However, they may be trapped incidentally in wire snares: over the course of a three-month period at four sites in Lobeké, south-east Cameroon, 13 African golden cats were recorded killed by wire snares (T. Davenport, in Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). Skins are sometimes found for sale in markets, for example in Yaoundé and Kampala where they are often sold alongside medicinal herbs and fetishes (T. Davenport, in Ray and Butynski in press). Skins may be used during circumcision rites or to wrap valuable objects, or as good luck charms for hunting success (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>African golden cats are known prey of Leopards (Henschel <em>et al</em>. 2005), and on a small scale avoid areas where Leopard are common (T. Gilbert in prep.). On a larger scale, in areas where Leopards have recently been extirpated, African golden cats seem to be more locally abundant (P. Henschel pers. comm.).
18307		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18307		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18307		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18307		population	eng	No information available.
18307		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18309		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18309		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18309		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18309		population	eng	No information available.
18309		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18311		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18311		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18311		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18311		population	eng	No information available.
18311		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18312		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18312		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18312		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18312		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 19% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
18312		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18313		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18313		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18313		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18313		population	eng	No information available.
18313		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18314		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18314		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18314		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18314		population	eng	In the 1970s this species was present in the Northern part of the Mwanza Gulf, but the population density was not known. The species was rarely caught (less than 4 times a year) and disappeared from the catches after 1984 and has not been observed since.
18314		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18315		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18315		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18315		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18315		population	eng	No information available.
18315		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18316		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18316		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18316		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18316		population	eng	No information available.
18316		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18318		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18318		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18318		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18318		population	eng	No information available.
18318		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18319		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18319		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18319		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 50% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
18319		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18320		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18320		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18320		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18320		population	eng	No information available.
18320		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18321		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18321		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18321		population	eng	No information available.
18321		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18322		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18322		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
18322		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18322		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 27% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
18322		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18323		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18323		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya.
18323		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18323		population	eng	No information available.
18323		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18324		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18324		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18324		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18324		population	eng	No information available.
18324		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18325		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18325		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18325		population	eng	No information available.
18325		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18326		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
18326		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18326		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 56% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 61% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
18326		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18327		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18327		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18327		population	eng	No information available.
18327		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18328		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18328		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18328		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18328		population	eng	No information available.
18328		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18329		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.
18329		habitat	eng	More abundant in offshore, open areas than in other regions.
18332		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18332		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
18332		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
18332		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s. It has not been seen since 1983.
18332		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18333		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Kyoga and the adjoining Lake Nawampasa.
18336		conservation	eng	<em>P. bellei</em> is present in some national forests but not in completely protected areas. National forests are unlikely to be developed.  Research into all aspects of its biology and identification of more protected areas are needed.
18336		distribution	eng	<em>Progomphus bellei</em> occurs in the United States of America.
18336		habitat	eng	The species is found in sandy lakes and first-order sandy streams.
18336		population	eng	Small populations of <em>P. bellei</em> occur in scattered habitats.
18336		threats	eng	Development of lakes and woodland in parts of range, quite possible in the regions not currently under protection, is likely to decrease viable habitat in the future. Small streams and shallow lakes are liable to dry out with potential drought from global warming.
18337		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed. Extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area needs to be evaluated. Population size and trends should be monitored.
18337		distribution	eng	Southern Mexico (Chiapas) to Guatemala.
18337		habitat	eng	Small lowland forest streams.
18337		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
18337		threats	eng	Deforestation.
18338		distribution	eng	<em>Prolagus sardus</em> once occupied Corsica, Sardinia, and small adjacent islands of the Mediterranean (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).
18338		population	eng	Extinct.
18339		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas.
18339		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caucasus Mountains, Georgia, and extreme northeastern Turkey (eastern Black Sea Mountains; Krystufek and Vohralík 2001).
18339		habitat	eng	Alpine zone. The species occurs in sub-alpine, mesic, tall grass meadows, at an elevation range of 1500 - 2800 m. This species is fossorial, using claws for digging, therefore only occurs in loose soils. The species may be outcompeted by mole rats which in sympatry occur at lower elevations. Makes complex burrows. In peripheral parts of the passages makes "feeding tables". Feeds mostly on plants. Supplies for winter could be up to 3,5 kg. Lives in colonies that consist of separate families. Colony could cover from 200 to 500 sq. m. Reproduce from May to August. Usually 2 litters with 3 young in each. Does not have real hibernation.
18339		population	eng	In Turkey, populations are localized and approx. 1/ha. Density estimates of 150-200/ha  have been recorded in Abkhasia, Georgia. Populations fluctuates. This may be due to mortality events following repeated snow melt and freezing.
18339		threats	eng	The area is small and fragmented. There is some threat due to overgrazing, though the species is still found in degraded areas. The species is not under any major threat, however, we need more information on population size, trends, and distribution.
18340		conservation	eng	It is found within protected areas.
18340		distribution	eng	Jalisco and Yucatán (Mexico) to Ecuador, Peru, western Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Northern Argentina, Guianas, Suriname; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Paraguay distribution adjusted according to Anderson (1997) and Lopez-Gonzalez (2004). Not found in Costa Rica (Rodriguez pers. comm.).
18340		habitat	eng	Not many studies, it seems to occur in a wide variety of habitats (Solari pers. comm.). It occurs up to 1,800 m (Reid 1997). Found in evergreen, deciduous forests and pine-oak (Eisenberg, 1989). In Mexico from sea level up to 1,050 m.
18340		population	eng	Common species (Solari pers. comm.). Not very common in Mexico.
18340		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
18341		conservation	eng	Research actions.
18341		distribution	eng	Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyanas, Surinam, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
18341		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
18341		population	eng	Uncommon species (Barquez pers. comm.). Only six specimens collected (Barquez pers. comm.).
18341		threats	eng	There are no known threats throughout its range.
18352		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. A new conservation site was declared in the Daraina region in June 2005 thanks largely to the efforts of Association Fanamby, a Malagasy non-governmental organization, and Conservation International. This 20,000-ha protected area complex will be managed by Association Fanamby in collaboration with the Ministry of Water and Forests. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection at the Duke University Primate Center in Durham, North Carolina USA (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18352		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution, limited to forest patches in north-eastern Madagascar between the Loky River to the north and the Manambato River to the south, centering around the town of Daraina and covering approximately 245,000 ha of human-altered savanna, dry scrub, agricultural land, gallery forests and forest fragments (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has been found in the coastal/littoral forest Analabe near L. Sahaka. Ranges from 50-700 m.
18352		habitat	eng	The forests throughout this sifaka’s range are remnant tracts isolated by degraded grasslands. Within the distribution range of the species there are 75 remaining forest fragments, and <em>Propithecus</em> are present in 45 of these. Most are deciduous formations similar in composition to dry western Malagasy forests (Meyers and Ratsirarson 1989; Vargas <em>et al.</em> 2002). Groups range in size from three to 10 individuals (an average of five) and occupy territories of 9-12 ha. This species is primarily diurnal, though sometimes crepuscular during the rainy season, and sleeps at night in high emergent trees. Mating occurs in late January, births in late June and weaning in December (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein).
18352		population	eng	Recent population density estimates range from 10-23 individuals/km² in forest and the total population is believed to be 6,000 to 10,000 animals (Vargas <em>et al.</em> 2002).
18352		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are slash-and-burn agriculture, uncontrolled grass fires, wood extraction for housing and firewood production, logging of precious hardwoods, and gold mining. Hunting from migrant gold miners is perhaps the largest current and future threat. Although gold miners were not observed to hunt this animal in 1995 during a period of intense mining activity (indeed, they even fed these animals on a daily basis in their camps near Daraina), more recent information indicates that these miners may have become a problem, at least in some areas (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18354		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species occurs in five national parks (Andohahela, Isalo, Kirindy-Mitea, Tsimanampetsotsa, and Zombitse-Vohibasia), two special reserves (Andranomena and Beza-Mahafaly), two private reserves (Analabe and Berenty), the Kiridindy CFPF, and a number of unprotected forests (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). As of 2007, there are no animals held in captivity.
18354		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. The Tsiribihina River is believed to be the northern limit of the range, ranging as far as Tolagnaro and the Andohahela National Park in the south-east. Sea level to 1,300 m (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18354		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal lemur that inhabits tropical dry lowland and montane forest, including spiny bush, brush-and scrub thickets, and riparian forests, and is also recorded in lowland rainforest in the south-east. It tends to live in small to medium multi-male groups that range from 2-14 (average five to six individuals), with home ranges sometimes exceeding 10 ha. Breeding is seasonal, with mating taking place in January and February. Infants are almost completely independent at six months (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). The age at which sexual maturity is reached varies with habitat. For example, in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly fewer than half the females have reproduced by six years of age (Richard <em>et al</em>. 2002), but three-year-old females are routinely seen with newborns at Berenty (Jolly 1966).
18354		population	eng	Significant variation in population densities has been noted in different forest types, but even very small forest patches can support sizeable populations of this sifaka. Population densities have been estimated at 47 individuals/km² in the degraded forests of Bealoka, at 150-200 individuals/km² at Berenty (Jolly <em>et al.</em> 1982; O’Connor 1987) and at 860 individuals/km² at Antserananomby; however, the population density at the last mentioned site had declined to about 49/km² as of 2004 (Kelley <em>et al.</em> 2007).
18354		threats	eng	Despite this species' wide distribution, the two principal habitats upon which it depends for survival -- spiny desert and riparian forest -- are under threat due to the need for timber, charcoal and fuelwood (Sussman and Richard 1986).  Although hunting of <em>P. verreauxi</em> is fady (taboo) to several of the tribes living in its range (e.g., Antandroy, Mahafaly), it is hunted by other tribes (e.g., Sakalava) and immigrants to the region (Goodman and Raselimanana 2003). In the Isalo region, this lemur is known as sifaka-bilany or “sifaka of the cooking pot,” but it is unclear whether this is because of its popularity as a food item or because of the sooty black appearance of individuals from this part of the species’ range (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18355		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The only two protected areas in which it is known to occur are the Ankarafantsika National Park and the Bora Special Reserve; however, hunting pressure on sifakas is significant in Ankarafantsika (Garcia and Goodman 2003) and Bora has become seriously degraded. Populations of <em>P. coquereli</em> have also been reported from the forests of Anjiamanginana, Anjajavy, the Narinda Peninsula, and Mariarano, which should be considered for protected area status (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is represented in a small number of zoos in the United States.
18355		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the forested areas of north-western Madagascar to the north and east of the Betsiboka River. Its most southerly occurrence is reportedly Ambato-Boéni, its northern limit is near Bealanana, and its eastern boundary is near Antetemasy (just west of Befandriana Nord). Near sea-level to 300 m.
18355		habitat	eng	This diurnal vertical clinger and leaper is most commonly found in mixed deciduous and evergreen forests, and often in brush-and-scrub and secondary formations as well; also sighted in coastal mangroves on Baie de Mahajamba. They occasionally descend to the ground. In the forests of Ankarafantsika it is seen in groups of three to 10 with home ranges of 4-9 ha. Births are clustered in the months of June and July. Infants become completely independent by about six months of age and reach adult size by one year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
18355		population	eng	Common in Ankarafantsika, where densities of up to 60 individuals/km² have been estimated (Ganzhorn 1988).
18355		threats	eng	The major threats include habitat loss and hunting pressure. Annual burning to generate new pasture for livestock is the principal cause of forest loss in north-western Madagascar, but trees are also cut to produce charcoal and both practices threaten even officially protected areas. Local traditions place taboos on hunting sifakas, but immigration to this region continues to change such long held practices.
18356		conservation	eng	This species is included on Appendix I of CITES. There are reports of its occurrence in two special reserves (Ambohijanahary and Kasijy), although the status of populations in these protected areas is questionable. Efforts should be made to secure protection for populations at Katsepy and Anjamena that have been the subject of brief studies and are also visited by tourists. In addition, there is a need for further survey of a few classified forests within the crowned sifaka’s possible range that may also harbor viable populations (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). A project called Antrema is conserving coastal forest around Katsepy. There is a European captive breeding programme, with very few founders, but apparently showing some success (C. Schwitzer pers. comm.).
18356		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from the Mahavavy River to the south-west (separating it from <em>P. deckenii</em>) and the Betsiboka River to the north-east (separating it from <em>P. coquereli</em>). Petter <em>et al.</em> (1977) subsequently pointed out that hybridization between <em>P. coronatus</em> and <em>P. deckenii</em> probably occurred along the upper reaches of the Mahavavy River. Collections made in the forests of Ambararatabe (to the west of the Mahavavy River) and sightings along the Bongolava Massif (west of Tsiroanomandidy) also appear to include individuals of <em>P. coronatus</em>. Also, reliable reports of Crowned Sifakas as far south as the Sakay River, as far east as Andanotongo, and south-east beyond Tsiroanomandidy suggest that the distribution of this species is more complicated than originally believed (Tattersall 1986). Sea level to 700 m.
18356		habitat	eng	It is diurnal, inhabits dry deciduous forests and is often found in mangroves (which also form an important food source). Occurs in groups of two to eight individuals, with home ranges from 1.2 – 1.5 ha.
18356		population	eng	Where not hunted, fairly common. Muller <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded densities of 48 groups/km² and 173 individuals/km² in Anjamena, using transect line sampling.
18356		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, as forests within this species’ range have been lost to provide pasture for livestock and to produce charcoal. In some parts of the range they may be hunted, and captured for the pet trade.
18357		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Occurs in three national parks (Tsingy de Bemaraha, Baie de Baly and Tsingy de Namoroka), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, and four special reserves (Ambohijanahary, Bemarivo, Kasijy, and Maningoza) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are no specimens reported in captivity.
18357		distribution	eng	The species is found in patches of highly fragmented deciduous forest in western Madagascar between the Mahavavy and Manambolo Rivers. The southern limit of its range does not extend to the Tsiribihina River, which marks the northern limit of <em>P. verreauxi</em>. To the north, within the coastal forests that occur between the Betsiboka and Mahavavy Rivers, the geographic separation between <em>P. deckenii</em> and <em>P. coronatus</em> is clear, but not on both sides of the lower reaches of the Mahavavy where the changing river course allows the populations to interchange (Thalmann <em>et al.</em> 2002). More confusing is the situation in forests of the Bongolava Massif, where animals with colour patterns characteristic of both species have been observed; populations of both species also can be found at a number of other sites (Thalmann <em>et al</em>. 2002).
18357		habitat	eng	This species has yet to be studied in the wild. It is known to be diurnal, inhabits dry deciduous forests, occurs on groups of two to 10 individuals, and is somewhat adaptable to degraded habitat, even being present in Eucalyptus trees in the middle of Soalala town.
18357		population	eng	Common where present.
18357		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, as forests within its range are already very fragmented. Habitat loss continues mainly to provide pasture for livestock and to produce charcoal. It is protected by a very strong taboo in much of its range, becoming very tame as a result.
18358		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species occurs in three national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, and Zahamena), two strict nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena), and three special reserves (Ambatovaky, Mangerivola, and Marotandrano) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Additional populations have been identified in the Andriantantely Classified Forest, Tsinjoarivo Classified Forest, the Marokitay Forest Reserve, and in the unprotected forests of Anosibe an’ala, Anjozorobe, Didy, Iofa, Maromiza and Sandranantitra (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). The Tsinjoarivo Classified Forest has already been recommended as a new protected area. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection at the Duke University Primate Center in Durham, North Carolina, USA.
18358		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout eastern Madagascar from about the Mangoro and Onive Rivers north to the Mananara Nord River. Its occurrence between Antainambalana River near Maroantsetra and Mananara Nord River, as reported by earlier authors (e.g., Petter <em>et al.</em> 1977) has not been confirmed in recent years. At the southern limit of its range there seems to be a clinal gradient between <em>P. diadema</em> and <em>P. edwardsi</em> (Andriaholinirina and Rabarivola 2004). Ranges from 200-1,625 m.
18358		habitat	eng	It is found in the eastern rainforests, and persists in smaller forest fragments. There have been no long-term field studies of the Diademed Sifaka. However, it is known to be diurnal and to live in multi-male/multi-female groups of up to eight or more individuals that defend home ranges of 20 - 50 ha by means of scent-marking (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008; and references therein).
18358		population	eng	Rare. It occurs only at very low densities wherever it is found.
18358		threats	eng	Continued destruction of rain forest habitat in eastern Madagascar due to slash-and-burn agricultural practices and timber extraction is the principal threat to this sifaka’s survival, although hunting for food also can have a very serious impact on remaining populations, even within existing protected areas (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Furthermore, illegal rum production, necessitating the planting of sugar cane fields, is a threat to populations in Tsinjoarivo (Irwin and Ravelomanantsoa 2004).
18359		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Milne-Edwards’ sifaka is known to occur in two national parks (Andringitra and Ranomafana). Its suggested presence in Andohahela National Park (O’Connor <em>et al.</em> 1986, 1987) has not been verified by subsequent field surveys (Feistner and Schmid 1999). Populations have also been identified in unprotected forests north of Ranomafana, including those nearby the villages of Kirisiasy, Marofotsy, Fandriana and Marolambo. Marofotsy should be immediately included within the existing Ranomafana National Park. A large number of forest reserves have been established in eastern Fianarantsoa Province, some of which may still harbor populations of <em>P. edwardsi</em>, and these could be included within a conservation corridor linking Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). As of 2007, no animals are known to be held in captive breeding programmes.
18359		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in the east between the Mangoro and Onive Rivers and the  Manampatrana River and Andringitra National Park. At the northern limit of its range (at the Nosivolo and the Mangoro River) there seems to be a clinal gradient between <em>P. diadema</em> and <em>P. edwardsi</em> (Andriaholinirina and Rabarivola 2004). Ranges from 600-1,600 m.
18359		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and slightly degraded rainforest forests at middle to high elevations. The typical group size is from three to nine individuals, groups range over areas of 40 to 250 ha. Infants typically are born in June and July every other year. Predation, especially by the fossa (<em>Cryptoprocta ferox</em>), is a significant cause of mortality, but some infant losses also are attributable to infanticidal male sifakas. Infant mortality has been calculated at almost 50% before the age of one year, but it is particularly high in exploited forests (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Long-term studies have shown that these sifakas are long-lived, reproduce slowly, have high infant and adult mortalities, and are poor dispersers across fragmented habitats (Pochron <em>et al</em>. 2004).
18359		population	eng	Population density estimates are relatively low at 7.6 individuals/km² in Ranomafana National Park (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005). South of Ranomafana in the corridor between the park and Andringritra there are good remaining populations of the species, although they occur at much lower densities (about 3/km²). Projecting across the entire range the total number of individuals is estimated at about 20,000 individuals (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005).
18359		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to slash-and-burn agriculture and logging, even within protected areas, represents the principal threat to this species’ survival. Habitat loss is also taking place due to gold mining outside of the Ranomafana on the western boundary, and illegal rum production is a threat in the Fandriana region. These are also large-bodied lemurs, and a favoured prey item among hunters, with hunting taking place by means of slingshots, blowguns and firearms, especially north of Ranomafana, as local taboos operate in the southern parts of the range.<br/><br/>Recently, Dunham <em>et al.</em> (2008) performed a demographic study of <em>Propithecus edwards</em>i, to evaluate the impact of deforestation, hunting, and El Niño on its population. Over 18 years of demographic data, including survival and fecundity rates were used to parameterize a stochastic population model structured with three stage classes (yearlings, juveniles, and adults). Results demonstrate that hunting and deforestation are the most significant threats to the population. Analysis of several plausible scenarios and combinations of threat revealed that a 50% population<br/>decline within three generations was very likely.
18360		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in the Marojejy National Park and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, and (very rarely) the Anjanaharibe and Manandriana portions of Makira Protected Area north of the Antainambalana River. A small number of unexplored forest reserves and classified forests in north-eastern Madagascar are within the presumed range of this species and should be surveyed. Ambodivoahangy forest, where the species has been recorded, and the corridor between Betaolana and Anjanaharibe-Sud should be protected as a Conservation Site. Efforts aimed at ending lemur hunting in the Marojejy region and elsewhere should be continued and expanded. As of 2007, there are no animals held in captivity.
18360		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range in north-eastern Madagascar that includes the humid forest belt extending from Maroantsetra to the Andapa Basin and the Marojejy Massif, but the precise limits of its distribution are unknown. Marojejy National Park represents the northern limit of its known distribution and the forests of Makira and the Antainambalana River are currently regarded as the southern limit. They are patchily distributed and occur at low densities. It is most commonly encountered at elevations between 700 and 1,875 m asl (Patel <em>et al.</em> 2007; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008).
18360		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in tropical moist montane forest. This species has been the subject of one intensive 14.5 month study and a few short-term studies in Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe-Sud. Group size ranges from 2-9, and home ranges can exceed 40 ha. Groups spend about a quarter of their time traveling between foraging sites. Mating occurs just a few days each year between November and January, with young being born in June or July (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).
18360		population	eng	This is one of the rarest and most threatened sifakas, believed to number less than 250 mature individuals. Sterling and McFadden (2000) provided two population density estimates within Marojejy: 40 individuals/km² and 90 individuals/km². Each estimate was from a different elevational range along the same main trail to the summit. However, this was a very short study from only one small section (the most well traveled) of Marojejy National Park, and clearly these estimates are not representative of the entire park (E. Patel pers. comm.). The numbers of known mature individuals in Marojejy is around a dozen mature individuals; six mature individuals are known from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve (E. Patel pers. comm.).
18360		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and hunting, particularly within the Marojejy Massif and Andapa Basin, and even within the boundaries of the only two protected areas in which it is found, Marojejy National Park and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. Mining activities in Anjanaharibe-Sud are exacerbating hunting activities due to improved infrastructure. Large trucks have been observed containing rosewood, palissandre, ebony and other valuable hardwood trees that were illegally cut within Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud (E. Patel pers. comm.).
18361		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is currently known only from the Analamerana Special Reserve, although even within this protected area the forests have been reduced by as much as 10% over an eight-year period (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007). Banks <em>et al</em>. (2007) have called for the forests falling in between Ankarana and Analamerana to be annexed for inclusion as part of these protected areas, because these localities support Perrier?s sifakas and other threatened primates. The&#160; enhancement of infrastructure at Ankarana and Analamerana to support moderate tourist volumes and research presence should be considered.
18361		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range in northern Madagascar that includes the Analamerana Massifs. It was formerly recorded in the Ankarana forests (where it may not have been resident), but has not been recorded at all during recent surveys, although animals were observed in forest fragments between Analamerana and Ankarana (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007). Ranges from sea level to 400 m.
18361		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of tropical dry forest. Groups range in size from two to six individuals and home ranges approach 30 ha (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Densities of fossa are extremely high in this region, and this carnivore could be having a negative impact on lemur populations.
18361		population	eng	Petter <em>et al.</em> (1977) suggested that the total population of Perrier's Sifakas was unlikely to exceed 1000 individuals, while Meyers and Ratsirarson (1989) suggested that about 2000 individuals may have then remained in the wild. More recently, densities in Analamerana were recorded at 3.1 individuals/km² (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007). These authors projected this density estimate over the 295.6 km² forest area calculated as available habitat for Perrier?s Sifakas, and derived an estimate of 915 remaining individuals, estimating an effective population size of 230 individuals.
18361		threats	eng	Slash-and-burn activities resulting in forest loss represents the greatest threat to this species. Additional threats include fires set to increase livestock pasture, the cutting of trees to produce charcoal, forest destruction caused by itinerant miners, and hunting. During the dry season, they drink water on the ground, and when they move between forest patches they move along the ground where their conspicuous coloration makes them vulnerable to predators and hunters.
18362		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area.
18362		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Mengkoka Mts. in southeastern Sulawesi at 1,500 m.
18362		habitat	eng	It has been recorded only from mid-montane forest.
18362		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, as it has been collected once in 1950s with no follow up research. It is potentially endemic to the Mengkoka Mts.
18362		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by human encroachment and hunting.
18363		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
18363		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sulawesi, Butung, Muna, Kabeana, and adjacent islands.
18363		habitat	eng	This species is a forest obligate and prefers lower to mid-montane evergreen forest.
18363		population	eng	This species likely occurs at low densities. It is not encountered frequently and it is extremely difficult to study.
18363		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest clearing due to small-scale agriculture, and at lower elevations due to forestry operations.
18364		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
18364		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to north east and central Sulawesi and adjacent small islands, including Sangihe island, north of Sulawesi (Riley 2002).
18364		habitat	eng	It prefers primary forest, probably at higher elevations. The species is primarily arboreal but it is sometimes found on the ground.
18364		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. On Sangihe, this species is common in all habitats with tall trees. Because there were no records of this now common species on Sangihe until recently, it is suspected to be recently introduced (Riley 2002).
18364		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest clearing due to small-scale agriculture, and at lower elevations due to forestry operations.
18365		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
18365		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in northern and western Sulawesi.
18365		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is forest dependent. The elevational range is unknown.
18365		population	eng	It is widespread but rarely encountered. Museum specimens are scattered and most of the collections predate 1950 and have been from lowland sites.
18365		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation due to small-scale logging and agriculture.
18372		conservation	eng	Aardwolves are present in numerous well-managed protected areas across their range. Grassland burning and livestock overgrazing results in a gross increase in the population of <em>Trinervitermes</em>, so Aardwolves would benefit in areas where such management takes place (Anderson in press).<br/>The population of Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix III.
18372		conservation	eng	Aardwolves are present in numerous well-managed protected areas across their range. Grassland burning and livestock overgrazing results in a gross increase in the population of <i>Trinervitermes</i>, so Aardwolves would benefit in areas where such management takes place (Anderson in press).
18372		distribution	eng	The Aardwolf has a disjunct distribution in Africa, occurring in two discrete areas, 1,500 km apart, one in East and north-eastern Africa and one in southern Africa. Their distribution is largely determined by the distribution of <em>Trinervitermes</em> termites, which constitute their principle food (Anderson in press).<br/><br/>The northern population extends from central Tanzania to north-eastern Uganda, Ethiopia and Somalia, then narrowly along the coast of Eritrea and Sudan to extreme south-eastern Egypt (in the Sudan Government Administration Area) (Hofer and Mills 1998; Anderson in press). Their presence in Djibouti is unclear (Kunzel <em>et al.</em> 2000). A road kill from near Mbatwa in the Udzungwa Mountains in 2002 is probably the most southerly record for the northern subspecies (De Luca and Mpunga 2005). <br/><br/>The southern population ranges over most of southern Africa, extending just into south-west Angola, southern Zambia (apparently south of the Kafue River), and south-west Mozambique, but is entirely absent from Malawi, southern Tanzania, and most of Zambia (Hofer and Mills 1998; Anderson in press). They are not recorded from Lesotho, but may well occur (Lynch 1994).
18372		distribution	eng	The Aardwolf has a disjunct distribution in Africa, occurring in two discrete areas, 1,500 km apart, one in East and north-eastern Africa and one in southern Africa. Their distribution is largely determined by the distribution of <i>Trinervitermes</i> termites, which constitute their principle food (Anderson in press).<br><br>The northern population extends from central Tanzania to north-eastern Uganda, Ethiopia and Somalia, then narrowly along the coast of Eritrea and Sudan to extreme south-eastern Egypt (in the Sudan Government Administration Area) (Hofer and Mills 1998; Anderson in press). Their presence in Djibouti is unclear (Kunzel <i>et al.</i> 2000). A road kill from near Mbatwa in the Udzungwa Mountains in 2002 is probably the most southerly record for the northern subspecies (De Luca and Mpunga 2005). <br><br>The southern population ranges over most of southern Africa, extending just into south-west Angola, southern Zambia (apparently south of the Kafue River), and south-west Mozambique, but is entirely absent from Malawi, southern Tanzania, and most of Zambia (Hofer and Mills 1998; Anderson in press). They are not recorded from Lesotho, but may well occur (Lynch 1994).
18372		habitat	eng	Their prime habitat is open, grassy plains, being entirely absent from forests or pure desert (Anderson in press). In southern Africa the Aardwolf occupies diverse habitats, ranging from the karroid habitats of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape, the grasslands and scrub of Botswana, the open savanna woodlands of Zimbabwe, and the inland gravel plains of the Namib Desert in Namibia (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Recorded to 2,000 m asl in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Throughout its distribution, the Aardwolf has been recorded to feed primarily on nasute harvester termites (genus <em>Trinervitermes</em>) and, in any particular region, mainly on one species; they are largely independent of water (except during prolonged cold spells), obtaining their moisture requirements from termites (Anderson in press). A comprehensive review of the species' ecology can be found in Koehler and Richardson (1990) and Anderson (in press).
18372		habitat	eng	Their prime habitat is open, grassy plains, being entirely absent from forests or pure desert (Anderson in press). In southern Africa the Aardwolf occupies diverse habitats, ranging from the karroid habitats of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape, the grasslands and scrub of Botswana, the open savanna woodlands of Zimbabwe, and the inland gravel plains of the Namib Desert in Namibia (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Recorded to 2,000 m asl in Ethiopia (Yalden <i>et al.</i> 1996). Throughout its distribution, the Aardwolf has been recorded to feed primarily on nasute harvester termites (genus <i>Trinervitermes</i>) and, in any particular region, mainly on one species; they are largely independent of water (except during prolonged cold spells), obtaining their moisture requirements from termites (Anderson in press). A comprehensive review of the species' ecology can be found in Koehler and Richardson (1990) and Anderson (in press).
18372		population	eng	Although relatively widely distributed, the Aardwolf is not common within its range. In prime habitat (open grassland and scrub regions), densities may reach one adult/km² on farms with good populations of termites and no persecution by farmers (Anderson in press).
18372		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to Aardwolves. In South Africa, the Aardwolf was previously persecuted by some farmers for the mistaken belief that it was a predator of livestock, chickens and eggs (Richardson 1984; Anderson 1988). However, such reports are not substantiated by studies of gut or faecal contents and probably result from mistaken identity with hyaenas or jackals (Anderson in press), and, fortunately, this perception has now changed and most farmers actively conserve Aardwolves. They are, however, the occasional inadvertent victims of problem animal control operations, especially those using gin traps (M.D. Anderson pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Loss of habitat, through urbanization agricultural expansion, may be having an important negative impact. For example, some farmers in South Africa destroy termitaria, using a plough or poisons, and these areas then become unsuitable for Aardwolves. Poisons used for locust control may also have an affect on Aardwolves (Anderson in press). Other mortality factors include predation by carnivores, and accidental road casualties, which are not uncommon as Aardwolves fail to move out of the way of oncoming vehicles at night (Anderson in press).
18376		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is listed as Endangered in Greece (Economidis 1995). It is also present in the Annex III of the Bern Convention.
18376		distribution	eng	This species is present in rivers and estuaries of the Black Sea, Sea of Azov and Caspian Sea, including tributaries. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs only in the Evros and Strymon systems, which reach north Aegean Sea.
18376		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and estuaries (Miller 1986).
18376		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally abundant.
18376		threats	eng	The main threat for this species is increasing salinity in brackish water bodies due to a reduction of the inflow of freshwater due to river damming. For example: Lake Bafa in south Aegean coast (Sari <em>et al.</em>1999). Pollution is also a problem.
18377		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in the Slovenian National Red List and is protected by national legislation in many range states, e.g. Slovenia, Croatia and Italy. In Slovenia the species is present in caves, which are protected by national legislation, and much of the distribution of this species is within proposed national or international protected areas (Kocevski and Kraski regional parks; NATURA 2000 sites). In Italy it is found in the Riserva Naturale Regionale dei Laghi di Doberdò e Pietrarossa. The subspecies <em>P. a. parkelj</em> is in need of protection, as its habitat is limited to only a few holes in connection with subterranean networks in a very small geographic area.
18377		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to subterranean aquatic habitats within the Dinaric Alps, ranging from southern Slovenia and adjoining north-east Italy through coastal Croatia and karst regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has yet to be officially recorded in western parts of Montenegro despite considerable anecdotal evidence of its presence (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). The species has been introduced to a cave of the subterranean laboratory of the CNRS France in the Pyrenees (C. Miaud pers. comm.), and one of the north-eastern Italian populations (in the Vicenza area) was introduced in the 1800s (P. Edgar pers. comm.).
18377		habitat	eng	The species generally occurs in large subterranean aquatic karst systems formed in limestone and dolomite rocks, and may be found in cave entrances (especially during episodes of high rainfall and flooding) and abandoned mine workings. Many of the caves that the species occurs in are connected to rivers that run above ground for the first 50-100km and then disappear into the ground. Populations may be found close to the surface or as much as 300m underground depending on the thickness of the Karstic formation. The species is found in waters ranging from 5°C to 15°C. Animals feed on detritus and endemic cave invertebrates and hide in crevices or bottom sediment when disturbed. In contrast to the nominate subspecies, <em>P. a. parkelj</em> is found in warmer surface waters. The species is long-lived (they are not sexually mature until they are 12 years of age) and reproduce very slowly. Females lay approximately 70 individual eggs on the undersides of aquatic stones; however, in some cases the eggs are retained within the body and two fully formed young are produced.
18377		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but it is apparently most common in Slovenia and Croatia. A decline has been observed in the populations of Goriza (Italy) and Postojna (Slovenia) (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997). The number of individuals of the subspecies <em>P. a. parkelj</em> is very low.
18377		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are changes to the forested and pastoral land above the subterranean systems, largely through tourism, economic changes, and increasing water pollution. These changes have a direct influence on the quality of the habitat available to the species. The species is highly dependent on clean water, and is therefore very susceptible to pollution. Other localized threats to this species might include water abstraction and hydroelectric schemes. There is some illegal collection of this species for the pet trade, but the extent of this is unknown.
18378		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
18383		conservation	eng	Australian grayling were once a popular angling species, but the species is now of conservation concern and listed as a protected fish in New South Wales under the Fisheries Management Act 1994.  Heavy penalties apply for taking or possessing them. Australian grayling are listed as a vulnerable species on the schedules of the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.  The related New Zealand grayling (<em>Prototroctes oxyrhynchus</em>) became extinct in the 1930s.<br/><br/>There are several conservation actions underway, including:<br/>- Providing fish ladders over dams, weirs and other barriers, and removing redundant structures.<br/>- Protecting and enhancing creek-side vegetation to minimise siltation of rivers and gravel beds.<br/>- Maintaining flow rates and water quality in rivers and streams as part of water sharing plans.<br/>- Implementing the Protected, Threatened and Pest Species Sighting Program, by reporting any sightings of the species to the NSW Department of Primary Industries.<br/>- Implementing the Commercial Fisheries Threatened and Protected Species Interaction Reporting arrangements.<br/>- Educating fishers on the best way to return incidentally caught grayling to the water.<br/>(Department of Primary Industries 2006).
18383		distribution	eng	This species is known only from coastal drainages of south-eastern Australia from the Grose River (New South Wales) to the Hopkins River (Victoria).  It also occurs in Tasmania and King Island in the Bass Strait.  These river basins cover a total area of 185,120 km².
18383		habitat	eng	<em>P. maraena</em> is an amphidromous species that inhabits clear, moderate to fast-flowing water in the upper reaches of rivers, sometimes to altitudes above 1,000 m.  It is typically found in gravel-bottom pools and often forms aggregations below barriers to upstream movement, such as weirs and waterfalls.  <br/><br/>Adults dwell in flowing freshwater streams, spawning between February and May.  They are highly fecund; on average a total of 47,000 demersal eggs are released by each female.  The larvae hatch around two weeks and are swept downstream into estuaries and the sea.  They spend their first six months here before returning to freshwater in the spring as part of their annual 'whitebait' migrations.  Some fish spawn at the end of their first year of life, but the majority wait until the second year and die shortly afterwards.  The maximum recorded lifespan is six years (Allen<em> et al.</em> 2002).
18383		population	eng	<em>P. maraena</em> is reported to be relatively uncommon.  It is often only captured in small numbers (less than 10). Larger populations are apparently restricted to a few rivers, for example the Tambo River in Victoria, (Environment Australia 1993).  This species has declined in numbers and distribution within New South Wales (Department of Primary Industries 2006). <br/><br/>However, research has revealed large annual fluctuations in population numbers depending on the prevailing conditions for spawning and migration of the young.  Given their high fecundity, this species has potential for explosive population increases when conditions are favourable (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
18383		threats	eng	There is concern for the distribution, abundance and conservation status of <em>P. maraena</em>, though the level of concern has oscillated over past decades, and has varied geographically (McDowall 2006).   <br/>  <br/>Australian grayling need to migrate to and from the sea to complete their life cycle, and the construction of barriers such as dams and weirs has had a major impact on populations in some river systems.  Other threats to Australian grayling include:<br/>- land clearing, resulting in siltation and water quality decline;<br/>- smothering of gravel beds by fine sediment;<br/>- competition from introduced brown trout.<br/>(Department of Primary Industries 2006).
18384		distribution	eng	<em>Prototroctes oxyrhynchus</em> was endemic to New Zealand.
18384		habitat	eng	The New Zealand grayling was an amphidromous species, inhabiting freshwater, brackish and marine environments. Spawning apparently occurred in freshwater streams and hatched larvae made their way downstream to the sea where they remained until maturity and returned to freshwater spawning areas.
18384		population	eng	The species was abundant at the time of European settlement in the 1860s, but population decline was noted by the late 1870s. The disappearance of the fish from the Waikato River was noted in 1874, and by 1900 the species was apparently rare. There are reports of grayling being caught in the 1920s and in the early 1930s a specimen, possibly the last, was brought to the British Museum, however, the origin and date of collection were not noted.
18384		threats	eng	The extinction of this species was possibly due to a combination of the effects of introduced trout and the deterioration of the freshwater habitat through the clearance of forest cover resulting in increased light penetration and raised water temperature.
18385		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from spome protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
18385		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Africa, where it ranges from extreme southern Sierra Leone (recorded in the Gola forests) through Liberia, southeastern Guinea and southern Côte d'Ivoire to southwestern Ghana.
18385		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, wher it is usually found in the undergrowth. It has also been recorded from <em>Raphia</em> palm swamps, where it feeds on the <em>Raphia</em> fruit. A very poorly known species, with the limited biological information available.
18385		population	eng	This species is uncommon (at least in museum collections).
18385		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known, but the forests of the Upper Guinea area have been extensively logged such that habitat loss may be a threat.
18386		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and Kibale National Park (Uganda). Additional research is needed into the taxonomy of populations found to the east and to the west of the Dahomey Gap.
18386		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It is found from Sierra Leone and Liberia in the west, eastwards through lowland forest regions to southern Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, western Kenya (recorded from Kakamega forest) and southwards in Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Rwanda and Burundi. There are two isolated records from Tanzania (Kingdon), and from north-central Angola on the Angola Escarpment. It is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It occurs up to 2,000 m asl.
18386		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland forest and fringing forest, and has apparently also been recorded from secondary forest and farmland. It occurs mainly in the upper branches of trees, rarely descending to the ground (Rosevear, 1969). Rosevear (1969) mentions two females taken, one with a single embryo, another with two.
18386		population	eng	This species is not particularly common.
18386		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Deforestation is unlikely to be a serious threat as the species is also known to occur in agricultural fields/formations and is sometimes found in cocoa plantations. There is some limited hunting for bushmeat.
18398		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
18401		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18401		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18401		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone. This species is thought to be a plant-eater but morphologically and ecologically is also thought to be partly a piscivorous.
18401		population	eng	No information available.
18401		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18403		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18403		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
18403		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. <em>H. cassius</em> is a zooplanktivore, morphologically and ecologically it is also a piscivore.
18403		population	eng	No information available.
18403		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18418		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
18418		distribution	eng	This species is found in North Africa from Mauritania and Western Sahara to Egypt, and east through Sinai Peninsula into Saudi Arabia, Israel, Jordan and Syria. It is unevenly distributed probably due to its dependence on succulent plants for moisture. It has been recorded from a harbour in Sudan, where it may have been accidentally introduced.
18418		habitat	eng	The species is only found in the vicinity of succulent shrubs, which are its main food source. It is a habitat generalist, found in rocky habitats, grasslands, semi-desert and desert so long as succulent shrubs are present. This mostly diurnal species is colonial and lives in burrow systems in open terrain of soil or sand. The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000). The species is used in laboratory studies on diabetes (Qumsiyeh 1996).
18418		population	eng	This species is common. At times, population explosions occur.
18418		threats	eng	No major threats. The species is persecuted as a pest and is a reservoir for disease.
18419		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
18419		distribution	eng	This North African species ranges from northeastern Algeria, through central Tunisia to northwestern Libya.
18419		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas with consolidated sands with sparse, halophil vegetation. It is associated with Chenopodiaceae.
18419		population	eng	The abundance of this species is unknown. It is often confused with <em>Psammomys obesus</em>.
18419		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18428		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. gladius</span> is listed as a first-class state protected animal in China. Due to its endemicity and rarity, this species possesses significant academic and economic importance. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>An integrated rescue programme was initiated in 2005. This extensive programme hopes to re-discover this species. It is also investigating habitat and plans to conduct studies on foraging behaviours and instigate captive breeding programmes, propagation for release, preservation of genetic resources, and even cloning (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>The “Protective Laws of Aquatic Products Resources” should be implemented and increased awareness of the significance of the protection of the species is needed (Wei Qiwei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <br/><br/>Current studies hope to investigate artificial breeding with the hope of releasing captive bred fries into rivers, ponds and reservoirs. The success of this work depends upon finding wild adult specimens.
18428		distribution	eng	The Chinese Paddlefish is endemic to the Yangtze River (including the brackish water of the mouth) in China.
18428		habitat	eng	This paddlefish is considered anadromous (spends at least part of it's life in the sea and migrates upriver to reproduce). This species occurs in broad surfaced main streams of large rivers, staying usually in middle and lower layers of the water column, and occasionally swims into large lakes. Its spawning period is in March and April. Spawning sites are located in the upper reaches of the Changjiang River. Available information also indicates that spawning took place in the lower Jinsha River between Shuifu and Yibin (Liu and Zeng 1988; Li <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).<br/><br/>The largest specimen recorded was 7 m in length and weighed over several thousand kg.
18428		population	eng	From the mid-20th century the population of the Chinese Paddlefish decreased significantly. Incidental capture data between 1982-2008 from the upper, mid and lower sections of the Yangtze River indicate the largest number of this species found during this period was in 1985, when 32 individuals were captured in the lower section (below the Gezhouba Dam) (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In 1995 juveniles of this species were recorded below the Gezhouba Dam of the Yangtze River (Chen 2008).<br/><br/>Two specimens (1.2 kg weight, 47 cm tail length; 1.3 kg weight, 50 cm tail length) were found in the Chongqing reach in 1992 (Chen 2007). In 2002, a female Chinese Paddlefish (body length 330 cm, weight 117 kg) was captured in the section of Jiangsu Nanjing, Yangtze River. Urgent attempts were made to save this individual, but it only survived in captivity for 30 days. On Jan 24th, 2003, a female (body length 352 cm) was accidentally caught in Yibin, Sichuan Province China (upper stream of Yangtze River).&#160; It was captured, tagged with an ultra-sonic tag and released by Dr. Wei’s team of the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences. Unfortunately, after 12 hours of tracking, communication was disconnected. Between 2006 and 2008, Dr.Wei’s team used a number of boats to deploy 4,762 setlines, 111 anchored setlines and 950 drift nets covering a stretch of 412.5 km of the upper Yangtze River in a bid to catch the fish, but they failed to catch a single individual (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The team also used hydroacoustic equipment that beams sound through the water to create a picture of the river and anything in it. This identified nine possible targets, of which two could be paddlefish (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This species is considered to be the verge of extinction. Artificial reproduction has not been successful.
18428		threats	eng	The Chinese Paddlefish has historically been overfished. The long-life history of this species (e.g. late sexual maturation and large size) means the population will take a longer time to recover from depletion.<br/><br/>In 1981 the Gezhouba Dam was built in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, blocking the migration route of this species and preventing adult fish moving to the upper reaches of the river to spawn.<br/><br/>Fries of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gladius</span> form schools along the river, thus becoming easily captured in traditional Chinese fishing nets and set nets (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
18444		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures. Communication actions and monitoring of the habitat are recommended.
18444		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum klemmi</em>&#160;restricted to the&#160;Department of&#160;Gard in southern France, where it is known from the type locality which Girardi and Rosello (2001) noted it was difficult to refind but was between Uzes and St Hippolyte-de-Montaigu.&#160; Other localities have been located near Collias including numerous springs at "la Grotte de Pâques à Collias" as well as along the left bank of the river Gardon, about 500m from Collias (Girardi and Rosello 2001).
18444		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwaters within a subterranean cave system, with two closely adjacent localities near one village. One site has springs within the cave system with other possible exit locations. The third location was not found again, and is possibly lost due to habitat degradation.
18444		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.
18444		threats	eng	Main threats are water abstraction and pollution.&#160; The groundwater is used for domestic supplies to the village at Collias (Giraudi and Rosello 2001).&#160; Future threats may include poor recharge with fluctuating precipitation patterns.
18446		conservation	eng	The species is protected by law in Germany where it has been assessed as Highly Endangered having been lost from many sites. Until recently it occurred commonly in the rivers and lakes of Poland, though always in relatively low numbers. But now it is Endangered as is thought to be in decline. Its populations are small, isolated and scattered and protected by law. In the Czech Republic it is assessed as Endangered (EN) in Bohemia and Critically Endangered (CR) in Moravia. However, in Sweden it will soon be classified as Least Concern (LC) as many new sites have been discovered. As there is an identified decline over much of the range monitoring of population and habitat trends is recommended as is monitoring of the identified threats.
18446		conservation	eng	This species is listed as threatened in a number of countries, as part of national Red Lists. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany and Poland (Zajac 2009, D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011); Endangered in the Czech Republic, Belarus, Hungary and Slovakia (Bódis 2008, Anonymous 2010, D.Van Damme pers. comm. 2011); in the Ukraine, it was assessed as Vulnerable (Korniushin 2002); it is considered Near Threatened in France, Moldova, Sweden and Estonia (von Proschwitz 2008, Timm 2011, D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011); it is 'rare' in Lithuania (Zettler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) and Least Concern in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In the Netherlands, it is considered to be 'Threatened' (Anonymous 2004), while it is a priority for conservation under the U.K. biodiversity action plan (BAP 1995). Conservation recommendations include restricting management operations in areas with large populations and leaving sufficient recovery periods at particular seasons, temporarily translocating mussels where necessary&#160; The species is protected by law in Germany and Poland (McIvor and Aldridge 2005).<br/><br/>Data for population trends are insufficient, particularly in Russia. A greater knowledge of population distribution, trends and threats is required to accurately assess the species. Furthermore, molecular investigation, as was recently carried out&#160; in the U.K. (Skidmore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) is necessary to establish the degree of genetic differentiation between the geographic groups of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. complanata</span> in Europe. It is likely that two (or three) distinct species or geographical races exist, e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudanodonta complanata</span> (Rossmässler, 1835) and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nordenskioldi </span>(Bourguignat, 1880). This will have a bearing on the conservation assessment for these potentially distinct species.<em></em>
18446		distribution	eng	This species has a large range found in north-west and central Europe. It has been known from Austria, Belgium (Extinct), Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Latvia, Norway, Sweden, Poland, Lithunia, Denmark, Netherlands, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine and the UK. It is present in some lowland rivers of England, but only in the lower reaches with the most northerly population known from the River Derwent, Yorkshire. The largest sub populations are found in the Rivers Medway, Arun, Waveney, Old West (Great Ouse system), Thames, South Drain (Somerset Levels), Great Stour. The range reaches Wales (River Wye) on the border with England. In Slovakia it is mostly present in the major river systems in the country: Morava, Danube, Nitra, Hron, Laborec and Latorica Rivers, mainly in the lowland and in main channels. In Serbia the species lies in Tisa River system and also the Danube.
18446		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Europe, with the U.K. and Finland hosting the largest populations (Mcivor and Aldridge 2005). It is also recorded in the European part of the Russian Federation (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). Despite being a widespread species, populations are unstable and occur patchily where found.<br/><br/>The following gives more specific distribution information for this species in parts of its range (this is not an exhaustive list):<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovakia</span>: The species has been recorded from the River Danube at two localities (Elexová and Némethová 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>: This species is restricted to the southeast of the country (Dolmen and Kleiven 2000).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: It is thought to be widespread, as far south as the Garonne (Graf and Cummings 2009); the species has been recorded live from only one locality in the Upper Helpe River (Cucherat 2003), while in Picardie, it was recorded from the Oise (Prié <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and from the Seine (bij de Vaate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Since 1970, the species has only been recorded in one of the five departments of the Loire (Maine et Loire; Boulord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Blond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is now extinct or rare in parts of France, such as the Garonne, Saone-Rhône and the Doubs (Mouthon 2007, Bertrand 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russian Federation</span>: Older records suggest that the species is found in the northern part of European Russia in the rivers and lakes of the Baltic Basin from Kaliningrad to the St. Petersburg region and more to the East in the Northern Dvina basin (Zhadin 1952). In the south, it occurs in the rivers of the Black Sea basin (Dnieper, Dniester, Southern Bug, Don and Kuban rivers) and also in the Caspian basin (Volga and Ural rivers; Zhadin 1952). More recent data (e.g., Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) suggests that the distribution is more restricted and strongly disjunct, with the species found in the northwest (rivers and lakes of the basin of the Baltic Sea) in&#160; e.g., Lake Peipsi or Pihkva (Timm <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996) and in Lake Ilmen (Andreeva 2010), and in the southwest (Don basin, Voronezh oblast) as well as in the delta of the Volga (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Its presence further east, i.e., in the Ural River (Russian Federation, Kazakhstan) has not been confirmed and the Northern Dvina is not mentioned any more by Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010). The records from the Asian parts of Russia and the former Soviet Union (e.g., Kazakhstan) are all considered erroneous (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>: The species has been recorded from Lake Lepelskoe, Lake Naroch, Lake Dolzha and Lake Malye Shvaksht in the northwest of the country (Balthic basin) (Burlakovai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
18446		habitat	eng	The species is generally found in flowing water habitats (lotic systems), especially lowland rivers. It does not occur in lakes in the UK, but in Sweden it is present in lakes with riverine through-flows. There is a preference for clean sands and clays with low organic content. It is found to bury more deeply than other unionids, with a stronger anchoring of the foot.
18446		habitat	eng	This species is found in lotic freshwater ecosystems including lakes and rivers, and prefers a silt-sandy substrate (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It is usually found in deep parts of rivers below 1 m depth and up to a depth of 11 m (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). Although not found in lakes in the U.K., Swedish lakes with riverine through-flows do support the species, which shows a preference for deeper waters, and buries deeper than other unionids due to a stronger anchoring foot (McIvor and Aldridge 2005). This is also the case for populations in Finland, the Baltic states and Russia (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
18446		population	eng	This species is generally rare where present, and very patchily distributed. It is often found in localised "hot-spots" and is a winter brooder (McIvor and Aldridge 2007).
18446		population	eng	This species never occurs in high densities and is often considered rare. Despite being a widespread species, populations are unstable and occur patchily where found. Localised declines have been recorded in response to habitat loss, degradation and due to the effects of pollution.<br/><br/>Yanovich and Pampura (2010) recorded a maximal density of 4 ind/m² for the Dnieper River in the Ukraine. Here, the species was only found in eleven out of 100 sampling stations compared with 23 stations in previous surveys (Yanovich and Pampura 2010, Yanovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This suggests that the species here is rare and decreasing (>50%). A 30% loss of suitable habitat has occurred in the U.K. and populations in many parts of Germany have been extirpated. Populations in Poland are small, isolated and in decline (Mcivor and Aldridge 2005). In the Netherlands, the population decrease since 1990 exceeds 50% and it has disappeared from the north and southeast of the country (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). In the Rhine-Meuse Delta Region however, where the species was extirpated in the 1960-70s due to pollution, the populations have recovered (bij de Vaate et al. 2007). Based on the information given in the 'Distribution' section, it is clear the species is severely decreasing in France. While populations are significantly declining across central, western and southeastern Europe, populations in the Baltic basin seem to be healthy (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). According to McIvor and Aldridge (2005), the U.K. and Finland host the largest populations. There are no available population data for the species in Russia.
18446		threats	eng	Siltation and increases in organic and inorganic sediments from agriculture pose threats to sub-populations. Organic pollution may induce premature gill evacuation of immature eggs  (e.g. Reynolds and Guillaume 1998). Further threats include the abstraction of water, channelization and impacts from dams as well as the impacts from dredging and to a lesser extent weed cutting (Aldridge 2000). There has also been decline in populations of the host fish due to water pollution:&#160; phosphates (Reynolds and Guillaume 1998). In the UK, 30% of the habitat has been lost.
18446		threats	eng	The full extent of threats to this species are unclear, with a particular lack of information regarding Russian populations. Threats are likely to include water pollution (organic and inorganic), siltation, channelization, habitat disturbance and loss through water abstraction, drought and poaching for private collections and aquaria (McIvor and Aldridge 2005). One of the effects of global warming on standing waters is increasing seasonal stratification and hypoxyia in the deeper layers and turn-overs with algal blooms (Solheim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). If the projected trend continues, then even the currently safe populations in the Baltics could become gravely affected. All of these threats are likely to have caused significant population declines across the entire distribution range of&#160; this species (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
18447		conservation	eng	The Carpentarian Pseudantechinus is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is present in a single protected area (North Island, which is Barranyi National Park). A recovery plan was developed for the 2004-2008 period (Woinarski 2004). Recommendations from this plan include: establishing a recovery team; communicating information about the species to stakeholders; targeting research in order to make informed decisions (e.g., towards total number and distribution, population trends, habitat suitability, and threatening processes); minimize the impacts of feral cats; and improve fire management.
18447		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. The location of the original record from Alexandria Station in 1905 is considered unreliable or at least vague (Woinarski 2004; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species now appears to be restricted to the Sir Edward Pellew Group (Northern Territory) and to two localities near Mount Isa (Queensland). <br/><br/>It was first recorded from the Sir Edward Pellew Group in 1967 on North Island. In 1988, it was found again on North Island as well as Centre and South West Islands. The most recent survey in 2003 failed to find the species on Centre and South West Islands, but did find it again on North Island and on Vanderlin Island (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is probably still present on all four islands, although work is needed to confirm its continued existence on Centre and South West Islands. The species is presumed to have historically been lost from the mainland in Northern Territory. Survey work has recently yielded specimens from two localities near Mt. Isa (1997 and 2002), but surveys in the intervening habitat have not located it.
18447		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky habitats with a scattering of trees. The ground vegetation consists of mainly spinifex. The diet is mostly invertebrates, but may also include small vertebrates (Woinarski 2004).
18447		population	eng	The species is rare on the mainland, but possibly more common on the islands (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are fewer than 10,000 mature individuals in the global population based on current knowledge.
18447		threats	eng	Major threats to the population are not known, however, it is thought that changes to the fire regime, destruction and degradation of habitat by introduced herbivores and livestock, predation by exotic predators, and possibly disease have all been factors in the decline of this species (Woinarski 2004). One of the two Queensland sites is within a proposed mining area. Cane toads and cats (both relatively recent introductions; last 2-3 decades) are present on all four islands from which the species is known, though the effects of these are not known (Woinarski 2004).
18457		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
18457		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
18458		distribution	eng	Formerly throughout the lower part of the Mobile River system below David Lake, Baldwin and Mobile counties, Alabama; as far north as the Little River State Park in southern Monroe County, and perhaps east into the Florida Panhandle as far as Apalachee Bay. Current distribution: Mobile Bay and tributary streams.
18458		habitat	eng	Most abundant in quiet backwaters of upper Mobile Bay in areas with dense submerged vegetation, in water generally 1 to 2 m deep; also in river channels; occurs only as a straggler in brackish water and salt marsh areas of lower Mobile Bay. Basks on dense beds of aquatic vegetation.
18459		conservation	eng	<p>Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. The species may occur, but has apparently not been confirmed, in the Bitter Lakes Wildlife Refuge of New Mexico. Surveys for the species in the Big Bend NP - Maderas del Carmen FFPA - Rio Grande National Scenic River – Amistad NRA, and the Lower Rio Grande Valley NWR, areas are desirable. Surveys of the Canon de Santa Elena FFPA have failed to record the species (MX Red List Workshop participants 2005).</p>  <p>Studies of its natural history and conservation status are warranted. Based on study results, the species may warrant specific legal protection in the USA. Commercial pet trade demand for the species can probably be met through captive breeding.</p>
18459		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys gorzugi </em>inhabits the Pecos-lower Rio Grande basin from New Mexico through Texas, USA, and Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Seidel 1994). Not recorded from the Rio Grande at or above the Big Bend region, nor from the San Fernando.</p>
18459		habitat	eng	<p>Restricted to the mainstream of the Pecos and Rio Grande, and the lowermost few miles of tributaries (Ward 1984). Occurs as high as 1,082 m altitude in New Mexico (Degenhardt and Christiansen, in Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). Apparently absent from the Texas side of the lower Rio Grande (Ward 1984).&#160;</p><p><br/> Examined gut contents were entirely vegetarian (Legler, in Ernst and Lovich 2009), although the species has also been thought to be omnivorous (Degenhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Ernst and Lovich 2009).</p><p> Animals reach up to 37.2 cm carapace length (CL) (Ernst and Lovich 2009). Limited information is available on reproduction: a clutch size of nine eggs has been reported; whether females produce multiple clutches remains unknown. Age and size at maturity remain unrecorded. <br/></p>
18459		population	eng	<p>Scant information is available on population status, densities, or population trends; it has been noted as locally common in the Mexican part of its range (P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005). Forstner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) carried out range-wide surveys and found populations of the species concentrated in only a few stretches of the U.S. tributaries, whereas the species has minimal genetic structure across its range (Bailey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).</p>
18459		threats	eng	<p>An apparent absence of the species over a 160-km stretch of the lower Pecos was attributed to river pollution by natural gas and oilfield runoff (Ward 1984). Water diversion, runoff interception, groundwater pumping and other intensive water usage in the basin mean that the Rio Grande frequently runs dry before reaching the sea, while floodplain lake habitat has been lost after the construction of flood mitigation dams and infrastructure. These processes fragment populations and impede repopulation of depleted populations and gene flow. </p>  <p>The species is also considered to be under potentially serious threat from collection for the pet trade and wanton killing by fishermen (Forstner pers. comm. 2005, Bailey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Bailey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) also reported an apparent absence of juveniles in the Texas populations of <em>P. gorzugi</em>, whereas their searches for juveniles in New Mexico were successful; they expressed their concerns for future population dynamics of Texas populations. </p>
18460		conservation	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys rubriventris&#160;</em>in Massachusetts&#160;(as&#160;subspecies <em>P. r. bangsi</em>)<em>&#160;</em>is federally protected under the ESA&#160;as <em>"Endangered"</em>, the species is protected from commercial take in Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina and Pennsylvania under State regulations, take is regulated (season closure and/or daily possession limits) in Virginia and West Virginia, and apparently take is open and not regulated in Delaware.&#160;</p><p><em></em></p>    <p>The species inhabits many of the protected areas (federal, state and county) in the mid-Atlantic lowlands including the Chesapeake Bay region. </p>  <p>The Massachusetts population(s) have been subject to determined conservation efforts, including headstarting, and Haskell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996) found that juveniles headstarted past 65 mm CL had a significantly greater survival rate than hatchlings. </p>  <p>Alongside general measures to safeguard and where necessary rehabilitate the riverine and wetland habitat upon which the species depends, specific conservation measures should include protection from commercial exploitation throughout the species’ range, further research on conservation biology and &#160;population dynamics, and long-term monitoring of key populations. </p>
18460		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys rubriventris</em> primarily occurs in the Mid-Atlantic lowlands and foothill valleys of southern New Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, the West Virginia Panhandle, and northeastern North Carolina. Isolated populations occur at Plymouth, Carver and possibly Essex counties in Massachusetts (Iverson 1992, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>
18460		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys rubriventris</em> inhabits large deep waterbodies, such as rivers, lakes, impoundments,canals, tidally-influenced lower river areas and large wetlands as adults, while juveniles tend to occur in more sheltered, standing waters such as ponds, marshes, creeks and swamps. The presence of basking sites and extensive aquatic vegetation beds is required. (Swarth 2003). </p>  <p>Red-bellied turtles are nearly exclusively herbivorous, feeding on a variety of aquatic plants; juveniles take some small animal prey as well. </p>  <p>Females may reach up to 40 cm, but average about 30 cm and 3 kg mass; male maximum size has been reported as 29.5 cm. Age at maturity may be reached at nine years in males (Graham 1971) and 29 cm carapace length (CL), 11 years in females (Swarth 2003). Females may produce two clutches of on average 12 eggs (range 4-22) annually. Hatchlings average 32 mm CL (range 25-36) and 7.8 (4.8-11) grams. Longevity and generation time have not been estimated. </p>
18460		population	eng	<p>In the mid-Atlantic region the Redbellied Turtle is usually seen in modest numbers; a basking aggregation of 47 individuals at the optimal habitat of the Jug Bay protected area in Maryland is the largest number recorded, and the total Jug Bay area population was estimated as at least 100 individuals, and potentially several times this, though how this population spreads and exchanges across the lower Patuxent River system remains unknown. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudemys rubriventris</span> was considered locally common but much less abundant than other turtles (<em>Chrysemys picta, Kinosternon subrubrum </em>and<em> Sternotherus odoratus</em>) at Jug Bay (Swarth 2003). </p>  <p>The population in Pennsylvania was considered endangered due to industrial expansion, pollution, and residential development of riverside property (Ernst 1985, Saba and Spotila 2003). </p>  <p>The total population in Massachusetts was estimated at between 200 and 300 individuals, including juveniles indicating successful recruitment (Graham 1969, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>
18460		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss and direct human-related mortality have been noted to impact the Red-bellied Turtle. </p>  <p>In the expansive Chesapeake Bay system, where extensive protected areas harbour this species, habitat degradation and loss factors include shore armoring at residential waterfront property, spread of <em>Phragmites</em> common reed and concurrent decline of <em>Zizania</em> wild rice, and river-borne sediment deposition and pollution (Swarth 2003). Chemical pollution and spills and habitat loss have impacted the Pennsylvania population rather severely. </p>  <p>Extensive incidence of shell rot disease was reported from the Rappahannock River, VA (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). A substantial incidence (11 of 78 animals) of adult animals bearing extensive propeller scars have been reported; no information is available on the number or rate of fatal propeller injuries (Swarth 2003).</p>
18473		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are in place to reduce the risk of extinction in this species.
18473		distribution	eng	<em>P. burgi</em> is endemic to the Berg River system and occurs in the Boesmans, Goedverwacht, Leeu, Krom, Hugo and Wemmers (Olifants) tributaries as well as in the upper reaches of the Berg River (tributary type habitat) (Bloomer and Impson 2000, Swartz 2005). As a result of a genetic study (Bloomer and Impson 2000), morphological evidence (Skelton 1988) and field observations, the Verlorenvlei population is considered to be a different undescribed taxon. The Eerste River system's population may have belonged to this taxon, but have gone extinct (Skelton 1987, Skelton 1988).
18473		habitat	eng	Occurs in clear oligotrophic mountain streams with low mineral content.
18473		population	eng	There is continuing decline as noted for the Boesmans tributary. Populations are severely fragmented due to a biological barrier to gene flow as a result of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> and other alien fishes. However, several of the populations are probably large enough to survive long-term without the need for immigration.
18473		threats	eng	Alien predatory fishes is the main threat, especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> have isolated populations in upper reaches of tributary streams. <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> has an impact higher up in some of the tributary streams where they are able to survive due to colder temperatures. The relatively recent introductions of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> will have to be monitored to assess what impact this alien will have on populations. Excessive water extraction has severely impacted upon lower reaches of tributary streams.
18474		conservation	eng	A river rehabilitation project is planned for the Rondegat River that will significantly increase the size of that population.
18474		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boskloof and Rondegat tributaries of the Olifants River system on the western side of the Cederberg Mountains (Bills 1999, Swartz 2000, Swartz 2004).
18474		habitat	eng	They prefer cobble habitat in the lower reaches of tributary streams, with moderate flow. Clear sexual dimorphism exists and males have bright red fins in the breeding season and defend territories (Skelton 1988).
18474		population	eng	No information is available on population trends.
18474		threats	eng	Alien invasive fish species have reduced their range significantly. There must have been a rapid and major reduction in their range soon after the introduction of especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> in the 1940s. Unsustainable water extraction is also a major threat, especially where the lower reaches of tributary streams are affected. This lineage has gone extinct in the Jan Dissels River, a major tributary of the Olifants River and are no longer found in mainstream areas where they probably occurred before the introduction of alien fishes.
18475		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are planned for this taxon.
18475		distribution	eng	Populations remain in the Tsoelikane, Sani, Maremoholo, Senqu and Matsoku Rivers (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001), but the population in South Africa has gone extinct (Mkhomazana River in KwaZulu-Natal) (Pike and Karssing 1995).
18475		habitat	eng	Prefers low gradient streams at high altitudes on basalt or sandstone (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001).
18475		population	eng	No information is available on population trends, but each of the populations are probably large enough to survive long-term (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001).
18475		threats	eng	The major threat is alien invasive fish species, particularly <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em> (Skelton 2001). The translocation of indigenous fish species such as <em>Labeobarbus aeneus</em> outside their natural range into the range of <em>Pseudobarbus quathlambae</em> is also a major threat. The spread of alien fish species is being facilitated by the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001) that connects different catchments and allows alien fishes to form large populations in the dams.
18476		conservation	eng	Some populations fall within formally protected areas such as Addo Elephant National Park and the Groendal Nature Reserve, however, the protection affored by these areas is ineffective against invasion from alien fish species.
18476		distribution	eng	Tributaries of the Sundays and Swartkops River systems. It is not known whether the Baakens population still survives and whether it belongs to this taxon (Swartz 2005).
18476		habitat	eng	They prefer clear to slightly discoloured mountain streams, especially pools in slow flowing reaches.
18476		population	eng	Several populations still survive in the Sundays River system in tributaries draining the Suurberg Mountains and there are at least one healthy population in the Swartkops River system. Not much is known of population trends, but it seems as if many of the streams in the Sundays River system has periods of severe drought during which the number of mature individuals may fluctuate and parasite loads increase severely in stagnant pools.
18476		threats	eng	Alien invasive fish species, especially <em>Micropterus</em> species have severely reduced the range of this taxon (Skelton 1993). The impact of other alien fish species on this taxon is not well documented or understood.
18477		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, mainly because it has not been perceived as threatened in the past. However, the rapid loss of range to <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> in the Gamtoos River system is of concern and there are already reports of this alien species being placed in farm dams in the Gourits River system. Urgent conservation actions are need to prevent the introduction and spread of this alien fish species.
18477		distribution	eng	Prefers mainstream areas of the Gamtoos and Gourits River systems but also occurs in lower reaches of tributary streams in the latter river system (Skelton 2001, Swartz 2005).
18477		habitat	eng	The species prefers mainstream areas with high mineral content that may be slightly turbid.
18477		population	eng	This species has recently (since 1998) experienced a major reduction in population size in the Groot River of the Gamtoos River system due to <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>. This species also occurs widely in the Gourits River system.
18477		threats	eng	Mainstream areas are under threat due to increasing impacts downstream of agricultural activities and excessive water extraction. However, the main threat to this species seems to be <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>. This alien has caused the recent rapid decline of this species in the Gamtoos River system (since 1998).
18478		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are planned for this taxon.
18478		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gourits River system (Swartz 2005).
18478		habitat	eng	Occurs in clear tributary streams of the Gourits River system (Skelton 2001).
18478		population	eng	No information is available on population trends, but several populations are large and secure against invasion by alien fish species.
18478		threats	eng	Alien invasive fish species such as <em>Micropterus punctulatus, Micropterus dolomieu, Micropterus salmoides, Labeobarbus aeneus, Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> can have a devastating impact on populations of this taxon.
18479		conservation	eng	This species is already being suggested as a provincial key protected animal in 2003. Beginning  in 2003, a GEF/The World Bank funded project was established in Kunming, Yunnan  to conserve and try to restore the aquatic biodiversity of Lake Dianchi. A  thrice-yearly survey and monitoring of the aquatic biodiversity, including <em>P.  medianalis</em> has been implemented since spring of 2004. An <em>ex-situ</em>  conservation effort of a small flock will be conducted soon. Some individuals  will be moved into fish ponds of a breeding center and cultured. When hatchlings  grow up to certain size being suitable for surviving in wild, some juveniles  will be released back to their original habitats. By public awareness works of  the project since the pilot project in 1999, local people already understood the  rarity of <em>P. medianalis</em> and its major habitat, and the springs have been  finely protected. Several springs were recommended to be local reserve areas by  the assessor to the local government.
18479		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Dianchi basin and its effluent, Zhangjiu River.  Historically, it occurred through out Lake Dianchi basin including in the lake  body (where it had once been very common fish in Lake Dianchi prior to the  mid-20<sup>th</sup> century), streams and headwater springs. But since the 1970’s it has  become absent from the lake, and now is only known to occur in two springs  (White Dragon Spring (24°52"36.7'N, 102°51"47.7'E, 1,921 m above sea level) and  Longwangtan Spring (24°32"31.5'N, 102°40"22.4'E, 1,932 m above sea level)) and  an effluent river (Zhangjiu River) on east bank of the lake. However the springs  may be connected by small underground karst rivers. The species may also occur  in some other rivers and resevoirs around the lake that have not yet been  investigated.
18479		habitat	eng	At present, the relic populations of <em>P. medianalis</em> mainly exists in  spring pools and the stream from the spring to the lake. The water of one of the  springs is approximately 3 m in maximum depth, clear to the bottom, warm and  stable, 22.2-22.8°C (annual average 22.4 ± 0.2°C), pH 7.58-7.81 (annual average  7.72 ± 0.08) 6.5 and there is good macrophytes beds in dominance of <em>Hydrilla  verticillata</em> and curly leaf pondweed, <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>. Two other  species of endemic fish, a Cyprinidae fish, <em>Sinocyclocheilus grahami</em> and  a Balitoridae fish, <em>Yunnanilus discoloris</em>, and at least three species of  introduced cyprinid fish, Common carp, <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>, Crucian carp,  <em>Carrasius auratus auratus</em> and Grass carp, <em>Ctenopharyngodon idella</em>  occur sympatrically with <em>P. medianalis</em> in this spring. It is a cryptic  benthic fish and prefers to hide under rocks and macrophytes beds at day time,  and moves around at night and feeds on small fishes and aquatic invertebrates,  such as insects, worms and molluscs.
18479		population	eng	No information.
18479		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the critical threat to <em>P. medianalis</em>, including the  pollution of water and soil which decreased aquatic macrophytes, and the  utilization of springs as fishery ponds. Since 1958, the fries of ‘‘the four  cultured carps’’, Black carp, <em>Mylopharyngodon piceus</em>, Grass carp, Silver  carp, <em>Hypophthalmichthys molitrix</em> and Big head carp,  <em>Hypophthalmichthys nobilis</em> have been introduced into the lake (He <em>et  al</em>. 1983, Gao <em>et al</em>. 1990) and over-released grass carp by local  fishery department heavily grazed macrophytes in the lake. Overfishing is a  threat to those individuals living in springs and streams; competition and  predation from the introduced fishes may become a threat as well.
18486		conservation	eng	The population of the offshore islets all lie in protected areas, and hence are safe from habitat degradation due to tourism developments. Conservation actions required for this species include rodent control programmes, as the species is vulnerable to predation.&#160; Research actions include population monitoring and habitat monitoring, especially for the mainland populations.
18486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is restricted to Porto Santo and the adjacent islets of Ilhéu de Cima and Ilhéu de Baixo.&#160; It is known from about 17 sites in 9 different locations, including 4 of the adjacent islets, and hence it widespread, but localised on these islets (Seddon 2008). It was more widespread on Porto Santo, based on the subfossil evidence (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
18486		habitat	eng	This species is found on the underside of stones on grassy slopes; amongst scree and amongst leaf-litter at base of crags (Seddon 2008).
18486		population	eng	The species is not collected in abundance, but is a large helicid gastropod, which is vulnerable to predation.
18486		threats	eng	The species is a large helicid gastropod, which is vulnerable to predation by rodents, which have been present on the islands for many years.
18487		conservation	eng	This species is believed to be extinct, so no conservation actions are necessary.
18487		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to the Madeiran islands, and according to Wollaston (1878) one specimen was collected alive by Moniz in the 19th century on Ilheu de Cima off Porto Santo; otherwise it is present abundant as a Quaternary fossil on Porto Santo (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and adjacent islet of Ilheu de Baixo; it is now thought to be extinct (Seddon 2008).
18487		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, as it has not been seen in the last 100 years.
18487		population	eng	One specimen was collected alive by Moniz in the 19th century on Ilheu de Cima off Porto Santo.
18487		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown, as it has not been seen in the last 100 years.
18492		conservation	eng	Many of the known inland Western Ringtail Possum populations in the inland Perup area occur in national forest, and are outside areas marked for logging. Some of these populations are the subject of a research project quantifying threats to the species (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is listed as Vulnerable by Australian government. <br/><br/>The Western Ringtail species has been the subject of translocation programs in an attempt to mitigate the effects of habitat loss (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004; de Tores 2008). In a recent review, de Tores <em>et al.</em> (2004) noted that success of translocated populations has not been demonstrated at any of the release sites, and that the primary release site (Leschenault Peninsula Conservation Park) has suffered a population decline. This review also found that effective monitoring of the response of the species to fox control programs is lacking outside of a few select translocations sites. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include: implementation a monitoring program at sites selected to represent the range of habitats used by the Western Ringtail in order to assess possum population changes and responses to fox control and the impacts of other management practices; establishment of a effective monitoring program at translocation sites; identification of sites of high conservation value to the Western Ringtail; conservation of Western Ringtails in public lands managed by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia); minimizing impacts of land developments; education and liaison with towns with or near to Western Ringtail populations (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004).
18492		distribution	eng	The Western Ringtail Possum has a restricted distribution in south-western Western Australia; it is found along the coast from south of Bunbury to Waychinicup National Park (near Albany) and in suitable habitat inland, most notably at Perup Nature Reserve and surrounding State forest near Manjimup (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; de Tores 2008). It was recently recorded in stands of Peppermint near the Harvey River and in Jarrah/Marri forest near Collie (north-east of Bunbury); however, the long term persistence of the species in these areas is not confirmed (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004). The Western Ringtail was formerly more widespread: in the 1970s it was known from Casuarina woodlands in the wheatbelt near Pingelly (south-east of Perth), and it is thought to have once occurred throughout much of south-western Western Australia (but not necessarily continuously distributed) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; de Tores 2008).
18492		habitat	eng	The Western Ringtail Possum is associated with Peppermint (<em>Agonis flexuosa</em>). Along the coast, it is found in Peppermint forest and woodland and in Tuart (<em>Eucalyptus gomphocephala</em>) forest, typically with a Peppermint mid-story. Inland it is found in Jarrah (<em>E. marginata</em>), Wandoo (<em>E. wandoo</em>), and Marri (<em>Corymbia calophylla</em>) forest (de Tores 2008).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and arboreal. It is a folivore; its preferred food is Peppermint foliage, or if that is unavailable, myrtaceous species. Reproduction occurs year-round. The greatest number of young are born in late autumn and winter; the least number of young are born in late summer. Litter size ranges from 1 to 3 young, and is most commonly 1. At approximately 3 months age, the young emerge permanently from the pouch. Female young generally remain in the home range of their mothers, while male young disperse from their mother’s range when they are about 7 months old (at weight of 600 - 700 grams). The individual home range of this species varies in size, with larger sizes occurring in low density populations. This species has been recorded to live more than six years (de Tores 2008).<br/><br/>There is thought to be some degree of competition and/or habitat partitioning with the Common Brushtail where the two species co-occur, but the extent and effect of this competition is not clear. However, there is negligible competition for nesting sites, as the Western Ringtail makes dreys (built of vegetation), rather than using treeholes as does the Common Brushtail. The dreys are normally found in the mid- to upper- canopy, but can occur lower to ground (de Tores 2008).
18492		population	eng	Common in suitable habitat (de Tores 2008). The highest densities of this species were recorded in Peppermint habitat near Busselton area; relatively high densities were found in Jarrah/Marri forest at Perup (de Tores 2008). However, populations in coastal habitat (the majority of its range) are thought to be declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation.
18492		threats	eng	Coastal populations of the Western Ringtail Possum are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation associated with urban development (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004; de Tores 2008). Inland populations are threatened by habitat modification, and also timber harvesting. Predation by introduced foxes (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) is also a major threat to this species. In areas where fox populations are controlled, predation by python (<em>Morelia spilota imbricate</em>) and by introduced cats is a major threat. Populations also may be threatened by increasing fire intensities, and by burning operations associated with logging and clearing (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004; de Tores 2008).
18502		conservation	eng	Recommended actions include (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996): monitor distribution and abundance; conduct research on population dynamics and habitat utilisation. Most of its range is within World Heritage Protected areas.
18502		distribution	eng	It occurs from 50 km south of Ingham, to 120 km north-west of Cairns (Mt. Windsor Tableland), Queensland, Australia. Its area of occupancy has declined through clearing of rainforest, especially on the Atherton Tableland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
18502		habitat	eng	This species lives in cool rainforests at elevations above 300 m, often associated with figs (which form a large part of its diet) and in disturbed habitats. It does not use tree hollows (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is able to tolerate some degree of habitat fragmentation, and can cross linear barriers on the ground.
18502		population	eng	It is a common species and varies in density across its range.
18502		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
18503		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a couple of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species.
18503		distribution	eng	This species is known from disjunct localities in the mountains of northern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the mountains of Yapen island (Indonesia). It has not be found along the Eidenburg River. All of these mountain ranges have a history that is different from the Central Cordillera. The major part of its range is on the Vogelkop Peninsula, Indonesia. Field surveys for this species are needed in the Foja Mountains and the mountains west of the Mamberamo region. It has been recorded from 1,000 to 1,900 m asl.
18503		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from lower and upper montane primary tropical forests. In the Arfak Mountains, on the Vogelkop Peninsula, it is restricted to secondary forests, possibly being displaced by <em>Pseudochirops coronatus</em>. It is a strictly folivorous species. It possibly has a high reproductive rate; females have been caught with a single young.
18503		population	eng	It is locally abundant in some areas, and is more common than other ringtail species.
18503		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by hunting for food by local people, and additionally by habitat loss in the northern coastal part of its range through conversion of forest to cultivated land.
18504		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected areas.
18504		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely throughout the Central Cordillera and Huon Peninsula of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 900 and 2,900 m asl.
18504		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane mature tropical forest. It is possible that it occurs in areas of secondary forest that are not in use by people. It is very docile and easily captured. Females have been reported with a single young.
18504		population	eng	This species is widespread but often rare. It is reasonably common in the Telefomin area of Papua New Guinea.
18504		threats	eng	This species is threatened by local hunting for food, and possibly also by habitat loss through conversion of forest to rural gardens and cultivated land. It is generally susceptible to loss of primary forest.
18505		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
18505		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,996 m asl.
18505		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane and upper montane primary forests. It is also abundant in subalpine grasslands, and is sometimes found in secondary forests and at the edges of rural gardens. The females give birth to a single young.
18505		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
18505		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Its numbers are adversely affected in parts of its range by overhunting for food by local people.
18507		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Lorentz National Park. The impact of hunting on this species needs to be studied and the species should be closely monitored. It could rapidly become threatened if either human encroachment or hunting were to increase significantly.
18507		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in the western Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Papua province, Indonesia). It is known from four localities west of the Star mountains. It has been recorded from near to sea level to around 2,200 m asl.
18507		habitat	eng	It is found in hill and montane tropical forest. The ecology of this species is poorly known. It has a narrow diet.
18507		population	eng	It appears to be patchily distributed within its range.
18507		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, this species is hunted for food by local people and habitat disturbance is increasing within its range.
18508		conservation	eng	Recommended actions include (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996): monitor distribution and abundance; conduct research on population dynamics and habitat utilisation. Its range is mostly within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.
18508		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three known populations between Cairns and Cape Tribulation, in Far North Queensland, Australia (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The three populations are Mount Carbine Tablelands, Mount Windsor Tablelands, and the Thornton Peak Massif. It occurs above 420 m asl.
18508		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cool, wet rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest with rainforest understorey, in both primary and secondary forests (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
18508		population	eng	It is a common species.
18508		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species; its habitat is secure. Most of the species' habitat is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and threats from large-scale clearing or selective logging no longer apply.
18509		conservation	eng	Most of its range is within protected areas. Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) for this species include: establish connectivity of the now isolated Herberton Range/Hugh Nelson Range population with the main population by reforestation; ensure continuity of habitat in the Mulgrave and North Johnstone catchments is maintained and even enhanced; reclaim the rural landscape of the Atherton and Evelyn Tablelands as suitable habitat through reforestation on private land to establish a connectivity network of rainforest corridors and patches; determine possible genetic demes within the presently continuous population of the main Atherton Unit population which may have resulted from population fragmentation as a result of climatic changes since the height of the last glacial period c. 18,000 years before the present; continue studies on socio-ecology, habitat requirements and effects of disturbance on the species.
18509		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia. A smaller population occurs in the Mt. Lee block of rainforest, isolated from the main population by the Herbert River gorge. About 23% of rainforest has been cleared from the Atherton Tableland, isolating the Herberton Range/Hugh Nelson Range population. In a fragmented rainforest, the ringtail disappears from patches of habitat less than 20-30 ha in area (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
18509		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforest above 350 m in elevation (Winter and Moore 2008). There have been records of the species in wet sclerophyll forest adjacent to rainforest, however, it is unlikely that self-sustaining populations exist in eucalypt forest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
18509		population	eng	It is a common species (Winter and Moore 2008).
18509		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Now that most of the ringtail's habitat is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, threats from large-scale clearing or selective logging no longer apply. Short-term local extinctions in the fragmented rural landscape of the Atherton and Evelyn Tablelands is a threat. Longer-term genetic changes may take place in larger populations now isolated by clearing. Climate change is a potential threat that is likely to diminish its habitat in the future (Winter and Moore 2008).
18514		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
18517		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a large proportion of its range coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.
18517		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in South Africa, from the lower slopes of the Drakensberg mountains, to Giant's Castle mountain peak in KwaZulu-Natal, and in the Golden Gate National Park in Free State. This species is found between an altitude of 1,500 and 2,500 m above sea level.
18517		habitat	eng	This species is found on mountain slopes and prefers scattered boulders in open grassland.
18517		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18517		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
18533		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and possible threats to these taxa.
18533		distribution	eng	This species complex is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it ranges from the Mount Wilhelm area in the west to the Wau area in the east, and also in the Milne Bay region of the south-east. <br/><br/>True <em>P. murinus</em> is found between 2,100 and 3,400 m asl, and occurs from Mount Wilhelm to the Wau area. One of the new species that will be split occurs in the Milne Bay area (the only one in the south-east) at 600 to 1,500 m asl. There is another species to be spilt that occurs sympatrically with <em>P. murinus</em> at 2,400 to 3,400 m, and a species from the single site at Mount Sisa occurring from 800 to 850 m asl.
18533		habitat	eng	Presumably it is a tropical montane forest animal.
18533		population	eng	It appears to be common at some localities.
18533		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is widely distributed with large areas of suitable habitat remaining.
18534		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and threats to these taxa.
18534		distribution	eng	This species is known from apparently separate subpopulations on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). The western subpopulation recorded from around Lake Habemma and the slopes of Mount Wilhelmina in Papua Province, Indonesia, and the eastern subpopulation on the Star Mountains (Lake Louise area) and Victor Emmanual Range, Papua New Guinea. It is possible (perhaps even probable) that the species occurs along the intervening mountain ranges. It has been recorded between 2,800 and 3,600 m asl.<br/><br/>There is an undescribed murid from the Star Mountains (Telefomin) which has been confused with this species, but this is a different species.
18534		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from upper montane forest edge habitats in the Star Mountains (Flannery 1995).
18534		population	eng	It appears to be common at some localities.
18534		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Animals are somewhat vulnerable to predation by feral dogs. Increased fires as a result of the effects of future global warming may be a future threat.
18535		conservation	eng	There is no formal legislation for its protection in China because when the national protection list was established, this species was considered to be <em>P. nayaur</em> and placed in Class II (although Smith and Xie 2008 show it as listed under Class II). Since dwarf blue sheep was recognized as a separate species, a concerted effort has been made by scientists temporarily working in the area to educate local hunters. The species does receive protection from local people in Baiyu (Sichuan) because of their religious beliefs (Cai <em>et al</em>., 1990). Conservation measures proposed: l) Re-assess its taxonomic status. 2) If it proves to be a separate species, dwarf blue sheep should be raised to a Class I species in the national protection list. 3) Protected areas need to be established. Reserves at Batang, or in adjacent areas where the population is still relatively abundant, have been suggested (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990). 4) At the same time, surveys are essential to determine status and total distribution throughout its suspected range. <br/><br/>In 1995, a prefectural reserve covering 142.4 km² (which was enlarged to about 300 km² in 2007) around Zhubalong was established for the protection of this species (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).  However, many human activities such as mushroom gathering, livestock grazing, and illegal hunting continue to occur in the core zone and thus threaten the populations here (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).
18535		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (Upper Yangtze Gorge in west Sichuan and adjacent parts of Tibet and north Yunnan) (Grubb, 2005). Recently, populations have been reported from Deqin county, northwestern Yunnan (Wen Xiao, Dali University, unpublished data, 2007). Its primary range is in a narrow area along the Jinshajiang Valley, which forms part of the upper reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtse) river. Specimens have been collected from Batang (Sichuan), and Baiyu, to the north of Batang (Cai <em>et al</em>., 1990). Local hunters claim it is found in Derong (south-western Sichuan), in Deqin (north-western Yunnan), and in Markam (eastern Xizang); areas that are all to the west and south of Batang (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang and Wang 2003).  Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000) doubted the presence of  dwarf blue sheep in Baiyu County (believing these animals to be blue sheep, as well as the reports of dwarf blue sheep from Markam (in eastern Tibet; Wang and Wang 2003). The status of dwarf blue sheep in Deqin County, Yunnan is in some dispute, and requires more investigation.
18535		habitat	eng	Dwarf blue sheep inhabit rugged valley terrain along the Yangtze River valley. They live among very steep rocky slopes between 2,700-3,200 m; occasionally range into conifer forest and forest clearings.  Blue Sheep may live in same region at higher altitudes (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000; Wang and Wang 2003; Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007). This valley habitat is dry with sparse vegetation cover; common species include grasses (<em>Cymbopogon distans</em> and <em>Themeda hooderi</em>), low shrubs (<em>Berberis</em> spp., <em>Rosa</em> spp., <em>Cotoneaster</em> spp., <em>Cladrastis</em> spp., <em>Ephedra</em> spp., and <em>Rhododendron</em> spp.), and clubmoss (<em>Selaginella sanguinolenta</em>) (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000). <em>P. schaeferi</em> is isolated from the alpine habitat of <em>P. nayaur</em> by a belt of oak forest, in which they have not been documented to enter (Groves, 1978; Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000). Diet consists of grasses, low shrubs, club moss and lichens. They feed and rest alternately throughout the day on the grassy slopes of mountains. Group sizes were formerly 10-36 animals, but now usually less than 15, or even fewer as a result of over-hunting and competition with livestock. Males sometimes form all male groups or sometimes mix with females and young. The largest herd reported by locals was 25 animals, although this was seen in the 1950s (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).  These same locals also stated that herd size has been declining since then - due primarily to hunting and competing with livestock, but also due to habitat loss.  Contrary to Schäfer's original reports (1937), neither Wu <em>et al</em>. (1990) nor Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000) ever observed solitary individuals. Population densities range between 0.5-1.0 individuals per square kilometer (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang and Wang, 2003). <br/><br/>These sheep are known to consume more than twenty species of plants (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990); according to the observations made by Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000), they feed primarily on grasses (e.g., <em>Pennisetum flaccidum</em> and <em>Setarica glauca</em>), though other plants like club moss (<em>Selaginella sanguinolenta</em>) are also eaten.  Predators include wolf (<em>Canis lupus</em>), dhole (<em>Cuon alpinus</em>), leopard (<em>Panthera pardus</em>), and large raptors (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).<br/><br/>Usually single young (rarely twins) are born in May or June after a gestation of 160 days. Young are weaned within six months and reach maturity at 1.5 years. Males may take seven years to reach full size (Wang and Hu 2004).
18535		population	eng	Hu (1998) believed there were approximately 7,000 individuals in the mid-1990s, although this seems difficult to square with the reports of only a few hundred by Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000). Local hunters report that the numbers of this species have fallen drastically; previously observed group size ranges of 10 to 36 have dropped to three to eight animals in recent years. Density estimates of only 0.5 to 1.0 sheep/km² also suggest low numbers (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang and Wang 2003). Smith and Xie (2008) also repeated concerns of a drastic decline in numbers.
18535		threats	eng	Hunting is a major threat to these animals, and if effective protection measures are not adopted quickly, the taxon will disappear in the near future. Humans and/or their livestock are present throughout the range of this species. Over-hunting is a serious threat, as is habitat degradation (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2000).
18536		conservation	eng	In China, <em>Pseudois nayaur</em> are present within a number of large protected areas the Chang Tang Nature Reserve (Schaller and Gu, 1994), Medoq, Qomolangma and Zayu Reserves (Tibet); the Arjin Mountain Reserve (Achuff and Petocz, 1988; Butler <em>et al</em>. 1986; Gu 1990) and Taxkorgan Reserve (Schaller, 1977; Xinjiang); Kekexili and Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserves in Qinghai; and Yanchiwan and Qilian Nature Reserves (western Gansu). Some of these protected areas truly limit human disturbance, some have been demarcated where human disturbance was already quite low (generally because inhospitable climate makes production for human purposes marginal at best); other protected area exist on paper only. Of note, however, is that, at least in China, <em>P. nayaur</em> appears able to persist at reasonable densities in the absence of protected areas. <em>P. nayaur</em> is categorized as a Class II protected species under China’s National Wildlife Law of 1988. Hunting of <em>P. nayaur</em> is legal only via permit obtained by provincial wildlife offices; in practice, such permits are provided only for foreign trophy hunters. Thus, hunting of <em>P. nayaur</em> is essentially illegal in China.<br/><br/>In Bhutan, blue sheep are known to occur in Jigme Dorji National Park. Conservation measures proposed by Wollenhaupt <em>et al</em>. (1989a) included, using input from local inhabitants, establishing integrated alpine forest and grassland reserves in high elevation areas where demand for domestic yak grazing is considerable and deforestation and degradation of alpine areas occur (Wollenhaupt, 1989a).<br/><br/>In India, blue sheep occur in several national parks and many other protected areas in northern India (Fox, 1987; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1986, 1991a; Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981, 1983; Green, 1987b; Pandey, in prep.; Singh <em>et al</em>., 1990) including: Jammu and Kashmir - Hemis National Park and Sabu Chukor Wildlife Reserve; Himachal Pradesh - Great Himalayan and Pin Valley National Parks and Chital, Daranghati, Kais, Kanawar, Lippa Asrang, Rakshum, Rupi Bhaba, Sangla Valley (includes previous Rakcha-Chitkul WS), Sechu Tuan Nala, and Tirthan (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttar Pradesh - Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks, and Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park; and their unlikely presence in Namdapha National Park of northeastern Arunachal Pradesh needs to be checked. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Establish the proposed Changtang, Gya-Miru, Karakoram, and Lung Nag Wildlife Sanctuaries (Jammu and Kashmir), and the extensions to the Great Himalayan National Park and the proposed Srikhand National Park (Himachal Pradesh). 2) Determine if blue sheep occur along the northern border of Arunachal Pradesh. 3) Make the control of illegal hunting of this species the primary management priority to maintain viable populations under current land use regimes. 4) Monitor changes in livestock grazing practices that could affect competition with blue sheep.<br/><br/>In Nepal, blue sheep are found in Shey-Phoksundo National Park and in the Annapurna Conservation Area. It is the main big game species in the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. Conservation measures proposed for Nepal: 1) Maintain the current, closely controlled legal hunting program, and 2) consider a regulated program of sustainable, low-level subsistence hunting by local villagers in some areas. At the same time, 3) steps should be taken to halt or reverse the habitat destruction caused by livestock grazing in the blue sheep’s natural habitat.<br/><br/>Khunjerab National Park contains a large portion of Pakistan’s total population of blue sheep. It occurs in no other protected area. Conservation measures proposed for Pakistan: 1) Extend the boundaries of Khunjerab NP eastwards. 2) Address problems faced by local people whose livelihoods would be affected by this extension. The management plan originally proposed for Khunjerab NP did not do this, but this is necessary before its conservation recommendations can be implemented. The measures taken in the Bar valley project initiated by WWF-Pakistan and similar projects could serve as useful models. 3) Determine what detrimental influences the new road to Shimshal will have in the Park’s modified management plan.
18536		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bhutan, China (Gansu, Ningxia-Inner Mongolia border, Qinghai, Sichuan, Tibet, southeastern Xinjiang, and northern Yunnan), northern India, northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz 1996), Nepal, and northern Pakistan. Some sources have stated the species exists in Tajikistan (Grubb 2005), but recent evidence for this is lacking.<br/><br/>This taxon remains fairly abundant in most of its principle range among the ranges of the Tibetan Plateau in China (Schaller 1998; Harris 2007). In China, its distribution runs from western Tibet south-western Xinjiang (Schaller 1987) where there are small populations in the mountains bordering the western edge of Aru Co, extending eastwards with in scattered populations throughout the autonomous region. It also occurs in southern Xinjiang, along the Kunlun Mountains and in the Arjin Mountains. It is present in most mountain ranges of western and southern Qinghai into eastern Sichuan and northwester Yunnan, as well as in the Qilian and associated ranges of Gansu. The eastern extent of its current distribution appears to be in the Helan Shan which form the western border of Ningxia Province (with Inner Mongolia). <br/><br/>It is found throughout northern Bhutan above 4,000 to 4,500 m asl. Blue sheep is fairly continuously distributed in the northern Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan regions of India, although the extent of its eastern distribution along the northern border of Arunachal Pradesh is still unknown. It is relatively common in many areas of eastern Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), and in parts of Spiti and the upper Parbati valley in northern Himachal Pradesh (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986; S. Pandey pers. comm.). Blue sheep are known to occur in the Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary and Nanda Devi National Park, and near Badrinath (Uttar Pradesh), on the slopes of the Khangchendzonga massif (Sikkim), and in eastern Arunachal Pradesh. Very recently, blue sheep presence has been confirmed in the northwestern corner of Arunachal Pradesh near its border with Bhutan and China. In Nepal, it is fairly continuously distributed to the north of the Greater Himalaya from the border with India and Tibet in the extreme northwest, eastwards through Dolpo and Mustang to Gorkha district in north-central Nepal. It then re-occurs in Nepal in at least two isolated areas: in Lamobogar, and on the southwestern slopes of Kanchenjunga near the border with Sikkim (India) (Schaller 1977; Wegge 1991). These two are probably connected with more extensive populations across the border in Tibet. <br/><br/>Its main distribution range in Pakistan includes the upper Gujerab valley, the upper Shimshal valley, and the area eastward from Shimshal pass (District Gilgit), including part of Khunjerab NP (Schaller 1976; Roberts 1977; Rasool 1986; Wegge 1988, 1989; G. Tallone, <em>in litt</em>., 1993). Outside these areas there is a single, recent observation of one animal from Khunjerab pass (R. Hess, pers. obs., 1985). Earlier, Roberts (1977) mentioned its occurrence (with proof) around Shigar and the Baltoro glacier (District Baltistan), however, we have no actual information from this area. Roberts’ (1977) source for its occurrence in the Passu valley was a quote from Lydekker (1907) who mentioned “Hunza valley, near Passu”, but possibly meaning the Shimshal valley. David Mallon (pers. obs., <em>in litt</em>.) was unable to confirm the presence of the species in the Passu valley.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) indicates that blue sheep can be found in Tajikistan, but documentation for this is not provided, and recent surveys of the Pamir area have failed to mention find evidence of occurrence in Tajikistan (Magomed <em>et al</em>. 2003, Schaller 2005, or neighboring regions of Taxkorgan County in Xinjiang, China (Schaller 2005) or Afghanistan (Schaller 2003). Maps of the species' distribution can be found in Shackleton (1997) and Schaller (1998).
18536		habitat	eng	Blue Sheep occupy a variety of habitats across the region. Blue Sheep inhabit open grassy slopes in high mountains from 2,500-5,500 m. They are usually found near cliffs and similar escape cover, but generally avoid entering forested areas (Schaller, 1977; the Helan Shan is a partial exception). This species is often able to maintain locally high densities in habitats otherwise inhospitable to other wild species. Often, these areas are close to (although generally at higher elevations, or in less productive habitats than) domestic livestock. They are very tolerant of environmental extremes from desert mountains in searing heat to windy and cold slopes (Schaller 1998). They feed on grass and alpine herbs and lichens and live in small to rather large herds, alternately resting and feeding on steep grassy slopes of alpine meadows. Sentinels watch out for snow leopards, their primary predator. Breeding season is during December-January, followed by a 160 day gestation. Single lambs (rarely twins) are born in early summer (mid-June in most of the Tibetan Plateau); weaning occurs in six months and young reach maturity 1.5 years.<br/><br/>Blue sheep are active throughout the day, feeding on lichens, herbaceous plants, and mosses. Females gestate for 160 days and give birth to one offspring per pregnancy.  The animals are sexually mature at 1.5 years, though males are not fully sexually active until age 7. They can live 12-15 years, although animals of > 10 are rarely encountered.  Blue sheep generally live in large groups. Males sometimes form all male herds, and sometimes mix with family aggregations. Small groups (e.g., < 5) are sometimes encountered, particularly where topography or vegetation is complex, but more often, blue sheep form larger groups. In Qinghai, groups of 80-100 are common, and occasionally groups of > 300 individuals have been observed.
18536		population	eng	Range-wide population estimates are unavailable. Although not difficult to “count” once encountered, <em>P. nayaur</em> lives almost entirely in steep, mountainous terrain; it is also a relatively small-sized artiodactyl, with coloration that can make it very difficult to see unless observation conditions are excellent. It is probably absent from broad areas devoid of steep topography (e.g., basins). However, this does not necessarily mean populations are fragmented, because it appears to be present in virtually all appropriate mountainous terrain from the Qilian Mountains in the north to the Himalaya in the south.<br/><br/>In western China, <em>P. nayaur</em> was said to be “relatively abundant” (Shackleton 1997, Wang 1998), with various (questionable) local density estimates, and a total population greater than 10,000. The bulk of these 10,000 were an extrapolation for the Arjin Shan Nature Reserve, which is probably an overestimate. However, numerous areas within the current range were not included in this estimate, so the amount of 10,000 within the western portion of the Chinese range is not necessarily out of the question (Schaller 1998 guessed that at least 10,000 inhabited the Chang Tang Nature Reserve in western Tibet). Schaller (1998) cited an estimate by Pu (1993; not seen) of 34,500-49,600 in “western Tibet”, which includes but is larger than the Chang Tang Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>Further east within the Tibetan plateau, Wang (1998) cited a Chinese extrapolation of over 1,200,000 in Qinghai province (of which 267,000 were in “eastern” Qinghai), which is probably a considerable overestimate. Schaller (1998), in discussing the estimate by Pu (1993, see above), noted that it is likely that greater than 20-30% of the entire Chinese population lives east of “western Tibet”. If there are 30,000 – 50,000 in “western Tibet”, there may thus be roughly from 43,000 – 62,500 (using the derivation from Pu 1993), to 200,000 – 400,000 (using extrapolations from Wang 1998) within the entire Chinese portion of the Tibetan Plateau. <br/><br/>In the Helan Shan, Ren <em>et al</em>. (1999) and Lü <em>et al</em>. (2000) estimated roughly 5,000 to 9,000 blue sheep, but their extrapolations were based on non-randomly placed transects. Liu <em>et al</em>. (2005) have continued to monitor this population, which, regardless of methodological problems in estimating its size, is clearly dense and in no danger.<br/><br/>Most extrapolations of population size in China are based on insufficient justification, and should be viewed with caution. However, in marked contrast to other species, field investigations of subjective and anecdotal reports of <em>P. nayaur</em> invariably confirm the presence and general abundance of this species. Thus, although specific figures in Chinese literature may be inaccurate, all evidence suggests that <em>P. nayaur</em> is widespread and relatively abundant within appropriate habitats within Chinese portions of the Tibetan plateau. <br/><br/>Within India, Shackleton (1997) cites an estimate produced by Fox <em>et al</em>. (1991) of “a minimum of 11,000” within Ladakh. In Nepal, Shackleton (1997) reports a “conservative estimate of 10,000 animals”, although Schaller (1998) included a table suggesting 1,947-2,561 in areas counted within Nepal. In Pakistan, Shackleton writes that, “according to written reports [Wegge 1988, Rasool 1990], the species is not as rare as previously thought…the most recent estimates indicated between 2,000 and 2,500 animals in 1992.” No estimate is available for Bhutan.<br/><br/>Taken together, these estimates suggest total population sizes of from roughly 47,000 (almost certainly a very conservative estimate) to 414,000 (probably an overestimate).
18536		threats	eng	Competition with livestock has been suggested and probably occurs (Shrestha <em>et al</em>. 2005), but in general, habitat loss due to livestock threat is minor, and <em>P. nayaur</em> can sustain a reasonably large population under current and likely future scenarios with regard to the livestock industry. This is because reasonably large populations of the species can be supported entirely within high elevation, steep, or excessively rough/rocky terrain that is used sparingly if at all by domestic livestock. Livestock does exist near <em>P. nayaur</em> subpopulations, and in specific situations there may be conflicts. However, in general, it appears that even relatively intensive livestock grazing does not prohibit healthy populations of <em>P. nayaur</em>. This is in marked contrast to livestock’s effect on some other wild species.<br/><br/>Because access to <em>Pseudois nayaur</em> habitat is usually difficult and individual body-size is relatively small, market-based poaching for meat appears to be rare, at least in the northern portions of the Tibetan plateau. Locally-based, subsistence poaching has occurred frequently in recent years, and no doubt continues. However, China has recently begun implementing a new policy of confiscating all guns from nomadic pastoralists, and observations during 1998-2002 in Gansu and Qinghai provinces corroborate this (R. Harris pers. obs.). Thus, local herders now have little technology with which to poach <em>P. nayaur</em> for meat. International (“trophy”) hunting for <em>P. nayaur</em> occurs, but only in 4-5 designated areas in China and Nepal (and possibly in Pakistan), and in numbers too small to have substantial population impacts. It seems most likely, therefore, that human use of <em>P. nayaur</em> has been decreasing in recent years.<br/><br/>Recently, an outbreak of sarcoptic mange was reported among <em>P. nayaur</em> in extreme northern Pakistan, and has markedly reduced abundance locally. This may yet be a cause for concern range-wide, but similar reports from elsewhere within the species’ range have not surfaced (Woodford 2003, 2005).<br/><br/>In Bhutan, the species is not in immediate danger and numbers seem to be increasing due to the expansion of grazing areas for domestic yaks. However, heavy grazing by both species is damaging the fragile, high alpine vegetation, so blue sheep population trends may be reversed in the near future. <br/><br/>In India the major threat is localized over-hunting, including that by the army in remote outposts. Within Nepal, although in some areas religious beliefs protect blue sheep from poaching, excessive competition from livestock grazing may cause habitat degradation in much of its natural range. <br/><br/>In Pakistan, limited range and low numbers make blue sheep vulnerable to poaching and habitat loss. When access to the Shimshal valley is opened by construction of a jeep road, the species will most probably come under increased hunting pressure.
18544		conservation	eng	An area of 75,000 hectares surrounding Popondetta has been declared a National protected area, however, this does not have an IUCN category at present (UNEP-WCMC 2004).  It is not known whether its protection is enforced.
18544		distribution	eng	This species occurs within a 50 km radius of Popondetta, eastern Papua New Guinea.  These locations lie within three drainage basins, which cover a total area of 15,928 km².
18544		habitat	eng	<em>P. connieae</em> is a pelagic species that is generally found in clear, moderate to fairly rapid flowing streams in both shaded rainforest or sunlit, exposed sections.  The altitudinal range is from about 30-300 m.  It is an egg laying omnivore, that normally congregates in schools.
18544		population	eng	The species is decreasing in parts, but detailed population figures are not known.
18544		threats	eng	<em>P. connieae</em> is currently threatened by population growth in the town of Popondetta.  The resulting urbanization and increasing agriculture will reduce the suitable habitat available for this species (Jenkins, pers. comm.).  Urbanization, agriculture and logging are all potential sources of water pollution which are likely to negatively impact populations of <em>P. connieae</em>.  <em>P. connieae</em> is also a much sought after species in the aquarium trade, which poses a potential threat.
18549		conservation	eng	It is present in Bernier Island Nature Reserve. A recovery plan for the species has been prepared and funded, but needs revision. There are plans to introduce the species to other offshore islands and to establish self-sustaining populations on the Australian mainland (Lee 1995). Dirk Hartog is a potential site for reintroduction. Monitoring is needed on Bernier Island.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Pseudomys fieldi praeconis</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I.
18549		distribution	eng	Shark Bay Mouse naturally occurs only on Bernier Island, Shark Bay, Exmouth Gulf in Western Australia, Australia (Morris and Robinson 2008). It was formerly widespread on the Australian mainland, and probably ranged from Exmouth Gulf in the west to Alice Springs in the east (Lee 1995). It was introduced to Doole Island in Exmouth Gulf, but surveys have shown that this population has failed to establish (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). The species was also recently introduced to North West Island (in the Montebello Islands) (A. Burbidge pers. comm.), and reintroduction to Faure Island in 2002 has proven to be successful (J. Richards pers. comm.).
18549		habitat	eng	This species is largely found in beach spinifex and <em>Olearia</em> shrubs on coastal sand dunes. It is occasionally found in areas of heathland and mangrove. The species lives within very shallow burrows. Females gives birth to a litter of three or four young after a gestation period of around 28 days (Morris and Robinson 2008).
18549		population	eng	It is a rare species (Morris and Robinson 2008). A few hundred individuals exist on Bernier Island, under 200 on Faure Island, and under 1,000 on North West Island. The total population size is less than 2,000 individuals. Populations are increasing, however, due to reintroduction.
18549		threats	eng	The causes of the past decline of this species are not known, and it is possible that it was declining prior to European settlement of Australia. It may have declined through subtle climate change, grazing, and trampling of habitat by cattle, or by predation from feral cats (Lee 1995; Morris and Robinson 2008).
18550		conservation	eng	The species' range is well represented in protected areas including the Grampians, Alpine, Croajingalong, Namadgi, Kosciuszko, and South East Forests National Parks. Populations also occur in timber production forests. A recovery outline (Lee 1995) and recovery plan (Menkhorst and Broome 2005) for the species have been prepared. Agreements have been made between the Department of Environment and Conservation, New South Wales and Forests, New South Wales to protect key areas of habitat in integrated logging forests in the Eden hinterland and to monitor populations and habitat in logged, burnt, and unlogged areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed (L. Broome pers. comm.).
18550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from disjunct populations in the state of Victoria, in the Grampians, Otway Ranges (it has not been found here since 1985), the south-eastern Highlands, and coastal East Gippsland. It is also known from two species in the Brindabella Range of the Australian Capital Territory, but it has not been found here since 1987. It is present in south-eastern New South Wales in the Eden hinterland, Kosciuszko National Park and Buccleugh State Forest (Menkhorst and Seebeck 1981; Menkhorst and Broome 2005). This species was formerly widespread in south-eastern New South Wales and in parts of eastern and western Victoria according to subfossil material (Lee 1995). It ranges from close to sea level to 1,800 m asl.
18550		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of environments from near sea-level to the sub-alps and in vegetation communities ranging from heath to dry sclerophyll forest and occasionally wetter gullies. Most localities have a diversity of heath and pea species in the ground and shrub vegetation and shelter sites in the form of rocks or woody debris. Seeds and fruits dominate the spring and summer diet, with hypogeal (underground fruiting) fungi being more common in winter (Ford <em>et al.</em> 2003; Ford 2008). Females annually give birth to one or two litters of three or four young (Ford 2008). Where populations are able to achieve high numbers nesting is communal (Ford <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is not found in disturbed areas.
18550		population	eng	This is a rare species (Ford 2008). There are less than 2,500 mature individuals left in the wild, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Recent surveys have failed to detect the species in the Otway Ranges, coastal East Gippsland, and the Australian Capitol Territory. Populations at monitored sites in the Grampians, Eastern Highlands, and Eden hinterland appear to be in decline (L. Broome pers. comm.). Evidence from owl pellets suggests that historically this was an abundant species. Subfossil deposits show a small contraction in range at the northern and western edges of its distribution.
18550		threats	eng	This species appears to have rapidly declined in abundance since European settlement of Australia. Threats include changes in the floristic composition of shrub and ground vegetation due to inappropriate fire regimes and possibly the introduced root-rot fungus, <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>, which affects many plant species characteristic of its habitat. The species is significantly preyed upon by introduced foxes, wild dogs, and feral cats. Feral cats in particular have the ability to sit and wait outside burrow entrances and deplete colonies very quickly. Loss and fragmentation of habitat due to land clearing and timber harvesting may contribute to local declines (L. Broome pers. comm.).
18551		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
18551		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Australia, where it has been reported as living animals, and from subfossil remains, from south-western Western Australia, eastern South Australia, and New South Wales (Dixon 2008).
18551		habitat	eng	It is a poorly known species. Animals are reported to have preferred sandhills and plains, and to make burrows under bushes in loose soil (Dixon 2008).
18551		population	eng	It is believed to be extinct. It was last collected in 1856-1857 on the Blandowski Expedition to the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers (Dixon 2008). Survey work in the region has not rediscovered the species.
18551		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline of this species are unclear, but may be related to predation from introduced feral cats.
18552		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas. There is a need to maintain patches of habitat at the appropriate stage of succession. There is an Action Statement in Victoria outlining a recovery plan for this species in the state. There is a need for systematic research into this species.
18552		distribution	eng	New Holland Mouse is endemic to Australia where it is patchily distributed in southern Victoria, eastern New South Wales, extreme southern Queensland, Flinders Island, and north-eastern Tasmania (Kemper and Wilson 2008). The population in Anglesea, Victoria has shown to be distinct from other populations. This species has been recorded from sea level up to around 900 m asl.
18552		habitat	eng	It is found in dry heathland and open forest habitats in coastal areas, and dry sandstone areas further inland. Within these habitats it prefers successional vegetation (often following a year or two after a burn) with a sandy substrate, a layer of leguminous perennials and sparse ground cover (Kemper and Wilson 2008). The females give birth to between two and six young after 32 days (Kemper and Wilson 2008).
18552		population	eng	This species is common within its limited habitat in New South Wales (Kemper and Wilson 2008), although populations here are known to fluctuate. It is rare in Tasmania and Queensland, and is very patchily distributed in Victoria in small localities.
18552		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by permanent clearing of habitat, urbanisation, and changes in fire regime (Kemper and Wilson 2008). In Victoria the populations are now very fragmented and prone to extinction.
18553		conservation	eng	It is restricted to the protected areas of Anderson Lake, Dragon Rocks, Bendering, Harris, Lake Grace, North Kalgarin, Rock View and Tarin Rock Nature Reserves, Fitzgerald River National Park and Ravensthorpe Range, Stirling Range National Park, Lake Magenta Nature Reserve (Lee 1995), as well as Dunn Rock Nature Reserve (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). A recovery plan for this species has been prepared, but needs revision. Monitoring of populations is needed.
18553		distribution	eng	This species is restricted mainly to protected areas in southern Western Australia, Australia (Lee 1995; Whisson 2008).
18553		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in dry shrubland, mallee, and woodland that has not been burnt for at least 15 to 50 years, which contain patches of dense understorey 0.5 to 2.5 meters high, generally on sandy clay soils with a laterite component (Lee 1995; Whisson 2008). The species has also been found to nest communally with up to 10 individuals found in a single burrow (Whisson 2008).
18553		population	eng	It is sparsely distributed within its limited range. Populations vary from year to year depending on the seasonal variations, but, within areas of suitable habitat within these nature reserves, they can be found at densities between one to seven individuals per hectare (L. Whisson pers. comm.).
18553		threats	eng	This species appears to have been in decline before European settlement in Australia. Loss of habitat was a threat in the past due to clearing of land, and remaining populations are now restricted to small fragments (increasing their vulnerability). Populations are frequently found in or near nature reserves of less than 1,000 hectares (L. Whisson pers. comm.). Changes to the fire regime are a factor as the species needs a long interval between fires. Feral cats and foxes have been a threat in the past, and continue to be so (L. Whisson pers. comm.). Weed invasion is currently a threat, and probably will be in the future (L. Whisson pers. comm.).
18554		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Barrington Tops National Park, Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, Werrikimbe National Park, Blicks River Flora Reserve, and Edwards Plain Flora Reserve (Lee 1995). A recovery outline for this species has been prepared (Lee 1995). Further studies into the distribution, ecology, population, and threats (e.g., grazing and impacts of fire) to this species are needed. There is a need to control potential introduced predators.
18554		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from Mount Royal, New South Wales in the south to Warwick, Queensland in the north (Lee 1995). It has a narrow elevational range, from 300 to 1,250 m asl, but usually between 500 and 600 m asl (Townley 2008).
18554		habitat	eng	It is found in open forests and woodland, with a range of ground covers that includes sedges (Lee 1995). It shelters in logs or behind rocks. It can be found in logged forest. It is absent from many areas containing what looks to be suitable habitat, and tends to be found in areas with a high diversity of other small mammals (Townley 2008). Females give birth to up to four young, and may give birth to as many as three litters in a season (Townley 2008).
18554		population	eng	This species was previously common according to subfossil records. It is now a rare species with a disjunct distribution. Its population is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals, no subpopulation is estimated to contain more than 1,000 mature individuals, and there is an ongoing decline in the population.
18554		threats	eng	It is likely threatened by ongoing cattle grazing and associated burning of suitable habitat. Logging damages the ground cover initially, which is a threat to the species, but the recovering forest can be suitable habitat. It is also preyed upon by introduced foxes and cats.
18555		conservation	eng	It is present in the Pilliga Nature Reserve and the Pilliga State Forest. A recovery plan was prepared but never published. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, ecology, and threats to this apparently hybrid species.
18555		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pilliga Scrub region of New South Wales, Australia (Lee 1995; Fox 1995).
18555		habitat	eng	This little-known species is restricted to the Pilliga Scrub which consists of mixed open woodland, with a sparse understorey of heath on sandy soil and sandstone ridges (Lee 1995; Fox 1995). The female give birth to an average of three young (Fox 1995).
18555		population	eng	This species is rare and patchily distributed.
18555		threats	eng	It has a small distribution and is threatened by habitat loss due to logging, mining and changes in fire regimes. It may also be threatened by predation from introduced cats and foxes.
18557		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in both Victoria and Western Australia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and threats to the species. Further research needed to determine whether the species is extant on Kangaroo Island; morphological differences between these individuals and those on the mainland also need to be studied. Prescribed burns in Victoria, as well as targeted fox control are needed. National recovery plan being prepared. Monitoring is needed. If the species declines in Western Australia are confirmed, translocations may be considered.
18557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to a few sites in south-western Victoria, eastern South Australia, and southern Western Australia (Lee 1995; Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Western Australia, it is present in the Ravensthorpe Range, Fitzgerald River National Park, Dragon Rocks Nature Reserve, and Lake Magenta Nature Reserve (Lee 1995). One individual was on Kangaroo Island in 1967; a recent survey in 1990 did not find the species, but it should be noted that the survey was not directed specifically towards this species. In Victoria, the species is found in Grampians National Park, Lower Gleneld National Park, and several reserves. The species was formerly more widespread.
18557		habitat	eng	In Western Australia, it is most abundant in mallee heath and mixed Banksia scrub on loamy soils that have not been burnt for at least 30 years, but it has been found in areas that were burnt less than 10 years before (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Victoria it is most often found in areas of heaths and heathy woodlands that have been burnt 5-15 years prior (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females annually give birth to one or two litters of three young (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18557		population	eng	It is a common species within its limited habitat in Victoria (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Lake Magenta National Park, there are about 4,000 individuals. The species is rare in South Australia and Western Australia (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is probable that declines have recently occurred and are continuing in Western Australia; there is no evidence of declines in Victoria, but there have also been no recent population studies here.
18557		threats	eng	It has declined through historical habitat loss and changes in the fire management regime that prevent a habitat mosaic of differing aged patches of heathland. Changes in fire regime continue to be a significant potential threat. Introduced predators, such as fox, may also have led to the decline of the species and are considered a threat (Lee 1995).
18558		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
18558		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is present in south-western Western Australia, including Bernier Island, Dorre Island, and Dirk Hartog Island (Morris 2008).
18558		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species found in areas of low heathland and shrubland on sandy soils (Morris 2008). Females give birth to two to six young after a gestation period of 37 to 38 days (Morris 2008).
18558		population	eng	It is a reasonably widespread and common species. Although there have been declines in the past, it is now considered to be stable. Two subspecies are recognized (one on the mainland and another on the islands).
18558		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species at present. It has declined in parts of its range through residential development of coastal areas and conversion of land to agricultural use (Morris 2008). It may be threatened by predation from cats and foxes. Frequent or extensive fires within fragments could be a threat.
18559		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas in both Victoria and South Australia.
18559		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. It is known from very low elevations.
18559		habitat	eng	It is found in dry semi-arid heathland with a high diversity of plant species. Animals live in burrows at the base of shrubs (Cockburn and Menkhorst 2008). In favourable conditions, the females may give birth to successive litters of two to five young (Cockburn and Menkhorst 2008). It does not live in agricultural areas.
18559		population	eng	It is a common species within its limited habitat (Cockburn and Menkhorst 2008). Its range in South Australia is highly fragmented. Populations of this species fluctuate.
18559		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Inappropriate fire management adversely affects the species, and introduced cats and foxes can be a threat locally. Populations of this species fluctuate, but this is not seen as a major threat.
18560		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Witjira National Park, South Australia; the species is also found in Arid Recovery Reserve and in Mac Clac Reserve. Further information is needed regarding its population trends. It is necessary to include patch dynamics in monitoring of populations for management purposes, and focus on regional populations, as opposed to sites (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Most of the known populations of this species occur on pastoral leases, with core populations well away from stock concentration areas, however, current pastoral practices of piping water across previously unwatered country may alter this balance (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999).
18560		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs as patchy populations in the western gibber plains of the Lake Eyre Basin from Pernatty Station (south-east of Woomera), to the Finke in the Northern Territory (Lee 1995; Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999)). It was formerly much more widely distributed; for instance, the species is no longer found in the eastern part of the Lake Eyre Basin (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species was last collected in Western Australia and south-east South Australia in 1969, and has not been found since. During periods of drought, it is found only within refugia.
18560		habitat	eng	Historically this species was found in a wider variety of habitats (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Remaining populations are found in gibber or flood plains (especially in cracking clay areas and gilgais) with a hard clay substrate and a cover of low shrubs (Lee 1995; Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999; Brandle and Pavey 2008). Much of the knowledge of the habitat preferences of this species is from its naturally irruptive periods, whereas very little is known about its habitat requirements during dry spells (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and forms shallow burrows in clay. Females give birth to a litter of usually between three or four young after a gestation period of between 30 and 31 days (Brandle and Pavey 2008).
18560		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed, often rare, and is eruptive after rainfall events (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999; Brandle and Pavey 2008). Capture rates suggest that during droughts the population drops to less than 10,000 individuals (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). No recent declines have been observed, however, this is difficult to ascertain in light of the natural population fluctuations of this species (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Still, it is clear that this species experienced severe declines following European settlement (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Brandle and Moseby (1999) found a population density of 9.842 individuals per hectare in May of 1993 at Dismal Plain, Billa Kalina Station (29 44 47 S, 136 27 33 E), but then were unable to trap any during the winter of 2005.
18560		threats	eng	Degradation of habitat due to overgrazing by sheep and cattle is a major threat because it compacts the earth (and eliminates burrows), decreases resources, and makes the species more exposed to predation (Brandle and Pavey 2008). Populations of this species are fragmented and they fluctuate with rainfall events.
18561		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park). Further taxonomic work is needed to determine whether or not <em>P. delicatulus</em> is a species complex.
18561		distribution	eng	This species is present in the area of Morehead Station and Mibini Village in the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea (present in Papua New Guinea only), and it is widespread, but patchily distributed, in northern Australia where it ranges from northern Western Australia to southern Queensland and New South Wales in the east. It is also found on a number of offshore islands including Melville Island, Groote Eylandt, and Fraser Island (all Australia) (Flannery 1995; Ford 2008), as well as Bigge Island, Kimberley, Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
18561		habitat	eng	It is generally found in sandy, well drained, sparsely grassed open areas (Flannery 1995). The species can survive in degraded, and heavily grazed, savanna woodland (Ford 2008). Reproduction is often resource dependent; females can give birth to several litters of three or four young annually (Ford 2008).
18561		population	eng	In Australia, it is common but fluctuates (Ford 2008). Populations may increase significantly following grass fires (Ford 2008).
18561		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
18562		conservation	eng	It is present in Uluru National Park and many other protected areas.
18562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges widely throughout much of the arid central zone and parts of the semi-arid tropics (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species' range extended further south in the past.
18562		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including savanna woodland, shrubland, and grassland, mostly within a zone of rainfall of 500-750 mm (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2004). The presence of dense groundcover of either grasses, sedges, or shrubs is very important (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species can breed throughout the year, and females give birth to an average of three young after a gestation period of 27 to 28 days (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18562		population	eng	The abundance of this species varies greatly in response to levels of rainfall. It can be common after a number of heavy rains (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population also changes in response to fires; the species prefers unburnt areas.
18562		threats	eng	Superficially this species appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance, however, new evidence suggests that it is less common in areas that experience fire or grazing (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thus it could be threatened by changes in fire regimes and grazing over parts of its range. Introduced grasses might be another threat, especially in Queensland.
18563		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Kosciuszko National Park, Barrington Tops National Park, Victoria's Alpine National Park, Wilsons Promontory National Park and possibly Great Otway National Park, as well as several other protected areas in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. In Tasmania, <em>M. fuscus</em> is well protected as more than half of its habitat is within the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, which incorporates several contiguous national parks (Hocking and Driessen 2000). <br/><br/>Recovery plans are in preparation for the Barrington Tops (DEC 2005) and Kosciuszko populations. Fox control programs have been carried out each winter in the Kosciuszko area since 1999 and Barrington Tops since 2001 and cat control is conducted around ski resorts. Monitoring of <em>M. fuscus</em> populations at Kosciuszko has occurred at one site since 1978, and another seven sites (with and without fox control) since 1999, and at Barrington Tops since 2002. Pig and weed control is also carried out at Barrington Tops and feral horse removal and predator proof fencing is being considered. Further research is needed on the population status and range of this species, especially in Victoria and Tasmania. Other research priorities include:  ecology, genetics, the ability to repopulate vacant habitat patches, impacts and control measure for feral animals, competition with Rattus species and research leading to reliable population viability, habitat, and climate change models.
18563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed on the mainland in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, in Barrington Tops, New South Wales, and in the Eastern Highlands, Victorian Alps, Otway Ranges, and Wilsons Promontory in Victoria. It also occurs in western Tasmania. It has been recorded from sea level up to 2,200 m asl (Driessen 2002; Green and Osborne 2003; Happold 2008; L. Broome pers. comm.).
18563		habitat	eng	It occurs in alpine and subalpine heathland, in clearings in wet sclerophyll forests and in wet sedgelands along streams. Primary requirements appear to be high rainfall and a cool climate, some form of cover in the form of boulders, shrubs or grass tussocks and access to grasses that form the major part of its diet. Leaves of shrubs, seeds, fungi, and bark are also eaten. Females give birth to probably two litters per season of between one and four young after a gestation period of about five weeks (Happold 2008).
18563		population	eng	In general, it is not a common species and is patchily distributed throughout its range. In the alpine areas of Victoria and New South Wales it can be locally common, but still patchily distributed. It has not been recorded in the Otway Ranges for the last 30 years, and it has declined in large parts of its range. The isolated population at Barrington Tops is listed as an endangered population under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (New South Wales). There has been a significant decline (>50% of the previous 13 year average) in the Mount Kosciuszko area since 1999 likely due to low snow cover and early snow melt (K. Green pers. comm.), which may cause low survival due to low temperatures and higher levels of predation by foxes and in some areas cats. This was exacerbated by bush fires in January 2003 that burned approximately 70% of the alpine area where the species occurs. Recent population trends in Victoria are unknown. There has been no formal monitoring of populations in Tasmania, apart from a 12-year survey at Lake St. Clair (M. Driessen pers. comm.).
18563		threats	eng	The species is generally restricted by the sparseness of suitable habitat, and is threatened by predation from introduced foxes (Bubela and Happold 1993; Green 2002) and cats (L. Broome pers. comm.). Bushfires are also a threat as well as habitat destruction and modification by feral horses, rabbits, hares, pigs, and ski resort developments in some parts of its range (L. Broome pers. comm.). Introduced weeds (e.g., broom Cytisus species and an exotic grass <em>Holcus lanatus</em>) are invading habitat at Barrington Tops and willow Salix species is a threat in alpine Victoria. The root rot fungus <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> is causing dieback of heath in some areas. In Tasmania, inappropriate fire regimes are a potential threat to the species (Hocking and Driessen 2000). The recent introduction of foxes in Tasmania could be a major threat. Foxes have been shown to selectively prey on this species (Green 2002). Marginalisation of habitat due to drought and increased fire frequency and loss of protective snow cover in winter with subsequent increased predation in alpine areas is predicted to occur with global warming. This may also increase competition with native Rattus species (<em>R. lutreolus</em>, <em>R. fuscipes</em>) that co-occur in the habitat.
18564		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
18564		distribution	eng	This species was formerly found in Queensland and northern New South Wales in Australia (Dickman 2008).
18564		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown.
18564		population	eng	It is presumed extinct. The species is known only from three specimens, two from Queensland, one from Cryon in northern New South Wales (Dickman 2008). The last record is from 1956. Surveys at Cryon in the early 1990s did not find this species (Dickman 2008).
18564		threats	eng	It probably went extinct due to a combination of habitat loss and predation, but this is unknown.
18565		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas. Range losses in the southern part of its distribution suggest that close monitoring of the species' overall status is required.
18565		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a patchy range along the eastern coast from northern Queensland in the north to eastern New South Wales. There is an outlying population in Jervis Bay, New South Wales. This species was perhaps formerly more widely distributed.
18565		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from open woodland and eucalypt forest, often with a grassy understorey, wet heathland, and swampy areas. It is largely associated with newly regenerating heath vegetation (Fox 2008). The female annually gives birth to up to three litters of between one and five young (usually three), after a gestation period of around 27 days (Fox 2008).
18565		population	eng	The distribution of this species is patchy, but it is common (Fox 2008). It apparently reaches its highest densities in heath 2-4 years after fire. They have declined in some parts of their range, such as in the Sydney area.
18565		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although loss of habitat due to intensive grazing, inappropriate fire regimes (especially as these remove the grassy understorey), and predation by dogs and cats may cause localized declines.
18566		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas.
18566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in the central and western parts of the country (Breed 2008). It is present on some offshore islands in Western Australia, including Dirk Hartog, Dixon, Rosemary, and Hope off the Pilbara (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). It has long been suspected to occur in Queensland, but this has only been recently confirmed; some misidentified species have been reassigned as <em>Pseudomys hermannsburgensis</em>, and it is now frequently captured in south-west Queensland (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2003).
18566		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species, found in a variety of arid habitats from sand dunes to hummock and tussock grasslands (Breed 2008). Animals spend the day in burrows. Females generally give birth to three or four young (Breed 2008).
18566		population	eng	It is a common species. Populations fluctuate with rainfall (Breed 2008).
18566		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
18567		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas, including the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. This species should be monitored to determine the effects of recently introduced foxes on populations.
18567		distribution	eng	This species is now endemic to the islands of Tasmania and Bruny (Australia) (Driessen 2008). It was previously known from the east coast of mainland Australia. It was thought to have declined on the mainland in the Pleistocene, but recent research has shown that it was present here until about 200 years ago. It occurs across all elevations in Tasmania, from sea level to around 1,600 m asl.
18567		habitat	eng	This species is reaches its highest densities in subalpine rocky screes and boulder fields (Driessen 2008). It can also be found in southern beech (<em>Nothofagus</em> spp.) temperate moist forest, and may be found in wet schlerophyll forest and deep fern gullies. Females annually give birth to one or two litters, of three or four young (Driessen 2008).
18567		population	eng	It is a common species (Driessen 2008).
18567		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present, although the recent introduction of foxes to Tasmania may cause problems in the future.
18568		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas, including: Gregory National Park, Purnululu National Park, Camooweal Caves National Park, Devils Marbles Conservation Reserve, Mitchell River National Park, Davenport Range National Park, and Lawn Hill National Park. Further taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of <em>P. laborifex</em>.
18568		distribution	eng	This recently-described species is widely distributed in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and Mount Isa (Queensland) regions of northern Australia where it is found on rocky ridges (Kerle and Ford 2008). In the Northern Territory, it is known from the Davenport and Murchison Ranges. It has also been recorded in owl pellet material from Peaker Piker Pocket in the Mittiebah Range, and pebble mounds constructed by this species have been found near Helen Springs and Nicholson Block (Lee 1995; F. Ford pers. comm.).
18568		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats including plateaus with open woodland, wooded valleys, and spinifex grassland. It is associated with pebble-covered ridges and plains with pebble mounds and grasses, and a sparse to dense shrubby understorey. This species lives in burrows and forms mounds of pebbles close to one of the entrances (Kerle and Ford 2008).
18568		population	eng	In the past, it appeared to be an uncommon species. However, it is now considered to be more common as new populations are still being located throughout its range. Although populations of this species are naturally fragmented on rocky sites, it is reasonably common in suitable habitats (F. Ford pers. comm.). The species is found within low, stable populations with little fluctuation in numbers.
18568		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There are no data on declines. Feral cats are probably not a major threat due to its habitat.
18570		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas (including Potter Island and Sholl Island). More research needed on threats to this species on the mainland, fire ecology, and population dynamics.
18570		distribution	eng	This species is restricted mainly to northern Australia ranging from Barrow Island (Western Australia) eastwards to the islands of the Sir Edward Pellew Group in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory (Robinson and Cooper 2008). Native populations were recently discovered on Potter Island and Sholl Island, both of which are nature reserves. It was formerly far more widely distributed in eastern Western Australia, but has now been extirpated from central and southern Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). However, the species is still common in parts of the Kimberley mainland, it has not been extirpated from this area (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
18570		habitat	eng	It is found in grasslands, and eucalypt on sandy volcanic and lateritic soils (Robinson and Cooper 2008). Females give birth to between three and five young (usually three), after a gestation period of around 22 to 24 days (Robinson and Cooper 2008).
18570		population	eng	It seems to be a widespread, but generally sparse species. Fewer individuals were found during recent surveys in the Kimberley (K. Morris and A. Burbidge pers. comm.), though it is still common in parts of the Kimberley mainland (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
18570		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Changes in fire regime are a potential threat as are changes from perennial to annual grasses, and grazing.
18571		conservation	eng	It is present in a large number of conservation areas, including the follow national parks: White Mountains, Peak Range, Carnarvon, Expedition, Minnerva Hills, Blackdown Tableland, Moorrinya, Homevale, and Blackbraes. Further studies are needed into possible threats to this species.
18571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in a broad semi-circle in eastern Queensland from Paluma and Charters Towers west to Burra Range and Clermont, and south-east to Springsure and Gympie (Menkhorst 2001; Ford and Johnson 2007).
18571		habitat	eng	It is present in rocky and scrubby areas, preferring hills or ridges with dry open woodlands and a grass-dominated understorey. The species builds mounds of pebbles under which the animals construct burrows to live in, and it is therefore confined to areas with small pebbles (Ford and Johnson 2007; Ford 2008).
18571		population	eng	Its distribution is patchy, scattered in small populations, and poorly known.
18571		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are poorly understood. This species is likely susceptible to predation by introduced foxes, cats, and dogs. It was previously thought that intense fire may be a threat to this species because it destroys available food resources and would result in population declines. However, it was recently found that fire has no effect on this species (F. Ford, manuscript in review).
18579		conservation	eng	Listed in Appendix II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
18579		distribution	eng	Restricted to part of the Peloponnese and Aitolo-Akarnania and Lefkas Island.
18579		habitat	eng	A small size fish well adapted to unstable conditions. It has a high resilience and can quickly re-establish depleted sub-populations.
18579		population	eng	Safe, although some subpopulations are probably locally extinct, notably on the islands.
18579		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution.
18581		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, apart from its habitat being protected when it occurs in national parks and state forests. The causes of the recent declines need to be identified.
18581		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found from the south-east corner of Queensland, along the east coast of New South Wales, and into central Victoria and South Australia (including Kangaroo Island), from 20-1,000m asl.
18581		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry forest, woodland, shrubland and grassland, and shelters under leaf-litter and other debris in moist soaks and depressions. Calling is from February to August and frogs have been noted calling in temperatures of only 4°C. Between 70 and 200 large eggs are deposited terrestrially on damp leaf mould, in shallow nests or under stones and logs near water, and these hatch after rain floods the area and provides pools for larvae. Metamorphosis takes three to seven months.
18581		population	eng	It was considered to be the most common and widespread member of its genus, but populations have appeared to decline in some areas in recent years.
18581		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to transport infrastructure development and agriculture (including cultivation of crops and livestock rearing). Increasing water salinity is also a problem. However, the specific reasons for the many declines are not known.
18582		conservation	eng	Research is currently being undertaken to examine the potential role of captive husbandry in aiding the recovery of small populations through direct manipulation of recruitment to the terrestrial development stage (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 1999). The range of the species includes Kosciusko National Park. Since 2001, Melbourne Zoo has raised/maintained tadpoles and frogs as part of the national recovery program. After the devastating bushfires of 2002/2003, all eggs were removed from the wild to increase the intensity of the captive-breeding program.
18582		distribution	eng	Prior to the detailed survey undertaken by Osborne (1989), there were museum records of <em>P. corroboree</em> from only seven locations, all in the Snowy Mountains of southeastern New South Wales, Australia (Guthega, Smiggin Holes, Happy Jacks Plain, Round Mt., Alpine Hut, Pretty Plain and Tooma Swamp). Osborne (1989) subsequently recorded the species at most of these sites (although was unable to find the species near Guthega and Alpine Hut) in a survey that included 257 potential breeding sites, recording the species at 63 locations. The extent of occurrence of the species was reported to be about 400km² in a relatively narrow band between 1,240 and 1,710m asl (Osborne 1989). Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) surveyed 170 potentially suitable breeding sites across the known historical range of the species and detected <em>P. corroboree</em> still inhabiting 63 sites during the period 1995-1998. However, in this survey only a single individual was found in the southernmost extent of the former range, few extant populations were found along the entire eastern edge of the former distribution and only a single individual was found at low-altitude sites near Tooma Dam in the northern Snowy Mountains. In the central region of the former distribution the species was only located at 21 sites with the numbers at each site being critically low. This represents an extensive collapse of the population in this region.
18582		habitat	eng	The Corroboree Frog is a habitat specialist, restricted to montane and sub-alpine woodlands, heathland and grassland above about 1,000m asl. Breeding sites are associated with shallow pools, fens, seepages, wet grassland, and wet heaths. Non-breeding habitat occurs in forest, woodland and heath adjacent to breeding sites. It breeds in shallow pools or seepages. Osborne (1990b) summarised the main features of their reproductive ecology (after Pengilley 1966, 1971, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.). Field measurements (Pengilley 1973) suggest that the species reaches sexual maturity at three years of age (i.e., one year as an embryo/tadpole and two years as a juvenile/sub-adult), which is consistent with observations of captive-reared individuals (Osborne 1990b). It is unlikely that many adults survive for more than one breeding season (Osborne 1990b). Breeding occurs from January to February (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.) and 16-40 eggs (Pengilley 1973) of ovum diameter 3.1-3.6mm (capsule diameter 6.0-10.0mm W.S. Osborne unpubl.) are deposited terrestrially (Pengilley 1966; W. Osborne unpubl.). Tadpoles develop within the egg capsule and hatching occurs when high ground-water levels after rain cause the nest to become flooded (Osborne 1990b). Hatching occurs at four to six months (W.S. Osborne unpubl.) and the tadpole development period is six to eight months (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.). Metamorphosis occurs between December and early February (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.).
18582		population	eng	The population size in the wild is now believed to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.
18582		threats	eng	The Corroboree Frog is one of a number of Australian alpine amphibian species that have experienced pronounced population declines for unknown reasons (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). There is no single aspect of the field biology of these species that stands out as a feature in common, and that might help explain the declines (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). <em>Pseudophryne pengilleyi</em> is still widespread and abundant at lower altitudes (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) reviewed some of the possible factors contributing to population declines at high altitudes including long-term weather patterns and pathogens such as the chytrid fungus (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Chytrid fungus has recently been detected in museum specimens of the Corroboree Frog by R. Speare, although the level of virulence in wild populations is unknown (W.S. Osborne pers. comm.). Planting of exotic trees, such as Willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), has been widespread in the Snowy Mountains (Osborne 1990b). Although no breeding sites are directly threatened by willow invasion, in the longer-term the spread of willows by vegetative growth along seepages and streams might present a problem for the management of some sites (Osborne 1990b). Excavation by feral pigs has also been identified as a potentially threatening process (Osborne 1990b; W.S. Osborne pers. comm.). The bushfires of 2002/2003 destroyed over 90% of the species' habitat.
18583		conservation	eng	Most of the range of the species occurs in conservation reserves, but these are under human pressure.
18583		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in Hawkesbury Sandstone region from the Royal National Park in the south, to Gosford and Newcastle in the north. It occurs between 10 and 1,000m asl.
18583		habitat	eng	This species is a Sydney sandstone specialist, around the Hawkesbury region. It prefers heath woodland and hides in sandstone rock crevices where water seepages have eroded a labyrinth of caverns and tunnels. It is a spring and summer breeder, and a terrestrial egg layer with decreased clutch size (about 20) and increased egg size. Males have been observed tending the nest. Rainfall releases the tadpoles from the nests into ephemeral pools and tadpoles take 1-3 months to develop. Females can lay multiple clutches in a year.
18583		population	eng	It is often found in colonies of 20-30 individuals. Populations at the edge of the range are known to be decreasing and are being adversely affected by urbanization and human-mediated disturbances. Historically, it was found at 471 sites, but in 1998 there were only 56 extant breeding sites.
18583		threats	eng	The entire population is centred around an area of intense human development. Intensified fire regimes, hydrological changes, and increased pollution levels (at edges and wherever human development encroaches into more core areas) are major threats, while the collection of rocks from its habitat, the spread of invasive weeds, and low recruitment rate (about 1% of each clutch survives to metamorphosis) pose additional threats.
18596		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES<br/><br/>This is a relatively poorly-known species which, although mostly observed over deep water, is known to strand from many coasts. Abundance estimates as well as by-catch data do not exist for most areas, nor are there detailed accounts on migratory behaviour. Clearly, more research is needed.
18596		conservation	eng	This is a relatively poorly-known species which, although mostly observed over deep water, is known to strand from many coasts. Abundance estimates as well as by-catch data do not exist for most areas, nor are there detailed accounts on migratory behaviour. Clearly, more research is needed.
18596		distribution	eng	False killer whales are found in tropical to warm temperate zones, generally in relatively deep, offshore waters of all three major oceans. In addition to deep, oceanic areas, they do sometimes occur over the continental shelf and appear to move into very shallow waters on occasion.  They do not generally range poleward of about 50° in either hemisphere. However, some animals occasionally move into higher latitude waters.  They are found in many semi-enclosed seas and bays (including the Sea of Japan, Bohai/Yellow Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf), but they only occasionally occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Leatherwood <em>et al.</em> 1989).  There are a few records for the Baltic Sea, which are considered extralimital.
18596		distribution	eng	False killer whales are found in tropical to warm temperate zones, generally in relatively deep, offshore waters of all three major oceans. They do not generally range into latitudes higher than 50° in either hemisphere. However, some animals occasionally move into higher latitude waters. They are found in many semi-enclosed seas and bays (including the Sea of Japan, Bohai/Yellow Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf), but they only occasionally occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are a few records for the Baltic Sea, which are considered extralimital. There are also records of false killer whales being found far into large rivers in China.
18596		habitat	eng	As is the case for most of the tropical oceanic delphinids, this species is rather poorly-known (see Baird 2002).  This species is considered to be extremely social.  Groups of 10-60 are typical, though much larger groups are known.  Some groups are very tight-knit, while others may be spread over a kilometer or more of ocean. <br/><br/>This is one of the most common species involved in cetacean mass strandings, and in one case, over 800 stranded together.  The false killer whale is a lively, fast-swimming cetacean, and occasionally rides bow waves of vessels.  False killer whales are known to behave aggressively toward other small cetaceans, and have even been seen chasing and attacking dolphins (in particular, dolphins just released from tuna purse seines) and some large whales.<br/><br/>False killer whales occur in tropical and temperate waters worldwide (Stacey <em>et al.</em> 1994, Odell and McClune 1999), generally in relatively deep, offshore waters. However, some animals may move into shallow and  higher latitude waters, on occasion (including some semi-enclosed seas such as the Red Sea and the Mediterranean). It seems to prefer warmer water temperatures. Although false killer whales eat primarily fish and cephalopods, they also have been known to attack small cetaceans, humpback whales, and sperm whales.  They eat some large species of fish, such as mahi-mahi (also called dorado or dolphinfish), tunas (see Alonso <em>et al.</em> 1999) and sailfish.
18596		habitat	eng	False killer whales occur in tropical and temperate waters worldwide (Stacey <em>et al</em>. 1994; Odell and McClune 1999), generally in relatively deep, offshore waters. However, some animals may move into shallow and higher latitude waters, on occasion (including some semi-enclosed seas such as the Red Sea and the Mediterranean). The species seems to prefer warmer water temperatures. Off Hawaii, this species is found in both shallow (less than 200 m) and deep water (greater than 2000 m) habitats (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Although false killer whales eat primarily fish and cephalopods, they also have been known to attack small cetaceans, humpback whales, and sperm whales. They eat some large species of fish, such as mahi-mahi (also called dorado or dolphinfish), tunas (Alonso <em>et al</em>. 1999) and sailfish. In Hawaiian waters observational studies suggest that large game fish (mahi-mahi, tunas, billfish) may form the majority of their diet (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2008).
18596		population	eng	Studies on population structure in this species indicate both broad-scale (between-ocean) limits on gene flow (e.g., Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990), and limited gene flow on smaller (within-ocean) scales (Chivers <em>et al</em>. 2007). Abundance has been estimated for the coastal waters of China and Japan (16,000, CV=26%; Miyashita 1993), the northern Gulf of Mexico (1,038, CV = 71%; Mullin and Fulling 2004), and the U.S. EEZ of Hawaii (268, CV=108%; Barlow 2006). Abundance in the eastern tropical Pacific has been estimated as 39,800, CV=64%; Wade and Gerrodette 1993). There is no information on global trends in abundance.
18596		population	eng	There are few estimates of abundance, and none for the global population size. Abundance estimates, even for large oceanic regions such as the eastern tropical Pacific, are only in the low tens of thousands (39,800, CV=64%: Wade and Gerrodette 1993). There is no information on population trends.
18596		threats	eng	Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of false killer whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>False killer whales are occasionally taken in Japan for food and in St. Vincent in the Caribbean for meat and cooking oil (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Odell and McClune, 1999). Considerable numbers of false killer whales may have also been killed in a past drive fishery in the Penghu Islands of Taiwan. Their interactions with fisheries, particularly their tendency to remove desired target species from longlines and sport fishing gear, have made them the targets of culling efforts. Around Iki Island, Japan, over 900 false killer whales were killed in drive fisheries from 1965 to 1980 in an attempt to reduce interactions with the yellowtail fishery (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Odell and McClune, 1999). They continue to be taken opportunistically in Japanese harpoon and drive fisheries (Kishiro and Kasuya 1993). They are also hunted at least opportunistically in Indonesia, Taiwan and the West Indies. Some of the animals caught in the Japanese and Taiwanese drive fisheries have been kept alive and sold to oceanaria (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Incidental takes of small numbers of false killer whales in gill nets has occurred off northern Australia, the Andaman Islands, the southern coasts of Brazil and in tuna purse seines in the eastern tropical Pacific. Dolphin entrapment in tuna purse seine nets may be providing artificial feeding opportunities for <em>Pseudorca</em> on other marine mammals (Odell and McClune, 1999). Although there have not been any records of false killer whale being killed in the large-mesh pelagic driftnets off eastern Taiwan, some are likely to be caught. Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported on by-catch rates in Chinese coastal fisheries (trawl, gill and stow net), which may number in the hundreds per year for <em>P. crassidens</em> alone. False killer whales are occasionally hooked in longline fisheries, presumably as they are removing fish from the hooks. Death has been observed as a result of some hookings (Forney 2006). Many of the other hookings are inside the mouth or gullet and are likely to result in the subsequent death of the animals (Forney and Kobayashi 2005). Other types of non-lethal injuries may also occur (Baird and Gorgone 2005). Such longline fisheries are found throughout the central and western tropical Pacific, and similar interactions with false killer whales occur in other regions (e.g. Mediterranean, Bearzi 2002). Observer programs to monitor bycatch are limited.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect false killer whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
18596		threats	eng	Potential threats include decline in prey base, incidental mortality in fishing gear, and noise pollution.
18597		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I and both of its range countries are CITES signatories. It is protected by national law in Viet Nam (Decree 48; IB) and in Lao PDR (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Regulation 360).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR Saola are probably still found in Nakai-Nam Theun and Xe Xap National Protected Areas, and in Nam Chat-Nam Pan Provincial Protected Area.  However, only Nakai-Nam Theun has active, well-funded management. Saola occur in several forest blocks outside protected areas - in fact, its range in Lao PDR outside protected areas may be nearly as large as its range within, and perhaps larger. In Viet Nam it is probably found in Vu Quang and Pu Mat National Parks; Pu Huong, Phong Dien and Dak Rong Nature Reserves and the proposed Bac Huong Hoa Nature Reserve. A new protected area for the species has been proposed in Thua-Thien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces.<br/><br/>The highest priority areas for conservation are: 1). Southern Thua -Thien Hue-northern Quang Nam Provinces, Viet Nam (and adjacent areas of Lao PDR). 2). Eastern Bolikhamxay Province (e.g., Nam Chat-Nam Pan Provincial Protected Area), Lao PDR. 3). Transborder area of Khammouan and Savanakhet Provinces, Lao PDR and Quang Binh and Quang Tri Provinces, Viet Nam.4). Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area, Lao PDR and adjacent forests in Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Two editions of a conservation action plan for the species in Lao PDR have been written (Robichaud 1997, 1999), but permission for implementation has not been granted by the Lao government. Recommendations from a 2004 Saola workshop held in Viet Nam (Hardcastle <em>et al</em>. 2004) included updating and implementing the 1999 Lao Action Plan and preparation of a comprehensive Saola Conservation Action Plan for Viet Nam. The latter has now been drafted.<br/><br/>Highest, immediate priorities for both countries are increased patrolling against snaring and other types of hunting.
18597		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Annamite Mountains of Viet Nam and the Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) (Grubb 2005). Most records are from south of the Song Ca River in Viet Nam, although a population to the north has also been found (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994, Kemp <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, records come from as far west as central Bolikhamxay Province. Suitable habitat is, or was, probably more abundant in Viet Nam than in Lao PDR, but Viet Nam's much higher human population density has severely reduced both habitat and Saola numbers in the habitat that remains. In Lao PDR there is evidence of occurrence in Bolikhamxay, Khammouan, Savannakhet and Xekong Provinces; it probably also occurs in southern Xieng Khouang Province. In Viet Nam there is evidence of occurrence in Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Thua-Thien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces. It is suspected to occur in less than 15 forest blocks in the two countries.<br/><br/>The species' altitudinal range is 200 to 1,200 m.
18597		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the northern and central Ammanites, in climatically wet evergreen forest (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2004), and is present only in forest blocks over approximately 25 square kilometers (R. Timmins pers. comm.2006). The habitat preference appears to be highly specific, namely evergreen forests with little or no dry season. Saola have been found in high quality, dense forest. Whether or not it can inhabit other types of wet forest is not known. It may  associate with areas close to forested streams (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1993). Thus, many areas within the presumed range in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam are not suitable due to the predominance of forests with pronounced dry seasons, limestone forests, etc.<br/><br/>The altitude range of the Saola is uncertain. While it seems to be a mid-low elevation species, most of the forest below 400 m within its presumed range has been lost and a high proportion of the remaining forest is over 1,000 m. There is no indication that the species occurs above 1,200 m.<br/><br/>Information from villagers in its range indicates that Saola are mainly solitary, although there are some reports of groups of two or three animals, and rarely groups as large as six or seven (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994). The species is possibly territorial, and might mark territory with scent from its large maxillary gland.<br/><br/>Single foetus pregnancy has been documented. Information from local villagers suggests this to be the norm (Robichaud 1998). Saola may have a fixed breeding season with births occurring in the summer.<br/><br/>Captive Saola exhibited primarily diurnal, or diurnal and crepuscular, activity; however, it is not known if this is typical under natural conditions (Robichaud 1998). Local reports suggest Saola is a browser, feeding mostly on leaves (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994).
18597		population	eng	The area of forest remaining in the known historical range of the Saola is 5,000 to 15,000 sq. km, but much of this range is probably no longer inhabited by the species. The number of Saola subpopulations - defined as those in non-contiguous blocks of habitat - is probably in the order of 6 to 15, and none likely number more than 50 animals. Consequently, total Saola population is undoubtedly less than 750, but is likely much less.<br/><br/>No formal surveys have been undertaken to estimate Saola numbers accurately (Tham Ngoc Diep <em>et al</em>. 2004). Accurate population estimates would be exceedingly difficult to obtain due to the secretive nature of the taxon, the difficulty in making direct observations in dense forest habitat - a difficulty compounded by the species' rarity - the rugged terrain, and the remoteness of much of its habitat. Furthermore, one of the two range governments, Lao PDR, has often withheld permission to conduct detailed studies of the species in its territory. Nonetheless, it is known that subpopulations are small, highly localised, and isolated.<br/><br/>To date, scientists have categorically documented Saola in the wild on only four occasions. In fact, there is not yet a  reliable method for detecting the species other than direct observation or camera trapping. Incidences of either of these encounters are extremely rare. The first photograph of a Saola in the wild was taken in 1998 from a camera trap set near a mineral spring in Pu Mat National Park, Viet Nam (Whitfield 1998). A few months later the species was camera-trapped in Lao PDR, in Bolikhamxay Province (Robichaud 1999). The only other potentially reliable method of detection is through genetic analysis of feces.<br/><br/>The paucity of data on Saola is itself an indication of its critically small population. Though populations of other ungulates in the Saola's range are severely depressed, they are seen far more commonly by local inhabitants than is the Saola. Recorded sightings of these ungulates occur at a frequency often two orders of magnitude higher than for the Saola. Documented villager sightings of Saola in the past decade don't number in the thousands or hundreds, but in the tens. In contrast, sightings by villagers of muntjacs, pigs and even Sambar are so common that researchers generally don't quantify them.<br/><br/>Analysis of hunter interviews conducted in In Pu Mat National Park, Viet Nam in 1998 and 1999 estimated that about 18 Saola survived in the Khe Bong area in the southeast of the reserve and about eight in the Khe Chat and Khe Choang areas in the center. In 2003, research suggested that these numbers had been reduced by about 50% over the intervening five years, despite the best efforts of the forest authorities and other responsible agencies (Weir and Dinh Van Cuong 2004).<br/><br/>Speculative population estimates of 70 to 700 in Lao PDR and several hundred in Viet Nam were provided in the IUCN Antelope Action Plan (Mallon and Eames 2001, Timmins 2001). Subsequent surveys in Lao PDR indicated that the current population there is likely near the country's low estimate, i.e., fewer than 100 remaining (Robichaud and Timmins, 2004). It is unlikely that Saola's total global population is greater than the low hundreds at most (i.e., fewer than 250 mature individuals). Such a total estimate was made in the 1990s, based on the known range and reports from hunters (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1993, Schaller and Rabinowitz 1995). The situation has deteriorated considerably since then. The surviving population is highly dispersed and its fragmentation is worsening. Saola numbers may be so low that no viable populations remain.<br/><br/>There are no Saola known in captivity.
18597		threats	eng	While tropical forests have inherently low ungulate biomass, natural Saola densities are probably even lower than other sympatric ungulates such as wild pigs, Sambar, and muntjacs. This is due in part to the presumed lower reproductive output, solitary nature, and likely larger territory and/or home range of the Saola as compared to some of these other ungulates. It is clear that Saola populations must also be unnaturally depressed, as populations of all wild animals larger than 20 kg in its range have been significantly reduced by human exploitation. Field survey encounter rates with muntjacs and pigs in the Saola's range are remarkably low compared to other areas in Asia, and wild cattle, elephants, and tigers are all nearing extinction in its range (e.g., Duckworth and Hedges 1998). Even typically resilient species such as Sambar are scarce. The declines are corroborated by local villagers across the area, who consistently report major reductions from former abundances.<br/><br/>The greatest threat to Saola is hunting. While wildlife in the Saola's range are most threatened by the traditional medicine trade, specific demand for Saola is almost non-existent as the species is unknown in the traditional Chinese pharmacopoeia. Instead, the animal is snared incidentally in the intense, general pursuit of other species for the medicine and bushmeat trade.<br/><br/>Local subsistence hunting also takes a toll. Saola may be particularly susceptible to being hunted with dogs (Robichaud 1998). The intensity of hunting in the Saola's range is hard to adequately describe, but some figures hint at the enormity of the problem. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 70 million, that of China more than a billion. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000 and papers therein).<br/><br/>The bushmeat trade is more localized, but it is estimated that eight million Viet Namese, i.e., eight million people with the propensity to eat wildlife, live within 100 km of forest inhabited by Saola. It is unlikely that any Saola occur more than 35 km from a village. The pressure from proximal human settlements is so intense that there are no longer core areas in the Saola's range not regularly reached by hunters. Every square kilometre of Viet Namese and Lao forest within Saola range probably has snares capable of capturing Saola set in it every year. Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per square kilometre per year.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction is also a threat to the Saola, forests in their range being cleared for small-scale agricultural use, timber extractions, roads, and hydropower development. However, there continues to be more Saola habitat than there are Saola.<br/><br/>Presumably, the generation time of Saola is greater than three years, and reproductive output is lower than that of muntjacs, Southern Serow or Sambar, putting Saola at a conservation disadvantage. Additionally, pigs, Southern Serow, muntjacs and Sambar retain significant population reservoirs in areas of lower hunting pressure, such as difficult to reach areas of habitats such as dry evergreen forest that are not amenable to Saola. The absence of Saola from such habitats is either an indication of a greatly accelerated rate of decline as compared with other species or an ecological intolerance, neither of which bodes well for the species.<br/><br/>Finally, the bushmeat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are pigs, muntjacs, and civets to be hunted, but Saola will become extinct long before these more common species are hunted out. In Viet Nam, informal interviews with hunters in Pu Huong Nature Reserve revealed that 30 Saola were killed there between 1995 and 2003 (Hoang Xuan Quang and Cat Tien Trung 2004). In some local villages in Viet Nam, hunters used to kill three individuals per year 10 years ago, but now rarely catch any (Do Tuoc, Alexei Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Most hunted specimens have been killed in winter (at least in Viet Nam), when Saola are in more accessible lowland habitats (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR, but there the majority of Saola range lies along the Viet Nam border, and is heavily poached by Viet Namese, and/or coincides with the distribution of the ethnic Hmong in Lao PDR, who avidly and effectively hunt a wide range of wildlife, including Saola. These forests are as nearly devoid of large mammals as forests in Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Economic development and expanding wealth in the region are likely increasing rather than decreasing the demand for wildlife medicines and bushmeat. Development projects in the region commonly cite poverty as a principal cause of biodiversity loss, but the main threat in the Saola's range, at least for the mid-term, is increasing wealth in its range countries and in China. Wealth, not poverty, is the principal driver of the wildlife trade.<br/><br/>The recent construction through the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam of the Ho Chi Minh Road, parallel to and with branches to the Lao border, is a severe and probably unmitigatable new threat. It directly affects Saola subpopulations by forest fragmentation and increased human access for hunting and forest clearance in several critical areas.<br/><br/>Saola have proved difficult (thus far impossible) to maintain in captivity (Robichaud 1998). Approximately 20 Saola, at least, have been captured in Viet Nam and Lao PDR, and all died shortly afterwards, with exception of two released back into the wild (Stone 2006).<br/><br/>Protected area management has been largely ineffective in the Saola's range and existing and new protected areas offer little hope for conservation of the species. Protected areas have proved particularly impotent in the control of poaching or as a mechanism to safeguard areas from economic development. Protected areas in the region are commonly the site of hydropower projects, road construction, and mining. As yet there has been no demonstration of effective anti-hunting measures in any area in the range of Saola, nor are any likely to become effective within the next five years, at best.<br/><br/>Although specific trade demand for Saola has been low, it could be increasing as the species grows rarer. In 2000, horns marketed as belonging to the rare Saola were offered for sale in Hanoi, Viet Nam for US$600 (Alexei Abramov pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Human population growth in the Saola's range is high, both from births and in-migration, which will intensify the  threats to the species.<br/><br/>Efforts to initiate Saola conservation activities in Lao PDR have received little government support, and in some cases have been actively blocked. The reasons for this are not clear, but may be due to fear of slowing logging and hydropower development.<br/><br/>In summary, intense hunting and a multitude of exacerbating pressures on Saola are increasing and evidence indicates that the species, which is naturally uncommon and localized, is in a major decline. The trend is likely to result in the extinction of Saola in the foreseeable future.
18598		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
18598		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east and central Bolivia, northeast Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, Sante Fe; Pardiñas <em>et al.</em>, in litt.), and west Paraguay, to east Brazil (Pernambuco) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
18598		habitat	eng	This rodent is confined to lowland areas with strong seasonal rainfall characterized by palm savannas and thorn scrub (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is found in humid and dry environments (Carmignotto pers. comm.).
18598		population	eng	This species is uncommon in areas that have been surveyed with high trapping effort (Carmignotto pers. comm.). It may be difficult to catch - or rare.
18598		threats	eng	There are no major threats, however, some populations are effected by habitat destruction and fragmentation (Percequillo pers. comm.).
18599		conservation	eng	Full survey work is needed to confirm the species is actually extinct.<br/><br/>This fish has been listed in The Red Data Book of Kazakhstan since 1978. Protected areas need to be established in those sites where remnant populations might still exist. Some genomic material has been cryopreserved: live specimens should be collected and propagated in order to preserve more of its genome (Red List of Kazakhstan). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.
18599		distribution	eng	The Syr-darya Shovelnose Sturgeon is an endemic of the Syr Darya River, and is found in the middle and lower reaches from the Kara Darya River downstream (Birstein 1997, Red List of Khazakstan 1996).
18599		habitat	eng	Little information is available. Adults were benthophagous feeding mostly on midge larvae and spawning took place during late April (Birstein 1997). The generation length for this species is unknown, but it is estimated to be between 8 to 10 years (Chebanov pers. comm.). The species is thought to be able to feed in the Aral sea (historically) but is adapted to live in freshwater (Bemis and Kynard 1997).
18599		population	eng	There have been no reports of the species since the 1960s, and it is believed to be probably extinct. Surveys have been undertaken (Kazakhstan fisheries surveys), and though the data is not accessible, it is believed that it has not been recorded since the 1960s.
18599		threats	eng	The Aral Sea has shrunk by more than 60% from 1973 to 2000 (NASA 2008) and is now hypersaline, and contains no fishes apart from in a small reservoir in the northeast of the Sea. The Syr Darya River has not reached the sea since 1975 due to large levels of water extraction and damming (Zholdasova 1997). Agricultural pollution has also impacted the quality of the water.
18600		conservation	eng	Part of the species' range is within a nature reserve (Amu Darya Nature Reserve). During the carrying out of the recovery plan for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span>, it will be possible to make an estimation of the status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hermanni</span>. More survey work is needed to determine the status of the population (Birstein 1997). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.
18600		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Amu Darya River (middle and lower reaches) (Birstein 1997).
18600		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of the Small Amu-dar Shovelnose Sturgeon are practically unknown (FAO 2009). Adults are benthophagous, feeding mostly on midge larvae. This species may possibly hybridize with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span> (Birstein 1997).
18600		population	eng	This species is very rare; in April 1996 three specimens were caught for the first time in the last 15 years (Birstein 1997). However, there are current unconfirmed reports of local fishermen (poachers) catching the species.
18600		threats	eng	In the past, the Amu Darya River entered the Aral Sea near the town of Muynak (Amu Darya River delta) but since 1982, due to dams and water extraction (primarily for irrigation), the river has not reached the Sea (Birstein 1997, Zholdasova 1997). There are also high levels of water pollution recorded from the Amu Darya River due to mineral fertilizers, pesticides for cotton agriculture and the disposal of drainage waste, with the highest level of pollution in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, though between 1989-1990 a decrease in pesticide content in the Amu-Darya water was noticed (Zholdasova 1997).<br/><br/>Poaching is a threat to the remaining population.
18601		conservation	eng	An aquaculture project is currently being developed (by Moscow Zoo), with the aim of stocking. Part of the species distribution is within the Amu Darya nature reserve. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>There is a critical need to survey the species from both the Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan sides of the river, as more information is needed.
18601		distribution	eng	The Large Shovelnose Sturgeon is endemic to the middle reaches of the Amu Darya River. Presently, there are two populations: one in the Vakhsh River (tributary to the Amu Darya), and the second in the middle reaches of the Amu Darya, within a region between the two towns of Kerki and Chardzhou (it is not found below Chardzhou) (Zholdasova 1997, Birstein 1997). <br/><br/>Historically, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span> was distributed along the river from the upper reaches (Pyandzh River) to the delta. In the early 1990s, only a few individuals were recorded in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River (Zholdasova 1997).
18601		habitat	eng	According to Birstein (1997) and Zholdasova (1997) the species occurs in the shallow, muddy waters of rivers with fast flowing turbulent current, with sandy or stony-pebble substrate at a depth of 1.0–1.5 m in highly turbulent muddy water. Although it is a freshwater species, the Shovelnose Sturgeon can tolerate some salinity, as it was found in the nearmouth area of the Aral Sea. It feeds mainly on small fish, with insect larvae forming the rest of the diet. Reproduction occurs in late March to early May at a water temperature of 14-16 <sup>o</sup>C. Males become mature at 5-7 years, and females at 6-8 years. Intervals between spawning periods possibly last 4-5 years.&#160; Historically, this species easily hybridized with the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudoscaphirhynchus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hermanni</span>. <br/><br/>The species generation length is estimated to be 10 years.<br/><br/>The size and weight of individuals in the population has declined. In the past, the maximum size was 75 cm and maximum weight was 2 kg; in 1965-1966, the average body length was 37 cm and the average weight, 241 g; in 1989-1991, length was 23.6 cm on average, and the weight 100.2 g on average (Zholdasova 1997) . <br/><br/>Age structure of the population has also declined. In the 1960s, the majority of individuals were between 3-6 years&#160; (varied from 1+ to 14+) and in the late 1980s, the predominance was of young individuals (1-6 years), particularly 3-year- (36.8%) and 4-year-old individuals (41.6%). The rate of linear growth has also slowed down compared with the 1960s due to a change in diet (proportion of fish in the species diet has declined) (Zholdasova 1997).
18601		population	eng	The major part of the Large Shovelnose Sturgeon population was located in the foothill and valley areas of the river, concentrated around the villages of Kerki-Chardzhou-Ildzhik in the upper and middle reaches of the river, where they supported a commercial fishery in the 1930s. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span> was also numerous in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River. In the late 1970s, Large Shovelnose Sturgeon juveniles constituted up to 26% of all young fish in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River (Zholdasova 1997).<br/><br/>According to Zholdasova (1997), the Large Shovelnose Sturgeon continues to reproduce in the Amu Darya River, however the rate of reproduction of the population is very low. In 1991, only two one-year-old juveniles were collected (along with a single late embryo) in the low reaches of the river; in 1993 three similar-sized individuals were collected in the Ordybai Channel of the Amu Darya River delta and one near the town of Nukus in the Kattyagar irrigation channel. This occurrence of the species in its former habitats (lower reaches of the Amu Darya River) is probably due to a significant volume and stable downstream flow which occurred in 1993, as during the mid-1990s the mean discharge in the Amu Darya River was 3.7 times higher than during the previous decade. Also, there has been a decline in the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the region, mostly due to economic problems (Zholdasova 1997).
18601		threats	eng	In the past, the Amu Darya River entered the Aral Sea near the town of Muynak (Amu Darya River delta), but since 1982, due to dams and water extraction (primarily for irrigation), the river has not reached the sea (Birstein 1997, Zholdasova 1997). There are also high levels of water pollution recorded from the Amu Darya River due to mineral fertilizers, pesticides for cotton agriculture and the disposal of drainage waste, with the highest level of pollution in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, though between 1989-1990 a decrease in pesticide content in the Amu Darya water was noticed (Zholdasova 1997). <br/><br/>The Large Shovelnose Sturgeon occurs exclusively in fast-running turbid waters. It is thought that the low levels of water in the Amu Daryr from the middle 1970s until the late 1980s decreased the flow velocity and the size of river beds, preventing migration of Shovelnose Sturgeon from the middle to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River (Zholdasova 1997).
18605		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it exists in the Southwest National Park in Tasmania (Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005). Further research into the population demographics of this species is suggested as these data are currently lacking. It is recommended that this species be monitored to ensure that no new threats are causing declines.
18605		distribution	eng	This species is known from the caves Persephone Pot and Bauhaus, in Precipitous Bluff, Tasmania, Australia (Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005). It also potentially occurs in surrounding cave passages of the same system (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 15 km<sup>2</sup>.
18605		habitat	eng	This species is found in a 'narrow, slow flowing stream' within a cave (Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005). The preferred substrate is 'cobbles, gravel and silt' (Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005).
18605		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18605		threats	eng	This species exists in a very remote area of Tasmania, where only cavers and bushwalkers may visit occasionally (Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005).
18653		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
18653		distribution	eng	The greater musky fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs widely, except in the Batanes/Babuyan and Palawan Faunal Regions. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Caluya, Camiguin, Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Albay, Aurora, Batangas, Benguet, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Ilin (Gonzalez), Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Mountain province, Nueva Viscaya, Pampanga, Quezon, Quirino, Rizal, Sorsogon, Tarlac, and Zambales ), Marinduque, Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Polillo Islands, Samar, Sanga-sanga, Semirara, Siargao, Sibay, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tablas and Ticao (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006) (Alcala and Alviola 1970; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2005). Its elevational range is 0-1,950 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2005).
18653		habitat	eng	This frugivorous tree and cave roosting species which occurs from sea level to at least 1,950 m is abundant in primary forest and common in secondary forest. <em>P. jagor</em>i is occasionally present in agricultural areas near forest and has been found in degraded habitats on Cebu and Negros; elsewhere it has been recorded from urban areas, including the suburbs of Manila and the campus of the University of the Philippines (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2008).
18653		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species with large populations which are generally stable, being most common in lowland forest, uncommon in montane forest, and usually absent in mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Ingle 1992, 1993; Lepiten 1995; Mudar and Allen 1986; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). This was the second most frequently netted species during a 2001 study of three Department of Environment and Natural Resources managed reforestation sites on Siquijor Island (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished paper). In a 2003 mist-net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Ptenochirus jagori</em> was uncommon in lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished report).
18653		threats	eng	This species has no doubt declined due to forest loss, but overall it remains common and is not significantly threatened.
18654		conservation	eng	<em>P. minor</em> occurs in some protected areas.
18654		distribution	eng	The lesser musky fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Mindanao faunal region. Records are from Biliran, Bohol (R. Pamaong pers. comm. 2006), Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Bukidnon, Cotabato,  Davao del Sur, and Misamis Occidental provinces, though it probably occurs throughout the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.)), and Samar (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006, R. Gomez pers. comm. 2007) (Yoshiyuki 1979; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). A record from Palawan (Yoshiyuki 1979) is almost certainly erroneous (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,600 m asl.
18654		habitat	eng	Found in lowland and montane forest and secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) <em>P. minor</em> does not occur in agricultural or urban areas (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It apparently coexists at upper elevations with Ptenochirus jagori (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In a 2002 mist net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Ptenochirus minor</em> was uncommon in lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished report).
18654		population	eng	It is common in primary lowland and montane forest and sometimes present in mossy forest, and can also be common in lightly degraded secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). It is often misidentified as <em>Ptenochirus jagori</em>.
18654		threats	eng	Whilst populations have declined due to destruction of lowland forest habitat, they are still considered to be common and widespread (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Overall, this species has clearly declined because of habitat loss, but it is not significantly threatened, especially as it can adapt to some secondary habitats.
18655		conservation	eng	Not known to be present in any protected areas; it may occur within Ravilevu Nature Reserve. More study needed regarding threats, population size, and to assess its possible presence on Vanua Levu.
18655		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the summit region of Des Voeux Peak on the island of Taveuni, Fiji.  It has been captured between 1,010 m and 1,190 m asl, on a single mountain on the island of Taveuni. The mountain is called Koroturanga by the Fijians. The range is likely to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Palmeirim pers. comm.). It might also be present at high elevations on the island of Vanua Levu (in the east, on Mt. Delaikoro), although further surveys are needed to confirm its presence (Flannery 1995). Currently only the Taveuni location is recognized.
18655		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to mossy tropical forest above 900 m in elevation. There is very little known about the biology of this species. The bat weighs about 250 grams.
18655		population	eng	Few specimens have been captured. Population size unknown, but is found in a very restricted range. Likely a few hundred individuals (under 1,000).
18655		threats	eng	This species seems to have a very restricted range and appears to be restricted to a specific habitat type. It is not known if there are any threats to the species at present, although there is a continuing decline in habitat on Taveuni.
18656		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect any remaining populations of this rare species.
18656		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and Choiseul (Solomon Islands) (Parnaby 2002; Helgen 2005; Pikacha 2008). The overall range is recorded as sea level to 1,900 m; most animals are found in the upland areas. The species might also occur on Ysabel, but this requires confirmation (Helgen 2005).
18656		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about the habitat requirements of this species. Flannery (1995) suggests that it is likely that it inhabits mature tropical forest (preferntially high elevation mossy forest).
18656		population	eng	This is a rare species. While it has not been recorded since 1968 on Bougainville; the species was recorded from Choiseul in 1995 (Helgen 2005) and then again sometime between 2005-2006 (Pikacha 2008). The overall population has declined significantly since the 1960s. This species was not recorded over a three year period 2002-2005 in lowland areas of eastern Bougainville despite attempts to acquire information from residents of the area (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18656		threats	eng	This species is believed to have declined through the conversion of forests to agricultural land, and increased hunting pressure in parts of its range. It seems completely reliant on mature forest, primarily in upland areas. This species is sometimes hunted by burning the trees in which they roost (to smoke them out of hollows), thus capturing individuals and also destroying roost sites. Civil tensions in Bougainville from 1987 till 2000 likely resulted in an increase in hunting pressure (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18657		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect any remaining populations of this rare species.
18657		distribution	eng	This species is restricted mainly to the island of Guadacanal, and known from New Georgia, both in the Solomon Islands. The single specimen recorded from Santa Isabel has recently been identified as <em>P. flanneryi</em> (Helgen 2005). The species is known from 0-400 meters, but it likely occurs to 1,000 m asl.
18657		habitat	eng	There is little-known about the habitat and ecology of this species. Flannery (1995) observed animals feeding upon unripe mangos in an old garden. The species is probably dependent on undisturbed, old growth forests, and seems to roost in tree hollows. Its roosting habits likely render it subject to similar hunting and roost destruction threats faced by <em>P. anceps</em> on Bougainville (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18657		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered (Flannery 1995). It was last collected on New Georgia in 1975. Extensive surveys on other fruit bats in New Georgia in the late 1980s and early 1990s failed to detect this species.
18657		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest clearance and hunting.
18658		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas. Survey work on the species is urgently needed to confirm its presence. Studies of the natural history of the species and threats faced by it are also needed.
18658		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected on the southern slopes of Mount Makarakomburu, Guadacanal in the Solomon Islands. It was recorded at 1,230 m asl (elevational range of 1,200-2,448 comes from Helgen 2005).
18658		habitat	eng	Flannery (1995) recorded the habitat at the collection site as being "primary mossy montane forest with emergent <em>Metrosideros</em> and palms, and an abundant understorey of ferns and climbing bamboo" (p. 242). The species is likely restricted to upland areas.
18658		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
18658		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It has a restricted range that could be susceptible to a single threat event. The species likely has specific habitat requirements given the dependence of its congeners on large hollow trees as roosts, and it might also share traits that make these species easily hunted.
18701		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas.
18701		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found on Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
18701		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests, from montane to subalpine zones (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
18701		population	eng	It is not so common, but primarily found at higher elevations so more rarely seen.
18701		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18702		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, in parts of its range where these apply. It is considered Vulnerable at the national level in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Finnish Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture and Ministry of the Environment have published detailed guidelines on how to deal with flying squirrels in forestry. Specific recommendations include protecting known feeding and nesting sites (usually this means that trees surrounding nesting tree will be protected within 30 m, and "corridors" will be saved so that nesting sites are not isolated) (Anon. 2002, 2003, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/>It is listed on the Chinese Red List as Vulnerable A1cd.
18702		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is considered Vulnerable at the national level in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Finnish Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture and Ministry of the Environment have published detailed guidelines on how to deal with flying squirrels in forestry. Specific recommendations include protecting known feeding and nesting sites (usually this means that trees surrounding nesting tree will be protected within 30 m, and "corridors" will be saved so that nesting sites are not isolated) (Anon. 2002, 2003, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in a number of protected areas.
18702		distribution	eng	The Siberian flying squirrel has a wide range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from Finland, Estonia and Latvia eastwards through Russia, Mongolia, northwest China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Sulkava 1999) including the Korean Peninsula and northeast China. It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan). It occurs from sea level up to the tree line (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006), and in northern China it occurs up to 2,500 m asl (Smith and Xie, in press). In Mongolia it occurs in forest habitats including the Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and the western parts of the Mongol Altai Mountain Range.
18702		distribution	eng	The Siberian flying squirrel has a wide range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from Finland, Estonia and Latvia eastwards through Russia to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Sulkava 1999). It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan). It occurs from sea level to the tree line (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
18702		habitat	eng	It prefers mature spruce-dominated forests with a significant proportion of deciduous trees, especially aspen <em>Populus tremula</em>, birch <em>Betula </em>sp. and alder <em>Alnus </em>sp. (Reunanen <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2002). Large deciduous trees are an important source of both food and nest-sites: the flying squirrel feeds primarily on alder and birch catkins in the winter and alder leaves in the summer, and nests in old woodpecker holes or natural cavities in decaying wood.
18702		habitat	eng	It prefers mature spruce-dominated forests with a significant proportion of deciduous trees, especially aspen <em>Populus tremula</em>, birch <em>Betula </em>sp. and alder <em>Alnus </em>sp. (Reunanen <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2002). Large deciduous trees are an important source of both food and nest-sites: the flying squirrel feeds primarily on alder and birch catkins in the winter and alder leaves in the summer, and nests in old woodpecker holes or natural cavities in decaying wood. They are nocturnal and do not hibernate. They are found from lowlands to montane regions (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
18702		population	eng	The species continues to decline in many parts of its range owing to loss of old-growth mixed forests. In Finland, it is still locally quite common but declining everywhere, with detailed local studies showing 20-58% declines over periods of 10-20 years (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hanski 2006). Declines were noted in all parts of Finland; there were no areas where the population was stable or increasing, and declines are predicted to continue in the future (Hanski 2006) A three year census ending in 2005 estimated the Finnish population at 140,000 females (95% confidence limits 134,800-151,300: Hanski 2006).  It has been found at c.50 sites in Estonia (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). In Russia, it is considered widespread but rare in Karelia, and in the Karelian isthmus its status is similar to that of the Finnish population (A. Tikhonov <em>in litt. </em>2006).
18702		population	eng	The species continues to decline in many parts of its range owing to loss of old-growth mixed forests. In Finland, it is still locally quite common but declining everywhere, with detailed local studies showing 20-58% declines over periods of 10-20 years (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hanski 2006). Declines were noted in all parts of Finland; there were no areas where the population was stable or increasing, and declines are predicted to continue in the future (Hanski 2006). A three year census ending in 2005 estimated the Finnish population at 140,000 females (95% confidence limits 134,800-151,300: Hanski 2006).  It has been found at c.50 sites in Estonia (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). In Russia, it is considered widespread but rare in Karelia, and in the Karelian isthmus its status is similar to that of the Finnish population (A. Tikhonov <em>in litt. </em>2006). It is considered to be somewhat more common in the St Petersburg area. It is common on Hokkaido in Japan.
18702		threats	eng	Modern intensive forestry and logging are the major threats to this species (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001). Fragmentation of forests is a particular problem for this species, as flying squirrels are reluctant to cross open areas on the ground. Managed forests also tend to have fewer deciduous trees (which are an essential winter food source), less decaying wood and fewer tree-holes (which are needed for nest-sites). In parts of Russia, it has been estimated that up to 50% of logging is illegal (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). Illegal logging is particularly destructive, as unsustainable practices such as high-grading or 'skimming' are used, meaning that for every ten trees felled only one or two high-quality logs will be used (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002).
18702		threats	eng	Modern intensive forestry and logging are the major threats to this species (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001). Large tracts of mature boreal forest have been felled and replaced by a managed forest landscape that is a mosaic of semi-natural forest, young saplings, and clear-cut patches. Fragmentation of forests is a particular problem for this species, as flying squirrels are reluctant to cross open areas on the ground. Managed forests also tend to have fewer deciduous trees (which are an essential winter food source), less decaying wood and fewer tree-holes (which are needed for nest-sites). In parts of Russia, it has been estimated that up to 50% of logging is illegal (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). Illegal logging is particularly destructive, as unsustainable practices such as high-grading or 'skimming' are used, meaning that for every ten trees felled only one or two high-quality logs will be used (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). The species is also hunted for commercial use of its fur, but this is not considered a major threat at present (Nowak 1991).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, habitat loss caused by selective logging, human-caused fires and natural wildfires in some parts of its range are a threat.
18703		conservation	eng	Parts of its range are contained within well-managed, good condition National Parks.
18703		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (from Selangor and Pahang, to Johore), to Sumatra and Borneo. The potential range on Borneo and in Malay peninsula is probably more extensive than currently mapped. It is also found on the island of Penang (Medway 1983).
18703		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, lives in tree hollows in tall, undisturbed primary forest.
18703		population	eng	According to Bornean and Malay records it is probably a rare species, as it is rarely seen even in primary forest. So, even in optimum habitat it is not abundant. There are probably two relatively secure populations (with not large numbers) in Mt. Kinabalu National Park and in a nearby protected area.
18703		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat degradation because of low elevational range.
18705		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
18705		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout northwest Peru and northern Venezuela to southern Baja California, southern Sonora, and Nuevo León (Mexico); It is also found on Trinidad and the southern Lesser Antilles. The northeastern Brazilian record is erroneous (Simmons 2005).
18705		habitat	eng	This species is an aerial insectivore that feeds on many scarab beetles and moths. This species prefers to roost in damp caves, often with several other species including <em>Pteronutus parnellii</em> and various phyllotomyd bats. This shows a broad tolerance for habitat types; most specimens occur in dry areas. It frequently occurs in dry deciduous thorn forest, but they range into wet evergreen forest. Its distribution may be limited by availability of roost sites. Often forages in open spaces (Eisenberg and Redford 1999, Emmons and Feer 1997, Handley 1976, Reid 1997, J. Molinari pers. comm.).
18705		population	eng	It is locally common to abundant (Emmons and Feer 1997).
18705		threats	eng	No major threats. In Brazil and possibly other areas the species may be locally threatened due to cave destruction for limestone production (Tavares pers. comm.).
18706		conservation	eng	Occurs in a protected areas throughout its range. Protect the caves. In Mexico is listed as subjected to special protection by SEMARNAT (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
18706		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout south Veracruz (Mexico) south to Peru, northeast and central Brazil, Bolivia, and Guyana (Simmons, 2005). Also occurs in Colombia and Venezuela.
18706		habitat	eng	This species is an aerial insectivore that feeds on many scarab beetles, as well as other insects. No specific observations have been recorded on this species other than that it generally occurs below 400 m and is stongly associated with montains in tropical wet forest and savannas. It roosts in large caves, often with other species of mormoopid bats (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997).
18706		population	eng	Fairly abundant species (Molinari pers. comm.). Not common on the northern part of their range (Arroyo Cabrales and Miller pers. comm.).
18706		threats	eng	No major threats. Problems in caves, like tourism and mining.
18707		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
18707		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, and Jamaica (Simmons, 2005).
18707		habitat	eng	This bat is present at low to moderate elevations wherever appropriate roost caves are found. It is considered an obligate cavedwelling species. Like other Mormoopids, it is insectivorous. The species has been taken in association with nine caves on the island (Fincham 1997). Nets were placed covering one of the entrances, capturing bats as they entered and exited the cave. The flight of bats began about 7:30 PM. There is not information about its reproduction; however, apparently it breeds annulment, probably in late winter (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
18707		population	eng	Abundant in Cuba. Not so common in Jamaica (Mancina, 2005). Extinct in New Providence (Bahamas) (Turvey pers. comm.).
18707		threats	eng	Habitat loss, guano extraction, tourism.
18708		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
18708		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central, and South America, and the Caribbean. This bat ranges from Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Brazil, Guianas, Suriname, and Venezuela to S Sonora and S Tamaulipas (Mexico); Cuba; Jamaica; Puerto Rico; Hispaniola; St. Vincent; Trinidad and Tobago; Margarita Isl (Venezuela); La Gonave Isl (Haiti) (Simmons 2005). It inhabits at lowlands elevation, below 2,200 m (Reid, 1997), but in Venezuela it occur below 500 m (Handley, 1976).<br/><br/>.
18708		habitat	eng	It Venezuela the species generally lives in moist areas but tolerates both multistratal evergreen forest and dry deciduous forest (Handley, 1976), in middle elevations and in disturbed areas (Reid, 1997). Roost in caves and mines; it favors large caverns, but smaller roosts, possibly including hollow trees, are also used (Reid, 1997), and may co-occur with other species of mormoopids and phyllostomids (Herd, 1983). Activity begins at sunset (Baterman and Vaughan, 1974), although maximum movement can occur two hours later (Bonaccorso, 1979). Individuals remain active for 5 to 7 hours, then return to the day roost. Some may be active again shortly before dawn. Forest trails are often used as flyways or foraging areas; streams and creeks are seldom used. A medium-sized bat flying fast and straight along a forest trail is most likely to be of this common and widespread species (Whitaker and Findley, 1980). It feeds primarily on moths and beetles; other types of insects and some seeds have also been found in fecal material; insects are found by echolocation, but the echolocation pulse is unique in that the major portion of the call in not frequency modulated (Eisenberg, 1989).
18708		population	eng	Common to abundant in all types of lowland forest (Reid, 1997); rare in Ecuador.
18708		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
18709		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
18709		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia,Venezuela, Guyana and Surinam to south Sonora and south Tamaulipas (Mexico); it also is found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005).
18709		habitat	eng	This species is low flying aerial insectivore that feeds on many scarab beetles, as well as other insects. It generally occurs below 400 m and is stongly associated with montains in tropical wet forest and savannas. It roosts in large caves, often with other species of mormoopid bats (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997 and Molinari pers. comm.). Also collected in secondary forests and deciduous forests (Eisenberg, 1989).
18709		population	eng	The species is not rare though is difficult to collect, less common than other species in the genus (Molinari pers. comm.). It seems to be more abundant in areas with water (Miller pers. comm.).
18709		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
18710		conservation	eng	Found in Protected areas.
18710		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005).
18710		habitat	eng	This species roosts during the day in deep recesses of hot caves, where it form roosting aggregations containing thousands of individuals (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Genoways <em>et al</em>. 2005). An estimative of 140,000 bats of this species roosts in Cucaracha Cave, Puerto Rico (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005). A cave occupied by this bat usually shelters two to five other species. It is insectivorous, and apparently is an opportunistic forager to some degree, like many insectivorous bats. Insects from one to seven different orders have been found in stomach or fecal samples of a single bat; moths, flies, and true bugs are taken consistently as well, and wasps and flying ants, which occur in large but unpredictable swarms, are eaten when available. Females generally give birth to a single young; twinning is extremely rare. Pregnant females are found from February through June, with the largest percentage occurring in May, when births begin (Silva-Taboada, 1979; Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
18710		population	eng	It is abundant in Puerto Rico (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
18710		threats	eng	Caves are not protected in Jamaica (Davalos pers. comm.). It is gone for Abaco, Andros and New Providence (Bahamas) (Turvey pers. comm.). Threats on hot caves.
18711		conservation	eng	The giant otter is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), as Endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act and as Endangered under the IUCN Red List.<br/><br/>1) to continue assessment of predator-prey relationships, including conflicts with subsistence and commercial fishermen<br/>2) to evaluate the positive and negative impacts of tourism in different habitats and implement management guidelines in order to maximize the benefits.<br/>3) To encourage the development of a long-term research and conservation project in the Llanos of Venezuela of Colombia<br/>4) To undertake collaborations between field scientists, zoos and genetic laboratories to evaluate the potential use of genetic analysis tools in giant otter research
18711		distribution	eng	P. brasiliensis is endemic to South America. The northern extent of its range occurs near, but does not include, the Caribbean Sea, and the southern extent of its range reaches Argentina, although Argentine and Uruguayan populations are thought to be extinct. The species is not found in Chile. The majority of the animals are found in the Brazilian Amazon and the regions immediately bordering this area (Kruuk 2006).
18711		habitat	eng	The giant otter is the largest of all the 13 otter species and is endemic to the rainforests and wetlands of South America. It is found regionally in portions of the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata River systems. It is known to inhabit large slow-moving rivers, streams, lakes and swamps. In a long-term study in Peru, giant otters were found in most of the river systems in the southeastern part of the country with the exception of those located close to the Andes where the flow gradient is steeper. Studies in Suriname have shown a preference for black water creeks and rivers with sandy or rocky bottoms (Duplaix 1980). The large rivers of the lowland areas with gentle flow and oxbow lakes with high fish densities represent the environment most favored by this group-living species, and areas with gently-sloped riverbanks and dense overhanging vegetation are preferred habitat features. On occasion, giant otters are seen in agricultural canals and reservoirs of small dams, although they prefer gently sloped river banks and secluded areas with overhanging vegetation. The giant otters tend to concentrate in their preferred habitats and territories can be very small (105 ha for a group of 5-8 otters).<br/><br/>The annual life cycle and feeding ecology of P. brasiliensis has been shown to be highly dependent upon the seasonal migrations of prey stock fish populations (Duplaix 1980). The preferred fish diet of P. brasiliensis includes members of the catfish, perch and characin families. When fish abundance is low, it feeds on crustacenas, small snakes and small caiman. <br/><br/>Pteronura brasiliensis lives in family groups of 5-8 individuals. Families have home ranges of 12 sq. km. Members of the family, which include a monogamous pair and several generations of offspring, clear an area along a streamside for living. These areas can be up to 50 sq meters and are usually located near feeding sites. Preparation of the living area includes trampling the surface vegetation, collecting tree limbs and leaves and embedding the leaves and branches into the trampled mud patch. Large burrows are then constructed under fallen logs. In addition, one to five communal latrines are placed along the site perimeter. Finally, the territory is marked by scent from the anal glands. If intruders invade the territory, parents defend it and their offspring.<br/><br/>Although separate territories are maintained, P. brasiliensis is a highly social mammal. Social activities include grooming, hunting, resting and communicating. Pteronura brasiliensis have 9 different vocalizations. The purposes for each of these sounds is undocumented, but vocalizations probably serve as warning signals against predators and/or contact calls.<br/><br/>Gestation is estimated to have 65-70 days and litters range from 1-5 young (average number 2). A great deal of reproductive ecology is known from studies in captivity (Redford and Eisenberg 1992), as well as some long-term studies in Peru focusing on breeding ecology and behavior. P. brasiliensis is a piscivore and preferred prey fish include members of the catfish, perch and characin families. In times of reduced prey fish availability, crustaceans, small caiman, and small snakes are opportunistically consumed (Carter and Rosas 1997).
18711		population	eng	Distribution of the giant otter is patchy throughout its range and many remote areas have not been recently surveyed. The current total wild population is estimated at between 1,000-5,000 individuals (IUCN OSG 2006), but further surveys are required to refine this figure. Current population trends are unknown, but are thought to be declining in many areas due to habitat loss and the effects of gold mining and mercury pollution (N. Duplaix pers. comm. 2007).
18711		threats	eng	The giant otter has very few predators.  Young fall prey to caimans, jaguars, pumas, and fragmentation, and water pollution from mining and agricultural runoff.  Over fishing affects their prey base.  They are being affected by illegal hunting for their pelt, habitat loss and evidences that they are getting affected due to contaminants like Mercury coming from gold mines in their range. Canine and feline distemper and canine parvovirus, all introduced diseases take a heavy toll as well.
18713		conservation	eng	This species, <em>P. admiralitatum</em>, is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need for research on the taxonomy of this species, as well as on its distribution, ecology, and threats.
18713		distribution	eng	<em>P. admiralitatum</em> incorporates what are probably three distinct species. One of the presumed species is found in the Admiralty Islands, Bismarck Archipelago (excluding the St. Matthias Group), and the Eastern Solomon Islands from Buka to Malaita). A record of it from Bougainville Island may not be valid; it likely does occur on the island, but its presence has not been confirmed (there are five specimens from the nearby Carteret group, 90 km northeast of Buka) (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). Another presumed species occurs on the islands of Western Province, Guadalcanal, and Malaita. The third taxon occurs in the Matthias group, on Mussau and Emirau.
18713		habitat	eng	The three taxa have different ecology. The first is a small island specialist, known mainly from below 200 m (a "tramp" species). This is a larger bat, and roosts on branches of trees. The second is found mainly on moderate to larger islands, and ranges from lowland to montane forests. It is found from 400 to 900 m on Malaita (this fist taxon is found also on the same island, but at a lower elevation). This is a smaller bat, and roosts in tree cavities. The third taxon is only known from two islands, and its ecology is unknown. It is the largest of the three species.
18713		population	eng	The first taxon discussed in the distribution section is common, and likely found in large colonies. One colony in East New Britain, however, is known to have completely disappeared between 1996-2002 (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The second taxon is found in smaller colonies. The density and population size of the last species are unknown.
18713		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Presumably it is threatened to some degree in parts of its range by deforestation. This is particularly the case with the second taxon because it is likely to be very susceptible to logging, as it roosts in large trees. Hunting may be a threat to the first, but it is not a major problem. Threats unknown regarding the third taxon.
18714		conservation	eng	Although the species is not directly protected (Tony Hutson pers. comm. 2008), the Aldabra Atoll is a highly protected UNESCO World Heritage site and a Special Reserve under the Seychelles National Parks and Nature Conservancy Act (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991; Hutson 2004). There is a distinct need for additional research into the total population number of this restricted range species and to monitor any changes in abundance (Hutson 2004).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
18714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Aldabra Atoll (approximately 150 km²) in the Seychelles. Bats have been recorded from all main islands and have been observed flying between islands of the atoll (Hutson 2004; von Brandis 2004).
18714		habitat	eng	Groups of these bats have been recorded from dry scrub in the south of the island and dry woodland in the north of the island. Populations have been recorded roosting in Casuarina trees, mangrove stands, coconut and coco plantations (Hutson 2004; von Brandis 2004). Much of the habitat on South Island, that comprises roughly two thirds of Aldabra, is unsuitable for roosting although they can forage in some parts of this island where there is suitable shrubland (Tony Hutson pers. comm. 2008).
18714		population	eng	The population is reported to consist of only a few hundred animals (Cheke and Dahl 1981; Carrol 1985). Hutson (2004) notes that no major colonies were located in 1968, with the largest roosting group on the small lagoon islet of Iles Michel that was probably well under 100 animals. Hutson (2004) suggests that the total population was fewer than 250 animals in 1968, although he considered that the majority of the population may be present on the relatively little explored Middle Island (= Malabar Island) 26 km² in size. von Brandis (2004) reports that large groups of these bats have been recorded in Casuarina trees, with the largest group of more than 100 animals reported at the eastern end of Middle Island (=Malabar Island) in 1995. Conrad Savy (pers. comm. 2008) indicates that the bats were commonly seen in good numbers during 2001. Additional surveys are needed to count and monitor the current population of this restricted range species.
18714		threats	eng	The population is probably stable with no declines reported, however, because of the restricted nature of the species range it is considered to be especially vulnerable to threats such as tropical cyclones and rises in sea level (60% of the atoll is at or below 1 m asl.) (Mikleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991; Hutson 2004; Justin Gerlach pers. comm. 2008).
18715		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in many protected areas. Further surveys of the distribution of this species is needed in New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).
18715		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from eastern Java (Indonesia) (Surapaya; A. Suyanto pers. comm.), through the islands of Sulawesi, Lombok, Sumba, Sava, Salayar, Bawean, and the Kangean Islands (all Indonesia), to the coastal plain and Yule Island of southern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), and is also present in Australia where it ranges from Shark Bay in Western Australia to central New South Wales. It is increasing its range in the south-east of its distribution (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It is also found on the Torres Strait Islands to Boigu Island (Australia) off of New Guinea (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Helgen 2004; L. Hall pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 100 m asl.
18715		habitat	eng	This largely coastal species is found in areas of mangrove and swamp forest, and is sometimes encountered in tropical moist forest or in savannas near water; it is also found in urban environments (Markus <em>et al.</em> 2008). It roosts in large colonies of several hundred to hundreds of thousands of animals (Bonaccorso 1998). Individual animals may forage as far as 50 km from roosting sites. Females annually give birth to a single young.
18715		population	eng	It is generally widespread and common over much of its range, but is apparently uncommon in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998).
18715		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is vulnerable to local hunting for food in parts of its range (e.g., Sulawesi). As this species expands its range southwards it is increasingly exposed to high temperatures events that can lead to high mortality (Markus <em>et al.</em> 2008; Welbergen <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18716		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in the Vatthe Conservation Area. Studies into the taxonomic status of the many subspecies of this species are needed. Further research into the distribution, ecology, and threats to it is needed.
18716		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Vanuatu, and is recorded with certainty from: Vanua Lava, Santa Maria, Mota Lava, Pentecost, Aore, Malakula, Ambrym, Epi, Efate, Erromango, Anatom, Espirito Santo, Maewo, Ureparapara, Malo, Emao, Emae, Lopevi, Tongoa, Nguna, and Aoba. It is possibly extinct on Tana Island. It is a lowland species.
18716		habitat	eng	This may be a partly diurnal species. Animals generally spend the day in small, quiet colonies. It has been found feeding on figs, breadfruit, and coconuts (Flannery 1995). Births are believed to take place in August and September. Individuals are usually seen roosting in small groups, of a few animals, in trees. It does not disperse well, and may not recolonise following extirpation episodes.
18716		population	eng	It is widespread and can be locally common, although it is susceptible to hunting pressure following typhoons.
18716		threats	eng	The species is considered to be vulnerable to local extinctions, most especially because of its apparent limited dispersal capability (Flannery 1995). It is hunted for food, but it generally does not appear to be overexploited, although populations can decline through increased hunting following typhoons (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
18717		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats of this species.<br/>All <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteropus</span> spp. are listed on CITES Appendix II.
18717		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species was originally given as Ambon but based on archival research T. Flannery and K. Helgen believe this specimen comes from Gebe, both of which are islands in Indonesia.
18717		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
18717		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype. The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
18717		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
18718		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Despite extensive surveys so far, further field studies on the Percy Islands and other islands in the region are needed to determine if any remnant populations of this species persist (L. Hall pers. comm.). There is also a need to try to find skeletal remains near old camps, in order to confirm the locality of this specimen (L. Hall pers. comm.). Additional taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of this species.
18718		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen (collected in 1874) from the Percy Islands, Queensland, Australia, and subsequent non-specimen records of a colony (L. Hall pers. comm.). It is not known from which island the specimen originally came.
18718		habitat	eng	There is little known about the habitat requirements of this species.
18718		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype. It was reported as being plentiful at the close of the 19<em>th</em> century (Conder 2008).
18718		threats	eng	It is possible that the species declined because of its vulnerability to habitat loss (Conder 2008).
18719		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; and it is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
18719		distribution	eng	The species is an endemic of Indonesia, and is known from the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, Tidore, and Ternate. Sula, Peleng, and Sangihe island records are erroneous (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988; K. Helgen pers. comm.; Koopman 1993). There is a single record from Sulawesi that is dubious, and there are no other records from this island.
18719		habitat	eng	This species lives in both primary and somewhat disturbed habitats. It probably roosts in small groups and is known to roost in tree hollows. It is probably not dependent on water and occurs from sea level up to 1,630 m asl. Some births are known to take place in November (Flannery 1995).
18719		population	eng	It is rarely collected throughout its range.
18719		threats	eng	Hunting and deforestation due to expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats to this species. This species is particularly sensitive to deforestation as it relies on older trees for hollows.
18720		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Manusela National Park. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex. Further surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
18720		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Maluku Islands, Ambon, Buru, Seram, and small islands east of Seram in Indonesia. A Sangihe Island record is erroneous (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988). It is found below 250 m asl.
18720		habitat	eng	It is largely dependent on intact forest, but on Obi it was also collected while feeding in a garden, and several others when roosting in a Sago palm. It has also been collected from disturbed forest. It probably occurs in small groups.
18720		population	eng	This species has been rarely collected, but probably it is not uncommon. It was definitely detected more often in the 19th century than in recent surveys.
18720		threats	eng	Deforestation due to clearcut logging and agricultural expansion is a major threat, and hunting may also be a problem as it is a large and distinctive bat.
18721		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present within a number of protected areas. Ongoing monitoring of Australian populations is needed.
18721		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Obi, Misool, and Gebe), it is present on Salawati Island (Indonesia), Biak and Yapen islands (Indonesia), coastal areas of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and is found in Australia where it ranges patchily from Cape York to coastal central Queensland between MacKay and Rockhampton (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998), with the main population in the Wet Tropics (B. Thomson pers. comm.). It is found from sea level to 200 m asl.
18721		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland swamp, mangrove, and tropical moist forest habitats (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been recorded in both primary and disturbed areas. Females annually give birth to a single young.
18721		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
18721		threats	eng	It is threatened on New Guinea by logging of suitable coastal habitats, and the species is eaten (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). In Australia it is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of coastal and upland forest to crops (e.g., sugar), pastureland, and urban development (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Loss of moist forest habitat overall in its range has been up to 80% (B. Thomson pers. comm.). It is known to raid orchards and large numbers are electrocuted and shot in orchards and at colonies (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also threatened by mortality through infestation with paralysis tick, disturbance of maternity colonies, and collision with barbed-wire fences and power lines (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18722		conservation	eng	The species was included in Appendix II of CITES in 1990. In Japan, <em>dasymallus</em> and <em>daitoensis</em> have been designated as Natural Monuments and the latter also as a Domestic Endangered Species. <em>P. d. daitoensis</em> and <em>P. d. dasymallus</em> are listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007). In the Red List of China it is considered Endangered.
18722		distribution	eng	This species is found in Taiwan, Japan and the Philippines. In the Philippines, it occurs in the small northern islands of Batan, Dalupiri, and Fuga, but it probably also occurs on other nearby islands, although not on Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Japan, it is found on the Osumi Islands (Kuchinoerabu), Tokara Islands (Nakano, Taira, Akuseki, Takara), Okinawa Islands, Yaeyama Islands (+ Aragusuku) and Miyako Islands (Tarama, Irabu, Miyako), Yaeyama Islands (Ishigaki, Taketomi, Kohama, Iriomote, Hateruma, Kuro, Hatoma, and Yonaguni), and Daito Islands.
18722		habitat	eng	This is a forest species with a diet consisting mainly of figs. In Japan they roost throughout the islands, and have also been seen in urban areas, where they have planted the same fruiting trees that this bat prefers as a food source. It rests during the day either alone or in small groups hanging from the branches of trees.
18722		population	eng	The Philippines population probably comprises the largest number of individuals (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In the Philippines, the species is reported to be common in forest where it is known to occur; however, the extent of its range has not been determined and there are knowledge gaps regarding its population status elsewhere (Ingle and Heaney 1992; Utzurrum 1992; Ross pers. comm.). There is no evidence that the population is in significant decline within the Philippines.<br/>In Japan, the populations on Daito (<em>P. d. daitoensis</em>) are estimated to number more than 300; those on Kuchinoerabujima, Takarajima, Nakanoshima and Akusekijima number less than 200 individuals (<em>P. d. dasymallus</em>). There are no precise population estimates for the other subspecies, but the population size of <em>yayeyamae</em> is likely to be a few thousands and that of <em>orii</em> over 5,000.<br/>There have been large reductions in the populations of Taiwan, and some possible local extinctions.
18722		threats	eng	There is some hunting of the Philippines populations. It is facing substantial threat from hunting on Babuyan Claro, where it is a favoured delicacy amongst locals. However, it does not appear to be hunted in Dalupiri because of the lack of air guns in the community (Oliveros <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>In Japan, habitat loss remains a problem on most islands, although on some islands (Miyako and Daito islands), populations have been increasing as the bats have been recolonizing areas where fruiting trees have been planted in urban areas. Farmers have been placing nets over the top of citrus crops (in order to avoid damage by the fruit bats and birds), with the result that some bats have been accidentally trapped. Several animals have been electrocuted on power cables on the Daito Islands.<br/>In Taiwan it has been hunted for food in the past, and populations have been reduced to the point that it is considered threatened.
18723		conservation	eng	Although it is rare, this species has not been accorded conservation priority by the local or National Government. It is currently is categorized as vermin and placed under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protected) Act, 1972 amended 2004. It has been recorded within some protected areas. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Long term studies on ecology and habitat and population monitoring are urgently required. There is also a distinct need to determine the movement patterns of this species, specifically whether animals can move between the six known island locations. Awareness and lobbying to accord special protection to this endemic species is emphasised.
18723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Nicobar islands, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) and is presently known from six islands in the group (Nancowry, Teressa, Comorta, Bompuka, Katchal, Trinkat totaling an area of 580.3 km²) of 14 islands recently surveyed (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). At present it is not known if the species can move between the six islands in its range, or whether it is highly fragmented (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008) It has been recorded up to an elevation of 200 m asl. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,500 km² calculated based on the distance between the islands, and the area of occupancy is a maximum of 580 km² and is likely to be considerably less than this.
18723		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical evergreen forests, roosts in wild arecanut palms and has been reported to feed on fruits of silk cotton (<em>Bombax</em> species) (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). Unlike many similar species, it generally roosts as solitary animals. The species forages in the sub canopy to avoid interaction with the larger <em>P. melanotus</em> (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003).
18723		population	eng	It is very rare compared to other Pteropus <em>sp.</em> on these islands (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). It is probable that the species is now extinct from the type locality of Car Nicobar (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003).
18723		threats	eng	The major threat to this taxon is habitat loss (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) due to selective clearing of forests (S.P. Vijaykumar pers. comm. 12 December 2007). This species is hunted on several islands for medicinal purposes, as it is believed to cure asthma (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). It is occasionally locally kept as pet (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). Although the tsunami event of December 2004 could have affected the species habitat, this needs further study (S. Molur pers. comm. December 2007).
18724		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not believed to be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species.
18724		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is restricted to the islands of Mota and Vanua Lava, in the Banks Group of Vanuatu. It is a lowland species.
18724		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this species. It is present in lowlands, often secondary/disturbed tropical forest. This species has been collected in village plantations and gardens. It is a small species of fruit bat. It is likely to roost in small groups or individually, possibly in trees or foliage (K. Helgen and S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18724		population	eng	It is probably not an uncommon species (based on available specimens) (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
18724		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range. It is threatened by hunting for food (K. Helgen and S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The species could additionally be threatened in the future by severe habitat loss (i.e., complete loss of trees). Stochastic events could threaten this restricted range species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
18725		conservation	eng	This is one of the most persecuted fruit bats in South Asia, and is listed as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from a few protected areas in India like Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, Palamau Tiger Reserve and Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary in Jharkhand, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, Molem National Park in Goa, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Chilka (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa and Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Population monitoring is needed to establish major threats and overall declines, if any (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
18725		distribution	eng	This species is largely found in South Asia, but also occurs in adjacent China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is widely distributed from Bangladesh (Barisal, Dhaka, Rajashahi and Sylhet divisions), Bhutan (Chhukha and Samtse areas), India (Andhra Pradesh, Andaman Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Maldives (Addu Atoll, Ari, Haddunmatti, Mulaku and Nilandu South), Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal), Pakistan (Northwest Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind) to Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,000 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from Qinghai (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is present in western Myanmar with Cambodian records being apparently erroneous (Kock 2000).
18725		habitat	eng	This species roosts in large colonies of hundreds to thousands of individuals on large trees in rural and urban areas, close to agricultural fields, ponds and by the side of roads (S. Molur, Project PteroCount). It feeds on a wide variety of fruits and flowers, both wild and cultivated. A single young is born between April to early June (Bates and Harrison 1997). It travels long distances, up to 150 km to and from its roost, a night in search of fleshy berries. Colonies usually have a permanent roost with one or two temporary roosts that individuals shift to depending on season and other unknown factors (S. Molur, Project PteroCount).
18725		population	eng	Common and widespread throughout its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
18725		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. This species is assumed to be locally threatened by cutting down of roosting trees because of road expansion or other purposes. The species is also hunted in several locations for meat and for medicine (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2007 pers. comm., C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). New roosts have been observed, but the impact of roost disturbance and felling is not known, and the impact of hunting is also not understood. Surveys of local people at more than 30 roost sites indicate a steady decline in roosting populations (Venkatesan 2007, S. Molur pers. comm.). In parts of its range, some deforestation seems to help this species as it has occupied areas of the Western Ghats once the vegetation was disturbed (S. Molur and P. Molur pers. comm.; Ryley, 1916).
18726		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Studies are urgently needed into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species. Surveys in the Nakanai Mountains would be particularly useful.
18726		distribution	eng	The species is known from only three records on New Britain and New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. The holotype was collected in the Whiteman Mountains of West New Britain, at 1,600 m asl. Another specimen was collected from Mu village in East New Britain (5 deg 19 min, 152 deg, 08 min); the third was in the HansMeyer Range, (approximately 4 deg 18 min, 152 deg, 54 min). Records of the species range from 200 to 2,300 meters asl.
18726		habitat	eng	This species is believed to inhabit mature tropical forest (known elevation 200 to 2,300 meters). May roost solitarily or in small groups.
18726		population	eng	The species is known only from three specimens.
18726		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It may have a restricted range. Widespread clearing of lowland forest could affect upland habitat. Hunting is probably not a threat.
18727		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
18727		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Timor, Samao Island, Dyampea Island, Bonerato Island, Saleyer Island, Paternoster Islands, Pelang Island, Sulawesi, and Banda Islands in Indonesia. It may also be found in Flores (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It does not occur in the Philippines as it sometimes suggested in the literature.
18727		habitat	eng	On Timor it has been seen in coastal forests roosting in small groups or alone (Goodwin, 1979).
18727		population	eng	Population status and trends of this species are unknown.
18727		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
18728		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species.
18728		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Ontong Java Atoll in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). Ontong Java Atoll consists of some 50 tiny vegetated islands present around the atoll ring 50 km to the south of Nukumanu (Papua New Guinea) and 250 km north of Santa Isabel Solomon Islands. There are unconfirmed reports of occurrence of Pteropus on Nukumanu. If present, <em>P. howensis</em> likely moves throughout these Java Ontong islands and possibly also to Nukumanu. Nukumanu can be reached periodically by cargo ship from Buka but not by air, once your there you could be waiting months for the next ship to get back to Buka (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18728		habitat	eng	There is very little information available on the natural history of this species.
18728		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown; it was last collected in 1945, so there are no recent data.
18728		threats	eng	Most of the land surface of Ontong Java Atoll has been converted to coconut production (Flannery 1995), but this may not be a threat. Due to its highly restricted range, it is vulnerable to stochastic events (especially cyclones). The atoll itself is also likely to be subsumed by rising sea levels.
18729		conservation	eng	This is accorded vermin classification under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. This species has been recorded from Barren Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Andaman and Nicobar Island in India. Taxonomic studies, ecology, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended. Awareness needs to be created to mitigate threats to this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species apparently does well in captive-breeding programmes (Bonaccorso 1998).
18729		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, ranging from the Maldives and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) in the west, to Melanesia in the east. In South Asia, this species is restricted to only four locations in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India and Addu Atoll in Maldives (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is found on many offshore islands and in coastal lowlands in the Southeast Asian region, including the Philippines and Indonesia (Sulawesi). In the Philippines it is found throughout the country with the possible except of the Palawan faunal region; records are from: Bohol, Cagayan Sulu, Camotes (Paguntulan pers. comm. 2006) Camiguin, Cebu (Paguntulan pers. comm. 2006) Cuyo, Dinagat, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur, Ilocos Norte, and Nueva Ecija) Mactan, Marinduque, Maripipi, Masbat, Mindanao (Gunther 1897) Negros, Panay (including Boracay and Batbatan), Polillo, Romblon (Timm and Birney 1980), Samar, Siargao, Sibuyan, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) Tablas (Paguntulan pers. comm. 2006). There are few records from mainland Papua New Guinea; the species is also found in the D'Entrecastreaux Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, on Manus in the Admiralty Islands. Records from New Britain and Tabar are questionable (probably P. admiraltatum). It is confirmed only from Mbanika and the Russel Islands in the Solomons. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 100 m asl. It has been recorded from sea level up to 900 m asl in the Philippines; it is primarily found in low elevation areas in Melanesia (under 500 m asl).
18729		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts in large colonies of several individuals and is found in forests, orchards, coconut palm groves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It feeds both on wild and cultivated fruits (Bates and Harrison 1997). In most parts of its range in the Philippines, this species roosts on small offshore islands and near coastlines, but forages on the mainland where it is common in agricultural areas and absent from primary forest (Heideman and Heaney 1992, Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993, Utzurrum 1992). In Melanesia, it is generally an insular species found on small offshore islands. Animals may commute infrequently to larger islands for foraging. It is known to roost in trees, often in large groups at the coastline. It can be found foraging for food in both primary and secondary tropical forest habitats, rural gardens and plantations. The females give birth to a single young which take about one year to reach maturity (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
18729		population	eng	This species is common to abundant throughout its range, and can form colonies of up to 5,000 individuals. The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
18729		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also threatened due to tourism related activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is under heavy hunting pressure in the Philippines, although it may be able to withstand this, at least in the short term, as populations have remained stable. Animals are sold locally for 30-50 Philippine Pesos each Cariño pers. comm. 2006). In Melanesia, the species is locally vulnerable to hunting. Island populations of this species, especially on the coastal islands of northern New Guinea, are vulnerable to overexploitation by hunting for food (Bonaccorso 1998). Threats to this species are unknown in Indonesia.
18730		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Trade restrictions should be enforced. Regular monitoring of known populations should be initiated. Further surveys to identify additional populations, possibly on adjacent islands, are needed. An environmental education and awareness programme should be initiated (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
18730		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of the Chuuk Lagoon and Namonuito Atoll in the Federated States of Micronesia.
18730		habitat	eng	Little information is available on the natural history of this species. A roost of about 1,000 individuals has been recorded in native forest near to the summit of Tol Island (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has been observed feeding on the flowers of the coconut (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
18730		population	eng	It was commonly seen in 1984, and the population was roughly estimated to be around 5,628 animals in 1986. The population declined substantially during the late 1980s through overexploitation for commercial trade on Guam and the Northern Marianas. The population may have recovered after this trade was prohibited in 1989 (G. Wiles pers. comm.). No information is currently available on population size or trend.
18730		threats	eng	This species was severely threatened by overexploitation for the commercial market on the island of Guam and the Northern Marianas. Records indicate that 5,795 animals were exported from Chuuk to Guam between 1978 and 1989, with 3,723 of these animals exported between 1988 and 1989 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Much of the natural habitat of Chuuk has been lost through conversion to agricultural land and plantations (coconut, breadfruit, mangos, and bananas). Recent trends in habitat loss are unknown. The residents of Chuuk do not hunt the bats for local use (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
18731		conservation	eng	<em>P. leucopterus</em> has been included in CITES Appendix II since 1990. It occurs in some protected areas. Research on its distribution, habitat preferences and threats is greatly needed. There is a captive breeding programme for the species at Silliman University, Philippines.
18731		distribution	eng	The white-winged flying fox is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Luzon faunal region and Dinagat. It has been recorded on Luzon (Abra, Benguet (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006), Cagayan, Isabela, Laguna, Nueva Viscaya, Quezon and Tarlac (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) provinces), Catanduanes and Dinagat Islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), occurring at an elevation range from 0-1,100 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).
18731		habitat	eng	It has been reported from primary montane forest on Catanduanes, lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. 1992;  Utzurrum 1992; Heideman <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data), and grassland in Benguet and San Mariano (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). <em>P. leucopterus</em> has recently been found in degraded areas, but it is not known to what extent it is able to persist in such habitats (L.Heaney pers. comm. 2007). This species does not form large conspicuous roosts in trees, but probably lives in small groups in shaded areas; it has a seasonal presence in some areas (Balbalasan) and might be migratory (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In captivity the species breeds once per year (A. Cariño pers. comm. 2006) and sometimes produces two pups (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006).
18731		population	eng	<em>P. leucopterus</em> is a high flying species which is difficult to capture in surveys (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). It is thought to be moderately common, although there are seasonal fluctuations in abundance which might indicate that it is migratory (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991). It has recently been captured in areas of Luzon from which it was not previously known (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). The population trends of this species are poorly known, but the population is likely to have undergone a significant general decline due to habitat destruction (Utzurrum 1992; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
18731		threats	eng	The population status of <em>P. leucopterus</em> is poorly known but it has probably undergone a significant decline due to habitat destruction (Utzurrum 1992, Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) due to agriculture, timber production and expanding human settlements. It is hunted in Benguet province, but the effects of this on the population status of the species there are not known (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).
18732		conservation	eng	A species action plan developed by the NGO Action Comoros is being implemented for this species (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). A national environmental education programme has been implemented to raise awareness of this species (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). National legislation to protect this species is being developed (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005) and work has begun to establish a forest reserve for this bat on Moheli and on evaluating a site for a reserve on Anjouan (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is an active captive-breeding programme underway for this species initiated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Union of the Comoros, where it is only found on the islands of Anjouan and Moheli. On Anjouan, the species avoids lower parts of the island below 300 m asl, but it has been recorded feeding on Moheli at 40 m asl.
18732		habitat	eng	This species roosts on steep-sided valleys with south-east facing slopes, near ridge tops and in areas generally associated with natural vegetation (Granek 2002).  Populations of this bat are largely confined to primary tropical moist forest (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Animals feed on pollen, fruit and leaves, particularly of native <em>Ficus</em> species but also includes kapok (<em>Ceiba pentandra</em>) (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2001; Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
18732		population	eng	In 2002 there were estimated to be 1,200 bats in 20 roosts, many of which have been recently located as a result of the implementation of a national environmental education programme (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). Prior to the national environmental education programme there were estimated to be fewer than 200 bats.
18732		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the continuing degradation of its forest habitat by conversion of land to agricultural use, especially the use of lowland areas for export crops (such as cloves). In degraded forest the species is outcompeted by the bat <em>Pteropus seychellensis</em> (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Tree felling has additionally destroyed a number of roosts (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is also increased disturbance because of human population growth, however, the species is not hunted for food (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). The small remaining population is additionally potentially threatened in its restricted range by the effects of tropical cyclones.
18733		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species occurs in a few protected areas. More research is needed to determine the population status, habitat and ecology, level of utilization and threats to this species.</p>
18733		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor and Timor Islands in Indonesia, and East Timor.
18733		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from a mango plantation (D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm.). Its preferred habitat is most likely lowland tropical forest.
18733		population	eng	There is no information on the population size but it is thought to be not very common.
18733		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by hunting, but more information is needed. Deforestation is occurring within the species' range but it is unknown if it is able to adapt to any habitat modification.
18734		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. There are no known populations within protected areas in Viet Nam (Son Nguyen Truong pers. comm.) or Cambodia. The species is protected by monks in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).</p>
18734		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yunnan in China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending in to Cambodia, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
18734		habitat	eng	Nothing is known from China about the ecology of this species (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). In other areas, it is known to form large colonies in trees that can become stripped of leaves by the bats? activity. It feeds in orchards and is regarded as a serious pest in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It occurs in mangrove forest in Viet Nam (Son Nguyen Truong pers. comm.). This species travels up to 50 km between colonies (S. Bumrugsri pers. comm.).
18734		population	eng	The largest known colony in Thailand is about 3,000 individuals and up to 11 colonies have been identified. There are three known colonies in Viet Nam (Son Nguyen Truong pers. comm.).
18734		threats	eng	In Thailand the species is threatened through loss of roosting habitat, as existing trees die and are not replaced, it is also subject to hunting (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is also threatened in Cambodia by hunting (P. Bates pers. comm.).
18735		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas. The impacts of hunting on this species need further study.
18735		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the lowlands of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on the island of Salawati (Indonesia), and the Aru Islands (Indonesia). It typically occurs below 500 m asl.<br/><br/>Helgen (2004) states that reports of <em>Pteropus macrotis</em> from the Torres Strait Islands of Australia refer to <em>P. scapulatus</em>. This is likely true of specimen records, however, non-specimen reports, including photographs, show that the species is present on Boigu and Saibai Islands (Hall 2008) – both within 10 km of mainland Papua New Guinea.
18735		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of lowland habitat types including both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, monsoon forest, dry forest, savanna woodland, plantations, and rural gardens (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). It is very common in coastal mangroves (T. Leary pers. comm.). The roosting sites appear to be unrecorded. Very little is known about the reproduction of this species.
18735		population	eng	It is fairly abundant over much of its range.
18735		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There is some local hunting for food in parts of its range.
18736		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is probably not found within any protected areas. There should be further research on the impact of habitat degradation on its population size. Population estimates and modelling utilisation data on analog species may be appropriate.
18736		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from the islands of Santa Isabel and Tanabuli in the Solomon Islands and Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). Extensive searches have not recorded populations of this species on other islands in the Solomons group (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from sea level to 200 m asl. The combined area of the four islands is 12,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
18736		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal lowlands in coconut plantations and lowland tropical forest. Animals have been recorded feeding on young coconuts at night. It is not a colony rooster; it roosts individually and in small groups in foliage and small tree hollows.
18736		population	eng	Flannery (1995) reported that it was common on Santa Isabel. It is also common on Bougainville and Buka (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The species has a fairly uniform distribution within appropriate habitat, but not at high density.
18736		threats	eng	There has been widespread habitat alteration due to conversion of mature forest for agriculture (subsistence and commercial coconut plantations) and this continues. Santa Isabel has been logged. The ability of this species to persist in degraded areas is unknown. The species also is hunted opportunistically for food, but it is unknown whether this poses a major threat to the species. Stochastic events might also threaten the species.
18737		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Also, it is now considered a threatened species in Guam under the US Endangered Species Act and the CNMI. It was formerly listed as Endangered on Guam and not listed all in the CNMI (A. Brooke pers. comm.). There is also a recovery plan already for Guam, and a new recovery plan for Guam and the CNMI will be prepared (A. Brooke pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species has been declared locally threatened, and hunting is illegal without a special permit. Hunting regulations should be enforced in Guam and throughout its distribution. The species has been recorded from the Guam National Wildlife Refuge. Measures to control predation by the brown tree snake on remaining populations on Guam are needed. There are ongoing studies into the current distribution and population status of this species. According to a government report, the population fluctuations on the island of Rota are a high priority for research, as are investigation of migration between islands. The species is now listed as threatened throughout the Marianas under the US Endangered Species Act.
18737		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and the Ulithi Atoll (and possibly from nearby atolls) in the Federated States of Micronesia.
18737		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of native tropical forest, coastal strand, and mangroves. Animals roost along cliffs where human disturbance is minimal and there is some protection from winds (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Young have been reported throughout the year (Flannery 1995).
18737		population	eng	This species has declined dramatically in Marianas. Most islands now have relatively few remaining bats. The island of Pagaen (Northern Marianas Islands) possibly has the largest population of this species; about 2,500 animals were present in the early 1980s (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1989), but this is probably more than are present now (A. Brooke pers. comm.). There were estimated to be 8,700 to 9,000 bats remaining on the entire Marianas island chain in 1983 (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1989). <br/><br/>In the Northern Marianas, the population in 2001 was estimated at 6,975 to 7,475 individuals (Johnson 2001). These estimates, however, are out of date and probably too high (A. Brooke pers. comm.). They do not account for the eruption of Anatahan that has killed most bats on that island, and no bats were recorded on Sarigan in 2005. Furthermore, a number of islands in the Northern Marianas were not surveyed by Johnson (A. Brooke pers. comm.). <br/><br/>According to Cruz <em>et al.</em> (2000) between the years 1983 and 2000 there was an 40 percent decrease in the population of fruit bats (the population decreased from 7,000 individuals in 1983 on 6 islands of the Marianas, to about 4,200 in 2000. On the island of Guam, the population is about 100 individuals, and expected to be extirpated within 10 years (A. Brooke pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The population on Ulithi Atoll was small (estimated at about 1,200 bats), but dense, in 1986 (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1990). No assessment has been made since then (G. Wiles pers. comm.).
18737		threats	eng	The species is considered a delicacy on Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands and as a consequence it is illegally hunted. The introduced brown tree snake, <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, has been a major predator on young <em>P. mariannus</em> and has become a great threat to the long-term survival of this species on Guam (reduces recruitment); the snake may also be present on Saipan. The species also has a limited distribution and habitat is threatened by ongoing deforestation for development. It is susceptible to typhoons, which are common in the area.  Volcanic eruptions on Anatahan are a major threat, since regular eruptions cover large portions of the island in ash. Overgrazing by introduced deer, feral pigs, and goats prevents forest regeneration and promotes the invasion of introduced plants on many of the Mariana Islands (G. Wiles pers. comm.). On the island of Guam, overgrazing by deer is a major threat (the deer populations on Guam are among the highest of any ungulate worldwide) (A. Brooke pers. comm.).
18739		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species possibly occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this species, and to determine the current population status, habitats and the impact of present hunting levels.</p>
18739		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central Moluccas (Ambon, Seram, Buru) and adjacent small islands in Indonesia. It is also present in the Kai, Aru, and Tanimbar (also called Timor Laut) island groups. Also thought to have been collected on Sumbawa, located in the middle of the Lesser Sunda Islands (Boadi pers. comm.).
18739		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland tropical forest. It has been found roosting in mango trees in Sumbawa (Boadi pers. comm.) but this record needs to be confirmed.
18739		population	eng	This species has an extremely small population. There have been only three records of this species from the 20th century in the central Moluccan population. A survey of the Tanimbars in the 1990s recorded this species.
18739		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting and habitat loss due to logging and agriculture.
18740		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is currently categorised as vermin under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, however, there is a need to encourage the protection of the globally important Andaman and Nicobar Islands population. It is present in the Campbell Bay protected area on Great Nicobar. On Christmas Island a National Park now covers 63% of the island. Control of invasive species on Christmas Island is necessary. A detailed assessment of conservation status and threats is provided for the Christmas Island population by James <em>et al.</em> (2007). Further population assessments, monitoring and taxonomic studies, and appropriate conservation responses are needed for all remaining populations of this species.</p>
18740		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India (Bompuka, Car Nicobar, Great Nicobar (including Campbell Bay), Kamorta, Katchal, Kondul, Nancowrie, South Sentinel, Tilangchong, Tressa and Trinket Islands [<em>Pteropus melanotus melanotus</em>] and South Andaman and Rutlans Islands [<em>Pteropus melanotus tytleri</em>]) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), the Mentawi Islands (Nias and Enggano [<em>Pteropus melanotus modiglianii</em>]) of Indonesia, and Christmas Island of Australia (<em>Pteropus melanotus natalis</em>). The population on the island of Enggano is now extirpated following a severe typhoon (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It has been recorded form sea level to an elevation of 1,000 m asl.
18740		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts in large colonies consisting of several thousands of individuals in the mangrove vegetation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). Feeds on both wild and cultivated fruit. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997). It has been observed to feed on <em>Bombax</em> spp. and Sterculia spp. (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). On Christmas Island part of the population roosts in large camps at traditional locations and part roosts scattered singly and in small groups through the forest. It was recorded roosting in 11 tree species in December 2005-Feb 2006 (Orchard 2006). Camps are always near the coast (D. J. James pers. comm.). Numbers in camps fluctuate widely, possibly in response to winds that facilitate emergence (D. J. James pers. comm.). They feed on a number of rainforest fruits and flowers; of 26 known species in the diet, 10 are introduced species and at least five of these 10 seem to be very important (Orchard 2006). It is relatively diurnal, emerging from camps well before dusk. Non-flying young have been recorded in December and January (Orchard 2006; D. J. James pers. comm.).
18740		population	eng	Aul and Vijaykumar (2003) report a colony of more than 300 individuals in a mangrove creek on Great Nicobar Island. Aul and Vijaykumar (2003) also counted more than 500 individuals in the mangroves and under Nypa palms on Tillangchong Island in the Nicobars; 10-15 individuals have been recorded from palm fronds on Tillangchong Island, with several pups in this colony in the month of March. There appears to be no information on the current status of the population in the Mentawi Islands. On Christmas Island in 1984 the population was estimated to contain 3,500 individuals in five main camps and a further 2,500 individuals scattered singly or in small groups (Tidemann 1985). The camps were thought to have been historical, dating to before human settlement. By 1989 one more camp had been located, bringing the total to six camps, but only containing a hundred or so extra animals (Tidemann <em>et al</em>. 1993). Duncan <em>et al</em>. (1999) interpreted Tidemann?s population figures as ?less than 10,000 animals?. In 1997-1998, few camps could be found and these contained few individuals (P. Meek, via L. Lumsden pers. comm.). In August 2002 only 17 Individuals were recorded during 26 field days of a general fauna survey, and the population was loosely estimated to be in the order of 500 to 1,000 individuals (Corbett <em>et al. </em>2003). In April 2004 only one of the original five known camps could be found, and in November 2004 that camp contained 299 individuals (D. J. James pers. comm.). In December 2005, two of the six colonies once known were active but extensive searches for additional colonies were not successful. Counts in these two colonies from January to March 2006 varied between 14 and 500 individuals, apparently in response to local wind conditions. The number of bats roosting away from camps has not been estimated accurately, but is likely to be less than the number in camps; nocturnal surveys reveal wide distribution of foraging animals. The entire population was unlikely to number more than 1,000 individuals in March 2006 (Orchard 2006; D. J. James pers. comm.). In September 2006, there was a count of 1,381 individuals on Christmas Island (James <em>et al</em>. 2007).
18740		threats	eng	In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural purposes. It is also threatened due to tourism related developmental activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), and from overhunting at daytime roosts, as the bones are crushed and used as asthma medicine (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). These bats are kept as pets on Car Nicobar, Kamorta, Katchal, Pulo Milo and Trinket Islands. The December 2004 tsunami is likely to have damaged the mangrove habitat of this species, however, further research is needed to confirm that the species has declined because of this event. The population on the Indonesian island of Enggano may have been wiped out by a hurricane, although this needs to be confirmed, and while threats to the species on Nias are not known, they presumably include general habitat loss. It is preyed on by feral cats on Christmas Island, and there has also been some hunting, including large numbers (up to 200), in the past, however, there is no recent evidence of hunting in this part of the species range (D. J. James pers. comm.). Corbett <em>et al.</em> (2003) hypothesised that a severe cyclone in 1988 initiated the decline in the Christmas Island population. However, other anecdotal evidence indicates that the decline began in the mid 1990?s (Orchard 2006). The Yellow Crazy Ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> has caused general ecological breakdown on Christmas Island since the late 1990?s (O?Dowd <em>et al.</em> 2003). Disease (speculative) may be a factor. Threats to the Christmas Island population have proven difficult to identify, and are likely to be a combination of factors (Orchard 2006). James <em>et al.</em> (2007), provide a detailed account of possible threats to the species including, predation or disturbance by both, or either, introduced and native species; predation and/or persecution by humans (mostly formerly); loss of habitat; storm events; accidental poisoning; light pollution; and disease and parasites. James <em>et al</em>. (2007), also give a 'threat assessment matrix' indicating the likelihood of each potential threat.
18741		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES, effectively prohibiting international trade in this species since 1989. Field studies are needed to determine the current status of populations throughout the species range. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected. It is found in the Pohnpei Watershed Forest Reserve and Ant Atoll Conservation Area.
18741		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Federated States of Micronesia where it has been recorded from the islands of Pohnpei, Ant Atoll, and Pakin Atoll. The species has also been recorded from the Mortlock Islands (holotype of the synonym <em>Pteropus breviceps</em>) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992), however, this record is now considered erroneous (D. Buden pers. comm.). Recent surveys of the Mortlocks did not detect its presence (D. Buden pers. comm.).
18741		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in areas of native tropical forest. It feeds upon the fruit of Pandanus and endemic palms (<em>Clinostigma</em> spp.), and flowers of kapok trees (<em>Ceiba pentandra</em>) (Flannery 1995). Females give birth to one young at a time.
18741		population	eng	This species was considered to be abundant on Pohnpei and Ant Atoll by Jackson (1962) and a colony of 200 to 300 animals was reported from Sokeh's Rock, Pohnpei in 1981 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has been suggested that significant declines occurred in the 1980s and 1990s (Rainey 1990). However, observations in the late 1990s and continuing to the present suggest the species is again fairly common (G. Wiles and D. Buden pers. comm.). It was described as “fairly common” on Ant Atoll (2 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1994-1995 (Buden 1996a) and as “uncommon” on Pakin Atoll in 1994, where about 100 bats estimated to be present (Buden 1996b).
18741		threats	eng	This species was most significantly threatened by overexploitation for export for the luxury food market in Guam. Wiles (1992) records the export of 15,223 animals from Pohnpei to Guam between 1979 and 1989. International trade in this species was restricted by its listing on CITES Appendix I in 1989. Currently, it may be threatened by habitat loss through conversion of native forest to cultivated land and plantations, especially for kava (<em>Piper methysticum</em>) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Merlin and Raynor 2005).
18742		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. An assessment of hunting pressure is needed, as is a review of recent population declines on parts of the Gazelle Peninsula, East New Britain (Papua New Guinea).
18742		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and the Raja Ampat islands (Indonesia) (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). There is one record from Thursday Island in Australia (L. Hall pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level to 1,400 m asl.
18742		habitat	eng	This species is highly gregarious and roosts of several thousand individuals have been observed in tree crowns. It has been recorded foraging in a number of tropical forest habitats, and presumably also occurs in rural gardens and other areas with fruiting food trees. Female gives birth to a single young.
18742		population	eng	It is generally common and abundant.
18742		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It could be threatened by localized hunting for food over much of its range (especially in western East Sepik). In New Britain only small colonies of less than a hundred animals have been observed in recent and heavily disturbed areas; there is no evidence of any large camps remaining. The effects of reductions in colony sizes in New Britain render the species more susceptible to hunting here than elsewhere in its range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The species was reported to be rare on the island of Manus (Papua New Guinea) in 1985, possibly because of the effects of a mobilivirus outbreak. Animals appeared to be recovering slowly in 1988 (Flannery 1995a; Bonaccorso 1998).
18743		conservation	eng	It became a protected species in 1993 on Mauritius (Nyhagen <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is reported to occur in protected areas, including the Black River Gorges National Park (Nyhagen 2004), nature reserves and mountain reserves. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.  There is a clear need to assess the population size, population dynamics, response to cyclones, assess relative fruit predation, roosting habitat requirements and impact of culling on this species and effectiveness of netting trees to prevent foraging.
18743		distribution	eng	Since becoming extirpated from Réunion in the early eighteenth century, this species has been restricted to the western Indian Ocean island of Mauritius. In 2007 a small colony of <em>P. niger</em> (up to 6 individuals) was located on Réunion, though a few individuals have been observed on previous occasions over the past decade, most likely blown over from Mauritius by annual cyclones. Breeding within this small population is suspected but not confirmed.
18743		habitat	eng	It is usually found in primary forest or in areas with both native and introduced trees (Nyhagen, <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on a variety of different plants, including both endemic and introduced species (Nyhagen <em>et al.</em> 2005). Over a third of its endemic food plants in a seven month study were listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, but 50% of its diet was from introduced plant species (Nyhagen <em>et al</em>. 2005).
18743		population	eng	The present population on Mauritius appears to be stable; 14 roosting sites were reported by Nyhagen (2004), but a more recent study by Robin (2007) identified 57 roosts. This study only looked at 24 of the 57 roosts and calculated a minimum population size of 12,000-16,000. It can therefore be assumed that the minimum island wide population is over 25,000 (V, Tatayah pers. comm.).<br/><br/>.
18743		threats	eng	Like other <em>Pteropus</em> species in the region, this species is threatened by cyclones, the removal of feeding and roosting trees, and persecution/hunting by people (Carroll and Feistner 1996). Up until recently populations of this species were considered healthy because of the lack of any severe cyclones, and active protection (Nyhagen 2004). In October 2006 the government endorsed a culling programme for 2,000 bats because of their perceived role in inflicting serious economic damage on lychees. This is obviously in conflict with the fact that the species is protected under the Wildlife and National Parks Act 1993. Only six bats were officially culled, despite illegal hunting parties being known to kill up to a few hundred bats in one night. The law is currently being revised and it is unknown whether further culling will be supported, although most likely it will be.
18744		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
18744		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Nendö and Tömotu Neo in the southern Solomon Islands (Leary and Aujare 1994; Flannery 1995). It has one of the most restricted ranges of Pteropus in the Solomon Islands (Leary and Aujare 1994); the range size is about 600 km<sup>2</sup>.
18744		habitat	eng	It roosts singularly and in small groups, but also occasionally in larger groups (sometimes up to 100 or 200 individuals). This species roosts on small islands and mangrove areas, and it forages in primary forest, secondary forest, and gardens (where it is commonly captured). The diet of this species consists of mangrove flowers (<em>Bruguiera gymnorrhiza</em>) and fruits (Leary and Aujare 1994).
18744		population	eng	This species is common (Leary and Aujare 1994).
18744		threats	eng	Garden expansion (subsistence agriculture) is likely to limit the availability of roosting sites. Some degree of hunting is likely to be a threat. The species is vulnerable to population decline due to stochastic events (particularly cyclones).
18745		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is found in Manusela National Park. A protected area needs to be established on Buru to protect the habitat of this species.</p>
18745		distribution	eng	This species is recorded in the Maluku Islands from Buru, Ambon and Seram islands in Indonesia. There were four localities on three islands historically, and now it is probably absent from Ambon.
18745		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs only in old growth forest.
18745		population	eng	This species has only been collected four times. The most recent collection was in 1993, but there have been no recent surveys.
18745		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting and deforestation for logging and expanding agriculture.
18746		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Local wildlife legislation prohibits the commercial trade in fruit bats and provides a lengthy closed season to hunting. There is a need to further enforce this legislation. Further surveys are needed to identify and protect important sites and habitat for this species. Ongoing studies into its population numbers and trends, degree of utilisation, current status, and ecology are being conducted by IAC (Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien) (Brescia 2007).
18746		distribution	eng	The Ornate Flying Fox is endemic to New Caledonia where it has been recorded from the islands of Lifou, Maré, and New Caledonia (Flannery 1995). It appears to range from sea level to around 1,066 m asl. (Sanborn and Nicholson 1950, as referenced in Flannery 1995).
18746		habitat	eng	This species formerly roosted in large numbers in trees. It is believed to forage nocturnally and have a strong fidelity to roost sites (Flannery 1995; Brescia 2007). Roosts have been recorded at the upper end of dense tropical moist forest growing in gullies on slopes (Flannery 1995). It appears as though the species does not breed until its second year, after which females give birth to a single young.
18746		population	eng	This species was once considered to be common. The number of Ornate Flying Foxes, however, has dramatically declined over the last 50 years due to over-hunting, including local commercial harvesting (Brescia 2007). Flannery (1995) reports that its numbers were also drastically reduced in the 1960s by the spread of a disease.
18746		threats	eng	The main threat to the survival of this species appears to be local hunting for food and traditional use. Legislation providing a short fruit bat hunting season is in place (the hunting season only includes the weekends of April, with a quota of 5 bats per hunter), however, reports of substantial illegal hunting and commercial harvesting of fruit bats is widespread (Brescia 2007).
18747		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas.   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18747		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the North Molluca Islands (Halmahera and Obi island groups) and the island of Gag in Indonesia. Records from Sulawesi are in error (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).
18747		habitat	eng	It is caught abundantly on shrubs in the understorey of clove garden (Boadi pers. comm.).
18747		population	eng	This species is moderately abundant.
18747		threats	eng	This species is hunted, but at present it does not appear to be at a level that is threatening the species.
18749		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
18749		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Palau.
18749		habitat	eng	There are no records available concerning the natural history of this species.
18749		population	eng	It is known from only two specimens collected prior to 1874.
18749		threats	eng	The specific causes of the extinction of <em>Pteropus pilosus</em> are unknown. Hunting for food by local people may have been a contributing factor as well as the degradation of native forest habitat (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).
18750		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from some reserves, however, these are not considered to be well protected.
18750		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to west Papuan islands of Numfoor, Rani, and Yapen (all to Indonesia).
18750		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both primary tropical forest and disturbed forest. It has been recorded from beaches and offshore islands. Flannery (1995) mentions the capture of an individual in a rural garden. This is a foliage rooster, likely in groups and sometimes on offshore islands (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
18750		population	eng	It is moderately common.
18750		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting for food, and general forest clearance for timber.
18751		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present within a number of protected areas, however, none of these contain all of the conditions needed to maintain viable populations (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further studies are needed into the population status and trends of this species, demographics, and population structure, in order to understand movement patterns (notably for recolonisation), define habitat requirements relative to protected areas (especially in winter/spring habitat), and to develop cost-effective methods of protecting fruit crops from this species (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species breeds well in captivity (Strahan 1995). Education is needed to reduce negative public attitudes to this species. There is also a need for an assessment and reduction of any threats from power lines, barbed wire fences, and netting. There is a draft Recovery Plan for this species (Eby and Lunney 2006).
18751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland, through eastern New South Wales to Victoria. There has been a contraction of the northern extent of the range in recent years (by 500 km in past 100 years), and an increase in the numbers in the south, with increasing permanent colonies (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
18751		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical moist forest, open forest, closed and open woodlands, Melaleuca swamps, Banksia woodlands, mangroves, and commercial fruit plantations. It also occurs in urban areas where suitable foraging and roosting habitat are available. The primary food source are the flowers of Eucalyptus, Banksia, Melaleuca species, plus rainforest fruits. It roosts in colonies in patches of trees and dense vegetation. Females generally give birth to a single young (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; D. Lunney pers. comm.). Generation length is likely to be around six or seven years (A. Divljan pers. comm.).
18751		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population is declining throughout the range except in Victoria where the species is increasing in numbers (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Surveys across the range showed declines of over 30% since 1990, and these declines were predicted continue in the future due to habitat loss (Eby and Lunney 2006).
18751		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of foraging and roosting habitat, largely through clearance of native vegetation for agriculture and forestry operations plus urban development (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species requires multiple, dispersed populations of food trees (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The winter and early spring range of this species is limited to a narrow-coastal strip in Queensland and New South Wales that is targeted for residential development, and this is the primary threat (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Eby and Lunney 2002). <br/><br/>It is a pest of commercial fruit trees in parts of its range and animals are directly killed under license in orchards in New South Wales and Queensland; there is also likely to be unlicensed killing (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008; D. Lunney pers. comm.). The species is believed to be threatened by competition and hybridisation with <em>Pteropus alecto</em>, which has expanded southward at the same time as the range of <em>P. poliocephalus</em> has been reduced in the north (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; G. Richards pers. comm.). The rapid rate of expansion range extension by <em>P. alecto</em> (by 500 km from 1990 to 2006) is of particular concern (P. Eby pers. comm.). It is additionally threatened by pollutants in urban areas and potentially by a number of viral pathogens (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).
18752		conservation	eng	This species was designated as a Natural Monument in 1969 under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties and capture without permission (including hunting) is prohibited. Minami-Iwo and Kita-Iwo are protected islands and they have no human inhabitants. There is a military base on Iwo. A National Wildlife Protection Area that includes the species'  habitat was established in 1980. This species is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) on the Japanese Red List (2007)  . It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18752		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ogasawara Islands in Japan, with records from Chichi-jima, Haha-jima, Kita-Iwo-jima, Iwo and Minami-Iwo-jima (Abe, <em>et al.</em> 2005).
18752		habitat	eng	It is found in forest habitats. They feed in orchards on the northern two islands, and are known to cause crop damage.
18752		population	eng	On Chichi-jima, the species was considered extinct during the 1970s, but they were rediscovered in 1986, and have been slowly increasing. <br/><br/>In March 2006 it was estimated that 100-150 individuals live on Chichi-jima and less than 50 individuals on Haha-jima. The islands of Kita-iwo-jima, Minami-iwo-jima, and Iwo-jima are very hard to access, so there is not enough data for population estimates. In 2001, the survey on Kita-iwo-jima directly observed 25 individuals and it was estimated that in total no more than 50 individuals live on this island. The last survey on Minami-Iwo-jima was conducted in 1982, and the population was estimated to be no more than 100 individuals (Ishii, 1982). On Iwo-jima, there are photos of this species on the island taken in 2004, although no survey on population size was conducted. The population size appears to be <br/>very small because of the low frequency of observational records. Conducting surveys on Iwo-jima is very hard, because of the topography and because it is a military base. Based on the above information, it is estimated that the population size is 300 individuals or less (Masako Izawa pers. comm.).
18752		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are deforestation, disturbance at roost sites by tourists and construction activities on the two northernmost islands, and accidental mortality in nets placed around trees to prevent damage to fruit (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). Feral cats and dogs may also be a threat.<br/><br/>The islands had been occupied by the United States from the end of the Second World War until 1968, during which time the bats were hunted for export.
18753		conservation	eng	<em>P. pumilis</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Habitat conservation and control of over-harvesting are important conservation priorities.
18753		distribution	eng	The little golden mantled flying fox occurs in the Philippines and Miangas (Palmas) Island in Indonesia (between the Talaud Islands and Mindanao). In the Philippines it is widespread excluding the Batanes/Babuyan, Luzon and Palawan faunal regions with records from Balut, Camiguin, Leyte, Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Zamboanga del Sur), Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Sibuyan, Siquijor, and Tablas where it occurs at an elevation range from sea level to 1,110 m and rarely to 1,250 m (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). There are unverified Philippine records from Cebu and Camotes (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006) and Tawi-Tawi (S. Ramalya pers. comm. 2006).
18753		habitat	eng	<em>P. pumilus</em> is associated with primary and well-developed secondary lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) and is uncommon outside of forest although on Cebu a roosting site has been recorded from a scrubland area. This species breeds once annually (A. Cariño pers. comm. 2006).
18753		population	eng	This flying fox is most common on small islands and uncommon to rare on larger islands (Heaney 1984; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998;  Heideman and Heaney 1989; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Utzurrum 1992), its roosts are usually inconspicuous (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). It is considered abundant on Camigium and moderately common on Negros (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). A single individual was netted during 144 hrs of mist netting in Salagdoong during a 2001 study of three Department of Environment and Natural Resources managed reforestation sites on Siquijor Island (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished paper). During a study of 12 sites over a period spanning 1999 to 2003, 12 individuals were captured at six sites (Cariño 2004). Populations have declined in the past due to habitat degradation and destruction and it is predicted to continue to decline due to further habitat destruction and hunting pressure.
18753		threats	eng	<em>P. pumilus</em> is declining due to habitat destruction, and it may continue to do so, although it does remain fairly widespread. An ethnobiological study has shown the species to be under heavy hunting pressure on Mindoro (H. Garcia pers. comm. 2006) and it is subject to hunting on Negros (Cariño <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is anticipated that hunting will cause further population declines. It might also be subject to persecution.
18754		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Field studies are needed to determine the current status of populations throughout the species' range. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and possibly protected. It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas (T. Leary pers. comm.).
18754		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Bougainville and Buka of Papua New Guinea, and is found on the Solomon Islands of Choiseul, Arnavon (S. Hamilton and T. Leary pers. comm.), Vella Lavella, Shortland, Simbo, Ghizo, Kolombangara, Mono, New Georgia, Santa Isabel, Guadacanal and Malaita (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded from sea level to 700 m asl.
18754		habitat	eng	This species often roosts in large colonies, but has also been recorded as roosting singly in tall trees in secondary forest, and exceptionally in caves. It has been recorded from mature and secondary tropical forest, mangroves, and coconut plantations. Animals have been found feeding on Malay Apple flowers and captured in coconut groves. The species is estimated to have a generation time of five to six years (S. Hamilton and T. Leary pers. comm.).
18754		population	eng	This species is common on a number of islands in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). The species is also fairly common on Bougainville and Buka. There were 5 observed colonies on the eastern coast of Bougainville during 2002-2005, a previously reported large colony in the vicinity of Arawa has now disappeared (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18754		threats	eng	There were major die-offs of populations of this species on Bougainville and Buka in the 1980s; the cause is unknown, but it may have been related to disease or environmental factors such as temperature increase. There continue to be reports of periodic die-offs of large numbers of individuals (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). Bonaccorso (1998) considered the ongoing and rapid logging of the Solomon Islands to be a significant threat. Flannery (1995) reported that it was heavily hunted for food in some areas, but remained relatively common. Targeted hunting at roosting sites may be a major threat to the species (approximately 10,000 bats may be harvested per year on Bougainville; S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The human population on Bougainville and Buka is estimated at 200,000 people, and could potentially lead to an increase in opportunistic hunting. Cyclones and other storms may have a significant impact on this species. The population on Malaita Island was decimated by a cyclone in the 1990s (Flannery 1995). The islands of Isabel, Choiseul and New Georgia have, and continue to be, heavily logged, and the island of Malaita has the highest human population in the Solomon Islands (T. Leary pers. comm.). Some animals are hunted for their teeth, but this is probably not a major concern (T. Leary pers. comm.).
18755		conservation	eng	A successful captive breeding programme for this species was initiated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, with breeding populations of this bat now maintained at 28 zoos around the world (Powell and Wehnelt 2003). In-situ conservation efforts have concentrated on restoration of the natural habitat, watershed protection and awareness raising among the local people through environmental education programmes (Powell and Wehnelt 2003; Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005).   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18755		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the western Indian Ocean island of Rodrigues (Mauritius). It was historically present on the island of Mauritius and Round Island (Mauritius), but is now extirpated from here. It appears to range up to around 200 m asl.
18755		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with forested areas, and can be found roosting in remaining patches of both primary and secondary forest. Tamarind trees are an important food source, but it also feeds on a variety of different fruits (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
18755		population	eng	Until around 1916 the species was reported to be abundant on Rodrigues, and even in 1955 large numbers (about 500) still roosted in tamarinds (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). In 1965 there were fewer bats but the species was still common. There was a marked decline in the 1970's, and following Cyclone Celine II 1979, the population was reduced to around 70 bats. By 1980 the population had recovered to between 200 and 250 animals (Carroll and Mace 1988), and at the end of February 1990 the population was estimated to be greater than 1,000 bats (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Recently the population had recovered to around 5,076 bats (Powell and Wehnelt 2003), however, the impact of cyclone Kalunde in March 2003 appears to have reduced the population to around 4,000 animals (Anon. 2006).
18755		threats	eng	Deforestation has been a serious threat to the species, especially where mature fruit trees and important roost trees were felled. Because of the deforestation of this forest buffer, any remaining patches of forest (and their roosting bats), are now much more susceptible to tropical cyclones. These cyclones can cause significant fluctuations in bat population size and, along with shortage of food and dehydration, are now the major current threat to the species (Powell and Wehnelt 2003). In the past the species was also hunted for food, however, this is now rare (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005).
18756		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II and is a game species under Malagasy law (Durbin 2007) but neither of these provide any practical <em>in situ</em> conservation measures (Racey <em>et al.</em> in press). There are a few roosts in protected areas, notably Parc National Kirindy-Mité, Parc National de Masoala, Parc National de Mananara-nord (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003) and Berenty Private Reserve (Long 2002), but many of the existing parks and reserves appear to be without roosting colonies (e.g. Goodman 1996, 1999; Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2002; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Schmid and Alonso 2005). The ongoing process to triple the surface of protected areas in Madagascar is providing an unprecedented opportunity to include traditional roosts in the new conservation sites. There is also significant scope for local institutions to conserve roosts and this is already occurring in some parts of Madagascar where the bats use sacred forests (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007b) or where communities have created social contracts to protect the bats (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a).
18756		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar (Simmons 2005). It is one of the most widespread bat species on the island and appears to only be absent from the highly populated central highlands (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). The highest density of roost sites is  in coastal regions, especially from Morombe in the south-west to Antsiranana in the north (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003).
18756		habitat	eng	It roosts in a variety of different tree species where the bats hang on the outermost branches (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Long and Racey 2007). Roosts are very rare inside intact forest and are usually found in forest fragments, small islands or mangroves (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). Occasionally, <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations are also used (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a). The majority of roosts are in small areas of relatively degraded vegetation with a few large trees. Roosting bats are easily disturbed by people and cattle that venture near the roost and colonies readily take flight (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003). Once disturbed the bats may move to an alternative roost site in the vicinity and it appears that each colony requires more than one roost site as a response to disturbance but also maybe to shifting patterns of food availability (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a). This species can survive in heavily modified landscapes through feeding on a mixture of native and introduced plants (Raheriaisena 2005; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Long and Racey 2007). It is known to travel at least 17 km a night between roosting and foraging areas (Long 2002) and may actually regularly travel much further than this.<br/><br/>The diet consists predominantly of fruit juices which are squeezed from fruit in the mouth. Large quantities of seeds are accidentally ingested during feeding and are later dispersed at other foraging sites, during flight or at the roost. There is some evidence that seeds that have passed through the digestive tract of <em>P. rufus</em> incur a fitness advantage through increased germination success (Racey <em>et al</em>. in press). Other plants parts are also consumed, including flowers, nectar and leaves. In the south, nectar from introduced plants is an important dietary component throughout the year (Long and Racey 2007). Some plants have evolved to attract nocturnal mammals like bats as pollinators and <em>P. rufus</em> feeds non-destructively on the nectar of two threatened baobab species (Baum 1995; Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006). Because of its ability to travel long distances and its capability as a seed disperser and pollinato,r <em>P. rufus</em> is widely believed to be a key species in fragmented forest ecosystems (Bollen and Van Elsacker 2002; Bollen <em>et al</em>. 2004).
18756		population	eng	Roosts are conspicuous and noisy but the bats are often tightly clustered making abundance estimates at the larger sites difficult. MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported that colony size ranged from 10 to 5,000 animals with a median of 400. They found that nationally 17.5% of 154 roosts had been abandoned in the last ten years and desertion rates were much higher (70%) in the central highlands. The estimated national population size in 2000 was 300,000 (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003).
18756		threats	eng	There are numerous threats to this species. It is listed as a game species under Malagasy law and can be legally hunted between May and August (Durbin 2007). Only the few roosts that are located in protected areas therefore receive some protection (Racey <em>et al.</em> in press). <em>Pteropus rufus</em> is hunted for food across Madagascar (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003; Rakotondravony 2006; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007; Racey <em>et al</em>. in press) where it is an important subsistence food but also of commercial importance. Although quantitative data on the supply of <em>P. rufus</em> for food and the impact of this harvest on colonies/populations is lacking, there is some evidence that the offtake is locally unsustainable (Racey <em>et al</em>. in press). Hunting occurs at roost sites and where the bats forage, especially when they feed on trees in villages (Jenkins and Racey in press). There is evidence that <em>P. rufus</em> from Ile Sainte Marie is hunted commercially and frozen shipments are sent to the mainland port of Toamasina (Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). The conversion of the forest used by roosting bats into agriculture is another threat to <em>P. rufus</em> and results in the permanent loss of suitable trees which in many cases have been used for decades. <em>Pteropus rufus</em> feeds on a number of cultivated fruits that have a high economic value in rural Madagascar and is often subjected to persecution.
18757		conservation	eng	Samoan Flying Fox is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Continued enforcement of export bans of this species is necessary to aid recovery. Domestic legislation to regulate hunting is needed over all the species' range states. Legal protection is present in some protected areas in Samoa and the National Park of American Samoa, which contains important sites for foraging and roosting (A. Brooke pers. comm.). Local awareness programmes are needed to emphasize the importance of wildlife resources. Key sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Both flying fox species (<em>Pteropus samoensis</em> and <em>Pteropus tonganus</em>) are still under a hunting ban in American Samoa, however, this legislation is temporary (A. Brooke pers. comm.). There is a ban on hunting any bat in American Samoa, but bats are taken for personal consumption as this ban is not widely enforced (A. Brooke pers. comm.). In Fiji, there is a need to assess the distribution (particularly its occurrence in the Lau Group) and to protect native forests (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).
18757		distribution	eng	Samoan Flying Fox is restricted to Fiji, Samoa, and American Samoa. In Fiji it is known from the islands of Vatu Vara, Cicia, Vanua Balavu, Kadavu, Ovalau, Taveuni, Vanua Levu, Viti Levu, and probably occurs on some medium-sized islands in the Lau Group (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Samoa, it has been recorded on the islands of 'Upolu and Savai'i. In American Samoa it has been recorded on Tutuila, Ofu, and Ta'u (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). The species was prehistorically present in Tonga, but was extirpated at the time of Polynesian colonization (Koopman and Steadman 1995).
18757		habitat	eng	Unlike most other pteropodids, this species roosts alone or in small family groups; most often in the forest canopy. It is found in primary tropical moist forest, and less often in agroforest, plantations, and village areas especially when roosting (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). The females are believed to give birth to a single young annually.
18757		population	eng	Samoan Flying Fox appears to be regularly encountered in Fiji and American Samoa. Overall, populations of this species are not large anywhere and may be slowly declining (A. Brooke pers. comm.). The population in American Samoa has been stable since 1996 and was estimated at approximately 900 animals in the late 1990s (Brooke 2001). In Samoa, the populations are scattered, but it is found in all forested areas, while in American Samoa this species can be observed, island-wide (A. Brooke pers. comm.). In Fiji, the species is moderately common in some lowland areas of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). It also occurs on some medium-sized islands, but usually avoids smaller islands.
18757		threats	eng	In Samoa and American Samoa, it is principally threatened by overexploitation and forest clearance (logging and conversion to cultivated land). Populations underwent drastic declines in the 1980s. Commercial hunting of the species largely took place to supply the export demand for fruit bats as a luxury food item in Guam and the Northern Marianas. However, this is no longer a threat to the species, because it was listed on Appendix I of CITES in 1990, and international trade in this species is effectively illegal. Hunting of bats for the domestic market appears to have increased in Samoa and American Samoa since the 1980s, and is still a concern today (A. Brooke pers. comm.). In Fiji, the hunting of this species is only for local consumption and is not a major threat to the species, particularly on large islands (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, if Fijians either begin to hunt flying foxes with guns or to collect for trade the threat of overexploitation could become serious (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Populations throughout the range of this species are susceptible to typhoons and other storm events (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). In the early 1990s, storms diminished populations in Samoa and American Samoa, by destroying food sources and leading to noticeable changes is foraging behaviour and overhunting (Daschbach 1990; Craig <em>et al.</em> 1994; Pierson <em>et al.</em> 1996; Grant <em>et al.</em> 1997).
18758		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in some protected areas.
18758		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western, eastern, and northern Australia (including Boigu and Thursday Islands in the Torres Strait), and is also known from a single collection of four skulls from Western Province, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Helgen 2004; Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008). Vagrants occur to the south of the main range, including to Kangaroo Island. It ranges from sea level to 300 m asl.
18758		habitat	eng	This species is found in sclerophyll woodland, paperbark, bamboo, mangroves, and occasionally in orchards. Also found in ornamental trees (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Roosting sites can contain over a million individuals (Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is a very nomadic species (Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young (Bonaccorso 1998).
18758		population	eng	It is a common species.
18758		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by clearance of suitable forest habitat. The species occasionally damages fruit crops, although it is not a serious pest (Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008).
18759		conservation	eng	A large population (2,000 to 3,000 bats) of this species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park on Mahé, Seychelles (Nicholl and Racey 1981). There is a general need to continue monitoring activities for this species in order to detect any possible declines and to determine if there are any movements between populations. Studies are underway to better determine the taxonomic status of the population of bats from Mafia Island (<em>Pteropus seychellensis comorensis</em>) largely to understand if this population should be recognised at the species level distinct from <em>P. seychellensis</em>. The population of Mafia Island may be threatened, and an assessment of the situation on this island and of the possibilities for the species’ protection there is highly desirable (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18759		distribution	eng	This species is has been recorded from the Seychelles, the Union of the Comoro and Tanzania. In the Seychelles it is present on a number of islands including Mahé, Praslin, La Digue, and Silhouette. Gerlach (2004) mentions that it has recently been recorded roosting on a number of islands where its presence was previously unconfirmed. In the Comoros it is known from the islands of Anjouan, Grand Comore and Moheli. In Tanzania, it is restricted to Mafia island.
18759		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest and coral rag forest. Roosting take place in trees. In addition to native plants the bats also feed on cultivated fruits and are considered a minor nuisance in some areas. It is considered to be an important dispersal agent for some of the native forest trees, including some rare endemics (Gerlach 2004).
18759		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Seychelles, with some colonies consisting of up to 300 individuals. It is very common in villages and towns (Goodman 2007). The population was estimated to be around 10,000 individuals on the Seychelles in 1979, and was believed to be close to this level in 2004 although adequate censuses have not been completed for all islands (Gerlach 2004).
18759		threats	eng	Overall, there currently appear to be no major threats to the species. There is some limited hunting for food on a few islands in the species range (e.g.. Mahé and Praslin in the Seychelles) however, this does not appear to be significantly impacting the population at present. Additional localised threats include mortality through collision with power lines, and possible persecution as a pest of fruit crops.
18760		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further work is needed to determine whether or not this species is valid. If it is, research will be needed onm its distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.</p>
18760		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines and Indonesia. In the Philippines, it is reported from Basilan, Malanipa, the tip of the Zamboanga peninsula on Mindanao (Zamboanga del Sur Province), as well as Sanga-sanga, Sibutu, and Tawi-tawi in the Sulu Islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species is also known from two small islands in Indonesia, off the southeast coast of Borneo, Masalambu Besar (Solombo Besar) and Mata Siri (Java Sea), and from Karakelong in the Talaud Islands (Simmons 2005; K. Helgen pers. comm.). Previous reports from Cebu, Mactan, and Negros in the Philippines were based on subadult Pteropus hypomelanus (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). All reports of the species are from low elevations, up to 800 m asl.
18760		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is virtually unknown, except that they have been recorded to roost in coconut palms (Haribon Project unpublished data). It is likely to be associated with lowland forests, but it is unclear whether or not populations are able to persist in lightly logged forests.
18760		population	eng	There have been no definitive records, confirmed by museum specimens, in over 70 years, but there have been recent reports of several large colonies on Tawi-tawi (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). A project there recorded the species in 2004 but there are still no recent specimens (Haribon Project unpublished data).
18760		threats	eng	Although the species is not hunted for food, they are shot for target practice on Tawi-Tawi (Brooks pers. comm. 2006). It is likely that it is negatively impacted by serious loss of forest, which is ongoing within its range.
18761		conservation	eng	No longer applicable.   This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18761		distribution	eng	This species was previously known from Mauritius and Réunion. It was restricted to elevations of between 1,200 and 1,600 m asl.
18761		habitat	eng	It roosted in trees and was sometimes found in rocks. Its very long and dense fur suggest that it may have had a preference for cool roosting places, such as the higher altitudes in Réunion, and its reported ability to exploit suitably rocky substrates indicate that it was not dependent on forest or even trees for roosting places (Bergmans, 1990).
18761		population	eng	This species is now extinct. It is believed to have become extinct on Mauritius between 1864 and 1873. It is likely to have disappeared from Réunion in the 1860s. It may have lasted a little longer but is now certain to be extinct.  In the 1730s it was common enough to consider for the bat oil trade.
18761		threats	eng	Both deforestation and local hunting are thought to have contributed to the extinction of this species.  It was thought to have lived in hollow trees.
18762		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from Manusela National Park, Seram. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species, the severity of threats to it, and the identification of important roosting and foraging sites.
18762		distribution	eng	This little-known species is restricted to the central Moluccan islands of Buru, Seram, and Ambon (all in Indonesia). It has been recorded at sea level to 1,000 m asl.
18762		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from primary tropical moist forest. It is a foliage rooster, likely not to occur in large colonies (F. Bonaccorso, pers comm.). Generation length of this species is likely to be around 3-5 years (F. Bonaccorso and K. Helgen pers. comm.).
18762		population	eng	It is common in undisturbed primary forest.
18762		threats	eng	Loss of habitat through logging activities and local hunting for food are considered to be threats to this species.
18763		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18763		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Guam. Only three specimens were collected, the last being shot by hunters in 1968. Despite intensive field work on the island’s fruit bats, there have been no confirmed records of the Guam Fruit Bat since that time. There was a possible sighting of the species in the late 1970s (G. Wiles pers. comm.).
18763		habitat	eng	There appears to be little recorded concerning the natural history of this species.
18763		population	eng	This species is considered extinct; there is no information about former abundance.
18763		threats	eng	It was hunted locally as a food source, and this is thought to have been the main factor leading to the demise of the species. The introduction of the predatory Brown Tree Snake (<em>Boiga irregularis</em>) to Guam possibly contributed to the extinction of this species.
18764		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES, effectively prohibiting international trade in this species since 1989. It is protected by domestic legislation or wildlife laws in a few range states (e.g., Fiji), and like all bats, this species is protected by a hunting ban in American Samoa (A. Brooke pers. comm.). Hunting regulations and enforcement are needed still throughout much of the species' range. The species is present in a number of protected areas. Monitoring of declines throughout its range is important and further study of Papua New Guinea populations distribution would be worthwhile.
18764		distribution	eng	This species is the most widespread of the Pacific fruit bats. It ranges from Karkar and Koil islands of Papua New Guinea, southeastwards into the Solomon Islands (Malaita, Makira, Rennell, and Santa Cruz islands), and from here ranges to Vanuatu, New Caledonia (New Caledonia Island and Ouvéa Island), Fiji (widespread), Wallis and Futuna (few old records), Tonga, Samoa, American Samoa, Niué, and the Cook Islands (Mangaia and Rarotonga) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is possible that this species has been introduced to some islands by humans (Flannery 1995).
18764		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in large roosting colonies in large, canopy trees. It has been recorded in tropical moist forest, mangrove forest, and feeding on plantation crops such as banana and papaw (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). Females most commonly give birth to a single young, twins are found occasionally (A. Brooke pers. comm.).
18764		population	eng	It was previously reported to be relatively common in some island groups (e.g., Vanuatu), however, current abundance is unclear for many populations and it is known to have declined in some areas. Colonies can be large, and the species migrates between islands. The population is thought to be declining on the islands of Rarotonga and Mangia. In 2002, surveys estimated 1,730 on Rarotonga and only 78 on Mangia (Cousins and Compton 2005). This species is plentiful and widespread on both large and small Fijian islands, with more than half of the global population attributed to the islands of Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Tonga during 1995, surveys found a robust population of about 6,000 individuals on 14 islands in the Vava’u group (Grant 1998). After cyclone Waka hit the area in 2001, McConkey <em>et al.</em>  (2004)  recorded a decline of more than 80% of bats they had recorded moving between six islands (A. Brooke pers. comm.).
18764		threats	eng	Throughout much of its range this bat species is threatened by overexploitation for food, both for commercial or subsistence purposes. The loss of native forest, including important food trees for the species, to timber and conversion to plantations and cultivated land is a significant threat to the species in many parts of its range. Tropical storms and typhoons, including general increased hunting pressure following a storm, are considerable threats to many populations, most especially small remnant populations. Due to listing on Appendix I of CITES in 1989, there is little commercial hunting of <em>P. tonganus</em> in Polynesia and Micronesia (A. Brooke pers. comm.). However, in Vanuatu this species is sold in restaurants and one hotel advertises bat hunting on its web site (A. Brooke pers. comm.). On the island of Niue, nine months after Cyclone Heta struck in January of 2004, a decrease of 95% was found in relation to surveys conducted in 1998. A legal hunting season continued for the two to four month season following this cyclone, with ammunition being sold by the police department. Later a five year ban on hunting was enacted (Brooke 2004). On the island of Mangia, lack of habitat appears to be the biggest threat. Still, hunting is not restricted and  poses a threat on both Rarotonga or Mangia (Cousins and Compton 2005). Although bats are hunted for personal consumption in Fiji, the lack of development and firearms have protected <em>P. tonganus</em> from the wide-scale hunting of other islands (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Tonga, after cyclone Waka hit the area in 2001, McConkey <em>et al.</em> (2004)  recorded a decline of more than 80% of bats they had recorded moving between 6 islands. Hunting was considered negligible because most of the islands were uninhabited (A. Brooke pers. comm.).
18765		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys urgently needed to confirm the presence of this species.
18765		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Vanikolo in the southern Solomon Islands. The island is 189 km<sup>2</sup>.
18765		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the ecology of this species. Other Pteropus species bear a single young, and have a lifespan that is approximately 8 or 9 years.
18765		population	eng	It is known from few specimens; all probably collected before 1930. Surveys in the early 1990s did not detect this species.
18765		threats	eng	This island was extensively logged in the 1950s and 1960s; there is some regeneration now, and logging has once again been proposed. Opportunistic hunting may be a threat to this species.
18766		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. There is a need to protect important roosting sites for this species, and to regulate any hunting pressure so that populations are sustainably harvested. Regular field surveys and monitoring of known populations should be undertaken. Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species, as Pteropus vampyrus might represent a species complex.</p>
18766		distribution	eng	This species generally ranges through much of continental and insular Southeast Asia. On the mainland, it has been reported from southern Myanmar, southern Viet Nam (possibly southern Cambodia), through much of Peninsular Malaysia to Singapore. The species is found over much of Indonesia, being recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Bangka, the Mentawi Islands (Sipura, North Pagai and South Pagai), the Krakatau Islands, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Savu, the Anamba Islands, the Natuna Islands (Bunguran Besar) and Siantan. It is present on the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and on Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). The species is present throughout the Philippines, except for the Batanes/Babuyan region. There are records from the Philippines islands of Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Cabo, Catanduanes, Culion, Leyte, Guimaras, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, La Union, Quezon [Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006], Tarlac provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces and Bongo Island), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo (Alviola 2000), Tantangan, Dinagat (Gunther 1879) and Romblon (Timm and Birney 1980). In the Philippines it has been recorded from sea level to around 1,250 m asl. Outside of Southeast Asia, there is a report from Shaanxi in China (Smith and Xie 2008), and the species has been reported to be present in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, as there are no voucher based records of this species from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and its presence within India is doubtful and it is not mapped here (C. Srinivasulu and Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 9 September 2007).
18766		habitat	eng	This tree roosting species is tolerant to some habitat disturbance; it occurs in primary, and secondary forest and uses adjacent agricultural areas for feeding (Rabor 1955; Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Sanborn 1953). A study of the species habitat in the Subic Bay area, Luzon, indicated that the species preferred natural forest to disturbed or agricultural areas (T. Mildenstein pers. comm. 2006).
18766		population	eng	In the Philippines, this species formerly occurred in many large colonies, but these are now greatly reduced in size and number (Heideman and Heaney 1989; Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Mudar and Allen 1986; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). The largest colony identified as this species found in Subic Bay (Luzon) contained almost 20,000 individuals (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006). It is a moderately common species on Palawan Island in spite of continuing hunting pressure (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004). On Mindoro, it has been found in Sablayan municipality (Occidental Mindoro province) in mixed colonies of up to 52,000 individuals (Garcia pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, the species has not been recorded from some localities for over 100 years. The largest colonies in Thailand now consist of 3,000 individuals (S. Bumgrunsri pers. comm. 2006). In Sabah (Malaysia) populations have probably undergone a serious decline (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006).
18766		threats	eng	In the Philippines, while hunting for food has resulted in population declines in some areas, the species appears to be able to change roosting locations in order to avoid heavy hunting pressure (Garcia pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, hunting is considered to be the major threat to this species (S. Bumgrunsri pers. comm. 2006), and it seems possible that hunting is also a major threat in other parts of the species range. In addition to overhunting, the species is generally threatened by the loss of lowland forest throughout much of its range, however, it somewhat adaptable to secondary or modified habitats, providing suitable roosting sites are available.
18767		conservation	eng	The New Caledonia flying fox is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Domestic hunting is regulated under local wildlife laws. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. More information is needed regarding the current population numbers, ecology, status of and threats to the species.
18767		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Caledonia (Flannery 1995; Simmons 2005).
18767		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995). It roosts at the entry of caves (Brescia and Borel 2004), or in hollow trees (Boissenin and Brescia 2007).
18767		population	eng	It is rarely observed and there are very few known roost sites (F. Brescia pers. comm.).
18767		threats	eng	The threats to New Caledonia flying fox are unclear. Presumably there is some local hunting for food (it important for local use), and loss of suitable habitat through deforestation.
18768		conservation	eng	Ongoing awareness raising on the importance and uniqueness of the endemic fruit bat, and the need for sustainable hunting, has been undertaken through environmental education programmes (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005; Juma 2007). Income for the local community is being generated through bat related ecotourism activities (Juma 2007). It has been reported from the recently gazetted Ngezi-Vumawimbi Nature Forest Reserve and Msitu Kuu Forest(Pakenham 1984; Juma 2007). Illegal logging and the invasive umbrella tree (<em>Maesopsis eminii</em>), that degrades the habitat of this bat, are being controlled within the Nature Forest Reserve (Juma 2007).   This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
18768		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Pemba in Tanzania, where it occurs at elevations from sea level to 45 m asl.
18768		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from primary forest, secondary forest, undisturbed traditional grave yards and mangroves.  Will roost in several different species of trees, including large examples of non-native trees (such as Mango). According to Pakenham (1984) the species has been recorded roosting on the small islands off Pemba's coast, with bats flying to the mainland at sunset to forage. Seehausen (1990) concluded from interviews with inhabitants of Pemba that the species used to occur in the western parts of the island, which was once covered with rain forest, and not in the eastern, drier parts.
18768		population	eng	In the early 1990's the population of this species appears to have been reduced to a few hundred animals at most (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991). Entwistle and Corp (1997) reported  that in 1997, 94% of the of population was restricted to 10 roosts (of 41 in total) with a total estimate of 4,600 to 5,500 individuals. Entwistle (2001) reported that more recent local participation in survey work had helped to give a more accurate population estimate of ~6,900 bats (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population of bats has continued to increase and by the end of 2006 there were ~19,000 animals (Juma 2007).
18768		threats	eng	Much of the natural forest habitat of this bat has been cleared or severely fragmented. The species has been hunted for food with the use of shotguns replacing traditional methods, resulting in an unsustainable use (Entwistle and Corp 1997). As of 2005, hunting had been reduced but not stopped on Pemba (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). An additional threat is posed by the collision of bats with overhead electric cables.
18769		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas (T. Leary pers. comm.). Further research is needed to confirm the roosting sites of this species, and to determine if it can at all adapt to any secondary habitats (S. Hamilton and T. Leary pers. comm.).
18769		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from the islands of Fauro, Guadacanal, Kerehikapa, Kolombangara, Malaita, Mbanika, New Georgia, Nggela Sule, Pavuvu, Sikopo, Vangunu, and Vella Lavella (Flannery 1995). The species is not known from Bougainville just 12 km from Fauro and with another island stepping stone between them. This provides some evidence that relatively small stretches of water between islands could be barriers to dispersal for some bats in the region. Competitive exclusion from <em>Pteropus mahaganus</em> might also account for the absence of this species on Bougainville and Choiseul (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,230 m asl.
18769		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of habitat types. It has been recorded from lowland gardens, through to mature forest. Animals have been observed feeding on young coconuts, and coconut and kapok flowers. Presumably females give birth to a single young. This species seems likely to roost in old-growth tree hollows (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
18769		population	eng	This species used to be common in the southern and western Solomon Islands (e.g., New Georgia) (Flannery 1995; T. Leary pers. comm.).
18769		threats	eng	Assuming that this species does roost in holes in old-growth forest, deforestation leading to their loss is likely to be a threat to this species. A number of islands within its range (e.g., New Georgia) have been extensively logged. It is possibly threatened to some degree by localised hunting (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
18773		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. There needs to be work to establish the taxonomic validity of this species. If established, there is a need to survey possible areas where the species may occur, including Okinawa and possibly other areas in Southeast Asia. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List.</p>
18773		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three records, all postulated to have been from Okinawa Island (=Nansei-Shoto), Japan in the 19th century (Abe 2005). There are two specimens in the British Natural History Museum, and the whereabouts or existence of the third specimen is unknown. The two known specimens have been speculated to have possibly come from Southeast Asia and not Okinawa, or possibly to have been vagrants on Okinawa (Abe 2005). Therefore, this species is taxonomically uncertain and the existing specimens are of unknown provenance.
18773		habitat	eng	Unknown.
18773		population	eng	Unknown. Known only from three individuals from over a hundred years ago.
18773		threats	eng	Unknown.
18829		distribution	eng	Restricted to large rivers of the Colorado River basin, formerly in the mainstream Colorado River and major tributaries (Gunnison, White, Yampa, Dolores, San Juan, Uncompahgre, Animas, and Green rivers) from Mexico and Arizona to Wyoming. Present distribution is drastically reduced from the original. By the mid-1980s it occurred only in the upper Colorado River basin of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Wyoming; mainly in the Green River in Utah and in the Yampa and Colorado rivers in Colorado and portions of Utah; has not been seen below Glen Canyon Dam since 1968.
18830		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
18832		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
18837		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
18837		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
18837		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It belongs to the trophic group of oral shellers.
18837		population	eng	No information available.
18837		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
18839		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria.
18841		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria.
18847		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include: undertake comprehensive status surveys and develop research program to determine ecology, habitat requirements, population biology, and extent of threats; strengthen existing protected areas management where necessary; in areas where subsistence hunting proves to be a serious threat, seek alternative subsistence schemes or more sustainable harvesting methods; develop conservation education programs and increase law enforcement if necessary. The species occurs in several protected areas across its range; some of these are without management plans and many receive insufficient resources to enable adequate protection.
18847		distribution	eng	This species occupies a discontinuous and probably fragmented range through the montane forests and their limit with the humid grasslands of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.  Exact range is unknown and distributional gaps between records are unresolved.  The only known natural gap is the Maranon dry forest lying in between the Ecuadorian population and the Peruvian population south of the Maranon. The current extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 90,000-130,000 km² and is split between two populations; the southern population <br/>30,000-35,000 km² and the northern population 60,000-95,000 km².
18847		habitat	eng	This species inhabits elfin, cloud and montane forests throughout its distribution, and in humid grasslands above the tree-line mainly by the northern population, between 2,000 and 4,000 m.  It moves in the undergrowth when it is inside forest.  The small size makes the species difficult to detect.
18847		population	eng	Populations in central Peru clearly isolated from populations in Peruvian northern Andes, Ecuador and Colombia. There are new records in the former larger gap between populations; however, the gap still covers the breadth of the Maranon dry forest (Barrio, in prep.).  Given the habitat type covering the gap, there is no expectation that an individual will ever appear there, besides accidentally.
18847		threats	eng	Northern pudu was intensively exploited by local people from the 1950s to early 1980s (Hershkovitz 1982). However, nowadays habitat conversion and predation by domestic dogs are worse threats.
18848		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/>A captive breeding program is currently underway (Concepcion University, Chile) and there are plans to reintroduce animals into three national parks (Toledo pers. comm.). Recommended conservation actions include: initiate coordinated research to examine habitat requirements, food habits, and behavioral ecology; determine impact of feral dogs. Feral dogs are also very significant threats in Argentina. Also, determine effect of introduced wild pigs, whose distribution is greater than that of the pudu; there is 100% overlap of the distribution of wild pigs and pudus and undertake status surveys to establish extent of habitat decline and forest fragmentation; use information to identify priority areas for Southern pudu conservation and develop coordinated program to manage species throughout range; strengthen existing protected areas management; interchange of captive animals among captive breeding programs for self maintenance to reduce inbreeding, genetically manage the international captive population to reduce inbreeding; and conduct research on reproduction, nutrition, and behavior.
18848		distribution	eng	Southern Pudu occurs in southern Chile (from Maule Province as far as the Strait of Magellan) and some adjacent areas of southwestern Argentina from southwest Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes, into southwest Santa Cruz Province (Hershkovitz 1982). The confirmed southern limit in Argentina is south of the National Park Los Acerces in Chubut Province, around 43ºS (Ramilo 2001).
18848		habitat	eng	The Southern Pudu inhabits dense temperate forest, between sea level and 1,700 m, where it browses mainly foliage and shoots (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1973, Hershkovitz 1982). It is also common in disturbed forests, as long as it is not harassed by people and especially dogs. It feeds on new leaves and shoots of native trees, avellanas fruit (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gevuina avellana</span>), many forb species, and flowers (Jimenez pers. comm.). It is solitary, except during the rut, and in spring when young accompany mothers (Hershkovitz 1982).
18848		population	eng	Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals (Ramilo pers. comm., Hershkovitz 1982, MacNamara and Eldridge 1987).
18848		threats	eng	The species is thought to have undergone rapid decline in recent decades as a result of poaching and illegal collecting for zoos and private collections (DSG 1991). Habitat conversion, predation by domestic dogs, and competition with exotic deer and domestic livestock are serious associated threats (Eldridge <em>et al.</em> 1987). In addition, the species is hunted for subsistence use for food and skins, and heavily poached for the captive animal trade (Jimenez pers. comm., Toledo pers. comm.). In Argentina in the last three years there have been a number of road kills of pudus on the internal roads of  the national parks. The increase in the number of roads within the distribution area of the pudu should be considered a threat, not only because of the number of road kills but also because of the interference with normal movements and isolation of populations.
18868		conservation	eng	Included in CITES Appendix II (eastern and Central American subspecies (<em>P. c. coryi, costaricensis</em> and <em>cougar</em>) Appendix I). The species is protected across much of its range, with hunting prohibited in most of Argentina, and all of Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela and Uruguay, and hunting regulations in place in Canada, Mexico, Peru and the United States (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>There is a need for the implementation of programs to mitigate conflict resolution for livestock depredation and to study the real effect of puma vs. jaguar depredation on livestock (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  Puma occasionally kill humans - especially in North America.
18868		distribution	eng	The geographic range of the puma is the largest of any terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), from Canada through the US, Central and South America to the southern tip of Chile.  While the puma is an adaptable cat, being found in every major habitat type of the Americas, including the high Andes (5,800 m in southern Peru: Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), it was eliminated from the entire eastern half of North America within 200 years following European colonization (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  A remnant Endangered subpopulation persists in Florida, and records of pumas in northeastern Canada and the eastern US are on the rise, indicating possible recolonization (M. Kelly pers. comm. 2007).
18868		habitat	eng	The species is found in a broad range of habitats, in all forest types as well as lowland and montane desert.  Several studies have shown that habitat with dense understory vegetation is preferred, however, pumas can live in very open habitats with only a minimum of vegetative cover (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Pumas co-occur with jaguars in much of their Latin American range, and may favor more open habitats than their larger competitor, although both can be found in dense forest (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Pumas are capable of taking large prey, but when available small to medium-sized prey are more important in their diet (in tropical portions of the range).  This is true of wild prey as well as livestock (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  In North America, deer make up 60-80% of the puma's diet, and the mean weight of prey taken is 39-48 kg.  In Florida, however, where deer numbers are low, pumas take smaller prey including feral pigs, raccoons and armadilllos, and deer account for only about 1/3 of the diet (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Home range sizes of pumas vary considerably across their geographic distribution, and the smallest ranges tend to occur in areas where prey densities are high and prey are not migratory (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In North America, home range sizes ranged from 32-1,031 km² (Lindzey <em>et al.</em> 1987).
18868		population	eng	The Canadian population was rougly estimated at 3,500-5,000 and the western US population at 10,000 in the early 1990s (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  The population of Central and South America is likely much higher, although it is unclear how abundant pumas are in the dense rainforest of the Amazon basin (Nowell and Jackson, 1996). The Florida subpopulation, numbering 70-80, is isolated, and has been supplemented by a reintroduction of pumas from Texas (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Brazil it is considered Near Threatened but subspecies outside the Amazon basic are considered VU (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is also considered Near Threatened in Peru (Inrena 2006), Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000) and Colombia (Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006), and Data Deficient (inadequately known) in Chile (CONAMA 2005). <br/><br/>Density estimates include:<br/><br/>Utah, US: 0.3-0.5/100 km² (Hemker <em>et al.</em> 1984)<br/><br/>Idaho, US:  0.77-1.04/100 km² (Laundre and Clark 2003)<br/><br/>Peru: 2.4/100 km² (Janson and Emmons 1990)<br/><br/>Patagonia: 6/100 km² (Franklin <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/><br/>Pantanal 4.4/100 km² (Crawshaw and Quigley unpubl. in Nowell and Jackson 1996)<br/><br/>Belize 2-5/100 km², in Argentina 0.5-0.8/100 km², Bolivia 5-8/100 km² (Kelly <em>et al.</em> in press)<br/><br/>W Mexico 3-5/100 km² (Nunez <em>et al.</em> 1998)
18868		threats	eng	Pumas are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and poaching of their wild prey base.  They are persecuted across their range by retaliatory hunting due to livestock depredation, and due to fear that they pose a threat to human life (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  Pumas have killed a number of people in western Canada and the US in recent years.  Pumas are legally hunted in many western US states, although hunting was banned by popular referendum in California in 1990.  Road kills are the principal cause of mortality in the endangered Florida panther subpopulation, and heavily travelled roads are a major barrier to puma movements and dispersal (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
18875		conservation	eng	Both the Aghia Paraskevi spring and <em>P. hellenicus</em> have been granted protection by law No 67/1981 of the Greek State and official decision of the Phthiotis Prefect. However, the law is not effectively enforced. It is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
18875		distribution	eng	Restricted to an estimated ten separate, deep, isolated pools in the Sperchios River catchment in Central Greece: the Aghia Paraskevi spring, and a system of drainage and irrigation canals and a small number of natural wells in the areas of Lycochoria and Valtos and near the village of Kompotades.
18875		habitat	eng	Lives in springs and drainage and irrigation systems with cool springs or slow-running waters with rich vegetation. The water temperature never exceeds 20°C in summer. Its present location appears to provide the only remaining suitable habitat where it can survive.
18875		population	eng	Decreasing.
18875		threats	eng	Water extraction (some springs have been completely capped for water extraction), and pollution.
18877		conservation	eng	No information.
18877		distribution	eng	Lower course of rivers draining to northern shore of Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, Danube drainage as far upstream as Belgrade; isolated populations in Axios and Aliakmon drainages (Greece). Also in Lower and middle reaches of Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya, Sary-su River, Lower Chu River; headwaters of Ob' river (Nura River, Kurgal'dzhin Lake). In 1980s invaded Ishim River (tributary of Irtysh) and spread downstream to Ust'-Ishim and Tyumen' Province in Russia
18877		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Swamps and slow-flowing streams with dense vegetation; occasionally enters brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Spawns in spring when temperature reaches 17°C. Territorial during spawning season. Males build a nest made of filamentous algae and submerged plants, with a separate entrance and exit. Males guard nest until the young swim away a few weeks later. Females lay about 90 eggs.
18877		population	eng	Abundant.
18877		threats	eng	No major threats known.
18878		conservation	eng	No information.
18878		distribution	eng	Coastal areas of northern Europe, from Netherlands to northern Russia, including southern Norway and Baltic basin. Widespread inland in eastern Scandinavia. In north eastern Europe in rivers of White Sea and Barents Sea from Onega to Kara, extends eastward to Siberia and Japan, but it remains to be demonstrated that East Asian populations are conspecific with European ones.
18878		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small freshwater streams and ponds, with dense aquatic vegetation. Enters brackish water along shores of Baltic and Barents Seas, rarely along North Sea shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Individuals born in early spring may mature in 3 months and spawn the same year. Territorial during spawning season, in March-September in central Europe, June-July in Arctic areas. Males build a tube-shaped nest anchored on aquatic vegetation or to the bottom, with a separate entrance and exit. The nest is made of pieces of plants or filamentous algae. Males guard nest from spawning until larvae swim away a few weeks later. Eggs hatch in 6-7 days. Feeds predominantly on aquatic invertebrates.
18878		population	eng	Abundant.
18878		threats	eng	No major threats known.
18879		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
18879		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo (which has a surface area of 4.53 km²), in west Cameroon.
18879		habitat	eng	<em>P. maclareni</em> is a demersal fish that inhabits the shallow water of the lake shore, (less than 4 m deep).  It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (mayfly, caddis and chironomid midge larvae), and the females are mouth brooders.
18879		population	eng	The global population is decreasing within its restricted range, although detailed numbers are lacking.
18879		threats	eng	Lake Barombi Mbo is at risk from the effects of introduced crustaceans and fishes, siltation from local deforestation and water pollution, all of which pose a threat to <em>P. maclareni</em>, (Duker & Borre, 2001).  The small size of the lake renders it particularly vulnerable to siltation due to land-use change or water extraction for agriculture and domestic use: lake level fluctuations in Lake Barombi Mbo have impacted fish breeding sites (Dudgeon <em>et al</em>. 2006).   <em>P. maclareni</em> is also collected from Lake Barombi Mbo for the aquarium trade.
18880		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the range, habitat, ecology of and threats to this species.
18880		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental of southern Peru. It is known only from four isolated locations. It has an elevational range of 4,400 to 4,900 m.
18880		habitat	eng	This rodent shelters in rock crevices. It is diurnal and forages on the Senecio and Werneria plants within treeless wet puna habitat. The species is believed to persist in secondary puna habitats. Females have been recorded with only two embryos (Pearson, 1951, 1957).
18880		population	eng	It is a rare species, known from only a few specimens. It has not been recorded recently, but this may be because of low sampling effort.
18880		threats	eng	This montane species may be threatened by drainage of suitable wet habitat, although this needs to be confirmed. It has a restricted elevational range which is considered to be threatened by climatic changes.
18882		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18884		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18885		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18886		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18888		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18889		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18890		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as CR A1ce in 1996, with the justification that 'Harrison and Stiassny (1999) consider this species to be possibly extinct. The matter has been referred to the relevant Specialist Group for a decision' (IUCN 2006).<br/><br/>In November 2006 the “Covenant to Conserve and Protect Lake Lanao, the second largest freshwater lake in the Philippines and one of the 5 oldest in the world” was signed at a conference which aimed to bring together stakeholders and raise awareness on the need to conserve the lake.
18890		distribution	eng	<em>P. herrei</em> is endemic to Lake Lanao, Lanao Province, Mindanao Island, Philippines.
18890		habitat	eng	<em>P. herrei</em> is a benthopelagic species.
18890		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
18890		threats	eng	Lake Lanao has experience large scale environmental degradation as a result of the combined effect of agricultural pollutants, human and industrial waste, hydroelectric power plants, dams, introduction of predatory species, and high levels of deforestation in the area surrounding the lake.  <br/><br/>Froese and Pauly (2006) reported <em>P. herrei</em> specimens available in a market near Lake Lanao in 1908, therefore this species was definitely consumed in the past.
18891		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18892		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18898		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18901		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18902		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18903		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18904		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
18909		conservation	eng	Protected by Thai law and in the Protected Area (Wildlife Sanctuary). Research is needed on the species population, threats and conservation actions.
18909		distribution	eng	Endemic to the subterranean stream of Tham (cave) Phatewada in the Phu Khiew Wildlife Sanctuary in Chayaphum Province, Thailand (Mekong Khorat Plateau Ecoregion).
18909		habitat	eng	A troglobitic fish, inhabits subterranean stream. <span class="sheader5">The only known cave fish in the genus <em>Poropuntius,</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and a<span class="sheader5">part from eye and pigmentation<span class="sheader5"> reduction<span class="sheader5">, this species does not differ from riverine surface-dwelling species of the genus.</span></span>
18909		population	eng	Localized and uncommon, declined in the past 20 years from its discovery in 1991. The species has occasionally been harvested for food, and might have undergone occasional declines, but the population is thought likely to be stable at present.
18909		threats	eng	The population has declined due to local consumption from this small population, rarely harvested for the aquarium trade, however the population is considered to be stable at present. Other potential threats include impacts from tourist visitors, and degradation of water quality as a result of sedimentation and agricultural pollution.
18919		habitat	eng	Found in leaf litter in woodland and forest.
18942		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Isolated population in Balkhash area needs further study and evaluation.
18942		distribution	eng	W, C and E Kazakhstan and NW Turkmenistan (Holden and Musser 2005).
18942		habitat	eng	Inhabit clay semi-deserts and deserts, mostly those with saltwort and wormwood. In the northern part of the range found in sandy steppes. Burrows are simple, usually it is only one tunnel with several cells. Close to exit there is a widening of the central passage, where the jerboa can turn around in case of danger. Feeds mostly on green parts of saltworts, rarely on seeds and underground parts of plants. Reproduces once a year, litter size is 4-6 young.
18942		population	eng	According to Gromov and Erbaeva (1995) population density fluctuates significantly and at the highest years it could be up to 10 individuals per 1 km of tracking. According to Rogovin (Biodiversity Conservation Centre, 2008) the species is rare on the whole range. Namely, up to 5 individuals per 1 km of tracking in the north of the range, and 3-5 individuals per ha in south.
18942		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Habitat loss may be critical for isolated population in Balkhash basin.
18943		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. In the European part of the range occurs in several protected areas.
18943		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
18943		distribution	eng	Distributed in southern part of steppe zone, semi-deserts and deserts from the Don River (Russia) through Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River, south to NE Iran; E to S Mongolia; China: W Nei Mongol, N Xinjiang  Gansu, and Ningxia (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is consists of two large isolated parts, western and eastern (China and Mongolia) and several small isolated populations between those two parts and along the southern border of the range.
18943		distribution	eng	Distributed in southern part of steppe zone, semi-deserts and deserts from the Don River (Russia) through Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River, south to NE Iran; E to S Mongolia; China: W Nei Mongol, N Xinjiang  Gansu, and Ningxia (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is consists of two large isolated parts, western and eastern (China and Mongolia) and several small isolated populations between those two parts and along the southern border of the range.  Stubbe and Chotolchu (1968) recorded two localities just across the southern border of Mongolia.
18943		habitat	eng	<em>Pygeretmus pumilio</em> is a stenobiont species. It inhabits clay semi-deserts with rare vegetation which includes succulents of the family Haenopodiaceae (<em>Salsola</em>, <em>Suaeda</em>, <em>Nanopphyton</em>, <em>Anabasis</em> etc.). The clay proportion in the soil and type of vegetation determine species distribution (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).
18943		habitat	eng	<em>Pygeretmus pumilio</em> is a stenobiont species. It inhabits clay semi-deserts with rare vegetation which includes succulents of the family Haenopodiaceae (<em>Salsola</em>, <em>Suaeda</em>, <em>Nanopphyton</em>, <em>Anabasis</em> etc.). The clay proportion in the soil and type of vegetation determine species distribution (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species has a primarily herbivorous diet and stores fat in its tail as a reserve during times of food scarcity.
18943		population	eng	In some parts of the range (including parts of the European range) the species is relatively abundant and population number is stable. However, the whole range is fragmented and all the isolated populations in the east and south of the range are slowly declining and potentially vulnerable owing to the species' highly specialised habitat requirements.
18943		population	eng	In some parts of the range the species is relatively abundant and population number is stable. However, the whole range is fragmented and all the isolated populations in the east and south of the range are slowly declining and potentially vulnerable owing to the species' highly specialised habitat requirements.
18943		threats	eng	Populations are quite fragmented and its habitat is shrinking in parts of the range due to land use changes and climate change.
18943		threats	eng	There are no major threats at present. However, populations are quite fragmented and its habitat is shrinking in parts of the range due to land use changes and climate change.
18944		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
18944		distribution	eng	This jerboa is endemic to SE Kazakhstan, occurring in the Lake Balkhash area. Posibly occur in NE China (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
18944		habitat	eng	Stenobiont. Inhabits clay, often saline areas along low banks of drying river beds and lakes. Habitat is covered with only <em>Anabasis</em>, <em>Atriplex</em>, <em>Camophoroma</em>, <em>Climacoptera</em>, <em>Kochia</em>, and <em>Salsola</em> vegetation. The highest density is at such areas with rich succulent vegetation. Sightings from other habitat types (clay or rubbly areas in sandy deserts, agricultural fields) are due to dispersal of young on their way to more suitable habitats (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em>, 1995).<br/><br/>Feeds mostly on green parts of plants, and mainly on succulent <em>Climacoptera brachiata</em>. The percentage of seeds in the diet increases from mid-summer onwards. Has obligate hibernation, which usually starts at the end of October. If the year is very warm, can be active until beginning of November. Hibernation ends in mid-March, plus or minus two weeks depending on temperature. Has three types of burrows: permanent, wintering and shelters. Permanent burrows have several passages and nest. Shelters are simple, with only one passage. Reproduction starts right after hibernation. Second reproduction cycle starts always in the same time, at the end of June. Gestation is 25-27 days, litter size is 3-8 (usually 4-5) young. Age at maturity in spring-born is about 4 months, in autumn-born is about 7 months.
18944		population	eng	Total number is relatively small due to small range, however, local abundance could be high. In spring it cold be up to 20-30 idividuals per ha, in autumn 50-60 individuals per ha (Mazin 1977). In western part of the range population size was stable, while in the eastern part of the range the population experienced sharp decline in the 1960s after several rainy years that resulted in steppe expansion (Vorontsov <em>et al</em>. 1969). More recent data on population trend is not available.
18944		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to climate change (higher precipitation level) resulting in steppe expansion.
18945		conservation	eng	May be 2 subspecies. Review the taxonomy.
18945		distribution	eng	Bolivia, southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina (Simmons 2005). Not present in Suriname.
18945		habitat	eng	Forest dependents, but found in houses and near cities. Frugivorous.
18945		population	eng	Scarce in Argentina - common in Missione, but rare in northeast Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.).
18945		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
18948		conservation	eng	The population of the species is found within the National Park Picos de Europa. This ensures the preservation of this natural space. However, the area of occupancy as well as its density and species biology should be studied. The problem of hybridization with <em>P. cantabrica</em> should be quantified. Up to now sampling efforts have been limited to altitudes placed below <st1:metricconverter productid="2.200 m" w:st="on">2,200 m</st1:metricconverter>. It should be tested if the species reaches higher altitudes.
18948		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>, living only in the western massif of the “Picos de Europa” System in “Peña Santa de Castilla” mountain (<st1:metricconverter productid="2.596 m" w:st="on">2,596 m</st1:metricconverter>). It is present only on the south slope of this mountain above <st1:metricconverter productid="2.000 m" w:st="on">2,000 m</st1:metricconverter>.</p>
18948		habitat	eng	It lives in calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation. Is found above <st1:metricconverter productid="2000 m" w:st="on">2,000 m</st1:metricconverter> in karst areas, being refugeed under limestone rocks with vegetation in its vicinity. As well as in areas of accumulation of stones. They remain inactive during the dry season showing activity in humid conditions. During the winter months it is protected from freezing by being inactive under seasonal snow.
18948		population	eng	This species is very localized and therefore difficult to establish what the population trend is from current data, but it is assumed to be stable.
18948		threats	eng	The main threat is determined by a possible global warming, since it is a species of Alpine affinities, living just above <st1:metricconverter productid="2000 m" w:st="on">2,000  m</st1:metricconverter>. Moreover, its area of occurrence and extent of occurrence are very small, which makes it particularly vulnerable to environmental change. Hybrid forms with <em>Pyrenaearia cantabrica</em> have been identified below 2,000 m, but the extent of the hybridization zone, and the risk of the hybridization process to the survival of the species is unknown.
18949		conservation	eng	No actions are currently in place for the species. Conservation recommendations should be based on preserving the localities where the species is present, as well as to more accurately define its area of occupancy and subpopulation sizes. The declaration of the "Sierra de Llavería" as area of natural interest, allows the protection of this natural area. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. molae</span> is included in the strictly protected fauna  species list of Catalunya (Decreto 328/1992). It is also included in the project of endangered fauna list of Catalonia as Vulnerable (List dependent on approval in 2010). The impact of heavy rain drags on the population should be investigated. It should be tested if the species is still living in the “Mola de Llavería”, and to better determine the occupancy area of the two subpopulations.
18949		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to east Spain, living on two medium high mountains (c. <st1:metricconverter productid="920 m" w:st="on">920 m</st1:metricconverter>) in the Tarragona Department in the pre-litoral mountain system of Catalonia (Puente 1994, Elejalde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
18949		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on calcareous rocks and in crevices, as well as within the vegetation growing in crevices, in the calcareous walls of the uppermost part of the mountains, above <st1:metricconverter productid="850 m" w:st="on">850 m</st1:metricconverter> of altitude. Only present in the north face of the mountains, where it is more humid and shaded.
18949		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown. The area of occupancy is very small. Besides it is very difficult to see live specimens while dead shells are not abundant. It indicates a low population density. There are probably below 1,000 adult specimens in each location. This species needs population studies.
18949		threats	eng	The species lives in the top of the two mid-altitude mountains. Thus, global warming could cause the extinction of the species. Heavy rains seems to have a direct impact on the subpopulation (washing specimens down the mountains).
18950		conservation	eng	On the basis of its very restricted range, conservation recommendations should be based on preserving the localities where the species is present, as well as to more accurately define its area of occupancy and sub-population sizes. The place were it lives is a Regional Nature Reserve. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. navasi</span> is included within the Endangered Species List of Aragón. It is also necessary to conduct studies about its biology. Information panels should indicate to the mountaineers the damage that leaving the marked walking trails, can have on the species of fauna and flora typical of high altitudes, particularly in the stony areas of the north slope, placed near the top of the mountain.
18950		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>, found only on the Moncayo mountain (2,319 m), with two ecotypes in two sub-populations. One is found above <st1:metricconverter productid="1.800 m" w:st="on">1,800 m</st1:metricconverter> of altitude (more abundant above 2,000 m asl) and the second is found in forests at&#160;<st1:metricconverter productid="1.200 m" w:st="on">1,200 m</st1:metricconverter>.
18950		habitat	eng	<p>One of the forms of this species lives at high altitudes and is restricted to the top of the Moncayo mountain (<st1:metricconverter productid="2314 m" w:st="on">2,314 m</st1:metricconverter>), above <st1:metricconverter productid="2000 m" w:st="on">1,800 m</st1:metricconverter> with the more dense populations living above <st1:metricconverter productid="2200 m" w:st="on">2,200  m</st1:metricconverter>. It lives only in the stony area with north orientation, under stones of siliceous composition. The other form lives in deciduous forests with high humidity substrate under stones and among decomposing litter. </p>
18950		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown. Sub-population living above <st1:metricconverter productid="1.800 m" w:st="on">1,800  m</st1:metricconverter> is probably greater than 2,500 specimens. The sub-population living in forests seems very small, probably fewer than 250 adult specimens. This data is based on density of specimens observed during samplings.
18950		threats	eng	Global warming might have a dramatic effect on this species. Transit of mountaineers off mountain trails is another threat. It is common to see mountaineers who descend directly through the north slope, causing the destabilization of its habitat.
18952		conservation	eng	Due to lack of knowledge about population size and on the biology and ecology of the species, it is recommended to conduct studies on all these aspects. Furthermore, studies should be conducted in the four canyons to determine the height at which the species lives. It is recommended to study the rodent species that prey upon it and its impact on snail populations. The gorge of the Pont de <st1:personname productid="la Torre" w:st="on">la Torre</st1:personname>, which currently appears to contain the best subpopulation, should be protected, especially now that road traffic has been diverted into a tunnel. In this gorge there are several climbing routes, an activity that should be regulated, preventing the opening of new ones. Collegats is included in the areas of natural interest of Catalonia, which allows the preservation of this gorge. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. organiaca</span> is included in the strictly protected fauna species list of Catalonia (Decreto 328/1992).
18952		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region>, restricted to a few canyons situated in two valleys of the Pyrenees in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Catalonia</st1:state></st1:place>, between 500 and <st1:metricconverter productid="700 m" w:st="on">700 m</st1:metricconverter> in altitude. It has only been found in three canyons in the valley of the river Segre, closely spaced, “Gorges de Organyá, dels Espluvins and <st1:state w:st="on">del</st1:state> Pont de <st1:personname productid="la Torre" w:st="on">la Torre</st1:personname>” (Fagot 1905, Bofill and Haas 1920b, Bech 1990), as well as in the “Gorge de Collegats” in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">valley</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Noguera Pallaresa</st1:placename></st1:place> (Bofill and Haas 1920a). In the latter gorge it has not been found after Bofill and Haas (1920a). Explorations of the “Gorge de Collegats” did not allow us to find the species. We were able to confirm the persistence of <em>P. organiaca</em> in the three gorges of the River Segre.
18952		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation in non overhanged places within narrow canyons.
18952		population	eng	<p>No studies have been made on population size. The only reference is the annotation of Altimira (1963), who said that it is "extremely abundant in the Gorge d'Organyá from its beginning to the end." Unfortunately, due to habitat alteration, currently it is very difficult to find living specimens or dead shells within this gorge, except in a few places, very reduced in extension. The same occurs in the “Gorge dels Espluvins”. The largest population and the best preserved seems to be that of the “Gorge del Pont de <st1:personname productid="la Torre" w:st="on">La Torre</st1:personname>”, where during a recent surveys we were able to see a couple of dozen live specimens, during a linear walking route of&#160; half an hour throughout the whole gorge. The current existence of the species in the “Gorge de Collegats” needs confirmation. </p>  All the data about the presence of the species are limited to the bottom of calcareous walls (3-<st1:metricconverter productid="4 meters" w:st="on">4 m</st1:metricconverter> above the road, or in accessible areas below it). It should be studied if the species also lives at higher altitudes in the vertical walls of these four canyons, with very difficult access.
18952		threats	eng	<span class="longtext1">The main problem for this species is that the successive widening that has been made on the two roads that cross through the four gorges where this species is found. They were made by emptying the base of the rock walls by drilling with explosives. This practices have given rise to long overhangs to which the access of rain is not possible, thus destroying much of the useful habitat for the species. The only areas not affected by overhanging are those where the gorge is slightly wider, but being more open areas are more influenced by variation in weather. Fortunately, the latest enlargement of the two roads has been made by digging tunnels under the rock. This has eliminated traffic from Collegats, Pont de la Torre and Espluvins gorges. On the contrary, in the Organyá gorge, where historically lived the best population of the species, the road is still running along the entire canyon, so that overhanging areas are almost a continuum. In addition, it is frequent to find garbage dumps in well-preserved habitat areas, as well as snail shells with signs of having been preyed upon by rodents, probably introduced rats.
18953		conservation	eng	Conservation recommendations should be based on preserving the localities where the species is present, as well as to more accurately define its area of occupancy and subpopulation sizes and to study its biology. All the locations where the species lives are Regional Natural Reserves. Studies to obtain indices of abundance should also be made in order to monitor population trends of these subpopulations. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. parva</span> is included in the strictly protected fauna  species list of Catalunya (Decreto 328/1992). <br/> Information panels should indicate to mountaineers the damage that leaving the marked trails, can have on the species of fauna and flora typical of high altitudes.
18953		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted to a few mountains of the north of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Catalonia.</st1:place></st1:state>
18953		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation. Is found above <st1:metricconverter productid="2000 m" w:st="on">2,000 m</st1:metricconverter> elevation in karst areas, taking refuge under limestones, or placed directly on the rocky walls. It occurs mainly under stones arranged on the clay soil and vegetation in its vicinity. They remain inactive during the dry season showing activity on rainy days. During the winter months it is protected from freezing by remaining inactive under seasonal snow.
18953		population	eng	There are no demographic studies of this species. During surveys, it has emerged that its population density is not high, at least in the Pedraforca massif, where it is necessary to extend sampling efforts for several hours to observe a few dozens alive specimens. In addition, it is also relatively difficult to find empty shells, despite being relatively hard and therefore somewhat resistant to disintegration.
18953		threats	eng	Global warming can have a dramatic effect to this species. Transit of mountaineers off mountain trails is another potential threat.
18955		conservation	eng	Conservation recommendations should be based on preserving the localities where the species is present, as well as to more accurately define its area of occupancy and subpopulation sizes. Some of the localities where the species lives are Regional Natural Reserves. It is also necessary to conduct studies about its biology. It should be investigated whether the species is still living in Peña Lekanda, since recent visits have not allowed to observe it. Studies to obtain indices of abundance should also be made in order to monitor population trends of these subpopulations.<br/> Another action should focus on investigating the interaction between <em>P. velascoi</em> and <em>P. cantabrica</em> in locations where they coexist. We have seen this contact in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Aldamin</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Peña Lekanda and San Donato.<br/> In areas where mountaineers walking may interfere with the species (Gorbea, Txindoki, Aitzgorri), information panels should indicate the danger that leaving the marked trails, can have on the species of fauna and flora typical of high altitudes.
18955		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it is restricted to the highest calcareous mountains of the Basque Country and Navarra Department (Altonaga<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1984, Elejalde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It does not reach the <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>.
18955		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on calcareous rocks and in crevices, as well as within the vegetation growing in crevices or on the bottom of the walls, above <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span><st1:metricconverter productid="1.300 m" w:st="on">1,300 m</st1:metricconverter>. Is only present on the north side of the mountains, where it is more humid and shady.
18955		population	eng	Studies on population trend have not been conducted on this species. Nevertheless, the observation that the species is very difficult to find in Peña Lekanda and the alteration of the habitat in Aralar: Altxueta indicated a population reduction during the last decades. In other localities, <em>Pyrenaearia cantabrica </em>(a species living between 900-<st1:metricconverter productid="1300 m" w:st="on">1,300 m</st1:metricconverter> in the Basque Country and Navarra) is reaching places which previously were apparently occupied exclusively by <em>P. velascoi</em>. The interaction between these two species should be investigated.
18955		threats	eng	Global warming might have a dramatic effect on this species. Transit of mountaineers off mountain trails. Possible competition with the native <em>Pyrenaearia cantabrica.</em>
18960		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (critically imperiled) by NatureServe (2009). Further research of life history traits will help to determine a more accurate estimate of population decline for the species while site protection and management of the Bruneau River will facilitate the survival of the species by ensuring a sustainable subaquifier level is maintained.
18960		distribution	eng	This species is only known from 89 of the 155 small geothermal springs along an 8 km reach of the Bruneau River and its tributary Hot Creek in southwestern Idaho, USA (USFWS 2007). The extent of occurrence is therefore significantly less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. With abstraction of water being the primary threat to the persistence of the springs which this species inhabits, the geothermal springs are all affected by a single instance of this threat, i.e. are all one location.
18960		habitat	eng	This species is collected from thermal springs where it is found on rocks, mud, gravel and algal film (USFWS 2002).
18960		population	eng	There are natural fluctuations in the density of this species ranging from 1,782 per m<sup>2</sup> to 8,900 per m<sup>2</sup> (Mladenka and Minshall 2001). However, there has been a substantial decline in the number of occurrences of this species with springs declining at a rate of 3.75 per year (Myler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and a population decline of approximately 96% within a ten year period (USFWS 2007). The generation length for this species is unknown preventing an accurate population decline for criterion A from being inferred, however it is likely to be under 3 years, suggesting a population decline which also meets the A criteria for CR.
18960		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is loss of habitat (springs) as a result of groundwater abstraction for agriculture. This has already resulted in significant drawdown of the aquifer which is now resulting in the loss of approximately 3.75 springs per year (Myler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
18963		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperilled by NatureServe (2009). Research concentrating on population size of the species is needed to ensure viable populations are maintained. Local conservation agencies report the need for: protection of remaining spring sources, periodic monitoring of snail populations and their habitats, and research on ecology and systematics.
18963		distribution	eng	This species is only known from three springs (Dripping, Cool and Burns) in Sacramento valley in the Black Mountains near Kingman, Mohave County, Arizona (Hershler and Landye 1988, Hershler 1994).
18963		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from freshwater streams and springs (Hershler and Landye 1988).
18963		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18963		threats	eng	Due to the restricted range of this species, it could be be rapidly extirpated from its range by a stochastic event, such as a drought.&#160; Local conservation agencies (Arizona Game and Fish Department) report the major threats are from groundwater depletion with associated loss of spring flow, as well as human development.
18969		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperiled by NatureServe (2009).&#160; Further research into potential threats and population demographics would greatly enhance the knowledge and therefore accuracy at which the species could be assessed.
18969		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Nelson Place Spring complex (consisting of two springs approximately 150 m apart), Yavapai County, Arizona (Hershler and Landye 1988). The extent of occurrence is therefore likely to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, with a considerably smaller area of occupancy, although precise information is lacking.
18969		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a freshwater spring (Hershler and Landye 1988).
18969		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
18969		threats	eng	Given that the species is restricted to a single location, the Nelson Place Spring, the species is vulnerable to over-abstraction of groundwater impacting flow to the springs, as well as drought events impacting recharge of the aquifer.
18972		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically&#160;Imperilled&#160;by NatureServe (2009).&#160; Further research into the population demographics of the species would allow estimations of population size to be inferred in order to make more accurate judgement regarding conservation strategies. Similarly, proper definition of the extent of occurrence may ensure a higher threat listing in the future (if extent of occurrence estimates fall below 100 km²<sup></sup> following additional surveys).
18972		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Naegele Springs, Presidio County, western Texas. Fossils in New Mexico may also represent this species (Taylor 1987).&#160;It historically occurred in the outflow of springs in New Mexico and Texas, but  as of 1999 was known from only one site in Naegele Springs (Rio Grande Basin) in  Texas; it is extirpated from New Mexico (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>The estimated extent of occurrence is between 100–250 km², as it is difficult to define the extent of the single site at present, and the area of occupancy is likely to be much smaller than this, probably no more than 20 km²<sup></sup>. The single most important threat of aquifer drawdown is likely to result in the species' range comprising a single location, while  continuing habitat disturbance and degradation could potentially equate the range to more than one location (particularly if the extent of occurrence is closer to 250 km²<sup></sup>).
18972		habitat	eng	This species is known from spring outflows on mud and amongst dense watercress (Taylor 1987).
18972		population	eng	In Taylor's (1987) description, this species was noted to be common with global abundance estimated as less than 1,000 individuals by NatureServe (2009), but no population estimates are currently available for the species.&#160;It historically occurred in the outflow of springs in New Mexico and Texas, but as of 1999 was known from only one site in Naegele Springs (Rio Grande Basin) in Texas, and was known to be extirpated from New Mexico (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).
18972		threats	eng	Likely threats to this species include trampling, disturbance and habitat degradation by livestock, plus system modifications including diversion and damming of the sole aquatic site of occurrence (NatureServe 2009). The single most important threat is the aquifer drawdown in Texas, although continuing habitat disturbance and degradation also play a role (NatureServe 2009).<br/><span class="copy">
18977		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (critically imperiled) by NatureServe (2009). It is also federally listed as endangered and state listed as endangered group 2: both listings protect from collection without a permit (NatureServe 2009). This species is located on private land, so the site cannot be designated as a protected area. Attempts have been made to work with the land owner to address habitat degradation, however as of yet none of these measures have been employed (USFWS 1993). However, site management is clearly urgently needed. New Mexico Game and Fish are also doing captive propagation to assist the conservation of this species.
18977		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a single spring in Socorro County, New Mexico, USA. The spring measures 2.4 m x 0.3 m (NatureServe 2009). This species was known from surrounding springs, however as a result of continued groundwater and surface water abstraction, pollution, water diversion and damming this species is now restricted to a single location.
18977		habitat	eng	This species is known from a thermal spring (NatureServe 2009).
18977		population	eng	This species was estimated to total less than 1,000 individuals (Mehlhop 1993). This represents a decline from the 5,000 individuals estimated by Taylor in 1987.
18977		threats	eng	Much of this species' habitat is now destroyed due to groundwater depletion, surface water abstraction, water pollution and loss of riparian habitat (BISON-M 1996). The threat of most concern is continued water abstraction resulting in loss of flow to this spring. The potential introduction of exotic fishes or other species pose a threat through predation and competition (USFWS 1993).
18978		conservation	eng	This species was listed as federally endangered in the U.S. (USFWS 1994) and a recovery plan was created with the following objectives (USFWS 1995 : (1) protect the existing populations and essential habitat, (2) isolate threats to the species, conduct research necessary for the species' management, and implement management where needed, (3) develop artificial holding and propagation techniques and, if feasible, establish captive populations, (4) develop and implement cryogenic techniques to preserve the species' genetic material, (5) develop and implement a program to monitor royal snail population levels and the water and habitat conditions of each of the spring runs, (6) annually assess the overall success of the recovery program and recommend action.<br/><br/>Further research on the population status and the threats of the species is recommended, as well as regular monitoring, in order to detect any population declines at an early stage. Site protection, and adherence to federal protection and the recovery plan are suggested in order to keep these populations healthy.
18978		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to two spring runs flowing from caves in the Sequatichie River system (Tennessee River drainage) in Marion County, Tennessee (USFWS 1995, Burch 1989, Hershler 1994). It therefore occurs in two locations with an estimated area of occupancy of between 0.4-4 km<sup>2</sup> and an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
18978		habitat	eng	This snail is found only in spring runs flowing out of caves. It is typically found on soft mud, very rarely on sand, rock detrius or hard clay, and almost always in areas with imperceptible current. It may be naturally restricted to the upper portion of these two spring runs, as it has not been found elsewhere (USFWS 1995).
18978		population	eng	Only two occurrences are known: Owen Spring and Blue Hole Spring in Marion County, Tennessee (USFWS 1995, Lewis 2005). The species has never been found outside of the two known areas, so no decline is noted and the two populations have never been lost (USFWS 1995).
18978		threats	eng	No declines have been documented. Future potential threats include the degradation of water quality which is the most significant potential threat. Siltation and other pollutants contributed by coal mining, poor land use practices, and waste discharge have the potential to negatively impact the species.   Another potential concern is the introduction of nonnative aquatic weeds or animals (e.g. zebra mussel) (USFWS 1995).<br/><br/>This species only has a one year life cycle, therefore it is subject to sudden extinction should anything happen to impede reproduction at the two sites where it occurs. The existing populations occupy very limited areas and are therefore vulnerable to random extirpation (USFWS 1995).
18979		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place as this species is considered to be extinct.
18979		distribution	eng	This species was formerly known only from Big Spring Creek (Tennessee River drainage), Madison Co., Alabama, but is now extinct (Mirarchi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004, Hershler 1994). It has been thought to be extinct since the 1960s (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010) and was last collected in 1940 (Goodrich 1944).
18979		habitat	eng	This species was only known from Big Spring Creek in Madison Co., Alabama (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
18979		population	eng	This species is thought to have been extinct since the 1960s.
18979		threats	eng	This species went extinct due to impoundment in the Tennessee Valley.
18984		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - apparently secure (NatureServe 2010).
18984		distribution	eng	This species is found in Idaho, Washington, Wyoming and Oregon states of the USA (NatureServe 2010). Specifically it is found in Jackson Lake and the tributary of Polecat Creek, northwest Wyoming and the Snake River drainage (Hershler 1994).
18984		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes, rivers and creeks (Hershler 1994). It prefers substrates of gravel and cobble, but can be found on coarse sand, silt, pebbles and boulders (USFWS 2006). Sometimes it is associated with the 'submerged aquatic plant genus Rorippa' (USFWS 2006).
18984		population	eng	This species is very abundant in the Snake River (USFWS 2006).
18984		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.
18988		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically&#160;Imperiled,&#160;<span class="copy">and both sites at which this species occurs are in USFS Wilderness, which offers limited protection (NatureServe 2009). The status of aquifer depletion is unknown and site area protection and management is required in order to prevent further excavation and aquifer depletion.&#160; Further research is needed in order to accurately assess the population size of the species.
18988		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Mexico where it is known from two springs in the Gila Wilderness which total an area of less than 1 hectare (NatureServe 2009).
18988		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to hot springs in the Gila Wilderness, Mexico, and is range-restricted by the size of suitable hot spring habitat available. This species is found in the cooler section of small, hot spring flows. It is abundant on algae-covered stones and rocks (Taylor 1987).
18988		population	eng	The population of this species is thought to be stable (NatureServe 2009).
18988		threats	eng	One of the thermal springs in which this species occurs is used for recreational bathing. A pool has already been excavated by the spring and further excavations could alter the flow from the pool. At present there is no protection from aquifer depletion (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). Other threats could include poor watershed management, and natural stochastic events such as forest fires and flooding.
18990		conservation	eng	This species is listed under NatureServe as G1 - Critically Imperilled, is listed as a Species of Special Concern by the state of Arizona and has a monitoring programme in place (USFWS 2003). Long-term management strategies, however, are not currently in place. Site management and protection is required to prevent further habitat degradation and ensure the species' survival (NatureServe 2009).
18990		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to a single spring complex from <span class="copy">areas of the Upper Black River drainage (tributary to the Gila River) in Apache County, southeastern Arizona (Taylor 1987, Hershler 1994). Some degree of decline has been observed with extirpation confirmed from two spring sources (NatureServe 2009). The total extent of the spring complex is less than an acre (USFWS 2003, NatureServe 2009).
18990		habitat	eng	This species occurs at an unusually high elevational habitat (8,400 feet)  (Taylor 1987) in spring-rich meadows with springs and creeks of various sizes  that flow into a 200 foot pond at temperatures of 15°C (springs) to 17°C (pond). The species is limited to the pond and spring rich meadow  perched above the steep canyon of the North Fork of the East Fork of the Black  River. Substrate is firm and includes cobble, gravel, woody debris, and aquatic  vegetation are essential for egg-laying and grazing. Aquatic vegetation includes  watercress (<em>Nasturtium </em>sp.), <em>Ranunculus</em>, and algae. Associated  species in the spring include <em>Physa gyrina</em>, <em>Pisidium casertanum</em>  and a few <em>Physa insigne</em>; and in the pond include <em>Valvata  humeralis</em>, <em>Physa gyrina</em>, <em>Radix auricularia</em>, <em>Gyraulus  parvus</em>, <em>Pisidium casertanum</em>, <em>Pisidium compressum</em>, and  <em>Pisidium variabilis</em> as well as <em>Anodonta californiensis</em> in pools  and at depths greater than 4 inches (Taylor 1987, Hershler 1994). Preliminary  analysis of substrate influence on Three Forks springsnail density, based on  data collected during the summer of 2001, revealed snail densities were  significantly higher in gravel/cobble substrate versus sand/silt substrate,  particularly when watercress was present (Martinez and Myers 2002, cited in  USFWS 2003).
18990		population	eng	Population estimates in the last several years have concluded that <span class="copy">the total population size is 129,135 snails (standard error = 31,511), at a density of 213.09 per m² (M.A. Martinez unpublished data, cited in USFWS 2003). The recent extirpation of two subpopulations confirms the declining population trend of the species (USFWS 2003), although population trend data is not available to accurately infer the rate of decline of the species. Martinez (2009) made three population estimates in 2002 at 129,135, 30,130 and 164,234 snails but noted they may underestimate the true population size.
18990		threats	eng	<span class="copy"><span class="copy">The greatest threat to this species is likely to be habitat loss (human created and  due to trampling by livestock and crayfish burrowing). Throughout most of the  20th century, Three Forks and Boneyard Springs have been subjected to various  levels of livestock grazing which degraded the aquatic environment and has been  implicated in the extirpation of other hydrobiid snails. In the mid- and late  1990s livestock were fenced out of the immediate areas containing the spring  complexes, although trespass livestock may occasionally gain access to  springsnail sites. The degradation of spring run banks due to excessive  ungulate trampling continues, however (particularly at Boneyard Springs, less so  at Three Forks), and crayfish burrowing contributes to accelerated sedimentation  and high turbidity resulting in changes to microhabitat conditions such as  shifts in substrate composition. Habitat invasion by non-native crayfish  (<em>Orconectes virilis</em>) contributes to unnatural predatory pressure. In May  2000, field investigations at Three Forks Springs revealed that the Three Forks  springsnail is entirely absent from at least two boxed spring heads within which  it was previously abundant.&#160; These extirpations coincide with the introduction  of exotic crayfish into the area. Unauthorized bait bucket releases and dish  washing by recreationists potentially contributes to introduction of non-native  organisms and/or pollutants. Three Forks Springs has also been affected by  modifications of natural spring head integrity. During the 1930s concrete boxes  were constructed around four of the spring heads at the Three Forks site.  However, it does not appear that these modifications have negatively affected  habitat suitability for the species and springsnails have been known to be  locally abundant within spring boxes and associated outflows (USFWS 2003). The species' restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to stochastic events.</span>
19033		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Nawampasa  and Lake Kyoga.
19034		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
19034		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
19034		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.
19034		population	eng	No information available.
19034		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
19035		conservation	eng	This species is nationally protected under Malagasy law (Decree 60126; October, 1960). Internationally, the tortoise, since 1975, has been listed in Appendix II of CITES. In 2005 <em>P. arachnoides</em> was uplisted to CITES Appendix I. It is included on Schedule B of EU wildlife regulations, and imports are suspended.<br/> <br/>Two protected areas and three additional sites (Lac Tsimanampetsotsa National Park 43,200 ha, Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve 1,750 ha and Berenty Private Reserve 250 ha, Site of Biological Interest – (1) Hatokaliotsy 21,850 ha and (2) PK3 north of Tulear 12,500 ha) fall within the range of this species (CITES 2005, Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). A captive breeding centre (Village de Tortues de Mangily) was established in Ifaty.<br/> <br/>Since 1991, the action plan of the IUCN SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group has considered <em>Pyxis arachnoides</em> to be a "species that requires conservation projects and study of its status" (IUCN/SSC/TFTSG 1991, CITES 2005). In August 2005, an international meeting of the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) group produced a report that addressed the conservation status and recommended conservation actions for this species, these included the need to start a national conservation plan (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Walker <em>et al</em>. (2004, 2007) call for more stringent conservation measures to ensure habitat protection and a widespread, region wide education programme to try and protect <em>P. a. arachnoides</em> from food and pet-trade hunting.<br/><br/>Additionally, ensuring adequate coverage of populations of the different Spider Tortoise taxa, particularly the subspecies <em>brygooi</em>, is very important as Madagascar expands its Protected Area network.
19035		distribution	eng	The Spider Tortoise is found only in the arid region of the coastal areas of southwestern Madagascar, from the coast up to 10-50 kilometres inland going as far north as Morombe (Glaw and Vences 1994, Henkel and Schmidt 2000). It is sympatric with the Radiated Tortoise except for the northern extent of its range.<br/><br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides arachnoides</em>: This subspecies occurs in the region of the Onilahy River in southwestern Madagascar near Toliara. Its area of distribution is limited to north of the Manambo River and south of Lake Tsimanapetsotsa. A field survey carried out in 2001 by  Behler and Randriamahazo has shown that the area of distribution of the sub-species extends up to north of the Menarandra River (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm.).<br/> <br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides brygooi</em>: This subspecies occurs south of the Mangoky River. Tortoises are commonly found in the region between Morombe and Lake Ihotry (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides oblonga</em>: This subspecies (the southern subspecies) is found along the southern coast between the Menarandra River to the west and Lake Anony near Amboasary to the east. The majority of animals have been found between Ambovombe and Lavanono (Glaw and Vences 1994, Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Participants at the 2001 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop (CBSG 2001) estimated the extent of occurrence as between 5,000 and 20,000 sq. km, and the area of occupancy as less than 500 sq. km.
19035		habitat	eng	The Spider Tortoise is found in Mikea forest habitat in the north and in communities of xerophytic spiny vegetation with low irregular rainfall dominated by Didiereaceae and <em>Ephorbia</em> in the south (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2007). Their habitat consists of sandy areas with spiny vegetation close to the coast. They do not tend to utilize rocky areas like <em>A. radiata</em> does (T. Leuteritz pers. obs.). Acccording to Walker <em>et al</em>. (2008) <em>P. a. arachnoides</em> was only recorded as feeding during the wet months, a period of increased activity. Tortoises are known to eat young leaves and cow dung with insect larva (Glaw and Vences 1994). Spider Tortoises reach a curved carapace length of up to 200 mm.<br/><br/>Very little is known about the reproduction of this species but it is believed to produce single egg clutches although the number of clutches per year are unknown (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989). Reproductive age is thought to be at about 12 years (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2004), and average reproductive age (=generation time) was conservatively estimated at 20 years at the 2008 Red List workshop. No solid data exists on longevity but estimated life span is believed to be up to 70 yrs (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007).
19035		population	eng	The earliest information on populations comes from Bour (1981), who anecdotally stated that <em>P. arachnoides</em> was localized but not rare. Raxworthy and Nussbaum (2000) estimate that there were more than ten populations and that the area of distribution could cover more than 2,000 km². Jesu and Schimmenti (1995) who undertook the first quantitative estimate of population density reported approximately three individuals per ha. Walker <em>et al</em>. (2008) report densities of 4.63 and 2.08 tortoises per ha in the wet and dry seasons respectively. Both these studies were on <em>P. a. arachnoides</em>. A rough total estimate of 2-3 million animals was recorded by Pedrono (2008). <br/><br/>Hinge mobility of the three subspecies decreases from south to north (Glaw and Vences 1994, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008):<br/><em>P. a. oblonga</em> - plastron with black markings on scutes and anterior lobe will close completely to touch carapace (mobile).<br/><em>P. a. arachnoides</em> - plastron totally devoid of markings and anterior lobe will close partially but not touch carapace (less mobile).<br/><em>P. a. brygooi</em> - plastron totally devoid of markings but anterior lobe will not close fully to touch carapace (rigid).
19035		threats	eng	<em>Pyxis arachnoides</em> faces threats from habitat destruction and fragmentation (through conversion for agriculture, charcoal prduction, human-induced wildfires, and alien invasive plants). Recent analyses by Conservation International (May, 2007) of the state of the spiny forest biome, using aerial imagery, indicate that deforestation rates have significantly increased over the last five years (compared with the period 1990-2000) (H. Crowley pers. comm.). A loss of 21-50% was estimated to have occurred over the period 1970-2000 (an average annual rate of 1.2% spiny forest loss; Harper <em>et al</em>. 2007), and a further loss of 51-80% of remaining habitat was projected for the period 2002-2012 (CBSG 2001). Invasive plant species affecting habitat suitability were considered a significant threat at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001).<br/> <br/>In addition, the species has increasingly become subject to collection for the local food trade as Radiated Tortoise populations have been depleted, and exploitation has recently included harvesting for livers for export to Asia (Behler 2000). A pulse of legal export trade occurred during the period 2000-2004; CITES trade records show that about 4,000 animals were exported for the international pet trade in that time (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides</em> was recommended to be listed as Endangered (A3acd, B1b) at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG, 2001).<br/><br/>Overall, the northern subspecies <em>P.a. brygooi</em> is under more severe habitat loss and exploitation pressures than the other two subspecies, with some <em>brygooi</em> subpopulations already extirpated and others declining.<br/><br/>The 2005 Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) workshop (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007) evaluated different threat and population scenarios, which variously yielded estimates of about 60 to 80 years of decline into extinction based on harvest rates of 2005. With increasing exploitation and accelerating loss of remaining habitat, this may be a conservative set of estimates.
19036		conservation	eng	In 2003, <em>P. planicauda</em> was uplisted to CITES Appendix I from Appendix II (in which the tortoise had been listed since 1977; UNEP-WCMC 2007). This is generally perceived to have reduced exploitation of the species. The tortoise is protected nationally by Ordinance No. 60-126 of 3 October 1960, which regulates hunting and fishing and provides for the protection of nature, but the problem is that it is not stated what level of protection this legislation affords to <em>P. planicauda</em>, or how this is enforced (CITES AC18 Doc. 7.1, 2002).<br/><br/>The tortoise is protected at three sites within its range. It is protected in the special reserve of Andranomena 6,420 ha and in the Sites of Biological Interest of (1) Analabe 2,000-12,000 ha and (2) the Kirindy Forest (Morondava) 100,000 ha by private or local interests [CFPF] (Nicoll and Langrand 1989).<br/><br/><em>Pyxis planicauda</em> is bred at the Durrell Wildlife chelonian captive breeding centre in Ampijoroa (Razandrimamilafiniarivo <em>et al</em>. 2000) and at a number of zoos around the world.
19036		distribution	eng	This species mainly occurs in fragments of dry deciduous forest in the region of Menabe between the Morondava and Tsiribihina Rivers. However, a small subpopulation occurs north of the Tsiribihina Rivers (Behler <em>et al</em>. 1993, Bloxam <em>et al</em>. 1993, Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/> <br/>At the 2001 Conservation Assessment and Conservation Planning (CAMP) workshop, <em>P. planicauda</em>'s extent of occurrence was estimated as less than 5,000 sq. km, and total area of occupancy was estimated as under 500 sq.km (CBSG 2001).
19036		habitat	eng	The forests inhabited by <em>Pyxis planicauda</em> grow on loose sandy soils and the tortoises take refuge amongst the leaf litter of the forest floor. They burrow and are inactive in leaf litter during dry season (late May through October), but become active in the wet season. They are crepuscular and seek shelter during mid-day (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Rakotombololona 1998, Gibson and Buley 2004). Tortoises feed on fallen fruits such as <em>Breonia perrieri</em> and <em>Aleanthus greveanus</em>. (Glaw and Vences 1994, Gibson and Buley 2004). Fungi and fallen flowers have also been reported as diet items (Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/> <br/>Adult <em>P. planicauda</em> reach a carapace length of 13.7 cm (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2000) to 14.8 cm (Pedrono 2008). Based on information from Durrell Wildlife breeding center in northwestern Madagascar females do not reach maturity until ten years of age. Generation time was estimated at the 2008 Madagascar Tortoise and Freswater Turtle workshop as at least 25 years. Mating occurs in the first half of the wet season and females produce 1-3 single egg clutches in the latter half of the wet season (Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Pedrono 2008). Observation of nests in the wild, show incubation periods of 250-340 days (Razandrimamilafiniarivo <em>et al</em>. 2000).
19036		population	eng	Based on density estimates, habitat reduction and trade figures it is believed that the total population of <em>P. planicauda</em> is less than 10, 000 animals (Anonymous 2001). Recent surveys yield a calculated total population of over 16,000 animals, but the methodology used requires further data to confirm this number. <br/><br/>Summary of various <em>P. planicauda</em> studies (from CITES AC18 Doc. 7.1, 2002):<br/><br/>1991 - Kirindi - 8 km² surveyed - tortoises encountered on 54 occasions - 6.75 per km², but no data on recaptures — Quentin and Hayes (1991).<br/><br/>1996 - Kirindi - 20 km² / 20,000 ha surveyed - 12 tortoises in 11 days, 83% recapture - 0.6/km2 — <br/>Bloxam <em>et al</em>. (1996).<br/><br/>"main forest block":<br/>- 0.5/ha (50/km²) — Durbin and Randriamanampisoa (2000).<br/>- 2-6/ha (200-600/km²) —- Durbin and Randriamanampisoa (2000, as cited in CITES Proposal 12.55)<br/>- 1/ha (100/km²) — Kuchling in litt. 2001, Rakotombololona (2001 cited in Rakotombololona & Durbin in litt. to SSC Wildlife Trade Programme, 23 Nov 2001)
19036		threats	eng	<em>Pyxis planicauda</em> is exclusively associated with closed-canopy dry forest and its major threat comes from habitat loss, particularly from burning and clearing for agricultural lands/cattle grazing, highway development, mining, and petroleum exploration (Tidd <em>et al</em>. 2001, Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bonin <em>et al</em>. 2006). Analyses of satellite imagery by Tidd <em>et al</em>. (2001) between 1963 and 1993 showed a 32% reduction in the primary dry forests. Deforestation rates have increased, and up to 50% of the 76,000 ha remaining in the southern portion of the tortoises range may be destroyed before 2010. A 50% reduction in the remaining 73,000 ha of habitat in the northern portion of its known range may occur by 2040 (Tidd <em>et al</em>. 2001), for a combined forest habitat loss estimated at over 70% in the period 1963-2040. Similar deforestation rates were documented by Harper <em>et al</em>. (2007). <br/><br/>Secondary pressure comes from collection for the pet trade (Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bonin <em>et al</em>. 2006); a pulse of exploitation for pet trade export removed about 4,000 adult animals during 2000 to 2002, representing 20 to 40% of the total number of adults (depending on total population estimates). The reproductive capacity and recruitment potential of this species are particularly low, even by tortoise standards. <br/><br/>The species is not consumed locally or traded locally/regionally. <br/><br/>Population modelling at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001) predicted extinction before 2030 based on rates of habitat loss and pet trade collection then in effect, but legal export trade is no longer permitted and thus the modelling assumptions are no longer valid. <br/><br/><em>Pyxis planicauda</em> was recommended to be listed as Critically Endangered (CR A3acd + B1b) at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001).
19039		habitat	eng	This species occurs in clear waters of small and medium sized rivers on riffle and shoal areas near banks.
19040		conservation	eng	Is listed as a federally endangered species in the U.S.  The St. Croix River is a National Wild and Scenic River and this designation confers some protection from anthropogenic disturbance of the population.
19040		distribution	eng	The single known remnant population exists in a 20 km stretch of the lower St. Croix River between Minnesota and Wisconsin.
19050		conservation	eng	Although the species is not presently protected by state or federal agencies it may warrant future consideration based on its highly restricted distribution and declining range. Williams <em>et al.</em> (1992) consider this species of special concern. &#160;It is listed as G4 - apparently secure - by NatureServe (2009).&#160;Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press, from Cummings pers. comm. 2010) list this species as Vulnerable according to the American Fisheries Society (AFS) assessment<br/><br/>Monitoring of known populations is recommended, because if threats increase in the future and declines continue or worsen, this species may qualify for a more threatened category. Research is also needed into the specific threat processes affecting this species. Conservation actions, such as site protection and management, are needed to protect this species and buffer against declines, while protective legislation is also needed to safeguard the species' existence.
19050		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mobile River Basin and populations are known from throughout the Black Warrior, Cahaba, Coosa, and Tombigbee river drainages. It occurs syntopically with the similar looking <em>Quadrula apiculata</em> in the Lower Coosa and parts of the Tombigbee River (McCullaugh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Historically, it&#160;was widespread in the Upper Coosa River and its larger tributaries. Hurd (1974) found that it was abundant in Coosa reservoirs and tributaries and recent qualitative surveys confirm that the species&#160;is still present in H. Neely Henry, Logan Martin and Lay reservoirs (Gangloff 2003).  Pierson (pers. comm. 1997) reported that this species was common in the Cahaba River main channel near Heiberger, Perry Co., 1990; it was also common in reservoir habitat in the Coosa River system north of Wetumpka.  It also occurs in the Tombigbee River drainage in Mississippi (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005), and is known from the Sipsey River, Pickens Co., Alabama (Kennedy and Haag 2005). Its extent of occurrence is estimated in the region of 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> or less.
19050		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand/gravel substrate in moderately silty waters in flowing water or reservoirs.  It is frequently found in relatively deep water (1.5 m) and at moderate to high-current velocities in mixed sand/gravel substrate. This species appears to prefer larger streams (Gangloff 2003).
19050		population	eng	In the Coosa River basin in Georgia, it is known historically from the Coosa, Etowah, Oostanaula, Conasauga, and Coosawattee River drainages with recent live specimens collected from the latter three (Williams and Hughes 1998).  This species was recently reported from the Conasauga River inside and adjacent to the Cherokee and Chattahoochee National Forests, Murray/Whitfield Co., Georgia (Johnson<em> et al. </em>2005).  This species is listed as fairly common in Alabama by Mirarchi (2004) and endemic to the Mobile Basin where it is widespread in the system.  This species was historically collected from the Black Warrior River in Tuscaloosa and Greene/Hale Cos. and upper Tombigbee River in Sumter and Greene Cos., Alabama; but could not be located in recent surveys (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1992).   In Mississippi, it occurs only in the Tombigbee drainage (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Very few live individuals<em>&#160;</em>were encountered in recent surveys of the Upper Alabama Drainage (Coosa and Tallapoosa river, UAD, Gangloff 2003). It&#160;appears to have been extirpated from Choccolocco, Little Canoe and Waxahatchee creeks since 1973. Extant populations remain in portions of the Tombigbee and Conasauga River drainages (Evans 2001, Haag and Warren 2003, McCullaugh <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/><span class="copy">Between 3,000 to 10,000 individuals are estimated, although some researchers report greater abundance, and NatuireServe (2009) estimate between 2,500 to 100,000 individuals.  Recent surveys found the species at low densities in several Coosa River tributaries in Alabama (Gangloff 2003).<br/><br/>TRENDS:<br/>Very few live specimens were encountered in recent surveys of the Upper Alabama Drainage (Coosa and Tallapoosa river, UAD, Gangloff 2003). It appears to have been extirpated from Choccolocco, Little Canoe and Waxahatchee creeks since 1973. Extant populations remain in portions of the Tombigbee and Conasauga River drainages (Evans 2001, Haag and Warren 2003, McCullaugh <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Mirarchi (2004) lists it as fairly common and of low conservation concern in Alabama. The true extent of decline is not known, apart from the fact that the species is declining in some localities but is common in others.
19050		threats	eng	Although specific threats to this species have not been addressed in detail, the primary reason for the imperilment of Mississippi's unionid mussels is habitat destruction and alteration.  Factors responsible for freshwater mussel habitat destruction in Mississippi include reservoir construction (Coldwater, Pearl, Little Tallahatchie, Tennessee, Tombigbee, Yalobusha, and Yocona Rivers plus many tributaries), channel degradation for navigation and flood control, sand and gravel mining, and deterioration of water quality (excessive sediment from agriculture, pollution) (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; <br/><br/>However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its range as in some areas it is still very common.
19070		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
19107		habitat	eng	Burrowing species
19148		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed; this species is extinct.
19148		distribution	eng	This species was known from a small number of localities, elevation ca. 600m asl, in the northern portions of Las Vegas Valley, Clark County, Nevada, USA (Jennings, Riddle and Bradford 1995).
19148		habitat	eng	This frog was restricted to freshwater streams, springs, seeps, and adjacent riparian habitat associated with the Upper Las Vegas Valley (Wright and Wright 1949). Egg masses are not known, but metamorphic individuals were collected in the same habitats as those used by adults (Wright and Wright 1949).
19148		population	eng	It was last seen in 1942 (Wright and Wright 1949) and is now believed to be extinct (Jennings, Riddle and Bradford 1995).
19148		threats	eng	It is extinct evidently due to habitat loss resulting from spring capture and ground water pumping by the growing city of Las Vegas (URS 1977), and exacerbated by the introduction of the Bullfrog <em>Rana catesbeiana</em>. Although some suitable habitat persists within or near the former range of this species, only <em>R. catesbeiana</em> can be found.
19156		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Italy, Switzerland and Slovenia and has been recorded in a number of national and Red Data books and lists.
19156		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the lowlands of the Padano Venetian plain of northern Italy and southern Switzerland (where it is restricted to a small area in Kanton Ticino), east to the Triestine and Istrian regions of north-eastern Italy, with a few sites in Slovenia and Croatia. It is present from sea level up to around 500m asl, but sites at higher elevations are unusual.
19156		habitat	eng	The original habitat of this species is semi-hygrophilous forest; in secondary habitats it is associated with humid deciduous wooded areas, typically situated alongside small streams, rivers, or lakes, with rich vegetation. It is present in poplar plantations with thick understorey and occasionally meadows (Arnold 2002). It hibernates on land (where it may occur up to a kilometre from water: Arnold 2002), and also under the mud of stream beds. The species breeds in permanent and temporary water in wooded areas, usually including slow-moving rivers. It can occur in anthropogenic habitats such as agricultural irrigation ditches, but only if these are close to forest remnants for over wintering (Garner pers. comm.).
19156		population	eng	It is relatively abundant along some northern tributaries of the Po River, with a few sites existing along southern tributaries. It is occasional and localized in north-western Italy being more common in north-eastern areas. Some of the breeding sites in Switzerland can contain hundreds of individuals. It is considered rare in Slovenia. Populations of the species are generally larger in the eastern parts of its range and population genetic diversity decreases sharply from east to west by a factor of three (populations located in the western part of the distribution have severely reduced genetic diversity as measured at microsatellite loci, while populations located in the east do not; T. Garner pers. comm.). Most populations are severely fragmented.
19156		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the destruction of much of the original humid deciduous forests of the Padano Venetian plain and Istrian region by extensive agricultural development including drainage and deforestation (with population fragmentation). Additional threats to this species are the introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii)</em>, lowering of the water table, and aquatic pollution. Crayfish predation has driven one isolated subpopulation to disappear. The reduced genetic diversity in western populations might be leading to greater vulnerability to emergent pathogens (T. Garner pers. comm.).
19168		conservation	eng	This species is designated as a natural monument by Okinawa Prefecture, but there remains a need for improved protection of forest habitat on both Okinawajima and Tokashikijima.
19168		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Okinawajima and Tokashikijima Islands in Japan.
19168		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary or well-recovered secondary broad-leaved evergreen forest, breeding on the wet, sandy mud substrates around the heads of mountain streams and in the surrounding still waters.
19168		population	eng	Its population appears to be in rapid decline.
19168		threats	eng	Recent deforestation caused by road and dam construction in the northern part of Okinawajima and Tokashikijima have been damaging the habitat of this species, and will probably lead to further decline of the population on these islands.
19169		conservation	eng	The population of Okinawajima is designated as a natural monument by Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures, but there remains a need for improved protection of forest habitat on both Okinawajima and Amamioshima.
19169		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, and is found only on Amamioshima and Okinawajima Islands.
19169		habitat	eng	It is entirely restricted to the upstream regions of montane torrents, surrounded by primary broad-leaved evergreen forest.
19169		population	eng	It is believed to be in serious decline.
19169		threats	eng	The major threat is deforestation, along with the development around stream areas (through road and dam construction), which has led to severe fragmentation of the species' habitat on each of the two islands. It is in the pet trade in Japan and the USA. In Japan, the population from Amami was being traded after the Okinawa population was protected, although now both populations are protected.
19172		conservation	eng	It is unclear whether it occurs in any protected areas, though there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats in the Ryukyus.
19172		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Amamioshima and Kakeromajima Islands of the central Ryukyus in Japan.
19172		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary, or well-recovered secondary, broad-leaved evergreen forest, breeding by larval development in small pools on forest trails and muddy riverbeds.
19172		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
19172		threats	eng	Recent deforestation on Amamioshima, along with road construction in mountainous areas, has been severely impacting the quality of the habitat of the species. Other threats include predation by introduced mongoose and development of rivers.
19175		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species occur in national forests in California and Oregon, but this does not necessarily provide adequate protection. It also occurs in a few national, regional and state parks, and on properties owned by The Nature Conservancy. In Mexico it occurs within the San Pedro Martir National Park, which is a relatively well-preserved area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
19175		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific drainages from the upper reaches of the Willamette River system, Oregon (west of the Cascades crest), south to the upper San Gabriel River, Los Angeles County, California, including the coastal ranges and Sierra Nevada foothills, in the USA. There is a disjunct population at La Grulla Meadow, Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California, Mexico. It has apparently disappeared from portions of its historical range, especially in southern California (see Hayes and Jennings 1988). It occurs from sea level up to 2,040m asl.
19175		habitat	eng	This species inhabits partially shaded, rocky streams at low to moderate altitudes, in areas of chaparral, open woodland, and forest (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983; Hayes and Jennings 1988). It seeks cover at the bottom of a pool when startled. Its breeding and non-breeding habitats are the following, in order of decreasing favourability: (1) partially shaded, small perennial streams, 30-1,000m asl, with at least some cobble-sized rocks, riffle areas and a stream depth rarely greater than 1m; (2) intermittent, small, partly shaded, rocky streams displaying seasonal riffle habitat; (3) large (consistently greater than 1m in stream depth), partly shaded, perennial streams with rocky or bedrock habitat; and (4) open perennial streams with little or no rocky habitat. Breeding takes place in pools of streams, and eggs are usually attached to gravel or rocks at the edge of pools or streams (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983). In northern California, eggs were found attached to cobbles and boulders at lower than ambient flow velocities, near confluences of tributary drainages in wide, shallow reaches, and most breeding sites were used repeatedly (Kupferberg 1996).
19175		population	eng	This species has probably been extirpated from the Tehacahapi Mountains southwards, and there have also been severe declines in the central Sierra foothills of California (Drost and Fellers 1996). It is now rare or absent in Oregon (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993), moderately common in north-western California and the northern Sierra foothills, and rare or absent in the central and southern Sierra foothills. This species was first recorded in Mexico three decades ago, but almost nothing is known about its biology there.
19175		threats	eng	Threats to this species include stream scouring (it may negatively impact frogs in stream bed hibernation sites), introduced aquatic species, non-selective logging practices, and stabilization of historically fluctuating stream flows. However, because causes of declines are uncertain, it is difficult to assess the degree to which this species is threatened. S.J. Kupferberg (pers. comm.) found that bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) larvae perturbed aquatic community structure and exerted detrimental effects on <em>R. boylii</em> populations in northern California but had only a slight impact on <em>Pseudacris regilla</em>.
19176		conservation	eng	Some populations are within protected national park and wilderness areas in Oregon (such as Crater Lake National Park, and the Three Sisters wilderness area), Washington (Olympic and Mount Rainier National Parks), and California (Mount Lassen and Trinity Alps). However, factors such as pesticide drift, UV radiation, and fish introductions are prominent threats even in montane protected areas.
19176		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cascade Mountains from northern Washington south to northern California, USA. Populations isolated from the main Cascade Mountains complex occur in the Olympic Mountains, Washington; Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak area, California; and the Trinity Mountains, California (Stebbins 1985b; Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983; Pearl and Adams 2005). Its range is generally between 665 and 2,450m asl, although some Washington populations might occur at lower altitudes. Its prehistoric range might have included much lower altitudes (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).
19176		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet mountain meadows, sphagnum bogs, ponds, lakes, and streams, in open coniferous forests. It hibernates in mud at the bottom of ponds and in spring-water saturated ground up to at least 75m from ponds (Briggs 1987). It prefers quiet ponds for breeding and usually lays eggs in shallow open water. Non-breeding habitats are often more than 100m from breeding sites, sometimes substantially more. Non-breeding habitats can be streams in lower altitudes. It is not clear how adaptable this species is to habitat degradation.
19176		population	eng	In Washington State, hundreds of populations have been identified, but some of these are likely to be no longer extant, and others might be continuous with adjacent populations (Dvornich, McAllister and Aubry 1997). This species is very rare and possibly extirpated from the Mount Lassen area, California (Fellers and Drost 1993). However, a population persists at Trinity Alps, California (Bury 1973a; Jennings and Hayes 1994). Some declines might have occurred in the Oregon Cascades (Olson 2001), but there have been no declines documented in Olympic (Adams, Schindler and Bury 2001) and Mount Rainier National Parks in Washington State.
19176		threats	eng	Observed declines in Lassen Volcanic National Park are apparently due to a combination of local factors, including (1) the presence of non-native predatory fish that have restricted available habitat and limited dispersal of frogs; (2) gradual loss of open meadows and associated aquatic habitats; and (3) loss of breeding habitat due to a five-year drought (Fellers and Drost 1993). Pesticide drift via prevailing winds might also have contributed to losses in California (Davidson, Shaffer and Jennings 2002). Introduced fish are implicated as limiting distribution in montane areas (Hayes and Jennings 1986; Jennings and Hayes 1994; Adams, Schindler and Bury 2001). UV radiation shows negative effects in experimental settings, but effects at landscape scale are unclear (Adams, Schindler and Bury 2001; Palen <em>et al.</em> 2002). Eggs are highly susceptible to the pathogenic fungus <em>Saprolegnia ferax</em>, which might be introduced during fish stocking (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997).
19177		conservation	eng	All known populations and majority of habitat in southern California occur on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service (USFWS 1999, 2002). Elsewhere, most occurrences are on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service or U.S. National Park Service. Occurrence in protected, pristine areas does not ensure population persistence, due to threats from non-native fishes and disease.<br/><br/>A total of 8,283 acres (33.5 square kilometers) of stream segments and riparian habitat in portions of Los Angeles, Riverside and San Bernardino counties have been designated as critical habitat for the southern California distinct population segment of mountain yellow-legged frog (USFWS 2006). Almost all of the areas proposed as critical habitat are managed by the U.S. Forest Service's Angeles National Forest (ANF) and San Bernardino National Forest (SBNF). A small amount of privately owned land (approximately 119 acres) are also included as  critical habitat.
19177		distribution	eng	Rana muscosa occurs in the southern Sierra Nevada of California and in mountains to the south in southern California. In southern California south of the Sierra Nevada, the historical range extended from Palomar Mountain in San Diego County northward and westward through the San Jacinto, San Bernardino, and San Gabriel Mountains of Riverside, San Bernardino, and Los Angeles counties; these formed four isolated clusters of montane populations (Vredenburg et al. 2007). Additionally, the species occurred as an isolated cluster of populations on Breckenridge Mountain, south of the Kern River in Kern County, and in the Sierra Nevada (west of the crest) in Tulare, Inyo and Fresno counties, extending north to Mather Pass (Vredenburg et al. 2007). The mountain ridges that separate the headwaters of the South Fork Kings River from the Middle Fork Kings River, from Mather Pass to the Monarch Divide, form the northern border of the range. Rana muscosa is now extirpated on Palomar and Breckenridge mountains and in much of the former range elsewhere in southern California and the southern Sierra Nevada (USFWS 2006, Vredenburg et al. 2007). Elevational range in southern California is 1,220-7,560 feet (370-2,290 meters (Stebbins 1985, USFWS 2002).
19177		habitat	eng	The habitat includes sunny riverbanks, meadow streams, isolated pools, and lake borders in the Sierra Nevada, rocky stream courses in southern California. The species seems to prefer sloping banks with rocks or vegetation to the water's edge (Stebbins 1985). Zweifel (1955) observed that the frogs in southern California are typically found in steep gradient streams in the chaparral belt and may range into small meadow streams at higher elevations. In contrast, Sierran frogs are most abundant in high elevation lakes and slow-moving portions of streams. This frog seldom is found away from water, but it may cross upland areas in moving between summer and winter habitats (Matthews and Pope 1999). Wintering sites include areas nearshore under ledges and in deep underwater crevices (Matthews and Pope 1999).<br/><br/>In southern California, USFWS (2006) concluded that Rana muscosa requires the following habitat elements: (1) Water source(s) found between 1,214 to 7,546 feet (370 to 2,300 meter) in elevation that are permanent. Water sources include, but are not limited to, streams, rivers, perennial creeks (or permanent plunge pools within intermittent creeks), pools (i.e., a body of impounded water that is contained above a natural dam) and other forms of aquatic habitat. The water source should maintain a natural flow pattern including periodic natural flooding. Aquatic habitats that are used by mountain yellow-legged frog for breeding purposes must maintain water during the entire tadpole growth phase, which can last for up to 2 years. During periods of drought, or less than average rainfall, these breeding sites may not hold water long enough for individuals to complete metamorphosis, but they would still be considered essential breeding habitat in wetter years. Further, the aquatic includes: a. Bank and pool substrates consisting of varying percentages of soil or silt, sand, gravel cobble, rock, and boulders; b. Open gravel banks and rocks projecting above or just beneath the surface of the water for sunning posts; c. Aquatic refugia, including pools with bank overhangs, downfall logs or branches, and/or rocks to provide cover from predators; and d. Streams or stream reaches between known occupied sites that can function as corridors for movement between aquatic habitats used as breeding and/or foraging sites. (2) Riparian habitat and upland vegetation (e.g., ponderosa pine, montane hardwoodconifer, montane riparian woodlands, and chaparral) extending 262 feet (80 meters) from each side of the centerline of each identified stream and its tributaries, that provides areas for feeding and movement of mountain yellow-legged frog, with a canopy overstory not exceeding 85 percent that allows sunlight to reach the stream and thereby provide basking areas for the species.
19177		population	eng	Vredenburg et al. (cited by Macey et al. 2001) stated that there are only 3-4 healthy populations in the southern Sierra Nevada.<br/><br/>Historically, Rana muscosa was documented in approximately 166 localities in creeks and drainages in the mountains of southern California (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Currently the species is known from only seven or eight locations (Backlin et al. 2002, cited by USFWS 2002; Vredenburg et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but may not exceed a couple thousand (generously assuming 20 subpopulations averaging 100 adults); available information indicates fewer subpopulations and smaller subpopulation sizes. In southern California south of the Sierra Nevada, estimated population size in 2003 was around 183 adults (see USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>A precipitous decline in Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae appears to have occurred over the past 3-4 decades (Bradford 1991; USFWS 1999; Vredenburg et al., in Lannoo 2005). For the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex as a whole, Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped many more extirpated populations than extant populations. <br/><br/>Of the 79 historical R. muscosa sites studied by Vredenburg et al. (2007), only 3 sites contained frogs when revisited between 1995 and 2005 (96 percent extirpation rate). Rana muscosa probably has been extirpated from more than 99% of the historical range in southern California south of the Sierra Nevada (USFWS 2002).<br/><br/>Declines likely are continuing, but the current rate of decline (past 10 years) is uncertain.
19177		threats	eng	A petition to list the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> complex as endangered cited the following threats: non-native fish introductions, contaminant introductions, livestock grazing, acidification from atmospheric deposition, nitrate deposition, ultraviolet radiation, drought, disease, and other factors (see USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Extensive surveys in the Sierra Nevada clearly demonstrate the strong detrimental impact of introduced trouts on <span style="font-style: italic;">R. muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> populations (Bradford 1989, Knapp and Matthews 2000). Removal of non-native fishes (relatively easy in some Sierra Nevada lakes) might easily reverse the decline (Knapp and Matthews 2000).<br/><br/>See Bradford (1991) for information on mass mortality and extinction of a population due at least in part to red-leg disease and predation on metamorphics by Brewer's blackbird; reestablishment of the extirpated population probably will be prevented through predation by introduced fishes.  <br/><br/>Frogs of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> complex are possibly but probably not threatened by sublethal effects of low pH and elevated levels of dissolved aluminum (Bradford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).<br/><br/>Fellers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001) documented oral chytridiomycosis (often indicated by oral disc abnormalities) in larvae and recently metamorphosed individuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae </span>complex in the Sierra Nevada, where recent declines have occurred. However, loss of pigmentation of larval mouthparts does not always indicate chytridiomycosis (Batrachochytrium infection) (Rachowicz 2002).<br/><br/>Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) found support for the hypothesis that airborne agrochemicals have played a significant role in the decline of frogs of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> complex.<br/><br/>Southern California south of the Sierra Nevada: Threatened by predation by introduced trout (remaining frog populations generally are in upstream areas with barriers to trout colonization), recreational suction dredging for gold, human activities at campgrounds and day-use areas, and usual problems associated with small population size and population isolation (e.g., fire, flood, or drought could extirpate small populations, with little chance of reestablishment due to poor connectivity of populations). Human use in and along streams can disrupt the development, survivorship, and recruitment of eggs, larvae, and adult frogs (Jennings 1995; Stewart, in litt. 1995) and can change the character of a stream and its bank and associated vegetation in ways that make whole sections of a stream less suitable for the species (see USFWS 2002). Dams and diversions on streams alter natural hydrologic flow and may negatively impact breeding and foraging habitat and further exacerbate the decline of populations in southern California. Predatory non-native bullfrogs are present in many areas formerly occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">R. muscosa </span>(USFWS 2002) and likely are incompatible with viable <span style="font-style: italic;">R. muscosa</span> populations. Pathogenic chytrid fungus (attacks larval mouthparts) may be a threat (USFWS 2002). Release of toxic or hazardous materials into streams is a potential threat (Jennings 1995, Backlin et al. 2002, USFS 2002).
19178		conservation	eng	Remaining populations occur within the Lake Mead National Recreation area. A range-wide conservation assessment and strategy is currently being developed by a working group consisting of representatives from federal, state, and local governmental agencies, as well as specialist representatives. Current conservation measures include the re-introduction of this frog to suitable, unoccupied locations, and in 2002 frogs were released at two unoccupied natural spring sites.
19178		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the border region of Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, USA, mostly below 1,000m asl. It was known from the Virgin and Muddy River drainages and along the Colorado River drainage downstream of its confluence with the Virgin River to Black Canyon below Lake Mead (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). In the late 1990s, the species could be found at seven sites in three general areas: a spring near Littlefield, Arizona, on the Virgin River; several springs along the Nevada side of the Overton Arm of Lake Mead; and within several springs in the Black Canyon along the Nevada side of the Colorado River (Jaeger <em>et al.</em> 2001; Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). By 2001, two of these populations, including the one near Littlefield, had gone extinct (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005).
19178		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces in springs and outlet creeks, typically in or within a few meters of water, year round (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). It does not tolerate habitat disturbance.
19178		population	eng	As of 2001, there were five known sites in two general areas containing reproducing populations of leopard frogs (Jaeger <em>et al.</em> 2001; Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). A rough estimate of the total population size (combining all sites) was approximately 1,100 adults (range 693-1,833), most of which were at a single spring (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005).
19178		threats	eng	The causes of the decline of this species are not entirely clear, but the loss of habitat to agriculture and water development were likely causes, as was the introduction of American bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>), crayfish, and exotic predatory fish (Jennings 1988). These factors remain active threats. Vegetation encroachment, of both exotic and native vegetation, has been suspected of causing recent declines (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004).
19179		conservation	eng	It is somewhat protected in several federal and state parks and refuges, though management usually ignores this species. Some zoos in North America have raised wild-caught larvae and then reintroduced them to the wild, although captive breeding of this species has not yet been successful.
19179		distribution	eng	This species can be found in south-western British Columbia, Canada, south through the Puget/Willamette Valley trough and the Columbia River gorge in south-central Washington to the Cascades range at least to the Klamath Valley in Oregon, USA. It has been extirpated from much of western Oregon and Washington. Some records are based on misidentified <em>Rana aurora</em> (Green <em>et al.</em> 1997). Historically, it has occurred in north-eastern California (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Hayes 1994). It occurs at an elevation of 20-1,570m asl.
19179		habitat	eng	It is highly aquatic, and rarely found far from permanent quiet water; usually occurs at the grassy margins of streams, lakes, ponds, springs, and marshes (Licht 1971, 1986, Watson, McAllister and Pierce 2003). Animals may disperse into forest, grassland, and brush land during wet weather. It breeds usually in shallow water in ponds or other quiet waters. It does not appear to adapt well to habitat disturbance or alteration, although it does occur in some anthropogenic ponds in central Oregon (C. Pearl, unpubl.).
19179		population	eng	It is now known from ca. 33 sites in the north-western United States and south-western British Columbia, Canada (Pearl and Hayes 2005). Most extant populations are small. The Conboy Lake NWR population produced a five-year maximum-estimated at 8,300 egg masses in one year in the late 1990s, but then plummeted to about 1,500 egg masses in 2003 (M. Hayes, unpubl.). Historically, it is recorded from eight localities in western Washington, 44 in Oregon, three in California, and one in British Columbia. A nearly complete survey of the range in the mid-1990s revealed extant populations only in three sites in Washington and 19 in Oregon. It is apparently extirpated in California (M. Hayes), but recently confirmed as extant in the Fraser Valley, British Columbia (D. Green pers. comm.).The species has probably vanished from about 70-90% of its former range.
19179		threats	eng	It has declined in areas inhabited by the introduced bullfrog (Pearl <em>et al.</em> 2004). Introduced predatory fishes probably also are having a detrimental impact. The decline of this species is also probably related to loss and degradation of breeding habitat such as may result from dam construction, alteration of drainage patterns, dewatering due to urban and agricultural use of water, excessive livestock grazing, and other human activities that reduce or eliminate lentic shallow water. At the embryonic stage, UV-B radiation currently does not seem to be contributing to population declines (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1999).
19180		conservation	eng	It is protected in The Nature Conservancy's Ramsey Canyon Preserve and the Coronado National Forest, which owns the Brown Canyon site. A voluntary conservation agreement among landowners and state and federal agencies was signed in 1996, and is currently being revised. Conservation activities focus on removing threats to populations and habitats and on improving the meta-population structure. Arizona Game and Fish Commission Order 41 prohibits the collection of this species from the wild in Arizona. Phoenix Zoo has successfully bred tadpoles from egg masses that have then been reintroduced to protected areas.
19180		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ramsey and Brown Canyons on the east side of the Huachuca Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona, southwestern United States (Platz 1993). The elevations of these localities range from 1,501-1,829m asl (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). There is speculation that its historical range included the San Pedro River valley and parts of Chihuahua, Mexico (Platz 1997). Leopard frogs that might have been Ramsey Canyon Leopard Frogs have been noted from eleven canyons in the Huachuca Mountains (Sredl 2005), but there are no recent records from any of these sites, except where the species has been released recently.
19180		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist known to inhabit and breed in aquatic systems in pine-oak and oak woodland and semi-desert grassland habitats in extreme south-eastern Arizona. The perennial or near-perennial habitats from which they are known or likely to have occurred include springs, cienagas, earthen cattle tanks, small creeks, and slack water of main-stem rivers. Most habitats are modified or artificial aquatic systems (Sredl and Saylor 1998; Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Deep areas, root masses, and undercut banks are used when escaping capture. Habitat heterogeneity is likely important. The frogs will move into newly created suitable habitat rapidly, if near to occupied habitat (Sredl 2005). It is apparently adaptable to anthropogenic changes. Only one of the nine known sites inhabited by Ramsey Canyon Leopard Frogs is a natural aquatic system; the remainder are artificial or highly modified aquatic systems (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997).
19180		population	eng	It is still known to be extant at just five sites, including backyard ponds. Populations appear to be declining and recruitment is low at most historical localities. Translocation has been successful in one canyon. The animals released there in 1999 have produced over 400 egg masses through 2003 and the population of metamorphosed frogs is thought to be over 400 individuals. In 2004, an abundance of eggs were reported in the wild and there is some evidence that the population might be starting to rebound.
19180		threats	eng	Chytrid fungus has been found in dead frogs at several sites that have declined and this pathogen might be responsible for these declines. The most important threats are disease (chytridiomycosis), non-native predators, and competitors (bullfrogs, sport fish, crayfish), the effects of small, isolated populations, and loss of aquatic habitat through drying or siltation. Other minor threats include floods that carry unnaturally high sediment loads due to road use, improper grazing practices, fire, and other sources.
19181		conservation	eng	This species occurs in and is being managed for on several state and federally managed lands in Arizona (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Mexico it was listed as rare in 1995 (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997), and is also listed by the Mexican government in the "Special Protection" (Pr) category. It is listed as endangered in California and New Mexico (Jennings and Hayes 1994). It has been bred in captivity at Phoenix Zoo.
19181		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western and central Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, in the USA, south to northern Sonora and northwestern Chihuahua, and south-central and southeastern California and adjacent Arizona, from San Felipe Creek to the Colorado River (Painter 1985, Jennings and Hayes 1994). It usually occurs below 1,000m asl, to 1,700m asl in central Arizona (Platz and Frost 1984, Stebbins 1985). It has apparently been extirpated in Imperial Valley, California, and along the lower Colorado River, Arizona-California, though it might be extant in some areas close to the Colorado River in Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989, Jennings and Hayes 1994). It has been replaced by the introduced R. berlandieri along the Colorado and Gila rivers, Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989). In Arizona, it is found in every county except Apache and Navajo with 57% of all localities occurring in Gila, Maricopa, and Yavapai counties (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is believed to be extirpated from New Mexico (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997).
19181		habitat	eng	This species preferably inhabits rocky streams in canyon habitats surrounded by conifer forests or ponds and stream pools, usually in areas of scrub desert. Eggs and larvae develop in quiet water.
19181		population	eng	In California, historical records are from 28 locations with the most recent observation in 1965. It has not been observed during recent general herpetological surveys in California and is believed to be extirpated (Jennings and Hayes 1994). In New Mexico, it is known from 14 historical locations. A 1995 survey of 72 potential locations in New Mexico, including six historical sites that had not been surveyed in the past 10 years, resulted in no observations. New Mexico populations are now believed to be extirpated or occurring in very low numbers (Jennings 1995, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). In Arizona, the Natural Heritage Program recorded 302 populations with 90% believed to be extant (S. Schwartz pers. comm., 1998). An extensive 1991-1996 survey in Arizona resulted in the relocation of this species at 43 of the 115 historical localities surveyed and at 61 additional new sites (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/>It has a widespread distribution and has a large number of occurrences. Abundance information has been collected only from a small area in New Mexico and is highly variable. Mark-recapture studies were conducted annually at six New Mexico sites from 1991-1996 resulting in highly variable population estimates among sites and annually within sites. Population estimates were determined using the Lincoln-Peterson method. Individuals were observed every year at only one of the six locations. The following are the ranges of annual population estimates: 1991 (four sites), 41-704; 1992 (four sites), 19-887; 1993 (two sites), 156-1806; 1994 (two sites), 134-863; 1995 (one site), 92; and 1996 (one site), 70. See Sredl <em>et al.</em> (1997) for more specific individual site information.<br/>Populations are considered stable in central Arizona, but the remainder of the USA populations are declining or extirpated. Information is not available from Mexico. In California, the species has not been observed during any recent general herpetological surveys and is believed to be extirpated (Jennings and Hayes 1994). A 1995 survey in New Mexico, where it occurred as recently as 1985, indicates that previously viable populations are now extinct or numbers are very low (Jennings 1995). A 1991-1996 survey in Arizona indicated that populations were stable in central Arizona, dramatically declining in southeastern Arizona, and extirpated from southwestern Arizona (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997, Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997).
19181		threats	eng	The greatest threats to this species are habitat alteration and fragmentation, and the introduction of non-native predatory and competitive fishes, crayfishes, and frogs (see Jennings and Hayes 1994, Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Habitat alteration is the result of agricultural practices, livestock grazing, development, and reservoir construction (see Jennings and Hayes 1994). Damming, draining, and the diversion of water have fragmented formerly contiguous aquatic habitats. In many areas, fragmentation has been accentuated by introduced predatory fishes, crayfish, and bullfrogs. The species has been replaced by the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">R. berlandieri</span> along the Colorado and Gila rivers, Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989). These factors result in the blockage of potential dispersal corridors for recolonisation. Populations are also vulnerable to large-scale mortality on a frequent basis due to drought, disease, and sulphur toxicity (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Chytridiomycosis was confirmed in this species in 1992.
19182		conservation	eng	It seems that no individuals of this species survive in the wild, but an intensive survey is needed to check all the possible localities where this species could occur. The Mexican government has placed this species in the "Endangered" category.
19182		distribution	eng	The historical range of this species was the Valley of Mexico at Xochimilco, and probably Chalco, and maybe in the eastern state of Mexico, central Mexico.
19182		habitat	eng	It inhabited wetland areas in the surroundings of southern Mexico City.
19182		population	eng	This species is most likely extinct, and has not been seen since it was first described in 1985.
19182		threats	eng	The rapid and intense growth of Mexico City with its high rate of urbanization has caused the disappearance of the only known suitable habitats for this species.
19183		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is included in the regional catalogues of Navarra and Aragón. It is present in Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park (Huesca) and Lizardoia Integral Reserve (Navarra).
19183		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to the southern slopes of the western central Pyrenees Mountains. In Spain, it occurs from the Roncal Valley (Navarra) eastwards to Parque Nacional de Ordesa (Huesca). It also occurs in the Iraty Forest in the western French Pyrenees. It has an altitudinal range of 800-2,100m asl.
19183		habitat	eng	It lives in and close to rocky mountain streams and torrents in which the water is cold, clear and well oxygenated, and is also found in roadside and forest edge ditches, drinking troughs and rain pools. Breeding takes place in these waterbodies.
19183		population	eng	Populations are common in the headwaters of valleys in Huesca Province, while in Navarra populations are scattered in the west.
19183		threats	eng	Threats include stream eutrophication (through intensification of agricultural practices), drought, potential introduction of trout and other predatory fishes, and habitat loss due to the development of tourism and transport infrastructure. Logging and associated activities may threaten the species' habitat, and it is likely to be vulnerable to climate change.
19242		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to gather new information on the range, population status, and habitat requirements of this species and to determine if it is currently threatened.
19242		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from Papahag Island, and a few other localities in the Sibutu Group, in the Sulu archipelago in the southern Philippines.
19242		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests.
19242		population	eng	It is known only from the original collection, which took place before 1920, so its population status is not known. The lack of subsequent records is probably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
19242		threats	eng	The threats in the region where it was collected include deforestation through logging, and habitat conversion to agriculture and real estate.
19304		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Kazakhstan and is listed as a Class I protected species by the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. The range of this species is thought to be within the Hecheng Four-Claw Turtle Nature Reserve of China, although this requires confirmation. Existing conservation measures are considered to be insufficient, and there is a need for the immediate development and implementation of an effective system for conservation of the species at national (Kazakhstan and China) and international level. The most important measure recommended is the urgent creation of special strict nature reserves.
19304		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southern and south-western spurs of the Junggarian Alatau [Altao] Ridge in southern Kazakhstan and Mount Tianshan in Wenquan County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. It may also occur in the adjacent Yining, Huocheng and Tacheng Counties of China, and was historically also found in Hergos County. The range is severely fragmented due to the scarcity of suitable habitats (flat plateaus with a dense network of permanent streams). The altitudinal range is 2,100-3,200m asl.
19304		habitat	eng	It lives in the headwaters of small mountain streams, brooks and lakes in alpine and sub-alpine meadows, and forest-meadow and forest-meadow-steppe belts. Large streams and rivers are avoided. Reproduction extends from April to August. Clutches comprising two egg sacs of around 40-50 eggs each are attached to stones in brooks or streams. Larval development is slow, with larvae mainly feeding on stream invertebrates. The species first breeds at five years and has a lifespan of 15-20 years.
19304		population	eng	This is an extremely rare species. In China, the total population size is estimated at around 6,000 individuals.
19304		threats	eng	It is particularly susceptible to over-exploitation (for medical, commercial and scientific purposes), habitat degradation (caused by over-grazing of forest, lowering of the water table, soil erosion, and desiccation of streams), and accidental mortality caused by the trampling effects of livestock during summer grazing. It is also threatened by local fishing practices.
19306		conservation	eng	The Cape Grysbok is officially conserved in the majority of formal conservation areas in the Western Cape, as well as in many others in the Eastern Cape. It is known from seven National Parks, including Table Mountain National Park, West Coast National Park, Agulhas National Park, and the Wilderness National Park (Castley and Lloyd in press). In addition, it occurs widely in local authority and forestry reserves and on private land (East 1999).
19306		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa, where largely confined to the Cape Floristic Region. It remains widespread and locally common within its historical range in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces. For more detailed discussion of the distribution range see East (1999) and Castley and Lloyd (in press).
19306		habitat	eng	The Cape Grysbok is locally common in thickets, shrublands and the fynbos biome. Dense cover is an important habitat requirement. Their presence in the high-altitude grasslands of the north-eastern Cape is conditional on the proximity of forest fragments and bush clumps, although they may also use long grass for cover (Castley and Lloyd in press). They also enter developed areas such as vineyards and agricultural areas (East 1999), and have been blamed, along with the Common Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), for extensive damage to young shoots in tea plantations in the Cedarberg (C.T. Stuart and T. Stuart, in Castley and Lloyd in press). Grysbok are predominantly broswers, and have limited water requirements (Castley and Lloyd in press).
19306		population	eng	Cape Grysbok are normally solitary and cryptic in their behaviour and therefore seldom seen. They are particularly difficult to see in dense vegetation, which is exacerbated in fire-prone areas such as the fynbos of the Western Cape (Castley and Lloyd in press). Scott (1991) studied the distribution of small antelopes in De Hoop Nature Reserve between 1985 and 1987 and recorded densities of 0.21 animals per 100 km travelled for Cape Grysbok compared with 2.64 for Steenbok. This might suggest that Steenbok are at least 10 times more abundant than Cape Grysbok but, when habitat preferences and relative visibility are taken into account, it is likely that Cape Grysbok have been substantially underestimated (Castley and Lloyd in press).<br/><br/>Based on available habitat, and a requirement of between 6 and 456 ha per animal depending on the vegetation type, Cape Grysbok numbers could lie between 231,448 (post-habitat transformation) and 322,977 (pre-habitat transformation) in the Cape Floristic Region (Kerley <em>et al.</em> 2003), almost an order of magnitude higher than earlier estimates (East 1999).
19306		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Localized declines may occur due to habitat encroachment and loss of dense vegetation in some areas. For example, Grysbok ranges have seen local declines in numbers from areas such as the Addo Elephant National Park where escalating numbers of elephants have opened up or destroyed thicket habitats (Castley and Lloyd in press).
19307		conservation	eng	About one-third of the total population occurs in protected areas, including: Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), Upemba National Park (DR Congo), Kafue National Park and Luangwa Valley (Zambia), Lengwe National Park (Malawi), Banhine National Park (Mozambique), Hwange National Park and Gonarezhou National Park (Zimbabwe) and Kruger National Park (South Africa) (East 1999, Hoffmann and Wilson in press).
19307		distribution	eng	Sharpe’s Grysbok range from the western and southern parts of Tanzania, southwards through south-eastern DR Congo, Zambia (east of the Zambezi River), Malawi, Mozambique (not including the coastal forested regions), to extreme north-eastern Botswana and the eastern Caprivi Strip in Namibia, much of Zimbabwe, and north-east South Africa (Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga) and eastern Swaziland (Hoffmann and Wilson in press).
19307		habitat	eng	Across much of their range (Zimbabwe, Zambia and Tanzania), Sharpe's Grysbok appear to be associated with miombo (Brachystegia) woodland where there is good undercover in the form of low-growing scrub or medium-length grass (Hoffmann and Wilson in press). Although they appear to be associated with areas of good ground cover, Wilson (1975) recorded that they were also found in pure stands of mopane (Colophospermum mopane) with very little good cover in Hwange National Park, while in Chobe National Park they were seen on a sandy plateau in open woodland with light grass and scrub cover. Sharpe's Grysbok are predominantly browsers, but will also graze (Hoffmann and Lloyd in press).
19307		population	eng	East (1999) summarized recorded population density estimates for this species (0.3-0.7 animals/km²), and estimated a total population size of about 95,000 animals. Sharpe’s Grysbok are predominantly nocturnal, exceptionally shy and secretive, and can be overlooked in areas where in reality they are reasonably common so they may be more abundant than supposed (Hoffmann and Wilson in press).
19307		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although they have been eliminated from some parts of their former range by the spread of settlement and associated habitat destruction and hunting for meat (East 1999). Its secretive habits enable it to withstand considerable hunting pressure.
19308		conservation	eng	The Steenbok is very well represented in protected areas and private farmland. The largest numbers occur in areas such as Serengeti-Mara and Tarangire (East Africa), Etosha National Park and private farmland (Namibia), northern, central and south-western rangelands (Botswana), Hwange National Park and private farmland (Zimbabwe) and Kruger National Park and private farmland (South Africa) (East 1999). About one-quarter of this estimated population occurs in protected areas and 30% on private land (East 1999).
19308		distribution	eng	Steenbok have a disjunct distribution, with one population in East Africa (southern Kenya, north and central Tanzania) and a larger one in southern Africa, the isolating barrier being the tall miombo woodlands of central Zambia, Malawi (from which there are no records) and northern Mozambique (Du Toit in press). In southern Africa, their range extends from southern Angola and western Zambia, into most of Namibia (except the arid coastal parts), throughout Botswana, much of Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, and much of South Africa (being absent only from southern and south-eastern KwaZulu-Natal and the neighbouring Eastern Cape) (Du Toit in press). Although their distribution is largely unchanged in southern Africa, in East Africa they no longer occur in Uganda, where most suitable habitat is now cultivated (East 1999).
19308		habitat	eng	Steenbok occupy a variety of habitats, from semi-desert to alpine moorland zones up to altitudes of 3,500 m on Mt Kenya (Du Toit in press). They occur widely in drier savannas, grasslands and scrublands (East 1999). In southern Africa they show a particular preference for heavily grazed areas, where the herb layer has a high forb to grass ratio and the woody layer is dominated by encroaching thorn scrub; such conditions often occur around watering points although Steenbok are largely water-independent. The key habitat requirement is the availability of high-quality food items (green browse, geophytes, berries, flowers or pods) throughout the year (Du Toit in press).
19308		population	eng	East (1999) estimated a total population size in excess of 600,000 individuals, but this is an underestimate. Aerial surveys underestimate population numbers, but ground surveys, in areas where the species is common, give density estimates of 0.3-1.0/km² (East 1999). In general, there are no reliable estimates of Steenbok population density, as census methods are too unreliable for this cryptic species (Du Toit in press).
19308		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, Steenbok are locally vulnerable to predation by domestic dogs and subsistence herdsmen who frequently capture and kill juveniles in particular (when they are found lying alone in cover) (Du Toit in press).
19315		distribution	eng	This is apparently the only fish species endemic to Bali; endemic to Lake Bratan, a crater lake at 1,231 m above sea level.
19316		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tawar, Aceh, Sumatera.
19317		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
19318		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
19318		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the upper slopes of Mount Giluwe and its associated peaks, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It is probably more widespread than current records indicate. It has been recorded from 2,195 to 3,660 m asl, with most records being above 2,800 m asl.
19318		habitat	eng	It is found in subalpine grassland, moss forest, and in the beech-moss forest zone (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 1982). Animals construct shallow tunnels leading to nests among tussock grass.
19318		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. It was last recorded in 1983. This may be a difficult species to trap, possibly because of the types of baits that have been used.
19318		threats	eng	The species has a very restricted range and is preyed upon by hunting dogs. It is potentially threatened by increased fire frequency induced by global warming.
19319		conservation	eng	Although surveys to determine the geographic range of the species, its habitat requirements and status would be beneficial, its habitat is in an area in which it is very difficult to carry out fieldwork.
19319		distribution	eng	The species is known only from and is likely to be restricted to Tawitawi island, Sulu Archipelago (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).
19319		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about this species' habitat and ecology.
19319		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. The species is only confirmed from the type series of three specimens in 1971 (Musser and Heaney 1985). There are unidentified records of <em>Rattus</em> spp from Tawitawi (H. Garcia pers. comm.).
19319		threats	eng	This species is probably threatened by habitat destruction. The island is in a political conflict zone and there is ongoing large scale illegal logging (H. Garcia pers. comm.).
19320		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is a top priority for survey work to determine whether it still survives on Enggano.
19320		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Enggano, off the western coast of Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19320		habitat	eng	It is probably formerly restricted to forested habitats.
19320		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype which was recorded in the 1920s (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19320		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, since the habitat on Enggano has been nearly completely destroyed. It may have been affected by competition with introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19321		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
19321		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Malaysian Peninsula, Singapore, east Sumatra, Padang and Rupat (Musser and Newcomb 1983; Musser and Carleton 2005).
19321		habitat	eng	It has been collected from lowland secondary forest, and in rubber estates whenever traps were set low in trees. Several specimens were also taken on the ground (Muul and Lim 1971). These same authors noted that none were taken in deep primary forest.
19321		population	eng	Muul and Lim (1971) collected large numbers in Selangor (Malaysia).
19321		threats	eng	In the Sumatran part of the range, the major threat is likely to be loss of forest cover, with conversion of land to agriculture. Malaysian populations are probably more stable.
19322		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
19322		distribution	eng	This species is recorded widely throughout Indochina, in Thailand and Koh Samui off the east coast of peninsular Thailand, Cambodia, central Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (including islands of Cham and Thô Chu off the coast of southern Viet Nam). Then in the Sunda Shelf from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Kangean island, and Bali. It has been introduced in the Lesser Sunda Islands (on the islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Sangeang, Komodo, Rintja, Flores, Adonara, Lembata, Alor, Sumba, Timor, and Tanimbar), and in the Philippines (Cebu, Luzon, Mindoro, Mindoro, Negros), Sulawesi and New Guinea (Musser and Carleton 2005). Corbet and Hill (1992), followed by Helgen (2003), recorded the species from Seram in the Moluccas, but Musser and Carleton (2005) could not substantiate its occurrence there.
19322		habitat	eng	Its natural habitat was probably swampy grasslands, but today it occurs in rice fields, grasslands, and plantations (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985) and is broadly commensal with humans.
19322		population	eng	This species is extremely abundant near human habitation and settlement.
19322		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
19323		conservation	eng	It is present in Mt. Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species. Surveys are needed to determine if it is present in other mountain areas.
19323		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mt. Kinabalu (Malaysia) in northern Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005; Md Nor 2001; Musser 1986). It has been recorded between 1,524 and 3,810 m.
19323		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane and moss forest, and sub-summit dwarf forest and scrub (Musser 1986). It is not known if the species is present in disturbed habitats. As with related species, it may be readily adapatable to habitat modification.
19323		population	eng	This species is common at altitudes between 2130 and 3,810 m on Mt. Kinabalu (Medway 1977; Musser and Newcomb 1983; Musser 1986).
19323		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
19324		conservation	eng	Gunung Lampobatang is a designated as a Protection Forest, but it is not known whether this area is well managed for biodiversity conservation. Further research is needed to determine the geographic range and population status of this species, and to establish whether it still survives in the lowlands in modified habitats.
19324		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south western Sulawesi, from the slopes of Gunung Lampobatang at 600-2,500 m, and also from adjacent coastal lowlands close to sea level (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may occur slightly further north on the south western peninsula in limestone formations, but this requires confirmation.
19324		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane and upper-montane forest, and also occurs in forest at lower elevations. It is possible that they may occur in coconut plantations, based on related species in other parts of Sulawesi
19324		population	eng	It is represented only by four modern specimens from the lowlands, and another larger series from Gunung Lampobatang. They probably still occur on the slopes of Gunung Lampobatang, although it is not known whether they might still persist in the lowlands.
19324		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be extensive habitat loss in the region, and much of the forest below 1,700 m has been completely destroyed. Above this elevation, the habitat remains in good condition, although montane forest will degrade as the result of forest loss at lower elevations. It is also, possibly affected by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19325		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
19325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Nicobar group of Islands in India, where it is confined to the islands of Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Trinket (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005). <em>Rattus palmarum</em> and <em>R. anadamanensis</em> occur on Car Nicobar Island and not <em>R. burrus</em> as previously believed (Musser and Carleton 2005). The total area of the islands is less than 1,500 km². and the species is fragmented into three populations on as many islands.
19325		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
19325		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
19325		threats	eng	The December 2004 tsunami has been observed to be the major threat for this species on the Nicobar islands. Post tsunami development, establishment and expansion of human settlements, conversion of forests into palm plantations are serious threats to the species (S. Molur pers. comm.).
19326		conservation	eng	This species is known from many protected areas, including Kakadu National Park.
19326		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the monsoonal subcoastal plains of the Northern Territory, Australia (Williams 2008).
19326		habitat	eng	It is associated with broad, flat, treeless alluvial floodplains of tidal rivers. The species moves seasonally from the floodplains to uplands because of flooding (Williams 2008). Females can produce nine or more young throughout the year depending upon the monsoonal rains (Williams 2008).
19326		population	eng	It is generally an extremely common species where it is found; populations are eruptive (Williams 2008).
19326		threats	eng	Currently, there are no known major threats to this species. There has been some saltwater intrusion of floodplains that can change the vegetation. The effect of feral water buffalo on vegetation encourages saltwater intrusion throughout their range. Habitat loss is occurring through exotic plants, introduced shrubs and grasses. There is also pastoralism through cows. Cane Toads, which reach large numbers in their range, are seen as a potential threat.
19327		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the response of this species to habitat disturbance.
19327		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pulau Taliabu and adjacent Pulau Mangole in the Sula Archipelago (Indonesia), but is absent from Pulau Sanana, where only the introduced <em>R. tanezumi</em> and <em>R. exulans</em> are found (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from the lowlands to possibly around 1,200 m.
19327		habitat	eng	The species is present in lowland tropical forest, and has been collected in secondary growth and coco plantations, although it is not known if it can persist in these modified habitat and it is possible that the localities may have been close to relatively undisturbed forest.
19327		population	eng	It is a common species on Taliabu island.
19327		threats	eng	It may be threatened by habitat loss through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also potentially threatened by competition by introduced <em>Rattus</em> species.
19328		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is a top priority for survey work to determine whether it still survives on Enggano.
19328		distribution	eng	This species is recorded only from the island of Enggano off south west Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005). Surveys on the island conducted in the late 1980s did not find this species, but did record <em>Rattus rattus</em>. A single specimen of <em>Rattus tiomanicus</em> is recorded from the island, and <em>Rattus adustus</em> is also only known from the holotype from Enggano.
19328		habitat	eng	This is a primitive type of <em>Rattus</em>, almost certainly restricted to forest habitats.
19328		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected more than 100 years ago (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19328		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, since the habitat on Enggano has been nearly completely destroyed. It may have been affected by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19329		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
19329		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines where it is widespread though its range excluding the Palawan Faunal Region and the Batanes/Babuyan groups (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Specimens are recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Albay, Aurora, Benguet, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Mountain Province, Pampanga, Quezon, Rizal, and Sorsogon provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Mindoro, Burias, Panay, Siargao, and Ticao. It has also been reported from Samar (Johnson 1946).
19329		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and disturbed lowland, montane, and mossy forest, including scrubby areas close to forest (Balete and Heaney 2006; Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rabor 1955). There are no records from agricultural lands or completely deforested areas. Its elevation range is from sea level to 2,200 m on Luzon, and up to 2,400 m on Mindanao (Musser and Heaney 1992; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).
19329		population	eng	This species is most common in primary and disturbed forest, uncommon in secondary forest, and usually absent in agricultural areas.
19329		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species which has been found to be competitively superior to introduced <em>Rattus</em> species.
19330		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas.
19330		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout both mainland and insular Southeast Asia (including the islands of Taiwan, Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is likely introduced and widespread in the Philippines and several Indonesian islands (including Sulawesi, Buru, Lombok, Sumbara, Flores), the island of New Guinea (approximate range only given). It has also been widely introduced throughout the Pacific (Corbet and Hill 1992; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is now extinct from North Island, New Zealand (Flannery 1995). The map for this species depicts only an estimate of the species extensive range.
19330		habitat	eng	This species is present in a wide variety of habitats, including disturbed or agricultural land. In the Philippines, it occurs in agricultural areas throughout the country at all elevations (Barbehenn <em>et al. </em>1973; Rabor 1986). Often present in disturbed forest (e.g. Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994), usually rare in primary forest, but may be common in primary forest on islands such as Negros with few native rodents (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989). In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and probably commensal species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical mangrove forests. Coastal hilly forest with human settlements in lowlands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19330		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
19330		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19331		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Manusela National Park. Studies are needed into the persistence of this species in modified habitats, and also into the general habitat use by the species.
19331		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded at three localities on Seram (Teloeti Bay on the south coast, near Piliana Village in south-central Seram, and on Gunung Manusela), the elevational range is from sea level to 1,830 m (Helgen 2003). Although the distribution is incompletely known, it almost certainly occurs throughout the island.
19331		habitat	eng	This species seems to be largely terrestrial (Helgen 2003). This species has been recorded from moderately disturbed mid-elevation rainforest in precipitous limestone country (Helgen 2003). This is the largest known rat on Seram.
19331		population	eng	It is known from eight specimens collected at three sites (Helgen 2003).
19331		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging, especially in lowland areas. It can persist in some moderately disturbed areas. It is also threatened by competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19333		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas.
19333		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed mainly along the forested and coastal heath of the southern and eastern portions of the country. It is also present on a number of offshore islands (including Kangaroo Island) (Lunney 2008).
19333		habitat	eng	Recorded from subalpine woodland, coastal scrub, coastal heath, eucalypt forest, and tropical moist forest. It is a largely terrestrial and ground-dwelling species that occurs in areas with a dense undergrowth of shrubs and ferns (Lunney 2008). Females give birth to about five young and several litters may be produced in a good season (Lunney 2008).
19333		population	eng	It is generally common in most parts of its range, and locally abundant. It is very common, for instance, in coastal heaths (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
19333		threats	eng	This species is very sensitive to habitat disturbance and land clearing, and may be threatened in parts of its range by inappropriate fire regimes and bushfire, as well as logging activities.
19334		conservation	eng	It is present in Rutong Protection Forest.
19334		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Flores Island (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality is at 1,300 m, and it probably occurs between about 1,000 and 2,000 m, as on Gunung Ranaka (Kitchener and Yani 1998).
19334		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest, in both primary and disturbed habitats.
19334		population	eng	Described from two specimens (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1991), but later found to be common in forest habitats (Kitchener and Yani 1998).
19334		threats	eng	It is probably affected by ongoing habitat loss; the habitat is especially degraded between 1,000 and 1,500 m. In future its range will probably be more restricted altitudinally, it is also possible that this species is affected by competition with introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus exulans</em>.
19335		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park. Some further studies are needed to determine how well the species can adapt to modified habitats.
19335		distribution	eng	This species is found on throughout Sulawesi, Indonesia, with the exception of the upper slopes of Gunung Lampobatang at the end of the southwestern peninsula. It is also found on Malenge island in the Togian Archipelago (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19335		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest (Musser 1982). It is tolerant of some habitat disturbance and can be found in secondary growth and scrub. It has been recorded from shade-grown coffee plantations. It is a frugivorous species.
19335		population	eng	It is a common species.
19335		threats	eng	In the lowland parts of its range, it is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging and heavy conversion of land to open cultivated areas. It is presumably caught for food in the northern part of its range, but this seems unlikely to be a major threat.
19336		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Leuser National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
19336		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of western Sumatra, Indonesia, where in the foothills and upper slopes of Gunung Leuser from 2,500 to 3,000 m (Miller 1942). It may occur more widely in the northern mountain block, but further surveys are needed to confirm this.
19336		habitat	eng	This species is found in upper montane moss forest and exposed forested heath. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
19336		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat. Only relatively few specimens have been collected.
19336		threats	eng	Although there appear to be no major threats to the species at present, it is potentially threatened by loss of its very limited dry habitat through fire.
19337		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to this species are needed; most importantly, research should focus on how it responds to habitat degradation.
19337		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Yapen, Biak-Supiori, and Owi islands of Indonesia. Its elevational range is from sea level to 600 m asl.
19337		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from tropical moist forest, at the forest edge, in rural gardens, and within villages.
19337		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
19337		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of native forest, especially on the island of Biak. It is possibly threatened by competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19338		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is an urgent need for further survey on Peleng to determine the population status of this species.
19338		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Kepulauan Banggai, Pulau Peleng (1°23'S, 123°14'E) in Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). There is no reason why the species could not occur all over the island, but there has been limited survey work on Peleng.
19338		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species, the type specimen was collected in coastal plains on Peleng. Its closest relative is <em>R. hoffmanni</em>, suggesting that it may be found in all habitats on the island.
19338		population	eng	Represented only by the holotype collected in 1938. There is no information on current poulation status.
19338		threats	eng	There has been extensive habitat loss on Peleng due to logging, which will certainly have led to a decline in this species if it is confined to forest habitats.
19339		conservation	eng	This species is present in Kerinci Seblat National Park, and may be found in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.
19339		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Kerinci and Gunung Talakmau in western Sumatra, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). The altitudinal range is incompletely known, it was collected at 2,225 m at the type locality. It may range more widely geographically and altitudinally.
19339		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary upper montane or moss forest (Musser 1986).
19339		population	eng	The population abundance is not well known. The species is known from relatively few specimens.
19339		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, aside from the secondary knock-on effects of habitat degradation at lower altitudes. Lower montane forest will act as a buffer zone, helping to protect this species.
19340		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas, both in New Guinea and on the Australian mainland.
19340		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), Wokam in the Aru Islands of Indonesia, and on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Menkhorst 2001; Moore and Leung 2008). In Queensland, it occurs as two disjunct populations, one on the Cape York Peninsula in the McIlwraith and Iron Ranges, and the other in the wet tropics between Cooktown and Paluma. It is found from sea level to 1,200 m.
19340		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species primarily of tropical moist forest and gallery forest (Flannery 1995b; Moore and Leung 2008). Animals have been recorded in rural gardens (Flannery 1995b) and secondary or regenerating forest (Moore and Leung 2008). Females can annually give birth to up to three litters of between two and five young (Moore and Leung 2008).
19340		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
19340		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
19341		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
19341		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south east China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Guizhou, Chongqing, east Sichuan, south Shaanxi,, Hainan) and Taiwan, extending into central and southern Lao PDR, south and south west Cambodia, Thailand, and the Pescadores islands (Dang <em>et al</em>. 1994; Marshall 1977; Musser and Carleton 2005; Robinson <em>et al</em>. 1995; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/>Wang (2003) recognized three subspecies in China: <em>R. l. exiguus</em>, Howell, 1927, found in continental China; <em>R. l. losea</em>, (Swinhoe, 1871), occurring in Taiwan; and <em>R. l. sakeratensis</em>, Gyldenstolpe, 1917, from Hainan island.
19341		habitat	eng	It inhabits grass, scrub, mangroves, cultivated fields and other human modified areas from sea level up to about 1,000 m. Studies in Viet Nam suggest that population sizes may fluctuate in relation to the availability of field crops (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
19341		population	eng	This is a common and highly abundant species.
19341		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
19342		conservation	eng	Further surveys are needed to determine the current status of this species.
19342		distribution	eng	This species is found on the islands of Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara (North Pagai island), and Pagai Selattan (South Pagai isalnd) in the Mentawai Archipelago off the coast of southwestern Sumatra, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19342		habitat	eng	It is restricted to tropical lowland evergreen forest.
19342		population	eng	From early collections it seems to have formerly been a common species. It is uncertain as to whether this species is still extant, has not been seen for approximately 100 years.
19342		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been extensively deforested through extraction of timber and firewood and conversion to agricultural land (much of the area is now mixed fruit plantations). There is also expected to be some competition between this species and introduced <em>Rattus</em> taxa.
19343		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine the whether or not the Atherton Tableland populations represent a separate species.
19343		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the south-east ranging from Fraser Island southwards to Kangaroo Island. It is also present in Tasmania and the Bass Strait Islands, and there is a disjunct population in north-eastern Queensland, between the Atherton Tableland and Paluma. Sea level to 1,600 m asl is the elevational range.
19343		habitat	eng	It is largely associated with wetland habitats on the Australian mainland, but in Tasmania it is found in a broader range of habitats including alpine areas, wet sclerophyll forest, buttongrass moorland and temperate moist forest (Lunney 2008). It is often found in heath and sedge type habitats (Lunney 2008). Females may give birth to several litters of up to five young per year (Lunney 2008).
19343		population	eng	It is common and locally abundant.
19343		threats	eng	Formerly the species declined significantly in response to habitat loss following European settlement of Australia (Lunney 2008). Coastal development may result in some local declines; in north-eastern Queensland the species' habitat (grassy, wet sclerophyll forest) is declining due to inappropriate burning regimes resulting in the replacement of this habitat with rainforest.
19344		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
19344		distribution	eng	Maclear's Rat was endemic to Christmas Island, Australia. Christmas Island is approximately 138 km<sup>2</sup> and lies 345 km south of Java, the nearest landmass, in the Indian Ocean.
19344		habitat	eng	This species was largely or entirely nocturnal, and had little fear of people. It was terrestrial, climbed trees, and was present all over the island, which was at the time mostly covered by tropical moist forest. Lister (1888) noted that "they generally keep to the ground, but are able to climb trees." Andrews (1900), who apparently was more impressed by their climbing ability, said they "ascend trees to a great height" in pursuit of fruits and young shoots, and "I have often seen them run up the trailing stems of the lianas, and, in fact, they can climb as well as a squirrel." Little is known of their diet, except that they were fond of fruits and young shoots. <br/><br/>Nothing more is known about the habitat and ecology of this species aside from what is contained in the following lines: "In the daytime these rats live in holes among the roots of trees, in decaying logs, and shallow burrows. They seem to breed all the year round" (Andrews 1900).
19344		population	eng	Maclear's Rat became extinct probably between 1902 and 1904. It was, however, abundant on Christmas Island at the close of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. Lister visited the island in 1887 and said of Maclear's Rat, it "abounds all over the island" (Lister 1888). Andrews (1900) who was on the island for ten months, 1897-1898, noted that it was "by far the commonest of the mammals found in the island; in every part I visited, it occurred in swarms. During the day nothing is to be seen of it, but soon after sunset numbers may be seen running about in all directions." Andrews continued by stating that "as may be imagined, they are a great nuisance, entering the tents or shelters, running over the sleepers, and upsetting everything in their search for food" (Andrews 1900).
19344		threats	eng	This species was still abundant in 1897-1898 while Andrews was on Christmas Island (Andrews 1900). By the time he returned to the island in 1908, he was confident that it and the other native rat species, <em>Rattus nativitatis</em>, were extinct (Andrews 1909). Andrews (1909) speculated that introduced Black Rats <em>R. rattus</em> had brought an epidemic disease to the island that wiped out both native rats. Nearly 100 years later, the mystery was finally solved by Wyatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), who used ancient DNA methods on samples from museum specimens of these rodents collected during the extinction window (AD 1888–1908), and showed that endemic rats collected prior to the introduction of Black Rats were devoid of evidence of a pathogenic trypanosome (carried by fleas hosted on recently-introduced Black Rats). <br/><br/>To Andrews, the disappearance of such an abundant animal in such a short time had to be due to disease because <em>R. rattus</em> was not present over the entire island. It was unreasonable therefore to assume that the native species had been out-competed by <em>R. rattus</em> all over the island (Andrews 1909). Two predators had been introduced to the island by 1908, cat and dog, but these were far too few to rid the island of the rats (Andrews 1900, 1909). Although Christmas Island had an increasing human settlement at Flying Fish Cove, roads now crossed the island, and there was active phosphate mining, there was still a lot of native forest and even collectively these human disturbances were unlikely to have caused significant declines in the populations of Maclear's Rat (Andrews 1909). Andrews (1909) also relates anecdotal information that a medical officer on the island, Dr. McDougal, recalled frequently seeing "individuals of the native species of rats crawling about the paths in the daytime, apparently in a dying condition" in 1902-1904. <br/><br/>Pickering and Norris (1996) report on documents concerning Maclear's Rat that were uncovered at Oxford University, and specimens from the Zoological Collections, University Museum, Oxford University and the University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. The documents include notes for a lecture by K. R. Hanitsch who visited Christmas Island for five weeks in 1904 and was unable to locate either species of native rat. Dr. Durham, a pathologist, visited the island from November 1901 to March 1902 and reported in expedition reports that he was told that <em>R. rattus</em> had been introduced to the island in 1899 by the S.S. Hindustan. Durham also collected 19 rat specimens. Pickering and Norris (1996) note that some of these specimens were of <em>R. macleari</em>, <em>R. rattus</em>, and some of varying degrees of hybrid between <em>R. macleari</em> and <em>R. rattus</em>. Hybridisation between the two species, with the implication that <em>R. macleari</em> was genetically swamped by <em>R. rattus,</em> was put forward as a contributing factor in the demise of <em>R. macleari</em> (Pickering and Norris 1996). However, hybridisation between the two species is unlikely given the phylogenetic distance between them, and apparently re-examination of specimens confirms that each belongs to one or the other species (Musser and Carleton 2005; Aplin 2008). This is further supported by the molecular studies of Wyatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008).<br/><br/>Notes on the date of extinction / date last seen (1902-1904):<br/>Because Durham collected specimens, some of which were <em>R. macleari</em>, in late 1901 and 1902, <em>R. macleari</em> must have become extinct after 1901. <br/><br/>McDougal was the last person to recall seeing native rats alive, albeit in the act of dying (Andrews 1909). These rats were probably <em>R. macleari</em> because <em>R. nativitatis</em> was the rarer of the two, as evidenced by the fact that Durham was unable to collect any specimens of <em>R. nativitatis</em> in 1901-1902. Andrews (1909) writes that McDougal's recollections are from 5-6 years before, but it is unclear whether he meant 5-6 years prior to his 1909 publication (putting the date at 1903-1904), or if it was 5-6 years prior to 1908 when Andrews was on Christmas Island (putting the date as 1902-1903 as Pickering and Norris (1996) interpret the anecdote). Because Hanitsch was unable to locate the species in 1904, it is likely that the species already had become extinct.
19345		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, including Morowali, Bongani Nani Wartabone and Lore Lindu National Parks.
19345		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, where it occurs on the northern arm and central core of the island from lowlands to mountain summits. It is absent from the south eastern and south western peninsulas (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19345		habitat	eng	This species is both terrestrial and arboreal and found in a variety of forest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005). It feeds mainly on fruit, especially figs, and it is commonly caught by setting traps in strangler figs (Musser 1982; G. Musser pers. comm.). It has never been taken in heavily disturbed areas, although it may occur in plantations and bamboo where these are near good forest.
19345		population	eng	It is relatively common, especially at middle and high elevations, and consistently found during surveys.
19345		threats	eng	It is likely to be affected by extensive forest degradation taking place at lower elevations. It is also likely to be found in bushmeat markets in the north-east.
19346		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in Mt. Iglit National Park.
19346		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from hilly and forested areas of Mindoro island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19346		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is not well known, although it is likely to occur mostly at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been found at an elevation range from 700-800 m in Mt. Iglit National Park, and in forested areas from 1,000 m to 1,500 m (Thomas 1898).There are no records of this species from outside of forest.
19346		population	eng	Surveys from 1900s to 1930s considered the species 'not uncommon'. It has been described more recently as common at high elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19346		threats	eng	Deforestation has occurred in the past which has adversely affected this species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is continued illegal logging in the lowlands (M. Lepiten-Tabao pers. comm. 2006) which is unlikely to have negative effects on this species because it occurs at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
19347		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Lampobatang National Park. Further research is needed to determine the full range of the species in the area of Gunung Lampobatang.
19347		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the upper slopes of Gunung Lampobatang on Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005; Musser and Holden 1991; G. Musser pers. comm.). It has been collected between 1,100 and 2,000 m.
19347		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to upper montane tropical moist forest. It is not known if it can occur in modified habitats.
19347		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
19347		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species while Gunung Lampobatang is maintained as a National Park.
19348		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation.  It has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park and Knuckles Forest Reserve. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka in Central and Uva provinces, restrcited to four highly fragmented locations (knuckles, Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya and Ohiya) in the central highlands (Phillips 1980; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; D. Wickramasinghe in litt. 2005, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). It occurs at elevations from 1,320 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19348		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal or crepuscular, terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical evergreen montane forest and wet grasslands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19348		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19348		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, fire and clear-cutting of forests have been observed to be the major threats for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19349		conservation	eng	It is presumed that the species is present in some protected areas.
19349		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern New Guinea and on the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea), the Conflict Group of islands, Fergusson Island, Goodenough Island, Misima Island, Normanby Island, Sideia Island, Sudest Island and Woodlark Island (all Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a). It occurs from sea level up to 2,800 m asl.
19349		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species has been recorded in a wide variety of habitats, from primary mossy tropical forest, tropical scrubland and eucalyptus savanna, through secondary forest to rural gardens, and to some extent villages. The species does not appear to have a breeding season; females give birth to between two and four young (Flannery 1995b).
19349		population	eng	It seems to be a common species.
19349		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.
19350		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas. There are several proposed nature reserves on Halmahera, but the status of these is unknown.
19350		distribution	eng	This is the only murid endemic to the Halmahara Islands where it has been recorded from Morotai, Halmahara, and Batjan islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). All known localities are from low-lying areas, but there has been no survey work in higher-elevations in these islands.
19350		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, and very agile climber. It has been trapped on the ground in gardens on the edge of primary forest, and observed it climbing in understory plants. It spends its days in burrows, the entrances to some having been found placed in particularly bare areas in new gardens (Flannery 1995). Flannery (1995) also observed this species in cocoa plantations on Batjan.
19350		population	eng	Flannery (1995) recorded it as common throughout its range.
19350		threats	eng	Although there is likely to be habitat loss taking place on the Halmahera islands due to logging and agriculture, this species seems fairly adaptable to human disturbance. It may be affected by competition with introduced murids, including <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19351		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.
19351		distribution	eng	The Bulldog Rat was endemic to Christmas Island, Australia. Christmas Island is approximately 138 km² and lies 345 km south of Java, the nearest landmass, in the Indian Ocean.
19351		habitat	eng	Little is known the habitat and ecology of the Bulldog Rat. Its short tail and robust hands and feet demonstrate that it was equipped for life as a fossorial species (Thomas 1888, Forsyth Major 1900). It is interesting, however, that its skull was described as "particularly small, slender, and delicate" (Thomas 1888).<br/><br/>In any case, the species was often seen in and around burrows, and, unlike <em>R. macleari</em>, it did not climb trees. Andrews (1900) summed up what he knew of the animal: "They seem to live in small colonies in burrows, often among the roots of a tree, and occasionally several may be found living in the long, hollow trunk of a fallen and half-decayed sago-palm (<em>Arenga listeri</em>). The food consists of wild fruits, young shoots, and, I believe, the bark of some trees."
19351		population	eng	The Bulldog Rat became extinct probably between 1900 and 1904. This species was never as abundant as the other native rat to Christmas Island, <em>Rattus macleari</em>, which went extinct at about the same time. Two specimens were collected by Lister in 1887 (Thomas 1888), and a further nine specimens were collected by Andrews in 1897-1898 (Andrews 1900).
19351		threats	eng	This species was last recorded by Andrews from his 10 month stay on Christmas Island 1897-1898 (Andrews 1900). At that time, it already appeared to be in decline. Although the species was known from the settlement at Fly Fish Cove, Andrews never encountered them there and believed they were mainly confined to higher ground (Andrews 1900, 1909). In the hills, he described them as "very numerous in places", but less common than <em>R. macleari</em> (Andrews 1900). Andrews (1900) states that "it is difficult to avoid the belief that the former species [<em>R. nativitatis</em>] is being supplanted by the latter [<em>R. macleari</em>] in spite of the abundance of food."<br/><br/>By the time Andrews revisited the island in 1908, he was confident in pronouncing the species to be extinct (Andrews 1909). In 1904, Hanitsch visited the island hoping to collect specimens of the native rats, but was unable to locate either species (Pickering and Norris 1996; see account for <em>R. macleari</em> for further details). Durham visited the island in November of 1901 to March 1902 and collected <em>R. macleari</em> and <em>R. rattus</em>, but was unable to obtain <em>R. nativitatis</em>, despite offering a reward to the local inhabitants (Pickering and Norris 1996; see account for <em>R. macleari</em> for further details). Pickering and Norris (1996) note that Durham did not go far from Fly Fish Cove during his stay, thus he could well have missed <em>R. nativitatis</em>. However, Hanitsch's failure to obtain <em>R. nativitatis</em> in 1904 likely means that the species was extinct by this time. Andrews (1909) relates anecdotal information that a medical officer on the island, Dr. McDougal, recalled frequently seeing "individuals of the native species of rats crawling about the paths in the daytime, apparently in a dying condition" in 1902-1904, and these may have included <em>R. nativitatis</em>, but were likely to be <span style="font-style: italic;">R. macleari</span> (see account for <em>R. macleari</em> for further details). <br/><br/>The demise of the Bulldog Rat was certainly rapid, going from locally common to extinct in less than eight years. It is thought to have been the result of an epidemic disease brought to the island by introduced Black Rats <em>R. rattus</em> (Andrews 1909; Aplin 2008). Black Rats are thought to have been introduced to the island by the S.S. Hindustan in 1899 (Pickering and Norris 1996). This hypothesis is supported by the study of&#160; Wyatt <em>et al</em>. (2008), who used ancient DNA methods on samples from museum specimens of these rodents collected during the extinction window (AD 1888–1908), and showed that endemic rats collected prior to the introduction of Black Rats were devoid of evidence of a pathogenic trypanosome (carried by fleas hosted on recently-introduced Black Rats).
19352		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Additional taxonomic studies are needed for this species.
19352		distribution	eng	This very widespread Asian species, ranges from northeastern South Asia (Bhutan, India and Nepal [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]; probably present in Bangladesh), much of central, southern and eastern China (including the island of Hainan) (Smith and Xie 2008), ranging into Southeast Asia, where it has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and probably occurs more widely. It has been introduced to Benguet Province, Luzon in the Philippines; Palau; central Sulawesi (Indonesia); Seram (Indonesia); and the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province (Indonesia) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005). In South Asia the species occurs from 686 to 2,740 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is presumably found as low as sea level in parts of its range.
19352		habitat	eng	This very adaptable species occurs in various forest types, cropland and human settlements.
19352		population	eng	This is a very abundant species.
19352		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19353		conservation	eng	None in place and none required.
19353		distribution	eng	This species was originally native to south-east Siberia, north-east China and parts of Japan, but it occurs worldwide as an introduced species.
19353		habitat	eng	This species is present in lowland and coastal regions wherever humans are. It is more common in colder climates (e.g. at higher northern and southern latitudes); in warmer and tropical regions it is restricted to habitats highly modified by humans (sewers, buildings, ports, etc.). It does not compete with <em>R. rattus</em>, as the latter is scansorial/arboreal whereas <em>R. norvegicus</em> is strictly terrestrial.
19353		population	eng	Often abundant in suitable habitat (e.g. in urban areas).
19353		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19354		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.
19354		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution within the central part of Papua New Guinea. It ranges from 740 to 1,520 m asl.
19354		habitat	eng	It has been collected in primary tropical moist forest, secondary forest, and grassland. It has been recorded in association with vegetation along stream and river banks in montane forest. It breeds year round; females give birth to between four and six young.
19354		population	eng	It is a common species that can occur in dense populations.
19354		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
19355		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas across its range. Further studies are needed into the relationship between this taxon and <em>Rattus losea</em>.
19355		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from only two localities in Lam Dong province, southern Viet Nam (Musser and Carleton 2005): Langbian Peak (12°03'N, 108°26'E) and Gougah.
19355		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of primary and secondary montane habitats. Musser and Newcomb (1985) note that they "suspect that this species is terrestrial and lives in grass and dense shrubbery providing good cover that may occur either along forest margins or scattered through forest with an open canopy. Thick scrub cover adjacent to agricultural fields may also be good habitat."
19355		population	eng	It is presumed to be a common species.
19355		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.
19356		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected area in the Nicobars (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey, life history studies, monitoring and impact of changing land use on the species are critical recommendations for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; S. Molur pers. comm.).
19356		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Nicobar Islands of Car Nicobar and Great Nicobar at elevations of 50-150 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is restricted in the extent of occurrence to less than 1,200 km² based on the total area of the two islands.
19356		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species. It occurs in tropical evergreen forests, mangrove areas and has been found to prefer crowns of palm trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19356		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in Nicobars (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19356		threats	eng	The effects of tsunami on the habitat could have had some effect on the species. Post tsunami reestablishment of human settlements and related forest loss could be a major threat to the species. However, with an increase in palm cultivation on the islands could make the situation more conducive for the species. Until further studies are conducted on these aspects, it is difficult to identify major threats with any certainty for this species (S. Molur pers. comm.)
19357		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to find out more about the habitat, ecology and threats to this species.
19357		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is found only on Peleng island, off the eastern coast of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). The elevation at collection has not been recorded.
19357		habitat	eng	There is no available information on the habitat requirements of this species. It may be a forest species, but this needs to be confirmed.
19357		population	eng	It is known only from the 1938 type series.
19357		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Much of the forest on Peleng has been degraded, and if it is a forest species it may be threatened by habitat loss.
19358		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in some protected areas.
19358		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it is found on the Vogelkop Peninsula, north and south of the Central Cordillera as far east as the Sepik-Ramu drainage basin (Flannery 1995a). It is also present on a number of offshore islands in the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, and adjacent island groups. It ranges as far east as Tikopia in the Solomon Islands. It is possible that it has been introduced (mostly many thousands of years ago) to much, or all, of the insular part of its range. This species may be more widespread than current records indicate, as <em>praetor</em>-like animals are being trapped outside of the known range. The elevational range of the species is from sea level to 2,000 m asl.
19358		habitat	eng	This species is especially common in disturbed habitats, where it may occur at high densities. It is commensal to some degree, but less so than a number of other <em>Rattus</em> species. Animals have been recorded in burrows and hiding under ground cover. It breeds throughout the year, with the females giving birth to between two and seven young.
19358		population	eng	It is a common species, and is considered to be a pest in some areas.
19358		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although there might be competition between it and <em>R. rattus</em> in parts of its range.
19359		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It does not occur in any protected areas (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). General taxonomic research, field surveys, research into the natural history, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19359		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to southern India where it is known only from three severely fragmented locations at Alleppey, Thrissur and Tiruvananthapuram in Kerala (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs from sea level up to about 1,000 m asl in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19359		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. Although the species has been found to occupy arable land, waterlogged areas and inundated cultivated fields, it appears to have a restricted range (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).
19359		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19359		threats	eng	Conversion of agricultural fields for developmental activities (such as housing construction) and increased use of pesticides and other agrochemicals represent major threats to the species (P.O. Nameer pers. comm.; Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008). It also appears to be threatened by increased competition with the native Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus wroughtoni</em> (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).
19360		conservation	eng	Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas.
19360		distribution	eng	Originally an Indomalayan species, <em>Rattus rattus</em> was widely introduced across the globe as a result of human activities. In Europe, it has been present since ancient times, and is found in most countries. The species is widespread and common throughout the Mediterranean region. The list of countries of occurrence where the species is introduced is incomplete.<br/><br/>Still found throughout south-east Asia; includes a complex of at least four distinct species; <em>Rattus rattus sensu strictu</em> originally from Western India and Pakistan, spread worldwide thence.
19360		distribution	eng	Originally an Indomalayan species; widely introduced across the globe as a result of human activities. In Europe, it has been present since ancient times, and is found in most countries, with the exception of Fennoscandia (where it has gone extinct, except for one site in Denmark). It has suffered declines and now has a very restricted range in the United Kingdom, appears to be confined to one island off the east coast of Ireland, and is probably extinct in Slovakia (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).
19360		habitat	eng	Highly commensal in northern and central parts of Europe, where is is found in a variety of man-made habitats. Also lives outdoors in natural and semi-natural habitats in the Mediterranean (especially on Mediterranean islands) (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).
19360		habitat	eng	Primarily commensal, but also found in a variety of natural and semi-natural habitats.
19360		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species.
19360		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species. It is very common in the Mediterranean. However, in some parts of its northern European range (e.g. United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria) large population declines and range contractions have occurred since c.1970 (Amori and Cristaldi 1999, Spitzenberger 2005). It has disappeared from Fennoscandia (with the exception of one site in Denmark) (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).
19360		threats	eng	No major threats.
19361		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Schedule V (considered vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it occurs in Fanjingshan (Guizhou) and Jianfengling Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and it is presumably present in many other protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species, particularly a review of genetic material, is needed. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
19361		distribution	eng	This widespread species is known from southern China, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, central and northern Myanmar, northeastern India, Bhutan, and eastern Nepal (Musser and Carleton 2005). In China, it is known from the provinces of Tibet, Guizhou, Hainan (Guangdong), and Hong Kong (Smith and Xie 2008). It could possibly be present in the remnant northern and northeastern forests of Bangladesh (S. Molur pers. comm.). It is not known from mainland peninsular Thailand south of the Isthmus of Kra (10E, 30N), but it occurs on four islands off the coast (Koh Tau, Koh Phangan, Koh Samui, and Koh Kra) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is also found on the Andaman Islands (islands of North Andaman, Interview, Middle Andaman, Long, Henry Lawrence, Havelock, South Andaman, and Little Andaman) and Car Nicobar (Musser and Carleton 2005). It roughly occurs from sea level (Aplin and Frost 2006) up to around 2,000 m asl (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19361		habitat	eng	This is a highly arboreal species that is present in a variety of forest and forest edge habitats. It can occur in secondary and modified habitats with wooded areas. It is often found in agriculture lands, scrubland, and around houses (Smith and Xie 2008).
19361		population	eng	It can be moderately abundant in forested areas.
19361		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19362		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its current population status.
19362		distribution	eng	This species is found on Simalur island and the nearby islands of Siumat, Lasia, and Babi (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19362		habitat	eng	There is little information on its habitat requirements. It is likely to be confined to forest and forest edge.
19362		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. It has not recently collected.
19362		threats	eng	It may be affected by forest loss taking place on the islands, and likely by competition with introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus exulans</em>.
19363		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.
19363		distribution	eng	This species is present in Australia and on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). In New Guinea, it ranges eastwards from Koemba (Papua Province, Indonesia) to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a); the south-eastern peninsula populations may represent a different species. In Australia, it is generally found in the north and east of Queensland ranging about as far south as the Mackay range (Shoalwater Bay) (Aplin and Redhead 2008). Specimens reported from northern coastal New South Wales (specimens in the CSIRO wildlife collection; M. Ellis pers. comm.) represent <em>R. tunneyi</em>. There is an isolated population on South West Island, but it may have been extirpated. It is found from sea level to 670 m.
19363		habitat	eng	It is found in canefields, tropical grasslands, savanna, open woodland and grassy glades within tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995a; Aplin and Redhead 2008). It can breed throughout the year, with females giving birth to litters of around six young (Aplin and Redhead 2008).
19363		population	eng	It is generally an abundant species, although in southern parts of Australia, particularly south-eastern Queensland, it is rare.
19363		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19364		conservation	eng	The species is presumed to occur in some protected areas.
19364		distribution	eng	This species is generally widespread on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), being absent only from the Vogelkop Peninsula (Indonesia), the southern lowlands, and parts of the far east of the island (Flannery 1995). Its elevational range is between 450 and 2,800 m asl.
19364		habitat	eng	The species can be found in low densities within primary tropical moist forest, but it is abundant at the forest edge and in rural gardens or open and grassy areas. Animals are often found in burrows. It breeds throughout the year with females giving birth to litters averaging between 2.7 and 3.4 young.
19364		population	eng	It is a common species that can reach high densities.
19364		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although there is competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
19365		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Survey, ecological studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19365		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Andaman group of islands of India. It has been recorded from Henry Lawrence Island,  South Andaman and Middle Andaman (Agrawal 2000, Musser and Newcomb 1983) (T.P. Bhattacharya pers. comm.). It occurs from sea level to 200 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19365		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and noctural species and occurs in tropical evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19365		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19365		threats	eng	While there appear to be no major threats for this species, it is possible that post tsunami (December 2004) relief works, including the creation of new settlements and clearance of forests in the Andaman islands, could be a potential threat to the species (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).
19366		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in numerous protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this common and adaptable species. There is a need to further study the taxonomic relationships between populations of Rattus currently allocated to this species.
19366		distribution	eng	Both the native and introduced geographic distribution of this very widespread species remains somewhat unclear. We follow Musser and Carleton (2005) who consider the species native distribution to range from eastern Afghanistan (Niethammer and Martens 1975) through central and southern Nepal (below about 2,000 m asl), Bhutan, northern India, northern Bangladesh and northeastern India (distributional relationships between <em>R. rattus</em> and <em>R. tanezumi</em> along the northern portion of the Indian subcontinent still requires resolution) into southern and central China (including Hainan Island), the Korean Peninsula, and mainland Southeast Asia (including offshore islands) south to the Isthmus of Kra, being also probably native to Mergui Archipelago. Musser and Carleton (2005) report that it is presently unclear whether the species is native or introduced to Taiwan and Japan. But is most likely introduced to Peninsular Malaysia and islands on the Sunda Shelf and nearby archipelagos, including the Mentawai Islands (Musser and Califia 1982; Musser and Newcomb 1983). It has been introduced to Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. It has been widely introduced throughout the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005; Larry Heaney pers. comm.). It appears to have been widely introduced throughout insular Southeast Asia, including the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands and the Molucca Islands, to western New Guinea (range map very provisional for this island) (Flannery 1995), and from here into Micronesia to the islands of Eniwetok and Fiji (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19366		habitat	eng	This highly adaptable species is commonly found in and around villages and agricultural areas. In the Philippines it is common in disturbed lowland and montane forest up to 1,800 m (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1989.
19366		population	eng	It is a common to abundant species.
19366		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19367		conservation	eng	The type locality is not formally protected, and is in urgent need of effective protection since it is one of the few remaining tracts of intact forest on Timor. There is a need to conduct survey work to determine if this species survives in the wild.
19367		distribution	eng	This species is known only as a living animal collected in 1990 from near the summit of Gunung Mutis, west Timor, in Indonesia, at 1,900 m (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1991). From the sub-fossil record, this species seems to have been formerly abundant, at least down to about 500 m (K. Aplin pers. comm.).
19367		habitat	eng	The site from which the species was recorded is montane rainforest rather than mixed-eucalypt forest, which characterizes much of the island (though this is not the original native vegetation). The habitat at the type locality is believed to still be intact, and has so far not been subjected to burning. The original specimen was taken from tunnels in a steep erosion gully.
19367		population	eng	There is no information on current population status, and it is known only from the holotype. This species was not recorded during several weeks of survey work conducted at slightly lower elevations (about 1,500 m), suggesting it is extremely rare.
19367		threats	eng	The major threat has been extensive habitat loss initially due to extensive forest clearance from the use of metal tools coupled with burning. Burning takes place to clear land for grazing horses; in the absence of fire, the area rapidly converts into eucalyptus forest. Since burning is often uncontrolled, fires frequently move into the dried out eucalypt forest from which they can then move into higher elevations.
19368		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across the range.
19368		distribution	eng	This species is found on peninsular Thailand (south of the Isthmus of Kra), the Malaysian Peninsula, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo). In the Philippines, it occurs in the Palawan Faunal Region only being recorded from Arena, Bancalan, Busuanga, Calauit, and Palawan (Musser and Carleton 2005).<br/>It is also found on many smaller islands, including Tioman island, Enggano island (south-west of Sumatra) and the Maratua Archipelago (east of Borneo), as well as the smaller islands of Pandjang, Rabu Rabu, Sangka Laki, Bilang Bilangan, Eraban, and Miang Besar off the east coast of Borneo (Musser and Califia 1982). It is also found on Busuanga (Musser 1977).
19368		habitat	eng	The species is apparently found only in a variety of habitats in the lowland areas: from secondary forest, agricultural areas, plantations, gardens, scrub, to grassland (Sanborn 1952; Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), while Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. (2004) found it in grassland-forest mosaic, selectively logged forest, rice fields, mossy forest, and the transition zone between mossy and montane forest.
19368		population	eng	This species is common and widespread.
19368		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
19369		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park).
19369		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in western, northern, and eastern Australia. It appears that prior to European settlement of Australia, this species was distributed over most of continental Australia, except for the humid south-east (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species is present on quite a few islands, particularly in Western Australia.
19369		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that lives in tall grassland, cane fields, and other modified habitats. The species forms shallow burrows in loose, sandy soil (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to up to eleven young after a gestation period of 21 to 22 days (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008).
19369		population	eng	It is a patchily distributed species that is abundant in some areas; fluctuates widely in response to climatic variability (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008).
19369		threats	eng	<em>Rattus rattus</em> eliminates this species. Cattle grazing could be a threat due to trampling of shallow burrows. Feral cats also may be a threat.
19370		conservation	eng	It is listed in Schedule V (considered vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is not known from any protected area within South Asia (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it occurs in Tongbiguan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and it is probably present in several other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
19370		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring in China (Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guangdong), and extending west through northern Myanmar, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, north to Tajikistan, eastern Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, south-eastern Kazakhstan, northern and eastern Afghanistan, and east-central Iran (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Bangladesh (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs at elevations ranging from 1,200-4,250 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992).
19370		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane habitats (Smith and Xie 2008), rocky areas such as, inland cliffs, mountain peaks, cultivated lands (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005), and often near residential areas (Niethammer and Martens 1975).
19370		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
19370		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
19371		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed on core areas and potential threats, as well as management.
19371		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and northern Australia (Predavec and Watts 2008). The species has a core range, but is occasionally found in a far larger area (during eruptions). Irrigated areas in the Ord River area of North-eastern Kimberley provide artificial refugia. The natural core range is in the Barkly lake system of the Barkly Tableland of the Northern Territory and the Channel Country in Southwest Queensland and north-eastern South Australia. It is also found on Southwest Island, within the Sir Edward Pellew Group, Northern Territory. Portions of the core range are within protected areas. There are smaller refugia as well.
19371		habitat	eng	It is generally a nocturnal, terrestrial species of arid or desert areas. Populations are largely restricted to refuges within the arid landscape where food and water are always available. It has an extremely high reproductive potential (Predavec and Watts 2008).
19371		population	eng	It is a species that generally occurs in core areas, but can occasionally expand its range to a far larger area. The species can be eruptive with rainfall, but there seem to be far fewer eruptions today than in the past, perhaps due to degradation of habitat within refugia. Severe bottlenecks have been coupled with extremely large range expansions over time; there are historic records of extremely high abundance. No good estimates of population numbers outside of eruptions ("plague years"), which tend to be about 20 years apart.
19371		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species. Destruction of refuge areas by cattle may be a threat. In Western Australia, the species seems to have benefited from irrigation (artificial refugia within the Ord River area). During drought periods, there is a high level of pressure on refuge areas, as well as an increased threat of hunting by feral cats.
19372		conservation	eng	It is present in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
19372		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from coastal areas to around 1,000 m.
19372		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that has been recorded from primary lowland tropical moist forest. It is unclear if it is found in disturbed areas, it may be found in secondary habitats close to natural forest. It is presumed to be a frugivorous species.
19372		population	eng	There is no available information on the population abundance of this species.
19372		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss, through logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use. It seems likely that this large rat is hunted for food.
19376		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas (Han and Giman pers comm.).  It is protected in Sarawak and Malaysia (Giman and Han pers. comm.), as well as probably in Thailand (Giman pers. comm.). It also protected by CITES Appendix II (Han and Giman pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
19376		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout its range in southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo.
19376		habitat	eng	This is a closed canopy species that is never seen on ground, and is dependent on tall, wet evergreen forests (Giman pers. comm.). This species can tolerate plantations and secondary forest (Giman pers. comm.). This is an arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004).
19376		population	eng	It is quite rare in Sarawak and peninsular Thailand. This species was the most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of1.30 ± 0.61 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>.  In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malaysia; in Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 3.61 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al</em>. (1996) found 5.18 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak.
19376		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and hunting in forest fragments, it is probably sensitive to even selective logging (Giman pers. comm.).
19377		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Bangladesh - India: Eagle?s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Tale Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Gorumara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal; Bangladesh: Lawachara National Park (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, life history, limiting factors studies and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Southeast Asia, it occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, including Gunung Masigit Kareumbi Hunting Park, Pananjung Pangandaran Nature Reserve, and Ujong Kulon National Park in Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia. This species is protected from hunting by legislation in Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II regulating international trade in this species.
19377		distribution	eng	This widespread Asian species ranges from northern South Asia, through southern China into much of mainland and western insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has been recorded widely distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and West Bengal), and eastern Nepal (distribution poorly recorded) at elevations of 500 to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from southern Yunnan, southern Guanxi, eastern Xizang and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is widely but patchily distributed from Myanmar and Thailand, through Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (possibly a more contiguous range here), to Indonesia (Mentawi Islands, Sumatra, Billiton, Panaitan, Java and Bali).
19377		habitat	eng	In South Asia, it is a diurnal and arboreal species occasionally feeding on the forest floor. It occurs in tropical and subtropical montane evergreen and dry deciduous forests. It is found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Lao PDR, Evans <em>et al.</em> (2000) found this species to be common in evergreen and semi-evergreen broadleaf forest, and rarely present in pine forest. It is found from the plains up to at least 1,400 m (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004). This species feeds on pine cones and oak trees on Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). It is not tolerant of habitat modification, and has a long generation time of eight to nine years, with a litter size of one or two young.
19377		population	eng	The population of this species is declining in South Asia, but the rate of decline is unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand the species is abundant in suitable habitat where hunting is controlled. It is easily eradicated from fragmented habitat (Duckwoth pers. comm.). In Lao PDR it is recorded from most survey areas; however, populations are now so low in some areas that it has not been recorded in recent surveys, including Sangthong District, Nam Et and Phou Louey NBCAs (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It was found to be locally common during a survey in 1994-95 of the the Nadi Limestone area in Lao PDR by Evans <em>et al</em>. (2000). It is still widespread and abundant in Cambodia, largely as hunting has not yet impacted populations in this country (R. J. Timmins pers. comm.). This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River catchment area). This species is rare and declining on Java, where it is found only in remote areas (away from human habitation) within remaining patches of forest (primary and secondary) (Boeadi pers. comm.). This species is declining in population, in parallel with forest loss on Java (Boeadi pers. comm.).
19377		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation due to shifting (jhum) agriculture practices, small-scale logging, clear-cutting, forest fires, expansion of human settlement, harvesting for local consumption have been observed to be major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is threatened by hunting and habitat loss in China (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1989). This species is especially vulnerable to hunting and habitat loss (often through logging operations) in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000), Viet Nam and Thailand. This species was "formerly one of the most commonly sold mammals in the That Luang fresh food market in Vientiane" (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). Hunting pressure is predicted to increase in Cambodia, as following the overharvesting of large bodied mammals, smaller species are now being targeted (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It is not hunted on Java, as people are generally aware of the legislation protecting this species; however, habitat loss remains a considerable threat (Boeadi pers. comm.).
19378		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India — Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Chimmoni Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park,Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tadoba National Park in Maharashtra, Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) Wildlife Sanctuary, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Mudumulai Wildlife Sanctuary, Sriviliputur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Kallar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kulathupala Wildlife Sanctuary, Senthumani Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Survey, taxonomic research, limiting factor studies, monitoring and protection are recommended for this species (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
19378		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern, central and eastern peninsular India specifically in the Western Ghats, Satpuras and Eastern Ghats, where it is known from Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. It is seen at elevations of 180 to 2,300 m asl. It is widely distributed, but occurs in several severely fragmented populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19378		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal and arboreal species. It occurs in tropical evergreen, semievergreen and moist deciduous forests. The species is not tolerant of habitat degradation and does not occur in plantations. It is found to occupy high canopy (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005). The age of first reproduction for a female is around three years, four years for a male. Age of last reproduction is about 12 years in the wild (older females observed with pups). The generation length is approximately seven to nine years (Renee Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> to Sanjay Molur 2008).
19378		population	eng	Fairly common to locally common in areas where it occurs. Local extinctions and range restrictions have occurred, the current population is fragmented and remains in areas with limited suitable habitat (S. Molur pers. comm.). Although protected from hunting, there is still pressure on the species and it continues to decline due to hunting and habitat loss.
19378		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to expansion of agro-industry based large-scale and small-scale plantation, monoculture plantation, clear felling, selective logging, construction of dam, hunting for local consumption have been observed to be the major threats for this species through out its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is being hunted extensively in the Eastern Ghats where new human settlements have been built. Population decline and habitat loss is at an alarming rate (S. Kolipaka pers. comm. 2005)
19381		conservation	eng	This species is listed under the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972 and 1991), and is listed on CITES Appendix II regulating international trade in this species. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Sri Lanka - India: Srivilliputhur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu and Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala; Sri Lanka: Horton Plains National Park, Central Province and Sinharaja Reserve Forest, Sabargamuwa Province (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ex-situ conservation efforts might be required for the Indian population (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19381		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka. In India it is known from only five severely fragmented locations, while it occurs more widely and less fragmented in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges in elevations of 150 to 500 m asl in India and up to 2,500 m asl in Sri Lanka.
19381		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal and arboreal species. It occurs in tropical dry deciduous and montane forests, where it is confined to the riverine habitats (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It has a generation time of ~7-8 years.
19381		population	eng	Within India, the total population in Chinnar and adjoining Tamil Nadu is about 300 individuals. In addition the most southerly population has 300 individuals, the second most southernly population about 200 individulals. The most northerly population, Kartanar, had about 6 squirrels in 1989 and 3 individuals in 2001. The population in India in the north is decreasing, the population in the south is increasing (J. Joshua pers. comm.). The Indian population has been estimated to be fewer than 500 mature individuals, and the population has been decling at a rate greater than 30% in the last 25 years and is also predicted to decline at the same rate in the next 25 years due to habitat loss and hunting (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The population of this species is considerably higher in Sri Lanka.
19381		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agro-industry farming, small-scale logging, selective logging, increase in human settlements, forest fire, inter-specific competition, competition from alien species, hunting for local consumption purposes, presence of domestic predators have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Within India, hybridization between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ratufa indica</span> is considered to be a major threat to remaining populations (Joshua 1996).
19387		conservation	eng	Conservation issues need to be considered when proposls for coastal developments are made.
19387		distribution	eng	Eastern Cape coastal Rivers, South Africa north into central Mozambique.
19387		habitat	eng	Coastal rivers and lakes, both freshwater and estuarine areas.
19387		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats.
19387		threats	eng	Coastal dune mining, harbour developments and other tourist related coastal developments are potential threats.
19390		conservation	eng	About 60% of this estimated total occurs in protected areas and 13% on private land. Major populations occur in areas such as Selous (Tanzania), Kafue (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Gorongosa (Mozambique), Okavango (Botswana) and Kruger and Eastern Shores (South Africa) (East 1999).
19390		distribution	eng	The Southern Reedbuck occurs from Gabon and Tanzania to South Africa. It remains widespread in protected areas and other areas with low to moderate levels of settlement, including significant populations on private land in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Namibia. In Republic of Congo, it formerly occurred locally in the savannas of southern Congo, but it may now be extinct as a result of intensive meat hunting. Its presence was last confirmed in 1974 in Mount Fouari Faunal Reserve. The Namibian population is largely extralimital, as it has been introduced to private land outside its natural range in the northern farming districts, where it is now relatively numerous) (East 1999).<br/><br/>Lynch and Watson (1990) sighted one individual in Sehlabathebe N.P. in Lesotho, but this may have been a vagrant from KwaZulu-Natal.
19390		habitat	eng	Southern Reedbucks occupy floodplain and drainage-line grasslands in savanna woodlands. They overlap with Bohor Reedbuck in southern Tanzania. The most significant habitats in South Africa are valleys in which the grass cover is tall (or there is suitable herbaceous cover) and permanent water is available (Jungius 1971). Southern Reedbucks range to 1,800-2,000 m in the Drakensberg mountains of South Africa (Rowe-Rowe 1994). They are predominantly fresh grass grazers, but will occasionally take small quantities of herbs, and in some areas may even browse extensively (Jungius 1971).
19390		population	eng	As with the Bohor Reedbuck, aerial counts of the Southern Reedbuck tend to result in density estimates of 0.1-0.2/km², or less than 0.1/km². Aerial surveys have produced density estimates of up to 1.9 per sq km in Nyika National Park (Malawi), where the species is exceptionally abundant. Aerial surveys undoubtedly tend to underestimate its true numbers. The Southern Reedbuck can occur at much higher densities within areas of exceptionally favourable habitat, e.g., 35.0/km² in Eastern Shores State Forest (South Africa). East (1999) estimated the total population size at 73,000 individuals. Overall population trends are generally stable in protected areas, increasing on private land and decreasing elsewhere (various authors in East 1999)
19390		threats	eng	Southern Reedbucks remain widespread, but they have been eliminated from some parts of their former range by the spread of settlement and associated habitat destruction and hunting for meat and trophies.
19391		conservation	eng	Southern Mountain Reedbuck occur in sizeable numbers in both protected areas and on private land. In South Africa alone, they are protected in at least nine National Parks, and in numerous provincial reserves and conservancies.<br/><br/>Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck occur in viable populations in Awash, Nechisar, Omo and Mago National Parks (Ethiopia), the Aberdares, Nairobi and Lake Nakuru National Parks (Kenya), and Arusha and Tarangire National Parks and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Tanzania) (East 1999). Western Mountain Reedbuck occur in the Gashaka-Gumpti N.P., while in Cameroon there is some protection from poachers in the hunting zones below the Adamaoua Mtns and in the hunting zones between Benoue and Bouba Ndjida National Park (East 1999; Avenant in press).
19391		distribution	eng	The Mountain Reedbuck occurs in three separate populations in East and southern Africa, and in a restricted area of eastern Nigeria and north-central Cameroon (East 1999; Avenant in press).<br/><br/>The Southern Mountain Reedbuck (<em>R. f. fulvorufula</em>) occurs in South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, and Mozambique (Lubombo Mtns only). <br/><br/>Chanler's Mountain Reedbuck (<em>R. f. chanleri</em>) occurs in south-eastern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania.<br/><br/>The Western Mountain Reedbuck (<em>R. f. adamauae</em>) has been reduced to a small, declining remnant subpopulation in Nigeria in the Gashaka-Gumpti N.P. and the Gotel Mtns. adjoining the park’s southern boundary, and in Cameroon in the Adamaoua Mtns. and the hunting zones below, as well as in the hunting zones between Benoue and Bouba Ndjida N.P. (East 1999; Nicholas 2004; Avenant in press).
19391		habitat	eng	Mountain Reedbuck live on ridges and hillsides in broken rocky country and high-altitude grasslands (often with some tree or bush cover), from 1,500-5,000 m (East 1999; Avenant in press). They are predominantly grazers, and water is an important habitat requirement.
19391		population	eng	Densities of Mountain Reedbuck within protected areas vary greatly according to factors such as the extent of suitable habitat. Estimated densities of the southern subspecies in protected areas in South Africa vary from 0.1/km² or less in areas such as Karoo, Addo-Zuurberg and Marakele National Parks to 3.0-3.5/km² in Golden Gate Highlands and Royal Natal National Parks and 7.5/km² in Mountain Zebra National Park. lrby (1977) reported a density of 4.9/km² of Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck on ranchland in Kenya’s Rift Valley.<br/><br/>The current total population is estimated at over 36,000 individuals (33,000 Southern Mountian Reedbuck, 2,900 Chanler's Mountain Reedbuck, and 450 Western Mountain Reedbuck) (East 1999). The estimate for Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck may be very conservative if this subspecies still occurs in significant numbers on private land in Kenya (East 1999). The estimate for Western Mountain Reedbuck may also be slightly low; they have been reported as locally common, albeit declining, in Gashaka Gumpti N.P. (Nicholas 2004). Overall population trends are more or less stable for the Southern Mountain Reedbuck, but decreasing for the other two subspecies.
19391		threats	eng	The main threats to Mountain Reedbuck include the expansion of human settlement, poaching, widespread disturbance by cattle herders and their livestock, and hunting by dogs (Avenant in press).
19392		conservation	eng	The Bohor Reedbuck is now generally uncommon/rare where it survives in West Africa, but viable populations persist in areas such as Boucle du Baoule (Mali), Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Corubal River (Guinea-Bissau) and Arty-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso). It is more numerous in Central and East Africa, with major populations in areas such as Bouba Ndjida (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris (Central African Republic), Bale Mountains (Ethiopia), Murchison Falls and Pian-Upe (Uganda), Mara (Kenya) and Serengeti, Moyowosi-Kigosi and Selous (Tanzania). Some of these key populations are decreasing because of poaching, especially in West and Central Africa. About three-quarters of the estimated total occurs in protected areas (East 1999).<br/><br/>If current trends persist, the Bohor Reedbuck should continue to survive in reasonable numbers in national parks, equivalent reserves and hunting concessions in East Africa, but it will become increasingly uncommon in West and Central Africa until its survival in these regions is eventually threatened. More active protection and management of areas which retain viable populations will be necessary to reverse this trend.
19392		distribution	eng	The Bohor Reedbuck ranges north of the forest zone from Senegal, The Gambia, and southwest Mauritania through the woodlands and floodplain grasslands of the savanna zone of West Africa through southern Chad, the savanna woodlands of the Central African Republic, extreme northeast DR Congo, southern Sudan, to Ethiopia and south to Lake Tanganyika and the Rovuma River in Tanzania (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). In West Africa, in particular, they have undergone fairly large range contractions, and may now be extinct in Togo and Côte d’Ivoire (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).
19392		habitat	eng	Bohor Reedbuck are associated with woodland and floodplain grassland across much of their range. They are effectively water-dependent grazers, but show a strong preference for extensive areas of flood plains and open inundated grasslands where access to water may become restricted in the dry season (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). On the extreme north-eastern margins of its range, this species has colonized montane areas, such as the Bale Mtns up to about 3,200 m, beyond its usual preferred habitats (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). In some marginal parts of its range, such as the Aberdares in Kenya and the Ethiopian Highlands, this species co-exists with the Mountain Reedbuck <em>Redunca fulvorufula</em>, while over much of Tanzania its range overlaps with that of the Southern Reedbuck <em>Redunca arundinum</em>.
19392		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population size at 101,000, including 4,500 in Sudan, which is probably a substantial underestimate; the species may well survive in good numbers in southern Sudan. Its numbers are in gradual decline over most of its remaining range, apart from some protected areas in East Africa.<br/><br/>Aerial survey estimates are available for populations of this species in many parts of its range, particularly in Central and East Africa. Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that these surveys have generally given density estimates of 0.1-0.3/km². Aerial counts undoubtedly tend to underestimate reedbuck numbers, by an unknown but probably substantial amount. In the Sahelo-Sudanian habitat of Waza N.P. (north Cameroon), of which approximately 40% is floodplain, numbers were estimated, mostly through terrestrial counts, at 4,000 in 1960, dropping to 500 in 1967 and to less than 100 following the 1970s droughts (respectively, 2.4 to 0.3 to 0.06/km² (Scholte 2005, Scholte <em>et al.</em> 2007).
19392		threats	eng	Bohor Reedbuck have been eliminated from large parts of their natural range by overhunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of settlement and livestock, although it tends to survive for longer in over-exploited areas than less secretive and more easily hunted species. In many countries it only survives in viable but greatly depleted numbers in protected areas. Drought has also been cited as a major threat. <br/><br/>In North Cameroon, floodplain degradation through the construction of upstream dams has been a major reason for the decline of Reedbuck; nonetheless, reedbuck can still be observed even in floodplain areas with (relatively) high population pressure (P. Scholte, in Hoffmann and Kingdon in press).
19399		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Argentina.
19399		distribution	eng	This species occurs from  Rio Grande do Sul State, in Southern Brazil through Uruguay, Central Argentina, Patagonia to Tierra del Fuego Argentina. This species also occurs in the Falkland  Islands (Islas Malvinas).
19399		habitat	eng	The species occurs from sea level to 3,000 m, pampas and open field habitats and grasslands.
19399		population	eng	In some areas could be considered rare (Northeast Argentina) but it most part of its range is a common species.
19399		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
19401		conservation	eng	Although populations occur in a number of protected areas, many are probably not large enough to ensure long term persistence. There was a recovery plan completed in 1984. However, the US Fish and Wildlife Service is developing a "Tidal March Ecosystem Recovery Plan," with <em>R. raviventris</em> to be included in this apparently updated plan.<br/><br/>This mouse is protected to some extent by federal and state listings as Endangered. Several small marshes are protected in national wildlife refuges and other preserves, but few provide refuge and cover from the highest tides.<br/><br/>Marshes and adjacent uplands need to be protected from development and degradation. Managed, diked marshes appear to be the key to the survival of the subspecies <em>raviventris</em>; future management prescriptions may include the possibility of a more patchy environment with some areas of high salinities plus the acceptance of some open areas within the managed areas (Geissel <em>et al.</em> 1988). Shellhammer (1989) questioned whether large enough areas of diked marsh can be acquired in the near future to protect this species in perpetuity. <br/><br/>Up-to-date data are needed on range-wide habitat occupancy and relative abundance. Research is needed on the effects of plant salinities on water balance and habitat use of mice.
19401		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to habitats bordering San Francisco Bay in California in the United States. Occurrence within this small range is highly fragmented. The range encompasses salt marshes of the San Francisco Bay system (San Francisco, San Pablo, and Suisun bays), in central California (Shellhammer 1982). Subspecies <em>halicoetes</em> occurs in marshes of San Pablo and Suisun bays (and including Petaluma Marsh in Sonoma County) and along the northern Contra Costa County coast (east to Antioch dunes area), and subspecies <em>raviventris</em> occurs mostly in the southern part of South San Francisco Bay, with a few populations on the Marin Peninsula (west to the mouth of Gallinas Creek) and near Point Richmond (Shellhammer 1989). The remaining tidal marsh habitat in the San Francisco Bay Area is estimated to be 12,555 ha (=125 sq km). An unknown fraction of this habitat is actually occupied by this species.
19401		habitat	eng	The species' habitat consists of salt and brackish marshes, where plants provide a dense mat of cover, ideally around 30-50 cm high with a high percentage (e.g., 60%) of pickleweed (<em>Salicornia</em>) and complex structure of <em>Atriplex</em> and other species. The mouse needs access to refuge/cover on high ground, especially during highest tides in winter. It appears to be less dependent on cover in diked marshes than in tidal marshes (Geissel <em>et al.</em> 1988). In South San Francisco Bay, in diked marsh, harvest mice used more open and saltier pickleweed when vole populations were high, then moved into deeper and less salty pickleweed as vole populations declined (Geissel <em>et al</em>. 1988). In diked salt marshes, high densities of voles (<em>Microtus</em>) seem to force this species into marginal habitats or to become locally extirpated (Geissel <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>halicoetes</em> builds ball-like nests of dry grasses/sedges on the ground. Subspecies <em>raviventris</em> does little nest building but may use accumulations of vegetation on the ground surface. Diet dominated by green vegetation. Will eat salt grass and pickleweed as well as some seeds. Diet influenced by availability of food plants. More green vegetation is eaten in winter. Primarily nocturnal but sometimes active during the day.<br/><br/>Average litter size is 3.7-4.0 young. There may be only a single litter/year in <em>R. r. halicoetes</em> (breeds May-November) but multiple litters in <em>R. r. raviventris</em> (breeds March-November).
19401		population	eng	Shellhammer <em>et al.</em> (1983) estimated a total population of a "few thousand animals at the peak of their numbers each summer." They also mapped 24 "principal populations." Recent figures are unavailable. The former, probably more or less continuous historical distribution has been fragmented, leaving harvest mouse populations restricted to discontinuous patches of suitable habitat. About 84% of historical tidal marshes of the San Francisco Bay area have been destroyed. Over 3,600 acres of habitat have been filled or degraded since the 1970s. Since 1982, hundreds of acres of nontidal salt marsh in the South Bay have been disced and the damage continued into at least 1989 (California DF&G 1990).
19401		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction or disturbance due to development, residential encroachment, intrusion of fresh water into salt marshes, marsh subsidence, and predation (especially by housecats). In many marsh habitats, there is no higher ground to escape to during high tides. Habitat within the range of the southern subspecies (<em>R. r. raviventris</em>) has been more severely impacted than that of the northern subspecies (<em>R. r. halicoetes</em>).<br/><br/>Most of the historical tidal marsh habitat has been lost as a result of filling for urban development and conversion to agricultural uses and commercial salt production. Upland vegetative cover adjoining tidal marshes is important cover for harvest mice during high tides and storms, but much of this habitat is no longer available due to clearing and conversion to intensive human uses. Remaining populations are relatively small, isolated, and may lack the size and full range of resources needed for long-term persistence.<br/><br/>Threats include continued loss of habitat to development, pollution and other changes in water quality, and encroachment by exotic plant species (e.g., invasive cordgrasses, <em>Spartina</em>) that do not provide suitable habitat for salt marsh harvest mice. Most areas of remaining habitat support few to no mice because of backfilling, subsidence, or vegetation changes. Salt marshes are subject to subsidence and increased tidal coverage (flooding) as a result of groundwater pumping. This reduces the extent of the broad pickleweed zone favoured by harvest mice (Shellhammer 1998). <br/><br/>Most of the remaining habitat is diked. Much of the habitat is managed for waterfowl and such management (e.g., lowered salinities) may not be compatible with the needs of harvest mice. Excessive inputs of fresh water (e.g., from discharges of treated municipal sewage) have altered salinity levels, marsh vegetation, and mouse food resources. See Shellhammer (1989) for a discussion of threats to diked marshes.<br/><br/>Much of the East Bay shoreline from San Leandro to Calaveras Point is rapidly eroding. In addition, an estimated 600 acres of former salt marsh along Coyote Creek, Alviso Slough, and Guadalupe Slough has been converted to fresh- and brackish-water vegetation due to freshwater discharge from South Bay wastewater facilities; these areas likely no longer support populations of salt marsh harvest mice.<br/><br/>Some habitat has been lost as a result of discing of nontidal salt marsh. Discing of wetlands, an activity not regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, has been employed by interests seeking to obscure the Corps' jurisdiction and circumvent the Clean Water Act and the Federal Endangered Species Act.<br/><br/>Some harvest mice are preyed upon by feral and free-ranging cats and non-native red foxes that roam salt-pond dikes or wander from residential areas now bordering many tidal marshes.<br/><br/>Habitat may be threatened over the long term by the rise in sea level that is predicted to occur within the next century. In combination with reduced sediment supply caused by upstream dams and water diversions, sea level rise could result in major losses of tidal marsh habitat that would be very difficult to prevent or mitigate.
19402		conservation	eng	Located in mid-elevation national parks in Costa Rica, including Rincon de la Vieja national park.
19402		distribution	eng	This species occurs in allopatric populations in highlands of north central Nicaragua (Jones and Genoways 1970) and central Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Nicaragua it occurs from 1,100 to 1,250 m (Reid 1997) and in Costa Rica from 1,700 to 2,300 m (Reid 1997).
19402		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It can be found in or near evergreen forest. It was recorded in Nicaragua from a shaded coffee field; in Costa Rica it was found in deep rocky canyons and cloud forest (Reid 1997). It was trapped along fallen logs and at the bases of large trees in Nicaragua (Jones and Genoways 1970). <br/><br/>Two pregnant females, with 3 and 4 embryos, were caught in June (Reid 1997). Often in edge habitat.
19402		population	eng	This mouse is generally rare and local (Reid 1997), but may be abundant is secondary growth.
19402		threats	eng	None known.
19403		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within its range. This species needs more research to learn about its basic biology and life history.
19403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west central Sonora to west central Sinaloa, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is found in the lowlands near, but not along, the coast from 60 - 180 m asl.
19403		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Individuals in Sinaloa (Russell and Alcorn 1957) were trapped in an open field alongside a brush fence, and in mesquite and agave dominated field with short grasses.  It has a restricted habitat.
19403		population	eng	This species is rare.
19403		threats	eng	There is significant habitat transformation for agriculture within its range.
19404		conservation	eng	This species' range falls partially into a number of protected areas.
19404		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Transvolcanica, from southeast Jalisco to west central Veracruz, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19404		habitat	eng	This species range is found in high elevation pine/oak forest.
19404		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.
19404		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
19405		conservation	eng	Located in protected areas in Costa Rica, including Volcán Irazu.
19405		distribution	eng	This species occurs from upper elevations in the Cordilleras Tilarán, Central, and Talamanca, Costa Rica, to the Chiriquí region, western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,300 to 3,350 m (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989).
19405		habitat	eng	This mouse can be found in highland and montane forest, forest edge, and clearings. Its biology is poorly known. It is mainly terrestrial but is sometimes caught on logs or low branches. It may be found among patches of bamboo near creeks (Reid 1997).
19405		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997).
19405		threats	eng	None known.
19406		conservation	eng	Most of its distribution in Panamá is in protected areas.
19406		distribution	eng	This species occurs from east Panamá, including Azuero Peninsula, and perhaps adjacent Colombia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 900 m (Reid 1997).
19406		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It can be found in evergreen forest, forest edge, and in open areas (Reid 1997). It is mainly arboreal (Handley 1966). A female with 4 embryos was caught in February (Reid 1997).
19406		population	eng	This species is common in Panamá. It can be found in rural gardens, but does not persist in secondary forests.
19406		threats	eng	None known.
19407		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place that specifically target this species. Occurs in many national parks in many different countries.
19407		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south central Arizona, north central, south and east Texas, to southwest Missouri and west Mississippi, USA; south through much of México, to west Nicaragua; excluding the Yucatán Peninsula and Caribbean coastal lowlands (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,700 m (in southeastern Mexico and Central America) (Reid 1997).
19407		habitat	eng	<em>R. fulvescens</em> is found primarily in grassy fields interspersed with shrubs, such as mesquite-grassland and pine-grassland associations (Spencer and Cameron 1982). In Central America, it can be found in dry thorn scrub, gaps in deciduous forest, and grassy areas (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>This mouse is strictly nocturnal and is mainly terrestrial, but often travels above ground through low vegetation. Burrows are used in hot, dry areas, and small runways are made through grass. The diet consists of seeds, insects, and shoots; in the United States, insects make up the bulk of diet in spring, and seeds predominate in fall (Spencer and Cameron 1982). Nests are usually built among vegetation, within 1 m of the ground. Litter size in Texas is 2 to 4 young, averaging 3 (Cameron 1977). Pregnant females with 4 to 5 embryos were taken in San Luis, Mexico, where breeding occur year-round (Dalquest 1953).
19407		population	eng	<em>R. fulvescens</em> is common within its geographic range in North America, with densities ranging from 6-30 individuals/ha depending on habitat type and season, with greatest densities during summer and winter months (Spencer and Cameron 1982). In Central America, this mouse is uncommon (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>Populations of <em>R. fulvescens</em> experience rapid turnover, with an average generation length of 1 year.
19407		threats	eng	No major threats known. However, barriers to dispersal, including roads and habitat fragmentation due to agricultural development, may have negative effects on population dynamics.
19408		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas across its range. Taxonomic research is needed for this species.
19408		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Yucatán Peninsula and coastal Chiapas, México, south along Pacific watershed to west central Costa Rica (Reid and Langtimm 1993 in Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid 1997).
19408		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats: from dry thorn scrub to wet highland forest. It is found in mature forest, second growth, and in forest clearings (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is mainly nocturnal, but may be active in the late afternoon. This species is arboreal and terrestrial; in tall, mature forest it is rarely trapped on the ground and has been caught in the canopy at 15 m; in scrub and grassy areas it is largely terrestrial and is often trapped on the ground (Reid 1997). The diet includes insects and seeds. This mouse makes spherical nests in hollows and sometimes uses bird nest-boxes attached to trees. It often invades houses and buildings near forested areas, nesting on rafters or in gaps between roofs and ceilings. Reproduction occurs throughout the wet season and sporadically in the dry season. Litter size is 2 to 5 young, averaging 3. This mouse can live for more than 2 years in the wild, although normal life span is probably 6 to 9 months (Reid 1997).
19408		population	eng	This mouse is locally common and widespread (Reid 1997).
19408		threats	eng	None known.
19409		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
19409		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-central Nayarit and northwest Jalisco, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19409		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The native vegetation in this area is desert scrub.
19409		population	eng	This species is not very common.
19409		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range. Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. There is extensive loss of native vegetation in this area due to the expanding cultivation of blue agave in monoculture.
19410		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. Occurs in several protected areas within its range.
19410		distribution	eng	Known from portions of southwestern Canada, south through the western and mid-western United States, to southern Mexico (Musser and Carleton 2005). Found from below sea level in Death Valley to 4,000 m in central Mexico. (Webster and Jones 1982). There is evidence that the range within the U.S. is expanding to the east as a result of increased habitat alteration for agricultural use (Ford 1977)
19410		habitat	eng	This species has wide habitat tolerances. It prefers open, mesic habitats dominated by herbaceous vegetation including meadows, pastures and fallow agricultural fields. This species may also inhabit deserts, shrublands, marshes and cleared areas of pine-oak forests.  <br/><br/><em>R. megalotis</em> is a nocturnal, non-hibernating species. Nests are built of shredded plant material and are typically found on the ground under dense vegetation but may also be found in burrows or in vegetation above the ground (Wilson and Ruff 1999). The diet is opportunistic and is comprised mainly of seeds, herbaceous material and insects. The reproductive potential of a female Western harvest mouse is quite high, with females known to have 14 litters totaling 58 pups within 12 months (Bancroft 1967).
19410		population	eng	The western harvest mouse is a widespread and abundant species. Densities may reach up to 60 individuals/ha in late summer (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
19410		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
19411		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas.
19411		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Tamaulipas and west central Michoacán, México, south through Middle American highlands to western Panamá, Colombia and Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005). <br/><br/>Small distribution in Panama (in the northwest). It occurs from 500 to 3,300 m (usually 1,000 to 2,000 m) (Reid 1997). In Colombia, the species occurs in Cordillera Central, Occidental, and Oriental (M. Gómez-Laverde and C. Delgado pers. comm.); in Ecuador, it is present in north central of both cordilleras (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Colombia, it is found from 900 to 3,200 m (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.); in Ecuador, this species is found from 1,800 to 3,800 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
19411		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats, from montane oak forest to dry lowlands forest and arid scrub. <br/><br/>It is found in both within mature forest and in secondary forest, clearings, and cultivated areas (Reid 1997). This species is nocturnal; it is semiarboreal and may be trapped on logs, vines, or on the ground. In Veracruz, Mexico, a nest was found on top of a bromeliad, about 2.5 m above ground. The nest was a loosely woven ball of grasses and plant fiber, about 23 cm in diameter (Hall and Dalquest 1963). Litter size is 3 to 4 young (Reid 1997). It is predated by the crab-eating fox.
19411		population	eng	This mouse is uncommon to locally common in Central America (Reid 1997); in Colombia and Ecuador it is very common.
19411		threats	eng	No major threats known. Although not a major threat, the species is disturbed by habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
19412		conservation	eng	Occurs in very few protected areas in Mexico, and in a poorly-protected park in Guatemala.
19412		distribution	eng	This species is in isolated pockets in the highlands of north Michoacán and Distrito Federal, north Oaxaca, and central and south Chiapas, Mexico, and west central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Chiapas and Guatemala, it occurs from 2,200 to 3,100 m (Reid 1997).
19412		habitat	eng	This mouse is restricted to mature and undisturbed montane forest with numerous ferns, mosses, and fallen trees (Reid 1997). It is semiarboreal. It may be trapped on logs or on the ground at the base of large trees.
19412		population	eng	It is local but not uncommon in suitable habitat (Reid 1997).
19412		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss.
19413		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
19413		distribution	eng	Known from central USA and northern Mexico. In the United States, found between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains, as far north as southeastern Montana and southwestern North Dakota,  south to southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico and Texas. In Mexico, occurs from northern Sonora and Chihuahua to northern Durango (Musser and Carleton 2005).  Range includes elevations from 84 m to 1,920 m above sea level.
19413		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open grassy areas, including cultivated fields, prairie, and grazed grasslands. It is generally found in higher numbers in short-grass prairie than in tall-grass prairie. <br/><br/>The diet of the plains harvest mouse consists of insects, seeds and herbs. Nests are built of grasses and may be found either on the ground or slightly elevated off the ground in vegetation. Females of this species have a high reproductive potential. Breeding begins at 8 weeks old, with less than 30 days between litters which have an average of 4 young (Wilkins 1986).
19413		population	eng	<em>R. montanus</em> is very common within its range. Observed densities are between 1.5 and 7 individuals/ha, with the greatest densities in short grass associations (Brown 1946, cited in Wilkins 1986)
19413		threats	eng	No known major threats. Dispersal of <em>R. montanus</em> is inhibited by roadways, however, the impact of these barriers on population dynamics has not been quantified (Wilkins 1986).
19414		conservation	eng	Further studies are urgently required concerning its ecology, taxonomic affinities, and extent of occurrence.
19414		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated records in southwestern Nicaragua and west central Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 660 m to750 m (Jones and Baldassarre 1982 in Reid 1997).
19414		habitat	eng	Its biology is unknown. This species occurs in deciduous forest (Reid 1997), often in degraded areas.
19414		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens (Reid 1997). It is poorly known.
19414		threats	eng	Much of its habitat has been degraded, so habitat degradation and deforestation are potential threats.
19415		conservation	eng	Located in national parks in well-protected forests. Needs taxonomic research.
19415		distribution	eng	This species is patchily recorded in the Cordilleras Central and Talamancas, central Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,500 to 3,400 m (Reid 1997).
19415		habitat	eng	This mouse can be found in wet, mature highland forest and in pastures at forest edge (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It has been trapped on the ground in grass at the edge of wet forest on Irazu (Goodwin 1946), and in low vegetation in elfin forest. This mouse feed on the nectar of a melastome (<em>Blakea</em> sp.), and may be one of several mouse pollinators for this plant (Lumer and Schoer 1986). A pregnant female was captured in July (Reid 1997).
19415		population	eng	It is locally common (Reid 1997).
19415		threats	eng	None known.
19416		conservation	eng	There is a program to control the populations of invasive dogs and cats. A program is still needed to control the invasive snakes and rodents.
19416		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Cozumel Island, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19416		habitat	eng	This mouse occurs in dense, viney second growth and forest edge. It is nocturnal and semiarboreal (Reid 1997).
19416		population	eng	It is very rare and patchily distributed. The population of this species fluctuates significantly (A. Cuaron pers. comm.).
19416		threats	eng	This species is threatened by predation from introduced species: feral dogs, cats, and <em>Boa constrictor</em>.  It is also threatened by competition from introduced house rats and mice.<br/><br/>The species is also vulnerable to the effects of frequent hurricanes and flooding, particularly in combination with its extremely small, fluctuating population and interactions with invasive species.
19417		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
19417		distribution	eng	This species is known from allopatric segments in the Middle American highlands: southwest Jalisco and south San Luis Potosí to central Guerrero and east central Oaxaca, México; central Chiapas, México, to north central Nicaragua; and central Costa Rica to west Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,200 to 4,000 m (Reid 1997).
19417		habitat	eng	This species is found at forest edge or among brush and pastured in cold, wet montane regions. It favors more open habitats than other harvest mice; it is fairly common in coniferous forest, but rare in mature, broadleaf forest (Reid 1997). Does well in secondary forest.<br/><br/>This mouse is mainly terrestrial and is usually trapped on the ground; although it can climb. A round nest of grass was fond under a log in a coffee field in Nicaragua (Jones and Genoways 1970 in Reid 1997). Breeding may occur year-round, and litter size is 3 to 5 young (Anderson and Jones 1960 in Reid 1997).
19417		population	eng	This mouse is widespread, often common (Reid 1997).
19417		threats	eng	None known.
19418		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de las Minas National Park in Guatemala. Very little is known about this species, so distribution, ecology, and biology research is needed.
19418		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Chiapas, México, and central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 2,400 to 2,900 m (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 1983; Reid 1997).
19418		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to mature, broadleaf montane forest and may be threatened by habitat loss. It favors the coldest, wettest slopes, with abundant epiphytes and mosses (Reid 1997). Its biology is poorly known; this species apparently is semiarboreal (Reid 1997).
19418		population	eng	It is rare and local (Reid 1997).
19418		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat. Fire is a potential threat, for example in Sierra de las Minas National Park, due to the small extent of occurrence of the species.
19419		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within its range.
19419		distribution	eng	This species occurs from west Chihuahua to west central Michoacán, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
19419		habitat	eng	This area is characterized by high elevation pine/oak forest.
19419		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.
19419		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
19426		conservation	eng	It is protected under the French law, but does not occur in any protected area. Further investigation should be carried out to know if the species is still alive. It is classified as Endangered (highest category at that time) under the French national Red List (1994).
19426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the border area between France and Italy in the Alpes-Maritimes/Imperia province. It is known from only three collection points which correspond to one location. The last collections have been carried out in the 1980s. One of those collection point is the locus typicus in Gorge de Saint Louis and the species has never been collected alive in this place.
19426		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist Mediterranean deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
19426		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
19426		threats	eng	This species might be impacted by the ongoing urbanization of this  region and by all activities coming from the increasing population, e.g. there are parking lots and garages built into the gorge.<br/>The locus typicus (Gorge de Saint Louis) is invaded by invasive plants (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Impatiens</span> spp.) and the species can not be found there anymore. Invasive plants might pose the biggest threat to the species.
19427		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, although this very rare species should receive more attention to find new subpopulations. There is also a need to monitor population trends.
19427		distribution	eng	This species in endemic to Alpes-Maritimes (Gorbio and Monti), South-East France.
19427		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist Mediterranean deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
19427		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
19427		threats	eng	This species might be impacted by the ongoing urbanization of this region and by all activities coming from the increasing population.
19429		conservation	eng	The species is protected under the French law.
19429		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France (Paillon and Bevera valleys in the north-east of Nice) and Italy (near the French border).
19429		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
19429		population	eng	There are no population data available.
19429		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown. This species might be impacted by the ongoing urbanization in this region and by all the activities from the increasing population.
19432		distribution	eng	Occurs in Italy and is endemic to Alpi piemontesi, near Torino.
19432		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist shaded sites, within leaf litter and woodland around 1,150 m asl and non-calcareous soils.
19433		conservation	eng	No information available.
19433		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries (Tanzania, Burundi, DRC and Zambia) (West <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19433		habitat	eng	The species is common on and underneath cobbles in shallow waters 0-5 m. Sometimes groups appear size sorted, thus may be cohorts.
19433		population	eng	This species occurs in large numbers on appropriate substrates.
19433		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
19434		conservation	eng	No information available.
19434		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known only from Burundi.
19434		habitat	eng	It lives underneath rocks and cobbles in shallow waters, 0-3 m.
19434		population	eng	No information available.
19434		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
19435		conservation	eng	No information available.
19435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is only recorded from Tanzania and Burundi, shown as six locations, but it may well occur between these (West <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19435		habitat	eng	It lives underneath rocks and cobbles in shallow waters, 0-3 m.
19435		population	eng	No information available.
19435		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
19436		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its extensive range.
19436		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in southern and central Angola, Namibia, Botswana, all of South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, North West Province and Limpopo Province), eastern Zimbabwe, western central Mozambique, Malawi (Nyika Plateau and Mulanje Massif), northeastern Zambia (Nyika Plateau), and highlands of Tanzania, Kenya, eastern Uganda (Mount Elgon) and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kasaki, Marungu Mountains). It has been recorded up to 2,300 m asl.
19436		habitat	eng	This species occurs in six biotic zones of southern Africa, but is restricted to disjunct montane savannas throughout its range north of South Africa. This is a commensal species found in agricultural lands and in houses. It is sometimes considered to be a pest species.
19436		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
19436		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19454		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Pincinguaba State Park in Sao Paolo state.
19454		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ubatuba, Sao Paolo state and Vicosa, Minas Gerais state, and part of Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em>, 2004 and Percequillo pers. comm.). The type locality is Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro State), but there are no records from that state since 1848 (Bergallo pers. comm.).
19454		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest habitat, often found in proximity to bamboo and in modified habitat (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Percequillo and Bergallo pers. comm.).
19454		population	eng	This rodent was considered extinct because no records had been found for more than 100 years, now found in four localities, but still not common (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
19454		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.
19455		habitat	eng	Found in cave streams.
19474		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas across its range.
19474		distribution	eng	This species is found on Borneo (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
19474		habitat	eng	The species is only recorded from primary forest in hilly areas, however, it is not well surveyed in other habitat types. It could be dependent on good quality habitat.
19474		population	eng	This seems to be a rare, occurring at low densities.
19474		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting, using snares, and habitat degradation and loss.
19475		conservation	eng	The historical range of the species included several protected areas. Further research into the cause of the decline of this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19475		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, was restricted to elevations between 350 and 800m asl in the Blackall and Conondale Ranges in south-east Queensland (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The geographic distribution of the species was less than 1,400km² (map in Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). <em>Rheobatrachus silus</em> inhabited streams in the catchments of the Mary, Stanley and Mooloolah River (Ingram 1983). It was thought to have been first found in 1972 (Liem 1973), but Ingram (1991) reported a specimen collected in 1914 from the Blackall Range.
19475		habitat	eng	<em>Rheobatrachus silus</em> lived in rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and riverine gallery open forest at 350m asl and was closely associated with watercourses and adjacent rock pools and soaks (Czechura 1991; Meyer< Hines and Hero 2001e). These streams are mostly perennial, but in extremely dry years they may cease to flow (Ingram 1983). The vegetation along the stream banks is usually closed forest or tall closed forest with emergent eucalypts, although there are some sites in open forest with grassy ground cover (Ingram 1983). In spring and summer individuals were usually found in or at the edge of rock pools, either amongst leaf-litter, under and between stones or in crevices around the edge (Ingram 1983). The species was also found under rock in shallow water in backwaters and also the main flow of permanent watercourses (Ingram 1983; Czechura 1991). Searches of popular sites in winter only recovered two frogs and it is assumed that the species hibernates in deep crevices in rocks or spaces between rocks underwater during the colder months (Ingram 1983). Adult males tend to prefer deeper pools, whereas females and juveniles may move to newly created pools after rain as long as these pools contained stones and/or leaf-litter (Ingram 1983). The prerequisite for the use of pools by this species seems to be that the pool must be deep enough for the frog to be able to sit with its head out of the water and be able to safely submerge (Ingram 1983). Individuals will only sit fully exposed on the rocks during light rain (Ingram 1983). <em>Rheobatrachus silus</em> has never been recorded from cleared riparian habitat. Breeding activity occurs between October and December (Ingram 1983). Males call from rock crevices above pools (Ingram 1983). Females brood young within the stomach and give birth through the mouth (Tyler and Carter 1982). Fertilized eggs or early stage larvae are presumably swallowed by the female and complete their development in the stomach (Tyler and Carter 1982). The number of eggs in gravid females (approximately 40) exceeds the number of juveniles found to occur in the stomach (21-26) (Tyler 1989). It is not known whether or not the excess eggs are digested by the female or whether or not they are simply not swallowed (Tyler 1989). The production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach of the female ceases during brooding (Tyler <em>et al.</em> 1983). Tadpoles develop in a manner similar to the aquatic tadpoles of other species though, as they feed off egg yolk, the labial teeth are absent and the intestines form at a later stage of development (Tyler 1989). After 6-7 weeks the females give birth to up to 25 young (Tyler and Davies 1983a). Young emerge from the female’s mouth as fully formed frogs and after four days the digestive tract returns to normal and the female recommences feeding (Tyler and Davies 1983b). Ingram (1983) reported minimum brooding periods from two individuals of 36 and 43 days and suggested that the duration was such that females were unlikely to breed twice in one season.
19475		population	eng	The species declined rapidly and disappeared at about the same time as a sympatric species <em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Czechura and Ingram (1990) and Ingram (1990) state that the last frog was seen in the wild in 1979 on the Conondale Range. However, Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reported the existence of a specimen taken from the Blackall Range in 1981. Despite intensive searching, the species has not been located since (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). In the laboratory, the last known individual died in 1983 (Tyler and Davies 1985b). Ingram (1983) studied a population of the species in the headwaters of Booloumba Creek, Conondale Range, and estimated that approximately 78 were present in 1976. No other estimates of population size are available for the species. This species is now believed to be extinct.
19475		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the disappearance of this species remains unknown (Tyler and Davies 1985b). Populations were present in logged catchments between 1972 and 1979. Although the species persisted in the streams during these activities, the effects of timber harvesting on this aquatic species were never investigated. Its habitat is currently threatened by feral pigs, invasion of weeds (especially mistflower <em>Ageratina riparia</em>), and altered flow and water quality due to upstream disturbances (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). However, from what is known from similar declines and disappearances elsewhere in the world, the disease chytridiomycosis must be suspected.
19476		conservation	eng	Its known range is within a protected area. A recovery plan for the species has been prepared. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19476		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, was discovered in January 1984 (Mahony <em>et al.</em> 1984) and was found exclusively in undisturbed rainforest in Eungella National Park, mid-eastern Queensland at altitudes of 400-1,000m asl (Covacevich and McDonald 1993). The extent of occurrence of the species was less than 500km² (map in McDonald 1990).
19476		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species largely restricted to the shallow section of fast-flowing creeks and streams in rainforest. It is one of only two known species to brood its offspring within its stomach. Females deposited their eggs, and then swallowed them. While in the stomach, tadpoles excreted some form of enzyme that inhibited the female's gastric digestion, and then proceded to develop into fully formed froglets. The froglets were then regurgitated through the female's mouth.
19476		population	eng	The species was considered common across its range until January 1985 when the first signs of decline (reported by Winter and McDonald 1986) were observed at lower altitudes (i.e., about 400m asl) (McDonald 1990). At higher altitudes the frogs remained common until March 1985 but were absent in June of that year (McDonald 1990). Despite continued efforts to locate the species, <em>Rheobatrachus vitellinus</em> has not been recorded again within Eungella National Park or any other locations (Ingram and McDonald 1993; McDonald and Alford 1999). This species is now considered to be extinct.
19476		threats	eng	The cause(s) of the population decline remain unknown. McDonald (1990) found no obvious evidence that seasonal rarity, over-collecting, predation, drought, floods, habitat destruction, disease, heavy parasite loads or stress due to handling for data collection were responsible for the population declines. Threats to the Eungella National Park include fires that might sweep up the slopes of the mountain during harvesting of the sugar cane in the fields below (Winter and McDonald 1986). Successive fires extend deeper into the rainforest leaving grassy ridges that are devoid of trees (Winter and McDonald 1986). The rainforest is extremely narrow in places and continual fire might eventually erode away entire sections of the forest or fragment the forest (Winter and McDonald 1986). Weeds that encroach on the edges of the forest pose a similar threat (Winter and McDonald 1986). It was thought that it might have been possible that the decline that was observed in 1984-1985 was a natural population fluctuation and that residual individuals had retreated to hidden refuges (Winter and McDonald 1986; McDonald 1990). The extent of such population fluctuations is unknown, but there is evidence of large swings in numbers of other Australian frogs (McDonald 1990). However, despite continued efforts to locate the species, it has not been recorded within Eungella National Park or any other locations since March 1985 (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2002; McDonald and Alford 1999). Eungella National Park is subject to weed invasion on the edges of the reserve (Winter and McDonald 1986). From what is known from similar declines and disappearance elsewhere in the world, chytridiomycosis (present in at least some rainforest streams at Eungella) must be suspected and a major causes of the extinction of this species.
19478		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper reaches of the eastward-flowing Mangoro and Rianila Rivers. It has also been recorded from Lac Alaotra.
19479		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Nosivolo River but may boccur elsewhere in Madagascar.
19480		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
19481		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Manambola River system in Madagascar.
19481		habitat	eng	1
19482		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Manambola River system in Madagascar.
19483		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
19484		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine the status of this species population and its specialized habitat.
19484		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is only known from Guelatao, San Jose Lachiquiri, Union Hildalgo and Tontatepec on the Pacific slope of Oaxaca (Santos-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19484		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is a semi-aquatic species relying on the freshwater environment as a food source (Nowak 1999). It is restricted to forested riparian areas at the headwaters of streams, in particular it is restricted to small tributaries with closed tropical forest vegetation, and does not occur in larger rivers. This species requires a pristine habitat, any kind of pollution in water resources is a threat to this species. <br/><br/>An adult male was found clogging a hosepipe used to collect water from the Rio Yavesia at 2,000 m in an area charcterized by pine-oak forest (Santos-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19484		population	eng	This species is considered rare, and has only been recorded from 4 localities within its range (Santos-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species distribution is likely severely fragmented.
19484		threats	eng	This species is threatened by human activity within its range, specifically by continued deforestation and water pollution. Any type of water pollution, including household pollution from washing clothes, is considered a threat to this species. Deforestation is occurring throughout the range of this species, except in steep riparian areas.
19485		conservation	eng	Occurs in high-elevation protected areas in Costa Rica.
19485		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated segments in highlands of central Costa Rica and Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 1,300 to 1,600 m (Reid 1997).
19485		habitat	eng	This rodent is found along fast-flowing, rocky-bottomed streams through cool, highland forest (Reid 1997), and occupies burrows with entrances above the waterline on the banks of streams. One burrow extended for at least 2 m (Reid and Langtimm 1993). This species may be slightly less aquatic in habits that other <em>Rheomys</em> species, but is always found closely associated with streams. <br/><br/>This species is active both by day and by night. It is strong swimmer, capable of moving rapidly against the water current. Stomachs of two individuals contained caddisfly larvae, beetles, and spiders (Hooper 1968). A captive mouse was highly vocal and made loud, low-frequency clicking calls by snapping the tongue against the roof of the mouth (Reid 1997).
19485		population	eng	It is rare and local (Reid 1997).
19485		threats	eng	Stream quality degradation, water pollution, and deforestation are threats to this species.
19486		conservation	eng	Occurs in El Triunfo National Park in Mexico and in El Imposible National Park in El Salvador. Expected to occur in Sierra de las Minas National Park in Guatemala.
19486		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of south México (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 400 m to 2,700 m (Reid 1997).
19486		habitat	eng	This rodent is found along streams through most forest types and second growth (Reid 1997). It is sometimes found on very small streams and steeps in forests, and may be more generalized in diet and habits than other water mice. <br/><br/>In El Salvador, foods eaten include insects, birds, salamanders, mammals (possibly another <em>Rheomys</em>), and starchy pulp (Stirton 1944). One individual from Guatemala had eaten stonefly and mayfly larvae, beetles, and part of a catfish (Hooper 1968). A captive mouse readily consumed small fish and aquatic insect larvae (Reid 1997).
19486		population	eng	It is uncommon and local (Reid 1997).
19486		threats	eng	Stream degradation and water quality degradation are major threats due to its reliance on stream habitats. Other potential threats include landslides.
19487		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas in the Costa Rican cloud forest, including the Amistad National Park.
19487		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of central Costa Rica and western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 1,500 to 2,000 m (Reid 1997).
19487		habitat	eng	This rodent is found along clear, cold streams in wet, highland forest (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>One individual was caught alive on the bank of Rio Poasita, Costa Rica. It was observed swimming in captivity; only its head and tip of the tail were held above the water. This mouse ate sardines and rejected plant food (Starrett and Fisler 1970). In the wild it eats aquatic invertebrates; the stomachs of two individuals contained larvae of stoneflies, caddisflies, and mayflies (Hooper 1968; Reid 1997).
19487		population	eng	It is rare and local (Reid 1997).
19487		threats	eng	Degraded water quality and streams are a potential major threat.
19488		conservation	eng	Whale Sharks are legally protected in Australian Commonwealth waters and the states of Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia (regulations control human interactions in the latter state), the Maldives, Philippines, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Honduras, Mexico, US Atlantic waters and a small area off Belize (Fowler 2000, Anon. 2002b). Full legal protection is under consideration in South Africa and Taiwan (POC) has recently introduced an annual quota for its fishery. In 1999 the whale shark was listed on Appendix II of the Bonn Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). This identifies it as a species whose conservation status would benefit from the implementation of international cooperative Agreements (Fowler 2000). A US proposal to add the Whale Shark to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was rejected by the 11th Conference of Parties in 2000, but a revised proposal, submitted by Philippines and India, was accepted by the 12th Conference in 2002 and came into force at the end February 2003. This requires fishing states to demonstrate that any exports were derived from a sustainably managed population and to enable exports and imports to be monitored.
19488		distribution	eng	Whale Sharks are found in all tropical and warm temperate seas except the Mediterranean (Compagno 1984a, Wolfson 1986, Last and Stevens 1994). Although the range of this species typically lies between latitudes 30°N and 35°S, it has occasionally been sighted at latitudes as high as 41°N and 36.5°S (Wolfson 1986). Whale Sharks are known to inhabit both deep and shallow coastal waters and the lagoons of coral atolls and reefs (Demetrios 1979, Wolfson 1983). Iwasaki (1970) reported that they are found in surface seawater temperatures between 18?30°C, but most frequently occur in surface sea-water between 21? 25°C. Archival tags have recorded dives to over 700 m and a water temperature of 7.8°C off the coast of Belize (Graham and Roberts in prep.).<br/><br/>Whale Sharks are found almost all year round off the east coast of Taiwan (Province of China) (Leu <em>et al.</em> 1997), Honduras (A. Antoniou pers. comm.) and near the Seychelles (Gudger 1932). Ongoing studies on the population of Whale Sharks around Seychelles inner islands indicate that, although occasional shark sightings are made throughout the year, there are two seasonal peak sighting periods from June to August and October to November (Marine Conservation Society Seychelles, unpubl.). Similar patterns of infrequent year-round sightings and seasonal feeding aggregations of larger numbers (tens, to low hundreds) are recorded from many areas. Aggregations of whale shark occur in Indian coastal waters between December and April (Silas 1986), March? June in Tanzania (Yahya and Jiddawi pers. comm.), in Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) from November to January (Beckley <em>et al.</em> 1997), off the coast of Somalia in September, off Chile during October, in the Sea of Cortez around May?June and October? November, in the Gulf of Mexico between August and September (Clark and Nelson 1997), off the coast of Belize in April/May to June (Heyman <em>et al.</em> 2001), in the Bohol Sea of the Philippines between April and May (Trono 1996, Alava <em>et al.</em> 2002), in the Coral Sea, near the Great Barrier Reef during November and December (McPherson 1990), at Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia in March? May (Norman 1999) and at Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean between November and January. There are also occasional reports from the Florida Keys (E. De Sabata pers. comm.). Although whale sharks have been sighted in numerous other regions, these sightings are generally sporadic and seasonal.<br/><br/>Recent developments in electronic and satellite tagging of Whale Sharks have demonstrated that these animals undertake multi-annual and very long-distance migrations. These include over 2,000 km from north-west Australia towards Asia (pers. obs. 2002), 550 km within a few weeks (Graham and Roberts in prep.), a 2,000 km two month migration from the Mindanao Sea, inner Philippines, to 280 km south of Vietnam (Eckert <em>et al.</em> 2002) and a 13,000 km migration in over 37 months from the Gulf of California, Mexico, to near Tonga (Eckert and Stewart 2001). Three sharks tagged in the Seychelles, Indian Ocean, in 2001 travelled west to Zanzibar, north-west to Somalia, and over 5,000 km to the coast of Thailand, respectively (Rowat 2002).
19488		habitat	eng	Joung <em>et al.</em> (1996) established that whale sharks are ovoviviparous when they reported a female (~10.6 m TL) harpooned off Taiwan (Province of China) containing approximately 300 embryos. These embryos ranged in length from 48?58 cm. One juvenile from this litter, born at 58 cm (TL), attained a length of 143 cm (TL) when raised in an aquarium for 143 days (Leu <em>et al.</em> 1997). Sixteen whale sharks measuring 3.1?6.3 m (TL) have previously been held in captivity at the Okinawa Expo Aquarium, Japan (Uchida <em>et al.</em> 2000). Growth rates of three sharks held from 458?2,056 days ranged from 21.6? 29.5 cm per annum, but may not be comparable to growth rates in the wild. There have been few reports of pregnant females or juvenile whale sharks under 3 m (TL) in the literature (Wolfson 1983). The largest female so far reported is an estimated 20 m, 34 t Whale Shark landed in Taiwan (Province of China) (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2002), although other sources suggest a 15 m maximum total length (TL).<br/><br/>No long-term studies have produced validated growth rates in the wild, age at maturity, or maximum age for this species, although Pauly (2002) has tentatively suggested a slow growth rate and a 5?6% annual mortality rate for adult <em>R. typus</em> and estimated longevity as 60?>100 years, for a total length of 14 m. Wintner?s (2000) study of vertebral growth rings recorded three mature males with 20, 24 and 27 growth rings at 903, 922 and 945 cm TL respectively, and an immature female with 22 rings and 577 cm TL (calculated from a precaudal length of 445 cm). The presence of scars and abrasions on the claspers of several sharks over 9 m (TL) at Ningaloo Marine Park (Norman 1999) also suggests that sexual activity, at least in males, is not common prior to attaining this length. Wintner (2000) also found that adding a theoretical data point at 100 years and 14 m TL produced a Bertalanffy growth curve with lower standard errors and Linf closer to the reported maximum length than did 60 years and 14 m TL.<br/><br/>The Fishbase (www.fishbase.org) default life history tool for this species is set at a maximum length of 20 m TL and, strangely, Linf of 14 m TL. This yields an estimated age at maturity of nine years at 560 cm TL, a generation time of 21 years and longevity of 59 years. Most of these parameters are clearly too low. Recalculating these data for Linf 20 m TL yields an age at maturity of 21 years at 770 m TL (still low). Generation time becomes an estimated 63 years and longevity almost 150, which seems too high for a warm water species, although recorded for some species of sturgeon Acipenseridae.<br/><br/>Chang <em>et al.</em> (1997) considers that a breeding ground for whale sharks apparently lies close to Taiwan (Province of China). However, the length of gestation, localities of birth, and frequency of reproduction are not yet known for this species and require further study.<br/><br/>Because of their large size, Whale Sharks are probably not subject to extensive predation after reaching maturity. There are only two reports of juvenile whale sharks taken by another animal: a Blue Marlin (A. Goorah pers. comm.) and a Blue Shark (Kukuyev 1996). Several Whale Sharks from Ningaloo Reef possess scars that may be the result of shark attack at an early age (Norman 1999) and two orcas <em>Orcinus orca</em> have been filmed attacking, killing and consuming an 8m whale shark (O?Sullivan and Mitchell 2000).<br/><br/>The Whale Shark is one of only three species of shark that filter feeds, the other two being the Megamouth (<em>Megachasma pelagios</em>) and Basking Shark (<em>Cetorhinus maximus</em>) (Compagno 1984a). Unlike these two, the Whale Shark does not rely on forward motion for filtration, but is able to hang vertically in the water and suction feed by closing its gill slits and opening its mouth (Compagno 1984a). <em>Rhincodon typus</em> is believed to be able to sieve zooplankton as small as 1 mm in diameter through the fine mesh of their gill-rakers (Taylor 1994), typically feeding on a variety of planktonic and nektonic prey, small crustaceans and schooling fishes and even occasionally ingesting small tuna and squid (Last and Stevens 1994, Clark and Nelson 1997, Norman 1999).
19488		threats	eng	Small-scale harpoon and entanglement fisheries have taken place in various regions of the world, including India (whale shark fishing banned in 2001), Pakistan, Taiwan (Province of China), the Philippines (banned in 1998) and the Maldives (prior to protection in 1995). These took Whale Sharks primarily for their meat, liver oil, and/or fins (Compagno 1984a, Ramachandran and Sankar 1990, Trono 1996, Hanfee 2001, Alava <em>et al.</em> 2002). Liver oil was traditionally used for water-proofing boat hulls. The huge fins are low quality but of high value as restaurant "signboards" in east Asia, and the soft meat (known as "tofu shark") is in great demand in Taiwan (Province of China).<br/><br/>Fishermen in the Maldives used to take 20-30 Whale Sharks per year for their oil, but reported declining catches during the 1980s to early 1990s (Fowler 2000). In a study in the Philippines, it was found that in 1997 there was a 29% decline in the whale shark catch at two of the primary sites, despite an increase in effort due to rising prices for exported products (Alava <em>et al.</em> 2002). The increased fishing effort and falling catches led to the 1998 fishery ban, although illegal fishing and attempted export of meat still continues on a small scale, with shipments having been impounded by customs authorities (Anon 2002b).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, the flesh was traditionally eaten either fresh or salted, and liver oil used for treating boats (Compagno 1984a). The number of sharks taken each year was small and often accidental bycatch (Silas 1986, Seshagiri Rao 1992). Recent landings are unknown.<br/><br/>A traditional small-scale seasonal harpoon fishery in India took whale sharks for their liver oil (Prater 1941, Rao 1986, Silas 1986, Vivekanandan and Zala 1994). About 40 were harpooned during April 1982 (Silas 1986), but demand for "tofu shark" meat in Taiwan (Province of China) led to increased fishing effort in Gujarat during the 1990s (Hanfee 2001). Prices rose significantly after 1997, with 279 Whale Sharks taken in January?May 1999. One hundred and forty-five sharks were taken offshore (10-15 km) in December 1999, and 160 in coastal waters in January?May 2000. The fishery closed in May 2001, when the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests legally protected whale sharks in territorial waters.<br/><br/>Whale Sharks have been targeted for many decades in Taiwan (Province of China), but catches appear to have declined since the 1980s (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1996, Joung <em>et al.</em> 1996). Billfish harpooners from Hengchun Harbour, fishing south of Penghu, reportedly landed 50-60 Whale Sharks each spring in the mid-1980s, but annual landings at this location subsequently declined to about 10 sharks, and fewer still in 1994 and 1995. In 1995, landings throughout Taiwan (Province of China) were approximately 250-272, around 158 taken as bycatch in set nets, 114 by harpoon (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1996). The government introduced a Whale Shark reporting system in 2001. This and other sources indicate that the total number of Whale Sharks caught during 2001 was 89 (38 by set nets, 36 in the billfish harpoon fishery and 15 by other methods), and that 94 sharks weighing about 104 t in total were landed during the 12 months from March 2001 to March 2002 (Anon 2002b, Chen and Phipps 2002). The domestic catch has apparently declined by 60-70% since surveyed by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1996). Chen and Phipps (2002) note that the sum of the reported catch and imports is smaller than the quantity of Whale Shark meat on the domestic market, indicating that official data under-represent imports.<br/><br/>Wholesale Whale Shark meat prices in Chinese Taipei peaked at US$7.00/kg in the late 1990s (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2002) when a 10 t shark was worth approximately US$70,000, subsequently falling to US$2.00/kg in 2001 (Chen and Phipps 2002).<br/><br/>Although Ramachandran and Sankar (1990) considered that <em>R. typus</em> was an underexploited species, there are now concerns that Whale Shark populations are decreasing in many locations as a result of stock depletion by unregulated fisheries (Anon 2002b). Ecotourism industries based on viewing Whale Sharks are now developing in several locations, including Mexico, Australia, Philippines, south-eastern Africa, Seychelles, Maldives, Belize and Honduras (Norman 1999, Anon 2002b, Newman <em>et al.</em> 2002). The number of people swimming with Whale Sharks at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, during the short whale shark season from March to June, increased from 1,000 in 1993 to almost 5,000 in 2002 (Colman pers. obs. 1997). This well-managed industry contributes significantly to the national and regional economy (overseas participants make up 65-75% of participating tourists).<br/><br/>Ecotourism has taken over from hunting as a significant source of income for Maldivian operators, since the small fishery that once existed ceased after legislation was introduced in 1995 to protect whale sharks (C. Anderson pers. comm.). Similarly, the development of an important whale shark ecotourism industry in areas of the Philippines that experience large seasonal aggregations of whale sharks is now underway (Anon 2002b).<br/><br/>In the Seychelles, 162 tourists/week interacted with <em>R. typus</em> in November 1996 and the industry could be worth US$3?5 million annually there (Newman <em>et al.</em> 2002). Revenues are also significant in several other range states, indeed rather higher than revenues from fisheries for this species (Anon 2002b). To ensure that high levels of tourism do not have an adverse effect on the behaviour of Whale Sharks at these locations and other aggregation sites identified in future, monitoring must continue as a priority.<br/><br/>In Tanzania Whale Shark sightings are apparently on the increase. Surprisingly, fishermen do not actively hunt whale sharks and do not consume the meat; nor do they recognise that the fins may have any value. Four individuals caught in March 2001 were not consumed nor were their fins sold. A very small amount of meat was taken, possibly for medicinal purposes (S. Yahya and N. Jiddawi pers. comm.). They are avoided by net fishermen because of potential damage to the nets. Whale sharks have been sighted for the last few years during the inter-monsoonal period of March-June off Zanzibar. They are caught in purse, drift and gillnet fisheries.
19495		conservation	eng	It is legally protected in all range states. The species has been on CITES Appendix I since 1975.<br/><br/>A Rhino Protection Unit (RPU) has been established for the protection of this species on Java (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). It occurs in two protected areas: Ujung Kulon National Park on Java and the Cat Loc part (Dong Nai province) of the Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam.<br/><br/>There is an urgent need to review the feasibility of a reintroduction/translocation program, since the only known viable population occurs in a geographically restricted area of Java. There is also a need to survey parts of its historical range for the very remote possibility that small remnant populations exist, especially in parts of Lao PDR or Cambodia. The population in Cat Loc is probably no longer viable, and requires intensive management measures in order to survive (perhaps including captive breeding and re-introductions).
19495		distribution	eng	The Javan Rhino formerly occurred from Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and probably southern China through peninsular Malaya to Sumatra and Java (Grubb, 2005). The species' precise historical range is indeterminate, as early accounts failed to distinguish rhinos to specific level, due to partial sympatry with the other two Asian rhino species (<em>Rhinoceros unicornis</em> and <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em>). Beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century, the species was extirpated from most of its historical range, and currently occurs only in two small isolated areas. The last records of Javan Rhino vary, from 1920 in Myanmar, to 1932 in Malaysia, and 1959 on Sumatra (Indonesia) (Simon and Geroudet, 1970).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis</em> formerly occurred in northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, but is now extinct (Nowak, 1999).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus</em> formerly occurred in Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and eastern Thailand. Currently, this subspecies is restricted to the area in and around the Cat Loc part (Dong Nai province) of the Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam (Schenkel and Schenkel, 1969).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus</em> formerly occurred from Thailand through Malaysia, to the islands of Java and Sumatra (Indonesia). The only remaining population occurs on the Ujung Kulon Peninsula (Hoogerwerf, 1970), which forms the westernmost extremity of the island of Java. The Javan population of this subspecies has been restricted to this area since around the 1930s.<br/><br/>This is a lowland species that typically occurs up to 600 m (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.), but has been recorded above 1,000 m (Nowak, 1999).
19495		habitat	eng	The Javan Rhinoceros currently occurs in lowland tropical rainforest areas, especially in the vicinity of water (Schenkel and Schenkel, 1969). The species formerly occurred in more open mixed forest and grassland and on high mountains. Because of its rarity, little is known about its preferred habitat, but it is certainly not naturally restricted to dense tropical forest water (Schenkel and Schenkel, 1969). Little is known about the species' biology and the habitats in which the two remaining populations are found may not be optimal.<br/><br/>The home range size of females is probably no more than 500 ha, while males wonder over larger areas, with likely limited dispersal distance. The species is generally solitary, except for mating pairs and mothers with young (Nowak, 1999). Its life history characteristics are not well known, with longevity estimated at about 30-40 years, gestation length of approximately 16 months (as with other rhino species), and age at sexual maturity estimated at 5-7 years for females and 10 years for males (Nowak, 1999; International Rhino Foundation website, (www.rhinos-irf.org) 2006).
19495		population	eng	An estimated 40-60 animals live in the area on the western tip of Java in Ujung Kulon National Park. Another smaller population occurs in and around the Cat Loc part (Dong Nai province) of the Cat Tien National Park in of Viet Nam, with maybe as few as six individuals remaining (R. Steinmetz, M. Khan bin Momin Khan pers. comm.). These populations have not significantly declined over the last few decades, and the current trend is not known (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.), but no breeding has been observed in the Cat Loc population for many years (M. Khan bin Momin Khan pers. comm.). There are no animals currently in captivity, and a total of only 22 individuals have ever been known to exist in captivity (Rookmaaker <em>et al</em>., 1998).
19495		threats	eng	The cause of population decline is mainly attributable to the excessive demand for rhino horn and other products for Chinese and allied medicine systems (Foose and van Strien 1997). The bulk of the remaining population occurs as a single population within a national park and the population size in Ujung Kulon National Park is probably limited to the effective carrying capacity of the area (around 50 animals). One possible threat to this population is disease. In addition, such a small population faces a constant threat from poachers, although there is evidence that current poaching levels are under control (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). The Cat Loc population may be too small to be viable, and no breeding has been observed for many years, and it is possible that the animals are too old to breed. The population is so small that all the animals could be of the same sex.
19496		conservation	eng	The species has been included on CITES Appendix I since 1975. The Indian and Nepalese governments have taken major steps towards Indian Rhinoceros conservation, especially with the help of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and other non-governmental organizations.<br/><br/>Indian Rhino populations occur almost exclusively within and around protected areas. In India, the species occurs in Kaziranga National Park (World Heritage Site), Manas National Park (World Heritage Site in danger), Dudhwa National Park (re-introduced population), Karteniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Orang National Park, Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, and Gorumara National Park. In Nepal, the species occurs in Royal Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park (re-introduced population), and Royal Suklaphanta Wildife Reserve (a very small re-introduced population). Strict anti-poaching measures are needed to maintain all of these populations. It is also important to reduce human-wildlife conflicts around these areas, and this might involve fencing. Many of the areas also require targeted programmes to control invasive plants, to prevent the spread of woodland, to safeguard wetlands through appropriate water management, and to limit the extent of grazing by domestic livestock. In Pabitora, specific recommendations have been made to increase the quality of feeding habitat of rhino within the sanctuary through meticulous manipulation and checking livestock grazing (Sarma <em>et al</em>., in press). Water holding mechanisms within the sanctuary during winter are crucial in terms of keeping moist grassland available in winter seasons, thereby reducing the number of rhinos straying out of the sanctuary and thus exposing themselves to poaching (Sarma <em>et al</em>., in press).<br/><br/>The area of Kaziranga National Park has officially been extended, although animals had access to this area previously as the original park area was not fenced. In West Bengal (Jaldapara and Gorumara), there is a programme of habitat improvement in old teak areas, weed control is being carried out in 50-60 ha annually.<br/><br/>With the support of the IUCN SSC Asian Rhino Specialist Group, an Indian Rhino Vision 2020 and a Nepal Rhino Action Plan have been developed. These cover a number of important and specific conservation measures, including: translocating rhinos to bolster struggling populations (e.g., Manas National Park) and to start new populations; improving security around rhino populations and reducing poaching; assessing habitat status and management needs; expanding available habitat through active management; improving protected area infrastructure; training staff in specific rhino conservation techniques; reducing human-wildlife conflicts; involving local people in rhino conservation; and implementing education and awareness programmes. Overall, there is a need for further reintroductions, thereby reducing the concentration of over 70% of the individuals in one large population.
19496		distribution	eng	Historically, the Indian rhinoceros once existed across the entire northern part of the Indian subcontinent, along the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra River basins, from Pakistan to the Indian-Burmese border, including parts of Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan (Foose and van Strien 1997). It may also have existed in Myanmar, southern China, and Indochina, though this is uncertain. The species was common in northwestern India and Pakistan until around 1600, but disappeared from this region shortly after this time (Rookmaker, 1984). The species declined sharply in the rest of its range from 1600-1900, until the species was on the brink of extinction at the beginning of the twentieth century.<br/><br/>Currently, the Indian rhinoceros exists in a few small subpopulations in the Nepal and India (West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Assam) (Foose and van Strien 1997; Grubb, 2005), with an unsuccessful reintroduction of a pair in 1983 into Pakistan.
19496		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the riverine grasslands of the Terai and Brahmaputra Basins (Foose and van Strein 1997). The species prefers these alluvial plain grasslands, but was known to occur in adjacent swamps and forests. The populations are currently restricted to habitats surrounded by human-dominated landscapes, so that the species often occurs in adjacent cultivated areas, pastures, and secondary forests. The diet includes mainly grasses, but also some fruit, leaves, shrub and tree branches, and cultivated crops (Nowak, 1999). The species also utilizes mineral licks regularly. Males are solitary, with unstructured, overlapping territories. The females solitary unless occurring with young.<br/><br/>Its life history characteristics are not well known, with longevity estimated at about 30-45 years, gestation length of approximately 16 months (as with other rhino species), and age at sexual maturity estimated at 5-7 years for females and 10 years for males (Nowak, 1999; IRF website, 2006).
19496		population	eng	The total population estimate in May 2007 was estimated to be 2,575 individuals, with estimates of a total of 378 in Nepal and 2,200 in India (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007). The Indian Rhino, with strict protection from Indian and Nepalese wildlife authorities, has recovered from a total population of under 200 in the early 1900s. Although some populations have declined in recent years, overall there has been a population increase for almost 100 years which still continues.<br/><br/>India<br/>The species exists in several protected areas in India, with the following population estimates in May 2007 (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007): Dudhwa National Park (21), Manas National Park (3), Karteniaghat (2), Kaziranga National Park (1,855  in 2006; 1,551 in 1999), Orang (68 in 2006; 46 in 1999), Pabitora (81 in 2006; 74 in 1999, 79 in 2004), Jaldapara (108 in 2006; 96 in 2004; 84 in 2002), Gorumara (27 in 2006; 25 in 2004; 22 in 2002).  Estimates given in Foose <em>et al</em>. (1997) were as follows: Dudhwa National Park (11), Manas National Park (60), Karteniaghat (4), Kaziranga (1164 +/- 134), Orang (over 90), Pabitora (80 individuals over 38.8 km²) (Choudhury, 2005), Jaldapara (over 33), Gorumara (13), and a few remaining small populations in Assam. Kaziranga National Park, which was established as a reserve for the last 10-20 Indian rhinos in Assam in 1905, is home to over 70% of the global population of this species. Poaching rendered the species extinct in Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary by the mid-1990s (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997), and there has also been a severe decline in Manas National Park due to poaching related to civil unrest. The overall population tendency is to increase (especially in Kaziranga, Pabitora, Dudhwa, Jaldapara and Gorumura), with decreases in Manas, Orang (now increasing again) and Laokhowa. The population in Karteniaghat is best described as transient (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Nepal<br/>In the late 1960s, an estimated 65 Indian rhinos survived in Nepal, but due to increased conservation efforts, the total population was up to 612 in 2000. A total of at least 91 animals were poached in 2000-2003 (Martin, 2004), and since 2000, numbers have declined. In Royal Chitwan National Park, the number of individuals has declined from 544 individuals in 2000, to 372 individuals in 2005 (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007), the decrease being due to increased poaching following political instability in Nepal (Rothley <em>et al</em>., 2004; Khan <em>et al</em>., 2005), and habitat changes. In Royal Bardia National Park (where rhinos were re-introduced) there were approximately 40 individuals in 1997 (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997) and 35 animals in 2007 (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007). In Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (where the species was also re-introduced), the population is only six individuals (Martin, 2004; Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007).<br/><br/>Pakistan.<br/>A pair of rhinos was introduced into Lal Sohanra National Park in 1983, but have not bred.
19496		threats	eng	This species declined to near extinction in the early 1900s, primarily due to widespread conversion of alluvial plains grasslands to agricultural development, which led to human-rhino conflicts and easier accessibility for hunters. Sport hunting became common in the late 1800s and early 1900s. A reversal of government policies shortly thereafter protected many of the remaining populations. However, poaching, mainly for the use of the horn in Traditional Chinese Medicine has remained a constant and the success is precarious without continued and increased support for conservation efforts in India and Nepal. Poaching has lead to decreases in several important populations, especially those in Chitwan, Manas , Laokhowa, and the Babai Valley area of Bardia.<br/><br/>However, not all recent population decreases can be linked to poaching. There have been serious declines in quality of habitat in some areas. This is due to: 1) severe invasion by alien plants into grasslands affecting some populations; 2) demonstrated reductions in the extent of grasslands and wetland habitats due to woodland encroachment and silting up of beels; and 3) grazing by domestic livestock. In Chitwan (the second largest population) there is clear evidence that poaching on its own does not account for the observed level of population decline (R.H. Emslie pers. comm.), and there are trends in a number of reproductive indicators (i.e., decline in the percentage of adult females calving and in the percentage of the population that is calves) that are strongly indicative of negative changes in habitat quality. In Chitwan there has been severe infestation of some riverine and grassland areas by the climbing <span style="font-style: italic;">Mikania micrantha</span> (which covers over indigenous vegetation), and invasion of Eupatorium in other areas. There is also heavy livestock grazing pressure and disturbance in buffer zone areas as well as some invasion of grasslands by <em>Acacia catechu</em> and <em>Dalbergia sissou</em>. It has been reported that grassland area in Chitwan has been reduced from 20% to 4.7% of the national park (R.H. Emslie pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In India, there is not yet any evidence that invasion by alien plants has caused any population decreases. However, in Orang National Park, there have been marked habitat changes due to grazing, human encroachment and silting up. In particular, short grass areas have declined by 75% due to silting up and draining of beels (B.N. Talukdar pers. comm.). Mimosa is also an alien invader in this area. In the Karnali floodplain area of Bardia there is also some invasion of habitat by the alien <em>Lantana camara</em>. <br/><br/>In Pabitora there has been an invasion of <em>Ipomoea</em> "weeds" into grassland areas (S. Dutta pers. comm.). There also has been an invasion of woodland into grassland and siltation and drying up of some water bodies. There also has been some human encroachment and very heavy livestock grazing. With increasing human densities this pressure is unlikely to get any less (S. Dutta pers. comm.). Analysis of satellite imagery has shown that there has a substantial increase in woodland (34.51%) in Pabitora since 1977 accompanied by decline in alluvial grassland (68%). This change of habitat is mostly because of natural succession process, livestock grazing from the nearby villages as well as improper management of the grassland habitat (Sarma <em>et al</em>., in press).<br/> <br/>The West Bengal populations (Jaldapara and Gorumara) are affected by high levels of grazing from fringe villages, and there have been weed and climber infestations by <em>Mikania cordata</em>, <em>M. scandens</em>, <em>Lantana camara</em> and <em>Leea</em> spp. <br/> <br/>The species is inherently at risk because over 70% of its population occurs at a single site, Kaziranga National Park. This area, is subject to poaching and tensions with the surrounding high human population due to human-wildlife conflicts (including conflicts with rhinos). The level of poaching in Kaziranga has generally not been at a level to prevent the ongoing increase in the population, but constant vigilance is required. Clearly, any catastrophic event in Kaziranga (such as disease, civil disorder, poaching, habitat loss, etc) would have a devastating impact on the status of this species.<br/><br/>Sex-ratio among the adult rhinos in Gorumara National Park is almost 1:1. As a result, intra-specific fights among the bulls are very common and these animals have a tendency to stray out of the National Park very often, leading to human-wildlife conflicts (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are suggestions that the small population of rhinos in Jaldapara and Gorumara may be prone to in-breeding depression (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There have been proposals to dam the Bramaphutra River in Arunachal Pradesh, and should this happen in future this could very negatively affect the habitat quality and rhino carrying capacity of major parks like Kaziranga in future (by preventing or reducing the pulse of nutrients brought in by regular large floods). In Jaldapara Sanctuary, the River Torsa no longer overflows as a result of massive flood-control structures. As a result the water table in the sanctuary is receding and the natural water-bodies and wallow-pools used by rhinos are slowly drying up (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).
19503		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
19505		habitat	eng	Mostly aquatic
19508		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed. <br/> <br/><em>R. rubida perixantha</em> is confirmed to occur in the Chamela Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (Jalisco; 131 sq. km, core 82 sq. km, cat Ia/VI) and the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve. <br/> <br/><em>R. r. rubida</em> may occur in Huatulco NP (Oaxaca, MX, 119 sq. km, cat.II), La Sepultura BR (1673 sq. km., cat.VI) and Playa de Escobilla. <br/> <br/>Very few animals are kept and bred in captivity, although a facility in Oaxaca is believed to be highly successful breeding the species (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Occurrence and population status needs to be documented better, and monitoring of selected populations would be highly desirable. Data on exploitation, habitat loss and other threats, as well as basic natural history information, are needed.
19508		distribution	eng	Mexico, on Pacific versant: <em>R. rubida rubida</em> in Oaxaca and Chiapas, <em>R. rubida perixantha</em> in Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, and Balsas de Morelos, Mexico (Iverson 1992). Possibly extends into western Pacific Guatemala. Occurs from sea level to 1,350 m (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 2004).
19508		habitat	eng	<em>R. rubida</em> inhabits tropical semi-deciduous lowland areas, where they have been recorded from rocky hillsides, near streams in lowland scrub forest, from coastal woodlands, from thorn scrub; and from the ecotone between dry forest and pine-oak forest (Mosimann and Rabb 1953, Peterson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Also in moist mid-elevation habitat. Seen once near pastures, but tolerance to disturbance not completely understood. <br/> <br/>Presumably feeds mainly on fruits and vegetation shoots, with opportunistic consumption of animal matter (Carr CBFT Manuscript).  <br/> <br/>Apparently active mainly or only during the June-November wet season (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). <br/> <br/>Maximum size up to 23.0 cm CL in males, 17.9 cm in females (Ernst in Smith and Smith 1979). <br/> <br/>No reproductive data are available.
19508		population	eng	Smith and Smith (1979) refer to 'apparent rarity of individuals'. Seen occasionally, including two in one week in Oaxaca and one in Chiapas during August 2005. The species is universally considered as occasionally to rarely encountered.
19508		threats	eng	Smith and Smith (1979) speculated that the currently widely discontinuous distribution indicates progressive reduction of the species' range through natural processes. No specific threats seem to have been documented, though habitat loss from agriculture and infrastructure development and direct exploitation for pets and possibly food, and increased predation by subsidised predators may be factors. Human consumption of the species has not been recorded.
19509		distribution	eng	Philippines, Jolo Island.
19509		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
19509		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
19509		threats	eng	Deforestation.
19513		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas in the range of the species, though there remains a need for improved maintenance and protection of native forest habitats, particularly in the north. Close population monitoring of this species is required given the declines seen in suitable habitat. In Chile, it is listed as "Endangered" (En Peligro de Extinción) (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998).
19513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the austral forest of Chile and Argentina. Historically, it was distributed in Chile from Concepción Province to Palena Province. In Argentina, it is known from Neuquén and Río Negro provinces. It has an altitudinal range of 50-1,100 m asl.
19513		habitat	eng	It generally occurs in the leaf-litter of temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forests; it is also present in forest bogs. Females deposit eggs in the leaf-litter. When the larvae inside the eggs begin to move, adult males ingest the eggs and incubate them in vocal sacs. Larvae develop inside the male and emerge after metamorphosis. The species is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.
19513		population	eng	Recent surveys within the range of <i>Rhinoderma darwinii</i> in Chile reveal that some populations (including those in national parks and other preserved areas) have disappeared entirely (M. Crump and A. Veloso pers. comm.). In other areas, the density of frogs is much lower than 10 or 20 years ago (M. Crump pers. comm.). Forestry operations have destroyed large areas where northern populations were found. However, it was still abundant in at least some southern Chilean localities in 2003; indeed, it appears that the species reaches its highest densities in regions of the Archipelago, where habitat disturbance is minimal (M. Crump pers. comm.). In Argentina, this is a scarce species and appears to have declined at one site (Puerto Blest, Río Negro Province) during the past 50 years.
19513		threats	eng	In the north, the main threats are drought and pine forestry, while in the south it is clear-cutting of forest. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats, such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water, and it has not previously been reported from Chile).
19514		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. The species might well be extinct, but further survey work is urgently required to determine whether or not this is indeed the case. In view of the possible risk of disease, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
19514		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chile from 33° 30'S to 37° 50'S from Curico (Curico Province) to Ramadillas (Arauco Province) at elevations of 0-500m asl.
19514		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in leaf-litter in temperate mixed forests, and also in bogs surrounded by forests. Females lay their eggs in the leaf-litter. When the larvae inside the eggs begin to move, adult males ingest the eggs and incubate them in their vocal sacs, where the larvae develop until they are regurgitated into streams where metamorphosis takes place.
19514		population	eng	It formerly occurred in small, isolated populations, and was fairly regularly seen until around 1978. However, since then, there have been no confirmed reports despite several attempts to relocate the species, giving rise to fears that it might be extinct.
19514		threats	eng	The destruction of the native vegetation through the planting of pine plantations and for the building of second homes probably had some impact on this species. However, this is unlikely to explain fully its disappearance, the causes of which are not understood. Declines that have taken place within suitable habitat might be the result of threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this has not previously been reported from Chile).
19515		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in areas to which these apply. It is included in Annex II (and Annex IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires specific conservation measures in some range states, including the designation of Special Areas for Conservation. It occurs in some protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of the African populations. Monitoring and protection of caves is also required.
19515		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and Annex IV) of the EU Habitats & Species Directive, and hence requires specific conservation measures, including the designation of Special Areas for Conservation. It receives some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of African populations. Monitoring and protection of caves is also required.
19515		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus blasii</em> has a large range in the Palaearctic and the Afrotropics, throughout which it is widely but patchily distributed. In Africa, it occurs from north-eastern South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo to Ethiopia and Somalia, and in North Africa. In Asia, it has a patchy distribution extending from Turkey in the west to Pakistan in the east, and from the Caucasus in the north to Yemen in the south (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It was confirmed in Georgia in 2006 (Z. Nagy pers. obs.). In Europe, it is extinct in northeastern Italy and has not been recorded in Slovenia during the last 50 years (Kryštufek and Dulic 2001). It is now restricted to the Balkan peninsula and to some Mediterranean islands including Crete and Cyprus. There are no recent records in Romania and northern Bulgaria despite intensive work by Christian Dietz (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). Past records from this area are disputed: no specimen has been found in museums in Romania, and the presence of <em>R. euryale</em> in the same area might have caused confusion (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,215 m in Yemen.
19515		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus blasii</em> has a large range in the Palaearctic and the Afrotropics, throughout which it is widely but patchily distributed. Its range extends marginally into the Indomalayan region.<br/><br/>In Africa, it occurs from northeastern South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo, through south Malawi, to East African, Ethiopia and Somalia, and in North Africa. Follow Taylor (2000) for southern African distribution. In North African it is only present in Morocco and Algeria (it may occur in Tunisia but there are no confirmed records as yet, and likewise for Egypt). Altitude range is from sea level to 1,200 m.<br/><br/>In Asia, it has a patchy distribution extending from Turkey in the west to Pakistan in the east, and from the Caucasus in the north to Yemen in the south (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It was confirmed in Georgia in 2006 (Z. Nagy pers. obs.). <br/><br/>In European, it is extinct in northeastern Italy and has not been recorded in Slovenia during the last 50 years (Krystufek and Dulic 2001). Also recorded from western Anatolia and from the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Israel). It is now restricted to the Balkan peninsula and to some Mediterranean islands including Crete and Cyprus. There are no recent records in Romania and northern Bulgaria despite intensive work by Christian Dietz (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). Past records from this area are disputed: no specimen has been found in museums in Romania, and the presence of <em>R. euryale</em> in the same area might have caused confusion (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 2,215 m in Yemen.
19515		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean region it typically forages in shrubland and woodland, although it may penetrate to desert habitat (Amr 2000). Summer roosts are situated in natural and artificial underground sites, with attics also being used in the northern part of the range. In winter, it hibernates in underground sites. This species is considered to be sedentary (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19515		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean region it typically forages in shrubland and woodland, although it may penetrate to desert habitat (Amr 2000). Summer roosts are situated in natural and artificial underground sites, with attics also being used in the northern part of the range. In winter, it hibernates in underground sites. This species is considered to be sedentary (Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005).
19515		population	eng	Africa: Not very common.<br/><br/>Asia: This species has a widespread distribution and the populations in Pakistan and Afghanistan seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Europe: A rare or infrequent species, probably the rarest horseshoe bat in Europe (Krystufek 1999). Summer colonies of <em>ca</em>. 20-30 are typical, although up to 400 females may be found in a single colony. In winter, it congregates in mixed-species clusters with other <em>Rhinolophus</em> species (up to 2,000 animals in Serbia). There are large colonies in Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. It is suspected to be declining because of loss of Mediterranean woodlands and cave disturbance, and is considered vulnerable in many range states (e.g., the western Balkans); however, the populations in the eastern Balkans are stable (Mediterranean Workshop 2007).
19515		population	eng	Africa: Not very common.<br/><br/>Asia: This species has a widespread distribution and the populations in Pakistan and Afghanistan seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Europe: A rare or infrequent species, probably the rarest horseshoe bat in Europe (Kryštufek 1999). Summer colonies of <em>ca</em>. 20-30 are typical, although up to 400 females may be found in a single colony. In winter, it congregates in mixed-species clusters with other <em>Rhinolophus</em> species (up to 2,000 animals in Serbia). There are large colonies in Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. It is suspected to be declining because of loss of Mediterranean woodlands and cave disturbance, and is considered vulnerable in many range states (e.g., the western Balkans); however, the populations in the eastern Balkans are stable (Mediterranean Workshop 2007).
19515		population	eng	A rare or infrequent species, probably the rarest horseshoe bat in Europe (Kryštufek 1999). Summer colonies of <em>ca</em>. 20-30 are typical, although up to 300 females may be found in a single colony. In winter, it congregates in mixed-species clusters with other <em>Rhinolophus</em> species (up to 800 animals in Bulgaria). There are large colonies in Bulgaria and Greece. It is suspected to be declining because of loss of Mediterranean woodlands and cave disturbance, and is considered vulnerable in many range states.
19515		threats	eng	Threats to the species include loss of Mediterranean woodlands, disturbance and loss of underground habitats, and destruction of roost sites (Kryštufek 1999). In a number of range states the species is disturbed by tourist visits to caves.
19515		threats	eng	Threats to the species include loss of Mediterranean woodlands, disturbance and loss of underground habitats, and destruction of roost sites (Kryštufek 1999). In a number of range states the species is disturbed by tourist visits to caves and by use of the caves as shelters for livestock.
19515		threats	eng	Threats to the species include loss of Mediterranean woodlands, disturbance and loss of underground habitats, and destruction of roost sites (Kry?tufek 1999). In a number of range states the species is disturbed by tourist visits to caves and by use of the caves as shelters for livestock.
19516		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation). The species is directly or indirectly benefiting from EU LIFE-funded projects in France, Spain, Italy, and Romania.
19516		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation). The species is directly or indirectly benefiting from EU LIFE-funded projects in France, Spain and Italy. No specific measures are in place in North Africa.
19516		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus euryale</em> is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in southern Europe, north-west Africa (known range extends across northern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), and the Near East. There is only a single record from Cyprus, but this is regarded by most authors to be <em>R. mehelyi</em>. It is widely distributed over its range, and is found from sea level to 1,000 m.
19516		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus euryale</em> is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in southern Europe, north-west Africa (Morocco to Tunisia), and the Near East. It is widely distributed over its range, and is found from sea level to 1,000 m.
19516		habitat	eng	It forages in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, feeding on moths and other insects. In Italy, preferred foraging habitats are broadleaved woodland and riparian vegetation; coniferous woodland is avoided, and shrubland is rarely used (Russo <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Summer roosts are located in natural and artificial underground sites, as well as attics in some part of the range. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a sedentary species (the longest recorded distance travelled by an individual is 134 km) (Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19516		habitat	eng	It forages in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, feeding on moths and other insects. In Italy, preferred foraging habitats are broadleaved woodland and riparian vegetation; coniferous woodland is avoided, and shrubland is rarely used (Russo <em>et al.</em> 2002). Summer roosts are located in natural and artificial underground sites, as well as attics in some part of the range. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a sedentary species (the longest recorded distance travelled by an individual is 134 km) (Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19516		habitat	eng	It forages in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, feeding on moths and other insects. In Italy, preferred foraging habitats are broadleaved woodland and riparian vegetation; coniferous woodland is avoided, and shrubland is rarely used (Russo <i>et al.</i> 2002). Summer roosts are located in natural and artificial underground sites, as well as attics in some part of the range. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a sedentary species (the longest recorded distance travelled by an individual is 134 km) (Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005).
19516		population	eng	An infrequent species. Summer colonies number <em>ca</em>. 50-1,500 individuals (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Winter clusters typically number up to 2,000 animals. It occurs in large vulnerable colonies, and is considered threatened in many range states. Large population declines have been reported in a number of European countries, including Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In France, the population declined by <em>ca</em>. 70% between 1940 and 1980, although subsequently the trend appears to have stabilised (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Apart from <em>R. blasii</em>, which may have gone extinct in the country, <em>R. euryale</em> is probably the rarest rhinolophid in Italy, and anecdotal evidence suggests that a number of colonies have declined in the past few decades (D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). The species has a very small and declining population in Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is stable and common in the central and eastern Balkans (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is little information on population trends outside Europe, although it is suspected that continuing declines have also occurred in at least parts of the non-European range. For example, in Iran the species is no longer found in caves which 30 years ago held 20,000 individuals of different species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).
19516		population	eng	An infrequent species. Summer colonies number <em>ca</em>. 50-500 individuals (formely up to 1,500 animals). Winter clusters typically number up to 2,000 animals. It occurs in large vulnerable colonies, and is considered threatened in many range states. Large population declines have been reported in a number of European countries, including Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002) and Slovakia (Ibáñez 1999). In France, the population declined by <em>ca</em>. 70% between 1940 and 1980, although subsequently the trend appears to have stabilised (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Apart from <em>R. blasii</em>, which may have gone extinct in the country, <em>R. euryale</em> is probably the rarest rhinolophid in Italy, and anecdotal evidence suggests that a number of colonies have declined in the past few decades (D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). From 1960-2000 the species disappeared from a number of sites in Romania, but the trend over the last five years appears to be stable (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The species has a very small and declining population in Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>There is little information on population trends outside Europe, although it is suspected that continuing declines have also occurred in at least parts of the non-European range. For example, in Iran the species is no longer found in caves which 30 years ago held 20,000 individuals of different species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is considered to be declining in North Africa (GMA Africa workshop 2004).
19516		threats	eng	Threats include loss of foraging habitat, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats. On a landscape scale, fragmentation and loss of linear elements such as hedgerows and riparian vegetation is a problem because such elements are used as landscape references for commuting. The species' strong dependence upon caves for roosting makes it particularly sensitive to cave disturbance, such as that from caving or tourism. Tourist disturbance of caves affects the species in a number of range states. The use of organochlorine pesticides is believed to have contributed to the earlier dramatic decline of the species in France (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988). In North Africa, threats include habitat loss due to agriculture (livestock) and human disturbance.
19516		threats	eng	Threats include loss of foraging habitat, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats. On a landscape scale, fragmentation and loss of linear elements such as hedgerows and riparian vegetation is a problem because such elements are used as landscape references for commuting. The species' strong dependence upon caves for roosting makes it particularly sensitive to cave disturbance, such as that from caving or tourism. Tourist disturbance of caves affects the species in a number of range states. The use of organochlorine pesticides is believed to have contributed to the earlier dramatic decline of the species in France (Brosset <i>et al.</i> 1988). In North Africa, threats include habitat loss due to agriculture (livestock) and human disturbance.
19516		threats	eng	Threats include loss of foraging habitat, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats. On a landscape scale, fragmentation and loss of linear elements such as hedgerows and riparian vegetation is a problem because such elements are used for commuting. The species' strong dependence upon caves for roosting makes it particularly sensitive to cave disturbance, such as that from caving or tourism. Tourist disturbance of caves affects the species in a number of range states, including Italy, Iran and Turkey (M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005, D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). The use of organochlorine pesticides is believed to have contributed to the earlier dramatic decline of the species in France (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988).
19517		conservation	eng	The greater horseshoe bat has been the subject of widespread conservation activity, especially in Europe. Until recently, this has concentrated on roosts in buildings and caves. Many buildings used as roosts have management agreements and many underground sites have been protected. Nevertheless, sites continue to be lost or damaged. More recently, attention has turned to identifying more precisely the food and foraging requirements. A European meeting (Germany, May 1995) discussed the status and conservation needs for the species on a pan-European scale. The Bern Convention has commissioned a Europe-wide Species Action Plan under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Ransome and Hutson 2000). <br/><br/>It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the European Union Habitats Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation).<br/><br/>There are no specific conservation measures in place for the species in North Africa or South Asia. Populations should<br/>be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19517		conservation	eng	The greater horseshoe bat has been the subject of widespread conservation activity, especially in Europe. Until recently, this has concentrated on roosts in buildings and caves. Many buildings used as roosts have management agreements and many underground sites have been protected. Nevertheless, sites continue to be lost or damaged. More recently, attention has turned to identifying more precisely the food and foraging requirements. A European meeting (Germany, May 1995) discussed the status and conservation needs for the species on a pan-European scale. The Bern Convention has commissioned a Europe-wide Species Action Plan under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Ransome and Hutson 2000). <br><br>It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the European Union Habitats Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation).<br><br>There are no specific conservation measures in place for the species in North Africa or South Asia. Populations should<br>be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <i>et al.</i> 2002).
19517		conservation	eng	The greater horseshoe bat has been the subject of widespread conservation activity, especially in Europe. Until recently, this has concentrated on roosts in buildings and caves. Many buildings used as roosts have management agreements and many underground sites have been protected. Nevertheless, sites continue to be lost or damaged. More recently, attention has turned to identifying more precisely the food and foraging requirements. A European meeting (Germany, May 1995) discussed the status and conservation needs for the species on a pan-European scale. The Bern Convention has commissioned a Europe-wide Species Action Plan under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy  (Ransome and Hutson 2000). It is protected by national legislation in most range states (not Russia: K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There are international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (and some roosts are already protected by national legislation).
19517		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus ferrumequinum</em> has a wide range in the Palaearctic encompassing north-west Africa; southern and central Europe from Portugal to Greece and north to southern England, France, Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria; Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan and Iraq and Iran; Ukraine, Crimea, and Caucacus regions; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern Kazakhstan, Afganistan, Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Sikkim, China (Wilson and Reeder 2005), Korea and Japan (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003). It usually occurs below 800m, but can be found up to 3,000m in the Caucasus depending on roost availability and humidity (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).
19517		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic, occuring from North Africa and southern Europe through south-west Asia, the Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Himalayas to south-eastern China, Korea, and Japan (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003, Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It usually occurs below 800 m asl, but can be found up to 3,000 m asl in the Caucasus depending on roost availability and humidity (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).
19517		habitat	eng	It forages in pastures, deciduous temperate woodland, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Feeds on beetles and moths at low level in pastures and in trees (by aerial hawking or perch feeding).<br/>Summer roosts are located in warm natural and artificial underground sites, and attics in the northern part of the range. Where the species occupies buildings, it requires particular features of the building itself, as well as proximity to good foraging areas and underground sites for torpor at various times of year and for winter hibernation (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In winter it hibernates in cold underground sites (usually large caves). A sedentary species, distances of 20-30 km between winter and summer roosts are typical (longest distance recorded 180km: de Paz <em>et al.</em> 1986).
19517		habitat	eng	It forages in pastures, deciduous temperate woodland, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Important foraging habitat and landscape features includes woodland, particularly early in the year, and permanent summer-grazed pasture, particularly late in the summer. It feeds on beetles, moths and other insects at low level in pastures and in trees up to 2 to 3 km from the roost each night (by aerial hawking or perch feeding). Summer roosts are located in warm natural and artificial underground sites, and attics in the northern part of the range. The species will use caves all year, but particularly in northern Europe it uses buildings for summer maternity colonies. Where the species occupies buildings, it requires particular features of the building itself, as well as proximity to good foraging areas and underground sites for torpor at various times of year and for winter hibernation (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In winter it hibernates in cold underground sites (usually large caves). The requirements for hibernation appear to be within limited confines of temperature and humidity, but vary with age, sex and condition. The mean temperatures in spring, at the end of hibernation, may influence the time of birth at the summer maternity colonies; late parturition in turn increases mortality rates of juveniles (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In southern parts of the range, they are active all year-round. A sedentary species, distances of 20-30 km between winter and summer roosts are typical (longest distance recorded 180 km: de Paz <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests among the mountains and valleys of the Himalaya. It is gregarious and roosts in caves, old temples, old and ruined buildings in tight clusters. It has a slow and fluttering flight and feeds on small insects, lacewings, small moths, spiders and grasshoppers. A single young is born after a gestion period of 72 days (Bates and Harrison, 1997).
19517		habitat	eng	It forages in pastures, deciduous temperate woodland, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Important foraging habitat and landscape features includes woodland, particularly early in the year, and permanent summer-grazed pasture, particularly late in the summer. It feeds on beetles, moths and other insects at low level in pastures and in trees up to 2 to 3 km from the roost each night (by aerial hawking or perch feeding). Summer roosts are located in warm natural and artificial underground sites, and attics in the northern part of the range. The species will use caves all year, but particularly in northern Europe it uses buildings for summer maternity colonies. Where the species occupies buildings, it requires particular features of the building itself, as well as proximity to good foraging areas and underground sites for torpor at various times of year and for winter hibernation (Hutson <i>et al.</i> 2001). In winter it hibernates in cold underground sites (usually large caves). The requirements for hibernation appear to be within limited confines of temperature and humidity, but vary with age, sex and condition. The mean temperatures in spring, at the end of hibernation, may influence the time of birth at the summer maternity colonies; late parturition in turn increases mortality rates of juveniles (Hutson <i>et al.</i> 2001). In southern parts of the range, they are active all year-round. A sedentary species, distances of 20-30 km between winter and summer roosts are typical (longest distance recorded 180 km: de Paz <i>et al.</i> 1986).<br><br>In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests among the mountains and valleys of the Himalaya. It is gregarious and roosts in caves, old temples, old and ruined buildings in tight clusters. It has a slow and fluttering flight and feeds on small insects, lacewings, small moths, spiders and grasshoppers. A single young is born after a gestion period of 72 days (Bates and Harrison, 1997).
19517		population	eng	It is an infrequent species in most parts of its range, although in at least parts of south-west Asia and the Caucasus it is abundant and widespread (it is the most frequently reported species in Turkey: A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005), with populations in Iran and Turkey considered to be stable (A. Karatash, M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although it may be decreasing in Russian parts of the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). Summer colonies of c.30-200 individuals (up to 400 animals), and winter clusters of up to 500 animals are typical. <br/><br/>In Europe, the two most widespread <em>Rhinolophus</em> species, <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> and R. <em>hipposideros</em>, are of particular conservation concern and are the subject of considerable research and monitoring. <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> has shown marked declines in range in northwest Europe within the last 100 years (e.g. United Kingdom, Germany, Austria), and has gone extinct in some countries (eg. Belgium, Netherlands). However, there are signs of stabilisation and/or recovery in some northwest European countries (Hutson <em>et al</em> 2001). For example, in the UK the species declined massively in the past but it is now stable at a low population level (around 5,000 individuals) (Ransome and Hutson 2000). However, in Austria declines continue, with population reductions of 70% in the last 10 years (from 100 to 30 breeding individuals: Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In other parts of Europe, trends vary and are generally less well known: in Malta the species has gone extinct, in Portugal and Spain the trend is not known (although some colonies have disappeared in Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Croatia the population is thought to be stable (N. Tvrtkovic pers. comm.), and in Romania the population has been slowly increasing since 1989 due to reduced use of pesticides and a return to traditional agriculture with colonies of up to 800 individuals. In Switzerland the species is very rare (3 maternity roosts with some 200 individuals), but the population trend appears stable (H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>In its north African and south Asian range the population size and trends are unknown.
19517		population	eng	The two most widespread <em>Rhinolophus</em> species in Europe, <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> and R. <em>hipposideros</em>, are of particular conservation concern and are the subject of considerable research and monitoring. <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> has shown marked declines in range in northwest Europe within the last 100 years (e.g. United Kingdom, Germany, Austria), and has gone extinct in some countries (e.g. Belgium, Netherlands). However there are signs of stabilisation and/or recovery in some northwest European countries (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). For example, In the UK the species declined massively in the past but is now stable at low population level (around 5,000 individuals) (Ransome and Hutson 2000). However in Austria declines continue, with population reductions of 70% in the last 10 years (from 100 to 30 breeding individuals: Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In other parts of Europe, trends vary and are generally less well known: in Malta the species has gone extinct, in Portugal and Spain the trend is not known (although some colonies have disappeared in Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Croatia the population is thought to be stable (N. Tvrtkovic pers. comm.), and in Romania the population has been slowly increasing since 1989 due to reduced use of pesticides and return to traditional agriculture. In Switzerland the species is very rare (3 maternity roosts with some 200 individuals), but the population trend appears stable (H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is an infrequent species in most parts of its range, although in at least parts of south-west Asia and the Caucasus it is abundant and widespread (it is the most frequently reported species in Turkey: A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005), with populations in Iran and Turkey considered to be stable (A. Karatash, M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although it may be decreasing in Russian parts of the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). Summer colonies of c.30-200 individuals (up to 400 animals), and winter clusters of up to 500 animals are typical.
19517		threats	eng	The main threats are fragmentation and isolation of habitats, change of management regime of deciduous forests and agricultural areas, loss of insects due to pesticide use, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics. In northwest Europe, habitat change is likely to have been amongst the major causes of declines, the conversion of woodland and small-field landscape to large-scale agricultural land being particularly damaging. While declines elsewhere, particularly in eastern Europe, may currently not be so marked, the loss of cultural landscapes in those countries as they move towards western-style economies may have significant effects in the near future. The use of pesticides has been a recognized threat to the insect food, particularly where these have been directed against the larvae of favoured food items, such as melolonthid beetles, larvae of noctuid moths or crane-flies. Favoured prey may be affected secondarily by pesticide use, such as the loss of dung fauna from the use of persistent anti-parasitic drugs (avermectins) on cattle. Populations in caves and other underground habitats have suffered from increased disturbance (e.g. by tourist visits), changes of use and the destruction of such sites. In buildings colonies may be affected by human intolerance, renovation work or the application of pesticides, such as some of those used for the remedial treatment of timbers (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
19517		threats	eng	The main threats are fragmentation and isolation of habitats, change of management regime of deciduous forests and agricultural areas, loss of insects due to pesticide use, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics. In northwest Europe, habitat change is likely to have been amongst the major causes of declines, the conversion of woodland and small-field landscape to large-scale agricultural land being particularly damaging. While declines elsewhere, particularly in eastern Europe, may currently not be so marked, the loss of cultural landscapes in those countries as they move towards western-style economies may have significant effects in the near future. The use of pesticides has been a recognized threat to the insect food, particularly where these have been directed against the larvae of favoured food items, such as melolonthid beetles, larvae of noctuid moths or crane-flies. Favoured prey may be affected secondarily by pesticide use, such as the loss of dung fauna from the use of persistent anti-parasitic drugs (avermectins) on cattle. Populations in caves and other underground habitats have suffered from increased disturbance (for example by tourist visits to caves). In buildings, colonies may be affected by human intolerance, renovation work or the application of pesticides, such as some of those used for the remedial treatment of timbers (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses. Disturbance to roosting sites is likely to be a potential threat to the populations of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19517		threats	eng	The main threats are fragmentation and isolation of habitats, change of management regime of deciduous forests and agricultural areas, loss of insects due to pesticide use, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics. In northwest Europe, habitat change is likely to have been amongst the major causes of declines, the conversion of woodland and small-field landscape to large-scale agricultural land being particularly damaging. While declines elsewhere, particularly in eastern Europe, may currently not be so marked, the loss of cultural landscapes in those countries as they move towards western-style economies may have significant effects in the near future. The use of pesticides has been a recognized threat to the insect food, particularly where these have been directed against the larvae of favoured food items, such as melolonthid beetles, larvae of noctuid moths or crane-flies. Favoured prey may be affected secondarily by pesticide use, such as the loss of dung fauna from the use of persistent anti-parasitic drugs (avermectins) on cattle. Populations in caves and other underground habitats have suffered from increased disturbance (for example by tourist visits to caves). In buildings, colonies may be affected by human intolerance, renovation work or the application of pesticides, such as some of those used for the remedial treatment of timbers (Hutson <i>et al.</i> 2001).<br><br>In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses. Disturbance to roosting sites is likely to be a potential threat to the populations of this species (Molur <i>et al.</i> 2002).
19518		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where those apply. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended conservation measures include protecting maternity roosting sites, hibernation caves and foraging habitats. <br><br>No specific conservation measures apply in South Asia; more research and monitoring is needed.
19518		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where those apply. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended conservation measures include protecting maternity roosting sites, hibernation caves and foraging habitats. <br/><br/>No specific conservation measures apply in South Asia; more research and monitoring is needed.
19518		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation in most range states (but not the Russian Federation: K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There are international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended conservation measures include protecting maternity roosting sites and hibernation caves and foraging habitats. One potential method is compensation schemes to give people incentives to keep colonies in their houses (this is happening in one region of Spain at the moment: J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006).
19518		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus hipposideros</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Palaearctic. It is found in all the European countries (including the islands) of the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the eastern part of the Sinai (to Egypt); also occurs in eastern Africa. Also recorded from Anatolia and the countries of the Levant. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
19518		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus hipposideros</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Palaearctic. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.
19518		habitat	eng	Forages close to ground within and along the edges of broadleaf deciduous woodland, riparian vegetation, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland. Feeds mainly on midges, moths and craneflies. Summer roosts (breeding colonies): natural and artificial underground sites in the southern part of the range, attics and buildings in the northern part. Winter: hibernates in underground sites (including cellars, small caves and burrows). Sedentary, winter and summer roosts usually within 5-10 km (longest distance recorded 153 km: Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19518		habitat	eng	Forages close to ground within and along the edges of broadleaf deciduous woodland, riparian vegetation, Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland. Feeds mainly on midges, moths and craneflies. Summer roosts (breeding colonies): natural and artificial underground sites in the southern part of the range, attics and buildings in the northern part. Winter: hibernates in underground sites (including cellars, small caves and burrows). Sedentary, winter and summer roosts usually within 5-10km (longest distance recorded 153 km: Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19518		habitat	eng	Forages close to ground within and along the edges of broadleaf deciduous woodland, riparian vegetation, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland. Feeds mainly on midges, moths and craneflies. Summer roosts (breeding colonies): natural and artificial underground sites in the southern part of the range, attics and buildings in the northern part. Winter: hibernates in underground sites (including cellars, small caves and burrows). Sedentary, winter and summer roosts usually within 5-10 km (longest distance recorded 153 km: Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005).
19518		population	eng	An infrequent species in the northern part of its range. In Europe the species forms summer colonies of 10-50 individuals (up to 1,500 animals). Solitary in winter or loose aggregations up to 500 animals per roost. Since the 1950s the northern border of the range in western and central Europe has moved to the south. In the Netherlands, northern Belgium and Germany with the exception of a few colonies in Bavaria, Thüringen, Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt the species went extinct (Fairon <em>et al.</em> 1982, Schofield 1999). It disappeared from northern and western parts of Bohemia, and much of Poland where 87% of the hibernating population was lost between 1950 and 1990 (Urbanczyk 1994, Ohlendorf 1997). In Switzerland and Austria the distribution became fragmented, as colonies remained only in higher elevations (>400 m) (Stutz and Haffner 1984, Spitzenberger 2002), although in Switzerland at least the population has started to slowly recover over the last 10 years (increasing from 2,200 to 2,500 adults counted in maternity roosts: H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006). In Spain some colonies have disappeared due to the restoration of buildings, but there are no data on population trend (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and in France there have been some declines in the north, although large populations in the south are thought to be more stable (EMA Workshop 2006). <br/><br/>In the southwest Asian part of the range it gathers in wintering colonies of up to 40 animals, although it is mainly solitary (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Turkey it is a commonly reported species, and the population is stable (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). It is common in Iran although encountered less frequently than <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is not known how abundant this species is in Jordan and Syria but it may be more common than the collection reports indicate (Amr 2000).<br/><br/>Size and trends within Africa and South Asia are unknown.
19518		population	eng	An infrequent species in the northern part of its range. In Europe the species forms summer colonies of 10-50 individuals (up to 1,500 animals). Solitary in winter or loose aggregations up to 500 animals per roost. Since the 1950s the northern border of the range in western and central Europe has moved to the south. In the Netherlands, northern Belgium and Germany with the exception of a few colonies in Bavaria, Thüringen, Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt the species went extinct (Fairon <em>et al.</em> 1982, Schofield 1999). It disappeared from northern and western parts of Bohemia, and much of Poland where 87% of the hibernating population was lost between 1950 and 1990 (Urbanczyk 1994, Ohlendorf 1997). In Switzerland and Austria the distribution became fragmented, as colonies remained only in higher elevations (>400m) (Stutz and Haffner 1984, Spitzenberger 2002), although in Switzerland at least the population has started to slowly recover over the last 10 years (increasing from 2,200 to 2,500 adults counted in maternity roosts: H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006). In Spain some colonies have disappeared due to the restoration of buildings, but there are no data on population trend (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and in France there have been some declines in the north, although large populations in the south are thought to be more stable (EMA Workshop 2006). Overall in Europe there has been a substantial decline over the last 50 years, with a slow decline continuing at present.<br/><br/>In the southwest Asian part of the range it gathers in wintering colonies of up to 40 animals, although it is mainly solitary (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Turkey it is a commonly reported species, and the population is stable (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). It is common in Iran although encountered less frequently than <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is not known how abundant this species is in Jordan and Syria but it may be more common than the collection reports indicate (Amr 2000).
19518		threats	eng	Threats include disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics (conversion of attics in human habitat), agricultural intensification, fragmentation and isolation of habitats, and the use of pesticides in agricultural areas.
19518		threats	eng	Threats include disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics (conversion of attics in human habitat), change of management regime of agricultural areas (loss of tree lines and hedgerows), and fragmentation and isolation of habitats.
19519		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention where those apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation). An EU-LIFE funded project aims to ensure the long-term conservation of the large populations of cave and forest-dwelling bats, including this species, in Spain. There are no specific conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br><br>Research is required on the causes of the declines across the range.
19519		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention where those apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation). An EU-LIFE funded project aims to ensure the long-term conservation of the large populations of cave and forest-dwelling bats, including this species, in Spain. There are no specific conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>Research is required on the causes of the declines across the range.
19519		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation). An EU-LIFE funded project aims to ensure the long-term conservation of the large populations of cave and forest-dwelling bats, including this species, in Spain.
19519		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus mehelyi </em>is largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It has a discontinuous distribution from north Africa and southern Europe through Asia Minor to Transcaucasia and Iran. It is patchily distributed in some large and vulnerable colonies. It occurs up to 2,000 m in High and Saharan Atlas mountains, although it is typically found at lower altitudes in other parts of its range (e.g. in Spain it tends to occur below 700 m).
19519		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinolophus mehelyi </em>is largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It has a discontinuous distribution from north Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt) and southern Europe (southern Portugal and Spain, possibly one occurrence in France, a few places in Italy and the Balkans) through Asia Minor, Anatolia, to Transcaucasia, Iran and Afghanistan (where its exact roost location is not known: Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>It is patchily distributed in some large and vulnerable colonies. It occurs up to 2,000 m in High and Saharan Atlas mountains, although it is typically found at lower altitudes in other parts of its range (e.g. in Spain it tends to occur below 700 m).
19519		habitat	eng	Forages in Mediterranean and dry sub-tropical shrubland and woodland, and in dry steppes. It feeds mainly on moths, but also preys on other insects. Summer roosts are in warm caves, often in karstic regions. Winter hibernacula are in colder underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). The species only roosts in caves and does not use artifical habitats. Sedentary (longest distance recorded 90km: Palmeirim and Rodrigues 1992).
19519		habitat	eng	Forages in Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, and in dry steppes. It feeds mainly on moths, but also preys on other insects. Summer roosts are in warm caves, often in karstic regions. Winter hibernacula are in colder underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). The species only roosts mainly in caves and does not use artificial habitats (but there is a single report of animals using an abandoned building in Bulgaria (Benda <em>et al</em>. 2003)). Sedentary (longest distance recorded 90 km: Palmeirim and Rodrigues 1992).
19519		habitat	eng	Forages in Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, and in dry steppes. It feeds mainly on moths, but also preys on other insects. Summer roosts are in warm caves, often in karstic regions. Winter hibernacula are in colder underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). The species only roosts mainly in caves and does not use artificial habitats (but there is a single report of animals using an abandoned building in Bulgaria (Benda <i>et al</i>. 2003)). Sedentary (longest distance recorded 90 km: Palmeirim and Rodrigues 1992).
19519		population	eng	An infrequent species, which is reported to have declined in all parts of its range for which data are available. In Andalucia (Spain), the rate of decline has been estimated at 10% over the last ten years. The species is close to extinction in France (Rodrigues and Palmeirim 1999), Romania (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005), and north-east Spain (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). In France, only one individual was recorded in 2004 (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006), and in Romania the population was estimated at 5,000 in the 1950s, but now numbers approximately 100 (Dumitrescu <em>et al.</em> 1962-1963, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). It is also declining in southern Spain (Franco and Rodrigues 2001), Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), Georgia, and Morocco (SW Asia Workshop 2005).  In Iran mixed-species colonies including <em>R. mehelyi</em>, which in the 1970s were estimated to be over 10,000 individuals, now only number a few hundred individuals (M. Sharifi pers. obs. 2005). Summer nursery colonies typically number 30-500 individuals (although colonies of up to 3,000 individuals have been recorded, separated in smaller groups within the same cave). Winter clusters consist of up to 5,000 animals.
19519		threats	eng	The species is affected by disturbance and loss of underground habitats, changes in foraging habitats, and destruction of caves by tourism.
19519		threats	eng	The species is affected by disturbance and loss of underground habitats, changes in foraging habitats, and destruction of caves by tourism. Mortality due to collision with cars is a problem in some areas (e.g., Portugal). The reasons for the declines are not fully understood.
19520		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas within its range.
19520		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Thailand east to Lombok (Indonesia), Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) and the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region: recorded from Balabac, Busuanga and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19520		habitat	eng	The ecology and habitat of this species are unknown in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The only known roosts in the Philippines are in caves, and the species has been found from 60-250 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It occurs in lowland dipterocarp forest on Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). The species forages in primary and secondary forest, as well as bamboo thickets (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Myanmar the species was found in a small colony roosting under a building (P. Bates pers. comm.). It is tolerant of urban areas.
19520		population	eng	The population status of the species is uncertain, though apparently it is locally common and occurs in small colonies (Esselstyn et <em>al</em>. 2004, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19520		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species although disturbance of caves is a localized threat.
19521		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
19521		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series collected in Kimanika cave, Kouilou, in the Republic of Congo (Aellen and Brosset, 1968; Csorba, Ujhelyi and Thomas 2003).
19521		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known. It was collected roosting in a cave, and is suspected to occur in tropical moist forest, however, further field surveys are needed to confirm this.
19521		population	eng	It is known only from ten specimens held in the Paris and Geneva museums (Aellen and Brosset 1968), and may be naturally rare, however, this requires confirmation.
19521		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown. It is possible that it is threatened by cave disturbance, however, this needs to be confirmed.
19522		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
19522		distribution	eng	This very widespread species is present throughout much of South Asia, southern and central China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) (Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), Bhutan (Gedu), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em>2002). In China, it has been reported from Hunan, Shanxii, Hubei, Guizhou, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Anhui and Hainan island. In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, into Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands), to southern parts of the island of Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia). Reports of this species from Cambodia cannot currently be confirmed (Kock 2000). It has been recorded from 290 to at least 2,000 m asl (China).
19522		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this is a highly adaptable species. It roosts in caves, and is found commonly in man-made habitats such as orchards, degraded habitats and agriculture areas (M. Muni pers. comm. February 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, occasionally in cultivated areas, but is not found in urban areas. It has a tendency to roost in caves, and colonies can be large, up to thousands of Individuals. Species forages in understory of forest, and is not thought to be dependent on water. In China it is considered to be a cave roosting species, found both in the wet western highlands and in the more tropical eastern lowlands.
19522		population	eng	It is a highly adaptable and common species.
19522		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species. However, limestone extraction may be a threat locally in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19523		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
19523		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan bat species ranges through much of West and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Senegal in the west through to Togo, and then from Nigeria to southern Sudan and western Uganda, with patchy records from the Congo basin (although it likely occurs throughout the Congo). It ranges as far south as central Democratic Republic of the Congo. The record of this species from Gabon needs to be reexamined as it may represent a misidentified specimen of <em>Rhinolophus sylvester</em> (Dowsett <em>et al.</em> 1991).
19523		habitat	eng	This species is associated with closed tropical moist forest, but also extends into savanna where there are pockets of suitable habitat (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). During the day colonies roost in caves, hollow trees, the roofs of thatched houses and in old mine shafts (Rosevear 1965; Brosset 1966; Happold, 1987).
19523		population	eng	This species is easily found in colonies of up to 20 animals.
19523		threats	eng	This widespread species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, largely resulting from logging and conversion of land to agricultural use. In some areas the species is hunted for food, although it is unclear whether this represents a major threat.
19525		conservation	eng	This is a widespread species and it is presumably present in some protected areas. Taxonomic revision of this species is required.
19525		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia) and Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Wetar, the Moluccas, Buru and Amboina islands, the island of New Guinea, and throughout the Philippines (Corbet and Hill 1992, Bonaccorso 1998). In the Philippines records are from: Biliran, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dalupiri, Fuga, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal provinces and in montane and mossy forest from 925-1,950 m asl elevation in Balbalasang (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) in Kalinga province), Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Maguindanao, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Sibutu, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tawi-tawi (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).
19525		habitat	eng	It occurs in agricultural lands, secondary forest, and primary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, Lepiten 1995, Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993), including montane and mossy forest on Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>It roosts in limestone caves in small colonies. It forages for food by gleaning and aerial insectivory (Bonaccorso 1998).
19525		population	eng	This species is locally common in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is generally rare in Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).
19525		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although in parts of its range the species is impacted by forest loss and cave disturbance for guano mining and hunting.
19526		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures applied to the species.
19526		distribution	eng	Distributed in Middle Asia from S Turkmenistan to N Afghanistan.
19526		habitat	eng	Distributed in desertified mountain foothills. Inhabits caves and deserted mine galleries. Females during pregnancy and lactation period form colonies separate from males. Usually those colonies reach several hundreds in number, rarely small groups. Delivery occurs in June-beginning of July. After young are able to fly and feed independently, males move to form mixed colonies. Those mixed colonies are often common roosts with <em>Myotis emarginatus</em>, sometimes with <em>Rhinolophus ferrumequinum</em>, and/or <em>Myotis blythi</em>. Mating occurs after lactation period or during winter. The species hibernates in deep caves. Preys at dusk, flying low above the ground, feed mainly on butterflies, sometimes on beatles andother insects.
19526		population	eng	There are no data on population size.
19526		threats	eng	Habitat loss and artificial cave modification are threats, but are not thought to pose a major risk to the species at present.
19527		conservation	eng	It is recorded in protected areas including, for example, Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam. Further taxonomic studies are required to determine the distribution limits of the species.
19527		distribution	eng	This species is known from Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR and the Malay Peninsula. Its presence is not confirmed from Thailand, though it probably occurs there. It is recorded throughout much of Borneo (though there is no confirmed record from Brunei), from several locations on Java, including Nusakambanagan Island just off south central Java (U. Sinaga pers. comm.), Labuan and Banguey Islands, Karimata Islands, and South Natuna Islands in Indonesia.
19527		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest. Diurnal roosts include hollow bamboos, young leaves of bananas, hollow trees and rock crevices. Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) mention that the species roosts in caves, sometimes in colonies of several hundred individuals. It uses perches to feed.
19527		population	eng	Recorded from Gunung Halimun, West Java as rare by Suyanto (2003). Borissenko and Kruskop (2003) wrote that this is one of the most common forest bats in southern Viet Nam.
19527		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species and it does seem to tolerate some disturbance of its habitat.
19528		conservation	eng	It is not known whether any records fall within protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the range and population status of this species, particularly whether or not it still survives on Java.
19528		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities on Java and one on Nusa Barong in Indonesia (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known also from one locality on Timor (Goodwin 1979), but this is probably a distinct form (recorded at 550 m asl) and is not mapped here. An unpublished specimen from Bali also represents this species (G. Csorba pers. comm.). The type locality for this species is Kallipoet-jang, Tji-Tangoi river, South Java, Indonesia.
19528		habitat	eng	This is a cave roosting species, probably in large colonies. It requires caves and intact forest, although it may occasionally forage over cultivated landscapes.
19528		population	eng	Survey work in Java has not found this species and the Bali population may be the only extant population, but additional survey work is required.
19528		threats	eng	Human disturbance of roost sites, and deforestation due to logging and expanding agriculture represent major threats to this species.
19529		conservation	eng	This species is present in some protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roost sites for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this bat.
19529		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the coastal belt of the Northern Cape, the Western Cape and the Eastern Cape of South Africa, as far east along the coast as the vicinity of East London (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Records outside of this range are misidentifications (see Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
19529		habitat	eng	This bat has been recorded from a range of habitats, including fynbos, in coastal areas. Populations roost in suitable coastal and sea caves, and have been recorded from dark lofts, and disused mines (Taylor 2000; Csorba, Ujhelyi and Thomas 2003; Smithers and Chimimba 2005). The diet consists largely of beetles, but other invertebrates are also taken. the breeding season is December to February, with a single young born.
19529		population	eng	This bat can be found in colonies consisting of thousands of individuals (Taylor 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Skinner and Chimimba (2005) state that 'they are abundant in the Western Cape and the Eastern Cape, where there are many records from coastal caves'.
19529		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its range by disturbance of cave roosts (often by recreational and tourism activities), and the conversion of suitable foraging habitat to agricultural use.
19530		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kakanauwi Forest Reserve, Lambasanga Forest Reserve, and Lorelindu National Park in central Sulawesi.
19530		distribution	eng	This species is known from Java, Krakatau, Bali, Sulawesi, Buton, Kabaena, Kangean, Sangihe, and Karekelang islands in Indonesia. The record from Sepanjang requires confirmation. Also recorded from Wangi Wangi and Kaledupa islands, in Indonesia (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
19530		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, and is a cave roosting species, in colonies of up to hundreds.
19530		population	eng	This species is locally common.
19530		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although deforestation due to logging and agricultural development, as well as limestone extraction may be a localised threat.
19531		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it seems likely that it is present in a number of protected areas. All bats, including <em>Rhinolophus clivosus</em>, are protected by national legislation in Jordan (Amr pers. comm. 2004). Bats of the genus <em>Rhinolophus</em> are generally susceptible to indirect poisoning through the local use of insecticides; there is a need to evaluate the impact of this threat on populations (especially in southwest Asia), and to investigate alternative methods of insect control (Kock pers. comm. 2004).
19531		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it seems likely that it is present in a number of protected areas. All bats, including <i>Rhinolophus clivosus</i>, are protected by national legislation in Jordan (Amr pers. comm. 2004). Bats of the genus <i>Rhinolophus</i> are generally susceptible to indirect poisoning through the local use of insecticides; there is a need to evaluate the impact of this threat on populations (especially in southwest Asia), and to investigate alternative methods of insect control (Kock pers. comm. 2004).
19531		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in North, East and southern Africa, and also in parts of southwest Asia, including western and southeastern areas of the Arabian Peninsula. In North Africa it has been recorded from Algeria, Libya and Egypt; in East Africa, it ranges from Sudan in the north, through all East African countries to Malawi in the south; in southern Africa, it is present in Mozambique and Zambia in the north, ranging southwards into South Africa, Namibia and southern Angola. In addition there are a number of records from southern and eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In southwest Asia, it ranges from Israel, Jordan and the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt in the north, through the western and southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula of Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman, with a few additional records of the species from central regions of the Arabian Peninsula.
19531		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from savanna woodland, Mediterranean-type shrubland, dry (and possibly moist) savanna, open grasslands and semi-desert to even more arid environments. Roosting has been recorded in caves, rock cervices, disused mines, and various rural and urban buildings.
19531		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range, including South Africa. But is uncommon to rare in other areas, such as in Zimbabwe. In Swaziland, three separate populations contained over a thousand individuals, while in Jordan forty individuals were observed at a single location in Jordan (Amr, 2000). Although the population appears to be stable in many regions, in Jordan the population is in decline and this bat maybe declining throughout its range in the Arabian Peninsula (Amr pers. comm.).
19531		threats	eng	Although there are generally considered to be no major threats to the species as a whole, some populations are locally threatened by disturbance of their roosting sites, and indirect poisoning resulting from the use of insecticides, pesticides and similar chemicals.
19532		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
19532		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Myanmar, Salaween River, Thailand, Western Malaysia, and Lao PDR. The records from eastern Thailand may be <em>R. shameli</em> (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
19532		habitat	eng	It is found in broad leaved mixed deciduous to evergreen forest in a wide altitudinal range in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
19532		population	eng	The species is locally common in Thailand, a population there may have contained 1,000 individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Its population status in other countries is not known but it is not thought to be common anywhere.
19532		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species at present.
19533		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place. It is recorded from the Narcondam Island Wildlife Sanctuary. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population monitoring, ecology and effects of tsunami on the habitat (S. Molur pers. comm. 2007).
19533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia and is presently known only from three Andaman Islands (North Andaman, South Andaman and Narcondom Island) in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Elevation details are not known. The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 11-500 km² based on the size of the islands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19533		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species, except that it is a cave dwelling species in rainforests and also occurs in mangrove forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19533		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends of this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19533		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain poorly known, however, the habitat on two of the three islands it has been recorded from are under threat from human settlements following the December 2004 tsunami event. In view of the lifting of the islands resulting from the tsunami, the mangrove forests could be also be affected.
19535		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
19535		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Borneo, Madura, and recently also from Palawan in the Philippines (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has been reported from various sites in East Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) by Yasuma (1994). It is unclear whether the species occurs throughout Borneo or whether it is restricted to areas with caves. It has also been collected from Nusa Penida, Semau, Roti (I. Maryanto  pers. comm. 2006), and recently reported from Banggi Island by Rahman and Abdullah in Indonesia (2002). Confirmation is required as to whether the record from Flores is <em>R. creaghi</em> or <em>R. canuti</em> (Suyanto 1998). Records from Timor are provisionally assigned to <em>R. canuti</em>.
19535		habitat	eng	On Palawan, the species is common in primary lowland forest from near sea level up to at least 700 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has also been collected in primary forests in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm. 2006). It roosts in caves, often in large numbers, with colonies of hundreds or thousands (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985, Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004, Maryanto pers. comm. 2006). Of 135 adult females captured at one site in December 1999, eight were pregnant (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
19535		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
19535		threats	eng	There is disturbance of the species' cave roosts, for limestone extraction and guano mining, and it is also affected by deforestation due to logging and agricultural development. It is hunted in the Philippines, but not in Indonesia, and not at a level that currently constitutes a threat to the species.
19536		conservation	eng	This species is present within a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for populations recorded outside of southern Africa. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
19536		distribution	eng	This bat is largely distributed in southern Africa with some additional records outside of this area. Skinner and Chimimba (2005) report that it has been recorded from Namibia and northeastern Botswana; that it is widely distributed in Zimbabwe; in South Africa it is known from Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga, northern Gauteng, in parts of the Eastern Cape and the Northern Cape, and from KwaZulu-Natal; in much of eastern Mozambique; and in the lowveld and Lubombo regions of Swaziland. It is unclear if the species is present in Lesotho. Outside of southern Africa, it has been recorded from Benguela in Angola, Banagi in Tanzania, and possibly from Nigeria suggesting a wider distribution than is currently known (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
19536		habitat	eng	Generally associated with savanna and savanna-woodland type habitats. It is dependant on caves, mines, broken rocky areas, buildings and similar structures as roost sites (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
19536		population	eng	This is a locally common species that, while usually found in small numbers, can be represented by hundreds of bats in a colony (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
19536		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
19537		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from some National Parks and Forest Reserves in Tanzania. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Further research is needed into the species taxonomy, biology and overall natural history.
19537		distribution	eng	This little known East African species has been recorded from Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, including the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.
19537		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat. it is a forest dwelling species that may not be exclusively associated with primary forest (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further information is needed on the roosting habits of this species.
19537		population	eng	Small colonies of less than 20 individuals. It is reported to be locally common in some areas, such as the Manga Forest Reserve, Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999).
19537		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by the logging and conversion of forest land to agricultural use, especially in coastal areas.
19538		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species (particularly in West and Central Africa).
19538		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded in West and southern Africa. It ranges from southeastern Senegal, through northern parts of West Africa to northeastern Ghana; in Central Africa it appears to have only been recorded from eastern Congo and southern Angola; in southern Africa, it is present in Namibia, northwestern and southwestern Botswana and northern parts of South Africa.
19538		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with savanna habitats. Populations are largely dependent on caves, abandoned mines and similar habitats for roosting (Herselman and  Norton 1985), although they have also been found roosting in hollow trees (M.N. Morton <em>in litt</em>. in Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19538		population	eng	The species is known from fewer than 100 in colonies in West Africa, and fewer than 200 colonies in southern Africa.
19538		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened in parts of its range by disturbance to roosting caves.
19539		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this bat.
19539		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central and Eastern Africa. It has been recorded from southern Sudan, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba in Tanzania.
19539		habitat	eng	This species is associated with caves in savanna habitats. It is not known if it can persist in disturbed habitats.
19539		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
19539		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the general conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.
19540		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.). Major roosting sites and important foraging areas should be protected.
19540		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the eastern Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), Timor (Timor-Leste and Indonesia), Yapen Island (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), throughout the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and Kiriwina Island (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,800 m asl. (T. Leary pers. comm.).
19540		habitat	eng	Large roosts, of up to 1,000 individuals, have been found in limestone caves, old mining shafts, and old military tunnels. It has also been found in mangroves (T. Leary pers. comm.).
19540		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
19540		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
19541		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range in East and southern Africa it seems probable that it is present in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
19541		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the east, through West and Central Africa to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east, and from here through East and southern Africa as far south as Namibia and northeastern South Africa.
19541		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from dry forest, and dry and moist savanna habitats. Colonies are generally associated with caves.
19541		population	eng	It is a locally common species that can be encountered as large colonies. Colonies in southern Africa tend to be smaller.
19541		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
19542		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site and the "Massif du Ziama" Biosphere Reserve, both in Guinea. It has also been recorded from a few state forests ("Forets Classees") in Guinea. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species. Further studies are needed to better determine the species range.
19542		distribution	eng	This West African bat has been patchily recorded from southern Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. It is a highland species recorded at elevations of 1,400 m asl and over. It may be present in Gambia in remnant patches of forest (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
19542		habitat	eng	Thiss species has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest, and to a lesser extent from moist savanna (Koopman 1989; Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998; Weber and Fahr 2007). Animals are usually found roosting in caves, however, two were found in a hollow trees (Böhme and Hutterer 1978; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998; Weber and Fahr 2007).
19542		population	eng	It is possibly a rare species overall, although little information is available on the population abundance of this bat.
19542		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include deforestation resulting from logging operations, the conversion of land to agricultural use, and mining activities. There is also a limited threat of overhunting for the bushmeat trade.
19543		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species wide East African and southern African range, it seems probable that the species is present in some protected areas.
19543		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to East Africa, except for a Central African records from Rwanda and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, a single questionable West African record from Nigeria. In East Africa it ranges from Ethiopia and northern Sudan in the north, through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, into southern Africa of Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Botswana, being found as far south as northern South Africa.
19543		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded from caves in both dry and moist savanna. The preferred habitat appears to be woodland savanna although Ansell and Ansell (1973) recorded the species in "bracken-briar" near the head of a stream in a montane area. The species roosts in caves, mines, unused buildings, warthog holes and hollow trees including as baobab and mopane (Pienaar <em>et al</em>. 1987).
19543		population	eng	This species is quite common in Zambia.
19543		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
19545		conservation	eng	<em>R. inops</em> occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need for taxonomic research into geographic variation in distinctive characters (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
19545		distribution	eng	The Philippine forest horseshoe bat is endemic to the Philippines and has been recorded from Biliran, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Cebu (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Leyte, Luzon [throughout the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.)], Mindanao [Agusan del Sur, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur and Surigao del Sur provinces], Negros, and Polillo islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007), where it is found from sea level to 2,250 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19545		habitat	eng	<em>R. inops</em> is mostly dependent on primary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) where it is common to abundant in lowland and montane forest, and only rarely found in secondary forest and mossy forest (Heaney 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has, however, been reported in disturbed forest on Negros and in orchards on Mount Makiling (Luzon) (Sedlock 2001) and from mossy forest at 1,800-1,950 m asl in Balbalasang, Kalinga province, Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19545		population	eng	<em>R. inops</em> is locally abundant (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
19545		threats	eng	This species has no doubt declined because of loss of its forest habitat, especially at low elevations. However, it has strong populations in montane forest, and these are much more secure, as habitat loss is less severe in these areas (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
19546		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it seems probable that it is present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
19546		distribution	eng	This species has been widely reported from much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, through most of West and Central Africa to Sudan and Ethiopia in the east. The species has been recorded as far south as eastern South Africa. Populations have been reported at an altitude of 2,000 m asl on Mount Elgon in Kenya (Aggundey and Schlitter, 1984). On Cameroon Mountain they have been taken at an altitude of 1,200 m asl and at 900 m asl on Bintamane Mountain in Sierra Leone (Rosevear, 1965).
19546		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with both savanna and gallery forest habitats. It has also been found in lowveld, sparsely wooded transition areas, riverine forest, dense thornscrub and tropical moist forest (Taylor 1998; Menzies 1973; Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987). Populations roost  caves, mine adits and in crevices amongst piles of boulders. Animals have also been found roosting in a baobab tree, water wells (Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1978) and buildings (Rosevear 1965).
19546		population	eng	This species is rather common locally, colonies can consist of hundreds of individuals
19546		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
19547		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place in South Asia. It is reported from Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan, Karnala Bird Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002), and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 10 October 2007). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia it occurs in a number of protected areas.
19547		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia the species is known from Afghanistan (Faryab, Kabul, Nangarhar, Parwan and Zabol provinces), Bangladesh (Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Sylhet and Rajsahi divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat (Senacha, under review), Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) and Pakistan (Punjab) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia, and (Sumatra). In South Asia, it has been recorded up to an elevation of 2,330 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19547		habitat	eng	This species can be found in both dry and moist forest and fringe areas (C. Srinivaulu pers. comm. September 2007). In Malaysia and Thailand it appears to be associated with intact lowland tropical moist forest. Roosts include caves, unused tunnels, old and ruined buildings, old temples (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its flight is slow and low and feeds on lepidopterans, coleopterans, dipterans, hymenopterans (Bates and Harrison 1997).
19547		population	eng	It is locally common throughout much of its range.
19547		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its Indian range, this species is threatened due to roost disturbance from conversion of old forts and havelis to hotels as a part of tourist related development activities (K.R. Senacha pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19548		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place. In South Asia, it is recorded from protected areas in India like Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Taxonomy, distribution, ecology, habitat and population monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been collected in a number of protected areas, including Vu Quang National Park, Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop, 2003).
19548		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Asia, southern China and South East Asia. In South Asia it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southeastern China, the species has been recorded from Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou, Sichuan, Fujian, Guangxi, Anhui, Yunnan and Hainan Island. It has been recorded throughout most of continental Southeast Asia, and ranges into Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Bali) and the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,600 m asl.
19548		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is a forest dweller, it roosts solitary or in pairs in small to large caves, rocky outcrops and overhanging ledges and large trees with hollow (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its flight is low just above the ground and feeds on coleopterans, termites and other insects. In Southeast Asia it is considered to be forest dependent, although it is present in degraded forest (and is apparently somewhat resistant to human disturbance). Roost in small groups in rocky outcrops, rock crevices, niches in cliffs, shallow holes in earth banks, roosts of trees, and hollow trees. In China, most have been collected in forested areas and have been collected from tunnels, old mine shafts, hollow trees and under thick bark.
19548		population	eng	The species appears to be found at naturally low densities.
19548		threats	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that there are no overall major threats to the species. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. It is also threatened by hunting for medicinal purposes (Debojit Pukhan pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19549		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Protection of habitat, further research, and awareness education urgently  required.
19549		distribution	eng	This species is known from a very few localities in eastern Guinea. Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002) reports that 'apart from the type locality, supposedly Conakry Island, all records are located along the lower, southern slope of the Fouta Djallon region between Kindia and Mamou near the border with Sierra Leone'. However, recent surveys have revealed additional localities in the Fouta Djallon Highlands, ranging as far north as the Gessorewoul River in Prefecture Mali (Weber and Fahr 2007).
19549		habitat	eng	Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002) states that the 'predominant vegetation is bush-tree savanna, intersected by gallery forests along the rivers and in protected pockets (Guinean Forest-Savanna Mosaic ecoregion)'. Most specimens have been taken from day roosts in caves, but a single specimen has been collected from a house (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19549		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. The species roosts singly or in small groups (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19549		threats	eng	The species relatively limited range is quite densely populated, and it is threatened by habitat loss and degradation of remaining patches of forest, and by overharvesting for the bush meat trade (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19550		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. Public awareness activities need to be taken up to mitigate any further threats to this taxon (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In view of its wide range in Southeast Asia, it seems probable that the species has been recorded from some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed.
19550		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern South Asia, into southeastern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong division), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) and Pakistan (Punjab) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China it has been recorded from Sichuan, Shaanxi, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou and Guangxi. In Southeast Asia, it has generally been recorded from northern Myanmar and Thailand, northern Lao PDR and Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (and the island of Tioman), Sumatra (Indonesia), and the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Guimaras, Luzon [Abra and Pampanga provinces], Mindanao [Bukidnon Province], Negros, Palawan (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Samar (Gonzales unpublished data). It has been recorded from 200 up to 1,692 m asl (South Asia) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19550		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts in abandoned mines and caves in forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its flight is fast and high and feeds on coleopterans and dipterans (Bates and Harrison 1997). Other than being a cave roosting species, there are few details available on the natural history of this species in China. In Myanmar and Viet Nam it is associated with limestone caves at an altitude of around 1,000 m asl, and has been found at a large cave in disturbed secondary growth forest. It has been recorded from in caves in secondary forest in Lao PDR and lowland tropical moist forest in Peninsular Malaysia (C. Francis pers. comm.). In the Philippines, it has been recorded in lowland tropical moist forest, but is otherwise poorly known (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). There are some records from forest caves. On Palawan Island, it has been reported from caves in disturbed lowland forest at 50 to 250 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
19550		population	eng	Though this species is widely distributed in its range in South Asia it is known from a few localities and has a small colony size. The population size of this species is low and a declining trend in the population is inferred (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand it is rare in tall lowland forest and also hill forest in Peninsular Malaysia (Bumrungsri and Francis pers. comm. 2006) and widespread but seemingly uncommon in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
19550		threats	eng	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion for agricultural use. In Nepal it is threatened due to increase in tourism leading to disturbance to roosting sites; fumigation and chemical pesticides to rid the caves of roosts (T.K. Shreshta pers. comm. January 2002; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it is probably threatened in parts of its range (such as Malaysia) by ongoing habitat loss.
19551		conservation	eng	The species is found in a number of protected areas.
19551		distribution	eng	This species is found in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Peninsular Malaysia.
19551		habitat	eng	In eastern Myanmar it is associated with limestone caves, and found in agricultural areas and secondary forest (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Cambodia it is found in caves (not necessarily limestone) in secondary forest and degraded habitat (G. Csorba pers. comm.). This species is tolerant to some degree of habitat disturbance.
19551		population	eng	The species is common in Lao PDR, locally common in eastern Myanmar, Viet Nam, and possibly in Thailand.
19551		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19552		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. All known populations are in protected areas in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
19552		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Myanmar, Thailand (Chantaburi, Amphoe Pong Nam Ron, foothills of Khao Soi Dao Thai),<br/>Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Peninsular Malaysia.
19552		habitat	eng	In Myanmar and Viet Nam it is associated with limestone caves and is tolerant of very disturbed habitat (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Thailand it is also found in rock crevices (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
19552		population	eng	It is always found as individuals, never in large numbers (P. Bates pers. comm.; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is not clear whether it has declined significantly historically (C. Francis pers. comm.).
19552		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19553		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas.
19553		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), the Bismarck Archipelago (islands of New Britain and New Ireland) (Papua New Guinea); the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and on the eastern coast of Australia from Cape York to Victoria (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Pavey and Young 2008). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
19553		habitat	eng	This is a cave (including lava tunnel) roosting species that is generally associated with closed tropical forest habitats and hot humid roosting sites. It has been recorded from rural gardens and plantations. Colonies usually consist of less than 50 individuals, but they sometimes (rarely) exceed 2,000 (Pavey and Young 2008). Females give birth to a single young. Its range has expanded in the south due to mine shafts in the last 100 years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
19553		population	eng	It is locally common in suitable habitats within Australia, common in New Guinea, and relatively abundant in New Ireland and New Britain, and islands of Milne Bay.
19553		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is generally sensitive to disturbance of cave roosting sites.
19554		conservation	eng	Very little is known about this species, hence surveys, ecological studies and habitat evaluation are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19554		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India. It is presently known only from the type locality, Chaibassa in Jharkhand (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), at an elevation of 300 m. Recent surveys by Y.P. Sinha did not yield any new records of this species from the type locality (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19554		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It might be a cave roosting species, but this needs to be confirmed.
19554		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype collected in 1844.
19554		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19556		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, habitat, ecology and threats to this species.
19556		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Siantan Island (Anamba Islands) and North Natuna Islands in Indonesia.
19556		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the ecology of this species (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
19556		population	eng	The status of the population is unknown (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
19556		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
19557		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of taxonomy, population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. This species has been regionally Red Listed in China as Endangered A2cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
19557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and is known only from the type series, from Nguluko, Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008).  A specimen, fitting the description of this species, was collected near Dali, Yunnan in 2003 (Jones, G. pers. comm.).
19557		habitat	eng	There are few data regarding the habitat and no data on the ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008). The specimen from Dali was found in a cave (Jones, G. pers. comm.).
19557		population	eng	There is no information regarding the population status of this species.
19557		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
19558		conservation	eng	It has been reported from protected areas.
19558		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, adjacent Guangxi Province in China (Zhao <em>et al</em>. 2002), central Viet Nam (Hendrichsen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999), central Thailand (Thonglongya 1973), and northern and central Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999).
19558		habitat	eng	This species roosts in caves. The specimen from Thailand was taken in a rather dry pine forest (Thonglongya 1973), and the specimen from southwestern China was found torpid in a limestone cave in late November 1999.
19558		population	eng	Once considered extremely rare, colonies of up to 50 individuals were found in caves in central Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999) and northern Viet Nam (Hill and Kemp 1996). Single individuals or small groups were found in other areas of China, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (Eger and Fenton 2003). It is not difficult to find during surveys.
19558		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging and agricultural expansion, represents a major threat to this species in some parts of its range.
19559		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not known if the species is present in protected areas in China or Southeast Asia.
19559		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northern South Asia, southeast and central China, and much of continental Southeast Asia. In South Asia it has been recorded from Bangladesh (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), Bhutan (Phuntsholing), India (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, the species has been reported from Xizang, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Hubei, Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hunan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. It has been recorded from an altitudinal range of 610 to 3,077 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19559		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species roosts in caves in hilly areas, and is found in montane forests, bamboo forests and cultivated areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Bates and Harrison 1997). In Myanmar the species has been recorded from agricultural areas; in Thailand it is found in good forest which is surrounded by agricultural land. The species appears to be associated with limestone caves (P. Bates and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Viet Nam, it is predominantly found in limestone areas but does not appear to be dependent on this substrate (Furey pers. comm.). In China, it has been recorded hibernating in caves and bomb shelters.
19559		population	eng	In South Asia, while the species is still common and widely distributed, a declining trend in the population of this species is suspected because of ongoing habitat degradation in the Himalayas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is common in Southeast Asia.
19559		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and converted for agricultural use in the Himalayas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19560		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from protected areas in both Australia and the Philippines. A Recovery Plan for this species has been developed (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2001). Further studies of the distribution and taxonomy of this species are needed.
19560		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Philippines (islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and Mindanao), northeastern Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia), the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia), the island of Timor, the Kai Islands (Indonesia), Geelvinck Bay (Indonesia), to the island of New Guinea at Mount Karimui and Waro and from Australia where it is present in northeastern Cape York Peninsula (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). In the Philippines there are records from Luzon (Abra Province), Mindanao (Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Polillo and Samar (Gonzales pers. comm. 2004) and Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded between 200-1,500 m asl.
19560		habitat	eng	This is a forest species which has been recorded only in primary and secondary forest in the Philippines (Lepiten 1995; Ruedas <em>et al</em>. 1994; L. Heaney unpubl. data) and in primary and disturbed forest in Sulawesi and Flores (Suyanto and Kingston pers. comm. 2006). <br/>It roosts as scattered individuals, or small colonies, in caves, mines and similar habitats. It forages in tropical moist forest and open woodland (Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999).
19560		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is an apparently uncommon species in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Only one individual was found after much survey effort on Mount Makiling in Laguna province, Luzon (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). There are some moderately large colonies in Sabah (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006). In Sulawesi the species is uncommon (I. Suyanto pers. comm. 2004).
19560		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats affecting the species throughout its range. It is threatened in Australia by disturbance of roost sites and the collapse and intentional closure of old mines (Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999). Over collection for museums and habitat loss have also been suggested as threats to this species (Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999). Deforestation and limestone extraction in Southeast Asia may also affect the species.
19561		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Phamong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary in Sikkim and Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu in India. Ecological studies and population monitoring are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present in numerous protected areas in Southeast Asia. Subspecies <pumilus</em> is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007)
19561		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide range from South Asia eastwards to Japan, occuring also in southern and southwestern China, including Taiwan, southwards through mainland Southeast Asia to Indonesia and Borneo. The distribution of the geographically isolated subspecies is given below. <br/><br/>Subspecies <em>pusillus</em> is widely distributed in South Asia, southern and southwestern China and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is widely distributed and is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Recently collected from Kothaiyar Dam site in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan Island and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It appears to be present throughout most of continental Southeast Asia, ranging from Myanmar in the west, to Viet Nam in the east and as far south as Peninsular Malaysia. It has also been recorded from Indonesia (including the Mentawi Islands and the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali), and from Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Sabah (Malaysia). In South Asia it has been recorded from 200 to 1,370 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Subspecies <monoceros</em> is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies low elevations on the island (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>cornutus</em> is endemic to Japan. It ranges from Hokkaido south to Okinoerabu on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sado Islands, Izu-Oshima, Niijima, Miyake, Mikura, Hachijo, Tsushima, Iki, Fukue, Yaku, Tane, Kuchinoerabu, Amami-Oshima, Kakeroma, and Tokunoshima (Abe, 2005). It includes as a synonym <em>perditus</em> which is found only on the Yaeyama Islands (Iriomote, Ishigaki, Taketomi, and Kohama), and <em>imaizumii</em> (described from Iriomote) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>pumilus</em> is endemic to Japan, where it is found on three islands in the Ryukyus: Okinawa, Iheya, and Kume. The species is believed to have become extinct on Miyako (30 years ago) and Irabu (probably around 5 years ago).
19561		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, roosting in caves (up to 1,500 animals in China) and houses (usually a smaller colony size). Animals have been recorded foraging low over bamboo clumps in limestone areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). This species is characterized as a forest-interior specialist that is not readily adaptable to open habitats (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2006).
19561		population	eng	It appears to be widespread and common throughout its range.<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>pumilus</em> breeding colonies are on Okinawa, where the subpopulation is estimated at 5,000 or more. Only three major breeding colonies of 200, 1500 and 2000 individuals are currently known (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). On the smaller two islands, the total subpopulation is less than 300 individuals.
19561		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
19562		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin and Jinfoshan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may occur in other protected areas along the Sichuan and Guizhou border. There are few data regarding this species, research should be conducted in the areas of taxonomy, population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Endangered A2cd+3cd; B2b(i,ii,iii)c(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
19562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the following provinces: Sichuan, Guangdong, and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008).
19562		habitat	eng	It has been recorded as hibernating in a cave in Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It roosts in caves, buildings, foliage, and hollow trees (Nowak 1999). It presumably forages in the surrounding habitat.  It is not known whether it is tolerant of disturbed habitats, but if it roosts in hollow trees then it is most likely restricted to primary forest.
19562		population	eng	There is no current information regarding the population status of this species.
19562		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of urban development, selective logging, and agriculture is a major threat.
19563		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas in India, including Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, Karnala Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Ecological studies and population and habitat monitoring are important research recommendation for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not known if it is present in any protected areas outside of South Asia.
19563		distribution	eng	This species is largely confined to South Asia, with a few records outside of this region. In South Asia, it is known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabargamuwa, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, there is a single record of the species from western Yunnan (Gaoligong mountain) (Wang 2002). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from southern Myanmar, with reports of this species from Cambodia being probably erroneous (Kock 2002). In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to 1,370 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19563		habitat	eng	This species is found in caves, hollows of large tree in moist evergreen forests, unused wells, old dilapidated buildings and temples in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani 2007).
19563		population	eng	Though a widely distributed species in South Asia, with a large colony size, a declining trend in the population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19563		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened due to cave tourism leading to decline in populations. It is also threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19564		conservation	eng	<em>R. rufus</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.
19564		distribution	eng	<em>R. rufus</em> is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Bohol, Catanduanes, Leyte, Luzon (Laguna, Pampanga, and Rizal provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Davao del Sur, and Maguindanao provinces), Mindoro, and Polillo (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is a lowland species range from sea-level to 350 m asl., perhaps higher.
19564		habitat	eng	<em>R. rufus</em> has been recorded in primary and mature secondary forest, either in or near to caves (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1998; Lawrence 1939; Sanborn 1952).
19564		population	eng	A generally uncommon species (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), the overall population of the large rufous horseshoe bat is declining. It is, however, abundant on Bohol and Polillo (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).
19564		threats	eng	<em>R. rufus</em> is probably dependent on lowland caves, most of which have been heavily disturbed (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The caves are threatened by guano mining. This species is also collected for food (fires are lit in the caves to asphyxiate these bats) (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).
19565		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas.
19565		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, and Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Brunei). It has been reported from the Ulu Barito area (Sheldon unpubl. rep.) and also the Maliau Basi, and G. Palung National Park (Blundell 1996).
19565		habitat	eng	It is mainly a primary forest species, and feeds in the forest understorey. It roosts singly or in small groups and may be monogamous. It roosts in caves, hollows formed by fallen trees, or in man-made structures like culverts. It has small home-ranges (400 m radius from roost).
19565		population	eng	This species occurs at low densities, and represents between 1-3% of captures in Krau Wildlife Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em> 2006).
19565		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging, agricultural development, plantations and forest fires affects both prime foraging habitat as well as roosting habitats.
19566		conservation	eng	It is not reported from any protected areas.
19566		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Thailand as well as islands on the south east coast of Thailand (Koh Chang Islands), and from eastern Myanmar (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2005), Lao PDR, Cambodia, and central Viet Nam.
19566		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed lowland evergreen forest (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006) and secondary forest. In Thailand it occurs in secondary mixed deciduous forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.); in Myanmar it is associated with limestone caves around at least 1,000 m asl (P. Bates pers. comm.) within very disturbed areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).
19566		population	eng	It is locally common in eastern Myanmar and Thailand, but locally rare in Viet Nam.
19566		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19567		conservation	eng	The species does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas. An additional examination of the taxonomic relationship between this species and <em>Rhinolophus deckeni</em> is needed. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and the extent of threats to this little known bat.
19567		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded from three localities in Gabon (Benga; Belinga; and the type locality of Dumbu Cave, Latoursville), and a single site in Congo (Meya-Nzouari).
19567		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known, however, it appears to be associated with cave habitats within lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded habitats.
19567		population	eng	The species is usually found in small colonies of fewer than 20 bats. It is believed to be in overall decline.
19567		threats	eng	It is considered to be threatened by habitat loss through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. Additional threats include general disturbance of cave roost sites and overharvesting of the species for the bushmeat trade.
19568		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species East African and southern African distribution, it seems likely that it is present in some protected areas.
19568		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. There are records in West Africa from the Wonegizi Mountains and Mount Nimba (Guinea and Liberia), and from central Nigeria. In Central Africa it has been reported from Cameroon. In East Africa there are many more records, with the species being reported from as far north as Ethiopia and southern Sudan, ranging southwards through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania to Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, eastern South Africa, Swaziland and southern Botswana.
19568		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with caves in areas of moist savanna. It is also reported from bushveld adjacent to rivers and savanna woodland (particularly <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland in Zimbabwe) (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). Availability of day roosts in the form of caves and mine adits is a necessary component of their habitat (Taylor, 1998).
19568		population	eng	This species can be locally common. Colonies may consist of a couple of hundred individuals, although these are often quite fragmented because of the species association with caves for breeding.
19568		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by cave disturbance and the loss of habitat resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use and mining operations.
19569		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas in Thailand and throughout its range.
19569		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Myanmar (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2005), Viet Nam, Thailand, Lao PDR, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Java (Indonesia). It has not yet been recorded but probably also occurs in Cambodia.
19569		habitat	eng	It inhabits degraded forest to primary deciduous forest in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is associated with limestone in Myanmar in degraded habitats including agricultural areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).
19569		population	eng	It tends to be found in small groups in Myanmar and Viet Nam (P. Bates and G. Csorba pers. comm.). It is locally common in Thailand, one population of 1,000 individuals was found there, and also common in Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).
19569		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although the species is hunted in northeast Thailand but this is not at a level that is considered a threat to the species (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
19570		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Taxonomy, ecology, population studies, habitat management are the primary recommendations for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19570		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to South Asia, although there are records from Myanmar and China. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet Division) (Khan 2001, Sarker and Sarker 2005), India (Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is known only from a single record in Mengzi County, Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Myanmar, it has only been recorded from the Nam Tamay Valley. It has been recorded at 1,231 m asl in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).
19570		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is encountered in dense forests among bamboo clumps (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19570		population	eng	A declining trend in its population is being observed in the Himalayas (T.K. Shreshta pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19570		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural purposes and mining operations (T.K. Shreshta pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19571		conservation	eng	<em>R. subrufus</em> occurs in some protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic vaidity of this species.
19571		distribution	eng	<em>R. subrufus</em> is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded on Camiguin, Catanduanes, Luzon (Abra, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal, and Sorsogon provinces), Mindanao (Davao del Sur, and South Cotabato provinces), and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) islands. It has been recorded from near sea level to over 1,000 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19571		habitat	eng	It is a very poorly known species. Some records of <em>R. subrufus</em> are from caves (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and it is assumed to be associated with lowland tropical forest.
19571		population	eng	Very little information is available on the abundance of this species. Most surveys have not used appropriate techniques (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It may be confused with other species (L. Heaney in litt. 2007)
19571		threats	eng	The threats to this very poorly known species are currently unknown.
19572		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas (e.g.. Kruger National Park, South Africa). Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of this species, the distribution and possible threats.
19572		distribution	eng	This African bat has been recorded from eastern parts of South Africa, much of Zimbabwe, northwestern Mozambique, with additional scattered records further north in Malawi, Zambia, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar) (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It may be present in Angola but this needs confirmation.
19572		habitat	eng	Found in moist montane rainforest, and dry and moist savanna (Cotterill 1996; Cotterill 2002). Populations are dependant on caves, mines and similar habitats for roosting. It appears to be sparsely distributed in parts of its range.
19572		population	eng	In parts of its range it is considered to be uncommon, however, Taylor (2000) records that it is fairly common in Zimbabwe. It generally forms small colonies of fewer than ten animals.
19572		threats	eng	Populations may be locally threatened by deforestation, largely resulting from logging operations, local use of timber and firewood, and general conversion of land to agricultural use.
19573		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range.
19573		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south west China, extending down the Indochina Peninsula in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Thailand, and Lao PDR.
19573		habitat	eng	This species is associated with limestone areas and found in caves from 400 up to 1,100 m asl. It can also occur in degraded habitats. Nothing is known from China, but this species is known to roost in caves with other species of <em>Rhinolophus</em> in other areas.
19573		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and abundance of this species. However, it is known to be locally uncommon to common.
19573		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although the species appears to be dependent on caves and their destruction in some parts of the range may cause localised population declines (C. Francis pers. comm.).
19574		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Survey, ecological and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).
19574		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, with additional records from South Asia and China. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from southern Myanmar and Thailand, into Peninsular Malaysia, and from here into Indonesia (including the Mentawi Islands [Nias], Sumatra, Bangka, Billiton, Java and Banta), ranging to the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). In South Asia, it is presently known from Assam and West Bengal in India, recorded up to an elevation of 1,800 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is known only from a single specimen recorded from Guizhou (Jinsha) (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008).
19574		habitat	eng	In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest. It is generally considered a lowland species on Borneo and elsewhere in the region. Animals roost singly under leaves or palm leaves in the forest understory, and are believed to breed once a year. In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is found in dense evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19574		population	eng	In Southeast Asia, this species is generally considered to be common in intact forest habitats. It is considered to be uncommon on the island of Sumatra (Indonesia). The abundance, population size and trends for this species in South Asia are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19574		threats	eng	This species is threatened over much of its range by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use. In South Asia, the development of tourism related activities is also considered to be a major threat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19575		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
19575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it occurs widely. There are records from Batan, Busuanga, Catanduanes, Cebu, Jolo, Leyte, Lubang (Lawrence, 1939), Luzon [Abra, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Kalinga (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 2004), Laguna, Pampanga, and Sorsogon provinces], Maripipi, Mindanao [Bukidnon, South Cotabato (Taylor, 1934) provinces], Negros, Palawan, and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found at 250-1,100 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19575		habitat	eng	Records of this species are from primary lowland forest up to the lower limits of montane forest. There are several reports from caves and one from a tree buttress (Taylor, 1934; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has also been found frequently in heavily disturbed agricultural areas if there is second-growth vegetation near the caves where the bats roost (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).
19575		population	eng	It is a widespread and moderately common species. On Palawan Island, it was found to be moderately common (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).
19575		threats	eng	It is a lowland species, but is adaptable and so is probably not greatly impacted by deforestation, except perhaps around its caves. Its populations do not seem to be severely threatened and appear to be stable (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
19576		conservation	eng	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed (Y.P. Sinha pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, most known populations are in protected areas (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
19576		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram in India, Yunnan in China, northern and eastern Myanmar and northern, western and southern Thailand (including the island of Terutau). It might be present in Lao, however, this needs confirmation. In India, it has been recorded at elevations up to of 1,231 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19576		habitat	eng	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is commonly encountered in dense hilly forests among bamboo clumps (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia all known records are from limestone caves. In China, this species has been collected from bamboo thickets, and also from thatched roofs.
19576		population	eng	It seems to be uncommon in Southeast Asia, and in Thailand it is mostly found in groups of 100 or fewer animals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19576		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use and human settlements (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, there appear to be no major threats but may be locally threatened by deforestation in some areas.
19577		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Protection of important roosting sites and foraging areas is needed. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
19577		distribution	eng	This insular species has been recorded on the Indonesian islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Wetar, Ambon, Batjan, Goreng, Ternate, Bacan, Manawoka, and the Kai Islands. It has also been recorded from the island of Timor (Timor-Leste and Indonesia).
19577		habitat	eng	Presumably this is a cave roosting species.
19577		population	eng	The population abundance is not known.
19577		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. There have been large-scale habitat changes within its range, the impact of these on the species has not been recorded.
19589		conservation	eng	It is present in the Barlee Range Nature Reserve and other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
19589		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is found in northern and western Western Australia, Northern Territory, and north-western Queensland (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008).
19589		habitat	eng	This species roosts in caves and old mine workings in colonies of 20 to 20,000 individuals (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008). Dry season roosts are normally in caves. In the wet season, bats disperse and use a diversity of roosts including caves, under buildings, and also probably in tree hollows (B. Thomson pers. comm.). The species likes very humid caves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It forages in nearby open woodland. Females give birth to a single young.
19589		population	eng	This species is rare and scattered within its habitat, but is locally common in Top End (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008).
19589		threats	eng	This species is very sensitive to cave disturbance due to visitation (B. Thomson pers. comm.). Large numbers have been killed by inappropriate cave gating in the past. Mine collapse is a major threat to old mines, at least in the Pilbara and Northern Territory regions (N. McKenzie and G. Richards pers. comm.). Mining is also threatening some natural roosts (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
19591		conservation	eng	Found in some National Parks.
19591		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west of Colombia, and western Ecuador (Simmons, 2005). Occurs between 0-1,000 m on the Pacific flanks of the Andes and lowlands. In Ecuador reported to 1,700 m (Burneo pers. comm.).
19591		habitat	eng	This bat is strongly associated with moist areas and tropical evergreen forests, prefers unaltered habitats (Albuja 1999). Feeds on remains of fruits. It is primarily frugivorous; it feeds on fruits of understory shrubs; it also eats insects (Handley 1976). Found in Chocoan forests. Bimodal reproduction (Albuja 1999). Found in caves (Handley 1976)
19591		population	eng	It is not known from many specimens, thus population is unknown. Seems to be locally abundant in appropriate areas - in Reserva Ecologica Cotacachi Cayapas is one of the most abundant bats (Albuja 1999).
19591		threats	eng	Chocoan forest habitats are severely threatened.
19592		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forest habitats. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
19592		distribution	eng	Peru, Ecuador, southern Venezuela, southeastern Colombia, and Amazonia Brazil (Koopman, 1993).
19592		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist areas and multistratal tropical evergreen forests, near rivers, and fruit groves; rare in deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). These bats are believed to be primarily frugivorous (Eisenberg, 1989). Pregnant females with only a single embryo have been found in Peru in June and July (Graham, 1987).
19592		population	eng	Moderately common to uncommon (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
19592		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range. Deforestation is a localised threat.
19593		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat destruction. The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
19593		distribution	eng	This species ranges across southern Colombia and Venezuela, the Guianas, Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, and northern Brazil to the central east coast (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993) including Espírito Santo south of the Doce river (Zortea, 1995). Altitudinal range is up to 1,400 m asl (Eisenberg, 1989).
19593		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist areas and multistratal tropical evergreen forests, near rivers, and fruit groves and is rare in deciduous forest. These bats are believed to be primarily frugivorous feeding on fruits of understory shrubs; they also eat insects (Eisenberg, 1989; Tuttle, 1970). Roosts under tents made from palm and aroid leaves (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Pregnant or lactating females have been found in April, May, June, July, and December (Wilson, 1979).
19593		population	eng	Common to moderately common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
19593		threats	eng	Deforestation, conversion of habitat is a localised threat.
19594		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It is confirmed as occurring in two protected areas: Na Hang Nature Reserve and Cham Chu Nature Reserve (Le and Boonratana 2006), and may occur in others (M. Richardson pers. comm.). Based on interviews and specimen information, it may occur in Yen Tu Nature Reserve in Quang Ninh Province, but it is unclear whether a population survives (Le Khac Quyet pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Nadler <em>et al </em>(2003) recommended the following conservation actions to preserve this species in Viet Nam: undertaking of further field status surveys; expansion of the protected area network and improvement of protected area management; mitigation of impacts from dam construction; and other options for conservation, including assessments of its behavior, diet, and ecological relationships in order to support a captive breeding program, and planning for subsequent release into a suitably designed, well-protected natural areas which can support it. Subsequent to these recommendations, the results of a stakeholder consensus workshop proposed: establishment of a species and habitat protection program; long-term monitoring program; long-term field studies on behavioral ecology; surveys; expansion of protected habitats; strengthening of protected area management; public awareness and conservation education; participation of stakeholder communities; relocation of stakeholder communities; and implementation of recommendations (Le and Boonratana 2006).<br/><br/>An important conservation measure is the establishment of a species habitat/conservation area for Khau Ca Conservation Area in Ha Giang Province. Strict law enforcement is needed wherever the species still survives (Boonratana and Le 1998).
19594		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a few areas in far northeastern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). Historically limited to areas east of the Red River (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003), its distribution has become dramatically restricted in recent decades due to massive deforestation and intensive hunting (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is currently known only from small forest patches in Tuyen Quang and Bac Kan Provinces, and to a lesser extent in Ha Giang and Thai Nguyen Provinces (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003).
19594		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical evergreen forests associated with karst limestone hills and mountains (Le and Boonratana 2006), and is largely restricted to primary forest (Boonratana and Canh 1998). It has been recorded at elevations between 200 and 1,200 m (Le and Boonratana 2006). Ranges of different groups overlap greatly (Boonratana and Canh 1998). It appears to be a selective feeder, feeding on the young leaves, unripe fruits, and seeds of as many as 52 plant species (Boonratana and Canh 1998). These animals are diurnal (Nguyen 2000), and arboreal and terrestrial.
19594		population	eng	This species is endemic to northern Viet Nam, and very rare (Nguyen 2000). A study of the Tat Ke Sector of the Na Hang Nature Reserve in 1993 estimated a density of less than 8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Le and Boonratana 2006); a later study, in 2004-2005, found far lower densities. It has been suggested that hunting pressure is the reason for low densities in Tat Ke Sector, and former densities may have reached 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Le and Boonratana 2006). The highest estimate for any one population was in the Ban Bung sector of the Na Hang Nature Reserve, at between 90 and 110 individuals in 1992 (Ratajszczak <em>et al</em>. 1992). There is a suggested trend of decline in both sectors of the Na Hang Nature Reserve, Tat Ke and Ban Bung (Le and Boonratana 2006). There are estimated to be about 250 individuals throughout its known range, though the global population could actually be higher, due to the possible occurrence of this species in other areas where it has not yet been recorded (Le and Boonratana 2006).
19594		threats	eng	These animals are reported as threatened from habitat degradation and hunting pressure. There is an increase in habitat disturbance from humans in the southern sectors of the Na Hang Nature Reserve. They are not shy and do not necessarily flee when encountered by humans, increasing the chance of being shot (Nguyen 2000). Hunting is the most immediate threat to this species (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003), despite claims from various sources that it is not hunted. The only reason more individuals are not shot is due to the rarity of the species, and not because of law enforcement or awareness of the species importance (Long and Le Khac Quyet 2001).<br/><br/>Although this species is not usually targeted for bushmeat hunting due to its "foul-taste", it is shot when encountered, and consumed or used in traditional "medicine" (Le and Boonratana 2006; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). It has been found in trade in China, where it may be used for "medicinal" purposes (Nadler pers. comm.), although this is likely to be limited. There is a high hunting pressure in the area where it lives, as evidenced by several gunshots heard almost daily during field trips (2004-2005) in the Na Hang Nature Reserve (Le and Boonratana 2006). Shifting and settled cultivation, as well as other land development activities, also pose a threat (Le and Boonratana 2006; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the past, excessively intense and unsustainable legal and illegal logging and gold mining were the biggest threats. Recently, the development of a hydroelectric power project along the Gam River in Na Hang has caused large areas of its habitat to come under construction (Le and Boonratana 2006; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Also, sudden increases in human populations, especially construction workers, have led to increased demand for meat, and thus increased hunting pressure (Le and Boonratana 2006).
19595		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and as Category I under the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act, 1989. <br/>The most urgent conservation need is to remove the threats in and around the Fanjingshan Nature Reserve. In the longer term, there is a need to survey other possible remnant forests in the vicinity, especially Jinfoshan Nature Reserve (along the border between Guizhou and Sichuan provinces), for the small possibility of other populations and also to investigate the possibility of translocation. There are also other possible sites within the Wuling Mountain range that might offer suitable habitat.<br/><br/>The Fanjingshan Nature Reserve maintains a captive breeding colony, and a few pairs have been sent to other centers in China. However, breeding has been slow and the future of the captive population is not considered secure (Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve 1996).
19595		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small region of Guizhou Province southern China (in Jiangkou, Songtao, and Yingjiang counties). It is confined to a small, continuous block of habitat centering on Fanjing Mountain, south of the Yangtze in the Wuling Mountains (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993; Bleisch and Xie 1994; Groves 2001). There were unconfirmed anecdotal reports of a population in Jinfoshan Nature Reserve, but the status is unknown.
19595		habitat	eng	This species is found in forests of mixed–deciduous and evergreen broadleaf and deciduous broadleaf trees at elevations between 1,400 and 2,300 m (Bleisch <em>et al</em>. 1993; Bleisch 1995; Bleisch and Xie 1998). However, at times of heavy snow cover, they may be recorded at lower elevations (as low as 570 m), as individuals move down to the rivers (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in secondary forest but is absent from coniferous forest (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). The subpopulations are thought to utilize much of the available habitat throughout the nature reserve. It is folivorous, but also consumes leaf buds, flower buds, fruits, seeds, bark, and insect larvae (Bleisch <em>et a</em>l. 1993; Bleisch and Xie 1998). It is diurnal and semi-terrestrial, yet more arboreal as it only comes to the ground when there is an absence of appropriate trees (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993). The birth season for this species is from April to May (Bleisch <em>et al</em>. 1993). The social structure is based on one-male groups which travel and rest together in large cohesive bands composed of up to 400 individuals or more (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993; Bleisch and Xie 1998).
19595		population	eng	In 1992, a census with multiple observation teams led to an estimate of 600-1,200 individuals (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993; Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve 1996). A new census in 2005 led to an estimate of about 750 individuals, believed to consist of less than 400 mature individuals, in one troop which may divide in the winter into smaller groups (Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve unpubl. data). There is evidence that 20 individuals have moved outside of the Nature Reserve into an adjacent community forest (Lijiadashan) (Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve unpubl. data; W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). No other individuals have been confirmed outside of the nature reserve.
19595		threats	eng	This species is threatened by non-targeted hunting (Bleisch 1991) and habitat loss due to forest clearing (Bleisch 1995). It is also sometimes caught in snares set for other animals (Bleisch 1995). Previously, collection of magnolia flower buds and bark (by cutting down tress) by local villagers removed a food source of this species, but this practice has reportedly ceased (Dunyan pers. comm. 2006). There is currently construction and development for tourism, including a tourist road, cable car and hotels within the nature reserve, which are a potential threat because of habitat destruction and disturbance. At lower elevations, there is continued pressure from agricultural expansion and collection of firewood. The species occurs at only a single locality, making it vulnerable to epidemic disease or catastrophes.
19596		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and as Category I of the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act, 1989. <br/>Protected areas where this species definitely known to occur include: Baihe Nature Reserve, Changqing Nature Reserve, Foping Nature Reserve, Laoxiancheng Nature Reserve, Shennongjia Nature Reserve, Taibai Nature Reserve, Wanglang Nature Reserve, Zhouzhi Nature Reserve (M. Richardson pers. comm.), although according to L. Yongcheng (pers. comm.) it is to be found in a much larger number of nature reserves. It is almost never seen in captivity outside of Asia (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
19596		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west-central China (Ganssu, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Sichuan provinces) (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em> <br/>Occurs in western Sichuan (Qingchuan, Pingwu, Songpan, Beichuan, Nanping, Maoxian, Heishui, Wenchuan, Baoxing, Tianquan, Lushan, Luding counties, on Qionglaishan Mountain, Mingshan Mountain, Daxiangling and Xiaoxiangling Mountain), southern Gansu (Wenxian county in Mingshan Mountain) and southern Shaanxi (Ningqian country) (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis</em> <br/>Occurs in southern Shaanxi (Qinling Mountains, including the counties of Taibai, Zhouzhi, Foping, Yangxian, Ningshaan) (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1998; Li <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis </em><br/>Occurs in western Hubei and northeastern Sichuan (Shennongjia forest region of Daba Mountain, in Fangxian, Xingshan, and Batong counties) (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1998; Li unpubli. 2006).
19596		habitat	eng	This species is found only in montane forests where snow cover can last for up to six months of the year (Allen 1938; Davison 1982). In the Qinling Mountains it is found in mixed deciduous-broadleaf forests from 1,400 to 2,800 m (Gao and Liu 1995; Li <em>et al.</em> 2001). It can also occur in other forest types, including mixed conifer-broadleaf and deciduous broadleaf. <em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em> and <em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</em> are found more often in mixed conifer and deciduous broadleaf forests. It is semi-terrestrial, diurnal, and folivorous, but will also eat seeds, fruit, bark, insects, and small vertebrates.
19596		population	eng	<em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em><br/>There are about 10,000 individuals in 100 troops in Sichuan (6,000 individuals in Mingshan Mountain, 3,500 in Qionglaishan Mountain, and 500 in Daxiangling and Xiaoxianling Mountain), about 800 individuals in 8 troops in Gansu, and about 170-200 individuals in 1 or 2 troops in Shaanxi (Zhang 1995; Jiang 2005; Li unpubl. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis</em><br/>There are approximately 3,800-4,000 total individuals belonging to 39 troops (Li <em>et al.</em> 2001). Around half of these are mature individuals. Since the mid 1990s, the population appears to have stabilized.<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</em><br/>There are about 600-1,000 individuals in 5-6 troops (Ren <em>et al.</em> 1998).
19596		threats	eng	<em>Rhinopithecus roxellana</em><br/>The major threat for the species is forest loss due to agricultural expansion, especially outside of protected areas. <br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em><br/>The major threat is habitat loss. Secondarily, there is a serious threat from continued illegal hunting of this subspecies. There is also harassment owing to tourist activities, including the herding of troops for tourists to view.<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis</em><br/>In the Qinling Mountains tourism is having a significant negative impact, mainly due to the creation of roads and other infrastructure. Before 1990, there were threats from illegal hunting, but this has stopped due to increased government protection.<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</em><br/>There is a serious threat to this subspecies from tourism-related activities, along with continued habitat loss. Before 1990, there were threats from illegal hunting, but this has stopped due to increased government protection.
19597		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. Most of the remaining populations are in protected areas, with only four groups found outside of them. There are currently 11 groups in protected areas: Hongla Snow Mountain Nature Reserve in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (which contains about 300 individuals), and Baima Snow Mountain and Laojun Mountain Nature Reserves in Yunnan.<br/><br/>There is a major focus in China on captive breeding of this species, with breeding pairs at the Kunming Zoo and Kunming Institute of Zoology. Most of these individuals are captured from the wild, and so far the program is not sustainable (Wang Sung pers. comm.).
19597		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in southwestern China (Tibet and Yunnan). It is found in fragmented populations in the Yun Ling Mountains in northwestern Yunnan and southeastern Tibet, west of the Yangtze River and east of the Mekong River (Yang 2003).
19597		habitat	eng	This species is found in high-altitude evergreen forests, both the lower (about 3,000 m) and upper (about 4,700 m) limits of its known ranges (Long <em>et al.</em>. 1996) are the highest recorded for a primate. It prefers fir-larch forest between the Yangtze and Mekong Rivers (Long <em>et al.</em> 1994). At Bamei, in northern Yunnan Province, it was found to live primarily in cypress forests (Zhong <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>It is mainly folivorous, though Kirkpatrick <em>et al. </em>(2001) report that lichens are also an important part of its diet in the northern part of its range. It is semi-terrestrial and diurnal (Wu and Xian 1994).
19597		population	eng	In 2006 the total known population was estimated at less than 2,000, with less than 1,000 mature individuals. There are currently 15 subpopulations, with 3 locations where subpopulations are known to have been extirpated since 1994 (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.). Although the remaining populations are well known, there are very likely to be as yet unsurveyed populations.
19597		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is hunting, often as a non-targeted species caught in snares set for musk deer. A preliminary PVA using Vortex found that five smallest subpopulations are at risk of declines and extinction in the next 100 years from effects inbreeding and poaching, while 5 largest subpopulations were considered more secure (Xiao <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is also threatened by habitat loss, especially from logging. Since 1999, when a ban stopped most commercial logging in the region, habitat loss has slowed, but it is still a large potential threat in the future. Clearing of forest land for summer grazing pasture had decreased suitable habitat for the monkeys by 31% between 1958 and 1997 (Xiao <em>et al.</em> 2003). In addition, fires set for agriculture are a threat to some of the areas, particularly in Tibetan Autonomous Region. A subpopulation of about 50 individuals in one area was apparently extirpated due to pesticide spraying for control of forest pests (Zhong Tai in litt.)
19599		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known or are in place, but presumably occurs in protected areas across the range. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
19599		distribution	eng	Occurs across central and northern Africa through Arabia and southern Asia; from Morocco to India north to Israel, Palestine, Jordan Iraq and Afghanistan and south to Kenya. Presence in Myanmar based on a very old reference with no detail of location; there is doubt about its current presence. Occurs up 1,100 m asl in Morocco and Algeria.
19599		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid and semi-desert vegetation zones where suitable roosts and food are available. Recorded in semi-desert grassland with areas of Acacia scrub in oases with gardens and orchards surrounded by sandy desert and hamada, in gorges of wadis with some <em>Tamarix</em> and Oleanders (<em>Nerium oleander</em>). Roosts in dry caves, ruins, underground tunnels (including catacombs), mosques and old buildings. In summer sometimes roosts in fissures, small crevices and among boulders. The species is sendentary and it stores fat in autumn for the winter months.
19599		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid and semi-desert vegetation zones where suitable roosts and food are available. Recorded in semi-desert grassland with areas of Acacia scrub in oases with gardens and orchards surrounded by sandy desert and hamada, in gorges of wadis with some <i>Tamarix</i> and Oleanders (<i>Nerium oleander</i>). Roosts in dry caves, ruins, underground tunnels (including catacombs), mosques and old buildings. In summer sometimes roosts in fissures, small crevices and among boulders. The species is sendentary and it stores fat in autumn for the winter months.
19599		population	eng	Appears to be particularly abundant near oases. However, both distribution and abundance are undoubtedly insufficiently investigated because the roosts and suitable habitats are often unreachable. Colonies range in size from a few individuals up to several hundred. Up to 500 individuals have been reported in colonies in Jordan (Amr 2000). Occurs with other species in the genus, in Iran it is normally found in low numbers and low densities and it feeds on coleoptera (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Assumed stable throughout the southwest Asia region (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Population information remains unknown for its African distribution.
19599		threats	eng	Human disturbance in roost sites and pesticide use against locusts are the main threats. In arid areas of Iran which can not support high numbers of colonies, they aggregate in a few large groups which increases their vulnerability (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). These are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.
19600		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known for this species, but presumably it occurs in some protected areas. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
19600		distribution	eng	Distribution range extends from northern Africa through southwest Asia to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In southeast Asia, there are single old records from Thailand and Sumatra. Recorded from sea level in Egypt up to 1,200 m in Morocco.
19600		habitat	eng	A species of arid areas, with rainfall usually less than 300 mm and with sparse vegetation. This is a true desert species which is adapted to this habitat by having valved nostrils (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Roosts in crevices, small caves, mines, underground tunnels, wells, old monuments and buildings. Tolerates low relative humidity and light. Accumulate fat during the autumn and remain active throughout the year.
19600		population	eng	Uncommon in the western part of the Mediterranean range, but populations probably occur in areas not yet surveyed. Colonies of several thousands have been reported in Egypt. Very rare in Jordan, found in the same caves as <em>R. hardwickii</em> but in much lower numbers (Amr 2000). In Iran the species is common, the most populated cave is in the Mesopotamian plain and has around 20,000 individuals; the total population of Iran is approximately 30,000 and is considered stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). In Africa there are large colonies of up to 5000 individuals in several areas (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).
19600		threats	eng	Human disturbance in roost sites and use of pesticides for locusts affect the species but are not considered major threats at present.
19601		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is possible that the species is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
19601		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa, where it has mostly been recorded from Kenya with additional records from the eastern edge of Uganda, Somalia, Ethiopia and possibly Eritrea.
19601		habitat	eng	This little known species is associated with hot and temperate desert and semi-desert.
19601		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. It is believed to have a small population as several expeditions to the species range have not collected specimens.
19601		threats	eng	It may be threatened by habitat loss, although this requires confirmation.
19602		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance and protection of important roost sites is needed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19602		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the southeastern Arabian Peninsula to western South Asia. It has been recorded from a number of localities in Oman, from the United Arab Emirates, and presumably occurs in much of southern Iran. In South Asia, This species is known from Afghanistan (Kandahar, Nimruz and Helmand provinces) and Pakistan (Baluchistan) where it has been recorded at 700 to 1,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There are doubtful records of its occurrence in India, either from Genji in Rajasthan or from Gingee in Tamil Nadu (Van Cakenberghe and de Vree 1994; and Bates and Harrison 1997) and these are not included in this assessment.
19602		habitat	eng	This species is known to roost in caves, caverns and old and disused buildings (Harrison and Bates, 1991; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It roosts as single individuals, or in groups of up to several hundred individuals (Harrison and Bates 1991; Bates and Harrison 1997). In Iran, the species has been recorded from arid and semi arid areas in the littoral area of the Persian Gulf. In parts of Iran it is found in wheat fields and similar arable areas where it feeds on beetles (Coleopterans) (Sharifi pers. comm.).
19602		population	eng	In Iran it is generally uncommon to rare (Sharifi <em>et al</em>, 2000; Sharifi pers. comm.). There is little information on the abundance of this species on the Arabian Peninsula, and in South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19602		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known, but presumably include some localised disturbance of roosting sites. In South Asia, this species is locally threatened due to loss of roosting sites (generally buildings) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002)
19605		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
19605		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower east Andean slopes and foothills, about 350 to 2,600 m, from La Paz Department, west central Bolivia, south to Jujuy Province, northwest Argentina (Tribe, 1996; Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Argentina between 500 m to 1,400 m.
19605		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species that is present in a wide variety of habitats, including primary and secondary Yungas forest, plantations and cultivated areas.
19605		population	eng	It is a common species.
19605		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is a pest species in coffee plantations.
19606		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
19606		distribution	eng	The species is known only from twelve specimens (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). This species occurs in middle to high elevations, about 2,200 to 3,500 m, Cordillera Occidental (Cauca, Valle and Antioquia Departments) and the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras (Huila Department), Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). There is continuing uncertainty about its range and the extension in the Cordillera Central.
19606		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in primary montane forest (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).
19606		population	eng	It is rarely collected although this is probably an artefact of sampling methods (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).
19606		threats	eng	The effects of deforestation and habitat conversion are not known and further research is necessary to confirm threats to this species.
19607		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
19607		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the moist lowland forest that follows an arc from Trinidad, through north and west central Venezuela, to central Colombia (Meta Department) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 10 to 1,500 m in Venezuela (Linares 1998).
19607		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, arboreal and is found in mature and secondary rainforest, lowland and lower montane forest (Linares 1998).
19607		population	eng	This rodent is common in Venezuela (Linares 1998).
19607		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
19608		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.
19608		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated populations in the Andes of southwestern and central Colombia, and west and northeast Venezuela (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
19608		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species; it occurs in primary montane forest (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).
19608		population	eng	It is a relatively common species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
19608		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
19609		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout the range.
19609		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mid-elevation Andean forests, about 450 to 2,200 m, of central and west Colombia, central Ecuador, and extreme north Peru; allopatric populations in easternmost Panama (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Ecuador the highest elevation is 2,400 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.) and up to 3,000 m in Colombia.
19609		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal, nocturnal, and solitary rat; it occurs in primary forest. High populations occurred during periods of maximum precipitation. Reproduction was continual throughout the annual cycle (Montenegro-Diaz <em>et al.</em>, 1991).
19609		population	eng	It is rare in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.) but relatively common in Colombia (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
19609		threats	eng	It is affected by general habitat destruction although this is not a major threat at this time.
19610		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
19610		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guianas, south Venezuela, north and central Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and west central Bolivia; extralimital in west Ecuador and northwest Peru  (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
19610		habitat	eng	The genus is typically found in lowland, forested tropical South America (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This species occurs in mature terra firme forest in the canopy (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Breeding may be delayed in <em>R. leucodactylus</em> relative to sympatric species (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
19610		population	eng	This species is relatively rare (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
19610		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
19611		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
19611		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highlands of south Venezuela (Bolívar and Amazonas States) and likely to be neighbouring parts of north Brazil and west Guyana (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 300 to 2,800 m (Linares, 1998).
19611		habitat	eng	This rodent is nocturnal, arboreal, occurring in primary and secondary rainforests (M. Aguillera pers. comm.).
19611		population	eng	It is relatively common (Linares, 1998).
19611		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
19612		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
19612		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region, southeast Brazil (Pernambuco to São Paulo) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
19612		habitat	eng	The genus is typically found in lowland, forested tropical South America (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is an arboreal rat found at sea level to 1,500 m, in forested areas including primary and secondary forest (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
19612		population	eng	This species is locally common.
19612		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation, but this is not a major threat overall.
19613		conservation	eng	This species occur in several protected areas.
19613		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonian lowlands in south Venezuela, Guianas, and north central Brazil. The reports of the species in Bolivia (Anderson, 1997) and Colombia (Tribe, 1996) cannot be confirmed, and the species appears to be confined to Amazonia east of the Rios Negro-Madeira as so far documented (see Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
19613		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest, and even into urban areas (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
19613		population	eng	This species is fairly common (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
19613		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
19614		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into this poorly known species.
19614		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity, southeast Río Inambari in northern Puno Department, Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Tribe, 1997). It has been collected at 1,830 m.
19614		habitat	eng	It is presumably an arboreal species. It was collected in cloud forest, with a dense undergrowth of shrubs and vines.
19614		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens.
19614		threats	eng	The species is presumably threatened by deforestation of habitat through conversion to agricultural use, however, further research is necessary as this species is known from only a few localities.
19616		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
19616		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of north and west Venezuela, Tobago (Trinidan and Tobago), and east Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Extent of eastern distribution is uncertain.
19616		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in primary montane forest and dry forest.
19616		population	eng	It is a relatively common species (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
19616		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
19617		conservation	eng	It occurs in a several protected areas.
19617		distribution	eng	This species is found in isolated populations in mountains of west and north Venezuela in Cordillera Mérida and central and Táchira (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found from 1,200 to 2,280 m (Linares, 1998).
19617		habitat	eng	This rodent is nocturnal, arboreal and is found montane forest (Linares, 1998).
19617		population	eng	It is difficult to capture and sample as an arboreal species (Linares, 1998).
19617		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
19618		conservation	eng	It occurs in a several protected areas throughout its range.
19618		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highlands in south Venezuela (Bolívar and Amazonas States) and likely to occur in north Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of  1,000 to 2,200 m (Linares, 1998).
19618		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and arboreal rodent; it is found in primary and tepui montane (Linares, 1998).
19618		population	eng	It is a rare species (Linares, 1998).
19618		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
19645		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range. In South Asia, it is known from the following protected areas in India: Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram and Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). The species is included in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In South Asia, surveys, life history studies, and population monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19645		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species is found in southern China (Yunnan, Ghizhou, Sichuan, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Fujian), northern and north-eastern India (Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Manipur up to 1,500 m asl [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]), eastern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, south to Perak on the Malay Peninsula, at altitudes between 100 m and 4,000 m asl (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
19645		habitat	eng	It is found in bamboo hill and montane forest in Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Xu (1984) reports records of this species from grassland intermixed with secondary forests, shrub forests, bamboo groves, with a smaller number of specimens from pine, fir, and other artificial forests. In South Asia, it occurs in tropical and subtropical deciduous forests. It is found to occupy bamboo thickets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). There seems to be concensus that they are not found in agricultural fields and rarely in deep forest, with some affiliation with bamboo. It is a long-lived, relatively slow-maturing, with a small litter size (one or two young).
19645		population	eng	In general, this species can be locally abundant. It was found to be rare during market surveys in the lowlands of Lao PDR, but commonly traded in markets in mountainous areas (Francis 1999). There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19645		threats	eng	The only threat to this species is that it is hunted for food, since they are easy to find and conspicuous. In South Asia, the species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to shifting cultivation, bamboo extraction and hunting for local consumption (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
19646		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Niumulin, Wuyishan, Nanling, Heishidingkuoyelin, Dayaoshanshuiyuanlin (Guangxi), Daozhendashahe, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Maolan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taoyuandong, Dongdongtinghu (Hunan), Mangshan, Poyanghuhouniao, Yanquan, Taohongling, Jinggangshan, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Tongbiguan, Wawushan, Nandongtihu Shidi and Shuiqin, Xiaoxi, Meihualutiebu, Nanjingnanyaredaiyulin (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the distribution, taxonomy, and impacts of exploitation on the population.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
19646		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China, northern Myanmar, and northern Viet Nam (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It may be present in Lao PDR, however, the range in this country needs to be confirmed. Allen (1938) gave the elevational range of this species as 1,219-3,962 m asl.
19646		habitat	eng	This species may be largely confined to the bamboo belt of montane forest (Lunde <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been recorded from plantations in some parts of its range. It is a burrow-dwelling species (Smith and Xie 2008). Predators include the red panda (MacClintock 1988) and the snow leopard (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1993). It has moderate tolerance to human disturbance (Lunde <em>et al.</em> 2006).
19646		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range, for instance it is considered to be a plantation crop pest species in China (Ken Aplin pers. comm.).
19646		threats	eng	The species is heavily harvested for food in some parts of its range.
19647		conservation	eng	This species is present in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) and is probably present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and use/harvest trends of this species.
19647		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring in China (Yunnan), Myanmar, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (Indonesia) (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging from 1,000-4,000 m asl (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).
19647		habitat	eng	This species occurs in secondary forest where it feeds on bamboo roots (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Corbet and Hill 1992). It also feeds on cultivated tapioca and sugar cane (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008). Ithas moderate tolerance to human disturbance (Aplin and Lunde 2006).<br/><br/>They are reproductive biannually, February-April and August-October (Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation is 22 days and litter size is 3-5 (Smith and Xie 2008). Longevity is four years (Smith and Xie 2008).
19647		population	eng	It may be common where it is not hunted. It was formerly abundant in southern Myanmar, but now appears to be absent from this area. According to Wiles (1981) this species is common in lowland bamboo forest and uncommon in upland bamboo forest in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary in southwestern Thailand. It was found in good numbers in southern Yunnan (Mengla Area) in the 1990’s (A. Cleveland pers. comm.).
19647		threats	eng	It is extensively hunted in some parts of its range.
19661		distribution	eng	Was known only from the Lake Tota basin.
19670		distribution	eng	<em>Rhodacmea filosa</em> was described from the Coosa River, part of the Mobile River Basin, Alabama, USA. In the species review in 1999, the species was listed as Extinct (Bogan pers. comm. 1999), as there had been no recent records, the river was very polluted and some of the habitats were thought to be lost through damming.<br/><br/>Recent surveys have rediscovered small populations on the Choccolocco Creek which is a 91 km long tributary of the Coosa River in central Alabama (O'Foighil <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
19670		habitat	eng	O'Foighil <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.&#160;(2011) report that <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhodacmea filosa </span>occurs in the lower portion of the watershed within the highest quality habitat remaining. Specimens were found adjacent to the channel margin attached to cobble-boulder substrate in shallow (20 cm) flowing water. In the past, limpets were recorded attached to the shells of living pleurocerid snails (Conrad 1834), species that are also in decline in the Coosa River System.
19670		population	eng	The species has recently been rediscovered in the Choccolocco Creek, however there is insufficient information to determine population trends.
19670		threats	eng	Choccolocco Creek has three substantial dams as well as a history of severe industrial pollution. Although historic pollution point sources have abated, the creek retains an Alabama Department of Environmental Management ‘‘303d’’ (officially impaired) status for persistent polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and mercury contamination (O'Foighal <em>et al</em>. 2011). Most of the historic mussel fauna is missing but the creek currently supports more than 25 species of snails (Johnson pers. comm. 2011).
19671		distribution	eng	Since this species was last assessed (in 1996), the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">R. s. amarus</span> (occurring in central and eastern Europe) has been raised to species level. The remaining population of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. sericeus</span> occurs in East Asia.
19679		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas and biosphere reserves.
19679		distribution	eng	This species is known from Oaxaca to Zacatecas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
19679		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). It is known from localities between 125 and 1,990 masl. It is found in decidious tropical forest (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
19679		population	eng	It is considered as a rare species (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
19679		threats	eng	Specimens collected have shown dental problems suggesting congenital affections (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Its distribution is very fragmented. Habitat loss.
19680		conservation	eng	It is found only in a very restricted State protected area. The species is including inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction).
19680		distribution	eng	This species is known in Pacific lowlands of south Chiapas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
19680		habitat	eng	This species has been taken under the canopy of mature second growth lowland tropical forest. It is an aerial insectivore and is among the first bats to appear in the evening for feeding. No information about its reproduction is available. However, closely related species such as <em>Rhogeessa tumida</em> is known to bear two young per year with individuals reaching sexual maturity at the age of one year (Roots and Baker, 1998).
19680		population	eng	This bat is rare; apparently know only from two localities (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). They are very difficult to distinguish from sibling wide spread species <em>Rhogeessa tumida</em> and because of that it could have been missidentified (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
19680		threats	eng	The area is very affected by tropical storms in some cases even hurricanes (Arroyo-Cabrales and Jimenez pers. comm.) and habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture.
19681		conservation	eng	It is found in the Biosphere Reserve Tehuacan-Cuicatlan.
19681		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jalisco and Zacatecas to Oaxaca (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from 600 to 2,000 m (Jones, 1977).
19681		habitat	eng	Little information on its natural history is known. It occurs in arid tropical areas; also it has been found over a mountain stream in pine-oak forest. A male was take over an arroyo in oak forest. A female captured on May carried an embryo (Jones, 1977).
19681		population	eng	This species apparently is rare (Jones, 1977). Ceballos and Oliva (2005) deduce the fragility of the species considering the few number of specimens collected.
19681		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
19682		conservation	eng	Not recorded from any protected areas.
19682		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Colombia and coastal Venezuela (including Margarita Island) (Simmons, 2005). In Venezuela 0-860 m (Lew pers. comm.)
19682		habitat	eng	This bat is strongly insectivorous, it especially feeds on small aerial insects (like flies or moths) that it catches in open areas. It is generally found in small colonies (Linares, 1998).This is one of the first bat species to appear at dusk (Soriano pers. comm.) Lives in holes in columnar cactus arms (Soriano pers com).
19682		population	eng	Where it occurs it is common, though it occurs sporatically across its range.
19682		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat conversion following infrastructure development, including industry, commercial and residential (and tourism), concentrated along the Venezuelan Coast, near shore islands (Margarita) and into the eastern Andes (Merida region) which together with its reliance on columnar cactus and restricted range are resulting in popula
19683		conservation	eng	The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
19683		distribution	eng	This species occurs only of the Balsa river basin at the Infiernillo dam. In south Michoacan (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from 125 to 200 m (Arroyo-Cabrales and Polaco, 1997).
19683		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It inhabits a small area of semiarid low region and arid thorn scrub vegetation. It has been caught over streams, in cactus-mesquite vegetation, and in gallery forest (Arroyo-Cabrales and Polaco, 1997).
19683		population	eng	This bat apparently is rare (Arroyo-Cabrales and Polaco, 1997).
19683		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of the dam development (Arroyo-Cabrales, pers. com)
19684		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
19684		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Oaxaca to Sonora (Mexico); and Tres Marías Islands (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
19684		habitat	eng	It is found in thorny and decidious forest and is know from sea level up to 1,500 meters (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
19684		population	eng	This species is considered as common (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
19684		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
19685		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
19685		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tamaulipas (Mexico) to north Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica (Emmons and Feer; 1997; Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid, 1997).
19685		habitat	eng	This bat inhabits in a variety of habitats, including evergreen and deciduous forest, open areas, and villages. It appears to favor slightly disturbed, deciduous forest (Reid, 1997). Roosts in buildings and hollow trees, and colonies may be large. This is one of the first bats to appear at sunset, often flying low to the ground along wide trails on roads. There are two peaks of activity, for an hour after sunset and within an hour of dawn. It feeds on small flying insects, and individuals appear to have established hunting routes. Echolocation calls are short, with maximum energy at 50 to 60 kHz. In Belize, synchronized births occur once a year in the rainy season, and litter size is usually two (LaVal, 1973). Within limits imposed by its elevational distribution, this species is known from almost every major vegetation association in tropical North America (LaVal, 1973). The single specimen reported by Carter and Jones (1978) in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico, was captured over a stream. At Diriamba, Nicaragua, <em>R. tumida</em> was captured over small streams, along a trail in a small ravine, and along trees bordering a hacienda (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1971). Roosting habits of <em>R. tumida</em> are unknown. The only recorded instance of predation on <em>R. tumida</em> is by a male <em>Vampyrum spectrum</em> in northern Guatemala (McCarthy, 1987).
19685		population	eng	Uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997); Apparently rare but very widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
19685		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
19686		conservation	eng	It is known from Hazar Ganji National Park in Baluchistan, Pakistan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Approximately 35% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
19686		distribution	eng	This very widely distributed species is present in Iran, Central Asia, western South Asia, China and Mongolia. It is widespread in Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and appears to have a smaller distribution in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In South Asia, it has been recorded from northern Afghanistan (Habibi 2004) and western Pakistan (Baluchistan) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China the species is very widespread, and has been recorded from Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, Gansu, Ningxia and western Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it has been recorded from desert and semi-desert habitats across southern Mongolia, including the Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans Altai Govi Desert, Alashani Govi Desert, Northern Govi, and Eastern Govi. Shargyn Govi in southern Govi Altai Mountain Range represents the northern limit of its range in Mongolia (Mallon, 1985).
19686		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, fossorial, colonial often seen associated with other gerbils. In China, the species occupies desert to semi-desert habitat, and is most successful in dry river beds dominated with shrubby vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008). In South Asia, it has been recorded from apple orchards and clay-sandy embankments. It has been found to occupy steppe mountains and upland deserts and sand dunes with scattered vegetation, in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Distribution is always associated with the presence of saxaul plants (M. Stubbe pers. comm.). It constructs large entrance holes to a very elaborate burrow system that consists of long deep tunnels, nest and food storage chambers (Smith and Xie 2008).
19686		population	eng	No data are available at present, although it is believed to be common in the Gobi Desert.
19686		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened by habitat degradation through overgrazing of vegetation by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts might also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
19705		conservation	eng	Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the focus of a project to promote long-term conservation of the forest through sustainable management and community participation in forest conservation (Rathbun and Kyalo 2000). A 25-year Strategic Management Plan (2002 to 2027) has been developed for this forest. Golden-rumped Sengis are currently being monitored in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest under a three year (2003 - 2005) USAID funded project run by Nature Kenya (the Kenyan partner to BirdLife International). The forest is managed jointly by the Forest Department and Kenya Wildlife Service. The kaya forests are the subject of a project run by the Coast Forest Conservation Unit (National Museums of Kenya), which assists local communities to re-establish effective local control over resources in these sacred forests. Through the efforts of the CFCU, these forests have been gazetted as National Monuments, a legal status which prevents development and encroachment but provides only limited protection for biodiversity.
19705		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kenya and occurs in fragmented and small forest patches inland from Mombasa (on the north side of the Kombeni River near the Rabai Hills) north as far as the Boni Forest (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Rathbun 1979a,b), but probably absent from gallery and ground-water forests.
19705		habitat	eng	The Golden-rumped Sengi is found in forest, dense woodland, and thicket habitats that support dense leaf litter on the ground. They eat a wide range of invertebrates, including beetles, termites, earth worms, and millipedes. They are diurnal and form monogamous pairs (FitzGibbon 1997). They spend the night on the forest floor in leaf nests, which have been used to estimate relatively abundance (FitzGibbon and Rathbun 1994). They produce single highly precocial young about every two months throughout the year. In many regards, their general natural history is best understood if one considers them a combination of a small ant-eater and a miniature antelope (Rathbun 1979a; FitzGibbon 1995).
19705		population	eng	Populations densities in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest decreased by <em>c</em>. 30% between 1993 and 1996 from an estimated 20,000 to 14,000 individuals (Bauer 1996; FitzGibbon 1994); the decline appeared to be concentrated in the <em>Cynometra</em> woodland, rather than in the mixed or <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland. Population trends in other areas are unknown, except for the small population at Gede Ruins National Monument (an area of 44 ha) declined significantly between the early 1970s (population estimated at <em>ca</em> 70 individuals; Rathbun 1979a) and the early 1990s (population estimated at <15 individuals; FitzGibbon 1994). Clearance of woodland and scrub in surrounding areas is likely to have resulted in further population declines elsewhere.
19705		threats	eng	Outside of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the major threat to this species is likely to be habitat loss (Rathbun and Kyalo 2000), as a result of clearance of scrub and woodland. Many of the kaya forests have been severely degraded by tree felling and pole collecting, and their boundaries eroded by agricultural encroachment. Habitat loss not only results in a reduced distribution, but also increases isolation of the remaining small populations. Within Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the species appears to be adversely affected by logging (but not pole collecting), primarily in the Cynometra habitat type. This may be due to the resulting reduction in leaf litter and canopy cover, and the loss of hollow trunks used as refuges (FitzGibbon 1994; Bauer 1996; Rathbun and Kyalo 2000); trapping by woodcarvers who camp in the Cynometra habitat for long periods and trap a variety of wildlife for food may also be contributing to the decline. It was estimated in the early 1990s that about 3,000 Golden-rumped Sengis were being caught per year by hunters in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. At that time the species was not being targeted by hunters (it has an unpleasant taste), it was primarily caught in traps and snares designed for other animals (particularly the Four-toed Sengi, <em>Petrodromus tetradactylus</em>), and overall trapping was considered unlikely to be having a significant impact on population levels (FitGibbon <em>et al</em>. 1995). However, trapping intensity in Arabuko-Sokoke is reduced by forest guard patrols, and unrestricted trapping in un-patrolled areas may be having a negative impact. Predation by dogs may be an additional threat close to areas of habitation (FitzGibbon 1994).
19708		conservation	eng	Numerous relatively small blocks of forest are designated as forest reserves in both Kenya and Tanzania, and these offer some level of protection of habitat needed by this sengi. Currently, several members of the IUCN SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group are collecting data to undertake a status review of <em>R. petersi</em>. In 2000, Black and Rufous Sengis from Tanzania were imported to North American zoos, where they have successfully bred. In the future, the husbandry methods developed may be useful in captive breeding and reintroduction programs.
19708		distribution	eng	Endemic to East Africa and confined to the Eastern Arc mountain and coastal forests. In the Eastern Arc Mountains found in forests associated with the Shimba Hills in Kenya and south into Tanzania on the Pare, Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, and Uluguru mountains. A population in the Ndundulu Forest of the Udzungwa Mountains appears to be surrounded by Rhynchocyon cirnei. Along the coast populations occur in small and fragmented forests from Diani Forest, Kenya, south to the Rufiji River, Tanzania, including the islands of Zanzibar (= Unguja) and Mafia.
19708		habitat	eng	Relatively little is known about the biology of the Black and Rufous Sengi because no detailed field studies have been completed. It occupies evergreen and semi-deciduous forests, dense woodlands, coral rag scrub, and abandoned and overgrown agricultural lands with closed canopies where a thick layer of leaf litter accumulates (Corbet and Hanks, 1968).  In recent years these habitats are becoming more fragmented, isolated, and small, which is often not illustrated in distribution maps for this species. Like other members of the genus, it is completely terrestrial and diurnal with very keen senses. <em>R. petersi</em>, like other sengis, has a propensity to quickly flee any disturbance in a highly cursorial gait (Allen and Loveridge 1927). It builds nests similar to those of the Golden-rumped Sengi (Hanna and Anderson 1994), and produces 1-2 highly cursorial neonates per litter. It feeds on forest floor invertebrates. Most often only brief sightings of lone individuals are made, although it is probably monogamous like the Golden-rumped sengi. Most aspects of its natural history are probably similar to the Golden-rumped Sengi (Rathbun 1979).
19708		population	eng	A relatively rare species with a fragmented and restricted distribution. Maximum densities, estimated from transect surveys of nests, up to 79.3/km² (Hanna and Anderson 1994). However, there are no population estimates for the numerous disjunct populations in the many isolated forests where this species occurs.
19708		threats	eng	Fragmentation and degradation of forested habitats due to urban and agricultural expansion is the major threat to this sengi (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990). Extraction of timber for woodcarving, firewood, and charcoal production are also threats to its habitats. Given the similarity between the Golden-rumped Sengi and the Black and Rufous Sengi (Rathbun 1979), it is very likely that the latter is experiencing overall population declines due to habitat loss and degradation (Hanna and Anderson 1994).
19709		conservation	eng	Except for indirect protection in reserves and parks, there are no specific conservation initiatives directed towards this species. However, efforts to protect primates and antelopes in forest habitats may indirectly benefit <em>R. cirnei</em>.
19709		distribution	eng	The species occurs in central Africa, from Mozambique north of the Zambezi River; highlands associated with the Rift Valley system in Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania; western Uganda; south-eastern Tanzania; and Democratic Republic of Congo between the Congo and Ubangi Rivers (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Kingdon 1974). In some generalized distribution maps <em>R. cirnei</em> is shown to occur in extreme southern Central African Republic, based on a single individual reputed to have been collected between Bangui and Mbaiki west of the Ubangi River; this would be the only record west of the Ubangi River and unless confirmed, this does not seem likely (Corbet and Hanks 1968).
19709		habitat	eng	The Checkered Sengi is restricted to montane and lowland forests, closed-canopy woodlands, and riparian thickets where the substrate is usually covered with dense leaf litter. These habitats are often fragmented and isolated due to natural and anthropogenic activities, resulting in isolated and sometimes small populations of this sengi. The fragmented nature of its occurrence is not illustrated in most distribution maps. Although there are no systematic field studies of <em>R. cirnei</em>, based on its general morphology, habitat associations, diurnality, nesting habits, and locomotion it is very likely that it's behavioral ecology is similar to that of the Golden-rumped Sengi. These similarities include monogamy, a relatively low reproductive rate, highly precocial neonates (litter 1–2), and a diet of leaf litter invertebrates.
19709		population	eng	There are no data on the relative abundance of Checkered Sengi populations. However, given the similarity to the Golden-rumped Sengi (<em>R. chrysopygus</em>), there is good reason to believe that similar population declines are occurring in <em>R. cirnei</em>.
19709		threats	eng	Vulnerable to habitat fragmentation, decline in forested areas, and quality of habitats due to human activities, similar to that documented for the Golden-rump Sengi, <em>Rhynchocyon chrysopygus</em>. Of potential concern are two subspecies of Checkered Sengi: <em>R. c. hendersoni</em> is restricted to an isolated montane forest in Malawi, which may be disappearing due to clearing (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990), and <em>R. c. cirnei</em>, which is known only from the type specimen from a restricted area in coastal Mozambique where little recent information is available on the status of the forested area. Habitat loss may also threaten other subspecies with restricted distributions, such as <em>R. c. macrurus</em> in the coastal areas of southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique. Hunting for food is also likely to be a localized threat in parts of the range (e.g., Nielsen 2006).
19710		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine the area of occupancy and impact of numerous threats within the range of the species.
19710		distribution	eng	Restricted to south-central Chile, including Chiloe Island (Gardner 2007). Recently reported to have been captured in Argentina. This species has a wide altitudinal range, occurring from sea level (Chiloe Island) up to 1,135 m asl in Osomo Province, Chile.
19710		habitat	eng	<em>R. raphanurus</em> occurs in temperate forest. It occurs at and is tolerant of a wide elevational range from sea level to 1,135 m above sea level and is locally abundant. It is probably terrestrial and nocturnal, foraging on the forest floor for insects, earthworms and plant debris.
19710		population	eng	This genus occurs at and is tolerant of a wide elevational range and is locally abundant (Patterson <em>et al.</em> 1990).
19710		threats	eng	Deforestation for logging is the main threat to this species.
19711		conservation	eng	The locality where the species was collected is protected – Munusela National Park. Further surveys are needed to confirm whether or not the species still exists and also to see if it occurs elsewhere in other ranges on the island. It should also be looked for on the island of Buru.
19711		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a series of seven specimens collected in February 1920 at a single locality on the island of Seram, Indonesia. One of the specimens was collected at 1,800 m asl.
19711		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from upper montane tropical forest. Little more is known about the species natural history.
19711		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. More recent surveys undertaken on Seram have not been conducted at the elevational range of this montane species. There have been no surveys undertaken in the upper moss forests.
19711		threats	eng	The lower altitude forests of Seram are being cleared for timber and conversion to cultivated land. This affects the upper montane forest by increasing desiccation and making it more susceptible to fire. Pigs, rats, and dogs (and possibly cats) have been introduced to the island and they might be adversely affecting the species through both habitat degradation and predation.
19712		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Mt. Isarog National Park.
19712		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Mt. Isarog, Camarines Sur Province, Luzon (Philippines) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).
19712		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary montane and mossy forest from 1,125 to 1,750 m (D. Balete and L. Heaney in press; Heaney <em>et al.</em> in press; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991).
19712		population	eng	The population appears stable, but geographically restricted (Musser and Freeman 1981). It is more common on Mt. Isarog than <em>Chrotomys gonzalezi</em> or <em>Archbold luzonensis</em>. It is difficult to trap.
19712		threats	eng	Mt. Isarog National Park used to be logged in the 80s, but this has ceased and some regeneration has occurred (D. Balete pers. comm.). Abaca is being grown for fibre within the park boundary but is not expanding nor is it affecting the species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
19713		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas across its range.
19713		distribution	eng	This species, which is endemic to Luzon (Philippines), has been recorded from Mt. Data, Benguet province, and from montane and mossy forest from 1,600-2,150 m in Balbalasang, Kalinga province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, it is likely to occur throughout the Central Cordillera (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
19713		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species inhabits mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002) and occurs in areas with wet leaf litter where it feeds on earthworms.
19713		population	eng	The species is moderately common in Balbasang National Park (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
19713		threats	eng	There is some habitat conversion to vegetable farms in parts of the species range and it is also vulnerable to habitat disturbance and logging, as the leaf litter dries out the food source is eliminated (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
19714		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas. It is widely distributed throughout the Neotropics. In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
19714		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Oaxaca and Veracruz, Mexico, to central and eastern Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Guianas, Surinam and Trinidad (Simmons 2005).  It is widely distributed at low elevations, generally below 500 m (Eisenberg 1989) but up to 1,500 m.
19714		habitat	eng	It is almost always associated with moist areas near multistratal evergreen forests. These bats tend to roost in small, single-species colonies of about ten to twenty-four, on tree trunks, in tree cavities, or in rock caves (Eisenberg 1989). When roosting they are often aligned in vertical rows with individuals about 10 mm apart. Several males occur in a roosting group, and there appears to be no harem formation or defense. These bats are aerial insectivores (Husson 1978; Goodwin and Greenhall 1961); and they tend to feed over water, flying only a short distance above the surface (Eisenberg 1989). In Mexico they have been also reported for secondary forests, crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.)
19714		population	eng	These bats are often common in lowland forest near water (streams, rivers, mangroves, and lakes) (Reid 1997); widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997). Colonies vary from a few individuals to 100 individuals (Dalquest 1957).
19714		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. May be some water issues.
19737		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a number of sites on the eastern face of Mt Wellington. It may exist elsewhere, especially in the same mountain range, but considerable searching has failed to reveal specimens elsewhere.  <br/> <br/>Five localities are recorded (K. Bonham, unpub. data), relatively close together, so that it is just conceivable that all could be impacted by a single event (e.g., catastrophic fire). With further searching this number will increase but there is still some case for treating the species as present in a single location (K. Bonham, pers. comm). Extent of occurrence (EOO) (based on currently known records) is approximately 4 km². EOO is likely to be higher with more records but is quite likely to be less than 20 km². There has been no evidence of decline in range.
19737		habitat	eng	Subalpine shrubby forest. It lives mainly in open boulder fields (these are typically 50 m to hundreds of metres wide) which are just lightly vegetated with wet scrub forest trees/shrubs (K. Bonham, pers. comm). Nothing is known of life history parameters (age at maturity, life span, etc).
19737		population	eng	Much more would need to be known to determine if species consists of close subpopulations or a single subpopulation.  Conceivably the latter is the case. Population size is very low for a small land snail. The species is extremely difficult to find making estimates very difficult. It could conceivably be as small as 10–20 000 (K. Bonham, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>It is uncertain whether any population decline has occurred. Collections in the late 1800s suggest species may have been slightly easier to find then than now, but early searchers may simply have known of an area where the species was more common. Any population decline which occurred may have been due to a severe bushfire in 1966, which burnt through most of the species’ range.
19737		threats	eng	Bushfires: The species is protected from fire in most places to a large degree by its specialised habitat. Some specimens occur in areas prone to fire, but fire would not be able to destroy the species altogether by itself (K. Bonham, pers. comm). The species may indeed be extremely fire sensitive, due partly to its naturally low population densities, and that the very large scree blockfields within its limited range explain its ability to survive and its inability to spread further (K. Bonham, pers. comm).  <br/> <br/>In the long term, climate change as species occupies a narrow altitude band (700–1,000 m on a mountain 1,270 m high) and may have difficulty surviving a temperature change of several degrees.
19740		conservation	eng	Presently the focus of a project of the EU Life programme (now finished), but the species distribution is within a protected area.
19740		distribution	eng	Danube drainage in Romania; formerly known from upper River Arges and its tributaries Valsan and Raul Doamnei. Today restricted to 1 km of upper River Valsan upstream of Bradet village, but adjacent basins still unsufficiently surveyed.
19740		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast-flowing, cold and clear mountain streams. Usually hidden under stones. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, bottom dweller. Territorial; possibly spawns in second half of May. 120-150 eggs are deposited under stones. Feeds on insect larvae including mayflies (<em>Ephemeroptera</em>) and stoneflies (<em>Plecoptera</em>).
19740		population	eng	No information.
19740		threats	eng	Threats to the species were deforestation, construction of roads, extraction of stones, pollution and dam constructions has driven this species to the edge of extinction. <br/>Currently the species occurs only below a dam, and exists only because enough water is released from the dam.
19742		conservation	eng	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES (1973), and hunting is illegal according to Mexican law, but poorly enforced (Fa and Bell 1990). <em>R. diazi</em> occurs within the protected areas Izta-Popo and Zoquiapan National Parks, but hunting, grazing, and grass burning persist within the park boundaries (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fa and Bell 1990; Velazquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/><br/>Captive breeding programs have been established with some success, but infant mortality in captivity is very high (Fa and Bell 1990). <br/><br/>It is recommended that conservation measures focus on habitat management, particularly the control of burning and overgrazing of the bunchgrass “zacaton” habitat, and enforcement of the existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of <em>R. diazi</em> (Fa and Bell 1990). Management of the protected areas should be improved and education plans at local, national, and international levels should be implemented (Fa and Bell 1990). Captive colonies, especially those in the zoos of Mexico, D. F., should be used to educate the public about the protected status of <em>R. diazi</em> (Fa and Bell 1990).
19742		distribution	eng	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is endemic to Mexico, restricted to the Transverse Neovolcanic Belt, mainly in discontinuous patches on four volcanoes (Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, El Pelado, and Tlaloc) (Fa and Bell 1990), spanning approximately 386 km² (Velazquez 1994). <em>R. diazi</em> has apparently disappeared from some of its historical range in the central Transverse Neovolcanic Belt, including the eastern slopes of Iztaccihuatl and the Nevada de Toluca (Fa and Bell 1990).  There is an approximate extent of occurrence of 1,841 sq. km (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).  The range of <em>R. diazi</em> is becoming smaller and increasingly fragmented as a result of human induced and natural causes (Velazquez <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/><em>R. diazi</em> occurs between 2,800 m and 4,250 m in elevation (Fa and Bell 1990), but occurs at the highest density between 3,150 m and 3,400 m (Velazquez 1994).
19742		habitat	eng	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is a habitat specialist (Velazquez <em>et al.</em> 1993).  It is found at its highest density in a subalpine habitat containing bunchgrass (“zacaton”) and pine communities (Velazquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). In areas where bunchgrass is less abundant, they give birth in cracks and abandoned burrows (Velazquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is unlikely that <em>R. diazi</em> constructs burrows of its own (Fa and Bell 1990). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>R. diazi</em> is not well known, but local reports indicate that the species feeds upon the young leaves of grasses and some spiny herbs (Fa and Bell 1990).  Gestation time for this species is 38-40 (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).   <em>R. diazi</em> may be reproductively active year round with peak breeding season occurring "during the warm, rainy summer" (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Adults of a captive breeding program weighed 400-600 g, with birth weights for females 25-27 g and males 32 g (Matsuzaki <em>et al</em>. 1982).  Total length of newborns ranges from 8.3-10.6 cm (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Mean total length of adults ranges between 26.8-32.0 (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).
19742		population	eng	A 1994 study on El Pelado used fecal pellet counts and direct censusing by line transect (on horseback) to estimate population size and concluded that the population size of <em>R. diazi</em> was between 2,478 and 12,120 individuals, recommending the smaller number be considered for conservation purposes due to broad confidence limits (Velazquez 1994).
19742		threats	eng	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is threatened by habitat destruction, caused by livestock grazing, agriculture and property development encroachment, logging, harvest of the “zacaton” grasses, and forest fire (98% of which are started by humans attempting to encourage new pasture growth) (Fa and Bell 1990). The range of <em>R. diazi</em> exists within 45 minutes of one of the world’s largest cities (Mexico D. F.) and urban expansion has resulted in habitat loss (Fa and Bell 1990).  Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fragmentation of <em>R. diazi</em> habitat is caused by contiguous habitat loss and by highway construction, causing the fragmented populations to become genetically isolated, increasing their risk of local extinction from random processes (Velazquez <em>et al.</em> 1993).   <br/><br/>Though hunting is illegal, it continues because of lack of local knowledge of its protected status, and lack of enforcement (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990, Fa and Bell 1990).
19743		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It is recommended that stacked timber at the forest edge is not used before four years to enable all larvae (as eggs are laid only on fresh dead wood) to finish their development cycle and enable the beetles to re-establish populations in the forest.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania, France). In particular some stable and important populations occurs in protected areas in the Alps (Forest Biological Reserves) and in the National Park of the Cevennes.<br/><br/>This species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Germany, in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg there is a monitoring programme in place according to the EU Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable in Germany (2009) and Least Concern in Spain (Galante and Verdú 2000). It is also included in the Red Book of Ukraine.
19743		distribution	eng	This species occurs across a central band of Europe, from east to west; absent in north and south west (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas wherever extensive beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica </span>forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in all Carpathians, where beech forests are present (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it only occurs in the Carpathians. In Italy it is recorded from most mainland regions and Sicily, absent in Sardinia (Sama 2006). Its distribution in France follows those of the beech&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>forests, essentially (seems to be exclusively) among the mountain borders. One population is located at low altitude in the north-west (Charente-Maritime). This special population is not developing on beech as usual but uses alternative broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and Kırklareli (Oymen 1987, Malmusi and Saltini 2005). <br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa, Major and Minor Caucasus and Minor Asia.
19743		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae first develop on the dead wood of exposed stumps and standing or fallen trunks (but not in contact with the ground); the larvae stay two or three years in the wood. Polyphagous in broadleaved trees (<em>Fagus, Ulmus, Carpinus, Tilia, Castanea, Fraxinus, Juglans, Quercus, Salix, Alnus, Crataegus</em>), although beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>is the favoured tree over much of its range. The life cycle is at least two or three years, with pupation in spring or early summer in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are found on the host plants. <br/><br/>The preferred habitats are large open montane beech forests or solitary trees, but also other tree species (see above) can be a habitat especially in southern Europe. In the Alps it prefers beech formations on limestone that are drier. The appropriate beech trees tend to be those that remain standing on remote slopes, where extraction is too laborious and so are not lost to firewood gathering. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in old, extensive beech forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in old beech forests, sometimes in the south-western part of the country at low level, 200 m (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy and Spain it lives mainly in old beech forests. In Germany it lives in beech forests in the Alps and montane areas, mainly on calcareous stands; breeding in beech and sycamore <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer pseudoplatanus</span>, but also in wych elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus glabra.</span><p> In France it is found in broadleaved trees where beech is absent. In mountains, larvae are found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>, it prefers trees that are big (diameter >30 cm) and sun exposed. Freshly dead trees are colonised. Not every beech forest is suitable. The species is located only in the mature forests (managed or not) with trees of more than 40 cm of diameter. The continuity of the deadwood recruitment is essential (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p>There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>
19743		population	eng	In Europe this species is relatively common over much of its range. In Hungary, Slovakia and probably also in Poland&#160; the species is common or abundant in many localities where host-plants (old, sun-exposed beech trunks) are available. In Romania the size and trend of the population are stable, and the largest populations from Europe are spread in the south-western part of the country, Banat (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Germany there are records from alpine beech forest: Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, and from Erzgebirge (Sachsen). Other records from other German States are presumably introductions from transported logs. Its population trend is declining. In the Czech Republic there is only one large stable population; there are many historical records but these might be introduced with fuel wood (fallen from transport and collected).<br/><p>There are many localities known in France but recent declines have been detected, as it is threatened by collection. The species forms small patchy populations in suitable habitats: logged places of large chablis where a big and stable population is hosted by large and old beech forests. The species is able to fly around at least at the distance of two km. Its population functioning is clearly a metapopulation model with a large and stable population as a source and small patchy sites as pits, colonised for three to ten years and then   abandoned (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2007). In Spain its population is stable; its distribution in the north of Spain follows <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus spp</span>., <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>100 localities. In Italy there are 70 localities.<br/></p><p>In Greece it is abundant in Rhodope Mountains, in beech forests in central Greece (Olympus Mountains) and there are several localities. In Ukraine it is a rare species. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Turkey.</p>
19743		threats	eng	<p>A typical species depending on pastured woodland, open beech forest almost in montane areas. Long decking and late timber hauling are a major threat as the larvae have a long development phase (two or three years). Another major threat is the stacking of extracted timber on the edge of forest as this attracts beetles lying eggs. As the larval cycle is two or three years, a significant part of the population can be removed and destroyed by the subsequent removal of this timber. Stored trunks at the forest border are very attractive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosalia </span>but eggs do not have any chances of survival (Duelli and Wermelinger 2005). In France the major threat is the cleaning of the logged stands and the deadwood removal.&#160; Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of forest management (O. Merkl, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>Locally the collection of specimens might pose a threat (Spain, France and Italy). <br/></p>
19749		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in the Domoga Bone National Park, and Buton Utara on the island of Buton. Its range also includes three smaller reserves along the eastern tip of north Sulawesi where it is likely to occur (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).
19749		distribution	eng	This species is found on Sulawesi and the adjacent islands of Lembeh, Buton and Menado in Indonesia (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988). The type locality is Boné (near Gerontalo), north Sulawesi, Indonesia. The known elevation range for this species is from 200 to 1,060 m asl (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).
19749		habitat	eng	This is a lowland forest bat that is also able to forage in partly cultivated habitats. It roosts in caves.
19749		population	eng	This species is rare across its range.
19749		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting, including the national-level bushmeat trade, and habitat loss through logging and conversion to agriculture.
19750		conservation	eng	As a game species under Malagasy law (Durbin 2007), <em>R. madagascariensis</em> is only protected when it occurs in nature reserves. In a survey of western Madagascar it was found in six protected areas: Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana, Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha and Parc National d’Isalo (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Roosts within existing protected areas need to receive close attention from park staff to discourage hunting. Other roosts need to be conserved and this might be best achieved through their inclusion within new protected areas and with the cooperation of local communities.
19750		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is widespread but rare or absent from the central highlands and the arid south-west (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
19750		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves well beyond the twilight zone (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). Few colonies are known to biologists even in areas with extensive underground cavities (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007) giving the impression that they have strict environmental requirements for roosting. This species is known from a number of sites that are without known roosts or caves (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007) and <em>R. madagascariensis</em> may therefore roost in other sites such as tree holes.<br/><br/>Although it is widely distributed it appears to be associated with forest formations (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003) and has also been trapped inside <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006) and from agricultural settings (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) and in villages (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>It is able to fly within relatively intact forest (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007) and therefore potentially plays a role as a seed disperser and pollinator. Compared with the two larger Malagasy fruit bat species, there is less information on its diet and foraging behaviour (Hutcheon 2003), but there are observations of it feeding on introduced fruits (Goodman 1999; Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) where it can be considered as a pest (Hutcheon 2003; Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is also known to feed on the fruit of endemic forest trees (Razafindrakoto 2006). Nectar appears to be an important dietary constituent and bats have been observed feeding on kapok flowers (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006).
19750		population	eng	It roosts in aggregations of up over a thousand individuals (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) but smaller colonies of a few hundred are also known (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007). It can be locally abundant and is often the most commonly trapped species in mist-netting surveys in the west of Madagascar (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007).
19750		threats	eng	The extent to which the destruction and degradation of natural forest threatens this species is poorly understood. Although Goodman <em>et al.</em> (2005) suggested that <em>R. madagascariensis</em> is not dependent on relatively intact forest there are insufficient data on its annual dietary requirements to decide this matter. It is clear, however, that some of the roosting colonies are located some distance from intact forest and additional study is therefore needed on the mobility of this species. The main threats to <em>R. madagascariensis</em> are to its roosts where it is subject to hunting pressure (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007; Jenkins and Racey in press) in virtually all sites that are not inside protected areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) or considered sacred (Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). It appears to be hunted exclusively for subsistence and bats are harvested using locally made traps as well as being knocked down from the cave ceiling with wooden batons (Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). On Ile Sainte Marie the reported offtake was between 360 and 480 bats per year (Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007).
19751		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
19751		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from northern Sumatra (near Medan or near Prapat) in Indonesia, and from northern Borneo in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) (Simmons 2005). One specimen was collected from central Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) from a cave (M. Sinaga pers. comm.).
19751		habitat	eng	This species is probably forest dependent and it roosts in caves. Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) recorded a colony of 300 individuals. This species may associate with <em>R. amplexicaudatus</em> in caves. It is thought to feed on nectar and fruit.
19751		population	eng	This species is very rare.
19751		threats	eng	Cave disturbance and forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and fires are the main threats to this species.
19754		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. Identification and protection of important roosting sites would benefit the conservation of this species across its range. In the Philippines, caves are protected under the Cave Management Act, although this is not fully enforced. Elsewhere in southeast Asia the species requires protection from hunting and education is needed on the actual impact of the species on orchards (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006).
19754		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yunnan in China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008) extending to Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003), Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), Peninsular Malaysia through Indonesia (including Java and Bali), and the Philippines. It is present on many of the Molucca Islands, including the islands of Halmahera, Morotai, Buru and Seram. It is widespread throughout much of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago and adjacent islands. It has been recorded from the island of Bougainville and Buka (S. Hamilton pers. comm.) and many of the Solomon Islands as far south as the island of San Cristobal.<br/>It is found throughout the Philippines, with records from Balabac, Babuyan Group (Garcia pers. comm.), Barit, Biliran, Bohol, Boracay, Busuanga, Caluya, Camotes (L. Paguntalan pers. comm.), Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dalupiri, Dinagat, Fuga, Ilin (J. C. Gonzales pers. comm.), Jolo, Leyte, Lubang, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Laguna, Quezon, Rizal, Sorsogon, Zambales provinces), Maripipi, Marinduque, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental (Ramayla pers. comm.), South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Sur), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan , Panay, Polillo, Samal, Samar (J. C. Gonzales pers. comm.), Semirara, Siargao, Sibay, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tablas, Ticao (L. Paguntalan pers. comm.), Tincansan (Alcala and Alviola 1970; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded from sea level up to 2,200 m asl.
19754		habitat	eng	This is a colonial species which forms cave roosts of several thousand animals. Roosts are known from caves, rock crevices, and old tombs. It can be found in a wide variety of habitat types including secondary forest, agricultural areas, and other disturbed habitats like rural gardens, fruit orchards and at the forest edge (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1998; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is present, but less common, in primary tropical moist forest. <br/>They may travel long distances each night, in search of appropriate fruit. <em>Rousettus</em> are known to use a primitive form of echolocation while foraging. Gestation is thought to be about 15 weeks, and lactation about three months. The species may have two litters of a single young annually in New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).
19754		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species in Southeast Asia and the Philippines (Utzurrum 1992). In Southeast Asia it has probably experienced declines due to hunting as a large cave roosting species (C. Francis pers. comm.).
19754		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats to this species. It is regarded as a pest in some parts of its range. In the Philippines and Indochina it is subject to intense hunting at some cave roosts (Utzurrum 1992).
19755		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
19755		distribution	eng	This species occurs in greater Sulawesi and adjacent islands (Mangole, Sanana, Sangihe Islands) in Indonesia. It is found also on Wowoni island (U. Sinaga pers. comm.) and on Wangiwangi and adjacent islands (T. Kingston pers. comm.) also in Indonesia.
19755		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in the forest at elevations up to 1,400 m asl. It is also often caught in mixed gardens and open areas (U. Sinaga pers. comm.). It roosts in caves.
19755		population	eng	It is very abundant in forested habitat.
19755		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring throughout the species' range. This species is also affected by hunting and cave disturbance.
19756		conservation	eng	In South Asia, it is classified as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from protected areas in India like Namdapha Biosphere in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagarhole Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, Sambalpur Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa, Indravathi National Park in Chattisgarh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Awareness activities need to be taken up to mitigate threats to this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia the species has been recorded from many protected areas and no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
19756		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed in South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong, Dakha, Khulna and Sylhet divisions), Bhutan (Panjurmane), India (Chattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Western Nepal), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southern China, it has been recorded from southern Fujian, southern Guangdong, Hainan island, southern Guangxi, southern Yunnan and Guizhou. It has additionally been reported from Xizang (Medog), Sichuan, and Jiangxi (Wang 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species has been widely recorded from Myanmar, through Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam, and ranging into Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, and the Mentawai islands). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,140 m asl.
19756		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats ranging from tropical moist forest to urban environments. Roosts in colonies ranging from a few to several thousands of individuals in caves, old and ruined buildings, forts and disused tunnels. It feeds on fruits and flowers. It has two breeding cycles in a year and bears a single young (Bates and Harrison 1997).
19756		population	eng	In general, this seems to be a common species with stable populations.
19756		threats	eng	There are no overall major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. In South Asia, while the population is generally stable, this species is locally threatened by human interference to roosting sites due to tourism related developmental activities, loss of preferred roosting sites, persecution by humans by means of poisoning, fumigation activities and stoning, hunting for medicinal purposes and local consumption (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
19757		conservation	eng	There are currently no direct conservation actions in place for this species. The National Conservation Action Plan for <em>Pteropus livingstoni</em> (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003) includes an appendix for the conservation of <em>Rousettus obliviosus</em>. While the few known roosting sites are in remote areas, there is a need to ensure that these caves are not disturbed. Sewall <em>et al.</em> (2003) note that the roosting site at Bandakalala on Moheli might have been abandoned. Additional field surveys are needed to confirm this, as are attempts to locate any additional roost sites for this species.
19757		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the lower elevations of the islands of Grande Comores, Moheli and Ajouan in the Comoros, western Indian Ocean. The species has not been reported on Mayotte Island (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003a). All captures recorded by Sewall <em>et al</em>. (2003), occurred between 20 and 1,750 m asl.
19757		habitat	eng	Bergmans (1994) reports that all four of the Comoro islands are covered with Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal mosaic. Much of the forest, especially in the lower regions, has been destroyed. In parts of the remaining forest the undergrowth has been replaced by banana plantations. The large series collected by the Belgian expedition indicates that the species, which is most probably a lowland forest species, has been able to adapt itself to the changing environment thus far. Sewall <em>et al.</em> (2003) widely recorded the species in native forest, underplanted forest and agricultural areas, but not villages or towns. It is a cave roosting species that is currently only known to roost at six cave localities in remote areas with difficult terrain or dense vegetation and infrequently visited by people (Sewall <em>et al.</em> (2003).
19757		population	eng	The species is fairly common, with colony roost size ranging from around 100 to several thousand animals (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). The total estimated population is between 7,100 and 17,100 bats (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19757		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to disturbance at roost sites and this appears to be the major threat to this restricted range bat. During the early 1990s, deforestation on the Comoros averaged 5.8% per year, with human population growth at 2.5%. While the species is regularly recorded from agricultural areas, and it seems that deforestation is possibly not a major threat, this bat also uses areas of both natural and underplanted forests which are expected to help the species cope with seasonal and year to year environmental variation, including droughts and cyclones (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19758		conservation	eng	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g.. Mount Elgon National Park, Kenya). There is a need to maintain remaining areas of suitable montane forest and to protect major roosting colonies from disturbance. In areas where this species is identified as being overhunted, there is a need to encourage the sustainable use of susceptible populations.
19758		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in East Africa and marginally in Central Africa. It ranges from Ethiopia and southern Sudan in the north of its range, into Kenya, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, to Tanzania and northern Malawi. It is largely, but not strictly, a montane species being found between 500 and 4,000 m asl (with most records above 1,000 m).
19758		habitat	eng	Most of the records of this species are from roosting caves in montane tropical moist forest, although it has also been recorded from a mosaic of East African evergreen bushland and secondary Acacia wooded grassland, with very few records from drier Guineo-Congolian rain forest, wet and dry miombo woodland, East African evergreen and semi-evergreen bushland and thicket, and deciduous bushland and thicket (Bergmans, 1994).
19758		population	eng	This appears to be a little recorded, but locally abundant species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991). It forms colonies of up to a few hundred bats.
19758		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include ongoing deforestation in montane regions, likely disturbance of cave roosting sites (possibly from tourists in parts of its range), and possible overhunting of bats at roost sites for subsistence food by local people.
19762		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two protected areas across its range.
19762		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on Sulawesi, even in the highland areas. These squirrels have recently been found at up to 900 m on Sangihe island just north of Sulawesi (Riley 2002).
19762		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland and highland forest. On Sangihe, this species was sighted in primary forest or gardens adjacent to forest (Riley 2002).
19762		population	eng	It is a widespread species, but no real information on abundance is available. It is probably rare on Sangihe (Riley 2002).
19762		threats	eng	It is threatened by hunting and deforestation due to logging and agricultural conversion. Sangihe island is heavily cultivated at low elevations, and there are no strictly protected areas. Also, it is reported as being a target of hunting by local farmers (Riley 2002).
19771		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (as part of R. rupicapra <em>sensu lato</em>). <br/><br/>In Spain, the species occurs in three national parks, at least 10 natural parks, and a number of other reserves (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Spanish protected areas include Montana de Covadogna and Ordesa National Parks; Reres Natural Park; Alta Pallars-Aran, Benasque, Cadi, Cerdana, Fresser y Setcasas, Los Circos, Los Valles, Vinamala, Mampodre, Picos de Europa, Saja, Somiedo and Sueve Hunting Reserves. Spanish hunting reserves are large hunting management units with strictly controlled culling (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). In France, it occurs in a number of protected areas (Pyrenees-Occidentales National Park, Roc-Blanc, Moudang and Mont-Vallier Mountain Reserves, Orlu Nature Reserve and other small reserves where hunting is banned: C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). A study of population dynamics is ongoing in France, as well as a detailed survey of the population size and distribution (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). In France, there is a hunting plan that is designed to correct geographic imbalances in numbers and distribution, but might be difficult to achieve. A major restoration effort was carried out in the French Pyrenees between 1981 and 2000, involving the translocation of more than 600 individuals (Herrero <em>et al.</em> 2004, C. Novoa and C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). In Andorra there are a few small reserves with hunting quotas (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In Italy, the autochthonous population of subspecies <em>ornata</em> inhabits Abruzzo National Park, and all recent and planned re-introductions and introductions are into protected areas.  A group of 22 chamois was released in the Majella massif between 1991 and 1994, and more recently, 26 were re-introduced into the Gran Sasso massif in cooperation with local villagers. A captive breeding population (numbering 18 individuals in 2006: S. Lovari <em>in litt.</em> 2006) is kept in four large enclosures in as many national parks. No studbook has been kept, which is a major shortcoming in the captive breeding program (Shackleton 1997). The subspecies <em>ornata</em> is strictly protected under national and international legislation - it is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, Appendix I of CITES, and as a “specially protected species” under Italian hunting law. A slowly increasing number of alpine meadows in the species’ range have been forbidden to livestock grazing to reduce competition. This action may generate cautious optimism about the species’ future. Proposed conservation measures include the following: 1) Consider benign introductions for a number of areas in the central and southern Apennines, once their suitability has been adequately assessed. Some national parks (e.g. Pollino, Gran Sasso-Laga, Majella and Sibillini) could in the future also host populations of the Apennine chamois. 2) When selecting individuals for transplants and captive breeding, consider Nascetti <em>et al.</em>'s (1985) finding of an alarming lack of genetic variability in the surviving nucleus of the Abruzzo National Park. This was most likely a result of living at low density for a long time and of population bottlenecks occurring at World Wars I and II. 3) Keep detailed breeding records, genetic profiles, and develop a studbook, for each of the captive breeding populations. 4) Avoid releasing Alpine chamois into areas of potential (re)introduction of Apennine chamois, as if such an action was carried out, it would prevent the subsequent release of the latter species (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/>Future priorities for the species as a whole include extending monitoring to all populations, and to increasing knowledge of demography and the impact of hunting. It is particularly important for monitoring and research to take place outside National Parks, where chamois are hunted.
19771		distribution	eng	<em>Rupicapra pyrenaica</em> is endemic to south-west Europe, where it occurs as three subspecies: <em>R. p. ornata</em>, <em>R. p. pyrenaïca</em> and <em>R. p. parva</em> (Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). The Apennine chamois <em>R. p. ornata</em> now survives only in three small populations in the Abruzzo, Majella, and Gran Sasso-Monti della Laga National Parks in Italy, although earlier in the Holocene it ranged from the Sibillini mountains (Marche Region, Italy) down to the Pollino massif (Calabria Region, Italy) (Masini 1985, Masini and Lovari 1988). The isard or Pyrenean chamois <em>R. p. pyrenaica</em> is found in the Pyrenean mountains, along France' s border with Spain (including Andorra: C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). The Cantabrian chamois <em>R. p. parva</em> occurs in the Cantabrian mountains (Spain). The altitudinal range of the species is 400-2,800 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
19771		habitat	eng	The species is found in alpine meadows, rocky areas, and the forested valleys and lower slopes in mountainous regions. This species generally stays above 1,800 meters in alpine meadows during the warmer months of the year (Nowak, 1983). These animals make altitudinal migrations from the forests in the valleys to the more open alpine meadows (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). In late fall and winter they have been known to enter lands below 1,100 meters, while usually staying on steep slopes, and rarely if ever occur in forested areas (Nowak, 1983). In recent years some populations have started to permanently inhabit forest (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999; Herrero pers. comm. 2006).
19771		population	eng	Overall, the status of this species has greatly improved since 1990. The population and range of the Pyrenean subspecies <em>pyrenaica</em> increased markedly from 1989 to 2003, although there have subsequently been some declines. The 1989 estimate for the total number of <em>R. p. pyrenaica</em> was around 15,500 animals (Shackleton 1997), but by 2003 there were estimated to be at least 53,000 (Herrero <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is now (2006) likely to be an overestimate of the population, as many chamois populations have locally declined since 2004 following severe mortality caused by viral disease, and French hunting bags have reduced although hunting effort has remained steady (C. Novoa pers. comm. 2006). Densities of <em>R. p. pyrenaica</em> tend to be lower outside protected areas. Not all subpopulations of subspecies <em>parva</em> have been censused, but the population was recently estimated at c.15,000 (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). <br/><br/>However, the Italian subspecies <em>ornata </em>remains very rare. Numbers of <em>ornata</em> have probably been low for the last few centuries, only starting to increase in the 1920s as a result of increased protection. Numbers plummeted again to just several tens of individuals in a single population in the Abruzzo National Park during World War II (Lovari 1989). As a result of  conservation action, including re-introductions and the establishment of two new populations, numbers have increased and the population is currently estimated at about 1,100 individuals in three subpopulations (Mari and Lovari 2006, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006), up from a total of c.400 individuals in the late 1980s (Lovari 1989). Not all of these are mature individuals.
19771		threats	eng	The threats to the species vary in different parts of its range. In Italy, subspecies <em>ornata</em> might be vulnerable to many factors because the total number is small, there are only three subpopulations, and genetic variability is very low (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Space and food competition with livestock, especially domestic caprins, seem to be the main limiting factors for <em>ornata </em>. Some poaching occurs, but does not seem to impair the viability of the chamois population in Abruzzo National Park. There are currently no problems with disease for the Italian subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). However, in France and Spain disease is currently the most important threat. Pestivirus appeared in the Pyrenean subspecies in <em>c</em>. 2004, and sarcoptic mange outbreaks periodically cause local declines in the Cantabrian subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In Spain and the Pyrenees, chamois coexist with domestic livestock, but there do not appear to be problems with competition; indeed in the Pyrenees the presence of domestic livestock is considered to benefit the chamois, via maintenance of young and good quality forage, which increases the carrying capacity (J. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). Most Pyrenean and Cantabrian populations are hunted (with the exception of within National Parks). Chamois is a major game species in Spain and is important socially and economically as a source of rural livelihoods. Hunting is carefully managed and revenue from hunting is returned to the local community. In Spain, regional governments set quotas, and hunting is not at an unsustainable level (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In France, hunting is essentially a recreational and non-profit leisure activity, and average annual quotas are under 10% of censused populations. This is sustainable, with only a few local exceptions (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006).
19781		conservation	eng	Totally protected in Slovenia but there are no known conservation measures elsewhere.
19781		distribution	eng	<p>Restricted to the Padua-Venetian region in northern Italy, including the southern part of Switzerland. It has been introduced in Central Italy. It is also described in the Adriatic Basin of Slovenia and locally in Croatia and has been introduced in central and southern Italy. Introduced in most lakes of central and southern Italy where it has caused the regional extinction of <em>R. rubilio</em>.</p>
19781		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams with slow current and dense vegetation, canals, swamps and lakes.
19781		population	eng	Locally abundant. Local declines are reported in Slovenia and Italy following introduction of alien species.
19781		threats	eng	The introduced <em>Rutilus rubilio</em> threatens the riverine populations. <em>Carassius carassius</em> and oriental carps threaten the lake populations, particularly in Slovenia.
19782		conservation	eng	It is stocked in Iranian waters.
19782		conservation	eng	It is stocked in western and southern Caspian sea.
19782		distribution	eng	Black and Azov Sea basins, absent from Danube and Kuban drainages; Has not been recorded from Dniestr, Dniepr and South Bug since 1985 (may now be extirpated); In the Don it is found in the Tsymlansk Resevoir (landlocked) and lower reaches and Sea of Azov. In the Caspian basin, it is extirpated from Volga and Ural but still abundant along the western and southern coast from Kuma to Gorgan Bay, where it enters most rivers and freshened lagoons to spawn.
19782		distribution	eng	Black and Azov Sea basins, absent from Danube and Kuban drainages. The species has not been recorded from Dniestr, Dniepr and South Bug since 1985 (may now be extirpated). In the Don it is found in the Tsymlansk Resevoir (landlocked) and lower reaches and Sea of Azov. In the Caspian basin, it is extirpated from Volga and Ural but still abundant along the western and southern coast from Kuma to Gorgan Bay, where it enters most rivers and freshened lagoons to spawn.
19782		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large brackish estuaries and their large, freshened plume waters, coastal lakes connected to rivers and lowland stretches of large rivers. In estuaries, in deep layers, down to 20 m. Tolerates salinities up to 7-12 ‰. Landlocked populations inhabit lakes or reservoirs. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years, 430-500 mm SL. Starts entering rivers in second half of October (Black Sea, rarely in Caspian Sea). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is continued with the breaking up of the ice or even under ice in February-March. Spawns in April-May, earlier in southern drainages (February in Terek), when temperature reaches 8°C, peaking at 13-15°C. Eggs adhere to rocks and gravel, rarely to submerged plants. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Eggs hatch in 10-16 days at 12-19°C. Juveniles migrate to estuaries during first summer (August). Landlocked populations migrate in spring from lakes or reservoirs or middle river stretches to tributaries or upper reaches. Larvae and early juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae. Adults feed mainly on molluscs and crustaceans, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates. Stops feeding while migrating, spawning and overwintering.
19782		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>  Large brackish estuaries and their large, freshened plume waters, coastal lakes connected to rivers and lowland stretches of large rivers. Rarely in small rivers. In estuaries, in deep layers, down to 20 m. Tolerates salinities up to 7-12 ?. Landlocked populations inhabit lakes or reservoirs. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years, 430-500 mm SL. Starts entering rivers in second half of October (Black Sea, rarely in Caspian Sea). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is continued with the breaking up of the ice or even under ice in February-March. Spawns in April-May, earlier in southern drainages (February in Terek), when temperature reaches 8°C, peaking at 13-15°C. Eggs adhere to rocks and gravel, rarely to submerged plants. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Eggs hatch in 10-16 days at 12-19°C. Juveniles migrate to estuaries during first summer (August). Landlocked populations migrate in spring from lakes or reservoirs or middle river stretches to tributaries or upper reaches. Larvae and early juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae. Adults feed mainly on molluscs and crustaceans, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates. Stops feeding while migrating, spawning and overwintering.
19782		population	eng	<p>The species undergone a massive decline due to the damming of its spawning rivers, mostly happening in the 1950s and 1960's. It has not been recorded north east Black Sea basin since 1985 (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.), and is no longer recorded in the Volga and Ural. It is still abundant but socking dependant in western and southern Caspian sea. In the Azov Sea and Don river as well as in two coastal rivers in Bulgaria and in some rivers of northern Anatolia it is still present. It is abundant in Tsymlansk resevoir but has strongly declined recently in Iznik lake in Turkey most likely due to overfishing.</p>
19782		population	eng	The species undergone a massive decline due to the damming of its spawning rivers, mostly happening in the 1950s and 1960's. It has not been recorded north east Black Sea basin since 1985 (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.), and is no longer recorded in the Volga and Ural. It is still abundant in western and southern Caspian sea. In the Azov Sea and Don river it is still present, and abundant in Tsymlansk resevoir.
19782		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are overfishing (it is a commercial fish) in Tsymlansk Reservoir (Don River) and the western and southern Caspian Sea.
19782		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are overfishing (it is a commercial fish) in Tsymlansk Reservoir (Don River) and the western and southern Caspian Sea.  &#160;Caspian populations strongly depend on artificial reproduction and stocking. EU populations also threatened by pollution, dams, climate change and water abstraction.
19785		conservation	eng	No information.
19785		distribution	eng	Northern Adriatic basin, from Livenza to Po drainages, Lakes Maggiore, Lugano and Como (Italy, Switzerland). Introduced in Arno.
19785		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine populations inhabit deep waters of large, subalpine lakes. Riverine populations inhabit large to medium sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives in small groups. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Moves to shallow areas of rivers to spawn in April-June. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.
19785		population	eng	Abundant.
19785		threats	eng	Threatened by overfishing and construction of weirs, which block access to spawning sites.
19786		conservation	eng	Listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
19786		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Tuscano-Latum district of Italy, and introduced to southern Italy and Sicily.
19786		habitat	eng	A predominantly riverine species but it does enter lakes. A multi-spawner, which is both polyandry and polygymnic. Reproduction is in March to July.
19786		population	eng	A pioneer species subject to high fluctuations and able to recover quickly from decline. Overall the population is stable.
19786		threats	eng	Introduced alien species. The introduction of <em>Rutilus aula</em> is reported to have caused the local extirpation of this species from all the lakes in central Italy.
19787		conservation	eng	No information.
19787		distribution	eng	Europe north of Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Eya drainages (Caspian basin). Aegean basin, in Pinios, Vardar, Vegoritis, Kastoria, Struma and Maritza drainages. Asia: Aral basin and Siberia from Ob eastward to Lena drainages. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Great Britain north of 56°N, Scandinavia north of 69°N. Locally introduced in Spain. Introduced and invasive in northeastern Italy.
19787		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In a wide variety of habitats, mainly in lowland areas. Most abundant in nutrient-rich lakes and large to medium sized rivers and backwaters. Takes advantage of channelization, damming and slight organic pollution. Known also from small lowland streams and from brackish coastal lagoons. In fast-flowing rivers, restricted to stretches where backwaters or shelters allow for overwintering. Spawns among dense submerged vegetation in backwaters or lakes, flooded meadows or in shallow, fast-flowing river habitats on plant or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 13 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females one year later, usually at about 100 mm SL. Undertakes short spawning migrations, sometimes starting as early as September, usually with a peak at temperatures above 9°C in spring. Spawns in April-May, when temperature rises above 12°C. Usually, a whole population spawns within a period of 5-10 days. Spawns in shoals. Eggs are sticky and hatch in about 12 days. Larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of littoral habitats. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, zooplankton, plant material and detritus. Populations predominantly feeding on detritus are often stunted (stunted populations may also be associated with strong year classes). May shift from littoral to pelagic habitats and between benthic food and zooplankton when abundance of a specific food item is high or in order to avoid predation and/or competition. The decision whether to stay in open water or among littoral vegetation is often described as a trade-off between food uptake and predator avoidance. When growing, there is an energetic need to switch from zooplankton to benthic food (chironomids, molluscs). Individuals able to feed on Dreissena mussels increase their growth rate but do not exploit this food source until they have reached about 120 mm SL (at which size they are able to crush the mussels). In some area (Volga reservoirs), pelagic and benthic roach can be distinguished by life-history traits (spawning time, spawning sites). Overwinters in backwaters or in deep parts of lakes. Frequently produces fertile hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em>.
19787		population	eng	Abundant.
19787		threats	eng	No major threats known.
19788		conservation	eng	No information.
19788		distribution	eng	Greece: Kifissos drainage, including Lakes Yliki and Paralimni (which is now dry).
19788		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in February-April.
19788		population	eng	No information.
19788		threats	eng	Lake Paralimni was drained. The water in lake Yliki is being extracted to supply Athens.
19790		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Rwenzori Mountains National Park, Uganda, and might be present in additional protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
19790		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift, occurring in the Ruwenzori Mountains (both in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo), additional parts of Uganda (Kasangaki <em>et al.</em>, 2003), eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi (J. Kerbis pers. comm.) and Rwanda. It has an elevational range of 800 to 2,350 m asl.
19790		habitat	eng	This species is associated with damp and dense mossy vegetation in motane primary tropical moist forest. It appear to be a specialised semi-aquatic species that has been captured from shallow streams.
19790		population	eng	Very few specimens of this species have ever been collected, and little is known about the species overall abundance.
19790		threats	eng	This species has a relatively restricted range, within which it is presumably threatened to some degree by habitat loss resulting from logging operations and the general conversion of land to agricultural use.
19794		conservation	eng	None.
19794		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Padua-Venetian region in northern Italy. The detailed distribution still unknown. Transplanted into Lake Trasimeno and the Tiber and Ombrone river basins.
19794		habitat	eng	Lives in standing and running waters in the lowland and hill zones with sand or mud substrates rich in vegetation. Also found in drainage channels.The breeding season occurs from May to July. Females are larger than males but sexual dimorphism in size is not so evident as in the Spined Loach, <em>Cobitis taenia</em> with which <em>S. larvata</em> often occurs sympatrically.
19794		population	eng	Reportedly decreasing but has probably been overlooked in surveys.
19794		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water pollution.
19796		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
19796		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic - streams and brooks.
19797		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
19797		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
19798		habitat	eng	A reef-associated species.
19799		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas throughout Australia. Further surveys of Papua New Guinea are needed to determine the species' full range. Further ecological research is needed to clarify migration patterns, roosting trees, etc. (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Also additional research into threats to this species throughout its range would be useful.
19799		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of Australia, and is known from two specimens collected in Central Province and the National Capital District in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998; Richards 2008). The records in the south-east Australian part of the range may be vagrants (Victoria, southern South Australia, southern New South Wales) (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
19799		habitat	eng	The Yellow-bellied Sheath-tailed bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, including eucalypt forests and open habitats. It roosts in tree hollows. The species is usually solitary but may be found in small colonies. It may make migratory movements in the south-eastern portion of its range, although this is based on reports of exhausted individuals that might in fact be suffering from disease (Richards 2008). There appear to be seasonal movements in the mid-coastal Western Australian range (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). In the arid and semi-arid parts of its range, it is most frequent in mangrove or riparian habitat (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
19799		population	eng	The species is common in the northern part of its Australian range, but in south-eastern Australia it is very rare.
19799		threats	eng	This species seems to have the highest prevalence of lyssavirus in Australian Microchiroptera and it is not known whether this is a problem (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Feral European honeybees in at least arid western Australia, but likely most of arid Australia, have taken over many tree hollows, displacing these bats (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). In the eastern part of its range, substantial land clearance is likely to be a threat (M. Pennay pers. comm.). In the arid zone, riparian zones are being stripped of their perennial species, so habitat quality is declining fast for this species in these areas (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
19800		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a couple of protected areas, including Jardine River National Park in Australia and Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea. Important roosting sites and foraging areas should be identified and protected. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
19800		distribution	eng	This species is present in Papua New Guinea and Australia. In Papua New Guinea it is found in National Capital District and Western Province on the island of New Guinea. In Australia this species is present on the Cape York Peninsula (Bonaccorso 1998; Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is shown from the Torres Strait Islands in Thomson <em>et al.</em> (2008), but the source of this information is unclear (L. Hall pers. comm.).
19800		habitat	eng	This species forages over open Eucalyptus or sclerophyll forest. It has been recorded roosting in limestone caves and may also roost in tree hollows (Bonaccorso 1998; Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2008).
19800		population	eng	It is rarely recorded. Few specimens are known from Australia (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2008).
19800		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by loss of roosting sites and suitable foraging habitat.
19801		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas. Research is needed to determine the effects of habitat fragmentation on the species.
19801		distribution	eng	Pel's pouched bat ranges widely through the equatorial forest belt of west and central Africa. In the Upper Guinea region it occurs in Liberia, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Its main range extends from southwestern Nigeria to  western Uganda, with isolated records from western Kenya and eastern Angola.
19801		habitat	eng	Pel's pouched bat lives in forest clearings in the rainforest zone but not in the forest interior. It flies very high, and is insectivorous, nocturnal and crepuscular. It roosts in hollow trees and cavities of large trees, either singly or in groups up to five animals (Happold, 1987). The species' response to habitat fragmentation is unknown.
19801		population	eng	Pel's pouched bat occurs in low densities across its wide range.
19801		threats	eng	Selective logging of large trees with cavities results in substantial roost destruction. Parts of Pel's pouched bat's range is fragmented by agricultural activities, but as it lives in clearings, it is not known whether or not this is having a significant negative impact on the species.
19802		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas, and over much of the species range no direct conservation actions are needed. In South Asia, the species has been recorded from protected areas such as Campbell Bay National Park (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) and Kanha National Park (Madhya Pradesh). With, further studies needed on distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. In South Asia, populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. There is also a need to identify populations that are being threatened by human induced habitat alterations in order to develop mitigation measures (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). It has been recorded from several protected areas in Australia (eg. Kakadu National Park), however, there is a need to identify and protect important roosting and foraging sites for the species. Further studies are needed in Australia into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. The eastern Australian form has been described as a subspecies, and there is a there is a need for additional taxonomic work (T. Reardon pers. comm.). There is also a need to resolve the taxonomic status of the Northern Territory population relative to that in northeastern Queensland, as well as a study to determine its habitat, distribution, population size, and status (Woinarski and  Milne 2005).
19802		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from South Asia, through parts of continental and insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) (Sarker and Sarker 2005; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (North Central, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from continental Southeast Asia, in Myanmar, southern Thailand, Cambodia (known only from a collection in Phnom Phen [G. Csorba pers. comm.]), southwestern Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore. Within insular Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from the islands of Sumatra and Java (Indonesia), Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia only), Sulawesi (Indonesia), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), Halmahera (Indonesia), the Talaud Islands (Indonesia) and Ternate Island (Indonesia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines it has been the species has been recorded from sea level to 800 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) from Catanduanes, Luzon and Mindoro (Corbet and Hill 1992) Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), and Negros (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) although it is likely to occur throughout the country except for the Batanes/Babuyan region (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on Yapen Island (Papua Province, Indonesia), on the Bismarck Archipelago and the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea), on Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea). It has also been recorded from the island of Guadacanal in the Solomon Islands and from coastal northern and northeastern Australia (Queensland and Northern Territory) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). In the Northern Territory of Australia, there have been relatively few records, with the only confirmed records from the Kakadu lowlands (Woinarski and Milne 2005). This is partly due to the lack of a diagnostic call that can be assigned to the species and can be used for its detection (Woinarkski and Milne 2005).
19802		habitat	eng	In the Nicobar Islands in India, it is found in dense forests near to the seashore. In Sri Lanka, the species has been recorded from dense forests, swampy areas and plantations. The diurnal roosts include hollows of old and decaying trees including Kitul Palm and Arecanut Palm, old buildings and rocky crevices. No sexual segregation is observed while roosting. It roosts in small colonies of five or six. This species is known to feed on termites, beetles and other insects and forages close to the ground. Its flight is very fast and high, initially flying 300 to 400 m from ground. It is recorded to emerge very early in the evening from its roost for its foraging bouts (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, the species is strongly associated with modified habitats, including agricultural areas. It is a canopy feeder which roosts in buildings and shallow caves sometimes occurring in large groups. In the Philippines, records have mainly been from hollow coconut trees (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Melanesia and Australia, this species has been recorded from wooded areas ranging from open dry sclerophyll woodland to dense tropical moist forest. It roosts in shallow caves, buildings and tree hollows. Roosts may range from a few individuals to several hundred animals. The female gives birth to a single young (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). In Australia, it has been found in open Pandanus woodland, as well as open eucalypt tall forests and coastal lowlands. It roosts in tree hollows, as well as caves (Woinarski and Milne 2005).
19802		population	eng	In general this is a common species. In South Asia, the population status is considered to be poorly known, but according to Bates and Harrison (1997) it is plentiful. In the Philippines, it is poorly known, but might be moderately common in agricultural areas (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and is probably common in populated areas, but this require confirmation as there has been little direct survey work undertaken in these modified habitats (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is locally common in other parts of its Southeast Asian range outside of the Philippines.
19802		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and from conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Australia, it is significantly threatened in coastal Queensland by clearance of coastal tropical woodland and changes to the fire regime at the northern and southern range limits (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Vegetation change due to saltwater intrusion and invasion by exotic species (such as <em>Mimosa pigra</em>) may affect habitat suitability (Woinarski and  Milne 2005).
19804		conservation	eng	This is a widely distributed and common species. Retention of primary forest. The species occurs in some protected areas. This occurs for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.
19804		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central and South America. This species ranges from Jalisco and Veracruz (Mexico) to Bolivia, Guianas, and eastern Brazil south to Rio de Janeiro; Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005). It is widely distributed at low elevations, generally below 500 m (Eisenberg 1989).
19804		habitat	eng	These bats usually forage near streams and in moist areas; they prefer multistratal evergreen forest and forage in clearings and forest edges and forest corridors (Eisenberg 1989). Clearings and corridors are both natural and man made. Roosting colonies average about 12 individuals. These bats may roost with other species in hollow trees or caves. Males defend harems; they have well-developed wing sacs in their ante-brachial membranes and emit scent while flapping their wings in ritualized combat (Bradbury and Emmons, 1974). This species is an aerial insectivore that forages in background cluttered space. In Mexico it has also been reported for secondary forests, crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.)
19804		population	eng	<em>S. bilineata</em> is common in lowland evergreen and semideciduous forest and forest edge; rare in dry deciduous forest (Reid 1997).
19804		threats	eng	This is a widely distributed and common species. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.
19805		conservation	eng	This is a widely distributed and common species. Retention of primary forest. The species occurs in some protected areas. This occurs for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.
19805		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from eastern Colombia across northern South America, including Venezuela and the Guianas, to northern Brazil and Peru (Eisenberg 1989; Koopman 1993). It typically occurs below 500 m in Venezuela (Handley 1976)
19805		habitat	eng	This small bat is poorly known. It frequents multistratal evergreen forests at low elevations (Eisenberg 1989). Often found near streams and moist areas and in clearings, it co-occurs over much of its range with <em>S. leptura</em>, but the exact way they partition resources is poorly understood. It is insectivorous; this bat forages in small openings in the forest, around camps (where they often fly through buildings), river edges, and pastures (Emmons and Feer 1997). It is regularly recorded in gaps. It is an aerial insectivore that forages in background cluttered space.
19805		population	eng	Sometimes common (Emmons and Feer 1997). Poorly known to any comments (Lim pers. comm.).
19805		threats	eng	This is a widely distributed and common species. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.
19806		conservation	eng	One of the sites in Guyana is Iwokrama Forest. There is a need for additional sampling effort using an appropriate methodology. Lack of basic knowledge of this species' biology impedes the evaluation of this species. This species is a candidate species for the Red List of the State of Para in Brazil (Bernard pers. comm.).
19806		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guyana (Lim and Engstrom 2001), Suriname (Lim unpublished data), French Guiana (Simmons and Voss 1998), and central and eastern Amazon region of Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al.</em> 1996).
19806		habitat	eng	It is an aerial insectivore. From its morphology, it is probably suited to semi-open forest or gaps within forest. It is rainforest generalist (Lim pers. comm.). There has been severe deforestation and fragmentation in the southern part of the range, but habitat in other regions where the species is found is  better conserved.
19806		population	eng	This bat is very rarely recorded.
19806		threats	eng	There has been severe deforestation and fragmentation in the southern part of the range, but habitat in other regions where the species is found is  better conserved.
19807		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat conversion. In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
19807		distribution	eng	This species extends from Chiapas and Tabasco (Mexico) to southeastern Brazil; Peru; northern Bolivia; Guianas; Margarita Island (Venezuela); Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005). Not known to occur in Nicaragua's highlands (Medina pers. comm.).
19807		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist habitats and is strongly associated with multistratal evergreen forests (Eisenberg 1989). Roosting groups range from one to nine bats (Eisenberg 1989). <em>S. leptura</em> feed on small to tiny insects, including moths; they come out to forage during the last daylight and fly in beats, repeating the same path again and again (Emmons and Feer 1997). The species forages throughout the night. There is some shifting in the composition of the social group, males tend to defend individual females during breeding, when they exist as monogamous pairs (Bradbury and Vehrencamp, 1977). This species is an aerial insectivore that forages in background cluttered space. It is not too abundant in Belize (Miller pers. comm.). It has been also reported in Mexico in secondary forests, crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.).
19807		population	eng	This bat is widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997) at elevations below 500 m. This species is relatively common.
19807		threats	eng	Forest loss through conversion to pasture. It probably is a rainforest generalist but the loss of forest is more specific to areas of northern Brazil.
19808		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
19808		distribution	eng	This widespread species occurs over most of southern Africa. This species ranges from southwestern Tanzania, through Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998), Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa. It occurs from 50 m up to around 2,000 m asl.
19808		habitat	eng	This species occurs in savanna woodland, as well as various other habitats, but it is a species complex that most likely has component species dependent on specific habitats. In Malawi it is a grassland woodland species, but in Namibia it occurs in western arid areas and enters the Namib desert along riverbeds. It is found in disturbed areas such as rural gardens.
19808		population	eng	It is a very common species.
19808		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
19809		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
19809		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern coastal Somalia through southern Ethiopia, eastern Uganda, Kenya, to northeastern Tanzania. It has been recorded from 100 m up to about 1,500 m asl.
19809		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry savanna woodland, grassland and from very arid areas in Somalia. This species is usually found in dry conditions which would explain its absence from the moist areas of Kenya. It is also found in crop land.
19809		population	eng	This can be a locally abundant species. Populations fluctuate seasonally.
19809		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19810		conservation	eng	This species is protected at the national level in both countries and listed by the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats and Species Directive (EUSHD).
19810		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Europe, where it is known from Hungary and Slovakia. It is recorded from three regions: the Bükk mountains (Hungary), Aggtelek Karst (Hungary) and in the Slovak Karst (Slovakia).
19810		habitat	eng	This species inhabits karstic springs and their outflows.
19810		population	eng	Most of the sub-populations seem stable during surveys conducted in the past few years (Feher pers. comm. 2009)
19810		threats	eng	Most of the known sites are not affected, but some of the subpopulations are threatened by water capturing (Szinva spring area in Bükk Mts.) or recreational activities (Szalajka valley in Bükk Mts.).
19811		distribution	eng	Has a highly scattered distribution across southern European countries.
19811		habitat	eng	This "Matriarchal katydid" is one of the largest insects in Europe (12 cm in length). It is a carnivore and parthenogenetic grasshopper.
19819		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix 1. Also on the US Endangered Species List.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus leucopus</em> occurs in one regional reserve (Cañon del Rio Alicante), which is poorly protected, and being exploited for people that live in the area (Morales-Jiménez 2006). It also occurs in the proposed park of the Sierra San Lucas. A campaign is underway for the creation of a protected area for the species, which will also benefit the Variegated Spider Monkey, <em>Ateles hybridus</em>, in the north-east of the department of Antioquia, Colombia, 07°01'N and 74°05'W, 100?200 m above the sea level, on the left margin of the Río Magdalena (Morales-Jiménez 2007b; Morales-Jiménez and Rivadeneira 2006).<br/><br/>A regional captive breeding programme supported by the European Callitrichid TAG (18 zoos) was begun in 2006 (Morales-Jiménez 2006, 2007a; Morales-Jiménez and Ruivo 2006). In Colombia, the species is maintained in at least seven zoos, but all of them have problems with reproduction and survival.<br/><br/>An action plan has been drawn up which includes the continuation and organization of <em>ex situ</em> breeding, and research on husbandry, nutrition, and management in captivity, environmental education and education programmes for zoos, and <em>in situ</em> field research, including population surveys and studies of habitat use (Morales-Jiménez 2007c).
19819		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus leucopus</em> occurs in northern Colombia, between the Ríos Magdalena and Cauca from their confluence in the Department of Bolivar (including the Isla de Mompos and the region south-east to the Department between the Ríos Cauca and Magdalena) south into the Department of Antiquoia along the west of Río Cauca basin as far west as the region of Caceres, Valdivia, the Río Nechi valley, and Porce. It probably extends southward along the tropical forested slopes of the Central Cordillera, west of the Río Magdalena, south into western Caldas and northern Tolima (at least as far south as the vicinity of Mariquita, ranging up to 1,500 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989; Defler 2004). Hernandez-Camacho and Defler (1989) indicated the possibility that the range of <em>S. leucopus</em> extends further south-west along the east bank of the Río Cauca in Antiquoia, and further south into the gallery forests of the llanos and the forested foothills of the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the Department of Tolima (see also Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 1986; Cuartas-Calle 2001; Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001).
19819		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forest, tropical humid forest, and very humid premontane forest (Defler 2004). Present in both primary and secondary forests, in gallery forest, and in some urban areas (Poveda <em>et al</em>. 2001; Poveda and Sanchez-Palomino 2004).  <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentitions of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) do not provide for gouging, and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Defler (2004) recorded group sizes from 3-9 (average 4.6, n=42), while Poveda (2000) recorded groups of 2-12 individuals (average group size 6.6, n=7). A home range of 17.7 ha was recorded by Poveda (2000) near Mariquita (six months of observations). <br/><br/>Infants reported in May-June and October-November by Vargas and Solano (1994; Vargas and Solano 1996a,b). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult weight male 494 g (n=2) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985)<br/>Adult weight female 490 g (n=2) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985)<br/>Adults H&B 23.0-25.0 cm, TL 38.0 cm (Defler 2004).
19819		population	eng	Calle (1992) recorded very high densities of <em>S. leucopus</em> in a small forest on the Río Miel, Antioquia: 82 individiduals/km², the result of forest destruction and displaced groups fro elsewhere (Defler 2004). Bernstein <em>et al.</em> (1976) reported 1-4 individuals/km² in a forest patch in northern Bolívar.
19819		threats	eng	This species occurs in an area of intensive colonization and forest loss. Cuartas-Calle (2001) concluded that the future of this species is worrying, with the forest in its range being degraded and fragmented at an accelerating rate. Natural habitats are being affected by logging, the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching, mining, and the construction of roads and a dam in the Río Miel (Calle 1992; Defler 2004). They have been recorded sold as pets in the markets of Medellín and Bogotá (Defler 2004).
19823		conservation	eng	Legally protected in Colombia since 1969. Major threat in the past was export for the pet trade, zoos and biomedical research, but export was banned in 1974. Listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>There are three protected areas where <em>Saguinus oedpipus </em>occurs: Paramillo National Natural Park (460,000 ha), decreed in 1977; Los Colorados Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (1,000 ha) decreed in 1977; and Reserva Forestal Cerro de Coraza-Monte de Marja (7,460 ha) decreed in 1983. They were also introduced to Tayrona National Natural Park in 1974 (Defler 1994).<br/><br/>Proyecto Tití, a conservation programme for the Cotton-top Tamarin in Colombia, was established in 1987 to begin the first long-term field study on this species in collaboration with Colombian biologists, educators, NGO?s and government authorities (INDERENA, Ministerio del Medio Ambiente) (Savage 1988, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997; Savage <em>et al.</em> 1996a,b, 1997, 2001a,b). Initial research focused on understanding the factors influencing reproductive strategies of Cotton-top Tamarins, but it quickly grew into a comprehensive conservation programme including educational efforts, capacity building, training Colombian students, development of economic alternatives, and the development of an agricultural training programme to decrease the pressure on the forest by local communities (Savage and Giraldo 1990; Savage <em>et al</em>. 1990, 1996, 1997).<www.csew.com proyectotit=""><br/><br/>In addition to the studies of Cotton-top Tamarins in the field, there has been a major and comprehensive assessment of the remaining habitat within the historic distribution of the Cotton-top Tamarin in Colombia, along with surveys to assess population numbers remaining. This information has provided important insights into the long-term viability of this population given the current rate of habitat destruction.</www.csew.com>
19823		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus oedipus</em> occurs in north-western Colombia between the Río Atrato and the lower Río Cauca (west of the Río Cauca and the Isla de Mompos) and Magdalena, in the Departments of Atlantico, Sucre, Cordoba, and western Bolivar, north-western Antiquoia (from the Uraba region, west of the Río Cauca) and north-eastern Choco, east of the Río Atrato, from sea level up to 1,500 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989; Mast <em>et al</em>. 1993 ).<br/><br/>The south-western boundary of the cotton-top?s range has not been clearly identified. Mast <em>et al.</em> (1983) suggested that it may extend to Villa Arteaga on the Río Sucio (Hershkovitz 1977), which included reports of Cotton-top Tamarins in Los Katios National Park. However, Barbosa <em>et al.</em> (1988) were unable to find any evidence of Cotton-top Tamarins in this area nor in Los Katios, where they observed only <em>Saguinus geoffroyi</em>.<br/><br/>Groups have been seen in the Islas del Rosario and Tayrona National Park in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Mast <em>et al.</em> 1993; A. Savage and L. H. Giraldo, pers. obs.). However, these populations were founded by captive animals that were released into the area (Mast <em>et al</em>. 1993) and these remnant populations are here considered as outside of the historic range of the species.
19823		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid forest in the south to dry deciduous forest in the north; recorded from primary and secondary forests. Known at altitudes up to 400 m, but could occur in higher elevations in the upper valley of the Río Sinu (Defler 2004).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. <em>Saguinus oedipus</em> lives in groups of 2-9. Savage <em>et al.</em> (1996a,b) observed reproductively active groups that ranged in size from 3-6. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Lives in groups of 2-9 individuals.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adults H&B 20.8-25.9 cm, TL 33.0-41.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977)<br/>Weight 416.5 g (n = 10) (Savage 1990).
19823		population	eng	In the late 1960s and early 1970s, 20,000-30,000 individuals were exported to the United States for biomedical research (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). Current population estimates for the species are 6,000 individuals (approximately 2,000 mature individuals).
19823		threats	eng	<em>Saguinus oedipus</em> occurs in an area of intensive colonization and forest loss. Neyman (1978) estimated that 75% of the original distribution of <em>S. oedipus</em> had been cleared for agriculture and pasture, and that the remainder of its range was represented by small isolated forest patches along with its main stronghold, the Paramillo National Natural Park of 460,000 ha. Cerquera (1985) reported on the threats regarding the construction of two hydroelectric dams, Urra I and Urra II, on the Ríos Sinu and San Jorge, in the south of its range. Urra II is sited within the Paramillo National Natural Park and is expected to flood more than 54,000 ha of primary and secondary forest, within what is considered to be the last major stronghold for the species.<br/><br/>The three protected areas where they occur have lost a significant portion of their forests (Barbosa <em>et al.</em> 1988). Paramillo has lost approximately 42% of its original forested habitat and Montes de Maria and Los Colorados lost 70 and 71%, respectively. To date, almost 200,000 ha of the original forested areas within protected boundaries of the parks and reserves dedicated to Cotton-top Tamarin conservation efforts have been lost. This suggests, therefore, that there is less than 2,600 km² that will be protected in perpetuity for Cotton-top Tamarins by the Colombian Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Although these areas are protected, they continue to suffer from the pressure of the growing local populations to extract resources or clear areas for agricultural activities.<br/><br/>Defler (1994, 2004; pp.196-201) discusses the conservation status and threats to this species (see also Defler and Rodríguez-Mahecha 2003; Defler <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19824		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) in Ecuador (Albuja 1994; Kostrub 1997; Tirira 2007). It is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19824		distribution	eng	A species of the upper Amazon, found between the Rios Curaray and Napo in Peru, and the right bank of the Napo in Ecuador (Heymann 2000; Heymann <em>et al</em>. 2002). The western limits to the distribution of this species in Ecuador are not clearly defined, but Albúja (1994) extended it as far as the middle reaches of the Ríos Tiputini and Curaray (<em>S. f. lagonotus</em> occurs at the headwaters of the Río Curaray), the upper Río Cononaco, and the entire basins of the Ríos Yasuní and Nashiño. S. de la Torre (in litt., 1996) has observed Golden-mantle Saddleback Tamarins between the Ríos Yasuní and Indillama. Tirira (2007) stated that it occurs up to 400 m above sea level in Ecuador in the western limits of its range.
19824		habitat	eng	The Golden-mantle Saddleback Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, <em>terra firma</em> and seasonally flooded forest, riparian forest, remnant forests or fringe patches, and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Aquino <em>et al</em>. (2005) recorded an average group size of 5.3 individuals (n=14, range 4-8). Kostrub (1997, 2002) observed groups of 4-7 individuals (n=10) in the Yasuní National Park. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.
19824		population	eng	Soini <em>et al. </em>(1989) reported that this species is common in Peru, and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated that it is relatively abundant. Aquino <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded a population density, based on 17 groups, of 13.5 individuals/km² in the Río Aushiri basin, Peru.
19824		threats	eng	The forests where <em>S. tripartitus</em> occurs along the Río Yasuní in Ecuador are remote and have to date suffered little impact from human activities, other than small localized encampments for petroleum prospecting (Albúja 1994).  However, the occurrence of petroleum in the region, resulting in the current construction of the Pompeya-Iro highway, is reason for some concern for the future of these forests and their wildlife.
19827		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus imperator imperator</em> Bolivia, Brazil, Peru<br/>Southwestern Amazon, east of the upper Rio Purus, between the Purus and the Rio Acre (Hershkovitz, 1979). Izawa and Bejarano (1981) did not record <em>S. i. imperator</em> for Bolivia, but reported an isolated population on the left bank of the Rio Acre, in the basin of the Rio São Pedro in Brazil, in an area otherwise occupied by <em>S. l. labiatus</em>. Encarnación and Castro (1990) found populations of <em>S. i. imperator</em> (but not <em>S. l. labiatus</em>) on the right and left banks of the Rio Acre near the Quebrada Río Branco, approximately 20 km west of Inapari, close to the region indicated by Izawa and Bejarano (1981).  The population on the south bank of the Río Acre is evidently highly restricted, the subspecies not having been found anywhere else further south in Peru despite a number of surveys (Castro <em>et al.</em>, 1990).  It is not known how far it extends into Peru along the Rio Acre, nor whether it occurs between the Rio Purus and Pauiní and the Rios Purus and Ituxí (Hershkovitz, 1979).
19832		conservation	eng	Legislation protecting saiga exists at national level but increased enforcement, and especially external funding for anti-poaching measures and linked rural development are urgently needed. Some protected areas exist within saiga range but distance between summer/winter ranges of the various populations hinders full protected area coverage. Extension of already existing and new protected areas is under discussion by the Russian Federation government. Some research is being carried out on numbers, range and behaviour. Total prohibition of saiga meat and horn trade as well as temporary removal of saiga from the hunting animals list have been proposed as key conservation measures.
19832		conservation	eng	Legislation protecting Saiga exists at national level, but increased enforcement, and especially external funding for anti-poaching measures and linked rural development are urgently needed. Some protected areas exist within Saiga range but distance between summer/winter ranges of the various populations hinders full protected area coverage. Extension of already existing and new protected areas is under discussion by the Russian Federation government. Some research is being carried out on numbers, range and behaviour. Total prohibition of saiga meat and horn trade as well as temporary removal of saiga from the hunting animals list have been proposed as key conservation measures.<br/><br/>The Mongolian Saiga has been legally protected since 1930. Two protected areas, Sharga NR (286,900 ha) and Mankhan NR (30,000 ha), were designated in 1993 to protect most of the remaining areas of occurrence.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.
19832		distribution	eng	<em>Saiga tatarica</em> inhabited the steppes and semi-desert regions of south-eastern Europe and Central Asia from the Precaspian steppes to Mongolia and western China. Currently, there is one population in Russia (Kalmykia) and three in Kazakhstan, although in winter some animals reach Uzbekistan and even northern Turkmenistan. A distinctive subspecies occurs in western Mongolia (the nominate subspecies formerly occurred in the Dzungarian Gobi of south-western Mongolia, but has not been seen in 40 years). Saiga became extinct in China by the 1960s, and in Ukraine in the 18th century.
19832		distribution	eng	<em>Saiga tatarica</em> inhabits the steppes and semi-desert regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia. Currently found at one location in Russia and three areas in Kazakhstan. A distinctive subspecies occurs in Mongolia.
19832		habitat	eng	Inhabits arid steppes and semi-deserts. Prefers clay soil open spaces covered with grass and avoids rugged terrain as well as sandy areas. A migratory species with widely separated summer (northern) and winter (southern) ranges. Lives in large herds, usually up to thousand individuals. Heat is at the beginning of winter when males defend harems of females. Gives birth in April-May to two, more seldom to one calf.
19832		habitat	eng	The Saiga is a nomadic herding species that generally inhabits the open dry steppe grasslands and semi-arid deserts of Central Asia. Bekenov <em>et al.</em> (1998) described the typical habitat as flat open areas covered with low-growing vegetation, allowing animals to run quickly; areas of broken terrain or dense cover are generally avoided, but animals may stray into these out of necessity.<br/><br/>The Saiga is a migratory species with widely separated summer (northern) and winter (southern) ranges. The species lives in large herds, usually up to thousand individuals. It has a high rate of reproduction and recruitment. In years with a favourable climate the population can increase by up to 60% in a single year (Chan <em>et al.</em> 1995). Very few animals in a population are more than 3.5 years old, indicating that the population is almost completely renewed after four years (Bekenov <em>et al.</em> 1998).
19832		population	eng	Historically, it was a common species in Eurasian steppes and semideserts. From information provided in recent references it appears that between 1991 and 1994, the global population of <em>S. tatarica</em> was relatively stable at just under one million animals, the majority of which were in Kazakhstan (approximately 810,00-825,000) (Bekenov <em>et al.</em> 1998, Lushchekina <em>et al.</em> 1999, Sokolov and Zhirnov 1998). Recent information from A.B. Bekenov and Iu. A. Grachev (in litt. to IUCN Species Survival Commission 1999) suggests that the population in Kazakhstan had fallen by spring 1998 to around 570,000 animals (a decline of ~30%). The global population is now c.50,000, down from 1,250,000 in the mid-1970s. Most are found in Kazakhstan.<br/><br/>In European Russia (Kalmykia), the saiga population steeply declined after land reclamation of the Volga basin started, but the species remained numerous within the distribution area. In the 1970s the population recovered to c.700-800,000 as a result of hunting regulation. However, since then the population has drastically declined. In 1980 there were an estimated 380,000 individuals, in 1996 196,000, and by 2000 just 26,000 (see Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2001 for annual survey results for 1980-2000).  At present there are no more than 18,000 animals. Sex ratio is severely skewed; the proportion of males varies from 1 to 10 % in different years.
19832		population	eng	Historically, this was a common species in Eurasian steppes and semi-deserts. From information provided in recent references it appears that between 1991 and 1994, the global population of <em>S. tatarica</em> was relatively stable at just under one million animals, the majority of which were in Kazakhstan (approximately 810,00–825,000) (Bekenov <em>et al.</em> 1998, Lushchekina <em>et al.</em> 1999, Sokolov and Zhirnov 1998). However, the population in Kazakhstan had fallen to around 570,000 animals by 1998 (A.B. Bekenov and Iu. A. Grachev, in litt. to ASG).<br/><br/>In European Russia (Kalmykia), the Saiga population steeply declined after land reclamation of the Volga basin started, but the species remained numerous within the distribution area. In the 1970s the population recovered to <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>.700,000–800,000 as a result of hunting regulation. However, since then the population has drastically declined. In 1980 there were an estimated 380,000 individuals, in 1996 there were 196,000, and by 2000 just 26,000 (see Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2001 for annual survey results for 1980–2000). At present there are no more than 18,000 animals in Kalmykia. Sex ratio is severely skewed; the proportion of males varies from 1 to 10% in different years. <br/><br/>The population of Mongolian Saiga increased from <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 3,000 in 1998, to 5,200 in 2000 helped by favourable climatic conditions and active conservation measures by WWF–Mongolia. Numbers fell between 2000 and 2002 as a result of severe winters and summer drought. They continued to decline in 2002–2003, mainly because of poaching. Numbers were <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 1,020 in 2003, and 750 in January 2004 (J. Chimeg, in litt.).<br/><br/>In total, the global population of Saiga is now estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>.50,000, down from 1,250,000 in the mid-1970s, with most animals found in Kazakhstan.
19832		threats	eng	Uncontrolled illegal hunting for horns (male horns are exported for the traditional Chinese medicine trade) and meat since the break-up of the former USSR has led to the catastrophic fall in numbers. Selective hunting of young males and subsequent distortion of the sex ratio has affected reproduction: recent research shows that heavily skewed sex ratios are resulting in reproductive collapse (Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2003). A second significant threat is the destruction of key habitats and traditional migration routes. Agricultural abandonment is a problem in some areas; cattle grazing formerly maintained the grassy species but land abandonment allows another species (<em>Stippa</em> sp.) to encroach, which the saiga cannot eat. The recent increase in steppe fires is a further cause for concern. Severe winters can cause mass mortality.
19832		threats	eng	Uncontrolled illegal hunting for horns (male horns are exported for the traditional Chinese medicine trade) and meat since the break-up of the former USSR has led to the catastrophic fall in numbers. Selective hunting of young males and subsequent distortion of the sex ratio has affected reproduction: recent research shows that heavily skewed sex ratios are resulting in reproductive collapse (Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2003). A second significant threat is the destruction of key habitats and traditional migration routes. Agricultural abandonment is a problem in some areas; cattle grazing formerly maintained the grassy species but land abandonment allows another species (<em>Stippa</em> sp.) to encroach, which the Saiga cannot eat. The recent increase in steppe fires is a further cause for concern. Severe winters can cause mass mortality.
19833		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Saiga borealis</span>).
19836		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It occurs, or may occur, in numerous protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri oerstedii oerstedii</em> Costa Rica, Panama<br/><br/>Costa Rica <br/>Corcovado National Park (41,789 ha) (Boinski and Sirot 1997; Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Golfito National Park of (2,830 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha) (within range)<br/>Portalón National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Preciosa Platanares National Wildlife Refuge (within range)<br/>Punta Río Claro National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Pancho La Merced National Wildlife Refuge (within range) )<br/>RHR Bancas National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Transilvania National Wildlife Refuge (within range)<br/>Donald Peter Hayes National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Finca Barú del Pacífico National Wildlife Refuge<br/>Forestal Golfito SA National Wildlife Refuge<br/>Hacienda Copano National Wildlife Refuge<br/>Lacustrino Pejepperrito Protection Zone (0.7 ha) (within range)<br/>Pejeperro Protection Zone (500 ha) (within range) (within range)<br/>Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve (70,000 ha) (Boinski and Sirot 1997)<br/>Sierpe Térraba Forest Reserve (32,960 ha) (within range)<br/>Los Santos Forest Reserve (62,000 ha) (within range)<br/>Osa Anthropological Reserve (1,700 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Térraba Anthropological Reserve (9,350 ha) (within range)<br/>Conte Burica Anthropological Reserve (11,910 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/>Panama<br/>El Chorogo - Palo Blanco Wildife Refuge (proposed, within range).<br/>Cerre Cerrezuela – Rio Grande (within range)<br/>Playa de la Barqueta Agricola (possible occurrence: Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Estero Golfo de Montijo Recreation Area (89,452 ha) (within range) <br/>Golfo de Chiriquí National Park (14,740 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Manuel Antonio National Park (683 ha) (Boinski and Sirot 1996; Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Carara Biological Reserve (4,700 ha) (Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996a,b; just to north of known range, not confirmed) - this subspecies has not been seen in this protected area <br/>Cerro de Turrubares Protection Zone (2,340 ha) (Rodrigues-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996; within historic range, not confirmed).
19836		distribution	eng	<em>Saimiri oerstedii</em> occurs along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama inland to altitudes of up to 500 m asl. The north-eastern limit is marked by the Río Tulín in the north Herradura Mountains (9°40’N, 84°35’W) and Dota Mountains (9°37’N, 84°35’W). Along the coast of the Golfo Dulce and the Burica Peninsula to the western part of the Chiriquí Province, mouth of the Río Fonseca, including the Archipelago of the Golfo de Chiriquí, in Panama (Hershkovitz 1984; Boinski <em>et al</em>. 1998; Reid 1997).<br/><br/>There are two subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri oerstedii oerstedii</em> occurs along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, from the left bank of the Río Grande de Térraba to the Osa Pensinsula, along the coast of the Golfo Dulce and the Burica Peninsula to the western part of the Chiriquí Province, mouth of the Río Fonseca, including the Archipelago of the Golfo de Chiriquí, in Panama (Hershkovitz 1984; Boinski <em>et al</em>. 1998; Reid 1997). Surveys by Baldwin and Baldwin (1972, 1976) recorded its presence on the Burica Peninsula, but indicated that it is now restricted to a narrow strip of scattered lowland coastal forest fragments, not extending to the type locality David, although it possibly occurred as far east as Remedios (well to the east of David) prior to the 1950s. Altitudinal range is 0 to 500 m asl (Hershkovitz 1984). Rodríguez-Vargas (2003) mapped the remaining populations in Panama. <br/><br/>The historic range of <em>Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus</em> is along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, to altitudes of up to 500 m asl. The north-eastern limit is marked by the Río Tulín in the north Herradura Mountains (9°40’N, 84°35’W) and Dota Mountains (9°37’N, 84°35’W), and the southern limit is the north bank of the Río Grande de Térraba (8°25´N, 84°25´W) (Arauz 1993; Sierra <em>et al</em>. 2003). Its occurrence is sporadic, and the surviving populations are entirely fragmented (Alfaro 1987; Wong 1990; Sierra <em>et al.</em> 2003).
19836		habitat	eng	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests (see Boinski 1987c). They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running <br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b) allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000).<br/><br/>In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, females do not form dominance hierarchies, and there is no evidence of coalition formation in social interactions. Females transfer between groups before first mating season, and males are philopatric. There is little competition or agonistic interactions between groups, and males show high levels of vigilance for predators.  Reproductively mature males collaborate in mobbing females during the mating season. Their fruits they typically exploit occur in small and very scarce patches, and feeding competition is very low. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration (see Boinski 1987a,b). Single offspring, qwith interbirth intervals of about 12 months (Boinski 1999b). Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only one or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/>Size: <br/>Weight: Adult male 750-950 g (mean 829 g), adult female more than 600-800 g (mean 695 g) (Jack 2007).
19836		population	eng	Mitchell <em>et al.</em> (1991) recorded a population density of 36 individuals/km² in Costa Rica; Baldwin and Baldwin (1981) recorded 130 individuals/km² n Panama.<br/><br/>There is some dispute by different teams as to total numbers of <em>S. o. citrinellus</em>. The larger estimate is 1300-1800 individuals (Wong 1990; Sierra <em>et al</em>. 2003; but see Boinski <em>et al</em>. 1998).
19836		threats	eng	The major threat to this species across its range is habitat loss, primarily due to agriculture and logging.
19839		conservation	eng	As noted, the species occurs entirely in the Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha) (Ayres 1984; Queiroz 1995). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19839		distribution	eng	This species has a very small range circumscribed by the Rios Solimões and Japurá and the Auatí-Paraná (Ayres 1985).
19839		habitat	eng	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000). However, there have been no studies of this species to date, and its ecology is inferred from those of other species. It is probable that its social orgnaization will be similar to that of <em>S. boliviensis</em>.<br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/>Amazonian <em>Saimiri</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance casued by the capuchin monkeys above them which flushes out insects. <br/><br/>Size: Adult male 950 g; adult female 650 g (Jack 2007).
19839		population	eng	Common in a large part of its range. It has been recorded at a population density of 2.8 groups/km² (Ayres 1986).
19839		threats	eng	The entire range of <em>S. vanzolinii</em> is within the Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha) (Rylands 1994). People are living within the reserve, but are permitted to use natural resources sustainably. The species is not known to be hunted. This species was formerly thought to be declining due to hybridization with <em>S. s. cassiquiarensis</em>, but this is uncertain.
19843		conservation	eng	<em>Salamandra atra</em> is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and <em>Salamandra atra aurorae</em> is listed on Annex II* of the EU Habitats Directive under the name '<em>Salamandra salamandra aurorae</em>'; both <em>Salamandra atra</em> and '<em>Salamandra aurorae</em>'[sic] are also listed on Annex IV of the Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in most range countries (e.g.. Switzerland, Slovenia) and it is present in a number of protected areas. Kalezic and Dzukic (2001) suggest the establishment of a protected area on Prokletije Mount would significantly aid the conservation of <em>S. atra</em> in the Dinaric Alps. The subspecies <em>S. a. aurorae</em> is present in the Natura 2000 sites of Cima Dodici (10,450 ha) and Pasubo e Piccole Dolomiti: Monte Pasubo (1,920 ha).
19843		distribution	eng	This species is present in the European Alps (including a recently discovered population close to the village of Samoëns in the Département de la Haute-Savoie, France), with isolated populations in the Balkan Dinaric Alps in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro and northern Albania. It occurs at elevations between 400 and 2800m asl (more frequent between 800-2,000m asl). The subspecies Salamandra atra aurorae is largely restricted to the Bosco del Dosso and Val Rensola in north-east Italy (between 1,300 and 1,800m asl); new localities extending to the east were discovered in the early 1990s (with a distance between furthermost sites of 15km2), and it is possible that this subspecies might occur in the entire forested high plateau of the area. Further field surveys are needed to verify the full distribution of Salamandra atra aurorae.
19843		habitat	eng	It is found in cool, damp alpine meadows, stony pastures, dwarf heath and mixed, broadleaf and coniferous woodland. Animals are usually hidden below stones and logs, but can be encountered in shady places, or after rain, during the day. The species is unusual in that it has a ovi-viviparous method of reproduction by which it gives birth on land to an average of two fully metamorphosed offspring; the gestation period is between two and four years. It may be found in pastureland and other slightly modified habitats. It is not associated with water.
19843		population	eng	It is still be abundant in Switzerland (although now considered to be extinct in some southern parts of the country), Germany, Austria and parts of Italy. It appears to be more rare and threatened in the Dinaric Alps in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro and northern Albania (e.g., Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). Gasc <em>et al.</em> (1997) considered <em>Salamandra atra aurorae</em> to be highly endangered.
19843		threats	eng	There are generally no threats to the Italian populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. a. atra</span>. Some local populations in Switzerland are threatened by road mortality and populations of the Dinaric Alps are threatened by localized habitat destruction through intensification of farming methods, tourism (skiing) and infrastructure development. The subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. a. aurorae</span> is threatened by collection for scientific purposes and the pet trade and general habitat alteration through excessive water abstraction from streams, and the removal of ground cover during forestry practices. Populations in Serbia and Montenegro are small, fragmented and threatened by over-collecting for the pet trade and possibly climatic changes.
19845		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention under <em>Salamandra atra</em>. There is a need to maintain traditional forest and alpine management within the species' range. It is found in protected areas in both Italy and France.
19845		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in a very small area of the western Alps on the border of Italy and France. It is distributed in the valleys of Po, Pellice, and Germanasca in Italy, and in the Guil Valley in France. An isolated population was recently discovered in Chisone valley, Italy. It has also been reported to be (or have been) present on the Maritime Alps, in Cuneo Province. This finding is based upon a single specimen housed in Florence Museum, and with a label indicating its provenance as "Antracque", which is a mistake for Entracque, Valdieri (Cuneo), Italy. The species has not been found again at Entracque or nearby sites. Ribéron (2003) concluded that the species' distribution is decreasing, but this assertion is based solely on the Entracque specimen. The altitudinal range is from 1,200m (perhaps less) to around 2,600m asl; the altitude record of 2,800m asl and corresponding locality (Lago delle Forciolline), is most likely erroneous (Andreone and Sindaco 1999; Vences <em>et al.</em> 2003b; Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004).
19845		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky alpine meadows and scree slopes, often close to small streams, usually above the tree line. The known sites of this species at lower elevations may have mixed or coniferous forest. It gives birth to one to six fully metamorphosed young on land (Noellert and Noellert 1992), and is not associated with water. This species hides beneath rocks and stones when inactive and may be found in pastureland and other slightly modified habitats.
19845		population	eng	The small known populations of this species are considered to be stable. The Germanasca Valley (Torino Province) population was reduced during 2000 because of habitat changes caused by unusually high levels of precipitation.
19845		threats	eng	While there are no major threats to this species, some localized development for tourism might be disturbing the habitat, and many individuals are killed by cars.
19852		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Masoala National Park, Zahamena National Park, and Betampona Strict Nature Reserve. Additional work is needed to determine the current status of the populations of this species across its range, as well as basic information on its ecology and natural history.
19852		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to northeastern Madagascar. The species has been recorded in the Masoala Peninsula, Zahamena National Park, and Betampona Strict Nature Reserve. There are only four confirmed recent localities, including two individuals with aberrant coloration in reed beds of Lac Alaotra at around 800 m (J. Durbin pers. comm.). There were also historical records from the area surrounding Lac Alaotra. The known records in rainforest range in elevation from 200 to 650 m. The type locality is unknown. There are historical records from Mananara MAB Reserve (Albignac 1973). Despite substantial trapping efforts in eastern rainforest over the last 15 years above 600 m, the species has not been recorded in any new sites (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
19852		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that has been recorded from lowland tropical humid forest, and possibly from the reedbeds surrounding Lac Alaotra (J. Durbin pers. comm.). The animals rest in burrows or hollow trees during the night. Usually found singly or in pairs.The gestation period is about three months and there is a single young (Albignac 1973). This species is shy and sensitive to human disturbance.
19852		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this secretive species. The only locations where there have been recent multiple observations are Betampona Strict Nature Reserve (Britt and Virkaitis 2003) and Masoala National Park (F. Hawkins pers. comm.).
19852		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land, selective logging and charcoal production. The lowland forest below 500 m is one of the most threatened habitats in Madagascar. There is no knowledge of hunting, persecution, or the effects of non-native carnivores, although it is certain that these occur within the species’ range.
19854		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
19854		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to tributaries (Sogoksu and Karagöz, near the town Pinarbasi) of River Zamanti, and a tributary of the River Seyhan in south-eastern Turkey.
19854		habitat	eng	Lives in mountain streams. Not a migratory species.
19854		population	eng	The population is large, but restricted.
19854		threats	eng	Illegal fishing using nets and the introduction of other trout species (Rainbow trout, <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>, which is a predatory threat to larvae and a direct competitor) are the main threats. Pollution is not a threat in this case (mountainous area).
19855		habitat	eng	An anadramous species.
19856		conservation	eng	None.
19856		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Garda lake in northern Italy. It has been introduced into numerous lakes in Italy and other countries.
19856		habitat	eng	It is a lacustrine species. It has two spawning seasons: one in winter and one in summer.
19856		population	eng	Decreasing.
19856		threats	eng	Overfishing, destruction of habitat and water pollution (past threats). Introduced species (<em>Coregonus</em> spp).
19857		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed for this species, in particular on its threats, and it is in need of taxonomic clarification.
19857		distribution	eng	This fish is known from the Adriatic basin, from Krka to Aoos drainages (Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia); possibly present in Alfios (Peloponnese, Greece).
19857		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong><br/>The species occurs in lakes and large rivers. It spawns on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>A resident in lacustrine ecotypes, in the Lake Skadar basin the species overwinters in deep parts of lake, moving to main tributaries in summer.
19857		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
19857		threats	eng	Hybridisation with introduced trouts and illegal fishing are potential threats.
19858		conservation	eng	None
19858		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
19858		habitat	eng	It lives at depths of 60–80 m within the lake. Spawning season is in January-February. This trout makes up the bulk of catches of salmonid in the Albanian waters of Ohrid lake.
19858		population	eng	No data.
19858		threats	eng	Water pollution, hybridization.
19859		conservation	eng	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.
19859		distribution	eng	It is restricted to southern Switzerland, northern Italy and Adriatic basin of Slovenia. It has been introduced in several countries in Europe. There are seven pure subpopulations in Slovenia and three known pure subpopulations in Italy (more research needed as there may be more).
19859		habitat	eng	The remaining population of Marble trout are found in headwaters of mountainous streams.
19859		population	eng	Rare. The population declined in the early 1900s.
19859		threats	eng	Hybridization with foreign trout stocked for angling. Water extraction and pollution.
19861		conservation	eng	No information available.
19861		distribution	eng	Atlantic, North, White and Baltic Sea basins, from Spain to Chosha Bay (Russia). Present in Iceland and in northernmost rivers of Great Britain and Scandinavia. In Rhône drainage, native only to Lake Geneva basin, which it entered after last glaciation. Native to upper Danube and Volga drainages. Introduced throughout Europe, North and South America, southern and montane eastern Africa, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Japan, New Zealand and Australia.
19861		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold streams, rivers and lakes. Spawns in rivers and streams with swift water. Lacustrine populations migrate to tributaries and lake outlets, rarely spawning on stone, wave-washed lake shores. Spawning sites usually characterised by downward movement of water into gravel. Sea and lake trouts forage in pelagic and littoral habitats, sea trouts mostly close to coast, not very far from estuary of natal river. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, lacustrine and resident ecotypes. Spawns in couples between late October and March, usually in November-December. Females select spawning sites and deposit the redd. Males guard and defend females against other males. Eggs are covered with gravel by female. Both sexes usually survive spawning and anadromous trout migrate back to sea or lake in autumn or overwinter in rivers and migrate in spring (5-70 % repetitive spawners in Norway). Sea trouts generally feed in freshwater. Eggs are covered with 3-30 cm of gravel. Redd depth is positively related to female's size. Eggs in deep redds are less vulnerable to spates and wash-outs and more vulnerable to low oxygen concentrations and pollution. Fry usually emerge from gravel between March (Spain) and July (Finland). Parrs and resident trouts are territorial, feeding on drifting and benthic invertebrates. Success in finding and defending a feeding territory is positively correlated to size of fry and to mother's size. Being large is clearly advantageous at this stage of life cycle. Resident trouts usually spawn for the first time at 2-3 years and spawn 2-3 seasons. Smoltification usually complete at 2-3 years and 120-220 mm SL, but up to seven year old smolts are reported. Mean smolt age increases with latitude. All juveniles seem to have the genetic ability to smoltify and migrate; in some small, summer-dry streams all migrate. In other streams, almost none seem to migrate. Factors triggering the 'decision' of an individual to smoltify or not are not well understood. If migration is impossible, smolts may interrupt migration and become resident again. In most rivers, a greater proportion of females than males seems to migrate, apparently a response to a greater need for reproductive energy. Therefore, sex ratio is usually skewed towards females in smolts. Large anadromous females may spawn with small resident males (the reverse is not reported but is expected to be possible, too). Smolts start to migrate downstream in April-May when temperature increases from low winter level, reaching beyond 5-11°C; migration peaks at rising water levels with increased turbidity.<br/><br/>There is a great variability in life history details of lacustrine populations. In some lakes, fry may migrate to the lake and at least males may spawn for the first time at two years. In other lakes, parrs smoltify after spending 1-3 years in spawning streams and males feed 4-6, females 5-8 years before first reproduction. At sea and in lakes, trouts feed on small fish and large crustaceans. In lakes, aquatic and terrestrial insects may form an important part of the diet. After at least 18 month at sea, sea trouts start to return to rivers to spawn. The pattern and timing of upstream migrations depends on particular river, sex and age. Homing accuracy is not as high as in <em>S. salar</em>. After spending one summer at sea, whitling start to migrate in July-September to lower reaches of rivers to overwinter or mature and migrate to spawning sites. Anadromous adults migrate in May and enter rivers until late October. Most maturing whitlings are males and the proportion of whitlings might be up to 30 % among spawners. Whitlings usually sneak in to spawn in redds of large couples, as resident males do, too. Large males attack, injure and often kill sneakers. After one spawning season as whitling or resident male, individual trouts may spawn again as large sea trout. The factors triggering the 'choice' to reproduce as whitling or as large male seems to be related to body size of young parrs since larger parrs more frequently develop the whitling tactic and smaller parrs the large male tactic. During upriver migrations, the silvery colour evolves into a dark breeding colour, the skull of males enlarges and the lower jaw develops a kype. Sometimes hybridises with <em>S. salar</em>.
19861		population	eng	Abundant.
19861		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water pollution and impacts from salmon farming (sea lice etc.)
19862		conservation	eng	None.
19862		distribution	eng	It is restricted to a few Adriatic rivers in Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro: Krka (very rare), Jadro, Neretva, and Zeta river basins. It is introduced into the Zrnovnica.
19862		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers of the karstic region.
19862		population	eng	Decreasing.
19862		threats	eng	The main threats are overfishing (sportfishing, food, including poaching) and hybridizitation with foreign trout. Habitat destruction (dams), water pollution.
19863		conservation	eng	Listed as Rare in the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). <br/>In Red List of Kazakhstan (1996) listed under category III (rare, small in number and limited range species). <br/>Occurs in protected areas along whole range (approximately 19% of the species’ range in Mongolia).
19863		distribution	eng	Distributed in Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia. In Kazakhstan from northern Aral sea basin to Balkhash Lake and Zaysan basin. In Mongolia found in Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans-Altai Govi Desert, Alashani Govi Desert, Northern Govi, and Eastern Govi Sokolov <em>et al.</em> (1996). In the northern part the major factor that limits dispersal is deep freezing of soil during winter.
19863		habitat	eng	Inhabits desert and steppe habitats, preferentially in sand dunes overgrown with tamarisk, saxaul, and saltwort vegetation. Solitary, nocturnal, sometimes also active in dusk. When chased try to bury in the sand. Has simple temporary and complex permanent burrows. Permanent burrows can be up to 3 m long with several passages, part of which do not reach surface. Exits sealed with sand plugs. Feed on insects (mainly acridoids), arachnids and plant parts (mainly seeds). Spring reproduction starts in April - May, summer reproduction starts in May-June. Litter size is 2-5 young.
19863		population	eng	Spatial distribution is very erratic, and number significantly fluctuates. In different subpopulations number can differ 1,7 - 14,5 times. According to some authors up to 13 individuals per 10 km tracking is considered high density (Scherbakov and Kochenev, 1982). However, Gromov and Erbaeva (1995) wrote that in summer in Zaysan basin population density can be up to 60 individuals per 10 km of tracking.
19863		threats	eng	Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. Preyed upon by owls, red foxes, alpine weasels and marbled polecats. In Kazakhstan major threats include overgrazing. Also, burrow destruction and roadkills are significant.
19864		conservation	eng	No conservation measures applied due to poor knowledge.
19864		distribution	eng	<em>Salpingotus heptneri</em> is recorded from Uzbekistan and southern parts of Kazakhstan, in the Kyzylkum desert.
19864		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species occupies desert areas. It remains within burrows throughout the day and emerges at night to forage on vegetation, insects and spiders.
19864		population	eng	Rare poorly studied species, known only from single findings and some remains found in pellets.
19864		threats	eng	Unknown.
19865		conservation	eng	This species may be present in protected areas in China. Approximately 37% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004), and in Mongolia, it was listed as Rare in the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987; MNE 1997).  It has most recently been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
19865		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mongolia and China (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it occurs in the southern portion of the country including the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, Alashani Gobi Desert and Eastern Gobi (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996).
19865		habitat	eng	This species inhabits desert and steppe habitats associated with pea shrubs, tamarisk and saxaul vegetation. In Mongolia, its range overlaps with Gobi gerbils, midday gerbils, hairy-footed jerboas and Gobi hamsters. <br/><br/>This nocturnal, and sometimes crepuscular species feeds on vegetation, seeds, insects (Smith and Xie 2008) and spiders. Parturition occurs in April-May and litters of three to five young are produced (Smith and Xie 2008).
19865		population	eng	There are few data regarding the population status of this species. In Mongolia, three were caught in 200 traps in Bayanburd and Zuunmod over 24 hours. A spot-light survey found five along a 46 km transect in the Khatan Suudal, and six were found in a 50 km transect in the Zam Bilgekhiin Gobi. It was also reported in 16 localities in the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, Alashani Gobi Desert and Eastern Gobi (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996). There are no current data regarding the population status in China.
19865		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19866		conservation	eng	The species is not protected under any legislation in South Asia.  Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended for the species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19866		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded from Pakistan at altitudes between 1,000-1,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is presumed to occur in Afghanistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005), however, it is not as yet been reported from this country by Habibi (2003) or Hassinger (1973).
19866		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, loosely colonial, gregarious, herbivorous species occuring in rolling sand dunes or barren flat gravel and sandy plains in hot deserts (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
19866		population	eng	Population numbers and trends are not known.
19866		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
19867		conservation	eng	Listed in Red List of Kazakhstan as category III (rare, small in number and limited range species).
19867		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northern Aral Sea area, Kara Kum desert and valleys of the Lake Balkhash area.
19867		habitat	eng	In Aral region inhabit fixed sands with shrubs and cereals and sands with cereal and wormwood veretation. In Balkhash area inhabit fine-grained sands and clay-sandy deserts. Solitary, nocturnal. Reproduction starts after hibernation in April. Females usually give two litters per season. Feed mainly on seeds, ephemers, and small invertebrates.
19867		population	eng	Population size is small and fluctuates annualy. In Aral area from 0 to 9 individuals per 10 km of tracking. In Southern Balkhash region 0,3 to 1 per 10 km of tracking.
19867		threats	eng	Unknown.
19876		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Totsukawa River.
19877		conservation	eng	No information.
19877		distribution	eng	Iceland, Scandinavia, northern Russia [absent in rivers draining to Baltic and White Seas] present in rivers of Barents Sea basin from Volonga to Kara, Jan Mayen, Spitzberg, Kolguev, Bear and New Zemblia islands, northern Siberia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland; 'real' <em>S. alpinus</em> might be restricted to Europe and Greenland. Despite its scientific name, does not occur in the Alps.
19877		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly lacustrine. Estuaries, rivers and lakes with cold, clear water. At sea, along coasts. Usually spawns on pebble to stone bottom in lakes. Riverine stocks spawn in rivers with slow current (0.2-0.8 m/s). Some riverine anadromous stocks in Norway spawn every year in fast-flowing waters of riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In large lakes, sympatric with <em>S. lepechini</em>. Most stocks differ in details of mode of life, migration, growth, reproduction, food. The following information apply to the species as a whole but do not apply exactly to a particular stock, which normally would have much less variable characteristics. Stocks north of about 65°N are anadromous. Juveniles spend their first 1-9 years in freshwater then move to the sea where they spend the short Arctic summer, returning to overwinter in frozen lakes. Some authors report that there is apparently no strict homing and that marine-feeding individuals become more opportunistic with age as to the choice of the river and lake they return to; in other areas, they consider that there is a strict homing. At sea, they remain in coastal areas; the longest documented marine migration is 940 km. Landlocked populations migrate within river drainage or are sedentary, lacustrine. Dwarf stocks are known in some Finnish lakes and upper stretches of rivers, characterised by a very slow growth rate; mature adults reach only 300-350 mm SL and 250-300 g (2000-5000 g in partly sympatric 'normal' lacustrine stocks). Lives up to a maximum of 32 years (usually up to 15). Anadromous stocks spawn for the first time at 4-10 years, lacustrine ones at 2-5; all individuals spawn every 3-4 years. Anadromous stocks grow much faster than lacustrine and riverine ones. Usually spawns in October-December; some populations spawn in spring, summer or winter. Prefers pebbles where males build nests 2-3 m in diameter. Usually, males are territorial and may spawn with several females. After spawning, some stocks return to sea, others remain 1-3 years in lake before returning to sea. In freshwater, feeds on benthos, plankton and small fish. At sea, feeds mainly on fish; anadromous individuals feed little in freshwater and not at all during migrations.
19877		population	eng	Abundant.
19877		threats	eng	No major threats known.
19878		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake El'gygytgyn in the central region of the Chukchee Peninsula.
19878		habitat	eng	Occurs in deep waters close to the bottom.
19879		distribution	eng	This species occurs in American Samoa; Tutuila: Alava/Maugaloa ridge, Faiga ridge and along the Vatia powerline trail, the Toa ridge. In addition, empty shells have been found on Pagatatua ridge, Levaga ridge and Polauta ridge.
19880		distribution	eng	Previously believed endemic to Moorea but now possibly extant on Tahiti at high altitude (>1,000 m) on Mt Aorai.
19880		habitat	eng	High altitude montane forest.
19880		population	eng	No details.
19880		threats	eng	The principal threat is <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>which can be found in the location where the putative <span style="font-style: italic;">S. diaphana </span>survives.
19883		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.
19883		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
19883		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is probably the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
19884		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">In-situ </span>management. Does not appear to survive in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding colonies.
19884		distribution	eng	Extant on Tahiti, Moorea and Raiatea, Society Islands. Extinct on Bora Bora.
19884		habitat	eng	The snail has a preference for higher branches in trees and often drier ridges. However, it is also found in at least one wet valley of Tahiti.
19884		population	eng	This species is notoriously elusive but certainly very rare in lowland Tahiti and slopes of Moorea. One individual recently was discovered on the highest point of Raiatea.
19884		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>remains the principal threat. The intrinsic problems of small population size are also a danger but it is likely that this species has always existed in low densities.
19889		conservation	eng	Educational resources have been developed and distributed. A barrier is needed to bass movement in Yellowwoods river. A captive breeding programme is also needed and possibly benign introductions if viable habitats are identified within the original catchments.
19889		distribution	eng	Nahoon, Buffalo, Igoda, Gulu,Keiskamma, Great Fish, Kowie Rivers all in the Eastern Cape South Africa.
19889		habitat	eng	Occurs in  rocky streams, favouring marginal habitats where the current is slow (Skelton 2001). A predator on insects, crabs and small fish, it holes up in crevices and waits for prey to pass by. Breeds in summer, males make a nest and after spawning guard the developing eggs and young fish.
19889		population	eng	Not known but decreasing and almost extirpated in the Kowie and Nahoon Rivers. Estimated numbers in the Gulu and Igoda Rivers less than 100 mature fish.
19889		threats	eng	Introduced fish such as largemouth and smallmouth bass and the sharptooth catfish (<em>Clarias gariepinus</em>). Water abstraction, interbasin transfers and siltation and water pollution.
19890		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are planned for this species, but several river rehabilitation programs are planned that will benefit some populations.
19890		distribution	eng	Widespread across the Cape Floristic Region, but several lineages exists that has to be investigated taxonomically (Roos 2005).
19890		habitat	eng	Occurs in mountain and lowland streams of the Cape Floristic Region.
19890		population	eng	Several large and secure populations exist across its range.
19890		threats	eng	Alien invasive fish species is the major threat. Habitat destruction also plays a major role.
19896		habitat	eng	Associated with reefs.
19899		habitat	eng	Associated with reefs.
19900		conservation	eng	<p>This species is on Appendix I of CITES and all international trade in live animals, or body parts, is prohibited. Due to its wide distribution, this species occurs in many protected areas in Madagascar. The taxonomic status of <em>S. m. volontany</em> needs to be clarified, as this may represent a full species, and it may be necessary to identify whether this snake is subject to any presently unknown threats.<br/></p>
19900		distribution	eng	This Madagascar Tree Boa is endemic to this island, where it is widespread. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sanzinia m. madagascariensis</span> is widely distributed in the east where it occurs in a variety of different habitats (Glaw and Vences 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Sanzinia m. volontany </span>is distributed in the west of Madagascar where it has been recorded from the extreme southeast to the extreme north. Both subspecies are therefore very widely distributed in Madagascar, and their combined extent of occurrence is estimated to be 286,664 km²<sup></sup>. The snake has been recorded from sea level to 1,300 m in elevation.
19900		habitat	eng	The Madagascar tree boa occurs in intact and degraded humid forest as well as plantations and near human settlements (Glaw and Vences 2007). Adults are mostly arboreal in the day and terrestrial at night. The natural diet consist of mammals but it may also feed on frogs and birds. This live-bearing snake gives birth to clutches of 1-19 neonates.
19900		population	eng	This species is frequently encountered (Glaw and Vences 2007).
19900		threats	eng	This is a widespread species that can survive in non-forested habitats and no major threats have been identified.
19908		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19908		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
19908		habitat	eng	The young of <em>Sarotherodon caroli</em> are more carnivorous than the adults; the latter feed predominantly on phytoplankton (Trewavas 1983). This species is demersal.
19908		population	eng	No information available.
19908		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19909		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19909		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
19909		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon linnellii</em> occasionally forms schools; is mainly diurnal. Juveniles feed on mayfly larvae and various terrestrial insects among a diet in which animal items formed a high proportion. Adults feed predominantly on phytoplankton (Trewavas 1983). It is a demersal species.
19909		population	eng	No information available.
19909		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19910		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19910		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon. Two juveniles have been found in a tributary of the Kake River, an affluent of Lake Barombi-Mbo.
19910		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon lohbergeri</em> usually forms schools at the surface. It feeds mainly on epiphytic and epilithic filamentous algae, and the diatoms, rhizopods, rotifers and organic debris found among them. The adults feed by opening their mouths very wide and applying them to the surface of the rock as though sucking the material in (Trewavas 1983). <em>Sarotherodon lohbergeri</em> is a demersal species.
19910		population	eng	No information available.
19910		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19911		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19911		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
19911		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon steinbachi</em> occurs in schools at the surface. The stomach of the specimens which were examined contained organic debris. Benthic and epilithic diatoms, and sponge spicules were nearly always present and many had inorganic particles in the stomach. Individuals were seen shovelling sand into the mouth, moving it about in the buccopharynx, then spitting out the sand and making swallowing movements (Trewavas 1983). This species is demersal.
19911		population	eng	No information available.
19911		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
19912		distribution	eng	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.
19917		habitat	eng	A subterranean species.
19926		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
19940		conservation	eng	The pallid sturgeon was listed as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 1990. At that time, very few details were available on the life history and behavior of this species. However, limited information was available on abundance, distribution and existing status of the population. Since that time, considerable work has been accomplished to identify occupied habitats, to determine the existing status of this species and to gain a better understanding of the habitat needs and behavior. The Pallid Sturgeon Recovery Plan (1993) outlines identified recovery actions to improve conditions for this species and promote recovery of the existing populations.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19940		distribution	eng	The total length of the species’ range is approximately 5,656 km (3,515 miles) of river. Current trends of pallid sturgeon populations are variable from decreasing in the upper part of the range to stable in the lower part of their range. In the large middle portion of their range, population status is unknown. <br/> <br/>For more information see <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.
19940		habitat	eng	Restricted to freshwater.
19940		population	eng	Estimates of mature individuals in the population have been calculated for segments of the range. Pallid sturgeon populations in the Missouri River are limited to isolated free flowing reaches. In Montana above Fort Peck Dam, tag recapture data have allowed researchers to estimate that 50 to 100 mature pallid sturgeon remain. In the Missouri River between Fort Peck Dam and Lake Sakakawea and lower Yellowstone River, estimates of the current population ranges from 200 to 300 adult fish. Based on tag returns and telemetry studies, perhaps as many as 2,750 to 4,100 pallid sturgeon remain in the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana. However, for the greatest part of the contiguous range, the lower Missouri River below Gavins Point Dam, downstream to the Mississippi River and downstream to the Gulf of Mexico, no estimates are available. The best estimate, at present, of the total population of pallid sturgeon is that as few as 6,000 to as many as 21,000 may still exist throughout the entire range of this species (Duffy <em>et al</em>. 1996).
19940		threats	eng	Habitat modification, including the construction of six main stem dams on the Missouri River and extensive channelisation in the lower Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, is the primary factor affecting the continued existence of this species.  This species is known to hybridize with the closely related and more abundant shovelnose sturgeon (<em>S. platorynchus</em>) where their ranges overlap.  Continued application of existing U. S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, Endangered Species Act, etc.) should result in improved sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats.
19942		conservation	eng	The Alabama sturgeon was listed as endangered in 2000 under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The decision was based on the species apparent inability to sustain a viable population. <br/> <br/>State and federal agencies and the private sector formalized a Conservation Agreement and Strategy for Alabama Sturgeon (2000) that originated as a informal voluntary plan for the conservation and enhancement of the Alabama sturgeon and its habitat. The goals of the conservation effort are to increase the numbers of Alabama sturgeon through a captive breeding program and release of propagated fish, genetic conservation, protect existing habitat quantity and quality, develop information on life history and habitat needs, and use this information to develop and implement conservation and adaptive management strategies for the species and its habitat.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19942		distribution	eng	The Alabama sturgeon’s historic range once included 1,600 km of the Mobile River system in Alabama and Mississippi, however, it is believed that Alabama sturgeon currently occupy only about 216 km of the lower Alabama River below Robert F. Henry, Millers Ferry and Claiborne Locks and Dams, and the lower Cahaba River, Alabama.  <br/> <br/>For a more detailed description of this species’ range see the <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe Explorer database</a>.
19942		habitat	eng	Freshwater.
19942		population	eng	There are no population estimates for the Alabama sturgeon however, intensive collection efforts by state and federal fishery biologists beginning in the spring of 1997 through the spring of 2001 resulted in the capture of only four Alabama sturgeon which further substantiates the rarity of the species. Efforts to induce spawning of the captive Alabama sturgeon held at the Marion State Hatchery, Alabama have so far been unsuccessful. Status of the population appears to be declining.
19942		threats	eng	The decline of the Alabama sturgeon is believed due to over-fishing, the loss and fragmentation of habitat as a result of navigation-related development, and degradation of water quality.
19943		conservation	eng	Arkansas closed shovelnose sturgeon to commercial fishing on its state waters of the Mississippi River in 2000, as a measure to reduce the by-catch of endangered pallid sturgeon. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
19943		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and portions of their largest tributaries (Lee 1978), including the lower Ohio River (Smith 1979). The species once occurred as far upstream in the Ohio River as Pennsylvania (Trautman 1981). Shovelnose sturgeon are rare above Newburg, Indiana (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1990), but relatively abundant below Smithland Locks and Dam at Ohio River kilometer 1,479 (Greg Conover, USFWs, pers. comm.). The <em>Scaphirhynchus</em> species, previously reported as shovelnose sturgeon in the drainages of Mobile Bay in Alabama by Smith-Vaniz (1968), were reclassified by Williams and Clemmer (1991) as the Alabama sturgeon (<em>Scaphirhynchus suttkusi</em>). The only known subpopulation of shovelnose sturgeon in the Alabama portion of the Tennessee River is apparently extinct. Shovelnose sturgeon may still occur sporadically in the lower Tennessee or Cumberland Rivers (Etnier and Starnes 1993). A disjunct subpopulation once occurred in the Rio Grande of Northern New Mexico  (Tomelleri and Eberle 1990), but only one specimen is known to exist from that subpopulation (Blair <em>et al</em>. 1968). Eddy and Underhill (1974) report shovelnose sturgeon occurring in the Hudson Bay drainage of the Canadian Plains. This may be an error, however, since Scott and Crossmen (1973) in Freshwater Fishes of Canada make no reference to the species in that country.
19943		habitat	eng	Smallest of the sturgeon species in North America, shovelnose sturgeon can tolerate high turbidities and are usually found in the strong currents of main river channels. They are often found over sand and gravel substrates feeding on aquatic insects, mussels, worms and crustaceans. Spawning normally occurs from April through early July with mature shovelnose migrating upriver to spawn over rocky substrates in flowing water between 19–21ºC. Individuals mature after 5–7 years of age, at total lengths of approximately 500 mm and 630 mm for males and females, respectively. Their weight at this age ranges from 0.9–1.3 kg (National Paddlefish and Sturgeon Steering Committee 1992). <br/> <br/>River sturgeon are uniquely adapted to mainstem river systems which are characterized by their large scale, diverse habitats, and a dynamic nature (Beamesderfer and Farr 1997). Adaptations include mobility, opportunistic feeding habits, delayed maturation, longevity, and high individual fecundity. Unfortunately, in recent decades these same life history characteristics have become a handicap to the species and led to population declines because of man-induced habitat fragmentation and destruction (Beamesderfer and Farr 1997).
19943		population	eng	In 2001, all of the states within the current and historic range of the shovelnose sturgeon were surveyed by the Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Association (MICRA) to determine the shovelnose sturgeon status. Ten of the range states responded with sufficient information to allow the author to place the individual states into one of four classifications: (1) extirpated, (2) rare/vulnerable/imperiled, (3) stable and (4) undetermined. The remaining range states were assigned these classifications based on information provided by the Nature Conservancy at their website: <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer">http://www.natureserve.org/explore</a>. The species has been extirpated from five states, is rare to imperiled in four states, stable in 10 states and has undetermined status in five states. <br/> <br/>Historically, shovelnose were apparently common in the Tennessee River system, all the way to the French Broad River on the Tennessee-North Carolina border before the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) reservoir system was constructed (Etnier and Starnes 1993). These authors note that, while the species may still occur there sporadically, no recent records exist for either the Tennessee or Cumberland rivers. Sprague (1960) documented the decline in catch and condition of the shovelnose over a five-year period in the Missouri River after impoundment of Lewis and Clark Lake. However, since then these subpopulations have apparently recovered and stabilized (Hesse and Carreiro 1997). Trautman (1981) stated that the shovelnose was considered abundant in the Ohio River until 1911 when the river began "ponding" as a result of construction of the slackwater navigation project, thereby partially stopping the spawning run. After that, Trautman (1981) said fishermen reported a drastic decrease in shovelnose sturgeon abundance.  Mettee, <em>et al</em>. (1996) considered the shovelnose extirpated in Alabama. <br/> <br/>Today, the shovelnose sturgeon still occurs in most of the large tributaries of the Upper Mississippi River from Wisconsin to Illinois. Hesse and Carreiro (1997) listed 59 rivers, creeks, oxbows and bayous in the Mississippi River Basin where shovelnose sturgeon occurred historically, but only 44 of these were listed as supporting the species today. In Illinois, the species is most abundant in the Wabash River, a tributary to the Ohio River (Smith 1979). According to Smith (1979) the Wabash is less impacted by flood-control dams and other modifications than are the remainder of Illinois’ large rivers. <br/> <br/>In the mainstem Mississippi River, numbers of shovelnose sturgeon have decreased sharply since 1900 (Becker 1983), although the species is still commonly taken by commercial fishermen (UMRCC Annual Reports; Etnier and Starnes 1993. Several authors have noted a lack of natural reproduction in areas of the Missouri and have attributed it to man-made alterations to shovelnose sturgeon habitat (Bailey and Cross 1954, June 1977, Moos 1978).   Meanwhile, upstream from the Missouri River mainstem impoundments shovelnose sturgeon remain abundant in the river below Great Falls, Montana and in the major tributaries (Montana DNRC 1977). Robison and Buchanan (1988) describe the shovelnose as especially abundant in the unimpounded portions of the Arkansas, lower White and Red rivers in Arkansas. According to Hesse and Carreiro (1997) state biologists attribute the success of White River sturgeon to a somewhat natural hydrograph with seasonal floods, good gravel bars, and backwater complexes. <br/> <br/>Hesse and Carreiro (1997) concluded that while shovelnose sturgeon have probably been considered less at risk than other sturgeon species, evidence suggests that deterioration of the shovelnose’s overall range is keeping pace with that of the other sturgeon species. <br/> <br/>Obrecht (1996) noted that shovelnose have been reintroduced into the Bighorn River Basin in Wyoming, where they had been extirpated by dams which blocked spawning migrations from downstream in Montana. West Virginia and New Mexico have also developed reintroduction plans for rivers where the shovelnose has been extirpated (Keenlyne 1997). The Ohio Division of Wildlife reports a plan to reintroduce the shovelnose sturgeon in the Ohio River above Meldahl Lock and Dam at Ohio River kilometer 702 (Scott Schell, pers. comm.). The species has not been recorded from the middle Rio Grande in New Mexico since 1875 (NMDGF 1991).
19943		threats	eng	Alteration of large rivers and construction of locks and dams for navigation purposes has contributed significantly to the decline of shovelnose sturgeon by blocking access to ancestral spawning grounds and by eliminating its requisite lotic habitat. In addition to impacts related to navigation, much of the habitat available to the shovelnose sturgeon within its historic range, has also been altered by water resource development projects designed to provide for irrigation, public water supply, public recreation, and the production of electricity. Dams have blocked spawning migrations, isolated populations, destroyed rearing and spawning habitats, and altered food supply as well as changed flow, turbidity and temperature regimes (Dryer and Sandvol 1993). <br/> <br/>While shovelnose sturgeon roe is used as an acceptable caviar, overharvest has not yet been a major detriment to the species. This may be due to its relatively small size in comparison to lake sturgeon (<em>Acipenser fulvescens</em>) and the pallid sturgeon (<em>Scaphirhynchus albus</em>), the other two sturgeon species found historically throughout its range. Shovelnose are locally abundant in some areas where large river habitat is still fairly intact and modest commercial fisheries occur in a few states where some acceptable riverine habitat still exists (National Paddlefish and Sturgeon Steering Committee 1992). <br/> <br/>Hesse and Carreiro (1997) recorded causes for shovelnose sturgeon decline (as reported to them by state biologists) as habitat degradation, loss of natural hydrograph, sedimentation, channelization, loss of spawning habitat, flood control and navigation dams, artificial water management, water temperature alteration, and past over-harvest. Boreman (1997) noted that sturgeon life history and habitat use attributes make the species highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. Specifically, he attributed this vulnerability to their older age (than most fishes) at full maturity, lower fecundity values, and older age at which 50% of the lifetime egg production is realized with no fishing mortality. <br/> <br/>Shovelnose sturgeon continue to be commercially harvested in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Arkansas closed shovelnose sturgeon to commercial fishing on its state waters of the Mississippi River in 2000, as a measure to reduce the by-catch of endangered pallid sturgeon. Keenlyne (1997) reported the commercial harvest of shovelnose meat and roe in 1992 as follows: <br/> <br/>Arkansas: 14,500 kg meat; 88–110 kg caviar <br/>Illinois: 22,335 kg meat; 77 kg caviar <br/>Indiana: no data on meat harvest; 55 kg caviar <br/>Iowa: 34,603 kg meat; 55 kg caviar <br/>Kentucky: no data on meat harvest; 88 kg caviar <br/>Missouri: 26,460 kg meat; 66–88 kg caviar <br/>Wisconsin: 11,025 kg meat; 33 kg caviar
19945		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in Brazil.
19945		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southernmost Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul and Curitiba states), Uruguay, and north Argentina (Buenos Aires province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005; Queirolo and Christoff pers. comm.).
19945		habitat	eng	The species is semiaquatic occurring in low flooded grass areas and salt marshes; it seems to be active throughout the day and night. There is no indication that the species burrows and the average four young produced inhabit shallow depressions beneath matted grass (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Also it occurs in pampas and open grasslands (Queirolo pers. comm.).
19945		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (Queirolo and Christoff pers. comm.).
19945		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
19946		conservation	eng	No information.
19946		distribution	eng	Most European rivers north of Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Eya drainages, Aral and White Sea basins; Black Sea basin in Europe and northern Asia Minor. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Greece south of Pinios drainage, Great Britain north of 54°N, Ireland and Scandinavia north of 62°N. Introduced to Spain and Corsica.
19946		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly nutrient-rich, well vegetated lowland rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. Spawns on roots or submerged plants. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Fractional spawner. Spawns in April-July, when temperature rises above 15°C. Males assemble at spawning grounds and drive ripe females, often with much splashing, into dense vegetation to spawn. Eggs are very sticky. Feeds predominantly on plankton, terrestrial insects and plant material. Able to adapt to unfavourable environmental conditions by slow growth and small size at maturity (stunted populations).
19946		population	eng	Abundant.
19946		threats	eng	No major threats known.
19947		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.
19947		distribution	eng	Restricted to lake Yliki in Beotia, Greece.
19947		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species with a lake-wide distribution although it requires shoreline habitat (vegetation) for reproduction.
19947		population	eng	Possibly decreasing as the lake is subject to large fluctuations in water level.
19947		threats	eng	Water extraction and drought, which are resulting in lake level fluctuations and overall lake level decline.
19948		conservation	eng	No information.
19948		distribution	eng	Western Romania: hot spring Petzea (or Baile Epiropesti) close to Oradea, about 10,000 m².
19948		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Densely vegetated, shallow hot spring with mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
19948		population	eng	In 1998, it was observed that the fish was common and the habitat was in good conditon. However in 2000, the site was heavily polluted with litter.
19948		threats	eng	In 2000 it was observed that the spring was heavily polluted with litter. The spring water is also used to feed a public bath which was being rebuilt with plans to channel more water than previously from the spring (M. Glaubrecht, pers comm. to J. Freyhof).
19950		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected areas within its range. It is protected in Bonaire, Los Roques, Bermuda where no fishing is permitted for this species. Marine parks in Florida still have viable populations of this species.
19950		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic, from Bermuda, South Florida, the Bahamas, and the Caribbean to Venezuela. <br/><br/>There are dubious records recorded from Brazil (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2005) which are based on few specimens from museums and literature records. Although Ferreira <em>et al. </em>(2005) suggested this as an extinct species, this fish is probably a vagrant along the Brazilian coast. Historical data needs to be investigated in order to build a better scenario of its status in Brazil.
19950		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs, mangroves and sea grasses at depths from 1 to 25 m. It feeds mainly on benthic algae and detritus. Juveniles may be associated with mangrove areas (P. Mumby <em>et al.</em> 2004, Dorenbosch <em>et al.</em> 2005) and other habitats (Gonzales-Salas <em>et al.</em> 2008). This is the largest parrotfish in the Atlantic. Adults tend to be found inshore often in murky water (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
19950		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is relatively rare, except in Bermuda where it is more abundant. Large numbers of this species were observed in Florida, Florida Keys, Bonaire and Los Roques, Venezuela (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
19950		threats	eng	This species forages in shallow inshore waters which makes them very vulnerable to overfishing particularly from spearfishing. It has experienced significant historical declines. In most of its range, this species is still fished, but given its current rarity it is not often caught. For example, in 1993, transect surveys falied to observe this species in Curacao, while in the same habitat several individuals were observed in Bonaire where there is no fishing of this species as all Scarids are protected. However, there is no information available on harvest levels or the impact of fishing on the current population.<br/><br/>This species is also threatened by habitat loss throughout its range from the continued loss of coral reef and mangrove habitat from coastal development and extraction. Based on anecdotal information from Glovers Reef in the Caribbean (D. Wesby pers comm 2009), <em>S. guacamaia</em> has undergone local extinction in the past 30 years. Schools of this parrotfish were commonly observed in the 1960s when several of the islands had well-developed mangrove habitats (Mumby <em>et al.</em> 2004).
19951		distribution	eng	Endemic to a single complex of springs associated with the Great Artesian Basin, located on Edgbaston Station, a sheep and cattle property located 35 km north-east of Aramac in central-western Queensland. Edgbaston Springs occur in the upper reaches of Pelican Creek, a tributary at the head of the inland Lake Eyre catchment.
19951		habitat	eng	Found in small shallow freshwater springs. Most of the springs are very small, shallow, and marshy. <br/> <br/>Most desert fishes are very effective at migration and during times of flood, most springs become connected. It is likely that this species relies on flooding to increase its distribution.
19951		population	eng	Although population numbers of <em>Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis</em> in individual springs have varied since their discovery, specific population trends are not well known and they have disappeared completely from a number of springs. It is estimated that their numbers may range from a few hundred to a few thousand individuals.
19951		threats	eng	The species is being threatened by the introduced mosquito fish <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> and habitat destruction caused by harvesting water from the Great Artesian Basin, trampling and grazing by stock and feral animals, and modification of springs to provide for stock watering.
19975		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Thai law. Research into the species current distribution and population trends is required.
19975		distribution	eng	This species was described from specimens collected from an underground stream in the Mae Nam Kwae Yai basin: Lam Klong Ngu cave, Amphoe Sri Sawat, Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand.
19975		habitat	eng	This is a troglobitic fish, found in subterranean streams in the deeper zones of the cave. As with  most other loaches it prefers well-oxygenated water.
19975		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends for this species.
19975		threats	eng	The cave habitat is potentially threatened by tourism developments within the cave and nearby, as well as by sedimentation and agricultural pollution from agriculture and clearance within the surrounding catchment. Harvest for the aquarium trade may threaten its population if trade expands.
19976		conservation	eng	Protected by Thai law. Research into population trends and threats is required.
19976		distribution	eng	The species is known only from subterranean streams in caves of Pang Mapha karst formation in Mae Hongson Province, Thailand.  It was described from specimens collected from the Tham Nam Lang cave. Its extent of occurrence is uncertain, but is likely to be much less than 2,000 km².
19976		habitat	eng	The species is strictly specific to torrent subterranean streams. It is dependent on cave micro-organism and organic matter, and is very sensitive to disturbance, water quality and hydrographic change.
19976		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends for this species.
19976		threats	eng	Human disturbance from tourism activities may threaten species' habitat. Agriculture and deforestation within the watershed are future major threats.
19977		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. This cave should be designated as a protected area.<br/></p>
19977		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura sijuensis</span> is only recorded from Siju cave in the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India. Occurrence in adjacent habitat in Nagaland needs confirmation.
19977		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura sijuensis </span>is a cave-dwelling species.
19977		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
19977		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are quarrying and mining for limestone. Deforestation is also reducing habitat quality as it produces siltation and habitat disturbance.
19993		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Fuxian, Yunan Province, at 1,750 m asl.
19997		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
19997		distribution	eng	This species is found in four major disjunct populations in Peru and Colombi, central northern Brazil, and north eastern Brazil, into French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana.
19997		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
19997		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
19997		threats	eng	The major threat to this species if the destruction of its forest habitat.
19998		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following nature reserves; Tiantangzhai, Songshan, Leigongshan, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Maolan, Dongzhai niaolei, Jiyuanmihou, Jigongshan (Xinyang), Neixiangbaotianman, Shennongjia, Houhe, Qishan, Liupanshan, Pangquangou, Taibaishan, Foping, Wolong, Jinyunshan, Jinfoshan, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and it may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
19998		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread endemic of China, occurring throughout central China (Smith and Xie 2008).
19998		habitat	eng	It occupies rocky habitats. It will construct dens within the crevices of these habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Its diet consists of seeds (Smith and Xie 2008). This species does not hibernate (Smith and Xie 2008).
19998		population	eng	This species has been characterized as reaching high densities in places (Smith and Xie 2008).
19998		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
19999		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Daweishan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), and Tongbiguan (CSIS 2008) protected areas, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and natural history of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
19999		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations of approximately 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
19999		habitat	eng	This species occupies cliffs covered in scrub (Smith and Xie 2008). It is inferred that the biology is akin to its sister taxa, <em>Sciurotamias davidianus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).
19999		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
19999		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20000		conservation	eng	Included in the EU Habitats Directive (92/43) IV 21/05/92; and the Bern Convention II 01/03/02, in parts of its range where these apply. Occurs in protected areas. Population monitoring is recommended, particularly in parts of the range where declines have been noted.
20000		distribution	eng	In Europe it is restricted to the area around Istanbul (where it was introduced in 1964), and to the islands of Lesbos (Greece) and Gökçeada (Turkey) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Also occurs in "Turkey, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), N and W Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.
20000		distribution	eng	occurs in extreme southeastern Europe and southwest Asia. In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Turkey (introduced to the area around Istanbul in 1964), the islands of Lesbos (Greece) and Gökçeada (Turkey) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999), Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Also occurs in Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), northern and western Iran, and Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). A significant part of its range is within the Asiatic part of Turkey. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2000 m.
20000		habitat	eng	The species predominantly lives in mixed and deciduous forest, although it also occurs in coniferous forests (e.g., on the southern coast of Turkey) as well as rocky outcrops (Amr 2000, Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006).
20000		population	eng	The species remains abundant in some parts of its range (e.g. Anatolian Turkey: N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007), although declines have been reported in other parts of its distribution. Anecdotal information suggests 'dangerous declines' in populations in Lebanon and Syria over the last few decades. A decline in Jordan has been noted leading the subspecies <em>S. a. syriacus</em> to be considered endangered there by Amr (2000). During a five month study during 1993 in suitable habitat in Israel only eight squirrels were encountered at two different sites. This number was considered low. Guides in the area thought numbers to be historically the lowest encountered and the authors considered the species to be 'nearly extinct' (Gavish 1993).<br/><br/>The species was considered abundant in Syria in the woods south of mount Hermon in 1866 (Harrison and Bates 1991). In Iraq in 1959, Hatt found the species near Sarsank, where up to twelve individuals occupied a single hollow tree (Harrison and Bates 1991). <br/><br/>Population density has not been quantified, but fluctuations apparently occur.
20000		threats	eng	In parts of its range, deforestation and hunting/poaching occur. Hunting and destruction of the forest habitat have reportedly caused numbers to decrease in Israel (Gavish 1993). In Turkey, it is not under serious threat at present (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).
20001		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix III in Costa Rica.
20001		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Tamaulipas, Mexico south to Costa Rica (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,800 m (Reid 1997).
20001		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen and semideciduous forest, favoring areas with high humidity and dense vegetation. It enters agricultural areas and may be a pest of corn and other crops, but disappears if adjacent forest is highly disturbed (Reid 1997). It is tolerant to a degree of habitat modification (F. Reid pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This squirrel is diurnal. It may be seen resting quietly on a low branch with its tail over its back or moving with great speed and agility through epiphyte-laden tress or vines in middle and upper canopy levels. It sometimes descends to the ground to feed or to cross clearings but is mainly arboreal. This species dens in tree cavities or makes leaf nests on branches 6 to 20 m above ground (Coates-Estrata and Estrada 1986; Leopold 1959). Its diet includes seeds and fruit, including figs, <em>Manilkara zapora</em>, <em>Brosimum alicastrum</em>, and <em>Poulsenia armata</em>. Fungi, shoots, and leaves are also eaten. It is usually solitary, silent, and inconspicuous, but sometimes calls with high-pitched trills and twitters. Groups are occasionally seen feeding together. Young are born near the end of the dry season (Reid 1997).
20001		population	eng	This species is locally common (Reid 1997).
20001		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
20003		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20003		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely through Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela and Colombia.
20003		habitat	eng	Occur in various types of forests from Atlantic gallery forests to Amazon rain forests. It also occurs in urban parks.
20003		population	eng	It is widespread and locally common in some areas of Brazil. Its status unknown in the rest of the range.
20003		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
20004		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species is common in Cumbres de Monterey National Park.
20004		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-east Coahuila through central Nuevo Leon, and south through west Tamaulipas to extreme north San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Hoffmann and Thorington 2005). It occurs from 600 to 2,550 m.
20004		habitat	eng	This species is found primarily in oak and oak-pine forests (Best 1995).<br/><br/>In some localities it was observed during the early morning hours. Nests may be inside natural cavities of trees or built of leaves and sticks placed on branches of trees. Larvae and adult insects are common in the diet; peanuts, corn, oats, apples, peaches, mangos, plums, grapes, tomatoes, and anurans also are consumed. This species occasionally enters cornfields and can considerably damage ripening corn. Several females were recorded with embryos (2 to 4) in March, July, and August; two females on April were lactating; and a nest containing several small young was found in August in a hollow branch of a tree (Best 1995).
20004		population	eng	It can be uncommon in some parts of its range, however, in other places it may be common (Best 1995).
20004		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and hunting (for food). It is estimated to have lost 13-23% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 15 years (C. de Granmont and A. Cuaron pers. comm.).
20005		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within this species' range. Research on ecology and biology, as well as population and conservation status is needed.
20005		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western U.S.A. (Arizona and New Mexico) and adjoining Mexico (Sonora), with three disjunct population segments: western and southern mountains of central Arizona high country (below Mogollon Rim) and a few localities in western New Mexico, isolated mountain ranges in southern Arizona, and southern Arizona mountains extending into northern Sonora. Found between 1,120 and 2,700 m asl in elevation.
20005		habitat	eng	This squirrel primarily occupies riparian deciduous and mixed forests of canyon bottoms and streamsides (Best and Reidel 1995; Reid 2006; J. Frey pers. comm.). The upper elevational limits are generally where oak-pine forests transition to pine. The lower elevational limits can extend into chaparral and desert grasslands. This species is rarely seen due to secretive nature. The Arizona walnut tree (<em>Juglans major</em>) is considered a key indicator of this species. It prefers food from mast-producing trees.
20005		population	eng	This species is uncommon and local. Its population status is unknown. The species is thought to fluctuate from year to year; probably due to food supplies from mast-producing trees, which varies each year.
20005		threats	eng	The destruction of habitat by wildfires is a major threat.
20006		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20006		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwest and central Guatemala to Guanajuato, Nayarit and Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It has been introduced to Elliot Key, Florida (Reid 1997). It occurs from lowlands to 3,800 m (Reid 1997).
20006		habitat	eng	This squirrel occurs in most forested habitats including thorn scrub, deciduous and evergreen forest, dry pine-oak woodland, secondary forest, and plantations. In dry woodlands or forest it is most common, especially in those bordering agricultural areas (Reid 1997). It also occurs in urban areas.<br/><br/>This squirrel is diurnal and usually solitary. Individuals occupy distinct territories and may occur at densities of 0.7 individuals/ha (Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986). It is mainly arboreal, but will come to the ground to feed or travel from tree to tree. Leaf nests are built on tree branches, 5 to 15 m above ground. In the lowlands, it feeds fruits and seeds of <em>Ficus</em> spp., <em>Cecropia</em> spp., <em>Poulsenia</em> <em>armata</em>, <em>Brosimum</em> <em>alicastrum</em>, and <em>Astrocaryum</em> <em>mexicanum</em>. Acorns and pine nuts are the staple foods of highland populations. Plantations of corn, mango, cacao, and tamarind are sometimes raided. It is usually silent, but sometimes makes raspy trills and harsh chatters. Females give birth to 2 to 4 young during the dry season; black and gray individuals may be born in the same litter (Reid 1997).
20006		population	eng	This species is common where not hunted.
20006		threats	eng	No major threats known. Although not considered a major threat, in some areas this species is hunted for food or to prevent damage to corn and other crops (Reid 1997).
20007		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. There are protected areas within its range.
20007		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west central coast of Mexico, including Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). The elevational range is from sea level to 1,290 m to 2,190 m (Best 1995).
20007		habitat	eng	This species can be found in thick forests along the Pacific coast in tropical or subtropical forests. It can occur in coquito palm (<em>Arecaceae</em>) forests intermixed with figs (<em>Ficus</em>) and other native tropical broadleaf trees surrounding lagoons and rivers, and also in tropical deciduous forest on slopes below the oak-pine forest (Best 1995). <br/><br/>It is frugivore and herbivore, feeding on nuts of coquito palms and figs. Nests of twigs and leaves may be in hollow trees or on the bushy terminal parts of tree limbs. In Southwestern Chihuahua, a female with three embryos were found in May; in Durango, in June, a female was pregnant with three embryos, and another was lactating; in Jalisco, breeding occurs in March and April, and young are present in April (Best 1995).
20007		population	eng	This species is widespread but with low densities. It is common in suitable habitat (Best 1995).  In the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere reserve, this species is more abundant in semi-evergreen than tropical dry forest and their density varies from 0.9 - 4.3 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Mandujano 1997).
20007		threats	eng	Although not presently considered under major threats, this species habitat is affected by deforestation and it is hunted for food. It is estimated to have lost 6-8% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 15 years (C. de Granmont and A. Cuaron pers. comm.).
20008		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20008		distribution	eng	This species is found in Venezuela, south of Orinoco River from the Colombian border to Cuidad Bolivar (Wilson and Reeder, 2005)
20008		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
20008		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
20008		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
20009		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20009		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela
20009		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
20009		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
20009		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
20010		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas, including national parks and city parks, throughout its range.
20010		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Trinidad and Tobago. Ranges from 0 to 3,000 m in elevation.
20010		habitat	eng	This squirrel inhabits many types of forests from sea level to montane (Nitikmann 1985), and from picnic grounds to good forests.
20010		population	eng	As currently recognized, this species is widespread and common. However, a taxonomic review could separate ranges.
20010		threats	eng	None known.
20011		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20011		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Pacific region of the western United States and northern Mexico, from northern Washington state to extreme northern Baja California.
20011		habitat	eng	This species occurs in oak-conifer woodlands and in mixed conifer forests. Also found in sycamore, cottonwood and walnut mixed forest.
20011		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon. Density estimates vary from 0.25 individuals/ha in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada range to 2.8 individuals/ha in mixed coniferous forest.
20011		threats	eng	This species competes for food with acorn woodpeckers, California ground squirrels and introduced tree squirrels (<em>S. niger</em> and <em>S. carolinensis</em>) Its habitat is also threatened by logging activities. This species is less tolerant to urbanized areas compared to eastern squirrels. This species is also threatened by predation from house cats and is one of the more common squirrel species in traffic mortalities.
20012		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20012		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Argentina according (Wilson and Reeder, 2005)
20012		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are poorly known. It was trapped in an area of primarily evergreen, lowland, tropical forest, transitional between humid tropical forest and dry tropical forest (Woodman <em>et al.</em>, 1996).
20012		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
20012		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
20013		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20013		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru (Wilson and Reeder, 2005).
20013		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the  lowland forests of the Amazon. It is a specialist on large nuts with extremely thick, hard, endocarps (Emmons, 1984).
20013		population	eng	It is thought to be widespread with low densities (Emmons, 1984).
20013		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat reduction and fragmentation. It is known to be hunted for food at Limoncocha, Ecuador and in the Iquitos area (Yanamono, Mishana) of Peru (Emmons, 1984).
20014		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Research into the impact of the introduced species <em>Sciurus vulgaris</em> is needed.
20014		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is widely distributed in north-eastern Honshu, and is rare in western Honshu, from the Chugoku District (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is also found on Shikoku (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and on Awaji Island, where there have been no recent sightings (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is unclear whether the species ever occurred on Kyushu.
20014		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland to subalpine primary and secondary pine forests.
20014		population	eng	It is common over most of its range, but rare in some parts, such as western Honshu. It can occur at relatively large densities in lower montane pine forests (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
20014		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although the population has possibly been affected by die-offs of native pine trees due to an invasive disease (Japan RDB, 2002). The impact of the introduction of <em>Sciurus vulgaris</em> around Tokyo (in the late 1990s) and other areas requires further investigation to determine whether the two species are competing or hybridizing.
20015		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within this species' range.
20015		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Jalisco, Mexico, north to south-east Arizona, USA (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs between 1,560 m and 2,700 m asl, but usually is found from about 1,650 m to 1,950 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species' range is mostly in the Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico and enters North America only in the Chiricahua Mountains of extreme south-eastern Arizona.
20015		habitat	eng	It is found in pine-oak forests and mixed conifer forests, especially in canyon bottoms. Its litter size is 1 to 2 young; it rarely has more than 1 litter per year.
20015		population	eng	This species is widespread with low densities. It is uncommon (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
20015		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. It is hunted for local consumption.
20016		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
20016		distribution	eng	This species is native throughout much of the eastern United States and very limited areas of adjoining Canada (extreme southern prairie provinces) and Mexico (occurs along the Rio Grande and its tributaries in northeastern Coahuila y Nuevo Leon (Ceballos and Oliva 2005)). It has been introduced to several western U.S. states and two Canadian provinces (British Columbia and Ontario).
20016		habitat	eng	This species prefers open woodland habitats, with scattered trees and open understory.
20016		population	eng	Abundant. Reported densities vary from 0.04 - 0.12 individuals/ha in the southeastern U.S. to 1.0 - 12 individuals/ha in the mid-west.
20016		threats	eng	No major threats known. Although not considered a major threat at this time, this species is experiencing declining habitats in eastern states, with an increasingly restricted distribution. By contrast, range expansion has occurred in the mid-west. In Mexico, it may be considered fragile, but is not officially threatened (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
20017		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
20017		distribution	eng	This species occurs in San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla, Queretaro, and Guanajuato, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevations of 1,500 to 3,600 m (Best 1995).
20017		habitat	eng	This squirrel can be found in pine and oak forest, and arid mountains. It can sometimes be observed in deep arroyos in nearby valleys. It has been observed feeding on almonds (<em>Prunus</em>), acorns, and wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>). Its breeding period occurs in July and August (Best 1995).
20017		population	eng	This species is common in many places, especially in summer; but it is uncommon and rare to see in cold weather (Best 1995).
20017		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
20018		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20018		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Colombian Andes.
20018		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
20018		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
20018		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
20019		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20019		distribution	eng	It is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes of Peru.
20019		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
20019		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
20019		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
20020		conservation	eng	More taxonomic work is required to determine whether or not this taxon is conspecific with <em>S. granatensis</em>.
20020		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Nicaragua (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to about 1,000 m (Reid 1997).
20020		habitat	eng	This squirrel is poorly known. It is diurnal and probably solitary. It forages on the ground and in the understory and is seldom seen in the canopy. The breeding season is from February to September, and litters of 2 to 3 young have been reported (Genoways 1975; Reid 1997).
20020		population	eng	This species is probably rare (Reid 1997).
20020		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species. There is also a lot of subsistence hunting of this species.
20021		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20021		distribution	eng	This species is distributed through the Madre de Dios Dept., south eastern Peru.
20021		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.
20021		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens which were collected at 400 m asl. (J. Koprowki pers. comm.).
20021		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
20022		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20022		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.
20022		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lowland forests of the Amazon and into foothills of Andes mountains. It is a specialist on large nuts with extremely thick, hard, endocarps (Emmons, 1984).
20022		population	eng	It is widespread with apparently low densities (Emmons, 1984).
20022		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat reduction and fragmentation. It is known to be hunted for food at Limoncocha, Ecuador and in the Iquitos area (Yanamono, Mishana) of Peru (Emmons, 1984).
20023		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is unknown.
20023		distribution	eng	This species is found in north western Peru and south western Ecuador in the area surrounding the Gulf of Guayaquil (Wilson and Reeder, 2005). It was introduced into Lima city (J. Koprowski pers. comm.)
20023		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet evergreen forests, dry tropical forests and urban areas (perhaps introduced).
20023		population	eng	Locally abundant.
20023		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat reduction and fragmentation by agriculture and wood cutting. It is known to be hunted for food.
20024		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
20024		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south Chiapas, Mexico to Panama (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid 1997). However, there are some records at 2,600 m on Poás Volcano, Costa Rica (Giacalone <em>et al.</em> 1987). In Panama, it does not occur at high elevations except near the border with Costa Rica.
20024		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry deciduous forest, semideciduous forest, evergreen forest, second growth, and in plantations (Reid 1997). In some locations it is considered a crop pest.<br/><br/>Like other large squirrels, this species is diurnal. It is mainly arboreal and crosses open areas by traveling along fencerows or low trees. This species dens in tree holes and constructs leaf nests on branches. The diet consists of soft fruits including mangos, guavas, hog plums (<em>Spondias mombin</em>), and guacimo (<em>Guazuma ulmifolia</em>) (Reid 1997).  Low chucks and harsh chatters are occasionally given (Reid 1997).
20024		population	eng	This species is widespread and common (Reid 1997).
20024		threats	eng	No major threats. Although not considered a major threat at this time, this species' habitat may be threatened by deforestation.
20025		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.
20025		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. It is listed on the Chinese Red list as Near Threatened, being close to qualifying for Vulnerable A2cd+3cd.
20025		distribution	eng	Globally, the red squirrel has a large range in the Palaearctic, extending from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and Portugal in the west, through continental Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and northwest and northeast China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Gurnell and Wauters 1999). It is also found on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan, endemic subspecies <em>Scuirus vulgaris orienti</em>). It has been introduced to the Caucasus, and the Tokyo area of Japan where it may be competing with <em>S. lis</em>.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is widespread in most areas, with the exception of the Iberian peninsula (where it is absent from the south-west) and Britain (where it has almost completely disappeared from the south-east). It occurs only sporadically in the Balkans, and is absent from the majority of Mediterranean islands. It occurs in Turkish Thrace and northeastern Turkey (Yigit <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Portugal the range has expanded southwards. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
20025		distribution	eng	The red squirrel has a large range in the Palaearctic, extending from Ireland, Spain and Portugal in the west, through continental Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and north-east China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Gurnell and Wauters 1999). It is also found on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan), and it has been introduced to the Caucasus. In Europe, it is widespread in most areas, with the exception of the Iberian peninsula (where it is absent from the south-west) and Britain (where it has almost completely disappeared from the south-east). It is absent from the majority of Mediterranean islands. In Portugal the range has expanded southwards. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
20025		habitat	eng	It is most abundant in large tracts of coniferous forest and also occurs in deciduous woods, mixed forest, parks, gardens, and small stands of conifers. It is found in lowland to subalpine forests. Its diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of seeds, acorns, fungus, bark, and sapwood, although it occasionally takes animal prey (young birds and eggs). They are an important species for the reforestation process.
20025		habitat	eng	It is most abundant in large tracts of coniferous forest and also occurs in deciduous woods, mixed forest, parks, gardens, and small stands of conifers. Its diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of seeds, acorns, fungus, bark, and sapwood, although it occasionally takes animal prey (young birds and eggs).
20025		population	eng	Although it is described as common throughout most of its range (Gurnell and Wauters 1999), there have been well-documented population declines and range contractions in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, O'Teangana <em>et al.</em> 2000). Typical densities range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 individuals per hectare (Gurnell and Wauters 1999).
20025		population	eng	Although it is described as common throughout most of its range (Gurnell and Wauters 1999), there have been well-documented population declines and range contractions in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, O'Teangana <em>et al.</em> 2000). Typical densities range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 individuals per hectare (Gurnell and Wauters 1999). However, it is sufficiently common in some parts of its range that it is considered a forestry pest owing to its habit of stripping bark and feeding on conifer buds.<br/><br/>In Mongolia the population is subject to great fluctuations, which are reflected in the fur-trade statistics. From 1958-1960 an average of over 145,000 skins/year was obtained; in 1961, 70,300 skins were obtained and in 1962, 33,135 skins were harvested. During 1965 the total rose sharply to 112,755 skins, and then declined the next year to 77,629 skins. By 1970 the number collected fell to 35,600 skins.
20025		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation and, in Britain and Italy, out-competition by the introduced grey squirrel <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em> (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, Bertolino and Genovesi 2003). Now that the grey squirrel has become established on the continent, it can be expected that it may ultimately spread throughout much of the red squirrel's range. Grey squirrels not only out-compete the smaller red squirrels, but also carry parapox virus, which is highly pathogenic to red squirrels. Grey squirrels can carry the virus without being affected, and recent (2006) UK studies have shown that 61% of apparently healthy grey squirrels have been exposed to the virus and may be carriers (C. McInnes <em>in litt.</em> 2006). When the virus is present, the grey squirrel can replace the red squirrel 20 times faster than normal replacement rate (Rushton <em>et al.</em> 2006). The virus has not yet been recorded in Italy.
20025		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation, but these are not considered to pose a major threat to the species at present.<br/><br/>In Britain and Italy, out-competition by the introduced grey squirrel <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em> (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, Bertolino and Genovesi 2003). Now that the grey squirrel has become established on the continent, it can be expected that it may ultimately spread throughout much of the red squirrel's range. Grey squirrels not only out-compete the smaller red squirrels, but also carry parapox virus, which is highly pathogenic to red squirrels. Grey squirrels can carry the virus without being affected, and recent (2006) UK studies have shown that 61% of apparently healthy grey squirrels have been exposed to the virus and may be carriers (C. McInnes <em>in litt.</em> 2006). When the virus is present, the grey squirrel can replace the red squirrel 20 times faster than normal replacement rate (Rushton <em>et al.</em> 2006). The virus has not yet been recorded in Italy.<br/><br/>In Japan, this species is frequently sold as pets, having been imported from the mainland, and so the risk of the spread of this species across Japan is high, with much resulting concern for its impact on the native <em>Sciurus lis</em>.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, unsustainable hunting for skins, for the international fur trade is a threat. Records of hunting levels between 1942 and 1960 are available in Stubbe (1965), although current hunting levels have not been established.
20026		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas.
20026		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Yucatan Peninsula, northern and southwestern Belize, and northern Guatemala (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 750 m (Reid 1997).
20026		habitat	eng	This squirrel occurs in deciduous and evergreen forest, semiarid pine-oak woodlands, and second growth (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>It is diurnal and mainly arboreal. It is most active in the early morning, but may be seen sunning on a branch later in the day. Nests of leaves and twigs are built on branches. It eats soft fruit, nuts, and seeds; when these foods are not available, it subsists on flowers, buds, and shoots. Females give birth during the dry season (April to August) and litter size is 2 to 3 young (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995; Reid 1997).
20026		population	eng	This species is fairly common in deciduous and evergreen forest, and less common in the more populated northern part of the peninsula due to hunting pressure and deforestation (Reid 1997).
20026		threats	eng	No major threats known. Although not considered a major threat at present, this species habitat is subject to fragmentation.
20033		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. More research on distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats is urgently required.
20033		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Colombia, Venezuela, and northwestern Brazil. Colombian specimen was recently reviewed and proven to not be <em>ega</em> (Tew pers. comm.). Does not occur in Peru (Velazco pers. comm.), and Brazilian record need verification.
20033		habitat	eng	In Venezuela, this rare bat has been netted in multistratal tropical evergreen forest, primary forest and in a yard near a stream (Handley, 1976; Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1993). The diet probably consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, and insects (Gardner, 1977).
20033		population	eng	Expected to decline in response to restricted habitat. An extremely rare species (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
20033		threats	eng	The species is affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range although this is not considered a major threat.
20034		conservation	eng	This species has been listed on Appendix I of CITES since 1975. Parts of the species range is within protected areas. These are mostly swamps and lakes but aquatic biodiversity is not really considered.
20034		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong basin in Viet Nam and Cambodia, southeastern Thailand, Tenassarim (Myanmar), the Malay Peninsula from Sungai Golok southwards, Borneo, Sumatra. This species was also introduced to Singapore (Blanc and D'Aubenton 1965, Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Kottelat and Lim 1995, Rainboth 1996).
20034		habitat	eng	This is a fairly large mouthbrooding fish which lives in lakes, deep parts of swamps, flooded forests and stretches of deep rivers with slow currents and dense, overhanging vegetation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
20034		population	eng	The population of this species is at very low density throughout its range following significant declines in the past of well over 50% (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Populations are currently decreasing.
20034		threats	eng	This species has been targeted for the aquarium trade since the 1970s, which has impacted populations. Now trade is regulated, but enforcement is not optimal and there is still pressure on some of the wild populations (the most colourful ones). It is also caught incidentally in local fisheries. <br/><br/>Habitat degradation throughout the species range caused by a variety of human activities is now its main threat. For example, a number of swamp habitats have been transformed into agricultural land. Areas of forested habitat have been logged and transformed into plantations. Forest fires have impacted most of the species range in Indonesia, especially peat swamp forests (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
20036		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador, and elsewhere in its range.
20036		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern slopes of the Andes of Ecuador and to near Iquitos in Amazonian Peru (Gómez-Laverde <em>et al.</em>, 2004). The distributional range was increased in recent years. This species occurs from 200 to 1,200 m.
20036		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and piedmont rainforest. It is found in disturbed and primary forest. This species is a forest specialist.
20036		population	eng	This species is not rare, there are several recent specimens.
20036		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by general deforestation in the Amazon region (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
20037		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
20037		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south Colombia, northeast Peru, western Brazil (Acre and Amazonas States) (Gómez-Laverde <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Musser and Carleton, 2005), and probably northeastern Ecuador (Castro y Zapata, 2001). The elevational range of this species is 200 to 800 m (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
20037		habitat	eng	This mouse is nocturnal (Emmons and Feer, 1998) and it is known from undisturbed terra firme forest on the ground; these sites were often in areas of local, natural disturbances, such as tree falls. Pregnant females or those with a perforate vagina were obtained from August through March, suggesting that breeding occurs in both wet and dry seasons and perhaps throughout the year. Embryo counts ranged from one to three (Patton el al., 2000). This species is found in lowland and piedmont Amazon rainforest. It is found in disturbed and primary forest. This species is a forest specialist.
20037		population	eng	This species is not rare; there are several recent specimens.
20037		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by general deforestation in the Amazon region (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.), but overall this is not considered a major threat.
20047		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Restrictions on the gill net fishery for Totoaba in 1975 (Jaramillo-Legorreta and Taylor 2010) may have provided some conservation benefit to this species. There is an urgent need for monitoring of this species, and for catch data to be dissagregated from <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sierra</span>.
20047		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, with two well separated populations, at least at some point in time (B. Collette, pers. comm 2011). Historically, one population occurred from Monterey Bay, California as far south as the US/Mexican border. However, the only extant population is currently restricted to the upper two-thirds of the Gulf of California (Collette 1995). Historically, this species probably had a continuous distribution from California, around Baja and into the Gulf of California (B. Collette, pers.comm. 2011). The present distribution is now limited to the central and northern part of the Gulf of California, only as far south as Bahia de Concepcion (Romero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).<br/><br/>The initial diminution of this species' range began between 1880 and 1920 (Fitch 1949). Over the last 20 years, very few specimens have been found outside of the current known range. There have possibly been only three records in the outer coast of California/Baja California for this species since 1968 (B. Collette pers comm 2011). However, CICIMAR records exist in the Gulf of California as late as 1993 from Loreto.<strong><br/></strong>
20047		habitat	eng	This species is an epipelagic, neritic species. It feeds on euphosiids and clupieids (Valdovino Jacobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Its biology is almost completely unknown. It occurs along the upper east coast of the Gulf of California in the fall months in shallow estuaries, and spawning occurs in late spring and early summer. This species may be a colder water fish than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sierra</span>, and may retreat to deep waters in summer. It spawns and swims with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sierra</span>. It moves from a feeding zone in the central Gulf of California from October to May, to a spawning zone in the northern Gulf of California from May to August (Valdovino Jacobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The best place to currently find this species is in the spring around Isla San Jorge, 50 km south of Puerto Penasco.<br/><br/>This species has a sex ratio of 1:1. Based on otolith ageing, the maximum age is eight years (Valdovino Jacobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Based on the length-weight curve published by Valdovino Jacobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006), the length at 50% maturity is 36.5 cm fork length (FL) at three years. The generation length is therefore estimated to be 3.8 years.
20047		population	eng	This species was commercially caught in the 1870s and 1880s in Monterrey Bay, California, and was considered abundant in the Gulf of California in the 1970s (Collette and Russo 1985).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California, this species is caught with <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus sierra</span>, mainly using gillnets in areas close to the coast. Catches are reported as a combined group ("sierras") and therefore, it is not possible to determine a population trend for this species. However, catch data from Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Mexico (2002) was used to forecast the probability of decline in this species population in the northern Gulf of Mexico based on projected effort. If effort were to continue the same as in 2002, the stock was predicted to decline 40% over the next 10 years. There is no indication that there have been declines in the effort in this fishery since 2002 (R. Nelson pers comm. 2011).
20047		threats	eng	This species global population is at risk of collapse (Quinonez-Velazquez and Montemayor-Lopez 2002). There is an important commercial fishery for both this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sierra</span> in the area where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. concolor</span> occurs. The fishery is apparently having severe effects on the remnant of the <span style="font-style: italic;">S. concolor</span> population. The commercial fishery operates from November to April in shallow coastal waters, bays, and estuaries and the combined catch of both species is 4,500 tons per year. The main method of harvesting this species is using gillnets. Both species are also caught by sport fishers.<br/><br/>The species spawns primarily in the northern Gulf of California, were there has been significant habitat loss due to cessation of flow from the Colorado River. It is important to note that two other highly threatened species occur in the area, the Totoaba (<span style="font-style: italic;">Toatoaba macdonaldi</span>, family Sciaenidae) and the Vaquita (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phocoena sinus</span>), a porpoise (Jamarillo-Legorreta and Taylor 2010, Jefferson 2010).
20052		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. No specific research needs as it has been well studied.
20052		distribution	eng	This species occurs in intermediate elevations from eastern Oaxaca, México to western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 900 to 2,900 m (Reid 1997).
20052		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in cloud forest, forest edge, and grassy clearings (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is generally diurnal and is most active in the morning. It is mainly terrestrial, using runways and well-trodden paths through grass and under logs (Hooper 1972). Insects make up about 80% of the diet (adult beetles are preferred), and some seeds and fruit are also taken (Hooper and Carleton 1976). Both sexes of this mouse construct nests, and breeding occurs year-round, with litters size between 1 and 3 young (Reid 1997).
20052		population	eng	This species is common to abundant in its range (Reid 1997).
20052		threats	eng	Pesticides are a major threat, because this species is insectivorous.
20053		conservation	eng	Much of its habitat occurs within protected areas.
20053		distribution	eng	This species occurs in high elevations in the Cordilleras Central and Talamanca of Costa Rica to the Volcán Chiriquí region in west Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 2,100 to 3,400 m (Reid 1997).
20053		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet montane forest, forest edge, dense grass, and paramo. <br/><br/>This species favors cold environments (Reid 1997). It is terrestrial, traveling in runways under logs and among rocks or through dense vegetation. Almost entirely insectivorous in diet, it prefers larval beetles, which are probably located by smell. Little nest-building activity occurs in captivity, and nests have not been found in the wild. It appears to breed year-round; litters size is 2 to 4 young, averaging 2.7 (Reid 1997).
20053		population	eng	It is fairly common (Reid 1997).
20053		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, though in parts of its range it is adversely affected by agrochemicals, loss of grassland habitat (to development) and to some extent, deforestation.
20054		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from Zinave National Park on the Save River in Mozambique, and presumably is present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this widespread but seemingly very poorly known species.
20054		distribution	eng	This species has been widely, but patchily recorded over much of West Africa and East Africa, with some records from Central Africa. It ranges from The Gambia and Senegal in the west, through West Africa to eastern Nigeria, it is then distributed from northern Uganda and southern Kenya, through Tanzania, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Malawi, Mozambique and southeastern South Africa. The range is poorly known and the species might be more widespread.
20054		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is very poorly known. It has been recorded from Guinea and Sudan woodlands (Rosevear 1965; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), and probably also occurs in dry savanna habitats (see Happold 1987).
20054		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
20054		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
20055		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Zinave National Park in Mozambique (Cotterill 2001), and from the Mole National Park in Ghana (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), and in view of its wide range, is presumably present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and possible threats to this poorly known species.
20055		distribution	eng	This widespread African species has been reported as scattered records from West Africa (The Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria), Central Africa (northern Cameroon, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola) and East Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zambia). It is possibly present in Benin, Chad and Somalia but this requires confirmation.
20055		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat. Rosevear (1965), indicates that the species is present in Sudan woodland and also high forest. Happold (1987), reports that in Nigeria the species is found in the Guinea savanna zone, especially on the Jos plateau, and is found roosting in houses. Bergmans (1977) recorded the species flying along a stream.
20055		population	eng	It is very rarely recorded, and there is little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
20055		threats	eng	While the threats to this species are not well known, it is presumed not to have any major threats in view of the species wide distribution in habitats that are not rapidly declining throughout much of its recorded range.
20056		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed on distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, population monitoring, habitat maintenance, limiting factor research, public awareness and conservation lobbying are actions recommended for the species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20056		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia and is presently known from India (Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) in South Asia (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). It has been recorded from 46 m up to an elevation of 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20056		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in tropical thorn forests and urban areas preferring to roost in crevices and holes in old buildings and hollows in trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20056		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20056		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely due to increase in urbanization leading to disturbance and loss of roosting sites, and competition from invasive alien species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20058		conservation	eng	In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20058		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from northeastern South Asia, into central and southern China, and northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet Division), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Eastern Nepal) (Khan 2001; Das 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), and has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Anhui, Fujian, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong and the island of Hainan (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges through northern and western Myanmar, northern Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been recorded up to 2,200 m asl in Thailand (S. Bumgrunsri pers. comm.).
20058		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in deep, humid valleys and hilly forests. It roosts among trees and banana leaves (Lekagul and McNeely 1997). It emerges late and is a high and fast flyer (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Viet Nam, it has been recorded from limestone caves in secondary and primary tropical moist forest (P. Bates pers. comm.).
20058		population	eng	This species is widely distributed and common (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; P. Bates, Furey and Francis pers. comm.).
20058		threats	eng	In Southeast Asia there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20059		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire) and from Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable primary forest throughout much of West Africa, especially in areas where this seemingly rare bat has been recorded. Further field surveys are needed to locate any additional populations of this species.
20059		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a relatively few scattered records in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Cameroon and Congo. It seems to only be known from 16 localities, and has not been recorded from a number of areas where intensive netting has taken place. Animals have been recorded at elevations from 120 m (Oda, Ghana) to 1,200 m asl (Mount Nimba).
20059		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both tropical moist lowland and montane forest, with most localities in the Guineo-Congolian lowland forests. The species is a frugivorous specialist, and appears to be a primary forest obligate. Recapture data indicate that animals have extremely restricted home ranges of several hectares (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).
20059		population	eng	This appears to be a naturally rare species.
20059		threats	eng	This species is highly impacted by deforestation, and through forest fragmentation and degradation. Threats presumably include logging and mining activities, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
20060		conservation	eng	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g.. Tai National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). There is a need to investigate whether this species can adapt to secondary forest habitats. Further studies are needed to fully determine if the species is present in forested areas between known localities.
20060		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Liberia and Guinea, into Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria, and from here into Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (both Rio Muni and Bioko), Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The range appears to be disjunct, and comprised of five main populations. It ranges from sea level to around 1,100 m asl.
20060		habitat	eng	This species is found in both lowland and montane forests. It is unclear if it can persist in secondary forest, although recent records have come from undisturbed sites. Animals probably roost singly and have a very small  home range, and very high site fidelity. The species has been recorded to feed on fruits, but does not appear to feed on flowers (Happold 1987; Bergmans 1990).
20060		population	eng	It appears to be a rare, or at least rarely recorded, species.
20060		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss, presumably largely through logging and mining operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
20064		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
20064		distribution	eng	This holotype was described from two specimens from La Réunion and one of these was designated as the lectotype but is now in very poor condition (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Madagascar, it is known only from a single specimen collected in 1868, at Sarodrano, near Toliara in the south (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). The identity of the Madagascar specimen cannot be confirmed due to absence of reliable material from La Réunion. The area near Sarodrano has been relatively well surveyed recently, but no new specimens were obtained (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20064		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not known.
20064		population	eng	This species was considered to be relatively common in the early 19th Century on La Réunion; however, it was not recorded in the 20th century or 21st century (Cheke and Dahl 1981).
20064		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
20065		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
20065		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sulawesi, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).
20065		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. However, congenerics live in houses, usually in small colonies of less than a hundred, and forage in open areas, above the canopy.
20065		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
20065		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
20066		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is believed to be present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
20066		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and the Gambia in the west, through West Africa and parts of Central Africa, to Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Ethiopia in the east, from here it ranges south through much of East Africa and southern Africa, being recorded as far south as eastern South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
20066		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. It roosts in hollow trees, roofs and other dark places in houses. Although they may roost singly, groups of 20 to 30 bats are not uncommon (Kingdon 1974) (Happold 1987).
20066		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
20066		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
20067		conservation	eng	In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas.
20067		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found through much of South Asia, southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar and Laghman provinces), Bangladesh (Sylhet division), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,  Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central, Far Western and Mid Western Nepal), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, Northern, North Western, Sabargamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western Provinces) (Khan 2001; Das 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005; Vanitharani 2006; Korad <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It ranges across southern China, including Hainan island (Simth and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species ranges through Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northern Cambodia.
20067		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitat types, including urban areas (G. Csorba and P. Bates pers. comm.). It roosts in crevices and cracks in old buildings, among the leaves and crowns of palms, in hollows of trees and among leaves of banana either singly or in colonies of up to 50 individuals. It emerges late from the roosting site and is a low flyer and flies at a steady speed. One or two young ones are born after a gestation period of 115 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
20067		population	eng	This species is widespread in distribution and common in occurrence.
20067		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. It might be locally threatened in some areas because of disturbance of roosting sites.
20068		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas (eg. Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh, India). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
20068		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species ranges through much of South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong, Khulna and Sylhet divisions), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Northern, North Central and Uva provinces) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005, Das 2003, Vanitharani 2006, Korad <em>et al.</em> 2007). This taxon may probably also occur in Nepal (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,111 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Fujian, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Hainan, Guangxi, Yunnan and is present on the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumba, Flores, Savu and Sulawesi), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia] and Sabah [Malaysia]), to the Philippines. In the Philippines, it is present throughout much of the country, being recorded from Bohol, Biliran, Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Cuyo, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Bulacan, Cagayan, Cavite, Isabela, Laguna, La Union, Pampanga, Rizal, and Zambales provinces), Maripipi, Mindanao (Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Maguindanao, Misamis Oriental, and South Cotabato provinces), Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Sibuyan, and Ticao (Lawrence 1939; Taylor 1934; Alcala and Alviola 1970; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) where it occurs from sea level to 600 m (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
20068		habitat	eng	This adaptable species is found in primary and secondary habitats, and in both rural and urban areas. It roosts in temples, caves, hollow trees, palm fronds, roofs, crevices, cracks and holes in the walls and on the roofs of old houses, dry leaves of trees in colonies of several hundred individuals. It is an early flyer and prefers to feed on hymenopterans and dipterans. One or two young ones are born after a gestation period of 105-115 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
20068		population	eng	This is a common species with stable populations.
20068		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. In South Asia, disturbance to roosting sites might represent a local threat to some populations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In northeast Luzon (Philippines), it is eaten as an aphrodisiac (J.-C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2006).
20069		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
20069		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in much of West Africa (including northern parts of Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Guinea, much of Senegal, Gambia, and Burkina Faso, and southern parts of Mali and Niger). There are isolated records from southwestern Mauritania, as well as western parts of the Central African Republic. The eastern parts of the distribution include records from Sudan, and the northern parts of Uganda and Kenya. Further south this species is found in Mozambique, western Angola and Namibia. There is uncertainty about a range which encompasses south Zambia, north Botswana, possibly South Africa, and south-east Angola.
20069		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. In Nigeria, it is widespread in Sudan and Guinea savanna zones extending southwards to the rainforest-savanna boundary (Happold 1987).
20069		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
20069		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
20070		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Management of protected areas is necessary.
20070		distribution	eng	This African bat has been recorded as scattered records from West, East, and south-east Africa. It has been reported from Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo and Nigeria in West Africa, from central Sudan, and from western Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Kenya and Tanzania, south to Mozambique, Malawi and eastern Zimbabwe.
20070		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest, to both moist and dry savanna. Animals have been found roosting in a house and in a hollow dead palm tree (Happold 1987).
20070		population	eng	It appears to be a rare, or rarely recorded, species.
20070		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the conversion of its habitat to agricultural use in parts of its range.
20071		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
20071		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan species has been patchily recorded from West Africa (Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria), Central Africa (Cameroon and Democratic Republic of the Congo) and East Africa (Uganda and Kenya), and is believed to likely occur more widely than is currently known. It is possibly present in Equatorial Guinea, however, this needs to be confirmed.
20071		habitat	eng	This species appears to be associated with tropical lowland forest (Robbins <em>et al.</em> 1985; Happold, 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
20071		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
20071		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some populations may be impacted by general deforestation, however, this needs to be confirmed.
20072		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas across Madagascar and does not appear to require specific conservation measures but, like many other Malagasy bats that are not considered to be threatened, there is a lack of basic natural history data.
20072		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is broadly distributed from the coast to the highland plateau up to 1,400 m in Tsinjoarivo (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is rarely recorded, but as more surveys are conducted it is likely that this species will be found to have a wider distribution.
20072		habitat	eng	There is very little available information on the natural history of this species. It appears to be associated with a remarkable variety of tropical forest types and has been recorded at various levels of human perturbation. It is known to roost in small colonies houses and other buildings (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005). .
20072		population	eng	A number of bat surveys have failed to locate this species (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) and it appears not to be locally abundant.
20072		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not well known. This species uses forest habitat, but it also occurs outside of forested areas. There is one reported occurrence of this species being hunted by food by local people, but there is no evidence that this constitutes a major threat (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008).
20073		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Matusadona National Park in Zimbabwe, and likely is present in a number of additional protected areas.
20073		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from Senegal and Gambia in West Africa, to northern Cameroon and Central African Republic, from here into Sudan and Ethiopia, and then south through much of East Africa and southeastern Africa, being reported as far south as eastern South Africa and possibly Swaziland.
20073		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist wooded savanna habitats. It is mostly associated with bushveld habitats in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It probably roosts in both buildings and hollow trees; in Zimbabwe it has been recorded roosting in small colonies in hollow trees (Cotterill and Giddings 1987).
20073		population	eng	This is a common species.
20073		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
20085		habitat	eng	Reef-associated species.
20089		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
20089		distribution	eng	<em>Sekeetamys calurus</em> is nearly endemic to the Mediterranean region. It occurs in in northeast Sudan and eastern Egypt (Red Sea coastal areas of Egypt), southern Israel, Jordan and extends into Saudi Arabia (currently only know from an isolated record in Central Saudi Arabia, although likely occurs continuously from Jordan and north-western Saudi Arabia). Elevation sea level to 600 m in Israel.
20089		habitat	eng	The bushy-tailed Jird is found in arid rocky mountain habitats, including mountain summits of the Negev desert region of southern Israel, the Dead Sea Basin and Wadi Araba, Jordan. It is nocturnal feeding mainly on plants and perhaps insects. There are few reports of reproductive habits from natural populations, two specimens were found to be in breeding condition in February and March; in captivity the species breeds throughout the year (Qumsiyeh 1996).
20089		population	eng	A naturally rare species, occurring at relatively low densities.
20089		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20102		conservation	eng	Listed in Red List of Kazakhstan (category III, and a species that requires special protection). Several areas withing the range were proposed to make protected areas. Breeding in captivity was unsuccessful.
20102		distribution	eng	Endemic of Kazakhstan. Distributed from Dar'yalyk desert (100 km to east from Dzhusaly) to Zaysan and Alakol' basins. Northern border is unclear. Findings near Bayanaul (Pavlodar region) need confirmation. Possibly distributed in NW China (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).
20102		habitat	eng	Inhabit rubbly, clay and saline deserts of northern type with dominant vegetation of wormwood and saltworts. Hibernates, active period is from March to September. Feed on insects, especially on locusts. Pregnant and lactating females were found from end of May to end of June. Number of embryos is 4-8.
20102		population	eng	Rare, distributed sporadically, known from single findings. In total about 40 animals have been found from about 30 localities.
20102		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to extraction of <em>Spiraeanthus</em> shrubs.
20160		conservation	eng	Improvement of water quality and quantities through river health programmes is in place. These programmes need to continue and feed back into conservation action plans. Introductions into dams in the Sabie catchment has been done successfully and further introductions will help the species' conservation status. Exploratory surveys in Mozambique are needed.
20160		distribution	eng	Lake Sodwana north in the Mozambican coastal plain to the mouth of the Limpopo. Inland in restricted areas of the Sabie and Sand Rivers. Introduced into Middle Letaba Dam in Limpopo Province. Sodwan Bay is a single specimen and its presence there needs verification.
20160		habitat	eng	Main river channels and backwaters of larger rivers and coastal lakes.
20160		threats	eng	Decreased water quality and quantity in the Kruger Park region through a variety of human impacts e.g., forestry in upper catchments, human settlements, industrial effluents.
20165		conservation	eng	The Quokka occurs in a number of protected areas and is listed as threatened species under Australian law. Research into subpopulation size and structure, diet, and habitat use has been completed for the northern Jarrah forest. Adaptive management of northern populations is underway. Rapid survey of southern forest subpopulations has been conducted, but further work is needed to define subpopulation size and movements between habitat areas. Feral pig surveys has been conducted in many locations, but additional feral pig control is required. Fox control programs should be maintained.
20165		distribution	eng	The Quokka is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia, Australia, including Rottnest and Bald Islands. The most northern known location is in state forest/water catchment south-east of the Perth metropolitan area. The most inland population is in Stirling Range National Park and its eastern-most known occurrence is at Green Range. The last record from the Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park is from 1979 and Quokkas are thought to be absent from the Swan Coastal Plain, although there are two unconfirmed reports of presence (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>This species was formerly distributed on the mainland from Moore River (100 km north of Perth) to the vicinity of Waychinicup National Park on the south coast (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2007). Kabay and Start (1976) recorded Quokka bones in surface deposits from several sites along the south coast as far east as Fitzgerald River National Park. It was abundant in the Albany district in the 1850s and in the Busselton/ Margaret River area until the late 1920s (White 1952), and was regarded as a problem to pine seedlings in new plantations around Mundaring in the early 1930s (L. Talbot pers. comm.). The distribution at European settlement (about 150 years ago) has been calculated by de Tores <em>et al.</em> (2007) to have encompassed an area of approximately 41,200 km<sup>2</sup>. The current extent of occurrence is estimated to be about 17,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
20165		habitat	eng	This species uses a variety of habits. On Rottnest Island it lives in thickets and scrub habitat. On the mainland, many populations are found close to water (creeks and swamps). In the Jarrah forest, Quokkas are closely associated with the tea-tree (<em>Taxandria linearifolia</em>) in a habitat mosaic of trees at differing ages as determined by fire (Hayward <em>et al.</em> 2007; de Tores 2008). Vegetation is used as cover for nocturnal foraging. Family groups exhibit overlapping home ranges that reflect a general non-territoriality. Exceptions may be made during hot summer periods where males will fight enthusiastically for possession of the best shelters, possibly a limiting factor (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Quokka biology data suggest that the generation time is about four years.
20165		population	eng	This species is sparsely scattered within abundant suitable habitat (de Tores 2008). The total global population estimated to be 7,850-17,150 mature individuals. <br/><br/>It is difficult accurately to quantify total population trend, but the species is probably decreasing. Quokkas have declined in the northern Jarrah forest, populations in the southern forests might be decreasing due to the presence of introduced pigs, and some populations have disappeared from the extreme south-west of their mainland range. Although numbers fluctuate, the island subpopulations appear to be stable, and the population along the South Coast appears to be increasing in response to fox control. <br/><br/>Because knowledge of Quokka populations varies in different parts of its range, each is listed with a separate population estimate followed by a description of how the estimate was derived.<br/><br/>Population estimates for:<br/>Rottnest Island 4,000-8,000<br/>Bald Island 500-2,000<br/>Northern Jarrah forest 150<br/>Southern forests 2,000-5,000<br/>South Coast 1,200-2,000<br/><br/>Rottnest Island (1,700 ha).<br/>The population on Rottnest Island has been studied in detail for several decades because of the presence of a University of Western Australia research station there. Much of the pioneer work on marsupial nutrition, reproduction, temperature regulation, immunology, disease, ecology, and behaviour was conducted on the Rottnest Island Quokka population.<br/><br/>Population estimates for Rottnest vary between 4,000 and 17,000, with most estimates at the lower end of this range. The population is known to fluctuate widely. A precautionary population estimate for Rottnest, including uncertainty, would be 4,000 to 8,000 total individuals.<br/><br/>Bald Island (800 ha).<br/>Studies on the Bald Island population are much more limited, and there is no recent, published estimate for the island. Tony Friend (pers. comm.), who has worked on Bald Island extensively in recent years, suggests the population is about 2,000. A precautionary population estimate for Bald Island, including uncertainty, would be 500 to 2,000.<br/><br/>Northern Jarrah forest (north of the Preston River).<br/>In this region, there have been some populations which have gone extinct in the last 20 years. The presence of pigs has also been recorded at many of the northern Jarrah forest sites and Quokka presence is often detected through non-target captures during pig control programs. Recent research revealed several small subpopulations (between 10 and 48 that were rarely >30 individuals), totalling about 150 animals and declining (Hayward 2005; Hayward <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004, 2005). Genetic research also has shown that gene flow between subpopulations is rare (Alacs 2001). <br/><br/>Southern forests (south of Collie south and east to Hay River).<br/>The average population size in the southern forests is unknown. Anecdotal evidence suggests these southern forest sites support substantially larger populations than the northern Jarrah forest. Recent rapid survey of 1,239 potential Quokka habitat sites by the Department of Environment and Conservation staff revealed evidence of Quokka at 564 of these. Further work is needed to verify the rapid survey technique and examine subpopulation size. A precautionary estimate might be 2,000 to 5,000.<br/><br/>South Coast (from Hay River east to Green Range).<br/>There are no overall estimates for the population along the South Coast. There have been recent extensive searches of this area targeting Gilbert’s Potoroo (<em>Potorous gilbertii</em>). During this work many Quokka subpopulations were located. Quokkas are more likely to be increasing rather than declining along the South Coast, which is based on trapping data and observations at Two Peoples Bay (T. Friend pers. comm.). Trapping data indicate a significant increase on Mount Gardner between 1995 and 2001 (after 2001 Quokka excluders were used on Sheffield traps to prevent them from entering potoroo traps and injuring themselves, which led to fewer Quokka records). Sightings of Quokkas in the lower parts of the reserve have increased markedly since 1999 following fox control, with Quokkas now inhabiting dense bush near the picnic area behind the beach and regularly showing themselves to visitors (T. Friend pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In addition, a hair-arch survey of Boulder Hill/Mount Manypeaks/Waychinicup/Cheynes Beach in 2002 produced evidence of Quokkas at 12 out of 13 sites surveyed. Quokkas have found in recent years on the Western Shield transect line in the Stirling Range National Park. They also persist in the Green Range, where there is no fox control (based on Quokka hair recoveries at 3 out of 5 sites surveyed, followed by successful trapping at 2 out of the 3 sites, work carried out in 2001) (T. Friend pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Total numbers in the South Coast region are not known, but are estimated at 1,200 to 2,000 individuals (T. Friend pers. comm.).
20165		threats	eng	Island populations fluctuate, but are stable over the long term. Habitat clearing and the introduction of foxes and feral cats has led to a past decline of mainland populations. Fox control has led to an increase in numbers in some areas but not in others. Feral pigs are causing habitat degradation and excluding Quokkas from swampy areas. Prescribed burning and clearing are a problem in much of the forested habitats.
20184		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species directive. It is legally protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Romania), and is included in national Red Lists of many range states (e.g. Germany, Denmark, Romania, Czech Republic, Lithuania).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Monitoring of populations is needed, especially at the western edge of the species' range.
20184		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species directive. It is legally protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Romania), and is included in national Red Lists of many range states (e.g. Germany, Denmark, Romania, Czech Republic, Lithuania).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Monitoring of populations is needed, especially at the western edge of the species' range.
20184		distribution	eng	<em>Sicista betulina</em> has a large range extending from Denmark, Norway and Austria in the west to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the east, and from the Arctic Circle south to the Carpathian Mountains (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Records from the Ussuri region of China are considered dubious (Pucek 1999). In Europe, isolated relict populations occur in the Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein (Germany), the Alps (Austria and Allgäu, Germany) and the Carpathians, but the main range extends east from Baltic Countries, Poland and the Czech Republic into European Russia (Pucek 1999, Syvertsen 2003). In Austria and adjacent Czech Republic (Bavarian-Bohemian forest) there is an isolated population. It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m in the eastern Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
20184		habitat	eng	The range of this birch mouse covers a variety of habitats including boreal and montane forests, subalpine meadows and tundra (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the species occurs in birch forest and pine forest with dense ground vegetation (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In Germany it occurs in alpine regions and forest bogs (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). It has been suggested that the species spends summer months in wet meadow habitat and moves to forests in winter (Nowak 1999). It hibernates in underground burrows for at least six months each year, losing up to half its weight during this time (Nowak 1999).
20184		population	eng	In western parts of the range it is generally a rare species, although it may be locally quite frequent. In eastern parts of the range (e.g. Russia, Ukraine) the species is very common. In western parts of the range there are a number of very small and isolated subpopulations, some of which are considered to be evolutionarily significant units (Meinig 2004). No cyclic fluctuations have been recorded, and interannual variation in population density is less than tenfold (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the population is estimated at approximately 1,000 individuals, and Rodna National Park has a very stable population (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In Finland it is considerd to be increasing (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Population trends elsewhere are not known. The species may often go unrecorded, as it is cryptic and hard to trap (Pucek 1982, Spitzenberger 2002).
20184		population	eng	In western parts of the range it is generally a rare species, although it may be locally quite frequent. In south-eastern and eastern parts of the range (e.g. Russia, Ukraine) the species is very common. In western parts of the range there are a number of very small and isolated subpopulations, some of which are considered to be evolutionarily significant units (Meinig 2004). No cyclic fluctuations have been recorded, and interannual variation in population density is less than tenfold (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the population is estimated at approximately 1,000 individuals, and Rodna National Park has a very stable population (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005).  In Finland it is considerd to be increasing (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Population trends elsewhere are not known. The species may often go unrecorded, as it is cryptic and hard to trap (Pucek 1982, Spitzenberger 2002).
20184		threats	eng	Agriculture may be a problem in the northern part of the species' range in Germany. In Romania, deforestation is  the main threat. Elsewhere threats are not known.
20184		threats	eng	Agriculture may be a problem in the northern part of the species' range in Germany. In Romania, deforestation is  the main threat. Elsewhere threats are not known, and the species is not considered to be under serious threat at present.
20185		conservation	eng	Listed as Vulnerable in the Red List of Armenia. It was recommended to protect the area where <em>Sicista armenica</em> was found, however, the project is still under revision by authorities.
20185		distribution	eng	This species is known only from several locations close to terra typica in SW Armenia, namely Lesser Caucasus, Pambakskiy Range, Marmarik River (Razdan River basin). Localities are summarized by Baskevich for Biodiversity Center <http://www.biodiversity.ru/programs/rodent/species/sicista_armenica.html> [in Russian]
20185		habitat	eng	The species occurs in subalpine meadows with tall grass on the higher forest border, conspecifics prefer clearings within forests.
20185		population	eng	The species is known by single findings.
20185		threats	eng	Overgrazing due to clearing of tall grasses is a major threat. Loss of tall grass from grass cutting for agriculture is also a threat in some areas. Habitat outside protected areas is projected to continue declining.
20186		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from protected areas in the Western Caucasus.
20186		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Caucasus. It is known from two localities in Russia (both in the south of Krasnodarsky Kray, at Teberda and Kavkazsky State Reserves (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1987; Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995). Also occurs in Georgia (A. Bukhnikashvili pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There have been reports of this species from the eastern Black Sea Mountains in northeastern Turkey, but these are problematic (Krystufek and Vohralik 2001, B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2008); if <em>Sicista</em> actually occurs in Turkey, then it is more likely to be <em>S. armenica</em> (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is difficult to determine the distribution of this species, because the main distinguishing trait of the species is chromosome number (2n=32), and birch mice with 2n=32 have only been karyotyped from a small number of sites (Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995).
20186		habitat	eng	The species occurs in subalpine meadows in tall grass at 1400 to 2,000 m. Optimal habitats occur at 1,500 m; rarely found in forests; active only 3-3.5 months/year; peak activity June-July. In captivity, the species feeds on insects, seeds and berries; litter size 4-6. Hibernates.
20186		population	eng	The species can represent up to 25% of small mammal captures at 1,500 m above sea level, with 1-24 individuals per 100 pitfall traps. It is found at lower densities in Georgia (A. Bukhnikashvili pers. comm.).
20186		threats	eng	Overgrazing is a major threat. Loss of tall grass from grass cutting for agriculture is also a threat in some areas. Areas of suitable habitat outside protected areas are projected to decline further (GMA SW Asia workshop, 2005).
20187		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. In China listed as Data Deficient, in Russia listed as Rare Species.
20187		distribution	eng	Distributed in NE China (Heilongjiang and Jilin), Ussuri region and from Sakhalin Island (Russia).
20187		habitat	eng	Inhabits conifer mountain taiga, mixed forest and meadow steppe habitats. Generally, birch mice are mostly active at night. They spend much of the day in shallow burrows. Species of this genus undergo a hibernation period lasting at least six months each year. Feeds mostly on seeds. Litter size is 4-6 young.
20187		population	eng	No data available. In Sakhalin and Russian Far East it is a naturally rare species.
20187		threats	eng	Unknown.
20188		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any of the protected areas within South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
20188		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northwestern South Asia, and central and southern China. In South Asia it occurs in northern India and northern Pakistan at elevations of 2,140 to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from Gansu, eastern Qinghai, Shaanxi, Sichuan and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008).
20188		habitat	eng	This occurs in alpine and sub alpine scrub zones in the Himalaya and grassy slopes of moist temperate montane forests (Roberts 1997), where it is seen in montane moist grassy slopes and terrace cultivation (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is a nocturnal, and fossorial species, that feeds on berries, fruits and seeds. Constructs a neatly woven ball of grass as a nest, located in crevices or bushes. It is believed to produce a single litter of three to six young annually.
20188		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
20188		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
20189		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be recorded from protected areas, it is not known whether the two localites are within the protected areas.
20189		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kazbegi District, Georgia (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1986; Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1987), and adjacent parts of Russia. The species has only been karyotyped at two isolated localities.
20189		habitat	eng	The species is known from areas with a mixed forest habitat and subalpic zone from 1,500 to 2,300 m. The species occurs in subalpine meadows in tall grass. Feeds on insects, fruits and seeds. Hibernates. Litter sizes range from 4 to 7. Generally, birch mice are mostly active at night. They spend much of the day in shallow burrows. Species of this genus undergo a hibernation period lasting at least six months each year.
20189		population	eng	The species is locally common in the northern part of its range (in Russia) and rare in Georgia.
20189		threats	eng	Overgrazing due to clearing of tall grasses is a major threat. Loss of tall grass from grass cutting for agriculture is also a threat in some areas. Habitat outside protected areas is projected to continue declining.
20190		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas. Further research on ecology, habitat status and conservation measures is required.
20190		distribution	eng	Distributed in steppes, forest and steppes and meadows in mountain forest zone (400 - 2200 m) in E Kazakhstan, Altai and SW Siberia (Russia).
20190		habitat	eng	Found in open places or with shrubs, meadows, fields close to small or light forests. Solitary. Active in dusk and night. Hibernates. Feed on invertebrates, seeds and berries. Reproduce once a yer (June-July), litter size is 4-5 young.
20190		population	eng	No data available, but usually not abundant.
20190		threats	eng	Unknown. Habitat loss may result in shrinking of the range.
20191		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas. Further research on ecology, habitat status and conservation measures is required.
20191		distribution	eng	<em>Sicista pseudonapaea</em> is known from middle mountain belt in the Altai Mountains (1,000-2,000 m).
20191		habitat	eng	Inhaits meadows, shrub areas and light larch mountain taiga in the south Altai Mountains. Active in dusk. Solitary. Hibernates during winter. Feed on invertebrates and seeds. Reproduce once a year.
20191		population	eng	No data availble, but it is known not to be abundant.
20191		threats	eng	Unknown. Habitat loss may result in shrinking of the range.
20192		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures apply to this species, however, it occurs in Tsentralno-Chernozemnyi State Reserve in Russia. Severtzov's birch mouse is listed in the Ukraine Red Data Book as a subspecies of <em>Sicista subtilis</em> under category III (rare but not threatened species).
20192		distribution	eng	This species occurs in SW Russia and Ukraine (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).
20192		habitat	eng	The species is poorly studied, has a scattered distribution, and is solitary and naturally scarce across the whole range. Distributed in steppe and forest-steppe zones and associated with meadows with high grasses. Feeds on seeds and insects. Reproduces once a year, after hibernation.
20192		population	eng	There are no data on population size. The species is naturally not abundant, but there is no evidence of population decline.
20192		threats	eng	The most significant threat to the species is habitat destruction, as the soil in its preferred habitats tends to be very good for cultivation.
20193		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures apply to the species, although it occurs in several protected areas.
20193		distribution	eng	Distributed in the area between Volga and Don Rivers, from Kursk District of S Russia to northern slopes of the Caucasus ridge (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The western limit of the range is not clear, but probably lies along the Dnepr River (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
20193		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the area between Volga and Don Rivers, from Kursk District of S Russia to northern slopes of the Caucasus ridge (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The western limit of the range is not clear, but probably lies along the Dnepr River (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
20193		habitat	eng	Inhabits floodplain meadows in the southern part of forest zone, steppes, and forest-steppes in mountain zone. Solitary, feeds on seeds, berries and insects; reproduces once a year after hibernation.
20193		habitat	eng	It inhabits floodplain meadows in the southern part of forest zone, steppes, and forest-steppes in mountain zone. A solitary species, it feeds on seeds, berries and insects and reproduces once a year after hibernation.
20193		population	eng	There are no data on population size. Widespread but not especially common.
20193		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size. The species is widespread but not especially common.
20193		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and fragmentation are occurring and reducing usable habitat.
20193		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and fragmentation are occurring and reducing usable habitat, but this is not considered a major threat at present.
20194		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Romanian Red List, and protected by national legislation. It receives strict legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix II).
20194		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Romanian Red List, and protected by national legislation. It receives strict legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It occurs in a number of protected areas.
20194		distribution	eng	<em>Sicista subtilis</em> has a continuous range extending from the Ukraine and the southern parts of Russia to the north western parts of China (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Isolated populations are found in Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria (a single locality only) and southeast Poland. It formerly occurred in Austria but is now regionally extinct (last recorded here in 1960: Spitzenberger 2002). In Serbia it is known from only one locality. Its altitude in Austria was recorded from <120 m (Spitzenberger 2002) to 1,680 m (Pucek 1982).
20194		habitat	eng	It occurs in steppe, rough grassland and pasture, open woodlands, and in field margins and shelter belts on cultivated land (Pucek 1982, 1999). It tends to prefer more open habitats than the northern birch mouse <em>Sicistica betulina</em>.
20194		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the steppe areas stretching across Europe to China. It occurs in steppe, rough grassland and pasture, open woodlands, and in field margins and shelter belts on cultivated land (Pucek 1982, 1999), and extends into semi-desert areas in parts of its range. It tends to prefer more open habitats than the northern birch mouse <em>Sicistica betulina </em>.
20194		population	eng	In Europe it tends to be rare, although it is locally common in at least parts of its global range, accounting for 25% of all rodents caught in north Kazakhstan (Pucek 1999). Little is known about population trends in this species, but its extinction in Austria suggests that in Europe at least its range may be contracting. The species has disappeared from large tracts of its former range in Hungary (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In Romania, the population is estimated at 2,000 individuals (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005).
20194		threats	eng	The species is susceptible loss of steppe habitat. In Romania, habitat loss due to agriculture and indirect mortality through pesticide use are the major threats (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006).  In Austria, <em>Sicista subtilis</em> occupied a very small and relict range. It went extinct as a result of the conversion of natural meadows adjacent to the reedbeds of Lake Neusiedl into improved grassland (Spitzenberger 2002).
20194		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to loss of steppe habitat. In Romania, habitat loss due to agriculture and indirect mortality through pesticide use are the major threats (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006).  In Austria, <em>Sicista subtilis</em> occupied a very small and relict range. It went extinct as a result of the conversion of natural meadows adjacent to the reedbeds of Lake Neusiedl into improved grassland (Spitzenberger 2002).
20195		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
20195		distribution	eng	Distributed from desert steppes in piedmonts to alpine belt in Tien Shan (except western ridges), possibly Tarbagatai.
20195		habitat	eng	Inhabit mountain forests, coniferous and broadleaf, alpine and subalpine belts. Found in shrub area in piedmont steppes. Most abundant in forest-madow and forest-steppe at lower and upper forest borders. Active mostly at dusk. Hibernates, active period depend on altitude and can be 3 to 5 months. In Issyk-kul region active from second half of May - beginning of June till beginning of October. Feed mainly on animals (insects, molluscs and earthworms) in spring and first half of summer. Starting from June seeds and berries dominate in the diet. Reproduce once per year (in firs half of July), litter size is 3-7 youngs.
20195		population	eng	Locally abundant, there are significant population fluctuations.
20195		threats	eng	Unknown.
20196		conservation	eng	Majority of the range occurs within Teberda State Reserve.
20196		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the northwestern Caucasus in the upper reaches of the North Klukhor River (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1987).
20196		habitat	eng	Inhabits subalpine zone (from 2100 m asl) of Southern slope of the Great Caucasus Ridge. Solitary, active in dusk. Hibernates during winter. Feed on invertebrates and seeds. Reproduces once a year in summer.
20196		population	eng	No data available.
20196		threats	eng	The species occurs in Teberda State reserve. No major threats, however, the species is naturally rare with small area of occupancy and low population density.
20209		conservation	eng	It is found in Cerro de Matatlan Biosphere Reserve and Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve.
20209		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western México, from south Sinaloa to south Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 3,050 m (Shump and Baker 1978).
20209		habitat	eng	This species prefers moist slopes covered with vines and shrubs in tropical or mixed tropical-boreal regions, including tropical deciduous forest and humid pine-oak forest. <br/><br/>Runways of this cotton rat are evident in thick grassy areas but are indistinct in brushy areas with little ground cover. This species constructs grass nests in a variety of places, including rotten pine logs, beneath volcano rocks, under piles of bark, and in grass-shrub clumps. In laboratory-raised animals, female produced offspring at 87 days and would have mated about 35 days earlier (Baker 1969 in Shump and Baker 1978).
20209		population	eng	This species has a low average density of between 0.023 and 0.52 individuals per hectare (Vazquez 1997).
20209		threats	eng	This species is experiencing deforestation for agriculture in many parts of its range. It is estimated to have lost at least 30% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (Carton de Granmont and Cuaron pers. comm.). The rate of deforestation is increasing across its range.
20210		conservation	eng	It occurs in a several protected areas throughout its range.
20210		distribution	eng	This species is intermittently distributed in savannas over northeast Colombia, north and east Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, and north Brazil (regional aspects of range amplified by Husson, 1978; Linares, 1998; and Voss, 1992) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). One peripheral record is present in Antioquia Colombia (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
20210		habitat	eng	This rat is mainly active during the day but may also be active at night if population is high. It is found in grassland or brushland at lower elevation, usually in dry regions. It feeds on green plant material, fungi, some seeds, and insects. Its nests are usually built under cover of logs, rocks, or dense clumps of grass. Occasionally, short burrows dug by other mammals are used as nest sites (Lord, 1999).
20210		population	eng	It is common species (Lord, 1999).
20210		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
20211		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20211		distribution	eng	The main range of this species is from southern Arizona southward through Sinaloa, Mexico. There is a disjunct population along the Colorado River in extreme western Arizona, extending marginally into adjoining California (and previously into Nevada where it is now considered extirpated).
20211		habitat	eng	Restricted to grassy habitats, including edges of ponds, along drainages, in riparian habitats, adjoining agricultural fields, and in arid grassy patches.
20211		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>At least one subspecies <em>S. a. arizonae</em> is extinct.
20211		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20212		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20212		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast Arizona, west central New Mexico, and southwest Texas (United States), south through interior México to Guanajuato and northwest Michoacán (Musser and Carleton 2005).
20212		habitat	eng	This cotton rat is found in a variety of grass and grass-shrub habitats, and Pinon Juniper forest. <br/><br/>Gestation is about 35 days and litters usually number 4 or 6 young. Young are raised in nests woven out of grasses; these can often be found by following a runway system. The young leave the nest when they are about one week old and begin to breed when they are about 6 weeks old (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
20212		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>One subspecies <em>S. f. goldmani</em> is considered to be extinct - this subspecies was located at the edge of the distribution in New Mexico.
20212		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20213		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
20213		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern and south-central United States; an isolated population also occurs in western Arizona and adjoining California (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005). Using genetic analysis, Carroll <em>et al</em>. (2005) showed that <em>S. hispidus</em> does not occur south of the United States, however, there analyses did not contain samples from immediately south of the Rio Grande in northern Mexico. Subspecies in Mexico and Central and South America formerly assigned to <em>S. hispidus</em> have been given specific status or assigned as to other species (Peppers and Bradley 2000; Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005). The northern edge of range of <em>S. hispidus</em> is unstable and dependent on weather patterns.
20213		habitat	eng	This species is most common in grassy habitats with dense vegetation, including tall-grass prairies, meadows, agricultural areas, and old fields. However, it also occurs in mesquite desert with little ground cover (Reid 2006).
20213		population	eng	This species is very abundant, and is increasing its distribution. Densities up to 112.5/ha have been recorded, although they typically average 10 - 12/ha. The species exhibits multi-annual variation in numbers.
20213		threats	eng	None known.
20214		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in two protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
20214		distribution	eng	This species is known only from high Andes in Azuay and Chimborazo provinces, Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 3,500 to 4,000 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
20214		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. This rodent was trapped near water, in a hole in a riverbank of a stream, and in a marshy areas; also it occurs in dense reed mat forming a quaking bog in the middle of a shallow lake (Barnet, 1999). Similar habitat preferences and run-making behavior has been reported for other Sigmodon species (i.e., Voss, 1992). One female specimen had four embryos (Barnet, 1999).
20214		population	eng	This species is rare, known from less than 10 specimens (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
20214		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture, which are accelerating across its range.
20215		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas occur within its range.
20215		distribution	eng	This species occurs in interior México, from southwestern Chihuahua and southern Nuevo Leon to central Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).
20215		habitat	eng	This stricly montane species is associated chiefly with mesic pine-oak habitat. In these areas, the species seems best adapted to mixed grass and shrub cover on shallow, rocky soils, even though they also have been caught in grassy meadows. <br/><br/>This species is known to construct nests, burrows, and runways. However, in areas of sparse vegetation with low shrubs for cover, runway systems are obscure or absent. In fact, little or no sign of this species may be present, making its presence difficult to detect (Shump and Baker 1978). The gestation period for this species is about 35 days (Baker 1969 in Shump and Baker 1978).
20215		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.
20215		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
20216		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. This species is found in multiple protected areas.
20216		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western México, from the coast of south Nayarit and southwest Zacatecas southwards to extreme southwest Chiapas, and eastward along interior arid basins as far as west Hidalgo, west Puebla, and northwest Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).
20216		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical dedicuous forest and agricultural land.
20216		population	eng	This species is common.
20216		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
20217		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20217		distribution	eng	From Durango, Mexico northward to the "sky islands" of the United States in two prongs: one to southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico, and the other to southwestern Texas. A northern outlier population may persist in the Guadalupe Mountains, Transpecos, Texas (Musser and Carleton 2005).
20217		habitat	eng	This species is found on grassy slopes in oak-pine woodlands, and montane meadows within Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir forests. It is often associated with rocks.<br/><br/>This species is especially vole-like. Its nests are sometimes constructed on the surface of the ground, in thickets of grass, or under clumps of vegetation. Underground nests are also used, and access to these is often provided through pocket gopher burrows. Green vegetation, including grass, is the major component of its diet, but prickly pear fruit is reported to be a popular item when and where it occurs. Reproduction apparently can occur throughout most of the year (except, at least in Arizona, during the most arid portions of the summer). Gestation lasts about 34 days. There are two to six young in a litter, and these young (rather than being naked, blind, and helpless like those of most other mice and rats) are amazingly precocial at birth; with a few hours a new-born rat looks and acts like a miniature adult (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
20217		population	eng	This species can be locally common. Listed as rare and local in the Chihuahua region of Mexico (Findley and Caire 1977). According to Schmidly (1977), relatively common in Big Bend National Park and the Davis Mountain region of Texas, but rare in Sierra Viejo.<br/><br/>Data on population trends seem to vary, as the species is said to be declining some areas but stable or extending its range in others.
20217		threats	eng	This species is primarily threatened by degradation and loss of habitat due to grazing, altered fire regimes, and urbanization.
20218		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Arenillas Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, and Cerros de Amotape National Park and Coto de Caza El Angolo - part of the Biosphere Reserve of the Noroeste, in Peru). In general, further research into this species is needed.
20218		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific coastal plain and contiguous Andean foothills of west Ecuador and northwest Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found from sea level to 1,600 m.
20218		habitat	eng	It is found in riverine habitats in primary and secondary dry forest. Animals have additionally been recorded from wet natural grasslands. It can be found in agricultural areas. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus (Alvarez <em>et al.</em>, 1984). It feeds on green plant material, fungi, some seeds, and insects. Its nests are usually built under cover of logs, rocks, or dense clumps of grass.
20218		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
20218		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species; however, it appears to be displaced by introduced murid rodents.
20221		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
20221		distribution	eng	This species is found from eastern Honduras to Panama, and from central and west Colombia to northwest Venezuela and northwest Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005).
20221		habitat	eng	This rodent is poorly known. It lives in wet lowland forest, secondary forest, cane fields, marshes, or cultivated areas near water. It swims well and is probably nocturnal (Reid 1997; Lord 1999). It seldom climbs, and it feeds on seeds and vegetation.
20221		population	eng	This species is locally common. However, it is generally rare north of Panama (Reid 1997) and in Venezuela it is not common (Lord 1999). In Colombia, this species is known from large surveys, but is poorly known in Venezuela where habitat is very disturbed (B. Rivas and R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).
20221		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
20222		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Costa Rica and Ecuador. Research is needed on all aspects of biology of this species.
20222		distribution	eng	This species is known from widely disjunct locations in Costa Rica (San Joaquín de Dota and Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve), Panama (Chiriquí, 24 km north-northwest of San Félix), and the western slope of Ecuador (Mt. Pichincha and Mindo) (McCain <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species has been recorded from 1,275 m asl to 2,000 m asl, although there is some uncertainty of this maximum elevation (possibly to 2,600 m) (see McCain <em>et al.</em> 2007).
20222		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in high elevation oak and cloud forest in Costa Rica. In Panama, it was found in disturbed, brushy, oak forest (Reid 1997).
20222		population	eng	This rat is rare; it is known from just seven specimens (R. Timm and F. Reid pers. comm.).
20222		threats	eng	The local threat to the species in Panama is copper mining, and the known locality is now essentially gone (although others may exist in Panama) – also this elevation on the Pacific slope of Panama has largely been eliminated by development. There are no known major threats to the species in Costa Rica or Ecuador, although there is considerable deforestation occurring in and around Mindo, Ecuador.
20223		conservation	eng	Management of coastal reserves with an emphasis on aquatic habitats is needed. New areas where S. sibayi may occur need to be explored and new conservation areas identified.
20223		distribution	eng	Described from Lake Sibayi and Kosi Bay, northern KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). Recently recorded from the Maputo Special Reserve (Bills 2001). Possibly more widespread in Maputaland but a small species that could be easily overlooked.
20223		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal freshwater lakes. Found over sand substrates where it buries itself.
20223		population	eng	Not common where sampled in Mozambique.
20223		threats	eng	Coastal dune mining, harbour developments and other tourist related coastal developments are potential threats.
20227		conservation	eng	None.
20227		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Dianchi, Yunnan Province, China. The species is not yet known from elsewhere but it maybe exists in some reservoirs, such as Songhuaba.
20227		habitat	eng	Lives in the littoral zone of the lake with plenty of waterweeds and is carnivorous. It stays at bottom of water by day and comes out to the surface of water seeking food by dawn and dusk.
20227		population	eng	Only ever known from Lake Dianchi itself, there hass no record of this species since 1970s. The population size is probably very small.
20227		threats	eng	Its loss from the lake is likely due to habitat loss and introduced fish species. This fish is relying on littoral zone with macrophytes, its disappearance from the lake is obviously related to loss of macrophytes, which result in these big fishes exposed in the shallow water and increased mortality from its natural enemy and human beings, and being short of food etc. Predation of eggs and juveniles by introduced species may also play an important role.
20229		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I and is protected by the Indonesian law. It currently occurs in only one officially protected area (Siberut National Park), and is never seen in captivity (M. Richardson pers. comm.). Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: ?1) increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement, 2) formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible, 3) protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971, 4) conservation education, especially regarding hunting, and 5) the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.?
20229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia. It is confined to the Mentawai Islands off the western coast of Sumatra (Pagai Selatan, Pagai Utara, Siberut, Sipora, and a few offshore islets).<br/><br/><em>S. s. concolor</em><br/>Occurs in the Mentawai Archipelago (Pagai Selatan, Pagai Utara, Sipora, and the nearby islets of Simalegu and Sinakak).<br/><br/><em>S. s. siberu</em> <br/>Occurs in the Mentawai Archipelago (Siberut).
20229		habitat	eng	This species is found in swamp forests and lowland rainforests (Tenaza 1987), as well as primary forests on the hillsides of the interior region of the islands (Tilson 1977). It is diurnal, semi-terrestrial, and primarily folivorous (D. Whittaker pers. comm.). The birth season is from June to July (Tilson 1977).
20229		population	eng	The Siberut subspecies has the largest population size, with an estimated 6,000-15,500 individuals within Siberut National Park. The southern subspecies is urgently in need of protective measures, with a total population of 700-1,800 individuals (Whittaker 2006). The current estimate for the species as a whole is therefore from 6,700 to 17,300 individuals, down from an estimated population of 26,000 in 1980. This represents a decline of 33 to 75% in 20 years. The most recent surveys of this species estimated densities from 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in unlogged forest, to 2.5 individuals in forest patches logged 20 years ago (Paciulli 2004). The mean population density for this species was estimated at 21 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in 1994 (Tenaza and Fuentes 1995). This would indicate a decline of 73 to 90% in 10 years (Whittaker 2006).
20229		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by heavy hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006). It is also threatened by conversion to oil palm plantations, and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). <br/>Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of improved access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with 177 caliber air rifles (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). <em>S. concolor</em> is the preferred game species of most Mentawai hunters (Mitchell and Tilson 1986; Fuentes 2002; Paciulli 2004). Tenaza (1989) estimated that twice as many individuals are killed by hunters each year as are born in the Pagai Islands. Animals are sometimes taken for the pet trade.
20288		distribution	eng	First described in 1986 from Lake Ravenel, Highlands, Macon County, North carolina (in the Upper Little Tennessee watershed). Has since also been found in ponds bordering the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
20290		conservation	eng	The Julia Creek Dunnart is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is present in several protected areas. A recovery plan has been developed for the 2000-2004 period (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000), and an updated recovery plan is being drafted.<br/><br/>Recommendations from the current recovery plan (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000), include: surveying to improve knowledge of the current distribution and critical habitat; studying the ecology and habitat requirements of the species; managing threats at key sites; developing management agreements with private landowners for the benefit of the species; maintaining the current captive breeding programs at La Trobe University and David Fleay Wildlife Park; and promoting community awareness, support, and participation in the recovery of the species.
20290		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-west Queensland, Australia.
20290		habitat	eng	This species is known from the Mitchell Grass downs, which are covered with cracking clay soils. It uses the cracks and dense vegetation (particularly Flinders grass) as cover (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). Females can raise two litters annually of up to eight young (Woolley 2008).
20290		population	eng	The Julia Creek Dunnart is rare and scattered through what appears to be large amounts of suitable habitat (Woolley 2008).
20290		threats	eng	Exotic predators (especially cats and foxes), grazing by sheep and cattle, as well as the presence of the prickly acacia (<em>Acacia nilotica</em>) have all been implicated as major threats to the species. Cats have been shown to prey heavily on Julia Creek Dunnarts (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). Introduced prickly acacia excludes an ample understorey for the species (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). Experiments eliminating grazing by sheep have shown to have little effect on the species, but there is some question about the methods used and the effects of cattle grazing are unknown (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). A recent study of habitat suitability, however, found that increased ground cover (in the absence of prickly acacia) and low levels of grazing were highly correlated with habitat suitability (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2007).
20293		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in at least two protected areas: Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve and Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area. There is a published recovery plan (Churchill 2001). A captive breeding program has begun at the Perth Zoo. Surveys are ongoing in the South Australia section of the Great Victoria Desert by the Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia. <br/><br/>Churchill (2001) lists several recovery actions, including: prevent further clearance of suitable habitat on Eyre Peninsula; conduct experimental burns in suitable habitat to promote the growth of spinifex on Eyre Peninsula; conduct a detailed biological survey of Eyre Peninsula and further surveys of the Great Victoria Desert; encourage the use of deep pitfall traps in small mammal surveys in central Australia and the northern regions of the Great Victoria Desert; implement monitoring programs for the key populations; study the species in captivity to examine reproductive biology.
20293		distribution	eng	This species was described from an animal collected in the Northern Territory in the late nineteenth century, however, it has not been recorded in this area since that time. Its current distribution includes areas of South Australia and Western Australia (south-western corner of the Great Victoria Desert) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). There are only two known range isolates within South Australia, and there have been some surveys in apparently suitable habitat between these two that have failed to locate additional populations. Surveys into eastern Western Australia also have been unsuccessful in recording the species.
20293		habitat	eng	This species is usually found is association with sand dunes with an understorey of Triodia (spinifex) hummock grass, and a overstorey that is can vary widely in species composition (Pearson and Churchill 2008). Little is known about the reproduction of this species; females have been seem with four and five young (Pearson and Churchill 2008). It appears that this species mates in September, with young born in September/ October, and pouch young weaned in December/ January (Churchill 2001). The diet of this species consists of a wide variety of invertebrates and some small reptiles and mammals (Churchill 2001).
20293		population	eng	This species is considered rare and is seldom collected and known from a few scattered localities (Pearson and Churchill 2008). From August 1999 to May 2001 a survey for this species was conducted in the southern Great Victoria Desert and Eyre Peninsula, which collected 29 specimens at five sites (Churchill 2001). Previously, from 1894 to 1999, this species was known from 31 individuals (Churchill 2001). It has been lost from 2 of 3 known sites in the Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area since 1984.
20293		threats	eng	There is a continuing decline in area of occupancy, extent and quality of habitat, number of locations, and number of mature individuals. due to predation from introduced species such as foxes and cats, combined with habitat modifications caused by changed fire regimes and the presence of livestock (Churchill 2001). Further research is needed to quantify these threats.
20294		conservation	eng	The entire known range of the species falls within Flinders Chase National Park. It is listed as Endangered Nationally (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999) and in South Australia (Schedule 7, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972). In the recovery plan for this species, Gates (2001b) lists the following actions as being needed: <br/><br/>1) Site protection and management of known populations. <br/>2) Clarification of distribution and threatening processes. <br/>3) Investigation of ecology and biology. <br/>4) Increase community awareness. <br/>5) Establishment of a captive colony. <br/>6) Recovery planning.
20294		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kangaroo Island, South Australia. All recent captures (since 1990) have come from the western end of Kangaroo Island in Flinders Chase National Park. Earlier records of the species came from the eastern end of the island, but it is likely no longer present there due to habitat modification (Gates 2001a,b). It has been recorded from near sea level to 270 m asl.
20294		habitat	eng	Kangaroo Island Dunnarts have been recorded from areas receiving between 480 and 800 mm annual rainfall. Of the 22 most recent records, 14 were collected from <em>Eucalyptus remota</em>/<em>E. cosmophylla</em> open low mallee, four from <em>E. baxteri</em> low woodland and three from <em>E. baxteri</em>/<em>E. remota</em> low open woodland (Gates 2001a,b). The diet of this species consists mostly of spiders, ants, beetles, scorpions, and sometimes centipedes and grasshoppers (Gates 2001a,b). Males usually survive for only one breeding season, while females may survive to breed a second year (Gates 2001a,b).
20294		population	eng	Prior to the most recent detailed surveys Kangaroo Island Dunnart was known only from seven specimens and three other records. An additional 22 records were obtained between 2000 and 2001 when the last surveys were undertaken using a full range of survey techniques (particularly pitfall traps) (Gates 2001a,b). Gates (2001b) estimates the total population of Kangaroo Island Dunnarts to be less than 500 individuals.
20294		threats	eng	Kangaroo Island Dunnarts are known from six trapping sites, but these should be treated as one location in terms of the IUCN Red List because they are all subject to a potential single catastrophic event and all may represent a single population (Gates 2001b).<br/><br/>Wildfires are the greatest potential threat facing Kangaroo Island Dunnarts and a single large wildfire could eliminate the species. Inappropriate fires management exacerbates the potential for an extensive fire. Another threat to Kangaroo Island Dunnarts is <em>Phytophthorra cinnamomi</em>, a water mold, that is destroying many heath species in the area, resulting in general changes in habitat structure that probably affect the species. Kangaroo Island Dunnarts may also be affected by introduced cats, although their impact is not well known (Gates 2001b). On the eastern end of Kangaroo Island, the preferred habitat of this species has been degraded by stock grazing, weeds, and other processes associated with fragmentation, such as land clearance for agriculture (Gates 2001b).
20295		conservation	eng	Butler’s Dunnart is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It does not occur within and any protected areas. A recovery plan was developed for the 2004-2008 period (Woinarski 2004). Recommendations from this plan include: establishing a recovery team; communicating information about the species to stakeholders; targeting research in order to make informed decisions (e.g., towards survey techniques, total number and distribution, population trends, habitat suitability, and threatening processes); minimize the impacts of feral cats; and improve fire management. The recovery plan also recommends further surveys in the Kimberley to locate this species, and these should be conducted in areas of similar habitat to the type locality, but that are less affected by human presence and its associated cats, dogs, and frequent burning of habitat (Woinarski 2004; Woolley 2008).
20295		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it has a very limited distribution. It is known to occur on the Tiwi Islands (Bathurst and Melville Islands), Northern Territory within 20 km of the coast (Woolley 2008). It was described from just a few specimens collected in 1965-1966 from Kalumburu in the Kimberley, Western Australia. Subsequent survey work has failed to locate the species in the Kimberley and its continued presence here is uncertain.
20295		habitat	eng	Little is known of the ecology of this species. It does not appear to be consistently associated with any particular habitat type on the Tiwi Islands (Woinarski 2004). All known records of the species, however, have come from within 20 km of the coast (Woolley 2008), and the species does not occur within plantation forests (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006). The habitat in the Kimberley was said to be heavily vegetated where backsoil country met sand plains, and the species was found among flood debris (Woinarski <em>et al.</em> 1996). Like other dunnarts, this species probably preys mainly upon invertebrates, but might also take small vertebrates (Woinarski 2005). Nothing is known about the reproductive biology of this species except that a female collected from the Kimberley was carrying seven pouch young (Woolley 2008).
20295		population	eng	Butler's Dunnart is a rare species. The overall population is likely to be less than 2,500 mature individuals. Only about 30 individuals have been located on the Tiwi Islands despite intensive survey work since 1991 (Woinarski 2004; Woolley 2008). The paucity of records might be due in part to conventional trapping techniques not being suited to this species (e.g., Elliott traps and pitfall traps) (Woinarski 2004). In any case, it is not a common species and its distribution within the islands is sparse. The population status in the Kimberley is unknown; it has not been located here since the 1960s.
20295		threats	eng	Because this species is rarely encountered, there is little certainty about the threats to it. Its rarity, however, is likely due to variety of threatening processes. Exotic predators (cats and possibly dogs), changes to the fire regime, and the destruction and degradation of habitat are all probable major threats (Woinarski 2004). Proposals to expand exotic tree plantations on Melville Island are a major concern, because the species is not found within existing plantations (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006).
20296		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from protected areas. There is a need to undertake further field surveys for this species, and studies of the habitat, threats, and ecological requirements are required in both Australia and New Guinea.
20296		distribution	eng	<p>This species has been collected in New  Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and in north-eastern Australia, mostly from near sea level (Kutt 2008). In New Guinea, it is known only from 16 specimens collected at Morehead and Mibini (Waithman 1979) and one specimen from Wipim. In Australia, it is known from 14 specimens collected from a number of different localities (see Woolley 2007). </p>  <br/>    <p><br/></p>
20296		habitat	eng	In Australia, it has been recorded from tall stringybark woodlands on red earth soils of the laterite-bauxite plateau, where canopy species include <em>Erythrophleum chlorostachys</em> and <em>Eucalyptus nesophylla</em>, with an understory of <em>Parinari nonda</em>, <em>Planchonia careyi</em>, <em>Grevillea parallela</em>, and <em>Acacia rothia</em> (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996), and also in more heath-type vegetation. The latest specimen, from Blackbraes National Park, was taken in bloodwood and ironbark eucalypt woodland on granite soils. In New Guinea, it was collected in mixed savanna grassland (Waithman 1979).
20296		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
20296		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but it may be threatened by predation by introduced cats and dogs.
20297		conservation	eng	The White-footed Dunnart is present in a number of protected areas. The Queensland population is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need to delineate distribution and ecology of this northern Queensland population and to research its taxonomic status. Populations in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania should be monitored, particularly in areas subject to disturbances which promote dense regrowth (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
20297		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has been recorded from southern Victoria, south-eastern New South Wales, and Tasmania (except in the south-west), including also Cape Barren, East Sister, and West Sister Islands. An outlier population occurs in north-eastern Queensland at above 750 m, where it is known from only three specimens (Menkhorst 2001; Lunney 2008).
20297		habitat	eng	In Tasmania, the White-footed Dunnart occurs in most vegetation types. On the mainland, it occurs in forests and woodlands with an open understorey of low density vegetation (Lunney 2008). It has been recorded in grassy fore-dune complexes in Victoria. In Queensland, it occurs in primary and secondary upland rainforest (Lunney 2008). The species is terrestrial and nocturnal.
20297		population	eng	This species is infrequently recorded, despite intensive survey work, and may have a sparse and patchy distribution (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The total population is estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals, with less than 1,000 in New South Wales, less than 2,000 in Victoria, and probably less than 5,000 individuals in Tasmania. The Queensland population is represented by only a few specimens, and the population size there is not well known. The subpopulations of the species undergo extreme fluctuations in numbers, regularly going through boom and bust phases, although no subpopulation is estimated to number more than 100 individuals.
20297		threats	eng	This is an early-mixed successional stage species and it has not been recorded from re-growth forest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Inappropriate fire regimes may result in some declines.
20299		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
20299		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to south-western Australia, and is only known from early 1840s.
20299		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not known.
20299		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
20299		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
20312		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the French law. There are no specific protection measures in place, but awareness has been raised among officials about the existence of this species. The two threatened localities in Corsica should receive monitoring and appropriate protection.&#160; The conservation status in Sardinia and Elba needs to be researched.
20312		distribution	eng	This European endemic is found in Sardinia, Elba and Corsica. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guidoni</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">simonettae</span> is found in Sardinia and Elba. <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guidoni </span><span style="font-style: italic;">guidoni</span> is found in Corsica with scattered occurrences over all of the island, but it is still unclear why it is found in some places and not in others.
20312		habitat	eng	The species is limited to limestone rocks, which are very rare in Corsica. It is a rock dwelling species.
20312		population	eng	There is no information on the population trend, but it is thought to be stable. In Corsica, there are 19 localities.
20312		threats	eng	In Corsica, the site at Corte is threatened by urbanisation and tourism activities (this locality is near a tourist attraction and herbicides are being applied and the rocks are being cleared for health and safety reasons). The site at Bastia is threatened by road enlargement. There are other undisturbed sites or the threats are not known.
20313		conservation	eng	The species is protected under French law and the local administration is aware about the existence of the populations.
20313		distribution	eng	This mollusc is a narrow endemic to France and Italy, where it occurs in the Alpes Maritime along the border between France and Italy. The area of occupancy is below 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
20313		habitat	eng	It is a Mediterranean rock-dwelling species on limestone. The populations are scattered and the reasons for this fragmentation are not known.
20313		population	eng	There are four localities in the French Valley of Royas and two localities in Italy. In the past, a larger distribution was suspected as suggested by one record from 1908 (Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2002).
20313		threats	eng	Quarrying and road enlargement might affect the few known localities. One road enlargement project has already been stopped because of the existence of this species.
20314		conservation	eng	Precis (from Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002): <br/>1. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998. <br/>2. All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999</em>. <br/>3. Australian Society for Fish Biology Listing : Data Deficient. <br/> <br/>More information (from Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003): <br/>All Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection.
20314		distribution	eng	<em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is an eastern Australian endemic pipehorse known from Lord Howe Island and southern Queensland (Qld.). It is known to occur to Forster in New South Wales (NSW) (Dawson 1985) and possibly as far south as Ulladulla (NSW) (Bowles and Martin-Smith 2003). Johnson (1999) noted that it is regularly washed up on ocean beaches in southern Queensland. FAO fisheries areas 71 (Queensland) and 81 (New South Wales). Follow the link below to see Figure 1: distribution map for <em>S. dunckeri</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs</strong>: <br/>Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Qld.
20314		habitat	eng	<em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is a benthic species occurring in continental shelf waters (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). It is known from a number of stranded specimens and from trawl collections in depths of 29 to 128 m. Fishers in south-eastern Australia report catching them on hard substrate (hard sand, shale, sandstone or gravel) in association with gorgonians, black corals, algae or sponges (Bowles 2001, Bowles and Martin-Smith 2003). Further <em>in situ</em> research is needed to confirm both general habitat use and specific habitat critical for particular life history stages (e.g., nursery areas, spawning grounds, etc). <br/> <br/><em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is ovoviviparous and males carry the eggs embedded in spongy tissue under the tail (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). Pear-shaped eggs that may be yellow, orange or amber are embedded in the epithelial tissue, and the surrounding capillaries supply oxygen to the embryos (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pregnant males have been found at total length as small as 33.7 cm and the species grows to a recorded maximum total length of 50 cm (Dawson 1985). The number of egg scars (a proxy for egg number) ranged from 29 to 120 with a mean of 84±24 sd for trawled specimens from southern Queensland (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is thought to have medium resilience to exploitation, based on a minimum population doubling time 1.4–4.4 years (Froese <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>It is believed that pipehorses rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet of this species is unknown, but like other species in the family, it probably feeds on small crustaceans (Texeira and Musick 1995, Texeira and Musick 2001, Woods 2002).
20314		population	eng	Not known.
20314		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is commercial trawling, where <em>S. dunckeri</em> is bycatch in prawn fisheries.  A secondary and related concern is the demand for pipehorses in traditional medicine. Animals taken in trawls as bycatch can be sold to Asian markets as medicinal ingredients. It is not known whether availability creates demand, but using fairly conservative estimates of the total retail trade in Hong Kong, Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. (2003) concluded that that all Australian exports of pipehoses, could be consumed in Hong Kong and still leave a shortfall. <br/> <br/>Between February 1998 and May 2000, a combined total of 2,380 kg of dried <em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> and <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> were taken in trawls by commercial fishers in the Queensland East Coast Otter Trawl Fishery. Exports from Australia generally consist of approximately 40% Duncker’s Pipehorse and 60% Hardwick’s Pipehorse (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001); major destinations include Hong Kong (62%), Taiwan (31%) and China (6%) (Environment Australia export data, unpublished, in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). These trades could potentially threaten the populations of these two species, particularly if current levels of exploitation continue. Data are not presently available to examine to what degree bycatch of pipehorses may subsidize the prawn fishery, but income generated from the sale of pipehorses is likely to be minimal relative to sales from the valuable primary target. <br/> <br/>Research by Martin-Smith and Vincent (in press) also points to the fact that illegal or un-reported exports may misrepresent true trade volumes, and hence do not accurately reflect potential threats. Comparison between Australian export data and import data for pipehorses into Hong Kong and Taiwan indicates large discrepancies (up to five-fold) (Martin-Smith and Vincent in press). This suggests that Australian exports may be significantly under-reported, where pipehorses are likely to have been recorded as seahorses through some combination of misidentification, translation and errors in data coding. Support for this view is provided by trade estimates of exports derived from interviews with pipefish processors in Australia: these match well with import figures from Hong Kong and Taiwan (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Relatively poor life history information presently exists for this species, where its inherent biology (reproductive rate, growth rate, etc.) may confer poor resilience to exploitation. This is thought to be the case for some other species of syngnathids (Foster and Vincent 2004).
20315		conservation	eng	Precis (from Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002): <br/>1. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998.  <br/>2. All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999</em>. <br/>3. Australian Society for Fish Biology: Data Deficient. <br/> <br/>More information (from Martin Smith <em>et al</em>., 2003): <br/>All Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection. In other range nations such as Indonesia and the Philippines, pipehorses are subject to the provisions of fisheries legislation but receive no specific protection.
20315		distribution	eng	South China Sea north to southern Japan, south to northern Australia. <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> is known from tropical and subtropical Australia, the South China Sea and Japan (Dawson 1985) as well as from the western Indian Ocean in Mauritius, although doubts have been expressed about whether all specimens represent a single species or a species complex (Kuiter 2000: see below). The type specimen for the species comes from China. In Australia it occurs in Western Australia, the Northern Territory and in Queensland southwards to the NSW-Queensland borders (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). Landings surveys confirm that <em>S. hardwickii</em> has been landed as far south as Ballina (NSW) (Bowles 2001). Russell (1983) reported it as rare in the Capricorn-Bunker section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In Western Australian waters it is has been found north of Onslow (21°38’S) (Allen and Swainston 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Museum Records (Australia)</u> <br/>29 specimens (Standard Length 235–440 mm), collected from depths of 20–180 m, ranging in geographical distribution from off Cairns (16°55’S), Qld, southwards to the Tweed River mouth (28°10’S), NSW on the east coast of Australia and on the west coast from north-east of Monte Bello Islands (20°03’S), WA northwards to north-east of Cape Lambert (19°15’S), WA. There are also two records from the Arafura Sea (08°53’S, 135°12’E and 09°42’S, 133°58’E), NT and one record from near Kempsey (31°05’S), New South Wales, but the Kempsey specimen has been destroyed, so the identification cannot be verified. Specimens were collected between 1894 and 1997. Additionally, 40 specimens (381–510 mm total length) are housed at Griffith University, Queensland that were collected in October 2000 in a depth range of 16–89 m between Shoalwater Bay (22°32’S) and Hervey Bay (24°55’S), Qld as part of a scientific trawling survey. <br/> <br/><strong>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs</strong>: <br/>Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Qld. <br/>This species possibly occurs in the following MPAs: <br/>Bowling Green Bay Fish Habitat Area A; Repulse Fish Habitat Area B; Mackay-Capricorn Marine Park, Qld; Broad Sound Fish Habitat Area, Qld; Bustard Fish Habitat Area A; Hervey Bay Marine Park, Qld. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>S. hardwickii</em>.
20315		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/><em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> is mostly known from trawled specimens captured from 12 m to 100 m depth (Dawson 1985), though it has been collected in depths of up to 180 m. Fishers in south-eastern Australia report catching  <em>S. hardwickii</em> in association with gorgonians, black corals, algae or sponges (Bowles 2001, Bowles and Martin-Smith, unpublished data). Positive correlations with the carbonate fraction of the seabed were found during trawl surveys in 1999 and it has been suggested that <em>S. hardwickii</em> is associated with deep edges of coral reefs (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). Further in situ research is needed to confirm both general habitat use and specific habitat critical for particular life history stages (e.g., nursery areas, spawning grounds, etc.) for <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em>. Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2001) suggest that habitat structure or other environmental variables may be important to the survival of this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Behaviour and Biology</strong>: <br/><em>Solegnatus hardwickii</em> is ovoviviparous and males carry the eggs embedded in spongy tissue under the tail (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). Pear-shaped eggs that may be yellow, orange or amber are embedded in the epithelial tissue, and the surrounding capillaries supply oxygen to the embryos (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pregnant males have been found at total length as small as 29.6 cm (Dawson 1985), and the species grows to a recorded maximum total length of 50 cm (Dawson 1985). The number of egg scars (a proxy for egg number) ranged from 19 to 207 with a mean of 117 ± 64 sd for trawled specimens from southern Qld (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). Using modal progression analysis Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2001) calculated a growth rate of 0.25–0.33 mm d<sup>-1</sup> for females and 0.29–0.50 mm d<sup>-1</sup> for males over the size range 30–45 cm. Limited otolith work estimated age at 3–5 years for these trawled individuals (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). Pipehorses probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet is unknown, but like other species in the family, it probably feeds on small crustaceans (Teixeira and Musick 1995, Teixeira and Musick 2001, Woods 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Size</strong>: <br/><em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> attains a total length of at least 510 mm (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001).
20315		population	eng	A scientific trawling survey carried out in October 1999 between Hervey Bay and Shoalwater Bay in Queensland provides the first density estimates for this species (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the abovementioned study, density estimates for <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> range from 0 to 128 individuals per km² (mean 3.2 km<sup>-2</sup> ± 12.9 sd). Within this study region populations were very patchily distributed and the sex ratio was even (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). No information is available from any other populations in the species’ range.
20315		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is commercial trawling, where <em>S. hardwickii</em> is bycatch in prawn and scallop fisheries. A secondary and related concern is the demand for pipehorses in traditional medicine. Animals taken in trawls as bycatch are sold to Asian markets as medicinal ingredients. It is not known whether availability creates demand, but using fairly conservative estimates of the total retail trade in Hong Kong, Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. (2003) concluded that that all Australian exports of pipehoses, could be consumed in Hong Kong and still leave a shortfall. <br/> <br/>Between February 1998 and May 2000, a combined total of 2,380 kg of dried <em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> and <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> were taken in trawls by commercial fishers in the Queensland East Coast Otter Trawl Fishery. Exports from Australia generally consist of approximately 40% Duncker’s Pipehorse and 60% Hardwick’s Pipehorse (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001); major destinations include Hong Kong (62%), Taiwan (31%) and China (6%) (Martin-Smith and Vincent, in press). These trades could potentially threaten the populations of these two species, particularly if current levels of exploitation continue. Data are not presently available to examine to what degree bycatch of pipehorses may subsidize the prawn fishery, but income generated from the sale of pipehorses is likely to be minimal relative to sales from the valuable primary target. <br/> <br/>Research by Martin-Smith and Vincent (in prep) also points to the fact that illegal or un-reported exports may misrepresent true trade volumes, and hence do not accurately reflect potential threats. Comparison between Australian export data and import data for pipehorses into Hong Kong and Taiwan indicates large discrepancies (up to five-fold) (Martin-Smith and Vincent in prep). This suggests that Australian exports may be significantly under-reported, where pipehorses are likely to have been recorded as seahorses through some combination of misidentification, translation and errors in data coding. Support for this view is provided by trade estimates derived from interviews with pipefish processors in Australia: these match well with import figures from Hong Kong and Taiwan (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>No life history information presently exists for this species, where its inherent biology (reproductive rate, brood size, growth rate, etc.) may confer poor resilience to exploitation.  This is thought to be the case for some other species of syngnathids (Foster and Vincent 2004).
20316		conservation	eng	<p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <em>S. lettiensis</em> has been identified or protected under several pieces of legislation. All syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). All syngnathids and solenostomids were listed as marine species under section 248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999 </em>(Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In addition to legislative protection, monitoring the bycatch of this species in Australian trawl fisheries will provide baseline data on the species’ distribution and abundance in Australian waters (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). The designation of suitably located non-trawl protected areas within its range where possible commercial trawling occurs (i.e., northern Australian waters or perhaps <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) may be crucial to its survival (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</span></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in the 2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007). </span>
20316		distribution	eng	<p><em>Solegnathus lettiensis</em> is a temperate to tropical western Pacific pipehorse (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989) that occurs in <st1:state w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:state> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). In <st1:state w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:state>, it is known from <st1:city w:st="on">Albany</st1:city> (117°52’E) to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">North West</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype></st1:place> (22°S) (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989).</p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>    <p>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): there are 25 specimens (standard length 230-518 mm), collected from a depth range of 42-169 m (also beach wash-ups), ranging in geographical distribution from the Indian Ocean (17°30’S, 121°19’E), WA, southwards to <st1:city w:st="on">Albany</st1:city> (35°S), WA, and also from the Arafura Sea (10°S, 130°10’E), NT and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Specimens were collected between 1932 and 1990.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): it is possible that <em>S. lettiensis</em> occurs in the Abrolhos Islands Fish Habitat Protection Area, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:place></st1:state>.</p>
20316		habitat	eng	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus lettiensis </em>is a benthic inhabitant of outer continental shelf waters (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989), and has been captured from depths of 42-180 m. </p>    <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology</p>  <p>Although all members of the genus <em>Solegnathus </em>have males that carry eggs on the underside of the tail (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985), nothing more is known about the biology of this species. Pipehorses probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet is unknown but like other species in the family, <em>S. lettiensis</em> probably feeds on small crustaceans (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<strong></strong></p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>  <p>Size</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus lettiensis </em>reaches a maximum total length of approximately 525 mm (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). <em></em></p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>  <p>Critical Habitats </p>  <p>No critical habitats have been identified. It is likely that this species has specific habitat preferences that determine its abundance within its range, but little or no research has focused on the critical habitats for this species. Pipehorses are likely to be demersal and associated with habitat structure as all have been caught by benthic or demersal gear together with sessile species such as sponges, corals, and gorgonians.</span></p>
20316		population	eng	<p>Nothing is known about the population size or structure of this species.</p>
20316		threats	eng	<em>S. lettiensis</em> is listed as being caught in trawls in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984), although there is limited commercial trawl fishing within the range of this species in Western Australian waters (B. Hutchins, pers. comm.). There is no information about the impact of trawling on populations outside of Australian waters. Trawling bycatch of this species is a potential threatening process, as individuals caught in trawls may not survive the removal from deep waters.</span>
20317		conservation	eng	<p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <em>S. robustus</em> has been identified or protected under several pieces of legislation. All syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002) All syngnathids and solenostomids were listed as marine species under section 248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999 </em>(Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in its <u>2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes</u><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span>document, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007).</p>
20317		distribution	eng	<p><em>Solegnathus robustus </em>is endemic to the coastal waters of southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). The species has been verified to be found from Spencer Gulf (Port Weyland) westwards to Flinders Island in South Australia&#160; (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species is suspected to occur beyond the known distribution, however further scientific surveys in the <st1:place w:st="on">Great  Australian Bight</st1:place> are needed to validate this suspected range extension.</span>  </p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>    <p>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): there are 25 specimens (standard length to 300 mm), trawled from a depth range of 55–68 m (many specimens do not have depths recorded), ranging in geographical distribution from Port Weyland (34°56’S, 137°05’E), SA westwards to Flinders Island (33°43’S, 134°31’E), SA. Specimens were collected between 1909 and 1982.</span></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): it is possible that that <em>S. robustus </em>occurs in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Great Australian  Bight</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Marine</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Australia</st1:place>. </span></p>
20317		habitat	eng	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus robustus</em> is a temperate-water pipehorse, which occurs in benthic habitats of the continental shelf (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989) and has been recorded in depths of 42-68 m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology</p>  <p>The smallest examined brooding male of this species was 314 mm total length (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). Males of all species within the genus <em>Solegnathus</em> allow females to deposit eggs on the underside of their tales (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). Pipehorses probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet is unknown but like other species in the family, <em>S. robustus</em> probably feeds on small crustaceans (Pogonoski et al. 2002).</p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p>Size<u></u></p>  <p><em>Solegnathus robustus</em> attains a total length of at least 350 mm (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). <em></em></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p>Critical Habitats</p>  <p>No critical habitats have been identified. It is likely that this species has specific habitat preferences that determine its abundance within its range, but little or no research has focused on the critical habitats for this species.</p>
20317		population	eng	<p>No information is available regarding population dynamics for <em>S. robustus</em>, including any evidence of population increases or declines.</p>
20317		threats	eng	<p>Commercial trawl fishing in the <st1:place w:st="on">Great  Australian Bight</st1:place> has been suggested as a potential threat to this species, as individuals could be captured as bycatch (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, no information exists on verified threats to the species.</p>
20318		conservation	eng	<p>In Australia, <em>S. spinosissimus </em>has been identified or protected under several pieces of legislation. All syngnathids are listed as Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria, Australia and the <em>Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995</em> prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania by non-permit holders, since September 1994 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). As well, all syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>., 2002) All syngnathids and solenostomids were listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999 </em>(Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in its 2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes document, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007). In an Australian overview of the conservation status of threatened marine fishes, it was recommended that further research be conducted in order to accumulate information on the basic biological and population dynamics characteristics of this species (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). In addition, the collection of accurate distributional and depth data was recommended in order to identify key habitats (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) also suggest non-trawl protected areas within the range of <em>S. spinosissimus.</em> Non-trawl areas would protect some wild populations from possible bycatch threats. In addition, monitoring of bycatch from the trawl fisheries would allow for baseline data to be accumulated on abundances, distributions and habitats (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Marine protected areas established in Australia on 28 June 2007 contain benthic sanctuary zones that will allow for some protection of wild populations in addition to providing opportunities to collect baseline data.<strong></strong></p>
20318		distribution	eng	<p><em>Solegnathus spinosissimus</em> occurs in south-eastern Australia along the coasts of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania (May and Maxwell 1986) and also in New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989). This species has also been recorded from off Brisbane (Queensland), and in South Australian waters (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994), although the South Australian specimen identifications have not been confirmed. </p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>    <p>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): there are 176 specimens (Standard Length 138-470 mm), trawled from depths of 2-640 m, ranging in geographical distribution from Caloundra (26°48’S), Queensland, southwards to Lune River (43°26’S), Tasmania. There are also records from New Zealand. Specimens were collected between <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span> 1885 and 2000.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): this species possibly occurs in marine protected areas with suitable habitat along the coasts of Queensland, NSW and Victoria, but particularly Tasmania as they are known to occur in shallow waters in that State. New marine protected areas that were declared on 28 June 2007 (came into effect on 3 Sep 2007) where <em>S. spinosissimus </em>may occur are:</p>  East Gippsland, Flinders, Freycinet, Huon, Tasman Fracture, Franklin, Boags, Apollo and Zeehan (see online map of the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mpa/southeast/index.html">Commonwealth marine reserves in the south-east marine region of Australia</a>)</span>
20318		habitat	eng	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus spinosissimus </em>is most commonly taken by trawl in areas with muddy bottoms at depths of 29-232 m, but it occurs as shallow as 2-3 m in the Derwent & Huon Estuaries, Tasmania (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994, Davey and Martin-Smith, unpub. data). It is found in shallow waters in the southern part of its range where waters are shaded or are darkened by tannins. This species is often found over rubble substrates and near rich invertebrate platform reefs (Kuiter, 2000). It is sometimes found on beaches after storms and has occasionally been collected in depths up to 670 m. This species probably attaches itself to encrusting animal growths on deep rocky reefs (Ayling and Cox 1982). Divers in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel and Huon Estuary in Tasmania have observed <em>S. spinosissimus</em> holding on to sea whips at 10-15 m depth&#160; (Edgar 1997,&#160; Davey and Martin-Smith unpub. data). In this habitat, they probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. In New Zealand, <em>S. spinosissimus</em> has been observed in Fiordland at 20-30 m attached to gorgonians or other habitat forming benthos (K. Miller pers. comm..)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology</p>  <p>The female attaches eggs to the underside of the male’s tail, just behind the anus, as pipehorses lack a brood pouch structure (Francis 1996). The male carries the eggs until they hatch (Francis 1996). Brood size is approx. 200 (Davey and Martin-Smith unpub. data). The young are benthic and have no pelagic stage (Kuiter 2000). <em>Solegnathus spinosissimus</em> anchor themselves to holdfasts such as seaweed or sea fans while feeding on planktonic crustaceans (Francis 1996).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Size</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus spinosissimus </em>attains a maximum length of 50 cm (Francis 1996). FishBase lists the maximum total length for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. spinosissimus</span> as 49 cm (May and Maxwell 1986, as cited by Froese and Pauly 2007)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Critical Habitats </p>  No critical habitats have been identified. It is likely that this species has specific habitat preferences, particularly for habitat forming benthos, that determine its abundance within its range, but little or no research has focused on the critical habitats for this species. </span>
20318		population	eng	There is little information available regarding the population size or dynamics of <em>S. spinosissimus</em>. A small-scale study of <em>S. spinosissimus</em> in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel, Tasmania suggested that the species is rare/scarce and found in low abundance (Davey and Martin-Smith, unpub. data).
20318		threats	eng	Commercial fish and prawn trawling are potential threats to the survival of this species as they are taken as bycatch in these trawl and Danish seine fisheries (Ayling and Cox 1982, AFMA 1999, Bowles 2001, Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Martin-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003, Martin-Smith and Vincent 2006). Specimens caught as trawl bycatch will not likely survive if released due damage to internal organs that occurs when caught and brought to the surface, also termed prolapse (K. Graham, pers. comm.). Prolapse has been observed in animals brought to the surface from <5 m depth (Martin-Smith, unpub. data).
20320		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Pico Cristal and Alexander Humboldt National Parks.
20320		distribution	eng	This species is only known from southeastern Cuba, however, remains have been found from Late Quaternary and Amerindian sites all over the island (Ottenwalder, 2001 in Hutterer, 2005).
20320		habitat	eng	The Cuban solenodon is found in dense, humid forests and brush country. Small frogs, insects and spiders, found in soil and in leaf litter form most of its diet. Solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws. This species is mainly nocturnal, hiding during the day in rock clefts, hollow trees, or burrows which it excavates itself. Adult Cuban solenodons are solitary, other than mothers with young. Litter size is 1 or 2 young. The young are born in a nesting burrow. Young remain with their mother for several months (Varona, 1980; Ottenwalder, 2001 in Hutterer, 2005; pers. comm. Juan Soy).
20320		population	eng	By 1970, some thought that the Cuban solenodon had become extinct, since no specimens had been found since 1890. However, three were captured in 1974 and 1975, and subsequent surveys showed that it still occurred in many places in central and western Oriente Province, at the eastern end of Cuba. However, it is rare everywhere. It is considered to be even more rare than <em>S. paradoxus</em> (pers. comm. Carlos A. Mancina).<br/><br/>The last alive specimens of <em>S. cubanus</em> were found in Sierra del Cristal National Park in 1998 and Alexander Humboldt National Park in 2003, Holguin Province. One specimen was found dead in 2005 (pers. comm. Juan Soy).
20320		threats	eng	Feral dogs and cats are probably the greatest threat to this species. In addition to predation by introduced predators, habitat loss is also a factor contributing to the solenodon's rarity. The Cuban solenodon is not hunted for food.
20321		conservation	eng	It is protected by law in the Dominican Republic (General Environmental Law 64 - 00). There is a recovery Plan published in 1992 which suggested comprehensive surveys, and management in the National Park Pic Macaya, and education, and the control of exotic mammals, and breeding programmes. At the moment it is not being implemented (Samuel Turvey pers. comm.). It is found in most protected areas in the Dominican Republic (Sixto Inchaustegui pers. comm.). It is one of the species that lives in both the Caribbean Biodiversity Hotspot and the Greater Antillean Moist Forests Ecoregion (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998).
20321		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Massif de la Hotte (Haiti) and the Dominican Republic.
20321		habitat	eng	The Haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country, as well as around plantations. It is mainly nocturnal, hiding during the day in rock clefts, hollow trees, or burrows which it excavates itself. Its diet includes insects and spiders found in soil and leaf litter. Solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws. This species is relatively social, and up to eight individuals may inhabit the same burrow. Litter size is 1 or 2 young. The young are born in a nesting burrow. Young solenodons remain with their mother for several months, which is exceptionally long for insectivores.
20321		population	eng	This species is rare. In Haiti the species could be considered Critically Endangered because there is an isolated population with a range less than 100 km², threatened by habitat loss and persecution (S. Turvey and L. Davalos pers. comm.).
20321		threats	eng	The most significant threat to this species appears to be the continuing demise of its forest habitat and predation by introduced rats, mongoose, cats and dogs, especially in the vicinity of settlements. In Haiti persecution and hunting for food (Samuel Turvey pers. comm.) is a threat, and there is devastating habitat destruction also occurring.
20322		conservation	eng	None.
20322		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to the Dominican Republic.
20322		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species, it was the smallest of the Solenondons. Solenodon species generally occur in forests and occasionally plantations. During the day they shelter in caves, rocky crevices, hollow trees, logs, or burrows they dig. Nests are commonly built in the breeding season. They are predominantly nocturnal and forage on invertebrates, reptiles, fruit and vegetables, although they have been reported to eat poultry.
20322		population	eng	This species is known from recent fossil deposits suggesting that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
20322		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most probable reason for the extinction of this species. Fossil deposits of this species have been found with rat fossils. Deforestation, increased human activity, predation by introduced cats and dogs have also  been implicated as possible causes of the extinction of this species.
20332		conservation	eng	Knuckles Forest Reserve and Hakgala Reserve are the two protected areas it has been recorded from (W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake pers. comm. 2005; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20332		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central highlands of Sri Lanka at an altitudinal range of 950 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20332		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from primary tropical evergreen forests where it inhabits wet patana grasslands. Four individuals have been trapped in long grass. This species may be semifossorial (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20332		population	eng	Population information is unknown.
20332		threats	eng	This species is restricted to a small area of declining habitat. Fires, cardamon plantations, and other more general forms of habitat loss are threatening these areas.
20333		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat requirements, current range, and habitat status of this species. Important areas of habitat for this rare species should be identified and protected. Community awareness and involvement are essential for the conservation of this species (Pikacha 2008).
20333		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea), and Choiseul (Solomon Islands). It has been recorded as fossil remains on the island of Buka, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). Recent indications are that it has lost at least 80% of its habitat in a very short period. Its elevational range is from sea level up to 200 m asl.
20333		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected in a swampy area, where they were found in a large stick nest on the branch of a huge forest tree (Flannery 1995). It does not appear to occur in modified habitats. Further records have all been found in lowland swamp forest. It is an arboreal species.
20333		population	eng	It is a rare species.
20333		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging, most especially selective logging of trees used for nesting. This species is hunted on both Choiseul and Bougainville and there has also been increased hunting pressure on the latter in recent years.
20334		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Field surveys during 1987 and 1991 failed to locate the species, although it is possible that it is still extant (Flannery 1995). Further field studies are needed on Florida Island and on Makira Island, as is protection of any remaining areas of suitable habitat.
20334		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected on Florida Island (= Nggela Sule a land-bridge extension) in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). There is debate about the true locality of this species; it may well be from Makira Island, though we do not map this island. A large <em>Solomys</em> has been recorded from Makira, but was never collected (seen in 1996 by R. James but eaten by a dog).
20334		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not known.
20334		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype. Flannery (1995) states that with the deforestation of Florida Island, this species may already be extinct, but that further surveys are warranted. These islands have not been properly surveyed for this species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
20334		threats	eng	Florida Island has been badly deforested for timber and conversion of forest to cultivated land.
20335		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, habitat requirements, habitat status, and conservation measures for this species. Important areas of suitable habitat should be protected to ensure the survival of this species, and community awareness and involvement are key to this effort (Pikacha 2008).
20335		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and Choiseul (Solomon Islands). It is also known from fossil remains on Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. All records are from below 200 m asl on Bougainville, but it has been recorded possibly as high as 400 m on Choiseul (near Olivetti Village at 200-400 m; Pikacha 2008). The area of the two islands is 12,000 km².
20335		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in nests of leaves within hollow trees, presumably within tropical moist forest. Females may give birth to a single young. It is an arboreal species.
20335		population	eng	Historical records suggest it may have been common at one time, but it is not common today.
20335		threats	eng	The species is threatened by logging, especially the selective logging of large roosting trees, and by hunting. There has been increased hunting pressure on Bougainville in recent years. Predation by cats may also be a problem, but this requires confirmation.
20336		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history, habitat status, threats, and conservation measures for this species. Important areas of suitable habitat should be protected to ensure the survival of this species.
20336		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Santa Isabel Island in the Solomon Islands. It is possible that this species (or a congener) once occurred on Malaita Island (and possibly San Cristobal Island) from where it is now considered to be extinct (Flannery 1995). It has been collected at 30 m asl.
20336		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical moist forest. It is reportedly arboreal, and may rely on large forest trees for nesting sites.
20336		population	eng	It is moderately common, although it appears to be declining most particularly in the south-west of the island (Flannery 1995).
20336		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for timber, and conversion of land to cultivated use. It is also threatened to some degree by hunting for food by local people.
20340		distribution	eng	Canada and the United States. Current population size is unknown.
20340		habitat	eng	Pools in sphagnum bogs.
20340		population	eng	It is a widespread species, but one that is very rarely seen or collected.
20341		conservation	eng	<em>S. calverti</em> is present in some protected areas. Research and surveys urgently needed to establish habitat status and population numbers.
20341		distribution	eng	The species is found in the United States of America.
20341		habitat	eng	Rough habitat of this species is woodland, presumably quite specific water locations due to is being rarely encountered.
20341		population	eng	Populations must be small because <em>S. calverti</em> is rarely encountered.
20341		threats	eng	<em>S. calverti</em> is experiencing logging to the woodland where adults are seen and the threat of drought to small-sized breeding habitats is likely to occur in the future.
20342		conservation	eng	Has been listed as Endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, despite the ongoing surveys have revealed its presence in more localities than many other non-listed North American species. Eight known extant sites are designated as nature preserves (public or private). Purchase unprotected tracts in Wisconsin. Recovery plan has been drafted (Zercher 2001). Manage habitat in Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Missouri. Develop an educational program.
20342		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Currently known from 42 locations: 9 in Illinois, 20 in Wisconsin, 10 in Michigan, and at least 3 sites in Missouri. Extirpated in Ohio, Alabama and Indiana.
20342		habitat	eng	Shallow wetlands overlying dolomitic limestone bedrock; calcareous water from intermittent seeps, shallow small channels and/or sheetflow (Bick 2003). The odd specialization of this species is its apparent requirement of burrows of a certain geometry in fens that essentially dry out in the late summer. Its burrows of choice so far have been those of a large crayfish, <em>Cambarus diogenes</em>, which for some reason does not consume them.
20342		population	eng	Based on mark recapture work in Illinois and Wisconsin, probably >30,000 individuals globally; 20,000 of these may occur in Door County, Wisconsin.
20342		threats	eng	Narrow ecological requirements and vulnerability to habitat degradation and destruction (Cashatt and Vogt 2001).  Extant occurrences are threatened by the following activities: petroleum refineries and other heavy industry, a proposed highway project, quarrying, urban non-point water pollution, and ATV use in Illinois; agricultural non-point water pollution (surface and groundwater) and recreational development in Wisconsin. Most significant threats are habitat/alteration/destruction from development of commercial and residential areas, quarrying, creating landfills, constructing pipelines, and filling of wetlands (Zercher 2001).
20343		conservation	eng	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves.  It is listed in Wisconsin as Endangered (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources: http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/er/biodiversity/index.asp?mode=detail&Grp=12).
20343		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and seven states in the United States of America.
20343		habitat	eng	The species is found at sphagnum pools in poor fens.
20343		population	eng	<em>S. incurvata</em> is locally common in many populations.
20343		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
20344		distribution	eng	Endemic to two states in the United States (Louisiana and Texas). The species currently is known from six counties in these two states.
20344		habitat	eng	Low, gently rolling, clear, sandy streams or possibly forest seepages.
20344		population	eng	Only seven locations are known.
20344		threats	eng	Unknown.
20345		conservation	eng	Found in Ozark and Ouachita National Forests, and Lake Sylvia Recreation Area in Arkansas, and in Woodson County State Lake Area in Kansas.
20345		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States.
20345		habitat	eng	Forest streams with moderate riffles.
20345		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
20345		threats	eng	Deforestation, development, pollution.
20348		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but this species has been assessed as Data Deficient on the 1996 Red List (IUCN 2009). Future research is recommended to ascertain the taxonomy and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
20348		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Broad River and three major tributaries in Georgia (Burch 1989). This species occurs in less than ten known locations. Originally this species was only know from the type locality, however surveys conducted in 1995 found it at five additional sites expanding the range extent by several dozen square km. Suitable habitat still exists so it will likely be found in more locations. The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 250 km²<sup></sup>.
20348		habitat	eng	Snails have been collected from the undersides of cobbles and boulder-sized particles in shallow rocky rapids in a medium sized river. It is occasionally found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Sagittaria </span>stems in riffles (Thompson 1969).  Watson (2000) found this species in the Broad River and three tributaries in rapids with boulder or cobble substrate; typically on the undersides and downstream sides of rocks and often in crevices and around the base of river weed stems.
20348		population	eng	This species is known from at least six sites; probably more as it was described from the Broad River, Elbert Co., Georgia (Thompson 1969). In a 1995 survey of 27 sites in the Broad River of northeast Georgia, Watson (2000) found it at six sites on the Broad River and three of its major tributaries, extending the range of this species beyond Ebert Co. (Burch 1989) downstream to the mouth of the Broad River at Anthony Shoals and upstream into the three tributaries (Middle Fork Broad, South Fork Broad, Hudson Rivers).<br/><br/>Watson (2000) found it to be abundant at all sites in the Broad River and tributaries except Hudson River, with an abundance of suitable habitat; there was additional suitable habitat in the drainage that could not be reached during the survey.
20348		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
20351		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is required to establish whether this species is still present and  resolve the taxonomic issues before an accurate assessment can be made.
20351		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely limited distribution in the Tennessee River in Alabama and Tennessee (Burch and Tottenham 1980, Burch 1989).  It is very poorly known and endemic to the Tennessee River but has not been seen in some time since the river was impounded post-1936 (Mirarchi 2004). A purported finding by Doug Shelton in a 1997 survey in Marion Co., Tennessee, has yet to be verified by voucher material. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.
20351		habitat	eng	The species is endemic to the Tennessee River but has not been seen since its impoundment.
20351		population	eng	This species may still be extant; a purported finding by Doug Shelton in a 1997 survey in Marion Co., Tennessee, has yet to be verified by voucher material.  Webb and DeJarnette (1942) found weathered dead specimens in an archaeological shell midden survey in the Pickwick Lake region of Lauderdale Co., Alabama.
20351		threats	eng	The major threat to the global population of this species is impoundment of the river drainages. This has been the reason for the species potential disappearance from the Tennessee River.
20352		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species was classified as Critically Endangered under criterion B1+2c in 2000 by the IUCN Red List (ver 2.3) and is thought to possibly be extinct. Targeted surveys are needed to determine the status of this species. Further  research is needed to ascertain the taxonomy and presence of this  species before an accurate assessment can be made.
20352		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known, but was once endemic to the Tennessee River in Alabama and known only from the Muscle Shoals region (type locality). However, it has not been reported there since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004) and may possibly be extinct (IUCN 2009).
20352		habitat	eng	The species is historically known from the Tennessee River in Alabama in the Muscle Shoals region.
20352		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
20352		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution making it vulnerable to random deleterious events. Impoundments are likely to be responsible for the species potental disappearance from the river (Mirachi<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004).
20353		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is required to ascertain the taxonomy and presence of this species.
20353		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known, but is endemic to Coosa River, Alabama. However, it has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004).
20353		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are poorly known, but it is endemic to the Coosa River, Alabama.
20353		population	eng	A recent survey found <span style="font-style: italic;">Somatogyrus </span>species in only 15 of 178 sites examined in the Coosa River, but these were not identified to species (Bogan and Pierson 1993).
20353		threats	eng	The major threat to this species has been impoundment of the river drainages. Impoundments are likely to be responsible for the species potential disappearance from the river (Mirachi 2004).
20355		conservation	eng	This species is classified as Extinct (IUCN 2009).
20355		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the North Fork of the White River in Baxter County, Arkansas (Robison and Allen 1995). The only known specimen is the type specimen (Walker 1915, Hinkley 1915).
20355		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species, but it is only known from the North Fork of the White River in Baxter County, Arkansas (Robison and Allen 1995).
20355		population	eng	This species is thought to be Extinct (IUCN 2009). Despite recent surveys it has not been found.
20355		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species, but it is considered Extinct.
20357		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further taxonomic clarification is recommended to establish the taxonomic status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Somatopyrgus </span>species. It is also vital that targeted surveys are carried out to establish if this species is still present in the river.
20357		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known but endemic to the Coosa River, Alabama (Burch 1989). It has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004).   A recent survey found <span style="font-style: italic;">Somatogyrus </span>species in only 15 of 178 sites examined in the Coosa River, but these were not identified to species level (Bogan and Pierson, 1993).
20357		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known but endemic to the Coosa River, Alabama. However, it has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004) but was known from its occurrences in freshwater river drainages.
20357		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it has not been seen since the impoundment of the Coosa River (Mirachi 2004).
20357		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is impoundment of freshwater river drainages. This is thought to have caused the disappearance of this species from the Coosa River (Mirachi 2004).
20358		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is required regarding the taxonomy of this species before an accurate assessment can be made. Taregted surveys are needed to establish if this species is still present.
20358		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known but it is an endemic to the Tennessee River drainage, Shoal Creek, Lauderdale Co., Alabama; it has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004). This species has not been found during recent surveys for gastropods in the area of Florence, Alabama (J. T. Garner pers. comm. 2010) and is likely to be restricted to an area of occupancy of less than 0.4 km².
20358		habitat	eng	Burch (1989) cites Shoal Creek in Florence, Alabama.
20358		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but the species has not been seen since the river was impounded (Mirachi 2004).
20358		threats	eng	The main threat to this species has been impoundment of freshwater river drainages. This is thought to be responsible for the possible disappearance of this species from its river habitat.
20363		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to ascertain the taxonomy and presence of this species.
20363		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known, but is endemic to the Coosa River, Alabama (Burch 1989). However, it has not been reported there since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004).
20363		habitat	eng	The specific habitat requirements of this species are poorly known, but it is endemic to the Coosa River, Alabama (Burch 1989).
20363		population	eng	A recent survey found <span style="font-style: italic;">Somatogyrus </span>species in only 15 of 178 sites examined in the Coosa River, but these were not identified to species level (Bogan and Pierson 1993). The species has not been reported since the river was impounded (Mirachi 2004).
20363		threats	eng	The main threat to this species has been impoundment of freshwater river drainages. This is cited as the main reason for this species possible disappearance from the river (Mirachi 2004). The restricted range of this species makes it highly susceptile to most threats and stochastic events.
20372		conservation	eng	The range of the species is within the Reserva Provincial Somuncura, but the reserve currently is poorly managed, and there is little real protection for the species. Strengthening the management of such existing protected areas is necessary, and further field research is needed to determine the current population status of the species.
20372		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Somuncura Plateau, an isolated basaltic plateau in the Río Negro Province, Argentinean Patagonia. It has an altitudinal range of 500-700m asl.
20372		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, inhabiting and breeding in permanent thermal springs and streams originating in the northern slopes of Somuncura Plateau. It is not present in modified habitats.
20372		population	eng	It is generally quite rare, and thought to be declining.
20372		threats	eng	The species is probably threatened by introduced predatory fish (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>), and by the canalization of spring water towards local towns and villages for domestic use. In addition, the impacts of livestock farming (sheep and goats) result in overgrazing, as well as chemical pollution of waterways from sheep baths.
20380		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
20380		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Mahé and Silhouette islands in the Seychelles.
20380		habitat	eng	It lives both on the ground in forest litter and on low vegetation in leaf axils, in disturbed and undisturbed rainforest. It also occurs in areas dominated by introduced trees such as cinnamon. It breeds by direct development, the eggs being laid on the ground.
20380		population	eng	It is common at many sites in both disturbed and relatively undisturbed rainforest, occurring at densities of up to 2,000 animals per hectare in the best habitat.
20380		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species, but it is not thought to be seriously threatened since it is somewhat adaptable to secondary habitats. It might be inherently at risk because of its small range.
20381		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
20381		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Mahé and Silhouette in the Seychelles.
20381		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor in leaf-litter in both relatively pristine and disturbed rainforest. It lays its eggs on land and guards them until they hatch. The tadpoles then wriggle onto their parent's back (although it is not clear whether or not it is the male or the female that carries the larvae).
20381		population	eng	It is a locally common species, living at densities of 667-2,000 animals per hectare.
20381		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species, but it is not thought to be seriously threatened since it is somewhat adaptable to secondary habitats. It might be inherently at risk because of its small range.
20383		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
20383		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, and until recently was known only from a restricted distribution within Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). Several additional specimens have now been collected in southwest Gansu, adjacent Qinghai, and one from east Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). It likely occurs at elevations ranging from 2,600-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
20383		habitat	eng	There are no data regarding the habitat preferences of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).
20383		population	eng	The species has been characterized as rare (Smith and Xie 2008).
20383		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. It occurs in a restricted area that is threatened by habitat degradation and loss resulting from logging and conversion to wasteland (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press), but it is not known which habitats this species prefers so it is impossible to know the impact of such threats.
20384		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Liupanshan, Taibaishan, Wanglang, Wolong, Changshanerhai, Nujiang, Wawushanmay (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
20384		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), and Ningxia (CSIS 2008). In Sichuan, it was recorded at an altitude of 3,000 m asl.
20384		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unclear due to identification confusion with <em>Sorex bedfordi</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). It is inferred that it occupies montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008). Little else about the habitat and ecology can be distinguished (Smith and Xie 2008).
20384		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
20384		threats	eng	There are most likely no major threats to this species throughout its range.
20385		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this little-known species. South Asian populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20385		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in South Asia and southwestern China. In South Asia, it has only been recorded from Khumjung in eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is distributed in northern Yunnan, Sichuan Xizang and southern Qinghai Provinces (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it has been recorded up to 4,000 m asl.
20385		habitat	eng	In China, the species has largely been recorded from alpine and montane forest regions, with animals in southern Qinghai captured along small streams with shrubby banks and moist litter on the soil surface (Smith and Xie 2008). Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
20385		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
20385		threats	eng	While the threats to this species are poorly known, it has been widely recorded globally, and sufficiently large areas of suitable habitat are presumed to remain within the species' geographic range.
20386		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several National Parks and protected areas, although the degree of protection within these areas varies greatly.
20386		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from relict populations in montane areas of central Honshu, Japan, at altitudes of 900 to 2,900 m asl. It has been found in the Japan Alps, Okuchichibu and Shigayama (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species has not been found on northern Honshu where the mountains are usually lower in height (usually less than 1,500 m asl), and where the Shinto Shrew (<em>Sorex shinto</em>) is more common.
20386		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands, shrublands and coniferous forests in subalpine to alpine habitat; and is rarely found in forests at lower altitudes.
20386		population	eng	The population appears to be small, though stable. It is not as common as <em>Sorex shinto</em>.
20386		threats	eng	The species occurs primarily at elevations above 1,000 m asl, and so there currently are very few major threats. However, human encroachment and development of tourist facilities, such as ski resorts, may be a localized threat. Competition with <em>Sorex shinto</em> may be a problem. Because the species is restricted to montane habitat fragments it may be susceptible to climate change in the future.
20387		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
20387		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a tributary of the Mekong River, Dze-Chyu (Zi Qu) river, in Tibet, China (Hutterer 2005).
20387		habitat	eng	There are currently no data regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.
20387		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
20387		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
20388		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
20388		distribution	eng	This species is probably confined to Paramushir Island, south of the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia.
20388		habitat	eng	Inhabit shrubs near rivers. Reproduce once a year, litter size is up to 11.
20388		population	eng	No data available.
20388		threats	eng	This species occurs in a restricted area that is threatened by human encroachment.
20389		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A2c; D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
20389		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan, and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations from 2,700-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
20389		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky mossy mountain-top habitat (Smith and Xie 2008).
20389		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
20389		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
20390		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
20390		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Saint Lawrence Island, in the Bering sea, Alaska, in the United States (Reid, 2006).
20390		habitat	eng	Habitats include bogs/wet tundra, fell-fields, and mesic tundra; where scarce, this shrew may be restricted to fell-field habitats and boulder scree, particularly auklet nesting colonies. It also occurs in old village sites where voles and insects are numerous. In winter, it may invade buildings where dried/frozen meat is stored.
20390		population	eng	It is not uncommon in its range (Reid, 2006). It is the only shrew on Saint Lawrence Island.
20390		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
20391		conservation	eng	No specific protection measures are in place for this species. Approximately 10% of the preferred shrew habitat is on USFWS and NMFS land, where the species is potentially protected by use permit restrictions. Other general protection is provided by land use development restrictions identified in the Saint Paul Coastal Management Plan. ADF&G regulations regarding the taking of shrews as "unclassified game" requires a hunting license, but there is not a closed season or bag limit. However, except when it invades human food storage areas, this species is not of interest except to scientific collectors.<br/><br/>The distribution of shrews on Saint Paul is fairly well known and occurrences can be reasonably predicted throughout the range (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Additional surveys are needed on Otter Island where the presence of preferred plant communities suggest the shrew might occur (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Also, surveys should be conducted on Unalaska Island to determine if <em>Sorex hydrodromus</em> actually exists and, if so, to reevaluate its taxonomic relationship to <em>S. pribilofensis</em>.<br/><br/>Present protection needs include: 1. Identifying and protecting sufficient preferred habitat to insure maintenance of a viable population. 2. Minimizing the feral cat population. 3. Managing the reindeer herds to prevent overgrazing of shrew habitat. 4. Preventing introduction of rats onto the island.<br/><br/>Local distributional surveys on Saint Paul Island have been conducted with some statistical sensitivity (Byrd and Norvell 1988, 1993). General information on local distribution and habitat use patterns is available (Byrd and Norvell 1988, 1993). Present research needs include: 1. Total population size and trend estimates. 2. Continued assessment of habitat preferences. 3. Measurement of reproductive capacity. 4. Estimation of feral cat and arctic fox predation levels. 5. Long-term population viability analysis.
20391		distribution	eng	The known geographic range of this species is confined to Saint Paul Island (90 sqkm), in the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, United States. It is distributed primarily along the periphery of the island. Plant associations supporting shrews in summer occupied nearly 40 sqkm in the late 1980s (Byrd and Norvell 1993). The type locality was reported as "Unalaska Islands, Aleutian Islands." However, attempts to collect shrews from the type locality have not been successful. Presumably the shrews to which the name <em>hydrodromus</em> has been applied were collected on Saint Paul Island of the Pribilof Islands.
20391		habitat	eng	The species' habitat is maritime tundra. On Saint Paul Island, capture rates were highest in dune habitats and grass-umbel habitats, less in forb and mixed habitats, none in <em>Carex</em> or upland habitats; seemingly most abundant in habitats with more tall stems per unit area (Byrd and Norvell 1988). <br/><br/>This species is an invertivore, and the remains of beetles have been observed in some stomachs (Byrd and Norvell 1988).
20391		population	eng	This species is known to occur only on St. Paul Island which is considered to be one location. No shrews have been collected on neighbouring Saint George and Otter islands, despite numerous surveys (Preble and McAtee 1923; Byrd and Norvell 1988, 1993). The species' abundance is unknown, but the total population size is probably more than 10,000 individuals. Jackson (1928) described the Pribilof shrew as "not common" in 1928. Fay (in Fay and Sease 1985) found them to be abundant in 1965. Byrd and Norvell (1988, 1993) reported capture rates of 0.9-4.5 shrews/1000 trap hours over an area of approximately 39 sqkm but gave no estimates of density. Similar trap efforts for <em>Sorex cinereus</em>, a closely related species with similar habitat requirements, resulted in density estimates of two to 30 shrews per acre depending on the period of the cycle when captured (Buckner 1966). Using the lower estimate of two shrews per acre and extrapolating over the 39 sqkm of suitable habitat gives a very rough minimum total population estimate of 19,266 animals on the island.<br/><br/>The population trend is unknown but is suspected to be stable. The shrews have been known to occur on the island for over 200 years (Fay and Sease 1985). The population is believed to have existed on Saint Paul since the area became an island, approximately 16,000 years ago.
20391		threats	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. pribilofensis</span> is naturally restricted to a single island, so this species is vulnerable to localized perturbations. Habitat is largely intact, but human activities and climatic warming are of potential concern (ADFG 2005). Although the effects of climate change on this species' habitat are unknown, these shrews are a relict, cold-adapted species that could be compromised by a warmer climate.  <br/><br/>Byrd and Norvell (1993) found the shrews to be distributed widely at relatively high densities, and they identified no immediate threats to the species or to most habitat areas. Little habitat fragmentation has occurred. Of Saint Paul Island's 10,093 hectares, only 2-3% has been developed. This includes the village of Saint Paul, a fish processing plant, the Coast Guard Loran station, an airport, the POSS Helicopter camp (Pribilof Offshore Support Service), and a new seaport. There are approximately 35 miles of roads which section the island into several large parcels. These facilities do not appear to have caused significant fragmentation of the shrew habitat to date (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Potential threats include habitat loss to development and overgrazing by reindeer, and population declines if rats are incidentally introduced to the island. <br/><br/>At present, development activities are primarily directed toward the construction of a major harbour and port facility in Village Cove. Anticipated development includes: expansion of industrial processing facilities both within and near the harbour area; new commercial ventures including a chandlery; expanded support services; increased uses and trespass on traditional subsistence and recreation land; and expansion of air transport facilities and services. Additional future developments may also include expansion of the OCS support services for oil and gas extraction activities. Current land use plans indicate that these developments will occur primarily in the immediate vicinity of the village and harbour and along a development corridor between the village and the airport. Much of this area has been identified as preferred shrew habitat and contains high shrew densities (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Proportionally, this region involves approximately 12% of the total preferred shrew habitat on the island (estimated from Byrd and Norvell 1988, Fig 2).<br/><br/>With recent completion of the new seaport, increased shipping traffic is expected and the potential for Norway rat introductions will increase. The ecological consequences of this possibility are not well known. Rats introduced to different Aleutian Islands have spread across entire islands, invading most habitats. They are believed to function as significant predators of birds and other wildlife on these islands. Byrd and Norvell (1988) predicted that predation on the shrews would increase if rats were introduced to Saint Paul Island. It is also possible that they could introduce disease that is detrimental to the shrews, though this possibility has not been documented.<br/><br/>Reindeer were introduced on the island in 1911 (Fay and Sease 1985). Here they prospered, their numbers reaching a peak abundance of over 2,000 animals in 1938, which was followed shortly by a "crash" to only a few animals. This over-extension of their carrying capacity greatly impacted the vegetation and shrew habitat (Fay and Sease 1985). The herd is now maintained at approximately 500 animals.<br/><br/>Arctic fox and localized house cat predation do not appear to pose serious threats to the long-term viability of the population.
20392		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
20392		distribution	eng	This species is known from Oaxaca, Puebla, and Veracruz in Mexico from 1,200 to 2,600 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Its range is estimated to be around 6,400 km² (Carraway 2007).
20392		habitat	eng	It occurs on mossy banks near streams in cloud forest, and also in dense oak forests on the forest floor or under rocks or logs (Carraway, 2007). It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
20392		population	eng	It is known only from fourteen specimens in seven localities (Carraway, 2007).
20392		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture, as well as deforestation is a major threat to this species. In 2005, 84% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).
20393		conservation	eng	It is found in the Ixta-Popocatepetl National Park.
20393		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico; it occurs in Distrito Federal, Morelos, México, Puebla, Jalisco and Tlaxcala around 2,500 m asl (Carraway, 2007). Its extent of occurrence is estimated around 34,400 km² (Carraway, 2007).
20393		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist fir-pine-oak forests as well as high elevation tussock grasslands. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
20393		population	eng	There is no information known about the population status of this species.
20393		threats	eng	Deforestation outside the protected areas where it can be found is a major threat.
20394		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected area. It is included under special protection in Mexican legislation (Nom 059-SEMARNAT-2001).
20394		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Tumbala at 1,700 m asl, and from one other location near the border with Guatemala, both in Chiapas, Mexico (Carraway, 2007). The area of the type locality is only 7 km², considering the habitat availability (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).
20394		habitat	eng	The habitat of both localities is within tropical montane cloud forest.
20394		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
20394		threats	eng	The rate of habitat loss in the region in which the species occurs is between 15 and 22% over the last 10 years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.). Agricultural development and deforestation are the major threats.
20395		conservation	eng	It is found in the Private Reserva Ecológica Huitepec in Chiapas (Naranjo and Espinoza Medinilla, 2001).
20395		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, and is known only from the type locality and the Reserva Ecológica Huitepec in Chiapas (Carraway, 2007). It is known from 2,743 m asl at the type locality (Merriam, 1895).
20395		habitat	eng	It is known from wet and montane forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is unknown.
20395		population	eng	It is apparently rare (Reid, 1997).
20395		threats	eng	Habitat loss, is estimated to be 26% in the last 10 years (Cuaron and Carton de Grammont pers. comm.). Agriculture and deforestation are major threats to the species' habitat.
20396		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Arizona (John Matson pers. comm.).
20396		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is restricted to southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, in the United States, and northwestern Mexico (Nowak, 1999) in the state of Chihuahua. It is found from 1,500 to 2,600 m asl (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). The only known Mexican specimen was collected at 2,591 m asl.
20396		habitat	eng	This species occupies forested slopes, and is often found near springs or other water sources where considerable vegetation cover exists (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It is nearly always found beneath a thick canopy of vegetation (Simons, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It has been collected in montane conifer forest and encinal and Mexican oak-pine woodland, in relatively mature forest with substantial understorey vegetation and debris (e.g., logs, stumps), often in canyons along riparian edges of pine-oak forest, such as among horsetails near a spring in dense woodland (oak, walnut maple, sycamore, and some Douglas-fir), in thick woodland where large boulders were present with large pines, walnuts, oaks, and maples, and along a dry wooded streambed.
20396		population	eng	This species was only known from a few specimens from the Animas Mountains of New Mexico and the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Mexico until surveys initiated by the Arizona Game and Fish Dept in 1992 and 1993 found 30 more specimens (increasing the reported individuals known from 22 to 52) (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). This shrew may be more abundant and widespread than records suggest (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). In Mexico it is known only from one specimen in Chihuahua at 2,600 m asl (Carraway, 2007).
20396		threats	eng	If this species is as rare and restricted in distribution as it appears to be in some areas (e.g., Animas Mountains, New Mexico), it may be vulnerable to localized adverse habitat alterations. Potential threats include habitat alteration and degradation caused by removal of downed woody debris through understorey clearing and firewood collection; intense ground-burning fires that remove ground structure could cause local extirpations. Locally, this shrew might be threatened by livestock grazing and development of recreation sites in Arizona. However, the responses of this species to various habitat alterations and management practices are poorly known.
20397		conservation	eng	This species occurs on more than five different sierras, two of which are protected areas (Ivan Castro pers. comm.).
20397		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Coahuila and Nuevo León, Mexico, as well as a disjunct location in north western Coahuila. It is found from 2,400 m up to 3,700 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005; Carraway, 2007).
20397		habitat	eng	It is usually found in moist shaded areas on logs amongst the leaf litter of high elevation Douglas-fir-pine-aspen and scrub piñon pine woodlands. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
20397		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
20397		threats	eng	Deforestation, mining, and overgrazing outside of the protected areas where it occurs are major threats.
20411		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas in parts of the range. Research is required on its distribution, population status, and trends.
20411		distribution	eng	The Appenine shrew is endemic to the Italian peninsula. It is recorded from the Appenines to Calabria, at altitudes between 300 m and 1,160 m, but its exact distribution is poorly known (Hausser 1990, 1999, Amori and Aloise 2005).
20411		habitat	eng	A poorly known species. It occurs in shrubland habitat within forested areas (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006), but avoids densely forested areas (Mortelliti <em>et al.</em> 2007). Hausser (1990) describes it as being found near streams, in bogs, and in hedgerows and stone walls in damp areas.
20411		population	eng	It is not abundant, but it is quite widespread (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). There are no data on population trend.
20411		threats	eng	Pesticides and habitat destruction (through agriculture and urbanisation) are considered to be the main threats (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
20416		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wolong Nature Reserve, but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.  In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered A2c; D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
20416		distribution	eng	According to Hutterer (2005) this species is known only by the holotype from northern Sichuan, China (Hutterer 2005). Smith and Xie (2008) give a distribution in central Sichuan and Guizhou. Due to this confusion, we here map it only as occuring at the type locality pending taxonomic resolution.
20416		habitat	eng	There are no data on the habitat and ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).
20416		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
20416		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
20424		conservation	eng	<em>Sousa</em> spp. Are listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>For both forms, but especially the plumbea-type, conservation actions are currently either meagre or non-existent. Research is needed to help design effective conservation programmes.
20424		conservation	eng	Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin is a vagrant in the European Mammal Assessment region, so there are no conservation measures for the species in this area.
20424		distribution	eng	Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins of the <em>chinensis</em>-type are found in shallow, coastal waters from both east and west coasts of northern Australia and southern China in the east, through the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and westward around the coastal rim of the Bay of Bengal to at least the Orissa coast of west India (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Sutaria and Jefferson 2004). The plumbea-type is found in narrow strip of coastal waters from southwest tip of South Africa eastward around the rim of the Indian Ocean to the southeast cost of India (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002, IWC 2003).  It occurs off Madagascar, Mayotte and the Comoro Islands, in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. There is an extralimital record for Israel, in the Mediterranean Sea (an apparent stray that moved through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea: Kerem <em>et al.</em> 2001).
20424		distribution	eng	<strong><em>Chinensis</em>-type</strong><br/>Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins of the <em>chinensis</em>-type are found in shallow, coastal waters from the east and west coasts of northern Australia and from southern China in the east, throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and westward around the coastal rim of the Bay of Bengal to at least the Orissa coast of eastern India (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994; Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Sutaria and Jefferson 2004). They regularly occur in some enclosed seas, such as the Gulf of Thailand. Their distribution appears to be limited to waters of the continental shelf, and the only places where they range far offshore are those where the water remains shallow (<100 m).<br/><br/><strong><em>Plumbea</em>-type</strong><br/>The <em>plumbea</em>-type is found in a narrow strip of coastal waters from southwestern tip of South Africa eastward around the rim of the Indian Ocean to the southeastern coast of India (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Ross 2002; IWC 2003). It occurs off Madagascar, Mayotte and the Comoro Islands and around the Arabian Peninsula from the Red Sea into the Arabian (Persian) Gulf and east to Pakistan. There is an extralimital record from Israel in the Mediterranean Sea (apparently a stray that moved through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea – Kerem <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the region between northeastern India and Myanmar (Burma) <em>plumbea</em>-type and <em>chinensis</em>-type dolphins are partially sympatric.
20424		habitat	eng	Humpback dolphins occur in tropical to warm temperate coastal waters, including open coasts and bays, coastal lagoons, rocky and/or coral reefs, mangrove swamps and estuarine areas (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002). They are rarely encountered more than a few kilometres from shore. They sometimes enter rivers, but rarely move more than a few kilometres upstream and usually remain within the range of tidal influence. <br/><br/>Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins appear to be opportunistic feeders, consuming a wide variety of nearshore, estuarine, and reef fishes. They also eat cephalopods in some areas, but crustaceans are rare in their diet (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002). <br/><br/><em>Chinensis-type</em><br/><em>Chinensis</em>-type dolphins often enter rivers, estuaries, and mangroves, preferring coasts with mangrove swamps, lagoons, and estuaries, as well as areas with reefs, sandbanks, and mudbanks (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001). In at least China and southern Asia, they are rarely found far from estuaries and mangrove habitats (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007), and they show a strong preference for river mouths in northern Australia (Parra 2006; Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006b). Aerial surveys of the Great Barrier Reef region demonstrate that humpback dolphins occur mostly close to the coast but also in offshore waters that are relatively sheltered, and near reefs or islands (Corkeron <em>et al</em>. 1997). Fine-scaled resource partitioning between humpback and Australian snubfin dolphins (<em>Orcaella heinsohni</em>) has been documented off Queensland, where the two species favour river mouths and modified habitats but the humpback dolphins occur in slightly deeper (2-5 m deep) waters (Parra 2006).<br/><br/><em>Plumbea-type</em><br/><em>Plumbea</em>-type dolphins are usually seen within a narrow strip of shallow near-shore waters and in estuarine areas (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001), seldom in water deeper than 20-30 m (Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 2000). Seasonality of occurrence, movements, group sizes, and reproduction has been reported in several studies (<em>e.g.</em> Durham 1994, Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 1999a, 1999b, Guissamulo 2007). The dolphins appear to be selective in their habitat choice (<em>e.g.</em> Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 2000; Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006). Dependence on shallow-water habitats as feeding grounds is often evident throughout the year (Karczmarski and Cockcroft 1999; Karczmarski <em>et al.</em> 2000), although the details of the preferred key habitats may differ between groups and locations (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Atkins <em>et al.</em> 2004; Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006).
20424		habitat	eng	Humpback dolphins occurs in tropical to warm temperate coastal waters, including open coasts and bays, coastal lagoons, rocky and/or coral reefs, mangrove swamp and estuarine areas (Ross et at. 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002); rarely more than a few kilometers from shore.  They sometimes enter rivers, but rarely move more than a few kilometers upstream and usually within the tidal range. Their distribution appears to be limited to waters of the continental shelf, and the only places where they range far offshore are those in which the water is shallow (<100m). They appear to be opportunistic feeders, feeding on a wide variety of nearshore, estuarine, and reef fish. They also eat cephalopods in some areas, but crustaceans are rare in the diet (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002).
20424		population	eng	<em>Chinensis-type</em><br/>Studies have been carried out in only a few parts of the <em>chinensis</em>-type’s range, and there is no overall estimate of total population size. Certain subpopulations are thought to be depleted, mostly by habitat destruction/degradation and bycatch in fisheries. Most abundance estimates have been less than a few hundred dolphins, but there appear to be at least 1,200 animals (CVs range from 17-119%) in the Pearl River Estuary of southern China, adjacent to and including Hong Kong and Macau (Jefferson 2000, Jefferson 2005). The Pearl River Estuary population is the only one for this geographic form with quantitative data on population trends, and despite the heavy development in the area and numerous threats, the population has shown no evidence of significant decline in the last 11 years (Jefferson 2005). <br/><br/>Other places where abundance has been estimated are Xiamen, with an estimate of 80 (CV=1.08 - Jefferson and Hung 2004), and eastern Taiwan Strait, which is thought to have a population of only about 99 individuals (CV=52% Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007). Declines have been inferred in both of these areas, based on qualitative environmental information. An estimated 237 (95% CI = 189-318) humpback dolphins inhabit waters around the Leizhou Peninsula, southern China (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2007). Data on the status of humpback dolphins in Australia are scarce, but by analogy with sympatric (and better-studied) dugongs (<em>Dugong</em> <em>dugon</em>), Corkeron <em>et al</em>. (1997) suggested that they were in decline there. The only statistically defensible estimates for Australian waters are of 34-54 (CVs=13-27%) in Cleveland Bay, Queensland (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006a), and 119-163 (95% CIs = 81-251) in Moreton Bay, Queensland (Corkeron <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/><em>Plumbea-type</em><br/>As in the case of the <em>chinensis</em>-type, there is no overall estimate of total population size for <em>plumbea</em>-type dolphins. All available subpopulation estimates are in low tens to low hundreds: ~ 450 dolphins (95% CIs = 447-485) in the Algoa Bay region, Eastern Cape coast of South Africa (Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 1999a), 170-244 in the Richard’s Bay region on the KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa (Atkins and Atkins 2002), 105 (95% CIs = 30-151) in Maputo Bay, Mozambique (Guissamulo and Cockcroft 2004), ~ 60 dolphins in Bazaruto Archipelago, Mozambique (Guissamulo and Cockcroft 1997) and 58-65 (95% CIs = 56-102) off Zanzibar (Stensland <em>et al</em>. 2006). Quantitative trend data are not available anywhere in the <em>plumbea</em>-type’s range, but there are indications that some subpopulations have declined in numbers in recent years. For instance, the numbers in the Bazaruto Archipelago decreased from ~ 60 in 1992 (Guissamulo 1993) to probably fewer than 30 in 2003, along with considerable deterioration of the shallow-water habitat across the archipelago (Guissamulo and Karczmarski pers. comm.). Mortality in anti-shark nets off the KwaZulu-Natal coast in the late 1980s was estimated to likely exceed the dolphins’ replacement rate (Cockcroft 1990), but there is no more recent information from that area. Mixing among neighbouring populations is uncertain, although in South Africa none was documented between groups inhabiting locations 800 km apart. Quantitative data are limited, but there are indications that the distribution is discontinuous elsewhere in the <em>plumbea</em>-type’s range, with fragmented and likely discrete populations (<em>e.g.</em>. Karczmarski 2000, Baldwin <em>et al</em>. 2004, A.T. Guissamulo pers. comm., V.G. Cockcroft pers. comm.).
20424		population	eng	There has only been a single sighting of this species in the European Mammal Assessment area (Kerem <em>et al.</em> 2001).
20424		threats	eng	Most humpback dolphins inhabit coastal or estuarine waters of developing nations, <em>i.e.</em> countries with limited resources and means for environmental protection. Range-wide incidental mortality in fishing gear and habitat degradation and loss represent the greatest threats to this species throughout its range (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001). <br/><br/><em>Chinensis-type</em><br/><em>Chinensis</em>-type dolphins are not known to be hunted directly in significant numbers anywhere in their range. However, they are often caught in fishing nets, such as gillnets and trawls, and in anti-shark nets set to protect bathing beaches from large sharks along the coasts of Queensland and New South Wales, Australia (Heinsohn 1979, Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Parra <em>et al.</em> 2004). Accurate catch data for humpback dolphins in the Australian nets are unavailable, but kills in anti-shark nets off Queensland are high relative to estimated abundance (Paterson 1990, Corkeron <em>et al.</em> 1997). The greatest direct sources of human-caused dolphin mortality in Hong Kong appear to be incidental catches in fishing gear (most likely pair trawls) and vessel collisions (Jefferson 2000, Parsons and Jefferson 2000). Between 1993 and 1998, at least 3 humpback dolphins were killed by boat strikes and another death was suspected of being caused by a boat strike. This represented 14% of all documented humpback dolphin strandings in Hong Kong during that period (Parsons and Jefferson 2000).<br/><br/>Concentrations of organochlorines in cetaceans from Hong Kong coastal waters are significantly higher than those found in cetaceans in other parts of the world (Parsons and Chan 1998, Minh <em>et al.</em> 1999) and it has been suggested that the reproductive success of Hong Kong’s humpback dolphins (including neonatal survival) is being affected (Parsons 2004; Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Hong Kong, high volumes of sewage discharge and the close proximity of contaminated mud pits means that there is considerable potential for trace metal contamination of local dolphins (Parsons 1997). Indeed, mercury concentrations in the tissues of Hong Kong humpback dolphins were found to be an order of magnitude higher than in prey items and in some cases, were high enough (max: 906 µg kg-1 dry weight) to be considered potentially health-threatening (Parsons 2004). Hong Kong discharges over 2 billion litres of sewage into the surrounding waters daily. Parsons (1997) estimated that a humpback dolphin’s minimum daily intake of sewage bacteria through ingestion of contaminated seawater could be up to 70,500 faecal coliforms. To put this in context, a one-off ingestion rate of 200-300 coliforms is considered unacceptable for humans (Parsons 2004). <br/><br/>The disposal of contaminated mud from Hong Kong's dredging and reclamation projects poses an indirect risk to humpback dolphins via their consumption of contaminated prey (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2000). Humpback dolphins inhabit the waters of several coastal ports in Asia that host large volumes of ship traffic, such as Shanghai, Singapore and Hong Kong. Therefore, it is likely that they are highly contaminated with butyltin (BT) (see Tanabe <em>et al.</em> 1998, Tanabe 1999; Parsons 2004). <br/><br/>Underwater industrial activity, such as pile-driving during pier and bridge construction, are likely to cause acoustic disturbance (<em>e.g.</em> the development of Hong Kong’s new airport). Boat traffic also might interfere with the dolphin’s acoustic communication (Van Parijs <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Plumbea-type</em><br/>Their near-shore distribution and preference for shallow-water habitats make these dolphins particularly susceptible to the effects of human activities in the coastal zone – all similar to what is described above for <em>chinensis</em>-type animals. Habitat loss (through alteration or destruction of inshore environments) and incidental mortality in fishing gear are among the greatest threats (<em>e.g.</em> Baldwin <em>et al</em>. 1999; Cockcroft and Krohn 1994; Guissamulo 1993; 2007; Karczmarski 2000; 2002; Keith <em>et al.</em> 2002; Rozafindrakoto <em>et al.</em> 2004; Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006). Deliberate killing for human consumption is known to occur in Africa and Madagascar, and at least in some areas human-caused mortality (deliberate and incidental) is likely to be close to, or even exceed, the dolphins’ reproductive rate. Other threats include coastal and offshore development, oil and gas exploration, pollution, and boat traffic (<em>e.g.</em> Karczmarski 2000, Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 2004). Oil-related deaths of dolphins have been reported from the Arabian (Persian) Gulf (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1999). Where investigated, tissue concentrations of organochlorines and other pollutants have been high (among the highest of all marine mammal species in the region), causing concern that the reproductive potential of adults and survival of neonates might be impaired (Cockcroft 1999). Behavioural responsiveness to boat harassment has been recorded in several locations (Karczmarski <em>et al.</em> 1998, Karczmarski 2002, Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006).
20424		threats	eng	The majority of humpback dolphins inhabit coastal or estuarine waters of developing nations, countries with limited resources and means for environmental protection.  Habitat degradation and habitat loss, and incidental mortality in fishing gear represent the greatest threats to this species (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001).
20425		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES and Appendix II of CMS. <br/><br/>These dolphins are a high priority for research and conservation because of their restricted and apparently fragmented range, narrow ecological niche, apparently low numbers, and continuing threats (IWC 2003, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003, Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).
20425		distribution	eng	The Atlantic humpback dolphin is endemic to the eastern tropical Atlantic, where it is limited to coastal and inshore waters (Ross 2002; Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2004). It occurs in nearshore waters off tropical to subtropical West Africa, from Western Sahara south to at least southern Angola (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1998, Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri;mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-ansi-language:IT;mso-fareast-language:EN-US; mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">
20425		habitat	eng	Atlantic humpback dolphins are found primarily in estuarine and shallow (< 20 m) coastal waters with soft sediment bottoms (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). They have been observed as far as about 50 km up the Saloum River and are known to enter the Niger and Bandiala rivers, but they rarely travel far upstream and usually remain within the range of tidal influence (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is no evidence to suggest the existence of separate freshwater subpopulations. In at least some areas (<em>e.g.</em>, Gabon and Mauritania), these dolphins occur in the surf zone just offshore of the breakers (Busnel 1973; Tim Collins pers. comm. to T. Jefferson, 2007). There are no reports from offshore waters. Among the features that have been described as aspects of preferred habitat are proximity to sandbanks, brackish, mangrove-lined estuaries, and turbid waters with temperatures ranging between 17°C and 28°C (Maigret 1980, Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>There is little information on the diet of Atlantic humpback dolphins. They appear to feed on nearshore schooling fishes such as mullet (<em>Mugil</em> spp.) and, contrary to some descriptions, are not thought to eat vegetable matter (see Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). tomach contents have included grunts (<em>Pristipoma jubelini</em>) and bongo fish (<em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em>) (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).
20425		population	eng	Little information on population size is available, as this is one of the least-known delphinids. Although there has been no assessment in most areas of their overall range, the population of Atlantic humpback dolphins appears fragmented, with subpopulations separated by areas of low or zero density (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Eight “management stocks” have been provisionally identified. Six of them are identified on the basis of “sightings, or other contemporary records, clustered around a confirmed habitat” (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004) – Dahkla Bay, Banc d’Arguin, Saloum-Niumi, Canal do Gêba-Bijagos, South Guinea, and Angola. The other two – Cameroon Estuary and Gabon – are based on “historical evidence.” The continued presence of humpback dolphins in the Estuaire de Gabon was recently confirmed (Tim Collins pers. comm. to R. Reeves, 8 January 2008). A ninth management stock is suspected to exist off western Togo (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Rough “estimates” for the Saloum River delta, Senegal, were 100 animals, and there were thought to be at least several hundred in Guinea Bissau several decades ago (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Reyes 1991). A small group of at least 20 dolphins resides in the Rio Grande de Buba (a fjord-like sea arm rather than a river) and upstream to the confluence of the Rio Sahol (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although the species often has been reported as common (Reyes 1991, Culik 2004), there are no other numerical data on abundance. Considering the relatively small numbers observed, and even taking account of the many areas of the species’ range where there has been little or no assessment, the total population probably numbers only a few thousand.
20425		threats	eng	Incidental mortality in fishing nets and lines is known from at least Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea Bissau (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although such mortality has not been assessed properly anywhere in the species’ range, it probably occurs in most or all areas and is considered the most serious immediate threat to the species. <br/><br/>Some Atlantic humpback dolphins are probably taken directly for food by local people (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). The fishing communities of Joal and Fadiouth in Senegal have a tradition of hunting cetaceans, and others in the Petite Côte were known to hunt dolphins until at least 1996 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Past and present levels of these captures, and their potential impacts on subpopulations, remain unknown (Reyes 1991). The most recently documented interaction in Senegal was in November 1996, when three dolphins were found together, each with a piece of netting tied around the tailstock on a beach of Sangomar Island in the Saloum delta (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Habitat destruction, boat strikes, and environmental contamination are additional potential threats, although generally little is known about them. In Senegal there has been a permanent reduction of mangrove areas to facilitate the extension of rice culture and exploitation of forests, especially in the Fathala area. Habitat destruction and degradation may be significant factors affecting the species’ status given its nearshore distribution and the high human population densities, associated with agricultural and industrial development, in some areas. These problems will contribute to fragmentation of the dolphin population. Offshore oil exploration and development are underway in at least Gabon and Angola. Excessive fishing of neritic fish stocks in parts of West Africa also may have reduced food availability for these dolphins (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).
20427		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
20427		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chile, to the west of the Andes between 27° and 36°SS (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It is found in both Andean and coastal areas.
20427		habitat	eng	This species occupies a wide range of habitats (Lessa pers. comm.). These  range from alpine grasslands in the Andes to acacia savanna in the Intermediate Depression and stabilized sand dunes and snady grasslands on the coast (Torres-Mura and Contreras, 1998). It is fossorial and colonial (Ojeda pers. comm.).
20427		population	eng	This species is abundant with large populations (Lessa pers. comm.).
20427		threats	eng	In the Red List of Chilean Terrestrial Vertebrates is classified as Endangered (CONAF, 1993). The habitats that this species inhabit are under threat from deforestation and over grazing by domesticated mammals.
20428		conservation	eng	The species occurs within a protected area, but this does not cover all of the population. It is listed in Ukraine's Red Data Book as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population), and therefore it has legal protection at the national level.
20428		distribution	eng	An endemic species of southern Ukraine, found only on the lower Dnepr sands. Its extent of occurrence is c. 2000 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of occupancy is about 55 km<sup>2</sup>. The main part of the population lies within the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. Outside the reserve it occurs in fragments of poor quality habitat near the Lower Dnepr River sands. Those parts of the range are very fragmented.
20428		distribution	eng	Endemic species of southern Ukraine, found only on the lower Dnepr sands. Its extent of occurrence is c. 2000 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of accupancy is about 55 km<sup>2</sup>. The main part of the population lies within the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. Outside the reserve it occurs in fragments of poor quality habitat near the Lower Dnepr River sands. Those parts of the range are very fragmented.
20428		habitat	eng	A stenotopic species, it inhabits light, moderately wet sandy soils with low subterranean waters. Never occurs in moving sands, alkali soils and in dry feather-grass steppes. It prefers absinth-grass and absinth-spurge steppes with very sparse vegetation. Its ecology is poorly studied. A solitary species; individual range is more than 80 m<sup>2</sup>. It feeds on most plants that are abundant in its range (<em>Eryngium campestre</em>, <em>Artemisia campestris</em>, <em>Tragopogon ucrainicum</em> etc.). It reproduces once a year, with copulation occurring in March and birth in April-May. Lactation period is about a month.
20428		habitat	eng	Stenotopic, inhbits light, moderately wet sandy soils with low subterranean waters. Never occurs in moving sands, alkali soils and in dry feather-grass steppes. Preferres absinth-grass and absinth-spurge steppes with very sparse vegetation. Ecology is poorly studied. Solitary, individual range is more than 80 m<sup>2</sup>. Feeds on most plants that are abundant in its range (<em>Eryngium campestre</em>, <em>Artemisia campestris</em>, <em>Tragopogon ucrainicum</em> etc.). Reproduces once a year. Copulation occurs in March, birth in April-May. Lactation period is about a month.
20428		population	eng	The population is stable only in Black Sea State Reserve. In other areas the population is declining because of afforestation of the sands (for stabilisation of the sands and wood production).
20428		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to afforestation of the sands.
20428		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to afforestation of the sands.
20429		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation in Category 3 (rare species). It occurs in reserves in Chechen Republic and Dagestan (Russia). Limitation of irrigation and grazing have been proposed as conservation measures.
20429		distribution	eng	It occurs in CIS-Caucasia and southernmost Kalmykia (Russia). Within the range it is distributed very patchily, as separate settlements that often occur in sandy areas.
20429		habitat	eng	Inhabits loamy and sandy semi-deserts in NE CIS-Caucasia. Prefers moderately moist areas with light soils in river valleys, lake basins and lowlands with luxuriant vegetation. Also occurs in semi-deserts with shrubs and reed, herb-grasses and herb-absinth steppes. Also found in anthropogenic landscapes such as orchards and fields, where it may be a pest. Obligatory subterranean, feeds on subterranean plant parts. Active throughout the year. Generally monogamous. Heat occurs in December-January, females give birth to 2-3 young.
20429		population	eng	It is declining in some parts of the range due to human impacts, although in other parts of the range populations are considered stable. Almost extinct in Chechen Republic (Russia) and parts of Dagestan (Russia). Does not undergo periodical fluctuations. Data on population size are limited and somewhat contradictory. According to data for the beginning of 1980s in Dagestan there were about 700-750 individuals (Red Data Book of Russian Federation 1983). However, a later aerial survey showed that the population was about 10,000 individuals.
20429		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to irrigation and subsequent soil salinization, overgrazing, and ploughing. Low reproductive potential is a further limiting factor.
20430		conservation	eng	Locally protected in a number of State Reserves and national parks.
20430		distribution	eng	Distributed in steppes and forest-steppes in Ukraine and S Russia between Dnepr and Volga Rivers, north to Orel-Kursk line, and south to Ciscaucasia (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In Crimea most probably absent since the Pleistocene. During Holocene the northern border of the range has moved significantly southward, leaving behind isolated relict populations, for example in Samarskaya Luka (Samara District, Russia).
20430		habitat	eng	Obligatory subterranean species. Inhabits steppes; prefers lowlands with black earth and avoids loamy and sandy soils. Inhabits crop fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards and forest belts. Feeds on underground parts of dandelion, cow parsnip, chicory and tree seedlings (oak, mulberry, acacia). Makes hoards for winter, sometimes up to 10-14 kg. Breeds once a year, females give birth in March to 2-5 young. During dispersal juveniles emerge above ground and often fall prey to carnivorous mammals and birds. A significant pest in southern parts of the range.
20430		population	eng	A common species. In historical times in some parts of the range it became rare or even extinct, but elsewhere extended its extent of occurrence. In the northern part of the range and the Volga Region is occurs in small isolated populations and is considered rare. These populations are threatened by habitat loss (ploughing of major habitats). In the southern part of the range (Stavropol Region) in the 1950s, population and range declines occurred because of ploughing. Population density differs significantly in different parts of the range. Maximum densities are found in Central Black Earth Region (Russia) adjacent Ukrainian territories. Population density there is on average 3-10 individuals per hectare, however, locally it could reach up to 20. In the southern part of the range the density may be lower, as the arid climate of the steppes is less favourable. Populations are stable and do not undergone periodical fluctuations.
20430		threats	eng	Ploughing of major habitats and use of toxic chemicals for pest control.
20431		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on the Romanian and Ukrainian national Red Lists. A small reserve has been proposed in Transylvania to protect several species of plant and also, incidentally, <em>Spalax</em> (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures for this little-known species.
20431		distribution	eng	The Balkan mole rat is a European endemic, known only from a small number of sites in Romania (Suceava, Craiova, Transylvania, and the lower Danube), south-eastern Ukraine (Cernovcy), and Moldova (Panteleyev 1998, Kryštufek 1999). Its range is very fragmented. It occurs in lowland and upland areas. In the Ukraine, the species has not been recorded over the last 20-40 years and it may be severely reduced, or already extinct there (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
20431		habitat	eng	It inhabits steppe grassland, pastures, small cultivated fields and orchards, often preferring northern exposures (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). Very arid areas are avoided (Nowak 1999). Individuals aggregate in winter but disperse in summer (Kryštufek 1999).  The mole-rat is a fossorial species, digging extensive and elaborate tunnel systems with nesting chambers, storerooms and latrines (Nowak 1999). It feeds on bulbs, roots, tubers, and other underground parts of a range of plants (Nowak 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).
20431		population	eng	It has a small and fragmented range, within which it occurs at densities of ca.1-3 individuals per hectare (although densities of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been recorded) (Nowak 1999, Kryštufek 1999). The current population trend is unknown, although declines can be assumed to have occurred in Ukraine in the relatively recent past.
20431		threats	eng	Its congener <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is threatened by agricultural intensification, as it cannot survive in intensively-farmed arable land. <em>Spalax graecus</em> may be similarly vulnerable to intensive agriculture. Subsistence agriculture continues in Transylvania, and the mole rat population appears to be stable there (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), at least for the time being. However, accession of Romania to the EU might be expected to result in agricultural intensification in the near future.
20442		conservation	eng	No information available.
20442		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries. Tanzania (18 sites), Burundi (5-8 sites), DRC (25+ sites) and Zambia (5-8 sites).
20442		habitat	eng	This species is found on hard substrates bearing algae, including cobbles, boulders, the bases of reeds and piers in shallow depths, 0-3 m. Most common in splash zone.
20442		population	eng	This species is common in very limited habitat at waters edge, 0.5 m.
20442		threats	eng	Water pollution, agriculture, sedimentation, deforestation and erosion threaten this species.
20451		distribution	eng	Originally, the amphipod probably ranged throughout the available subterranean spaces in the Koloa Lava Flow, which covers the lowlands on the southeastern portion of Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, as well as in a limestone cave about five kilometers away from the lava tubes sitting on top of the flow.  Subsequent ash deposits and erosion have filled the voids in the upslope portion above about 200 feet elevation, so that the historic range was probably about 15 square kilometers.  Recent land surface modifications for agriculture, urbanization, and recreation have destroyed more than one half of the historic habitat, including the population in the limestone cave.  The current confirmed range (i.e., the area between the known caves) is less than 2,000 acres, but suitable habitat is probably larger.  These animals are currently known only from a single exposed lava flow which covers approximately 10.5 square kilometers, and exhibits no covering by erosional sediments.
20451		habitat	eng	The Kauai cave amphipod is restricted to the dark, moist areas of larger caverns and smaller subterranean spaces or mesocaverns <br/> <br/>These animals are  blind, pale, cave adapted crustaceans. It is a detritivore (feeds on organic debris from decomposing plants, animals, and fecal material) and has been observed feeding on rotting roots, sticks, branches, and other plant material washed into the caves; and arthropod fecal material.  In large cave passages, most individuals are found on or underneath roots or rotting debris.
20453		distribution	eng	Known only from Walsingham and Bee Pit Caves in Hamilton Parish, Bermuda.
20453		habitat	eng	A marine species, found in limestone cave pools in 0-4 m depths and on submerged soil slopes at 0-1m depths.
20454		conservation	eng	It is present in Parco Nazionale delle Cinque Terre and Parco Naturale delle Alpi Apuane. The species has a very restricted range and needs further conservation attention. Prior to being considered a separate species <em>S. ambrosii</em> was listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention under <em>S. italicus</em>. It is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
20454		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to scattered localities (at least 12 localities are known) in La Spezia Province, north-west Italy. The populations east of the Fiume River around Massa Carrara belong to a recently discovered subspecies, <em>Speleomantes ambrosii bianchii</em>. Genetic research indicates that this subspecies may actually belong to <em>S. italicus</em> rather than <em>S. ambrosii</em> (Carranza <em>et al</em>. 2007). There is an introduced population in Monteviggioni (Siena, Tuscany). It is found at altitudes ranging from near sea level to around 2,300m asl.
20454		habitat	eng	It is known from humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. Individuals may occasionally be found climbing in vegetation. The species reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
20454		population	eng	It is generally common within its limited range, with no evidence of any decline.
20454		threats	eng	Threats to this species include general localized loss of suitable habitat and illegal collection.
20455		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Directive. It has been recorded from the Parco Geominerario, Storico ed Ambientale della Sardegna. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
20455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Monte Albo chain of north-eastern Sardinia (Italy). It has been collected between 40m and 1,050m asl.
20455		habitat	eng	The species is found in damp mountain regions, rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. The preferred habitat often has a good covering of damp moss. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
20455		population	eng	It is locally common within its limited range; there are no reports of any major declines.
20455		threats	eng	There are no threats identified other than some localized loss of habitat and illegal collection. However, these threats are limited, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
20456		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in at least four protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
20456		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the region of Sulcis-Iglesiente in south-western Sardinia (Italy). It has been collected between altitudes of 8 and 650m asl.
20456		habitat	eng	It is found in humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. The species reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
20456		population	eng	The species is generally common within its limited range, being only relatively uncommon within the Carbonia-Barbusi-Monte Tasua area (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997).
20456		threats	eng	The major threat is general deforestation of suitable habitat, mineral extraction, urbanization, and over-collection of specimens, presumably for scientific purposes.
20457		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parco Nazionale Gennargentu e Golfo di Orosei and Parco Naturale Regionale del Monte Sette Fratelli, and it is likely to occur in Parco Naturale Regionala della Giara di Gesturi. This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
20457		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the provinces of Nuoro, Oristano and Cagliari in central and eastern Sardinia, Italy. The populations in the Sette Fratelli Mountains east of Cagliari are now considered to be a separate species, <em>Speleomantes sarrabusensis</em>. It is found at altitudes between 7 and 1,170m asl.
20457		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
20457		population	eng	It is common within its limited range (Gasc <em>et al.</em> (eds.) 1997).
20457		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified other than general localized habitat loss and illegal collection.
20458		conservation	eng	This species is present in some protected areas (Natura 2000 sites and regional and national parks). It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
20458		distribution	eng	This species is a northern and central Apennine endemic, ranging from the provinces of Reggio Emilia (Emilia-Romagna) and Lucca (Tuscany) southwards to the province of Pescara (Abruzzi) inclusive (Lanza <em>et al</em>. 2007; Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2006). It occurs from 80 to 1,600 m asl.
20458		habitat	eng	This species is known from humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams, often in limestone areas. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
20458		population	eng	It is common over much of its range, although it is considered to be less abundant in the southernmost part of its range. There is no evidence of any population decline taking place.
20458		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified other than some localized habitat loss and illegal collection.
20459		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and it is also listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. The species has been recorded from Parco Nazionale Gennargentu e Golfo di Orosei. Further research into the threats leading to the recent apparent declines in this species is needed.
20459		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to central-eastern Sardinia around the Gulf of Orosei, occurring roughly between the valley of the Cedrino River and 40°N (in the province of Nuoro; Gasc 1997). It is found at altitudes between 100 and 1,400m asl.
20459		habitat	eng	The species is found in humid rocky outcrops, limestone caves, crevices, and forested areas with a good growth of moss in the vicinity of streams. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
20459		population	eng	Although the species has often been considered to be common, and even abundant, within suitable habitat (with recorded densities of as much as 300 animals per ha in some areas; Vosenek, van Rooy and Strijbosch 1987), it recently appears to have undergone a decline and has become more difficult to observe in its limited range (R. Lecis pers. comm.)
20459		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by localized habitat loss and illegal collection.
20467		habitat	eng	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.
20468		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, but it has a patchy distribution and occurs at very low densities. Hunting is prohibited in Colombia (Law Number 848:1973), Ecuador (Law Number 74:1981), French Guiana (Law Number JO19860625:1986), Panama (Law Number 2-80:1980), Paraguay (Law Number 18796:1975) and Peru (Law Number 5056:1970). Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina (Law Number 22.421:1981), Bolivia (Law Number 12301:1975), Brazil (Law Number 5197:191967), and Venezuela (Law Number 276:1970). There is no Information for Guyana and Suriname. Unfortunately, in many parts of its range, resources are inadequate to manage designated protected areas and enforce existing wildlife laws. </p>  <p>Included in CITES on Appendix I.</p><p>Bush Dogs occur in captivity and are part of a successful international breeding programme (Buck 2009), which includes Asia (Japan), Europe, Brazil, and North America. There have been no known attempts at reintroduction.</p>  <p>Population estimates and demographic data for Bush Dogs is still little known across its range.&#160;This extends to an understanding of the social dynamics of individual groups, especially in terms of dispersal of young and area of use relative to other groups (overlapping or separate home ranges).&#160;Habitat associations are not clearly understood – the species was once thought to be dependent on forests but is now increasingly observed in open and fragmented habitats; however there is no data on population viability in such areas.&#160;While preliminary data on diet supports a primarily carnivorous diet, seasonal changes and geographical variation in diet needs to be evaluated.&#160;Determining how the impact of disease, especially transmission dynamics from domestic dogs, can be managed or minimized in wild populations needs to be addressed.&#160;Interspecific relationships with sympatric carnivores needs to be further evaluated.</p><p></p><p>Locating evidence of species presence using standard survey techniques, including camera traps and transect surveys, has proven difficult (Beisiegel 2009, DeMatteo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Michalski 2010).&#160;The use of artificial scent lures, which can increase attraction to a specific location, have been unsuccessful with wild Bush Dogs (Zuercher <span style="font-style: italic;">et</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">al.</span> 1999).&#160;However, there are several methodological adjustments that may increase the effectiveness of these techniques with the species, including adjusting the height of camera placement, increasing trapping effort, and concurrent use of long-call vocalization playbacks and conspecific urine (DeMatteo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160;Limited field trials in partially fragmented cerrado (2004-2005) with playbacks, urine, and leg-hold traps were unsuccessful (K. DeMatteo unpubl. data). However, additional trials are needed to determine how species density, habitat variability (forest versus cerrado), and prey density alters technique effectiveness.&#160; </p>  <p>Preliminary and ongoing research using a combination of three non-invasive techniques (scent-detection dogs, faecal DNA screening, GIS technology) has been shown to be successful for the species (DeMatteo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, unpubl. data) and should be expanded to additional regions and habitat.&#160;This suite of techniques eliminates the need to attract the species to a specific location and allows insight into many ecological variables including habitat use (intact and fragmented), population status, minimum area of use, and niche overlap/separation with other carnivores.</p><p></p>
20468		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs from extreme eastern Central America and northern South America, south to Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina. Isolated subpopulations may also still occur in Ecuador and Colombia, west of the Andes. Its historical distribution may have extended as far north as Costa Rica (Rosa and Nocke 2002), where the species may still survive.&#160; The current distribution map was generated using the results of an extensive survey of carnivore biologists and literature for species presence (n = 399 historic locations), as well as a bioclimatic model predicting suitable area for the species (DeMatteo and Loiselle 2008). The latter authors estimated that the total area predicted to be suitable for Bush Dogs is in the order of 14,445,000 km²<sup></sup>, with 77% of this occurring within the current range.</p>
20468		habitat	eng	<p>Bush Dogs are reported to be a habitat generalist by indigenous peoples, within the context of occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, where prey densities may be higher (Zuercher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005; E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine pers. obs.; M. Swarner, pers. comm). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1,500 m) forested habitats including primary and gallery forest (Defler 1986), semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest (Aquino and Puertas 1997). Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Brazil (Silveira et al. 1998; Oliveira 2009, C. Brady pers. comm.) and Paraguay (Zuercher and Villalba 2002) and pampas (wet savanna) edge/riparian areas (Strahl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Emmons 1998).&#160; Recent reports mention Bush Dogs in three unique habitats: caatinga, chaco, and mangroves along the coast (DeMatteo and Loiselle 2008). In some cases, they have been observed several kilometers from forest habitat (Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). The species is also occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland (M. Swarner pers. comm.), fragmented cerrado ranchland (E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine pers. obs.; L. Silveira and A. Jácomo pers. comm.), disturbed areas (DeMatteo and Loiselle 2008, Oliveira 2009), and fragmented forest areas (Michalski and Peres 2005, Michalski 2010). </p>  <p>No habitat selection preference was found in either the Pantanal in Brazil (Lima, Jorge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) or in the Upper Paraná Atlantic forest - cerrado mixture in Paraguay (Zuercher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005); however, some evidence has been found suggesting a preference for intact savanna and forest habitat versus altered (cropland and pastures) for a group of Bush Dogs in partially fragmented cerrado, indicating that habitat use and preference may differ by region and availability (E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine pers. obs.).&#160;While Michalski (2010) reported an absence of Bush Dogs in fragmented areas in southern Amazonia, others studies have demonstrated strong evidence that their occurrence is likely (DeMatteo and Loiselle 2008; Oliveira 2009; E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine pers. obs.); however, the intensity of use in these areas and impact on ecological requirements is unknown.&#160; Preliminary data from the field suggest that as the degree of habitat fragmentation increases so does the area required by Bush Dogs (E.S. Lima pers. comm.); while these data are only available for the cerrado ecosystem in Brazil, it is suspected to be true for all habitat types and a reflection of a negative relationship between prey density and habitat fragmentation.&#160;A reanalysis of the Bush Dog’s historical distribution (n > 250 locations) determined that approximately one-quarter (20%) were associated with fragmented/altered habitat and the percentage of modified habitat increased when the estimate was expanded from the area needed to support a single individual to the area to that of breeding group (DeMatteo and Loiselle 2008).&#160;</p><p></p>  <p>The reported variation in home range size estimates is likely associated with habitat integrity and prey density: 150 km²<sup></sup> (Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest; Beisiegel 1999), <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 16 km²<sup></sup> (Beisiegel and Ades 2004), and 140 km²<sup></sup> (Fixed Kernel 95%) for one group of Bush Dogs (n = 2–4 individuals) in cerrado (E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine, pers. obs.). </p>  <p>Preliminary field data supports captive studies that Bush Dogs exist in family groups with young from one or more litters (DeMatteo 2008, Michalski 2010, E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine, pers. obs.); however, solitary individuals are regularly observed in a variety of habitat types.&#160;Reproduction in the wild is aseasonal (DeMatteo 2008).&#160;The species appears to have a semi-nomadic movement pattern versus a true territory like many carnivores (DeMatteo 2008, E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine, pers. obs.) and has been recorded living in sympatry with <em>Atelocynus microtis</em> in Peru and Brazil (Leite Pitman, Beck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Michalski 2010). Estimated generation length is four years [(0.5 x reproductive length of six years) + sexual maturity at one year (in captivity; Porton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987).</p>  <p>Preliminary field data supports anecdotal reports of diet and the idea that Bush Dogs are highly carnivorous (Deutsch 1984, Peres 1991); however, there appears to be evidence of prey preference based on geographical region and habitat type, which is likely compounded by seasonal variability.&#160;For the Pantanal area in Brazil, the principal food item was Nine-banded Armadillo (<em>Dasypus novemcinctus</em>; 94%) with small mammals, Agoutis (<em>Dasyprocta azarae</em>), and birds occurring in smaller quantities; however, no fruit was recorded (n = 17, identified by scent and tracks; Lima, Jorge et al. 2009).&#160; For the interior Atlantic forest in Paraguay, the majority of the diet was composed of Agoutis and Paca (<em>Cuniculus paca</em>) with small mammals, rodents, reptiles, invertebrates, and <em>Cecropia</em> fruit occurring in lower amounts (n = 11, identified using mitochondrial DNA; Zuercher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In a successful reproduction center in southeast Brazil, where meat and fruit (banana and papaya) are available, animals eat fruit and meat in equal proportions (L. Saboia, pers. comm.).&#160;Predation of poultry has been reported to occur occasionally (DeMatteo 2008).</p>
20468		population	eng	<p>Despite its large distributional range and occurrence in a variety of habitats, Bush Dogs seem to be naturally rare throughout their range. In a recent survey by DeMatteo (2008), the majority of countries in the Bush Dog’s distribution reported the status of the species as rare or unknown&#160; (rare: Ecuador; rare or unknown: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, French Guiana, Paraguay; unknown: Panama and Venezuela) and only two countries reported it as common (Guyana and Peru). The species is seldom recorded with camera traps; however, caution should be taken when interpreting the lack of detection, as this may actually be associated with the species actively avoiding features associated with this technique (e.g., placement of traps along animal trails used by other carnivores) or assumptions on animal movement (e.g., placement along roads assumes the animal will walk along the road versus cross over the road).<br/></p>  <p>Demographic data for Bush Dogs are lacking throughout their range and population estimates have been reported only for a few areas: <100 in Misiones Argentina (DeMatteo 2008), >1,000 in Bolivia (DeMatteo 2008), > 1,000 in 4,022 km²<sup></sup> or one individual/4 km²<sup></sup> in Cusco Peru within the Camisea River region (DeMatteo 2008), 0.04 individuals/km²<sup></sup> (B. Beisiegel pers. comm.) in Brazil, 0.025 individuals/km² in partially fragmented cerrado in Mato Grosso Brazil (E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine, pers. obs.), 15.8 individuals/394 km²<sup></sup> or 0.04 individuals/km²<sup></sup> in the Pantanal in Brazil (Lima, Jorge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and 0.001 individuals/km²<sup></sup> in fragmented southern Amazonia Brazil (Michalski 2010).&#160;A suitable area of approximately 11,000,000km² (DeMatteo and Loiselle 2008), and an average population density of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 0.01 individuals/km²<sup></sup>, would predict an estimated population of 110,000 individuals, approximately half of which would be mature; however, the effects of fragmentation, degree of protection, and variability across their broad distribution would suggest that this is an over-estimate.<br/></p>  <p>Across the Bush Dog’s distribution, population trends are reported as unknown in two countries (Guyana and Panama), declining in two (Paraguay and Venezuela), unknown or stable in one (French Guiana), and stable in two (Ecuador and Peru, specifically Cusco Peru) (DeMatteo 2008). Across the entire range, increasing levels of habitat fragmentation (urbanization and agriculture), threats to prey populations with illegal poaching, and exposure to potentially lethal candid-related diseases, mean that the probability that the trend is stable or increasing is highly unlikely.</p>
20468		threats	eng	<p>There are several serious perceived threats, including: 1) human encroachment and loss of intact habitat due to large-scale agriculture (e.g., soybean), conversion of land to pasture, and large-scale plantations of monoculture trees (e.g., eucalyptus, pine); 2) reduction in prey abundance due to illegal poaching and domestic dog predation; and 3) increased risk of contracting lethal diseases from domestic dogs (proximity to human populations and hunting dogs (DeMatteo 2008).</p>  <p>Canid-related diseases are a threat not previously identified for Bush Dogs. However, field evidence supports that pathogens may be transmitted by domestic dogs, and the effects can be potentially devastating, mainly due to the species’ group living (Mann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980, Steinel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Leite Pitman, Nieto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Jorge, Morato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Jorge, Nunes, <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, DeMatteo 2008, Jorge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine, pers. obs.). E.S. Lima, K.E. DeMatteo, R.S.P. Jorge, M.L.S.P. Jorge, J. Dalponte, H.S. Lima, and S. Klorfine (pers. obs.) observed this effect when a generalized hair loss, suspected to be a type of mange, gradually spread through a group of wild Bush Dogs, eventually killing all individuals. In addition to mange, parvovirus and rabies are diseases reported as negatively effecting wild populations (Mann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980, DeMatteo 2008).&#160; The species has been identified to be susceptible to both <em>Dioctophyma renale</em> and <em>Amphimerus interruptus</em> (museum collections - Vierira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), <em>Lagochilascaris</em> sp. (Volcán and Medrano 1991), and as a host for <em>Echinococcus vogeli</em> (Cestoda: Taeniidae) (Rausch and Bernstein 1972). Captive animals have been identified as susceptible to a variety of diseases and parasites, including parvovirus (Janssen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1982), vaccine-induced canine distemper (McInnes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992), leishmania (Lima, Fattori <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), <em>Spirocerca lupi</em> (Rinas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), <em>Toxoplasma gondii </em>(Sedlak and Bartova 2006), and <span style="font-style: italic;">Campylobacter</span> (L. Saboia pers. comm.). With the latter, 13 of 15 individuals in a large family group suddenly died from severe haemorrhagic enteritis when they contracted Campylobacter from an infected Coati that they were inadvertently fed (L. Saboia pers. comm.). This loss of multiple animals in a short period emphasizes both the species sensitivity to various diseases and the susceptibility of group living species to pathogens. With increasing proximity to human areas and intrusion into protected areas with hunting dogs, the risk of exposure to disease is potentially high.&#160;Exposure to disease may also result from feral or semi-feral, non-vaccinated, domestic dogs that regularly hunt prey independent of humans (K. DeMatteo pers. obs.).&#160;DeMatteo (2008) noted that in Brazil more problem interactions were noted to occur between Bush Dogs and domestic dogs than with livestock, which only emphasizes the threat of disease to the species.&#160;&#160;</p>
20471		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into harvest levels for this species.
20471		distribution	eng	This species is generally widespread in Central Asia. It has been recorded from southeastern Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, northeastern Iran and northwestern Afghanistan (Thorington and Hoffman 2005). In Afghanistan it has been recorded up to 1,000 m asl (Habibi 2003; Habibi 2004).
20471		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with sandy desert habitats (such as sand dunes [Shenbrot 1992]) and steppes, where it forms burrows often located in areas of brush. In northern Afghanistan, it has been recorded from clay and loess substrates (Habibi 2004). It is not usually found in cultivated areas, although it can damage plantings made within its arid environment.
20471		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is known to live in small family groups.
20471		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is reportedly hunted for fur in parts of its range, however, Habibi (2004) reports that it 'does not seem to be taken by fur hunters in Afghanistan and is therefore it is likely that it is found in relatively stable numbers'. Additional information on levels of exploitation are needed for this species.
20472		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures. In 2005, the species was reintroduced to Poland by the NGO Salamandra, and animals survived the first winter hibernation (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In 2006 a project was initiated to reintroduce the species to Germany (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006).
20472		distribution	eng	The European souslik is endemic to central and south-eastern Europe, where it occurs at altitudes of 0-2,500 m. Its range is divided in two by the Carpathian mountains. The north-western portion extends through the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Serbia and Montenegro, and western Romania, whilst the south-eastern portion extends from southern Serbia, Macedonia and Greece through Bulgaria and southern Romania to Turkish Thrace, Moldova and Ukraine (Panteleyev 1998, Kryštufek 1999).
20472		distribution	eng	The European souslik is endemic to central and south-eastern Europe, where it occurs at altitudes of 0-2,500 m. Its range is divided in two by the Carpathian mountains. The north-western portion extends through the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Serbia and Montenegro, and western Romania, whilst the south-eastern portion extends from southern Serbia, Macedonia and Greece through Bulgaria and southern Romania to Turkish Thrace, Moldova and Ukraine (Panteleyev 1998, Kry?tufek 1999).
20472		habitat	eng	The European souslik has quite specific habitat requirements. It is restricted to short-grass steppe and similar artificial habitats (pastures, lawns, sports fields, golf courses) on light, well-drained soils, where it can excavate its burrows (Kryštufek 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It avoids cultivated land, with the exception of vineyards in some parts of its range (Spitzenberger 2002). It has an omnivorous diet including seeds, roots, shoots, flowers, and arthropods (Nowak 1999, Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).
20472		habitat	eng	The European souslik has quite specific habitat requirements. It is restricted to short-grass steppe and similar artificial habitats (pastures, lawns, sports fields, golf courses) on light, well-drained soils, where it can excavate its burrows (Kry?tufek 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It avoids cultivated land, with the exception of vineyards in some parts of its range (Spitzenberger 2002). It has an omnivorous diet including seeds, roots, shoots, flowers, and arthropods (Nowak 1999, Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006).
20472		population	eng	The European souslik is currently in serious decline. Its population has become fragmented, and extinctions have occurred in peripheral parts of its range in Germany (where it went extinct c.1985 because of forestry) and Poland (where the last definite autochthonous records date from the 1970s, although the species has recently been reintroduced (Kryštufek 1999, H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006, A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). Although there are still some large and apparently stable subpopulations, there have been many reports of declines, especially in the north-western part of its range; it is also declining in the southern part of the range. In optimal habitat, densities of 18-48 individuals per hectare have been recorded, although lower figures of 5-14 individuals per hectare are also reported (Kryštufek 1999). In Romania, the population has been estimated at c.15,000 (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In parts of Dobrudja (Romania and Bulgaria) populations may have stabilised and started to increase since 1989, as a result of abandonment of intensive agriculture following the fall of the communist regime (I. Coroiu and D. Murariu pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, populations of two subspecies <em>macedonicus</em> and <em>graolojenici</em>) have been lost (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there were 83 known localities in 1995, but by 2000-2001 only 26 of them still existed (Cepáková and Hulová 2002). Since 2001, there has been regular monitoring of <em>S. citellus</em>. Five new sites have been found, six colonies have disappeared, one was re-established due to reintroduction and one site has been naturally colonized following conservation  management. Fluctuation or stagnation of abundance has been observed at eleven sites, numbers of sousliks have steadily decreased at seven sites, and only in five colonies have populations increased. In 2006 the total number of <em>S. citellus</em> living in the Czech Republic was estimated at 2,750 (J. Mateju unpublished data).
20472		population	eng	The European souslik is currently in serious decline. Its population has become fragmented, and extinctions have occurred in peripheral parts of its range in Germany (where it went extinct c.1985 because of forestry) and Poland (where the last definite autochthonous records date from the 1970s, although the species has recently been reintroduced (Kry?tufek 1999, H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006, A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). Although there are still some large and apparently stable subpopulations, there have been many reports of declines, especially in the north-western part of its range; it is also declining in the southern part of the range. In optimal habitat, densities of 18-48 individuals per hectare have been recorded, although lower figures of 5-14 individuals per hectare are also reported (Kry?tufek 1999). In Romania, the population has been estimated at c.15,000 (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In parts of Dobrudja (Romania and Bulgaria) populations may have stabilised and started to increase since 1989, as a result of abandonment of intensive agriculture following the fall of the communist regime (I. Coroiu and D. Murariu pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, populations of two subspecies <em>macedonicus</em> and <em>graolojenici</em>) have been lost (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there were 83 known localities in 1995, but by 2000-2001 only 26 of them still existed (Cepáková and Hulová 2002). Since 2001, there has been regular monitoring of <em>S. citellus</em>. Five new sites have been found, six colonies have disappeared, one was re-established due to reintroduction and one site has been naturally colonized following conservation  management. Fluctuation or stagnation of abundance has been observed at eleven sites, numbers of sousliks have steadily decreased at seven sites, and only in five colonies have populations increased. In 2006 the total number of <em>S. citellus</em> living in the Czech Republic was estimated at 2,750 (J. Mateju unpublished data).
20472		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the conversion of steppe-grassland and pasture to cultivated fields or forestry, and the abandonment of pasture and its subsequent reversion to tall-grass meadows or scrubby habitats which are not suitable for the souslik (Kryštufek 1999). In Austria it is therefore largely restricted to vineyards, airstrips, golflinks, sport- and camping grounds and other frequently mown lawns where it is completely dependent on the toleration of the owners (Spitzenberger 2002). Although not a major threat, some Gypsy communities in central and eastern Europe still catch sousliks for use as a traditional meal (J. Mateju pers. comm. 2006).
20472		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the conversion of steppe-grassland and pasture to cultivated fields or forestry, and the abandonment of pasture and its subsequent reversion to tall-grass meadows or scrubby habitats which are not suitable for the souslik (Kry?tufek 1999). In Austria it is therefore largely restricted to vineyards, airstrips, golflinks, sport- and camping grounds and other frequently mown lawns where it is completely dependent on the toleration of the owners (Spitzenberger 2002). Although not a major threat, some Gypsy communities in central and eastern Europe still catch sousliks for use as a traditional meal (J. Mateju pers. comm. 2006).
20473		conservation	eng	Subspecies <em>brunneus</em> was listed as threatened on 5 April 2000 under the United States Endangered Species Act. Subspecies <em>endemicus</em> was listed as a Candidate for listing by USFWS (2001).<br/><br/>The USFWS announced a 12-month finding on a resubmitted petition to list subspecies <em>endemicus</em> under the ESA, and found the petition does warrant listing, but is precluded by other higher priority listing actions. It is still considered a candidate for listing (Federal Register, 27 December 2004).<br/><br/>Translocation and habitat improvement measures by the United States Forest Service have resulted in population increases of <em>S. b. brunneus</em> in the past five years.<br/><br/>At least a few occurrences are adequately protected. The following is needed: survey colonies for precise population numbers; protect occurrences from agricultural development; maintain natural habitat; research life history and reproductive biology.
20473		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a five-county area of west-central Idaho in the United States (Yensen and Sherman 1997). The northern subspecies (<em>brunneus</em>) presently is known only from Valley and Adams counties at elevations of 1,150-1,550 m asl; most populations are small and often isolated by several kilometres (Yensen 1991). The southern subspecies (<em>endemicus</em>) has a patchy distribution at lower elevations (670-975 m asl) north of the Payette River in Gem, Payette, and Washington counties. The species is apparently extirpated in the area between the extant populations of the northern and southern subspecies (Yensen 1984, 1991, Yensen <em>et al.</em> 1991, Yensen and Sherman 1997). Even within subspecies, populations are disjunct.
20473		habitat	eng	It occurs in mountain meadows surrounded by forests of ponderosa pine and Douglas fir. <em>S. b. endemicus</em> is found in areas originally covered with sagebrush and native bunchgrasses, but the current vegetation consists of annual grasslands composed of introduced grasses.<br/><br/>Mating occurs soon after spring emergence; males guard sexually receptive females from other males; after mating, female excludes male from female burrow; gestation lasts about three weeks; litter size is 2-10 (average around 6-7); young are weaned in three weeks (Yensen 1991, Spahr <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>May be limited by competition from Columbian ground squirrel (Spahr <em>et al.</em> 1991). Badgers and prairie falcons are the primary predators. Feeds on green vegetation, seeds. Southern populations emerge in late January or early February and cease above-ground activity in late June or early July; northern populations are active above ground from late March or early April until late July or early August (Yensen 1991). Activity is constrained by time of snow melt and vegetation desiccation.
20473		population	eng	The total adult population size appears to be at least several thousand individuals (Yensen 2001, USFWS 2002). Based on locations mapped on a coarse scale (Yensen and Sherman 1997), this species occurs in at least a few dozen distinct areas; these include at least a few hundred occupied sites. <br/><br/>Current overall trend is uncertain but may be relatively stable. With regards to the long term trend, a significant decline has occurred in area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size (USFWS 2002, 2004).
20473		threats	eng	The primary threat to <em>S. b. brunneus</em> is loss and fragmentation of meadow habitat due to forest regrowth. Poisoning and replacement of native grasses by tall introduced grasses have also had large negative impacts on the species. Other threats include grazing by domestic livestock, off-road vehicle use (may destroy burrows), competition with Columbian ground squirrels (which may exclude <em>S. brunneus </em>from deeper soils that provide more favourable conditions for hibernation), and some recreational shooting (USFWS 2002). Recreational housing developments in the near future could present a major conservation challenge. <br/><br/>Declines of <em>S. b. endemicus</em> have resulted from shrub-steppe habitat conversion to agriculture, poisoning, and degradation of remaining rangeland habitat, mainly by the invasion of exotic annual grasses such as cheatgrass (<em>Bromus tectorum</em>) and medusahead (<em>Taeniatherium asperum</em>) and the loss of shrubs. This has changed the species composition of vegetation (reducing squirrel diet quality and reliability) and has altered the fire regime throughout much of the range. Recreational shooting and poisoning of ground squirrels historically were common activities, but recent regulatory changes and educational efforts probably have reduced this threat (USFWS 2004). In most areas, this squirrel faces threats associated with small population size (USFWS 2004).
20474		conservation	eng	Only 9% of the suitable habitat within the historical range exists in a protected state. Stewart (2005) determined that this species occurs on a large number of protected areas (federal wilderness areas, state parks, state ecological reserves, etc.) on lands encompassing about 1,800 km². Nearly two-thirds of the range is in federal ownership (Stewart 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat needs to be protected from development and excessive grazing. Off-road vehicle traffic should be restricted or eliminated at inhabited sites. Consideration of this species in federal land use decisions should be promoted.<br/><br/>Obtain data on reproduction, dispersal, demography, food habits, habitat needs, and the effects of fire, grazing, and off-road vehicle use.
20474		distribution	eng	The Mohave ground squirrel has a patchy (discontinuous) distribution (Hafner 1992, Gustafson 1993) in the northwestern corner of the Mohave Desert, south-central California in the United States, at elevations of 610-1,800 m asl (Best 1995); the range coincides with a cool mesic Wisconsinan refugium in the Mohave Desert. It occurs in southwestern Inyo, eastern Kern, extreme northeastern Los Angeles, and northwestern San Bernardino counties (Wessman 1977, California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Best 1995); from Olancha, Inyo County, south to Victorville, San Bernardino County, and from the Tehachapi Mountains of Kern County to the Granite Mountains in San Bernardino County (Biosystems Analysis 1989). The Mojave River generally defines the extreme southeastern boundary of the range, but the species historically occurred east of the river in Lucerne Valley (Stewart 2005; see list of specimens examined by Hafner 1992). Its extent of occurrence is approximately 20,000 km² (Stewart 2005).
20474		habitat	eng	This ground squirrel inhabits desert areas with deep sandy or gravelly friable soils and an abundance of annual herbaceous vegetation. Habitats include alluvial fans where desert pavement is absent. Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) creosotebush association, (2) shadscale association, (3) alkali sink association, and (4) Joshua tree association. Nests are in underground burrows. Individuals may use several different burrows. <br/><br/>Mating occurs in February-March (Harris and Leitner 2004). Litter size is 4-6; young are born in late March or early April (Biosystems Analysis 1989). No reproduction occurs during the driest years; for example, Harris and Leitner (2004) found that no reproduction occurred at their study site when early winter precipitation (October-January) was less than 30 mm. <br/><br/>Populations fluctuate with environmental conditions (Leitner and Leitner 1998). Populations in marginal habitats may become extirpated during extended droughts. After the return of favourable conditions, those areas may be recolonized from adjacent areas following the resumption of reproduction and dispersal of offspring from core habitats (Gustafson 1993). Long-distance movement by juveniles might be critical for connecting local populations and recolonizing sites after local, drought-related extirpation (Harris and Leitner 2005). <br/><br/>Mohave ground squirrels feed on green vegetation and seeds. May also eat carrion. Remains underground August until late winter or early spring (reportedly emerges in February or March, or, according to Biosystems Analysis [1989], March in the south and May in the north). Active during the spring and summer.
20474		population	eng	This species is rare throughout much of its range. Significant population declines have been recorded across most of the range between 1980 and 2000, and this decline is not correlated with winter rainfall, which generally increased between 1984 and 1998 (Leitner 2001, Brooks and Matchett 2002). Hafner (1992) hypothesized that low dispersal ability might be one of several possible explanations for the persistence of a stable contact zone between <em>S. mohavensis</em> and <em>S. tereticaudus</em>, the species is relatively mobile compared to other ground squirrel species. Harris and Leitner (2004) found that the size of female home ranges in years of no reproduction appears to vary in response to food availability, and that alternating size of the home range may be an adaptive response to an arid, variable environment.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 100,000 (assuming an average density of about one adult per hectare (Leitner and Leitner 1998) and 430,000 hectares of occupied habitat). However, the spatial and temporal distribution of this species is highly dynamic, which makes it difficult to make a reliable estimate of overall population size.<br/><br/>Stewart (2005) mapped 22 locations in which this species was captured during trapping surveys in 2002-2004 (Leitner 2005). These represent four core areas plus two additional areas in which squirrels are present at low densities (Stewart 2005).<br/><br/>This ground squirrel exhibits large fluctuations in local population size. Further information on overall trend is needed.<br/>Recent monitoring data reveal that over twenty percent of the historical range of this species is no longer occupied (Stewart 2005).
20474		threats	eng	The primary cause of the decline is the conversion of habitat to urban, suburban, agricultural, military, and other human uses (Gustafson 1993), including livestock grazing, off-highway vehicle use, energy production, and transportation infrastructure (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Stewart 2005). Over 78% of the habitat within the species' range is either naturally unavailable, severely degraded, or is in a land-use category that represents a threat to the ground squirrel; the remainder is under threat from continued development and habitat fragmentation (Stewart 2005). The planned Fort Irwin expansion would fragment one of four remaining populations that appear to be stable, posing a serious threat to the species' persistence (Stewart 2005). Current regulatory mechanisms are believed to be inadequate to protect this species (Stewart 2005). <em>Spermophilus tereticaudus</em> may be expanding its range at the expense of <em>S. mohavensis</em> (Wessman, in Hafner 1992).<br/><br/><em>S. mohavensis</em> fails to reproduce during years of drought rather than risking a delay in accumulating fat reserves for aestivation. Periods of prolonged drought therefore is a potential threat to the population. The taxon exists as isolated populations with a scattered distribution. Recruitment from neighbouring colonies is thought to be rare (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).
20475		conservation	eng	United States Endangered Species Act: Candidate (12 Sep 2006). United States Fish and Wildlife Service Lead Region: R1 - Pacific<br/><br/>Roughly 64 percent of known Oregon sites are located on federal land (Boardman Bombing Range and Horn Butte), 35 percent are located on private land that is under an ODFW conservation easement, and the remaining one percent is located on other private lands (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>The Boardman Bombing Range (northern Oregon), which supports the highest known concentration of Washington ground squirrels and best available habitat (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 1980, Betts 1990, Quade 1994, Greene 1999), is not fully secure. Research Natural Areas on the bombing range protect 2,046 hectares, but the remainder of the bombing range (8,024 hectares) is managed by the Navy for military training and grazing allotments (Quade 1994, Greene 1999) (grazing has not been allowed in recent years). Protected habitat is also located on a small preserve owned by The Nature Conservancy just south of the bombing range. <br/><br/>In Washington, most sites are located on the state-owned Seep Lakes Wildlife Management Area, the BLM's Wenatchee Resource Area, and the Columbia National Wildlife Refuge. The Badger Mountain sites (Betts 1990) were located on private land.<br/><br/>Continued inventories are needed. Conservation easements should be pursued on private lands.
20475		distribution	eng	The species' range includes the Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington east and south of the Columbia River, and northern Oregon between the John Day River and the Blue Mountains in the United States (Betts 1990, Verts and Carraway 1998). The three main occupied areas (two in Washington, one in Oregon) are highly disjunct, and separated by more than 50 kilometres (30 miles) of unoccupied land (Betts 1990). The elevational range is 90-450 m asl (Rickart and Yensen 1991).
20475		habitat	eng	This ground squirrel occupies shrub-steppe habitat of the Columbia Basin ecosystem (USFWS 2004). It is most abundant in areas of high grass cover, on deep soils with low clay content (Betts 1990) and high silt content (Greene 1999). Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow.<br/><br/>This species breeds late January-early February, soon after emergence from hibernation; later at higher elevations than at lower elevations. Gestation lasts probably 23-30 days. Young are born in February and early March. Litter size is 5-11 (average is eight). Young appear above ground in late March or April, nearly full-sized by late May (Rickart and Yensen 1991).<br/><br/>Klein <em>et al.</em> (2005) studied dispersal patterns of 125 radio-collared juvenile males in north-central Oregon. Mean dispersal probability was 0.718. Median dispersal distance was 880 metres (range up to 3.5 kilometres). There was suggestive evidence that survival of dispersers was higher than that of non dispersers.<br/><br/>Individuals live alone or in colonies. Badger probably is the most important predator. Diet includes herbaceous vegetation (including cultivated plants), roots, bulbs, seeds, and insects. Adults emerge from hibernation late January-March, feed throughout spring and into the summer, and accumulate much body fat. Adults are active until late May or early June, juveniles until late June or early July. During hot weather, most active in the morning (Rickart and Yensen 1991).
20475		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000. For example, 41 of the 80 colonies located by Betts (1990) were rated as small, 13 as moderate, and 26 as large. Assuming an average of 20 individuals in the small colonies, 60 for the moderate, and 150 for the large, total population size would be at least 6,280 individuals. This is purely an estimate based on average numbers, and it clearly underestimates the entire population as Betts (1990) did not completely survey all known habitat areas and many previously unknown colonies have been discovered since 1990.<br/><br/>In 2004, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) revisited 300 of roughly 500 known and historic detections in Douglas, Grant, and Adams counties. Surveyors found activity at approximately 240 (80 percent) of the sites. Probably some single colonies were represented by multiple detections, so the number of distinct occurrences is likely fewer than 240 in this area (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>In Oregon (Boardman Bombing Range), only 115 of 188 (61.2 percent) colonies originally located in 1997, 2000, 2001, and 2002 were occupied in 2003 (Marr, 2003, unpublished data). TNC revisited all of the 90 known colonies (or 121 detections) on the Boardman Conservation Area in 2004. Sixty-six (73 percent) of sites were occupied in 2004. Of the 62 known in 1999, 44 (71 percent) were still occupied. Of the 20 sites first identified in 2001, 16 (80 percent) were occupied. While 24 sites had become vacant since 1999, 16 additional sites were located incidentally in 2004 (Marr 2004). Populations fluctuate with climate variations; populations may decline with drought, then recover with increased precipitation (and hence improved food resources) (Quade 1994, Greene 1999).<br/><br/>The range is now separated into three disjunct populations, although historically it was probably contiguous (Verts and Carraway 1998); the current range is estimated to be less than 50% of the historical range. The number of colonies has also dropped dramatically, and over 50% of those that have disappeared have gone since 1985 (USFWS 1999). Betts (1990, 1999) found that the species had disappeared from 73.8 percent of the sites in Washington and 76.9 percent of the sites in Oregon. Of the approximately 47 historic and new confirmed sites in southeastern Washington  in 1987-1988, Washington ground squirrels were still evident at 37 (78 percent) in 1998 (Betts 1999). Sherman (2001) noted the loss of entire colonies of ground squirrels on the Columbia National Wildlife Refuge and Seep Lakes Management Area near Othello, Washington, despite the protected status of the species in the area.
20475		threats	eng	The range contraction and disappearance of colonies is primarily the result of loss and fragmentation of habitat due to conversion of native grassland and shrub-steppe to agricultural uses, such as wheat farms (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 1980, Betts 1990). In addition to removing required vegetative cover and forage, tilling and other soil disturbance destroys the necessary structure of the specific silty soil types (i.e., Warden soils) on which the species relies (Greene 1999). Intensive grazing removes vegetative cover and forage, degrading the habitat for ground squirrels (Greene 1999). Betts (1990) rated 21 of 80 colonies as highly vulnerable to extinction due to colony size, isolation from other colonies, land ownership, and threat from human activity. <br/><br/>However, the majority of existing colonies are located on the Boardman Bombing Range and the Boeing tract, which include the largest contiguous tract of suitable habitat (USFWS 2004). Although future Boardman Bombing Range activities are not certain, they are not expected to change significantly in the foreseeable future (USFWS 2004). In 2003, the largest threat to colonies in Oregon was the imminent conversion of the Boeing tract for agriculture. However, under a newly signed agreement, Threemile Canyon Farms placed 9,146 ha (22,600 acres) of the Boeing tract into a permanent ODFW Conservation Easement (Boardman Conservation Area), which is managed by TNC with the goal to maintain and improve where feasible the integrity of existing native communities and associated covered species (including the Washington ground squirrel) (USFWS 2004). All but two known sites and the majority of suitable habitat on the Boeing tract are located on the Boardman Conservation Area and therefore are protected from irreversible habitat modification (USFWS 2004). Hence threats from habitat loss have been significantly reduced in recent years. USFWS (2004) reasoned that this has reduced the immediacy of threats to the Washington ground squirrel, but actually it is the scope of threat that has been reduced; ground squirrel colonies that are not on conservation lands remain vulnerable to continued habitat loss (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Quade (1994) concluded that invasion of non-indigenous and noxious weeds also has contributed to the degradation of the habitat. <br/><br/>Ground squirrels are often viewed as pests and are subject to recreational shooting and poisoning to reduce impacts to agricultural crops (USFWS 2004). Olterman and Verts (1972) attributed the decline of Washington ground squirrels from 1948 to 1970 to years of control by poisoning and/or shooting, in addition to significant habitat loss.<br/><br/>Predation by badgers can be a significant mortality factor. Badger predation may cause local extirpations of small, isolated colonies (Betts 1999).<br/><br/>Sylvatic plague, which was responsible for large population declines of <em>Spermophilus townsendii</em> (a closely related species) several decades ago, is a potential threat (USFWS 2004).
20476		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in protected areas. To protect this species it is necessary to prevent overgrazing and limit the expansion of agriculture.
20476		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Yakima River Valley of Washington in the United States, west of the Yakima River and in the Horse Heaven Hills to the south of the valley (Hafner <em>et al</em> 1998). The entire area of the species' range appears to be less than 7,000 km².
20476		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in high desert shrubland. It generally occurs in well-drained soils, especially embankments. It makes extensive burrow systems. Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow. In Idaho, juvenile dispersal distance over two years was 146-1,076 metres (mean 515 metres over the two years) (Olson and Van Horne 1998). <br/><br/>Main diet includes herbaceous vegetation (grasses, forbs, and exotic annuals), and seeds; it may also eat some shrub parts and animal matter. Will often feed on crops. May climb bushes while foraging. Emerges from dormancy in late winter or early spring (males before females) but returns to dormancy during May-July, when grasses dry out. May have separate period of activity in fall. It is most active in the early morning.
20476		population	eng	Remaining populations of this species are fragmented and isolated. There are no estimates of population density available.
20476		threats	eng	Less than 10% of the species' original habitat remains and most of its range is on private land. This species causes agricultural damage in some areas and has been subject to control programs.
20477		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in Pico Tancitaro National Park and a protected area near Infiernillo, Michoacan.
20477		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Jalisco, Michoacan, and Mexico, and Guerrero, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
20477		habitat	eng	This species lives in areas with xerophytic vegetation, in rocks areas along canyon sides, around stone walls and corrals near ranches, and in agricultural areas. <br/><br/>It uses burrows that are made in open ground at the base of a tree or bush, in rocky areas along small ravines, or under mesquite. This species is an omnivore, and the dried and black seeds of <em>Crescentia</em> are an important part of its diet, as well as the fruits of plum trees.This species may cause significant damage to cultivated crops, such as corn, beans, and sorghum. It is possible that this species has spread its range into the more arid habitats of the Mexican Plateau because of the large areas under cultivation (Best 1995).
20477		population	eng	This species is common in suitable areas (Best 1995). Its population size varies from year to year and among seasons (Villa-R. 1943 in Best 1995).
20477		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
20478		conservation	eng	In Mongolia, this species is protected as Rare under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act. No. 264) of the 2000 Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom. Listed as Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996), and included as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE 1997). It was regionally Red Listed in Mongolia as  Endangered under criterion A3c (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). Approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.  Although it is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws, Hunting Laws, and the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date. In China, there are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in Luoshan, Baijitan, and Saihanwula Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
20478		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mongolia and China, and occurs at elevations up to 3,200 m asl. In Mongolia, it occurs in the Ikh and Baga Bogd in Valley of the Lakes, and Gurvansaikhan and Öshög mountains in Gobi Altai Mountain Range (Bannikov 1954; Dawaa 1972). In China, it occurs in Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008), Shanxi, and Shaanxi provinces (CSIS 2008).
20478		habitat	eng	It inhabits steppe, mountain foothills, and alpine meadows, at elevations up to 3,200 m asl. It is often associated with couch grasses, pea shrubs and false sedges, particularly <em>Amygdalus pedunculata</em> and <em>Amygdalus polyrrhizum</em>. This species is not found in areas with dense forest cover (Nowak 1991). In China, it can be found in desert habitat occupying dry sandy areas, as well as "grasslands at the edge of the Gobi" (Smith and Xie 2008). <br/><br/>This species is typically brown or grey in color, with small pale spots on the back and a pale underside. The coat becomes lighter in summer, with the head and shoulders turning pale chestnut (Nowak 1991). Internal cheek pouches are used for carrying food. Its diet consists of herbs and other plants (Smith and Xie 2008). The legs and tail are short, and it has a head-rump measurement of 22-23 cm (Sokolov and Orlov 1980). It is a diurnal species that hibernates (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size is between 1-9, with June the likely time of parturition (Smith and Xie 2008).
20478		population	eng	Population data for this species are currently unavailable. In Mongolia, it is believed to be most abundant around Gurvansaikhan Mountain.
20478		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20479		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas occur within its range.
20479		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Nayarit south to northern Guerrero, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevations from sea level to 1,200 m (Best 1995).
20479		habitat	eng	This squirrel inhabits dense, tropical, deciduous forests, and is common in plains. Its burrows are on hillsides among rocks, and in sandy flats along walls and hedges bordering cultivated fields. It also occurs in the shade of the dense groves of oil palms (<em>Arecaceae</em>), with its burrows under masses of fallen palm fronds or sheltered by the thorny growth of mesquite (<em>Prosopis</em>) and catclaw (<em>Acacia</em>). <br/><br/>This squirrel eats fruits and nuts, and sometimes it also may feed on insects.  Breeding occurs during the dry season (December to June). A female captured in February had four embryos (Best 1995).
20479		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitats (Best 1995).
20479		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
20480		conservation	eng	Part of this species range lies within a protected area.
20480		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Baja California, Mexico (Alvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 1996).
20480		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in desert shrubland and open mountain forests in areas of volcanic origin. Vegetation is dominated by <em>Pachycereus pringlei</em> (cardon), <em>Machaerocereus gummosus</em> (pitaya agria), <em>Lemairocereus thurberi</em> (pitaya dulce), <em>Opuntia cholla</em> (choya), <em>Prosopis juliflora</em> (mesquite), <em>Lysiloma candida</em> (palo blanco), <em>Burcera ceraciflora</em> (torote) and <em>Jatropha cinerea</em> (lomboy) (Alvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is primarily found near water holes in the Gigantas Sierra and Sierra de San Francisco. It feeds on Datil plants. Because of this specific habitat preference, populations are very isolated and fragmented.
20480		population	eng	No population information could be found. This species has a restricted and fragmented range with low population density. It occurs in isolated and fragmented populations.
20480		threats	eng	This species is hunted. It is sometimes considered a pest to crops (squash, Datil).
20481		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20481		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western United States and adjoining north-western Mexico, from extreme south-central Washington and western Oregon, south-ward throughout most of California, and into north-western Baja California.
20481		habitat	eng	This species is found in successional habitats, roadsides, farmlands, chaparral, desert, and open grassy areas.
20481		population	eng	In California and northern Baja California, this species is widespread and locally abundant in most habitats where found, including agricultural areas. In the central desert of Baja California and California it is rare.
20481		threats	eng	No major threats.
20482		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas (approximately 7% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Listed as Least Concern in Russia and China.
20482		distribution	eng	Distributed in dry plain steppes in Transbaikalia (Russia), E Mongolia and NE China. In Mongolia one specimen was recorded from a locality 300 km west of this known distribution (Nicht <em>et al.</em>, 1971), therefore the precise western limit of its range in Mongolia is unclear (Bannikov, 1954).
20482		habitat	eng	Inhabit plain wormwood tuft-cereal steppes, also in China found in deserts. It is considered a characteristic species of the northern edge of the Gobi in extreme N Mongolia and the adjacent borders of Siberia.  It apparently does not extend far into the Gobi, but follows around the northeastern edge to reappear in Chinese territory along the borders of Hebei and adjacent Nei Mongol. Live on hill slopes, pastures, road borders, along railroads. Uses burrows of marmots and daurian pika. <br/><br/>Burrows are simple, wintering burrows have one entrance without soil emission. Tunnels normally extend a maximum of 2 m, although some may reach as far as 6-8 m in length.  A single nest, lined with grass, is normally found at a depth of 50 cm to 1 m, while wintering nests are about 2 m below the ground.  Adult males enter hibernation in the end of May, while young ground squirells are active till autumn. These ground squirrels feed on various herbs and other plants, including grain fields.  Maturity age is on second year. Gestation is about 30 days, litter size is 2-9 young.
20482		population	eng	No population data are available, but this species is believed to occur at low densities throughout Mongolia and Transbaikalia.
20482		threats	eng	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats to the species as a whole at present.
20483		conservation	eng	In Russia is abundant and is considerable crop pest. Transmits encephalitis, tularemia and other disases. Occurs in some protected areas (approximately 5% of the species’ range in Mongolia).
20483		distribution	eng	Distributed in plain semi-deserts and dry steppes in E Kazakhstan, south of W Siberia (Russia), and Xinjan (China). Several isolated areas in Mongolia (from Uvs Lake Depression in northern Great Lakes Depression, to Dariganga in Eastern Govi; Dawaa, 1972) and Inner Mongolia (China).
20483		habitat	eng	In northern parts of the range lives at borders of aspen and birch forest-steppe. More to south inhabit steppes with light saxaul, in mountains lives up to 2100 m. Also found in pastures, derilict and arable lands. Burrows are simple, deep (up to 3,5 m), without soil emission. Enter hibernation in August - first half of September, exit in end of March - April. Feed on steppe cereals, sometimes consume animal food. Litter size is 7-9 young.
20483		population	eng	In eastern and north-eastern parts of the range in common and often abundant.
20483		threats	eng	The species is hunted for meat and skins for local trade. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
20484		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures apply to this species.
20484		distribution	eng	Russia and Kazakhstan, from the Caspian Sea and the Volga River to Lake Balkash; south through Uzbekistan, W Tajikistan and Turkmenistan to NE Iran, and N Afghanistan; W Xinjiang (China). The southern part of the range is fragmented.
20484		distribution	eng	Russia and Kazakhstan, from the Caspian Sea and the Volga River to Lake Balkash; south through Uzbekistan, W Tajikistan and Turkmenistan to NE Iran, N Afghanistan and China. The southern part of the range is fragmented.
20484		habitat	eng	Inhabits sand, clay and loess deserts and semi-deserts. In the forest zone it lives on black absinth and saltwort alkali soils. Usually digs a single burrows on a large territory. Sometimes burrows of the great gerbil <em>Rhombomys opimus</em> are used. Migrates seasonally from sites flooded with water from melted snow, or in search for fresh vegetation. Hibernation is extended; the species exits hibernation in mid-May and after 3-4 months enters hibernation again. Feeds on overground parts of cereals, absinths and saltworts.
20484		population	eng	In some regions of Russia and Kazakhstan populations have declined as a result of commercial hunting, but the species remains common and abundant throughout most of its range.
20484		threats	eng	Although it is hunted commercially, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.
20485		conservation	eng	This species distribution falls partially into several protected areas within its range.
20485		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Chihuahua, Mexico (Hoffmann and Thorington 2005). Its altitudinal range is from 3,000 to 3,750 m (Webb and Baker 1984).
20485		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in pine forests at elevations higher than the pinyon-pine belt. It inhabits slopes covered by <em>Pseudotsuga</em>, <em>Pinus</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, and <em>Populus</em>, without <em>Quercus</em> (Webb and Baker 1984). <br/><br/>A female captured in May had five embryos; and in June four females captured contained two, four and five embryos each. In July, seven females were lactating (Best and Thomas 1991).
20485		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (pine forest). It is not found outside this vegetation type.
20485		threats	eng	This species is threatened by intensive habitat loss due to timber extraction.
20486		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures for this species are known.
20486		distribution	eng	Steppe between Volga and Irtysh rivers (Russia; N Kazakhstan). Formerly, steppe between Don and Volga rivers (Russia: Gromov <em>et al.</em> 1965). On the western bank of Volga River found in NW part of Volga Hills (Ermakov and Titov 2000). Reported from Xinjiang (Ma <em>et al.</em> 1987); but probably a misidentified <em>S. brevicauda</em>. Its range is increasing in the south and the west (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006). Occurs from sea level to 600 m.
20486		habitat	eng	Inhabits mixed grassy plains, and grain and feather-grass steppes. In the northern part of the range penetrates into forest-steppe and the southern part of forest zones. In the south it occurs in river meadows in semi-desert zones. The species is spreading as roads and development increase the number of channels containing water and long grasses. The species is able to cross the Volga due to the construction of dams in four different places. The dams contain ponds which keep ice over winter for longer, allowing the species to move. Another possible reason for observed range expansion is the release of individuals (along with marmots) by hunters. Lives in single burrows scattered over wide territories. In southern parts of the range where appropriate habitats are limited forms colonies.  Adult males enter hibernation in mid-June; mass hibernation starts in August. Feeds on green parts and seeds of grasses and cereals.
20486		population	eng	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations and consequently population size varies from year to year. Periods of mass reproduction give place to population depressions, during which only single individuals could be found in colonies that had formerly been large. The main factors that determine mortality include the soil freezing through during the species' hibernation period, late arrival of spring, human disturbance (including direct killing), predators and epizootics. The species has high reproductive capacity and ecological plasticity. However, a recent study found that populations in most parts of the range were declining, and some small populations had gone extinct (Ermakov and Titov 2000). At the same time, the species has been extending its range in some areas (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006).
20486		population	eng	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations and consequently population size varies from year to year. Periods of mass reproduction give place to population depressions, during which only single individuals could be found in colonies that had formerly been large. The main factors that determine mortality include the soil freezing through during the species' hibernation period, late arrival of spring, human disturbance (including direct killing), predators and epizootics. The species has high reproductve capacity and ecological plasticity. However, a recent study found that populations in most parts of the range were declining, and some small populations had gone extinct (Ermakov and Titov 2000). At the same time, the species has been extending its range in some areas (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006).
20486		threats	eng	The most significant threats are ploughing and direct killing by humans.
20487		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20487		distribution	eng	This species is found from extreme southeastern New Mexico through western and central Texas (United States),  south to Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas (Mexico). There is disjunct population in central Mexico.
20487		habitat	eng	This squirrel is found in grassy habitats, where grass occurs with brush, or in arid regions. It will also occupy human-created grassy areas, such as cemeteries and golf courses.
20487		population	eng	This species occurs in small colonies and is locally common.
20487		threats	eng	None known.
20488		conservation	eng	Although the distribution within the range is patchy, it is common and sometimes abundant species that occurs in some protected areas.<br/><br/>Considered "secure" (S5) in British Columbia, but "vulnerable" (S3) in Manitoba where it occurs marginally. Several subspecies are restricted to Alaskan Islands, where they are of conservation concern because of their restricted distributions: <em>S. p. kodiacensis</em> (S3), <em>S. p. lyratus</em> (S3), <em>S. p. nebulicola</em> (S3), <em>S. p. osgoodi</em> (S3?). Otherwise, the species is not ranked in Alaska or the Canadian territories.
20488		distribution	eng	In Eurasia distributed in NE Siberia, from Lena River, Verhoyanskoe and Kolymskoe Highlands, Chukotka, and Kamchatka. From Kolyma River to Arctic and Pacific Oceans; in south range does not reach Magadan (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995). According to Serdyuk (1986) current area of occupancy is above 2 million sq. km, but it distributed sporadically and inhabited zones interchange with wide uninhabited places. There is a big isolated population at western border of the range, in Lena River Basin (Panteleev, 1998). In Yakutia here are two isolated populations: on Yana River, and on headstream of Indigirka River (Vinokurov <em>et al.</em>, 1982). The range is expanding (Serdyuk, 1986).<br/><br/>In North America, from Alaska east to west of Hudson Bay and south to central British Columbia and extreme northern Manitoba.
20488		habitat	eng	Found in open tundra, in forested areas in open meadows, or above treeline, in river valleys and meadow-steppe places, in coastal sand ridges. In mountains inhabit edges of stone deposits and meadows of alpine and subalpine zones (up to 1400 m). Often found in outskirts of human settlements. Lives in colonies with complex system of burrows. Burrows are shallow (up to 1 m), without vertical passages. Permanent burrows are with several entrances and nests. Hibernates from October till March. In northern part of the range exits hibernation while it is still snowing. Omnivorous. In spring, mainly feed on animals. Later feed on berries, mushrooms, lichens, mosses and other plants. Stores nuts and dry grass for winter. Reproduce once a year. In the northern part of the range mating occurs in burrows before they emerge outside. Litter size is 6-8, sometimes up to 14 young. Starts mating during second year.
20488		population	eng	Occur in colonies and are locally abundant throughout the range. Appears to be little accessible information about its status in mainland Alaska or the Canadian territories, but anecdotal comments indicate it is common.
20488		threats	eng	Unsustainable hunting for skins for local trade is the primary threat. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
20489		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
20489		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Veracruz and Puebla in east central Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). Its altitudinal range is from 2,340 to 2,370 m (Best and Ceballos 1995).
20489		habitat	eng	This squirrel lives is common in high elevation pine-forest. It is active approximately 9 months of the year, from early March to November. By early October, most squirrels have gone into hibernation. Predators probably include long-tailed weasels (<em>Mustela frenata</em>), and domestic dogs (<em>Canis familiaris</em>) (Best and Ceballos 1995). Two adult females were pregnant in July; one had seven embryos and six the other; mean litter size is four. Apparently, it has a late breeding season or two litters each year (Best and Ceballos 1995).
20489		population	eng	This species is common in pine forest (Best and Ceballos 1995).
20489		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive habitat fragmentation and deforestation within its restricted range due to timber extraction and clearing of forest for agriculture (potatoes).
20490		conservation	eng	Despite recorded population decline in the European part of the range, the species remains widespread and abundant. No specific conservation measures are known.
20490		distribution	eng	Distributed in plains or foothills steppes and semi-deserts in the Dnepr Region (Ukraine), Lower Volga Region and cis-Caucasia (Dagestan, Russia). Most of the range is in Central Asia east to the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan). The range of the species has reduced over the last 20 years as a result of climate change (more wet weather and wet years in the region). The abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming), which is changing the habitat, may also have played a role. The species occurs at low altitudes (up to 400 or 500 m).
20490		distribution	eng	Distributed in plains or foothills steppes and semi-deserts in the Dnepr Region (Ukraine), Lower Volga Region and CIS-Caucasia (Dagestan, Russia). Most of the range is in Central Asia east to the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan). The range of the species has reduced over the last 20 years as a result of climate change (more wet weather and wet years in the region). The abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming), which is changing the habitat, may also have played a role. The species occurs at low altitudes (up to 400 or 500 m).
20490		habitat	eng	Inhabits absinth deserts and semi-deserts in virgin and long-fallow lands. Avoids sites with dense high grasses. Lives in colonies consisting mostly of non overlapping territories of adult females. Male territories covers several female territories. Each colony includes permanent (reproduction and hibernation) burrows and temporary shelter burrows. The little ground squirrel leaves hibernation in March-April; enters estivation in second part of June-July, sometimes, especially in dry years, goes straight from estivation to hibernation.
20490		population	eng	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations. In the European part of the range over last 30 years, numbers have declined and some local populations have gone extinct.
20490		threats	eng	The main factors causing decline are natural climate desiccation in the southern Volga Region, with a concurrent trend towards wetter weather at mid-latitudes. Neither of these changes in climate are favourable for the little ground squirrel. Additionally, human activities including pesticide use, irrigation, overgrazing and persecution have a negative impact on populations. Abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming) may be leading to unfavourable habitat change in some areas.
20490		threats	eng	The main factors causing decline are natural climate dessication in the southern Volga Region, with a concurrent trend towards wetter weather at mid-latitudes. Neither of these changes in climate are favourable for the little ground squirrel. Additionally, human activities including pesticide use, irrigation, overgrazing and persecution have a negative impact on populations. Abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming) may be leading to unfavourable habitat change in some areas.
20491		conservation	eng	It is a trade animal of minor importance. In 1950s up to 45,000 skins per year were collected, but to 1990s it lowered up to 10,000 skins per year. Found in some protected areas in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan (Sary-Chelek State Reserve) and Uzbekistan (Gyssar State Reserve).
20491		distribution	eng	Distributed in Western and Central Tien Shan and western parts of peripheral ranges of Pamir Alai. Range consist of several separated areas. Found from 500 to 3200 m.
20491		habitat	eng	Inhabit mountain and partly piedmont steppes. From deserted wormwood and sheep fescue on loess ad rubbly soil to hgh altitude cereal and mixed grasses steppes and meadow-steppes with some alpine vegetation. Found in juniper stang and in openings at lower border of coniferous forest. Avoid wet meadows and agricultural fields. <br/><br/>In summer, day break in activity is very well pronounced. During hot days, as well as at night burrow exits are sealed with soil plug. Life cycle timing depends on the altitude and slope aspect. For example, hibernation ends from end of February (Issyk-Kul basin) to first decade of May (Chatkal highland). Young emerge from mid-May (lowlands) to second decade of June (Kuraminsky range). On overcast and windy days activity is reduced. <br/><br/>Burrows are simple, majority of them are with one passage and one nesting cell. Wintering nest is at 1 - 1,5 m below ground, summer nests not lower than 1 m. Sometimes use burrows of voles and marmots. Feed mainly on underground plant parts, in spring consume green parts and flowers. To reach to pea tree flowers climb the tree. In some areas (Chatkal range) insects were up to 90% of stomach contents. Does not make supplies. Reproduction is prolonged, beginning very much depends on spring weather. Average litters size depends on altitude, from 6 at 750-800 m, to 3-4 at above 2000 m.
20491		population	eng	Common, partly rare, partly abundant. Most abundant (25 individuals per ha) is during young dispersal period, at altitude 2600-2800 m. In 1983, in Gissar State reserve (Uzbekistan, 2000-2300 m) population density was 2,8 individuals per ha (Volzheninov <em>et al.</em>, 1986).
20491		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
20492		conservation	eng	It is legally protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. In Poland the souslik is strictly protected under national law, and five nature reserves have recently been created to protect the species. Development of the system of nature reserves and active protection (reintroduction and habitat management) are recommended (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006).
20492		distribution	eng	The spotted souslik is endemic to eastern Europe, where it is found in south-eastern Poland, small areas in Belarus, the Ukraine, Moldova, and Russia eastwards to the river Volga. In Poland, the souslik occurs on the western edge of its range and it is known from one relic enclave located between the Wieprz and Bug rivers in the region of Zamosc (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005). A lowland species, it occurs up to no more than 500 m (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
20492		habitat	eng	Like its congener the European souslik <em>Spermophilus citellus</em>, the spotted souslik prefers open areas with short grass (including steppes, pastures, and road verges). Unlike the European souslik, it can also sometimes be found on cultivated ground and can survive ploughing (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). It feeds chiefly on grasses and cereals, although arthropods and small vertebrates are also taken.
20492		population	eng	The spotted souslik has suffered marked declines in both population and range. Its extent of occurrence has contracted in both Poland and southern Russia, and the number of colonies in Poland and the Ukraine (where no more than 10% of the former range described in mid-twentieth century is left) has decreased markedly (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Populations in the southern and eastern parts of the range are more stable. Over the last ten years some populations have shown increases in population size. However, across the global range, the total population is declining, although the rate of decline over the last ten years is likely to be less than 30% (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). The Polish population of the spotted souslik has been estimated at c.20,000 individuals living in 7 compact and no more than 10 scattered colonies. The most numerous of these colonies, with 10,000-12,000 individuals, is found at Swidnik airport (near Lublin) and is the result of an unofficial introduction in the early 1980s. The present population of <em>S. suslicus</em> is one third of what it was in the 1960s, the number of localities has markedly decreased and the area occupied has shrunk by a half. If this trend continues the souslik will die out in Poland at the first decades of the 21th century (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006).
20492		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of appropriate habitats. Causes of habitat loss include expansion of agriculture and forestry, urbanisation, reclamation of wasteland and industrial development (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006). More than 50% of the remaining Polish population is threatened by the expansion of Lublin airport (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In some areas, it is persecuted as an agricultural pest. Hybridisation with <em>S. pygmaeus</em> and <em>S. citellus</em> has been recorded, but is not likely to be a major threat. Currently all populations are declining and becoming more fragmented, which makes hybridisation less of a problem.
20493		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20493		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sonoran and Mohave Deserts of southwestern United States and Mexico, from southern Nevada southward through southeast California and southwest Arizona (U.S.) to northeastern Baja California and eastern Sonora (Mexico).
20493		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sandy desert in low, flat areas, commonly in communities dominated by mesquite and creosotebush; it avoids rocky hills. It is also found in urban areas and parks.
20493		population	eng	This species is common to very common. For this species, densities vary with stage of life cycle, with reported numbers ranging from a January low of 40 individuals/ha to a high of 210 individuals/ha in early May when juveniles emerge from burrows. At a less crowded study site, density of a resident summer population averaged 5.3 individuals/ha.
20493		threats	eng	None known.
20494		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas (approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia).
20494		distribution	eng	Distributed in mountain forest-steppes and steppes from Southern Siberia and Altai (Russia) to Manchuria. Two isolated population in north, in Yakutia (S. u. jacuensis) and east of the range, between Amur and Burei Rivers in Russia and N Heilongjiang in China (S. u. menzbieri). In China distributed in Altai and Sayan mountains; Xinjiang, Altai mountains; Xinjiang, Tian Shan mountains. In Mongolia found in Mongol Altai, Hangai, Hövsgöl and Hentii mountain ranges, as far south as Aj Bogd Massif in Trans Altai Govi Desert. Recently recorded in the northern portions of Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi.
20494		habitat	eng	Inhabits semi-desert and mountain steppe habitats along the edge of forests. In China found in thinly wooded savannas and grassy steppes bordering the Gobi desert. In addition to grasslands, they occupy bushy terrain among oaks and white or black beech groves, alpine meadows, and wet areas along river valleys.  Lives in colonies with a labyrinth of burrows.  Burrows are characteristically 8-13 cm in diameter and surrounded by a large mound of soil (up to 2 m in diameter and 40 cm high)  Diurnally active; although most active at dawn and dusk. Diet consists of green vegetation and seeds, but also insects.  Before hibernating makes a store of vegetation to utilize following arousal.  Hibernates from October until late March/mid April.  Reproduce once per year in spring; litters of 3-9 young are produced following a 30 day gestation. Start mating on second year.
20494		population	eng	It is common and sometimes abundant species. Population size very much differs depending on the habitat. For example, in Transbaikalia in steppe river valleys population density is up to 250 burrows per ha (Badmaev, 1996). In Tuva it is about 100 burrows per ha (Ol'kova, 1962). In other habitats density is much lower, in wormwood and cereal steppe it is about 5 animals per ha, and in subalpine zone it is 1-2 animals per ha (Shilova and Savinetskaya, Biodiversity Conservation Centre web-site <www.biodiversity.ru>, in Russian).
20494		threats	eng	Hunting for international trade in skins once occurred at high levels, between 1958 and 1960 it was estimated that as many as 418,400-551,000 individuals were killed annually (Stubbe, 1965). This activity is now believed to have ceased and no other threats are known to be impacting upon this species at present.
20495		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
20495		distribution	eng	This species distribution constitutes an extensive range in southwestern United States and Mexico, from eastern Nevada, Utah, and Colorado, south through west Texas (in the east) and southeast California (in the west) to southernmost Puebla, Mexico. It has been found from sea level to 2,900 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
20495		habitat	eng	This species occurs in semi-arid areas, specifically among rocky canyons, cliffs, and hillsides. It is also found in urban areas.  Despite what is portrayed by most range maps, this species is unlikely to occur in sub-tropical forest on the western Mexican coastal plateau.<br/><br/>This species has food habits that tend towards buds, nuts, fruits, and seeds such as pinyon, wild lupine, acorns, juniper berries, grapes, and corn. It also feeds on grasshoppers, beetles, earthworms, and even young turkeys. Although the rock squirrel is largely a vegetarian, it will eat meat if the opportunity arises (Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>This squirrel tends to be colonial. Within a colony, there is a dominant male and a number of subordinant males. Females have one or two litters per year, depending on the length of the winter and gestation takes 1 to 1.5 months. Litters consist of one to seven young (typically four).
20495		population	eng	This species is locally common (Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is colonial, with reported densities of 2.0 individuals/ha in marginal habitat and 5.7 individuals/ha in good habitat.
20495		threats	eng	None known.
20496		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
20496		distribution	eng	Anatolian ground squirrels <em>Spermophilus xanthoprymnus</em> are distributed in Anatolian Turkey, extending marginally into Armenia and NW Iran.
20496		habitat	eng	Open steppe habitat with short vegetation. Elevational range is approximately 800 to 2,700 m. In Turkey, the species lives in natural steppe, but sometimes occurs on rocky mountain slopes, and at the edge of grain fields (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). Hibernation starts at the end of August and is terminated in mid-February; hibernation may last 21 to 100 days (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). Mating takes place after emergence in February, with births occurring in April-July (litter size 1-6) (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). One litter is produced each year and sexual maturity is attained after the first hibernation period (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006).
20496		population	eng	Population size has not been quantified. The population may be declining at a rate of approximately 20-25% over the last ten years as a result of habitat conversion for agriculture.
20496		threats	eng	Large scale agricultural expansion is the main threat. The species is considered a pest in Turkey, where it is found in agricultural areas (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).
20521		conservation	eng	In South Asia, it is considered to be vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from protected areas in India like Namdapha National Park in Assam, Phambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary in Sikkim. In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from a number of protected areas. In South Asia, field surveys, population monitoring, habitat management and public awareness initiatives are immediate recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).]
20521		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern South Asia, into southern China and northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bhutan (Ganghlakha), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Nepal (Eastern Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it is present in southern Xixang and eastern Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, there are records from Myanmar, northern Thailand and Viet Nam. It has been recorded from 308 to 2,710 m asl.
20521		habitat	eng	Little has been recorded about the habitat or ecology of this species other that it is known to inhabit bamboo forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
20521		population	eng	In South Asia, although it is widespread, it is not a common species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, the species is little known, but is  believed to be most common in lower montane forests. It is uncommonly encountered in Southeast Asia.
20521		threats	eng	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss largely through commercial harvest of bamboo (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There appear to be no major threats to the species in Southeast Asia. In China, the threats to this species are unclear although it may be threatened by ongoing habitat degradation.
20599		conservation	eng	Further research on distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats is required. Maintain intact habitat.
20599		distribution	eng	One Colombian record is from Santa Marta (Mantilla pers. comm.) 0-300 m in Colombia, 0-2,000 in Venezuela. This species occurs from Venezuela and eastern Colombia, east of the Andes, south to Amazonian Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and northwestern Brazil (Tirira, 1999). In Venezuela, specimens have been taken at up to 2,240 m (Handley, 1976). Bolivia records (MNH records reviewed  by Anderson 1997) Peru records (Angulo and Diaz, 2004).
20599		habitat	eng	Strictly frugivorous. Habitat specialist, though it preferes primary habitat it has been found in secondary forest in Venezuela (Ochoa per comm). Poorly known. The species may follow gallery forest into dry habitats but is usually associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest, and may be able to tolerate man-made clearings. The diet of these bats in unknown, but it is probably primarily frugivorous (Gardner, 1977). A pregnant female was collected in Bolivia in October (Anderson and Webster, 1983).
20599		population	eng	Low density throughout range but can be locally common in appropiate habitat. Is more abundant along flanks of the Cordillera la Costa (Ochoa pers com).
20599		threats	eng	Restricted to appropriate habitat. The species is affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range, although this is not considered a major threat.
20600		conservation	eng	Not located in a formal protected area.
20600		distribution	eng	Only ever recorded from Lake Dianchi. However, it is possible that this species survives in springs and tributaries near to the lake due to the better environmental quality.
20600		habitat	eng	There is no sexual dimorphism between male and female.
20600		population	eng	The only location known is the Dianchi Lake. The population size is unknown.
20600		threats	eng	Its loss from the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, habitat loss and water pollution.
20612		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
20613		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
20629		conservation	eng	It is listed under CITES Appendix III in Honduras (Reid 1997). Occurs in several protected areas in its range.
20629		distribution	eng	This species occurs from San Luis Potosi and Yucatan, Mexico to western Panama (Emmons and Feer 1997; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It can be found from lowlands to 3,200 m (Reid 1997).
20629		habitat	eng	This porcupine can be found at middle and high elevation in all forest types, including disturbed forest and second growth. At low elevations it seems to favor seasonally dry habitats (Pacific Slope and Yucatan Peninsula) (Reid 1997). This species is uncommon or rare in wet evergreen forests of Atlantic lowlands (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal in habit; it seems to be most active on dark nights. It is mainly arboreal, but descends to the ground to cross roads ands clearings; its prehensile tail is usually coiled around a large branch. It is usually solitary and silent, but during the breeding season it calls with loud yowls and screams. During the day it sleeps in hollow trees or on leafy branches. It feeds on seeds, fruit, buds, and young leaves, particularly those of <em>Inga</em>, <em>Cecropia</em>, <em>Ficus</em>, and <em>Brosimum</em> trees. Females usually have one young (Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986; Reid 1997).
20629		population	eng	It is locally common and widespread in most habitats; but is uncommon to rare in wet evergreen forest (Reid 1997).
20629		threats	eng	It is hunted in some areas and often killed by traffic (Reid 1997). There are no major threats throughout the species range.
20630		conservation	eng	This species has been included in CITES Appendix III since 1976 (Uruguay).
20630		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Uruguay and Misiones province, Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
20630		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wide range of habitats, including Cerrado, Pantanal and Atlantic Forest. In lowland tropical rainforest it occurs in primary forest, there is a possibility that mature secondary growth might be inhabited (Voss in litt., 2006).
20630		population	eng	This species is locally common, found in secondary forest canopy and near human communities.
20630		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
20631		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species and it thought that none are needed at this time.
20631		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic coastal region of eastern Brazil (Catzeflis in litt., 2006).
20631		habitat	eng	The species inhabits Atlantic forest where it occurs in primary forest, but is more common in secondary forest and forest borders; it is occasionally found near urban areas. It is nocturnal and arboreal, occurring mainly in the canopy (Y. Leite pers. comm.) and is frugivourous as well as feeding on ant pupae, cultivated vegetables and roots.
20631		population	eng	This porcupine is locally common.
20631		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time. The species is not known to be hunted for food (Voss in litt., 2006).
20633		conservation	eng	Further surveys are needed in distribution, threats, status and ecological requirements.
20633		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, it is known only from two definite localities in the western foothills of the eastern Andean cordillera, about 60 km WNW of Bogotá at about 1,300 m asl (Voss and da Silva, 2001; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
20633		habitat	eng	This porcupine is nocturnal and arboreal. It feeds on leaves, shoots, and fruits. Nothing has apparently been recorded about the habitats or behavior of this species, but the natural vegetation at the two localities where specimens are definitely known to have been collected was probably lower montane moist forest (Voss and da Silva, 2001). The individual captured near to Villa de Lleyva was found in a fruit tree in a plantation (D. Perico pers. comm.).
20633		population	eng	It is known from only a few individuals (Voss and da Silva, 2001). The species has been recently captured, identified from photographic evidence (D. Perico pers. comm.). Prior to this no specimens of this species had been recorded since 1925, and it was thought that the species may have been extirpated from its known range (Voss and da Silva, 2001). They are difficult to survey.
20633		threats	eng	Unfortunately, habitat destruction is virtually complete in this part of Colombia, and it is possible that the species has been extirpated (Voss and da Silva, 2001).
20634		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species. It is not known if any are needed.
20634		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais states, Brazil (Bonvicino, 2002; 831091).
20634		habitat	eng	The species is present in Atlantic forest habitat, it occurs in primary forest, but is more common in secondary forest and forest borders; it is occasionally found near urban areas. It is nocturnal and arboreal, occurring mainly in the canopy and has a folivorous diet (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
20634		population	eng	This porcupine is locally common.
20634		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
20636		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.
20636		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found through much of the southern Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), including Buru, Seram, Banda, and Ambon (possibly introduced to these islands); it is present on the islands of Misool and Yapen, the Kai Islands and the Aru Islands (all Indonesia); it is distributed over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); and is present on the Cape York Peninsula, north of Coen, in Australia. It has been introduced to the islands of Mussau and New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), and to Salayer Island, south of Sulawesi, Indonesia (George 1987). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,400 m asl.
20636		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species, found in primary, secondary, and disturbed tropical moist forest. It has additionally been recorded in mangrove forest. Females are believed to rear a single young (Winter and Leung 1995).
20636		population	eng	It is a locally common lowland species.
20636		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally hunted for food and skins in parts of its range (e.g., New Guinea).
20637		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, although there is a wildlife management area on Manus. Populations of this species should be closely monitored.<br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
20637		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Admiralty Island group of Papua New Guinea. It is present on the islands of Manus, Lou and Luf, and Wuvulu; it is extinct on Baluan; the species may also occur on Ninigo (Flannery 1995). It has also been recorded on or just off New Britain Island twice, but these specimens could have originated from Manus (Helgen and Flannery 2004).
20637		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from almost mature forest to traditional gardens on Manus (Flannery 1995). It is an arboreal species with an annual breeding cycle.
20637		population	eng	It is common on Manus. The subpopulation on Baluan was presumably extirpated through overhunting. Its status on other islands is not well known.
20637		threats	eng	Although this species is able to tolerate degraded habitats (occurring in rural gardens), there is continuing decline in habitat quality. It is commonly hunted and eaten over much of its range; the species may also be widely traded to other islands. The species appears to be common on Manus in the face of hunting pressure (Flannery 1995). However, increasing human population pressures and the low fecundity of this relatively long-lived animal coupled with the declines in habitat and hunting pressure are cause for concern (particularly in the future).
20638		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a protected area, Pulau Waigeo Nature Reserve. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
20638		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Waigeo Island off the coast of New Guinea (Papua, Indonesia), although it might be present also on Batanta Island (not mapped) (Helgen 2007).
20638		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary or disturbed tropical moist forest. There are few details available about the natural history of this species.
20638		population	eng	It is fairly common on Waigeo, even in disturbed habitat.
20638		threats	eng	This species is hunted for food by local people. It is unclear if this island is presently experiencing deforestation. If hunting were to increase markedly or if large-scale deforestation operations were to come to Waigeo, the status of this species could rapidly deteriorate.
20639		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Indonesia and a management area in Papua New Guinea. There is a need to conserve important populations of this species. Public awareness and hunting restrictions will be essential for the conservation of this species. Further research into its numbers, distribution, ecology, threats, harvest levels, and conservation measures are all important.
20639		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, though patchily distributed, in the northern part of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Most of the records are very old. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl.
20639		habitat	eng	This species prefers primary lowland and lower-montane tropical forests. It is also less commonly found in secondary forest. It is most likely nocturnal (L. Salas pers. comm.).
20639		population	eng	<em>Spilocuscus rufoniger</em> is a rare species. It has been extirpated from parts of its range through overhunting and its intolerance to human disturbance.
20639		threats	eng	This species is threatened by preferential hunting by local people for food and cultural reasons, and also by conversion of forest to cultivated land. While it has declined where it comes into contact with people, a large part of its range is uninhabited. The west Papuan area has been impacted by the influx of Javan people, and large areas of habitat have been transformed by agriculture. There are also logging concessions and oil palm activities planned for parts of the area.
20648		conservation	eng	One part of the range lies in protected areas, but no conservation actions are known specifically for this species. Research actions include habitat monitoring, especially for the populations close to urban areas.
20648		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is restricted to Porto Santo. There, it is common over the island and on two offshore islets (Seddon 2008).
20648		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry exposed areas and under rocks.
20648		population	eng	Population trends are uncertain, but are likely to be stable.
20648		threats	eng	The threats are localised and are mainly habitat loss for development close to coast (and beach) as well as road improvements around eastern hills. Grassland fires may pose a possible threat, given their increased frequency in the last 20 years.
20649		conservation	eng	This species is very rare but difficult to survey due to the cryptic nature of the species in it's habitat. Habitat monitoring maybe the best indication for the status of the species, given the cryptic habits.
20649		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it is found mainly at the west end of the main island, although there are isolated records from valleys to north-west of Funchal (Seddon 2008). This has changed little from Wollaston's time (1878), when the species was described as rare, mainly from Riberia de Janella to Porto Moniz and near Funchal (still present) and along north coast (no recent records). There are Pleistocene fossils from Canical.
20649		habitat	eng	This species is found on walls, rocky faces and slopes with large boulders, usually very cryptic, as it coats its shell with mud (Seddon 2008).
20649		population	eng	The species is never abundant when found (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).
20649		threats	eng	There is a possible decline in the quality of habitat in the coastal area around Porto Moniz, where non-native plants have become established.&#160;This species is very rare but difficult to survey due to the cryptic nature of the species in its habitat. Non-native plant species maybe impacting habitats in the valleys, as could other types of habitat disturbance on the rock faces and walls. Fire events have been reported in the region.
20650		conservation	eng	Two parts of the range lies in protected areas, but no conservation actions are known specifically for this species. Research actions include habitat monitoring, especially for the populations close to urban areas.
20650		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands. It is restricted to the main island of Madeira where it is mainly found in central valleys of Madeira and scattered localities near coast, especially along the southern and western coasts.
20650		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp muddy places amongst leaf-litter and detritus at base of crags, usually very cryptic, as it coats its shell with mud.
20650		population	eng	Population trends are uncertain, but are likely to be stable, except possibly in the regions close to Funchal.
20650		threats	eng	The threats are localised and are mainly habitat loss for development close to towns/villages as well as road improvements. Forest and grassland fires may pose a possible threat, given their increased frequency in the last 20 years.
20687		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Lanao.
20688		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is known from Horton Plains National Park, Knuckles Range Forest Reserve in Central Province; Delwala Forest Reserve and Sinharaja Forest Reserve in Sabaragamuwa Province. Survey, life history studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
20688		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central highlands of Sri Lanka, known from a few fragmented locations in Central Province, Sabaragamuwa Province and Uva Province at elevations ranging from 915 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005; Musser and Carleton 2005).
20688		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in lowland and montane evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
20688		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20688		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, clear-cutting, forest fire in Horton Plains, undergrowth clearing in Knuckles Range, and predation by domestic carnivores have been observed to be the major threats for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005).
20707		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned a previous IUCN Red List Category of Vulnerable (1996 ver 2.3). The species is also listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act as C: Candidate (12 Sep 2006), and has a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lead Region: R6 - Rocky Mountain (NatureServe 2009). This species has been given a priority listing as of 2007, due to imminent threats and 'lack of regulatory protection' (USFSW 2007). None of the sites where this species occurs are protected (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is recommended to investigate the potential synonymy of this species with <em>Stagnicola utahensis</em>. Continued searches for other populations in northwestern Utah may be of value. Protection of the pools where this species occurs should be implemented, and monitoring should be carried out because significant population declines may occur if threat levels increase in the future.
20707		distribution	eng	This species was thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1985 by P. Hovingh (Bauman 1990). NatureServe (2009) describe this species as being Critically Imperiled in Utah and Extirpated in Wyoming. <br/><br/>Historically, this species lived in the freshwater Lake Bonneville, which poured off 8,000 years ago: only the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake are left as remnants of the once gigantic lake (Bauman 1990). The species currently occupies less than one percent of its historical habitat. This species existed in Utah Lake and its adjacent springs as recently as 1933&#160;(USFWS 2003).<br/><br/>This species is known to be extant in five spring-fed pools at three very closely associated sites north of the Great Salt Lake in Box Elder County, Utah, which are separated by sparsely vegetated playa of the Great Salt Lake over a distance of about 4.4 km (Clarke 1991, NatureServe 2009).&#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20 km², and more likely nearer to 8 km<sup>2</sup> (based on sites being found within around 4 km of each other). The area of the five spring-fed pools is likely to combine to an area of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> and closer to 1 km<sup>2</sup> or less. All individuals are considered to occur within a single location due to its restricted range, as all five pools would be affected by a single threatening event, such as pollution or human disturbance.
20707		habitat	eng	This species occupies spring-fed pools, with mud, gravel or rock substrate and plenty of vegetation. This species has also been found in a narrow outlet ditch (Clarke 1991).
20707		population	eng	Currently, the total number of individuals is unknown. In 1991, Clarke reported that populations appeared healthy, estimating a total population of three million individuals (Clarke 1991). In 2003, USFWS reported that the total occupied habitat was approximately 4.4 km², with densities of adult and juvenile individuals varying greatly. USFWS found that a few very limited areas had high concentrations of 100 individuals per m²<sup></sup>, with most concentrations of individuals being 10 or less per m²<sup></sup> (USFWS 2003).
20707		threats	eng	The population of this species is extremely small and its restricted habitat is vulnerable to any stochastic event which may destroy the species' habitat or population (USFWS 2003).&#160;Similar species from the same region and habitat type, including <em>Stagnicola pilsbryi</em> and <em>Valvata utahensis</em>, have been extirpated in Utah. In addition, the lake form of this species, <em>Stagnicola utahensis</em>, has been extirpated from Utah Lake (USFWS 2003). <br/><br/>The immediate threats faced by this species include two eight-inch pipelines from the Chevron Oil Company refinery in North Salt Lake to the Pacific Northwest (from which there have been diesel fuel leaks as recently as 2000 and 2002) and waste products from a space exploration rockets dump site near Blue Creek approximately 6.5 km north and upstream of the occupied habitat. In addition, the Utah Department of Environmental Quality has reported measurable amounts of trichloroethelene (TCE, a chlorinated hydrocarbon cleaning solvent) and perchlorate (a component of rocket fuel) in all occupied springs. Other threats to the habitat of this species include livestock grazing and off-road vehicles (USFWS 2003). <br/><br/>This species and its habitat managed to survive the construction and operation of the 400 foot wide Union Pacific railroad alignment which includes most of its habitat and population. Utah State Route 83 is immediately north of the railroad alignment, and all of Horse Spring A and a portion of Horse Spring B, Horse Spring B South and Horse Spring A South are within the highway right-of-way (USFWS 2003).
20713		conservation	eng	No information available.
20713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC)
20713		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy substrates, 3-30 m.
20713		population	eng	Numerous trails visible in clear sandy areas, thus when present population densities are likely to be high.
20713		threats	eng	Sedimentation is the prime threat suggested for the species from Tanzania.
20715		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
20716		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
20717		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
20717		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities; the type locality of Wenchi in central-western Ghana, and from Ibadan, in south-western Nigeria (Anedu). It has been recorded at around 100 m asl.
20717		habitat	eng	It has only been found in cropland.
20717		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
20717		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, however, it is found in agricultural land suggesting that is reasonably adaptable.
20718		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes protected areas.
20718		distribution	eng	This species occurs in West Africa from the coast of Senegal through to north-western Nigeria, including northern Benin, Togo, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, southern Burkina Faso and southwestern Mali. It has been recorded from 200 to 600 m asl.
20718		habitat	eng	This is a small, noctural grassland species. It can also be found in agricultural areas.
20718		population	eng	It is not generally a common species. The species is usually found in low densities, but the population numbers fluctuate.
20718		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is eaten in some parts of its range but this is not considered to be a significant threat.
20719		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes protected areas, at least in Senegal.
20719		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the coast of Senegal, through southern Niger, Burkina Faso and northern Benin, to northwestern Nigeria. It has been recorded between 200 and 600 m asl.
20719		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of grassland with interrupted shrubs.
20719		population	eng	It is generally not a common species. The species is usually found in low densities, but the population numbers fluctuate.
20719		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is eaten in some parts of its range but this is not considered to be a significant threat.
20720		conservation	eng	The northern part of the range of the species includes a few protected areas.
20720		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution across southern Africa. It is known from coastal south-western South Africa, north-eastern South Africa, southwestern Angola, and from eastern Angola, western Zambia and northern Botswana.
20720		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of habitats. In the southern part of its range it occurs in Meditteranean type shrubby vegetation, in the middle it occurs in high altitude shrubland, then in the north it occurs in higher altitude grassland.
20720		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population abundance as the species appears to be "trap shy".
20720		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20721		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
20721		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a few disjunct populations in East Africa and Southern Africa. In East Africa, it ranges from southern Sudan and Ethiopia into Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania, possibly being found in adjacent Rwanda. In Southern Africa, it has been recorded from central Zambia, into northwestern Zimbabwe, northeastern Namibia and northern Botswana, with a disjunct population recorded from southwestern Angola, and an seemingly isolated record from northeastern Mozambique. It occurs up to about 1,000 m asl.
20721		habitat	eng	This is a grassland, or dry savanna, species that might also occur in agricultural areas.
20721		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population abundance as the species appears to be "trap shy".
20721		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
20722		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
20722		distribution	eng	The range of this species, as it is currently taxonomically defined, ranges over parts of Central Africa from Cameroon in the west, through Central Africa and northern Democratic Republic of the Congo to southern Sudan; disjunctly in southern Tanzania and northern Malawi; and from southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, through much of Southern Africa, as far south as northeastern South Africa and Swaziland. It occurs from sea level to 1,500 m asl.
20722		habitat	eng	This is an open savanna, grassland species.
20722		population	eng	It is a very common species.
20722		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
20729		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Spotted dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery, are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC. The IATTC has imposed annual stock mortality limits on each purse seine and promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001).<br/><br/>As the species comprises several subspecies and regional populations, the conservation status of each of these should be assessed separately since the available estimates of abundance and removals suggest that some of them may fall into a Threatened category.
20729		distribution	eng	<em>S. a. attenuata</em> is pantropical, found in all oceans between about 40°N and 40°S, although it is much more abundant in the lower-latitude portions of its range. The range extends to some enclosed seas, such as the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, but does not include the Mediterranean Sea (Perrin 2001, 2002).<br/><br/><em>S. a. graffmani</em> – The coastal spotted dolphin is found only in a narrow band (<200 km wide) along the coast of Latin America, from southern Mexico to Peru (Perrin 2001; Escorza-Treviño <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recent genetic data suggest there may be several populations contained within this subspecies (Escorza-Treviño <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20729		habitat	eng	In the eastern Pacific the pantropical spotted dolphin is an inhabitant of the tropical, equatorial and southern subtropical water masses. The waters in which the animal occurs with greatest frequency are those underlain by a sharp thermocline at depths of less than 50 m and with surface temperatures over 25°C and salinities less than 34 parts per thousand. These conditions prevail year round in the region north of the Equator called the "Inner Tropical" waters of the eastern Pacific. Occurrence in this core habitat is correlated with apparent multi-species foraging and feeding behaviour. The species also occurs in similar waters south of the Equator that expand and contract greatly with season and year to year (Perrin and Hohn 1994). In the Atlantic, <em>S. attenuata</em> is primarily a dolphin of the high seas and oceanic islands, but in the eastern Pacific a large-bodied subspecies occurs along the coast from Mexico to Peru. Detailed analysis of oceanographic correlates of distribution will be necessary in order to understand fully the habitat requirements of these pelagic dolphins, often the most conspicuous elements of tropical cetacean communities around the world (Ballance and Pitman 1998).<br/> <br/>Offshore spotted dolphins feed largely on small epi- and mesopelagic fishes, squids, and crustaceans that associate with the deep scattering layer (Robertson and Chivers 1997). In some areas, flying fish are also important prey. The diet of the coastal form is poorly known, but is thought to consist mainly of larger fishes, perhaps mainly bottom-living species (Perrin 2001, 2002).
20729		population	eng	In the eastern Pacific, there were an estimated 228,038 coastal spotted dolphins in 2000 (CV=34%; Gerrodette and Forcada 2002a). The north-eastern offshore spotted dolphin (the form most affected by the ETP tuna fishery) numbered about 737,000 in 2003 (CV=15%; Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 2005), a reduction of 76% from original size in 1959 (Reilly <em>et al</em>. 2005). This population is not showing clear signs of recovery despite the dramatic decline in mortality in recent years (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). The western/southern offshore stock (which is less affected by the fishery) numbered about 876,075 in 2000 (CV=31%; Gerrodette and Forcada 2002b). In Hawaiian waters, there are an estimated 8,978 (CV=48%) (Barlow 2006). About 438,000 inhabited Japanese waters in the early 1990s (Miyashita 1993). There are estimated to be 34,067 (CV=18%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin 2006), and 4,439 (CV=49%) along the east coast of the United States (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). Dolar <em>et al</em> (2006) estimated about 14,930 (CV=41%) for the eastern Sulu Sea and 640 (CV=27%) for the Tañon Strait between the islands of Negros and Cebu.
20729		threats	eng	Offshore spotted dolphins bore the brunt of the massive dolphin kill by tuna seiners from the late 1950s to the 1980s in the eastern Pacific (although the coastal subspecies was also impacted). For example, in the period 1959 to 1972, nearly five million dolphins were killed, and of this number, about three million were from the north-eastern offshore population (Wade 1995). Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) implemented per-vessel mortality limits on the international fleet, the combined annual mortality for all spotted dolphins in the ETP has decreased greatly, e.g. to only 373 in 2005 (IATTC 2006). Although current mortality is greatly reduced, the north-eastern form appears to be recovering very slowly, if at all, and potential factors such as fishery-related stress, unobserved mortality due to calf separation and orphaning during fishing operations (Archer <em>et al</em>. 2001), possible mortality by small vessels that do not carry observers, under-reporting of mortality, and ecosystem change, have been suggested as possible reasons for the species’ slow recovery (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). <br/><br/>Spotted dolphins are also taken incidentally in local fisheries along the Central American coast (Palacios and Gerrodette 1996).<br/><br/>Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) also reported incidental mortality in Chinese fisheries, and Dolar 1994 found incidental spotted dolphin takes in the Philippines. An unknown but suspected large number of pantropical spotted dolphins are taken by the large-mesh pelagic driftnet fishery off eastern Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Japan takes large numbers of spotted dolphins for human consumption. The catch in 1982 was 3,799, and annual catches between 1994 and 1997 ranged from 23 to 449 (Perrin 2002). Between 1995 and 2004, the average annual catch was 129 animals (Kasuya 2007). The drive fishery for spotted dolphins began in 1959 and is thought to have caused a slight decline in the minimum age at attainment of sexual maturity in females (Kasuya 1985). <br/><br/>Pantropical spotted dolphins are also taken in hand-harpoon fisheries in the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 1994); in Taiwan, where it is the locally preferred species of cetacean for human consumption (J. Wang pers. comm.); and regularly or opportunistically by gillnet and harpoon in India and Sri Lanka (Perrin and Hohn 1994). Drive hunts at Malaita in the Solomon Islands took several hundred or thousands of spotted dolphins annually in the 1960s; the hunts continue at present (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kahn 2006). Small numbers are taken in numerous small subsistence fisheries for dolphins and whales around the world, e.g. at St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles (Perrin and Hohn 1994) and Lamalera in Indonesia (Kahn 2004). Most of these kills have not been adequately monitored and the effects on the subpopulations are usually not known. <br/><br/>Dolphins and small whales of several species, including <em>S. attenuata</em>, putatively interfere in hook-and-line fisheries for squid and yellowtail in the Iki Island region of Japan (Kishiro and Kasuya 1993). Bounties have been paid to fishermen for dolphins killed since 1957. During the period 1976-1982 a total of 538 spotted dolphins were killed. The effect of these takes on the regional population is not known (Perrin and Hohn 1994).
20730		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Further research should be conducted on subpopulation structure, abundance and takes in West African waters, where by-catch has evolved into directed take.
20730		distribution	eng	The Clymene Dolphin is found only in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1995). This species has a notable warm-water preference, although there are records as far north as New Jersey on the U.S. east coast and as far south as southern Brazil (Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The limits on the West African coast are not well known, but extend from at least the equator north to Mauritania. The Clymene Dolphin is not known to enter the Mediterranean Sea (Perrin and Mead 1994, Jefferson and Curry 2003, Fertl <em>et al</em>. 2003).
20730		habitat	eng	This is a deep-water, oceanic species, not often seen near shore (unless deep water approaches the coast). <br/><br/>Very few stomachs have been examined, and there are even fewer observations of feeding behavior reported in the literature. Clymene Dolphins apparently feed predominantly on small fish (including myctophids) and squid at moderate depths (Jefferson and Curry 2003).
20730		population	eng	Abundance has only been estimated for the northern Gulf of Mexico and US east coast (6,575 (CV=36%) and 6,086 (CV=93%), respectively -- Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, considering the difficulty of distinguishing it from similarly marked species at sea, it may not be as rare as it would seem to be (Perrin and Mead 1994). Based on capture records, <em>S. clymene</em> appears to be the most common cetacean in Ghana's coastal waters (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000).
20730		threats	eng	Although they are known to be taken by harpoon occasionally in dolphin fisheries in the Caribbean (especially St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles), and incidental captures in fishing nets do occur throughout much of the range, the Clymene Dolphin is not known to suffer any heavy exploitation at present (Jefferson and Curry 2003). The only possible exception may be off the coast of West Africa, where this species is possibly one of several taken in large numbers in tuna purse seines in the Gulf of Guinea (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Clymene Dolphins are captured incidentally in gillnets in Venezuelan waters and utilized for longline shark bait and for human consumption (Perrin and Mead 1994).
20731		conservation	eng	<p>No specific measures have been taken for the conservation of Striped Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea, although this species benefits from the generic protection laws existing in many range states for cetaceans.<br/></p>  <p>One area where the species is more abundant is protected (in principle at least) under the Marine Sanctuary for Cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Apart from this, because the Striped Dolphin is an oceanic species, most currently existing protected areas are of no use for its conservation. Development of offshore protected areas through international agreements similar to the case in the Ligurian sea should be encouraged. In Spain there was a governmental initiative to identify areas of special interest for the conservation of cetaceans, but the recommendations put forward have not materialized. Effective protection of these areas should be enforced and similar initiatives should be undertaken in other Mediterranean countries.<br/></p>  <p>Pelagic driftnets have been forbidden in Spain and are limited by UE regulations. However, an Italian fleet of significant size (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 100 vessels) still fishes with driftnets in an unregulated manner. To this is should be added a large Moroccan fleet and the French thonnaille vessels, all know to be responsible for significant cetacean mortality. Drift nets should be eliminated from the region or, at a minimum, the existing regulations on that gear should be strictly enforced. <br/></p>  <p>Most Mediterranean countries have regulations prohibiting direct takes, but enforcement is sometimes poor. This should be corrected and deliberate killing stopped. <br/></p>  <p>Control of pollution, particularly that by organochlorine compounds, has become more effective in the last two decades and the levels of those pollutants are decreasing. However, existing laws and control should be further enforced and Striped Dolphin populations should be monitored to assess trends and geographical variation of known pollutants in tissue levels. <br/></p>  <p>The population size was estimated in the western Mediterranean immediately after the 1990 die-off. Abundance should be monitored, particularly to assess recovery from the die-off(s). <br/></p>  <p>Occurrence of ovarian cysts should be monitored in the population and their potential impact on reproduction should be investigated. <br/></p>  <p>Diet should be studied through stomach content and isotopic analyses to assess overlap with commercial fisheries. <br/></p>  <p>Stranded dolphins should be examined for viral, bacterial and <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> infection and for the presence of antibodies against these agents.</p>
20731		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Striped dolphins are one of the main small cetacean species involved in small cetacean harpoon and drive fisheries in Japanese waters. The impact of these takes on the populations should be reassessed.<br/><br/>The current ban on driftnet fishing in the Mediterranean should be implemented and enforced as a matter of priority.
20731		conservation	eng	The western Mediterranean subpopulation is included in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. Further research should be focused on stock identity and abundance, the effects of direct and incidental mortality, and the effects of pollutants and other sources of habitat disturbance on dolphin subpopulations, in particular in the western Mediterranean (Reyes 1991).
20731		distribution	eng	This is a widely-distributed species, found in tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, as well as many adjacent seas, including the Mediterranean. Northern and southern range limits are about 50°N and 40°S, although there are extralimital records from the Kamchatka Peninsula, southern Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and the Prince Edward Islands. They are uncommon in the Sea of Japan, East China Sea, off eastern Taiwan and Ryukyuan waters, and a few extralimital records are known from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
20731		distribution	eng	This is a widely-distributed species, found tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, as well as many adjacent seas, including the Mediterranean. Northern and southern range limits are about 50°N and 40°S, although there are extra-limital records from the Kamchatka Peninsula, southern Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Prince Edward Islands. They are uncommon in the Sea of Japan, East China Sea, off eastern Taiwan and Ryukyuan waters, and a few extra-limital records are known from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
20731		distribution	eng	This species occurs in temperate and subtropical waters of all oceans. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea but has not been recorded in the Black Sea.
20731		habitat	eng	Striped dolphins are primarily found in warm temperate and tropical oceanic regions and are seen close to shore only where deep water approaches the coast (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the North Pacific they are associated with oligotrophic waters of the central North Pacific gyre and with more productive regions associated with upwelling areas in the eastern tropical Pacific and along the edges of the California and Kuroshio Current systems (Miyazaki <em>et al</em>. 1974; Reilly 1990; Archer and Perrin 1999; Balance <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the western North Atlantic, striped dolphins appear to prefer continental slope waters offshore of the Gulf Stream (Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 1976; Schmidly 1981; Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). In the Mediterranean, striped dolphins are associated with highly productive, oceanic waters beyond the continental shelf (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1993; Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1994; Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003; Gannier 2005). Off South Africa, the species is oceanic, occurring beyond the continental shelf at depths of over 1,000 m, and its distribution is correlated with the warm Agulhas Current (Ross 1984).<br/><br/>The diet of the striped dolphin consists primarily of a wide variety of small, midwater and pelagic or benthopelagic fish, especially lanternfish, cod, and squids (Wurtz and Marrale 1993; Hassani <em>et al</em>. 1997; Archer 2002). Striped dolphins apparently feed in pelagic to benthopelagic zones, to depths as deep as 200-700 m, in continental slope or oceanic regions.
20731		habitat	eng	Striped dolphins are primarily found in warm temperate and tropical oceanic regions and are seen close to shore only where deep water approaches the coast (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Strait of Gibraltar, they are found in waters of 600 m or more depth (Hashmi 1990).  In the Mediterranean, striped dolphins are associated with highly productive, oceanic waters beyond the continental shelf (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 1993, Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1994, Frantzis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Gannier 2005). <br/><br/>The diet of striped dolphins consists primarily of a wide variety of small, midwater and pelagic or benthopelagic fish, especially lanternfish, cod, and squids (Wurtz and Marrale 1993, Hassani <em>et al.</em> 1997, Archer 2002). Striped dolphins apparently feed in pelagic to benthopelagic zones, to depths as deep as 200-700m, in continental slope or oceanic regions.
20731		habitat	eng	The Striped Dolphin is an oceanic species. It shows a preference for highly productive, open waters beyond the continental shelf. It is particularly abundant in the Ligurian Sea, the Gulf of Lions, the waters between the Balearic Islands and the Iberian Peninsula, and the Alborán Sea. In the Ligurian Sea, this species showed no preference for any specific physiographic features, but was almost homogeneously distributed (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Life History Parameters</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Age at maturity</span>:<br/>Females: 12 years (western Mediterranean population) (Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996)<br/>Males: 11.3 years (western Mediterranean population) (Calzada 1996)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Longevity</span>:<br/>Females: 32 years (Di Mèglio and Romero-Álvarez 1996, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997)<br/>Males: 28 years (Di Mèglio and Romero-Álvarez 1996, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Percentage of living population that is reproductively mature</span>:<br/>Unknown<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Average age of parents in the population</span>:<br/>Females: 22 years (Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997)<br/>Males: 20 years (Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Gestation time</span>:<br/>Slightly over 12 months (Aguilar 1991)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Average interbirth interval</span>:<br/>2.7 years (in Japan) (Kasuya 1985)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Maximum potential annual rate of population increase</span>:<br/>0.09 (Schmitz and Lavigne 1984)
20731		population	eng	Based on sighting data in 1983-91, the total striped dolphin abundance for several populations in the western North Pacific was estimated as 570,000 (CV = 19%; Miyashita 1993). Two areas of concentration of striped dolphins in the western North Pacific were identified. The first, estimated to comprise about 52,682 animals (CV = 95%), was found between 20° and 30°N. The second, a large concentration of around 497,725 (CV = 18%) animals, was located between 30° and 40°N. Relatively few striped dolphins (about 19,631; CV = 70%) were present in the nearshore waters off Japan (Kasuya 1999). In the coastal portion of this range, the population has probably been depleted by directed takes (Kasuya 1999); however, questions of population identity remain (IWC 1994). In the eastern tropical Pacific, the most recent population estimate from a 2003 line-transect survey was 1,470,854 (CV=15%) (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 2005) Abundance estimates within 555 km (300 nautical miles) of the U. S. West Coast have averaged about 19,000 (CV = 28%) between 1991-2005 (Barlow and Forney, in press). An estimated 13,143 (CV=46%) occur in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2006). Balance and Pitman (1998) found that <em>S. coeruleoalba</em> was the second-most abundant species sighted in the western tropical Indian Ocean (14% of all cetaceans, compared 33% for the eastern tropical Pacific and 10% for the Gulf of Mexico). <br/><br/>Striped dolphins are the most abundant cetacean in the Mediterranean. The population in the western Mediterranean excluding the Tyrrhenian Sea was estimated in 1991 to be 117,880 (95%CI=68,379-214,800) (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1994). There is no estimate for the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Goujon (1996) conducted a sighting survey in 1993 in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in the Bay of Biscay and estimated the abundance of striped dolphins as 74,000. During 2003-2004, there were an estimated 3,325 (CV=48%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), and 94,462 (CV=40%) in the western North Atlantic off the US east coast (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/><br/>Morphological and genetic studies strongly suggest that the Mediterranean and eastern North Atlantic populations are isolated from each other, with little or no gene flow across the Strait of Gibraltar (Calzada and Aguilar 1995; García-Martínez <em>et al</em>. 1995; Archer 1997; Gaspari 2004). Within the Mediterranean there is some evidence of population structure based on restriction in gene flow between areas and significant differences in tissue pollutant levels (Calzada and Aguilar 1995; Monaci <em>et al</em>. 1998; Gaspari 2004).
20731		population	eng	<p>  </p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population structure</span><br/>Morphological and genetic studies strongly suggest that the Mediterranean and eastern North Atlantic populations are genetically differentiated, with little or no gene flow across the Straits of Gibraltar. Maximum body length of eastern North Atlantic striped dolphins is 5-8 cm longer than that of Mediterranean individuals (Calzada and Aguilar 1995). Skull size is also smaller in Mediterranean specimens than in their neighbouring Atlantic counterparts (Archer 1997). Mitochondrial DNA analysis, from Gibraltar to Greece, yielded 59 haplotypes (n=166), none of which was shared between the two areas, thus supporting strong differentiation; analyses of nuclear DNA support this result (Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Subpopulation structure </span><br/>Genetic analyses of Striped Dolphins from Gibraltar to the coast of Israel, both at nuclear and mitochondrial levels, show that this species is genetically structured within the Mediterranean with low gene flow across the basin. Furthermore, there is evidence for sex-biased dispersal (Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep). On a smaller geographic level, Gaspari (2004) found evidence of genetic differentiation between inshore and offshore populations in the Ligurian Sea. Moreover, inside the Mediterranean there is some clinal variation in body size suggestive of population structure and/or restriction in gene flow between areas (Calzada and Aguilar 1995). This appears to be confirmed by significant differences in tissue pollutant levels between Spain and Italy (Monaci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Range and population</span><br/>Although overall the Striped Dolphin is the most abundant cetacean in the Mediterranean, both in the eastern and the western basins, it is not found at uniform densities. It typically shows a preference for highly productive, open waters beyond the continental shelf (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Gannier 2005). A small number of Striped Dolphins may be resident in the eastern portion of the Gulf of Corinth (Greece) (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Two strandings were recorded in the Marmara Sea in 1990s (Öztürk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).<br/><br/>Reliable abundance estimates are only available for the western basin and most of them refer to the period immediately or soon after the 1990–1992 die-off. There is no available estimate for the eastern Mediterranean Sea:<br/><ul><li>Western Mediterranean excluding the Tyrrhenian Sea (1991): 117,880&#160; [95% CI = 68,379–214,800] (Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).</li><li>Balearic Sea (1991): 5,826 [95% CI = 2,193–15,476] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Gulf of Lions (1991): 30,774 [95% CI = 17,433-54,323] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Ligurian Sea (1992): 14,003 [95% CI = 6,305–31,101] (Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).</li><li>South Balearic area (1991): 18,810 [95% CI = 8,825–35,940] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Alboran Sea (1991): 17,728 [95% CI = 9,507–33,059] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Central coast of Spain (2000–2002): 15,778 [95% CI = 10,940–22,756] (Gómez de Segura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population trend</span><br/>the population declined in the early 1990s. Current population trend is unknown, although the population may have recovered to pre-1990 levels, at least in some areas (Gómez de Segura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
20731		population	eng	Striped dolphins are the most abundant cetacean species in the Mediterranean. The population in the western Mediterranean excluding the Tyrrhenian Sea was estimated in 1991 to be 117,880 dolphins (95%CI=68,379-214,800) (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1994). There is no estimate for the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Goujon (1996) conducted a sighting survey in 1993 in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in the Bay of Biscay and estimated the abundance of striped dolphins as 74,000 individuals.  <br/><br/>Morphological and genetic studies strongly suggest that the Mediterranean and eastern North Atlantic populations are isolated from each other, with little or no gene flow across the Strait of Gibraltar (Calzada and Aguilar 1995, García-Martínez <em>et al.</em> 1995, Archer 1997,  Gaspari 2004). Within the Mediterranean there is some evidence of population structure based on restriction in gene flow between areas and significant differences in tissue pollutant levels (Calzada and Aguilar 1995, Monaci <em>et al.</em> 1998, Gaspari 2004).
20731		threats	eng	In the Mediterranean small numbers were taken in Spain, France and Italy for human consumption. They were also hunted for use as bait for shrimp traps and longlines. Despite being illegal, catches continue in southern Spain and probably in other areas (SGFEN 2001, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). In the Northeast Atlantic, striped dolphins were harpooned to supply food for consumption on board or to scare them away from tuna trolling lines.  It is difficult to ascertain the number of dolphins taken in this way, but it has been estimated in the thousands (Reyes 1991).<br/><br/>Incidental catches occur throughout the range in various types of fishing gear, especially purse seines and gillnets. The high-seas drift gillnet fisheries, which operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about  35?N and 47?N, increased during the 1970s, and peaked during the 1980s before a United Nations moratorium went into effect in January 1993.  Bycatch estimates are only available for 1990, when about 3,000 striped dolphins were estimated killed (Hobbs and Jones 1993).  During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of striped dolphins, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Incidental captures in pelagic driftnets have been a major source of mortality all over the western Mediterranean in the past. These nets are still being illegally used, e.g. by Moroccan, French, Italian and Turkish vessels, resulting in extensive dolphin mortality. The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alborán Sea reportedly killed 145-183 striped dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <em>et al.</em> 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,555-2,092 striped dolphins per year (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). The Italian driftnet fishery has been reported to kill 5,000-15,000 dolphins, mostly striped dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992). The French thonaille driftnet fishery has been estimated to take about 180-472 striped dolphins per season (Imbert <em>et al.</em> 2001). Reports from other fishing activities are sparse and collected non-systematically, but they indicate that striped dolphin mortality in at least pelagic purse-seines, longlines and gillnets is widespread and likely significant (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). <br/><br/>Large incidental kills in pelagic trawl and driftnet fisheries off western Europe are also a source of concern (IWC 1998, Tregenza and Collet 1998). Antoine <em>et al.</em> (2001) found that by-catch rates in the tuna drift-net fishery in the northeastern Atlantic were 90% composed of <em>Delphinus delphis</em> and <em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>. Mean catch rate by trip in 1992-1993 years were 4.7 striped dolphins per km of net and per day. Such rates are similar to those estimated in other driftnet fisheries. Goujon (1996) estimated the annual additional mortality linked to driftnets in the Bay of Biscay albacore tuna fishery to 1.8% for the striped dolphin (this estimate must be increased by 30% in order to take into account the whole European albacore tuna driftnet fishery). <br/><br/>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals and selenium in Mediterranean striped dolphins are high and exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Monaci <em>et al.</em> 1998, Aguilar 2000, Cardellicchio <em>et al.</em> 2000). Organochlorine pollutants, in particular, are found at levels that greatly exceed thresholds of reproductive impairment in bottlenose dolphins elsewhere (Aguilar 2006). Blubber concentrations of DDT (an agricultural pesticide) and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, have been slowly declining in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are still high. High PCB levels have the potential to depress reproductive rates in striped dolphins (Munson<em> et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/>The 1990-92 epizootic devastated the whole Mediterranean population of striped dolphins, producing many thousands of deaths (Bortolotto <em>et al.</em> 1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). Immediately after the event, the mean school size was found to be less than one third of prior levels, which may be interpreted as indicating a proportional reduction in overall population size (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1994).  The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <em>et al.</em> 1990) but PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for immunosuppressive effects may have triggered the event or enhanced its spread and lethality (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). <br/><br/>Commercially exploited fish and cephalopod species are important components of striped dolphin diet in the Mediterranean (Blanco <em>et al.</em> 1995). As many stocks of important striped dolphin prey (e.g. the European anchovy) are known to have been depleted, reduced prey availability resulting from conflict with commercial fisheries is considered a potentially important threat (Reyes 1991, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) and may have contributed to the 1990-1992 epizootic (Aguilar 2000).
20731		threats	eng	<p>In 1990–1992 a die-off devastated much of, if not the entire, Mediterranean population;  1,000 carcasses were examined in Spain, Italy and France alone, but the toll was undoubtedly much higher because these countries represent only a fraction of the Mediterranean coastline known to have been affected by the process (Bortolotto<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). Immediately after the event, the mean school size was found to be less than one third of original levels, which may be taken as an indication, but not as a proof, for a proportional reduction in overall population size (Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990, Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). The epidemic started in regions containing unusually large numbers of inbred dolphins that were possibly more susceptible to diseases (Valsecchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for causing immunosuppressive effects were suggested to have enhanced its lethality because the individuals that succumbed to the disease were those carrying the highest PCB tissue concentrations (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). </p>  <p>A second outbreak occurred in 2006–2007 affecting the coasts of Spain (Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Raga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), France and the Italian Ligurian Sea (Garibaldi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The mortality associated with that event was moderate, with only about 200 carcasses reported, probably because older dolphins were still protected by the immunity developed during the 1990–1992 epidemic (Raga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Moreover, differently to the previous outbreak, PCB levels in the individuals that succumbed to this event were not significantly different from those in the surviving population, which suggests that pollutants were of no relevance to the 2006–2007 event (Castrillon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). Recurrent epidemics may have profound cumulative effects on the population dynamics of Mediterranean Striped Dolphins (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009a).<br/></p>  <p>Poxviruses with the potential to cause mortality of neonates and young calves are also circulating in this population (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). Marine <span style="font-style: italic;">brucellae</span> also infect Mediterranean Striped Dolphins (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). These bacteria may limit recruitment by compromising the normal functioning of male and female reproductive systems, inducing abortions and killing neonates and sexually mature individuals (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a). Finally, infection by the protozoan<em> Toxoplasma gondii </em>seems to be common in Mediterranean striped dolphins (Domingo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Cabezon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and has been suggested as another factor contributing to the death toll during morbillivirus epidemics.<br/></p>  <p>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals, selenium and possibly other pollutants such as the brominated flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and perfluorinated compounds are high and often exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Aguilar 2000, Marsili <em>et al</em>. 2001, Kannan <em>et al</em>. 2002, Pettersson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Blubber concentrations of DDT and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, show a slowly declining trend in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are currently still high. Besides the alleged immunodepressive effect (see above), high PCB levels may have been implicated in the development of unusual luteinized cysts in the ovaries of four of 56 (7.1%) Mediterranean Striped Dolphins (Munson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988), although other factors like the morbillivirus infection, stress and food depletion could have contributed to the abnormal surge or release of luteinizing hormone. <br/></p>  The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alboran Sea reportedly killed 148–170 dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,500–2,000 Striped Dolphins per year (Tudela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). The Italian driftnet fishery (<em>spadare </em>fishery) has been claimed to kill 5,000–15,000 dolphins, mostly Striped Dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992); although fishing effort is declining, current catch levels are thought to be still high. The French <em>thonaille </em>driftnet fishery has been estimated to kill 180–472 Striped Dolphins per season (Imbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Reports from other fisheries are sparse and bycatch data are not collected systematically, but what evidence there is suggests that incidental catches of Striped Dolphins are widespread and likely to represent a significant toll at least in pelagic purse-seines, drifting long-lines and gill nets (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). To this should be added a certain number of direct catches for human consumption or for use as bait, which still continue in several Mediterranean countries (SGFEN 2001).    <p>The diet of Striped Dolphins includes commercial fish and cephalopod species (Pulcini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Blanco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), so the widespread depletion of fishery resources in the Mediterranean has the potential to affect Striped Dolphin numbers.</p>Global warming may have significant direct and indirect effects on cetacean populations in the Mediterranean (Gambaiani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Climate variability and change affect biomass in a number of ways, including shifts in species distribution. Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008b) showed a direct effect of sea surface temperature on striped dolphin distribution in the Ligurian Sea.
20731		threats	eng	The largest directed catches have occurred in Japanese waters, in drive and hand-harpoon fisheries at several locations that date back to at least the Meiji period (1868-1912). Catch statistics are incomplete before 1978, but annual recorded takes exceeded 15,000-20,000 striped dolphins in some years. Catches were reduced beginning in 1981 and have since varied between 358 (in 1987) and 4,783 (1981), averaging 2,512 during the period 1981-89. Between 1988-1994, the average catch was 1,045 (Kasuya 1999). The average take between 1995-2004 was 502 individuals (Kasuya 2007), and there has been an annual quota of 725 since 1993 (through 2006). Fragmented information on morphology, life history, pollutant levels and genetics suggests that the striped dolphins taken by Japanese fisheries are from more than one subpopulation, with varying proportions among fisheries and perhaps over time (IWC 1993). <br/><br/>In Taiwan, some striped dolphins are harpooned opportunistically (John Wang pers. comm.). Striped dolphins are also taken in the drive fishery at Malaita in the Solomon Islands (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2003) and by harpoon and gillnet in Sri Lanka and St. Vincent (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994, Ilangakoon <em>et al</em>. 2000a&b). Other such small indigenous fisheries may exist elsewhere. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic small numbers were taken in Spain, France and Italy for human consumption. They were also hunted for use as bait for shrimp traps and longlines (Reyes 1991). Illegal catches continue in southern Spain and probably in other areas (SGFEN 2001; Aguilar 2006). <br/><br/>Incidental catches occur throughout the range in various types of fishing gear, especially purse seines and gillnets, including in the northeastern Indian Ocean, the eastern tropical Pacific, the north-eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean, in the North Pacific, off the coast of Japan, and in other coastal large-mesh pelagic driftnet and pelagic longline fisheries (Archer and Perrin 1999). Bycatch probably also occurs in similar fisheries in tropical and warm-temperate waters around the world. Although rare, striped dolphins have been caught in the Natal shark nets in South Africa (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>High-seas drift gillnet fisheries operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N, increased during the 1970s, and peaked during the 1980s before a United Nations moratorium came into effect in January 1993. Bycatch estimates are only available for 1990, when about 3,000 striped dolphins were estimated killed (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of striped dolphins, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Incidental captures in pelagic driftnets have been a major source of mortality all over the western Mediterranean in the past. These nets are still being illegally used, e.g. by Moroccan, French, Italian and Turkish vessels, resulting in extensive dolphin mortality. The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alborán Sea reportedly killed 145-183 striped dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,555-2,092 striped dolphins per year (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Italian driftnet fishery has been reported to kill 5,000-15,000 dolphins, mostly striped dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992). The French thonaille driftnet fishery has been estimated to take about 180-472 striped dolphins per season (Imbert <em>et al</em>. 2001). Reports from other fishing activities are sparse and collected non-systematically, but they indicate that striped dolphin mortality in at least pelagic purse-seines, longlines and gillnets is widespread (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). <br/><br/>Large incidental kills in pelagic trawl and driftnet fisheries off western Europe are a source of concern (IWC 1998, Tregenza and Collet 1998). Antoine <em>et al</em>. (2001) found that by-catch rates in the tuna drift-net fishery in the northeastern Atlantic were 90 % composed of Delphinus delphis and Stenella coeruleoalba. Mean catch rate by trip in 1992-1993 years were 4.7 striped dolphins per km of net and per day. Such rates are similar to those estimated in other driftnet fisheries. Goujon (1996) estimated the annual additional mortality rate linked to driftnets in the Bay of Biscay albacore tuna fishery to be 1.8% for the striped dolphin. In the southwest Atlantic, by-catch of <em>S. coeruleoalba</em> was noted by Zerbini and Kotas (1998) off Brazil.<br/><br/>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals and selenium in Mediterranean striped dolphins are high and exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Cardellicchio <em>et al</em>. 2000; Monaci <em>et al</em>. 1998; Aguilar 2000). Organochlorine pollutants, in particular, are found at levels that greatly exceed thresholds of reproductive impairment in bottlenose dolphins elsewhere (Aguilar 2006). Blubber concentrations of DDT and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, have been slowly declining in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are still high. High PCB levels have the potential to depress reproductive rates in striped dolphins (Munson <em>et al</em>. 1988). Extremely high concentrations of heavy metals, DDT and PCBs are also reported in specimens from Japan (Tanabe <em>et al</em>. 1983). The 1990-92 epizootic devastated the whole Mediterranean population of striped dolphins, producing many thousands of deaths (Bortolotto <em>et al</em>. 1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <em>et al</em>. 1990), but PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for immunosuppressive effects may have triggered the event or enhanced its spread and lethality (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). <br/><br/>Commercially exploited fish and cephalopod species are important components of striped dolphin diet in the Mediterranean (Pulcini <em>et al</em>. 1993; Blanco <em>et al</em>. 1995). As many stocks of important striped dolphin prey (e.g. the European anchovy) are known to have been depleted, reduced prey availability resulting from conflict with commercial fisheries is considered a potentially important threat (Reyes 1991; Aguilar 2006) and may have contributed to the 1990-19992 epizootic (Aguilar 2000). <br/><br/>In 2004 and 2005, two series of unusual strandings in Taiwan included striped dolphins (Wang and Yang 2007). The cause(s) of the deaths of these animals have not been determined but it is likely that human (but non-fishing) activities were responsible. The largest directed catches have occurred in Japanese waters, in drive and hand-harpoon fisheries at several locations that date back to at least the Meiji period (1868-1912). Catch statistics are incomplete before 1978, but annual recorded takes exceeded 15,000-20,000 striped dolphins in some years. Catches were reduced beginning in 1981 and have since varied between 358 (in 1987) and 4,783 (1981), averaging 2,512 during the period 1981-89. Between 1988-1994, the average catch was 1,045 (Kasuya 1999). The average take between 1995-2004 was 502 individuals (Kasuya 2007), and there has been an annual quota of 725 since 1993 (through 2006). Fragmented information on morphology, life history, pollutant levels and genetics suggests that the striped dolphins taken by Japanese fisheries are from more than one subpopulation, with varying proportions among fisheries and perhaps over time (IWC 1993). <br/><br/>In Taiwan, some striped dolphins are harpooned opportunistically (J. Wang pers. comm.). Striped dolphins are also taken in the drive fishery at Malaita in the Solomon Islands (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2003) and by harpoon and gillnet in Sri Lanka and St. Vincent (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994, Ilangakoon <em>et al</em>. 2000a&b). Other such small indigenous fisheries may exist elsewhere. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic small numbers were taken in Spain, France and Italy for human consumption. They were also hunted for use as bait for shrimp traps and longlines (Reyes 1991). Illegal catches continue in southern Spain and probably in other areas (SGFEN 2001; Aguilar 2006). <br/><br/>Incidental catches occur throughout the range in various types of fishing gear, especially purse seines and gillnets, including in the northeastern Indian Ocean, the eastern tropical Pacific, the north-eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean, in the North Pacific, off the coast of Japan, and in other coastal large-mesh pelagic driftnet and pelagic longline fisheries (Archer and Perrin 1999). Bycatch probably also occurs in similar fisheries in tropical and warm-temperate waters around the world. Although rare, striped dolphins have been caught in the Natal shark nets in South Africa (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>High-seas drift gillnet fisheries operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N, increased during the 1970s, and peaked during the 1980s before a United Nations moratorium came into effect in January 1993. Bycatch estimates are only available for 1990, when about 3,000 striped dolphins were estimated killed (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of striped dolphins, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Incidental captures in pelagic driftnets have been a major source of mortality all over the western Mediterranean in the past. These nets are still being illegally used, e.g. by Moroccan, French, Italian and Turkish vessels, resulting in extensive dolphin mortality. The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alborán Sea reportedly killed 145-183 striped dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,555-2,092 striped dolphins per year (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Italian driftnet fishery has been reported to kill 5,000-15,000 dolphins, mostly striped dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992). The French thonaille driftnet fishery has been estimated to take about 180-472 striped dolphins per season (Imbert <em>et al</em>. 2001). Reports from other fishing activities are sparse and collected non-systematically, but they indicate that striped dolphin mortality in at least pelagic purse-seines, longlines and gillnets is widespread (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). <br/><br/>Large incidental kills in pelagic trawl and driftnet fisheries off western Europe are a source of concern (IWC 1998, Tregenza and Collet 1998). Antoine <em>et al</em>. (2001) found that by-catch rates in the tuna drift-net fishery in the northeastern Atlantic were 90 % composed of Delphinus delphis and Stenella coeruleoalba. Mean catch rate by trip in 1992-1993 years were 4.7 striped dolphins per km of net and per day. Such rates are similar to those estimated in other driftnet fisheries. Goujon (1996) estimated the annual additional mortality rate linked to driftnets in the Bay of Biscay albacore tuna fishery to be 1.8% for the striped dolphin. In the southwest Atlantic, by-catch of S. coeruleoalba was noted by Zerbini and Kotas (1998) off Brazil.<br/><br/>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals and selenium in Mediterranean striped dolphins are high and exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Cardellicchio <em>et al</em>. 2000; Monaci <em>et al</em>. 1998; Aguilar 2000). Organochlorine pollutants, in particular, are found at levels that greatly exceed thresholds of reproductive impairment in bottlenose dolphins elsewhere (Aguilar 2006). Blubber concentrations of DDT and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, have been slowly declining in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are still high. High PCB levels have the potential to depress reproductive rates in striped dolphins (Munson <em>et al</em>. 1988). Extremely high concentrations of heavy metals, DDT and PCBs are also reported in specimens from Japan (Tanabe <em>et al</em>. 1983). The 1990-92 epizootic devastated the whole Mediterranean population of striped dolphins, producing many thousands of deaths (Bortolotto <em>et al</em>. 1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <em>et al</em>. 1990), but PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for immunosuppressive effects may have triggered the event or enhanced its spread and lethality (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). <br/><br/>Commercially exploited fish and cephalopod species are important components of striped dolphin diet in the Mediterranean (Pulcini <em>et al</em>. 1993; Blanco <em>et al</em>. 1995). As many stocks of important striped dolphin prey (e.g. the European anchovy) are known to have been depleted, reduced prey availability resulting from conflict with commercial fisheries is considered a potentially important threat (Reyes 1991; Aguilar 2006) and may have contributed to the 1990-19992 epizootic (Aguilar 2000). <br/><br/>In 2004 and 2005, two series of unusual strandings in Taiwan included striped dolphins (Wang and Yang 2007). The cause(s) of the deaths of these animals have not been determined but it is likely that human (but non-fishing) activities were responsible.
20732		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Abundance and bycatch in fisheries off West Africa should be investigated.
20732		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Atlantic Ocean, from southern Brazil to the United States (New England) in the west, and to the coast of Africa in the east (the exact limits off West Africa are not well known – Perrin 2002a,b). A discontinuity in the range of the species exists in the western South Atlantic Ocean (Moreno <em>et al</em>., 2005).
20732		habitat	eng	Distribution is mostly over the offshore continental shelf, but these dolphins also inhabit deep oceanic waters. The species is known from far-offshore Gulf-stream waters and the mid-tropical Atlantic (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1987). The large, heavily spotted form of the Atlantic spotted dolphin along the south-eastern and Gulf coasts of the United States inhabits the continental shelf, usually being found inside or near the 200 m isobath (within 250-350 km of the coast), but sometimes coming into very shallow water adjacent to the beach seasonally, perhaps in pursuit of migratory fish (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1987). In the Bahamas, Atlantic spotted dolphins spend much time in shallow water (6-12 m) over sand flats. The smaller and less-spotted forms that inhabit more pelagic offshore waters and waters around oceanic islands are less well known in their habitat requirements (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994; Jefferson and Schiro 1997. In the north-central and western Gulf of Mexico. Atlantic spotted dolphins were consistently found in the shallowest waters on the continental shelf and along the shelf break within the 250-m isobath (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1998). In addition, the bottom depth gradient (sea floor slope) was less for Atlantic spotted dolphins than for any other species.<br/><br/>A wide variety of epi- and mesopelagic fishes and squids, as well as benthic invertebrates, are taken by this species (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). There are known to be some regional differences in diet.
20732		population	eng	Data from surveys in the 1990s were used to estimate abundance in the northern Gulf of Mexico at 30,947 (CV=27%), although NMFS considers this an underestimate due to survey limitations (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are no data available from West Africa, but the few records available suggest that it is either not abundant or that it has an offshore distribution there (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000). A geographically and possibly genetically isolated population may occur off southern Brazil from 21-33°S (Moreno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20732		threats	eng	No direct killing is known, other than occasional catches in small Caribbean dolphin fisheries, possible off West Africa and possibly in the Azores (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>Incidental catches in fisheries are known for several areas of the range (Brazil, the Caribbean, off the east coast of the United States, and in Mauritania). Some are probably also taken incidentally in tuna purse seines off the West African coast (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are no reliable estimates of the number of animals taken in any of these fisheries (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Atlantic spotted dolphins are also captured incidentally in gillnets in Brazil and Venezuela (Zerbini and Kotas 1998). In Venezuela, the dolphin carcasses are used for shark bait and for human consumption (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). Mignucci-Giannoni <em>et al</em>. (1999) found that the most common human-related causes observed in strandings were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by animals being shot or speared. Niero <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that in 1995, a large number of Atlantic spotted dolphins washed ashore on the sandy beaches north of Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania. Workers surveyed the coastline to assess the number of corpses and the cause of death, which was attributed to fishery interaction.
20733		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Spinner dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC. The IATTC has imposed annual stock mortality limits on each purse seine and promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001). <br/><br/>The species is composed of several subspecies and regional populations. The conservation status of each of these should be assessed. The available estimates of abundance and removals suggest that some of them may fall into a Threatened category.
20733		distribution	eng	The spinner dolphin ranges through tropical and subtropical zones in both hemispheres. Limits are near 40°N and 40°S. <br/><br/><em>S. l. longirostris</em> occurs mainly around oceanic islands in the tropical Atlantic, Indian, and western and central Pacific east to about 145°W (Rice 1998). However, the distribution in the Atlantic is not well known, especially in South American and African waters; the known range can be expected to expand considerably in those areas with increased attention to the cetacean faunas there. The southernmost record is from New Zealand, more than 2,000 km south of what is thought to be the normal range but still well north of subantarctic waters (Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). <br/><br/><em>S. l. orientalis</em> inhabits pelagic waters of the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP) east of about 145°W, from 24°N off Baja California south to 10°S off Peru, but exclusive of the range of the following subspecies (Perrin 1990). <br/><br/><em>S. l. centroamericana</em> is found in coastal waters over the continental shelf of the ETP, from the Gulf of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico southeast to Costa Rica (Perrin 1990). <br/><br/><em>S. l. roseiventris</em> is distributed in shallow waters of inner Southeast Asia, including the Gulf of Thailand, the Timor and Arafura Seas off northern Australia, and other similar shallow waters off Indonesia and Malaysia. It is replaced in deeper and outer waters by the larger pelagic subspecies <em>S. l. longirostris</em> (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1999, Kahn pers. comm. to W. Perrin 2007).
20733		habitat	eng	In most tropical waters, nearly all records of spinner dolphins are associated with inshore waters, islands or banks. Around Hawaii spinner dolphins depend on the availability of sheltered shallow bays for use as resting areas during the day. In the ETP, however, spinner dolphins occur in very large numbers on the high seas many hundreds of kilometers from the nearest land. Spinner dolphins favor a specific habitat in the ETP, called by oceanographers "tropical surface water;" it is typified by unusual conditions of shallow mixed layer, shoal and sharp thermocline, and relatively small annual variation in surface temperature (Reyes 1991; Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). There they are often found in close association with pantropical spotted dolphins, yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and birds of several species. The dwarf form of the spinner dolphin in Southeast Asian waters apparently inhabits a shallow coral reef habitat (Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). In the north-central and western Gulf of Mexico, <em>Stenella longirostris</em> is found over intermediate bottom depths, its distribution overlapping with that of purely pelagic and purely coastal species (Davis <em>et al</em>. (1998).<br/><br/>Most spinner dolphins feed predominantly at night, on small (<20 cm) midwater fish of many different families (including myctophids), squids, and sergestid shrimps (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1973; Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dwarf spinner dolphins are exceptional, however; they feed (presumably during daylight hours) on small, reef-associated organisms (benthic reef fishes and invertebrates) (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1999).
20733		population	eng	There were about 801,000 (CV=37%) whitebelly spinners (<em>S. l. orientalis</em> X <em>S. l. longirostris</em> intergrades) in the ETP in 2000 (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 2005). The eastern spinner dolphin (the population most heavily impacted by the ETP tuna fishery) numbered about 613,000 (CV=22%) in 2003, and despite large reductions in the kill is recovering at an estimated rate of only 1.1% per year, an estimate that is not statistically different from zero (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). There are estimated to be 11,971 (CV=71%) spinner dolphins in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), and 3,351 (CV=74%) in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2006). There are no abundance estimates for the dwarf subspecies. Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1997) estimated abundance in the southern part of the Sulu Sea and north-eastern Malaysian waters at 4,000 individuals. For the southeastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated abundance at about 31,000 (CV=27%) spinner dolphins. The numbers listed above add up to more than a million spinner dolphins: numerous other regional populations in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans have not been surveyed.
20733		threats	eng	The association of spinner dolphins with spotted dolphins and yellowfin tuna results in their entanglement in tuna purse seines in the ETP. This is the second-most important species of dolphin involved in the tuna fishery (after the pantropical spotted dolphin) (Gerrodette 2002). The population of the eastern spinner dolphin subspecies <em>S. l. orientalis</em> is estimated to have been reduced by 65% by the tuna fishery kills (Reilly <em>et al</em>. 2005). Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) implemented per-vessel mortality limits on the international fleet, the mortality for the eastern and whitebelly forms combined decreased, to 389 in 2005 (IATTC 2006). Although current mortality is greatly reduced, the eastern form appears to be recovering slowly. Potential factors such as fishery-related stress, unobserved mortality due to calf separation and orphaning during fishing operations (Archer <em>et al</em>. 2001), possible mortality by small vessels that do not carry observers, and under-reporting of mortality have been suggested as possible reasons the eastern spinner’s slow recovery (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). <br/><br/>Throughout their range, spinner dolphins are taken as bycatch in purse-seine, gillnet, and trawl fisheries (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994; Donahue and Edwards 1996), often in high numbers. Spinner dolphins are the most abundant dolphin in the Indian Ocean (Balance and Pitman 1998) and are taken throughout the region. In the Indian Ocean, annual takes of hundreds of spinner dolphins have been reported bycaught in the few fisheries that have been examined in India (Lal Mohan 1994), and annual takes in the thousands have been reported in Sri Lanka (Leatherwood and Reeves 1991; Lal Mohan 1994). Takes in other areas are unknown, but may be substantial. Unknown numbers have been taken in the tuna purse-seine fishery in the eastern Atlantic (Donahue and Edwards 1996) and in small-scale gillnet fisheries in the western Atlantic (Siciliano 1994). Dolphins taken incidentally in the Philippines and Venezuela are utilized for shark bait and human consumption (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 1994; Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). Dwarf spinners are caught incidentally in shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Thailand (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1999). There are likely to be undocumented fisheries interactions off West Africa (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). Zerbini and Kotas (1998) report on by-catches in Brazilian drift-net fisheries and Cockcroft (1990) on animals entangled in shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>In some cases, human use of by-caught spinner dolphins has led to direct fisheries. Direct kills occur in several areas, including the Caribbean, Sri Lanka, the Philippines (Dolar 1994), Taiwan, and Indonesia (Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994; J. Wang pers. comm., Kahn 2004). Spinners may also be so taken in West Africa (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Tourist development may affect the habitat and viability of spinner dolphins in some regions, for example at Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil (Reyes 1991), in Hawaii (Lammers 2004) and in Bali, Indonesia (T. Jefferson pers. comm.). The habit of resting in shallow coastal waters during the day leads to problems of harassment by dolphin-watching boats.
20737		distribution	eng	The distribution is poorly known, but has been recorded from Virginia, North Carolina (New River and South Fork River) and Walker County, Alabama.
20737		habitat	eng	Apparently a species of clean, clear mountain rivers.
20738		conservation	eng	The biology, life history, population size, and separation into subpopulations, as well as migratory behaviour are insufficiently known. Research on this species should be encouraged.
20738		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The biology, life history, population size, and separation into subpopulations, as well as migratory behaviour are insufficiently known. Research on this species should be encouraged.
20738		distribution	eng	The rough-toothed dolphin is a tropical to subtropical species, which generally inhabits deep, oceanic waters of all three major oceans, rarely ranging north of 40°N or south of 35°S (Jefferson 2002).  However in some areas (such as off the coast of Brazil and West Africa), rough-toothed dolphins may occur in more shallow coastal waters.  They are found in many semi-enclosed bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Thailand, Red Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of California), but they are regarded as visitors in the Mediterranean Sea (Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1987, Miyazaki and Perrin 1994, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
20738		distribution	eng	The Rough-toothed Dolphin is a tropical to subtropical species, which generally inhabits deep, oceanic waters of all three major oceans, rarely ranging north of 40°N or south of 35°S (Jefferson 2002). However, in some areas (such as off the coast of Brazil and West Africa), rough-toothed dolphins may occur in more shallow coastal waters. They are found in many semi-enclosed bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Thailand, Red Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of California), but they are regarded as visitors in the Mediterranean Sea (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1987; Miyazaki and Perrin 1994; Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
20738		habitat	eng	Most often, <em>Steno bredanensis</em> is found in deep water far offshore, usually beyond the continental shelf (Maigret 1994), but may be seen close inshore in areas of steep bottom relief (Ritter 2002). In the eastern tropical Pacific, they tend to associate with other cetaceans (especially pilot whales and Fraser’s dolphins) (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Rough-toothed Dolphins feed on cephalopods and fish, including large fish such as <em>Coryphaena hippurus</em> (Pitman and Stinchcomb 2002).
20738		habitat	eng	Most often, <em>Steno bredanensis</em> is found in deep water far offshore, usually beyond the continental shelf (Maigret 1994), but may be seen close inshore in areas of steep bottom relief (Ritter 2002). Rough-toothed dolphins appear to be widespread in warm temperate and tropical waters around the world. In the eastern tropical Pacific, they tend to associate with other cetaceans (especially pilot whales and Fraser’s dolphins) (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Rough-toothed dolphins feed on cephalopods and fish, including large fish such as <em>Coryphaena hippurus</em> (Pitman and Stinchcomb 2002).
20738		population	eng	There are few estimates of abundance for this species. An estimated 145,900 (CV=32%) Rough-toothed Dolphins inhabit the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993), and about 2,746 (CV=36%) occur in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008), including an estimated 1,238 (CV=65%) on the continental shelf (Fulling <em>et al</em>. 2003). The US NMFS has estimated the regional population around Hawaii to be 19,904 (CV=52%), based on recent vessel surveys (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006).
20738		population	eng	This species is of marginal occurrence in the European Mammal Assessment region. Globally, there are few estimates of abundance for this species.
20738		threats	eng	No fisheries are known to specifically target this species, but small numbers are taken in drive fisheries at Okinawa in the Ryukyus and other islands of Japan, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea, by harpoon in Japan, St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles, and in West Africa. They were possibly formerly were taken at St. Helena in the South Atlantic. However, only 23 Rough-toothed Dolphins were captured in Japan (Okinawa) during the period 1976-81 (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Recent information suggests catches in Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.). <br/><br/>A few Rough-toothed Dolphins are killed incidentally in tuna purse seines in the eastern tropical Pacific: 21 were estimated killed during the period 1971-75 and 36 died in a single net haul in 1982. Small numbers are also taken as by-catch in gillnet and driftnet fisheries in Sri Lanka, Brazil, the central North Pacific and probably elsewhere around the world in tropical and warm-temperate waters (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Monteiro-Neto <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported on fishery-related mortality along the coast of Ceara State, northeast Brazil, commenting on the possible conservation implications for the local subpopulations. Seasonally, incidental catches were more frequent during the austral spring (October-December). Rough-toothed Dolphins are also taken by gill nets, driftnets and pelagic long-lines in Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.).
20738		threats	eng	No fisheries are known to specifically target this species, but small numbers are taken in drive fisheries in parts of the global range (outside Europe). Incidental mortality in gill nets, drift nets and pelagic long-lines has been recorded.
20740		conservation	eng	It is present within the proposed Bale Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
20740		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the high altitude moorlands of the Bale and Arssi mountain ranges, southeastern Ethiopia. It has been recorded from 3,000 to 4,377 m asl.
20740		habitat	eng	This species is found in upland moorland on the high plateau of Bale and Arssi (Arussi) provinces. It is particularly associated with <em>Alchemilla</em> pastures and mesa slopes dominated by low <em>Artemisia</em> and <em>Helichrysum</em> scrub. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
20740		population	eng	It is abundant in its limited range.
20740		threats	eng	The species has a very limited range. It is found at higher altitude than the majority of Ethiopians and their livestock, and should be relatively safe from habitat degradation.
20741		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and threats. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
20741		distribution	eng	This species is found in high altitude habitats of Ethiopian plateau on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is found from 2,400 to 3,900 m asl.
20741		habitat	eng	This species is associated with upland grasslands and <em>Erica</em> shrubland, on both the western and eastern parts of the Ethiopian plateau.
20741		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
20741		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by habitat degradation through overgrazing, however, it remains sufficiently common and widespread to pose no immediate conservation concerns.
20743		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. rufum</span> is found in protected areas across its range.
20743		distribution	eng	This species is known from Puerto Rico (main island and Vieques), and US Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. John, St. Croix)  (Simmons 2005).
20743		habitat	eng	The habitat in which this species occurs often is dry arborescent vegetation (Genoways and Baker 1972). This species is poorly known. Only the population in the Luquillo Mountains has been studied extensively, and almost all knowledge of its natural history comes from animals living there. It is primarily a frugivore; the most commonly eaten fruits are from the trumpet tree, bullet-wood, and sierra palm, and there is not evidence that it eats figs. It is solitary and roost among the leaves of the forest canopy. This bat frequently changes its roosting location, and sites are seldom occupied more than once. Home range is small, about 2.5 hectares on average. Pregnant females have been captured on Puerto Rico in January, March, June, July and August, and lactating bats are known from March, May, June, and July (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
20743		population	eng	It is rare in the US Virgin Islands (no specimens taken in the last 30 years) (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Puerto Rico it is uncommon; apparently it is most common in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
20743		threats	eng	This species is threatened by human disturbance and hurricanes.
20745		conservation	eng	No information.
20745		distribution	eng	Caspian Sea (commonly central and southern Caspian in summer), Volga, Ural and Terek drainages.
20745		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, throughout basin in pelagic zone with temperatures below 18°C and 20-50 m deep. Juveniles and adults overwinter and forage at sea. Large lowland rivers during migration. Prior to the construction of dams, migration route was over 3000 km long, reaching up to uppermost reaches of Ufa and Belaya drainages (Kama tributaries). Spawns on gravel shallows. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Spawns for the first time at 5-8 years, females usually two years later than males. In autumn, starts migration from sea to estuaries. Mature adults enter Volga, only few individuals enter Terek and Ural. Migration takes almost a year. Spawns in September-October at temperatures below 6°C. Adults migrate back to sea soon after spawning, but many die. Eggs adhere to gravel and rocks. Embryonic development lasts about six months, alevins appear in April. Fry actively migrates to sea soon after start of exogenous feeding. At 30 days, juveniles already start to feed on fry of other fishes. Adults feed exclusively on fish. Active predator, feeds on all available fish, commonly small schooling species.
20745		population	eng	Native stocks are reportedly extinct and survival depends exclusively on stocking. In the Volga all spawning grounds were above Volgograd dam. In 1959 only a few spawners remained. Up to 33 million (1988) juveniles were stocked during Soviet times. Between 1996-99 only 600,000 juveniles were stocked and the spawning population is in a drastic decline again. In 2004, only about 100 spawners were caught below Volgograd dam. In the 1960s, it was already extremely rare in the Ural, where it has not been recorded since.
20745		threats	eng	Construction of dams led to the loss of all spawning grounds for the species (the Volga, Ural and Terek drainages). Increasing illegal fishing in the Volga and in the Caspian Sea is now a very critical concern. <em>S. nelma</em> was introduced in the northern Volga drainage and is now expanding and might threaten surviving populations and cultivated stocks through hybridization.
20757		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Manusela National Park. Further studies into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species are needed.
20757		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Seram, in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia. It is known only from two localities on Mount Mansuela.
20757		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. It has only been recorded from undisturbed primary tropical moist forest at altitudes from 1,500 to 1,800 m.
20757		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens (Natural History Museum London) and an additional example in the Western Australia Museum (Helgen 2003). The species is not believed to be common.
20757		threats	eng	Even if logging does not represent a threat at high altitudes, however, ongoing habitat degradation at lower altitudes will affect the quality of higher altitude habitat. Competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em> is believed to be a threat to this species.
20758		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed (see Taxonomic Notes).
20758		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded between 762 and 4,050 m asl. Most records are from over 1,500 m.
20758		habitat	eng	This species can be found in tropical moss forest, areas of degraded forest, and old rural gardens. Females give birth to between two and three young.
20758		population	eng	It can be very abundant.
20758		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
20759		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from protected areas (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Other areas of suitable glacial habitat should be surveyed to locate additional populations of this restricted range species.
20759		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in two areas of the island of New Guinea. It is found in the Central Cordillera of Papua Province, Indonesia where it has been recorded from around Lake Habbema and Mount Wilhelmina, and from Mount Jaya (Flannery 1995). These areas represent two of the last areas with glacial cover on New Guinea. It has an altitudinal range of 3,225 to 4,500 m asl.
20759		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of alpine scrub and tussock grassland, often between rocks and other cover.
20759		population	eng	It is believed to be reasonably common where it is found.
20759		threats	eng	This high-altitude species is considered to be at risk from the impacts of increasing fire frequency induced by global warming. There is mining activity in one of the protected areas where it is found. Animals are predated by hunting dogs in parts of its range.
20760		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, habitat status, and threats to the species are needed. Important areas of habitat for this species should be identified and protected.
20760		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of south-east Papua New Guinea, where it is found at altitudes above 1,300 m asl. It may range more widely than currently known (e.g., it is possibly present on Mount Simpson). Its range is suspected to be very fragmented.
20760		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in primary montane tropical moist forest. Little is known about the natural history of this species.
20760		population	eng	In general it is not common. It may be locally abundant at certain sites but absent from others. Around 15 specimens have been collected.
20760		threats	eng	The forest within which this species lives has been degraded in parts of its range. It is potentially threatened by continuing loss of forest habitat by an increase in the human population density of the area (i.e., rural gardens appear to be pushed further up the slopes by expanding oil palm plantations lower down). There may be competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em> at the lower edges of its elevational range.
20761		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.
20761		distribution	eng	This species is fairly widespread along the central range of Papua Province (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea. It ranges from the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Province, Indonesia to the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It has been found at elevations from 150 to 2,700 m asl.
20761		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in a wide variety of habitats from primary tropical moist forest to rural gardens (Flannery 1995). The species seems to be sensitive to exposure, and is not found in areas with sparse cover (Flannery 1995). Females give birth to between one and three young.
20761		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown.
20761		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
20795		conservation	eng	The fish has been protected in California since 1982 and protected in Mexico since 1992 (Crooke 1992). <br/> <br/>California State Legislature banned both commercial and recreational fishing for Giant Sea Bass in 1981 in response to the great decline in population, but it allowed two fish per angler per trip when fishing south of United States-Mexico border (Crooke 1992) and allowed one fish per trip if taken incidentally in gill or trammel net by commercial fisherman (Domeier 2001). <br/> <br/>The species can still be caught in Mexico (M. Domeier, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>The law limited the amount of Giant Sea Bass that could be taken in Mexican waters and landed in California (could not land more than 3,000 lbs in a calendar year). The ban of inshore gill nets in California was introduced in 1990, which was considered a way to significantly reduce the incidental mortality of Giant Sea Bass (Domeier 2001).
20795		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific: from Humboldt Bay in California, U.S.A. to the tip of Baja, Mexico; also found in the northern half of the Gulf of California (Domeier 2001). Supposedly also occurs in the coastal waters of northern Japan (the Sea of Japan) (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1992); but the occurrence in Japan is probably a misidentification (Domeier 2001).
20795		habitat	eng	Juveniles are usually found in and around kelp beds as well as sandy bottom areas at depths 12–21 m (Crooke 1992), whereas adults are usually found deeper than 30 m and they tend to inhabit rocky bottoms where kelp beds are nearby (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproductive Biology</strong> <br/>The fish mature at 7 to 10 years (Domeier 2001). The maximum size of male/unsexed giant sea bass is 250 cm TL (IGFA 2001). Spawning aggregations are formed and remain together for one or two months over the period of June to September (Crooke 1992).
20795		population	eng	It is now very rare in the Gulf of California (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000). Minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000).
20795		threats	eng	The major threat is from overfishing; however, the species is protected in California (this legislation also covers U.S. fishers in Mexican waters) although incidental catches are allowed (see Conservation Measures below).
20824		conservation	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus depressus</em> is designated as Threatened in the US ESA since 1987, with no critical habitat designated. It is protected from exploitation and intentional impact by Alabama State legislation since 1984 (Code of Alabama, Section 9-11-269). &#160;</p>  <p>Populations are confirmed from the Bankhead National Forest including the Sipsey Wilderness Area. </p>  <p>Surveys have documented and monitored distribution and status since the mid-1980s. </p>  <p>A Recovery Plan was approved by FWS in 1990 but not funded, and no actions have resulted from its ESA inclusion. </p>  <p>Future desirable research include further status surveys, continued population monitoring, further investigation of disease, refined demography and population dynamics studies including genetic studies to document population fragmentation effects, telemetry studies of habitat usage and movements, mollusc prey studies, contaminant studies, and further biological / natural history research. </p>  <p>Conservation actions proposed include local efforts to restore stream quality in the Warrior basin, and improvement and enforcement of water quality and mining laws and regulations (Dodd 2008). </p>
20824		distribution	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus depressus</em> inhabits a small range in the Black Warrior River system of Alabama. </p>  The area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) have not been quantified, but the EOO is at the order of 7,000 km<sup>2</sup> while an AOO of less than 500 linear km of streams and rivers is a realistic estimate.
20824		habitat	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus depressus</em> is a nearly exclusively aquatic freshwater turtle, inhabiting medium-sized clean clear-water streams and small rivers with abundant rocky crevice cover-sites and preferably extensive snail populations. </p>  <p>Flattened musk turtles feed predominantly on freshwater snails and (introduced) clams, also taking some aquatic insects and their larvae (Marion <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991). </p>  <p>Males reach sexual maturity at four to six years, females at six to eight years of age, at about 65 mm carapace length (CL). Females reach their maximum size of 12.0 cm at 30-40 years of age, males at 50-60 years (Close and Holmes in Dodd 2008). Mature females produce an average of two clutches of one to three eggs annually. Hatchlings measure 31-33 mm CL (Dodd 2008). Generation time is unknown but estimated at estimated 20-30 years.</p>
20824		population	eng	<p>Dodd (1990) estimated that 56.3% of historically suitable habitat was degraded to the point that it had lost its <span style="font-style: italic;">S. depressus</span> populations, 36.9% was severely degraded and contained remnant populations, and only 6.9% of original habitat remained reasonably unaffected by pollution, sedimentation and impoundments. Throughout the 1990s, populations continued to decline (Bailey and Guyer 1998), and the most recent surveys (before 2006) indicate that some viable populations remain, these were considered stable but at lower abundance than they had been in the mid-1980s (Dodd 2008). </p>
20824		threats	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus depressus</em> is primarily threatened by habitat degradation and loss, and secondarily by collection and possibly disease. Siltation, from coal strip mining and improper runoff and stream bank management associated with forestry, agriculture and construction, eliminates the essential rock crevice hiding areas, reduces or eliminates molluscan prey, and may contain toxic compounds. </p>  <p>While the species is legally protected from collection, illegal collection for pets remains a concern (Dodd 2008). </p>  <p>A severe disease outbreak swept through the Sipsey Fork population in 1985-1986, more than halving its population in one year; disease was also recorded at other streams but its impact was not quantified. The diseases has been speculated to involve a compromised immune system. By 1995 the Sipsey Fork population had not yet recovered to pre-disease levels (Bailey and Guyer 1998), and Fonnesbeck and Dodd (2003) documented that a short-term modest reduction in survivorship created serious long-term consequences for the population. </p>  <p>Leech infestation rates are inversely correlated to environmental pollution levels (Dodd 1988).</p>
20860		conservation	eng	No information.
20860		distribution	eng	Caspian, Baltic, Black and Aral Sea basins; Elbe (North Sea basin) and Maritza (Aegean Sea basin) drainages. North to about 65°N in Finland. Introductions began in 1878 in Great Britain, followed by Italy, Strymon drainage (Greece) and continental Europe west of Elbe, Ebro, Tagus and Jucar drainages in Iberian Peninsula, Onega and Severnaya Dvina in White Sea basin. Widely introduced outside Europe in Anatolia, North Africa, Ob and Amur drainages (Siberia), Lakes Issyk-kul (Kyrgyzstan), Balkhash and many smaller basins in central Kazakhstan.
20860		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, turbid rivers and eutrophic lakes; brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-10 years, usually at four. Spawns in April-May, exceptional from late February until July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperatures reach 10-14°C in spawning grounds (lowest temperature for egg incubation 11.5°C). May undertake short spawning migrations. Individuals foraging in brackish water migrate to freshwater habitats (migrations of up to 250 km have been recorded). Homing well developed, even nearby populations may be relatively isolated. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions about 50 cm in diameter and 5-10 cm deep in sand or gravel, or among exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually in turbid water and at 1-3 m depth. Spawns in pairs, at dawn or night. Female remains over the nest while male circles rapidly around, at about 1 metre from nest. Then male takes a vertical orientation and both swim around swiftly, and eggs and sperm are released. After all the eggs are released female leaves the nest site. Male defends the nest and fans the eggs with his pectorals. Females spawn once a year. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic and feed on pelagic organisms after they leave the nest for open water. Piscivorous, feeding mostly on gregarious, pelagic fishes.
20860		population	eng	Abundant.
20860		threats	eng	No major threats known.
20862		conservation	eng	No information available.
20862		distribution	eng	Northern Black Sea basin, from Danube (up to Vienna) to Kuban drainages (where it is introduced); Caspian basin (Volga and Ural drainages).   Also locally introduced in Anatolia.
20862		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, turbid rivers and lakes; in brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years and 200-300 mm SL, females usually a year later than males. Spawns for about one month in April-May, at 10-22°C. Individual females may spawn 2-3 portions of eggs. May undertake short spawning migrations. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions in sand or gravel, or exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually along shallow shores at 1-2 m depth. Nests often close to nests of <em>S. lucioperca</em>. Most active at dusk and dawn, foraging on small fish and invertebrates. Larvae and juveniles pelagic, feeding on zooplankton.
20862		population	eng	Abundant.
20862		threats	eng	No major threats known.
20863		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
20863		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan species is broadly distributed across Africa from Togo, Benin and Nigeria, through southern Cameroon and much of the Congo Basin of The Democratic Republic of the Congo, to western Uganda in the east of its range.
20863		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary lowland rainforests, and swampy and densly vegetated areas. It has been recorded from oil palm plantations.
20863		population	eng	It is a common species.
20863		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
20864		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
20864		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
20864		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic. It is an omnivorous species (Axelrod 1991).
20864		population	eng	No information available.
20864		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
20865		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
20865		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
20865		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelgic species.
20865		population	eng	No information available.
20865		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
20866		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
20866		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.
20866		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
20866		population	eng	No information available.
20866		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
20868		conservation	eng	No information available.
20868		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries. Burundi (at least four sites), Tanzania (20+ sites), Zambia and DRC (West <em>et al.</em> 2003).
20868		habitat	eng	It is found underneath or occasionally on cobbles in shallow water less than 3 m deep.
20868		population	eng	When present commonly found under rocks, often in groups.
20868		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.
20890		conservation	eng	This species is nominally protected by Indonesia law. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
20890		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Sulawesi, Sangihe, and Siau, in the western Moluccan Islands of Indonesia.
20890		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species, of primary, and occasionally, secondary tropical lowland moist forest. It is a folivorous species that is usually found in pairs.
20890		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
20890		threats	eng	It is threatened by hunting for food and deforestation of habitat due to clearance for agriculture and clear-cutting for timber.
20892		conservation	eng	There are various nature reserves within its range. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
20892		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the small islands of Mangole, Taliabu, and the Peleng Islands in the western Moluccan Islands of Indonesia. Elevational range of the species is from sea level to over 1,000 m asl.
20892		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and disturbed tropical moist forests, coconut plantations, and rural gardens. Females give birth to a single young.
20892		population	eng	This species is abundant.
20892		threats	eng	The possible introduction of the competitor <em>Phalanger orientalis</em> may pose a threat to the species; <em>P. orientalis</em> has been introduced already to a neighbouring island. <em>Strigocuscus pelengensis</em> is not threatened by hunting as it is protected by the Muslim beliefs of the local people.
20945		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Towuti (part of the Malili Lakes system), Sulawesi.
20949		conservation	eng	Occurs in a few protected areas - however, much of area is unprotected and threatened.
20949		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia (Simmons, 2005). Occurs from 1,000-3,800 m asl (Pacheco pers. comm.)
20949		habitat	eng	This species is rare and poorly known. This bat is mainly frugivorous and possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. A single young is born annually (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Associtaed with piedmont and montane forests (Pacheco pers. comm.). In Colombia collected in caves (Mantilla pers. comm.).
20949		population	eng	It is rare to unknown (Linares, 1998; Tirira, in prep.).
20949		threats	eng	None known, however, habitat is being rapidly degraded.
20950		conservation	eng	Conservation of cloud forests.
20950		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and perhaps Amazonian Brazil (Simmons, 2005). Found between 2,000-2,800 m. Records from Para, Brazil need to be verified (Tavares pers. comm.).
20950		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and cloud forests. This species is strongly frugivorous; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. It is frequently recorded from mist-nets. A single young is born annually. In central Peru breeding occurs in July with pregnant females taken in August. A bimodal breeding pattern has been noted in Venezuela. Ripe fruits are taken in season, and insects are rare to absent in the diet (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Molinari and Soriano, 1987). Eats fruit of Aracia (Molinari pers. comm.)
20950		population	eng	In Ecuador it is common to frequent (Tirira, in prep.). In Colombia and Venezuela it is common in primary cloud forest above 2,000 m (Molinari per comm.).
20950		threats	eng	None known.
20951		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
20951		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru. Records from Bolivia and Argentina are erroneous (see Pacheco and Patterson, 1992) (Simmons, 2005). Occurs in high montane areas above 2,000 m (2,000 m-more than 300 m Molinari pers. comm.)
20951		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and forest or cloud forest. This species is strongly frugivorous; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. It is frequently recorded from mist-nets. Two young are born annually (Molimnati pers. comm.). This species co-occurs with <em>S. bidens</em> and <em>S. elythromos</em> (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Handley, 1976).
20951		population	eng	In Ecuador it is uncommon (Tirira, in prep.). Seems to also be common in other areas where habitat is present.
20951		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range at present.
20952		conservation	eng	Avoid deforestation.
20952		distribution	eng	Venezuela to Peru, Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
20952		habitat	eng	Found in forests until 1,300 m hight. Frugivorous, it moves according food availability (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1982)
20952		population	eng	Abundant.
20952		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range. Bats above 800 m are more protected.
20953		conservation	eng	Found in all protected areas of Central America.
20953		distribution	eng	Lesser Antilles; Sonora and Tamaulipas (Mexico) south to Bolivia, Paraguay, Northern Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil; Trinidad and Tobago; Grenada (Simmons 2005). Not present in highlands above 1,600 m, usually below 800 m (Samudio pers. comm.).
20953		habitat	eng	This species is one of the most abundant and widespread phyllostomids, and may be found from rainforests to dry or mountain forests (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 1989). Contrary to the general pattern observed in its subfamily, Stenodermartinae, whose members have a general preference for fruits of Moraceae and Cecropiaceae (Nowak 1999), <em>S. lilium</em> feeds mainly on fruits of Solanaceae. Despite this dietary preference, Mello (2006) listed 28 families and 83 species of plants in the diet of <em>S. lilium</em>, based on Geiselman <em>et al.</em> (2002) and his own study. There are two reproductive seasons a year in this species, concentrated between the warm-rainy season and the beginning of the dry seasons, and strong evidences of post-partum estrus (Mello 2006). Adult males present a shoulder-gland, which produces a characteristic scent and is related to reproductive activity (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are some evidences for seasonal altitudinal migration in <em>S. lilium</em> in the mountains of Argentina (Giannini 1999) and Brazil (Mello 2006). During 10 days in the study by Mello (2006), individuals of <em>S. lilium</em> used areas from 1.31 to 13.67 ha, and foraging patterns evidence that these bats are efficient seed dispersers of Solanaceae.
20953		population	eng	Very abundant.
20953		threats	eng	None known.
20954		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
20954		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Ecuador and Guyana north to Sonora and Tamaulipas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
20954		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forests (Mantilla pers. comm.). Roosts not known. This species is frugivorous (Piper, Melatomataceae, and Solanaceae) and at times will even forage on the ground for fallen fruit; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. Birth peak occurs in April to May and September to October in Costa Rica (Eisenberg, 1989; Gardner, 1977; Reid, 1997).
20954		population	eng	It is abundant in mid-elevation evergreen forest and forest edge (Reid, 1997).
20954		threats	eng	None known, however, in Colombia the habitat is rapidly being converted.
20955		conservation	eng	Further research is needed.
20955		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Costa Rica to Ecuador and northwest Peru (Simmons, 2005). The presence of this species in Colombia has not been verified; previously confused with <em>Sturnira ludovici</em>.
20955		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
20955		population	eng	Its status and population is poorly known and understood due to confusion with <em>S. lilium</em> (Reid, 1997). It is common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
20955		threats	eng	No major threats known.
20956		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
20956		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Simmons, 2005). There is a record from Acre, Brazil (Nogueira <em>et al.</em> 1999).
20956		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forests, lowland forests and in montane areas. Little is known about the species. Is frugivorous and feeds on Solanacea (Tavares pers. comm.)
20956		population	eng	The species is not rare, and can be regionally common (Muños and Mantilla pers. comm.).
20956		threats	eng	None known - maybe illicit crops in Colombia. In Bolivia, montane forest habitats are threatened. In Bolivia the species is considered vulnerable.
20957		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
20957		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica, Panama (McCarthy <em>et al</em>. 2005)
20957		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forests, dry forests, and deciduous forests. This species is strongly frugivorous; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. The diet includes fruits of Centropogon, Anthurium, Cecropia, and banana. Pregnant females have been recorded in April (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Howell and Burck, 1974; Reid, 1997).
20957		population	eng	It is fairly locally common in middle and high elevation evergreen forest and forest edge (Reid, 1997).
20957		threats	eng	None.
20958		conservation	eng	Drug enforcement.
20958		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Peru (Simmons, 2005).
20958		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. Found in primary humid lower montane forests.
20958		population	eng	It is rare and its distribution restricted (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
20958		threats	eng	Area is threatened by illicit crops and other agriculture.
20959		conservation	eng	Research actions.
20959		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guadeloupe and Montserrat (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).
20959		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species. Presumably it is predominantly frugivorous as are other members of the genus. It occurs inside forest and over streams. Two females captured in July were lactating (Jones and Genoways, 1975). It needs some native humid forest (Pedersen, 2005)
20959		population	eng	Extremely rare. It is only be found twice in Montserrat (Pedersen, 2005)
20959		threats	eng	Habitat loss, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions.
20960		conservation	eng	Maintain intact habitat. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
20960		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeastern portion of Colombia, southern Venezuela, the Guianas, Amazonian Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and across much of Brazil; also Trinidad (Koopman, 1993). This species of Sturnira replaces <em>S. ludovici</em> at low elevations over much of the South American continent (Eisenberg, 1989).
20960		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and multistratal tropical evergreen forests (Eisenberg, 1989). This species is strongly frugivorous and possibly feeds on pollen and nectar (Gardner, 1977). A single young is born annually (Eisenberg, 1989).
20960		population	eng	Widespread but not very common.
20960		threats	eng	Habitat loss in some parts of the range, though this is not considered to be a major threat.
20970		habitat	eng	A cave-dwelling species.
21100		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one protected area (Lore Lindu National Park).
21100		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from north, central, eastern, and south-eastern Sulawesi and the Togian Islands of Indonesia (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988). The type locality for this species is Macassar, Sulawesi, Indonesia.
21100		habitat	eng	This species prefers primary forest up to 1,100 m asl, but has been found also in slightly disturbed forest (areas with understorey cleared for coffee and cocoa; Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).  Records of catch outside of this habitat are probably of an individual commuting between forest fragments.
21100		population	eng	This species is generally rare, but can be locally abundant.
21100		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and small-scale agriculture. It is probably threatened by hunting in some areas.
21101		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Luoshan and Baijitanmay Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and may be present in Dunhuang and Liangucheng Nature Reserves in China, as well as other protected areas. Approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.  In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004), and in Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
21101		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring in northern China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is present in the provinces of Nei Mongol, Gansu, and Ningxia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it is known from the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, Eastern Gobi and Alashani Gobi Desert (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998).  Its distribution in relation to <em>Stylodipus sungorus</em> and <em>S. telum</em> requires further review (Holden and Musser 2005).
21101		habitat	eng	In Mongolia, this species inhabits semi-desert and desert habitats, preferentially sand dunes with shrubs. In China, it can also be found in coniferous and shrub forests (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Its diet consists of seeds, leaves and roots. It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size is 2-4 with only one litter per year (Smith and Xie 2008).
21101		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
21101		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
21102		conservation	eng	Approximately 41% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). As this species occurs within protected areas, it is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws; however, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date. It is recommended that further ecological research and the monitoring of population trends, to establish conservation measures should be undertaken. Research should also be conducted in the areas of distribution, threats, taxonomy, and habitat status.  This species has been regionally Red Listed in Mongolia as  Endangered A3c (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
21102		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mongolia and may also be present in China (G. Shenbrot pers. comm.). In Mongolia, it is known from the Dzungarian Gobi Desert, including Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area (Sokolov and Shenbrot 1987; Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its distribution in relation to <em>Stylodipus andrewsi</em> and <em>S. telum</em> requires further review (Holden and Musser 2005).
21102		habitat	eng	This species constructs complex burrows in compacted soil in steppe and semi-desert habitats (Nowak 1991).<br/><br/>This small jerboa has a head-rump measurement of 100-130 mm, a tail length of 132-163 mm, short ears and hairy feet (Nowak 1991). Its coat is sandy or buff colored, darkened with black-tipped or entirely black hairs. Hairs are buff-tipped with a white base on the sides of the body, and underparts are white. The tail lacks a terminal tuft.  Each hind foot has three digits, with the middle one being the longest (Nowak 1991). Generation length is estimated to be two to three years based on data from Macdonald (2004).
21102		population	eng	Current population data for this species are unavailable. It is most likely declining.
21102		threats	eng	The drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). Habitat degradation may also be resulting, through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
21103		conservation	eng	<em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine under category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population). <em>S. t. turovi</em> is listed in the local Red Data Book in Russia (Rostov District) as Data Deficient. The species is found in several protected areas.
21103		distribution	eng	Distributed in steppes and desertified steppes in E Ukraine, N Caucasus, W Turkmenistan, W Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan; E to N Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented: besides the major part of the range from the Caspian Sea to China there are several isolated populations. The two isolated populations in the European part of the range are represented by two different subspecies, <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> and <em>S. t. turovi</em>.
21103		distribution	eng	This species occurs in steppes and desertified steppes in E Ukraine, N Caucasus, W Turkmenistan, W Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan; E to N Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented: besides the major part of the range from the Caspian Sea to China there are several isolated populations. The two isolated populations in the European part of the range are represented by two different subspecies, <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> and <em>S. t. turovi</em>.
21103		habitat	eng	Inhabits deserts and desertified steppes. In Europe it is usually distributed in hilly sands in river valleys, and arid areas, often with trees. Active at dusk and night. Enters hibernation with first frost. Lives in complex burrows, often occupies jird burrows. Feeds on seeds and partly on insects. Reproduction is once a year with litter size of 3-6 young.
21103		population	eng	A widespread species that is relatively common in at least parts of its range. The Ukrainian subspecies <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is naturally rare. It has a restricted range (extent of occurrence c.8,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and its area of occupancy is fragmented and declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation. The other European subspecies <em>S. t. turovi</em> is relatively common, and despite population decline since the 1960s it remains abundant in some parts of the area, e.g. Tsimlyansk.
21103		population	eng	Ukrainian subspecies <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is naturally rare. It has a restricted range (Extent of Occurrence c.8,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and its Area of Occupancy is fragmented and declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation. The other European subspecies <em>S. t. turovi</em> is relatively common, and despite population decline since the 1960s it remains abundant in some parts of the area, e.g. Tsimlyansk.
21103		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to ploughing and overgrazing and pesticides affect some populations.
21103		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to ploughing and overgrazing, pesticides.
21118		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from seven counties in the states of Florida and Mississippi. Current population size is unknown. Probably undersurveyed because of its cryptic nature.
21118		habitat	eng	Pristine, sand-bottomed forest streams and rivers (Dunkle 2000)..
21118		population	eng	It is often locally common.
21118		threats	eng	Pollution and channelization along with military bases, shipyards, seafood processing establishments, vacation homes and a major interstate all interrupt this species habitat.
21119		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Verified from eight counties in six states.
21119		habitat	eng	Streams and clean, sand-bottomed forest streams and rivers (Dunkle 2000).
21119		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
21123		conservation	eng	This species is found in several regional parks, however the protection of this habitat and of the known populations of this species is  recommended. A conservation plan is considered to be necessary, and research relating to the population trends are needed.
21123		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where it is restricted to the Castellón province.
21123		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones, trunks and humus, in pinnates and groves of evergreen oaks, as well as at the entrance of caves. It is found between altitudes of 260 and 640 m and is frequent on silicon substrates.
21123		population	eng	There are no population studies of this species, but the population is thought to be stable.
21123		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires and urban expansion (housing). Quarries, extension of roads, temperature extremes, drought and collecting of shells are other potential threats.
21124		conservation	eng	The main conservation action required recommended for this species is the protection of its habitat and the known populations. Currently all caves in Valencia are protected and almost all of the subpopulations are found in protected areas (caves or regional parks), so enforcement of associated legislation of these is recommended.&#160; In addition to habitat protection a plan of conservation is considered to be necessary.
21124		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain where it is found in the provinces of Alicante and Valencia. It is only known from Vall de Ebo in Alicante province, and the southern part of Valencia province (Puente 1994; Martínez-Ortí, 1999, 2007; Martínez-Ortí and Robles 2003).</p>
21124		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones, trunks and humus, and is found in pine and evergreen oak forests and Mediterranean shrubs. It occurs up to and altitude of 400 m, as well as in caves up to a depth of 45 m.
21124		population	eng	<p>There are no population studies of this species, but densities seem to be low. The population is probably decreasing due to frequent summer fires.<br/></p>
21124		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is from fires. Other potential threats include quarrying, urban expansion, extension of roads, temperature extremes, drought and collecting of shells.
21125		conservation	eng	The majority of the populations of this species are included in protected areas such as Municipal Natural Place, LIC, Humid Protected Zone or caves (all caves are protected in Valencia). It is recommended that a conservation plan is drawn up for this species and that subpopulations not included in protected areas are also protected.<p></p>
21125		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where it is found in the south of the province of Valencia in the areas of Safor and Vall d'Albaida.
21125		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found under stones and trunks in wooded areas (pine and evergreen oak forest, Mediterranean shrubs and orange groves), in caves and the surroundings of springs, which provide refuge and dampness. It is found from sea level up to an altitude of 300 m. (Martínez-Ortí and Robles 2003, Martínez-Ortí, 2007).</p>
21125		population	eng	There are no population studies of this species, but field work indicates that densities are low.
21125		threats	eng	The majority of the populations of this species are in protected areas, nevertheless there are threats that can affect them seriously. The threats include fires, drought, urban expansion, quarrying, road modifications, deterioration of the caves, and specimen collecting. The limited dispersal ability and low population density of this species also make it susceptible to stochastic events.
21134		conservation	eng	The species is present within the Aberdare National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
21134		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the east side of the Aberdare Mountain Range in central Kenya. The type locality is Nyeri, with two more localities known. The distribution of this species probably follows the top of this mountain range. Field surveys undertaken on Mount Kenya have not recorded this species. It occurs at elevations of around 2,800 to 3,300 m asl.
21134		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense montane grassland above the treeline.
21134		population	eng	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species.
21134		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the high elevation habitat of this species. It is potentially threatened by climate change.
21135		conservation	eng	It is found within the Mount Kenya National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
21135		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Mount Kenya in Kenya. It was recorded at 3,261 m asl.
21135		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense montane grassland.
21135		population	eng	It is only known from two or three museum specimens.
21135		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the high elevation habitat of this species. It is potentially threatened by climate change.
21140		conservation	eng	It is present in the Minkébé National Park of Gabon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
21140		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from Gabon (including the localities of Belinga, Makokou and Minkébé Forest), the Central African Republic and Congo. It possibly also occurs in Cameroon, but its presence in this country needs to be confirmed.
21140		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest.
21140		population	eng	This species is considered to be quite rare.
21140		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened by habitat loss or degradation, and possibly by overhunting.
21141		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mount Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
21141		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected from Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo at 1,650 m asl. It might occur more widely in the Bornean highlands.
21141		habitat	eng	There is almost no ecological information available on this species. The holotype was collected in montane forest on Mount Kinabalu.
21141		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
21141		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The only known location is in Mount Kinabalu National Park.
21142		conservation	eng	The species is protected in the Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Mukurthi National Park in Tamil Nadu (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Detailed surveys, ecological and population studies are urgently required. Taxonomic studies between the northern and southern populations to establish the their identities recommended (S. Molur pers. comm.).
21142		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from four localities, largely in the Western Ghats in southern India - the type locality of Thrissur (Kerala), Eravikulam National Park (Kerala), Palni Hills (Tamil Nadu) and Upper Bhavani (in Mukurthi National Park, Tamil Nadu) (Pradhan and Kurup 2001; Shankar 1998). The 19th century type locality is from Trissur, Kerala state, southern India - this is near sea level and may not be the exact type locality (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has been recorded from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.
21142		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and crepuscular animal that lives in montane grassland-shola habitat (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
21142		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. It is only known from around five individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21142		threats	eng	This species inhabits a small area, and much of its known and projected extent of occurrence is under threat from habitat conversion for plantations (tea, pines, eucalyptus, wattles) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21143		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province of Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ecological and population studies are recommended.
21143		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central highlands of Sri Lanka.  It has been recorded at an altitudinal range of 1,100 to 2,500 m, with an estimated extent of occurrence of about 2,000 km²,  and and area of occupancy of around 450 km² based on the available habitat in the central highlands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21143		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and terrestrial shrew lives in montane forests and wet patana grasslands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21143		population	eng	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species. Two recent surveys recorded this species in 2003 (W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake pers. comm. 2003; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21143		threats	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, where the habitat is declining and others threats include fire and conversion of suitable habitat to plantations of cardamon and tea (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
21144		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats.
21144		distribution	eng	This species is currently knoown only from few localities in northern Borneo: northern Sarawak and northeastern Sabah (Malaysia). Its range is probably more widespread than the current records range indicate. In particularly, it is likely to be found in Brunei, and perhaps northern Kalimantan (Indonesia).
21144		habitat	eng	There is little information available on this species. It is a lowland forest species.  It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
21144		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
21144		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for plantations (especially oil palm), logging and fires.
21145		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats.
21145		distribution	eng	The species is known from three specimens collected in three widely separate localities in the Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Hutterer 2005). It is presumably occurs more widely within its mapped range (the distribution map is, in any case, highly generalised).
21145		habitat	eng	It is a lowland forest species. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
21145		population	eng	There is almost no information. The species has a very uneven occurrence through its range.
21145		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for plantations (especially oil palm), and logging.
21146		conservation	eng	It is occurs in the Ruteng Nature Recreation Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
21146		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Rana Mese (near Ruteng), on the western part of the island of Flores, Indonesia. Lake Rana Mese is at 1,200 m asl. It is likely to occur more widely on Flores, but its extent of occurrence is almost certainly less than 5,000 km².
21146		habitat	eng	There is little information available about ecological requirements and habitat preferences for this species. Presumably it inhabits montane forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
21146		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known only from the holotype.
21146		threats	eng	Habitat loss represents the major threat to this species. The Ruteng forests are under severe threat from illegal timber harvesting and conversion to cropland, owing to the high human population in the area, and all commercially valuable trees have been forecast to have been removed by 2010; moreover, numerous communities dispute the current boundaries of the Ruteng Nature Recreation Park (Trainor 2000).
21147		conservation	eng	This species is known from the following protected areas within its range - Southern India: Biligirirangan Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarhole National Park (Karnataka); Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kerala); Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu); Sri Lanka: Horton Plains National Park and Knuckles Forest Reserve (Central Province) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Taxonomic studies are urgently required to determine the identites of the southern Indian and Sri Lankan populations; the two are more likely to be different species (S. Molur pers. comm.).
21147		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Sri Lanka and in Nilgiris, Palni hills and Coorg in the Western Ghats of southern India (Stone 1995; Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It occupies an altitudinal range of 900 to 2,400 m asl.
21147		habitat	eng	This species has been mostly recorded from montane forests, grasslands and organic plantations. It is noted that it does not readily enter buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21147		population	eng	Population numbers are not clearly understood. It is more commonly trapped in the higher elevations of Coorg, above 900 m asl (S. Molur pers. comm.).
21147		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to expansion of agriculture, pesticide use and forest fires (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21148		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Sinharaja Forest Reserve and Labugama Forest Reserve in Sabaragamuwa Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population and ecological studies as well as thorough surveys are recommended.
21148		distribution	eng	This is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known from several distinctly fragmented and locations in Central, Western and Sabaragamuwa provinces. It has been recorded from 150 to around 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
21148		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, crepuscular and terrestrial shrew that inhabits rainforests in low land wet zone (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21148		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance or trends.
21148		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations (eg. coffee) are major threats to this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005)
21150		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas across its range.
21150		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of Sumatra (Indonesia) and northern Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia and possibly in Brunei). It has an altitudinal range from 920 to 2,930 m on Mt. Kinabalu and Mt. Trus Madi in Sabah, and from 700 to 2,400 m in Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21150		habitat	eng	Very little information exists on the habitat and ecology of this species (Musser and Newcomb 1983). According to Lim and Heyneman (1968) this species has been recorded from primary forest at two locations, between 1,280 and 1,645 m in low montane oak forest and between 2,145 and 2,710 m in mossy forest (Musser and Newcomb 1983). Musser (1986) reports that this species is "found in the upper part of lowland tropical evergreen forest and higher in montane forest". This species is terrestrial (Md Nor 2001). It is unknown if it is present in disturbed habitats.
21150		population	eng	It may be reasonably abundant. Six specimens of this species were recorded recently by Md Nor (2001) on Mt. Kinabalu between 1,700 and 2,200 m.
21150		threats	eng	Lower elevation populations of this species may be threatened by general loss of habitat through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
21151		conservation	eng	It has been recorded at lower elevations of Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park. There is an urgent need for additional survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
21151		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in western Java at elevations between 900 and 1,350 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21151		habitat	eng	This species is likely terrestrial and lives in tropical evergreen forests (Musser and Newcomb 1983). It probably does not occur in degraded habitats.
21151		population	eng	This species is known only from 21 specimens collected by Bartels between 1932 and 1935 (Musser and Newcomb 1983).
21151		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, which has been extensive in the lowlands of Java.
21152		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its range.
21152		distribution	eng	This species is known from south western peninsular Myanmar, peninsular Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Palawan, as well as on the smaller islands of Siantan (Anamba Island), many of the Riau Islands, Tuangku and Bangkuru (Banjak Islands), Mansalar (western Sumatra), Pinie, Tanahmasa and Tanahbala (Batu Islands), Banka, Bunguan and Serasan (Natuna Islands), Karimata Island (south western Borneo), Sebuku (south eastern Borneo), Balembangan and Banggi (northern Borneo), and Balabac, Culion, and Busuanga (Palawan Faunal Region) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It does not occur on Java.
21152		habitat	eng	This species is primary forest and secondary growth (Sanborn 1952; Md Nor 2001).  It is generally a lowland species, reaching 1,650 m on slopes of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah (Md Nor 2001). It is often found near streams and prefers moist habitats (Lim 1970; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is primarily terrestrial, though it is found on branches of trees (Lim 1970). The diet consists of insects, fruit, leaves and shoots, other vegetable matter, crabs, and land snails (Medway 1969; Lim 1966, 1970).
21152		population	eng	This species is presumably common, as there are are large series from several collecting localities, but population numbers are likely to be declining.
21152		threats	eng	It is likely to be affected by ongoing habitat loss across much of its range. It is probably hunted in non-muslim parts of its range.
21153		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Mt. Kinabalu National Park.
21153		distribution	eng	This species is found in north, central and western Borneo.
21153		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tall forest in hill ranges-lower montane. It is diurnal, primarily arboreal.
21153		population	eng	This species is naturally rare due to its narrow habitat zone. It has most likely a relatively large, stable population on Kinabalu. Other populations would be less stable.
21153		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be threatened by very little degradation around Mt. Kinabalu.
21154		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species.
21154		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Mentawai Archipelago (Siberut, Sipora, North and South Pagai islands) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
21154		habitat	eng	This species lives in lowland evergreen forests.
21154		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, but likely declining because it is forest dependent.
21154		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation due to illegal logging.
21155		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas, including Pasoh Forest Reserve (Han pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
21155		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowland areas of peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra.
21155		habitat	eng	It prefers primarily lowland forest, but is also found in secondary forests, though in declining number. It is typically found on the ground and lower in trees (Han pers. comm.). This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), but it often descends to the ground (Han pers. comm.). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin, 2004).
21155		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat, though it is not often recorded (Han and Giman pers. comm.). This species was the second most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of 3.93 ± 2.33 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malaysia. In Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 19.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al</em>. (1996) found 2.42 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak.
21155		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversation (Han pers. comm.).
21156		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range.
21156		distribution	eng	This type locality of this species is Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. It probably also occurs on all of central mountain range of Borneo, but this needs to be substantiated.
21156		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forests.
21156		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat.
21156		threats	eng	It is threatened by small-scale agriculture for strawberries and potatoes.
21157		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas (L. Heaney and P. Widmann pers. comm.).
21157		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region and is restricted to parts of the island north of Abo-abo (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been introduced to Apulit by resort owners and now poses a threat to cavity-nesting birds (P. Widmann pers. comm.)
21157		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest from sea level to at least 500 m (Hoogstraal 1951; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, it seems to be tolerant to habitat disturbance, as it is also found in tree plantations (e.g. coconut), agricultural areas and gardens, including heavily disturbed areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21157		population	eng	This species is widespread and common, even abundant in suitable habitat. It is considered to be a crop pest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21157		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. It is occasionally hunted as a pest and is traded as pets throughout Philippines (L. Heaney pers. comm.; P. Widmann pers. comm.).
21158		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range (Han pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
21158		distribution	eng	This species is found on Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra, and adjacent small islands. In Borneo it is found up to 1,400 m, but usually below 900 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21158		habitat	eng	It prefers degraded and secondary forest habitats. Three researchers have recorded that it increases in number after shifting cultivation. This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It is occasionally found along river banks, as seen at Temerloh, Pahang (Han pers. comm.).
21158		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitat (Han pers. comm.). This species was the most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of 13.00 ± 1.85 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malaysia; in Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 14.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al.</em> (1996) found 1.28 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak.
21158		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species (Han pers. comm.).
21159		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species' ecology and local threats. Additionally, further taxonomic studies may clarify this species' status by clarifying its true degree of distinctness.
21159		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region (Culion, Linapacan, Iloc, and Tampel islands) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). More recently it has also been reported from Bacuit Archipelago on Lagen island (J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).
21159		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest and coconut groves (Hoogstraal 1951; Sanborn 1952), including gardens (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21159		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
21159		threats	eng	It is found only on very small islands, where there is significant ongoing forest conversion to agriculture. There is not much forest left on Culion.
21160		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas. Pet trade is illegal, but often not enforced.
21160		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found on Mindanao and adjacent islands: Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur), Samar and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rickart 2003). It is found from 0 to 2,100 m (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21160		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a very wide range of habitats: primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, including the lower edges of mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It can also occur in agricultural areas (Sanborn 1952; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and is considered a crop pest in certain areas.
21160		population	eng	This species is locally common (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
21160		threats	eng	This species is common in the local Philippine pet trade and could also be hunted locally for food, although the effects of both of these potential threats on population size is not well know, but probably is not great (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21161		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to establish the true extent of this species' geographic and elevational distribution, and to document its basic biology.
21161		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It is found only on Palawan island from 1,100 to 1,300 m, with records from Mt. Burang-Bato, Mt. Mantalingajan and Mt. Gorangbato (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
21161		habitat	eng	This species seems to be confined to old growth, oak-dominated, montane forest at moderately high elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
21161		population	eng	This species is only known from a few individuals.
21161		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. These habitats have not been disturbed on Palawan, as they are steep and inaccessible (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21162		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
21162		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Philippines, where it has been recorded from Samar and Leyte islands.
21162		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, like <em>Sundasciurus philippinensis</em>, this species is locally common in forests (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), occurring in a very wide range of habitats: primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, including the lower edges of mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is found also in agricultural areas (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952).
21162		population	eng	<em>S. samarensis</em> is probably locally common throughout its range.
21162		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, in the Philippines <em>S. philippinensis</em> is illegally traded as pet, and local hunting for food is another potential threat.
21163		conservation	eng	Long-term protection of lowland forests in southern Palwan is ideally needed.
21163		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Palawan faunal region. It is only found on Balabac, Bancalan, Matangule, and southern Palawan islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
21163		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forest, as well as in more disturbed areas such as tree plantations, coconut groves, banana plantations, gardens (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21163		population	eng	It is locally common, and considered a garden and crop pest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).
21163		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Locally, forest conversion to rice paddies is a potential threat. Hunting is widespread, but unlikely to be a major impact this species.
21164		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.
21164		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo and several small adjacent islands.
21164		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and disturbed forests, in both lowlands and mountains (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). It seems to cope well in forests that have been affected by logging. This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004).
21164		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat. This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment).
21164		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21168		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
21172		conservation	eng	The Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP) is a broad-based research and conservation programme for this highly threatened species and its equally endangered habitats (Narayan and Deka 2002, Narayan 2006). It is being conducted under the aegis of a formal International Agreement, that was originally signed at New Delhi in 1995 and later renewed as a Memorandum of Understanding in 2001, between IUCN SSC Pigs Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (DWCT), the Forest Department, Government of Assam, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. A local governing body consisting of representatives of the four signatories and some Indian experts has been constituted to provide guidance to the Programme. The implementation of this agreement, the first of its kind in India, is being undertaken by PHCP and the local partner organisation, EcoSystems-India, with funds provided by DWCT, with assistance from the European Union, Darwin Initiative (UK government), Assam Valley Wildlife Society, Zoological Society for the Conservation of Species and Populations (ZGAP), and various other sources. The primary aim of this collaborative programme is conservation of the Pygmy Hogs and other endangered species of tall grasslands of the region through field research, captive breeding and re-introduction after adequate restoration of degraded former habitats. One of the main objectives of the Programme was to establish a well structured conservation breeding project for pygmy hogs as an insurance against the possible early extinction of the species in the wild and as a source of animals for re-introduction projects. In 1996, six (2 male, 4 female) wild hogs were caught from Manas National Park and transferred to a custom-built research and breeding centre built at Basistha near Guwahati, the capital of Assam. Five more hogs were caught and released at the capture site after fitting three males and a female with radio harness for radio-telemetry studies. The hog population kept in captivity almost doubled in 1997 from 18 to 35 through planned breeding. Between 1998 and 2002, several more hogs were born in captivity and a rescued wild hog was added to the captive population, taking it to over 75 animals which constituted over 1200% increase in 6 years. Although two more enclosures and a quarantine facility were constructed at Basistha, the unanticipated and rapid increase in the captive population created accommodation problems, forcing the programme to restrict breeding in captivity. Subsequently, a much larger facility was established at Potasali near Nameri National Park in Assam. This facility includes four holding enclosures and four pre-release enclosures with near natural habitat, where hogs earmarked for reintroduction are reared. Since the animals at Basistha Centre are the only captive pygmy hogs in the world, the second centre is also an insurance against any catastrophe at the present location. Once the Potasali pre-release enclosures were ready and the habitat at one of the release sites became reasonably suitable, the hogs were allowed to breed again.<br/><br/>Surveys to locate possible release sites in Assam were carried out, as the rapidly increasing captive population necessitated transfer of some of these pygmy hog back to where they belonged. Two potential re-introduction sites were identified in Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary and Nameri National Park, both in Sonitpur district of Assam bordering Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Habitat management and protection regimes at the potential release sites were assessed in consultation with authorities and recommendations for restoration and scientific management were given. The management authorities are trying to implement the recommendations with limited auccess. The habitat in a part of Orang National Park was also found suitable, but in absence of any reliable record of the species formerly occurring in this area, further evaluation is considered necessary. <br/><br/>The actual release of hogs was delayed initially due to security problems and later due to presence of factors that were responsible for disappearance of the hogs at the potential reintroduction sites. Once the some of the recommendations were implemented at one of the sites (Sonai Rupai), preparations for soft release were started. In 2007, 23 babies were produced at Basistha. Three social groups comprising 16 (7 male, 9 female) hogs, including 10 yearlings, were transferred from Basistha to Potasali pre-release enclosures in December 2007. They were kept in the pre-release enclosures under minimum human contact. Each of these enclosures are 2,400 to 3,200 m² in size and capable of meeting most of the food requirements of a group of 5-6 hogs. These hogs began to behave like wild animals within a few weeks and did not come close even to their keepers except in an area where they were offered a few morsels of their favourite food. They were shifted to a release enclosure in Sonai Rupai after five months, and were given access to go to the wild after about two weeks. Unfortunately, the radio telemetry studies on these hogs could not be done as the radio harness fitted on six of them while they were in pre-release caused injuries when they moved rapidly through very dense grass. The released hogs will be monitored through indirect means (droppings, nests) and by observing them at bait stations. <br/><br/>Community conservation initiatives and awareness campaign have been started in the fringe villages of Manas, Nameri and Sonai Rupai as it is almost impossible to save the species without the cooperation of the local population. Capacity building and training programmes are also being carried out for the frontline protection staff in the above protected areas.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus salvanius</span>).
21172		distribution	eng	In the past, this species was confirmed from only a very few locations in northern West Bengal and north-western Assam in India, but is believed likely to have occurred in tall, wet alluvial grasslands extending in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradesh and southern Nepal to Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan (Oliver 1980). However, it is now confined to a very few locations in and around Manas National Park in north-western Assam (Narayan and Deka 2002, Narayan and Oliver, in press).
21172		habitat	eng	The Pygmy Hog is the smallest and the rarest wild suid in the world. This species is dependent on early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as 'thatchland', but which, in its pristine state, is intermixed with a wide variety of herbaceous plants and early colonizing shrubs and young trees (Oliver and Deb Roy 1993). There are many species of tall grasses, which dominate in different situations. The most important of these communities for Pygmy Hogs are those which tend to be dominated by <em>Saccharum munja</em>, <em>S. spontaneum</em>, <em>S. bengalensis</em>, <em>Themeda villosa</em>, <em>Narenga porphyrocoma</em> and <em>Imperata cylindrical</em>, which form characteristic associations of 1 to 4 m height, during secondary stages of the succession on well drained ground. These communities are not, therefore, maintained by prolonged inundation, though they may be maintained by periodic burning. However, as they also include some of the most commercially important thatching grasses, some of these areas (including many of those in protected areas) are harvested annually and virtually all of them are subject to wide-scale annual (in some areas, twice-annual) burning. Although it has been suggested by ecologists that any burning be conducted at the beginning of the dry season (in December or early January) in alternate blocks (demarcated by fire-lines) and only once in 2-3 years, most of the grasslands continue to be burnt every year in the dry season, which deleteriously affects their floral and faunal diversity. It has been recognised that some amount of ?early? burning may be required in order to preclude the possibility of later, uncontrolled 'hot' burns, which are far more destructive, and possibly to delay natural succession of the grasslands in protected areas. However, early burning also may deprive hogs and other grassland dependant species of cover and other resources for a longer period prior to the regrowth of vegetation and has the same consequences of dramatically reducing floral and faunal diversity.
21172		population	eng	Today, this species is at the brink of extinction, as only a few isolated and small populations survive in the wild. In fact, the only viable population of the species, with a few hundred individuals, exists in small grassland pockets of Manas National Park (500 km²) and an adjacent reserve forest in the Manas Tiger Reserve and nowhere else in the world (Narayan and Deka 2002). Sixteen captive-bred Pygmy Hogs were released in Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary in May 2008 and similar reintroductions have been planned in Nameri and Orang National Parks of Assam. There are about 75 animals in captivity in northwestern Assam.
21172		threats	eng	The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, dry-season burning, livestock grazing, commercial forestry and flood control schemes; the latter as a result of the disruption of natural successions and the replacements of former grasslands by later stage communities or other developments. In Assam, as elsewhere, most former habitat has been lost to settlements and agriculture following the rapid expansion of the human population (Oliver, 1980, 1981, 1989; Oliver and Deb Roy, 1993). Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use of fire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect (Narayan and Deka 2002). A combination of these factors has almost certainly resulted in the loss of all of the small populations of these animals in the reserve forests of north-western Assam. These losses strongly reinforced the overwhelming importance of the largest and, by the early to mid-1980's, only known surviving population in the Manas (Oliver, 1981, 1989; Oliver and Deb Roy 1993).<br/><br/>Hunting for wild meat by tribes was not considered a major problem in the past but is now threatening the remnant populations (Narayan and Deka 2002). The survival of Pygmy Hogs is closely linked to the existence of the tall, wet grasslands of the region which, besides being a highly threatened habitat itself, is also crucial for survival of a number endangered species such as Indian rhinoceros (<em>Rhinoceros unicornis</em>), tiger (<em>Panthera tigris</em>), swamp deer (<em>Cervus duvauceli</em>), wild buffalo (<em>Bubalus arnee</em>), hispid hare (<em>Caprolagus hispidus</em>), Bengal florican (<em>Eupodotis bengalensis</em>), swamp francolin (<em>Francolinus gularis</em>) and some rare turtles and terrapins.
21174		conservation	eng	Javan warty pigs are poorly represented in existing protected areas. Creation of three new nature reserves and expansion of two existing reserves of importance to the taxon were recommended (Blouch 1993). In addition, surveys of the extent of market hunting should be undertaken with the objective of formulating means to regulate or eliminate the practice, and ecological research and investigation on crop damage should be conducted. Captive animals need to be administered under a properly structured plan for the long term genetic and demographic benefit of the species.<br/><br/>Efforts to corroborate and document recent reports of the dramatic reduction in the numbers of <em>S. v. blouchi</em> and other threatened endemic taxa on Bawean Island are also required as a matter of urgency and with view to the institution of more effective protective measures being implemented in the Bawean Island Wildlife Reserve and other parts of this island, especially against hunting by recent immigrant communities. <br/><br/>Currently (2008) a project to establish a captive breeding population of <em>S. v. verrucosus</em> is underway by collecting founders from zoos and from the wild. The aim is to establish a captive population that reliably produces offspring later to be reintroduced in selected protected habitats.
21174		distribution	eng	The Javan warty pig is endemic to Indonesia. Historically the species was present on Java, Madura Island and Bawean Islands; now the species is very fragmented into small pockets of suitable habitat (Grubb 2005). It is extinct on Madura (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006). Two subspecies are recognized. The nominate form, <em>S. v. verrucosus</em>, occurs on Java (and formerly Madura) where it is sympatric with <em>Sus scrofa vittatus</em>. The second subspecies, <em>S. v. blouchi</em> is confined to Bawean Island in the Java Sea where it is also sympatric with <em>Sus scrofa vittatus</em>. This species was widespread on Java as recently as 1982 (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006), but is now absent from most of the island, and is surviving only in highly fragmented populations.
21174		habitat	eng	The species occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak forest plantations (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006), with the highest density thought to occur between Semarang and Surabaya on both sides of the border between the provinces of Central and East Java. Recent data (Semiadi 2008, unpubl data) indicate that near Banjar (West Java) there is a possibility of significant numbers of animals in a fragmented teak forest and mixed local and agricultural forest.<br/><br/>The vegetation in which they occur is dominated by mixed age teak (<em>Tectona grandis</em>) plantations interspersed with lalang grasslands (<em>Imperata cylindrical</em>), brush and patches of secondary forest. This apparently provides an optimum habitat for this species. Javan warty pigs are everywhere restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be due to their being unable to tolerate low temperatures (Blouch 1993). They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest such as in Pangandaran (West Java) and Cilacap (Central Java). They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests, and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava and, in common with <em>Sus scrofa</em>, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations (Blouch 1988).
21174		population	eng	The species occurs in at least 10 isolated areas on mainland Java, although some additional, probably very small populations, might survive elsewhere (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006). For example, recently another pocket area was found in Banjar (West Java), though intensive survey work is needed to establish the size of the area and the population (Semiadi 2007, unpubl. data). There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 (53%) populations are extinct or have dropped to low encounter rate levels (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006).<br/> <br/>Semiadi and Meijaard (2004), as a result of widespread interviews, reported the species from the following areas:<br/>1. <em>S. verrucosus</em> occurs in the area between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, but is rarely encountered. There were no reports of recent kills of <em>verrucosus</em>, but some were shot several years ago. Semiadi and Meijaard (2006) considered that that a small population probably remains. However, because <em>S. scrofa</em> is a major agricultural pest, hunting intensity is high<br/>2. Pigs are common in the area between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserve of Cikepuh, and are considered a major agricultural pest. <em>S. verrucosus</em>, however, is rarely encountered, with two hunters reporting that they had not shot one since 1998. One hunter suggested that over-hunting was the most likely cause of the species’ decline.<br/>3. Interviewees in the area near Purwakarta reported the presence of <em>S. verrucosus</em> between the 1960s and 1990s, with steady declines of the weight of killed animals and numbers of pigs encountered. They now consider <em>verrucosus</em> to be very rare, the latest report being a specimen that was shot in 2001.<br/>4. Near and south of Garut several small populations remain, with reported sightings of <em>S. verrucosus</em> in 2002 and 2001.<br/>5. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang interviewees reported recent sightings or killings of <em>S. verrucosus</em>, but all emphasize that the species is now much rarer than in the past. Pigs are much sought after here for illegally organized fights with dogs.<br/>6. A population of <em>S. verrucosus</em> still exists east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis. There were several reports of recent sightings or killings. Still, people consider <em>S. verrucosus</em> to be rare in comparison to <em>S. scrofa</em>.<br/>7. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of <em>verrucosus</em> from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusakambangan Nature Reserve, including some from the Nusakambangan Nature Reserve offshore Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into many small populations.<br/>8. <em>S. verrucosus</em> is still relatively common around Subah, generally seen in small groups of 1–2 animals, but in up to 4–6 animals/group during mating season. Females with young are seen between August and December. <em>S. verrucosus</em> has not declined as much as <em>S. scrofa</em>, but one interviewee expected rapid population declines of the former because teak forests, its prime habitat, are disappearing.<br/>9. <em>S. verrucosus</em> appears to be relatively common around Blora and Bojonegoro, and every interviewee was familiar with the species and confirmed its local presence. Still, according to one interviewee, the species used to occur in groups of 10–20 animals, but now only 1–3 animals/group are encountered. Five to seven years ago, every hunt resulted in the capture of 1–2 <em>S. verrucosus</em>, or 2–3 according to another informant, but now the species is rarely caught; the most recent one in April/May 2003. One interviewee reported that pigs have especially declined since the fall of President Suharto in 1998, because then local people started to log the state-owned teak forests.<br/>10. Bawean island is the only area where the subspecies <em>S. v. blouchi</em> occurs. Several interviewees reported the presence of <em>S. verrucosus</em> on the island, but all sightings predated 2002, and the reports gave the impression that the species was now rare. A recent (<em>c</em>. 2004) survey of Bawean deer <em>Axis kuhli</em> on Bawean Island also yielded disturbing reports of the likely dramatic diminution of this species and all wild pig populations (including <em>S. v. blouchi</em>) on Bawean Island, reputedly as a consequence of severe hunting pressure following the transmigration settlement of Christian communities from Sumatra (these animals having been previously left mostly undisturbed by the formerly predominant Moslem communities; R. Ratajszsak, unpubl; pers. comm. to W. Oliver).
21174		threats	eng	Semiadi and Meijaard (2006) hypothesized that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak <em>Tectona grandis</em> forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. With the imposed regulation by the government for teak plantation forests to adopt a mixed agriculture system (agroforestry system) by cultivating agricultural products in between the young teak plantations, teak plantation forests become suitable <em>S. verrucosus</em> habitat. However, a 35-50 year cycle of teak forest harvest remains a threat for the availability of this habitat. In any case, there is extensive illegal logging of teak plantations, no doubt to the detriment of <em>S. verrucosus</em>. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops (Blouch 1995). Many animals are killed by poisoning (Semiadi and Meijaard, 2006). As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation, of <em>S. v. blouchi</em>, on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals having been previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Moslem inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian wild pig, <em>Sus scrofa</em>  has been speculated as a further threat to <em>S. verrucosus</em>, especially in areas where human induced habitat changes have favoured <em>S. scrofa</em>, though there is little direct evidence for this and the two species evidently occur sympatrically in some areas, including Bawean Island.
21175		conservation	eng	<em>S. cebifrons</em> is now fully protected by Philippine law, though enforcement of protection measures is generally poor in most areas, including many 'protected areas', owing to lack of resources and other factors. The species occurs  in small populations in several 'natural parks', including Mount Canlaon (8,000 ha); North Negros (c. 18,000 ha); Mount Talinis/Lake Balinsasayao (c. 11,000 ha); and the proposed West Panay Mountains Natural Park (c. 70,000 ha). However, the formal declaration of the latter area was eventually stymied by lack of unanimity amongst relevant LGUs and a number of separate, smaller areas have since been declared, though these do not cover all of the most important sites, nor have any of these areas been significantly better protected since declaration owing the absence of any corresponding national budgetary allocations.<br/><br/>The Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme (VWPCP) was formally established in 1992 under the aupices of a new Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR, Government of the Philippines) and the Zoological Society of San Diego (ZSSD, USA), to facilitate development and implementation of a wide-range of conservation-related activities. These include wide-ranging surveys and other field research, education awareness campaigns, assistance in the establishment of new protected areas, diverse personnel training and other local capacity-building initiatives. The latter also including assistance in the establishment of three local threatened species rescue and breeding centres (one on Panay and two on Negros) with a view to the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programmes and, hence, the accession and management of pure-bred founder populations of these animals whilst the opportunity to do still existed. The ensuing breeding programme has since been extended to other breeding centres locally and internationally, and is hoped that this will also enable future reintroductions of these animals to selected sites in Cebu and other islands (Oliver 1993a,b, 2004; Oliver and Wirth, 1997; Lorica and Oliver, 2007).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include:<br/><br/>1. Enhance management and protection of existing protected areas and/or assist establishment of new 'local conservation areas' (in effect 'municipal reserves') and/or private nature reserves<br/><br/>2. Reinvestigate the current status of this species on Masbate and develop and implement relevant conservation management recommendations for the enhanced future protection of any remaining native forest habitats and the potential future reintroduction of this (and other West Visayan endemic species) on this island and on Cebu <br/><br/>3. Implement priority recommendations re. local awareness raising arising from recent, range-wide 'ethnobiological' surveys, revealing both currently low levels of awareness re. local protection legislation and prevalence of 'recreational', 'reprisal' or 'commercial' (rather than 'subsistence') hunting in all key sectors.<br/><br/>4. Conduct (or complete) systematic (including mtDNA) research on intra- and inter-population variation amongst surviving Negros and Panay Island populations.
21175		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the West Visayan Islands (or Negros-Panay Faunal Region) of the central Philippines, where it previously occurred on Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Cebu, Masbate and (probably) Ticao Islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Grubb 2005; Oliver 1993a; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is not known whether <em>S. cebifrons</em> or <em>S. philippensis</em> occurred formerly on the neighbouring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have also been extirpated, but this species is replaced by <em>S. philippensis</em> on Bohol and all other larger Philippine Islands east of Huxley?s Line, except on Mindoro where it is replaced by <em>S. oliveri</em> (Groves 1997, 2001; Oliver 1995, 2001; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). This species has been extirpated from most of its range, and fragmented populations survive today only on Negros, Panay, and possibly Masbate.
21175		habitat	eng	Originally this species occurred in primary and secondary forest from sea-level to mossy forest at 1,600 m asl. Now it occurs mostly above 800 m asl, as there are relatively few patches of suitable habitat in the lowlands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It can persist in some degraded habitats such as cogon grasslands as long as there are areas of dense cover, though there is some evidence to suggest that pigs surviving in largely denuded areas are predominately composed of feral animals of mixed origin (W. Oliver pers. comm.).
21175		population	eng	<em>S. cebifrons</em> has been eliminated from three of the six islands where it was known or presumed to have occurred formerly; i.e. Cebu (where the species was last reported in 1960s), Guimaras and Ticao Islands. It is also close to extinction, if not already ?functionally extinct?, on Masbate, where the species was last confirmed in 1993, at which time only a few individuals were reported to survive in one location. Consequently, potentially viable populations now survive only in the last remaining forest fragments on Negros and Panay Islands (collectively comprising <em>c</em>. 6% and >4% of land area, respectively). though genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic or feral pigs has also been confirmed as occurring in most (perhaps all) of these populations (Oliver, 1993a, 1995, 2001).
21175		threats	eng	All of the few remaining populations of these animals are now widely fragmented and declining; both through former widespread commercial logging operations, continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion (particularly slash-and-burn cultivation or ?kaingin?) and hunting pressure. The latter continues throughout its remaining range, both by local farmers in hinterland communities and recreational hunters from larger cities. Both of these groups may also sell any surplus meat which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are unfortunately also often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests and, hence, a legitimate target for hunting activities (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals of ex-<em>S. scrofa</em> origin, and hybrids have been confirmed from almost all remaining population sites (Blouch, 1995; Oliver, 1995; 2001).
21176		conservation	eng	<em>S. philippensis</em> is now fully protected by Philippine law, though enforcement of protection measures is generally poor in most areas, including many ‘protected areas’, owing to lack of resources and other factors. <br/><br/>Understanding of the taxonomy, distribution and distributional relationships, threats and likely future management needs of this and other Philippine wild pig species, and hence also their inclusion in relevant protective legislation, research studies and education/awareness campaigns, have undoubtedly benefited from greatly increased local and international interest in the extraodinary diversity of Philippines endemic suids since the early 1990’s. However, much more needs to be done in order to:<br/><br/>• determine the identities and relationships of many (as yet unstudied and described) insular populations, some of which are likely to constitute new taxa; and therefore also to: <br/><br/>• identify and prioritise conservation needs and efforts on the most threatened and distinct taxa and populations via conduct of relevant (and comparative) population distribution and (perhaps especially) ethnobiological surveys, in order to: <br/><br/>• better understand and ameliorate existing or likely future threats, whether via increased advocacy in decision-making sectors, more effective enforcement of existing protective legislation, establishment of more effectively protected ‘protected’ areas, mitigation of prevailing negative attitudes through enhanced education/awareness initiatives, resolution of existing legislative anomalies re. traditional, commercial and other uses; etc.
21176		distribution	eng	<em>S. Philippensis</em> is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the Palawan Faunal Region (where it is replaced by <em>S. ahoenobarbus</em>), Mindoro (where it replaced by <em>S. oliveri</em>), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (where it is replaced by <em>S. cebifrons</em>), and the Sulu Faunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related, but as yet undescribed new species of  warty pig, i.e. <em>S. sp. Nov</em>.). The ranges of the two currently recognised subspecies therefore also follow expected distribution patters, with <em>S. p. philippensis</em> being confined to and endemic to the ‘Greater Luzon Faunal Region’ (i.e. the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes and, formerly, Marinduque); and <em>S. p. mindanensis</em> being confined and endemic to the ‘Greater Mindanao Faunal Region’ (i.e. Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Bohol, Mindanao, Camiguin Sul, Basilan and associated smaller islands (Groves, 1981, 1997, 2001; Oliver 1995, 2001; Oliver 1995, 2001; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993; Rose and Grubb, unpublished).
21176		habitat	eng	It was formerly abundant from sea-level up to at least 2,800 m, in virtually all habitats (Rabor 1986). Now it is common only in remote forests (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991). It was reported to be common in montane and mossy forest from 925-2,150 m elevation in Balbalasang National Park, Kalinga Province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21176		population	eng	Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for on most islands, particularly the smaller islands, though their present status may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest over their known ranges, likely extents of hunting pressure and other factors. As such, the species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the larger islands, are badly fragmented and declining (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species is extinct on Marinduque.
21176		threats	eng	Most remaining populations of these animals are now widely fragmented and declining, and likely to face extinction, or may already be extinct on some islands (e.g. Marinduque), as a result of former widespread commercial logging operations, continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion (particularly slash-and-burn cultivation or ‘kaingin’) and hunting pressure. The latter continues throughout its remaining range, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and recreational hunters from larger cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are also often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests and, hence, a legitimate target for hunting activities. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals of ex-<em>S. scrofa</em> origin, and incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilan and other islands (Blouch, 1995; Oliver, 1995; 2001; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993).
21177		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation, including a whole suite of legislation pertaining to the Palawan region. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced in most areas – including some designated ‘protected areas’. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation, and addition of new protected areas in key areas, if possible designed to enable greater management control by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national protected areas system. Recommendations pertaining to the management of wild pigs in non-protected areas to enable their continued harvest on a sustainable basis (Blouch 1995) are also unlikely to be effectively implemented at the present time.
21177		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Palawan Faunal Region (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species is known from many locations on Palawan mainland, and is confirmed from Busuanga and Calauit, and reported from diverse other Calamian islands, including Culion and Coron (Rico and Oliver, unpubl). It is also reported from Dumaran to the east of Palawan, and from Balabac and some neighbouring islands to the south of Palawan (Oliver 1995 and unpublished; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
21177		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest habitats (including fragmented forest) from sea level to montane forest at 1,500 m (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) in a wide range of habitats: from primary and secondary forest to cultivated and managed areas, even neighbouring human habitations (Rabor 1986).
21177		population	eng	The species remains relatively widely, if patchily, distributed. Although still locally common in some areas, it is in decline due to habitat attrition and heavy hunting pressure in many areas (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993, Oliver 1992, Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
21177		threats	eng	This species is heavily hunted throughout most of its range on the Palawan mainland and offshore islands. Hunting methods include  snares, low caliber rifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as ‘‘pig bombs’’ (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas (slash and burn agriculture). Due to the geography of Palawan, edge effects are a major problem. However, hybridization with free-ranging domesticates of ex-<em>S. scrofa</em> origin, which besets other Philippine wild pig species ,is not known to be a threat to this species.
21178		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is not possible to recommend conservation actions until its taxonomic validity has been resolved.
21178		distribution	eng	<em>Sus bucculentus</em> was described from two skulls collected in southern Viet Nam in 1892, supposedly from near Ho Chi Minh City in the Dong-nai Valley. Another specimen (an incomplete but apparently fresh skull of a juvenile male) has been reported from Ban Ni Giang in the Annamite Mountains in Lao PDR, east of the Mekong River (18º19'N, 104º44'E) (Groves <em>et al</em>. 1997; Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, recent analysis of mitochondrial DNA data (Robins <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that the light-coloured, lankier, longer-faced pigs from the northern Annamites are probably the same as the relatively light-colored form of <em>Sus scrofa</em> found east of the Mekong (Galbreath 2007). The validity of this species is therefore in doubt, and it might be a synonym of <em>Sus scrofa</em>.
21178		habitat	eng	No information is available on its ecology. It is likely to occur in forest, but possibly in other habitats too.
21178		population	eng	There is no information. It is known from only three specimens. No currently known wild population of pigs has been assigned to this species.
21178		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
21183		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
21183		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the higher altitude montane forests on the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Extensive survey effort in the Papua New Guinea Highland part of its range has not found further populations than mapped. It has been recorded between 1,860 and 2,700 m asl.
21183		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to mossy montane forest. It has been recorded from both primary habitat and rural gardens (Flannery 1995).
21183		population	eng	Although this species is known from scattered localities, it is common in suitable habitat (at 2,400 m 3-4 specimens/night caught) (T. Flannery pers. comm.).
21183		threats	eng	This montane species may be threatened by global warming. During the El Niño of 1997, there were huge fires and loss of habitat in the area of the central population, where there is continuing loss of habitat for agriculture (T. Flannery pers. comm.). Infrastructure expansion is reducing habitat for the eastern population (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
21184		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in protected areas, although four proposed protected areas could be within its range.
21184		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Halmahera and Bacan in the north Moluccas in Indonesia. The type locality for this species is the south base of Gamkunora (01°20'N, 127°31'E), Halmahera Island in Indonesia. It occurs at only three locations (Flannery 1995).
21184		habitat	eng	It is most common in moderately disturbed areas, such as secondary forest and gardens (Flannery 1995).
21184		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat and is only found on the largest islands of the north Moluccas. Intensive surveys on the small islands of Tidore and Ternate strongly suggest it is absent from there (Flannery 1995).
21184		threats	eng	Intensifying habitat destruction could be a threat to this species in the future. These threats include nickel and gold mining, logging and infrastructure development (M. Sinaga pers. comm.).
21185		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas.
21185		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including the islands of Ambon, Seram, and Gebe), to the islands of Salawati, Biak and Yapen (all Indonesia), throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Aru Islands (Indonesia). The species is present in the Bismarck Archipelago (including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland) (Papua New Guinea), on the island of Manus in the Admiralty Islands (Papua New Guinea), on the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea) and is also found in Australia where it ranges through the forests of eastern Queensland and New South Wales (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Law and Spencer 2008). It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998). In New South Wales, it only occurs at sea level (M. Pennay pers. comm.).
21185		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species found in a variety of forest habitats including tropical moist forest, moss forest, dry sclerophyll woodland, eucalypt forest, and Melaleuca swamps (Bonaccorso 1998; Law and Spencer 2008). It can also be found adjacent to heathland-type habitats. Females give birth to one or two young annually. This species roosts in colonies in dense foliage in large-leaved trees (L. Hall pers. comm.).
21185		population	eng	This species is common in most habitats.
21185		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. South of around Fraser Island, Queensland, coastal development including drainage of paperbark swamps is a major threat locally (L. Hall pers. comm.).
21203		conservation	eng	The Common Duiker is well represented in a large number of protected areas from Senegal to South Africa, and is also well represented on private land.
21203		distribution	eng	The Common Duiker is one of the most widely distributed antelopes on the African continent, occurring throughout the savanna woodland zones of sub-Saharan Africa, and in spite of dense human populations in many areas its historical distribution has remained largely unchanged.
21203		habitat	eng	Found south of the Sahara, virtually everywhere there is cover, except in rainforest and desert. Typically a savanna woodland species, but often found in relatively open country and even extends into the alpine zone in some mountainous areas such as on Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro (Wilson in press). It shows a high level of adaptability to habitat modifications caused by the spread of agricultural settlement, and it frequently survives in good numbers wherever there is low secondary growth. They have a very varied diet of foliage, herbs, fruits, seeds, and cultivated crops (Wilson in press).
21203		population	eng	East (1999) indicated that aerial surveys generally produce estimates of population density in the range 0.01-0.15/km², but that these surveys underestimate numbers of this small, secretive species by a large but unknown factor. Ground surveys in areas where the Common Duiker is common often produce density estimates of the order 0.3-1.7/km². Wilson (2001) summarizes some recorded densities of Common Duiker from various localities in Africa in different vegetation types using line transects.<br/><br/>East (1999) proposed an estimated total population of 1,660,000. This is probably a very conservative figure, and Wilson (in press) suggested it was more likely to be in the order of 10 million. The population trend is probably stable over extensive parts of the species’ range, but decreasing in areas where hunting pressures are extremely high and in marginal parts of its range such as Gabon and Niger.
21203		threats	eng	While there are localized declines in places with very intense hunting, the Common Duiker does not seem to have any serious threats to its survival. Its resiliency to hunting, and adaptability, have enabled it to persist widely in human- dominated landscapes, often in close proximity to settlement.
21206		conservation	eng	<em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> is listed as critically endangered in the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.<br/><br/>The establishment of reserves on Maria Madre Island, converting San Juanito Island completely into an ecological reserve, ceasing hunting practices, and initiating surveys and research of the species to determine biology and population status is recommended for <em>S. graysoni</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>The island of Maria Magdalena has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
21206		distribution	eng	Distribution of <em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> is limited to the four Tres Marias Islands in Nayarit, Mexico (Cervantes 1997). The subspecies <em>S. g. graysoni</em> is native to Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, and Maria Cleofas Islands, and <em>S. g. badistes</em> occurs on San Juanito Island (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). The total extent of occurrence is less than 500 km². <em>S. graysoni</em> has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 350 m (Cervantes 1997).
21206		habitat	eng	The Tres Marias Islands where <em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> occurs are more arid than the mainland (<630 mm annual precipitation), and the resulting habitat is tropical dry deciduous and moist forest (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Total length is 48.0 cm (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21206		population	eng	The populations of <em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> are declining (Cervantes 1997). In 1897, <em>S. graysoni</em> was reported to be abundant on the islands (Ramirez-Silva 2005), but an expedition to the islands in 1987 did not find any rabbits or evidence of activity on Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, or Maria Cleofas, but some were observed on San Juanito Island (Cervantes 1997).
21206		threats	eng	<em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> had few historical predators, and does not exhibit much fear of humans, which leaves it vulnerable to hunting (Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Introduced agricultural, and game species, such as <em>Odocoileus virginianus</em> (white-tailed deer), pigs, and domestic goats exist on Maria Magdalena Island, and <em>Rattus rattus</em> (house rat) was introduced to all islands, which have caused strong ecological impacts and compete for resources (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>A federal prison located on Maria Madre Island has led to increased human settlement and development of the land, which has caused habitat disturbance that presents a threat to <em>S. graysoni</em> (Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Habitat destruction has probably been the main cause of decline in <em>S. graysoni</em>. Populations used to be more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas has been stripped of about half of its native vegetation in preparation for settlement (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
21207		conservation	eng	<em>Sylvilagus insonus</em> is listed as Critically Endangered in the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.<br/><br/>The type locality of <em>S. insonus</em> is located within the Omiltemi State Ecological Park, which has been declared a natural reserve area (approximately 3,613 ha in area) by the state (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). The Mexican government listed <span style="font-style: italic;">S. insonus</span> as endangered in 1994 (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <br/><br/>Habitat conservation and management, hunting regulation, and captive breeding programs are necessary to protect <em>S. insonus</em> from further decline (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <br/><br/>Much research is needed to determine the status and conservation needs of <em>S. insonus</em>, primarily to determine its current distribution and population status, as well as research to determine the effects of threats (Chapman and Ceballos 1990, Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997).
21207		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus insonus</em> is restricted in range to the Sierra Madre del Sur, near Omiltemi, in Guerrero, Mexico (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Records of <em>S. insonus</em> show an elevational range of 2,133-3,048 m (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). The species is known from the type locality only (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <em>S. insonus</em> occupies a highly fragmented area of less than 500 km² (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2004).
21207		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus insonus</em> occupies dense cloud forests, dominated by pine with elements of temperate forest (<em>Pinus, Quercus</em>, and <em>Alnus</em>) (Chapman and Ceballos 1990, Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <em>S. insonus</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>S. cunicularius</em> (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>This species is predominantly nocturnal (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997).  Diersing (1981) recorded the following mean measurements (mm) from two collected specimens: total length - 435.00; tail length - 42.50; body length - 392.50; hind foot length - 92.50; ear length (wet) - 65.00; and greatest skull length - 77.45.
21207		population	eng	Very little is known about the population status of <em>Sylvilagus insonus</em>. Prior to the recovery of a skin in 1998 (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2004), <em>S. insonus</em> was known from only three specimens with suspect diagnosis (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). A 1998 survey, lasting approximately 52 days, within the known range of <em>S. insonus</em> did not yield any <em>S. insonus</em> sightings, but a sympatric species, <em>S. cunicularius</em>, was observed (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2004). The investigators found local inhabitants that managed to hunt two specimens and collected the one remaining skin, placing it in the collection at the Instituto de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, No. 40390 (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).  The hunting sight was approximately 1 km SSE Omiltemi at an elevation of 2,300 m (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).  A possible live sighting in 1991 may be the most recent (Ceballos and Navarro 1991). Prior to the 1998 finding of <em>S. insonus</em> skin specimens, many sources considered <em>S. insonus</em> possibly extinct (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).
21207		threats	eng	Deforestation of habitat is a serious threat to <em>Sylvilagus insonus</em>, as the forests within the known range have been extensively logged, resulting in habitat fragmentation (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). Cattle grazing accompanies deforestation, intensifying the threat (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Hunting of <em>S. insonus</em> remains a concern even after much of the known range was incorporated into a natural reserve area (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997).
21209		conservation	eng	A status survey is needed for <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em> before conservation measures can be recommended (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Owing to a lack of knowledge about the species it is recommended that research be conducted on population, biology/ecology, threats, and use.
21209		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus dicei</em> occurs in a limited range only in the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and in western Panama (Reid 1997) at high elevations (above 1,640 m in Cervantes, Costa Rica, to 3,800 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica). It occurs to 1,180 m at Rancho de Rio Jimenez in Panama (Diersing 1981).
21209		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the ecology of <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em>, but it is presumed to be similar to <em>S. brasiliensis</em>, of which <em>S. dicei</em> was formerly a subspecies (Reid 1997).  This species is most abundant in the paramo grasslands (such as those in the Chirropo massif) but also occurs in the shrublands and oak cloud forests surrounding and associated with these high elevation ecosystems (Schipper pers. comm.).
21209		population	eng	Very little is known about population status of <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em>, but the species may be common in the Paramo ecosystem and highland forest of Panama and Costa Rica (Reid 1997).
21209		threats	eng	Threats that currently affect <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em> are poorly known (Chapman and Ceballos 1990) as few people have studied it.  During several camera-trap studies in the paramo, high elevation grasslands and cloud forests of the Chirropo massif, the species was found to be relatively abundant throughout the region based on photographic evidence and scats (Schipper pers. comm.).  However, interviews with locals in the area suggest that the species was previously more common than it is today, and likely had a larger distribution that extended down to lower elevations (which have since been converted to cattle pasture and other agriculture).  The following are potential threats for <em>S. dicei</em> in the Talamanca mountain region of Costa Rica (Schipper pers. comm.):<br/>1. Coyotes - a non-native carnivore (natural range expansion south following cattle) and is likely the greatest consumer of <em>S. dicei</em> in the Talamancans.  Probably less of a threat in forested areas, but in paramo and grassland their bones are in nearly every scat found.<br/>2. Fire - lower elevations of Talamanca are burned annually for range control, but the paramos burn periodically and completely over large areas (also human caused - accidental and intentional).  This likely has a short term effect by removing forage and a longer term effect by removing hiding places.<br/>3. Habitat loss - coupled with fire is the reduction of forest habitat along the lower reaches of the species' range.  This has the effect of range contraction, as it is already limited entirely to the Montane forest areas, which are being logged and cleared for pasture right up to the park border.<br/>4. Mesocarnivore explosions - along the contact zone with <em>S. dicei</em> and humans there is intensive hunting of large mammal fauna, which has the indirect effect of increasing the number of mesocarnivores (coyotes, tayra, and other rabbit predators).
21210		conservation	eng	<em></em>  <p>The San José Brush Rabbit is fully protected on San José  Island, along with all native wildlife (SEMARNAT 2002), but there is little enforcement of this protected status. Enforcement of the protected status of rabbits should be enhanced, with a goal to stop all collateral hunting of rabbits on the island.<br/></p><p>Given that feral cats constitute a major threat to the San José Brush Rabbit (as well as other Critically Endangered species, such as the San José Island Kangaroo Rat), their extirpation is a high priority. Also, to reduce habitat loss and competition due to feral goats, the goats should similarly be eradicated from the island. <br/>  </p><p>Before any development of the resort or activation of the salt mine occurs, a full environmental impact study should be conducted that addresses specifically how these developments might impact Critically Endangered mammals on the island and outlines potential mitigation should the projects be approved. <br/></p>  <p>Given the tenuous foothold that the San José Brush Rabbit has on San José Island, future studies on their genetics and potential for inbreeding depression should be conducted.</p>    <p>A long-term monitoring system should be enacted so that the trend analysis of the San José Brush Rabbit population can be used to determine how best, going forward, this species should be managed.</p>
21210		distribution	eng	<em></em>The San José Brush Rabbit is found only on San José Island (approximate total area is 170 km²<sup></sup>) in the Gulf of California, Baja California Sur, Mexico, just north of the city of La Paz. Due to a lack of field investigations, prior assessments assumed that the San José Brush Rabbit occupied the entire island (Romero and Rangel 2008). Recent detailed, island-wide surveys (1995, 1996, 2008) have determined that the rabbit occupies only a restricted range of approximately 20 km²<sup></sup> along the southwest coastal plain (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). This area constitutes a single continuous population, thus the extent of occurrence (EOO) is equivalent to the area of occupancy (AOO).
21210		habitat	eng	<p>The species name of the San José Brush Rabbit, mansuetus, means “tame” in Latin, possibly referring to how closely the species can be approached (Thomas and Best 1994).</p><p>The area of highest abundance of the San José Brush Rabbit is characterized by a rich diversity of desert trees, cactus and bushes:&#160; Adam’s Tree (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fouquieria digueti</span>); Ashy Limberbush (<span style="font-style: italic;">Jatropha cinerea</span>); Cardon Cactus (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pachicerus pringley</span>); Cholla (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia cholla</span>); Copal Tree (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bursera hindsiana</span>); Elephant Tree (<span style="font-style: italic;">B. microphylla</span>); Goatnut (<span style="font-style: italic;">Simmondsia chinensis</span>); Palo Verde (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cercidium peninsulare</span>); Sour Pitaya (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenocerus gummosus</span>); Wild Plum (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyrtocarpa edulis</span>); a local Rue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Esenbeckia flava</span>); Desert Thorn (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lycium</span> sp.); and Ironwood (<span style="font-style: italic;">Olneya tesota</span>) (Espinosa-Gayosso and Álvarez-Castañeda 2006, Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Rabbits were observed to rest under the shade of trees, such as the Palo Verde (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).</p>  <p>The San José Brush Rabbit was found reproductively active in November. The rabbit is most active between sunset and 02:00 hr and from about 06:00–10:00 hr (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). <br/></p>  The San José Brush Rabbit shares its habitat with one of the most diverse mammal faunas on the islands in the Gulf of California, including the Critically Endangered San Jose Island Kangaroo Rat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dipodomys insularis</span>) (Thomas and Best 1994, Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
21210		population	eng	<p>Fewer San José Brush Rabbits were observed in the area of occupancy (AOO) in 2008 compared with observations in 1995 and 1996, although these differences were not quantified. In 2008 the population density of the San José Brush Rabbit was estimated to be 25–35 individuals/km² in an area of optimal habitat of approximately 4 km²<sup></sup> within the AOO. This species is abundant in areas characterized by a high richness of brush and trees species (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).</p>
21210		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>All wildlife on San José Island is protected under Mexican law (SEMARNAT 2002), but local people or fishers often illegally kill protected Mule Deer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Odocoileus hemionus</span>) and San José Brush Rabbits when they are legally hunting invasive goats (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). This activity can be a threat to the global rabbit population, although more information is necessary to document the extent of the hunting. Also, feral goats may negatively compete with the rabbits by eating and destroying native vegetation (Gómez 2006).</p>  <p>Predation by native and non-native species constitutes a threat to the global population of the San José Brush Rabbit. The most serious threat is by feral cats which frequent the area of occupancy and commonly prey on rabbits (Espinosa-Gayosso and Álvarez-Castañeda 2006, Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Domestic dogs in areas occupied by people may also constitute a predation threat to the rabbits. Predation by cats and maybe dogs is especially critical given the putative tameness of this insular species. It has also been felt that the Ringtail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bassariscus astutus</span>) may prey on rabbits, but Ringtails mainly live in the rocky hills and not in the area of rabbit occupancy on the island, thus they may be only occasional and opportunistic predators (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Several other species on San José Island could prey on rabbits: Rattlesnakes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crotalus enyo enyo</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. mitchelli mitchelli</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. ruber lucanensis</span>); Gopher Snakes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pituophis melanoleucus bimaris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. vertebralis</span>); Osprey (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pandion haliaetus</span>); Red-tailed Hawk (<span style="font-style: italic;">Buteo jamaicensis</span>); Peregrine falcon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Falco peregrinus</span>); and American Kestrel (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. sparverius</span>) (Cody and Velarde 2002, Espinosa-Gayosso and Álvarez-Castañeda 2006).</p>  <p>The most important threat to the San José Brush Rabbit is related to human development activities, in spite of their protected status on San   José Island under Mexican law (SEMARNAT 2002). Plans for a resort are being developed with an accompanying golf course, private airport and small marina in prime habitat occupied by the rabbit.&#160; This development would cause a loss of habitat (area of occupancy) of the rabbit, including breeding and reproduction sites. Additionally, a salt mine close to the area of highest rabbit density may be activated in the near future, and this facility could be used for worker housing and equipment storage. Free-ranging dogs and cats of the workers would then contribute to further predation on the rabbit (Lorenzo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).</p>
21211		conservation	eng	Although abundant throughout its range, this species experiences some pressure from habitat destruction, overgrazing, and hunting (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Due to potential loss of habitat resulting from global climate change, research should be conducted regarding population density and habitat transformation (along the Pacific coast) for <em>S. c. pacificus</em>, to determine the impact on survivability (Martinez-Villeda 2006).
21211		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> is endemic to Mexico and the distribution extends from mid-Sinaloa, continuing south along the Pacific coast to Oaxaca, including the Axis Neovolcanic and western region of Veracruz (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Its altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level to approximately 4,300 m (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Presently there are three subspecies: <em>S. c. cunicularius</em> which occurs in the central portion if the distribution (Axis Neovolcanic into the states of Michoacán, Guerrero, and Oaxaca), <em>S. c. insolitus</em> occurring in the northern extent of the species’ distribution from mid-Sinaloa along the Pacific coastal plain to the south-central region of Jalisco, and <em>S. c. pacificus</em> which occurs from the southern region of Jalisco south along to the Pacific coastal plain to Oaxaca (Hall 1981).
21211		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> occurs in tropical, semi-arid, and temperate forest, open forest, dense shrub and grassland. In central Mexico it is abundant in pine and pine-oak forest and in western Mexico it occurs in pastures, dry deciduous forest, and areas of disturbed vegetation (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). From southern Sinaloa to western Michoacán, <em>S. cunicularius</em> occurs along the coastal plain at sea level to the mountain slopes (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Preliminary results of a radiotelemetry survey indicate that the size of home ranges in La Malinche National Park, Tlaxcala, is 0.2-0.7 sq. km for both sexes (Vazquez <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>S. cunicularius</em> is able to reproduce throughout the year (Chapman and Ceballos 1990), with peak reproduction occurring in March through October (Vazquez <em>et al</em>. 2006).  There are six young produced per litter and gestation time is 30 days (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Total length for this species ranges from 48.5-51.5 cm (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><em>S. cunicularius</em> is sympatric with other Lagomorphs in portions of its range, including <em>Romerolagus diazi, Sylvilagus audubonii, S. floridanus, Lepus callotis</em>, and <em>L. californicus</em> (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21211		population	eng	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> is known to be abundant throughout its range (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It has been reported that the average density was 27±5.4 individuals/km² in La Malinche National Park, Tlaxcala, which varies according to the rainy and dry seasons (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 2007).  There have been some declines associated with areas where overgrazing, hunting, and habitat degradation occur (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
21211		threats	eng	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> is threatened in some areas by overgrazing, hunting, and habitat destruction, which has caused the decline of some populations (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It is also vulnerable to human-induced fires and volcanic activity.  Habitat reduction has been estimated to be between 13-23% over the last three generations (Cuarón and de Grammont pers. comm.).  A climate change model generated for 2050, indicated that there will be 22% range reduction (primarily along the Pacific coast, impacting <em>S. c. pacificus</em>) from the current potential range of this species (Martinez-Villeda 2006).
21212		conservation	eng	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> was recommended by Chapman and Stauffer in 1979 to be listed by the IUCN as a species of special concern due to the significant differences between it and <em>S. floridanus</em>, which is now sympatric in much of its range (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). In 2004 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service began consideration of this species to be listed as a threatened or endangered species (Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Protection under the Endangered Species Act was declined based on known scattered occurrences across its range as well as presence within protected areas (Department of the Interior - Fish and Wildlife Services 2004).  In 2006, a subsequent review found sufficient evidence to designate the species as a candidate and begin a warranted-but-precluded 12 month findings on <em>S. transitionalis</em> (Department of the Interior - Fish and Wildlife Service 2006), for which no decision has been made.  <br/><br/>Very little good habitat for <em>S. transitionalis</em> is protected, and tracts of scrub oak barrens should be purchased and protected. Conservation of critical habitat and establishment and management of “Important Mammal Areas” containing known populations, with appropriate publicity and public education programs should be implemented. <br/><br/><em>S. transitionalis</em> is in need of more research, including surveying and population monitoring, research on nest sites, dispersal, habitat, use of corridors, response to climatic change and stochastic events, effects of sport hunting, competition with other lagomorphs, and response to invasive vegetative species. <br/><br/>Captive breeding and reintroductions may be beneficial once suitable habitat has been established and protected.
21212		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> historically occurred throughout southern Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, eastern New York, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.  Whitaker and Hamilton (1998) include a small region of southern Quebec.  A study by Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated that the current area of occupancy in its historic range is 12,180 km², approximately 86% less than the occupied range in 1960. This study showed small patches of populations existing in coastal southeastern Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of southern New Hampshire, southeastern New York, western and some of eastern Connecticut (east of Connecticut River), western Massachusetts, parts of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.
21212		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> occupies areas of open woods and shrubs (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). This species is a habitat specialist.  It historically occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and the maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused decline of this species beginning in the 1960’s (Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is typically found close to streams, swamps, ponds, or lakes in dense cover with a shrub dominated understory. <br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. transitionalis</em> includes a variety of herbaceous plants, fruits, and seeds, and in the winter it consumes woody species (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/>S. transitionalis has a typical litter size of 3.5, the average female produces 24 young annually (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Adults range in size from 38.2 - 42.5 cm (USFWS 2007).
21212		population	eng	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> is rare to scarce, even in the fragments where it still occurs, and has dropped from 15-20% of skulls collected by hunters and roadkill specimens to 0-10%.  It has been extirpated from Hope Island, Rhode Island and possibly from Bristol County, Massachusetts.  Barnstable County, Massachusetts had one of the densest populations in the 1980's, but seems to have declined dramatically as of 2000-2001 (the last census attempt).  It is considered rare in Maryland (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  In the southern counties of Maine where it is found, there are perhaps 250 individuals total.  Estimated densities in New Hampshire ranged from 0.4-7 individuals/ha.  It is still considered relatively abundant in regions of West Virginia (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
21212		threats	eng	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> is threatened by habitat destruction. Urban-suburban sprawl and industrial development expand into and fragment the habitat of this species. These areas are better suited to <em>S. floridanus</em> (Lazell 2001). <br/><br/><em>S. transitionalis</em> has historically declined due to maturation of second-growth forests and fragmentation of suitable habitat (Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006). The conversion of native shrublands to other land uses, confusion with <em>S. floridanus</em> by sportsmen, and lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of this species cause problems for the conservation of this species. <br/><br/>Competition and possible hybridization with <em>S. floridanus</em> are likely to be placing pressure on <em>S. transitionalis</em> populations (Litvaitis <em>et al</em>. 2006).
21216		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumably present within some protected areas. There is a need to conserve remaining tracts of primary forest throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
21216		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. It has been recorded from the Ulugurus, Nguru and West and East Usambaras (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). It may be present in the Udzungwa Mountains, but this needs to be confirmed. It is found above 1,000 m asl.
21216		habitat	eng	This species is foun in montane tropical moist forest.
21216		population	eng	This species is common in Usambaras, and is regularly found in suitable habitat.
21216		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
21218		conservation	eng	This species is presumably present in several protected areas. There is a need fro further taxonomic studies of specimens from Nigeria and Democratic Republic of the Congo.
21218		distribution	eng	This species is largely distributed in western Central Africa. It ranges from southern Cameroon, into southwestern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon and western Congo, with outlying records from eastern Nigeria (at 2,800 m asl) and Katanga in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is generally found between 300 and 700 m asl. The Nigerian record from 2,800 m asl, is possibly a new species (R. Hutterer pers. comm.).
21218		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with primary lowland tropical moist forest.
21218		population	eng	This is a locally common species
21218		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is possibly locally threatened by general habitat loss and degradation.
21219		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas, including Parc National des Volcans in Rwanda. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable montane habitats within the range of this species.
21219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift of Central Africa. It has been recorded from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurs at elevations of 1,780 to 3,000 m asl.
21219		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of montane habitats including tropical moist forest, swamps and areas dominated by bamboo vegetation.
21219		population	eng	This is an extremely common species.
21219		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened at lower elevations by habitat loss from logging operations and the general conversion of land to agricultural, and other, uses.
21220		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. This species is present in the Mount Oku Faunal Reserve in Cameroon. There is an urgent need to conserve suitable montane forest habitat for this species, most especially on Bioko. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
21220		distribution	eng	This species is known only with certainty from the northern peak of Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. A similar population of <em>Sylvisorex</em> of unsolved taxonomic status occurs in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon. This might be a distinct species, but appears to be morphologically very similar to <em>Sylvisorex isabellae</em>. It has been recorded up to 2,000 m asl on Bioko.
21220		habitat	eng	This species is present in montane tropical moist forest, and grasslands found above the treeline.
21220		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, known from only a few specimens.
21220		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss largely resulting from logging operations, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
21221		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.
21221		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Cameroon in Cameroon. It is found from 1,200 m asl upwards.
21221		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane tropical moist forest.
21221		population	eng	This is a relatively common, but not abundant, species.
21221		threats	eng	This species has a relatively restricted range. It is threatened by habitat loss, presumably through conversion of land to agricultural use and some logging operations.
21222		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
21222		distribution	eng	This little known species is known only from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has been collected from Medje (the type locality) and Ituri.
21222		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. It has been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest.
21222		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
21222		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
21226		conservation	eng	Before conservation actions can be formulated surveys are needed, to  check, whether the species is still present, what the habitat  requirements are and what the habitat status is.
21226		distribution	eng	This species is known only from St. Helena Island.
21226		habitat	eng	No information is available on specific habitats for this species.
21226		population	eng	No information is available on current population size or trends for this species. It was last recorded in 1963, however no surveys have been carried out to find the species since then.
21226		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown, however habitat destruction is the most likely threat to this species. The island has undergone  severe habitat change, with the indigenous vegetation (e.g., tree ferns)  being destroyed after colonisation in the late 16<sup>th</sup> century.
21251		conservation	eng	About 70% of the population of the three savanna buffalo subspecies occurs in and around protected areas, including: Queen Elizabeth and Murchison Falls National Parks (Uganda), Tarangire, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Katavi-Rukwa and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), Kafue and North and South Luangwa National Parks (Zambia), Chobe (Botswana), Sebungwe and the Middle Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe), Hluhluwe-iMfolozi (South Africa) (Southern Savanna Buffalo), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin) and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon) (West African Savanna Buffalo), and Zakouma (Chad), and Sangba (CAR) (Central African Savanna Buffalo).<br/><br/>About 75% of the estimated total population of the forest buffalo occurs in nominally protected areas, including Lobeke (Cameroon) - Dzanga-Sangha (CAR) - Nouabale-Ndoki-Kabo (Congo-Brazzaville), Lope, Wonga-Wongue and Gamba (Gabon), Odzala (Congo-Brazzaville) and Maiko (Congo-Kinshasa).<br/><br/>The future status of this species is closely linked to the future of protected areas and well-managed hunting zones, since it is a frequent target of poachers.
21251		distribution	eng	The species is distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, but is now generally confined to protected areas, within which it is well represented, and other areas which are sparsely settled. In West Africa, they are now extinct in The Gambia, probably occur only as vagrants in Guinea, and the population in Mali’s Bafing Faunal Reserve is probably the country’s last (East 1999; Prins and Sinclair in press). African Buffalo are also extinct in Eritrea (East 1999). In South Africa, they have been reintroduced to areas from which they were formerly extirpated; likewise, they were reintroduced in Swaziland, where the indigenous population was extirpated.<br/><br/>African Buffalo were probably extirpated from Bioko Island sometime between 1860 and 1910 (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997).
21251		habitat	eng	African Buffalo inhabit a wide range of habitats, including semi-arid bushland, Acacia woodland, miombo <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland, montane grasslands and forest (to elevations well over 4,000 m asl), coastal savannas, and moist lowland rainforests. They are absent only from deserts and subdeserts, such as the Namib and the Saharan/Sahelian transition zone (Prins and Sinclair in press).
21251		population	eng	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 830,000 for the three subspecies of savanna buffalo (27,000 West African Savanna Buffalo, 133,000 Central African Savanna Buffalo and 670,000 Southern Savanna Buffalo), probably conservative. East (1999) thought it likely that the total number of buffalo remaining in Africa’s savannas is in the approximate range of 500,000-1,000,000. Savanna buffalo populations are in decline over extensive areas because of meat hunting and continuing toss of habitat, and rinderpest continues to pose a major threat to these subspecies in some regions of Africa. <br/><br/>Few population estimates are available for the forest buffalo. It tends to occur locally at relatively high densities in open, grassy areas within the equatorial forest, but at much lower densities in extensive areas of continuous forest. East (1999) produced a total population estimate for the forest buffalo of about 60,000. This estimate is probably very conservative, but forest buffalo populations are in decline over most of the subspecies’ remaining range.
21251		threats	eng	In the past, numbers of African Buffalo suffered their most severe collapse during the great rinderpest epidemic of the 1890s, which, coupled with pleuro-pneumonia, caused mortalities as high as 95% among livestock and wild ungulates (Winterbach 1998). Rinderpest and other diseases such as anthrax have continued to result in localized declines and extinctions of populations throughout the 20th century, as rinderpest has spread from cattle to wildlife.<br/><br/>The species’ distribution and numbers have also been greatly reduced by habitat loss and poaching. It is a favourite target of meat hunters in many countries, and poaching has been a major contributor to the recent decline of buffalo populations in many protected areas, e.g., national parks such as Comoe (Ivory Coast), Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa) and Serengeti (Tanzania), and probably in many other areas. It is also susceptible to drought, which has caused substantial declines in some populations during the 1990s, alone or in combination with diseases such as anthrax or rinderpest, e.g., in Tsavo, Serengeti/Mara, Gonarezhou and Kruger (East 1999).
21257		conservation	eng	No information.
21257		distribution	eng	Coastal habitats and lower reaches of rivers in Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Sea basins; Atlantic coast from Gibraltar to southern Bay of Biscay; in Danube reaching Romanian-Hungarian border; in Dniepr reaching Kiev. Introduced in reservoirs of middle and lower Volga with mysids brought from Don estuary, now spreading and already south of Moscow.
21257		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of marine, brackish- and fresh-water habitats, mostly associated with dense submerged vegetation but as well found on open mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs into a brood pouch on ventral surface of tail of males. Males fertilise the eggs as they enter the pouch. Eggs incubate in the male's brood pouch for about 20-25 days. Feeds on small invertebrates.
21257		population	eng	Abundant.
21257		threats	eng	No major threats known.
21260		conservation	eng	The species probably occurs in multiple protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. More information into all aspects of this species is needed.
21260		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica and northern Panama (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is only known from a few localities.
21260		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane cloud forest, evergreen forest, second growth and pasture edge (Wells and Giacalone 1985). <br/><br/>This species is seen on the ground and in the upper canopy with equal frequency; it uses all levels of the forest. It appears to form pair bonds and remains in family groups, although individuals usually forage alone (Reid 1997).
21260		population	eng	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, Samudio, and Timm pers. comm.). Occurs rarely in Panama and only in Pas (Pino pers. comm.). Observations in Panama show the populations are decreasing (Samudio pers. comm.), whereas populations are likely stable in Costa Rica (Timm and Woodman pers. comm.).
21260		threats	eng	Habitat loss may be a threat to this species.
21271		conservation	eng	No information available.
21271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found on all shores. In Tanzania it is found at 11 sites (likely to be more widespread on shore), Burundi 5-8 sites, Congo 14 sites and Zambia 5 sites. (West <em>et al.</em> 2003)
21271		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy substrates in shallow and deep waters possibly up to 116 metres deep.
21271		population	eng	No information available.
21271		threats	eng	Sedimentation is a potential (minimal) threat to the species.
21272		conservation	eng	No information available.
21272		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded as present on all shores, locality information is available in Michel <em>et al.</em> (2003)
21272		habitat	eng	It lives in sandy substrata in shallow water.
21272		population	eng	No information available.
21272		threats	eng	Sedimentation is a possible threat.
21273		conservation	eng	No information available.
21273		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from sandy substrates along the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC) at a total of 36 sites.
21273		habitat	eng	It is common on sandy substrates in shallow to moderate water depths, 3-20 m.
21273		population	eng	This species is common in sandy areas. When present population densities are likely to be high.
21273		threats	eng	No information available.
21276		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law. According to the taxonomic view of the late 20th century, all <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea </span>species of Corsica have been lumped together under the&#160; name <span style="font-style: italic;">T. raspailii</span> and were incorporated under that name in the "Liste des mollusques protégés sur l'ensemble du territoire" (Journal officiel de la Republique Française N. C. 3953 du 12 Mai 1979; this taxonomic view seems to have been perpetuated in the last update of the legislation from 2007 (<a href="www.conservation-nature.fr">www.conservation-nature.fr</a>).
21276		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Corsica (France) where it is confined to the younger northeastern part which is known as the Alpine Corsica; the northernmost locality is San Martino di Lota on the peninsula of Cap Corse and the southernmost is in the plain of Aleria. Most known localities are concentrated between St. Florent (type locality) and Bastia; a second less densely populated centre is the Castagniccia.
21276		habitat	eng	Usually, this species inhabits wooded rocky slopes and boulder scree. As a secondary habitat, old stone walls with cavities may be colonised.
21276		population	eng	There are no data on the population size (usually low individual numbers), but it is assumed to be decreasing, the number of subpopulations is also decreasing. The comparison with historical collections shows that even the number of individuals in reproducing populations is decreasing. In July 1990, on the type locality 64, partly fresh empty shells were  found by Graack (1996), but later, Ripken (1995, 1996) could not  find living specimens (Falkner pers. comm. 2011). A remarkably thriving population could be observed in 2000 on an old stone wall in the town of Pietrabugno (Falkner pers. comm. 2011).
21276		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitats by urbanisation, tourism and recreational development, road construction, deforestation, and fire; a major threat is predation by pigs living in the wild.
21277		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Tuscany (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56). The island is part of the Parco Nazionale dell'Arcipelago Toscano.
21277		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isola de Capraia (Italy). The species is indicated as occurring with sparse populations in scattered localities on almost the entire Island of Capraia. According to Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) it is only still rather frequent in one of the seven cited sites – near Il Paese.
21277		habitat	eng	This species inhabits virgin macchia sites with stone walls or stone heaps for shelter.
21277		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
21277		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are bushfires, predation by rats, intensive pasture, urbanisation, and particularly the collecting of living animals for human consumption.
21283		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.
21283		distribution	eng	This species occurs on four islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, and La Digue. It occurs up to 500m asl.
21283		habitat	eng	It lives in disturbed and undisturbed forest, plantations (such as such as "Mare aux Cochons" sites on Mahé on Silhouette), and in highly modified habitats on the coastal plateaux (for example on La Digue). It seems to do particularly well in old plantations. It breeds in marshes, pools, and perhaps in slow and fast moving streams.
21283		population	eng	It is common at many sites, including breeding sites. It was recently found at La Passe on Silhouette. This is the first record from Silhouette for nearly 20 years, and is a new site for the species.
21283		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
21293		conservation	eng	The majority of the species' range is within the Bale Mountains National Park. There is a general need to maintain suitable grassland habitat for this species.
21293		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia. It has been recorded from 3,000 to 4,150 m asl.
21293		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of alpine grassland habitats.
21293		population	eng	It is quite common within its restricted range.
21293		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock, both within and outside of the Bale Mountains National Park.
21299		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes many protected areas (eg. Mount Kiliminjaro National Park). Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
21299		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in East Africa and eastern parts of Central Africa. It ranges from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, into Rwanda and Burundi, northern Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, throughout much of Ethiopia to northwestern Somalia. Populations allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes splendens</em> were formerly recorded as occurring throughout most of Ethiopia and into northern Somalia, from 700 to 3,300 m asl. Populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes ankoliae</em> are known from the Ankola region of southwestern Uganda (from 1,480 to 1,650 m asl). Animals previously allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes annectens</em> are known only from the type locality; "Maasai land or inland" in Kenya. Thomas (1891) refered specimens from Mianzini as the type locality; Mianzini is just east of Lake Naivashae. Populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes audax</em> are limited to the Abadare Mountains of Kenya, from 2,700 to 3,800 m asl. Populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes daemon</em> are known from northern, northwestern and northeastern Tanzania and south central Kenya at elevations of between 1,130 and 3,000 m asl. The populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes ibeanus</em> occur in the Nairobi-Machakos region of south-central Kenya, from 1,400 to 1,600 m asl. Populations formerly allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes naivashae</em> occur from the Mau summit, south to Kijabe, and west to Loita plains, in south-central Kenya between 2,080 and 2,830 m asl. Animals previously allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes rex</em> are known from Mount Kenya and the Meru mountains, of Kenya, from 2,700 to 3,300 m asl. Populations formerly allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes ruandae</em> occur in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi; It has been recorded from 1,200 to 3,300 m asl. Populations formerly allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes ruddi</em> occur in western Kenya and southeastern Uganda from 1,300 to 3,000 m asl. Animals formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes spalacinus</em> are known from the valley between the Abadare mountains and Mount Kenya, and from around the south of Mount Kenya, of Kenya from 1,300 to 1,500 m asl. The population formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes storeyi</em> is known only from the type locality, Lake Elementeita in south central Kenya, at around 1,500 m asl.
21299		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from tropical moist forest and open woodland, to savanna habitats, grasslands and agricultural areas including coffee plantations and pasture areas. In some parts of its range, it can be encountered in rural gardens and urban areas.
21299		population	eng	In general this is a common to very common species.
21299		threats	eng	There are no major threats as a whole to this adaptable species.
21311		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in a number of range states, and receives international legal protection through the Bonn Convention (Appendix II and Eurobats Agreement) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.
21311		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states, and receives international legal protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection for the species through Natura 2000.
21311		distribution	eng	It is mainly a Palaearctic species, although the south-eastern edge of its range extends into the Indomalayan region. It is well known in the Mediterranean basin, occuring from Portugal, Spain eastwards through southern Europe to the Balkans, Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. In North Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisa, Libya and Egypt.  It is possibly present on Madeira (to Portugal) as there was a supposed old record, but it has not been recorded from there again. It occurs on all the Canary Islands (to Spain) except for Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. It is also recorded from a number of Mediterranean islands (Hutson 1999, Simmons 2005). <br/><br/>Populations in Japan, Taiwan and Korea are now considered to be a separate species, <em>T. insignis</em> (Simmons 2005). It occurs from sea level to 3,100 m.
21311		distribution	eng	It is mainly a Palaearctic species, although the south-eastern edge of its range extends into the Indomalayan region. It is well known in the Mediterranean basin, occuring from Portugal, Spain eastwards through southern Europe to the Balkans, Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. In North Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisa, Libya and Egypt.  It is possibly present on Madeira (to Portugal) as there was a supposed old record, but it has not been recorded from there again. It occurs on all the Canary Islands (to Spain) except for Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. It is also recorded from a number of Mediterranean islands (Hutson 1999, Simmons 2005). <br><br>Populations in Japan, Taiwan and Korea are now considered to be a separate species, <i>T. insignis</i> (Simmons 2005). It occurs from sea level to 3,100 m.
21311		distribution	eng	It is mainly a western Palaearctic species, although the south-eastern edge of its range extends into the Indomalayan region. It is well known in the Mediterranean basin, occuring from Portugal, Spain, Morocco, and Algeria eastwards through north Africa and southern Europe to Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Bengal (India), and possibly Yunnan (China)(Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is also found on Madeira (Portugal), the Canary Islands (Spain), and a number of Mediterranean islands (Hutson 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level to 3,100 m.
21311		habitat	eng	It usually forages at 10-50 m above the ground over temperate to sub-desert habitats, although it also occurs humid habitats in some areas (e.g. Turkey: A. Altiparmak pers. comm. 2005) It feeds on aerial drifts of insects including moths and neuropterans. Summer and winter roosts: fissures and hollows in rock outcrops, quarries and  cliffs. Common in some urban areas, roosts also in artificial structures, including bridges and buildings, and sometimes in the roof of high caves. The species is probably sedentary (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
21311		habitat	eng	It usually forages at 10 to 50 m above the ground over temperate to semi-desert habitats, although it also occurs in humid habitats in some areas (e.g., Turkey: A. Altiparmak pers. comm. 2005). It feeds on aerial drifts of insects including moths and neuropterans. Summer and winter roosts: fissures and hollows in rock outcrops, quarries and cliffs. Common in some urban areas, roosts also in artificial structures including bridges and buildings. In North Africa it prefers rocky habitats and is not found in caves. The species is probably sedentary in Europe (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005), although it may be a partial migrant in North Africa (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).
21311		habitat	eng	It usually forages at 10 to 50 m above the ground over temperate to semi-desert habitats, although it also occurs in humid habitats in some areas (e.g., Turkey: A. Altiparmak pers. comm. 2005). It feeds on aerial drifts of insects including moths and neuropterans. Summer and winter roosts: fissures and hollows in rock outcrops, quarries and cliffs. Common in some urban areas, roosts also in artificial structures including bridges and buildings. In North Africa it prefers rocky habitats and is not found in caves. The species is probably sedentary in Europe (Hutterer <i>et al.</i> 2005), although it may be a partial migrant in North Africa (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).
21311		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitats. Summer and winter colonies typically number 5-100 individuals, although colonies of up to 300-400 animals have been recorded. It is probably sedentary, although seasonal in some areas (e.g., Malta). It is not abundant in the Caucasus, nor is it highly gregarious - large colonies are not known in this region (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005) There are only six records for Iran, however, there have not been extensive survey efforts there (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).
21311		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitats. Summer and winter colonies typically number 5-100 individuals, although colonies of up to 300-400 animals have been recorded. It is probably sedentary, although seasonal in some areas, e.g. Malta. It is not abundant in the Caucasus, nor is it highly gregarious - large colonies are not known in this region (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005) There are only six records for Iran, however there have not been extensive survey efforts there (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).
21311		threats	eng	It is negatively affected by disturbance and loss of roosts in buildings, and by use of pesticides. It is also potentially threatened by wind farms (European Mammal Assessment workshop 2006), and deforestation affects the species in some parts of its range (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). However, none of these are considered to be major threats at present.
21311		threats	eng	It is negatively affected by disturbance and loss of roosts in buildings, and by use of pesticides. It is also potentially threatened by wind farms (GMA Europe Workshop 2006), and deforestation affects the species in some parts of its range (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). However, none of these are considered to be major threats at present.
21312		conservation	eng	The species is protected by national legislation in some of the Mediterranean range states as well as in South Africa. It is likely to be found in protected areas.<br><br>A survey using bat detectors should be undertaken to help clarify the distribution limits and population size of this species as it is probably more widespread than current records indicate. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
21312		conservation	eng	The species is protected by national legislation in some of the Mediterranean range states as well as in South Africa. It is likely to be found in protected areas.<br/><br/>A survey using bat detectors should be undertaken to help clarify the distribution limits and population size of this species as it is probably more widespread than current records indicate. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
21312		distribution	eng	Found throughout Africa, and in the Arabian peninsula through to India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region there are isolated records from southern Morocco and western Algeria but it is more widely distributed in Egypt along the Nile River valley eastwards to the Red Sea coast and south to the Sudanese border. The species is thought to be more widely distributed than is currently known and may well occur elsewhere in the region. <br/><br/>In South Asia, this widely distributed species is presently known from Afghanistan (Kabul Province) (Habibi 2003), Bangladesh (no exact location) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central and Uva Provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Elevation: sea level up to 2,100 m asl.
21312		distribution	eng	Found throughout Africa, and in the Arabian peninsula through to India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. <br><br>In the Mediterranean region there are isolated records from southern Morocco and western Algeria but it is more widely distributed in Egypt along the Nile River valley eastwards to the Red Sea coast and south to the Sudanese border. The species is thought to be more widely distributed than is currently known and may well occur elsewhere in the region. <br><br>In South Asia, this widely distributed species is presently known from Afghanistan (Kabul Province) (Habibi 2003), Bangladesh (no exact location) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central and Uva Provinces) (Molur <i>et al.</i> 2002). <br><br>Elevation: sea level up to 2,100 m asl.
21312		habitat	eng	This species is found in varied habitat types from arid areas to humid hills and valleys. It roosts under banner boards, crevices in caves, cliff faces, large boulders and rocks, narrow spaces between pillars, walls, crevices in old buildings, temples, and forts, either in small groups of 2 or 3 individuals to hundreds and thousands of individuals. It is a late and fast flyer, hunts in the air and also gleans the ground for ground dwelling insects. It feeds on beetles, moths, orthoptera, wasps, winged termites, flies, caterpillars, spiders, water beetles, and other large insects. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21312		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in its South Asian range, where its population seems to be stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
21312		threats	eng	No serious threats other than roost disturbance from human interference is noted for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Pesticides used against locusts are a threat as for all bat species found in the Saharan belt.
21312		threats	eng	No serious threats other than roost disturbance from human interference is noted for this species (Molur <i>et al.</i> 2002). Pesticides used against locusts are a threat as for all bat species found in the Saharan belt.
21313		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into possible threats to this species.
21313		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, occurring across southern and central Australia and heading northwards in the southern winter. It is known from sea level to 1,400 m, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
21313		habitat	eng	This species is known from a wide variety of habitats, including urban areas. It roosts in small groups in tree-hollows, building ceilings, and similar habitats. Maternity colonies can consist of several hundred animals (Rhodes and Richards 2008). Females give birth to a single young. Generation length is likely to be at least five years (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). The species moves northwards in the southern winter.
21313		population	eng	It is a common species.
21313		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species in the short term. Global warming may be a serious threat to this species in the future because the species is tied to temperate Australia - in 70 years, the species' range is expected to have disappeared from south Australia (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).
21314		conservation	eng	There is a large population protected in Tucuman. There is a large conservation program in Mexico.
21314		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile to Oregon, southern Nebraska and Ohio (USA); Greater and Lesser Antilles (Simmons 2005). Distribution extended to Falkland Islands. Not found in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.)
21314		habitat	eng	Occurs in wide range of habitats (Barquez pers. comm.). Insectivorous, migratory species forming large colonies with millions of individuals. In the Antilles they form small colonies (Rodriguez pers. comm.)
21314		population	eng	Abundant species (Barquez pers. comm.)
21314		threats	eng	Populations exterminated as plagues in several places in Uruguay (Gonzalez pers. comm.). In Northern Mexico and southern US it has been documented reduction in the population in 1980s. Mining in the caves in the Antilles (Armando Rodriguez pers. comm.). There are no major threats throughout its range.
21316		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from one protected area in Madagascar and is presumed to exist in many protected areas within its range in eastern and southern Africa, however, there appear to be no active conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the distribution and taxonomic status of bats allocated to <em>Tadarida fulminans</em>.
21316		distribution	eng	This species ranges through East Africa, southern Africa and a few localities on the island of Madagascar. Populations have been recorded through eastern and southeastern Africa, from around the border of Kenya and Uganda as far south as the border between Zimbabwe and South Africa. The most westerly record is from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. In Madagascar it is only known from a few records, mostly from the central-south region near to Fianarantsoa and Isalo National Park, and from records at Tolagnaro near the southeast coast (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further surveys are needed within Madagascar (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). It ranges from about sea level (at Fort Dauphin in Madagascar) to close to 2,000 m asl (Albertine Rift).
21316		habitat	eng	This species is found in both dry and moist savanna habitats (including 'savanna woodland'). It is not thought to be dependent on caves, but is found in rocky, granite outcrops.
21316		population	eng	Locally common, but patchily distributed in Africa. On Madagascar this bat is an uncommon, patchily distributed species. Colonies of this species may consist of dozens of individuals (although always fewer than 100 animals).
21316		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
21317		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to better determine the range of this species, and to understand whether it is restricted to rocky areas, or can persist in modified habitats.
21317		distribution	eng	This little known species has only been recorded from four localities in Kenya and four localities in Zimbabwe (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It is found between 600 and 2,000 m asl.
21317		habitat	eng	This species appears to inhabit arid, or semi-arid terrain, where they roost in rocky crevices, and may possibly be dependent on big inselbergs and rocky gorges (Peterson 1974; Cotterill 2001). Specimens have been collected in a house, and from a suburban garden (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
21317		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species found in small colonies. The apparent rarity might be attributed to their high flying habits and inaccessible daylight roosts (Cotterill, 1996).
21317		threats	eng	There appear to be no identifiable threats to this species.
21318		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this little known species.
21318		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in East and Southern Africa. It ranges from Eritrea in the north to Zimbabwe, and possibly northern South Africa, in the south. The  westernmost record is from the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, close to the border area with Uganda. Most records are from high altitude (1,500 m upwards to 2,500 m asl).
21318		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known, although it is believed to be associated with savanna areas containing rocky crevices and gorges. Cotterill (1996) reports that a specimen was collected in 1964 from a high rise building in Harare, Zimbabwe.
21318		population	eng	It has been rarely recorded and is largely known from single dead individuals.
21318		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. It may be threatened through the conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land and the use of pesticides in these modified areas.
21326		habitat	eng	Found on mud bottoms of mangroves, estuaries and rivers.
21328		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its limits of distribution and current population status.
21328		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Tanke Salokko, the highest point in the Mekongga Range, in south-eastern Sulawesi (03°35'S, 121°15'E), between 1,500 and 2,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possible that it might occur slightly more widely, at high elevations, than current records suggest.
21328		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest, and, based on habitat requirements of congeners they are unlikely to occur in degraded habitats.
21328		population	eng	It is known only from the type series of seven specimens collected in 1932. There is no information on current population status.
21328		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although forest loss in this region of Sulawesi has been less severe than elsewhere.
21329		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and may be present in other protected areas.
21329		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Sulawesi, where it has been recorded from a few localities, and from the central core of the island (Musser and Carleton  2005). The elevational range is from 760 to 2,260 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21329		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found in primary lowland tropical evergreen and montane forest, where it feeds on fruit, leaves, and insects (Musser 1982; Musser and Newcomb 1983). It is not known if it can be found outside of forest habitats.
21329		population	eng	The population abundance is difficult to determine as it does not readily enter standard traps. It is only known from a few specimens.
21329		threats	eng	The habitat of this species at the lower elevations in its range is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land. It may be trapped for food in the northeast of its range.
21330		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park.
21330		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the lowlands of much of Sulawesi, from sea level to 1,200 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Subfossil specimens are known from the south western peninsula, suggesting that it occurs throughout Sulawesi in forest habitat. Recent surveys suggest its continued presence at very low elevations, and in higher elevation portions of the range (L. Ruedas pers. comm.).
21330		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in lowland tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not likely to occur in secondary habitats, but it may be present in lightly disturbed forest patches. It is a primarily an arboreal species, with a very long tail relative to head and body length, unlike any other species in the genus, all of which are terrestrial and have relatively short tails (Breed and Musser 1991; Musser and Newcomb 1983).
21330		population	eng	It is moderately common in primary forest, and is not difficult to trap, thus it is represented by many more specimens than other species of the genus (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21330		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss and, in the north east, it is likely to be found in bushmeat markets.
21331		conservation	eng	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park. Further field surveys are needed to learn more about the habitat, ecology, distribution range and threats to this poorly known species.
21331		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known only from a few montane localities (Gunung Lehio, Gunung Kanino and Gunung Nokilalaki) in central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may range more widely in the central montane regions.
21331		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found in primary montane tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005), from 1,280 to 2,287 m. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
21331		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
21331		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It may be threatened by deforestation if it occurs to the south of the known range.
21332		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species will be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
21332		distribution	eng	It has only been recorded from the type locality, Pinedapa, in central Sulawesi, and is also known from a few subfossil fragments from the south western peninsula (Musser 1984; Musser and Carleton 2005).
21332		habitat	eng	It was collected in 1918 in primary lowland tropical evergreen rainforest, nothing much else is known about its ecology but it may have specialised feeding habits (G. Musser pers. comm.; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
21332		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens caught at the type locality in 1918, and a few subfossil fragments collected in the south west of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21332		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although It may be threatened by habitat loss.
21333		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the population status of this species and the limits of distribution.
21333		distribution	eng	This species is found in the highlands of north eastern Sulawesi, where it is known from three very nearby localities, from 600-800 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It likely occurs more widely than current records suggest.
21333		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest.
21333		population	eng	It is known from six specimens (plus one additional specimen not attributable to any locality), and was last collected around 1932 (G. Musser pers. comm.).
21333		threats	eng	It is likely to be affected by ongoing loss of forest, and probably is present in bushmeat markets.
21349		conservation	eng	The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mexicana</span> in Guatemala is listed on Appendix III of CITES. It has been recorded from several protected areas, among them Soberanía National Park (Panamá), Machalilla National Park, and the Ecological Reserves Arenillas, Cotacachi-Cayapas, Mache-Chindul and Manglares Churute (all in Ecuador; Tirira 2007).
21349		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. mexicana</span> ranges from southern Mexico in the north of its range, through Central America as far south as northwestern Peru and northwestern Venezuela. It ranges from sea level to 2,000 m asl, although most sightings have been recorded from areas below 1,000 m asl                 (Cuarón 2005, Cuervo-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 1986, Eisenberg 1989, Tirira 2007).
21349		habitat	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">T. mexicana </span>is found in tropical and subtropical dry and moist forest, including mixed deciduous and evergreen habitats. It can also be found in mangroves and grassland with some trees. It can survive in secondary forests and in disturbed habitats. The most common coloration is tan with a black vest on back and sides (Wetzel 1985) but uniformly tan individuals without vest also occur.                 <em>T. mexicana</em> can move, feed and rest on the ground and trees (Lubin and Montgomery 1981, Montgomery 1985a, 1985b). The females give birth to one young at any time of the year (Reid 1997).
21349		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. mexicana</span> is common in appropriate habitat. It is, however, considered uncommon in Ecuador (Tirira 2007, 2008). Population density estimates vary from 0.06 individuals per hectare in Costa Rica (Guariguata <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) to 0.13 individuals per hectare in Panama (Montgomery 1985a). Its home range has been estimated at 25 hectares in Central America and Ecuador (Montgomery 1985a, Tirira 2007) and 70 hectares in Panama (Eisenberg 1989).
21349		threats	eng	Roadkills, wildfires and habitat change are affecting this arboreal anteater, but the scope of these threats is unknown. In rural Ecuador,<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. mexicana </span>is persecuted due to the local belief that it attacks domestic dogs (Tirira 2007). It is used as a pet species in southern Mexico (Lira-Torres 2006), and indigenous people may hunt it for food in some areas (Espinoza<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2003, Méndez-Cabrera and Montiel 2007).
21350		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tetradactyla</span> is present in a number of protected areas. Further systematic studies on <span style="font-style: italic;">T. tetradactyla </span>are needed to investigate population densities and dynamics in different parts of its range.
21350		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tetradactyla</span> is found to the east of the Andes from Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad Island, and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname), south to northern Uruguay and northern Argentina. It ranges from sea level to 2,000 m asl (Emmons and Feer 1990).
21350		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tetradactyla</span> is adaptable to a variety of habitats, including gallery forests adjacent to savannas, and lowland and montane moist tropical rain forest (Eisenberg 1989). Typically, this solitary species has pale tan or golden fur with a black vest, but uniformly tan to black coloration also occurs (Wetzel 1985). It mainly feeds on ants and termites, but also attacks bees nests to eat honey (Emmons and Feer 1990). The female gives birth to a single young once per year (Silveira 1968).
21350		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tetradactyla</span> is a relatively common species.
21350		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this small anteater, although in some portions of its range it is hunted for meat, by domestic dogs, or sold as a pet species (Aguiar and Fonseca 2008; Noss <em>et al.</em> 2008; D.A. Meritt Jr. pers. comm. 2010). Habitat loss and degradation, wildfires, and road traffic represent a threat in some areas. In Uruguay, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. tetradactyla</span> is affected by habitat loss due to the increase in eucalyptus plantations (A. Fallabrino pers. comm. 2010).
21352		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Malili Lakes in Sulawesi.
21355		conservation	eng	Almost all of the area encompassed by the Spring Mountains is managed by the Bureau of Land Management or United States Forest Service; most of the chipmunk habitat appears to be on Forest Service lands.
21355		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Spring Mountains (and mostly confined to Mount Charleston), Clarke County, southwestern Nevada in the United States. These mountains are surrounded by deserts that limit the distribution of this species. The species occurs mostly on one peak of a small mountain range in Nevada. The Nevada Gap Analysis Project data indicate the area of the entire range to be 2,126 km². It occurs at elevations of 2,100-3,600 m asl (most abundant at 2,400-2,550 m asl).
21355		habitat	eng	This chipmunk inhabits coniferous forests, from the yellow pine belt to the timber line (Hall 1946); it rarely ventures far from shelter among large rocks, logs, or cliff crevices. Habitats include white fir-Ponderosa pine, single-leaf pinyon-Utah juniper, mountain mahogany-manzanita, and bristlecone pine. Dens are typically on or near the ground but sometimes it nests in trees (e.g., in cavities made by woodpeckers). It may associate preferentially with water sources.<br/><br/>Mating occurs probably in April and early May; births occur in late May in June; gestation lasts at least 33 days; litter size usually 3-6; young first emerge in June, continue to appear through August (Best 1993).<br/><br/>This species is generally secretive and highly mobile; may habituate to humans (Best 1993). Diet includes seeds, fruits, fleshy fungi, green vegetation, and insects; conifer seeds are a primary food source.
21355		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant, but is very limited in distribution. The total adult population size is unknown. This species is represented by at least several localities in one mountain range (Museum of Vertebrate Zoology specimen data, Nevada Division of Wildlife 1996). Density is often a few to several individuals per hectare (a few hundred to several hundred per square kilometer) (Nevada Division of Wildlife 1996). <br/><br/>Available information suggests that extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined by more than 10 percent over the past 10 years or three generations.
21355		threats	eng	Water diversion is reducing the available riparian habitat; campgrounds and woodcutting are reducing available habitat; feral dogs and cats are increasing mortality through predation (G. Clemmer pers. comm., 1995). However, the degree to which these factors have affected chipmunk populations is unknown. The range is being encroached upon by urban sprawl and development associated with Las Vegas.
21356		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
21356		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre in south Durango, west Zacatecas, and north Jalisco (Mexico) (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevation of 2,400 to 2,610 m (Bartig <em>et al.</em> 1993).
21356		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas with rather dry climate; it can be found in upper slopes of mountains primarily covered with forest of pine (<em>Pinus</em>) and oak (<em>Quercus</em>) with scattered pinabete (<em>Abies religiosa</em>). At lower levels in the upper Sonoran zone, oaks, many shrubs (including manzanita, <em>Arctostaphylos pungens</em>), several species of mountain mohagony (<em>Cercocarpus</em>), and <em>Ceanothus</em> become dominant. <br/><br/>This species has been observed foraging on small flowers in an oak tree (<em>Quercus</em>), and eating juniper (<em>Juniperus</em>) seeds and one was chewing on the new growth at the tip of a pine (<em>Pinus</em>) branch (Bartig <em>et al.</em> 1993). A female captured in June had three embryos, and other captured in July had two. Lactating females occurred in June and July. This suggests that breeding may begin as early as January (Bartig <em>et al</em>. 1993).
21356		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (high elevation pine forest) within its range.
21356		threats	eng	This species is restricted to high elevation pine forest and scrub. It is threatened by intensive loss of habitat due to timber extraction throughout its range.
21357		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
21357		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwest Chihuahua to west-central Durango, and in southeast Coahuila (Mexico) (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevations of 1,950 to 2,550 m (Best <em>et al.</em> 1993).
21357		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas with dry climate, although heavy rains are frequent during summer and some snow falls on upper slopes in winter as late as May. Upper slopes of the mountains primarily are covered with forests of pine (<em>Pinus</em>), and oak (<em>Quercus</em>) with scattered pinabete (<em>Abies</em> <em>religiosa</em>), Douglas fir (<em>Pseudotsuga</em> <em>menziesii</em>), and quarking aspen (<em>Populus</em> <em>tremuloides</em>). At lower levels in the upper Sonoran zone, oaks and many shrubs become dominant. <br/><br/>This species has been observed feeding on pine nuts and on a large, green oak. The sex ratio was 8 males : 19 females. Litter size is two to four; pregnant females have been recorded in May, June and July. Lactating females were observed in June, July and August (Best <em>et al.</em> 1993)
21357		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.
21357		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
21358		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
21358		distribution	eng	Southwestern United States and adjoining Mexico. It is limited to three counties in California  (Kern, San Bernardino, and San Mateo) and a small area of northern Baja California.
21358		habitat	eng	Typically prefers brushy habitats, such as extensive chaparral-covered slopes mixed with pine and oak forests, pinon and juniper, or thickets along streamsides and around rock outcroppings.
21358		population	eng	Common, although somewhat restricted in distribution.
21358		threats	eng	None known.
21359		conservation	eng	The three Mexican populations are in protected areas and parts of the species' range in California are in protected areas.
21359		distribution	eng	Southwestern United States and Mexico, but limited to the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains of California and to the mountains of northern Baja California. Distributed in a series of at least four disjunct populations.
21359		habitat	eng	Typically occurs in arid to semi-arid habitats in association with pinyon pine (<em>Pinus monophylla</em>) and juniper (<em>Juniperus californicus</em>), with some scrub oak (<em>Quercus chrysolepsis</em>) and yucca (<em>Yucca brevifolia</em>), cactus (<em>Opuntia</em>), rabbitbrush (<em>Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus</em>), and sage (<em>Artemesia tridentate</em>) in the understory, and rocky ground cover (Best and Granai 1994).<br/><br/>This squirrel is particularly active during late summer, from early to mid-morning and from mid- to late-afternoon, especially when pinyon nuts are available. Pinyon pine nuts are the primary food during the late summer months, and chipmunks may be found during the daytime climbing the pines in search of nuts (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species eats a variety of seeds, fruits, and flowers, but captive specimens refused to eat insects and meat (Best and Granai 1994). In California, it has been reported that T. <em>obscurus</em> may have more than two litters of three or four young each per year. It uses burrows with entrances protected by large boulders (Best and Granai 1994). <br/><br/>In Baja California Sur, Mexico, this species is associated with two oasises where they consume the small crops in the area. Where plantations have been abandoned, the populations have disappeared. They use the cardon cactus (<em>Pachycereus pingleyi</em>) as nest sites.
21359		population	eng	Locally abundant and common, although in a small, fragmented range.<br/><br/>The populations in Baja California Sur, Mexico are very small with two subpopulations in the same locality.
21359		threats	eng	Its range is restricted and fragmented. The rarity of the species in Baja California Sur makes it a trophy pet.
21360		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
21360		conservation	eng	No special measures applied.
21360		distribution	eng	Most of the range is in Asia. N European and Siberian Russia to Sakhalin; S Kurile Isls (Russia); extreme E Kazakhstan to N Mongolia, China, Korea, and Hokkaido (Japan). Introduced into Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy (Amori 1999).
21360		distribution	eng	Most of the range of this species is in Asia. It occurs from northern European and Siberian Russia to Sakhalin, extreme eastern Kazakhstan to northern Mongolia, northwest and central China extending to northeast China (Smith and Xie, in press), Korea, and in Japan from Hokkaido, Iturup, Kunashir, Rishiri, Rebun, Teuri, and Yagishiri (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In Japan the species has been introduced on Honshu at one confirmed locality, Karuizawa. It is also introduced in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy (Amori 1999). In Mongolia it is known from forested areas of northern Mongolia, including Hangai, Hövsgöl, Hentii and Mongol Altai mountain ranges (Mallon, 1985).
21360		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits coniferous and mixed forests with a rich undergrowth of berry-bearing shrubs, as well as steppe and open areas. It occurs from the coast up in to mountains up to the tree line. It climbs trees, but lives in simple shallow burrows underground. Summer nests are in stumps, fallen trees, sometimes in low hollows. Usually the burrows consist of two big chambers, nest and larder, and small chambers used as a lavatory. These burrows can become up to 9 m in length, and each chipmunk 'owns' one burrow. Complex voice communication is characteristic to the species. It hibernates in winter. Short and long distance migrations have been registered during years with a poor harvest of Siberian pine nuts. It feeds on various seeds, mainly on Siberian pine, but their diet also includes seeds of other coniferous and deciduous trees and herbs. In spring and summer it consumes herb shoots; and sometimes can eat insects and molluscs. From August onward it stores up food for winter, storage mass usually 3-4 kg. It reproduces after leaving hibernation, in April-May. It is diurnal with most activity being in the morning. In Mongolia they do not hibernate during bad weather but do go into torpor, awakening occasionally to feed from their cache. They rarely become pests and if they do they are easy to control.
21360		habitat	eng	Typically inhabits coniferous and mixed forests with a rich undergrowth of berry-bearing shrubs. In mountains occurs up to the tree line. Climbs trees, but lives in simple shallow burrows. Summer nests are in stumps, fallen trees, sometimes in low hollows. Usually burrows consist of two big chambers, nest and larder, and small chambers used as a lavatory. Complex voice communication is characteristic to the species. Hibernates in winter. Short and long distance migrations have been registered during years with a poor harvest of Siberan pine nuts. Feeds on various seeds, mainly on Siberian pine, but diet also includes seeds of other coniferous and deciduous trees and herbs. In spring and summer consumes herb shoots; sometimes can eat insects and molluscs. From August onward stores up food for winter, storage mass usually 3-4 kg. Reproduces after leaving hibernation, in April-May.
21360		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant across its range. It is expanding in Europe in the boreal forest zone, and has reached Vodlo Lake (Karelia) in Russia (H. Henttonnen pers. comm. 2006).
21360		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant alcross its range. It is expanding in Europe in the boreal forest zone, and has reached Vodlo Lake (Karelia) (H. Henttonnen pers. comm. 2006).
21360		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
21360		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In Mongolia, hunting for the international trade in skins once occurred at high levels, and between 1958 and 1960 it was estimated that 2,600 to 4,400 individuals were killed annually (Stubbe, 1965). This activity is now believed to have ceased and at present the dominant threat to this species is human-caused and natural wildfires in some parts of its range. In Japan, there is suspected hybridization of native <em>T. s. lineatus</em> with feral continental individuals on Hokkaido, especially in urban areas, e.g. Sapporo (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005); this is exacerbated by the importation of squirrels from Korea and the mainland for pet shops.
21364		conservation	eng	In New Mexico, this species occurs on Lincoln National Forest, McGregor Range, and Carlsbad Caverns National Park. In Texas, habitat is protected in the Guadalupe Mountains National Park.
21364		distribution	eng	The species' range includes the Gallinas, Sacramento, Jicarilla, Capitan, White (= Sierra Blanca), and Guadalupe mountains, Sierra Diablo, and Carrizozo Malpais lava flow in the Tularosa Valley in southeastern New Mexico and southwestern Texas in the United States (Best <em>et al.</em> 1992, Frey 2004, Schmidly 2004). In Texas, this species occurs at elevations of 1,800-2,500 m asl (Schmidly 2004). The elevational range in New Mexico extends as low as about 1,600 m asl and as high as around 3,600 m asl.
21364		habitat	eng	Primarily forest-dwelling and found on rocky slopes with cover provided by rocks, shrubs, or trees. Habitats include coniferous forests (spruce, fir, Douglas-fir), dense mixed oak/pine/fir forests, pinyon-juniper woodland, and brushy hillsides with rocky crevices. In Texas, gray-footed chipmunks occur only in higher-elevation forests and brushy hillsides (Schmidly 2004). These chipmunks are most numerous among or near the cover of logs and rocks, etc. They climb and perch on logs, rocks, cliffs, and woody plants. Nests often are in cavities of downed timber; sometimes underground among roots of decaying stumps (see Best <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Young are born apparently from mid-May through August. Diet includes acorns, seeds, mushrooms, small fruits, some herbaceous vegetation and insects. Known to feed on Douglas-fir seed. Climbs into oaks to collect acorns. Relatively inactive in winter, especially when snow is deep.
21364		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant within a restricted range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Except for <em>Peromyscus</em>, this is the most common mammal in the Guadalupe Mountains.<br/>This species occurs in dozens of locations in several mountain ranges (Schmidly 2004). Trend of population is unknown, but existing information does not indicate a decline. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined much if at all.
21364		threats	eng	Small populations may be vulnerable to massive fires (Schmidly 2004), but no major threats have been identified.
21378		conservation	eng	Part of its range is within the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park.
21378		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir Mountains, Baja California Norte, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is found between 2,100 m and 2,400 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
21378		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is endemic to high elevation pine and fir forests, and apparently nests in standing dead trees.
21378		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It apparently exists in low densities.
21378		threats	eng	This species habitat is threatened by timber removal, grazing, wildfire, and competition with introduced (1940s) <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em>.
21379		conservation	eng	The species occurs in numerous protected areas (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). In South Asia, surveys, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21379		distribution	eng	This widespread squirrel has been recorded from northeastern South Asia, southern China and much of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from Bhutan, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]) and Nepal where it widely distributed up to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar, through much of Thailand, western Cambodia, northern Viet Nam, western Lao PDR and northern Peninsular Malaysia. There is a recent published record from Sumatra (Indonesia), but this is considered erroneous.
21379		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats with trees, including secondary growth forest, scrub forest, and gardens. It is highly adaptable to habitat degradation. They are also found in association with humans in fruit trees and coconut palm plantations (Smith and Xie 2008).
21379		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally abundant throughout its range. It is generally resistant to hunting pressure and habitat degradation (Duckworth and Tizard pers. comm.).
21379		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. In South Asia, habitat loss due to forest fire, encroachments, fragmentation, jhuming (slash and burn agriculture) and hunting are threats for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21380		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
21380		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Lao PDR and Viet Nam east of the Mekong. It also occurs exstensively in south and east China, Hainan island, and Taiwan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are four subspecies in China: <em>T. m. bopinglingensis</em>, Hong and Wang, 1984, which occurs in Fujian; <em>T. m. formosanus</em> (Bonhote, 1900) recorded from Taiwan; <em>T. m. hainanus</em>, Allen, 1906, from Hainan island, Guangxi, and south Yunnan; <em>T. m. maritimus</em> (Bonhote, 1900) from Fujian.
21380		habitat	eng	This is a relatively low altitude species occupying the south eastern coastal region of China. In Taiwan, however, it is most common at elevations between 2,000-3,000 m. On mainland China it occurs in two general forest types, evergreen broad-leaved forest with evergreen oaks, laurels and <em>Pinus massoniana</em> in secondary stands, and mixed mesophytic forest (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Diet includes the very specialized habit of robbing nectar from ginger plants (<em>Alpina kwangsiensis</em>). It is highly arboreal, it is known to make long leaps between trees. Its characteristic vocalization sounds like a “cluck” or short “chirrup.
21380		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its range.
21380		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
21381		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas.
21381		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Viet Nam, southern Lao PDR, Cambodia and eastern Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).<br/>This species appears to become rare or absent northwest of a line from 18°00'N, 104°10'E to 18°30'N, 105°00'E (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000).
21381		habitat	eng	This species is found in nearly every habitat with trees, including secondary growth forest, scrub forest, and gardens. Like <em>T. mcclellandii</em>, this species uses holes in trees for shelter and travels by jumping long distances between trees (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).
21381		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat. This species is common in evergreen or semi-evergreen forest, but less common where the forest is degraded or includes mixed deciduous components (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000).
21381		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species.
21382		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jiyuanmihou, Jigongshan (Xinyang), Neixiangbaotianman, Shennongjia, Shimenhupingshan, Suoxiyu, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan, Zhujiashan, Nanjingnanyaredaiyulin (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
21382		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution, occurring in central China southwards to northern Myanmar, and northern Viet Nam (Smith and Xie 2008). It may occur in Lao PDR, but no records have been confirmed (Duckworth and Lunde 2004). Its range does not significantly overlap the range of <em>T. mcclellandi</em>, but where it does there is altitudinal differentiation (<em>T. swinhoei</em>: 2,500-3,000 m asl and <em>T. mcclellandi</em>: 300-600 m asl) (Smith and Xie 2008). This species occupies elevations ranging from 1,000 (Duckworth and Lunde 2004) up to 3,900 m asl (Li <em>et al.</em> 2006).
21382		habitat	eng	It is found in nearly any habitat with trees, including secondary growth forest, scrub forest, and gardens. It is an arboreal species that occupies holes in trees (Smith and Xie 2008). It is primarily crepuscular in nature (Smith and Xie 2008).
21382		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat.
21382		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21386		conservation	eng	No information available.
21386		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC) at over 30 sites.
21386		habitat	eng	It lives in silty and sandy substrates, 5-25 m deep.
21386		population	eng	This species is common in sandy areas. When present population densities are likely to be high.
21386		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
21452		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Hillsborough National Park in Australia, where populations have recently declined, as well as several other coastal and island national parks. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites and foraging habitat for this species. Further studies are also needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to the species.
21452		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Australia and Papua New Guinea. In Australia it is generally restricted to coastal areas in northern and eastern Queensland, and the Torres Strait Islands (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Richards 2008). In Papua New Guinea it is known only from three records. It has been collected in Port Moresby and along the Lower Strickland River (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It ranges between sea level and 300 m asl. <br/><br/>The records from the Lower Strickland River in Papua New Guinea are from two registered specimens in the Australian Museum that were collected in the late 1800s by the Royal Geographical Society Expedition in New Guinea, without a definite locality assigned to them. Flannery (1995) assumed that they are likely from the Lower Strickland River due to the habitat there, and Bonaccorso (pers. comm.) agrees that geography and habitat suggest that this species should occur there.
21452		habitat	eng	This species forages in areas of coastal dune scrubland and paperbark swamps. It roosts in sea caves, rocky areas, crevices, boulder piles, and old buildings. Most roosts consist of a few individuals, although large colonies exist in more extensive caves (Bonaccorso 1998; Richards 2008).
21452		population	eng	It appears to be a generally uncommon species, but with patchy densities across the range. Total population size is probably less than 10,000 mature individuals.
21452		threats	eng	In Australia this species is potentially threatened by loss of foraging habitats through sand mining activities, coastal development, and by disturbance of roosting sites (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Some population declines have been observed, but the magnitude of these is likely small at present (L. Hall pers. comm.).
21453		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether other <em>Taphozous</em> populations currently included in <em>T. melanopogon</em> may actually represent <em>T. achates</em>.
21453		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia from Nusa Penida eastwards to the Kai Islands (including Savu, Rote, Semau, and possibly Timor).
21453		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal and lowland areas, below 1,000 m asl, the precise altitudinal range is unknown (Simmons 2005). This bat roosts in caves and it has been found roosting with <em>Hipposideros cervinus</em>, <em>Emballonura alecto</em>, <em>Miniopterus australis</em>, <em>Myotis stalkeri</em> and <em>Rhinolophus euryotis</em> in the Kai Islands. Two females from a cave examined in mid-June were not lactating (Flannery 1995).
21453		population	eng	The population status and trend is unknown. It has recently been separated as a distinct species, and is still known only from a few localities (Simmons 2005).
21453		threats	eng	Major threats for this species are unknown. Future threats include human disturbance (using caves as shelters for animals) and limestone extraction.
21454		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed for final clarification about its distribution (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
21454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern and western Australia. It is present on a number of offshore islands. Recent genetic analyses suggest that the distribution of this species is confined to west of around Mount Isa, west Queensland, and that the populations to the east are <em>Taphozous troughtoni</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
21454		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitats where there are rocky areas. It roosts in crevices, caves, and similar habitats. In general it is found roosting as solitary individuals or in small groups, however, colonies of up to 100 animals have been recorded (Jolly <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females generally give birth to a single young.
21454		population	eng	It is a common species (Jolly <em>et al.</em> 2008).
21454		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
21455		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. It probably occurs in some protected areas. The distribution and ecological requirements of this species require further investigation.
21455		distribution	eng	Hamilton's tomb bat is not well known, and there are very few records. It is known mainly from east Africa (including records from Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania), and there is one additional record from southern Chad (African Chiroptera Report 2006).
21455		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from savanna, and from mountainous areas, but very little is known. It might be be a cave-dependent species.
21455		population	eng	There is no information, as there are few records of this species.
21455		threats	eng	The threats facing this species are unknown. It could be declining due to habitat loss through agriculture, but the data to confirm this are lacking.
21456		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in some protected areas, but stricter conservation of roosting and nesting sites is needed. Research into the cultural importance of the species is being carried out.
21456		distribution	eng	Hildegarde's tomb bat is found on Pemba and Zanzibar islands (Tanzania), and along the coast of south-east Kenya and north-east Tanzania (from the Lower Tana River south to Dar es Salaam). It has so far been recorded from fewer than ten coastal localities, but is probably present in some places where it has not yet been discovered. It is present in suitable throughout the year, with no migration reported, but local movement of populations has been noted. The two central Kenya records collected by Harrison (1962), are questioned due to their location by Kock (1974), as these points are not along the East African coast. The questioned locations do, however, coincide with coastal vegetation along the Tana River, which could afford this species suitable habitat (Colket and Wilson 1998).
21456		habitat	eng	Hildegarde's tomb bat is a cave-dependent species associated with tropical dry forest, with a very restricted coastal range. It is a diurnal bat, often cohabiting with Coleura afra.  It is insectivorous, feeding on Orthoptera and Lepidoptera.
21456		population	eng	There are no overall population estimates. However, during a survey in Kenya and Tanzania in 1988, population estimates from three caves surveyed yielded more than 1,500 individuals (1,000+, 300+, 130+) (Susan M. Pont, pers. obs.). It seems to be relatively common in caves. It is probably declining due to loss of habitat, and disturbance of cave sites.
21456		threats	eng	Disturbance of the caves on which it depends, and loss of forest habitat, could result in population declines.
21457		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in some protected areas.
21457		distribution	eng	This widespread species is endemic to Australia where it is distributed in central and western arid areas.
21457		habitat	eng	The species is present in arid areas and is uncommon in sandy desert. It roosts in crevices, caves, and disused mines (Reardon and Kitchener 2008; N. McKenzie pers. comm). Females give birth to a single young.
21457		population	eng	This is a common species (Reardon and Kitchener 2008).
21457		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
21458		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kakadu National Park (Milne and McKean 2008). It is also found in Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve and Point Stuart Coastal Reserve (Woinarski and Milne 2005). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species, particularly regarding roost sites.
21458		distribution	eng	This species is found in wet-dry tropics of the western Top End of the Northern Territory, Australia (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003), but is likely to occur in the eastern Top End as well. It also extends into north-eastern Western Australia (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
21458		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from floodplains, mangroves, patchy monsoon forests, and nearby woodlands. The roosting habitats are not clear. Because it has been recorded in the Northern Territory up to 70 km from the nearest rocky habitats, it is likely to roost in tree hollows or similar situations (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003), and some Aboriginal people claim that it roosts at the base of Pandanus leaves. The species flies above the tree canopy, but it may be found closer to the ground in open areas (Milne and McKean 2008).
21458		population	eng	This species has been recorded from a total of 19 sites, however, the species is probably difficult to detect and it is likely to be more common than records suggest (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003).
21458		threats	eng	Threats to the species include large-scale modification from invasion of large areas of coastal floodplain by introduced plant species, replacement of natural floodplain vegetation with introduced pasture species, degradation of habitats by Water Buffalo, and saltwater intrusion into the coastal plains resulting in the deaths of large stands of Melaleuca trees (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003). If this species was found to roost in Pandanus, then fire may also be a threat.
21459		conservation	eng	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species is reported  from Hazaribagh National Park in Jharkhand and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), and it is likely to be present in most of the protected areas in peninsular India (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In Southeast Asia, in view of its wide range it probably occurs in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
21459		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Bangladesh (location unknown) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (location unknown [Bates and Harrison 1997]) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, Northern, Uva and Western provinces) (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, into northern Thailand and Cambodia. It is present in Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores and is also present on the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). The eastern limit of the distribution in Southeast Asia is uncertain, however, the species has yet to be recorded from either Lao PDR or Viet Nam (P. Bates pers. comm.). It has been recorded to occur up to 1,200 m asl.
21459		habitat	eng	Throughout its range this species is found in varied habitats from arid areas to humid zones. It roosts in caves, old tunnels, caves created due to mud excavation, old forts, dungeons (C. Srinivauslu pers. comm.), large wells, hollows and crowns of trees, eaves of houses. It roosts in colonies from single animals to hundreds of bats. It is an early and fast flyer and feeds on cockroaches and beetles. There are two breeding seasons-one in mid January and the other in mid May (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21459		population	eng	In South Asia, it is widespread living in large colonies in the hundreds. In many places the populations are considered to be stable (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In Southeast Asia, the species is locally common, with colonies consisting of hundreds of bats in Cambodia (G. Csorba pers. comm.).
21459		threats	eng	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this species. In South Asia, some populations may be threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), while in Southeast Asia, disturbance from guano mining is a localised threat to some populations.
21460		conservation	eng	This species is known from protected areas within Madagascar including Zombitse National Park and Ankarafantsika National Park, as well as from many protected areas on the African continent.
21460		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of subsaharan Africa, and is also on several islands (including the islands of Zanzibar (Tanzania), Bioko and Pagalu (Equatorial Guinea), and Sao Tomé and Principe). The most northerly records are from the border area between Senegal and Mauritania and at the head of the Nile River in Sudan. It is present throughout southern and eastern Madagascar but it usually only occurs at lower altitudes and there are no records from the central plateau or above 900 m. It is known from Aldabra, Mauritius, the Comoros and Réunion. Records from the western Cape region in southern Africa are unverified, with known records extending as far south as Mossel Bay. It is also recorded in an isolated location in the Northern Cape, near Hartwater (Taylor 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
21460		habitat	eng	It is generally found in moist, open habitats and savanna regions (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It occurs in open woodland and generally avoids the interior of dense forests. However, it lives in the rainforest zone, and is also found along major rivers. Because it is found either in areas receiving >500 mm rain per year or near swamps and rivers, it is apparently dependent on open water or riparian forests (see Dengis 1996 for references). The populations found on Sao Tomé and Principe are often found in cocoa plantations (Juste and Ibañez 1993). It is often found in built-up areas, roosting under the eaves of houses, particularly face-brick houses (Dengis 1996; Taylor 2000). Roost sites also include cliff walls with overhanging rock shelves and trunks of large trees where shade is always available (see Dengis 1996 for references). The species tends to roost near human settlements (Taylor 2000) and to prefer buildings inhabited by people, rather than buildings under construction (see Dengis 1996 for references).
21460		population	eng	The Mauritian tomb bat is not rare and is easy to find. It usually roosts under covering vegetation on the outer bark of trees.
21460		threats	eng	Overall, this species is not significantly threatened. It is locally hunted (by children) in parts of its range.
21461		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. Within India, it has been recorded from Kanha National Park and Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Nagarjunasagar Srisailama Tiger Reserve, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, Borivili National Park in Maharashtra, and may occur in many more protected areas (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Public awareness activities need to be taken up to highlight the importance of this species in agricultural ecosystem as controller of insect pests (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.).
21461		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in much of South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh, India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka (Central, Northern Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been recorded up to 800 m asl. In southern China, it has been recorded from southern Yunnan, southern Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). In addition, the type series of <em>T. solifer</em> Hollister, 1913, is purportedly from Beijing (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is widely distributed from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusa Penida, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sulawesi, Waleabahi, Sanana, Buru, Halmahera and Bunguran), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines it has been recorded from the islands of Biliran, Cebu, Gigante, Leyte, Luzon (Ilocos Norte, Nueva Viscaya, Pangasinan, Rizal provinces), Maripipi, Mindanao (Davao del Sur), Negros, Palawan, Sibuyan, Tincasan (= Tingkasan). Also reported from Lubang, Luzon (Abra Province) and Mindoro (Lawrence 1939) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is found from sea level to 150 m asl in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
21461		habitat	eng	This species is known from a wide variety of forested habitats in tropical regions, and has additionally been recorded from urban areas. It is found in hilly areas and roosts in caves, old dilapidated buildings, dungeons of old forts, temples, old disused mines, tunnels (Lawrence 1939; Sanborn 1952; Taylor 1934; Rickart <em>et al. </em>1993; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Molur <em>et al. </em>2002; Smith and Xie 2008). This species is colonial and roosts in colonies of a few to thousands of individuals. It is alert, agile and flies with a fast, straight pitching flight (Bates and Harrison 1997). A single young is born after a gestation period of 120-125 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21461		population	eng	This species is locally abundant or common and populations seem stable throughout its range.
21461		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging, conversion of land to agricultural use, hunting for local consumption and disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). In the some countries, including Lao PDR and the Philippines, there is likely some localized hunting of this cave roosting species for food (Heaney and Balete pers. comm.).
21462		conservation	eng	There are international legal obligations for protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) in areas to which this applies. However, through most of its range, no specific conservation measures are place for this species. It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.<br><br>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
21462		conservation	eng	There are international legal obligations for protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) in areas to which this applies. However, through most of its range, no specific conservation measures are place for this species. It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.
21462		distribution	eng	The naked-rumped tomb bat has a much larger range than previously believed. It has been recorded throughout the southern desert and sub-desert belt of western and central Palaearctic, from Morocco, through the Saharan region across northern Africa to Egypt and north through the Middle East to southern Turkey, and the more arid areas of the Indian subcontinent. The most southerly record is from northern Tanzania. There are two isolated records from Myanmar (the southernmost locality being in the general vicinity of Bago (Pegu) Yoma (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2000)).<br/><br/>In South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Kabul, Kandahar and Nangarhar provinces), Bangladesh, India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
21462		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid and semi-arid regions, tropical forests and wet evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The colonies in northern Africa are found in Sudanian and Sahelian savanna zones where inselbergs and rock crevices are present (Happold 1987). It is often associated with large water bodies. It feeds on beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, moths and flying (winged) termites. It is gregarious, roosting in cliff fissures, rock crevices, caves, tombs, temples, barns, houses, and underground tunnels. Although it is often associated with humans, it is tolerant of only a certain amount of disturbance (P. Bates pers. comm.). It is often associated with other species. Some populations hibernate, some migrate and some store fat.
21462		population	eng	It is common in some places, and less so in others. It is an uncommon species in the western part of its range: colonies in Africa and the Mediterranean region are generally restricted to a few individuals, although large colonies (dozens to hundreds) have been found in eastern Africa. The species is common in its range in South Asia, however, a declining trend in its population has been observed in recent years (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21462		threats	eng	This species is tolerant of a certain level of human disturbance. Loss of some roosts (e.g., in buildings) and use of pesticides probably impact some populations negatively, but overall it is not significantly threatened.
21463		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas in Pakistan or India. Being a poorly understood species in the region, more studies on distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
21463		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas in Pakistan or India. Being a poorly understood species in the region, more studies on distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology are recommended (Molur <i>et al.</i> 2002).
21463		distribution	eng	The Egyptian tomb bat occurs widely throughout northern and sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Asia, east to the Indian Subcontinent. In sub-Saharan Africa, records extend along the Nile and east to Ethiopia and northern Somalia, and west to Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, and northern Nigeria, and south to Kenya (including Lamu island), Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. In southwest Asia, it has been recorded from Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. In South Asia, this species is presently known to be widely distributed from southern Pakistan (Roberts 1997) and western India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan) (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002) and recently reported from central Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has been recorded up to 200 m.
21463		distribution	eng	The Egyptian tomb bat occurs widely throughout northern and sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Asia, east to the Indian Subcontinent. In sub-Saharan Africa, records extend along the Nile and east to Ethiopia and northern Somalia, and west to Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, and northern Nigeria, and south to Kenya (including Lamu island), Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. In southwest Asia, it has been recorded from Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. In South Asia, this species is presently known to be widely distributed from southern Pakistan (Roberts 1997) and western India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan) (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <i>et al</i>. 2002) and recently reported from central Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh (Chakraborty <i>et al.</i> 2004). It has been recorded up to 200 m.
21463		habitat	eng	It is associated throughout its range with open woodland, avoiding forest, semi-desert and desert areas. It tends to be found along rivers in wooded savanna. It requires the shelter of rocks or stone buildings in which to roost during the day (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In the Arabian Peninsula animals have been recorded roosting in castles, forts, deep caverns and sea caves, with animals foraging among palm groves and gardens (Harrison and Bates, 1991). In South Asia this species is found in arid climes and prefers tropical thorn forests. It roosts in small to large colonies ranging from a few individuals to thousands of individuals in caves, darker areas of old forts, mosques, large old wells, artificial tunnels, old disused buildings, and shares its roost with <em>Rhinopoma</em> spp. It feeds on moths and beetles (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21463		habitat	eng	It is associated throughout its range with open woodland, avoiding forest, semi-desert and desert areas. It tends to be found along rivers in wooded savanna. It requires the shelter of rocks or stone buildings in which to roost during the day (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In the Arabian Peninsula animals have been recorded roosting in castles, forts, deep caverns and sea caves, with animals foraging among palm groves and gardens (Harrison and Bates, 1991). In South Asia this species is found in arid climes and prefers tropical thorn forests. It roosts in small to large colonies ranging from a few individuals to thousands of individuals in caves, darker areas of old forts, mosques, large old wells, artificial tunnels, old disused buildings, and shares its roost with <i>Rhinopoma</i> spp. It feeds on moths and beetles (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21463		population	eng	It is common in parts of its African range, but is less common elsewhere. It is found in small colonies (between six to eight individuals) in the southern African subregion (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known, and the species has only been recorded from a few localities (Bates and Harrison 1997).
21463		threats	eng	Human disturbance has been highlighted as a threat to the Egyptian tomb bat, but overall it is unlikely that this species is significantly threatened across its very wide range. In South Asia it is threatened by clearing of thorn forests for agricultural purposes, from mining and stone quarrying. Roost disturbance due to human interference and development of old buildings for tourism purposes is also considered serious threats (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
21463		threats	eng	Human disturbance has been highlighted as a threat to the Egyptian tomb bat, but overall it is unlikely that this species is significantly threatened across its very wide range. In South Asia it is threatened by clearing of thorn forests for agricultural purposes, from mining and stone quarrying. Roost disturbance due to human interference and development of old buildings for tourism purposes is also considered serious threats (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm., Molur <i>et al.</i> 2002).
21465		conservation	eng	Within South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place, however, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in India such as Silent Valley National Park in Kerala and Bhimashanker Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is a need to protect important roosting sites for this species throughout its range. Additional field surveys, studies into distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and population monitoring of this species are needed.
21465		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded in South Asia, mainland Southeast Asia and insular Southeast Asia with a single report from China. In South Asia, this species is presently known only from India (Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) in South Asia and has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). On the Southeast Asian mainland, this species occurs in southern Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR. Within insular Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Indonesia (Java and Sulawesi) and the island of Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia]), but is presumably more widespread in this region. In China, it is reportedly present in Yunnan although this needs confirmation (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). A record from Malaysia appears to be in error (see Medway 1969).
21465		habitat	eng	The species tends to be associated with forest habitats, with caves and deep crevices of large caves used as roosting sites (Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).). It has been collected from limestone caves in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.).
21465		population	eng	In Myanmar, there are some large colonies of up to several thousand bats (P. Bates pers. comm.). In India, the species is reportedly present as colonies of several hundred bats in a few caves (D.S. Joshi pers. comm.). In Thailand colonies are smaller, generally consisting of between 10 and 40 bats (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
21465		threats	eng	This species is threatened by disturbance and destruction of roosting sites and persecution by local people.  D.S. Joshi (pers. comm.) recounts 3,000 bats killed in six caves in Maharashtra, India, earlier this decade. Guano from this insectivorous species is mined and used as fertilizer in some areas (Smith and Xie 2008). It is used for subsistence food and medicinal purposes in parts of its range.
21466		conservation	eng	A Recovery Plan for this species has been developed (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is known to be present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed for final clarification about its distribution (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
21466		distribution	eng	Troughton's Sheath-tailed Bat was previously thought to have a very restricted distribution. Recent genetic analyses suggest that this species extends from the area around Mount Isa to the south and east in Queensland, Australia; these populations were previously thought to be <em>Taphozous georgianus</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
21466		habitat	eng	It roosts in caves, abandoned mines, crevices, and rocky escarpments within a wide range of habitats.
21466		population	eng	This species is fairly widespread and not uncommon (T. Reardon and B. Thomson pers. comm.).
21466		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
21471		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas and Quintana Roo were thought to hold numerous tapirs.  In Guatemala, the Maya Biosphere Reserve could hold several hundred more, as should each of the other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Republic of Panama. Protected nationally throughout its range, however, these laws are often not enforced in many areas (Matola <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Costa Rica tapirs are present in numerous protected areas, are protected under the wildlife conservation law No. 7317 from 1992, and its considered under CITES Appendix I (Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.). Further research is needed to determine the rates of decline in the species due to hunting and effects of increasingly fragmented populations on the species.
21471		distribution	eng	<em>Tapirus bairdii </em>is known to occur in Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, southern Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Republic of Panama, north-western Colombia, and historically in El Salvador.  In southern Mexico (Oaxaca), tapirs are present in the following localities: Santa Maria Chimalapas (Los Chimalapas), the zone of the isthmus, Cordillera de Veinte Cerros and adjacent zone of the northern range of Oaxaca (Iván Lira-Torres pers. comm.). In Costa Rica is present in the three mountain ranges and main protected areas in lowlands, with substantially higher densities at higher elevations (J. Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).  Recent range extensions of 377 km bring the Baird’s tapir to a new northern limit; Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca State, Mexico.
21471		habitat	eng	<em>T. bairdii </em>is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3,600 m. The species is strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramo (Matola <em>et al.</em> 1997, Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).
21471		population	eng	Populations of Baird's tapir are in a continuing decline. Recent (2006) means of evaluating habitat and population estimates by Naranjo, Cruz-Aldán and Lira-Torres (pers. comm.) suggest that there are only <5,500 individual Baird’s tapir remaining in the wild, with populations in Mexico (>1,500), Guatemala (>1,000), Honduras (>500), Nicaragua (>500), Republic of Panama (>1,000), Costa Rica (>1000, Vaughan 1990) and Colombia (250).<br/><br/>The Mosquitia area of Honduras and Nicaragua is particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. There are recent sightings and reports from El Salvador (Sanchez-Nuñez <em>et al.</em> 2007) suggesting it still persists there at some level.  Based on 2004 aerial surveys of available habitat in Honduras, the population is estimated to be 1,859 individuals.  The relatively small Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica is thought to hold at least 300 tapirs (C. Foerster, unpublished data). Recent surveys in the Cordillera Talamanca found tapirs to be locally among the most abundant large vertebrate above 2,000 m elevation, where large populations still remain in areas where they are not hunted (J. Schipper and J. Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recently, several individuals of this species have been observed along the Atlantic coast in the northern region of Colombia known as Chocó in the Tripogadi Serrania, outside Los Katios National Park. Reports of Baird’s tapir presence near Jurado and the upper Salaque confirm its presence in northwestern Colombia’s Darien region (D. J. Lizcano pers. comm.).  If each adult tapir requires at least 500 hectares, a rough estimate is 450 animals although hunting, warfare and habitat destruction and fragmentation could impact this estimate.  <br/><br/>In the Republic of Panama, reports received since 2000 suggest that Baird’s tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope.  Their range extends from Bocas del Toro in western Panama throughout the Panama Canal watershed to the Kuna Yala Comarca (R. Samudio pers. comm.).  These reports also confirm the presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3,000 m, as well as in the Darien region near the Colombian border. The qualitative estimations are based on sightings and tracks considered to be from tapirs, suggesting that the species is common in the Panamanian portio of the La Amistad International Peace Park as well as the Darien and Chagres National Parks and the Rio Caimito private reserve.  Gonzalez Maya (2008) reports a high density (3.03 individuals/km²) around the 2,600 meters and a comparative much higher relative abundance in mid elevations (2000-3000) on a 800-3500 meters elevation gradient in the Costa Rican portion of La Amistad - Cordillera Talamanca.
21471		threats	eng	Baird's tapir is threatened primarily by habitat destruction, and localized hunting. Tapirs have a low reproductive rate, after a 13 month gestation period, the single offspring will usually spend up to two years with its mother. This low recruitment rate, coupled with hunting threats and habitat loss, is a serious factor contributing to population decline (Matola <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>In Costa Rica, sport hunting is a threat for tapir in the Cordillera Talamanca, including within La Amistad Bionational Park (J. Schipper pers. comm.). In a recent survey of tapir in the Cordillera Talamanca, Gonzalez-Maya (pers. comm.) reports high hunting pressure of tapirs in mountain ecosystems around 2500 meters, with hunting clubs, and hunting dedicated only to this species, where it was reported as one of the most common hunted species in certain protected areas (La Amistad International Park). The effect of hunting is notable as it is common where not hunted in the Talamancas and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high – suggesting density estimated based strictly on remaining habitat are misleading where hunting occurs (J. Schipper pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Lira-Torres and Naranjo (pers. comm.) have detected a number of infectious diseases and parasites in Baird’s tapirs of southern Mexico that originated from cattle and horses.  In addition, several dead adult tapirs have been found in Chimalpas near livestock raising zones that are thought to have died from infectious diseases.<br/><br/>In Belize, continual fragmentation of the Selva Maya are threatening Baird’s tapir populations in northern Central America.  This is particularly the case in the area where the Chalillo Dam is being built and tapirs are being illegally hunted to feed construction workers (S. Matola pers. comm.).  In Panama, major threats seem to be hunting and habitat loss.
21472		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including several National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsula Malaysia and Sumatra. The impact of habitat reduction/destruction on the tapir is not fully understood and needs further investigation. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Thailand supports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in Southeast Asia.  Over 200 National Parks, Marine National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Non-hunting areas cover 17% of land area (Prayurasiddhi <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Since most existing <em>Tapirus indicus</em> habitat is already protected, the future for conservation of the species in Thailand is quite positive.  In contrast, Myanmar?s protected areas make up 5% of land area (Lynam 2003) and most tapir habitat lies outside these protected areas.  In Myanmar, Malayan tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border (Yin, 1993).  The tenure of these lands on the Myanmar side of the border is disputed and due to civil unrest, has been inaccessible for wildlife survey until now.  A team of Myanmar Forest Department staff working the Tenasserim border during 2001 detected tapirs from camera-traps, track and scat at two sites: the Minmoletka Taung area and the Hitaung Pru Reserve Forest (Lynam 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, <em>Tapirus indicu</em>s is recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country (Lekagul and McNeely 1988), including transboundary forest areas in border areas, and large isolated forest remnants.  The transboundary forests represent the most extensive, contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country (Prayurasiddhi <em>et al</em>. 1999).  They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes 12 protected areas, and covers over 18,730 sq km including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex which covers 4,373 sq km, mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border.  The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1,850 sq km of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malaysia border.  All areas are contiguous with larger forest areas on opposite sides of the country border.  Recent survey efforts (Lynam 1999; Lynam 2000; WCS 2001; Kaewsirisuk 2001; A. Pattanavibool pers. comm.) suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas.
21472		distribution	eng	<em>Tapirus indicus</em> occurs in southern and central parts of Sumatra (Indonesia), and on the Asian mainland in Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (along the western border and on the Peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north), and Myanmar (south of latitude 18°N). Its populations are now highly fragmented within its former range. It was listed as occurring in southern Cambodia and possibly southern Viet Nam by Brooks <em>et al.</em> (1997). It was reported from Hongquan district, eastern Cochin China, Viet Nam, in 1944 (Harper, 1945), and there was an authentic-sounding record from Lao PDR in 1902 (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is presumed to be extinct in all three countries. However, further investigation of these historical records and of other indications from Lao, Viet Nam, Cambodia, northern Thailand and even southern China have found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. In some cases (e.g. the 1902 Lao PDR record; Cheminaud 1939), review of the statement in the context of the same author?s wider work means that records sounding, on the face of it, strong need to be dismissed (Duckworth and Hedges 1998, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, in prep., J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, G. J. Galbreath pers. comm. 2008). In sum, there is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai?Malay peninsula, although fossil remains do come from Viet Nam and China and indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. The species?s habitat distribution at the northern edge of its Thai range, where the climate develops a more marked dry season, and the tapir occupancy changes from altitudinally wide-ranging to being restricted to the most humid altitudes, strongly supports a climatic limitation (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. in press), thereby casting further empirical doubt on the 20th century reports from Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia: these reports showed no association with where, climatically, they ?ought? to have been (Annamite wet areas supporting other Sundaic species like Annamite striped rabbit Nesolagus timminsi and crested Argus Rheinardia ocellata, and in fact some came from the driest parts of Indochina, least plausible to support tapirs.
21472		habitat	eng	<em>T. indicus</em> is restricted to tropical moist forest areas and occurs in both primary and secondary forest. The more seasonal climate in northern Myanmar, northern (= most of non-peninsula)_Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia and the harsher dry season of the forest (even in evergreen areas, excepting the eastern flanks and adjacent Viet Namese lowlands of the Annamite chain) there is likely to be the main reason this species is not found there. The Malayan tapir is also predominantly found in the lowlands and the lower montane zone in some parts of the range, although it remains common to the highest peaks in its Thai range (Steinmetz <em>et al.</em> in press). Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected (N. van Strien pers. comm.)
21472		population	eng	<em>Tapirus indicus</em> occurs in two disjunct and isolated populations - one occurring on mainland Southeast Asia and the other occupying on the island of Sumatra. The species is more widespread and common on the mainland, and it is declining rapidly in Sumatra due to extensive loss of habitat, accidental and deliberate trapping for meat and removal of animals for zoos in Indonesia. <br/><br/>In Malaysia there are approximately 1,500-2,000 individuals (C. Traeholt pers. comm.). Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size. In Thailand it is one of the least-affected large mammals by recent heavy levels of hunting that have caused severe cross-country declines in many large mammal species (Steinmetz <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>The situation in Thailand is similar, although with much less habitat available, and the Thai populations are is likely to be quite fragile since it is severely fragmented, and most subpopulations are unlikely to reach more than 50-100 individuals at the most. In many places there are only 10-15 individuals left with no chance of linking up to other protected areas and suitable habitats.
21472		threats	eng	<em>Tapirus indicus</em> is threatened throughout most of its range. The primary threats to the species are large scale deforestation and increasingly, hunting. Tapir population have declined by well over 50% in Thailand and Malaysia, whereas it is suspected to be slightly less than 50% in Sumatra. The main reason for declines in the past is habitat conversion, with large tracts land being converted into palm oil plantations. However, increasingly as other large 'prey" species decline in the area hunters are beginning to look towards tapir as a food source.<br/><br/>Destruction of habitat is the main threat to the species: in central Sumatra much of the remaining habitat is outside of any protected area and uncontrolled illegal logging continues; in Thailand, almost all remaining intact forest now lies within protected areas, with mostly degraded lands outside; in contrast, Myanmar?s protected areas make up 3.2% of land area (data provided by Myanmar Forest Department) and most tapir habitat lies outside these protected areas. In Malaysia forest loss is extremely severe, especially for expanding oil palm plantations.<br/><br/><em>Tapirus indicus</em> are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation.  In Halabala Wildlife Sanctuary on the Thai-Malaysia border, Kaewsirisuk (2001) found that the species does not venture within a few hundred meters of forest-plantation edges.  At Khao Sok National Park, tapirs are interior forest species that avoid forest edges (Lynam 1996). Kawanishi (2002), however, found in Taman Negara, the largest national park in Malaysia, that although the human traffic level was heavier in area closer to the park boundary, tapirs showed no edge effects.  While forest loss continues in Thailand, forests in protected areas remain relatively stable in size and composition to other countries because of a ban on commercial logging that has been in place since 1989.  For this reason, while tapirs may indeed be threatened in general by forest loss, populations in Thailand and Malaysia are probably more stable.  <br/><br/>Large-scale habitat destruction has continued in Sumatra, historically the species? main stronghold, and most remaining habitat in central Sumatra is outside protected areas. In Sumatra, populations have declined by slightly less than 50% simply because the onslaught of habitat only started to be serious in the late 1980s. However, the rate of decline is continuing to escalate in this region. In fact Sumatra has only 60% of the forest cover that it had 15 years ago, so things are developing fast there and future declines of the species are likely well over 50% in the next 30 years. Given the uncontrolled illegal logging situation in Sumatra, they are becoming increasingly threatened island-wide. Localized hunting also occurs and is suspected elsewhere in its distribution range. Unless serious efforts to stem illegal logging and forest encroachment are made, all Sumatran forests outside conservation areas will be lost over the next few decades. <br/><br/>In Malaysia the current forestry trend seems to be stabilized at approx. 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Thailand, 40% of the remaining forest is outside protected areas and only 5% of Myanmar?s land area is protected forest (Lynam pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species has uncertain status and future in Myanmar due to security issues and forest clearance for rubber and oil palm plantations.  However, two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims: Taninthayi National Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary.  If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future.<br/><br/>In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets.  Fifty tapirs are reported passing through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993.  Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas.  Elsewhere, extraction may not be very high but it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting is specifically known to be comparatively (by comparison with other mammals of similar size) very low in Thailand and at least parts of Sumatra (Holden <em>et al.</em> 2003, Stienmetz <em>et al</em>. in press) <br/><br/>There are indications that live tapirs have been traded through several Indonesian zoos, with some destined for private collections or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Some of these animals are suspected to have originated from protected areas.<br/><br/>Hunting has been a minor threat to <em>Tapirus indicus</em> in the past, but is has been increasingly a cause of concern as more and more hunting of the species is discovered.  Some localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra, however, and historically tapirs are not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailand or Myanmar, since their flesh is considered distasteful.  Some hill tribes believe that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted.
21473		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I. Legal protection of the species is in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (Downer 1997). In the Andes of Colombia there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Purace, and Sumapaz).
21473		distribution	eng	<em>Tapirus pinchaque</em> is known from the Andean area of Columbia, Ecuador, and northernmost Peru.  It occurs in the Central Andes south of Nevados National Park (05º00'N) and in the Eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz (04º30'N) in Bogotá.  In Colombia, there are no tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central- and Eastern-Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena and Cerro Tacarcuna. The area of suitable habitat for the tapir inside the National Parks is 13% of the total area where tapirs are still found. Historically it has been recorded in Venezuela, however, there is no evidence of its occurrence in this area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera between P.N. Las Hermosas and P.N. Nevado del Huila where large tracks of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. It is now extinct in much of its former range.
21473		habitat	eng	The five major habitat types for <em>Tapirus pinchaque</em> are chaparral, Andean forest, páramo, and riverine meadow. Elevations used range from 1,400 m to the snowline (Downer 1997).
21473		population	eng	The total population is not estimated to be greater than 2,500 individuals, and it is decreasing.
21473		threats	eng	Formerly hunting pressure was the primary threat through most areas of the mountain tapir’s distribution (C. Downer pers. comm.) but today, poppy growing and its eradication, warfare and habitat fragmentation are currently the main threats on this species (Emilio Constantino pers. comm.).  In some areas, hunting is decreasing due to local regulations and people’s increased awareness of this species’ rarity and conservation status.  While a few mountain tapir populations may benefit because guerrilla presence may also relieve colonization pressure in Colombia as it promotes the abandonment of conflict areas (C. Downer pers. comm.), most local biologists feel the presence of the guerrilla is having an overall negative impact on the species’ conservation.  Additionally, the “actors” of the armed conflicts in Colombia (army, guerrilla, and paramilitaries) see the presence of field biologists and researchers in the areas that they control as a threat for their safety (Dávalos 2001; Semple 2000).  The slow reproduction rate, large home range, and generally solitary nature of mountain tapirs make them particularly vulnerable to destruction of habitat and fragmentation by encroaching agriculture (Downer 1997).  Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and páramos to cattle ranching and agricultural lands.<br/><br/>The major threat to mountain tapirs in Colombia is human population growth in the Andean region.  People settling in the region need land, consumables and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction.  <br/><br/>Additional threats include the development of  hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks etc. There are numerous reports of tapir being hit by cars so infrastructure development through habitat is a potential major threat in m.  There are numerous proposed highway and other projects in the Andes which would greatly increase vehicular mortalities.  Once the construction of these highways is finalized, the vehicles will be able to drive at high speed and the animals crossing the roads will become even more vulnerable.  Additionally, these roads will provide easier access to poachers, given the fact that the park lacks enough park rangers to patrol and protect the area.  <br/><br/>Another problem in the area is the fact that mountain tapirs are in contact with cattle.  Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets etc.) and other domestic things such as carpets and covers for beds. Poachers sell tapir skin and feet for medicinal purposes. <br/><br/>Widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining mountain tapir refuges is a serious problem which will likely escalate in the near future.  Breeding herds of cattle have been observed in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing mountain tapirs to abandon areas in San Diego headwater area of park just to north of Sangay Volcano.  Visits to other legal refuges of the mountain tapir, i.e. Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, and reports from National Sanctuary of Tabaconas-Namballe in Peru and several parks in Colombia, indicate that the same problem with cattle invasion into mountain tapir sanctuaries is occurring and negatively affecting the mountain tapirs as well as increased hunting associated with vaqueros/ganaderos roundups of the mountain tapirs.  The cattle come from small ranches in the vicinities of the park and compete with the tapirs for feeding resources inside the protected area.  Besides the competition for food resources, there is a serious risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle, as previously documented for Baird’s and lowland tapirs in other locations. Another problem in Colombia is the fumigations being conducted in National Parks and all zones where cultivation of drugs can be found, including Andean forests in the Central and Oriental Cordilleras.  These fumigations are authorized and promoted by the Colombian government, and are a major threat for the mountain tapir populations.  The habitat is seriously affected and the animals can possibly be poisoned when in contact with the poison used for the fumigations (Round-Up), which is selective but can affect the availability of food resources.
21474		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. The species is officially and legally protected in many range countries, however, hunting laws are seldom enforced and therefore these have proven ineffective. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
21474		distribution	eng	<em>Tapirus terrestris</em> is found in lowland regions of northern and central South America, from Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Historically this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina throughout the chaco, pantanal, cerrado, llanos, caatinga and Amazonian/Orinoco forests - however, populations have been severely reduced and often limited to forest biomes and wetlands. The species has been extirpated from the caatinga and dry chaco biomes. In the northern Andes the species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agriculture frontiers than are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. The distribution in the cerrado has been diminished to a few small populations in protected areas and those in the pantanal are rapidly declining.
21474		habitat	eng	<em>T. terrestris</em> inhabits lowland South American moist and swamp forests, dry and moist shrub lands and grasslands and a wide variety of wetlands. Habitat association varies extensively, although the most important habitats tend to be moist, wet or seasonally inundated areas (Bodmer and Brooks 1997). This species has been observed to be associated with both water and salt-licks. The degree to which tapir are tolerant to habitat degradation varies regionally, but genreally species tapir are a forest dependant species. To date, no conclusion has been drawn as to why tapirs may thrive in one partially logged or disturbed area and be absent from others, however, it can be infered based on other tapir species that loalnd tapir cannot tolerate large scale habitat change and hunting pressure. <br/><br/>Harald Beck (pers. comm.) reports that tapirs have higher densities in Amazonian forests that contain two crucial features: Aguajales and salt licks.  Aguajales are palm swamps that typically range between 0.1 ha to over 100 ha and are dominated by the Mauritia flexuosa palm. The fruits of this palm are a crucial food resource for tapirs especially during the dry season.  In fact, tapirs are the prime seed dispersers for this palm, indicating the close evolutionary relationship between both species. Furthermore, Aguajales have incoming streams or small rivers which may also be crucial for other ecological requirements of tapir's including thermoregulation. Thus Aguajales are an ecological hotspot and sustain higher tapir densities.  Salt licks are smaller aquatic systems and may occur in clumped spatial distribution. Tapirs, among other mammals, frequently visit salt licks to obtain essential minerals.  Hunters, knowing the tapir’s fondness for salt, wait at those locations because their success is dramatically increased.<br/><br/>Tapir are ecologically more prone to be impacted by hunting due to long gestation and generational time. Reproduction is slow enough to make recover difficult for the species is areas where there is any prolonged hunting activity. Hunting is a serious threat along the numerous new road systems, settlement and along the agricultural fronteir in the Amazon basin. Hunting also occurs around logging camps and can completely eliminate the species from seemingly viable habitat.
21474		population	eng	Very little is known of populations of lowland tapir. Populations are being reduced across the range of the species but numerous strongholds exist - however, there is not sufficient information to extrapolate population sizes in these regions. Recently camera-traps have been effective for detecting presence but have proven difficult to estimate densities because it is hard to distinguish individuals in photos. A variety of density estimates have been proposed ranging from 0.20 to 3.7 individuals/km² (Medici pers. comm.). The most likely reason for this variation is both sampling and study design bias as well as the fact that lowland tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (i.e. around salt lick and permanent and seasonal water sources). In fact great variation in density likely also reflects the results of both direct and indirect threats in the form of hunting pressure, protection and seasonal variation.  Additionally, it can also reflect the tapir’s ability to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water).
21474		threats	eng	The main threats to the species include loss of habitat through deforestation, hunting for meat and competition with domestic livestock. The impacts of hunting on populations are amplified by the very low ability of tapir to quickly repopulate impacted areas. Though several strongholds occur - populations have been severely reduced and fragmented across the entire Cerrado (Brazil), Atlantic forest (Brazil) and llanos (Venezuela/Colombia) biomes. In Argentina and both southern Brazil the species has been extirpated from the tropical and temperate grassland and shrub land - and are rapidly declining in the dry Chaco. Additionally the species has been extirpated from the entire Caatinga biome of eastern Brazil. <br/><br/>In the northeast, tapirs are present only inside protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Outside protected areas, they are still hunted, chased by dogs, and negatively impacted by competition with cattle and illegal timber activities. The species is in rapid decline along the eastern Amazon and its Southern Tributaries where extensive hunting and deforestation have reduced almost all large mammal populations. In addition populations are declining rapidly along the agricultural front spreading into western Brazil and along the Andean foothills of Ecuador and Colombia.<br/><br/>Although <em>T. terrestris</em> may be common in some areas of Argentina, it is sensitive to deforestation and human activities and the species has already disappeared in many areas of transition between montane and Chaco forests in Anta (a department of Salta Province). Although control has been more effective during the past year in this province, tapirs are still affected by illegal timber activities, hunted, chased by dogs, and negatively impacted by competition with cattle. <br/><br/>In Bolivia, tapirs are susceptible to hunting, and habitat degradation. While they may well be more common than expected in protected areas, as was found out in Costa Rica and elsewhere for T. bairdii, they do not fare well in the presence of hunting. In French Guiana, tapirs are regularly hunted and sold commercially for meat in markets and restaurants. Little information is available for the population in Guyana, however, tapirs are not protected here at present and are hunted by subsistence hunters as well as by a developing bush-meat industry as roads are cut into the forest for logging.<br/><br/>In conclusion it is difficult to calculate the overall impact of hunting on populations, but we can infer from previous studies that in the past 30 years extensive and ongoing habitat loss combined with hunting and accumulated indirect threats have been much greater than previously estimated, and much greater than would be suspected by looking at maps of remaining forest in the Amazon.
21488		conservation	eng	The species is protected by law in Indonesia and in Malaysia, and is listed in CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/><em>T. b. bancanus</em> occurs in a few protected areas, such as Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Kerinci Seblat National Park, Way Kambas National Park (Indonesia) (M. Richardson pers. comm.); <em>T. b. borneanus</em> occurs in several protected areas, including Tasek Merimbun Sanctuary (Brunei); Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park (Indonesia); Bako National Park, Gunung Malu National Park, Kinabalu National Park, Sapagaya Forest Reserve, Semengo Forest Reserve, Sepilok Forest Reserve (Malaysia) (M. Richardson pers. comm.); while<br/><em>T. b. saltator</em> and <em>T. b. natunensis</em> do not occur in any protected areas.
21488		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Karimata, southeastern Sumatra, Serasen in the South Natuna Islands, and Kalimantan Borneo), and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) (Groves 2005). The distribution in Sumatra is unknown but is thought to be delimited by the Musi River.<br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus saltator</em> <br/>Confined to the island of Belitung (Billiton), Indonesia. <br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus natunensis</em> <br/>Confined to Serasan (Sirhassen) in the South Natuna Islands, and possibly nearby Subi Island, Indonesia. <br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus borneanus</em> <br/>Occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan Borneo and Karimata Islands) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo) and on the island of Karimata (Indonesia). <br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus bancanus </em><br/>Occurs in southeastern Sumatra and the island of Bangka, Indonesia.
21488		habitat	eng	This species can live in both primary and secondary forest, as well as along the coasts or on the edge of plantations (Niemitz 1979). This is often described as a lowland species, most common below 100 m elevation; however, there is at least one record from 1,200 m from the Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park in western Kalimantan (Gorog and Sinaga in press). <br/><br/>The species is 100% carnivorous, eating mainly insects (including beetles, grasshoppers, cockroaches, butterflies, moths, praying mantis, ants, phasmids, and cicadas), but also small vertebrates (including bats, snakes, and birds) (Niemitz 1979). These animals are nocturnal and exhibit adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping modes of locomotion and prey capture (Roberts 1994). They spend a majority of their time below 2 meters off the ground and only 5% above 3 meters (Niemitz 1979, 1984; Crompton and Andau 1986, 1987).
21488		population	eng	Density has been variously calculated at 80 animals/km<sup>2</sup> in Sarawak (Niemitz 1979, 1984), 15-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Sabah (Crompton and Andau 1986, 1987), and 19-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Belitung (I. Yustian pers. comm.). Based on satellite studies of the extent of available habitat on Belitung Island, Yustian (2006) estimated a total population for <em>T. b. saltator</em> of 29,440 (Yustian unpubl. data).
21488		threats	eng	The principle threat is habitat loss due to forest conversion, especially due to expanding oil palm plantations, fires and logging. The species is collected for the illegal pet trade, particularly, it is thought, in the vicinity of Lampung and Way Kambas National Park. It is wrongly considered a pest to agricultural crops, and can suffer, directly and indirectly, from contamination from agricultural pesticides.
21489		conservation	eng	Tarsiers are protected by national law and international treaties, including CITES Appendix II. Many portions of the range of this taxon are protected and indeed it occurs in at least two national parks (Lore Lindu and Morowali); however, there needs to be improved management of the currently protected areas to ensure the ongoing survival of the species. Public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures for the species. In fact the species might actually be beneficial to crops, as they eat, and may even have a dietary preference for, some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers.
21489		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the eastern portion of the central core of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The northern boundary is the Isthmus of Palu between Marantale (Shekelle<em>et al</em>. 1997), Ampibabo (Stefan Merker unpubl. data), and Tomini Bay. The species is distributed east to the tip of the eastern peninsula (J. Burton unpubl. data). The western boundary appears to extend at least to the Palu River and south as far as Gimpu (Merker and Groves 2006). The southern boundary from Lore Lindu National Park to the eastern coast of Sulawesi is unknown.  In this estimate, the southern border is inferred to be the edge of the main, east-central microplate. This puts the estimated faunal boundary somewhat to the north of the boundary between <em>Macaca tonkeana</em> and <em>M. ochreata.</em>
21489		habitat	eng	This species has been studied in the field (Tremble <em>et al.</em> 1993; Merker 2006; Merker <em>et al.</em> 2005; Merker 2003; Merker and Mühlenberg 2000; Gursky 1998). It occurs in primary, secondary and mangrove forests, forest gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover. Like all tarsiers it shows extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 0 m or less from the ground. Nocturnal social primates, they likely live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-7 individuals (Merker 2003). Home range sizes have been recorded as 1.0–1.8 ha depending on habitat type. The diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates.
21489		population	eng	Merker (2003) estimated population densities in a variety of pristine and human disturbed habitats. The values he calculated were 270/km<sup>2</sup> in pristine habitat, 190/km<sup>2</sup> for slightly disturbed habitat, 130/km<sup>2</sup> for moderately disturbed habitat, and 45/km<sup>2</sup> in heavily disturbed habitat (Merker 2003).
21489		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is loss of habitat loss due to illegal logging. Other threats include agricultural pesticides and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats). In addition, some animals are entering the pet trade. There has been extensive loss of lowland forest habitat; however, the species has some tolerance to forest conversion. A crucial unknown variable in determining how critical the threats to this species are is its elevational distribution. GIS data indicate that large areas of quality forested habitat remain at higher elevations, but the vertical range of this species is believed to stop somewhere between 1,100-1,500 m, thus rendering a large portion of the best remaining habitat outside the range.
21490		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II. The species is known to occur in at least once protected area (Lore Lindu National Park), although the form likely receives some protection on Mount Rantemario (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).
21490		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The first specimen of <em>T. pumilus</em> was collected in 1916 at 1,800 m from Rano Rano, in the mountains between Palu and Poso. The second specimen, collected in 1930, came from 2,200 m on Mount Rantemario in South Sulawesi. A third specimen, which was found dead in a rat trap in May 2000, came from 2,200 m on the flank of Mount Rorekatimbu.
21490		habitat	eng	This species has never seen alive by scientists for long time, and is among the least known primates in existence. It has only recently (August 2008) been rediscovered in the wild, captured, radio-collared, photographed, and filmed.  Morphological analysis of museum specimens indicates adaptations for life in colder, montane cloud forests (Musser and Dagosto 1987). Moss forests are characteristic of the presumed habitat.
21490		population	eng	All that is known of this species is what can be inferred from the three museum specimens above (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).
21490		threats	eng	The distribution is in all likelihood fragmented on isolated mountain tops. One threat to these habitats is the encroachment of human populations into montane regions to satisfy the needs of a growing human population. The destruction of montane forests in more densely populated south Sulawesi indicates that this fate may well be in store for Central Sulawesi's montane forests as the human population expands. Some areas of Central Sulawesi near known <em>T. pumilus</em> sites are conflict zones, where factional fighting has seen the dislocation of large human populations that are then resettled in refugee camps. One such site lies along the main route to the Rorekatimbu capture locality.
21491		conservation	eng	Tarsiers are protected by international treaties, including CITES Appendix II, as well as by national law. Many portions of the range of this taxon are within conservation areas, but there needs to be improved management of these areas to ensure the continued survival of the species. Public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures. Indeed, the species might actually be beneficial to crops, as they eat, and may even have a dietary preference for, some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers.
21491		distribution	eng	By definition, <em>T. tarsier</em> is the rump taxon of tarsiers that remain in the Sulawesi biogeographic region, after excluding <em>T. sangirensis</em>, <em>T. pumilus</em>, <em>T. dentatus</em>, <em>T. pelengensis</em>, and <em>T. lariang</em>. This leaves <em>T. tarsier, sensu lato</em>, with an unlikely distribution that includes Sulawesi, Buton, Muna, Kabaena, Selayar, and the Togian Islands, below 1,800 m (with an actual vertical distribution that likely stops somewhere between 1,100-1,500 m), except those portions of Sulawesi that lie within the ranges of <em>T. dentatus</em> and <em>T. lariang</em>. As discussed by Brandon-Jones <em>et al</em>. (2004), this is distribution is improbably disjunct.  It is more likely that this population is subdivided into numerous insular and parapatric species, as hypothesized by Shekelle and Leksono (2004) and Brandon-Jones <em>et al.</em> (2004).
21491		habitat	eng	<em>Tarsius tarsier sensu stricto</em> has not been the subject of systematic study, but by analogy with wild tarsier populations studied at Tangkoko and with <em>T. dentatus</em> at Lore Lindu National Park, it is expected that this taxon is found in primary, secondary and mangrove forests, forest gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover. It shows extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 2 meters or less from the ground. Nocturnal social primates, they likely live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-6. The home range is believed to be less than one hectare. Its diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates.
21491		population	eng	Within <em>T. tarsier, sensu lato</em>, the best studied population comes from Tangkoko, which is at the extreme northeast peninsula of Sulawesi, whereas Makassar, the type locality of <em>T. tarsier sensu stricto</em>, is at the extreme southwestern peninsula, and has not been the subject of systematic study. Population density estimates at Tangkoko are 70/km<sup>2</sup> (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980) and 156/km<sup>2</sup> (Gursky 1997). Merker (2003) estimated population densities for <em>T. dentatus</em> in a variety of pristine and human disturbed habitats near Kamarora, on the edge of Lore Lindu National Park. The values he calculated were 270/km<sup>2</sup> in pristine habitat, 190/km<sup>2</sup> for slightly disturbed, 130/km<sup>2</sup> for moderate disturbance, and 45/km<sup>2</sup> in heavily disturbed habitat.
21491		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to agriculture, illegal logging, mining of limestone for cement manufacture, agricultural pesticides, and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats). Some animals are entering the pet trade (particularly from North Sulawesi, around Tankoko). Although there has been extensive loss of habitat, this species, however, has demonstrated some tolerance to forest conversion. Although seemingly among the least threatened of tarsiers owing to its relatively wide distribution, the possible existence of undescribed cryptic species makes it likely that some populations are more threatened than others. This species should be reassessed upon further taxonomic revision.
21492		conservation	eng	The species is included in Appendix II of CITES and is protected under government law in the Philippines. Surveys of population status, particularly to determine its ability to persist in non-forest areas in the long-term, as well as taxonomic research, are needed. The species would also benefit from tighter controls on harvest and trade.<br/><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
21492		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern Philippines. It is restricted to the greater Mindanao faunal region, where it is found on Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, and Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), and Samar (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is also reported from Basilan (Lawrence 1939), Biliran, Maripipi (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993), and Mindanao in Bukidnon province (Sanborn 1953).
21492		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both secondary and primary forest (although it is most abundant in the latter), from sea level up to 750 m. It is found at lower densities in edge habitats and secondary growth with many pole-sized trees and low-stature vegetation, as well as in gardens and other degraded habitats including agricultural areas and plantations. It feeds on small lizards, frogs, and insects.
21492		population	eng	It is locally common and widespread, largely because of its tolerance of second growth habitat (Dagosto and Gebo 1995). However, it clearly occurs at higher densities in less disturbed habitats (I. Arboleda pers. comm.).
21492		threats	eng	There are several contributing factors that make this species susceptible to extinction (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2003): infant mortality rates, both in the wild and in captivity, are very high; highly specialized diet; relatively limited geographical range; high population density and extensive habitat destruction. Although it is clearly adaptable to anthropogenic habitats that contain bushes or trees, it occurs at higher densities in less disturbed habitats, especially in primary forest (very little of which remains within its range) (I. Arboleda pers. comm.). It is also heavily harvested as food and especially for the pet trade. This is illegal, but there are recent anecdotal reports that the pet markets in Manila are being flooded with tarsiers retailing at less than PhP500 per individual (I. Arboleda pers. comm.).
21493		conservation	eng	<p>The taxon has been protected by national law since 1931, and is listed in CITES Appendix II. Two conservation initiatives begun in 2002 are serving to establish management systems on this archipelago and to educate its people on the environmental and conservation problems that the islands face, including those resulting from forest management and hunting (Riley 2002) (see Whitten 2006).</p>
21493		distribution	eng	This species is currently recorded as being found on Sangihe island, north of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Riley 2002).
21493		habitat	eng	<p>This population has not been studied systematically in the wild, but was surveyed by Shekelle and associates (Shekelle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Shekelle 2003) and Riley (2002). Riley remarked that <span style="font-style: italic;">T. sangirensis</span> has a preference for primary forest, but may occur in secondary habitats including sago swamps, scrub, nutmeg plantations, coconut plantations, and secondary forest growth. These results are similar to those of Shekelle and associates, except that Shekelle did not encounter any in primary forest, and Shekelle and Salim (2009) indicate that it is very unlikely that any primary forest now remains on the island. A study of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tarsius dentatus</span> on Sulawesi by Merker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2005, also Merker and Yustian 2008) showed that they were able to occupy agricultural land as long there were remnant patches of forest or dense shrubbery, although group sizes were smaller and population densities were considerably lower (less than half) than was found for virtually undisturbed old-growth forest (estimated densities 268 individuals/km² vs. 45 individuals/km²).</p>  <p>Like other Eastern Tarsier species from the Sulawesi biogeographic region, this species lives in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2–6. It might sleep in dispersed social groups, particularly in disturbed habitat, and that this might be a response to predation, particularly by humans and human commensals, such as feral cats and dogs. Merker (2006) studied home range size in <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dentatus </span>and found it to vary, depending on the degree of human disturbance, with home range size increasing with the degree of disturbance. Its diet is mostly large arthropods and some small vertebrates.</p>
21493		population	eng	Shekelle and Salim (2009) used remote sensing to estimate the population size to be between 1,505 and 52,734 individuals, the very wide range being a result of uncertainty in the suitability of "brush" habitat for sustainable tarsier populations. Without including "brush", the population size estimate is only 1,505–2,795 individuals. Riley (2002) estimated population size as 9,000–15,600, but those numbers drop to 300-500 if secondary habitat is excluded. Riley did not address the issue that, while tarsiers are recorded in secondary habitats, these might not support sustainable populations. Thus, the conclusions of both studies are similar; viable population size might be very small indeed, unless populations in suboptimal habitats are "sources" and not "sinks".
21493		threats	eng	<p>Shekelle and Salim (2009) argue that the chief threat to tarsiers on Sangihe Island is habitat loss. One major driver of habitat loss is the clearing of forests and forest gardens for more intensive agriculture where underbrush is cleared, such as coconut monocrop, coconut/chocolate, nutmeg, and others (M. Shekelle pers. comm. 2010). Riley (2002), however, did not think that habitat loss was a major threat, given their presence in a variety of secondary habitats. This discrepancy emphasizes the need to determine the suitability of secondary habitats for sustainable tarsier populations. The volcano on Sangihe Island, Mt Awu, is active and one of the deadliest in Indonesia, and the human population density on the island is very high (260 people km<sup>-²</sup>) (Shekelle and Salim 2009). There is practically no primary forest left and there are no protected areas in its range (Shekelle and Salim 2009).</p>
21494		conservation	eng	There are no decreed protection areas on Pulau Peleng. The species is listed in CITES Appendix II.
21494		distribution	eng	This species is found on Peleng Island (Sody 1949), off the coast of the eastern peninsula of Sulawesi. There are unconfirmed reports that tarsiers might be present in other islands of the nearby Banggai Archipelago, and if these reports are accurate, then this would extend the range of <em>T. pelengensis.</em>
21494		habitat	eng	This species is believed to inhabit primary and secondary lowland and mangrove forest (to 520 m) (M. Indrawan and Y. Masala pers. comm.). Like all tarsiers it shows extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 2 meters or less from the ground. Nocturnal, social primates, they are likely to live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-6. Their diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates.
21494		population	eng	This taxon has not been studied in the wild. By analogy with other taxa of eastern tarsiers, we can estimate that densities in good habitat might be 156/km<sup>2</sup> (Gursky 1997), or, as for <em>T. dentatus</em> (Merker 2003) up to 270/km<sup>2</sup> in pristine habitat, 190/km<sup>2</sup> for slightly disturbed, 130/km<sup>2</sup> for moderate disturbance, and 45/km<sup>2</sup> in heavily disturbed habitat.
21494		threats	eng	GIS estimates indicate that only 211 km<sup>2</sup> of “good” habitat remains on Peleng Island (2,339 km<sup>2</sup>). This implies that perhaps as little as 9% of the original habitat of the island remains in good condition. Therefore it seems likely that, while we know little about this species, habitat loss through slash and burn activities is a major threat. On the other hand, it is not clear that “good” habitat is also compatible with the needs of tarsier conservation. All species of tarsiers that have been studied in the wild are recorded in a number of non-forest habitats, but it remains an open question as to whether these habitats are suitable for sustainably-reproducing populations. GIS also provides an estimate of 1,474 km<sup>2</sup> of “fair” habitat remaining on Pulau Peleng. Together with “good” habitat, this yields a total of 1,685 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat that is potentially suitable for tarsier conservation, a figure that represents slightly more than 72% of the island’s total area. In other words, the estimate of the percentage of the original tarsier habitat that still remains on Pulau Peleng varies from 9 to 72%, depending on whether “fair” habitat is included in the model. This example illustrates the need for field surveys to determine the suitability of “fair” habitat for sustainable tarsier populations. In the meantime, we use a most conservative estimate that includes good habitat only.<br/><br/>First-hand reports of conditions on Pulau Peleng are scant, but by analogy with other areas of Sulawesi, it should likely expect a continuing pattern of encroachment into tarsier habitat, leading to a decrease in the area of occupancy, quality of habitat, number of tarsier populations and mature individuals (M. Shekelle pers. comm.). Other threats may include illegal logging, agricultural pesticides, and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats).
21495		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas across its range.
21495		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from the highlands of Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces). It has been recorded from Mt. Apo, Katanglad and Malindang, although it is possible that it is more widespread than this.
21495		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane and mossy forest from 1,550 to 2,400 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Heaney 1992).
21495		population	eng	This is a moderately abundant species.
21495		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21496		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Kitanglad National Park. This park is at high elevation and offers little protection to this lowland species.
21496		distribution	eng	This species occurs in only in the Philippines where it is known only from Mindanao (Bukidnon, and South Cotabato provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded from lowland areas around Mt. Kitanglad and Mt. Matutum from 800 to 1,100 m.
21496		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is restricted to lowland forests.
21496		population	eng	It was probably once widespread in lowland forest on Mindanao, but may now be greatly affected by habitat destruction (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).
21496		threats	eng	There has been serious deforestation in lowland areas.
21497		distribution	eng	Known from Tooth and Amber Caves in the Edwards Plateau area of Travis County, Texas.
21500		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to assess the impacts of potential threats on this species.
21500		distribution	eng	Shepherd's beaked whales are primarily known from a few dozen strandings, all south of 30°S, around New Zealand, southern Australia, southern South America, the Juan Fernandez Islands, and Tristan de Cunha (Mead 1989). There have been only a few sightings reported in the literature and the validity of most of those is suspect (or clearly erroneous. The confirmed sightings have been from south of Tasmania and in oceanic waters of the South Atlantic (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2006). The majority of strandings have occurred in New Zealand. It is presumed that they have a circumpolar distribution in cold temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is possible that the species may be somewhat more widespread than the records suggest, since it was not likely to be accurately identified at sea until its recent re-description (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2006).
21500		habitat	eng	This species generally lives mainly far offshore, well away from coasts; however, where there is a narrow continental shelf, <em>T. shepherdi</em> may sometimes occur in deep water close to shore. <br/><br/>Shepherd’s beaked whales are known to feed on several species of fish (primarily eelpouts), as well as squid and crabs, possibly near the bottom in deep waters. This seems somewhat unusual, as most beaked whales appear to feed almost exclusively on cephalopods.
21500		population	eng	Shepherd’s beaked whale appears to be relatively rare, but there are no estimates of abundance available. The external appearance of the species was not well-known until it was re-described from several fresh specimens and at-sea sightings; this could lead to further refinement about its distribution and abundance (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nothing is known about subpopulation structure.
21500		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species. As is true for most of the beaked whales, this species has never been hunted and fisheries interactions are not known.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of <em>Tasmacetus shepherdi</em> indicated that they had swallowed discarded plastic items (reference?), which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
21506		distribution	eng	There are about 45 recorded localities (Bonham, unpub. data, Bonham and Taylor 1997, Forest Practices Board records), excluding sites within 1 km of pre-existing records in Tasmania. There are about five recorded localitites in Victoria, but it is uncertain whether these are of the same species. In Tasmania many more could be recorded with more surveying, likely to total hundreds. <br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence (EOO) is <em>ca</em>. 1,400 km² in Tasmania, based on fine-scale range-boundary mapping (minimum convex polygon, excluding sea). The range in Victoria is unknown but much smaller; area of occupancy (AOO) is <em>ca</em>. 380 km² in Tasmania (K. Bonham, estimate in report to FPB); AOO is unknown in Victoria, but much smaller. <br/> <br/>There is no evidence of range decline except that the species was formerly (1860s) reported from a site where it is not now found. If that site is included, range size decreases by about 10%. However, that report may be an error as it corresponds to no museum specimen and is not collaborated by other sources of the time. One outlying population is very precarious and likely to become extinct within the next several decades.  If this happens the range size will decrease by a further <em>ca</em>. 5%.
21506		habitat	eng	Wet forests generally.
21506		population	eng	There are likely to be several dozens or hundreds of subpopulations. Population densities are low (typically lower than 10 mature adults per hectare) but subpopulations likely to contain several thousand mature adults are known. Overall population, based on observed densities and likely area of occupancy, is likely to be a few hundred thousand. <br/> <br/>Very roughly, 30% of the population has been lost to clearing since 1800. The population is continuing to decline through logging activities and conversion to plantation. It is estimated that 20% of population could eventually (over 40 years) be lost to this activity, but the ability of the snail to occur in plantations is not tested, so it is possible it will reinvade them. A closely related species <em>Tasmaphena sinclairi</em> does. The species reinvades normal logged forest after about 30–40 years (Bonham and Taylor 1997).
21506		threats	eng	Clearing for agriculture and settlement, logging.
21507		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the Lore Lindu National Park, it is not known if the species occurs in any additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this poorly known species.
21507		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known only from Mt. Nokilalaki, in central Sulawesi (Indonesia), where it occurs from 1,982 to 2,287 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possibly also present in nearby  montane regions, but field surveys are needed to determine this.
21507		habitat	eng	It has been collected in tropical upper montane rain forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats. It is scansorial, nocturnal, and vermivorous feeding on earthworms (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21507		population	eng	This species is known from eight specimens recorded in 1975 (Musser 1982).
21507		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
21508		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and Latimodjong is designated as Protection Forest. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species occurs more widely throughout montane regions of central Sulawesi, and its current population status.
21508		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mt. Latimodjong (the type locality), and Mt. Tokala and Mt. Nokilalaki, in the eastern central core of Sulawesi (Indonesia) at 2,200 m. It is likely to be found in other mountainous regions in suitable habitat (Musser and Carleton 2005).
21508		habitat	eng	This terrestrial vermivore inhabits montane forest (Musser and Durden 2002).
21508		population	eng	There is no information on population status, but it is probably more common than the handful of specimens known indicates since it is very difficult to trap and found only in upper montane regions. The most recent collection of specimens took place in the early 1970s on Mt. Nokilalaki.
21508		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, as loss of forest due to shifting agriculture is less severe at such high elevations.
21509		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
21509		distribution	eng	This species occurs in fragmented habitat, across much of southwestern South Africa.
21509		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of sandy soil on the friges of shrubland and Karoo areas. This species has population explosions during which it is considered to be a pest. (Coetzee com pers).
21509		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
21509		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
21510		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
21510		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and southeastern parts of Africa. Its distribution includes western Tanzania, southwestern Kenya, southeastern Uganda, eastern and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, lowland Malawi, northwestern Mozambique, northern Zambia and eastern Angola.
21510		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry, open woodlands, shrubland and mosaic farmland.
21510		population	eng	It is a common species.
21510		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21511		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in its range.
21511		distribution	eng	This species is found in the subtropical and wooded grasslands of most South Africa (excluding some of the south), western Zimbabwe, Botswana, central and eastern Namibia, southeastern Angola and southwestern Zambia. There is a record from northern Mozambique.
21511		habitat	eng	This species is associated with open areas, or plains, in subtropical and wooded grasslands on consolidated sands. It is sometimes considered to be an agricultural pest. This species is a major reservoir for the bubonic plague.
21511		population	eng	It is generally a common species with cyclic variations in abundance.
21511		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21512		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
21512		distribution	eng	This west African species ranges from Senegal to Sierra Leone, and from there through northern Côte d'Ivoire, eastwards to Burkina Faso and Togo.
21512		habitat	eng	It is found in Sahel to Sudan savannas on more indurated (lateritic to clay) soils than <em>G. gambiana</em>. The species occurs where there is a dense shrub layer with variable herbaceous cover. It is also found in cultivated areas.
21512		population	eng	This is a relatively common species, although it does not occur at high densities. In comparison to other <em>Gerbilliscus</em> species, it is less common than <em>G. gambiana</em> in Senegal, but more common than <em>G. gambiana</em> in Mali.
21512		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21513		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
21513		distribution	eng	This species is present in southeastern Africa, including eastern Zimbabwe, central Mozambique and southeastern and northeastern Tanzania.
21513		habitat	eng	It is found in moist to wet savanna on sandy, and sandy alluvial, soils.
21513		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
21513		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although there are presumed to be no major threats to the species.
21514		conservation	eng	It is found in numerous protected areas. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
21514		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Near East, through the north of the Arabian Peninsula and Iran to most of South Asia. It has been recorded from southeastern Turkey (Yiğit <em>et al</em>. 2001), eastern Syria, Kuwait and Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991), ranging through much of central and southern Iran to Pakistan and Afghanistan, from here it ranges throughout India, and Sri Lanka, being also widely distributed through much of Nepal south of the Himalayas. It ranges in elevation from sea level up to 2,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21514		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Near East, through the north of the Arabian Peninsula and Iran to most of South Asia. It has been recorded from southeastern Turkey (Yi?it <em>et al</em>. 2001), eastern Syria, Kuwait and Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991), ranging through much of central and southern Iran to Pakistan and Afghanistan, from here it ranges throughout India, and Sri Lanka, being also widely distributed through much of Nepal south of the Himalayas. It ranges in elevation from sea level up to 2,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
21514		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of dry or arid habitats. In South Asia, it occurs in dry deciduous forests, scrub forests, grasslands, rocky areas, hot deserts, arid and semi-arid regions and uncultivated areas. It has been found to occupy undisturbed barren open areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Turkey, it appears to prefer uncultivated arid and semi-arid habitats with soft soil and dry river slopes (Yiğit <em>et al</em>. 2001). Harrison and Bates (1991) indicatethat the species can be found in agricultural country not far from water, including heavily grazed areas.
21514		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of dry or arid habitats. In South Asia, it occurs in dry deciduous forests, scrub forests, grasslands, rocky areas, hot deserts, arid and semi-arid regions and uncultivated areas. It has been found to occupy undisturbed barren open areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Turkey, it appears to prefer uncultivated arid and semi-arid habitats with soft soil and dry river slopes (Yi?it <em>et al</em>. 2001). Harrison and Bates (1991) indicatethat the species can be found in agricultural country not far from water, including heavily grazed areas.
21514		population	eng	The species is locally abundant.
21514		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species.
21515		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
21515		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution, ranging from Guinea in the west through much of West Africa, through the Sudan-Turquinae savanna zone, to southwestern Ethiopia in the east.
21515		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry tree savannas on lateritic, or clay, soils. It has been recorded from agricultural areas.
21515		population	eng	It is a common species.
21515		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21516		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
21516		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Southern Africa, from the equator to about 30 degrees south (excluding parts of southern South Africa, western Namibia and northern Mozambique).
21516		habitat	eng	This species is associated with bushland and grasslands. This is a reservoir species for the bubonic plague.
21516		population	eng	It is a common species, with cyclic fluctuations of population abundance.
21516		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21517		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The species is present in a number of protected areas.
21517		distribution	eng	This East African species is found in southern Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. It does not appear to range west of the Eastern Rift Valley. It is found from sea level to 1,500 m asl.
21517		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry savanna, dry open woodland and agricultural areas.
21517		population	eng	It is a common species.
21517		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21518		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
21518		distribution	eng	This species is found in disjunct populations in Somalia, the Rift Valley in Ethiopia and Kenya (Bates 1988).
21518		habitat	eng	It is associated with areas of arid, open shrubland.
21518		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
21518		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21519		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
21519		distribution	eng	This species range extends from Central to East Africa and includes the northeastern Central African Republic, eastern Niger, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania (Bates 1985; Bates 1988). It possibly also occurs in Cameroon and Nigeria. It is present from sea level to around 1,500 m asl.
21519		habitat	eng	This ubiquitous species occupies a broad range of habitat types. It is generally found in dry savanna, open grassland and arable lands, most often on clay soils.
21519		population	eng	It is very common.
21519		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21520		conservation	eng	Although there are no conservation measures in place, the species is present in a number of protected areas.
21520		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in Central Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa. Its range extends from Sudan in the north to Zimbabwe in the south, and from Angola eastwards to Tanzania, encompassing southern and eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
21520		habitat	eng	This is a species of savannas and arable lands
21520		population	eng	It is a common species.
21520		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21521		conservation	eng	Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
21521		distribution	eng	This species appears to have been recorded from southern Mauritania, and possibly from central Mali and southern Niger although this needs to be confirmed. Only two localities have been confirmed by chromosomal data (Matthey 1969; Volobouev and Granjon 1996).
21521		habitat	eng	Animals have been reported from sandy clay plains and continental fixed dunes.
21521		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
21521		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
21522		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
21522		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northern parts of Central Africa, ranging from northern Cameroon in the west to possibly northwestern Uganda in the east.
21522		habitat	eng	This species is associated with Sudan savannas and wooded savannas in the Guinean zone, and can additionally be encountered in savanna islands within secondary tropical moist forest habitats.
21522		population	eng	It is a locally very common species.
21522		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
21523		conservation	eng	It is possibly present in a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
21523		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Central Africa and East Africa. It ranges from eastern Central African Republic, through much of Sudan to Ethiopa and central and southern Somalia, and from here is found southwards into northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, much of Kenya and northern parts of Tanzania.
21523		habitat	eng	It is typically associated with dry savanna to sparse dry grassland and arid areas, with populations also recorded from cultivated land in parts of Sudan and Uganda.
21523		population	eng	This is a common species.
21523		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
21524		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
21524		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, eastwards to Niger, Nigeria and western Chad.
21524		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with consolidated soild substrates in the Sahel and Sudan savannas, from dry forest areas in the south to very arid areas in the north of its range.
21524		population	eng	This is a very common species that is sometimes considered to be a considerable agricultural pest species.
21524		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
21526		conservation	eng	This species does not appear to be known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and possible long-term threats to this species.
21526		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area in northern Cameroon and Nigeria, near to Lake Chad.
21526		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from areas of bushland, fallow land and field edges in northern Cameroon.  With more research on ecology this might prove to be a mesic species associated to Lake Chad (with a possible long term threat as the lake size continues to decrease).
21526		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
21526		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species at present or in the immediate future.
21527		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
21527		distribution	eng	This species is generally distributed on the right bank of Niger River in the countries of Niger, Burkina Faso and Mali.
21527		habitat	eng	This is a typical Sahelian species, associated with Sahel savana of 300 to 500 mm annual rainfall. Populations are found on sandy soils, including also in millet field on sandy soils. It can be found in dune habitats but this is not the preferred habitat.
21527		population	eng	It ranges from being uncommon to locally abundant.
21527		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
21528		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
21528		distribution	eng	Populations of this West African species have been disjunctly recorded from Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania in the west, and from Niger and northern Nigeria in the east. Increasing desertification within the region could result in the movement of this species range southwards.
21528		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from bush savanna and thorny scrub with avarage rainfall of 300 to 800 mm. It has also been found in recently formed sand dunes and soils that are poor in clay content. The species has been recorded from cultivated areas.
21528		population	eng	This is a common to abundant species.
21528		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
21529		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is protected within National Parks. Research and monitoring is in place for the species. There was a captive-rearing programme run by the Melbourne Zoo and the Queensland Department of the Environment, starting in 1996. Tadpoles were raised to metamorphosis and a single frog to adult stage, but all subsequently succumbed to chytridiomycosis. There are no longer any animals in captivity.
21529		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, was widely distributed from Mount Graham to the Big Tableland, north Queensland, at altitudes of 300-1,300m asl (McDonald 1992). The former extent of occurrence of the species was less than 9,000km² (Hero <em>et al.</em> 2002.).
21529		habitat	eng	The species was known to be a habitat specialist, endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) occurring along small creeks in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest (Liem and Hosmer 1973). The species was seen on the rocks during the day near swift-flowing streams or in the rainforest leaf-litter during wet weather (McDonald 1992). Males call during the day, from first light to early evening, near rainforest streams from beneath rocks or leaves (McDonald 1992). Males appear to establish territories, possibly as a response to seemingly low numbers of females (Dennis 1982). Breeding has been observed from late November through to January (Liem and Hosmer 1973). Eggs are laid as a gelatinous clump of about 25-40 eggs (2.2-2.7mm diameter) amongst rocks in the water usually in heavily shaded locations (Liem and Hosmer 1973). Liem and Hosmer (1973) described the tadpole of the species as lotic benthic. Tadpoles generally inhabit debris in pools or slow flowing sections of streams (Liem and Hosmer 1973).
21529		population	eng	Formerly a conspicuous inhabitant of upland rainforest streams because of its diurnal habits and historical abundance, the species started disappearing in the southern part of its range in 1988 and had disappeared from south of the Daintree River by 1992 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). In the past the species was considered locally abundant and in 1989, 48 calling males were recorded along a 100-m stream transect (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). When surveys of the same site were undertaken in 1990, only one adult and several tadpoles were located (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The decline of this species is well documented and, in approximately five years from 1988 to 1993, it disappeared from an area spanning about 2.5 degrees latitude (Ingram 1993). Possible sightings of a single individual in a small tributary of the South Johnstone River in 1996 (Marshall 1998), and in 1997, a gravid female seen near Mount Hartley (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998), are the only records of the species since 1994 (Hero <em>et al.</em> 2002; Schloegel <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is possible that this species is now extinct.
21529		threats	eng	Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) found no obvious evidence that drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals were responsible for the population declines seen in this species. Big Tableland, the area where the species was at its highest density in 1991-1992, has been mined since 1887 and logging ceased in that area in 1963 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). Rather, research suggests the rapid, catastrophic decline of this species was due to infection with chytridiomycosis (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999; Schloegel <em>et al.</em> 2006). The effects that having very small isolated populations might have on the recovery of the species remain largely unknown, but might include low genetic variability, increased susceptibility to disease and general demographic instability (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by this species (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). There is very little research, however, into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).
21530		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is fully protected within a National Park.
21530		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, occurred in disjunctive populations in three sub-coastal mountain ranges (Blackall, Conondale, and D’Aguilar Ranges) in the south-east Queensland region from Coonoon Gibber Creek in the north to Mount Glorious in the south (Czechura and Ingram 1990; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The extent of occurrence of the species was about 1,400km² (map in Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). <em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> occurred over a relatively narrow altitudinal range of 350-800m asl with most records falling between 500-800m asl (Czechura and Ingram 1990).
21530		habitat	eng	<em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> was associated with permanent and temporary watercourses in montane rainforests, tall open forest, notophyll vine forest and sclerophyll fern forest (Czechura and Ingram 1990). In addition, animals were also found along watercourses in pure stands of the palm <em>Archontophoenix cunninghamia</em>, in exposed areas, in gorges, in dense non-forest riparian vegetation (<em>Lomandra longifolia</em>, <em>Carex neuroclamys</em>, <em>Elastostema reticulatum</em> and <em>Blechnum nudum</em>) and where the riparian vegetation had been slightly infested with <em>Lantana camara</em> (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Permanent streams with rocky substrates were favoured, but this species also occurred in permanent and ephemeral streams on gravel, clay, sand and soil substrates (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Active frogs have been observed all year round, although less frequently during winter months (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Breeding occurred in warm weather after or during heavy rain from late October to May, with a January to March peak (Czechura and Ingram 1990; Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001d). Gravid females have been reported between November and May (Straughan and Lee 1966). Amplexus is inguinal and 24-36 eggs (2.2mm diameter) are deposited in gelatinous clumps under rocks or branches in the water (Liem and Hosmer 1973; Watson and Martin 1973; Czechura and Ingram 1990; Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001d). Tadpoles, illustrated by Liem and Hosmer (1973) and Watson and Martin (1973), were found throughout the year.
21530		population	eng	In the early 1970s it was considered to be relatively common (McEvoy, McDonald and Searle 1979), but it has not been sighted in the wild since 1979 despite continued efforts to relocate the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The disappearance of the species occurred over a period of three to four years, disappearing from the D’Aguilar Range in late 1975, then from the Blackall Range in late 1978, and finally from the Conondale Range in early 1979 (Czechura and Ingram 1990). There is no information on population size, structure, genetics or dynamics (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). This species is now believed to be extinct.
21530		threats	eng	The reason(s) for the disappearance of this species remains unknown. Like <em>Rheobatrachus silus</em>, logging has occurred in catchments occupied by the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999); however, the effect of timber harvesting on the species has not been investigated. The species’ habitat is currently threatened by feral pigs, invasion of weed species (especially mist flower) and altered stream flow and water quality due to upstream disturbances (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). <em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> was not found in areas along watercourses that were heavily infested with <em>Lantana camara</em> or where the weeds <em>Baccharis halimifilia</em> and <em>Agertina riparia</em> (mist flower) occurred (Czechura and Ingram 1990). The frogs were also absent from streams with very muddy water associated with the activities of feral pigs (Czechura and Ingram 1990). From what is known from similar declines and disappearance elsewhere in the world, the disease chytridiomycosis also must be suspected as a cause for the decline.
21531		conservation	eng	Much of the species' remaining habitat is protected within National Parks and State Forests. It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring of populations is in place.
21531		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted to the ranges west of Mackay, mid-eastern Queensland, from Clarke Range in the north to Finch Hatton Gorge and Credition in the south at altitudes between 200 and 1,000m asl (Ingram 1980; Covacevich and McDonald 1993).
21531		habitat	eng	It occurs along small and large streams in rainforest as well as wet sclerophyll forest (Liem and Hosmer 1973). The immediate streamside habitat is dense rainforest with ferns, vines, palms and epiphytes in the understorey (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). The species inhabits exposed steep, rocky sections of streams especially within splash zones of waterfalls and cascades (McNellie and Hero 1994; Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997) and may be found under rocks and crevices or on emergent rocks in the stream (Liem and Hosmer 1973; Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). Tadpoles are found in first to third order streams in large and relatively still mid-stream pools, or partially connected streamside pools (Retallick and Hero 1998). Tadpoles have been observed in the benthic layer among rocks, litter, and detritus (Retallick and Hero 1998). It is a stream-dwelling/stream-breeding species. Males call during the day throughout most of the year with a peak in activity and calling during autumn and the warmer months of the year (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). About 30-50 pigmented eggs are laid though sites of oviposition are unknown (Liem and Hosmer 1973; Retallick and Hero 1998). Retallick and Hero (1998) described the tadpole of the species. Peak-breeding season is between January and May, but tadpoles of all sizes and developmental stages may be found throughout the year (Retallick and Hero 1998). Newly hatched tadpoles have been recorded in April, May and December (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). Metamorphosis occurs mainly between November and January (Retallick and Hero 1998).
21531		population	eng	This species was considered common across its range until January 1985 when the first signs of decline (Winter and McDonald 1986) were observed at lower altitudes (i.e., about 400m asl). At higher altitudes the frogs were common until March 1985, but were absent in June of that year (McDonald 1990). A small population was recorded in the south of its distribution in June 1986, but disappeared after that date (McDonald 1990). Tadpoles were present in the southern areas of the distribution until May 1987 (McDonald 1990). After a period of apparent absence, an individual was rediscovered in 1992 (Couper 1992) and the species has subsequently been recorded at nine scattered locations within Eungella National Park (McNellie and Hero 1994; Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998; Retallick 1998). Populations of the species were monitored throughout 1994-1998 along sections of streams at altitudes between 180 and 980m asl (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997; Retallick 1998). Population sizes differed noticeably between sites but appeared to be consistent over time. Interestingly, a significant proportion of each population was recaptured with each visit, which suggests that the population turnover is low, and that the population size is also low. The monitored populations are a large population at Rawson Creek, a medium-sized population at Dooloomai Falls, and a small population at Tree Fern Creek. Frogs at other sites were caught too irregularly to provide useful information. Although the numbers of frogs found at these sites are encouraging and appear to be slowly increasing (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997), at Dooloomai Falls the current number of frogs remain substantially lower than were recorded before the precipitous population declines in 1985/1986 (McDonald, in Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). Regular monitoring since 1999 has found low numbers at nine streams and high numbers at one stream. Numbers might have declined at several sites since 1997 but there has been drought for much of this time, which might have reduced numbers and/or activity.
21531		threats	eng	The cause(s) of the decline remains unknown. McDonald (1990) found no obvious evidence that seasonal rarity, over-collecting, drought, floods, habitat destruction, heavy parasite loads or stress due to handling and data collection were responsible for the population declines. Sick and dying frogs have occasionally been encountered (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2002) and it might be that the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, has had an impact on the population (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1998). Studies of tissue samples collected between 1994 and 1998 show that the chytrid fungus had infected some individuals of this species. Forest grazing and trampling of streamside vegetation by livestock have been identified as possible threats to the species, but there is no evidence to support this (Dadds 1999). Cane toads <em>Rhinella marina</em> might be able to penetrate natural habitats along roadways and utilize ponds for breeding, but there is no evidence of this occurring (Dadds 1999) or that this would have a negative impact on the species (R.W.R. Retallick pers. comm.).
21532		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is protected within a national park. It is also listed as threatened in Queensland, and research and monitoring of populations is in place. Given the presence of the chytrid fungus, populations should be monitored carefully.
21532		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the Eungella area of Queensland, west of Mackay, from Cathu State Forest in the north to Crediton in the south, from 180-1,250m asl.
21532		habitat	eng	It is confined to rocky margins of fast-flowing creeks and seepages in montane rainforest in the Eungella area (Rettalick and Hero 1998). Males call from hidden positions. Eggs are laid under rocks in side pools, where the larvae complete their development.
21532		population	eng	It is a common species and is commonly heard, but it is sparsely distributed and rarely seen. There have been no observed declines in the population.
21532		threats	eng	There are several potential threats to this species, but no evidence yet of them affecting populations. These threats are forest grazing and trampling of streamside vegetation by livestock, introduced cane toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) which could penetrate natural habitats via roads and use ponds for breeding, and the chytrid fungus (which has been found in some streams where this species occurs, but there is no evidence that it has infected this species so far).
21533		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is protected within Kroombit Tops State Forest Scientific Area No 48. It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring of the populations is in place.
21533		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species, an Australian endemic, is extremely restricted and is confined to nine small (up to 54ha) unconnected patches of rainforest (totalling about 200ha) above 500m asl at Kroombit Tops, south-west of Gladstone (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; J. Clarke pers. comm.). It is believed to be a relict species, restricted to Kroombit Tops through habitat fragmentation that disrupted rainforest connections between south and north-east Queensland (Czechura 1986a). Within the rainforest patches, populations are clumped around drainage lines and seepage areas (J. Clarke pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 18km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 60ha (J. Clarke pers. comm). Surveys in February 1997 and regular surveys since 1998 have greatly expanded the known distribution of the species (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; J. Clarke pers. comm.). All potential sites on the Kroombit Tableland and escarpment have been searched at least once during the calling season although additional potential habitat for the species exists on the Dawes Range and Mount Roberts (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). To date, surveys of suitable habitat on the Dawes Range and Mount Roberts have failed to find this species (E. Meyer pers. comm.).
21533		habitat	eng	The species is highly cryptic and mainly associated with Piccabeen Palm (<em>Archontophoenix cunninghamiana</em>) rainforest and boulder scree gullies (Czechura 1986a; Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001c). It is found around rocky shelves and boulders, under rocks. or in deep rock piles near temporary streamlines, seepage zones, and in sheltered rocky scree (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). Most sites have little or no surface water (J.M. Clarke pers. comm.). It has never been observed basking (Czechura 1986b). Activity seems to be initiated by the first heavy falls of rain during the spring-summer period (Czechura 1996a). Calling has been heard between September and March, with calling peaks on warm, wet nights from September to February (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; J. Clarke pers. comm.). Calling is usually most intense at dusk and early evening (Czechura 1986a; Borsboom, Clarke and Cunningham 1998; Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999) although the species will call all night and all day if conditions are suitable (J. Clarke pers. comm.). The males usually call partially or completely concealed in rock crevices or under leaf-litter and often exhibit territorial behaviour by segregating themselves along the stream (Czechura 1986a), although the species is frequently recorded away from streams or seepages (J. Clarke pers. comm.). Only three gravid females have ever been found: one (the holotype) in early February, another in mid-January and a third (partly gravid) in early December (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; E. Meyer pers. comm.). Large unpigmented eggs were visible through the abdominal wall of specimens found in late January and December (Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001c). Eggs, tadpoles and oviposition sites have not been observed (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). It almost certainly does not breed in streams (H. Hines and E. Meyer pers. comm.). Despite regular searching along creeks, tadpoles of the species have never been found (E. Meyer pers. comm.). The large eggs moreover suggest direct or partially direct development (E. Meyer pers. comm.). The species occurs in situations where water is highly ephemeral, or doesn't pool above the ground (e.g., steep rocky slopes) (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Thus, it seems likely that breeding takes place at the bottom of rock piles, which retain water even when there is little or no surface water available (E. Meyer pers. comm.).
21533		population	eng	The only regularly monitored population, in the head of Kroombit Creek, appears to have declined (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The species was regularly encountered at this site prior to 1997 but was not heard or seen at this site during the 1997/1998 seasons despite systematic monitoring (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). Data from monitoring transects on Kroombit Plateau indicate a significant decline in numbers over the past 6-7 years, and numbers upstream have declined dramatically since 1997 (E. Meyer pers. comm.). During 1997/1998 little other monitoring work was undertaken in the area but the species was heard calling at three recently discovered sites (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Estimates of population size are highly conjectural with no more than 13 individuals being recorded from one site at any one time, and only three females have ever been recorded (J. Clarke pers. comm.). No information is available on population structure, genetic variation or metapopulation dynamics. Some populations are almost certainly isolated from others but this has not yet been shown.
21533		threats	eng	The apparent low population, isolation and extremely restricted distribution of the species make it highly susceptible to demographic instability, disturbance and extinction. Clarke <em>et al.</em> (1999) and Borsboom, Clarke and Cunningham (1998) list five main potential threats to the species: wildfire; domestic and feral animals (as mentioned above); unknown agent(s) responsible for declines of other Queensland frogs; visitor pressure and timber harvesting. Timber harvesting has ceased in the catchments above all known populations (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999), but might be a threat to any new populations on leasehold land. Visitor numbers are low at present, but increased visitation might disrupt breeding or impact on habitat. A high-intensity wildfire in 1994 burned into many rainforest patches used by the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). A later flood altered stream hydrology and removed leaf-litter in the area (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). The wildfire might be partially responsible for the decline of the species at the monitoring site (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Modified fire management procedures have now been put in place to reduce the risk of further high-intensity fires (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Chytrid fungus, a disease found by Berger <em>et al.</em> (1998) to be associated with frog deaths and declines elsewhere in Australia and Central America, was isolated from animals of a sympatric species (<em>Litoria pearsonia</em>). Clarke <em>et al.</em> (1999) and Borsboom, Clarke and Cunningham (1998) list domestic cattle, horses and feral pigs as potential threats to the species. The majority of the Kroombit Tops State Forest is under grazing lease and stock pose a threat to the species mainly through the destruction of habitat and fouling of water (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). A fence has been constructed to exclude stock, but impacts at the head of Kroombit Creek continue. Feral pigs, which might prey upon this species, destroy habitat and act as potential vectors of chytrid fungus (by carrying infected mud to new sites), and have recently been found at all sites occupied by this species (J. Clarke pers. comm.).
21534		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is protected within Daintree and Wooroonooran National Parks. It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring of populations is in place.
21534		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted to five mountaintops from Thornton Peak to Mount Bellenden Ker, northern Queensland, at altitudes of 940-1,400m asl (McDonald 1992; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998). It does not occur in habitat between the mountaintops. The extent of occurrence of the species is less than 4,700km² (map in McDonald 1992).
21534		habitat	eng	This is a montane specialist, endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998) occurring along rocky streams in upland rainforest (Liem and Hosmer 1973). It is usually found under rocks and logs beside fast-flowing streams and prefers seepage and trickle areas near streams (McDonald 1992). Individuals recorded in 1996 were found hidden from view in small gaps beneath or between boulders that were at least one metre in diameter (Marshall 1998). One juvenile on Bellenden Ker was captured from under a small rock approximately 30cm in diameter, in the streambed (J.-M. Hero pers. obs.). The species is active all year (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993) and calls mainly during the day (Ingram 1980). Male calling sites are usually under boulders, rocks or roots and individuals may be partially submerged (Ingram 1980; Marshall 1998). Egg masses and tadpoles of the species have not been identified (Liem and Hosmer 1973; McDonald and Alford 1999), but large eggs (1.8-2.4mm diameter), numbering 35-50 have been found in gravid females (Liem and Hosmer 1973). Juveniles were collected in December and May (Liem and Hosmer 1973).
21534		population	eng	The species has undergone a sudden range contraction and had apparently disappeared by October 1991 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). After a period of apparent absence, five individuals were heard calling in a small, high-altitude tributary of the Mulgrave River, and a further seven individuals were heard calling and one was captured in a small, high-altitude tributary of the Mitchell River, Mount Carbine (Marshall 1998). Further records of the species from the south-east slope of Mount Bellenden Ker (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998) include a single juvenile in February 1998 (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998) and 3-5 individuals in December 2000 (Freeman 2000; and see Freeman 2003) at approximately 1,400m asl.
21534		threats	eng	The causes of the decline remain unknown. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) found no obvious evidence that drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals were responsible for the population declines. Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). The effects that having very small isolated populations might have on the recovery of the species remain largely unknown, but might include low genetic variability, increased susceptibility to disease and general demographic instability (Hero <em>et al.</em> 2002). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by this species (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there is very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).
21571		distribution	eng	Found in the Malili Lakes system, Sulawesi.
21575		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.
21576		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.
21577		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.
21578		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.
21578		population	eng	1
21579		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.
21580		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.
21581		conservation	eng	To date, this species is not recorded from any protected areas, and the establishment of a protected area for this species coupled with a species management plan (including <em>ex-situ</em> assistance) is needed. The population at Pueblo Nuevo needs to be closely monitored, while the taxonomic status of the population of Los Patos needs further investigation to determine whether or not it represents a distinct taxon.
21581		distribution	eng	This species was initially discovered at "San Antonio de los Cobres (24° 11'S; 66° 21'W)", Salta Province, Argentina", but it has now been extirpated from this site. It is currently known with certainty only from a single bog (Pueblo Nuevo) approximately 1.5km from the type locality. A population that morphologically is very close to <em>T. atacamensis</em> has recently been discovered at Los Patos, Salta Province (Barrionuevo and Mangione 2006), which is close to the type locality, but is in a rivulet that does not belong to the same basin of the two other localities. It has been recorded at an elevation of 3,800m asl.
21581		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, occurring in high-elevation bog streams with individuals found in burrows in the bog streamsides. The species cannot survive in modified habitats.
21581		population	eng	This is a very rare species that is in serious decline. Already extinct at the type locality, it might survive at Pueblo Nuevo.
21581		threats	eng	It is threatened by the introduction of predatory fish (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>), and by water pollution caused by mining activities (gold and copper). In addition, the drainage of mountain bogs and the alteration of watersheds are also threats to this species. Chytridiomycosis was reported for this species by Barrionuevo and Mangione (2006).
21582		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas near the region where it was collected.
21582		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ollagüe, in El Loa Province in northern Chile, at 2,000-3,400m asl. It might occur in neighbouring Bolivia.
21582		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a hot spring. Its reproductive details are unknown, but reproduction presumably occurs by larval development in water.
21582		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, which was collected in 1937. Several expeditions to the area in recent years have failed to locate any individuals of this species, which might no longer survive at the type locality, although it could occur elsewhere.
21582		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, although chtridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.
21583		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. Habitat protection and maintenance is recommended, complemented by more general actions to mitigate the effects of water pollution and channelization. Close monitoring of surviving populations of this species is required.
21583		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Zapahuira, Parinacota Province, in extreme northern Chile (18° 20'S; 69° 36'W) at 3,400 m asl, on the western slopes of the Andes.
21583		habitat	eng	The type locality is a small high-altitude stream, close to human villages. It is wholly aquatic, requiring small permanent streams to persist, and its tolerance to habitat destruction is unknown. Reproduction occurs in the water and it has large, free-swimming tadpoles.
21583		population	eng	A small population persisted in 1999, but the species generally appears to be in decline.
21583		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water extraction from streams, because local people extract water for cattle ranching and human use; it might also be affected by the impact of cattle on the streams. Although not recorded, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
21584		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at which the species has been recorded. In Chile, there is a need for further survey work to determine the species' current population status. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
21584		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south-eastern Andes of Perú (Moquegua and Tacna departments), and a single site in Chile: Putre, Parinacota Province, close to the Peruvian border, at 3,300m asl.
21584		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog, occurring in streams and small rivers in the high Andes. Breeding takes place in streams. It is not known to occur in modified or degraded habitats.
21584		population	eng	There is little recent information on the status of this species in Peru. The small Chilean population is declining, and was last seen in 1986; several visits to the site in 1996 and 2003 failed to turn up any records.
21584		threats	eng	In Peru, there are some localized threats including habitat loss, through mining and agricultural activities, and small-scale harvesting for food and medicine. In Chile, it is locally threatened by human water consumption and water pollution, leading to the drying out of streams. <em>Telmatobius</em> species living at high elevations might be particularly prone to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. peruvianus</em>.
21585		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Close monitoring of the population status of this species is needed.
21585		distribution	eng	This species is known only at the type locality on the western slopes of the northern Chilean Andes: Zapahuira, Parinacota Province (18° 20'S; 69° 36'W), at 3,400 m asl. It might occur more widely, but it is likely to have a very small range.
21585		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic species, occurring in streams and small rivers in the high Andes; breeding takes place in streams.
21585		population	eng	The population surviving at the type locality is small, and underwent a steep decline following the construction of a nearby dam.
21585		threats	eng	The only known locality is close to human villages, where the species occurs in streams that have been modified by peasants for agriculture, suggesting some limited ability to adapt to human disturbance. A known major threat to the species has been the construction of the nearby dam for human water consumption. Although not yet recorded, chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.
21622		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for greatly improved protection of the Valdivian forests.
21622		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western and eastern slopes of the Coastal Range, in Valdivia and Osorno Provinces, Chile, at 0 -1,000m asl. It is found at 38° 38'S to 40° 53'S, localities that correspond to the <em>Nothofagus</em> region.
21622		habitat	eng	It occurs in fast-flowing streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. The tadpoles are free-swimming and feed by scraping algae off of submerged rocks. It is tolerant of minor habitat destruction.
21622		population	eng	It is known from only a few small, disjunct populations, and is uncommonly seen (it was recorded as recently as 2001).
21622		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the siltation of streams (which makes it difficult for larvae to feed), caused by afforestation with exotic species and clear cutting.
21623		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta, but there is a need for additional protection and maintenance of habitat at sites at which this species is known to occur. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.
21623		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few locations in the Coastal Range, Nahuelbuta, Arauco Province, Chile, between 37° and 38°S. It has an altitudinal range of 800-1,200m asl.
21623		habitat	eng	It occurs in fast-flowing streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. The tadpoles are free-swimming and feed by scraping algae off of submerged rocks. It is tolerant of moderate habitat destruction.
21623		population	eng	It is extremely rare; extensive fieldwork by several herpetologists within the range of this species from 1992-2002 turned up only a single adult (in 2002).
21623		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is clear cutting and afforestation with pine plantations, which causes siltation of streams (which, in turn, makes it harder for the larvae to feed).
21624		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Altos de Lircay. Further survey work is needed to better understand the current population status of this poorly known species.
21624		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slopes of the Chilean Andes from 35° 20'S to 38° 50'S (Altos de Vilches, Talca Province; Cordillera de Chillán, Chillán Province; Ralco, Bío-Bío Province), at an elevation of 1,500-1,700m asl.
21624		habitat	eng	It occurs under rocks along streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Its reproduction is unknown, though it probably takes place by larval development in water.
21624		population	eng	It is a rare species, and in 1999 was recorded for the first time in some 100 years. It is known from very few individuals from only three localities.
21624		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to conversion of native habitat to pine and eucalyptus plantations, and as a result of forest fires.
21627		conservation	eng	Management of the species fishery is needed throughout the species range, along with research into the impacts of current and proposed dams on the species migration routes.
21627		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Mekong basin from northern Thailand to the Mekong Delta including the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia. Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) considered it possible that the species distribution might extend into Myanmar and southern China.
21627		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and large tributaries and it also moves to floodplain and lakes. It is strongly migratory, moving from the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, and passes upstream through the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR. The species grows to c.60 cm in length (Mattson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). It is a filter-feeder.<br/><br/>There are at least two populations in the Mekong (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004); one around Xayaboury in northern Lao PDR and upstream, the other in the lower Mekong from the Mekong Delta to Paksan in Lao PDR, downstream of Vientiane. The latter may represent more than one population, e.g., one above and one below the Khone Falls (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The species is thought to spawn mid-stream, with juveniles feeding in flooded floodplain habitats and major tributaries. Deep pools in the Mekong mainstream highly vulnerable to impacts from dam operation, are considered important for the population between Stung Treng and Kratie in Cambodia.
21627		population	eng	The species is seasonally and locally common at the beginning of the flooding season. Population decline is suspected to have reached 30% (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2010) over the last 10-15 years, continuing a decline that had been observed in the 1990's by Baird and Roberts (1993). The species was previously abundant in the Khone Falls area but is now considerably rarer (Roberts 1993). Baird and Roberts (1995) reported that this species had declined the most of all the species that feature in the Khone Falls fishery since the 1970s; only four specimens were observed during the 15-day migratory period at the waterfalls in June-July 1993, and only a few individual fish were caught by fishermen in November-January 1993-94. Few were caught at the Khone Falls over the period 1993 to 1999 (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. 2</span>005).
21627		threats	eng	The causes of population decline are overfishing for human consumption, and habitat degradation due to infrastructure development, especially dams which block species movements. The species is considered to be vulnerable to impacts from mainstream dam development on the Mekong (ICEM 2010). Baird (2009) noted that the proposed Don Sahong dam at the Khone Falls would impact migration of the (lower Mekong) population.
21628		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
21629		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
21641		conservation	eng	<p><em>Terrapene carolina</em> is included in CITES Appendix II and is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations in Canada and the United States. Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven.</p><p> The species occurs in a large number of protected areas, some of which are large and remote enough to buffer their resident Box Turtle populations from most impacts. A population of <em>Terrapene carolina mexicana</em> could occur in the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve (217 km<sup>2</sup>, cat. VI; core 167 km<sup>2</sup>, cat. Ia), but no confirmation is available. Individuals and perhaps populations of <em>Terrapene carolina yucatana</em> could occur in a number of protected natural and archaeological sites, but this remains unconfirmed.</p><p>Obvious impacts on Box Turtle populations from residential, industrial, recreational and infrastructure developments should minimize impact on these turtle populations, through measures potentially including translocation, wildlife crossings, creation of replacement habitat, awareness, and other actions. Conservation measures for other species and habitat management focused on ecosystem maintenance or restoration must take the specific needs and sensitivities of Box Turtle populations into account, whether forest or fire management. Removal of Box Turtles from, and release of Box Turtles into natural populations should be minimized through appropriate enforcement of legislation and regulations, and through public awareness. Extensive research on status and conservation biology, and monitoring of population trends, is essential for sound conservation management of the species. </p>  <p>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, habitat monitoring, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas, or establishment of one or more suitable PAs, are urgently needed for <em>Terrapene carolina mexicana</em> and <em>Terrapene carolina yucatana.</em> </p>
21641		distribution	eng	<p><em>Terrapene carolina </em>occurs throughout North America south of the Great Lakes and east of the Rocky Mountains, from southern Ontario, Canada, south to the Florida Keys and Texas, as well as Northeastern Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula (adapted from Iverson 1992, Dodd 2001).</p><span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene carolina carolina</span>: Extreme southern Maine through Ontario, central Michigan and central Illinois to Georgia.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Terrapene carolina bauri</span>: Peninsular Florida<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Terrapene carolina major</span>:<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>southern Mississippi, southern Alabama, and western Florida<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Terrapene carolina triunguis</span>: Eastern Texas to southeastern Kansas, southern Missouri, and south-central Alabama.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Terrapene carolina mexicana</span>:<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Northeastern Mexico, from Tamaulipas through eastern San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo to western Veracruz.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Terrapene carolina yucatana </span>occurs in Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo States of Mexico (Dodd 2001). Old records of occurrence in northern Belize are probably speculative, as no confirmed specimens are known from Belize.
21641		habitat	eng	<p><em>Terrapene carolina</em> occurs in a variety of habitats, including open broadleaf forests, field-forest edges, shrubby graslands, marshy meadows, stream valleys, palmetto thickets and other vegetation types. The species is omnivorous, feeding on mushrooms, plant stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, slugs, snails, earthworms and numerous other types of food. Box turtles disperse and facilitate germination of certain plant seeds. <br/> </p><p>Males reach 23.5 cm carapace length (CL), females 19.8 cm in subspecies <em>major</em>, other subspecies rarely exceed 16 cm CL. Maturity is reached at five to six years / 9-10 cm CL in males, and at seven to eight years / 9-10 cm CL in females of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">baurii</span>. Longevity of 50-80 years is probably not unusual, but most animals do not surpass 25-35 years at present. Generation time is probably at the order of 35 years years (Kiester pers. comm. 2009). Reproducing females produce one or two clutches of three to five (range 1-11) eggs per year, but many females do not reproduce each year. Incubation takes about 73 (50-110) days. Hatchlings measure about 30 (27-36) mm (Dodd 2001, Farrell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).</p>  <p><em>Terrapene carolina mexicana</em> lives mainly in tropical deciduous forest, rarely in mixed pine – deciduous forest or oak forest habitat at altitude (Dodd 2001, P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005). Most reported localities are below 500 m altitude (Smith and Smith 1979), but recoirds exist up to 900 m altitude in the Sierra de Tamaulipas (P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005). No specific information is available on food, feeding or reproduction (Dodd 2001). </p>  <p>Very little information available on the natural history of<em> Terrapene carolina yucatana</em>; preferred habitat apparently is low semi-xeric deciduous scrub forest broken by scattered grassland areas (Smith and Smith 1979); animals are occasionally encountered by rural farmers after slashing and burning of fallow fields before planting (Buskirk 1993). It is active only during the rainy season (June to early November) (Buskirk 1993). Largest recorded animal was 15.9 cm CL (Buskirk 1993), though Lee (1996) indicated up to 20 cm might be possible. Little or no information is available on food and feeding, reproduction, growth or maturity  (Lee 1996, Dodd 2001). </p>
21641		population	eng	Although widespread and historically common, populations of the various subspecies of the Eastern Box Turtle are perceived to be in gradual decline across the species' range, documented both at a number of sites where populations were monitored over decades, and from casual observations across much of the range. Reported population densities range from two to 24 animals per hectare of suitable habitat (Farrell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).&#160;               <p><em>Terrapene carolina mexicana</em> apparently is localized in its occurrence, and relatively common where it occurs (Smith and Smith 1979, P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005). </p>  <p><em>Terrapene carolina yucatana</em> is uncommon to rare: rural farmers interviewed by Buskirk (1993) said that some might see a half dozen animals per year, and none in another year. Only 18 localities have been recorded over a century of the species being known to science (Smith and Smith 1979, Buskirk 1993). While the similarly uncommonly collected <em>Kinosternon creaseri</em> proved widespread and abundant when specifically searched for, <em>Terrapene yucatana</em> was not found by any turtle surveys in Yucatan (Iverson 1988; Buskirk 1993, 1997; Artner 2004). Total population was estimated as most likely less than 10,000 individuals (J.C. Lee pers. comm. 2005)</p>
21641		threats	eng	A wide variety of factors impact <span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene carolina</span>, and the combination of impacts may leverage the severity of impacts. Degradation, fragmentation and destruction of Box Turtle habitat is widespread, from conversion of rural areas to suburban subdivisions and industrial areas, highways and other infrastructure, to consolidation of small-scale agriculture and timber plantations, and impacts of intentional or accidental vegetation fires, including prescribed burn regimes. Pollution and pesticide effects have been implicated in at least localized population declines, and this has impacted across much of the landscape. <br/><br/>Direct mortality from vehicle strikes, both as roadkill and from agricultural machinery, as well as fire mortality, reduces population density and recruitment potential. Decreased recruitment also results from increased predation, particularly of eggs and juveniles, by subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) such as raccoons, foxes, possums, and crows, and possibly boar and dogs; introduced fire ants have also been implicated in Box Turtle population declines.<br/><br/>Intentional removal of large numbers of animals for the domestic and international pet trade has largely ceased, but incidental collection of animals as personal pets and for and 'turtle racing' continues, and amount to very large numbers over time. If returned to native habitat, released pet Box Turtles carry a risk of introducing disease into a native population, and animals from elsewhere represent the threat of genetic pollution. The role of disease in Box Turtle declines is not clear, but ear abscesses are particularly prevalent among Eastern Box Turtles and may indicate underlying stresses.<br/><br/>The overall impact of vegetational and forest succession occurring in much of the eastern United States is not clear, but anecdotal information suggests that while protected woodland areas develop into climax forests which are less suitable for Box Turtles, little new habitat is created or reverted to early successional stages. In certain areas (e.g., Egmont Key), Box Turtles rely on introduced vegetation species for shelter, and management measures to address invasive vegetation could adversely affect an area's suitability for box turtles.<br/><br/>The impact of climate change is not easy to predict, but recent mild winters in the Mid-Atlantic region have led to problems with animals emerging prematurely from hibernation, after which they are injured by subsequent cold periods (Dodd 2001, Farrell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009.<br/><br/>Habitat loss (from sugarcane plantations, cattle grazing and fire impacts), collection for pet or subsistence consumption, and roadkills have all been recorded as threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. carolina mexicana</span>. The species can tolerate low-level habitat changes, but probably not large-scale modifications. Habitat across much of the range is probably fairly stable at present, however this should be monitored.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene carolina yucatana</span>: Some animals are killed by agricultural fires; charred animals encountered serendipitously may be consumed by rural farmers, but the species is too rare to go out looking for it.. Some animals are kept as pets locally. Very few animals are kept in captivity abroad (Buskirk 1993, Artner 2004). Road kill is also a problem for this rare, long lived species
21642		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. T<em>. coahuila</em> is included in CITES Appendix I. <br/> <br/>The entire range of the species falls within the 843 sq. km Cuatro Cienegas Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN Category VI), established in 1994. Provided no further major engineering works impact the ecological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, and the protected area regulations are adhered to, the species and its habitat should be relatively secure; however, recent and ongoing developments as well as plans for further development involve broad-scale ecological processes (water extraction, agriculture, infrastructure development) that will continue to impact the habitat in the foreseeable future. Such development must be managed and their impacts minimized as much as possible. Conservation efforts should be focused on halting habitat loss, especially in the western portion of the basin where the remaining population shows high levels of genetic distinctness (Howeth in litt., 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em> conservation breeding has been sufficiently successful that several zoo assurance colonies now exist, and small numbers of surplus animals have transferred to dedicated hobbyists, eliminating any need for collection and smuggling of wild animals to meet very limited hobbyist demand. <br/> <br/>An updated population status report and further biological research and status monitoring are priority actions.
21642		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Cuatro Ciénegas basin, Coahuila, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Dodd 2001).
21642		habitat	eng	The Cuatro Cienegas basin is an hourglass-shaped intermontane basin of about 50 km long and 8 to 24 km wide (about 600 sq. km), its floor being at 720 m altitude. Much of the central part of the basin is marshy (maximum 60 cm water depth), with dry sandy slopes leading up the rocky valley slopes. Many of the marshes and ponds are spring-fed. A number of deep (up to several metres) ponds occur within the marshy area, and retain crystal-clear water throughout the year. About half the bottom is covered by dense submerged aquatic vegetation (mainly <em>Chara</em>), the other half is bare sediment. Waterlilies grow in the shallow parts, and thick stands of cattails (<em>Typha</em>) and <em>Eleocharis</em> fringe the ponds. Water temp is about 27 to 29°C. Ponds may be separated from dry nesting areas on the slopes by substantial distances (several 100 m) of flat marshy grassland. (Webb and Legler 1960). In contrast to other <em>Terrapene</em> species, <em>T. coahuila</em> is fully aquatic. Within the Cuatro Cienegas basin, <em>T. coahuila</em> occurs mainly in the shallow marshy areas, but has also been encountered in the river and clear deep pools (Dodd 2001). <br/> <br/><em>T. coahuila</em> is largely a resident species that does not disperse widely, as indicated by both natural history studies of this aquatic species in a desert environment, and the significant differences in genotypic composition of the populations at different sites in pairwise comparisons, indicating limited gene flow between sites (Howeth in litt. 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/><em>T. coahuila</em> feeds on almost equal proportions of aquatic and wind-blown insects and their larvae (54%) and plant matter (46%) (review by Dodd 2001). <br/> <br/>Male Coahuila box turtles can reach up to 16.8 cm CL, females remain a little smaller (Dodd 2001). The size and age at maturity have apparently not been reported. <br/> <br/>Average clutch size in captive animals varies between 3.8 and 5.0, and several clutches are produced per year (Tonge 1987, Cerda and Waugh 1992). The maximum reproductive output per female is about 11 eggs per year, but for about one-third of examined females it is as low as 6.8 eggs/year (Brown 1974 in Dodd 2001).
21642		population	eng	The only available population estimate is that of Brown (1974), who calculated a density of 148 <em>Terrapene</em> per hectare of marsh during 1964-66. By the beginning of the 1990s it was believed to be uncommon, and a mark-recapture study in 2002-2003 of about two thirds of suitable <em>T. coahuila</em> habitat marked about 750 turtles with 50 to 80% recapture rates, extrapolating to a total population size at the order of about 2,500 adult animals (Howeth in litt. 26 Feb 2007).
21642		threats	eng	The Cuatro Cienegas basin has been extensively altered in its hydrology by digging canals and groundwater pumping for local and regional agricultural irrigation, and for drinking water (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007, Flores-Villela in litt. 25 Jan 2007, Hendrickson in litt. 27 Feb 2007). The western side of the basin is experiencing particularly rapid aquatic habitat loss; Laguna Grande was completely dry in 2006.  According to current residents of Cuatro Ciénegas, and Dr. Dean Hendrickson, this was the first time anyone had seen it dry (this encompasses at least 50 years, conservatively) (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>In 2002, surveys of box turtle sites by a team including Brown (who studied the species 34 years previously) located the marshes where Brown worked in the 1960s. The survey indicates that the species has disappeared from about 40% of its former extent of occurrence, while remaining wetland areas within the area of occurrence have become less suitable (or unsuitable) as habitat for <em>T. coahuila</em> as a result of desiccation and altered vegetation structure (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Roads, railroads, pipelines and other infrastructure for industrial, logistic, tourism and recreational purposes have impacted the ecosystem, and some of these environmental impacts continue. In the last decade it is known there has been tourist development, and farming expansion continues (Reuters 2007). Roads and fires have created direct-mortality impacts (Howeth in litt. 24 Jan 2007). There is a potential threat from the global pet trade (at least partly met by captive breeding, see Conservation Actions). Hybridization is not an issue for <em>T. coahuila</em>, in contrast to its sympatric turtle species.
21644		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene ornata</span> is included in CITES Appendix II. It is protected under a variety of US laws and regulations (review by Dodd 2001), while turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation.<br/><br/>The species likely inhabits a substantial number of protected areas across its range, but specific details are not available and would be desirable. Very limited information is available on the status and biology of the western subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">luteola</span> inhabiting the Sonora and Coahuila deserts, and studies would be appropriate.
21644		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene ornata</span> inhabits most of the United States between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi, ranging southwest into the Sonora desert and north up to South Dakota and Wisconsin. (Iverson 1992, Dodd 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> ornata ornata</span> occurs throughout most of the species’ range, from the Rocky Mountains foothills eastward to localized areas of occurrences as far as southern Wisconsin and northwestern Indiana.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Terrapene</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> ornata luteola</span> inhabits southeastern Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas west of the Pecos, USA, and northern Sonora and much of Chihuahua in Mexico.
21644		habitat	eng	<p>The Ornate Box Turtle is generally a ‘prairie turtle’, inhabiting treeless, sandy plains and gently rolling country with grass and scattered low brush as the dominant vegetation. It may enter woodlands, particularly along streams. Subspecies <em>luteola</em> in Arizona and New Mexico may also be found on the desert fringe (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). In nature, <em>Terrapene ornata</em> feed mainly on insects (mainly beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers);berries, carrion and other items are also eaten (Legler 1960, Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).</p><p>Both sexes of Ornate Box turtles may reach 15.4 cm carapace length (CL). Most males mature at about 10-11 cm plastron length (PL), and females at PL of about 11-13 cm, at ages of eight to nine and 10-11, respectively (Legler 1960). Average clutch size is 4.7 eggs in Kansas (Legler 1960) and 3.5 in Wisconsin (Doroff and Keith 1990); extremes of clutch size are two to eight. Depending on location and probably on environmental conditions, some females may produce a second clutch in a year, while many females skip reproduction for one or two years (Legler 1960, Doroff and Keith 1990). Hatchlings measure about 30 mm (range 28-32 mm). The oldest animal in a studied Kansas population was estimated to be 28 years old, and the population was estimated to have almost complete turnover in 25 years (Metcalf and Metcalf 1985). Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1994) reported a captive female of about 42 years of age (Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>No natural history information is available on the Mexican populations. </p>
21644		population	eng	Populations of Ornate Box Turtles can be numerous, reaching densities of 6.4-15.6 animals per hectare of favourable habitat in Kansas (Legler 1960). The ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">luteola</span> appears to be uncommon in the Chihuahua and Sonora deserts of the United States, which Milstead and Tinkle (1967) attributed to more arid conditions and the absence of dense plant cover. However, it was perceived as common in the Mexican part of its range (G. Santos pers. comm. 2005)
21644		threats	eng	Accidental, incidental mortality by cars when crossing roads, and to a lesser extend by encounters with farm machinery and lawn mowers, was the most significant cause of adult mortality in a Wisconsin population (Doroff and Keith 1990). Long-term attrition from incidental mortality was calculated to cause a continuing decline. Habitat loss as prairies were converted to croplands, and buffalo disappeared and with them the supply of droppings and dung beetles, must have affected Ornate Box Turtle populations historically. Substantial numbers of animals have been collected in the past for the domestic and international pet trade, with potentially significant population impacts.
21646		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
21646		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. A variety of non-governmental organisations and private individuals work on in-situ conservation efforts (species and habitat), and ex-situ animal rescue and captive breeding. The species is included in CITES Appendix II and EU regulation EEC No.338/97 prohibits import into the EU unless captive-bred. The species is protected under domestic legislation in Algeria, Tunisia, and many other countries. Populations of the varying taxa, subspecies and evolutionarily significant units need to be confirmed as occurring in adequately protected areas. <br/>Population monitoring of threatened populations would be appropriate, as would further taxonomic, ecological and conservation-focused research. Assessment of taxonomic status is first priority for the taxon <em>flavominimaralis</em>, and many other subspecies. For the taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em>, improved environmental management and awareness has reduced habitat degradation pressures somewhat in the coastal habitats in recent years (Mazanaeva 2002:63). Mazanaeva (2002:65) called for the establishment of several modest-sized protected areas, particularly for the sand dune areas which still hold relatively good populations and offer good conditions for reproduction; she also recommended population and natural history studies and monitoring, as well as ex-situ conservation breeding and re-introduction, and creating awareness among local human population.
21646		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Mediterranean basin, east to Iran, with populations in North Africa, southern Europe and West Asia. It occurs from near sea level to 1,900m altitude (in Morocco - Lambert 1983, in Buskirk<em> et al</em>. 2001:136). In North Africa it ranges from western and northern Morocco, through northern Algeria and northern and central Tunisia to northwestern Libya, with an isolated population in Cyrenaica in northeastern Libya. In southern Europe it is known from isolated populations in southern Spain, Mallorca (Spain), west-central Sardinia (Italy), Mal di Ventre (off western Sardinia, Italy), and from the eastern Balkans where it is distributed more continuously in southeastern Serbia, eastern Macedonia, most of Bulgaria, eastern Romania, northeastern Greece and European Turkey. There is an isolated population on the Black Sea coast of southern Russia, extending into northwestern Georgia. Records from Ukraine require confirmation. Genetic analysis suggests that the Spanish populations are introductions from northern Africa in historical times (Alvarez <em>et al</em>. 2000), and all Italian populations are also presumed to be introduced. There are scattered records (probably of introduced individuals, not established populations, and therefore not mapped - Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:136) from southern France, mainland Italy and the Balkan region (outside the main range). In West Asia it occurs widely in Turkey (except the northeast), south through northern and western Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel, western Jordan, east through northern Iraq, much of Iran, and southern Turkmenistan, and north through much of Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Georgia, and southern Russia (in Dagestan). It ranges very close to Afghanistan and might occur there. For further information, see Iverson (1992), Buskirk <em>et al</em>. (2001), Perala (2002c), and Pieh (2002). The range of the possible synonym <em>Testudo flavominimaralis</em> is not clear. The type locality is stated as "North Africa. Precise biotope and range not known. Believed to include Libya." It was restricted to "Libya" by Highfield (1990) (see also Buskirk <em>et al</em>. (2001)).
21646		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of dry, open scrubby habitats, meadows and pastures, sand dunes, forest, heathlands, and open habitats through its wide range, generally on a sandy-calcareous substrate (Bayley and Highfield 1996, Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001). Areas of strongly salty substrate and sparse vegetation, as well as accumulations of large rocks and steep slopes, tend to be avoided (Alekperov 1978, Kuzmin 2002:90). <em>Testudo graeca</em> is a generalist vegetarian, feeding on a wide variety of leaves, buds, flowers, seeds and fruits of grasses, herbs and shrubs, as well as small invertebrates such as snails, arthropods, and carrion. It has been recorded as dispersing plant seeds. Mature females usually produce two or three clutches (extremes one to four) of about two to four eggs (extremes one to seven) (Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:153). The taxon <em>Testudo nikolskii</em> inhabits undisturbed deciduous forests, dispersing into more open areas in summer, including the vicinity of human habitation. Preferred areas are open forest of mixed low-growing Oaks (<em>Quercus</em>), <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Artemisia</em>, <em>Rhus</em>, <em>Pistacia</em> and <em>Jasminum</em> with a well-developed herbaceous layer, as well as more open patches. Inhabited areas are below 600, rarely up to 800m alt, and preferably between 50 and 300m, with a preference for south-facing gentle middle and lower slopes. It feeds on a variety of herbs and shrub leaves, and small items of animal origin (Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001: 150-152; Leontyeva <em>et al</em>. 2002). The taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em> inhabitsed a wide variety of habitats, including open lowland forests, hill and mountain slopes and a variety of other open habitats like steppe and semi-desert and some anthropogenic landscapes (Bannikow 1951, in Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:150-155, Mazanaeva 2002). As a result of loss of prime habitat to agriculture and infrastructure development, tortoise populations are now focused on marginal habitats such as anthropogenic habitats (orchards, vegetable gardens), riverine floodplain areas and coastal sand dunes (Mazanaeva, 2002:63). The taxon feeds on herbs, predominantly legumes, with some compositae, fruits and berries, and snails and insects also taken (Bannikov, in Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:151). Females mature at a CL over 16 cm, at an estimated age of 12-14 years, and can produce up to 3 clutches of about 5 (range 2-8) eggs per year (Bannikov, Nadjafov <em>et al</em>. in Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:155).
21646		population	eng	The abundance of this species varies greatly across its range. In Algeria it was historically very common in the coastal region, and surveys during the period 1976-1981 encountered tortoises at rates varying between 0.1 to 10 tortoises per man-hour searching (summary in Lambert 1995). In Libya, tortoises were considered to be quite common in vegetated areas of Cyrenaica, but there was no status data from Tripolitania (Lambert 1995: 11). Morocco traditionaly supplied the European pet trade, peaking at several 100,000 animals annually in the 1970s. It was reported common in 1958, but populations were reported as depleted in northwestern and central Morocco by 1969 and 1981. Based on encounter rates, populations in some areas of Morocco were estimated to have suffered over 90% decline over the period 1900-1984 (review in Lambert 1995). The Souss Valley population is declining as result of past pet trade and ongoing habitat degradation (Bayley and Highfield 1996). It was historically common on the Tunisian plains, but some collection for international and regional trade has been documented; encounter rates suggest that populations have been depleted somewhat (review by Lambert 1995). There is a good healthy population of the species on Sardinia. In Spain the population protected in the Donana region is stable, but the populations in southeastern Spain and Mallorca continue to decline (Lambert 1995, Andreu 2003). The taxon <em>Testudo anamurensis </em>was apparently fairly easily encountered during a visit to southern Turkey by Bruekers (1997), suggesting that it is not particularly rare. Populations of in Israel were reported to be healthy and substantial, with no indication of decline (Lambert 1995:13). The taxon <em>Testudo ibera</em> has disappeared from land brought under irrigated agriculture in Azerbaijan, and there has been an overall in decline in former Soviet Union (Kuzmin 2002:93). The taxon <em>Testudo nikolskii</em> reaches densities of an average of 0.5 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat; in more densely forested areas the density declines to 0.2-0.4 indiv/ha (Inozemtsev and Pereshkolnik 1985). Populations are dominated by mature adult animals, with apparently low recruitment, but population structure remained stable between 1985-1999 (Inozemtsev and Pereshkolnik 1985, Leontyeva <em>et al</em>. 2002). At a range of 8250 km2, this suggests a maximum population of 40,000 animals. For the taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em>, Mazanaeva (2002:63) documented declining population densities and loss of range during the period 1991-2001, particularly in the northern part of historical distribution, noting that no tortoises could be found now where previously they were commonly seen. Comparison with range maps from 1977 and before indicate up to 80% loss of area of occurrence in Dagestan (data in Mazanaeva 2002:60-62). Most surveyed localities had densities of less than one individual tortoise per 5 ha, although a few localities had significantly higher densities and two localities had densities of about 1.5 tortoises per ha (Mazanaeva 2002:62). Historical observations from the 1930s-1950s (reviewed by Mazanaeva 2002:60) suggest high densities (on the order of a dozen or more animals/ha). No data are available on range or population density trends of this taxon outside Dagestan.
21646		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss is widely cited as a significant threat (Lambert 1995, Bayley and Highfield 1996 - Morocco).<br/>Past pet trade collection has involved very large numbers of animals and has been indicated as a major factor in population depletion, particularly in Morocco and Algeria (Lambert 1995). Recent collection for pet trade, largely domestic but including offering animals to European tourists, has been recorded from Tunisia (Highfield and Bayley 1996). In Morocco, tortoise shells were used in the manufacture of tourist souvenirs (Highfield and Bayley 1996). Release of captive tortoises from different populations into <em>T. graeca</em> habitat represents dangers of genetic pollution as well as introduction of pathogens (Andreu 2003). For the taxon <em>Testudo nikolskii</em>, concern has been expressed that the population structure dominated by large mature animals indicates compromised recruitment and therefore future stability of the taxon, but this appears to be a survey artefact as a monitored population proved stable over a decade (Inozemtsev and Pereshkolnik 1985, Leontyeva <em>et al</em>. 2002). Historically, the taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em> in Dagestan was exploited commercialy, their meat and eggs being used for human consumption as well as feed for pigs and to supply factories producing food for salmon farms. While no quantitative data are available on this exploitation, historical data indicate that harvest, especially of females, was intensive and and led to near-total extirpation in some regions (Bannikov 1951, in Mazanaeva 2002:60). Tortoise habitat in Dagestan is focused on the Primorskaya Lowland and adjacent foothill region; this region was used for human resettlement during the 1960-1980s, followed by expansion of residential infrastructure. Deforestation, intensive land use, use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides, overgrazing by cattle, extensive plantations, and sand mining, have been factors in loss of tortoise habitat (Mazanaeva 2002:63). Road killing, human commensal predators [mainly dogs but also crows and others] killing tortoises and destroying nests, and collection of tortoises as living souvenirs by tourists, have further been implicated as significant treats to Dagestan tortoises  (Mazanaeva 2002:63-64). Natural predators, a significant cause of mortality of juveniles and adults (Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:150-155), have probably have been 'subsidised' by anthropogenic changes to tortoise habitat, allowing higher predator density and predator impact on tortoises.
21648		conservation	eng	There are conservation programs in France, Spain and Italy. Various protected areas throughout most of the species' range. Clarification of the taxonomic status of hercegovinensis and boettgeri, and field assessments of their conservation status are highly desirable The taxon is included in CITES Appendix II and Annex A of EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 338/97.
21648		distribution	eng	This species occurs in patchily in Mediterranean Europe, from coastal northeastern Spain, through southeastern France, Mallorca (Spain), Menorca (Spain), Corsica (France), Sardinia (including Asinara Island) and Sicily (Italy), the coastal plains of peninsular Italy, coastal Croatia, coastal Bosnia-Herzegovina, coastal Montenegro, central and southern Serbia, inland to southwestern Romania, much of Bulgaria, Macedonia, nearly all of Albania, the Greek mainland plus islands from Corfu to Zakynthos, and European Turkey. Records from Cyprus are likely to be in error (Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>The distribution of the subspecies is as follows: <br/><br/><em>T. h. hermanni</em>: northeastern Spain, southeastern France, the Balaearic Islands (Spain), Corsica (France), and Sardinia (Italy).<br/><br/><em>T. h. boettgeri</em>: the Balkan region. <br/><br/><em>T. hermanni </em>ssp undetermined : Italian Peninsula, Sicily.
21648		habitat	eng	It prefers open patchy evergreen Mediterranean oak forest, but in its absence inhabits maquis, garigue, dune scrub and maritime grassland, as well as agricultural and railway edge habitats (Stubbs 1989b:35). Females produce one or more clutches of 3-5 eggs per year. Both sexes mature at about nine to 12 years of age, the males maturing a little younger (Stubbs 1989b).
21648		population	eng	The abundance of the species is regionally variable and is presented below by subspecies. Overall it is declining in the west of its range, but it is more stable in the Balkans.<br/><br/><em>T.h.hermanni</em>:<br/><br/>France: It is restricted to the Maures and Esterel hill areas, where some 10 populations persist at present, at densities up to 11 animals per hectare (Stubbs 1989b; Cheylan 2001). Historically it was known from the French Pyrenean foothills (disappeared 1960-70s) and the Iles d'Hyeres (disappeared mid-19th Century). On Corsica it is mainly in the eastern and southern coastal regions, plus scattered populations near Corte and along the northern Coast (Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>Spain: It is restricted to the northeastern Mediterranean coast, plus Mallorca and Menorca. <br/><br/>Italy: It is concentrated on the coastal regions, up to 400-500m, to 800m in the south, rarely more than 50 km inland. It is widespread on Sicily and Sardinia.  Localised population extinctions have been documented on the mainland and certain islands (Ballasina 1995; Cheylan 2001: 189). <br/><br/>Malta: Its historical status is uncertain, but it is definitely not present any more.<br/><br/><em>T.h. boettgeri</em>:<br/><br/>Croatia: It is restricted to the narrow costal strip and some of the islands (Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>Bosnia-Hercegovina: It inhabits the coastal area and Neretva valley of Hercegovina, up to 500m altitude (Cheylan 2001, and references therein). <br/><br/>Serbia and Macedonia: It is widely distributed. <br/><br/>Albania: It occurs nearly throughout the country. <br/><br/>Greece: It occurs nearly throughout the country, but it is scarce in the drier southern parts (where it is replaced by Testudo marginata); it occurs up to 140 m (Cheylan 2001, and references therein). Population density may reach up to 60 animals per hectare in exceptional cases, but 1-5 animals per hectare is more usual (Stubbs 1989b). <br/><br/>Turkey: it is restricted to the European part of Turkey, where it is in decline due to agricultural development (Baran and Atatur 1997; Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>Bulgaria: It is historically throughout the country below 1300m, locally up to 1400m; it has declined extensively due to anthropogenic factors throughout, and has been locally extirpated, particularly in plains and valleys (Beshkov 1993). <br/><br/>Romania: it is restricted to the southwestern region.
21648		threats	eng	The main threats are: loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and intensification; agro-chemicals and other pollution impacts; urbanisation and tourist infrastructure development; wildfires; collection for pet trade; genetic pollution; road mortality; and potentially disease impacts from released pet tortoises (Stubbs 1989b; Willemsen 1995). In Serbia the shell is used in traditional medicine.
21651		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
21652		conservation	eng	Whereas <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is covered by international conservation policies (the species is included in CITES Appendix I), and although it is protected by Egyptian law (Baha El Din 1994; Anonymous 2000), the species is unprotected in Libya (Anonymous 2000; S. Baha El Din 2002). However, recent information (M. Baha El Din 2002; S. Baha El Din 2002) suggests that the Libyan Environment General Authority and local academics show interest for tortoise conservation in Libya, and that they are looking forward to cooperating with the Egyptian based TortoiseCare program. Despite protection of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> by law in Egypt, the law is not implemented at all times (Baha El Din 1994; Anonymous 2000). S. Baha El Din (2002) indicates that TortoiseCare will continue to seek funding for future activities for the conservation of <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, and particularly for the development of a species action plan that takes into consideration the conservation needs of the species on a global level, including both Egypt and Libya.  <br/> <br/>Populations from Sinai and Israel, attributed traditionally to <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, were shown to comprise a separate species (Perälä 2001). However, the limited data available suggest that the geographically isolated subpopulation of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> from Tripolitania might additionally be taxonomically distinct. It is essential that local subpopulations are not mixed in any circumstances, including possible breeding projects, whether in or ex situ. The use of captive or confiscated stock of unknown origins or parentage in conservation programs should be discouraged at all times for the same reasons. <br/> <br/>Data for uses and harvest levels are largely known for Egypt only (Baha El Din 1994) where monitoring is continuing (Anonymous 2000). No data are available for Libya. <br/> <br/>Conservation measures are going on in Egypt (M. Baha El Din 2002) but not yet in Libya. More research is needed also in Egypt, such as a systematic search and identification of habitat pockets where tortoises might still exist. <br/> <br/>Protected areas exist in Egypt, including the one in which two individuals were recently found, and more are needed according to Baha El Din (1994), Anonymous (2000) and M. Baha El Din (2002). The motives for establishing new protected areas especially for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> are not entirely clear as the species is already effectively extinct in Egypt. Reintroduction projects have been currently stalled in Egypt (M. Baha El Din 2002). <em>T. kleinmanni</em> may occur in Kouf National Park in NE Libya (Schleich 1987) where one specimen was found 20 years ago (FMNH collection data). Other Libyan reserves in areas of tortoise activity are nonexistent (S. Baha El Din 2002). Protected areas would greatly enhance the survival prospects of the entire species if trade can be stopped.
21652		distribution	eng	Populations east of the Nile delta in Egypt and in Israel formerly assigned to <em>T. kleinmanni</em> have been shown to encompass a separate species <em>Testudo werneri</em> (Perälä 2001). Consequently, this assessment does not take into account information based on the above geographical region traditionally incorporated into papers on <em>T. kleinmanni</em> (Perälä 2002). <br/> <br/>Historically, the range of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> runs along the Mediterranean coastal strip up to about 90-120 km, exceptionally further, towards inland in Libya (where disjunct populations exist in Tripolitania and in the Cyrenaican Peninsula) and more or less continuously from northeastern Libya to the Western Desert and the north coast in mainland Egypt (Lortet 1883, 1887, Loveridge and Williams 1957, Buskirk 1985, Iverson 1986, 1992, Baha El Din 1994, Fritz and Buskirk 1997, Perälä 2001). The range has possibly been much greater in the past, and localities further inland or in the west, such as Siwa Oasis and the Tripolitanian range respectively, may represent the last remnants of a more extensive distribution in historical times which could have decreased with the natural aridification and expansion of the Saharan desert. Thus <em>a priori</em> treatments of isolated occurrences of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> as human introductions, or as extralimital, should be viewed with caution.
21652		habitat	eng	<em>T. kleinmanni</em> populations in northern Egypt are historically associated with desert and semi-desert habitats characterized or dominated by compact sand and gravel plains with scattered rocks and shallow sandy wadis, although populations were also known to occur in or adjacent to coastal salt marsh habitats (Lortet 1887, Baha El Din 1994). The majority of the species' primary habitats in Egypt are currently severely degraded, or already completely destroyed (Baha El Din 1994).  <br/> <br/>In Cyrenaica, northeastern Libya, the species occurs in shrubby sand and stone desert habitats (coast) and semidesert habitats with Artemisia association (further inland), according to Schleich (1987, 1989). Schleich <em>et al.</em> (1996) consider the species to occupy generally the margins of sandy, or dry stony, habitats. <em>T. kleinmanni</em> can apparently also be found (together with <em>Testudo graeca</em> species complex tortoises) in more vegetated Mediterranean subtropical shrub evergreen forests, as can be inferred from Schleich (1989) who cites Suluntah as a locality. It is however not clear how typical this habitat association is for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in northeastern Libya, thus it is probably most appropriate to describe the species' primary habitat preference in Cyrenaica as Mediterranean scrub. Habitats are still in fairly good condition in Libya, but there are signs of extensive overgrazing in many parts, particularly in Cyrenaica, and ploughing for growing cereals is a common practice, and trends and plans for habitat utilization are unclear (S. Baha El Din 2002). According to fieldwork by A. Pieh (pers. comm.), in Cyrenaica habitat is locally still very good near Suluntah, and reasonably well preserved in the wadi system near Darnah. However, habitat on the whole coastal stretch between Darnah and Tubruq is severely degraded possibly due to extensive, and continuing, nomadic activity in that area. In Tripolitania habitat degradation due to human expansion is very evident on the coast east of Al Khums around Leptis Magna, whereas habitat in more southerly areas towards the inland near Gharyan "looks better" (A. Pieh, pers. comm.). Further, according to Pieh (pers. comm.), the coastline between Al Khums and the Tunisian border features occasional spots of undisturbed habitat.
21652		population	eng	Currently, the species is effectively extinct within Egypt. Baha El Din (1994) surveyed the whole former range of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in Egypt and concluded that the species disappeared completely within a period of approximately 10 to 20 years (between the early 1970s and the early 1990s). This time frame is estimated to represent around, or slightly more than, one generation length for <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, taking into consideration that maturity is probably reached at about 10-20 years in the wild as is the case in several other species of testudinids living in semiarid or arid conditions (e.g., Woodbury and Hardy 1948, Brushko 1977, review in: Kuzmin 2002). In 2001, two wild tortoises were found in a protected coastal area in the Western Desert, the first record for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in Egypt in over twenty years (M. Baha El Din 2002). This finding, although significant <em>per se</em>, does naturally nothing to change the fact that <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is effectively extinct in Egypt.  <br/> <br/>The species can still be found in  two distinct, and geographically disjunct regions in Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica). <br/> <br/>Judging by data produced in Iverson (1992), Buskirk (1985) and Baha El Din (1994), the species' extent of occurrence in Egypt, possibly up to the early 1970s, is estimated as having been around 67,860 km². According to available data (Buskirk 1985, Iverson 1986, 1992, Fritz and Buskirk 1997, Perälä 2001, Pieh, pers. comm.), the small northwestern (Tripolitanian) range encompasses an estimated extent of occurrence of around 5,500 km². Nothing is known about local population densities but A. Pieh (pers. comm.) concluded <em>in situ</em> that the coastal subpopulation has to be severely fragmented because of a mosaic of badly degraded habitat. The estimated extent of occurrence for present Cyrenaican population of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is around 11,100 km², as measured using a minimum convex polygon and locality data provided by S. Baha El Din (2002), and Pieh (pers. comm.). Some 40 years ago the Cyrenaican <em>T. kleinmanni</em> population had possibly an estimated extent of occurrence of 50,250 km² as calculated using data from Buskirk (1985), Iverson (1992), and Perälä (2001), as well as assuming that the distribution was continuous from Cyrenaica to western Egypt. The isolated locality of "Sirtica" (Loveridge and Williams 1957) some 300 km west of Qaminis (Gheminez) in western Cyrenaica was not taken into account. <br/> <br/>Because no fieldwork based data on the area of occupancy exist for <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, the area of occupancy is  defined as 10% of the area of extent of occurrence, yielding estimations of total past area of occupancy 12,361 km² and total present area of occupancy 1,660 km². <br/> <br/>20 years ago, Mendelssohn (1982) estimated  the global population size of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> (including <em>T. werneri</em> from Sinai and Israel) at less than 10,000 individuals, including immature tortoises. This figure seems to be an underestimation regarding current estimates and statistics on trade. Mendelssohn (1982) also was not aware of the existence of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in northwestern Libya, which was therefore not taken into account in his assessment. Although no population density assessments based on local field data have been published for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in mainland Egypt and Libya, densities are thought to be very low (Buskirk 1985, Schleich 1989, Baha El Din 1994, M. Baha El Din 2002, S. Baha El Din 2002, A. Pieh, pers. comm.). Locals in Libya stated in April 2002 that populations of the species still exist in many parts of Cyrenaica, but that they have declined notably in recent years due to collection (S. Baha El Din 2002). Perälä (2002) estimates the past total world population at 55,624 individuals, substantially more than the estimate by Mendelssohn (1982). The total present world  population of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is estimated at 7,470 individuals (Perälä 2002), which  is considerably less than the number of recorded animals collected in Libya for the pet trade in the 1990s. Out of the existing global population around 75% (5,000 individuals) would be mature adults if Mendelssohn's (1982) data on population structure for <em>T. werneri</em> is applicable for <em>T. kleinmanni</em>. According to the above estimate, the global population of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> would have declined by 86.6% (or by 48,152 individuals) in less than three generations. Out of these, at least 10,680 individuals have been recorded from the illegal pet trade in the 1990s alone (Baha El Din 1994, Ventura 1995, Pieh, pers. comm.). Because relatively good habitat still exists in Libya it is possible that the earlier inferred reduction in the extent of occurrence  primarily reflects pressure from collection and illegal trade, rather than habitat degradation (in Libya).
21652		threats	eng	In addition to agricultural (including overgrazing), developmental and industrial pressures, <em>T. kleinmanni</em> was very heavily affected by the (eventually illegal) national and international pet trade that began using the Libyan stock after Egyptian subpopulations were harvested to extinction (Baha El Din 1994).  <br/>The brochure of Tortoise Care (The Egyptian Tortoise Conservation Program) (Anonymous 2000) as well as S. Baha El Din (2002) list the illegal trade in <em>T. kleinmanni</em> of Libyan origin within Egypt as continuing. Trade in <em>T. kleinmanni</em> also exists within Libya itself (Fritz and Buskirk 1997; Pieh. pers. comm.; S. Baha El Din 2002), with potentially devastating consequences for the remaining world population. According to locals, collection pressure is higher in the east than in the west. Tortoises have a low annual biomass production resulting in a high degree of sensitivity to population disturbance and consequent poor recovery abilities from such activities as trade collection (Iverson 1982).
21653		conservation	eng	The species is included in CITES Appendix II,  Annex A of EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 338/97, and Greek domestic legislation. Hobbyist captive breeding appears to provide sufficient offspring to meet much of the demand. Establishment of effectively protected areas containing viable populations of the species would be desirable.  Research is needed on taxonomy (especially with regard to the status of <em>T.m. weissingeri</em>), population dynamics and conservation biology.
21653		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in northwestern, central and sothern Greece, and adjoining extreme southern Albania, including a number of islands (Kyra Panagia, Valaxa, Paris, Salamis, Sfakythiria, Spetsopoula, and possibly Korfu), as well as northeastern Sardinia and satellite islands, plus Isola di San Pietro off southwestern Sardinia. Sardinian occurrences may be the result of human introduction in the Classical era (see Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 300).  It is also introduced on Crete. The subspecies <em>T.m. weissingeri</em> occurs in west Taygetos mountains of the Peloponnesus, southern Greece, and small area that stretches for about 50 km North-South, but only 2-5 km East-West (Bour, in Artner, 200: 34). The species may have been introduced to western Anatolia, Turkey, however this requires confirmation (Sindaco <em>et al</em>., 2000).
21653		habitat	eng	It characteristically inhabits 'Phrygana' and Macchia scrub, dense thorny scrub among rocky outcrops, but also a range of other vegetation types, from coastal dunes to olive groves, small-scale agricultural landscapes and damp areas. It ranges up to 1300m, but mostly occurs below 800m. It generally prefers drier, hotter areas than the sympatric <em>T. hermanni boettgeri</em>. (Willemsen 1995b; Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Clutches consist of four to seven eggs, perhaps up to 15; females produce one to three clutches per year (review by Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Animals require about eight to 14 years to reach maturity (review by Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Testudo m. weissinge</em>ri inhabits both Phrygana (Spartan shrubby rocky areas) as well as more lush habitats such as olive groves with dense herbaceous ground cover (Artner 2000;  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 309-311). This taxon ranges from near sea level to about 1,300m altitude (Mueller1908, Bour 1996, in Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 311), and feeds on a variety of herbs (Bour 1996, in  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 312). Its clutch size is a maximum of four, perhaps six eggs (Bour 1996, in  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 314; Artner 2000).
21653		population	eng	It is generally considered to occur at low densities (Stubbs 1989c). Willemsen (1995b) and Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. (2001) note that the preferred habitat of the species is very hard to penetrate and survey, thus records of low-density occurrence might pertain to marginal habitats. A population in Sardinia that was perceived as intensively collected in the 1950s persists at 'normal' density (Stemmler, Fritz, in Bringsoe <em>et al</em>., 2001: 318). Populations of <em>T.m. weissingeri </em>are apparently dense, as Bour (1996) examined 384 animals and Artner (1996) encountered 30 animals in four hours, and 80 animals in two days. Bour (1996) recorded a male-dominated population structure, and very few juveniles (juveniles of <em>T. marginata</em> are very cryptic) (data summarised in  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 317). It is a very rare and localised species in Albania (Haxhiu, 2004).
21653		threats	eng	The main threat is wildfires. It is less impacted by agricultural land conversion and practices than the sympatric <em>T. hermanni boettgeri </em>due to <em>T. marginata</em>'s preference for stony habitats (Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tourist infrastructure development eliminates some habitat. There is some mortality recorded from fires and trampling of juveniles by livestock, and destruction by farmers as perceived crop pests (Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Some collection for (illegal) pet trade might still take place.
21661		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas in India (for example, Gir N.P., Panna N.P., Pench N.P., and Kanha Tiger Reserve). It is totally protected by law on Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is listed on CITES Appendix III (Nepal only).
21661		distribution	eng	The Four-horned Antelope is distributed widely, but in scattered populations, over most of India, from the Himalayan foothills to peninsular India (Rahmani 2001). A few may remain in Nepal.
21661		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of the species are not well known. It is found in well-wooded undulating or hilly areas and never far from water; they are solitary and browse and graze (Rahmani 2001).
21661		population	eng	No robust estimates of the global population are available. Numbers were estimated at >10,000 (Mallon and Kingswood (2001).
21661		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction, through the clearance of scrub and forest for agriculture.
21663		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality near Woodbush, Limpopo Province. Searches have also been conducted in the Haenertsburg and Wolkberg areas.
21663		habitat	eng	Presumed to have inhabited open montane grassland.
21663		population	eng	Known only from the type locality.
21663		threats	eng	Afforestation with alien pine species and excessive burning of the the montane grassland habitat may have caused or contributed to the disappearance of this species.
21689		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
21689		distribution	eng	This species is present in the tropical east-central Atlantic only around Ascension Island.
21689		habitat	eng	This species is generally reef associated, inhabiting shallow insular waters around rocky shores and rocky reefs to depths of 30 m, and also in seagrass beds (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).<br/><br/>Like its eastern Atlantic congeners, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and shows distinct sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). Its eggs and larvae are planktonic.
21689		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is reported to be very abundant (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
21689		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
21690		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
21690		distribution	eng	This species is found in scattered locations in central Kenya and northern Tanzania.
21690		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with dry and moist savanna habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitat.
21690		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
21690		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
21691		conservation	eng	It is presumably present within some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of this species is needed. Populations should be monitored to record any changes in abundance and distribution.
21691		distribution	eng	This largely southern African species has been recorded from western Angola in the north of its range, southwards through much of Namibia and Botswana to northwestern parts of South Africa.
21691		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is generally associated with Acacia bushland habitats. Small families of these animals form nests within tree hollows and forks.
21691		population	eng	It is a common, but patchily distributed species.
21691		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
21692		conservation	eng	It is presumably present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for the species as a whole.
21692		distribution	eng	This Subsaharan species ranges widely from southern Ethiopia and southern Somalia in the north, through East Africa, to southern parts of The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and much of Zambia. From here it ranges south to northeastern South Africa and Swaziland.
21692		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species associated with Acacia bushland. Small families of these animals form nests within tree hollows and forks.
21692		population	eng	It is a common species.
21692		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
21693		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional field surveys within the species recorded range, and potential areas of suitable habitat outside of the range, are needed to locate possible populations of <em>Thallomys shortridgei</em>. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species
21693		distribution	eng	Thislittle-known taxon was described from the south bank of the Orange River in South Africa, from about Upington west to Goodhouse in the Northern Cape (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
21693		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the natural history of this species. As with other members of the genus, it is presumably an arboreal species associated with trees such as <em>Acacia</em>, and builds nests in hollows or tree forks (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
21693		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known. It has not been trapped recently despite intensive trapping activities in and around the type locality (N. Coetzee and P. Taylor pers. comm.).
21693		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
21694		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three National Parks within its range.
21694		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the cerrado of central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
21694		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in open grasslands areas, in campo cerrado transition zones (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.). Its distribution is patchy.
21694		population	eng	The species is very difficult to capture in surveys, although it is commonly found in owl pellets (Bonvicino and Marinho-Filho pers. comm.). The species is rare relative to other species in the genus (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
21694		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
21695		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least three national parks.
21695		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the cerrado of central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
21695		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of habitat, including open grasslands, cerrado, and wet grasslands (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
21695		population	eng	The species is common (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
21695		threats	eng	Although habitat destruction is occurring, it is not considered a major threat to this species (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
21702		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas (eg. Kahuzi-Biega National Park). Research is needed into the distribution, natural history, abundance and threats to this species. There is a need to protect remaining areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.
21702		distribution	eng	Endemic to the montane regions of the Albertine Rift Valley. Recorded from a comparatively small area between 02 N and 03 S from East Ruwenzori, Uganda; Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Idjiwi Island in Lake Kivu, both in The Democratic Republic of the Congo. It might be present in Rwanda, although this requires verification. The altitudinal range is around 1,800 to 3,000 m asl.
21702		habitat	eng	This species is associated with thickets in montane primary and secondary forests. It is not known if the species can persist outside of forested areas.
21702		population	eng	Population size is uncertain. It is rarely collected and very little is known about this species.
21702		threats	eng	Forest habitats within the range of this species are threatened by logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
21703		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas (eg. Kahuzi-Biega National Park). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat within the Albertine Rift.
21703		distribution	eng	Restricted to the mountain areas (above 1,800 to 3,500 m asl) of the Albertine Rift Valley in Burundi, Rwanda and The Democratic Republic of the Congo. Recorded from comparatively small area between 01°S and 03°S from the Virunga volcanoes and Kahuzi-Biega National Park west of Lake Kivu in The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda, and from northwestern Burundi. It is possibly present in Uganda, although this needs to be confirmed.
21703		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is thickets in open areas of montane secondary forests (and occasionally in primary forests).
21703		population	eng	It is generally rare but may be quite common in suitable thickets
21703		threats	eng	The montane forests of the Albertine Valley are under threat, largely through the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses, and logging operations.
21706		conservation	eng	The draft recovery plan (USFWS 1999) listed the following needed conservation actions: 1. Protect existing populations and habitat. 2. Restore populations to former habitat. 3. Survey to determine species distributions. 4. Monitor populations. 5. Conduct necessary research, including studies on demographics, population genetics, and habitat use. 6. Develop and implement incentive programs, and an outreach and education plan. Protection of waterfowl habitats may allow this species to survive in the Delta and Sacramento Valley regions (Hansen and Brode 1980, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996).
21706		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west of the United States. Historically the range included much of the floor of the Central Valley (Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys) of California, from Butte County in the north to Kern County in the south, at elevations from near sea level to 122 m (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). The species apparently is now extirpated from most of the range in the San Joaquin Valley (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, USFWS 1993, Stebbins 2003). Extant populations are distributed in portions of the rice production zones of Sacramento, Sutter, Butte, Colusa, and Glenn counties; along the western border of the Yolo Bypass in Yolo County; and along the eastern fringes of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta from the Laguna Creek-Elk Grove region of central Sacramento county southward to the Stockton area of San Joaquin County (Hansen, cited by USFWS 1993). As of 1992, there were 13 known populations as follows (population = cluster of locality records in a contiguous habitat): (1) Butte Basin, (2) Colusa Basin, (3) Sutter Basin, (4) American Basin, (5) Yolo Basin-Willow Slough, (6) Yolo Basin-Liberty Farms, (7) Sacramento Basin, (8) Badger Creek-Willow Creek, (9) Caldoni Marsh, (10) East Stockton-Diverting Canal and Duck Creek, (11) North and South Grasslands (extirpated?), (12) Mendota (extirpated?), and (13) Burrell-Lanare (probably extirpated) (USFWS 1993). These population largely coincide with historical riverine flood basins and tributary streams. Populations 1 to 4 are associated with rice production zones; populations 5 to 13 mainly are in small, isolated patches of valley floor habitat.
21706		habitat	eng	The habitat of this highly aquatic species includes primarily marshes and sloughs, sometimes low-gradient streams, ponds, and small lakes, with cattails, bulrushes, willows, or other emergent or water-edge vegetation usually present and used for basking and cover (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, USFWS 1993, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Because of the direct loss of natural habitat, this snake now relies heavily on rice fields in the Sacramento Valley, but it also uses managed marsh areas in various national wildlife refuges and state wildlife areas (USFWS 1999). "Essential habitat components consist of: (1) adequate water during the snake's active season (early spring through mid-fall) to provide adequate permanent water to maintain dense populations of food organisms; (2) emergent, herbaceous wetland vegetation, such as cattails and bulrushes, for escape cover and foraging habitat during the active season; (3) upland habitat with grassy banks and openings in waterside vegetation for basking; and (4) higher elevation upland habitats for cover and refuge from flood waters during the snake's inactive season in the winter" (from USFWS 1999). The Giant Garter Snake is absent from large rivers and other waters with populations of large, introduced, predatory fishes, and from wetlands with sand, gravel, or rock substrates (see USFWS 1993). Riparian woodlands do not provide suitable habitat because of excessive shade and inadequate prey resources (Hansen and Brode 1980).
21706		population	eng	As of 1992, there were 13 known populations (population = cluster of locality records in a contiguous habitat) (USFWS 1993). Not all of the known populations have good viability. The adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least a few thousand. Estimates of population size for three local populations in the mid-1990s were in the low 100s (USFWS 1999). The species is now apparently extirpated or very rare in most of the former range in the San Joaquin Valley. Surveys in the 1970s and 1980s yielded some previously unknown localities and several cases of extirpation or at least severe population declines (USFWS 1993). The area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably continuing to decline, but the rate of decline is unknown.
21706		threats	eng	Loss and fragmentation of wetland habitats have extirpated the Giant Garter Snake from the majority of its historical range (USFWS 1999). Loss and degradation of habitat remain the greatest threat to the survival of the species (USFWS 1999). Activities that may degrade habitat include maintenance of flood control and agricultural waterways, weed abatement, rodent control, discharge of contaminants into wetlands and waterways, and overgrazing in wetland or streamside habitats. Factors that may be significant in some areas include predation by and competition with introduced species, parasitism, and road kills (USFWS 1999, Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 2002). USFWS (1993) listed threats as habitat loss (e.g., through large-scale urbanization in the American Basin, dewatering of habitat through water diversions and impoundments), flooding (in rice production areas), contaminants (e.g., selenium and salinity in North and South Grassland areas), agricultural and vegetation maintenance activities (e.g., on levees and canal borders), vehicular traffic (on levees and roads along canals), livestock grazing, and introduced predators (e.g., house cats, bullfrogs, perhaps bass). See USFWS (1993) for information on threats to specific populations.
21707		conservation	eng	At least a few and probably several occurrences are protected.
21707		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from coastal California (United States) in the vicinity of Salinas, Monterey County, south to the vicinity of El Rosario in northern Baja California (Mexico) and disjunctly south as isolated populations to the La Presa region of southern Baja California. It occurs at elevations from sea level to around 2,450 m asl (8,000 feet) (McGuire and Grismer 1993, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
21707		habitat	eng	This highly aquatic and amphibious snake is generally found in or near permanent fresh water, often along streams with rocky beds bordered by willows and other riparian vegetation, including mountain slopes and desert oases (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In the southern part of its range it is restricted to palm oases.
21707		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several dozen extant occurrences or subpopulations (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Grismer 2002). The total population size is unknown but surely is at least several thousand. This snake is common in suitable habitat in northwestern Baja California (Grismer 2002). A decline has occurred primarily in urbanized areas of California. The species has disappeared from about 40% of the historical range in California, mostly since 1945 (Jennings and Hayes 1994), who mapped dozens of locations with presumed extirpated populations. However, it is probably the most common snake in southern California away from urban areas, and it is not unusual to see several individuals at a time in a given spot. Some populations in Baja California appear to be relatively stable, but others are decreasing, and it might be extirpated in San Ignacio and San Fernando Velicata. Overall, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size currently may be declining but probably not at a rate greater than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
21707		threats	eng	In California, this species has declined due to loss and degradation of habitat by urbanization and flood control, excessive livestock grazing, predation by introduced animals, loss of food resources, drought, and direct killing by increasing numbers of humans in the habitat (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Predators include introduced bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) (Hovey and Bergen 2003), but the level of threat posed by these amphibians is uncertain. In northern Baja California the species is impacted by changes to aquatic systems due to urbanization and agriculture. In southern Baja California, it is being affected by human disturbance, the introduction of alien species, and the impact of dams in its palm oasis habitat.
21714		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kenya. Found in the Teita Hills, Bura Hills and Vuria Peak (<em>Thapsia</em> spp. have been recorded in all the forests sampled at Taita (C. Lange, pers. comm.). All the specimens were conchologically similar and it is believed to be <em>Thapsia buraensis</em>, however, further anatomical work is needed for full confirmation of status).
21714		habitat	eng	There was a good relationship between presence of live snails in the least disturbed forest areas. These areas were characterized by huge trees, abundant dead fallen wood on the ground, deep leaf litter, high percentage of canopy cover and moist ground, and the presence of dense moss.
21714		threats	eng	Human induced habitat Changes like forest fragmentation. Rate of decline of habitat since 1990: rough estimate of about 40% in Mbololo, Kasingau, Ngangao and approx. 60–80% in the rest of the sampled forests (C. Lange, pers. comm.).
21721		conservation	eng	<em>T. inopinata</em> is present in Braulio Carrillo National Park, Altos de Campana National Park, and probably others along cordilleras of Costa Rica and Panama. Studies are needed to establish population trends and to evaluate possible threats.
21721		distribution	eng	<em>Thaumatoneura inopinata</em> occurs in the following locations: <br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province, Carrillo (Calvert 1901-08)<br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province, Juan Viñas, 760 - 1,000 m (Calvert 1914)<br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province, Rio Reventazón, 760 m (Calvert & Calvert 1917)<br/>Costa Rica: San José Province, Rio Claro on La Palma-Carrillo Road, 1200 m (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela Province, 10 mi N Varablanca, 850 m (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela Province, Virgen del Socorro, near Cariblanco, 800 m (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Limón Province, Infernillo, Reventazón, 1,000 m (Ris 1918)<br/>Panama: Chiriquí Province (old literature)<br/>Panama: Panama, Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)
21721		habitat	eng	Adults and larvae of <em>T. inopinata</em> are closely tied to spray zone of waterfalls, from small to rather large ones. Larvae crawl on rock surfaces with a thin layer of organic mud, kept wet by spray protected from falling water (Calvert 1914). Known elevation range 760 - 1,200 m, at the lower end of montane elevations.
21721		population	eng	<em>T. inopinata</em> is present in small numbers where it occurs but detailed population numbers and trend are not known.
21721		threats	eng	Deforestation, typically in forested habitats, is a threat that continues to affect <em>T. inopinata</em> as the removal of trees leads to alteration of stream habitats.  In the future, global warming  is likely to lead to the drying up of smaller streams to the point of eliminating waterfalls.
21722		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Vulnerable (Moliner Gomez 2001), but not listed on the Canary Island Red List nor the Spanish Red List (Verdu and Galante 2009). In terms of conservation measures, the site should be protected as a Special Nature Reserve given that <span style="font-style: italic;">Theba arinagae</span> inhabits this location and is already threatened. Restoration of the habitat is also required.
21722		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">T. arinagae </span>occurs at two localities&#160;as a fossil/subfossil&#160;along the eastern coast of Gran Canaria, Arinaga and Playa Ojo de Garza, north of Aeropuerto de Gando. This species was found as a fossil/subfossil on the island of Fuerteventura (Ibanez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). This species is only known living at the summit of the volcano north of&#160;Arinaga, where it occupies a narrow strip of rocky habitat above the sandy slopes (300 m x 50 m).
21722		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. arinagae </span>is a terrestrial gastropod, known from rocky summit of volcano.
21722		population	eng	There is only a very small population (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).
21722		threats	eng	This species has a small distribution area. The major threat on the northern side is the extraction of gravel and the extension towards the site.&#160; A secondary threat remains from blown sand from the sandy quarry further away from the site during high winds.&#160; The presence of the military transmission mast, with the access roads permits additional traffic to the site.
21726		conservation	eng	This species is listed by the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive (EUHSD). It is also protected in Hungary on a national level. Population and habitat monitoring combined with a water management plan is recommended.
21726		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the Danube River system including the Tisza (Tisa, Theiss) River system. Its geographical range includes Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary (Rába, Hernád, Bódva, Upper-Tisza), Serbia (Juzna Morava, Velika Morava and Nisava), Bulgaria (Danube, Zlatna Panega), Romania and Croatia.<br/><br/>In Romania, Sirbu (2001) notes that the most extensive range was in the Tisa Basin, including Mures (Maros) river and tributaries of the Olt River (mostly in the middle sectors however, by the 1960s the range had declined to a few localities from the specified area). Surveys over the last 20 years have shown the disappearance from the whole of the Mures and Olt Rivers and from all sites in Transylvania. It is also no longer found in the Crit River basin and in Marannret region.<br/><br/>The last record in Slovakia is from 1999 (Danube River), and the species is probably extinct from the Hungarian section of the Danube also.
21726		habitat	eng	This is a fluvial species, it occurs in rivers associated with solid surface.
21726		population	eng	There are only a few known subpopulations (less than 20). Some of  them are in good condition (e.g. Bódva in Hungary and Zlatna Panega in  Bulgaria), but most of them are threatened by pollution and the invasive  <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus fluviatilis </span>species.  There are long term monitoring results in Hungary and two of the  Hungarian populations (Tisza and Hernad) are close to extinction. Population size decline has been observed in 50% of the Hungarian  populations. There are no data on population size in other countries. It is however probable that soon subpopulations along the whole Danube section  will be extinct and only some fragmented sub-populations will remain in  some tributaries.
21726		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Habitat decline has been observed in parts of the species range. This is due to domestic and industrial pollution, competition from the non-native species <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus fluviatilis </span>and changes in the hydrological regime through dams.
21727		conservation	eng	No information available.
21727		distribution	eng	<em>Theodoxus maresi</em> is restricted to upper reaches of a few rivers in Morocco (headwaters of the Oued Fès, Imin Ifri near Meknès, Oued Oum Rbia and Oued Tessaout) and in northwest Algeria (but this is old data so it is very uncertain if it is still here). <em>Theodoxus</em> sp. used to be found further downstream but due to human activity it is now restricted to headwaters.
21727		habitat	eng	It is found in headwaters.
21727		population	eng	No information available.
21727		threats	eng	It is threatened by water pollution, and abstraction. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> are in decline because of human alteration of habitat.
21728		conservation	eng	No information available.
21728		distribution	eng	This is a Maghrebian endemic restricted to Morocco and Algeria. It is becoming rare over its whole range. In Morocco it has been recorded in the last 20 years in seven areas. Its recent distribution in Algeria unknown, and is probably very localised.
21728		habitat	eng	It is restricted to cold pure water of springs and brooks, free from sediment or any kind of pollution. Only lives in certain places in springs on the lower side of rocks.
21728		population	eng	No information available.
21728		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution and invasive species. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> are in decline because of human alteration of habitat such as water pollution.
21733		conservation	eng	Occurs in a protected area.
21733		distribution	eng	Known only from the Florida Evergaldes National Park
21734		distribution	eng	Confined to Lake Victoria.
21736		habitat	eng	All known specimens of this snake appear to have been collected in the vicinity of a hot spring at around 4,270 m elevation.  The species is not found in the water, but is rarely more than half a mile from the site (Wall 1907, Malnate 1953).
21741		conservation	eng	The isopod population and the Sedillo Spring habitat have undergone regular monitoring since November 1995.  The species is included on the US Federal Endangered list (since 1978).  The Socorro Isopod Propagational Facility (SIPF – Socorro) was developed in 1992 to establish a more secure isopod population and also to provide an opportunity for captive propagation and research.
21741		distribution	eng	<em>T. thermophilum</em> is restricted to Sedillo Spring, Socorro County, New Mexico.
21741		habitat	eng	This species occupies areas of Sedillo Spring which were modified in the twentieth century to supply water to the city of Socorro.  The habitat consists of two small concrete pools with an inter-connecting pipe, and a narrow stream below the pools.  <em>T. thermophilum</em> are most active during crepuscular hours.  Their diet includes blue-green algae, detritus, aquatic insect larvae, and conspecifics.
21741		population	eng	The effects of human changes to the spring have resulted in many bottlenecks in the population. In August 1988, the native population became extinct due to occlusion of a valve control system for surface discharge.  This flow was re-established in September of that year and a captive-bred population from the University of New Mexico was introduced to the spring.  Controlled propagation of isopods commenced in 1990 at the Socorro Isopod Propagation Facility (SIPF), Socorro.  Additional captive populations now exist at the Albuquerque Biological Park (zoo), New Mexico Tech (Socorro) and Laboratory, Department of Game and Fish, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
21741		threats	eng	The main threats to this species include disruption of the thermal groundwater discharge of Sedillo Spring.  The results from a variety of causes: adventitious woody root growth, surface mining practices, anthropogenic modification, and human vandalism.  Over the last ten years, vandalism has become the main threat to the species.
21744		conservation	eng	Listed as Vulnerable, Class A under the African Convention, and is listed on Appendix II of CITES. A few Gelada bands range in the tiny Simien Mountains National Park (the only area of Gelada habitat which is currently formally protected). In addition there are proposals for a new Blue Nile Gorges National Park and Indeltu (Shebelle) Gorges Reserve that would protect larger numbers. The latter would protect the unnamed subspecies. There is a need for further research on the infra-specific taxonomy, especially the distribution ranges of the subspecies.
21744		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to high grassland escarpments in the deep gorges of the central Ethiopian plateau, in the Tigre, Begemdir, Wolle, and Shoa Provinces between 1,800 and 4,400 m asl. The Blue Nile Gorge and the upper Wabe Shebelle valley (east of the Bale massif) mark the western and southeastern boundaries of the range, respectively.<br/> <br/>There are possibly three subspecies: <em>T. g. gelada</em> and <em>T. g. obscurus</em> occur in the Begemdir, Tigre, and Wollo and Shoa provinces, west of the Rift Valley, while an undescribed subspecies is found along the Wabi-Shebeli River in the Arussi province, east of the Rift Valley. <em>T. g. gelada</em> is found north of Lake Tana and west of the Takkazzé River, while <em>T. g. obscurus</em> is found south of Lake Tana and east of Takkazzé River.
21744		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky gorges, precipices and moorland. Feeds mainly on the flat margins of high grass plateaus, known locally as high Wurch or Puna grassland steppe, with <em>Agrostis</em> and <em>Festuca</em> grasses and giant <em>Lobelia</em> groves. Gelada bands consist of 30-260 animals, making up 2-30 one male groups. Bands keep within 2 km of the escarpment edges, where they retreat at night or if alarmed. As a result, ranges are linear, encompassing as little as 1-3 km² for a band's core area (although their year-long range can cover 70 km²). Steep cliffs provide sleeping roosts. Geladas are poor tree-climbers and are almost entirely terrestrial, spending 99% of their time on the ground. This is partly a consequece of its extreme dietary specialization as a grazer.<br/><br/>Geladas primarily feed on the leaves of grasses. In addition, during dry seasons when there is heavy overgrazing by livestock, or when Gelada bands are very concentrated, subterranean stems and rhizomes are also excavated. Fruits and invertebrates are eaten opportunistically, and cereal crops may be taken where agriculture encroaches onto the geladas' habitat.
21744		population	eng	Geladas are widespread throughout their present range but, partly as a result of the droughts affecting the Horn of Africa in the 1980s, they are not as abundant as in the 1970s when an aerial survey of the central Ethiopian highlands yielded an estimate of 440,000 for the total population. An alternative estimate based on known ground densities and the total area of gorge face on the plateau yielded a figure of 880,000. C. Hunter (pers. comm.) considers that these estimates may now be too high, and that a better guesstimate would be approx. 200,000 animals. Surveys in a number of areas give overall densities varying between 15 and 60 animals/km², although densities of animals within home ranges commonly exceed 70/km².
21744		threats	eng	The overall range of the Gelada is being eroded as a result of agricultural expansion due to the increasing human population densities on the central highlands. Deforestation and soil erosion are serious problems throughout the area. Grazing pressure is intense, and competition from domestic livestock has forced the Gelada to remain on the less productive gorge slopes in some areas. Gelada densities are considerably lower in heavily populated areas than in undisturbed habitats. Geladas are also shot as crop pests, and have been trapped as laboratory animals in the past (e.g., 1,200 animals were imported into the USA between 1968-1973). In the past, adult numbers may have been reduced as a result of selective shooting for their capes (to be made into ceremonial costumes used by the Oromo tribe). There are historic records of capes being made into fur hats for tourists, but that certainly no longer occurs, and it is now extremely difficult for any tourist to leave the country with items made from Gelada skins.
21745		conservation	eng	<em>Thersites mitchellae</em> has been officially protected by New South Wales law since 1997 (listed as Endangered under the New South Wales <em>Threatened Species Conservation Act</em> 1995). A recovery plan for the species has been prepared and was approved by the New South Wales government in July 2001 (Murphy 2002).
21745		distribution	eng	<em>Thersites mitchellae</em> has a restricted distribution, occurring only on the coastal plain of far northeastern New South Wales, Australia. The species' historical extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 400 km², while the current area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 5 km² (Murphy 2002).
21745		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland subtropical rainforest and swamp forest habitats (Murphy 2002).
21745		threats	eng	Much of the surviving habitat is small and severely fragmented. Much of this is at risk from development (Murphy 2002).  Additional threats have been identified including habitat degradation by fire, exotic weeds, and predation of snails by introduced rats (Murphy 2002).
21769		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
21769		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andean forests, about 1,500 to 4,000 m, (B. Patterson pers. comm.) from far west Venezuela (see Linares, 1998) and east Colombia, through Ecuador and Peru, to west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997).
21769		habitat	eng	A terrestrial and arboreal species in primary forest, in Ecuador it has been taken in subalpine rain forest (Voss, 2003).
21769		population	eng	Not as abundant as other species in the genus. In Ecuador it is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21769		threats	eng	Deforestation occurring throughout its range is an important threat to some populations.
21770		conservation	eng	It occurs in aseveral protected areas in Ecuador (Tirira, in prep.).
21770		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of Ecuador and southernmost Colombia (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). The species occurs from 1,300 to 4,000 m (Tirira, in prep.).
21770		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It occurs inside shrubby paramo/forest ecotone, in subalpine rainforest, and in dense thickets of secondary growth at the bottom of a narrow ravine surrounded by pastures. It is terrestrial, and is frequent along the wet margins of small streams, also occurs near narrow trails through mossy debris and damp leaf litter (Voss, 2003).
21770		population	eng	This species is frequent and sometimes common in moist habitats at high altitudes in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Colombia it may be rare (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21770		threats	eng	Habitat loss is occurring across the range although this is not a major threat at this time (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21771		conservation	eng	There are two protected areas within the potential range of this species but its presence there has not been confirmed. Further studies are required on the habitat, ecology and distribution of this species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21771		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is known only from three localities with an elevation range from 2,800 m to 3,800 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21771		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species, but found in moist montane habitats including forest and paramo.
21771		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21771		threats	eng	The spread of illicit crops across the known range is a potential threat, but the effects on the species are unknown (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21772		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas within its range (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
21772		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Andean elevations in Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found between 2,000 and 3,500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
21772		habitat	eng	Habitat at Risaralda Department is characterized by steep terrain with patches of disturbed (selectively logged) primary cloud forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
21772		population	eng	This species was one of the least frequently captured during a survey in the Risaralda Department, Municipio Santuario, Vereda El Campamento (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
21772		threats	eng	Habitat loss occurs in the area, although this is not a major threat (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21773		conservation	eng	This species is possibly occurs in Santuario Tabaconas-Namballe, however, this is currently unconfirmed (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21773		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwest Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21773		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial and nocturnal. It occurs in montane forest, primary and second growth forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21773		population	eng	This species is locally common to frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21773		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21774		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, like Manu National Park in Peru, and Madidi National Park in Bolivia (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21774		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes from south Peru to west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 2,774 m (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21774		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest, disturbed areas, primary, and secondary forest (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21774		population	eng	It is frequently captured (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21774		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21775		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Abiseo National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21775		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 3,000 to 3,650 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21775		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial and nocturnal. It occurs in cloud forest and close to paramo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21775		population	eng	This species is locally common to frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21775		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21776		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Otishi and Manu National Parks (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21776		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of southeast Peru, about 2,750 to 4,300 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
21776		habitat	eng	This rodent has been trapped along streams with dense scrubby undergrowth broken by montane meadows (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is possibly arboreal (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21776		population	eng	This species is locally frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21776		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21777		conservation	eng	It occurs in a Tama National Park, Venezuela and Colombia border.
21777		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Paramo de Tama in the extreme north of Cordillera Oriental, east Colombia, and the extreme south of Cordillera de Mérida, west Venezuela. It occurs above 2,000 m. The known extent of occurrence is approximately 3,300 km²; however, the species is likely to occur much more widely.
21777		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, terrestrial and omnivorous species. It is associated with moist habitats and cloud forest.
21777		population	eng	The species is rare.
21777		threats	eng	Although the species occurs in a national park the area is not well protected and is subject to deforestation, illicit crops (coca plantations), border disputes and guerilla activities.
21778		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Yanachala Chemillén National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21778		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,550 to 3,250 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21778		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in montane forest. It is terrestrial and nocturnal (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21778		population	eng	This species is locally common to rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21778		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21779		conservation	eng	This species occurs close to (but has not been recorded in) the Zona Reservada Cordillera Colán, a protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21779		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north to central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 3,000 to 3,350 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21779		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest and is terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21779		population	eng	This species is locally common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21779		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21780		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one protected area, Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21780		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
21780		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial. It occurs in montane forest, primary and second growth forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21780		population	eng	It is locally frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21780		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21781		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in Cotapata National Park (J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21781		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a restricted region in La Paz Department, Andes of northwest Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,610 to 3,300 m (J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21781		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial. This rodent occurs in montane forest and paramo. It is present in primary and second growth forest (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21781		population	eng	This species is locallly common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21781		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21782		conservation	eng	It occurs within several national parks and others protected areas.
21782		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Oriental in Andes of Colombia and Cordillera de Mérida adjacent west Venezuela. It occurs at 1,500 to 3,800 m in Venezuela (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
21782		habitat	eng	It is found in cloud forest and disturbed secondary forest, scrub habitat; it is nocturnal and omnivorous (J. Ochoa and B. Rivas pers. comm.). In Colombia it occurs more frequently in cloud forest (Gómez-Laverde <em>et al.</em>, 1987).
21782		population	eng	It is relatively common (V. Pacheco and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21782		threats	eng	It is affected somewhat by deforestation although it is tolerant to a degree of disturbance.
21783		conservation	eng	It occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park although this is not effectively protected (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). Further surveys are required on ecology and population status.
21783		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the extreme northeast of Colombia in Sierra Nevada Santa de Marta (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found between 2,200 to 3,600 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21783		habitat	eng	It occurs in high montane forest and paramo (M. Gómez-Laverde and V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21783		population	eng	Little is known about this species. It was collected only in small numbers although potential habitat has not been adequately surveyed (M. Gómez-Laverde and V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21783		threats	eng	Deforestation for illicit crops (e.g. coca) is an important threat (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21784		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21784		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Departments Boyacá and Cundinamarca, above 2600 m, central Colombia (Gómez-Laverde 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
21784		habitat	eng	It prefers paramo habitat but also occurs in Andean montane forest. It is nocturnal and omnivorous. It does not occur in unnatural grassy areas created for pasture (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21784		population	eng	Relatively common species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21784		threats	eng	Areas outside the protected areas are affected by habitat conversion to unnatural pasture which the species can not survive in, although much of this occurs in areas which are not suitable for it (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21785		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21785		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,440 to 2,900 m (Emmons, 2001). It has been found in Yanachaga Chemillen, Manu, Machu Picchu and Vilcamba localities (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
21785		habitat	eng	This species is probably arboreal and terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21785		population	eng	This species is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21785		threats	eng	Some populations are effected by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21786		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas, as Madidi National Park, in Bolivia, and Manu National Park, in Peru (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21786		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south central of Peru (Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1993) and west central Bolivia (La Paz Department; Anderson, 1997) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 3,600 m (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).
21786		habitat	eng	This species is present in the Yungas area; it habits in montane forest. This rodent is terrestrial and nocturnal, and may be arboreal as well (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21786		population	eng	It is rare (Pacheco and Vargas pers. comm.).
21786		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21787		conservation	eng	This species occurs in serveral protected areas (D. Tirira and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
21787		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005) and there are some records in southern Colombia, Andes de Nariño, Galeras volcano (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 4,300 (D. Tirira and V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21787		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in Subalpine Rain Forest, in Polylepis thickets in the paramo, and in the shrubby paramo/forest ecotone. It is mainly terrestrial, uses runways through moss, and prefers banks of small streams (Voss, 2003).
21787		population	eng	It is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21787		threats	eng	Some populations are effected by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21788		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one protected area in Ecuador (Cajas National Park) (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21788		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of south Ecuador and northwest Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,300 to 4,000 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21788		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species. It is nocturnal and occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21788		population	eng	In Ecuador it is rare to uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Peru it is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21788		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21789		conservation	eng	This species in known from one protected area (Antisana Ecological Reserve) (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of north Ecuador (Pacheco, 2003).
21789		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. This is nocturnal and terrestrial and occurs in montanen forest, close to paramo  (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21789		population	eng	It is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21789		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21790		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area, but it could be present in Zona Protegida Alto Mayo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed into ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.
21790		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is known just from the type locality: Peru, Amazonas Department, Goncha, 2591 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21790		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in montane forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21790		population	eng	It is rare, known only from one record (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21790		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21791		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one protected area (Antisana Ecological Reserve).
21791		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of north central Ecuador (Pichincha Province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
21791		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is nocturnal and terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21791		population	eng	It is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
21791		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21792		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed on ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.
21792		distribution	eng	This species occurs in isolated localities in northwest Peru (Pacheco, 2003), contra Anderson (1993) and Musser and Carleton (2005) that extend its distribution to west and central Bolivia (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21792		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. It occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo, and can be found in primary and second growth forest and moderately disturbed areas (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21792		population	eng	It is locally common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
21792		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
21793		conservation	eng	It occurs in Sierra Nevada National Park; it is likely to occur in other protected areas. Further surveys on distribution and ecology are required.
21793		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mérida Andes, ca. 1,600 to 2,400 m, west Venezuela (see Linares, 1998) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
21793		habitat	eng	This terrestrial and omnivorous species is poorly known. It is associated with moist habitats and cloud forest.
21793		population	eng	It is a rare species (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
21793		threats	eng	Areas outside protected areas are affected by deforestation. The type locality is now an urban area (B. Rivas pers. comm.).
21799		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
21799		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western United States and northern Mexico, from southern Oregon through Baja California, eastward through the central Great Basin, and southward to the lowlands of northern Mexico.
21799		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of habitats, from desert scrub to high elevation coniferous forests. Within these habitats it occurs in open areas with deep soils. This species is also found in agricultural areas.
21799		population	eng	This species is common. Densities have been reported up to 29.6 individuals/acre (natural habitat) and 62 individuals/acre (alfalfa fields) (Jones and Baxter 2004).
21799		threats	eng	No major threats. However, it is considered an agricultural pest.
21800		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
21800		distribution	eng	This species is found from south-central Arizona and south-west New Mexico, south to Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico.
21800		habitat	eng	This species occurs in habitats ranging from low elevation desert grassland and scrubland, through woodlands of intermediate elevation, to high elevation meadows.<br/><br/>This rodent is vegetarian, like other pocket gophers, and relishes both below-ground and aboveground plant parts. Individuals are active year-round, constructing burrows under snow at high elevations during the winter months. Individuals of both sexes live in self-excavated, exclusive-use burrow systems, and surface mounds of fresh earth provide clear evidence of their presence in an area. Populations typically contain a larger number of adult females than adult males, and males are usually larger in size than females. <br/><br/>The breeding season varies greatly throughout the species’ range. Separate winter and summer peaks were noted in populations from the Mexican state of Coahuila, but animals in southern Arizona bred only during the late winter and early spring. Litter size averages about 4 to 5 pups, with a maximum of around 8 to 10. Longevity is probably less than 2 or 3 years, and most young probably are taken by predators before they reach reproductive maturity. Common predators include hawks and owls, snakes, weasels, badgers, bobcats, and coyotes (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
21800		population	eng	It is locally abundant and common, although many populations are probably small and may be ephemeral (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
21800		threats	eng	Although this species is limited in its distribution, it appears to have no immediate threats to its survival (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).
21809		conservation	eng	This species is protected at the state level in Montana. There are no known populations in captivity or in protected areas in the wild (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
21809		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western United States; in eastern Idaho, southwestern Montana, western Wyoming, and northeastern Utah (Thaeler, 1972).
21809		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open sagebrush, grassland plains, and subalpine mountain meadows. It prefers soils that are shallower and stonier than those preferred by the partially sympatric <em>Thomomys talpoides</em> (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They are probably similar to <em>T. talpoides</em> which has a gestation period of 19-20 days and produces a litter of four to seven young. This species is primarily solitary except during the breeding season. Predators include coyotes, foxes, and owls. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). Diet includes roots, tubers and some surface vegetation. Primarily fossorial, they forage in underground burrows, also above ground at night or on overcast days. They carry food in their cheek pouches and store it in underground chambers.
21809		population	eng	It is considered rare to common within its restricted range.
21809		threats	eng	There are no known immediate threats to this species.
21810		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences of the western pocket gopher are in national parks and other protected habitats.
21810		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively limited distribution along the Pacific coast of the United States from Washington to northern California (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). The overall range is comprised of multiple disjunct population segments (Verts and Carraway, 2000).
21810		habitat	eng	It is found in open grassy areas, including pastures, prairies, savannas, and open early seral woodlands and forests (Verts and Carraway, 2000, Stinson 2005). This species is fossorial, inhabiting deep, humic volcanic soils (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). In this species, gestation lasts about 28 days. Females produce one litter of four to six young each year. Young are born in March-June. Pocket gophers are primarily solitary. Predators include owls, coyotes, and bobcats. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). Diet includes roots, tubers, bulbs and some surface vegetation. Forages from underground burrows. May also forage on the surface of the ground at night or on overcast days. Collects food in cheek pouches and stores it in underground storage chamber.
21810		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 100,000, with the great majority in Oregon. In Washington, most surviving populations are small (<100) and appear to be isolated from other populations (Stinson, 2005). The total of all remaining populations of <em>T. mazama</em> in Washington may be between two thousand and five thousand individuals. <br/><br/>Based on 1,394 specimens, Verts and Carraway (1998) mapped roughly 200 collection sites in the central portion of the range in Oregon. About 27 populations remain in Washington (Stinson, 2005). In Washington, additional surveys are needed to document remnant populations in the rapidly developing areas on historical prairies of Thurston and Pierce counties, as well as in other regions of the state (Stinson, 2005).<br/><br/>Densities of up to 60/hectare have been reported (Verts and Carraway, 2000) for this species.
21810		threats	eng	In Washington, habitat loss to succession, agriculture, and development has eliminated most of the prairie habitat of this species in the south Puget Sound region, and habitat continues to be lost to residential development and other human uses (Stinson, 2005). Existing habitat is being degraded by heavy grazing of pastures and the invasion of Scotch broom and other weedy non-native plants (Stinson, 2005).<br/><br/>Stinson (2005) reported the following additional information for Washington populations of <em>Thomomys mazama</em>. Pocket gophers may not persist in residential areas due to persecution by trapping, poisoning, and predation by cats and dogs. Gravel mining affects gopher habitat on some private lands. Most occupied habitat on public lands is affected by non conservation uses including military training and recreation. Gopher populations at airports can be affected by the development of airport-related facilities and businesses, and the management of airport grassland. The small size and isolation of most remaining populations of <em>Mazama</em> pocket gopher put them at risk of local extinction, and without increased protection, all but <em>T. m. melanops</em> in Olympic National Park could go extinct. Historically, local gopher populations probably exchanged genetic material by individuals occasionally dispersing through intervening oak woodlands and forest; prairie patches where gophers went extinct would eventually be recolonized. Today, these prairie patches are increasingly surrounded by roads and suburbs that are inhospitable to dispersing gophers. Populations that become extinct are unlikely to be recolonized without reintroductions.
21815		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
21815		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Sulawesi and on the adjacent islands of Buton, Mangole, the Talaud and Sangihe island groups, and probably Morotai, all in Indonesia. Specimens have also been collected from Wowoni (U. Sinaga pers. comm.).
21815		habitat	eng	It prefers intact forest but has been collected from lowland to 2,400 m asl in many different habitats including disturbed habitats.
21815		population	eng	This species is common and widespread in suitable habitat.
21815		threats	eng	This species is hunted for bushmeat, but not currently at levels that are considered a major threat to the species.
21816		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional do Caparao, and has also been found in Parque Nacional da Tijuca in Rio de Janeiro, although there are no recent records. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species, and further research is needed into the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.
21816		distribution	eng	This species from south-eastern Brazil has been recorded from the states of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, and extreme south-eastern Minas Gerais. Its altitudinal range is 200-800m asl.
21816		habitat	eng	It lives on wet rock walls near streams in forest, or on the forest edge. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures, while the larvae live on wet rock walls where water drains.
21816		population	eng	It is very rare, and has undergone precipitous declines. The records from Espirito Santo are very old, and it has not been seen in Rio de Janeiro for 20 years, despite searches. There are some recent records from Minas Gerais, in Parque Nacional do Caparao, these being the only recent records of the species.
21816		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to human settlement, tourist activities and fire. However, the reasons for the observed dramatic declines remain unexplained; like amphibians in some other parts of the wet tropics, it appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat, despite the fact that this pathogen has not yet been confirmed from Brazil.
21817		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional da Serra des Órgãos. However, the park is urgently in need of an improved management plan to accommodate increased tourist traffic to the area. There is a need for further research to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in apparently suitable habitat.
21817		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from above 800m asl in the Serra des Órgãos, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. There are historical records from mountain tops in the state of São Paulo, but there are no recent records from this state. A record from Santa Teresa in the state of Espírito Santo requires confirmation.
21817		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in forest, or on the forest edge, living on wet rock walls near streams or waterfalls. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures.
21817		population	eng	It used to be common, but it has now undergone significant declines. For example, whereas it was once abundant and easy to find (at least up until 1979) at Teresópolis, Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, it has not been recorded since.
21817		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, human settlement, tourism, and fire. However, this does not fully account for the recorded declines. Like amphibians in some other parts of the wet tropics, it appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat, even though this disease has not yet been confirmed from Brazil.
21839		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas within its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
21839		distribution	eng	This species is found in south and southeast Brazil. <em>T. apereoides</em> is closely associated with a diagonal belt of open vegetation that stretches in a northeast to southwest direction between the Amazonian and Atlantic forests (Alho, 1982; Mares and Ojeda, 1982).
21839		habitat	eng	Thrichomys apereoides inhabits xeric and rocky environments in caatinga and cerrado domains in Brazil and chaco in Paraguay (Mares and Ojeda, 1982; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1985; Moojen, 1952; Streilein, 1982a). In Exu, Brazil, T. apereoides is associated primarily with granitic outcroppings (Streilein, 1982d). In Bolivia, T. apereoides inhabits flat and arid shrub-dominated habitat devoid of large rocks (Anderson, 1997). It is a crepuscular species (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). In Brazil, its reproduction occurs throughout the year with two or three litters of one to six young (average 3.1) produced after a gestation period of 89 days (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Sexual maturity is reached between seven and nine months (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
21839		population	eng	This species is very common throughout the range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
21839		threats	eng	It is hunted for food although the species is not considered to have any major threats in operation throughout its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
21846		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Continued population monitoring, and research into harvest levels are needed.
21846		distribution	eng	This species is generally recorded from Central Africa, East Africa and northern parts of Southern Africa, although the geographic range of this species remains poorly defined. The core area of their range appears to be centred in East Africa, from extreme southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya southwards through Tanzania, most of Zambia and Malawi to Zimbabwe. However, there are also isolated records from Cameroon, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia, suggesting that the distribution range be much wider and more continuous than currently thought. They have not yet been recorded from Angola, Botswana, or Mozambique, but it is likely they occur at least in the latter country as specimens have been taken from right on the border of neighbouring Malawi and Zimbabwe.<br/>Recorded from the Nyika Plateau at 2,000 m asl (Ansell and Dowsett 1988), but apparently also from the Ruwenzori range at 2,600 m asl.
21846		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from grassland and woodland habitats, and is apparently also associated with wetlands and commonly inhabitas areas of semi-aquatic grasses. It is largely nocturnal, but partly dirunal. Animals are often solitary, but are sometimes encountered in small parties. The avearge litter size is two or three young.
21846		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
21846		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It is hunted as subsistence food in parts of its range.
21847		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas throughout the range..
21847		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded over much of Subsaharan Africa. The distribution is patchy and discontinuous and they only occur where there is suitable habitat. The species is distributed from Senegal, The Gambia and Guinea in West Africa eastwards to the Central African Republic, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and southern Sudan, and from here into East Africa where it ranges from Uganda and Kenya southwards throughout much of Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique into eastern South Africa (the Grahamstown district in the Eastern Cape province is the southerly limit [Skinner and Smithers 1990]). It has been recorded from 1,800 m asl on Kilimanjaro (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995)
21847		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in association with reedbeds or in areas of dense, tall grass with thick reed or cane-like stems, typical of riverine and other similar habitats. They are seldom found far from water. Skinner and Smithers (1990) note that agricultural crops (such as maize, wheat, sugar-cane, groundnuts) have greatly improved the habitat for this species such that they have become an agricultural pest in some regions, and are often responsible for damaging cassava crops, and, in West Africa, oil palm plantations. It is predominantly nocturnal, with little known of their biology and ecology. Two litters of as many as twelve young are born annually.
21847		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
21847		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. They are a favoured food item and commonly hunted with dogs in West Africa. This species is very common in bushmeat markets, and there have been numerous studies investigating the viability of farming this species to supply demands for protein in West and Central Africa. Jori <em>et al</em>. (1995) discuss the many economical, nutritional and environmental arguments for implementing rearing of this species in rural development programmes in Africa and methods to develop farming programmes. They are also a major agricultural pest, which has often led to control measures being applied to keep them out of plantations and fields.
21856		conservation	eng	The driftnet fishery for albacore has been banned since January 1, 2002 in the EC countries and from 2004 in all the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) Mediterranean countries, but it is known that illegal fishing activity still occurs in some areas.
21856		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department, 1994).<br/><br/>In the north Atlantic, a total allowable catch (TAC) of 28,000 tonnes was established for 2010  and 2011 for the northern stock. TACs are also in place for the southern  Atlantic albacore fishery. For the south Atlantic, the TAC for  2009–2011 is 29,900 and adjustments are made to reduce the TACs in the  following year if the actual catch exceeds the TAC in a given year  (ICCAT 2009). The driftnet fishery for albacore has been banned since January 1<sup>st</sup>   2002 in the European Union countries and from 2004 in all the ICCAT Mediterranean   countries, but it is known that illegal fishing activity still occurs  in  some areas (STEFC 2007).<br/><br/>In the North Pacific, the International Scientific Committee-Albacore  Working Group strongly recommends that all countries support  precautionary-based fishing practices (e.g., limits on current levels of  fishing effort) given the current level of fishing  mortality (ISC 2008). In the Indian Ocean, there are no conservation measures in place, but a new assessment for this species is recommended by 2010.
21856		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate waters of all oceans but not at the surface between 10°N and 10°S.  This species is present in the western Atlantic in a broad band between 40°N and 40°S (Collette 2001).  It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea in Spanish waters (Caminas <em>et al.</em> 2006, Catalan <em>et al.</em> 2007), Ionian Sea (Megalofonou 2000, Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Aegean Sea (Megalofonou 2000, Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> 2003, Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2003, Minos<em> et al.</em> 2006). This is a highly migratory species listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).
21856		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate waters of all the oceans including the Mediterranean Sea, but it is not found at the surface between 10°N and 10°S. In the western Pacific range, this species extends in a broad band between 40°N and 40°S (Collette 2001). In the Atlantic, this species is widely distributed between 60°N and 50°S. In the Eastern Pacific, this species occurs as two populations: from British Columbia to the tip of Baja, and from southern Peru to southern Chile. Both of these populations are trans-Pacific.
21856		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic and mesopelagic, oceanic species, that is abundant in surface waters of 15.6–19.4°C. Deeper swimming, large albacore are found in waters of 13.5–25.2°C. Temperatures as low as 9.5°C may be tolerated for short periods. It is known to concentrate along thermal discontinuities (Collette and Nauen 1983).<br/><br/>This species forms mixed schools with Skipjack Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Katsuwonus pelamis</span>), Yellowfin Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus albacares</span>) and Bluefin Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus maccoyii</span>). These schools may be associated with floating objects, including sargassum weeds (Collette and Nauen 1983). It feeds on fish, crustaceans and squid. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species feeds on paralepidids, <span style="font-style: italic;">Paralepis speciosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. coregonoides</span>; crustaceans - hyperidean amphipods <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrosina semilunata</span>; and cephalopods - <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachyscelus cruslculum</span> (Consoli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Use of combined Japanese and US tagging data confirm the frequent westward movement of young albacore and infrequent eastward movements in the North Pacific. This corresponds to albacore life history where immature fish recruit into fisheries in the western and eastern Pacific and then gradually move near their spawning grounds in the central and western Pacific before maturing (Ichinokawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Immature Albacore Tuna (<80 cm) generally have a sex ratio of 1:1 but males predominate in catches of mature fish. Maturity is attained at about 90–94 cm (FL) for females and 94–97 cm (FL) for males. Spawning occurs at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher. Fecundity increases with size but there is no clear correlation between fork length and ovary weight and number of eggs. A 20 kg female may produce between two and three million eggs per season, released in at least two batches (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Longevity for this species may be as long as 13 years in the South Atlantic (Lee and Yeh 2007) and in the South Pacific (Labelle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Lee and Yeh 1993). Age of first maturity is estimated to be between five and seven years (Wu and Kuo 1993, Ramon and Bailey 1996). Based on age-structured data from the Atlantic and Pacific (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), generation length is conservatively estimated to be between 6–7 years.<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 39.97 kg fish taken off of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands in 1977 (IGFA 2011).
21856		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is also an epipelagic and mesopelagic, oceanic species, abundant in surface waters of 15.6° to 19.4°C. The deeper swimming, large albacore are found in waters of 13.5° to 25.2°C. Temperatures as low as 9.5°C may be tolerated for short periods (Collette and Nauen 1988).  It is known to concentrate along thermal discontinuities (Collette and Nauen 1988).  <br/><br/>It forms mixed schools with skipjack tuna (<em>Katsuwonus pelamis</em>), yellowfin tuna (<em>Thunnus albacares</em>) and bluefin tuna <em>T. maccoyii</em>), which may be associated with floating objects, including sargassum weeds (Collette and Nauen 1988).  It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and squids.  The larvae of this species feed mainly on copepodites and nauplii (Catalan <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Sexual maturity is reached at 90 cm (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The sex ratio in catches is about 1:1 for immature individuals, but males predominate among mature fishes, which is possibly due to both differential mortality of sexes and differential growth rate after maturity. A recent genetic study on this species give evidence that there is a single gene pool in the Mediterranean and in Western Atlantic (Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2003).
21856		population	eng	3310 tons were fished in 2005, with a decrease respective to 2004 catches and a decrease of nearly 60% from 2003 catches (ICCAT 2007).<br/><br/><em>Thunnus alalunga</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 1358 (1996), 1128 (1997), 134 (1998), 289 (1999), 161 (2000), 205 (2001), 217 (2002), 958 (2003), 926 (2004), 708 (2005).<br/><br/>473 specimens (55.5 and 89.0 cm FL) were collected in September-October of 1989-1995 from the Greek fishing fleets in the Aegean Sea (Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Pujolar<em> et al.</em> (2003) recorded 188 specimens, with length varied from 59 to 127 cm FL.  Individuals were collected in 1993-1994 in the Gulf of Taranto and in the Sporades Islands, for a genetic study.<br/><br/>Megalofonou (2000) collected 1136 specimens (57 to 92 cm FL) from Porto Cesareo in the Gulf of Taranto and in waters of Alonisos island in the Aegean Sea.<br/><br/>2629 specimens (<em>T. alalunga</em> and <em>T. thynnus</em>) were collected using long lines from September 2003 and February 2004 in the north Aegean Sea (Minos <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>101 larvae, with length ranging from 2.65 to 9.4 mm SL, were collected in Spanish waters in order to study the feeding habit of larval specimens of <em>T. alalunga</em> (Catalan <em>et al.</em> 2007).
21856		population	eng	FAO worldwide reported landings show a steady increase from 103,676 t in 1950 to 284,542 t in 2006 (FAO 2009). There are six stocks that are globally managed for this species. As of 2004, the stock in the North Atlantic is considered Overexploited; the Indian Ocean and North Pacific are Fully Exploited; the South Atlantic and South Pacific are Moderately Exploited; and the Mediterranean is Unknown (Majkowski 2007). Populations in the Eastern Pacific consist of the South Pacific stock and the North Pacific stock. Details of the migration remain unclear, but juvenile fish (2–5 years) are believed to move into the eastern Pacific Ocean in the spring and early summer, and return to the western and central Pacific, perhaps annually, in the late fall and winter, where they tend to remain as they mature (IATTC 2008). Recent estimates of total catch data from IATTC (2008) for the Eastern Pacific are 24,604 mt (2005), 30,393 mt (2006), and 8,587 mt (2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">North Pacific Ocean</span><br/>An assessment for the North Pacific stock conducted in 2006 (Stocker 2006, ISC 2008) found that spawning stock biomass (SSB) has experienced slight fluctuations since 1960s, but has remained relatively stable at ~90,000 mt over the last two decades. Linear regression of SSB over the past 20 years (1987–2005), shows only a very small decline of approximately 6%. The total catch increased substantially in 2007, to a level typical of the catches occurring during the 1996–2004 period, while preliminary catch for 2008 decreased to a level more consistent with catches after 2004. Even though current fishing mortality is projected to be above FMSY, recent changes in the distribution of the fishery need to be appropriately standardized before relative abundance can be accurately reflected (Holmes 2009). A new stock assessment planned for 2011.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">South Pacific Ocean</span><br/>Based on Multifan-CL stock assessment conducted in 2008 (Hoyle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), SSB has decreased approximately 36–40% over the past 20 years (1987–2007). However, the conclusion is that this species is not in an overfished state, with current catch levels being sustainable (Hoyle and Davies 2009). Although estimates are highly variable between model configurations, 2004–2006 mortality is estimated to be below FMSY, and 2004–2006 biomass is estimated to be above BMSY, and spawning stock biomass between 2004–2006 is estimated to be above SSBMSY (Hoyle and Davies 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>The only stock assessment available for this species in the Indian Ocean, conducted in 2008, may be unreliable (Hilary 2008). In terms of predicted stock-status, the model predicted that the stock biomass in the Indian Ocean was very close to MSY but that the current harvest rate was above the MSY level indicating that over-fishing may be occurring. The 2007 catch level (31,226 tonnes) was predicted to be above the MSY level (27,022 tonnes) with high probability. This assessment is very preliminary and it should be recommended that a more realistic fully age/length structured model be developed for the future to assess this stock (Hilary 2008).<br/><br/>Based on this exploratory stock assessment, estimated SSB in the Indian Ocean has declined approximately 55% over the past 20 years (1987–2007), even though in the past four years (2002–2006) estimated SSB has increased from 20,000 to 40,000 tonnes. Standardized CPUE has also declined over the past 25 years, but has been relatively stable since 1990 (IOTC 2008). Current mortality is below FMSY. Although results of these analyses are considered preliminary and indicative only, it was concluded that this stock is not presently overfished (IOTC 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">North Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>Catches of this species in the north Atlantic peaked at 65,000 tonnes in the mid-1960s, then declined to a low of 20,000 tonnes in 2008. This decline is partly due to reduced fishing effort by some surface and longline fisheries. The most recent stock assessment in 2009 indicated that recruitment in the fishery is highly variable, and that biomass since 1993 has been less than biomass at MSY. Currently, the stock is about 40% below the MSY level and spawning stock biomass is currently only 25% of the original biomass (ICCAT 2009). The MSY from the last stock assessment was estimated at 29,000 tonnes, and catches in four of the last ten years have exceeded this value. This species stock in the North Atlantic was recently considered to be in an overfished state (ISSF 2010, Joseph 2009). However, in 2009 catch quotas were adopted in line with scientific  advice to end overfishing.<br/><br/>In the 2009 stock assessment for the north Atlantic (ICCAT 2009), several models were used to evaluated the status of the stock. Based on linear regression of the Multifan base case, estimated spawning stock biomass has decreased approximately 33% over the past 20 years (1987–2007). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">South Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>In the South Atlantic, catches have varied from a high of 41,000 tonnes in 1987 to a low of 15,000 tonnes in 1984. Catches were stable from 1988 to 2001 at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 30,000 tonnes, and the average in the last five years has been 21,000 tonnes (ISSF 2010). The current estimate of MSY is 33,000 tonnes, ranging between 29,000 and 36,700 tonnes. In the last ten years only one year had a catch exceeding the MSY estimate. It is likely that the stock is below the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) level as it was estimated to about 90% of BMSY in 2005, while the 2005 fishing mortality rate was about 60% of FMSY (SCRS ICCAT 2010). The stock is considered to be in a slightly overfished state, but is not currently being fished above MSY (ISSF 2010).<br/><br/>In the 2007 stock assessment for the South Atlantic (ICCAT 2007), several models were used to evaluated the status of the stock. Based on linear regression of the ASPM age structured production model base case, estimated SSB has decreased approximately 32% over the past 20 years (1987–2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean</span><br/>A stock assessment for the Mediterranean is planned for 2011. The Mediterranean albacore fisheries are characterized by high spatio-temporal variability in landings and fishing patterns. Albacore fishing is a traditional activity for a number of fleets including those of Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Malta. ICCAT statistics, however, are considered quite incomplete due to unreported catches from several countries and the lack of data in some years from other countries. Fishing effort is not possible to estimate due to short time series and inadequate coverage of artisanal gears. Even though catches of Mediterranean albacore have been increasing for the past few years, there is a lack of general information on this stock and biological information is also limited (ICCAT 2010). Although many countries are not yet reporting any catch for this species, the Mediterranean stock does not show any general trend, and the mixing rate with the Atlantic stock appears to be insignificant (STECF 2007).
21856		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with hook and lines and seines. This species is rarely used for aquaculture and aquaria. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this is an important fish commercially and is caught primarily with long lines and secondarily by drift nets, and hand lines in sport fishery. It is also a bycatch of the swordfish fishery.
21856		threats	eng	This species is caught by long-lining, live-bait fishing, purse seining, and trolling. In the Eastern Pacific it is also a bycatch of swordfish fisheries. Albacore Tuna are caught by long-line gear in most of the North and South Pacific (but not often between about 10°N and 5°S), by trolling gear in the eastern and central North and South Pacific, and by pole-and-line gear in the western North Pacific. In the North Pacific about 60% of the fish are taken in pole-and-line and troll fisheries that catch smaller, younger Albacore Tuna, whereas about 90% of the albacore caught in the South Pacific are taken by long-line (IATTC 2008).<br/><br/>Catches of northern Atlantic Albacore Tuna are primarily made by pole-and-line (35%), trolling (28%), trawlers (17%) and longline (17%). The main fisheries are Spain, France, and Chinese Taipei. Surface fisheries concentrate mainly in the Bay of Biscay and the Azores and Canary Islands during summer and fall, taking young fish while longline vessels operate throughout the Atlantic year-round and target larger fish (ISSF 2010). For the south Atlantic stock, the main fisheries are longliners from Chinese Taipei (56%), pole-and-line from South Africa (18%) and from Namibia (13%). Surface fisheries operate mainly between October and May capturing juvenile and subadult fish (ISSF 2010).
21857		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>Conservation measures imposed in 2004 for the Eastern Pacific under resolution C-04-09 (IATTC 2008) are predicted to maintain the stock at about the Average Maximum Sustainable Yield level, slightly higher than would otherwise be the case. Three month closures have been proposed by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and Mexico, which has one of the largest fisheries for this species.<br/><br/>In the Western Pacific, there was a two month closure of the FAD fishery in 2009, and three months in 2010 with an objective of achieving a 30% reduction of fishing effort.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission's (IOTC) Working Party on Tropical Tunas (WPTT) recommends that catches of Yellowfin Tuna in the Indian Ocean should not increase beyond 300,000 t in order to bring the stock to biomass levels that could sustain catches at the MSY level in the long term. If recruitment continues to be lower than average, catches below MSY would be needed to maintain stock levels (IOTC 2010).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (ICCAT-SCRS) recommended that increased harvest of Yellowfin Tuna could have negative consequences for Bigeye Tuna in particular, and other species caught together with Yellowfin Tuna in fishing operations taking more than one species. The same group also continues to recommend that effective measures be found to reduce fishing mortality of small Yellowfin Tuna to increase long-term sustainable yield. ICCAT-SCRS noted that catch levels in recent years have been held in check, despite increasing efficiencies of individual vessels, by a continued decline in the number of purse seine vessels in the eastern Atlantic. The Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) agrees that a continuation of the recent movement of additional newer vessels from the Indian Ocean into the Atlantic, with a corresponding increase in fishing mortality should be monitored closely to avoid adverse impacts on stock status (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>ICCAT recommendation 04-01 implemented a small closure for the surface fishing in the area 0–5ºN, 10–20ºE during November in the Gulf of Guinea for purse-seine and pole-and-line vessels. Although this regulation is intended to reduce small Bigeye Tuna catches, the Committee recognizes that its implementation and the change from the previous moratorium to the current regulation will potentially impact Yellowfin Tuna catches. Given the relatively small time-area coverage of the closure, any reduction in juvenile mortality is expected to be minimal (ICCAT 2009).
21857		distribution	eng	This species is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. Tagging data show that trans-Atlantic migrations occur, and the Yellowfin Tuna from the entire Atlantic are considered to be part of a single stock. In the eastern Pacific, this species ranges from southern California and the southwest and central eastern parts of the Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands. It may occur off Oregon and Washington during El Niño years (K.Schaefer pers comm 2008).
21857		habitat	eng	This is an open-water pelagic and oceanic species occurring above and below the thermocline to depths of at least 400 m. This species schools primarily by size, either in monospecific or multi-species groups. Larger fish frequently school with porpoises and are also associated with floating debris and other objects. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and squids. It is sensitive to low concentrations of oxygen and therefore, is not usually caught below 250 m in the tropics, and is found in waters between the temperatures of 18–31°C.<br/><br/>The primary Atlantic spawning grounds are in the Gulf of Guinea, and to a lesser extent in the Gulf of Mexico. Spawning occurs throughout the year in the core areas of distribution at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher, but peaks are observed in the northern and southern summer months respectively. Spawning occurs almost entirely at night between 2200 and 0600 hrs (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Schaefer 1998).<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, longevity is at least seven years (Romanov and Korotkova 1988), although very few individuals live past four years. Estimated maximum age in the Eastern Pacific is 4.8 years (Wild 1986), in the Western Pacific is 6.5 years (Lehodey and Leroy 1999), and in the Atlantic is eight years (IGFA 2001). Smallest mature individuals in the Pacific off the Philippines and Central America are in the 50–60 cm size group at an age of 12–15 months. Length at 50% maturity in the eastern Pacific was 69 cm for males and 92 cm for females corresponding to an age of 2.1 years (Schaefer 1998). Batch fecundity estimates in the eastern Pacific ranged from 162,918 oocytes for a 1,180 mm female to 8,026,026 oocytes for a 1,460 mm female (Collette 2010). Based age-structure data across all stocks (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), generation length is estimated to be between 2.2 and 3.5 years.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 200 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 183.7 kg fish caught in Magdalena Bay, Baja Sur, Mexico (International Angler 2011).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span></span>
21857		population	eng	FAO reported worldwide landings show a gradual, but variable increase from 110,879 tonnes in 1950, to 1,130,605 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). Landings data have exponentially increased over the last 50 years (400%). There are four stocks that are globally managed for this species. As of 2004, the stocks in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and Eastern Pacific are considered Fully Exploited, and the Western and Central Pacific stock is considered Fully to Over-exploited (Majkowski 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>Yearly catch levels have declined in the Atlantic Ocean since the peak catch of 194,000 tonnes in 1990. A steady decline occurred between 2001–2007, followed by an increase in 2008. These trends in part reflect changes in the number of purse seiners operating in the Atlantic Ocean (ISSF 2010). Recent trends have differed between the western and eastern Atlantic, with the overall catches in the west declining by 26% since 2006. In the eastern Atlantic, on the other hand, catches have increased by 23% since 2006, mainly due to substantial increases in purse seine effort (SCRS ICCAT 2010).<br/><br/>The most recent stock assessment for Yellowfin Tuna in the Atlantic was conducted in 2008 (ICCAT 2009), which showed that biomass is currently somewhat less than BMSY, but fishing mortality is also less than FMSY (ISSF 2010, ICCAT 2009).&#160;&#160; Based on linear regression of the middle values of Model 5 and Model 10 in the latest stock assessment (ICCAT 2009), spawning stock biomass (SSB) has declined approximately 22% over the past 10 years (1998–2007). These models suggest that only catches of 130,000 tonnes or less are sustainable.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific Ocean</span><br/>From 1976–2005 the total catch fluctuated from 100,000 to 443,000 t per year (IATTC 2008). The average annual retained catch of Yellowfin Tuna in the Eastern Pacific during 1991–2005 was 276,000 t, with a peak in 2002 of 443,000 t, the greatest on record. However catch decreased substantially in 2005 to 288,019 t, and in 2006 to 174,780 t (the lowest since 1984).&#160; Current maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is estimated to be about 273,000 t (IATTC 2009, ISSF 2010). Additionally, the average weights of the Yellowfin Tuna caught in 2006 were significantly lower than those of the previous five years (STECF 2007).<br/><br/>The most likely causes of the lesser catches are declines in recruitment, effort in the dolphin-associated fisheries, and catchability (IATTC 2008). The recruitment of Yellowfin Tuna to the fisheries in the Eastern Pacific varies seasonally and in response to regime shifts in productivity. The most recent stock assessment analysis and previous analyses have indicated that the Yellowfin Tuna population has experienced two, or possibly three, different recruitment productivity regimes (1975–1982, 1983–2002, and 2003–2008). The productivity regimes correspond to regimes in biomass, e.g., higher-productivity regimes producing greater biomass levels. Average annual catch of Yellowfin Tuna in the eastern Pacific Ocean was 233,000 t&#160; (100,000 to 301,000) during the period from 1975–2001. Variations in part reflect changes in fishing effort and regime shifts in productivity over up to three levels of recruitment. Changes in measures of fishing effort include changes in the proportion of purse seine catch by set type, as well as changes in the overall level of fishing effort, which occur in part in compliance with management action (M.Hinton pers comm 2011).<br/><br/>According to the most recent stock assessment in the Eastern Pacific conducted in 2009 (Maunder and Aires-da-Silva 2010), if the fishing mortality is proportional to the fishing effort and the current patterns of age-specific selectivity are maintained, the current (average of 2006–2008) level of fishing is below FMSY. The spawning stock biomass is also estimated to be above SSBMSY. Based on linear regression of the spawning stock biomass ratio (SBR) reported in the most recent stock assessment (Maunder and Aires-da-Silva 2010), there has been an estimated 49% decline in SBR over the past 10 years (1998–2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>The catches of Yellowfin Tuna show a strong seasonality with high catches during the northern winter months and usually low catches from May–June to September–October. The Yellowfin Tuna stock assessment work in the Indian Ocean is an extremely difficult task because of the conflicting trends in the basic data, total yearly catches and abundance indices used based on the longline catch per unit effort (CPUE): the observed trends in Yellowfin Tuna catches and CPUEs are not consistent with production-model dynamics, or really with any known theory of fishing (IOTC 2009).<br/><br/>However, a stock assessment conducted in 2008 (Nishida 2008) indicated that recent levels of fishing mortality are at an historical high level and the stock has experienced a period of overfishing at least during 2003–2006 (e.g., Fcurrent > FMSY).&#160; Biomass based reference points also varied with the assumed level of steepness. For the lowest value of steepness (0.60), spawning biomass in 2007 was estimated to be below the MSY level (SB/SBMSY <1); i.e., the stock is in an overfished state. For higher values of steepness, biomass in 2007 was above the MSY level (SBcurrent > SBMSY) and the stock is not in an overfished state. The model estimated that recent recruitment has been lower than average, and on this basis total and spawning biomass could be expected to decline further over the next few years (IOTC 2008, IOTC 2009).<br/><br/>A size-based, age- and spatially-structured population model (Multifan-CL, MFCL) for the Yellowfin Tuna in the Indian Ocean initially carried out in 2008 was updated in 2009. Based on linear regression of estimated adult biomass (IOTC 2009), estimated SSB has declined approximately 45% over the past 10 years (1999–2008). Depending on the shape of the stock-recruitment relationship, current catches are likely to be higher than the estimated MSY, which ranges from 250,000 to 300,000 t. For example, total annual catches averaged 434,800 t over the period 2003 to 2007 (IOTC 2008), and 372,200 t over the period 2005 to 2009 (IOTC 2010).&#160; However, more recently catches in the Indian Ocean have declined substantially (in 2009 and possibly also in 2010) partly due to Somali-based piracy in the region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western and Central Pacific Ocean</span><br/>Since 2000, the total Yellowfin Tuna catch in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) has varied between 370,000 and 440,000 mt. Purse seiners harvest the majority of the Yellowfin Tuna catch (53% by weight in 2007), with the longline and pole-and-line fisheries comprising 16% and 4% of the total catch, respectively (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Longline catches in recent years (70,000–80,000 mt) are well below catches in the late 1970s to early 1980s (which peaked at about 110,000 mt), presumably related to changes in targeting practices by some of the larger fleets (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Estimated current biomass exceeds the biomass MSY, and current fishing mortality is below FMSY, indicating that the Yellowfin Tuna stock in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean is not in an overfished state. Depletion has increased steadily over time, reaching a level of about 60% of unexploited biomass (a fishery impact of 40%) in 2004–2007 (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). However, depletion is considerably higher in the equatorial region 3 (e.g., Philippines/Indonesia) where recent depletion levels are approximately 0.35 and 0.30 for total and adult biomass, respectively (65% and 70% reductions from the unexploited level). The stock in this region may be fully-exploited (ISSF 2010).<br/><br/>Overall SSB is estimated to have declined about 21% over a 10 year period (1999–2008), based on linear regression of SSB&#160; in the most recent 2009 stock assessment in the Western and Central Pacific (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
21857		threats	eng	This species is primarily caught by the purse-seine fishery, but is also taken by longlines and pole-and-line fishing.<br/><br/>In terms of yield, Yellowfin Tuna is the most important tuna species in the Eastern Pacific, where an important proportion of the Yellowfin Tuna catch is harvested in association with dolphins, in free schools and increasingly under fish aggregating devices (FADs). In the Western and Central Pacific purse seiners harvest about 50%, while longline and pole-and-line fleets comprise 15% and 3% respectively.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, over 40% of purse seine Yellowfin Tuna catches are taken in log-schools along with Skipjack Tuna and Bigeye Tuna. One of the driving forces behind recent changes in the purse seine fishery has been the impact of piracy in the western Indian Ocean, which has led to a decrease of the nominal effort (number of boats, total carrying capacity, number of fishing and searching days, total number of sets) as well as changes in the fishing behaviour due to the new security measures in place (boats working in pairs with military personnel on board, restriction on fishing areas, etc.) (IOTC 2010).<br/><br/>Fisheries exist for this species in the eastern Atlantic between Portugal and South Africa, and in the western Atlantic between the Gulf of Mexico and southern Brazil; longline fisheries occur throughout the entire tropical and temperate Atlantic. The main gears used to catch Yellowfin Tuna in the Atlantic are: purse seines (58%), longline (22%), and pole-and-line (13%) (ISSF 2010). The purse seine fishery is the major contributor to total catches of this species. Landings from baitboats and purse seiners generally declined between 2001–2007 (STECF 2009). The nominal effort in the purse seine fishery had been declining through 2006. As an indicator, the number of purse seiners from the European and associated fleet operating in the Atlantic had declined from 44 vessels in 2001 to 24 vessels in 2006 (last year’s data included during the assessment), with an average vessel age of about 25 years. Since then, however, the number of purse seiners has increased by 50% to 36, as vessels have moved from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic. At the same time, the efficiencies of these fleets have been increasing, particularly as the vessels which had been operating in the Indian Ocean tend to be newer and with greater fishing power (ICCAT 2009).
21858		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species, listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Current worldwide catch quota has been reduced to 9,448 tonnes per year (CCSBT 2009). However, the current fishing capacity is much higher than the quota. There are several management measures in place including catch control, vessel monitoring, etc. However, more restrictions may be needed.<br/><br/>The CCSBT agreed that the status of the stock is at a critical stage and that a meaningful reduction in the total allowable catch (TAC) is necessary in order to recover the stock and work toward reaching an interim rebuilding target reference point of 20% of the original spawning stock. Consequently, the CCSBT reduced the global total allowable catch (TAC) for 2010 and 2011 to an average level over the two years of 80% of the previously allocated global TAC of 11,810 tonnes. Accordingly, the average global TAC for each of the 2010 and 2011 fishing seasons will be 9,449 tonnes. <br/><br/>The CCSBT has adopted a number of conservation measures including requirements for fleets to monitor and submit data to show compliance with TACs, development of scientific observer programs, monitoring of farming operations and port inspection of catches. The CCSBT has also implemented a Trade Information Scheme to collect more accurate and comprehensive data on Southern Bluefin Tuna fishing by monitoring trade and illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing.
21858		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. It is found in temperate and cold seas, mainly between 30°S and 50°S, to nearly 60°S. During spawning, large fish migrate to tropical seas, off the west coast of Australia, up to 10°S.
21858		habitat	eng	By maturity, most Southern Bluefin Tuna lead an oceanic, pelagic existence. Spawning fish and larvae are encountered in waters with surface temperatures between 20 and 30°C. This species is an opportunistic feeder, preying on a wide variety of fishes, crustaceans, cephalopods, salps, and other marine animals.<br/><br/>Maximum size is 225 cm fork length (FL) and 200 kg. Longevity is 20 or more years. Sex ratio in catches shows that as juveniles, females outnumber males but this situation is reversed in adults. Maturity can occur at 120 cm (FL) but more commonly at 130 cm or about eight years old; size at 50% maturity has also been estimated to be 152 cm (FL) (Collette and Nauen 1983, Thorogood 1986, Caton 1994, Farley and Davis 1998, Schaefer 2001, Collette 2010). Based on the CCSBT (CCSBT 2009, CCSBT 2010), age of first maturity is estimated to be about 10 years and longevity about 40 years. Generation length is therefore very conservatively estimated to be at least 12 years.<br/><br/>Spawning is restricted to a relatively small area off northwestern Australia in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean (Nishikawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). The spawning season extends throughout the southern summer from about September or October to March at water surface temperatures in excess of 24°C. Once females start spawning, they appear to spawn daily. The Southern Bluefin is an asynchronous indeterminate spawner with annual batch fecundity 57 oocytes/g body weight. Fecundity of a 158 cm female with gonads weighing about 1.7 kg each was estimated at about 14–15 million eggs (Thorogood 1986, Caton 1994, Farley and Davis 1998, Schaefer 2001, Collette 2010). It is not known whether all mature fish spawn each year, every few years, or even only once in their lifetime.<br/><br/>In Australia, Southern Bluefin Tuna migrate along the west coast and across the Great Australian Bight and around Tasmania to 45°S, and then along the southeastern Australian coastline to about 30°S, off northern New South Wales.<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 167.5 kg fish caught off Tatra, Australia in 2009 (IGFA 2011).
21858		population	eng	Worldwide reported landings show a gradual, but variable, increase from 13,552 tonnes in 1952 to a high of 55,200 tonnes in 1969, and then gradually decreasing, to 12,122 tonnes in 1991. Catches from 1992 to 2006 have been relatively stable, averaging around 16,0000 tonnes per year (FAO 2009). This species is farmed in Australia, where mostly immature fish (age 2–4 years) are removed from the wild and fattened in farms. This complicates estimation of catches and is associated with high mortality rates of fish during transport.<br/><br/>A stock assessment has been carried out by the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT 2006). Based on the median results of this most recent stock assessment, there has been an estimated 85.4% decline in spawning stock biomass over the past 36 years from 1973 to 2009 (CCSBT 2010).
21858		threats	eng	This species has been intensively fished since the 1950s, primarily being taken on longlines, and the dramatic decline in the total population of Southern Bluefin Tuna to 7–15% of the 1960 parental biomass is well documented (FSC 2009). Canning was the most important form of local utilization of this highly esteemed fish until the early 1980s. This species is considered depleted by Majkowski (2007), and seriously overfished by Joseph (2009). If the current exploitation continues, it is estimated that the population will be below 500 mature individuals in 100 years. According the most recent stock assessment, there is no current sign that the spawning stock of this species is rebuilding (CCSBT 2009, CCSBT 2010).
21859		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>In the Pacific, several countries such as Ecuador, Colombia and Peru have created closures for this species. The vast majority of the catch is from Ecuador in this region. SPC made a recommendation to reduce catches in the Pacific. In Taiwan, the fleet has been reduced by 183 Bigeye long-line vessels (which is more than 30% of fishing capacity) (IATTC 2008). As of December 2009, NOAA has put into place catch limits for US pelagic longline fisheries in Western and Central Pacific Ocean for 2009, 2010 and 2011 having determined that the Pacific Ocean population is subject to overfishing. Under this rule, the U.S. will reduce its longline catch of Bigeye Tuna from the 2004 baseline catch of 4,181 metric tons (mt) to 3,763 mt.<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) recommends that the total catch does not exceed 85,000 t (STECF 2009). Recommendation 04-01 also implemented a new, smaller closure for the surface fishing in the area 0–5ºN, 10–20ºW during November in the Gulf of Guinea.
21859		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal in tropical and temperate seas. It is not found in the Mediterranean.
21859		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species occurs in waters with temperatures ranging from 13–29°C, but the optimum is between 17°C and 22°C. Variation in occurrence is closely related to seasonal and climatic changes in surface temperature and thermocline. Juveniles and small adults school at the surface in monospecific groups or mixed with other tunas, and may be associated with floating objects. Adults stay in deeper waters (Maigret and Ly 1986). This species is mostly found above 500 m, but can dive deeper. This species feeds on a wide variety of fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans during the day and at night (Collette 1995).<br/><br/>Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). This species is a multiple spawner that may spawn every one or two days over several months (Nikaido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). They spawn over periods of the full moon, and spawn throughout the year in tropical waters (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). Although spawning apparently occurs widely across the equatorial Pacific Ocean, the greatest reproductive potential appears to be in the eastern Pacific, based on apparent maturation, size frequencies, and catch per unit of effort (Kikawa 1966). In the eastern and central Pacific, spawning has been recorded between 15°N and 15°S and between 105–175°W during most months when sea surface temperatures exceeded 24°C with a peak from April through September in the northern hemisphere and between January and March in the southern hemisphere. Spawning is primarily at night between 1900 and 0400 hr. The average mature female spawned every 2.6 days. The estimated mean relative fecundity is 24 oocytes/g body weight. The number of eggs per spawning has been estimated at 2.9–6.3 million (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Longevity for this species may vary by region. Estimated maximum age for this species in the Western Pacific is 16 years (Farley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), in the Indian Ocean is eight years (Tankevich 1982), in the Atlantic Ocean is nine years (Hallier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and in the Eastern Pacific is five years (Schaefer and Fuller 2006).<br/><br/>Age at first maturity is estimated to be about two years (Nootmorn 2004, Farley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). However, Calkins (1980) reports a sexual maturity for this species at 100–130 cm at an age of about three years old. Minimum length at sexual maturity for females can be 80–102 cm, and predicted length at 50% maturity of 102–135 cm (approximately 3.5 years of age) has also been reported in different areas. Males tend to dominate the catches over the entire size range (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>The generation length for this species is between 4.4 and five years based on age structure data across different stocks (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 197.31 kg fish caught off Cabo Blanco, Peru in 1957 (IGFA 2011) .
21859		population	eng	FAO worldwide reported landings show a gradual increase from 808 tonnes in 1950 to an average of approximately 400,000–450,000 tonnes from 1996–2006 (FAO 2009). There are four stocks that are globally managed for this species. As of 2004, the stocks in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean are considered Fully Exploited, and the Eastern Pacific and Western/Central Pacific stocks are considered Over-exploited (Majkowski 2007). It is assumed that the Bigeye Tuna in the Eastern Pacific comprise a separate stock from the Western Pacific.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific Ocean</span><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, annual catches although fluctuating, average 100,000–130,000 tonnes and are increasing. The expansion of the purse seine fisheries in mid 1990s has contributed to this increase in landings (STECF 2007). The stock size in 1993 is estimated to have been 34% of its unexploited size. After 1993, purse seining for tunas associated with fish-aggregating devices (FADs) took significant quantities of small and medium-sized Bigeye Tuna. In 2005, after several years of poor recruitment and excessive levels of fishing mortality, the stock size was estimated to be at about 14% of its unexploited size. Due to recent spikes in recruitment, the current level has increased to 17% (IATTC 2008). Recent catches, such as in 2008, have been above the estimated maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of 84,000 tonnes (ISSF 2010).<br/><br/>Previous analyses indicated that the spawning stock biomass (SSB) was below MSY, and that fishing mortality rates were about 20% greater than those corresponding to the MSY (IATTC 2008, Aires da Silva and Maunder 2007), indicating that the Bigeye Tuna stock in the Eastern Pacific was over-exploited (IATTC 2008). However, according to the most recent stock assessment conducted in 2009 (Aires da Silva and Maunder 2010), fishing mortality rates are estimated to be below the level corresponding to MSY, and the recent levels of spawning biomass are estimated to be above that level (IATTC 2010). However, these results are more pessimistic if a stock-recruitment relationship is assumed, if a higher value is assumed for the average size of the older fish, if lower rates of natural mortality are assumed for adult Bigeye Tuna, and if only the late period of the fishery (1995–2009) is included in the assessment (IATTC 2010). In addition, La Niña events may become stronger and more frequent during the period 2010–2030, and this La Niña dominance may negatively influence recruitment strength of Bigeye Tuna in the Eastern Pacific Ocean (IATTC 2010).<br/><br/>Based on linear regression of SSB estimates from the most recent 2009 stock assessment (Aires da Silva and Maunder 2010), there has been an estimated 18% decline in SSB over the past 15 years (1992–2007) in the Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western and Central Pacific Ocean</span><br/>The overall trend in the Western Central Pacific Ocean is that biomass declined rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s, was relatively stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and then declined steadily from 1990 onwards (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Adult biomass has declined by at least 20% over the last decade (STECF 2007, Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Fishing mortality has increased steadily since the introduction of commercial fishing. Current fishing mortality exceeds FMSY, and it was estimated that a 34–50% reduction from the level of fishing mortality in 2004–2007 would be needed to keep the biomass above the level corresponding to MSY (ISSF 2010). However, current bomass is also greater than BMSY. It was predicted that if fishing mortality continues at current levels, the biomass would be reduced to about half the MSY level (Harley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, ISSF 2010).<br/><br/>Based on linear regression of SSB estimates from the most recent 2010 stock assessment (Harley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), there has been an estimated 29% decline in SSB over the past 15 years (1992–2007) in the Western and Central Pacific. Currently, this stock is approaching an overfished state, if it is not already slightly overfished (Harley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>In previous assessment conducted in 2005 (Hillary and Mosquiera 2006), spawning stock biomass was estimated to have declined from approximately 180,000 tonnes to about 75,000 tonnes from 1954–2006, and given 2002 levels of fishing mortality and effort, was projected to decline to approximately 50,000 tonnes by 2014 (Hillary and Mosqueira 2006).<br/><br/>Results of an updated assessment conducted in 2009 based on various models (IOTC 2009), showed that results were broadly similar to previous work. Current (2008) exploitation levels for this stock (107,000 t) are within the range of estimated MSY levels (100,000–115,000 t), although catches in the past (1997–1999) have significantly exceeded MSY. Estimated values of fishing mortality and SSB for 2008 are also close to MSY-related values, indicating a fully exploited stock (IOTC 2009). Current spawning stock is estimated to be two billion individuals and 800,000 tonnes (IOTC 2009).<br/><br/>Based on linear regression of SSB estimates from the most recent 2009 stock assessment (IOTC 2009), there has been an estimated 73% decline in SSB over the past 15 years (1992–2007) in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>Genetic, tagging and fisheries data suggest this species constitutes a single interbreeding population in the Atlantic. The total catch for this species in the Atlantic increased up to the mid-1970s reaching 60,000 t and fluctuated over the next 15 years. In 1991, catch surpassed 95,000 t and continued to increase, reaching a historic high of about 133,000 t in 1994. Reported and estimated catch has been declining since then and fell below 100,000 t in 2001. This gradual decline in catch has continued, although with some fluctuations from year to year, until the most recent year of data 2009. The preliminary estimate for 2009 is 86,011 t, the highest value in the last five years. This estimate includes preliminary estimates made for a few fleets that have not yet provided data to ICCAT (SCRS ICCAT 2010).<br/><br/>In 2010, the plausible range of MSY estimated from the joint distribution using three types of abundance indices was between 78,700 and 101,600 tons (80% confidence limits) with a median MSY of 92,000 t. Historical estimates show large declines in biomass and increases in fishing mortality, especially in the mid 1990s when fishing mortality exceeded FMSY for several years. In the last five or six years there have been possible increases in biomass and declines in fishing mortality. The biomass at the beginning of 2010 was estimated to be at between 0.72 and 1.34 (80% confidence limits) of the biomass at MSY, with a median value of 1.01 and the 2009 fishing mortality rate was estimated to be between 0.65–1.55 (80% confidence limits) with a median of 0.95 (SCRS ICCAT 2010).<br/><br/>Based on linear regression of total biomass estimates from the most recent 2010 stock assessment (ICCAT 2010), there has been an estimated 40% decline in total biomass over the past 15 years (1992–2007) in the Atlantic Ocean.
21859		threats	eng	Overfishing is occurring primarily in the Western Pacific, with adult biomass having declined about 20% over the past decade (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and if fishing mortality continues at current levels, the biomass is predicted to reduce to about half the MSY level (Harley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, ISSF 2010). In addition, this species may undergo further declines if the mortality of the species in bycatch of the Skipjack Tuna fishery cannot be reduced.<br/><br/>In the Pacific, Bigeye Tuna are primarily exploited by longliners from 40°N to 40°S and by purse seiners from 10°N to 20°S. In the Eastern Pacific Ocean there have been substantial changes in the Bigeye Tuna fishery over the last 15 years. Initially, the majority of the Bigeye Tuna catch was taken by longline vessels, but with the expansion of the fishery using fish-aggregating devices (FADs) since 1993, the purse seine fishery has taken an increasing proportion of the Bigeye Tuna catch. The FAD fishery captures smaller Bigeye Tuna, and has therefore reduced the yield per recruit and the maximum sustainable yield (MSY). On average, the fishing mortality of Bigeye Tuna less than four and a half years old has increased substantially since 1993, and that of older fish has increased slightly (IATTC 2008).<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, Bigeye Tuna is mainly caught by industrial purse seine and longline fisheries and appears only occasionally in the catches of other fisheries. However, in recent years the amounts of Bigeye Tuna caught by gillnet fisheries are likely to be considerably higher due to the major changes experienced in some of these fleets, notably changes in boat size, fishing techniques and fishing grounds. In recent years catches of Bigeye Tuna in the western Indian Ocean have dropped considerably, especially in areas off Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania and in particular in 2008 and, especially, 2009. The drop in catches is the consequence of a drop in fishing effort in the area of both purse seine and longline fisheries, due to the effect of piracy in the western Indian Ocean region, while catches are increasing in the eastern Indian Ocean probably due to the shift of some longline fleet in the areas because of the piracy activities along the Somalia area (IOTC 2010).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic this stock is exploited by three major gears/fisheries: longline (50–60%), purse seine (25%) and pole-and-line (15%) (ISSF 2010). Although there are a number of data uncertainties, including a lack of data on illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing, stock assessment models estimate the MSY to be between 90,000-93,000 tonnes (ISSF 2010). Based on these projections, biomass is expected to rebuild to the MSY level in a few years if catches are maintained at or below 85,000 tonnes. It is important to note the use of high-tech FADs in the Gulf of Guinea and increases in effort due to vessels coming from the Indian Ocean, will increase already high levels of fishing mortality of juvenile Bigeye Tuna.
21860		conservation	eng	For European Union member states, driftnet fishing for tuna has been banned since 1 January 2002, while the ban entered into force in 2004 for all the other contracting parties to ICCAT, as well as the GFCM (General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean) member states, but a driftnet fishing activity is still officially permitted in Morocco. In 2002, ICCAT fixed the total allowable catch (TAC) for the East Atlantic and Mediterranean bluefin tuna at 32,000 t per year for the period 2003-2006. The most recent ICCAT Rec. [08-05] established decreasing TACs: 29,500 t in 2007, 28,500 t in 2008, 22,000 t in 2009, 19,950 t in 2010 and 18,500 t in 2011. However, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia were authorized to carry over into 2009 and 2010, their previous quota allocations that were not taken and Libya and Turkey disagreed with the allocation key accepted by other Contracting Parties to ICCAT and declared autonomous fishing quotas higher than their ICCAT allocation.  The available information indicated that the 2007 fishing mortality rate was, under the 2004-2007 overall fishing pattern, more than three times the level which would permit the stock to stabilize at the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) level. <br/><br/>The intention of Rec. [06-05] and Rec. [08-05] are seen as a step in the right direction, but as previously noted, the ICCAT consider that it is unlikely to fully fulfil the objective of the plan to rebuild the stock to the MSY level by 2023.  ICCAT is developing new strategies that would imply much lower catches during the next few years (on the order of 15,000t or less), but the long-term gain could lead to catches of about 50,000 t with substantial increases in spawning biomass. For a long lived species such as bluefin tuna, it will take some time (> 10 years) to realize the benefit. The ICCAT further believes that a time area closure could greatly facilitate the implementation and the monitoring of such rebuilding strategies.  Clearly, an overall reduction in fishing effort and mortality, as stated in 2008, is needed to reverse current trends. The 2007 fishing capacity largely exceeds the 2007 TAC, but the 2008 catch capacity might be under 2008 TAC if illegal fishing did not occur. However, the potential catch capacity is clearly above TAC. Therefore, management actions need to be pursued to mitigate the impacts of overcapacity as well as to eliminate illegal fishing. Deferring effective management measures will likely result in even more stringent measures being necessary in the future to achieve the ICCAT objectives.  <br/><br/>The Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) agrees with the ICCAT-SCRS that the minimum catch size should be set at 25 kg in order to avoid misreporting and/or discarded catches of mature fish between 25 kg and 30 kg.  There remains an urgent need to have more reliable and complete size frequency data (particularly, but not only, for early year-classes 1 to 3) for the period following the introduction of a TAC in the Mediterranean. Tagging programs, fishery independent surveys and mining of historical data will all contribute to a better understanding of the status of this species and should be encouraged (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>Although the results of the projections are highly dependent on estimated state of the stock in 2007 and future recruitment levels (both being uncertain), the overall evaluation of Rec. [06-05] is viewed by the Committee as unlikely to rebuild the stock in 15 years with 50% probability. Therefore, the Committee decided to contrast the above projections related to Rec. [06-05] with additional management strategies, i.e. (i) F0.1 or FMAX strategies (implying short-term yields at 15,000 t or less), (ii) a closure of the Mediterranean Sea in May-June-July together with a size limit at 25 kg (as recommended by the ICCAT SCRS in 2006) or (iii) a moratorium over the East Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea during 1, 3 or 5 years followed by an F0.1 strategy. The results clearly indicated that all these alternative management strategies would have a higher probability of rebuilding the stock by 2023 and a lower probability of stock collapse in the future than Rec.[ 06-05], regardless of the assumed productivity of the stock (ICCAT 2009).
21860		conservation	eng	There are several conservation measures for this species mainly based on regulation of fisheries activities. The International Commission for the Conservation of the Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) was established in 1967. Fisheries quotas have been set up since 1982, and a comprehensive pluri-annual recovery action plan adopted by the ICCAT contracting parties in 2007, including time closure for fishing activities and mandated reduction in fishing capacity. However, many conservation measures are not fully enforced and illegal catch continues. Enforcement of the existing measures is needed to prevent extinction of this species. Also, although the Bluefin Tuna probably has more data collected on it than most other fish species, uncertainties in the data make much of it unreliable. It is crucial to improve the quality of data if fisheries managers are going to be able to improve their methods.<br/><br/>High priority also needs to be given to protecting spawning adults in the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea. Large adults in the northern foraging region in the Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence also need protection because this region represents critical refugia (Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean</span><br/>For EU Member States, driftnet fishing for tuna has been banned since 1st January 2002, while the ban entered into force in 2004 for all the other Contracting Parties to ICCAT, as well as the GFCM Member States, but a driftnet fishing activity is still officially permitted in Morocco. The ICCAT further believes that a time area closure could greatly facilitate the implementation and the monitoring of rebuilding strategies.&#160; In 2006, ICCAT established a management plan to rebuild the stock to Bmsy by 2022 with 50% or greater probability (Rec. 06-05). As various issues related to implementation of the plan have come up, the plan has been amended and strengthened every year since. In [Rec. 09-06] the Commission established a total allowable catch for eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Bluefin Tuna at 13,500 t for 2010. The current management plan (Rec. 10-04) calls for rebuilding to be achieved with at least 60% probability. It includes a number of conservation measures (country-specific TACs, minimum size limit, closed fishing seasons, management controls of fishing and farming capacity) as well as Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) measures (vessel registers, vessel monitoring systems, observer programs, transshipment prohibitions, weekly catch reporting, etc.). ICCAT has also approved a research program with different components aimed at improving data and knowledge of Bluefin Tuna biology and behaviour. It is still early to see what practical improvements these efforts will have on rebuilding the stock and improving stock assessments, but it is generally agreed that investments in research and MCS need to be sustained if overfishing is to be avoided.<br/><br/>Deferring effective management measures will likely result in even more stringent measures being necessary in the future to achieve the ICCAT objectives.&#160; STECF agrees with the ICCAT-SCRS that the minimum catch size should be set at 25 kg in order to avoid misreporting and/or discarded catches of mature fish between 25 kg and 30 kg.&#160; There remains an urgent need to have more reliable and complete size frequency data (particularly, but not only, for early year-classes 1–3) for the period following the introduction of a TAC in the Mediterranean. Tagging programs, fishery independent surveys and mining of historical data will all contribute to a better understanding of the status of this species and should be encouraged (STECF 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic</span><br/>In 1998, the Commission initiated a 20-year rebuilding plan designed to achieve BMSY with at least 50% probability. In response to recent assessments, in 2008 the Commission recommended a total allowable catch (TAC) of 1,900 t in 2009 and 1,800 t in 2010 [Rec. 08-04] (SRCS ICCAT 2010). Probabilities of achieving BMSY within the Commission rebuilding period were projected for alternative catch levels. The "low recruitment scenario" suggests that biomass is currently sufficient to produce MSY, whereas the "high recruitment scenario" suggests that BMSY has a very low probability of being achieved within the rebuilding period. Despite this large uncertainty about the long term future productivity of the stock, under either recruitment scenario current catches (1,800 t) should allow the biomass to continue to increase. Also, catches in the order of 2,500 t (the level established in previous TACs) would prevent the stock from rebuilding (SRCS ICCAT 2010).<br/><br/>As noted previously by the SCRS, both the productivity of western Atlantic Bluefin and western Atlantic Bluefin fisheries are linked to the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stock. Therefore, management actions taken in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean are likely to influence the recovery in the western Atlantic, because even small rates of mixing from East to West can have significant effects on the West due to the fact that Eastern plus Mediterranean resource is much larger than that of the West (SRCS ICCAT 2010, STECF 2009).<br/><br/>Directed longline fishing for bluefin in the Gulf of Mexico is prohibited although a bycatch of one Bluefin Tuna is allowed during fishing directed at Yellowfin Tuna. Effective 5th May 2011, NMFS requires the use of “weak hooks” by pelagic longline vessels fishing in the Gulf of Mexico with the hopes that smaller Yellowfin Tuna will be retained on the hook and larger Bluefin Tuna will pull free (NMFS 2011). It is not yet clear if this technique will avoid adding to the thermal stress that longline-caught bluefins face on the spawning grounds in the Gulf of Mexico (Block <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>It is strongly recommended that long-term larval studies in the Gulf of Mexico continue to assess the size of the population and to determine the potential impact of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill on the western Atlantic population, especially as the oil spill occurred during spawning season in May and June 2010. In addition, all tuna long-lining should be prohibited in the Gulf of Mexico during the spawning season in order to try to rebuild the population.
21860		distribution	eng	The Atlantic bluefin tuna  is present in the Mediterranean Sea and the southern Black Sea. In the Black Sea, bluefin tuna were well documented in ancient times and there was an annual migration from the Black Sea to the eastern Mediterranean spawning grounds. However, after World War II, environmental conditions in the Black Sea deteriorated and now bluefin tuna rarely occur in Black Sea waters.
21860		distribution	eng	This species was present in the western Atlantic from Canada to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, although the bulk of the population off Brazil has now disappeared (Porch 2005, Takeuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Worm and Tittensor 2011). Over the last 20 to 36 years, the species has not been recorded off the coast of Brazil (Lessa and Amorim pers. comm. 2010) and there are no records of Bluefin Tuna in southern Brazil in the 21st century (Gasalla pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Norway to the Canary Islands. It is also reported from Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986) and off South Africa (Collette and Nauen 1983). It is present in the Mediterranean Sea and the southern Black Sea. Black Sea Bluefin Tuna was well documented in ancient times and there was an annual migration from the Black Sea to eastern Mediterranean spawning grounds. However, after World War II, the environmental condition in the Black Sea deteriorated and now sightings in the Black Sea are rare. An analysis of present over historical ranges concluded that Atlantic Bluefin Tuna has shown larger range contractions (minus 46% since 1960) than any other pelagic species (Worm and Tittensor 2011).<br/><p><br/> <br/> </p>
21860		habitat	eng	In the eastern Atlantic and in the Mediterranean Sea stock, age at first maturity is about 3 to 5 years (115-121 cm FL), with a longevity of 35 years or more (Corriero <em>et al.</em> 2003, Rooker 2007, Rooker 2008, Santamaria 2009). The average age of mature individuals (one generation length) is conservatively estimated to be 6.5 years in the eastern Atlantic. <br/><br/>There are several spawning grounds throughout the Mediterranean (Oray and Karakulak 2005). The eastern Atlantic stock spawns in the Mediterranean Sea from May to August at temperatures of 22.5-25.5°C. Maturity begins at age 3 and by age 5 all fish are fully mature. Females weighing between 270 and 300 kg produce as many as 10 million eggs per spawning season (Corriero <em>et al.</em> 2005). At 24°C, embryo development lasts about 32 hours and larval stages about 30 days. Egg size is 1.0 mm, and larval length at hatching is 2.8 mm. At early life stages (2.8-8 mm) larvae may grow 0.3 mm/day (Itoh <em>et al.</em> 2000, Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 2000, García-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006).
21860		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, that seasonally can be found close to shore and can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. This species schools by size, sometimes together with Albacore, Yellowfin, Bigeye, Skipjack etc. It preys on small schooling fishes (anchovies, sauries, hakes) or on squids and red crabs. A recent study on the Mediterranean diet of this species provided evidence that juveniles prey mainly on zooplankton and small pelagic coastal fishes, sub-adults prey on medium pelagic fishes, shrimps and cephalopods, while adults prey mainly on cephalopods and larger fishes (Sarà and Sarà 2007).<br/><br/>This species has a maximum size over 300 cm fork length (FL), but is more common to 200 cm. Longevity is at least 35 years and possibly to 50 years (Santamaria <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In the Western Atlantic, this species spawns in the Gulf of Mexico from mid-April to early June at temperatures of 22.6–27.5°C, starting at age 8–10 years at around 200 cm (FL), although most individuals first spawn closer to age 12 (Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Boustany <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Diaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Collette 2010). Recently, a few larvae were collected northeast of Campeche Bank suggesting that they were spawned outside of the Gulf of Mexico (Muhling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Maximum age is around 32 years (Neilson and Compana 2008), although age composition structure has also changed over time (e.g., there are more younger individuals). For the most recent stock assessment, an age of first maturity was estimated to be approximately 145 kg or about age nine years in the Gulf of Mexico (SRCS ICCAT 2010). For the western Atlantic stock, the generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately 13 years based on average survivorship and fecundity across known scombrid stocks (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>The Eastern Atlantic stock spawns in the Mediterranean Sea from May to August at temperatures of 22.5–25.5°C, starting at age three years and full recruitment is reached by age five years. There are distinct behaviours during the spawning time, most noticeably with changes in diving times and depths. Estimated relative batch fecundity is greater (more than 90 oocytes/g of body weight) than estimated for other tunas in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus</span> (Sissenwine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Corriero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Boustany <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Collette 2010). Fromentin and Powers (2005) reported that there is spawning site fidelity for this species both in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Gulf of Mexico. There are several spawning grounds throughout the Mediterranean. In addition, there are genetically recognizable populations within the Mediterranean (Riccioni et al. 2010).<br/><br/>Median sexual maturity in the Mediterranean Sea was reached at 103.6 cm (FL), and females weighing between 270 and 300 kg produce as many as 10 million eggs per spawning season (Corriero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). <br/><br/>In the Eastern Atlantic stock and in the Mediterranean Sea, age of first maturity is about 3–5 years (115–121 cm FL), with a longevity of 35 years or more (Corriero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Santamaria <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). For the most recent stock assessment, an age of first maturity was estimated to be approximately 25 kg or age four years in the Mediterranean (SRCS ICCAT 2010). For the eastern Atlantic stock, the generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately seven years based on average survivorship and fecundity across known scombrid stocks (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Maximum Size (in cms) 458 (TL). The all-tackle angling record is of a 678.58 kg fish caught off Aulds Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada in 1979 (IGFA 2011.)
21860		population	eng	Bluefin tuna have been fished in the Mediterranean for hundreds of years, and scientists and managers generally agree that the bluefin tuna is currently being overfished in the Mediterranean Sea. It is also generally agreed that the stock will continue to be overfished because of its high economic value and inadequate protection. However, because catch statistics are unreliable, assessment models are challenging. When reported catches from the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stock peaked in 1996 (at 50,807 t), managers and fisheries scientists decided it was overfished and a quota system was implemented. Subsequently, ranching of wild caught individuals became an important means to increase the biomass of exported tuna. Once caged, larger individuals can increase up to 25% in size while smaller ones can increase by 100% or more (A. Di Natale, pers. comm. 2008). All of this compounds the difficulties of interpreting the data. Based on the 2006 ICCAT report (International Commission for the Conservation of the Atlantic Tunas), the 2003-2004 fishing mortality rate (under the current overall fishing pattern) may be more than three times higher than that which would allow the stock to stabilize at the maximum sustainable yield, or MSY, level. Current fishing is expected to continue to drive the spawning biomass to a very low level.<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, annual catches during 2000-2004 ranged between 32,000 t and 35,000 t and the status of the stock is over-exploited (Majkowski 2007). The current quota system was predicated on a maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of 29,000 t, but current models put the MSY at 15,000 t (ICCAT SRCS 2006). The official estimate (ICCAT SCRS 2006) of the catch in the Mediterranean Sea that is caged after being caught is around 32,000 t, but the actual caged tonnage is probably closer to 39,000 t. <br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, age composition structure has changed over time (e.g. the population is now dominated by young age groups). Based on this trend of changing age structure and taking into account under reporting of catches (ICCAT SCRS 2009), spawning stock biomass has declined by 63% over the past 20 years (1985 to 2005) and spawning stock abundance has declined by approximately 32% (to a current population of 990,000 adults) (Y. Uozumi, pers. Comm. 2009). Based on a generation length of 6.5 years, this stock is considered as Endangered under IUCN Red List Criterion A2bd.
21860		population	eng	This species has become rare relative to historical levels because of massive overfishing (Fromentin and Powers 2005, Majkowski 2007, MacKenzie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The Center for Biological Diversity (CBD 2010) petitioned the U.S. Government to list the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The U.S. government agreed to conduct a status review for this species (Schwaab 2010), but decided not to list it as Endangered or Threatened but as a Species of Concern (NMFS 2011) with plans to review its status again in 2013.<br/><br/>Genetic differentiation and homing to breeding sites indicates that there are at least three reproductively isolated stocks (Boustany <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Carlsson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) although there is considerable trans-Atlantic migration of individuals from the Mediterranean and western North Atlantic stocks (Rooker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Dickhut <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The western Atlantic stock is found from Labrador and Newfoundland south into the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea; the eastern Atlantic stock from Norway south to the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean Sea. There is a distinct Mediterranean/East Atlantic stock but there is some mixing with the western Atlantic stock in the North Atlantic (Block <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005); in addition, there are genetically recognizable populations within the Mediterranean (Riccione <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>Worldwide reported landings show fluctuating, but relatively stable landings from 1950–1993, of between 15,000 and 39,000 tonnes per year. Reported catches increased to a peak of&#160; 52,785 tonnes in 1996, and then fell again to 38,830 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). However, in many regions, the catch statistics for this species are considered to be unreliable because catches are not reported from some countries and landings data are confounded by ranching harvests occurring months to years after the fish have been caught (STEFC 2009). Based on the most recent stock assessment (ICCAT 2010), summed SBB biomass for both the Eastern and Western Atlantic stocks has declined at least 51% since 1970. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic Stock</span><br/>In the western North Atlantic, the reported catch from 2000–2004 averaged 2,000–3,000 tonnes/year, and the status of the stock is Depleted (Majkowski 2007, ICCAT 2010). Western Atlantic Bluefin Tuna fisheries have been managed since the early 1980s (as of when 1982 quota restrictions were imposed) and catches have been relatively stable at around 2,500 tonnes (t) until 2001. They increased in 2002 to 3,319 t and have been declining since then, reaching 1,624 t in 2007. In 2008, catches increased again to 2,015 t. The most recent stock assessment (ICCAT 2010) is consistent with previous analyses in that spawning stock biomass (SSB) declined steadily between the early 1970s and early 1990s. Since then, SSB is estimated to have fluctuated between 21% and 28% of the 1970 level, but with a gradual increase in recent years from the low of 21% in 2003 to 29% in 2009. The stock has experienced different levels of fishing mortality over time, depending on the fish targeted by various fleets. A key factor in estimating MSY-related benchmarks is the highest level of recruitment that can be achieved in the long term. Assuming that average recruitment cannot reach the high levels from the early 1970s, recent F (2006–2008) is 70% of the MSY level and SSB2009 is about 10% higher than the MSY level. However, estimates of stock status are more pessimistic if a high recruitment scenario is considered (F/FMSY=1.9 and B/BMSY=0.15) (SCRS ICCAT 2010).<br/><br/>As linear regression did not provide the best fit for the steep declines observed in SSB over time in the Western Atlantic, using endpoints of the base case (ICCAT 2010) there has been an estimated 72% decline in SSB over the past 39 years (1970–2009), and a less than 1% decline in SSB over the past 21 years (1988–2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stock</span><br/>In the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean stock, the reported catch from 2000–2004 averaged 32,000–35,000 tonnes/year, and the status of the stock is Over-Exploited (Majkowski 2007, ICCAT 2010). Currently this stock is fished at levels above FMSY, and estimated SSB is only about 35% of the biomass that is expected under a MSY (SRCS ICCAT 2010). The increase in mortality for large Bluefin Tuna is consistent with an apparent shift in targeting larger individuals destined for fattening and/or farming in the region. A quota system has been put in place to set levels for maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of 29,000 mt (STECF 2009), but current models put the MSY at 13,500 mt (SCRS ICCAT 2010). The current management structure has established TACs for the entire Mediterranean; however, recent genetic studies suggest multiple populations within the Mediterranean (Riccione <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This is problematic because there is the potential for overfishing of segments of the Mediterranean population. In addition, information available has demonstrated that catches of Bluefin Tuna from the East Atlantic and Mediterranean were seriously under-reported between the mid-1990s through 2007. The lack of compliance with TAC and underreporting of the catch may have severely undermined the conservation of the stock (SRCS ICCAT 2010).<br/><br/>In the most recent stock assessment (SCRS ICCAT 2010), final estimated spawning biomass differs slightly between the two satisfactory model runs. The spawning biomass peaked at over 300,000 tonnes in the late 1950s and early 1970s, followed by a decline. Under run 13, the biomass continued to decline slightly to about 150,000 tonnes, while under run 15 biomass slightly increased during the late 2000s to about 2000,000 tonnes. Considering both runs, the analyses indicated that recent (2007–2009) SSB is about 57% of the highest estimated SSB levels (1957–1959).<br/><br/>Using endpoints of the base case (ICCAT 2010) there has been an estimated 45% decline in SSB over the past 39 years (1970–2009), and a 30% decline in SSB over the past 21 years (1988–2009) in the Eastern Atlantic stock.
21860		threats	eng	This is a highly valued species for the Japanese sashimi markets, which has led to severe overfishing in both the Eastern and Western Atlantic. It is also an important game fish particularly in the United States and Canada. The main gears are purse-seine, longline and traps. It is also used for commercial ranching (in the Mediterranean Sea).<br/><br/>In previous assessments conducted prior to 1996 (IUCN 2007), the eastern Atlantic stock was considered Endangered but the western Atlantic stock was considered Critically Endangered. The two stocks were considered Overexploited and Depleted, respectively by Majkowski (2007), seriously over-fished by Joseph (2009), and Critically Endangered by MacKenzie <em>et al.</em> (2009).
21860		threats	eng	This species is mainly caught by purse-seine, longline and traps. It is also used for commercial fish farming in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>The eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna stock is taken by a variety of vessels and types of fishing gears, with landing sites located in many countries. The main gears are longline, trap and baitboat for the east Atlantic, and purse-seine, longline and traps for the Mediterranean. Recreational fishing may also be a relevant but unquantified source of fishing mortality on juvenile Bluefin Tuna. The paucity of reliable data from various fisheries has compromised the stock assessments of the eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna stock for many years (see for example SCRS ICCAT 2010, STECF 2009). Size composition data from purse seine fisheries was missing for many years, particularly in the 1990s. For most of the 2000s, tuna farming compounded the problem of obtaining accurate catch and size-composition data because the fish cannot be accurately sampled until harvesting, which takes place from four months to several years after the fish are caught in the wild. The accuracy of overall catches has also been affected over time by under-reporting or over-reporting associated with quotas. In addition, data on juvenile Bluefin Tuna catches from the Mediterranean were also unavailable for many years. Since 2008, ICCAT has adopted several measures that should address these concerns, such as an increase in minimum size, and 100% observer coverage on purse seiners and transfers of fish to cages. However, despite the expectation that these measures will improve fishery statistics, substantial gaps remain in the historical data used for stock assessments.<br/><br/>In the western Atlantic, the fishery is conducted by the US, Canada and Japan. There are concerns over the potential impacts on the 2010 year class from the Deep Horizon oil spill that occurred in the Gulf of Mexico between April–August of that year (Campagna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Richards 2011).
21866		conservation	eng	In 1936, the Thylacine received legal protection under Tasmanian law, although it was likely already extinct (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008). In 1966, a 647,000 ha game reserve was set up in south-western Tasmania, partly to protect any animals possibly remaining in the area. Currently there are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
21866		distribution	eng	<em>Thylacinus cynocephalus</em> was endemic to Australia. Mainland populations are thought to have disappeared following the introduction of domestic dogs by Aboriginal human populations several thousand years ago (though there is the possibility that it survived until much more recently on the mainland) (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008). This restricted the Thylacine to the island of Tasmania. The last definite record of a wild individual is from 1933; it was captured and taken to Hobart Zoo where it died in 1936 (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008). Since then several surveys have been undertaken, however, no conclusive evidence of the existence of wild Thylacines has been found, despite numerous unconfirmed sightings.
21866		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of the species probably was open forest or grassland, however, the last populations may have occupied the less accessible, dense rainforest areas of south-western Tasmania.
21866		population	eng	This species is presumed to be extinct.
21866		threats	eng	The Thylacine was regarded as a threat to sheep and was hunted, trapped, and poisoned both for private and government bounties. In addition to these hunting pressures, habitat modification, increased competition from domestic dogs and disease may have all contributed to the demise of this species (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008).
21867		conservation	eng	This species is not found in protected areas in the Brazilian portion of the distribution (Carmignotto and Monfort 2006), however, in Paraguay it is. More research is needed to determine the range and habitats of this species, and the cumulative effect of numerous threats.
21867		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the moist subtropical forest of eastern Paraguay and neighbouring areas in Brazil (Gardner 2007).
21867		habitat	eng	Associated with open areas, including Chaco and subtropical moist forest in eastern Paraguay. In Brazil, occurs in areas of dense savanna with trees, as well as areas of deciduous forest. Also found in the western border of the Cerrado and close to the southern border of the Pantanal wetlands (Carmignotto and Monfort 2006). Found from 500–650 m in Brazil. The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). This is the only species of this genus that inhabits subtropical humid forests (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
21867		population	eng	The species is locally rare in Brazil (Carmignotto and Monfort 2006).
21867		threats	eng	Numerous populations of this species are threatened by deforestation for logging and agriculture.
21870		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas. Monitoring of populations and regulation of hunting of this species are needed.
21870		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern and extreme south-eastern portion of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and on the Aru and Kai Islands of Indonesia. There are three distinct populations; one in the grasslands surrounding Port Moresby (probably now extinct); one in the Trans-Fly region; and one on the Aru and Kai islands. It is found close to sea level.
21870		habitat	eng	This species now occurs only in lowland primary tropical moist forest, forest-savanna mosaic, and degraded forest. It is confined to the gallery forests in the southern portion of its range and does not occur in the adjacent grasslands.
21870		population	eng	The south-eastern population, close to Port Moresby, probably has been extirpated. It is currently abundant on the Aru Islands, but this subpopulation is very susceptible to hunting due to an increasing human population. The southern New Guinea subpopulation, in the Trans-Fly plain area, is thought to be fairly common, largely because of low human population density and political instability.
21870		threats	eng	This species is threatened by local hunting (with dogs) for food. Hunting is the cause of the extirpation of this species from the south-eastern, Port Moresby, part of its range.
21873		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas. Further studies into the abundance and conservation measures for this species are needed. Hunting regulations should be developed for this species.
21873		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to Mts. Albert Edward and Giluwe (not collected from the latter since the 1960s). It seems likely to have become extinct on Mount Wilhelm in living memory (Flannery 1995), and although this population is mapped it is not considered extant for the purposes of the assessment. The two remaining subpopulations are suspected to be relicts of what was once a much more widely distributed species (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded at around 2,800 m asl.
21873		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in subalpine grasslands at the edge of tropical montane forest.
21873		population	eng	There is no recent information about its population status. Nothing is known about the Mt. Giluwe population, and the Mt. Wilhelm population presumably has gone extinct. It was locally abundant on Mt. Albert Edward in 1981 (T. Flannery pers. comm.).
21873		threats	eng	It is threatened by local hunting with dogs for food. Climate change will increasingly be a threat. The habitat is declining due to feral pigs.
21874		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas.
21874		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout northern and north-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It was introduced (6,000 - 7,000 years ago) to the islands of Bagabag, New Britain, New Ireland, and Umboi (Papua New Guinea). The species has also been recorded from the island of Yapen (Indonesia), however, it has possibly been extirpated from here. It ranges in elevation from sea level up to around 2,100 m asl.
21874		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, but seems to prefer disturbed areas. Females appear to have a single young.
21874		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.
21874		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting by local people (hunting with dogs) for food. It appears to have been heavily depleted over parts of its range.
21875		conservation	eng	No information available.
21875		distribution	eng	Barents Sea basin west of River Ob, White, Caspian, Black, Baltic, White and North Sea basins, Atlantic westward to Loire drainage; Rhône drainage. Introduced in Po and Soca drainages, and over most of southern and central Finland.
21875		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Submontane reaches of rivers with a hard sand or stone bottom and well oxygenated, cold and fast-flowing water. In Scandinavia, in clear lakes and semi-anadromous in freshened part of northern Baltic basin. Usually in hollows behind boulders and shaded water under overhanging vegetation. Spawns in shallow stretches (usually 20-40 cm deep) or riffles, with moderate current (about 0.5 m/s) and clean gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, females usually one year later than males, in northern Europe later than in central Europe. Spawns in early spring, usually in March-April, later in north, when temperatures reach 4-8°C, with a peak at full moon. Adults make short spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations often spawn in lake tributaries. Males start to defend small territories at spawning site in late morning and spawning usually starts in early afternoon at highest daily temperature. Females deposit eggs into substrate. Eggs hatch usually in 10-40 days. Alevins remain in gravel until yolk sack is absorbed (4-10 days). Feeding larvae live 3-4 weeks in open water below surface. Juveniles are benthic, in fast-flowing waters. Feeds predominantly on drifting invertebrates and terrestrial insects.
21875		population	eng	Abundant.
21875		threats	eng	<p>No major, widespread threats known but regionally suffers from river pollution, dam constructions and river regulation. In its southern distribution area increasingly vulnerable to climate change. Locally susceptible to high populations of predatory birds.</p>
21877		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
21877		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Nicaragua; Panama and Colombia to Guianas, Amazonian Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Simmons 2005). New record for the Atlantic Forest that extends the range (Gregorin <em>et al</em>. in press). Also a new record for the Cerrado in gallery forest (Bezerra <em>et al</em>. 2005). Found in Costa Risca (Tschapka <em>et al.</em> 2000)
21877		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen forest and banana plantations. In Venezuela, 2 groups of 7 and 10 were caught by hand from under dead banana leaves; a specimen from Guyana was found under an “eate” palm leaf. It is seldom caught in mist nets. It feeds on insects (Reid, 1997; Wilson, 1978).
21877		population	eng	It is rare but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997).
21877		threats	eng	No major threats.
21878		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas. Reduce habitat loss. More research on the basic ecology of the species.
21878		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peru, Ecuador. May also be found in Venezuela, but it is not certain.
21878		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen forest and is seldom caught in mist nets. Its diet is insectivorous.<br/>It is an aerial insectivore, captured in forests near streams. The basic ecology of this species is poorly known (Patterson pers. comm.).
21878		population	eng	This species seems to be rare throughout its range. This species has been discovered only recently and there are less than ten specimens. Uncommon throughout its range.
21878		threats	eng	No known major threats. Habitat loss may be a local threat.
21879		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). This species should be reviewed following taxonomic clarification.
21879		distribution	eng	Veracruz (Mexico) to Guianas, Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). In Venezuela the species occurs in lowlands, moistly below 850 m elevation (Handley, 1976). Occurs in lowlands to 1,300 m on both sides of the Andes (Ecuador) and up to 1,800 m in Colombia. The species does not occur in Nicaragua and El Salvador.
21879		habitat	eng	Lowland forests and foothills of the Andes on both sides. Occurs also in Atlantic and Amazonia forests. In Venezuela occurs in swamp palm forests across savannas (Ochoa pers. comm.) It is strongly associated with moist habitats, especially evergreen forest and tall second growth. Not found in areas with a prolonged dry season. This species is an aerial insectivore. This species is seldom caught in mist nets, even in areas where it is known to be common and its roost sites are abundant, due to its agile and highly maneuverable flight. The diet is presumed to consist of small insects caught in flight (Reid, 1997).
21879		population	eng	Seems to be rare across its range, however, can be locally common. Difficult to collect and this may underestimate the population. Uncommon although can be locally common (Reid, 1997). The species is not often caught in mist nets during sampling (Reid, 1997).<br/>This bat forms small colonies, rarely exceeding nine individuals that show stability over time although roosting sites are changed frequently. Their specialized roosting habitats are inside young, rolled up leaves of Heliconia, Calathea, and banana, which may limit colony size. Suitable leaves are in the form of vertical tubes with openings of 50 to 100 mm diameter, located in shady areas and not in direct contact with other vegetation. Such leaves unroll rapidly and are usually only used as roosts for one day. The suction disks allow them to cling to the smooth surface of leaves. <br/>Unlike most species, this bat roosts upright, and individuals line up one above another inside the leaf. Tree falls, stream banks, and other small, natural forest gaps provide good conditions for host plants and bats. Stable groups with approximately equal numbers of males and females occupy fixed territories (Wilson and Findley, 1977).
21879		threats	eng	Loss of habitat over portions of its range (Andean foothills and Atlantic forest), but overall there are no major threats.
21888		conservation	eng	None known.
21888		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21888		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21888		population	eng	No information available.
21888		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21889		conservation	eng	None known.
21889		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21889		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21889		population	eng	No information available.
21889		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21890		conservation	eng	None known.
21890		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21890		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21890		population	eng	No information available.
21890		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21891		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
21891		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Bermin, Cameroon, which has a surface area of 0.5 km².
21891		habitat	eng	<em>T. flava</em> is a benthopelagic species.
21891		population	eng	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.
21891		threats	eng	This species is at some risk due to its very small distribution and deforestation in the surrounding area (Groombridge and Jenkins 1998). The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sup>2</sup> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21892		conservation	eng	None known.
21892		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21892		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelgic.
21892		population	eng	No information available.
21892		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21893		conservation	eng	None known.
21893		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21893		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21893		population	eng	No information available.
21893		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21894		conservation	eng	None known.
21894		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21894		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21894		population	eng	No information available.
21894		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21895		conservation	eng	None known.
21895		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21895		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21895		population	eng	No information available.
21895		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21896		conservation	eng	None known.
21896		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.
21896		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21896		population	eng	No information available.
21896		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21897		conservation	eng	None known.
21897		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Ejagham in Cameroon.
21897		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
21897		population	eng	No information available.
21897		threats	eng	Lake Ejagham has a surface of only 0.5 km². The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21898		conservation	eng	None known.
21898		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-ba-Kotto and Lake Mboandong, Cameroon.
21898		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
21898		population	eng	No information available.
21898		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
21899		distribution	eng	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.
21900		distribution	eng	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.
21901		distribution	eng	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.
21912		conservation	eng	No information.
21912		distribution	eng	Stocking throughout Europe for centuries has blurred the original distribution pattern. Hypothesised to be native in most of Europe, naturally absent only in Ireland, Scandinavia north of 61°30'N, eastern Adriatic basin and western and southern Greece where it is now introduced. In Asia, native eastward to western Yenisei drainage south of 60°N. Introduced to North and South Africa, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand, India, North America, Chile and probably elsewhere.
21912		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Typically in shallow, densely vegetated lakes and backwaters. Often overwinters buried in mud. Spawns among dense vegetation in still water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-6 years and 70-250 mm SL, females a year later than males. Pelvic rays more robust, longer and extending beyond anus in male. Spawns in May-October, in Central Europe usually in June-July, at temperatures above 19°C, mostly at 22-24°C. Several males follow each female, which releases eggs in several portions above vegetation. Females may spawn 1-9 times each year, every 11-15 days, if suitably warm weather persists. High embryonic mortality observed when temperature fluctuates strongly. Larvae and juveniles restricted to dense vegetation. Tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and salinities up to 12 ?. Feeds on detritus, benthic animals and plant material. Adults often feed predominantly on molluscs.
21912		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Typically in shallow, densely vegetated lakes and backwaters. Often overwinters buried in mud. Spawns among dense vegetation in still water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-6 years and 70-250 mm SL, females a year later than males. Pelvic rays more robust, longer and extending beyond anus in male. Spawns in May-October, in Central Europe usually in June-July, at temperatures above 19°C, mostly at 22-24°C. Several males follow each female, which releases eggs in several portions above vegetation. Females may spawn 1-9 times each year, every 11-15 days, if suitably warm weather persists. High embryonic mortality observed when temperature fluctuates strongly. Larvae and juveniles restricted to dense vegetation. Tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and salinities up to 12 ‰. Feeds on detritus, benthic animals and plant material. Adults often feed predominantly on molluscs.
21912		population	eng	Abundant.
21912		threats	eng	River engineering.
21913		conservation	eng	There is currently no protection for this species.  A recent attempt (it was listed as a Candidate species) to have it listed on the U.S. Endangered Species Act has failed because of insufficient information concerning species-specific threats and lack of information on the status of this species.
21913		distribution	eng	Kauai, Hawaii.
21913		habitat	eng	Historically, collecting efforts were concentrated in wet forest habitats and these efforts were mostly unsuccessful.  Given the relative success of collecting efforts in diverse mesic forest areas, it is reasonable to assume that the moth's habitat is lowland mesic forest.
21913		population	eng	<em>Tinostoma smaragditis</em> has been recorded a total of 15 times from Western Kauai, Hawaii over a period of 110 years. Ten of these individuals were collected at lights at a military tracking station situated above diverse mesic forest — a lowland forest type with no dominant species (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1990). The other five specimens were collected at lower elevations within or near to the diverse mesic forest habitat. Two male moths were collected in the diverse mesic forest in 1998 representing the first time that the moth has been intentionally searched for and found. Almost all other searching took place in the Kokee Region of Kauai in the vicinity of the tracking station, which is dominated by wet forest, and is considered high elevation forest as opposed to the low elevation of the diverse mesic forest (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1990). The island of Kauai has a total land area of 1,624 km². Diverse mesic forest habitat covers considerably less than the entire island, however, it is not thought to be less than 800 km². <br/> <br/>There have been at least 80 separate collecting events in search for Lepidoptera on Kauai over the past hundred years, predominantly in the Kokee region (Heddle unpubl. data). In addition, in the 1920s a mainland collector sent the entomologist, Kusche, to Hawaii specifically to search for the green sphinx with no luck (Zimmerman 1958) and throughout the 1980s, a local lepidopterist, Father Riotte, collected regularly in the Kokee region. Riotte’s collection work has provided a wealth of data on the Lepidoptera in the Kokee region, yet it is notable that he never encountered the Green Sphinx (Heddle unpubl. data). In spite of this collecting effort, only fifteen moths have ever been collected. Yet both times the moth was intentionally searched for and found, it flew directly to the light and was easily captured. This suggests that either the moth is restricted to a very small range and that in 1998 we collected in exactly the right region, and/or that the moth is extremely rare.
21913		threats	eng	Kauai has the largest number of endemic plants of all the Hawaiian islands and lowland mesic forest contains the greatest number of endemic plant taxa and the greatest number of endemic plant taxa at risk (Sakai 2002). Plant taxa with single-island distributions are generally more threatened than those with multiple island distributions (Sakai <em>et al</em>. 2002).  As the host-plant for <em>Tinostoma</em> is still unknown, it is possible that plants necessary for its survival are either restricted in distribution or are themselves at risk. Therefore, in addition to the species’ overall range being limited, it's microhabitat requirements may also be restricted. <br/> <br/>The native vegetation of Hawaii is known to have undergone extreme alteration because of past and present land management practices including ranching, deliberate introduction of alien plants and animals and agricultural development. Some of the primary threats facing this species' habitat are ongoing and future modification and destruction of mesic forest habitat by feral animals (goats and axis deer) and alien invasive plants.  It is not known if these threats impact the species directly or indirectly.  But it is possible that the host food plants for this moth (currently unknown) may be highly threatened, by the above factors. <br/> <br/>In September 1992 the eye of Hurricane Iniki passed over Northwest Kauai, causing much damage to the forests as large areas of forest were opened up allowing for the movement of non-native invasive plants into the region. <br/> <br/>The mesic forest on Kauai is managed by the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). In addition to hurrican distrubance, this land is subject to disruption by feral mammals such as pigs, rats, and goats. Pigs and goats are especially destructive in this area, and their presence is permitted as DLNR lands are available for hunting. Pigs tear up tree ferns and other vegetation, and goats will decimate an area's native vegetation. A number of goats, and goat damage, has been observed in the Mahanaloa region where the green sphinx was first collected by Asquith and Heddle (M. Heddle, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Rare butterflies and moths are highly prized by collectors and there is an international market for such species.  There is no known trade in this species, although Sphinx moths in general are sought by collectors and there has been a standing reward for specimens of <em>Tinostoma smaragditis</em> (Zimmerman 1958). <br/> <br/>The introduction of alien invasive invertebartes (e.g., the Argentine Ant (<em>Iridomyrex humlis</em>) and parasitic wasps) is known to have an impact on the native arthropods, so that may be another threat to this species.
21914		conservation	eng	No information available.
21914		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).
21914		habitat	eng	It is found in muddy substrates especially near river mouths. Generally in deep water, but could be shallow to 150 meters.
21914		population	eng	Shells caught in fishermen's nets come up in large numbers indicating concentrated populations.
21914		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation, and dredging by fishermen and the shell trade.
21972		conservation	eng	Full protection for all of the Yanbaru region of Okinawa Island is recommended. Management or control of introduced predators is also needed. A conservation education program using this species, as well as Okinawa Rail and Okinawa Woodpecker as flagship species would be beneficial. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
21972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. It is found only on the northern part (Yanbaru area) of the island, above 300 m asl.
21972		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forest (chinquapins) over 30 years old in the northern part of the island (Japan RDB, 2002). It prefers forests with high undergrowth (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and has also been found in chinquapin forests surrounded by sugarcane fields (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
21972		population	eng	Population density estimates were of 1.8/ha in 1978 and the population is currently considered to be severely declining (Japan RDB, 2002). A 1994 survey on Mount Yonahadake did not find any individuals, in a place where one was caught in 1974 (Japan RDB, 2002). Surveys in the late 1970s found that the species was relatively easy to catch, but no specimens have been recorded for 35 years since 1978.  However, in 2008 live specimens were recorded (F. Yamada pers. comm.).
21972		threats	eng	On the island, deforestation is a major threat, mainly through government forestry programs (Japan RDB, 2002). Also, feral cats in the forest predate this species, which has been speculated to be a factor in population declines (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
21973		conservation	eng	It is present in Amami Quasi National Park. The control of introduced predators is needed. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
21973		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Amami-oshima island, of the Amami Islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan. Since 1980, the species has become restricted to the central part of Amami-oshima (Japan RDB, 2002). Currently the species is found in the southwest of Amami-oshima, but there is an isolated population in the northeast (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its elevational range is from sea level up to 500 m asl.
21973		habitat	eng	The species prefers secondary broad-leaved forests, although it can also be found in intact forests (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It has not been observed in plantations.
21973		population	eng	The species was common on Amami-oshima until the 1960s, when the population declined. The population has been shown to decline with reductions of chinquapin seedlings following some typhoons (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
21973		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has severely decreased the available forest habitat on the island (Japan RDB, 2002). Feral cats and dogs present on the island are known to predate this species (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Introduced mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>) are a major predator on the island, and competition also exists with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
21974		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a captive population in North America.
21974		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> is found from eastern Bolivia and south-western Brazil, south through the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, to Argentina (San Luis province). The species was once present in southern Buenos Aires Province (Yepes 1928) but recent surveys suggest that it is now extinct in this area (Abba and Vizcaíno 2008, A.M. Abba pers. comm. 2010). The reason for its disappearing from Buenos Aires is unknown, but may be related to climate. It ranges from sea level up to 770 m asl (Argentina).
21974		habitat	eng	This armadillo, which can roll into a ball when threatened, is found in areas of dry vegetation within the Chaco (Bolkovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). It has a slow reproductive rate, the females give birth to an average of 1.5 young annually.
21974		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> is abundant in most xeric parts of the Paraguayan Chaco (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It was recorded at densities of 1.9 animals per km² in the Chaco (Cuéllar 2002). The wild populations are decreasing, mainly due to intense hunting and habitat loss.
21974		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> is threatened by hunting for food; as it is not fossorial, it is easier to hunt than other armadillo species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction through conversion of suitable habitat to cultivated land; however, it is able to adapt to low levels of agricultural disturbance. This species is exported to zoos and for pet trade, and there is a high mortality of individuals during this export process.
21975		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> has been observed in Serra da Capivara and Serra das Confusões National Parks, both in southern Piaui (Marinho-Filho and Lima 2008). It is present in the Grande Sertão Veredas National Park, northern Minas Gerais (M. L. Lima pers. comm. 2010). It was also recorded in the Ecological Station of Serra Geral do Tocantins and Jalapão State Park (Tocantins), as well as in the Raso da Catarina Biological Reserve and Veredas do Oeste baiano Wildlife Refuge (Bahia; Marinho-Filho and Lima 2008, M. L. Lima pers. comm. 2010). No protected areas exist in the area of highest population density (J. Marinho-Filho pers. comm. 2010).
21975		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> is endemic to Brazil, where it has been recorded from the states of Bahia, Ceará, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Piauí, Mato Grosso (extreme central eastern portion), Goiás (extreme north), Minas Gerais (extreme north-west), Tocantins (eastern portion), Paraíba, and Rio Grande do Norte.
21975		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> mainly occurs in caatinga habitat (dry thorn scrub of north-eastern Brazil), but it is also found in the eastern parts of cerrado habitat (bush savanna in central Brazil). It is not adapted to digging and life underground. When threatened, it has the habit of rolling into an easily portable ball.&#160; Population densities have been estimated at 0.97 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, but are expected to be considerably lower in areas with hunting pressure.
21975		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> was believed to be extinct until its rediscovery in the early 1990s in a handful of scattered localities. It has probably disappeared over much of its range, but it is difficult to survey its populations (Nowak 1999). This armadillo has a patchy distribution; population densities may be relatively high within certain patches (J. Marinho-Filho pers. comm. 2010), except in areas where the species is exposed to human pressure.
21975		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> is threatened by heavy hunting pressure and habitat loss. In the Caatinga, the remaining populations are practically isolated in protected areas and are subjected to subsistence hunting. In the Cerrado, the main populations live outside the protected areas and are especially threatened by conversion of their natural habitat to sugar cane and soybean plantations.
21979		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Mahalona, Sulawesi.
21980		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Towuti in central Sulawesi.
21981		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
21981		distribution	eng	Data gathered between 1994 and 1998 indicates that <em>T. schlegelii</em> is widespread, although at a low density, throughout large areas of Sumatera, Kalimantan, and Sarawak, and still persists in peninsular Malaysia. Current information and sightings are now available from 39 localities in 10 different river drainages. Sebastian (1994) notes an additional three drainages in Borneo where the species is reported.
21981		habitat	eng	Swamps, rivers and lakes. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.
21981		population	eng	A total population estimate is not possible but an estimate of below 2,500 mature adults was agreed by a consensus of active researchers as a cautious figure.
21982		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
21982		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Peru (Simmons, 2005).
21982		habitat	eng	This bat is found from sea level to 1,000 m elevation in the semiarid areas of coastal northwestern Peru. The roosts are under granite boulders and caves. A single young has been found in pregnant females from May to September (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
21982		population	eng	Expected to decline in response to human habitat disturbance. Known from ten collection points in Peru, the surrounding area has been surveyed adequately (Velazco pers. comm.). Considered 'critically endangered' in Peru (Velazco pers. comm.).
21982		threats	eng	The species occurs in only few caves which are being fumigated to control rabies (Velazco pers. comm.).
21983		conservation	eng	Research actions.
21983		distribution	eng	Northeastern Brazil to northern Argentina and Paraguay (Simmons 2005). Also Bolivia.
21983		habitat	eng	Found in hollow trees on forests and sulfur mines. Onivorous.
21983		population	eng	In Argentina 3 individuals were reviewed (Barquez pers. comm.). Rare.
21983		threats	eng	Not known, probably deforestation, but not a major threat.
21984		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as endangered under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Tonatia brasiliensis</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
21984		distribution	eng	Central, and South America. This bat is distributed from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south to Peru and eastward across northern Brazil; also Trinidad (Reid, 1997). It is common below 500 m elevation in Venezuela (Handley, 1976).
21984		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with stream side habitats, evergreen forest and other moist areas but can range into deciduous forests (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999); also in second growth woodland, and fruit groves (Reid, 1997), and is broadly tolerant of man-made clearings in Venezuela (Handley, 1976). This species has been seen roosting in abandoned termite nests (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Usually caught in mist nets shortly after sunset. Pregnant females were found in February and April in Costa Rica (LaVal and Fitch, 1977). It feeds on insects and perhaps occasionally fruits (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Found in eucalyptus plantations in Brazil. Insectivore; gleaner.
21984		population	eng	Uncommon but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
21984		threats	eng	Loss of tree cover, although this is not considered to be a  major threat.
21985		conservation	eng	Conservation of large patches of pristine forests habitats. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
21985		distribution	eng	Thus far this species has been described in southeastern Colombia, the extreme southern part of Amazonas territory in Venezuela, the Guianas extending to north-central Brazil, and adjacent to Peru and Bolivia (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Engstrom and Lim, 2000; Lim and Engstrom, 2000).
21985		habitat	eng	The species has been taken in multistratal tropical evergreen forests near streams, it is associated with pristine forested habitats. It may invade llanos habitat via gallery forests. It uses hollow termite nests as roosting sites with roosting groups ranging from five to 12 individuals. It apparently feeds mainly on arthropods (McCarthy <em>et al.</em>, 1992).
21985		population	eng	Expected to decline in response to habitat disturbance. Absent or rare to uncommon and occasionally locally abundant at sites, this is a widespread species, the populations of which are expected to decline in response to habitat disturbance.
21985		threats	eng	In Bolivia considered near threatened because known only from two localities. Loss of forest habitats although this is not a major threat.
21986		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as endangered under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Tonatia evotis</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)
21986		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).
21986		habitat	eng	This bat can be found in mature and secondary lowland forest (Reid, 1997). A group of five was found roosting in an inactive termite nest, 3 m above ground, and a single bat was found roosting in a building (McCarthy <em>et al.</em>, 1993). The diet includes beetles and katydids. It flies through the forest understory, and most records are from mist-nest captures (Medellin and Arita, 1989; Reid, 1997).
21986		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Reid, 1997).
21986		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
21987		conservation	eng	Retention of forests in Guyana Shield.
21987		distribution	eng	The species is known from Guianas and northern Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al.</em>, 1996; Engstrom and Lim, 2000; Lim and Engstrom, 2000).
21987		habitat	eng	A poorly known gleaning insectivorous species associated with multistratal tropical forest.
21987		population	eng	Very little information is available about the population status of this species although it is known to be rare within a restricted distribution in the Guyana Shield; populations are expected to decline in response to habitat disturbance.
21987		threats	eng	Deforestation.
21988		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. It is found in protected areas.
21988		distribution	eng	Honduras to Bolivia, Venezuela, Guianas,Suriname, and E Brazil (Simmons 2005). Also in Paraguay.
21988		habitat	eng	Found in dense forests and termitehills. The feeding habit is not known. The species is poorly known in Bolivia.
21988		population	eng	Not common in Peru, there is not enough data to evaluate.
21988		threats	eng	Deforestation, but may not be a major threat.
21989		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tondano, Sulawesi.
21992		conservation	eng	The species needs more research and site and species conservation actions.
21992		distribution	eng	Endemic to&#160;Lake Fuxianhu,&#160;Gehekou, Jiangchuan County, Yunnan Province, China.
21992		habitat	eng	Only found in the lake from the lower and middle areas of open water. Specialised to eat on algae and aquatic insects. It spawns from May to June, laying sinking eggs.
21992		population	eng	It was rare in the&#160;early&#160;1990s. During fish resource investigation of Fuxian Lake, the species was not found from 2004 to 2006. The fish is possibly extinct in its wild habitat. However the species is difficult to survey for.
21992		threats	eng	Overfishing, water pollution, and exotic fish are the major threats.&#160;Invasive non-native species (grass carps, gobies, and other small fishes), and over-fishing, as well as loss of spawning grounds.
22003		conservation	eng	A total ban on fishing was declared by the Mexican Government in 1975 and this species was placed on the Mexican Endangered Species List (PROY-NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2000). In 1976, it was placed on the endangered list (Appendix I , threatened with extinction) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). In September 1978, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service held a workshop to evaluate the biological status of the totoaba, and in May 1979 it was added to the U.S. Endangered Species list, Federal Register 44(99): 29478-29480.<br/><br/>However, illegal fishing for this species in spawning grounds continued for several years after these conservation measures were enacted, and was only brought under effective control in the 1990s. The spawning grounds are in a biosphere reserve established in 1983, and the mesh size of the large gillnets formerly used for its capture have been reduced by half (from 12 inches to six inches). However, there are no data that shows whether the population is recovering. A small size cultivation effort has been in operation in Ensenada, Baja California, for the past few years and some releases into the wild have been conducted, although there is no known benefit to the population at present.
22003		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the central and northern Gulf of California, Mexico. The species spawns in the northernmost part of the gulf in the Colorado River Delta. Historically, it may have also spawned farther south on the eastern side of the Gulf in large river mouths, especially the Rio Fuerte (Gilbert 1890). Sporadic young adults have been reported in sport fisheries in the southern gulf in areas of rocky reefs.
22003		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow coastal waters to depths of 25 m. It is one of the largest fishes in the family Sciaenidae, with a maximum reported length of almost two m and weight of 100 kg. This species has an annual spring breeding migration to the shallow, formerly brackish (now hypersaline) waters of the Colorado River delta at the extreme northern end of the Gulf. It feeds on fishes and shrimps.<br><br>The generation length for this species is estimated to be 19 years, based on an estimated average age of first reproduction of seven years and a maximum age of 30 years (Cisneros-Mata <em>et al</em>. 1995).
22003		population	eng	Current population status is unknown. Unpublished data and incomplete fisheries data has only been collected in the 1980s by the Federal Department of Fisheries of Mexico. However, the population of this species, once considered to be very abundant, has been severely reduced since the 1940s by overfishing.
22003		threats	eng	The species has been seriously depleted due to overfishing and habitat alteration. The fish formerly supported an important commercial fishing industry and sport fishery in the Gulf of California. Historically, the majority of the commercial catch was exported from Mexico to the United States, where prices were high. Overfishing of adults occurred primarily during their annual breeding migrations to the Colorado River delta. Peak annual yield in 1942 was 2,261 tonnes, and despite intensified fishing effort and increased gear efficiency, the annual yield exhibited erratic fluctuations and decreased to approximately 58 tonnes in 1975. This represents a more than 95% decline over the past 65 years (1942–2007).<br/><br/>Current heavy fishing pressure continues on juveniles ("machorros," 20-25 cm) due to the active shrimp trawl fishery in the upper Gulf of California. Because of historical and current overfishing, the once maximum size of 200 cm for the species has been greatly reduced.<br/><br/>An Environmental Assessment Study by NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service noted that diversion of the Colorado River has converted the formerly brackish-water habitat, in the extreme northern Gulf of California, into a hypersaline environment, drastically altering the nursery grounds of the Totoaba (Guevara 1990), and altering the life history of the species (Rowell <em>et al</em>. 2008).
22024		conservation	eng	<p>Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. <em>Trachemys gaigeae gaigeae</em> inhabits a number of protected areas, including being fairly common in the Bosque del Apache NWR (Clausen and Hammerson 2005) and occurring in the Canon de Santa Elena FFPA - Big Bend NP - Maderas del Carmen FFPA - Rio Grande National Scenic River cluster of protected areas. It appears that there are no protected areas located within the range of <em>T. g. hartwegi</em>.</p><p> Much more information on population status, natural history and conservation status are urgently needed, particularly for the subspecies <em>hartwegi</em>. Based on study results, the species may warrant specific legal protection in the USA.</p>
22024		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys gaigeae gaigeae</span>: Upper Rio Grande and Rio Conchos basin of New Mexico-Texas, USA, and Chihuahua-Coahuila, Mexico. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys gaigeae hartwegi</span>: Rio Nazas basin of Durango and adjacent Coahuila, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Seidel 2002).<br/><br/>Both <span style="font-style: italic;">gaigeae</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> hartwegi </span>were hypothesized by Legler (1990) to have evolved in the endorrheic basins of northern Mexico and adjacent USA, before the Conchos and upper Rio Grande were captured by the Pecos-Grande system. The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. gaigeae gaigeae</span> is parapatric to <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudemys gorzugi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys scripta elegans</span>.
22024		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys gaigeae gaigea</span> inhabits mainly pools and backwaters in the main Rio Grande and Conchos valleys, rarely moving inland away from the main river. It has also been recorded from  reservoirs (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">hartwegi</span> apparently inhabits the main channel of the Rio Nazas. Wild animals of ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gaigeae</span> are apparently nearly exclusively herbivorous (Legler 1960), although captives readily fed on fish (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994).<br/><br/>Males of&#160; ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gaigeae</span> become sexually mature at carapace length (CL) of about 11 cm and reach a maximum CL of 17 cm, while females reach sexual maturity at about 17 cm CL and can reach a maximum size of 22 cm. Females produce clutches of 6-11 eggs (Legler 1960). A dissected large female of ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hartwegi</span> would likely have produced three clutches totaling 48 eggs (Legler 1990).
22024		population	eng	Very little information is available; based on distribution records it appears that <span style="font-style: italic;">T.g. gaigeae</span> is fragmented into a number of isolated subpopulations along the upper Grande and Conchos; where monitored, most of these subpopulations appear reasonably stable. Price (1997, in Clausen and Hammerson 2005) considered ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gaigeae</span> ‘common within range but not abundant’, and Miller (idem) monitored the species during 20 years of float trips on the Rio Grande, recording three to four turtles per km. Surveys in New Mexico in the 1990s indicated some shrinking populations (NM DGF, in Clausen and Hammerson 2005). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">gaigeae</span> is rated Vulnerable in New Mexico and Imperiled in Texas (Clausen and Hammerson 2005).<br/><br/>Concerning the ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hartwegi</span>, Legler (1990) wrote of ‘tail waters below the dam’ and that the population in the vicinity of San Pedro de las Colonias may be nearing extinction, and elsewhere (ibid, p. 96) that ‘Aridity and increased use of water for irrigation may have placed hartwegi populations in danger everywhere except in the immediate region of the Presa El Palmito’. The subspecies became extinct in the Laguna Viesca since 1960 (Legler 1990).
22024		threats	eng	Pollution, hydrological projects, and other forms of habitat degradation, mortality from shooting target practice ('plinking'), past collection for pet trade and subsistence consumption, and occasional hybridisation with<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. scripta elegans</span>, are recorded threats (Clausen and Hammerson 2005).
22026		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
22028		conservation	eng	<p><em>Trachemys scripta</em> is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations. The species occurs in a substantial number of&#160; protected areas. European populations are either tolerated or their elimination is desired. The European Union has banned the import of <em>T.s. elegans</em> on the basis of of it being an invasive species, but other subspecies are being imported instead. </p>  <p>Awareness of the responsibilities of acquiring the species as a pet is needed, as are appropriate disposal options for unwanted pets and captured feral animals. Surveys, monitoring and research on the spread and ecological effects of feral populations is warranted. </p>
22028		distribution	eng	<p><em>Trachemys scripta </em>is native to the eastern and central United States of America (Iverson 1992). Its subspecies are disributed as follows:</p><p><em>T.s. scripta</em>: Atlantic drainages from southern Virginia to northern Florida. <br/> <em>T.s. elegans</em>: Alabama to extreme northeastern Mexico, up to Cuatro Cienegas. <br/> <em>T.s. troostii</em>: Southwestern Virginia to northeastern Alabama (west of Appalachians).</p><p><strong>Introduced populations </strong>of <em>T.s. elegans</em> have been reported from Mexico: feral populations exist throughout the country; parts of the United States (Arizona, California, Hawaiian Islands, northeastern States); Guadeloupe (France): Occurs on Grande Terre and Basse Terre (Iverson 1992, Malhotra and Thorpe 1999); Portugal: widespread, especially in the south; Spain: widespread at low elevations; France: widespread, except in the north; Italy (scattered throughout the country); Slovenia (near Italian border region); Greece (Crete); Austria (Vienna region); Germany; southwestern Switzerland; Netherlands; Turkey; Israel; South Africa; Taiwan; Thailand; Cambodia; Indonesia; and Australia. </p>
22028		habitat	eng	In its native range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys scripta</span> is an inhabitant of a wide variety of waterbodies, and is most abundant in soft-bottomed shallow habitats with minimal flow, abundant access to sunlight and extensive vegetation. In Mexico, it is primarily a riverine species. In Europe, the species is an opportunistic inhabitant of freshwater habitats, generally in close proximity to human habitation and/or recreation centres. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Trachemys scripta</span> is omnivorous and consumes a wide variety of plant and animal matter. Males may reach 24 cm carapace length (CL), females 29 cm. Maturity is reached at about 9-11 cm CL and two to five years in males, 15-20 cm CL and five to eight years. Longevity is about 30 years maximum. Generation time is probably around 12-15 years. Females produce 0-3 clutches of 5-20 eggs per year. Incubation takes 60-91 days. Hatchlings measure 23-35 mm (Thomas 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009)
22028		population	eng	United States: A widespread species that is common in its native range, and has established populations beyond its native range. <br/><br/>Mexico: locally common within its native range, and has established feral populations throughout the country. <br/><br/>In Europe it is becoming increasingly abundant, especially in Portugal, Spain and France.
22028		threats	eng	<p>Individuals and populations of <em>Trachemys scripta</em> can be under varying levels of impact from habitat degradation and loss, road mortality, pollution (particularly pesticides and heavy metals), and collection. These threats collectively are not perceived to endanger the survival of the species.</p><p>Populations in Europe are in places considered to represent a threat to local turtle species (through competition) and the ecosystem in general (competition, predation). <em>Trachemys scripta elegans</em> is included in the IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group's 100 Worst Invasives List.</p>
22029		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Vabrales pers. comm.).
22029		distribution	eng	This bat ranges from lowlands to 1,400 m asl (Reid, 1997) in Central, and South America. This bat is distributed from Oaxaca, southern Mexico south through the Isthmus and ranges broadly over the tropical portions of South America to southeastern Brazil; also Trinidad (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997).
22029		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with tropical evergreen forest but occurs in regions of dry deciduous forest near moist habitats. This species tends to roost in caves, hollow trees, road culverts, and buildings; the colonies are small (fewer than six individuals), but larger maternity colonies are sometimes found in deep caves. In the Amazon forest and in Bahia the species has a patchy distribution (Faria pers. comm.). There is some evidence that the young associate with a parent for a considerable period. This bat flies low through the forest understory to forage over streams or other wet areas (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). Although they eat insects, these bats are active predators and also feed on lizards, other mammals (including some bats), birds, and frogs. Some individuals of this species may specialize on frogs (Tuttle <em>et al.</em>, 1982). Indeed, some frog species have been under considerable selection to produce calls that render them less conspicuous to the ears of the predators; the bat can also discriminate between poisonous and edible species on the basis of their calls.  A single young is produced near the end of the dry season (Reid, 1997).
22029		population	eng	Fairly common in lowland forest; uncommon in agricultural areas and at higher elevations (Reid, 1997). Locally common.
22029		threats	eng	No major threats throughout its range.
22034		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II, and has been protected by Indonesian law since 1999. It has been recorded from Pangandaran Nature Reserve (Watanabe <em>et al</em>. 1996), Gunung Halimun and Ujung Kulon National Park (Gurmaya <em>et al</em>. 1994), and is one of the more common and thriving colobines in captivity.
22034		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it occurs on Java and the smaller islands of Bali, Lombok, Palau Sempu and Nusa Barung. The Lombok population may have been introduced there by humans (Groves 2001). The boundary between the two subspecies runs from the south coast of Java at about 109°E, northwestward to the vicinity of Jakarta (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus auratus auratus</em><br/>Occurs in eastern Java, Bali, Lombok, Palau Sempu and Nusa Barung. This subspecies has two morphs, one of which, the red morph, has a restricted distribution between Blitar, Ijen, and Pugeran, Java (Groves 2001). The other morph is more common and found in eastern Java, west to Gunung Ujungtebu (Brandon-Jones 1995).<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus auratus mauritius</em> <br/>This subspecies has a restricted distribution in west Java to the north coast from Jakarta, inland to Bogor, Cisalak, and Jasinga, southwest to Ujung Kulon, then along the south coast to Cikaso or Ciwangi (Groves 2001).
22034		habitat	eng	<em>T. auratus</em> occurs in mangrove, beach, and freshwater swamp forests, ever-wet lowland and hill forests, dry deciduous forests, and montane forest up to 3,000-3,500 m (Nijman 2000), in addition to teak, rasamala, and acacia forest plantations.<br/><br/>It is mostly folivorous, preferring to eat leaves and flowers, though it will consume the seeds of fruits and unripened fruits as well (Nijman 2000). In the Dieng Mountains of central Java, it has been recorded from both primary and secondary forest, both on the edges and in the interior (Nijman and van Balen 1998). Home range was calculated by Kool (1993) to be 20-30 ha and may be bigger in Java.
22034		population	eng	This species was the most frequently observed primate during a survey of the Dieng Mountains in central Java (Nijman and van Balen 1998). Nijman and van Balen (1998) reported it to be rather common on both Mount Prahu and the central part of the study area in the Pegunungan Dieng Mountains where they also estimate a density of 23 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. From a review of 14 studies, densities were estimated as following: 7.9 (+/- 8.8) groups/km<sup>2</sup>, and individuals estimated at 114 (+/- 147.9) groups/km<sup>2</sup> (E. Meijaard and V. Nijman pers. comm.).
22034		threats	eng	Threats include habitat loss and degradation due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, hunting for food and increasingly for the pet trade, fragmentation, and small isolated populations.
22035		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in at least four protected areas: Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park and Gunung Leuser National Park in Indonesia, and Bako National Park and Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia; is may occur as well in Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia (M. Richardson pers. comm.). There is a small worldwide captive population.
22035		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Kalimantan Borneo, the Natuna Islands, Lingga, Bintang, Sugi, Jombol, and Bakang in the Riau Archipelago, and Sumatra), and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo, and a strip along the western coast of the Peninsula). It might occur on Batam in the Riau Archipelago as well (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus cristatus cristatus</em> <br/>Occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Kalimantan Borneo, Lingga, Bintang, Sugi, Jombol, and Bakang in the Riau Archipelago, and Sumatra), and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo, and a strip along the western coast of the Peninsula). May occur on Batam in the Riau Archipelago as well (Groves 2001).   <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus cristatus vigilans </em><br/>Occurs on Sirhassen (Serasen), in the Natuna Islands, Indonesia (Groves 2001).
22035		habitat	eng	Most of what is known of this species is from Peninsular Malaysia, which is a small portion of the range for the species. In Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo it is known mostly from riparian and mangrove forest (V. Nijman pers. comm.), while in Sumatra it is found in a variety of primary and secondary forest types, including riverine, mangrove, swamp, montane and coastal (Furuya 1961; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987). It is occasionally found in plantations.<br/> <br/>This species is mainly folivorous, with leaves comprising 60 to 80% of the diet (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, it will also feed on fruit, seeds, flowers, and young shoots (Bernstein 1968; Furuya 1961).
22035		population	eng	Very little is known about this species, and most of what is known is from Peninsular Malaysia. It is reported to be rare in Borneo.
22035		threats	eng	Disappearance of suitable lowland habitat due to land clearance (especially for oil palm plantations) and forest fires is a major threat, especially in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. The species is hunted in Sarawak, while in Sumatra it is heavily traded and is a popular pet.
22037		conservation	eng	This species is a Schedule I species in the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is also listed on CITES Appendix I (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). The Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary is the only protected habitat for this species in India (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, Srivastava <em>et al</em>. (2001) reports that the species is also found in Ripu, Chirrang, and Manas Forest Reserves. Yet these reserves are unstable, and the complete protection of Manas National Park is needed (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). By upgrading the protection and status of this species, it is believed that isolated populations can be linked through corridors that will prevent genetic fragmentation (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). A long-term study is needed to assess the actual impact of habitat alteration on the species over long periods of time (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Medhi <em>et al.</em> (2004) suggest the following actions to protect the population of this species in Nayakgaon: insulation or diversion of electric lines, motivate villagers to restrain their dogs, planting of trees to develop a corridor between the Nayakgaon population and the Chakrashila population, a long term study of behavior and ecology, and regular monitoring of the population. <br/><br/>In Bhutan this species is found in Black Mountains National Park (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001), Pipsu Wildlife Sanctuary, Royal Manas National Park and Trumshingla National Park (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following research actions needed for the conservation of this species: taxonomy, survey studies, limiting factor research, and habitat fragmentation. The following management actions are needed: habitat management, wild population management, monitoring, public education, and Population and Habitat Viability Assessment.
22037		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in Bhutan and north-eastern India (Assam). It is confined to a forest belt in western Assam between the Manas River in the east, Sankosh in the west and Brahmaputra in the south along the Indo-Bhutan border (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Its distribution in Bhutan is limited to the foothills of the Black Mountains (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). The total known range of this species in both India and Bhutan is less than 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and much of it is not suitable habitat (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). The population in India is highly fragmented, with the southern population completely separated from the northern population due to the effects of human activities.
22037		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist evergreen, dipterocarp, riverine, and moist deciduous forests, and occasionally in degraded habitats with secondary growth (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species experiences a considerable range in elevation of near sea-level in the south to above 3,000 m in the north (Wangchuk <em>et al.</em> 2003). One isolated population is found in the Abhaya Rubber Plantation, Nayakgaon, in the Kokrajhar district of Assam (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Study of this population has shown that the animals can withstand the effects of habitat change to some extent and survive in altered habitats (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The diet consists of young and mature leaves, ripe and unripe fruits, and seeds, with most feeding spent on young leaves (Gupta 1998, 2002). Subba (1989) and Subba and Santiapillai (1989), however, found that this species prefers fruits and buds to leaves. In forest fragments they may depend on cultivated crops such as tapioca, betel, and guava. It is diurnal and arboreal (Khajuria 1977).
22037		population	eng	There is an estimated population of less than 1,500 individuals in India and around 4,000 individuals in Bhutan, with less than 2,500 mature individuals globally (J. Das pers. comm.). Demographic trends indicate a decline in the population of this species (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). 93% of the population is found in contiguous forest, while the remaining 7% is found in several small isolated reserves (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). Contrary to predictions, groups were bigger and densities higher in areas of more degraded habitat (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>The population has declined by more than 30% in the last 30 years, and is expected to decline further in the near future due to various threats outlined by field biologists in both India and Bhutan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
22037		threats	eng	Due to habitat destruction, the populations of this species are restricted to fragmented forest pockets, especially in India (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Habitat destruction is the major threat to this species in India (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Hunting is prohibited in the Abhaya Rubber Plantation, yet electrocution from power lines and hunting by dogs are local threats, which are affecting the population (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). A comparative analysis based on satellite images taken in 1988 and 1998 showed a 50% loss of original habitat in India for this species (Srivastava <em>et al. </em>2001). Although commercial logging is banned in reserves where this species is found, illegal encroachment and woodcutting have severely affected these forest reserves (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). Stone quarrying and its associated noise pollution, as well as artillery firing practices in the Bamuni hills, may also have a negative effect.<br/>Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) list the following threats for this species: “Crop plantations, grazing, harvesting non-woody vegetation for firewood and charcoal production, selective logging, timber collection, human settlement, deforestation, fragmentation, trade, killed by domestic dogs, habitat loss, high juvenile mortality, inbreeding, and local trade in live animals as pets and in road shows. Trade is insignificant.” Due to road construction and other human activities (settlements), the northern and southern populations are completely separated and this has led to loss of suitable habitats and fragmentation (J. Das pers. comm.). There are potential threats to the population in the near future in India due to mustard cultivation and other human activities, and therefore the population is also expected to decline (J. Das pers. comm.).
22039		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in a number of protected areas, including: Krau Wildlife Reserve, Taman Negara National Park (Malaysia); Kaeng Krachan National Park, Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, Khao Sok National Park, Taratau National Park (Thailand). It is relatively common in captivity. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of the insular forms.
22039		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Malaysia (troughout the Malay Peninsula along with a few small adjacent islands), southern Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), and southwestern Thailand (including adjacent islands). It is found north to 15°10?N in Myanmar and Thailand (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. obscurus</em><br/>Found on Peninsular Malaysia, north to about Perlis (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. flavicauda</em><br/>Found in northern Peninsular Malaysia, southern Myanmar (including James, Kisseraing, and King Islands in the Mergui Archipelago) and southwestern Thailand (including Koh Lak Island). On the mainland found from Perlis north to the northern border of the species? range (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. halonifer</em><br/>Restricted to Penang Island, Malaysia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. carbo</em><br/>Found off the western coast of Malaysia and Thailand, specifically on Terutao and Dayang Bunting Islands, and on Langkawi Island (Malaysia) (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. styx</em><br/>Occurs on East Perhentian Island and, possibly, adjacent eastern coastal Malaysia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. seimundi</em><br/>Occurs on Phangan Island (Pennan Island), Thailand; may possibly occur in adjacent eastern Thailand as well (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. sanctorum</em><br/>Restricted to Zadetkyi Kyun (St. Matthew Island) in the Mergui Archipelago (Myanmar) (Groves 2001).
22039		habitat	eng	This species prefers closed primary forests, but is also found in old-growth secondary and disturbed forests, urban areas, and parks. It is diurnal, primarily arboreal, and folivorous, although the diet is relatively varied and the animals will also consume fruit, flowers and other items. They are able to take advantage of unripe fruit, which have chemical defenses, by the same means that they break down toxins in plant leaves, using the bacteria found in their digestive system (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980).
22039		population	eng	On the mainland, at five sites surveyed (Kuala Lompat, Pasoh, Sungai Kenyam, Ulu Sebol, and Lesong) the density was estimated 1.8-7.3 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, with an average group size of 14. A population at Khao Lommuak (11°49?N) numbered 80 individuals in an area of 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>. The population status of several of the insular forms (Penang, Langkawi, Dayang Bunting, Terutau, East Perhentian, Pennan) is unclear, but most are presumed to be stable.
22039		threats	eng	Hunting for food is a major threat, as is habitat loss and degradation due to expanding oil palm plantations, agriculture, and urbanization. In Peninsular Malaysia the animals are frequent victims of road-kill.
22040		conservation	eng	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is listed under Schedule I, part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002), while in Bangladesh it is listed as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is listed as Category I under wildlife Protection Act, 1989 in China, and has been a completely protected species in Myanmar since 1994, though a priority for this species is survey work in order to determine the current status of populations there. It is listed on Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. <br/><br/>This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range, including: Lawachara National Park, Rama-Kalenga Sanctuary (Bangladesh); Galoligongshan Nature Reserve, Wuliangshan Nature Reserve, Ailaoshan Nature Reserve, Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Nanguanhe Nature Reserve, Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, Lancangjiang Nature Reserve, Huanlianshan Nature Reserve, Fenshuiling Nature Reserve, Niuluohe Nature Reserve, Caiyanghe Nature Reserve, Xishuanbanna Nature Reserve (China); Dampa Sanctuary, Gumti Sanctuary, Sepahijala Sanctuary, Trishna Sanctuary (India); Pegu Yoma Reserve, Pidaung Reserve, Popa Mountain National Park (Myanmar); Nam Nao National Park, Phu Khieo Sanctuary (Thailand); Cuc Phuong National Park (Viet Nam). It might possibly occur in Phou Dendin National Park (Lao PDR) as well.
22040		distribution	eng	This specis occurs in eastern Bangladesh, southwestern China (southern, western and central Yunnan), northeastern India (Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand (north of the peninsular zone) and northern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. p. phayrei</em><br/>Occurs in Bangladesh, northeastern India (Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura), and western Myanmar. Found from Pegu north through Arakan to Tripura, southern Assam and eastern Bangladesh (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. p. crepuscula</em> <br/>Occurs in southwestern China (central, southern and southwestern Yunnan, with the Salween River as its west boundary), Lao PDR, Myanmar (north of the peninsular zone and south of the range of <em>T. p. phayrei</em>), Thailand (north of the peninsular zone) and northern Viet Nam. Found from Raheng (central Thailand) and the Mae Ping rapids (northwest Thailand) north to Xishuanbanna (Yunnan), east to southwestern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, and west to the coast of the Bay of Bengal (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. p. shanicus</em><br/>Occurs in southwestern China (western Yunnan with the Salween River as the boundary) and northern and eastern Myanmar. Found in the northern Shan States and neighbouring dry zone of northern Myanmar, into Yunnan in the Yingjiang-Namting River and Tunchong-Homushu Pass Districts (Groves 2001).
22040		habitat	eng	The species prefers primary and secondary evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, mixed moist deciduous forest, but is also found in bamboo-dominated areas, light woodlands, and near tea plantations. In some parts of the range, such as Lao PDR, it also occurs in forest on limestone (R. Timmins pers. comm.; Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is a predominantly arboreal, diurnal, and folivorous species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
22040		population	eng	In India and Bangladesh, populations are small and isolated, though locally common in many places (Choudhury 2001; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Lao PDR the species is localized, and in the northern parts of its range generally scarce, due both to high hunting pressure and a high level of habitat fragmentation. In the southern parts of its range in Lao PDR the species is more common, although still among the scarcest of the diurnal primates (R.Timmins pers. comm.). In Viet Nam the species is rare and now very localized (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In the last ten years there are records only from a handful of areas (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Thailand, there are good populations in Nam Nao National Park and Phukhio Wildlife Sanctuary, where they had the highest densities at 3.4 groups/km<sup>2</sup> and 23-38 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Borries <em>et al.</em> 2002), but much of northern Thailand has been hunted out. There are also good populations in the Western Forest complex (W. Brockelmann pers. comm.). There is little information available concerning the species’ status in Myanmar (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In China, healthy populations of <em>T. p. shanicus</em> survive mainly in Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve and Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, and healthy populations of <em>T. p. crepuscula</em> survive mainly in Nangunhe Nature Reserve, Ailaoshan Nature Reserve, Wuliangshan Nature Reserve, Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Huanlianshan Nature Reserve, and Xishuanbanna Nature Reserve (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002). Overall, the picture is one of a serious ongoing decline globally.
22040		threats	eng	In Bangladesh and India, this species is at risk of habitat disturbance and fragmentation, especially due to the establishment of tea gardens and paper mills, but also timber plantations, livestock ranching, shifting agriculture, firewood collection, charcoal production, and human settlement (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Other threats facing these populations include pollution, inbreeding, and a local trade in the animals for zoos and as food (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). The population in Bangladesh has declines by more than 80% in the last 20 years, making it very vulnerable in its extremely fragmented locations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Further to the east of the range (in China, Viet Nam, Thailand, and Lao PDR), the major threat is hunting for traditional “medicine” and bushmeat. Indeed, in northern Thailand they have been nearly entirely hunted out, and now only survive in larger protected areas. In the known Lao PDR stronghold for this species (Bolikhamsai province), there is extensive infrastructure development for hydro-electric power, which is likely to increase hunting pressure on these populations (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Furthermore, the range of the species in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Thailand coincides with ethnic minorities that favour shifting cultivation, with a continual resulting loss of forest (R. Timmins pers. comm.).
22041		conservation	eng	All South Asian populations are listed under Schedule I, Part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001), amended up to 2002, and are also listed under Appendix I in CITES. Populations in Bangladesh are protected under Schedule III of the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. It is considered First Class protected under the Wildlife Protection Act in China. In Myanmar it is nominally protected under the Wildlife Protection Act. This species is found in a large number of protected areas across its range.
22041		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), and north-western Myanmar. Records from China are disputed and need to be confirmed (W. Bleisch pers. comm.). South Asian populations of <em>Trachypithecus pileatus</em> subspecies are known to exist in adjacent and sometimes overlapping areas of India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Myanmar. Various populations exist between 10 and 3,000 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>Trachpithecus pileatus pileatus </em><br/>Occurs in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, and Nagaland) and north-western Myanmar. Widely distributed in the highlands south and east of the Brahmaputra and west of the Chindwin; in Myanmar found in the Chin Hills south to Mount Victoria; in India, the Karbi Anglong, Khasi, Garo, Naga, and Jaintia Hills, along with the Karbi Plateau and the Barail Range in Assam (Groves 2001).   <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus pileatus durga</em> <br/>Occurs in north-eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh and north-eastern India. Found adjoining the range of <em>T. p. pileatus</em> to the north, but at lower altitudes, from nearly sea-level up to 600 m; known from the Naga Hills, Lakhimpur, Golaghat, Cachar Hills, Samaguting, and Sibsagar (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus pileatus brahma</em> <br/>Occurs in north-eastern India, where known only from the Dafla Hills, north of the Brahmaputra (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus pileatus tenebricus</em> <br/>Occurs in Bhutan and north-eastern India. Found in the Manas region to the north of the Brahmaputra River (from 100 up to nearly 2,000 m) into Bhutan (Groves 2001; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).
22041		habitat	eng	These animals are diurnal, predominantly arboreal, and folivorous (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). According to Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) they are found in subtropical evergreen, broadleaf, deciduous, and bamboo forests (Choudhury 2001). The generation length is inferred from that of other langur species to be 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
22041		population	eng	This species is the most common langur in north-eastern India (Choudhury 2001). Although sympatric with hoolock gibbons in South Asia, it is not as heavily impacted by the effects of habitat loss and is more adaptive, breeds more rapidly, and can move across fragments easily (A. Kumar and J. Das pers. comm.). However, the species has probably declined by more than 30% in the last 20 years, making it very vulnerable in its extremely fragmented locations (J. Das, A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003) and it is predicted to decline at the same rate in the next 20 years (J. Das, A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <em>T. p. brahma</em> is only known from its holotype, and may either be extinct or perhaps never really existed at all (the differences in its pelage may be attributable merely to seasonal variation).
22041		threats	eng	Populations of this species face a range of threats particular to their geography, with most stemming from human alteration of habitat. Some major causes are jhum cultivation, plant monoculture, timber and firewood harvests, and other development, resulting in a loss of fruiting and lodging trees. Also, these animals are subject to trade for their meat and other body parts, and as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).
22042		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. The following conservation management actions have been recommended for the subspecies (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003):<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola:</em> habitat management, limiting factor management, monitoring, and implementation of extant conservation laws; and the following areas in need of research: surveying, genetics, taxonomy, ecology, behavior, life history, epidemiology, and limiting factors.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em>: habitat management, public education, limiting factor management, work in local communities, and a coordinated Species Management Program; and the following areas in need of research: genetics, taxonomy, life history, behavior, surveying, limiting factor research, epidemiology, and studies to identify viable method of conserving the subspecies.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbricki:</em> habitat management, monitoring, limiting factor management, Population and Habitat Viability Assessment, and implementation of extant laws a priority; and the following areas in need of research: taxonomy, life history, surveying, limiting factor research, epidemiology, trade, zoogeography, population genetics, ecology, and behavior.<br/> <br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em>: habitat management, public education, government education, implementation of extant conservation laws; and the following areas in need of research: genetics, taxonomy, life history, surveying, ecology and behavioral studies. This taxon is found in many protected areas, but most of the areas have introduced pine species, with very little protection, and much of the remaining forests are rubber or other cash crop plantations.  The protected areas are not the size determined, and do not have protection (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). Some conservation has been undertaken for this taxon; systematic conservation education programs were launched in 2001 and have increased awareness of this taxon (A. Nekaris pers. comm.).
22042		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka (Corbet and Hill 1992). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in the rainforests of southern Sri Lanka from south of the Kalu Ganga to about Rama (Groves 2001). It ranges in elevation up to 1,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in western Sri Lanka, from the north of the Kalu Ganga as far north as the rainforest limit (Groves 2001). It ranges in elevation up to 1,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbrick</em>i <br/>This subspecies is found in the north and east of Sri Lanka in the dry zone, up to 800 m in East Matale and Madukelle Hills (Groves 2001; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; W. Dittus <em>et al.</em> pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in the mountains of central Sri Lanka (Groves 2001). Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) and W. Dittus (pers. comm.) report that it is found from 1,000 to 2,200 m in elevation.
22042		habitat	eng	According to Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003), <em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em> is found in “lowland and midland tropical rainforest and modified areas with adequate canopy cover. Where its natural habitat has been destroyed, groups may refuge in home gardens and plantations, but these commensal habitats, too, are threatened and offer no long-term survival prospects for the taxon”. Forest fragments may result in artificially dense populations (i.e. depending on the fragments, population size may seem higher). The range is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Nekaris pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003), <em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em> is found in “lowland tropical rainforest, while refugee populations presently inhabit semi-urban and rural home gardens, rubber plantations and areas with adequate canopy cover where these have replaced the original natural forest”; <em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola</em> is found in “montane tropical rainforest” and <em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbricki</em> is found in “dry evergreen forests, tropical monsoon and deciduous dry forest, confined to moister areas of dry zone with tall closed forest canopy near permanent sources of water”.
22042		population	eng	Population counts are required, as very little is known about the species (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). However, the overall picture is one of serious decline.
22042		threats	eng	Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) summarize the threats for the four subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em>: selective logging (wet zone forests in 1970s), human settlement, hunting, trade, habitat loss, encroachment for agriculture, plantation, and human habitation. Ill-conceived government-organized translocation schemes of langur groups, coming into conflict with man, pose a threat to taxon survival and overall biodiversity. According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country has lost 50% of its forest cover, and more than 50% if the subsequent 10 years (1994-2003) is included.  There is a 1:1 relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number. There is also a local trade for meat for food and pelage for making drums at village level for subsistence.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola</em>: deforestation, fragmentation and habitat loss (crop plantation, development, human settlement) and hunting for subsistence or small scale cash. According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country has lost 50% of its forest cover, and more than 50% if the subsequent 10 years (1994-2003) is included.  In addition, 80% of hill country forests were lost to tea plantations in the 19th century.  There is a close relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number.  There exists a local and domestic trade for meat and skin. Locally pocketed and isolated groups are prone to extinction due to village-level subsistence exploitation.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em>: crop plantations, development (infrastructure, industry), human settlement, deforestation, fragmentation, illegal trade for food, pylon collision, and habitat loss. There is also a local trade at village level for meat, but it is not significant.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbricki</em>: shifting agriculture, deforestation, human settlement, development, hunting for food, habitat loss, and occasional cyclones in far northeastern areas of range. According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country has lost 50% of its forest cover, and more than 50% if the subsequent 10 years (1994-2003) is included.  The Mahaweli Development Scheme after 1978 had further reduced available habitat for this taxon. There is a close relationship between loss of critical habitat and population numbers. There exists a local trade for meat and skin. The animals are hunted mainly for subsistence living and trade at local village level. Skins in some areas are used to make drums. This may lead to extinction of subpopulations.
22043		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed only as CITES Appendix II. It is considered 'endangered' in Viet Nam, and is listed as a 'most endangered' species under Annex 1B of Decree 32 (2006). It occurs in six protected areas, but many still experience high hunting pressure. Van Long Nature Reserve was established for this species in 2001, and there has been some evidence of population growth in this reserve in the past five years. The connection of forest fragments in some already protected areas, such as Van Long, could greatly increase the size and survivability of some subpopulations. Also considered as beneficial population management for this species are the translocation of severely threatened (small) groups to safe and suitable habitat, and the augmentation of existing groups with offspring from a captive population. Delacour's langurs have been successfully kept and bred in captivity at the Endangered Primate Rescue Center in Cuc Phuong National Park, Viet Nam, which is currently the only collection keeping this species (Nadler 2004). It is necessary to ensure the sustainability of these programs. The Provincial People's Committees need to be encouraged to mitigate against ongoing development activities that encroach upon protected areas where Delacour?s langurs occur.
22043		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a very restricted area of north-central Viet Nam that totals about 6,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The distribution of subpopulations and smaller social groups is closely related to the series of limestone mountain ranges in the provinces of Ninh Binh, Nam Ha, Hoa Binh, and Thanh Hoa (Nadler 2004). Karst forest in the northwestern area (Black River Valley) has been surveyed, but there are no records of this species there (T. Nadler unpub. report). Previous literature has suggested a larger range for the taxon, but recent survey work has shown that it has a much more restricted range (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003).
22043		habitat	eng	This species is presently restricted to limestone karst forest habitat, with some records from secondary forest in limestone areas as well (Nadler 1996; Nadler 2004; Rowe 1996). The species ranges in elevation up to 1,000 m. The caves found in this habitat are thought to offer protection from predators and temperature extremes, but, if accessible to people, are where human hunters capture or kill sleeping langurs (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). The populations in Van Long, where there is a fairly good population, survive in a habitat that is mosaic cover, mostly evergreen shrub environment, on a cliff side with caves in which they sleep. It is diurnal and crepuscular; its degree of arboreality and terrestriality is habitat-dependent. This species is mainly folivorous, with leaves making up between 60-80% of its diet; the rest is composed of shoots, fruit, flowers, and bark.
22043		population	eng	The total population surviving in the above region is estimated to be between 200 and 250 individuals, surviving in 19 isolated subpopulations; the species is believed to be extirpated from three additional sites, and some important populations, including those in Cuc Phuong National Park and Pu Luong Nature Reserve, have decreased by 20% in the last five years. Previous survey work (1995-1999) had estimated the population at between 281 and 317 individuals (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Sixty percent of the total population occurs in subpopulations with fewer than 20 animals (Nadler 2004). The largest of the surviving subpopulations has increased and totals about 50 individuals in Van Long Nature Reserve, which is the only protected area that is well guarded by forest rangers and relatively inaccessible to people (Nadler 2004; T. Nadler pers. comm.).
22043		threats	eng	Hunting for the purposes of traditional ?medicine? is the primary threat facing this species; most of the populations that survive are heavily reduced and fragmented. Only the subpopulation at Van Long, with about 50 individuals, is thought likely to survive given the current hunting pressure; however, quarrying for limestone (cement), which is currently taking place there, has affected the ranging behaviour of the animals (T. Nadler pers. comm.). The smallest groups are extremely unlikely to survive should the one reproductively active male be taken or killed (Nadler 2004). Forest loss is a more minor threat as it occurs in degraded areas. A potential threat is the rapid development of tourist facilities adjacent to protected areas, especially around Van Long and Hoa Lu Nature Reserves.
22044		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and is known to occur in 2 protected areas: Khammouane National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area (R. Timmins pers. comm.). There is a need for further survey work to resolve the taxonomic and population status of the langur north of the Nam Theun River.
22044		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Khammouane and Borikhamxai Provinces in Lao PDR (Le and Campbell 1993/1994, Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, Groves 2001). The range north of the Nam Theun River is speculative; a langur most likely <em>T. laotum</em> is widely reported from limestone in this area, although there is no confirmation that is indeed <em>T. laotum</em>.
22044		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with forests in limestone/karst environments, but is also associated with non-limestone rock outcrops on steep or precipitous mountain slopes. It is folivorous, terrestrial and arboreal, and diurnal. (Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, R. Timmins pers. comm.).
22044		population	eng	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species; however, it is common in suitable habitat throughout its range, which is estimated at between 500-2,000 km<sup>2</sup> (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Reliable population estimates depend greatly on differentiating between <em>laotum</em> and <em>ebenus</em> in the Phou Hin Poun area, and also the identity of the langur occurring north of the Nam Theun River. Populations north of the Nam Theun are scarce and localized, are naturally more fragmentary, and have already declined seriously due to hunting (Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, R. Timmins pers. comm.).
22044		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is hunting for food and medicine (as with <em>T. hatinhensis,</em> there has been a shift from the use of firearms to snaring). Habitat loss is likely to be a threat in the long-term, although at present it is unlikely to be significantly influencing population trends (Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, R. Timmins pers. comm.).
22045		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed in CITES Appendix II.  <br/><br/>Since November 2000, the subspecies <em>T. p. poliocephalus</em> and its habitat on Cat Ba have been the subject of the Cat Ba Langur Conservation Project (implemented by the Zoological Society for the Conservation of Species and Populations, ZSCSP), which has been focused on the improvement of protection status for the subspecies and its habitat, and has initiated two important programs. The first is a langur sanctuary located inside Cat Ba National Park and a ?buffer zone? of the World Heritage Site ?Halong Bay.? Thirty-five percent of the remaining population lives in the sanctuary. The second is a langur-guarding program that is meant to protect 35% of the population that exists outside of the national park. This program puts the subpopulations and their ranges under the control of local people that patrol the ranges and offer community conservation education. The most important steps in the recovery of this subspecies now are continued protection from poaching and encroachment, a reduction in the habitat fragmentation and subpopulation isolation, and an increase in reproductive output and genetic health of the entire population, suggesting the need for translocation (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004).<br/><br/>The largest populations of <em>T. p. leucocephalus</em> are expected to recover under proper conservation of their Nong Guan and Nong Lin limestone habitats (Wang and Tong 2004). Nong Guan and Nong Lin are now being included in a larger proposed national-level nature reserve called Chongzuo Eco-Park, a special nature reserve for the white-headed langur (381 km<sup>2</sup>) with a population of about 250 individuals (Nadler 2003). However, considering the precarious status of the populations of this subspecies, reliable information is desperately needed about the precise effects of habitat degradation on its activity and survival (Li and Rogers 2005).<br/><br/>There are currently no specimens of <em>T. p. leucocephalus</em> in captivity; a small number of <em>T. p. poliocephalus</em> are reported in the collection of the Endangered Primate Rescue Center, Cuc Phuong National Park, Viet Nam (Nadler 1999).
22045		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Viet Nam and adjacent southern China.<br/><br/><em>T. p. poliocephalus</em><br/>Confined to Cat Ba Island, in Ha Long Bay off the northeastern cost of Viet Nam. There it is further restricted to about a 100 km<sup>2</sup> area of occupancy, mostly inside Cat Ba National Park (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004). It ranges from 70-100 m in elevation (Le and Campbell 1994) and possibly from 0 to 200 m.<br/><br/><em>T. p. leucocephalus</em><br/>Occurs in south China (southwestern Guangxi province), in isolated areas from the Shiwan Dushan north to the Zuo River, specifically in the karst hills of Gang Nature Reserve, Fushui Nature Reserve, Chongzuo Nature Reserve, and Longrui Nature Reserve.
22045		habitat	eng	This species is associated with forests on limestone (karst) hills. The caves found in this habitat are thought to offer protection from predators and temperature extremes but, if accessible to people, this habitat is also where human hunters capture or kill sleeping langurs (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is arboreal and terrestrial, and diurnal. Like other langurs, this species is mainly folivorous, with leaves making up between 60-80% of its diet; the rest is composed of shoots, fruit, flowers, and bark (Li <em>et al.</em> 2003).
22045		population	eng	The current total population of <em>T. p. poliocephalus</em> as of August 2006 is 64 individuals (Stenke pers. comm.), down from an estimated 100 individuals in 2000 (Nadler and Long 2000), but apparently an increase from the all-time low (less than 60 individuals) in the interim period. These animals are fragmented into seven isolated subpopulations; average group size is low, at 3.7 individuals, and there are 3-4 all-female groups, which are consequently non-reproductive (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004).<br/><br/>As of 2003, <em>T. p. leucocephalus</em> totaled about 700-800 individuals remaining in the wild, 250 of which live in Nong Gang, a maximum of 350 individuals live in Nong Lin. Also as of 2003, the population had begun to grow after a period of human-induced decline (Wang and Tong 2004). A survey conducted in Fusui Rare and Precious Animal Nature Reserve between September 1996 and April 1997, found a 24% decline in the population density over the past 10 years, with a current population of less than 150 langurs (Li <em>et al.</em> 2003).
22045		threats	eng	Poaching, both for meat and traditional ?medicine,? has been recognized as the most severe threat to Cat Ba langurs, and the reason for the precipitous decline in their population over the past couple of decades. Reproductively valuable males were often the most common victims due to their behaviour (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004). Habitat disturbance and fragmentation resulting from the growing human population on Cat Ba Island (due in part to the country?s designation of the island as a new tourism centre for northern Viet Nam), and rampant fires due to honey collectors (Nadler and Long 2000) are also threats. Tourism in the inadequately managed Cat Ba National Park has direct effects on langur natural history, such as the disturbance to habitat and perhaps behaviour caused by things like nightly spotlighting trips in speed boats around the karst archipelago where these monkeys live. The small size and fragmented nature of the remaining Cat Ba langur population means that the subspecies is at risk of inbreeding effects (or intrinsic effects to avoid inbreeding by not breeding at all), extremely limited mate-choice due to the small number of males per group, and the chance of a natural or human disaster causing total or effective extinction.<br/><br/>In China, clearing of land with fire, burning of agricultural residue and burning charcoal often leads to uncontrolled fires that escape into adjacent karst landscapes. The white-headed Langur is surrounded in some areas by subsistence agriculture, such that much of the habitat is fragmented (Li and Rogers 2005). Tree cutting for firewood has caused further degradation to the remaining habitat (Li and Rogers 2005). Along with habitat destruction, poaching has been the primary cause of the most recent decline in the population (Wang and Tong 2004). There is some evidence that breeding is hindered in degraded habitats.
22046		conservation	eng	Fully protected by law but enforcement is generally absent. Effective protection is limited to around 20 km² of habitat in Gaysay and around Bale Mountains N.P. headquarters. The Bale Mountains National Park harbours around half the total population of mountain nyalas. The small Kuni-Muktar Wildlife Sanctuary was established in 1990 as a second protected area for mountain nyala, but by 1996 this sanctuary had suffered severely from poaching, deforestation, cultivation and gully erosion, and the species no longer occurred.<br/><br/>The mountain nyala, along with the Ethiopian wolf, is a key flagship species for Bale Mountains National Park and its future will be closely tied to the future of this protected area. It is also very important to spread the risk by establishing effective protection and management of mountain nyala populations elsewhere within its range. Sustainable trophy hunting in some of these areas has very high potential for generating the revenue needed to fund effective conservation of this species and the other endemics which share its habitat. It may also be advisable to establish a self-sustaining captive population in collaboration with the Ethiopian conservation authorities, as an insurance against future adversity for the wild population.
22046		distribution	eng	Endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, south-east of the Rift Valley, between 6°N and 10°N. Formerly occurred from Gara Muleta in the east to Shashamane and north Sidamo in the south, but has been eliminated from a large part of its former range. Currently, the main area of distribution is the Bale Mountains National Park   and the eastern escarpments of the Bale massif. Smaller relict populations occur in Chercher (=Amhar) Mountains (Asba Tafari, Arba Guggu, Din Din), Arsi Mountains (Chilalo, Galama, Mt Kaka, Munessa), and West Bale (Somkaro-Korduro ridge) (Hillman 1988, East 1999, Malcolm and Evangelista 2005, Sillero-Zubiri in press,   Atickem in litt. 2009).
22046		habitat	eng	Mountain Nyalas occur at elevations of 1,800-3,400 m but are most abundant from 2,400-3,200 m (Atickem in litt. 2009). They frequent the fringes of montane grasslands (2,800 to 3,100 m) dominated by <em>Artemesia afra, Kniphofia foliosa</em> and <em>Hypericum</em> spp. (Sillero-Zubiri in press). Highest densities (up to 21/km²) have been recorded in the montane grasslands of Gaysay, Bale, where there is a combination of browse and grass with woodland cover to retreat to during the day (Hillman and Hillman 1987).<br/><br/>The formerly large continuous blocks of suitable woodland and Afroalpine habitat have now been reduced to a series of habitat islands in a sea of cultivated fields. It seems likely that mountain nyalas have been forced into higher areas by human increase and livestock grazing, and are also found above 3,400 m in heath forest and heathlands (<em>Erica</em> and <em>Phillippia</em> spp.) and on Afroalpine grasslands (<em>Alchemilla</em> spp., <em>Festuca</em> spp.) up to 4,300 m (Sillero-Zubiri in press). In the eastern extreme of its distribution, a relict population was recorded in forests as low as 1,800 m (Bolton 1973).
22046		population	eng	The population was estimated at 7,000 to 8,000 (and perhaps up to 12,500) in the 1960s (Brown 1969), and at 2,000 to 4,000 individuals in the 1980s (Hillman 1988). Numbers have declined since then. Mountain Nyalas may be extinct in the eastern and southern extremes of their distribution, but a few may still occur in Asba Tafari and in the border between Bale and Sidamo, south of Kofele. East (1999) calculated the population at 2,650, but subsequent information indicates that this may have been an overestimate. The main population formerly occurred in and around the Gaysay grasslands at the northern end of the Bale Mountains, and its numbers have been monitored since 1983. Numbers here increased to 1,050 by the late 1980s (Hillman 1988) as a result of creation of a national park in the 1970s which provided protection from poaching and excluded cattle grazing. Woldegebriel (1997) estimated the population prior to 1990 at 1,500 to 1,900. Unfortunately, following political unrest after the end of the war in 1991, most mountain nyala habitat in northern Bale was encroached by cattle and there was extensive hunting. As a result, the Gaysay population decreased to a fraction of what it was earlier. National Park staff estimated it to be 150 to 260 by 1994 (Woldegebriel 1997). There has been some  recovery since, and the Gaysay population was estimated at 550 by Refera and Bekele (2004) and Malcolm and Evangelista (2005).<br/><br/>In addition to Gaysay, there may be 80 to 120 mountain nyalas in other parts of Bale Mountains National Park, less than 100 in adjacent hunting areas to the north of the National Park, and 30 to 60 in Somkaro in west Bale (C. Sillero-Zubiri pers. obs.). Malcolm and Evangelista (2005) estimated as many as 500 nyala may occur in hunting blocks east of Bale. This would give a total population estimate for the Bale massif of 1,000-1,400. Small fragmented populations found in Arsi (Galama, Chilalo, Kaka and Munesa), and elsewhere (Kuni Muktar, Din Din, Arba Gugu) would total around 600 (Malcolm and Evangelista 2005). Therefore, it is likely that only 1,500 to 2,000 mountain nyalas survive throughout the range. A recent survey has indicated the total population may be higher, perhaps up to 4,000 (Evangelista <em>et al</em>. 2007). No nyalas are currently kept in captivity (East 1999).<br/>    <p>Recent research has shown that the largest population currently occurs outside Bale National Park on the eastern escarpment of the Bale massif, mainly in Besemena Odobullu and Shedom Berbere (Anagaw Atickem in litt. 2009). </p>
22046		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal hunting, destruction of montane forest and heathlands, encroachment by cattle, expansion of high-altitude cultivation, roads, and harassment by dogs. Permanent occupation of suitable habitat as a result of increasing human and livestock populations is exerting tremendous pressure on nyala habitat throughout the range, with anecdotal evidence suggesting mountain nyalas actively avoid livestock (Sillero-Zubiri in press). Mountain Nyalas are extensively hunted for meat and horns, the latter used for local medicine and to make nipples for traditional milk bottles. Trophy hunting blocks in Arsi have been hunted out and concessions moved to Bale, with continued pressure by the industry for additional hunting blocks and larger quotas. Effects of current trophy-hunting programs are not well understood and current trophy hunting quotas may be unsustainable in the long-term (Sillero-Zubiri in press). Its restricted range, and fragmented populations, make it highly vulnerable to human activities and stochastic events.
22047		conservation	eng	As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the Lowland Bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by international sport hunters during the 1990s. Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of Lowland Bongo populations. Trophy hunting has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of Bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited (East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated that perhaps 60% of Bongo numbers were confined to protected areas. In Central Africa, these include Dzanga-Ndoki National Park and Bangassou areas of the Central African Republic, Lobeke National Park (Cameroon), and in Nouabale-Ndoki National Park and Odzala National Park (Republic of Congo); in West Africa, strongholds include Taï (Côte d’Ivoire), Sapo (Liberia), and Kakum National Parks (Ghana) (East 1999; Elkan and Smith in press). However, because the highest known abundances of Bongo in Central Africa occur in logging concessions not protected areas, an approach is needed that incorporates both protected areas and logging concessions (see Elkan 2003; Elkan and Smith in press).<br/><br/>The Mountain Bongo’s survival in the wild is dependent on more effective protection of the surviving remnant populations in Kenya (East 1999). Two conservation initiatives are currently in progress on Mountain Bongo. A programme to reintroduce Bongo to Mt Kenya began in 2004, when 18 animals where flown from North American zoos to a captive-breeding facility at Mount Kenya Game Ranch, on the north-western slope of the mountain. A second phase began in 2005, with the commencement of a research programme into the Mountain Bongo’s ecology. This project will attempt to determine the configuration of Bongo habitat on both the Aberdares and Mount Kenya, using recently collected field and remotely sensed data (L. Estes pers. comm.). Meanwhile, the Bongo Surveillance Programme, initiated in 2004, has been investigating the status of the remaining wild Bongo populations in Kenya (L. Estes pers. comm.).
22047		distribution	eng	The Western or Lowland Bongo ranges from Sierra Leone to Benin, being absent east of the Dahomey Gap, and then continues east of the Adamawa Highlands in Cameroon to southern Sudan and DR Congo. West Africa populations are declining throughout much of their range, although most of the central Africa populations still maintain their historical distribution (East 1999; Elkan and Smith in press).<br/><br/>Historically, the Mountain Bongo occurred in and around forested zones of Mt. Kenya, the Aberdares, Mau forest, Cherengani hills and Chepalungu hills in Kenya and Mount Elgon in Kenya and Uganda (Elkan and Smith in press). The Mountain Bongo was exterminated from the Uganda side of Mount Elgon around 1913-1914 (Kingdon 1982). It is now confined to four completely isolated populations in patches of forest on Mt. Kenya, the Mau and Eburu forests, and the Aberdares in Kenya (Elkan and Smith in press).
22047		habitat	eng	The Bongo is associated with disturbed forest areas and the forest-savanna ecotone in the West and Central African lowlands and the Kenya highlands. There is a record from 4,300 m on Mount Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). It thrives on transition vegetation at the forest edge and in new growth areas that occur after disturbance (i.e. post-timber exploitation, elephant disturbance, tree-falls, landslides, burned fields) (Elkan and Smith in press). Forest clearings and mineral licks are important for geophagy and socialization (Elkan and Smith in press). Bongo are primarily browsers, but exhibit some seasonal grazing on grasses (Elkan and Smith in press).
22047		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population of Lowland Bongo at 28,000, with populations in the order of a few thousands in the west (where populations are fragmented), and tens of thousands in the central Africa forest zone. It tends to be naturally rare or absent over large parts of the equatorial forest zone. <br/><br/>The current population estimate (2007) for the Mountain Bongo is ca. 75-140 individuals: Aberdare Mts (50-100); Mt Kenya (6-12); Mau Forest (6-12), Eburu Forest (6-12) (M. Prettejohn and L. Estes in litt to ASG 2007).<br/><br/>Dense forest habitat, patchy distributions, wide-ranging patterns, retiring behaviour and crepuscular/nocturnal activity patterns hinder any reliable estimation of Bongo densities (Elkan and Smith in press). Hillman (1986) estimated 1.2/km² in southern Sudan based on group size observations and mineral lick distribution.
22047		threats	eng	The Lowland Bongo faces an ongoing population decline as habitat destruction and hunting for meat (mainly through snares) increase with the relentless expansion of commercial forestry exploitation and human settlement (East 1999; Elkan and Smith in press).<br/><br/>Threats to Mountain Bongo include hunting with dogs and loss of habitat in the Mau and Eburu forests to illegal logging. The decline of Mountain Bongo populations in the Aberdares in recent years has been attributed to increased hunting by local people and habitat loss, and even to the increased numbers of Lion in the area (Elkan and Smith in press). Although these factors have no doubt contributed to the decline of Mountain Bongo, the impact of disease has probably been underestimated: the grazing of cattle in the forest reserves of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares as high as the Hagenia forest on the Aberdares plateau may have greater implications for Bongo conservation than hunting pressure in terms of disease transmission (L. Estes, in Elkan and Smith in press). Percival (1928) reported that rinderpest drastically reduced the populations of the Mountain Bongo in the 1890s, and populations are thought to have suffered greatly in later epidemics in the early 1900s.
22050		conservation	eng	About 40% of the population survies in and around protected areas (East 1999), with major, generally stable populations occurring in Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Bangassou (Central African Republic), Odzala N.P. and L. Tele-Likouala (Republic of Congo), Salongo N.P. (DR Congo), Bangweulu and Busanga Swamps (Zambia), Okavango Delta (Botswana), and Akagera N.P. (Rwanda) (East 1999; May and Lindholm in press). At present, only a few of these areas receive moderate-high levels of protection and management. The current survival of good Sitatunga populations in other areas, such as Lobeke, Bangweulu and Okavango, is a product of low human population densities rather than active conservation (East 1999). <br/><br/>In some areas, sustainable trophy hunting is an economically important form of utilization of this species, for example, in northern Botswana, which has produced some of Africa’s largest Sitatunga trophies. The large areas of swamp within the Okavango Delta currently provide the Sitatunga with a safe refuge. They should continue to do so, as long as the ecology of the Delta is not altered significantly by factors such as cattle grazing within the swampland, uncontrolled burning, overhunting and hydrological schemes that would affect the water levels in the perennial or seasonal swamps. Moremi Game Reserve contains a limited area of permanent swamp with moderate numbers of sitatunga, but proposals to incorporate the Xo Flats within this reserve would significantly increase the protected population of this antelope (East 1999). The species’ significance as a trophy animal is an important economic incentive for the conservation of its habitat, and hunting zones adjoining national parks and equivalent reserves have the potential to play an increasingly important role in the conservation of the Sitatunga (East 1999).
22050		distribution	eng	The Sitatunga probably occurred formerly alongside waterways throughout the lowland forest zone of West and Central Africa, extending into swamp systems in the savanna zones of Central, East and southern Africa. It is now rare and localized in West Africa, but it remains widespread and locally common in the Central African forests and in some swamp systems within the savannas of Central, East and southern Africa. They are now extinct in Niger and probably Togo, but have been confirmed as still surviving in Ghana (May and Lindholm in press).
22050		habitat	eng	Sitatunga occur in tall and dense vegetation of perennial and seasonal swamps, marshy clearings within forests, riverine thickets, and mangrove swamps. In savanna environments, they are typically found in extensive monospecific stands of papyrus <em>Cyperus papyrus</em> and the reeds <em>Phragmites</em> spp. and <em>Echinochloa pyramidalis</em> (May and Lindholm in press). Sitatunga usually avoid open water devoid of vegetation. They are selective mixed feeders taking a range of grasses, sedges and browse (May and Lindholm in press). Sitatunga coexist with the Nile Lechwe in the great Sudd in southern Sudan, and with the Common Lechwe in Zambia, Botswana, and Angola.
22050		population	eng	The cryptic nature of Sitatunga and the relative inaccessibility of their habitat makes reliable estimates of abundance difficult. Aerial surveys tend to grossly underestimate this species’ numbers (East 1999). Densities of up to 64/km² in Akagera N.P. (Rwanda) and 60/km² in the Busanga Swamps (Zambia) have been recorded (May and Lindholm in press; and see discussion therein).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated a total population of 170,000, but this is likely to be an overestimate (May and Lindholm in press). Its numbers are probably decreasing in densely settled areas but stable elsewhere.
22050		threats	eng	Loss of habitat is the main threat to the future persistence of Sitatunga. The ever-increasing loss of wetlands throughout their range has cut off former routes of dispersal and many populations are becoming isolated. Sitatunga are vulnerable to long-term changes in water level because it alters vegetation structure, which in turn largely determines their distribution and abundance. Habitat fragmentation, and both lower and higher water levels make them more vulnerable to meat hunting in many parts of its range (May and Lindholm in press). Swamps are also extremely vulnerable to fire; vast areas of Bangweulu and Busanga are burnt each year (May and Lindholm in press). Nonetheless, the Sitatunga shows a remarkable ability to survive near human habitation, provided suitable habitat remains.
22051		conservation	eng	The Bushbuck is present in numerous protected areas across its range. Its ability to survive widely in settled areas and successfully utilize habitats modified by human activities should ensure that it survives in substantial numbers outside protected areas for the foreseeable future (East 1999).
22051		distribution	eng	The Bushbuck ranges very widely in sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in 40 African countries, more than any other antelope species (East 1999). They range from Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea Bissau through West Africa, south of the Sahara, to north-east Africa then southwards throughout East Africa and the more mesic areas of southern Africa to the Western Cape of South Africa (East 1999; Plumptre and Wronski in press). The only sub-Saharan country from which they have not recently been recorded, and where they may formerly have occurred, is Lesotho (Lynch 1994).
22051		habitat	eng	Bushbuck occur widely in sub-Saharan Africa wherever there is cover to conceal it, from sea level to 4,000 m, from rainforest edge to patches of gallery forest and bush near water in the subdesert. It is naturally absent from arid and semi-arid regions and from extensive areas of closed-canopy forest. Its ability to survive in human-dominated landscapes and to withstand heavy hunting pressure have enabled it to persist over much of its former range (East 1999). Bushbuck are primarily browsers; in some areas, they enter agricultural fields to eat crops and may be considered a pest (Plumptre and Wronski in press).
22051		population	eng	The Bushbuck reaches high densities in localized areas of favourabe habitat, e.g., 78 resident individuals were identified within a 2.6 km² area of open forest within Nairobi National Park (Kenya) giving a population density of 30/km², and faecal counts gave population density estimates of 11 - 44/km² in montane forest and adjoining habitats within Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda). Aerial surveys undoubtedly grossly underestimate the Bushbuck’s population density because of its preference for cover and its secretive habits. Ground surveys have produced density estimates of 0.08-1.0/m², but again the Bushbuck’s tendency to remain concealed probably results in significant undercounting in some ground surveys (East 1999; Plumpre and Wronski in press; and references therein).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated the total population of Bushbuck at 1,340,000, likely an underestimate. Its numbers are stable over considerable parts of its range, but are decreasing in densely settled regions (various authors in East 1999).
22051		threats	eng	Bushbuck have disappeared from some areas in the drier parts of its former range because of habitat destruction and increasing aridity, but it is expanding its distribution within the equatorial forest zone as this is opened up by human activities. There do not seem to be any major threats to its long-term conservation, although numbers may be gradually decreasing locally as hunting pressures increase in parts of its range (East 1999).
22052		conservation	eng	Over 80% of the estimated total population occurs in protected areas (East 1999). The major populations survive in South African protected areas in the KwaZulu-Natal Game Reserves of Ndumo, uMkuze and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, and in Kruger N.P. (East 1999; Anderson in press). Nyala also occur in substantial numbers on private land (10-15%) in South Africa, including extralimital areas (East 1999). The dispersion of Nyala and their increase in numbers in South Africa is due primarily to the high demand for adult males by trophy hunters (Anderson in press). Nyala respond well to protection, to the point where over-population can become a management problem. The current efforts to rehabilitate Mozambique’s wildlife offer the prospect that the nyala may recover its former abundance in areas such as Gorongosa and Banhine National Parks (East 1999).
22052		distribution	eng	The Nyala's natural range comprises south-eastern Africa from the Lower Shire Valley in Malawi through Mozambique and Zimbabwe to eastern South Africa and Swaziland. It has been introduced to Namibia on private land in the northern commercial farming districts. Likewise it does not occur naturally in Botswana, but some of the Tuli block farms in the east have been colonised as a result of the spread of Nyala from populations introduced to farms in the adjacent region of South Africa (East 1999; Anderson in press).<br/><br/>In Swaziland, the species was extinct by the 1950s, but they have been successfully reintroduced.
22052		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dense thickets, forest, and open-thicket woodland mosaic, generally near water. Nyala feed selectively on both the leaves and fruits of woody plants as well as grasses; although they drink daily where water is available, in parts of their range in Mozambique and Zimbabwe they are found where no surface water is present for several months of the year (Anderson in press).
22052		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population of Nyala to exceed around 32,000 individuals. <br/><br/>More recently, Anderson (in press) estimates that South Africa has at least 30,000, with the largest populations (25,000) in KwaZulu-Natal. There are now more than 1,000 on protected areas and ranches in Swaziland (Monadjem 1998). Nyala are still widespread in Mozambique but numbers probably do not exceed 3,000 (Anderson in press). Zimbabwe has more than 1,000, while numbers in Malawi have declined from 3,000 (East 1999) to about 1,500, most notably in the population in Lengwe N.P. (which was originally created especially for this species). Extralimital to the species’ natural range, Namibia has about 250, all on private ranches.
22052		threats	eng	The Nyala disappeared from extensive areas of its former range mainly due to habitat loss to agriculture and cattle grazing, and the combined effects of rinderpest and hunting. However, today they remain relatively widespread both within and outside of their former range. There are no current major threats to Nyala populations, although some protected area populations have undergone declines, notably that in Lengwe N.P.
22053		conservation	eng	About one-third of the estimated total population occurs in protected areas. Important populations occur in protected areas such as Awash, Omo and Mago National Parks (Ethiopia), Bush Bush National Park (Somalia), Tsavo National Park (Kenya) and Ruaha National Park and adjoining game reserves (Tanzania), but it occurs in larger numbers outside protected areas (East 1999). <br/><br/>The Lesser Kudu’s long-term survival prospects would be enhanced by improved protection and management of the relatively few protected areas which support substantial populations. In addition, its value as a trophy animal gives the species high potential for increased revenue generation in the extensive bushlands where it still occurs in good numbers outside national parks and equivalent reserves (East 1999).
22053		distribution	eng	The Lesser Kudu occupies semi-arid areas of north-eastern Africa, commonly known as the Somali-Masai Arid Zone of Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania. Its range extends from ca. 12° N in the Awash area of Ethiopia southward through southern Ethiopia, much of Somalia except the north and northeast (i.e. east of 46° E and north of 08°N), most of Kenya except the southwest, extreme southeast Sudan, extreme northeast Uganda to northeast and central Tanzania (Leuthold in press). It is extinct in Djibouti (East 1999).<br/><br/>The purported former occurrence of this species in Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991) is based on two sets of horns said to have originated from Arabia and one from southern Yemen. No live animals have ever been reported from the area, and the true origin of those specimens remains in doubt.
22053		habitat	eng	The Lesser Kudu is closely associated with <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> thornbush in semi-arid areas of north-eastern Africa; it generally avoids open spaces and long grass (East 1999; Leuthold in press). They have been recorded at about 1,740 m near Mt Kilimanjaro (Grimshaw <em>et al.</em> 1995). The Lesser Kudu is primarily a browser, consuming mainly leaves of trees, shrubs and herbs, and their water requirements can largely be fulfilled from the water content of the food plants (Leuthold in press).
22053		population	eng	Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population estimates based on recent aerial surveys are available for considerable areas of the lesser kudu’s range, but aerial surveys substantially underestimate this species’ true numbers. In addition, its populations are unknown in the remainder of its range. The sum of available estimates, about 22,000, is therefore probably a significant underestimate of the species’ actual total numbers. Correcting for undercounting bias in aerial surveys, East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 118,000. Despite the species’ ability to persist in the face of uncontrolled meat hunting, its numbers are probably in gradual decline over extensive areas of its range as human settlement expands.
22053		threats	eng	Its shyness and preference for thick cover enable it to withstand considerable hunting pressure, e.g., it is relatively plentiful throughout the Ogaden region wherever there is sufficient dense bush, despite widespread, uncontrolled hunting by local people (East 1999). On the other hand, its susceptibility to rinderpest resulted in a substantial decrease in its numbers in eastern regions of Kenya during the mid-1990s. These populations can be expected to recover following the subsidence of this rinderpest outbreak. There are relatively few parts of the Lesser Kudu’s range where protection against poaching reaches moderate levels or better, and eradication of rinderpest from cattle would be a major step towards reducing current pressures on its populations (East 1999).
22054		conservation	eng	Greater Kudu are well represented in protected areas, rom southern Tanzania to South Africa, with major populations in parks and reserves such as Ruaha-Rungwa- Kisigo and Selous (Tanzania), Luangwa Valley and Kafue (Zambia), Etosha (Namibia), Moremi, Chobe and Central Kgalagadi (Botswana), Hwange, Chizarira, Mana Pools and Gonarezhou (Zimbabwe) and Kruger and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi (South Africa). It also occurs widely outside protected areas, including large numbers on private farms and conservancies in southern Africa (Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa) where it is a mainstay of the trophy hunting industry (East 1999).<br/><br/>In the northern parts of its range, key areas where some of the northern populations appear to have reasonable prospects for long-term survival include Zakouma N.P. (Chad), Awash N.P. (Ethiopia), Baringo, northern Laikipia and Tsavo (Kenya), and Tarangire (Tanzania) (East 1999).
22054		distribution	eng	Historically, the Greater Kudu occurred over much of eastern and southern Africa, from Chad nearly to the Red Sea, south to the Eastern Cape, west to Namibia and north to mid-Angola. While it has disappeared from substantial areas, mainly in the north of its range, it generally persists in a greater part of its former range than other large antelope species, as a result of its secretiveness and its ability to survive in settled areas with sufficient cover. As in the past, it is much more sparsely distributed and less numerous in the northern parts of its range (from northern Tanzania northwards) than further south. The species seems now to be extinct at least in Somalia; there is no recent information on their status in Sudan or Djibouti (East 1999; Owen-Smith in press).
22054		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat includes mixed scrub woodland (it is one of the few large mammals that thrives in settled areas - in the scrub woodland and bush that reclaims abandoned fields and degraded pastures-), acacia, and mopane bush on lowlands, hills, and mountains. Recorded to 2,400 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Kudu are browsers; they can exist for long periods without drinking, obtaining sufficient moisture from their food, but become water dependent at times when the vegetation is very dry (Owen-Smith in press).
22054		population	eng	Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population estimates are available for many parts of the Greater Kudu’s range, but many of these are based on aerial counts which tend to substantially underestimate this species’ actual numbers. The sum of the available estimates (352,000) is therefore likely to be considerably less than the true total numbers of the species. Population densities estimated from aerial surveys are frequently less than 0.1/km², even in areas where this species is known to be at least reasonably common. Higher densities of 0.2-0.4/km² have been estimated by aerial surveys in some other areas. Ground counts in areas where the Greater Kudu is common have produced population density estimates from 0.3/m² to 4.1/km² (East 1999). <br/><br/>East (1999) estimated a total population of around 482,000 Greater Kudu, with the largest populations found in Namibia, where the species remains widely abundant on private farmland, and South Africa. Population trends are generally stable or increasing on private land and in protected areas in southern and south-central Africa and Tanzania, but show a tendency to decline in other regions.
22054		threats	eng	The Greater Kudu’s status is less satisfactory in the northern parts of its range, due to overhunting and habitat loss.  However, this does not seem to be affecting the species' overall long-term survival as they remain abundant and well managed in other parts of its range.
22055		conservation	eng	About half of this estimated total population occurs in protected areas and 30% on private land (East 1999). Protected areas that support major populations include Omo (Ethiopia), Serengeti, Katavi, Ruaha and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), Kafue and North Luangwa (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Etosha (Namibia), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa) and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (South Africa). Most of these populations appear to be stable. Relatively large numbers of the Common Eland now occur on private land, particularly in Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa, reflecting its value as a trophy animal. Common Eland have also been widely domesticated in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Kenya, as well as in Russia, Ukraine, and England (Thouless in press).
22055		distribution	eng	Common Eland formerly occurred throughout the savanna woodlands of eastern and southern Africa, extending into high-altitude grasslands and the arid savannas and scrublands of the Kalahari and Karoo in southern Africa. It has been eliminated from more than half of its former range by the expansion of human populations, and their numbers have decreased dramatically since the 1970s as a result of civil wars and their aftermath in countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Angola and Mozambique. They are now extinct in Burundi. However, Common Eland have been reintroduced to a number of game ranches and private ranchland in southern Africa (particularly South Africa), and this has done much to bolster numbers. In addition, animals have been introduced widely outside of their natural range; for example, although their natural range in Namibia is restricted to the northeastern parts, they now occur widely on game ranches in the southern and central parts (East 1999).
22055		habitat	eng	Common Elands are one of the most adaptable ruminants, inhabiting subdesert, acacia savanna, miombo woodland, and alpine moorlands to 4,900 m. They are not found in deep forest, in true deserts, or in completely open grassland, though they do occur in grassland with good herb cover (Thouless in press). Common Eland are primarily broswers, and move long distances in search of ephemeral food sources; they can go without water for prolonged periods, able to obtain sufficient moisture from their food (Thouless in press).
22055		population	eng	Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population density estimates obtained by aerial counts in areas where the species is moderately common generally range from about 0.05 - 0.4/km². Higher density estimates (0.6-1.0/km²) have been obtained by aerial counts. Ground surveys or total counts of areas where the species is common have produced similar density estimates.<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 136,000, with stable/increasing national populations are now confined to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi and possibly Tanzania. Population trends vary from increasing to decreasing within individual protected areas, and are generally increasing on private land and decreasing in other areas.
22055		threats	eng	Habitat loss (due to expanding human settlements) and poaching for its superior meat have resulted in drastic reductions of range and populations.
22065		conservation	eng	Mouse deer are surprisingly well-known within the Philippines and constitute a potentially ideal vehicle for promoting increased future conservation, research and education activities in this region (Grubb and Gardiner, 1998), though little or no effective action has been taken to date. The species is fully protected under both Philippine national law and various local (provincial and municipal) ordinances (NRMC, 1985), but these are mostly ineffectively enforced at the present time. The species would undoubtedly also benefit from the establishment of effectively protected areas (it is not currently known from any), and the enhanced enforcement of laws on hunting and trade. Research is needed on its habitat requirements, threats and conservation needs throughout it is extremely limited range; the latter therefore also including Bugsuc Island, much of which is privately-owned and inaccessible to researchers without prior permission. Existing captive populations of this species could be more usefully utilized as the basis for a properly structured conservation breeding programme; though any such initiative should be linked to related <em>in-situ</em> conservation management and applied research requirements.
22065		distribution	eng	On current knowledge, this species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from Balabac, Bugsuc and Ramos Islands (Oliver, 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 2002; Grubb, 2005). It has also been introduced to Apulit and Calauit Island (Meijaard and Groves, 2004; Rico and Oliver, 2008).
22065		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest and shrubland, and may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage.
22065		population	eng	The latest survey was in 1993 (Oliver, 1993), when the population was reputed to be quite stable and available information suggested that those on Balabac were seemingly able to withstand sustained hunting pressure. However, more recent information from local hunters indicates that it is now more difficult to capture these animals, suggesting a likely decline.<br/><br/>In the late 1990?s, a small stock of eight mouse deer escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least free-living 21 individuals by 2006 (Rico and Oliver, 2008).
22065		threats	eng	The species is subject to poaching for food, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture.
22066		conservation	eng	In 1998, Peyton <em>et al</em>. reported that <20% (48,000 km²) of the range was legally protected, including 58 national parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, several of the parks have been enlarged and new ones have been established. However, many of these contain habitats that are not adequate, and others are still too small or isolated to sustain viable bear populations, prompting efforts to develop corridors to link groups of protected areas (Yerena 1999, Yerena <em>et al</em>. 2003, Peyton 1999a,b, Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005). <br/><br/>Studies on the distribution, frequency and intensity of Andean bear-human conflicts have been carried out in some areas in order to better understand these situations and thereby develop management measures to reduce conflicts and the consequent killing of bears (Goldstein <em>et al</em>. 2006). Management plans to reduce bear-cattle conflicts have been developed at the Oyacachi, Ecuador, based on predation probability models (Goldstein 2006).<br/><br/>Workshops have been conducted in several of the range countries to train researchers and personnel from national parks on survey techniques, development of habitat models, and general knowledge about the ecology, distribution and status of the species (Goldstein 2006).<br/><br/>Andean bears are listed on Appendix I of CITES and are protected through national legislation in each range country.  However, there are loopholes in these laws by which bears can be (and thus frequently are) killed or removed from the wild (Orejuela and Jorgenson 1999, Peyton 1999b, Rumiz and Salazar 1999, Suarez 1999, Yerena 1999, Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005).
22066		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Tropical Andes, the Andean bear is the only extant species of bear in South America. The northern limit of its range are Sierra de Perijá, Macizo de El Tamá and Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela; southward it inhabits the Occidental, Central and Oriental Colombian ranges; both eastern and western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes; all three Andean ranges of Peru, including a portion of the Pacific coastal desert; and the eastern slope of the Andes in Bolivia. <br/><br/>Historical reports include the Panama regions of El Darien (Jorgenson 1984) and Caledonia (Global Biodiversity Information Facility Data Portal 2008) but recent surveys of suspected populations in El Darien (Goldstein <em>et al</em>. 2007), as well as in northern Argentina, have not yielded conclusive evidence of bear presence.
22066		habitat	eng	Andean bears occupy a great variety of habitats, from desert-scrub to forests to high altitude grasslands, ranging in elevation from 250 to 4,750 m asl.  They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal patterns of food resources (Peyton 1980, Suarez 1988, Velez 1999, Paisley 2001, Cuesta <em>et al</em>. 2003). On the slopes of the eastern Andes, bear populations exist from the snowline down to 300 m asl in the Tapo-Caparo National Park in Venezuela, 1,200 m asl in Colombia, 600 m asl in Ecuador and Peru, and 550 m asl in Bolivia; on the western Andes of Peru they range down to 250 m asl (Peyton 1999a, Goldstein 2006) <br/><br/>With the notable exception of the dry forest-scrub habitat in north coastal Peru (Peyton 1999b), Andean bears are most commonly found in high elevation elfin forests, upper montane humid forest, and humid grasslands (Peyton 1987a,b, Velez 1999, Cuesta <em>et al</em>. 2003, Rios-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2005). Within this range, habitat preferences are uncertain.  In portions of the central Andes in Bolivia, Andean bears were reported to select wet montane / foothill forests at lower elevations (Rumiz <em>et al</em>. 1999); elsewhere in Bolivia they heavily used cloud forests of the upper slopes of the Andes and rarely used dry montane forests (Rios-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2005). Bear presence can readily be identified in the high altitude grasslands due to the easier visibility and the durability of the obvious feeding sign, but these grasslands may not sustain bears year-round without access to forest (Suarez 1985, Paisley 2001). <br/><br/>Andean bears are omnivores, feeding mainly on vegetative material such as fruits and succulent plants, and occasionally meat. Common dietary mainstays throughout their distribution are the succulent parts of plants of the families Bromeliaceae and Arecaceae (Peyton 1980, Suarez 1988, Mondolfi 1989).  However, food habits change from site to site and even within sites depending on the availability of particular resources. Tree and ground nests are used for resting where Andean bears feed on fruits high in the tree canopy and at sites where bears consume animal (e.g., livestock) carcasses (Goldstein 1991, Velez 1999).  Activity patterns range from strictly diurnal for wild bears in Bolivia (Paisley and Garshelis 2006a) to mixed diurnal and nocturnal for reintroduced bears in Ecuador (Castellanos <em>et al</em>. 2005).  As food is available year-round in all parts of their range, Andean bears do not hibernate. Based on the first few individuals of this species to be monitored using ground telemetry in Bolivia (Paisley and Garshelis 2006b) and Ecuador (Castellanos 2007 and pers. com. 2008), home ranges overlap to a high degree and minimum home range sizes vary from 10 to 160 km² (although these are underestimates, as the bears were regularly out of range of radiotelemetry in both studies).<br/><br/>Information on reproduction in this species is limited.  Litter size is typically two cubs.  The timing of births in the wild has rarely been observed, but in captivity birthing varies with latitude (Garshelis 2004).  Presumed mating pairs have been observed in the wild during March-October.
22066		population	eng	In the late 1990s, a range map was produced and an approximate area of occupancy estimated (260,000 km²). By applying minimum and median density estimates from American black bears (<em>Ursus americanus</em>) to this area, Peyton <em>et al</em>. (1998) generated a rough range-wide population estimate (>20,000 Andean bears).  Ruiz-Garcia (2003) attempted to obtain a population estimate by applying mutation rates to current genetic heterozygosity for bears in Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador (assuming no genetic bottleneck); extrapolating this range-wide yielded a very wide span of estimates (approximately 5,000 to 30,000 breeding bears).  Other investigators obtained population estimates from small study areas, using DNA fingerprinting (in a protected area in Ecuador; Viteri and Waits 2005) and camera trapping (in a protected area in Bolivia; Rios-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2007), but the sample sizes and area of coverage were too small to extrapolate further. Thus, valid country-wide or range-wide population estimates are still lacking.
22066		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and the lack of knowledge about the distribution and status of the Andean bear are the principal threats to this species (Peyton 1999a, Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Much of the range of the Andean bear has been fragmented by human activities, largely resulting from the expansion of the agricultural frontier. In some areas, mining, road development and oil exploitation are becoming a greater menace to Andean bear populations as well as to local communities, due to land expropriation, loss of habitat connectivity, and water and soil contamination (Peyton 1999a, Young and Leon 1999).<br/><br/>Many Andean bear populations are isolated in small to medium-sized patches of intact habitat, particularly in the northern part of the range (Yerena <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kattan <em>et al</em>. 2004). The situation tends to improve towards the southern range, with some large patches of wilderness still remaining (Peyton 1999a). Nevertheless, human population growth and national development plans throughout the Tropical Andes continue to be an important cause of habitat fragmentation and to threaten the connectivity among remaining wilderness patches.   <br/><br/>Poaching is a serious threat throughout the Andean bear range. Bears are often killed after damaging crops, particularly maize, or after purportedly killing livestock (Goldstein 1991, Peyton 1999b, Rumiz and Salazar 1999, Suarez 1999, Castellanos 2002, Morales 2003).  Also, Andean bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes and at some localities Andean bear meat is highly prized (Yerena 1999). Live bears are also sometimes captured and sold (Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005). Human induced mortality endangers the viability of small remnant populations. <br/><br/>Lack of knowledge about the distribution and status is a problem throughout the region. In many areas, information about the status of Andean bears is outdated or, particularly in the southern portion of the range, simply non-existent. The absence of knowledge makes it difficult to develop realistic management plans for the conservation of this species, or to monitor changes in its distribution (reflective of changes in population status).
22089		conservation	eng	This species is present in Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National Kirindy-Mite and Parc National Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Roosting colonies need to be the focus of further conservation and research.
22089		distribution	eng	This species is found on Madagascar where it is restricted to lowland (an elevation span of 30 m to 200 m above sea level) areas in the west and south-west (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Ranivo and Goodman 2006). It is also found on Cosmoledo and Aldabra Atolls in the outer Seychelles (Hutson 2004).
22089		habitat	eng	In Madagascar, this species is restricted to dry deciduous and spiny forest in the south and west (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and appears to be an obligate cave dweller (Olsson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Undercut sea cliffs may provide suitable roosting habitats on small atolls (Hutson 2004). This species in Madagascar feeds predominantly on Lepidoptera (Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and appears to require relatively intact forest for foraging (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007).
22089		population	eng	There are few data available on <em>T. furculus</em>, but it appears to be a relatively rare member of the chiropteran assemblage in western Madagascar as determined by mist netting and acoustic sampling (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). However, it can occur in large colonies and a roost of over 10,000 individuals was reported from the Sept Lacs in southern Madagascar (Olsson <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no information on population size of <em>T. furculus</em> from Aldabra but it appears to be rather rare with only a few specimen records (Hutson 2004).
22089		threats	eng	There may be possible threats from disturbance at the cave sties. This species is tolerant to some degree of forest degradation, but appears to require forested areas to survive (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may therefore be one of the few Malagasy bat species really susceptible to deforestation and forest fragmentation.
22090		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species wide range it seems likely that it is present in some protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for specimens of <em>Triaenops</em> from the Albertine Rift. In South Asia there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys to determine the status of this species are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
22090		distribution	eng	This species is found in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Iran, and South Asia. In Africa widely distributed bat ranges through much of East Africa, with records from Djibouti in the north to central  Mozambique and east Zimbabwe. The species has also been recorded in Central Africa from the Congo and Central African Republic border, south Congo, Angola and possibly Gabon. It has been recorded in southern Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates, from southwestern Iran, and from Gharo (Sind) in Pakistan (Harrison and Bates 1991; Bates and Harrison 1997).
22090		habitat	eng	This species generally inhabits riparian habitats in low-lying woodlands and savanna. Vonhof and Kalcounis (1999) indicate that this species is characterised as a tree-roosting bat preferring small trees and shrubs. Populations have been recorded roosting in caves and mines (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In southwest Asia, the species has been recorded roosting in underground water channels and caves (Harrison 1964; Gallagher and Harrison 1988). In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species roosts among palm fronds, in the bark of  palm trees and crevices in cliff surfaces. It is an early flyer with a low and fluttering flight (Bates and Harrison 1997).
22090		population	eng	Some colonies of this bat can be quite large, with up to half a million animals recorded in the Koalin mines of Tanzania. In peripheral parts of the range, such as Zimbabwe, colonies are often much smaller. It appears to be a relatively rare species in Asia, however, Yerbury and Thomas (1895) recorded great numbers in a cave at Ras Fakoum Bay, Little Aden, Yemen.
22090		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. The species is locally threatened in parts of its range by disturbance of roost sites and mining activities. The threats to this species remain unknown in Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
22102		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix I of CITES. Presently there are no national management plans specific for the species, except in Colombia. Management plans exist for two protected areas (Pacaya Samiria in Peru and Mamiraua Reserve in Brazil), and two communities in Colombia (Puerto Narino and Mocagua) have informal local management agreements (Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial and Fundación Omacha 2005). Amazonian Manatees have been recorded from two protected areas in Ecuador, two in Colombia, four in Peru and 23 in Brazil. Unfortunately, hunting continues even within protected areas.<br/><br/>Presently, INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia) cares for 34 captive manatees including eight calves, 18 juveniles and eight adults (da Silva <em>et al</em>. 2006). CPPMA currently maintains 31 manatees, mostly orphans. So far, the Centro Mamiferos Marinhos-Conselho Nacional de Seringueiros facility in Alter-do-Chão (PA, Brazil) has rescued six orphans (two of which died) and a sick adult manatee (Luna 2005 pers. comm.).
22102		distribution	eng	Amazonian manatees occur through most the Amazon River drainage, from the headwaters, in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Timm <em>et al</em>. 1986) to the mouth of the Amazon (close to the Marajó Island) in Brazil (Domning 1981) over an estimated seven million square kilometers. However, they are patchily distributed, concentrating in areas of nutrient-rich flooded forest, which covers around 300,000 km² (Junk 1997).
22102		habitat	eng	Amazonian manatees inhabit environments in lowland tropical areas below 300 m asl, where there is large production of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants; they also favor calm, shallow waters, away from human settlements.<br/><br/>Individuals engage in long seasonal movements, moving from flooded areas during the wet season to deep water-bodies during the dry season (Kendall 2001, M. Marmontel <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). While the whitewaters provide them with plentiful food, deep lakes function as refuges during the low-water season, where animals are less vulnerable to hunting.<br/><br/>Only one calf is produced at a time. Although no specific studies are available for the species in the wild, it is believed that the reproductive cycle is similar to the West Indian Manatee’s, with a long gestation and lactation period (up to 24 months), and a birthing interval of 2 to 3 months; age at sexual maturity is unknown.
22102		population	eng	Most of the waters inhabited by Amazonian manatees are very murky, and, probably as an adaptation to past and ongoing hunting pressure, Amazonian manatees are extremely secretive. Consequently, there are no reliable population estimates available, although numbers are almost certainly lower than historical figures due to centuries of hunting. Husar (1977) estimated a minimum of 10,000 manatees for the entire Amazon basin, and Best (1983) estimated 500 to 1,000 in Amanã Lake (45 x 3 km) alone in 1979, but these numbers must be regarded with caution since they are supported by very little empirical data. Analysis of feeding patches, sightings and interview surveys have been used to try to estimate population numbers (Soini 1995, Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005) with limited results. Traditional mark-recapture studies are not appropriate due to the species’ secretive nature.<br/><br/>Whatever the current population size, the population trend is most likely decreasing, given the species’ slow reproduction (sirenian populations grow at an annual rate of approximately 5%; Marsh <em>et al</em>. 1984c, Packard 1985) and levels of exploitation (Marmontel <em>et al</em>. 1992). During extensive interviews conducted with local inhabitants throughout the range of the species, conflicting responses were obtained. In Brazil, Lazzarini and Picanço (pers. comm. 2005) were of the opinion that, due to the work by the Manaus Energia Environmental Program and other conservation actions, hunting is decreasing in the lower Uatumã river (from 23 in 1994 - and a high of 73 in 1995 - to zero in 2003 and 2004 and one in 2005). The progressive increase in the number of young calves arriving at rehabilitation centers in Brazil in the past five years, has also led several researchers to suspect that the species may be undergoing some recovery, or that the increase is simply a reflection of the awareness campaigns implemented, with a concomitant increase in the number of rescued calves (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005). Alternatively, it may also suggest that calf takes are on the rise (and see Threats).<br/><br/>On the other hand, manatee numbers are thought to have been decreasing in the past few years in all known areas of occurrence in Colombia. If indeed there are less than 100 manatees in the area (Kendall 2001), then the 7 to 11 animals killed/year over the period 1988-2001 would certainly lead to a reduction in the population. However, since Fundación Omacha started its work in the area of Puerto Nariño, the population in this area at least may have stabilized due to the reduction in hunting (only two individuals in the past two years) (Kendall pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/>In the early 1980s, manatees were reported to be abundant in most of the lagoons and black water rivers of Ecuador’s Cuyabeno Reserve, but this population was being persecuted for meat by Peruvian and Ecuadorian militaries. Timm <em>et al</em>. (1986) suggested that there were 250 adult individuals in Ecuador, and that no subpopulation exceeded 50 individuals; they estimated that if the then level of harvest went on unabated, Amazonian manatees would disappear from Ecuador within 10 to 15 years. Timm <em>et al</em>. (1989) stated that the Siona Indians then practiced a self-imposed ban on manatee hunting because of low manatee populations. However, some of the Siona never knew about this ban, and it seems possible that hunting continued (C. Castro pers. comm. 2005). Amazonian manatees still exist in the Cuyabeno River, but likely in low numbers. In the Lagartococha system, Peruvian hunters claim to have hunted manatees until about 10 years ago; since that time, they have not seen any manatees in the area. Although the information from recent interviews is contradictory, the general consensus is that the population is decreasing.<br/><br/>In Peru, in an area in the Samiria river, average sightings over the 2003 to 2005 period were sufficient to suggest that were was no apparent decrease in the population, and that the population is stable, albeit at low numbers (R. Bodmer pers. comm. 2005). However, Ulloa Gomez (2004) believes that reports from hunters, a decrease in the number of manatee sightings, the absence of manatees in sites previously occupied, and results from field surveys in Pacaya Samiria, lend evidence to the hypothesis that manatee populations are declining.
22102		threats	eng	The major threats to the species include hunting for food, incidental capture in gill nets, and habitat degradation.<br/><br/><strong>Hunting</strong><br/>Illegal hunting, for both subsistence and local use, is considered the main threat to manatees in the Amazon. Manatee populations have supported a tremendous take in past centuries and, although not at commercial levels, hunting still takes place throughout the region. Manatee meat is highly valued, but all the other products are used as well (fat and skin are used in cooking and as medicine, bones are turned into utilitarian pieces and charms, and the skin produces very resistant leather).<br/><br/>Hunters usually sell products to neighbours and nearby communities, but the meat is sometimes sold in markets of local towns. There is also some traffic between cities to sell manatee products in local markets (Evangelista 2005 pers. comm.). Meat is sold in natura, or as mixira or subproducts such as sausage. The mixira, which is the meat preserved in its own fat, is one of the products that prolongs the pressure on the species, since it commands a high price. Meat is sold in local produce fairs or markets in the interior, or by order directly with the hunter. Public markets in Brazil (Manaus, Manacapuru, Novo Airão, Tefé, Silves, Itapiranga and Itacoatiara, Santarem, Belem, Monte Alegre and Almeirim), Colombia (Puerto Narino, Leticia, Atacuari) and Ecuador also illegally offer the meat for sale, with prices ranging from U$0.23 to U$1.87 (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005, Hage pers. comm. 2005). A 60-l can of mixira sells for approximately U$168 (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005). Since a large manatee could yield as much as 200 kg of meat, which could be dried or salted, this could provide some two months’ wages (Kendall 2001).<br/><br/>The use of traditional harpoons remains the most widespread technique for hunting manatees - corresponding to 70% to over 90% of all takes (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005, Sartor <em>et al</em>. in prep, M. Marmontel unpubl.). So far, fishing traps with harpoons attached have only been recorded for Peru (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ulloa Gomez 2004) and on the Colombian-Peruvian border (Orozco 2001). Although illegal in both countries, between 1998 and 2003 at least 14 manatees were killed on the Peruvian side of the border; this technique accounted for 30% of intentional mortality from 1998 to 2003 in Colombia (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005). Kendall (2001) and Orozco (2001) believed this practice to be localized and becoming increasingly uncommon, although Peruvian hunters think this technique might be responsible for an increase in manatee hunting (Ulloa Gomez 2004). Fishermen will close areas where manatees are known to gather to mate, in order to harpoon them (M. Leitao pers. comm., 2005), or hit the water with sticks to disorient manatees with the noise (‘batição’) and then harpoon them in channels and lakes closed with gillnets (Lima <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The use of nets has been on the increase over the past few years. Kendall <em>et al</em>. (2005) calculated that 15% of hunting mortality in Colombia over the period 1998 to 2003 was due to netting. Netting has sometimes had large-scale impacts: in 1999, a large trawl net deployed by a freezer boat caused the death of 14 animals (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005) in the Purus river, while in 1998 a single net setting is said to have trapped 60 animals in Manacapuru (AM) (Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005). Of particular concern is the development of “special” gillnets designed to catch manatees. In 1992, three cases of non-calf entangled manatees were documented in the Brazilian Amazon, while between 1999 and 2000, four adult manatees were caught in nets (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005). Although unclear if accidental or intentional, the large size of the adults suggests the use of strong nets built specifically for the specific purpose of catching manatees.<br/><br/>Take estimates are available only for a few sites where conservation and research projects are taking place. The Amazonas branch of the Brazilian environmental agency has been attempting to survey and control all manatee hunting efforts since 1995, but results are variable, primarily due to funding inconsistencies. The most complete set of data are from the lower Uatuma river (surveyed by Centro de Preservacao e Pesquisas de Mamiferos Aquaticos) and mid-Solimoes areas in Brazil (Mamiraua and Amana Sustainable Development Reserves, managed by Mamiraua Institute of Sustainable Development), and the Puerto Narino area in Colombia (under Fundacion Omacha’s research) for very limited areas (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: catch estimates for <em>T. inunguis</em> in Brazil and Colombia.<br/><br/>Very limited information is available for Ecuador (in 1996 four manatees are said to have been killed by the Siona Indians; and in 1998 eight manatees - six by the Siona and two by the Quichua; C. Castro pers. comm. 2005). Likewise, no long-term data are available for Peru either; however, during May and June 2004 alone, seven manatees were taken in only two villages from the Samiria River basin, suggesting high hunting pressure (Ulloa Gomez 2004). Between 1998 and 2003, 47 manatees were recorded hunted in the area of Puerto Nariño (Zaragoza to Atacuari) (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the Puerto Nariño area, hunting has been on the decline in the past five years: with the inception of educational campaigns, numbers of culled manatees decreased from ten in 1998/1999 to four in 2003 and two in 2004 (Kendall pers. comm. 2005).<br/> <br/>Extreme droughts may help make the manatee an easier prey item for hunters, by causing isolation and entrapment (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ulloa Gomes 2004, Sartor <em>et al</em>. in prep., M. Marmontel pers. obs.). In 1994, an estimated 10 animals were taken from a “poço” (a deep-water site where animals concentrate during dry seasons) in Sao Sebastiao do Uatuma (Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005); in 1995, 60 were hunted between July and September only, in a breathing hole across from the Urucara (AM) town, and one fisherman alone caught 11 manatees (Lazzarini and Picanço 2005). During the drought of 1998, multiple numbers of manatees were taken in one day in three different “poços” of the Coari town (AM) area (16 in the Poço da Freguesia; Tressoldi and Lazzarini 2000; 16 in Pixuma and 8 in Tucuma; Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005; and 18 in Prego Community (Purus) (Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005). In the 2005 drought, at least five were killed in the Tefe Lake across from the Tefe town (AM) and approximately 120 were taken in the Coari area, according to information gathered by the environmental agency and reported in local newspapers.<br/><br/><strong>Incidental mortality, orphaned calves, and illegal captivity</strong><br/>With an increasing use of gillnets to hunt manatees, there has been a concomitant rise in incidental calf mortality in the past few years, and this is now a major threat to Amazonian manatees in all range countries (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005, R. Bodmer pers. comm. 2005, Utreras and Zapata 2005, Ulloa Gomez 2004). Although young animals usually end up drowning in the nets, if they do survive then they are usually kept alive for later sale, since young animals have little meat for immediate consumption (Kendall 2001, Orozco 2001).<br/><br/>The number of rescued calves every year has been increasing, but this number is certainly only a small sample of occurrences in the Amazon (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005). In the past five years, at least six calves became entangled in nets across channels in Colombia (S. Kendall pers. comm. 2005). Calves captured in Colombia are taken to Leticia and sometimes to Caballo Cocha, Peru (Orozco 2001). There are also reports of manatee calf commerce in the border between Brazil and Colombia (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005), and there were at least three cases reported of calves captured in Peru and offered for sale in Colombia between 2003 and 2005 (Kendall pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/>Between 1992 and 2005, CPPMA (Centro de Preservação e Pesquisa de Mamíferos Aquáticos) received an average of four calves/year, with numbers increasing when a heavy drought was in place. Of the 41 calves rescued, 23 (56%) were caught in gillnets, but only four accidentally, while the others were caught in nets set up to catch them with the intent to sell, and even to catch on request (in five cases the mother was also caught and killed). In 13 (32%) of the orphan cases, the calves were harpooned (CPPMA, Picanço and Lazzarini, 2005, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Calves (wounded or not) are sometimes sold as pets (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005), kept in pools or areas close to water bodies, and sold or given to politicians, authorities, and influential persons. A boat owner on the route Belém-Santarém allegedly keeps 10 in a lake near Manaus and has paid up to US$150 for one (Sartor pers. comm. 2005). Siona and Quechua indians keep manatees as pets, but raise them for food (C. Castro pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Habitat alteration and disturbance</strong><br/>Anthropogenic actions have resulted in pollution, loss, alteration and fragmentation of habitats used by the Amazonian manatee (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005, Min. Amb. and F. Omacha 2004).<br/><br/>Deforestation and contamination by mercury, oil or pesticides, are potential hazards to the manatee’s food supply (Rosas <em>et al</em>. 1991), and the construction of hydroelectric dams may isolate populations, limiting genetic variability (Rosas 1994). Brazil has planned 400 dams, 46 of them at the phase of projects, two of which are mega-enterprises in the Amazon regions (Madeira and Xingu rivers). Both gold mining and deforestation contribute to the pollution of the water system (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dolbec <em>et al</em>. 2000). Roots of floating and rooted aquatic plants (<em>Paspalum, Eicchornia, Salvinia</em>) have been shown to be important methylation sites (Guimaraes <em>et al</em>. 2000a,b).<br/><br/>An important potential problem in Ecuador are oil spills (Utreras and Zapata pers. comm. 2005), the last one having occurred in Cuyabeno Lagoon 10 years ago (C. Castro pers. comm. 2005). In 2004, Petrobras (a Brazilian multinational company) was granted permission to explore oil in Yasuni National Park, which will involve considerable traffic in the Tiputini river, mainly during the building stages, but also large boat traffic during the 20-year operation (J. Proaño pers. comm. 2005). Local indigenous leaders denounce that toxic residues, such as benzene, xylene and alcatrao, are being discharged into the river as a result of prospecting activities (http://www.amazonia.org.br 23 jan06). In some cases indigenous peoples no longer bathe in the river due to oil contamination (http://www.radiobras.gov.br).<br/><br/>Amazonian human populations are generally at low densities except in the large capital cities, but all of the issues above could be magnified by the increase in human population. In some parts of Colombia and Peru, manatee absence from areas where they were previously recorded may be partially attributed to increased boat use and town growth (Kendall 2001, Orozco 2001, Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2004, Ulloa Gomez 2004). The current process of placing asphalt on the BR-163 road connecting Cuiaba in Mato Grosso to Santarem in PA, is expected to bring the typical colonization fronts and economic occupation which have previously created disorderly migration, deforestation and predatory exploration of natural resources, which shall add to present threats to manatee. The main economic activity associated with that road, soy plantation, will likely cause increased levels of deforestation, siltation and pesticide runoff. Boat traffic tends to increase even in smaller towns, but the heavy traffic of barges associated with the setting up of a hydrovia for soybean transportation could impact both manatees directly and their food supply.
22103		conservation	eng	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>The following text was excerpted directly from the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS 2001), with condensation and some minor revisions from the assessors. The state of Florida’s Manatee Management Plan is due to be completed by June 2007 and will provide further details of planned management and conservation actions.  <br/><br/><strong>Efforts to Reduce Watercraft-Related Injuries and Deaths</strong><br/>The largest identified cause of manatee death is collisions with watercraft. Many living manatees also bear scars or wounds from vessel strikes. Because watercraft operators cannot reliably detect and avoid hitting manatees, federal and state managers have sought to limit watercraft speed in areas where manatees are most likely to occur to afford both manatees and boaters time to avoid collisions. In 1989, the Florida Governor and Cabinet approved a series of recommendations by the former FDNR to improve protection of manatees in 13 key counties. Since then state and local governments have cooperated in the creation and implementation of county Manatee Protection Plans and county-wide manatee protection speed zone rules. Two types of manatee protection areas also have been developed by FWS: (1) manatee sanctuaries, areas in which all waterborne activities are prohibited; and (2) manatee refuges areas where certain waterborne activities are restricted or prohibited. FWS and FWC continue to evaluate needs for additional protection areas that may be necessary to achieve recovery. The goal is to consider the needs of the manatee at an ecosystem level and to establish regulations to ensure that adequate protected areas are available throughout Florida to satisfy habitat requirements of the Florida manatee population with a view toward recovery.<br/><br/>In recent years, both the FWS and FWC have been using targeted enforcement strategies in an attempt to increase boater compliance with speed zones and ultimately reduce manatee injuries and death. FWS’ strategy has been to allocate significant enforcement manpower to specific areas on designated weekends. These enforcement teams travel to various locations around the state, with particular emphasis given to those zones within counties where there is a history of high watercraft-caused manatee deaths. FWC has increased its emphasis on enforcement and compliance with manatee speed zones by adding new officers, conducting law enforcement task force initiatives, increasing overtime, and increasing the proportion of law enforcement time devoted to manatee conservation.<br/><br/>Managers, researchers, and the boating industry have investigated the use of various devices to aid in the reduction of watercraft-related manatee deaths. For example, the State of Florida funded an evaluation of propeller guards (Milligan and Tennant 1998). The state’s evaluation concluded that these devices would reduce cutting damage associated with propellers when boats were operating at low speeds. However, when boats (including boats equipped with propeller guards) operate at high speeds, guards would be of little benefit because animals would continue to be killed by blunt trauma associated with impacts from boat hulls, lower units, and other gear. The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) identified additional concerns, stating that propeller guards on small recreational vessels “may create more problems than they solve” and does not support their use on recreational vessels at this time (Carmichael 2001). There are propeller guard applications, however, that appear to work for certain large, commercial vessels; for example, the use of guards on C-tractor tugs has eliminated this specific source of manatee mortality at the Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base in St. Marys, Georgia. To prevent injuries to manatees, propeller guards are used on some rental and sight-seeing boats at Blue Spring and Crystal River.<br/><br/>Researchers have also begun to investigate the manatees’ acoustic environment to better evaluate the animal’s response to vessel traffic. This line of research needs to be thoroughly assessed for its potential as another management tool to minimize collisions between manatees and boats. Results from Gerstein <em>et al</em>. (1999) indicate that manatees hear in the range from 500 Hz to 46 kHz and that inadequate hearing sensitivity at low frequencies may be a contributing factor to the manatees’ ability to effectively detect boat noise to avoid collisions. One technology often discussed is an acoustic deterrence device mounted on a boat.  Conceptually, this technological approach may sound like an answer to the manatee/watercraft issue. A number of problems have been defined with the use of acoustic deterrents. No alarm/warning device has yet been demonstrated to adequately protect wildlife or marine mammals. Additionally, concern has also been stated regarding the increase in background noise that these deterrents would add to an already noisy marine environment. It has not been determined what negative impacts this device would have on marine life and what effects it would have on animals that use acoustic cues for a variety of purposes. For these reasons, this technology needs to be thoroughly researched and assessed and managers need to evaluate the MMPA and ESA “take” issues related to implementing such technology.<br/><br/>Current research into the sensory capabilities of manatees is being supported at both the state and federal levels. One study assessed the effects of boat noise in a more controlled environment, by recording the physical and acoustic reaction of a manatee to a pre-determined acoustical level. This study design will allow the development of a relationship between acoustic amplitude and behavioural responses. Another study examined acoustical propagation over various types of marine topography. In cooperation with Mote Marine Laboratory and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the FWC is also examining manatee behavioural response to watercraft using new technology, the DTAG, a digital acoustic tag which records acoustic attributes of the environment and detailed manatee movement simultaneously. A study to assess manatee behaviours in the presence of fishing gear and their response to novelty and the potential for reducing gear interactions also has an acoustic component. The FWC is also supporting the development and implementation of technological solutions for reducing the risks that watercraft pose to manatees. <br/><br/>Additional priority actions to better protect manatees include boater education, maintenance of signs and buoys, compliance assessment, and periodic re-evaluation of the effectiveness of the rules. Such work requires close cooperation between FWC Imperiled Species Management, FWC’s Division of Law Enforcement, county officials, the Inland Navigation Districts, FWS, USCG, and, of course, boaters.<br/><br/><strong>Efforts to Reduce Flood Gate and Navigation Lock Deaths</strong><br/>Entrapment in water-control structures and navigational locks is the second largest cause of human-related manatee deaths. In some cases, manatees appear to have been crushed in closing gates; in others, they may have been drowned after being pinned against narrow gate openings by water currents. Water-control structures implicated in manatee deaths in Dade and Broward counties are operated by the South Florida WMD. From 1976 through 2000, 166 manatees have been killed in water control structures in Dade County alone, accounting for 33% of all manatee deaths in this county. In the early 1980s, steps were taken to modify gate-opening procedures to ensure openings were wide enough to allow a manatee to pass through unharmed. Steps were also initiated to fence off openings and cavities in gate structures where manatees might become trapped. Manatee deaths subsequently declined and remained low for much of that decade. Much progress has been made toward identifying, testing, and installing manatee protection devices (e.g., pressure sensors) at water control structures. The Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) has also installed removable barriers on the upstream side of the Ortona and St. Lucie Lock spillway structures. The large difference in the upstream and downstream water levels at these structures compromises the effectiveness and use of pressure sensor devices. Locks frequented by manatees have been retrofitted with an acoustic array on the gates; this device detects the presence of a manatee during lock closing to avoid pinning or crushing. An interagency task force, established in 1991, continues to monitor, examine and make recommendations to protect manatees at water control structures and navigational locks.<br/><br/><strong>Habitat Protection</strong><br/>Intensive coastal development throughout Florida poses a long-term threat to the Florida manatee. There are three major approaches to address this problem. First, FWS, FWC, Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GDNR), and other recovery partners review and comment on applications for federal and state permits for construction projects in manatee habitat areas and to minimize their impacts. Under section 7 of the Endangered Species Act, FWS annually reviews hundreds of permit applications to the ACOE for construction projects in waters and wetlands that include or are adjacent to important manatee habitat. FWC and GDNR provide similar reviews to their respective state’s environmental permitting programs.<br/><br/>A second approach is the development of county manatee protection plans. The provisions of these plans are implemented through amendments to local growth management plans under the Florida’s Local Government Comprehensive Planning and Land Development Regulation Act of 1985. In addition to boat speed rules, manatee protection plans are to include boat facility siting policies and other measures to protect manatees and their habitat.<br/><br/>A third approach to habitat protection is land acquisition. Both FWS and the State of Florida have taken steps to acquire and add new areas containing important manatee habitat to federal and state protected area systems. The State of Florida has acquired important areas through several programs, most notably the Florida Forever Program. In Florida, the Governor and Cabinet have included special consideration for purchase of lands that can be of benefit to manatees and their habitat. Over $500 million has been spent to acquire 250,000 acres, whose importance included, but was by no means limited to, protection of manatee habitat. FWS has also acquired and now manages thousands of acres of land important to manatees and many other species in the NWR System. In addition to these efforts, FWS’s initiative to propose new manatee refuges and sanctuaries factors into habitat protection. Both the State of Florida and FWS are continuing cooperative efforts with a view towards establishing a network of important manatee habitats throughout Florida.<br/><br/><strong>Manatee Rescue, Rehabilitation and Release</strong><br/>Thousands of reports of distressed manatees purportedly in need of assistance have been made to the state wildlife enforcement offices and other resource protection agencies by a concerned public. While most of the manatees do not require assistance, dozens of manatees are rescued and treated each year. A network of state and local agencies and private organizations, coordinated by FWS, has been rescuing and treating these animals for well over 20 years.<br/><br/>Manatees are brought into captivity when stressed by cold weather, when struck and injured by watercraft, when injured because of entanglements in crab traps and monofilament fishing line, when orphaned, and when compromised by other natural and man-made factors. Programme veterinarians and staff have developed treatments and protocols for these animals and have been remarkably successful in their efforts to rehabilitate compromised individuals. Since 1973, over 180 manatees have been treated and returned to the wild (FWS unpubl.).<br/><br/>Media coverage of manatee rescues, treatments, and releases helps to educate millions of people about manatees, the life-threatening problems that they face, and actions that can be taken to minimize the effect of anthropogenic activities on this species. In addition, more than 18 million visitors a year see manatees at rehabilitation facilities and participate in manatee education programs sponsored by several parks. The publicity and outreach inherent in this program provide significant support to efforts to recover the manatee.<br/><br/><strong>Public Education, Awareness, and Support</strong><br/>Government agencies, industries, oceanaria and environmental groups have all contributed to manatee public awareness and education efforts that were initiated in the 1970s. These efforts have expanded in scope and increased in quantity since that time. Some key counties in Florida have also started the education component of their manatee protection plans. These public awareness and education efforts encourage informed public participation in regulatory and other management decision-making processes and provide constructive avenues for private funding of state manatee recovery programs, research, and land acquisition efforts through programmes such as the specialty automobile license tag for manatees.<br/><br/>The public has been made aware of new information on the biology and status of manatees, urgent conservation issues, and the regulations and measures required to assure their protection through the production of brochures, posters, films and videos, press releases, public service announcements and advertisements, and other media-oriented materials. Outdoor signs have been produced that provide general manatee information and highlight the problems associated with feeding manatees.<br/><br/>Manatee viewing opportunities have also been made available to the public. In addition, volunteers from several organizations annually give presentations to schools and other groups and distribute educational materials at festivals and events. Such efforts are essential for obtaining public compliance with conservation measures to protect manatees and their habitats.<br/><br/>Many public awareness materials have been developed specifically focusing on boater education. Public awareness waterway signs are produced and distributed alerting boaters to the presence of manatees. Brochures, boat decals, boater’s guides, and other materials with manatee protection tips and boating safety information have been produced and are distributed by law enforcement groups, through marinas, and boating safety classes. Educational kiosks have been designed and installed at marinas, boat ramps, and other waterfront locations. Monofilament fishing line collection sites and cleanup efforts are being established.  Several agencies and organizations provide educator’s guides, posters, and coloring and activity books to teachers in Florida and across the United States. In addition, Save The Manatee Club (SMC) and FWC Advisory Council on Environmental Education have produced a video for distribution to schools throughout Florida and the United States. SMC and FWC also provide free manatee education packets to students and staff interviews for students. Agencies and organizations help to educate law enforcement personnel about manatees and inform them about available outreach materials that can be distributed to user groups.<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>Conservation of the Antillean manatee at the regional level has been driven by the SPAW Protocol to the Cartagena Convention (Freestone 1991), resulting in the Regional Management Plan for the West Indian Manatee, <em>Trichechus manatus</em> (UNEP 1995). In all countries with extant populations there is protective legislation with some effort towards conservation through governmental agencies and/or non-governmental organizations. In a few countries efforts have increased significantly over the past decade. Conservation measures include: (1) policy-based actions such as protective legislation, management plans, recovery plans, and community management; (2) educational outreach programs and awareness activities; (3) research actions such as site specific and country-wide surveys, behavioural studies both in captivity and in situ, remote sensing projects, health assessments, and genetic studies; (4) habitat and site-based actions such as protected areas and community-based initiatives; and (5) species-based actions such as re-introductions, stranding networks, and rehabilitation programs.<br/><br/>The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.
22103		distribution	eng	Florida manatees (<em>T. m. latirostris</em>) are found only in the United States, although a few vagrants have been known to reach the Bahamas. Their year-round distribution is restricted to peninsular Florida because they need warm water to survive the winter. During the non-winter months (March to November), some manatees disperse to adjoining states. Along the Atlantic coast these states include Georgia (highest manatee use outside of Florida), South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia; one satellite-tagged manatee traveled as far north as Rhode Island (Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003), and another manatee was observed in New York (Long Island). Along the Gulf coast west of Florida, manatees are occasionally sighted in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The source (Florida or Mexico) of the Texas manatees is not always clear, but the weight of recent genetic and other evidence suggests most are from the Florida subspecies. Major freshwater bodies utilized by manatees in Florida include Lake Okeechobee, St. Johns River, Suwannee River, Caloosahatchee River, among others.<br/><br/>During the warm season (March or April through October or November, depending on latitude and year), manatees disperse throughout the coastal waters, estuaries, and major rivers of Florida and some migrate to neighboring states, particularly south-eastern Georgia. Their range constricts dramatically in the winter season (December to February) when manatees seek shelter from the cold at a limited number of warm-water sites or areas in the southern two-thirds of Florida. These sites include 10 principal power plant thermal outfalls (seven on the Atlantic coast, three on the Gulf coast) and four major artesian springs (Blue Spring, springs at the head of Crystal River, Homosassa Spring, and Warm Mineral Spring) that are frequented by a large proportion of the manatee population during winter.<br/><br/>The Antillean Manatee (<em>T. m. manatus</em>) inhabits riverine and coastal systems in the tropical and subtropical Western Atlantic Coastal Zone from the Bahamas to Brazil, including the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Although at least one individual in the Bahamas is a known migrant from Florida (Reid 2000, 2001), the Bahamas is detailed in this <em>T. m. manatus</em> assessment rather than the <em>T. m. latirostris</em> assessment. During the past decade, populations have been confirmed in the coastal waters and/or rivers of at least 19 of the 37 countries with historical records (Table 1); a population may be extant in Haiti (Ottenwalder 1995), although in very reduced numbers if at all. Rare sightings, categorized as vagrants, have been documented in five additional countries (Debrot Gore pers. comm).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: Summary of reported data by country for extant manatee populations.
22103		habitat	eng	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>The following text was excerpted directly from the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS 2001), with some minor revisions, condensation, and updates from the assessors.<br/><br/>Manatees undertake extensive seasonal migrations with seasonal distribution determined by water temperature. When ambient water temperatures drop below 20°C (68°F) in autumn and winter, manatees aggregate at natural and artificial warm-water refuges or move to southern Florida (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001, Weigle <em>et al</em>. 2001, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). Most artificial refuges are created by warm-water outfalls from power plants. The largest winter aggregations (maximum count of 100 or more animals) are at refuges in central and southern Florida. The northernmost natural warm-water refuges used regularly by manatees are at Crystal River on the west coast and at Blue Spring in the St. Johns River on the east coast. Most manatees return to the same warm-water refuges each year; however, some use different refuges in different years and others use two or more refuges in the same winter (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1990, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, Deutsch 2000, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). Many minor aggregation sites are used as temporary thermal refuges. Most of these refuges are deeper canals or boat basins where warmer water temperatures persist as temperatures in adjacent bays and rivers decline. Manatees using thermal refuges move to nearby grassbeds to feed (generally within 30 km), and may even return to a more distant warm season range during mild periods in mid-winter (Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>As water temperatures rise manatees disperse from winter aggregation areas. While some remain near their winter refuges, most undertake extensive travels along the coast and some move far up rivers and canals. On the east coast, summer sightings drop off rapidly north of Georgia (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001) and are rare north of Cape Hatteras (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1982, Schwartz 1995); the northernmost published sighting is from Rhode Island (Reid 1996, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). On the west coast, sightings drop off sharply west of the Suwannee River in Florida (Marine Mammal Commission 1986), although a small number of manatees are seen each summer in the Wakulla River at the base of the Florida Panhandle. Rare sightings also have been made in the Dry Tortugas (Reynolds and Ferguson 1984) and the Bahamas (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001; Odell <em>et al</em>. 1978; Reid 2000, 2001). As in winter, manatees show strong site fidelity to the same summer habitats year after year (Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, Koelsch 1997, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In recent years, the most important spring habitat along the east coast of Florida has been the northern Banana River and Indian River Lagoon and their associated waters in Brevard County; more than 300 to 500 manatees have been counted in this area shortly before dispersing in late spring (Provancha and Provancha 1988, FWC unpubl.). A comparable spring aggregation area does not appear to exist on the west coast, although Charlotte Harbor was visited in the spring by almost half of the 35 manatees radio-tagged at the Fort Myers power plant in Lee County (Lefebvre and Frohlich 1986). During summer, manatees may be commonly found almost anywhere in Florida where water depths and access channels are greater than 1 m (O’Shea 1988). Manatees can be found in very shallow water. Hartman (1979) observed manatees utilizing waters as shallow as 0.4 m with their backs out of the water. In warm seasons they usually occur alone or in pairs, although interacting groups of five to ten animals are not unusual.<br/><br/>Migration corridors and responses by individual animals have been elaborated by long-term telemetry studies (Weigle <em>et al</em>. 2001, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). Scientists have demonstrated site-fidelity in manatees, but have also noted that individual animals adjust their behaviours to take advantage of protected areas or changes in availability of resources. For example, Buckingham <em>et al</em>. (1999) confirmed increased manatee use of selected sanctuary areas during times when surrounding disturbance by boats was high.<br/><br/>Shallow grass beds with ready access to deep channels are preferred feeding areas in coastal and riverine habitats. Manatees often use secluded canals, creeks, embayments, and lagoons, particularly near the mouths of coastal rivers and sloughs, for feeding, resting, cavorting, mating, and calving. In estuarine and brackish areas, natural and artificial fresh water sources are sought by manatees.  Although manatees can tolerate a wide range of salinities (Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 1998), they prefer habitats where osmotic stress is minimal or where fresh water is periodically available (O’Shea and Kochman 1990). Ortiz <em>et al</em>. (1998) report that “manatees may be susceptible to dehydration after an extended period if freshwater is not available”.<br/><br/>Manatees are herbivores that feed opportunistically on a wide variety of submerged, floating, and emergent vegetation. Because of their broad distribution and migratory patterns, Florida manatees utilize a wider diversity of food items and are possibly less specialized in their feeding strategies than manatees in tropical regions (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2000). Seagrasses appear to be a staple of the manatee diet in coastal areas (Smith 1990, Provancha and Hall 1991, Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2000). Packard (1984) noted two feeding methods in coastal seagrass beds: (1) rooting, where virtually the entire plant is consumed; and (2) grazing, where exposed grass blades are eaten without disturbing the roots or sediment. Manatees may return to specific seagrass beds to graze on new growth (Koelsch 1997, Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the upper Banana River, Provancha and Hall (1991) found spring concentrations of manatees grazing in beds dominated by manatee grass (<em>Syringodium filiforme</em>). They also reported an apparent preference for manatee grass and shoalgrass (<em>Halodule wrightii</em>) over the macroalga <em>Caulerpa</em> spp. Along the Florida-Georgia border, manatees feed in salt marshes on smooth cordgrass (<em>Spartina alterniflora</em>) by timing feeding periods with high tide (Baugh <em>et al</em>. 1989, Zoodsma 1991).<br/><br/>Breeding takes place when one or more males (ranging from 5 to 22) are attracted to an oestrous female to form an ephemeral mating herd (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995). Mating herds can last up to four weeks, with different males joining and leaving the herd daily (Hartman 1979, Bengtson 1981, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995). Permanent bonds between males and females do not form. During peak activity, the males in mating herds compete intensely for access to the female (Hartman 1979). Successive copulations involving different males have been reported. Some observations suggest that larger, presumably older, males dominate access to females early in the formation of mating herds and are responsible for most pregnancies (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995), but males as young as three years old are spermatogenic (Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 1995). Although breeding has been reported in all seasons, Hernandez <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported that histological studies of reproductive organs from carcasses of males found evidence of sperm production in 94% of adult males recovered from March through November. Only 20% of adult males recovered from December through February showed similar production.<br/><br/>Females appear to reach sexual maturity by about age five but have given birth as early as four (Marmontel 1995, Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995), and males may reach sexual maturity at 3 to 4 years of age (Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 1995). Manatees may live in excess of 50 years (Marmontel 1995), and evidence for reproductive senescence is unclear (Marmontel 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995). Wild females have been documented continuing to calve into their late 30s (USGS-Sirenia, unpubl.), and a captive animal gave birth in her mid-40s (FWS, unpubl.). The length of the gestation period is uncertain but is thought to be between 11 and 14 months (Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1995). The normal litter size is one, with twins reported rarely (Marmontel 1995, Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Calf dependency usually lasts one to two years after birth (Hartman 1979, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1995). Calving intervals average about 2.5 years (when the calf survives to weaning), but they vary greatly among individuals and may be considerably longer depending on age and perhaps other factors (Marmontel 1995, Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1995). Females that abort or lose a calf due to perinatal death may become pregnant again within a few months (Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995), or even weeks (Hartman 1979).<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>The habitat and ecology of the Antillean manatee is thought to be similar to its sister subspecies. However, given that the Florida manatee inhabits the most northern extent of the species range, behaviour and life history characteristics may be dissimilar in this tropical subspecies. Antillean manatees use rivers, lakes, coastal and inland lagoons, and coastal marine environments, including seagrass, mangrove, and coral reef ecosystems. Although they are able to survive in fresh, estuarine, or marine environments for extended periods of time, several lines of evidence indicate a dependence on periodic access to fresh water for osmoregulation (Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 1998, 1999; Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001; Reid <em>et al</em>. 2003). As herbivores, access to aquatic vegetation is necessary for survival; seagrasses (<em>Thalassia, Halodule, Halophila</em> and <em>Syringodium</em>) appear to be favored in estuarine and marine areas. Osmoregulation and thermoregulation are behaviorally controlled by movements between activity centers. Quiet protected areas are necessary for resting and for cows with young calves; connections (travel corridors) between feeding, drinking, nursery, mating, and resting areas are very important. A discussion of the environmental factors influencing seasonal movements and migratory behavior in both subspecies is provided in Deutsch <em>et al</em>. (2003).
22103		population	eng	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) recently conducted two Biological Status Reviews of the Florida manatee that involved comprehensive compilation and synthesis of population and range data, along with extensive modeling of population projections (FWC 2002, 2003; Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006). In addition, the Manatee Population Status Working Group of the Florida Manatee Recovery and Implementation Team has produced a comprehensive Biological Population Assessment (MPSWG 2005).<br/><br/>There are no statistically based estimates (with variance) of abundance for the entire Florida manatee population. The minimum documented abundance is determined from range-wide synoptic surveys which have been conducted nearly every winter since 1991. The surveys are timed to coincide with periods of extreme cold weather when manatees aggregate at a limited number of warm-water sites. The highest count obtained during these surveys was 3,300 manatees in January 2001 (Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006); this is presumed to be a minimum count, but the fraction detected is unknown. Based on the assumption of a stable age distribution, and estimating proportion mature to be 0.70 from the core biological population model, the estimated number of mature individuals in the population is 2,310. Because detection probability varies greatly with weather conditions and across sites, population experts have consistently cautioned against using these data for trend analyses.<br/><br/>Long-term studies of the Florida manatee indicate that there are four relatively distinct regional subpopulations, as recognized in the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS 2001). Each subpopulation comprises individuals that tend to return to the same warm-water refuges each winter and have similar non-winter distribution patterns. Exchange of individuals among subpopulations is considered to be relatively limited, based on data from telemetry (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1990, Weigle <em>et al</em>. 2001, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003) and photo-identification (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1990, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, FWC and USGS, unpubl.). The four subpopulations differ in abundance, demographic rates, habitats, and major threats. What follows is a summary of our understanding of their rates of population growth over the past decade and very brief statements on the status of each subpopulation. Minimum population sizes are provided by the high synoptic survey count of 5 to 6 January 2001 (FWC unpubl.). Population growth rates cited below were estimated by Runge and colleagues (2004) using a stage-based model that integrated mark-recapture estimates of survival and reproduction (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2004, Langtimm <em>et al</em>. 2004). The estimates of vital rates were made possible through a long-term, multi-agency effort to photographically identify individual manatees based on their distinct patterns of scars and mutilations (Beck and Reid 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Atlantic Coast subpopulation extends along the entire east coast of Florida (including the Florida Keys and Florida Bay), coastal states northward along the Atlantic seaboard, and the lower St. Johns River north of Palatka. A total of 1,444 manatees were counted in the Atlantic region during the 2001 synoptic survey. Craig and Reynolds (2004) estimated that the population size of manatees using power plants on the Atlantic Coast during winter 2001 was 1,607 (95% Bayesian credible interval: 1,353 to 1,972). Over the most recent 10-year period, Runge <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated that the Atlantic subpopulation had grown at an annual rate of 1.0% per year (95% CI: -1.2 to 2.9%), but this was not statistically different from zero. The subpopulation may have increased slowly or it may have declined slightly over this time period. Craig and Reynolds (2004) used a Bayesian approach to model growth in aerial counts of manatees at several major aggregation sites along the Atlantic coast (primarily power plants). This model took into account manatee movement between surveys and variation in detection rates with ambient temperature. The trends in counts suggest the population of animals using Atlantic power plants increased at a rate of 5 to 7% per year from 1982 to 1989, leveled off (growth rate 0 to 4%yr<sup>-1</sup>) between 1990 and 1993, and has been increasing at about 4 to 6% per year since 1994. The discrepancy in growth rates of these two modeling approaches needs further investigation to provide a better understanding of population trends along the Atlantic coast.<br/> <br/><strong>Upper St. Johns River Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Upper St. Johns River subpopulation occurs in a much smaller area in the river south of Palatka. A total of 112 manatees were counted during the 2001 synoptic survey, but intensive observations that facilitate identification of nearly every individual using Blue Spring, the main overwintering site in the region, indicate that at least 141 different manatees visited the spring during that winter. A total of 190 manatees were counted at Blue Spring during a synoptic survey in 2006. The subpopulation occupying the Upper St. Johns River has shown strong growth over the past decade, increasing at an annual rate of 6.2% (95% CI: 3.7 to 8.1%) based on the stage-based model. This growth rate is supported by high survival and reproductive rates. This is the smallest of the four subpopulations, contributing less than 5% to the maximum synoptic count, but it is growing the fastest.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Northwest subpopulation extends from the Pasco-Hernando County line along the central Gulf coast northward through the Florida Panhandle and including the coastal areas of adjoining states at least as far as Louisiana. A total of 377 manatees were counted in the Northwest region during the 2001 synoptic survey.  This subpopulation has grown at an annual rate of 3.7% (95% CI: 1.6 to 5.6%) over the past 10 years. This is the second smallest subpopulation, accounting for about 11% of the highest synoptic count. Its dynamics are similar to those of the USJ, with a high adult survival rate, except reproduction seems to be lower.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Southwest subpopulation extends from the Pasco-Hernando County line (north of Tampa) southward to Whitewater Bay (part of Everglades National Park) in Monroe County. Minimum subpopulation size from the high synoptic survey count in 2001 was 1,367 individuals for the Southwest region. This subpopulation has declined at an estimated rate of -1.1% per year (95% CI: -5.4 to +2.4%) over the most recent eight-year period. The relatively wide confidence interval reflects greater uncertainty about survival and reproductive rates in this region, in part due to a shorter time series of sight-resight data. Estimates of adult survival are lower than those of all other subpopulations, probably due to the combined effects of chronic human-related (watercraft) mortality and episodic mortality events caused by red tide. It should also be noted that manatees in the Southwest subpopulation are found in a broad diversity of habitats from the more developed Tampa Bay to the more pristine reaches of Everglades National Park; demographic data are lacking for individuals in the southernmost parts of the region. Temporary emigration outside of the study areas may result in a downward bias in survival rates.<br/><br/>FWC has a wide-reaching manatee carcass salvage and necropsy programme that recovers nearly every dead manatee reported in the state of Florida. Consequently, we have a long time series of excellent data on causes of death. In all of the four subpopulations, adult mortality is mostly attributable to human-related causes, primarily watercraft collisions. However, because of the lower survival rates in the Atlantic and Southwest subpopulations, the impact of this anthropogenic mortality on population growth is much greater than in the other two regions. For the immature age class, perinatal mortality is the most common “cause” and watercraft collisions is the next highest known cause of death for all subpopulations (see Major Threats).<br/><br/>It is clear that the two smallest subpopulations have been growing over the past decade, while the two largest subpopulations have grown slightly, not at all, or may be declining. Available data suggest that the Southwest subpopulation is in decline. One way to estimate the overall growth rate for the Florida manatee is to take an average of the four subpopulation's growth rates, weighted by relative size. This yields a point estimate of 0.6% per year. Confidence intervals do not incorporate our uncertainty in the relative sizes of the subpopulations. That is, this point estimate assumes that the sighting detection rate in the synoptic survey was the same in each region in 2001, which is very unlikely, and that weights have remained constant over time. So, while the available data suggest that the point estimate of population growth for this subspecies may be close to zero or slightly positive, the associated uncertainty means that the population could be declining or increasing slightly.  <br/><br/>Population Projections:  FWC used population viability analysis models to address the three criteria that involved the probability of future population decline or extinction (FWC 2002, 2003; Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006). The models were based on vital rate estimates for each of four subpopulations and they incorporated demographic and environmental stochasticity. The models simulated scenarios based on plausible future threats to manatees and their habitat, including expected declines in carrying capacity through loss of warm-water refugia (loss of power plant discharges, declines in spring flow), potential increases in mortality (mostly due to watercraft collisions) associated with projected human population growth, and natural catastrophic mortality events (red tide, cold, disease). The outcome of the most recent PVA model was that there is a 12.1% chance of a 50% decline in the next three generations (generation time estimated between 16.8 and 22.6 years), and a 55.5% chance of a 20% reduction in the next two generations (Criterion C1) (Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006). For details, peer reviews, and a fuller discussion of these results, assumptions, limitations, and conclusions, please see the FWC’s Biological Status Reviews of the Florida manatee.<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>There are no statistically derived population estimates for <em>T. m. manatus</em> within its range, which historically covers 41 countries in the Wider Caribbean Region. Peer-reviewed publications are sparse, but there has been a significant increase in research on Antillean manatees over the past 10 years, resulting in many theses, presentations at regional meetings, local reports, and adoption of management plans. <br/><br/>We compiled data gathered through an extensive literature review and personal communication with 45 scientists representing expertise in 29 countries, but exclusive of the Florida manatee population (which was assessed independently). Antillean manatee populations occur in 20 of the 37 countries assessed, with sightings of vagrants in additional countries. However, distribution is not continuous and populations are patchy and fragmented. Using these documents, supplemented by the questionnaires completed by local experts, we derived a very rough minimum population estimate for the subspecies. Our confidence in population estimates varies dramatically from country to country, depending on the nature and extent of recent research efforts. For that reason, we used orders of magnitude in an effort to establish some baseline population estimates for each of the 20 countries where populations are most probably extant and viable. Although the quality and quantity of data vary from country to country, there is consistency regarding a continuing decline in both manatees and the quality and quantity of available habitat.  <br/><br/>Estimates by country, based on the best available data, range from less than 10 up to ~1,000 total animals, with the largest populations reported from Mexico and Belize (Table 1). No country reports an increasing country-wide population (except Bahamas with less than 10 animals). All publications and personal communications indicate country-wide populations are declining, stable, or unknown. In a few countries, localized populations may be increasing; in most countries, reports indicate a significant decline over the past 30-50 years, but this is based solely on anecdotal evidence and/or interviews with local people. <br/><br/>While the data in Table 1 suggest that approximately 2,600 individuals exist, scattered widely through the Caribbean region, optimistic "estimates" of the size of the manatee population (also based on interviews with experts in different countries, and not necessarily on empirical data) suggest that it may actually be in the range of 5,600 individuals. The age structure of the various manatee subpopulations of <em>T. m. manatus</em> is unknown, but the percentage of mature animals in Florida was estimated to be 70% through population modeling (Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006) and 46% through carcass recovery (Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 1995, Marmontel 1995, Marmontel <em>et al</em>. 1997). The figure based on carcasses is biased low due to the presence of a large proportion of calves in the sample. We note that hunting and other threats in the Caribbean may lead to a very different age structure for <em>T. m. manatus</em> than for <em>T. m. latirostris</em>; in fact, if hunters target large (i.e., mature) manatees, the percentage of mature individuals for <em>T. m. manatus</em> could be substantially lower than is the case for <em>T. m. latirostris</em>. Therefore, we consider that the percentage of mature individuals for the Antillean subspecies is likely to lie somewhere between 46% and 70%. <br/><br/>Based on the above information, we feel it is likely that the actual population size is intermediate between the number counted (2,600; minimum population size) and the more optimistic suggestions (5,600); an average between those two numbers would place the actual population size at approximately 4,100 manatees. Using this average value, and the two percentages given above for mature animals, the number of mature individuals would therefore lie between 1,886 and 2,870. Selecting the average value between these numbers produces an estimate of 2,378 mature individuals. While we do not place much significance in these average values, it is reasonable to conclude - based on the available evidence and taking the precautionary approach - that the overall number of mature individuals in this subspecies is likely to be less the 2,500.
22103		threats	eng	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>Threats to the Florida manatee encompass catastrophic natural events and anthropogenic factors that could cause declines in reproductive and survival rates or declines in the carrying capacity of the environment. Much of the following text is modified from the Biological Status Reviews for the Florida manatee (FWC 2002, Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Anthropogenic Threats</strong><br/>About half of adult mortality rangewide is attributable to human-related causes, primarily watercraft collisions (Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2002). This is significant because the manatee population growth rate is highly sensitive to changes in adult survival rate (Eberhardt and O’Shea 1995, Marmontel <em>et al</em>. 1997, Runge <em>et al</em>. 2004). The future of the Florida manatee is also jeopardized by the predicted loss and deterioration of warm-water habitat, including retirement or deregulation of aging power plants and reduction in natural spring flows.<br/><br/>Watercraft collisions:  Watercraft collisions account for approximately 25% of all manatee deaths and 35% of documented deaths of known cause, and are the single greatest cause of human-related mortality (Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995, FWC-FWRI unpubl.). In 2005, there were over one million registered vessels in Florida (FHSMV, http://casey.hsmv.state.fl.us/Intranet/dmv/TaxCollDocs/vesselstats2005.pdf), and many more out-of-state boaters visit Florida annually. The number of registered vessels in Florida has increased by an average of 2.9% per year over the past 25 years, doubling since 1980 (FWC, unpubl.). Given that about 97% of registrations are for recreational watercraft (Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995), it can be expected that there will be a continued increase in recreational vessels plying the waterways of Florida with a concomitant increase in the human population. In addition to the expected increase in boat numbers over the coming century, there are other factors that may act synergistically to increase the risk of collisions between manatees and watercraft. Modifications to the design of vessel hulls and engines are allowing boats to travel at higher speeds in shallower waters (Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995), thus threatening manatees and scarring seagrass beds. Boater compliance with existing slow speed zones is inconsistent (Gorzelany 1998, Shapiro 2001). <br/><br/>Sub-lethal effects on manatees of increased vessel traffic and a growing human population in the coastal zone are cause for concern.  Most adult manatee carcasses bear scars from previous boat strikes and the healed, skeletal fractures of some indicate that they had survived previous traumatic impacts (Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995, Lightsey <em>et al</em>. 2006). Of over 1,000 living individuals in the manatee photo-identification database (Beck and Reid 1995), 97% had scar patterns from multiple boat strikes (O’Shea <em>et al</em>. 2001). Approximately one-third of these individuals were severely mutilated, especially on the tail and the dorsum. It should be noted that the photo-identification database contains only animals with scars or other identifiable features. Non-lethal injuries may reduce the breeding success of wounded females and may permanently remove some animals from the breeding population (O’Shea 1995, Reynolds 1999). Vessel traffic and recreational activities that disturb manatees may cause them to leave preferred habitats and may alter biologically important behaviours such as feeding, suckling, or resting (O’Shea 1995, Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Loss of Warm-water Habitat:  Expected changes in the network of warm-water refuges over the next several decades present the most serious long-term threat to manatees in Florida, as noted in the federal Recovery Plan: “one of the greatest threats to the continued existence of the Florida manatee is the stability and longevity of warm-water refuges” (USFWS 2001, p. 28). Ultimately, the discharges from power plants provide unreliable warm-water habitat when viewed over the long term (i.e., next 20 to 100 years) because the once-through cooling technology that creates the large thermal plumes is being replaced by more efficient and alternative cooling technologies (Laist and Reynolds 2005a). Short-term threats to the network of warm-water sites also loom on the immediate horizon.  Some aging power plants may be shut down and potential deregulation of the electric utility industry may eliminate or reduce the reliability of warm-water effluents that large numbers of manatees depend on to survive winter cold periods (Rose 1997, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). Temporary disruptions in heated effluents during winter have caused changes in local manatee distribution (Packard <em>et al</em>. 1989) and have been implicated in elevated numbers of deaths from cold stress (Campbell and Irvine 1981, Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995). The complete elimination of a secondary warm-water refuge in northeastern Florida through diffusion of the heated effluent resulted in a shift in manatee distribution within the area and in substantial mortality of manatees that remained in the region (Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2000, Laist and Reynolds 2005a). Loss of certain key warm-water sites could result in catastrophic mortality and would likely reduce the environmental carrying capacity for manatees in Florida. <br/><br/>The long-term reliability of artesian springs that provide natural warm-water refuges for manatees is also in doubt because human demand for ground water and loss of recharge areas through development will likely result in diminished spring flows (Reynolds 2000, Laist and Reynolds 2005a). According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2001), Florida’s human population increased by about 23% to 16 million between 1990 and 2000, and projections suggest that the number of people living in Florida will increase by another 10 million people by 2025. In order to meet the increased demand for water that a growth in human population will entail, it is likely that spring flows and water quality will decline, further reducing natural warm-water habitat for manatees. This natural habitat will become even more important in the future as existing industrial sites disappear.<br/><br/>Other Direct Threats to Manatees from Human Activities: Other threats from human activities include entanglement (in fishing gear or debris), entrapment in water-control structures and pipes, exposure to contaminants, incidental ingestion of debris, and crushing (in flood-control structures, in canal locks, or between large ships and docks) (Beck and Barros 1991, Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995). Indirect effects from increased vessel traffic include increased water turbidity from wake action and scarring of seagrass beds by propellers (Sargent <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Indirect Threats to Manatees from Human Activities: There is no commercial or subsistence utilization in the USA. However, manatees have become the centre of a large ecotourism industry at certain winter aggregation sites, such as Crystal River. Tens of thousands of people visit these areas to observe and swim with manatees. No-entry sanctuaries provide manatees with havens to avoid swimmers and boats at these sites. Manatees do, in fact, increase their use of these sanctuaries when more boats and swimmers are present (Buckingham <em>et al</em>. 1999, King and Heinen 2004). Manatees also have been found to alter their behaviour in response to the presence of human swimmers, including decreased resting and suckling and increased swimming (King and Heinen 2004).  <br/><br/>The tremendous growth in the human population in coastal Florida over the past half century has resulted in drastic losses of coastal wetland habitats. Seagrass distribution and abundance in many estuaries have declined as the result of direct human impacts (dredging and propeller scarring) and indirect effects of development (declining water quality and nutrient loading). Within Tampa Bay, for example, an estimated 80% of the seagrass present in the early 1900s was lost by 1980 (Kurz <em>et al</em>. 2000). This decline in seagrass coverage is slowly being reversed through actions to reduce nitrogen loading in the regional watershed, which have improved water clarity in much of Tampa Bay (Johansson and Greening 2000, Kurz <em>et al</em>. 2000). Non-point-source runoff is difficult to control, however, so water clarity declines in years of above-average precipitation. Reductions in optical water clarity cause declines in the health and abundance of submerged aquatic vegetation (Stevenson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Indirect effects from increased vessel traffic include increased water turbidity from wake action and scarring of seagrass beds by propellers (Sargent <em>et al</em>. 1995). It will be particularly important to protect, restore, and maintain aquatic vegetation communities in the vicinity of warm-water aggregation sites. Without conservation measures to secure these winter habitats, manatees would have to travel greater distances, concentrate into smaller areas, and forage in sub-optimal environments.<br/><br/><strong>Natural Threats</strong><br/>Naturally-occurring catastrophic threats to manatees include prolonged periods of very cold temperatures, hurricanes, harmful algal blooms (i.e., “red tide”), and the potential for a disease epizootic. The threat from extended periods of cold weather relates to the availability and quality of warm-water habitat, which has already been discussed above.  <br/><br/>Hurricanes:  Hurricanes are another type of weather-related phenomenon that can potentially impact manatee populations. In the Northwest subpopulation, Langtimm and Beck (2003) found that adult survival rate was depressed in years with severe storms or hurricanes. The mechanism(s) underlying the lower survival probabilities are unknown, as there has not been a corresponding elevation in the number of reported carcasses. Such events could also result in large-scale emigration out of the affected region. In eastern Australia, for example, the simultaneous occurrence of flooding and a cyclone, combined with poor watershed management practices, resulted in the loss of 1,000 km² of seagrass beds and in the mass movement and mortality of dugongs (<em>Dugong dugong</em>; Preen and Marsh 1995). Given the notice from meteorologists that we have entered a new 25- to 50-year cycle of greater hurricane activity and intensity (Landsea <em>et al</em>. 1996), as well as possible longer-term changes associated with global climate change (McCarthy <em>et al</em>. 2001), storm activity may have a greater impact on manatee populations in the future.  <br/><br/>Red Tide: Manatees on Florida’s Gulf coast are frequently exposed to brevetoxin, a potent neurotoxin produced by the dinoflagellate <em>Karenia brevis</em> during red tide events. In 1996, 151 manatees were confirmed or suspected to have died in southwestern Florida from brevetoxicosis (Landsberg and Steidinger 1998, Bossart <em>et al</em>. 1998). This epizootic was particularly detrimental to the manatee population because more adults were killed than any other age class. Other red tide mortality events in 1982, 2002, 2003, and 2005 resulted in the confirmed red tide-related deaths of 37, 33, 86, and 68 manatees, respectively, with an additional 35 carcasses suspected to have died from red tide during those years (O’Shea <em>et al</em>. 1991; FWC unpubl.). Recent studies have determined that brevetoxin can exist outside of the algal cells (e.g., on seagrass) for extended periods of time, thus further increasing the threat to foraging manatees (Flewelling <em>et al</em>. 2005). Red tide represents a major natural source of mortality for manatees in the southwest region. There is no clear evidence that these events have been increasing in frequency along Florida’s coast, but certainly the impact on the manatee population has increased over the past two decades. The role of nutrient loading to coastal systems relative to the intensity and duration of inshore red tides is an active area of research for the FWRI harmful algal blooms group.<br/><br/>Pathogens: Manatees could potentially be exposed to pathogens. Spread of such pathogens could be particularly rapid during winter when manatees are concentrated in warm-water refuges. Large-scale mortality events caused by disease or toxins have decimated other populations of marine mammals, including seals and dolphins, removing 50% or more of the individuals in some events (Harwood and Hall 1990). Manatees have robust immune systems that have, through the present time, provided disease resistance. Since 1997 papilloma virus has been found in captive Florida manatees and there is some evidence that it may also be present in the wild population in northwest Florida (Bossart <em>et al</em>. 2002a, Woodruff <em>et al</em>. 2005). While the consensus is that this virus probably does not present a serious threat to manatees at this time, managers are proceeding cautiously (e.g., by establishing a quarantine on exposed captives) and surveillance for papilloma lesions in wild manatees continues.<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>Major threats to survival of the Antillean manatee include habitat degradation and loss, hunting, incidental catch/accidental take, watercraft collisions, entanglement in fishing gear, pollution, natural disasters, and human disturbance. Although threats due to hunting are diminishing in some areas, all other threats are increasing in most areas. Illegal hunting for subsistence and profit was reported as a significant threat in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela.  Pollution from agriculture and mining was consistently noted in reports from South American countries. Intrinsic factors that limit the population’s ability to withstand these anthropogenic impacts include low fecundity, slow growth, limited dispersal, and restricted range.<br/><br/>Of particular note were: (1) In Belize, watercraft related mortality was reported as the major threat, followed by illegal hunting and entanglement in fishing gear; and (2) In north-eastern Brazil, the stranding of live-orphaned calves was identified as the main recent threat to the species (Parente <em>et al</em>. 2004). Between 1981 and 2002, 74 stranded manatees were reported on the north-eastern coast of Brazil with 58% (n=43) being live dependent calves. This high percentage suggested that that the main threat may be human disturbance resulting in mother-calf separation. Disturbance in the area is due to shrimp farms, salt farms, a general increase in human activities in the coastal zone, and uncontrolled tourism. Additional major threats include hunting, entanglement in fishing nets, watercraft collisions, indiscriminate development of the coast, and degradation of aquatic environments.
22104		conservation	eng	West African manatees are listed in CITES Appendix II.  Manatees are protected by national laws in all range states. Though West African manatees are protected throughout their range, enforcement and control of hunting appears negligible. Hunting is largely local and sometimes ritualized and the meat is usually consumed locally. In some regions, hunting is primarily opportunistic and meat and products are traded locally and across borders.  Progress has been made in some regions to discourage hunting, but in general protection is minimal and offtake is likely at unsustainable levels. Availability of manatee meat in some markets has dropped,  but it is not known whether this is due to increased protection or decreased abundance, probably the latter.  Awareness of the protected status of the manatee is widespread in all areas surveyed, but there is little perceived fear of arrest and punishment (Powell 1996); enforcement is rare and fines or sentences for the most part have been negligible. Frequently when individuals have been arrested, the fine can be less than what is gained by selling the manatee meat and oil in the market (Powell 1996).<br/><br/>Efforts are being increased to protect manatees from local sale. In Senegal, there has been a long effort to initiate a research and conservation project for manatees in the Senegal River, particularly Lake Guier. There is interest in a captive breeding program at the Djoudj National Park (Powell 1990). In Guinea-Bissau, recommendations have been made for the protection of manatees (Silva and Araújo 2001). Côte d’Ivoire has one of the most important manatee conservation programs. A manatee awareness and conservation program has been in place since 1989 (Akoi 1992). On Lake Volta, surveys of manatees have been conducted and recommendations made for their conservation (Ofori-Danson 1995). In Nigeria, Pandam Lake was designated a manatee sanctuary (Sykes 1974). In Cameroon, Lake Ossa has been proposed as a protected area for manatees and the government is strongly interested in having a research and conservation project started there. In Gabon, the Gambas protected area may be one of the most important for manatees in Africa and there is strong interest in developing a conservation program to protect manatees in the N’Dogo Lagoon complex (MAB 2000).<br/><br/>List of protected areas in western Africa where <em>Trichechus senegalensis</em> is known to occur.<br/><br/>Ivory Coast - Azagny National Park; Ivory Coast - Iles Eotiles National Park; Cameroon - Reserve de Faune de Douala-Edea; Congo - Reserve de Faune de Conkouati; Gabon - Reserve de Faune et Domaines de Chasse de Sette; Nigeria - Kainji Lake National Park; Cameroon - Korup National Park; Gambia - Baboon Island National Park; Gambia - Kiangs West National Park; Mauritania - Diaouling Strict Nature Reserve; Nigeria - Kainji Lake National Park; Nigeria - Pandam Wildlife Park; Nigeria - Obudu Game Reserve; Senegal - Parc National de Basse Casamance; Senegal - Delta du Saloum; Senegal - Parc National des Oiseaux de Djoudj; Senegal - Santuaire Ornithologique de la Pointe de Kalissaye; Ghana - Digya National Park.
22104		distribution	eng	Countries of occurrence include: Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. <em>T. senegalensis</em> occurs in most of the coastal marine waters, brackish estuaries, and adjacent rivers along the coast of West Africa from southern Mauritania (16°N) to the Loge, Dande, Bengo and Cuanza Rivers, Angola (18°S) (Beal 1939, Allen 1942, Blancou 1960, Robinson 1971, Husar 1978, Nishiwaki 1984, Grigione 1996, Powell 1996, Perrin 2001). They ascend most major rivers within their range until cataracts or shallow water prevents their progress. In some rivers, such as along the Benue River, manatees seek refuge during the dry season in permanent lakes that communicate with the rivers during high water but are cutoff when river waters subside (Sykes 1974). Manatees can be found 75 km offshore among the shallow coastal flats and mangrove creeks (with abundant seagrasses and calm water) of the Bijagos Archipelago of Guinea-Bissau (Powell 1990) as well as Casamance (Senegal). Isolated populations cutoff from the sea are found in Lake Volta, Ghana above the Volta hydroelectric dam. An additional population, essentially landlocked above the major rapids, is found in the upper reaches of Niger River in the inland delta of Mali as far as Segou, which are the furthest inland records, over 2,000 km from the ocean (Hatt 1934, Kienta 1982). Manatees are landlocked in the Logone and Chari Rivers of Chad (Hatt 1934, Salkind 1996). They occur along the entire length of the Gambia River, penetrating into Senegal where there are records as far upstream as Niokola Koba National Park (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Chad, manatees are present in Lake Léré and Lake de Tréné along the Mayo-Kebbi, Bahr Keeta and Baningi rivers; manatees are also reported from the Baningi, Logone and Chari Rivers tributaries of Lake Chad. Sightings of manatees have been reported from Lake Chad but there are no documented records (Ita 1994). Centers of population appear to be Guinea-Bissau; the lagoons of Ivory Coast; the lower reaches of the Niger River, Nigeria; Sanaga River, Cameroon; coastal lagoons of Gabon and the lower reaches of the Congo River (Powell 1996). The manatee population in West Africa is reported to be reduced, but their present range appears to be comparable to historic reports (Husar 1978).<br/><br/>MAJOR LAKES: Volta, Inland delta Mali, Lake Léré, Lake de Tréné.<br/><br/>MAJOR RIVERS: (N to S) includes lakes within these river systems, the Senegal, Saloum, Gambia, Casamance, Cahacheu, Rio Mansoa, Rio Geba, Rio Grande de Bulba, Rio Tombali, Rio Cacine, Kogon, Kondoure, Sierra Leone, Great Scarcies, Little Scarcies, Sherbro, Malem, Waanje, Sewa, Missunado, Cavally, St. Paul, Morro, St. John, Bandama, Niouniourou, Sassandra, Comoe, Bia, Tano, Volta, Mono, Oueme, Niger, Mekrou, Benue, Cross, Pie, Katsena Ala, Deb, Okigb, Issa, Bani, Akwayafe, Rio del Rey, Ngosso, Andokat, Mene, Munaya, Wouri, Sanaga, Faro, Chari, Bamaingui, Bahr-Kieta, Logoné, Mitémélé, Gabon, Ogoué, Lovanzi, Kouliou, Congo, Loge, Dande, Bengo, and Cuanza.
22104		habitat	eng	West and Central Africa contains a variety of suitable habitats for manatees ranging from large and small rivers, coastal estuaries, freshwater and saltwater lagoons, shallow quiet coastal bays, lakes and reservoirs.  Like T. manatus, <em>T. senegalensis</em> inhabits practically every accessible habitat (Hartman 1979, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1981, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1983, Powell and Rathbun 1984). They were observed or recorded from coastal areas, estuarine lagoons, large rivers that range from brackish to fresh water, freshwater lakes and the extreme upper reaches of rivers above cataracts.  In general, their habitat requirements seem to be similar to <em>T. manatus</em> and require sheltered water with access to food and freshwater (Powell and Rathbun 1984). They may transit areas of unsheltered coast, but they are usually rare in these areas.  <br/><br/>Optimal coastal habitats for manatees, based on the movements of radio-tagged manatees in Côte d’Ivoire and the number of reported sightings from other areas were: a. coastal lagoons with abundant growth of mangrove or emergent herbaceous growth; b. estuarine areas of larger rivers with abundant mangrove (<em>Rhizophora racemosa</em>) in the lower reaches and lined with grasses, particularly Vossia and Echinochloa further upriver; c. shallow (<3 m depth) and protected coastal areas with fringing mangroves or marine macrophytes, particularly <em>Ruppia, Halodule</em> or <em>Cymodocea</em>.  In riverine habitats that have major fluctuations in flow rates and water levels, manatees seem to prefer those areas that have access to deep pools or connecting lakes for refuge during the dry season and seasonally flood into swamps or forests with abundant grasses and sedges, particularly <em>Vossia, Echinochloa</em> and <em>Phragmites</em>.<br/><em><br/>T. senegalensis</em> are mostly solitary, with mothers and calves the principal social unit. Manatees will often rest together in loose, small groups of two to six individuals. They feed principally at night and travel in the late afternoon and at night. They usually rest during the day in water that is 1–2 m deep and sometimes in the middle of a watercourse or hidden in mangrove roots or under natant vegetation. They make little disturbance while swimming.  These latter behaviors may be due to hunting pressures.<br/><br/>Manatees feed primarily on vegetation including: <em>Vossia</em> sp., <em>Eichornia crassipes, Polygonum</em> sp., <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em>, <em>Azolla</em> sp., <em>Echinochloa</em> sp., <em>Lemna</em> sp., <em>Myriophyllum</em> sp., <em>Pistia stratioties</em>, <em>Rhizophora racemsoa</em>, and <em>Halodule</em> sp. In Senegal (Powell, unpub. data) and Sierra Leone (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988), manatees are also known to eat small fish captured in fishermen’s nets. In Senegal and The Gambia, shell remains of mollusks have also been found in their stomachs.<br/><br/>Manatees can travel freely from salt to freshwater.  They appear to prefer estuarine areas where there is little disturbance and the waters are shallow and calm. They can be found in marine habitats where there are relatively calm water and a source of freshwater. For example, in Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau, manatees are attracted to freshwater seeps or springs that are found in marine habitats (Powell 1990).
22104		population	eng	There are no population estimates based on qualitative information.  Nishiwaki (1987) made a number of intuitive estimates for various areas.  It is believed, however, that several local populations have been extirpated (Poche 1973, Wood 1937) though recent accounts of manatees from these regions have emerged (Powell pers. notes). <em>T. senegalensis</em> population decline has been largely attributed to hunting and incidental capture in fishing nets (Allen 1942, Cadenat 1957, Blancou 1960).  Johnson (1937) reported that as many as 12 manatees a day were caught in a 100 mile stretch of the Gambia River.  Powell (1984) estimated around two manatees a year were taken between 1978-1983 from this same area though this change cannot be attributed to less hunting pressure or reduced manatee numbers (or both).  In Côte d’Ivoire, Powell (1996) sighted manatees on a daily basis, but also noted that manatee traps in the region were not uncommon. Two similar live traps set for research purposes caught five manatees in four days. Maigret (1982) and Powell (1985) speculated that habitat modification and the construction of dams would severely affect manatee numbers.<br/><br/>The following adapted from Perrin (2001):  <br/><strong>Mauritania</strong><br/>The species occurs in the Senegal River and its tributaries (Powell, 1996); this river forms the border between Mauretania and Senegal. It is an infrequent inhabitant of the Diawlang Reserve, a wetland reserve of interconnecting streams, lakes and ponds. <br/><br/><strong>Senegal</strong><br/>In Senegal, the manatee is close to extinction (Navaza and Burnham, 1998). In most areas of the country, it has not been seen for many years. There are a few remaining in the Casamance River in the estuary and up to Kolda, and there have been some reported sightings in the delta of the Sine Saloum River near Kaolack, but the species is considered to be severely depleted and threatened. In the Casamance River where they still occur, they are respected and not molested, so there is some hope they can be saved there. <br/><br/><strong>The Gambia</strong><br/>In the Gambia, numbers are thought to have declined, but as of 1993 the manatee was still numerous in the River Gambia. They have been fully protected for many years but in the 1980s were still hunted extensively. <br/><br/><strong>Guinea Bissau</strong><br/>Guinea-Bissau at one time was considered to be one of the last sanctuaries of the manatee, because of the relatively undisturbed state of its mangroves, wetlands and river systems (Schumann 1995, Powell 1996). Silva and Araújo  (2001) found that manatee occupied a wide variety of habitats and were most  abundant around the Bijagos Archipelago. Based on interviews, a total of 256 sightings involving 439 individuals interviewed were reported. Powell (1996) reported seeing about 20 individual sternum from manatees hunted in the Bijagos Archipelago by a single Senegalese fishermen who seasonally fished there.  In 1997, the government signed an agreement with IUCN to develop a National Plan for Conservation of the West African Manatee in Guinea-Bissau, and some training and survey work started, but the work stopped when the war started in 1998 (Silva and Araújo, 2001). The major source of mortality before the war was accidental capture in fishing nets; they were not extensively hunted. Silva and Araújo (2001) reported 209 manatees killed between 1990-1998, 24.8/yr. Most recently, manatees have been advertised for export on the internet, and two were exported to the Toba Aquarium in Japan (Asano and Sakamoto 1997, Kataoka <em>et al</em>. 2000, Anon., 2000b). <br/><br/><strong>Guinea</strong><br/>Little information is available on the manatee in Guinea. The country has extensive suitable habitat, and the species is known to occur in the area (Powell 1996), but no systematic studies have been carried out (Barnett and Prangley 1997). <br/><br/><strong>Sierra Leone</strong><br/>In Sierra Leone the manatee is also declining (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988, Powell 1996). It is protected but widely hunted and marketed, because it is good to eat and because it is thought to be a pest by rice growers and fishermen among the Mende People. The manatee in the late 1980s was still widely distributed in the country, but the catches at that time were thought to be unsustainable. The animals are trapped, netted and harpooned. There is some concern about the effect of modern fishing gear on the manatee, because it is easily tangled in monofilament gillnets. <br/><br/><strong>Liberia</strong><br/>Manatees occur throughout the major rivers of Liberia, including in the proposed national park of Cestos-Sankwer, and in the Piso Lake region (Powell 1996). No information is available on status. <br/><br/><strong>Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)</strong><br/>In the Côte d'Ivoire, the manatee by the mid-1980s had been reduced by hunting to 5 or 6 small isolated populations, with an estimated total number of less than 750 animals. Hunting is illegal, but it still continued in the late 1980s, with traps, harpoons, hook lines, baited hooks and nets (Roth and Waitkuwait 1986, Nicole <em>et al</em>. 1994, Powell 1996). A program of research and education began in 1986, sponsored by the Wildlife Conservation Society. The population is tentatively estimated at 750–800 (Akoi Kouadio pers. comm., 2000). Illegal hunting is still a problem, as is habitat destruction by barrages. However, some success has been enjoyed in educating potential hunters and in enforcing the hunting ban in some areas, with the aid of Wildlife Conservation International (Akoi 2000, Anon, undated). A conservation plan is in development (Akoi 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Ghana</strong><br/>Recent surveys by the Institute of Aquatic Biology confirmed the continued existence of manatees in Volta Lake and Digya National Park; additional surveys are planned (Powell 1996). Hunting continues. <br/><br/><strong>Togo</strong><br/>Manatees may still exist in Togo Lake (Powell 1996). No information is available on status. <br/><br/><strong>Benin</strong><br/>In Benin, the manatee had been thought to be extinct. However, this is apparently not the case (Powell 1996), and a new research and conservation project on the species is underway to establish its current distribution and numbers as well as gather data on its ecology and behavior (Risch 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Nigeria</strong><br/>The manatee is found throughout Nigeria but is depleted, due to hunting (Powell 1996). It is hunted for its oil. There is no effective enforcement of protection laws. The most recent concern is about pollution of the Niger Delta by oil development. <br/><br/><strong>Cameroon</strong><br/>In Cameroon, based on a survey sponsored by WWF-USA and the Wildlife Conservation Society in 1989 (Grigione 1996), manatees may still be numerous in some areas. Illegal hunting has been very limited, due mainly to local attitudes toward the species rather than legal protection, but poaching from across the border in Nigeria is a severe problem. Habitat destruction by dams is also a problem. <br/><br/><strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong><br/>There is no recent information on manatees; they likely occur in the lower reaches of the Mitémélé River on the mainland (Powell 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Gabon</strong><br/>Gabon may have one of the highest densities of manatees remaining in Africa (Powell 1996). Reports of opportunistic sightings are common. Bycatch occurs in gillnets. <br/><br/><strong>Congo</strong><br/>A preliminary survey in 1994 found manatees in lakes, rivers and lagoons of Congo (Powell 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Republic of Congo (former Zaire)</strong><br/>Manatees were once common in the extreme lower reaches of the Congo River below Binda (Powell 1996). A local name for the species exists in the upper reaches of the Congo, so it may occur there as well. Status is unknown. <br/><br/><strong>Angola</strong><br/>Manatees have been reported from the entire coast, but little information is available on abundance or status (Powell 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Mali</strong><br/>Manatees are found throughout the entire Niger River system of Mali (Powell 1996) but may have been reduced by hunting. Hunting continues but may be decreasing, as meat now only rarely appears in the markets; it is not clear whether this is due to legal protection, less demand for the meat, or greatly decreased abundance. <br/><br/><strong>Niger</strong><br/>The species has been recorded from the Niger River below Niger in Nigeria and above Niger in Mali, so it can be assumed that it occurs in the Niger River in Niger as well, but there is no information on its distribution or status (Powell 1996). It may also occur in the Niger portion of the Chad basin. <br/><br/><strong>Chad</strong><br/>Manatees were once abundant in the Chad basin but had become rare by 1924 (Powell 1996). In a survey in 1995, they were found to be less abundant than formerly but not uncommon in Lére and Tréne Lakes in the Mayo-Kebbi region. Hunting continues on the rivers and lakes, despite enforcement efforts. The animals are sought mainly for their oil, which is shipped with dried meat to Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Burkina Faso</strong><br/>Manatees inhabit all of the nations that surround Burkina Faso (Mali, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Niger). They are present in Volta Lake above the dam (see Ghana above). However, Perrin (2001) could find no mention of its occurrence in the upper tributaries of the Volta (White Volta, Red Volta and Black Volta) or in the Mekrou River, which forms the boundary between Burkina Faso and Togo/Benin and drains the wetlands of the Parc National de l'Arly. Pending directed surveys, its occurrence there must be considered possible.
22104		threats	eng	Manatees are exploited for their meat, skin, bones, and oil nearly everywhere they are found. They are trapped by various methods including nets, weirs, large box traps, drop traps using harpoons and snaglines (Powell 1996, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988, Roth and Waitkuwait 1986, Akoi 1992).  In Guinea Bissau, Silva and Araújo (2001) reported 209 deaths between 1990–1998; of these, 72% died in fishing gear, 13% were hunted, 4% stranded at low tide and 11% the cause of death was undetermined. In Côte d’Ivoire, Powell (1996) found numerous large box traps situated around the rivers and lagoons from the Ghana border to Fresco. The 4x1 m traps are constructed of wooden poles stuck in the bottom and door weighted with a large rock. Powell (1996) built two of these box traps for catching manatees to radio tag; he caught five manatees in two of these traps over four days. Manatees are also caught in special nets with large mesh used specifically for manatees. <br/><br/>Incidental killing of manatees occurs in many areas around West and Central Africa. Cadenat (1957) recorded the deaths of five manatees around Joal, Senegal in nets used for catching sharks. Manatees are occasionally killed in fishing trawls. In Côte d’Ivoire, stationary funnel nets are placed across the inlets of major rivers to catch shrimp swept past on tidal currents. These are strong nets that have a wide mouth that faces upstream and then narrows down to a small bag on the cod end. The tidal currents where they are usually set are often strong and several of these nets can block the entire channel.  Between 1986 and 1988, three manatees were killed in the vicinity of Grand Lahou by drowning in these nets, including one radio tagged manatee (Powell 1996).  Akoi (1992) describes how manatees in Côte d’Ivoire and probably elsewhere are sometimes caught in fishing weirs made of sticks. These weirs are common in Côte d’Ivoire and in many other areas in Africa.  <br/><br/>Recent threats include loss of habitat due to damming of rivers, cutting of mangroves for firewood and destruction of wetlands for agricultural development. At Kanji dam on the Niger River, Nigeria and on the Volta River, Ghana, manatees have been known to be killed in the turbines and intake of the hydro-electric generator (Powell, 1996).  In Nigeria, for example, Isahaya (pers. comm.) reported seeing as many as six manatee carcasses at one time below the Kainjii dam, Nigeria. <br/><br/>In Senegal and The Gambia, increases in salinity and change in waterflow due to damming can cause manatees to strand or vacate an area with unknown demographic results (Powell 1996). Natural droughts and tidal changes are known to strand manatees (Dupuy and Maigret 1978, Powell 1996, Silva and Araújo 2001).<br/><br/>Coastal development near Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire resulted in loss of habitat and increased human disturbance contributing to the disappearance of manatees in the area. Increased large vessel traffic in some of the rivers and lagoons may also pose a threat from collisions with watercraft, the highest known cause of death in Florida and Belizian manatee populations.<br/><br/>The manatee is fully protected in all of the nations in which it occurs. Due to remoteness and lack of enforcement, manatees are taken for food and traditional medicinal products throughout their range (Powell 1996).  Manatee meat is openly sold in local markets.  In Cameroon, manatee meat was sold along the roadside near Douala and could easily be spotted from a passing car. Manatee meat was seen on three out of five visits during a three month period (Powell pers. obs.).  Little historical data exists to indicate a decrease in catch rates. For example, at one point in the 1930s as many as 12 manatees a day were caught in a 100-mile stretch of the Gambia River.  Based on interviews, Powell (1996) determine that only two per year were taken in the same area between 1978-83.  Manatee meat and oil is reported to move illegally in trade between Chad and Cameroon (Powell 1996). In Mali, Senegal, and Chad, manatee oil is more prized than the meat. The oil is used for its reputed medicinal properties to cure rheumatism and to condition the skin and hair (Kienta 1982, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988). Oil from the head is used to treat ear infections. In Mali and along the Benue River, certain cuts of the meat are considered to have particular useful properties.  For example, the parts of the penis are used to cure impotency in men, and the skin can be made into whips (Kienta 1982, Powell 1996).  In Sierra Leone, villagers consume all parts of the manatee carcass except for the heavy ribs (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988).  The meat is shared among villagers and any remains are sold by the trapper.  The bones are used to make handles for walking sticks or spinning-tops used in a local game called cii.  <br/><br/>National and international trade in live manatees exists.  In Nigeria manatees are taken for exhibit in local zoos.  In 1996, a Japanese aquarium acquired two manatees for exhibit from Guinea-Bissau (Asano and Sakamoto 1997). Wild caught manatees from Guinea-Bissau are offered for sale on the internet (River Zoo Farms, ttp://www.riverzoofarm.com/manatee.htm).
22107		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Vulnerable (VU) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). The known sub-populations require monitoring to see if the apparent trend in the decline of sites of lower altitudes continues.
22107		distribution	eng	The  species has a very restricted distribution with an extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and is only found in the Central Alps in Switzerland. It is known only from Kantone Nidwalden, Obwalden and Uri. There are 130 very small localities known, all between 2,100 and 2,575 m asl.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
22107		habitat	eng	This species lives on alpine meadows underneath carbonate rocks which become free from snow relatively early.
22107		population	eng	<p>The density is low and the population trend is decreasing. Some populations of altitudes between 1,800 m to 2,000 m asl. no longer exist.<br/></p>
22107		threats	eng	<p>The populations are threatened by the climate change (Baggot 2010, unpublished). Some populations between 1800 and 2000 m no longer exist and there is a trend of the species' range reducing below 2,000 m. As a result of climate change the habitats of the populations are becoming more unstable as the cycles of freezing and thawing increase and stones are loosened with a greater risk from avalanches.<br/></p><p>The Swiss military used the locus typicus for shooting target practice which may have had a negative impact on the species, but this stopped some years ago.<br/></p>
22108		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Vulnerable (VU) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/><br/>The impact of the habitat threats on the species need to be studied and the size of populations needs to be verified if possible.
22108		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to an area South of Basel in the Jura mountains in north-western Switzerland. The extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The 29 known sites are small and are from between 400 and 1,280 m in altitude.
22108		habitat	eng	This species lives in cool, moist gorges on steep carbonate rocks. Few populations have been found on open rocks exposed to sunshine.
22108		population	eng	<p>&#160;The density is low but the population is thought to be stable at present.<br/></p>
22108		threats	eng	Quarrying is taking place in the area and rock climbing is another potential threat. There is also a new motorway being built from Biel to Basel with potential implications.
22109		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
22109		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in South Germany: Baden-Württemberg, Schwäbische Alb near Geislingen and Blumberg.
22109		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in grassy stone fields in light and steep mountain forests, the snails stay firmly attached to grass blades.
22109		population	eng	The species is extremely rare.
22109		threats	eng	No direct threat is known.
22110		conservation	eng	The sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. oreinos scheerpeltzi</span> has been assessed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Red List Austria (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).<br/><br/>More research into the distribution of the species is needed, particularly for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. oreinos oreinos</span>, as there is currently no data available. Monitoring of population trends is required, not only for the sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. oreinos scheerpeltzi</span> which is known to be in decline, but also for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. oreinos oreinos</span> to ascertain if the same pressures are impacting on these populations.
22110		distribution	eng	The species is an Austrian endemic, distributed from the Northern and Central Alps from Schneeberg to the Totes Gebirge and from the Höllenstein to the Eisenerzer Alpen; Sengsengebirge, west of the Enns the species is represented by the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">T. oreinos scheerpeltzi</span> with 12 known localities. The extent of occurrence is around 7,000 km<sup>2</sup>. There are 12 locations for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. o. scheerpeltzi</span>, and eight for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. o. oreinos </span>(area of occupancy (AOO)&#160; for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. o. oreinos</span> = 48&#160; km², area of occupancy (AOO)&#160; for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. o. scheerpeltzi</span> 32 km²).
22110		habitat	eng	The species is found in sub-alpine to alpine areas in rocky grassland.
22110		population	eng	The sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. oreinos scheerpeltzi</span> is known to be in decline. There is no data on population trend for<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. oreinos oreinos.</span>
22110		threats	eng	Biotope destruction by construction of ski slopes has been identified as the major threat to this species.
22120		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
22120		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western versant in central Chile, from Limari to Puerto Varas.  In the Andalien River, it occurs from the mouth of the Nonguen to its headwaters.
22120		habitat	eng	<em>T. areolatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits streams.
22120		population	eng	Campos <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported this species to be under population decline in regions III to IX.
22120		threats	eng	There are unknown threats acting on this species.
22132		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in protected areas.
22132		distribution	eng	This species is found on Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay peninsula (Van Weers 1976; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
22132		habitat	eng	It inhabits in lowland forest, but also found in secondary and degraded habitat. It is semi-commensal with humans.
22132		population	eng	This is a common and a prolific species.
22132		threats	eng	This species is hunted, but it is unlikely to have a major impact on population numbers.
22134		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.
22134		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula montana</span> is considered to be restricted to the Himalayas. It is widely distributed in India (Assam, Uttarakhand) and from two locations in Nepal. It is also reported from Sri Lanka though this requires confirmation. It is likely to be present in other pasts of the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins, but this also requires confirmation.<br/><br/>The species was described from Lake Bhimtal of the Nainital region of northern India by Benson (1843) and rediscovered by Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in 1986.<br/>Davis e<span style="font-style: italic;">t al.</span> searched 28 locations for this species, and found populations in only two locations, upstream and away from the original discovery site. These two sites appear to be tributaries from a different river on the opposite mountain face that Naintal occurs. This species has lost its historical range according to the results of Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1986) but appears to be reported from other parts of India and from Nepal.
22134		habitat	eng	It is found in springs, streams and small rivers of the Himalayan middle mountains. It lives on gravel and stone substrate of oligosaprobic water class I or in moderately mesosaprobic waters in groundwaters.<br/><br/>This species  was originally described as coming from "a clear and weedy stream  running through a marsh at the head of Beemtal, and supplying that lake"  (Benson 1843). Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1986) found their samples of this species  on the stems of water iris.
22134		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
22134		threats	eng	Since this species is found in unpolluted streams and small rivers, water pollution is the main inferred threat to this species. Climate change may impact the species due to decrease in water flows and the drying-up of springs.<br/><br/>The historical distribution of this species in the Naintal district has become heavily polluted from a variety of sources. In particular Lake Naintal, and its surrounding waters, including the Balia Ravine, are experiencing a reduction in the size of the lake, deterioration in water quality, sewage discharge, increased construction on the lake, constant erosion of the Balia Ravine, and a increase in the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and phosphate content.
22151		conservation	eng	This snake is known from protected areas in both China and Vietnam. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Surveys are needed to establish whether this species occurs in karst outcrops in Laos.
22151		distribution	eng	This snake is found in China and northern and central Vietnam, where it appears to have a scattered distribution. In China it is only known from Wuzhishan Forest, Ruyuan County, Guangdong Province. Known localities in Vietnam include Sa Pa and Van Ban in Lao Cai Province, Ha Giang Province, Phong Nha-Ke Bang in Quang Binh Province, and Bac Ma in Thua Thien-Hue Province (Ziegler and Herrmann 2002; Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), as well as Huu Lien in Lang Son Province (N. Orlov pers. comm.). It occurs between 250 and 2,000 m asl.
22151		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found in evergreen forest on both karst and, in Sa Pa, granitic outcrops, including both disturbed and primary forest.
22151		population	eng	This species is infrequently encountered, although numerous specimens have been found in recent surveys of Phong Nha-Ke Bang (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
22151		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture may threaten this species, which appears to be confined to small and strongly disjunct subpopulations within its range, possibly relating to the distribution of karst habitat. Limestone is in high demand in much of the region for cement production, and so mining of karst areas may threaten this snake.
22201		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
22202		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
22206		conservation	eng	Conservation actions are not  needed for this species;&#160; it was not listed as threatened in the Spanish Red List (Verdu and Galante, 2009).&#160; Originally listed as Rare in Wells and Chatfield (1992), then listed on the 1994 Red List, in 1996, the species was recognised as being a restricted range taxa that was under-recorded due to the cryptic habitat and changed to Least Concern (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).
22206		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and France found in the western Pyrenees and the Basque Country. In France it is distributed from the Department of Hautes Pyrénées to Department of Atlantiques-Pyrenees in the West.&#160; In Spain it is found to be widespread in suitable habitats in the the&#160;<span class="short_text" id="result_box"> Basque mountains (Altonaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2004).
22206		habitat	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">This species is virtually endogenous. It lives under rocks buried in the ground within  deciduous forests or in very humid and shady areas. Occasionally, it may appear  in cave openings.
22206		population	eng	There are no population studies. But the enlargement of urban areas and the construction of new road and train infrastructures are causing a decline in the extent of habitat.
22206		threats	eng	In Spain, the main threats to this species are residential, commercial and road and rail infrastructures development, and agriculture and forestry,<br/>and these activities have caused a modification of the natural system in large extensions, in the past and in the present (Gomez, pers. comm., 2010). Nevertheless, there are <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span title="" closure_uid_da5hz4="289" tc="áreas muy extensas donde el hábitat ha permanecido inalterado" uc="large areas where the habitat has remained unchanged">large areas where the  habitat has remained unchanged. </span>In France some sites are close to large and active quarries, where  impact from dust pollution and habitat loss have reduced the area and  quality of beech forest.
22207		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and habitat status would be valuable.
22207		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and Southwest Province Cameroon (Debunsha Lake, and Muandon).
22207		habitat	eng	Possibly found on marsh, perhaps mostly in forest, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
22207		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
22207		threats	eng	No information available.
22208		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
22208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sao Tome and Principe.
22208		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
22208		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
22208		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
22212		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and there is an Action Plan. Listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. Protected by national legislation in many countries; recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. Present in many protected areas. The are local conservation programmes for the species in parts of its range (e.g.. Poland, Germany). In the UK there is a need for monitoring following mitigation work.
22212		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from the United Kingdom and northern France, through southern Scandinavia, and central Europe, enters a small part of the Balkans, to the southwestern part of West Siberia (Kurganskaya Province; records in Sverdlovskaya Province need verification). The presence of this species in southern Hungary requires verification and is not mapped here, as earlier records of <em>T. cristatus</em> are now believed to refer to other <em>Triturus</em> species (M. Puky pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,750m asl. (Arnold, 2003).
22212		habitat	eng	It can be found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of pine, birch, oak, alder etc.), their glades and edges, in forest steppe, bush lands, pastures, meadows, parks and gardens. Reproduction in permanent stagnant and in semi-flowing waters such as ponds, rarely lakes, flooded quarries, irrigation channels and ditches. The usage of small ponds is typical across the range. It can be found in modified habitat types, but this species is not considered to be very adaptable.
22212		population	eng	Although the species is known to be declining or rare in parts of its distribution (e.g., Belgium, where only a few sites are known), it appears to remain relatively common in suitable habitats (although usually occurring in small numbers) over parts of its range.
22212		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to changes in water quality. Correspondingly, industrial pollution of water, destruction and drainage of ponds seem to be the most harmful factors for <em>T. cristatus</em>. The impact of natural factors such as ponds overgrowing, shallowing and eutrophication is harmful to urban populations and those near to the range margins. Introduced predatory fishes are leading to declines in some areas. In some parts of the range (of the former Soviet Union) there is substantial commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. Habitat fragmentation is a threat.
22216		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas, and in parts of its range mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in some of the areas where it occurs (for example, in Romania).
22216		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowlands of the Tisza and Danube River systems from eastern Austria, extreme southern Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Croatia, extreme northern Bosnia-Herzegovina, northern Serbia and western Romania, eastwards to the Transcarpathian Plain in southern Romania, northern Bulgaria, southern Moldova (the lower reaches of the Prut River), and extreme southern Odesskaya Province (Ukraine). Individuals from north-eastern Slovenia (the Mura River) are hybrid forms with <em>Triturus carnifex</em>. It is generally found in lowland areas below 300m asl.
22216		habitat	eng	It is found in open habitats with mixed deciduous forests and groves, bushlands, flooded meadows and swamps, and also in agricultural landscapes and villages, and riparian groves in the steppe regions. It might in some instances be strictly aquatic. This species may coexist with fish in oxbow lakes, river margins and other non-temporary waterbodies, and may also occur in disturbed habitats including those close to human settlement (Griffiths 1996). Reproduction takes place in small ponds with stagnant water, or in channels, ditches and flooded areas. It intergrades with other species of the former <em>Triturus cristatus</em> complex along the contact zones.
22216		population	eng	In general, populations of this species are rapidly declining as a result of habitat loss.
22216		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are rapid anthropogenic habitat destruction (for example, through drainage and damming), and pollution of its wetland habitats (especially floodplains). Hybridization with other crested newt species at the edge of its range is also a threat. In the southern part of its range, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change.
22220		conservation	eng	This species was previously assessed as Near Threatened in 1996 (version 2.3). The unique flora and fauna of the artesian spring systems have been listed as an ‘endangered community’ under the Australian Environmental Protection & Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 (Wilmer <em>et al</em>. 2005). Management of the springs in which this species is found - via an area-based management plan - is the only option to ensure its long-term survival. Continued local and regional impacts on artesian water must be carefully controlled to prevent further drawdown. Habitat damage due to livestock and other pastoral activities should be minimized (Ponder 1996).
22220		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Southern and Middle Artesian Spring groups, south of William Creek between Maree and Oodnadatta in central South Australia, Australia (Ponder 1996). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 29,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
22220		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs and can be found in the spring head and outflows, amongst small sedges at the edges, living sympatrically with four other Hydrobiid species (Ponder 1996). This species can occupy a variety of microhabitats and has been found to be particularly abundant in shallow, firm-bottomed outflows (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1989). This species has an adult size of approximately 1.65 mm (Niejalke and Richards 1998).
22220		population	eng	This species can be extremely abundant, but has a localised distribution (Ponder 1996). At the Dead Boy and Bopeechee spring groups in northern South Australia, Niejalke and Richards (1998) recorded a mean population density of up to 18.7 individuals per cm² near to the spring outflow.
22220		threats	eng	Artesian springs are found in South Australia and western Queensland. There also used to be artesian springs in the north-west of New South Wales, but these are now mostly extinct, presumably as a result of water extraction from the basin by the pastoral industry (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1989). In South Australia, each spring is typically separated by arid agricultural land (Ponder 1996) which provides a marked discontinuity of habitat, like that of an island surrounded by sea. This fragmented distribution makes this species especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996), and it has been found that the life history characteristics of this species make it more sensitive to changes in prevailing environmental conditions (Niejalke and Richards 1998), such as those brought on by climate change. Although locally very common, this species is dependent on a continuing supply of clean water, and yet it is currently threatened by the over-extraction of artesian water for agricultural, industrial and municipal uses (Wilmer <em>et al</em>. 2005).
22250		conservation	eng	This species is classified Near Threatened (NT) in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (pag. 45; in Verdú and Galante 2009) and Least Concern (LC) in the Andalusian Invertebrates Red Book (pag. 1309; in Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperon and Moreno 2008). The localities where it has been mentioned belong largely to protected areas, such as the natural parks of Grazalema, Los  Alcornocales and Torcal de Antequera. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is much more extensive than the one of&#160;<em>X. zaharensis</em>&#160;and, although it is mentioned in only 12 grids of 10 km<sup>2</sup> to date, future more intense samplings might reveal a greater presence and extent of occurrence. In fact, as this species lives in limestone areas that are abundant in the province of Cádiz, Málaga and Seville, it is likely that the status of this species is better than currently known. It is recommended to conduct biological studies, population estimates and some species and habitat monitoring.
22250		distribution	eng	<em>X. jimenensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the South of Spain, in the Andalusian provinces of Cádiz, Málaga and southern Seville&#160;(Puente and Arrébola 1996).
22250		habitat	eng	This species is living in open places in karstic, disturbed and pasture environments, characterized by a low herbaceous cover&#160;(Puente and Arrébola 1996). It is mentioned in some of the extensive calcareous mountains of Andalusia.
22250		population	eng	There is no population data about this species.
22250		threats	eng	Apart from the fires, no specific threats are known for this species, but further studies are needed (including on the population, biology...) to determine potential threats.
22253		conservation	eng	This species is currently abundant on the Columbrete islands but the habitat is fragile and a Plan of conservation and the inclusion of this species in protected species catalogues is recommended. The specific status of this taxon should be investigate as it is possible that it was introduced to the Columbrete islands from the Pine islands (Balearic islands).
22253		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is restricted to the Columbretes islands (Castellón province) to two islands: Columbrete Grande (L'Illa Grossa) and Mancolibre.
22253		habitat	eng	This species lives in exposed places on the stems of bushes and under stones.
22253		population	eng	There has been a slight increase in the population of this species since the islands they inhabit have been protected.
22253		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species include fires, depredation by rats and birds and tourism.
22254		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of this species are included in several natural reserves. It is included in the Bern Convention and there is a proposal for its protection in Catalonia (both <span style="font-style: italic;">X. montserratensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">X. betulonensis </span>have been proposed).
22254		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Catalonia, Spain, where it is restricted to Montserrat's mountainous chain and the littoral mountains of the basin of Besos river, in the province of Barcelona.
22254		habitat	eng	This species lives on the stems of shrubs in dry places and under stones, in open rocky areas.
22254		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing as a low number of specimens have been found during surveys, and a subpopulation in the Collserola mountains can be considered extinct (Bros 2004, 2009). According to Bros (2011), the more important population of this species is found in Montcau (Natural parc of Sant Llorenç del Munt i l'Obac).
22254		threats	eng	In the past, urbanisation was a major threat. Presently the main threats are fires and recreational activities (such as hiking and mountain biking).
22255		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as Data Deficient (DD) in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates&#160;(Verdú and Galante 2006) and as Endangered (EN) in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates&#160;(Arrébola and Ruiz 2008).&#160;It is also included in the "Conservation and Sustainable&#160;Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). More research is needed on the ecology and distribution of the species and on the threats it faces. Habitat protection is also recommended.
22255		distribution	eng	This snail is only known from the type locality in Zahara de la Sierra (Cádiz, Spain)&#160;(Puente and Arrébola 1996).
22255		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks in wooded ravine (<em>Quercus rotundifolia</em>, <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>, olive and fruit trees) with low exposure (Puente and Arrébola 1996).
22255		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
22255		threats	eng	Due to its restricted range, fires and stochastic events can severely affect this species. Further threats are not known.
22273		habitat	eng	A subterranean species.
22297		conservation	eng	This species is present in Chishuisuoluo, Leigongshan, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Jiyuanmihou, Jigongshan (Xinyang), Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Changshanerhai, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and it is probably present in other protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1cd (Wang and Xie 2004).
22297		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It has a widespread distribution across much of central China (Smith and Xie 2008), including Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Gansu, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, Beijing, Hubei, and Qinghai. It occurs at elevations ranging from 1,360-2,750 m asl (Wang 1998).
22297		habitat	eng	This species occupies temperate forests and nests in caves (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>Diet primarily consists of oak leaves (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008). Sexual maturity is reached at 22 months, litter sizes range from one to four, and gestation is 78-89 days (Smith and Xie 2008).
22297		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species, but it is inferred that the population is declining as a result of habitat loss, hunting and capturing.
22297		threats	eng	Threats to this species include hunting/capturing (Wang 1998), logging, and tree plantations (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).
22345		conservation	eng	None.
22345		distribution	eng	Restricted to the River Pinios in the western Peloponnese, and to the Aitoloakarnania region (Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia and Amvrakia, Acheloos river basin) in Greece.
22345		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes and large rivers. It is a small size species (<110 mm).
22345		population	eng	Apparently stable.
22345		threats	eng	Water pollution, and bycatch in fisheries.
22346		conservation	eng	None.
22346		distribution	eng	Restricted to few small rivers and streams (from Nedas to Evrotas) in southern Peloponnese in Greece.
22346		habitat	eng	It is a species of small size (<100 mm) which lives near the river/stream edges avoiding the main stream currents.
22346		population	eng	Decreasing.
22346		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution, and drought. It is reported that effluent from the olive pressing mills is discharged into the rivers in the dry season, when fish are in isolated pools, such that the river often runs black.
22366		habitat	eng	Occurs in littoral and benthic zones of lakes with extensive macrophyte stands.
22367		habitat	eng	Occurs in littoral and benthic zones of lakes and ponds, perennial marshes.
22372		distribution	eng	Found in Lakes Baringo and Naivasha.
22375		distribution	eng	This calanoid copepod occurs in Lake Tanganyika.
22375		habitat	eng	It is an important prey item for the many species of cichlid fish in the lake.
22376		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria.
22378		distribution	eng	Recorded from the plain of Rusizi River.
22384		conservation	eng	This species is protected by French law, but there are no specific conservation action plan. More research is needed on  the population, distribution and taxonomy of this species.
22384		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a restricted area, south of Auxerre (Yonne, France).
22384		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in dry meadows.
22384		population	eng	There are no population data available.
22384		threats	eng	Abandonment of agricultural land and the resulting change in vegetation affect it.
22385		conservation	eng	Monitoring of trend and size of populations on the three islands where the species occurs is strongly suggested.
22385		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, and is recorded from the Islands of Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro. From Tenerife, there are recent shells known collected by Blauner (type locality, not specified), and some fossils from Costa de el Draguillo. Shells have been found on La Gomera (fossil from Bco. de Machal, recent only from Hermigua in the north-east of the islands.). From El Hierro, it is only known from the Parador in the south of the island.
22385		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species lives in the soil of the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
22385		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.</p>
22385		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The threats to this species are not known.<span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
22423		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperiled by NatureServe (2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has not been seen since 1993, despite two targeted surveys to locate the species. Further surveys are recommended to establish whether populations still exist in the marshes at the type locality.
22423		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single spring lake (Phantom Lake, part of the Balmorhea spring system) in Jeff Davis County, Texas, United States of America (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 2009). The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
22423		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a single freshwater spring - Phantom Lake, part of the Balmorhea spring system in Jeff Davis County, Texas&#160;(Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 2009).
22423		population	eng	This species was abundant on firm substratum prior to modification of the habitat (see threat section) (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 2009). The species was last observed in 1993, and Hershler (2001) found no living specimens. Targeted surveys have been carried out, but there is still a possibility that the snail might survive in non-viable populations in the marshes at the type locality (K. Perez pers. comm. 2012).
22423		threats	eng	There has been a significant decline in the freshwater flow from these springs as a result of water withdrawal for irrigation (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). Water has been diverted for irrigation and urban use for ca. 30 years from this lake (K. Perez pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Phantom Lake contains several species of endangered fish (two federally listed). Serious recent declines (since 1993) have occurred due to drought and water withdrawal. This lake was dammed and diverted in 1946 (Bureau of Reclamation) and turned from a freshwater marsh to an impounded lake. Although the species may still be present, the range is probably contracted since impoundment and habitat modification.<br/><br/>Although a pump has been installed to keep the habitat filled, the long-term status is not secure.
22425		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009), but there are no current management strategies in place. Further research regarding population data, distribution and threats is neeed to accurately assess this species, as this information is currently lacking.
22425		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ash Meadows, Amargosa River Basin, Nevada, in freshwater seeps and springs (Hershler 2001, NatureServe 2009).
22425		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater springs and seeps of the Amargosa River (Hershler and Sada 1987, Hershler 2001, NatureServe 2009).
22425		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
22425		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
22431		conservation	eng	This species is only known from three localities. Basic information is needed on species range and population size, habitat and ecology. It is not known to occur in a protected area.
22431		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Luzon (Philippines), where it has been recorded from Benguet, Laguna, and Tarlac provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs along the Chico river at the base of Mt. Data (1,500-1,700 m) and at the base of Mt. Makiling.
22431		habitat	eng	This species inhabits "wet habitats" such as weedy secondary growth areas, rice fields and other agricultural areas at lower altitudes. It has also been reported from mossy forest at about 2,500 m in the Central Cordillera (Miller 1910; Rabor 1955) and in the lower parts of Mt. Makiling (100-350 m) (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973).
22431		population	eng	The population status of the species is not known. It is only known from three records: one from the 1946 expedition (Sanborn 1952; Rabor 1955); one from Los Banos campus, Rice research Institute in the irrigated lowland rice fields (Barbehenn 1973); and the last one from Tarlac province, close to the cities "Concepcion" and "Mayanpoc" (Barbehenn 1973). However, this is likely to be due to the difficulty in trapping this species rather than reflecting a genuine rarity (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
22431		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
22432		conservation	eng	Has been considered an agricultural pest.  Listed in the China Red List as Least Concern.
22432		distribution	eng	Distributed in NE China, Korea and Russian Far East.
22432		habitat	eng	Generally found in open xeric areas, marches with shrubs and river banks. Also found at field edges, along canals, roads, and rice fields. Constructs deep vertical burrows in which it caches vast quanties of seed in a large storage chamber. Feds on seeds of wild and cultivated plants (soy, corn, sunflower). Occasionally known to harvest leaves. Stores food for winter, up to 10 kg. Primarily nocturnal, although can be seen active during the day.  Life expectancy about one year (they tend to waste away following breeding).  Reproductive season from April to October (May to August in China).  Breed 2-3 times and generally produce litters of from 8-10 young. Maximum registred litter size is 24.
22432		population	eng	There are no data available.
22432		threats	eng	No major threats to the species. However, change in water regime and marshes drainage may influence local distribution.
22446		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
22446		distribution	eng	Found on North and South Pagai Islands, and Sipora (Mentawai Islands, Indonesia) (Helgen, 2005).
22446		habitat	eng	Apparently restricted to lowland forests.
22446		population	eng	There is no population information available.
22446		threats	eng	If this species is dependent upon lowland primary forests, then it is almost certainly being threatened by ongoing forest loss due to logging on the Mentawais.
22451		conservation	eng	&#160;This species is found in several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
22451		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo, where it is found in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Brunei (Helgen 2005). It is more commonly found below 1,000 m (K.H. Han pers. comm.).
22451		habitat	eng	This species is reliant on pristine forest; however, they do survive in natural forest remnants in tree plantations and regenerating shifting agriculture plots (R. Stuebing pers. comm.).
22451		population	eng	Formerly common in Borneo, but there have probably since been declines throughout the range.
22451		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation and habitat degradation due to agriculture and conversion to non-timber plantations.
22454		conservation	eng	&#160;It has been recorded from several protected areas, including Galathea National Park and Campbell National Park (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
22454		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on the Indian islands of Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar (Helgen 2005). Sea level to 1,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
22454		habitat	eng	This semi-arboreal species, often seen on the forest floor, occupies the lower and mid-canopy of rainforest areas.
22454		population	eng	It is locally common in appropriate habitats.
22454		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are forest loss and fragmentation, and predation by domestic dogs and cats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
22455		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
22455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on Palawan Island from 0 to 1,400 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004; Helgen 2005).
22455		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest; it has also been found in n agricultural areas and in cashew and coconut plantations, brushy areas, and logged-over areas (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).
22455		population	eng	Usually common, though local densities may be highly variable between apparently similar habitats (see Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004, and references therein).
22455		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
22563		conservation	eng	Several of the existing laws and treaties in force today (reviewed in Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) could provide a potentially solid framework for the conservation of Bottlenose Dolphins and for the protection of their habitat in the Mediterranean region. Unfortunately, implementation and enforcement of those instruments have not been consistently effective. Actions taken to date have not been adequate to maintain a ‘favourable’ status of Bottlenose Dolphin populations (as advocated by the EU Habitats Directive) or to prevent further population decline. Tangible actions to protect Bottlenose Dolphins and other Mediterranean cetaceans have been surprisingly few, especially if one considers the large number of existing laws, regulations and agreements that have been in place for years and even decades (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>About a hundred national Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) of different types, sizes and purposes have been established in Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey, but specific measures for cetacean conservation are rarely included in their management plans. A notable exception is the 87,000 km² cetacean sanctuary created in 1999 by France, Italy, and the Monaco Principality in the Corso-Ligurian-Provençal Basin (the ‘Pelagos Sanctuary’; Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In addition, three years of provisional protection (from July 26th, 2006) were granted to the waters east of the islands of Losinj and Cres (Croatia) following a proposal for the creation of a special zoological reserve for dolphins. However, that period has expired and so far no protection measures have been enforced. If appropriately managed, MPAs could contribute to Bottlenose Dolphin conservation by preserving their prey and habitat, reducing the risks of mortality in fishing gear, providing refuge from noise and other types of disturbance, raising awareness, stimulating research and facilitating exchange of information (Hoyt 2005). However, levels of enforcement are often low and many of the existing Mediterranean MPAs merely represent ‘paper parks’ (Bearzi 2007, Guidetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Other types of action that can provide direct or indirect benefits to Bottlenose Dolphins include area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, changes to fishing gear or fishing practices to reduce incidental mortality, curtailment of inputs of toxic pollutants, and boating regulations.
22563		conservation	eng	The bottlenose dolphin has been afforded special protected status under Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.  Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. Research on population structure, abundance and removals of common bottlenose dolphins is needed so that risks to regional populations can be assessed.
22563		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The bottlenose dolphin has been afforded special protected status under Annex II of the European Union’s Habitats Directive. Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey.
22563		distribution	eng	Bottlenose Dolphins are widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea. Although historically their distribution may have been continuous, at least in coastal waters, it is now marked by gaps with low densities that may be either natural or the result of anthropogenic effects (e.g., intensive exploitation, whether deliberate or indirect; habitat degradation or loss). Range includes inshore, coastal and offshore waters to near the continental slope.<br/>  <p>Bottlenose Dolphins occur in most coastal waters of the basin and have been reliably reported in the waters of Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Gibraltar (U.K.), Greece, Israel, Italy, Montenegro, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey.&#160; They occur regularly around many of the region’s offshore islands and archipelagos (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Many of the Mediterranean areas inhabited by these dolphins are subject to intensive human use, e.g. the straits of Gibraltar, Bonifacio, and Messina, and the gulfs of Lion, Genoa, and Trieste. Within their overall range, gaps with very low densities of animals have been documented, e.g., in the north-western Ligurian Sea (France and Italy) and in the north-western Gulf of Vera (Spain). Variation in density is likely related to several factors, including a) habitat characteristics and b) local availability of suitable prey. The effects of past extermination campaigns (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004) and a variety of ongoing threats probably have contributed to the patchiness of the current distribution of Bottlenose Dolphins across the region. </p>
22563		distribution	eng	Common bottlenose dolphins are distributed worldwide through tropical and temperate inshore, coastal, shelf, and oceanic waters (Leatherwood and Reeves 1990; Wells and Scott 1999; Reynolds <em>et al</em>. 2000). Bottlenose dolphins generally do not range pole-ward of 45°except in northern Europe (as far as the Faroe Islands 62°N 7°W - Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000) and to southern New Zealand. The species is rare in the Baltic Sea (it may best be considered extralimital there) and is vagrant to Newfoundland and Norway (Wells and Scott 1999).
22563		distribution	eng	Common bottlenose dolphins are distributed worldwide through tropical and temperate inshore, coastal, shelf, and oceanic waters (Leatherwood and Reeves 1990, Wells and Scott 1999, Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Bottlenose dolphins generally do not range pole-ward of 45° except in northern Europe (as far as the Faroe Islands 62°N 7°W:  Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000). The species is rare in the Baltic Sea (it may best be considered extralimital there), and is vagrant to  Norway (Wells and Scott 1999).
22563		habitat	eng	Common bottlenose dolphins tend to be primarily coastal, but they can also be found in pelagic waters (Wells and Scott 1999). Where distinct ecotypes are known, the inshore form frequents estuaries, bays, lagoons and other shallow coastal regions, occasionally ranging far up into rivers. The offshore form is apparently less restricted in range and movement. Some offshore dolphins are residents around oceanic islands. In many inshore areas bottlenose dolphins maintain definable, long-term multi-generational home ranges, but in some locations near the extremes of the species range, coastal bottlenose dolphins are migratory. Black Sea bottlenose dolphins are common over the continental shelf; they sometimes occur far offshore (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins are commonly associated with many other cetaceans, including both large whales and other dolphin species (Wells and Scott 1999).  Mixed schools with Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins have been found, for instance off China and Taiwan (J. Wang, pers. comm.).  Spring and summer, spring and fall, or single summer calving peaks are known for most areas where this has been studied (Wilson 1995, Wells and Scott 1999). In general, bottlenose dolphins consume a wide variety of prey species, mostly fish  and squid (Barros and Odell 1990, Barros and Wells 1998, Santos <em>et al.</em> 2001).  They sometimes eat shrimps and other crustaceans.
22563		habitat	eng	Common bottlenose dolphins tend to be primarily coastal, but they can also be found in pelagic waters (Wells and Scott 1999). Where distinct ecotypes are known, the inshore form frequents estuaries, bays, lagoons and other shallow coastal regions, occasionally ranging far up into rivers. The offshore form is apparently less restricted in range and movement. Some offshore dolphins are residents around oceanic islands. In many inshore areas bottlenose dolphins maintain definable, long-term multi-generational home ranges, but in some locations near the extremes of the species range they are migratory. Off the coasts of North America, they tend to inhabit waters with surface temperatures ranging from about 10°C to 32°C (Wells and Scott, 1999). Black Sea bottlenose dolphins are common over the continental shelf; they sometimes occur far offshore (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins are commonly associated with many other cetaceans, including both large whales and other dolphin species (Wells and Scott 1999). Mixed schools with Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins have been found, for instance off China and Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins consume a wide variety of prey species, mostly fish and squid (Barros and Odell 1990; Barros and Wells 1998; Blanco <em>et al</em>. 2001; Santos <em>et al</em>. 2001). They sometimes eat shrimps and other crustaceans.
22563		habitat	eng	<p>Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are often regarded as predominantly ‘coastal’ or ‘inshore’ animals but this designation may be misleading as they can be encountered in continental shelf and shallow plateaux waters at any distance from the coast (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). They inhabit a wide variety of habitats including continental shelf waters, lagoons and enclosed seas, and the waters surrounding islands and archipelagos (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). In the Alborán and Balearic Seas they occur across the entire shelf, along the shelf edge and in deep waters of the continental slope, and in productive waters 200–500 m deep (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005, Forcada <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Strait of Gibraltar, at or near the western limits of what is defined here as the Mediterranean region, Bottlenose Dolphins occur mainly in water 200–600 m deep, over steep slopes (de Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Greek waters they are found in coastal areas, straits, gulfs, semi-closed eutrophic waters, and steep coasts with no continental shelf (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008).<br/></p><p>  </p><p>The size of Bottlenose Dolphin groups varies according to biogeographic region, prey availability, activity and other factors. Most encounters have been with groups of fewer than ten individuals (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Associations with other cetacean species are uncommon, although in some areas mixed aggregations with Short-beaked Common Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Delphinus delphis</span>) and Long-finned Pilot Whales (<span style="font-style: italic;">Globicephala melas</span>) have been observed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  <p>In Mediterranean coastal waters Bottlenose Dolphins target primarily demersal prey during feeding sessions characterized by dives lasting 3–5 min and occasionally up to 8 min, depending on water depth (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Reported prey items include demersal species such as European Hake (<span style="font-style: italic;">Merluccius merluccius</span>), European Conger (<span style="font-style: italic;">Conger conger</span>), Red Mullet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mullus barbatus</span>), Striped Red Mullet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mullus surmuletus</span>), Common Cuttlefish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sepia officinalis</span>), Common Octopus (<span style="font-style: italic;">Octopus vulgaris</span>) and a variety of other bony fishes and molluscs (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). As most studies have relied on stomach contents from stranded animals, inferences may be subject to bias (Barros and Clarke 2002). In some Mediterranean areas Bottlenose Dolphins also feed on Clupeidae or other epipelagic prey (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  In the Mediterranean Sea, predation is regarded as a minor cause of mortality. Bottlenose Dolphins, as well as other small Mediterranean delphinids, are preyed upon occasionally by sharks, principally Great White Sharks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharodon carcharias</span>) but also several other species (Fergusson 1994, Morey <em>et al</em>. 2003). The numbers of large sharks have declined drastically in Mediterranean waters over the past century (Ferretti <em>et al</em>. 2008) and this may have reduced predation pressure considerably.&#160; Other potential dolphin predators<em>,</em> such as the Killer Whale (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orcinus orca</span>) and the False Killer Whale (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudorca crassidens</span>), are rare in the Mediterranean (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
22563		population	eng	Abundance has been estimated for several parts of the species' range. Summing available estimates, a minimum world-wide estimate is 600,000.<br/><br/>U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service surveys have estimated 52,000 bottlenose dolphins in the northern Gulf of Mexico (3,708 [CV=42%] in oceanic waters beyond the shelf edge (Mullin 2006), 25,320 [CV=26%] on the outer continental shelf, 17,602 in coastal waters, and 5,063 in estuaries, bays, and channels – Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are approximately 126,000 off the eastern coast of North America (including 81,588 [CV=17%] in offshore waters and 32,533 (winter) to 43,951 (summer) in coastal waters – Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). Pacific surveys found 243,500 (CV=29%) in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993), 3,215 (CV= 59%) off Hawaii (Barlow 2006), 323 (CV=13%) in coastal California waters (Dudzik <em>et al</em>. 2006), and an average of about 2,000 (CV = 44%) in the offshore waters of California/Oregon/Washington (Barlow and Forney in press). Japanese surveys found 168,000 (CV=26%) in the Northwestern Pacific west of 180ºE, including 36,791 (CV=25%) in Japanese coastal waters (Miyashita 1993). In the eastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em> (2006) estimated 2,628. Approximately 900 bottlenose dolphins were found along 400 km of coastal waters off KwaZulu-Natal (however, many of these may have been <em>T. aduncus</em> - Reyes 1991; Wells and Scott 1999).<br/><br/>Total abundance in the Mediterranean is unknown but thought to be in the low 10,000s based on observed densities in areas that have been surveyed (Bearzi and Fortuna 2006). Surveys in the northwestern Mediterranean estimated 7,654 (CV=45%) present (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 2004). An estimated 584 (CV=28%) occur in the Alboran Sea (Cañadas and Hammond 2006). Mediterranean bottlenose dolphins exhibit population structure, based on toxicology and diet (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2005) and genetics (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>The total population size in the Black Sea is unknown. However, there are recent abundance estimates for parts of the range suggesting that population size is at least several thousands (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Preliminary estimates from the late 1980s indicate about 1,000 dolphins occur around the Faroe Islands (Sigurjónsson <em>et al</em>. 1989; Sigurjónsson and Gunnlaugsson 1990, Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000). Estimates of inshore bottlenose dolphins along the European Atlantic coasts total at least 610 individuals (Liret <em>et al</em>. 1998; Wilson <em>et al</em>. 1999; Grellier and Wilson 2003; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2002; Ingram 2000; White and Webb 1995, Baines <em>et al</em>. 2002; Gaspar 2003). A wide-scale survey in 2005 of western European continental shelf waters including the western Baltic, North Sea and Atlantic margin as far as southern Spain estimated that there were 12,600 bottlenose dolphins in this area (CV=27%, P. Hammond pers. comm..). Minimum estimates exist for other small areas around the world: for example, 122 (95% CI = 114-140) off Belize (Kerr <em>et al</em>. 2005) and 66 in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand (Hase and Schneider 2001).
22563		population	eng	Abundance has been estimated for several parts of the species' range. Summing available estimates, a minimum world-wide estimate of common bottlenose dolphins is 600,000. <br/><br/>Total abundance in the Mediterranean is unknown but thought to be in the low 10,000s based on observed densities in areas that have been surveyed (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Surveys in the northwestern Mediterranean estimated 7,654 (CV=45%) dolphins (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 2004).  An estimated 584 (CV=28%) animals occur in the Alboran Sea (Cañadas and Hammond 2006). Mediterranean bottlenose dolphins exhibit population structure based on toxicology and diet (Borrell <em>et al.</em> 2005) and genetics (Natoli et al. 2005). <br/><br/>The total population size in the Black Sea is unknown. However, there are recent abundance estimates for parts of the range suggesting that population size is at least several thousands (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Preliminary estimates from the late 1980s indicate about 1,000 dolphins occur around the Faroe Islands (Sigurjónsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000). A wide scale survey in 2005 of western European continental shelf waters including the western Baltic, North Sea and Atlantic margin as far as southern Spain estimated that there were 12,600 bottlenose dolphins in this area (CV=27%, P. Hammond pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara (2006) estimate generation time in the common bottlenose dolphin to be c.20 years.
22563		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but may be in the low 10,000s based on observed densities in areas that have been surveyed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Further subpopulation structure exists and may require future assessments at a finer geographical scale. Further genetic analysis with samples from areas not yet included are strongly recommended. <br/><br/>A declining trend is inferred, refering specifically to the time since the early 1940s (i.e., over the last three generations). It is uncertain whether the subpopulation is still declining and if so, at what rate.<br/><br/>Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins are genetically differentiated from those inhabiting the contiguous eastern North Atlantic Ocean and Scottish waters.&#160; Based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses, distinct populations have been identified across the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). The genetic analysis of 145 samples along a continuous distributional range from the Black Sea to the eastern North Atlantic (16 samples from the Black Sea, 74 from the Mediterranean Sea, 35 from the eastern North Atlantic and 20 from Scotland) found population structure with boundaries that coincided with the transitions between different types of habitat. The different zones can be characterized by ocean floor topography and by features such as surface salinity, productivity and temperature. Five populations were identified: Black Sea, eastern Mediterranean, western Mediterranean, eastern North Atlantic and Scottish. The Black Sea population showed the highest differentiation from other populations. Significant genetic differentiation was observed between populations from the eastern and the western Mediterranean. The boundary between the western Mediterranean and the eastern North Atlantic was the weakest observed, although the two populations still showed significant genetic differentiation.&#160; Despite the lack of obvious physical barriers, the eastern North Atlantic and the Scottish populations also showed genetic differences. There was genetic evidence of directional emigration of females at the extreme of the range although neither sex showed a strong bias for greater dispersal (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population structure of Bottlenose Dolphins around the Iberian Peninsula was investigated through isotopic signatures and organochlorine pollutant loads in tissues of stranded animals from Catalonia, Valencia and the Balearic Islands and adjacent Atlantic waters (Huelva and Portugal; Borrell <em>et al.</em> 2006). Significant differences in stable isotopes of carbon (<sup>13</sup>C/<sup>12</sup>C) and in PCB congener profiles indicated that dolphins from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean do not intermingle.&#160; In the Mediterranean, dolphins from Catalonia and Valencia were indistinguishable, suggesting a common distribution area. However, dolphins from the Balearic Islands differed from those of mainland Spain in their DDT/PCB ratio and from all the other sample groups in their PCB congener profiles, suggesting that the deep waters between the Balearic Islands and the Peninsula represent an effective barrier for the species (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2006). Evidence of population structure also has been found in other Mediterranean delphinids, including Short-beaked Common Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Delphinus delphis</span><em>) </em>(Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2008), Striped Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenella coeruleoalba</span>) (Fossi <em>et al</em>. 2004, Gaspari <em>et al</em>. 2007b) and Risso’s Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Grampus griseus</span>) (Gaspari <em>et al.</em> 2007). These findings suggest not only that the more obvious physical boundaries such as the Strait of Gibraltar (minimum width about 45 km and sill depths less than 145 m) and the Turkish Straits system (Dardanelles minimum width about 450 m and sill depths less than 55 m) represent barriers to the movement of individuals, but also that the much wider Sicily Channel (143 km and sill depths less than 200 m), oceanic features such as the Almería-Orán front (Tintoré <em>et al</em>. 1988) and more generally differences in habitat characteristics tend to limit the movements of Bottlenose Dolphins (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><p>There is no basin-wide estimate of numbers and the most reliable information comes from a few local studies&#160; (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Useful information on past and present occurrence also comes from stranding records from Algeria, Croatia, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and Tunisia (however, a stranded carcass is not necessarily indicative of the dead animal’s having lived nearby). Virtually nothing is known for large portions of the south-eastern part of the basin (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008c). Most studies in coastal waters are limited to areas of 400 to 1,000 km² and probably do not even cover the entire ranges of the groups under study.&#160; Relatively recent, broad-scale shipboard surveys (4,000–80,000 km²) showed that in some Mediterranean areas Bottlenose Dolphins are present both near shore and offshore, and densities can range between four and 20 animals per 100 km²<sup></sup> (Ben Naceur <em>et al</em>. 2004, Forcada <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cañadas and Hammond 2006, Gómez de Segura <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008c). Studies tend to focus on areas of relatively high dolphin density, although study site preferences also may depend on logistical and other considerations. Although the total population size in the Mediterranean remains uncertain, it unquestionably exceeds the threshold level for red listing as Vulnerable under the D criterion.</p><p>  </p><p>Indirect but convincing evidence of dolphin abundance in historical times can be found in early accounts describing interactions with fisheries and systematic attempts to exterminate dolphins (including Bottlenose Dolphins) in Mediterranean coastal waters (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  The only Mediterranean area with quantitative historical information that can be used to infer population trends over time scales of more than a couple of decades is the northern Adriatic Sea. There, Bottlenose Dolphin numbers likely declined by at least 50% in the second half of the 20th century, largely as a consequence of deliberate killing initially, followed by habitat degradation and overfishing of prey species (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2004). For some other parts of the northern Mediterranean, e.g. Italy and southern France, the available information is less precise but suggests similar trends (Blanco and González 1992, Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2000). In an area off southern Spain where the species has been studied intensively, abundance estimates have shown variability but no trend since the early 1990s (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2006).
22563		threats	eng	Coastal and island-centered populations are especially vulnerable to hunting, incidental catch, and habitat degradation (see Curry and Smith 1997 for a review). Acute conservation problems are known in the Mediterranean and Black seas (IWC 1992, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) as well as a number of other areas in the global range (outside Europe). Dolphin catches for bait, human consumption, or to remove competition with fisheries have been reported worldwide (see reviews in Wells and Scott 1999, 2002).  <br/><br/>The only Mediterranean area with quantitative historical information is the northern Adriatic Sea, where bottlenose dolphins likely have declined by at least 50% over the past 50 years, largely as a consequence of historical killing in extermination campaigns to reduce competition for fish, followed by habitat degradation and overfishing. The extermination campaigns were conducted until the early 1960s (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).  For the north-western Mediterranean, the available information suggests similar trends (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Drive fisheries have been reported from the Faroe Islands and Japan. Up to 308 are taken annually in the Faroe Islands drive fishery (dating back to 1803), often with long finned pilot whales (Reyes 1991). The Black Sea subspecies has had extensive directed takes for commercial products (Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992), including takes of at least 24,000-28,000 during 1946-1983 in the Black Sea off Turkey.  However, the total number of dolphins killed was certainly much greater (probably by tens of thousands) as figures do not include, or only partially include, catch statistics from other Black Sea countries (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Live-capture removal of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins, including mortality during capture operations, is estimated at 1,000-2,000 since the early 1960s. Live-captures continue in the Russian Federation, with 10-20 animals taken annually from a small area in the Kerch Strait, Russia (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). According to CITES statistics, at least 92 individuals were removed from the Black Sea region during 1990-1999 (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Russia reportedly has exported at least 66 for travelling shows since 1997 (Fisher and Reeves 2005).<br/><br/>Incidental catches of common bottlenose dolphins are known from throughout the species’ range, in gillnets, driftnets, purse seines, trawls, long-lines, and on hook-and-line gear used in commercial and recreational fisheries, but numbers of mortalities are often poorly documented (Wells and Scott 1999). Annual Black Sea bottlenose dolphin incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets from 1946 through the 1980s is roughly estimated in the hundreds. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in the 1990s-2000s owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). According to Öztürk (1999) at least 200-300 bottlenose dolphins per year may be taken incidentally in Turkish fisheries in a variety of fishing nets, especially bottom-set gill nets.<br/><br/>Common bottlenose dolphins in coastal areas are exposed to a wide variety of threats in addition to direct and indirect takes. Threats that are cause for concern include: 1) the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals; 2) reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 1998, Jackson <em>et al.</em> 2001); 3) direct and indirect disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic and commercial dolphin watching and interactive programs); 4) marine construction and demolition and 5) other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (including anthropogenic noise). Although these and other threats are technically challenging to quantify by comparison with takes, their cumulative impact is likely to result in longitudinal population declines. Lack of historical data in many cases hampers understanding of long term trends, possibly resulting in shifting baselines. The contribution of anthropogenic factors to an increasing number of Unusual Mortality Events involving bottlenose dolphins remains to be determined (Spradlin <em>et al.</em> 2005).
22563		threats	eng	Coastal and island-centred populations are especially vulnerable to hunting, incidental catch, and habitat degradation (Curry and Smith 1997). Acute conservation problems are known or suspected in at least: (a) the Mediterranean and Black seas (IWC 1992; Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006); (b) Sri Lanka (Leatherwood and Reeves 1989); (c) Peru, Ecuador and Chile (Read <em>et al</em>. 1988; Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1990, 1997; Sanino <em>et al</em>. 2004; K. Van Waerebeek pers. comm.); (d) Taiwan (Hammond and Leatherwood 1984; Perrin 1989; Wang <em>et al</em>. 1999); and (e) Japan (Miyazaki 1983; Kasuya 1985; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dolphin catches for bait, human consumption, or to remove competition with fisheries have been reported worldwide (Wells and Scott 1999, 2002). In Peru, coastal fisheries still take Tursiops and other cetaceans for human consumption and bait, using harpoons and gill nets (K. Van Waerebeek pers. comm.). It is taken opportunistically by harpoon in Sri Lanka (Ilangakoon 1997). In Taiwan, common bottlenose dolphins comprise a major part of the small cetaceans taken by harpoon (J. Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The only Mediterranean area with quantitative historical information is the northern Adriatic Sea, where bottlenose dolphins likely have declined by at least 50% over the past 50 years, largely as a consequence of historical killing in extermination campaigns to reduce competition for fish, followed by habitat degradation and overfishing. The extermination campaigns were conducted until the early 1960s (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Bearzi and Fortuna 2006). For the north-western Mediterranean, the available information suggests similar trends (Bearzi and Fortuna 2006). <br/><br/>Drive fisheries have been reported from the Faroe Islands and Japan. Up to 308 are taken annually in the Faroe Islands drive fishery (dating back to 1803), often with long-finned pilot whales (Reyes 1991; Bloch 1998). Drive and harpoon fisheries in Japan catch bottlenose dolphins for human consumption and to remove perceived competition with commercial fisheries (Wells and Scott 1999). Average catch from 1995-2004 was 594 per annum (Kasuya 2007). <br/><br/>The Black Sea subspecies has had extensive directed takes for commercial products (Kleinenberg 1956; Tomilin 1957; Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1992), including takes of at least 24,000-28,000 during 1946-1983 in the Black Sea off Turkey. However, the total number of dolphins killed was certainly much greater (probably by tens of thousands) as figures do not include, or only partially include, catch statistics from other Black Sea countries (Birkun 2006).<br/><br/>Live capture of common bottlenose dolphins for public display, research, and military applications have occurred in several parts of the species' range. Worldwide estimates of removal are unavailable, but more than 1,500 were caught in United States, Mexican, and Bahamian waters through 1980 (Leatherwood and Reeves 1982; Fisher and Reeves 2005). Some live-capture removals continue in other countries including Cuba where at least 238 were captured in 1986-2004 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2006), the Solomon Islands, Japan, and China (Wells and Scott 1999; R.S. Wells pers. comm.). Live-capture removal of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins, including mortality during capture operations, is estimated at 1,000-2,000 since the early 1960s. Live-captures continue in the Russian Federation, with 10-20 animals taken annually from a small area in the Kerch Strait, Russia (Birkun 2002a, 2006). According to CITES statistics, at least 92 individuals were removed from the Black Sea region during 1990-1999 (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003), and Russia reportedly has exported at least 66 for travelling shows since 1997 (Fisher and Reeves 2005).<br/><br/>Incidental catches of common bottlenose dolphins are known from throughout the species’ range, in gillnets, driftnets, purse seines, trawls, long-lines, and on hook-and-line gear used in commercial and recreational fisheries, but the level of mortality is often poorly documented (Wells and Scott 1999). Gillnet and purse-seine fisheries off Peru take an unknown number annually. An estimated 42 common bottlenose dolphins were taken and landed at Cerro Azul, a Peruvian port, in 1994; while an annual gillnet fisheries bycatch of 227 animals was estimated for the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador, also in 1994 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1997). The estimated annual incidental mortality in the eastern tropical Pacific fishery for tuna ranged up to almost 200, but the mortality has declined to less than 10 since 1998 (M. Scott pers. comm.). Incidental catches in Chinese fisheries reach several hundred per year (Yang <em>et al</em>. 1999). Coastal gillnets and shark drift gillnets in the mid-Atlantic region of the US take on average 66 annually (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). They are taken incidentally in gillnets in Sri Lanka (Ilangakoon 1997). Taiwanese coastal and distant water longline fisheries for tuna and sharks take bottlenose dolphins incidentally (for the latter, the origin of the animals is unknown), as do a variety of gillnets, including driftnets (Wang and Yang 2002; J. Wang pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Annual Black Sea bottlenose dolphin incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets from 1946 through the 1980s is roughly estimated in the hundreds. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in the 1990s-2000s owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (Birkun 2006). According to Öztürk (1999) at least 200-300 bottlenose dolphins per year may be taken incidentally in Turkish fisheries in a variety of fishing nets, especially bottom-set gill nets.<br/><br/>Common bottlenose dolphins in coastal areas are exposed to a wide variety of threats in addition to direct and indirect takes. Threats that are cause for concern include: 1) the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals; 2) reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing (Pauly <em>et al</em>. 1998; Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001); 3) direct and indirect disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic and commercial dolphin watching and interactive programs); 4) marine construction and demolition and 5) other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (including anthropogenic noise). Although these and other threats are technically challenging to quantify by comparison with takes, their cumulative impact is likely to result in longitudinal population declines. Lack of historical data in many cases hampers understanding of long term trends, possibly resulting in shifting baselines. The contribution of anthropogenic factors to an increasing number of Unusual Mortality Events involving bottlenose dolphins remains to be determined (Spradlin <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Environmental contaminants likely impact health and reproductive success of the common bottlenose dolphins in parts of its range. Lahvis <em>et al</em>. (1995) correlated concentrations of PCBs and DDT in the blood of inshore bottlenose dolphins with decline in immune system function. Males in some areas such as Florida accumulate levels of PCBs more than an order of magnitude greater than the threshold for adverse health effects identified by Kannan <em>et al</em>. (2000) (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). A risk assessment relative to PCB burdens suggested elevated probabilities of first-born mortality at several sites in the U.S. (Schwacke <em>et al</em>. 2002; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins sometimes forage around fish-farm cages or take fish from gillnets (e.g., Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2001; Read <em>et al</em>. 2003), commercial trawling gear, crab traps, or recreational fishing gear (Wells and Scott 1999). This can result in incidental mortality through entanglement and ingestion of fishing gear.
22563		threats	eng	Owing to their occurrence in coastal waters, Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are exposed to a wide variety of human activities. Whilst intentional killing was likely the most important cause of mortality until the 1960s (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, 2008), important ongoing threats include incidental mortality in fishing gear and the reduced availability of key prey caused by region-wide overfishing and environmental degradation. Additional potential or likely threats include the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals, epizootic outbreaks, direct disturbance from boating and shipping, noise, and the consequences of climate change. It is worth noting that this same array of known and potential threats applies to riverine, estuarine and coastal cetaceans in many other parts of the world as well (e.g., Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Fishery-related mortality</span><br/>Due to their opportunistic behaviour and predominantly coastal occurrence, Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are at risk of entanglement in many types of fishing gear. In addition to incidental mortality, depredation and damage caused by dolphins to fishing gear may result in animals being shot or harassed in retaliation (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). Incidental mortality of Bottlenose Dolphins has been reported from Algeria, Croatia, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Bycatch in set nets reportedly is frequent in coastal waters throughout the basin (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994, Díaz López 2006, Brotons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Significant mortality also was reported in pelagic driftnets off Morocco, Spain, Malta, Italy and Turkey (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994, Di Natale 1995). Few attempts have been made to assess the impact of fishery-related mortality on local populations of Bottlenose Dolphins, and the actual magnitude of bycatch and retaliation events is unknown in most cases (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). However, the available studies and circumstantial evidence for local populations raise serious concern, suggesting that annual fishery-induced mortality is locally unsustainable in at least some cases (e.g. Brotons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Data from strandings can be informative with regard to the occurrence and relative scale of bycatch. Along the Italian coasts in the years 1986–2005, Bottlenose Dolphins were the second most numerous species classified as bycaught after the Striped Dolphin (301 and 71 records, respectively; Podestà 2007). Of 694 Bottlenose Dolphins stranded in Italy during the same period, 71 (11%) showed signs of bycatch (Podestà 2007). Of a total of 21 Bottlenose Dolphins stranded in France in 2003, eight reportedly had been bycaught (Dhermain 2003). Signs included specimens gutted, missing peduncles or fins, obvious net scars, and/or ropes tied to the tails. These percentages are likely underestimates, considering that the majority of the remaining carcasses were in an advanced state of decomposition and therefore signs, if present, would not necessarily have been observable. Bycatch in trawl nets appears to be infrequent in most Mediterranean areas, but may be locally significant. For instance, of 67 Bottlenose Dolphins found dead stranded or adrift along the coasts of Israel between 1993 and 2004, 26 (39%) were judged to have been taken in trawl nets (Feingold <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Bottlenose Dolphins have not been reported entangled in fish farm gear in the Mediterranean, except when anti-predator nets (mesh size 15 cm) are deployed (Díaz López and Bernal Shirai 2007). The overall frequency of intentional killing (see ‘Past culling campaigns’) has drastically declined over the years, due in part to protective legislation in most Mediterranean countries. However, targeted kills still occur in certain areas (e.g. Tudela 2004, Gazo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In addition to killing in retaliation for damage to fisheries, killing with harpoons or guns for local consumption of meat was reported as recently as the early 1990s in the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas, notwithstanding legal protection (Di Natale 1991, Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). Such occurrences seem to have become rare in more recent times. The illegal use of dynamite for fishing in several Mediterranean areas (e.g. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Tudela 2004) represents another fishery-related threat to Bottlenose Dolphins. Though impact at the basin level is probably low, it may be significant locally and a few Bottlenose Dolphin deaths suspected to have been caused by explosives have been reported.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Prey depletion</span><br/>Overfishing is having profound direct and indirect impacts on Mediterranean ecosystems (Sala 2004) and it has contributed significantly to dramatic ecological changes, including decline of dolphins and other megafauna (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and caused the decline of many fish stocks (Caddy and Griffiths 1990, De Walle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Stanners and Bourdeau 1995, Garcia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Some of the Mediterranean fish stocks that have been either ‘overexploited’ or ‘fully exploited’ include important bottlenose dolphin prey (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, 2010). Reduced carrying capacity (i.e., fewer prey available) due to overfishing was proposed as one explanation for the low densities of Bottlenose Dolphins in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Conversely, Bottlenose Dolphin densities tend to be high in areas where prey is still abundant (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Contamination by xenobiotics</span><br/>Contaminant levels, particularly of organochlorine compounds, in Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins are very high compared to the levels reported for Bottlenose Dolphins in some other areas (Corsolini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Marsili and Focardi 1997, Aguilar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Fossi and Marsili 2003, Wafo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Borrell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Borrell and Aguilar 2007, Storelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). At concentrations similar to or lower than those documented for Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins, compounds such as PCBs or PAHs have been associated with reproductive disorders, immune-system suppression and neoplasia (Lahvis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Reddy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Schwacke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Jaber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Although organochlorine contamination is decreasing in some areas, levels in Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins remain high (Tolosa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Aguilar and Borrell 2004, Borrell and Aguilar 2007, Storelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Monitoring of toxic chemicals, risk assessment and intervention protocols therefore represent important precautionary measures (Schwacke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Fossi and Marsili 2003, Jaber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Porte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Various and sometimes high levels of heavy metals have been found in stranded bottlenose dolphins from the Mediterranean (e.g. Leonzio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Frodello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Roditi-Elasar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Lahaye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160; The effects of these metals at the population level are unknown.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Epizootic outbreaks</span><br/>Epizootic outbreaks appear to have affected Bottlenose Dolphins to a lesser extent than other Mediterranean delphinids, such as the Striped Dolphin (Aguilar and Raga 1993, Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). Morbillivirus infections have been reported in a Bottlenose Dolphin stranded on the Mediterranean coast of Israel in 1994 (Tsur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and another stranded in Mauritania (Atlantic coast of West Africa) in 1988 (Van de Bildt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Bottlenose Dolphins elsewhere have experienced mass mortality from such outbreaks, e.g. in Black Sea waters (Birkun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Birkun, 2006) and on the Atlantic coast of the United States, where more than half of one local population may have died (Lipscomb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Duignan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Schulman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).&#160; As epizootic phenomena may be related to immune-system compromise induced by exposure to xenobiotics and/or by stress from poor nutrition (Aguilar and Borrell 1994, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, O’Shea and Aguilar 2001), the risk of disease outbreaks in Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean may be considerable.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Boat traffic and acoustic disturbance</span><br/>There has been a great expansion of recreational boat traffic and shipping in the Mediterranean in recent decades (Dobler 2002) but the potential for resultant behavioural disruption and habitat loss has been investigated only to a limited extent. Permanent or temporary avoidance of one Mediterranean area by Bottlenose Dolphins as a consequence of a large seasonal increase in boat traffic was reported in coastal waters of Croatia (Fortuna 2006). Similar negative effects have been reported from other places around the world (Allen and Read 2000; Lusseau 2004, 2005; Bejder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The noise from various human activities in addition to boating/shipping - e.g. seismic surveys, dredging, drilling, underwater explosions, and the use of military or other sonars – is also a cause for concern (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Nowacek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Climate change</span><br/>Some of the effects of global warming have become dramatically apparent in recent years (IPCC 2007). Climate change has the potential to affect a range of biological processes and cause significant shifts in marine and other biota (e.g., Peñuelas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Parmesan and Yohe 2003, Diaz-Almela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Increased seawater temperature has been observed in Mediterranean deep (Bethoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990) and surface waters (Metaxas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, Bethoux and Gentili 1996) and there is increasing evidence of biological responses to such warming (e.g., Francour <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Diaz-Almela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Effects of climate change on cetaceans, often mediated via changes in prey abundance and distribution, have become apparent in several non-Mediterranean areas (Learmonth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Simmonds and Isaac 2007) and similar effects may be occurring in Mediterranean waters (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Cañadas and Hammond 2006). At present, however, it is impossible to predict the net effect of climate change on Bottlenose Dolphins – either in the Mediterranean Sea or elsewhere.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Live capture</span><br/>The removal of live cetaceans from the wild – whether for captive display, for ‘dolphin-assisted therapy’ (Marino and Lilienfeld 2007) or for research purposes – is equivalent to incidental or deliberate killing, as the animals brought into captivity or killed during capture operations are no longer available to help maintain their wild populations (Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). ‘Takes’ of Bottlenose Dolphins are prohibited in most Mediterranean riverine States by national legislation or international agreements (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). However, live captures (and any mortality and social disruption associated with capture operations) still occur occasionally (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
22569		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
22569		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Lake Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey.
22569		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species.
22569		population	eng	Known only from the type specimens. No recent data on population are available. However, if the species lives only in this lake, no specimens have been caught during recent surveys of the lake.
22569		threats	eng	No data available.
22570		conservation	eng	This species is listed as threatened under Mexican law (NOM-059_ECOL-2001).
22570		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico.
22570		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical decidous forest, around the area of Tuxtla Gutierrez.
22570		population	eng	There are less than 10 specimens known from the type locality. The last specimen was collected more than 40 years ago.
22570		threats	eng	The area where this species is found has been modified by urbanization and conversion to agricultural. It is likely that the native vegetation will disappear completely from this area.
22571		conservation	eng	Known from within the Darien, NP. Further taxonomic research is required.
22571		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a small area of the Darien, Panama (600-1,200 m).
22571		habitat	eng	Unknown.
22571		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
22571		threats	eng	There are currently no known major threats to this species. However, there have been plans to expand the Pan-American highway, and also an oil pipeline. The species has an intrinsic threat of having a small known extent of occurrence.
22572		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several parks throughout the range.
22572		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west and central Colombia, lowlands of the valley of Magdalena river (Goodwin, 1955), unknown distribution south in the valley (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.); also northwest Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 50 to 1,100 m in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
22572		habitat	eng	It is apparently arboreal in wet forest (M. Gómez-Laverde and R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
22572		population	eng	It is apparently uncommon (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Not commonly collected as arboreal and difficult to capture (M. Gómez-Laverde and R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
22572		threats	eng	Major threats are deforestation and habitat lost; also are taken for food by local communities and sold locally, but is not an important threat (M. Gómez-Laverde and D. Tirira pers. comm.).
22573		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas throughout its range. More research is needed on its distribution.
22573		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Guerrero and central Veracruz, Mexico, south to southern Nicaragua, excluding the northern Peninsula (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,300 m.
22573		habitat	eng	This species is found in mature evergreen and semideciduous forest, and dense, viney second growth, usually near rocks, caves, or cliffs (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal and semiarboreal. Though its movements are usually slow and deliberate, this large rat can travel with great speed and agility on vines and branches. Little is known of its diet; the stomach of an animal from Veracruz contained vegetation resembling lichen or bark (Hall and Dalquest 1963 in Reid 1997). Its gestation is about 40 days, and litter size averages 2.5 young (Herlm 1975 in Reid 1997).
22573		population	eng	This rat is uncommon (Reid 1997).
22573		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
22574		conservation	eng	The known localities of this species are in Darien National Park.
22574		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Panama at 600 m.
22574		habitat	eng	Unknown.
22574		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens collected in the 1950s.
22574		threats	eng	Unknown.
22575		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the Mexican government (NOM-059_ECOL_2001)
22575		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Tumbala, Chiapas, Mexico.
22575		habitat	eng	This area was originally tropical forest.
22575		population	eng	This species is known from less than 10 specimens from the type locality, and has not been collected in at least 40 years.
22575		threats	eng	This area has been completely deforested with only very small patches of original vegetation. Land use change is due to agriculture.
22576		conservation	eng	Large populations of this species occur within protected areas.
22576		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica and west Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,700 m (Reid and Langtimm 1993 in Reid 1997).
22576		habitat	eng	This species favors mid-elevation evergreen forest on the Caribbean Slope, but it is also found in humid lowland forest, and in highland oak forest (Reid 1997). Sometimes considered house pest. This species requires some degree of canopy connectivity.
22576		population	eng	Can be extremely abundant.
22576		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
22577		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in many protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006). Within South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and effect of pesticide overuse on this species. Public awareness activities need to be taken up highlighting the importance of this species in the agricultural ecosystem as the controller of insect pests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
22577		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern and northeastern South Asia, southern China, and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is widely distributed and is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions) (Khan 2001; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005) and India (Andaman Islands, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal) (Das 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,262 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Hong Kong (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Seram), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), to the Philippines where it probably occurs throughout the country, but has been recorded from sea level to 500 m asl (Balete pers. comm. 2006) from Calauit, Culion, Luzon (Rizal Province and Zambales [Balete pers. comm. 2006]) and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
22577		habitat	eng	This species is found in prime tropical deciduous forests with extensive bamboo growth, and has been recorded from lowland agricultural areas and disturbed habitats (Heaney <em>et al. </em>1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It prefers to roost in internodal spaces of hollow bamboo and narrow crevices in other trees. The roosting site is located 0.25 to 10 m from the ground. It is a gregarious species and roosts in groups of up to 40 individuals. It feeds on termites. The breeding season coincides with abundance of insect prey and two young are born (Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).
22577		population	eng	This species is generally common over most of its range.
22577		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from commercial logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites by humans (A. Madhavan pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
22578		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from nay protected areas. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. In South Asia, further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).
22578		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern India, through parts of southern China, to much of mainland and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently only known from India (Mizoram) (Srinivauslu <em>et al.</em> in press), where it has been recorded from an elevation of 800 to 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southern China, it has been reported from Yunnan and Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Peleng), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), western Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon (Rizal and Zambales provinces), Calauit and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Negros (Carino <em>et al.</em> 2006).
22578		habitat	eng	This species is associated with bamboo vegetation in both intact and disturbed habitats (Heaney and Alcala 1986; Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008). Small colonies, of up to 32 animals, can be encountered roosting in both bamboo and rock crevices (Bates and Harrison 1997). It is known to feed on termites. Two young are born after a gestation period of 84-91 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).
22578		population	eng	This is a fairly common species of much of its range.
22578		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species as a whole. In South Asia the threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002), however, it is presumed that this species may be threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from commercial logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also possibly threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).
22586		conservation	eng	It is found in the Biosphere Reserve of Nacunan, Mendoza Province.
22586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the arid plains of Mendoza Province, central-western Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has a naturally fragmented distribution.
22586		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the salt basins, sand dunes and open scrubland habitats of the Monte Chaco and Monte Patagonia biomes. It is nocturnal, solitary and lives in complex burrow systems. It feeds (specialized) on halophite plants (Diaz <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
22586		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
22586		threats	eng	The loss of habitat to the expanding oil and gas industry is a threat to this species. The population has a naturally fragmented and restricted geographical distribution. In addition it is a habitat specialist (dunes and slat flats) and low population densities (Diaz <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
22595		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
22599		habitat	eng	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.
22600		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
22601		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
22605		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wuyishan, Chishuisuoluo, Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Shennongjia, Houhe, Ailaoshan, Qingliangfeng, and Tianmushan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and it is presumably present in other protected areas. Further work is needed into the systematic status of the currently recognized subspecies. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
22605		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south eastern China, in Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Shaanxi, Guangxi, and Yunnan. Musser and Carleton (2005) include northwestern Viet Nam within the distribution of this species but Smith and Xie (2008) consider the species to be endemic to China. Although its presence has not be confirmed, it may also occur in the extreme northern regions of Lao PDR (Francis 1999). It occurs at elevations ranging from 360-2,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
22605		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in high montane forests, where it has been collected in bamboo stands, although it may not be specifically associated with this habitat type (Darrin Lunde pers. comm.). It can be found in disturbed forest close to undisturbed forest, but does not appear to be present in secondary forest. This species burrows, but is not a "blind mouse" (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>The diet of this species consists of leaves, stems, fruits, and seeds (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size ranges from two to four (Smith and Xie 2008).
22605		population	eng	It is not uncommon, but is frequently under-sampled by field surveys.
22605		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this montane species.
22606		habitat	eng	Burrowing species
22607		distribution	eng	<em>Typhlops cariei</em> was known only from Mauritius.
22607		population	eng	It was last recorded in the 17th century.
22607		threats	eng	The introduction of predatory species to the island has been blamed for the extinction of this species.
22707		conservation	eng	Long-term monitoring is needed to assess the viability of populations (Petranka 1998). It occurs in several protected areas.
22707		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Salem and Springfield plateaus in the Ozark region of Missouri, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Kansas, USA (Conant and Collins 1991, Collons 1993, Johnson 2000).
22707		habitat	eng	Adults inhabit caves. Larvae are found in surface spring runs as well as in cave waters. Most abundant in caves that have a large number of bats. Probably attaches eggs to rocks in or near water.
22707		population	eng	Johnson (2000) mapped occurrences in 25 counties in Missouri. Most of the rest of the range is in Arkansas, where an out-of-date review by Brandon (1970) indicated 12 locations (he showed 15 in Missouri).
22707		threats	eng	It is unthreatened range wide, but vulnerable to factors that degrade ground water quality or that negatively impact bat populations (such as water pollution, and clear-cutting of forest).
22726		conservation	eng	No information available.
22726		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in southern Somalia.
22726		habitat	eng	It is found in running water. The type series were collected in a pool associated with a spring, but the species is generally considered hypogean and is depigmented with no externally visible eyes.
22726		population	eng	No information available.
22726		threats	eng	No information available.
22727		conservation	eng	The 3,709 acre Coachella Valley National Wildlife Refuge was established by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1985 to protect the lizard. The Coachella Valley Preserve, cooperatively managed by The Nature Conservancy, Bureau of Land Management, California Department of Parks and Recreation, California Department of Fish and Game, US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Center for Natural Lands Management, encompasses an additional 16,405 acres of Fringe-toed Lizard habitat adjacent to the Refuge (Coachella Valley National Wildlife Refuge website). The preserve encompasses three disjunct sites (Thousand Palms, Willow Hole, and Whitewater River), each with a discrete source of windblown sand. Collectively, the protected sites encompass a very small percentage of the lizards' original range. Few lizards now exist outside these protected areas.
22727		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern California in the United States. Its geographic range is restricted to the Coachella Valley, Riverside County, California, at elevations from near sea level to about 490 m (1,600 feet) (Pough 1973, Stebbins 2003). The historical, presettlement range extent has been estimated as encompassing about 839 sq. km (324 sq. miles) (see USFWS 1980).
22727		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits sparsely vegetated windblown sand dunes and sandy flats; it requires fine, loose sand for burrowing; vegetation usually is scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003), but perennial plants and the annual plant <em>Dicoria canescens</em> are important in providing shelter, plant and insect foods, and other benefits (Durtsche 1995). See also Turner <em>et al</em>. (1984) for habitat information. Individuals seek shelter underground, often in abandoned rodent burrows, or bury themselves in sand.
22727		population	eng	The number of distinct occurrences has not been determined on the basis of recently developed criteria. The species is known from more than 90 collection sites, but these represent a much smaller number of distinct, extant occurrences. The three disjunct dune systems of the Coachella Valley Preserve encompass almost all of the remaining occupied habitat, each dune system could be regarded as a single occurrence; hence there may be just a few remaining viable occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown. Turner (cited by USFWS 1980) recorded densities of 4.4 to 45 individuals per hectare in suitable habitat. On a 2.25 ha plot, known population size varied from about 20 to 330 lizards (9 to 147 lizards per ha) over several years (Barrows <em>et al</em>. 1995). Assuming 50 sq. km of occupied habitat (representing the 19 sq. miles of remaining optimal habitat) and 1,000 adults per sq. km (10 per ha), the total adult population size would be around 50,000, which may or may not represent the correct order of magnitude. More than 50% of the historical habitat had been lost by the mid-1970s (see USFWS 1980). During the 1980s and 1990s, approximately 75%  of this species' habitat was lost. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining." Populations fluctuate with environmental variations and natural fluctuations in habitat (Barrows <em>et al</em>. 1995). As of 1999, populations were regarded as relatively stable (California Department of Fish and Game) or at least not declining so rapidly under the existing habitat conservation plan.
22727		threats	eng	Its small historical range is now much reduced due to agricultural and urban development; its habitat has been degraded by stabilization of dunes by planted windbreaks; at least 80 to 90% of the habitat has been lost. The remaining habitat is fragmented by roads and railroad cuts. Research during the 1990s found that sand migration due to winds may affect long-term survival of this species at two of the sections of the Coachella Valley Preserve; the dunes may be moving out of the conservation areas. Conservation of these crucial blow-sand sources is being addressed in the new Coachella Valley Multispecies Habitat Conservation Plan and the development of a Conceptual Area Protection Plan. The result will be purchase of additional sand sources and sand transport corridors to ensure an adequate supply for the lizard. [from California Department of Fish and Game]
22730		conservation	eng	The species has been included in the national Red Lists of Slovenia, Croatia, Moldova and Austria. In Hungary, this fish is protected and local action plans have been developed.
22730		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution in the Danube drainage from Vienna to the delta; and the lower reaches of Dniestr drainage.
22730		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong><br/>This fish occurs in very densely vegetated water bodies, usually in small ditches, oxbows, backwaters and shallow lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>The species lives at least five years, spawning for the first time at one year. It spawns in March–April, when temperatures reach 12–16°C. Eggs are laid in a nest of plant material or in a shallow depression in the bottom. Females protect the nest until the larvae leave it. It is able to breathe air and may therefore colonise habitats with very low oxygen concentrations. The species feeds on a variety of small animals.
22730		population	eng	The population has been declining for many years.
22730		threats	eng	River regulation for water transport has reduced the number of backwaters (oxbow lakes etc.) where, in the last phases of succession, the species is found. Drainage of wetlands to reclaim arable land has (and still does) pose a threat. The species moves between the backwaters during times of flooding, which has also been regulated by the channelization and damming of the rivers. The succession of the backwaters takes many years and the number of available and suitable sites for the species is slowly reducing as they dry out and no new ones are created. The species is known to have been extirpated from many locations.
22732		conservation	eng	Included on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Uncia uncia</span>). Is legally protected from hunting by national legislation across most of its 12 range states (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).   Afghanistan has recently afforded the Snow Leopard legal protection, after listing the species on the country’s first Protected Species List in 2009. This bans all hunting and trading of Snow Leopards within Afghanistan.<br/><br/>The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003) recommends the following conservation measures:<br/><br/><ul><li>Grazing management and livestock husbandry:  promote livestock grazing practices that reduce impacts on native wildlife, especially large ungulates; promote husbandry practices which reduce livestock vulnerability to snow leopard predation and improve efficiency and yield;</li><li>Financial incentives for communities to conserve snow leopards (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2003): including wildlife-based ecotourism (e.g., snow leopard treks: Snow Leopard Conservancy 2008), cottage industry (e.g., village-made handicrafts: Snow Leopard Trust 2008), and well-structured ungulate trophy hunting programs;</li><li>Improve conservation education and awareness among a variety of stakeholders, from local communities to national governments to an international audience.</li></ul><br/>Theile (2003) recommends the following measures to reduce the threats of poaching and illegal trade:<br/><br/><ul><li>Strengthen national legislation and conservation policies by filling gaps in range state legislation to prohibit the hunting, killing, possession, sale and trade of Snow Leopards, including all body parts and derivatives, at local regional and national levels; offering legal assistance and advice to governments; mete out sufficient deterrent penalties to law-breakers, and consider "whistle-blower" policies to provide incentives to report illegal activities;</li><li>Strengthen law enforcement capacity by tightening controls along known trade routes, and at markets and border crossings; improve inter-agency cooperation and intelligence sharing; establish anti-poaching teams to detect and deter illegal killing; carry out regular monitoring of major markets and trade centres; and improve technical capacity through training;</li><li>Strengthen international cooperation to enforce trade bans through adherence to CITES resolutions (e.g., Res. Conf. 12.5) (Nowell 2007).</li></ul><br/>The Snow Leopard Network (SLN 2008) unites individuals and organizations (including the International Snow Leopard Trust, the Snow Leopard Conservancy, and others) for coordination, cooperation and information sharing.  An International Conference on Range-wide Conservation Planning for Snow Leopards held in Beijing, China in March 2008 identified important areas for Snow Leopard conservation (Snow Leopard Conservation Units) and provided a framework for the development of national action plans.  Four countries have existing national action plans (Mongolia, Pakistan, Nepal and Russia: McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003), and India has developed Project Snow Leopard, a national governmental program for Snow Leopard conservation, although it has not been adequately funded (Anonymous 2007).
22732		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The Snow Leopard is restricted to the high mountains of Central Asia, with core areas including the Altai, Tian Shan, Kun Lun, Pamir, Hindu Kush, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Karakorum</st1:city></st1:place> and Himalayan ranges. (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003). Ecological regions were defined in a workshop as Altai-Sayan, Trans-Altai Alashan Gobi, Tian Shan, Pamir, Hindu-Kush, <st1:city w:st="on">Karakorum</st1:city>, Himalayas, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hengduan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and Tibetan Plateau (Williams 2008).<br/> <br/> Based on elevational analysis, Hunter and Jackson (1997) estimated potential range at over 3 million km, with much of this in Mongolia and the Tibetan plateau of China, although it is unclear to what extent snow leopards use much of the flatter parts of the plateau (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2008). There was evidence of snow leopard occupation in 1.83 million km, and only about 550,000 km was considered to be good habitat (Hunter and Jackson 1997, McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003). Williams (2006) used historical data to improve mapping of potential range, but there remains a significant lack lack of information about current snow leopard status across much of its known and potential distribution. <br/> <br/> In an attempt to improve knowledge of Snow Leopard distribution and status, a conservation planning conference held in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Beijing</st1:city></st1:place> in March 2008 brought together experts from 11 of the 12 range countries. The conference was able to map specific and local knowledge about snow leopard range and determine Snow Leopard Conservation Units, areas which are the most important for conserving Snow Leopards over the long-term. The process highlighted areas where knowledge of Snow Leopard status is strong and where it is lacking, and resulting maps now provide biologists and conservationists with a more strategic approach to <span lang="EN-US">Snow Leopard<span lang="EN-US"> conservation and research (Williams 2008).</span></p>
22732		habitat	eng	Snow Leopards are closely associated with the alpine and sub-alpine ecological zones, favoring steep terrain well broken by cliffs, ridges, gullies, and rocky outcrops (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).  However, in Mongolia and Tibet they may occupy relatively flat or rolling terrain as long as there is sufficient hiding cover (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press)   In the Sayan mountains of Russia and parts of the Tien Shan range of China, they are found in open coniferous forest, but usually avoid dense forest.  They generally occur at elevations of 3,000-4,500 m, except for at their northern range limit, where they are found at lower elevations (900-2,500 m) (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Low temperatures and high aridity makes its habitat among the least productive rangeland systems in terms of graminoid biomass, with prey populations consequently occurring at relatively low densities (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>The cat’s principal natural prey species are bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and ibex (Capra sibirica) whose distribution coincides closely with snow leopard range.  Snow leopards also prey on marmot (Marmota spp), pika (Ochotona spp.), hares (Lepus spp.), small rodents, and game birds. Considerable predation is reported on domestic livestock. Annual prey requirements are estimated at 20 to 30 adult blue sheep, with radio-tracking data indicating such a kill every 10 to 15 days. A solitary leopard may remain on a kill for up to a week (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press)<br/><br/>Snow Leopard home ranges overlap widely between the sexes, and are reported to vary from 10 to 40 km² in relatively productive habitat in Nepal  (Jackson and Ahlborn 1989). By comparison, home ranges are considerably larger (140 km² or greater) in Mongolia, where terrain is relatively open and ungulate prey densities lower (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2005). Densities range from 0.1 to 10 or more individuals per 100 km² (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press).
22732		population	eng	The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003, Table II) compiled national snow leopard population estimates, updating the work of Fox (1994).  Many of the estimates are acknowledged to be rough and out of date, but the total estimated population is 4,080-6,590, as follows:   <br/><br/>Afghanistan: 100-200?<br/>Bhutan: 100-200?<br/>China: 2,000-2,500<br/>India:  200-600<br/>Kazakhstan: 180-200<br/>Kyrgyzstan: 150-500<br/>Mongolia: 500-1,000<br/>Nepal: 300-500<br/>Pakistan: 200-420<br/>Russia: 150-200<br/>Tajikistan: 180-220<br/>Uzbekistan: 20-50
22732		threats	eng	Major threats to the Snow Leopard include prey base depletion, illegal trade, conflict with local people, and lack of conservation capacity, policy and awareness.  The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy assessed primary threats by region as follows (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003):<br/><br/>Himalayan region (Tibetan Plateau and other southern China, India, Nepal and Bhutan): reduction of natural prey due to competition with livestock, killing of snow leopards in retribution for livestock depredation, lack of trans-boundary cooperation, military activity, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Karakhorum and Hindu Kush (Afghanistan, Pakistan and southwest China): habitat degradation and fragmentation, reduction of natural prey due to illegal hunting, killing of snow leopards in retribution for livestock depredation, lack of effective law enforcement, lack of institutional capacity and awareness among local people and policy makers, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Commonwealth of Independent States and western China (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang province of China): reduction of natural prey due to illegal hunting, poaching snow leopards for trade in hides or bones, lack of trans-boundary cooperation, military activity, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Northern range (Russia, Mongolia, and Altai and Tien Shan ranges of China): poaching snow leopards for trade in hides or bones, lack of appropriate policy and effective enforcement, lack of institutional capacity and awareness among local people and policy makers, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Snow Leopard habitat undergoes extensive agro-pastoral land use, both within and outside protected areas. Conflict with local communities over livestock depredation is amongst the most important threats to the species its range.  <br/>The inherently low wild ungulate density in the snow leopard’s range, owing to relatively low primary productivity, is further exacerbated by prey declines due to hunting for meat and competition with livestock. A declining prey base reduces habitat quality for snow leopards and escalates livestock depredation.  Competition with livestock for forage is one of the most widespread causes of prey base decline (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press); reduction of the wild prey base because of hunting by people is also significant in parts of snow leopard range (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Snow Leopards are capable of killing all domestic animals except perhaps for fully-grown male yak. Although herders take steps to reduce the risk of depredation (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press), livestock populations are a locally abundant food source for snow leopards and make up to 58% of their diet in some areas.  The relative abundance of livestock vs. wild prey is a reasonable predictor of the level of livestock depredation by snow leopards (Bagchi and Mishra 2006). <br/><br/>Snow Leopards are killed in retribution for livestock depredation, but also for commercial purposes, and poaching for illegal trade represents a significant threat.  Pelts appear to be the main snow leopard produce in demand, but there is also evidence of demand for live animals for zoos and circuses.  Other body parts found in trade include bones (used especially in Chinese medicine as a substitute for tiger bone), as well as claws, meat and sexual organs of male cats  (Theile 2003). Illegal trade increased in the 1990s in the economically depressed, newly independent Central Asian states that emerged from dissolution of the Soviet Union (Koshkarev 1994, Koshkarev and Vyrypaev 2000). Illegal trade appears to be increasing rapidly with China’s growing economic power, for example, in neighbouring Mongolia (Wingard and Zahler 2006). In Afghanistan, a new market has emerged which is difficult to police due to ongoing military conflict (Habibi 2004).  <br/><br/>The general lack of awareness at both local and national levels for the need to conserve wildlife and especially predators, further hinders conservation efforts. Up to a third of the snow leopard’s range falls along politically sensitive international borders, complicating trans-boundary conservation initiatives. Military conflict is taking place across much of the snow leopard's range, causing immense damage to wildlife through direct loss of species and destruction of habitat, losses to landmines, the demands of displaced peoples for food and fuel, and the encouragement of trade in wildlife (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press).
22736		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species outside the European range. This species has been assessed on IUCN national Red Lists as Critically Endangered in Germany, Switzerland and Austria, Vulnerable in Albania and Extinct in Netherlands (Schulte 2010). It has also been assessed as Endangered in Poland (Zajac 2009). This species is listed on the EC Habitats Directive (92/43/ECC) in appendix II and IV (Bachmann 2000) and it is possible that conservation strategies may be in place but this information is unclear.&#160; Further research is required on population trends and distribution.
22736		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species outside the European range. This species has been assessed on national Red Lists as Critically Endangered in Germany, Switzerland and Austria, Vulnerable in Albania and Extinct in Netherlands (using IUCN criteria, Schulte 2010). It has also been assessed as Endangered in Poland (Zajac 2009). This species is listed on the EC Habitats Directive (92/43/ECC) in Appendix II and IV (Bachmann 2000). It is therefore possible that conservation strategies may be in place, but this information is unclear. Further research is required on population trends and distribution. Active site protection and management may help in reversing population declines.
22736		conservation	eng	This species has been assessed in IUCN national Red Lists as:<br/><ul><li>Critically  Endangered (CR) in Germany, Switzerland and Austria (Schulte 2010)</li><li>Vulnerable (VU) in Albania (Schulte 2010)</li><li>Extinct (EX) in Netherlands (Schulte 2010)</li><li>Endangered (EN) in Poland (Zajac 2009), where it is also protected by law and parts of its range are within protected areas</li><li>Endangered (EN) in Sweden, using criteria A2ab(ii) as there has been a decline of more than 50% over the last 3 generations, and some fringe populations have disappeared.</li></ul>This species is listed on the EC  Habitats Directive (92/43/ECC) in appendix II and IV (Bachmann 2000) and  it is possible that conservation strategies may be in place but this  information is unclear. Further research is required on population  trends and distribution.
22736		distribution	eng	This species is considered a widespread variable species incorporating numerous subspecies and synonyms. It is reported from the Atlantic to the Ural Mountains (European Russia) (Graf 2007), is widespread throughout Europe (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and is found in the Tigris-Euphrates region (Middle East) and further east into the Amur Basin (eastern Russian) (Graf 2007). The species is absent in the U.K., Ireland, Iceland, Italy and the Iberian peninsula. Its distribution was formerly continuous but is now extremely patchy over most of its whole range (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">U. c. crassus</span> has a distribution throughout most of Middle Europe; <span style="font-style: italic;">U. c. gontieri</span> is found in the Ukraine, the Caucasian-northern Pontic region and the transcaucasian Arax River basin; <span style="font-style: italic;">U. c. mongolicus</span> is found in the Amur Basin and Primorye, north to Magadan (Siberia) (Graf 2007).
22736		distribution	eng	This species is considered a widespread variable species incorporating numerous subspecies and synonyms. It is reported from the Atlantic to the Ural Mountains (European Russia) (Graf 2007), is widespread throughout Europe (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and is found in the Tigris-Euprates region (Middle east) and further east through the Amur Basin (eastern Russian) (Graf 2007).
22736		distribution	eng	This species is considered a widespread variable species incorporating  numerous subspecies and synonyms. It is reported from the Atlantic to  the Ural Mountains (European Russia) (Graf 2007), is widespread  throughout Europe (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006)  and is found in the Tigris-Euprates region (Middle East) and further  east through the Amur Basin (eastern Russian) (Graf 2007). <br/><br/>In Europe, the range has now reduced, but it is still widely distributed in northern and eastern Europe. The Mediterranean distribution is under review due to uncertain  taxonomy, but the populations from Spain and Portugal are now considered  to be another species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio tumidiformis</span> (Araujo pers. comm. 2009).
22736		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clean river ecosystems and lakes, with flowing  waters and sandy or sandy-gravel bottoms (Zajac 2009, Schultes 2010). As  a result it is vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, species  composition of the surrounding ichtyofauna and the degradation of  natural river valleys (Zajac and Zajac 2009).&#160; Juveniles are  particularly sensitive to water pollution and reproduction is prevented  in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10 mg/l (Schulte 2010).&#160; <br/><br/>This  species requires a host fish in order for successful recruitment.&#160; The  eggs are released in small packets and ingested by species including <span style="font-style: italic;">Cottus gobio, Phoxinus phoxinus, Leuciscus cephalus, Scardinuis erythrophthalmus, Gymnocephalus cernua </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Perca fluviatilis. </span>The glochidia are then reliant upon a parasitic period of five weeks in the gills of the fish (Bachmann 2000).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Declines  in fish species as a result of pollution, water abstraction and  predation by non-native species have ultimately lead to localised  declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus </span>(Nordsieck 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>The native predator of this species was the otter (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lutra lutra</span>), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America such as the muskrat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ondathra zibethicus</span>), the raccoon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procyon lotor</span>) and the American mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) has inevitably contributed to declines of  <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus </span>due<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>to  direct predation of the mussel and also as a result of increased  predation of the host species (Bachmann 2000, Nordsieck 2010).
22736		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clean river ecosystems and lakes, with flowing waters and sandy or sandy-gravel bottoms (Zajac 2009, Schultes 2010). As a result it is vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, species composition of the surrounding ichtyofauna and the degradation of natural river valleys (Zajac and Zajac 2009).&#160; Juveniles are particularly sensitive to water pollution and reproduction is prevented in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10 mg/l (Schulte 2010).&#160; <br/><br/>This species requires a host fish in order for successful recruitment.&#160; The eggs are released in small packets and ingested by species including <span style="font-style: italic;">Cottus gobio, Phoxinus phoxinus, Leuciscus cephalus, Scardinuis erythrophthalmus, Gymnocephalus cernua </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Perca fluviatilis. </span>The glochidia are then reliant upon a parasitic period of five weeks in the gills of the fish (Bachmann 2000).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Declines in fish species as a result of pollution, water abstraction and predation by non-native species have ultimately lead to localised declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus </span>(Nordsieck 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>The native predator of this species was the otter (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lutra lutra</span>), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America such as the muskrat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ondathra zibethicus</span>), the raccoon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procyon lotor</span>) and the American mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) has inevitably contributed to declines of  <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus </span>due<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>to direct predation of the mussel and also as a result of increased predation of the host species (Bachmann 2000, Nordsieck 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
22736		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clean river ecosystems and lakes, with flowing waters and sandy or sandy-gravel bottoms (Zajac 2009, Schultes 2010). As a result, it is vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, species composition of the surrounding ichtyofauna and the degradation of natural river valleys (Zajac and Zajac 2009). Juveniles are particularly sensitive to water pollution and reproduction is prevented in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10 mg/l (Schulte 2010).<br/><br/>This species requires a host fish in order for successful recruitment. The eggs are released in small packets and ingested by species including <span style="font-style: italic;">Cottus gobio</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phoxinus phoxinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Leuciscus cephalus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scardinuis erythrophthalmus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnocephalus cernua </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Perca fluviatilis</span>. The glochidia are then reliant upon a parasitic period of five weeks in the gills of the fish (Bachmann 2000). Different populations may have different fish hosts (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011). Declines in fish species as a result of pollution, water abstraction and predation by non-native species have ultimately lead to localised declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span> (Nordsieck 2010).<br/><br/>The native predator of this species was the Otter (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lutra lutra</span>), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America such as the Muskrat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ondathra zibethicus</span>), the Raccoon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procyon lotor</span>) and the American Mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) has inevitably contributed to declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span> due to direct predation of the mussel and also as a result of increased predation of the host species (Bachmann 2000, Nordsieck 2010).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
22736		population	eng	&#160;There is no information available on population and habitat trends over  the entire range although localised declines have been documented  (Schultes 2010). The average longevity is 40 years, suggesting 3  generations would be approximately 100 years.
22736		population	eng	Angelov and Georgiev (2000) cite an average density of 80–90 ind/m² in Bulgarian rivers prior to 1990. In three Polish lowland rivers studied by Jabukik (2008) <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span> was found in only one river with a density of 4–20 ind./m². Babko and Kurmina (2009) cite a average density of 4±2 ind/m² in the Psel River (Ukraine) upstream from an hydroelectrical dam and 0 ind/m² in the reservoir and downstream of it.<br/><br/>In 1997, Sárkány-Kiss (1997) cites a maximal density of 135 ind/m² and a mean density of 62 ind/m² in the Crişul Alb/Fehér-Körös River at Ineu (Romania). The same author (Sárkány-Kiss 1983) reports that in the Târnava Mică River (Romania) the <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio crassus</span> population is continuously spread between Ghindari and Târnăveni. Twenty years later, Sîrbu (2005) states that in the Târnava Mică only one live specimen was found in 2001 at Sângeorgiu de Pădure and after more intense research a few scattered relict populations were rediscovered upstream of Târnăveni. In the Târnava Mare River only empty shells were found along its whole course. Populations can hence crash suddenly without recovery.<br/><br/>In the eastern part of its range, densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio crassus</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus mongolicus sensu</span> Graf = <span style="font-style: italic;">Middendorffinaia</span> spp. of Russian authors) are extremely low. Thus <span style="font-style: italic;">Middendorffinaia dulkeitiana</span> occurs in densities of 5–8 ind/m², <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mongolica</span> in densities of 3–5 ind/m² and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. weliczkowkii</span> in densities of 3 ind/m².<br/><br/>Localised declines have thus been documented (Schultes 2010), and the decline in population can be estimated at between 50% and 75% over the last three generations (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). The following gives a country-based assessment of the population status of this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span>: The species occurs in the Shkodra Lake-Buna-Drin Basin, but it is stated as rare in the Buna River which is polluted by urban sewage and agricultural run-off and siltation due to deforestation (Dhora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>: Here, population reduction has been estimated at 90% (Welter-Schultes 2010). The species is not found any more in the Austrian part of the Danube River (Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>: Though the parameters (complete lack of pollution, sandy sediment, high oxygen content) were suitable for this species in the river Pripyat near Turov, it was absent; however, <span style="font-style: italic;">U. pictorum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">U. tumidus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. anatina</span> were found (Oosterbaan 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>: The species was formerly abundant here, but presently is extirpated in the lower, central and most of the upper part of the country. It is only still found south of the Meuse River (some small rivers in the basins of the Meuse, Hermeton, Viroin, Lesse, Semois, Ourthe, Our, Moselle and Sûre). It is still abundant in the Haut-Sûre (S. Belgium – Luxemburg)&#160; where the population is estimated at 30,000–35,000 individuals (Schmitz and Krippel 2007). However, according to these authors this population is also threatened with extinction mainly due to predation by Muskrat (<span class="sciname"><span style="font-style: italic;">Ondatra zibethicus</span>). Population loss for Belgium can be estimated around 80–90% (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span>: Angelov and Georgiev (2000) cite an average density of 80–90 ind/m² in Bulgarian rivers and state that <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio crassus </span>is common in the whole of the Bulgarian stretch of the Danube, the lower parts of its tributaries, the Iskar River, Maritz River, Tundzha River, and the Srebarna Biosphere Reserve. But the datum of the Angelov and Georgiev paper, namely 2000, may be misleading. In an earlier publication on the molluscs of Srebarna biosphere, Angelov (1998) writes that the mollusc data from this reserve used by Frank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) were copied from an earlier unpublished manuscript containing his data on the Bulgarian malacofauna. The latest field inventories of the Bulgarian bivalves hence pre-date 1990 and are more than 20 years old. The most recent data are those obtained during the International Danube Survey in 2001. From the results of a detailed dredging campaign Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) conclude that <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus</span> is not found any more in the Bulgarian part of the Danube River. This conclusion contradicts the statement of Angelov and Georgiev (2000) that the species is common in the Bulgarian Danube and supports the trend of a severe population decrease. Hubenov (2007) also considers the species as rare.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>: According to Douda and Beran (2009) the species is severely threatened and based on their distribution map, it is reduced to ten populations whose present area of occupation is probably less than 100 km².<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark</span>: The most recent distribution map shows that <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio crassus</span> only survives in four locations (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania</span>: Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio crassus</span> in Estonia still seem to be in good condition, despite severe pollution during the Soviet period. It should be pointed out that the area of wetlands keeps diminishing markedly since Estonia's independence in 1991 and accession to the European Union in 2004 (Kimmel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Latvia, populations are still found over the whole of the territory; however, Rudzīte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) plead for an increase of protected areas (presently only 23 of the 674 indicated areas contain <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span>) to maintain a sufficient number of populations considering the increasing water pollution. In Lithuania, the species is still widely spread in rivers and watercourses, particular in the Nemunelis and Zeimena rivers (Ivinskis and Dagys 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span>: The species' range is restricted to the south and south-west of the country, forming the northern edge of its natural range. The species is declining from habitat&#160; loss and pollution (Valovirta, cited in Wells and Chatfield 1992).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: The distribution map of its occurrence in Nature 2000 sites shows that the species presently is still relatively common but certainly not frequent in the central region (region du Centre), and rare or extirpated everywhere else. In the Lorraine region, sizeable populations are only found in a few rivers (mainly Longeau River and Seigneulle River) (Muller 2010). In Auvergne, the population decrease compared to the period before 2000 is estimated at 90% (Brugel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In the Vosges, dead shells are found in all rivers, but live populations have become restricted to the few rivers not receiving urban waste water (e.g., in parts of La Lanterne) (D. Van Damme pers. obs. 2011). In Picardie, only four populations are remaining (Cucherat 2009). In the Département Nord-Pas de Calais empty shells are common but only one live population was found (Helpe River) (Cucherat 2003). It can hence be assumed that population reduction in the whole of France is between 50 and 90%.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: A 90% population decline has been estimated for the species (Welter-Schultes 2010). It is not found in the German part of the Danube River (Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Georgia</span>: No recent data are available on the status of the populations in this country. Most of the species of the same genus, placed by Russian taxonomists in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Eolymnium</span>, appear to be restricted to western Georgia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span>: The species is mentioned from one small stream in northeastern Greece by Reischütz (1988) but this author states ‘in dried out river-bed’. It is also mentioned from the Trichonia-Lisimacheia Lake complex and the Koroneia-Volvi Lake complex in the northern part of the country (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). Both lake systems are polluted by waste waters from villages, pig farms and olive oil refineries and by run-off from arable lands.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Hungary</span>: In the Danube, populations were only found in the Delta and in the Tisza River (Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The species was not found in any of the smaller tributaries. While relatively abundant in the Hungarian part, the species was rare or absent in the Yugoslavian part of the Tisza (Csanyi 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Kazakhstan</span>: <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassiana fuscula</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. irgizlaica</span> have been recorded from the Ural drainage in this country that according to Graf (2007) belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus crassus</span>, as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassiana stevenianus</span> that belongs to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus gontieri sensu</span> Graf.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Macedonia</span>: The only reliable recent mention is from Lake Ohrid. It is absent in Lake Presba (Korniushin 2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Moldova</span>: Here, the species is apparently rare (Popescu and Davideanu 2009), as far as recent data are available.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands</span>: The species was formerly distributed over the whole country, but has not been found since 1968 (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It is thought to be extirpated.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Romania</span>: Sárkány-Kiss (1983) reported that in the Târnava Mică River (Small Târnava) the population was continuously spread between Ghindari and Târnăven, i.e., over a distance of more than 50 km. Twenty years later, Sîrbu (2005) states that in this river stretch only one live specimen was found in 2001 (at Sângeorgiu de Pădure) and after more intense research, a few scattered relict populations were rediscovered upstream of Târnăveni. Downstream Târnăveni in the Târnava Mare river (Big Târnava), only empty shells were found along its whole course. The species is not found any more in the Romanian part of the Danube River except in the Delta (Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The population decrease in Romania is confirmed by Sîrbu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) who cite only empty shells from the Danube at Cozla.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russian Federation</span>: No recent detailed data are available on the status of the species in European Russia. Studies such as Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), Hubenov (2007) and Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) are overviews based on older literature. Anecdotal information (e.g., Popov 2008) do suggest that the species is still widespread in European Russia but that populations are decreasing. Popov (2008) states that it is rare and in the St. Petersburg region restricted to two river basins.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia, Slovakia</span>: The species is not found any more in the Serbian or Slovakian part of the Danube River (Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) but it still occurs in the Tisza (rare).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>: The species has disappeared from most cantons in the country (Welter-Schultes 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>: The species reaches the northern edge of its range in Sweden, namely in the south-east, from Scania to Dalaina and the populations are very scattered (von Proschwitz, cited in Wells and Chatfield 1992).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Syria</span>: The species has been cited from the Orontes River as <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio orontesensis</span> and as <span style="font-style: italic;">U. syriacus</span>, but all records are more than 100 years old. It is considered as extirpated in this country.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>: Records of the species in the last 50 years are extremely scarce. Çetìnkaya (1996) cites <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio stevenianus</span> ( = <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus gontieri sensu</span> Graf 2007) from the lower part of the Karasu River, and Yarsan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) state that they collected it at different locations in Lake Van itself. This is highly surprising since this lake is saline and suggests that the <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio</span> in Lake Van is not <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span>. Other records appear from the Dicle River (i.e., Turkish name for the Tigris) in the region of the Ilisu Dam in Anatolia (northeastern Turkey) and from eastern Anatolia, but some of these are probably based on an old reference (D. Van Damme pers. comm.).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>: The species is present in the Delta of the Danube River (Bernerth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It seems to be absent from southern Ukraine, but still is found widely scattered over the northern part with the greatest concentration in the Pripyat Marshes/Pripyat River in northern Ukraine (Polesia). This marshland also extends in Belarussia and Russia. In their study on the malacofauna of the Psel and Vorskla River (Ukranian part of the Dnieper basin), Babko and Kurmina (2009) also refer to the species as being rare in Ukraine.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Iraq</span>: The most recent&#160; record dates from 1955 when it was collected in the Tigris Basin at Sarchinar (northeast of Mosul, northern Iraq) (Najiji 1999). The species is most likely extirpated.
22736		population	eng	There is no information available on population and habitat trends over the entire range although localised declines have been documented (Schultes 2010). The average longevity is 40 years, suggesting 3 generations would be approximately 100 years.<br/><br/>This long-lived species is present in most of the European countries.  The species  decline rate exceeds 50% in parts of its range (Sweden), (von Proschwitz, 2010) and it is  considered Critically Endangered in other parts (Germany, Switzerland  and Austria) and is already Extinct from the Netherlands.
22736		threats	eng	This species has demonstrated localised declines as a result of several major threat processes including water pollution, dam construction, drainage, sedimentation and increased predation. This species is vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, requiring clean waters of flowing rivers. Endobenthic juveniles are particularly sensitive to changes in water chemistry and  reproduction is prevented in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10  mg/l (Schulte 2010). Juveniles have shown increased mortality above concentrations of 2.3 mg NO<sub>3</sub>-N/l (Klink 2004, Köhler 2006).<br/><br/>Reduction in dissolved oxygen concentration is a major threat to this species. In Siberia, populations are threatened by the transport of logged trees via rivers and overgrazing of the riverbanks. In the Baltic countries pollution from urban wastewater stations, the construction of hydroelectric plants (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011), and increased beaver populations (Rudzīte 2010) are major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span> populations.<br/><br/>The native predator of this species was the Otter (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lutra lutra</span>), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America into Europe such as the Muskrat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ondathra zibethicus</span>), the Raccoon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procyon lotor</span>) and the American Mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) has inevitably contributed to declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. crassus</span>. Declines in their host species as a result of habitat degradation and increased predation has reduced recruitment success, therefore negatively impacting local populations.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>
22736		threats	eng	This species has demonstrated localised declines as a result of several major threat processes including water pollution, drainage, sedimentation and increased predation. This species is vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, requiring clean waters of flowing rivers. Juveniles are particularly sensitive to changes in water chemistry and  reproduction is prevented in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10  mg/l (Schulte 2010). The native predator of this species was the otter (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lutra lutra</span>), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America into Europe such as the muskrat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ondathra zibethicus</span>), the raccoon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procyon lotor</span>) and the American mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) has inevitably contributed to declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus</span>. Declines in their host species as a result of habitat degradation and increased predation has reduced recruitment success, therefore negatively impacting local populations.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>
22736		threats	eng	This species is widespread, and is not considered to be threatened throughout it's entire range, although the range is very fragmented. However this species has demonstrated localised declines as a result of several  major threat processes including water pollution, drainage,  sedimentation and increased predation. This species is vulnerable to  changes in water chemistry, requiring clean waters of flowing rivers.  Juveniles are particularly sensitive to changes in water chemistry and   reproduction is prevented in adults with nitrate levels that exceed 10   mg/l (Schulte 2010). The native predator of this species was the otter (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lutra lutra</span>), but the introduction of other mammalian predators from America into Europe such as the muskrat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ondathra zibethicus</span>), the raccoon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procyon lotor</span>) and the American mink (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>) has inevitably contributed to declines of <span style="font-style: italic;">U.crassus</span>.  Declines in their host species as a result of habitat degradation and  increased predation has reduced recruitment success, therefore  negatively impacting local populations.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>
22737		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the Habitats Directive (Annex V) and the Bern Convention (Annex III) in Spain. However, there are no known conservation strategies implemented outside Europe. Further research regarding population trends and status is required.
22737		conservation	eng	Under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">U. elongatulus</span>,  this species is protected under the two main pieces of European  biodiversity conservation legislation: the Habitats Directive (Annex V)  and the Bern Convention (Annex III). The status of this species urgently needs review to define whether the eastern sub-populations divide into additional species. <br/><br/>The latest reports on the conservation status for this species (European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity, 2009) suggest that in much of the Mediterranean part of the range, the status is either unknown (Greece) or unfavourable/inadequate (Spain, southern part of Italy). In the rest of the range the status is favourable.
22737		distribution	eng	The range is currently reported as a species that extends from the Iberian peninsula to Turkey, however recent reviews by Araujo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) split the Spanish populations and consider them as several species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Unio delphinus, Unio gibbus</span>), with <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio mancus</span> restricted to the River Ebro. Consequently the details of the range requires review in the light of these findings. It has been recorded from Germany, due to expansion along the canal (Glöer & Meier-Brook 2003). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) report a more restricted range for the species as present in France, Switzerland,  Italy and Greece. The presence in Albania, Croatia and Slovenia is based on older records from Haas (1969). <br/><br/>The range extends into the Middle-East (Graf and Cummings 2007), however the identity of these middle-eastern population requires further investigation.
22737		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean region in Europe, Northwest Africa and the Middle East (Graf and Cummings 2007, Welter-Schultes 2010).
22737		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in all kind of rivers and streams with permanent water. It is found in sandy, gravel or muddy substrate at the shores and slopes under the shading from trees. It is also found in artificial channels and ditches with natural bottoms. In the dry seasons, specimens survive in isolated populations which take refuge in pools together with the fish. </p>
22737		habitat	eng	This species prefers standing water habitats with sandy substrates, and is often found between tree roots. It has been recorded in freshwater rivers, lakes and channels. It requires clean water and is unable to tolerate a great deal of pollution (Welter-Schultes 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus graellsii </span>are known host fish in Spain (Welter-Schultes 2010).
22737		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
22737		population	eng	This species requires the presence of a host fish to enable the glochidea to grow to larval stages of the mussel. With regard to the glochidial host fish, <span style="font-style: italic;">U. mancus</span> is a species with a very wide host range (Araujo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), unlike species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Margaritifera</span>, which have very few suitable hosts.
22737		threats	eng	Major threats that impact this species include pollution, habitat destruction and competitive pressures posed by invasive species (Welter-Schultes 2010).&#160; Absence of its fish host, often as a result of artificial water loss, is also a major concern to the survival of the species.
22737		threats	eng	The threats to this species come from dams and impoundments, water extraction from rivers changing flow regimes,&#160; water pollution (domestic and agricultural sources), exotic fish competing with the natural host fish, gravel extraction from river beds and modernization (covering with concrete) of the ditches and channels with natural bottoms where the species lives.
22742		conservation	eng	It is thought likely to occur within Prince Regent Nature Reserve.
22742		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the original collection site, south of the mouth of Prince Regent River in the Kimberley zone of Western Australia, Australia. The exact locality is not known, so when its range is mapped a large area is covered, within which the exact locality is assumed to be.
22742		habitat	eng	This species was found in grasslands and woodlands in areas that flooded.
22742		population	eng	This was the first <em>Uperoleia</em> species discovered in Australia, in 1841. Despite numerous sightings at the time, it has not been recorded since and is now known only from the original specimen.
22742		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
22743		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
22743		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Cox River on Alexandria Station in the middle of Northern Territory, Australia (15° 43'S; 135° 37'E). This species' estimated altitudinal range is 0-200m asl.
22743		habitat	eng	The type specimens were collected from a spring-fed swamp in paperbark woodland.
22743		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimens and one other specimen. It has only been collected once since its discovery in 1905.
22743		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.
22771		conservation	eng	There is a need for further research into the distribution and natural history of this species. It is not known if it is present within any protected areas.
22771		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Subsaharan Africa, ranging from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau in West Africa, eastwards to Ethiopia and western Kenya in East Africa, and from here as far south as Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
22771		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist savannas, grasslands and  shrublands. It is also found at the edge of forests but is never encountered within forests.
22771		population	eng	It is never trapped in large numbers, but can be locally abundant.
22771		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.
22780		conservation	eng	Not listed in the CITES Appendices. The Grey Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canada and the United States (Fritzell 1987).<br/><br/>Grey Foxes occur in numerous protected areas throughout their range, such as Big Bend NP, San Joaquin National Wildlife Refuge, Rocky Mountain NP and Everglades and Dry Tortugas NP, and Adirondack NP.<br/><br/>A number of foxes are held in captivity, although there may be more in the hands of private collections/individuals who do not report to ISIS. Grey Foxes appear to fare well in captivity and commonly are on display at zoos and wildlife farms.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge:<br/>Because of the relatively high abundance and low economic value of Grey Foxes, surprisingly little research has been conducted on this species. Basic ecological and demographic information is needed for each of the major habitats occupied by Grey Foxes. Also, data on the response of Grey Foxes to human-altered landscapes (e.g., urban environments) is needed. No region-wide or range-wide population estimate has been produced. Furthermore, extremely little is known about the status and ecology of Grey Foxes outside of the USA and Canada. The effects of Grey Foxes on populations of smaller vertebrates, especially in urban and suburban settings without larger predators, may be important.
22780		distribution	eng	The Grey Fox ranges from the southern edge of central and eastern Canada, and Oregon, Nevada, Utah and Colorado in the United States south to northern Venezuela and Colombia; and from the Pacific coast of the United States to the Atlantic and Caribbean oceans. The species is not found in the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States, or in the Caribbean watersheds of Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and western Panama.
22780		habitat	eng	In eastern North America, the Grey Fox is most closely associated with deciduous/southern pine forests interspersed with some old fields and scrubby woodlands (Hall 1981). In western North America, it is commonly found in mixed agricultural/woodland/chaparral/riparian landscapes and shrub habitats. The species occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats in Central America and forested montane habitats in South America (Eisenberg 1989). Grey Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the southwestern USA and northern Mexico where cover is sufficient. They appear to do well on the margins of some urban areas (Harrison 1997).
22780		population	eng	The species is common in occupied habitat, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by sympatric Coyotes (<em>Canis latrans</em>) and Bobcats (<em>Lynx rufus</em>) (Farias 2000b).
22780		threats	eng	Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, may be particularly problematic in regions where human numbers are increasing rapidly and important habitat is converted for agricultural, industrial, and urban uses.<br/><br/>Because of its relatively lower fur quality compared with other species, commercial use of the Grey Fox is somewhat limited. However, 90,604 skins were taken in the United States during the 1991 and 1992 season (Linscombe 1994). In Mexico, Grey Foxes are frequently sold illegally as pets (R. List pers. comm.).
22781		conservation	eng	Not included in CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>The species was formerly a category II candidate for federal listing, but is not currently listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as threatened or endangered under the Federal Endangered Species Act. The species is listed by the state of California as a threatened species (California Department of Fish and Game 1987). The current legal status has not been sufficient to prevent recent catastrophic population declines. In June 2000, the USFWS was petitioned to list the populations on the three northern Channel Islands and Santa Catalina Island as endangered (Suckling and Garcelon 2000). The USFWS recently proposed to list these four subspecies as endangered (USDI 2001).<br/><br/>The three subspecies on the northern Channel Islands occur within the Channel Islands National Park. Approximately two-thirds of Santa Cruz Island is owned by The Nature Conservancy (TNC), and managed as the Santa Cruz Island Preserve. The Preserve is within the boundaries of the Channel Islands National Park, and the TNC and NPS (National Parks Service), co-manage natural resources together under a cooperative agreement. Approximately 87% of Santa Catalina Island is owned by the Santa Catalina Island Conservancy, a non-profit conservation organization, and both San Clemente and San Nicolas Islands are owned and managed by the U.S. Navy.<br/><br/>Based upon recommendations from an ad hoc recovery team, the Island Fox Conservation Working Group, the National Park Service (NPS) began initiating emergency actions in 1999, with the objectives being to remove the primary mortality factor currently affecting Island Foxes (Golden Eagle predation), and to recover populations to viable levels via captive breeding. Between November 1999 and June 2002, 22 eagles were removed from Santa Cruz Island and relocated to north-eastern California. In 1999, the NPS established an Island Fox captive breeding facility on San Miguel Island, added a second facility on Santa Rosa in 2000 and a third on Santa Cruz Island in 2002 (Coonan 2002, 2003; Coonan and Rutz 2000, 2002). Fourteen foxes were originally brought into captivity on San Miguel; current captive population is now 28. There are currently 45 foxes in captivity on Santa Rosa, and 12 adult foxes in the Santa Cruz facility that produced a single litter of five pups (Coonan 2002, 2003).<br/><br/>The NPS has prepared an Island Fox recovery plan for the northern Channel Islands (Coonan 2001) and an island-wide restoration plan for Santa Cruz Island (USDI 2002). The measures taken thus far on the northern Channel Islands (golden eagle removal and captive breeding) will form the basis for long-term recovery for the subspecies on the northern Channel Islands. In addition, the reintroduction of Bald Eagles (<em>Haliaeetus leucocephalus</em>), the eradication of feral pigs, and the removal of exotic plants have been recommended and are being implemented (Roemer <em>et al.</em> 2001a; USDI 2002). Demographic modelling indicates that recovery to viable population levels could take up to a decade (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>On Santa Catalina Island, The Santa Catalina Island Conservancy has taken a series of measures to mitigate the effects of canine distemper virus on that subspecies. Close to 150 foxes from the west end have been field-vaccinated for CDV and both translocation and captive breeding programmes have been established to aid in recolonizing the eastern portion of the island (Timm <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002). <br/><br/>Although the Island Fox Conservation Working Group recognized the need for a species-wide recovery plan, there is currently no formal vehicle to accomplish such a planning effort, because the species is not listed under the Federal Endangered Species Act. Nonetheless, the Working Group recognized that the following actions need to be implemented in order to insure recovery of island fox populations to viable levels (Coonan 2002, 2003):<br/><br/>Complete removal of Golden Eagles from northern Channel Islands.<br/>? Implement monitoring/response program for future golden eagles.<br/>? Remove feral pigs from Santa Cruz Island.<br/>? Reintroduce bald eagles to the northern Channel Islands.<br/>? Eliminate canine distemper as a mortality factor on Santa Catalina Island.<br/>? Vaccinate wild foxes against canine distemper virus, as needed.<br/>? Monitor populations for diseases causing morbidity and mortality through necropsy and faecal and blood testing.<br/>? Enforce no-dog policy on islands, and vaccinate working dogs.<br/>? Educate the public about potential disease transmission from domestic dogs.<br/>? Establish and maintain captive breeding facilities on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Santa Catalina Islands.<br/>? Supplement wild populations with captive-reared foxes.<br/>? Implement annual population monitoring of each subspecies/population.<br/>? Halt management actions to protect the San Clemente loggerhead shrike that are adversely affecting the San Clemente island fox.<br/>? Develop adaptive management programme.<br/><br/>Island Foxes currently are kept in captivity on four islands. The National Park Service's captive breeding programme maintains facilities on San Miguel, Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz Islands, in which there are currently 28, 45 and 17 island foxes, respectively. The Santa Catalina Island Conservancy and the Institute for Wildlife Studies have established a captive breeding facility on that island, and there are currently 12 adult pairs of foxes there (Timm <em>et al</em>. 2002). Small numbers (1?4) of San Clemente Island foxes are kept in a total of four zoos on the mainland with a variable number of foxes held in captivity each year on that island (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>It is known that wild Island Fox pairs are unrelated and that extra-pair copulations occur (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001b), but little is known about how foxes select mates and whether mate choice could play a role in improving the currently low reproduction characterizing captive foxes (Coonan and Rutz 2002). Controlled mate-choice experiments are needed.<br/><br/>It has been suggested that intense predation by Golden Eagles could have altered Island Fox activity patterns and selected for greater nocturnal activity in those foxes that have survived predation (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2002). The survival of the remaining wild Island Foxes on Santa Cruz Island is being monitored, but there has been no attempt to document daily activity levels (Dennis <em>et al</em>. 2001). The pattern of daily activity of wild Santa Cruz Island Foxes needs to be assessed, and compared to the activity of captive and captive-reared foxes that are released into the wild. If captive-reared foxes are more active during diurnal and crepuscular periods than their wild counterparts, it is probable that captive-reared foxes reintroduced into the wild will suffer higher mortality owing to Golden Eagle predation.<br/><br/>There has been only a single study that has examined dispersal in Island Foxes (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001b) and the number of dispersal events recorded was small (n=8). Additional information on Island Fox dispersal patterns on different islands and during periods of high and low density are needed.
22781		distribution	eng	The current distribution is thought to be a consequence of waif dispersal to the northern Channel Islands during the late Pleistocene, followed by Native American assisted dispersal to the southern Channel Islands (Collins 1982, 1991a, b, 1993; Wayne <em>et al.</em> 1991; Goldstein <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species is now geographically restricted to the six largest of the eight California Channel Islands located off the coast of southern California, USA.
22781		habitat	eng	Island Foxes occur in all habitats on the islands including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland, riparian and inland and coastal dune.<br/><br/>Although fox density varies by habitat, there is no clear habitat-specific pattern. When fox populations were dense, foxes could be trapped or observed in almost any of the island habitats, except for those that were highly degraded owing to human disturbance or overgrazing by introduced herbivores. More recently, foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands where the declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by Golden Eagles (<em>Aquila chrysaetos</em>) (Roemer <em>et al.</em> 2001a, 2002), foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover, including chaparral and introduced stands of fennel (<em>Foeniculum vulgare</em>) (G. Roemer, pers. obs.).
22781		population	eng	Island Foxes exhibit substantial variability in abundance, both spatially and temporally. Total island fox numbers have fallen from approximately 6,000 individuals (Roemer <em>et al.</em> 1994) to less than 1,500 in 2002. Four of the six island fox subspecies have experienced precipitous declines in the last four years. Fox populations on both San Miguel and Santa Cruz Islands declined by > 90% between 1995 and 2000. Similar declines also occurred on Santa Rosa and Santa Catalina Islands (Roemer 1999; Timm <em>et al.</em> 2000; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001a, 2002; Coonan 2003). Only 28 foxes are left on San Miguel and 45 foxes on Santa Rosa, all are in captivity (Coonan 2002, 2003). The Santa Cruz population has dropped from an estimated 1,312 foxes in 1993 to 133 foxes in 1999 (Roemer 1999; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001a). Estimates for 2001 suggest that this population may have declined to as low as 60?80 individuals in the wild (Coonan 2002). A captive breeding facility was initiated on Santa Cruz Island in 2002 when three adult pairs were brought into captivity; one pair had five pups in the spring (Coonan 2002). The subspecies on all three northern Channel Islands are in imminent danger of extinction. Fox populations on San Miguel and Santa Cruz Islands have an estimated 50% chance of persistence over the next decade, are Critically Endangered and in need of immediate conservation action (Roemer 1999; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001a, 2002; Coonan 2003). On Santa Catalina, Island Foxes are now rare on the larger eastern portion of the island as a result of a canine distemper outbreak that swept through the population in 1999 (Timm <em>et al</em>. 2000). The San Clemente population could be as low as 410 adult foxes, down from a high of 800?900 foxes. The causes of this decline are not yet clear (Garcelon 1999; Roemer 1999); however, it has been suggested that management actions aimed at protecting the threatened San Clemente loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi) may be a major factor in this decline (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001; Schmidt <em>et al</em>. 2002; Roemer and Wayne 2003). The San Nicolas population appears to be at high density (5.6?16.4 foxes/km²) and currently harbours one of the largest populations (estimate = 734 foxes; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001b). However, this estimate may be positively biased and the actual population size may be closer to 435 foxes (G. Smith pers. comm.).<br/><br/>All of the current estimates of density and population size in Island Foxes have been conducted using modifications of a capture-recapture approach (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 1994). In its simplest application, population size is determined by multiplying average density among sampling sites times island area. Population estimates could be improved by first determining habitat-specific estimates of density and multiplying these densities times the area covered by the specific habitat (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 1994), an approach amenable to analysis with geographical information systems. However, density estimates made from aggregating home ranges suggest that the use of capture-recapture data may also overestimate density. For example, fox density estimated at Fraser Point, Santa Cruz Island using the capture-recapture approach was 7.0 foxes/km² (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 1994). A simultaneous estimate of density based on the distribution of home ranges for 14 radio-collared foxes with overlapping home ranges was approximately 31% lower (4.8 foxes/km²) (Roemer 1999). Thus the size of island fox populations may be lower than current capture-recapture analyses suggest.
22781		threats	eng	The current primary threats to the species include Golden Eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands (Roemer 1999; Roemer <em>et al.</em> 2001a, 2002) and the possible introduction of canine diseases, especially CDV, to all populations (Garcelon <em>et al</em>. 1992; Roemer 1999; Timm <em>et al</em>. 2000). All populations are small, several critically so, and are threatened by demographic stochasticity and environmental variability. The small populations are especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/>Recently, there has also been a management conflict between island foxes and the San Clemente Island loggerhead shrike (Roemer and Wayne 2003). Island Foxes were euthanized on San Clemente Island in 1998 as part of a programme to protect nesting shrikes (Elliot and Popper 1999; Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001). Although euthanasia of foxes has stopped, a number of foxes are now retained in captivity each year, during the nesting and fledging stage of the shrike, and subsequently released back into the environment. The impact to fox reproduction and the potential disruption of the social system are unknown, but may be significant. These actions may have contributed to a 60% decline in the fox population on San Clemente Island (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001; Schmidt <em>et al</em>. 2002; Roemer and Wayne 2003). Considering the precipitous declines in foxes on four of six islands and the continued decline in the San Clemente population, this current management practice needs further scrutiny.
22782		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
22782		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south through the Isthmus to Bolivia, and southeastern Brazil; also Trinidad (Reid, 1997). It is found widely over all tropical areas of South America and generally occurs below 1,000 m elevation (Eisenberg, 1989). There are records from Venezuela, Guayana, French Guiana (Patterson pers. comm.).
22782		habitat	eng	The species occurs in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest; it is strongly associated with multistratal tropical wet forest, but also occurs in dry areas; it tolerates second growth woodland, fruit groves, and man-made clearings (Handley, 1976; Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). It roost in colonies (two to ten; sometimes up to 60) of both sexes. This species makes a wide variety of tents and appears to be an obligate tent rooster. The bat’s prominently striped face may function as disruptive camouflage inside a tent with multiple leaflets (Reid, 1997). They are strongly frugivorous but include insects in their diet (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961); also flower parts, and nectar may be taken. In Venezuela 0-2,600 m (Lew pers com).
22782		population	eng	Common and widespread (Reid, 1997).
22782		threats	eng	None known.
22783		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in Mexico.
22783		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Michoacan, Mexico, south through the Isthmus to central Brazil. It generally occurs below 1,000 m elevation; most specimens being taken at below 800 m (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). It is found in southern Venezuela and Guyana, but there are no records from French Guiana or Suriname (Lim and Patterson pers. comm.). No records for Costa Rica (Bernal Rodrigues and Pineda pers. comm.)
22783		habitat	eng	It is often associated with moist habitats, as deciduous and evergreen forest and near water in arid regions (Davis, 1968). In Venezuela, it makes use of open areas and man-made clearings and seems less tolerant of arid habitats than <em>U. bilobatum</em> (Handley, 1976). This bat roosts under palm fronds or banana leaves or other large leaves of palms (i.e. <em>Astrocaryum</em> sp.). They often bite through the ribs of fronds and cause the leaf to collapse on itself, thereby providing a shelter (Eisenberg, 1989). One tent was occupied by 5 bats (Timm, 1987). Females roost in colonies when they bear their young, and the sexes tend to roost separately during the rearing season. In Panama young are born from February through April (Wilson, 1979). They are strongly frugivorous but include insects in their diet (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961); several individuals caught were dusted with pollen, presumably after feeding on nectar or flower parts (Gardner, 1977).
22783		population	eng	It is not as common as <em>U. bilobatum</em>, but is not uncommon.
22783		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
22784		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
22784		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mindanao Faunal Region, Philippines. It has been recorded from Dinagat, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It ranges from 750-2,250 m on Mindanao, whereas it is found at lower elevations on the other islands.
22784		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mid-elevation ranges and prefers montane and lower mossy forest, though it can be found in disturbed habitats near forested areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Although it exhibits some tolerance for light habitat disturbance (for example, selective logging), it does not do well in heavily disturbed forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
22784		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally common in forests on Dinagat and moderately common throughout Mindanao.
22784		threats	eng	The major threat is deforestation that has occurred at lower elevations, and much of this species' habitat below 1000 m has been lost.
22800		conservation	eng	It occurs in Lorentz National Park, Indonesia and possibly others.
22800		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed through the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), from the Weyland Range in the west to Mount Dayman in the east. It is also present on the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 850 to at least 3,000 m asl.
22800		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary tropical moist forest, and also from degraded forest but probably not from secondary forest (unless it is very old forest). It has been recorded from stands of Pandanus. Animals have been reported from caves (Flannery 1995). Groups of up to 12 animals may be found roosting together in hollow trees, epiphytes, or Pandanus (Flannery 1995). Females have been found with four young.
22800		population	eng	It is uncommon, occurring naturally at fairly low densities throughout its range.
22800		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is threatened by overhunting locally, and has disappeared from parts of its range. However, the species is widely distributed and populations have not been significantly impacted by hunting in other areas.
22801		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed to determine whether it is a species complex, possibly containing a number of restricted range species.
22801		distribution	eng	This species is present on the island of Waigeo (Indonesia), the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the island of Yapen (Indonesia), and ranges widely through the lowlands of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a,b). It is present on Fergusson and Normanby islands (Papua New Guinea), and is present in Cape York and in north-eastern Queensland, Australia, to just south of Townsville; also on Hinchinbrook Island (Moore 2008). It ranges from sea level to 1,925 m asl (Flannery 1995a).
22801		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, closed sclerophyll forest, wet open woodland, swamps, and mangroves (Flannery 1995a; Moore 2008). It is generally not found outside of wooded areas. Females give birth to a litter of usually two or three young after a gestation period of 36 days (Moore 2008).
22801		population	eng	This species is common.
22801		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
22802		conservation	eng	Most of the population of this species is located within the protected areas of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. This is a poorly known species, and further studies are required on its natural history. There is currently a three-year Ph.D. study on the distribution, habitat requirements, population densities, breeding, diet, behaviour, and home range of this species (L. Moore pers. comm.).
22802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to the Thornton Peak massif between 550 and 1,220 m asl elevation, the Mount Carbine Tableland above 900 m, and from the Lamins Hill/Mount Bartle of the Atherton Tableland (above 800 m). In the Atherton Uplands it may be distributed in areas of continuous tropical moist forest with a high rainfall, between Kuranda in the north and Herbert River Gorge in the south (Lee 1995).
22802		habitat	eng	This species is found only in specific rainforest habitats, those within permanent creek systems with dense undergrowth and large logs. It is terrestrial and territorial, maintaining pathways using surface roots, shrubs, logs, etc. The diet of this species is primarily vegetarian, yet includes large beetles and other insects from rotting logs (Moore and Winter 2008).
22802		population	eng	This is a naturally rare species, which occurs in low numbers in suitable upland rainforest. Seasonal shifts in habitat use affect local occurrence and numbers of individuals. Its pronounced territoriality and cryptic behaviour make it a difficult animal to trap. Droughts and food shortages, however, may force animals into sub-optimal habitat and possibly increase captures (Moore and Winter 2008).
22802		threats	eng	Due to the narrow range of habitat used by this species, the headwaters of permanent creek systems in upland rainforest, the greatest threat to this species is global warming. Past clearing and fragmentation may have reduced its previous distribution and current selective logging may adversely affect populations outside the protected area (L. Moore pers. comm.). There is a prediction of 50% decline in extent of its upland habitat with a temperature increase of just 1 degree Celsius (Moore and Winter 2008).
22803		conservation	eng	Future surveys of Guadalcanal should be familiar with this species so that any remnant populations can be identified.
22803		distribution	eng	This species is known from three specimens collected by Charles Woodford between 1886 and 1888, at Aola, northern Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995).
22803		habitat	eng	It seems as though this was a largely terrestrial species that was at one point found throughout much of Guadalcanal, including the dry northern lowlands and areas close to the coast. Later reports suggest that the species became restricted to mossy montane forest (Flannery 1995).
22803		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens collected between 1886 and 1888. Anecdotal information suggests that the species survived into the 1960s (Flannery 1995). Guadalcanal has not been adequately surveyed for this species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
22803		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline and possible extinction of this species are not known. It may have been subject to overhunting and loss of suitable habitat; or competition, predation, and/or disease transmission from introduced species.
22804		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to the species are needed.
22804		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Surveys for this species on the adjacent island of New Ireland have not revealed any animals (Flannery 1995). It has been collected at 30 and 500 m asl.
22804		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species, and there is little information available on its natural history. In general solitary animals have been collected, at least one of these was found in tropical forest regrowth (Flannery 1995).
22804		population	eng	This is a common species.
22804		threats	eng	The threats to this species include deforestation for oil palm (this brings in predators like owls and snakes and competitor rats), and hunting for food by local people.   Logging is most pervasive at low elevations within this species' range (for estimates of forest cover loss on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">New Britain</st1:city></st1:place> for the period of 1989-2000, see Buchanan <em>et al.</em> 2008).
22805		conservation	eng	Future surveys of Guadalcanal should be familiar with this species so that any remnant populations can be identified.
22805		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected by C.M. Woodford presumably between 1886-1888 at Aola, Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). There is apparently no local knowledge of the species. Tim Flannery reports seeing something which could be this species in 1989, but this sighting is unconfirmed (Flannery 1995).
22805		habitat	eng	It appears to have been a terrestrial species that may have inhabited caves (Flannery 1995). It probably lived in lowland tropical forests.
22805		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype. Guadalcanal has not been adequately surveyed for this species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
22805		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline and possible extinction of this species are not known. It may have been subject to overhunting and loss of suitable habitat; or competition, predation, and/or disease transmission from introduced species. Feral cats have been recorded from the area, and these could certainly have lead to the demise of this species.
22806		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Directed field studies are needed to identify important sites for this species. Protection of these areas may be needed.
22806		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands. It is absent from large parts of the island. It has been recorded at elevations of 20 and 600 m asl.
22806		habitat	eng	This arboreal species has been recorded from primary tropical moist forest, including relict patches of native forest.
22806		population	eng	There are few recent records of this species. This species was captured a specimen in 1987 by Tim Flannery that he found it in a "relict outlier of tall rainforest in the Poha Valley." Flannery (1995) reports that another two were found at Gold Ridge in 1989, but an intensive survey of Mount Makarakomburu in 1990 failed to locate the species. Roger James (pers. comm.) has had indications in interviews with the locals that the species may occur elsewhere on the island, but there are no specimens to confirm this anecdotal information.
22806		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by loss of habitat through deforestation for timber and conversion of land to cultivated use.
22809		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Nujiang Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered C2a(i,ii)+D (Wang and Xie 2004).
22809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the province of Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008), specifically the Kui-chiang-Salween divide at 28°N. Although there are no records of occurrence in Myanmar, it is likely that this species' distribution extends across the border. It occupies elevations ranging from 3,600-4,600 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
22809		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. It occurs in open alpine meadows and may occur in high altitude fir forests (Smith and Xie 2008). The ecology of this species is unknown although it is likely to be similar to <em>U. soricipes</em>, in areas where they are sympatric.
22809		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
22809		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
22810		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and natural history of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).
22810		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations below 2,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
22810		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests.
22810		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
22810		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
22816		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are planned, although this species occurs in several protected areas, including Kosi Bay. Coastal ecosystem conservation in general will benefit this species (Samways 2006 in press). More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats. Further searches are urgently required, especially of its larval habitat which has not yet been confirmed (Samways 2006 in press).
22816		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from South Africa (coastal, northern Kwazulu Natal) and southern Mozambique. So far it is known from only one record from 2001 in Mozambique, but it is likely to be more widespread here due to the present availability of suitable habitat and the species' dispersal ability.
22816		habitat	eng	Frequents grassland in close vicinity to sedge- and grass-pans. Larval habitat unknown.
22816		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
22816		threats	eng	Overgrazing and increasing urbanization could become a threat.
22817		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality waters is needed.
22817		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality waters is needed. This species also requires taxonomic revision.
22817		distribution	eng	Southeast Arabia in south and northeast Oman. Possibly ranges up to Somalia, if taxonomical changes occur.
22817		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Southeast Arabia in south and northeast Oman. Possibly ranges up to Somalia, if taxonomical changes occur.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is possibly present in Somalia, although more surveys and taxonomic work is needed.
22817		habitat	eng	Found in and around springs and wadis.
22817		habitat	eng	Springs and wadis.
22817		population	eng	Population size is most probably very low.
22817		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.
22817		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (e.g., for drainage, over irrigation, pollution) and drought threaten this species.
22823		conservation	eng	Conservation actions vary by jurisdiction. The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears provides guidance, and Article II of the Agreement states that each contracting party "shall manage polar bear populations in accordance with sound conservation practices based on the best available scientific information," and according to Article VII, "The Contracting Parties shall conduct national research programs on polar bears" and "..consult with each other on the management of migrating polar bear populations". These articles have been important for stimulating governments to support applied research to answer management questions regarding polar bears throughout their range. This work is coordinated through the IUCN SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG). Resolutions from the PBSG are developed and directed toward ensuring that the terms and intentions of the Agreement are being met.<br/><br/>Coordinated research is ongoing, management actions reviewed for consistency, and legislation to effect bilateral management for internationally shared populations such as between the US-Russia is being pursued. Additional cooperative management agreements between Canada and Greenland are desirable and currently being developed.<br/><br/>Additional details of the Global Status and Management of Polar Bears are contained in the IUCN "Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Bears" (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
22823		conservation	eng	Conservation actions vary by jurisdiction. The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears provides guidance, and Article II of the Agreement states that each contracting party "shall manage polar bear populations in accordance with sound conservation practices based on the best available scientific information," and according to Article VII, "The Contracting Parties shall conduct national research programs on Polar Bears" and "..consult with each other on the management of migrating polar bear populations". These articles have been important for stimulating governments to support applied research to answer management questions regarding polar bears throughout their range. This work is coordinated through the IUCN SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG). Resolutions from the PBSG are developed and directed toward ensuring that the terms and intentions of the Agreement are being met. Coordinated research is ongoing, management actions are reviewed for consistency, and legislation to effect bilateral management for internationally shared populations such as between the US-Russia is being pursued. Additional cooperative management agreements between Canada and Greenland are desirable and currently being developed (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Additional details of the Global Status and Management of Polar Bears are contained in the IUCN "Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Bears" (Servheen <em>et al. </em>1999) and at the PBSG website (http://pbsg.npolar.no/ <http://pbsg.nopolar.no/>). The polar bear is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and Appendix II of CITES.
22823		distribution	eng	Polar bears live throughout the ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic, and their range is limited by the southern extent of sea ice. Although some occur in the permanent multi-year pack ice of the central Arctic basin, they are most common in the annual ice over the continental shelf and inter-island archipelagos that surround the polar basin. Polar bears that have continuous access to sea ice are able to hunt throughout the year. However, in those areas where the sea ice melts completely each summer, polar bears are forced to spend several months on land fasting on stored fat reserves until freeze-up. Use of land by polar bears during the ice-free season appears to be increasing in certain locations. <br/><br/>The species is found in Canada (Manitoba, Newfoundland, Labrador, Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Quebec, Yukon Territory, Ontario), Greenland/Denmark, Norway (including Svalbard), Russian Federation (North European Russia, Siberia, Chukotka, Sakha (Yakutia), Krasnoyarsk), United States (Alaska). Also, vagrants occasionally reach Iceland.
22823		distribution	eng	Polar bears live throughout the ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic, in Canada (Manitoba, Newfoundland, Labrador, Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Quebec, Yukon Territory, Ontario), Greenland (to Denmark), Norway, Russian Federation (North European Russia, Siberia, Chukotka), and the United States (Alaska). Some vagrants occasionally reach Iceland. Their range is limited by the southern extent of sea ice. Although some occur in the permanent multi-year pack ice of the central Arctic basin, they are most common in the annual ice over the continental shelf and inter-island archipelagos that surround the polar basin. Polar bears that have continuous access to sea ice are able to hunt throughout the year. However, in those areas where the sea ice melts completely each summer, polar bears are forced to spend several months on land fasting on stored fat reserves until freeze-up. Use of land by polar bears during the ice-free season appears to be increasing in certain locations (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Polar bears typically occur at low altitudes (on the sea ice and up to <em>ca</em>. 200 m in coastal areas), although exceptionally they may range far inland, and have been recorded at altitudes of 1,000 m above sea level in Svalbard (O. Wiig and A. Derocher pers. comm. 2006).
22823		habitat	eng	Polar bears occur at low densities throughout their range and are most abundant in shallow water areas near shore or where currents or upwellings increase biological productivity near ice areas associated with open water, polynyas or lead systems. Polar bears are not as abundant in the high central arctic over deeper waters of the polar basin.<br/><br/>Seasonally, in the summer open water season in the Canadian arctic islands and Svalbard, and in recent years during the fall in northern Alaska and Russian Chukotka, polar bears may be found on land in higher densities.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs in March to May, implantation is delayed until autumn, and birth is generally thought to occur from late November to mid-January. Although some cubs are born in earth dens, most births occur in snow dens that may be occupied between 5?6 months during the maternal event. In Alaska the maternal dens are located on the offshore sea ice. Only pregnant female polar bears den for this protracted period of time, during which time they rely on fat stores for energy and sustenance. The average litter size is less than two. Cubs are dependent upon mothers until after the start of their third year of life. Age of first reproduction is normally 5?6 years for females. These factors contribute to the low reproductive potential for the species.
22823		habitat	eng	Polar bears occur at low densities throughout their range and are most abundant in shallow water areas near shore or where currents or upwellings increase biological productivity near ice areas associated with open water, polynyas or lead systems. Polar bears are not as abundant in the high central arctic over deeper waters of the polar basin. Seasonally, in the summer open water season in the Canadian arctic islands and Svalbard, and in recent years during the fall in northern Alaska and Russian Chukotka, polar bears may be found on land in higher densities. Breeding occurs in March to May, implantation is delayed until autumn, and birth is generally thought to occur from late November to mid-January. Although some cubs are born in earth dens, most births occur in snow dens that may be occupied between 5-6 months during the maternal event. In Alaska the maternal dens are located on the offshore sea ice. Only pregnant female polar bears den for this protracted period of time, during which time they rely on fat stores for energy and sustenance. The average litter size is less than two. Cubs are dependent upon mothers until after the start of their third year of life. Age of first reproduction is normally 5-6 years for females. These factors contribute to the low reproductive potential for the species (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006).
22823		population	eng	There are 19 hypothesized subpopulations or stocks which number in total 20,000 to 25,000 bears. Considerable overlap of putative subpopulations occurs and genetic differences among them are small (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Europe, the Barents sea subpopulation (Norway and the Russian Federation) is estimated at <em>ca</em>. 3,000 individuals (Aars <em>et al.</em> in press).
22823		population	eng	There are nineteen hypothesized subpopulations or stocks which number in total 20,000 to 25,000 bears. Considerable overlap of putative populations occurs and genetic differences among them are small.
22823		threats	eng	The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment have both predicted that the Arctic is extremely vulnerable to projected climate change. Polar bears will likely be shifted pole-ward if the sea ice retreats. According to new scenarios presented by the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre and others, the polar ice cap will disappear almost entirely during summer in the next 100 years.<br/><br/>The increasing changes in the sea ice that affect access to prey will have a negative effect on the bears. With less food, polar bears will fail to reproduce more often and give birth to smaller young that have higher mortality rates.<br/><br/>Polar bears may be forced on shore for extended periods and rely on fat reserves deposited the previous spring for survival. In such a situation they will be increasingly vulnerable to hunting if not regulated. If these periods become excessively long, mortality will increase. Sea ice is also used for access to den areas and if ice patterns change, existing den areas may be unreachable. Warmer temperatures and higher winds may reduce ice thickness and increase ice drift. Because polar bears must walk against the moving ice (like walking the wrong way on an escalator) increased ice movements will increase energy use and reduce growth and reproduction.<br/><br/>Polar bears are the apex predator and are exposed to high levels of pollutants that are magnified with each step higher in the food web. A key characteristic of the pollutants is that they tend to persist in the environment and resist degradation. Many of the organochlorine pollutants are lipophilic or "fat loving" and bond tightly to fat molecules. Polar bears are particularly vulnerable to organochlorines because they eat a fat rich diet. Ringed, bearded, and harp seals comprise the main food of polar bears and the blubber layer is preferentially eaten by the bears and subsequently, the intake of pollutants is high.<br/><br/>Certain areas of the Arctic, such as northeastern Greenland, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea, have higher levels of pollutants. Based on studies in other species, it is reasonable to believe that the pollutant load of polar bears in some areas are negatively affecting the immune system, hormone regulation, growth patterns, reproduction, and survival rates of polar bears. Recent studies have suggested that the immune system is weaker in polar bears with higher levels of PCBs. A major concern with polar bears pertains to their reproductive system. There are suggestions that species with delayed implantation are more vulnerable to the effects of pollution through endocrine (hormone) disruption. Further, female polar bears are food deprived during gestation their pollution loads increase because as they use their fat stores, where pollutants are stored, for energy. Because the cubs are nursed on fat rich milk, the cubs are exposed to very high pollution loads from their mother.<br/><br/>Oil development in the Arctic poses a wide range of threats to polar bears ranging from oil spills to increased human-bear interactions. It is probable that an oil spill in sea ice habitat would result in oil being concentrated in leads and between ice floes resulting in both polar bears and their main prey (ringed and bearded seals) being directly exposed to oil. Another concern is that seals covered in oil may be a major source of oil to polar bears. Other studies suggest that polar bears are sensitive to disturbance at maternity den sites. Disturbance could occur both when a pregnant female is selecting a den site and during the winter-spring after the cubs are born. If exploration or development occurred sufficiently close to a den, the mother may abandon the den prematurely or abandon her offspring.<br/><br/>Over-harvest is an ongoing concern for some polar bear populations: particularly in areas where there is no information on population size (e.g., Québec, east Greenland, and the Chukchi Sea) and no quotas. It is important that population estimates and projections are based on substantiated scientific data. An additional concern is that population inventory programs occur relatively infrequently in some areas so if the harvest rate is above the sustainable level, the population may be reduced before the next inventory is made. Recent development of co-management agreements and greater involvement of local people and hunters is improving the management of polar bears in some areas.<br/><br/><strong>Utilisation</strong><br/>The principle use of polar bears in the circumpolar arctic is for subsistence purposes. These include consumption of meat; use of hides in the construction of clothing such as mittens, boots (mukluks), fur ruffs for parkas, and fur pants; and small scale creation of items of handicraft. The US (Alaska), Canada and Greenland manage a subsistence harvest. Norway and Russia prohibit harvest of polar bears. In Russia during the early 1990s an unsanctioned harvest of polar bears began following dissolution of the Soviet Union. Levels of harvest are not quantified.<br/><br/>In Canada a portion of the annual harvest is by sports hunters employing native guides utilizing traditional harvest methods such as dog-teams. The harvest levels are regulated and based on principles of sustainable resource management. Greenland introduced a quota system which came into force on January 1, 2006 and plans to start sport hunting in the near future.<br/><br/>A small number of orphaned cubs are placed in zoos and public display facilities.<br/><br/>Research activities: live capture and release of polar bears.<br/><br/>Public viewing and photography are another form of utilization and occur locally at Churchill, Canada, and other remote areas, at specific locals in Svalbard, Norway, and to a limited extent in location on the north coast of Alaska.
22823		threats	eng	The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment have both predicted that the Arctic is extremely vulnerable to projected climate change. Polar bears will likely be shifted pole-ward if the sea ice retreats. According to new scenarios presented by the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre and others, the polar ice cap will disappear almost entirely during summer in the next 100 years. The winter ice over the continental shelf in the European Arctic will probably also disappear (Furevik <em>et al.</em> 2002). The increasing changes in the sea ice that affect access to prey will have a negative effect on the bears. With less food, polar bears will fail to reproduce more often and give birth to smaller young that have higher mortality rates. Polar bears may be forced on shore for extended periods and rely on fat reserves deposited the previous spring for survival. In such a situation they will be increasingly vulnerable to unregulated hunting. If these periods become excessively long, mortality will increase. Sea ice is also used for access to den areas and if ice patterns change, existing den areas may be unreachable. Warmer temperatures and higher winds may reduce ice thickness and increase ice drift. Because polar bears must walk against the moving ice (like walking the wrong way on an escalator) increased ice movements will increase energy use and reduce growth and reproduction (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Polar bears are the apex predator and are exposed to high levels of pollutants that are magnified with each step higher in the food web. A key characteristic of the pollutants is that they tend to persist in the environment and resist degradation. Many of the organochlorine pollutants are lipophilic or "fat loving" and bond tightly to fat molecules. Polar bears are particularly vulnerable to organochlorines because they eat a fat rich diet. Ringed, bearded, and harp seals comprise the main food of polar bears and the blubber layer is preferentially eaten by the bears and subsequently, the intake of pollutants is high (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Certain areas of the Arctic, such as north-east Greenland, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea, have higher levels of pollutants. Based on studies in other species, it is reasonable to believe that the pollutant load of polar bears in some areas are negatively affecting the immune system, hormone regulation, growth patterns, reproduction, and survival rates of polar bears (Derocher <em>et al.</em> 2002). Recent studies have suggested that the immune system is weaker in polar bears with higher levels of PCBs. A major concern with polar bears pertains to their reproductive system. There are suggestions that species with delayed implantation are more vulnerable to the effects of pollution through endocrine (hormone) disruption. Further, female polar bears are food deprived during gestation their pollution loads increase because as they use their fat stores, where pollutants are stored, for energy. Because the cubs are nursed on fat rich milk, the cubs are exposed to very high pollution loads from their mother (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Recent studies have indicated that high loads of organochlorines may cause reduction in the size of sexual organs of polar bears in certain areas, thus theoretically impairing reproduction (Sonne <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>Oil development in the Arctic poses a wide range of threats to polar bears ranging from oil spills to increased human-bear interactions (Derocher <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is probable that an oil spill in sea ice habitat would result in oil being concentrated in leads and between ice floes resulting in both polar bears and their main prey (ringed and bearded seals) being directly exposed to oil. Another concern is that seals covered in oil may be a major source of oil to polar bears. Other studies suggest that Polar Bears are sensitive to disturbance at maternity den sites. Disturbance could occur both when a pregnant female is selecting a den site and during the winter-spring after the cubs are born. If exploration or development occurred sufficiently close to a den, the mother may abandon the den prematurely or abandon her offspring (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006).
22824		conservation	eng	The most beneficial conservation measure for Asiatic black bears would be to substantially lessen the demand for bear products, and thus reduce hunting and trade. The species is protected under both international and national laws, but often these laws are not enforced.  It has been included on CITES Appendix I since 1979.   The so-called Baluchistan bear, a subspecies (<em>U. thibetanus gedrosianus</em>) living in the arid thorn forest in the Baluchistan region of southern Pakistan and Iran, was listed as Critically Endangered (B1+2abc, C2a) in the 1996 IUCN Red List, and is nationally listed as critically endangered in Pakistan.  Authorities have proposed a protected area to assist in the recovery of this very small, isolated population (Sheikh 2006).<br/><br/>In most range countries Asiatic black bears are listed as a protected species.  For example, they are protected under Class 2 of China's Wildlife Protection Law (a limited number of permits are issued to kill nuisance animals), and under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.  In South Korea they are designated as a national monument (No. 329) within the Cultural Properties Protection Law and also as an Endangered Wild Animal. In Japan, this species is listed under the Law for Conservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, which for trade requires certification of legal take; however, gall bladders and paws are exempted.  Throughout Southeast Asia this species is totally protected in every range country, with the exception of Myanmar, where this species is classified as “normally protected”, meaning that it may be killed with a special license (although such licenses are rarely issued; Saw Htun, Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar pers. comm.).   In Afghanistan, <span style="font-style: italic;">U. thibetanus</span> is listed as a protected species, imposing a Government ban on all hunting and trading of this species within the country.<br/><br/>Sport hunting of Asiatic black bears is legal only in Japan and Russia.  Russia reports a legal harvest of 75-100 bears/year and an estimated illegal take of about 500 bears/year. Sport harvests of black bears in Japan average about 500/year and have been slowly declining since the late 1980s due to diminishing interest in hunting (Oi and Yamazaki 2006).  However, a high number (generally 1,000–2,000, but as many as 4,000) of nuisance black bears are killed annually (using guns, traps, and snares) in towns or agricultural areas of Japan. <br/><br/>Farming bears for bile presents another conservation difficulty that needs to be resolved.  In Viet Nam, bears are still being removed from the wild to supply farms.  In China, whereas the farms themselves may not require restocking from the wild, the excessive bile produced may fuel the market, and thus may actually increase demand for bile from wild bears.  In South Korea, where wild Asiatic black bears have been nearly extirpated, 2000 bears are kept and propagated in captivity and it is believed that bile and other parts from this captive population supply an illicit market.<br/><br/>Efforts are underway in South Korea to restore the wild bear population through restocking, initially with captive-born bears, but more recently with orphaned wild bears from Russia.  Some Southeast Asian countries, like Cambodia and Thailand are also considering reintroducing bears from captivity.<br/><br/>Throughout much of the southern portion of the range of this species, efforts to reduce habitat degradation outside PAs and to increase the number and/or area of PAs would be highly beneficial.  An increasing number of PAs are being established in China, India, and a few other countries within the range of Asiatic black bears (Chape <em>et al</em>. 2003), mainly to protect other species, but serving as well to increase protection for bears.  Additionally, the recently amended (2003) Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act provides options for new categories of PAs that could be established to form travel corridors between existing PAs.
22824		distribution	eng	Fossil remains of the Asiatic black bear have been found as far west as Germany and France, but in historic times the species has been limited to Asia.  This species occupies a narrow band from southeastern Iran (Gutleb and Ziaie 1999) eastward through Afghanistan and Pakistan, across the foothills of the Himalayas, to Myanmar.  It occupies all countries in mainland Southeast Asia except Malaysia.  It has a patchy distribution in southern China, and is absent in much of east-central China.  Another population cluster exists in northeastern China, the southern Russian Far East, and into North Korea.  A small remnant population exists in South Korea.  They also live on the southern islands of Japan (Honshu and Shikoku) and on Taiwan and Hainan. The species now occurs very patchily through much of its former range, especially in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, mainland southeast Asia and China. Its distribution in parts of China and Myanmar remains very poorly known.<br/><br/>The distribution of the Asiatic black bear roughly coincides with forest distribution in southern and eastern Asia (FAO 2006), except that in central and southern India this species is replaced by the sloth bear (<em>Melursus ursinus</em>), in southern Thailand and into Malaysia it is replaced by the sun bear (<em>Helarctos malayanus</em>) and north and west of the Russian Far East it is replaced by the brown bear (<em>Ursus arctos</em>).  However, the Asiatic black bear overlaps the ranges of each of these species, especially the sun bear in a large portion of Southeast Asia.
22824		habitat	eng	Asiatic black bears occupy a variety of forested habitats, both broad-leaved and coniferous, from near sea level to an elevation of 4,300 m (in northeastern India, A. Choudhury, Rhino Foundation for Nature pers. comm.).  They also infrequently use open alpine meadows. Individual bears move to different habitats and elevations seasonally (Izumiyama and Shiraishi 2004), tracking changes in food abundance.  Foods include succulent vegetation (shoots, forbs and leaves) in spring, turning to insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and finally nuts in autumn (Bromlei 1965, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, Huygens <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In some places the diet contains a sizeable portion of meat from mammalian ungulates (which they either kill or scavenge, Hwang <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/><br/>In temperate forests, Asiatic black bears rely heavily on hard mast in autumn, in part to put on sufficient fat reserves for winter denning (hibernation).  Therefore, these bears tend to focus their activities in habitats with high abundance of oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, or stone pine seeds (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1989, Hashimoto <em>et al</em>. 2003).  When Asiatic black bears feed in hard mast trees they often break branches and pile them up in the canopy, forming what appears to be a platform or “nest”. Males may socially exclude females from rich stands of hard mast (Huygens and Hayashi 2001, Hwang 2003).  <br/><br/>In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate.  In the most northerly parts of their range, bears enter dens as early as October and exit as late as the end of May (Seryodkin <em>et al</em>. 2003).  They den in rock crevices, in hollow trees or stumps, under upturned trees, in dug-out earthen dens, or in ground nests.  In Russia, Asiatic black bears have been reported to select flat river bottoms for denning (Seryodkin <em>et al</em>. 2003), whereas in central China they move to high elevation rocky outcrops on steep slopes (Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991).  Hunters often have knowledge of the sorts of places and types of dens that the bears tend to use.  Denning and active black bears are also subject to predation by other Asiatic black bears, brown bears, and tigers (Seryodkin <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In the tropics, Asiatic black bears generally do not hibernate, except females giving birth during winter (Hwang and Garshelis 2007). They still make use of hard mast, but additionally consume numerous species of soft fruits.  In Thailand, for example, Asiatic black bears were found to feed on >160 species of tree-borne fruits.  Sympatric sun bears also eat most of these same fruits.  Both species most often climb (apparently for feeding) trees in the cinnamon (Lauraceae) and teak (Labiatae) families.  Both species live together in lowland habitats (<1,200 m), but Asiatic black bears predominate at higher elevations (R. Steinmetz, in prep.).<br/><br/>Asiatic black bears also use regenerating forests, which may have a high production of berries or young bamboo shoots.  They also feed in plantations, where they may damage trees by stripping the bark and eating cambium, and in cultivated areas, especially corn and oat fields and fruit orchards (Carr <em>et al</em>. 2002, Yamazaki 2003, Mizukami <em>et al</em>. 2005, Gong and Harris 2006, Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Asiatic black bears generally breed during June–July and give birth during November–March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range.  Age of first reproduction is 4–5 years, and they normally produce litters of 1 or 2 cubs every other year (at most).  Maximum lifespan is over 30 years, but average lifespan is less in the wild.
22824		population	eng	No rigorous population estimates exist for this species.  Japan formerly posed estimates of 8–14,000 bears on Honshu Island, but these are no longer considered valid.  Russian biologists have presented a number of density estimates, yielding a rangewide estimate of about 5–6,000, but the reliability of these is unclear (Aramilev 2006).  Likewise, rough density estimates have been made for some portions of India and Pakistan, which have been extrapolated country-wide (7-9000 in India: Sathyakumar 2006, 1000 in Pakistan: Sheikh 2006), but without corroborating methodology or data.  A host of recent countrywide estimates have been posed for Asiatic black bears in China, ranging from 15–46,000 (summarized by Garshelis 2002, Gong and Harris 2006), with an official government estimate (in 2003) of about 28,000; none of these estimates have been substantiated.
22824		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging, expansion of human settlements, roadway networks, and hydro-power stations, combined with hunting for skins, paws and especially gall bladders are the main threats to this species. <br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation is most severe in the southern portion of the range.  In India, <10% of the species’ range is within protected areas (PAs), and areas outside PAs are subject to development projects and extraction of wood for fuel and livestock fodder (Sathyakumar 2006).  In Bangladesh, where forest cover is now <7% of the land area, Asiatic black bears survive only in small remnant patches in the east, generally near the Myanmar border.  Myanmar, although still well forested (nearly 50%), is fourth in the world in the annual rate of loss of forested area (among countries occupied by all species of bears, it is second only to Indonesia: FAO 2006).  Thailand has lower forest cover (<30%), but much of its remaining forests are within PAs, and about half of these are occupied by black bears (Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Forest area has recently been increasing in Viet Nam, but much of the present remaining forest is highly degraded from both legal and illegal lumbering (Nguyen Xuan Dang 2006).  <br/><br/>Forest area is increasing rapidly in China, which is now first in the world in terms of area gained per year.  This increasing forest area stems from mandated government programs aimed mainly toward reducing flooding and erosion; the replanted trees may or may not be particularly suitable for bears.  However, good forest habitat does persist in northeastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, and Japan.  In Japan, black bear range has expanded with increasing forest area and diminishing rural human populations (Oi and Yamazaki 2006).  Meanwhile, the number of people killed or injured by Japanese black bears has been on the rise (presumably reflective of the increasing bear population), and the same may be true in some parts of China (J. Gong, Sichuan Forestry Dept., Chengdu pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The major threat to bears in China and Southeast Asia is the commercial trade in live bears and bear parts, especially gall bladders (bile).  China initiated commercial bear farming in 1984, ostensibly to satisfy the demand for bile by practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM; and also Traditional Korean Medicine, TKM).  The bile is periodically drained, so the captive bears do not have to be killed; it was claimed that this practice would thereby reduce the taking of wild bears.  However, these farms were initially stocked with wild bears, and although the Chinese farms are purportedly now mainly self-propagating (with some continuing exceptions), there is no evidence that their existence has reduced the killing (poaching) of wild bears.  In Viet Nam, many small-scale bile farms have been started, which were stocked by several thousand bears removed from the wild (from Viet Nam as well as from neighbouring countries).  The condition in which these bears are kept precludes successful breeding and cub rearing; in fact, most of these farms do not attempt to breed their bears.  Moreover, although this practice has been illegal since 1992, with regulations strengthened in 2002, the number of wild-caught farmed bears in Viet Nam is estimated to have increased by an order of magnitude in less than a decade (J. Robinson and G. Cochrane, Animals Asia Foundation pers. comm.). <br/><br/>A surplus of bile is produced by the 8000–10,000 bears currently kept on Chinese bear farms, spurring efforts to find markets in non-traditional uses of bile (e.g., lotions, shampoos, cosmetics); meanwhile, many practitioners of TCM/TKM believe that bile from wild bears is more effective at healing various ailments, and are thus willing to pay higher prices for this product and may be disinclined to use substitutes (Chang <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kang and Phipps 2003).  The market for bear paws also appears to be increasing commensurate with an increasing number of wealthy people who find it within their means to indulge in this very expensive delicacy.  <br/><br/>The demand for these bear products has fuelled a growing network of international trade throughout Southeast Asia, and has turned many subsistence hunters into commercial hunters.  Most commercial trade routes eventually terminate in China (Saw Htun 2006; C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC SE Asia pers. comm.). However, it is difficult to assess the true extent of this trade because only a small fraction of the parts are confiscated.  Moreover, with no reliable population estimates or monitoring system it is not possible to evaluate the actual impacts on populations.  Nevertheless, it seems highly probable that this commercially-driven trade in parts is unsustainable and therefore causing populations to decline.<br/><br/>The capture of live bears presents yet another threat to this species.  In several Southeast Asian countries Asiatic black bears are routinely confiscated from people attempting to raise them as pets.  In Pakistan, several thousand bears were taken from the wild for exhibitions (referred to as bear baiting) in which individual bears (with canines and claws removed) fight with dogs.  This practice was made illegal in 2001, but continues to some extent.
22829		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix II of the Bern Convention. There have been introductions of the species into man-made marshes (Elvira, B. pers. comm).
22829		distribution	eng	It is restricted to six locations on the Mediterranean coastal area of Spain. (Elvira, B. pers comm).
22829		habitat	eng	It lives in marshes, wetlands and springs.
22829		population	eng	Decreasing.
22829		threats	eng	Drought, habitat destruction, water extraction, domestic and agricultural pollution and introduction of <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>.
22830		conservation	eng	It is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention [incorrectly listed as <em>Valaenncia hispanica</em> - possibly since corrected].
22830		distribution	eng	Restricted to the southern part of Albania (Butrint lake) and to western Greece (it is thought probably extinct on the islands of Corfu and Lefkas) in the Thyamis (=Kalamas), Louros, Arachthos, Agios Dimitros, Acheloos rivers, and the Vlychos and Chiliadou springs. It is also found in Peloponnese (Pinios and Alfios rivers). The species is known from a few locations along the coast (each of a few square meters). It is not know from inland.
22830		habitat	eng	Lives in freshwaters rich in submerged vegetation, which provides food, spawning substrate, and protection against predators.
22830		population	eng	Dramatically decreasing.
22830		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water abstraction, and aggressive interaction with <em>Gambusia</em>.
22832		conservation	eng	Natural habitat restoration is needed to ensure the species survival. It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red Lists of Bayern (Germany), Baden-Wuerttemberg (Germany) and Switzerland. It is found in protected areas in Germany and Austria (National Park Donau-Auen).
22832		distribution	eng	It is a Central European endemic that is found in Poland, France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Slovakia. There is one finding in Bosnia which might have been transported downstream by a river. The AOO is smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
22832		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet to humid meadows often found in river lowlands and in reedbeds (Gerber 1996).
22832		population	eng	In France, the species is found at only one locality in northeastern France, in the departement Bas-Rhin. In Switzerland, the species is declining and was known from four sites but now only one site remains in the north.&#160; The centre of its distribution is in southern Germany, where it has been reported as rare from Baden-Wuerttemberg. There are isolated occurrences in the northern parts of Germany. In Austria, some sites in the northwest and one isolated occurrence in Tirol. In Poland, there is only one known site at Wroclaw. Literature shows two localities in the Czech Republic and one locality in Slovakia but there is no confirmation about their existence in recent years (Gerber 1996). The overall population trend is declining.<br/><br/>This is a small species that has natural strong population fluctuations.
22832		threats	eng	Changes in hydrological regimes and measures to protect from flooding, such as river regulation and drainage, are destroying the habitat of the species. Another threat is the conversion of river lowlands into agriculture and livestock (agro-industry).
22833		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Bayern, Baden-Wuerttemberg (3 localities) and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Germany) and as Endangered&#160; in Switzerland and Austria. It is not redlisted in Slovenia.
22833		distribution	eng	The species has a European distribution ranging from Spain to Germany, Poland, southwards to the Balkans, Turkey and Egypt with an apparent stronghold across Austria and Hungary.
22833		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vallonia enniensis</span> is specialised to calcareous bogs, humid and wet meadows, and reedbeds around springs. It is a thermophile species and needs calcareous substrates. Due to climatic reasons the species is not widely distributed in Europe and is declining (Gerber 1996).
22833		population	eng	The situation of the species is various countries is as follow:<br/>Germany: Critically Endangered in Bayern, Baden-Wuerttemberg (3 localities) and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern<br/>Switzerland: seven findings in recent years, classed as Endangered on national red list declining populations<br/>Sweden: regionally extinct with last sighting in 1960s<br/>Austria: Declines in the past due to habitat loss. <br/>Greece: no data available.<br/>Bulgaria: no data available.<br/><span style="background-color: white;">Hungary: new localities have been found</span><br/>Spain: no data available.<br/>France: findings in the Mediterranean part and restricted findings in the continental part<br/>Slovenia: no data available.<br/><br/>The species is declining along the northern edge of its range.
22833		threats	eng	The main threats to this species in Austria are drainage of the wet meadows for livestock and subsequent change into agricultural land that results in habitat loss. Eutrophication due to agricultural activities on nearby fields is affecting the remaining patches of habitats.
22834		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered&#160; in the Red List Baden-Wuerttemberg (Germany) and as Critically Endangered in <br/>Bayern (Germany).&#160; Natural habitat restoration is needed to ensure the species survival.
22834		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vallonia suevica</span> is found in Central Europe where it is restricted to Austria, Germany, and the border to Luxembourg. Its main distribution is in the federal state of Baden-Wuerttemberg in Germany. It occurs in the river lowlands in southwest Germany and is found in the Danube valley in Austria.
22834		habitat	eng	Occurring in wet to moderately dry grassland in river lowlands, the species needs moderately humid places.
22834		population	eng	The species is very small, but field surveys to find it have been undertaken and showed a decline in the populations.<br/>In Baden-Wuerttemberg (Germany): it is only found in the Neckartal<br/>In Bavaria (Germany): one population in Murnauer Moos and one in a meadow in Schmellnricht (Mittelfranken)<br/>It was reported for Austria from two sites but the material collected in Austria turned out to be misidentifications except for one. The records are from the 1930s and it is suspected that the species is not present in Austria anymore (Gerber 1996). <br/>There has been one record from Italy near lake Garda but it is suspected that this was transported there by alluvial deposit or transported by birds.
22834		threats	eng	Changes in hydrological regimes such as river channelisation and drainage (as flood protecting measures) are destroying the habitat of the species. Another threat is the conversion of river lowlands into land for agriculture and livestock (agro-industry).
22835		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (critically imperiled) by NatureServe (2009). It was classified as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011), however has now been delisted as it is more widespread than previously thought.
22835		distribution	eng	This species is presently known from a few springs in the Snake River, Idaho, USA (Hovingh 2004). It was formerly known from Utah, and fossil specimens have been found in California (Taylor and Smith 1981). This species is also known from portions of Box Canyon Creek and the Big Wood River in Southern Idaho (USFWS 2011). This species has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km²<sup></sup>.
22835		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs (NatureServe 2009).
22835		population	eng	Population estimates vary from no more than 6,000 individuals at one site (Frest and Johannes 1993) to densities exceeding 1,000 individuals per m²<sup></sup> (Miller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
22835		threats	eng	Declines in the population numbers of this species are attributed to the invasive New Zealand Mudsnail, <span style="font-style: italic;">Potomopyrgus antipodarum </span>(Lysne and Koetsier 2008). Other threats to this species include habitat loss as a result of altered hydrological flow as a result of existing hydroelectric dams, declining water quality, and diversion of water for irrigation and aquaculture (USFWS 2011).
22837		conservation	eng	Reduction of  habitat loss.
22837		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazonian region, from Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas, to Peru, northern Bolivia and Amazonian Brazil (Koopman, 1993). In Venezuela, occurs in lowlands, moistly below 500 m elevation (Handley, 1976).
22837		habitat	eng	In Venezuela, it is strongly associated with moist habitats and multistratal evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). This species is largely frugivorous preferring figs. Reproduction is seasonally timed by the onset of rain (Gardner, 1977; Wilson, 1979).
22837		population	eng	May be locally common (Tavares pers. comm.).
22837		threats	eng	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.
22838		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. More research on the species habitat and ecology.
22838		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Colombia, Suriname, Guyana, Amazonian Brazil (Koopman, 1993; Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995).
22838		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with multistratal evergreen forest. This species is largely frugivorous preferring figs. Reproduction is seasonally timed by the onset of rain (Gardner, 1977; Wilson, 1979).
22838		population	eng	This species is difficult to sample because of its ecological characteristics, this in addition to some confusion over field identification make it difficult to estimate this species' abundance, but it is rare. Many of the areas where it occurs has been intensively sampled (Tavares, pers .comm.).
22838		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats throughout its range.
22839		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Ecuador (although only known from 3 records in the country) and elsewhere.
22839		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peru, south Colombia (Simmons, 2005), and Ecuador. A record from French Guiana is erroneous (Charles-Dominique <em>et al.</em>, 2001, Tavares pers. comm.). The species is restricted to a relatively small areas.
22839		habitat	eng	This Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. This species has only been collected in primary forest and in areas which are conserved.
22839		population	eng	This species is very rare and  known from few records (Tavares pers. comm.). Known from approximately 20 records.
22839		threats	eng	Rapid deforestation in the western portion of its range (along the flanks of the Andes) is a serious threat to the species, as is fumigation, road construction and encroachment of human settlements along these new roads. Land-use change is projected to increase in the near and distant future and will be an increasing threat to the species.
22840		conservation	eng	Occurs primarily in mature protected forests. Found in protected areas.
22840		distribution	eng	This species occurs from west Ecuador to Nicaragua. A record from southeast Peru is misidentified (Tavares found no records for Peru - pers. comm.).
22840		habitat	eng	This bat is usually found in mature evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its natural history is poorly known. Roosts in modified leaves (Rodriguez-Herrea pers. comm.).
22840		population	eng	It is uncommon (Reid, 1997). Populations seem to be highly localized - it is known from relatively few locations but where present is common. It may be locally common in Costa Rica and Nicaragua (Medina, Pineda and Rodrguez-Herrera pers. comm.).
22840		threats	eng	Rapidly degrading habitat, particularly in the northern Choco of Colombia (mining and timber) and southern Colombia (illicit crops).
22841		conservation	eng	Research actions.
22841		distribution	eng	Southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
22841		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
22841		population	eng	There is no information on population.
22841		threats	eng	Not known.
22842		conservation	eng	Retention of forest habitats. The species occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.
22842		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south through the Isthmus and over most of northern South America to Amazonian Peru, northwestern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997), and northern Bolivia (Wiilis <em>et al.</em>, 1990); also Trinidad and Tobago. It occurs mainly below 1,000 m elevation.
22842		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest; also can be found in plantations and gardens. These bats may be found roosting in small groups of 1 to 4 adults with their young under foliage of subcanopy trees (7 to 12 m above ground), shrub branches, or under palm leaves; the leaves are not modified to form a tent, but few roosts have been reported (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Group composition is stable, but roost sites change almost daily. The group consists of small harems of 2 to 3 females and one male, sometimes with associated young. Bachelor males roost alone (Morrison, 1980). Although sometimes caught in ground-level mist nets, this species usually flies 3 m or more above ground. Activity is greatest 30 minutes after sunset, for 1 to 2 hours, and again shortly after midnight (Bonaccorso, 1978). Figs are the principal food source, other fruits and pollen or nectar may also be taken. Females may breed twice annually, in January and July in Panama (Willis <em>et al.</em>, 1990). Feeds on fruit, especially figs (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961).
22842		population	eng	Uncommon to common, widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Can be locally common.
22842		threats	eng	Deforestation, habitat loss although this is not a major threat.
22843		conservation	eng	Conservation of intact forest. In Mexico it is listed as endandered under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Found in protected areas. This species is considered Endangered in Bolivia (Aquirre 1999, Flores and Bedregado 2003).
22843		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Veracruz (Mexico) to Ecuador and Peru, Bolivia, north and southwest Brazil, and Guianas; It is also found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005).
22843		habitat	eng	Top predator with large home range, occurs in small and dispersed populations. This bat is usually found in lowland, evergreen forest, and occasionally in cloud or deciduous forest  or swampy areas. It is carnivorous, eating birds and small mammals around 20 to 150 grams. Remains of birds recorded in its roosts include 18 species, some of then include motmots, doves, trogons, cuckoos, wrens, and orioles. Also, a bat (Rhogeessa sp.) was found in feces of an individual in Guatemala. This bat is often attracted to distress calls of smaller bats. It roosts in groups of 1 to 5 in hollow trees (including Ceiba pentandra, Mora excelsa, and Spondias mombin). Groups usually consist of an adult pair and their offspring, which hang tightly clumped together. Activity begins at dusk; after foraging for an hour or more, the group returns to the day roost for part of the night. Reproductive dates are limited; a single young appears to be born at the onset of the rainy season and is tended by both parents (McCarthy, 1987; Reid, 1997; Vehrencamp <em>et al.</em>, 1977).
22843		population	eng	It is rare and local (Reid, 1997). Occurs in low densities throughout its range.
22843		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range. Local threats include habitat fragmentation and destruction. This species is forest dependant (although sometimes captured in pastures and fruit groves near forest edge), and likely required primary forest habitat.
22844		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is present in the Knuckles Forest Reserve (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). Survey, taxonomic, ecological and life history studies, and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
22844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central highlands of Sri Lanka, recorded from a few fragmented locations in the Central Province occuring at altitiudes of 1,320 to 2,130 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Philips 1980; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). Based on available montane habitats the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have been estimated as less than 5,000 km². and less than 500 km², respectively (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
22844		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species. It occurs in montane evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
22844		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
22844		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agricultural activities and clear-cutting of forest have been observed to be the major threats for this species in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005).
22845		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas across its Southeast Asian range. In South Asia, it has been recorded from the Indian protecte areas of Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh; Banneraghatta National Park in Karnataka; Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Maharshtra. In Sri Lanka it is known from Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. There is a need for further research to elucidate the taxonomic status of this species complex.
22845		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Asia, southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has a wide distribution in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka,  occurring in elevation from 200 to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is limited to western and southern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species ranges from Myanmar in the west into Thailand (north of the Isthmus of Kra), south-western Cambodia, possibly Lao PDR, and northern and southern Viet Nam (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
22845		habitat	eng	Arboreal and inconspicuous species, usually inhabiting forest and forest edge with dense tangles of vines and vegetation. However, it has been recorded in tall cane in Lao PDR (Marshall 1977) and even in the harvested remains of peanut fields in Myanmar (K. Aplin pers. comm.). In South Asia, it occurs in dry deciduous forests with bamboo brakes, moist deciduous forest, temperate forest, open forests interspersed with grasslands and scrub, montane wet zone (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Information on the diet and other aspects of the biology of the Sri Lankan population is provided by Phillips (1980).
22845		population	eng	It is widespread, but never very abundant.
22845		threats	eng	There are no current major threats to the species.
22872		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
22884		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
22888		conservation	eng	The species is present within the Sibulan Protected Watershed on Polillo, and has been recorded from other protected areas within its range. A research programme is in place for the population of this species on Polillo Island (the Polillo Butaan Project). Further taxonomic studies are needed for animals recorded from the Northern Sierra Madre on Luzon. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
22888		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is knonw only from southern Luzon, Catanduanes and Pollilio. Animals collected during recent surveys from the Northern Sierra Madre Range of Luzon may be allocated to this species, but it is possible that they may represent a distinct species and further taxonomic studies are needed to resolve this issue (E.L. Rico, M.R. Duya, D. Bennett, A. Diesmos and R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It is a lowland species ranging from around sea level to 400 m asl.
22888		habitat	eng	This arboreal species has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forests, often with rocky outcrops or cliffs (Bennet 1995). Juvenile animals have a diet of snails or crabs, but animals change to a largely frugivorous diet as they mature (Bennet 1995). Little is known about reproduction in this species.
22888		population	eng	It appears to be moderately common within its limited range (Bennet 1995). Animals possibly allocated to this species, appear to be moderately common in the Northern Sierra Madre Range.
22888		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. It is also threatened by hunting for food by local people and collection for the pet trade (hatchlings and juveniles are targeted for the international market).
22918		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <br/><br/><em>V. v. subcincta</em> is recorded from Mananara-Nord National Park and Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve. <em>V. v. variegata</em> is recorded from Zahamena National Park, and two nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena) and from Ambatovaky and Marotandrano Special Reserves. <em>V. v. editorum</em> is recorded from Mantadia National Park, Ranomafana National Park and Manombo Special Reserve. Now extirpated from Analamazaotra Special Reserve, and no longer reported from Andringitra National Park.<br/><br/>Manongarivo, to which it is not possible to assign a subspecies, is a Special Reserve. Fandriana (in the range of <em>V. v. editorum</em>) is in the process of becoming a national park. Unprotected forests such as Tolodoina, Vatovavy, Atialanankorendrina and Makira should be included in protected areas. <br/><br/>In November 1997, <em>V. v. editorum</em> born and raised in US zoological institutions were returned to Madagascar and released in the Betampona Reserve (Britt <em>et al.</em> 2003). The study of this reintroduction effort is ongoing. An education campaign against hunting, using this species as a flagship, is recommended.
22918		distribution	eng	This species inhabits lowland to mid-altitude rain forests (sea level to 1,350 m) in eastern Madagascar. There are three subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>V. v. subcincta</em> is assumed to represent the northernmost subspecies, the northern limit of its range being the Antainambalana River (east of which occurs the Red Ruffed Lemur). Its range extends southwards to the Anova River, including part of Makira, Mananara-Nord, Atialanankorendrina, and Marotandrano. This subspecies was introduced to the island of Nosy Mangabe in the Bay of Antongil back in the 1930s and still occurs there (Kuhn 1972). The distribution of this lemur is very patchy throughout its range, except for Nosy Mangabe, where it lives at a relatively high density (Morland 1991).  <br/><br/>The nominate subspecies <em>V. v. variegata</em> occurs south of the Anove River, from about Ambatovaky south to about Betampona and Zahamena National Park (including Ambatovaky), although the southern limit is not yet clearly defined.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>V. v. editorum</em> is the southernmost subspecies and is known with certainty only from Mantadia southwards to Manombo Special Reserve. According to Groves (2001), the ranges of <em>V. v. editorum</em>  and <em>V. v. variegata</em> overlap, and intermediate forms exist. The form occurring in Mangerivola Special Reserve is unknown.
22918		habitat	eng	This species is very patchily distributed in lowland to mid-altitude rain forests. Black-and-white Ruffed Lemurs maintain large home ranges consisting of primary forest with tall trees. They are almost exclusively frugivorous, and as they are very selective feeders, this makes them especially susceptible to disturbance (e.g. see White <em>et al.</em> 1995, Ratsimbazafy 2002). Group size and structure appear to vary considerably between study sites. Females usually give birth to two to three young, which are left in a nest when young and afterwards carried in the mother?s mouth. Ruffed lemurs are probably the only primates that build nests exclusively for the birth and the first days of rearing infants (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein).
22918		population	eng	Population densities recorded range from 0.4-2.5/km² in Manombo, to 10-15 individuals/km² in Antanamalaza, and 29-43 individuals/km² on Nosy Mangabe (Vasey 2003).
22918		threats	eng	The principal threat to its survival is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging and mining. They are large bodied and diurnal, and therefore also among the most heavily hunted of all lemur species. The seasonality of their vocalizations (due to increased food availability) has been tied to increased levels of hunting (Ratsimbazafy 2002; Vasey 2003). In Makira, where they are one of the more expensive and desired meats, hunting is largely unsustainable (Golden 2005). It is one of the first lemurs to disappear where humans encroach upon rain forest habitats.
22920		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is protected officially only within the Masoala National Park and the Makira Protected Area. Increased regulation and management of hunting within the range is recommended.
22920		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range, primarily inhabiting the remaining primary forests of the Masoala Peninsula and the region immediately north of the Bay of Antongil in north-eastern Madagascar. The Antainambalana River appears to separate this species from <em>V. variegata</em>, but the western and northern limits of the Red Ruffed Lemur’s range remain unclear (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Historically, the two species overlapped in the region north of the Bay of Antongil. Recent survey work in the region has shown that the westernmost distribution of <em>V. rubra</em> was near the confluence of the Antainambalana and Sahantaha Rivers (Hekkala <em>et al</em>. 2007). Ranges from sea-level to 1,200 m.
22920		habitat	eng	This species has been the subject of ecological and behavioral studies in the forests of Ambatonakolahy (Rigamonti 1993) and Andranobe on the Masoala Peninsula (Vasey 1997: thesis). It is diurnal, prefers high forest and is often observed in the crowns of large feeding trees. It is largely frugivorous. The mating season is May-July, with births occurring from September through early November after a gestation period of about 102 days. Litters range from one to five infants in captivity, but usually contain two or three, and only one young every two years normally survive (Brockman <em>et al.</em> 1987, Schwitzer 2003). Interbirth intervals are in the order of two years (Rakotondratsima and Kremen 2001).
22920		population	eng	Density estimates have been recorded at 31-53 individuals/km² in Andranobe (Vasey 1997: IJP) and 21-23 individuals/km² in at Ambatonakolahy (Rigamonti 1993).
22920		threats	eng	Due to its large size and apparent need for tall primary forest, this species is susceptible to human encroachment and habitat loss (particularly due to slash-and-burn agriculture). Hunting also remains a threat.
22921		distribution	eng	<em>Varia jamoerensis</em> is endemic to Lake Yamur situated in the middle of the isthmus that joins the main part of Irian Jaya with the Vogelkop Peninsula.
22921		habitat	eng	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is 6-7 km in diameter.
22933		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas.
22933		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mountainous areas of southern China (western Yunnan, central and northern Sichuan, southern Gansu, and south western Shaanxi) extending into northern Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
22933		habitat	eng	This is largely an arboreal species. It is generally present in the tangled canopy of montane forest at altitudes between 2,100 and 2,700 m. It has been recorded form outside of forest on open hillsides where there are thickets of dense vegetation (Anthony 1941). However, it is not generally  present in disturbed habitats.
22933		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens, and there is little information about the population abundance.
22933		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species within its remote montane distribution.
22935		conservation	eng	The species is redlisted in several European countries (e.g. GB, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, most federal regions of Germany) (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). While there now are a range of protected sites where this species is present, these require ongoing appropriate site management, and this should be enough to secure the species albeit at a smaller range of sites than at present (Moorkens pers. comm 2011), as losses are likely to continue at inland and marginal sites especially in western Europe. In the longer term, should there be loss of present habitat from sea-level rise, then many sites would not have space for movement into new areas and some of the larger populations in Western Europe would be threatened.
22935		conservation	eng	The species is redlisted in several European countries (e.g. GB, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, most federal regions of Germany) (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). While there now are a range of protected sites where this species is present, these require ongoing appropriate site management, and this should be enough to secure the species albeit at a smaller range of sites than at present (Moorkens, pers. comm, 2011), as losses are likely to continue at inland and marginal sites especially in western Europe. In the longer term, should there be loss of present habitat from sea-level rise, then many sites would not have space for movement into new areas and some of the larger populations in Western Europe would be threatened.
22935		distribution	eng	This is mainly a European species, but it extends through Turkey to Iran.&#160; It ranges from southern Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and from Ireland to the Caspian Sea.&#160; It has a scattered and often localised distribution in many countries (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
22935		distribution	eng	This is mainly a European species ranging from southern Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and from Ireland to the Caspian Sea, with a scattered and often localised distribution in many countries (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).&#160; It is not present in the southern part of Europe (Seddon pers. comm. 2011). The range extends eastwards, with scattered localities in Turkey (Schütt 2001), Russia (S. Urals and Crimea) extending to northern Iran (Sysov and Schileyko 2009).
22935		habitat	eng	At a broad level, it appears to be present in a very wide range of habitat categories of maritime dune grassland and maritime or inland wetland (including fen, marsh, salt marsh and flood plain), but the micro-habitat within which it is restricted means that the exact conditions which its presence demands are rare, and a lot of habitat that is “almost correct” is devoid of the snail. Where fixed dunes have the correct habitat conditions, the snail may cover a large area of occupancy. Otherwise, it can be found in an often narrow transition zone between saltmarsh and dune, and in transition zones between grassland and wetland with short herbs, mosses and <span style="font-style: italic;">Iris</span>. In Cumbria, it occurs in moss on limestone pavement. It is normally found on permanently moist but free-draining soils, not subject to prolonged inundation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Vertigo angustior</span> is a groundwater-dependant species.
22935		population	eng	The population trend is thought to be decreasing. The UK has some of the biggest populations in Europe.<br/><br/>Evidence from Ireland, where a significant 3 year survey (2008 – 2010) was undertaken on known extant sites, found 1 of the 21 sites had been totally destroyed (Moorkens and Killeen 2011). A further 7 sites had declined to a situation that the snail may already be lost or is likely to be lost in the near future (5% loss in the last 5 years, and 30% sites showing decline in the last 5 years). It should be noted that  site losses were in inland wetland habitats. <br/><br/>The Favourable Reference Population (FRP) is ‘<em>the population in a  given biogeographical region considered the minimum necessary to ensure  the long-term viability of the species’ </em>(European Commission 2006). Expert opinion considers that in order to conserve the long term viability of <em>Vertigo angustior</em>  in the Republic of Ireland, the population Conservation Status should  be based upon maintaining the current number of sites in favourable  condition and not on number of individuals which is an unreliable  measure (see above). Thus sites that were classified as being in  unfavourable condition for population (based on assessment of snail  presence) were assessed using best expert opinion as to how much more  area of occupancy they would have if they were in favourable condition.&#160;  As the Favourable Reference Population of the species is greater than  the Current Population, the population status is currently considered to  be unfavourable. <br/><br/>The snail is particularly vulnerable in Europe at wetland sites, which are difficult to protect, and in coastal sites which may be subject to increasing inundation. The UK sites are currently in good condition, but the future prospects are considered to be potentially poor as the vast majority of the population is found along sea wall defences and in estuarine habitats that are becoming increasingly vulnerable to inundation. Pressure to increase sea level defences with stronger, steeper walls could destroy the populations depending on the older more vulnerable defence bunds.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;<p>Evidence from elsewhere in the range is missing in its precision due to the absence of targeted studies across the range, but proxy evidence can be taken from reporting by member states under Article 17 of the Habitat’s and Species Directive. The last round of reporting was in 2007, and member states returned assessments on range, population, habitat, future prospects and overall assessment under an assessment of either (i) favourable (green), (ii) unfavourable declining (amber) or (iii) unfavourable bad (red). The following member states have published their results as follows (2007 assessment), for the overall status of the species: Germany, France and Belgium - unfavourable bad (red), Ireland and the Netherlands - unfavourable declining (amber) and UK - Unknown.<br/><br/></p>
22935		population	eng	The population trend is thought to be decreasing. The UK has some of the biggest populations in Europe.<br/><br/>Evidence from Ireland, where a significant 3 year survey (2008 – 2010) was undertaken on known extant sites, found 1 of the 21 sites had been totally destroyed (Moorkens and Killeen 2011). A further 7 sites had declined to a situation that the snail may already be lost or is likely to be lost in the near future (5% loss in the last 5 years, and 30% sites showing decline in the last 5 years). It should be noted that  site losses were in inland wetland habitats. <br/><br/>The Favourable Reference Population (FRP) is ‘<em>the population in a  given biogeographical region considered the minimum necessary to ensure  the long-term viability of the species’ </em>(European Commission 2006). Expert opinion considers that in order to conserve the long term viability of <em>Vertigo angustior</em>  in the Republic of Ireland, the population Conservation Status should  be based upon maintaining the current number of sites in favourable  condition and not on number of individuals which is an unreliable  measure (see above). Thus sites that were classified as being in  unfavourable condition for population (based on assessment of snail  presence) were assessed using best expert opinion as to how much more  area of occupancy they would have if they were in favourable condition.&#160;  As the Favourable Reference Population of the species is greater than  the Current Population, the population status is currently considered to  be unfavourable. <br/><br/>The snail is particularly vulnerable in Europe at wetland sites, which are difficult to protect, and in coastal sites which may be subject to increasing inundation. The UK sites are currently in good condition, but the future prospects are considered to be potentially poor as the vast majority of the population is found along sea wall defences and in estuarine habitats that are becoming increasingly vulnerable to inundation. Pressure to increase sea level defences with stronger, steeper walls could destroy the populations depending on the older more vulnerable defence bunds.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;<p>Evidence from elsewhere in the range is missing in its precision due to the absence of targeted studies across the range, but proxy evidence can be taken from reporting by member states under Article 17 of the Habitats and Species Directive. The last round of reporting was in 2007, and member states returned assessments on range, population, habitat, future prospects and overall assessment under an assessment of either (i) favourable (green), (ii) unfavourable declining (amber) or (iii) unfavourable bad (red). The following member states have published their results as follows (2007 assessment), for the overall status of the species: Germany, France and Belgium - unfavourable bad (red), Ireland and the Netherlands - unfavourable declining (amber) and UK - Unknown.<br/><br/></p>
22935		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the modification of site hydrology, heavy grazing, lack of grazing, supplementary feeding of livestock, scrub encroachment, eutrophication, pesticides, exposure to leisure activities (especially on coastal sites) e.g. caravan parks and marinas, seawall construction and modification, managed retreat of coastal marshes, fragmentation of habitat, artificial planting on open ground, motorised vehicular damage to habitats, rise of temperatures and extremes, sea level rise and flooding.
22935		threats	eng	The main threats to this species is the modification of site hydrology, heavy grazing, lack of grazing, supplementary feeding of livestock, scrub encroachment, eutrophication, pesticides, exposure to leisure activities (especially on coastal sites) e.g. caravan parks and marinas, seawall construction and modification, managed retreat of coastal marshes, fragmentation of habitat, artificial planting on open ground, motorised vehicular damage to habitats, rise of temperatures and extremes, sea level rise and flooding.
22936		conservation	eng	While there now are a range of protected sites where this species is present, these require ongoing appropriate site management, and this should be enough to secure the species within its current range.
22936		distribution	eng	The species is an Arctic-Alpine relict, and was a pioneer species during the early Post-glacial phase in much of the Europe after the Pleistocene ice sheets had retreated.  It is recorded mostly in Scandinavia and in the Alps. It has a scattered  and often localised distribution in many countries. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) list as "Distribution: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Great Britain (UK), France (Mainland), Switzerland, Italy (Mainland), Latvia".&#160; In Pokryszko's overview the species (http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~polmal/smp/v97.htm) "A North-European species; mountains of the central part of Scandinavia, less common in southern Sweden; locally in Finland, Germany, Switzerland; an isolated locality in England. In Poland one record from Bialowieza Forest, not confirmed to date". Pokryszko (1990) mentions also its possible presence in Poland. Older records from  outside this range are likely to be of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. geyeri</span>.
22936		habitat	eng	The species occurs in soligenous fens and mires, wet flushes and constantly humid meadows that are calcareous and have a high pH (Pokryszko 1993, Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, von Proschwitz 2003). It lives at the base of short sedges, particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex viridula </span>and mosses, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Palustriella </span>(syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cratoneuron</span>) spp and <span style="font-style: italic;">Drepanocladus revolvens</span> (Killeen 2004). It occurs where the substrates are at or near field capacity, in often incompletely vegetated, rather stony or gravelly wet flushes (on sloping ground) not subject to flooding (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Vertigo genesii </span>occurs mainly at altitudes between 300 and 900 metres, but has been recorded as low as 75 m at the Black Isle site in Scotland, and as high as 2000 m in the Alps.
22936		population	eng	The populations of this species appear to be stable where they have been monitored (Killeen 2010).&#160; In 1999/2000 a survey was carried out to determine the status extent of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vertigo genesii</span> at its only known site in England (Killeen 2001). The results showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">V. genesii </span>was widespread in calcareous flushes throughout the site and in places was locally abundant.&#160; Life history studies on the snail at this site showed an increase in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. genesii </span>from August through to but that there was no defined time of year for a major reproductive event.&#160; Juveniles were present throughout the year and on average they comprised 55% of the population.&#160; <br/><br/>In 2009/2010 a further study was undertaken to monitor the <span style="font-style: italic;">Vertigo genesii </span>population at the site in order to carry out a condition assessment and to determine the attributes that will be assessed by future monitoring, which is a requirement of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Condition at the site was assessed by a survey of the six main flush areas of the site where <span style="font-style: italic;">V. genesii </span>had been previously.&#160; The attributes used to assess Condition were based on area of potential snail habitat, area of occupancy of the snail, the number of overall positive recordings per number of field samples, and the hydrological field assessment.&#160; The individual site assessments established that <span style="font-style: italic;">Vertigo genesii </span>was in Favourable Condition at this SAC, there was no overall loss in area of habitat, no change in<span style="font-style: italic;"> V. genesii</span> distribution, abundance or population structure over the 10 year period since the previous survey.<br/><br/>Similarly detailed survey results are not available from other countries, but from Article 17 assessments, the same condition can be inferred.
22936		threats	eng	Few local extinctions occurred in Europe. The main threats to this species are the modification of site hydrology, heavy grazing, lack of grazing, supplementary feeding of livestock, and climate change.
22939		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-IE">It is on the Red List of a number of countries and is considered to be Endangered (EN) in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and Near Threatened in Great Britain (Seddon and Killeen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p>While there now are a range of protected sites where this species is present, these require ongoing appropriate site management, and this should be enough to secure the species albeit at a smaller range of sites than at present. Losses are likely to continue at marginal sites. The sites for this species are transition sites that require ongoing maintenance of a hydrosere and thus are highly conservation dependant. The hydrosere is not especially compatible with private agricultural enterprise, so it is likely that more losses will occur, and the set of sites for conservation into the future are likely to be in the ownership of conservation authorities or NGOs. In the long term, unless these sites are large, they may not ultimately be sustainable. Furthermore, they do not fit into any protected habitat category, and are often managed so that they can be changed to fit a habitat category that suits more species of conservation interest, which is usually to the detriment of this snail.<br/></p>
22939		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-IE">This species is on the Red List of a number of countries and is considered to be Endangered (EN) in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and Near Threatened in Great Britain (Seddon and Killeen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p>While there now are a range of protected sites where this species is present, these require ongoing appropriate site management, and this should be enough to secure the species albeit at a smaller range of sites than at present. Losses are likely to continue at marginal sites. The sites for this species are transition sites that require ongoing maintenance of a hydrosere and thus are highly conservation dependant. The hydrosere is not especially compatible with private agricultural enterprise, so it is likely that more losses will occur, and the set of sites for conservation into the future are likely to be in the ownership of conservation authorities or NGOs. In the long term, unless these sites are large, they may not ultimately be sustainable. Furthermore, they do not fit into any protected habitat category, and are often managed so that they can be changed to fit a habitat category that suits more species of conservation interest, which is usually to the detriment of this snail.<br/></p>
22939		distribution	eng	<em><span lang="EN-IE">Vertigo moulinsiana</em> <span lang="EN-IE">is considered by Pokryszko (1990) to be an Atlantic-Mediterranean species. Although it ranges from Ireland to Russia and south to North Africa (M. Seddon pers. comm. 2009), the main populations are in western and Central Europe and the southern distribution border is poorly known (Pokryszko 1990).</span>
22939		distribution	eng	<em><span lang="EN-IE">Vertigo moulinsiana</em> <span lang="EN-IE">is considered by Pokryszko (1990) to be an Atlantic-Mediterranean species. Although it ranges from Ireland to Russia and south to North Africa (Seddon and Holyoak 1993<span lang="EN-IE">), the main populations are in western and Central Europe and the southern distribution border is poorly known (Pokryszko 1990).                   There are few records from S. Europe including southern France, Sardinia and Sicily (Seddon and Holyoak 1993) and few records listed from Russia by Schileyko (M. Seddon pers. comm. 2011) and Turkey (Schutt 2001). <span lang="EN-IE">In Morocco, only one site was known in NW. Morocco, with an older literature record of shells from a     <span lang="EN-IE"> small marshes near Alger, Algeria (Seddon and Holyoak 1993)<span lang="EN-IE">, and examination of the specimens suggests that the records are likely to be this species (M. Seddon pers. comm. 2011).</span></span></span>
22939		habitat	eng	This species mainly inhabits calcareous, lowland wetlands. It occurs in swamps, fens and marshes usually bordering rivers, canals, lakes and ponds (Bondensen 1966; Butot and Neuteboom 1958; Ripken 1982 &#160;Pokryszko 1990; Gärdenfors <em>et al. </em>1988; Killeen 1996, 2003).&#160; Killeen (2003) points out that, in Britain, this species exhibits a capacity to use "habitats that have arisen from relatively recent watercourse manipulations".&#160;     <p><em>Vertigo moulinsiana</em> lives on living and dead stems and leaves of tall plants in wetland situations. As well as a tall vegetation structure, <em>V. moulinsiana </em>requires a stable hydrogeology, where the water-table is at, or slightly above, the ground surface for much of the year and any seasonal flooding is of very low amplitude (Tattersfield and McInnes 2003). It climbs tall vegetation in the summer and autumn, but in severe conditions aestivates on the lower leaves of plants. In winter it descends to litter level and becomes less active. </p>  <p><em>Vertigo moulinsiana</em> is a groundwater dependant species.</p>
22939		habitat	eng	This species mainly inhabits calcareous, lowland wetlands. It occurs in swamps, fens and marshes usually bordering rivers, canals, lakes and ponds (Bondensen 1966; Butot and Neuteboom 1958; Ripken 1982; Pokryszko 1990; Gärdenfors <em>et al. </em>1988; Killeen 1996, 2003).&#160; Killeen (2003) points out that, in Britain, this species exhibits a capacity to use "habitats that have arisen from relatively recent watercourse manipulations".&#160;     <p><em>Vertigo moulinsiana</em> lives on living and dead stems and leaves of tall plants in wetland situations. As well as a tall vegetation structure, <em>V. moulinsiana </em>requires a stable hydrogeology, where the water-table is at, or slightly above, the ground surface for much of the year and any seasonal flooding is of very low amplitude (Tattersfield and McInnes 2003). It climbs tall vegetation in the summer and autumn, but in severe conditions aestivates on the lower leaves of plants. In winter it descends to litter level and becomes less active. </p>  <p><em>Vertigo moulinsiana</em> is a groundwater dependant species.</p>
22939		population	eng	A three year assessment has been carried out in Ireland from 2007-2010 (Moorkens and Killeen 2011).&#160; In the past, the number of viable populations surveyed from 1994 to 2006 was chosen as the best proxy in order to estimate population status. Following the wide-ranging survey of 2008-2010, the area of occupancy of the snail was considered to be the best proxy for measuring population condition, as (i) this area had been calculated in the detailed study, and (ii) numbers of individuals are dependent on weather conditions in the months and weeks leading up to a survey. Although it is really equating habitat occupancy with population, it is a better proxy than merely the presence or absence of living <em>Vertigo moulinsiana</em> in a population.<br/><br/>The Favourable Reference Population (FRP) is ‘<em>the population in a  given biogeographical region considered the minimum necessary to ensure  the long-term viability of the species’ </em>(European Commission 2006).   <br/><br/>In Ireland, it was found that 4 of the 20 sites had been destroyed. At least 3 sites had been destroyed since 2007. A further 2 populations had a severe decline in habitat condition, and a further 10 sites had management practices that had led to a decline in habitat, and if left unchanged will ultimately lead to the destruction of the site. This provides for a 25% loss in 5 years, compounded by 10% of sites with severe decline and 50% of sites with some decline in populations. So only 15% of sites are considered to be safe at present. <br/><br/>Similar condition reporting is present from Germany and France. In Netherlands and Belgium there is still ongoing decline, which is significantly impacting the populations.&#160; Only in the UK has favourable population status been reported. <br/><br/>Evidence from elsewhere in the range is missing in its precision due to the absence of targeted studies across the range, but proxy evidence can be taken from reporting by member states under Article 17 of the Habitats and Species Directive. The last round of reporting was in 2007, and member states returned assessments on range, population, habitat, future prospects and overall assessment under an assessment of either (i) favourable (green), (ii) unfavourable declining (amber) or (iii) unfavourable bad (red). The following member states have published their results as follows (2007 assessment): Ireland, Germany and France have an overall unfavourable bad (red) status, while in UK, it is considered overall as Unknown and the Netherlands and in Belgium, it is unfavourable declining (amber).
22939		population	eng	A three year assessment has been carried out in Ireland from 2007-2010 (Moorkens and Killeen 2011).&#160; In the past, the number of viable populations surveyed from 1994 to 2006 was chosen as the best proxy in order to estimate population status. Following the wide-ranging survey of 2008-2010, the area of occupancy of the snail was considered to be the best proxy for measuring population condition, as (i) this area had been calculated in the detailed study, and (ii) numbers of individuals are dependent on weather conditions in the months and weeks leading up to a survey. Although it is really equating habitat occupancy with population, it is a better proxy than merely the presence or absence of living <em>Vertigo moulinsiana</em> in a population.<br/><br/>The Favourable Reference Population (FRP) is ‘<em>the population in a  given biogeographical region considered the minimum necessary to ensure  the long-term viability of the species’ </em>(European Commission 2006).   <br/><br/>In Ireland, it was found that 4 of the 20 sites had been destroyed. At least 3 sites had been destroyed since 2007. A further 2 populations had a severe decline in habitat condition, and a further 10 sites had management practices that had led to a decline in habitat, and if left unchanged will ultimately lead to the destruction of the site. This provides for a 25% loss in 5 years, compounded by 10% of sites with severe decline and 50% of sites with some decline in populations. So only 15% of sites are considered to be safe at present. <br/><br/>Similar condition reporting is present from Germany and France. In Netherlands and Belgium there is still ongoing decline, which is significantly impacting the populations.&#160; Only in the UK has favourable population status been reported. <br/><br/>Evidence from elsewhere in the range is missing in its precision due to the absence of targeted studies across the range, but proxy evidence can be taken from reporting by member states under Article 17 of the Habitats and Species Directive. The last round of reporting was in 2007, and member states returned assessments on range, population, habitat, future prospects and overall assessment under an assessment of either (i) favourable (green), (ii) unfavourable declining (amber) or (iii) unfavourable bad (red). The following member states have published their results as follows (2007 assessment): Ireland, Germany and France have an overall unfavourable bad (red) status, while in UK, it is considered overall as Unknown and the Netherlands and in Belgium, it is unfavourable declining (amber).<br/><br/>The records from Algeria are possibly extinct, as it has not been seen since 1886 (M. Seddon pers.comm. 2011)
22939		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the modification of site hydrology, including dredging and drainage, lack of grazing, scrub encroachment and succession, eutrophication and pollution, pesticides, dumping, inland waterway leisure activities and marinas, canalization and water deviation, fragmentation of habitat, artificial planting on open ground, motorized vehicular damage to habitats, rise of temperatures and extremes, including flooding.
22940		conservation	eng	While there now are a range of protected sites where this species is present, these require ongoing appropriate site management, and this should be enough to secure the species albeit in small and fragmented sites. The species will remain conservation dependant in areas that require active management to prevent succession. Conservation is hampered by a lack of information on the wider hydrogeological regimes of the catchments feeding the springs and seepages where the snail resides. Where water abstraction for the catchment aquifer occurs, due consideration should be given to these wetland systems. In the future, the more remote sites are likely to be more sustainable than those with greater urban and agricultural needs for water, if pressure on water resources continues to increase.   Species monitoring programmes and grazing management to ensure survival of the species are recommended.
22940		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vertigo geyeri </span>is a boreo-alpine species, probably endemic to Europe (Kerney 1999).&#160; It is present in the Boreal, Alpine, Continental and Atlantic zones of the continent from Ireland to Russia (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It has a scattered and often localised distribution in many countries and there are documented local extinctions especially where the species occurs in isolated populations, and/or is at the edge of its range.<br/><br/>Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) list as "Great Britain (UK), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia Italy (Mainland), Romania, Slovenia Norway, Sweden Denmark (Mainland) Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire).&#160; In Pokryszko's overview the species (http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~polmal/smp/v103.htm) "A Boreo-Alpine species: mostly Scandinavia where its distribution border passes probably between 60° and 62°; north-western part of Russia, British Isles and Czech and Slovak Republic. Recorded from the vicinity of Bialowieza, on the territory belonging at present to the Belarous. Because of its occurrence in adjacent areas the species is likely to be found in Poland."
22940		habitat	eng	<em>Vertigo geyeri</em> is stringent in its requirement of saturated water conditions in calcareous, ground water fed flushes that are often limited in size to a few metres square. Their habitats often occur in mosaics of suitable patches within wider fen macrohabitats, that in Ireland can themselves fall within habitats that be as diverse as raised bog laggs, transition mires, lake shores, hill or mountain slopes, and wetlands associated with coastal dunes and machair (Moorkens 2003). Within these macrohabitats, however, the snail is consistent in where it lives, within the saturated and decaying roots of small calcareous sedges (particularly <em>Carex viridula ssp. brachyrrhyncha</em>), associated fen mosses (particularly <em>Drepanocladus revolvens </em>and <em>Campyllium stellatum</em>). It lives in sedges (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex viridula, Schoenus nigricans)</span> and mosses (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Drapanocladus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Palustriella</span>)  at the interface between the water table and the base of the herb layer  where the surface substrates are at or near field capacity but not  subject to seasonal flooding (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).&#160; The greatest indicator of optimum <em>V. geyeri</em> habitat is the presence of a tufa-forming spring.These habitats are all restricted in size and vulnerable to disturbance and drainage activities. <em>Vertigo geyeri</em> is a groundwater-dependant species.
22940		population	eng	This species is presumed stable. The species range in the UK has increased recently due to species specific survey work targeting likely areas within known regions.&#160; The species is not known to have disappeared from any sites in the UK in the last 25 years.<br/><p>A three year assessment has been carried out in Ireland from 2007-2010 (Moorkens and Killeen 2011).&#160; In the past, the number of viable populations surveyed from 1994 to 2006 was chosen as the best proxy in order to estimate population status. Following the wide-ranging survey of 2008-2010, the area of occupancy of the snail was considered to be the best proxy for measuring population condition, as (i) this area had been calculated in the detailed study, and (ii) numbers of individuals are dependent on weather conditions in the months and weeks leading up to a survey. Although it is really equating habitat occupancy with population, it is a better proxy than merely the presence or absence of living <em>V. angustior</em> in a population.</p>  <p>The Favourable Reference Population (FRP) is ‘<em>the population in a given biogeographical region considered the minimum necessary to ensure the long-term viability of the species’ </em>(European Commission 2006). </p>  <p>Expert opinion considers that in order to conserve the long term viability of <em>Vertigo geyeri</em> in the Republic of Ireland, the population Conservation Status should be based upon maintaining the current number of sites in favourable condition and not on number of individuals which is an unreliable measure (see above). Thus sites that were classified as being in unfavourable condition for population (based on assessment of snail presence) were assessed using best expert opinion as to how much more area of occupancy they would have if they were in favourable condition.&#160; As the Favourable Reference Population of the species is greater than the Current Population, the population status is currently considered to be unfavourable. This is likely to be the case in other countries, but similar studies have not been undertaken as yet. &#160;</p>
22940		threats	eng	The main threats to this species is the modification of site hydrology, heavy grazing, lack of grazing, supplementary feeding of livestock, species composition change (succession and scrub encroachment), peat extraction, eutrophication, pesticides, modification for wind energy production, fragmentation of habitat, artificial planting on open ground, motorised vehicular damage to habitats, and rise of temperatures and extremes, including flooding.
22947		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
22947		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. No specific conservation actions are known.
22947		distribution	eng	<em>Vespertilio murinus</em> has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, from France and the Netherlands in the west through central, northern, and eastern Europe and Siberia to the Pacific coast. The northern limit is above 60°N in Fennoscandia and <em>ca</em>. 63°N in Russia, and the southern limit of its range passes through the Balkan peninsula, northern Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and China. The southern records refer to wintering individuals, and the most western records refer to vagrants. Breeding is restricted to the northern part of the range in this migratory species. It occurs from sea level to over 3,000 m.
22947		distribution	eng	<em>Vespertilio murinus</em> has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, from France, Britain and the Netherlands in the west through central, northern, and eastern Europe and Siberia to the Pacific coast. In the Mediterranean region this species occurs from southeastern France eastwards through northern Italy and Switzerland into most of the Balkans. There are scattered records from Turkey. In Japan, it has only been recorded from Rebun Island in 2002 (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The northern limit is above 60°N in Fennoscandia and <em>ca</em>. 63°N in Russia, and the southern limit of its range passes through the Balkan peninsula, northern Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and China. The southern records refer to wintering individuals, and the westernmost records refer to vagrants. Breeding is restricted to the northern part of the range in this migratory species. It occurs from sea level to  3,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)<br/><br/>In Mongolia, it was first recorded in 1964 in Shargyn Govi in Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968), currently distributed throughout Mongolia including Hentii and Hangai mountain ranges (Tinnin <em>et al.</em>, 2002), and Valley of the Lakes (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). In China, the subspecies <em>V. m. murinus</em> Linnaeus, 1758 occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang (northwest China) and Gansu (central China), and <em>V. m. ussuriensis</em> Wallin, 1969 occurs in the provinces of Nei Mongol and Heilongjiang.
22947		habitat	eng	It forages in open areas over various habitat types (forest, semi-desert, urban, steppe, agricultural land). It feeds on moths and beetles. Summer roosts tend to be situated in houses or other buildings; also rarely hollow trees, nest boxes, or rock crevices. Winter roost sites include rock fissures, often (as substitute) crevices in tall buildings (including, or especially, in cities), occasionally tree holes or cellars. Winter roosts are usually in colder sites that are exposed to temperature changes. Migrations of up to 1,780 km have been recorded (Markovets <em>et al.</em> 2004), although the species is sedentary in a large part of its range. This nocturnal species appears late in the evening, sleeping in narrow crevices during the day. They live in small colonies and often single individuals are sighted. It hibernates throughout the winter. Young are born in June/July, generally 2 are born at a time, and are stuck onto the chest of the mother during flight. Feeds on small dipterans, beetles and moths.
22947		habitat	eng	It forages in open areas over various habitat types (forest, urban, steppe, agricultural land). It feeds on moths and beetles. Summer roosts tend to be situated in houses or other buildings; also rarely hollow trees, nest boxes, or rock crevices. Winter roost sites include rock fissures, often (as substitute) crevices in tall buildings (including, or especially, in cities), occasionally tree holes or cellars. Winter roosts are usually in colder sites that are exposed to temperature changes. Migrations of up to 1,780 km have been recorded (Markovets <em>et al.</em> 2004), although the species is sedentary in a large part of its range.
22947		population	eng	An abundant species in northern parts of its European range. Summer maternity colonies number 30-50 (exceptionally 200) females; males may also form large colonies in summer. In winter it usually occurs singly or in small groups (although clusters of up to 30 have been recorded). Populations are expanding in some parts of the range, for example Denmark (H. J. Baagøe pers. comm.) and the Netherlands (H.J.G.A. Limpens pers. comm.)
22947		population	eng	An abundant species in northern parts of its European range. Summer maternity colonies number 30-50 (exceptionally 200) females; males may also form large colonies in summer. In winter it usually occurs singly or in small groups (although clusters of up to 30 have been recorded). Populations are expanding in some parts of the range, for example Denmark (H. J. Baagøe pers. comm.) and the Netherlands (H.J.G.A. Limpens pers. comm.). This species has a wide distribution, but a low abundance within Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).
22947		threats	eng	Although not a major threat, the species is affected by loss of or disturbance to roosts in buildings.
22947		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species across its range. In Europe, although not a major threat, the species is affected by loss of, or disturbance to roosts in buildings.
22949		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas within its range.
22949		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Siberia (Russia), Mongolia, the Korean Peninsula, central and eastern China including Taiwan, and Japan. In Japan, it is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. In Mongolia it has been recorded in steppe habitats in Eastern Mongolia (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), including Herlen and Halh rivers, and close to Buir Lake (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). In China it is widepread across many provinces.
22949		habitat	eng	This species roosts in tree hollows of large trees, as well as in houses and caves along the seashore (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  They also inhabit steppe as well as mountainous regions, semi-desert and desert regions, roosting in colonies in buildings or rocky areas (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), and feed around water sources or swampy sites. Starts feeding at early dusk and prey flying insects quite high, usually at open spaces.
22949		population	eng	In Mongolia there is no population information available, but colonies have been observed in a variety of places. One colony was found under a concrete bridge near Choibalsam over the Kherlen River (S. Dorjderem pers. comm.). Another breeding colony was found in a house by the Mongolian-Chinese border, at a military point called Erdentsagaan. In Russia nursery colonies up to several dozen or hundreds females are known.
22949		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. It is commonly found around human settlements, therefore accidental mortality (accidental trapping, poisoning, and roost destruction) probably occur but this is not considered a major threat.
22952		conservation	eng	This species was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range overlaps with Tarra Valley National Park and Bulga National Park (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is recommended that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, ideally via an area-based management plan. Maintenance of streamside vegetation is advised in order to prevent stream bank erosion and to provide shade and protection from livestock. Further fieldwork would be beneficial in order to ascertain an estimate of abundance, and surveys to look for additonal populations may also be warranted.
22952		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Strzelecki Ranges in east Victoria, Australia (Ponder 1996). The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
22952		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swampy headwaters, small streams and seepages and is found together with <em>V. elongata</em> (Ponder 1996).
22952		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
22952		threats	eng	The localised distribution of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996). However, all known populations of this species occur in national parks and are therefore unaffected by other threat processes in the southern ranges such as forestry (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
22953		conservation	eng	This species was previously assessed as Vulnerable D2 in 1996 (version 2.3). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range overlaps with Tarra Valley National Park and Bulga National Park (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). In order to maintain the stability of this species’ habitat and water quality, it is recommended that not only should the species’ locality be protected, but also the waters upstream, ideally via an area-based management plan. Maintenance of streamside vegetation is advised in order to prevent stream bank erosion and to provide shade and protection from livestock. Further fieldwork would be beneficial in order to ascertain an estimate of abundance.
22953		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Strzelecki Ranges in east Victoria, Australia (Ponder 1996).
22953		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swampy headwaters, small streams and seepages and is found together with <em>V. burni</em>. However, unlike <em>V. burni</em> it tends to avoid areas of strong current (Ponder 1996).
22953		population	eng	This species is relatively common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
22953		threats	eng	The localised distribution of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes (Ponder 1996). However, all the known populations of this species occur in national parks and are therefore unaffected by other threat processes in the southern ranges, such as forestry. (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
22956		conservation	eng	Four decades ago, the Vicuña was one of the most threatened species in South America. Due to the over-hunting only a few thousand individuals existed. The implementation of the Vicuña Convention was fundamental in the recovery of the species. In 1987, during the Sixth CITES Conference of the Parties, Peru obtained for the first time, along with other countries, the authorization to internationally trade fabrics made from vicuña wool from live sheared animals, <br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, except for the populations listed on Appendix II. Currently various Vicuña populations are included in the Appendix II of CITES. These are found in Argentina (the populations of the Provinces of Jujuy and Catamarca and the semi-captive populations of the Provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, La Rioja and San Juan), the whole population in Bolivia, in Chile (the population of the Primera Región), and the whole population in Peru. Appendix II allows, under strict regulations between exporting and importing countries, the trade in wool and derived products. All other populations are included in Appendix I. <br/><br/>The Vicuña Convention was implemented in each country in accordance with its own National Legislation. The ownership status of the Vicuña varies somewhat; as a wild species, it is the property of the State in Peru and Bolivia, and res nullius (without owner) in Chile and Argentina. Although all the conservation aspects of the Vicuña Convention are embodied in National Laws and Decrees in all four countries, this is not always the case as regards granting benefits to local people.<br/><br/>In Argentina, there are six Vicuña conservation areas in the northwest, most are managed by the provincial government. The Ley Nacional de Fauna 22,421 provides a legal framework at the federal level, there are also provincial laws both for wildlife in general and specific for vicuna. <br/><br/>Since 1980, Vicuñas have been reported in 38 areas along the Bolivian high plateau. These areas have been nominated Vicuña Protection Areas (VPA) and have been grouped into nine Conservation and Management Units; within these, there are four protected areas but with different levels of implementation; the vicuña population in Bolivia remains insecure due to the lack of continuity of conservation actions undertaken a few years ago. <br/><br/>The Vicuña population in Chile has shown some recovery, which greatly reduces the risk of extinction that was very high until a few years ago. There are two geographical forms, but their precise identification still requires deeper scientific analysis. At present, the Chilean Forest Service (Corporación Nacional Forestal, CONAF) carries out annual census work in approximately 1.5 million hectares, maintains personnel in six guard stations, supports several research projects, and runs a long-term environmental education program through various communication media. There are four conservation areas inhabited by Vicuña in Chile. Two more have been proposed and others are currently being studied. In addition, a management zone has been established in private lands in which periodic censuses have been carried out during the last few years.<br/><br/>In Peru the Vicuña is protected, at national level, in all the operational areas of the Ministry of Agriculture's Special Project for Rational Utilization of the Vicuña. This Special Project contains six subprojects: Huaraz, Huancayo, Pampa Galeras, Cusco, Arequipa, and Puno which includes Huascaran National Park, Pampa Galeras National Reserve, and Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve. These three conservation areas are incorporated in the National System of Natural Protected Areas of Peru (SINANPE).  Local communities participate on the entire process of management and conservation of the populations and use of the sheared wool.  The responsible authority is the CONACS (National Council on South American Camelids) and the local communities.
22956		distribution	eng	Vicuñas occur in an area of approximately 250,000 km² in the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Ecuador has a population of 2,683 individuals resulting from a donation from Peru, Chile and Bolivia. The Vicuña is found in a range that extends from 9°30'S in the Ancash Department of Peru to 29°30'S in Region III of Chile. <br/><br/>In the case of Argentina, Vicuñas are found in the provinces of Jujuy, Catamarca, Salta, La Rioja and San Juan (with relictual populations in the province of Tucumán). In Peru they are found in the departments of Ancash, Huanuco, Cerro de Pasco, Junin, Lima, Huancavelica, Ayacucho, Ica, Apurimac Arequipa, Cusco, Puno, Moquegua and Tacna, in Ecuador they occur at the Reserva de Produccion de Fauna Chimborazo. <br/><br/>In Bolivia, Vicuña populations occur in 5 out of 9 Bolivian departments: La Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Potosí and Tarija.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are present in Chile and Bolivia, the northern <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicugna vicugna mensalis</span>, and the southern <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicugna vicugna vicugna</span>. Argentina holds only <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicugna vicugna vicugna</span>, and Peru <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicugna vicugna mensalis</span>.
22956		habitat	eng	Vicuña distribution is restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographical provinces at altitudes of 3,200 to 4,800 m asl. Its habitat consists mainly of six different vegetation types: halophytic, tundra marsh (called vegas in Chile and Argentina, bofedales in Bolivia and puquios in Peru, a marshy area associated with ground water, lagoons or streams), grassy steppes, prairies, shrub steppes, and rolling shrub steppes (tolares) supporting cacti  (Pujalte and Reca, 1985).<br/><br/>Preference for marshy areas was also reported by Glade (1987), Lucherini (1996) and Villalba (2000). While Vicuña territories include wetlands, they are often located near hillsides. It has been reported that Vicuña use steep slopes as a means of escaping from some predators, and that they use dry areas on "moderate slopes, well downhill from ridge tops" as places to spend the night. Additionally the bases of slopes are often good places for grazing because the soil there is deeper and moister than soils up on the slope (Koford 1957). <br/><br/>Vicuñas spend the night and early morning on the slopes. Later in the morning, they descend to the vegas/puquios where they graze extensively, before returningto the slopes late in the afternoon (Glade 1987; Renaudeau d'Arc <em>et al.</em> 2000). Vicuñas are usually found within two kilometers of water (Koford 1957).
22956		population	eng	According to the National Census (2008), Vicunas in Argentina inhabit an area of 123,001 km². The provinces with the highest vicuna populations are Jujuy and Catamarca, and La Rioja the province with the lowest population. Thirty four percent of the areas of distribution of Vicuñas occur in 10 protected areas that have different degrees of implementation. The total population size of Vicuñas was estimated as 127,072 using the lowest estimate with the line transect method, in those strata where sampling was considered representative (53,578 km²). In comparison with previous data, Vicuña population was stable in La Rioja and San Juan, and increased in Salta, Catamarca and Jujuy. There was evidence of poaching in the five of these provinces (Dirección de Fauna Silvestre, Secretaria de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nacion, 2008). <br/><br/>In Bolivia, the largest concentration is found in the northern section, specifically in the 'Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba' (formerly Ulla Ulla National Wildlife Reserve) (10,350 animals, according to the 2006  census). In the  most southern section of its distribution, Vicuña populations are isolated and dispersed in small groups. According to the Bolivian governmental report  there are  17,845 Vicuñas under protected areas (2006 report to the Vicuña Convention, Quito). Morphological observations give reason to believe that both Vicuña subspecies are present in the country, corresponding to the northern and southern subspecies referred to by Hofmann <em>et al.</em> (1983). Species density in the northern populations in semi-humid high-Andes habitats, is relatively high (0.065 vic/ha); while it is average to low in the semi-humid Puna (0.006 vic/ha) (DNCB 1996).<br/><br/>Ninety-five percent of the Vicuñas in Chile are concentrated in the I Region (Tarapacá) in the Comunas of General Lagos and Parinacota. There are three protected areas: Parque Nacional Lauca, Reserva Nacional Las Vicuñas, and Monumento Nacional Salar de Surire.<br/><br/>Peru has the largest Vicuña population in the entire Andean region, with over half of the total population of the species. Although its conservation has faced difficulties, surveys carried out by the Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos (CONACS) over 70,000 km² in the years 1994, 1997 and 2000 indicate that the population has been growing to almost 120,000 individuals. Pampa Galeras National Reserve has the largest concentration in Peru, with a population size estimated in 1965 to be between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals.  Currently the population is Pampa Galeras surpasses 65,000 animals.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Total Population Size</span><br/>Population Size: 347,273 individuals (see below for census numbers). However, it is difficult to assess the confidence of the estimate as data from different countries were obtained using different methodology. As a general rule, it is recommended to use the distance sampling method, either for ground or aerial surveys, as it is based on more realistic assumptions than the fixed-width strip transect methods which tend to underestimate population numbers (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, where numbers are too low, as in relict populations, total counts or less systematics methods can be appropriate. Also, extrapolation of local densities to larger areas must be careful and made according to sampling effort. Accurate estimates of local densities are not sufficient at the time to estimate abundance for larger areas unless the sampling effort is properly disseminated throughout the region. <br/><br/>Country: Vicuña population<br/>Argentina: 127,072 or 72,678<br/>Bolivia: 62,869<br/>Chile: 16,942<br/>Ecuador: 2,683<br/>Peru: 188,327<br/>TOTAL: 347,273<br/>(Source http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/gecs/)
22956		threats	eng	Vicuña poaching is problematic in all four countries. The difficulty of controlling is related to the vast extent of the Puna, its topography and the existence of long international borders. Limited human, economic and technical resources make control ineffective. Several laws and decrees within the countries establish protected areas for the species; prohibit hunting, commercialization and transportation or manufacturing of parts or products from hunted animals. But judges and law-enforcement officials are not always aware of the legislation concerning protection of biodiversity, resulting in differing interpretations and applications of the law, and unduly light punishments.  Many of the protected areas are "paper parks". <br/><br/>Most of the countries lack National Management plans. This is a threat to effective Vicuña conservation; without standardized and verifiable criteria for conservation and management of the Vicuña, multiple management plans for implementation may be approved without any reference to minimum sustainability criteria for conservation. There are no specific laws concerning animal welfare relevant to the management of Vicuña. This too may pose a threat to long-term sustainability.<br/><br/>Measures to reduce or discourage poaching are clearly essential. One is the application of tight controls not only in the producer countries but also in the importing countries. A related measure is transparency in the provision of information concerning the legal market for Vicuña fibre, e.g. prices at auction, buyers, and producers (Mc Neill, Lichtenstein and Renaudeau d'Arc in press). Corruption and lack of human and economic resources make it very difficult to control exports, and vicuña fibre and products are smuggled in large quantities to Europe or Asia. It is also possible that illegal fibre is smuggled between Andean countries (e.g. from Argentina to Bolivia) as a first step to being illegally exported to international markets. The fibres of different species of camelids are relatively similar (to the non-specialist), so that personnel with special training and even laboratory equipment is required to identify fibre to species level.<br/><br/>Management of Vicuñas in captivity proved to be quite negative towards Vicuña conservation in the wild (Lichtenstein <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lichtenstein 2006). Use and conservation-oriented management of wild populations is desirable if based on sound scientific information.<br/><br/>Local people in the altiplano consider Vicuñas to be competitors of domestic livestock, do not tolerance their presence and may be a highly significant factor influencing vicuña distribution (Cueto <em>et al.</em> 1985, Lichtenstein and Renaudeau d'Arc 2004). In addition, habitat-loss caused by over-grazing by domestic livestock and human activities such as mining, and subsequent pollution of rivers and sources of water are further threats to the species (Laker <em>et al.</em> 2006). The incidence of mange/scabies in vicuñas should be evaluated, particularly in those regions where livestock (native and exotic) has important presence.<br/><br/>Climate change will probably have a detrimental impact in the fragile ecosystem where Vicuñas occur since they are in the limits of habitable environments. Assessment of the effects of climate change on Vicuñas is a priority.<br/><br/>A new potential threat, both in the Andes and worldwide, is the breeding of pacovicuña (an Alpaca/Vicuña hybrid) for commercial purposes (Lichtenstein, Hoces and Wheeler presentations to the Vicuña Convention: http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/gecs/).
22976		habitat	eng	This species occupies fast flowing, small streams and rivers with a gravel substrate with some sand on riffle areas.
22976		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to acid mine drainage and dams.
22977		habitat	eng	Occurs in water under 3 feet with a moderate to strong current and coarse sandy/gravel substrate with some silt.
22978		conservation	eng	None.
22978		distribution	eng	Restricted to Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace in Greece and the Evros river bordering Greece and Turkey. Also reported to extend into Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
22978		habitat	eng	A predominantly riverine species also present in reservoirs.
22978		population	eng	No published data.
22978		threats	eng	Habitat destruction. Water pollution and extraction. Dam construction may cause problems but it is not yet clear if this species makes spawning migrations.
22979		conservation	eng	No information.
22979		distribution	eng	Caspian, Black and Baltic Sea basins (Sweden and Finland north to 62-63°N), North Sea basin from Elbe to Ems drainages. In Finland restricted to coastal waters. In Black Sea basin, absent in Anatolia west of Çoruh drainage (eastern Anatolia)   but present in Marmara basin and Aksu-Egirdir basin in Central Anatolia. Extirpated in Crimea. Introduced in Rhine.
22979		distribution	eng	Caspian, Black and Baltic Sea basins (Sweden and Finland north to 62-63°N), North Sea basin from Elbe to Ems drainages. In Finland restricted to coastal waters. In Black Sea basin, absent in Anatolia west of Çoruh drainage (eastern Anatolia). Extirpated in Crimea. Introduced in Rhine.
22979		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish estuaries, large to medium rivers and some large subalpine lakes. Sedentary populations occur even in small rivers of barbel zone. Spawns on gravel in riffles in shallow, fast-flowing streams and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Spawns in May-July (April in Terek and some subalpine lakes) when temperature rises above 15°C. Semi-anadromous populations forage in freshened parts of sea and undertake long distance spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations migrate to fast-flowing tributaries. In Dniepr and Kuban, spawning migration starts in September, decreases in winter and resumes in March-May. Individual females spawn several times during a period of 2-3 weeks. Usually spawns for several years. Spent adults return to foraging habitats. Feeds predominantly on small molluscs and insect larvae.
22979		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish estuaries, large to medium rivers and some large subalpine lakes. Sedentary populations occur even in small rivers of barbel zone. Spawns on gravel in riffles in shallow, fast-flowing streams and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>  Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Spawns in May-July when temperature rises above 15°C. Spawns earlier (April in Terek), and at lower temperatures in some subalpine lakes and anadromous populations in Sweden. Semi-anadromous populations forage in freshened parts of sea and undertake long distance spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations migrate to fast-flowing tributaries. In Dniepr and Kuban, spawning migration starts in September, decreases in winter and resumes in March-May. Individual females spawn several times during a period of 2-3 weeks. Usually spawns for several years. Spent adults return to foraging habitats. Feeds predominantly on small molluscs and insect larvae.
22979		population	eng	semi-anadromous populations declined in the Baltic and Black Sea basins.
22979		threats	eng	Pollution is the possible reason for the population reduction of the semi-anadromous populations in the Baltic basin. Damming in the 1950s and 1960s in the Black Sea basin.
22985		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need to regulate any possible trade in this species. More research and monitoring of this species is needed.
22985		distribution	eng	This species is known from between Kulmaç Daglari and Yama Dagi, province of Sivas and from another location about 250 km south in Kahramanmaras, all in Turkey (Göçmen in press). It is possibly present in between these two locations. It has been recorded from 1,500 to 1,800m asl.
22985		habitat	eng	This is a montane species, it is found in grassland areas with rocky slopes and sparse shrubs. It is unknown if this species is viviparous (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
22985		population	eng	It is a rare species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
22985		threats	eng	This restricted-range species is likely threatened by collection of individuals for the international pet trade. Most viper species from within the area of distribution are collected, but it is unclear exactly which species are being traded.  There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present. Like most snakes, this species is subject to some local persecution.
22989		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas in Turkey. Further studies are needed into the natural history, threats and trade in this species.
22989		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the eastern Bulkar dagari in the eastern part of the Taurus mountains in Turkey.  This species is found around 2,000m asl.
22989		habitat	eng	This species is found rocky mountain slopes with open coniferous and mixed Mediterranean forests (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).
22989		population	eng	This species is uncommon within it restricted range (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).
22989		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats overall to the species in its remote rocky habitat. This species is subject to some collecting for the pet trade, but it is not known if this is a threat.
22990		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Russian Federation (2001): category 2 - a species reducing in its number living on the northern periphery of the distribution range. It is protected marginally in Sochi National Park, Kameli Biosphere Reserve and Aritza Relict National, with higher density populations are preserved on rocky screes of the forest zone of mountains of the Caucasian Nature Reserve. The majority of populations are unprotected.
22990		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus. The distribution range is stretched along the Black Sea coast, covering the forested foothills of the Caucasus up to 900m asl, from the settlement of Khopa in Turkey and Suramsky pass in the east across Colchis up to Mikhailovsky pass in the west. From here the species ranges to the northern slope of the Great Caucasus. Populations are found along the foothills up to the settlement Ubinskaya in the west, to the town Maikop in the north and to the mouth of the Urushten River in the east. In general, the distribution is divided into two parts, Ajaro-Lazistan (Turkey and Ajaria) and north-Colchis (western Georgia, Abkhazia and the Krasnodar Territory of Russia).
22990		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the forested slopes of mountains, the beds of wet ravines and post-forested clearings. It has been recorded from azalea and scumpea-Cornelian cherry groves; mixed-subtropical forests with an evergreen underwood; chestnut groves, beech, willow- and alder-tree woods; and from polydominant forests near river terraces and on large growing over scree. At the upper limit of its altitudinal distribution this snake reaches the coniferous forests zone, but are not found deep in this forest type. It has been recorded from the ecotone of beech-fir forest and motley grass. Animals may also be found in areas of tea cultivation (Baran and Atatur, 1998). It emerges from hibernation in March (on the Black-Sea coast), and at altitudes of 600-800m asl - in the second half of April -beginning of May. It reproduces from the end of March up to the middle of May. Hibernation begins at the start November (for coastal populations), and at the end of September - beginning of October for highland populations. The young appear at the end of August - beginning of September.
22990		population	eng	This is not a common species, and populations have significantly declined through overcollection (Baran and Atatür, 1998).
22990		threats	eng	This species is threatened by illegal overcollection for the international pet trade (Baran and Atatur, 1998). Additional threats include habitat conversion for urban development, tourism and agriculture. It is becoming rare throughout the Black Sea coastal part of its range, with many populations already extirpated. Key threats to the habitat of these lowland populations include the development of tourism (such as health resorts) and housing, and agricultural expansion (including the ploughing of submontane areas). Within Turkey, the species is additionally threatened by projects to construct dams within its range.
22992		conservation	eng	Access to the valley is restricted by a guard post, however, snake collectors have often been seen in the valley (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). There is a need to regulate against and prevent the collection of this species which is generally not harmful to people in its remote distribution.
22992		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area in the upper Lar River Basin, in the Central Alborz Mountains of Iran. Earlier records of this species are from the localities of Ab-ask, Afjeh, Firuzkuh, Gajereh, Gachsar and Havir, however these areas are now heavily populated and today it is believed to be restricted to the partially protected upper Lar River Valley (G.  Nilson pers. comm. October 2008).
22992		habitat	eng	It is present in rural and mountainous areas with grasslands. Animals may be found in rocky areas with boulders along the bottom of the cliff face at the edges of the Lar Valley (Latifi 1991; G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). It does not occur in open areas. It is a viviparous species; litters of between five and ten young are born during the summer (Latifi 1991).
22992		population	eng	It is possible that the species consists of fewer than 2,000 mature individuals, although it is difficult to provide a more accurate estimate (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008).
22992		threats	eng	Much of the suitable habitat for this species in the Lar Valley was submerged in the late 1970s when a downstream dam was built (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). There is currently no habitat loss within the species limited range. The species is seriously threatened by the over-collection of animals for their use in serum production by professional snake collectors (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). This has had a very severe impact on the total population size. It does not appear to have been recorded in the European pet trade.
22993		conservation	eng	It is protected in the Khosrov Reserve in Armenia. It was included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) as a narrow-endemic species. This species is found in Egridagi National Park in Turkey. There is a need to effectively regulate the collection of this species and monitor populations.
22993		distribution	eng	This species is present in Turkey (Vilayets Kars, Agri, Igdir, Van and Hakkari), Armenia, Nakhichevan (Azerbaijan), Iraq, and fragmented populations in the mountains northwestern Iran (Latifi, 1991; Baran and Atatür, 1998). It occurs up to 2,000m asl (Turkey and Armenia). Little is known about its range in Iraq.
22993		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in rocky montane areas with sparse scrubby vegetation at elevations above 1,000m asl. Animals may occasionally be found at rocky sites within woodlands (Latifi, 1991; Baran and Atatur, 1998). It is an ovoviparous species; the female gives birth to between three and nine young (Baran and Atatur, 1998).The duration of pregnancy is 140 - 160 days. This species forms congregations during the winter (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).
22993		population	eng	This species can have densities of up to 4 - 10 individuals per hectare.
22993		threats	eng	In Turkey, this species overcollected for the pet trade, most particularly in the Aras River Valley. This species is particularly vulnerable to overexploitation because of its congregatory habits which make it easy to collect. Like all snakes and particularly vipers, this species is subject to local persecution. This species is also threatened by general development and overgrazing of its habitat.
22997		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. Populations of this species from Europe are listed on Appendix I of CITES.  Its range includes several protected areas. In-country conservation measures, such as maintaining suitable areas of meadow habitat, are underway to conserve some populations (e.g.. Hungary and Romania) (CoE, 2003). Detailed recommendations for conservation action to protect this species can be found in Edgar and Bird (2006).
22997		distribution	eng	This species has a very fragmented range in southeastern France, the central Appenines of Italy, western and central Hungary, northern and southern Croatia, central and southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, southern Serbia, northern Albania, northwestern Macedonia, western Greece and central and eastern Romania. It is considered extinct in Austria and Bulgaria, and is close to extinction in Hungary and Moldova. It occurs up to about 2,700m asl.
22997		habitat	eng	It is primarily associated with open meadows and hillsides. Upland subspecies are generally found on well drained rocky hillsides, steppe and meadows, while the lowland forms are found in either steppe, or dry or damp meadows. The lowland subspecies are sometimes found in marshy areas. It gives birth to live young; the female has between two and 22 young.
22997		population	eng	It is generally uncommon or rare, and patchily distributed. It is now presumed to be extinct in Austria, Bulgaria and possibly also in Moldova.
22997		threats	eng	The conversion of traditionally farmed meadows to intensively cultivated and grazed land has caused significant declines in populations of this species in Central and southern Europe, most especially among lowland subspecies. Also, afforestation of alpine grasslands (because of abandonment of traditional agricultural practices) is a threat to the species in some areas.  Construction of ski-runs and roads are significant threats to montane populations. Montane populations of this species may also be affected by increasing climate change, in particular the impact of temperature change on populations of important prey species (e.g.. Orthoptera) and breeding biology. In the Balkans, it relies on prey species (Orthoptera) which is highly sensitive to pollution, hence it may be used as a habitat quality indicator.  In France, some well known localities in Italy, and other parts of the range it is collected for the pet trade, and like many species of snake it is persecuted.
22998		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not found in any protected areas. Strong enforcement of trade restrictions are needed to help protect this species. Measures need to be taken to ensure the protection of this species in the development and implementation of infrastructure projects. The creation and enforcement of a protected area within this species restricted range would help to protect it from continuing decline.
22998		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to eastern Turkey near the corners of the provinces of Kars, Erzurum, and Ağrı (Baran et al. 2004). More than 80% of the population is concentrated in the Aras River Valley which is northern portion of its distribution. In the southern portion of its distribution, the species is found in small, isolated populations in suitable habitat (Nilsen and Tuniyev, pers. comm.). The original type locality was collected in the mid-1800s along the old Armenian-Persian border. Currently, the distribution is entirely inside Turkey (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008). It is found between 1,200 and 2,000m asl.
22998		habitat	eng	It is found in sparsely vegetated rocky mountain slopes, often close to rivers and streams (Baran and Atatür, 1998).  This species favors more densely vegetated and cooler microhabitats found on north-facing slopes.  On warmer and south-facing slopes within its range <em>M. wagneri</em> is not present and <em>Macrovipera radde</em>i is present. Its suitable habitat is fragmented among the dominant warmer habitat types in the area. Most of the suitable habitat is concentrated in the northern part of its range with only small, isolated patches in the southern part (Nilson pers. comm.). It is ovoviviparous, giving birth to 10-12 young per clutch.
22998		population	eng	This species is rare. It was abundant approximately 15-20 years ago, but since that time there has been significant collection including pregnant females (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).
22998		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overcollection for the international pet trade (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It is also severely threatened by planned construction of a dam complex (Kara kurt, Deniz golu, and Kulu) along the Aras river. In particular, there is a dam (Kara kurt) planned that would flood most of the known habitat of this species.
23000		conservation	eng	There is a need to include this species within the Armenia Red Data Book. There is a need to establish protected areas to conserve suitable areas of habitat for the species, especially for the recently discovered population in Turkey. A transnational park covering the range of this species between Georgia and Armenia, is currently planned. There is a need to limit or exclude grazing by domestic livestock in the limited areas from which this species has been recorded. Additional surveys are needed to confirm the presence of this species in the vicinity of Posof (Turkey), to determine the presence of this species in Georgia, and to locate any additional populations of this species.
23000		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region where it has been recorded from Armenia and possibly two localities in Turkey, and is possibly also present in Georgia. In Armenia, it is patchily distributed in the southeastern part of the Javakhet Mountain Range, Shirak Province, where it has been recorded from the alpine and subalpine meadows of Legli Mountain at altitudes of 2,100 to 2,700m asl. A total of seven populations are known from Armenia, with suitable habitat in these patches totaling 200.78 hectares (Aram Agasyan pers. comm., March 2009). In Turkey, a population has been recorded from eastern Artvin Vilayet (Geniez and Tynié 2005), with a second population possibly recently observed in the vicinity of Posof town (close to the Georgian border), although this record needs full confirmation (not mapped here) (Göran Nilson and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., October 2008). The species may be present in Georgia, however this needs confirmation.
23000		habitat	eng	This highly montane species generally inhabits rocky talus or scree habitats (with flat stone slabs) among subalpine and alpine meadows.
23000		population	eng	Within its preferred habitat the species can be found at densities of 10 to 12 animals per hectare. Only a few hundred animals are known from Armenia (400 to 500 mature individuals) (Aram Agasyan pers. comm., March 2009).
23000		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is overgrazing of vegetation in it's limited habitat by domestic sheep and cattle. In Armenia the species is not significantly threatened by the international pet trade, as significant protection is given to the few populations of this species (Aram Agasyan pers. comm., March 2009). It is possible that the pet trade may represent a threat to recently described populations from Turkey, however further details are needed.
23001		conservation	eng	This species was included into the Red Data Books of USSR (1984) and Georgia (1982). At present, it is included in the Red Data Book of Russian Federation (2001) with the status and category 2 (as an endemic of high mountains of Great Caucasus). Populations occur in the Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve, Sochi National Park, Ineritza Relict National Park, Lagodejia Reserve, Tebergin Biosphere Reserve, Nozacetian State Reserve, Kobaljini High Mount. Reserve, Preelbrusia Mountain National Park, and in several additional lower level protected areas.
23001		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus, where it has been recorded in south Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. The distribution range of the species is covers the Great Caucasus in Russia, Abkhazia, Georgia and, apparently, of Azerbaijan. It is found on the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus from Fisht-Oshten massif in the west up to the eastern Georgia and north-western Azerbaijan (Lagodekhi and Zakatali Reservations) in the east. The continuous distribution range stretches eastwards up to the Bol'shaya Laba River, further a chain of isolated populations is known from Karachaevo-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya, Dagestan, northern and eastern Georgia. It ranges between 1,500 and 2,800m asl.
23001		habitat	eng	It inhabits the upper-forest zone, stream borders, shrub forests, subalpine and alpine meadows, rocky scree, talus slopes and montane moraines. Animals emerge after hibernation from the middle of April to the beginning of June, with males emerging early. The period of reproduction occurs in the end of April - May, with the young appearing in August - September. The female gives birth to between 3 and 7 young. Animals begin hibernation from September - beginning of October.
23001		population	eng	The western populations (1500-2400masl) are quite common, however the eastern populations (2200-2800masl) are very fragmented.
23001		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the degradation of its subalpine pasture habitats by intensive overgrazing by cattle. In areas of tourism this snake (and other vipers) is often killed. The species is additionally overcollected for the pet trade.
23002		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need to establish protected areas within the range of this rare species. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status, distribution, general ecology, and the potential threat of collection for the international pet trade. There is a need to monitor the conservation status of known populations.
23002		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Pontic Black Sea region of Turkey, where it is known from the Çoruh Valley in Vilayet Artvin. An additional specimen was found in a tea plantation near the Turkish-Georgian border, northwest of Artvin (Baran <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is possible that a population of this species could be present also in adjacent Georgia, however this needs to be confirmed. The record from the vicinity of Çamlihemsin in Vilayet Rize (Baran and Atatür 1997) should be referred to <em>Vipera barani</em> (Mallow <em>et al</em>. 2003; Göran Nilson pers. comm. March 2009) It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
23002		habitat	eng	The species is associated with Mediterranean vegetation, rocky areas within open forest. (Baran and Atatür, 1998).
23002		population	eng	This species is extremely rare, and is currently known from fewer than seven specimens. It is estimated that there are probably fewer than 250 mature individuals of this rare species (Göran Nilson pers. comm.).
23002		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range, however there is little human activity other than traditional farming livestock grazing. There is some limited habitat loss resulting from highway (motorway) construction. As with many snakes, it is generally persecuted. It is unclear if the species is threatened by collection for the international pet trade. While other vipers from the region, such as <em>Vipera kaznakovi</em>, have been recorded in trade (Ferdi Akarsu pers. comm. March 2009), it does not appear that <em>Vipera pontica</em> has (Göran Nilson pers. comm. March 2009). The species lives as small populations in very remote areas where collection is not thought to take place. However, if collection of a localised population undertaken place by a skilled collector it seems probable that this would lead to its rapid extirpation (Göran Nilson pers. comm. March 2009).
23036		conservation	eng	It is listed in Schedule I, part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and on CITES Appendix III (India). This species does not occur in protected areas and the development of protected areas in its range is unlikely due to dense human populations (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). Ashraf <em>et a</em>l (1993) recommends the following conservation actions for this species: captive breeding (with the possibility of reintroduction if suitable undisturbed areas are identified), field surveys (to investigate whether this species occurs in protected areas) and ecological studies (to determine the threats to this species). An urgent conservation action plan is needed.
23036		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and has been recorded mostly in the coastal district of the Western Ghats, in southern India from Kanyakumariin the extreme south to as far as Wayanad, Coorg, and Honnavar in Karnataka in the north (Pocock, 1933, 1939; Corbet and Hill, 1992). There are only two reports of its occurrence in the higher elevation (>600 m) of  the Western Ghats, in the High Wavy Mountains (Hutton, 1949) and possibly in Kudremukh (Karanth, 1986). The former is open to severe doubt. By the late 1960s, it was thought to be near extinction. From 1950 to 1990, there were only two possible records of this species, one in Kudremukh in Karnataka (Karanth, 1986) and the other in Tiruvella in Kerala (Kurup, 1989). After being listed as possibly extinct, skins of recently killed civets were obtained in Elayur, in the lowland Western Ghats, in Malappuram district, Kerala (Kurup, 1989) and near Nilambur (northern Kerala) (Ahsraf <em>et al.</em>, 1993). Rai and Kumar (1993) report information of possible occurrence in Karnataka State.
23036		habitat	eng	Though little is known about its biology and ecology, there are some descriptions of habitat use: it once inhabited lowland forests, lowland swamp and riparian forests in the coastal plain districts of Western Ghats - although now it appears to be confined to thickets in cashew plantations and to highly degraded lowland forests in northern Kerala (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has been found in lowland riparian forests in the coastal plain districts (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species is nocturnal and probably elusive.<br/><br/>Natural forests have completely disappeared in the entire stretch of coastal Western Ghats, thus the present vegetation is of secondary origin (Champion and Seth, 1968), and is mostly plantations (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). Of these, cashew plantations are the least disturbed, as they are not weeded, providing a dense understory of shrubs and grasses for this terrestrial species to take refuge in (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). However, most records from 1960-1990 were in valleys around riparian areas, suggesting that this species is dependent of shallow water courses where it may forage at night (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993).
23036		population	eng	The population status is unknown. It was thought to be possibly extinct, then rediscovered (Kurup 1989; Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993; Rai and Kumar 1993), but there is no further recent information and no recent sightings of live Malabar civets (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>This species was once very common in the districts of Malabar and Travancore in southwest India, but by the late 1960s it was thought to be near extinction, it was not sighted again until 1987. From 1950 to 1990 there were only two possible sightings of this species, one in Kudremukh in Karnataka (Karanth 1986) and the other in Tiruvella in Kerala (Kurup, 1989). After being listed as possibly extinct, it was rediscovered in Elayur, in the lowland Western Ghats, in Malappuram district, Kerala (Kurup 1989).
23036		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss and degradation of forest habitat. Natural forests have completely disappeared in the entire stretch of the coastal Western Ghats (Champion and Seth 1968). <br/><br/>In the past, this species was widely used to collect civet oil. It is now threatened by habitat loss and retaliatory killings for raiding poultry. This species is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation, as well as by hunting, as it occurs outside protected areas (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). The use of civet-musk is said to have been in widespread use between 1965-1970 (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). Cashew plantations, which may hold most of the surviving populations of this species, are threatened by large-scale clearance for planting rubber trees (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). This species is not selectively hunted, but 10 of 22 records from 1950 to 1990 were caught by dogs (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1990).
23040		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions targeting the species in place, and none are considered necessary at European level.<br/><br/>The species is included in several National Red Lists: Germany: category 2 (stark gefährdet), Austria: category 1.2 (stark gefährdet), Czech Republic: category 3 (gefährdet) (Gloer 2002) and Slovakia: category VU (L. Vavrova pers. comm. 2009). <br/><p><br/></p>
23040		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Europe with indigenous  populations occurring throughout the River Danube, Dneiper and Dvina  River systems (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has also proved to be a successful invasive species as a consequence of commercial use (Soes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), establishing populations in the Bodensee lake in south Germany (Soes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), Romania (Gloër and Sîrbu 2005) and the Netherlands (Soes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>   2006) list the species for Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,   Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia (River   Danube, Morava, Tisa), Ukraine, Serbia and Greece. In Russia, it is  distributed through entire Dnieper River Basin and basin of the Western  Dvina River in Belarus and Russia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
23040		habitat	eng	This species occurs in slow flowing rivers and muddy channels.
23040		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species, although the range seems to be expanding.
23040		threats	eng	The main potential threats to this species are water pollution, regulation of water ecosystems (dams, water reservoirs etc.). Populations occurring in muddy channels are threatened by changes in the water flow.
23041		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
23041		distribution	eng	This species is known from the high mountains, approximately 3,300-4,300 m asl, of western and southern Yunnan, and south-east Xizang in China, and northern Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).
23041		habitat	eng	It occurs in coniferous forests and alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008); it may venture out into open fields, where these occur near forest (Lunde and Aplin 2006).
23041		population	eng	This species is not uncommon, and perhaps is even locally abundant (Lunde and Aplin 2006).
23041		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
23042		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), and is presumed to occur in Taroko National Park. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
23042		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). Its distribution is restricted to high mountain tops at elevations approximately between 3,000-3,670 m asl (Yu 1995).
23042		habitat	eng	It occurs in highland forests (Smith and Xie 2008), with bushy bamboo understory (Yu 1993).
23042		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
23042		threats	eng	In the past there was some deforestation in the highlands of Taiwan,  however, that has now mostly ceased and there are no longer any known  threats to this species.
23043		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wolong Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and is presumed to occur in WenchuanCaopo, Heishuihe, Fengtongzhai, Anzihe, and Longhixihongkou Nature Reserves. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1ac (Wang and Xie 2004).
23043		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the northwest region of Sichuan province (Smith and Xie 2008). The locality recorded by Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1997) in southern Yunnan requires confirmation, it is probably <em>Microtus clarkei</em> (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species occurs at elevations above 4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
23043		habitat	eng	It occurs in high altitude forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
23043		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species. Only a few specimens of this species have been collected.
23043		threats	eng	In the past logging in this region would have posed a threat. Today, the extent to which illegal logging occurs is not known but it continues to pose a threat to this species.
23044		conservation	eng	This species was collected in Anzihe and Miyyaluo Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007), but it is not known if it occurs in any other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Wang and Xie 2004).
23044		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the western region of Sichuan province (Qionglai Shan) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 2,315-3,660 m asl (Lawrence 1982).
23044		habitat	eng	This species is known from specimens collected within rocky areas and cliffs in alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).
23044		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
23044		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
23049		conservation	eng	The populations of India are listed on CITES Appendix III. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972 as amended up to 1991) prohibits hunting of all wildlife and lists the Indian Fox in Schedule II. It is not on any special category for protection in the wildlife legislation of Nepal. <br/><br/>Occurs in protected areas in India and Nepal. <br/><br/>There have been no conservation efforts targeted specifically for the species.<br/><br/>The Indian Fox is held in captivity in several zoos in India, where the species breeds well. In 2001, there were 15 males, 14 females, and 11 unsexed individuals in several zoos (Central Zoo Authority pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>A status survey is needed to identify areas throughout the species' range that have large, relatively secure fox populations. In some of these areas, an in-depth, long-term study is needed on population dynamics of the Indian fox. This would help elucidate the fox's relationship with prey population cycles and disease outbreaks. Research is also needed on ranging patterns, territoriality, and behaviour of this poorly studied species.
23049		distribution	eng	The Indian Fox is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. It ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. In the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, the species' range extends from Sindh province of Pakistan to north Bengal in India.
23049		habitat	eng	The Indian Fox prefers semi-arid, flat to undulating terrain, scrub and grassland habitats where it is easy to hunt and dig dens. It avoids dense forests, steep terrain, tall grasslands and true deserts. The species is relatively abundant in the biogeographic zones 3, 4 and 6 of India, in which rainfall is low, and the vegetation is typically scrub, thorn or dry deciduous forests, or short grasslands (Rodgers <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the Indian peninsula, the species is restricted to the plains and open scrub forest.
23049		population	eng	Nowhere in its range is the Indian Fox abundant. Densities seem to track rodent abundance in the Bhal area of Gujarat (Y.V. Jhala unpubl.), which fluctuates widely between years in the species' prime habitat (arid and semi-arid zones of India) (Prakash 1975; Tripathi <em>et al.</em> 1992). Occurrence of the Indian Fox in Langtan National Park and Shey Wildlife Reserve in Nepal was reported by Shrestha (1997); however, this has not been confirmed and is considered unlikely.
23049		threats	eng	Although the Indian Fox is widespread, it occurs at low densities throughout its range, and populations can undergo major fluctuations due to prey availability. It is also quite sensitive to human modifications of its habitat. With expanding human populations and continued development of grasslands and "wastelands" for agricultural and industrial uses, the habitat of the Indian Fox is continuously being depleted. The combination of above factors along with disease and/or natural mortality could potentially cause local extinctions. In certain states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, the Indian Fox habitat is widespread with minimal threats, while in other states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu the specialized habitats of the Indian Fox are under serious threat.<br/><br/>There are no known commercial uses for the Indian Fox, although there is limited localized trade for skin, tail, teeth and claws (for medicinal and charm purposes). There is no trade or potential for trade of the Indian Fox.
23050		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES ? Appendix II. Fully protected in Israel, with no hunting, trapping or trading permitted. Holding in captivity requires a special permit from the Nature Reserves Authority of Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordan and Oman. However, there is no legal protection in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Iran, Afghanistan or Pakistan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is kept in captivity at the Hai Bar Breeding Centre (near Eilat). In previous years, there was a pair at the Tel Aviv University Zoo. Captive individuals are also kept at the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife, Sharjah, U.A.E. Foxes have been successfully bred at all the above facilities.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>The information on the biology of Blanford's foxes is mostly from the southern part of Israel. Nothing is known on the behaviour and ecology of the species in the eastern part of its distribution. Interactions with other predators and the susceptibility to diseases are poorly understood.
23050		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES – Appendix II. Fully protected in Israel, with no hunting, trapping or trading permitted. Holding in captivity requires a special permit from the Nature Reserves Authority of Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordan and Oman. However, there is no legal protection in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Iran, Afghanistan or Pakistan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is kept in captivity at the Hai Bar Breeding Centre (near Eilat). In previous years, there was a pair at the Tel Aviv University Zoo. Captive individuals are also kept at the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife, Sharjah, U.A.E. Foxes have been successfully bred at all the above facilities.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>The information on the biology of Blanford's foxes is mostly from the southern part of Israel. Nothing is known on the behaviour and ecology of the species in the eastern part of its distribution. Interactions with other predators and the susceptibility to diseases are poorly understood.
23050		distribution	eng	The Blanford's Fox was first described from south-western Asia in 1877, and specimens were collected from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and Turkistan (= Turkmenistan) (Novikov 1962; Bobrinskii <em>et al.</em> 1965; Lay 1967; Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In 1981, the species was discovered in Israel (Ilani 1983), and since then throughout the Middle East (Harrison and Bates 1989; Al Khalili 1993; Stuart and Stuart 1995; Amr <em>et al</em>. 1996; Amr 2000; Abu Baker <em>et al</em>. 2004) and even in Egypt, west of the Suez Canal (Peters and Rödel 1994).
23050		habitat	eng	Blanford's Fox is confined to mountainous regions (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). Hassinger (1973) concluded that Blanford's Foxes are generally found below an altitude of 2,000 m in dry montane biotopes. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins (Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In that region, the habitat of Blanford's foxes comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). This species appears to avoid higher mountain ranges as well as lower, warmer valleys (Roberts 1977). <br/><br/>In the Middle East, Blanford's Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons and cliffs (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1987; Harrison and Bates 1989). In Israel, Blanford's Fox is distributed along the western side of the Rift Valley, and, in the central Negev, specimens were collected in creeks that drain into the Rift Valley (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1993). Apparently, Blanford's Fox can occur on various rock formations as long as its other requirements are met. The distribution of Blanford's Fox in the Arabian Desert is not limited by access to water (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992a). In Israel, Blanford's Foxes inhabit the driest and hottest regions. The densest population is found in the Judaean Desert at elevations of 100?350 m below sea level. This is in contrast to Roberts' (1977) remark that the species avoids low, warm valleys in Pakistan. <br/><br/>Geffen <em>et al</em>. (1992b) found that dry creek bed was the most frequently visited habitat in all home ranges in Israel. Home ranges at Ein Gedi (in km²), comprised an average (± SD) of 63.44 ± 3.22% gravel scree, 3.63 ± 2.59% boulder scree, 28.38 ± 4.05% dry creek bed, and 4.54 ± 3.46% stream and spring. Average time (± SD) spent by foxes at Ein Gedi in gravel scree was 148.8 ± 109.8 min/night, 46.0 ± 63.8 min/night in boulder scree, 359.9 ± 141.9 min/night in dry creek bed, and 13.0 ± 27.9 min/night near a water source (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b). Dry creek bed provided abundant prey for the foxes and only sparse cover for their terrestrial predators. Creek bed patches were used in proportion to their size. Both the available area of creek bed in each range and the area of creek bed patches that was used by the foxes were independent of home range size. However, variance in home range size was explained by the mean distance between the main denning area and the most frequently used patches of creek bed (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b).
23050		habitat	eng	Blanford's Fox is confined to mountainous regions (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). Hassinger (1973) concluded that Blanford's Foxes are generally found below an altitude of 2,000 m in dry montane biotopes. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins (Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In that region, the habitat of Blanford's foxes comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). This species appears to avoid higher mountain ranges as well as lower, warmer valleys (Roberts 1977). <br/><br/>In the Middle East, Blanford's Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons and cliffs (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1987; Harrison and Bates 1989). In Israel, Blanford's Fox is distributed along the western side of the Rift Valley, and, in the central Negev, specimens were collected in creeks that drain into the Rift Valley (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1993). Apparently, Blanford's Fox can occur on various rock formations as long as its other requirements are met. The distribution of Blanford's Fox in the Arabian Desert is not limited by access to water (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992a). In Israel, Blanford's Foxes inhabit the driest and hottest regions. The densest population is found in the Judaean Desert at elevations of 100–350 m below sea level. This is in contrast to Roberts' (1977) remark that the species avoids low, warm valleys in Pakistan. <br/><br/>Geffen <em>et al</em>. (1992b) found that dry creek bed was the most frequently visited habitat in all home ranges in Israel. Home ranges at Ein Gedi (in km²), comprised an average (± SD) of 63.44 ± 3.22% gravel scree, 3.63 ± 2.59% boulder scree, 28.38 ± 4.05% dry creek bed, and 4.54 ± 3.46% stream and spring. Average time (± SD) spent by foxes at Ein Gedi in gravel scree was 148.8 ± 109.8 min/night, 46.0 ± 63.8 min/night in boulder scree, 359.9 ± 141.9 min/night in dry creek bed, and 13.0 ± 27.9 min/night near a water source (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b). Dry creek bed provided abundant prey for the foxes and only sparse cover for their terrestrial predators. Creek bed patches were used in proportion to their size. Both the available area of creek bed in each range and the area of creek bed patches that was used by the foxes were independent of home range size. However, variance in home range size was explained by the mean distance between the main denning area and the most frequently used patches of creek bed (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b).
23050		population	eng	The only available population densities come from Israel where the species is fairly common in the south-east and where density estimates of 2.0/km² in Ein Gedi and 0.5/km² in Eilat have been recorded. Surveys in other regions, such as Arabia, indicate that Blanford's Box is locally abundant. In United Arab Emirates, for example, researchers frequently captured foxes in the north-eastern mountains of the country (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).
23050		threats	eng	There are currently no obvious major range-wide threats to Blanford's Fox. In Israel, habitat loss is limited as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. However, political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert, and human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the U.A.E. (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). They may be killed incidentally through carcass poisoning of other target species, such as hyaenas and wolves. At present, the trade in fur is negligible and confined to Afghanistan.
23051		conservation	eng	Corsac foxes are protected in strict nature reserves (the highest protection status for the territory) and in national parks in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia.<br/><br/>Not listed on CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Listed in some regional Red books in Russia: Bashkir (Volga tribute) and Buryat (Transbaikalia region) with category III status (species with declining populations).<br/><br/>Hunting of corsac foxes is regulated by special national legislation, in which the species is considered a fur-bearer species (Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia). Trapping/hunting is allowed only from November through March in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Certain methods of hunting are prohibited, such as digging or smoking animals out of dens, den flooding, and poisoning.<br/><br/>No special conservation programmes have been carried out. Outside of protected areas, the corsac has the status of game species.<br/><br/>Corsac foxes breed well in captivity, and there are some 29 animals currently listed in ISIS. In Moscow Zoo during 1960s one pair of corsac foxes produced six litters during the time that they remained together. Corsac foxes are easily habituated to humans.<br/><br/>There are several aspects of this species' biology that require investigation, including social organization and behaviour, population structure, current distribution and population status in different regions, current levels of trapping/hunting impact, and other threats to the species.
23051		conservation	eng	Not listed on CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Hunting of Corsac Foxes is regulated by special national legislation, in which the species is considered a fur-bearer species (Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia). Trapping/hunting is allowed only from November through March in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Certain methods of hunting are prohibited, such as digging or smoking animals out of dens, den flooding, and poisoning. <br/><br/>Corsac Foxes are protected in strict nature reserves (the highest protection status for the territory) and in national parks in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia. <br/><br/>No special conservation programmes have been carried out. Outside of protected areas, the Corsac has the status of game species.<br/><br/>  All hunting and trading of Corsac Foxes is illegal in Afghanistan having been placed in 2009 on the country’s Protected Species List. <br/><br/>Corsac Foxes breed well in captivity. In Moscow Zoo, during the 1960s, one pair of Corsac Foxes produced six litters during the time that they remained together. Corsac Foxes are easily habituated to humans. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>There are several aspects of this species' biology that require investigation, including social organization and behaviour, population structure, current distribution and population status in different regions, current levels of trapping/hunting impact, and other threats to the species.
23051		distribution	eng	Narrower than the historical range and includes two parts. The first covers the Middle Asian republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, as well as steppe and forest-steppe areas of Russia, including the southern region of Western Siberia. In Europe its range reaches the Samara Region, Tatarstan to the North and northern Caucasia to the South. The second, much smaller area lies in southern Transbaikalye representing the northern periphery of the Mongolian and Manchurian section of the species area. Outside Russia the species area includes the steppe part of north-eastern China, including Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the region between Argun and Big Khingan, the entire Mongolian republic except for its forested and mountain regions, Dgungaria, Kashgaria, Afghanistan (probably only northern) and north-eastern Iran. Southern limit of distribution is unknown, but possibly it reaches to the mountain ridges separating the Tibet Highland from the North. Thus, the two ranges (western and eastern) are connected by a relatively narrow neck in the Dgungar Gate and Zaisan Basin region. In recent years a westward area expansion has been recorded, particularly into the Voronezh region following active recovery of baibak (<em>Marmota bobak</em>) populations. Occasionally, the species is recorded from the Ukrainian steppe (as far as Pavlodar to the West), eastern Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan) and, probably, western Kyrgyzstan.
23051		distribution	eng	The current range of the Corsac is disjunct. One part covers the Middle Asian republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, as well as steppe and forest-steppe areas of Russia, including the southern region of Western Siberia. In Europe its range reaches the Samara Region, Tatarstan to the North and northern Caucasia to the South. The second, much smaller area lies in southern Transbaikalye representing the northern periphery of the Mongolian and Manchurian section of the species area. Outside Russia the species area includes the steppe part of north-eastern China, including Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the region between Argun and Big Khingan, the entire Mongolian republic except for its forested and mountain regions, Dgungaria, Kashgaria, Afghanistan (probably only northern) and north-eastern Iran. Southern limit of distribution is unknown, but possibly it reaches to the mountain ridges separating the Tibet Highland from the North. Thus, the two ranges (western and eastern) are connected by a relatively narrow neck in the Dgungar Gate and Zaisan Basin region. In recent years, a westward area expansion has been recorded, particularly into the Voronezh region following active recovery of baibak (Marmota bobac) populations. Occasionally, the species is recorded from the Ukrainian steppe (as far as Pavlodar to the West), eastern Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan) and, probably, western Kyrgyzstan.<br/><br/>In Russia the Corsac is rare in most regions, but common in West Siberia and Transbaikalie. It sometimes occurs in northern parts of West Siberia's forested steppes, but in low numbers. The species is common everywhere between the Volga and Ural rivers. In Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China, the corsac is Common or abundant, although in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan the species is usually rare. Population status in Afghanistan and Iran is unknown.
23051		habitat	eng	The corsac typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas and dense bush. In the western part of the range they occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall grass steppes. In Kaspyi Sea region the steppes and tarragon-cereal semi-deserts are favoured. It also occurs in fixed-sand habitats (Nogaiskaya Steppe). In Volgo-Ural watershed the corsac inhabits most usual habitats, but prefers semi-deserts. To the east of the Ural Mountains, the species inhabits steppes and in favourable years occurs even in forested steppes. In Kazakhstan typical habitats are low grass steppes and semi-deserts, often inhabiting low hills, but avoiding low mountains. In Middle-Asia it inhabits semi-deserts and ephemeral-deserts, avoiding drifting sands. One limiting factor is snow height in winter, and this species avoids areas where the depth of snow exceeds 150 mm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed.<br/><br/>Corsac foxes appear to depend on distribution of ground squirrels and marmots for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for refuge).
23051		habitat	eng	The Corsac typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas and dense bush. In the western part of the range they occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall grass steppes. In Kaspyi Sea region the steppes and tarragon-cereal semi-deserts are favoured. It also occurs in fixed-sand habitats (Nogaiskaya Steppe). In Volgo-Ural watershed the Corsac inhabits most usual habitats, but prefers semi-deserts. To the east of the Ural Mountains, the species inhabits steppes and in favourable years occurs even in forested steppes. In Kazakhstan typical habitats are low grass steppes and semi-deserts, often inhabiting low hills, but avoiding low mountains. In Middle-Asia it inhabits semi-deserts and ephemeral-deserts, avoiding drifting sands. One limiting factor is snow height in winter, and this species avoids areas where the depth of snow exceeds 150 mm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. <br/><br/>Corsac Foxes appear to depend on distribution of ground squirrels and marmots for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for refuge).
23051		population	eng	Corsac populations fluctuate significantly. Population decreases are dramatic, caused by catastrophic climatic events, and numbers can drop tenfold within the space of a single year. On the other hand, in favourable years numbers can increase by the same margin and more within a three to four year period. Corsac foxes have the ability to forego water and food for extended periods of time. They are well adapted to a hot and dry climate. Current population status is unknown in most regions. Dramatic population changes were reported during the last century in PredKavkazie, between Kuma and Terek rivers and in Kuma-Manich Channel region. A drastic population decline was reported at the beginning of the last century (Dinnik 1914). Numbers had recovered by 1924 to 1925; one hunter during that time could take up to 15–30 corsac foxes in one season (Ognev 1931). By 1931 numbers decreased again with a subsequent increase in 1951 (Verezhagin 1959). In the Ural region during particular years up to 5,500 animals were taken by trappers, and up to 1,700 in the Gurievskaya region. To the south, in Mangishlak and Ustyurt, the corsac is widespread and in some years abundant. In Russia the corsac is rare in most regions, but common in West Siberia and Transbaikalie. It sometimes occurs in northern parts of West Siberia's forested steppes, but in low numbers. The species is common everywhere between the Volga and Ural rivers. In Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China, the corsac is common or abundant, although in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan the species is usually rare. Population status in Afghanistan and Iran is unknown.
23051		population	eng	Corsac populations fluctuate significantly. Population decreases are dramatic, caused by catastrophic climatic events, and numbers can drop tenfold within the space of a single year. On the other hand, in favourable years numbers can increase by the same margin and more within a three to four year period. Dramatic population changes were reported during the last century in PredKavkazie, between Kuma and Terek rivers and in Kuma-Manich Channel region. A drastic population decline was reported at the beginning of the last century (Dinnik 1914). Numbers had recovered by 1924 to 1925; one hunter during that time could take up to 15–30 Corsac foxes in one season (Ognev 1931). By 1931 numbers decreased again with a subsequent increase in 1951 (Verezhagin 1959). In the Ural region during particular years up to 5,500 animals were taken by trappers, and up to 1,700 in the Gurievskaya region. To the south, in Mangishlak and Ustyurt, the corsac is widespread and in some years abundant.
23051		threats	eng	Development in Kazakhstan in the mid-1850s caused a significant reduction of Corsac numbers in previously undisturbed habitats. In the 20th century several catastrophic population declines were recorded. During such crashes hunting on Corsac Foxes in the former Soviet Union was banned. For example, hunting of Corsac Foxes was stopped within the entire Kazakhstan territory from 1928 to 1938. Current population status, and the nature of major threats, is unknown in most regions. The western part of the range populations are recovering and their range expanding. In Kalmikiya large desert areas are changing into grass steppes, less suitable for corsac foxes. In Middle Asia and Kazakhstan a dramatic decrease of livestock during the last decade influenced many ecosystems and wildlife populations. However, the exact influence of this process on corsac populations remains unknown.<br/><br/>Corsac Fox pelts have been intensively traded. In general, over much of Russia during the 19th century, as many as 40,000–50,000 pelts were traded in some years. For the time being, Corsac pelts are not as highly appreciated as Red Fox pelts, and Corsac Foxes are usually trapped only incidentally.
23051		threats	eng	Development in Kazakhstan in the mid-1850s caused a significant reduction of corsac numbers in previously undisturbed habitats. In the 20th century several catastrophic population declines were recorded. During such crashes hunting on corsac foxes in the former Soviet Union was banned. For example, hunting of corsac foxes was stopped within the entire Kazakhstan territory from 1928 to 1938. Current population status, and the nature of major threats, is unknown in most regions. The western part of the range populations are recovering and their range expanding. In Kalmikiya large desert areas are changing into grass steppes, less suitable for corsac foxes. In Middle Asia and Kazakhstan a dramatic decrease of livestock during the last decade influenced many ecosystems and wildlife populations. However, the exact influence of this process on corsac populations remains unknown.<br/><br/>Corsac pelts have been intensively traded. In general, over much of Russia during the 19th century, as many as 40,000–50,000 corsac pelts were traded in some years. For the time being, corsac pelts are not as highly appreciated as red fox pelts, and corsac foxes are usually trapped only incidentally.
23052		conservation	eng	Not listed on CITES Appendices. Likely to occur in a number of protected areas throughout the species' range, but no reliable information available.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>This is one of the least known canid species, and studies on distribution, status, basic biology and ecological requirements are needed.
23052		distribution	eng	The Pallid Fox is distributed in the semi-arid Sahelian region of Africa bordering the Sahara, from Mauritania and Senegal through Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad to the Red Sea. Southern limit of geographical range extends into northern Guinean savanna zones.
23052		habitat	eng	Typically inhabiting very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but extending to some extent southwards into moister Guinean savannas. Therefore, they have a very extensive distribution within an unstable and fluctuating ecological band lying between true desert and the Guinean savannas. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats (Rosevear 1974).
23052		population	eng	Widespread and present throughout range, but in most parts rare and seldom recorded. The Pallid Fox is one of the least known canid species.
23052		threats	eng	Unknown, although occasional persecution by chicken raiders may take place.
23053		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Mauritania, Niger, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is fully protected by law, and no hunting, trapping or trading is allowed. In Morocco, according to the annual hunting decree, Rüppell's foxes and red foxes may be hunted during the whole year, as they are considered as pests. In Arabia, no species-specific laws or regulations protect Rüppell's Foxes outside of protected areas. There is no information for other countries.<br/><br/>Rüppell's Foxes are held in captivity, including in the Rabat Zoo, Morocco; the Dubai Zoo, and the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Attempts to breed Rüppell's Foxes have generally not been very successful (Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990), although they have been successfully bred in the Hai Bar Breeding Centre, Eilat, Israel (E. Geffen pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>The status and ecology of North African populations remains largely unknown. Monitoring of populations in well-established protected areas throughout the species' range is encouraged. There is scope for detailed study of competition between Rüppell's and red foxes.
23053		distribution	eng	Widespread in arid regions of North Africa (north of 17ºN) from Morocco and Mauritania to Egypt and Somalia, to along the northern fringes of the Sahara Desert. Also present across the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to Pakistan (68ºE) and north-west to Israel and Jordan. A recent record for Syria is the first confirmation of their presence in this country (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). Suspected historical expansion of distribution area is likely due to desertification, compensated by competition with the red fox due to new human settlements. It seems to avoid the extreme arid regions in the middle of the Sahara, and the Arabian Empty Quarter, being more abundant on the fringes, in mountain massifs and near oases.
23053		habitat	eng	Their typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, they have been found in open and stony habitats often with sparse vegetation cover, including a few herb and grass species (<em>Fagonia indica</em>, <em>Indigofera spinosa</em>, <em>Tribulus</em> spp., <em>Stipagrostis</em> spp. and <em>Panicum turgidum</em>) that receive little rainfall (~100 mm per year) (Lenain 2000). On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Rüppell's Fox may be found in similar areas with up to 150 mm annual rainfall. In Morocco (including Western Sahara), the general habitat presents sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (<em>Hammada scoparia</em>, <em>Panicum turgidum</em>, <em>Fagonia</em> spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with <em>Acacia</em> spp., <em>Argania spinosa</em>, <em>Balanites aegyptiaca</em>, <em>Maerua crassifolia</em> and <em>Capparis deciduas</em> trees). In Niger (Dragesco-Joffé 1993) and Morocco (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.), the species avoids large sand dune areas, where the Fennec Fox is the only other reported canid species; however, in Algeria, they also occur in large ergs (De Smet 1988). In United Arab Emirates, Rüppell?s Foxes occur in a variety of desert habitats including sand sheets, sand dunes, gravel plains, and inter-dune sabkhas (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Rüppell's Fox also lives in coastal areas, with extremely sparse vegetation and without any trees. They are able to survive in areas with little available water, as in central Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd protected area) on the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter (Lindsay and Macdonald 1986; Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2007), in Algeria (De Smet 1988) and in Western Sahara, where observations do not show any relationship with the distance to the nearest available water (F. Cuzin, unpubl.).
23053		habitat	eng	Their typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, they have been found in open and stony habitats often with sparse vegetation cover, including a few herb and grass species (<em>Fagonia indica</em>, <em>Indigofera spinosa</em>, <em>Tribulus</em> spp., <em>Stipagrostis</em> spp. and <em>Panicum turgidum</em>) that receive little rainfall (~100 mm per year) (Lenain 2000). On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Rüppell's Fox may be found in similar areas with up to 150 mm annual rainfall. In Morocco (including Western Sahara), the general habitat presents sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (<em>Hammada scoparia</em>, <em>Panicum turgidum</em>, <em>Fagonia</em> spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with <em>Acacia</em> spp., <em>Argania spinosa</em>, <em>Balanites aegyptiaca</em>, <em>Maerua crassifolia</em> and <em>Capparis deciduas</em> trees). In Niger (Dragesco-Joffé 1993) and Morocco (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.), the species avoids large sand dune areas, where the Fennec Fox is the only other reported canid species; however, in Algeria, they also occur in large ergs (De Smet 1988). In United Arab Emirates, Rüppell’s Foxes occur in a variety of desert habitats including sand sheets, sand dunes, gravel plains, and inter-dune sabkhas (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Rüppell's Fox also lives in coastal areas, with extremely sparse vegetation and without any trees. They are able to survive in areas with little available water, as in central Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd protected area) on the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter (Lindsay and Macdonald 1986; Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2007), in Algeria (De Smet 1988) and in Western Sahara, where observations do not show any relationship with the distance to the nearest available water (F. Cuzin, unpubl.).
23053		population	eng	Densities of Rüppell's Fox are usually low, but seem higher in areas where food is more freely available for example, near human settlements (Valverde 1957, K. De Smet, pers. obs.). In a large, fenced, protected area of 2,244 km² in Saudi Arabia, densities of 0.68/km² were recorded (Lenain 2000). Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. In the reserve, the population is stable, but there is a need to document long-term population dynamics (Lenain 2000).
23053		threats	eng	Threats include direct and indirect persecution by hunting and indiscriminate use of poisons. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes that are expanding their range following human settlements in the Negev Desert (Yom-Tov and Mendelssohn 1988), and competition with Red Fox is believed to be a problem elsewhere in the range. Rarely hunted for food or for sale of furs. However, in some regions, foxes face persecution for their perceived impact on game species like Houbara Bustard (<em>Chlamydotis undulata</em>) and livestock (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).
23059		conservation	eng	Not listed on CITES Appendices. The Swift Fox has been down-listed from 'extirpated' to 'endangered' in Canada as a result of the Swift Fox reintroduction programme. In the United States, the Swift Fox was petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act. In 2001 the US Fish and Wildlife Service determined listing to be unwarranted.<br/><br/>In Canada, Swift Foxes are found mainly on unprotected lands, but approximately one-sixth of the population falls within the boundaries of Grasslands National Park. In the United States, there are 24 National Park Service Units (Parks, Monuments, Historic Sites) located in the historic range of Swift Foxes; however, there are no records of Swift Foxes in any of these units, yet 14 have potential for Swift Fox presence. One unit, Badlands National Park in South Dakota, is tentatively planning a reintroduction of Swift Foxes in 2003.<br/><br/>In Canada, the National Swift Fox Recovery Team is currently revising its national Swift Fox recovery strategy, which will be implemented through national and provincial action plans as of 2003. The Canadian federal government has just passed the country's first 'Species at Risk Act', which will provide greater legal protection of Swift Foxes and promote landowner stewardship programmes facilitating local conservation efforts. In the United States, the Swift Fox Conservation Team operates under a Swift Fox Conservation Strategy Plan with identified goals up to the year 2005. The team continues to monitor populations, assess critical habitat conditions, review the potential for reintroductions, and provide research support for ongoing projects.<br/><br/>In Canada, Swift Foxes are present in the Calgary Zoo, Cochrane Ecological Institute, Kamloops Wildlife Park, and Saskatoon Zoo. In the United States, Swift Foxes are represented in the Bismarck Zoo, Bramble Park Zoo, Houston Zoo, Lee Richardson Zoo, Living Desert, Minnesota Zoo, Philadelphia Zoo, Pueblo Zoo, Sunset Zoo, Tulsa Zoo, and Wild Canid Center. The Fort Worth Zoo has put forward a petition to manage a swift fox Species Survival Plan on behalf of the American Zoo Association. On behalf of the Canid Taxon Advisory Group, the St. Louis Zoo is currently devising recommendations for Swift Fox space allocations in the North American programme. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>In Canada and the United States assessments of historical distribution and the identification of critical Swift Fox habitats for legal protection are hampered by the fact that Swift Fox habitat use is not well understood. Future studies should assess to what degree swift foxes can utilize differing types of habitats, including habitats considered atypical, such as those dominated by cropland. Information is needed to identify why Swift Foxes are unable to move into areas of apparently suitable habitat. Identification of barriers, both physical and ecological (e.g., competitive exclusion with other canids), to dispersal would improve the ability to manage and ultimately conserve this species. Future investigations should focus on parameters that might affect the range-wide, long-term viability of the populations. <br/><br/>The primary stochastic factor influencing small canid populations around the world is disease (Woodroffe <em>et al.</em> 1997; Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1998; Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1999), and such risks are enhanced when animals are transferred between populations (Woodford and Rossiter 1994). Although the Canadian population was partly established through translocation, Swift Fox exposure to canid diseases has not been assessed in Canada. The prevalence of disease exposure in different age classes and regions should be assessed in both countries and the likelihood of disease transfer between Swift Foxes and sympatric Coyotes, Red Foxes, and domestic dogs should be evaluated. In addition, genetic analyses should be conducted to examine bottlenecks, genetic variability, connectivity, and dispersal distances in Canada and within isolated population fragments of the United States. Finally, data on Swift Fox demography, disease prevalence, genetics, habitat use, and population trends should be incorporated into Population Viability Models to guide conservation planning on a provincial/state or federal basis.
23059		distribution	eng	The Swift Fox is native to short-grass and mixed-grass prairies of the Great Plains in North America (Egoscue 1979). On the northern limit of its range, the Swift Foxes was present in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The southern species boundary was New Mexico and Texas in the United States. Historical records also exist for areas in Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma. Some historical range descriptions include Swift foxes in Minnesota and Iowa; however, there are no verified records of occurrence in either state (Sovada and Scheick 1999). Iowa has one fossil record and several unconfirmed accounts. Minnesota has no records and no account of any merit.
23059		habitat	eng	The Swift Fox is predominately found on short-grass and mixed-grass prairies in gently rolling or level terrain (Kilgore 1969; Hillman and Sharps 1978; Hines 1980). In Kansas, Swift Foxes have been found to den and forage in fallow cropland fields such as wheat (Jackson and Choate 2000; Sovada <em>et al.</em> 2003). Survival rates (and reproductive rates although sample sizes were small; Sovada <em>et al</em>. 2003) between foxes in grassland and cropland sites were not significantly different suggesting that Swift Foxes may be able to adapt to such habitat in some cases (Sovada <em>et al</em>. 1998). Notably, the distribution and density of dens, are considered important components of Swift Fox habitat requirements (Herrero <em>et al</em>. 1991), particularly in terms of evading coyote predation or Red Fox competition (Tannerfeldt <em>et al</em>. 2003).
23059		population	eng	Following Swift Fox extirpation from Canada by 1938 (Soper 1964), reintroduction releases since 1983 have established a small Swift Fox population in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana which now constitutes the northern extent of the species' range (Moehrenschlager and Moehrenschlager 2001). The southern periphery of the range is still central New Mexico and north-western Texas, and, in terms of historic distribution, Swift Foxes are currently not found in Manitoba or North Dakota. Current estimates for the United States suggest that Swift Foxes are located in 39–42% of their historic range depending on conservative versus liberal estimates of historic range and the time span of records that are considered (Sovada and Scheick 1999). As such, the conservative estimate, based on the relative presence or absence of swift foxes in counties throughout individual states, is that Swift Foxes are distributed across 505,149 km² while the liberal estimate is 607,767 km² (Sovada and Scheick 1999). But in much of the distribution populations are fragmented.<br/><br/>Historically, the Swift Fox was considered an abundant predator of the prairies, but numbers were severely depleted by the late 1880s and early 1900s. In Canada, the last recorded specimen was collected in 1928 (Carbyn 1998) and a single sighting was made in 1938 (Soper 1964). Zumbaugh and Choate (1985) provided evidence that, in Kansas, Swift Foxes were extremely abundant in the mid-1800s, but became less abundant by the turn of the 20th century. The species was probably extirpated from Kansas by the 1940s (Black 1937; Cockrum 1952; Hall 1955; Sovada and Scheick 1999). There are similar reports of population declines from other states (see Sovada and Scheick 1999).<br/><br/>Swift Fox populations began to recover over portions of their former range beginning in the 1950s (Martin and Sternberg 1955; Glass 1956; Anderson and Nelson 1958; Andersen and Fleharty 1964; Kilgore 1969; Sharps 1977; Egoscue 1979; Hines 1980). In the core of their distribution, in Kansas, Colorado and the Oklahoma panhandle, and New Mexico, populations are considered stable whereas populations in Texas and Wyoming are fragmented and more vulnerable to decline. Swift Foxes are rare in Nebraska, South Dakota, and Montana, and extirpated from North Dakota (Allardyce and Sovada 2003). <br/><br/>Following approximately 50 years of extirpation, a Swift Fox reintroduction programme was initiated in Canada in 1983. By 1997, 942 foxes had been released, primarily utilizing captive breeding but also through the use of translocations (Moehrenschlager and Macdonald 2003). Using live trapping, a 1996/1997 census estimated the Canadian population to consist of 289 individuals in two isolated subpopulations. A second census that re-sampled these sites during the same season in 2000/2001 also expanded the survey area into Montana (Moehrenschlager and Moehrenschlager 2001, Moehrenschlager <em>et al.</em> 2004). The results showed that Swift Fox population size in Canada had increased three-fold since 1996/1997, the total known distribution including Montana spanned at least 17,500 km², the combined population size was approximately 877 individuals, and that 98.6% of the population is now wild-born. This population is considerably isolated from the contiguous Swift Fox range in the United States and needs to be considered separately in terms of population viability.<br/><br/>In the United States, Swift Fox populations are believed to be stable in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Kansas. The population in Wyoming is relatively stable but fragmented. Less is known about the population in Nebraska, but there appear to be four disjunct populations of unknown status. In South Dakota, populations are small and fragmented; some are considered stable. Swift Foxes are extinct in North Dakota. Reintroductions of Swift Foxes are being implemented at two sites in South Dakota. The Turner Endangered Species Fund began reintroducing foxes in 2002 in the Bad River Ranch south-west of Pierre. There are also plans for a reintroduction to The Badlands National Park in 2003. The Defenders of Wildlife are currently supporting (1998–present) a reintroduction in northern Montana's Blackfeet Reservation.
23059		threats	eng	Since Swift Foxes are primarily prairie specialists, ongoing conversion of grassland to cropland threatens to reduce population sizes and further fragment populations. The conversion of native grassland prairies has been implicated as one of the most important factors for the contraction of the swift fox range (Hillman and Sharps 1978). We believe that alteration of the landscape likely influences local and seasonal prey availability, increases risk of predation on Swift Foxes, and leads to interspecific competition with other predators such as the Coyote and Red Fox. Moreover, an increasing trend towards irrigation of crops from the dry-land farming practices of fallow cropland every other year could exclude Swift Foxes that have adapted to den and forage successfully under the dryland farming rotational practices. The planting of tall, dense vegetation as a part of the United States Conservation Reserve Program, may also negatively impact swift foxes because they avoid these densely vegetated habitats. In Canada, the oil and gas industry is expanding dramatically and previously isolated prairie areas are now targeted for exploration. Associated road developments will potentially decrease the habitat carrying capacity and increase vehicle-caused Swift Fox mortalities. Greater urbanization coupled with coyote control may facilitate Red Fox expansion, which could lead to the competitive exclusion of Swift Foxes in established prairie areas. In the United States, the 1972 presidential ban on predator toxicant use (e.g., strychnine, compound 1080) on Federal lands may have contributed to Swift Fox recovery, but 1080 is currently being legalized in prairie areas of Saskatchewan, Canada, which will likely limit reintroduced populations. Moreover, landowners that are attempting to protect their livestock from Coyote depredation use poisons illegally and swift foxes readily consume such baits (Moehrenschlager 2000).
23060		conservation	eng	Not listed in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Occurs in protected areas in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. The Cape Fox occurs in many provincial and private nature reserves, as well as on game ranches in all South African provinces, although the species has a much more restricted range in Limpopo Province and KwaZulu-Natal (Stuart 1981; Rautenbach 1982; Lynch 1975; Rowe-Rowe 1992). In Swaziland, the species may occur in Nhlangano Nature Reserve in the south-west and pups have been successfully reared in Milwane Game Reserve (Monadjem 1998).<br/><br/>Although treated as a problem animal across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces, as it does not appear on the official lists of problem species. However, no permit is required from any authority to kill this fox in problem animal control operations. No protection measures are currently enforced and at the present time, this is not necessary.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Although the Cape Fox has been extensively studied in South Africa's Free State province (Lynch 1975; Bester 1982; Kok 1996), there is little information for elsewhere within its range. Aspects such as diet and reproduction are quite well known but little information is available on aspects of social ecology and behaviour in the wild. Some investigation into the role, if any, this species plays in disease transmission is necessary.
23060		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the central and western regions of southern Africa, reaching to about 15°N in south-western Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1989). It occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but in parts, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa's western Cape Province, the species enters areas receiving higher precipitation and denser vegetation. The species has expanded its range over recent decades to the south-west where it reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines (Stuart 1981). Expansion through South Africa's eastern Cape Province has been documented (Coetzee 1979). Status in Swaziland is uncertain, but they may occur in the south-west (Monadjem 1998), as the species occurs in adjacent regions of north-western KwaZulu-Natal (Rowe-Rowe 1992); possible occurrence in Lesotho (Lynch 1994). Previous records of its occurrence in western Zimbabwe (Roberts 1951; Coetzee 1977) and Mozambique (Travassos Dias 1968) have not been substantiated, and it is considered unlikely that these records are valid.
23060		habitat	eng	They mainly associate with open country, including grassland, grassland with scattered thickets, and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions, the Kalahari and the fringes of the Namib Desert. They also penetrate moderately dense vegetation in lowland fynbos in the western Cape, as well as extensive agricultural lands where they lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night (Stuart 1981). Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert, Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night (Stuart 1975). In Botswana, they have been recorded from Acacia-scrubland, short grassland and especially on the fringes of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas (Smithers 1971; Skinner and Smithers 1990). In the central Karoo of South Africa, they occupy the plains as well as the low rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In the Free State, Lynch (1975) found that they were most abundant in areas receiving less than 500 mm of rainfall, although in KwaZulu-Natal they have been recorded between 1,000 and 1,500 m above sea level, where rainfall is roughly 720–760 mm (Rowe-Rowe 1992).
23060		population	eng	Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, although problem animal control activities have resulted in population reductions in some areas. Estimates are only available for South Africa's Free State province where an average density of 0.3 foxes per km² was estimated with a total population of 31,000 individuals (Bester 1982). Annual offtake resulting from problem animal control programmes averaged roughly 16% up to 1985, with no obvious declines in overall populations (Bester 1982). Range and numbers have increased in the south-west and east of South Africa (Coetzee 1979; Stuart 1981). Estimated population sizes or numbers are not available, but it is thought that populations are currently stable across their entire range.
23060		threats	eng	Habitat loss/changes are not a major factor influencing the conservation status of the Cape Fox. In fact, in western Cape Province and elsewhere, changing agricultural practices have resulted in range extensions for this species, as well as for the bat-eared fox (Stuart 1981). Expansion of semi-arid karroid vegetation during the process of desertification, especially eastwards, has also resulted in range extensions of this canid. Heavy direct and indirect problem animal control measures do not seem to have had a major impact on populations of the Cape Fox, even though they have resulted in declines in some areas. The illegal but widespread and indiscriminate use of agricultural poisons on commercial farms poses the greatest threat (C. Stuart and T. Stuart, pers. obs.). The trade in Cape Fox pelts is negligible and this situation is unlikely to change.
23061		conservation	eng	Not listed in CITES Appendices. The species is legally protected in several large Chinese reserves, including Arjin Shan (45,000 km²), Xianza (40,000 km²), Chang Tang (ca. 334,000 km²), Kekexili (ca. 45,000 km²), and Sanjiangyuan (ca. 152,000 km²). However, actual protection remains minimal. Likely to occur in other protected areas throughout the species' range, but no reliable information available. The species lacks special protection outside reserves.<br/><br/>Gaps of knowledge<br/>All aspects of the fox's natural history needs to be studied.
23061		distribution	eng	Widespread in the steppes and semi-deserts of the Tibetan Plateau from the Ladakh area of India, east across China including parts of the Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Sichuan provinces and all of the Tibet Autonomous Region, and into Yunnan (Gong and Hu 2003; Wang 2003). Also present in Nepal north of the Himalaya, known specifically from the Mustang area. There are no confirmed records for Bhutan.
23061		habitat	eng	The species is found in upland plains and hills from about 2,500–5,200 m (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2008). Most of its habitat consists of sparse grasslands devoid of trees and shrubs (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007; although see also Gong and Hu 2003), particularly where black-lipped pikas are abundant. Although definitive studies have yet to be conducted, it appears that Tibetan Foxes are closely tied to the presence of pikas, and may in fact be an obligate predator. Tibetan Foxes appear particularly adept at capturing pikas (including, at times, following brown bears <em>Ursus arctos</em> excavating pika burrows in order to capture pikas that escape; Harris <em>et al</em>. 2008), and are rarely encountered where pikas are absent. They also feed on carrion, and other small mammals (Zheng 1985).<br/><br/>Tibetan Foxes spend considerable time resting in small burrows or hollows (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2003). They are most active at dawn and dusk, although can be seen at any time of the day.
23061		population	eng	Fox abundance depends partly on prey availability and partly on human hunting pressure. In northwest Tibet, in a remote region of desert steppe with little prey, only five foxes were seen in 1,848 km of driving. In south-west Qinghai in a benign environment with much prey, 15 foxes were tallied in 367 km (Schaller 1998). In Serxu county, north-west Sichuan Province, an area with abundant with black lipped pika (<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em>), eight Tibetan Foxes were sighted along 11 km country road during a night count in 2001 (Anonymous 2000), and 27 sightings (at least 12 individuals) were recorded along line transects in the same area in August 2003 (Wang Xiaoming and Wang Zhenghuan, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>However, more recent studies with marked animals (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007) have suggested that Tibetan Foxes can achieve relatively high densities where preferred prey is abundant and human hunting pressure low. Densities of 2-4/km² may occur (R.B. Harris pers. comm., 2008). A very coarse and unreliable estimation of population density of Tibetan Foxes in the Tibetan Autonomous Region was provided by Piao (1989), which extrapolated to an estimate of 37,000.
23061		threats	eng	The species is not believed to be under serious threat. Hunting and snaring occurs, but is not common because the coarse pelts of Tibetan Foxes are of minor value. Domestic dogs can kill Tibetan Foxes, and may be a major source of mortality in some areas (Wang <em>et al.</em> 2007). More insidious threats are ongoing government-sponsored programmes of poisoning pikas in much of the Tibetan plateau. Secondary poisoning of Tibetan Foxes may occur, although does not appear to be common. However, reductions or complete elimination of their major prey would certainly be damaging to Tibetan Fox populations. If such pika reduction programmes continue or increase, the status of the Tibetan Fox would require reassessment.
23062		conservation	eng	It is present in most protected areas in temperate and subarctic regions, with the exception of some inaccessible islands. It is widely regarded as a pest and is not protected, although most range states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards that was signed in 1997 (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). Controlling red foxes may be necessary where rare species, or threatened populations, are at risk from red fox predation (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). For example, nest predation by foxes has completely prevented recruitment to an internationally important sandwich tern colony in a number of consecutive years (Musgrave 1993).
23062		conservation	eng	Not listed in CITES Appendices at species level. <em>V. v. necator</em> in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, is rare, possibly declining (Nowak 1991). The subspecies <em>griffithi</em>, <em>montana</em> and <em>pusilla</em> (=<em>leucopus</em>) are listed as CITES – Appendix III (India).<br/><br/>Present in most temperate-subarctic conservation areas with the exception of some inaccessible islands in the Old World and South America. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards between these countries, which was signed in 1997. Other countries are signatories to ISO/DIS 10990-5.2 animal (mammal) traps, which specifies standards for trap testing.<br/><br/>  Foxes are highly persecuted and heavily hunted in Afghanistan, however, it is an adaptable species that produces large litters. Therefore the Government of Afghanistan has listed <span style="font-style: italic;">V. vulpes</span> as a harvestable species (with regular monitoring of populations to ensure hunting does not qualify the fox for a protected status in the future). <br/><br/>In Europe and North America, hunting traditions and/or legislation impose closed seasons on fox hunting. In the UK and a few other European countries, derogation from these provisions allows breeding season culling for pest-control purposes. Here, traditional hunting ethics encouraging restrained "use" may be at odds with harder hitting pest-control ambitions. This apparent conflict between different interest groups is particularly evident in the UK, where fox control patterns are highly regionally variable (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some regions, principal lowland areas where classical mounted hunting operates, limited economic analyses suggest that the principal motive for these communal fox hunts is as a sport – the number killed is small compared with the cost of the hunting. In these regions, most anthropogenic mortality is by individual farmers shooting foxes. The mounted communal hunts do exhibit restraint – hunting takes place for a limited season, and for a prescribed number of days per week. Elsewhere, in upland regions, communal hunting by foot with guns and dogs may make economic sense, depending on the number of lambs lost to foxes (data on this is poor), and also on the current value of lost lambs. This type of fox hunting may also be perceived as a sport by its participants. <br/><br/>An individual deciding whether or not to control foxes, and by what means, has a complex set of factors to consider, including other interest groups, practicality and economics. For some farmers, there is evidence that a decision to control foxes may be economically perverse. Macdonald <em>et al</em>. (2003) modelled the interactions between foxes, rabbits, and rabbit-induced crop damage. For some farmers at least, a decision to kill a fox may, in some circumstances, cost that farmer a significant amount of crop loss to the rabbits that the fox and its descendants would have killed.<br/><br/>In addition to fur farms, Red Foxes are widely kept in small wildlife parks and zoos, but there appears to be no systematic data on their breeding success. Being extremely shy they are often poor exhibits.
23062		conservation	eng	Not listed in CITES Appendices at species level. <em>V. v. necator</em> in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, is rare, possibly declining (Nowak 1991). The subspecies <em>griffithi</em>, <em>montana</em> and <em>pusilla</em> (=<em>leucopus</em>) are listed as CITES ? Appendix III (India).<br/><br/>Present in most temperate-subarctic conservation areas with the exception of some inaccessible islands in the Old World and South America. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards between these countries, which was signed in 1997. Other countries are signatories to ISO/DIS 10990-5.2 animal (mammal) traps, which specifies standards for trap testing.<br/><br/>In Europe and North America, hunting traditions and/or legislation impose closed seasons on fox hunting. In the UK and a few other European countries, derogation from these provisions allows breeding season culling for pest-control purposes. Here, traditional hunting ethics encouraging restrained "use" may be at odds with harder hitting pest-control ambitions. This apparent conflict between different interest groups is particularly evident in the UK, where fox control patterns are highly regionally variable (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some regions, principal lowland areas where classical mounted hunting operates, limited economic analyses suggest that the principal motive for these communal fox hunts is as a sport ? the number killed is small compared with the cost of the hunting. In these regions, most anthropogenic mortality is by individual farmers shooting foxes. The mounted communal hunts do exhibit restraint ? hunting takes place for a limited season, and for a prescribed number of days per week. Elsewhere, in upland regions, communal hunting by foot with guns and dogs may make economic sense, depending on the number of lambs lost to foxes (data on this is poor), and also on the current value of lost lambs. This type of fox hunting may also be perceived as a sport by its participants. <br/><br/>An individual deciding whether or not to control foxes, and by what means, has a complex set of factors to consider, including other interest groups, practicality and economics. For some farmers, there is evidence that a decision to control foxes may be economically perverse. Macdonald <em>et al</em>. (2003) modelled the interactions between foxes, rabbits, and rabbit-induced crop damage. For some farmers at least, a decision to kill a fox may, in some circumstances, cost that farmer a significant amount of crop loss to the rabbits that the fox and its descendants would have killed.<br/><br/>In addition to fur farms, Red Foxes are widely kept in small wildlife parks and zoos, but there appears to be no systematic data on their breeding success. Being extremely shy they are often poor exhibits.
23062		distribution	eng	Distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the Asiatic steppes, the Red Fox has the widest geographical range of any member of the order Carnivora (covering nearly 70 million km²). Not found in Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, or in extreme deserts. European subspecies introduced into eastern United States and Canada in 17th century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. The species was also introduced to Australia in 1800s. Elsewhere introduced to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and to the Isle of Man (UK), although it may subsequently have disappeared there.
23062		distribution	eng	The red fox has an extremely large range. It is distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the Asiatic steppes. It is absent from Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, and it avoids desert areas.  It occurs throughout the whole of Europe, with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, Crete, and some of the smaller Mediterranean and North Sea islands (Hall 1981, Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990, Abe 1994, Stubbe 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999, Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). European subspecies were introduced to the eastern states of the US (e.g. Virginia) in the 17th Century, mixed with local subspecies, and then moved southwards with forest clearance. The species was also introduced to Australia in 1800s. Elsewhere introduced to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and to the Isle of Man (UK), although it may subsequently have disappeared there (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m (Stubbe 1999).
23062		habitat	eng	In Europe it is found in a very wide variety of habitats including all types of forest and open landscapes. It is well adapted to many anthropogenic habitats including farmland and suburban and urban areas (Larivière and Pasitschniak-Arts 1996, Stubbe 1999). Red foxes are adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals and birds (including game birds), and fruit. They also scavenge in rural areas (e.g. in Europe and Canada on deer and sheep carcasses which may be the major food source in upland areas in<br/>winter), and in urban areas (on bird tables, compost heaps and refuse) (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004).
23062		habitat	eng	Red Foxes have been recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert and forest, as well as in city centres (including London, Paris, Stockholm, etc.). Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with abundant "edge" of scrub and woodland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains (even above the treeline, known to cross alpine passes), deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4,500 m. In the UK, they generally prefer mosaic patchworks of scrub, woodland and farmland. Red foxes flourish particularly well in urban areas. They are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned, low-density housing and are less common where industry, commerce or council rented housing predominates (Harris and Smith 1987). In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with man, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas.
23062		population	eng	It is the most widespread and abundant wild carnivore in the world (Larivière and Pasitschniak-Arts 1996) and there are stable populations throughout Europe. In central Europe, populations are increasing owing to the oral immunisation of foxes against rabies (Stubbe 1999). In Germany 500,000 are killed every year by hunting (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). In the UK the population was recently estimated to number approximately a quarter of a million animals (Battersby 2005).
23062		population	eng	Red Fox density is highly variable. In the UK, density varies between one fox per 40 km² in Scotland and 1.17/km² in Wales, but can be as high as 30 foxes per km² in some urban areas where food is superabundant (Harris 1977; Macdonald and Newdick 1982; Harris and Rayner 1986). Social group density is one family per km² in farmland, but may vary between 0.2-5 families per km² in the suburbs and as few as a single family per 10 km² in barren uplands (Macdonald 1981; Lindsay and Macdonald 1986). Fox density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerland is three foxes per km² (Meia 1994). In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, they occur at densities of 0.1/km², and in southern Ontario, Canada at 1/km² (Voigt 1987). The average social group density in the Swiss mountains is 0.37 family per km² (Weber <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The pre-breeding British fox population totals an estimated 240,000 (Harris <em>et al.</em> 1995). Mean number of foxes killed per unit area by gamekeepers has increased steadily since the early 1960s in 10/10 regional subdivisions of Britain, but it is not clear to what extent this reflects an increase in fox abundance. Although an increase in fox numbers following successful rabies control by vaccination was widely reported in Europe (e.g., fox bag in Germany has risen from 250,000 in 1982?1983 to 600,000 in 2000?2001), no direct measures of population density have been taken.
23062		population	eng	Red Fox density is highly variable. In the UK, density varies between one fox per 40 km² in Scotland and 1.17/km² in Wales, but can be as high as 30 foxes per km² in some urban areas where food is superabundant (Harris 1977; Macdonald and Newdick 1982; Harris and Rayner 1986). Social group density is one family per km² in farmland, but may vary between 0.2-5 families per km² in the suburbs and as few as a single family per 10 km² in barren uplands (Macdonald 1981; Lindsay and Macdonald 1986). Fox density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerland is three foxes per km² (Meia 1994). In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, they occur at densities of 0.1/km², and in southern Ontario, Canada at 1/km² (Voigt 1987). The average social group density in the Swiss mountains is 0.37 family per km² (Weber <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The pre-breeding British fox population totals an estimated 240,000 (Harris <em>et al.</em> 1995). Mean number of foxes killed per unit area by gamekeepers has increased steadily since the early 1960s in 10/10 regional subdivisions of Britain, but it is not clear to what extent this reflects an increase in fox abundance. Although an increase in fox numbers following successful rabies control by vaccination was widely reported in Europe (e.g., fox bag in Germany has risen from 250,000 in 1982–1983 to 600,000 in 2000–2001), no direct measures of population density have been taken.
23062		threats	eng	It is hunted for sport, and is persecuted as a pest (Stubbe 1999). However, this is not a threat to the survival of the species.
23062		threats	eng	The main threats include habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation, and exploitation, and direct and indirect persecution. However, the Red Fox's versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure their persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. Culling may be able to reduce numbers well below carrying capacity in large regions (Heydon and Reynolds 2000), but no known situations exist where this currently threatens species persistence on any geographical scale. There are currently bounties on subspecies <em>V. v. pusilla</em> (desert foxes) in Pakistan to protect game birds such as Houbara bustards (<em>Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii</em>), with a high hunting value.<br/><br/>The number of foxes raised for fur (although much reduced since the 1900s) exceeds that of any other species, except possibly mink (<em>Mustela vison</em>) (Obbard 1987). Types farmed are particularly colour variants ("white", "silver" and "cross") that are rare in the wild. <br/><br/>Worldwide trade in ranched red fox pelts (mainly "silver" pelts from Finland) was 700,000 in 1988?1989 (excluding internal consumption in the USSR). Active fur trade in Britain in 1970s was negligible.
23062		threats	eng	The main threats include habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation, and exploitation, and direct and indirect persecution. However, the Red Fox's versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure their persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. Culling may be able to reduce numbers well below carrying capacity in large regions (Heydon and Reynolds 2000), but no known situations exist where this currently threatens species persistence on any geographical scale. There are currently bounties on subspecies <em>V. v. pusilla</em> (desert foxes) in Pakistan to protect game birds such as Houbara bustards (<em>Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii</em>), with a high hunting value.<br/><br/>The number of foxes raised for fur (although much reduced since the 1900s) exceeds that of any other species, except possibly mink (<em>Mustela vison</em>) (Obbard 1987). Types farmed are particularly colour variants ("white", "silver" and "cross") that are rare in the wild. <br/><br/>Worldwide trade in ranched red fox pelts (mainly "silver" pelts from Finland) was 700,000 in 1988–1989 (excluding internal consumption in the USSR). Active fur trade in Britain in 1970s was negligible.
23065		distribution	eng	Known only from Lake Poso, Sulawesi.
23073		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as Vulnerable (A1c, B1+2bc) on the Red List ver. 2.3 (IUCN 1996). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but in places its range coincides with protected areas (Trayler <em>et al. </em>1996). Monitoring of populations and habitats is recommended to prevent declines caused by salinization.
23073		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Australia, and is known from the Avon, Blackwood and Canning Rivers (Williams <em>et al. </em>1991, Bennet-Chambers <em>et al. </em>1999, Kay <em>et al. </em>2001). In the Blackwood River, it is recorded as far as Bridgetown, beyond which salinity levels are too high for this species (Williams <em>et al. </em>1991).
23073		habitat	eng	This species is found in ponds, lakes, rivers and streams, and has been collected from a dam in Western Australia (Bennet-Chambers <em>et al. </em>1999). It is tolerant to human disturbance and organic pesticides (Storey and Edward 1989, Bennet-Chambers <em>et al. </em>1999), but sensitive to salinities of less than 10,000 mg/L (Kendrick 1976 in Kay <em>et al. </em>2001).
23073		population	eng	This species declined in the Avon River at increased salinities (Kendrick 1976 in Kay <em>et al. </em>2001), eventually being replaced by the brackish mussel <em>Anticorbula amara</em> (Williams 1987). However, it is widespread and abundant elsewhere in Western Australia (Bennet-Chambers <em>et al. </em>1999, Sommer <em>et al. </em>2008).
23073		threats	eng	This species demonstrated significant bioaccumulation of the organochlorine pesticides dieldrin, DDE, DDD and DDT, suggesting it may be able to withstand freshwater pollution in the wild (Storey and Edward 1989). This was further supported by high cadmium levels in individuals from around the Canning River, Western Australia (Bennet-Chambers <em>et al.</em> 1999).&#160;However, this species appears to be highly sensitive to salinization. Kendrick (1976, in Kay <em>et al. </em>2001) documented the disappearance of this species in the Avon River, Western Australia, at salinities of less than 10,000 mg/L, most likely as a result of land clearance (Seddon 2000). Increased salinization is a major problem in many Australian river systems, including the Blackwood River (Williams 1987).
23076		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
23076		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Brazil, from Ceará to Rio Grande do Sul (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
23076		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry deciduous and scrub forest of caatinga and cerrado vegetation, it is an able climber and constructs nests in trees. It feeds on grains and sometimes insects. In captivity females mature at 83 days and give birth on average every forty days with a mean litter size of 3.8 (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
23076		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
23076		threats	eng	Habitat destruction occurs within the range, though it is currently not a major threat to this species.
23077		conservation	eng	It is found in some protected areas. Further efforts are need on the taxonomy and range of this species.
23077		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south Brazil to north and central Uruguay (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
23077		habitat	eng	In Uruguay the species is restricted to patches of subtropical woodland with dense vegetation; they have also been caught in trees at night. This species is a lowland forest species, particularly susceptible to deforestation (Vieira pers. comm.).
23077		population	eng	This species is rare in Rio Grande do Sul, known from very few specimens; no records in Brazil for last 40 years (Vieira pers. comm.)
23077		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation across the entire distributional range, which is currently highly fragmented. Timber extraction for the tobacco industry and replanting with exotic species monocultures (acacia, eucalyptus, pine).
23078		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, at least four national parks, one of them is Parque do Caraca in Minas Gerais (Jansa and Weksler, 2004).
23078		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern coast of Brazil, including São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and Parana states; and Misiones province, in Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Jansa and Weksler, 2004, Leite pers. comm.).
23078		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal rat; it inhabits forest and can be found from sea level to 2,000 m elevation (Geise pers. comm.).
23078		population	eng	This species is not common (Geise pers. comm.).
23078		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction and effects of fragmentation.
23079		conservation	eng	At least three good occurences and some small ones are on public lands, but actual degree of protection probably inadequate. In Rhode Island and Massachusetts wetlands regulations do not allow enough buffer for this species; many sites are state owned but are not effectively protected; some private sites also need protection. Connecticut and Rhode Island populations may be good candidates for protection/acquisition. New Hampshire state wetland regulations are not adequate to protect water quality. More regulatory protection is required at state level.
23079		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from 54 counties in eight states. There are at least 20 occurrences in Rhode Island (Carpenter pers. comm. 2000); two to three sites in Connecticut (L. Ruth pers. comm. 2001); and based on 1999 surveys there are predicted to be 30 to 50 occurrences in Wisconsin alone (Vogt pers. comm. 2000). Ward and de Maynadier (2005) list eight populations in 13 sites in Maine. Vogt (1999) recommends continued inventory the Glacial Lake Wisconsin region, as well as other areas with suitable habitat in Wisconsin. An inventory is needed in eastern Connecticut and Bristol County Massachusetts. There are several unsurveyed sites in southeastern New Hampshire as well as Atlantic white cedar swamps. In New York the Hudson Highlands and Albany pine bush should be searched (these are close to recent New Jersey record). Further early-season searches are also required.
23079		habitat	eng	<em>Sphagnum</em> pools free of fish; acidic fens, often with wiry or three-way sedges (<em>Dulicium</em>), not overgrown with bushes, but near Atlantic white cedar, black spruce, larch or other forests (Dunkle 2000).
23079		population	eng	Less than 1,000 (NatureServe 2006).
23079		threats	eng	Destruction of forested upland and filling of sites a great threat, as well as ditching and mossing. Pesticides, water level manipulations, pollution, and collection are apparent threats. Several sites sprayed with Malathion in August 1990, which is potentially lethal to larvae.
23091		conservation	eng	This species is occurs in Prince Regent Nature Reserve. Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) for this species include: monitor abundance at selected sites throughout range, including the islands; conduct research aimed at understanding the biology, ecology, conservation status, and requirements. There needs to be research on fire ecology.
23091		distribution	eng	Apart from the type specimen, which came from Violet Valley in the east Kimberley, all records are from the high rainfall, near-coastal north-west Kimberley of Western Australia (Burbidge and Webb 2008). It has not been recorded in east Kimberley since 1917 and is thought to be extinct from here. It is also found on Bigge and Boongaree Islands (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
23091		habitat	eng	It is found in low open woodland, using four different types of rock formations for dens during the day (it is highly dependent on these rock formations): rockpiles, sunken rockpiles, large rock slabs, and underground rock crevices (Runcie 1999). At night, it feeds on four species of trees (<em>Xanthostemon eucalyptoides</em>, <em>X. paradoxus</em>, <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp., and <em>Planchonia careya</em>) (Runcie 1999). One young is born between March and August (Runcie 1999).
23091		population	eng	There have not been many surveys within its range, and there are only isolated records. The species is sparsely and patchily distributed (Runcie 1999). Runcie (1999) found a density of 2.3-4.6 possums per hectare, which is nearly five times higher than that estimated by Humphreys <em>et al.</em> (1984). However, the study by Runcie (1999) was limited to one small area, and the results may not apply elsewhere (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
23091		threats	eng	There are no data on threats, but this species is probably adversely affected by changed fire regimes and predation by introduced cats. On the Mitchell Plateau, proposed mining activity could affect this species.
23095		conservation	eng	Santa Barbara Island is part of the Channel Islands National Park. The entire island of San Clemente, used for military training, has been designated as Critical Habitat. The species is federally listed as threatened, but delisting may occur in the near future.
23095		distribution	eng	The entire range is on the California Channel Islands in the southwestern United States. The species occurs on San Clemente and Santa Barbara islands (subspecies <em>reticulata</em>) and on San Nicolas Island (subspecies <em>riversiana</em>). It also occurs on a small islet (Sutil Island) 1.3 km offshore from Santa Barbara Island (Bezy <em>et al</em>. 1980). Old records for Santa Catalina Island are erroneous. San Clemente Island, at 145 sq. km, is the largest inhabited island (San Nicolas = 57 sq. km, Santa Barbara = 16 sq. km).
23095		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits grassland, chaparral, oak savanna, clumps of cactus and boxthorn, dry sandy or rocky streambeds, cliffs, and rocky beaches (Stebbins 2003). It occupies areas of thick, low-lying vegetation growing on rocky soil and certain types of rock habitat; dominant plants include patches of prickly pear, matted thickets of boxthorn, and thickets of non-native Australian saltbush (Fellers and Drost 1991, Matthews and Moseley 1990). Individuals are often found under cover of rocks, driftwood, and fallen branches (Stebbins 2003), and they also use burrows.
23095		population	eng	Each island can be regarded as a distinct, single occurrence. Hence there are just a few occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but greater than 10,000 and perhaps exceeds 100,000. At the time of listing, the population on San Clemente Island was estimated at 800 to 1300 per ha of prime habitat; the San Nicolas Island population was estimated at 14,800; and the Santa Barbara Island population was thought to be 550 to 700 (Matthews and Moseley 1990). However, Fellers and Drost (1991) determined that the total population on Santa Barbara Island was at least 17,600 and concluded that the population is not threatened with extinction as was previously thought. Also Mautz recently found healthy populations on San Clemente Island. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "stable."
23095		threats	eng	The inhabited islands and their native inhabitants have been negatively affected by habitat alteration and predation resulting from introduction of alien species (e.g., feral cats, goats, pigs, and rabbits). However, according to the Channel Islands Species Recovery Plan of 1984, habitat on the islands "probably has not been altered to the detriment of the [island night] lizards by grazing mammals". Goats and pigs have recently been removed from San Clemente Island. Today, the Island Night Lizard is regarded as not significantly threatened.
23115		conservation	eng	This species is found in one protected area, the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve.  This species is listed as threatened under Mexican law.
23115		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in tropical coastal lowlands (from sea level to 450 m), in Colima and southwest Jalisco, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).
23115		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests characterized by a strong climatic seasonality (Ceballos and Miranda 2000). It occurs in areas with a closed canopy and a high density of trees and woody vines, which are used as arboreal runaways. <br/><br/>The Magdalena rat is arboreal and nocturnal. It is active from 1 to 1.5 hours after dusk until midnight (Schaldach 1960). Reproductive activity occurs late in the dry season and during rainy season from late May through November (Ceballos and Miranda 2000). Pregnant females were captured in August and September, and females with offspring were captured in May and August. Mean litter size was 1.6. One female had 2 embryos and another had 1 embryo (Schaldach 1960).
23115		population	eng	This species is known only from three localities (Ceballos <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present in very low numbers.
23115		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and habitat loss due to deforestation for agriculture and development. Habitat is being converted to banana plantations and development for tourism.
23121		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.
23122		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.
23124		conservation	eng	Research priorities for this species include estimating dispersal capabilities, identification of management units and monitoring population size. The threat of hybridisation needs to be clarified, as&#160;<em>Xenopus laevis</em>&#160;now occurs throughout the range. Habitat management and restoration are needed. It occurs in Cape Peninsula National Park and Agulhas National Park, both of which are relatively well managed, although there is a need to control the spread of invasive plants within these areas.
23124		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to extreme south-western South Africa, occurring on the Cape Peninsula and the south-western Cape coast. It is a low-altitude species occurring at 10-140 m asl; currently known populations occur within 10 km of the coast. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 1,450 km<sup>2</sup>, is considered to be declining, and its area of occurrence is estimated to be 1% of the EOO.
23124		habitat	eng	It is found only in black, acid water in Cape fynbos heathland. It is a winter breeder (July to October). It aestivates if waterbodies dry up. It does not tolerate alteration of its habitat, and the larvae are very sensitive to changes in water quality.
23124		population	eng	<p>The spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as one subpopulation/location holds >50% of individuals, however the distances between subpopulations of around 100 km is considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation. It appears to be relatively abundant in some of the known localities.</p>
23124		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss due to urbanization, agricultural run-off, and the effects of spreading alien plants. It may be threatened by hybridization with <em>X. laevis</em>, and there have been concerns about how many populations of this species represent pure <em>X. gilli</em>. <em>X. laevis</em> does not favour the acid water that <em>X. gilli</em> requires.
23137		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, but its range, as mapped, indicates that it probably occurs in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
23137		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded at scattered localities across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It might be present across the whole island of New Guinea in preferred habitat at elevations of between sea level and 1,600 m asl.
23137		habitat	eng	It appears to be a largely terrestrial species associated with rocky habitats, in hilly or montane areas, within broadleaf evergreen forest. Many of the recent records are from karst outcrops.
23137		population	eng	It seems to be a genuinely uncommon species that is known from only a few specimens.
23137		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is hunted for food by local people in parts of its range.
23141		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Protection of mangroves is a key conservation measure for the species. Further studies into the distribution, taxonomy, and threats to the species are needed.
23141		distribution	eng	This little-known species is present on the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and in northern Australia. On New Guinea, it is known only from a few specimens collected in the south-west Trans-Fly River region. In northern Australia, it has been recorded from a number of coastal sites in Northern Territory (including Melville Island) and Queensland (including Fraser Island) (Gynther and Janetzki 2008). It is suspected to be present in other parts of Queensland (studies underway).
23141		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species, largely associated with mangrove swamps, but has additionally been recorded from saline grasslands (Gynther and Janetzki 2008). Females give birth to up to four young (Gynther and Janetzki 2008). Most habitat data are from Queensland. Queensland populations are found within inland edges of mangroves and on tidal flats. This species preys mostly on freshwater invertebrates, including crabs, pulmonates, and molluscs (Woinarski 2005).
23141		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species that is patchily distributed within its extent of occurrence (Gynther and Janetzki 2008).
23141		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by the destruction of mangrove habitats, through reclamation projects and the development of marine aquaculture. Agriculture and development are a threat in Queensland. The species tends not to survive where there is development inland of mangrove areas. In the Northern Territory, habitat change due to overgrazing is a probable threat. Gynther and Janetzki (2008) name oil pollution, waste water treatment, acid sulphate contamination, alteration of natural hydrology, and chemical control of biting insects as major threats.
23142		conservation	eng	This species was classified as LR/nt by the IUCN Mollusc Specialist Group in 1996 (IUCN 2006). It is considered as Endangered (EN) in both the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Arrébola and Ruiz 2008) and the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 2009). It is also included in the "Conservation and Sustainable&#160;Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). It is crucial to elaborate and implement an integral recovery plan for the west coast of the province of Almería that would&#160;benefit not only&#160;<em>&#160;X. adolfi</em>, but also other threatened species in this area, i.e.: the terrestrial snails&#160;<em>Iberus g. gualtieranus</em>&#160;(Linnaeus, 1758),&#160;<em>H. stiparum</em>&#160;(Pfeiffer, 1854),&#160;<em>Theba subdentata helicella</em>&#160;(Wood, 1828),&#160;<em>Xerotricha mariae</em>&#160;(Gasull, 1972),&#160;<em>Hatumi cobosi</em>&#160;(O. de Zárate, 1962),&#160;<em>Xerocrassa cobosi</em>&#160;(O. de Zárate, 1962)&#160;and&#160;<em>Iberus gualtieranus mariae</em>&#160;(Cobos, 1979) (Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola y Puente, 1998). In this plan, the steps needed to ensure the conservation of the species should be clearly defined.
23142		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the province of Almería (south-east of Spain). It lives in Campo de Dalías and Nijar depression&#160;(Arrébola 1995; Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 2009).
23142		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of <em>X. adolfi</em> is considered to be areas of grassland and scrub steppe with scattered bush and shrub. It also appears in human-modified biotopes and pre-coastal environments but not dunes or salty systems.&#160;In the inland areas, it is not able to colonize the surrounding mountains (Sierra de Gádor and Alhamilla). The life cycle is unknown but, as in other xerothermophilous species in the area,&#160;aestivation&#160;must play an important role in its survival (Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 2009).
23142		population	eng	There are few population data about this species. Nevertheless, given the substantial increase in greenhouse agriculture and tourist development during the last decades in the geographic area where this species lives, it is possible to infer a demographic decreases/fluctuations in at least two locations. The subpopulations are highly fragmented and declining due to agricultural developments and changes in land use, especially in the plain of Campo de Dalias (where 85% of the surface is used in a way that prevent the presence of a continuous subpopulation of<em> X. adolfi</em>, 82% being used to grow crops under plastics). In the eastern part of the range (Níjar depression), where two new subpopulations have recently been found, there are large areas of grassland and scattered scrub, which is considered a suitable habitat for this species, and therefore where potentially larger subpopulations could exist. Unfortunately, more than half of the localities sampled in this area did not show any sign of the species. Finally, the life cycle is unknown but, as in other xerothermophilous species in the area,&#160;aestivation&#160;must play an important role in its survival (Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 2009).
23142		threats	eng	<span title=""><strong>Threats to habitat</strong>: only one of the known locations is in a good state of preservation, being part of a protected site.&#160;The other two are threatened, mainly by the expansion of greenhouse agriculture. This factor, together with the urban expansion, have reduced the&#160;potential area of occupancy up to the 43.4% of the known extent of occurrence. Both factors have led to a decline in area of occupancy of 8.5% between 1991 and 1999.&#160;In the Níjar depression, where the largest areas of grassland and scattered scrub are, the growth of greenhouses has led to an habitat loss of 4.1% between 1991 and 1999. The area occupied by greenhouses has grown by&#160; 34.5% in that period&#160;demonstrating&#160;a clear increasing trend of this threat (Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 2009). <strong>Threats to the population</strong>: subpopulations affected by the greenhouse agriculture are subject to soil and water contamination by pesticide treatments. The ground water overexploitation has produced an increase in salinity in most of the aquifers. &#160;In this context, the mortality increases and the species is gradually replaced by other species, more resistant to these human activities and impacts, such as <em>Rumina decollata</em>, <em>Theba pisana</em> or <em>Otala lactea murcia&#160;</em>(Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 2009).
23144		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas throughout the range.
23144		distribution	eng	Wide distribution range from Senegal, Guinea and Sierra Leone eastwards through much of West Africa to Sudan, Ethiopia, northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, and central Kenya. Not confirmed from Tanzania, though Kingdon (1974) gives a locality record from the north of Tanzania.  There is also an isolated record from Mount Marsebeit in Kenya, a moist area where <em>X. rutilus</em> occurs. There is a small population in Morocco in the Souss Plain.<br/>Recorded to 2,450 m (in Ethiopia; Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).
23144		habitat	eng	Wide habitat tolerance, occurring in forest (though more usually secondary forest than primary), swamp forest, mangroves and drier woodland formations. Typically found in cultivated lands in many parts of the range (e.g., Uganda, Morocco, Kenya, Liberia).
23144		population	eng	Common and widespread, and sometimes quite abundant (for example, in Kenya). In Sierra Leone, this was the most commonly seen squirrel (Grubb <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Not common where it occurs in Morocco.
23144		threats	eng	No major threats. There is some human consumption in a few West African countries, although not so much in Kenya. They are regarded as a pest in some parts of their range. The species is almost domesticated and is bred in intensive production for food in Benin (M.R.M. Ekué pers. comm.).
23145		conservation	eng	Common in many protected areas, including Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana and South Africa) and Etosha National Park (Namibia).
23145		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Southern Africa, south of the Cunene and Zambezi Rivers. It is distributed widely in Namibia, except where replaced by <em>Xerus princeps</em> in the northwest, but absent from the coastal areas and in parts of the southwest and northeast. In Botswana, confined to the semi-desert Kalahari associations. In South Africa, they occur mainly in the central regions, being widely distributed in the North West Province, Free State, the Northern Cape (the northern and north-eastern parts of the province), and southwards to the Graaff Reinet District in Eastern Cape, which marks their most southerly limits of distribution (Skinner and Smithers 1990). They also occur in western Lesotho (Lynch 1994).
23145		habitat	eng	This species occurs widely throughout the more arid parts southern Africa, the greater part of its distributional range lying within the limits of the Nama-Karoo and Succulent Karoo biomes in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 100-500 mm (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Animals have a preference for open terrain with little bush cover and a solid substrate. In southern Botswana, they tend to occur on open calcareous ground on the fringes of the many dry pans which are characteristic of the area. The substrate here is hard, consisting of consolidated sand with calcareous pebbles. They avoid loose sandy areas for making their burrows but are found in the dunes of the Kalahari Desert. They occur also on the fringes of dry watercourses, or floodplain, on open overgrazed ground, and in open grassland or karroid areas, providing the substrate is suitable (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). It is diurnal, gregarious and colonial. It is a seasonal breeder, having up to three litters of as many as three young annually.
23145		population	eng	This is a common species.
23145		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is considered to be an agricultural pest in some regions.
23146		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Ai-Ais, Namib-Naukluft National Park and others.
23146		distribution	eng	This southern African species is mostly found in Namibia. Populations occur from the Fish River Canyon near Holoog (27°22'S) in the south of Namibia northwards following the western escarpment to Kaokoland (Herzig-Straschil and Herzig 1989), and then marginally in Angola. Records from South Africa in the Richtersveld have been attributed to this species, but require verification.
23146		habitat	eng	This species is confined to parts of the Nama-Karoo and Succulent Karoo biomes where the average annual rainfall varies from below 125 mm to just above 250 mm. They occur mainly on mountains and among koppies and hills with sparse vegetation. Their warrens are found usually among rocky outcrops, and sometimes on gravel plains. Burrow entrances are often situated under stones or rocks (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). It is diurnal and tends to be solitary.
23146		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
23146		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
23147		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (eg. Samburu National Reserve, Kenya).
23147		distribution	eng	This East African species, is associated with the Somali-Masai Arid Zone. It is found from northeastern Tanzania through Kenya and Ethiopia (east of the Rift, and especially in the Ogaden) and then northwards into Djibouti, Eritrea and marginally into Sudan. There is an isolated record from central Sudan on the White Nile (Fritz Dieterlen pers. comm.). The precise distribution in Somalia is uncertain. It has been recorded to more than 2,000 m asl.
23147		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is generally associated with dry savanna to scrubland where rainfall is generally perhaps 800 mm or less. It also occurs in agricultural fields. It is diurnal and non-territorial, with up to six individuals sharing a burrow. Litters of one or two young are born.
23147		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of the range. Density estimates in Turkana, Kenya, have been given as 848 individuals per km². It is a considered to be a significant pest species in the drier parts of Kenya.
23147		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
23148		conservation	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, there are minimum size regulations, such as 90 cm lower jaw-fork length in Spain, 140 upper jaw fork-length in Italy, 130 cm upper jaw-fork length in Turkey. However, these minimum size regulations were cancelled because it was considered infective as a management tool. In Greece, fishing season is closed from October to January. ICCAT (International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas) is currently working out a recommended closing season for the Mediterranean Sea in fall. EU banned all drift nets since January 2002 and ICCAT banned them since 2005 (some illegal drift nets still occur).
23148		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species, listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic</span><br/>There have been some changes in U.S. regulations which may have impacted catch rates, but the effects of these remain unknown. It is important to note that since 2003 the catches have been below the total allowable catches (TACs), greatly increasing chances of a fast recovery (STECF 2009). The total allowable catch in the North Atlantic during the 2007–2008 period was 14,000 t per year. The reported catch during that period averaged 11,536 t and did not exceed the TAC in any year. The total allowable catch in the South Atlantic for the years 2007 through 2008 was 17,000 t. The reported catch during that period averaged 13,365, and did not exceed the TAC in any year. There are two minimum size options that are applied to the entire Atlantic: 125 cm LJFL with a 15% tolerance, or 119 cm LJFL with zero tolerance and evaluation of the discards.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">North Atlantic</span><br/>Since 1994 there have been quotas and minimum size limits to restrict the harvest of north Atlantic Swordfish. There are also longline area closures in place in the U.S. Atlantic. Reduced landings have been attributed to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) regulatory recommendations and shifts in fleet distributions, including the movement of some vessels some years to the South Atlantic or out of the Atlantic. In addition, some fleets, including the United States, EC-Spain, EC-Portugal and Canada, have changed operating procedures to opportunistically target tuna and/or sharks, taking advantage of market conditions and higher relative catch rates of these species previously considered as by-catch in some fleets. Recently, socio-economic factors may have also contributed to the decline in catch. Consistent with the goal of the Commission’s swordfish rebuilding plan (Rec. 96-02), in order to maintain the northern Atlantic Swordfish stock at a level that could produce maximum sustainable yield (MSY) with greater than 50% probability, the Committee recommends reducing catch limits allowed by Rec. 06-02 (15,345 t) to no more than 13,700 t. This reflects the current best estimate of maximum yield that could be harvested from the population under existing environmental and fishery conditions. Should the Commission wish to have greater assurance that future biomass would be at or above BMSY while maintaining F at or below FMSY, the Commission should select a lower annual TAC, depending on the degree of precaution the Commission chooses to apply in management. The Committee noted that allowable catch levels agreed in (Recs. 06-02 and 08-02) exceeded scientific recommendations. The successful rebuilding of this stock could have been compromised if recent catches had been higher than realized. Because of the poor size-selectivity of longliners, regulating minimum landing size may inadvertently have resulted in under-reporting of juvenile catches. Alternative methods for reducing juvenile catches, such as time and/or area closures or technological changes in gear deployment, may be more effective and their utility should be further investigated (STECF 2009). Future TACs above MSY are projected to result in 50% or lower probabilities of the stock biomass remaining above BMSY over the next decade (SWO-ATL-Figure 13) as the resulting probability of F exceeding FMSY for these scenarios would trend above 50% over time. A TAC of 13,000 t would provide approximately a 75% probability of maintaining the stock at a level consistent with the Convention Objective over the next decade (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">South Atlantic</span> <br/>Until more research has been conducted to reduce the high uncertainty in stock status evaluations for the southern Atlantic swordfish stock, the Committee emphasizes that annual catch should not exceed the provisionally estimated MSY (15,000). Considering the unquantified uncertainties and the conflicting indications for the stock, the Committee recommends a more precautionary Fishery Management approach, to limit catches to the recent average level (~15,000 t), which are expected to maintain the catch rates at about their current level (STECF 2009). In general, catches of 14,000 t or less will result in increases in the biomass of the stock, catches on the order of 15,000 will maintain the biomass of the stock at approximately stable levels during the period projected. Catches in the order of 16,000 t or more will result in biomass decrease. The current TAC is 17,000 t (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there are minimum size regulations, such as 90cm lower jaw-fork length in Spain, 140 upper jaw fork-length in Italy, 130 UJFL in Turkey. However, these minimum size regulations were cancelled because it was considered ineffective as a management tool. In Greece, the fishing season is closed from October to January. In 2009, ICCAT adopted a closed season for the Mediterranean Sea from 1 October to 31 November. The EU has banned all drift nets since January 2002 and ICCAT banned them since 2005 (some illegal drift nets still occur).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Pacific</span><br/>In Chile there is a size limit for this species, and total effort for this species has declined as they moved from driftnets to longlines. However, recent catches in this region are mostly targeted by the Spanish fleet. Given the potential for rapid change in the nature of the gill-net and longline fisheries that are increasingly targeting swordfish in the Eastern Pacific region, the trends in standardized catch per unit effort should be closely monitored for indications of changing status of these stocks (Hinton 2003, Hinton and Maunder 2006). The Western Central Pacific Fisheries Commission has recommended to limit the number of boats as well as catch and effort for the southwestern stock (WCPFC 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian</span><br/>The Scientific Committee recommends that management measures focused on controlling and/or reducing effort in the fishery targeting Swordfish in the southwest Indian Ocean be implemented (IOTC 2006).
23148		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific, this species is present in tropical, temperate and sometimes cold waters.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the Gulf of Taranto (Megalofonou<em> et al.</em> 1995, De Metrio <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Alboran Sea (Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005), Gulf of Valencia (Alvarado Bremer <em>et al.</em> 2005), Gulf of Alicante (Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2002, Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catalan Sea (Caminas <em>et al.</em> 2006, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian sea (Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2002, Alvarado Bremer <em>et al.</em> 2005), Ionian Sea (Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2002, Alvarado Bremer <em>et al.</em> 2005), Sicilian coast (Stefanelli <em>et al.</em> 2004), Aegean Sea (Pujolar <em>et al.</em> 2002, Alvarado Bremer <em>et al.</em> 2005, Peristeraki <em>et al.</em> 2005, Damalas <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also present in the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov. <br/><br/>This is a highly migratory species, it is mentioned in the Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department, 1994). Mt DNA restriction analysis reveal that genetic differentiation occurs between populations inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and the tropical Atlantic Ocean, indicating little genetic exchange occurring between the two (Kotoulas <em>et al.</em> 1995).
23148		distribution	eng	This species is pandemic, and is found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans in tropical, temperate and sometimes cold waters, including the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov.<br/><br/>Mitochondrial DNA restriction analysis reveal that genetic differentiation occurs between populations inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and the tropical Atlantic Ocean, indicating little genetic exchange occurring between the two (Kotoulas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, this species ranges from southern California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Chile, including all of the offshore islands.
23148		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic species, but sometimes found in coastal waters; generally above the thermocline, preferring temperatures of 18–22°C. It is primarily a warm-water species that migrates toward temperate or cold waters for feeding in the summer and back to warm waters in summer for spawning and overwintering. Adults are opportunistic feeders, known to forage for their food from the surface to the bottom over a wide depth range (Nakamura 1985). Swordfish typically forage in deep water during the day and stay in the mixed layer at night (Abascal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Based on records of forage organisms taken by swordfish, its depth distribution in the northwestern Pacific ranges normally from the surface to a depth of about 550 m but there are depth records down 2,878 m.<br/><br/>This species uses its sword to kill prey. It feeds mainly on fishes but also on crustaceans and squids. Large individuals may accumulate high concentrations of mercury in the flesh (Collette 1995).<br/><br/>The distribution of larval swordfish in the Pacific Ocean indicates that spawning occurs mainly in waters with a temperature of 24°C or more. Spawning appears to occur in all seasons in equatorial waters, but is restricted to spring and summer at higher latitudes (Nishikawa and Ueyanagi 1974). In the Atlantic Ocean, spawning occurs in the upper water layer at depths between 0–75 m, at temperatures around 23°C, and salinity of 33.8–37.4 ppt. Pairing of solitary males and females is thought to occur when spawning (Palko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1981). Spawning in southern Brazil occurs from November to February in between 20–28°S and 40–47°W (Amorim and Arfelli 1980). Estimates of egg numbers vary considerably, from one million to 16 million in 168,000 g female (Palko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1981) and 29 million in a 272,000 g female (Wilson 1984).<br/><br/>Determination of age is difficult since the otoliths are very small and scales are missing in adults. Year rings have been successfully counted on cross sections of the fin rays (Arocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, DeMartini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Longevity is estimated to be 15 years (based on Arocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, DeMartini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and age of first maturity is estimated to be five years (based on Arocha and Lee 1996, Hinton and Maunder, unpublished data). These life history parameters do not differ greatly between stocks, therefore, the generation length for this species was estimated to be 6.5 years globally. The generation length is calculated as: age of first reproduction + z * (longevity - age of first maturity), where z is 0.15 (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Maximum size is 445 cm. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 536.15 kg fish caught odd Iquique, Chile in 1953 (IGFA 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
23148		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, but is sometimes found in coastal waters (Collette 1995). It is generally found above the thermocline (Collette 1995), preferring temperatures of 18°C to 22°C (Frimodt 1995). Larvae are frequently encountered at temperatures above 24 °C (Nakamura 1997). This species migrates toward temperate or cold waters in the summer and back to warm waters in the fall. <br/><br/>Adults are opportunistic feeders, known to forage for their food from the surface to the bottom over a wide depth range (Nakamura 1997).  It uses its sword to kill its prey (Collette 1995) and mainly feeds on fishes but also on crustaceans and squids (Collette 1995, Peristeraki <em>et al.</em> 2005).  <br/><br/>Spawning takes place in the Atlantic during spring in the south Sargasso Sea. Here, spawning occurs in the upper water layer at depths between 0 and 75 m, at temperatures around 23°C, and salinities of 33.8 to 37.4 ppt. The distribution of larval broadbill swordfish in the Pacific Ocean indicates that spawning occurs mainly in waters with a temperature of 24°C or more. Spawning appears to occur in all seasons in equatorial waters, but is restricted to spring and summer at higher latitudes (Nishikawa and Ueyanagi 1974). Fertilisation in broadbill swordfish is external and pairing of solitary males and females is thought to occur when spawning (Palko <em>et al.</em> 1981). Broadbill swordfish are reported to spawn in the upper layers of the water column, from the surface to a depth of 75 m (Nakamura 1985). Estimates of egg numbers vary considerably, from 1 million to 16 million in 168,000 g female (Palko <em>et al.</em> 1981) and 29 million in a 272,000 g female (Wilson 1984). <br/><br/>Females grow faster. Age determination is difficult since the otoliths are very small and scales are missing in adults. Year rings have been successfully counted on cross sections of the fin rays (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Pelagic eggs measure 1.6-1.8 mm and the newly hatched larvae is 4 mm long. The sword is well-developed at a length of 10 mm and young live pelagically in the upper water layers where they quickly develop into very voracious predators (Muus and Nielsen 1999). <br/><br/>Determination of age is difficult since the otoliths are very small and scales are missing in adults. Year rings have been successfully counted on cross sections of the fin rays (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Longevity is estimated to be at least 9 years (Collette 2010), but may be as long as 30 years. They first spawn at 5-6 years of age in the Pacific. Males reach sexual maturity at about 100 cm and females at about 70 cm in the Atlantic (Collette 2010). Generation length is estimated to be at least 6 years, but likely as high as 12 to 13 years. Generation time likely varies by region.
23148		population	eng	The Atlantic population is comprised of three stocks that are genetically distinct: South Atlantic, North Atlantic and Mediterranean. The best scientific evidence indicates that there are four stocks of Swordfish in the Pacific Ocean (Hinton and Alvarado Bremer 2007), with centres in the northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast. The Indian Ocean population is currently assessed as a single management unit.<br/><br/>The North Atlantic stock of Swordfish is not overfished and overfishing is not occurring (ICCAT 2009). The stock is rebuilding with current biomass levels increasing by 4.4% over a three generation length period based on the ASPIC base case (Figure 20, ICCAT 2009). The reduction was calculated using the first and last data points of the time series considered. The stock is considered to be under adequate management.<br/><br/>The South Atlantic stock was overfished and overfishing had been occurring, but at present, fishing mortality is below FMSY, stock biomass is slightly above BMSY and under current management quotas (13,700 t TAC), the stock is projected to remain above the BMSY and slightly rebuild further (ICCAT 2009). The reduction in biomass for the South Atlantic stock over three generations has been approximately 30.3% based on the ASPIC base case (Figure 30, ICCAT 2009). The reduction was calculated using the first and last data points of the time series considered. The stock is considered to be under adequate management.<br/><br/>The Mediterranean stock is currently considered to be overfished and stock is experiencing slight overfishing. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (ICCAT-SCRS) report that the Mediterranean Sea swordfish compose a unique stock separated from the Atlantic, although more research is needed to clearly define the stock boundaries. Mitochondrial DNA restriction analysis reveal that genetic differentiation occurs between populations inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and the tropical Atlantic ocean, indicating little genetic exchange occurring between the two (Kotoulas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). The spawning stock biomass (SSB) in 2008 was 46% below the value that would maximize yield-per-recruit. In addition, the majority of the catch includes juveniles. However, landings statistics and population parameters indicate a certain stability over the past 20 years. The estimated decline in total biomass over a three generation period (20 years) ranged from 27–50% depending on whether a regression line or first and last points of the data series were used (Figure 21, ICCAT 2010). The Mediterranean population of Swordfish was therefore regionally assessed as Near Threatened in an overview of the conservation status of Mediterranean fishes (Abdul Malak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). This stock is not considered to be well-managed.<br/><br/>In the North Pacific, a two-stock scenario analysing the western and central Pacific (subarea 1) and the eastern Pacific (subarea 2) was considered the most plausible based on analyses of Japanese longline catch per unit data (CPUE) data. Using the two-stock Bayesian production model (Brodziak and Ishimura 2009), a decline of 43.9% was estimated for subarea 1, and an increase of 111.2% in subarea 2 over a three generation length period (20 years). The decline was calculated using a linear regression over the time period considered. The results indicate that the North Pacific population is stable (Brodziak and Ishimura 2010).<br/><br/>In the Western Central Pacific, a MULTIFAN-CL stock assessment of south-west Pacific Swordfish showed a decline in total biomass ranging from 25.7% (optimistic scenario) to 36.9% (pessimistic scenario) over three generation lengths (20 years) (Figure 29, Kolody <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The reduction was calculated using the first and last data points of the time series considered. The stock is considered to be under adequate management.<br/><br/>In the Southeastern Pacific, spawning biomass is estimated to have increased by 3.3% over three generation lengths (Figure 4.4, Hinton and Maunder 2006). The percent change was calculated using a linear regression over the time period considered. The stock is considered to be under adequate management.<br/><br/>For the Indian Ocean, an ASPIC model showed a decline in total biomass of 57.8% over the last three generation lengths (20 years) (Figure 59, IOTC 2010). The reduction was calculated using the first and last data points of the time series considered. The model results indicate that biomass is close to the BMSY level, and that overfishing is not presently occurring. The stock is considered to be under adequate management.<br/><br/>Globally, this species has shown a 28% decline over three generation lengths (20 years). The only stock that is not considered to be well-managed is the Mediterranean, which comprises less than 10% of the species' global range.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
23148		population	eng	This species is heavily fished throughout its range. The Mediterranean Sea swordfish compose a unique stock separated from the Atlantic, but further research is needed to clearly define stock boundaries. Mt DNA restriction analysis reveal that genetic differentiation occurs between populations inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea and the tropical Atlantic ocean, indicating little genetic exchange occurring between the two (Kotoulas <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>The status of the stock, the high exploitation rate (taking into account the very large reported catch of nearly 15,000 t taken in a small area), the extremely large and uncertain catch of very small fish, and warning signs from the fishery are causes for serious concern. However, current catch statistics indicate relatively stable trends even though this fishery is overexploited (ICCAT SCRS 2008). The most recent analysis indicates that current catches are 13-40% over maximum sustainable yield (MSY) but with a high variability, and very high percentage of juveniles in the catch (ICCAT SRCS 2008).<br/><br/>From 1997 to 2001 there were official catches (ranging from 24 to 173 t) from the Black Sea (Bizsel pers. comm. 2007) although this species has been assumed absent in the Black Sea since 1961 (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). In Turkey, the catches are relatively stable (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>According to Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> (1995), 26 juvenile specimens (51 to 74 cm FL) were collected in the Gulf of Taranto in the Autumn 1987. Pujolar <em>et al.</em> (2002) mentioned that 389 specimens (53 to 218 cm FL) were collected in the 1993-1995 fishing seasons from Alboran sea, Alicante Gulf, Ligurian sea, Ionian Sea and Aegean Sea. DeMetrio<em> et al.</em> (2003) reported that 162 specimens (71 to 202 cm FL) were collected both in the Gulf of Taranto (121 specimens) and in Iberian coast (41 specimens), between April and December 2000-2001. According to Stefanelli <em>et al.</em> (2004), 15 specimens (88 to 215 cm TL) were collected from November to December 1999 off the Sicilian coast. Peristeraki <em>et al. </em>(2005) mentioned that 69 specimens were collected in the Aegean Sea. 2,990 specimens were collected from December 2002 to September 2003 in the Alboran sea (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). According to Damalas<em> et al.</em> (2007), 5,523 specimens were collected from Greek longline fishery (35 vessels from 19 ports) from 1998 to 2004 in 1,001 fishing sets. Medium CPUE was defined as 8.96 fish/1,000 hooks.
23148		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain and <span class="hps">Cyprus), <span class="hps">artisanal and <span class="hps">sport. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">This is a commercial species caught mainly with <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">purse seines<span>, <span class="hps">beach seines<span>, <span class="hps">bottom trawls and <span class="hps">pelagic <span class="hps">gillnets <span class="hps">and pelagic <span class="hps">handlines, <span class="hps">longlines <span class="hps">and drifting<span>, <span class="hps">trolling lines<span>, harpoons and <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">hooks. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is mostly caught by drift nets, long lines, but also by harpoons, tuna traps. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">In 1983, <span class="hps">4907 <span class="hps">t <span class="hps">with 2702 <span class="hps">in Italy, <span class="hps">1069 <span class="hps">in Spain, <span class="hps">944 <span class="hps atn">in Algeria (<span>FAO <span class="hps">statistics<span class="">), 95 <span class="hps">t <span class="hps">in Turkey, <span class="hps">100 in Cyprus<span class="">, and 39 <span class="hps">in Morocco.<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"> <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">  <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span> The species appears regularly in the markets of Spain, Italy, Morocco, Turkey, Greece and Cyprus, occasionally rarely elsewhere. Marketed fresh, chilled, frozen and canned. Chair appreciated (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span><span></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"></span><span><span class="hps"></span><span class=""><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"></span><span><span class=""></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class=""><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span><span></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps atn"><span></span><span class=""><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class=""></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span class="hps"><span></span><span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span><span class="hps"><span class="hps">Fischer </span><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span>. <br/><br/>There is also a recreational fishery.&#160;  </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
23148		threats	eng	This species is a highly important food and game species. Swordfish are caught by longline, harpoon, drift gill net, set net and other fishing gear in commercial fisheries. For the most part, swordfish captures are incidental in tuna longline fisheries. Major sport fishery areas, trolling, and drifted baited lines are located off the coast of California to Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile (Nakamura 1985). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is mostly caught by drift nets, long lines, but also by harpoons, tuna traps and sport and recreational fisheries. It is a good food fish, marketed fresh or frozen.<br/><br/>The largest proportion of Atlantic catches are made using surface drifting longlines, mostly by Spain, United States, Canada and Portugal. However, many additional gears are used (STECF 2009). Other directed swordfish fisheries include fleets from Brazil, Morocco, Namibia, EC-Portugal, South Africa, Uruguay, and Venezuela. The primary by-catch or opportunistic fisheries that take swordfish are tuna fleets from Chinese Taipei, Japan, Korea and EC-France. The tuna longline fishery started in 1956 and has operated throughout the Atlantic since then, with substantial catches of swordfish that are produced as a bycatch of tuna fisheries (ICCAT 2009). In the Atlantic, the Mediterranean stock is considered to be overfished and that overfishing is occurring. The stocks of the North and South Atlantic are considered to be well-managed (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>In the Indo-Pacific the main fisheries are Japan and Taiwan. Taiwan has had stable standardized CPUE trends, and Japan has shown variable CPUE trends depending on the fishing area (IOTC 2009). The Indian Ocean, Western Central Pacific and Southeastern Pacific are similarly considered to be under adequate management at present (fishing mortality below Fmsy and biomass above Bmsy; Kolody <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, IOTC 2009, Hinton and Maunder 2006).
23161		conservation	eng	<em>X. costatus</em> is listed as ‘Nationally Critical’ (Hitchmough 2002), the highest threat ranking available in the New Zealand Department of Conservation threat classification system (Molloy <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is listed as a highest priority threatened species for conservation action (category A) in the New Zealand list of threatened invertebrates (McGuinness 2001). <br/> <br/>Further surveys are required on Pitt Island to determine whether the species is still present there, but current evidence points to it being extirpated from that island. <br/> <br/>A variety of trees on South East Island should be marked then searched for the beetle to determine whether the apparent relationship between <em>Xylotoles</em> and <em>C. chathamica</em> is true. Most searches have focused on <em>C. chathmanica</em> because this is where they have been known to be found. However, this may not necessarily be the main host.  <br/> <br/>Branch traps should be set across South east Island and checked in 6 weeks time for the presence of the beetle. This will provide some idea of distribution and abundance. Wood borers are hard to sample, and the low numbers sampled make it difficult to obtain accurate population estimates (R. Emberson, pers. comm., 1999). <br/> <br/>Further taxonomic work is required to enable <em>X. costatus</em> to be clearly separated from <em>X. traversi</em> (J. Marris, pers. comm., 2000). <br/> <br/>Rodent quarantine procedures are required on South East Island.
23161		distribution	eng	<em>Xylotoles costatus</em> has been collected from Pitt Island and South East (Rangatira) Island in the Chatham Islands group (Early <em>et al</em>. 1991, Emberson <em>et al</em>. 1996, Emberson 1998b). All recent collections have been on South East Island. It has not been seen on Pitt Island since 1907 (R. Emberson, pers. comm. 1999).  The species is believed to be extirpated from Pitt Island.
23161		habitat	eng	A flightless, blackish longhorn beetle with a variable green-bronze sheen and ridges on their wing cases. The body is 15–20 cm long (Emberson and Marris 1993, Emberson 1998a). They are very similar to, though generally smaller than, <em>Xylotoles traversi</em> which is found throughout the Chatham Islands (J. Marris, pers. comm. 2000). The antennae are long and able to fold back against the body. <br/> <br/>Most species of <em>Xylotoles</em> are thought to be non-host specific, feeding as larvae on dead twigs (Emberson <em>et al</em>. 1996). They are usually found on Chatham Islands Coprosma (<em>Coprosma chathamica</em>) at night, either on tree trunks or dead branches (Emberson and Marris 1993c, Emberson 1998b, Emberson, pers. comm. 1999). A specimen has also been found by beating a dead branch of ngaio (<em>Myoporum laetum</em>) caught up in a tangle of <em>Muehlenbeckia</em> (Emberson and Marris 1993, Emberson <em>et al</em>. 1996).
23161		population	eng	The species was not found on Pitt Island during a survey in 1990 (Early <em>et al</em>. 1991) or during several subsequent searches on the island (R. Emberson, pers. comm.). It has not been seen on Pitt Island since 1907. South East Island has been searched four times since 1992. A specimen has been reared out of a <em>C. chathamica</em> branch (R. Emberson, pers. comm. 1999). Current population size and abundance is not known, but there are believed to be <200 mature individuals.
23161		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to mouse predation on Pitt Island (Emberson and Marris 1993). This, along with a reduction in habitat, may have resulted in their possible extirpation from that island.
23162		conservation	eng	Population maintenance of <em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> depends on ongoing stocking of juveniles that are large enough to avoid predation by non-native fishes. Natural recruitment might be enhanced by appropriate management of floodplains that serve as important nursery areas along with the development of non-native free habitats (P.C. Marsh pers. comm.&#160;2007). Management of the predation of this species by non-native species, will be the key success of this program (T.E. Dowling pers. comm.&#160;2007).
23162		distribution	eng	<em>Xyrauchen texanus </em> formerly occurred throughout the Colorado River basin, from Wyoming and Colorado to Sonora and Baja California. This species is now much reduced in range and abundance. The largest extant population occurs in Lake Mohave (lower Colorado River); small numbers occur in Lake Mead, Lake Havasu, and the Grand Canyon (transitory in Grand Canyon; Douglas and Marsh 1998). Major known spawning areas in Lake Mohave include Cottonwood Cove, Arizona Bay, Six-mile Cove, and Eldorado Canyon. An ongoing stocking program is attempting to enhance the number of suckers that reach maturity in Lake Mohave where young fish escape predation by non-native fishes. Since the early 1980's, the USFWS and Arizona Game and Fish Department have attempted to establish populations in the Gila, Verde and Salt rivers through stocking, but no fish survive in the long-term. In the upper Colorado River Basin, adults and larvae are widely distributed in the Green River basin, especially in the upper basin from the mouth of the Duchesne River, upstream to the lower 4miles of the Yampa River, rarely occurring upstream as far as the Little Snake River. Spawning has been documented in lower Yampa River near the confluence with Green River and in the upper Green River (Tyus and Karp 1989). A small reproducing population exists in the lower Green River. In the upper Colorado River, most suckers occur in the Grand Valley (mainstem Colorado River and Gunnison River, Colorado). A reproducing population occurs in an off-channel pond in the Colorado River near Grand Junction. A few have been found in the San Juan River above Lake Powell, and adults have been found in the San Juan and Colorado River arms of the lake (USFWS 1997). The species is currently considered extant in New Mexico, based on ongoing reintroduction efforts in the San Juan River Basin (J. Fowler-Propst 2007 pers. comm.). The project started in 1995 and New Mexico Game and Fish documented reproduction in 1998 and 1999. Adults overwinter in the Echo Park area of Dinosaur National Monument (Tyus and Karp 1989). Razorback suckers were recorded in the late 1980's along the south shore of Lake Powell near the concrete boat ramp at Piute Farms Marina and near Bluff, Utah. The Lake Powell record apparently represented a spawning aggregation or staging prior to spawning elsewhere (Platania <em>et al.</em> 1991). The area in which this species is distributed, is approximately 126,593 km².
23162		habitat	eng	<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> habitat types include slow flowing areas, backwaters, and eddies of medium to large rivers and their impoundments (three of the four remaining populations of greater than 100 individuals are in reservoirs). Flooded lowlands and lower portions of tributary streams presumably served as resting-feeding areas during breeding season in the Green River basin (Tyus and Karp 1990). This fish is often associated with sand, mud, and rock substrate in areas with sparse aquatic vegetation, where temperatures are moderate to warm. It has been collected in flooded gravel pits along the Colorado River, and from irrigation canals along the lower Colorado River (juveniles, Marsh and Minckley 1989). In the non-breeding season, adults were most common in shoreline runs and along mid-channel sand bars in the mainstream Green River, with an average water depth of less than 2 m, and an average velocity of less than 0.5 m per second (Tyus and Karp 1989). Radio-tagged suckers reintroduced into the Gila River, Arizona, used both sand-bottomed, flat-water, main-channel habitats and quieter pools and eddies adjacent to stronger currents (see Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Hatchery-reared suckers released into the San Juan River inflow of Lake Powell most often used shallow, flooded stands of salt cedar and, in some cases, cobbled shorelines (Karp and Mueller 2002). Limited data indicate that the young tend to remain along shorelines, in embayments, along sandbars, or in tributary mouths (see Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). In Lake Mohave, individuals were associated with inshore habitats except during the hotter months when they moved offshore possibly to avoid warmer water temperatures (Mueller <em>et al. </em>2000). <br/><br/>Spawning occurs most commonly near shore in streams over silty sand, gravel, or rock substrate at depths of up to about 6m (often in water less than 0.6m deep); known and suspected spawning sites in the Green and other upper-basin rivers all are in broad, flat-water segments (Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Ripe individuals often have been taken over or near coarse sand, or gravel or cobble bars, in flowing water. In reservoirs, spawning occurs on gravel bars swept clean by wave action; also along shorelines over mixed substrates ranging from silt to cobble (Federal Register 2i March 1994). Spawning has been observed downstream from major impoundments, below Davis Dam and Hoover Dam (Mueller 1989). Larvae appear to remain in gravel until swim-up (USFWS 1990); apparently they prefer the shallow littoral zone for a few weeks after hatching, then disperse to deeper waters (Federal Register 21 March 1994, p. 13375). Seasonally inundated flood plains provide favourable feeding areas for the young.
23162		population	eng	<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> is represented by just a few extant spawning populations, none of which exhibit sustained recruitment (Dowling <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>Total wild adult population size appears to be not more than a few thousand. The largest population is in Lake Mohave, where an ageing population of a few hundred wild adults (Marsh <em>et al. </em>2003) is being enhanced by stocking of larger juveniles. Before a recent decline, Lake Mohave was believed to contain about 90 percent of the total population. Adult population size outside Lake Mohave may be less than 1,000.<br/><br/>Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have declined dramatically compared to the historical situation. Population size is still declining. For example, the population in Lake Mohave (the largest remaining subpopulation) declined from 44,000 in 1991 to fewer than 3,000 in 2001 (Marsh <em>et al. </em>2003). The population in the upper Green River basin was estimated at about 1,000 adults in the late 1980's (Lanigan and Tyus 1989); more recent data suggests a decline to about 500 adult individuals (USFWS 1997).
23162		threats	eng	<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> is threatened by interactions with non-native fishes and by human alteration of riverine habitat. <br/><br/>Recruitment is very low (or absent) despite spawning and hatched larvae (e.g. in upper Green River basin). For example, no recruitment to reservoir populations was detected between 1963 and 1990 in the lower Colorado River basin, despite collecting with appropriate equipment (Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Poor recruitment is likely attributed to predation on this species by flathead catfish and avian piscivores (J.D. Schooley 2007 pers. comm.). Competition with and predation by exotic crayfish may also be a problem in some areas (Lenon <em>et al. </em>2002). <br/><br/>Habitat changes resulting primarily from dam operations has greatly restricted the amount of suitable habitat; these detrimental changes include high winter flows, reduced high spring flows, altered river temperatures (Clarkson and Childs 2000), and reduced flooding (USFWS 1990). <br/><br/>Natural recovery is limited by pervasiveness of predatory non-native fishes which also contribute to political impediments to recovery (Clarkson <em>et al.</em> 2005). Hybridization with other suckers is a potential problem in some locations (Tyus and Karp 1990, Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>See USFWS (1990) for details on habitat changes that have affected this species.
23165		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
23165		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
23165		habitat	eng	There is no information on the substrate over which the species has been found. Most specimens (5 out 6 studied by Greenwood, 1956) were caught in exposed littoral zones of Lake Victoria, and one in the Victoria Nile. The species is an epiphytic algae grazer.
23165		population	eng	No information available.
23165		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
23167		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa part of the Kyoga system.
23175		conservation	eng	The streams are within a national protection site. The surrounding drainage is under the high priority&#160;protection&#160;of Kunming City for drinking water.
23175		distribution	eng	Endemic to&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Dianchi Lake (298 km<sup>2</sup>) and Yangling Lake (<span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 1 km<sup>2</sup>)</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Yunnan</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">China, and some streams that feed the lake. The species is thought to be absent from Dianchi Lake due to heavy&#160;pollution, and is likely only present some of the feeder streams (some of which are also polluted). The upper reaches of the streams have not been surveyed.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
23175		habitat	eng	<span>Lacustrine but also found in streams that feed the lake; the lake itself is heavily polluted.
23175		population	eng	Little information available; was collected in 2007, but had declined in the past (X-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011).
23175		threats	eng	The species has been&#160;extirpated&#160;from Dianchi Lake by heavy pollution from Kunming City,&#160;industrial&#160;development, and agricultural development and its presence in in Yangling Lake is not known. Some of the streams that feed Dianchi Lake are less impacted.
23176		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
23176		distribution	eng	<em>Y. macrogaster</em> is found only in Tatantze, an endorheic basin in Louping County, Yunnan, China.<br/><br/>This species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 7,447 km², which was found by locating Tatantze in a gazetteer and calculating the area of the basins surrounding this location.
23176		habitat	eng	<em>Y. macrogaster</em> is a demersal species that was found in a small marsh with abundant vegetation.
23176		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
23176		threats	eng	There are three introduced cyprinids (<em>Hemiculter leucisculus</em>, <em>Abbottina rivularis</em> and <em>Pseudorasbora parva</em>) present at the site where <em>Y. macrogaster</em> was discovered (Dudgeon 2000); however it is not thought that these species prey on or compete with <em>Y. macrogaster</em>.&#160;  There are several human settlements in close proximity to the site which may threaten the species (Kottelat and Chu 1988).
23178		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. pichiy</span> is present in many protected areas. Hunting of this species in Argentina and Chile continues, even though this is prohibited.
23178		distribution	eng	This small armadillo ranges from Argentina (Mendoza, San Luis, and southwestern Buenos Aires) and eastern Chile south to the Straits of Magellan. It is found from sea level to 2,500 m asl.
23178		habitat	eng	This mostly solitary species is found in desert, xeric grassland and shrubland, and Patagonian steppe habitats, always with sandy soils (including volcanic soil). It can be found in some degraded habitats. Animals have a relatively large home range within their arid habitat. The female gives birth to one or two young.
23178		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. pichiy</span> is not abundant in southern Buenos Aires Province (A.M. Abba pers. comm. 2004), and its abundance has declined in Mendoza Province within the last 10 years (M. Superina pers. comm. 2004).
23178		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. pichiy</span> is threatened by hunting for food and sport, including hunting with dogs. An epidemic of an unknown disease has locally affected the species in some areas, and appears to be associated with rainy periods. It is threatened to some degree by overgrazing of its habitat by cattle.
23179		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from a national park. Hunting regulations are needed to protect this species. Further field studies to identify important areas for this species are needed.
23179		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to the Vogelkop Peninsula region of Papua Province, Indonesia. It has also been recorded from the island of Salawati, Indonesia (possibly now extinct there), and it is possible that the species may be present on the islands of Batanta and Waigeo (both Indonesia, but not mapped) (Flannery 1995a,b; Helgen 2007). It ranges from near sea level to 2,500 m asl.
23179		habitat	eng	This species ranges from tropical hill forests to upper montane forests. It has a large altitudinal range. This species lays eggs and the primary food is worms.
23179		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since the 1980s. It is thought to be uncommon in forest habitats that are accessible to hunting. It may be more common in inaccessible areas. The species has been hunted to local extinction in more densely populated regions of New Guinea.
23179		threats	eng	It is heavily threatened by hunting for food by local people, and also by loss of habitat through conversion of suitable areas to cultivated land. It has retreated up the mountains over time, and the montane habitat for this species is now small and isolated.
23192		conservation	eng	The species' range includes a few protected areas. The subspecies <em>orarius</em> is a federal C2 candidate taxon and a California Species of Special Concern. The known population occurs within the protection of the Point Reyes National Seashore and Golden Gate National Recreational Area. It is thought that additional populations may occur in Mount Tamalpais State Park.
23192		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwestern British Columbia in Canada, south through western Washington, coastal and west-central Oregon, along the humid coastal strip mostly west of the crest of the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain through California to Point Reyes and Elk Valley, Marin County, California in the United States (Gannon 1988).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>orarius</em> is known to occur at locations from the Golden Gate to the Point Reyes Peninsula, San Francisco Bay, California. It is isolated from other subspecies of <em>Zapus</em> by at least 100 km.
23192		habitat	eng	Pacific jumping mice utilize several habitat types, depending on the location within its range. Coastal populations are mostly found in marshy or riparian areas within redwood and Douglas fir forests. Inland montane habitats include dense forests, riparian areas and alpine meadows. Densest populations are found in areas where annual rainfall exceeds 30 cm (Gannon 1988). This species is nocturnal and crepuscular and hibernates for up to six months of the year, depending on ambient temperature. Primarily grainivorous but may also feed on fruit, insects, mollusks and fish (Gannon 1988). <br/>Nests are built in burrows below ground, as deep as 76 cm below the surface. Burrows are often connected at a central chamber (Gannon 1999).
23192		population	eng	Populations of Pacific jumping mouse fluctuate from year to year, from common to rare throughout its limited geographical range (Gannon 1999).<br/><br/>Most of the distribution records for this subspecies <em>orarius</em> are from before 1945, however, the population is thought to persist over most of its historical range. Small patches of habitat still exist, although these are very disjunct.
23192		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall. The subspecies <em>orarius</em> has an extremely limited distribution and its fragmented nature makes it more sensitive to the effects of habitat modification.
23196		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (South Africa), Khadoum National Park (Namibia) and in other protected areas.
23196		distribution	eng	This is a southern African endemic ranging from northern South Africa (Northern Cape Province and North-West Province) through northern and western Botswana (Smithers 1971) to eastern and northern Namibia (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Skinner and Chimimba 2005) and into southern Angola (Neels Coetzee pers. comm., and see Crawford-Cabral 1998). It has an altitudinal range of 800 to 1,200 m asl.
23196		habitat	eng	It is found in dry savanna on Kalahari sands. This species has very specific micro-habitat requirements, it occurs along river beds and around pans frequently associated with Acacias and lime-clay silty soils. It is an omnivorous species.
23196		population	eng	This species always occurs in low numbers.
23196		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
23197		conservation	eng	It occurs in a large number of protected areas (e.g., Serengeti National Park, Tanzania; Queen Elizabeth Park, Uganda, Nyika Plateau, Malawi).
23197		distribution	eng	This species is widely, although sparsely, distributed in northern and especially southern savanna zones. It has been recorded from central Angola (the southern records in Angola are probably misidentified specimens of <em>Zelotomys woosnami</em>), Zambia, northern Malawi (Nyika and Vipya platyeaus), western Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan and Central African Republic. The altitudinal range of this species is not known.
23197		habitat	eng	This pecies is associated with moist grassy savanna and scrub, on the edge of swamps and forests and in tall grasslands; it favours Imperata grasses in the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania) and in Queen Elizabeth Park (Uganda). On the Nyika Plateau (Malawi) it has been recorded from pine plantations and near houses. It is a terrestrial, partly diurnal and insectivorous species. This species emits high-pitched whistles.
23197		population	eng	It has a fairly low abundance and is infrequently encountered by collectors (usually less than 3% of rodents trapped). In Ruwenzori National Park, the estimated population density varied from 0.44-1.33 individuals/ha.
23197		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
23204		conservation	eng	The species is considered likely to occur in a number of protected areas. Further research on population trends and abundance is needed.
23204		distribution	eng	This Central African species has been recorded from southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including southern Bioko Island, two specimens collected in 1989 and 1993), Congo, and Ngotto Forest in Central African Republic (on the border of the Central African Republic and Congo). It has not been recorded from Gabon or Democratic Republic of the Congo, although it is likely to occur here.
23204		habitat	eng	This species has been captured in tropical moist forest and semi-deciudous forest, with a few individuals collected close to arboreal savannas, apparently tolerating climates ranging from relatively dry to very humid (de Val <em>et al</em>. 1995). This species is primarily nocturnal, and it is considered likely to be solitary, with little information available on its habitats or ecology. The species is uniqe among anomalurids in having no gliding membrane, which suggests that it may descend to the ground more readily than other anomalurid species. This may explain, as suggested by de Val <em>et al</em>. (1995), why the two records from Equatorial Guinea were taken in ground snare traps.
23204		population	eng	This species is known from only a few localities and specimens; del Val <em>et al</em>. (1995) document 11 specimens. There is no precise information on population or abundance.
23204		threats	eng	It is possible that deforestation is a threat to the species in parts of the range. Further research into the impact of deforestation on this species is needed.
23207		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.
23207		distribution	eng	It is restricted four fragmented subpopulations in the Rhône River basin in France and Switzerland. May occur in more locations.
23207		habitat	eng	It inhabits the grayling zone and the upper barbel zone. It is a strictly nocturnal species feeding on benthic invertebrates. It prefers pebbles and stones, intermediate depth (0.3–0.8 m) and moderate water velocities (0.05–0.4 m/s). During reproduction, it prefers riffles. It is short-lived species up to 3.5 years old reproducing generally once, maximum twice in a life time.
23207		population	eng	Decreasing. There are only four fragmented subpopulations remaining: the Drome subpopulation with few fish; the Durance subpopulation with 200 fish/ha; the Beaume subpopulation with 80 fish/ha; and a subpopulation in the upper part of River Doubs in Switzerland with a total number of individuals estimated between 80–160 individuals. Today it only occupies 17% of its former range.
23207		threats	eng	Fragmentation, modification and destruction of the habitat due to dams and water pollution.
23208		conservation	eng	No information available.
23208		distribution	eng	Known from Danube and Dniestr drainages.
23208		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Main course of small to large rivers, in stretches with strong current. On stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, benthic. Spawns in March-May on gravel bottom. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates.
23208		population	eng	Abundant.
23208		threats	eng	The species is impacted by dams as it needs strong currents to survive. Pollution also impacted the species, particularly in the upper Danube, in the past however conditions are now improving and populations may be increasing.
23209		conservation	eng	No information available.
23209		distribution	eng	Known from Danube and Dniestr drainages.
23209		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Main course of large rivers, in fast-flowing waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, benthic. Spawns in March-April on sand bottom. Single females spawn with several males in a dense spawning group. Eggs very sticky and attached to gravel. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and small fishes.
23209		population	eng	Abundant.
23209		threats	eng	The species is impacted by dams as it needs strong currents to survive. Pollution also impacted the species, particularly in the upper Danube, in the past however conditions are now improving and populations may be increasing.
23210		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kenya. Occurs in the Teita Hills, although the species was not found in any of the 73 sites surveyed by C. Lange in the Taita Hills forests in 2000.
23210		habitat	eng	Unknown.
23210		population	eng	Verdcourt (1991) noted that this species was collected in abundance in 1915 at an altitude, which would suggest it was a forest dweller, but that a survey in 1960 failed to locate any specimens.
23210		threats	eng	Habitat change (i.e., loss and disturbance probably due to natural drought, fire outbreaks or human forest clearance).
23211		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">One probable hot-spot for Cuvier’s Beaked Whales in the Mediterranean, the eastern section of the Ligurian Sea, is included within the Pelagos Sanctuary created by Italy, France and Monaco. However, no management or conservation measures have been taken as yet specifically for this species.<br/></p>  <p>A SPAMI (Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance) under the Barcelona Convention has been proposed for the northern half of the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera in southern Spain (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005), but it has not yet been designated or even evaluated by the Spanish administration. This proposed area includes another of the probable hot-spots for Cuvier’s beaked whales: the deep waters off southern Almería. The Hydrographic Office of the Spanish Navy has agreed not to use active sonar in that area (C. Gamundi, Subdirector of the Hydrographic Office of the Spanish Navy, pers. comm.).<br/></p>  The Second Meeting of the Parties to ACCOBAMS adopted Resolution 2.16 on ‘Assessment and Impact Assessment of Man-made Noise’ (ACCOBAMS 2004). In this Resolution, and by recommendation of the Scientific Committee of ACCOBAMS, Parties are urged to ‘to take a special care and, if appropriate, to avoid any use of man made noise in habitat of vulnerable species and in areas where marine mammals or endangered species may be concentrated, and undertake only with special caution and transparency any use of man made noise in or nearby areas believed to contain habitat of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales (<em>Ziphius cavirostris</em>), within the ACCOBAMS area’. Parties are also urged to facilitate national and international research on this subject, to provide protocols/guidelines developed by military authorities with respect to use of sonar in the context of threats to cetaceans, and to consult with any profession conducting activities known to produce underwater sound with the potential to cause adverse effects on cetaceans, recommending that extreme caution be exercised in the ACCOBAMS area. Resolution 2.16 also encourages ‘the development of alternative technologies and require the use of best available control technologies and other mitigation measures in order to reduce the impacts of man-made noise sources in the Agreement area’. The Scientific Committee of ACCOBAMS therefore has been charged to develop a common set of guidelines for conducting activities known to produce underwater sound with the potential to cause adverse effects on cetaceans. These guidelines are expected to be presented to the Third Meeting of the Parties in 2007.
23211		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. <br/><br/>In 2004, the Parties to the UNEP CMS Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) adopted a resolution recommending that human activities introducing high-intensity noise in the marine environment be avoided in the agreement area where high concentrations of Cuvier’s beaked whales may occur. The agreement’s Scientific Committee is currently modelling Mediterranean sighting data to generate predictive <em>Ziphius</em> habitat maps for that purpose.
23211		conservation	eng	Very little is known about this species. However, mass strandings after military sonar tests are a matter of serious concern and should be further investigated. The global effects of bycatches in fisheries cannot be evaluated. Bycatch of Cuvier’s beaked whales may have been unsustainable in the California/Oregon drift gillnet fishery in the early 1990s (Barlow <em>et al.</em> 1995), however, the observed bycatch of Cuvier’s and other beaked whales dropped to zero after pingers were required to reduce cetacean mortality (Barlow and Gisiner 2006).  Given this success, pingers might be useful in mitigating fishery bycatch in other locations.  Because they dive for such long periods and are so difficult to see at the surface, mitigation methods that depend on visually detecting them are not likely to reduce the impacts of acute sound impacts (such as military sonar or seismic surveys) (Barlow and Gisiner 2006). Areas of higher than average abundance can be identified (Ferguson <em>et al.</em> 2006, MacLeod and Mitchell 2006), and avoiding such areas may be a helpful mitigation method.
23211		distribution	eng	Cuvier’s Beaked Whales inhabit both the western and eastern basins of the Mediterranean (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). Much of the current knowledge of this species in the Mediterranean has come from stranding data. Strandings have been reported in Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Spain and Turkey (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Appropriate data on distribution in the Mediterranean basin are lacking, except for a very limited areas.
23211		distribution	eng	Cuvier's beaked whales may have the most extensive range of any beaked whale species (Heyning 1989, 2002).   They are widely distributed in offshore waters of all oceans, from the topics to the polar regions in both hemispheres.  Their range covers most marine waters of the world, with the exception of shallow water areas, and very high-latitude polar regions. They are found in many enclosed seas, such as the Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Carribean Sea, Sea of Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk (but not in the Baltic or Black seas). This is the only species of beaked whale regularly found in the Mediterranean Sea, where it is quite common (Podesta <em>et al.</em> 2006).
23211		distribution	eng	Cuvier's beaked whales may have the most extensive range of any beaked whale species (Heyning 1989, 2002). They are widely distributed in offshore waters of all oceans, from the tropics to the polar regions in both hemispheres. Their range covers most marine waters of the world, with the exception of shallow water areas, and very high-latitude polar regions. They are found in many enclosed seas, such as the Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, Sea of Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk (but not in the Baltic or Black Seas). This is the only species of beaked whale regularly found in the Mediterranean Sea (Podesta <em>et al</em>. 2006).
23211		habitat	eng	Although Cuvier’s beaked whales can be found nearly anywhere in deep (>200 m) waters, they seem to prefer waters near the continental slope, especially those with a steep sea bottom. Off Japan, whaling records indicate that <em>Z. cavirostris</em> is most commonly found in waters deeper than 1,000 m (Heyning 1989). The species is known around many oceanic islands, and in some enclosed seas. It is rarely found close to mainland shores, except in submarine canyons or in areas where the continental shelf is narrow and coastal waters are deep (Heyning 1989, 2002) and is mostly a pelagic species that appears to be confined by the 10°C isotherm and the 1,000 m bathymetric contour (Houston 1991; Robineau and di Natale 1995).<br/><br/>Cuvier's beaked whales, like all beaked whales, appear to prefer deep waters for feeding. Dives of up to 40 minutes have been documented. Although few stomach contents have been examined, they appear to feed mostly on deep-sea squid, but also sometimes take fish and some crustaceans (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2003). They apparently feed both near the bottom and in the water column. As with other beaked whales, suction appears to be used to draw prey items into the mouth at close range (Heyning and Mead 1996).
23211		habitat	eng	Due to their widespread distribution and relatively frequent stranding, Cuvier's beaked whale may be one of the most familiar of the beaked whales (Heyning 1989, 2002).  They are found mostly in small groups of 2-7, but are not uncommonly seen alone. Strandings are usually of singletons or cow-calf pairs. A typical mass strandings of larger numbers of animals have been strongly linked acoustic trauma resulting from navy sonar or seismic exploration activities in the vicinity (e.g. Frantzis 1998).  Their behavior tends to be rather elusive, and they can be difficult to approach.  However, they have been seen breaching on a number of occasions. Dives of up to 40 minutes have been documented.<br/><br/>Although Cuvier’s beaked whales can be found nearly anywhere in deep (>200 m) waters, they seem to prefer waters near the continental slope, especially those with a steep sea bottom. The species is known around many oceanic islands, and in some enclosed seas. It is rarely found close to mainland shores, except in submarine canyons or in areas where the continental shelf is narrow and coastal waters are deep (Heyning 1989, 2002) and is mostly a pelagic species that appears to be confined by the 10° C isotherm and the 1000 m bathymetric contour (Houston 1991, Robineau and di Natale 1995).<br/><br/>Cuvier's beaked whales, like all beaked whales, appear to prefer deep waters for feeding. Although few stomach contents have been examined, they appear to feed mostly on deep-sea squid, but also sometimes take fish and some crustaceans (MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2003). They apparently feed both near the bottom and in the water column. As with other beaked whales, suction appears to be used to draw prey items into the mouth at close range (Heyning and Mead 1996). They may sometimes incidentally ingest non-food items.
23211		habitat	eng	<p>Cuvier’s Beaked Whale is a predominantly oceanic species often associated with steep slope habitat and a marked preference for submarine canyons and escarpments (D’Amico <em>et al</em>. 2003, MacLeod 2005, Podestá <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Alborán Sea, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are encountered in areas of 600 m depth and 40 m km<sup>-1</sup> of slope, especially around the 1,000 m isobath in an area of steep canyons off southern Almería, SE Spain (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002, Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Hellenic Trench, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are sighted in areas of between 500 and 1,500 m depth; it is not known if they are also present farther offshore over the abyssal plain (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). They seem to be present over all steep topographic features of the Aegean Plateau (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the eastern Ligurian Sea (Gulf  of Genoa) they are especially abundant around canyons (D’Amico <em>et al</em>. 2003). In this area, Scalise <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported a mean depth at encounters of 1,358 m (range = 641–2545, se = 514) and a mean slope of 77.1 m km<sup>-1</sup> (range = 3–256.5, se = 57). In the same area, cruises organised by SACLANTCEN encountered Cuvier’s Beaked Whales in waters 500–2,600 m deep, with a peak encounter rate in waters 1,000–1,500 m deep over steep slopes (M. Carron, pers. comm.). In the western Ligurian Sea, sightings have been in waters of an average of 1,722 m deep (range = 795–2,500, se = 276) (Azzellino <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  <p>Mean group size is fairly constant across the whole basin where data have been collected, ranging from 2.2 to 2.6 individuals (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005, Ballardini <em>et al</em>. 2005, Scalise <em>et al</em>. 2005), except in the western Ligurian Sea with a mean of four (sd = 2) (Azzellino <em>et al</em>. 2008). Social organization is unknown, although the intermediate levels of mtDNA diversity observed in Cuvier’s Beaked Whales suggest that social groups are unlikely to be strongly matrifocal (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/></p>  Cuvier’s Beaked Whale is mainly teuthophagic. The most common prey species in the Mediterranean are from the family Histioteuthidae (MacLeod 2005 and references therein), which are oceanic and meso- or bathypelagic, inhabiting depths of around 1000 m, with a preference for escarpments. Fish may also be an important component of their diet (MacLeod 2005).
23211		population	eng	Global abundance has not been estimated for Cuvier’s beaked whales, but abundance has been estimated for several study areas (not in European waters). Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are often inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow et al. 2006). They are undoubtedly among the most common and abundant of all the beaked whales.  However, it should be noted that there are no trend data, and the large uncertainty in abundance estimates makes the detection of population change extremely unlikely.<br/><br/>This is the only widely-distributed beaked whale species for which a global assessment of genetic diversity has been conducted.  The results of this study suggest that there is probably little movement of Cuvier’s beaked whales among different ocean basins, and that there may even be a distinct subpopulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Dalebout <em>et al.</em> 2005).
23211		population	eng	Global abundance has not been estimated for Cuvier’s beaked whales, but abundance has been estimated for several study areas. Wade and Gerrodette (1993) estimated an abundance of about 20,000 (CV=27%) Cuvier’s beaked whales in the eastern tropical Pacific, but a re-analysis of the same data increased that to about 80,000 after accounting for diving animals that were missed (Ferguson and Barlow 2001). Other dive-corrected estimates of Cuvier’s beaked whale abundance include 1,884 (CV=68%) off the U.S. west coast (Barlow 2003) and 15,242 (CV=143%) in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2006). Cuvier’s beaked whales are undoubtedly among the most common and abundant of all the beaked whales, and worldwide abundance is likely to be well over 100,000. There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.<br/><br/>This is the only widely-distributed beaked whale species for which a global assessment of genetic diversity has been conducted. The results of this study suggest that there is probably little movement of Cuvier’s beaked whales among different ocean basins, and that there may even be a distinct subpopulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2005).
23211		population	eng	<p>Strandings have been reported in Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Spain and Turkey, totalling 316 animals (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Twenty-six percent of the total animals recorded stranded in the Mediterranean have been in mass strandings involving three or more animals (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Strandings have been particularly numerous along the Ligurian and Ionian coasts, but it is important not to infer too much about species distribution or relative abundance from strandings data alone. Strandings data are subject to a variety of types of bias.<br/></p><p>Cuvier’s Beaked Whales seem to be relatively abundant in the eastern Ligurian Sea, off southwestern Crete and the Alboran Sea, especially over and around canyons (D’Amico <em>et al</em>. 2003, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ballardini <em>et al</em>. 2005, Scalise <em>et al</em>. 2005). They appear to be regular although less abundant inhabitants of the western Ligurian Sea (41 sightings in 16 years, Tethys Research Institute, unpublished data; 4.2% of 814 sightings during 10,000 km on effort from 1996–2000, Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Cuvier’s beaked whales have been described as regular inhabitants of the Hellenic Trench (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003), the southern Adriatic Sea based on frequency of strandings (Holcer <em>et al</em>. 2003) and the eastern section of the Alborán Sea (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005). They also occur in the central Tyrrhenian Sea (Marini <em>et al</em>. 1992) and in Spanish Mediterranean waters (Gannier 1999, Raga and Pantoja 2004, M. Castellote pers. comm.). They have been reported both from strandings and sightings in Israeli, Palestinian and Syrian waters (Aharoni 1944; Saad and Othman 2008; D. Kerem, pers. comm.). No information is available for the remaining areas of the Mediterranean.</p>  <p>There are two abundance estimates for this species in small portions of the Mediterranean  Sea. In the Gulf of Genova (eastern Ligurian Sea) mark-recapture analysis (2002–2008) yielded an estimate of 96–100 animals (left and right side identifications respectively) from an open population (Rosso <em>et al</em>. 2009). In the northern Alboran Sea, spatial modelling of line transect data (1992–2007) yields an abundance estimate of 102 animals with a CV=32.1% (corrected for availability bias from a D-tagged animal in the Alboran  Sea) (Oedekoven <em>et al</em>. 2009). Abundance estimates for the whole Alboran Sea and the northern Tyrrhenian  Sea will be available in 2010 after analysis of the Sirena08 and MED09 survey cruises. Therefore, much better information will be available, and a reassessment is recommended for then. Preliminary inspection of the data highlights a relatively high density (compared to other areas of the world) of Cuvier´s Beaked Whales in the Alboran Sea (44 groups, 89 individuals in 846 km on survey effort, for an encounter rate of 19.5 individuals per 100 km of effort; unpublished data).<br/></p>  <p>There are no data on trends for this species in the Mediterranean. <br/></p>  <p>There are areas, especially in the southern portions of the basin, where Cuvier’s Beaked Whales have not been recorded from either strandings or sightings. However, it must be borne in mind that their long dive times, usually inconspicuous appearance at the surface and typical avoidance of vessels make them difficult to spot (Heyning 1989). In addition, sighting effort and the efficiency of stranding networks vary throughout the Mediterranean: many areas have little or no effort to make and record sightings or to detect strandings. Therefore, a comprehensive basin-wide survey and an efficient basin-wide stranding network are needed before reaching firm conclusions about presence and absence. It is nevertheless possible, based&#160; on available data, to identify at least some areas as good habitat, and probably hot-spots, for Cuvier’s Beaked Whales, such as the eastern Ligurian Sea, the eastern Alborán  Sea and the Hellenic Trench. The species is probably also common in several other unexplored areas. <br/></p>  Only two haplotypes were found in the Mediterranean (n = 12) and those haplotypes were found nowhere else (Dalebout <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Because samples from this species are relatively rare, there are no samples from the area in the Atlantic closest to the Mediterranean. Until such sample are gathered and show otherwise, the current best evidence suggests that the low haplotypic diversity together with haplotypes found only in the Mediterranean meet the subpopulation definition of less than a migrant per year (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2005). There have been 23,004 km of effort from 1999 to 2006 (all seasons) in the Straits of Gilbraltar in conditions where <em>Ziphius</em> could be sighted (Beaufort three or less) with no sightings (de Stephanis <em>et al</em>. 2007). This is consistent with little movement through this area. The current best available data, genetic and lack of sightings, suggests that the definition for subpopulation is met. Future acoustic monitoring in the Straits could better resolve this question.
23211		threats	eng	Never the main target of commercial whalers, Cuvier’s beaked whales have sometimes been taken in other direct fisheries outside Europe (Heyning 1989, Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993). Bycatch of Cuvier’s beaked whales has been reported in several fisheries, including the Italian swordfish fishery (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1990). <br/><br/>Mignucci <em>et al.</em> (1999) conducted an assessment of cetacean strandings in waters off Puerto Rico, the United States and the British Virgin Islands to identify the factors associated with reported mortality events between 1867 and 1995. Cuvier's beaked whale was the second most common species. An increase in the number of strandings is evident over the past 20 years, averaging 63.1% per year. Between 1990 and 1995, the average number of cases per year increased from 2.1 to 8.2. The seasonal pattern of strandings was not found to be uniform, with a high number of strandings occurring in the winter and spring. The most common human-related cause categories observed were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by animals being shot or speared. <br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species of beaked whales indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items. Sometimes this may happen when animals are already ill and incapable of finding/catching normal prey (e.g. Gomercic <em>et al.</em> 2006), or they may be healthy and eat it by accident and it then contributes to blockage of the digestive tract and eventual death (e.g. Scott <em>et al.</em> 2001). Therefore <em>Ziphuis cavirostris</em> may also be at risk.<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in a number of mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked whales, including in the Mediterranean Sea during 1996 (Frantzis 1998), the Bahamas during 2000 (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), the Madeira Islands in 2000 (Freitas 2004) and the Canary Islands in 2002 (Jepson <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The mechanistic cause of the strandings is not well understood, but gas bubble formation (Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005) from a behaviorally mediated response to sound has been proposed (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006).
23211		threats	eng	<p>Owing to their offshore occurrence and tendency to feed on deep-sea squid, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are probably little exposed to human activities that occur in coastal waters (tourism, many types of fisheries, etc.). However, the few studies carried out on this species highlight one main threat: certain forms of man-made underwater noise. This threat affects the species world-wide and it has been responsible for some of the observed mortality in the Mediterranean. Military sonars and possibly high-energy sounds from other anthropogenic sources have repeatedly resulted in the stranding and death of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales. The implications of this mortality at the population level are uncertain. Two other concerns are bycatch in drift gillnets and the ingestion of plastic debris (e.g. Kovacic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <br/></p>  <p>Recent atypical mass strandings of beaked whales have been linked to high-powered navy sonar and seismic exploration (e.g. Frantzis 1998, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Deployment of military sonar has led to strandings of beaked whales suffering from chronic and acute tissue damage due to the <em>in vivo</em> formation of gas bubbles, possibly the result of decompression sickness (Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Cuvier’s Beaked Whale is the species most commonly involved in these atypical mass strandings (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 2005). Of 224 recorded stranding events of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales in the Mediterranean, 15 involved two animals (9.8% of the total) and 12 involved three or more animals (totalling 80 animals; 26.1% of the total) (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Four of these strandings were definitely associated with naval activity so far: 1) Valencia, Spain in February 1996 (Filadelfo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), 2) Kyparissiakos  Gulf, Greece in May 1996 (Frantzis 1998), 3) Ionian Islands, Greece in October 1997 (Frantzis 2004, Filadelfo 2009), 4) Algerian coasts, in 2001 (Filadelfo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In the other cases, either no appropriate data were collected or the analyses were inadequate for assessing the potential association (Podestà <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). An atypical mass stranding of four Cuvier’s Beaked Whales occurred in SE Spain in January 2006. This event was coincident in time and space with military manoeuvres of NATO (Draft EIS/OEIS 2007), and necropsies of the animals showed “Gas and Fat Embolic Syndrome”, previously associated with anthropogenic acoustic activities, most probably anti-submarine active mid-frequency sonar used during the military naval exercises (Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2005; Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Mediterranean  Sea is a militarily strategic area and is also of increasing interest for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation. All military or geological or oceanographic activities involving high-intensity noise carried out in the proximity of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are of concern.<br/></p>  <p>Although the population-level implications of the use of military sonar are uncertain, there is evidence suggesting that they could be at least locally significant. A photo-identification study that preceded and followed the Bahamas mass stranding showed that previously photo-identified, resident beaked whales either left the area or died, since they were never re-captured (photographically) after the event (Balcomb and Claridge 2001). In the Mediterranean Sea, no surveys had been conducted in the Kyparissiakos Gulf before the mass stranding following a naval military sonar exercise (Frantzis 1998). However, strandings of Cuvier´s beaked whales had been common in that area (average rate of one per semester) and have become extremely rare (none or only one) in the nine years since the event. Two international surveys that covered the Kyparissiakos  Gulf (IFAW 2003 and MVO in 2004) as well as a survey that has crossed the same area twice yearly since 2002 have failed to record any sightings of Cuvier´s Beaked Whales. <br/></p>  <p>Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are occasionally taken incidentally in driftnets in the Mediterranean  Sea. DUring the MED09 survey in the Alboran Sea, a Cuvier´s Beaked Whale was found alive recently (probably) entangled in a driftnet (and two Moroccan driftnetters were spotted a few miles away). After several hours of attempts, it was not possible to approach the animal close enough to release it from the net.</p><p>In a study of cetacean by-catch by the Spanish Mediterranean long-lining fleet, only one unidentified beaked whale was found entangled (released alive) out of 798 sets (CPUE).</p>  <p>Fourteen Cuvier’s Beaked Whales were reported as having been captured intentionally between 1972 and 1982 – 11 in French and three in Spanish waters, all shot and one also harpooned (Northridge 1994). No pingers are in use in this area to avoid beaked whales bycatch. <br/></p>  <p>With regard to plastic debris, two stranded animals in Greece had stomachs full of pieces of plastic bags (A. Frantzis, pers. comm.), as did a stranded animal in Croatia (Holcer <em>et al</em>. 2003). Poncelet <em>et al</em>. (1999) described a considerable amount of plastic debris in the stomach of a Cuvier’s Beaked Whale washed ashore on the French Atlantic coast. Together with pilot whales (and some other teuthophagous species), Cuvier’s Beaked Whale seems to be attracted by plastic debris that may be mistaken for squid.<br/></p>  Climate change effects on prey might be a potential threat but we don't know whether the net effects will be positive or negative. No competition with fisheries is reported in the Mediterranean, where cephalopods fisheries are not very important (e.g. squids represent less than 1% of the catches in the Spanish waters of the Alboran Sea, http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/agriculturaypesca/agraria/estagric.html)
23211		threats	eng	There is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations these whales are unknown but could result in population declines. <br/> <br/>Never the main target of commercial whalers, Cuvier’s beaked whales have sometimes been taken as bycatch in other direct fisheries, such as those in the Caribbean islands, Indonesia, Taiwan, Peru, and Chile (Heyning 1989; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). In the Japanese <em>Berardius</em> fishery, <em>Z. cavirostris</em> have been taken on an opportunistic basis, with catches varying from 3 to 35 animals taken yearly (Omura and Kimura 1955). Although the <em>Berardius</em> fishery still continues, there have been no direct takes of <em>Z. cavirostris</em> in recent years (Nishiwaki and Oguro 1972).<br/> <br/>Mignucci-Giannoni <em>et al</em>. (1999) conducted an assessment of cetacean strandings in waters off Puerto Rico, the United States and the British Virgin Islands to identify the factors associated with reported mortality events between 1867 and 1995. The most common human-related cause categories observed were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by animals being shot or speared. <br/><br/>Bycatch of Cuvier’s beaked whales has been reported in several fisheries. Julian and Beeson (1998) report a mortality of 22-44 individuals per year in the California/Oregon drift gillnet fishery from 1992 to 1995. Mora Pinto <em>et al</em>. (1995) report on bycatches from Colombian fisheries. Notarbartolo di Sciara (1990) reported on bycatch in the Italian swordfish fishery. Bycatch in the western North Atlantic is very low, with one animal reported between 1994 and 1998 (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in a number of mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked whales, including in the Mediterranean Sea during 1996 (Frantzis 1998), the Bahamas during 2000 (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), the Madeira Islands in 2000 (Frietas 2004) and the Canary Islands in 2002 (Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked whales in Japan also appear to be correlated with locations of naval exercises (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 2006). A stranding of two Cuvier’s beaked whales in the Gulf of California was closely correlated with a seismic survey (Malakoff 2002). <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
23259		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
23259		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, and Sea of Azov.
23259		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species living inshore in brackish water, estuaries and lagoons and on mud and eel-grass meadows. Its habitat is more abundant in the eastern part of its distribution.<br/><br/>This fish is iteroparous, with females producing more than one batch of eggs within the breeding season (Franco <em>et al.</em> 2002).
23259		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. There is no population information available for this species.
23259		threats	eng	Threats for individuals that inhabit lagoons are pollution and habitat degradation. This species has commercial importance in the Black Sea and in Sivash (Berg 1965).
23321		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (M. Aguillera pers. comm.).
23321		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the savannas from southeastern Costa Rica through Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas, to Brazil north of the Amazon River; including Trinidad and Tobago and smaller continental shelf islands adjacent to Panama and Venezuela (Musser and Carleton 2005). Occurs in the llanos of Venezuela.
23321		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in grassland, clearings, marshy areas, second growth, and agricultural areas (Martino and Aguilera 1993).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and terrestrial. Its diet includes seeds, fruit, and green plant material. This species makes short burrows in banks or under tree roots, leadings to nests made of grasses and plant down (Reid 1997). In Venezuela, breeding occurs year-round and litter size averages 4.1 (O’Connell 1982).
23321		population	eng	This rat is common, often abundant. It sometimes is a pest in agricultural areas (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
23321		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
23322		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
23322		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the intermontane valleys of north Colombia, 350 to 1,300 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
23322		habitat	eng	It occurs in grassland, clearings, marshy areas, second growth, and agricultural areas (Martino and Aguilera, 1993). This species is nocturnal and terrestrial. The diet includes seeds, fruit, and green plant material. It makes short burrows in banks or under tree roots, leadings to nests made of grasses and plant down.
23322		population	eng	This species occurs in an area that has not been recently well studied (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.) although it is likely to be common (as Z. brevicauda), often abundant (Martino and Aguilera, 1993).
23322		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
23323		conservation	eng	This species is protected under Mexican law as "en peligro de extinción" ('in danger of extinction').  There are no protected areas within its range.
23323		distribution	eng	This species is known only from small areas around the general vicinity of Lago Patzcuaro, north central Michoacan, Mexico (Hafner and Barkley 1984; Patton 2005). Specifically, it is known from four areas in the Sierra Madre of Michoacan: Cerro Tancitaro, Cerro Patamban, Nahuatzen, and Patzcuaro. This species is found at elevations above 2,200 m asl.
23323		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It prefers the deep, friable soil of high montane pine-spruce-alder forests. Burrow entrances are covered by volcano-like mounds of earth with no opening and it is thought that the species may be entirely fossorial (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
23323		population	eng	The species was once said to be widespread across the area, occurring on wooded slopes, the borders of grassy parks, and in cultivated areas. It was found in high densities throughout its range. However, this species is not tolerant of habitat degradation and competition with other species that have extended their range following the transformation of habitat (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). In recent years the species has suffered a severe decline in population.
23323		threats	eng	Agricultural encroachment has resulted in the removal of some forest areas within the range of this species. However, the main threat to the species thought to be competition from <em>Cratogeomys</em>, which has moved higher into the mountains as a result of forest destruction on lower slopes (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
23324		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. All populations seem to be within the West MacDonnell Range National Park. Field surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species. The park has a fire management strategy to protect the vegetation on which this species is dependent. A Recovery Plan for this species is being developed. Further studies into the distribution, population, natural history, and threats to this species are planned. Also, the feasibility of reintroducing or introducing populations of this species should be investigated. Captive breeding is underway at Perth Zoo and Alice Springs Desert Park.
23324		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known only from disjunct localities along a 77 km length of the West MacDonnell Ranges, Northern Territory (Cole 2000). The species has previously been recorded from living animals or cave deposits in Northern Territory at Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, Illamurta (James Range), Haast's Bluff (West MacDonnell Ranges), Mount Liebig, Napperby Station, Devils Marbles, The Granites (Tanami Desert), and the Davenport Range. It is known from cave deposits in the Cape Range, Western Australia (Cole 2000).
23324		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are incompletely known. It has been found in rocky outcrop and scree areas with hummock grassland, low open shrubland, and low open woodland (Cole 2000; Nano 2008). Captive females have given birth to between three and four young (Nano 2008). This species' diet consists primarily of seeds from shrubs, forbs, and grassses, as well as leaf material from these plants (which respond positively to fire) (Pavey 2002).
23324		population	eng	The population size and abundance of this species is not well known. The species was thought to be extinct (no records between 1960 and 1996), and was subsequently rediscovered in fourteen sites in 1996-2001. The species, however, has not been recorded since drought and wildfire struck in 2002 (Nano 2008). Populations of the species have certainly crashed, but it is quite possible that the species remains undetected in low numbers.
23324		threats	eng	Fires likely limit the available habitat for the species (Cole 2000). The spread of buffalo grass, which kills off native grasses, is another threat, and is linked to disturbance of the fire regime. Other potential threatening processes include predation by dingo and habitat degradation due to grazing by feral herbivores, especially horses (Pavey 2002).
23325		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
23325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in the north of the country from the Dampier Archipelago in Western Australia to Rockhampton on the Queensland coast (Fleming 2008).
23325		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with rocky outcrops (Fleming 2008). The vegetation cover is variable, ranging from riparian vegetation to open woodland with a grassy understorey. It breeds throughout the year. Females may give birth to up to four young after a gestation period of 35 days (Fleming 2008).
23325		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat (Fleming 2008). There have been no documented declines.
23325		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
23326		conservation	eng	Many of the populations of this species are within the Kakadu National Park ? about 30% (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). Notwithstanding management actions, pervasive and frequent fire in the sandstone environments of Kakadu and adjacent areas remains a serious threat to habitat suitability for this species (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There is also a need for maintenance and monitoring of sites across its range. There is a possibility that Cane Toads could help this species through decline of predators.
23326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Arnhem Land Plateau and Mt. Borradaile, Northern Territory, Australia.
23326		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky sandstone areas, deeply dissected by gorges and gullies, covered with deciduous vine thicket and an overstorey of monsoon rainforest (Begg 1981; Woinarski and Fleming 2008). The species breeds throughout the year, with litters of two or three young (Begg 1981). It is entirely terrestrial and nocturnal, and its diet includes seeds, fruit, and some other vegetable matter (Begg 1981; Woinarski 2005).
23326		population	eng	It is generally patchily distributed, but can be locally abundant (Woinarski and Fleming 2008). Trapping success rates exist, but there are not any real measures of population density (J. Woinarski pers. comm.).
23326		threats	eng	This species is restricted to a specific habitat-type found in a relatively small area. It is highly fire sensitive, and its main habitat is susceptible to fires (Begg <em>et al.</em> 1981; Woinarski 2005). Between 30-50% of rainforest patches that it relies on are severely damaged by fire (Russell-Smith and Bowman 1992). There are four monitoring sites where it has declined, two of which are no longer holding populations.
23327		conservation	eng	It is not present within any protected areas; sites are within pastoral stations. Monitoring is needed, along with fire control and prevention of grazing within the sites. The recovery plan for this species (Puckey <em>et al.</em> 2003) states the following priorities for the conservation of this species: declare known sites and manage them to eliminate threats; maintain a captive colony at the Territory Wildlife Park; carry out an experimental release program; and continue studies on the ecology of this species. Brook <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported that the most pressing management requirement was to limit uncontrolled fire (through preventative control burning around periphery of known sites).
23327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is known from five gorges in rocky sandstone ranges in the Northern Territory near the border with Queensland, Australia (Lee 1995; Puckey 2003; Puckey <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is probably not found outside these known sites. The former range of the species is not known (Lee 1995; Puckey 2003).
23327		habitat	eng	This little-known species is found only in a specific habitat type in a generally restricted area (Puckey <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is known from patches of monsoon vine thicket growing on scree slopes, and fringing escarpments, in sandstone gorges. It is also found in woodlands surrounding rainforest patches.
23327		population	eng	The species was first described in 1986 and is known from very few specimens (Puckey 2001). There are estimated to be approximately 700 individuals at Moonlight Gorge and 450 at Banyon Gorge. The total population is probably less than 2,000 individuals, however, no estimates have been made for the other sites (Puckey 2001).
23327		threats	eng	It may have declined through a long-term reduction and fragmentation of it specific habitat due to climatic changes, possibly exacerbated by recent changes in fire regime (Lee 1995). Cattle grazing might be a threat, as grazing negatively impacts rainforest patches and their associated waterways (Puckey 2001). Feral cats may be a threat to this species as well, but their impact is unknown (Puckey 2001).
23328		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas (e.g., Prince Regent Nature Reserve). Monitoring of populations would be wise given conspecific declines. The effects of fire and cattle grazing should be studied. Removal of cattle from sensitive areas of the species' habitat is needed (Fleming and McKenzie 2008). This species occurs on some offshore islands, though most are not protected for conservation.
23328		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the north and west Kimberley region of Western Australia, and the Buccaneer and Bonaparte Archipelagos (Fleming and McKenzie 2008). Limited surveys have been done in the intervening areas (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). It has recently been recorded near Kununurra, Western Australia, close to the type locality (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
23328		habitat	eng	This species is lives in inaccessible country, where it is generally found in tropical moist forest patches in rocky and scree areas, usually with large boulders. It has also been recorded from open sandstone country with a scattered covering of low trees (Fleming and McKenzie 2008). It is known to breed throughout the year (Fleming and McKenzie 2008).
23328		population	eng	It is a patchily distributed, but relatively abundant in appropriate habitat. There is no evidence of declines in population.
23328		threats	eng	The species is threatened by loss of habitat through inappropriate fire regimes, in part caused by the opening up of forest patches to savanna grasses by cattle and other introduced herbivores (i.e., conversion of perennial grasses to annual grasses) (Fleming and McKenzie 2008).
23426		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, which is a World Heritage Site. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Survey work is necessary to monitor the population status of this species.
23426		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mount Nimba region in Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. It presumably also occurs in Liberia, but there have not yet been any records. It is a montane species, occurring above 1,000m asl.
23426		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland. It is a viviparous species, with the female nourishing the young internally prior to the birth of small toadlets.
23426		population	eng	It is apparently an abundant species within its small range, and a survey in 2003 succeeded in locating several individuals, even during the cold season when they are supposed to be inactive.
23426		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to the mining of iron ore/bauxite is the biggest threat to this species, and new mining sites have been selected recently for mining in the Guinean part of Mount Nimba. There is a risk that mining could destroy the entire range of the species. Fires in the montane grassland might be a threat. The species is inherently at risk because of its small range.
23900		conservation	eng	There is a need for remaining intact lowland rainforest of Palawan to be designated as protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the levels of offtake of this species from the wild for the international pet trade; if proved to be a significant threat, then this species could also warrant listing by CITES.
23900		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Busuanga, Culion, and Palawan, all in the western Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites on Palawan. It is a lowland species occurring up to 300m asl, perhaps up to 500m asl.
23900		habitat	eng	This aquatic species inhabits clear, unpolluted swift-flowing mountain streams and rivers in lowland rainforests, where it usually floats near the surface of the water unless disturbed, when it will hide under submerged rocks. The breeding strategy of this species remains unknown. Tadpoles have never been observed, and eggs collected from gravid females were large, unpigmented, and few in number (Inger 1954), suggesting that it could possibly reproduce by direct development (Brown and Alcala 1983). However to date breeding habits have not yet been observed. It has not been found in open habitats outside forest.
23900		population	eng	It commonly occurs in large numbers where known, though the overall distribution is patchy and fragmented.
23900		threats	eng	The lowland rainforest habitat of this species is generally protected on the island of Palawan. However, some populations are threatened by habitat conversion, shifting agriculture, quarrying, large-scale mining, and pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural effluents. The collection of frogs for the pet trade (including internationally) is also a possible threat.
25382		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
25382		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from one locality on Basilan Island, in the Philippines. A record of a larva from western Mindanao Island has been assigned to this species, but this requires verification, and so has not been used to map this species' range for this assessment.
25382		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and lower montane rainforest, where the adults are subterranean. It is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae that are believed to inhabit unpolluted streams, rivers and quiet pools near streams.
25382		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known with certainty only from two specimens.
25382		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
25390		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
25390		distribution	eng	This species is known from mountain areas on Mindanao Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded in at least half a dozen separate localities, and is found at 600-850m asl, and probably ranges higher than this.
25390		habitat	eng	It is known from lowland and submontane rainforest and associated agricultural habitats, where the adults are subterranean. The larvae inhabit unpolluted streams, rivers and quiet pools near streams. The adults and larvae have also been found in mud in recently cleared agricultural fields at forest edges.
25390		population	eng	It is apparently common, but is very localized and patchily distributed.
25390		threats	eng	It has been suggested that the main threats to this species are logging, habitat conversion to agriculture, and pollution of streams and rivers from mining and agricultural effluents. However, the limited information available suggests that, as with other species of <em>Ichthyophis</em>, it is fairly adaptable to habitat modification, and might not be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
25954		conservation	eng	The known range of the species is restricted to Parque Nacional do Itatiaia. More research is needed to confirm its extent of occurrence and whether or not it is a restricted range species. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is also required, and population monitoring is needed to investigate an apparent decline.
25954		distribution	eng	This species is known from Parque Nacional do Itatiaia in Serra da Mantiqueira on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, in southern Brazil, from 1,800-2,400m asl, and possibly also from Castanhal Grande, Óbidos, Pará State, Brazil.
25954		habitat	eng	This diurnal species occurs in swamp areas along rivers with limpid and cold waters. It deposits its eggs in temporary puddles formed by the rain. It is not known whether or not it is able to adapt to habitat disturbance.
25954		population	eng	This is a very common species within its small range, but it appears to have declined recently (Eterovick <em>et al.</em> 2005).
25954		threats	eng	Threats to this species include tourism and recreation.
26156		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, although there remains a need for improved protection of remaining forested habitats on Mindanao and Bohol.
26156		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mindanao, Leyte, Bohol and Basilan Islands in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
26156		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests. It breeds and lays its eggs in tree holes.
26156		population	eng	It is common in forest and disturbed areas adjacent to forest.
26156		threats	eng	A major threat is the loss of the species' major habitat, the lower montane and lowland rainforest, due to agriculture and human settlement.
26210		conservation	eng	Effective protection of the remaining forest on Camiguin is needed for this species. This is one of the smallest frogs in the Philippines and could be a useful species in flagship awareness campaigns. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine the identity of morphologically similar species on Mindanao.
26210		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Camiguin Island, in the Philippines. Records on Mindanao might be referable to this species.
26210		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and reproduces by direct development. Eggs presumed to belong to this species have been observed under mosses in montane forests.
26210		population	eng	It is rare on Camiguin Island.
26210		threats	eng	An important threat is the loss of lower montane forest through shifting agriculture and illegal logging.
26438		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but there remains a need for improved protection of the remaining rainforests on the islands of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao.
26438		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao, in the eastern Philippines.
26438		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and can also be found in disturbed areas adjacent to forest. It breeds by direct development.
26438		population	eng	It is common in forest, and disturbed areas adjacent to forest.
26438		threats	eng	The major threat is the continued loss of the lower montane and lowland rainforest, due to agriculture (crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.
26459		conservation	eng	It is unclear whether it occurs in any protected areas, but there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitat on Mindoro.
26459		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mindoro Island, in the Philippines, at elevations of 100-1,650m asl.
26459		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It deposits its eggs in humus in tree ferns and pandan axils, and breeds by direct development.
26459		population	eng	It is common in suitable forest habitat, and also survives in small numbers in adjacent disturbed forested areas.
26459		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and deforestation of the lower montane and lowland rainforest.
27926		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Surveys and monitoring are required to determine population trends in this rare species. If there is any evidence of declines, action should be taken to protect the species. Research would be required to determine appropriate conservation measures.
27926		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Surveys and monitoring are required to determine population trends in this rare species. If any evidence of declines is indicated, action should be taken to protect the species. Further research is necessary to determine appropriate conservation measures.
27926		distribution	eng	<em>Atelerix algirus</em> is endemic to the Mediterannean region, being found across north Africa from Morocco to Libya, in Spain, and on a number of islands including the Canary Islands, Djerba, Malta, Majorca, Ibiza and Formentera. It was formerly introduced to France, but is now extinct. Its occurence in continental Europe and on many of the islands within its range may be the result of introductions by man (Lapini 1999). It typically occurs at altitudes of 0 to 400 m, although it can reach altitudes of 900 m in Morocco (Lapini 1999).
27926		distribution	eng	<em>Atelerix algirus</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring across North Africa from Morocco to Libya, in Spain, and on a number of islands including the Canary Islands, Djerba, Malta, Majorca, Ibiza and Formentera. It was formerly introduced to France, but is now extinct there. Its occurrence in continental Europe and on many of the islands within its range may be the result of introductions by man (Lapini 1999). It typically occurs at altitudes of 0 to 400 m, although it can reach altitudes of 900 m in Morocco (Lapini 1999). The exact dates of introductions into many of the Mediterranean Islands are not known, but it is known that the species was introduced onto the Canary Islands in the 1890s (Hutterer 1983, R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
27926		habitat	eng	<em>A. algirus</em> found in a range of habitats including semi-desert, dry Mediterranean scrub, grasslands, pastures, cultivated fields, and gardens, sometimes in close proximity to human habitation. It is most often found in arid areas (Lapini 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002), and forages at night for arthropods, small vertebrates, carrion, and fungi.
27926		habitat	eng	It is found in a range of habitats including semi-desert, dry Mediterranean scrub, grasslands, pastures, cultivated fields, and gardens, sometimes in close proximity to human habitation. It is most often found in arid areas  (Lapini 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It forages at night for arthropods, small vertebrates, carrion, and fungi.
27926		population	eng	It is rare in mainland Europe, and on most of the islands within its range, although it is locally common on the Canary Islands, Malta and Formentera (Lapini 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
27926		population	eng	This species is difficult to record because of its nocturnal habits, therefore there are insufficient data available to be able to estimates population densities (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). However, in general hedgehog populations are decreasing across Mediterranean (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).
27926		threats	eng	Threats include accidental mortality on roads (roadkill). Populations may be limited by the availability of suitable habitat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is sometimes taken from the wild to be kept as a pet (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is also locally caught and eaten across the Mediterranean region. In Morocco it is used locally for medical purposes and appears in local witchcraft markets (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). Increasing numbers of roads and habitat loss are the most serious threats to the species, although it is unlikely they are major threats at present.
27926		threats	eng	Threats include roadkill. Populations may be limited by the availability of suitable habitat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is sometimes taken from the wild to keep as a pet (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29401		conservation	eng	The species occurs close to two protected areas (Sangay and Llangantes National Parks) but it has not yet been recorded in them. Further studies on distribution are required.
29401		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities along east Andean foothills (1,128 to 1,524 m) of central Ecuador (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is likely that the species is more widespread than presently known (D. Tirira pers. comm.)
29401		habitat	eng	This species is poorly-known; it occurs in premontane very humid tropical forest; it is terrestrial and apparently nocturnal.
29401		population	eng	It is rare. This rodent is known only from three localities and records (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Tirira, in prep.).
29401		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
29402		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Floresta Nacional de Tapirape-Aquiri. It needs more research to determine habitat limitations (Patton pers. comm.).
29402		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east and central Brazil, south of the Rio Amazonas between the lower reaches of the Xingu and Tocantins Rivers (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Also it occurs in four localities from Para and Matto Grosso states, Brazil (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
29402		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in the terra firme Atlantic Forest. It has typically captured on ground and under logs in viney forests and thickets and bambu thickets (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Other species of this genus are tied to pristine forest (Patton pers. comm.) so this species might be intolerant of habitat disturbance.
29402		population	eng	This species is not very common.
29402		threats	eng	The major threat is deforestation due to soy bean plantation and cattle ranching as well as some logging.
29403		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
29403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland tropical rainforests of eastern Amazonia—eastern and southern Venezuela, Guianas, northern anc central Brazil, and eastern Paraguay; including Trinidad; western limits indeterminate (Musser and Carleton 2005).
29403		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary, secondary, and degraded forest.
29403		population	eng	This species is locally common.
29403		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
29404		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas within the range.
29404		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest, southeast Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005), from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro States, mostly in the lowlands.
29404		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in lowland Atlantic forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000), which is the most highly altered piece of the Atlantic forest.
29404		population	eng	The information about its population is unknown.
29404		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction due to deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture.
29405		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
29405		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Paraguay, southeastern Brazil (Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul states), and northeastern Argentina (as per Massoia 1975, Musser <em>et al.</em> 1998). (Musser and Carleton 2005).
29405		habitat	eng	This species is found in gallery forest in Cerrado and subtropical lowland forest.
29405		population	eng	This species can be locally common or uncommon.
29405		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.
29408		conservation	eng	Several protected areas occur within the range of this species.
29408		distribution	eng	This species is known from French Guiana, central Guyana, from Manaus, Amazonas state, east and north of Pará state, Brazil, and then into the department of Guainia, Colombia. It has been recorded up to 100m asl.
29408		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs in bromeliads, where the larvae also develop. It has oophagous tadpoles.
29408		population	eng	It is not numerous, but it is a common species. In the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana, however, it is the most commonly encountered anuran species (Ernst et al., 2005).
29408		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats to this species.
29414		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
29414		distribution	eng	This species occurs east of the Andes, on the lower slopes, from northern Bolivia to southern Tucuman and Catamarca Provinces, Argentina. In Bolivia, it has been recorded in the Departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Tarija. In the northern part of its range, it occurs at 1,650-3,400m asl, and in the southern part of its range, it occurs at 500-3,000m asl.
29414		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and arboreal species that can be found in the forest or in open areas of montane cloud forest, in Alto-Andean vegetation, dry inter-Andean valleys and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Duellman <em>et al.</em> (1997) indicate that in high-elevation areas, it inhabits montane pastures; in the north, its range includes cloud temperate forest, while in the south, it occurs in deciduous premontane forest. It can be found in microhabitats around waterbodies, lotic or lentic lagoons, puddles, big or small streams or on the sides of a road. At night, males call from under bushes or brush woods, on the ground around waterbodies. During the day, they can be observed on rocks or perching on branches among rocks (Duellman <em>et al.</em> 1997, Köhler 2000). It breeds in most waterbodies, e.g. ephemeral ponds, roadside ditches and slow-moving streams, and deposits its eggs in water where the tadpoles also develop.
29414		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
29414		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
29415		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is required to aid its conservation, for example to determine the limits of its range and its population status.
29415		distribution	eng	This is a poorly known species from two closely situated localities: San Jose on the Río Santa Rosa, and Tutumbaro on the Río Pienee, in the drainage of the Río Apurimac, both on the eastern face of the Andes in central Peru. The localities are about 12km apart in Ayacucho Department. Its altitudinal range is 1,005-1,840m asl. It might range more widely than is currently known.
29415		habitat	eng	This stream breeding species is present in disturbed montane cloud forest with bamboo, ferns and elephant ear plants.
29415		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population status.
29415		threats	eng	Its major threats are not known.
29416		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, which protects most of the known population. More research is needed into this species' distribution, population trends and susceptibility to threats.
29416		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from several localities in the southwest, at Tsimanampetsotsa (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998), Efoetse (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) and Itampolo (R. Nussbaum unpublished data) between sea level and 100 m asl. The known extent of occurrence is 2,604 km²<sup></sup>; however, this lizard occurs in a poorly-surveyed area that is difficult to access, and may be more widespread than is currently recognized.<br/></p>
29416		habitat	eng	<p>This gecko is a rock specialist in dry limestone spiny bush (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998), where it is active at night on the ground and shelters under dead trees during the day (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998). Its clutch size is probably a single egg (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998).</p>
29416		population	eng	This is an abundant species on limestone karst; declines in the availability of suitable habitat within its range suggest that populations are likely to be decreasing.
29416		threats	eng	Even though this species occurs in a national park it is likely to be threatened by fire and timber extraction for charcoal production.
29417		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
29417		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality, a 6 x 25m pool at La Tapera, Aysen Province, in southern Chile (at approximately 44° 00'S; 71° 57'W), although it is likely to occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is 450m asl.
29417		habitat	eng	This species inhabits steppe. Reproduction probably occurs in habitats such as pools or bogs.
29417		population	eng	It was collected from the type locality only in January and December 1995. At least two subsequent visits to the type locality occurred when the pool was dry and there were no frogs.
29417		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
29418		conservation	eng	This species has not been collected in any protected areas but it is likely to occur in some that are in its range.
29418		distribution	eng	This species occurs in cerrado (Goiás and Minas Gerais States) and caatinga (Paraíba and Pernambuco States) formations of northeast and central Brazil (Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998).
29418		habitat	eng	This rodent has been taken from cerrado habitat and gallery forest in Terezina de Goias (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It has been collected in moderately disturbed areas (Weksler and Bonvicino pers. comm.).
29418		population	eng	This species is common.
29418		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
29419		conservation	eng	The original collection of this species occurred in Royal Chitwan National Park (Das 1998).
29419		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nepal. Reports from north-east India reflect a misidentification with <em>Rana danielii</em>. It is a lowland species occurring below 500m asl in the foothills of the Himalayan range. It probably occurs a little more widely, and can be expected to occur in India.
29419		habitat	eng	It is associated with terai grasslands, bushes and tropical <em>Shorea</em> forest in hilly areas. Specimens were collected by Das (1998) under logs in <em>Shorea</em> forest with scattered patches of short grass and bare earth. There is little information available concerning details of reproduction or larval habitat.
29419		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
29419		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss as a result of selective logging of forests and changes in water management regimes (such as dam construction).
29420		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. This species is not recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring, habitat management and protection of the species are recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
29420		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Nepal, where it is known only from the type locality of about 30 km south of Pokhara, Syangja district (Topál 1997). It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,300 m asl. The extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy is unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
29420		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species except that this species has been recorded from subtropical forests (T.K. Shrestha pers. comm. January 2002) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
29420		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
29420		threats	eng	This habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural purposes and mining operations (T.K. Shrestha pers. comm. January 2002) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
29425		conservation	eng	It is known from Parque Estadual Pico do Paraná.
29425		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, near Pico Paraná, in the state of Paraná, Brazil, at 1,700m asl.
29425		habitat	eng	It was found on sphagnum moss in montane savannah.
29425		population	eng	It is known from a single specimen collected in 1988, and there have been no records since, despite searches in 1999, 2001 and 2003 (Eterovick <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29425		threats	eng	Tourism and fire could be threats to it.
29426		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas in the area from which this species is known, and there is an urgent need to maintain remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species. Ongoing surveys are needed to locate and monitor populations of this restricted range species.
29426		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra de Caral (part of the Sierra de Merendón), Izabal, Guatemala, at 1,125-1,140m asl. It is not known if the species ranges more widely, and it seems very plausible that it is a restricted range endemic species (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).
29426		habitat	eng	It lives in subtropical old-growth wet forest, where it has been found on low vegetation and on a rock bank near a waterfall at night, and below a pile of dead palm leaves during the day. It breeds by direct development.
29426		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens.
29426		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the habitat loss that is proceeding very rapidly in the Sierra de Caral as a result of extensive logging and agricultural encroachment (cattle ranching) (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).
29430		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the species' habitat is in urgent need of protection. Additional survey work is needed to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species.
29430		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen taken at Cerro Socopó, 84km north-west of Carora, in Falcón state, Venezuela (10.28N, 70.48W), at 1,250m asl. It is assumed to be restricted to the Cerro Socopó.
29430		habitat	eng	The Cerro Socopó is a relict of cloud forest surrounded by semi-arid vegetation. It presumably breeds by larval development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
29430		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
29430		threats	eng	All of the area of Cerro Socopó has been severely affected by forest destruction for agriculture (crops and livestock), as well as by agricultural pollution.
29431		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
29431		distribution	eng	This Brazilian species is known from three localities in the southern part of the state of Bahia (Maracás, Planalto Baiano and Poções) and from one locality in the north-eastern part of the state of Minas Gerais (Salto da Divisa), where it occurs up to 960m asl.
29431		habitat	eng	It is a species of the scrub transition zone between the Atlantic rainforest and the inland dry Caatinga savannah. It lives inside bromeliads in dry forest and open rocky areas, and most likely breeds in temporary ponds.
29431		population	eng	It is known from only six specimens and is probably rare.
29431		threats	eng	There is no direct information on particular threats to it, but the localities from which it has been recorded are probably subject to habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging, livestock grazing, collection of bromeliads and human settlement.
29432		conservation	eng	Although Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén is very near to the type locality, populations of the species have not been reported from this protected area; there might be a need to extend the boundaries of this park to include the known type locality. The species is protected by national legislation in Peru. Further surveys are needed to determine the current population status of the species, and captive-breeding programmes might be required to ensure its persistence.
29432		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Llamaquizú stream, close to Oxapampa town, at 2,010m asl (Departamento: Pasco), Peru. It is thought to have a genuinely restricted distribution.
29432		habitat	eng	It is recorded from montane tropical rainforest. Its breeding habitat is not known.
29432		population	eng	It is a very rare species, and is known only from the type series.
29432		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities.
29433		conservation	eng	It occurs in the several protected areas.
29433		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in most of the eastern Madagascar rainforest belt, at 50-900m asl.
29433		habitat	eng	It is associated with swamps in primary and secondary rainforest, and is not found in open areas. It breeds in swamps.
29433		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
29433		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
29434		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
29434		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Chile; limits unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005).
29434		habitat	eng	Shrubs, in Chilean matorral.
29434		population	eng	It is a common species.
29434		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
29435		conservation	eng	The range of this species in Viet Nam includes Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
29435		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in north-central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Inger and Kottelat 1998; B. Stuart pers. comm.), and from four localities in Viet Nam: Huong Son in Ha Tinh Province, Cha Lo in Quang Binh Province, and Pu Hoat and Pu Mat, both in Nghe An Province. It has been recorded from 200-1,300 masl.
29435		habitat	eng	It lives on boulders and rock faces along stream cascades and waterfalls in evergreen forest and tolerates some degree of habitat disturbance (Inger and Kottelat 1998; Stuart 1999).
29435		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
29435		threats	eng	This is a stream-breeding species that might be threatened by habitat loss due to logging and infrastructure development, but is particularly sensitive to changes in water quality and flow.
29442		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro.
29442		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fazenda Neblina, at 1375 masl in the Serra do Brigadeiro, municipality of Araponga, and from the municipality of Ouro Preto (20 29' S, 43 35' W, 1248 masl), both in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil (Feio et al., 1999, Baêta et al., 2005). These localities are separated by ca 120 km (Baêta et al., 2005).
29442		habitat	eng	It has been found in the margins of temporary ponds, in which it makes a foam nest, and in swampy areas in moist rainforest, and in forest edges. It can tolerate slight disturbance to its habitat, but it does not occur in more degraded areas and is not found outside forest.
29442		population	eng	It is relatively common in suitable habitat.
29442		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to fire and human settlement.
29450		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas, but there remains a need for improved protection of remaining forests in the Central Cordilleras and Sierra Madres on Luzon. As its species name suggests, this is one of the smallest frogs in the Philippines (as small as 15mm in snout-vent length), and so could represent an important flagship species for conservation efforts in the region. There is also a need for further taxonomic research to resolve what might be a species complex.
29450		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras and Sierra Madres, on northern Luzon Island, and on Sibuyan Island, in the Philippines. It ranges from 400-1,000m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).
29450		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests, and breeds by direct development. The males form calling aggregations.
29450		population	eng	It is common in many of the known localities.
29450		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest due to small-scale logging and conversion to agricultural land.
29451		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.
29451		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Banahaw, on Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
29451		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in mossy and montane rainforests, and breeds in the leaf-litter and deposits its eggs in terrestrial nests. It breeds by direct development.
29451		population	eng	It is very common above 800m asl on Mount Banahaw, and the population is apparently stable.
29451		threats	eng	This species is not likely to be threatened at present since it occurs in the high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less subjected to deforestation and other human disturbance. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to these threatening processes.
29452		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not listed on CITES. It is present in Foret de Tiéa, which has had livestock and wild ungulates removed to aid habitat recovery. Otherwise not present in any reserves and no further conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Surveys on this species and the decline in its habitat, as well as monitoring of the invasive fire ants should be undertaken. The Pindaï forest in which this species is found is one of the largest remaining patches of sclerophyll forest in New Caledonia and needs to be protected.
29452		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998). <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia exsuccida s.l.</span> occurs in north-western Grande Terre and is known from five widely-scattered and highly localized populations between Rivière Nehoué and Presqu'ile de Pindaï. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.s.</span>&#160; is present at the southern three of these locations: Tinip, Foret de Tiéa and Pindaï. Occurs at altitudes up to 240 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.l.</span> is approximately 1,350 km², whereas for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.s.</span> is approximately 900 km². The area of occupancy for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.l</span>. is less than 25 km²<sup></sup>, whereas for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.s</span>. is 15 km<sup>²</sup>.<br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
29452		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sclerophyll forest (Tiéa and Pindaï), gallery forest (Nehoué), closed forest (Kaala and Tinip) and maquis shrubland (Tinip). It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters during the day in tree holes, beneath loose bark and under logs and stones, and forages at night on trunks, twigs and foliage.
29452		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span>, but it is assumed to have suffered substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss associated with the clearance of the west coast sclerophyll forests for agriculture and by wildfires. As a consequence, the remaining populations are fragmented and patchy in occurrence. This species is not common at any location.
29452		threats	eng	The primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span> is further habitat loss and fragmentation from clearance and wildfires. Habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is also a concern, as is predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats). The introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is present at all the locations where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span> has been recorded and is expected to have a serious impact (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The highly invasive Asian gecko <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus frenatus</span> is now present at all locations where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span> has been recorded and this aggressive competitor is expected to have a detrimental effect.
29453		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not protected in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species. As habitat degradation is impacting this restricted species, protected areas should be considered to help reduce the degree of threat. Monitoring is also necessary as if threats continue, significant declines may occur increasing the extinction risk of <em>B. pulchella</em>.
29453		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia pulchella</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It has been recorded from only a small area of the main dividing range to the east of Bourail, Grande Terre. It is known from two localities about 6 km apart that may be part of one population, and are between 500-600 m above sea level (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998). These sites are right on the provincial boundary.<em></em></p><p>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 12 km²<sup></sup>  and the area of occupancy at 2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of  occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width  of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around  the points), except for very widespread species where the  published  areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of  that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat  remains.]</p>
29453		habitat	eng	<p>Specimens have been collected from maquis shrubland and the margin of forests and pastureland (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998). It also inhabits closed forest areas. This species is nocturnal and arboreal, foraging at night in the vegetation. It is not known whether it shelters by day in trees or on the ground.</p>
29453		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is presumed to have suffered some reduction in extent as a result of habitat loss on the western slopes from wildfires and clearance for agriculture and at higher elevation from mining exploration. Still locally abundant at both known sites (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998), but searches elsewhere on the central ranges have failed to detect this species.
29453		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pulchella</span> is from wildfires reducing or destroying habitat, particularly at lower elevations on the western side of the range where it abuts ranch land. Habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates is also an issue, again greatest on the western side. There is a risk that mining may occur on the range top (the area has been tracked in the past for nickel exploration). The invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan 2000, 2001; Bauer and Sadlier 1993), is potentially a problem in closed humid forest habitat. Predation pressure from rodents and cats will be occurring throughout.
29454		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
29454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from five ultramafic massifs on the central west coast of Grande Terre from Plateau de Tia in the north to Mé Adéo in the south. Surveys in surrounding areas have failed to locate additional populations. It occurs at elevations from 160 to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,200 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated at 150 km². <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
29454		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky maquis on ultramafic massifs. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath stones and in rock and soil crevices. It forages in the open and on rock surfaces; usually basks on rocks.
29454		population	eng	No quantitative data are available on population size and trends for this species. It is expected to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent in the past with habitat loss from mining on the ultramafic massifs and habitat degradation resulting from the recurrent wildfires that sweep through the maquis shrublands. It is still locally common at some sites, especially those on cuirasse surfaces.
29454		threats	eng	The most serious threats to this species are from further loss of maquis habitat resulting from the expanding mining on the ultramafic peaks on the central west coast and from habitat degradation caused by wildfires. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) may also be an issue.
29455		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
29455		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Fazenda Salvamento, Rio Uraricoera, Roraima, in Brazil.
29455		habitat	eng	This species is found in flooded lowland tropical forest.
29455		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
29455		threats	eng	Much of the interior forest in the region of the species' type locality is relatively well preserved. However, high rates of deforestation are occurring along the river courses in the area. It is not known if this habitat change is having any impact on the species.
29458		conservation	eng	There is need for specific surveys in the region of the type locality.
29458		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a single specimen captured in April 1993 taken at 2,500 m on Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao (Bukidnon province) (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is currently known only from the Kitanglad Range (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998), though we suspect that it is more widespread in mossy forest on Mindanao.
29458		habitat	eng	The individual was found in a primary mossy forest with little disturbance (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Rickart <em>et al</em>. (1998) hypothesized that it is similar to <em>Archboldomys luzonensis</em>, which is diurnal and feeds on soft-bodied invertebrates. A semi-fossorial habit is inferred from a combination of external characters, including strong front feet with large claws, narrow head, tiny eyes, and dense, soft pelage (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998).
29458		population	eng	The population status of the species is unknown. Surveys using pitfall traps in the region of the type locality are required (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
29458		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
29459		conservation	eng	Currently, this species' known range is within Penablanca Protected Landscape, but population surveys are needed in high elevation mossy forest in northern Sierra Madre mountains to verify whether or not the distribution extends over this region (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998).
29459		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Mt. Cetaceo, Cagayan Province, Luzon, Philippines and the Balbalasang region of Kalinga Province (Rickart and Heaney 2002).
29459		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mossy montane forest (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994) from 1,500 to 1,650 m (D. Balete, M. Duya, and P. Alviola pers. comm.).
29459		population	eng	The species is known only from the holotype and one subsequent survey in 2005 that found six individuals. Surveys at lower elevations did not find the species (D. Balete, M. Duya, and P. Alviola pers. comm.) .
29459		threats	eng	There are no major threats at the known locality, which is a very remote and unpopulated area (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998).
29460		conservation	eng	It is present in the Anjanaharibe-Sud and Manongarivo Special Reserves and the Marojejy National Park.
29460		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is generally found in montane areas (though there are a few records outside of montane areas) of the northern highlands and the eastern portion of the central highlands as far south as Moralambo. The distribution was previously thought to be discontinuous (Carleton 2003); however, new sampling in appropriate habitats continues to reveal new localities. It occurs at elevations between 410 and 1,875 m asl.
29460		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland to montane sclerophyllous forest. It is presumably a partly scansorial species. The females are presumed to give birth to up to three young. This species is forest dependent, and has not been captured outside of forest. May occur to just below the tree line, and has not been captured in alpine grasslands.
29460		population	eng	This species can reach notably high densities in montane forest (Goodman and Carleton 1998; Carleton and Goodman 2000).
29460		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat for conversion to cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
29461		conservation	eng	It is present in the Anjanaharibe-Sud Reserve Forest and the Marojejy National Park. There is a proposal to extend the Anjanaharibe-Sud Reserve Forest reserve further to the west, which would encompass one of the known localities of this species.
29461		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern highlands of Madagascar, where it has been collected from Anjanaharibe-Sud massif and the Marojejy National Park. It is found at an elevation range of 1,300 to 1,950 m asl. There have been surveys in the surrounding areas without finding this species, although there may be issues with trapping techniques.
29461		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid montane forest, and is only known from intact forest.
29461		population	eng	&#160;Based on standard trapping techniques involving pit-fall traps and live traps, this species is never common.
29461		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species since it occurs at elevations above 1,300 m, where the impacts of forest loss are diminished, and the bulk of its range is within protected areas.
29462		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve and the Marojejy National Park. It is also known from the western slope of a massif outside of the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve which will soon become a protected area. Further research is needed into the population, range and biology and ecology of this species.
29462		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two massifs in the northern highlands of Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of 1,225 to 1,950 m.
29462		habitat	eng	It is apparently restricted to a rather narrow elevational band of mid-montane to sclerophyllous montane forest.
29462		population	eng	Based on standard trapping techniques this species is relatively common (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
29462		threats	eng	There are no obvious major threats at present, but habitat loss from slash and burn/tavy cultivation is a potential future threat. Although this species has a restricted range, all of the records are within protected areas or from sites that will soon be protected.
29463		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jau National Park (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000), and Amana and Mamiraua protected areas as well (A. Percequillo and J. Patton pers. comm.). Surveys to the west of its present range (to Iquitos, Peru) would be very helpful.
29463		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west central Amazonas state, Brazil, up to Jau River and both sides of the Rio Solimoes; adjacent Colombia and is likely to be found in northeastern Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000, J. Patton pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.
29463		habitat	eng	This rodent has been reported from terra firma forest. Pregnant females have been recorded in May and October (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Nothing else is known about the habitat or ecology of this species (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29463		population	eng	This species is uncommon where it has been collected. This is the least represented member of the genus in scientific collections (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29463		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
29464		conservation	eng	Javari indigenous area is within the range of this species although the two localities for this species are outside the reserve. More surveys are needed to determine its conservation status (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29464		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the upper and lower central regions on the left bank of the Rio Juruá in the Amazonas State, Brazil; and one or two localities in the Loreto Department, Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.
29464		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary or second-growth terra firme forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Of specimens taken in September and October five of the 18 adult females collected were pregnant (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
29464		population	eng	This rodent is uncommon. It is known from a few specimens at the two localities, although there have not been further studies (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29464		threats	eng	There were no major threats known to the species at the time it was described in the early 1990s (J. Patton pers. comm.)
29465		conservation	eng	Some protected areas exist within its range, and the species has been collected from a National Park in Peru (J. Patton pers. comm.). More surveys are needed to determine its conservation status.
29465		distribution	eng	This species is known from only five localities in western Amazonia: two in the headwaters of the Rio Jurua Acre State, Brazil, and three in eastern and southeastern Peru in Ucayali, Madre de Dios and Puno departments (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). This species is replaced by <em>P. gardneri</em> to the east (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29465		habitat	eng	All specimens in Rio Jurua and Peru were collected from undisturbed terra firme forests (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The average litter is two. Further detailed information is not yet known. Data are inadequate to judge seasonality of reproduction, but breeding in the dry season has been confirmed (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
29465		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It is known only from a few specimens from five localities, although there have not been further studies within intermediate areas (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29465		threats	eng	There are no major threats known at this time; the isolated population is away from core development areas.
29466		conservation	eng	Some protected areas exist within the distribution, but it has not been collected or observed from any protected areas (J. Patton pers. comm.). More surveys are needed to determine its conservation status.
29466		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two localities in western Amazonia, Brazil, and south of the Amazon River into northern Bolivia; its distribution may be limited by the Rio Jurua to the west, and Rio Madeira to the east (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.
29466		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest that floods occasionally rather than annually (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Data are inadequate to judge seasonality of reproduction, but breeding in the dry season has been confirmed (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
29466		population	eng	The species is known only from a few specimens at the three localities, although there have not been further studies (J. Patton pers. comm.).
29466		threats	eng	There are no major threats known at this time; the most isolated population is away from core development areas.
29470		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Desembarco del Granma (a World Heritage Site), but there is significant disturbance of the habitat in this park. Improved management of the existing protected area, particularly aimed at reducing disturbance around the caves, is necessary.
29470		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range, and is found in just two caves and one other locality, in Meseta de Cabo Cruz, in Cuba. It has been recorded from 10-50m asl.
29470		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocks, leaf-litter, and caves in lowland closed-canopy forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
29470		population	eng	It is a moderately common species within the caves and other appropriate habitat.
29470		threats	eng	Habitat destruction as a result of disturbance by tourists and infrastructure development for tourism is the major threat, particularly since the caves are a popular tourist attraction.
29471		conservation	eng	It is known from a few protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species, and are in need of expansion and improved management.
29471		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Cienfuegos Province, in Cuba, where it has been recorded from sea level up to 830m asl.
29471		habitat	eng	It inhabits a wide variety of mesic situations, including natural forest and some anthropogenic habitats such as plantations, as well as introduced vegetation. This suggests that it is able to tolerate some alteration of its habitat, although it does require large trees. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
29471		population	eng	It is a very common species.
29471		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation as a result of deforestation for agriculture, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the subsequent disturbance of the habitat due to tourist activities.
29472		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Viñales, but most are in need of improved management and protection.
29472		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Pinar del Río Province, in western Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to at least 700m asl.
29472		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky habitats and in the leaf-litter of moist forest, but has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
29472		population	eng	It is common and abundant.
29472		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to agriculture and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism, and agricultural pollution.
29473		conservation	eng	<em>Pteralopex taki</em> is not present in any protected areas. Research is urgently needed to determine the impact of logging on it. Protection of suitable lowland forest habitat is urgently needed to conserve this species.
29473		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of New Georgia and Vangunu in the Solomon Islands. It is presumed to have become extinct on the island of Kolombangara in the mid-1970s (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002).
29473		habitat	eng	This species appears to need a core range of mature lowland tropical moist forest containing large old trees. It usually flies below, rather than above, canopy level (Fisher and Tasker 1997). It appears to forage in old gardens and historical village-sites with large fig, Ngali (<em>Canarium</em> sp.) and Cut Nut trees (<em>Barringtonia edulis</em>), close to primary tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995). Animals roost in small colonies within hollow trees, particularly figs with a diameter of over 1.5 m (Fisher and Tasker 1997). Parnaby (2002) estimated the generation length of this species to be between eight and ten years.
29473		population	eng	Uncommon. This species was the 9<sup>th</sup> most frequently netted out of 12 species of bats captured in a targeted study of the species on New Georgia by Fisher and Tasker (1997). It comprised 6% of captures. In ideal habitat (mature lowland forest close to stands of fruit trees, e.g., old village sites) population density estimated from the resighting rate of radio-collared bats over three months was around 3 per km<sup>2</sup>, and around 0.15 per km<sup>2</sup> in primary forest.<br/><br/>Population size inferred from the probable area of suitable habitat is around 500 mature individuals (min = 130, max = 5,000) (D. Fisher pers. comm.).
29473		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss through logging operations and land clearance; it is also adversely affected by the conversion of land for agriculture, especially for oil palm plantations. It is particularly threatened by the removal of large roost trees (Parnaby 2002). The species is believed to have become extinct on Kolombangara because of extensive logging operations between 1966 and 1980 (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002). There is some local hunting of this species, and while it is currently not intensively hunted, the hunting pressure on this species is predicted to rise with the increasing human population of the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002). It occurs in accessible areas near coastal villages, and is easily caught (Fisher and Tasker 1997).
29481		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve; however to what extent is not known. Further research into the population and habitat status, ecology and threats to this species are needed, as well as monitoring of population trends.
29481		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, and has a distributional area of 934 km². This species occurs between 1,829 and 2,300 m above sea level.
29481		habitat	eng	This species is found in both primary and secondary growth cloud forest and possibly also humid pine forest (P. Stafford pers. comm. 2008)
29481		population	eng	This species is known only from three specimens, collected in 1978, 1993 and 1994 (Campbell and Smith 1998).
29481		threats	eng	This species is threatened from habitat loss due to deforestation to make way for cultivated plants, in particular broccoli and ornamental-leaf fern (Campbell and Smith 1998). This species has a restricted range and therefore Campbell and Smith (1998) described it as a likely candidate for extinction.
29482		conservation	eng	The species has not been found within a protected area. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution and natural history of this little known species.
29482		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known from the type locality of '3km NW Fereydin Shahr, about 140km NW Esfahan, Zagros Mountains, Esfahan Province' (Rastegar-Pouyani and Nilson, 1998; Anderson, 1999), and from a second locality in the same area. It is presumably more widespread than is currently known. It has been recorded between 2,640 and 3,200m asl.
29482		habitat	eng	It is associated with hilly rocky areas and scant, low vegetation; it is not present in surrounding areas of plains (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). Animals are found foraging around and basking on boulders and rocks (Anderson, 1999).
29482		population	eng	It is relatively abundant where it occurs (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008
29482		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species in its rocky habitat.
29483		conservation	eng	It has not been protected in a protected area so far. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species.
29483		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Iran, where it is currently known only from the type locality of '5km S Qasr-e Shirin, Kermanshah Province', however it may range further south and possibly into Iraq (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1998; Anderson, 1999). It has been collected at 285m asl.
29483		habitat	eng	It is found in arid areas of stony hills and soft-sandy alluvial soils covered with desert shrubs and grasses (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1998; Anderson, 1999).
29483		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series of two specimens.
29483		threats	eng	There seems to have been recent disturbance to the type locality, with no animals recently seen. The causes of the changes are not known and require further research.
29484		conservation	eng	The species is found in forest on the US military base on Okinawa. The forest patch where it is found on Amami-oshima is a forest reserve. There is an urgent need to protect mature forest. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
29484		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found in the Ryukyu Archipelago: Okinawa, Amami-Oshima, and Tokunoshima (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It was first discovered in 1996 on Okinawa. The species is restricted to small fragments of intact mature forest on each of the islands. Surveys on several other forest patches have not indicated that the species is present.
29484		habitat	eng	This is the only tree hollow-dwelling bat known to be present on Okinawa. The species is dependent on intact mature forest.
29484		population	eng	There have only been three individuals found on Okinawa, two on Tokunoshima, and four on Amami-oshima. The species occurs at low densities where surveys have been conducted.
29484		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation.
29485		conservation	eng	Some parts of Amami-oshima are protected in forest reserves (through the federal forest department and the prefecture). It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
29485		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found only on the islands of Okinawa, Tokuno-shima, and Amami-Oshima (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). This species was first discovered in 1996.
29485		habitat	eng	The species is dependent on mature forest. They roost in tree hollows.
29485		population	eng	There have been ten records from the northern part of Okinawa. Twenty surveys have been conducted since 1992 on Okinawa and Tokuno-shima. There was one survey in 2000 on Amami-oshima on three nights, and three individuals were found. Previously, there were not many surveys for this species. It appears that this species occurs at a low density when compared with congeneric species.
29485		threats	eng	There is deforestation on all three islands which is affecting the species, as it is dependent on mature, intact forests.
29487		conservation	eng	More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is also required. Its range includes several protected areas.
29487		distribution	eng	This species is known from Boracéia (municipality of Salesópolis), Picinguaba (municipality of Ubatuba), and Reserva Florestal Morro Grande (municipality of Cotia), all in eastern São Paulo State, and adjacent Parati, in southern Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Individuals have been found at elevations between sea level and 900 metres (Pimenta et al., 2007; Verdade et al., 2008).
29487		habitat	eng	It occurs on the forest leaf-litter in primary and good quality secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus, although this hasn't been observed. Females deposit one egg at a time. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
29487		population	eng	It is a fairly abundant species.
29487		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation of the Atlantic Forest for agriculture and infrastructure development are threats to this species.
29488		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed; this species is extinct.
29488		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens that were collected on 12 June 1964, two miles south of Bay Springs, Jasper County, Mississippi, USA (Lazell 1998).
29488		habitat	eng	The specimens were collected in springhead litter (Lazell 1998). It was presumably a terrestrial breeder with a direct development breeding strategy.
29488		population	eng	It is probably extinct because the species has not been observed since 1964, and members of this genus are relatively easy to detect.
29488		threats	eng	Although the threats are not well known, it seems possible that habitat loss through deforestation might have caused the species' extinction.
29588		conservation	eng	Although the forests on Palawan are, in general, reasonably well protected in much of the island, more effective protection of the remaining rainforest on the island, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests, is necessary. Further survey work is also needed to establish the current population status of this species.
29588		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Palawan Island, in the Philippines. The type locality was at an elevation of 1,500m asl.
29588		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in riverine habitat in montane and lowland forests. Its breeding biology is unrecorded, but it presumably takes place in water by larval development.
29588		population	eng	It is apparently rare, and there have been no field observations of this species for more than 40 years, though this may be an artefact of limited survey work.
29588		threats	eng	The loss of lowland rainforest, mainly due to agricultural activities and selective logging, is a major threat to this species.
29591		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure needed at present is the continued management of Mount Isarog National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species.
29591		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Isarog (1,200-1,800m asl), on south-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It might also occur on Mount Malinao, from 650-1,500m asl.
29591		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and deposits its eggs on leaves in shrub layer vegetation. It breeds by direct development.
29591		population	eng	It is common in mid- to upper-montane forests on Mount Isarog, and its populations appear to be stable.
29591		threats	eng	It inhabits high-elevation forests in what is presently a generally well-protected locality, and is relatively less threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and human encroachment. Nonetheless, it remains susceptible to these threats particularly given its very small range.
29599		conservation	eng	Gazetting a protected area in Tawi Tawi Island.
29599		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines: Tawi Tawi and Bongao Islands.
29599		habitat	eng	Small forest streams.
29599		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
29599		threats	eng	Deforestation.
29600		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
29600		distribution	eng	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.
29600		habitat	eng	Lowland rain-forest streams (750 m).
29600		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
29600		threats	eng	Deforestation.
29602		conservation	eng	No information available.
29602		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from The Gambia to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded for Cameroon and Gabon, and reported from Equatorial Guinea. Records for Equatorial Guinea and Gabon need to be checked.
29602		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from The Gambia to Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found outside the western Africa region in Cameroon
29602		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from The Gambia to Cameroon. Records for Equatorial Guinea and Gabon need confirmation.
29602		habitat	eng	Open rivers.
29602		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
29602		population	eng	No information available.
29602		threats	eng	No information available.
29602		threats	eng	None known at present.
29603		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are needed, along with confirmation of extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored. Present in Parque Nacional Guanacaste (unpublished record from R.W. Garrison).
29603		distribution	eng	Pacific slope of Costa Rica to Canal Zone of Panama.
29603		habitat	eng	Swift forest streams in hilly country (425 m).
29603		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
29605		conservation	eng	The Mona iguana is listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the PR-DNRE.  In 1984, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service approved a recovery plan for the Mona iguana prepared by C. Diaz, PR-DNRE (Diaz 1984).   <br/> <br/>During the last 25 years, the PR-DNRE has instituted some important changes.  The hunting season on Mona has been moved to a time outside the iguana nesting and incubation seasons.  Together with the local herpetological society, Sociedad Chelonia, the government has created several new nesting areas on the southwestern coastal terrace.  A number of clearings in the Casuarina forest have been established that are fenced off from goats and pigs but allow iguanas to pass freely.  Fencing of remote nest sites is currently being undertaken by the PR-DNRE, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Caribbean Office, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Sociedad Chelonia, and the Toledo Zoo.  Researchers at the PR-DRNE and the Toledo Zoo have additionally begun to assess the nature of the blindness syndrome seen in several adult iguanas.  Currently, PR-DNRE is conducting a long-term study to quantify the impact of feral cats on Mona Island wildlife.
29605		distribution	eng	The Mona Island iguana is endemic to the remote island of Mona, a low-profile limestone plateau situated midway between Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. The 11 by 7 km island lies within a deep sea channel known as the Mona Passage, and present submarine banks offer no evidence of former connections with either Puerto Rico or Hispaniola. The entire island is occupied by iguanas.
29605		habitat	eng	Mona’s climate is dry subtropical (800 mm rainfall per year), supporting an open canopy forest of short, seasonally deciduous trees, shrubs, cacti, and bromeliads.  Rainwater percolates rapidly through the porous limestone substrate, allowing no freshwater streams or ponds.  Solution channels and sinkholes that penetrate the island’s rock topography offer underground shelters that are utilized by both male and female iguanas, and retreats attractive to females are vigorously defended by males.  Some males hold territories year-round, while others defend them only during the brief June mating season. <br/> <br/>Because more than 95% of Mona’s surface is rock, females must migrate to scarce soil deposits for nesting.  The onset of the two-week, mid-summer nesting season appears to be cued by photoperiod and females are especially wary at this time.  Most egg laying (74%) occurs in sandy clearings on the island’s southern coastal terraces, with the remaining 26% in sinkhole depressions (Haneke 1995).  Mean clutch size is 12 eggs.  Surviving eggs hatch approximately 83 days after laying, during the latter half of October.  Newly emerged young are large and only the smallest juveniles are susceptible to indigenous predators.  Coloration and behavior of hatchlings suggests that aerial predators have long been a threat to this age class (Wiewandt 1977).   <br/> <br/>Females require 6 to 7 years to reach sexual maturity.  Although longevity records are not available, Mona iguanas, like all large rock iguanas, are probably among the longest lived lizards in the world.  Consequently, populations are slow to recover from losses over time. <br/> <br/>Mona iguanas are primarily herbivorous, with a strong preference for fruits that fall from native trees.  Some animal matter is eagerly taken, especially caterpillars when available.  Trees reach their greatest size and diversity in scattered sinkhole depressions, areas that are of particular importance to the welfare of the iguana population.
29605		population	eng	Census figures indicate that the Mona iguana population is abnormally small. A survey of the similarly-sized rhinoceros iguana on Petite Gonave Island in Haiti indicated densities 26 times greater than those found on Mona. Wiewandt found that immature iguanas were scarce on Mona, representing only 5-10% of the population (Weiwandt 1977), and Moreno sighted only two juveniles among 118 iguanas seen (Moreno 1995).  This contrasts sharply with Garcia’s unpublished data for rhinoceros iguanas (<em>C. cornuta cornuta</em>) on Isla Beata in the Dominican Republic, where all age classes are abundant and juveniles comprise approximately one-third of the population (see Grupo Jaragua 1994).  Low iguana densities and the scarcity of juveniles on Mona suggest a senescent and declining population.
29605		threats	eng	The most pressing conservation management challenge on Mona today is that of exotic species.  Having evolved in the near absence of predators, insular iguanas lack the behavioral and demographic attributes to cope with introduced mammals.  Feral pigs regularly plunder iguana nests.   <br/> <br/>Feral cats are also present on Mona, and constitute the most serious threat currently impacting young iguanas.  The devastating impact of cats on a population of Turks and Caicos iguanas was clearly documented (Iverson 1978), and there is little doubt that the present scarcity of juveniles on Mona is due primarily to the combined effects of pigs consuming eggs and cats preying on young. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification due to intense browsing pressure by feral goats (resulting in forest trees being unable to propagate successfully and a severe reduction in leaf litter) may also threaten the iguanas. <br/> <br/>Although lacking permanent settlements, Mona is a haven for recreational activities, including camping, fishing, swimming, scuba diving, beach combing, exploring, and hunting.  Most of these activities are concentrated along the island’s sandy coastal terraces and within sinkhole depressions, areas of critical importance for iguana nesting.  Haneke (1995) observed that new camping facilities had been recently added in iguana nesting areas at Playa de Pajaros.  Mona iguanas are wary and easily disturbed while nesting, and visitors can unintentionally disrupt the egg-laying process.  People and feral animals walking through nest site clearings during incubation may cause nest chambers to capsize, denying oxygen to developing eggs.  These and other conflicts between iguanas and visitors are bound to intensify as recreational use of the island continues to expand.  Goats regularly gather in sinkhole depressions on Mona’s plateau, and this may partially explain Heneke’s (1995) observation of complete nest failure there.  Mona may have already exceeded its carrying capacity for low impact tourist visitation.  Better supervision over visitors, particularly by strengthening educational programs, will become increasingly important as the number of people coming to Mona continues to grow.  <br/> <br/>Another recent concern for conservation of Mona iguanas is the emergence of an undefined disease or parasite that causes blindness.  Recently, Haneke (1995) observed 15 blind adults on Mona, all with opaque, bluish eyes and apparently severely undernourished.  Ramos (1964; cited in Kuns <em>et al</em>. 1965) lists 16 species of eye flies (family Chloropidae) occurring on Mona, including <em>Hippelates pusio</em>, which has been incriminated in the spread of catarrhal conjunctivitis in the United States.  Studies are urgently needed to identify the pathogens and vectors responsible for blindness in the Mona iguana population.
29606		conservation	eng	Research actions.
29606		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia (3 localities in Colombia), and west Venezuela (Simmons, 2005).
29606		habitat	eng	This bat is exclusively insectivorous. Lives in cloud forest, paramo and flies in open spaces.
29606		population	eng	In Venezuela it is uncommon (Linares, 1998) and rare over its range.
29606		threats	eng	Not known.
29607		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forest habitats.
29607		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to lowlands of the Guiana Shield. It is present in Bolivar State, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (Lim and Engstrom 2000).
29607		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. Its natural history is similar to other species of <em>Lasiurus</em>. It has been found in multistratal tropical evergreen forest and deciduous tropical forest; also in open areas. It may roost in hollow trees and feed aerially on insects (Emmons and Feer 1997, Linares 1998).
29607		population	eng	Rare. Known from only 20 specimens.
29607		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species at present.
29608		conservation	eng	This species is known to exist in a number of protected areas in the north-east (Eger and Mitchell 2003) and many along the west coast (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it appears to be widely distributed (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). The areas from where it has yet to be recorded may reflect low sampling effort rather than a genuine absence.
29608		habitat	eng	It is a cave roosting species (Goodman 2006; Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007) and in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana it used caves that are near water with low ceilings (Cardiff 2006). It has been recorded from a wide range of vegetation types including humid forest, dry deciduous forest and spiny bush (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
29608		population	eng	There was a maximum of 90 individuals recorded at a roost in Ankarana (S. G. Cardiff pers. comm.), but otherwise this species always appears to roost in rather small colonies (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its relative abundance, as determined by mist netting, varies from rare (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007) to locally common (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2006).
29608		threats	eng	It is threatened by roost site disturbance. This species is locally hunted in the south-west and north-west of Antananarivo (Goodman 2006; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008) and as a relatively large species may be subject to similar exploitation elsewhere. There is no evidence that hunting presents a major threat. It is unclear if this species is forest dependent.
29617		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Italian Red List, but its range is thought to be outside of protected areas (www.parks.it). Being a narrow range species, habitat and population trends should be monitored regularly.
29617		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a narrow area in the south-western Alps in Italy (Prealpi Lombarde, Monte Presolana near Bergamo). In this mountain there might be some local sub-populations, but they probably form one large meta-population. There is material with the following data in the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) and in the private collections of Willy de Mattia and Enrico Zallot : "Pizzo della Presolana", "Piani di Vione", "Colere", "Mt. Presolana, 2,100 m asl." On the last visit in 2004 there were no signs that the area of occupancy (16 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (40 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating (Willy de Mattia, pers. comm).  <p>&#160;</p>
29617		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>
29617		population	eng	Although it lives within a restricted range the sub-populations surveyed seemed to be stable at the time of the last visit in 2004 (Willy de Mattia, pers comm).
29617		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or any other realistic threats. But it occurs within a narrow range which is a popular target for recreational activities such as mountaineering, trekking and rock-climbing so it might be affected by disturbance. In the latest assessment (2000), shell collecting was mentioned as a  potential threatening factor, but as a locally abundant rock-dwelling  species it can hardly be affected by shell collectors.</p>
29618		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be carried out to protect the species and  its habitat; there is a need for catchment management to ensure that dam  management and pollution do not extirpate the remaining populations and  more research is needed on the species' basic ecology, taxonomy, spawning time, including the  need to maintain a host species.
29618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India. It has been reported from five sub-populations (at two localities) in the Bhadra and Tunga River systems in Karnataka, India (Madhyastha 2001). It has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of 400 km² and an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km². A single specimen has been collected from Koyna Valley, Maharashtra, however its presence there is doubtful.
29618		habitat	eng	This species inhabits highly specialized environments in both the Bhadra and Tunga River (Madhyastha 2001, Mavinkurve <em>et al.</em> 2004). Individuals are generally firmly cemented to rocks and occur in clusters of five to ten (Madhyastha 2001). This species is thought to be sensitive to water pollution (Mavinkurve <em>et al.</em> 2004).
29618		population	eng	About 500 individuals of this species were found at the type locality in the Bhadra River (Madhyastha 2001). In the Tunga River, only about 100 individuals of this species seem to exist (Madhyastha 2001) in each of the localities. The population in Tunga River was extirpated because of the increase in the height of the Tunga Dam. On average the population density is estimated at 5-10 per m² (Madhyastha pers. comm.).
29618		threats	eng	The construction of a dam and water pollution are the major threats to this species and its habitat. A project called the Upper Bhadra Project, which will include the construction of a dam on the Bhadra River, is set to go ahead (Madhyastha 2001). The flooding of this area will most likely be fatal for the subpopulation at this location. Anthropogenic (washing and bathing) and agricultural pollution and fishing using dynamite and chemicals are major threats to the subpopulation in the Tunga River (Madhyastha 2001), by reducing fish numbers, which in turn interrupts this species' life cycle. Recent increase in the height of Tunga Dam near Shimoga has submerged the newly identified sites and population of this species<em>. </em>Extensive extraction of the water for agriculture in some areas results in exposure, which is fatal to this species.
29619		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas across its range. The Red Brocket Deer is one of the focal species in a community-based wildlife management initiative in the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Community Reserve of the Peruvian Amazon.
29619		distribution	eng	The red brocket deer distribution ranges across northern South America from northern Argentina (Misiones, Salta, Jujuy, Tucumán, Formosa, Chaco and  Corrientes), Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Trinidad, Tobago, and Venezuela (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997; Medellín <em>et al.</em> 1998; Juliá and Richard, 2001, Wilson and Redder, 2005).
29619		habitat	eng	This is the largest species of the Mazama genus. It weighs between 30 and 40 Kg and is 65 cm tall (Duarte, 1996).  Ribeiro (1919) and Vieira (1955) believe that this species occurs from Guianas and Peru to Rio Grande do Sul State of Brazil, including Paraguay and Argentina. Junqueira (1940) states that the Red Brocket Deer prefer large forests and riverbanks that are almost always covered with vast vegetation, thereby avoiding the sun.  In Argentina, Olrog and Lucero (1981) reported that <em>M. americana</em> inhabits closed fields. As Emmons (1990) stated, this species is adapted to living in forests. According to Bodmer (1997), this species in the Amazon prefer firm, humid forest borders. In the rain forests, Red Brocket Deer are predominantly frugivores with fruit making up around 80% of their diet. During seasonally dry periods the diet of <em>M. americana</em> switches to greater proportions of browse.
29619		population	eng	The species is suspected to be widespread at low density in northern and northwestern Venezuela. In some areas this species has been overhunted (in densely human populated, rural areas) but likely still occurs at natural densities in the vast sparsely populated areas of the Peruvian Amazon.
29619		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat destruction represent major threats. The species is hunted for meat throughout much of its range (Dietrich pers. comm.). Subsistence hunting of Red Brocket Deer is legal in the Amazonian region of Peru.
29620		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its distribution: 5 national parks and 9 provincial reserves in Argentina; in almost all national parks and private reserves in Paraguay; in 7 national protected areas in Bolivia and in numerous protected areas in Brazil.  Hunting is illegal in many places (several Argentine provinces, for example) but the bans are not enforced. Recommended actions would be to implement and enforce controls on hunting, control stray dogs and to educate rural and village populations to conserve the deer rather than immediately trying to kill any individual that they see in the area.
29620		distribution	eng	The brown brocket deer is found east of the dry, pre-Andean regions in Argentina and Bolivia, extending to the Atlantic coast on the west; its northern limit is south of the Amazon region and its southern limit includes all of Uruguay and up to the province of Entre Rios in Argentina.  Although some authors report its distribution throughout all of Brazil, more recent evidence indicates its substitution by M. nemorivaga in the region of the Amazon (Duarte 1996; Duarte and Jorge 1998; Rossi 2000; Weber and Gonzalez 2003).
29620		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moderately humid to dry regions  where there are areas of woody or brush cover. It is not found in the Amazon region and it avoids dense forests in other regions as well, although it occupies the edges of forests. It does not live in open areas but will feed in these areas, including many types of agricultural plantations, if cover is available nearby. It is found in both dry and moist Chaco regions (Cartes 1998; Chiarello 1999; Gonzalez 2004; Pinder 1997; Pinder and Leeuwenberg 1997; Rivero <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It eats  a wide variety of plant species and is a selective feeder. It has pulses of frugivory depending on the area, season and availability of frutis, but is not essentially frugiverous in many areas; its habitat is not consistent with a frugivorous diet since it avoids forests where most of the fruit is found (Caballero 2001; Cartes 1998; Julia 2002; Pinder 1997; Stallings 1984).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs almost all year around with births in all months except May, June and July in Argentina and Bolivia and correlated with the rainy season in Brazil (Chavez 1999; Julia 2002). There is a post partum estrus and a gestation period of 7 months.<br/><br/>Mazama gouazoubira is a small to medium sized deer, with head and body length 882-1060 mm, tail length 83-190 mm, and ear length 95-121 mm (Rossi, 2000); shoulder height 500-650 mm and weight 11-25 kg (Duarte and Jorge 1998).  In Brazil, regional, ecological and individual variations in coloration of M. gouazoubira have frequently been reported (Duarte 1996; Pinder and Leeuwenberg 1997; Rossi 2000). Light and brownish colors prevail in individuals living in grasslands, while forest populations tend to be darker and grayer; significant individual variation exists within a single population. M. gouazoubira can be readily distinguished from the most similar species, the Amazonian brown brocket Mazama nemorivaga, by its orange rump and dorsal side of the tail, larger rounded ears, smaller eyes and orbital cavities, and wider auditory bulla rather than chocolate brown rump and dorsal side of the tail, small pointed ears, large eyes, large orbital cavities, and narrow auditory bulla of the latter species (Duarte 1996; Rossi 2000).
29620		population	eng	Populations seem to be decreasing due to the advance of human populations. There is no evidence of fragmented populations and the species continues to be abundant in most of its range, decreasing or disappearing when close to human populations. Densities vary greatly. In Brazil densities of 0.35 – 1 individual/km² have been found (Pinder 1997); in Bolivia densities of 5-12 individuals/km² have been found (Rivero <em>et al.</em> 2004).
29620		threats	eng	In Argentina populations are generally declining due to hunting pressure and habitat loss. International hunting expeditions are organized in Argentina (Julia 2002). In Bolivia the populations seem to be staying constant in spite of great hunting pressure. In Brazil this is the most abundant deer species in the country, but populations are declining in certain areas (Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro). In Paraguay, the populations in general are remaining constant, but the species has disappeared from recently urbanized areas and areas of high human density. In general there is heaving hunting pressure and loss of animals due to kills by dogs as well as habitat loss.
29621		conservation	eng	In Brazil with respect to protected areas, the species is mentioned in Iguaçu National Park, Lauraceas State Park, Pau Oco State Park, Boguaçu State Park, in the Private Reserve of the Natural Patrimony (RPPN) Federal das Araucárias (General Carneiro city) and RPPN Monte Alegre Farm in Telêmaco Borba city (J.M.B. Duarte pers. comm.).<br/>In Misiones, Argentina, many conservation units shelter important populations of this species, such as the Iguaçu National Park and the State Parks of Urugua-í, Foerster, Piñalito, Cruce Caballero, Esmeralda, Moconá y Cuña Pirú (D.M. Varela pers. comm.). In Paraguay, the majority of the Atlantic Forest habitats are extinct, what remains is in protected areas such as Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú and the Itaipu Hydroelectric Power Plant Reserve. Currently, San Rafael National Park, which has records of the species, suffers many pressures and threats (J.L. Cartes pers. comm.)
29621		distribution	eng	Known from a small sample of specimens in museums, this species was formerly included within the little dwarf brocket, Mazama rufina (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). For Redford and Eisenberg (1992) and Eisenberg and Redford (1999) this species occurs in southeast Paraguay, north of Misiones Province in Argentina, and in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais (extreme south), São Paulo (except Serra do Mar), Mato Grosso do Sul (south and southeast), Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul (north). However, this distribution is not consistent with the origin of scarce material in the Brazilian scientific collections that restrict its distribution to the southwest of Sao Paulo (to the south of Paranapanema River), Parana, Santa Catarina and north of Rio Grande do Sul (Rossi 2000).<br/><br/>The loss of preferential habitats could have caused the occupation of forest formations less preferred by the species. This would explain the recent records in the east of Parana and Santa Catarina (Montane Forest and Submontane Ombrophilous Dense Forest) (Margarido and Braga 2004, J.M.B. Duarte pers. comm.) and the absence of historical records in these regions (Rossi 2000).<br/><br/>The National Museum of Natural History of Paraguay has records of <em>M. nana</em> in San Rafael National Park region (Gamarra de Fox and Martin 1996) and in Argentina, the species may be found in almost all the remaining natural forests of Misiones Province (D.M. Varella pers. comm.).
29621		habitat	eng	The Brazilian red brocket probably resembles the other dwarf brockets (<em>M. rufina</em> and <em>M. chunyi</em>) in many aspects of its ecology, and merits detailed study in the field. According to Crespo (cited in Eisenberg in prep.), a single spotted fawn is born between September and February in northeastern Argentina. The habitat in eastern Paraguay is moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets.There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina (Chebez and Varela 2001). In Brazil, this cycle apparently does not exist (J.M.B. Duarte pers. comm.). This is the smallest deer species in Brazil, rarely exceeding 15 kg and 45 cm height (Duarte 1996). According to Rossi (2000) the animals have an intense and shiny reddish - chestnut general coloration. The submandibular, maxillary and ventral regions are light brown. The ears are small, somewhat slender and sometimes almost totally hairless. Czernay (1987) describes the hind legs as darker than the forelegs, which are shorter, giving origin to the Brazilian common name (mão-curta = short-hand) (Mikich and Bérnils 2004).
29621		population	eng	There is no precise information on the population size in any of the areas where it has been observed nor on the degree of connectivity between them, but it is likely that its populations are being decreased by the decline of the moist lowland forests within its range.
29621		threats	eng	In spite of all the uncertainties in ecological and biological aspects, it is the most threatened deer of Brazil and possibly of the Neotropical region. The population isolation caused by habitat loss in the past must be the main threat to the maintenance of the remaining population at the present time. The fragmentation tends to increase pressures, such as: hunting, predation by dogs, the exposure to the diseases of domestic species, and the progressive degradation of small forest fragments (edge effect) (Galindo- Leal and De Gusmão Câmara, 2003).<br/><br/>In Paraguay, the populations are also threatened due to loss of habitat (J.L.Cartes pers. comm.) <br/>In Argentina, M. nana is considered as vulnerable although the populations of Misiones Province seem to be stable (Diaz and Ojeda 2000). One of the major conservation problems is hunting, mainly in the provincial parks and private forests. However, the construction of roads has increased the number of road-kills and could be affecting the populations.
29622		conservation	eng	The Yucatan peninsula has two large Biosphere Reserves. The Yucatan brown brocket has been confirmed to exist in one of them (Calakmul Biosphere Reserve), and it likely occurs in Sian Ka’an Reserve as well. Confirmation and status surveys are needed. The species is also known to occur in an area of Yucatan that has been sustainably managed for timber production and other forest products for at least two decades. However, populations of this deer exist outside protected areas and in large forested communal lands know as “ejidos” in Mexico.
29622		distribution	eng	This is a recently re-discovered species. The range of the species is not completely known, but includes most of the Yucatan peninsula (Mexico), and marginally extends into northern Guatemala and Belize.
29622		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species. For many years it was considered to be a disjunct population of the brown brocket deer. It is a habitat generalist and highly adaptable deer. Since 1996, the first author is been studying its biology and ecology in South-eastern Mexico.
29622		population	eng	The species seems to be fairly abundant locally, and in some parts of Yucatan it seems to be more common than the brown brocket.
29622		threats	eng	The species is currently a staple food of the Mayan people, but undoubtedly has also been hunted for many centuries. The effects of hunting on local populations, as well as the effects of deforestation should be examined.
29650		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. It is also legally protected in many countries within its range.
29650		distribution	eng	<em>Erinaceus europaeus</em> is endemic to Europe (including European Russia), with a global distribution extending from the British Isles and the Iberian peninsula, westwards through much of western to central Europe; and from southern Fennoscandia, and the northern Baltic to north-west Russia. It was introduced recently to the Azores (Portugal); the species was recorded there in the 1990s (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). In the Mediterranean, it occurs in Portugal, France (including Corsica), Spain and Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily but not present on Malta).
29650		habitat	eng	<em>E. europaeus</em> thrives in a variety of man-made habitats including orchards, vineyards, farmland, parks and gardens, including those in urban areas. It also occurs in deciduous woodland, woodland edge and grasslands, although it is less common in these areas (Lapini 1999). Also occurs in maquis (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
29650		population	eng	This generally is a relatively common and widespread species. It is rare in Sardinia (Italy), where it is hunted with dogs (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The is no evidence of any population decline in most parts of its range. Many of the island populations have been introduced there from the mainland (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
29650		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species across most of its range. In some areas, many hedgehogs are killed by collision with cars, but this is unlikely to cause serious population declines (Huijser 1999, Verkem <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is locally hunted and eaten in parts of its range, but this is a localised activity and is also not considered a serious threat to the species.
29651		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs within protected areas.
29651		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention in parts of its range where this applies, and it occurs within protected areas.
29651		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura leucodon</em> occurs in Europe and western Asia (France to the Caspian Sea). In the Mediterranean region it ranges from northwestern France, Switzerland, Italy and Slovenia, through the Balkan peninsula, and extending south through Turkey to Israel. It is absent from the Iberian peninsula and southern France. The only Mediterranean island on which it is known to present is Lesbos (Greece). It has been recorded from sea level to around 2,500 m.
29651		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura leucodon </em>occurs in Europe and western Asia, from north-west France in the west to the Caspian sea in the east, extending as far south as Israel. In Europe, it is absent from Iberia and southern France, Fennoscandia, northern Poland, the Baltic, and northern Belarus and European Russia (Krapp 1999). The only European island on which it is known to be present is Lesbos (Greece). Its distribution in the eastern part of the range is not well known because it is possible that some records from that region refer to a different species. It occurs from sea level to around 2,000 m.
29651		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences for this species vary in different parts of its geographic range. In France, it is found in damp areas with dense vegetation, whereas in central Europe and Italy it prefers open agricultural landscapes. At the northern edge of its range it is associated with gardens and houses in suburban and urban areas, and in the Balkans and Asia Minor it can be found in moist habitats in the mountains including screes, stony areas, riverbanks and stone walls. In Russia the species occurs in moist habitats within steppe and semi-desert areas. It feeds on invertebrates, including insects, insect larvae and worms.
29651		habitat	eng	Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its geographic range. In France, it is found in damp areas with dense vegetation, whereas in central Europe and Italy it prefers open agricultural landscapes. At the northern edge of its range it is associated with gardens and houses in suburban and urban areas, and in the Balkans and Asia Minor it can be found in moist habitats in the mountains including screes, stony areas, riverbanks and stone walls. In Asia Minor it is also found above the tree line in stony areas (Krapp 1999). In European Russia the species occurs in moist habitats within steppe and semi-desert areas. It feeds on invertebrates, including insects, insect larvae and worms.
29651		population	eng	At the northern and western borders of its range at least, it appears to be declining or fluctuating. In the southern part of eastern Europe this species has seriously declined during the last 50 years (50 years ago there were many records, especially from owl pellets, whereas recently there are very few records)(I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
29651		population	eng	<em>C. leucodon</em> appears to be declining at least at the northern and western borders of its range (it may be either declining or fluctuating). In the southern part of eastern Europe (e.g. Ukraine) this species has seriously declined during the last 50 years (50 years ago there were many records, especially from owl pellets, whereas recently there are very few records) (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Within the Mediterranean region, it is widespread but population trends are not known. The status in the southwest Asian region is poorly known (Qumsiyeh 1996) and the species is less abundant than <em>C. russula</em> in this region.
29651		threats	eng	This species often occurs in open rural country, where it may be negatively affected by agricultural intensification (accidental poisoning and loss of prey species as a result of pesticide use, and loss of cover owing to replacement of hedgerows and fallow areas with large-scale monocultures) (Krapp 1999).
29651		threats	eng	This species often occurs in open rural country, where it may be negatively affected by agricultural intensification (accidental poisoning and loss of prey species as a result of pesticide use, and loss of cover owing to replacement of hedgerows and fallow areas with large-scale monocultures) (Krapp 1999). However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.
29652		conservation	eng	It receives legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and it occurs in numerous protected areas.
29652		conservation	eng	It receives legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and it occurs in numerous protected areas. The Canary Islands population is protected under Spanish law.
29652		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and western Europe (including some Atlantic and Mediterranean islands). It also occurs in North Africa, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The population on Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands (previously considered to be a separate species, <em>Crocidura osorio</em>) seems to have been introduced from Spain (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2003). It typically occurs from sea level to 1,200 m, but has also been found as high as 2,000 m, particularly in Mediterranean landscapes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29652		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and western Europe (including some Atlantic and Mediterranean islands). It also occurs in North Africa, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). The population on Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands (previously considered to be a separate species, <em>Crocidura osorio</em>) seems to have been introduced from Spain (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2003). It typically occurs from sea level to 1,200 m, but has also been found as high as 2,000 m, particularly in Mediterranean landscapes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29652		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean it occurs in a wide range of habitats including shrubland (maquis), open habitats, forest edges with abundant ground vegetation, cultivated fields, urban areas, gardens, farms, mountainous areas and land adjacent to rivers and streams (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It particularly favours old terraces with dry stone walls. In northern Europe and at higher alititudes it is predominantly synanthropic, living in close proximity to humans in houses and gardens (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Morocco, it occurs in the mountains.
29652		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean it occurs in a wide range of habitats including shrubland (maquis), open habitats, forest edges with abundant ground vegetation, cultivated fields, urban areas, gardens, farms, mountainous areas and land adjacent to rivers and streams (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It particularly favours old terraces with dry stone walls. In northern Europe and at higher alititudes it is predominantly synanthropic, living in close proximity to humans in houses and gardens (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Morocco, it occurs in the mountains.<br/><br/>The Canary Islands population is found in remnant patches of the humid laurel forests in northern Gran Canaria and also in extensively managed farmlands. This population, along with the endemic <em>C. canariensis</em>, has a small litter size and lower metabolism than mainland species, possibly as a response to living in a warm and/or variable environment.
29652		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, although the species is generally widespread and fairly common within its range. In Germany at least it is stable and expanding in some parts, although it is not known if this is natural or the result of accidental human transportation (Kraft 2000). It is probably the most common shrew in Spain, and is often the dominant prey species in the barn owl's diet in this region (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999).
29652		threats	eng	Due to its synanthropic habits it may suffer from the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999), but this is not thought to be a serious threat to the species at present.
29652		threats	eng	Due to its synanthropic habits it may suffer from the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999), but this is not thought to be a serious threat to the species at present. The Canary Islands population is threatened by rapid urbanization and increasing desiccation.
29654		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
29654		distribution	eng	Occurs in Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan (Wilson and Reeder 2005), may also occur in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.
29654		habitat	eng	Unknown.
29654		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trend.
29654		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face any major threats.
29655		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. No specific conservation actions are recommended at this time. This is one of only three ancient endemic mammal species occurring on the Mediterranean islands (Gippoliti and Amori 2006), and for this reason it is a valuable species to conserve.
29655		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura sicula</em> is endemic to Sicily and its associated islands (to Italy) and Malta. It is currently found on Sicily, Ustica, Gozo, and the Egadi islands (Favigniana, Levanzo, Marettimo). It may be extinct on the island of Malta, where it is known only from subfossil remains (Vogel 1999). It occurs from sea level to about 1,000 m (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
29655		habitat	eng	Owl pellet analyses suggest that <em>C. sicula</em> inhabits suburban areas, gardens, pastures, arable land, and open scrub. In the summer, it prefers damp areas (Vogel 1999).
29655		population	eng	This species is widespread on Sicily (Maddalena <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, trapping results indicate that it occurs at much lower densities than other <em>Crocidura</em> species that inhabit Mediterranean islands (Vogel 1999). Population trends are unknown. It may have gone extinct on the island of Malta, but even if so, the date of that extinction is unknown. In Ustica a melanic form occurs and shows a very restricted range (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>A new genetic study has shown that populations of Sicily and Gozo may deserve some special attention because they are genetically distinct (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
29655		threats	eng	No serious threats are known at present, although pesticides in agricultural areas are often a problem for insectivore species. Populations on smaller islands could be adversely affected by predation from domestic cats (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
29656		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>C. s. caneae</em>, endemic to Crete, is on Appendix II of the Bern Convention (as <em>C. ariadne</em>). It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.
29656		distribution	eng	The lesser white-toothed shrew <em>Crocidura suaveolens</em> has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, extending from the Atlantic coast of Spain and probably Portugal (where its occurrence needs further confirmation) eastwards through Europe and Asia to Siberia. The southernmost edge of its distribution passes through northern Africa (Morocco and Algeria: Corbet 1978), Asia Minor, Israel, Saudia Arabia, Iran and China. In Europe, it has a somewhat scattered distribution in north-west Iberia, south-west France, Italy, central and eastern Europe, and the Balkans. It is present on some Atlantic and Channel islands, and on most eastern Mediterranean islands, as well as Menorca, Corsica, Elba, and Capraia in the western Mediterranean. It was introduced to Crete in Minoan times (Pieper 1990), where it may threaten the endemic Cretan white-toothed shrew <em>C. zimmermanni</em> through competition (Nowak 1999). In eastern Europe and in Germany <em>C. suaveolens</em> is expanding northwards in urban landscapes. It is commonest from sea level to 1,000 m, although it occurs as high as 1,600 m (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999).
29656		distribution	eng	The Lesser White-toothed Shrew has a wide global distribution. It occurs in the Palaearctic, extending from the Atlantic coast of Spain and probably Portugal (where its occurrence needs further confirmation) extending eastwards through Europe and Asia to Siberia. The southernmost edge of its distribution reaches Sinai (Egypt), Asia Minor, Israel, Saudia Arabia, Iran and China.
29656		habitat	eng	At higher latitudes and altitudes in Europe it is often associated with human habitation, tending to be found in parks, gardens, and even houses. It is very common in straw ricks. In western and southern Europe and it inhabits a wide range of habitats including vineyards, olive groves, terraced farmland on hillsides, dry Mediterranean shrubland, sand dunes, rocky areas in the mountains, and damp densely-vegetated patches near to water. It tends to avoid dense forests (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990, Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Small, soft-bodied insects form a major part of its diet (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990).<br/><br/>In south-west Asia it has been collected from habitats with long dry grasses; thick vegetation along streams, river edges and vegetation channels; around houses and in forested areas (Bates and Harrison 1989, Tez 2000). Its main requirement is enough vegetation and moisture to support its insect prey, and in arid areas it tends to be more common near springs and oases; however it is more tolerant of dry conditions than many of its congeners (Qumsiyeh 1996). <br/><br/>The gestation period is 28 days and life expectancy one year; a female may have 10-12 litters, each with one to seven young, although usually four (Qumsiyeh 1996).
29656		habitat	eng	At higher latitudes and altitudes in Europe it is often associated with human habitation, tending to be found in parks, gardens, and even houses. It is very common in straw ricks. In western and southern Europe and it inhabits a wide range of habitats including vineyards, olive groves, terraced farmland on hillsides, dry Mediterranean shrubland, sand dunes, rocky areas in the mountains, and damp densely-vegetated patches near to water. It tends to avoid dense forests (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990, Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Small, soft-bodied insects form a major part of its diet (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990).<br/><br/>In southwest Asia it has been collected from habitats with long dry grasses; thick vegetation along streams, river edges and vegetation channels; around houses and in forested areas (Bates and Harrison 1989, Tez 2000). Its main requirement is enough vegetation and moisture to support its insect prey, and in arid areas it tends to be more common near springs and oases; however, it is more tolerant of dry conditions than many of its congeners (Qumsiyeh 1996). <br/><br/>The gestation period is 28 days and life expectancy one year; a female may have 10-12 litters, each with one to seven young, although usually four (Qumsiyeh 1996).
29656		population	eng	It is uncommon in the western part of its range, occurring at much lower densities than its congener <em>C. russula</em> (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further east it is more common. Described as abundant and ubiquitous in at least parts of its global range (Harrison and Bates 1991). In the steppe forest zone in Ukraine it is the most abundant shrew species, both in natural and agricultural habitats (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).
29656		threats	eng	It may be out-competed in some areas by <em>C. russula</em>. Pesticides and herbicides may have a negative impact on the species in agricultural habitats (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999), but at present this does not seem to be a major threat.
29657		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. It is recommended that population trends are monitored, as the species may be vulnerable to the loss of aquatic habitats.
29657		distribution	eng	<em>Neomys anomalus </em>has a patchy distribution in continental Europe and Asia Minor. It is found in parts of central and southern Europe from Spain and Portugal in the west through to the middle of the River Don (European Russia) in the east, but its range is fragmented (Corbet 1978, Spitzenberger 1999). It is recorded from sea level to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 1999).
29657		distribution	eng	<em>Neomys anomalus</em> has a patchy global distribution in continental Europe and Asia Minor. It is found in parts of central and southern Europe from Spain and Portugal in the west through to the middle of the River Don (European Russia) and Iran in the east, but its range is fragmented (Corbet 1978, Spitzenberger 1999). It is recorded from sea level to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 1999).
29657		habitat	eng	It inhabits lush vegetation next to slow-flowing or still eutrophic waters (marshes, swamps, lakes, rivers, and streams). Its habitat choice is influenced by competition with the larger Eurasian water shrew <em>N. fodiens</em>, which is a stronger swimmer (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). In general, <em>N. anomalus</em> is less aquatic than <em>N. fodiens</em> and can colonise areas away from water (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, in regions where <em>N. fodiens</em> is absent, <em>N. anomalus</em> may adopt its competitor's aquatic niche and increase in size (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). <em>N. anomalus</em> is strictly carnivorous, feeding predominantly on soft-bodied invertebrates such as insect larvae, spiders and worms (Spitzenberger 1990, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29657		population	eng	<em>N. anomalus</em> is suspected to be declining in line with rates of loss of its wetland habitat (Spitzenberger 1999, Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Its patchy distribution means that there are many small isolated subpopulations, making local extinctions more likely. It may be locally quite abundant in the absence of its main competitor, <em>N. fodiens</em>. There are areas where the two species occur in the same habitats, but using different niches.
29657		population	eng	It is suspected to be declining in line with rates of loss of its wetland habitat (Spitzenberger 1999, Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Its patchy distribution means that there are many small isolated subpopulations, making local extinctions more likely. It may be locally quite abundant in the absence of its main competitor, <em>N. fodiens</em>. There are areas where the two species occur in the same habitats, but using different niches.
29657		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss. In many parts of its range wetlands are being destroyed and fragmented as a result of water extraction, canalisation of streams, agriculture, road building, and other human activities. Water quality is often degraded by agricultural chemicals, industrial effluent and sewage. Use of pesticides may be a problem in parts of the range (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29658		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in numerous protected areas within its range. The western Spanish population is a separate subspecies (<em>niethammeri</em>), which has a very restricted range and may be threatened. It is morphologically distinct from other populations, and may represent a valid species (López-Fuster <em>et al.</em> 1990, Bühler 1996). There is a need for taxonomic research on this population, as well as surveys and monitoring to determine if it is undergoing population decline or range contractions.
29658		distribution	eng	The water shrew has a large range extending from  the British Islands eastwards to Lake Baikal, Yenisei River (Russia), Tien Shan (China), and northwest Mongolia. A disjunct range includes Sakhalin Island and adjacent Siberia, Jilin (China), and North Korea. In Europe it is generally widespread throughout, with the exception of southern Iberia. It occurs only sporadically on the Balkan peninsula, where it is largely restricted to the mountains. It occurs from sea level to over 2,500 m (Stone 1995). The distribution of the species recently expanded southwards in Italy owing to a new record in the Sila massif (Aloise <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29658		distribution	eng	The water shrew has a large range extending from the British Islands eastwards to Lake Baikal, Yenisei River (Russia), Tien Shan (China), and northwest Mongolia. In the Mediterranean is ranges from northern Spain eastwards to Bulgaria.In Europe it is generally widespread throughout, with the exception of southern Iberia. It occurs only sporadically on the Balkan peninsula, where it is largely restricted to the mountains. It occurs from sea level to over 2,500 m (Stone 1995). The distribution of the species recently expanded southwards in Italy owing to a new record in the Sila massif (Aloise <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29658		habitat	eng	This species is semi-aquatic with water repelling fur. It occurs in a wide variety of wetland habitats, both freshwater and coastal, including lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, bogs, damp grasslands, humid woodlands, sea shores and intertidal wetlands. It is the most aquatic of all European shrews. It hunts on land and in water for invertebrates, including crustaceans, and occasionally takes small fish and amphibia (Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Spitzenberger 1999, Smith and Xie in press). It paralyses large prey with its venomous saliva (Stone 1995, Smith and Xie in press). It is highly territorial, with males only moving out of territory during the breeding season.
29658		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species, although local population declines may be caused by wetland drainage, pollution, and destruction of riverbanks. Population densities fluctuate from year to year (Spitzenberger 1999). In the northern part of its range and in the steppe zone, the species has a patchy distribution.
29658		population	eng	It is a widespread species, although local population declines may be caused by wetland drainage, pollution, and destruction of riverbanks. Population densities fluctuate from year to year (Spitzenberger 1999). In the northern part of its range and in the steppe zone, the species has a patchy distribution.
29658		threats	eng	Loss of wetland habitats through drainage, development, conversion to agricultural land, and destruction of natural vegetation at the water's edge may have a negative impact on this species. It may suffer from a shortage of food when prey species decline owing to acidification and pollution of water with pesticides, fertilisers, and sewage (Spitzenberger 1999).
29659		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Due to its habitat specialization and relatively unknown biology, the species should be monitored.
29659		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caucasus, adjacent parts of Turkey (Krystufek and Vohralík, 2001), and Iran. The eastern range limits are poorly known.
29659		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverbanks, prefers small rivers and brooks. Swims and dives very well. Makes nests in abandoned rodent burrows, between roots, or in brushwood; sometimes digs its own burrow. Solitary. Feeds on aquatic (invertebrates, molluscs, fish roe and fingerlings, tadpoles, froglings) and terrestrial (beetles, earthworms, sometimes young rodents) animals. The saliva of this species is poisonous; the water shrew paralyzes prey with its bite, and may store living (but immobilized) prey in its burrows. Prey storing is especially important during winter. The water shrew reproduces up to 3 times a year, with 5-9 young in each litter. Some females start reproducing during their first year. Longevity in nature is about 2 years, in captivity up to 4 years.
29659		population	eng	Common, in some areas abundant species in western part of the range. The species is generally declining in Georgia (GMA SW Asia Workshop 2005). In Turkey, there are few problems - the species varies in abundance by season and potentially year.
29659		threats	eng	Overgrazing may have a negative impact on some populations. The species may also be locally disturbed by tree removal and erosion. These are not considered major threats at present.
29660		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. A major part of the alpine shrew's range in the Carpathians is covered by the Carpathians Reserve (about 45,000 ha) and National Park (about 70,000 ha). There is a need for monitoring, particularly of isolated subpopulations.
29660		distribution	eng	The Alpine shrew is endemic to Europe, where it has a disjunct range in the Alps, the Balkans, the Carpathians, and a number of isolated mountains in Germany, Czech Republic and Poland (Spitzenberger 1999, Meinig 2004). It previously occurred in the Pyrenees, where it is thought to have gone extinct in the early 20th century, and in the Harz (Spitzenberger 1999). Its vertical range is from 200 to 2,500 m (Spitzenberger 1999).
29660		habitat	eng	In the mountains, it tends to be found in open habitats (meadows, rocky areas with sparse vegetation, and banks of mountain streams), where it lives in cracks and crevices under rocks and in stone walls. At lower altitudes, it prefers cool, damp, shaded areas, such as densely-vegetated ravines and holes under mossy rocks, tree-roots and logs in forests (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). It mainly feeds on arthropods and molluscs (Spitzenberger 1990).
29660		population	eng	More data are needed to be able to determine population trends. It is widespread but local in the Alps, where populations are thought to be stable. Small, isolated populations at the edge of the species' range may be declining, and there have been subpopulation extinctions (for example in the Pyrenees). In the Harz, the northernmost population in Europe, it appears to have disappeared (last record was in 1954 despite intensive studies to find the species there). It is still present in Germany. Some of the other remaining populations are considered evolutionarily significant units because of their long period of isolation (Meinig 2004).
29660		threats	eng	Loss of alpine water courses due to water abstraction and hydroelectric power is also a threat, as is loss of habitat owing to intensification of winter tourism in the Alps. Human land use is a direct threat and climate change may be a future indirect threat as a result of range shifts in other species that may be direct competitors with <em>S. alpinus</em> when ranges overlap.
29661		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended at present.
29661		distribution	eng	The common shrew has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, occurring from Britain through central, northern and eastern Europe and Asia as far east as Lake Baikal and as far north as the Arctic coast. It is widespread throughout, with the exception of arid steppe and desert areas. In Europe, it occurs in most continental areas, with the exception of large parts of Iberia and France, and some parts of Italy and the Balkans. There are isolated populations in the Pyrenees and the Massif Central (France). It is recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (Andĕra 1999).
29661		distribution	eng	The common shrew has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, occurring from Britain through central, northern and eastern Europe and Asia as far east as Lake Baikal and as far north as the Arctic coast. It is widespread throughout, with the exception of arid steppe and desert areas. In the Mediterranean, it occurs in most European continental areas, with the exception of large parts of Iberia, France, and Italy and the Balkans. There are isolated populations in the Pyrenees and the Massif Central (France). It is recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (Andĕra 1999).
29661		habitat	eng	It prefers cool, damp and shady habitats with dense vegetation, such as riparian forests and reed beds (Hausser <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, it tolerates a broad range of habitats, and it is present (albeit at lower densities) in drier areas such as woodland, scrub, road verges, hedges in farmland, and even sand dunes (Andĕra 1999). It is absent from very arid habitats. It feeds largely on invertebrates, especially arthropods, earthworms, and snails, but it also feeds on vegetative matter (Hausser <em>et al.</em> 1990).
29661		habitat	eng	It prefers cool, damp and shady habitats with dense vegetation, such as riparian forests and reed beds (Hausser <i>et al.</i> 1990). However, it tolerates a broad range of habitats, and it is present (albeit at lower densities) in drier areas such as woodland, scrub, road verges, hedges in farmland, and even sand dunes (Andĕra 1999). It is absent from very arid habitats. It feeds largely on invertebrates, especially arthropods, earthworms, and snails, but it also feeds on vegetative matter (Hausser <i>et al.</i> 1990).
29661		population	eng	It is one of the most abundant shrew species.
29661		threats	eng	Threats include general habitat degradation and an indirect threat from pesticides and pollutants (accumulation of toxins through their diet). In some countries (but not in the Mediterranean), this is an indicator species for monitoring terrestrial pollution. However, the species is not considered seriously affected by these threats at a regional or global level.
29661		threats	eng	Threats include general habitat degradation and an indirect threat from pesticides and pollutants (accumulation of toxins through their diet). In some countries, this is an indicator species for monitoring terrestrial pollution. However, the species is not considered seriously affected by these threats at a regional or global level.
29662		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas.
29662		distribution	eng	Occurs in taiga and tundra zones from Eastern Europe to eastern Siberia, south to central Ukraine, northern Kazakhstan, Altai Mountains, Mongolia, Gansu and northeast China, Korea, Sakhalin, Kunashir Island, Shikotan Island, and Japan (Hokkaido) (Abe, 2005).
29662		distribution	eng	The masked shrew is found from Scandinavia in the west (including an isolated population in central Norway), through northern Europe and Asia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Sakhalin and the Kuril archipelago, as well as the Japanese island of Hokkaido (Corbet 1978, Pucek 1999, Frafjord 2002, Finch and van der Kooij 2005). It range extends to the north of the arctic circle, and the southern boundary of its distribution runs from easternmost Poland through Russia, northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia and north-east China to the Korean peninsula. In Europe, it is found in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Poland, Belarus, and Russia. In northern Finland it occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m, and in central Norway it is found up to 1,600 m (J. van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006).
29662		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests in the taiga zone, although it is also found in a range of tundra habitats including birch and willow scrub in river valleys (Pucek 1999, Finch and van der Kooij 2005). In northern Fennoscandia, it tends to be found in shrub-rich mires, alpine birch forests, and open mires, and at the south-western edge of its range in Norway it occurs in alpine habitats (Finch and van der Kooij 2005). In general moist habitats are preferred, such as damp parts of forests with thick moss cover (Pucek 1999). Cultivated land is avoided (Sulkava 1990). The masked shrew feeds on a wide range of insects, spiders, and centipedes (Stone 1995). As it has a lower net food intake than larger shrews such as <em>S. araneus</em>, it can survive in less productive habitats (Finch and van der Kooij 2005).
29662		population	eng	Europe: It is generally less common than its congener the common shrew, but it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species (Sulkava 1990). Populations are thought to be stable, with interannual fluctuations that follow no particular cycle (Pucek 1999). In eastern Karelia, where population density has best been studied, tenfold fluctuations have been recorded (Sulkava 1990). Japan: Common in the forests of Hokkaido. Mongolia: Abundant and widespread, most common in Hentii Mountain Range. This species can survive in most habitat types, preferentially forested habitats.
29662		population	eng	It is generally less common than its congener the common shrew, but it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species (Sulkava 1990). Populations are thought to be stable, with interannual fluctuations that follow no particular cycle (Pucek 1999). In eastern Karelia, where population density has best been studied, tenfold fluctuations have been recorded (Sulkava 1990).
29662		threats	eng	Extensive logging is a general threat to habitat and may affect local populations. However, at the global scale the population is not considered under serious threat from this.
29663		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in protected areas within its range.
29663		distribution	eng	<em>Sorex coronatus </em>is endemic to Europe, where it occurs from northern Spain, through France and the Low Countries, to northern Switzerland, Germany, and the westernmost corner of Austria. It is also found on the island of Jersey (United Kingdom) (Hausser 1999). Its vertical range is from 0 to 2,200 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29663		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of habitats with dense vegetation at ground level, including woods, hedges, abandoned or unmown meadows, and marshes. It is scarce in intensively cultivated areas, and tends not to occur near to human habitation. It competes with <em>Sorex araneus</em>, and the microhabitats used are different for each species where their ranges overlap (Hausser 1990, 1999).
29663		population	eng	It is generally widespread and abundant. However, at the edge of its range in Switzerland intensive agriculture and pesticide use have caused the species to decline, such that now only relict populations remain in some areas (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29663		threats	eng	Threats include general habitat degradation and the indirect effects of pesticides and pollutants (accumulation of toxins through the species' diet) (Stone 1995, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, the species is not considered seriously affected by these threats at the global level.
29664		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas within its range. Research is needed to evaluate its population status and trends (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29664		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, where it is found in northern Portugal (north of the Tagus River) and central Spain (García-Perea <em>et al.</em> 1997). It occurs from the coast up to 2,000 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29664		habitat	eng	It is found in Atlantic climate areas, where it inhabits a variety of woodland and scrub habitats, including native beech, oak, and pine forests, plantations of introduced <em>Eucalyptus </em>and <em>Pinus pinaster</em>, and damp areas with dense shrubby vegetation. It is also found in cultivated fields, stream- and river-banks, scree slopes, and rocky areas near to pastures. It prefers humid locations, and is restricted to areas where the annual rainfall exceeds 600 mm (García-Perea <em>et al.</em> 1997, Hausser 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29664		population	eng	Population size and trends have not been quantified. However, the species is quite common in the diet of nocturnal raptor species (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Spain the population is stable and it is likely to be stable also in Portugal (Muñoz, L.J.P. pers. comm. 2007).
29664		threats	eng	It is not considered threatened in Spain, although its population status is not known (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal, it may be locally threatened by habitat destruction and pesticide use, as well as reductions in the abundance of its invertebrate prey (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
29665		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in many protected areas. Population trends and habitat status require monitoring in the western European part of its range.
29665		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in many protected areas. Population trends and habitat status require monitoring in the western European part of its range, and particular attention should be paid to isolated populations in Scandinavia.
29665		distribution	eng	The taiga shrew's range extends from Fennoscandia in the west, through northern and central Russia, north Mongolia and northern China, and northern Kazakhstan, to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island. In Europe, it is more or less continuously distributed from Finland to northern Russia and northern Belarus (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). Populations in Norway and Sweden may be isolated; the species was not detected in Fennoscandia until as late as 1949 (Sulkava 1999). In Mongolia, occurs along the Sögnögör River in south-western Hentii Mountain Range, and in Züünbürkh in eastern Hentii Mountain Range (Shvetsov <em>et al.</em>, 1980); also occurs in parts of Mongol Daguur Steppe. In China, distribution is restricted to the northeastern regions of Heilongjiang and E Nei Mongol.
29665		distribution	eng	The taiga shrew's range extends from Fennoscandia in the west, through northern and central Russia, north Mongolia and northern China, and northern Kazakstan, to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island. In Europe, it is more or less continuously distributed from Finland to northern Russia and northern Belarus (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). Populations in Norway and Sweden may be isolated. It is a habitat specialist, and consequently has a patchy distribution. The species was not detected in Fennoscandia until as late as 1949 (Sulkava 1999).
29665		habitat	eng	Inhabits forest, taiga, river valleys and forest-steppe. Occasionally found in mountain steppe and riparian zones. In Europe it is found along small brooks where there is dense vegetation (e.g. ferns) within mature spruce and mixed boreal forests. It is also sometimes found in scrub and fallow fields, so long as there is damp, dense vegetation at ground level and a deep soil layer (Sulkava 1999). It feeds mainly on invertebrates, particularly earthworms and dipteran larvae, although plant material is very occasionally taken (Sulkava 1990).
29665		habitat	eng	It is a habitat specialist, preferring small brook sides with dense vegetation (e.g. ferns) within mature spruce and mixed boreal forests. It is also sometimes found in scrub and fallow fields, so long as there is damp, dense vegetation at ground level and a deep soil layer (Sulkava 1999). It feeds mainly on invertebrates, particularly earthworms and dipteran larvae, although plant material is very occasionally taken (Sulkava 1990).
29665		population	eng	In Europe it is rare and local. In north-west Europe and north-western Siberia, captures of this species generally form less than 1% of all <em>Sorex</em> captures with snap traps and pitfall traps (Sulkava 1999). It is a patchily distributed species and little is known about population trends. Little data exists on populations of this species in Mongolia, but it is not thought to be widespread (R. Samiya pers. comm.).
29665		population	eng	It is rare and local. In north-west Europe and north-western Siberia, captures of this species generally form less than 1% of all <em>Sorex</em> captures with snap traps and pitfall traps (Sulkava 1999). It is a patchily distibuted species and little is known about population trends.
29665		threats	eng	Preferred habitats are being altered by forestry and drainage (Sulkava 1999). Globally this is not considered to be a serious threat at present.
29666		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in a number of protected areas.
29666		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in a number of protected areas. Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
29666		distribution	eng	The least shrew occurs from Fennoscandia through European Russia and Siberia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Hokkaido and Sakhalin (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). In Europe, it occurs more or less continuously from northern Scandinavia through most of Finland to central and northern Russia. There are a small number of records from central Scandinavia (Grüner 1998, Sulkava 1999, Vaernesbranden and Larsen 2004), but this tiny and elusive shrew may be more widespread in central Scandinavia than the paucity of records would appear to suggest (Sulkava 1999). In Fennoscandia it occurs from sea level to above the tree line (0-1,600 m: J. van der Kooij in litt. 2006).
29666		distribution	eng	The least shrew occurs from Fennoscandia through European Russia and Siberia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Hokkaido and Sakhalin (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). In Europe, it occurs more or less continuously from northern Scandinavia through most of Finland to central and northern Russia. There are a small number of records from central Scandinavia (Grüner 1998, Sulkava 1999, Vaernesbranden and Larsen 2004), but this tiny and elusive shrew may be more widespread in central Scandinavia than the paucity of records would appear to suggest (Sulkava 1999). In Fennoscandia it occurs from sea level to above the tree line (0-1,600 m: J. van der Kooij in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>Mongolia: North-western Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe. Also recorded in steppe habitats in Middle Halh Steppe and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range in eastern Mongolia (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985; Dmitriev <em>et al</em>. 1992; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).<br/><br/>Japan: Taiga zone from Norway, Sweden and Estonia to east Siberia; Sakhalin; Hokkaido, and perhaps Honshu (Japan); Mongolia; China; South Korea (Hutterer, in press). In Japan, the species is known only from Hokkaido, where there are a few records from the northern, central and eastern regions: Sarobetsu, Horonobe, Daisetsu, Shihoro, Nijibetsu, Shibetsu, Hichirippu, and Irikomanai (Abe, 2005).<br/><br/>China: Central S and NE China; extending from Scandinavia to E Siberia, South Korea, and the islands of Sakhalin and Hokkaido.
29666		habitat	eng	This is a very small species (possibly the smallest terrestrial mammal species, although the pygmy white-toothed shrew <em>Suncus etruscus </em>may be slightly smaller) and it is very difficult to catch, other than by pitfall traps. It occurs from the forest tundra zone in the north, through boreal coniferous forests to mixed forests and forest steppe at the southern limit of its range. Within these zones it prefers moist spruce-dominated woodland with thick moss, but it is also commonly found in bogs and mires, and even in dry pine forests and clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1990, 1999). It feeds on small insects, grubs, spiders and snails, consuming as much as 2-5 times its body weight over a 24 hour period (Sulkava 1990, Macdonald and Barrett 1993).
29666		habitat	eng	This is a very small species (possibly the smallest terrestrial mammal species, although the pygmy white-toothed shrew <em>Suncus etruscus </em>may be slightly smaller) and it is very difficult to catch, other than by pitfall traps. It occurs from the forest tundra zone in the north, through boreal coniferous forests to mixed forests and forest steppe at the southern limit of its range. Within these zones it prefers moist spruce-dominated woodland with thick moss, but it is also commonly found in bogs and mires, and even in dry pine forests and clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1990, 1999). It feeds on small insects, grubs, spiders and snails, consuming as much as 2-5 times its body weight over a 24 hour period (Sulkava 1990, Macdonald and Barrett 1993). Young are born May/August, with between 4 and 7 young in each litter (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).
29666		population	eng	In Europe, trapping results suggest that it occurs at much lower densities than other sympatric <em>Sorex </em>species (although reliable population density estimates are hard to obtain because of difficulties in trapping this species) (Sulkava 1990, 1999). The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Sulkava 1999). In Mongolia this species is widespread but has a low abundance. Known to be very rare in Hokkaido (Japan).
29666		population	eng	Trapping results suggest that it occurs at much lower densities than other sympatric <em>Sorex </em>species (although reliable population density estimates are hard to obtain because of difficulties in trapping this species)(Sulkava 1990, 1999). The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Sulkava 1999).
29666		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Clear-cutting does not appear to have a negative impact on population densities (Sulkava 1999).
29667		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. Studies of its ecology and distibution are required in Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), and isolated Iberian populations should be monitored.
29667		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. Studies of its ecology and distribution are required in Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), and isolated Iberian populations should be monitored.
29667		distribution	eng	It occurs from the British Isles and Iberia through much of continental Europe, European Russia and Siberia to Lake Baikal in the east. The northernmost limit of its range extends beyond the arctic circle. In Portugal the distribution is discontinuous in some regions north of the Tagus river (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002) and 2,260 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
29667		distribution	eng	It occurs from the British Isles and Iberia through much of continental Europe, European Russia and Siberia to Lake Baikal in the east. The northernmost limit of its range extends beyond the arctic circle.  It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002) and 2,260 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species has been reported from North Western Frontier Province in Pakistan and Kashmir in India. However, due to the taxonomic confusion between this species and S. planiceps, its distribution limits in this region are difficult to determine.
29667		habitat	eng	It tends to be found in relatively damp areas with dense vegetation at ground level, and it occurs in a wide variety of habitats including swamps, grasslands, heaths, sand dunes, woodland edge, rocky areas, shrubland, and montane forests. It feeds on invertebrates (Hutterer 1990, 1999).
29667		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitats throughout its range, and it may even be the dominant shrew species in swampy areas (Hutterer 1999).
29667		threats	eng	It suffers from destruction of habitat, use of pesticides and declining invertebrates. However, these are not considered to be major threats to the global or European regional persistence of the species at present. The apparent geographic isolation of some Iberian populations may make local extinctions more likely (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29668		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
29668		distribution	eng	<em>Sorex raddei</em> has been recorded from the Trans-Caucasus and north-eastern Turkey. Found from sea level - 2,400 m.
29668		distribution	eng	<em>Sorex raddei</em> has been recorded from the Trans-Caucasus and north-eastern Turkey. Found from sea level - 2400 m.
29668		habitat	eng	Inhabit moist rocky habitats in mid-mountain forests. The species occurs in damp forest sites on shores of rivers and lakes, covered by dense grassy vegetation (Ognev, 1962). Feed mainly on earthworms and isects. Reproduce whole year, but peack is at the end of spring - beginning of summer. Reproduces up to 3 times a year, litter size is 3-5 young.
29668		population	eng	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in mountain forests. It is included as a rare/endangered species in the Red Book of Georgia. The species is common in suitable habitat but is not abundant through the range.
29668		threats	eng	No major threats. Localized deforestation is a concern.
29670		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
29670		distribution	eng	This species is found from Ciscaucasia to Talysh and Black Sea coast in Turkey and Northern Iran (Hutterer 2005). Elevation ranges from 200-3200 m.
29670		habitat	eng	The species dwells in humid forests and meadows, as well as forest clearings that are densely vegetated in the lower soil layer. Rarely occurs in alpine zone. Feed mostly on small coleopterans and catepillars. Reproducse from March to June. Has 2-3 litters per season, with 4-8 young in each.
29670		population	eng	The species is common, often abundant.
29670		threats	eng	No major threats to this species.
29671		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas (e.g. Donana and Nestos delta), and is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
29671		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
29671		distribution	eng	<em>Suncus etruscus </em>ocurs from southern Europe and North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt) through the Arabian Peninsula and Asia Minor to Iraq, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Yunnan (China). Records from southern India and Sri Lanka probably refer to another species (Libois and Fons 1999). West and East African records (Guinea, Nigeria, Ethiopia) are doubtful and need confirmation (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is confined to the Mediterranean climate zone, occurring on the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas as well as on a number of Mediterannean islands. There is an established introduced population in the Canary Islands (Tenerife). It occurs from sea level to altitudes of over 1,000 m (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
29671		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Southern Europe and North Africa, through parts of the Near East and Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia, to the island of Borneo in the east. In Europe, it is confined to the Mediterranean climate zone, occurring on the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas as well as on a number of Mediterranean islands. There is an established introduced population in the Canary Islands (Tenerife). In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. In the eastern Mediterranean it is present on the island of Cyprus, and is distributed in parts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. In the Caucasus it is found in Azerbaijan, Georgia and possibly Armenia. The species has been recorded from Yemen, Oman, Iraq and possibly Iran. In Central Asia, it is present in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and possibly Uzbekistan. In South Asia, the species is known from much of Afghanistan and Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. In China it has only been recorded from Gengma County in southwestern Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia, with some populations present on the island of Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak only). West and East African records (Guinea [not mapped here], Nigeria and Ethiopia [not mapped here]) are doubtful and need confirmation (Hutterer 2005). It occurs from sea level to altitudes of 3,000 m asl.
29671		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean region it prefers abandoned olive groves, vineyards, and other cultivated areas overrun by Mediterranean shrubs, but occurs also in gardens, low maquis, scrub, and open forest of Mediterranean oaks and pines, provided that old dry stone walls are available as shelters. It avoids sand dunes, dense forests, and intensively cultivated land (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Lebanon, it has been recorded living in both semi-arid and moist habitats, and has been collected on the edge of pine woods and in olive groves (Harrison and Bates 1991). In South Asia it can be found in both temperate and tropical forests, sometimes close to houses and other buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Southeast Asia, it is found in a wide variety of both pristine and degraded habitats. It is more active during night than day, with a peak at dawn. Anecdotal information suggests after a gestation period of 28 days, four to six young are born.
29671		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean region it prefers abandoned olive groves, vineyards, and other cultivated areas overrun by Mediterranean shrubs, but occurs also in gardens, low maquis, scrub, and open forest of Mediterranean oaks and pines, provided that old dry stone walls are available as shelters. It avoids sand dunes, dense forests, and intensively cultivated land (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Lebanon, it has been recorded living in both semi-arid and moist habitats, and has been collected on the edge of pine woods and in olive groves (Harrison and Bates 1991). In South Asia it can be found in both temperate and tropical forests, sometimes close to houses and other buildings (Molur <i>et al.</i> 2005). Southeast Asia, it is found in a wide variety of both pristine and degraded habitats. It is more active during night than day, with a peak at dawn. Anecdotal information suggests after a gestation period of 28 days, four to six young are born.
29671		habitat	eng	It prefers abandoned olive groves, vinyards, and other cultivated areas overrun by mediterranean shrubs, but occurs also in gardens, low maquis, scrub, and open forest of Mediterranean oaks and pines, provided that old dry stone walls are available as shelters.  It avoids sand dunes, dense forests, and intensively cultivated land (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is more active during night than day, with a peak at dawn.  It experiences daily variations of weight, hypothermy, and torpor, as regulatory mechanisms of the high energetic consumption associated with activity. Possibly the smallest terrestrial mammal, its head and body measures 35-50 mm in length (Stone 1995) .
29671		population	eng	In Europe it tends to be less common than other shrews living in same area, as indicated by both trapping experiments and analyses of owl pellets (Libois and Fons 1999). Trapping is not so effective for catching this species because the shrew is too small (less than two grams); it is often more commonly seen in owl pellets (V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006). The species is considered to be rare in Jordan. In Azerbaijan, the species is considered rare in semi-deserts and foothill and mountain steppes. It is included in the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982) as a rare or endangered species. In a preliminary status of the terrestrial mammals of Oman, the species was Data Deficient. In Southeast Asia it is never abundant in any given locality at any time.
29671		population	eng	It tends to be less common than other shrews living in same area, as indicated by both trapping experiments and analyses of owl pellets (Libois and Fons 1999). Trapping is not so effective for catching this species because the shrew is too small (less than 2g); it is often more commonly seen in owl pellets (V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).
29671		threats	eng	It is sensitive to insecticides and pesticides, but these are not thought to pose a major threat to the survival of the species at present.
29671		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
29672		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas. The Indian population is listed in Appendix III of CITES, as <em>Martes foina intermedia</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
29672		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas. The Indian population is listed in Appendix III of CITES, as <em>Martes foina intremedia</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Further legislation and enforcement of existing legislation regarding hunting. Research to establish a sustainable harvest level is also recommended.
29672		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas. The Indian population is listed in Appendix III of CITES, as <i>Martes foina intremedia</i> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Further legislation and enforcement of existing legislation regarding hunting. Research to establish a sustainable harvest level is also recommended.
29672		distribution	eng	The stone marten is widespread, occurring throughout much of Europe and central Asia. It is found from Spain and Portugal in the west, through central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and northwest China. In Europe, it is absent from the United Kingdom, the Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, the northern Baltic, Ireland and northern European Russia. At the end of 20th century the species extended to the north and east in European Russia, as far as the Moscow Province in the north and across the Volga River in the east (Abramov <em>et al.</em>, 2006). The species occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan. It was recently found in northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998). The species occurs from sea level to 3,400 m in Kazakhstan, up to 3,600 m in Himalaya and 4,200 m in Nepal. In India, it occurs above 1500 m. The species was introduced to Ibiza, Balaeric Islands (Spain) but it failed. It was also introduced to Wisconsin, U.S.A. (Long, 1995).
29672		distribution	eng	The stone marten is widespread, occurring throughout much of Europe and central Asia. It is found from Spain and Portugal in the west, through central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and north-west China. In Europe, it is absent from the United Kingdom, the Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, the northern Baltic, Ireland and northern European Russia. At the end of 20th century the species extended to the north and east in European Russia, as far as the Moscow Province in the north and across the Volga River in the east (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan. It was recently found in northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998). The species was introduced to Ibiza, Balaeric Islands (Spain) but failed. It was also introduced to Wisconsin, U.S.A. (Long 1995). It is found from sea level to 3,400 m in Kazakhstan and 4,200m in Nepal.
29672		distribution	eng	The stone marten is widespread, occurring throughout much of Europe and central Asia. It is found from Spain and Portugal in the west, through central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and northwest China. In Europe, it is absent from the United Kingdom, the Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, the northern Baltic, Ireland and northern European Russia. At the end of 20th century the species extended to the north and east in European Russia, as far as the Moscow Province in the north and across the Volga River in the east (Abramov <i>et al.</i>, 2006). The species occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan. It was recently found in northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998). The species occurs from sea level to 3,400 m in Kazakhstan, up to 3,600 m in Himalaya and 4,200 m in Nepal. In India, it occurs above 1500 m. The species was introduced to Ibiza, Balaeric Islands (Spain) but it failed. It was also introduced to Wisconsin, U.S.A. (Long, 1995).
29672		habitat	eng	The stone marten prefers more open areas than other martens (Sachhi and Meriggi 1995). Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its range. It is typically found in deciduous forest, forest edge, and open rocky hillsides (sometimes above the tree line). However, in Switzerland, Austria, north-east France, and southern Germany, it is very common in suburban and urban areas, often building its nest in house attics, outhouses, barns, garages, or even car engine spaces. In some areas they are common in towns and rare in woods. Commensal beech martens may cause damage to roofs, insulation, and electrical wiring and pipes in houses and cars (Broekhuizen 1999).
29672		habitat	eng	The stone marten prefers more open areas than other martens. (Sachhi and Meriggi, 1995). Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its range. It is typically found in deciduous forest, forest edge, and open rocky hillsides (sometimes above the tree line). However, in Switzerland, north-east France, and southern Germany, it is very common in suburban and urban areas, often building its nest in house attics, outhouses, barns, garages, or even car engine spaces. In some areas they are common in towns and rare in woods. Commensal beech martens may cause damage to roofs, insulation, and electrical wiring and pipes in houses and cars.
29672		population	eng	It is common in at least parts of its range (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). Populations in western and central Europe have increased since the 1960s and 1970s. The beech marten is recolonising areas in the Netherlands from which it had disappeared.
29672		population	eng	It is common in at least parts of its range (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). Populations in western and central Europe have increased since the 1960s and 1970s. The beech marten is recolonizing areas in the Netherlands from which it had disappeared.
29672		threats	eng	It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. Rabies may be a problem in some portions of the species range. In China, it is Key Listed at level 2. The species is hunted for its fur in India and Russia. The species is also hunted for food.
29672		threats	eng	This species has no major threats. It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. The species is hunted for its fur in India and Russia; and is also hunted for food in some parts of its global range (not in Europe).
29673		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is protected under national legislation in a number of range states: e.g. Schedule 6 of the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act, the Protection of Badgers Act (UK), and Schedule 5 of the Irish Wildlife Acts. In Albania it is considered Endangered. The species is found in many protected areas.
29673		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also listed on Schedule 6 of the United Kingdom Wildlife and Countryside Act and listed under the Protection of Badgers Act. In Albania it is considered Endangered. The species is found in many protected areas.
29673		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <i>et al.</i> 1999). It is also listed on Schedule 6 of the United Kingdom Wildlife and Countryside Act and listed under the Protection of Badgers Act. In Albania it is considered Endangered. The species is found in many protected areas.
29673		distribution	eng	According to Wilson and Reeder (2005) this species is found in “Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China (Xinjiang), Crete, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (eastward up to Volga River), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.” It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in Pamir Mountains, up to 2,500m in the Caucsasus (A.V. Abramov pers. comm. 2006), and up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).<br/><br/>The boundary between the distribution ranges of the European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The European badger <em>M. meles</em> was found in the Nizhnii Novgorod Province (on both sides of Volga River). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed in the west and north districts of Kirov Province, the east and south of Kirov Province are inhabited by <em>M. leucurus</em>. The sympatric zone between these species is the country between the Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2003).
29673		distribution	eng	According to Wozencraft (2005) this species is found in “Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China (Xinjiang), Crete, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (eastward up to Volga River), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.” It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in Pamir Mountains, up to 2,500 m in the Caucsasus (Abramov pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The boundary between the distribution ranges of the European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The European badger <em>M. meles</em> was found in the Nizhnii Novgorod Province (on both sides of Volga River). <em>M. meles </em>is distributed in the west and north districts of Kirov Province, the east and south of Kirov Province are inhabited by <em>M. leucurus</em>. The sympatric zone between these species is the country between the Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2003).
29673		distribution	eng	According to Wozencraft (2005) this species is found in ?Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China (Xinjiang), Crete, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (eastward up to Volga River), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.? It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in Pamir Mountains, up to 2,500 m in the Caucsasus (Abramov pers. comm.).<br><br>The boundary between the distribution ranges of the European <i>M. meles</i> and Asian badger <i>M. leucurus</i> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <i>M. meles</i> is distributed west of the Volga River, <i>M. leucurus</i> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The European badger <i>M. meles</i> was found in the Nizhnii Novgorod Province (on both sides of Volga River). <i>M. meles </i>is distributed in the west and north districts of Kirov Province, the east and south of Kirov Province are inhabited by <i>M. leucurus</i>. The sympatric zone between these species is the country between the Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <i>et al</i>. 2003).
29673		habitat	eng	It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland. It is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas and urban parks. It is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as hedgehogs, moles, and rabbits. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months. The home ranges of this species in Finland are very large, with a mean of about 15 km² (Kauhala <em>et al.</em> 2006), and their social system is peculiar, with large overlapping home ranges without any communal den (Kauhala in litt. 2006). In Finland, it does not reproduce every year, and the litter size is small (Kauhala <em>et al. </em>2006).
29673		habitat	eng	It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland. It is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas and urban parks. It is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as hedgehogs, moles, and rabbits. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months. The home ranges of this species in Finland are very large, with a mean of about 15 km² (Kauhala <i>et al.</i> 2006), and their social system is peculiar, with large overlapping home ranges without any communal den (Kauhala in litt. 2006). In Finland, it does not reproduce every year, and the litter size is small (Kauhala <i>et al. </i>2006).
29673		habitat	eng	It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland. It is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas and urban parks (Prigioni 1999). It is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as hedgehogs, moles, and rabbits. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months. The home ranges of this species in Finland are very large, with a mean of about 15 km<sup>2</sup> (Kauhala <em>et al.</em> 2006), and their social system is peculiar, with large overlapping home ranges without any communal den (K. Kauhala<em> in litt.</em> 2006). In Finland, it does not reproduce every year, and the litter size is small (Kauhala <em>et al.</em> 2006).
29673		population	eng	The species is abundant throughout its range, and populations are generally stable or increasing. Densities of this species have increased in Europe during recent decades (Holmala and Kauhala 2006). In central Europe the population is increasing due to the reduction of rabies, in western Ukraine the population has increased, and in the United Kingdom there was a 77% increase in the total population size from the 1980s to the 1990s (Battersby 2005). There are large differences in population densities across its range (Prigioni 1999). In Finland, near the northern limit of its distribution, the population density is low at about 0.2 to 0.25 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Kauhala in litt. 2006), whereas in the UK densities of up to 19.7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> have been recorded (Prigioni 1999).
29673		population	eng	The species is common in European Russia. 30,000 individuals were recorded in Russia in 1990 (Abramov pers. comm.). Densities of this species have increased in Europe during recent decades (Holmala and Kauhala 2006). The population density of this species in Finland, near the northern limit of its distribution, is low, at about 2 to 2.5 individuals per 10 km² (Kauhala in litt. 2006).<br><br>The species is abundant throughout its range. In central Europe the population is increasing due to the reduction of rabies. In western Ukraine the population has increased. In the United Kingdom (1980s-1990s) there was a 77% increase in the total population size. There are large differences in population densities across its range.
29673		population	eng	The species is common in European Russia. 30,000 individuals were recorded in Russia in 1990 (Abramov pers. comm.). Densities of this species have increased in Europe during recent decades (Holmala and Kauhala 2006). The population density of this species in Finland, near the northern limit of its distribution, is low, at about 2 to 2.5 individuals per 10 km² (Kauhala in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>The species is abundant throughout its range. In central Europe the population is increasing due to the reduction of rabies. In western Ukraine the population has increased. In the United Kingdom (1980s-1990s) there was a 77% increase in the total population size. There are large differences in population densities across its range.
29673		threats	eng	It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. In central Europe the population was formerly severely reduced by rabies, but that threat has now decreased with rabies controls. In the United Kingdom and Ireland the species is associated with bovine TB, which is used as a pretext to eradicate the species. During hunting for foxes or raccoons the badger is often killed as bycatch. In the Russian Federation the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and fat which is used as a medicine. The species is sensitive to habitat fragmentation and the size of the remaining patch is important for the continued survival of the species. In Germany, the species is hunted annually. It is possible that the introduced raccoon dog (<em>Nyctereutes procyonoides</em>) competes with the badger in parts of its range, and a project in Finland is looking into this possible threat (K. Kauhala <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Badgers are heavily hunted in Finland, the annual harvest has increased in recent years, being about 10,000 badgers now (K. Kauhala <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The hunting season in Finland is the whole year, with the exception of females with young being protected in May, June, and July (K. Kauhala <em>in litt.</em> 2006).
29673		threats	eng	Its decline in some agricultural areas has been attributed to land-use changes causing a loss of suitable habitat (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. In central Europe the population was formerly severely reduced by rabies, but that threat has now decreased with rabies controls. In the United Kingdom the species is associated with bovine TB, which is used as an excuse to eradicate the species (there is no evidence of this). During hunting for foxes or raccoons the badger is often killed as bycatch. In the Russian Federation the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and fat which is used as a medicine. The species is sensitive to habitat fragmentation and the size of the remaining patch is important for the continued survival of the species. In Germany, the species is hunted annually. It is possible that the introduced raccoon dog (<em>Nyctereutes procyonoides</em>) competes with badgers, and a project in Finland is looking into this possible threat, initiated by the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, started this 2006 and continuing for about 4 years (Kauhala in litt. 2006). Badgers are heavily hunted in Finland, the annual harvest has increased in recent years, being about 10,000 badgers now (Kauhala in litt. 2006). The hunting season in Finland is the whole year, with the exception of females with young being protected in May, June, and July (Kauhala in litt. 2006).
29673		threats	eng	Its decline in some agricultural areas has been attributed to land-use changes causing a loss of suitable habitat (Mitchell-Jones <i>et al</i>. 1999). It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. In central Europe the population was formerly severely reduced by rabies, but that threat has now decreased with rabies controls. In the United Kingdom the species is associated with bovine TB, which is used as an excuse to eradicate the species (there is no evidence of this). During hunting for foxes or raccoons the badger is often killed as bycatch. In the Russian Federation the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and fat which is used as a medicine. The species is sensitive to habitat fragmentation and the size of the remaining patch is important for the continued survival of the species. In Germany, the species is hunted annually. It is possible that the introduced raccoon dog (<i>Nyctereutes procyonoides</i>) competes with badgers, and a project in Finland is looking into this possible threat, initiated by the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, started this 2006 and continuing for about 4 years (Kauhala in litt. 2006). Badgers are heavily hunted in Finland, the annual harvest has increased in recent years, being about 10,000 badgers now (Kauhala in litt. 2006). The hunting season in Finland is the whole year, with the exception of females with young being protected in May, June, and July (Kauhala in litt. 2006).
29674		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Monitoring of exploitation is required by the Bern Convention (McDonald pers. comm.). The species is protected under national legislation in some range states (e.g. Spain), although this is not necessarily enforced (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). However, in many parts of its global range the species is not protected and trapping is quite legal (McDonald pers. comm.).
29674		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Monitoring of exploitation is required by the Bern Convention (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006). The species is protected under national legislation in some range states (e.g. Spain), although this is not necessarily enforced (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, in many parts of its global range the species is not protected and trapping is quite legal (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006).
29674		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The Indian population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela erminea ferghanae</span> is listed on CITES Appendix III. It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Monitoring of exploitation is required by the Bern Convention (McDonald pers. comm.). The species is protected under national legislation in some range states (e.g. Spain), although this is not necessarily enforced (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). However, in many parts of its global range the species is not protected and trapping is quite legal (McDonald pers. comm.).
29674		distribution	eng	Circumboreal range throughout North America, Europe, and Asia, from Greenland and the Canadian and Siberian Arctic islands south to about 35°N (King 1983, Fagerstone 1987). In North America, this species is found throughout Alaska and Canada south through most of the northern United States to central California, northern Arizona (Berna 1991), northern New Mexico, Iowa, the Great Lakes region, Pennsylvania, and northern Virginia (Fagerstone 1987). It has been introduced to New Zealand. In Europe, it is present as far south as 41ºN in Portugal (Santos Reis, 1983), and is found on most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, and some small North Atlantic islands. It does not occur on Mediterranean islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japan Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its vertical range is from sea level to 3,000 m (Pulliainen, 1999).
29674		distribution	eng	Circumboreal range throughout North America, Europe, and Asia, from Greenland and the Canadian and Siberian Arctic islands south to about 35°N (King 1983, Fagerstone 1987). In North America, this species is found throughout Alaska and Canada south through most of the northern United States to central California, northern Arizona (Berna 1991), northern New Mexico, Iowa, the Great Lakes region, Pennsylvania, and northern Virginia (Fagerstone 1987). It has been introduced to New Zealand. In Europe, it is present as far south as 41ºN in Portugal (Santos Reis, 1983), and is found on most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, and some small North Atlantic islands. It does not occur on Mediterranean islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japan Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido (Abe <i>et al.</i>, 2005). Its vertical range is from sea level to 3,000 m (Pulliainen, 1999).
29674		distribution	eng	The stoat has a very large circumboreal range, inhabiting central and northern Eurasia, northern North America and north-eastern Greenland. It has been introduced to New Zealand. In Europe, it is present as far south as 41ºN in Portugal (Santos Reis 1983), and is found on most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, and some small North Atlantic islands; it does not occur on Mediterranean islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japan Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its vertical range is from sea level to 3,000 m (Pulliainen 1999).
29674		habitat	eng	Ermine (Stoat) occupy a wide range of habitats. They are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially <em>Microtus</em> and <em>Arvicola</em> species (King, 1983). Pulliainen (1999) states that coniferous and mixed woodlands are preferred, but that many other habitats are used including tundra and the summits of fells and mountains. Dense forests and deserts are avoided (King, 1983). Specifically to Mongolia, they inhabit taiga, forest-steppe and rocky parts of the semi-desert. This species is a specialist predator of small mammals, but will occasionally feed on fruit, earthworms, insects, eggs, and birds (King, 1983). Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). This species is nocturnal but are often seen in daylight hours. Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).<br/><br/>Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983). They tend to avoid dense forest and deserts, and are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially Microtus and Arvicola (King, 1983). Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).
29674		habitat	eng	Ermine (Stoat) occupy a wide range of habitats. They are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially <i>Microtus</i> and <i>Arvicola</i> species (King, 1983). Pulliainen (1999) states that coniferous and mixed woodlands are preferred, but that many other habitats are used including tundra and the summits of fells and mountains. Dense forests and deserts are avoided (King, 1983). Specifically to Mongolia, they inhabit taiga, forest-steppe and rocky parts of the semi-desert. This species is a specialist predator of small mammals, but will occasionally feed on fruit, earthworms, insects, eggs, and birds (King, 1983). Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). This species is nocturnal but are often seen in daylight hours. Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).<br><br>Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983). They tend to avoid dense forest and deserts, and are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially Microtus and Arvicola (King, 1983). Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).
29674		habitat	eng	Stoats occupy a wide range of habitats. They are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially <em>Microtus</em> and <em>Arvicola</em> species (King 1983). Pulliainen (1999) states that coniferous and mixed woodlands are preferred, but that many other habitats are used including tundra and the summits of fells and mountains. Dense forests and deserts are avoided (King 1983). This species is a specialist predator of small mammals, but will occasionally feed on fruit, earthworms, insects, eggs, and birds (King 1983). Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King 1983, Pulliainen 1999). Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King 1983).
29674		population	eng	The density and structure of populations of this species are unstable, due to short life spans and high reproductive capacity; populations are greatly influenced by fluctuations in prey supply (especially small mammals) (King 1983, Pulliainen 1999). Population fluctuations of stoats and their prey tend to increase in magnitude at more northerly latitudes (Pulliainen 1999), although fluctuations have also been recorded in Spain (Blanco 1998, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In France, it was declining, but now has stabilized as a result of full protection (EMA Workshop 2006). In Spain it has been speculated that the population may be declining as a results of declines in the southern water vole <em>Arvicola sapidus</em> (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), but the population trend has not been quantified in Spain or Portugal (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Despite population fluctuations, it is a widespread and abundant species.
29674		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The density and structure of populations of this species are unstable, due to short life spans and high reproductive capacity. Populations are greatly influenced by fluctuations in prey supply (especially small mammals) (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). Population fluctuations of stoats and their prey tend to increase in magnitude at more northerly latitudes (Pulliainen, 1999), although fluctuations have also been recorded in Spain (Blanco, 1998; Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). In France, it was declining, but now has stabilized as a result of full protection. In Spain it has been speculated that the population may be declining as a results of declines in the southern water vole, <em>Arvicola sapidus</em>, (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), but the population trend has not been quantified in Spain or Portugal (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002; Cabral <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is abundant in north-western and central Mongolia, but is rare in the eastern plains (Bannikov, 1954; Dulamtseren, 1970; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Despite population fluctuations, it is a widespread and abundant species, common in suitable habitats. However, in some parts of its range it is rare.
29674		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The density and structure of populations of this species are unstable, due to short life spans and high reproductive capacity. Populations are greatly influenced by fluctuations in prey supply (especially small mammals) (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). Population fluctuations of stoats and their prey tend to increase in magnitude at more northerly latitudes (Pulliainen, 1999), although fluctuations have also been recorded in Spain (Blanco, 1998; Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). In France, it was declining, but now has stabilized as a result of full protection. In Spain it has been speculated that the population may be declining as a results of declines in the southern water vole, <i>Arvicola sapidus</i>, (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), but the population trend has not been quantified in Spain or Portugal (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002; Cabral <i>et al.</i>, 2005). It is abundant in north-western and central Mongolia, but is rare in the eastern plains (Bannikov, 1954; Dulamtseren, 1970; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Despite population fluctuations, it is a widespread and abundant species, common in suitable habitats. However, in some parts of its range it is rare.
29674		threats	eng	In the Iberian Peninsula the species is dependent on two <em>Arvicola</em> species, and these are declining, so loss of prey base may be a threat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Habitat loss (e.g. as a result of urbanization: Pulliainen 1999) is also a problem in parts of the range. The species is commonly hunted in Russia, where there is also a limited fur trade (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006). In western and central Europe, the stoat was frequently hunted for its white winter fur up until at least the 1930s (with c.30,000 pelts sold in Finland alone during that decade) (Pulliainen 1999). Availability of prey is the principal factor controlling population density (King 1983, Pulliainen 1999), but disease, parasites and other pressures can also contribute.
29674		threats	eng	On a range-wide scale, no major threats are known. Locally the species may be threatened by unrestricted trapping and habitat loss due to timber harvest or natural disturbance (Fagerstone 1987). In the Iberian Peninsula the species is dependent on two <em>Arvicola</em> species, and these are declining, so loss of prey base may be a threat (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Habitat loss (e.g. as a result of urbanization: Pulliainen, 1999) is also a problem in parts of the range. The species is commonly hunted in Russia, where there is also a limited fur trade (McDonald pers. comm.). In western and central Europe, the stoat was frequently hunted for its white winter fur up until at least the 1930s, with c.30,000 pelts sold in Finland alone during that decade (Pulliainen, 1999). Availability of prey is the principal factor controlling population density (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999), but disease, parasites and other pressures can also contribute.
29674		threats	eng	On a range-wide scale, no major threats are known. Locally the species may be threatened by unrestricted trapping and habitat loss due to timber harvest or natural disturbance (Fagerstone 1987). In the Iberian Peninsula the species is dependent on two <i>Arvicola</i> species, and these are declining, so loss of prey base may be a threat (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Habitat loss (e.g. as a result of urbanization: Pulliainen, 1999) is also a problem in parts of the range. The species is commonly hunted in Russia, where there is also a limited fur trade (McDonald pers. comm.). In western and central Europe, the stoat was frequently hunted for its white winter fur up until at least the 1930s, with c.30,000 pelts sold in Finland alone during that decade (Pulliainen, 1999). Availability of prey is the principal factor controlling population density (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999), but disease, parasites and other pressures can also contribute.
29675		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine whether or not it is a valid species.
29675		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the unspecified type locality in Eritrea. It is known only from two old specimens, one of which survives. It is possibly closely related to (or even synonymous with) <em>Rana ridibunda</em>. It is also possible that the species is not even native to Eritrea (<em>R. ridibunda</em> having been introduced widely elsewhere in the world), and the specimens were perhaps not even collected in that country, but the amphibian fauna of Eritrea is too poorly known for these issues to be resolved at present. Given the current state of knowledge, it is not possible to map this species' range.
29675		habitat	eng	If this is a valid species, it presumably occurs in or near water.
29675		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
29675		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
29679		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>, 1999). It occurs in many protected areas. There is a need to address the hunting and persecution issues for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. The subspecies, <em>Mustela eversmanii amurensis</em>, is on the Red Data Book in China and Russia (2001). In Russia its listing is due to reductions in population size, and in China it is listed as Near Threatened due to habitat loss
29679		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <i>et al</i>, 1999). It occurs in many protected areas. There is a need to address the hunting and persecution issues for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. The subspecies, <i>Mustela eversmanii amurensis</i>, is on the Red Data Book in China and Russia (2001). In Russia its listing is due to reductions in population size, and in China it is listed as Near Threatened due to habitat loss
29679		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Wolsan 1999). It occurs in many protected areas. There is a need to address the hunting and persecution issues for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.
29679		distribution	eng	The steppe polecat occurs from central and eastern Europe in the west through southern Russia, northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan to Mongolia and northern and western China. It occurs up to 800 m in Europe and to 2,600 m in central Asia. Wozencraft (2005) lists the following countries of occurrence for this species: Austria, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan; it is also known from Kashmir (Pocock, 1941). According to Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. (1999), in Europe this species is represented by two major populations that are separated by the Carpathians. The western population of which (subspecies <em>Mustela eversmanii hungarica</em>) is found in the Czech Republic, eastern Austria, southern Slovakia, Ukraine south of the Carpathians, Hungary, northern Yugoslavia, and western Romania; the eastern population (nominate subspecies) being restricted to northern Bulgaria, southern Romania, Moldova, Ukraine east and north of the Carpathians, southeastern Poland, southern European Russia, and Kazakhstan (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).
29679		distribution	eng	The steppe polecat occurs from central and eastern Europe in the west through southern Russia, northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan to Mongolia and northern and western China. It occurs up to 800 m in Europe and to 2,600 m in central Asia. Wozencraft (2005) lists the following countries of occurrence for this species: Austria, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan; it is also known from Kashmir (Pocock, 1941). According to Mitchell-Jones <i>et al</i>. (1999), in Europe this species is represented by two major populations that are separated by the Carpathians. The western population of which (subspecies <i>Mustela eversmanii hungarica</i>) is found in the Czech Republic, eastern Austria, southern Slovakia, Ukraine south of the Carpathians, Hungary, northern Yugoslavia, and western Romania; the eastern population (nominate subspecies) being restricted to northern Bulgaria, southern Romania, Moldova, Ukraine east and north of the Carpathians, southeastern Poland, southern European Russia, and Kazakhstan (Mitchell-Jones <i>et al</i>. 1999).
29679		distribution	eng	The steppe polecat occurs from central and eastern Europe in the west through southern Russia, northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan to Mongolia and northern and western China. Wilson and Reeder (2005) list the following countries of occurrence for this species: Austria, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. According to Wolsan (1999), in Europe this species is represented by two major populations that are separated by the Carpathians. The western of these two major populations (subspecies <em>Mustela eversmanii hungarica</em>) is found in the Czech Republic, eastern Austria, southern Slovakia, Ukraine south of the Carpathians, Hungary, northern Serbia, and western Romania; and the eastern (nominate subspecies) is restricted to northern Bulgaria, southern Romania, Moldova, Ukraine east and north of the Carpathians, southeastern Poland, southern European Russia, and Kazakhstan (Wolsan 1999). It occurs up to 800 m in Europe and to 2,600 m in central Asia.
29679		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of relatively dry habitats including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>, 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents, including sousliks, marmots, hamsters, pikas, gerbils and voles. It avoids forests, and is primarily nocturnal.
29679		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of relatively dry habitats including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields (Mitchell-Jones <i>et al</i>, 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents, including sousliks, marmots, hamsters, pikas, gerbils and voles. It avoids forests, and is primarily nocturnal.
29679		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of relatively dry habitats including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields (Wolsan 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents, including sousliks, marmots, hamsters, pikas, gerbils and voles. It avoids forests, and is primarily nocturnal.
29679		population	eng	In Europe, this species is still numerous, particularly in southern European Russia and Kazakhstan, though it is unevenly spaced and abundant across its range, with unstable population densities, being strongly dependent on food resources, and capable of spreading and colonizing new areas rapidly (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al,</em> 1999). It is more widespread to the east of Europe. There has been no evidence for any decline (except in Austria and the Czech Republic), but the species is scarce. However, ground squirrels are declining and this is an important prey species, so this could have an impact on the population in Europe. It is widespread and common in Central Asia and Siberia.
29679		population	eng	In Europe, this species is still numerous, particularly in southern European Russia and Kazakhstan, though it is unevenly spaced and abundant across its range, with unstable population densities, being strongly dependent on food resources, and capable of spreading and colonizing new areas rapidly (Mitchell-Jones <i>et al,</i> 1999). It is more widespread to the east of Europe. There has been no evidence for any decline (except in Austria and the Czech Republic), but the species is scarce. However, ground squirrels are declining and this is an important prey species, so this could have an impact on the population in Europe. It is widespread and common in Central Asia and Siberia.
29679		population	eng	This species is still numerous in Europe, particularly in southern European Russia. However it is unevenly distributed across its range, and especially in the western parts of its range (e.g. in the EU) it is scarce and patchily distributed. Population densities vary spatially and temporally, with fluctuations linked to the abundance of prey species. It is capable of spreading and colonizing new areas rapidly (Wolsan 1999). There has been no evidence for any decline in Europe (except in Austria and the Czech Republic). However ground squirrels are declining and this is an important prey species, so this could have an impact on the population in Europe. It is widespread and common in Central Asia and Siberia.
29679		threats	eng	In western Europe it is seldom intentionally hunted (although it may be taken as bycatch) but is heavily impacted by persecution (EMA Workshop 2006). However in at least parts of its range (e.g. Russia) it is commonly hunted for its fur.
29679		threats	eng	It is not intentionally hunted (more bycatch) but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range. However, in Russia it is a commonly hunted species for fur. It is impacted by habitat loss in China. Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> (1999) state that this species is hunted for its pelts.
29679		threats	eng	It is not intentionally hunted (more bycatch) but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range. However, in Russia it is a commonly hunted species for fur. It is impacted by habitat loss in China. Mitchell-Jones <i>et al.</i> (1999) state that this species is hunted for its pelts.
29680		conservation	eng	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Hunting for this species is prohibited in most countries across its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but there is a need to increase the size of these. There is an urgent need to protect the remaining steppe habitat of this species. It is a flagship species for the steppe. A number of animals are in captivity, but a breeding program is not necessary. Russia's and China's Red Lists note the species as Vulnerable.
29680		conservation	eng	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Hunting for this species is prohibited in most countries across its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but there is a need to increase the size of these. There is an urgent need to protect the remaining steppe habitat of this species. It is a flagship species for the steppe. A number of animals are in captivity, but a breeding program is not necessary. Russia's and China's Red List note the species as Vulnerable.
29680		distribution	eng	The marbled polecat has a distribution extending from south-east Europe, through Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, to northern China and Mongolia. In Europe, it is found in Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, and parts of Ukraine (the polecat has disappeared from most of this country and is now present only in the east) and the Russian Federation and the northern Caucasus (the steppe areas, not the mountains). It is also known to be widespread throughout the Middle East, having been recorded from just across the Sinai eastern border in Gaza (Harrison 1968), in Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and northern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, Harrison 1968, Nader 1991). Saleh and Basuony (1998) report the first records of this species from Egypt, as it was recorded from two localities on the northern part of the Sinai Peninsula (southeast of Bir El Abd and just north of Gabal El Maghara). It occurs from sea level up to 3,000 m in the Tien Shan mountains.
29680		distribution	eng	The marbled polecat has a distribution extending from south-east Europe, through Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, to northern China and Mongolia. In Europe, it is found in Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, and southern parts of Ukraine (has in fact disappeared from most of the Ukraine, only present in the east) and the Russian Federation and the northern Caucasus (the steppe areas, not the mountains). It is also known to be widespread throughout the Middle East, having been recorded from just across the Sinai eastern border in Gaza (Harrison 1968), in Israel/ Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and northern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951; Harrison 1968; Nader 1991). Saleh and Basuony (1998) report the first records of this species from Egypt, as it was recorded from two localities on the northern part of the Sinai Peninsula (southeast of Bir El Abd and just north of Gabal El Maghara). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.  It is found up to 3,000 m in the Tien Shan Mountains.
29680		habitat	eng	It inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats. It is a specialized predator, feeding mainly on desert and steppe rodents such as gerbils, ground squirrels, and birds. It is the most fossorial of all weasels.
29680		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from a sparsely vegetated, sandy area southeast of Bir El Abd, northern Sinai, while another was recorded from a sandy area just north of Gabal El Maghara (Saleh and Basuony 1998). It inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats. It is a specialized predator, feeding mainly on desert and steppe rodents such as gerbils, ground squirrels, and birds. It is the most fossorial of all weasels.
29680		population	eng	It is rare throughout much of its range, and is classed as 'Rare' in the Russian Federation. Its northerly range is receding in the Balkans and Ukraine, and in European Russia. It has declined substantially in Europe in line with the loss of steppe habitats. Declines are also suspected in central Asia. It is less rare in central Asia than elsewhere, but not common there. The species has always been naturally rare. Though it appears to be common throughout northern Sinai, and well known to the local Bedouins there (Saleh and Basuony 1998). The largest population in the Middle East is reported to be in Israel (Michael Stubbe pers. comm. 2006).
29680		population	eng	It is rare throughout much of its range, and is classed as 'Rare' in the Russian Federation. Its northerly range is receding in the Balkans and Ukraine (Rozhnov 1999), and in European Russia. It has declined substantially in Europe in line with the loss of steppe habitats. Declines are also suspected in central Asia. It is less rare in central Asia than elsewhere, but not common there. The species has always been naturally rare in most areas, although it appears to be common throughout northern Sinai, and well known to the local Bedouins there (Saleh and Basuony 1998). The largest population in the Middle East is reported to be in Israel (Michael Stubbe pers. comm. 2006).
29680		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to cultivated farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides may also be a threat, as are population declines in key prey species (a number of steppe rodent species are declining in Europe). In China, desertification is the major threat to the species.
29684		conservation	eng	Unregulated commercial harvesting caused the disappearance of muskoxen from large areas of their Canadian continental ranges in the late 1880s and at the same time, ice storms probably reduced muskox numbers on Banks and western Victoria islands. After protection from hunting in 1917, muskoxen began to recover, and under the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Wildlife Act, are subject to aboriginal hunting limited by area-specific quotas and seasons. After 1980, the rights to hunt muskox could be transferred to non-aboriginal hunters for guided non-resident hunters and for commercial meat harvesting. In northern Canada, wildlife management is largely shifting from centralized government agencies to co-management boards and shared responsibility with aboriginal peoples. The wildlife management boards are developing management plans, and continue to regulate muskox hunting on the basis of sustainable yields. In the late 1990s, the annual quota for the NWT and Nunavut was 12,000 animals which includes 10,000 tags for Banks Island. The domestic harvest is relatively stable and while the commercial harvest for meat and hides (source of qiviut the fine underwool) annually varies, it averages about 1,000-2,000 muskoxen from Banks and Victoria islands. Management activities are mostly systematic aerial strip-transect surveys to track trends in population size, and as a basis for quota adjustments. No reserves are specifically set aside for muskoxen, but part of the rationale for establishing the Thelon Game Sanctuary was to protect a remnant muskox population from hunting. The species also occurs in three national parks: Quttinirpaaq (Ellesmere Island ), Aulavik (northern Banks Island) and Tuktu Nogait (Bluenose Lake,  western Arctic mainland). In national parks, land use activities are controlled, but aboriginal hunting is permitted subject to conservation provisions. Conservation measures proposed for Canada: 1) Maintain sufficiently frequent population monitoring to track trends in abundance and distribution. 2) Utilize environmental screening of individual developments to protect muskox ranges outside any formally protected areas. 3) Public education is essentially as muskox have recolonized large areas and many people are unfamiliar with muskox ecology and behavior. People are often concerned about effects of muskoxen on caribou especially in areas muskoxen have recolonized.<br/><br/>In the United States, all five extant populations are the result of re-introductions of the muskox within and outside its historic range. The re-introductions began in 1935 with the translocation of animals, originally from northeast Greenland, to Nunivak Island. From 1967 to the most recent transplants in 1970, the Nunivak island population has been the source for all other Alaskan translocations (Klein 1988). Fully protected by law, muskox occurs in five protected areas and hunting is allowed under permit, with limited quotas on three of the five populations. Local subsistence hunting is given preference. Its status within the country is Not Threatened. <br/><br/>In Greenland, muskoxen occur in four protected areas, with indigenous populations in the vast Northeast Greenland National Park, and three introduced populations in Arnangarnup Qoorua Nature Reserve, and Kangerlussuag and Maniitsoq Caribou Reserves. Within these protected areas, muskox receives full protection. Most natural populations are within Northeast Greenland National Park. Outside protected areas, controlled hunting is allowed on Jameson Land in East Greenland, and near Kangerlussuaq in West Greenland. In both, quotas are determined annually and hunting is permitted only by full-time subsistence hunters. Between 1963 and 1991, muskoxen were translocated to three areas in the southwest previously uninhabited by muskox (near Kangerlussuaq, central West Greenland; Nunavik Peninsula, West Greenland; and Ivittuut, south Greenland), and a fourth population was reintroduced into former muskox range in Avanersuaq (Thule) in north-western North Greenland. Conservation measures proposed for Greenland: A proposal for development of a long-term management plan for existing muskox populations in West Greenland, is presently being considered by the Home Rule administration. A new system of game wardens in the West Greenland region, between Disko Bay (68°30’N) and Paamiut icecap (62°30’N), is being established to strengthen the enforcement of renewable resource legislation, and to control the performance of hunters in general.
29684		distribution	eng	Historically (1800s), muskoxen occurred from Point Barrow, Alaska (USA) east across Canada to northeast Greenland, south to northeast Manitoba (Canada), with the current range reduced (Grubb, 2005). In the Canadian Arctic, muskoxen inhabit most large islands (except Baffin Island) and the mainland tundra of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut from the coast of Hudson Bay west to almost the Mackenzie River and south to the tree line in the Northwest Territories and western Nunavut. Muskoxen  occur naturally over the entire Northeast and North Greenland west to Nyeboe Land. As well, there are several introduced populations, which are now well established in West Greenland and Qaannaaq. The species was re-introduced to Alaska (USA), and four locations in West Greenland (Denmark). Muskoxen were also introduced to Norway and Svalbard (Norway), although on Svalbard, they have since died out (Grubb, 2005). The species occurred in Russia until around 2,000 years ago, and has been introduced to the Taimyr Peninsula and Wrangel Island.
29684		habitat	eng	Muskoxen are large-bodied herbivores in an environment characterized by a short and variable plant growing season (when diet quality is high) and a long winter when the availability of low quality forage is highly variable through the snow cover. Typically, muskoxen live in mixed sex and age herds or small male bachelor herds which have home ranges within which muskoxen move between seasonal ranges. Although primarily grazers adapted to a diet of sedges and grasses, muskoxen also browse shrubs and forage selectively for forbs. They calve well before snow melt so lactation is supported by the cow’s fat reserves which the cow has to replenish during the brief summer. Muskoxen have a high threshold of fat reserves before conceiving which reflects their conservative breeding strategies. Winter ranges typically have shallow snow to reduce the energetic costs of digging through snow to reach forage. Muskoxen may also be susceptible to internal parasites but their role in muskox foraging ecology and population dynamics is unknown. The implications of the low genetic variability of muskoxen are likewise unknown.
29684		population	eng	In Canada, estimated muskox numbers in the Northwest Territories total 75,400 (1991-2005) of which 93% occur on the large arctic islands of Banks and western Victoria. Nunavut has an estimated 45,300 animals, of which 35,000 occur on the Arctic islands (unpublished data). A few muskoxen from the transplanted population on the Alaskan North Slope have strayed into Yukon. In northern Quebec (outside their natural range), Le Henaff and Crete (1989) counted 290 muskoxen in 1986.<br/><br/>In Alaska, 3,714 animals were estimated from aerial and ground counts between 2001 and 2005: Nunivak Island 609; Nelson Island 318; Seward Peninsula 2050; northwest Alaska 369; northeast Alaska 268. The re-established herds either fluctuate or are increasing in size and range, and in some areas, local people are concerned that they will compete with caribou and reindeer. <br/><br/>The population size in Greenland in 1991 was estimated to number 9,500-12,500. Of this total, (Boertmann <em>et al</em>., 1990) recorded the following population estimates:1,000 to 1,500 in North Greenland between Newman bight (82°N, 55’W) and Nioghalvfjerdfjorden (79°N); around 35 animals in the northern East Greenland region between 79°N and Jokelbugten (78°N); 450 to 550 between 78°N and Ardencable fjord (75°N); 2,900 to 4,600 in the areas between 75°N and Kong Oscar Fjord (72°N), and 4,600 to 5,000 the southernmost part of the species’ natural range in East Greenland, between 72°N and Scoresby Sund (70°N) (although recent unpublished surveys suggest that the population here has been reduced to approximately 4,000 animals (P. Aastrup pers. comm. to M. Forchhammer.).
29684		threats	eng	Historically this species declined because of over-hunting, but population recovery has taken place following enforcement of hunting regulations. Management in the late 1900s was mostly conservative hunting quotas to foster recovery and recolonization from the historic declines. Currently, there is increasing realization that periodically on some arctic islands, die-offs of up to 40% of the island’s muskoxen occur when warmer fall weather leads to icing and deeper snow which restrict forage availability. On the North American mainland, typically muskoxen have expanded their range recolonizing historic ranges but behind the colonizing edge, abundance declines at least partially due to predation by wolves and grizzly bears. A persistent concern of people is that muskoxen through their presence (smell) and foraging are detrimental to caribou (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>). The environmental consequences of climate warming is likely to have an impact on this species.<br/><br/>In Greenland, there are no major threats, although the fact that populations are often small in size and scattered, make them vulnerable to local or regional fluctuations in climate. Most populations  are within the National Park, where they are protected from hunting. The portion of the population which is south of the National Park sustains a regulated quota harvest. Climate change in Northeast Greenland is expected to bring increased precipitation and milder winters, which might negatively affect the muskox population.
29691		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for a number of populations of this species.
29691		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Slovakia and Hungary, through most of Serbia, the most eastern parts of continental Croatia (and newly discovered on Papuk Mountain in the central part of Croatia [Duŝan Jelić, in press]), southern Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania (lowland areas), Greece (including many Ionian and Aegean islands) and Turkey (western and central ). There is a single record from eastern Bosnia Herzegovina. Populations of the species in Hungary and southern Slovakia are very fragmented. Records from Cyprus refer to <em>Ablepharus budaki</em>. It is found up to 2,000 m asl (in Turkey).
29691		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Slovakia and Hungary, through most of Serbia, the most eastern parts of continental Croatia (and newly discovered on Papuk Mountain in the central part of Croatia [Dušan Jelić, in press]), southern Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania (lowland areas), Greece (including many Ionian and Aegean islands) and Turkey (western and central ). There is a single record from eastern Bosnia Herzegovina. Populations of the species in Hungary and southern Slovakia are very fragmented. Records from Cyprus refer to <em>Ablepharus budaki</em>. It is found up to 2,000m asl (in Turkey).
29691		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry areas including south facing slopes, meadows, scrubland and clearings in woodland (both deciduous and pine). It is generally found close to ground cover such as leaf-litter, dead wood, stones, bushes and other vegetation. The female lays a clutch of two to four eggs.
29691		population	eng	It is generally a common species, but it is notably rarer at the edges of its range.
29691		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest fires in Turkey.  Overall, there appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its European range the species is threatened by afforestation, deforestation and conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural, forestry or industrial use (Gasc 1997; CoE, 2003).
29730		conservation	eng	International legal obligations for protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) in areas where this applies. Included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive in areas where this applies. Occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need to enforce measures to protect this species, especially to prevent the fumigation of caves.
29730		distribution	eng	Found in "Senegal and Egypt south to South Africa; Cyprus, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, S Syria, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, S Iraq, S. Iran, Pakistan, NW India; islands in the Gulf of Guinea (São Tomé and Príncipe); adjacent small islands" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range falls within the European Mammal Assessment region.
29730		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed across sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa; also ranges outside of Africa through south-west Asia to Iran and Pakistan; also on Cyprus. <br/><br/>In the Western Palaearctic it occurs as two forms: <em>R. a. arabicus</em> (Iran, southern Arabia, Pakistan), <em>R. a. aegyptiacus</em> (rest of range). In sub-Saharan Africa occurs as four forms: subspecies <em>leachi</em> is found in SW Ethiopia, S Sudan, E and S DR Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and the extreme E and south of South Africa, including Swaziland and Lesotho;  subspecies <em>princeps</em> is endemic to Principe Island in the Gulf of Guinea; subspecies <em>tomensis</em> is endemic to Sao Tome; and subspecies <em>unicolor</em> is found from Senegal and the Gambia east to Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, south to northern central Nigeria and W Cameroon and Bioko Island, then south from Gabon and Congo to western DRC and W Angola. <br/> <br/>Elevational range: from sea level to 4,000 m asl.
29730		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid to moist tropical and subtropical biomes. Has broad habitat tolerance, so long as abundant food and appropriate roosting sites are available. Feeds on soft fruits (date, carob, mulberry, azedarach, fig, apricot, peach and apple), flowers, occasionally takes leaves. Often forages in orchards. Roosts: a strictly cavernicolous species, roosting in moist natural caverns and artificial structures including underground irrigation tunnels (ghanats), ruins, tombs, mines, military bunkers and open wells. Often roosts with other bat species. Possible altitudinal migration in parts of its range (e.g., Lebanon).
29730		population	eng	Common in parts of Africa; generally uncommon in SW Asia although locally abundant in Israel and Jordan (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in large colonies of up to 40,000 to 50,000 individuals. In SW Asia colonies generally number 50 to 500 individuals, although up to 3,000 individuals were recorded in a cave in Jordan. The population in Turkey is estimated at 5,000 to 10,000 individuals; the population there may be decreasing due to control measures in caves (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). In Syria only a single locality is known of 1,000 to 2,000 animals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007).
29730		threats	eng	This species faces a number of threats, but none of them are considered a serious threat to the species at the global level. Hunted for food in some cave systems in Africa. Cave disturbance and persecution are also a problem in parts of the range. The species is considered as a pest by fruit farmers and consequently cave roosts have been fumigated and destroyed in Israel, Turkey and Cyprus, resulting in incidental killing of many insectivorous bats of the genera <em>Rhinolophus</em> and <em>Myotis</em>. The Israeli Nature Conservation Society is trying to prevent this lethal control (D. Kock pers. comm.).
29730		threats	eng	This species faces a number of threats, but none of them are considered a serious threat to the species at the global level. Hunted for food in some cave systems in Africa. Cave disturbance and persecution are also a problem in parts of the range. The species is considered as a pest by fruit farmers and consequently cave roosts have been fumigated and destroyed in Israel, Turkey and Cyprus, resulting in incidental killing of many insectivorous bats of the genera <i>Rhinolophus</i> and <i>Myotis</i>. The Israeli Nature Conservation Society is trying to prevent this lethal control (D. Kock pers. comm.).
29742		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus </em>is strictly protected under Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In eastern parts of Russia there are strict anti-hunting measures in place, but there is continued poaching (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Hunting in Norway is also strictly controlled. In Finland, a large fence has been constructed between areas occupied by semidomesticated reindeer and forest reindeer, to prevent hybridisation (Koubek and Zima 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Research is urgently required to determine the causes of population decline of <em>R. t. pearsoni</em> on Novaya Zemlya, and to identify appropriate conservation actions.
29742		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus </em>is strictly protected under Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In eastern parts of Russia there are strict anti-hunting measures in place, but there is continued poaching (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Hunting in Norway is also strictly controlled. In Finland, a large fence has been constructed between areas occupied by semi domesticated reindeer and forest reindeer, to prevent hybridisation (Koubek and Zima 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Research is urgently required to determine the causes of population decline of <em>R. t. pearsoni</em> on Novaya Zemlya, and to identify appropriate conservation actions.<br/><br/>In China the species is rare; only a few hundred animals remain there.  Most of its habitat was burned in great fires in 1986.  It is listed on the China Red List as Not Applicable.
29742		distribution	eng	The reindeer has a circumpolar distribution in the tundra and taiga zones of northern Europe, Siberia, and North America (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Europe, wild populations have a fragmented distribution in Norway (including the island of Svalbard, where there is a separate subspecies <em>R. t. platyrhynchus</em>), Finland, and Russia (including the island of Novaya Zemlya, which also has an endemic subpecies <em>R. t. pearsoni</em>) (Herre 1986, Koubek and Zima 1999). In Finland, wild reindeer occur in two isolated subpopulations, one in the west and one in the east. Semi-domesticated reindeer are widespread in Lappland, and a feral population has historically become established on Iceland (Koubek and Zima 1999); these populations are not shown on the distribution map. It occurs from sea level to at least 2,000 m in Norway (Herre 1986).
29742		distribution	eng	The reindeer has a circumpolar distribution in the tundra and taiga zones of northern Europe, Siberia, and North America (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). In North America, the range formerly extended as far south as central Idaho, the Great Lakes area, and northern New England - however, wild populations currently remain only in Alaska, Canada, Washington, and northern Idaho. In Europe, wild populations have a fragmented distribution in Norway (including the island of Svalbard, where there is a separate subspecies <em>R. t. platyrhynchus</em>), Finland, and Russia (including the island of Novaya Zemlya, which also has an endemic subspecies <em>R. t. pearsoni</em>) (Herre 1986, Koubek and Zima 1999). In Finland, wild reindeer occur in two isolated subpopulations, one in the west and one in the east. Semi-domesticated reindeer are widespread in Lappland, and a feral population has historically become established on Iceland (Koubek and Zima 1999).
29742		habitat	eng	It inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra, open montane habitats, and open woodland, where it feeds on lichens, mosses, grasses, and shoots and leaves of deciduous shrubs and trees (especially willow <em>Salix </em>spp. and birch <em>Betula </em>spp.). In North America it is a migratory species, making seasonal movements from the coast in summer to the interior in winter, but in Europe reindeer are more sedentary (Herre 1986).
29742		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arctic (including tussock tundra and sedge meadow) and subarctic tundra, open montane habitats, and open woodland, often on high mountain slopes and in alpine zones at elevations of 2,300-3,000 meters, where it feeds on lichens, mosses herbs, ferns, grasses, and shoots and leaves of deciduous shrubs and trees (especially willow--Salix spp.--and birch--Betula spp.). <br/><br/>A social deer, this species forms large regional herds of 50,000-500,000 animals which band together during the spring, although this herd is composed of generally single-sex subgroups with 10-1,000 individuals.  Rutting takes place about October. Young are born in May and June after a gestation of about 228 days.  One or two young are born; they wean at about 6 months; reach maturity at 2.5-3.5 years; and live up to 20 years. Thick fur and short tail are adaptations to extreme cold winters. Its ability to smell and find lichens and other food under snow is a special adaptation.  The major predators are bears and wolves. <br/><br/>A highly nomadic species, caribou may travel 5,000 km/3,000 miles in a year, the longest documented movements of any terrestrial mammal.  In addition, most populations undertake extensive migrations in the spring and fall, travelling.  During these migrations, herds move at a rate of 19-55 kilometers/11-33 miles per day.  The caribou's maximum running speed is 60-80 kmph/36-48 mph.  Caribou are excellent swimmers, and will readily cross large rivers or lakes.  When swimming, adults can maintain a speed of 6.5 kpmh / 4 mph, and when pressed can swim at 10 kmph / 6 mph.   Population densities are very sparse - generally 0.5 animals per square kilometre of suitable habitat.  However, during the migration period, concentrations may exceed 19,000 animals per square kilometre.  In North America it is a migratory species, making seasonal movements from the coast in summer to the interior in winter, but in Europe reindeer are more sedentary (Herre 1986; Vevers and Pinner, 1948). The species migrates seasonally in Mongolia, but not over long distances (Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).
29742		population	eng	There are approximately 30,000 wild reindeer in southern Norway and 10,000 in Svalbard (Andersen and Hustad 2004). The population trend in Norway is believed to be stable, and hunting is controlled. In Finland, forest reindeer (subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus</em>) were driven extinct in the early 1900s, but are now starting to recover as a result of animals moving in from Karelia in Russia and from some captive bred stock that were released (Ruusila and Kojola in press). Forest Reindeer remain very rare in Finland (about 1,200 in the eastern subpopulation and 1,000 individuals in the western subpopulation). The Finnish population trend is difficult to determine, as the population in eastern Finland has expanded rapidly from c. 40 reintroduced individuals in 1980 to c.1,200 today, whereas the western subpopulation has declined from c.1,800 to c.1,000 during 2001-2006 (although in the last few years prior to 2001 it had been increasing) (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press). Overall, the current Finnish population trend is one of growth rather than decline.  Numbers in European Russia are very low with presumed ongoing declines, and the reindeer is now absent from large tracts of tundra and taiga. It is not known whether the small Kola Peninsula population in Russia is derived from autochthonous wild reindeer or from semidomesticated animals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em> has a small population (less than 1,000 mature individuals), which is undergoing continuing decline (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The reindeer's status in Asia is poorly known, although it is significantly more abundant there than in Europe, with a population estimated at 400,000 in the 1950s (Koubek and Zima 1999). There are also large numbers of reindeer (locally known as caribou) in North America. The feral population in Iceland numbers c.1000, and there are approximately 0.5 million semi-domesticated reindeer in Lappland (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).
29742		population	eng	There are large numbers of reindeer (locally known as caribou) in North America. <br/><br/>There are approximately 30,000 wild reindeer in southern Norway and 10,000 in Svalbard (Andersen and Hustad 2004). The population trend in Norway is believed to be stable, and hunting is controlled. In Finland, forest reindeer (subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus</em>) were driven extinct in the early 1900s, but are now starting to recover as a result of animals moving in from Karelia in Russia and from some captive bred stock that were released (Ruusila and Kojola in press). Forest Reindeer remain very rare in Finland (about 1,200 in the eastern subpopulation and 1,000 individuals in the western subpopulation). <br/><br/>The Finnish population trend is difficult to determine, as the population in eastern Finland has expanded rapidly from c. 40 reintroduced individuals in 1980 to c.1,200 today, whereas the western subpopulation has declined from c.1,800 to c.1,000 during 2001-2006 (although in the last few years prior to 2001 it had been increasing) (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press). Overall, the current Finnish population trend is one of growth rather than decline.  Numbers in European Russia are very low with presumed ongoing declines, and the reindeer is now absent from large tracts of tundra and taiga. It is not known whether the small Kola Peninsula population in Russia is derived from autochthonous wild reindeer or from semi domesticated animals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em> has a small population (less than 1,000 mature individuals), which is undergoing continuing decline (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The reindeer's status in Asia is poorly known, although it is significantly more abundant there than in Europe, with a population estimated at 400,000 in the 1950s (Koubek and Zima 1999). There are also large numbers of reindeer (locally known as caribou) in North America. The feral population in Iceland numbers c.1000, and there are approximately 0.5 million semi-domesticated reindeer in Lappland (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Numbers in European Russia are very low with presumed ongoing declines, and the reindeer is now absent from large tracts of tundra and taiga. It is not known whether the small Kola Peninsula population in Russia is derived from autochthonous wild reindeer or from semi domesticated animals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies pearsoni has a small population (less than 1,000 mature individuals), which is undergoing continuing decline (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>The reindeer's status in Asia is poorly known, although it is significantly more abundant there than in Europe, with a population estimated at 400,000 in the 1950s (Koubek and Zima 1999).  Two separate populations of this species are present in Mongolia (Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992). No robust data on population trends or abundance are currently available, although the total Mongolian population is believed to consist of fewer than 1,000 individuals.
29742		threats	eng	Poaching is a major threat in the Russian Federation (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The causes of decline of the Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em>are not known (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Loss of habitat in Finland (through logging) may pose problems, and there is increased disturbance to the species in some areas due to winter sporting activities. Hybridization with semidomesticated reindeer is a potential problem for some subspecies and subpopulations (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press).
29742		threats	eng	The Porcupine caribou herd in northeastern Alaska and adjacent northwestern Canada and the adjacent Central Arctic herd are potentially threatened by onshore petroleum exploration and development; industrial development on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge could increase calf mortality if calving were displaced south and east of potential development areas (Fancy and Whitten 1991). However, Pollard <em>et al.</em> (1996) documented high use of oil fields by caribou during periods of high mosquito and fly activity. <br/><br/>Poaching is a major threat in the Russian Federation (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The causes of decline of the Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em>are not known (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Loss of habitat in Finland (through logging) may pose problems, and there is increased disturbance to the species in some areas due to winter sporting activities. Hybridisation with semi domesticated reindeer is a potential problem for some subspecies and subpopulations (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press).<br/><br/>White-tailed deer carry and disperse into the environment meningeal worms that usually are fatal to moose and caribou but are clinically benign in deer; hence, white-tailed deer, through worm-mediated impacts, commonly are believed to exclude moose and caribou from areas where deer occur (see Schmitz and Nudds 1994). Predation by an expanding coyote population threatened a remnant caribou herd in southeastern Quebec (Crete and Desrosiers 1995). Long-term steady decline in the taiga-dwelling population in Ontario has been associated with the expansion of forest harvesting (Schaefer 2003).
30208		conservation	eng	The Bontebok (<em>D. p. pygargus</em>) is listed in the CITES Appendix II. However, strict control of trade means that existing trade does not seem to be adversely affecting the population, which is still exhibiting overall growth (Friedmann and Daly 2004).<br/><br/>The economic value and popularity of the Blesbok on private farms has enabled this subspecies to re-occupy large areas of its original range; substantial extralimital populations of the Blesbok have also been established on private land outside its natural range in South Africa and elsewhere. The survival of the Bontebok is more dependent on protected areas, especially Bontebok National Park and the De Hoop Nature Reserve, although they also occur on private property both within and outside their former range.
30208		distribution	eng	The Bontebok was historically confined to the coastal plain (60-200 m) of the Western Cape, South Africa, where overhunting reduced it from locally abundant to the verge of extinction. It was saved from extinction in the mid-19th century by a few Cape farming families who protected the small remnant populations. From a low of less than 20 animals in the original Bontebok National Park (established near Bredasdorp in 1931), the population of this antelope has gradually recovered. The population of Bontebok National Park had reached 84 when the animals were translocated to the more suitable site of the current Bontebok National Park near Swellendam in 1960, and increased to a population of 320 in 1981. The park’s Bontebok population has subsequently been maintained at around 250. Surplus animals removed from this national park have formed the nucleus of reintroduced populations in other protected areas such as provincial and local authority nature reserves. Extralimital populations have been established in West Coast National Park and at least two local authority reserves. Bontebok populations have also been established on private farms both within its natural range and elsewhere, e.g., in Eastern Cape and Free State provinces (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Blesbok’s historical distribution included the highveld of Free State and Gauteng provinces, parts of western and north-western KwaZulu-Natal, and the northern Karoo in the Eastern and Northern Cape, South Africa. It was separated by more than 300 km from the Bontebok’s historical range. Although the Blesbok occurred in enormous populations in regions such as the highveld when the South African hinterland was first explored by Europeans, excessive hunting had reduced its numbers to about 2,000 by the late 19th century. Since then it has made a spectacular recovery, mainly on private farmland, and it has been translocated to many parts of the country both within and outside its natural range. The largest numbers occur on private farms in Gauteng, Free State and Northern Cape. Smaller numbers occur in numerous provincial reserves, with the largest populations in areas such as Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve in Gauteng and Tussen-die-Riviere Game Farm, Willem Pretorius Game Reserve and Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve in Free State (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Blesbok was formerly present in western Lesotho, but exterminated before 1900 (Lynch 1994). There is no reliable historical evidence that Blesbok occurred in Swaziland, but they have been introduced to Malolotja Nature Reserve and Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary (Monadjem 1998). <br/><br/>The Blesbok has been introduced widely to privately owned game farms outside its natural range in Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe (East 1999).
30208		habitat	eng	This species is highly characteristic of the open plateau grasslands of the southern African highveld (Blesbok), up to 2,000 m asl, and coastal Cape fynbos (Bontebok) (East 1999). Both subspecies are almost exclusively grazers, with a preference for short grass; water is an essential habitat requirement (David and Lloyd in press).
30208		population	eng	East (1999) estimated there to be at least 235,000-240,000 Blesbok (stable or increasing), of which 97% occur on private farms and 3% in protected areas, and at least 2,300 Bontebok (increasing). Current estimates put the numbers of Bontebok at around 3,500; however, based on a 2001 survey, only about 1500 animals actually occur within the native historical range of the subspecies. The largest population is in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, and adjacent Overberg Test Range with some 700 animals (David and Lloyd in press).
30208		threats	eng	As a species there do not seem to be any major threats to its long-term survival. While the Bontebok’s numbers are gradually recovering, this subspecies is threatened by hybridization with the much more numerous Blesbok (which has been widely reintroduced, and also introduced outside its former range). Interbreeding has produced numerous hybrids on private land. A photographically based statistical technique is used to differentiate between true Bontebok and Bontebok/Blesbok hybrids for the purpose of identifying registered Bontebok herds (Fabricius <em>et al.</em> 1989).
30309		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> is protected at a regional level under the Spanish law in the “Andalusian Catalogue of Threatened Wild Plants“ (Decree 104/94) which means that it has to have a plan of conservation which is currently being developed. A<st1:personname w:st="on">t t</st1:personname>he European level, <em>A. pinsapo</em> forests have been included in the Habitats Directive (92/43/CEE). </p>  <p><strong>In situ</strong> conservation action: i) most of the pinsapo forests are included in the so-called “Network of Protected Areas in Andalusia”: Sierra de <st1:placename w:st="on">Grazalema</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Natural</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype> (1984), Sierra de las <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Nieves</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Natural</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> (1989) and Los Reales de Sierra Bermeja Nature Area (1989). ii) In the last seven years the “Action Program for <em>A. pinsapo</em> conservation” has been established. Under this program c<span class="shorttext">onservation actions are being carried out which include the prevention of forest fires, phytosanitary treatments, <span class="shorttext">fencing small trees to protect them from livestock, and experimental reforestations. </span></p>  <p><strong>Ex situ</strong> conservation actions are being carried out by the “Andalusian Networks of Botanic Gardens” and the “Andalusian Germoplasm Bank”. </p>  Lastly, research studies are being undertaken to better understand the genetic variability of the remaining forests, the level and frequency of gene flow between them and to assess the possible problems derived from climate change.
30309		distribution	eng	<p><em></em> <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> occurs in three locations: Sierra de Grazalema (Cádiz), Sierra de las Nieves and Sierra Bermeja (Málaga). The largest forests occur in Sierra de Grazalema and Sierra de las Nieves. In total the population has an EOO of 940 km<sup>2</sup> with an actual AOO of 28.7 km<sup>2</sup>.</p><p>In the  Sierra de Grazalema the main  distribution is along the Sierra del Pinar where this variety is restricted to 4 km²; The three small localities in this  area contain trees which have not yet reached reproductive age. At the   Sierra de las Nieves location  most  trees are concentrated in the municipalities of Yunquera, Ronda and   Tolox, where they occur in an area of&#160; 24 km².  The  smallest and most isolated subpopulation is at Reales, within the Sierra  Bermeja, where it is restricted to a small area of 0.7 km².</p>
30309		habitat	eng	<em>Abies pinsapo</em> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> grows mainly on northerly exposures of the Sub-Betic mountains. The trees in the Sierra de Grazalema<span class="shorttext"> and Sierra de las Nieves are on dolomitic soils and have an altitudinal range of 900 to 1,600 m. Above 1,100 m they form dense, pure forests, but below this altitude they form mixed communities in dense forest with <em>Quercus rotundifolia</em> and <em>Q. faginea</em> and with a shrub layer mainly of <em>Daphne laureola</em> ssp. <em>latifolia</em>, <em>Hedera helix</em>, <em>Helleborus foetidus</em>, <em>Ruscus aculeatus</em> and the herbs<em> Iris foetidissima</em> and <em>Rubia peregrina</em>. In the more open forest areas the fir is associated with <em>Crataegus monogyna</em> ssp. <em>brevispina</em>, <em>Prunus spinosa</em>, <em>Ptilotrichum spinosum</em>, <em>Bupleurum spinosum</em>, <em>B. gibraltaricum</em> and <em>Cistus albidus</em>. The forest in <span class="shorttext">Sierra Bermeja is on serpentine soils and here the tree layer occurs with <em>Quercus suber</em> and with other conifers such as <em>Pinus pinaster</em> and <em>P. halepensis</em> (this association is also occasionally found on calcareous soils). The shrub layer on serpentine soils is composed of <em>Erica terminalis, Genista lanuginosa, G. triacanthos, Cistus populifolius </em>ssp.<em> major, Bunium alpinum </em>ssp<em>. macuca </em>and<em> Cerastium gibraltaricum</em>. <em>Abies pinsapo</em> has a reproductive cycle of one year; the differentiation of reproductive buds occurs in July and pollen shed and female cone receptivity occurs in April-May. Wind-borne pollen dispersal has a low capacity. Fertilization occurs two months after pollination and female cones achieve their full development by June. Seeds begin to shed in October and they enter dormancy until February when germination occurs; seeds that fail to germinate in this year die, hence there is no persistent seed bank formed.</span>
30309		population	eng	At presen<st1:personname w:st="on">t t</st1:personname>he largest locations for <em>A. pinsapo</em> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> are undergoing expansion, particularly at higher altitudes. Expansion in many small areas is the result of reforestation. The total population is estimated to be less than one million sexually mature trees. Although the total population is thought to be increasing, lower elevation stands have been declining as a result of the combined effects of drought <span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext"> and pests (<span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext">Linares 2009, <span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext">Esteban 2010)</span></span></span>
30309		threats	eng	Fire is the main threa<st1:personname w:st="on">t t</st1:personname>o <em>A. pinsapo</em> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> forests. During the last 45 years, 566 hectares of forests has been lost.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span><em> pinsapo</em> is not fire adapted; it <span class="mediumtext">does not have the ability to regenerate from sprouting and there is a lack of seed longevity, hence there is no soil seed bank available for potential post fire regeneration. Other threats include pests and diseases which have increased in their occurrence over the last 15 years, especially in drought years and in forests resulting from reforestation. The main pathogens are the fungi <em>Armillaria mellea</em> and <em>Heterobasidium annosum</em>, and the insect species <em>Dioryctria aulloi</em> and <em>Cryphalus numidicus</em>. <span class="mediumtext">The latter is the most detrimental insect as it attacks the trunk and branches causing death. The isolation of populations due to fragmentation and a low genetic flow is currently an important risk that could give rise to a low genetic diversity within populations <span class="longtext">which would make them more susceptible to diseases. Threats from livestock are no longer a problem. During the last decade (1990s) a regional warming trend and a the decrease in precipitation has been observed. These changes in climate together with changes in landuse appear to be the causes of mortality of trees at elevations below 1,100 m (Linares 2009).</span>
30310		conservation	eng	Most of the population is contained within protected sites.
30310		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Andalusian sierras.
30310		habitat	eng	This shrubby species occurs on calcareous and ultrabasic rocks.
30311		distribution	eng	In Greece, the species is now restricted to a single large population on the Parnon Mountains in Peloponnissos. It is more widespread in southern Turkey.
30311		threats	eng	The species is used as a source of timber for carpentry and fuel.  There is also some threat of grazing but the foliage is very prickly and undesirable.
30312		conservation	eng	The species is now the target of a special conservation programme.
30312		distribution	eng	In Turkey the <em>Liquidambar</em> forests have been reduced from 63 km² to 13.5 km² since 1945.
30312		threats	eng	Much of the land has been converted for agriculture. Trees are cut for firewood and the resin is collected for the production of fixative in the perfume industry.
30313		conservation	eng	In Serbia, all locations except one are protected within the Tara National Park. In Bosnia and Herzegovina all stands are protected by national legislation.<br/>&#160;&#160; <em><br/></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> <em>omorika</em> is widely grown in gardens in northern Europe but few of these collections are either comprehensive or well documented. A well co-ordinated ex-situ conservation programme could play a significant role in conserving its genetic diversity. Recent collections by the International Conifer Conservation Programme in collaboration with Bosnia and Herzegovina aims to broaden the genetic base of the trees grown in the UK. An extensive programme of seed-banking would also be  advantageous.
30313		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea omorika</span> is restricted to Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are four locations: i) the Tara National Park in Serbia and the almost adjacent areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina <em></em><em></em>between  Višegrade and Srebrenica; ii) Viogor (Čajniče Municipality) in Bosnia  and Herzegovina; iii) Radomišlje (Foča Municipality) in Bosnia and  Hercegovina; iv) Ravnište-Kanjon Mileševke (Municipalty of Prijepolje)  in Serbia.<p>&#160;</p>
30313		habitat	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">omorika</span> occurs on steep north to northwest facing limestone slopes (sometimes precipitous) which overlay igneous material. The altitudinal limits are from 800-1,450 m. Depending on the altitude and slope, the associated tree species can include <em>Abies alba, Picea abies</em>, <em>Pinus nigra</em>, <em>Fagus sylvatica</em>, <em>Populus tremula, Sorbus aucuparia, S. aria</em>, <em>Quercus</em> spp and <em>Ostrya carpinifolia</em>. Sometimes it can occur as the dominant species within the forest, and at higher altitude on rocky outcrops it is co-dominant with <em>Pinus nigra</em>. On steep slopes at high altitudes it is co-dominant with <em>Picea abies</em> and <em>Pinus nigra</em> while on steep slopes at lower elevations it is co-dominant with <em>Fagus sylvatica</em>.<em> </em><br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Serbia</span><br/>  The sites at Bilo, Lutibreg, Crvene Stene, Studenac, Pod Gorušicom, Zvijezda, Vranjak and&#160; Karaula Štula.Most sites are on limestone. The main associated species are <em>Picea abies, Abies alba</em> and <em>Fagus sylvatica</em>. It can also occur with <em>Pinus nigra, P. sylvestris, Carpinus betulus</em> and <em>Acer platanoides</em>. Sometimes it forms almost pure stands. The Crveni Potok site is on peatland while the Zmajevački Potok site is on serpentine soils that are derived from ultramafic rocks.&#160; In Serbia it has an altitudinal range between 1,000-1,500 m, mainly on very steep north-facing slopes. <br/><br/>Male cones mature in May. Female cones mature in  September-October but mostly remain closed until the following  May-June: they may persist for up to five years. Typically&#160; a  good coning year is usually followed by a poor one. Post fire  regeneration is usually very good although limited to steep slopes and cliffs. <em></em>The climate is characterized by very high humidity, high precipitation regularly distributed over the year, high snow cover, and low winter temperatures. <br/><br/><em></em>
30313		population	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span><br/>    <p>Confined to the eastern part of the country in Republika Srpska close to the Drina River. It occurs in three regions – Region Foča (Municipalities - Višegrad, Čajniče, Foča) &#160;Region Vlasenica (Municipalties - Srebrenica, &#160;Milići) and Region, Sarajevo-Romanija (Municipality – Rogatica). There are 14 confirmed sites within Republica Srpska. These are (names followed by km²/no. individuals): <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong>Višegrad</strong></st1:placename><strong> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></strong></st1:place><strong>: </strong>Veliki Stolac (0.3/3,000); Karaula Štula (00.1/100); Gostilja (0.258/1,000); Tovarnica (0.02/?).&#160; <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong>Čajniče</strong></st1:placename><strong> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></strong></st1:place> : Viogor (0.1/150). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong>Foča</strong></st1:placename><strong> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></strong></st1:place><strong>: </strong>Radomišlje (0.027/100). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong>Srebrenica</strong></st1:placename><strong> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></strong></st1:place><strong>: </strong>Šarena Bukva (0.005/20); Strugovi (0.1/100). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong>Milići</strong></st1:placename><strong> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></strong></st1:place><strong>: </strong>Crkvice-Tijesnido (0.014/100). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><strong>Rogatica</strong></st1:placename><strong> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></strong></st1:place><strong>: </strong>Suvi Dol (0.1/2,000; Baba (0.03/1000; Panjak (0.005/20); Novo Brdo (0.005/200).</p>    <p>These sites represent three distinct locations. The largest cluster of sites (<em>ca</em> 12) is in an area <em>ca </em>40 x 20 km² between Višegrade and Srebrenica and is contiguous with the main location in Serbia. The second is about 25 km south at Viogor (<st1:placename w:st="on">Čajniče</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype>) while the third is another 60 km southwest at Radomišlje (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Foča</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Municipality</st1:placetype></st1:place>). <em></em><br/></p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Serbia</span><br/>     <p>In Serbia it occurs in 11 different sites forming two distinct locations. Ten sites are in the Municipality of Bajina Bašta in the Tara National Park (Site name/no. of trees): Bilo, 4,192; Lutibreg, 319; Crvene  Stene,3,000; Studenac, 763; Pod Gorušicom, 1; Zvijezda, 50,000; Vranjak (<em>locus classicus)</em>,  442; Karaula Štula, 374; Crveni Potok, 6; Zmajevački Potok, 797. The eleventh site is  at Ravnište-Kanjon Mileševke (Municipalty of Prijepolje), about  75 km from the southern most point of the main area. Here, there are about 300  individuals.<br/></p>    <p><br/></p>
30313		threats	eng	Until the middle of the 19th century the natural range of <em>P. omorika</em> was more  continuous and less disjunct than it is today. Its current fragmented distribution is mainly the result of anthropogenic factors such as general forest clearing and cutting, pastoralism and wildfires. Fire has perhaps been the biggest threat. For example, in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the the 1950s, a large forested valley  was devastated by fire which resulted in leaving three small fragments, each about 5 km apart. Local changes in landuse has prevented these fragments from expanding. More recently, during the 1992-1993 conflict, the forest at Strugovi was deliberately burnt leaving today less than 100 mature individuals alive. Generally speaking regeneration is extremely limited except on the steepest rocky slopes and on cliffs where broadleaved trees are unable to compete effectively. During recent fieldwork it was noted that the isolated locality at Viogor in Čajniče Municipality had a poor quality of habitat where the old-growth trees were stressed with thin crowns.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"> omorika </span>is dependent on catastrophic events for good recruitment and healthy subsequent growth to take place. Once established, it<em></em> often becomes suppressed by <em>Abies alba</em>, <em>Fagus sylvatica</em> and <em>Picea abies</em> (Burschel 1965). In Serbia the decline is slow as a direct result of poor regeneration and its lack of&#160; competitive ability. It is most evident at Mitrovac (Crveni Potok) and in the canyon of the river Milesevka, near to Prijepolje. This decline  may become even more pronounced due to the expected climate change (Ballian 2006). Logging has never been a significant threat.
30314		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. ramburii</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the 2008 Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas. A conservation plan is being developed  by Cordoba Botanic Garden. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ramburii</span> which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
30314		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. ramburii</span> is endemic to Andalusia where it occurs in the Sierra Nevada and surroundings.
30314		habitat	eng	It grows in dry montane scrub in rocky areas; mainly on calcareous outcrops.
30314		population	eng	The population is small (comprising less than 10,000 individuals) and is found at less than five localities (Moreno 2008). The number of mature individuals in each subpopulation is less than 1,000.
30314		threats	eng	It is affected by fire, tourism and a lack of pollinators.
30315		habitat	eng	A species scattered in lowland and submontane dry scrub.
30317		conservation	eng	Part of the range is protected within a national reserve.
30317		distribution	eng	A small shrubby tree, known from dispersed populations, generally consisting of between 10 and 40 individuals in the coastal cordillera between Castellón and Tarragona.
30317		habitat	eng	Sclerophyllous submontane scrub.
30317		threats	eng	The opening up of forestry roads has caused some habitat loss.
30318		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tetraclinis articulata</span> is included in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), and its  habitat type is included in Annex I of the EC Habitats Directive  (Directive 92/43/EEC). <br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Spain</span>: The two sites that comprise 80% of the overall population are mostly protected inside Parque Natural Calblanque (Cenizas-Peña de Aguila and El Sabinar). It also has regional level protection under Spanish Law (Decree 50/2003) which means that it has to have a plan of Conservation.&#160; This is currently being developed. The majority of the population occurs within the designated ‘Site of Community Importance’ (SCI) under the EU Habitat Directive 92/43/CEE. The area has been chosen as a priority site under the GENMEDOC project (Herreros, 2004) and as part of this initiative seed collections have been made for seed banking and for germination studies.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Malta</span>: In 1992 <em>Tetraclinis </em>was declared the Maltese National Tree and since then it has become part of the national identity of the country. It has been legally protected since 1993 (Stevens, 1999). Currently it is protected under the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations, 2006 (Legal Notice 311 of 2006 as amended) and the Trees and Woodlands Protection Regulations, 2001 (Legal Notice 12 of 2001).&#160;Most locations where the tree is found are protected through either the Environment Protection Act or Development Planning Act. Important localities are also declared as Natura 2000 sites (e.g. <em>Wied il-Miżieb</em> and <em>Il-Maqluba</em>).
30318		conservation	eng	Subpopulations in Malta and Spain are currently listed as Regionally Endangered due to their very restricted distributions and small population sizes. In each locality they were formerly more widespread but have declined to their current sizes as a result of historical over-exploitation, fires, urbanisation&#160; and the expansion of agricultural activities. In North Africa, many woodlands have become degraded as a result of over-grazing. However, the total area is still so extensive that it falls outside of the thresholds for listing under the IUCN's categories and criteria. If the decline continues, then it may qualify as Near Threatened in the future.
30318		distribution	eng	<p>In Europe, <em>Tetraclinis</em> is restricted to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Malta</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The main part of its range is in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Algeria</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:country-region>. <br/> <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on">The total extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be about 120 km<sup></sup>² with a total area of occupancy (AOO) of 22 km². The total number of locations is seven: three in Spain and four in Malta. <u><br/></u></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><u>Spain</u></st1:country-region>: In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> it occurs on either side of the city of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:city u1:st="on">Cartagena</st1:city></st1:place></st1:place></st1:city>. There are three distinct locations. One is west of the city of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:city u1:st="on">Cartagena</st1:city></st1:place></st1:place></st1:city> at Monte Roldan and Algameca. The second and third locations are east of Cartagena and consist of the following named sites: Escombreras (1 and 2), &#160;Fausilla, Cola del Caballo, Cabezo de la Galera, Cenizas-Peña de Aguila, Atamaria, El Sabinar. The largest site is at Cenizas-Peña de Aguila (7.56 km²). The area of occupancy is 10.3 km² (16 km² using a 4 km² grid) with an extent of occurrence of 83.8 km².<br/> <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><u>Malta</u></st1:place></st1:country-region><u>:</u> In Malta it occurs in four locations: (1) the Mellieha area where trees are found at Wied il-Miżieb (also referred to as Ta’ Pennellu); but also at Ġnien Ingraw, and Ras il-Griebeġ (2) il-Maqluba (S-SW  Malta) (3) the central-eastern part of Malta  - in the Mosta area, where it is known from Wied il-Għasel and San Ġużepp tat-Tarġa and (4) at Iċ-Ċagħak (limits of Mġarr, NW Malta)</p>
30318		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tetraclinis articulata</span> is widespread in northern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia and also has two small relictual subpopulations in Malta and near Cartagena in Spain. In Morocco it is found in six zones: 1-Rif mountains; 2-Eastern Morocco; 3-Eastern middle Atlas; 4-Valleys of the central plateau and eastern Meseta; 5-Western Middle Atlas and High Atlas; 6- Anti Atlas. Across North Africa <span style="font-style: italic;">Tetraclinis</span> woodlands are estimated to cover almost 1 million hecatres of which more than 600,000 are in Morocco.
30318		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tetraclinis</span> ranges from near  sea level to 1,800 m asl. In Spain it occurs from 30 to 500 m asl and  between 30 and 200 m asl in Malta. In most parts of its range precipitation ranges from 300-500 mm&#160; per year. It occurs with a range of other species, depending on where it is growing. Adult trees usually respond to fires by coppicing; repeated fires prevent regeneration from seed and may eventually kill adults.
30318		habitat	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline;">Spain</span>: Near Cartagena, it occurs in a sparsely vegetated, open woodland. Associated woody species include: <em>Pinus halepensis, Quercus ilex, Quercus coccifera, Pistacia lentiscus, Rhamnus lycioides, R. oleoides </em>ssp.<em> angustifolia, Maytenus senegalensis</em> ssp. <em>europaea, Calicotome intermedia, Periploca angustifolia, Clematis cirrhosa </em>and<em> Chamaerops humilis</em>. The altitudinal range is from 6-390 m above sea-level. It grows in a range of soils, but tends to be restricted to the Triassic limestone, avoiding the metamorphic, micaceous and graphitous schists. The climate typically has long hot summers (with 150 ‘biologically dry’ days per annum) with temperatures reaching as high as 40°C and mild winters where temperatures rarely fall below 0°C. The annual rainfall is ca 300 mm; most precipitation occurs during September, October and November. <br/><p>    </p><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Malta</span>: <span style="font-style: italic;">Tetraclinis</span> occurs in ‘garrigue’ communities on steep crevices and gorges with a substrate of coralline limestones and calcareous soils. The vegetation of these areas is usually typical of the thermo-Mediterranean region, with plants adapted to considerable dry periods, with chamaephytic shrubs, geophytes or therophytes. Associated native species include: <em>Periploca angustifolia, Ceratonia siliqua, Rhamnus oleoides, Euphorbia melitensis, Chiliadenus bocconei, Opuntia ficus-barbarica, Asparagus aphyllus, Teucrium fruticans, Andropogon distachyus, Brachypodium retusum, Hyparrhenia hirta, </em><em>Piptatherum caerulescens </em>and<em> Asphodelus aestivus</em>.There is limited information on breeding ecology, with no scientific studies carried out. In general, male cones start appearing in November (sometimes before), shedding pollen sometimes up to March. The female cones produce viable seed in most locations but no detailed studies have been carried out on this.</p><p></p>
30318		population	eng	In Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tetraclinis</span> can form extensive open woodlands. The Spanish subpopulation is restricted to an area of about 500 ha near Cartagena while the Maltese subpopulation consists of less than 130 trees scattered in several very small localities.
30318		population	eng	In Spain, more than 1,000 mature individuals are estimated whereas in Malta there are less than 130.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Spain</span>: Over the last 20 years the number of individuals is estimated to have increased three-fold as a result of regeneration following fires. The current number of mature, sexually mature individuals is estimated to be over 1,000 out of a total population of 7,500-8,000. Four years previously, it was estimated to be between 5,000-5,500. The majority of the population is east of Cartagena, especially in the Monte de las Cenizas and Peña de Aguila area within the Parque Natural de Calbanque. There is a significant urban settlement between these localities. While the number of mature trees may increase as young trees become mature, there is very limited potential expansion in the total extent of occurrence. <br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Malta</span>: Less than 130 mature trees are known in Malta. These are located: Mellieha area; Wied il-Miżieb - 100 trees; Ġnien Ingraw – (a few trees, probably less than 10); Ras il-Griebeġ - one old specimen (possibly another tree in an inaccessible part); il-Maqluba (S-SW Malta) – one small tree; Mosta area (central-eastern part of Malta) where it is known from Wied il-Għasel - 2-3 trees and San Ġużepp tat-Tarġa - one old tree; Iċ-Ċagħak (limits of Mġarr, NW Malta).  <br/>    <p><br/></p>
30318		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="text-decoration: underline;">North Africa</span>: Overgrazing and overexploitation are potential threats in many parts of its extensive range in North Africa.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Spain</span>: The principle  threat comes from urbanization, including the establishment of sport  facilities such as golf courses. Historically, human-set fires have had  the greatest impact on the populations. The most notable fire occurred  in September 1992 when 55 ha were burnt affecting a significant  proportion of the population (Nicolás <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span lang="EN-US">Regeneration after fire can be rapid although it is estimated <span lang="EN-US">to take 10-20 years for burnt areas to recover (<span class="longtext">López-Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).&#160;<span lang="EN-US">A  serious fire in the main part of the population (e.g. Cenizas-Peña de  Aguila) has the potential of eradicating up to 80% of the population.  Post-fire regeneration of competing species such as <em>Pinus halepensis</em> is a problem until the plants of <em>Tetraclinis</em>  reach maturity. Mining has been a cause for concern in the past. The  extensive heaps of spoil have caused serious fragmentation of the  population. In some parts of its range (El Sabinar), regeneration is  hampered by grazing for sheep and goats. Competition from invasive  species is also of concern; the most detrimental species being <em>Pinus halepensis</em> (Martinez 2008).&#160;<em>Tetraclinis</em> is frequently cultivated in southern Spain  in gardens and as a plantation species. Some of these plantations are  located close to the native population. It is thought that the origin of  this germplasm is the North African (Morocco)  population. Genetic contamination could be a problem although to date  no studies have been carried out to investigate its potential impact.<br/><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Malta</span>: <em>Tetraclinis</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">articulata </span>was  once much more common in  Malta and the various places called  Ghar-ghar, Ghar-ghur etc. point out to the  existence of a wider  distribution, and possibly small forests (Borg 1927). It  apparently  disappeared centuries to decades ago, mostly due to habitat alteration   and land reclamation (Stevens and Baldacchino 2000). The main threats  today include habitat modification and/or destruction (including land  reclamation and the  clearance of the vegetation) and human-induced  disturbance, including the  introduction of alien species such as <em>Acacia saligna </em>and<em>  Eucalyptus</em>  spp. Afforestation and reforestation programmes in its distribution  range with indigenous and  alien trees, which do not form part of its  biotope are also important threats. Competition from invasive species  such as exotic <em>Pinus</em>  spp. and particularly the native <em>P. halepensis</em> are also  seen as threats.</p><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><br/></p></span></span></span></span>
30318		threats	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline;">Spain</span>: The principle threat comes from urbanization, including the establishment of sport facilities such as golf courses. Historically, human-set fires have had the greatest impact on the populations. The most notable fire occurred in September 1992 when 55 ha were burnt affecting a significant proportion of the population (Nicolás <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span lang="EN-US">Regeneration after fire can be rapid although it is estimated <span lang="EN-US">to take 10-20 years for burnt areas to recover (<span class="longtext">López-Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).&#160;<span lang="EN-US">A serious fire in the main part of the population (e.g. Cenizas-Peña de Aguila) has the potential of eradicating up to 80% of the population. Post-fire regeneration of competing species such as <em>Pinus halepensis</em> is a problem until the plants of <em>Tetraclinis</em> reach maturity. Mining has been a cause for concern in the past. The extensive heaps of spoil have caused serious fragmentation of the population. In some parts of its range (El Sabinar), regeneration is hampered by grazing for sheep and goats. Competition from invasive species is also of concern; the most detrimental species being <em>Pinus halepensis</em> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Martinez</st1:place></st1:city> 2008).&#160;<em>Tetraclinis</em> is frequently cultivated in southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place> in gardens and as a plantation species. Some of these plantations are located close to the native population. It is thought that the origin of this germplasm is the North African (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region></st1:place>) population. Genetic contamination could be a problem although to date no studies have been carried out to investigate its potential impact.<br/><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Malta</span>: <em>Tetraclinis</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">articulata </span>was once much more common in  Malta and the various places called Ghar-ghar, Ghar-ghur etc. point out to the  existence of a wider distribution, and possibly small forests (Borg 1927). It  apparently disappeared centuries to decades ago, mostly due to habitat alteration  and land reclamation (Stevens and Baldacchino 2000). The main threats today include habitat modification and/or destruction (including land reclamation and the  clearance of the vegetation) and human-induced disturbance, including the  introduction of alien species such as <em>Acacia saligna </em>and<em>  Eucalyptus</em> spp. Afforestation and reforestation programmes in its distribution range with indigenous and  alien trees, which do not form part of its biotope are also important threats. Competition from invasive species such as exotic <em>Pinus</em>  spp. and particularly the native <em>P. halepensis</em> are also  seen as threats.</p><br/><p></p></span></span>
30319		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zelkova abelicea</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995).<br/>Almost all of the population of the plant is included in the Natura 2000 sites GR4320002, GR4320005, GR4330002, GR4330005, GR4340008.<br/><br/>The current legal protection is adequate and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> protection is also adequate, it includes a gene bank and cultivation at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania. However <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> protection measures are inadequate. The Forest Directorate of Chania, which is responsible for the largest part of the population, has attempted to fence some areas unsuccessfully due to conflicts between landowners and shepherds but has had one successful operation against illegal trading (Fournaraki and Thanos 2006).
30319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece and has been recorded in 17 localities on the main mountain massifs. It occurs mainly on Lefka Ori Mts, Dikti Mts, and sporadic on Idi Mts, Thrypti Mts, and Kedros Mt. Some localities at Lefka Ori and Kissamos, where the species was known to exist before 1930, could not be confirmed recently (Rechinger 1943). The extent of occurrence is c. 2,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 60-70 km².
30319		habitat	eng	This small tree grows on rocks, open calcareous woodland, scrub and garrigue on rocky mountain slopes, on north-facing slopes or flat valleys, preferably on deep soils rich in clay and humous, on limestone. <span style="font-style: italic;">Zelkova abelicea</span> propagates vegetatively by producing new shoots (suckers) from the roots of old plants. Seed production exhibits masting behaviour (large production of sound seeds every three years). Seed germination is slow at low temperatures (5 – 10°C) and is inhibited at higher temperatures (Fournaraki 2010).
30319		population	eng	The main part of the population grows on the Lefka Ori Mountains in more compact cypress and alder communities, and on the Dikti Mountains in thinner communities with <span style="font-style: italic;">Vincetoxicum</span>. Elsewhere there are isolated trees or small stands. There has been no systematic recording, but the total population is estimated to have 50-100 adult individuals which set seed regularly (Egli 1995). There are in total 10-14 locations and four to ten subpopulations. More than 50% of the locations include a small number of plants which could be considered isolated, so the populations may be considered fragmented. Population size decline may be or become a fact if the plant is sustained by clonal propagation only.
30319		threats	eng	The main threat is overgrazing which is an ongoing activity at most of the locations of the plant. Sheep and goats destroy seedlings and saplings thus diminishing sexual regeneration. Although the plant regenerates well by suckering, these clonal populations may never produce mature trees or seeds. The last decades a flourishing trade of walking sticks made from <span style="font-style: italic;">Zelkova </span>wood has developed and this has led to increased pruning of trees (Fournaraki and Thanos 2006).<br/>Lack of protection and of public education may also have adverse effects, for example cutting of trees for firewood by ignorant soldiers has occurred.
30320		conservation	eng	The forests of <em>A. numidica</em> are within the Djebel Babor Nature Reserve (upgraded from a Natural Reserve in 1985). Entry to the Reserve is carefully controlled and the area is guarded by wardens to try and prevent timber extraction, hunting and grazing. A number of specific conservation proposals have been suggested and relevant authorities are said to be very supportive of action to protect the site, but no more recent information is available regarding its current status and management. The various actions proposed included a reduction in the levels of fuel-wood exploitation, habitat management including selective tree-felling, reforestation and supplementary planting in areas of cultivation, restrictions on grazing in certain habitat-types, surveillance, visitor management and prevention or control of forest-fires. In Djebel Babor, the number of <em>Abies numidica</em> trees has decreased by half since the 1950s (World Wildlife Fund, 2011). Although there are plans to make the area where <em>Abies numidica</em> occurs into a national park and a report has been produced, nothing has been implemented to date.
30320		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>Located on Mt. Babor and Mt. Tababort, in the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Djebel</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> Babor Mountains</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> which forms part of the</strong> Petite Kabylie Mountain range which runs parallel to the Mediterranean coast. Most reports give the EOO of the Babor forest as<span style="font-style: italic;"> ca.</span> 23.67 km² in which <em>Abies numidica</em> has an EOO of 2.5 km². However a specially commissioned study of the forests (Technoexportstroy 1970)) gives the overall forest as 27.3938 km² and the <em>Abies</em> component as low as 0.8188 km² . The actual AOO is not known but is assumed to be less than 1 km²</p>
30320		habitat	eng	<p>Occurs in humid montane mixed forests on north- and east-facing steep calcareous slopes. The climate is particularly humid and cold, with annual precipitation of 2,500 mm, much of which falls as snow during the winter. The summers are dry and typical of a Mediterranean climate with an average of 18°C and a winter minimum of -1°C, with extreme frosts of between -8 to -10°C (Gharzouli, 2007); however the northern slopes tend to be wetter due to their proximity to the coast. The annual rainfall is between 1,500-2,000 mm. <em>Abies</em> <em>numidica</em> has an altitudinal range of between 1,850-2,000 m. Typically they cover the mountain summits where they occur as pure stands (rare) or are co-dominant with <em>Cedrus atlantica, Quercus faginea,</em> <em>Acer obtusatum</em>, <em>Populus tremula</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus aria</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. torminalis</span> with the occasional tree of <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus</span> <em>baccata</em>. </p>  <p>Shrubs include <em>Adenocarpus complicatus </em>ssp.<em> commutatus</em><em>, Daphne laureola, Lonicera kabylica, Ribes petraeum </em>(rare) and<em> Rosa sicula,</em> There is a rich herbaceous flora which includes: <em>Asperula odorata, Moehringia stellariodes, Paeonia corallina, Senecio perralderianus,</em><em> Viola munbyana, Silene atlantica, Silene patula. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum spinosum</span>, <em>Anthyllis montana </em>var<em> algrica, Catananche montana, Erinacea anthyllis, Ononis aragonensis, Pimpinella battandieri</em> are more characteristic at the highest altitudes very close to the mountain summit (Gharzouli 2007).</p>  These forests are not only an important habitat for many endemic plants species but also for birds and animals which have very narrow ranges&#160; such as the Algerian Nuthatch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sitta ledanti</span>) and the Barbary Macaque (<span style="font-style: italic;">Macaca sylvanus</span>). <em></em>
30320		population	eng	<p>A single population with a very restricted range. Knowledge of the population is very poor due to the fact that access to the area is highly restricted because of security problems.</p>
30320		threats	eng	<em>Abies numidica</em> is threatened by a combination of factors including fire, fuel-wood collection and grazing by herds of cattle and goats in the summer. It appears that the young saplings are unable to establish due to a combination of dense under-storey and deep winter snow. The threats to the forest and endemic species are presumed to be ongoing, although the difficulties of access to the site (especially in winter) afford some degree of protection.
30321		conservation	eng	The taxon is listed in government legislature of 1991.
30321		distribution	eng	Previously referred to as a distinct species, this tree is confined to the island of Gomera.
30321		habitat	eng	Cloud forest tree.
30321		population	eng	In the past the timber was heavily harvested. As a result, populations are now small and fragmented.
30321		threats	eng	The major threat at present comes from fire.
30322		conservation	eng	The species is listed in government legislature of 1991.
30322		distribution	eng	Endemic to the islands of Tenerife, Gomera, Hierro and Gran Canaria.
30322		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30322		population	eng	This tree is known from approximately 10 subpopulations, probably containing no more than 10,000 individuals. Numbers appear to be stable
30322		threats	eng	Declining water availability and fires may affect some areas.
30323		distribution	eng	A species endemic to the Gebel Akhdar on the coast of Libya.
30323		population	eng	The population range and status are little known at present.
30325		conservation	eng	The main concentration is in Tassili N'Ajjer National Park, which has been designated a World Heritage Site.  The species has been successfully established in cultivation. One subpopulation in Morocco is fenced and attempts are being made to replant the species but the rates of success are very low.
30325		habitat	eng	The cypresses are presumably the remnants of a forest that flourished in a wetter climate.  Today they occur only in wadis and sheltered areas in the Sahara Desert.
30325		population	eng	A paper by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) has summarised and updated what is know about this species in Algeria. Until the mid-1940s, it was thought that there were no more than ten living individuals of this cypress.  However, by 1949 the population was estimated to have 200 living trees.  The counting of the trees has gone on for a number of decades.  Between 1950 and 1965 various expeditions to the area undertook censuses of the living trees, but in most cases this was simply a record of the number of individuals in each wadi.  A methodological survey started in 1965, when 85 individuals were sufficiently described to be recognized again.  Between 1971 and 1972, a forester, Säid Grim, counted 230 living trees and numbered each one.  Those numbers are still evident today. An inventory between 1997 and 2001 conducted by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) discovered that 20 of the 230 trees counted by Grim had died, while there were 23 new ones added to the tally.  The current population size is therefore 233 living cypresses, in varying states of health.  About ten of the newly listed trees are very young, indicating that recruitment does continue in spite of the current drought. <br/> <br/>The 233 trees are distributed over a strip 12 km long by 6 km (on average) wide, along the southwestern border of the Tassili plateau. <br/> <br/>In Morocco, one or two small groves remain in dry woodland on steep scree slopes in Oued n'Fiss Valley south of Marrakech in the Atlas Mountains. Estimates of the area of occupancy have declined from 5,500 ha in 1950 to 1,460 ha in 1986.
30325		threats	eng	Regeneration in the wild is evident, but this is very limited. It is believed that the water table has sunk to an extent that regeneration is impeded.  There is evidence that cypresses were found further north in the mid-19th century, and the apparently rapid retreat of some 100 km in their northern limit has been ascribed to intense human exploitation (Abdoun and Beddiaf 2002). <br/> <br/>The total number of cypresses in the Tassili has fallen by almost 8% in 30 years.  The causes of this loss are not easy to identify.  On the majority of the dead trees, there are traces of branches having been chopped off (presumably by shepherds), and some have been burnt to death.  Two trees appear to have succumbed because of the drought.  At wadis frequented by shepherds and tourists, all dead cypress wood is rapidly removed. <br/> <br/>In Morocco, the decline is largely due to habitat degradation, overgrazing and to some extent exploitation. Observations during a visit to the area in 1997 indicated a complete absence of natural regeneration.
30326		conservation	eng	<p><em>Juniperus brevifolia</em> is internationally protected under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) (Elias and Silva 2008).</p>  <p><em>Juniperus brevifolia</em> has protection in the following designated areas:&#160; </p>  <ul><li><strong>Flores:</strong> (i) Reserva Florestal Natural Parcial do Morro Alto e Pico da Sé; (ii) Zona Especial de Conservação da Zona Central-Morro Alto (Rede NATURA 2000); (iii) Reserva da Biosfera. </li><li><strong>Covo:</strong> (i) Parque Natural da ilha do Corvo: Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats e Espécies da Costa e Caldeirão. </li><li><strong>São Miguel: </strong>(i)Parque Natural da ilha de São Miguel: Reserva Natural da Lagoa da Fogo; (ii) Parque Natural da ilha de São Miguel: Reserva Natural do Pico da Vara; (iii) Parque Natural da ilha de São Miguel: Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats e Espécies da Tronqueira e Planalto dos Graminhais; (iv) Parque Natural da ilha de São Miguel: Área Protegida para a Gestão de Habitats e Espécies da Serra de Água-de-Pau. </li><li><strong>Terceira:</strong> (i) Reserva Florestal Natural Parcial da Serra de Santa Bárbara e dos Mistério Negros; (ii) Reserva Florestal Natural Parcial Biscoito de Ferraria; (iii) Zona Especial de Conservação da Serra de Santa Bárbara e Pico Alto (Rede NATURA 2000); (iv) Zona Especial de Conservação das Quatro Ribeiras (Rede NATURA 2000). </li><li><strong>São Jorge:</strong> (i) Reserva Florestal Natural Parcial do Picos do Carvão e da Esperança; (ii) Reserva Florestal Natural Parcial do Pico do Areeiro; (iii) Zona Especial de Conservação Costa Nordeste e Ponta do Topo (Rede NATURA 2000).</li><li><strong>Pico: </strong>(i)Parque Natural da ilha do Pico: Reserva Natural da Montanha do Pico; (ii) Parque Natural da ilha do Pico: Reserva Natural do Mistério da Praínha; (iii) Parque Natural da ilha do Pico: Reserva Natural do Caveiro; (iv) Parque Natural da ilha do Pico: Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha ? Ponta da Ilha; (v) Parque Natural da ilha do Pico: Paisagem Protegida da Cultura da Vinha ? Zona Norte; (vi) Parque Natural da ilha do Pico: Paisagem Protegida da Zona Central.</li><li><strong>Faial: </strong>(i)Parque Natural da ilha do Faial: Reserva Natural da Caldeira do Faial; (ii) Parque Natural da ilha do Faial: Paisagem Protegida do Cabeço do Fogo</li></ul>Proposed practical conservation actions include the maintenance and restoration of the  habitat, reinforcement of populations and regional recovery plans. The  establishment of corridors, controlling invasive species and access to sensitive areas  are also considered important to put in place. <em></em>
30326		distribution	eng	It is found on all the islands of the Azores with the exception of Graciosa. The area of occupancy (AOO) = 513 km². The AOO was estimated on the presence <span lang="EN-US">within 1 km²  grid cells overlaid on a 1;25000 scale map. This mapping scale is more  appropriate in the context of the size of the individual islands in the  Azores, compared to the standard 4 km² grid recommended in the IUCN  guidelines. The AOO is distributed throughout the islands as follows (the percentage given is the AOO relative to the total area of each island): <br/><ul><li>Corvo - 6 km² (35%); </li><li>Faial- 28 km² (16%); </li><li>Flores - 87 km² (61%); </li><li>Pico - 174 km² (39%); </li><li>São Jorge - 64 km² (27%); </li><li>São Miguel - 35 km² (5%); </li><li>Santa Maria - 1 km² (1%) and </li><li>Terceira - 118 km² (29%).</li></ul>São Miguel has two locations: Lagoa do Fogo and Tronqueira/Graminhai. On Terceira <em>Juniperus</em> occurs throughout the central part of the island, with one coastal location at Agualva. On Pico it also occurs throughout the central part of the island with two coastal locations of Manhenha &#160;and Cais-do-Mourato (Elias 2007). On Santa Maria it only has one location at Almagreir.
30326		habitat	eng	<em>Juniperus brevifolia</em> can be found in a variety of different habitats; coastal scrubland with<em> Myrica faya</em> and <em>Erica azorica</em>; mountain scrubland with <em>Calluna vulgaris</em>; pioneer scrubland on lava flows with<em> Erica azorica</em>, <em>Calluna vulgaris</em> and <em>Vaccinium cylindraceum</em>; <em>Juniperus-Laurus</em> <em>azorica </em>forest; <em>Juniperus-Ilex azorica</em> forest; as pure <em>Juniperus</em> woods and <em>Juniperus-Sphagnum</em> woods or <em>Juniperus</em> forested peat bogs.
30326		population	eng	Sizeable trees are now rare and the species is represented largely by shrub-sized individuals.
30326		threats	eng	Current threats stem from the expansion of agricultural land and impact of livestock as well as forestry, especially the establishment of <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> and <em>Eucalyptus globulus </em>plantations<em>.</em> These activities have caused a great decline of the subpopulations on Pico, Terceira, São Jorge and <ns0:place><st1:place w:st="on">Flores</st1:place></ns0:place> especially in mountainous areas above <ns0:metricconverter ns2:productid="500 m">500 m</ns0:metricconverter>. Perhaps the current greatest threat to <em>Juniperus brevifolia</em> is competition from alien species, especially <em>Pittosporum undulatum</em>&#160;at lower altitudes, <em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em> at higher altitudes and, in <ns0:place><st1:place w:st="on">São Miguel</st1:place></ns0:place>, <em>Clethra </em><em>arborea. </em>Over the past ten years there has been a decline of less than 10 % of the overall population but the situation varies from island to island.
30327		conservation	eng	<p><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><em>Juniperus cedrus</em> is a protected species in the Canary Islands and occurs in three National Parks; Parque Nacional del Teide, Tenerife; Parque Nacional de Garajonay, La Gomera; Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente, La Palma. The area affected by fire in Parque Nacional del Teide is being restored by using local provenance material (seed). In Gran Canaria, the subpopulation in Montaña del Cedro is included within the Reserva Natural Especial de Güigüi. This sub-population is considered as 'in danger of extinction' in the Regional Catalogue of Threatened Species (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente 2009). On Madeira it is protected within the Parque Natural da Madeira (Natura 2000) where all goats have been removed above 1,400 m under&#160; the authority of Direcção Regional de Florestas. This has had a positive effect on the general vegetation, but as <em>J. cedrus</em> is a slow growing tree, any benefits are unlikely to be seen for several years.</p>
30327		distribution	eng	<p>Restricted to the Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, Gomera, La Palma and Tenerife)  and Madeira (from Pico Arieiro to Pico Ruivo).</p>
30327		habitat	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><u>Canary Islands: </u></st1:place><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span></p><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>In the <st1:place w:st="on">Canary Islands</st1:place> this species has become adapted to different habitats. In Tenerife and <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">La Palma</st1:place></st1:city>, <em>J. cedrus</em> occurs at the timberline (2,200 m), which characteristically has low precipitation and great diurnal temperature variation. Here the dominant vegetation is of shrubs <em>Spartocytisus supranubius</em> and <em>Adenocarpus viscosus</em>. In contrast, on La Gomera, which is lower in altitude, (1,150 m.) the habitat is <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Laurel</st1:place></st1:city> forest which has high levels of humidity as a result of the north-east trade winds. In Gran Canaria it only occurs on Montaña del Cedro, where it grows at altitudes between 800-900 m, here the temperatures are relatively warmer. At some of the locations (La Gomera and one location on <st1:place w:st="on">Tenerife</st1:place>) there is evidence of regeneration but generally recruitment appears to be relatively poor. One factor that may be related to this, is the decline in ravens (<span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus corax</span>) that are thought to have played a significant role in seed dispersal (Nogales 1999, Remeu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Recent research has revealed that winter visiting Ring Ouzels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Turdus torquatus)</span> also play a key role in seed dispersal (Remeu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Additional research has indicated that the Canary Islands subpopulations produce seed with relatively lower viability, possibly due to lower pollination rates resulting from fragmentation of stands (Remeu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<br/></p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><u>Madeira</u></st1:place></p>  The subpopulation on <st1:place w:st="on">Madeira</st1:place> occurs on exposed rock faces above the laurel forest tree-line above 1,400 m in altitude. Here it belongs to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Polysticho falcinelli-Ericetum arboreae</span> (Capelo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The main components include: <em>Erica maderinicola, Ilex perado, Laurus novocanariensis, Polystichum falcinellum, Vaccinium padifolium</em> & <em>Sorbus maderensis</em>. In <st1:place w:st="on">Madeira</st1:place> there have not been any studies to establish whether or not there is any regeneration, however since the removal of goats in recent years the vegetation recovery rates are very encouraging. <br/> <br/> The current distribution pattern and the restriction to almost inaccessible sites in the Canary Islands and on <st1:place w:st="on">Madeira</st1:place> reflect past human disturbance. Formerly it was more widespread.
30327		population	eng	<p>The population is estimated to be <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 600 sexually mature individuals.</p>  <p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Canary Islands</span> - 572 individuals: Gran Canaria 12; La Palma 250; Tenerife 200; La Gomera 100 (Elliot 2009).</p>  <st1:place w:st="on"><u>Madeira</u></st1:place>&#160; - one population with <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 40 individuals (Sequeira 2010, unpublished data).
30327		threats	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><u>Canary Islands</u></st1:place><u></u></p>  <p>There are a variety of threats, the most severe of which is fire. In 2007 a fire on <st1:place w:st="on">Tenerife</st1:place> (El Teide National Park) destroyed 30 old-growth trees. Other threats, which are detrimental to recruitment, include goats and the release of Barbery sheep (<st1:city w:st="on">La Palma</st1:city>) and Muflón (<st1:place w:st="on">Tenerife</st1:place>) for hunting purposes. Global warming could affect the amount of seasonal rainfall and moisture from coastal fog. </p>  <p><st1:place w:st="on"><u>Madeira</u></st1:place><u></u></p>  <p>Historically over-grazing, cutting and burning have been significant threats to the population. Although these threats are less today, the fast expansion of <em>Cytisus scoparius</em> following grazing is certainly a potential threat as it greatly increases the fire risks. </p>
30328		conservation	eng	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.
30328		distribution	eng	Canary Islands and Madeira. Subpopulations in both island groups are scattered and fragmented as a result of past habitat loss and timber exploitation.
30328		habitat	eng	One of the major components of laurisilva.
30328		population	eng	The subpopulation in the Canary Islands has not been properly censored but probably contains fewer than 10,000 individuals in total. In Madeira it is possible that subpopulation numbers are increasing with the expansion of laurisilva.
30328		threats	eng	The most serious threat in the present day is fire.
30329		conservation	eng	It is listed in regional legislation and occurs within protected areas.
30329		distribution	eng	The wild origin of the species is a little obscure. It appears to have been introduced to the Azores three centuries ago. Occurrences on these islands are therefore excluded for the purposes of assigning an IUCN Red List Category.
30329		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are known from remaining laurisilva and cloud forest.
30329		population	eng	Although the extent of the stands is much reduced as a result of past exploitation of the highly valued wood, the species is still abundant in parts of Madeira and the Canaries.
30330		distribution	eng	Once a dominant component of forest between 300 and 600 m on all of the Azores, except Graciosa.
30330		habitat	eng	Scattered in coastal forest consisting mainly of introduced species.
30330		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the wood and habitat loss have now led to the species becoming almost extinct on some islands.
30331		conservation	eng	Now included in regional legislation.
30331		distribution	eng	The species has a fragmented distribution but still appears to be relatively frequent in areas of cloud forest above 1,000 m on the Canaries.
30331		habitat	eng	Cloud forest and laurisilva.
30331		population	eng	It is rare and scattered over a slightly wider altitudinal range in laurisilva on Madeira.
30331		threats	eng	In the past it was exploited for its timber.
30332		conservation	eng	The species is listed in government legislation of 1991.
30332		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Canary Islands.
30332		habitat	eng	Dry scrub.
30332		population	eng	The species is distributed fairly abundantly.
30332		threats	eng	Housing developments, grazing and invasive plants all pose threats to the remaining populations.
30333		conservation	eng	This uncommon species is largely contained within protected areas.  It is covered by regional legislation.
30333		habitat	eng	Occurring in undisturbed cloud forest or <em>laurisilva</em> above 800 m.
30333		threats	eng	The greatest threat to remaining subpopulations comes from burning.
30334		conservation	eng	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.
30334		distribution	eng	Found only in the Cumbres and Barrancos in the south of Tenerife.
30334		habitat	eng	The species occupies a wide altitudinal range in dry woodland and scrub.
30334		population	eng	Subpopulations appear to be stable, although restricted.
30336		conservation	eng	The species is covered by regional legislation and occurs within protected areas.
30336		distribution	eng	The species is commonly known incorrectly under the epithet <em>marmulano</em> and may possibly be divided into different varieties on different island groups, particularly the Cape Verde populations.
30336		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland dry forest and xerophytic scrub.
30336		threats	eng	On the Canary Islands and Madeira the populations have become small and fragmented, and are under great pressure from grazing, burning and habitat conversion.
30337		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus maderensis</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive.<br/>Conservation actions that are urgently needed include species recovery and reintroduction programmes, control of the threats such as predation by rats, and raising public awareness. Further studies on its biology and ecology, population dynamics, taxonomy, habitat trends and conservation action impacts should be carried out (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
30337		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Madeira where it is found at two localities at an altitude from 1,500 to 1,750 m asl (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its extent of occurrence is 194 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
30337		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus maderensis</span> is a small tree that grows in high altitude heathland (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). It forms part of the Habitats Directive listed habitat 4050 "Endemic Macaronesian heaths" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
30337		population	eng	The population was stable but counts less than 50 mature individuals (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
30337		threats	eng	Infrastructure development has been described as a main threat together with predation by rats, trampling, fires and collection. This plant is also susceptible to natural factors such as droughts and temperature extremes (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). A fire might have destroyed several individuals in summer 2010, fieldwork to understand the extent of damage is underway.
30338		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas and is covered by regional legislation.
30338		distribution	eng	Madeira and the Canary Islands.
30338		habitat	eng	A widely scattered species of submontane laurisilva and cloud forest.
30338		population	eng	It is notably rare and considered threatened on Madeira. The subpopulations on the Canary Islands appear to be stable, although there have been reductions in the past.
30339		distribution	eng	Brandberg to southern Kaokoveld.
30339		habitat	eng	It occurs on granite outcrops, ridges and inselbergs.
30339		threats	eng	Trees in the Twyfelfontein area are infested with insects, which may have some effect on recruitment and population size and structure. Many mature trees died during the severe drought in the 1980s. However, healthy levels of recruitment are observed in some subpopulations.
30340		distribution	eng	Endemic to a small area in the Hlabisa District of northern Zululand. The species may be confused with the introduced <em>A. lebbeck</em>, which has become naturalized along the northern KwaZulu-Natal coast.
30340		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in forest, riverine thicket and open woodland.
30340		threats	eng	The habitat became severely fragmented through agricultural activities and increasing settlement. Frequent fires are also a problem in parts of the range. Recent assessments of the population have revealed no evidence of recruitment.
30341		conservation	eng	At least two of the localities are now contained within protected areas.  The future of the species should be secure provided that an alien eradication programme is maintained.
30341		distribution	eng	Found in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth and supposedly further eastwards in the Transkei, although there are no records to confirm this. It has been recorded from several localities.
30341		habitat	eng	A small tree found in forest and bush, often on steep wooded hill slopes.
30341		threats	eng	The extent of occurrence and number of mature trees have declined as a result of habitat loss through the invasion of introduced Acacia species.
30342		distribution	eng	Historically, this scrambling shrub or small tree was known from a few localities along the Eastern Cape coast (mainly in the Transkei).
30342		habitat	eng	Riverine scrub.
30342		population	eng	At present it is known from a single locality, where there are 20 mature plants. It is probable that the species will be discovered in other localities.
30342		threats	eng	The observed declines have been largely caused by cutting for firewood and grazing by livestock.
30343		distribution	eng	Found along the Eastern Cape coast and further inland, mainly in Transkei.
30343		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen forest.
30343		threats	eng	The species occurs in many localities which are supposedly protected as demarcated forest. However, the system of protection has not been successfully upheld since 1994. Much of the forest, including that which is not demarcated, is threatened by increasing settlement and cutting for firewood and timber.
30344		habitat	eng	On exposed quartzite rock ridges.
30344		population	eng	There is taxonomic confusion over this species. Little is known about its abundance and precise distribution. It has been found in only three definite localities.
30344		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from cutting for firewood and timber.
30345		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of sites in the Pilanesberg Game Reserve.
30345		distribution	eng	Until recently this species was thought to be endemic to a small area within South Africa. It is now known from at least nine localities within North-West and Northern Provinces in South Africa, three localities near Bulawayo in Zimbabwe and one locality in Botswana.
30345		habitat	eng	This species grows on stony or rocky hillsides in savannah vegetation
30345		population	eng	It is apparently not abundant in Zimbabwe or Botswana, but there are records of large subpopulations in South Africa.
30345		threats	eng	Although some plants may have been lost through various developments, the increasing number of new localities indicates that this species is not as scarce or threatened as originally suspected.
30346		conservation	eng	The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
30346		distribution	eng	A small spiny succulent tree with a restricted distribution on a range of hills northwest of Lydenburg.
30346		habitat	eng	Plants are found on rocky slopes and cliffs in shallow sandy and turfy soils, associated with mixed savanna.
30346		threats	eng	The species is not threatened but it is listed as protected. Any changes in land use could have some impact. None of the localities are contained within conservation areas.
30347		conservation	eng	The species is listed as protected, but it is not recorded from any conservation areas. The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
30347		distribution	eng	A small spiny succulent tree restricted to the Zoutpansberg and Blouberg mountain ranges.
30347		habitat	eng	Grows in mixed savanna on sandy soils on rocky, sandstone slopes of ridges and hills with a north and north-east aspect.
30347		threats	eng	Apart from slight pressure from succulent-collectors, no immediate threats exist. Any change in land use, however, would have a serious impact because of the species' restricted range.
30348		conservation	eng	At one time trees were harvested for their timber, but this is now strictly controlled. It is a protected species over much of its range and efforts are being made to improve the potential of recruitment.
30348		distribution	eng	From near Knysna in the Western Cape to Mariepskop in Mpumalanga (approx. 13 localities in South Africa). It is also recorded from a single forest in Swaziland. All the subpopulations are very small, except for a comparatively large and vigorous subpopulation in Lilyvlei forest at Gouna near Knysna in the Western Cape.  More research is needed to establish the relationship between this species and other <em>Faurea</em> species in East Africa, Madagascar and Zimbabwe.
30348		habitat	eng	Forests and forest margins.
30348		population	eng	A very widespread but scattered species.
30348		threats	eng	Regeneration in all except Lilyvlei forest subpopulation is non-existent, despite trees fruiting plentifully and the seed being viable.
30349		distribution	eng	Occurring in only a few restricted localities, all on private land.
30349		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree which grows on rocky, grassy hillsides.
30349		population	eng	No information is available on the size of the populations or degree of threat.
30350		conservation	eng	Almost half of the entire population occurs within protected areas. Alien eradication programmes are in place.
30350		distribution	eng	Scattered subpopulations are known from the slopes of Table Mt from Lion's Head to Orange Kloof, Cape Peninsula. There are also several subpopulations, which have probably been planted, including those on the Helderberg, Simonsberg and Paarl Mt These are excluded from the evaluation.
30350		habitat	eng	The species grows on moist, usually south-facing slopes, on granite clays in Mountain Fynbos and on the margins of Afromontane forest patches.
30350		population	eng	Population counts indicate that there are more than 10,000 mature individuals.
30350		threats	eng	The expansion of Cape Town and the establishment of tree plantations continue to cause reductions in population numbers. There is also concern in the mixing of genetic pools by the extensive planting of the species and increased fire frequency in some areas. Only about 10% of the subpopulations are considered to be viable and are showing signs of active recruitment at present.  All protected area populations suffer from invasions by alien plant species.
30351		conservation	eng	The only form of protection received is within private nature reserves.
30351		distribution	eng	A tall shrub, sometimes growing to the size of a tree, confined to the western side of the Piketberg range.
30351		habitat	eng	It grows on rocky soils derived from sandstone in mountain fynbos.
30351		population	eng	The total population of between 1,000 and 5,000 mature individuals is fragmented into three or four major subpopulations and a number of scattered individuals, occurring within an area of 20 km² (AOO).
30351		threats	eng	The species is threatened in the eastern parts of its range by agricultural activities, particularly the planting of fruit orchards. Frequent fires could also be a problem, as they may not allow the species sufficient time to regenerate from seed.
30352		conservation	eng	It occurs in a privately owned nature reserve and a local authority reserve.
30352		distribution	eng	Between Pretoria and Zeerust.
30352		habitat	eng	A straggling shrub or small tree which occurs on ridges and hills in mixed savanna.
30352		threats	eng	There may have been some decline in numbers and the extent of occurrence because of agricultural activities and other developments. Its restricted distribution also renders it vulnerable to any future developments in the area.
30353		distribution	eng	East and South Africa extending into Central Africa.
30353		habitat	eng	A timber species found in areas of moist forest.
30353		population	eng	In some areas the populations are very small, e.g., the Zimbabwean population consists of four immature individuals. The subpopulations in South Africa are all contained within protected areas, but usually comprise of only isolated individuals or small groups of trees.
30353		threats	eng	It yields a superior hardwood which is heavily exploited through most of its range.
30354		distribution	eng	In Kenya this taxon is recorded from Emali and the Mutito Hills. It is also known from a similar habitat in northern Tanzania.
30354		habitat	eng	Dry forest at medium elevations.
30355		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected throughout its range. It also occurs in one publicly owned conservation area, where fire management measures are in place, and also in a privately owned Natural Heritage Site.
30355		distribution	eng	There are two disjunct areas where the species is found; one in the Kaapse Hoop and Barberton areas of Mpumalanga, just extending into Swaziland, and the other in KwaZulu-Natal with subpopulations in Vryheid, Louwsburg, the Itala Game Reserve and in Ngotshe District.
30355		habitat	eng	It is highly localised on steep south-facing slopes on quartzite outcrops in grassy savanna. It does, however, appear to be abundant or in pure stands in places.
30355		population	eng	There is some evidence of decline in numbers and extent of occurrence.
30355		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to frequent burning and appears to have low recruitment. Plants are also heavily grazed by large game animals and the bark is removed for use in traditional medicine by local people.
30356		conservation	eng	A quarter of the known subpopulations occur in protected areas.
30356		distribution	eng	Found along the southern Cape coast from De Hoop to Mossel Bay. The area of occupancy is approximately 1,000 km².
30356		habitat	eng	The species occurs on calcareous white sands in limestone fynbos and often at the ecotone with thicket communities. Near Mossel Bay, it occurs on gravels. Stands are very dense in places.
30356		threats	eng	Agricultural activities, particularly planting of cereal crops, and coastal developments have resulted in the decline of the species in places and this is likely to continue, especially in the Mossel Bay area. More than half of the subpopulations are threatened by alien invasive species, particularly Australian <em>Acacia</em> species.
30357		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of publicly owned protected areas in the region, including many of the demarcated forest areas in Transkei, which are no longer strictly protected.
30357		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Transkei area of the Eastern Cape, near the coast from Uvongo to Port St. John's.
30357		habitat	eng	It is found along sandstone streams or in moist places in evergreen forests, sometimes in small groves.
30357		population	eng	At many localities there is poor regeneration.
30357		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement pose a problem here and in southern KwaZulu-Natal.
30358		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least two protected areas and possibly in a third.
30358		distribution	eng	From Humansdorp to Bathurst.
30358		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree which occurs in coastal forest and scrub on dunes or rocky outcrops.
30358		threats	eng	Its range is slowly becoming fragmented by coastal developments, especially the construction of settlements and holiday resorts.
30359		conservation	eng	The plants at Kosi Bay are not under threat and are contained within a conservation area, although local use of the plants is allowed. The 12 ha Bobole Special Reserve 40 km north of Maputo, is supposedly the most southerly occurrence of this species in Mozambique, and contains 150 plants.
30359		distribution	eng	Found around Kosi Bay in northern KwaZulu-Natal, extending northwards along the coast of southern Mozambique, occurring along river valleys, as far as Inhambane.
30359		habitat	eng	This very large palm occurs in swamp forest.  The plants flower once, after about 30 years, and then die after setting fruit.
30359		population	eng	They can form very dense groves and in some places they have naturalized after planting, e.g., at Mtunzini on the Zululand coast, which is now a national monument.
30359		threats	eng	The Bobole Special Reserve subpopulation is under threat because of habitat clearance for subsistence agriculture within the reserve.
30360		conservation	eng	There are subpopulations in a number of publicly owned protected areas in the region, including many of the demarcated forest areas in Transkei, which are no longer strictly protected.
30360		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus in a monotypic family endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Transkei area of the Eastern Cape.
30360		habitat	eng	Found on forest margins and along streams and rivers.
30360		population	eng	It is locally common in places, although there is poor regeneration at some sites.
30360		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement could pose a problem here and in southern KwaZulu-Natal, where there is also concern over encroaching agriculture.
30361		conservation	eng	Two of the localities are in private nature reserves.
30361		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a small area in the northern Drakensberg mountain range. It is also said to occur in North-West Province, but this is highly improbable. There are taxonomic problems with the species, which need to be resolved before its conservation status is assessed.
30361		habitat	eng	Occurs as scattered plants in Afromontane forest patches.
30362		conservation	eng	A few plants are protected in the Groendal Wilderness Area. The Van Staaden's Wildflower Reserve is not particularly well-managed at present.
30362		distribution	eng	Found in only a few localities: Winterhoek Mountains near Uitenhage, Van Staaden's Mountains near Port Elizabeth and near Kouga Dam at the start of the Baviaanskloof. It possibly occurs elsewhere in the remote Kouga Mts. and Baviaanskloof.
30362		habitat	eng	A small tree found on forest margins, in scrub, and on open slopes of valleys and ravines, sometimes near stream banks.
30362		population	eng	All the subpopulations appear to be very small, with the one in Van Staaden's Wildflower Reserve possibly being the largest and best known. Another subpopulation in the Van Staaden's Valley was probably destroyed many years ago when a national road was built.  Recruitment appears to be low, although plants coppice readily if damaged.
30362		threats	eng	There is a threat of habitat destruction through increasing settlement, industrial developments and frequent fires.
30363		distribution	eng	Found in the catchments of the central and upper Tugela and Upper Umfolozi Rivers in KwaZulu-Natal. There are two records of the species from Swaziland, but there is little information about these occurrences. The population in KwaZulu-Natal is stable and much of the habitat remains secure.  The population in KwaZulu-Natal is stable and much of the habitat remains secure.
30363		habitat	eng	A savanna species, found on drainage lines or near streams and rivers.
30363		threats	eng	There is some degree of threat from increasing settlement and local exploitation of the wood as a source of sticks and poles for building huts and the edible fruit.
30364		conservation	eng	Plants have been reintroduced into two protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal. Although there are subpopulations within protected areas, it is difficult to prevent exploitation. A number of projects are under way to provide a cultivated form.
30364		distribution	eng	The pepperbark tree has a scattered distribution in southern Africa, occurring in savanna woodland and coastal forest in northern KwaZulu-Natal, Afromontane forest patches along the Drakensberg Escarpment in Mpumalanga and on the Soutpansberg and Blouberg ranges in the Northern Province. Elsewhere it is recorded from Afromontane forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and from Afromontane and lowland forest patches in Swaziland and Mozambique. There are still large, relatively untouched subpopulations in the Northern Province. The precise northern distribution of the species and its relationship with closely related species in East Africa requires further investigation.
30364		habitat	eng	Occurs in savanna woodland, coastal forest and Afromontane forest. In KwaZulu-Natal, there is very little seed set and no seedlings have been reported; all plants seen have reproduced vegetatively.  The reasons for this are unknown.
30364		threats	eng	There has been some habitat loss due to agricultural activities, expansion of human habitation and logging for firewood and timber. The major direct threat to the species is the exploitation of its bark, stems and roots for use in traditional medicinal practices as a treatment of head and chest ailments and also to cure people who are bewitched. This has led to the near extinction of the species in KwaZulu-Natal, parts of Mpumalanga, Swaziland and Zimbabwe.
30365		conservation	eng	A restoration programme has been set up in a Cedar Reserve covering 53 km². Nursery-reared seedlings are planted out each year and a fire management regime has lessened the occurrence of intense wildfires.
30365		distribution	eng	Forests of the Clanwilliam cedar extended some 30 km in the Cederberg Mountains earlier this century. Exploitation of the wood and inappropriate fire management have reduced the species to five remaining populations. An accidental fire early in 1998 may have destroyed a large number of individuals. The genus, containing three or four species, is endemic to southern Africa.
30365		threats	eng	Natural fires break out at intervals which are shorter than the maturation rate for tis species. Seed-bearing adults are largely confined to inaccessible locations and their numbers are so low that natural population recruitment is unlikely.
30366		conservation	eng	The subpopulation at Lago Yojoa is known to be reproducing and is given some protection within a forest reserve.
30366		distribution	eng	The species is confined to two widely-separated subpopulations on the west side of Lago Yojoa.
30366		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland rainforest on steep slopes.  The flowers are unique in the genus in their ascending rather than arching position.
30366		threats	eng	Increasing agriculture, settlement and logging have caused population declines in the past.  The leaves are used locally for thatching and the palm heart is eaten for medicinal purposes.
30367		distribution	eng	Occurs in Honduras where it is considered to be Critically Endangered, also recorded in south-east Mexico.
30367		habitat	eng	A palm of humid forest in the Atlantic lowlands.
30367		threats	eng	The wood is used for construction.
30368		distribution	eng	It is known only from localized populations along the banks of the Okavango, Linyanti, Chobe and upper Zambezi rivers.
30368		habitat	eng	A drooping shrub or tree with erect pods.
30368		threats	eng	In Botswana there are reports of increasing numbers of elephants causing degradation of <em>Acacia</em> stands along the Chobe especially in the dry season.
30369		conservation	eng	The taxon occurs within protected areas and is also covered by regional legislation.
30369		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madeira.
30369		habitat	eng	This is a common tree of laurisilva and forest at higher altitudes.
30369		population	eng	There is evidence to suggest that laurisilva is expanding.
30370		distribution	eng	A subspecies endemic to the Azores, on all the islands, except Graciosa. On Corvo only one specimen has been reported and the population on Santa Maria is under threat.
30370		habitat	eng	One of the dominant components of remaining laurel forest.
30371		conservation	eng	A recovery plan has been devised and the species is listed in government legislation of 1991.
30371		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to just two populations in Garajonay National Park on Gomera.
30371		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30371		population	eng	Both known populations consist of very few individuals.
30372		conservation	eng	The species is covered in regional legislation and occurs in protected areas.
30372		distribution	eng	This taxon now includes subspecies from both the Canary Islands and Madeira, the latter previously being known as <em>O. e. maderensis</em>.
30372		habitat	eng	Low and medium elevation in dry woodland.
30372		population	eng	It is relatively abundant on most Canary Islands, on the south coast and some areas of north Madeira and on Desertas and Porto Santo Islands, where it is rare.
30372		threats	eng	The habitat continues to experience general degradation and declines through increasing house-building, fires and invasive species.
30373		distribution	eng	This variety appears to be endemic to Honduras.
30373		habitat	eng	Confined to a small area of humid forest in the Atlantic lowlands.
30373		threats	eng	The timber is exploited for construction work.
30374		conservation	eng	All the South African records are from Kruger National Park.
30374		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found relatively widely on hills in the Zimbabwe lowveld, in adjacent parts of Mozambique, Canicadoa and Rio dos Elefantes, and into Northern Province, South Africa. Records from KwaZulu-Natal need confirmation.
30374		population	eng	Nowhere common.
30375		conservation	eng	Both subpopulations are protected.
30375		distribution	eng	In the wild this species is restricted to two healthy subpopulations occurring in Point Lobos and Point Cypress.
30375		population	eng	A widely planted and naturalized species. The Point Lobos subpopulation is thought to contain between 500 and 1,000 individuals.
30376		conservation	eng	<p>Although chemical control of the juniper scale was possible, it was avoided for safety reasons due to the high density of the human population. As a result of rapid natural selection of a trait for scale resistance, which  must have survived in about 5% of the population, most seedlings now seem to be  partly or totally immune to scale attack, and survive. This enabled intensive  re-forestation efforts to begin about 1980 and the species has since recovered  to approximately 10% of its former population density in managed parkland and  garden habitat. (Procter and Fleming 1999, Wingate 2001)</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span><em> bermudiana</em> is cultivated in gardens outside of Bermuda and some of this material has potential to supplement restoration programmes in <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place>. Perhaps the biggest planting is in St Helena and on Ascension Island where seed was introduced during the mid-19th century to establish timber tree plantations (<st1:place w:st="on">Adams</st1:place> 2008). Ironically on these islands <em>J. bermudiana</em> is now becoming an invasive problem.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span><em> virginiana </em>has also been introduced on St. Helena so there is the potential for hybridization (<st1:place w:st="on">Adams</st1:place> 2008). </p>
30376		distribution	eng	<em>Juniperus bermudiana</em> occurs throughout <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> so the total area of the island is the equivalent of its extent of occurrence (EOO) 57 km².
30376		habitat	eng	Grows in shallow, calcareous soils on hillsides and along marshes and coastlines. Once formed almost pure stands with an estimated density of as much as 500 trees to the acre (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Groves</st1:place></st1:city> 1955). Fruits ripen in September and October (Britton 1918). Germination rates are good where the habitat allows, taking into account the vastly reduced adult population. The main seed disseminator seems to be the Starling, <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em>, which became naturalized in the 1950s,&#160;increased explosively in the 1960s, and is highly mobile. Natural self seeding occurs mainly in unmanaged&#160;coastal scrubland and exposed hilltops where the otherwise dominant invasive flora is sufficiently stunted or sparse due to wind and salt spray exposure to allow germination and juvenile growth&#160;of junipers to occur. In such areas a new forest cover is gradually developing where the juniper is the dominant emergent tree. It is estimated that the natural pre-disturbance generation length is 25 years - this is based on the length of time taken for a naturally regenerating stand of trees to reach harvestable age.
30376		population	eng	In a ten year period between 1946 and 1956, almost 95% of the natural population was lost due to the effects of an introduced juniper scale (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carulaspis minima</span>). Over the last 30 years a combination of residual resistance, reafforestation and, to a lesser extent, natural regeneration has led to an increase. The current population is estimated to be well over 10,000 adult trees, possibly  as high as 25,000, which represents approximately 10% of its former population  density in suitable habitat.
30376		threats	eng	<p>From the time that <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> was first colonized in 1609 <em>Juniperus bermudiana</em> has been used extensively for construction purposes and as fuel for cooking. The use was so extensive that by 1622 special legislation had to be introduced (Tucker 1970) to control the export of the <st1:place w:st="on">island</st1:place>’s most dominant tree species. Between 1693 and 1878, the <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> legislature passed sixteen further acts in order to restrict the uses of the juniper. Despite these Acts, the ship-building industry eventually denuded much of <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place>'s landscape by the 1830s. The decline of the ship building industry after 1900, combined with the  replacement of &#160;local juniper timber for construction with cheaper imported  timber from the U.S. and rural electrification, which precluded the need for  wood as &#160;cooking fuel, enabled a full recovery by the early 1940s. However, it  was once more devastated as a result of the accidental introduction of two  coccoid scale insects in 1946 (Challinor and Wingate 1971).</p><p>The juniper scale (<em>Carulaspis visci</em>) and the oyster-shell scale (<em>Lepidoscaphes newsteadi</em>) were present on ornamental species of juniper which were shipped to the island from <st1:state w:st="on">California</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA (Bennet and Hughes 1959)</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In the absence of natural biological controls and genetic traits for resistance  the native <span style="font-style: italic;">J. bermudiana</span> suffered rapid defoliation and death, reducing the  population by 95% within a period of 10 years (Wingate 2001)</p><p>During the following decades the bare landscape was reafforested using exotic species. <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> was especially favoured for its rapid growth. Invasive broadleaf plant competitors (which create too deep a shade for seed germination or growth), are now by far the greatest factors limiting the junipers distribution and self-seeding potential. Likewise,&#160;germination of the naturalized <em>Ficus retusa</em> in rot hollows of old junipers (which leads to eventual overshading and strangulation) and overshading by taller growing invasive broadleaved trees, especially in sheltered valley situations,&#160;is now the major cause of adult mortality. <br/></p><p>To add to the problems<em>, J. virginiana</em> and <em>J. virginaina</em> var. <em>silicicola</em> have been introduced to Bermuda from <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Both taxa are resistant to the scale insects. They readily hybridize with <em>J. bermudiana</em> causing a depletion of the germplasm through hybridization and introgression (Adams and Wingate 2008) . <br/></p><p>Urbanisation is also a problem. Today <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> is recognised as one of the most densely populated isolated oceanic islands in the world with a mean human population density of five per acre and one third of the country is totally urban (Wingate 2001). About 20% of <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place>'s land area is now paved over with roads, parking lots, buildings and industrial yards. This trend is likely to continue unabated.</p>  Ironically, the Bermuda juniper does best today in that approximate one third of the landscape that is maintained largely free of invasive plants in parks and gardens with extensive lawn areas. Most old pure strain&#160;junipers that survived the great scale epidemic are found in cemeteries, parks and private gardens where it is now very much in vogue again to plant cedars because they are more hurricane resistant.
30377		conservation	eng	Captive subpopulations have been established at the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery, Scotland, and at the Castle Gardens, Jamestown. The plants grow well in captivity although the currently number stands at less than 20. <br/> <br/>Th Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>P. polifolia</em> puts forward a number of recovery action objectives to encourage the long-term persistence of the Rosemary, through co-ordinated and agreed action between the members of the Species Recovery Working Group, the Environmental Conservation Section of the ANRD, and the SNCG. The specific objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. to maintain and encourage the growth of Rosemary’s at Lot and High Hill; <br/>2. to expand the field gene bank at Scotland for the Lot population and to establish others at Plantation (High Hill), Peak Dale/Norman Williams Nature Reserve and the Millennium Forest; <br/>3. encourage ‘guardians’ for other plantations of rosemary; and <br/>4. to maintain <em>ex situ</em> stocks at RBG Kew and Eden Project and establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.
30377		habitat	eng	Formerly a small tree to 3 m, <em>P. polifolia</em> now exists in two growth forms; one a a low, usually straggling bush found at High Hill and the other an erect growing bush found at Lot.  These phenotypic differences have been maintained when planted at the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery,  Scotland.  Subpopulations have been reduced to dry locations on cliffs.
30377		population	eng	Formerly widespread in the west of the island, for instance at Rosemary Plain, which derives its name from the former occurrence of this plant. <em>P. polifolia</em> is now reduced to three small subpopulations on trachytic or phonolilic cliffs at High Hill, Lot, and between Distant Cottage and the Asses Ears, 500-600 m. The total population size is about 100 plants.
30377		threats	eng	Vulnerable to competition from introduced plants.  Growing on or below rock outcrops the populations are also vulverable to stochastic factors.
30378		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996).  Although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.
30378		distribution	eng	Within Diana’s Peak National Park the main sites of occurrence are both sides of Diana’s Peak, Mt Actaeon, Cuckhold’s, Jockies and Taylors. It also occurs at High Peak and within a small isolated site on the Sandy Bay Ridge facing Rose Cottage. There was one tree at the Depot.
30378		habitat	eng	A tree, growing in damp tree-fern thickets on the central ridge 700 m.  A good interceptor of mist, water is condensed on the leaves and drops to the ground beneath the tree via a drip-tip.  Seedlings are sometimes to be found growing on the trunks of tree-ferns.  Main flowering season February – May.  The trees exhibit leaky dioecy: females are entirely male-sterile but males can set small amounts of seed.  Sex ratio of adult trees 3:2 in favour of males due to greater allocation of resources into vegetative survival (Percy and Cronk 1997).  Pollination is by small syrphid flies, including the endemic hoverfly, Loveridgeana beattiei, which is considered an important pollinator for all the cabbage trees on the Peaks.  Flowering times are successive (Black Cabbage, Dogwood, Whitewood and Gumwood) possibly avoiding competition for pollinators.
30378		population	eng	In 1997 the total population size was estimated as about 132.
30378		threats	eng	Until the planted individuals reach sexual maturity the number of mature Dogwoods remains low and fragmented.  The quality of the habitat at High Peak is deteriorating potentially threatening the Dogwoods growing there.
30379		conservation	eng	Protected in Jonathan Dickinson State Park.  The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30379		distribution	eng	Occurring near the Atlantic coast in Jonathan Dickinson State Park, a Palm Beach County park and several privately owned areas.
30379		habitat	eng	A large shrub or small tree of scrub vegetation.
30379		population	eng	The total population consists of about 500 plants.
30379		threats	eng	The plant is adapted to disturbance, in the absence of which it becomes shaded out by oaks and pines.  Outside Jonathan Dickinson State Park stands have become confined and scattered as the habitat has been cleared for commercial and residential development.
30380		conservation	eng	Henderson Island is a World Heritage Site.
30380		distribution	eng	An endemic to Henderson Island.
30380		habitat	eng	A caulescent shrub or tree, occurring with var. <em>subspathulata</em> in gaps in the plateau forest.
30380		population	eng	The population of both varieties together is calculated to be about 40,000 individuals. Regeneration appears to be good, although the species appears to be monocarpic.
30381		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30381		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub which is restricted to a few valleys in the Eastern Haggier Mountains and adjacent limestone hills. Locally common in dense semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 280–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>The total population was formerly thought to consist of no more than 30 individuals. Although severely geographically restricted, the species actually occurs commonly in places and appears to be regenerating healthily.  The only other member of the genus is in Somalia. <br/> <br/>In the past this tree has been considered rare, even on the point of extinction. This is almost certainly because most expeditions have visited the island in January to February when the tree is not in flower; it is then rather nondescript and easily overlooked. However, it becomes far more conspicuous in summer (March to April) when it is covered in white flowers. It is particularly abundant in the dense woodland in the upper reaches of Wadi Ayheft. It is also less common in other areas, for instance on the higher seaward-facing cliffs at Reqadrihon (above Hoq). These cliffs capture low cloud and drizzle during the winter and are a refugium for some species (e.g., <em>Coelocarpum haggierensis</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggehr mountains.
30381		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats to populations.
30383		conservation	eng	The species is included on <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.
30383		distribution	eng	Mombassa-Kilifi area in Kenya. There is also a record of an occurrence in the South Pare Mts. in Tanzania.
30383		habitat	eng	A succulent tree, best known from a population confined to coral cliffs and limestone outcrops.
30384		conservation	eng	The eastern part of the Hajar population is contained within Wadi Siren Nature Reserve.
30384		distribution	eng	The main distribution of this species lies in the eastern Hajar Mountains in northern Oman in wadis and at the summit above 1,500 m. An isolated subpopulation is recorded from Hadramaut in South Yemen.
30384		threats	eng	In the north-west the population is not regenerating.
30385		conservation	eng	Most of the 200 species occur within the boundaries of Urewera National Park.
30385		distribution	eng	Occurring in scattered subpopulations from Northland to Hawkes Bay.
30385		habitat	eng	The species occurs as a shrub or small tree in scrubby forest margins and flaxland.
30385		population	eng	About 200 plants exist in total.  A popular ornamental plant with large bright red flowers, it is possible that the Maori were partly responsible for the destruction of previously known occurrences on offshore islands, the East Cape and other parts of the North Island.
30385		threats	eng	Browsing by goats, pigs, deer and possums and the illegal collecting of seedlings have caused more recent declines in numbers.
30386		distribution	eng	From eastern Ogaden to central Somalia. The genus is monotypic.
30386		habitat	eng	An important  shrub or small tree species confined to semi-desert bushland.
30386		threats	eng	The seeds are highly nourishing and are exploited to such levels that regeneration may be hampered.
30387		distribution	eng	A species of ornamental interest, known from Mrima Forest Reserve, Marenje Forest Reserve, Kaya Muhaka National Monument and Gongoni Forest Reserve in Kenya and the Rondo Plateau in Tanzania.
30387		habitat	eng	Moist coastal forest.
30387		threats	eng	Destruction and degradation of coastal forest is ongoing.
30388		distribution	eng	A large tree collected from five locations distributed between Lac Ihotry, near Morombe, and Bereboka, north of Morondava.
30388		habitat	eng	It probably occurred in dry deciduous forest, frequently close to bodies of water, but mature trees are now largely found in degraded agricultural lands where regeneration is poor.
30388		threats	eng	Poor regeneration.
30389		conservation	eng	The trees are protected from cutting, in places, because of their valued uses.
30389		distribution	eng	Until recently the species was thought to be restricted to the northern tip of Madagascar around the Baie d'Antsiranana. A subpopulation has since been found further south in Mahory Forest between Ankarana and Analamera Reserves.
30389		habitat	eng	Its natural habitat is deciduous forest on limestone, although small trees are also found in disturbed sublittoral scrub.
30389		population	eng	Individuals are found in local abundance but are regenerating healthily only in Mahory.
30389		threats	eng	The forest's proximity to a rapidly growing mining town leads to intensive wood and charcoal extraction, grazing and hunting. Subpopulations elsewhere are smaller, show few signs of regeneration and are threatened by the rapid depletion of the habitat through charcoal and timber production.
30390		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30390		distribution	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30391		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30391		distribution	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30392		conservation	eng	A few plants still exist in cultivation in botanic gardens but attempts at reintroduction of the species on Easter Island have failed.
30392		population	eng	The last wild specimen was a plant in Rano Kao in 1935.
30394		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. In addition it is also protected by regional law. It is classed as Endangered B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii0; C2a(i) on the Spanish national red list (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>In the Canary Islands, populations are included in Parque Rural Nublo (SIC), Parque Rural Anaga (SIC), Reserva Natural Integral Roques de Anaga (SIC), Reserva Natural Integral Ijuana (SIC), Interián (SIC), Parque Rural Teno (SIC), Reserva Natural Especial Bco. del Infierno (SIC), Parque Natural Corona Forestal (SIC), Monumento Natural Montaña de Tejina and  Riscos de Bajamar y Bco. de Niágara (SIC). Seeds exist in a germbank <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Euphorbia, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación"><span title="Florece desde junio a mediados"><span title="de octubre.">(Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/>In Portugal, the seeds of the species are stored in the seed bank of the Botanic Garden of Madeira and the same garden established a reintroduction plan (Commission of the European Communities 2009). This garden is also attempting vegetative propagation of one of the storm-damaged individuals of Madeira. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> populations exist in the Museu do Pico (Azores) and in Oeiras, mainland Portugal.<br/></span></span></span></span>
30394		conservation	eng	The species is listed in regional, governmental and international legislation. It is widespread in cultivation.
30394		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena draco</span> is widespread in cultivation and native to<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> the Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde. Some authors doubt its native status in the Azores. It is a<span title="También en la">lso present in the southwest Atlas Mountains of Morocco, which recently has been segregated as subspecies <span title="ajgal3."><span style="font-style: italic;">ajgal</span> (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004<span title="En Gran">). The area of occupancy is 54 to 87 km².<br/><br/> </span></span>
30394		habitat	eng	Long living, this species reaches maturity in 30 years.
30394		habitat	eng	Long living, this species reaches maturity in 30 years. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a component of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"> Mayteno - J</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">uniperion canariensis</span>. It is found in rocks, cliffs, slopes of ravines, etc., coexisting with characteristic species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno-Oleetea cerasiformis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonio - </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbion canariensi</span>s, and various elements of rock-dwelling species, mostly S<span style="font-style: italic;">oncho-Aeonion</span>. It can be found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus turbinata </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis, Pistacia atlantica, Olea cerasiformis, Maytenus canariensis, Heberdenia excelsa, Rhamnus crenulata, Jasminum odoratissimum, Rubia fruticosa</span>, several taxa of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium, Sonchus, </span><span title="Euphorbia, etc."><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia,</span> etc. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación">Flowering and fruiting is generally low and irregular in their wild populations, depending on climatic and environmental factors <span title="Florece desde junio a mediados"><span title="de octubre.">(Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1250 Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts</li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia</span> forests&#160; </li></ul><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Euphorbia, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación"><span title="Florece desde junio a mediados"><span title="de octubre."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La dinámica"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Actualmente muestra"><span title="distancia."><span title="de 500 x 500 m (21,75 km2"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Euphorbia, etc."><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
30394		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También en la"><span title="ajgal3."> In the Canary Islands, it is found in Tenerife and Gran Canaria. The total population in the Canary Islands is of 697 individuals. In Tenerife populations are generally small and highly dispersed, and are all mostly located in the ancient geological areas of the mountains of Anaga, Teno and Adeje. <span title="En Gran">In Gran Canaria, there is a single wild individual in the gorge of Pino Gordo (San Nicolas de Tolentino) and two  others in Meleguinas and in the ravine of Alonso (St. Bridget).&#160;<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Euphorbia, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación"><span title="Florece desde junio a mediados"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La dinámica">The dynamics of the populations are kept relatively stable, being observed to even have a perceptible natural regeneration in some enclaves<span id="result_box" class="long_text">, indicating good germination. The population recovery is slow, with the species in general behaving regressively. <span title="evasiva.">Many aspects of their reproductive biology is unclear, and the extreme rarity today in Gran Canaria and the absence of this species in islands such as La Gomera and La Palma is also unclear. <span title="Actualmente muestra">It currently shows little or no ability to disperse over long <span title="distancia.">distance <span title="de 500 x 500 m (21,75 km2">(Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También en la"><span title="ajgal3."><span title="En Gran"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>In the Azores, there are still some doubts as to whether the species is native or whether the remaining trees have established in the wild after introduction by humans. There are around 200-300 individuals on the island of São Jorge (C. Aguiar pers. obs. 2010). There are apparently more individuals on Flores, Faial and Corvo but it is not known how many there are or of they can be considered native. Schäfer (2002) states that the species is rare on Flores and very rare on Faial.<br/>In Madeira, the species is often cultivated in gardens but is extinct in the wild on the island Porto Santo. On Madeira itself, one wild tree survives on a slope near the village Ribeira Brava. A second individual nearby fell over during strong storms that hit the island in February 2010. Its trunk was collected by the Botanical Garden of Madeira to attempt vegetative propagation. A third individual that existed near Ponta do Garajau in the east of Funchal fell into the sea in autumn 1982 during a storm. Another set of individuals exists near the city Funchal in the Parque Natural da Madeira, but it is strongly suspected that they have been introduced<span style="background-color: white;"> there (Constância 2005).</span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
30394		population	eng	The wild subpopulations of the dragon tree have been in decline for a long time. The species is present in five of the seven islands in the Canaries and the total population is reduced to a few hundred trees. In Madeira and Porto Santo, it was once an important component of the vegetation in more arid areas but is reduced today to two individuals in the wild. A survey in 1996 revealed new subpopulations in North Africa, in the Anezi region of the Anti-Atlas Mts. in Morocco. Thousands of individuals exist on steep quartzite cliffs in inaccessible gorges. These subpopulations are likely to represent a distinct variant of the species.  Its closest relative is the dragon tree endemic to Socotra.
30394		threats	eng	Dragon's blood had a wide range of uses as a medicine, for staining violins and for embalming the dead. Its closest relative is the dragon tree endemic to Socotra.
30394		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Fragmentation, reduced size of their populations and pressure from livestock grazing are all major problems. Furthermore, environmental factors such as storms, droughts and landslides are additional threats. <span title="Excursionismo, senderismo y">Hiking, trekking and climbing are significant threats in certain areas. <span title="de las Ánimas).">Proximity to inhabited areas and collection by humans are also impacting the species <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Euphorbia, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación"><span title="Florece desde junio a mediados"><span title="de octubre.">(Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).</span></span></span></span></span>
30395		conservation	eng	A research programme to study and conserve <em>D. ombet</em> has been initiated in Gebel Elba and the surrounding Mountains (El Azzouni 2003).
30395		habitat	eng	Grows on mountains in the desert. The mature fruits are edible and eaten by local people as a supplement to their meagre diet.
30395		population	eng	A once widespread and abundant species known as the Nubian dragon tree, it has experienced population declines throughout its range. Scattered individuals remain in inaccessible areas. The subpopulations on the Red Sea Hills and Jebel Elba in Sudan and Egypt are particularly threatened. Other smaller subpopulations have been discovered in recent years in southeastern Egypt near the Sudanese border at Gebel Shindeeb, and it may also occur on Gebel Shinodai (El Azzouni 2003). <br/> <br/>A survey of the Gebel Shindeeb subpopulations shows that they comprise only mature plants, many of which appear unhealthy, either as a result of the drought conditions or an attach by a parasitic pest or disease (El Azzouni 2003). The infected subpopulations are showing signs of a marked decline and there was no evidence of any young plants (El Azzouni 2003). <br/> <br/>In northern Sudan it appears that the populations of <em>D. ombet</em> have completely vanished from Erowit, the only area where they are known to have existed in that country (El Azzouni 2003).
30395		threats	eng	Overgrazing, overcutting, droughts and possibly attack by parasitic pests or disease have contributed to the decline.
30396		conservation	eng	Cuttings from the species in cultivation have been reintroduced into a fenced area at Kipuka Puaulu, in Volcanoes National Park. Nine individuals remain here.  The species is classified as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.
30396		distribution	eng	The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.
30396		population	eng	The last of the original wild specimens on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, died in 1930.
30396		threats	eng	Trees show some signs of damage by rats and pests. The establishment of a viable population in the wild may be hampered by the decline of the plants' likely pollinator, the Hawaiian honey-creeper species.
30397		distribution	eng	The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.
30397		habitat	eng	Dry forest lava fields.
30397		population	eng	A single tree was found in 1910 in Auwahi on Maui. It has since died and the species is presumed extinct.
30398		conservation	eng	Occurs in a nature reserve.
30398		population	eng	A small tree which at one time was thought to be reduced to a single individual surrounded by a few seedlings on Tahuata. A small colony covering a few hectares has now been found on Mohotane, a nature reserve. Although feral sheep are present on the island, they appear to find the plant unpalatable.
30399		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30399		habitat	eng	Widespread and locally common in places, especially on inaccessible cliffs and steep slopes on limestone and on the grante pinnacles of the Haggeher. Found at 30–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>It is one of the characteristic pachycaul or bottle trees of Soqotra and when not in flower can easily be confused with <em>Adenium obesum</em>.
30399		population	eng	Abundant in some places.
30399		threats	eng	The species is of horticultural interest, and may be sought by collectors. The trunks are succulent and in drought years the wjole plant is cut and pulped as fodder for goats. During years of average rainfall the populations are largely untouched and not threatened because they grow in areas inaccessible to grazing goats.
30400		distribution	eng	A multi-stemmed palm confined to the north banks of the Msikaba and Mtentu Rivers on the Transkei coast.  Records from the Mzintlava River near Manteku have not been confirmed and it is possible that this subpopulation was destroyed by deforestation.
30400		habitat	eng	The species grows from just above the water level to the tops of steep forested sandstone cliffs, even in the salt spray zone.  Reproduction from seed is poor, but plants sucker vigorously.
30400		threats	eng	Both localities are declared national monuments and although they are in a designated protected area, there is no management and enforcement to ensure effective protection. This species is traded internationally on a small scale as an ornamental and over exploitation is a potential threat.  The miniature coconut fruits are favoured by the local people and baboons.
30401		conservation	eng	Seeds have been collected for cultivation.
30401		habitat	eng	Found in desert oases.
30401		population	eng	This palm tree was rediscovered in Sudan in 1995 in small fragmented subpopulations. There are signs of regeneration. The subpopulations in Egypt are assumed to be similarly small and fragmented.
30402		habitat	eng	A palm tree occurring in lowland deserts.
30402		population	eng	In Somalia, only 38 trees in two localities are known; there are approximately 2000 trees in three villages in Wadi Hadjen in the Jol, South Yemen; there is no information regarding the subpopulation status in Djibouti.
30402		threats	eng	Absence of regeneration (Somalia), excessive number of goats and local over-exploitation of the wood because of timber shortages (Yemen).  The South Yemen subpopulations are additionally threatened by local over-exploitation of the wood because of timber shortages.
30403		distribution	eng	Tasman Mts. in north-west Nelson.
30403		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to montane beech forest.
30403		threats	eng	Browsing by deer and possum is heavy.
30404		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. The only congeneric relative of the Pomegranate <em>P. granatum</em>.
30404		habitat	eng	Locally common in moist woodland on both the limestone and granite. Altitude of 300–1,200 m. <br/> <br/>Flowers and fruits from December and January through to the summer.
30404		population	eng	The species remains widespread throughout the island.
30405		conservation	eng	The Muguga population is protected. Ragati Forest Reserve allows controlled exploitation and Thiambethu Farm is a privately run ecotourist reserve. Only three plants have been successfully propagated <em>ex situ</em>.
30405		distribution	eng	Muguga, Ragati and Limuru, in central Kenya.
30405		habitat	eng	This lower canopy tree is confined to upland dry forest.
30405		population	eng	In 1995, fewer than 200 adults were counted, along with slightly more saplings and coppices.
30406		population	eng	Last seen in 1908, the species was cut to extinction for its aromatic wood.
30407		distribution	eng	Occurring along the coast in Fujian, south-west Zhejiang, southern Guangdong and southern Guangxi.
30407		habitat	eng	A species of the broadleaved forest.
30407		population	eng	Subpopulations are steadily diminishing.
30407		threats	eng	Increasing habitat loss and cutting.
30408		distribution	eng	Originally occurring along the banks of Alatahama River in McIntosh County on the Coastal Plain of Georgia, the only known colony occurred in acidic bogs at the heads of sand-hill branches and was thought to have been brought to extinction largely through overcollection by nurserymen.
30408		habitat	eng	A multi-stemmed shrub or small tree.
30408		population	eng	This species has not been seen in the wild since 1803. Numerous expeditions to relocate the plant in the wild have failed. It is now a popular garden plant.
30409		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality on the summit of  Cerro Tacarcuna in Darién.
30409		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
30409		population	eng	In the late 1970s only three trees were counted.
30409		threats	eng	It appears that the summit vegetation is dying of natural causes.
30410		distribution	eng	A tree of temperate oak and mixed coniferous forest.
30410		population	eng	Only trees growing in inaccessible areas and protected areas have survived.
30410		threats	eng	It provides high-quality fodder for livestock and is often excessively exploited. Once the tree has been severely hewed, it can no longer reproduce because the resulting coppice-sprouts do not produce flowers.
30411		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30411		habitat	eng	Scattered small subpopulations occur in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland in mountain areas, particularly on limestone escarpments. Altitude of 50–650 m. <br/> <br/>One of the largest trees on the island and a characteristic emergent in succulent shrubland on the limestone escarpments. It is deciduous, the leaves dropping in summer and then appearing at the outset of the winter rains; it flowers at the end of the summer monsoon rains.
30411		threats	eng	Under no immediate threat.
30412		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30412		habitat	eng	A major component of semi-deciduous, submontane woodland on the limestone escarpments and the semi-deciduous and evergreen woodlands of the granite of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of (220–)400–1,220 m. <br/> <br/>The commonest and dominant tree over large areas of the Haggeher mountains. Its leaves drop in summer and comes into leaf in winter, even if there is no rain. In some areas it seems to be virtually evergreen. It fruits in the winter and comes into fruit in the summer. Rhus thyrsiflora has an interesting distribution on Soqotra. It is common in areas, which attract low cloud and rain, in the Haggeher and the limestone of the NE (Hoq and Hamaderoh) of the island, but is absent from the high rainfall areas on Jebal Ma’alih in the west. However, there is a small population on the remote limestone ridge at Heger above Ra’s Shu’ub. The limestone pinnacles along this ridge trap mist and support a small outlying relict of semi-deciduous woodland in the otherwise dry SW of the island. It is interesting that on this ridge <em>R. thyrsiflora</em> occurs at only 220 m – its lowest recorded altitude on the island. It is possible that the long isolation of this remote refuge has resulted in the telescoping of habitats . The phenomenon of t elescoping is found on old oceanic islands and has the effect compressing habitats into a smaller altitudinal range than would be expected – it thus effectively provides islands with a relatively greater range of habitats than similar areas on the mainland.
30412		population	eng	A fairly common tree.
30412		threats	eng	It is under no immediate threat.
30413		distribution	eng	A species known from north-eastern Somalia and also Socotra and Oman.
30413		threats	eng	Its habitat type is vulnerable to overcutting for wood especially for charcoal production.
30414		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra.
30414		habitat	eng	Locally common in dry, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of (120–)500–750(–1,050) m. <br/> <br/>A hillside of trees of <em>B. ameero</em> in full flowers is one of the most dramatic sights on the island. There is some variation; certain populations, for instance in the dense woodland of the Muqadrihon Pass, differ in having pale, not bright, pink flowers. No trees bearing bright pink flowers have been observed growing on cliffs, however, there is some evidence for trees with pale pink flowers on cliffs. An extreme form of these is described under <em>Boswellia</em> sp. A.
30414		threats	eng	Although some <em>Boswellia</em> species in Socotra are exploited for the resin, none are commercially used.
30415		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra.
30415		habitat	eng	Widely scattered in dry, semi-deciduous woodland and less commonly in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 100–650 m.  <br/> <br/>Plants with simple leaves are possibly hybrids with <em>H. popoviana</em>.
30415		threats	eng	Although some <em>Boswellia</em> species in Socotra are exploited for the resin, none are commercially used.
30416		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra.
30416		habitat	eng	Widely distributed in dry, semi-deciduous woodland, and less commonly in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland. Altitude of 50–600 m. <br/> <br/>A ground-dwelling tree, readily distinguished from all other boswellias on the island by the leaves which have winged stalks and numerous, small leaflets and the inconspicuous pale yellow flowers which are borne in short, sparse panicles.
30416		threats	eng	Some <em>Boswellia</em> species are exploited for the resin but none at a commercial level.
30417		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30417		habitat	eng	Moist woodland on limestone and granite hills. Emergent in <em>Croton</em> shrubland at 550 m on the western plateau; in Qatariyah woodland at (600 m) and Firmihin in <em>Dracaena</em> woodland at 750 m. Altitude of 550–750 m.
30417		population	eng	Collected only a few times, the species has a very scattered distribution.
30417		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
30418		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30418		habitat	eng	A species of dry shrubland on the low-lying foothills and plains.  Locally common on the northern and Northwest inland plains; in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, open succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 500–700 m.
30418		threats	eng	At present the rates of exploitation are sustainable, since it is restricted to the local level, but increased demand could potentially put the species at risk.
30419		distribution	eng	This is likely to be taxonomically indistinct from <em>E. laurina</em>. Both species are endemic to Socotra.
30419		habitat	eng	scattered in montane and submontane vegetation in both granite and limestone areas.
30419		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats to populations.
30420		distribution	eng	This is likely to be taxonomically indistinct from <em>E. balfourii</em>. Both species are endemic to Socotra.
30420		habitat	eng	Scattered in montane and submontane vegetation in both granite and limestone areas.
30420		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats to populations.
30421		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30421		habitat	eng	Widespread and in many places dominant on Soqotra; in shrubland on the coastal plains, succulent shrubland, submontane semi-deciduous thicket and mosaic communities on the limestone plateaus; abundant below 700 m over most parts of the island. Altitude of sea-level to 900 m. <br/> <br/>One of the commonest and widespread shrubs or small trees of Soqotra; suprisingly absent from the outer islands. A variable species with some very distinctive forms: on exposed limestone plateaus of West Soqotra it is often a low or completely prostrate shrub with small leaves but in sheltered woodlands (e.g., in Wadi Ayheft) they are small trees with relatively large leaves and graceful branches. Another, very distinctive form, described as <em>C. pachyclados</em>, has small, sessile leaves and thick horizontal branches, giving it a cedar-like appearance. Yet another form, found at higher altitudes, has white bark, but is otherwise morphologically indistinguishable from typical <em>C. socotranus</em>. This replaces more typical <em>C. socotranus</em> at higher altitudes (for instance on the Dixan plateau) and is considered useless by local people as its wood is soft and cannot be used for building. All these forms seem to be variants of this very common and widespread species. Small-leaved specimens mentioned by Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) under <em>C. sarocarpus</em> are treated here as <em>C. socotranus</em> because of their smaller leaves, fruit and overall size. Comes into leaf after rain: on the southern side of the island in response to the summer rains (June to September) of the Southwest monsoon; on the northern side of the island in response to the winter rains (October to January) of the Northeast monsoon.
30421		population	eng	This is one of the commonest trees on Socotra.
30421		threats	eng	Increasing development of the island may place the species under risk.
30422		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30422		habitat	eng	Common, sometimes dominant (E Haggeher), in montane semi-deciduous woodland on granite; locally common in drought-deciduous woodland on limestone (Reyged and Rewgid). Altitude of 350–950 m. <br/> <br/>A rather variable species. It can be a graceful tree with cordate leaves (growing on the limestone plateaus at Rewgid and Reyged) or an untidy shrub with cordate or oblong-ovate or oblong-elliptic leaves and more congested racemes (on granite, mainly at higher altitudes in the Haggeher mountains). <em>C. eleagnoides</em>, described by Balfour from material without fruit or male flowers, seems to be indistinguishable from <em>C. sulcifructus</em>.
30422		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
30423		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30423		habitat	eng	Rare, on limestone cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 450–650 m.  <br/> <br/>A distinctive small tree typically found growing from vertical limestone rock faces
30424		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra.
30424		habitat	eng	Widespread and dominant in succulent shrubland over most of Soqotra; common in semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone; rare on the granite of the Haggeher. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m; up to 1,050 m on Diksam Plateau. <br/> <br/>Probably the commonest and most widespread shrub of lower and middle altitudes on Soqotra. It is abundant in rocky areas on the plains and over large ares of the limestone escarpments and plateaus. Like the other common shrub, <em>Croton socotranus</em>, it is surprisingly absent from the outer islands. However, unlike <em>Croton socotranus</em>, over its range it shows little variation. The most distinct variation is a prostrate, gnarled form found on windswept areas found on exposed parts of the south west limestone plateau. On the Noged Plain is considered to be on the increase. Comes into leaf after rain: on the southern side of the island in response to the summer rains (June to September) of the Southwest monsoon; on the northern side of the island in response to the winter rains (October to January) of the Northeast monsoon.
30425		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30425		habitat	eng	Widespread in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 50–650 m. <br/> <br/>Balfour in his <em>Botany of Socotra</em> (Bayley Balfour, 1888) has a record of an <em>Entada</em> sp. No specimen can be traced and the identity of his plant is a mystery. He notes this as a "A beautiful and graceful tree of which material is too fragmentary to permit identification, [which] is provisionally referred to this genus". He goes on to say that it has some resemblance to <em>Acacia pennivenia</em> Schweinf. and that the inhabitants give it the same name (Tomhor). No species of <em>Entada</em> has been recorded from the island and it seems likely that Balfour’s plant was in fact <em>Acacia pennivenia</em>.
30428		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. Altitude of 500 to 1,550 m. <br/> <br/><em>Dracaena cinnabari</em> (the Dragon’s Blood tree) is perhaps the most famous and distinctive plant on Soqtora. It is a major component of the landscape and is important not only as a flagship species (a rallying point for conservation awareness) but also as an indicator species (a species which flags changes in biotic and abiotic conditions) and as an umbrella species (a species which, if protected, will bring other species under that protection). It comes into flower in February and takes five months from flower fully ripe fruit.
30428		habitat	eng	Most commonly found in in evergreen and semi-deciduous woodland.
30428		population	eng	Common and often abundant on the granite of the Haggeher mountains and adjacent limestone plateaus (for instance at Diksam, Reyged, Rewgid and Firmihin). There are also important outliers at Homhil and Hamaderoh and Igliso in the east. Over much of the eastern and southern limestone plateaus it is less common occuring as small relict populations or as isolated trees. It is completely absent from the western end of the island and sparsely distributed or even absent from large areas of the eastern Haggeher. This pattern of distribution (with the exception of the eastern Haggeher and high areas in the western limestone) closely matches areas receiving frequent low cloud, rain and drizzle during the monsoon.
30428		threats	eng	Of its various uses it is most famously known as a commercial source of dragon's blood. Current exploitation is small-scale but there is potential for more harmful exploitation to take place.
30429		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30429		habitat	eng	Drought-deciduous woodland, succulent shrubland and thickets along wadis. Altitude of 20–650 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its panicles bright yellow flowers, winged fruits and leathery, evergreen leaves.
30429		population	eng	A small tree or shrub, occurring as scattered solitary individuals.
30429		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
30430		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
30430		habitat	eng	Coastal plains and dry foothills; in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and drought deciduous woodland. Altitude of 10–600 m. <br/> <br/>A widespread species of low-altitude woodland and shrubland. It is abundant in places on the lower slopes of limestone mountains and summit plateaux.
30430		threats	eng	The populations are under no immediate threat.
30431		habitat	eng	Found in areas of submontane woodland.
30431		population	eng	A fairly common tree.
30431		threats	eng	It is under no immediate threat.
30433		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30433		habitat	eng	Widespread but never common in semi-deciduous woodland on the Haggeher mountains and adjacent limestone plateau. Altitude of 200–650 m. <br/> <br/>Local people report that the flowers are yellow.
30434		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30434		habitat	eng	Dense submontane semi-deciduous thicket. Altitude of 1,050–1,200 m.  <br/> <br/>Much rarer and restricted than <em>Clerodendrum leucophloeum</em>; only found in the Haggeher mountains.
30435		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
30435		habitat	eng	Widespread in deciduous and semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 100–850 m. <br/> <br/>Commoner and more widespread than <em>C. galeatum</em>.
30436		conservation	eng	The wood is useful and the species is a focus of silvicultural studies.
30436		distribution	eng	Extreme south of Madagascar, beyond the Tropic of Capricorn.
30436		habitat	eng	A major component of dry scrub and forest.
30436		threats	eng	The habitat type has been replaced by grassland over much of its range.
30437		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act and in Guam and Northern Marianas government legislation.
30437		habitat	eng	A large tree of moist forest on limestone substrate.
30437		population	eng	There are about 120 trees on Rota and only one remains on a military base on Guam.
30437		threats	eng	Lack of regeneration seems to be the main cause of the population decline. Possible causes include insect predation on the seeds, ungulate predation of the seedlings and seedling mortality caused by introduced mealybugs. The subpopulation on Rota is likely to decline as older trees die.
30438		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only once, around the Bipindi area.
30438		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest
30438		population	eng	It is not known whether the population still exists.
30438		threats	eng	There has been much habitat loss through expanding agriculture.
30440		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bipindi.
30440		habitat	eng	A large canopy tree which occurs sparsely in lowland rainforest.
30440		threats	eng	The habitat is frequently cleared for agriculture and settlements.
30441		conservation	eng	Protection of the habitat of this species is recommended. Populations are protected in Korup National Park.
30441		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Cameroon, including two collections taken from Mt Cameroon. There have also been recent collections from Loum F.R. This large (to 40 m tall) tree is most famous as one of three species forming groves in the southern Korup NP. However, it also occurs around Mt Cameroon, in the western and northern foothills. It is not generally realized that this species is restricted to southwestern Cameroon and that records of it occurring elsewhere are spurious.
30441		habitat	eng	This valuable timber species occurs in lowland rainforest areas, usually on sandy soils in flat areas. The species has ectomycorrhizal properties.
30441		threats	eng	Large-scale habitat decline (clearance for agriculture) and exploitation have caused population declines.
30442		distribution	eng	This is the most threatened member of the genus. Recorded  from small localities at Muyuka, Eseka, Kribi, Maleke and Lolodorf in Cameroon, the species may already be extinct from most of these sites. It is closely related to <em>M. heitzii</em> but appears to grow to larger proportions and at a relatively rapid rate. There is considerable interest in its potential as a plantation tree.
30442		threats	eng	One location is converted to agricultural land. Another remains forested but attempts to find the species have failed and the third location appears now have been planted with bananas.
30443		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas. Increased and more effective policing of existing areas gazetted as protected, particularly the S Bakundu F.R., would secure the future of this species.
30443		distribution	eng	Endemic to the foothills of Mt Cameroon in relatively well-protected areas: Mokoko Forest Reserve, Korup National Park, Bamuko Forest Reserve and the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve.
30443		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 200–600 m alt.
30443		threats	eng	Where subpopulations are unprotected they are exposed to encroaching agriculture and land settlement. There is clearance of forest for expansion of plantations (Mt Cameroon, eastern slopes at Bimbia), increased small-holder agriculture and logging along the upgraded Kumba-Mamfe Rd, clearance of forest for yam farming in S Bakundu.
30444		population	eng	In Gabon only a single collection is known, but because of the relatively poor state of knowledge of these forests it may be found to be more widespread.
30444		threats	eng	There is concern over the extent to which forest is now under concession to logging companies.
30445		distribution	eng	A small forest tree known from occurrences at Batouri and Bertona in the Eastern Province of Cameroon and from Boukoko in Central African Republic.
30445		population	eng	Little is known on the status of the populations.
30447		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cameroon, in Bertona, Doume, Lomie, Akonolinga and Sangmelima.
30447		habitat	eng	This small understorey tree occurs locally in some abundance in lowland swamp forest .
30447		threats	eng	The habitat is being lost to agricultural development in places.
30448		distribution	eng	This species formerly made up extensive woodland on the slopes of two volcanoes, Sierra Negra and Cerra Azul on Isabela Island.
30448		habitat	eng	A small tree.
30448		threats	eng	A continuing decline in the extent of the woodland is evident. Damage is being caused by introduced herbivores, invasive weeds are causing habitat degradation and areas are being cleared by local inhabitants. There is also the constant threat of volcanic eruption.
30449		distribution	eng	One of two varieties, this tree forms woodlands on the high slopes of  the volcanoes Wolf and Ecuador on Isabela Island.
30449		threats	eng	Introduced goats are responsible for damage to the trunks of mature trees and the lack of seedlings in the population. Volcanic eruptions pose an additional threat.
30450		distribution	eng	This variety occurs in populations on the high slopes of Fernandina Island and on Volcan Alcedo and Volcan Darwin on Isabela Island.
30450		threats	eng	A continuing decline in population numbers has been observed on Isabela, caused by the damage from introduced goats. There is an added threat of volcanic eruption.
30451		distribution	eng	One of the largest growing <em>Scalesia</em> species. It forms compact woodlands in the highlands of San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz, Santiago and Floreana.
30451		threats	eng	Recent declines in the extent of this habitat have occurred because of land settlement, grazing and the spread of invasive plants. These trends appear to be continuing. There is also a potential threat from volcanic eruption.
30452		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Floreana.
30452		population	eng	The species was reported to occur in some abundance in the first half of the century. Large numbers of trees were felled for constructing houses during a period of settlement of the island and the total population is now estimated to include 2,600 adult trees, most of which are located on the Cerro de Pampa Bola. Regeneration is reasonable.
30452		threats	eng	There is a potential threat of colonization by <em>Lantana camara</em> and <em>Psidium guajava</em>.
30453		conservation	eng	Since the goats have been more effectively managed, a rapid recovery in population numbers has been observed and the species is now believed to be stable.
30453		distribution	eng	Endemic to the islands of Pinta and Wolf.
30453		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree forms part of the open understorey in dry deciduous steppe forest.
30453		threats	eng	The population on Wolf is not suffering from grazing damage. On Pinta, the species is relatively common but subject to damage by introduced goats. Severe declines in this population were recorded in the 1970s.
30454		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30454		distribution	eng	The genus contains three species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.
30454		population	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30454		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30455		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30455		distribution	eng	The genus contains three species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.
30455		population	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30455		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30456		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30456		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
30456		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
30456		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30456		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30457		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30457		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
30457		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
30457		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30457		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30458		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30458		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
30458		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
30458		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30458		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30459		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30459		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
30459		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
30459		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30459		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30460		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30460		distribution	eng	The genus contains two species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.
30460		habitat	eng	An arborescent species of Labiatae, confined to remaining upper montane forest.
30460		population	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30460		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30461		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30461		distribution	eng	The genus contains two species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.
30461		habitat	eng	An arborescent species, confined to the remaining upper montane forest.
30461		population	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30461		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
30462		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30462		distribution	eng	Found on Masa Fuera Is.
30462		habitat	eng	A dominant species of lowland dry forest.
30462		population	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30462		threats	eng	The extent of the forest has declined through the effects of grazing by feral animals, spread of introduced weeds and soil erosion.
30463		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30463		distribution	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30463		habitat	eng	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.
30464		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30464		distribution	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30464		habitat	eng	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.
30465		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30465		distribution	eng	Endemic to Masafuera Is. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation. <em>Fagara</em> is now included in <em>Zanthoxylum</em>.
30465		habitat	eng	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.
30466		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by *CONAF to save the native plants.
30466		distribution	eng	A good example of lower montane forest where the species occurs is found at Quebrada Villagra. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation. <em>Fagara</em> is now included in <em>Zanthoxylum</em>.
30466		habitat	eng	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.
30467		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30467		distribution	eng	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation. There are two species in the genus, the second being found on mainland Chile.
30467		habitat	eng	A tree of upper montane forest.
30468		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
30468		distribution	eng	Found on Masatierra and Masafuera Is. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
30468		habitat	eng	A dominant species of lowland dry forest and lower montane forest.
30468		threats	eng	The extent of the forest has declined through the effects of grazing by feral animals, spread of introduced weeds and soil erosion. Trees were cut in large numbers for lumber in the past.
30469		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Marquesas.
30469		population	eng	The species is relatively common on Hiva Oa and also occurring on Fatu Hiva, Tahuata and Ua Huka.
30470		distribution	eng	The species, although restricted to the Marquesas, is widely spread on various islands; Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata, Ua Huka and Ua Pou.
30471		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree known from occurrences on Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tauhata and Ua Huka.
30472		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas.
30472		population	eng	Populations are thought to be stable.
30472		threats	eng	Populations are thought to be under no threat.
30473		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Marquesas. Subpopulations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva.
30473		habitat	eng	Occurs abundantly in ravines.
30474		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Mohotani and Nuku Hiva.
30475		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only from Ua Pou from the Pepehitoua valley at about 760 m.
30476		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Tahuata.
30477		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Tahuata and Ua Huka.
30478		conservation	eng	1). This species is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The woodland vegetation in which this species is found is listed in Annex I of the same Directive. <br/> <br/>2). <em>In situ</em>: An EU LIFE funded project was carried out from 2001-2005. The immediate aim of the project was to stabilize the existing population and improve the survival rate of natural seedlings and planted trees raised as part of an ex-situ programme. Wider aims included the elimination of non-indigenous fir species and the restoration of the natural ecosystem. All work has been carried out within the boundaries of the Madonie Regional Park. The number of trees has increased from 24 to 30, while natural seedlings have increased from 30 to 80. These are still immature. <br/> <br/>3). <em>Ex situ</em>: An extensive ex-situ programme has been in place for a number of years with trees planted in the Botanical Garden of Palermo (Italy) as well as in summer villas and second homes in the Madonie Mountains, slightly apart from their natural area of distribution.&#160; They have also been distributed to other botanic gardens and arboreta in Europe. A programme of controlled pollination instigated as part of the EU LIFE funded project has resulted in the production of an additional 3,000 plants for reinforcing the existing population.
30478		distribution	eng	Despite its scientific name, the Sicilian Fir (<em>Abies nebrodensis</em>) does not grow in the Nebrodi Mountains but is presently limited to the steep, dry slopes&#160; <span id="result_box" class="long_text">between Vallone Madonna degli Angeli,  Monte Staircase, Monte dei Pini and Rosskopf, in the territory of the  Municipality of Polizzi Generosa in the Madonie Mountains in the north-central part of Sicily.
30478		habitat	eng	The species grows at around 1,500 m altitude on limestone soil.
30478		population	eng	The Madonie Mountains, rising to 1,979 m, were once covered by <em>A. nebrodensis</em>. By 1900, the species was considered extinct, due to extensive logging and erosion, but was rediscovered in 1957. The current population consists of 24 mature trees.
30478		threats	eng	The principal threat facing this species is the small population size. It will continue to be dependent on on-going conservation measures, especially fire suppression and habitat improvement.
30479		habitat	eng	It occurs as a small tree or shrub in regenerating kauri forest and coastal shrubland.
30479		population	eng	Thorough surveys have found this species to be widespread in north Auckland. Regeneration is good and the species is often planted as an ornamental.
30480		conservation	eng	The islands are protected and goats have been removed.
30480		distribution	eng	Endemic to Three King Islands.
30480		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs on steep scree slopes.
30480		population	eng	In 1981, three subpopulations of between one and twelve scattered trees were recorded.
30481		conservation	eng	Some seedlings have been raised <em>ex situ</em>.
30481		distribution	eng	Discovered in 1946 on Great Island in Three Kings Islands Group.
30481		population	eng	A species which has only ever been known from a single tree. Although sexed as female, the tree has produced viable pollen.
30481		threats	eng	The decline of the species has been attributed to habitat destruction as a consequence of human occupation and browsing by goats.
30482		distribution	eng	Representing a monotypic genus, endemic to the Three Kings Islands.
30482		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of windswept scrub.
30482		population	eng	The 1981 Red Data Book of New Zealand records a colony of about 12 small trees in an isolated area on West Island. A precise population estimate is not presently available, but the species is no longer dangerously low in numbers.
30483		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Three Kings Islands.
30483		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
30483		population	eng	Information from the Red Data Book in 1981 indicated that very few individuals remained on Great Island. Current population figures are not available but are no longer believed to be at a critical low.
30484		distribution	eng	This small tree is endemic to the Three Kings Islands.
30485		habitat	eng	Lowland kahikatea/matai forest.
30485		population	eng	Occurring on both islands, subpopulations are scarce and small. In the 1981 Red Data Book of New Zealand there were estimated to be fewer than 50 individuals in total. Regeneration is reported to be good in places.
30486		habitat	eng	A small tree growing on frost flats and in clearings in montane forest.
30486		threats	eng	Browsing possums are causing damage to this species.
30487		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Auckland area, the Coromandel Peninsula and Great Barrier Island.
30487		habitat	eng	Along forest margins, in scrubland and regenerating kauri forest.
30487		population	eng	Several hundred trees remain in the wild. It is locally abundant on Great Barrier Island. Most of the remaining colonies are found on land administered by the Forest Service.
30487		threats	eng	Habitat clearance for forestry and farming are responsible for past population declines.
30488		distribution	eng	Endemic to Marlborough.
30488		habitat	eng	This small tree usually grows in scrubby sites near streams, except in one area where it forms its own forest type.
30488		population	eng	Surveys in the early 1980s estimated a population figure of less than 200 individuals in total, but the number has now increased. There are only two species in the genus, both endemic to New Zealand.
30488		threats	eng	Habitat deterioration has resulted in the invasion of grasses and weeds in places, and regeneration is sometimes prevented by grazing deer and livestock.
30489		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from Marlborough, where it occurs in valleys between the Wairau and Awatere Rivers. The genus consists of three species, endemic to New Zealand.
30490		distribution	eng	A small tree, confined to Marlborough, where it is found between Awatere and Kowhai Rivers. The genus consists of three species endemic to New Zealand.
30491		distribution	eng	Once one of the major components of forest on the Chatham Islands.
30491		population	eng	Complete destruction of the forest type has led to the species becoming rare and largely confined to paddocks. There is evidence of some regeneration.
30492		distribution	eng	Occurs on the Chatham Islands, to which it is confined.
30492		habitat	eng	A small tree.
30492		population	eng	Quite common.
30492		threats	eng	Subpopulations are under great pressure from the continuous damage caused by browsing possums.
30493		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Chatham Islands.
30493		population	eng	Once a significant component of forests in the Chatham Islands, this small tree is now reduced to four subpopulations and scattered isolated individuals.
30493		threats	eng	The species is severely browsed by livestock and more recently by possums.
30494		conservation	eng	A spectacular recovery in numbers has since been made following the removal of goats.
30494		distribution	eng	A small pioneer tree found only on Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group.
30494		threats	eng	By the early 1970s only a few small groups of trees had survived the damage caused by feral goats.
30495		conservation	eng	Appears to be increasing in numbers since the removal of goats.
30495		distribution	eng	A small pioneer tree which is confined to Raoul Island of the Kermedec Group, the population on Macaulay Island having become extinct.
30495		habitat	eng	It grows in forest clearings and disturbed areas.
30496		distribution	eng	A small tree with a local occurrence.
30497		conservation	eng	The majority of the remaining natural stands are within the Norfolk Island National Park. A range of public and private restoration activities is being undertaken that is aimed at increasing the extent of the natural vegetation through replanting and invasive species control and removal. The natural vegetation of Phillip Island is slowly recovering following the elimination of goats and pigs in the 1920s and the more recent removal of rabbits.
30497		distribution	eng	Endemic to Norfolk Island (Australia) and two nearby islands. On Norfolk Island itself, natural forests are largely restricted to the Mt Pitt (316 m) area of the Norfolk   Island National Park. It also occurs on Phillip  Island, a 4 km² small island 6 km south of Norfolk Island. The natural vegetation on this island was largely destroyed by rabbits and other introduced animals by the 1970s and almost all Araucarias were lost. There are also historical records of its presence on the tiny limestone islet of Nepean (10.5 ha) off the south coast of Norfolk Island. In the early 1790s, about 200 mature trees grew there but by 1840 these had been reduced to one live and one dead tree; these appear to have persisted in some state until the late 1930s (Norfolk Island Parks and Forestry Service 2003). Currently there are no Araucarias on this islet.<br/><br/>The total EOO is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. The main natural stands on Mt Pitt cover an area of less than 400 hectares giving a minimum AOO (using standard IUCN 4 km<sup>2</sup> grid cells) of 4 km<sup>2</sup>. Fragments of natural stands also occur in other parts of the island so that the total AOO would be more than 10km<sup>2</sup>. However, it cannot be more than 38 km<sup>2</sup> as this is the combined total area of both Norfolk Island and Phillip Island.
30497		habitat	eng	The original vegetation on Norfolk Island was an evergreen subtropical forest with angiosperm trees and tree ferns 10-20 m high, over which <span style="font-style: italic;">A. heterophylla</span> emerged at least 30 m and occasionally taller. The really large trees have all been felled, but evidence of trees with a diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) of around 3 m still existed in the 1920s and large trees have now again reached in excess of 1 m d.b.h. and 35-40 m height. Common angiosperm trees are (were) <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea apetala</span> Vahl (Oleaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Elaeodendron curtipendulum</span> Endl. (Celastraceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Celtis paniculata</span> (Endl.) Planch. (Ulmaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Streblus pendulinus</span> (Endl.) F.Muell. (Moraceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Lagunaria patersonia</span> (Andrews) G.Don (Malvaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Acronychia simplicifolia</span> (Endl.) Steud. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Zanthoxylum blackburnia</span> Benth.&#160; (Rutaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhopalostylis baueri</span> H.Wendl. & Drude (Arecaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Meryta angustifolia</span> (Araliaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Baloghia inophylla</span> (G.Forst.) P.S.Green (Euphorbiaceae) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dysoxylum patersoni</span> F.Muell. (Meliaceae) as well as the tree ferns <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyathea australis</span> (R.Br.) Domin and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. brownii</span> Domin (Cyatheaceae). This type of forest is now fragmented and very restricted in its distribution on Norfolk Island. <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria heterophylla</span> also persists as solitary trees on coastal headlands or in groves with a low undergrowth of mostly grasses or of open scrub, with many introduced species.
30497		population	eng	Prior to the arrival of European settlers in 1788, <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> dominated forests occurred in almost all parts of Norfolk, Nepean and Phillip Islands. Over the last two centuries the vast majority of the native vegetation has been cleared or degraded so that less than 10% remains. However, this does not equate to a similar reduction in the size of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> population as during this period, sporadic natural regeneration has occurred in areas not subject to grazing. Additionally many trees and groves have been planted and some of these have become self maintaining (e.g. Hundred Acres Reserve).
30497		threats	eng	Logging has been a threat in the past. Land clearance and grazing have also been significant threats in the past but are now less problematic. The impact of introduced invasive species has been significant: rabbits, goats and pigs were responsible for the loss of almost all vegetation on Phillip Island while exotic trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cuspidata</span> have colonised many areas on Norfolk Island itself to form dense impenetrable thickets. In the 1970s many Araucarias suffered from a dieback that was associated with habitat degradation and adverse environmental conditions. Improvements in land management practices, the introduction of a biological control and the removal of invasive species have led to a lessening of this problem although invasive species are still a major and ongoing threat.
30498		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park. First attempts of ex-situ propagation in the Biodiversity Center Barbarons on Mahé failed (D.  Doudee pers. comm. 2006). In a   survey in 1994, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. seychellarum</span>  was found in 12 out of 73 areas  of   special conservation value  (Carlström 1996).
30498		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on Mahé Island, Seychelles. Although the exact distribution of this species is not known, the boundaries of its occurrence are known. The EOO is approximately 51 km². The species was recorded on Praslin in the west of Vallée de Mai, 280 m (Friedmann 1994, Carlström 1996), however it seems to have disappeared from Praslin.
30498		habitat	eng	This tree grows in crevices in exposed rocky outcrops and in forests at intermediate to high altitudes. It occurs from 300 to about 600 m, becoming scarcer at the higher altitudes, rarely reaching 750 m. <span style="font-style: italic;">Campnosperma seychellarum</span> was probably one of the co-dominant species in the canopy of the original forests on deeper soils. The fruits appear to be suitable for frugivore dispersal, but the present distribution pattern and the observation that saplings are scarce indicate that there is no successful dispersal. The endemic Blue Pigeon seems to be most likely candidate to be dispersing the species (L. Chong Seng pers. comm. 2006). Most subpopulations  are too small to support a viable population and no  propagule   exchange seems to occur between the subpopulations. Genetic diversity in subpopulations was already questioned by Carlström (1996).
30498		population	eng	The population size is less than 1,000 individuals, but the exact number is not known (RDLP workshop 2006). The largest subpopulations are known from Salazie, between Mare aux Cochons and Casse Dent, and from Brulée, where each subpopulation contains fewer than 50 individuals (RDLP workshop 2006). Most subpopulations  are too small to support a viable population (Carlström 1996) and no propagule   exchange seems to occur between the subpopulations. The subpopulations are therefore considered to be severely fragmented. <br/><br/>Historically, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. seychellarum</span> must have been much more abundant. It was said to be common in all the islands from the shores to the hilltops (Baker 1877, Diels 1922). There must have been a huge decline as the species is nowadays very rare and not easy to find.
30498		threats	eng	This species has probably suffered much from exploitation for timber and   later for firewood. All subpopulations show very poor regeneration, which might be due to seed predation by rats. Being mainly confined to single isolated trees or   small groups of trees, most subpopulations of this species are probably   too small to be viable (Carlström 1996). Successful regeneration varies in   the different areas but  is always very low if there is   regeneration at all (M. Huber and S.  Ismail pers. obs. 2006). First   attempts of propagation in  the  Biodiversity Centre on Mahé failed   (D.  Doudee pers. comm. 2006). In many of the sites there  is  also a severe competition from exotic species  (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;"> Adenanthera pavonina</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sandoricum koetjype</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span>). This species was observed to be common before the cinnamon oil rush at   the beginning of the last century. The use of the plant as firewood for  the cinnamon oil  distilleries has caused a decline in the population  size over the past 100 years.
30499		conservation	eng	The species variety is present in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks.
30499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polyscias</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">sechellarum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">sechellarum</span> is endemic to the Seychelles and it occurs on Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Félicité (Carlström 1996, Hill 2002). It is probably also found on on La Digue (RDLP Workshop 2006). Historically known also from Frégate Island (Carlström 1996). The EOO on Mahé is 36 km². The EOO on the other islands could not be determined due to lack of distribution data, however the entire area of the other four islands is 70.8 km²<sup></sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005). Therefore the entire estimated EOO is at maximum 106.8 km²<sup></sup>.
30499		habitat	eng	Glabrous shrub or small tree rarely exceeding 10 m in height, not or only sparingly branched. Understory tree of the moist forest at intermediate altitudes. Mostly found between 250 and 500 m elevation.
30499		population	eng	The population size unknown, but possibly less than 2,500 mature individuals left. The population is thought to be declining.
30499		threats	eng	The main threats to this variety are invasive species causing a decline  in the quality of its habitat, and its restricted range. It occurs mainly in lowland and intermediate altitudes  (Carlström 1996),  which are highly affected by invasive species and  anthropogenic land  use.
30500		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
30500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on Mahé, Praslin  (Friedmann 1994) and at one site on Silhouette (six to seven individuals; V. Laboudallon pers. comm. 2006). The EOO on Mahé is 44 km²<sup></sup> and the entire area of Silhouette and Praslin is 20 km² and 38 km²<sup></sup> respectively (National Statistics Bureau 2005). Its distribution on Praslin is very restricted and the total EOO and AOO are therefore estimated to be less than 100 km².
30500		habitat	eng	Small tree up to 10 m tall occurring in intermediate and high altitude forest and exposed rocky mountain summits. Mostly found between 300 and 850 m asl. Its fruits are probably dispersed by frugivores.
30500		population	eng	The population consists of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (RDLP workshop 2006) and is thought to be declining. The species used to occur from the seashore to the top  of the hills (Baker 1877), however it is now confined to altitudes  above 300 m (at least on Mahé). A great part of its habitat has been lost as the area below 300 m covers&#160; three quarters (118.5 km²) of  the entire island of Mahé. Beside this tremendous habitat reduction the species  was described as good firewood and charcoal (Carlström 1996). Therefore  it is likely that this species was cut down during the time of cinnamon  distilleries. Although the statements are vague, a population decline of at least 30% over the past 100 years can be inferred.
30500		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are a decline in the quality of its habitat due to the invasion of alien species and intrinsic factors, such as its restricted distribution and poor recruitment. Reproductive success seems to be disturbed; seedlings can be observed in  the wild but saplings are very rarely seen (J.  Mougal pers. comm. 2006). The species was described as a good firewood and charcoal (Carlström 1996) and  it is likely that it was cut down during the time of cinnamon distilleries.
30501		conservation	eng	The species is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks and also in the Curieuse Marine National Park.
30501		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on the islands of Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette and Curieuse (Friedmann 1994). The total area of these islands is 215 km²<sup></sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005).<br/><br/>In a survey in 1994, the species was found in 52 out of 73 areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This indicates the broad intra island distribution of the species.
30501		habitat	eng	Tree up to 20 m tall, occurring in mountain woods and exposed rocky outcrops. The fruit is eaten and probably dispersed by frugivores.
30501		population	eng	The current population size and trends are unknown. In 1925, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ferruginea</span> was nearly extinct on Mahé (Dupont 1925) and was planted in several areas in the 1920s. In 1940, almost no big individuals could be found, but smaller individuals were relatively common (Vesey-Fitzgerald 1940). Presently, the species is still relatively wide spread in drier areas from near sea level to mountaintops. It seams that the species has recovered during the past 100 years. A past or future decline cannot be quantified.
30501		threats	eng	This species is not thought to be threatened at present. Its restricted range, the invasion of alien species (affecting the quality of its habitat) and insect pests are potential threats that are unlikely to affect this species presently. It was used for rafters and posts in the construction of house, but is not used any more.
30502		conservation	eng	This species is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, in St. Anne and Curieuse Marine National Parks, and the Aride Strict Nature Reserve.
30502		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles, and it has been recorded from Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue, Aride, Curieuse, Félicité and Thérèse (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994, Hill 2002). The total area of these islands is 233 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005).
30502		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree, up to 8 m tall, occurring in forest and on exposed rocky outcrops from near sea level to 850 m asl, but scarcer at the higher elevations (Carlström 1996). The species is most probably dispersed by frugivores (Kronauer 2005).
30502		population	eng	Wide spread over several islands and no decline in the population size suspected. More than 10,000 mature individuals in the total population.<br/><br/>In 1994, this species was found in 51 areas out of total 73 areas of special conservation value of the granitic islands of Seychelles (Carlström 1996). This indicates the broad distribution of this species. It is most probable that the species still occurs in these areas.
30502		threats	eng	The species is not threatened at the moment. The habitat of the species might be affected by fire, infrastructure development and introduced invasive species. Despite these threats the species is still abundant and is reproducing well.
30503		conservation	eng	It is present in Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks.
30503		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and it is found on the two largest islands Mahé and Praslin (Friedmann 1994). The only record on Félicité was by Carlström in 1994 (Carlström 1996). The species was not recorded on this island in a recent survey (Hill  2002). It is very unlikely that the species is present on Félicité  (J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006). It is uncertain if the record on  Félicité made by Carlström (1996) is erroneous. If this record is  correct the species went extinct on Félicité during the last 10 years or  is now on the edge of extinction. The area of the three islands is 199 km<sup>2</sup> (National Statistic Bureau 2005).
30503		habitat	eng	Glabrous small tree, up to 5 m tall, with abundant milky sap. It grows on exposed rocky outcrops and in open forest. It disperses only very locally by dehiscing capsules. The species grows mainly at altitudes between 300 m and 650 m asl on exposed  rocky outcrops and rarely in moist forests (Carlström 1996).
30503		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the population possibly consists of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. The population is healthy and stable, at least on Mahé and Praslin.<br/>In 1994, it was recorded in nine out of 73 areas of special conservation value of the granitic islands of Seychelles (Carlström 1996).
30503		threats	eng	This species is mainly threatened by its restricted range. The rocky outcrops are not strongly invaded by introduced species (Fleischmann 1997). But the invasion of alien species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alstonia macrophylla</span>, may become a threat for the rejuvenation of this species in the future.
30504		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are recorded within Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks and in forest areas protected by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.
30504		distribution	eng	There are six sites on Mahé and single sites on Silhouette and Praslin. Montagne Planeau has a large and healthy population. Most other locations contain between one and five trees.
30504		population	eng	The entire population amounts to fewer than 50 individuals. No seedlings have been reported.
30505		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park and the Praslin National Park.
30505		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species occurs on Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Curieuse, Félicité, Grand Soeur and Marianne (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994, Hill 2002, V. Laboudallon pers. comm. 2006). The EOO on Mahé was estimated at 64 km². No EOO was estimated for the other islands, however the total area of the other  islands is 66 km²  (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The total EOO is therefore estimated to be less than 150 km². The AOO wasn't calculated, but it is definitely less than 2,000 km².
30505		habitat	eng	Often growing on exposed rocky outcrops but also as an under-story tree and rarely as a canopy tree in forest. Occurs from near sea level to 900 m. The seeds are eaten and most probably also disperse by frugivores. The best-developed trees occur at 100 to  400 m above sea level and  its main habitat is strongly affected by  human developments and&#160; is strongly invaded by introduced  species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>  or <span style="font-style: italic;">Alstonia macrophylla</span>.
30505		population	eng	The size of the population is not known. The biggest stand (Fond Ferdinand, Praslin) consists of many hundred individuals (RDLP workshop 2006). Well-developed  trees are rare on Mahé (M. Huber and S. Ismail pers. comm. 2006) but  seem to be more frequent on Silhouette (J.  Gerlach pers.comm. 2006). On Praslin and Félicité, the species is abundant and seems  to reproduce successfully (RDLP workshop 2006). A decline of habitat  quality seems to affect the species mainly on Mahé. The major threat  seems to be the poor reproduction. Young plants are rarely seen on Mahé (J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006). A continuing decline can be assumed only for the subpopulation on Mahé,  which represents the subpopulation with the largest range. The status on Curieuse, Grand  Soeur and Marianne is not known.<br/><br/>Historically, this species was said to be common on Mahé and Praslin (Horne 1871 in Baker 1877). It is now confined to small groups of poorly developed trees in inaccessible sites at higher elevations or glacis areas at low altitude on Mahé (Carlström 1996). It is only abundant in few areas. Based on these sources a decline can be suspected. The data sources are however not exact enough to quantify this decline.
30505		threats	eng	Urbanization and spread of introduced species in its habitat are the main threats to this species. Reproduction seems to be disturbed mainly on Mahé. The exact reasons for this are not known, but seeds are predated on by rats.
30506		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
30506		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles and is found only on Mahé and Silhouette. The EOO on Mahé is 5.7 km² and the total area of Silhouette is only 20 km²<sup></sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The total EOO (as well as the AOO) is therefore at maximum 26 km².
30506		habitat	eng	Tree up to 15 m tall. Probably originally a component of the understory of forests at intermediate altitude, 300 to 500 m.
30506		population	eng	There are probably fewer than 1,000 mature individuals left and the population is thought to be declining. On Silhouette, the  species is well distributed and seems to reproduce well, forming the  only healthy subpopulation left (between 500 to 1,000 individuals)  (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006). On Mahé, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. thomassetti</span> is  close to extinction (<50 individuals) and at the present stage only  four localities with a few individuals are known. It can be assumed that  these individuals cannot support a viable subpopulation as hardly any regeneration has been observed (RDLP workshop  2006). The only record of five saplings was made by Küffer in 2006, however there is no evidence for any seedlings. The species is regarded as severely fragmented.<br/><br/>The species was collected numerous times on Mahé and Silhouette (Horne 1871 or 1874, Thomasset, Diels 1899, Gardinier 1905 or 1908, Dupont 1930-40, Vesey-Fitzgerald 1938-39, Jeffrey 1961-62, Procter 1970-72, Bernardi 1973, in Robertson 1989). These historical records don’t give any indication of the abundance or the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. thomassetti</span>.
30506		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the invasion of alien species affecting the quality of its habitat, its restricted range and poor regeneration (especially on Mahé). As a member of  the former intermediate forests, this species has suffered much since  these forests have been almost entirely cut down. The forests  at intermediate altitude are heavily invaded by introduced species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>, leading to a decline in the quality of its habitat.
30507		conservation	eng	This species is present in Praslin National Park, Aride and Cousin Strict Nature Reserves, Curieuse and St Anne Marine National Parks.
30507		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is recorded from the 15 islands: Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Curieuse, La Digue, Félicité, Frégate, Aride, Cousin, Cousine, North Island, Conception, Grande Soeur, Marianne and Thérèse (Robertson 1989, Hill 2002, Dogley and Matatiken 2006). The total area of these island is 240 km² (National Statistics Bureau  2005). The suitable habitat is restricted to the lowlands near the  coast, therefore the total area of the islands includes large areas of  unsuitable habitats. It therefore occurs in a restricted area with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of less than 5,000 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 500 km².
30507		habitat	eng	The species grows well in variety of coastal and soil conditions, ranging from marshy areas and sandy conditions to boulders near the sea. The altitude range is from coastal dunes to about 150 m asl.<br/><br/>The dispersal mode is not known, but as this is by far the endemic species with the largest number islands of occurrence it can be assumed that there must be an inter island dispersal mode. It is possible that sea currents disperse the species.
30507		population	eng	The total number of mature individuals and the sizes of subpopulations are not known. Historically, it was one of the dominant species in coastal areas (Diels  1922). Nowadays it is still relatively common (Dogley and Matatiken  2006). A decline can not be quantified. But is very likely that a past  population reduction through human settlement, construction for tourist  infrastructure and agriculture, which occurred mainly in coastal area,  exceeded 30% over three generations.
30507		threats	eng	The main threat is that the entire habitat is in the area favourable for human development like settlements and tourism.
30508		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park and Curieuse Marine National Park. Large parts of the species habitat are legally protected by the “State Land and River Reserve act” (Laws of Seychelles 1991).
30508		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. hornei</span> occurs on five islands: Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue and Curieuse (Robertson 1989, Dogley and Matatiken 2006). The measured extent of occurrence (EOO) on Mahé is 77 km². The total area of the other four islands is 71 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005).
30508		habitat	eng	This species occurs predominantly in damp sites such as in river valleys and on slopes where there is good access to water, mostly at intermediate altitudes. From near sea level to 600 m; rarely seen below 300 m (Carlström 1996). The fruit is cone-like, resembling of pineapple, globosely, containing 80-100 drupes. The segments of the fruit are 12-13.5 cm long. The majority of the fruits fall down in the vicinity of the mother trees, leading to the present patchy distribution. Successful dispersal by fruit bats cannot be excluded and there is also a limited dispersal by rivers. Propagule exchange from one island to another can be excluded due to the weight of the fruit.
30508		population	eng	It has been estimated that between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. hornei</span> exist in the wild (RDLP workshop 2006). The exact number of mature individuals was not determined. The largest group of the species consists of about 150 individuals.<br/><br/>In 1899, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. hornei</span> was described to often occur in huge numbers in damp forests and was an essential feature of the Seychelles landscape (Diels 1922). Nowadays, it is mainly found in small groups, which are mostly confined to river ravines and on slopes where is good access to water (Carlström 1996, Dogley and Matatiken 2006). Based on this clear historical comparison it is obvious, that there has been a massive population reduction in the last 100 years (during the last three generations). It is not possible to quantify this reduction, but it can be suspected that it is at least 30% in the last 100 years. Wetland clearance for cultivation may have been the main reason for this reduction.
30508		threats	eng	The species preferred habitat type is heavily invaded by introduced species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraserianthes falcataria</span> and other invasive creepers. The species has a restricted range. Additionally the degree of isolation of the different groups may be of concern.
30509		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park and Curieuse Marine National Park.
30509		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is well distributed on six islands (Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Curieuse, Frégate and Félicité) (Robertson 1989, Dogley and Matatiken 2006). The total area of these islands is 224 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is therefore less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) less than 500 km².<br/><br/>In 1994, it was found in 37 out of total 73 areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). It is most probable that it still occurs in these areas.
30509		habitat	eng	Exposed rocky outcrops, on cliffs and on mountain summits, from near sea level to approximately 500 m. It is reported that reproduction could be disturbed by rats  removing young  fruits (Carström 1996). It is also observed that the  invasive species,  <span style="font-style: italic;">Alstonia macrophylla</span>, is starting to establish in the glacis  habitat type.  This process could rapidly change the threat status of  this species  (RDLP workshop 2006).
30509		population	eng	Total population size in the wild is very likely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals. This species is locally abundant, frequently being one of the most common species in dry rocky outcrop communities (Carlström 1996). As the species is restricted to rocky outcrops it has a very small area of suitable habitat. But nearly all glacis from sea level to high altitudes are occupied by this species. This habitat type is not as heavily invaded as other habitats in Seychelles (Fleischmann 1997). These areas are mostly unsuitable for human development. No present or future declines are expected.
30509		threats	eng	This species is not threatened at the moment, it is possible that reproduction sometimes is disturbed by rats removing young fruits (Carlström 1996). Furthermore, the   invasive species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Alstonia macrophylla</span>, is starting to establish in the glacis   habitat type. This process could rapidly change the threat status of   this species (RDLP workshop 2006).
30510		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Parks and Curieuse Marine National Park
30510		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species occurs on the six islands: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Curieuse and Félicité (Hill 2002, Matatiken and Dogley 2006). The total area of these islands is of 232 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is therefore less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km².<br/><br/>In a survey from 1994 it was found in 37 out of 73 areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This indicates its rather wide (intra island) distribution.
30510		habitat	eng	On rocky mountainous slopes and on almost sheer cliff faces. Occurs as an understory tree, frequently reaching the canopy at the higher altitudes. From almost sea level to the highest altitudes (approximately 905 m), but nowadays mostly found to the higher elevations. Forming almost pure stands or mixed stands with <span style="font-style: italic;">Northea hornei</span> at the highest altitudes.
30510		population	eng	The population size is not known, but no continuing decline is observable. The species is locally abundant and occurs in different habitats. It is likely that the total population size exceeds 10,000 mature individuals. In 1899, this species was described by Schimper as an essential feature of the Seychelles landscape (Diels 1922). It is nowadays still relatively wide distributed and common. A decline in the population size in the past or the future is not quantifiable and unlikely to exceed 30%.
30510		threats	eng	There are some healthy and stable subpopulations. However, this might no be the case for all subpopulations. The invasion of alien species in moist forests of higher altitudes might affect the main habitat of this species in the future.
30511		conservation	eng	The species is found in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks.
30511		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin. The EOO on Mahé is approximately 58 km² and the total area of Silhouette and Praslin is  58 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The potential area for this species covers at maximum half of the total area of these two islands and therefore the EOO and AOO are estimated to be less than 100 km².
30511		habitat	eng	Understory shrub in forests at drier sites at low to intermediate altitudes. The fruits are probably eaten and dispersed by frugivores. The only known disperser of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microdon</span>, the Seychelles Black Parrot (<span style="font-style: italic;">Coracopsis nigra </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> barklyi)</span>, occurs only on Praslin  (C. Küffer pers. comm. 2007).
30511		population	eng	This species is widespread within its range, but it occurs only at low densities. The population consists of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and is thought to be declining. The largest subpopulation consists of fewer than 250 individuals.
30511		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to construction for settlements, intrinsic factors (small range and poor regeneration), invasive alien species affecting habitat quality and medicinal use (ringbarking of taller individuals). Medicinal use of this  species can regularly be observed (e.g. la Résèrve, Mahé, fire breaks  around the Vallée de Mai on Praslin; L. Chong  Seng pers. comm. 2006). On Mahé, this use seems to occur at a very high level, as  all observed tall individuals show signs of ringbarking (C. Küffer pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Lowland and intermediate  forests are highly affected by alien invasive species. The lowland areas  are extensively reduced, due to land use for tourism and settlements. Furthermore, the species has problems with successful  reproduction (RDLP workshop 2006), but it is unknown if these problems  derive from intrinsic factors, specific diseases or from a decline in the quality of its habitat.
30512		conservation	eng	The species is found in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
30512		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs on Mahé and Silhouette (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994). The  species is also known from Praslin but not mentioned in publications  (V. Laboudallon pers. comm.). The total area of the three islands is 216 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The AOO and EOO are estimated to be less than 500 and 5,000 km² respectively.
30512		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree up to 7 m tall, glabrous in all its parts. Occurring in humid forest at intermediate and high altitudes on well drained ground mainly 400-850 m (Carlström 1996). It is unclear if the species is dispersed by frugivores (Kronauer 2005) but the fruit seems suitable for bird dispersal.
30512		population	eng	The total population size is unknown, but estimated to be more than 10,000 mature individuals. The population is thought to be stable. On Praslin, the species is apparently rare as it is not mentioned in any literature source (V. Laboudallon pers. comm.).
30512		threats	eng	This species is regenerating successfully, but could be affected by the invasion of alien species causing a decline in the quality of its habitat.
30513		conservation	eng	Confined to Aride Strict Nature Reserve.
30513		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is now restricted to Aride Island with a total area of only 0.7 km²<sup></sup> (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994). It used to occur on Mahé (Horne 1874 in Baker 1877, Schimper 1899 in Diels 1922 and  Thomasset 1905 in Summerhayes 1931), Silhouette (Gardiner 1905), Praslin  (Horne 1871) and Félicité (Wright 1867 and Horne 1871). The EOO and AOO are less than 100 km² and 10 km²<sup></sup> respectively.<br/><br/>This species has recently been introduced to Frégate Island (Hill 2002). These individuals are performing well and are also regenerating  spontaneously (K. Beaver&#160; pers. comm. 2007). It is unlikely  that these individuals can be regarded as naturalized. As there is no evidence that these  individuals form a self-sustaining subpopulation these individuals  cannot be incorporated in this assessment.
30513		habitat	eng	Grows among boulders and in forest at lower altitudes. The natural population is isolated on one small island.
30513		population	eng	The only remaining population consists of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. In 1999, 987 mature individuals were counted on Aride Island (J. Bowler and J. Hunter pers. comm. 1999). A continuing decline in the number of mature individuals can be observed (Carty 2006). A population decline in the past is given as this species has disappeared from Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Félicité and is now confined to Aride Island.<br/><br/>A partial census was carried out by Harriet and Sam Carty during  December 2005 and early January 2006. The areas covered represent the  most important stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. annae</span>. In the same area 736 adult plants  were counted in 1996. In 1999, 645 adult plants were counted  (representing two thirds of the total population in 1999). In 2005, 628  adult plants were counted. This gives a downward trend over nine years in  the surveyed area (Carty 2006). It is not sure if this survey is  representative for this species, as the surveyed areas were not chosen  at random. But this survey indicates an approximate reduction of 15%  over the last nine years, for approximately two thirds of the population.  This is a dramatic reduction as the generation length exceeds 30 years. <br/><br/>An  exact quantification of the historical decline based on the extinctions  on several islands and on the observed ongoing decline over three  generations is not possible. The entire area of the islands where the  species has gone extinct is 218.8 km²<sup></sup>. Compared with the 0.7 km² of  Aride Island this indicates a massive decline in the past 100 years. Therefore  it can be suspected that the past range decline exceeds 50% in the past  100 years, even a decline of 80% is plausible. Reasons for this past and  present population decline are not exactly known. It is possible that  introduced insect pests caused the rapid extinction on the islands.
30513		threats	eng	The restricted range is the main threat to this species. The exact reasons for the ongoing observed population reduction are not  known. The most plausible reasons are intrinsic factors and also  competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisonia grandis</span>.<br/><br/>Because the extinction reasons on  the other islands are not surely known, the same event could happen also  on Aride Island. It is possible that introduced insect pests caused the  rapid extinction on some of the islands (Friedmann 1994).
30514		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park, the Praslin National Park and the Curieuse Marine National Park.
30514		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs on Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Marianne, Curieuse, Conception, and Thérèse (Robertson 1989, Hill 2002). It was introduced to North Island (J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006) and Frégate (R. Gerlach quoted in Wise 1998). The occurrence on Félicité is uncertain as the species was not found in a recent survey (Hill 2002). The EOO is less than 217 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The AOO was not determined, but is thought to be less than 500 km².
30514		habitat	eng	Tree up to 15 m tall with a milky sap in all parts. Confined to exposed rocky outcrops from sea level to <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 600 m (Carlström 1996). This  present habitat is probably the edge of the species former distribution. It was once common throughout the islands and was probably one of the canopy-forming trees in the low altitude forests.<br/><br/>The regeneration on the rocky surface seems to be difficult. Although  the fruits are eaten by fruit bats, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sechellarum</span>   seems to be unable to spread naturally into its former habitats   (Carlström 1996, Kronauer 2005). As the species is reproducing   successfully in the wild a continuing decline is not suspected (RDLP   workshop 2006). From early records, there is evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sechellarum</span> was one of the dominant species with <span style="font-style: italic;">Calophyllum inophyllum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia catappa</span>   at least near sea level, reaching sizes of 30 m and with more than 1.5  m  in diameter (Rosnevet 1786, Brayer du Barre 1772, quoted in Vesey   Fitzgerald 1940).
30514		population	eng	Between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals in total population. The largest subpopulation might consist of more than 250 individuals, however this is just a rough estimate (RDLP workshop 2006).<br/>It was recorded on Félicité in 1974 (Procter 1974), however it was not found there in a more recent survey (Hill 2002). The species was introduced to Frégate (R. Gerlach quoted in Wise 1998) and is planted on North Island in an ongoing rehabilitation program (J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Procter (1974) wrote that  extensive stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sechellarum</span> were felled on Marianne in  the 1920s. In 1940, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops</span> was one of the canopy forming  species in the Agati forest at Point Civine on Silhouette Island (20 m  height and at 300 m altitude) (Bailey 1940). Presently, <span style="font-style: italic;">M.  sechellarum</span> is mostly found in small groups of stunted relict trees on  exposed rocky outcrops from sea level to 600 m (Carlström 1996). It is  quite obvious that the present habitat is the boundary of its former  habitat, where it was not cut down because of its stunted growth.
30514		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is its restricted geographic range. Another threat mentioned by Carlström (1996) are rats feeding on the fruits of this tree.
30515		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
30515		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé and Silhouette.
30515		habitat	eng	Frequently found at the edge of exposed rocky outcrops and at open rocky sites in forest, between 100 and 500 m altitude. The species is wind dispersed (Carlström 1996). The size and shape of the seeds allow only short distance dispersal. This leads to fragmentation and hinders recolonisation.
30515		population	eng	There is no data to make adequate estimates of the population size. The  species is locally abundant. It is possible, that the total population size  is less than 10,000 mature individuals.<br/>It is locally abundant on Mahé, but the subpopulations are scattered. On  Silhouette, it is apparently very rare and only two sites are known (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006).
30515		threats	eng	The species seems to be confined to rocky areas, which are not as invaded as other habitat types. It may therefore suffer less from invasive species than other endemics (Carlström 1996, Fleischmann 1997).
30516		conservation	eng	It is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks.
30516		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles. It is only known from eight sites on three islands: Mahé (Casse Dent 380 and 390 m, La Reserve, Morne Blanc, Salazie 600  m), Praslin (Vallée de Mai, Fond D'  Albarez and Glacis Noir and St. Sauveur) and Silhouette above La Passe (Carlström 1996, V. Laboudallon pers. comm. 2006). It is unclear if this species still  occurs on Morne Blanc, in the Vallée de Mai, in the Glacis Noir area and  above La Passe, as there are no recent records from these areas. These  sites have to be verified.<br/><br/>The EOO on Mahé is 17 km²<sup></sup> (including the uncertain  occurrences). The EOO on Praslin (area of 38 km²) and Silhouette (area of 20 km²) was not measured, but the entire area of the islands is 58 km² (National  Statistics Bureau 2005). The total EOO is therefore estimated to be less than 100 km².
30516		habitat	eng	A dioecious tree up to 20 m tall, occurring as an understory tree in forests at intermediate altitudes, 380-600 m. It is dispersed by gravity.
30516		population	eng	In total, fewer than 50 mature individuals are left. The largest known stand is on Mahé at Casse Dent below the Sans Souci Road consisting of 10 to 20 trees (RDLP workshop 2006). As the species was not described when extensive botanical research was done (1876-1905, Horne, Baker, Thomaset, Schimper) it can be assumed, that <span style="font-style: italic;">D. riseleyi</span> was already very rare over 100 years ago. The species was first described in 1917 by Hon. T. Riseley Griffith (Summerhayes 1931).<br/><br/>The known individuals seem to be in groups too small to support viable subpopulations. As there is nearly no recruitment and it is dispersed by gravity only it can be assumed that there is very little genetic exchange between the known stands. The population can therefore be regarded as severely fragmented.
30516		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are a skewed sex ratio, low population numbers, limited range, poor recruitment, and the invasion of alien species. The species was heavily exploited as it was considered an excellent timber wood (Friedmann 1994, Carlström 1996). It seems that this species faced the same fate as the better-recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Vateriopsis seychellarum</span>. As the main habitat seems to be between 300 and 600 m, the species  faces a severe competition pressure with invasive species. <br/><br/>Natural  regeneration cannot be observed (RDLP workshop 2006). Several of the  remaining specimens grow in areas where there are few, if any,  possibilities for natural regeneration. As <span style="font-style: italic;">D. riseleyi</span> is dioecious, a skewed sex ratio in such a small and  severely fragmented population could be a severe additional threat to  the species.
30517		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles.
30517		habitat	eng	A species of the granitic islands.
30518		conservation	eng	The species is represented in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks and the Curieuse Marine National Park.
30518		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs Mahé, Thérèse, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue and Félicité  (Robertson 1989). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy were not determined, however, the area of all of these islands combined is 233 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). In a survey in 1994 it was found in 60 out of 73 areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This indicates its wide intra-island distribution.
30518		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree up to 8 m tall. Grows as an understory shrub in forests and in scrub but also frequently found on exposed, rocky outcrops, from near sea level to 900 m, but becoming much scarcer at the higher elevations. The species has a very high phenotypic plasticity: it is very variable in size and shape of the leaves and flowers due to exposure and altitude. It spreads well after fires. Its fruits are eaten and most probably dispersed by frugivores. Due to its remarkable phenotypic plasticity this species grows in a great variety of habitats with a preference for dry places and glacis habitats.
30518		population	eng	The population size is unknown but certainly exceeding 10,000 mature individuals. A widespread and common species that occurs on seven islands. It is locally abundant and natural regeneration is good in most habitat types.
30518		threats	eng	The species is not threatened at the moment. The glacis habitats, where this species is also found, were most likely not seriously affected by logging. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. elaeagni</span> is of no known economical value. <br/><br/>While the species is not threatened at the moment, a future reduction of habitat quality or range through the spread of alien invasive species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysobalanus icaco</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Alstonia macrophylla</span>, is possible.
30519		conservation	eng	It occurs in Morne Seychelloise National Park and seedlings are being used in a reforestation programme.
30519		distribution	eng	Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Curieuse and Felicite Islands. The genus is monotypic.
30519		habitat	eng	A common component of forest areas.
30519		threats	eng	The main threat to populations comes from the pervasive spread of introduced plants.
30521		conservation	eng	Neither natural regeneration nor <em>ex situ</em> propagation have been successful.
30521		distribution	eng	A species now known from just a single female tree at Magenta.
30521		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
30521		population	eng	The only known tree fruited for the first time in five years in 1996 and again in 1997, which suggests there is a male individual in the vicinity.
30522		distribution	eng	South-west and occasionally east and northern ranges.
30522		habitat	eng	A relatively common species of upland and mid elevation forest.
30522		threats	eng	The spread of invasive species and habitat degradation are causing considerable concern. The species responds poorly to disturbance and appears to be regenerating insufficiently.
30523		distribution	eng	It is found in Bel Ombre and in a few sites in the Bambous Mts.
30523		habitat	eng	Lowland tropical rain forest and lowland mountain crests.
30523		population	eng	There are probably less than 50 individuals, although it is difficult to estimate the population or the area of occupancy (which is probably less than 10 km² but this would have to be worked out).  It is a very rare tree, and has probably declined by 80% over the last 3 generations due to reduction and decline in quality of its habitat. The population size is likely to be less than 2,500 individuals and quite possibly less than 250, although further research is needed.
30524		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
30524		population	eng	A relatively common species in the south-west and occasionally found in the eastern mountain ranges.
30524		threats	eng	Natural regeneration is poor and appears to be hampered by the spread of exotic plants and predation of the seeds by monkeys.
30525		population	eng	Only five individuals remain.
30526		conservation	eng	Grows well in managed reserves where weeding is carried out.
30526		habitat	eng	A pioneer species.
30526		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor outside managed areas.
30527		population	eng	No specimens have been found since 1976.
30528		conservation	eng	The remaining subpopulations of this species are now managed in reserves, which should halt previous declines in numbers.
30528		population	eng	The subpopulations are very small and confined to a few tiny islands.
30530		conservation	eng	<em>In-situ</em> conservation at Conservation Management Area at Petrin Natural Reserve
30530		habitat	eng	High altitude, lateritic and marshy soil.
30530		population	eng	The total population is recorded at less than 50 individuals. It was thought to be extinct but recently rediscovered at Petrin.
30531		conservation	eng	An 8 ha conservation area has now been designated in the Savanne range.
30531		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30531		population	eng	Just five individuals appear to remain of treelet, three in the Savanne range, and single plants have been recently discovered at Macchabe and Mt Cocotte. No flowering or seeding individuals have been observed and propagation has not been possible.
30532		conservation	eng	Many localities are within protected areas, where management is directed towards conservation of this and other species.
30532		distribution	eng	Restricted to the western and central highlands of Tasmania; EOO calculated based on distribution of herbarium specimens is 5,488 km², AOO 1,000 km².
30532		habitat	eng	Dwarfed montane forest and temperate rain forest, often associated with the other species of <em>Athrotaxis</em>.
30532		population	eng	It is rarely encountered and occurs only in association with one or other of the latter two species. Populations are usually very small and consist of only a few individuals each.
30532		threats	eng	Fire has reduced the AOO of all species of <em>Athrotaxis</em>. In addition, in certain areas there is infestation with <em>Phytophtera</em> sp. (fungus) that has killed <em>Athrotaxis</em> and which could well spread to other areas if not managed or controlled. The species is extremely slow growing and may live up to 1,300 years. This species and its congeners are in cultivation as ornamentals and in arboreta, but there is no exploitation of wild growing populations.
30533		distribution	eng	Southern Tasmania.
30533		population	eng	Only four stands survive, largely on private land. Calverts Hill harbours the largest subpopulation of 2,000 trees. East Risdon Nature Reserve has fewer than 20 trees and the other subpopulations are small and near roads.
30533		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion is the main reason for the species' decline.
30534		distribution	eng	Found in an area between Wentworth Falls and Katoomba Falls in the Blue Mountains.
30534		habitat	eng	A dwarf conifer, usually decumbent, confined to moist montane scrub.
30534		population	eng	A count has been made of 7 populations containing 455 individuals. The genus contains only one other species, which is endemic to Tasmania.
30534		threats	eng	Populations are declining because of a number of factors, including competition with invasive plants and poor recruitment prospects on the sheltered unstable cliffs and waterfall ledges where the species occurs. Urban development is also threatening the catchment area of the site.
30535		conservation	eng	A large percentage of the forests is now protected.
30535		habitat	eng	Scattered in montane rainforest.
30535		threats	eng	Wherever logging is allowed exploitation has been very heavy and populations have declined.
30536		conservation	eng	70% of the forests are now protected.
30536		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
30536		population	eng	As with <em>A. atropurpurea</em>, this timber species is found in low densities in localized forests.
30536		threats	eng	Logging is heavy where the forest is unprotected. Before 1985 the population had been halved by logging.
30537		habitat	eng	A good colonizer in regenerating forest.
30537		population	eng	A widespread species.
30537		threats	eng	It is used for timber.
30538		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea, in Milne Bay Province. The Queensland subpopulation is considered threatened but more up-to-date information is required to consolidate the present IUCN category.
30538		habitat	eng	This tree is thought to be restricted to coastal rainforest.
30538		population	eng	Very few, if any, mature individuals remain.
30538		threats	eng	It was heavily exploited in the early days of colonisation and harvested continually throughout the Second World War. It is poor at regenerating and has now become rare in Papua New Guinea.
30539		conservation	eng	The trees on Ile aux Aigrettes are now benefiting from a number of protective measures, such as the eradication of exotic plants and rats.
30539		population	eng	Once a dominant coastal ebony, the species is now reduced to fewer than 10 individuals on the mainland and a larger viable population on Ile aux Aigrettes, a coral island off the east coast.
30539		threats	eng	It was heavily harvested in the past for timber and firewood.
30540		habitat	eng	Generally found on exposed ridges and plateaux.
30540		population	eng	The species is relatively common where it occurs in the south-west, less so in the northern ranges.
30540		threats	eng	Although the trees fruit regularly and in abundance, regeneration appears to be poor and populations are declining where the habitat is susceptible to degradation.
30541		conservation	eng	Ex-situ conservation is already in practice and in-situ conservation should be initiated.
30541		distribution	eng	It was known from a single individual in Magenta, but W. Strahm found a new (small although probably less than 50 individuals) population at Chamarel and also additional trees in the BR Gorges, Yemen, and the Piton du Fouge.
30541		population	eng	Probably more than 50 individuals. However, it is growing in degraded habitat and has ceased regenerating, and must have been more widespread before in areas which have been cut down for sugarcane and/or become degraded land.
30541		threats	eng	Invasive competitors and sugarcane plantations.
30542		conservation	eng	Some small populations occur inside protected areas.
30542		distribution	eng	Previously known only from Tasmania, the species has been recently found in New South Wales (NSW), although this could be a distinct taxon.
30542		habitat	eng	The Tasmanian populations are restricted to a small area of sclerophyllous scrubland.
30542		population	eng	In Tasmania, populations are confined to a small area (<100 km²) along the north-east coast and about 12,000 mature trees have been counted in NSW along intermittent streams.
30542		threats	eng	Fires and conversion of the habitat to agriculture are the main threats to the species.
30543		distribution	eng	Occurring as an occasional species in the south-west and lower eastern mountain ranges.
30543		population	eng	Fewer than 250 adult trees are believed to exist.
30543		threats	eng	Browsing of the seedlings by exotic deer is limiting regeneration.
30544		conservation	eng	Individuals in Le Florin Nature Reserve are fenced and weeded of exotic invasives.
30544		habitat	eng	They are scattered  in scrub forest or rainforest in Macchabe, Mare Longue Plateau and Brise Fer Ridge.
30544		population	eng	Fewer than 20 adult trees are known but there are estimated to be more.
30544		threats	eng	No natural regeneration is apparent.
30545		conservation	eng	Some populations, e.g., in Florin and Le Petrin Nature Reserves, are fenced and weeded of invasive species.
30545		distribution	eng	South-west Mauritius. Information on the population in Réunion has yet to be gathered.
30545		habitat	eng	Generally a small shrub, but occasionally a tree, the species is scattered throughout scrub and transitional forest.
30545		threats	eng	Regeneration is observed to be poor.
30546		conservation	eng	Le Florin and Le Petrin Nature Reserves, which hold small subpopulations, are fenced and weeded.
30546		distribution	eng	Mare Longue Plateau, Macchabe, Mt Cocotte and Brise Fer in the south-west.
30546		habitat	eng	Upland scrub and heathland.
30546		population	eng	An estimate of fewer than 250 individuals exist.
30546		threats	eng	Most areas are heavily invaded by exotic species and no regeneration is apparent
30547		conservation	eng	Some colonies are recorded from managed nature reserves.
30547		distribution	eng	Mauritius and Réunion.
30547		population	eng	The Mauritian subpopulation is estimated to number less than 50 individuals. Occurrences are known from Macchabe, Brise Fer, Mt Cocotte, Savanne and Mt Pouce. Information on the Réunion subpopulation is lacking.
30547		threats	eng	The main cause of population decline has been the exploitation of tree ferns, <em>Cyathea borbonica</em> and <em>C. excelsa</em>, on which the species appears to depend as a substrate for regeneration.
30548		distribution	eng	Mostly in the south-west but also on the east coast and eastern mountain ranges.
30548		habitat	eng	A likely timber of past centuries this species is commonly found in dry deciduous lowland forest.
30548		population	eng	In many places the populations are reduced to scattered individuals or small subpopulations.
30548		threats	eng	Regeneration appears to be poor because of the invasion of exotic plants and also exotic animals which destroy the seeds.
30549		distribution	eng	Confined to the south-west and a few localities in the east.
30549		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist evergreen submontane forest.
30549		threats	eng	Regeneration is observed to be poor, especially in areas to which exotic species have spread.
30550		conservation	eng	The species has not yet become established in <em>ex situ</em> collections.
30550		distribution	eng	Occurs in the south-west and has also recently been found in northern and eastern ranges.
30550		habitat	eng	The species occurs in upland moist evergreen forest in the mountains.
30550		population	eng	The population is estimated to be very small, possibly numbering less than 10 individuals.
30550		threats	eng	Regeneration is rarely apparent and is adversely affected by the spread of exotic invasives, especially in the north.
30551		distribution	eng	Found mainly in the south-west, but also in the eastern and northern ranges. As field surveys are carried out, the species continues to be found in new locations.
30551		habitat	eng	An occasional species of upland moist evergreen forest.
30551		threats	eng	Regeneration is not good and is hampered, especially in the north, by invasive plants.
30552		distribution	eng	South-west and eastern mountain ranges.
30552		habitat	eng	This canopy tree forms a dominant component of lowland evergreen forest and upland rainforest.
30552		threats	eng	The habitat is declining and regeneration is poor in areas which are degraded.
30553		conservation	eng	Trees are being closely monitored.
30553		habitat	eng	Degraded cloud forest.
30553		population	eng	Fewer than 10 dwarfed trees are found close to an Indian temple in the Grand Bassin.
30554		conservation	eng	<em>In-situ</em> conservation is already in practice.
30554		habitat	eng	Fruits can develop with no viable seeds or no seeds at all.
30554		population	eng	A tree, reaching 15 m in height. Population is less than 100 (population estimate, in March 1997, is 51 individuals): one at Henrietta; two at Deux Mamelles; more than 50 individuals have been found in Brise-Fer.
30554		threats	eng	Invasives competitors, and predators like rats and monkeys, intrinsic factors such as poor reproduction.
30556		distribution	eng	Mauritius and Réunion.
30556		habitat	eng	Individuals are confined to extremely wet areas in forest in the south-west uplands.
30556		population	eng	The Mauritian subpopulation consists of fewer than 10 individuals, only three of which have been identified with complete confidence. There is no available information on the population which apparently exists on Réunion
30557		conservation	eng	Trees are being closely monitored.
30557		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30557		population	eng	A species which has only recently been rediscovered since the 1960s, when the single known individual died. A total of two trees have been found in the last two years in a single locality of on the southern slopes of Mt Cocotte.
30558		distribution	eng	In Mauritius occurrences are known in Simonet and Morne Seche. Information on the Réunion population is required.
30558		habitat	eng	Seasonal forest.
30558		population	eng	In Mauritius, around 50 individuals have been counted and regeneration is observed to be occasional.
30559		population	eng	On Mauritius a population of fewer than 50 adult trees is estimated to exist in fragmented subpopulations in Trou du Douce on the east coast and Brise Fer Mt in the south-west. More information is needed on the populations elsewhere.
30559		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and the spread of invasive species appear to be limiting regeneration.
30560		conservation	eng	The hybrid of cultivated forms of this species and <em>T. ebenus</em> is extremely vigorous and may provide the only chance of survival for this part of the gene pool.   <br/>The Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>T. erythroxylon</em> puts forward three recovery plan objectives, the aim of these objectives is to re-establish a viable population in nature.  The objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. to maintain all existing stock in local and international collections; <br/>2. to maintain a programme of cross-pollinations that minimises inbreeding; and <br/>3. to manage all planting programmes.
30560		habitat	eng	The Redwood grew at mid elevations (500–750 m) in what historically was moist woodland within the range of both cabbage tree and moist gumwood woodlands. Formerly abundant under the Central Ridge and in Gullies on the Central Ridge.
30560		population	eng	The Redwood soon became heavily exploited for its excellent timber and its bark which, like that of the Ebony, was used for tanning hides, after the settlement of the Island and had already become extremely rare by 1718.  <br/>Further losses of Redwoods were likely when flax plantations were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By the mid 20th century only one redwood survived in Peak Gut. This single tree is the source of all the Redwoods we know today.
30560		threats	eng	Inbreeding depression and a depauperate gene pool are manifest in the poor growth and high mortality of cultivated specimens.
30561		distribution	eng	A dwarf ebony, the identity of which has been confused with <em>T. ebenus</em> for the past 170 years. It probably occurred as a small shrub in arid areas of the north under the rain shadow of the central ridge. The genus is made up of just three species endemic to St Helena, two of which are extinct in the wild.
30561		population	eng	The last sighting of it was recorded in 1771.
30562		conservation	eng	The main populations are found within protected areas.
30562		distribution	eng	Known only from the center and east of Panama.
30562		habitat	eng	The species occurs in moist evergreen forest up to 1,000 m.
30562		threats	eng	Outside protected areas the habitat is susceptible to clearance and logging.
30563		distribution	eng	The species is known from a few subpopulations in the provinces of Los Santos and Bocas del Toro. There may be other occurrences, possibly in Costa Rica.
30563		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland evergreen forest.
30563		threats	eng	No specific protection or conservation measures are in place and the habitat is susceptible to logging and clearing in many areas.
30564		conservation	eng	It is possible that further populations remain to be found.
30564		distribution	eng	Small subpopulations exist in the Bocas del Toro in Panama, and in Sixaola in Costa Rica, covering a combined area of approximately 10,000 km².
30564		habitat	eng	Occur in primary forest, principally along streams.
30564		threats	eng	The locations are affected by increasing habitat clearance and logging.
30565		conservation	eng	The entire population is contained within protected areas.
30565		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Panama side of the Colombia-Panama border.
30565		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland evergreen rainforest.
30565		population	eng	Although the entire population is contained within protected areas, it is restricted in range and numbers, particularly of larger individuals.
30566		distribution	eng	The type collection for this species was supposedly taken from the province of Daríen but the herbarium specimen lacks details on the specific locality and the collection number. There has also been a claim that the specimen originated from Cabo Corrientes in Colombia.
30567		distribution	eng	Its range extends from Costa Rica  through Panama to the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, close to the border with Colombia. In Panama most of the collections originate from Chiriquí.
30567		habitat	eng	A species of rainforest or cloud forest, occurring from low altitude to 2,000 m.
30567		threats	eng	Only a few subpopulations are in protected areas and elsewhere the species is threatened by logging and burning.
30568		distribution	eng	In Panama the species is known only from the type collection made in 1940. It is reported from the mountains of Alajuela in Costa Rica, but there is no additional information on this population.
30568		population	eng	Despite considerable botanical activity in the area, it has not been found at the type locality in Panama again. Field investigations are needed to determine whether the species still exists or whether it is a synonym of <em>S. sphaerocoma</em>.
30569		conservation	eng	The only population occurs in a National Park.
30569		distribution	eng	It occurs in the Altos de Campana National Park.
30569		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest between 800 and 900 m.
30569		population	eng	A single population is known. Attempts to locate it outside of the park have been unsuccessful.
30570		conservation	eng	It is possible that there are Subpopulations in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and Darién National Park, which would improve the species' status.
30570		distribution	eng	The few collections made all come from the same area on a highway from El Llano to Cartí.
30570		habitat	eng	Trees are found within deciduous rainforest between 250 and 400 m.
30570		threats	eng	In recent years there has been much habitat clearance.
30571		distribution	eng	In Panama, the species is recorded as locally common around the base of the mountains in Puerto Obaldia in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, near the Colombian border, and from the north-east of Darién Province. It is more widely distributed on the Pacific coast and in Antioquia in Colombia, although these subpopulations are, apparently, not large. The whole area is not well studied botanically and it is possible the species is more widespread.
30571		threats	eng	There is little human impact, although the cultivation of marijuana is increasing.
30572		conservation	eng	There is a protected population within the Darién National Park.
30572		distribution	eng	Originally known only from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and Darién near the border with Colombia, the species has now been collected from Veraguas, in central Panama. Future collecting may reveal the species in between these areas. Only two species exist in the genus.
30572		population	eng	Subpopulations are few and small.
30572		threats	eng	The habitat is frequently cleared for settlements, agriculture and ranching.
30573		conservation	eng	The major part of the range is contained within protected areas.
30573		distribution	eng	Recorded from the provinces of Colón and Panamá, mainly in the central region of Panama and slightly to the east.
30573		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rainforest up to 1,000 m.
30573		threats	eng	Outside protected areas the species occurs very rarely and is under severe threat from habitat clearance.
30574		conservation	eng	Only a small part of the population is protected within national parks.
30574		distribution	eng	Endemic to Panama, the species is known from a few collections taken within an area stretching from the center of the country to the Colombian border.
30574		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
30574		threats	eng	It is not common and in most parts of its range the habitat is declining because of the increasing settlement of the land, ranching and agriculture.
30575		distribution	eng	The species has not been recorded in Panama since it was first collected in 1968. It is known from various collections in Nicaragua and Costa Rica and has been reported from Colombia. In Nicaragua it appears to be relatively common but generally confined to forest habitats.
30575		threats	eng	Forest habitats are subject to increasing human disturbance.
30576		conservation	eng	There are populations within protected areas.
30576		distribution	eng	Known only from Panama, the species is reported from four provinces, from the border with Costa Rica to the center-east of the country.
30576		habitat	eng	Occurring in forest types below 500 m.
30576		threats	eng	Populations in many parts of the species' range have been strongly affected by encroaching agriculture, cattle ranching and increasing settlement.
30577		distribution	eng	The species occurs along the Atlantic slopes of Panama and in Limón and La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica.
30577		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest.
30577		population	eng	Populations are noted to be large, healthy and for the most part unthreatened.
30578		distribution	eng	Subpopulations in Panama are widespread on the Atlantic side of the provinces of Veraguas and Bocas del Toro. The species is also principally found on the Atlantic side of Costa Rica.
30578		population	eng	Although numbers are small, the regenerative capacity of the species appears to be good.
30578		threats	eng	New roads have been built into Bocas del Toro, which have opened up new areas for settlement and logging.
30579		distribution	eng	The few reports of the species in Panama indicate that it is uncommon and restricted to a narrow range, occurring in the Canal area and in the provinces of Panamá and Colón. In Colombia it is known from Cartagena and Sucre, where it appears to be rare. The larger Venezuelan population is recorded under the genus <em>Tricera</em>. There are further suggestions of conspecific taxa occurring in the Caribbean.
30580		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type collection in San Blas. The specimen is not complete and was probably described erroneously as a separate species from <em>C. filipes</em>, which occurs widely in the same area.
30581		conservation	eng	Forest is protected within the national parks of Chagres and Portobelo.
30581		distribution	eng	A small tree, known from very few collections taken from a small area to the north-east of the Panama Canal.
30581		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
30581		population	eng	Occurrences are evidently rare, but it is possible further exploration will uncover additional localities.
30581		threats	eng	The area has suffered much deforestation.
30582		conservation	eng	There is a possibility that there are further populations occur in Chagres National Park in south-east Colón and around the Canal.
30582		distribution	eng	All collections of this species come from a small area to the north-east of Panamá City.
30582		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest.
30582		threats	eng	The populations are small and strongly affected by logging and other activities.
30583		distribution	eng	Originally collected from Coclé in 1941 and identified as <em>C. baducca</em>, the specimen was redescribed as a new species, <em>C. uniflora</em>.
30583		population	eng	No recent collections have been made and there is insufficient evidence to confirm the taxonomy.
30584		distribution	eng	The type specimen was found in Pinogana District in Darién. The area, until now, has been difficult to access and is little studied. A second specimen came from Antioquia in Colombia in 1945.
30584		population	eng	A poorly known plant, which has been collected just twice.
30585		conservation	eng	Most of the high-altitude locations are protected.
30585		distribution	eng	In Panama, the species appears to be at the limits of its range, occurring only rarely in Chiriquí. In other Central American countries the species is widespread in lowland evergreen rainforest between 1,000 and 2,500 m.
30585		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest between 1,000 and 2,500 m.
30586		conservation	eng	Cerro Jefe is contained within Chagres National Park.
30586		distribution	eng	Only three collections of this species exist: one from Cerro Colorado and two from Cerro Jefe.
30586		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30586		threats	eng	Mining for copper and gold threatens the subpopulation in Cerro Colorado.
30587		distribution	eng	The species appears to be known only from the type specimen, collected in Progresso in Chiriquí in the first half of the century, although it possibly occurs in the Golfo Dulce area in Costa Rica. Additional specimens originally recorded as this species from other parts of Panama have since been identified as <em>Senefeldera testiculata</em>.
30587		population	eng	It is not known whether the species is now extinct.
30588		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen, it is uncertain whether the species is extinct or whether it has been incorrectly described as a separate taxon from <em>P. arborea</em>, which also occurs in the area. No specimens have been collected since 1941.
30589		distribution	eng	The species appears to be confined to the Atlantic side of three provinces.
30589		habitat	eng	Occurring chiefly along forested riversides.
30589		population	eng	The few living specimens known are sparsely scattered in forest that is not well studied.
30589		threats	eng	The forest is disappearing through encroaching agriculture and settlements.
30590		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a narrow strip of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest running the length of the province of Darién. A large part of the subpopulation runs close to the border with, and is likely to extend into, Colombia.
30590		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.
30590		threats	eng	All known subpopulations are within Darién National Park, where they are officially protected but under some threat from gold mining and localised logging.
30591		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are protected in national parks
30591		distribution	eng	It is recorded from localities throughout Panama.
30591		habitat	eng	Largely growing epiphytically, the species is scattered diffusely in areas of moist forest from low elevation to 1,800 m.
30591		threats	eng	Some subpopulations are seriously exposed to increasing habitat clearance for settlement and agriculture.
30592		conservation	eng	There are small subpopulations in Volcán Barú and Chagres National Parks and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
30592		distribution	eng	Principally known from the center-north of Panama, the species continues to be in found new sites, increasing its range so that it almost stretches from the border with Costa Rica to the border with Colombia.
30592		habitat	eng	It occurs almost exclusively in undisturbed rainforest up to 1,200 m.
30592		population	eng	No record of the species has been made in either of the latter countries so far.
30592		threats	eng	Outside protected areas the habitat is frequently threatened by settlement, logging and extensive agriculture.
30593		distribution	eng	At present, the species is known only from the Caribbean coast in Bocas del Toro and Colón.
30593		habitat	eng	It is scattered in lowland semi-evergreen or evergreen forest.
30593		population	eng	The area is not well explored but available information suggests the species is uncommon.
30593		threats	eng	A small subpopulation in Santa Rita, Colón, is in grave danger of being cut down.
30594		conservation	eng	Several of the localities are within protected areas.
30594		distribution	eng	The species ranges from the Canal region in Panama to an area just over the border with Colombia in the Chocó.
30594		habitat	eng	Occurring in rainforest from low elevation to 1,500 m.
30594		population	eng	Population numbers are not large.
30594		threats	eng	Increasing agriculture, settlement and logging threaten areas of unprotected forest.
30596		distribution	eng	Found in the Cerro Jefe and Cerro Azul, the first of which is completely contained within the boundaries of Chagres National Park and the second only partially covered.
30596		habitat	eng	A species of cloud forest, restricted to a small altitudinal range.
30596		population	eng	It appears to be fairly common and regenerating well in localities within the park.
30596		threats	eng	In the Cerro Azul, unprotected forest is being lost because of the increasing settlement of the area and various industrial developments.
30597		distribution	eng	Confined to the Chiriquí Highlands, this species is poorly understood. Undetermined specimens from Costa Rica may also represent this taxon.
30597		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30598		distribution	eng	The species is known solely from the easternmost parts of the Cordillera de Talamanca, extending into the Chiriquí highlands in Panama.
30598		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane elfin forest or drier sites at higher elevations.
30599		population	eng	A widespread timber species which has suffered serious population declines most particularly in Central America and Brazil. However, is reported to still be common in Suriname (P. Teunissen pers. comm. 2006).
30599		threats	eng	The timber is overexploitated and the species suffers from habitat loss.
30600		conservation	eng	Almost every population is contained within a protected area, including one in Soberanía National Park.
30600		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Barro Colorado Island (BCI) and the surrounding area.
30600		habitat	eng	Occurring in semi-deciduous rainforest on seasonally flooded plains.
30600		population	eng	The populations are small
30600		threats	eng	Only a population on the Gigante Peninsula at the south of BCI is under serious pressure because of the expanding human population.
30601		distribution	eng	In Panama, the species is known from forest along the highway running from El Llano to Carti-Tupile in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve. It is easily confused with <em>G. grandibracteata</em>, which may explain why there have been no recent collections in this region. The species has also been identified from recent collections in Antioquia in Colombia, and in Darién in Panama.
30601		threats	eng	The forest is rapidly disappearing and being colonised by campesinos.
30602		conservation	eng	A small part of the Panamanian population is found in Darién National Park.
30602		distribution	eng	At present, the species is known from three isolated localities in Darién in Panama, and from localities in Colombia and Peru.
30602		habitat	eng	It occurs, occasionally commonly, in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest up to 600 m.
30602		threats	eng	Outside Darién National Park the habitat is exposed to increasing agriculture and settlement.
30603		conservation	eng	Populations in Darién National Park appear to be slightly more common and well protected.
30603		distribution	eng	Known only from the province of Darién, the species is uncommon and restricted to small groups of trees. Also recorded in Colombia, the species occurs equally infrequently in the Valle del Cauca and the Chocó.
30603		habitat	eng	Principally occurring in open woodlands at river edges.
30604		distribution	eng	Endemic to Panama, the species ranges from Coclé towards the east, to Darién and San Blas.
30604		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, sometimes inundated forest.
30604		population	eng	It occurs in low numbers. Only in the Canal area does the species occur a little more frequently.
30604		threats	eng	Seedlings are notably scarce, indicating that regeneration may be poor.
30605		distribution	eng	Although for many years the species was thought to be endemic to Panama, it is now known to range from Nicaragua to Peru.
30605		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, often at the edges of roads and in secondary forest.
30605		threats	eng	In Panama and Costa Rica, and probably in other countries, trees are found only in small numbers outside protected areas.
30606		conservation	eng	It is most common in the Canal area, where it occurs in a number of protected areas.
30606		distribution	eng	So far the species has been found only in Panama.
30606		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
30606		population	eng	It occurs, nowhere in abundance.
30606		threats	eng	The larger part of its distribution coincides with areas experiencing an influx of people and increasing agricultural and farming activities.
30607		conservation	eng	Occurs in Darién National Park.
30607		distribution	eng	In Panama, the species is known from a few forest localities in Darién. Recent reports indicate the species also exists in the Chocó and Antioquia in Colombia.
30607		population	eng	It doesn't appear to be common at any of the known sites.
30607		threats	eng	Where the habitat is unprotected it suffers increasing encroachment.
30608		conservation	eng	Protected by law in Costa Rica.
30608		distribution	eng	In Panama, this species is only known from Valle de Antón in Coclé. In Costa Rica it is known from the Cordillera de Tilarán in Alajuela.
30608		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30608		population	eng	In Panama, this species appears to be very scarce. However, it is more common in Costa Rica where it less affected by external pressures.
30608		threats	eng	Industrial developments and other human activities in Panama.
30609		conservation	eng	Protected in national park.
30609		distribution	eng	Until recently the species was known only from the type specimen collected on a 1911 expedition to Chiriquí. Last year the species was identified on the Isla de Coiba in Coiba National Park, where it occurs commonly.
30609		habitat	eng	Rainforest along beaches.
30610		distribution	eng	Although, <em>L. guatemalensis</em> extends from Mexico to Panama, var. <em>proteranthus</em> has been collected only once, from Coclé in Panama.
30610		population	eng	There have been no reports of the taxon for almost 90 years and it is possible that it is now extinct.
30611		distribution	eng	The species is known from a collection taken from the province of Panamá.
30611		population	eng	No further records of the species have been made since the type collection.
30612		population	eng	This species was described from a collection made in 1908. No reports of the species have been made since.
30613		distribution	eng	Originally known only from a few records, all from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, in recent years the species has also been found in the Chocó, Valle del Cauca and Antioquia in Colombia. There is a possibility that there are subpopulations in similar forest in Darién Province, Panama.
30613		population	eng	Where it is known, the species is uncommon.
30613		threats	eng	Under some pressure of habitat loss, although the area remains relatively under developed.
30614		distribution	eng	Collected only twice from the provinces of Chiriquí and Coclé.
30614		population	eng	The species and its status are very poorly known.
30615		distribution	eng	A species which is known only from two localities, Isla Colón and Valle del Agua, in Bocas del Toro.
30615		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen to semi-evergreen rainforest.
30615		population	eng	Occurs fairly commonly at the known localities.
30615		threats	eng	There are some threats from logging and encroaching settlements and agriculture.
30616		conservation	eng	Most of the subpopulations in Cerro Jefe are protected within Chagres National Park.
30616		distribution	eng	Although the species is known from various sites in Panama and north Colombia, this subspecies is considered endemic to the Cordillera de Cerro Jefe, to the north-east of Panamá city. It is uncommon and in Cerro Azul has experienced considerable habitat loss.
30616		threats	eng	Habitat loss through urban and industrial development.
30617		distribution	eng	Found in the surroundings of Valle de Antón in Coclé, and in the mountains between the provinces of Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí, including the Fortuna Forest Reserve.
30617		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species, known only from localities, between 600 and 1,200 m.
30617		population	eng	In primary areas it can be quite common, but it is generally rare elsewhere.
30617		threats	eng	There is a gradual influx of settlers into these areas and increasing in tourism is increasing.
30618		conservation	eng	In parts of the range the habitat continues to be affected by an influx of settlers and increasing agriculture and pastoralism.
30618		distribution	eng	Central Panama.
30618		habitat	eng	It has been found only in primary or old secondary forest between 700 and 1000 m.
30618		population	eng	The few records of the species suggest it is very rare and scattered.
30618		threats	eng	In parts of the range the habitat continues to be affected by an influx of settlers and increasing agriculture and pastoralism.
30619		distribution	eng	In Panama the species occurs in the high mountains of Chiriquí, Bocas del Toro and Veraguas Provinces. TROPICOS records the species from Honduras but nothing more is known about this occurrence.
30619		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 1,500 and 2,300 m.
30619		population	eng	It appears to be more or less common in Panama.
30619		threats	eng	The area is influenced by human activities and ranching.
30620		conservation	eng	Also found within national park boundaries.
30620		distribution	eng	For a short period, this cloud forest species was known only from the mountains of Chiriquí. Subpopulations have now been found in Bocas del Toro and the high mountains in the Canal region. There are occurrences in Volcán Barú and La Amistad National Parks, one within 3 km of the border with Costa Rica.
30621		conservation	eng	Only part of the total population is contained within Barú National Park.
30621		distribution	eng	Up to the present, the species has been found only in Chiriquí around Volcán Barú, where it occurs in the highest part of the country.
30621		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 1,800 and 3,300 m.
30621		threats	eng	There are tourism and agricultural developments in the area which may affect certain populations.
30622		conservation	eng	Mostly found within protected areas.
30622		distribution	eng	Originally known only from Cerro Jefe, to the north-east of Panamá city, the species has now been reported from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and from Darién Province in Panama, and also Valle del Cauca and the Chocó in Colombia.
30622		habitat	eng	It is sparsely scattered in lowland, often inundated, forest.
30622		threats	eng	Unprotected forest is exposed to logging and development.
30623		distribution	eng	Occurring fairly commonly in the Valle de Antón area in Coclé and in populations of just a few individuals from Darién Province, close to the Colombian border in Panama, and in Puntarenas in Costa Rica. Although it is possible larger populations will be discovered, the species is poorly known in the latter two areas.
30623		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
30623		threats	eng	Under threat of habitat loss.
30624		distribution	eng	The Panamanian form of a widely distributed species. It occurs relatively commonly in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, including Puerto Obaldía on the border with Colombia. Other collections from Colón, Bocas del Toro and Darién have not been identified down to the subspecies level.
30625		conservation	eng	A small part of the species range is contained within protected areas.
30625		distribution	eng	In Panama found from the Canal area to Darién. More information is needed on the population status in Colombia.
30625		habitat	eng	In Panama the species occurs in moist forest, woodland and scrub habitats.
30625		population	eng	Subpopulations in Panama are small and dispersed and there are few young individuals.
30626		distribution	eng	Occurring in Boquete in the province of Chiriquí.
30626		population	eng	The species has been collected only twice, although the area has been relatively well studied. There is not enough information to categorise the species as extinct and it is possible that more recent collections have been identified under a different species name.
30627		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the vicinity of the highway which runs from El Llano to Cartí in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
30627		population	eng	Recorded very rarely. The area has been well covered botanically and the low number of collections of the species is a reasonable indication of its scarcity.
30627		threats	eng	In recent years the major part of the forest here has been cleared and the land colonised by campesinos.
30628		distribution	eng	Recorded from the provinces of Panamá and Colón and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, restricted to a small range where the three zones meet.
30628		habitat	eng	Lowland seasonal rainforest.
30628		population	eng	A rare species.
30628		threats	eng	There is considerable impact from human activities within this area and the lowland seasonal rainforest habitat is severely reduced in extent.
30629		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only once from the province of Coclé.
30629		population	eng	No further records have been made since the type collection, but many more collections from the family await identification.
30630		conservation	eng	It is a relatively common plant within a restricted area of Corcovado National Park in Puntarenas, Costa Rica. This is the only population which is protected.
30630		distribution	eng	In Panama the species is known only from the Cordillera Central in the province of Chiriquí.
30630		habitat	eng	It occurs sparsely in various open forest and scrub types up to 1,900 m, including areas opened up by ranching.
30631		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen dated 1940, the species was collected from an area which is now a banana plantation. However, it is probable that the taxon represents a variation of another species.
30632		conservation	eng	Although at present unprotected, the area is being considered for designation as a protected area.
30632		distribution	eng	All collections of the species come from two neighbouring localities in the Valle de Antón in Coclé Province.
30632		habitat	eng	It is a relatively common component of undisturbed cloud forest between 600 and 1,000 m.
30632		threats	eng	This area of forest is gradually disappearing through encroachment.
30633		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only once from the province of Chiriquí in 1940.
30634		conservation	eng	It is supposed that the species will be found in neighbouring protected areas, Volcán Barú National Park and Fortuna Forest Reserve.
30634		distribution	eng	Endemic to the mountains of Chiriquí Province.
30634		habitat	eng	Confined to a small area of forest between 800 and 1,100 m.
30634		population	eng	The species appears to be fairly frequent.
30634		threats	eng	The area is becoming extensively converted to agriculture and pastoralism.
30635		distribution	eng	The species exists in sparsely scattered subpopulations, except in Chiriquí Province, Panama, where it appears to be relatively common. There are also records of occurrences in Coto Brus in Costa Rica and in the Chocó in Colombia.
30635		habitat	eng	Occurring in various forest types over a wide altitudinal range.
30635		threats	eng	In Santa Rita, Colón Province, Panama, the subpopulation is threatened by extensive forest clearance.
30636		conservation	eng	There are populations recorded in Fortuna Forest Reserve and Volcán Barú National Park.
30636		distribution	eng	Originally known only from the type collection from Cerro Hoqueta, the species name has now been attached to a number of previously unidentified herbarium collections from the same region.
30636		habitat	eng	The species occurs between 2,000 and 2,300 m in cloud forest.
30637		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Cordillera Central, the species is known only from a few records, all originating from high-altitude forest in the province of Chiriquí.
30637		habitat	eng	High-altitude forest.
30637		population	eng	It is possible the species range is more extensive but current information suggests the species is rare and restricted in range.
30638		distribution	eng	The species is known from various localities in the Cordillera Central and the mountains which divide the provinces of Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro.
30638		habitat	eng	Occurring in cloud forest above 1,500 m.
30638		threats	eng	It occurs in Volcán Barú National Park and a small part in the south-east of La Amistad National Park.
30639		conservation	eng	The forest is relatively well protected. Occurrences are also recorded in Fortuna Forest Reserve in Chiriquí and Valle de Antón in Coclé.
30639		distribution	eng	The species is known from two main areas, from Cerro Jefe in Chagres National Park and from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
30639		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist evergreen forest between 700 and 1,500 m.
30639		population	eng	There are few collections but the forest is relatively extensive.
30640		distribution	eng	This species is described on the basis of three collections, all from south-west of Fort Sherman in the Canal area. Other <em>Calyptranthes</em> in the same region are identified as other species.
30641		population	eng	Known only from the type collection of 1938, the species remains poorly known. Other taxa of the same genus have been collected in the same area.
30642		conservation	eng	It is relatively well protected only in Darién National Park.
30642		distribution	eng	Known only from a few records, the species is endemic to areas in Darién Province.
30642		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon. There are no recent records of the species but much of the forest remains under-studied.
30642		threats	eng	Outside Darién National Park the threats of habitat clearance are great.
30643		conservation	eng	Most subpopulations are contained within protected areas.
30643		distribution	eng	Originally known from just Darién Province, the species now appears to have a sparse occurrence, ranging from Darién National Park up to the Canal area. Its distribution extends very close to the border with Colombia.
30643		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
30643		threats	eng	Outside protected areas habitat loss has been extensive.
30644		conservation	eng	Occurs in Altos de Campana National Park, where the subpopulation is well protected.
30644		distribution	eng	Collected from Valle de Antón in Coclé and more recently from the province of Panamá. Further investigation may reveal the species to be more widespread. There are several undetermined herbarium specimens, which may, prove identifiable to this species and a new record from Puntarenas indicates the species range extends into Costa Rica.
30644		habitat	eng	A species of mid-elevation rainforest.
30645		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of national parks. In recent years it has also been reported from Costa Rica in Corcovado National Park, where it appears to be common.
30645		distribution	eng	Well distributed in Panama, particularly in the Canal area.
30645		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
30646		population	eng	A doubtful species known only from the type specimen of 1950.
30647		conservation	eng	There are a number of occurrences in protected areas.
30647		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from various provinces in Panama.
30647		habitat	eng	Rainforest, generally at higher altitudes, but ranging from sea level to 2,200 m.
30647		population	eng	Common in places.
30647		threats	eng	Found also in areas heavily influenced by human activities.
30648		distribution	eng	A doubtful variant of the species, which is known only from a type specimen collected from Darién Province. It is the only record of the species in the province.
30649		distribution	eng	Collected from Bocas del Toro. The general area of collection has been little studied.
30649		population	eng	No new reports of the species have been made since the original collection was taken.
30650		habitat	eng	A species of lowland rainforest or semi-deciduous forest formations.
30651		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in Chiriquí.
30651		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from rainforest at about 275 m.
30652		conservation	eng	A population exists within Volcán Barú National Park.
30652		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the high mountains of Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro. Only a few collections exist, taken from a very restricted but perhaps insufficiently explored area.
30652		habitat	eng	Occurring in cloud forest between 1,000 and 2,100+ m.
30652		population	eng	Regeneration is observed to be poor.
30653		distribution	eng	A small tree, collected only from San Blás and Darién.
30653		habitat	eng	Various seasonal and non-seasonal lowland forest types.
30654		distribution	eng	This species has been found in several locations, ranging from north and west Colombia to Costa Rica.
30654		habitat	eng	An understorey tree in primary forest from sea level up to cloud forest.
30655		conservation	eng	Certain areas are protected within national parks.
30655		distribution	eng	Ranging from Costa Rica to Colombia. In Colombia the species distribution appears to be concentrated in the Chocó, especially the Urabá area.
30655		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest up to 1,500 m.
30655		population	eng	The species is relatively widespread. Populations in Panama are reported to be healthy. In Costa Rica the species is common at medium elevations.
30655		threats	eng	Certain areas are threatened with logging.
30657		conservation	eng	The largest populations are contained entirely within protected areas.
30657		distribution	eng	The largest populations are in the Cordillera de Talamanca between west Panama and east Costa Rica. Other smaller populations exist elsewhere, including one in the Volcán Mombacho in Nicaragua.
30657		habitat	eng	A species of evergreen moist montane forest or cloud forest.
30657		population	eng	In most sites the species is locally abundant.
30657		threats	eng	Unprotected forest is under some threat from logging and encroaching agriculture.
30658		conservation	eng	Most of the areas which the species occupies are under protection within national parks.
30658		habitat	eng	A species of high-altitude cloud forest, occurring between 2,000-3,000 m or higher.
30658		population	eng	Populations are rare and isolated. Regeneration appears to be good and large fruit crops are reported.
30658		threats	eng	There are increasing threats of habitat clearance for agriculture and logging.
30659		conservation	eng	All populations are within areas which receive some level of protection.
30659		distribution	eng	A more common species than <em>I. costaricensis</em>. Populations are also found below 1,000 m in Cerro Jefe and Cerro Campana in Panama. In Costa Rica, the species is reported to be abundant above 1,500 m.
30659		habitat	eng	Occurs in high-altitude cloud forest; sometimes also below 1,000 m.
30659		threats	eng	Despite this level of apparent protection, there still remain potential threats from logging and habitat clearance.
30660		conservation	eng	The entire range coincides with protected areas.
30660		habitat	eng	A species of cloud forest, occurring between 1,000 and 2,500 m.
30660		population	eng	Growing in small, restricted subpopulations.
30660		threats	eng	There are increasing threats of habitat logging and clearance.
30661		conservation	eng	Although deforestation has been extensive in the past, these areas are now given some degree of protection.
30661		distribution	eng	Occurring on Volcan Irazu and Cerro Chirripó, the species is restricted to an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
30661		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
30662		distribution	eng	A species of uncertain taxonomic status, found in the mountains of central Costa Rica in Alajuela. One collection from 1896 is cited from Volcan Poas.
30663		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
30663		distribution	eng	Although previously considered to be a Costa Rican endemic, it appears the species is also recorded in Mexico and Chiriquí in Panama and hence could be distributed throughout Central America.
30663		habitat	eng	Areas of moist and wet evergreen forest.
30663		population	eng	It is sparse in occurrence, usually found as isolated individuals. Little is known of the regenerative capacity of the species, although it does not appear to be strong.
30666		distribution	eng	Known from the type locality near Esquinas, where it was once said to be common, and also from Rincón.
30666		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
30667		distribution	eng	Found near La Palma de San Ramón. It is possible that the taxon represents a unusual form of <em>P. veraguasensis</em>.
30667		habitat	eng	The species is known only from an area of wet evergreen forest, occurring between 1,100 and 1,200 m.
30668		distribution	eng	Restricted to Limón and Cartago.
30668		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in montane rainforest between 450 and 1,400 m.
30668		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss have been severe.
30669		distribution	eng	Central Costa Rica.
30669		habitat	eng	A treelet, up to 2 m in height, confined to montane and cloud forest between 600 and 1,200 m.
30669		threats	eng	Only an estimated 1,037 km² of montane forest remain in Costa Rica.
30670		distribution	eng	Found on the Caribbean slopes of Costa Rica. Collections have been made at Cartago, Turialba and Alajuela, San Carlos.
30670		habitat	eng	A tree of wet evergreen forest between 500 and 1,100 m.
30671		habitat	eng	A species of dry to humid pine forest, at middle elevations.
30672		distribution	eng	Recorded only from a single site, near Limón.
30672		habitat	eng	The species occurs in Atlantic coastal forest.
30672		threats	eng	The area was once covered with lowland rainforest but is now largely disturbed.
30673		distribution	eng	Confined to two forest refugia in Chiriquí and Darién in Panama and also apparently in Costa Rica.
30673		habitat	eng	This species occurs over a wide altitudinal range, in the understorey of lowland forest and as an epiphyte in cloud forest.
30674		habitat	eng	Atlantic lowlands in areas of varying humidity.
30674		population	eng	Subpopulations are small and scattered.
30674		threats	eng	The habitat continues to diminish through conversion to agriculture.
30675		distribution	eng	It is known mainly from the populations in Guatemala but also occurs in the northern mountains of Chiapas, where the species is considered to be vulnerable.
30675		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree, occurring in oak forest and mesophyllous formations.
30676		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Chiapas Highlands in Mexico and in mountainous parts of Guatemala.
30676		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane forest in oak and mesophyllous formations, between 2,000 and 2,300 m.
30676		population	eng	The subpopulation in Mexico is considered Endangered.
30677		distribution	eng	A little-known species. The only recent record from El Salvador is from Monte Cristo.
30677		habitat	eng	The species occurs in cloud forest to 1,500 m.
30678		distribution	eng	Widely distributed with the largest subpopulations occurring in Colombia. It is found throughout Panama but is common only in protected areas.
30678		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
30679		distribution	eng	It was originally only known from Panama but has since been reported from as far north as the south of Mexico.
30679		habitat	eng	A species of Central American lowland evergreen rainforest.
30679		population	eng	In Panama a scarce occurrence and a fairly restricted range in areas that are affected by an increasing human activities, have led to the species being considered nationally threatened.
30679		threats	eng	Increased human activities.
30680		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type collection, gathered in 1927 from Valle de Talamanca, Bocas del Toro. TROPICOS records the species in Antioquia in Colombia but no further details are known.
30681		distribution	eng	Known only from Pacora, in Panamá Province, the species has not been collected since it was first discovered, despite the area being relatively well explored. A revision of the genus suggests that the taxon is just a form of <em>O. lucens</em>.
30683		conservation	eng	Although, threatened in some countries, such as Panama, most high mountain areas are protected to some degree.
30683		distribution	eng	From Mexico to Panama.
30683		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species occurring over a wide altitudinal range.
30684		habitat	eng	A tree of rocky dry hillsides in lowland regions.
30685		habitat	eng	A thicket species, usually occurring on rocky hillsides or plains, sometimes along creeks.
30686		distribution	eng	Known from only very few collections, the species occurs in Alta Verapaz between 300 and 900 m.
30687		distribution	eng	A rare tree of the Atlantic rainforest. In Honduras, the species is known only from a single collection.
30687		habitat	eng	Atlantic rainforest.
30688		distribution	eng	Confined to La Cumbre in Petén.
30688		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland seasonal semi-evergreen forest.
30689		distribution	eng	Confined to a single known population in La Cumbre in Petén.
30689		habitat	eng	The species is a component of seasonal semi-evergreen forest dominated by <em>Manilkara zapota</em>.
30690		habitat	eng	A seldom-collected species of cloud forest.
30691		conservation	eng	The species is found within Celaque National Park.
30691		distribution	eng	Endemic to Honduras, the species is, so far, known only from an area in Celaque National Park.
30691		habitat	eng	Wet montane forest.
30692		habitat	eng	A cloud forest tree.
30692		threats	eng	Occurring in a habitat which is rapidly declining through deforestation.
30693		habitat	eng	A tree of pine forest, occurring at medium to high elevations.
30694		habitat	eng	A species of pine forest at medium to high elevation.
30695		distribution	eng	A species of somewhat dubious nomenclature.
30695		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
30696		conservation	eng	Found in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.
30696		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Atlantic wet lowlands of Honduras, the species occurs in low numbers in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.
30696		habitat	eng	Atlantic wet lowlands.
30697		habitat	eng	A species of <em>matorral</em>, thickets and dry forest along rivers, at low to middle elevations.
30698		habitat	eng	A tree of high-altitude mixed humid forest.
30699		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur within protected areas.
30699		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in mixed forest at high elevations.
30699		population	eng	Population numbers are low for this endemic tree species.
30699		threats	eng	The habitat is in continuing decline.
30700		distribution	eng	A species of the Atlantic lowlands, occurring as distinct varieties.
30701		distribution	eng	There is some doubt over the nomenclature of the species. It is confined to Honduras.
30701		habitat	eng	Areas of medium-to high-elevation humid forest.
30702		habitat	eng	A tree of low elevations, occurring in moist thickets along streams within areas of dry forest.
30703		habitat	eng	Occurring in thicket and forest, often near streams.
30703		threats	eng	The species is reduced to remnant subpopulations because of habitat loss.
30704		habitat	eng	Pine-oak forest.
30704		population	eng	A seldom collected tree.
30705		habitat	eng	A species of submontane forest.
30706		distribution	eng	Endemic to the wet Atlantic lowlands of Honduras, the species has a rare occurrence in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.
30707		habitat	eng	A tree of submontane oak woodland and thicket.
30708		distribution	eng	A species occurring disjunctly, with populations in Mexico and Honduras.
30708		habitat	eng	The species is found in deciduous forest.
30710		distribution	eng	Endemic to Honduras. The genus is under taxonomic revision.
30710		habitat	eng	This tree is found in a small area of submontane pine forest.
30711		distribution	eng	Endemic to El Salvador, in Monte Cristo, Metapán, Santa Ana.
30711		habitat	eng	Confined to cloud forest.
30711		population	eng	A rarely collected species.
30712		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid areas or near streams in dry forest.
30713		conservation	eng	Programmes to improve its status are being run by CAMCORE. Felling is prohibited in some countries and the species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.
30713		distribution	eng	The Guatemalan Fir is the southernmost member of its genus.
30713		population	eng	It was reported to be common until the 1940s and large subpopulations may still remain in Honduras. There is disputable evidence that the remaining stands in Guatemala extend no more than 3 ha.
30713		threats	eng	There has been heavy timber exploitation throughout the range. Isolated stands continue to be exploited heavily by local inhabitants and the deep fertile soils, on which the tree grows, are attractive to agricultural development. Cone crops are irregular and germination is poor.
30714		distribution	eng	A species, of somewhat dubious nomenclature.
30714		habitat	eng	Occurring in humid forest in the Atlantic lowlands.
30723		distribution	eng	Of somewhat dubious nomenclature, the species is rarely collected.
30723		threats	eng	The population at the type locality has disappeared because of urban development.
30724		population	eng	In north-east Mexico the species is locally common.
30724		threats	eng	Some interest has been shown by pharmaceutical companies in its medicinal properties. There is no evidence of active exploitation.
30726		distribution	eng	The species occurs in low density in the foothills of the Sierra Lazaro.
30726		habitat	eng	Xeric habitat.
30726		threats	eng	The area is subject to grazing pressure. Regeneration has not been observed in recent years.
30727		distribution	eng	More information on the regeneration of this species may allow it to qualify for the status of Endangered.
30727		habitat	eng	A species restricted to a specialised sclerophyllous habitat at lowland to montane altitudes.
30727		threats	eng	Cedros Island suffers from overgrazing by goats.
30728		distribution	eng	Known only from one population system in the valley of Río Concho and north along Río Grande.
30728		habitat	eng	A species of dry montane scrub.
30730		distribution	eng	Two or three subpopulations occur. The mainland Mexican species, <em>Q. viminea</em>, may be synonymous, in which case the species would qualify for a status of lower risk.
30730		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest.
30730		threats	eng	Grazing pressure is high.
30732		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area (less than 10 km²) along a road.
30732		habitat	eng	A submontane to montane dry forest species.
30732		threats	eng	Much of the area is in the process of conversion into avocado plantations and human settlements.
30733		distribution	eng	It is suspected that this species will prove to be threatened when the area of occupancy is calculated taking into account the altitudinal range of the species.
30735		habitat	eng	A montane species.
30735		population	eng	The number of localities and population status are unknown.
30738		population	eng	The known subpopulations are small but their extent is not known.
30739		population	eng	The extent of population declines is not documented.
30739		threats	eng	The level of forest destruction has been dramatic.
30741		distribution	eng	Known from about four collections taken from a locality in the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica and from single localities in San Blás and Darién in Panama.
30741		habitat	eng	A large buttressed tree of evergreen lowland rainforest.
30742		distribution	eng	The species has been collected relatively rarely from localities in Cundinamarca and Tolima in Colombia and parts of neighbouring Panama in Darién Province.
30742		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.
30743		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the Guatemalan population.
30743		distribution	eng	In El Salvador the species is confined to Santa Ana and Chalatenango.
30743		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak forest up to 2,000 m.
30743		population	eng	There have been no recent reports of its occurrence and the area is unprotected.
30743		threats	eng	The area is susceptible to logging and expanding agricultural development. The wood is of wide importance in carpentry and construction.
30744		conservation	eng	The species has also been propagated and reintroduced into Mondrain Nature Reserve. A few plants are grown in a nursery and elsewhere on Ile aux Aigrettes.
30744		distribution	eng	The Mauritian population is known from fewer than five adult trees at the bases of the Chamarel range, Mt. Briseé and Mt. Creole. Information is required on the population in Réunion.
30744		habitat	eng	Dry deciduous forest.
30745		distribution	eng	A large canopy tree and useful timber species. In Mauritius scattered subpopulations occur in Yemen, Magenta, Chamarel and Black River Gorges in the south-west and in the eastern ranges of Mt des Creoles. More information is needed on the Réunion subpopulation.
30745		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous and evergreen forest.
30745		population	eng	The Mauritian subpopulations are estimated to contain fewer than 500 adults.
30745		threats	eng	Browsing of seedlings by deer is thought to be limiting regeneration. The bark has medicinal properties and its illegal harvesting sometimes leads to ring-barking.
30746		distribution	eng	Mauritius and Réunion.
30746		population	eng	The subpopulation on Mauritius is extinct and remaining subpopulations on Réunion have experienced severe declines.
30747		conservation	eng	The species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/>CITES</a> Appendix II.
30747		distribution	eng	Confined to northern Somalia.
30747		population	eng	A tree aloe which was seen in considerable numbers in 1995.
30747		threats	eng	Continues to be threatened by the destruction of the habitat.
30748		conservation	eng	Occurs in several reserves.
30748		distribution	eng	Occurring in the subalpine belt of the central Caucasus range.
30748		habitat	eng	Scattered throughout pine, mixed or beech forest in subalpine belt.
30748		population	eng	This widespread species is represented by relatively large population numbers but occupies a range which is declining. It is listed as rare (Status 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia and USSR.
30748		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are grazing and cutting for timber and firewood.
30749		distribution	eng	Restricted to a single location in Darvaz, Tajikistan. Occupies a very restricted area of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
30749		habitat	eng	A shrub reaching up to 4 m or more in height. It can be easily cultivated and has potential as an ornamental.
30749		population	eng	The only known location consists of only a few plants. The population is declining.
30749		threats	eng	Threats include agricultural conversion and cutting, natural disasters, overgrazing.
30750		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area, but our herbarium based data do not include all known localities.
30750		distribution	eng	Russia, Russian Far East, Primorye, from near Vladivostok north to the Anyuy River. A map in Kharkevich (1985) shows dots distributed more or less contiguously between Vladivostok and the Anyuy River. Assessment of herbarium specimens in LE was unable to confirm this due to imprecise locality data, but the range given in that publication is probably correct. The EOO is at least 70,000 km² estimated from this map.
30750		habitat	eng	In mixed conifer forests and mixed angiosperm-conifer forests as undergrowth shrub, in subalpine vegetation associated with <em>Pinus pumila</em>, on steep stone slopes of mountains, often as a continuous cover. Elevation (from GIS): 32 to 1,365 m, from herbarium specimens 800 to 1,500 m (GIS in this case more reliable). This species is in cultivation and in the horticultural trade.
30750		population	eng	Common.
30750		threats	eng	No threats are know to occur that cause this species to decline in number of populations and/or localities. Fire could destroy it locally but it may regenerate by layering easily.
30757		conservation	eng	Approximately 1,000 saplings have been produced <em>ex situ</em>, some of which are being planted at Jardín Botánico Francisco Javier Clavijero.
30757		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 600 and 1,600 m.
30757		population	eng	About four or five relict subpopulations exist. The largest consists of between 80 and 100 individuals in disturbed cloud forest at Ixhuacan de los Reyes, Veracruz. Numbers are very small in Oaxaca and Hidalgo.
30757		threats	eng	The reasons for declines have largely been habitat destruction, timber production and poor regeneration.
30758		threats	eng	Remaining stands show signs of disturbance or cutting. Regeneration is primarily vegetative, by resprouting from the roots and trunk bases. There appears to be low fertility.
30761		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gulf region.
30761		habitat	eng	This canopy tree is restricted to remaining areas of rainforest.
30763		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gulf region, the species occurs in remaining rainforest, ranging as far north as northern Veracruz.
30767		conservation	eng	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
30767		distribution	eng	Found on the slopes of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii. A subpopulation on East Maui along with another subpopulation on the northern slope of Mauna Kea have been referred to as ssp. <em>singulifera</em> but both are now extinct.
30767		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree which is epiphytic on tree ferns, <em>Metrosideros, Acacia</em> or <em>Cheirodendron</em> species, occurring in rainforest.
30767		population	eng	There are four remaining subpopulations of the species, numbering no more than a few individuals.
30767		threats	eng	There is evidence of damage to the habitat caused by feral pigs, rats and the illegal cultivation of cannabis.
30768		distribution	eng	Endemic to East Maui.
30768		habitat	eng	A tree or shrub of montane rainforest, primarily along stream beds.
30768		population	eng	The total population of <em>C. tuberculata</em> is less than 2,500 mature individuals. Over ten subpopulations have been recorded, with each subpopulation containing less then 250 mature individuals.
30768		threats	eng	Threatened by invasive species including alien plants, feral pigs and possibly rats and invertebrates.
30769		conservation	eng	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
30769		distribution	eng	A palm-like tree formerly found in the Kamalo region on Molokai, but recently rediscovered at Puu O Kaeha, west of Kamalo.
30769		population	eng	Thought to be extinct until it was recently rediscovered. A total of eight individuals have been found in three populations.
30769		threats	eng	The area is known to harbour feral goats.
30770		distribution	eng	Hawaii.
30770		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of subalpine shrubland, woodland and also alpine desert.
30770		population	eng	It was once common around the flanks of Mauna Kea. It remains locally abundant above Puulaau.
30770		threats	eng	The impact of grazing feral animals has severely restricted its distribution.
30771		distribution	eng	A rarely collected species known only from Kauai and Oahu.
30771		habitat	eng	It occurs in various forest types.
30772		conservation	eng	Listed as a candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
30772		distribution	eng	<em>Charpentiera densiflora</em> occurs only on the island of Kauai in the state of Hawaii. It is narrowly endemic to the district of Napali on the northwestern side of the island, in a series of valleys and gulches over a 6 km stretch.
30772		habitat	eng	A tree of moist forests, especially in gulch bottoms.
30772		population	eng	Known from 10 subpopulations with no subpopulation containing more than 50 mature individuals. The total population of <em>C. densiflora</em> is less than 250 mature individuals.
30772		threats	eng	The remaining plants are threatened by feral goats and pigs, and by the spread of alien plants.
30773		distribution	eng	A tree known from three locations on Kauai Island, on Mt Kahili, Makaleha Mountains and the Powerline Trail.
30773		habitat	eng	It is restricted to rainforest up to 890 m.
30774		distribution	eng	It was thought to occur in rainforest at Kawaihae on Hawaii. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are either Extinct or Critically Endangered.
30774		population	eng	Collected just once before 1868, the species is now presumed extinct.
30775		distribution	eng	Restricted to Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.
30775		habitat	eng	A sprawling to erect shrub or tree in dry forest and shrubland up to 350 m.
30775		population	eng	Known from small populations.
30776		distribution	eng	This subspecies is distributed from Waimea Canyon to the ocean-facing valleys in the west and south-west on Kauai.
30777		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
30777		distribution	eng	A species from a small genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Originally known from the hills of Makaku, Koko Head and Wailupe Valley on Oahu.
30777		population	eng	It was first recorded in 1888 and became extinct shortly afterwards.
30778		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30778		distribution	eng	Formerly collected in the north of the Koolau Mts. on Oahu and from Maunaloa on Molokai. The only extant populations are now restricted to Oahu.
30778		habitat	eng	A small tree which, in the past, has been collected from lowland dry forest.
30778		population	eng	Fewer than 220 individuals now remain in eight populations in the Koolau Mts.
30778		threats	eng	The Molokai populations have been replaced by fields of pineapples. Present populations are threatened mainly by the destructive activities of feral pigs and by invasions of introduced plants.
30779		distribution	eng	Found within an area stretching from Limahuli to Hanakoa Valley in north-western Kauai.
30779		habitat	eng	A small tree scattered in disturbed hala forest and wetter vegetation up to 550 m
30779		threats	eng	The invasion of alien plant species has affected the habitat in many areas.
30780		distribution	eng	<em>Bobea sandwicensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Oahu, Molokai, Lana'i and Maui. The genus <em>Bobea</em> consists of four species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
30780		habitat	eng	Occurs in dry to moist forest and on open, sparsely vegetated lava flows up to 1,220 m altitude.
30780		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, fire and invasive plant species.
30781		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30781		distribution	eng	Hawaii.
30781		habitat	eng	Scattered on lava fields.
30781		population	eng	This variety is considerably rarer than the type variety. It is known from approximately 24 individuals at Puuwaawaa in North Kona District on Hawaii.
30781		threats	eng	There are persistent threats from grazing ungulates and spreading invasive plants.
30782		distribution	eng	On all the main Hawaiian islands except Kauai.
30782		habitat	eng	Primarily on forested ridges or in shrubland at medium elevations.
30782		population	eng	This species is uncommon and scattered.
30783		distribution	eng	Known only from Haleakala on East Maui.
30783		habitat	eng	This small tree is scattered in alpine shrubland on dry slopes up to 2,700 m, especially in fogswept areas.
30784		conservation	eng	It is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30784		distribution	eng	Southern part of the Kohala Mountains, the northern slopes of Hualalai and Mauna Loa on Hawaii. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
30784		habitat	eng	A stout tree which occurs only rarely, generally confined to dry forest up to an altitude of 1,830 m.
30784		population	eng	Fewer than 50 individuals remain in six subpopulations.
30784		threats	eng	Habitat conversion for residential and recreational purposes, the invasion of introduced plants, fire and grazing have all contributed to the decline in the species.
30785		distribution	eng	Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui and Hawaii.
30785		habitat	eng	Forested ridges between 450 and 1,600 m.
30785		population	eng	Apparently the species is uncommon and scattered.
30787		conservation	eng	A small number of cultivated trees have been reintroduced into two fenced sanctuaries.  The species is classified as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.
30787		distribution	eng	Originally known from three subpopulations in Puuwaawaa on Hawaii. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.
30787		habitat	eng	The species' natural habitat is dry to moist forest on lava fields between 915 and 1,020 m.
30787		population	eng	The last known wild tree died in 1992.
30787		threats	eng	The only remaining patches are heavily threatened by fire, grazers, invasive plants and ranching activities.
30788		distribution	eng	Lanai and on Mt Eke on West Maui.
30788		habitat	eng	Confined to a restricted altitudinal band, the species occurs in a few areas on the highest ridge.
30789		conservation	eng	It is commonly found in the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30789		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka.
30789		habitat	eng	A subcanopy tree, restricted to wet lowland forest.
30790		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30790		habitat	eng	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30791		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in only three forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30792		conservation	eng	It is frequent in many forest reserves including Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30792		habitat	eng	An understorey tree confined to wet lowland evergreen forest.
30793		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30793		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in lowland wet evergreen forest.
30794		distribution	eng	During the extensive forest surveys by the National Conservation Review, this species was found in only five localities.
30795		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in seven forests.
30796		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
30796		habitat	eng	A prominent species of upper montane rainforest, occurring occasionally in lowland rainforest.
30796		population	eng	The species was found in only three of the localities surveyed during the extensive National Conservation Review.
30797		distribution	eng	A locally common tree in Sri Lanka. Only 31 km² of montane forest remains in Sri Lanka.
30797		habitat	eng	Upper montane rainforest.
30797		population	eng	This species was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30798		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka.
30798		habitat	eng	An emergent tree found in upper montane rainforests; it occasionally occurs in the lowland rainforests.
30799		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30799		habitat	eng	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
30800		conservation	eng	Occurring in protected areas.
30800		distribution	eng	This uncommon tree is restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
30800		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforests.
30800		population	eng	The species has not been rediscovered in the Hinidumkanda MAB Reserve even though the area has been carefully surveyed. It has, however, been recorded recently during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys in several forest reserves and proposed reserves.
30800		threats	eng	Disturbance caused by illegal felling.
30801		distribution	eng	Restricted to the western lowlands of Sri Lanka.
30801		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
30801		population	eng	In the recent National Conservation Review forest survey, only four individuals were discovered in a single locality.
30801		threats	eng	This ironwood tree is threatened because its habitat is being converted for rice cultivation.
30802		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to rocky ridges of highland evergreen forest.
30802		population	eng	This species was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30803		distribution	eng	Its habitat type is found only in the south-western corner of the island.
30803		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30803		population	eng	This species was not found in the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30804		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.
30804		habitat	eng	An emergent species found only in restricted lowland wet evergreen forests on well-drained deep soils.
30804		threats	eng	Populations have been eliminated from many areas because of excessive tapping for resin. Regeneration is also observed to be poor.
30805		conservation	eng	There are subpopulations in some forest reserves.
30805		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30805		habitat	eng	A species of lowland wet evergreen forest.
30805		population	eng	It is reported to regenerate well.
30806		conservation	eng	The species occurs in an area that has been proposed as a reserve.
30807		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to exist in forest reserves.
30807		habitat	eng	A canopy tree scattered in restricted areas of lowland wet evergreen forest. It is also found as an emergent in semi-evergreen moist forest.
30807		population	eng	Regeneration is noted to be good. The conservation status is based on the rate of habitat loss and conversion.
30807		threats	eng	Habitat loss and conversion.
30808		population	eng	No evidence of the species was found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30809		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is extremely restricted.
30809		habitat	eng	Occurring in pure stands on ridges in lowland wet evergreen forests.
30809		population	eng	It apparently regenerates sufficiently in its natural habitat. This species was found in seven forests during the surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30810		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.
30811		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.
30812		conservation	eng	Occurs in some forest reserves.
30812		distribution	eng	South-west corner of Sri Lanka.
30812		habitat	eng	A sizeable tree found scattered in the remnants of lowland wet evergreen forest.
30813		habitat	eng	A small tree found in patches on shallow poor soil.
30813		population	eng	It regenerates prolifically. The species was found in 11 of the forests surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
30814		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.
30814		habitat	eng	This tree occurs mainly on hillsides and river banks in remaining fragments of lowland wet evergreen forests.
30814		threats	eng	Regeneration is somewhat sparse.
30815		distribution	eng	Kegalle and the South Peak Sanctuary.
30815		habitat	eng	A dipterocarp restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30815		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30815		threats	eng	The species is unable to reach reproductive maturity between the current cutting cycles.
30816		population	eng	This species was discovered in only 12 of the forests surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
30817		distribution	eng	Found in Sri Lanka.
30817		habitat	eng	Relatively widely distributed in what remains of lowland wet evergreen forest, this dipterocarp is found scattered on deep rich soils on hillsides.
30817		population	eng	The species is one of the dominant canopy species in the protected area at Sinharaja. However, it was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting it has become extremely rare.
30818		distribution	eng	Found in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30818		habitat	eng	A characteristic species of remnant lowland wet evergreen forest, forming one of the dominant components of the canopy.
30818		population	eng	It was not discovered during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species has become rare.
30818		threats	eng	It is an important component of plywood, which is mainly used to make tea chests.
30819		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka.
30819		habitat	eng	A canopy species in the remaining fragments of lowland wet evergreen forest.
30819		population	eng	Signs of regeneration are meagre. This tree was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30820		distribution	eng	It is found in Lenegal Kande Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and has previously been reported from Kanneliya and Gilimale.
30820		habitat	eng	A small tree with an extremely localised distribution in areas of lowland wet evergreen forest.
30821		habitat	eng	A large tree confined to the remaining 700 km² of highland wet evergreen forest. It prefers deep well-drained soils.
30821		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30822		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka.
30822		habitat	eng	An emergent tree, usually found by rivers and streams, confined to the remaining 1,422 km² of lowland wet evergreen forest.
30822		population	eng	The species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30822		threats	eng	Trees have been selectively logged in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30823		distribution	eng	South-east Sri Lanka.
30823		habitat	eng	A dipterocarp, confined to lowland and hill wet evergreen forest.
30823		population	eng	This tree was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30823		threats	eng	Close to extinction because of the loss of its habitat.
30824		conservation	eng	It forms one of the dominant components of the canopy in the protected area at Sinharaja.
30824		habitat	eng	This tree is found in fragments of lowland and sometimes highland wet evergreen forest, usually on deep soils.
30824		population	eng	Regeneration is good where selective logging is taking place. No populations were found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30824		threats	eng	Most of the habitat has been converted into plantations, resulting in the species becoming localised. The timber is harvested mainly for plywood.
30825		conservation	eng	The species forms a dominant component in the canopy in the protected area at Sinharaja.
30825		habitat	eng	Isolated patches of this species are found scattered on well-drained soil in remaining lowland wet evergreen forests.
30825		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is extremely rare.
30825		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor.
30826		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in wet evergreen forest which becomes an emergent at higher altitudes.
30826		population	eng	It was not discovered during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30827		habitat	eng	A tree found only in small patches of remaining wet evergreen forest above 600 m.
30827		population	eng	This species was found in 13 of the sites surveys for the National Conservation Review.
30828		distribution	eng	Endemic to Hunasgiriya.
30828		habitat	eng	This small semi-gregarious tree is confined to the lower canopy of remaining patches of highland wet evergreen forest.
30828		population	eng	This species was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30829		distribution	eng	Localized on the southern slopes of Adam's Peak in Ratnapura District.
30829		habitat	eng	This gregarious understorey tree occurs in highland wet evergreen forest.
30829		population	eng	It was found in three sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review.
30830		distribution	eng	A species restricted to the southern slopes of Adam's Peak at around 1,000 m.
30830		population	eng	This species was found in three of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
30831		distribution	eng	Found on the south and east slopes of Adam's Peak and higher elevations of forest in Sinharaja.
30831		habitat	eng	A small tree which dominates highland wet evergreen forest at higher altitudes, sometimes extending into montane forest.
30831		population	eng	The species was found in only three of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
30832		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining patches of lowland wet evergreen forest, the species occurs in small clumps on steep rocky hillsides.
30832		population	eng	It was found only once in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
30833		habitat	eng	A very small tree which is found in a few hillside and river bank localities of lowland wet evergreen forest.
30833		population	eng	It was found only once in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
30834		habitat	eng	Limited to a few patches of lowland wet evergreen forest on ridges.
30834		population	eng	This tree is known from a single collection. It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30835		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to Kitulgala and Gilimale.
30835		habitat	eng	Grows on well-drained deep soil in lowland wet evergreen forest.
30835		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30836		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30836		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to ridge crests in the remaining lowland wet evergreen forest.
30836		population	eng	It was found in only two forests during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30837		distribution	eng	Known from one ridge overlooking the Sinharaja forest.
30837		habitat	eng	A small tree of highland wet evergreen forest.
30837		population	eng	It was found only once during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30838		distribution	eng	Found only in the Ambagamuwa region.
30838		population	eng	This small tree had been collected only twice, in 1852 and 1860, but in 1981 a population of several hundred trees was discovered on the southern forested slopes of Peak Wilderness between 1,600 and 1,800 m. However, it was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30839		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of the species are known to occur in forest reserves.
30839		distribution	eng	Found in the south-west.
30839		habitat	eng	Widespread and scattered within lowland wet evergreen forest, this canopy tree is mainly found on hillsides and river banks.
30839		population	eng	It appears to be regenerating sufficiently.
30840		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30840		habitat	eng	This tree is regenerating well in the remaining fragments of lowland wet evergreen forest. The species is usually found scattered along streams and on deep well-drained soils.
30840		population	eng	During the recent National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded from only two localities.
30841		distribution	eng	Occurs in Sri Lanka.
30841		habitat	eng	A tree found mainly along river banks in lowland semi-evergreen forest.
30841		population	eng	Regeneration is reported to be good. However, this species was not recorded during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
30842		conservation	eng	Also found in the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30842		distribution	eng	An endemic tree restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
30842		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forests.
30842		population	eng	It was discovered in 25 forests during the recent National Conservation Review.
30843		conservation	eng	Also found in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30843		distribution	eng	Restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
30843		habitat	eng	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forests.
30843		population	eng	This tree was found in 33 forest localities in the recent National Conservation Review, including Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
30845		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Sierra Madre Oriental.
30845		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
30845		threats	eng	Its range has declined and populations are reduced to areas that have escaped agricultural expansion, such as deep gullies.
30848		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30848		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in the lowland rainforest.
30849		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30849		habitat	eng	A rare tree endemic to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30849		population	eng	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in six localities in Galle and Kalutara districts.
30850		population	eng	A tree found in 12 forest localities during the National Conservation Review.
30851		distribution	eng	A tree apparently restricted to a single locality of forest in Ratnapura District.
30851		population	eng	Only two trees were discovered during the extensive fieldwork carried out for the National Conservation Review.
30852		population	eng	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this tree was found in only three forest localities in Kandy and Ratnapura Districts.
30853		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
30853		habitat	eng	This large tree occurs infrequently in lowland wet evergreen forest and in dry forest.
30853		population	eng	It was found at 25 forest sites during the National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30853		threats	eng	The species is threatened by overexploitation of its valuable variegated timber and by poor regeneration. In addition, the heartwood is used medicinally to heal wounds.
30854		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30854		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.
30855		conservation	eng	In India, forest is now protected within sanctuaries.
30855		distribution	eng	In Sri Lanka, a recent survey identified a total of three subpopulations, occurring in Ratnapura and Kalutara districts. In India subpopulations are restricted to the southernmost end of the Western Ghats, including the Agastyamalai Hills
30855		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest (Sri Lanka) and submontane forest (India).
30855		threats	eng	In India forest has declined in extent.
30856		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30856		habitat	eng	A rare tree, restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30856		population	eng	This species was found in nine localities during the extensive fieldwork carried out for the Sri Lankan National Conservation Review.
30857		population	eng	This tree was found to occur in only three forest reserves during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30858		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. This species is known from four localities: Kanneliya, Kottawa, Badullakele and Dediyagala.
30858		habitat	eng	A very rare tree restricted lowland wet evergreen forest.
30859		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was discovered in 20 localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30859		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.
30860		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
30860		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.
30861		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to a small conservation forest reserve in Matara district.
30861		population	eng	Only a single tree was found in the comprehensive forest surveys for the National Conservation Review.
30862		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. Until recently, it was known only from Hinidumkanda Biosphere Reserve. Single collections were made in both Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and in Kanneliya Forest Reserve.
30862		habitat	eng	An uncommon species of lowland rainforest.
30862		threats	eng	The forest on the south-eastern slopes of Hinidumkanda is threatened by encroaching slash-and-burn cultivation and illegal logging, resulting from increases in human population numbers in the surrounding area.
30863		conservation	eng	Included in the Sinharaja and Haycok Biosphere Reserves.
30863		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30863		habitat	eng	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30863		population	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, the species was found in six forest localities.
30864		population	eng	This species was discovered in only two forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30865		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30865		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
30866		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30866		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30867		population	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was apparently locally common but occurred in only six of the surveyed localities in the districts of Nuwara Eliya and Kandy.
30868		distribution	eng	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in nine forest localities, mainly confined to Nuwara Eliya District.
30869		distribution	eng	A species found at only three localities during the extensive forest surveys carried out for the National Conservation Review.
30870		distribution	eng	Ratnapura District. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
30870		habitat	eng	Apparently restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30870		population	eng	The species was found in six sites during the extensive forest surveys of the National Conservation Review.
30871		distribution	eng	Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
30871		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in seven sites.
30872		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
30872		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
30872		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found at three localities.
30873		distribution	eng	Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
30873		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in 14 localities.
30874		distribution	eng	<em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
30874		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in 13 localities. Asian
30875		distribution	eng	Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
30875		population	eng	This species was found at nine localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30876		population	eng	This tree was found in only four of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
30877		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30877		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
30878		habitat	eng	This tree occurs frequently in upper montane rainforest.
30878		population	eng	It was recorded in nine of the sites surveyed from the National Conservation Review.
30879		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to Nuwara Eliya District.
30879		population	eng	This species was recorded from seven sites during the recent National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30880		distribution	eng	An endemic tree from Sri Lanka.
30880		habitat	eng	Found in wet and dry forest.
30880		population	eng	The species was found in only five of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review, including an occurrence in a strict nature reserve.
30881		distribution	eng	A species found in only three of the sites surveyed during the extensive National Conservation Review, one of which is a strict nature reserve.
30882		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30882		habitat	eng	A tree confined to scattered locations in lowland rainforest.
30883		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30883		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
30884		distribution	eng	The species was found in only three localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review. No information is available at the variety level.
30885		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30885		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30886		distribution	eng	A tree restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
30886		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forests.
30887		distribution	eng	A species with an extremely restricted distribution, in the south-west corner of Sri Lanka. It was discovered in only three forest localities within Kurunegala district, during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
30887		habitat	eng	Scattered in the remnants of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.
30888		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30888		habitat	eng	A variety occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
30889		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was found in 11 forest sites during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
30889		habitat	eng	An understorey tree with a clumped distribution in remaining lowland wet evergreen forest.
30890		distribution	eng	A scattered species restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
30890		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
30891		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30891		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
30892		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30892		habitat	eng	A subspecies confined to lowland rainforest.
30892		population	eng	The species as a whole was found in only seven of the forest sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
30893		distribution	eng	The species as a whole was found in only five forest sites during the extensive surveys carried out for the National Conservation Review.
30894		distribution	eng	The species was found in only two forest sites in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review. The sites are not protected.
30895		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30895		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
30896		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
30896		habitat	eng	A variety restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
30897		distribution	eng	South of Bosaso and Qandala in north-eastern Somalia.
30897		habitat	eng	A laxly branched, slender tree confined to a few localities on rocky limestone soils with sparse bushland.
30897		threats	eng	The habitat is under some threat from overcutting and overgrazing.
30898		conservation	eng	Although the area is legally protected, civil insecurity has led to a lack of research and enforcement of protective measures. The species is included on <a href="http://www.cites.org/>CITES</a> Appendix II.
30898		distribution	eng	Confined to Witu Forest Reserve. The present population estimate includes 20 mature individuals.
30898		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of semi-deciduous swamp forest.
30899		conservation	eng	This species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/>CITES</a> Appendix II controls.
30899		distribution	eng	One population is known in Mikindani in Tanzania and another in a protected area in south-east Zimbabwe. Coastal subpopulations in Mozambique may be extensive but more information is needed to confirm their status and extent.
30899		population	eng	Populations are few and disjunct.
30900		conservation	eng	The species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II controls.
30900		habitat	eng	A tree with succulent branches. It is endemic to localised areas of dry or riverine upland forest.
30901		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least two protected areas: one locality near Kwizu Forest Reserve and in Mkomazi Game Reserve (a sight record).
30901		distribution	eng	Recorded in the Taita Hills and at Nairobi River Falls (Kenya) and the South Pare Mts, Manyara escarpment, Ngubora River and Lake Eyassi (Tanzania).<br/><br/>Note that the distribution recorded in Reynolds (1966) as at the top of the Manyara Escarpment and Nguruman Escarpment refers to <span style="font-style: italic;">Aloe elata</span> S.Carter & L.E.Newton.
30901		habitat	eng	Grows in dry deciduous bushland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>and succulents and also in degraded bush on rocky hills.
30901		population	eng	Never very common, all subpopulations tend to be small.
30901		threats	eng	This dry bushland is extensively exploited for charcoal production and also by habitat clearance for exapnding agriculture.
30902		distribution	eng	A taxon which is included in the wider concept of <em>A. koa</em>.  Recorded from the islands of Kauai, Oahu (a recent find, possibly planted), Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii. <em>A. koaia</em> occupies less than 20,000 km²
30902		habitat	eng	This is a small and gnarled tree found in dry and open habitats.   Sometimes extending into the drier end of the moist habitats. Forests and shrublands.
30902		threats	eng	<em>A. koaia</em> has been severely impacted by ranching, agriculture and fires started by humans.  Other threats to the species are feral goats and pigs, deer, and invasive alien plants.
30903		habitat	eng	A tree of moist forests.
30903		threats	eng	In Iocalised distribution in areas which have experienced habitat destruction.
30904		distribution	eng	<em>Bobea timonioides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It has been collected from Puna and south Kona Districts on Hawaii and on the southern slopes of Haleakala on Maui. There are also collections elsewhere which may be assignable to the species. The genus <em>Bobea</em> consists of four species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
30904		habitat	eng	Trees, up to 10 m tall, occurring in dry to occasionally moist forest up to an altitude of 580 m.
30904		threats	eng	Threats include goats, deer and invasive plant species.
30905		distribution	eng	This small tree or tall shrub is located in at least 15–20 sites.
30905		habitat	eng	Wet forest below 600 m.
30905		population	eng	There are about 300 individuals in total. Sexual reproduction appears to be successful.
30905		threats	eng	The major threat to the habitat is the establishment of commercial and forestry plantations.
30906		conservation	eng	The species is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.
30906		distribution	eng	Reports of the species occurring on St Croix in the US Virgin Islands date to the 1700s and the occurrence in Jamaica is also doubtful. In Puerto Rico, there are two locations: the nuclear power plant site at Rincon and Hato Tejas, Bayamon, consisting of 16 and 12 plants respectively. The Hato Tejas population was larger but was partially destroyed by limestone mining in the 1980s.
30906		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of coastal limestone hills, restricted to forested ledges and ravines.
30906		threats	eng	The remaining individuals are threatened with development of a coal-fueled power plant, further mining and industrial or commercial developments.
30907		distribution	eng	Localized in western Puerto Rico.
30907		habitat	eng	Moist slopes.
30907		population	eng	A very rare tree.
30908		distribution	eng	Western Puerto Rico.
30908		habitat	eng	On moist slopes.
30908		population	eng	As with <em>B. horneana</em> the species is rare and scattered.
30909		conservation	eng	Seed germination trials have not been successful.
30909		distribution	eng	In Puerto Rico there is a population of about 30 individuals scattered in six or seven sites, mostly contained within state forest land.
30909		habitat	eng	A seemingly dioecious tree of lower montane moist forest.
30909		threats	eng	Evidence of natural regeneration is absent.
30910		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Luquillo Mountains, in the El Verde region. More information may indicate a more serious threat category is appropriate.
30910		habitat	eng	Occurring in wet areas at middle elevation.
30912		conservation	eng	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
30912		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Kohala Mountains on the island of Hawaii.
30912		habitat	eng	A terrestrial or epiphytic tree of wet forests.
30912		population	eng	The total population of <em>C. drepanomorpha</em> is less than 250 mature individuals. Several subpopulations have been recorded with no subpopulation consisting of more than 50 mature individuals.
30912		threats	eng	The major threats come from human disturbance, invasive plants, feral pigs, deer and rats.
30913		conservation	eng	The species is listed as Endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
30913		distribution	eng	Known only from the southern slope of Haleakala on Maui and the slopes on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii.
30913		habitat	eng	An uncommon terrestrial or epiphytic species occurring in montane rainforest up to 2,150 m altitude.
30913		population	eng	The total population of <em>C. lindseyana</em> is less than 700 individuals. 15 subpopulations have been recorded, each containing no more than 250 mature individuals.
30913		threats	eng	The remaining plants are threatened by invasive alien plants, goats, pigs and rats.
30914		conservation	eng	Two populations have been planted in enclosures at Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge. It is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
30914		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia pyrularia</em> is a small tree restricted to the Island of Hawaii. It is found on the northeast slope of Mauna Kea.
30914		habitat	eng	Mesic forest.
30914		threats	eng	Invasive plants and the damage caused by feral pigs are thought to have contributed significantly to the species decline. Other threats include invertebrates, rats and humans
30915		conservation	eng	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
30915		distribution	eng	There are 10 extant populations in the Waianae Mountains on Oahu, in the Kohala Mountains, Muana Loa and Hualalai on Hawaii and a recently discovered individual on Maui.
30915		habitat	eng	Dry to moist forest up to 920 m altitude.
30915		population	eng	One of the hardest native woods, the species was heavily harvested by ancient Hawaiians and is now only rarely found. It has been estimated that there are 280–300 individuals.
30915		threats	eng	The spread of alien plants, fire, damage caused by feral pigs and goats, and the black twig borer are among the major threats to remaining population. There is also a possible threat from rats.
30916		habitat	eng	A straggling tree or woody vine of moist forest.
30916		population	eng	Known from no recent sightings but recorded in 1991 from the type locality on the El Toro Trail.
30917		distribution	eng	The population is thought to be divided between three or four sites: Rio Abajo, Aricedo Observatory, Barrenquitas and possibly in the state forest at Susua.
30917		habitat	eng	A small tree of dry serpentine or moist limestone locations.
30917		population	eng	A total population of eight individuals.
30918		conservation	eng	The taxon is protected in Point Lobos Reserve.
30918		distribution	eng	Five subpopulations known, in S.F.B. Morse Botanical Reserve, Point Lobos Reserve, where the species is protected, and along the coast in Mendocin and north-west Sonoma Counties. The coastal populations are sometimes known as var. <em>pygmaea</em>.
30918		population	eng	Less than 1,000 individuals are thought to exist.
30918		threats	eng	There are some pressures from local development, altered fire regimes and possibly from non-native plants.
30919		distribution	eng	Type collection from a locality near Glenwood on Hawaii.
30919		habitat	eng	A palm-like tree 5-10 m tall. Occurred in wet forests on gently sloping old volcanic substrates.
30919		population	eng	This species is known only from the type material, which was collected in 1917.
30920		distribution	eng	Kona District on Hawaii.
30920		habitat	eng	A small palm-like tree recorded in rainforest.
30920		population	eng	No adult trees have been found this century, although a population was located of what appeared to be precociously flowering juvenile individuals.
30921		distribution	eng	It was collected on the Kohala Mountains on Hawaii.
30921		population	eng	Now presumed extinct, this species is known only from the type material.
30922		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations occur in Volcanoes National Park.  The species is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.
30922		distribution	eng	Known only from the north-eastern slopes of Mauna Kea south to the eastern slopes of Mauna Loa.
30922		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
30922		population	eng	A small shrubby tree which is now known from 11 subpopulations. Estimates of the total population size lie in the region of 1,000 individuals.
30922		threats	eng	The species has disappeared from previously known sites and habitat damage caused by feral pigs, along with the invasion of introduced plants, continues to threaten remaining populations.
30923		distribution	eng	Confined to Maui Island. It appears to have been eliminated from the vicinity of Puunianiau but remains locally abundant on the east side of Koolau Gap.
30923		habitat	eng	A montane rainforest species.
30924		distribution	eng	The main subpopulation occurs in two colonies in El Verde. A subpopulation is also found at the edge of Carite Forest.
30924		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
30924		population	eng	The main subpopulation occurs in two colonies, totaling 50-100 plants. The Carite Forest subpopulation has about nine adults.
30924		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to the El Verde colonies.
30925		conservation	eng	The species is listed as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.
30925		distribution	eng	A small dioecious tree occurring on two Hawaiian islands.
30925		habitat	eng	Lowland forest, both moist and dry.
30925		population	eng	At present 15 populations, containing between 450 and 625 individuals, are recorded from the Waianae Mountains on Oahu and on the north-west coast of Kauai. All but one of the localities are on state-owned land.
30925		threats	eng	The habitat is steadily being degraded by feral goats, pigs and also deer and the spread of introduced plants is causing a decline in native flora.
30926		conservation	eng	The species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.
30926		population	eng	Alerce has been logged since the middle of the 17th century. The largest concentration of the species, at the southern end of the Chilean depression, was exploited in the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving no remains except blackened stumps. By the early 1900s a third of the <em>Fitzroya</em> forests had been removed. In the 1930s motorised transport and the building of roads allowed access to the stands in the Coastal Cordillera and High Cordillera.  Present estimates of the area taken up by remaining stands lie at 20,000 ha, 15% of their original size.  Today the best stands may be found between latitudes of 41º and 42ºS in the High Cordillera. Elsewhere populations are small.
30926		threats	eng	Exploitation continued at such intensities that chances of regrowth and regeneration are annihilated.  Restrictions laid down by the Chilean Government have not been adhered to and illegal logging in remote areas has been impossible to halt.
30927		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
30927		distribution	eng	Presently found on the islands of Lanai and Oahu; historically found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui and Molokai.
30927		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub or tree of low elevation dry forest.
30927		population	eng	Six subpopulations have been recorded, with a total population size of 15–19 individuals.
30927		threats	eng	Threats to <em>G. brighamii</em> include goats, deer, rats, cattle, competition with invasive alien species, invertebrate predation, fire and development.  This species is also used at a local level as a dye and used in the landscape trade.
30928		habitat	eng	A small understory tree of limestone forest.
30928		population	eng	Recorded from eight populations of between 100 and 125 individuals.
30928		threats	eng	Trees are unprotected and experiencing various pressures. Road widening destroyed six individuals, which have since been replaced by numerous root suckers. Construction of a hotel complex, pipe-laying and predation of flowers are amongst the major concerns.
30929		conservation	eng	It is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.
30929		distribution	eng	Known only from a site along Wahiawa Stream on Kauai Island.
30929		habitat	eng	A small tree of dense wet forest.
30930		conservation	eng	It is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.
30930		distribution	eng	Occurring as a shrub or small tree, the species is known from a single population on the bluff above Koaie Stream in Waimea Canyon on Kauai. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are either Extinct or Critically Endangered.
30930		habitat	eng	Dry forest patch.
30930		population	eng	Fewer than 20 individuals.
30931		conservation	eng	A small number of individuals have been planted to augment the population in the wild. The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30931		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Kauai where it has been recorded from a number of location in the Nounou Mountains.
30931		habitat	eng	Occurring as a shrub or tree in dry forest up to 350 m.
30931		population	eng	A group of four trees appears to be the only remaining population.
30931		threats	eng	The damage caused by cattle was realised in 1928 when the species was first brought into cultivation. That threat has been removed but the habitat continues to be steadily degraded by the spread of invasive plants, by feral pigs and potentially recreational activities.
30932		conservation	eng	Living material has been obtained from the branch of a cultivated specimen discovered in 1970, and grafted onto <em>K. kauaiensis</em>.  The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
30932		distribution	eng	Formerly known from Mahana in western Molokai. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to Hawaii and either Extinct or Critically Endangered.
30932		habitat	eng	Originally in relictual dryland forest.
30932		population	eng	When first discovered in the 1860s, only three small trees were found. By 1918 all the specimens in the wild had died. Some years after, the only known cultivated tree died without producing viable offspring and the species was thought extinct.
30932		threats	eng	The former site was central to a sheep run and the population was directly affected by browsing and trampling domestic and feral stock.
30933		conservation	eng	The species persists in cultivation. The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
30933		distribution	eng	A species from a small genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
30933		population	eng	Reduced to a few individuals at Puuwaawaa and Huehue on Hawaii.
30934		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
30934		distribution	eng	At one time this species was known only from a single tree in Koaloha Canyon. It is now the most numerous member of the genus. At present six subpopulations are known in Paaiki, Kuia, Mahanaloa, Kalalau, Pohakuao and Koaie Valleys in the west of Kauai. All of these are on state land.
30934		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
30934		population	eng	Estimates of the total population size range from 105 to 145, the largest containing no more than 50 individuals.
30934		threats	eng	Invasive plants and the activities of feral goats, deer and rats are the major threats to remaining populations.
30935		conservation	eng	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
30935		distribution	eng	Known from few collections, the species is restricted to the Wahiawa Mountains on Kauai.
30936		distribution	eng	One of three varieties. Subpopulations are known from Lanai and from Mapulehu Valley on Molokai.
30936		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
30937		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree with a very scattered distribution in three widely separated areas. The species is known from south-east Missouri and eastern Arkansas, where it is locally common, south-east Texas, southern Georgia and northern Florida. The family is monotypic.
30937		habitat	eng	Occurring along muddy riverbanks or in sawgrass marshes, usually within reach of seawater inundation.
30937		population	eng	There is no evidence of any serious declines in the population.
30938		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Luquillo Mountains. More information may indicate a more serious threat category is appropriate.
30938		habitat	eng	Upper wet ridges.
30939		distribution	eng	The greatest concentration is on Gorda Peak in the British Virgin Islands, where at least 100 plants exist. Elsewhere there are single trees, which may possibly have suffered in Hurricane Hugo, on St Croix and St Thomas in the US Virgin Islands and a population of about 52 plants in two sites in Puerto Rico.
30939		habitat	eng	A species of dry coastal woodland.
30940		distribution	eng	Near Florida and Río Portugués, north of Ponce.
30940		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist areas.
30940		threats	eng	The habitat is degraded and destroyed in places.
30941		distribution	eng	It is scattered in the Waianae Mountains and Koolau Mountains on Oahu, and also Lanai and Maui.
30941		habitat	eng	Sometimes dominating lowland rainforest.
30941		population	eng	Not an uncommon species.
30942		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai and known from several localities, Wahiawa, Powerline Trail, the headwaters of Hanalei River  and Kaloko Reservoir.
30942		habitat	eng	This is a shrub or small tree of bogs and streamsides.
30943		distribution	eng	A small tree known from the ridge west of Hanapepe River on Kauai. It has been postulated that the species represents a hybrid between <em>M. kauaiensis</em> and <em>M. wawraea</em>, although the distribution of the latter does not coincide closely with that of <em>M. mezii</em>.
30944		distribution	eng	Eastern half of Kauai and along Alakai Swamp Trail.
30944		habitat	eng	Normally a shrub but occasionally a small tree the species mainly occurs in boggy shrubland and forest.
30945		conservation	eng	The species is classified as endangered on the US Federal Register.
30945		distribution	eng	Originally occurring from North Kona to Kau on Hawaii, this species is now known from two subpopulations on privately owned land in Kaloko and a US Army training area at Pohakuloa.
30945		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
30945		population	eng	The two known subpopulations have only five and six individuals.
30945		threats	eng	There are persistent threats from browsing and habitat damage by feral goats and sheep, and invasions of introduced plants.
30946		distribution	eng	Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai and Maui. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
30946		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in various forest types between 460 and 1,530 m.
30947		conservation	eng	It is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30947		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai, where it is known from seven subpopulations located at Kalalau Lookout, Awaawapuhi and Makaha Valleys, Nualolo, Kawaiula and Waimea Canyon. The genus consists of four species all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
30947		habitat	eng	A species of montane rainforest.
30947		population	eng	The number of individuals has declined to about 23 in total.
30947		threats	eng	Impact of invasive plants, feral goats, pigs, deer and jungle fowl.
30948		distribution	eng	Hamakua-Kohala area on Hawaii.
30948		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree found only rarely in rainforest up to 1,080 m.
30949		distribution	eng	Only three populations are known, accounting for 10–12 individuals. There are two individuals in El Yunque. The rest are found in Río Abajo State Park.
30949		habitat	eng	A small tree of wet to moist submontane forest.
30950		distribution	eng	A total of three or four very small subpopulations are known, principally in El Yunque.
30950		habitat	eng	Mossy wet forest on summits and peaks.
30950		threats	eng	There is no evidence of regeneration.
30951		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai Island, in Kokee and Alakai Swamp.
30951		habitat	eng	Rainforest between altitudes of 1,040 and 1,230 m.
30952		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30952		habitat	eng	This species grows on slopes and ridges in various lowland moist forest types.
30952		population	eng	It is known from nine subpopulations, consisting of between 500 and 1,000 individuals in total.
30952		threats	eng	The habitat continues to be degraded by feral goats, pigs and invasive plants.
30953		distribution	eng	Fewer than five localities of this woodland species are known to exist.
30953		threats	eng	Subpopulations are thought to be declining because of habitat destruction, mainly through grazing and conversion to farmland.
30954		distribution	eng	Chisos Mts. Previous records from Mexico are erroneous.
30954		habitat	eng	Riparian oak woodland.
30954		population	eng	One small isolated population exists.
30954		threats	eng	The locality is threatened by the activities of tourists from a nearby camping ground and by occasional drought.
30955		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act and a recovery plan was devised in 1992.
30955		distribution	eng	A shrub with holly-like leaves, known from 11 isolated subpopulations, nine of which are in the Big Bend Ranch State Natural Area.
30955		population	eng	Most subpopulations consist of fewer than 100 individuals and cover an area less than 5 acres. Historical climate change is thought to be the main factor that has caused the species to become rare.
30955		threats	eng	Hybridisation with other <em>Quercus</em> species, roadway construction, collecting by horticulturists, drought and grazing are threats today. Although acorn yields are good, all reproduction appears to be vegetative.
30956		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area in the piedmont of north-east Georgia, neighbouring western South Carolina and also from a disjunct population in Mississippi.
30956		habitat	eng	The most common habitats are roadsides and old fence rows.
30956		population	eng	In total, approximately 1,000 individuals, covering an area of occupancy less than 150 km², are estimated to exist.  A survey in 1985 failed to locate 11% of the previously known sites.
30956		threats	eng	Poor seed viability and chestnut blight are also reported.
30957		distribution	eng	Two small subpopulations on Santa Cruz Island and 5–6 subpopulations in Santa Barbara County are known. No subpopulation extends over more than 10 km².
30957		habitat	eng	Occurring in maritime chaparral and pine forest.
30957		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and grazing are threats on Santa Cruz Island.
30958		distribution	eng	Known from the Chisos Mts.
30958		habitat	eng	Dry montane woodland.
30958		population	eng	It is thought no more than five trees exist. The hybrid is a product of <em>Q. hypoxantha</em> and <em>Q. gravesii</em>. One of the parents is now absent from the area.
30959		distribution	eng	Channel islands of California and Guadelupe Island of Mexico.
30959		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
30959		population	eng	Subpopulations on Guadelupe Island, in particular, have declined dramatically in recent years.
30959		threats	eng	The regeneration of the species is hampered by overgrazing in the dry forest areas to which it is restricted
30960		distribution	eng	A small tree, confined to scattered sites from Pulaski and Early Counties in southern Georgia to Lake and northern Orange Counties in central peninsular Florida.
30960		habitat	eng	It grows in very wet soils, usually in dense swampy woods, often at streamsides.
30960		population	eng	About 12–15 sites are known, in some of which the species may now be extinct.
30961		habitat	eng	A hemiparasitic tree.
30961		population	eng	Known from about four sites containing 120 individuals in total. Isabela harbours the largest population. The Pinones population was heavily hit by Hurricane Hugo, but has produced large seed crops as a consequence.
30962		habitat	eng	A spiny shrub or tree up to 10 ft. It occurs in thickets at the edge of pastureland. If allowed to, it has the potential to become a weed in disturbed areas.
30962		population	eng	A total of between 50 and 150 individuals are known from a single site.
30962		threats	eng	Vulnerable to cutting, burning and development.
30963		habitat	eng	Occurring at the margins of mangroves and in coastal forest.
30963		population	eng	The species is extremely rare throughout its range. In Puerto Rico fewer than 20 trees are thought to exist in Boqueron and Sabana Grande.
30964		distribution	eng	Known from a single site in the Caribbean National Forest.
30964		habitat	eng	Upper montane wet forest.
30964		population	eng	A total of four individuals are known.
30965		conservation	eng	The state of <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state> lists <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state></st1:place> yew as endangered while at a national level, The Nature Conservancy lists it as as imperiled. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state></st1:place> yew occurs in several protected areas such as the Nature Conservancy's Apalachicola&#160; Bluffs and Ravines Preserve and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">the Torreya</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Several populations are on private land without specific protection.
30965		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tauxs floridana</span> is restricted to a 24 km section of ravines and bluffs along the Apalachicola River in Liberty and Gadsden counties in northern Florida. Its current EOO is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; Its area of occupancy is&#160; estimated to be 24 km<sup>2</sup>
30965		habitat	eng	Almost entirely restricted to the mid and lower slopes within a few ravines along the the Apalachicola River Bluffs area.     Soils are generally moist and acidic. It occurs with a rich assemblage of evergreen and deciduous species including another threatened endemic conifer, <span style="font-style: italic;">Torreya taxifolia</span>. Florida yew is generally shade tolerant and very fire sensitive.
30965		population	eng	Almost all subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. floridana</span> are comprised mainly of large multi-stemmed individuals. Although seed is produced, virtually no  new recruitment has occurred during the past two decades. A study of four subpopulations over the last 27 years indicates that adult mortality is greater than recruitment (Redmond and Winn 2010). Individuals only persist through  layering and sprouting.   Stem densities may range from several hundred to several thousand per hectare. Small stems are particularly vulnerable to browsing and rubbing by deer.
30965		threats	eng	Clear felling of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus palustris</span> forests during the 19th century along  with selective logging of the slope forests in the early 1900s may have resulted in range reduction and habitat fragmentation during the 19th and 20th centuries (Reinsmith and Foreman 1934, Kwit  1998).&#160; The most immediate  threat facing Florida yew is the lack of regeneration; a causal agent for this has not yet been identified. Rubbing and browsing by white tailed deer is also a problem as it may lead to the death of individual stems. As hunting within protected areas is prohibited, deer numbers within these areas increase during the hunting season (winter), resulting in increased pressure on the yew trees.
30966		conservation	eng	The plant has proved difficult to grow in cultivation.
30966		distribution	eng	This small tree is confined to 4–6 sites with a few scattered individuals on slopes. The genus is in the process of being taxonomically revised.
30966		habitat	eng	Occurring in dwarf elfin forest or upper montane forest.
30966		population	eng	There are not many more than 10 individuals in total.
30966		threats	eng	The construction of communication towers and a road in the past is likely to have caused a loss of individuals from the original subpopulations.
30967		distribution	eng	Occurring principally in the Caribbean National Forest. A new locality has also been discovered in Carlos Rivera.
30967		habitat	eng	A small tree of wet montane forest.
30967		population	eng	In the Caribbean National Forest, a total of three small subpopulations exist, containing a total of 30 individuals. In Carlos Rivera, 10–15 individuals are scattered throughout the forest. There is no evidence of natural regeneration.
30968		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Torreya taxifolia</span> has been the focus of extensive conservation interventions. The majority of its range lies within protected areas. Regular census' are carried out to monitor the state of the remaining trees. An ex-situ programme was initiated in the 1980s and clonal collections have since been established in several areas away from its native habitat. Some reintroduction work has been attempted within its natural range but this has not been successful to date. Various research programmes have been initiated to identify the causal agent of its decline: these are ongoing.<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. taxifolia</span> was listed as federally Endangered by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1984. A recovery plan was formulated in 1986 and has recently been reviewed and updated (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2010).
30968		distribution	eng	Restricted to a few ravines along the east side of the Appalachicola River in northern Florida and southern Georgia. Its total extent of occurrence is estimated to be about 200 km<sup>2</sup> with an area of occupancy under 50 km<sup>2</sup>.
30968		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Torreya taxifolia</span> occurs along limestone bluffs on the Appalachicola River in a region with a warm and humid climate, occasionally influenced in winter by cold waves from the north that dip temperatures below the freezing point. It grows mostly in the shade of wooded ravines and steep, N-facing slopes under canopy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus grandifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Liriodendron tulipifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer barbatum</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Liquidambar styraciflua</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus alba</span>, and occasionally pines (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus taeda</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. glabra</span>). Often these woods are hung with vines (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Smilax</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Bignonia capreolata</span>). Another rare conifer, <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus floridana</span>, occasionally grows with <span style="font-style: italic;">Torreya taxifolia</span>.
30968		population	eng	The current population is estimated to be between 500 and 600 trees. Of these, less than 10 are known to produce male or female cones (this species is dioecious). Individuals persist as stump sprouts. Before the start of the decline in the early 1950s, the  population was estimated to have been more than 600,000. Since then there has been a decline of more than 98%.
30968		threats	eng	The most significant current threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. taxifolia</span> is the continued reproductive failure associated with fungal pathogens. Individuals do not reach reproductive size before being top-killed. Recent research has identified a previously unknown species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fusarium </span>that may be the cause (J.A. Smith pers. comm. September 2010). Rubbing by deer is an additional problem as it causes physical damage and may also be a vector for disease transmission. Changes in landuse and fire regimes in surrounding areas along with changes in hydrology and soil chemistry linked to the construction of dams may also be implicated in its historical decline. Augmentation plantings within the natural range have proved to&#160; be susceptible to infection: no naturally resistant clones have been identified to date. Population viability analyses indicate that extinction within its native range is inevitable.
30969		habitat	eng	Occurring as a shrub or tree in semi-dry forest on limestone, mostly along roadsides or in ravines.
30969		population	eng	The species is found in small populations. Between 50 and 55 individuals are estimated to exist in 5–6 sites in Guanica Forest and Boqueron.
30969		threats	eng	There is no evidence of natural regeneration. The construction of roads and houses is causing general loss of the habitat.
30970		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30970		distribution	eng	Found in the central to southern parts of the Waianae Mountains in Oahu.
30970		habitat	eng	A fast-growing shrub or tree, typically growing on slopes and gulches in moist lowland forest.
30970		population	eng	The nine remaining subpopulations occur on privately owned land or federal and state land and comprise approximately 40 individuals.
30970		threats	eng	Damage and habitat degradation caused by feral pigs and introduced plants are the greatest threats.
30971		distribution	eng	The only known locations are in Hanalei and Kauhao Valleys on Kauai.
30971		population	eng	It appears the species may be extinct from its only locations.
30972		distribution	eng	Was known from the windward side of Hakeakala on East Maui and from two collections from the ridges in Wailuku Valley on West Maui.
30972		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest species.
30973		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
30973		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from Nualolo Trail, Kokee State Park, Napalikona Forest Reserve and Mahanaloa Valley.
30973		habitat	eng	A tree of montane forest up to 1,065 m.
30973		population	eng	Each subpopulation consists of between one and six individuals.
30973		threats	eng	Invasive plants and damage caused by feral pigs are major threats.
30974		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Mexico.
30974		habitat	eng	Scattered in forest in steep, rocky places on limestone soils.
30975		conservation	eng	The land is privately owned but formal protection measures are being considered.
30975		distribution	eng	The population occurs within an area of approximately 10 km² on inaccessible summit ridges and eastern slopes of the Sierra de Morone near Juchipila.
30975		habitat	eng	Montane dry forest.
30975		population	eng	A total population of fewer than 10,000 trees exists.
30975		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor, possibly because the seeds are collected in considerable numbers for food. Cattle grazing and fires also pose threats.
30977		conservation	eng	Four of the main subpopulations are protected within reserves at   Saille, Rivière Bleue, Mt Ongone and Thy. These are all low altitude sites in the southern part of its range.
30977		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis lanceolata</span> is concentrated in the southern massif of New Caledonia with outlying localities in Province Nord on the Boulinda and Mé Maoya massifs and the Col Maré. Occurs at altitudes ranging from 200 to 1,100 m.
30977		habitat	eng	A large emergent tree restricted to dense humid rainforest on ultramafic substrates.
30977		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals with no subpopulation with more than 1,000 individuals.
30977		threats	eng	The species has a history of overexploitation. Although plantations have been established, illegal logging is still a problem. Habitat fragmentation due to the effects of repeated fires and land clearance is another problem with most subpopulations restricted to fragments of primary forest, generally in sheltered valleys.
30978		conservation	eng	The majority of the population is within a relatively inaccessible protected area on Mt Panié.
30978		distribution	eng	A species restricted to the upper slopes of the Panié-Colnett-Ignambi massif in northeast New Caleonia. Occurs from 1,000 to 1,600 m.
30978		habitat	eng	This species is only found in high altitude rainforests.
30978		population	eng	It is locally abundant and dominant.
30978		threats	eng	Currently, no specific threats have been identified. Climate change impacts such as changes in precipitation patterns could be a problem in the future.
30980		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations at higher altitudes occur in protected aresa such as the Rivière Bleue Provincial Park, Montagne des Sources and Mt Do.
30980		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis ovata</span> occurs primarily in the Southern Massif with a few occurrences as far north as Kouaoua on the east coast. It occurs from 150 to 1,150 m.
30980		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis ovata</span> occurs as an emergent tree in open shrublands (maquis) and as a canopy emergent (to 25 m) in angiosperm-dominated (closed) rainforests. It is restricted to ultramafic soils and in the maquis; it tends to be restricted to rocky outcrops.
30980		population	eng	Subpopulations are usually very small (in areas of < 2 ha) and isolated.
30980		threats	eng	Mining activities and fires are the main threats. The species is capable of establishing and persisting in both rainforest and maquis. Mature trees have some fire resistance but this depends on frequency and severity. Regeneration and general growth rates are very slow.
30981		conservation	eng	This species is represented in protected areas including Rivière Bleue Provincial Park and Montagne des Sources Nature Reserve. Northern subpopulations are all outside of protected areas and vulnerable to mining activities. All subpopulations are vulnerable to fire.
30981		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucara bernieri</span> is mainly confined to areas of moist evergreen forest on the slopes of the lower mountains in the southern part of the island. Records from Poum and Tiebaghi in the north of the island have been re-identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scopulorum</span>. The most northern population currently known is at the Col de  Petchécara.
30981		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to lower altitude moist evergreen forest and is occasionally found along stream beds. It is restricted  to soils derived from ultramafic rock.
30981		population	eng	This species generally occurs as scattered emergent trees, rather than in dense stands.
30981		threats	eng	In the past, this species was under some pressure from logging. Currently the major threats are various  activities associated with mining such as road building and waste storage and fires whose frequency prevents the regeneration or expansion of remnant stands.
30982		conservation	eng	Well-protected subpopulations exist in Rivière Bleue Provincial Park.
30982		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria biramulata</span> is primarily found in the southern part of New Caledonia although two localities are known from isolated ultramafic massifs in the north. Occurs from 190 to 1,150 m.
30982		habitat	eng	Primarily found as a scattered emergent tree in dense humid evergreen forest at low to mid altitudes and in areas with 1,500 to 3,000 mm precipitation. It is restricted to ultrabasic soils.
30982		population	eng	The total population size is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals; no single locality or subpopulation contains more than 1,000 trees.
30982		threats	eng	Open cast mining and its associated activities are the principal threats in the northern part of its range (Mt Kaala/ Piton de Pandoup and Kopeto). Southern populations, including those in protected areas are mainly threatened by fires which prevent regeneration and increase fragmentation.
30983		conservation	eng	The main subpopulations are within protected areas such as Montagne des Sources and Mont Humboldt although it should be noted that some reserves are open to mining. Fire prevention measures are in place with fire brigades and water-bombing helicopters available if needed.
30983		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the highest parts of four mountains in the southern massif&#160; - Mt Humboldt , Mt Kouakoué, Montagne des Sources and Mont Mou. A potential fifth area (Mamie) at much lower elevation has not been confirmed. Occurs from 750 to 1,600 m.
30983		habitat	eng	Restricted to the highest ridges and summits on ultramafic soils.
30983		population	eng	Subpopulations on the summits and ridges of Mt Humboldt, Mt Kouakoué and Montagne des Sources are quite extensive although there has been significant die back over the last decade at Mt Humboldt. The subpopulation at Mt Mou is much smaller and more degraded. At Mamie, in an area that represents an atypical habitat at an altitude of 400-500 m asl, a relatively extensive and healthy subpopulation has recently been tentatively identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. humboldtensis</span>.
30983		threats	eng	Recent die back may have caused the death of at least 10% of the Mt Humboldt subpopulation. The cause is unknown but may relate to drought induced stress or perhaps an unknown pathogen. Wildfires are currently the main threat. As subpopulations are restricted to a narrow altitudinal range with little possibility for upward expansion, this species may be very susceptible to some of the potential impacts of climate change.
30984		conservation	eng	Most of the southern subpopulations are within protected areas.
30984		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria laubenfelsii </span>is concentrated in the southern ultramafic massifs of the Grand Terre at 400 to1,300 m.
30984		habitat	eng	Usually found as an emergent in lower to middle-montane forest or as smaller trees in "maquis minier". Restricted to ultramafic substrates derived from serpentine or peridotite, or on lateritic soil at lower elevations. In some areas it is associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria montana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. biramulata.</span>
30984		population	eng	It is relatively uncommon and confined to a limited number of locations.
30984		threats	eng	Open cast mining and its associated activities (road building, spoil dumping) may have effected subpopulations in Mt Kaala and those in the Canala area. In the southern parts of its range, where the majority of subpopulations and locations are, fires and the associated increased fragmentation pose the main threat.
30985		distribution	eng	Small subpopulations are confined to fewer than ten locations in the central and southern part of the island with an isolated, disjunct subpopulation on the Ile d'Art. Has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,000 m.
30985		habitat	eng	Restricted to ultramafic soils along the coast and in inland areas. Usually found in humid evergreen forest, often on cliffs, along streams and on steep slopes.
30985		population	eng	There are extimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals with no subpopulation containing more than 250.
30985		threats	eng	None of the populations are protected and in places, e.g., in Plum they are seriously threatened by fire and erosion. Mining and the increasing settlement in other locations are also concerns.
30986		conservation	eng	The largest subpopulation in Montagne des Sources is within a protected area. Other smaller subpopulations on Mont Koghis and Pic du Pin are also within protected areas.
30986		distribution	eng	The species is known only from small parts of the southern massif and the Goro plateau, New Caledonia. Occurs from 150 to 1,000 m.
30986		habitat	eng	Predominantly found in maquis shrubland on ultramafic soils, rarely emergent in rainforest. Growth and regeneration are very slow.
30986		population	eng	The largest subpopulation in Montagne des Sources is estimated to consist of more than 2,000 trees. Most other subpopulations contain less than 200 trees. Although most subpopulations are within 50 km of each other, they are considered to be severely fragmented due to physical and ecological barriers that permit little opportunity for recolonization or genetic exchange.
30986		threats	eng	Mining developments on the Goro plateau threaten subpopulations in that area. In other parts of its range, including protected areas, it is susceptible to wildfires and an increase in their frequency.
30987		conservation	eng	The subpopulation at     Forêt Nord is the subject of an ongoing restoration programme that aims to protect that area and to eventually establish a corridor to the other subpopulations in the Port   Boisé area. This work is still at an early stage.
30987		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Port Boisé area in southern New Caledonia, occurring at&#160; 20 to 185 m.
30987		habitat	eng	The main population of this species occurs on a level plateau just inland from Port Boisé at around 20-40 m asl. The trees stand in small groups or wide apart among low (to 10 m) and open to dense evergreen forest or scrub interspersed with nearly black, stony areas (cuirasse) almost devoid of vegetation.
30987		population	eng	The total popualtion size is estimated to be less than 5,000 mature individuals. More than 90% are located in seven small fragments in the Port   Boisé area. The remainder are in a small fragment known as   Forêt Nord, several kilometers inland. Ecological surveys indicate that this species was more widespread but has undergone significant reduction in the recent past. There is evidence of inbreeding throughout the population.
30987		threats	eng	Around Port   Boisé it is vulnerable to increasing widlfires, occasional felling and the expansion of human habitation. At   Forêt Nord the subpopulation is within a new mining development. Recent research has indicated that all subpopulations are showing signs of inbreeding.
30988		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria rulei </span>has a wide but discontinuous distribution in New Caledonia. Most subpopulations are concentrated around Mt Boulinda and   Paéoua in the northwest or in the Canala and Poro area on the central northeast coast. Occurs from 400 to 800 m.
30988		habitat	eng	Restricted to serpentine, often nickel bearing soils, in 'maquis-minier' shrubland. Trees are usually scattered and rarely form dense stands.
30988		population	eng	Population size can vary from several thousand trees scattered over several kilometres to just a few localized trees.
30988		threats	eng	The species has experienced severe declines because of nickel mining (and associated) activities. In general, it regenerates poorly and grows slowly. None of the subpopulations are protected.
30989		conservation	eng	The entire popualtion is located with the Mont Panié Special Botanical Reserve. This covers around 5,000 ha and was declared in 1950.
30989		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a single locality covering  less than 1 km² on the summit and highest slopes of Mount Panié. Botanical surveys on surrounding massifs have not located any additional subpopulations.
30989		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria schmidii</span> is only found in montane cloud forest in the northeast of New Caledonia. It is the only New Caledonian <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> that grows exclusively on non-ultrabasic soils.
30989		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be considerably less than 1,000 mature trees.
30989		threats	eng	The small population size, limited distribution<em> </em>and restricted ecological niche make this species susceptible to stochastic events that may impact individuals or the general habitat. Potential threats include the introduction of pathogens such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytopthora</span> or freak weather events. <br/><strong></strong>
30990		conservation	eng	All subpopulations are outside of protected areas.
30990		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to two main areas on the northwest and central northeast coast. The most southern occurrence is near Thio in the south and the most northern is on the Poum massif. The largest is on the Cap Bocage Peninsula near Houaïlou. The species occurs at altitudes ranging from 5 to 600 m.
30990		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to <span style="font-style: italic;">maquis minier</span> shrublands on steep rocky slopes and ridges facing the sea
30990		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scopulorum</span> are generally small and localized.
30990		threats	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scopulorum </span>coincides with nickel mining areas and many subpopulations are in or adjacent to active nickel mines.
30991		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations occur in the Rivière Bleu Provincial Park and Montagne des Sources Nature Reserve.
30991		distribution	eng	This species is scattered on the ultramafic massifs in the central and southern mountains from Table Unio to the Rivière Bleue. Occassionally found at altitudes as low as 150 m but more common at higher altitudes, reaching as high as 1,070 m.
30991		habitat	eng	It occurs as an emergent tree in dense and humid rainforests, usually in ravines and steep valleys and mostly in montane areas
30991		population	eng	The majority of the subpopulations are in the south.
30991		threats	eng	The main potential threats are an increase in the frequency of fire and the associated fragmentation of its habitat.
30992		conservation	eng	Most subpopulations are protected in  Montagne des Sources and Mt. Humboldt Botanical Reserve.
30992		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the higher parts of the southern massif on New Caledonia at 950 to 1,350 m
30992		habitat	eng	Mainly limited to higher altitude maquis the higher ridges and plateaus of the southern ultramafic massif.
30992		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be more than 10,000 individuals in several locations. This species is slow growing and there is little regeneration in most subpopulations.
30992		threats	eng	The major threat is wildfire; some subpopulations have been effected by trail construction to facilitate tourism.
30993		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area.
30993		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callitris sulcata</span> is restricted to three river valleys, the Tontouta, Dumbéa and Kombwi, all in the Southern Massif and occurring at 40 to 200 m.
30993		habitat	eng	Occurs in dense forest at low- and mid-elevation, usually in river valleys.
30993		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature plants.
30993		threats	eng	The woodland is prone to wild fires and disturbance. One site in the Comboui valley has been logged. Regeneration has also been noted as poor. No subpopulations are within protected areas.
30994		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are known from the Rivière Bleue Provincial Park and Montagne des Sources Nature Reserve. The northen subpopulation needs urgent protection.
30994		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several small subpopulations on a few of the higher mountains in the south, with a disjunct location on the summit of Mt Paéoua in the north. Occurs at 700 to 1,300 m.
30994		habitat	eng	Generally found in the understory of dense humid rainforests on ultramafic substrates.
30994		population	eng	Regeneration is evident in places.
30994		threats	eng	On Mt. Paéoua mining and fires threaten the population. It may also be susceptible to impacts of climate change such as changes in precipitation patterns.
30995		conservation	eng	The two sites in the south are within botanic reserves although mining in one of these (Mont   Kouakoué) is not forbidden.
30995		distribution	eng	This species is mainly known from the summits of Mt Humboldt and Mt Kouakoué (1,450-1,600 m asl) in southern New Caledonia. These represent a single location under the IUCN definition. A third, very disjunct locality on the summit of Mt Ton Non (650 m asl) in the north  has been recorded based on specimens collected in the late 1970s (Farjon 2005). Since then, this species has not been recollected from that area. This locality is excluded from this assessment.
30995		habitat	eng	The species grows in high-altitude maquis shrubland.
30995		population	eng	All subpopulations are small and highly localized.
30995		threats	eng	Fires are a serious risk throughout its range. Climate change impacts could also be significant as this species is restricted to summit areas.
30996		conservation	eng	The subpopulation in Rivière Bleue Provincial Park is well protected, although situated closely to the tourist facilities and vulnerable to fire.
30996		distribution	eng	The species is sparsely distributed in two river valleys in the southern ultramafic massifs and a single northern location near Povila. Records from Roche Ouaieme (Jaffre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987) have been re-identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Libocedrus chevalieri</span> (Farjon 2005). Occurs at 150 to 600 m asl.
30996		habitat	eng	Grows in riparian habitats in lowland forest.
30996		population	eng	Subpopulations are small and localized with little regeneration.
30996		threats	eng	Fire is a threat throughout its range.
30997		conservation	eng	Several of the southern subpopulations occur in protected areas although these are still vulnerable to repeated burning. Restoration work has been initiated at the Chute de Madelaine reserve.
30997		distribution	eng	Confined to a few localities in the south of Grand Terre, with a single very small subpopulation on the summit of Mt Paéoua, 180 km to the north. No subpopulations have been recorded from the intervening area. Recorded from 30 to 1,140 m asl.
30997		habitat	eng	Only found in maquis shrublands on ultramafic substrates.
30997		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000. Subpopulations range in size from a few to several hundred individuals (Plateau des Callitropsis). At Mont Paéoua only 45 mature trees have been found.
30997		threats	eng	Increasing fire frequency is currently the main threat throughout its range. The subpopulation on Mt. Paéoua is also threatened by mining activities. In the past this species was exploited for its resin and wood. Several subpopulations were also inundated by reservoirs behind the Yaté dam in the 1960s.
30998		conservation	eng	This species is widespread in New Caledonia and occurs in several protected areas.
30998		distribution	eng	This species is common in the lower and mid montane maquis vegetation in southern and central New Caledonia. Occurs at 100-750 m.
30998		habitat	eng	Occurs in lower and mid-montane maquis vegetation on serpentine rocks. This species is not fire sensitive provided that fires are not too frequent.
30998		population	eng	The population is stable and locally common.
30998		threats	eng	In some places mining might be a threat.
30999		conservation	eng	The largest subpopulation occurs at Chûtes de la Madeleine which is vulnerable to fires.
30999		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area around Rivière des Lacs, Lac en Huit, Lac Intermédaire and Grand Lacs in southern New Caledonia. Occurs at 150 to 275 m asl.&#160; In the past it was probably more widespread but has declined due to fires and inundation from reservoirs.
30999		habitat	eng	A rheophyte growing along the edges of streams in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Retrophyllum minus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Neocallitropsis pancheri</span> and a range of other flowering plants.
30999		population	eng	A rare species with a total population of less than 100 trees.
30999		threats	eng	The main ongoing threat is fire. In the recent past several subpopulations were lost due to the construction of a dam. At the Chute de Madelaine Reserve, some degradation of its main habitat occurred due to increasing numbers of visitors. A new management plan has reduced their impact. The construction of a new hydro- metallurgical facility 10 km upstream may lead to pollution. Hybrids with <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrydium araucarioides</span> have recently been reported and described (Knopf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This species has become more common in the areas where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. guillaminii </span>occurs.
31000		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas in southern New Caledonia
31000		distribution	eng	A New Caledonian endemic confined to a few sites in the southern massif, from Mont Nekandi to Mont Dzumac and Mont Mou. Recorded from 750 to 1,450 m asl.
31000		habitat	eng	Restricted to cloud forest on ultramafic substrates.
31000		population	eng	Populations are small and confined to high, usually inaccessible, mountain ridges. There are estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals.
31000		threats	eng	The increasing frequency of fires is the main threat to this species.
31001		conservation	eng	All the known localities are within protected areas.
31001		distribution	eng	A species known from just three sites in the southern ultramafic massifs occurring at 800 to 1,000 m.
31001		habitat	eng	A prostrate mat forming shrub that only occurs in high-altitude maquis in areas of high precipitation.
31001		population	eng	Only known from two locations 20 km apart. This species occurs in small patches (colonies) up to 20 m across.
31001		threats	eng	Although all three sites are relatively inaccessible and within protected areas, but all are vulnerable to fires. In one of the protected areas (Mont Kouakouée), mining is not prohibited. Due to its ecological specificity, this species may also be vulnerable to the predicted effects of climate change
31002		conservation	eng	This species is known from several proteceted areas such as Montagne des Sources, Rivière Bleue Provincial Park and Mont Panie.
31002		distribution	eng	This species is found in isolated localities on Grand Terre in the mountains of the far south (Dzumac, Montagne des Sources), central west (Paéoua and Tchingou) and far north east (Colnett/Panie). Found from 600 to 1,200 m asl. It only occurs in association with its widespread host <span style="font-style: italic;">Falcatifolium taxoides</span>. However, it does not occur in all <span style="font-style: italic;">Falcatifolium</span> localities.
31002		habitat	eng	A small shrub which parasitises the roots of <em>Falcatifolium taxoides</em> in cloud forest on both acidic and ultramafic substrates.
31002		population	eng	Subpopulations are small, highly localized and severely fragmented. The total population size is estimated to be less than 10,000 with no subpopulation containing more than 100 individuals.
31002		threats	eng	There are direct threats from mining and its associated activities at Mt Paéoua. In other parts of its range it is threatened by an increase in fires and an overall loss of suitable habitat. It requires primary forest and is not known to survive or establish in secondary forests. It is also very sensitive to disturbance caused by tourists and others visiting the areas where it occurs.
31003		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in protected areas such as Montagne des Sources
31003		distribution	eng	A relatively common species scattered throughout southern and central New Caledonia occurring at 150 to 500 m asl.
31003		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland forest on ultramafic soils especially along river banks and in humid depressions.
31003		population	eng	The population is stable and relatively common.
31003		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
31004		conservation	eng	This species has been reported from the Nodela Reserve on Me Maoya. Apart from that, all other subpopulations are unprotected.
31004		distribution	eng	This species is primarily known from four mountains in central New Caledonia where it has been recorded from 400 to 900 m asl.
31004		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to dense montane forests. It occurs on ultramafic and schist substrates.
31004		population	eng	No estimates have been made for the total population size.
31004		threats	eng	Mining is a direct threat to one of the subpopulations at Paéoua. The increasing frequency of fires is also a threat to the habitat.
31005		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas including Montagne des Sources and the Riviere Bleue. In the north it is also known from Mount Panie botanical reserve.
31005		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Caledonia where it is relatively rare but widespread. The majority of subpopulations are in the south.
31005		habitat	eng	A small tree mainly found in the understory of lower and mid montane dense humid forests. It occurs at low densities on both ultramafic and schist substrates.
31005		population	eng	Most stands occur in the southern massif with a few, more isolated stands in the north in places such as Mount Panie, the Massif du Tchingou, Mount Paeuoa and Boulinda.
31005		threats	eng	At Paeoua and Boulinda mining activities and fire threaten areas where this species occurs.
31006		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from protected areas such as Mont Panie.
31006		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Austrotaxus spicata </span>occurs in the mountains of the center and the northeast of the main island of New Caledonia at 400 to 1,350 m asl.
31006		habitat	eng	Usually found as a small tree in the understory of dense, humid rainforest. Most subpopulations occur on acidic substrates except those on Mé Maoya.
31006		population	eng	The total population size is estimated to be less than 10,000. Subpopulations are small, usually with less than 100 mature trees.
31006		threats	eng	An increase in fire frequencies may pose a threat in the near future. As a constituent of the montane rainforest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Austrotaxus </span>may also be vulnerable to climate change impacts in the near future.
31008		distribution	eng	A species known from four localities. One is in the south near Prony and more recently the species has been recorded from the Boulinda Massif.
31008		habitat	eng	Found in diverse habitat types of maquis and forest up to an altitude of 850 m.
31009		distribution	eng	A species found rarely and confined to the southern massifs of Grand Terre.
31009		habitat	eng	Occurs largely on the coast in various types of moderate to dry habitats.
31010		distribution	eng	A species restricted to the east coast, where it has been recorded towards Balade and Canala.
31010		habitat	eng	On ultramafic substrate.
31010		population	eng	The last collection was gathered in 1860 and the species has not been found since. It is questionable whether it should not now be considered Extinct.
31011		distribution	eng	This species has been collected five times in the region of Nouméa above Koé.
31011		population	eng	Despite this being the botanically best known area of Grand Terre, the species has not been found since 1905.
31012		distribution	eng	The species is confined to a few localities in the south-west.
31012		habitat	eng	Occurring in maquis, open forest and riverine vegetation.
31014		conservation	eng	The species is included in <a href ="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.
31014		distribution	eng	A single-stemmed aloe confined to a small area just north of Clanwilliam.
31014		habitat	eng	It occurs in karroid scrub.
31014		population	eng	No field assessments of the population status have been made.
31014		threats	eng	Illegall collection and land degradation through overgrazing and expanding agriculture may have some impact on the species.
31015		conservation	eng	The species is listed in <a href ="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.
31015		distribution	eng	A single-stemmed aloe with a fairly restricted distribution in the mountainous areas of Namaqualand and from near Calvinia.
31015		population	eng	At some localities, the number of plants have declined markedly.
31015		threats	eng	Unscrupulous collection. However, it is not clear what affect this has had on the overall population.
31016		conservation	eng	The species is listed in <a href ="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.
31016		distribution	eng	Largely restricted to an area in the Richtersveld in the Cape Province. There are records suggesting the species extends as far north as Brandberg in Namibia, but these need confirmation.
31016		habitat	eng	Growing up to 10 m, this aloe is largely confined to an intensely hot and arid area. It has been suggested that this species, along with <em>A. dichotoma</em> and <em>Pachypodium namaquanum</em>, represents a keystone in the ecosystem, being one of the few perennial plants able to tolerate the conditions. It is an important source of shelter, nectar, food and moisture, especially to the avifauna.
31016		population	eng	A serious decline in the population has reduced the numbers to less than 200 individuals. There is no recruitment and the older plants are dying.
31016		threats	eng	There is evidence of baboons and porcupines gnawing the stems in up to a third of the population. The impact of goats, donkeys and plant collectors may also be detrimental.
31017		distribution	eng	A species described in 1982 and known only from the location where the type specimen was collected on Mt Ignambi.
31018		distribution	eng	A species known only from locations on Mt. Colnett and Mt. Ignambi in the north-east of Grand Terre.
31018		habitat	eng	It occurs in some abundance in forest between 1,000 and 1,350 m.
31019		distribution	eng	Oua Némi and Mé Oué in the north of Grand Terre.
31019		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense rainforest.
31019		population	eng	This species has been collected only rarely, perhaps twice.
31020		distribution	eng	A species which appears to be known from a single location on Mt Tonine.
31020		habitat	eng	Occurs in dense forest on schist substrate between 800 and 1,000 m.
31022		distribution	eng	This localized tree is known from two mountain tops: Tomauivi (Victoria Peak) and the west slopes of Taveuni.
31022		habitat	eng	It is confined to small areas of rainforest over 900 m.
31022		threats	eng	Its restricted distribution renders the species susceptible to stochastic events, but there are no direct threats at the present time.
31023		distribution	eng	Viti Levu.
31023		habitat	eng	A small tree found in the lowlands.
31024		distribution	eng	Fijian islands.
31024		habitat	eng	The species is found in dense forest between 150 and 900 m.
31024		population	eng	Widespread but infrequent throughout most of Fijian islands.
31025		distribution	eng	Found throughout Fiji.
31025		habitat	eng	A forest tree.
31026		distribution	eng	Only in northern Viti Levu, principally in the vicinity of Nandarivatu. A single collection has also been taken from the Nausori Highlands.
31026		habitat	eng	A small sturdy tree, usually found in dense forest between 500 and 900 m.
31026		population	eng	Each locality harbours about 40-50 individuals, the total population probably not exceeding 200 individuals.
31027		distribution	eng	Only found in Viti Levu.
31027		habitat	eng	A small tree of dense forest or forest edges.
31027		population	eng	The total population consists of a few hundred plants.
31028		distribution	eng	Known only with certainty from Viti Levu.
31028		habitat	eng	Dense, open or dry forest.
31028		population	eng	The species is restricted to a few localities, each containing 30–40 plants.
31029		distribution	eng	It is known from at least five of the high islands and is expected to occur on others.
31029		habitat	eng	A tree of dense or open forest, forest edges or open hillsides.
31030		distribution	eng	A fairly abundant tree in eastern Viti Levu. A single collection has been made in Ovalau.
31030		habitat	eng	Forest and thickets on hillsides, crests and ridges.
31031		conservation	eng	There are recorded occurrences in Nadarivatu and Tomaniivi Nature Reserve.
31031		distribution	eng	The species is known with certainty only from a few subpopulations of about 20–30 plants in Viti Levu, although it has been erroneously recorded elsewhere.
31031		habitat	eng	A tree or shrub of dense forest and forest edges, occurring between 275 and 1,050 m.
31032		distribution	eng	Occurrences are now recorded from Viti Levu, Ovalau, Vanua Levu and possibly Kandavu.
31032		habitat	eng	A tree or sometimes a gnarled shrub, occurring in dense or dry forest, in forest-grassland transition or forest and thicket on ridges or more open places.
31033		distribution	eng	Confined to Viti Levu and Taveuni.
31033		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub of dense thickets on crests and ridges, occurring between 1,100 and 1,323 m.
31033		population	eng	Populations are few and small, containing about 20–30 plants.
31034		distribution	eng	This scarce shrub or small tree is found only in Thakaundrove Province on Vanua Levu.
31034		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest or thickets at low elevations.
31034		population	eng	The single site known at present contains about 30-40 plants.
31034		threats	eng	Occurs within a high fire-risk area.
31035		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are located on the larger islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, and Taveuni.
31035		habitat	eng	Found in areas of open or dry forest, thickets, ridge forest and dry slopes, between 100 and 1,100 m.
31036		distribution	eng	This small tree is known from a single sterile herbarium specimen, which was collected from Ovalau in 1840 at low elevation. There is some doubt as to its taxonomic status.
31037		distribution	eng	It is known from scattered localities on several islands.
31037		habitat	eng	A tree or compact shrub of dense forest or open places, occurring between 300 and 900 m.
31037		population	eng	Nowhere frequent but most abundant on Moala.
31038		distribution	eng	This small tree is restricted to Mt Kasi and its vicinity, Vanua Levu.
31038		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense low forest between 300 and 430 m.
31038		population	eng	Only the type collection is known.
31039		distribution	eng	Confined to south-west Vanua Levu. Only two localities are known: one on Mt. Kasi where about 12 plants exist and the type locality on Mt. Seatura.
31039		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland dense forest.
31040		distribution	eng	Type collection gathered from the Seanggangga Plateau in the vicinity of Natua, Vanua Levu.
31040		habitat	eng	Trees were reported to exist in patches of forest in open rolling country.
31040		population	eng	The species is known only from the type, collected in 1947
31041		distribution	eng	This shrub or small tree is known from numerous collections from the two largest islands and from Rambi.
31041		habitat	eng	Occurring in dense or open forest or on forest edges.
31042		distribution	eng	West and north of Vanua Levu.
31042		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of lowland open forest and thickets.
31042		population	eng	It has been reported to be locally abundant, but presently appears to be confined to a few small populations.
31043		distribution	eng	Mathuata Province on Vanua Levu, from forest on Kandavu and from Rambi Island.
31043		habitat	eng	This lowland shrub or slender tree is recorded from open slopes in dry areas.
31044		distribution	eng	Known from numerous collections from Viti Levu and Ovalau.
31044		habitat	eng	A slender tree or shrub that occurs in forest and thickets up to 1,200 m.
31045		distribution	eng	Confined to south-east Viti Levu.
31045		habitat	eng	This slender tree occurs below 150 m in areas of dense, dry or secondary forest.
31046		distribution	eng	It has only been collected from the eastern part of Mathuata Province in Vanua Levu.
31046		habitat	eng	A tree or shrub of lowland areas near the sea, occurring in open forest or on open slopes.
31046		population	eng	Only a few small populations are known.
31047		distribution	eng	A species known from two upland locations on the Plateau de Dogny and in Baakin, Canala.
31048		distribution	eng	A single locality is known in the Kalouéholo valley.
31048		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest on ultramafic soils.
31049		conservation	eng	Mt. Humboldt is a well-visited and tramped botanical reserve.
31049		distribution	eng	A species occurring in two upland locations, one on Mt Humboldt and the other near Ngoye.
31050		distribution	eng	Localized at two sites on Viti Levu: Mt Korombamba and Navua.
31050		habitat	eng	A slender tree in dense lowland forest.
31050		population	eng	One site of 27 plants on the southern slopes of Mt Korombamba was logged in 1980 but appears to be regenerating. The other site, consisting of 20 plants within an area of 10x20 m, exists at Navua.
31051		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Nausori Highlands in western Viti Levu, the species occurs in small stands within a closely confined area.
31051		population	eng	There is evidence that regeneration is poor.
31051		threats	eng	The area is unprotected and the stands are open to cutting, burning, agricultural and pastoral activities.
31052		distribution	eng	Central Viti Levu.
31052		habitat	eng	Forested mountain ridges.
31052		population	eng	Very few individuals have been found and there is little evidence of regeneration.
31055		distribution	eng	A species known from just two locations in Fiji, on Mt. Korobamba on Viti Levu and on Koro Island, both at moderately high altitudes.
31056		distribution	eng	A tree confined to Taveuni Island.
31056		population	eng	The population is reported to be extensive.
31077		conservation	eng	Present in two protected areas.
31077		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations: one in Pouembout and one in Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 95 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².
31077		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
31077		population	eng	Population size is unknown but where found, this species always occurs as rare and scattered individuals. Less than 20 individuals are known.
31077		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
31081		distribution	eng	Very similar to <em>J. scopulorum</em>, this species is known from three locations.
31081		habitat	eng	Generally along streamsides in montane pine-oak forest.
31081		population	eng	It is locally common in Durango.
31083		habitat	eng	Grows in pine - oak temperate forest.
31083		threats	eng	Trees can be coppiced and large individuals are left for shade, leading to an unbalanced population structure.
31084		distribution	eng	This taxon is restricted, in the same way as var. <em>patoniana</em>, to areas where stands have been left to serve as shade trees.
31084		population	eng	The population structure is poor. The variety is dubiously separated by bark characteristics.
31085		distribution	eng	Up to 10 localities are known, but more are likely to be found.
31085		habitat	eng	A scarce species which favours openings in montane pine-oak forest.
31085		population	eng	It is possible the scarcity of collections is a reflection of the species being overlooked rather than low in numbers.
31086		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to two populations in Pueblo Nuevo, the Sierra Madre Occidental and Cuale in Jalisco.
31086		habitat	eng	Montane pine-oak forest.
31086		threats	eng	These forests are experiencing rapid deforestation rates.
31087		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, the species is confined to the hills west of Waivunu Creek, Viti Levu.
31087		habitat	eng	Dense forest, between 50 and 150 m.
31087		population	eng	It has not been seen since 1953.
31088		distribution	eng	A small slender tree only known from two forest localities on Viti Levu.
31089		distribution	eng	Restricted to Taveuni.
31089		habitat	eng	Dense forest up to 900 m.
31089		population	eng	An uncommon species.
31092		distribution	eng	The species appears to be highly localized. It is confined to the island of Ngau in Loma-i Viti, where it has been collected only twice in the hills around Herald Bay.
31092		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31095		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree which is endemic to the island of Taveuni.  Collections have been made from the regions of Wairiki and Somosomo
31095		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense forest between 700 and 850 m altitude.
31098		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji, occurring in central and southern Viti Levu and Ovalau.
31098		habitat	eng	It is locally abundant in dense forest from sea level to 1,150 m and in thickets on ridges and crests.
31098		population	eng	The most common of the <em>Cyrtandra</em> species endemic to Fiji.
31102		distribution	eng	A spreading tree or shrub, which is confined to the island of Kandavu, where it occurs on the summit and slopes of Mt Mbuke Levu.
31103		distribution	eng	It has been collected just twice, once in 1933 on the slopes of Mt Mbuke Levu, on the island of Kandavu, and once from near Lautoka,  Mba, on Viti Levu.
31103		habitat	eng	A scarce but distinct tree species of dense forest between 500 and 750 m.
31107		distribution	eng	In Mexico it occurs only in the Sierra de Manantlán. More information is needed on its distribution elsewhere.
31107		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane mesophyllous forest, between 2,500 and 2,700 m.
31108		distribution	eng	Confined to the Golfo Dulce area of south-eastern Pacific Costa Rica.
31108		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of lowland evergreen rainforest.  The few collections made so far have all come from streamsides or river banks.
31112		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the base of various isolated massifs in the north-west, such as the southern slopes of Mt Kaala and Mt Poum.
31112		habitat	eng	Occurring on ultramafic soils.
31114		distribution	eng	The genus has now been moved to <em>Pouteria</em>. The taxon has been collected from Mt Poume and from maquis in Koumea and a few localities in the vicinity.
31114		habitat	eng	Maquis.
31115		distribution	eng	The genus is no longer considered valid according to Pennington.
31116		distribution	eng	The genus is no longer considered valid according to Pennington.
31117		distribution	eng	Found in a few localities from the north and south, including sites on the lower slopes of Massif Tiebaghi and Mt Kaala. The genus has been transferred to <em>Pouteria</em>.
31117		habitat	eng	The species has been collected from forest on serpentine.
31118		distribution	eng	The genus is now included in <em>Niemeyera</em>.
31119		distribution	eng	The genus is now included in <em>Niemeyera</em>.
31121		distribution	eng	The species is known from four main localities in the regions of Koumac, Néavin and Col d'Amien, and also on the Ile de Pins.
31121		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland gallery forest on schist or calcareous substrates.
31121		threats	eng	All sites are unprotected and exposed to threats, such as fire and agricultural encroachment.
31122		distribution	eng	Found only in a small area of forest on Mt Koghi in the south-west of Grand Terre.
31122		threats	eng	The species is unprotected and exposed to various threats, including tourist activities.
31123		distribution	eng	A species occurring in the north-east of Grand Terre.
31124		distribution	eng	This species is known from two recorded sites, one on the summit of Mt. Tiébaghi and the other from an unknown locality labeled Wagap on the east coast.
31124		threats	eng	Both sites are unprotected and exposed to fires and encroaching activities.
31125		distribution	eng	A relatively widely occurring species along the northern half of the west coast.
31125		habitat	eng	Confined to remnant patches of sclerophyllous forest.
31125		threats	eng	The habitat is fragmented and reduced in extent. Fires, grazing and encroaching agriculture are continuing threats.
31126		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area in the south-east of Grand Terre encompassing parts of the Ouinné valley and along the Coniboue River.
31126		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
31128		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a few small subpopulations in the far south.
31128		habitat	eng	On ultramafic soils in the lowlands.
31129		distribution	eng	The species was last seen and collected in the vicinity of the upper Dothio.
31129		population	eng	It is questionable whether it should now be considered extinct.
31130		conservation	eng	It is effectively protected within Rivière Bleue National Park.
31130		distribution	eng	Restricted to three mountain peaks.
31130		habitat	eng	This species is a dominant component of stunted cloud forest on ultramafic soils.
31130		population	eng	The species' range is not believed to have been any more extensive in the past.
31136		distribution	eng	Recorded from Rivière des Pirogues.
31136		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
31139		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are believed to be effectively protected in Rivière Bleue Provincial  Park.
31139		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Grand Terre.
31139		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland rainforest and maquis formations on ultramafic soil.
31141		conservation	eng	This species is present in three protected areas. It has been grown from seeds and 28 plants have been used in a restoration program in the Parc Zoologique Forestier (Nouméa).
31141		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs in scattered subpopulations from Poya to Kone with a large subpopulation within the fenced reserve of Nekoro. Distances between occupied sites are (respectively and from south to north) 16, 25 and 17 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,869 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 40 km².
31141		habitat	eng	This species is actually being taxonomically revised. It has mostly been found in dry forests but some specimens have been recently collected in mesic forests. Studies will show whether all specimens belong to the same species. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
31141		population	eng	Population size is unknown. Where present, this species usually occurs as small groups of 5–10 clones. The Nekoro site holds a large subpopulation of more than a hundred individuals; the species is more discreet on the other sites. A recent genetic study suggests that Nekoro holds two distinct subpopulations, one being close to the Pindai subpopulation, and the other close to the Tiéa subpopulation. This study also shows that the genetic diversity is good and that the size of the population should be sufficient to maintain diversity if all the subpopulations are maintained.
31141		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. In one of the subpopulations (Tiéa), it has been shown that <em>Captaincookia margaretae</em> fruit production was suffering from rat predation (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus esculans</em>).
31142		conservation	eng	Artificially propagated plants are now widely available and the demand for wild-collected plants has effectively been reduced. Richtersveld subpopulation is contained within a national park and provincial nature reserve.  The species is also protected by law in both South Africa and Namibia and it is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.
31142		distribution	eng	Found along both sides of the lower Orange River Valley from the Tantalite Valley and Pella mountain range in the east to the Richtersveld, Huib-Hoch and Huns Mountains in the west. It has been recorded from more than 50 localities within an extent of occurrence of approximately 15,000 km².
31142		habitat	eng	A spiny succulent tree recorded in karroid shrubland.
31142		population	eng	The subpopulations on the Namibian side of the Orange River are inaccessible and therefore generally secure. They are fairly large, with an average density of between 625 and 1,100 individuals per hectare. Similar densities, with a range of ages, are also found on Pella Mt.
31142		threats	eng	The species has been subjected to much illegal collecting, especially in the Richtersveld, as plants are highly sought-after on both the domestic and international markets. There are further threats from mining activities in Namibia and intense grazing and trampling of the surrounding vegetation by domestic livestock in the Richtersveld.  There are also low levels of recruitment in the latter subpopulation, apparently because of insect parasitism of the seeds.
31151		distribution	eng	A timber species, which in New Guinea is mainly confined to the Bulolo/Wau region of Morobe Province.
31151		population	eng	It is not known exactly how many mature specimens remain here and this subpopulation is considered to be Critically Endangered.
31151		threats	eng	This region was once heavily exploited, logged and converted into <em>Araucaria</em> plantations.
31155		distribution	eng	An endemic species of Peninsular Malaysia, known only from Perak and Penang.
31155		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary rainforest up to 960 m.
31156		conservation	eng	The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.
31156		distribution	eng	A bushy aloe which is doubtfully distinct from <em>A. dichotoma</em>, except that the main stem rarely exceeds 60 cm. It is restricted to desert mountainsides and arid ravines in the Richtersveld of the Northern Cape and southern Namibia.
31156		habitat	eng	It is confined to desert mountainsides and arid ravines.
31156		threats	eng	Some localities are affected by mining activities and overgrazing by livestock. Limited field experience suggests there are few signs of regeneration.
31158		distribution	eng	The species has been collected from scattered localities along the Western Ghats from Wayanad to Anaimalai.
31158		habitat	eng	Occurring in the understorey of lowland evergreen forest up to 900 m.
31159		distribution	eng	Four scattered occurrences are recorded, in two cases imprecisely, from the Anaimalai area and the Agastyamalai Hills.
31159		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the understorey of evergreen forest between approximately 500 and 1,000 m.
31160		conservation	eng	Occurs in Wynaad in the Nilgiri Hills Biosphere Reserve.
31160		distribution	eng	It appears to be scattered sparsely in the southern end of the Western Ghats.
31160		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of evergreen forest, ascending to altitudes of 1,200 m.
31161		conservation	eng	Substantial areas are now protected.
31161		distribution	eng	This small tree was originally thought to be endemic to a small area in Wynaad and Tambracherry. Further collections have extended the species' range in the southern end of the Western Ghats, down to the Agastyamalai Hills.
31161		habitat	eng	Occurring in evergreen forest up to about 900 m.
31161		threats	eng	Much of the forest has experienced large-scale encroachment throughout the range.
31162		distribution	eng	Found in the southern end of the Western Ghats. Populations are recorded from Cochin and Travancore in Kerala and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu.
31162		habitat	eng	A timber-yielding species of evergreen hill forest.
31162		threats	eng	Cutting of the trees and habitat clearance for the cultivation of commercial crops have caused population declines.
31163		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
31163		distribution	eng	A species confined to the upper slopes of the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats. It grows mostly in inaccessible and undisturbed areas.
31163		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
31163		threats	eng	Some parts have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
31164		distribution	eng	For a long time the species was known only from collections taken in the 19th century from Konni Forest in Quilon District, a large part of which has been logged and replaced with commercial crops. The species now appears to be sparsely distributed in a few additional localities in the area.
31164		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31166		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
31166		distribution	eng	Known from the the Agastyamalai Hills.
31166		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane evergreen forest.
31166		population	eng	Collected only once.
31166		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
31167		distribution	eng	This species was collected just two or three times in 19th century in Travancore and Tirunelveli.
31167		habitat	eng	Evergreen hill forest.
31167		population	eng	It was once a useful timber. Recent botanical surveys have failed to locate any specimens. It is not known for certain whether the species is now extinct.
31167		threats	eng	The habitat has been severely reduced in extent.
31168		distribution	eng	Known only from very few scattered records at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
31168		habitat	eng	The species is confined to lowland evergreen forest.
31169		distribution	eng	Used to occur in Kodugu in the Western Ghats.
31169		habitat	eng	A relatively small dipterocarp found only once in evergreen forest.
31169		population	eng	It may now be extinct.
31170		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in forest reserves.
31170		distribution	eng	An extremely localized species in the Western Ghats.
31170		habitat	eng	Occurring in pure stands in evergreen forest at 1,200 m.
31171		distribution	eng	Subpopulations appear to be few and fragmented. The species occurs in various localities in the Eastern Ghats.
31171		habitat	eng	Lowland hill forest.
31171		threats	eng	There have been steady declines in the extent of the habitat.
31172		distribution	eng	Reported to have been frequent in the past, this endemic of the Western Ghats has become restricted to scattered populations.
31172		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
31172		threats	eng	Both the tree and its habitat have been extensively exploited.
31173		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from only a few localities in northern Kerala.
31173		habitat	eng	Occurring in evergreen forest between 250 and 1,200 m.
31174		distribution	eng	At present five collections are known from scattered localities in the Anamalai and Travancore ranges.
31174		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the canopy of submontane evergreen forest.
31175		distribution	eng	A large tree, collected three times from separate localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
31175		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest.
31176		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type collection made in 1859 on Sispara Ghat in the Nilgiri Hills.
31176		habitat	eng	Shola forest.
31176		population	eng	The area has been repeatedly explored but no specimens have been found in the last few decades.
31177		distribution	eng	Collected in the past from a number of locations in the Nilgiri Hills and apparently also from two locations in southern Karnataka.
31177		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen forest on slopes and river banks.
31177		population	eng	It is thought to have disappeared from a number of sites.
31177		threats	eng	Habitat conversion and possibly also fires.
31178		distribution	eng	A small tree, so far only collected twice at two widely separated localities.
31178		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
31179		distribution	eng	A small understorey tree, recorded only three times: once from an imprecisely recorded site in the Agastyamalai Hills and elsewhere from isolated localities in the Wyanad area.
31180		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from a single imprecisely recorded location in the Nilgiri Hills.
31181		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality at Nadari, Travancore District.
31181		habitat	eng	A hill forest species.
31181		population	eng	It has not been recorded since colonial times.
31182		distribution	eng	Known from a few scattered collections in Travancore and Quilon districts.
31182		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.
31183		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the Tirunelveli Hills.
31183		population	eng	This small tree has not been found this century despite botanical surveys of the area. There is still a possibility that the species may be rediscovered.
31183		threats	eng	Various developments have encroached upon and degraded the forest .
31184		distribution	eng	A large tree, which has only ever been recorded from Tambacherry Ghat.
31184		habitat	eng	It was found in submontane streamside forest.
31184		population	eng	It has not been found since 1870, despite intensive explorations.
31184		threats	eng	Forestry plantations are now widely established where there was once primary forest.
31185		distribution	eng	Appears to occur in two main areas: in South Kanara, Karnataka, and in the Agastyamalai range in Kerala.
31185		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
31185		threats	eng	Widespread and indiscriminate cutting and expansion of commercial agriculture have resulted in a significant reduction in the extent of these forests.
31186		distribution	eng	A tall tree reported from about four scattered locations in the Western Ghats. In Karnataka the species occurs in Sollekallu in Chikmagalur and in Kerala there are records from the Palghat area and also apparently from the Travancore range.
31186		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland evergreen forest on rocky slopes.
31186		threats	eng	There has been much loss of habitat because of road building, expanding agriculture and other developments.
31187		distribution	eng	Collections of the species were made from Peermade and Courtallum at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
31187		population	eng	Collections of the species were made at the turn of the century. There do not appear to be any more recent records.
31187		threats	eng	There is concern that extensive forest clearance and the spreading cultivation of cardamom have caused serious declines in population numbers.
31188		distribution	eng	Confined to southern parts of the Western Ghats, ranging from the Anamalai Hills to the Travancore range.
31188		habitat	eng	A common species of low to medium elevation evergreen forest.
31189		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree recorded from two localities in the Western Ghats and throughout Sri Lanka.
31189		population	eng	In India it was originally known to occur in shady places along stream sides up to 600 m, but there have been no records of it since 1874. It appears to be fairly common in Sri Lanka, occurring in 66 forest sites according to surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
31190		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Travancore range.
31190		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane evergreen forest.
31190		population	eng	Known only from the type collection dating to the 19th century.
31191		distribution	eng	A small tree distributed throughout much of Andra Pradesh.
31191		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest or thorny scrub, often on black cotton soils.
31191		threats	eng	It has been heavily collected as a fuelwood and its habitat has also declined in extent.
31192		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from a single collection in the south of Karnataka, an additional collection, imprecisely located in the Nilgiris, and a record from the Agastyamalai Hills.
31193		distribution	eng	Known from two locations, Chimunji and the Sethur Hills. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now contained within <em>Syzygium</em>.
31193		habitat	eng	The species occurs very sparsely in evergreen forest between 1,300 and 1,400 m.
31193		threats	eng	The location in the Sethur Hills has been converted into cardamom plantations.
31194		distribution	eng	Colleted from the Singampatti and Papanasam Hills. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now placed within the genus <em>Syzygium</em>.
31194		population	eng	The only collections of the species were made over 100  years ago. Dam construction at the Papanasam Hills and clearing for tea and other plantations at the former may have destroyed both populations. The species may now be extinct.
31195		distribution	eng	A small tree from a monotypic genus. The only remaining population apparently occurs at Theerthundamala in Cannanore District.
31195		population	eng	The habitat for only remaining population is steadily declining. The populations in Wynnad and Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu are thought to have been destroyed.
31196		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Nilgiris, the Agastyamalai Hills and a few scattered localities in between.
31196		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest.
31197		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection near the border with Tamil Nadu and from a field record on the coast.
31197		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
31198		distribution	eng	A poorly known species occurring at the southern end of the Western Ghats. Only two records are known, one from the Travancore range and the other from the Agastyamalai Hills.
31198		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
31199		distribution	eng	Known from scattered collections mostly from the southern end of the Western Ghats in Kerala but also from single isolated records in Karnataka.
31199		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland riverine forest.
31200		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Palghat Hills.
31200		habitat	eng	A large tree from montane forest.
31200		population	eng	Recorded in the last century, it has not been found since. The habitat is considerably reduced in extent and it is unknown whether the species is still extant.
31201		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, recorded twice from unspecified localities in the Wayanad area in Kerala and just over the border into South Canara, Karnataka.
31201		habitat	eng	It appears to occur in evergreen forest at about 800 m.
31202		population	eng	The total population is very small, numbering less than 200. The sacred grove of Aickad is reported to harbour four individuals and another subpopulation of 15 to 20 trees has been seen at Guddrikal.
31202		threats	eng	The swampy wetland habitat has been widely drained and converted into paddy fields.
31203		distribution	eng	Known only from Kundha and Avalanche in the Nilgiri Hills.
31203		habitat	eng	A species of high-altitude evergreen shola forest.
31203		population	eng	It appears to have become extremely scarce and has not been found in more recent decades despite repeated searches.
31204		distribution	eng	The type locality is in Sispara in the Nilgiri Hills.
31204		habitat	eng	Submontane forest (Palni Hills).
31204		population	eng	The species has not been found there since it was first discovered. Elsewhere there is an occurrence further south in the Palni Hills.
31204		threats	eng	It is possible the population has been wiped out by the large-scale conversion of forest to plantation crops.
31205		distribution	eng	This shrub or small tree has so far been collected twice in the Travancore Hills in the southern Western Ghats.
31205		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31206		distribution	eng	Known only from an imprecisely recorded location in the vicinity of Ernakulam on the Kerala coast.
31206		population	eng	It is not known whether the species is still extant.
31207		distribution	eng	Known from two records (from Coorg and Mannanthody) close to the Kerala-Karnataka border.
31207		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane evergreen forest.
31208		distribution	eng	A poorly recorded tree, in the Palani Hills.
31208		habitat	eng	Occurring in the understorey of montane forest.
31210		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Nilgiris, but also recorded from a single locality in the Anaimalai Hills.
31210		habitat	eng	A small tree, mainly known from areas of submontane forest.
31211		distribution	eng	A shrubby species, collected from forest in approximately five localities between the southern Nilgiris and the Agastyamalai Hills, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
31212		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree, poorly collected and recorded from few scattered sites between Travancore, the Nilgiris, Malabar and the northernmost part of Kerala.
31212		habitat	eng	Low- to medium-elevation evergreen forest.
31213		distribution	eng	Formerly found in Courtallum and Tirunelvelli. The area has been extensively searched for remaining specimens without success.
31213		habitat	eng	Low-altitude forest. Known to grow at riversides.
31213		population	eng	It is now presumed Extinct.
31214		distribution	eng	A poorly known species from the Western Ghats. Only two imprecise collections exist, one from the Agastyamalai Hills and the other from the Wayanad area.
31214		habitat	eng	Occurring as a small tree in submontane evergreen forest.
31215		distribution	eng	The species is currently known from two records from widely separated localities (one of which is Mysore, Karnataka) in the Western Ghats.
31215		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
31216		distribution	eng	The only collections of this large tree were made in Ariankavu and Shendurni Valley in Quilon District and from further north in the Trissur vicinity.
31216		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31216		population	eng	Repeated searches have failed to find living specimens.
31216		threats	eng	It is not known to what extent the species has survived the continued exploitation of the habitat and of the trees for  timber.
31217		distribution	eng	Existing records and collections have all come from a restricted area within the Anamalai and Palni ranges.
31217		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest, occurring above 2,100 m.
31218		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
31218		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills and Tirunelveli Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
31218		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
31219		distribution	eng	Occurring in scattered localities in the Western Ghats.
31219		habitat	eng	A tree of swamp forest and other lowland forest types.
31219		threats	eng	The swamp habitat has been extensively drained for agriculture. There is additional evidence of low seed viability because of unfavourable soil conditions and pollination difficulties.
31220		distribution	eng	Known from only a small area in the Palani Hills, Kodaikanal.
31220		habitat	eng	Shola forest above 1,600 m.
31220		threats	eng	Declines in habitat have resulted in subpopulations becoming further restricted.
31221		distribution	eng	The main concentration of populations occur along the Agastyamalai range and in the Tirunelveli Hills. A collection has also been made in an outlying area in the Elamalai.
31221		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen forest between 1,200 and 1,800 m.
31222		conservation	eng	About 1,000 km² of forest are protected within sanctuaries.
31222		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the type locality, this variety occurs on the Agastyamalai Hills, Travancore.
31222		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,300 m.
31222		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
31223		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Nilgiri Hills, where there is only one recorded population.
31223		habitat	eng	Shola forest between 1,500 and 1,800 m.
31223		population	eng	There have been no records since 1889.
31224		distribution	eng	The type specimen was found in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. A second occurrence has been recorded from the north of the Travancore range in Kerala.
31224		population	eng	Only two collections of the species appear to have been made.
31225		distribution	eng	Occurring in two main locations, the Nilgiri Hills and Anaimalai range.
31225		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of montane forest.
31226		distribution	eng	Few collections of <em>C. riparium</em> exist.  It occurs along the coast, in the Travancore hills, and Coorg, Western Ghats. This species may also occur in the Travancore hills.
31226		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland to medium elevation forest.
31227		distribution	eng	It has been collected just four times from four widely separated locations, from Bababudan in the Karnataka to the Agastyamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu, and the Tamancore Hills in Kerala.
31227		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of submontane forest.  Little is known about its habitat.
31228		distribution	eng	A medium-sized tree known only from three collections at the base of the Western Ghats in Travancore.
31228		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31229		distribution	eng	A rarely collected species from the Travancore Hills, in the southern Western Ghats.
31229		habitat	eng	Forest margins, from low to medium altitudes.
31230		distribution	eng	A poorly known species which has been collected once from the Bababudan range and twice from the Nilgiri range. It has also been recorded from an unspecified location in the Palni area.
31230		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31231		conservation	eng	The Government of India has banned the export of the species.
31231		distribution	eng	A small tree occurring in dry zones from the Deccan and west India to the north-west and Karachi, Sind and Balochistan in Pakistan.
31231		habitat	eng	Dry areas.
31231		population	eng	The unsustainable exploitation of the gum has caused declines, particularly in the southern populations. In the northern parts of its distribution it remains relatively common.
31231		threats	eng	The gum is of importance in international trade and it appears to be being extracted at unsustainable rates, causing declines.
31233		distribution	eng	Known only from the type gathering in Gilgit. More information may indicate a more serious threat category is appropriate.
31233		habitat	eng	A large shrub or tree, usually growing up to 5-7 m, between 1,600 and 2,450 m.
31234		distribution	eng	A small tree of the Khasi Hills. It is known only from the Lailad area of Nongkyllen Forest Reserve in Meghalaya.
31236		distribution	eng	A large tree confined to Makum forest in Assam.
31237		distribution	eng	North-east India. Found in Nagaland and (Khasi Hills) Meghalaya.
31237		habitat	eng	A species of open sunny places in moist forest.
31237		population	eng	There have been no recent collections.
31237		threats	eng	Both the species and its habitat are in decline because of overexploitation of the timber resources.
31239		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Khasi Hills.
31239		habitat	eng	Occurring in mixed evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
31239		population	eng	Only three of four trees are known, confined to Shillong Peak.
31239		threats	eng	Regeneration is reported to be poor and the habitat has declined in extent and quality.
31240		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Khasi Hills, the species is known mainly from populations in Sohrarim and Laaitlyngkot.
31240		population	eng	The only known locations have been drastically cleared and the species is believed to be very scarce now.
31240		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
31243		habitat	eng	Mossy forest above 2,600 m.
31243		population	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen.
31244		conservation	eng	It is afforded protection in all its locations, however even with protection 10% of the Togyu (Deok-yu) National Park was destroyed during the development of a ski resort. To reverse the decline of this species and preserve the genetic diversity, it is necessary to increase natural regeneration from seeds; for this to happen there needs to be an understanding of the factors that affect seed germination and initial seedling survival (Cho 2007). More research is needed into the effects of global warming; temperature and water relation seem to be of great significance in Korean Fir dieback, but little is known about this relationship and the direct effects on <span style="font-style: italic;">A. koreana</span> (Woo 2009).
31244		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Korea where it is found in the Provinces of: Jeju Island (Mt Halla); Joelanum (Deok-yu-san (Mt Togyu (Deojyu)); Joellabak (Mt. Chiri (Jiri); Gyeongsangnam (Mt Gaya). The actual AOO has been calculated to be <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 12 km<sup>2</sup><sub> </sub>(Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000)<sub>.<br/></sub>
31244		habitat	eng	Occurs in sub-alpine areas on shallow mountain soils poor in humus content. Its elevational range is between 1,000 m and 1,900 m asl. The climate is cool temperate, with a summer monsoon bringing the annual precipitation above 1,600 mm. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies koreana</span> grows in pure stands or mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula ermanii, Taxus cuspidata, Prunus maximowiczii, P. sargentii, Cornus kousa</span> with an understory of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sasa quelpartensis</span> on Cheju Island. On the mainland it is also mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea jezoensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus koraiensis, P. densiflora, Taxus cuspidata, Quercus mongolica</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">mandshurica, Cornus controversa, Acer</span> spp. <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus sieboldiana</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Magnolia sieboldii, Sorbus commixta,</span> and several genera of low shrubs, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus, Deutzia, Ribes</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron</span>. The forest is usually open and essentially dominated by conifers, with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. koreana</span> a minor component.
31244		population	eng	The subpopulation on Mt Halla (Jeju Island) is today a remnant of a once much greater distribution, much of which was destroyed <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 100 years ago.
31244		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies koreana</span> is facing critical population declines (Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Regional decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. koreana</span> was first recognized in 1980s (Woo 2009). The continuing decline in the AOO is as a result of trees suffering from die-back and eventual death and is likely as a result of climate change. For example, on Mt Togyu the rate of dead trees sampled was 18.18% (Kim and Choo 2000) while on Mt Halla it amounts to 6.44% (Kim<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). It is thought that the dieback is most probably the results of complex interactions between multiple environmental factors caused by global warming (Woo 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; Abies koreana</span> is also in decline due to vigorous competition from the bamboo <span style="font-style: italic;">Sasa quelpaertensis </span>and invading pine trees on Mt Halla (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>C.-S. Kim pers. obs.). Studies suggest that damage by the fungal pathogen<span style="font-style: italic;"> Racodium therryanum</span> may be a significant inhibitory factor for the natural regeneration of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. koreana</span> on Mt Halla (Cho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, 2007). Twenty years ago between 30%-40% of the subpopulation in Deok-yu (10% of  the National Park) was destroyed due to the development of a Ski  resort. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
31245		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>The subpopulation in Changbaishan (China) and the Baekdu-san (North   Korea) is protected within a Biosphere Reserve which is contiguous across the country’s border. The former was established in 1979 and the latter in 1989. However, over 50% of this area has deteriorated due to seed harvesting of pines, and systematic logging (Tang 2010). While much of the logging in the Changbaishan reserve occurred before it became a protected area, however, there is a continuing deterioration in the Baekdu-san reserve (North Korea). Furthermore, there are huge pressures from tourism in both reserves, which has dramatically increased since the early 1980s; the Changbaishan reserve receives almost 1 million visitors per annum and the Baekdu-san reserve has 200,000 visitors. In South Korea, the largest location of <em>Thuja koraiensis</em> is protected in Soeraksan (Mt. Sorak) National Park. </p>
31245		distribution	eng	<p><strong>NE China.</strong> Jilin  Province (Changbai Shan). </p>  <p><strong>North Korea</strong>. Ryanggang-do: Mt. Baekdu (42˚00 N, 128˚03’ E); Jagang-do: Mt. Sungjeok (40˚34 N, 126˚12’ E); Jagang-do: Mt. Pinandeok (40˚17 N, 125˚42 E); Pyeonganbuk-do/Pyeongannam-do: Mt. Myohyang (40˚00’N, 126˚14’E); Hamkyongnam-do/Pyeongannam-do: Mt. Sasu (39˚51’N, 127˚06’E); Pyeongannam-do/Hwanghae-do: Mt. Haram (39˚07’N, 126˚44’E); Hamkyongnam-do/Gangwon-do: Mt. Chuae (38˚50’N, 127˚16’E). </p>  <p><strong>South Korea</strong><strong>.</strong>Gyeonggi-do: Mt. Hwaak (37˚.59’N, 127˚30’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Geumgang (38˚31’N, 128˚03’E); Gangwon-do: Mt. Daeu (38˚.13’N, 128˚08’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains) : Gari Peak (38˚05’N,128˚20’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Seorak (38˚06’N,128˚24’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Jeombong (38˚02’N,128˚25’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Bangtae (37˚53’N, 128˚21’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Odae (37˚47’ N128˚32’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Gyebang (37˚43’ N, 128˚27’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Hambaek (37˚09’ N, 128˚55’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Jang (37˚07’ N, 128˚51’E); Gangwon-do (Taebaek mountains): Mt. Taebaek (37˚06’ N, 128˚54’E)</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">The estimated <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">AOO<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> of the  accessible locations in China and South Korea (12 in all) vary between 2  km² to <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 100 km². The biggest location in South Korea is Soeraksan  (Mt. Sorak) <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> which is thought to be <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">100 km²<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">. Most other locations in South   Korea have very small AOO, e.g. 20 <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">km² <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> or less (H. Lee </span>pers. comm.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">  2011). Although there is no specific information on the AOO of the North Korean  locations it is expected that these will have a relatively small AOO  and be within degraded habitats. <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">The overall&#160; <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">AOO <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">of the species is certainly less than 2,000 km².</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
31245		habitat	eng	<p>It mostly forms dense low thickets to 60 cm tall but in some locations it will form a tree to 10 m tall (Fu and Jin 1992). Typically it occurs on middle and upper mountain slopes at altitudes between 750-1,950 m. &#160;At the higher elevations it forms low dense thickets on exposed rocky boulder screes, but in more sheltered habitats, such as forests, it can form a small upright tree. It can be associated with a range of other conifer and broad-leaved species. For example, in the Changbaishan, which straddles the boarder between China and North Korea, it is associated with <em>Abies nephrolepis, Betula ermanii, Taxus cuspidata, Acer ukurunduense</em> and <em>Sorbus pohuashanensis</em>. In South   Korea it can be associated with <em>Abies nephrolepis, Sorbus commixta, Prunus padus, Betula ermanii, Quercus mongolica</em> and <em>Acer tschonoskii </em>var.<em> rubripes </em>and with<em> Rhododendron schlippenbachii </em>and<em> R. yedoensis </em>(M. Gardner pers. obs.).<em> </em>Other conifer associates include<em> Pinus pumila, Picea koraiensis, P. jezoensis, Pinus koraiensis </em>and<em> P. sibirica</em>. It appears to avoid rocks of volcanic origin and grows most abundantly on exposed, granitic slopes and crags with acidic skeletal soil.</p>
31245		population	eng	<span lang="EN-US">The subpopulation in Changbaishan straddles the border between China and North Korea, this and the seven other North Korean locations have a fragmented distribution and typically are restricted to upper slopes of mountains. In South Korea there is less fragmentation with most locations clustered along the Taebaek Mountains. It is notable that locations throughout the global population have few or no sexually mature individuals, for example, even the relatively large subpopulation in the Chinese sector of the <span lang="EN-US">Changbaishan is estimated to have only 15 mature individuals.&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></span></span></span></span>
31245		threats	eng	<p>The forests where the subpopulation in Changbaishan (China) and the Baekdu-san (North Korea)&#160; occur regularly suffer from wind-blow and of particular note is the damage caused in 1987 (Tang 2010). Although logging is strictly prohibited in the Chinese sector of this Biosphere, there has been a 50% loss of primary forest and 75% loss of the primary forest landscape in the core area up to 2007 in the North Korean sector (Tang 2010). Such a loss is suspected to have had a detrimental effect on the <em>Thuja</em> although there is no documented evidence for this. There is no specific information about the state of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thuja</span> habitats in six other locations in North Korea but we have assumed that as a result of <a name="00-intro">a</a> 30.9% loss of forest cover within the last two decades (UNEP 2003, Hayes 2009), at least some of these are likely to have been affected. In South Korea some important habitats are in protected areas, but most locations are very small and with few or no mature individuals. A recent survey of these locations failed to observe any sort of regeneration and could not locate plants on Mt. Hwaak due to disturbance from military buildings (H. Lee pers. comm. 2011).</p>
31246		distribution	eng	Occurring in northern and southern parts of Chatienshan and in smaller populations in Tungshan and Agushan in Ilan County. The species is morphologically similar to and may turn out to be synonymous with <em>F. lucida</em> from the central provinces of China.
31246		habitat	eng	The Taiwan beech is found in broadleaved submontane forest.
31246		population	eng	Subpopulations are largely made up of old individuals.
31246		threats	eng	Trees are slow-growing and regeneration is poor, depending on the creation of gaps which are currently being invaded by alpine bamboo and broadleaved species.
31247		distribution	eng	The morphological similarity of the species to <em>P. formosana</em> and the existence of intermediate forms raise some doubt as to its current taxonomic status. Both species are confined to the Hengchun Peninsula, this taxon occurring in localities in Tawu and Chinshuiying.
31247		habitat	eng	Lowland broadleaved forest.
31247		threats	eng	The subpopulations are small and little regeneration has been noted.
31248		distribution	eng	Central and northern parts of the main mountain range. There are two other members of the genus, which occur in China and North America.
31248		habitat	eng	A relict species confined to mixed evergreen forest above 1,200 m.
31248		threats	eng	Regeneration is rare and confined to gaps in the forest. Germinating seeds are frequently eaten by birds.
31249		conservation	eng	A population is recorded in Kenting National Park
31249		distribution	eng	Confined to the Hengchun Peninsula in the southern tip of Taiwan.
31249		habitat	eng	Dry forest on rocky seashores and coastal localities.
31249		population	eng	Subpopulations are small and isolated.
31249		threats	eng	Observations of poor regeneration and habitat clearance for housing developments have led to concerns for the species.
31250		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree which occurs in two widely separated localities, one in the north-east and the other in the southern tip of Taiwan.
31250		habitat	eng	Wetland areas or at the side of rivers or ponds.
31250		population	eng	Populations are small and isolated.
31250		threats	eng	A large part of the habitat has been converted into paddy fields, fishing ponds and houses. No protection or conservation measures are in place.
31251		conservation	eng	Part of the range is covered by Taroko National Park.
31251		distribution	eng	The species is confined to a few subpopulations in central Taiwan.
31251		habitat	eng	Occurring in broadleaved evergreen forest above 800 m.
31251		threats	eng	Outside Taroko National Park, susceptible to increasing housing developments.
31252		distribution	eng	Restricted to the northern part of the central mountain range, this ornamental tree occurs in isolated subpopulations.
31252		habitat	eng	Mixed montane forest.
31252		threats	eng	The species is unprotected throughout its range and observations indicate that regeneration is poor. The effects of increasing settlement of the land and forest management activities are also threatening some subpopulations.
31253		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree, endemic to Taiwan and widely scattered in the northern half of the central mountain range.
31253		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest between 1,600 and 2,800 m.
31254		conservation	eng	Outside protected areas felling and forest management activities pose threats.
31254		distribution	eng	The species is scattered in isolated subpopulations in the central and northern parts of Taiwan.
31254		habitat	eng	Occurring in mixed evergreen forest, sometimes cloud forest, at medium elevations.
31254		threats	eng	Part of the range is covered by Shueipa National Park.
31255		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of this species occur within protected areas. The Government of China has recently (in 2001) imposed a ban on all logging in China. In Taiwan it occurs in the Yushan National Park. In Viet Nam the population is currently not within a protected area, however, the provincial Forest Protection Department and Flora and Fauna International are currently working on a community based conservation project in an attempt to ensure its in-situ conservation. Seed collections aimed at providing material for restoration work as well as seed banking and utilization trials have been undertaken in Vietnam (Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). Plantations and seed orchards have been established in Taiwan and to a more limited extent in Yunnan. A recently discovered large subpopulation (at least 10,00 mature individuals) in southern Taiwan is relatively secure due to its extreme inaccessibility and the fact that the whole area of the Holy Lake is considered as a Holy Land by the local people.
31255		distribution	eng	In mainland China, this species is currently known from several localities on the divide between the Nu Jiang (Salween) in extreme NW Yunnan and SE Xizang [Tibet] as well as the Nmai in extreme NE Myanmar [Burma]. This current distribution reflects a recent history of intense exploitation within the last 100 years in the southern parts of the Gaoligong Mountains in China and Myanmar. A locality on the Nu Jiang - Jin Jiang divide needs further verification. In all other areas of China this species is very likely not indigenous. In Taiwan, its natural distribution is spread across the central mountains of the island.  In Viet Nam it is only known from one locality in the southern part of the Hoang Lien Range. This was discovered in 2001.
31255		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Taiwania </span>is a conifer of montane forests at altitudes from 1,750 m to 2,900 m asl.</p><p>In Taiwan it grows in the cool temperate coniferous forest belt with <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecyparis obtusa</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">formosana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. formosensis</span> as codominant species and more scattered occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calocedrus formosana, Cunninghamia konishii, Picea morrisonicola, Pseudotsuga sinensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga chinensis</span>. Angiosperm trees are common but scattered, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanopsis, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Trochodendron aralioides</span>, while shrubs such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Camellia brevistyla, Eurya, Rhododendron</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vaccinium</span> are more abundant and the bamboo <span style="font-style: italic;">Yushania niitakayamensis</span> can cover large areas. </p>  <p>In Yunnan and across the border in Myanmar [Burma] it occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga dumosa, Taxus wallichiana </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Torreya grandis</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> in the understorey. All the trees are densely hung with the lichen <span style="font-style: italic;">Usnea longissima</span> and mosses and leafy liverworts cover trunks and branches. Some angiosperm trees are mixed in and become more abundant at lower altitudes, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, Castanopsis, Lithocarpus, Quercus, Magnolia, Schima</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus</span>, and in the understorey <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron </span>and many other shrubs are abundant.</p>  <p>In Viet   Nam it is scattered in remnants of montane evergreen forest dominated by Fagaceae, Lauraceae and some Magnoliaceae, with only one other large conifer, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fokienia hodginsii</span>, common. </p>  Throughout its distribution, <span style="font-style: italic;">Taiwania</span> is an emergent, usually forming small groves in sheltered side valleys. It can attain an age of 1,600+ (probably over 2,000) years and belongs ecologically to those conifers which through longevity and canopy emergence survive all other forest trees, 'waiting' for episodal forest disturbance (most likely fire but possibly also landslides) to regenerate. The forest soils are yellow and red acidic derivatives of granitic or metamorphic rocks. The climate is strongly influenced by monsoons, with annual precipitation exceeding 4,000 mm in China, but at about 3,000 mm in Viet   Nam. Reports of this species from other areas in China (Fu and Jin 1992, Flora of China 4 1999) do not refer to this type of extremely wet monsoon forest and it is very unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Taiwania</span> is indigenous there.
31255		population	eng	<p>The Vietnamese population is estimated to be around 100 trees within an area of less than 3 km².</p>  <p>The Chinese population has been estimated to number 55,275 in three provinces although this includes trees from subpopulations in provinces apart from Yunnan that are not considered to be indigenous for the purposes of this assessment. It is also uncertain how many of these are mature individuals.<br/></p>  <p>Accurate information on population size and trends for Myanmar is not available although extensive logging is known to have taken place on the western slopes of the Gaoligong mountains and in the area of the Nmai River. Given the high value of its timber, it is very likely that at least some subpopulations have recently been logged (Global Witness 2005, 2009).</p>  <p>The population in Taiwan is estimated to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, largely as a result of recent discoveries in SE Taiwan.</p>
31255		threats	eng	<a style="mso-comment-reference:c_1;mso-comment-date: 20101216T0152">In Yunnan many stands of old growth <span style="font-style: italic;">Taiwania </span>were still exploited until recently; the logging ban now imposed by the government of China may have called a halt to this. In</a><span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a> Taiwan the establishment of Yushan National   Park in 1984 protected several natural stands of trees, but many had been felled by that time. In Viet Nam, the small population is Critically Endangered, because the forest remnants in which it still occurs are acutely threatened by deliberately set fires in the area to convert the forest to grazing lands. This subpopulation has also suffered from felling; it is estimated that perhaps as much as 80% of its habitat has already been destroyed (A. Farjon pers. obs. 2002). In Myanmar, extensive logging has occurred on the western slopes of the Gaoligong Mountains and it is highly likely that this species will have been targeted wherever possible due to the value of its timber.
31256		distribution	eng	Similar to other species such as <em>Taiwania</em>, this forest tree has Yunnan and Taiwan subpopulations, each possibly representing separate species. The Yunnan taxon may be considered as <em>Schefflera shweliensis</em>. Regeneration is noted to occur after earthquakes.
31257		conservation	eng	There are protected populations within Yushan and Taroko National Parks.
31257		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of forest above 1,800 m.
31257		population	eng	Widely distributed but locally very scarce.
31257		threats	eng	The habitat has been subject to extensive conversion into agricultural crops, commercial plantations and settlements.
31258		conservation	eng	There is a protected population in Yushan National Park (Taiwan). Some populations are recorded from Pu Mat, Pu Hoat and Xuan Lien nature reserves in Viet Nam. In Nghe An (Viet Nam), a research project is underway to determine the full extent of its distribution within the province and to study its biology and ecology. <em>Cunninghamia lanceolata</em> should not be planted in the districts with natural populations of <em>C. konishii</em> due to the risk of hybridisation.
31258		distribution	eng	Northern and central Taiwan. Recently the species has apparently been found in two small stands in the wild, in Houa Phan Province in northern Lao and at Bu Huong Mt in Viet Nam. The species is sometimes known as a variety or form of <em>C. lanceolata</em>.
31258		habitat	eng	A good-quality timber tree, which is mainly known from occurrences in evergreen submontane forest. Altitudinal range: 960 to 2,000 m.
31258		threats	eng	Many stands have been destroyed by felling and replaced with commercial plantations in Taiwan. Heavily exploited in the past, currently it is used locally for house construction as its wood is resistant to rot and termites and is easily worked. Deforestation caused by shifting cultivation is a problem in some areas (e.g., parts of Viet Nam).
31259		conservation	eng	The entire species' range is contained within Kenting National Park.
31259		distribution	eng	Hengchun Peninsula at the southern tip of Taiwan.
31259		habitat	eng	A potentially valuable ornamental shrub, which is restricted to areas of evergreen forest on raised coral reef.
31259		threats	eng	Populations are very small and suffering from poor regeneration.
31260		distribution	eng	Populations are found at distant localities, in Tatachia, Nengkaoyueh and Tienchin.
31260		habitat	eng	A species which is restricted to a narrow altitudinal range, occurring in open rocky habitats between 2,700 and 2,900 m.
31260		threats	eng	There is little sign of regeneration.
31261		conservation	eng	Kenting National Park covers part of the range.
31261		distribution	eng	A species at the most southerly limit of the family's range, in southern Taiwan from Taitung to the Hengchun Peninsula.
31261		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of lowland broadleaved forest.
31261		population	eng	Subpopulations are healthy but fragmented.
31261		threats	eng	Outside the national park encroaching settlements are causing loss of habitat.
31262		conservation	eng	A reserve has been set up specifically to help conserve the taxon. It is also protected under the Cultural Heritage Preservation Law.
31262		distribution	eng	A close relative of <em>K. davidiana</em> in Yunnan, known from localities in the north and south, separated by 300 km.
31262		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31262		population	eng	The populations are small, numbering fewer than 150 mature trees.
31262		threats	eng	The lowland forest habitat is commonly invaded by broadleaved species, leading to very poor regeneration
31263		conservation	eng	The location is contained within Kenting National Park.
31263		distribution	eng	The notes under <em>P. dodonaeifolia</em> are relevant here. Both taxa are restricted to the Hengchun Peninsula and are morphologically closely related. The population is confined to the windward slopes of Nanjenshan.
31263		population	eng	This species is based on a single population of fewer than 50 individuals.
31263		threats	eng	Seed crops appear to be poor and heavily predated by squirrels. Little regeneration is evident.
31264		conservation	eng	All populations are contained within Kenting National Park.
31264		distribution	eng	A species which is confined to the Hengchun Peninsula, south of Fengkang, in small subpopulations.
31264		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland dry forest.
31264		threats	eng	Local people frequently collect wood for charcoal production. The habitat is also believed to be declining because of encroaching settlements and grazing.
31265		conservation	eng	The species is covered by Taiwan's Cultural Heritage Preservation Law and a reserve has been set up specifically to conserve the remaining populations.
31265		distribution	eng	The species was previously recognized as a variant of <em>A. argotaenia</em>. Populations restricted to four localities of cloud forest in the Hengchan Peninsula: Tawu, Kutzulunshan, Chachayalaishan and Lilungshan.
31265		population	eng	Populations are small.
31266		conservation	eng	Partially contained within Kenting National Park.
31266		distribution	eng	Confined to the southern part of the Hengchun Peninsula.
31266		habitat	eng	A tree of dry lowland forest.
31266		threats	eng	Increasing human activities, agriculture and settlement have caused extensive habitat losses.
31267		conservation	eng	No protection or conservation measures appear to be in place.
31267		distribution	eng	Populations are known from Weixi, Lijiang and Degin in north-west Yunnan.
31267		habitat	eng	A species of mixed montane forest or cloud forest, occurring between 2,800 and 3,200 m.
31267		population	eng	Rapid declines in numbers have been recorded.
31267		threats	eng	Extensive habitat loss and degradation in the last few years.
31270		distribution	eng	A widespread species.
31270		habitat	eng	This tree species is valued highly for its timber.  It occurs in montane coniferous forest.
31270		population	eng	Population declines are not documented but are believed to be considerable.
31270		threats	eng	Coniferous forest is experiencing increasing rates of  logging and deforestation throughout the range of this species.
31271		habitat	eng	It is widely scattered in moist semi-deciduous forest between 1,200 and 3,000 m.
31271		threats	eng	A species of ornamental interest.
31272		distribution	eng	A relatively widespread species.
31272		habitat	eng	Occurring in broadleaved or mixed forest above 2,000 m.
31272		threats	eng	Habitat declines and degradation have reduced population sizes.
31273		habitat	eng	A widely occurring species of moist montane forest.
31273		threats	eng	It is of commercial interest as an ornamental plant.
31274		distribution	eng	There are scattered populations within the range of western Sichuan, northern Yunnan and (Panxian) western Guizhou.
31274		habitat	eng	Montane forest and thicket between 2,000 and 3,300 m.
31274		threats	eng	The forest has been extensively cleared and the bark of the tree is also exploited to a considerable degree.   Although this species contains the same medicinal extract as <em>M. officinalis</em>, it makes a relatively poor substitute.
31276		distribution	eng	Southern slopes of the Qinling Range.
31276		habitat	eng	Montane coniferous forest.
31276		population	eng	The species is very rare and scattered within its range. The forest has experienced large reductions in extent and the entire population has declined in numbers, especially at Neixiang. A good stand is apparently still found in Xinja Shan.
31276		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
31277		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area west of Kangding in Sichuan.
31277		habitat	eng	A species of montane coniferous forest.
31277		population	eng	Populations have declined and, as yet, there is no protection for the species.
31277		threats	eng	Forests in this area are increasingly under pressure from indiscriminate logging.
31278		distribution	eng	Sichuan and (Lijiang) north-west Yunnan.
31278		habitat	eng	The species is confined to areas of mixed montane forest.
31278		threats	eng	Extensive habitat losses and the popularity of the species in traditional medicine have caused the subpopulations in the wild to decline.
31280		conservation	eng	Plantations are being established with some difficulties.
31280		distribution	eng	A species of a monotypic family, known from scattered subpopulations occurring over a relatively wide range, altitudinally, ecologically and geographically. Its range is not clearly defined.
31280		habitat	eng	Wide ecological range.
31280		threats	eng	Widely utilized and cultivated for the medicinal properties of its bark.
31281		conservation	eng	Most of the species' range is now contained within nature reserves.
31281		distribution	eng	Ranging throughout much of Yunnan and into Sichuan.
31281		habitat	eng	The species is found in areas of monsoon forest between 1,100 and 2,500 m.
31281		threats	eng	The oil from the seeds is used in cooking and soap-making. Seeds are collected in some quantity for this purpose. Habitat declines are also extensive.
31282		conservation	eng	There are several occurrences within nature reserves.
31282		distribution	eng	Endemic to parts of north-west (Lijiang) and south-east Yunnan.
31282		habitat	eng	The species occurs in subtropical monsoon forest between 1,200 and 2,600 m.
31282		threats	eng	Its bark is widely used, and in some instances overexploited, for its medicinal properties.
31283		habitat	eng	Montane forest habitat.
31283		threats	eng	Populations in Yunnan have been reduced through loss and degradation of the montane forest habitat.
31284		distribution	eng	Yangtze River valley and further south to northern Viet Nam. It is a relict species from a once widespread and species-rich genus.
31284		habitat	eng	The species is widely scattered in montane evergreen broadleaved forest.
31284		threats	eng	Poor regeneration, extensive logging and clearing of the habitat have affected populations throughout the range.
31286		distribution	eng	The taxonomic status of the species is not resolved; it may represent a variety of <em>E. hamiltonianus</em>. It is confined to Mengzi in the south-east.
31286		habitat	eng	Scattered in areas of semi-deciduous forest between 2,100 and 3,000 m.
31286		threats	eng	In places the habitat has become degraded in the last few years and population numbers are reported to be declining.
31288		habitat	eng	Woodlands and mixed forest at 2,300-3,500 m along various river systems.
31288		population	eng	Once occurring in large stands, the species has been reduced to isolated and sparse populations.
31288		threats	eng	The habitat continues to deteriorate because of overcutting and logging.
31290		conservation	eng	In 1990, only one location was given protection but as a result of further research into the distribution of the species, six more areas have been designated as conservation areas. Further research is needed into the mode of natural regeneration.
31290		distribution	eng	<p>Endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Central Honshu, Japan</st1:country-region>; Prefectures: <st1:city w:st="on">Nagano</st1:city> (<st1:placename w:st="on">Akaishi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype>) and Yamanashi (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Yatsugatake</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place>). First discovered in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Yatsugatake</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> in 1911 (Shirasawa and Koyama 1913). In 1960 it was also discovered in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Akaishi</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Hayashi 1960; Shimizu 1992; Katsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, 2008). It has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of&#160; less than 100 km² (Kastsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). </p>
31290		habitat	eng	<p>In the <st1:placename w:st="on">Yatsugatake</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> it is restricted to lava flows, while in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Akaishi</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> it is sometimes found on soils on phylitic rocks, sandstone or more commonly on limestone. It forms small groups of trees in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix kaempferi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thuja standishii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea. maximowiczii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus koraiensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus mongolica</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">grosseserrata</span>. There is documentation of regeneration following coarse disturbance, for example the trees in the Yabu-sawa and Kaminigori-sawa sites in Todai-gawa location (Akaishi Mountains) regenerated after a rockslide about 100 years ago (Akashi&#160; 2006). Regeneration can also follow fires and logging. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
31290		population	eng	<p>  It occurs in a single population distributed on Mts Akaishi (most sites) and on MtsYatsugatake. On Mts Yatsugatake most mature trees are located in the subpopulations Fuki-sawa, Karamatsu-sawa and Senmai-iwa. It typically occurs in small, often isolated groups and there are estimated to be less than 1,000 mature individuals in total (Katsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Typically the number of mature individuals in each stand ranges from nine to 135 and the area of each stand can be between 0.5–11.5 ha with a mature tree density of about 10 individuals per ha (Katsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Some stands remain unknown due to their inaccessibility.&#160; Typically the subpopulations are often surrounded and isolated by plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix kaempferi </span>which has contributed to low levels of gene flow (Katsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/></p>
31290		threats	eng	<p>The biggest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea koyamae</span> over the last 100 years has been from logging and replanting with <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix kaempferi</span>:<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this has led <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>to fragmentation with its associated consequences. Loss of forest as a result of typhoons is also a contributing factor together with forest fires. Today the most serious problem is the decline in the number of mature individuals and the deterioration of the habitat which is having a serious impact on seedling establishment (Katsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea koyamae</span> is a relictual species that is at the southern extremity of the range for the genus; as a result it has become vulnerable to climate change and is unable to adapt to environmental changes (Katsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, 2010). In some locations (e.g., Tennyo-san) there is an absence of seedlings which is thought to be due to the effect of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sasa </span>bamboo covering the forest floor and damage to seed by a chalcid wasp.<br/></p>
31292		distribution	eng	Two varieties are in the same situation of being confined to small and scattered populations on Fuji-San and Yatsugatake Mountains.
31292		habitat	eng	Degraded montane woodland.
31292		threats	eng	Both the habitat and the tree have been overexploited. Much of the habitat remains degraded and regeneration is poor.
31293		distribution	eng	As with var. <em>maximowiczii</em> this taxon is confined to small and scattered populations on Fuji-San and Yatsugatake Mountains.
31293		habitat	eng	Degraded montane woodland.
31293		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the tree and the habitat has occurred in the past. Much of the habitat remains degraded and regeneration is poor.
31294		distribution	eng	In Korea it is widespread and common. In Taiwan the species is only known to occur in two forest localities at Tungshih and Tawu Mt. The first consists of only a few trees and at Tawu trees are scattered over an area of about 200 ha.
31294		population	eng	Regeneration appears to be occurring.
31295		distribution	eng	Known from only one locality (Klang Gates Ridge) in Selangor.
31295		habitat	eng	Uncommon shrub or small tree known from a quartzite ridge in hill forest.
31296		conservation	eng	Costan Rican populations are confined to protected areas. The species is listed on Appendix II of  <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
31296		distribution	eng	In Costa Rica occurrences are very scarce and confined to protected areas. Similarly in Panama, the species is restricted to Darién and San Blas, where populations appear to be in a poor state with little evidence of regeneration. Subpopulations extend into the Chocó in Colombia. There may some confusion with subpopulations of the closely related species, <em>C. amygdaliforme</em>.
31296		habitat	eng	The species is known from scattered populations in lowland evergreen rainforest.
31296		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation of the timber are reported to be high but there are differences in opinion as to whether timber trade is a serious threat to the species. Habitat loss has, however, been severe.
31297		distribution	eng	Confined to the central region of Panama, extending a little to the east.
31297		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
31297		population	eng	It appears to be fairly common in Santa Rita, Colón, becoming rarer in other localities.
31297		threats	eng	Parts of the range come under heavy pressure from increasing settlement of the area and related activities.
31298		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas.
31298		distribution	eng	The species is found in small localities along the road from El Llano to Cartí-Tupile in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve. Other undetermined collections, suspected to be this species, come from the east, including some from Chagres National Park and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
31298		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest or woodlands.
31298		threats	eng	Within the confirmed range the forest continues to be destroyed by settlement, agriculture, farming and burning.
31299		conservation	eng	A large part of the range coincides with protected areas in both countries
31299		distribution	eng	Occurring in west Panama and throughout Costa Rica.
31299		habitat	eng	A widespread high-altitude species.
31299		population	eng	The great number of collections and observations indicate that the populations are relatively extensive.
31299		threats	eng	Outside protected areas, there is increasing agriculture and settlement of the land.
31300		conservation	eng	Some populations are contained within Volcán Barú and La Amistad National Parks.
31300		habitat	eng	Although the species occupies a smaller altitudinal range than <em> V. costaricanum</em> it is similar in being widely distributed at high altitudes.
31300		population	eng	Populations appear to be large and show good recruitment.
31300		threats	eng	Some populations are affected by logging and encroaching agriculture and settlement.
31301		distribution	eng	Punta Mona, La Selva, Golfo Duce  in Costa Rica, near Almirante, Bocas del Toro in Panama and in an increasing number of other countries.
31301		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest.
31302		distribution	eng	Closely related to <em>H. didymantha</em>, the species occurs from Guatemala to Coclé in Panama.
31302		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
31304		distribution	eng	Occurs in the resort of Arzni, Mt Aragaz, and the Ervard Ravine, Armenia.
31304		habitat	eng	A shrub reaching 3 m in height, restricted to dry, stony slopes.
31305		distribution	eng	The species is apparently quite widespread but the range is confused by populations which may have been planted. It is very slow-growing. Occurs from 300 to 3,300 m in China.
31305		threats	eng	Considered threatened in Uzbekistan (lack of seed production).
31308		distribution	eng	So far the species has been recorded from two disjunct locations, one at an imprecise locality labeled Wagap on the east coast and the other on ultramafic substrates at Prony in the Dumbéa Valley in the south-west.
31309		conservation	eng	Montagne des Sources is a Strict Nature Reserve and provides effective protection for the population.
31309		distribution	eng	Various ultramafic massifs in the south, including Mt Humboldt, Pic du Rocher, Montagne des Sources.
31309		habitat	eng	A bushy shrub or tree occurring in the high-altitude maquis.
31310		distribution	eng	Known from only a few locations near the south-east coast, e.g., Yaté.
31310		habitat	eng	The species occurs in remnants of hilly maquis or low forest.
31310		threats	eng	Mining activities and fires are the most serious threats.
31311		distribution	eng	Collected three times from Prony Bay, most recently in 1869.
31311		population	eng	The species has not been found this century despite regular surveys in the area.
31312		distribution	eng	Very few stands remain in Sulawesi, it is thought to be almost extinct in Sabah, and it is considered to be rare or vulnerable in Peninsular Malaysia, Kalimantan and Sri Lanka. In Papua New Guinea, this species is restricted to the heavily logged Oriomo River in the Western Province, where it is possibly now extinct.
31312		habitat	eng	A fairly large tree mainly found scattered within coastal forests.
31312		threats	eng	The species has been heavily exploited for its beautiful timber, which is in great demand and realises high prices. Supplies are limited and trade and export are minimal.  It is threatened further by poor natural regeneration and lack of replanting.
31313		conservation	eng	The conservation status of the species is based on the rate of habitat conversion and loss.
31313		distribution	eng	It is recorded in the sacred forest of Sanggen, Bali, and some forest reserves.
31313		habitat	eng	A large tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.
31313		threats	eng	Habitat conversion and loss.
31314		habitat	eng	This tree is widely distributed, and locally common by rivers.
31314		threats	eng	It is commonly cut as merawan timber.
31315		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.
31315		habitat	eng	A large tree found in lowland semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.
31315		threats	eng	Habitat loss. It is one of the important sources of <em>keruing</em> timber in Indo-China and is often used as a commercial grade plywood.
31316		conservation	eng	Indonesia has banned the export of belian and Sarawak has placed restrictions on export. So far the species is only planted on a small scale because the supply of seeds and seedlings is inadequate.
31316		distribution	eng	Belian or ironwood is one of the most renowned timbers of Borneo, the decline of which was first noted in 1955. Population reduction has been noted in the following regions: Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sabah, Sarawak and the Philippines.
31316		habitat	eng	Generally a species of lowland primary forest.
31316		threats	eng	Overexploitation and shifting agriculture. Sabah and Kalimantan continue to export the timber.  Regeneration in logged-over forests is limited.
31317		distribution	eng	It occurs in east Java and was once collected on Timor in 1968. The Bali specimen is now thought to belong to <em>E. variegata</em>.
31317		habitat	eng	A species of Savannah areas.
31317		population	eng	A rare species, known only from a few herbarium specimens, the last of which was collected in 1975.
31317		threats	eng	The species is recorded in Baluran National Park, where it is potentially threatened by human encroachment and competition with the introduced tree <em>Acacia nilotica</em>.
31319		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.
31319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ujung Kulon in Java, where it is rare.
31319		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
31323		distribution	eng	Although this variety is not threatened in Turkey, it is heavily threatened in Lebanon and extremely restricted in Syria.
31324		conservation	eng	The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) is actively working on the conservation of this species. A 13 ha reserve has been created to protect the site from deer and cattle grazing one of the larger remnant populations. Conservation <em>ex situ</em> is ongoing with 125 individuals already planted in three different protected areas. Studies are underway on seed predators and a new reserve has been created with “pig and deer-proof” fences.
31324		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Poya region of New Caledonia. Its total extent of occurrence is 86 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 37 km².
31324		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. The fruit of <em>T. cherrieri</em> is a large dry samara that doesn't allow long-distance dispersal capacity. It probably doesn't disperse further than a few dozen metres, except maybe in case of hurricanes.
31324		population	eng	The population size is unknown but when present, this species is usually common. However, regeneration is very poor because of different disturbance factors, including grazing by livestock and introduced Russa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>)  as well as severe seed predation by butterfly larva. Recruitment is close to zero and subpopulations mostly consist of adult trees.
31324		threats	eng	An important threat is the impact of introduced Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) and cattle that intensively graze on this species and strongly affect its regeneration. Predation of the seeds by the butterfly larva also contributes to the almost total absence of natural regeneration of <em>T. cherrieri</em>.Its lowland habitat has been cleared for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
31325		conservation	eng	<span>The smaller locations are afforded protection&#160; in the Kazadagi National Park (Kaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and the <span>Ulu-Dagh Na<span>tional Park. It is included in the priority species list to be conserved in the National Plan for in-situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Diversity in Turkey (Kaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Gene Management Zones (GMZ) have been established for&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies nordmanniana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">equi-trojani</span> (Ozturk 2010)<strong> </strong><p><strong><br/></strong></p></span>
31325		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Turkey. It is found in northwest and western Anatolia near to the Aegean Sea where it occurs in two disjunct locations: Balikesir; <span>Kaz-Daghi (Mt. Ida .), Bursa; Ulu-Dagh (Mt. Olympus of Bithynia). The AOO of Kaz-Daghi is 36 km<sup>2</sup> comprising a number of small isolated localities ranging in size from 1.2 to 24 <span>km<sup>2 </sup>(Kaya 2008)<span><sup>.</sup> The AOO of the Mt Olympus location is no more than the 128 <span>km<sup>2 </sup>area of the <span>Ulu-Dagh<span><span><span><span><span> National Park.&#160; <span></span></span></span></span></span>
31325		habitat	eng	Grows in mixed forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus orientalis</span> at an altitudinal range of between 750-1,450 m. on north-facing slopes (Kay, 2005) or in pure stands (Özel and Simsar 2009).
31325		population	eng	A fragmented population, the most disjunct being the western subpopulation in the Kaz Dagi Mountains on Mt. Ida which occurs close to the Aegean Sea.<span> The two subpopulations are <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 250 km<span> apart <span><span><span><span><span><br/> <br/><span><br/><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
31325		threats	eng	The Mt. Ida subpopulation has suffered from illegal logging by local villagers (Özel and Simser 2009). There is also degradation of the habitat caused by the density of visitor numbers to the National Park, especially as a result of the annual Sarikiz Festival which is held on the summit in August; the negative effects are caused through a lack of suitable facilities for large numbers of visitors (Satil 2009). Sulphur Dioxide (S0<sub>2</sub>) from a nearby power plant is also causing noticeable damage; acid rain is retarding growth of the <em>Abies</em> and in extreme cases it is causing the death of the forest (Satil 2009). Fire is also another serious threat to this subpopulation. Although there is no documented evidence of damage to the   <span><span><span>Mt. Olympus location, it is highly likely that there will be a degree of habitat degradation as a result of high visitor numbers; the summit of the mountain is easily accessible by vehicle.<span></span></span>
31328		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in small populations from more than 10 National Parks and nature reserves in Vietnam including Bach Ma N.P., Ba Vi N.P. Tam Dao N.P., Chu Mom Ray N.R. and most of the protected areas around Bi Doup in Lam Dong. It should be strictly protected throughout its range, a propagation program should be established to supply material for plantation trials and to establish a living genebank, and seed storage should also be experimented with (Luu and Thomas 2004).
31328		distribution	eng	Vietnam, north-east India, Lao PDR, north Myanmar, north Thailand, widespread in southern China. The subpopulations in China often only occur in low densities and in remote areas. Parts of the Indian subpopulation are sometimes referred to as <em>C. griffithii</em>.
31328		habitat	eng	Occurs scattered in small groups in subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests on a wide range of limestone and granite derived soils but not on dry soils. Altitudinal range: 500 to 1,500 m. Utilization: Produces high quality insect and termite resistant timber that is used for furniture, fine crafts and tool handles. Its seed has medicinal qualities.
31328		population	eng	Although widespread, the species has become rarer. Due to its fragmented but widespread distribution it is difficult to <br/>make an accurate assessment of the current size of its population.
31328		threats	eng	Heavy exploitation, initially of the timber in the 1960s, but now of the bark and leaves which contain medicinal extracts, shown to be effective against leukaemia and lymphoma.
31329		distribution	eng	Khasi Hills and Manipur.
31329		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to remaining sacred groves of moist evergreen or semi-evergreen forest.
31330		distribution	eng	Recorded from Dehra Dun, Musoorie and Sahastradhara.
31330		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, that was known to grow on hot rocky slopes up to 2,400 m.
31330		population	eng	It has become so scarce that specific searches for it have failed to locate a single specimen.
31330		threats	eng	Large-scale lime quarrying and degradation of the habitat are likely to have contributed to the decline.
31331		distribution	eng	Found in Fen-Shui-Ling Valley at the China-Myanmar border. There are unconfirmed reports of other populations, some occurring further north along the Salween-Irawaddy divide. The current situation is not known because it has been impossible to visit the area.
31331		habitat	eng	This species is confined to coniferous montane forest.
31331		threats	eng	Habitat loss and logging are serious threats.
31332		distribution	eng	Widely scattered.
31332		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in broadleaved forest at low elevations.  It is a fast-growing and valuable timber tree
31332		threats	eng	It is a fast-growing and valuable timber tree. In China, overexploitation at a local level has caused mature individuals to become increasingly scarce.
31333		distribution	eng	Nanfengshan and Chinshuiying.
31333		habitat	eng	A shrub to small tree, which occurs in the understorey of broadleaved forest between 1,100 and 1,300 m.
31333		threats	eng	The populations are small and unprotected, in areas which are susceptible to housing developments. Regeneration is poor.
31334		habitat	eng	The species is widespread in lowland broadleaved forest.
31334		threats	eng	Populations have come under heavy exploitation and have also declined in extent because of habitat loss.
31335		distribution	eng	Only two subpopulations are known, confined to small areas in Wanli and Yingshihchien in the north of Taiwan.
31335		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
31335		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by the uprooting of whole plants for ornamental use.
31336		distribution	eng	A beautiful tree restricted to a few small subpopulations on Lanyu Island.
31336		habitat	eng	Lowland broadleaved forest.
31336		population	eng	There are up to 200 or more mature trees.
31336		threats	eng	Only a small fraction of the 200 trees set seed.
31337		distribution	eng	An endemic to Lanyu Island off the south-east coast of Taiwan.
31337		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland broadleaved forest.
31337		threats	eng	The populations are unprotected and under some threat from encroaching settlements and agriculture.
31341		distribution	eng	Now known from four of the high islands.
31341		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of dense or secondary forest and thickets between 100 and 1,240 m.
31342		distribution	eng	So far known only from north-west Viti Levu, the species occurs on Mt Evans and Mt Lomalagi.
31342		habitat	eng	Dense wet forest between 800 and 1,190 m.
31342		population	eng	Each population consists of between 12 and 20 individuals.
31343		habitat	eng	A shrub or slender tree of lowland forest, thickets, rocky areas or sea cliffs on limestone.
31343		population	eng	Populations are rare on the six islands where it is known in Fiji. It may be more abundant on Tonga.
31344		distribution	eng	Known only from four localities on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
31344		habitat	eng	This slender tree or shrub is confined to areas of undisturbed dense forest.
31344		population	eng	Each of the four sites harbours about 20–30 plants.
31345		distribution	eng	Numerous collections have been made from four of the high islands.
31347		conservation	eng	No protection or conservation measures are in place.
31347		distribution	eng	A tree with a scarce distribution in Chinshuiying on the Hengchun Peninsula.
31347		habitat	eng	Lowland broadleaved forest.
31347		threats	eng	In the few subpopulations known, regeneration is poor, seed crops appear to be frequently decimated by squirrels and other animals.
31348		conservation	eng	There are a few protected localities in Kenting National Park.
31348		distribution	eng	A species with scattered subpopulations occurring on the eastern hills of the Hengchun Peninsula.
31348		threats	eng	Outside protected areas the species habitat is under some pressure from the establishment of industrial plantations and increasing land settlement and agriculture.
31349		conservation	eng	No protection or conservation measures are in place.
31349		distribution	eng	A Taiwanese form of a widely occurring and naturalized species. Subpopulations containing few mature individuals, are restricted to the northern part of the central mountain range.
31349		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
31349		threats	eng	Declines in numbers have occurred because of habitat clearance for settlements and industrial plantations.
31350		distribution	eng	Known from the north-east.
31350		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in mixed submontane forest.
31350		population	eng	The present status of the species requires further investigation.
31350		threats	eng	The bark has been a popular constituent of medicinal products for a long time. Forest clearance and overexploitation of the bark are the main causes for concern.
31351		conservation	eng	The species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I restrictions.
31351		distribution	eng	Found mainly in Lanyu Island, Taiwan, and the Batan Islands in the Luzon Strait. The type collection was gathered from Luzon in the Philippines.
31351		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dry coastal scrubland or low forest in rocky or cliff top locations.
31351		threats	eng	The natural stands present in Taiwan before 1980 have been reduced to a few individuals as a result of whole plants being uprooted for the horticultural trade. It is also a popular ornamental plant in the Philippines.
31352		distribution	eng	Chiayang area, Central Cross Island, Hwy.
31352		habitat	eng	Mixed evergreen forest.
31352		population	eng	Only 13 mature trees appear to remain in the wild.
31352		threats	eng	The mixed evergreen forest habitat has been extensively destroyed to make way for apple and peach orchards. The species has also been overexploited in the past for its valuable timber.
31353		conservation	eng	Some populations exist within protected forest.
31353		distribution	eng	A wide-ranging tree.
31353		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous forest, occurring up to 1,600 m.
31353		threats	eng	Habitat declines have been extensive throughout the range.
31355		conservation	eng	The Chilean and Argentinian populations are listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.
31355		distribution	eng	Known widely as the Monkey Puzzle tree, this species ranges from the Coastal Cordillera of Chile to the Andes in Argentina.
31355		population	eng	The populations on the coast are restricted and highly threatened. Andean populations are severely fragmented. Chile holds the largest populations.
31355		threats	eng	Most of the Chilean populations are being illegally felled in and outside national park boundaries.
31356		distribution	eng	A species which is known from two regions in central Chile, in the Coastal Cordillera.
31356		habitat	eng	Moist lowland forest.
31356		threats	eng	Populations are under threat throughout the area, mainly from logging and forest management activities.
31357		distribution	eng	A species of taxonomic interest, belonging to an ancient monotypic family. It is known from a very restricted distribution in the Coastal Cordillera of central Chile.
31357		habitat	eng	Occurring in forest on the south-facing slopes of humid ravines.
31357		threats	eng	The subpopulations are unprotected and under threat from logging and forest management activities, fire and agricultural encroachment.
31358		distribution	eng	Endemic to lowland forest between Regions IV to X, especially along the Coastal Cordillera.
31358		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland forest.
31359		distribution	eng	Known to occur in two separate localities in Chile: Antuco in Bíobío and further south in Valdivia, Los Lagos, and also over the border in Questrihue in Argentina.
31359		habitat	eng	A species of submontane woodland and scrub.
31359		population	eng	Declines in population numbers have been reported, at least in Argentina.
31359		threats	eng	Declines in population numbers have been reported, at least in Argentina, caused by logging and  habitat loss through fires, grazing and replanting with exotic conifers: 85% of the Argentinean population occurs outside protected areas and is being actively exploited. Insect predation of the seed is also, apparently, affecting regeneration in the wild and in small plantations.
31360		conservation	eng	Can be found in Garajonay National Park. The species is listed in government legislation of 1991.
31360		distribution	eng	Confined to parts of Tenerife and Gomera.
31360		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
31360		population	eng	The populations are small and fragmented.
31361		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed CR B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008) and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species of Spain and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Two out of the eight subpopulations present in La Gomera occur within the protected area Parque Nacional de Garajonay (SCI) (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In El Hierro all the subpopulations are included in Parque Rural de Frontera (SCI). The subpopulations of La Palma do not occur within protected areas.<br/><br/>A recuperation programme is being implemented in Parque Nacional de Garajonay. A LIFE project has been developed by the regional government (Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias), which has involved several activities, such as research about the genetics of the species (González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), its propagation, and re-introduction plans.<br/><br/>Reinforcement programmes must be kept in place, ensuring a balanced presence of individuals of both genders. Physical protection should be established for the populations, as well as invasive species control measures. Plant material should be sent to germplasm banks. Research has to be developed in order to clarify the taxonomical status of the taxon.
31361		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica rivas-martinezii</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain, being present in La Gomera, El Hierro and La Palma, where it grows between 500 and 1,340 m asl (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In la Gomera and La Palma, it appears scattered, distributed throughout small isolated subpopulations. In El Hierro, most of the individuals occur in one location. It has been reported to be present in five locations, including 12 subpopulations. Its total area of occupancy is estimated to be<span style="background-color: white;"> 13 km</span>² (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
31361		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in abandoned open terraces, covered by aggressive species and partially recolonized by elements of "monteverde" (forest of laurel-like trees and shrubs). It can also grow in slopes and stream beds where dominant vegetation is the <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrico fayae-Ericion arboreae</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus turbinata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus azorica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpus foliolosus</span> (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
31361		population	eng	Its total population size has been reported to be 97 individuals (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), unevenly distributed so 82 individuals are present in the location in El Hierro and the rest in the other sites. In La Gomera, low presence of juvenile plants and higher proportion of male specimens have been observed. In El Hierro and La Palma populations seem to be stable and recruitment has been observed  (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
31361		threats	eng	Main threats are competition with exotic species and natural competition, trampling, anthropization of its habitat, grazing and predation, the construction of roads and infrastructures and hybridisation phenomena with <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span> (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The low presence of female individuals and juvenile individuals has been reported as a threat that could lead the population of La Gomera to become extinct (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
31362		distribution	eng	The species is still widespread.
31362		threats	eng	Appears to suffer from frequent fire damage.
31363		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lanai.
31363		habitat	eng	The species is confined to remaining patches of lowland dry forest.
31364		distribution	eng	Found in north-western Kauai and in the Waianae and Koolau Mountains on O'ahu.
31364		habitat	eng	The species is found in various forest types up to 610 m.
31365		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
31365		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered subpopulations along the length of the Koolau Mts, from Kaunala Gulch and Kaunala-Waimea Ridge to Palolo, and in the Waianae Mts, ranging from Haleauau Valley to Kaluaa Gulch on Oahu.
31365		population	eng	The number of subpopulations has steadily decreased. Of the remaining 27 subpopulations, the large majority consist of fewer than five plants and the total number of individuals is thought not to exceed 100.
31365		threats	eng	The major threats come from feral pigs and invasive plants.
31366		distribution	eng	This variant is known from Lanai and Maui.
31366		habitat	eng	Occurs in a unique dry forest type.
31366		population	eng	A relatively common species with three morphologically overlapping varieties.
31366		threats	eng	Habitat has steadily declined under the influence of grazing deer and spreading alien plant species.
31367		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves where it has been recorded, the tree is conserved.
31367		distribution	eng	Recorded in the lowlands of Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Johore.
31367		habitat	eng	A small tree that has a small altitudinal range (40 m)
31367		population	eng	An uncommon tree
31368		distribution	eng	A rare species in Perak and Johore.
31368		habitat	eng	Lowland forest and swamp forest, occurring on limestone below 150 m.
31369		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in protected areas, as well as any permanent forest reserves occurring on limestone.
31369		distribution	eng	This species is common within the limestone areas of Perak, Penang and Selangor.
31369		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species, restricted to limestone areas.
31370		distribution	eng	A rare tree known only from two collections from Gopang in Perak. It is uncertain whether the species is still surviving as the locality from which it was collected has recently been developed.
31370		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31370		population	eng	It is uncertain whether the species is still surviving as the locality from which it was collected has recently been developed.
31371		distribution	eng	A species known from four localities in the Langkawi Islands and Perlis State.
31371		habitat	eng	It is restricted to forest on limestone hills.
31371		threats	eng	These areas are rapidly being developed and destroyed by urban expansion.
31372		distribution	eng	A small tree known from a single collection in Perlis (Kaki Bukit).
31372		habitat	eng	In moist scrub on a limestone hill.
31373		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak.
31373		habitat	eng	The species is distributed in lowland forest, below 200 m, mainly on limestone.
31374		distribution	eng	In Gopeng, Perak.
31374		habitat	eng	A small tree of limestone forest.
31374		population	eng	It has been collected only once.
31375		distribution	eng	Recorded only in Gopeng, Perak.
31375		habitat	eng	A primary species of lowland rainforest from limestone hills.
31376		distribution	eng	Found in Pahang.
31376		habitat	eng	A species of lowland forest on limestone.
31377		distribution	eng	Kinta, Perak.
31377		habitat	eng	A very rare species of lowland rainforest, scattered in limestone areas.
31378		distribution	eng	Known from only two collections from Kelantan.
31378		habitat	eng	This tree can be found in open limestone lowland rainforest.
31379		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
31379		habitat	eng	Restricted to wet evergreen forests.
31379		threats	eng	Many of the forests of the Andaman Islands have been affected in recent decades by over exploitation.
31380		distribution	eng	Northern and central Philippines.
31380		habitat	eng	A timber species of lowland evergreen forest.
31380		population	eng	It is not abundant anywhere and the timber is available only in small quantities.
31381		distribution	eng	Records of Philippine ebony are often from forest fragments smaller than 50 km².
31381		habitat	eng	A timber species occurring in primary lowland forest up to 200 m.
31381		threats	eng	In the Philippines exploitation of the ebony has caused the species to become rare; very little lowland forest remains. Despite a ban on log exports which came into force in 1989, there have been reports of an illegal trade.
31382		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is sometimes used for mangrove restoration.
31382		distribution	eng	This species is found in south Asia including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, and China (Hainan Island). It is also found in the Northern Maldives. In Australasia, its range includes Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.
31382		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid-intertidal region. This species tolerates a maximum salinity of 65 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-15 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a hardy species, and fast-growing. This species can grow to 30 m. This species can be coppiced only in the eastern extremities of its range in Kosrae in The Federated States of Micronesia. In addition, sediment accretion increases the mortaility rate of seedlings. This species will not be an efficient colonizer of coastal areas exposed to sudden discharges of sediements such as those of highly eroding watersheds (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997).
31382		population	eng	This species is very common within its range. It can be found in densities of more than 500 trees/ha in South Sumatra with a mean diameter of 35 cm (Sukardjo 1987). In the Philippines, this species can be found in densities of more than 1000 trees/ha with a mean diameter of 6-10cm. In India, this species was found to be present in 40% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). There are two different forms of this species that are differentiated by the presence of spots under the leaves in the northern populations only (Duke and Bunt 1978).
31382		threats	eng	In South Andaman, 30-80% of <em>Rhizophora</em> spp. Died due to continuous inundation after the tsunami in December 2004 (Roy and Krishnan 2005). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
31383		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Perak.
31383		habitat	eng	A tree of primary lowland forest.
31383		population	eng	It has been collected three times.
31384		distribution	eng	Langkawi Island, Kedah.
31384		habitat	eng	This small tree is scattered in open lowland rainforest in areas of limestone, quartzite and shale.
31384		population	eng	A rare species.
31384		threats	eng	The area which continues to be developed for tourism and other land uses.
31385		conservation	eng	A population is protected in Taman Negara National Park.
31385		distribution	eng	Known under two varieties. This variety is confined to the state of Perak.
31385		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland rainforest.
31386		distribution	eng	Tasik Dayong Bunting in Langkawi, Kedah.
31386		habitat	eng	This rare tree is scattered in lowland limestone forest.
31386		threats	eng	The area is under intense pressure for development.
31387		distribution	eng	Perlis, Kedah, Upper Perak, Kelantan and Pahang.
31387		habitat	eng	A tree inhabiting late secondary and primary forests on limestone areas at altitudes of 150 to 390 m. This species can occasionally growing on seasonally swampy land.
31389		conservation	eng	There is a protected population in the biosphere reserve on the Mysore Plateau, India.
31389		distribution	eng	The common mango has been cultivated for thousands of years and now has a pantropical distribution. Wild populations can be found in Assam, India and Myanmar, especially the Assam-Chittagong Hills.
31391		conservation	eng	It is conserved in the permanent forest reserves.
31391		distribution	eng	Scattered but widely distributed.
31391		habitat	eng	Found in lowland wet evergreen forests.   The fruits of this species are favoured by the Temoq people of Pahang.
31392		distribution	eng	Wild subpopulations occur in western Malaysia, where trees are also commonly cultivated. The species has been introduced in areas with a pronounced dry season, for example, east Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, central Thailand and Indo-China.
31392		habitat	eng	Found in lowland wet evergreen forest.
31393		distribution	eng	The species is rarely found in cultivation as it flowers and fruits infrequently and the fruit is rarely, if ever, eaten. It is possibly extinct in Java.
31393		habitat	eng	A large tree, extremely scattered and localised within lowland wet evergreen rainforest.
31393		threats	eng	The lowland rainforests of Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo are threatened by conversion to agriculture and forest degradation through logging.
31394		distribution	eng	Restricted to Borneo.
31394		habitat	eng	Primary lowland dipterocarp forest.
31394		population	eng	This tree is rare within its natural habitat type. The only area where it is common is on the west coast plains of Sabah. It is found both wild and cultivated in Dayak gardens in the north-east and west of Kalimantan, but it is very rarely found in the south. It has not yet been cultivated widely outside its natural range. It may hybridize with <em>M. foetida</em>.
31395		distribution	eng	A fairly widespread species.
31395		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitat types.
31396		distribution	eng	The natural distribution of this species is possibly confined to the north of Peninsular Malaysia.
31396		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen lowland forest.
31396		population	eng	It was once a common village tree in Peninsular Malaysia and old orchards are found in Peninsular Thailand. It is suspected that the interest in the species is declining in favour of <em>M. indica</em>, although it is still useful in improving the genetic stock of the common mango.
31397		distribution	eng	Restricted to south Kalimantan and Palembang in Sumatra. It was introduced to Java, where it is now cultivated. The specimen from Sumatra is slightly different.
31397		habitat	eng	This rare tree is found in lowland rainforests.
31398		distribution	eng	So far this species is known only from Peninsular Malaysia.
31398		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
31398		population	eng	It is one of the most threatened mango species.
31398		threats	eng	A large part of the habitat has been lost through clearance for agriculture, especially for large-scale cash crops.
31400		conservation	eng	In some places occurring in designated reserves.
31400		distribution	eng	A Sri Lankan endemic. The tree produces tasty fruits but is not yet in cultivation.
31400		habitat	eng	Scattered in both the wet and dry zones.
31400		population	eng	Very rare
31401		distribution	eng	This species has never been found in the wild and its origin remains a mystery. The fruit is popular and trees are commonly cultivated in eastern Asia in areas of high rainfall, especially where <em>M. indica</em> can't be grown.
31402		distribution	eng	Widespread species.
31402		habitat	eng	A tree, found in lowland rainforest and cultivated locally for the pleasantly acidic fruit.
31403		distribution	eng	In western Malesia, this is one of the most common and valuable mango species. It is believed to come from Borneo but it is commonly cultivated in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Bali, and more rarely cultivated in Java and other countries. The wani variety is very tasty in comparison to the wild form and is a possible candidate for wider cultivation. In addition, the wood is used for light construction.
31403		threats	eng	The wood is used for light construction.
31404		distribution	eng	Islands of Luzon, Samar, Lete, Ticae and Quimaras.
31404		habitat	eng	A very scattered and uncommon tree found in wet evergreen lowland forest.
31405		distribution	eng	Found throughout India and Indo-China.
31405		habitat	eng	A tree.
31405		threats	eng	The timber is traded together with the wood of <em>Mangifera indica</em>.
31406		conservation	eng	The total population is protected under the Permanent Forest Estate.
31406		distribution	eng	Restricted to the tops of two mountains in Peninsular Malaysia: Gunung Tahan (Taman Negara) and Gunung Rabong (Kelantan). The total extent of occurrence is estimated to be 65 km<sup>2</sup>.
31406		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lower and upper montane forest on quartzite soils at elevations of 1,200-2,100 m. Individuals frequently display yellowing leaves suggestive of poor nutrient conditions.
31406		population	eng	Less than 1,000 individuals are likely to exist in three separate localities.
31406		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified&#160; for this species. However, as it has such a restricted distribution and small population size it could easily become threatened in the future.
31407		conservation	eng	Populations occurring on the Gunung Tahan Massif are protected within a national park.
31407		habitat	eng	Exposed ridges in stunted mossy montane forest.
31407		population	eng	A relatively rarely collected shrub or small tree.
31407		threats	eng	In the southern part of the species range the habitat is threatened by infrastructural development.
31408		conservation	eng	The known collections were recorded from the Taman Negara (Malaysia) and Gunung Leuser Reserves.
31408		distribution	eng	Confined to Gunung Tahan in Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia and the Gajo Lands in north Sumatra (Indonesia).
31408		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of moist montane scrub. Locally dominant in some areas. Elevation from herbarium specimens 1,590 to 1,830 m.
31408		population	eng	The two known populations are presumably small. The lack of recent collections in the herbaria is possibly an artifact and cannot be taken as direct evidence on population trends. This species is known from 10 to 12 herbarium collections only, all but one from the location in Malaysia (D. de Laubenfels pers. comm. 2006).
31408		threats	eng	Possible habitat degradation through fire.
31409		conservation	eng	The species receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31409		distribution	eng	Cameron Highlands, Pahang.
31409		habitat	eng	Occurring in hill and submontane secondary forest.
31410		conservation	eng	Part of the range is contained within Taman Negara National Park.
31410		distribution	eng	The species is found at Fraser's Hill in the Genting Highlands, Pahang, and on Gunung Mandi Agin in Terengganu.
31410		habitat	eng	Occurring in rainforest between 850 and 1,400 m.
31411		conservation	eng	Outside the forest reserve areas pressures are exerted on the tree from felling activities.
31411		distribution	eng	Kelanatan and Terengganu.
31411		habitat	eng	Lowland and submontane forest, commonly found upon ridges.
31412		conservation	eng	It is believed to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of these states.
31412		distribution	eng	Found scattered in Penang, Kedah and Perak.
31412		habitat	eng	A lowland species of primary forests.
31413		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves of Perak it is conserved.
31413		distribution	eng	Has only been recorded in Penang and Perak.
31413		habitat	eng	A tropical, lowland species.
31414		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in protected forests, and also Taman Negara national park.
31414		distribution	eng	Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang.
31414		habitat	eng	This tree commonly occurs on mountain ridges.
31415		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in the productive forests of these states.
31415		distribution	eng	Known to only occur in the states of Kedah and Penang.
31415		habitat	eng	A tropical lowland species.
31415		population	eng	Within the areas of it's occurrence, distribution is common.
31416		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of the previously mentioned states, the species is conserved.
31416		distribution	eng	Widely distributed within the states of Perak and Pahang.
31416		habitat	eng	A lowland tree species that occurs in primary forest.
31416		threats	eng	The entire plant is used for ornamental purposes, at a national or local trade level.
31417		conservation	eng	Maxwell's Hill is a protected area.
31417		distribution	eng	Maxwell's Hill, Perak.
31417		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forest.
31417		population	eng	A locally common tree.
31418		conservation	eng	Within permanent forest reserves, the species is conserved.
31418		distribution	eng	Found on the east coast of Pahang, Jahore and Terengganu.
31418		habitat	eng	A lowland tree.
31418		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
31418		threats	eng	The entire plant is used for ornamental purposes and traded on a national or local scale.
31419		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.
31419		distribution	eng	Found in most states of Peninsular Malaysia.
31419		habitat	eng	A commonly occurring hill and lowland tree species.
31419		threats	eng	Locally used for ornamental purposes.
31420		habitat	eng	A very localised species found in lowland dipterocarp forest on coastal hills.
31421		distribution	eng	A large tree endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31421		habitat	eng	Found on coastal hills.
31422		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31422		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to hill forest.
31424		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are found within forest reserves.
31424		distribution	eng	A tree which is restricted to eastern Johore.
31424		habitat	eng	Often on hill ridges.
31425		distribution	eng	Endemic to south Johore.
31425		habitat	eng	This dipterocarp species occurs on well-drained lowland forest.
31425		population	eng	Under severe threat of extinction.
31426		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31426		habitat	eng	This tree is often found on flat and hilly well-drained land.
31426		population	eng	The species is relatively abundant in Pahang.
31427		conservation	eng	The population is almost entirely within a Permanent Reserved Forest gazetted under the National Forestry Act 1984 and zoned for recreational use.
31427		distribution	eng	A small tree, which is confined to a single location in Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Extent of occurrence is estimated at 5 km².  Area of occupancy is estimated at 0.5 km².
31427		habitat	eng	Occupies moist lowland forest in valleys and on low ridges (Symington 2005).
31427		population	eng	A recent census (Chua <em>et al.</em> 2004) found a total of 444 individual stems (>1 cm dbh) of the species in and adjacent to the 478-ha Kanching Forest Reserve.  These were divided into two subpopulations - the first with 267 stems (>1 cm dbh) and the second with 177 stems (>1 cm dbh).  On the assumption that individuals reached maturity at 13.7 cm dbh, there were 49 mature individuals in the first sub-population and 32 mature individuals in the second subpopulation, giving a total of 81 mature individuals (18.35% of the population).
31427		threats	eng	The main threats are clear-cutting, selective logging, and habitat destruction caused by human settlement. The tree probably never reaches timber size but may make a useful pole (Symington 2005).
31428		distribution	eng	By Gunung Perak and Gunung Pahang.
31428		habitat	eng	A locally abundant tree found on undulating land and low spurs up to 150 m.  The species is common along river basins.
31429		distribution	eng	A gregarious tree.
31429		habitat	eng	Restricted to forested ridges.
31429		population	eng	Locally common.
31430		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31430		habitat	eng	A tree scattered throughout the lowland dipterocarp forest.
31430		threats	eng	Timber exploitation.
31431		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31431		habitat	eng	This tree is locally common in deep valleys.
31431		threats	eng	The tree is slow-growing and cannot withstand logging because the reproductive cycle exceeds cutting cycles.
31433		habitat	eng	A lowland tree.
31433		threats	eng	Cut for red balau timber. It is directly threatened by logging because its slow growth  prevents the tree from reaching reproductive maturity within a logging cycle.
31434		distribution	eng	The one locality in Kuantan, where the species was discovered, has now been converted into a plantation.
31435		conservation	eng	Some trees are also found in forest reserves in this area.
31435		distribution	eng	Limited in its range, this timber species occurs along the coastal hills of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
31436		conservation	eng	The timber is used as yellow meranti, but its export has been banned.
31436		habitat	eng	A relatively small tree that is scattered on hills and undulating land.
31437		distribution	eng	A large dipterocarp occurring on high hills in Peninsular Malaysia.
31437		population	eng	Locally abundant.
31438		distribution	eng	Southern Peninsular Malaysia.
31438		habitat	eng	A large tree species that is found in the lowland mixed dipterocarp forests and sometimes in hill forest.
31439		distribution	eng	A tree that occurs locally in Peninsular Malaysia.
31439		habitat	eng	Inland ridges and coastal hills.
31440		distribution	eng	Restricted to south Perak.
31440		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
31440		population	eng	This species is close to becoming extinct.
31442		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31442		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.
31442		threats	eng	Seriously threatened by forest conversion.
31444		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia.
31444		habitat	eng	Common on coastal hills and inland ridges.
31446		distribution	eng	A species endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31446		habitat	eng	Locally found on ridges and undulating land.
31447		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the tree is conserved.
31447		distribution	eng	<em>Diospyros adenophora</em> is found in the states of Kelantan, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan of Peninsula Malaysia and also in Singapore.
31447		habitat	eng	The species is found scattered in lowland forest.
31448		conservation	eng	Within permanent forest reserves, it is conserved.
31448		distribution	eng	Found in most parts of Malaya.
31448		habitat	eng	This tree is common in primary lowland and hill forests.
31448		threats	eng	The root of the species is utilized on a local level for medicinal purposes
31449		conservation	eng	The species is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves where it occurs.
31449		distribution	eng	Confined to northern Malaya, although there is a supposed occurrence in Singapore (Govaerts 2009). It is particularly evident in the schima-bamboo forest type in the states of Kedah, Perak, Pahang and Kelantan.
31449		habitat	eng	An open forest species.
31449		threats	eng	Used as a timber source on a local level.
31450		conservation	eng	The area is classified as a protected forest.
31450		distribution	eng	A tree known from a single collection taken from Gunung Belumut, Johore.
31450		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31452		conservation	eng	It is hoped that the species will be found in Piah Forest Reserve.
31452		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection, this tree was collected from Lenggong, Perak. Govaerts (2009) records it from Singpaore, but this may be an error.
31452		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31453		distribution	eng	Known from four collections from northern Peninsular Malaysia.
31453		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
31453		threats	eng	Populations may be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of Kedah, Kelantan and north Pahang.
31455		conservation	eng	Within these areas the tree is conserved in permanent forest reserves.
31455		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia. This species is locally common in the states of Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu.
31455		habitat	eng	Occurring in the submontane and hill forests.
31456		conservation	eng	The forest in the region is classified as protected.
31456		distribution	eng	A rare species, confined to the Keledang range, in the state of Perak. Only two collections are known, both of them from the same locality.
31456		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31457		conservation	eng	Within permanent forest reserves, the species is conserved.
31457		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout much of Peninsular Malaysia.
31457		habitat	eng	This commonly occurring tree is a lowland and sub-montane forest species.
31457		threats	eng	Utilized on a local level for it's timber.  Outside the permanent forest reserves where it is conserved, felling activities are a pressure exerted on the species.
31458		conservation	eng	Occurs in Gunong Panti Forest Reserve, which is now considered a conservation area by the Johore Forest Department.
31458		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection.
31458		habitat	eng	Lowland forest tree.
31459		conservation	eng	It is thought that the species is protected in the permanent forest reserves.
31459		distribution	eng	A species confined to Perak, where it has been collected three times.
31459		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31460		conservation	eng	Within permanent forest reserves, the species is conserved.
31460		distribution	eng	Most Malaysian states.
31460		habitat	eng	Species is of scattered occurrence in the lowland and hill forests.
31460		threats	eng	Clear-felling and logging activities are current threats to forest areas, with harvested timber traded both locally and nationally.
31461		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these distribution areas, the species is conserved.
31461		distribution	eng	Found in Malaya, with the exception of Kedah, Penang and Malacca.
31461		habitat	eng	Species is scattered in lowland, hill and montane forest areas.
31461		threats	eng	Pressures are exerted by the logging and clear-felling of forested areas, with harvested timber being utilized locally.
31462		distribution	eng	Found on Gunong Ulu Semongkok in Selangor.
31462		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31462		population	eng	This tree has been collected only once.
31463		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of the state, the tree is conserved.
31463		distribution	eng	Terengganu.
31463		habitat	eng	A tree, found scattered in the lowland forests.
31463		threats	eng	This species is utilized locally, for it's timber.  Felling activities are a pressure exerted on the species.
31464		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves of the states where it occurs, the species is conserved.
31464		distribution	eng	Kedah, Perak, Pahang, Johor and Terengganu.
31464		habitat	eng	Species is widely scattered throughout the lowland and hill forest areas.
31464		threats	eng	Utilized on a local level for it's timber, the principle pressure exerted on the tree is from logging and felling activities.
31465		conservation	eng	In the protection forests of permanent forest estates, the species is conserved.
31465		distribution	eng	This species occurs in all the mountainous ranges in Peninsular Malaysia.
31465		habitat	eng	A primary forest species, it is often found along exposed ridges and summits.
31465		threats	eng	Although threatened by the expansion of human habitation, this applies to the central and southern parts of the main range only.
31466		conservation	eng	Occur in three forest reserves. Stricter conservation measures are required to secure these populations.
31466		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve in Selangor, Merlimau Forest Reserve in Malacca and Ulu Lebir Forest Reserve in Kelantan.
31466		population	eng	A very rare species.
31467		distribution	eng	Perak and Selangor.
31467		habitat	eng	A montane forest species, occurring between 1,000 and 1,400 m.
31467		threats	eng	The forest in these mountain areas is generally protected.
31468		distribution	eng	Confined to a restricted area in the Sungei Lebi Basin in south-east Kelantan.
31468		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
31469		distribution	eng	Records of the species come from Perak and Melaka.
31470		conservation	eng	The area falls within a permanent forest reserve.
31470		distribution	eng	The species is found in Ulu Tembeling in Pahang.
31470		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31470		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
31471		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak, the species is recorded from just two localities.
31471		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31472		distribution	eng	Perak and Terengganu.
31472		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31472		population	eng	A rare species.
31473		distribution	eng	Gunung Keledang in Perak.
31473		habitat	eng	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.
31473		population	eng	Known only from a single collection.
31474		conservation	eng	The area is conserved.
31474		distribution	eng	Confined to Mount Ophir in Johore.
31474		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in submontane forest at 500 m.
31475		distribution	eng	From Kemaman in south Terengganu.
31475		habitat	eng	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.
31475		population	eng	Known only from a single collection. Its continued existence is somewhat in doubt.
31475		threats	eng	The area has been under development of various kinds and much of the forest has been cleared.
31476		distribution	eng	Penang and Perak.
31476		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree, occurring between 90 and 150 m.
31476		population	eng	The species has been collected few times.
31477		distribution	eng	Collected from Kelantan.
31477		habitat	eng	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.
31477		population	eng	Collected only once.
31478		distribution	eng	Collected from Gunung Pulai in Johore.
31478		habitat	eng	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.
31478		population	eng	Known only from a single collection.
31479		distribution	eng	Recorded by a single collection at Telok in Selangor which has since been developed for agriculture.
31479		habitat	eng	The species was known from an area of peat swamp forest.
31480		distribution	eng	Known only by a single collection from Perak. The exact locality remains unknown.
31480		habitat	eng	A primary forest species.
31481		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections from a single locality, in Gombak Forest Reserve, a permanent reserve in Selangor.
31481		habitat	eng	The species is confined to lowland forest.
31482		distribution	eng	The exact locality of the species remains unknown. It has been collected only once from Penang.
31482		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
31482		threats	eng	Most of the forest in the area has been cleared for development.
31483		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single collection at the base of Fraser's Hill in Pahang.
31483		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
31484		conservation	eng	The area is contained within the protected forests of Perak.
31484		distribution	eng	Confined to Gunung Peninjau in Perak.
31484		habitat	eng	Forest at 840 m.
31484		population	eng	The species has been collected twice from a single locality.
31485		distribution	eng	It has been collected only once from lowland evergreen forest in Malacca. Most of the forest here has been cleared for plantations or colonisation.
31485		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
31485		population	eng	There is some doubt over the continued existence of the species.
31485		threats	eng	Forest clearing for plantations.
31486		conservation	eng	The locality is a conserved area.
31486		distribution	eng	The species is confined to Penang Hill.
31486		habitat	eng	Scattered in submontane rainforest.
31487		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from Batang Malaka Permanent Forest Reserve in Malacca.
31487		habitat	eng	A species of lowland evergreen rainforest.
31488		distribution	eng	It has been collected only once from Perak.
31488		habitat	eng	Primary areas of lowland evergreen rainforest.
31488		population	eng	It is questionable whether the species still exists.
31489		conservation	eng	The area is protected within Endau-Rompin National Park.
31489		distribution	eng	Recorded only from north Johore and south Pahang on the banks of Endau River.
31489		habitat	eng	A rheophyte confined to forest.
31490		distribution	eng	Only a single collection of the species has been made, gathered from Bota Kiri Forest Reserve in Perek.
31490		threats	eng	The surrounding areas are being developed.
31491		distribution	eng	Type collection from Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve in Selangor.
31491		population	eng	The species has not been recorded since the type collection was gathered, despite intense botanical work in the area.
31492		distribution	eng	This species is known by a single collection on the island of Tioman.
31492		habitat	eng	Primary rainforest.
31492		threats	eng	The island is rapidly being developed as a resort and the species' locality is unprotected.
31493		distribution	eng	Collected only from Johore.
31493		habitat	eng	A primary forest shrub.
31494		distribution	eng	Type collection from the district of Gopeng, Perak.
31494		habitat	eng	Open lowland rainforest.
31494		population	eng	This tree is known only from the type collection, gathered in 1886.
31495		conservation	eng	The localities are given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31495		distribution	eng	Occurs in Perak and Pahang.
31495		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31495		population	eng	A rare tree.
31495		threats	eng	Large areas remain threatened by encroaching agriculture.
31496		distribution	eng	This tree is known from only one collection in Fraser's Hill, Pahang.
31496		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31496		population	eng	It is reported as being common at the type locality.
31497		conservation	eng	The species is also protected in Taman Negara National Park.
31497		distribution	eng	Penang, Kelantan, Pahang, Terengannu, Perak and Selangor.
31497		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are known from areas of lowland rainforest.
31498		distribution	eng	Terengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan.
31498		habitat	eng	A rainforest species, occurring up to an altitude of 900 m.
31498		threats	eng	Much of the lowland forest has been converted for non-forest land use.
31499		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Taman Negara National Park and in protected forests within the permanent forest estate.
31499		distribution	eng	Found in the states of Pahang, Terengganu and Selangor.
31499		habitat	eng	A tree of submontane and montane rainforest.
31500		distribution	eng	Perak, Terengganu, and Johore.
31500		habitat	eng	A tree of  moist forest up to an altitude of 1,200 m.
31501		conservation	eng	Some localities are protected within Taman Negara National Park.
31501		distribution	eng	This species is recorded in Kedah, Kelantan, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Johore.
31501		habitat	eng	A tree of primary and secondary forest, and also swamps, up to an altitude of 300 m.
31502		distribution	eng	Kedah, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore.
31502		habitat	eng	A hill forest tree species.
31503		conservation	eng	Most localities are in protected forest within the permanent forest estate.
31503		habitat	eng	A tree of moist submontane and hill forest.
31504		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to Penang and Perak.
31504		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
31505		distribution	eng	Confined to Kedah peak, Kedah. Similar specimens, which could be this species, have been collected elsewhere in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.
31505		habitat	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree of submontane and hill forest.
31506		distribution	eng	This small tree species is found only in Penang.
31506		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
31507		distribution	eng	Lowland species confined to the island of Pangkor, Perak.
31507		habitat	eng	Tropical rainforest.
31507		population	eng	A very rare species
31507		threats	eng	This tree species is threatened by the expansion of human habitation and tourism.
31508		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Taman Negara National Park.
31508		habitat	eng	Occurring in rainforest below 210 m.
31509		distribution	eng	Terengganu, Perak, Selangor and Pahang.
31509		habitat	eng	A medium to large species inhabiting moist lowland and hill forest.
31510		distribution	eng	A small tree known from only two collections in Larut, Perak, and Klang Gates, Selangor.
31510		habitat	eng	Lowland open quartzite forest.
31511		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are found in Selangor and Terengganu, where they are protected within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.
31511		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of lowland and hill rainforest.
31512		distribution	eng	Found in two coastal localities in Peninsular Malaysia.
31512		habitat	eng	A primary lowland forest species.
31512		threats	eng	Increasing tourism and settlement in the vicinity are the main pressures faced by the species.
31513		distribution	eng	A small species of Malaca and Pahang.
31513		habitat	eng	Frequently inhabiting lowland undulating secondary forest to a maximum altitude of 300 m.
31514		conservation	eng	Part of the range is contained within Taman Negara National Park.
31514		distribution	eng	This small tree ranges from Penang and Kelantan southwards.
31514		habitat	eng	Inhabiting rainforest up to 900 m.
31515		conservation	eng	Commonly occurring in these areas, the species is conserved in the permanent and protected forests of Pahang and Terengganu.
31515		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of eastern Peninsular Malaysia.
31515		habitat	eng	A tropical tree that occurs in lowland and submontane forests.
31516		conservation	eng	It is conserved in protected forests and Taman Negara national park.
31516		distribution	eng	Occurring in Peninsular Malaysia.
31516		habitat	eng	This tropical tree is confined to the upper montane forests.
31517		conservation	eng	Occur in protected area.
31517		distribution	eng	A tree so far only known from Wray's Camp at Gichon, Pahang at 900 m. Only two collections have been made but they are located within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.
31518		conservation	eng	Occurs in two protected areas.
31518		distribution	eng	Little information is available on this species. It is known from two localities, one from Ulu Merala Forest Reserve, Kedah, and the other from Maxwell's Hill, Perak, where it is protected.
31519		conservation	eng	It is protected within permanent forest reserves.
31519		distribution	eng	A tree widely distributed.
31519		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland to montane forest.
31520		conservation	eng	In the protected forests where it occurs, the species is conserved.
31520		distribution	eng	This tropical species is mostly confined to the central and east coast mountains of Peninsular Malaysia.
31520		habitat	eng	A tree, it is found scattered in open and closed primary forests.
31521		conservation	eng	Gunung Belumut falls within the protected forest and as such it is hoped that the species is conserved.
31521		distribution	eng	Confined to the summit of Gunung Belumut in Johore, this forest species is so far known from only three collections, all from the same locality.
31522		habitat	eng	The species is confined to montane forests. However, within these areas, it is widely distributed both at lower and upper altitudinal levels.
31523		conservation	eng	Mt. Oplur falls within the protected forests of Johore.
31523		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from Mt Oplur in Johore.
31523		habitat	eng	This species was found in submontane forest.
31524		distribution	eng	Confined to the mountain forests of Gunung Korber, (Perak) Gunung Tchonin, (Pahong) and Gunung Belumat (Johor).
31524		habitat	eng	A primary forest species.
31524		population	eng	Within its elevated range area it occurs abundantly.
31525		conservation	eng	Within productive forests it is conserved.
31525		habitat	eng	A widely distributed lowland and hill forest species.
31526		conservation	eng	Conservation measures protect it in forest reserves.
31526		distribution	eng	Species is widely distributed throughout Malaya.
31526		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest areas.
31526		threats	eng	Although no principle use is recorded, the species has potential horticultural importance.
31527		conservation	eng	Within the protected forests of Perak and Pahang, the species is conserved.
31527		habitat	eng	A primary species confined to lower montane forest, where it commonly occurs.
31528		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from two localities, one in north-east Pahang and the other in Perak.
31528		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31528		threats	eng	It is not certain that these localities are still forested, as the area is threatened by land conversion for agriculture.
31529		conservation	eng	In this reserve the tree is commonly occurring, and  conserved.
31529		distribution	eng	Confined to stand forest in Tg. Hantu Forest Reserve in the state of Perak.
31529		habitat	eng	A lowland species.
31529		threats	eng	Human activity in the form of agricultural and settlement expansion is a pressure currently exerted on the species.
31530		conservation	eng	It is also reported to be present in Endau Rompin National Park.
31530		distribution	eng	South-east Johore and south-east Pahang.
31530		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland forest.
31530		threats	eng	The species occurs in areas which are earmarked for development.
31531		conservation	eng	In permanent forest reserves the species is conserved.
31531		distribution	eng	Recorded from Malacca and central Pahang northwards, it is widely distributed within this area.
31531		habitat	eng	A tropical lowland and hill forest species.
31532		conservation	eng	Within the protected forests of Teregganu the species is conserved.
31532		distribution	eng	Confined to Terengganu.
31532		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to montane forest.
31532		population	eng	At Gunung Padang and Gunung Mandi it's occurrence is particularly common.
31533		conservation	eng	Within productive forests throughout the country, it is conserved.
31533		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout Malaya.
31533		habitat	eng	A widely distributed lowland and hill forest species.
31533		threats	eng	The stem of the tree is used as a food source, which is traded on local and national level.  Pressures from forestry activities are exerted on the species.
31534		conservation	eng	There are protected forests in the Cameron Highlands.
31534		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from 1,500 m in the Cameron Highlands, Pehang.
31534		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
31534		population	eng	The species is thought to be locally common.
31534		threats	eng	Areas are given over to tea plantations.
31535		conservation	eng	Protected subpopulations are found in Gunong Panti Forest Reserve and Gunung Belumut.
31535		distribution	eng	Known from only a few localities in south-east Johore. The genus is currently undergoing revision.
31535		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
31535		threats	eng	Lowland areas in this state have largely been converted to agriculture.
31536		conservation	eng	These areas contain protected forests, within these the species is conserved.
31536		distribution	eng	Confined to the Cameroon Highlands and Gunung Korbu. Currently the genus is undergoing revision.
31536		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
31536		population	eng	Common occurrence.
31537		conservation	eng	In the future, the species is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves, of the states where it is recorded.
31537		distribution	eng	Kelantan, Perak and Pahang.
31537		habitat	eng	This species commonly occurs along river banks in primary, lowland forests.
31537		threats	eng	A variety of tree parts are used in traditional medicine, (bark, leaves, roots) entirely on a local level.
31538		distribution	eng	A small tree from Pahang and Johor.
31538		habitat	eng	Lowlands and hill forests up to 570 m.
31538		threats	eng	Increasing settlement is the principal pressure exerted on this already rare species.
31539		distribution	eng	The species is confined to Maxwell Hill in the state of Perak.
31539		habitat	eng	Steep ridges and hillsides in submontane forest, at approximately 600 m.
31539		threats	eng	The main threats to the tree come from expanding settlements and tourism.
31540		distribution	eng	An endemic of Peninsular Malaysia, in Selangor and Perak.
31540		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland primary rainforest.
31540		population	eng	This species is known only from two collections.
31541		distribution	eng	Confined to Tasek Glugor, Wellesley Province, Penang.
31541		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland rainforest.
31541		population	eng	Only one collection of the species has been made.
31541		threats	eng	The area is under increasing settlement.
31542		distribution	eng	Confined to Gopeng in the state of Perak.
31542		habitat	eng	This rare tree occurs in open forest on limestone hills.
31542		threats	eng	The area is experiencing mining activities and increasing settlement.
31543		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Mt Ophir in Johor.
31543		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31543		population	eng	Only one collection has been made.
31543		threats	eng	The area is experiencing some logging and increasing settlement.
31544		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia known only from the state of Perak.
31544		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill rainforest.
31545		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Johore.
31545		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in lowland forest up to 240 m.
31545		threats	eng	Increasing agriculture and settlement are causing habitat declines.
31546		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in lowland hill forest between 500 and 700 m.
31546		threats	eng	Continued settlement of the area has resulted in habitat declines.
31547		distribution	eng	Confined to Mt Ophir, Johore.
31547		habitat	eng	Occurring in hill forest, gathered from localities between 300 and 400 m.
31547		population	eng	Only two collections have been made.
31547		threats	eng	The area is being increasingly settled.
31548		conservation	eng	Populations are protected within forest reserves.
31548		distribution	eng	Perak.
31548		habitat	eng	A small tree found in hill forests between 150 and 300 m.
31548		threats	eng	Main threats to the species include logging activities and increasing settlement of the area.
31549		distribution	eng	Collected from Kuala Dipong, Perak.
31549		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest species.
31549		population	eng	Known from only two collections.
31549		threats	eng	The area is under increasing conversion to agriculture.
31550		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Perak.
31550		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
31550		threats	eng	Principally threatened by encroaching settlements, agriculture and logging activities.
31551		conservation	eng	A sufficient part of the total population is believed to be contained in protective forests within the permanent forest estate.
31551		habitat	eng	A species of submontane primary rainforest, occurring up to 2,000 m.
31551		threats	eng	Some parts of the range are affected by increasing settlement and agriculture.
31552		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia.
31552		habitat	eng	Inhabiting primary lowland rainforest.
31553		distribution	eng	An endemic species of Peninsular Malaysia, where it is confined to Johore.
31553		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill rainforests.
31554		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia.
31554		habitat	eng	Inhabiting primary rainforest.
31555		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, this tree is known only from Selangor, Negri Sembilan, Pahang and Johore.
31555		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest and swamp forest.
31555		population	eng	No recent collections have been made of this species.
31555		threats	eng	Threatened by expanding settlements and logging activities.
31556		distribution	eng	Jambi Province, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia.
31556		habitat	eng	A rare tree occurring in lowland rainforest up to 200 m.
31556		threats	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia the species is threatened by urban expansion and logging activities.
31557		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in lowland, hill and swamp forest.
31557		population	eng	This species has not been collected recently.
31557		threats	eng	Threatened by increasing settlement and logging of the area.
31558		distribution	eng	A species known only from a collection from Trengganu and another from Pahang.
31559		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in Taman Negara National Park, wildlife reserves and forest reserves.
31559		habitat	eng	A rare tree found in moist forest up to 1,700 m.
31559		threats	eng	Populations are generally threatened by increasing settlement and logging activities.
31560		distribution	eng	Found throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
31560		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill rainforest.
31560		population	eng	There are no recent collections of this species.
31560		threats	eng	Declining through the expansion of human habitation and logging activities.
31561		distribution	eng	A tree known only from four collections from Perak.
31561		population	eng	It is very rare and has not been collected recently. It is not known whether it still exists.
31562		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia. There is also a single deviating collection from Sumatra.
31562		habitat	eng	This lowland species is found on hillsides and crests up to 300 m.
31563		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and is though to be conserved within the Virgin Jungle reserves and Taman Negara.
31563		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland and hill forest up to 600 m.
31563		threats	eng	Threatened by forestry activities and logging.
31564		conservation	eng	It is hoped the species is present in the protected forest reserves.
31564		distribution	eng	Found only in Perak.
31564		habitat	eng	Hill and montane forest.
31564		threats	eng	This tree is threatened by the increasing settlement of the area.
31565		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak, this tree is known only from a few collections.
31565		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31565		threats	eng	The area is experiencing forest clearance and increasing agriculture.
31566		distribution	eng	A species collected from Gopang District in Perak. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31566		population	eng	Known only by a single collection gathered in the 18th century. It is unknown whether the species exists today.
31567		distribution	eng	The species has been reported from Penang, Perak, Selangor and Pahang.
31567		habitat	eng	Confined to montane forest between 600 and 1,500 m.
31567		threats	eng	Despite montane forest being considered protected by the government, increasing developments in the region are threatening the species.
31568		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type locality in Perak. The exact location has not been recorded.
31569		distribution	eng	Collected from Gunong Tahan in Pahang, within Taman Negara National Park. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31569		population	eng	Although the species is known only from a single collection, it is expected to be locally frequent at the type locality.
31570		distribution	eng	The only collection is probably from Maxwell's Hill in Taiping. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31570		population	eng	The single collection of this species, made last century.
31570		threats	eng	The hill is now being developed into a resort area.
31571		conservation	eng	It is likely the species occurs in the high-altitude protected forests.
31571		distribution	eng	Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill, Pahang.
31571		habitat	eng	A tree confined to montane forest at about 1,500 m.
31571		threats	eng	Both localities are hill stations which are being developed.
31572		conservation	eng	Within productive forest reserves, it is conserved.
31572		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31572		habitat	eng	A rare tree found in the lowland, tropical rain forests.
31572		threats	eng	Pressures exerted from increasing settlement and cultivation of once forested land, are the principle threats to the species.
31573		distribution	eng	To date it has only been recorded in the state of Perak, on the summit of Gunung Inas.
31573		habitat	eng	This small tree is rare, occurring at an altitude of 1,700 m.
31574		conservation	eng	In the protected forests of this region, the tree is conserved.
31574		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31574		habitat	eng	This tropical moist species is confined to montane areas.
31575		distribution	eng	Collected from Gunong Pulai. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31575		habitat	eng	Moist submontane forest.
31575		population	eng	A very rare tree known from a single collection.
31575		threats	eng	This area is being developed into a holiday resort.
31576		conservation	eng	Within the productive forests of Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor and Terengganu the species is conserved.
31576		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31576		habitat	eng	A tropical moist species, occurring in lowland, primary forests.
31576		threats	eng	Pressures are exerted on the tree by settlement expansion.
31577		conservation	eng	Within production forest reserves where it occurs, the tree is conserved
31577		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31577		habitat	eng	A tropical, moist species, confined to swamp and lowland forests.
31577		threats	eng	Pressures are placed on the species as a result of agricultural expansion and logging activities.  Harvested timber is traded on a minor international level.
31578		distribution	eng	Collected from in Rantau Panjang in Selangor. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31578		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31578		population	eng	A tree known from a single collection. The present existence of the collection locality is doubtful and the species may be extinct.
31579		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for the species, are in place in productive forest reserves.
31579		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31579		habitat	eng	A lowland, tropical moist tree, widely distributed throughout the primary forest.
31579		threats	eng	This species is threatened by commercial logging activities, the harvested timber being traded on an international scale.
31580		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in productive forest reserves, however in Malacca protection is increasingly difficult as most forested areas have been developed.
31580		distribution	eng	Kedah, Penang, Kelatan, Malacca and Johor.
31580		habitat	eng	This tropical moist species, is widely distributed throughout lowland and primary hill forest.
31580		threats	eng	Currently the expansion of human settlement in these areas is the greatest pressure being exerted on the tree.
31581		distribution	eng	Collected from Perak. The exact locality has not been specified. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31581		habitat	eng	Probably from hill forest.
31581		population	eng	This species is known by a single collection, made during the last century. It is uncertain whether the species still exists.
31582		conservation	eng	Populations are expected to be found in protected forest reserves in Perak and Pahang.
31582		distribution	eng	Gunong Ines, Perak and the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill, Pahang.
31582		habitat	eng	A locally abundant tree confined to montane forest.
31582		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture and settlement both threaten the habitat.
31583		conservation	eng	Within the protected forests, the species is conserved.
31583		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia, where it's local distribution is frequent.
31583		habitat	eng	This tropical moist species, is confined to mountain tops and ridges between 1,300-1,650 m, altitude.
31584		conservation	eng	Some areas are given a degree of protection within protected forests.
31584		distribution	eng	Restricted to Gunung Tapis, Pahang, and Gunung Belumut, Johore.
31584		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree at 900 m.
31584		threats	eng	The habitat is generally threatened by the development of resorts.
31585		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Taman Negara National Park.
31585		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from Fraser's Hill and Gunung Tahan, Pahang.
31585		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane and alpine forest at about 1,500 m.
31586		distribution	eng	This species is very rare, known only from a few collections from Perak and Pahang. It is hoped that the subpopulation around Pondok Tanjong Forest Reserve in Perak has survived along with a second subpopulation located along the banks of Semarang River near Temerloh, Pahang.
31586		habitat	eng	It occurs in areas of lowland rainforest.
31586		threats	eng	Lowland rainforest is threatened by encroaching agriculture and increasing settlement.  The area around Pondok Tanjong Forest Reserve in Perak, where a collection has been made, is now fully developed.
31587		conservation	eng	Both localities are now ecotourist destinations and as such it is hoped these forests will be preserved.
31587		distribution	eng	Recorded from Maxwell's Hill, Perak, and Gunong Panti, Johore.
31587		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland and hill rainforest.
31588		conservation	eng	Riverine reserves are protected, consequently the species is conserved in areas where it occurs, and so has no commercial importance.
31588		distribution	eng	Particularly in the states of Perak and Selangor.
31588		habitat	eng	This tropical, moist tree is found within a very low altitudinal range, (30 m) along river banks and swampy areas.
31589		conservation	eng	This species is conserved in the permanent forest reserves of the states mentioned.
31589		distribution	eng	Occurs in Kedah, Penang, Perak and Selangor.
31589		habitat	eng	A lowland, tropical moist species.
31589		threats	eng	Many of the areas where this tree is found are free from development, the exception to this is Weld Hill forest reserve in Kuala Lumpur
31590		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in the permanent forest estates of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johor.
31590		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout Malaya. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31590		habitat	eng	This tropical moist species.
31590		population	eng	An abundant species.
31590		threats	eng	Used as an ornamental tree-shrub.
31591		distribution	eng	Collected from Perak. The exact locality is unknown. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31591		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
31591		population	eng	Known only from a single collection.
31592		conservation	eng	Within the production forest reserves of these areas, the trees are conserved.
31592		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan.
31592		habitat	eng	A lowland tropical moist species.
31592		threats	eng	Threats to the species occur from clear-felling and logging activities.
31593		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection gathered along the track to Gunung Tahan in Taman Negara National Park.
31593		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
31594		distribution	eng	Confined to a single locality, this species was found in Larut in Maxwell's Hills, Perak.
31594		threats	eng	This area, although protected as a nature reserve and water catchment, is under development as a resort.
31595		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.
31595		distribution	eng	Scattered widely throughout most states of Malaya.
31595		habitat	eng	A lowland, tropical moist species.
31595		threats	eng	Principle threats to the tree arise from felling activities, as it is primarily used as a timber source traded on a minor international level.
31596		conservation	eng	The locality is within a protected forest.
31596		distribution	eng	Collected from Gunung Mengkueng in Selangor. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31596		habitat	eng	It was found in moist montane forest at 1,300 m.
31596		population	eng	This tree is known from a single collection.
31597		distribution	eng	Collected from Trengganu. Its exact locality is unknown. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31597		population	eng	A species known only from a single collection.
31598		conservation	eng	Expected to be found in permanent forest reserves.
31598		distribution	eng	Known by a few collections in two separate localities in Perak.
31598		habitat	eng	Lowland forest tree.
31598		threats	eng	The species is threatened by encroaching agriculture.
31599		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak and Selangor.
31599		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in peat-swamp forest and sometimes in freshwater swamps.
31599		threats	eng	Since the peat-swamp forests are no longer being converted for agriculture, the species is considered to be less threatened than in the past.
31600		distribution	eng	A single herbarium specimen of this species exists, collected from Gunung Pondok, Perak.
31600		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31601		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these three states, the species is conserved.
31601		distribution	eng	Species is localized in distribution, occurring in the eastern states of Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan.
31601		habitat	eng	Within lowland primary forest.
31601		threats	eng	Pressures are exerted by increased settlement and cultivation of once forested land.
31602		conservation	eng	The area is protected within Taman Negara National Park.
31602		distribution	eng	Gunung Tahan in Pehang.
31602		habitat	eng	A tree confined to montane forest.
31603		distribution	eng	Found in Taiping, the only known locality of this species has probably been cleared.
31603		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31603		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agriculture and human habitation.
31604		conservation	eng	The mountain forests are considered protected.
31604		distribution	eng	Mainly occurring in Perak and Pahang, the exact range of this species is uncertain as it is poorly represented in herbarium collections.
31604		habitat	eng	Mountain forest.
31605		conservation	eng	Contained within a national park.
31605		distribution	eng	Known only from Kuala Teku in Pahang.
31605		habitat	eng	Lowland forest tree.
31606		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two collections from Pulau Tioman.
31606		threats	eng	The island is developing rapidly into a tourist resort.
31607		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest estates of Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan it is conserved.
31607		habitat	eng	A common tropical species which is small in size and occurs in lowland forest areas.
31607		threats	eng	Pressures are exerted by cultivation of once forested areas.
31608		conservation	eng	Kanching Forest Reserve, where the species has been recorded, is now largely a recreational area.
31608		distribution	eng	Selangor.
31608		habitat	eng	Restricted to lowland forest.
31608		threats	eng	The species is experiencing rapid habitat loss through agricultural development and increasing settlement.
31609		conservation	eng	Within the protected forests of these states, the species is conserved.
31609		distribution	eng	Principally confined to the mountains of Perak, Selangor and Pahang. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.
31609		habitat	eng	Primary forest species.
31609		population	eng	The species is abundant within its range.
31610		conservation	eng	Within the productive and protective forests of Malaya, it has a conserved status.
31610		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the states of Perak, Pahang and Kelantan.
31610		habitat	eng	From lowland to mountain forest areas.
31611		distribution	eng	Sierra del Cristal, Sierra de Micara and the upper Toa area in north-eastern Cuba.
31611		habitat	eng	A rare tree, up to 8 m tall, found in montane shrubwoods and forests on ferritic soils derived from serpentine bedrock.
31612		distribution	eng	A small tree locally confined to the serpentine plateau of Sierra de Nipe in north-eastern Cuba.
31612		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane shrubwoods and forests on ferritic soils.
31613		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections. One collection originated from Kamasul Forest Reserve, which is now being established as an artificial plantation. It is hoped that there is a population within the Virgin Jungle Reserve in Selangor.
31613		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
31614		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak and Pahang.
31614		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31614		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
31614		threats	eng	There is a subpopulation on Fraser's Hill, but this area is rapidly being developed.
31615		distribution	eng	Perak and Pehang (Cameron Highlands).
31615		habitat	eng	Inhabiting montane rainforest between 1,210 and 1,450 m.
31615		population	eng	A rare tree.
31616		conservation	eng	It receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31616		distribution	eng	A small tree of montane rainforest up to 1,600 m.
31617		distribution	eng	Confined to one locality in Selangor.
31617		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31618		distribution	eng	Pico Turquino and adjacent peaks in the Sierra Maesra mountain range in south-east Cuba.
31618		habitat	eng	A tree up to 10 m tall, restricted to submontane forest on rocky ridges.
31618		population	eng	Population numbers are low.
31619		distribution	eng	Serpentine area of Baracoa in eastern Cuba.
31619		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found in submontane rainforests, often along watercourses.
31620		distribution	eng	Known only from forests near the conical karst complex of Monteverde in Guantánamo Province.
31620		population	eng	This rare tree has not been collected recently.
31620		threats	eng	Disturbance has been heavy where logging and agricultural encroachment have occurred.
31621		distribution	eng	Sierra de Nipe on the border of the provinces of Santiago de Cuba and Holguin.
31621		habitat	eng	Confined to the karstic hill complex.
31621		population	eng	This endemic tree is not well collected.
31621		threats	eng	Its habitat has been degraded in accessible areas.
31622		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in 10 localities.
31622		habitat	eng	This uncommon tree is restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
31623		habitat	eng	A tree species occurring scattered in hill forest.
31624		conservation	eng	Occurring in a national park.
31624		habitat	eng	This tree species is scattered on ridge tops and hillsides of rainforest.
31625		distribution	eng	Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, Penang, Malacca, Johore and Singapore.
31625		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland and hill forest.
31625		threats	eng	Encroaching settlements are the largest threat to the species.
31626		distribution	eng	Penang, Perak, Pahang and Singapore.
31626		habitat	eng	A small tree inhabiting open rainforest between 20 and 500 m.
31627		distribution	eng	Scattered in Perak and Pehang.
31627		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31627		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31628		distribution	eng	Confined to the hills of one forest reserve in the state of Perak.
31628		population	eng	A rare, medium-sized tree.
31628		threats	eng	Tourism presents the main threat to the species.
31629		distribution	eng	A tree up to 5 m tall confined to Hanabanilla River valley in south-central Cuba.
31629		threats	eng	This area is severely degraded by logging, agriculture, settlement and the construction of a river dam.
31630		distribution	eng	A doubtful tree taxon found infrequently in Las Tunas and Hoguín Provinces.
31631		distribution	eng	An endemic tree apparently restricted to the Baracoa area of Guantanamo province.
31631		population	eng	The species has not been collected recently.
31632		distribution	eng	Guamuhaya Massif, Sancti Spiritus province.
31632		habitat	eng	This uncommon shrub or small tree is confined to montane forest.
31632		threats	eng	Cutting and logging are threats to the habitat of this species.
31633		distribution	eng	Casilda, Sancti-Spíritus province. Another unconfirmed record of this species has been made from Pinar del Río.
31633		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree known from coastal scrub and forest.
31633		threats	eng	The habitat in this area has become severely degraded by urban expansion and tourism.
31634		distribution	eng	Guantanamo province.
31634		habitat	eng	This beautiful tree is localised in montane rainforest on limestone-derived soils.
31634		population	eng	No flowering specimens have ever been collected.
31635		distribution	eng	Canasí, Matanzas province.
31635		habitat	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree occurring locally near ravines and washes in serpentine outcrops.
31635		threats	eng	The habitat is under constant threat of being completely cut and cleared.
31636		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to the site where the capital city of Cuba was built, this tree was described from the area of Regla at the eastern side of Habana Bay more than a century and a half ago.
31636		population	eng	A wide area of several kilometers around the harbour has been cleared and urbanized. There is very little chance of rediscovering the species.
31637		distribution	eng	Maisí, eastern Cuba.
31637		habitat	eng	This tree is locally restricted to coastal, dry, evergreen forests on limestone terraces.
31638		distribution	eng	Confined to Pinar del Río Province.
31638		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs infrequently in semi-deciduous forest on shallow soils or on bare, deeply eroded limestone rocks.
31639		distribution	eng	A very rare tree in Pinar del Río Province and on Isla de Pinos.
31639		habitat	eng	Natural pine forest along ravines and creeks
31639		population	eng	Population numbers are probably too low to ensure the species' survival without intervention.
31640		distribution	eng	Sierra de Nipe in Holguín Province.
31640		habitat	eng	Known only from the montane edaphic climax shrubwoods and forests.
31640		threats	eng	This rare tree is suffering from habitat destruction resulting from logging and mining activities.
31641		distribution	eng	A small, endemic tree locally restricted to the deeply eroded limestone mountains called the mogotes complex in Viñales, Pinar del Río Province.
31641		habitat	eng	Limestone mountains.
31642		distribution	eng	Confined to Holguín in north-eastern Cuba.
31642		habitat	eng	Serpentine outcrop.
31642		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31642		threats	eng	The habitat is severely degraded in most places, mainly due to grazing and urbanisation.
31643		distribution	eng	Restricted to Habana, Matanzas, Villaclara and Camaguey provinces.
31643		habitat	eng	Confined to rocky serpentine hillsides.
31643		population	eng	A fairly uncommon tree.
31643		threats	eng	These areas are under constant pressure from cutting and clearing.
31644		distribution	eng	Very restricted in range, this endemic tree, is restricted to Puerto Padre in north-eastern Cuba.
31644		habitat	eng	Dry evergreen forests.
31644		threats	eng	The habitat is severely degraded in many places because of cutting, grazing and settlement.
31645		distribution	eng	An endemic shrub, sometimes a small tree, confined to the Peninsula de Zapata, Matanzas province in eastern Cuba.
31645		threats	eng	Development for tourism is currently the major threat to the species.
31646		distribution	eng	Endemic to serpentine areas in south-east Holguín.
31646		habitat	eng	Subpopulations have survived best near watercourses.
31646		threats	eng	The species occurs in a habitat which has been largely replaced by secondary savannah and pastureland.
31647		distribution	eng	Endemic to Pinar del Río Province.
31647		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous forests, mainly in gallery communities along rivers and creeks.
31647		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
31647		threats	eng	Its habitat has suffered intense degradation from logging and the ensuing invasion of exotic or secondary vegetation.
31648		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the southern slopes of the Escambray mountain range in central Cuba.
31648		habitat	eng	Dry forests.
31648		threats	eng	The habitat is degraded in places and felling or forest clearance is a constant threat.
31649		distribution	eng	Pilón in Granma province.
31649		habitat	eng	Populations of this shrub or small tree are restricted to the dry forests and scrublands on limestone terraces.
31649		population	eng	The species is still locally common.
31649		threats	eng	Habitat has declined and is threatened by overcutting and tourism-related development.
31650		distribution	eng	Occurring on the southern slopes of the Guamuhaya Massif of Escambray in Cienfuegos Province.
31650		habitat	eng	A small tree, up to 10 m tall, confined to shrubwoods and forests.
31650		threats	eng	Its habitat has declined through logging and cutting.
31651		distribution	eng	Maisí coastal plain, at the easternmost end of Cuba.
31651		habitat	eng	A small tree reaching 5 m in height, confined to a small area of arid evergreen shrubwoods and scrub.
31652		distribution	eng	A small tree, imperfectly known, described more than half a century ago from El Morrillo in Pinar del Rio province.
31652		population	eng	Fieldwork is needed to confirm whether the population still exists.
31653		distribution	eng	This small tree, along with its relative <em>C. arenicola</em>, was discovered many years ago at a single locality in Pinar del Río province.
31653		population	eng	Fieldwork is necessary to verify the existence of this species.
31653		threats	eng	The site, near the Santa Cruz river, has suffered severe degradation from settlement and agriculture.
31654		distribution	eng	Confined to the serpentine plateau of Sierra de Nipe in north-eastern Cuba.
31654		population	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree.
31655		distribution	eng	Many years ago this small tree was reported to occur locally in the Rio del Medio region of Pinar del Río Province in western Cuba. The habitat in this area is very disturbed.
31655		population	eng	Fieldwork is needed to check whether the original population still exists.
31655		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
31656		distribution	eng	Monte Verde in the Nipe-Yateras district of eastern Cuba.
31656		habitat	eng	A shrub, sometimes a small tree, endemic to the scrub and karstic woods on limestone.
31656		population	eng	Few collections have been made of this species.
31657		distribution	eng	An endemic tree confined to the terraces of Cabo Cruz in Gramna province.
31657		habitat	eng	Dry evergreen forest on limestone.
31657		population	eng	The species is very uncommon.
31657		threats	eng	Parts of Cabo Cruz have been degraded by logging and cutting.
31658		distribution	eng	Loma del Gato in the province of Santiago de Cuba.
31658		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree locally restricted to rainforest.
31659		distribution	eng	An imperfectly known species, described from a specimen without flowers and fruits. It is a small tree, apparently restricted to the type locality, Toscano in Pinar del Río Province.
31659		population	eng	No recent collections have been made.
31659		threats	eng	Much of the area has been cleared for settlement and agriculture.
31660		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities, species occurs on the border of Santiago de Cuba with Holguin.
31660		habitat	eng	Karstic hills and limestone plateaux.
31660		population	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree.
31661		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the karstic hill complex of Sierra de Nipe on the border of Santiago de Cuba and Holguin provinces.
31661		threats	eng	Habitat degradation has occurred in the accessible areas.
31662		distribution	eng	Confined to Sierra Maestra and other mountain ranges in eastern Cuba.
31662		habitat	eng	Rocky montane areas.
31662		population	eng	This species is not well collected.
31662		threats	eng	There has been extensive habitat loss from overcutting, mining and tourism but vegetation remains in areas which are inaccessible or unattractive to agriculture.
31663		distribution	eng	This small tree is locally confined to parts of the Sierra de Nipe mountain range in Holguin and Santiago de Cuba provinces.
31663		population	eng	Very rare.
31664		distribution	eng	Restricted to parts of the serpentine range, Sierra de Moas, in Holguín province.
31664		population	eng	A rare shrub or small tree.
31664		threats	eng	Disturbance has been heavy in places.
31665		distribution	eng	Sierra Maestra range in eastern Cuba.
31665		habitat	eng	Confined to the montane rainforests this tree thrives on shallower soils and rocky outcrops.
31666		distribution	eng	This shrub, sometimes a small tree, is confined to the coastal areas of Casilda in Sancti Spiritus province.
31666		population	eng	Very uncommon.
31666		threats	eng	Housing development and the expansion of tourism have caused extremely severe habitat decline.
31667		distribution	eng	An imperfectly known species known only from a single locality in Cerro de Mendosa, Pinar del Río Province.
31667		population	eng	Apparently the species is surviving precariously in a very threatened area.
31668		distribution	eng	Habana and Ciudad de la Habana provinces.
31668		habitat	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree restricted to the remaining dry evergreen scrub and scrub forests on serpentine outcrops.
31668		threats	eng	Habitat loss from cutting, burning, grazing and housing development has caused a decline in the species.
31669		distribution	eng	Monteverde range in the Nipe-Yateras area of eastern Cuba.
31669		habitat	eng	A shrub, less often a small tree, locally confined to karstic limestone.
31670		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Moa mountain group in eastern Cuba.
31670		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree, up to 10 m tall, in montane rainforest on serpentine-derived soils between 400 and 900 m.
31671		distribution	eng	Northern Isla de Pinos.
31671		habitat	eng	An uncommon endemic shrub or small tree, restricted to savannah.
31671		threats	eng	Most of the original habitat in <em>Pinus tropicalis</em> forest has been converted into pastures.
31672		distribution	eng	This endemic shrub or tree is restricted to the Sierra Maestra mountain range in eastern Cuba.
31672		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane rainforest especially along creeks.
31672		population	eng	It is still fairly common although in many places the species is becoming scarce.
31673		distribution	eng	Occurring in Sierra Maestra and other high mountain ranges in Santiado and Guantánamo provinces.
31673		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is confined to cloud forest.
31673		population	eng	There has been a reduction in the number of populations and individuals.
31674		distribution	eng	This endemic tree is only found in the remaining forests of Cabo Cruz in Granma province of south-eastern Cuba.
31674		threats	eng	Its habitat is degraded in places.
31675		distribution	eng	Discovered in the area of San Diego, Pinar del Río Province, another record of this species was made in Habana.
31675		population	eng	No collections or records have been made since its discovery in the early 19th century.
31676		distribution	eng	Northern Sierra Maestra mountain range, province of Santiago de Cuba.
31676		habitat	eng	A small tree restricted to the karstic block mountains and limestone cliffs.
31677		distribution	eng	Found in northern Camaguey, Las Tunas and Holguín Provinces.
31677		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree recorded only from coastal dry forest.
31677		threats	eng	The habitat has suffered severe degradation in most places. A major present threat is development for tourism in the Tunas-Holguin coastal area.
31678		distribution	eng	Localized to a few sites in Pinar del Río province and the adjacent Isla de Pinos. This species formerly occupied a much larger area in western Cuba.
31678		population	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree.
31679		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus endemic to the deeply eroded 'haystack' karstic hills of Viñales in the limestone range of Sierra de Los Organos, Pinar del Río Province.
31681		distribution	eng	An endemic to south-eastern Cuba.
31681		habitat	eng	A shrub that rarely attains the size of a small tree. It is occasionally found in dry, thorny shrubwoods on limestone.
31682		conservation	eng	Fieldwork is needed to verify the number of remaining trees to assess whether the population is capable of recovery.
31682		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus endemic to Cuba. Collections have been made in western Cuba but now this tall tree appears to be locally confined to the montane forests of central Cuba.
31682		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31682		population	eng	Only a few individuals have been seen.
31683		distribution	eng	Near the coast between Cajobabo and Jauco in Guantánamo province.
31683		habitat	eng	A shrub which sometimes attains the size of a small tree up to 5 m tall. It is very restricted in the dry shrubwoods and shrublands on limestone terraces.
31684		distribution	eng	A locally endemic shrub or treelet confined to the coastal areas between Puerto Padre and Playa Herradura in north-east Cuba.
31684		habitat	eng	It is scattered in dry evergreen forests and scrub on flat 'dog-tooth' limestone terraces.
31684		threats	eng	The species has declined through cutting, logging and tourism.
31685		distribution	eng	Camaguey and Ciego de Avila Provinces.
31685		habitat	eng	A small tree, up to 5 m tall, occurring in evergreen thorny shrubwoods on serpentine-derived soils in the lowlands.
31685		threats	eng	The species' habitat has been severely degraded and transformed into savannah by burning and grazing.
31686		distribution	eng	Sancti Spiritus Province.
31686		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, restricted to lowland areas and savannah.
31686		threats	eng	It has become rare, since much of the habitat has been converted to agricultural land or pastures.
31687		distribution	eng	Confined to the forests of El Yunque de Baracoas in Guantánamo Province.
31687		habitat	eng	This localised shrub or small tree is found on an isolated 'monadnock' composed of limestone and dolomite.
31688		distribution	eng	Confined to Rangel, a small area in eastern Pinar del Río province.
31688		population	eng	An uncommon shrub or small tree.
31688		threats	eng	The species has been overcut for its valuable timber.
31689		distribution	eng	In Cuba, this small tree is known from the limestone hills of Baire on the northern side of the Sierra Maestra mountain range and from coastal limestone in Cabo Cruz. It has also been collected from Azua in the Dominican Republic and the Massif de la Hotte in Haiti.
31689		habitat	eng	Dry forests on limestone.
31690		distribution	eng	Santiago de Cuba Province.
31690		habitat	eng	A rare shrub or tree, up to 15 m in height, locally confined to small areas of karstic semi-deciduous forest on limestone cliff.
31691		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to Sierra de Anafe and other isolated limestone hills in Habana and Matanzas provinces.
31691		threats	eng	There are active limestone quarries in this region.
31692		distribution	eng	Confined to the northern karstic area of the Sierra Maestra in Santiago de Cuba Province.
31692		habitat	eng	This uncommon shrub or small tree occurs locally in semi-deciduous and deciduous forest complex on eroded limestone.
31693		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to the Sierra de Nipe mountain complex in Holguin and Santiago de Cuba provinces.
31693		threats	eng	Logging and cutting have resulted in habitat degradation in places.
31694		distribution	eng	Restricted to the 'mogote complex' in Pinar del Río Province.
31694		habitat	eng	A small tree of subalpine deciduous forest on eroded limestone.
31695		distribution	eng	A species typically confined to the Sierra Maestra mountain range in Santiago de Cuba and Granma Provinces.
31695		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
31695		threats	eng	This tree is not yet uncommon but habitat has been degraded in places and cutting is still a threat.
31696		distribution	eng	An endemic shrub or small tree locally confined to the mountainous area of Nagua in the west of the Sierra Maestra range in Granma province.
31697		distribution	eng	Eastern Cuba.
31697		habitat	eng	A small tree, of up to 10 m in height, inhabiting semi-deciduous forest on eroded limestone.
31697		threats	eng	The habitat in this region has been heavily degraded in places.
31698		distribution	eng	Found in the Guanacahabibes Peninsula, Pinar del Río Province.
31698		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree locally confined to the subcoastal deciduous forests on coral limestone.
31698		threats	eng	A paved road has been constructed to the lighthouse of Cabo San Antíonio, resulting in habitat degradation from logging and tourism.
31699		distribution	eng	An endemic tree.
31699		habitat	eng	Up to 30 m tall, occurring in all types of seasonal forest, transitional between rainforest and semi-deciduous forest. The species is typical of pristine communities and acts as an indicator of minimal disturbance.
31699		population	eng	Undisturbed stands are very rare.
31699		threats	eng	The habitat is one of the most suitable for tropical agriculture.
31700		conservation	eng	Occurrences are recorded in forest reserves.
31700		distribution	eng	The species is localized in distribution, occurring in Kedah, Perak and Pahang.
31700		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland areas of primary and secondary forest.
31700		threats	eng	Pressures on the habitat are exerted by increasing settlement and cultivation of once forested areas.
31701		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taman Nagara National Park and the protected forest of Mentigi in the Cameron Highlands.
31701		distribution	eng	Known only from the states of Perak and Pahang.
31701		habitat	eng	A tree, restricted to lowland and submontane forest.
31701		threats	eng	The locality in Perak is no longer forested.
31702		conservation	eng	In the protected forests of Malaya, the tree is conserved.
31702		habitat	eng	This tree is confined to mountain forests at an altitude of 1,200-1,500 m,  where it is common in occurrence.
31703		distribution	eng	So far it has only been collected from Perak and the Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor.
31703		habitat	eng	A very rare tree scattered in lowland forest.
31704		conservation	eng	Maxwell's Hills is a protected resort area.
31704		distribution	eng	Larut in Maxwell's Hills, Perak, and Bukit Kajong in Terengganu.
31704		habitat	eng	The species is known only from lowland forest.
31705		conservation	eng	The area, home to many endemic plants, is currently conserved and protected
31705		distribution	eng	This tree of lowland forest is known only from Larut in the Maxwell's Hills mountain range in Perak.
31705		threats	eng	With increasing tourism Maxwell's Hills are likely be developed further.
31706		conservation	eng	A large part of the area is now being developed.
31706		distribution	eng	A tree restricted to the south-east Johore.
31706		habitat	eng	Lowland swamp forest.
31707		conservation	eng	This tree is mainly found on Bukit Kajong, which is a protected forest.
31707		distribution	eng	Confined to Terengganu.
31707		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31708		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas, the tree is conserved.
31708		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the lowlands and hills of Kelantan, Perak, Pahang and Selangor.
31709		distribution	eng	Confined to Fraser's Hill by the Selangor border, this tree is known from a single locality.
31709		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31709		threats	eng	The main threat to the area is tourism. It is hoped that the proposed route of a new highway which is planned will not affect the population.
31710		conservation	eng	Both localities fall within protected forest.
31710		distribution	eng	Confined to Ulu Brang in Terengganu and the Cameron Highlands in Pahang, this tree is known only from two collections.
31710		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31711		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.
31711		distribution	eng	With the exception of Perlis, Malacca and Jahore this lowland species is widely distributed throughout Malaya.
31712		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection found in Malacca.
31712		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31712		population	eng	It is uncertain if this species still exists.
31713		conservation	eng	Limestone areas are generally protected in Peninsular Malaysia, consequently the species is conserved.
31713		distribution	eng	Kedah and Perak.
31713		threats	eng	This small, rare tree is confined to lowland limestone areas.
31714		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these states the species is conserved.
31714		distribution	eng	Distributed in Perak, Selangor and Singapore.
31714		habitat	eng	A lowland species found in primary forest.
31715		distribution	eng	Known only from two herbarium specimens. The localities, one in Penang and the other in Malacca, are no longer forested.
31715		habitat	eng	This tree was collected in lowland forest.
31716		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from Pulau Betong Reserve in Penang.
31716		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
31716		population	eng	The only known location is threatened by increasing settlement and it is not certain whether this species still exists.
31717		distribution	eng	Kedah, Perak, Terengganu, Pahang, Johore and Singapore.
31717		habitat	eng	A tree found in the lowland, submontane and montane forests.
31717		population	eng	Common.
31718		conservation	eng	Within the protected and permanent forests of these states the species is conserved.
31718		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout the states of Kedah, Perak, Trengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Jahor and Negeri Sembilan.
31718		habitat	eng	A tropical tree species of lowland and montane forests.
31719		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type collection, in Malacca.
31719		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31719		population	eng	It is uncertain whether this species is still surviving.
31720		conservation	eng	Maxwells Hills are a protected site, consequently the species is conserved here.
31720		distribution	eng	Confined to the Maxwells Hills in Perak.
31720		habitat	eng	A tropical, submontane forest species.
31720		population	eng	Within the areas where it occurs, the tree is common.
31721		distribution	eng	Collected in Bukit Bauk Forest Reserve, a permanent forest reserve in Trengganu.
31721		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
31721		population	eng	Known only from a single collection.
31722		conservation	eng	It may occur in the permanent forest reserves in this state.
31722		distribution	eng	Confined to south-east Johore.
31722		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31722		threats	eng	The collection localities of this species are being developed for agriculture and resorts.
31723		conservation	eng	It is hoped that the species falls within the permanent forest reserve system.
31723		distribution	eng	A tree known only from a single collection from the hill forests at Ulu Berang-tersat, Trengganu.
31724		conservation	eng	Most of the existing forest will be conserved in the protected forests.
31724		distribution	eng	Restricted to Maxwell's Hill in Perak.
31724		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
31724		population	eng	A locally common species.
31724		threats	eng	This locality is going to be developed as a tourist resort.
31725		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves where it is located, the tree is conserved.
31725		distribution	eng	Malaysia.
31725		habitat	eng	This primary species is commonly distributed throughout the lowland forests.
31726		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the tree is conserved.
31726		distribution	eng	With the exception of Kelantan, Pahang and Johor, this tree is found scattered throughout the lowland forests of Malaya.
31726		habitat	eng	Lowland forest species.
31726		threats	eng	The species is utilized for it's timber and traded on a local level.
31727		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves of these states, the species is conserved.
31727		distribution	eng	With the exception of Penang and Jahor, this tree is distributed throughout the lowland and hill forests of Malaya.
31727		habitat	eng	lowland and hill forest species.
31728		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three herbarium collections. The taxonomy of the genus is in need of revision.
31729		distribution	eng	Perak. The taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.
31729		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of rainforest.
31729		population	eng	It has been collected only once in 1878.
31730		conservation	eng	Populations are protected in Taman Negara National Park and elsewhere within the permanent forest estate.
31730		distribution	eng	Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Malacca.
31730		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree inhabiting montane rainforest between 1,000 and 1,300 m.
31731		conservation	eng	Populations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31731		distribution	eng	Perak (on Gunung Korbu), Pahang and Johore.
31731		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of montane rainforest.
31732		conservation	eng	A protected population is found in Taman Negara National Park.
31732		distribution	eng	Pahang, Terrengganu and Perak.
31732		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree inhabiting rainforest up to 2,000 m.
31733		conservation	eng	It is protected in Taman Negara National Park and within the permanent forest estate.
31733		distribution	eng	Pahang, Kedah and Selangor.
31733		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane and submontane rainforest.
31734		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the hill forest of Penang Hill, Penang.
31735		conservation	eng	Populations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31735		distribution	eng	Gunung Ledang in Johore and Ulu Brang in Terengganu.
31735		habitat	eng	A small tree which is distributed rarely in montane rainforest.
31736		conservation	eng	This small tree is protected in Taman Negara National Park and within the permanent forest estate.
31736		distribution	eng	Found on Gunung Tahan in Pahang and on Gunung Rabong in Kelantan.
31736		habitat	eng	A montane species.
31737		distribution	eng	Terengganu, Kelantan, Pahang and Kedah (Gunung Jerai).
31737		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist montane rainforest.
31738		conservation	eng	This species is protected inside the Taman Negara National Park.
31738		distribution	eng	The species is confined to Terengganu.
31738		habitat	eng	A rare small tree of lowland and montane rainforest.
31738		population	eng	Known from only two collections.
31739		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak (Ulu Kerling, Slim Hills Forest Reserve at 800 m) and Selangor (Ulu Selangor at 400 m).
31739		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist hill forest.
31739		population	eng	A rare species.
31742		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of swampy hill forest.
31742		threats	eng	Habitat reductions have resulted from logging and increasing agriculture and settlement.
31743		distribution	eng	This imperfectly known species is scattered in Perlis, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang.
31743		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forest.
31744		distribution	eng	Found in Perak and Selangor.
31744		habitat	eng	A species of moist coastal hill forest
31745		distribution	eng	Confined to Terengganu .
31745		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31745		population	eng	Known from a single collection.
31746		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Taman Negara National Park.
31746		habitat	eng	A small tree of late secondary and primary forest of up to 600 m altitude.
31747		distribution	eng	Type collection from Pehang in Jerantut.
31747		habitat	eng	This rare species occurs in moist forest at 60 m.
31747		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
31748		distribution	eng	States of Perak, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca.
31748		habitat	eng	A tree of moist forest up to 1,000 m altitude.
31749		distribution	eng	Type collected from Perak, Peninsular Malaysia, and another recent collection from Niah Cave National Park, Sarawak.
31749		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31749		population	eng	This species is known from the type.
31749		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the large-scale clearance of the forest.
31750		conservation	eng	It is protected in Taman Negara National Park.
31750		distribution	eng	States of Kelantan, Terengganu and east Johore.
31750		habitat	eng	A rare tree inhabiting rainforest between 60 and 730 m .
31750		threats	eng	Outside Taman Negara National Park it is threatened by large-scale forest clearance.
31751		distribution	eng	Mount Tapis in the state of Pahang.
31751		habitat	eng	This small tree is confined to hill forest.
31751		population	eng	Known from only a single collection.
31752		conservation	eng	It is given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31752		habitat	eng	An uncommon shrub to small tree which resides in the understorey or in gaps of montane rainforest, also occurring in secondary forests at high elevation.
31755		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are given a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves.
31755		distribution	eng	Trengganu and Pahang.
31755		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
31755		population	eng	Known only from three collections.
31755		threats	eng	There is still a threat from logging.
31756		distribution	eng	Collected from Rengom Forest Reserve, a permanent forest reserve in Johore.
31756		habitat	eng	A species of lowland forest.
31756		population	eng	Known from only two collections.
31757		conservation	eng	The tree is conserved in the permanent forest reserves of these states.
31757		distribution	eng	This lowland species is distributed throughout the states of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Kelantan, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan.
31757		threats	eng	Pressure from felling activities is exerted on the species, as it is utilized locally for it's timber.
31758		distribution	eng	Perak, Selangor, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johore and Singapore.
31758		habitat	eng	A tree of up to 5 m, occurring in lowland rainforests and swamp forests.
31758		threats	eng	The main threat is encroaching settlements.
31759		distribution	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia, this very large tree is an important source of keruing timber.
31760		conservation	eng	Known to occur in a number of forest reserves.
31760		distribution	eng	It is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia.
31760		habitat	eng	This tree is locally common in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
31761		habitat	eng	This tree is found infrequently on hill slopes in dipterocarp forest.
31762		habitat	eng	This species is locally common on lowland clay-rich fertile soil.
31763		habitat	eng	A species of periodically inundated sandy soils.
31764		conservation	eng	It is contained within productive and protected forests in Peninsular Malaysia.
31764		habitat	eng	A tree found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
31765		habitat	eng	Lowland dipterocarp forest.
31765		threats	eng	Forest degradation.
31766		habitat	eng	A tree scattered mainly in lowland secondary forest.
31766		threats	eng	Threats include logging and urban encroachment.
31767		distribution	eng	So far it is known only from Keledang Saiong Forest Reserve in Perak, and Gunung Tapis in Pahang.
31767		habitat	eng	A rare tree scattered in lowland and hill forest.
31768		distribution	eng	Confined to Gunung Korbu, the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill.
31768		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
31768		threats	eng	This region is threatened by the expansion of human habitation and tourism.
31770		distribution	eng	This forest species is known only from Gunung Mandi Angin, Ulu Sg. Terengganu and Ulu Bendong Kemaman in Terengganu.
31770		population	eng	Rarely found.
31771		habitat	eng	A tree of moist lowland to hill forest.
31772		distribution	eng	Found throughout Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia.
31772		habitat	eng	The species is locally common in mixed dipterocarp forest and submontane forest up to 1,200 m.
31773		habitat	eng	Occurring in rainforest up to 260 m.
31773		threats	eng	The most prominent threat to this species is the expansion of human habitations.
31774		conservation	eng	Within national and state parks the tree is conserved.
31774		habitat	eng	A widespread species found from lowlands to hill forests up to 900 m.  Often also occurs in secondary forests and along streams.
31774		threats	eng	The greatest pressure exerted on the species is from the expansion of human settlement.
31775		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31775		habitat	eng	Inhabiting lowland and hill rainforest.
31776		distribution	eng	Confined to a single locality on the Kedah-Perak border.
31776		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.
31776		threats	eng	Under pressure from increasing settlement of the area.
31778		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are thought to receive some protection within the permanent forest estate.
31778		distribution	eng	Cameron Highlands, in the state of Pahang. Information on the taxonomy and conservation of the species is insufficient.
31778		habitat	eng	This species is confined to moist forest.
31778		threats	eng	The area is experiencing increasing settlement and tourism.
31779		distribution	eng	Kedah, Penang, Perak, Pahang and Selangor.
31779		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree found in moist lowland and submontane forest.
31779		threats	eng	Increasing settlement of the area is the greatest threat to the species.
31780		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Malacca.
31780		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31780		population	eng	Very rare tree.
31780		threats	eng	Under threat from increasing settlement of the area.
31781		conservation	eng	A protected subpopulation is found in Taman Negara National Park.
31781		distribution	eng	Distributed in the states of Terengganu, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Johore.
31781		habitat	eng	A species of rainforest and swamp forest.
31782		distribution	eng	Confined to Bubu Forest Reserve, Perak.
31782		habitat	eng	A small tree of hill forest.
31783		distribution	eng	Confined to a single locality in Selangor.
31783		population	eng	A very rare shrub or small tree.
31784		conservation	eng	Occurs entirely in protected area.
31784		distribution	eng	Found within the boundaries of the Taman Negara National Park.
31784		habitat	eng	This small tree is known from lowland, hill and peat-swamp forest.
31785		distribution	eng	Known from two collections: one from Perak and the other from Kedah.
31785		habitat	eng	A small tree of rainforest.
31786		distribution	eng	The species is confined to rainforest in Perak.
31786		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
31787		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the state of Perak.
31787		habitat	eng	A large tree inhabiting lowland rainforest and occasionally freshwater swamps.
31788		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Perak.
31788		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31789		distribution	eng	Kedah, Penang and Perak.
31789		habitat	eng	A tree inhabiting rainforest between 150 and 1,100 m.
31789		threats	eng	This species receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31790		distribution	eng	States of Kelantan, Terengganu, Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan.
31790		habitat	eng	A large tree up to 33 m tall, inhabiting lowland and hill forest.
31791		distribution	eng	Perak, Peninsular Malaysia.
31791		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland, primary forest.
31791		threats	eng	Subpopulations are unprotected and threatened by increasing settlement and logging.
31792		distribution	eng	Occurring only in the state of Selangor.
31792		habitat	eng	A tree of moist forest up to an altitude of 300 m.
31793		distribution	eng	North-eastern Johore.
31793		habitat	eng	This is an uncommon small tree confined to shady, low-lying, seasonally swampy forests.
31794		conservation	eng	The populations are protected within state parks and Taman Negara National Park.
31794		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Temerloh in Pahang and east Johore.
31794		habitat	eng	Occurring in freshwater swamps and near streams in lowland and hill rainforest up to 480 m.
31795		conservation	eng	This species is protected in state parks, wildlife reserves and forest reserves.
31795		distribution	eng	Johore and Terengganu.
31795		habitat	eng	A small tree inhabiting the primary rainforest up to an altitude 540 m.
31796		conservation	eng	The species is protected within Taman Negara National Park and other protected forests within the permanent forest estate.
31796		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane and submontane rainforest areas.
31797		conservation	eng	Within state parks, forest reserves and research forests the tree is conserved.
31797		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
31797		habitat	eng	This tropical moist species, is found in primary and disturbed lowland and hill forest.  Occasionally the species may be found in swamp forest or near river banks.
31797		threats	eng	Pressures from settlement expansion and timber felling activities are a threat.
31799		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both closed and open lowland rainforest and swamp or disturbed forests.
31799		threats	eng	Many such forests in the state of Johore have undergone conversion, particularly for housing developments.
31800		distribution	eng	Occurs at 1,300 m on Frasers Hill, Pahang.
31800		population	eng	A rare species.
31800		threats	eng	The prime threat to this species is tourism.
31801		distribution	eng	A few collections have been made, from the states of Kedah and Perak.
31801		habitat	eng	A species of hill and submontane forest up to 900 m.
31801		threats	eng	Logging and increasing settlement are the principal threats to remaining populations.
31802		distribution	eng	This endemic tree is scattered in Penang and Johore.
31802		habitat	eng	Lowland primary forest.
31802		threats	eng	Both states are undergoing rapid habitat clearance for increasing settlement.
31803		distribution	eng	This species is found in Taman Negara National Park.
31803		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of moist submontane rainforest up to 1,450 m.
31804		conservation	eng	It is protected within Taman Negara National Park.
31804		distribution	eng	Confined to Pahang on Gunung Tahan.
31804		habitat	eng	A small tree of cloud forest, distributed between 1,700 and 1,800 m.
31805		distribution	eng	Terengganu, Pahang (Gunung Tahan) and Johore.
31805		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in lowland forest, hill forest and occasionally along sandy river banks.
31807		conservation	eng	This species is protected in the Taman Negara National Park.
31807		distribution	eng	Pahang.
31807		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to lowland rainforest.
31808		distribution	eng	Johore.
31808		habitat	eng	A small or medium-sized tree which inhabits the lowland swamp forests.
31809		conservation	eng	The species is given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31809		distribution	eng	States of Perak, Kelantan, Pahang and Selangor.
31809		habitat	eng	A small tree inhabiting rainforest between 100 and 2,000 m.
31810		conservation	eng	The known range is entirely within the Taman Negara National Park.&#160; Attempts are required to relocate this species.
31810		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality in Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia: Wray’s Camp, Gunung Tahan (898 m a.s.l.; 4˚39'N 102˚14'E).
31810		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest.
31810		population	eng	The species is only known from the type material collected in July 1911 – no other collections of this species are on record.
31810		threats	eng	Although the threats to this particular species are not known, it is known that some agarwood collection practices are believed to be destructive and  lead to a decline in the number of mature individuals, at least in the  short term (Bland 1886, Mah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Chin 1985, Gianno 1986, Brookfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  1995). Seven of the agarwood-producing species found in Malaysia are listed as being “Vulnerable (VU)” to extinction globally (IUCN  2009).&#160; The conservation status of 11 species has yet to be assessed. It is likely that this species is being impacted by over-exploitation.
31811		distribution	eng	Known only from Kuala, Terengganu.
31811		habitat	eng	Lowland moist forest.
31811		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31812		distribution	eng	Known only from a single herbarium specimen which was collected on the bank of the Kinta River, Perak.
31812		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31812		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31813		distribution	eng	Known only from Keledang Saiong Forest Reserve in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia, Lambill Hill, Sarawak and the Andulau Forest Reserve, Brunei.
31813		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
31814		distribution	eng	Known only from Gunung Mandi Angin in Terengganu and Gunung Tapis in Pahang.
31814		habitat	eng	This large tree is common at 600 m in moist montane forest.
31815		distribution	eng	Found in Bukit Bauk, Jerangau, Ulu Sg. Loh and Gunung Mandi Angin in Terengganu.
31815		habitat	eng	Open moist forest.
31815		population	eng	A locally common tree.
31816		habitat	eng	This tree grows in lowland and hill forests.
31816		population	eng	Scattered and rare.
31817		distribution	eng	Known only from Mersing and Mawai-Jemaluang, Johore.
31817		habitat	eng	A rare tree of lowland moist forest.
31818		distribution	eng	Known only from Ulu Sg. Anak Endau, Pahang.
31818		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland moist forest.
31819		distribution	eng	Found throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
31819		habitat	eng	This species grows in open clusters in moist coastal forest.
31819		threats	eng	Tourism and housing developments are this species' greatest threats.
31820		conservation	eng	This species is conserved within the country's national park.
31820		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
31820		habitat	eng	The species is found scattered throughout primary and disturbed hill forests, where it is common in occurrence.
31820		threats	eng	The expansion of human settlements is the principle pressure exerted on the species.
31821		conservation	eng	Within protected forests, permanent forest estates and forest reserves the species is conserved.
31821		distribution	eng	A commonly occurring species of Peninsular Malaysia.
31821		habitat	eng	Found in primary and disturbed lowland and submontane forests.
31821		threats	eng	Harvested timber is used on a local scale, however human activities such as felling, housing development and agricultural expansion exert pressure on the species.
31822		distribution	eng	Scattered in Perak, Negeri Sembilan, and Malacca.
31822		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31822		threats	eng	The species has experienced extensive habitat conversion for various land uses.
31823		distribution	eng	Throughout Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
31823		habitat	eng	A species of lowland hill forest, occurring along streams.
31823		threats	eng	The habitat is under pressure from logging.
31824		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia
31824		habitat	eng	Inhabiting primary rainforest up to 330 m.
31825		conservation	eng	In the protected forests of Selangor and Pahang the species is protected.
31825		distribution	eng	This species is generally confined to mountain forests in Selangor and Pahang, within these areas occurrence is common.  A collection has also been found by the Tahon River, in the lowlands of Pahang.
31825		habitat	eng	mountain forests.
31826		distribution	eng	Penang and Selangor.
31826		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in moist hill forest between 300 and 450 m.
31826		threats	eng	Both localities are under plans for development.
31827		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in permanent forest reserves.
31827		distribution	eng	Found throughout the states of Malaysia.
31827		habitat	eng	A small, lowland, swamp forest primary species.
31827		population	eng	Common.
31828		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves in Malay the species is conserved.
31828		distribution	eng	Pahang, Perak, Penang, Selangor, Jahor and Singapore.
31828		habitat	eng	This tree is widely distributed throughout the lowland, primary forests.
31829		distribution	eng	This species is known from localities in Johore and Bukit Timah Forest Reserve in Singapore. More information is needed to consolidate the species' occurrence in Viet Nam.
31829		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest below 100 m.
31830		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves of Malaya, the specie is conserved.
31830		distribution	eng	Distributed in Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Singapore.
31830		habitat	eng	A lowland, tropical forest species.
31831		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known within forest reserves.
31831		distribution	eng	The species is probably a synonym of <em>H. oblongifolia</em>.
31833		habitat	eng	A species, found locally on well-drained undulating low-lying ground.
31834		conservation	eng	Although scattered and rare in lowland rainforest in Kedah, Pahang and Selangor, the species does not yet qualify as threatened.
31834		distribution	eng	Although scattered and rare in Kedah, Pahang and Selangor, the species does not yet qualify as threatened. It is hoped there are subpopulations within the production forest reserves of these states.
31834		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31835		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
31835		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open and closed rainforest up to an altitude of 1,200 m.
31836		conservation	eng	Occurs in protective forest within the permanent forest estate.
31836		distribution	eng	Not restricted in range.
31836		habitat	eng	A primary hill forest species.
31837		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas, the species is conserved.
31837		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
31837		habitat	eng	This small tree is widely distributed throughout the lowland and submontane forests.
31838		conservation	eng	Four small localities are contained within forest reserves.
31838		distribution	eng	Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor, Malacca and Singapore.
31838		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31838		threats	eng	Much of the remaining habitat is under threat from development.
31839		distribution	eng	Kedah, Kelantan, Penang, Pahang and Selangor.
31839		habitat	eng	Occurring up to 1,600 m, the species is found in both open and closed rainforest.
31840		distribution	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia it is known from Terengganu and Perak.
31840		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
31840		population	eng	It has been rarely collected.
31841		distribution	eng	Recorded from Perak and Johore in Peninsular Malaysia.
31841		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31841		population	eng	A rare species.
31842		conservation	eng	Populations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31842		distribution	eng	Kedah, Perak and Singapore.
31842		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist forest up to 1,300 m.
31844		conservation	eng	Within the productive forest reserves of these states the species is conserved.
31844		distribution	eng	Pahang and Terengganu.
31844		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree that is a tropical moist species, found in the lowland and hill forest areas.
31844		threats	eng	This species is threatened by felling activities.
31845		conservation	eng	It is expected the species will be found in the nearby production forest reserves in Perak and Selangor.
31845		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
31845		threats	eng	The collection localities of  this tree are being developed for agriculture and settlement.
31846		conservation	eng	Within the production forest reserves where the tree occurs, the species is preserved.
31846		distribution	eng	This tree is widely distributed throughout Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
31846		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland areas of primary forest.
31846		threats	eng	Traded on an minor international level as a fuel source, forestry activities are the principle pressure exerted on the species.
31847		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of Peninsular Malaysia, the species is conserved.  Protection in Virgin jungle reserves and national parks is uncertain.
31847		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.  Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in
31847		habitat	eng	A lowland, tropical moist species, scattered in primary forests.
31847		threats	eng	Timber of the tree is traded on a minor international level, consequently the resulting felling activities are the fundamental pressure exerted upon the species.
31848		conservation	eng	The tree occurs in many permanent forest reserves, virgin jungle reserves and research forests, however, it is uncertain whether the species is protected within these.
31848		distribution	eng	Peninular Malaysia and Singapore.
31848		habitat	eng	This rain forest species, is widely distributed in the lowland and hill forest areas.
31848		threats	eng	Logging activities are a pressure commonly exerted on the species.
31849		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from Selangor, Malacca and Johore.
31849		habitat	eng	A rare tree of lowland rainforest .
31849		threats	eng	The species is threatened by increasing settlement and agriculture.
31850		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31850		habitat	eng	This scattered species grows in lowland and hill rainforest up to 270 m.
31850		threats	eng	Expansion of settlements and forest clearance are the main threats.
31852		conservation	eng	Export of the timber is banned from India.
31852		distribution	eng	Regeneration is mostly vegetative by wood suckers or coppicing and is very successful in places. Viable seeds are produced after five years and dispersed by birds.
31852		habitat	eng	Sandalwood is a hemi-parasitic plant which is widely scattered in dry deciduous forests.
31852		threats	eng	Fire, grazing and most importantly exploitation of the wood for fine furniture and carving and also oil are threatening the species. Smuggling has assumed alarming proportions.
31853		conservation	eng	Natural regeneration is evident and the species is being grown from seed at the Botanic Garden in Xalapa.
31853		distribution	eng	Three subpopulations of a few mature trees, exist in central Veracruz.
31853		habitat	eng	Deciduous thorn forest on karst hills.
31853		threats	eng	They are situated on relatively inaccessible slopes, but trees still appear to be cut for the wood.
31854		distribution	eng	Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region. This small genus is endemic to Mexico.
31854		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree confined to high-precipitation forest.
31855		distribution	eng	Confined to the Uxpananpa-Chimalapa region.
31855		habitat	eng	Evergreen hill forest.
31855		population	eng	A relatively common tree.
31856		distribution	eng	An isolated and distinctive species of <em>Rinorea</em>. Type collection taken from Uxpanapa. The species appears to be more closely related to paleotropical members of the genus.
31856		habitat	eng	Growing in seasonal forest on karst limestone.
31856		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection of 1982.
31856		threats	eng	Although there has been much deforestation, the areas on karst are generally unattractive to cultivate or log.
31858		conservation	eng	Most parts of the range are protected.
31858		distribution	eng	In Panama, occurs in small populations only in Chiriquí and Darién. In Costa Rica populations appear to be larger and scattered throughout the country at elevations above 1,000 m. Records also exist from Venezuela and it is likely that the species will be found in Colombia.
31858		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
31858		threats	eng	Extensive agriculture is beginning to affect some high-altitude areas in Panama and Costa Rica.
31859		distribution	eng	There have been no records of the species since 1980. The two collections known are from the same site. Fieldwork is needed in order to ascertain whether the species still exists.
31860		conservation	eng	Several populations are contained within Chagres National Park.
31860		distribution	eng	Only small subpopulations are known, in Cerro Jefe.
31860		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of lowland rainforest.
31860		threats	eng	Populations outside protected areas are increasingly threatened by encroaching agriculture, settlements and industrial developments.
31861		distribution	eng	In Central America the species is represented by a single collection from Swan Island, Honduras.
31861		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree up to 15 m tall, occurring in thickets and woodland on rocky limestone.
31861		threats	eng	The species has been heavily exploited for its timber over a long period on all the West Indian islands. Stands are now largely depleted of mature trees and the timber is extremely rare in international trade.
31862		conservation	eng	The Mt. Kinabalu population is almost entirely contained within a national park.
31862		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah. There is also a disjunct population, which occurs within a highly restricted area on the summit ridge of Mt Moored in Sarawak. This latter occurrence has been referred to as <em>A. orbicula</em> by de Laubenfels.
31862		habitat	eng	Mossy ridge forest above 1,500 m.
31862		population	eng	Apparently relatively common.
31862		threats	eng	The Mt. Murud population is unprotected and the area is under considerable pressure for development.
31864		conservation	eng	Populations in Mt. Kinabalu are relatively well protected.
31864		distribution	eng	This large tree is known only from Mt. Kinabalu and the adjacent Crocker range.
31864		habitat	eng	Occurring in lower montane forest and possibly hill forest.
31864		threats	eng	The Crocker range is a large area with a poorly defined boundary. There are frequent illegal incursions, mainly to remove timber from this species.
31865		distribution	eng	Ranging from southern Sabah to central Sarawak, this tree is found scattered in relatively few locations.
31865		habitat	eng	Rainforests and kerangas on low mountains and plateaux.
31865		threats	eng	Levels of timber exploitation and the effects on populations are little known but are likely to be considerable.
31866		distribution	eng	Known only from Bukit Siol, Sempadi Forest Reserve and Gunung Pueh, 1st Division.
31866		habitat	eng	A small forest tree, apparently a component of kerangas forest.
31867		distribution	eng	A tree known by only a single collection from Sabah. The taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.
31868		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type collection only. However, the taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.
31869		distribution	eng	A species known only from the type collection. However, the taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.
31870		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah. It is known from Mt Kinabalu, Ranau, Kota Marudu and Mt Rara.
31870		habitat	eng	This tree is found in rainforest and disturbed forest on hillsides up to 1,500 m, often on ultramafic soils.
31872		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak.
31872		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
31872		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
31877		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection taken from Tawau, Sabah and from Brunei.
31877		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31877		population	eng	A very rare tree.
31878		distribution	eng	A small tree known from a single collection from Kuching, Sarawak and from Brunei.
31878		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31879		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak; type specimen collected on Mt Matang.
31879		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31879		population	eng	This tree is known only from the type specimen.
31886		distribution	eng	A small tree, endemic to Sarawak. It is locally frequent in west Baram.
31886		habitat	eng	A small tree, found in lowland forest near rivers.
31887		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak, known only from Bako National Park, Gunung Santubong and Mulu National Park.
31887		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland and submontane forest.
31888		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus endemic to Sarawak. It is known only from Nyabau Forest Reserve, Bako National Park, Sri Aman and Bayai.
31888		habitat	eng	This small tree grows in mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest.
31891		distribution	eng	Western Borneo. In Sarawak, the only known occurrence is in the Kuching region.
31891		habitat	eng	A small dioecious tree which occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest on leached yellow soils.
31893		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak, this species is known only from Mt Santubong.
31893		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest at an elevation of 90 m.
31894		habitat	eng	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.
31894		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss.
31896		distribution	eng	An endemic tree.
31896		habitat	eng	Found in mixed dipterocarp forest on low hills.
31896		threats	eng	The demand for agricultural land exerts a strong pressure on remaining forest.
31897		conservation	eng	An occurrence is recorded in a site proposed  as a reserve.
31897		habitat	eng	A large tree which is locally common on clay-rich hillsides and spurs.
31898		distribution	eng	A subspecies endemic to Borneo.
31898		habitat	eng	Occurs throughout mixed dipterocarp forest on rich clay soils.
31899		habitat	eng	Occurs locally on river banks.
31900		distribution	eng	Western Sarawak.
31900		habitat	eng	Restricted to granodiorite hill slopes.
31900		population	eng	This tree may already be extinct.
31901		distribution	eng	This small tree species is locally frequent in Sarawak.
31902		conservation	eng	This tree is recorded in sites proposed for reserve status.
31902		population	eng	The species is locally abundant by streams.
31903		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.
31903		distribution	eng	This species is locally abundant in Sarawak.
31904		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sarawak.
31904		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest.
31905		habitat	eng	This species is locally frequent in mixed dipterocarp forest.
31906		habitat	eng	A species of mixed dipterocarp and heath forest.
31906		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by clearance and degradation.
31907		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.
31907		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo.
31907		habitat	eng	Mixed peat-swamp forest.
31907		threats	eng	Peat-swamp forest is highly threatened in Borneo.
31908		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are also known to occur in forest reserves.
31908		distribution	eng	Locally common in Perak forests.
31909		distribution	eng	A tree of northern Borneo.
31909		habitat	eng	Found growing in mixed dipterocarp forest on low hills.
31910		conservation	eng	There are subpopulations present in forest reserves.
31910		habitat	eng	Found on leached soils.
31912		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.
31912		habitat	eng	A gregarious tree found on clay soils.
31913		conservation	eng	It does occur in a protected reserve.
31913		population	eng	The population of this species is extremely small.
31915		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
31915		habitat	eng	Ridges and hill forests.
31915		threats	eng	This tree is slow-growing and therefore directly threatened by logging operations. The tree is cut for balau timber.
31920		distribution	eng	Sarawak.
31920		habitat	eng	A tree confined to the diminishing mixed dipterocarp forest.
31921		distribution	eng	Endemic in Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan.
31921		habitat	eng	This rare tree is found on clay-rich soils on hill ridges.
31922		distribution	eng	A magnificent yellow meranti timber species endemic to the Hose Mts. in Sarawak.
31922		habitat	eng	Fertile volcanic soils.
31923		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.
31923		distribution	eng	Sarawak.
31923		habitat	eng	A tree of remaining fragments of heath forest.
31923		threats	eng	It is mainly threatened by habitat degradation.
31924		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo.
31924		habitat	eng	An immense tree locally common on fertile clay-rich soil.
31925		distribution	eng	Central Sarawak.
31925		habitat	eng	Confined to mixed dipterocarp forest.
31925		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest degradation.
31926		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in primary forest reserves.
31927		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak.
31927		habitat	eng	This tree is found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
31929		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in some primary forest reserves.
31929		habitat	eng	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.
31929		threats	eng	The main source of balau timber for Sabah. Logging poses a severe threat because the trees are unable to reach reproductive maturity between cutting cycles.
31930		conservation	eng	The species also occurs in some primary forest reserves.
31930		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Sabah.
31930		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest.
31930		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat conversion and degradation.
31931		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are also reported in primary forest reserves.
31931		distribution	eng	Brunei and Sarawak.
31931		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to mixed dipterocarp forest.
31932		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in forest reserves.
31932		habitat	eng	A tree of heath forest in coastal areas and on dry ridges.
31932		threats	eng	Suffering from habitat degradation.
31933		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak.
31933		habitat	eng	Heath forest dipterocarp.
31933		threats	eng	Seriously threatened with extinction because of forest conversion and degradation.
31934		distribution	eng	A species with a restricted range.
31934		habitat	eng	Found only in mixed dipterocarp forest.
31935		distribution	eng	Restricted to west Kalimantan and Sarawak.
31935		habitat	eng	This tree is confined to the diminishing mixed dipterocarp forests.
31935		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
31936		habitat	eng	A lowland tree that is found in the transitional zone between heath forest and mixed dipterocarp forest.
31936		threats	eng	It is suffering from habitat conversion and degradation.
31937		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to north-western Borneo.
31937		habitat	eng	Found on clay alluvium river banks.
31938		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to primary lowland dipterocarp forest and riverine forests.
31939		distribution	eng	Found throughout Borneo.
31939		habitat	eng	Primary and disturbed lowland forest up to 600 m.
31939		population	eng	An uncommon species.
31940		distribution	eng	A small slender tree apparently endemic to Sarawak and known from just four collections.
31940		habitat	eng	It grows in coastal kerangas and secondary forest on eroded white sand.
31941		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout much of Borneo, although it has not yet been collected in Sabah.
31941		habitat	eng	Lowland forest tree.
31942		distribution	eng	The species has been collected just four times from Sarawak and Sabah.
31942		habitat	eng	Found in upper dipterocarp forest.
31943		distribution	eng	This tree has a restricted distribution.
31943		habitat	eng	A tall tree found in lowland mixed forest, <em>Agathis</em> forest and ridge forest.
31943		population	eng	No recent collections have been made.
31944		distribution	eng	This species is locally frequent in northern Borneo including an occurrence on Nunukan Island.
31944		habitat	eng	Found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
31945		distribution	eng	A montane species, endemic to Mt Kinabalu and the surrounding area.
31945		population	eng	Locally common.
31946		distribution	eng	It is known from two collections from Sabah, a single collection from Sarawak and another from north-east Kalimantan.
31946		habitat	eng	A tree found in logged forest and riverine forest.
31947		distribution	eng	Restricted to Borneo.
31947		population	eng	A locally frequent species.
31950		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from three collections from south Kalimantan.
31950		habitat	eng	Found in lowland <em>Agathis</em> forest on sand ridges in peat forest.
31951		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to two collections from Mount Majau, Sarawak.
31952		distribution	eng	Found in Sarawak, Sabah and East Kalimantan
31952		population	eng	A locally common species.
31953		distribution	eng	This subspecies is locally common in Sarawak and Sabah.
31953		habitat	eng	Lower montane.
31954		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to mixed dipterocarp forest up to an altitude of 700 m.
31955		distribution	eng	Found especially on and around Mt Kinabalu. A single collection has also been recorded from Sarawak.
31955		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane forest.
31956		distribution	eng	A tree known from two collections from the Third Division, Sarawak, a single collection from the Beaufort District, Sabah, and a recent collection from east Kalimantan.
31957		distribution	eng	A forest tree found in the Third Division of Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan (including Nunukan Island).
31958		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sarawak and Brunei.
31959		habitat	eng	The tree is found at the foot of limestone mountains.
31959		population	eng	Known from five collections.
31960		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to Sarawak and west Kalimantan.
31960		population	eng	It is known only from three collections.
31962		distribution	eng	Confined to Miri, Bintulu and Tatau.
31962		habitat	eng	Small tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
31962		population	eng	Uncommon.
31966		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah, in Ranau.
31966		habitat	eng	This small tree is known only from montane forest.
31967		distribution	eng	It is endemic to north-east Sarawak.
31967		habitat	eng	A small tree found growing on the banks of rocky streams.
31968		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to East Kalimantan.
31968		habitat	eng	It has been recorded on a sandstone ridge at 400 m.
31969		conservation	eng	The species also is found in forest reserves.
31969		habitat	eng	A tree that occurs locally on flat coastal swamps on yellow sandy soils and on low hills.
31970		threats	eng	A lofty tree that is a source of balau timber. Logging is a serious threat because the reproductive cycle of the species exceeds the present cutting cycle.
31971		habitat	eng	A large tree that is found locally on ridges.
31972		habitat	eng	A tree of remaining patchy kerangas vegetation on podzols and sandstone cuestas.
31972		threats	eng	The population in Peninsular Malaysia has declined because of overexploitation.
31973		habitat	eng	A tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
31974		habitat	eng	A tree with a local distribution in mixed dipterocarp forest.
31974		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest conversion and degradation.
31975		habitat	eng	One of the larger trees of this genus, scattered in mixed dipterocarp forest.  Some trees may also be found in primary forest reserves.
31976		distribution	eng	Found in central Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.
31976		habitat	eng	A tree of low ridges and coastal hills.
31977		conservation	eng	Some areas receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
31977		distribution	eng	Found in Perak, Pahang, Penang, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johore and Singapore.
31977		habitat	eng	A tree of moist forest up to 1,300 m.
31978		conservation	eng	Within forest reserves of Peninsular Malaysia the species is conserved.
31978		distribution	eng	Principle distribution is mainly on ridges and summits of primary hill forests.
31978		habitat	eng	A widely occurring tropical moist species, from lowlands to submontane forests.
31979		conservation	eng	It is conserved within permanent forest reserves throughout the country.
31979		distribution	eng	This species is commonly found in primary forest throughout Malaya.
31979		habitat	eng	A tropical moist tree, occurring in lowland areas in primary forest.
31980		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas, the species is conserved.
31980		distribution	eng	Found scattered in the southern lowlands of Malaya. It has been specifically recorded in the states of Negeri Sembilan and Johor.
31980		habitat	eng	A tropical, moist species.
31981		conservation	eng	The tree is conserved in the productive forest reserves where it occurs.
31981		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in lowland and hill forests.
31981		habitat	eng	A tropical rainforest species.
31981		threats	eng	Locally used as a source of fuel, the felling activities which result from this, are the main threat to the species.
31982		conservation	eng	It is possible a population exists in the productive forest reserves in Kelantan.
31982		distribution	eng	Kelantan and Johore.
31982		habitat	eng	A tree confined to freshwater swamp and lowland forest.
31982		threats	eng	The species' localities are vulnerable to development, especially the swamp forests of Johore which are being rapidly settled.
31984		conservation	eng	The species is now part of a conservation programme.
31984		distribution	eng	In China the species is confined to localities in Lanchang, Menglian, Ximeng and Mengla in southern Yunnan. Subpopulations are known to exist in north-west Thailand but further information on them is required.
31984		habitat	eng	Montane evergreen forest.
31984		threats	eng	The habitat has declined through logging and clearing for agriculture
31987		distribution	eng	From Banten to Preanger.
31987		habitat	eng	The species is locally common in montane forest remnants between 1,200 and 2,200 m.
31987		threats	eng	Its high-altitude distribution avoids the worst levels of  habitat clearance and cutting but the species habitat  is nevertheless under severe pressure.
31988		distribution	eng	In remaining forest patches in west and central Java.
31988		habitat	eng	A montane forest species occurring between 1,200 and 1,700 m.
31988		threats	eng	These areas, although they are not as badly affected as forest at lower elevations, are under severe pressure from the activities of the surrounding human populations.
31989		habitat	eng	Occurring only in areas of primary forest in west and central regions.
31989		population	eng	Both the species and the habitat are uncommon.
31989		threats	eng	The pressures on remaining forest patches are very high, especially at elevations below 1,400 m, where the forest is almost completely cleared.
31990		distribution	eng	Mt. Slamet and further west.
31990		habitat	eng	Patches of remaining submontane forest up to 1,800 m.
31990		population	eng	A relatively common species where it occurs.
31990		threats	eng	This habitat has been almost completely cleared below 1,400 m and at higher elevations it is under severe pressure from the activities of surrounding human populations.
31991		distribution	eng	The species is possibly synonymous with <em>A. dasyphylla</em>. It is found on Mt Papandayan, Malabar and Dieng.
31991		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forests between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
31992		habitat	eng	Damp montane forests above 400 m.
31992		population	eng	A widespread but uncommon species.
31992		threats	eng	At lower elevation the species habitat has been almost completely cleared.
31993		distribution	eng	This species is apparently sparsely distributed on Mt Salak and near Pelabuhan Ratu.
31993		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
31993		threats	eng	Both areas, close to Bogor city, appear to be without official protection and are susceptible to encroachment and cutting.
31994		distribution	eng	Confined to Mt Tlerep, Merbabu and Sumbing.
31994		habitat	eng	Scrub or grassland.
31994		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
31994		threats	eng	The soil is noted to be fertile. These areas, although less affected than those at lower elevations, are under severe pressure from the activities and demands of the surrounding human populations.
31995		distribution	eng	This species has been found only once at 1,350 m near the crater on Mt. Salak. It may be a natural hybrid of <em>R. javanicum</em> and <em>R. malayanum</em>.
31996		distribution	eng	A species confined to the west.
31996		habitat	eng	In scattered remnants of hill forest up to 1,000 m.
31996		threats	eng	This habitat has been almost completely cleared and remaining patches are under extremely severe pressure from the activities of local populations.
31997		conservation	eng	Thesubpopulation on the Kambangan is relatively well protected by the presence of three high-security prisons. A reserve of 20 km² is also patrolled by armed guards.
31997		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are confined to the south-west corner of Java and to Nusa Kambangan.
31997		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
31997		threats	eng	Illegal logging. On the mainland the habitat is also under extreme pressure from local activities.
31998		distribution	eng	From Pacitan to Kawi.
31998		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mixed lowland forest up to 700 m.
31998		population	eng	There have been no recent collections.
31998		threats	eng	The habitat has been almost completely cleared at this altitude and there is intense pressure on remaining forested areas.
31999		distribution	eng	Occurring in the west.
31999		habitat	eng	Mixed montane forest at about 1,750 m.
31999		population	eng	The species appears to be very rare.
31999		threats	eng	The pressures from encroachment and cutting exerted on the habitat at this high elevation are less intense than at lower levels but are still very strong.
32000		distribution	eng	Vicinity of Bogor.
32000		habitat	eng	A species distributed in remnant hill forests.
32000		population	eng	It is unknown how much of the original population remains.
32000		threats	eng	The extent of habitat clearance and cutting has been extremely high.
32001		distribution	eng	An endemic on the islands of Karimunjawa and Kangean.
32001		habitat	eng	Beach forest.
32001		population	eng	More information is needed on the present status of each population.
32002		conservation	eng	The species is listed as endangered by the Guam government and two populations are effectively protected within military bases.
32002		distribution	eng	The species is known from occurrences on Guam, Tinian, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Islands, and also possibly on Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands.
32002		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of moist forest on limestone cliffs and coastal windblown sites.
32002		population	eng	There are about 1,000 trees on Guam, several hundred on Tinian and fewer than 100 on Saipan. The Rota subpopulation has not been found recently.
32002		threats	eng	There is strong evidence to suggest that the species is not regenerating. Seedlings and seeds are predated by ungulates and crabs.
32003		distribution	eng	Larger Marianne and Caroline Islands.
32003		habitat	eng	Found in thickets and secondary forest.
32003		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat decline.
32004		distribution	eng	Type collected in the Chittagong District of Bangladesh.
32004		population	eng	This tree is known only from the type.
32005		distribution	eng	An endemic family of just two species. This is the rarer taxon, occurring on Vanua Levu and Taveuni in small, scattered subpopulations.
32006		distribution	eng	Populations occur on Moorea and Tahiti.
32007		distribution	eng	There is little information on this endemic to the Bahamas.
32007		threats	eng	There are still substantial areas which remain undeveloped on the islands and the species is not thought to be under threat.
32008		distribution	eng	The species occurs in widely separated localities.
32008		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
32008		population	eng	Known from just two collections.
32009		distribution	eng	The main concentration of the species occurs in Travancore, along the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Collections have also been made further north in the Western Ghats into Karnataka.
32009		habitat	eng	Low- to medium-altitude forest.
32010		distribution	eng	Subpopulations, which are sometimes recognised as separate varieties, have been recorded in the Tubuai Group, on Raivavae, Rurutu and Rapa, apparently on Mauke in the Cook Islands and on all the main Hawaiian Islands with the exception of Niihau and Kahoolawe.
32010		habitat	eng	In Hawaii the species once formed a significant component of lowland dry forest, and is now restricted to remnant patches of forest on lava flows and slopes which are less attractive for cultivation or grazing.
32010		population	eng	On Raivavae and Rurutu subpopulations are in a critical state, but on Rapa they are unthreatened.
32010		threats	eng	It has become rare because of habitat loss.
32012		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in primary and secondary forest up to 830 m.
32012		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat.
32013		habitat	eng	A species of mixed dry forest, occurring at middle elevations.
32014		distribution	eng	The main part of the species range occurs in Costa Rica, concentrated in the region of Río San Juan and La Selva Biological Station in the north-west. In Panama collections have been made in Chiriquí, near the border with Costa Rica.
32014		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
32014		threats	eng	The subpopulations in Panama appear to be very restricted and under some threat from cattle ranching and commercial banana cultivation.
32015		distribution	eng	The species is known from a few collections all taken from a small area around Cerro Colorado in Chiriquí.
32015		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
32015		threats	eng	There is much activity in the area, particularly copper and gold mining.
32016		distribution	eng	Type collection from Cerro Tute in Verguas.
32016		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen collected in 1975. It is not known whether the species still exists and the area is little explored.
32017		distribution	eng	Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. Quebracho is the national tree of Argentina.
32017		habitat	eng	The species is a characteristic component of the Gran Chaco, especially in the eastern humid plains.  It apparently takes 120 years for the species to reach maturity.
32017		population	eng	The species, remains common over large areas.
32017		threats	eng	It is a source of timber and more importantly tannin.  Quebracho forest has declined by 65% over the past 80 years through logging and clearance for cattle ranching and agriculture. Exploitation in the present day does not reach pre-1954 levels, but overselection of fit individuals has resulted in large areas of forest (80,000 km² in the dry Chaco subregion) being dominated by unproductive small bushes. More than 40,000 km² of forest is thought to have become totally degraded through overgrazing by cattle.
32018		distribution	eng	Originally thought to be endemic to Tucumán in Argentina, the species has recently been discovered in a small area in Bolivia.
32019		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix I of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
32019		distribution	eng	Populations in Argentina are very small and scattered. Their exact locations are kept undisclosed for better protection.
32019		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
32019		threats	eng	Threatened mainly by loss of habitat, although also an important commercial timber.
32020		distribution	eng	Some taxonomists still refer to the species under the small genus <em>Myracrodruon</em>.
32020		habitat	eng	A dominant component of caatinga, also occurring widely in cerrado.
32020		threats	eng	It is commercially overexploited for the decay-resistant dense wood. Large natural stands have become scarce in places. All size classes are exploited for a variety of uses: small trees for fencing and larger trees for railroad ties, posts and other construction work.
32021		distribution	eng	A characteristic tree of the Chaco Serrano. In Argentina subpopulations range from the north-east up to San Juan, San Luis and Córdoba.
32021		threats	eng	The habitat is rapidly declining throughout the range, particularly in Córdoba.
32022		distribution	eng	Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay.
32022		habitat	eng	It occurs abundantly and over a wide range in lowland dry forest types.  An important timber tree and source of tanin, fuelwood and fodder.
32022		threats	eng	The extent of occurrence is constantly contracting with the spread of cattle ranching, agriculture and indiscriminate logging, particularly in Santiago del Estero in Argentina.
32023		population	eng	<em>Peroba rosa</em> is a popular timber tree, which has suffered intense exploitation and habitat loss over the past few decades. The Brazilian subpopulations are largely eroded. Subpopulations in Colombia are seriously threatened. In Paraguay, the species was relatively recently described as one of the dominant components of some areas of forest, but here too rapid population declines have resulted in the species being hard to find and no longer commercially viable to exploit. In Argentina the species is rare and confined to the north of Misiones.
32023		threats	eng	Timber exploitation
32024		habitat	eng	A widespread tree found in diverse habitats, from pastureland to rainforest.
32024		threats	eng	The heavy, hard wood is used for carving and construction and is exploitated, notably in Brazil, at such a level as to cause significant population declines.
32025		distribution	eng	Distributed from Mexico to the Andes.
32025		habitat	eng	A widespread montane species.  It is common in cloud forest and montane rainforest but much of its original habitat in the drier inter-Andean valleys has disappeared over the centuries.  They coppice well and regenerate well.
32025		threats	eng	These trees are an important local source of fuelwood and timber for construction.
32026		distribution	eng	Widely occurring and relatively common in the Chaco region. It reaches the margins of its range in Brazil, where it is confined to Porto Murtinho. In Bolivia the species is well represented in herbarium collections.
32026		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland deciduous forest.
32026		threats	eng	Throughout its range it is exploited as a popular source of timber, but the most serious threat is habitat loss.
32027		distribution	eng	The species is reported to be endemic to the endangered piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
32027		threats	eng	The ecosystem is rapidly being converted to agriculture.
32028		conservation	eng	A large subpopulation occurs in Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park.
32028		distribution	eng	A Chaco endemic. One of the last and also the largest unexploited subpopulations is said to occur in the newly established Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, which covers 34,410 km², in south-east Bolivia.
32029		habitat	eng	A common species of low- to medium-altitude forest.
32029		threats	eng	Where it occurs in southern Chile there is the constant threat of logging and commercial forestry activities, for example planting eucalypti and Monterey pine.
32030		distribution	eng	A species which is said to occur abundantly in the central Andes and Coastal Cordillera, extending from Maule to Los Lagos (Regions VII-X). Several botanical visits to the area have failed to find a single large mature individual.
32030		habitat	eng	Low- to medium-altitude forest.
32030		threats	eng	The habitat has been extensively logged and replanted with eucalypti and Monterey pine.
32031		distribution	eng	Appears to be scarce, particularly in Chile, where it is restricted to the Atacama region.
32031		habitat	eng	A dryland species.
32032		distribution	eng	The species occupies a relatively small area of subandean forest in central Chile.
32032		habitat	eng	Occurring at riversides or in swampy areas.
32032		population	eng	It does not appear to be common or well known.
32033		conservation	eng	About 13% of the species range is covered by protected areas.
32033		distribution	eng	Endemic to Maule region. It is recognised as a very primitive member of the genus.
32033		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
32033		population	eng	The species was once more widespread but is now restricted to eight scattered localities in a small area in the Coastal Cordillera. These stands all represent secondary growth from stump sprouts and between 1983 and 1991 their extent of occurrence was reduced by almost 60%.
32033		threats	eng	Establishment of plantations of <em>Pinus radiata</em>.
32034		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to central Chile, in both the Coastal Cordillera and the Andes.
32034		habitat	eng	Occurring on thin or rocky soils up to 1,500 m.
32034		population	eng	Regeneration in old growth stands is very good. The species is rarely contained within protected areas.
32034		threats	eng	Almost all the pure stands in the coastal range, known as Maule forest, have been logged and converted into <em>Pinus radiata</em> plantations. The Andean subpopulations are presently under conversion. Since 1985 the woodchip industry has increased the demand for timber.
32036		distribution	eng	Distributed over much of the Central Depression up to 900 m in Chile, extending into Argentina, the species is widespread.
32036		threats	eng	Suffering from extensive habitat loss. Logging, increasing agriculture and fires are the main concerns.
32037		conservation	eng	Attempts to plant the species within the area of its natural distribution have been successful.
32037		distribution	eng	Found only in the northernmost province of Chile.
32037		habitat	eng	The species occurs within a small area of dry woodland.
32039		distribution	eng	Occurring as isolated individuals or in small groups, ranging from south-east Peru to the Ariza Province of Chile.
32039		habitat	eng	The species is found in dry hot ravines in lowland areas.
32040		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the island of Ponape in Micronesia.
32040		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary forest.
32040		population	eng	It does not appear to have been collected in the last 50 years.
32041		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region, occurring in large but isolated subpopulations. This is the only member of Lecythidaceae in Mexico.
32041		habitat	eng	Rainforest tree.
32041		threats	eng	The Chimalapa area still harbours large tracts of relatively undisturbed forest, but is under potential threat from proposed large-scale forestry and development projects. Uxpanapa has suffered from substantial habitat clearance for agriculture and settlement in the government relocation scheme.
32042		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from the Ogasawara, Okinawa Senseki, Okinawa Kaigan and Fuji-Hakone-Izu Reserves, which represent locations on several islands.
32042		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout Ryuku Island, in southern Honshu and the Bonin Islands (Japan).
32042		habitat	eng	Rocky and gravelly slopes near the shore or further inland, shingle beaches. Elevation (from GIS) 1 to 268 m. Junipers are bird dispersed (or perhaps mammals play a minor role, too) which accounts for the disjunct occurrence on oceanic islands of some of the species in this genus. This species is locally used as a wind break; it is also used in horticulture.
32042		population	eng	Populations are extremely disjunct.
32042		threats	eng	No threats are known to this species.
32043		distribution	eng	A relatively widespread species.
32043		habitat	eng	Occurring in various habitat types, thicket, maquis or gallery forest on rocky ultramafic soils.
32043		threats	eng	Various threats exist from fires, mining and agricultural encroachment.
32044		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a few localities in the north-west of Grand Terre.
32044		habitat	eng	Maquis on ultramafic substrate.
32044		threats	eng	It is nowhere protected and the habitat is exposed to threats from fires, mining and clearance.
32049		distribution	eng	A species which can be divided into two varieties, both endemic to New Caledonia, in the north-west of Grand Terre and possibly also on Ile Yandé.
32049		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland areas of maquis or forest on ultramafic substrate.
32049		threats	eng	These areas are unprotected and exposed to various threats from fire, mining activities and habitat clearance or degradation.
32050		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub found only in sparse and scattered stands in the volcanic Western Cordillera in the border regions of Bolivia, Peru and Chile.
32050		habitat	eng	It is probably the only tree in the world growing up to altitudes of 5,200 m.
32050		population	eng	Populations seriously declined in the past (more than three generations ago) but their present status appears to be stable.
32050		threats	eng	Locally it is of great importance as a source of firewood and even of construction timber.
32051		distribution	eng	A morphologically distinct member of the genus, confined to the coastal regions of central Chile.
32051		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky ravines and coastal scrub.
32053		habitat	eng	A relatively common tree occurring in medium altitude deciduous forest.
32053		threats	eng	The habitat is extensively logged. The wood of this species is exploited but the associated broadleaved species are more heavily harvested.
32055		conservation	eng	83% of the entire population is contained within protected areas.
32055		distribution	eng	The genus is endemic to Tasmania and comprises three species.
32055		threats	eng	The species has been observed to decline by 32% in less than 100 years through the effects of fire. No regeneration is evident after burning.
32056		conservation	eng	The species is considered critically endangered in India and export has been prohibited. It is included in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
32056		distribution	eng	A large evergreen tree occurring in forests at the base of mountainous areas.
32056		threats	eng	For centuries the species has been traded internationally for the wood infected with fungi, called agar or gaharu amongst other things; it is used as incense, perfume and in traditional medicine. Most of the agarwood on the market is collected from the wild since the few plantations set up in the early 1900s are either under serious pressure or have been destroyed.
32057		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
32057		distribution	eng	The species is largely contained within the Agastyamalai range.
32057		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
32059		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kalimantan, mostly in the south. The species was native to the wet climate area around Banjarmasin, Indonesia.
32059		habitat	eng	This tree produces delicious purple-black mango like fruits with very sweet, excellent flavored dark orange pulp.
32059		population	eng	It is now known only from cultivation.
32060		conservation	eng	An occurrence is recorded in Berbak Nature Reserve in Sumatra.
32060		distribution	eng	Southern Peninsular Malaysia, Riau Islands, Bangka Islands, Jambi and Palembang, Sumatra. Formerly also from Singapore.
32060		habitat	eng	A tree found in freshwater marshy areas and mangrove swamp.
32060		population	eng	It is thought to be extinct in Singapore because of the destruction of mangrove areas for urban growth. Elsewhere it is suspected to be in real danger of extinction.
32060		threats	eng	Destruction of mangrove areas for urban growth.
32062		distribution	eng	This large tree is known only from the islands of Sumbawa and Flores.
32062		habitat	eng	Restricted to montane wet evergreen rainforest.
32062		threats	eng	On the Lesser Sunda Islands, only small isolated patches of tropical rainforests remain and only an estimated total of 210 km² of montane rainforest is left. The original forests have been degraded by human activity or converted for agriculture.
32064		distribution	eng	Known from only three collections in Sabah, two from Sarawak, and single collections from Nunukan Island off east Kalimantan and Rotan Tunggal Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia.
32064		habitat	eng	It is usually found in wet evergreen forest.
32064		population	eng	A rare tree. The species has been reported to be in immediate danger of extinction.
32067		distribution	eng	South-east Kenya to north-east Tanzania. The only records from Kenya are from Pangani and the Tana Delta.
32067		habitat	eng	This large tree is restricted to small areas of remaining moist or riverine forest.
32068		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and another in the Parque Nacional Cajas.
32068		distribution	eng	Known from six collections in the southern Andes, within the province of Azuay and especially to the west and south of Loja.
32068		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,000–3,450 m).
32068		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
32069		distribution	eng	Known only from north-west Ecuador, this middle-storey tree has been collected about five times. Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
32069		habitat	eng	Areas of lowland non-flooded forest.
32069		population	eng	It is apparently uncommon.
32071		distribution	eng	An endemic to Nariño.
32072		distribution	eng	An endemic to Valle.
32073		distribution	eng	An endemic to Boyacá.
32075		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
32076		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species has been recorded in Valle, Santander and Huila.
32077		conservation	eng	Unknown.
32077		distribution	eng	The species was originally recorded from an unspecified locality, probably in Antioquia, San Luis. According to the Missouri Botanical Garden database TROPICOS, this species has been collected (in flower and fruit) from Antioquia many times (14 collections) during the 1980s and 1990s, with the most recent collection being in 2001. It was also collected at Chocó in the late 1980s. The collections were mostly made at altitudes between 325 and 1,100 m. The collections from Chocó are probably at a lower elevation.
32077		habitat	eng	Unknown, but presumably a lowland forest species.
32077		population	eng	Unknown, but given the number of collections and the latitudinal range may be locally common.
32077		threats	eng	Unknown.
32078		distribution	eng	A highland species, with a scattered distribution on the periphery of the Andes and in inter-Andean valleys, often as isolated individuals in agricultural land.
32078		threats	eng	Declines in habitat have been considerable and the species continues to be exploited for its timber, which is often used for decorative purposes. Its presence in the international timber trade is thought to be increasing. No commercial plantations have been established.
32080		distribution	eng	Collections are known from Lopé Forest Reserve, Lastoursville and Moumba.
32080		threats	eng	Logging has taken place in these areas and is expected to continue over the large areas of forest which are now under concession to logging companies.
32081		distribution	eng	A species known only from a collection in Oyem in the north, in an area which has been degraded to some degree.
32081		population	eng	Known from only one collection.
32081		threats	eng	Much of Gabon's extensive forests have not been explored and are now under concession to logging companies.
32082		distribution	eng	A Gabon endemic, so far found at Lopé Forest Reserve and near Lastoursville. The species may be more widespread, given that Gabon's forests are relatively unexplored.
32082		threats	eng	The habitat is degraded where logging has taken place.  Areas are now largely under concession to logging companies.
32083		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only from Libreville. Much of the forest in the country remains unexplored and relatively intact.
32083		threats	eng	The habitat has been extensively logged. Large parts of it are now under concession to logging companies.
32084		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from Lopé Forest Reserve and the relatively isolated Cristal Mountains, possibly extending into the remnant coastal forest in Cameroon.
32084		threats	eng	The habitat is degraded where logging has taken place. A large part of Gabon's forest is now under concession to logging companies.
32085		distribution	eng	Found along the coast of Gabon following the Oguooé valley inland to Lopé Forest Reserve. Suggestions that it occurs in Cameroon have not been consolidated. It ranges over an area covering at least 70,000 km² in extent.
32085		habitat	eng	A species confined to dry forest.
32085		threats	eng	he species is being felled for its timber, but the threat is not believed to be substantial at present. The long-term survival of the tree and its habitat is uncertain given the extent to which logging concessions have been made.
32086		distribution	eng	Lopé Forest Reserve, Ndjolé-Koumamejong, Sindoro and near Lastoursville.
32086		habitat	eng	A species found in areas of closed forest.
32086		threats	eng	The habitat is degraded where there has been logging. Gabon's extensive forests are relatively unexplored and are now under concession to logging companies.
32087		conservation	eng	Lopé is being designated as Gabon's first national park.
32087		distribution	eng	The species is so far known from the type locality next to an access road to a work site in Belinga and also from Lopé Forest Reserve further south. It is possible that it may be found to be more widespread.
32087		habitat	eng	Dense forest.
32087		threats	eng	There is concern over the extent to which forest is now under concession to logging companies.
32088		distribution	eng	A species known only from the type locality in Bélinga.
32088		threats	eng	There is some agricultural encroachment in the area and there is concern over the lack of protection for the natural habitat.
32089		distribution	eng	Apparently known only from Ramba, the species may be found to be more widespread as large areas have yet to be explored. The taxonomic status of the genus is held in question.
32089		threats	eng	The future of Gabon's forest is uncertain as it is now almost completely concessioned off to logging companies.
32090		distribution	eng	From a genus of only two species, this tree is apparently confined to the Libreville area. Its range may prove to be wider as the forest is further explored.
32090		threats	eng	There is concern about the extent to which logging concessions have been made throughout the country.
32091		distribution	eng	A species so far collected only from Fernan Vaz. Forests in Gabon have not been well explored botanically and it is possible the species is more widespread.
32091		threats	eng	Most areas are under concession to logging companies.
32092		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Belinga Mts.
32093		distribution	eng	Ngounye and in Lopé Forest Reserve. Much of Gabon's forests are poorly explored and it is possible the species has a  wider range.
32093		habitat	eng	A species collected in areas of closed forest.
32093		threats	eng	There is concern over the extent to which these forests are now under concession to logging companies.
32094		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only from Lastoursville. It may be found to be more widespread in the country's relatively unexplored forests.
32094		threats	eng	In Lastoursville,  the only collecting locality, logging has been intensive and the forest is degraded. Other unexplored forests where the species could also occur are largely under concession to logging companies.
32095		distribution	eng	Apparently the species is known only from the vicinity of Lastoursville, where the habitat is largely disturbed. Further collecting is likely to uncover additional occurrences.
32095		threats	eng	In Lastoursville,  the only collecting locality, logging has been intensive and the forest is degraded. Other unexplored forests where the species could also occur are largely under concession to logging companies.
32098		conservation	eng	The species is protected under the Indian Forest Act, the export of logs or sawn timber being banned.
32098		habitat	eng	Indian rosewood is principally a species of monsoon forests.
32098		threats	eng	Its timber is of high commercial value and wild subpopulations are widely overexploited. Considerable pressure continues to be exerted by illegal felling.
32099		distribution	eng	Found in south-west Sri Lanka. A subpopulation has been discovered in the dry zone in Rahuna National Park.
32099		habitat	eng	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32101		distribution	eng	Small populations are known from six peaks, including the Smoky Mountains National Park.
32101		threats	eng	Populations are small, windswept and unhealthy. Regeneration appears to be poor.
32103		conservation	eng	The entire range is contained within Kenting National Park.
32103		distribution	eng	Nanjenshan area on the Hengchun Peninsula.
32103		habitat	eng	A species restricted to dry lowland forest on windward hills and ridges.
32103		threats	eng	Little regeneration is evident.
32104		conservation	eng	International trade is now monitored through a <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II listing and plantations are being established.
32104		distribution	eng	Red sandalwood is restricted to the southern parts of the Eastern Ghats.
32104		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry deciduous forest.
32104		threats	eng	The tree is commercially valuable for its timber and for the extraction of dye, medicine and cosmetics. It has been overexploited in the past.
32105		habitat	eng	A small tree which occurs gregariously on slopes and peaks in dry savannah forest and dry mixed deciduous forest.
32105		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened with conversion to agriculture.
32106		distribution	eng	A small tree from a monotypic genus. In Sarawak, the species is known from a single specimen collected in 1961 from primary riparian forest in the Labang Forest Reserve, Bintulu. This species is now extinct in Peninsular Malaysia.
32106		habitat	eng	Solitary trees or small groups of trees occur on stream banks, slopes and on ridge tops in primary and secondary forest in lowland areas.
32108		distribution	eng	It has been collected only once, in Sabah from a stream bank in secondary forest in Sandakan.
32108		habitat	eng	Solitary trees of this monotypic genus are scattered in lowland moist primary and secondary forest on stream banks and hill sides.
32109		distribution	eng	Most records of the species come from Darién National Park, where small subpopulations occur.  An occurrence is also reported from the Urabá region in Columbia.
32109		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
32109		threats	eng	There is little human or other impact here, although some small clearings have been made for cultivation.
32110		distribution	eng	About 10 collections have been taken from localities in Valle and Cundinamarca.
32110		habitat	eng	A small tree of non-flooded forest from sea level to 1,100 m.
32111		distribution	eng	A medium-sized tree, known from a few localities in the departments of Valle and Chocó.
32111		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded forest.
32112		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from the Pacific coast.
32112		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland non-flooded forest
32113		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Magdalena Valley in Santander.
32113		habitat	eng	A relatively common understorey tree in lowland non-flooded forest.
32113		population	eng	It remains poorly known and rarely collected.
32114		conservation	eng	Cultivated specimens are found in Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden, Singapore Botanical Garden and in Chelsea, UK.
32114		distribution	eng	A small slender tree with an unconfirmed distribution in western Colombia, possibly occurring also in Antioquia, Chocó or Narino.
32114		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.
32114		population	eng	It has been collected about four times.
32115		distribution	eng	Now possibly extinct, the species is known only from the type specimen, which was collected from Cundinamarca.
32116		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, recorded from approximately seven collections in Santander.
32116		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.
32117		distribution	eng	In Colombia, the species is recorded from the type locality in the Chocó.
32117		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.
32118		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the type collection in Chocó.
32118		habitat	eng	The species is confined to dense forest.
32119		distribution	eng	From mainland South-East Asia to Java and the Philippines.
32119		population	eng	This subspecies is very common.
32119		threats	eng	This species is considered vulnerable in the Philippines as it is traditionally used in the toy manufacturing industry and is now in short supply.
32122		conservation	eng	The species is now subject to special felling restrictions.
32122		distribution	eng	There are taxonomic difficulties with this genus, which is currently being revised.
32122		habitat	eng	A timber species which is scattered in primary rainforests.
32122		threats	eng	Stands have been depleted by logging and shifting cultivation.
32123		conservation	eng	None of its known sites are protected.<br/><br/>A conservation programme is needed to re-establish a stable natural population of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> in its known habitat. A rapid assessment of the species and long-term ecological research is required to determine the physical and biological characteristics of the habitat, coupled with a recovery and management programme, public education, community consultation and resource stewardship, and policy initiatives. As part of the Global Trees Campaign, Fauna and Flora Iinternational (FFI) has funded a recovery programme for Philippine Teak, including all the above elements, led by the Philippine National Museum in Manila. The programme includes meetings with local stakeholders to integrate their concerns into the activities, and work on effective propagation of the tree for replanting. Work has been conducted in local schools to raise awareness of the plight of this rare tree. The programme involves local and regional representatives of the government Department of the Environment and Natural Resources, schools and universities in research, project implementation and monitoring. Attempts are being made to encourage the formulation of local policies for the recovery of the species.
32123		distribution	eng	<p>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> is found in the Philippines on Luzon Island and Iling Island. On Luzon Island it is found in Lobo and San Juan municipalities, Batangas Province.  On Iling Island it is found in Katayungan and Baclayon barangays, Occidental Mindoro.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>  <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>
32123		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in coastal to lowland limestone forest. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> tends to dominate the semi-deciduous forests and occurs in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia polyalthia</span>. Other associated species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitex parviflora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarindus indicus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mangifera indica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceiba pentandra</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Syzygium</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Parkia roxburghii</span>, and Ficus sp.
32123		population	eng	Based on molecular evidence, there are two subpopulations: Iling Island subpopulation and Luzon Island subpopulation. The Iling  Island subpopulation may be composed of less than 100 individuals. The species is more abundant in Batangas, Luzon Island.
32123		threats	eng	The habitat sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> on Luzon Island are mostly in privately owned land. These are presently being developed as tourist resorts and residential areas. In San Juan, part of the forest has been opened up for a road construction project. On the lower hillsides, the forest is also being converted to fruit tree orchards.
32125		distribution	eng	Collected in 1915 from Bhutan and subsequently from Kameng District in Arunachal Pradesh and China.
32125		habitat	eng	An epiphytic shrub or small tree.
32125		threats	eng	Road building and other developmental projects are threatening the Indian population.
32126		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed along the west coast and in the south.
32126		habitat	eng	A small to medium tree inhabiting lowland forest in swampy (peat swamp or the edge of mangroves),  limestone areas (e.g., in Gopeng).
32128		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
32128		habitat	eng	A fairly widespread species which occurs in lowland primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest.  It is recorded as a common understorey tree.
32129		conservation	eng	It is commonly planted.
32129		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines.
32129		habitat	eng	A lowland primary forest tree.
32130		distribution	eng	This species has been divided into two varieties. Var. <em>pilosa</em> is endemic to Borneo and widely distributed, but not as widespread as var. <em>apiculata</em>.
32132		distribution	eng	Occurring in Thailand and southern Viet Nam. Only a single collection from 1918 is known from Cambodia.
32132		habitat	eng	A rare species of mid-elevation wet evergreen forest, dry deciduous forest and bamboo thicket.
32133		distribution	eng	A small tree, endemic to southern Viet Nam.
32133		habitat	eng	Restricted to the diminishing submontane wet evergreen forests.
32134		distribution	eng	So far this species is known only from the type specimen collected near Nhatrang, Annam.
32135		conservation	eng	Parts of the population fall into protected areas.
32135		distribution	eng	A subspecies known only from Matopos in the west.
32135		habitat	eng	Granite hills.
32135		population	eng	It is fairly widespread but not common.
32136		distribution	eng	A species apparently endemic to Zimbabwe. Subpopulations occur in Chirinda forest, near the Chimanimani Mountains and more commonly in forest near Stapleford.
32136		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of moist forest and on kloofs.
32136		population	eng	A rare species.
32137		conservation	eng	The area is now well protected.
32137		distribution	eng	Existing information suggests this species is endemic to Chirinda Forest in Zimbabwe and the adjacent Espungabera Forest in Mozambique. This area is very restricted (6 km²).
32137		threats	eng	The area has been disturbed in the past by logging activities.
32138		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Zimbabwe. The type specimen is from Mutare.
32138		habitat	eng	Occurring within a narrow altitudinal belt in moist forest on granite hills.
32138		population	eng	It is apparently quite common in areas.
32139		distribution	eng	A species known only from the Chimanimani Mts. on the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border.
32139		habitat	eng	It occurs fairly commonly on quartzite soils within a well-protected area of 600 km².
32140		distribution	eng	So far it is recorded only in the vicinity of the Kalambo Falls.
32140		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open bush, often on steep slopes on sandy or stony soil.
32140		population	eng	There is no information on the population size (last seen in1955).
32140		threats	eng	No threats known.
32141		distribution	eng	Only two localities are known.
32141		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland dry evergreen forest and deciduous coastal forest on sand.
32141		threats	eng	One locality is within 200 m of a new railway line.
32142		conservation	eng	The area is protected and the conservation of remaining natural resources and the control of exploitative activities are now a high priority.
32142		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt Mulanje.
32142		habitat	eng	This species is scattered at the edges of montane forest and in the adjoining grasslands.
32142		threats	eng	There are threats of fire and in places encroaching agriculture and illegal collection of wood.
32143		conservation	eng	There is now some degree of protection. The conservation of remaining resources and prevention of illegal activities are now a high priority.
32143		distribution	eng	This is a variant of a very polymorphic species. The taxonomy may need further confirmation. Occurs on Mt Mulanje.
32143		habitat	eng	It is apparently confined to patches of montane woodland.
32143		threats	eng	There have been considerable declines in the extent of forest and woodland on the mountain in the past, mainly through timber exploitation and also fires.
32144		distribution	eng	A large tree, apparently known only from the type locality near Mboma stream in the Thyolo region.
32144		threats	eng	Most of the original forest in this area has been supplanted by tea estates and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. In more recent years remaining forest areas have been steadily encroached upon for farming.
32145		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah. It is found in Sandakan, Keningau and Lamag districts.
32145		habitat	eng	This tree is found in primary forest on ridges and hillsides up to 140 m.
32146		habitat	eng	This tree, restricted to flood-land forests along rivers at low altitudes, has a disjunct distribution.  It is a relict species and is the only representative of the genus in western Asia.
32146		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by felling, grazing and agricultural encroachment.
32147		distribution	eng	Endemic to northern Mozambique. More fieldwork is required to consolidate the range and status of this variety.
32148		distribution	eng	There are considerable stands of the species in the Musengezi area of northern Zimbabwe and the Nyamapanda and Ruenya Bridge areas of north-eastern Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique.
32150		habitat	eng	A poorly known species of Zanzibar-Inhambane woodland.
32152		distribution	eng	It currently appears to be confined to northern Mozambique. The taxonomic status of the species is likely to change.
32153		distribution	eng	A species of northern Mozambique. Information on the species' range and habitat are inadequate.
32156		distribution	eng	It is likely that the species is confined to central Mozambique but more fieldwork, especially in northern regions, is required to consolidate the distribution and status of the species.
32158		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Mozambique.
32158		habitat	eng	A common component of lowland scrub.
32159		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mozambique, the species is widely distributed north of the Zambezi river.
32161		distribution	eng	Occurring in scattered localities in northern Mozambique and possibly Tanzania.
32161		habitat	eng	A woodland species.
32163		distribution	eng	A species confined to central coastal areas of Mozambique. More fieldwork is required to consolidate the status of the population.
32164		distribution	eng	Along  with <em>O. angustata</em>, this species is confined to the central coastal area of Mozambique.
32164		population	eng	More fieldwork is required to consolidate the status of the species.
32165		distribution	eng	Little information is available on this endemic of Mozambique.
32165		population	eng	Few collections have been made.
32167		distribution	eng	Known only from northern Mozambique but suspected to extend into Tanzania. More fieldwork is needed to consolidate the range and status of the species.
32167		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
32168		distribution	eng	The range of this species is small and confined to central Mozambique. Information is too limited to evaluate the species.
32171		conservation	eng	Legal protection exists in various countries. Many uses of the tree, particularly the medicinal properties of the bark, are documented.
32171		habitat	eng	A mahogany species, widespread in high-rainfall savannah woodland.
32171		threats	eng	Logging and local exploitation are largely uncontrolled and poorly monitored. In northern parts of the range exploitation may be leading to genetic erosion. Natural regeneration from the seed is poor but does occur from suckers
32172		conservation	eng	Protected subpopulations and log export bans are in place in various countries.
32172		distribution	eng	An important timber species, commonly confused with <em>K. anthotheca</em> but less widespread.
32172		habitat	eng	Occurring more frequently in dry semi-deciduous forest and forest outliers than <em>K. anthotheca</em>.
32172		threats	eng	Exploitation is heavy: extraction of mature individuals from subpopulations has been comprehensive. Regeneration is poor away from parent individuals and is best at the savannah-forest boundary.
32173		habitat	eng	A timber species, which grows in dense stands, commonly in areas where savannah has been replaced by forest. Regeneration is good in disturbed forest.
32173		threats	eng	Genetic impoverishment is reported in outlying parts of the species' range. Exploitation is moderate. Sometimes large individuals are left after logging.
32174		distribution	eng	Its range is extending because of its successful colonisation of logged and abandoned farm land.
32174		habitat	eng	Obeche occurs in abundance in transitional forest formations.
32174		threats	eng	Exploitation of the wood  is very heavy and, in places, unsustainable, both for local use and the international timber trade. Of all West Africa timbers this species is extracted at the highest volumes.
32175		distribution	eng	There is concern over its status in Sabah.
32175		habitat	eng	An uncommon large tree found scattered in primary forest on undulating swamp land up to 280 m.
32176		distribution	eng	At present, is known only from the two collections from Mandji and Ndjolé. It is possible that the species may be found to be more widespread.
32176		habitat	eng	A small forest tree or shrub.
32176		threats	eng	There is concern over logging and the extent to which forest areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.
32177		habitat	eng	This understorey tree is a common species in ravine moist forest.
32177		threats	eng	It is in decline because of forest clearance and environmental changes.
32178		distribution	eng	A small tree recorded in Lagos in Nigeria and from Dja and Kpoguidi in Benin.
32179		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guinea.
32179		habitat	eng	The species is confined to remaining areas of upland forest.
32180		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree of dry savanna and dry river beds.
32180		habitat	eng	Known from few collections, the precise localities of which are unknown.
32181		habitat	eng	The species is endemic to upland forest.
32181		population	eng	Information on the population status is not available. It is the only species in the genus.
32181		threats	eng	The pressure on these few small remaining areas exerted by a dense human population is great.
32182		conservation	eng	Lopé is in the process of being designated Gabon's first national park.
32182		distribution	eng	A timber species which is confined to localities in Cameroon, Ngounié and Lopé Forest Reserve in Gabon and possibly Congo.
32182		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
32182		threats	eng	There is concern over the rate at which logging has taken place and the decline in the habitat.
32183		distribution	eng	A species known from collections made around Lastoursville in 1929–1930. A collection in Wageningen comes from Echira. The species may be more widespread in Gabon's relatively unexplored forests.
32183		threats	eng	The area has been heavily logged and most areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.
32184		population	eng	Subpopulations in Cameroon have become reduced. There are intact stands in Gabon, where large tracts of forest have remained undisturbed. This trend, however, is rapidly changing.
32184		threats	eng	Increasing exploitation of the timber in Cameroon.  Almost all forest areas in Gabon are now concessioned off to timber companies.
32185		distribution	eng	Once thought to be endemic to Ankasa in Ghana, this understorey tree has now been found in Liberia.
32185		habitat	eng	It occurs, but rarely, in wet evergreen forest.
32186		distribution	eng	Officially this is a Ghanaian endemic but it may have been overlooked elsewhere.
32186		habitat	eng	It is confined to extreme dry forest.
32186		threats	eng	Confined to the south, where the effects of human population growth and the expansion of agriculture have caused severe declines in the habitat. Most recorded occurrences are in forest which is unprotected and has since disappeared.
32187		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ghana, this species is confined to Sekondi.
32187		habitat	eng	Rocky dry forest.
32187		threats	eng	Habitat degradation has been extensive, although the species' preference for rocky sites lessens the threat of agricultural encroachment.
32188		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ghana.
32188		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
32188		population	eng	This species is rare.
32188		threats	eng	Wet evergreen forest has declined in extent because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
32189		distribution	eng	Little is known about this unusual species. In Ghana, few localities are known, all contained within the vicinity of Baku and Supong Forest Reserves, where deforestation has been severe.
32189		habitat	eng	It is usually found near stream banks in moist semi-deciduous forest.
32189		threats	eng	Deforestation.
32190		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen or riverine forest.
32190		threats	eng	Although supportive evidence to indicate population declines is not available, the loss of the habitat of this species has been severe. It is found in one remnant area of coastal forest, which has been significantly reduced by farming, fuelwood collection and forestry plantations.
32191		distribution	eng	Known only from Ghana but expected in Côte d'Ivoire.
32191		habitat	eng	This species is confined to remaining patches of wet evergreen forest.
32191		threats	eng	Declines in wet evergreen forest because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities have been significant in the last few decades.
32192		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are confined to Subri and Cape Three Points Forest Reserve in Ghana, in parts of the South West Province in Cameroon and in Gabon in an area to the north and in Lopé Forest Reserve.
32192		habitat	eng	Areas of wet evergreen forest.
32192		population	eng	The species is rare, with a disjunct distribution.
32192		threats	eng	The forest has been converted into a commercial plantation in Subri and in Cape Three Points mining has destroyed areas of forest.
32193		conservation	eng	Occurring only within national park boundaries.
32193		distribution	eng	In Côte d'Ivoire it is known only from a few specimens in Tai National Park, a World Heritage Site. It is the sole member of the genus and the only close relative of <em>Breviea</em>, which is also a monotypic genus.
32193		habitat	eng	A large tree found scattered in moist semi-deciduous forest.
32193		population	eng	This species is very rare and declining in numbers. Its regeneration is observed to be poor.
32193		threats	eng	The habitat in both countries has substantially decreased in extent because of logging and agricultural encroachment.
32194		conservation	eng	The location for the only known Cameroonian specimen, Nyasoso, 850 m alt., indicates that this species might already be lost to forest clearance. A search should be made to rediscover the tree, and a survey conducted to discover if any other trees of the species occur in the area, and whether regeneration is proceeding or not. Artificial propagation and public education might be suitable options to ensure the survival of this taxon.
32194		distribution	eng	Ivory Coast, Ghana and Cameroon.
32194		habitat	eng	A rare species of wet evergreen forests to 850 m.
32194		threats	eng	Reductions in this habitat, caused by mining and forestry activities over the last few decades, have been significant, as has clearance of forest for agriculture.
32195		distribution	eng	Confined to either side of the Dahomey Gap. It is the only member of the genus.
32195		habitat	eng	Wet places in wet evergreen forest.
32195		population	eng	This is a rare species.
32195		threats	eng	Its habitat has been severely degraded through mining, logging and commercial forestry activities throughout its range.
32196		distribution	eng	In Ghana this species occurs in the region of the Krokosua Hills. It is also known on the other side of the Dahomey Gap and in Côte d'Ivoire.
32196		habitat	eng	Upland evergreen forest (Côte d'Ivoire).
32196		threats	eng	Farming, fire, forest management and mining are causes of habitat decline.
32197		distribution	eng	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.
32197		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to the restricted area of wet evergreen forest.
32197		threats	eng	This forest has been affected by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
32199		conservation	eng	The status of this taxon in São Tomé and Bioko needs more investigation. Bali-Ngemba F.R. represents the most easily accessible and dense population of the taxon, followed by Mt Kupe; these are the more promising sites for demographic studies of the taxon.
32199		distribution	eng	Lower Guinea region: Ghana; São Tomé; Equatorial Guinea: Bioko; SE Nigeria: Obudu Plateau (one site); Cameroon: Mt Etinde; Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (four sites), Bali-Ngemba F.R. The occurrence in Ghana is anomalous and it is highly localized. This is the only species in the genus.
32199		habitat	eng	A species which is found mainly in submontane forest and rarely lowland forest at 500–1,500 m alt. In Ghana it occurs in evergreen rainforest along a river bank.
32199		threats	eng	On the Obudu Plateau fires and encroaching agriculture are causing damage to the restricted areas of remaining vegetation in forested valleys. General threats from mining, logging and commercial forestry can affect these areas.
32200		distribution	eng	Three localities, which account for little more than a few square kilometers, are known: the Bandiagara scarps in Mali, Yankari Game Reserve in Nigeria and the dry forests of Bui and Akosombo in Ghana.
32200		habitat	eng	In Yankari  it grows on rocky hills, in dense stands. In Bui it is found in dry forests.
32200		threats	eng	In Ghana the establishment of a plantation and the influx of people into the area have caused declines in the species' habitat.
32201		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ghana. Records from Cameroon appear to be erroneous.  It is considered to be the species with the highest conservation priority within Ghana.
32201		habitat	eng	This evergreen tree occurs in tiny stands in rocky areas of dry forest.
32201		threats	eng	The original area of dry forest has been extensively destroyed by incursions of people and subsequent exploitation of forested areas. This species is very slow-growing and does not seem to have a dispersal mechanism.
32202		distribution	eng	Its area of occupancy is very small, a few tens of kilometers. In Ghana it is confined to Shai Hills Game Production Reserve, where it is relatively abundant and observed to be regenerating. In Cameroon occurrences are recorded on Mt Mandara, Mt Tinguelin, Garoua, Chlolire, Mt Alantika, Ladgo and Nakalba.
32202		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane dry forest.
32202		threats	eng	The area taken up by dry forest has declined drastically with the expansion of agriculture, the effects of fire and overgrazing.
32204		distribution	eng	A small tree with a disjunct, Guinea-wide distribution.
32204		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas of wet evergreen forest.
32204		population	eng	Few records of it appear to exist.
32204		threats	eng	Extensive logging, mining and clearing of the forest for cultivating crops have caused considerable declines in the habitat.
32205		distribution	eng	Endemic to Côte d'Ivoire, this species appears to be scattered throughout the country .
32205		habitat	eng	Only in remnants of primary forest.
32205		threats	eng	Extensive logging in the country in the last three decades has caused the rapid decline of forest.
32206		distribution	eng	This species is known from few localities in coastal Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana.
32206		habitat	eng	Occurring in wet evergreen forest.
32206		threats	eng	In these areas, the forest has severely declined in extent through logging, commercial forestry and mining activities.
32207		distribution	eng	A species which, although common in places, is found only in dry forest areas in southern Ghana and in moist semi-deciduous forest between the rivers Bandama and Nzi in Côte d'Ivoire.
32207		habitat	eng	Dry and moist semi-deciduous forests.
32207		threats	eng	Declines in this habitat have been severe, mainly because of the effects of human population growth, but also because of fires.
32208		conservation	eng	The species also occurs in Banco National Park, near Abidjan, but it could have been introduced there.
32208		distribution	eng	A Côte d'Ivoire endemic.
32208		habitat	eng	Confined to coastal forests.
32208		threats	eng	There has been widespread degradation and loss of these forests.
32209		conservation	eng	The Côte d'Ivoire population is restricted largely to Tai National Park.
32209		distribution	eng	Also known under the synonym, <em>H. lastoursvillense</em>, this species occurs in two disjunct populations: the Côte d'Ivoire subpopulation is restricted largely to Tai National Park and in Gabon the species has been collected only from Lastoursville where it may be more widespread.
32209		threats	eng	Forested areas outside the park have been heavily logged and degraded. In Lastoursville logging has also been intensive and most forest areas there are now under concession to logging companies.
32210		conservation	eng	Some trees are found in a national park at Lopé.
32210		distribution	eng	It is found in Gabon and further west in Côte d'Ivoire.
32210		habitat	eng	It is known only from lowland moist semi-deciduous forest.
32210		population	eng	The distribution of this rare species is disjunct.
32210		threats	eng	Lowland moist semi-deciduous forest in Côte d'Ivoire has disappeared outside protected areas. In Gabon forest areas are unprotected, with the exception of the newly established national park at Lopé, and are mostly under concession to logging companies.
32211		distribution	eng	A species endemic to south-west Côte d'Ivoire, between the rivers Sassandra and Cavally.
32211		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
32211		threats	eng	Severe deforestation in the area has resulted in there being little forest outside Tai National Park.
32212		conservation	eng	The largest part of the population is contained within the 3,300 km² of Tai National Park.
32212		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the remaining forest between the rivers Sassandra and Cavally.
32212		habitat	eng	A species of swampy areas.
32212		threats	eng	Outside the national park deforestation and habitat degradation have been severe in the past three decades.
32213		distribution	eng	Represented by few known collections, this endemic of Côte d'Ivoire is scattered throughout the country.
32213		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
32213		threats	eng	Extensive logging has severely reduced the extent of forest in the country in the last three decades.
32214		distribution	eng	Found between Cavally and Sassandra Rivers, the largest part of which is contained within Tai National Park.
32214		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree, known to occur in moist forested areas.
32214		threats	eng	Extensive logging and an influx of people in the last few decades have led to a sharp decline in forest cover and condition.
32215		conservation	eng	Largely contained within Tai National Park.
32215		distribution	eng	An endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is known solely from remaining forested areas between the rivers of Sassandra and Cavally.
32215		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
32215		threats	eng	Over the last few decades the effects of logging have been extensive. An influx of people into the area also threatens the integrity of the forest.
32216		distribution	eng	In Côte d'Ivoire it is restricted to the south-west, mainly in Tai National Park.
32216		habitat	eng	Strictly confined to wet evergreen forests.
32216		population	eng	A tree which can be common where it occurs.
32216		threats	eng	This type of forest has reduced in extent significantly because of logging and mining and also the establishment of industrial plantations.
32217		distribution	eng	Known only from a single herbarium specimen.
32217		population	eng	The species is believed to be extinct.
32218		distribution	eng	Known only from coastal forest in Côte D'Ivoire. <em>Zanthoxylum</em> is now the accepted name for this genus.
32218		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32218		population	eng	A rare species.
32218		threats	eng	This forest type has been severely degraded and depleted.
32219		distribution	eng	An endemic known only from the region of Fresco.
32219		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32219		threats	eng	Much of this forest has been degraded and cleared over the last few decades.
32220		conservation	eng	Remaining forested areas are generally confined to protected areas, especially Tai National Park.
32220		distribution	eng	A Côte D' Ivoire endemic. Remaining forested areas are small.
32220		habitat	eng	This species occurs commonly in wet evergreen forest.
32220		threats	eng	The rate of decline of in the extent of these forests has been severe in the last few decades, largely because of logging.
32221		distribution	eng	A species which is endemic to Côte D' Ivoire.
32221		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32221		population	eng	A rare species.
32221		threats	eng	A significant part of these forests has been cleared and degraded.
32222		distribution	eng	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d' Ivoire.
32222		habitat	eng	A small rare tree confined to wet evergreen forests.
32222		threats	eng	Significant parts of this forest have been lost to mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
32223		distribution	eng	Known only from Côte d' Ivoire.
32223		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
32223		threats	eng	Clearing and degradation of the forest have been extensive in the last three decades.
32224		distribution	eng	It ranges from Côte D'Ivoire to Gabon.
32224		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree of evergreen forests.
32224		threats	eng	Significant parts of the habitat have been lost to logging, mining and establishment of commercial plantations.
32225		conservation	eng	The largest and most stable forest is contained within Tai National Park.
32225		distribution	eng	A Côte d' Ivoire endemic between Cavally and Sassandra Rivers.
32225		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining patches of forest.
32225		threats	eng	Logging and the influx of people have caused the rapid decline and degradation of forests elsewhere.
32226		habitat	eng	Edges of moist semi-deciduous forest.
32226		population	eng	This species is only known from the herbarium specimen collected in 1896.
32227		conservation	eng	The large part of moist semi-deciduous forests now exists only in protected areas.
32227		habitat	eng	It occurs in remaining moist semi-deciduous forest.
32227		population	eng	At one time widespread, this species has become rare.
32227		threats	eng	This species has become rare because of the extent of deforestation in the country.
32228		habitat	eng	Moist semi-deciduous forest.
32228		threats	eng	The sites of moist semi-deciduous forest where this species was found in Côte d'Ivoire have been felled. The habitat in Cameroon has also declined because of logging operations.
32229		conservation	eng	The largest part of the population occurs within Tai National Park.
32229		distribution	eng	An endemic of the areas of remaining forest within the region of the Sassandra and Cavally Rivers.
32229		threats	eng	Outside the park the forest has been heavily logged and degraded.
32230		distribution	eng	Ranging from Guinea to Cameroon.
32230		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of upland evergreen forest.
32230		threats	eng	This forest type has suffered from farming, fire, forest management activities and large-scale mining.
32231		conservation	eng	The Siguiféri Forest Reserve (13°16'N 09°43'W), was created in 1935 by the Governor of French Sudan, with the main aim of halting the destruction of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> (then not even being a described species, only being referred to as the “Kololo”, but having been studied by Aubréville). 3,200 hectares were set aside which contained at least 400 hectares of “Kololo” forest, however fires continued to ravage the site as protection was not put into practice after creation (Boudet<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1986).<br/><br/>The species is found within the Bafing Game Reserve, which was established in 1990 around at least 17 preexisting villages as an environmental mitigation for the Manantali Dam and for which a management plan has been set out under the Convention of Biological Diversity: “Project for the Long-term Management of Biodiversity in the Bafing Game Reserve”. The southern portion of the predicted distribution for <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> is also well protected within the Wongo and Kouroufing National Parks, both established in 2002.<br/><br/>Several authors have shown that traditional protection of “sacred groves” by indigenous people is an important means of preserving biodiversity in West Africa. While there is evidence that the Bamanan people maintain protected groves elsewhere in Mali and that the Maninka do too in southern Guinea, there is no indication that this practice exists in southwestern Mali. Identification of indigenous conservation techniques which effect <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest is vital in considering how to preserve this rare plant community.<br/><br/>Duvall (2001) found that the Maninka population in the Manantali does not specifically practice wild plant conservation. However, land use patterns tend to protect plants found in marginal or inaccessible areas, particularly steep slopes, cliffs and the tops of plateaux. Cultivation takes place in flat lowland areas, which are easily accessible from villages. Many valued wild trees are maintained in fields to provide shade, food, or other products. Sites that are difficult to access due to topography are seldom visited because the plant resources they hold are not worth the risk or difficulty associated with their harvest. Most <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> groves occur in such locations, and are thus passively accorded some protection in the Maninka land use system.<br/><br/>Mali’s national laws provide protection for plants which have a high economic, cultural or scientific interest (Assemblée Nationale 1995, Article 26). In addition, montane vegetation and zones along seasonal waterways, seepage areas and waterfalls are protected throughout the country (Assemblée Nationale 1995, Article 10). However, it is virtually unknown for forestry agents in the Manantali areas to fine people based on the provenance of wood they have collected. Duvall (2001) concludes that all <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest stands that were visited during his research are eligible for protection under Article 10 of Law 95-004 and that forestry agents should extend their surveillance based on this article since no species common in <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forests is specifically protected. The only plants specifically protected by law (Assemblée Nationale 1995, Article 17) are widespread, well-known species that are commonly used for various purposes. No rare species are protected under Malian law and although general terminology in 95-004 ought to provide protection to <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest, no protection is given to these resources because they are not mentioned specifically by name. <br/><br/>According to Duvall (2001) there also seems to be a complete lack of awareness of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> by conservationists working in Mali. The tree has apparently not been mentioned in any published or professional reports specifically on Mali (including environmental impact assessments associated with the Manantali Dam) since the publication of Jaeger (1968), apart from a one page summary of rare plants by Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1986) and the Catalogue of Vascular Plants in Mali by Boudet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1986). Of approximately fifteen professionals interviewed in Mali by Duvall, no forestry agent, conservationist, resource manager or researcher, whether Malian or not, knew of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span>, “kololo” or “sénsão”. Therefore, no effort is currently underway on any administrative level to protect the plant resources of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest. Work currently being carried out under the Millenium Seed Bank partnership, is hopefully helping to convert this lack of knowledge into some form of protection. Collection trips usually involve members of various government departments and research institutions within Mali such as the “Unite de Semences Forestieres et Herbier” and the “Centre Regional de Recherche Agronomique”. The species was actively searched for and found during a trip in 2006 by members of both these institutes, namely Abdul Kadir Sanogo and Sida Sanogo respectively, and seed was collected at the end of 2007 on a second trip to the Kita Massif.
32231		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron glandulosum</span> is endemic to the Manding plateau area of southwestern Mali. The probable range for this species has been identified as a polygon with its eastern, northern and western points at Kita, Bafoulabé and Kéniéba respectively, the southern extent being more uncertain. Within its range, the plant occurs discontinuously, in small patches or groves. The majority of this area, however, has not been surveyed for <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span>. Except for much research around Kita and recent studies in the central part of triangle (near Manantali) and at the western limit (along the Falaise de Tamboura cliff), the majority of the tree’s distribution seems to have been estimated from observations made from the Dakar-Bamako railway and second hand reports from the Kéniéba area. <br/><br/>The National Biodiversity Strategy of Mali (2001) also mentions the possibility of this species growing in the vicinity of Siby, a village 50 km west of Bamako, which is east of Kita and therefore would extend the species’ distribution further to the east; however, this has not been confirmed. A new grove to the south has recently been recorded by Birnbaum (2007), being just north of Bafing-Makhana on the western banks of the Bafing river. This extends the species’ distribution further south than was previously known. On searching apparently suitable areas further south towards the town of Bindougou, Birnbaum did not locate any other populations, even where <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyrocarpus americanus</span> was growing, a species known to be often associated. Birnbaum interviewed several residents in this area, showing them pictures and describing <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span>, however no one appeared to know this plant in the region of Bindougou.<br/> <br/>Geerling’s (1987) description including Senegal in the plant’s range appears to be an error, no collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> have been reported from the country, and both Lawesson (1995) and Adam (1968) state specifically that they did not find it in eastern Senegal in the course of extensive surveys.
32231		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron glandulosum</span> is found in forest and scrubland in innumerable disjunct patches along seasonal drainage channels and seepage areas in the region’s sandstone cliffs, between 80 and 600 m asl. It is the dominant species of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum </span>gallery forests, a type of Sudano-Guinean gallery forest found in narrow canyons, along cliff edges and on rocky slopes. Despite its significance, this forest type is poorly known to biologists due to its inaccessibility and rarity, having been studied primarily in one location (around Kita) intermittently from the late 1930s to mid-1950s and then in the Manantali region by Duvall and in the Falaise de Tamboura region by Birnbaum in the early 2000s. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest most commonly occurs in places where surface or subterranean water is abundant. Although surface water in <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> groves is not permanent (occurring mainly during the period July to December when run-off is abundant), topography and geology, as well as shading effects of the canopy, ensure that the soil remains moist throughout the year. The species appears to be able to cope with extensive flooding and run off, up to 5-6 m high in some cases. These flows can lead to fallen trees and other physical damage, which<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. glandulosum</span> appears to be able to recover from due to its architectural plasticity. These habitats are not favourable for the growth of other tree species and interspecific competition is low (Birnbaum 2008). Most species found in this vegetation are therefore relatively uncommon due to the overwhelming dominance of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum, Grewia bicolor </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Elachyptera parvifoli</span>a. Another important associated species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyrocarpus americanus </span>(Birnbaum 2007). Duvall (2001) recorded the presence of 121 species of woody plants belonging to at least 42 families in the 17 <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> groves being studied.<br/><br/>Duvall (2001) argued that the tree has a relatively high but narrow tolerance of soil moisture content. In the Manding plateau, locations with high soil moisture content also tend to be protected from fire by topography, leading past researchers to conclude that fire is the paramount factor limiting the tree’s distribution. However, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> forests also occur along semi-permanent creeks in flat, unprotected areas surrounded by grasses and fire-prone wooded grassland. The lower edges of three groves studies by Duvall in 2000 lay within metres of actively cultivated fields which are burnt yearly. Several charred, but otherwise healthy <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulsum</span> individuals were observed here, but the vegetation seemed otherwise unaffected. The role of fire in determining its distribution, though surely important, seems to have been overemphasized. <br/><br/>Floristic evidence suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest is a relict vegetation type with many of the plants growing in these forests having disjunct populations scattered throughout West Africa. As these plants do not generally have long distance dispersal methods, it has been suggested that their disjunct populations were once more-or-less continuous. <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron glandulosum</span> seed dispersal is believed to occur by barochory only (fruit drying out, breaking and falling to the ground) and therefore it is only likely to disperse over very small distances. Animals are not known to consume the seed, hypothetically excluding dispersal by this method (Birnbaum 2007).<br/><br/>Many <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest genera are more characteristic of the Sudano-Guinean or Guineo-Congolian phytochoria than the Sudanian, which indicates an affinity between <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest and more southerly phytochora (Duvall 2001). These phytochoria were more widespread to the north more than 25,000 years ago, before the onset of the last major world glacial period which resulted in drier conditions throughout northern Africa and lasted until about 12,000 years ago. Other species are sparsely dispersed pantropicals, or are present both in West Africa and South America. The presence of such species indicates that <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest may be quite ancient, since plants with trans-Atlantic distributions probably represent remnants of vegetation more than two million years old. In Central America, riparian and gallery forests in semi-arid climate zones have served as refugia for mesophytes during periods of climatic dessication and it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest plays a similar role in western Mali.<br/> <br/>Duvall (2003) concludes that the dominant representation of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulsoum</span> forests as relicts isolated by anthropogenic deforestation overestimates human agency and ignores the ecological implications of microhabitat variation in the Manding Plateau in the context of the extreme climate variation the region has experienced during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. He considers human activities secondary in importance to edaphic factors in determining the distribution of these forests. <br/><br/>The overwhelming dominance of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> in the vegetation is a likely result from fragmentation of a once more widespread habitat. Species able to survive and flourish after permanent habitat fragmentation tend to be those that reproduce rapidly and abundantly, and thus often become strongly dominant in habitat isolates. <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron glandulosum</span> has an extremely high germination rate approaching 100% and produces great numbers of seeds each year during the rainy season with a regularity that is somewhat uncommon among tropical trees. Its seedlings are also remarkably hardy and are abundant throughout <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> groves (Duvall 2001). Growth after germination, can be very slow, however, with one example currently growing in a garden in Bamako having only reached 40-50cm in height after fours years (Birnbaum germinated this plant in February 2004). It is believed that soil composition is crucial for the successful growth and development of this species.<br/><br/>Tree heights vary from 25-30 m in undisturbed humid sites bordered by high cliffs or slopes to only 8-12 m high along cliff edges and rock ridges or in relatively open, flat areas. In the latter localities, which tend to have relatively lower soil humidity and are somewhat more accessible, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> may occur as a multi-stemmed shrub occupying the lower canopy edge niche or occur in rocky savanna areas away from the main body of the grove. It is unclear if this uncommon form of the plant is due to ecological factors or to abundant sprout growth following repeated cutting by humans. The tree is evergreen maintaining a dense green crown even during the dry season.
32231		population	eng	Duvall (2001) studied 17 <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> groves to the West of Bafing Reservoir in Mali. Prior to this research, there had been no vegetation surveys of southwestern Mali beyond the Kita area, except for a large-scale remote sensing project in the 1980s that produced a vegetation map with resolution too coarse to show individual <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendrom</span> forest groves (Projet d’Inventaire 1990). It did, however, provide estimates of percentage cover of each habitat type in the region, including forests that are ecologically similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forest occupying less than 5% of the ground surface within the tree’s range and saxicolous scrub occupying about 10% of the ground surface (where <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum </span>occurs at low density).  <br/><br/>This data, combined with specimen locality data, GIS techniques, information from Duvall’s study on species density and additional data supplied by Birnbaum from vegetation studies having been carried out in 2003 and 2004, has enabled the estimation of population size and AOO for the species. Duvall recommends using 1-2% cover as the maximum likely area covered by <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron </span>forest, due to the PIRT estimate including <span style="font-style: italic;">Guibortia copallifera</span> forests. 1% land cover will be used in the calculations here.<br/><br/>Duvall derived three different estimates of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> density in forest habitat in his 2001 paper using three different survey techniques, namely line intercept, point-quarter and quadrat. The number of plants per hectare ranged from 131.44 in the line intercept survey to 600 in the quadrat survey. An intermediate value of 283.74 individuals per hectare in <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> forests has been recommended by Duvall (2007) according to unpublished data incorporated into his dissertation and following Gentry’s methods for sampling tropical forests. In addition, a lower density of 31.2 individuals per hectare in scrub vegetation has been suggested.<br/><br/>An EOO of 13,185 km² was estimated for this species using GIS techniques and this was then used to calculate the AOO of the species using percentage habitat cover throughout this extent. A second measure of AOO, 160 km², was also estimated using GIS techniques. A grid cell size of 2 km x 2 km is recommended for calculations of AOO by IUCN. Groves (where most <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> occurs) are believed to range in size from 125 m² to 150,000 m², and a grid cell size of 4 km² is therefore much larger than any of the groves surveyed by Duvall in 2000. It does, however, compensate for the fact that <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gilletiodendron</span> is also found in the surrounding scrub, but at much lower densities, and also in many more groves than are currently known and have been plotted for analysis.<br/><br/>The values derived from GIS and calculations carried out using the above data and methods are described below.<br/><br/>EOO (GIS) = 15,657 km²<br/><br/>AOO (GIS) = 160 km²<br/><br/>477 km² of this land was flooded in the 1980s (IRN, 1999), creating the Bafing Reservoir, therefore the EOO value used for the calculation of AOO and population numbers below will be 15,657-477 = 15,180 km².<br/><br/>Maximum AOO (Habitat percentage) = 1670.8 km² <br/>[Forest Cover + Scrub Cover = (EOO x 0.01) + (EOO x 0.1) = 151.8 + 1518] <br/><br/>No. of individuals per km² in forest groves = 28,374<br/>[283.74 per 10,000 m², therefore 28,374 per 1,000,000 m²)<br/><br/>No. of individuals per km² in scrub vegetation = 3,120<br/>[31.2 per 10,000 m², therefore 3,120 per 1,000,000 m²)<br/><br/>Maximum total no. of individuals = 9,043,333.2 = ~9 million<br/>[(Inds. per km² in forest grove x Forest Cover) + (Inds per km² in scrub vegetation x Scrub Cover) = (28,374 x 151.8) + (3120 x 1518) = 4,307,173.2 + 4,736,160]<br/><br/>Individuals per grove = 3.5 to 4,256 (for smallest to largest known groves)<br/>[(Inds. per m² in forest grove x smallest grove size) to (Inds per m² in forest groves x largest grove size) = (0.028374 x 125) to (0.028374 x 150,000) = 3.54675 to 4,256.1]<br/><br/>The AOO calculated using GIS seems to be an approximation of AOO of this species within forests (160 km² compared to 151.8 km² calculated using satellite estimates) and therefore was not considered an appropriate measure to estimate overall population sizes. It does, however, provide some confirmation for collecting bias, as is often the case for plant species, however cannot be proven.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron glandulosum</span> grove populations have been the focus of most studies on this species and therefore localities displayed on the map are likely to coincide with <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendro</span>n groves and not to include presence of the species in scrubland.<br/><br/>Birnbaum (2007) states that he has nearly always seen the species within forest groves on sandstone cliffs, and only sometimes on very small hills (<100 m²) in scrubland and therefore the numbers calculated above must be taken as the maximum, as it assumes a constant distribution of 3,120 individuals in every km² of scrubland, which in turn takes up 10% of the known distribution of the species. Birnbaum does state, however, that where <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendron</span> is found it is very abundant and even spreading, suggesting that the calculation above is a good starting point for population studies. Duvall (2001) also highlights the fact that “locally, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> sucker sprouts less than 8 m high can form dense patches”. A satellite imagery project which hopes to provide high enough resolution images to identify individual forest groves and even these small hills, will enable a more accurate calculation of area of occupancy and population numbers in the future and allow comparisons to be made over time.
32231		threats	eng	Aubréville and Jaeger, the two principal researchers of this species prior to Duvall, repeatedly state that the <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> forests are extremely vulnerable to disturbance, particularly that caused by fire and small-scale timber harvesting. However, Aubréville (1939) also notes that the ability of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> to sprout from roots and stumps shows that the tree may recover quickly from fire and that the tree’s fecundity and sprouting ability indicate that it is adapted to canopy disturbance. Additionally, neither Jaeger nor Aubréville cite any evidence that these forests are particularly vulnerable to disturbance by small-scale timber extraction, other than the fact that the indigenous Maninka people use the tree for construction wood. Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1986) report that <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> is a “threatened timber tree”, however, Geerling (1985) found that the tree faced no significant threats due to the inaccessibility of its habitat. <br/><br/>There are some specific periods when localised <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> forest destruction is known to have occurred, however. Aubréville (1939) reported that railroad construction and fueling led to considerable deforestation along the Dakar-Bamako railway during 1937-1955, and this included many <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum </span>groves. The specific area deforested or number of trees cut down, however, are not known from this time. The Manantali Dam was built in the late 1980s (between 1981 and 1987) and this flooded over 400 km² of shrubland (Duvall 2001), including a further unknown area of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> forest. Extrapolation from numbers of trees found per km² of shrubland (3,120) suggests that at least 1,248,000 trees (400 x 3,120) were destroyed through this flooding. A further 135,344 trees (4.77 x 28,374) may have been lost if this area also contained the representative 1%<span style="font-style: italic;"> Gilletiodendron</span> forest cover of the region. The total number of trees lost during this period can be estimated as 1,383,344. Prior to the flooding the total number of trees was estimated as 10,426,677 (9,043,333 + 1,383,344) and a reduction of 13.27% can be therefore inferred for this period.<br/> <br/>Southwestern Mali is amongst the poorest areas in the nation primarily due to a lack of transport infrastructure. Population density in the Manantali region is relatively low (5-10 persons/km²) and the limited local transport infrastructure has prevented large-scale agriculture and extensive commercial exploitation of wild plant resources. As a result of these factors, natural vegetation in the area remains largely undisturbed. The inaccessible cliffs and mesas, where <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> groves are found, are considered marginal land which is not heavily used. However, due to increased population pressures, localities near the hills are becoming increasingly desirable for habitation, enabling better access to wild resources and additional agricultural land.<br/><br/>In addition, Duvall (2001) highlights the problem of possible future exploitation of the species due to its economic value, human population growth and possible improvement in transportation infrastructure in the region providing access to larger markets. Around Manantali, where there is 1) a relatively large human population; 2) high demand for construction materials; and 3) relatively vigorous enforcement of laws banning unlicensed cutting of <span style="font-style: italic;">Prosopsis africana, Anogeissus leiocarpus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus erinaceus</span>, there were 47 <span style="font-style: italic;">Gilletiodendeon</span> stumps per 422 uncut trees. These figures can be converted to a local decline of 10%, however the time period over which this occurred is not known. While the current level of exploitation around Manantali does not appear unsustainable, especially because the tree sprouts vigorously after cutting, it represents a trend that predicts a growing level of exploitation of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. glandulosum</span> as population growth continues and transportation options expand in the area. The overwhelming cover dominance of this species in the groves means that overexploitation of the tree would severely threaten many of the other plants that rely on the dense upper canopy for suitable habitat.<br/><br/>Other general threats to the West Sudanian ecoregion where this species found include overgrazing by livestock, burning of woody material for charcoal, wild fires and climatic desiccation.
32232		distribution	eng	Although moderately exploited, this species is less commercially important than <em>G. cedrata</em>.  Growth is slow, reaching only 9 ft (DBH) in 200 years.
32232		habitat	eng	It occurs commonly in hilly moist evergreen forest.
32233		habitat	eng	A timber species found in some abundance in moist semi-deciduous forest and in the drier undisturbed areas of moist evergreen forest. Regeneration is more successful in undisturbed areas where there has been no burning.
32233		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation are moderate and the species often suffers from its similarity to <em>Entandrophragma angolense</em>, resulting in it being harvested with the same intensity.
32234		conservation	eng	Log export bans and legal protection exist in various countries.
32234		distribution	eng	The most important <em>Khaya</em> species for providing African mahogany.
32234		habitat	eng	It is found in various habitat types in west and central Africa but is most abundant in wet undisturbed evergreen forest.
32234		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation are very high. Little regeneration takes place after disturbance. Individuals reach a seed-producing age at 30 years, although large seed crops appear only at three to four year intervals.
32235		conservation	eng	There are protected subpopulations, log export bans and felling limits in various countries.
32235		distribution	eng	This species is commonly confused with <em>K. grandifolia</em>.
32235		habitat	eng	This species is widespread in areas of evergreen forest.
32235		threats	eng	An important source of African mahogany. It is heavily exploited, particularly in East and West Africa. Regeneration is poor in places, especially where parent trees are scarce, and serious genetic erosion is believed to have occurred.
32236		conservation	eng	There are protected subpopulations and felling limits in various countries.
32236		distribution	eng	An important source of African mahogany.
32236		habitat	eng	The species is generally noted to be more light-demanding and tolerant of dry conditions.
32236		population	eng	Regeneration is good after disturbance.
32236		threats	eng	This widespread species is heavily exploited throughout its range. Genetic erosion caused by the depletion of mature individuals from subpopulations has taken place in most countries. Local overcutting is also common in parts of West Africa. Growth rates are amongst the slowest in the genus and the seeds and seedlings suffer high mortality rates because of insect attack.
32237		distribution	eng	The species ranges from south-east Kenya into north-east Tanzania in the Pangani River basin.
32237		habitat	eng	Restricted to patches of dry forest or thicket on coral or limestone.
32238		distribution	eng	There are reports of many trees in the Somalian population. The species is also known from a single record in the eastern Ogaden and one in an area north-east of Wajir in Kenya. It is the only species in the genus.
32238		habitat	eng	Bushland on limestone (Kenyan population).
32238		threats	eng	threatened by overcollection for charcoal production and also by habitat degradation (Somalian population).
32239		distribution	eng	The species is confined to an area extending from central and southern Somalia to north-east Kenya and the Ogaden in Ethiopia. It is not common.
32239		habitat	eng	Occurring in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland or riverine woodland, often on limestone.
32239		threats	eng	In places, the habitat is severely degraded by encroaching agriculture and overcutting for charcoal production.
32240		distribution	eng	Endemic to a small area in eastern Kenya.
32240		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree occurs sparsely in localised areas of dry bushland on red sand.
32241		distribution	eng	Confined to localised areas in central and eastern Kenya.
32241		habitat	eng	A species of dry upland forest.
32241		threats	eng	Subpopulations at Emali and Lower Imenti are suffering from agricultural encroachment.
32242		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas, e.g. Kimboza Forest Reserve, Mtibwa Forest Reserve, and Mrima Forest Reserve.
32242		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern coastal Kenya, into Tanzania and extending inland to the East Usambara, Nguru and Uluguru Mts. There is a recent collection from Pugu Forest (only two plants found). A sterile collection from Mozambique by Quentin Luke has been identified by RBG Kew as this species, but seems unlikely, so is not included here (Q. Luke pers. comm).
32242		habitat	eng	A tree growing in lowland rain forest (usually on limestone outcrops), also on an igneous intrusion with moist semi-deciduous forest. Foorest dominants include: <span style="font-style: italic;">Cola pseudoclavata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lecaniodiscus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Antiaris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lannea welwitschii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros kabuyeana</span> and&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum schumannii</span>. Lianes: <span style="font-style: italic;">Dichapetalum, Salacia, Acacia, Combretum, Strychnos </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis</span>.
32242		population	eng	Abundant at Kihansi (F. Mbago pers. comm.), but elsewhere quite scarce, e.g. only two plants recorded at Pugu Forest.
32242		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss due to forest loss and degradation (expanding agriculture, mining, fuelwood, charcoal, etc.).
32243		conservation	eng	The Kenyan Forestry authorities maintain plantations of it and also sell the seed.  Subpopulations in Mt. Kenya National Park and other forest reserves are legally protected.
32243		distribution	eng	Scattered in distribution in central Kenya.
32243		habitat	eng	Confined to wet upland forest.
32243		threats	eng	This species is highly valued at a national level for its timber. Exploitation and habitat loss have led to the species becoming rarer.
32244		distribution	eng	This species has a broken distribution, extending 700 km along the coastline. It is known from numerous localities.
32244		habitat	eng	Coastal vegetation on white sands usually associated with rivers or wetter areas.
32245		distribution	eng	Coast of Kenya and southern Somalia. It occurs in abundance near Kiunga.
32245		habitat	eng	A species confined to bushland or woodland.
32247		conservation	eng	The population in Meru National Park is protected. The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya is managing living collections and seed stocks.
32247		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Kenya.
32247		habitat	eng	Occurring in open woodland on rocky domes or river banks.
32247		population	eng	A rare species.
32247		threats	eng	Declines in the extent of the habitat have been caused by cutting and changing land use.
32248		conservation	eng	Populations in Meru National Park are protected, although tourism may exert some pressure on them.
32248		distribution	eng	Endemic to the central mountains of Kenya.
32248		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of riverine forest.
32248		threats	eng	Outside Meru National Park there is no protection and some threat from habitat clearance and land development.
32249		distribution	eng	The largest subpopulation of this small tree occurs in Kenya where it appears to be quite common near Wajir. It also extends into a small area of southern Somalia.
32249		habitat	eng	Bushland.
32250		conservation	eng	Seed and living stocks are maintained under the Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya.
32250		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from the Taita Hills.
32250		habitat	eng	Occurring in remnants of moist evergreen forest.
32250		threats	eng	The tree has many local uses and illegal exploitation of the wood continues. The habitat is also reduced through encroaching agriculture, settlement, the planting of commercial species and road building.
32251		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree, endemic to forest at Ngangao and Mbololo in the Teita Hills.
32252		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Taita Hills.
32252		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree to 12 m, from submontane forest.
32253		conservation	eng	It is not possible to keep the seeds in long-term storage but the Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains a living collection.
32253		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Taita Hills. Specimens which are arguably a new and highly restricted species have been found at higher altitudes in the same location.
32253		habitat	eng	This species is confined to upland moist evergreen forest.
32254		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kasigau.
32254		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen forest between 1,400 and 1,600 m.
32255		distribution	eng	A rarely collected species. Subpopulations are recorded from Chyulu, Mbololo, Kasigau, near Murka and Ngulia. There are only two species in the genus.
32255		habitat	eng	Moist forest or thickets on rocky hills.
32257		distribution	eng	Localities include Cha Simba, Gongoni, Muhaka and Dzombo.
32257		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, confined to a few forest patches or shady crevices.
32258		distribution	eng	The largest part of the species' range lies in Liberia. It extends from the south-west tip of Côte d'Ivoire towards the Nimba region of Liberia extending into Sierra Leone.
32259		distribution	eng	Collected only from Vikindu in Uzaramo.
32259		habitat	eng	A small tree of dry forest.
32260		distribution	eng	Found in good numbers in the North Udzungwa, Nguru Mountains and Uluguru Mts.
32260		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
32261		conservation	eng	Illegal activities and encroachment are currently prevented by two forest guards employed under the Catchment Forestry Project.
32261		distribution	eng	A species endemic to Kimboza Forest Reserve, which covers just 4 km² in the foothills of the Uluguru Mts.
32261		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
32261		threats	eng	Disturbance has been caused by logging and planting of commercial timbers in the past. The surrounding area is densely populated and the demand for land is strong.
32262		conservation	eng	An occurrence is recorded from the Kimboza Forest Reserve, where 4 km² of forest within a densely populated area are protected by two forest guards.
32262		distribution	eng	A widely varying species known only from three localities. There are subpopulations in the south of the Nguru Mountains and possibly at Chita and Kihansi within the Udzungwa Mts. The latter occurrence is strange for its high elevation and may be a distinct taxon.
32262		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
32263		distribution	eng	The distinctness of this species from the West African species, <em>M. africana</em>, is considered to be doubtful. Subpopulations in Tanzania occur in the West Usambara and South Pare Mts.
32263		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
32264		conservation	eng	There are now two forest guards working under the Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project to prevent illegal logging, cutting and encroachment.
32264		distribution	eng	A tree only known from Kimboza Forest, a 4 km² patch of forest in the foothills of the Uluguru Mountains.
32264		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32264		threats	eng	The forest has been heavily logged for valuable timber in the past and the planted Cedrela has become invasive. The surrounding area is densely populated and there is a strong demand for land to cultivate.
32265		conservation	eng	A conservation programme and the employment of forest guards has halted further exploitation.
32265		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Pugu Hills, the population is likely to be confined to the remaining forested areas contained within the Pugu (22 km²) and Kazimzumbwi (49 km²).
32265		threats	eng	These areas are heavily disturbed by previous logging and charcoal production, and by industrial, agricultural, military and mining activities.
32266		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Caesalpinia insolita</em>, this taxon is recognised as a new genus. It is known from Mwena River in Kenya and in several sites on the coastal plain between Pangani and Miligaji Rivers in Tanzania, including the relatively undisturbed Gendagenda Forest Reserve and a cattle ranch which may be added to the Sadaani Game Reserve. It is also reported from Madagascar.
32266		habitat	eng	It is known from a few coastal forest fragments.
32267		conservation	eng	Continuing declines are prevented by the presence of forest guards and active conservation programmes.
32267		distribution	eng	Restricted to the remaining forested areas at the foot of the East Usambara Mountains, Kimboza Forest Reserve at the foot of the Uluguru Mountains and possibly also in South Nguru.
32267		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
32267		threats	eng	These forests have declined heavily in the past because of the increasing clearing of land for agriculture.
32268		distribution	eng	In the vicinities of Udzungwa and Njombe in east Tanzania.
32268		habitat	eng	A gregarious species, occurring in forest or grassland on upland exposed ridges.
32269		distribution	eng	East and south-east Tanzania.
32269		habitat	eng	A small tree restricted to remaining areas of dry coastal forest and open woodland.
32270		distribution	eng	Endemic to east and south-east Tanzania.
32270		habitat	eng	A moist forest species of low elevation.
32271		distribution	eng	Two subpopulations are known. One occurs at the foot of the Uluguru Mts. and the other at Turiani.
32271		habitat	eng	Both in moist lowland forest.
32272		distribution	eng	The species occurs in one locality at the eastern foot of the Udzungwa range.
32272		habitat	eng	Dry lowland forest.
32272		threats	eng	The forest is under some pressure from agricultural encroachment and local exploitation.
32273		conservation	eng	Occurs in several forest reserves.
32273		distribution	eng	The species is locally dominant in three patches of coastal forest in the Pangani River basin. Two of them are contained within forest reserves: Gendagenda Forest Reserve (27 km²), and Tongwe Forest Reserve (12 km²), the remaining population occurs in the Pangani Falls Forest (1 km²). The species is also reported to occur in lowland forest in the East Usambara Mountains. FTEA notes this may be a species of <em>Scorodophloeus</em>.
32273		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32273		threats	eng	A hydroelectric dam has been built in the Pangani Falls Forest. The demand for agricultural land puts pressure on all these sites.
32274		distribution	eng	A species found only in Sigi valley at the foot of the East Usambara Mts.
32274		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous forest.
32275		distribution	eng	Occurring in east Usambara Mts. A subpopulation may also occur in the Pugu Forest Reserve (22 km²) near Dar es Salaam.
32275		habitat	eng	This species is largely known from areas of moist lowland forest reaching 900 m.
32276		conservation	eng	There are now two forest guards to stop illegal cutting and encroachment.
32276		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Kimboza Forest Reserve (4 km²) at the foot of the Uluguru Mts.
32276		threats	eng	The forest is disturbed because of previous logging and the planting of exotic species, including a  <em>Cedrela</em> species which has become invasive. The surrounding area is densely populated and the demand for land to cultivate is strong.
32277		distribution	eng	Rarely occurring on two mountain ranges; in the West Usambaras a subpopulation is known from Shagai and in the Udzungwas there are occurrences in Mwanihana and Nyumbanitu.
32277		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen montane forest.
32278		distribution	eng	Restricted to the South Nguru Mountains.
32278		habitat	eng	This small tree is located in a small area of moist forest at 1,200 m.
32279		distribution	eng	North Uluguru Mountains.
32279		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub restricted to moist evergreen forest.
32280		distribution	eng	It occurs from southern Somalia along the lower Jubba River into eastern Kenya and Tanzania. Information on the possible occurrence in Madagascar may alter the current status of the species.
32280		habitat	eng	An evergreen tree of riverine forest.
32280		population	eng	Although the range appears extensive, subpopulations are localised and confined to disappearing habitat.
32280		threats	eng	Disappearing habitat.
32281		distribution	eng	Occurring from Côte d'Ivoire to Benin, this is an uncommon species from a heavily exploited  forest. The only other species in the genus, although apparently ecologically distinct, is very similar. If the two were to be taxonomically merged the species would be wide-ranging and at lower risk.
32281		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous forest.
32282		conservation	eng	The habitat is known to have declined severely.
32282		distribution	eng	Subpopulations have been recorded in Benin, on the Nigerian border at Oueme, in Ikom in Nigeria, extending into Cameroon and Bioko. Information on the extent of the species range and its status is incomplete
32282		habitat	eng	A large tree from Atlantic forest.
32282		threats	eng	Populations have been recorded in Benin, on the Nigerian border at Oueme, in Ikom in Nigeria, extending into Cameroon and Bioko. Although information on the extent of the species range and its status is incomplete
32283		habitat	eng	It occurs particularly in disturbed areas or light gaps in lowland moist forest. Regeneration is good after disturbance.
32284		distribution	eng	In Taiwan, the species is restricted to forest areas on Lanyu Island.
32284		population	eng	Fewer than 250 individuals are thought to be in existence on Lanyu Island.
32285		distribution	eng	A species occurring as two varieties; var. <em>tetrapterum</em> that is found throughout the species range, and var. <em>obovale</em> that is scattered in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.
32285		habitat	eng	Well-drained mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1,000 m.
32285		threats	eng	The trees are cut for bintangor timber.
32288		distribution	eng	The most primitive member of the genus, confined to two main locations, Chachapoyas in Amazonas, and northern Cajamarca.
32288		habitat	eng	It occurs locally in humid montane forest.
32289		distribution	eng	This is a variable species known from restricted areas occurring from northern Peru to north-west Bolivia. Subspecies in Bolivia are described separately. In the northern part of the range specimens are almost exclusively cultivated. Natural stands occur from Huánuco southwards, generally above 3,200 m. This species is fast-growing, more ecologically adaptable than others in the genus and a promising candidate for reforestation and agroforestry.
32289		habitat	eng	Humid montane forest.
32289		threats	eng	The habitat has greatly declined because of continual burning, cutting for firewood and charcoal production.
32290		distribution	eng	Concentrated in Lima and adjacent Ica, extending into restricted areas further east.
32290		habitat	eng	Locally the species forms dense forest patches above 3,400 m.
32290		threats	eng	Declines in the extent of the forest are being caused largely by burning and charcoal production.
32291		conservation	eng	Small trees grow around granite outcrops where they are safe from commercial exploitation.
32291		distribution	eng	A frequent tree of caatinga, occasional in the Andes, becoming rarer further south into Argentina.
32291		habitat	eng	Catinga habitat and deciduous forest.
32291		population	eng	All stands of large trees are being or have been destroyed.  Regeneration appears to be poor where adequate management is not in place.
32291		threats	eng	All stands of large trees are being or have been destroyed, previously through mahogany logging and now through selective logging.
32292		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are protected within national parks and agricultural landscapes. Attempts are being made to establish plantations throughout the tropics.
32292		distribution	eng	Large individuals have become scarce, especially in Amazonia.
32292		habitat	eng	One of the world's most important timber species. It occurs in humid or dry lowland forest, preferring well-drained soils.
32292		threats	eng	Exploitation has continued on a large scale over the past 200 years and the species is now widely threatened at the provenance level. Trees are often cut opportunistically while other species, such as mahogany, <em>Amburana</em> and <em>Machaerium</em>, are being sought-after. Natural regeneration is generally good, but there are reports of trees being felled before they reach maturity.
32293		conservation	eng	International trade in timber of the species is subject to the provisions of Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>. The Appendix II listing covers the Neotropical populations (including logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets and plywood) and entered into effect on 15 November 2003. Export quotas have been granted to certain countries.
32293		distribution	eng	A very large timber tree which has an extensive natural distribution.
32293		habitat	eng	Various forest types. The ecology of northern subpopulations is relatively well understood whereas virtually nothing is known about Amazonian subpopulations.
32293		population	eng	Basic inventories are lacking for most of its range. Good stands apparently still remain in parts of  Brazil and Bolivia.
32293		threats	eng	This species is the most commercially important of the mahoganies.  The level of exploitation has led to the exhaustion of supplies particularly in the northern parts of its range. Regeneration of the species is stochastic, depending in nature on large-scale disturbance. This ecological strategy makes mahogany vulnerable to logging regimes. Harvesting and processing are generally only 50 percent  efficient. There is, at present,  little economic incentive to manage natural stands sustainably.
32294		distribution	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is apparently only known from a single collection dating back to the last century.
32295		distribution	eng	This is the most widespread species in the genus.
32295		threats	eng	It is the most important source of pulai timber.
32296		conservation	eng	Both India and Sri Lanka have banned the export of this species.
32296		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of dry evergreen forests.
32296		threats	eng	Since ancient times the species has been renowned for its black wood and it is still regarded as the best commercial black ebony.
32298		distribution	eng	An endemic to Valle.
32299		distribution	eng	A large tree, confined to the type locality on the Pacific slopes of Valle.
32300		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few collections, gathered in western Ecuador and south-west Colombia.
32300		habitat	eng	Rainforest between 500 and 2,000 m.
32301		distribution	eng	Confined to Pacific coastal Colombia and Ecuador.
32301		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.
32301		population	eng	A rarely collected species.
32302		conservation	eng	The area is contained within Pedro Franco Davila Biological Station.
32302		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality, on the road from Chone to Pichincha in Manabi. Altitude of 0–500 m.
32302		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland non-flooded rainforest.
32303		distribution	eng	A single fenced tree is left in the wild on Mt Froding on Putuo Island in the Zhoushan Archipelago. The species is monoecious.
32303		habitat	eng	Originally occurring in evergreen broadleaved forest, the remaining tree now exists at the edge of a sparse mixed forest.
32304		conservation	eng	The trees are protected.
32304		distribution	eng	The wild population is now apparently confined to five damaged individuals on Xitianmu Mountain.
32304		threats	eng	Trees do not appear to be regenerating naturally.
32305		habitat	eng	This widespread tree usually occurs in lowland riparian forest on deep rich soils. The Indian subpopulation, however, occurs in moist evergreen forest at higher altitudes, away from streams.
32305		threats	eng	In Viet Nam a long period of selective logging has reduced the size of stands to small groups of trees or isolated individuals.
32306		conservation	eng	A protected subpopulation occurs in Nam Cát Tiên National Park.
32306		distribution	eng	The species occurs within a restricted distribution.
32306		habitat	eng	Scattered in dense evergreen and semi-deciduous forest up to 1,200 m.
32306		threats	eng	Its beautiful red wood is overexploited.
32309		distribution	eng	Confined to a site in Clifford Bay in Marlborough. There are only two species in the genus, both endemic to New Zealand.
32309		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32309		population	eng	Only twelve wild plants survive in a remnant of coastal forest.
32310		distribution	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia, trees are never common and rarely reach a commercial size. There are apparently good stands still in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
32310		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree which produces one of the most valuable timbers of South East Asia.
32310		threats	eng	The species has been exploited so intensively for merbau timber that few sizeable natural stands remain. Few plantations are established.
32311		distribution	eng	The natural distribution of the species is probably confined to west central Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh but it is obscured by the widespread cultivation of the plant.
32311		population	eng	Populations do not appear to be large.
32312		conservation	eng	Surveys are required of all potential areas of suitable habitat in China to see if any wild plants still remain. The subpopulations in southern Viet Nam and Lao PDR should receive urgent site protection and restoration efforts are required to increase the size and viability of these subpopulations. If that is not done this species could well become Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct in the Wild).
32312		distribution	eng	This species is found in SE China: Fujian, S Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi (it is suggested that most if not all of these supposed occurrences are cultivated plants (Li and Xia 2004, 2005) – there are more than 200,000 mature individuals known in cultivation); introduced on Hainan Island and in Sichuan, possibly natural in SE Yunnan (but this too is disputed). &#160;This species is known from nine small localities in Dac Lac province in in Viet Nam (Averyanov 2009). These represent two locations <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu</span> IUCN. Recently several small stands were discovered in Khammouan Province, Lao PDR (Thomas and LePage 2011) - these are considered to represent one location <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu</span> IUCN.
32312		habitat	eng	A heliophilous species, intolerant of competition and usually growing in pure stands or solitary along streams. In China it is mainly found on river floodplains and in deltas, always near or in water, where it develops a buttressed base and occasionally pneumatophores; also extensively planted along rivers and canals. In Viet Nam and Lao PDR it occurs along streams and in seasonally inundated areas at altitudes between 500 and 700 m asl.
32312		population	eng	<p>No wild plants are known to remain in China, although hope remains that a few individuals may still survive. </p>  <p>In Viet   Nam fewer than 300 trees occur in five localities. Three of these localities have less than 10 trees each. The main stands are located within Earal and Trap Kso nature reserves. No viable seed has been collected from these trees over the last 20 years (Averyanov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)</p>  <p>In Lao PDR six stands were recently located during surveys of the Nakai plateau. The largest of these was inundated at the completion of the Nam Theun II hydroscheme. The total number of trees remaining is estimated to be less than 100 (Thomas and LePage 2011).</p><p>Although the total number of trees is more than 250, very few have been known to produce viable seed or to reproduce vegetatively. Within the context of the IUCN definitions, the number of mature individuals is less than 250.<br/> </p>
32312		threats	eng	<p>In China and Viet Nam habitat loss due to intensive agriculture has been the main cause of decline. The subpopulations in Viet Nam are within coffee plantations, the water table has been altered and the trees are no longer producing fertile seed. Illegal logging of live and dead trees within the nature reserves has recently been reported. <br/></p>  The largest of the recently discovered stands in Lao PDR were located within the inundation zone of the newly completed Nam Theun II hydroscheme and have been flooded. Several small stands are located outside of this zone on land that has been allocated to villages for forestry or agriculture, and each stand has been impacted to various degrees by logging, construction of fish ponds, and clearing for food crops (Thomas and LePage 2011)
32313		distribution	eng	This evergreen tree is so far only known from a region in south-west Guangxi Province.
32314		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas.
32314		distribution	eng	Chengal is a valuable timber species. A large tree now only extant in Peninsular Malaysia. Populations in the southernmost part of Thailand and Singapore are believed to be extinct.
32314		threats	eng	The export of logs has been banned.
32315		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are given formal protection over much of the range in China. The species was included in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> in 1985 and deleted from the Appendix in 1997.
32315		distribution	eng	South-west Guangxi extending into Viet Nam.
32315		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree restricted to wet areas of forest below 500 m.
32315		threats	eng	Subpopulations continue to be threatened by overcollection of seedlings and habitat disturbance.
32316		distribution	eng	A monospecific genus occurring in a few disjunct localities in the eastern Dalou Mts. and in the Yuecheng range.
32316		population	eng	Around 30 small to medium-sized stands occur in areas which are fairly inaccessible.
32316		threats	eng	The populations are well protected but there is concern that they will be replaced by faster growing broadleaved species if regeneration continues to be poor.
32317		conservation	eng	All large trees are protected but the habitat is not.
32317		distribution	eng	The species is known from sites in Shizhu in Sichuan, Lichuan in Hubei and Longshan and Sangzhi in Hunan.
32317		habitat	eng	Confined to slightly waterlogged areas of open forest.
32317		population	eng	The subpopulations appear to have been reduced to a few mature individuals.
32317		threats	eng	Surrounding areas are heavily cultivated and there are poor prospects for natural regeneration.
32318		distribution	eng	Baishanzu Mountain.
32318		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mixed forest.
32318		population	eng	Only five living specimens are known in the wild.
32318		threats	eng	Expansive agriculture and fires, coupled with poor regeneration, are thought to have largely been responsible for the decline of the species.
32319		conservation	eng	The population occurs within a protected area.<br/><br/>Further research is required into this species’ threats and what measures should be taken to rescue this species from going extinct.<br/><br/>There is a need for ex-situ conservation.
32319		distribution	eng	A relatively recently discovered species confined to Yuanbao Shan in Rongshui Xian county (N Guangxi,China) which is outside the general range of fir species. The whole population is within an area of 4 ha.
32319		habitat	eng	The highest mountains in Guangxi, like Yuanbao Shan, have a very cool, wet climate, with annual precipitation exceeding 2,000 mm. The summers are cool and cloudy, the winters last four to five months and bring abundant snow from December through March. This species occurs in mixed deciduous-coniferous forest with other conifers (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga chinensis</span>) and broad-leaved trees dominated by members of the Fagaceae; the <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> trees are very scattered.
32319		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 589 plants. The population structure is skewed to old (senescent) individuals and young ones, with very few middle-aged plants.<br/><br/>Genetic work indicates that this species will face severe genetic issues in the near future.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
32319		threats	eng	This species has an extremely limited distribution, distant from other species, and is only known from one small area in Guangxi Province. The population was impacted by a severe winter in 2008 and a number of trees died.
32320		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in protected areas.
32320		distribution	eng	Recorded from NE Guangxi (Rongshui Xian, Yuanbao Shan), and SW Hunan (Ziyuan Xian, Xingni, Chenbu).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
32320		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies ziyuanensis</span> is a rare fir occurring on the highest mountains in Guangxi and on the border with Hunan, in a narrow belt between 1,650 m and 1,750 m asl. These mountains have a cool, very wet climate, with a mean annual temperature between 9.2º-12ºC, and a winter period of four to five months (November-March) in which the mean temperature is between -3º to -5º C (min. -10º). The weather is usually cloudy, with much fog, the annual precipitation is 2,100-2,400 mm and snow lasts from December through March. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies ziyuanensis</span> occurs, together with other conifers, scattered in a mixed forest dominated by deciduous broad-leaved trees. Above 1,700 m on Yuanbao Shan it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">A. yuanbaoshanensis</span>.
32320		population	eng	The entire population is estimated to number fewer than 2,000 plants. In Guangxi there are two subpopulations – 13 trees in one and only one in the other. Mostly mature individuals.
32320		threats	eng	This species is only known from less than five localities, some in close proximity. As it occurs lower on the mountains, it was cut for timber in the past, but this has now mostly ceased. Present threats are landslides and overgrazing by sheep and cattle.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
32321		distribution	eng	Occurring in small groves or as isolated individuals, this relict species is recorded from a few forest localities in north-west Guangxi, south-east Guizhou, south-east Yunnan in China, and from a few localised populations in north and west Viet Nam. In China the species has been difficult to locate at recorded localities.
32321		threats	eng	In China the habitat has declined considerably with extensive agriculture and logging.
32322		distribution	eng	First discovered in the 1960s, the species is thought to have become extinct in its original location on Mt Hewei, which has been cleared of forest. Further localities have been identified in Xinyi in Guangdong and Guping in Guangxi, where it occurs in the remaining forest below 600 m. The genus is monospecific.
32322		habitat	eng	Forest below 600 m.
32323		distribution	eng	Only recently discovered, the species occurs in Balibagai.
32323		habitat	eng	Wet alkaline land dominated by herbaceous vegetation.
32323		population	eng	The population was apparently reduced to one sprouting stump when the only known site was taken over for farming.
32324		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Taiwan's Cultural Heritage Preservation Law. The family is monotypic.
32324		distribution	eng	The species is scattered throughout south-east China extending to Lai Chau in Viet Nam and Taibei and Ilan Counties in northern Taiwan.
32324		habitat	eng	Low to middle elevation forest in ravines and by streams.
32324		population	eng	Uncommon and thought to be getting rarer. The subpopulation in Viet Nam is considered to be threatened and in Taiwan populations are highly localised and contain few individuals.
32324		threats	eng	Habitat loss and logging are the main causes of declines.
32325		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland deciduous forest, occurring up to 1,100 m.
32325		population	eng	There has been considerable declines in the Chinese part of the range. Information is needed on populations in Thailand and Myanmar.
32325		threats	eng	The timber is commercially useful and rates of logging, as well as general habitat loss, have caused massive losses in China.
32326		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree found in northern Viet Nam and one location in Fangcheng, southern Guangxi.
32326		habitat	eng	It grows in forested valleys between 150 and 480 m.
32326		threats	eng	There are constant threats of cutting or habitat clearance.
32327		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a few scattered locations in the east of China.
32327		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of evergreen broadleaved forest between 150 and 500 m.
32327		population	eng	The numbers of populations are steadily diminishing.
32327		threats	eng	Increasing habitat loss and disturbance.
32328		conservation	eng	The species occurs widely in cultivation.
32328		distribution	eng	Although the species occurs widely in cultivation, wild subpopulations are restricted to mixed montane forest in western and central Yunnan.
32328		population	eng	Subpopulations in the wild are in decline.
32328		threats	eng	The demand from the horticultural industry is causing  significant depletion of plants in the wild.
32329		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to Fangcheng in southern Guangxi.
32329		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest between 180 and 440 m.
32329		threats	eng	There are constant threats of cutting or habitat clearance.
32330		distribution	eng	Although closely related to <em>C. fortunei</em>, this species is considered to be a distinct taxon in China. It is found in Gongshan County. An occurrence in Myanmar is recorded, but there is no collected material from here.
32330		habitat	eng	It occurs in small groves within forested valleys up to 1,900 m.
32330		threats	eng	Exploitation of the taxon for the medicinal properties of its bark, and also of the habitat for its timber resources, are the main threats to the species.
32331		threats	eng	Populations of this relict species are being rapidly depleted through logging and clearing of the lowland moist forest habitat. The plant has strong sprouting capacity but regeneration by sexual reproduction appears to be slow, possibly because of its dioecious nature.
32332		distribution	eng	Found in Japan and China.
32332		habitat	eng	Temperate beech forests in Japan and in remnant patches of broad-leaved forest in China.
32332		population	eng	A rare tree.
32332		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is poor regeneration.
32333		conservation	eng	Plantations are now being established.
32333		distribution	eng	Over a hundred large trees have been preserved as a monument near Yuenyang Lake and Lala Mt.
32333		habitat	eng	A long-living emergent, which usually forms pure stands in medium to high elevation cloud forest.
32333		threats	eng	Many large trees were felled in the past and exported as timber to Japan. Regeneration is good where it is not prevented by the planting of commercial species and the invasion of broadleaved species in the undergrowth.
32334		distribution	eng	Confined to Hainan Island the species is now only found on Dialuo Mt. and Jingfeng Mt. Subpopulations in Ding'an Qiongzhong, Baoting and Yaxian have apparently disappeared. It is the only species in the genus.
32334		habitat	eng	Occurring in forested gullies at altitudes of 600 to 700 m.
32335		distribution	eng	Small subpopulations are scattered in Ruili, Malipo, Xichou and Lushui in Yunnan, in western Guangxi and Dushan County in southern Guizhou, and in north Viet Nam. Only two species have been described in this somewhat taxonomically unresolved genus.
32335		habitat	eng	The species habitat is monsoon forest between 500 and 1,000 m.
32335		threats	eng	It has been extensively cleared and degraded throughout the range.
32336		distribution	eng	Confined to eastern Tibet.
32336		habitat	eng	The species forms sparse pure stands along rivers on sheltered dry slopes. The largest individuals are said to be in a cemetery.
32336		population	eng	Little regeneration is apparent except in the Yarlungzangbo river basin but the tree coppices well.
32337		distribution	eng	The more threatened of the two varieties in this monospecific genus, with a distribution similar to that of the type variant.
32337		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane or cloud forest.
32337		population	eng	Populations appear to be less common than those of the type variant..
32337		threats	eng	There is also a keen demand for the seeds and plants in the horticultural trade, and overcollection from wild populations has reduced natural regeneration severely.
32338		conservation	eng	Nature Reserves, for instance at Weishan in southern Yunnan, are now set up and help to protect certain subpopulations.
32338		population	eng	In China, the species has suffered rapid population declines over the past 20 years.
32338		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
32339		distribution	eng	Mountains in southern China and in several localities in secondary forest in northern Viet Nam. The genus is monospecific.
32339		habitat	eng	A small tree, widespread in submontane broadleaved forest on limestone.
32339		population	eng	In China, declines in population numbers have been recorded in the last decade.
32339		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
32340		conservation	eng	The area is now under protection
32340		distribution	eng	Known only from the counties of Mengzi and Wenshan in the south-east of Yunnan. It is a prized ornamental plant and one of just two species in the genus.
32340		habitat	eng	The species occurs at the edges of broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,800 and 2,400 m.
32340		threats	eng	The habitat has declined in extent because of logging and clearing for agriculture.
32341		distribution	eng	Restricted to Xiangning, Hejin and Yicheng counties in Shanxi and Huxian county in Shaanxi.
32341		habitat	eng	The species is scattered on mountain slopes between 800 and 1,500 m.
32341		threats	eng	The numbers of large individuals and the overall natural extent of the species is declining because of overcutting.
32342		distribution	eng	A valuable timber tree. The species' range in Viet Nam extends from the border with China to Quang Nam-Da Nang Province.
32342		habitat	eng	Occurring in monsoon or rainforest up to 800 m, it can form a scattered or dominant component.
32342		population	eng	The Chinese subpopulations are largely reduced to trees left standing around living areas.
32342		threats	eng	Plantations were established in the 1950s to increase supplies of the hardwood but demands are still in excess of what can be sustainably provided.
32343		distribution	eng	A common tree endemic to Henderson Island.
32343		habitat	eng	Co-dominant in the plateau forest with <em> Xylosma suaveolens</em>. It also occurs in scrub vegetation and on cliff slopes.
32343		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number between 20,000 and 40,000 individuals.
32343		threats	eng	Under no threat at present.
32344		conservation	eng	<em>Ex situ</em> germination tests have failed so far as many seeds appear to lack embryos.
32344		distribution	eng	One of the least common of the Henderson Island endemics.
32344		habitat	eng	Scattered in the plateau forest.
32344		population	eng	Up to 7,000 individuals may exist.
32344		threats	eng	The species is dioecious and may be suffering from the heavy predation of fruits, often before they are ripe, by doves.
32345		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from Henderson and Pitcairn Islands.
32345		habitat	eng	Beach forest and scrub.
32345		population	eng	On Henderson the species is relatively common, numbering about 20,000 individuals. The population is smaller, with fewer than 500 individuals, on Pitcairn.
32345		threats	eng	Cutting and  the spread of the invasive <em>Syzygium jambos</em>. No regeneration has been observed.
32346		distribution	eng	Endemic to Oeno Island.
32346		habitat	eng	A caulescent tree or shrub, that occurs in  <em>Argusia argentea/Pisonia grandis</em> formations.
32346		population	eng	A botanical expedition in 1991 failed to find any living specimens despite thorough searches. A sterile specimen was found in 1997 in the south-west of the island.
32346		threats	eng	Natural vegetation changes may be the cause of the evident scarcity of the species.
32347		conservation	eng	Henderson Island is a World Heritage Site.
32347		distribution	eng	This variety is endemic to Henderson Island.
32347		habitat	eng	Occurs with the type variety in open gaps in the plateau forest.
32347		population	eng	The total number of individuals of the two varieties together has been calculated to be about 40,000. Regeneration appears to be good, although the species is possibly monocarpic.
32348		distribution	eng	The species has been reduced to two localities, Yangchong in Guangdong and Pingnan in Guangxi.  The genus is monospecific.
32348		habitat	eng	Open forest on hilly slopes between 50 and 150 m.
32348		population	eng	Very few individuals are found..
32348		threats	eng	The remaining trees do not appear to be protected and are close to villages, where they are susceptible to cutting.
32349		conservation	eng	The species remains in cultivation, frequently planted as an ornamental tree.
32349		distribution	eng	The only remaining trees are those which have been planted around temples and villages. Wild populations were once believed to have existed in central and western Yunnan.
32349		habitat	eng	Between 1,700 to 2,500 m.
32349		threats	eng	The forests here have been replaced by crops.
32350		conservation	eng	There are several occurrences within nature reserves, including Ba Be National Park in Viet Nam.
32350		distribution	eng	The center of the species' distribution is in south-west Guangxi, extending into limestone areas of Yunnan. Populations in Viet Nam represent a separate species.
32350		habitat	eng	A slow-growing tree, it is found, sometimes as a dominant component, in lowland semi-deciduous woodland. Regeneration is observed to be strong in forest gaps.
32350		threats	eng	The timber is highly valued, and in many parts of its range mature trees have become very scarce or been eliminated.  Habitat loss and degradation have also contributed to the decline.
32351		distribution	eng	The species has a wide range, although the exact extent of the truly wild populations is obscured by those which have been planted. The genus is monospecific.
32351		population	eng	A common species. Regeneration is fire-dependent and appears to be good.
32351		threats	eng	Large-scale logging has resulted in the species disappearing or  becoming scarce in parts of its range, notably in northern Viet Nam and southern China.
32352		distribution	eng	Populations are confined to central Guangxi and to Malipo in south-east Yunnan, extending into northern Viet Nam.
32352		habitat	eng	Distributed in forest on limestone, rarely above 600 m.
32352		threats	eng	A timber species; large trees have been cut; very few remain. Regeneration also appears to be insufficient.
32353		conservation	eng	The species has been widespread in cultivation for several centuries.
32353		distribution	eng	The wild populations of this widely planted ornamental are apparently confined to Xitianmu Mt., Zhejiang. This is the only species in the genus. It is long-living and has an ancient geological record, appearing in the Jurassic.
32353		habitat	eng	Scattered in broadleaved forests up to 1,100 m. This is the only species in the genus. It is long-living and has an ancient geological record, appearing in the Jurassic.
32355		distribution	eng	A prized ornamental occurring in two main areas. It has not been found recently in the westernmost site in Xingshan, Hubei. In the east it is found in small numbers. It is the only member of the genus.
32355		habitat	eng	In woodlands or on the edge of evergreen broadleaved forest.
32355		threats	eng	Population declines through indiscriminate cutting have been recorded.
32356		distribution	eng	Shiwan Mountains.
32356		habitat	eng	A relatively small evergreen tree restricted to monsoon forest.
32356		threats	eng	It provides a valuable timber, renowned as 'ten-thousand year wood'. Overcutting is a serious problem.
32357		conservation	eng	The Chinese subpopulation is now protected from cutting.
32357		distribution	eng	Hainan Island in China and Nghia Dan, Quy Chau, Quy Hop and Nhu Xuan and a few smaller localities in Viet Nam.
32357		habitat	eng	A slow-growing tree, occurring in remaining areas of lowland rainforest.
32357		population	eng	The Chinese subpopulation consists of several hundred mature trees
32358		distribution	eng	Only recently discovered in south Yunnan and northern Viet Nam.
32358		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest.
32358		population	eng	Small stands still exist in a number of provinces in Viet Nam.
32358		threats	eng	In China populations are disappearing because of deforestation and habitat degradation.
32359		distribution	eng	Known from several localities in the south-west of Hainan Island, and also from a single locality in Xuwen County, Guangdong.
32359		habitat	eng	A canopy tree of middle elevation rainforest below 800 m.
32359		threats	eng	It is found in a habitat which has experienced severe declines in extent over much of the taxon's range.
32360		conservation	eng	The species' range coincides with protected areas in both countries.
32360		distribution	eng	South-west Guangdong, southern Guangxi, Malipo and Pingbian in Yunnan and northern provinces of Viet Nam.
32360		habitat	eng	A large timber tree with a scattered distribution in lowland primary forest.
32360		population	eng	Few large trees remain.
32360		threats	eng	Populations have been heavily exploited throughout the range.
32361		conservation	eng	A large population is under protection in Longzhou Nature Reserve.
32361		distribution	eng	Scattered in western Guangxi and eastern Yunnan. The genus is monotypic.
32361		habitat	eng	Limestone mountains up to 1,640 m.
32361		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
32361		threats	eng	Wild populations are much reduced as a result of continued logging and habitat clearance.
32362		distribution	eng	In China the species is confined to the Changbai Mountains.
32362		habitat	eng	Thickets between 1,000 and 1,300 m.
32362		population	eng	Occurs infrequently.
32362		threats	eng	Clearing and altering of the habitat are believed to have affected regeneration and caused population declines.
32363		distribution	eng	<em>Malus sieversii</em> is believed to be the primary ancestor of the domesticated apple. The species is native to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (Lamboy <em>et al</em>. 1998). It also extends into China where pure stands of the species occur in the Ili River Valley in the western part of the Tianshan Mts. and on hillsides in western Junggar (National Environment Protection Bureau 1987, Li-kuo and Jian-ming 1992). Occurs between 1,100 and 1,600 m.
32363		habitat	eng	A wild relative of domesticated cultivars and therefore a globally important genetic resource.
32363		population	eng	Declining at a rapid rate. For example, in Kazakhstan its habitat has declined by over 70% in the last 30 years.
32363		threats	eng	Threats include loss and degradation of habitat due to agricultural expansion and development, genetic erosion (grafting of commercial varieties and hybridization) and overgrazing.
32364		distribution	eng	Its range stretches from south-east Yunnan to south-west Guangxi.
32364		habitat	eng	The species is found in monsoon forest on limestone hills between 800 and 1,550 m.
32364		population	eng	Only a few scattered stands of this important timber tree remain. Several populations are reported to have become extinct in both provinces.
32364		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the timber.
32365		distribution	eng	Restricted largely to the lower reaches of the Anning and Yalong Rivers and Jinsha River Valley.
32365		habitat	eng	Shrubs or small trees are found singly or in small clumps, between 900 and 2,800 m. Populations frequently occur in inaccessible places in rock crevices and on steep cliffs.
32365		threats	eng	The main threat comes from firewood collection.
32366		distribution	eng	Restricted to parts of the Dabieshan.
32366		habitat	eng	Confined to upland mixed forest.
32366		population	eng	Mature trees are few.
32366		threats	eng	Rates of regeneration and growth are poor.
32367		distribution	eng	A variety confined to two main locations in the Yajia Range on Hainan Island.
32367		habitat	eng	It occurs individually or in small clumps on the margins of tropical montane rainforest and mossy summit woodland.
32367		threats	eng	There is a danger that the area will be taken over for commercial forestry management.
32368		distribution	eng	Highly restricted in range and population numbers in Xicho and Malipo, south-east Yunnan. It is also recorded in Viet Nam but the population there is poorly known.
32368		habitat	eng	The species is confined to evergreen submontane forest on limestone mountains.
32368		threats	eng	There is a threat of continued logging.
32369		distribution	eng	Found in south-west China. Also occurring in scattered localities in northern and southern provinces in Viet Nam.
32369		habitat	eng	This is one of the dominant components of broadleaved semi-deciduous forest above 1,200 m.
32369		threats	eng	Stands in China are said to have become more sporadic because of the extensive logging and clearing of the species habitat. The timber is used domestically.
32370		conservation	eng	The area has been designated as a nature reserve and the species is in cultivated as an ornamental.
32370		distribution	eng	Gaoligongshan in south-west Yunnan.
32370		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen broadleaved forest.
32370		population	eng	Fewer than 100 trees are thought to exist. The population was rediscovered in 1981, 62 years after its first collection.
32371		distribution	eng	The species is largely confined to southern China, with restricted populations in Lao Cai and Yen Bai just over the border into northern Viet Nam. The family is monotypic.
32371		habitat	eng	Occurring as a canopy tree in montane forest.
32371		population	eng	Trees generally occur singly or in small groups. The species is a dominant element where recolonisation is taking place after forest clearance.
32372		distribution	eng	An endemic of Hainan Island.
32372		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining areas of semi-deciduous monsoon and rainforest in valleys below 500 m.
32372		population	eng	The species can occur commonly and regenerates well.
32372		threats	eng	It is cut for its timber and has experienced rapid rates of decline in its habitat because of logging and the increase in the amount of land coming under cultivation.
32373		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of the species are known to occur in some forest reserves.
32373		distribution	eng	The Chinese subpopulation is confined to Yingjiang. In India the species is known from healthy subpopulations, which are regenerating well.
32373		habitat	eng	This gregarious tree occurs on slopes and along rivers in lowland evergreen forest.
32373		threats	eng	Threatened by conversion of the forest to agriculture (China). The trees are cut for the commercially valuable plywood.
32374		distribution	eng	A dwarf tree restricted to a few localities close to Nanjing.
32374		habitat	eng	It occurs on hillsides below 400 m.
32374		threats	eng	Although some populations appear to be protected, trees are still susceptible to being cut for firewood.
32375		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is believed to be protected in Taibai Shan Nature Reserve.
32375		distribution	eng	Confined to central China. It is the only species in the genus.
32375		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mixed forest on mountain slopes and river banks between 1,100 and 1,600 m.
32375		threats	eng	Outside the protected area the species appears to be suffering from habitat degradation and declines.
32376		distribution	eng	Found throughout Asia.
32376		habitat	eng	This large tree is a fast growing species.
32376		threats	eng	Exploited for its timber and planted as an ornamental.
32377		distribution	eng	A species previously thought to be endemic to Hong Kong, but occurring in Heishan and Bofulin. A small subpopulation has since been discovered in Longzhou, Guangxi. This is the only member of the genus.
32377		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas of rainforest at 590 m.
32378		distribution	eng	In 1892, the French missionary P.G. Farges was the first westerner to conduct a botanical survey in Chengkou county, Chongqing Municipality (formerly eastern Sichuan Province), in central China. Among the many new species discovered by Farges, was <em>Thuja sutchuenensis</em>. After his first collection, Farges returned a number of times to the area up until 1900 and collected additional specimens of this species. Later in the twentieth century, a number of botanical collecting trips were made to Chengkou by Chinese botanists. Some trips were specifically made to find <em>T. sutchuenensis</em>. However, nothing was found and it therefore remained known only from specimens collected by Farges and lodged in various European herbaria, although it was said to be in cultivation in China. Nothing was known about the habitat in which the species had been found, and it was not even certain that the species had been collected in the wild, as only the town of Chengkou was mentioned as its locality. As a result, the species was widely regarded to be Extinct in the Wild, and was considered to be the only conifer to have disappeared from nature in historic times (Farjon and Page 1999).  <br/> <br/>In October 1999, an expedition in search of rare and endangered plants of Chongqing Municipality organized by a local forest bureau carried out a thorough investigation of Chenkou county.  In the Dabashan Mountains they discovered a wild population of <em>Thuja sutchuenensis</em>.
32378		habitat	eng	Occurs on steep slopes and ridges of a limestone formation at altitudes between 800 and 2,100 m (but mostly between 1,000 and 1,500 m). The population grows on ridges and mountain summits where the soil is shallow and even grows in rock crevices, devoid of soil. The surrounding vegetation is largely deciduous broad-leaved temperate forest.
32378		threats	eng	The fragrant and rot-resistant wood of <em>Thuja sutchuenensis</em> is a very desirable resource.  The wood is soft, light and very easily worked.  It is used for applications requiring decay resistance by local people, e.g., home construction, production of shingles, application for funeral services, etc.  As a result most of the easily accessible trees have been chopped down, leaving only a single very remote and largely inaccessible subpopulation. <br/> <br/>Inbreeding among the remaining individuals is potentially a problem which requires further investigation.  Plant diseases caused by microorganisms have also been observed, but it is not clear what impact, if any, these may have.
32379		distribution	eng	This small tree is found in Pucheng in Zhejiang and Taining in Fujian.
32379		habitat	eng	Lowland forest or shrubland.
32379		threats	eng	The area is very heavily populated and the habitat is being widely degraded.
32380		conservation	eng	The lone tree is protected by guards assigned from the Forestry Department.
32380		distribution	eng	Only a single tree of this recently discovered species is known to exist on Mt Liushai, Guangxi.
32380		habitat	eng	Gully rainforest.
32381		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from south Yunnan and Lào Chi province in north Viet Nam.
32381		habitat	eng	Trees occur singly or in groves in remaining areas of semi-evergreen broadleaved forest on limestone mountains. The present knowledge of the species distribution is not complete.
32381		threats	eng	Significant habitat declines are occurring in the areas where the species is known, largely because of encroaching agriculture but also logging for timber.
32382		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Jinghong in Yunnan, Guangdong, including Hainan Island and Guangxi.
32382		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in semi-evergreen monsoon forest up to altitudes of 400 m.
32382		threats	eng	There is concern over the rates of exploitation and the damage to trees incurred during the harvesting of the medicinal balm. Habitat loss and clearance are also frequent.
32383		habitat	eng	A timber species which occurs in broadleaved deciduous woodland up to 1,300 m.
32383		threats	eng	Population numbers have declined because of overexploitation and habitat loss.
32384		conservation	eng	In Viet Nam some populations are contained within protected areas, such as Ba Vi National Park and Bidoup Nature Reserve.
32384		habitat	eng	Altitudinal range: 800 to 1,500 m. Forest type: small groups in dense, moist, evergreen montane forest on either limestone or granite derived soils.
32384		population	eng	Throughout the species' range, populations are rapidly being reduced to the more inaccessible areas where logging and cutting are limited. It is still found commonly in some valleys in Yunnan. In Viet Nam the populations are small.
32384		threats	eng	Habitat loss, overexploitation for timber and resin. Throughout Viet Nam this species has also been overexploited for its timber and resin and much of its habitat has been converted for agriculture.
32385		distribution	eng	Confined to the Shiwan Mts. in southern Guangxi, the species appears to occur in such low numbers that repeated recent searches for it have failed. In Viet Nam it appears to be more widespread in central provinces and mountain areas. Natural regeneration is reported to be good here.
32385		habitat	eng	In secondary forest and forest margins.
32386		conservation	eng	Some populations, e.g., at Datan in Hong Kong and Chengman in Jiulong, are protected.
32386		distribution	eng	A tree known only from scattered small subpopulations on low-lying hills on the coast from the mouth of Zhujiang River to Shiwan Mt.
32386		population	eng	Numbers are believed to be very small and declining.
32386		threats	eng	Logging for timber.
32387		distribution	eng	Along the south-east coast of China and in Taiwain, and widespread in northern and central Viet Nam.
32387		habitat	eng	A massive tree scattered in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest along the coast.
32387		threats	eng	Trees are heavily cut in many areas for the timber, which is used in construction work. Regeneration, at least in Viet Nam, is reported to be poor and limited to forest edges.
32388		distribution	eng	The species occurs in south-west Guangxi, China, and in Cao Bang in Viet Nam.
32388		habitat	eng	Limestone areas, where it can become dominant in moist forest below 500 m.
32388		population	eng	In Viet Nam seedlings and young trees are abundant where the trees have been planted, but regeneration in the wild is almost non-existent. However, trees coppice well.
32388		threats	eng	Overcutting and use of the tree as cattle forage are the main threats.
32389		distribution	eng	Occurring over a wide range. The genus is monotypic.
32389		habitat	eng	The species is confined to lowland forest.
32389		threats	eng	The species is in severe decline because of loss and degradation of this habitat. Regeneration is poor.
32390		distribution	eng	Coastal islands in China, throughout Taiwan and parts of North and South Korea and Japan.
32390		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland evergreen forest.
32390		population	eng	A tree, occurring in isolated populations.
32390		threats	eng	Susceptible to habitat clearance and conversion to agriculture.
32391		distribution	eng	Restricted to south-west Sichuan and north-east Yunnan.
32391		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
32391		threats	eng	The populations have been seriously reduced because of overexploitation of the bark for medicinal use and habitat clearance. Regeneration is reported to be poor and the species is being rapidly replaced by other broadleaved species in places.
32392		conservation	eng	Remaining subpopulations are believed to be well protected in nature reserves.
32392		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
32392		population	eng	Although relatively widespread in, the species has experienced considerable habitat declines.
32392		threats	eng	The species has experienced considerable habitat declines, largely because of conversion to agriculture.
32393		distribution	eng	Range covers parts of southern China, Son La, Lao Kai and Yen Bai in north Viet Nam and northern Myanmar. The genus contains only two species.
32393		habitat	eng	Broadleaved forest on limestone.
32393		population	eng	This multi-purpose tree occurs in small populations over a relatively wide range.
32393		threats	eng	In China, particularly over the past 10 years, trees have been cut for timber at unsustainable levels. In Viet Nam the timber is said to be more rarely used because of its susceptibility to insect and termite attack.
32394		habitat	eng	A relatively widely occurring component of middle elevation broadleaved forest.
32394		population	eng	Declines in the number of mature individuals have been reported.
32394		threats	eng	Declines are caused largely by overexploitation. Habitat loss and poor regeneration, apparently caused by the decimation of seed crops by birds, are also thought to have contributed to the present status of the species.
32395		distribution	eng	This species has been found at only a single locality in Langping. There are only two species in this somewhat taxonomically unresolved genus.
32395		habitat	eng	Growing in forest on limestone hills at 1,400 m.
32395		population	eng	An extensive search in 1982 failed to relocate the species.
32396		distribution	eng	In China the main subpopulations are found at Mengla and Tengchong. Information is needed on the populations in Laos and Myanmar.
32396		habitat	eng	They are extremely small and largely made up of senescing trees in areas of monsoon forest on limestone hills.
32396		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor and the habitat degraded.
32397		distribution	eng	This variety is confined to localities at Simao, Meijiang, Jianchen and Jinghong in southern Yunnan.
32397		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous forest. The taxon has been observed to occur quite frequently in scrub, regenerating after the destruction of forested areas.
32397		population	eng	Overcutting of the timber, encroaching cultivation and habitat degradation have caused population reductions.
32398		distribution	eng	Confined to Hainan Island, the species is known only from stands of coppiced individuals.
32398		habitat	eng	Secondary forest and scrub  up to 600 m altitude.
32398		threats	eng	Trees have been heavily harvested for the timber and scented wood.
32399		distribution	eng	South-west of Hainan Island.
32399		habitat	eng	One of the common and important components of low-elevation monsoon forest.
32399		threats	eng	Large-scale logging has taken out a considerable proportion of the population but trees are resprouting where allowed.
32400		conservation	eng	A nature reserve has been set up where the only Chinese population occur.
32400		distribution	eng	In China, the species is confined to an area of 30 km² in Yingjiang, where a nature reserve has been set up. The populations in Viet Nam, restricted to northern evergreen or monsoon forests, have been reduced to at least half their original size.
32400		habitat	eng	A large timber tree which is widespread in moist evergreen, sometimes semi-deciduous, montane forest.
32401		distribution	eng	Center and south-west of China. The more widespread of the two species in the genus.
32401		habitat	eng	It occurs in small stands scattered in mountainous moist forest areas.
32401		threats	eng	Mature trees are said to be becoming scarcer because of cutting.
32402		habitat	eng	It has a wide altitudinal range within moist seasonal forest, sometimes bamboo forest.
32402		population	eng	Although the species has a wide distribution, subpopulations are small and declining.
32404		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the central mountain range.  The only other member of the genus is confined to Japan.
32404		habitat	eng	Occurring in broadleaved forest up to 2,800 m.
32404		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has been extensive but most intense at lower elevations.
32405		distribution	eng	The southernmost member of the genus. The few populations known are confined to Hainan Island.
32405		habitat	eng	Occur in seasonal rainforest between 400 and 900 m.
32405		threats	eng	Extensive declines in the habitat because of logging and agricultural expansion have caused populations to decline throughout the species range.
32406		conservation	eng	The two trees are protected and attempts to propagate the species are under way.
32406		distribution	eng	South-east slopes of Mt Hengshan.
32406		habitat	eng	Lower limit of mixed forest.
32406		population	eng	The species is reduced to two surviving individuals.
32407		distribution	eng	In China the species is known only from the mountain ranges of the south and west of Hainan Island. In Viet Nam it is recorded from Quanh Ninh Province.
32407		habitat	eng	Rainforest (China) and lowland evergreen monsoon forest (Viet Nam).
32407		threats	eng	Although parts of the range are designated nature reserves, the habitat is generally subject to logging and clearance.
32408		distribution	eng	A tree with a scattered occurrence in south-east China.
32408		habitat	eng	It is found in remaining areas of mid-elevation broadleaved forest on slopes and valleys.
32408		threats	eng	Throughout its range the species has been exposed to severe rates of habitat clearance and logging.
32409		distribution	eng	Confined to south-west and west Yunnan.
32409		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of monsoon forest between 1,800 and 2,150 m.
32409		threats	eng	The extensive loss of habitat caused by logging and conversion to agriculture has incurred losses in population numbers and brought the species into serious risk of extinction.
32410		distribution	eng	South of Hainan Island.
32410		habitat	eng	A species restricted to small areas of remaining forest below 500 m. It is a common component of this habitat type and sometimes occurs in pure stands.
32410		population	eng	Regeneration is good.
32410		threats	eng	The rates of decline of the habitat have been considerable and the species has disappeared from parts of its range.
32411		conservation	eng	Protected populations exist in Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve.
32411		distribution	eng	Restricted to Jinghong, Mengla and Gengma Counties in Yunnan.
32411		habitat	eng	The variety is a scattered component of the upper canopy in monsoon or subtropical rainforest.
32411		population	eng	Remaining stands of this large tree are small.
32411		threats	eng	Large trees are increasingly scarce and continue to be cut for the timber. Regeneration, too, is insufficient.
32412		conservation	eng	Most of the range is contained within nature reserves.
32412		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Yunnan, occurring in Mengling, Xishuangbanna and Gengma.
32412		habitat	eng	The species is scattered sparsely in lowland monsoon forest.
32412		threats	eng	Overcollection of the seeds, which provide a commercial oil, and of the timber have caused declines in population numbers, particularly in the number of fertile female trees.
32413		distribution	eng	The Chinese subpopulation is largely found on Hainan Island.
32413		habitat	eng	A tree of monsoon forest occurring at low elevation in mountainous regions.
32413		threats	eng	In Hainan levels of deforestation at this altitude have been very high. In Viet Nam there has also been extensive declines in the habitat and the species is reported to be regenerating poorly.
32414		distribution	eng	Widely scattered in China
32414		habitat	eng	A small to medium-sized tree occurring in lowland monsoon forest,
32414		threats	eng	This species has suffered extensive habitat loss.  One of the major subpopulations is found on Hainan Island, which has experienced large-scale habitat destruction over the last 30 years.
32417		distribution	eng	South and south-west Yunnan and north Thailand.
32417		habitat	eng	A species found at forest edges and along roadsides between 800 to 1,500 m.
32417		population	eng	In Yunnan, subpopulations are scattered and very small.
32417		threats	eng	It appears to be naturally rare but loss of habitat and cutting for fuelwood has contributed significantly to the present scarcity.
32418		distribution	eng	Its range is concentrated in the border region of Guangxi, Yunnan and Viet Nam. Additional subpopulations exist in the south-west of Yunnan.
32418		habitat	eng	Ranging in stature from a small shrub to a tree of 15 m, this fast-growing species is a prominent component of monsoon forest on limestone hills between 700 and 1,000 m.
32418		threats	eng	Continuous declines and degradation of the habitat have caused the species to disappear from large parts of its range.
32419		distribution	eng	A species with a scattered distribution in a few mountain locations.
32419		habitat	eng	It occurs in deciduous or mixed forest in mountain valleys between 800 and 1,100 m.
32419		threats	eng	There have been reports of population declines caused by large-scale logging and habitat degradation.
32420		conservation	eng	The most substantial remaining subpopulations are confined to nature reserves.
32420		distribution	eng	Endemic to south and south-west Yunnan.
32420		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense monsoon forest in mountain valleys below 800 m.
32420		threats	eng	It is relatively uncommon and large trees have been cut for their valuable timber.
32421		distribution	eng	Counties of Menghai, Jinghong and Mengla.
32421		habitat	eng	A variety restricted to areas of monsoon forest between 800 and 1,500 m.
32421		threats	eng	The timber and oil, which goes to make perfume, are commercially valuable but population numbers are very low for large-scale exploitation. The loss and degradation of the habitat now appear to be the more serious threat.
32422		distribution	eng	Hainan Island and in Quang Ninh Province in Viet Nam where it is found in forest below 1,000 to 1,200 m.
32422		habitat	eng	A canopy tree of rainforest on the upper part of mountain slopes usually above 600 m.
32422		threats	eng	It provides a useful timber and overexploitation of both the tree and its habitat has caused considerable population declines.
32423		distribution	eng	A species known from small scattered stands, occurring in a restricted area just south of the mouth of the Yangtze River.
32423		habitat	eng	Hilly lowland mixed forest.
32423		population	eng	The species is found nowhere in large numbers.
32423		threats	eng	Collection of flower buds for medicinal purposes is believed to be affecting the regeneration of the plant.
32424		distribution	eng	A tree known from a restricted area in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River.
32424		habitat	eng	Occurs in thickets and open forest up to 1,700 m.
32424		threats	eng	Collection of the flower buds for medicinal use and general forest clearance are believed to be having detrimental effects throughout the species range.
32425		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Yunnan to north-east Myanmar, Thailand and north Laos.
32425		habitat	eng	The species is found in dry monsoon forest on limestone at low to medium elevations.
32425		threats	eng	The extensive clearing and destruction of the forest in China has resulted in subpopulations there becoming scarce and threatened.
32426		distribution	eng	Found within a small area encompassing western Yunnan, Mêdog County in Tibet and north-east Myanmar.
32426		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree, occurring between 2,100 and 3,000 m.
32426		threats	eng	Overexploitation and detrimental harvesting of the bark are believed to have caused considerable population declines.
32427		conservation	eng	The area is a provincial reserve but no specific protection is given to these trees.
32427		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality on the north slopes of Baohua Mt.
32427		habitat	eng	Mixed forest at an altitude of 220 m.
32427		population	eng	Apparently only a single population exists containing 18 individuals.
32427		threats	eng	No natural regeneration has been observed.
32428		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-west Guangxi to south-east Yunnan.
32428		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forested valleys on limestone mountains between 800 and 1,500 m.
32428		threats	eng	The habitat has been extensively cleared and degraded, and population declines have been reported as a result.
32429		distribution	eng	Found on Mt Caoguo, where the species occurs with <em>M. sinica</em>, Mt Laojun in south-east Yunnan and in Jingxi and Napo Counties in Guangxi.
32429		habitat	eng	They are restricted to broadleaved evergreen forest between altitudes of 450 and 1,500 m.
32429		population	eng	The remaining populations are believed to be small.
32429		threats	eng	The forests are unprotected and heavily exploited for firewood and timber. This species provides a construction timber given particular preference by local inhabitants.
32430		distribution	eng	A species recorded from four small localities in Mengla, in  Xishuangbanna. The species is extinct from two of these localities and approximately 20 trees have been recorded in remaining subpopulations. They appear to be unhealthy and rarely set seed.
32430		habitat	eng	Occurs in low-elevation humid monsoon forest.
32431		conservation	eng	The area is now under protection.
32431		distribution	eng	Restricted to Jinghong County in the region of Xishuangbanna.
32431		habitat	eng	It occurs infrequently as a component of the upper canopy of monsoon forest between 540 and 850 m.
32431		population	eng	Known from a small population.
32431		threats	eng	Logging has contributed significantly to the decline in the extent of the species' range.
32432		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this species is in low-elevation broadleaved forest.
32432		population	eng	Subpopulations are wide-ranging, but large individuals are reduced to areas around temples and houses.
32432		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to agriculture and overexploitation of the species for its timber are the main causes of population declines.
32433		distribution	eng	Only recorded in Dialuo Mt Forest Region on Hainan Island and Yangchun County in Guangdong.
32433		habitat	eng	It was known to be restricted to montane rainforest.
32433		population	eng	Despite extensive searches the species has not been found again in the two localities where it has been recorded.
32433		threats	eng	Exposed to various threats of cutting and encroaching agriculture.
32434		distribution	eng	Known only from a location on the seashore in Foluo, Ledong County, south-west Hainan.
32434		habitat	eng	Thorny scrub.
32434		population	eng	The species is now presumed to be extinct from its only known location. It was last seen in 1935.
32436		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities in Mengla County.
32436		habitat	eng	An evergreen tree which occurs in dense monsoon forest between 600 and 850 m.
32436		population	eng	The population has been reduced to a few hundred plants, including a few individuals within a nature reserve.
32437		conservation	eng	Plantations have been established.
32437		habitat	eng	A valuable timber, widely occurring as single trees or in groves in evergreen forest.
32437		threats	eng	Larger trees have become rare in places where there has been exploitation. The species' preference for fertile lowlands has also brought it into competition with the expansion of agriculture.
32438		distribution	eng	Localised distribution.
32438		habitat	eng	A large evergreen tree in areas of evergreen broadleaved forest, where it frequently occurs as a dominant component.
32438		threats	eng	The species has been overexploited for its timber in most of its range and the habitat has deteriorated in many places.
32439		conservation	eng	Some areas of forest are protected.
32439		distribution	eng	In Yunnan the species is known mainly from subpopulations in the south and west. It is only recorded from Meitus in south-east Tibet (Xizang).
32439		habitat	eng	Monsoon forest.
32439		threats	eng	During the last 10 years subpopulations have been declining because of overcutting. The timber is excellent for building construction and furniture.
32440		habitat	eng	Large individuals are left around temples, parks and villages.
32440		population	eng	Subpopulations have been reduced in extent and are now mainly confined to semi-natural forest.
32442		distribution	eng	Widely distributed but confined to south and south-west Yunnan.
32442		habitat	eng	The species is found in sunny open forest between 500 and 1,500 m.
32442		threats	eng	The main cause of population reductions has been overexploitation of the timber, and possibly also of the bark for medicinal use. Regeneration is reported to be poor and few young trees can be found.
32443		distribution	eng	Confined to Babianjiang in Yunnan.
32443		habitat	eng	The species grows in forested valleys on limestone between 1,400 and 1,500 m.
32443		population	eng	There are very few adult individuals left, although the trees which have been cut are resprouting.
32443		threats	eng	The area is not protected and is susceptible to cutting and disturbance.
32444		conservation	eng	The population is contained within Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve and should be protected.
32444		distribution	eng	A species confined to a single locality in Menglun, Mengla County.
32444		habitat	eng	Monsoon forest on limestone hills.
32444		threats	eng	Illegal cutting is known to take place.
32445		distribution	eng	A Yunnan endemic known only from two locations, Yiwa in Mengla County and Youluo Mt. in Jianghong County. The populations are relatively inaccessible.
32445		habitat	eng	Limestone cliffs and summit ridges.
32445		threats	eng	There are few mature individuals and regeneration is poor.
32446		habitat	eng	Found through a range of altitudes and in various forest types.
32446		population	eng	Relatively widespread, it is, however, not common and believed to be becoming scarcer.
32446		threats	eng	Habitat declines and degradation.
32447		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to a few localities on Shiwanshan.
32447		habitat	eng	It is a scarce component of the understorey in monsoon forest.
32447		threats	eng	Recent searches into some of the original locations have found the forest cleared and the population destroyed.
32448		distribution	eng	Known only from Diancang Mt in Yunnan and in Muli in Sichuan.
32448		habitat	eng	The species occurs as a shrub or small tree in remaining areas of forest above 3,000 m.
32448		threats	eng	Overcutting and loss of the habitat are causing population declines.
32449		conservation	eng	Some of the sites are designated nature reserves but the effectiveness of their protection should be monitored.
32449		distribution	eng	North-west Yunnan and Muli in south-west Sichuan.
32449		habitat	eng	A species of subalpine coniferous forest, occurring between 2,800 and 3,900 m.
32449		threats	eng	Trees, especially the larger individuals, have been heavily cut for fuelwood in places.
32450		conservation	eng	The area is designated a nature reserve but, at present, the management measures are not thought to be sufficient to ensure the species' protection.
32450		distribution	eng	An endemic of Diancang Mt in Dali, Yunnan.
32450		habitat	eng	It occurs in subalpine coniferous forest between 3,500 and 3,900 m, where it frequently appears crooked and contorted from the effects of strong winds and heavy snow.
32451		conservation	eng	A subpopulation is protected in Mt. Wuliang Nature Reserve.
32451		distribution	eng	A relatively widely occurring species in the wild and a famous ornamental in cultivation.
32451		habitat	eng	Subalpine evergreen forest.
32451		population	eng	The status of the subpopulation in China is believed to be endangered because of its restriction to small areas of subalpine evergreen forest.
32451		threats	eng	Fires and cutting have caused population declines in the past 10 years.
32452		conservation	eng	Populations on Mt. Wolong are undisturbed as this is one of the sites where the giant panda occurs.
32452		distribution	eng	Confined to scattered localities in western Sichuan.
32452		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane broadleaved evergreen forest in valleys by streams.
32452		threats	eng	Individuals are apparently becoming scarcer in places because of the destruction of the habitat.
32453		distribution	eng	The species' distribution is relatively widespread in southern China, extending into Lang Son and Son La Provinces in Viet Nam.
32453		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland forests and open woodland by streamsides.
32453		threats	eng	It is becoming scarcer because of overexploitation, habitat destruction and clearance for agriculture.
32454		conservation	eng	Some of the areas are designated nature reserves.
32454		distribution	eng	A species occurring in small localised colonies on Huangshan and Qingliang Mt. in southern Anhui, Lin'an and Longquan Counties in Zhejiang and Chong'an County in Fujian.
32454		habitat	eng	Margins or gaps of montane forest.
32454		threats	eng	The degree of protection given to populations is largely unknown and the habitat continues to be cleared in places.
32455		distribution	eng	A widely occurring species sparsely distributed in the Yangtze River basin.
32455		habitat	eng	In moist forest, usually at streamsides, on mountain slopes between 400 and 1,600 m.
32455		threats	eng	There is a long interval between fruiting seasons, which leads to naturally poor regeneration. Extensive disturbance, clearance and logging of the habitat have caused population declines over most of the species' range.
32457		distribution	eng	North-west Yunnan and south-west Sichuan.
32457		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in areas of mixed montane forest.
32457		threats	eng	Although the timber is not highly sought-after, the habitat of this species is subject to clear-felling throughout much of its range.
32458		distribution	eng	Confined to a few localities in Anhui and Jiangsu.
32458		habitat	eng	Deciduous broadleaved forest on limestone hills.
32458		population	eng	The total population is small.
32458		threats	eng	Regeneration and the state of immature individuals have been noted to be poor. There is no effective protection in any part of the species' range.
32459		distribution	eng	Only recently described as a separate species, the tree is scattered in south-west Zhejiang, north-east Jiangxi and central Fujian.
32459		habitat	eng	Open forest up to 900 m.
32459		threats	eng	There is a notable lack of mature seed-bearing trees and a constant threat of cutting and habitat clearance.
32460		distribution	eng	Covering about 10 ha in the Langya Hills.
32460		habitat	eng	This species is confined to deciduous forest.
32460		population	eng	The number of mature trees is estimated to be 30, most of which are senescing. There is some regeneration.
32461		habitat	eng	A widespread tree which is found in various habitat types, often on dry ridges.
32461		threats	eng	The subpopulation in China has been drastically reduced by logging and forest conversion. The tree is felled for its strong, durable resak timber.
32462		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are widespread throughout southern China and in several of the northern provinces of Viet Nam. It is the only member of the genus.
32462		habitat	eng	A large tree concentrated in limestone areas at low elevation.
32462		threats	eng	In China constant overcutting of the tree and its habitat has resulted in the species becoming scarce. The species is apparently not specifically exploited in Viet Nam but is uncommon.
32463		distribution	eng	A relict species occurring only in inaccessible areas on Fanjing Mountain.
32463		habitat	eng	It grows on northern slopes at an elevation of 2,100-2,300 m, forming pure or mixed stands.
32463		population	eng	There are unlikely to be more than 250 mature trees.
32463		threats	eng	The populations are not obviously threatened.
32465		conservation	eng	The subpopulation on Ganshi Mt. is contained within a designated nature reserve.
32465		distribution	eng	Only recently discovered in Yaxian County of Hainan Province. The species presents several primitive features which are of phylogenetic interest.
32465		habitat	eng	A small tree of monsoon forest.
32465		population	eng	The degree of habitat disturbance suggests that most of the trees are secondary growth. The species has a good regenerative capacity in its natural habitat.
32466		distribution	eng	A relatively recently discovered species, endemic to Yunnan, within a highly restricted area along the Nansa and Jingpiao River Valleys in Mengla County.
32466		habitat	eng	It occurs as a dominant component of the canopy in monsoon forest.
32466		threats	eng	The population is unprotected and susceptible to habitat clearance.
32467		distribution	eng	Its distribution in China is restricted to a small area of south-east Yunnan and south-west Guangxi. In Viet Nam populations are found in a number of northern provinces. It is the only species in the genus.
32467		habitat	eng	A species which occurs sparsely in the lower storey of primary or slightly disturbed forest.
32467		threats	eng	Indiscriminate cutting and degradation of the habitat has caused declines in the mature population.
32468		distribution	eng	An important timber tree with a distribution restricted to the mountains of southern Hainan Island and on Bu Kep Mt in northern Viet Nam.
32468		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
32468		threats	eng	It is a slow-growing tree which produces high-quality wood, susceptible to overexploitation.
32469		distribution	eng	A species known only in Tianquan, Lushan and Wenchuan Counties in Sichuan.
32469		habitat	eng	Occurring on the edges of forest and in scrub.
32469		threats	eng	The habitat has been cleared in places and the trees may be detrimentally affected by frequent  bark-stripping. The bark contains a medicinal extract often used as a substitute for that of <em>M. officinalis</em>.
32470		distribution	eng	Known from occurrences in Menla, Menhai and Jinghong in south Yunnan and Hainan Island in China, and from populations in the northern half of Viet Nam.
32470		habitat	eng	A large evergreen tree of lowland tropical monsoon forest and rainforest.
32470		threats	eng	The levels of exploitation both of the tree as a timber and of the habitat in general have caused population declines throughout the species range.
32471		distribution	eng	A species with a highly restricted range in Yaxian County on Hainan Island.
32471		habitat	eng	Confined to woodland below 200 m.
32471		population	eng	Scattered singly or in small stands.
32471		threats	eng	Individuals have become scarcer because of cutting and habitat clearance. Remaining stands do not appear to be protected in any way.
32472		distribution	eng	Only five specimens are known to exist in Wenchang County, Hainan.
32472		habitat	eng	Confined to mangrove forest. The species is adapted to immersion in salty water and periodic drought.
32472		threats	eng	The seeds produced are minute and, although numerous, signs of regeneration are lacking.
32473		conservation	eng	The Tienping Mt. location is designated a nature reserve
32473		distribution	eng	A relatively newly discovered species, known only from populations on Huping Mt and Tienping Mt.
32473		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest areas between 400 and 800 m.
32473		threats	eng	The habitat in both areas is susceptible to disturbance.
32474		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree known from two locations, Long'an and Daxin.
32474		habitat	eng	Occurring in evergreen broadleaved forest at the base of  limestone mountains, between 190 and 230 m.
32474		threats	eng	There are constant threats of cutting and habitat clearance.
32475		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area of dense forest in Qiongzhong and Baoting counties on Hainan Island.
32475		habitat	eng	Dense forest.
32475		threats	eng	The species is exposed to the same levels of harvesting as A. hainanensis.
32476		distribution	eng	Found in areas within Mengla, Maguan and Hekou in Yunnan, parts of south-west Guangxi and the northern provinces of Viet Nam. In China only a few large trees are left, the Yunnan subpopulation being restricted to an area of 20 km². In Viet Nam the species is sometimes found in pure stands.
32476		habitat	eng	An emergent tree, reaching heights of 80 m, in primary forest areas.
32476		threats	eng	Insect attacks, resulting in premature fruit-fall, are frequent. Subpopulations have been overexploited for their timber in both countries.
32477		conservation	eng	The population in Viet Nam is confined to Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve.
32477		distribution	eng	The population in Viet Nam is confined to Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve and is considered to be in a critical state.
32477		habitat	eng	Confined to moist deciduous forest on limestone hills.
32477		population	eng	Remaining populations are small and threatened.
32477		threats	eng	The forest habitat is being extensively cleared.
32478		distribution	eng	A few locations are known.
32478		habitat	eng	The species dominates in mid-elevation coniferous forest on the flanks of gorges and arid valleys.
32478		threats	eng	Constant overcutting has eliminated the species in accessible sites and it is being replaced by thickets of other species.
32479		habitat	eng	In canyons or on moist north-facing scree slopes.
32479		population	eng	A species known from about 25 sites, containing a few to several hundred trees.
32479		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor and inadequate. A continued decline in the population, especially of seeding trees, is expected.
32480		distribution	eng	It is observed to be relatively abundant in Veracruz but in Jalisco it occurs only in state forest outside Tapalpa.
32480		habitat	eng	A dioecious species, which grows along watercourses and streams in mountain areas, between 1,500 and 2,400 m.
32480		threats	eng	Throughout the range it is suffering from habitat loss.
32482		distribution	eng	Endemic to Jodensavanna.
32482		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of rainforest or savannah forest.
32482		population	eng	The species is rare.
32483		distribution	eng	Endemic, known only from Tafelberg, where it is found near the Table Mts.
32483		habitat	eng	Creek forest.
32483		population	eng	A rare species.
32484		distribution	eng	The species was described in 1925, based upon incomplete material from a single tree. It is possibly a hybrid of <em>A. glabra</em> and <em>A. petonmo</em>.
32488		conservation	eng	The species occurs on the official list of threatened Brazilian trees compiled by IBAMA.
32488		distribution	eng	In Brazil, the species has a restricted range within flooded forest along the Rio Negro.  In Suriname the species is very rare and has only been collected from the Marowijne River.
32488		habitat	eng	A locally important species which is widely-ranging within areas of lowland rainforest.
32488		threats	eng	Riverside communities harvest the species for fuelwood at uncontrolled levels.
32490		population	eng	Less than 10 trees have been seen during the last 15 years in the escarpment area south of Mait. Two individuals were seen in January 1997 south-west of Qandala some 280 km to the east. More individuals are likely to exist in both areas.
32490		threats	eng	The habitat and the wood from this tree are used for multiple purposes and remain unprotected.
32491		distribution	eng	Réunion and Mauritius.
32491		habitat	eng	A small tree distributed in areas of bush and forest from the coast to 1,200 m.
32491		population	eng	It is very rare on Réunion but found in greater numbers on Mauritius, where it still survives in small area of relatively undisturbed dry land forest.
32493		distribution	eng	It has been collected only seldom from localities in the Anamalai Hills, the Nilgiris and Wayanad area.
32493		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane forest.
32494		distribution	eng	A species known from a single locality in the central mountain range of Irian Jaya.
32495		conservation	eng	About 1,000 km² of forest remain protected within sanctuaries.
32495		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from a few localities in the Agastyamalai Hills.
32495		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
32495		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
32496		distribution	eng	It is narrowly distributed in the southern end of the Western Ghats, occurring in Chimunji and  Muthukuzhivayal and nearby areas.
32496		habitat	eng	A large tree of submontane evergreen forest.
32496		threats	eng	Forest has been extensively cleared for a hydroelectric project.
32497		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
32497		distribution	eng	A forest tree endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills in southern India. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now contained within <em>Syzygium</em>.
32497		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
32498		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, recorded only once, from an unspecified location in the Nilgiri Hills.
32499		distribution	eng	A valuable timber tree, now restricted to small remnant populations.
32499		habitat	eng	Mixed or broadleaf montane forests.
32499		threats	eng	Overexploitation and the subsequent degradation and changes in the forest vegetation have caused the decline.
32500		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread within its range, stretching from Comitán in Mexico to north Guatemala.
32500		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocky hills in dry forests.
32500		threats	eng	The species has suffered population losses from deforestation.
32501		conservation	eng	Trees are legally protected but the law is not well respected.
32501		distribution	eng	Less than a third of the original 700 km² extent of occurrence remains.
32501		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree or prostrate shrub, occurring in forest above 3,000 m.
32501		threats	eng	The wood is heavily exploited for local construction work and fuel, and the scarcity of the tree has now led to municipal boundary disputes.  In the rainy season grazing by sheep is heavy.
32502		habitat	eng	A species of the wet Atlantic lowlands.
32503		conservation	eng	Attempts at propagation have been successful and young specimens have been planted in the wild.
32503		distribution	eng	Mainly occurs on Plaine Corail.
32503		habitat	eng	On calcarenite and basalt.
32503		population	eng	Less than 50 individuals exist in the wild as isolated specimens.
32504		distribution	eng	Found in at least 26 sub-Saharan countries.
32504		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of woodland habitats.
32504		population	eng	As a species there is no imminent threat of extinction.
32504		threats	eng	Its timber, mpingo, is widely used in the wood carving industry and in musical instrument manufacture. Levels of exploitation are very high and larger or suitably exploitable individuals are becoming increasingly scarce. There is cause for concern over genetic erosion in many populations.
32505		distribution	eng	Kerala, just extending into South Kanara in Karnataka.
32505		habitat	eng	A large tree found in lowland moist dense forest.
32505		population	eng	Collected from widely scattered locations in the 19th century, the species had not been collected for almost a century and was suspected of being extinct until recently. Remaining subpopulations appear to be extremely rare and restricted. Further detailed information may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate. The seeds have been mistaken for nutmeg.
32506		habitat	eng	A large tree found in semi-evergreen and evergreen forests.
32507		distribution	eng	In Mexico, subpopulations are restricted to the Gulf Region, occurring commonly in remaining rainforest in the Lacandon region, and the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region.
32507		habitat	eng	A timber tree and dominant component of lowland seasonal rainforest.
32507		threats	eng	Rates of deforestation have been very high in all parts of the range.
32508		distribution	eng	Further investigation may show that the species is more seriously threatened.
32508		habitat	eng	A moist forest species.
32508		threats	eng	Has been subject to the general forest declines in the area.
32509		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections, the species occurs in Cauca in coastal Colombia and in Los Ríos in coastal Ecuador.
32510		distribution	eng	Occurring on the Pacific coast, the species has been collected twice in Valle in Colombia and Esmeraldas in Ecuador.
32510		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded forest.
32511		distribution	eng	There is no recent information on the status of the populations in either El Salvador or Guatemala.
32511		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
32511		population	eng	The species is evidently very scarce.
32511		threats	eng	Under some threat from logging, agriculture, fires and forest management activities.
32512		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
32512		habitat	eng	Occurring in remnant dry forests and woodlands on flat ground, including disturbed or secondary forest.
32512		threats	eng	The species is scarce, individuals often show signs of genetic degradation and regeneration is largely absent. The timber is attractive and has been heavily exploited in Costa Rica but there is no evidence of it being present in international trade.
32513		conservation	eng	Attempts at cultivation have been unsuccessful.
32513		distribution	eng	Both known sites are on private land.
32513		habitat	eng	Moist limestone forest.
32513		population	eng	Only two subpopulations, accounting for ten individuals in total, are known in the west. No evidence of flowering or fruiting is apparent.
32514		distribution	eng	The 40 km² of montane forest on Dominica has largely escaped deforestation.
32514		habitat	eng	A small tree up to 4 m tall, confined to montane rainforest between 700 and 800 m.
32515		distribution	eng	This Caribbean forest tree ranges from Dominica (and possibly Martinique) to western Dominican Republic.
32515		population	eng	The forest in most of these areas has been heavily exploited. The species was noted in 1896 as becoming rare as a result of excessive exploitation and in the last 70 years it has only been collected in Puerto Rico.
32515		threats	eng	Timber exploitation.
32516		distribution	eng	Known from only three localities. Subpopulations occur on Morne Anglais in Dominica, on Mt Pelée in Martinique and Guanacaste in Rincón de la Vieja National Park in Costa Rica.
32516		habitat	eng	Montane forests near volcanic summits.
32516		threats	eng	Although it has been expected to become extinct at more than one of its localities after volcanic eruptions, it continues to recover.
32517		distribution	eng	Known from a locality near Constanza, Valle del Jaque.
32517		threats	eng	The increasing settlement of the area has reduced populations of this species to less accessible or attractive areas.
32518		conservation	eng	It is planted all over the Mediterranean.
32518		distribution	eng	The species is sometimes referred to in different varieties. Only var. <em>horizontalis</em> is believed to originate from the wild and therefore is the only taxon considered in this context. The type specimen was collected from Crete. Populations which are questionably wild are also known from southern Turkey and northern Iran, where it is very vulnerable.
32519		conservation	eng	Small quantities of timber from plantations are occasionally available on the international market. The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>. The listing designates saw-logs, sawn wood and veneer sheets.
32519		distribution	eng	The Caribbean mahogany is found on the Caribbean islands and also in south Florida. Its natural distribution is hard to ascertain as it has been widely cultivated. It was the first mahogany to appear in the European market five centuries ago.
32519		habitat	eng	Found in dry or moist forest, often on limestone.
32519		threats	eng	Natural stands are extensively exhausted and the species exhibits high levels of genetic erosion. Remaining individuals are usually weedy trees or bushes.
32520		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32520		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland evergreen rainforest.
32521		distribution	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in four rainforest localities including the Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area.
32522		conservation	eng	It is present in the Peak Wilderness Wildlife Sanctuary.
32522		distribution	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this tree was found in five localities, mainly in Nuwara Eliya District.
32523		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32523		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland evergreen rainforest.
32524		distribution	eng	Confined to south-west Sri Lanka.
32524		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen lowland forest.
32524		population	eng	A rare tree.
32525		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to wet forest in Galle, Kalutara and Ratnapura Districts, this species was found in nine localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
32526		distribution	eng	This species is scattered in south-west Sri Lanka.
32526		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen lowland forest.
32527		distribution	eng	Restricted to the wet zone of Sri Lanka.
32527		population	eng	A very rare species. Until the National Conservation Review forest surveys of 1991–1996, this species went uncollected for over a century.
32528		distribution	eng	A rare species, restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
32528		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32529		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32529		habitat	eng	A species occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32530		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32530		habitat	eng	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32531		distribution	eng	Scattered in south-west Sri Lanka. It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
32531		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32531		population	eng	An extremely rare species.
32532		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32532		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32533		distribution	eng	During the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, populations were found in single localities in Ratnapura District and Anuradapura District.
32533		habitat	eng	Found in wet and dry forest.
32533		population	eng	A rare species.
32534		distribution	eng	This species turned up in 13 forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32534		population	eng	Until recently this endemic tree had gone uncollected for over a century.
32535		distribution	eng	A rare species restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
32535		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32536		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in only four forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32537		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was discovered in only six forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32537		habitat	eng	A tree confined to  lowland wet evergreen forest.
32538		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in 13 forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review
32539		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32539		habitat	eng	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32540		distribution	eng	It was found in only two sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32540		habitat	eng	This small tree is sparsely distributed in remaining patches of highland wet evergreen forest.
32541		distribution	eng	The species as a whole was found in only five forest sites during the extensive surveys carried out for the National Conservation Review.
32542		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. The species as a whole was found in only seven of the forest sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
32542		habitat	eng	This subspecies is restricted to lowland rainforest.
32543		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32543		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32544		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32544		habitat	eng	A variety occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32545		distribution	eng	The species was found in only two forest sites in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review. The sites are not protected.
32546		distribution	eng	A species found twice only in the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
32547		distribution	eng	A species found only at three localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
32548		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32548		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32548		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only four individuals were found at a single locality in Ratnapura district.
32549		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32549		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.
32549		population	eng	This species was not rediscovered during the comprehensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, suggesting it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
32550		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32550		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32550		population	eng	The species was previously found in a single site within the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve. However, it was not found again the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
32551		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32551		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32552		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32552		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32553		distribution	eng	A threatened species apparently restricted to Ratnapura and Monaragala districts.
32553		population	eng	It was discovered in only five forest localities surveyed for the comprehensive National Conservation Review.
32554		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32554		habitat	eng	A rare species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32554		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species turned up in only four forest localities.
32555		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. The species was found in three of the sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review, none of which is protected.
32555		habitat	eng	This uncommon tree is confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32556		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
32556		habitat	eng	A large tree of the wet lowlands.
32556		population	eng	The species has been considered on the verge of extinction for over a decade, and as it was not found in the recent National Conservation Review forest survey it is likely to be extinct. A single tree was supposed to exist in the Peradeniya Botanical Garden. However, it has not been refound in the garden despite an intensive search.
32557		population	eng	An extremely rare lowland tree. No records were made during the recent forest surveys by the National Conservation Review, but there is a possibility that a population is located in the dry zone, which was not extensively surveyed. The only cultivated specimen, located in the Peradeniya Botanical Garden, died in 1992.
32558		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-west Sri Lanka.
32558		habitat	eng	This rare tree is scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32558		population	eng	This species was found in only four of the National Conservation Review surveyed forest sites.
32559		population	eng	Only four trees of this species were discovered in a single forest site during the recent forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32560		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in tropical wet lowland and montane forest.
32560		population	eng	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in eight localities.
32561		population	eng	Only a single individual was found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32562		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32562		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32562		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in seven localities.
32563		habitat	eng	A species apparently restricted to the wet zone.
32563		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in five forest localities.
32564		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in only six of the sites.
32565		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32565		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forests.
32566		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32566		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32566		population	eng	This species was recorded from only five forest localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996.
32567		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only two individuals were found within a single forest reserve in Ratnapura district.
32568		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32568		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32569		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32569		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32569		population	eng	It was found in only five forests in the Ratnapura and Matara districts during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32570		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to Ratnapura District.
32570		population	eng	This rare species has been found in only three localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32571		distribution	eng	It appears to be restricted to the districts of Kegalle and Kandy.
32571		population	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in only four of the localities surveyed.
32572		distribution	eng	This species was found in 17 localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32573		distribution	eng	This endemic species is restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.
32573		habitat	eng	Wet forest.
32573		population	eng	Known from four collections in total. Two collections were made last century. The two recent collections were found in forest reserves during the comprehensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32574		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32574		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32574		population	eng	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
32575		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32575		habitat	eng	A rare tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32575		population	eng	During the recent National Conservation Review, this species was found in 14 forest localities.
32576		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32576		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32577		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32577		habitat	eng	A scattered tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32578		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32578		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland rainforest.
32579		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32579		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32580		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32580		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32581		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32581		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32581		population	eng	This species was found at 10 localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
32582		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32582		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forests.
32583		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32583		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32584		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32584		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32585		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32585		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32586		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32586		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32587		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32587		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32588		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32588		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32589		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, the species was found only in three localities in Ratnapura, Matara and Kalutara Districts.
32589		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32590		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32590		habitat	eng	A common tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32591		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32591		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32592		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was found in 25 localities during the forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32592		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32593		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32593		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32594		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32594		habitat	eng	A tree confined to areas of lowland wet evergreen forest.
32594		population	eng	Only a single individual was found in Knuckles State Forest during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review between 1991 and 1996. Previous surveys recorded populations in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and Gilimale Forest Reserve.
32595		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32595		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32596		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka. In the past it has been found in Kottawa, Hinidumkanda and Kanneliya Forest Reserves and in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
32596		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32596		population	eng	The recent forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review failed to find previously known or any other populations.
32597		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32597		habitat	eng	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32597		population	eng	Although previously found at a single site in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, it was not found again during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
32598		distribution	eng	Occurring in south-west Sri Lanka.
32598		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32598		population	eng	An extremely rare tree. In the past populations were known from Kanneliya and Gilimale Forest Reserves and Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, but the species was not found in the recent forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32599		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32599		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32600		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32600		habitat	eng	A species restricted to the lowland rainforest.
32601		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32601		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
32601		population	eng	Previously the species was found at a single locality within Sinhararja Biosphere Reserve. However, it was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
32602		habitat	eng	A rare tree confined to remnants of intermediate forest and in drier gallery forest.
32602		population	eng	It has recently been found in seven forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32603		distribution	eng	Found in south-west Sri Lanka.
32603		habitat	eng	A species occurring in lowland rainforest.
32603		population	eng	In previous surveys subpopulations have been located in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve. However, the species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
32604		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32604		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32605		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32605		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32606		conservation	eng	It is a dominant component in areas of Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
32606		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32606		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32607		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32607		habitat	eng	A species occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
32608		conservation	eng	The species, if not extinct, occurs in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, a protected area.
32608		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-west Sri Lanka.
32608		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland wet evergreen forest.
32608		population	eng	The species occurred in a single plot in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve in the 1980s. However, it did not turn up during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, suggesting that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.
32609		distribution	eng	A tree confined to south-west Sri Lanka.
32609		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
32610		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32610		habitat	eng	A tree found mainly in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32610		population	eng	This rare species was discovered in nine sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
32611		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32611		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32612		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-west Sri Lanka.
32612		habitat	eng	A rare tree of lowland wet evergreen forest.
32613		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
32613		habitat	eng	A rare species restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
32613		population	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only one individual was found in a single forest reserve.
32615		distribution	eng	A rare endemic on iron-capped hills in Brownsberg.
32615		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
32615		population	eng	Rare.
32616		distribution	eng	Known only from an area along the Tapanahony River.
32616		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
32617		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, collected only twice from the Venezuelan Guyana and Suriname.
32617		habitat	eng	Areas of lowland non-flooded rainforest.
32620		distribution	eng	Type collection from forest on Tafelberg in 1944.
32620		population	eng	A tree known only from the type collection.
32621		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Andaman Islands.
32621		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collections. It is not known whether the species is now extinct.
32621		threats	eng	There have been large declines in the extent of the forest habitat because of logging.
32622		distribution	eng	A species known only from the type locality on Middle Andaman Island.
32622		habitat	eng	Semi-evergreen forest.
32622		threats	eng	There have been large declines in the extent of the habitat because of logging.
32623		distribution	eng	Known only from the Nilgiris, the Anamalai Hills and the Agastyamalai Hills.
32623		population	eng	Poorly known, this shrubby species has been collected just three times.
32624		distribution	eng	Found in Sumatra around Lake Toba following the mountains north-east, and also in the Philippines.
32624		habitat	eng	An important timber tree known from open pine woodlands.
32624		threats	eng	High levels of exploitation have resulted in populations being reduced to very low levels in the Philippines.  In Sumatra the timber continues to be extracted. The effects on the population here are yet to be confirmed but are not thought to be as severe.
32625		conservation	eng	The species is the focus of an ongoing IPGRI study of the distribution of genetic resources.
32625		distribution	eng	It is considered threatened in Viet Nam. In Thailand the pressures on the species have also caused concern.
32625		habitat	eng	A large evergreen tree of open semi-deciduous forests.
32625		threats	eng	Exploitation of the prime timber.
32626		habitat	eng	This slow-growing tree is found in seasonal lowland and evergreen dipterocarp hill forest.
32628		distribution	eng	A unique species widely scattered in small populations in high valleys in the Sierra Madre Oriental.
32628		habitat	eng	Restricted to limestone sites.
32628		population	eng	Populations are not larger than several hundred mature trees.
32628		threats	eng	Overgrazing may pose a threat. None of the populations is protected.
32629		habitat	eng	Submontane woodland or scrubland.
32629		population	eng	Trees are scattered in disjunct and small populations. The species is not under any protection anywhere but it occurs widely outside areas where woodland resources are being exploited.
32630		distribution	eng	See assessments of varieties <em>greggii</em> and <em>australis</em> for more detailed documentation.
32631		distribution	eng	Cerro Potosí and neighbouring peaks, covering an area of several hundred hectares.
32631		habitat	eng	A decumbent shrub which occurs in monotypic stands on exposed rocky summits.
32631		threats	eng	Growth and regeneration are slow and susceptible to fire. None of the populations is within a protected area. A road to an observatory gives easy access to the largest population.
32632		habitat	eng	A species occurring in areas of inundated and swamp forest.
32632		population	eng	Little information is available on the conservation status of subpopulations.
32632		threats	eng	The habitat has suffered widely from logging, tourism and an expanding human population.
32633		distribution	eng	In El Salvador, confined to Chalatenango. More information is needed on the Guatemalan subpopulation.
32633		habitat	eng	A shade-loving tree in various upland habitats from closed forest to pastureland.  The fruits are edible and both livestock and humans are believed to help in seed dispersal.
32634		conservation	eng	It is recorded in El Imposible National Park in El Salvador.
32634		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Pacific coast. More information is needed on the Guatemalan populations.
32634		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest.
32634		threats	eng	The habitat has been widely logged and also affected by tourism and industrial developments in places.
32635		distribution	eng	Described in 1982, the species is found in the Chamela Biological Station in La Huerta.
32635		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
32636		conservation	eng	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya is monitoring wild populations and storing seeds.
32636		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lolokwi, Ndotes, Mathews/Oldoinyo Lenkiyo Mts. in the north.
32636		habitat	eng	Restricted to upland riverine forest or woodland on rocky slopes.
32636		threats	eng	Seed predation may be hampering regeneration.
32637		distribution	eng	Marsabit and Mathews.
32637		habitat	eng	A variety confined to submontane forest patches, which exist as islands surrounded by semi-desert vegetation.
32637		threats	eng	The habitat is not greatly threatened at present.
32638		distribution	eng	Occurring in a small area which is densely populated and much modified by human activities.
32638		habitat	eng	A species of coastal forest or scrub.
32639		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.
32639		habitat	eng	One of the tallest trees in the genus, reaching 53 m in height, it is found scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32640		distribution	eng	Until recently, this rare species was known only from the protected Karura forest, in the Nairobi area. It has now been found in Naro Moru on Mt. Kenya, and is thought to occur in the Aberdares. Should be treated under the genus <em>Vepris</em>, but it apears that this varietal combination is not validly published under that generic name.
32640		threats	eng	The habitat has been reduced by encroaching agriculture and land settlement.
32641		distribution	eng	This species has been found only once in a site south-east of Malka Mari.
32642		distribution	eng	The species is possibly synonymous with <em>O. kenyensis</em>. It is endemic to Posta Hill, Mau.
32642		habitat	eng	Moist forest above 2,200 m.
32643		distribution	eng	Similar to <em>Tabernaemontana persicarifolia</em> but rarer.
32643		habitat	eng	The species is found in small numbers in remaining dry forest.
32644		conservation	eng	The species is represented in protected areas.
32644		habitat	eng	A fairly abundant species of primary forest up to an altitude of 1,200 m.
32644		population	eng	The species regenerates well.
32644		threats	eng	The habitat is under great pressures from logging, fires, the growing human population and agriculture.
32645		habitat	eng	A rare species of lowland forest and woodland understorey.
32645		population	eng	There is no information on the status of its populations.
32645		threats	eng	The lowland habitat has experienced extensive declines, mainly through logging and expanding agriculture.
32646		distribution	eng	Confined to Monte Cristo and Esesmiles in El Salvador.
32646		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
32646		population	eng	More information is needed on the status of populations.
32646		threats	eng	The main threat to the habitat is fire.
32647		distribution	eng	A tree of middle elevation, occurring in areas of humid forest.
32647		threats	eng	Forests are reduced in extent and continue to be extensively degraded.
32648		distribution	eng	Occurs between south-east Nicaragua and Panama.
32648		habitat	eng	This understorey species occurs in primary or disturbed lowland to submontane rainforest. It is also found in forest/pasture margins.
32648		population	eng	Well collected and apparently relatively abundant.
32650		distribution	eng	A species confined to the Uxpanapa region of Veracruz.
32650		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
32650		threats	eng	The habitat is greatly reduced through deforestation and clearance for crops, especially in the south where there are deep soils.
32651		distribution	eng	A widespread species.
32651		habitat	eng	It is slow-growing species.  In Viet Nam subpopulations are scattered throughout the country on limestone mountains.
32651		threats	eng	Rates of timber exploitation have caused such declines in population numbers that, at a national level, the species qualifies as critically endangered (CR A1cd).
32652		habitat	eng	A widespread species found in primary forest up to 2,500 m.
32653		distribution	eng	Fairly common in Bocas del Toro in Panama and more scarce in Limón in Costa Rica. It is hoped that subpopulations exist in La Amistad National Park in between these two sites and TROPICOS also records the species in Ecuador.
32653		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
32653		population	eng	Although it is suggested that the species' range is wide, the known populations are not large.
32653		threats	eng	The habitat is greatly threatened.
32654		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality, the species is found in an area of Coclé which is not well explored botanically.   It has been suggested that the species is actually a variety of <em>H. didymantha</em>, which is more widespread in Central and South America.
32654		threats	eng	The area is rapidly being colonised by an increasing number of settlers.
32655		distribution	eng	In Costa Rica the species is common in the mountains running from Valle Central to Valle de Parrita. In Panama it is reported to be fairly common in high-altitude forest in the central mountains of Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí Provinces. Further south the species continues to occur in montane forest up to the beginning of the Andes.
32655		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
32656		conservation	eng	The species is very rare outside protected areas, large parts of the Panamanian subpopulation being in Altos de Campana and Darién National Parks.
32656		distribution	eng	It occurs in the provinces of Panamá and Darién in Panama, and in Colombia from Chocó, at the end of the Cordillera de Darién, and the Valle del Cauca.
32656		habitat	eng	A rare species of moist semi-deciduous forest and cloud forest.
32657		distribution	eng	Occurs in two neighbouring areas. One, in Santa Rita, Colón, the other in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve. The Kunayala area consists of a very small subpopulation. There is a considerable area of relatively unexplored forest and other subpopulations possibly exist.
32657		habitat	eng	A species of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.
32657		threats	eng	The Colón area has experienced an influx of people in recent years, which has resulted in almost complete loss of the forest.
32658		population	eng	The species has been collected only once, in 1975, although a second collection found almost 90 km away was once thought to be the same species. The type locality has not been revisited and it is not known whether the species still exists. If it does, it should be considered to be seriously threatened.
32659		distribution	eng	A few collections are known from Coclé and some more doubtful ones from Darién. In Costa Rica the species is fairly common in the south-east and there are small subpopulations in La Selva and Limón. Recently the species has been recorded in Valle del Cauca, Colombia.
32659		threats	eng	In Panama, a large number of the original species' localities have been converted into fields, especially banana plantations, ranches and farms.
32660		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species apparently extends the length of Central America from the border with Colombia to Mexico.
32660		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland rainforest.
32660		population	eng	The species is generally scarce outside protected areas.
32660		threats	eng	Logging, encroaching agriculture and settlements have caused the habitat to decline.
32661		distribution	eng	First described from a collection from Coclé in Panama, the species has since been reported from Costa Rica, south Mexico, Colombia and probably elsewhere.
32661		habitat	eng	It occurs as a tree or liana in rainforest up to 1,200 m.
32661		population	eng	An uncommon species.
32662		distribution	eng	At one time the species was divided into the Panamanian form, var. <em>caudata</em>, known only from the type collection from the province of Panamá in 1911, and the Costa Rican form, var. <em>diadema</em>, with a fairly common occurrence in San José and Puntarenas.
32662		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
32662		population	eng	There have been no further collections of the species in Panama, despite the area round the type locality being relatively well known.
32663		conservation	eng	There are occurrences within protected areas.
32663		distribution	eng	This species has been collected throughout Panama.
32663		habitat	eng	Only in areas of undisturbed forest of low to medium elevation.
32663		population	eng	A scarce species.
32663		threats	eng	Outside protected areas the habitat is under severe pressures. A site on the El Llano-Cartí highway to the north-east of Panamá city is under threat of deforestation.
32664		conservation	eng	Small subpopulations are protected in Darién National Park.
32664		distribution	eng	So far only known from Colón and Darién, being a little more abundant in the latter. It is also suspected to be in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and perhaps also Colombia.
32664		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
32664		threats	eng	Occurrences outside protected areas are exposed to habitat clearance.
32665		distribution	eng	In Colombia the species is known from the Chocó and Antioquia, appearing uncommon in both places. In Panama, all of the collections are identified under the variety <em>brevisurcularis</em>, which is considered threatened. Further work is needed to consolidate whether the separation into different varieties is valid.
32666		conservation	eng	Range includes Darién National Park.
32666		distribution	eng	Endemic to Panama, this variety is known from a few collections gathered in the province of Darién, and from a very sparse distribution in the coastal zone of Colón Province
32666		threats	eng	It is under particular threat from human activities, especially in the coastal zone of Colón Province.
32667		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections from the Cerro Tute in Verguas, the species appears to be confined to an area which is not botanically well studied.
32668		conservation	eng	The population in Chagres National Park is well protected.
32668		distribution	eng	The species is known only from populations in the proximity of the Cerro Azul to the north-east of the city of Panamá.
32668		habitat	eng	It occurs sparsely in semi-deciduous rainforest between 600 and 900 m.
32669		conservation	eng	There is thought to be an occurrence in La Amistad National Park between Panama and Costa Rica. Subpopulations appear to be larger in protected areas, most notably in Corcovado National Park.
32669		distribution	eng	In Panama is known from only a few localities on the Atlantic slopes in the provinces of Colón and Bocas del Toro. The species extends north on both Atlantic and Pacific sides up to the border with Nicaragua.
32669		habitat	eng	A scarce rainforest species.
32669		threats	eng	The species is in danger of being lost from the Colón localities because the forest has rapidly disappeared in recent years.
32670		conservation	eng	Protected within Darién National Park.
32670		distribution	eng	Found in the Serranía de Pirre, close to the Colombian border. It is possible that the species range extends into Colombia.
32670		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is known only from evergreen rainforest, often on slopes.
32670		population	eng	Regeneration appears to be good.
32671		distribution	eng	A widely distributed species in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala, also reported from Mexico, and in small populations in the provinces of Bocas del Toro, Panamá and the Canal zone in Panama.
32671		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland semi-deciduous forest.
32671		threats	eng	The species is found in areas which are experiencing high rates of settlement and human population growth.
32672		distribution	eng	Only a few records of this species are known, all from the same region from Cerro Jefe and Cerro Azul towards the north-east of Panamá city.
32672		population	eng	The species appears to be rare and present in small numbers.
32672		threats	eng	Threatened by a growing urban population and various industrial developments.
32673		distribution	eng	The type collection originated from an area of Boquete, in Chiriquí, above 2,000 m. The taxonomic status of the species is doubtful. The only other <em>Zinowiewia</em> specimens collected in the area are of <em>Z. costaricensis</em>.
32673		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
32674		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, recorded only from the original collection from Cerro Tute in Verguas.
32674		population	eng	It is possible that a population still exists at the original collection site.
32675		distribution	eng	Known from two geographically close locations: one in Santa Rita in Colón and the other in Cerro Azul in Panamá Province.
32675		habitat	eng	A species of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.
32675		threats	eng	The subpopulation in Santa Rita is threatened by increasing encroachment of the forest. More moderate pressures affect the larger Cerro Azul population.
32676		distribution	eng	Known only from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, the species has not been collected since the type collection was made in 1966. However, <em>H. punctulata</em>, a very similar species, has been collected in the surrounding area and other parts of Panama.
32677		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection made in 1968.
32678		conservation	eng	Cerro Jefe is the only protected area in which the species occurs.
32678		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only a few times, in two provinces.
32678		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest.
32678		population	eng	It does not appear to be common, although its full distribution may not yet have been revealed.
32678		threats	eng	Outside the only protected area where the species occurs, the habitat is under threat from increasing settlement and industrial, touristic and agricultural developments.
32679		distribution	eng	Occurring in Colón and Coclé Provinces in Panama and in Heredia and Puntarenas, including a locality in Corcovado National Park, in Costa Rica. There are also specimens which are tentatively identified as this species in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
32679		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
32679		threats	eng	In most of its range, the species appears to be uncommon and under considerable pressure from increasing settlement, agriculture and development.
32680		conservation	eng	Outside protected areas the habitat is declining because of increasing settlement of the land.
32680		distribution	eng	Originally the species was known only from Cerro Jefe but it has since been recorded close by in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
32680		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
32680		population	eng	It is fairly common.
32680		threats	eng	Its range is almost completely contained within protected areas.
32681		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are protected in national parks.
32681		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout Panama from Darién, extending into Colombia, to the border with Costa Rica, possibly extending over that border as well. The only known Colombian population is restricted to a very small area.
32681		habitat	eng	Occurring in semi-deciduous rainforest above 500 m.
32681		population	eng	In places it is relatively common but never abundant.
32681		threats	eng	Outside national parks the species is under pressure from mining for copper and gold, as in Cerro Colorado, and from increasing settlement of the land in Coclé.
32682		distribution	eng	The species' description is based on a single collection gathered in 1911 from a relatively well explored area in Boquete.
32682		population	eng	It is not known whether the species is now extinct or wrongly identified.
32683		distribution	eng	The taxonomic status of the species is uncertain. In Panama, it is thought to be endemic and confined to a small and threatened subpopulation in Darién, near the Colombian border. However, the species is also listed in Brako, L. and J. Zarucchi (1993) <em>Catalogue of Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru</em> as a synonym of <em>Tovomita krukovii</em>, which is widespread in South America. This relationship has not been confirmed.
32684		distribution	eng	Almost all of the few existing collections of this species have come from an area along the highway running from Panamá Province to the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
32684		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
32684		population	eng	The species is relatively common where forest remains.
32684		threats	eng	In the last 10 years an influx of campesinos into the area has resulted in extensive deforestation.
32685		conservation	eng	There are several occurrences in protected areas.
32685		distribution	eng	All provinces of Panama. It is less common in Coclé, Panamá and Bocas del Toro.
32685		habitat	eng	One of the most common cloud forest trees, the species occurs above 800 m.
32685		threats	eng	Outside protected areas subpopulations come under pressure from increasing habitat encroachment.
32686		distribution	eng	The species is found along the continental divide of Costa Rica and Panama. Collections have been made from more than five localities in Alajuela, Cartago and Heredia in Costa Rica and in Chiriquí and Coclé in Panama.
32686		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane rainforest.
32687		distribution	eng	The species is distributed relatively widely throughout the center and east of Panama and is also reported from San José del Palmar in Colombia.
32687		population	eng	Subpopulations do not appear to be large.
32687		threats	eng	Some areas are threatened by deforestation.
32688		distribution	eng	Occurs in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and the Serranía del Darién in Panama, and in the Chocó in Colombia.
32688		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
32688		population	eng	Current information indicates that populations of this shrubby species are very scarce.
32689		conservation	eng	It is found in botanic gardens throughout the world.
32689		distribution	eng	Occur on the Atlantic coast, either side of the Panama Canal, in Colón and Panamá Provinces.
32689		habitat	eng	Wild populations of the species occur in lowland evergreen forest.
32689		population	eng	It is not a common species.
32689		threats	eng	In some places the habitat is under serious threat from logging.
32690		conservation	eng	Some occurrences coincide with protected areas.
32690		distribution	eng	Occur on the Atlantic side of Panamá and Colón Provinces.
32690		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to lowland evergreen rainforest.
32690		threats	eng	Subpopulations are small and rare within an area which is potentially highly vulnerable to logging and habitat clearance.
32691		conservation	eng	Active management of exotic species is aiding regeneration of native species.
32691		distribution	eng	They occur in forest on the east coast and in Yemen on the mainland and also on Ile aux Aigrettes.
32691		population	eng	The known subpopulations of this succulent heterophyllous tree are very small.
32693		conservation	eng	The population in Le Petrin is fenced and weeded of exotic plants.
32693		distribution	eng	Confined to plateau regions and the flanks of the northern mountain range, including Le Petrin Nature Reserve.
32693		population	eng	A small tree known from fewer than 15 adult individuals.
32693		threats	eng	The habitat is highly degraded and invaded by exotic species. Although seed production has been observed, there is no regeneration.
32694		conservation	eng	The species has been propagated and reintroduced into Mondrain Nature Reserve.
32694		distribution	eng	Occurring in Mondrain, Tamarind Falls and Piton du Fouge Ridge Forest.
32694		habitat	eng	A small solitary tree.
32694		population	eng	Regeneration is poor and the number of adult trees is estimated to be less than 20.
32694		threats	eng	These areas are heavily invaded by exotic plants and animals.
32696		conservation	eng	Further prospection need to be carried out to find plant at mount du Pouce and hence <em>ex situ</em> propagation will be done.
32696		distribution	eng	The tree has only recently been seen in one locality (Le Pouce), but was collected from another in 1983 (Deux Mamelles) although likely it is not still there. Both localities are being rapidly degraded by invasive species.
32696		population	eng	There are probably less than 50 individuals at the Pouce but this is difficult to say since it is growing in such a degraded and difficult to get to area.  However, it has certainly stopped regenerating and has declined from a much larger area.
32696		threats	eng	Habitat all cut down for sugar cane or being reduced to wasteland by invasive species.
32697		distribution	eng	Mauritius and Réeunion.
32697		population	eng	Less than 50 individuals are known on Mauritius. The species is also rare and scattered in forest on Réunion. More information may indicate Critically Endangered is a more appropriate category.
32698		conservation	eng	Independent monitoring needed. The methods of the Oxford expedition were simple, leading to not very accurate estimations. The methods used in 2004 are not known. A survey from 1994 estimated 100 individuals (Carlström 1996) and Friedmann (1991) who worked between 1980 and 1987 also estimated 100 individuals.
32698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is only known from an area of approximately 0.5 ha on Silhouette Island (Gerlach <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). It is the dominant species on Silhouette Island (Gerlach <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 100 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km².
32698		habitat	eng	Humid forest at 450-500 m altitude. The tree's  main pollinator (<span style="font-style: italic;">Epicroesa</span>  sp.) appears also to be its main seed  predator (WCMC 1998). Invasive  species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana  camara</span> are present in the area.
32698		population	eng	The population seems to be stable. The known population contains less than 250 mature individuals, dominant in one small area. A survey of 1990 by the Oxford University Expedition estimated about 190 trees (Gerlach <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). In 2004, the area was assessed and 190 individuals were recorded (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Between 1990 and 2004 only one successful sapling was recorded (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006). Although vegetative reproduction seems to be common the long-term regeneration could be affected by the lack of sexual reproduction. The reasons for this poor recruitment are not exactly known.
32698		threats	eng	The population seems to be stable. Invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span> are present in the area where this species is found. Although vegetative  reproduction seems to be common the long-term  regeneration could be  affected by the lack of sexual reproduction. The  reasons for this poor  recruitment are not exactly known.
32699		distribution	eng	A variety which is very similar to the Africa-wide type variety. Occurs only in south-west Nigeria.
32699		habitat	eng	It appears to occur in forest areas fringing forest-savannah mosaic.
32699		threats	eng	Forests in the country have been extensively logged and cleared for commercial and subsistence agriculture.
32700		distribution	eng	A forest tree, endemic to western Nigeria.
32700		threats	eng	Only a small area of forest remains and the extent of it continues to decline because of logging pressures and the demand for land for commercial crops and subsistence farming.
32701		distribution	eng	This species appears to be known only from the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.
32701		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.
32702		conservation	eng	Oban population is relatively well protected within the 3,000 km² of the southern division of the Cross River National Park.
32702		distribution	eng	Supopulations of this forest tree were known in Eket and Oban.
32702		population	eng	The Eket subpopulation is likely to have been seriously or completely destroyed by oil exploration operations.
32703		distribution	eng	A species for which there is little information. Like <em>A. eketensis</em>, it is apparently endemic to the Eket area.
32703		population	eng	Unknown.
32703		threats	eng	Oil exploration operations have extensively, if not completely, destroyed the habitat.
32704		distribution	eng	As with <em>A. dichotoma</em>, this species is poorly known and endemic to Eket in south-east Nigeria.
32704		threats	eng	The effects of oil exploration operations have caused the extensive, if not complete, destruction of the habitat.
32705		conservation	eng	This small forest tree is relatively well protected within the national park.
32705		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.
32705		threats	eng	Pressures from commercial logging and agriculture are very strong outside the park.
32706		conservation	eng	Occurring in two national parks.
32706		distribution	eng	Occurring in an area extending from south-east Nigeria into Cameroon. The largest, if not the only, remaining subpopulations to occur in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and the contiguous Korup National Park in Cameroon. This is the only member of the genus.
32706		habitat	eng	An unusual small tree, which occurs in swamp forests (where it is gregarious, M. Cheek, pers. obs.) and submontane forest near streams; 200–1,000 m alt.
32706		threats	eng	Forests outside protected areas have largely been logged and cleared for commercial crops and subsistence farming.
32707		distribution	eng	This species, along with <em>N. reptans</em>, is poorly documented and apparently confined to Eket in south-east Nigeria.
32707		population	eng	Unknown.
32707		threats	eng	Oil exploration operations in the area are causing extensive damage, to the habitat, if not it's complete destruction.
32708		distribution	eng	This species, along with <em>N. lutea</em>, is poorly documented and confined to the Eket area in south-east Nigeria.
32708		population	eng	Unknown.
32708		threats	eng	Oil exploration operations are causing extensive damage, if not complete destruction of the habitat.
32709		conservation	eng	Occurs within national park boundaries.
32709		distribution	eng	This distinctive species is recorded solely from the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.
32709		threats	eng	The population is well protected but logging and conversion of land to agriculture are extensive in the surrounding area.
32710		distribution	eng	This small tree with showy flowers is recorded only from south-western Nigeria.
32710		habitat	eng	Occurring in swampy forests.
32710		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation and clearing for commercial and subsistence agriculture in the country have caused a rapid decline in all forest types.
32711		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to south-eastern Nigeria. Current information indicates that it does not occur in the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.
32711		population	eng	A rare forest tree.
32711		threats	eng	Unprotected areas have been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.
32712		conservation	eng	One of the largest remaining areas of forest is in the Oban Hills of Cross River National Park.
32712		distribution	eng	Southern Nigeria and the South-West Province of Cameroon.
32712		habitat	eng	An uncommon and large canopy tree, sometimes gregarious near water. It is known from lowland rainforest.
32712		threats	eng	Deforestation and clearance for crops have been comprehensive outside protected areas.
32713		conservation	eng	The most significant area of forest is contained within the Oban Division of Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in Cameroon.
32713		distribution	eng	Known from one outlying population west of the Niger River in Nigeria and otherwise confined to remaining forest in the east extending into Cameroon.
32713		habitat	eng	A shade-bearing lowland forest species.
32713		threats	eng	The forest habitat has been extensively felled outside protected areas.
32714		distribution	eng	Records of this forest species are known only from south-east Nigeria. It is not known from the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.
32714		threats	eng	Forest outside protected areas is almost completely cleared and planted with commercial  or subsistence crops.
32715		distribution	eng	A subspecies endemic to forest areas in southern Nigeria.
32715		habitat	eng	The extent of the habitat has unquestionably declined as there has been large-scale deforestation in the last three decades.
32716		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of this small forest tree are protected.
32716		distribution	eng	Confined to the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park and the adjacent Korup National Park in Cameroon.
32716		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation has taken place in surrounding areas.
32717		distribution	eng	A little-known species, which has been recorded only from Eket in south-east Nigeria.
32717		threats	eng	Oil exploration operations in this area have caused the destruction of most if not all the forest habitat.
32718		conservation	eng	Occurs in two national parks. Research into the demography of this gregarious tree would inform development of a management plan. Since Loesenera talbotii is so frequent in Kupe-Bakossi, it is advisable that conservation efforts are focussed here. This tree could form the basis of a public education campaign due to its conspicuousness in Bakossi.
32718		distribution	eng	In Nigeria this species is known from the Oban Hills, where the population is protected within Cross River National Park and Calabar-Mamfe. In SW Cameroon found in Yingui-Yabassi, WSW Mamfe (one collection each), and Mt Kupe-Bakossi (numerous sites and collections).
32718		habitat	eng	occurs in lowland and submontane evergreen forest; 180–1,000 m alt.
32718		population	eng	A rare forest tree.
32718		threats	eng	Areas outside  protected areas have suffered serious habitat declines due to forest clearance for agriculture and wood, e.g., at Kupe village.
32719		distribution	eng	Found only in south-east Nigeria.
32719		habitat	eng	A swamp forest species.
32719		threats	eng	In Eket the habitat appears to have been almost completely destroyed because of oil exploration operations. Elsewhere levels of logging and clearing are high outside protected areas.
32720		distribution	eng	A small tree which is recorded only in south-east Nigeria. The family is endemic to West Africa.
32720		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.
32721		distribution	eng	Recorded only from Eket in south-eastern Nigeria.
32721		population	eng	A botanical survey of the area is required to ascertain whether the species is now extinct.
32721		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is likely to have been destroyed by operations for oil exploration.
32722		conservation	eng	Found within National Park boundaries.
32722		distribution	eng	The species range appears to be confined to the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.
32722		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation and clearance for crops have taken place extensively outside the park boundaries.
32723		distribution	eng	In Panama only two old collections are known but localities are unspecified. More recently the species has been identified in Colombia, occurring quite commonly in Chocó, Boyacá, Valle and other regions. The species has been recorded in Peru, but not frequently.
32723		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
32723		threats	eng	The habitat is declining through much of the species' distribution as a result of increasing settlement.
32724		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree endemic, confined to an area on the coast at Degema.
32725		distribution	eng	This shrubby tree is endemic to southern Nigeria.
32726		distribution	eng	A little-known forest tree that occurs in south-east Nigeria and also in Gabon. In Gabon the species is found in Lopé Forest Reserve and most probably in other forest areas which have yet to be explored.
32726		threats	eng	The Nigerian subpopulation to date appears to be unprotected. Forest outside protected areas has been extensively logged and cleared for agriculture. There is concern about the degree to which forest is now under concession in Gabon.
32727		distribution	eng	This variety has, until now, been recorded only from the Eket and Degema area in the south-east.
32727		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32727		threats	eng	The habitat of the Eket subpopulation has been degraded, if not completely destroyed, by oil exploration operations. The other subpopulation is unprotected and its habitat is vulnerable to severe degradation.
32728		distribution	eng	A small tree, apparently confined to the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.
32728		threats	eng	Surrounding areas have been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.
32729		conservation	eng	The largest, if not only, subpopulation of this species occurs in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.
32729		distribution	eng	Only recorded in south-eastern Nigeria.
32729		threats	eng	The areas outside the park have been largely deforested and planted with commercial or subsistence crops.
32730		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the few remaining forested areas in south-west Nigeria.
32730		threats	eng	Large-scale logging, encroaching agriculture and the planting of commercial crops have resulted in large declines in the habitat.
32731		conservation	eng	Management suggestions: marking and protecting individual trees might be a useful stopgap before making detailed population surveys.   A protected subpopulation exists in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.
32731		distribution	eng	Collected from Mt. Cameroon (one pre-1988 collection) and Nigeria (ca. five collections).
32731		population	eng	<em>Cola nigerica</em> is extremely rare in each of the five disjunct areas in its range. For example in the 1992 survey of Mabeta-Moliwe, while 22 specimens of <em>Cola flavo-velutina</em> were recorded, only a single specimen of <em>Cola nigerica</em> was found.
32731		threats	eng	All the areas in which <em>Cola nigerica</em> occurs(ed) have been cleared or are under threat of forest clearance and cultivation.
32732		distribution	eng	A shrubby species, which has to date been recorded in only a small area near Ikom which lies between the northern and southern division of the Cross River National Park.
32732		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been almost completely felled up to the park boundaries.
32733		distribution	eng	This small forest tree is recorded from the Oban Hills, within Cross River National Park.
32733		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.
32734		conservation	eng	Part of the population occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in Cameroon.
32734		distribution	eng	A rarely recorded small tree of the violet family. It is known from the contiguous forest area covered by the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in Cameroon.
32734		threats	eng	Areas outside the parks have been heavily deforested and cleared for agriculture and commercial crops.
32735		distribution	eng	The Nigerian subpopulation of this tree appears to be restricted to the Obudu Plateau, the northern division of Cross River National Park. The species also appears to grow in dense subpopulations in various forest types in Cameroon, on the central plateau as well as in the coastal forest.
32735		habitat	eng	Forested valleys.
32735		threats	eng	Parts of the forest are showing signs of fire damage and there is growing pressure to convert areas into commercial plantations, especially for growing bananas.
32736		distribution	eng	Occurring largely in Democratic Republic of Congo, extending into Uganda.
32736		habitat	eng	A useful tree occurring in areas of closed forest, often along rivers.
32737		distribution	eng	A Mayombe endemic known from two localities in the Luki Forest Reserve.
32737		threats	eng	The habitat has been greatly reduced by logging, charcoal production and agriculture.
32738		distribution	eng	A species found only on Mont Mukuen.
32738		habitat	eng	Rocky areas of savannah.
32738		threats	eng	The area is vulnerable to fire and overcutting.
32739		distribution	eng	The only known locality of this forest species is in Upemba National Park, east of Lake Upemba.
32739		threats	eng	The density of the human population is low and the threats from agricultural encroachment and logging are at a relatively low level.  The crushed leaves are used to wash infants.
32740		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to a single locality in the Maringa valley.
32740		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense swamp forest often associated with <em>Gilbertiodendron dewevrei</em>.
32740		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by logging and agriculture.
32741		distribution	eng	A rare species found in one locality forest along the Pweto to Moba road on the Marungu Plateau, situated on the western shores of Lake Tanganyika.
32741		habitat	eng	Gallery forest.
32741		threats	eng	There are serious threats of habitat degradation because of logging and the erosion of stream banks caused by cattle.
32742		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality along the Congo River in the Lulonga region.
32742		habitat	eng	Equatorial swamp forest.
32742		threats	eng	Overcutting and encroaching agriculture are putting pressure on the habitat.
32743		distribution	eng	Known from a single locality north of the Forestier Centrale at Likimi.
32743		habitat	eng	Closed <em>terra firme</em> forest.
32743		population	eng	A species which seems to be rare.
32743		threats	eng	There are some threats of overcutting and encroaching agriculture.
32744		conservation	eng	Within a protected area.
32744		distribution	eng	A Mayombe endemic in the Luki area.
32744		habitat	eng	Occurring in modified old forest.
32744		threats	eng	The surrounding area is densely populated and there are heavy demands on the forest for timber and charcoal production and also land for agriculture.
32745		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mayombe.
32745		habitat	eng	occurring in remaining areas of closed forest.
32745		population	eng	A rare species.
32745		threats	eng	This habitat has been greatly reduced in extent because of logging and agriculture: 35% of the forest was under concession in 1980.
32747		distribution	eng	A relatively wide-ranging species, occurring from Democratic Republic of Congo to Ghana and possibly further west.
32747		habitat	eng	It is confined and scarce in wet evergreen forest.
32747		population	eng	It has experienced general declines in its extent.
32747		threats	eng	Mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
32748		distribution	eng	A species endemic to the Forestier Central in the region of Ofala.
32749		distribution	eng	A species of the Forestier Central. It is restricted to a zone in the north-east.
32750		distribution	eng	At the source of the Muye River.
32750		habitat	eng	A tree from upland gallery forest.
32750		population	eng	It is known only from a single locality.
32750		threats	eng	The area is vulnerable to overcutting, fire and agricultural encroachment.
32751		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is limited. It occurs in the Forestier Central.
32751		habitat	eng	Lowland closed forest.
32752		distribution	eng	A species restricted to Ubangi-Uele.
32752		habitat	eng	Gallery forest.
32753		conservation	eng	Only the subpopulations within Chagres National Park and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve are given some form of protection.
32753		distribution	eng	Ranging from the center of Panama to the border with Colombia.
32753		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland evergreen forest.
32753		threats	eng	It is found in areas which are experiencing increasing urbanisation.
32754		distribution	eng	The area from which this relatively newly described species has been collected is geographically and altitudinally very restricted. The entire population is contained within Chagres National Park.
32754		threats	eng	Somewhat threatened by encroaching settlement and tourist activities.
32755		conservation	eng	Occur in Darién National Park.
32755		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only once near the Colombian border in Darién National Park. It is possible the population extends into Colombia but no record of the species has been made since 1975.
32755		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
32755		threats	eng	The locality has been opened up for agriculture somewhat.
32756		conservation	eng	There is a subpopulation within Chagres National Park, in Cerro Jefe.
32756		distribution	eng	Described in 1988, this species is known only from a few collections from central Panama.
32756		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest between 800 and 1,000 m.
32756		threats	eng	Locations in Cerro Tute and in the Valle de Antón, which harbours the largest subpopulation, are strongly affected by urban development and tourism.
32757		distribution	eng	A species first described in 1988 and known only from a few scattered localities in Veraguas and Coclé in Panama and from larger subpopulations in Costa Rica, principally located in San Ramón Forest Reserve.
32757		habitat	eng	It is restricted to cloud forest between 800 and 1,200 m.
32760		habitat	eng	Montane forest habitat.
32760		threats	eng	The montane forest habitat of this species has suffered serious declines in past decades.
32762		conservation	eng	The US locality is vulnerable but protected.
32762		distribution	eng	A shrub scattered over a wide range.
32762		habitat	eng	Montane grassland.
32762		population	eng	Population sizes and declines are not documented.
32763		habitat	eng	A species of submontane seasonal dry forest.
32763		population	eng	Has experienced dramatic declines over the last few decades.
32763		threats	eng	Forest has been converted for agricultural use, especially coffee plantations.
32764		distribution	eng	It is suspected that the species will prove to be threatened when the area of occupancy is calculated taking into account its altitudinal range.
32765		distribution	eng	A distinctive species known only from the type locality of Oaxaca.
32765		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest.
32766		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
32766		population	eng	Abundant in areas.
32766		threats	eng	Subject to general declines in habitat.
32768		conservation	eng	It is frequently planted.
32768		habitat	eng	Moist montane forests.
32768		population	eng	The species is widespread and often occurs in abundance.
32768		threats	eng	General rates of deforestation in recent decades have caused significant population declines.
32770		distribution	eng	Summit of the Pico.
32770		habitat	eng	Rainforest above 1,300 m.
32770		threats	eng	There is little threat to the habitat, although there was extensive deforestation earlier in the century up to 1,500 m.
32771		distribution	eng	Widely distributed over the island.
32771		habitat	eng	A common upland forest tree between 500 and 1,600 m.
32771		population	eng	The trees regenerate well.
32772		distribution	eng	Little is known about the species. It has been collected twice. Large areas of the island remain to be explored.
32772		population	eng	Most of the forest below 1,500 m was felled in the first half of the century.
32773		distribution	eng	Populations have been located at a range of altitudes in Pico, Angolares and Monte Café in two locations, one in Esperanca. The remaining populations are now confined to higher altitudes which have evaded deforestation.
32773		population	eng	A forest tree, known only from a few herbarium specimens and thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1968.
32773		threats	eng	Deforestation.
32774		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sâo Tomé this tree is known from collections, both recent and old, from Ilheu das Rolas, Angolares, Ribeira Peixe, Lagoa Amalia, Bombaim and Jou.
32774		threats	eng	The lowland localities are likely to have been lost in the first half of the century when forest at these altitudes was extensively cleared.
32775		distribution	eng	Collected only twice, in the last century from S. Nicaolau and more recently from S. Carlos. Areas remain to be explored, although most of the forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.
32775		habitat	eng	A tree of secondary forest.
32776		habitat	eng	A relatively well-collected shrub or small tree, found in wet and shady places in secondary forest between 500 and 1,000 m.
32777		habitat	eng	This species is present in all high altitude sites.
32777		population	eng	Regeneration is reported to be good.
32778		habitat	eng	Occurs in secondary forest up to 1,060 m.
32778		population	eng	This shrub or small tree is common.
32779		distribution	eng	Numerous collections, both old and recent, of the tree have been made in locations above 600 m.
32779		population	eng	The original forest below 1,500 m was largely cleared in the first half of the century.
32780		habitat	eng	A timber species of lowland forest. Individuals are now found in areas which have been settled and cultivated, as most of the original forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.
32781		distribution	eng	Angolares and Diogo Vaz.
32781		habitat	eng	This small tree that is known from coastal areas. The island remains unexplored in places, although most of the forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.
32782		distribution	eng	A tree known from several collections, both recent and old, from Rodia, Ilheu das Rolas and S. António de Mussacavu. Areas of Sâo Tomé remain to be explored, although most of the forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.
32783		distribution	eng	Collected in the south-east of the island.
32783		population	eng	The species has not been found since it was collected in 1954. It is not known whether there is still an extant population. Extensive areas of remote forest remain to be explored.
32783		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to the habitat at present.
32784		distribution	eng	Known from two sites towards the north-west of the island at altitudes of 1,350 to 1,410 m.
32784		habitat	eng	A tree or shrub.
32784		population	eng	Subpopulations appear to be healthy and regenerating.
32785		distribution	eng	It was collected from Macambrara and Pico.
32785		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest.
32785		population	eng	No recent collections have been made.
32786		habitat	eng	A small tree in rainforest up to 1,950 m.
32786		population	eng	Known from several collections, some recent.
32786		threats	eng	Much of the rainforest below 1,500 m on Sâo Tomé was felled in the first half of the century.
32787		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree collected several times, recently mostly from Pico.
32788		distribution	eng	A species found in forest in the south-west of the island in Porto Alegre and Monte Café.
32788		population	eng	Areas remain to be explored, although most of the original forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.
32789		population	eng	A tree collected just once in the 19th Century. It is not known whether any populations survived the extensive deforestation which occurred in the first half of the century.
32790		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sâo Tomé, from 1,300 m to the summit of Pico. The genus is represented elsewhere only by an East African Afromontane species of restricted range.
32790		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforests from 1,300 m.
32790		threats	eng	There are no significant threats, although the forest below 1,500 m was largely cleared at the beginning of the century.
32791		distribution	eng	A species known from single collections made in the last century from Saudade, Santa Ana, Batepa and S. Carlos and from a more recent collection from Santarém.
32791		habitat	eng	Most of the original forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.
32792		population	eng	It appears that only two collections have been made, one being from the coast where just one tree was located. More detailed information is lacking. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.
32793		distribution	eng	One of the two varieties in this monospecific genus.
32793		habitat	eng	It occurs in small pure stands scattered over a fairly wide range in broadleaved forest between 1,000 and 2,200 m.
32793		threats	eng	It is a valuable ornamental tree and seed collecting coupled with high levels of habitat destruction, have caused the species to disappear from parts of its range.
32794		distribution	eng	Populations are recorded from Oquê Pipi on Principe and Lagoa Amelia, Morro Miguel Angelo and Esperanca on Sâo Tomé.
32794		habitat	eng	An upland tree with a relatively wide altitudinal range, principally occurring in secondary forest.
32794		population	eng	Areas on both islands remain to be inventoried and it is hoped there are regenerating populations in existence.
32794		threats	eng	Although trees have been seen to set fruit, no regeneration is evident.
32795		population	eng	A tree which is known from a single collection. More detailed information is lacking. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.
32796		distribution	eng	This tree is known from a site above Neves Ferrieira.
32796		population	eng	Detailed information is lacking. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.
32797		population	eng	The species has been collected only twice and no information on its exact locality has been recorded. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.
32798		habitat	eng	Occurring in densely forested areas in limestone gullies or on cliffs.
32798		population	eng	A generally rare and scattered species.
32798		threats	eng	In addition to habitat deterioration, the species appears to be suffering from inadequate pollination of female plants.
32799		distribution	eng	Subpopulations in China are localised, occurring in Mengla, Jiangchen, Jingping, Hekou and Pingbian in south Yunnan and Longzhou in south-west Guangxi. The species is said to be relatively common in central and northern Viet Nam. No information is available on the subpopulations in Lao PDR.
32799		habitat	eng	The lowland forest habitat has suffered large-scale clearance and conversion to agriculture.
32800		distribution	eng	An endemic to north Zambia.
32800		habitat	eng	The species is confined to a restricted range of scrub and thicket on sandy soil occurring at altitudes between 900 and 1,000 m.
32803		conservation	eng	There are four occurrences within nature reserves: Ngoc Linh, Chu Yang Sinh, Dao Ngoan Muc and Nui Ba (Viet Nam) and also in a protected area in Lao PDR (see above).
32803		distribution	eng	Until recently this species was only known from only one area near Dalat. It has now been found in four adjacent provinces, extending into central Viet Nam. In addition a small stand was recently discovered in Lao PDR, growing on an escarpment in the southern part of the Nakai Nam Theun protected area. Its distribution is still incompletely known.
32803		habitat	eng	Montane evergreen forest. <em>Pinus dalatensis</em> is a montane pine growing in a tropical climate between 1,400 and 2,300 m and forms stands of a few to about 30 trees surrounded by evergreen angiosperm forest dominated by members of the Fagaceae. In most localities, the pines occupy rocky outcrops or ridges and adjacent slopes where competition from broadleaves is less intense. Some other conifers may also be present, among these are the rare pine <em>P. krempfii</em> and <em>Fokienia hodginsii</em>.
32803		population	eng	(Sub)populations tend to be very small and are increasingly reduced to isolated areas.
32803		threats	eng	Unknown.
32804		conservation	eng	It occurs within Nui Ba and Dao Ngoan Muc Nature Reserves.
32804		distribution	eng	The species is known only from localised populations in Khanh Hoa and Lam Dong Provinces in the south.
32806		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus wallichiana</span> is listed under CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, e.g. the Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal and BiDoup-NuiBa National Park in Viet Nam. Cultivation on a large scale in the context of pharmacology could reduce the pressure on wild populations in the future. In &#160;the short term this species continues to be over-exploited throughout much of its range. In Viet Nam a propagation program has been started to establish clonal banks in Lam Dong so that this species may be conserved and utilised for Taxol production in the future.
32806		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in China (SE Xizang [Tibet], NW Yunnan, S Sichuan), E Nepal, Bhutan, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam), Myanmar [Burma], Viet Nam (only known for certain from Lam Dong (Duc Trong, Xuan Tho, Don Duong, Lac Duong), Malesia, Philippines, Sulawesi and Sumatera.There is also one specimen record from northeast Thailand that dates back to 1931; since then it has not been recollected (Somran Sudee, Rachun Poona, Bangkok Forestry Herbarium, pers.comm.). It may also occur in Lao PDR. <br/></p><p>The extent of occurrence is well beyond 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Its area of occupancy is also likely to be more than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
32806		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus wallichiana</span> is a small to large understorey or lower canopy tree in montane, temperate, warm temperate, and tropical submontane to high montane forest, both angiosperm and conifer dominated, deciduous or evergreen, or in mixed forests. In open situations on rocky slopes and cliffs it usually forms a large, broadly spreading shrub. Elevation ranges from 900 m to 3,700 m asl and soils are mostly derived from silicate-bearing rocks, i.e. acidic to neutral. Like the European <span style="font-style: italic;">T. baccata</span> it is easily dispersed by birds and can germinate quickly in large numbers on suitable sites. It has a very long life-span and may sprout from stumps. <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus wallichiana</span> occurs in pure stands of limited extent or mixed in the understorey of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, or in mixed conifer forest. In Viet Nam <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallichiana</span> has been found growing in submontane evergreen mixed forests associated with the conifers <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalotaxus mannii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrycarpus imbricatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Keteleeria evelyniana</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nageia wallichiana</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus neriifolius</span>. It will form dense thickets on exposed rocky slopes with little tree growth. In the Philippines it occurs on high ridges and mountain summits in mossy forest, or sometimes in rocky grass and scrubland. In Sumatera and Sulawesi it is usually a mid-montane species.
32806		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus wallichiana</span> is very widespread but subpopulations within that range are often disjunct and isolated. &#160;The global population has undergone a major decline within the last 25 years which is still continuing
32806		threats	eng	Across most of its range through the Himalayas and western China, <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus wallichiana</span> has been heavily exploited for its leaves and bark which are used to produce the anti-cancer drug paclitaxel or similar chemicals. Declines of up to 90% have been reported in India and Nepal while in western China declines of more than 50% have been reported. The degree of exploitation in Myanmar is uncertain. In Viet Nam the subpopulation is limited to several hundred trees within a very limited area of Lam Dong Province. This remnant subpopulation was more extensive in the recent past but has declined due to deforestation and conversion of forests for agriculture. The status of <em>Taxus </em>populations in the Philippines and Indonesia is less clear. Some reports of exploitation associated with taxol production have come from the Philippines (Agillion 2007) but these have not been well documented. Although the Philippines has lost the vast majority of its forest cover through logging and agricultural expansion, the degree to which this has effected <em>Taxus </em>is unknown and ground truthing of both recent and historic records is needed. In Sulawesi and Sumatera widespread deforestation has been concentrated in the lowlands rather than the montane areas where estimates of decline are as low as 5% (Cannon <em>et al</em>. 2007, Laumonier <em>et al</em>. 2010). As with the Philippines further field work is required to ascertain the status of <em>Taxus </em>in these areas
32807		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mexico. It occurs in both Gulf and Pacific regions.
32807		habitat	eng	A relatively widespread rainforest tree, sometimes in drier forest types.
32808		habitat	eng	Black water streams of the ancient Planalto habitat where it stands above associated tree species and bamboo canes.
32808		population	eng	It is rare and restricted to a few scattered individuals in central Brazil.
32809		distribution	eng	Found in Luzon and Mindoro.
32810		distribution	eng	A large tree occurring in Thua Thien-Hue, Gia Lai, Kon Tum and Lam Dong Provinces.
32810		habitat	eng	Usually in evergreen forests above 500 m on deep fertile soils.
32810		threats	eng	Natural regeneration does not appear to be good, despite good fruit crops. The fine timber is used for construction and making household appliances.
32811		distribution	eng	A tree found throughout Indo-China.
32811		habitat	eng	It grows in dense forest, and in transitional areas between evergreen and dry open dipterocarp forest.
32811		threats	eng	In Viet Nam the hard, attractive wood is highly valued for carpentry. Because of high levels of exploitation and habitat loss, large trees are scarce and hard to find.
32812		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam, the species is confined to a single locality in Lam Dong Province (Lac Duong) in the south.
32814		distribution	eng	The Red List category is largely based on the situation in Viet Nam, where the species is distributed sparsely but widely throughout the country.
32814		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary forest.
32814		threats	eng	Exploitation of the diseased wood for the perfume industry has resulted in population declines exceeding 80% over recent years. There is a strong indication that the same losses are occurring in the rest of Indo-China. Other parts of the plant are also widely used: the roots for incense, cosmetics and medicines and the bark for fibre.
32815		distribution	eng	Endemic to north Viet Nam, the species is found in a number of localities in Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Hoa Binh and Ha Tay.
32816		distribution	eng	A small tree which appears to be confined to a single locality between 800 and 1,000 m at Dien Khanh in Khanh Hoa Province.
32817		distribution	eng	A species recorded to be rare in Viet Nam, where it is confined to central provinces.
32818		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to Viet Nam, where it is known from only a single locality in Da Nang.
32819		distribution	eng	A tree known from scattered subpopulations in Viet Nam and Hainan Island in China.
32819		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary forest.
32819		threats	eng	In Viet Nam heavy exploitation of the beautiful timber has led to considerable population declines. Habitat loss on Hainan Island through logging has also been significant.
32820		conservation	eng	A protected population occurs in Kon Cha Rang Nature Reserve.
32820		distribution	eng	Throughout Indo-China south into Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia; the species is becoming rarer in many places. In Viet Nam, it is listed as threatened.
32820		habitat	eng	Occurring in various forest types
32820		threats	eng	Overexploitation of timber.
32821		conservation	eng	Export is now banned. Some populations are protected in areas, such as Cuc Phuong National Park.
32821		distribution	eng	A small, slow-growing tree endemic to Viet Nam, although there are reports of occurrences in Laos. Stands are found in the northern provinces of Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Lang Son, Hoa Binh, Ha Tinh and Quang Binh, and in the south in Cam Thinh Dong and Cam Thinh Tay communes.
32821		habitat	eng	The species occurs on limestone mountains below 800 m.
32821		population	eng	Populations in the wild are much reduced.
32821		threats	eng	The glossy black timber is highly valued and has been in great demand.
32824		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam this slow-growing tree is known only from Sapa and Moc Chau.
32824		habitat	eng	It is sometimes the dominant species in dense subtropical broadleaved forest.
32824		threats	eng	Regeneration is thought to be hampered by a thick layer of leaf litter on the forest floor.
32826		distribution	eng	A small tree, restricted to Hainan Island in China and high mountains in north Viet Nam: Son La, Tuan Giao and Dien Bien.
32829		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, where the species is restricted to a single locality in Ba Vi, Ha Tay Province.
32830		distribution	eng	Northern provinces of Viet Nam and Vieng Chan in Laos.
32830		habitat	eng	A large tree distributed widely at low altitudes near streams on alluvium, gravel soils or mud flats.
32830		population	eng	Natural regeneration and coppicing is strong.
32830		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, the species has become threatened because of the rates of habitat loss.
32831		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Fan Ci Pan range, extending from northern Viet Nam into Yunnan, China.
32831		habitat	eng	This tree is localised in forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m.
32832		distribution	eng	Very localised in the central highlands of Viet Nam, known from a single collection. The area is relatively poorly explored.
32832		habitat	eng	A small tree.
32833		distribution	eng	This endemic tree is known from only a few collections.
32833		threats	eng	The area is experiencing extensive habitat decline.
32834		population	eng	The type collection, made in Musondwa in 1958, is the only known record of this species.
32835		conservation	eng	In Australia many of the remaining stands are now within national parks or other protected areas. Logging on state owned land is prohibited and clearance of native vegetation outside of protected areas is greatly reduced. Weed and feral animal control programmes have been initiated in some areas.&#160; In Papua and New Guinea and Indonesia few stands are within effectively protected areas. However, many stands are in remote areas and are not currently exploited.
32835		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii</span> is found in Australia and the island of New Guinea (both Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> cunninghamii </span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> cunninghamii </span>occurs from near Cape York in northern Queensland, south to the Dorrigo Plateau in northern New South Wales. Its altitudinal range is from near sea level up to 600 m inland.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> cunninghamii </span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> papuana</span> occurs in the highlands of New Guinea from the Owen Stanley Range to the Vogelkop (Bird’s Head) Peninsula, but is especially abundant in the central highlands. It also occurs on Ferguson and Japen Islands. It has a wide altitudinal range, from 500 m up to 3,355 m although most stands occur between 1,000 and 2,500 m.<br/><br/>The overall extent of occurrence is well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy would be greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> calculated using the standard IUCN method of presence within a 4 km<sup>2</sup> grid cell.
32835		habitat	eng	In Australia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">cunninghamii</span> mainly occurs in the ‘dry vine forest’ and thickets that occur on the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range at moderate elevations. It also occurs on some of the larger islands off the Queensland coast. Its range partially overlaps with that of <em>Araucaria bidwillii</em>, and in such localities the species are frequently co-dominant emergents. The two species have different periods of seed ripening and dispersal; <em>A. cunninghamii </em>is wind dispersed and the seeds ripen in the period overlapping the two monsoons whereas <em>A. bidwillii </em>produces ripe seed between December and April which is both the hottest and the wettest period in the Bunya Mountains. <em>Argyrodendron</em> is the commonest angiosperm dominant; numerous other trees and lianas are found in these forests where they are left undisturbed.<br/><br/>In New   Guinea, <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">papuana</span> occurs most commonly in montane and high montane forests above 1,000 m altitude as an emergent (up to 70 m) rising well above a closed canopy of angiosperm trees. Commonly associated tree genera include <em>Castanopsis</em>, <em>Lithocarpus</em>, <em>Cinnamomum</em>, <em>Calophyllum</em> and <em>Schizomeria</em> (Enright and Hill 1995). It often occurs with <em>Araucaria hunsteinii</em>.
32835		population	eng	In northern Queensland stands are usually relatively small and sporadic. In southeastern Queensland and northern New South Wales there were extensive forests prior to the arrival of Europeans and the advent of intensive exploitation in the 19th Century. In Papua and New Guinea it is relatively abundant in the Central Highlands. It is less frequent in Indonesia.
32835		threats	eng	The intense historic exploitation of this species in southeast Queensland and northern New South Wales has resulted in considerable fragmentation of the original forests. This has been amplified by the extensive conversion of forests for agriculure and pastoralism. In some areas, these fragments are at greater risk from inappropriate fire regimes, invasion by exotic weeds such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span> and disturbance from domestic and feral animals. Fragmented stands are also more at risk from localised climate events such as cyclones. Some of the remaining natural subpopulations are surrounded by Hoop pine plantations that are of uncertain provenance raising the possibility of future outbreeding depression in populations that genetic studies indicate are strongly differentiated (Pye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>In Papua and New Guinea wildfires associated with El Niño droughts have decimated major stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cunninghamii</span><sup> </sup>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">papuana</span> in McAdam National Park and surrounding areas (Orsak and Balun 1999). Logging and deforestation associated with agricultural expansion and plantation establishment has also reduced the area occupied by this variety in both Papua and New Guinea and in Indonesia. This is ongoing.
32836		conservation	eng	Small plantations of 8,000 ha exist in Papua New Guinea and it has been introduced to Australia, Fiji and Peninsular Malaysia on an experimental scale.  The export of  <em>Araucaria</em> logs has always been banned in Papua New Guinea.
32836		habitat	eng	Recorded to be the tallest tree in Malesia, reaching 90 m in height, the species occurs mainly in Fagaceae forest between 520 and 2,100 m.
32836		threats	eng	It has been reduced to scattered stands because of heavy exploitation of the good-quality timber. The species habitat is also threatened by shifting agriculture, fire and damage caused  by feral pigs.
32838		distribution	eng	A small tree, apparently endemic to Viet Nam and confined to two lowland localities in Dac Lac and Khanh Hoa.
32841		distribution	eng	Malaysia.
32841		habitat	eng	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
32841		population	eng	A common and widely distributed tree.
32841		threats	eng	The wood is one of the main sources of kedondong timber and it is used for indoor construction.
32842		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been split into two forms: <em>forma laevigata</em> and <em>forma glabrifolia</em>.
32842		habitat	eng	Found in mixed dipterocarp, mixed peat swamp and kerangas forests up to 1,200 m.  It regenerates well in logged-over forest and has been found to become the dominant species five years after logging.
32842		threats	eng	This species is one of the main sources of kedondong timber; the wood is used for planks, posts, furniture and handles.
32843		habitat	eng	A fairly widespread species found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forests.
32844		distribution	eng	A widespread species is found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and northern Borneo.
32844		habitat	eng	Common in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 700 m.
32846		habitat	eng	A widespread species of lowland and hill forest, occurring up to 540 m.
32848		conservation	eng	Amani Nature Reserve is in the area,but it is not clear if the specimen was collected within the reserve area or not.
32848		distribution	eng	Collected in 1910 at Amani in the Usambara Mts and has not been collected or seen again.
32848		habitat	eng	Presumably in montane forest.
32848		population	eng	Only one collection.
32848		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
32849		distribution	eng	An endemic to the East Usambaras, including Sindeni Hill.
32849		habitat	eng	The species is confined to patches of forest and evergreen bushland.
32850		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas including Amani Nature Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve, and Kwamkoro Forest Reserve.
32850		distribution	eng	Found in the Muheza and Korogwe districts. Recorded from the east Usambara Mts, Kwamkoro Forest Reserve, and Mtai Forest Reserve.
32850		habitat	eng	Grows in sub-montane forest.
32850		population	eng	Not a very common species.
32850		threats	eng	The forests where this species occurs are suffering severe declines and encroachmentas a result of conversion for agriculture (tea, coffee, cardamom) and mining (gold).
32851		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from several protected areas including Mtai Forest Reserve and Amani Nature Reserve.
32851		distribution	eng	Was originally only known from the East Usambara Mts but is now recorded from the West Usambara Mts. Most records of the species are from lower elevations. There is supposedly a collection from the North Uluguru Mts much further to the south, but this area has been extensively surveyed and no sign of this taxon was found, so it appears that this was an erroneous record.
32851		habitat	eng	A deciduous tree growing in lowland and sub-montane forest.
32851		population	eng	Not known, but appears to be fairly scarce.
32851		threats	eng	There is habitat loss on the lower slopes due to clearance of forests for agricultural expansion. There was also mining in parts of the area in the past.
32852		conservation	eng	Has been recoprded from a number of protected areas: Kwamkoro Forest Reserve, Amani Nature Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Lulanda Forest Reserve, and Udzungwa Mountains National Park.
32852		distribution	eng	Recorded from the East and West Usambara Mts, the Nguru Mts, and in the Udzungwa range.
32852		habitat	eng	A shrub or small to medium-sized tree found in lowland and montane evergreen forest.
32852		population	eng	Not common.
32852		threats	eng	There is habitat loss due to forest clearance for agriculture, logging for timber in certain cases, fires, etc.
32853		conservation	eng	Found in many forest reserves and other protected areas, e.g., Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kimboza Forest Reserve, Selous Game Reserve, etc.
32853		distribution	eng	Occursd from the coastal forests in southern Kenya into Tanzania, extending inland to the Eeastern Arc Mts. There is one record from Mafia Island (Tanzania).
32853		habitat	eng	This tree grows mainly in lowland and coastal moist forest. It is a pioneer species, comes in after disturbance and disappears as the forest re-establishes. Also occurs in disturbed sub-thicket woodland dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">spiciformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Millettia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Elaeodendron</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Harrisonia abyssinica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleopsis myrtifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">and Adenia rumicifolia</span>.
32853		population	eng	Common in disturbed forest (is a pioneer species).
32853		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to the coastal forests and woodland including expanding agriculture, urbanization, and logging for charcoal production.
32854		distribution	eng	One of the several varieties of a widespread species. It has been collected only a few times, from a single locality on the upper ridges of the Mussoorie Hills, near Dehra Dun in Uttar Pradesh.
32854		population	eng	It does not appear to have been seen in the wild for 40 years.
32855		distribution	eng	Specimens from this tree were collected just once during colonial times from subtropical pine forest in the Mishmee Hills, Lohit District.
32855		threats	eng	The area is relatively remote but there is some concern that the forests have become vulnerable to clearance for jhum or extensive agriculture.
32856		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
32856		distribution	eng	A species confined to the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats, where it is scattered in a few localities.
32856		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
32856		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
32857		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Delei Valley in north Assam.
32857		habitat	eng	The species occurred in thickets on a steep rocky slope.
32857		population	eng	The species has not been found since its collection in 1928.
32859		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas, e.g., Udzungwa Mountains National Park, West Kilombero and Amani Nature Reserves, Lulanda and Luhega Forest Reserves.
32859		distribution	eng	Recorded from a number of the Tanzanian Eastern Arc Mountains - Usambaras, Udzwungas, Kimboza (now gone), and in the Luhega and Lulanda Forest Reserves.
32859		habitat	eng	This tree grows in lowland and montane forest.
32859		population	eng	This is a very occasional species, which is never found in large numbers where it occurs.
32859		threats	eng	This species has probably gone from Kimboza Forest Reserve due to forest loss for agriculture, fire, and invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrela</span>. There are similar threats for the East Usambaras, the invasive species here being <span style="font-style: italic;">Maesopsis</span>.
32860		conservation	eng	Recorded from Saadani National Park (Zaraninge Forest), Banda and Kichi Hills Forest Reserves.
32860		distribution	eng	Known only from one location in Kenya (Mangea), now probably destroyed. In Tanzania, known from several localities along the coast and further inland. The Pugu subpopulation could be severely reduced.
32860		habitat	eng	A straggling small tree or shrub found in dry evergreen lowland forest and also dry bushland.
32860		population	eng	In Mangea was only known from one plant, but at some sites in Tanzania, it is abundant.
32860		threats	eng	At Mangea most if not all of the forest has gone as a result of agricultural expansion, at Ifakara there is also intensive agriculture so that locality has probably also gone. Pugu Forest Reserve has also been badly impacted by human activities. Other forest reserves where it occurs are better protected.
32861		conservation	eng	Recorded from Kwamsambia, Marimba and Kwamgumi Forest Reserves.
32861		distribution	eng	Found on the lower slopes of the East Usambara Mts and also Bungu in the West Usambara Mts, Tanzania.
32861		habitat	eng	A tree found growing in dry evergreen forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum schumannii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lettowianthus stellatus</span> and other trees. Grows in on the lower mountain slopes often near rivers.
32861		population	eng	Very small population (less than ten trees have been recorded at Sigi).
32861		threats	eng	There is ongoing forest loss and degradation because of expanding agricultural activities (e.g., tea plantation), etc. The forests around Bungu have been cleared.
32862		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Amani Nature Reserve, Nguru South Forest Reserve, and in Udzungwa Mountains National Park.
32862		distribution	eng	Recorded from the East Usambara, South Nguru and Udzungwa Mts in Tanzania.
32862		habitat	eng	A tree found in  sub-montane forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Allanblackia stuhlmannii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthocleista grandiflora</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari excelsa</span>.
32862		population	eng	Common where it occurs (forms clusters).
32862		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by logging, cultivation in places, some of the range is well protected.
32864		distribution	eng	A distinct variant of a widely distributed and variable montane tree. It is localised in the Uluguru Mts. and on the Lukwangule Plateau.
32864		habitat	eng	Forested ridge tops.
32865		distribution	eng	Occurrences are known from the Syreyngam, Khasi and the Jaintea Hills in Meghalaya and Bhutan Hill in Assam.
32865		habitat	eng	The species is found in rainforest over 1,000 m.
32865		population	eng	No collections appear to have been made more recently than 1937.
32865		threats	eng	High rates of habitat loss have affected the entire range.
32866		distribution	eng	A forest species recorded only from Merchiston in Trivandrum District and Colatoorpolay in Quilon District in a restricted area of forest.
32866		population	eng	It is not known whether any populations still remain. There has been much habitat destruction in places and the species has not been collected since 1895.
32867		conservation	eng	Apparently it is in cultivation in Sri Lankan gardens.
32867		distribution	eng	Recorded from a single locality in the Courtallam Hills.
32867		population	eng	The species has not been found for over 100 years despite the area being accessible and visited by tourists.
32870		distribution	eng	The taxonomic status of this species is dubious.
32872		threats	eng	A forest species which has suffered extensive destruction of its habitat.
32873		distribution	eng	Known only from the mountains to the north-east of Boquete in Chiriquí.
32873		habitat	eng	Restricted to cloud forest between 1,800 and 2,300 m.
32873		population	eng	A rare species.
32873		threats	eng	The main threats to the habitat are fires and tourism.
32874		conservation	eng	Current forest management activities are discouraging further local exploitation.
32874		distribution	eng	An endemic subspecies of the Rondo Plateau.
32874		population	eng	Known from only a few collections.
32874		threats	eng	The remaining forest in the area is contained within Rondo Forest Reserve, a large part of which has been disturbed by previous activities such as logging, the planting of commercial timbers and shifting cultivation.
32875		distribution	eng	The species is known only from West Usambara. The genus is monotypic. The nearest related genus is <em>Wimmeria</em> in Central and South America.
32875		habitat	eng	Dry montane forests.
32875		population	eng	A substantial area of the forest in which it occurred was cleared in the mid-1960s and it may now be extinct.
32876		conservation	eng	Some of the population is protected in Itatiaia National Park.
32876		distribution	eng	It is restricted to remaining areas of Atlantic forest on the road to Engenheiro Passos in Sâo Paulo, in Itatiaia National Park in Rio de Janeiro and in Belmonte and Canavieiras in Bahia. The record from Itatiaia dates back to 1941.
32876		population	eng	In the last 20 years of herbarium collections and records, the species is notably scarce.
32878		habitat	eng	Woodland.
32878		population	eng	In Jamaica the tree appears to be locally common in relict woodland, especially in the western parishes.
32879		distribution	eng	Al Miskat Mountains.
32879		habitat	eng	Confined to semi-evergreen bushland on limestone;  occurring at higher altitudes than <em>A. ankokib.</em>
32880		distribution	eng	One of the subspecies, ssp. <em>littoralis</em>, is confined to the coastal dunes in southern Somalia and would be categorised as Vulnerable (VU D2). However, the differences between it and the type subspecies are not thought to be significant. The species occurs more widely from southern Somalia up to the eastern Ogaden.
32880		habitat	eng	Ssp. <em>littoralis</em>, is confined to coastal dunes.
32880		population	eng	It is not common.
32880		threats	eng	Its habitat is vulnerable to degradation.
32881		distribution	eng	Eastern Java and Bali.
32881		habitat	eng	A species of various forest types occurring up to an altitude of 800 m.
32881		threats	eng	All forested areas at these elevations have experienced heavy clearing and are under intense pressure from the activities of local populations.
32882		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Tana, Athi and Uaso-Nyiro river systems in Kenya and the Ruvu river system of Tanzania.
32882		habitat	eng	This species is one of the dominant components of riparian forest.
32882		threats	eng	The habitat is greatly reduced and the species is notably scarcer. Seed crops are frequently washed away in annual floods after vegetation clearance. In Kenya the habitat has also been widely irrigated and cleared for settlement programmes.
32883		distribution	eng	A coastal forest species, often a shrub, known from populations in the Shimba Hills in Kenya and in north-east Tanzania. It is closely related to the West African species <em>D. gabunensis</em>.
32884		distribution	eng	Restricted to the West Usambara Mts. It has a close affinity with <em>C. sylvaticus</em>.
32884		habitat	eng	This species occurs within dry montane forest.
32885		distribution	eng	This small tree is known only from the East Usambara Mts. and the South Nguru Mts.
32885		habitat	eng	Restricted to moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.
32886		distribution	eng	A subpopulation has recently been found in remnant forest at Pangani Rocks, in Kenya. Otherwise the species is known only from remaining dry coastal forest in east and south-east Tanzania.
32886		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
32887		distribution	eng	Found on the South Nguru Mts. It is possibly conspecific with <em>T. tenuifolium</em> from Cameroon.
32887		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to lower elevation forest.
32888		distribution	eng	The only subpopulations known to occur in areas of moist evergreen submontane forest in the East Usambara Mts.
32888		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen submontane forest.
32889		distribution	eng	Restricted in range to the West Usambara Mts.
32889		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
32890		distribution	eng	A species, endemic to Tanzania, occurring in northern and central eastern areas.
32890		habitat	eng	Lowland dry forest.
32891		distribution	eng	Type collect from Liwiri-Kiteza forest at Songea, southern Tanzania.
32891		habitat	eng	The species occurs in moist semi-deciduous montane forest.
32891		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
32892		conservation	eng	The Pugu Forest Reserve has an active conservation programme.
32892		distribution	eng	This may only be a form of the more widespread var. <em>kirkii</em> rather than a distinct variety. It is known only from small areas at Bagamayo and in the Pugu Hills, close to Dar es Salaam.
32892		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32892		threats	eng	Both areas are disturbed by various human activities.
32893		distribution	eng	Only found in the mountains in the west. Each collecting trip appears to uncover a new subpopulation in a more remote area. There is also a report of a subpopulation in La Amistad National Park on the border with Costa Rica.
32893		habitat	eng	A shrubby species which occurs in small subpopulations up to 3,000 m  in cloud forest.
32893		threats	eng	The habitat is generally declining in extent, over much of the range, mainly because of logging and mining for copper and gold.
32894		distribution	eng	Current information suggests the species is confined to Cerro Colorado and Cerro Horqueta in the province of Chiriquí.
32894		habitat	eng	Confined to a narrow altitudinal range, between 1,500 and 1,900 m.
32894		population	eng	The populations are large in places.
32894		threats	eng	The area is unprotected and parts of Cerro Colorado, in particular, are affected by mining for copper and gold, and the impact of an expanding human population.
32895		distribution	eng	An Ecuadorian endemic, currently known only from the High Andes in Loja Province.
32895		habitat	eng	The altitudinal range of the species extends between 2,000 and 3,300 m.
32896		distribution	eng	Found in Udzungwa range and on Mt. Rungwe in Tanzania, and also in northern Malawi.
32896		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of moist montane forest.
32897		conservation	eng	Current forest management activities are discouraging local exploitation.
32897		distribution	eng	A forest tree which now appears to be restricted to the remaining undisturbed forest in Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).
32897		threats	eng	Human activities in the past; logging, shifting cultivation and the planting of exotic timbers, have caused extensive disturbance in the forest.
32898		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Tanzania, this species is confined to the Usambara, Uluguru and North Udzungwa Mts.
32898		habitat	eng	Upland moist evergreen forest.
32899		distribution	eng	East Usambara Mts. and the North Udzungwa Mts.
32899		habitat	eng	A large tree confined to moist submontane forest.
32900		conservation	eng	Tong'omba Forest Reserve's boundaries are being cleared, which will help to prevent further declines.
32900		distribution	eng	The only record of the species is from the Matumbi Hills, within Namakutwa and Tong'omba Forest Reserves (46 km² and 25 km² respectively).
32900		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32900		threats	eng	Namakutwa is a productive reserve: forest on the plateau continues to be cleared for agriculture and illegal logging has been occurring in the more riverine areas.  Tong'omba also experiences some agricultural encroachment.
32901		distribution	eng	Known from the vicinity of Ifakara and Tiriani Fall in southern Tanzania. The area is not well explored.
32901		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
32902		distribution	eng	The species is now thought to be restricted to undisturbed forest areas in the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).
32902		habitat	eng	Undisturbed forest areas.
32902		threats	eng	Severe disturbance of the habitat has been caused by past activities, including logging of the largest East African population of <em>Milicia excelsa</em>, planting of exotic timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection.
32903		conservation	eng	The whole species' range is within the boundaries of Chagres National Park.
32903		distribution	eng	A scarce species which is confined to a small area in the region of Cerro Jefe, in the province of Panamá.  A single collection from Valle del Cauca in Colombia could possibly be included under this species.
32903		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 800 and 1,000 m.
32903		threats	eng	Before the area was granted National Park status, a large part of the original forest was destroyed for housing and industrial developments.
32904		distribution	eng	The species is widespread, extending across the African continent. This is a distinct subspecies, confined to eastern Tanzania.
32904		habitat	eng	Moist lowland forest.
32905		conservation	eng	Much interest has been generated in replanting programmes and various institutes are involved in research into wild populations and the conservation of representative genetic samples of remaining populations in the form of, for example, clonal seed orchards. The species is grown in small-scale species trials in Kenya and the Solomon Islands.
32905		distribution	eng	A taxonomically controversial species, which has a strong possibility of being sunk into <em>Pachira</em>.  Distributed from southern Honduras to northern Colombia and Venezuela,
32905		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are fragmented within remaining areas of seasonally dry lowland forest.
32905		threats	eng	The species is threatened at the provenance level, most notably in the Choluteca valley in Honduras, eastern Nicaragua and northern Colombia. Burning, overexploitation of the timber and increasing settlement and conversion of the habitat for agriculture are the main causes of population and genetic losses. Although occurring in national parks, the habitat is relatively poorly represented in protected areas.
32906		habitat	eng	A species of moist forest at a wide altitudinal range.
32907		conservation	eng	The forest is protected by two forest guards, employed in the Catchment Forest Project.
32907		distribution	eng	Two subpopulations are known. One is restricted to Kimboza Forest Reserve, which covers 4 km² of moist semi-deciduous coastal forest within a densely populated area, the other is restricted to low elevations in the Udzungwa Mts.
32907		habitat	eng	Moist semi-deciduous coastal forest.
32907		threats	eng	High demand for wood.
32908		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-east Tanzania.
32908		habitat	eng	A species of dry coastal forest.
32909		distribution	eng	West Usambara Mts., Uluguru Mts. and at Lupembe in the Kipengere range.
32909		habitat	eng	A montane taxon confined to moist forest.
32910		distribution	eng	East and West Usambara Mts. A doubtful record also originates from the Udzungwa Mts.
32910		habitat	eng	A subspecies confined to moist evergreen forest at submontane altitudes.
32911		distribution	eng	Mt. Rungwe and along Mkenja River. It is also apparently cultivated in Zambia.
32911		habitat	eng	A tree of moist montane forest at altitudes of between 1,400 and 1,500 m.
32912		distribution	eng	East Usambara and south Nguru Mts.
32912		habitat	eng	A species that occurs in lowland forest.
32913		distribution	eng	A species endemic to south-east Tanzania.
32913		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining areas of dry coastal forest.
32914		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree from two locations in south-east Tanzania, one in Kilwa and the other near Lindi.
32914		habitat	eng	It is restricted to areas of dry coastal forest.
32915		distribution	eng	This monospecific genus is restricted to the East and possibly the West Usambara Mts.
32915		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist forest at elevations of 760-1,000 m.
32915		threats	eng	The species has suffered severe habitat losses and degradation in the past.
32916		population	eng	Repeated searches for this species at its type locality have failed to rediscover it. It was collected in the 1930s in an area of forest on the sides of Lake Lutamba, which has since been cleared.
32917		distribution	eng	The species is locally dominant in a 0.25 ha patch of forest near Lindi and elsewhere only from a single forest patch located 40 km away. The latter site has not been visited recently and the forest may have disappeared.
32918		distribution	eng	The species is known from near Mkoe from a single collection made in the 1940s.
32918		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
32918		population	eng	It is possible the species' habitat has been destroyed.
32919		distribution	eng	East and south-east Tanzania.
32919		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to dry coastal forest patches.
32920		conservation	eng	There are proposals to re-gazette Kiwengoma Forest Reserve (20 km²).
32920		distribution	eng	Two areas on the Matumbi and Kichi Hills are the only known localities where the species is known.
32920		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
32920		threats	eng	The sites are not protected and are open to exploitation. Of particular concern are the logging of commercial species in the valleys and the potential level of encroachment of an increasing human population.
32921		conservation	eng	An attempt is being made to halt intensive charcoal production and agricultural clearance.
32921		distribution	eng	Two varieties are recognised by FTEA. The species as a whole is known only from four forest areas, including Pugu Forest Reserve and Pande Game Reserve (22 km² and 12 km² respectively).
32921		threats	eng	Both reserves are heavily disturbed, having suffered the logging of all valuable timbers and heavy cutting of wood in the forest fringes by local people. Pugu has also been affected by mining, military exercises and agricultural encroachment.
32922		distribution	eng	Found in Port Blair on South Andaman.
32922		habitat	eng	A small tree of coastal forest.
32922		population	eng	It has not been collected since 1916. There are areas which have not been well explored.
32922		threats	eng	Commercial logging has resulted in the habitat becoming considerably more fragmented and reduced in extent.
32923		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya.
32923		habitat	eng	Occurred in subtropical forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
32923		population	eng	The species has not been collected since 1877 and is presumed extinct.
32923		threats	eng	There have been significant declines in the extent of the habitat, largely caused by extensive agriculture and fires.
32924		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to Cherrapunji and Shongpung forests.
32924		population	eng	The species has not been recorded since 1938
32924		threats	eng	The species has clearly suffered from habitat declines.  At Cherrapunji a cement factory has caused the loss of habitat.
32925		conservation	eng	Occurring mostly in protected areas.
32925		distribution	eng	A species with a fragmented and sparse distribution. It is found between the rivers of Sassandra and Cavally in south-west Côte d'Ivoire, including Tai National Park. In Cameroon populations are harboured in Korup National Park and Abong-Mbang. It is relatively widespread in Gabon, where large tracts of forest remain.
32925		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland moist forest.
32925		threats	eng	in Gabon large tracts of forests are under concession to logging companies.
32926		habitat	eng	A lowland swamp forest species exploited for its timber.
32926		population	eng	There is little information on the status of subpopulations or their regeneration.
32926		threats	eng	It is expected that overexploitation and habitat degradation are resulting in population declines.
32927		conservation	eng	The largest patch is contained within Tai National Park.
32927		distribution	eng	Two isolated subpopulations are known. In Côte d'Ivoire, the species is confined between the rivers Cavally and Sassandra. More information is needed on the other subpopulation in Cameroon.
32927		habitat	eng	Swampy areas within remaining forest patches (Côte d'Ivoire).
32927		threats	eng	Logging and the influx of people have caused a rapid decline and degradation of the habitat.
32928		distribution	eng	Confined to remaining forested areas in Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire.
32928		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
32929		distribution	eng	Extending from Côte d'Ivoire to Gabon. It is the sole member of the genus.
32929		habitat	eng	It occurs in semi-deciduous forest.
32929		population	eng	The species is relatively widespread but rare within a rapidly declining habitat.
32929		threats	eng	Semi-deciduous forest has been heavily logged everywhere.
32930		distribution	eng	This species is severely restricted in the Upper Guinea part of its range, where it was found once in Bafing, between Biankouma and Touba in Côte d'Ivoire. In Cameroon and the Central African Republic its status is not yet known.
32930		habitat	eng	Riverine forest.
32931		distribution	eng	It is known from the Eastern, Western and Southern Highlands, Madang and Morobe Provinces.
32931		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in primary or secondary rainforest or submontane forest from 600 to 1,300 m.
32932		distribution	eng	The species occurs on the southern Pacific slopes, south-east of Palmar north.
32932		habitat	eng	On steep slopes of evergreen lowland rainforest.
32932		population	eng	Known only from a collection made in 1986.
32933		distribution	eng	Occurring in the areas of Uxpanapa-Chimalapa and Los Tuxtlas.
32933		habitat	eng	A large tree of high precipitation rainforest.
32934		distribution	eng	Nicaragua.
32934		habitat	eng	A tree which is known solely from montane and cloud forests.
32935		distribution	eng	Two collections have been made in Puntarenas Province in Costa Rica and in Colón in Panama.
32935		habitat	eng	Understorey tree in lowland wet evergreen forest.
32936		distribution	eng	Known only from a single location, Bisiatabu in the Central Province.
32936		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in forest at 450 m.
32936		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by logging and the increasing settlement.
32937		distribution	eng	Found in central-east Sumatra and throughout Borneo.
32937		habitat	eng	Occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest in the lowlands.
32938		habitat	eng	A widespread shrub or small tree found in the understorey of mixed dipterocarp forest and old secondary forest on various soil types.
32940		distribution	eng	Known from the East and Western Highlands, Morobe, Northern and Central provinces of Papua New Guinea.
32940		habitat	eng	A tree often found in <em>Castanopsis-Nothofagus</em> rainforest from 900 to 2,000 m.
32940		threats	eng	Its conservation is dependent upon the conservation of its montane habitat.
32941		habitat	eng	A gregarious, often dominant tree of lowland freshwater swamp and peat-swamp forest.
32941		threats	eng	Subpopulations have been heavily depleted as the most important source of ramin timber. The species is also threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss. A recent investigation by Dutch and Malaysian experts, following CITES debates on the species, concluded that <em>G. bancanus</em> is not threatened with extinction in Malaysian swamp forests although regeneration in overexploited forests may be a cause for concern.
32944		conservation	eng	Within national and state parks the tree is conserved.
32944		distribution	eng	Throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
32944		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and hill forest.  It often occurs on hillsides and ridges, although it has also been recorded in seasonal swamps and disturbed forests.
32944		population	eng	Common.
32944		threats	eng	Pressures on the species occur from felling activities and the expansion of human settlements.
32945		distribution	eng	Confined to Mt. Victoria in the central district.
32945		habitat	eng	A small tree of secondary forest at 2,040 m.
32946		distribution	eng	High areas of Chiapas. The taxonomic status of the subspecies may need confirmation. The species is widespread in eastern North America.
32946		habitat	eng	A medicinal plant, found scattered in dry montane forest above 1,500 m.
32947		distribution	eng	This deciduous species is native to west and north Madagascar but is cultivated throughout this and many other tropical countries.
32947		threats	eng	The main native subpopulations found around Antsiranana occur in areas that are threatened from charcoal production.  It is used widely as an ornamental tree.
32949		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type locality.
32949		habitat	eng	Forest in a humid ravine.
32950		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica and in the Chiriquí Highlands in Panama, where it is fairly abundant
32950		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane forest.
32951		distribution	eng	Although reported from Panama, there is no information in the literature or in herbaria in Panama to indicate where the species is located.
32952		distribution	eng	Known from sites in the San Ramón Forest Reserve, near Ciudad Quesada and east of Río Sarapiquí in Heredia Province.
32952		habitat	eng	A species of wet submontane rainforest.
32953		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to just three neighbouring localities on the Atlantic side of Panama. The largest subpopulation occurs in Santa Rita. A specimen collected in 1984 from Valle del Cauca in Colombia has also been included in this species.
32953		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
32953		threats	eng	Increasing settlement in Santa Rita has destroyed much of the remaining forest. The same pressures are affecting the subpopulation along the highway from El Lano to Cartí.
32954		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> (only saw-logs, sawn wood and veneers are subject to CITES controls).
32954		distribution	eng	Trees are usually  seen as scattered and isolated individuals, preserved in cultivated land and pastures.
32954		habitat	eng	A species of dry deciduous forest, savanna, rough scrub, rocky hillsides and cultivated fields.
32954		population	eng	Large specimens are rare.
32954		threats	eng	The timber is used in local carpentry, but is of little commercial importance.
32955		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
32955		distribution	eng	A less valuable but rarely distinguished source of lignum-vitae than <em>G. officinale</em>. from most of the Caribbean islands. In Central America and Florida remaining subpopulations are confined to restricted areas.
32955		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland dry forest.
32955		population	eng	The species is now extinct or extremely rare across its range. Regeneration is good but growth is very slow.
32955		threats	eng	In Central America and Florida remaining populations are threatened with habitat loss or exploitation, e.g., in Guancaste in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Florida Keys. As with <em>G. officinale</em>, both the timber and medicinal resin are of commercial use and have been traded for several centuries.
32956		distribution	eng	A monotypic species, widespread from Nicaragua to Bolivia and Peru.
32956		habitat	eng	Lowland moist forest types.
32956		population	eng	It is locally common in the Guianas and other countries. Seed-producing trees are sometimes low in numbers but regeneration does not appear to be inadequate. The timber is scarce in international trade.
32956		threats	eng	Has become rarer in some areas where the wood is intensively harvested for local use, notably in Brazil and Colombia.
32957		conservation	eng	The species responds well to periodic burning.
32957		distribution	eng	Pacific side of Central America and Mexico.
32957		habitat	eng	A dry forest species.
32957		population	eng	There is a limited occurrence of the species north of the canal in Panama and reasonably sized subpopulations are reported to be found still in Mexico.
32957		threats	eng	Exploitation as a timber is intense and areas where the species was formerly widespread are almost completely exhausted; this is most notable in Costa Rica.  The habitat has been exploited for 400 years and continuing reductions are caused through cattle ranching and burning.
32958		distribution	eng	Eastern Cuba.
32958		habitat	eng	A tall shrub or tree restricted to the dry evergreen forests and dry lowland shrubwoods.
32958		threats	eng	Habitat declines have been considerable in both communities; logging activities, agriculture and urban development are resulting in land clearance and habitat degradation.
32959		distribution	eng	Found in eastern Cuba.
32959		habitat	eng	Rainforest and upper limit of the montane semi-deciduous forest.
32959		population	eng	A very rare tree.
32959		threats	eng	Habitat declines have been severe in places.
32960		distribution	eng	Subpopulations of this species have been recorded from numerous localities in western Cuba.
32960		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous forest on limestone or serpentine .
32960		population	eng	An uncommon shrub or tree.
32960		threats	eng	The species is threatened by overexploitation, mainly as a source of medicine, and the habitat is threatened by urban development and conversion for agriculture, ranching and tourism.
32961		habitat	eng	This uncommon tree occurs in remaining areas of semi-deciduous forest.
32961		threats	eng	It provides a good-quality timber which is overexploited.
32962		habitat	eng	A tree found in remaining areas of semi-deciduous forest.
32962		threats	eng	Most of the forests are under constant threat of clearance. As a close relative of <em>T. eriostachya</em>, it has suffered from severe overcutting.
32963		distribution	eng	Baracoa, eastern Cuba.
32963		habitat	eng	A very uncommon tree, up to 30 m tall, confined to montane rainforests on limestone.
32963		population	eng	The reduced number of mature individuals makes the survival of this species very unlikely.
32964		distribution	eng	Occurs in Matanzas province and eastern Cuba.
32964		habitat	eng	Dry evergreen forest.
32964		population	eng	An uncommon tree, up to 7 m tall.
32964		threats	eng	Habitat declines have been considerable over the past decades.
32965		habitat	eng	A slow-growing shrub or tree found only occasionally in woodlands and dry evergreen forests on dog-tooth limestone, rocky terraces and cliffs.
32965		threats	eng	The species has been overexploited for its hard, precious wood.
32966		distribution	eng	An imperfectly known species.
32966		habitat	eng	Found in semi-deciduous forests on acid substrate, mainly along rivers and creeks.
32966		threats	eng	Degradation of the habitat has resulted in soil erosion and the invasion of exotic species.
32967		distribution	eng	Central and eastern Cuba.
32967		habitat	eng	A small tree, restricted to areas of coastal dry forest.
32967		threats	eng	Severe habitat degradation and tourist development are the main threats to the species' survival.
32968		distribution	eng	Provinces of Guantánamo, Baracoa and Holguín.
32968		habitat	eng	Woodlands and dry forests over limestone and serpentine bedrocks.
32969		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the mountains of south-western part of Sierra de Nipe in eastern Cuba.
32969		habitat	eng	Deeply eroded limestone mountains.
32970		distribution	eng	Sierra Maestra in eastern Cuba.
32970		habitat	eng	A tree known only from montane rainforest. It occurs mainly along creeks and watercourses.
32971		distribution	eng	Pinar del Río Province and in the mountain ranges of south-central Cuba.
32971		habitat	eng	A very rare tree, up to 10 m high, occurring in montane rainforest.
32971		threats	eng	Its habitat is degraded in places and the species seems particularly vulnerable to ecological impact.
32972		distribution	eng	Found in coastal and subcoastal areas of eastern and south-central Cuba.
32972		habitat	eng	Dry evergreen forest.
32972		population	eng	A very uncommon tree.
32972		threats	eng	The dry evergreen forests where this species thrives have experienced severe degradation in many places.
32973		habitat	eng	An endemic shrub or small tree confined to coastal thickets and dry evergreen forest.
32973		threats	eng	This very rare species has suffered from severe coastal habitat destruction throughout its range.
32974		distribution	eng	Pinar del Río and the Isla de Pinos. The accepted genus of the taxon is now <em>Gordonia</em>.
32974		habitat	eng	A very uncommon tree, up to 15 m tall, occurring in lowland and hill semi-deciduous forest.
32974		threats	eng	The area is under constant pressure from cutting and clearing.
32975		conservation	eng	Since 2001 there has been an official Brazilian ban on log exports of this species. The Brazilian Government is also promotong several initiatives to protect Araucaria genetic resources.
32975		distribution	eng	It occurs in southeastern Brazil (primarily in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande Do Sul, and locally in São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio De Janeiro) and adjacent areas of Argentina (Misiones) and Paraguay. Found at an altitude of 500-1,800 m in Brazil and 500-2,300 m in the adjoining countries.
32975		habitat	eng	Grows in subtropical forest on acidic soils. Araucaria is usually dioecious, rarely monoecious and like other conifers is wind pollinated. pollen maturation and pollination in Brazil occur from August through October. The seed cones begin to mature two years after pollination, and the complete cycle from primitive carpel to seed takes about four years. Young trees begin to set seed between 12 and 15 years of age. Seeds are dispersed between May and August. The species appears to be able to regenerate fairly quickly.
32975		population	eng	Although an abundant species, it has undergone continuous decline in the extent of its occurrence through logging. The original extent of Araucaria forest, estimated at 200,000 km², is believed to have declined by more than 97% in the last century.  In Rio Grande do Sul, for instance, the forest area, over half of which was made up of <em>Araucaria</em>, has plummeted from 40% land cover to 3% today. Araucaria forest in Sâo Paulo covers 4.3% of its original area. The Paraguay population is small and confined to Alto Paraná. Seeding trees are scarce. Small relict populations, covering less than 1,000 ha, in north-east Misiones, Argentina, are all that remain of the forest that in 1960 covered 210,000 ha. The species is included on the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.
32975		threats	eng	Paraná pine is the most important timber species in Brazil. In addition to the massive exploitation for timber, 3,400 tonnes per annum of fruit and seeds are collected for human consumption. Loss of habitat for planting other agricultural crops (wheat, soya and corn) is also a threat.
32976		distribution	eng	South-east Brazil.
32976		habitat	eng	This pioneer species is found in rainforest, dry forest and cerrado.
32976		threats	eng	This region is threatened by encroaching agriculture, ranching and charcoal production, which is causing a decline in this species.
32977		distribution	eng	The species' distribution is contained within an area extending from northern Argentina into Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia.
32977		habitat	eng	Seasonally dry forest.
32977		threats	eng	The habitat is unprotected and in decline because of logging and encroaching agriculture and pastoralism. The species is sought-after as a source of timber. In Bolivia it is one of several species, native to semi-deciduous forest in eastern Santa Cruz, which are experiencing increased logging pressure.
32978		conservation	eng	Several localities are protected and the species occurs on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
32978		distribution	eng	The largest subpopulations occur in south Paraná and north Santa Catarina, where the species occurs in almost pure stands. Suggestions that subpopulations exist in Argentina and Paraguay need verification.
32978		habitat	eng	One of the dominant species of <em>Araucaria</em> forest, also occurring in various other habitat types.
32978		threats	eng	Although present in large numbers, the species is slow-growing and declining in numbers through timber exploitation. In rates of extraction, the species is second only to Paraná pine.
32979		distribution	eng	North-east Brazil.
32979		habitat	eng	Common on hillsides, this shrubby tree is found on caatinga.
32979		threats	eng	It is slowly declining as a result of exploitation for timber and fuel.
32980		distribution	eng	Brazil, from Minas Gerais to Paraná.
32980		habitat	eng	This species grows in highland dry forests.
32980		population	eng	Fairly widespread.
32980		threats	eng	Deforestation in this region has been severe.
32981		distribution	eng	Found in east Minas Gerais, north Espírito Santo to the south of Bahia.
32981		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
32981		threats	eng	The species has been in decline through forest conversion for agriculture, livestock and plantation projects. In addition, it is exploited for the valuable boleira wood.
32982		conservation	eng	Plantations have been set up, but the demand for leaves is still, apparently, greater than the supply from cultivated stands.
32982		distribution	eng	Occurring in the subtropical and temperate regions of South America.
32982		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of mixed <em>Araucaria</em> forest.
32982		threats	eng	For centuries the leaves have been used to make a tonic and stimulant drink. The rates of exploitation, in some areas, are believed to have caused a significant decline in population numbers.
32983		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been greatly reduced because of massive forest conversion over the last century for agriculture, livestock and plantations. The heavy, decay-resistant wood is of commercial value and the last stands are gradually being cut down.
32984		distribution	eng	Widespread in Brazil.
32984		habitat	eng	This tree is confined to cerrados.
32984		threats	eng	The species has suffered from habitat conversion for agriculture. In addition, exploitation of its excellent quality timber and medicinal seeds has led to massive declines in population numbers.
32985		conservation	eng	t is found in a number of protected areas and it is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by IBAMA. Listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.
32985		distribution	eng	The highest concentrations of the species are located in southern Bahia and northern Espírito Santo.
32985		habitat	eng	Hygrophilous forest on rich soils.
32985		threats	eng	Brazilian rosewood is one of the most highly prized woods in Brazil. The timber has been harvested since colonial times for high-quality furniture and musical instruments. Rates of deforestation are great. Regeneration appears to be poor, possibly because of seed predation by rodents.
32986		conservation	eng	There are various subpopulations in protected areas and on protected corporate properties.  There have been relatively few successes at establishing plantations. The sustainable harvesting of nuts by indigenous people in extractive forest reserves offers the most promising protection for the remaining natural stands.
32986		distribution	eng	Large natural stands still exist in northern Bolivia and the species is locally abundant in Suriname.
32986		habitat	eng	A widely occurring emergent of the Amazonian forest.
32986		threats	eng	The Brazil nut tree has experienced major declines in its population because of deforestation.  One of the greatest concentrations of trees exists in Tocantins valley where various activities, from the construction of the trans-amazon railway to the building of a reservoir, have brought about a shrinking in the gene pool.  An area of 200,000 ha in south Pará has been purchased by the government with the aim of settling landless farmers. Trees remaining in the vast cattle ranches of Pará and Acre are neglected and dying.  The production of Brazil nuts more than halved between 1970 and 1980, apparently because of deforestation. Almost all Brazil nuts consumed around the world still come from wild trees. Little is known about the impact of seed gathering on regeneration, but it clearly can be detrimental under some regimes where agoutis, the natural disperser of the Brazil nut, are hunted or chased away.
32987		distribution	eng	Occurs along the banks of the Paraná and Uruguay River systems. The genus is under taxonomic review.
32987		habitat	eng	Lowland forest along river bank. It also extends into cerrado forest.
32987		population	eng	A common species. The species has become scarce in places but it is still reported to occur in abundance in a large part of its range.
32987		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the timber and deforestation.
32989		distribution	eng	Colonising land after substantial disturbances, the species occurs in large, almost monodominant stands. In many areas these have been drastically reduced, the largest now remaining in regions of Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
32989		habitat	eng	Montane forest, occurring between 800 and 3,400 m.
32990		distribution	eng	The species' distribution is disjunct, ranging from north and central Ecuador to Ayacucho in Peru. Occurrences in Colombia and Bolivia are based on taxonomic misconceptions.
32990		habitat	eng	Trees occur in small stands, pure or mixed with other <em>Polylepis</em> species, above 3,300 m.
32990		threats	eng	In all parts of the range the forests are severely affected by burning, as well as cutting for firewood and charcoal production. Commercial logging of this species, along with <em>P. weberbaueri</em>, has taken place within the boundaries of Huascarán National Park. The destruction of <em>Polylepis</em> forest in Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Cuzco has been particularly thorough.
32991		distribution	eng	Found in northern Ecuador and in small areas of eastern central and south Peru.
32991		habitat	eng	The tallest of the <em>Polylepis</em> species. It is restricted to remaining small areas of mixed montane forest between 1,800 and 3,600 m.
32991		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened mainly by fires, which are lit to support grazing and which frequently encroach upon forested areas.
32992		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub, confined to a series of localities stretching along the eastern slope of the Cordillera Real from south-east Peru to north-east Bolivia.
32992		habitat	eng	In the transition zone between humid montane forests and puna grasslands.
32992		population	eng	A rare species.
32992		threats	eng	Its habitat is highly vulnerable to local activities, especially the fires which are induced to support grazing and which frequently encroach upon forested areas.
32993		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is disjunct. Occurs in central and south-west Ecuador, and in Peru in the north-west and further south in the Cordillera Blanca and Cuzco-Apurimac area.
32993		habitat	eng	Subpopulations occur in humid montane forest above 3,000 m.  Both this species and <em>P. incana</em> are being logged inside Huascarán National Park.
32993		population	eng	A forest covering 20 km² in Cuzco was completely destroyed by burning two years ago. Remaining stands are almost exclusively reduced to boulder-scree, stream ravines and rock ledges, where they are sheltered from most fires.
32993		threats	eng	The species is particularly sensitive to burning.
32994		conservation	eng	Through most of its range it is well protected in Soberanía and Chagres National Parks and in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.
32994		distribution	eng	Occurring in various sites in Panama, nowhere very common. Outside protected areas it has been reported just once, from the province of Veraguas.
32994		habitat	eng	A species of lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
32996		distribution	eng	This species has been treated as a synonym of <em>P. chihuahuana</em>. It is a timber tree confined to just two sites in Nuevo León.
32996		habitat	eng	Montane forest near streams.
32996		population	eng	Timber has been extracted in recent years in the larger of the two populations. The other population has fewer than 15 individuals
32996		threats	eng	Fire is the main threat.
32998		habitat	eng	One of the only mango species and one of the few tropical fruit trees that can grow at high altitudes, up to 1,700 m. It grows in wet evergreen forest in mountainous areas.
33001		distribution	eng	There is some dispute over the wild origins of this species, but it is generally believed to be the more restricted in range of the two members of the genus. Wild populations are recorded in Son La in Viet Nam and in Myanmar.
33001		habitat	eng	Evergreen broadleaved forest from low to medium elevation.
33002		distribution	eng	The species appears to be endemic to Isaurian Taurus.
33003		distribution	eng	Endemic to a small area in Babadag, near Fethiye in Mugla.
33003		habitat	eng	A tree of montane scrub.
33004		habitat	eng	A species of montane areas.
33005		habitat	eng	A species which occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest, mainly on coastal hills and inland ridges.
33006		habitat	eng	A species scattered in semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33006		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor.
33007		distribution	eng	Recently <em>D. philippinensis</em> has been discovered to be conspecific.
33007		habitat	eng	In Indo-China and Thailand the species occurs gregariously along river banks, and in the Philippines it is found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
33007		population	eng	The conservation status is based on the rate of habitat loss.
33007		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33008		distribution	eng	A species found scattered in the greatly reduced lowland evergreen forests of South East Asia.
33008		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
33008		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
33009		distribution	eng	A large tree endemic to the Western Ghats, occurring principally in Kerala, with one or two occurrences extending into Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
33009		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
33010		conservation	eng	Populations are found within reserves.
33010		distribution	eng	Natural hybrids are formed with <em>D. obtusifolius</em> in Thailand and with <em>D. gracilis</em> in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia.
33010		habitat	eng	This species is widely scattered in lowland, hill and upper dipterocarp forest.
33011		habitat	eng	A lowland tree of semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest and <em>Schima</em>/bamboo forest.
33011		population	eng	The conservation status is based on rates of habitat loss.
33011		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33012		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to exist within reserves.
33012		habitat	eng	A relict species of the Pleistocene Sundaland, occurring in primary semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33012		population	eng	The conservation status of the species is based on rates of habitat loss and conversion.
33012		threats	eng	Substantial amounts of keruing timber and also large quantities of oleo-resin are harvested.
33013		habitat	eng	A species which is locally common in lowland semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33016		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are protected in reserves.
33016		habitat	eng	A large tree found in mixed deciduous, evergreen and semi-evergreen forest.
33016		population	eng	The conservation status is based on the rate of habitat loss.
33016		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33017		distribution	eng	Collected only once from a site near Kudremukh.
33017		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
33018		distribution	eng	Confined to the southern end of the Western Ghats. The most northerly occurrence is recorded in the Nilgiri Hills, the most southerly in the Agastyamalai range.
33018		habitat	eng	The species has been collected from scattered localities in low to medium altitude evergreen forest.
33019		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur within forest reserves.
33019		habitat	eng	This species is locally common on leached soils.
33020		population	eng	This species is very rare and restricted in range.
33021		distribution	eng	Endemic to the south-west, the species is common and has a relatively wide distribution.
33021		habitat	eng	Evergreen, semi-deciduous and deciduous moist forest from sea level to about 900 m.
33021		population	eng	It appears to be regenerating well in the wild.
33022		distribution	eng	This tree is known from scarce and scattered collections from the southern end of the Western Ghats.
33022		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
33023		distribution	eng	Thenmala and the Silent Valley in Kerala, and in Tirunelveli and Courtallam in Tamil Nadu.
33023		habitat	eng	This slow-growing species is restricted to a small area of semi-evergreen forest, usually near large rivers.
33023		population	eng	It regenerates copiously around the parent tree.
33024		population	eng	It can occur frequently and regeneration is observed to be good.
33026		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of the species occur in some forest reserves.
33026		habitat	eng	A large tree found on well-drained soil in coastal areas.
33028		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in forest reserves.
33028		habitat	eng	A widespread dipterocarp, unusual for its adaptation to withstand adverse climatic conditions and soil types. It occurs in dry evergreen or deciduous forest and bamboo forest, often on sandy soils.
33028		population	eng	In India, there are healthy regenerating subpopulations in the south.
33029		conservation	eng	Some populations are contained in forest reserves. Trees are being planted on a small scale.
33029		habitat	eng	A slow-growing species, found primarily in the west coast evergreen forests, and also occasionally in secondary evergreen dipterocarp forest in the south.
33029		population	eng	Few healthy populations remain. Regeneration is said to be good where allowed.
33029		threats	eng	The timber has been overexploited, particularly for the plywood industry. Loss of habitat and other human activities have also contributed to population declines.
33030		distribution	eng	No records were made during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct in Sri Lanka. In India, it is scattered in the Western Ghats.
33030		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest, often occurring in patches near freshwater swamps and rivers.
33031		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of the species occur in forest reserves.
33031		distribution	eng	Subpopulations in Bangladesh and Myanmar are more localised than elsewhere.
33031		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in moist forest.
33032		habitat	eng	Dry forest and woodland.
33032		population	eng	A widespread species which has declined in population numbers.
33032		threats	eng	Exploitation of the timber for the international market.
33033		habitat	eng	A widespread rainforest species.
33033		threats	eng	It is heavily exploited throughout its range for its valuable timber. In some areas there are reported to be few seed trees remaining.
33034		habitat	eng	A rainforest species.
33034		threats	eng	Heavily exploited for its commercial timber. Relatively few seed trees remain throughout its range.
33035		population	eng	A widespread and often common timber species which has suffered heavy exploitation. Mature individuals are scattered and becoming rare in places.
33035		threats	eng	Timber exploitation.
33036		habitat	eng	A timber species which occurs in some abundance especially in wetter evergreen forest.
33036		threats	eng	Habitat loss and exploitation are serious threats in most places. Seeds have poor viability and regeneration has been observed to be poor.
33037		distribution	eng	Scattered throughout semi-deciduous forests in tropical Africa.
33037		habitat	eng	Emergent species in semi-deciduous forests.  It regenerates in canopy gaps.  It performs less well in burnt or heavily disturbed forests.
33037		threats	eng	Heavily exploited for its timber.
33038		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
33038		population	eng	A relatively rare rainforest species.
33038		threats	eng	Heavy exploitation for the timber is the main cause of its decline.
33039		conservation	eng	Minimum exploitable diameters have been set in several countries, these should be enforced where possible. Better protection and prevention of illegal logging in protected areas may ensure the future survival of this species.
33039		distribution	eng	<em>Baillonella</em> is a monotypic genus endemic to the Guinea-Congolian Regional Centre of Endemism.
33039		habitat	eng	Moabi is restricted to areas of primary evergreen and old secondary lowland rainforest, 0–500 m alt. Maturation rates are slow: 90–100 years, and regeneration occurs only under a closed canopy.
33039		threats	eng	The species is overexploited for its timber and is seriously declining in large parts of its range. It is the second most important exported wood in Gabon. Amongst other local uses the tree produces edible oil which can fetch high market prices.
33041		distribution	eng	An Upper Guinea endemic.
33041		habitat	eng	Most abundant in moist evergreen forests.
33041		population	eng	It can occur commonly and regeneration appears to be good.
33041		threats	eng	Exploitation of the timber, as well as habitat loss, throughout its range are causing population declines.
33042		habitat	eng	A widespread timber species which occurs in closed forests and secondary formations.   It regenerates well after disturbance.
33042		population	eng	It appears to be less common and more seriously threatened in the eastern parts of its range.
33042		threats	eng	Large-scale exploitation, as well as declines in the extent of the habitat, is occurring throughout its range.
33043		habitat	eng	A timber species occurring in closed forest and secondary formations. It regenerates well in disturbed  forest; e.g., along logging roads.
33043		threats	eng	Exploitation is moderate and the current threatened status of the species should be kept under review.
33044		habitat	eng	This species is uncommon in lowland and hill forest.
33045		conservation	eng	A protected population is contained within Taman Negara National Park.
33045		distribution	eng	Occurring throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
33045		habitat	eng	Moist forest up to an altitude of 1,060 m.
33046		distribution	eng	A few localities are known in southernmost Somalia and from the Tana River in Kenya, where it can be locally dominant. It also extends into north-east Tanzania.
33046		habitat	eng	A tree of riverine or groundwater forest, extending into periodically flooded bushland.
33046		threats	eng	The habitat is reduced and degraded through overcutting. The timber of this species is used for construction work.
33047		conservation	eng	The population in the Marsabit National Reserve is protected. The species is also being propagated as part of the Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya.
33047		distribution	eng	Confined to small localities near Meru and Marsabit.
33047		habitat	eng	A buttressed tree of upland moist evergreen forest.
33048		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33048		threats	eng	Virtually all large trees of this species have been felled for the ebony wood, except perhaps in the most remote parts of its range.
33049		conservation	eng	There are protected populations and felling limits in various countries.
33049		threats	eng	One of the main sources of African mahogany. The commercial exploitation of this timber species has resulted in the large-scale extraction of mature individuals throughout its range. Significant genetic erosion has been reported in some countries. It has the potential to occur commonly and regenerates well after logging damage but not after burning. The seed does not appear to disperse over great distances and regeneration is poor away from parent trees. A slow-growing species.
33050		conservation	eng	There are protected populations and felling limits in various countries.
33050		distribution	eng	One of the major sources of African mahogany. The species is widespread and heavily exploited throughout its range.
33050		population	eng	Subpopulation densities are comparatively low and seed production is erratic, but regeneration appears to be good where parent trees remain and may also occur to some degree after burning.
33051		conservation	eng	There are protected subpopulations and felling limits in various countries.
33051		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in semi-deciduous forests. In comparison with other species of <em>Entandrophragma</em>, this species can occur in drier habitats, including abandoned fields, but it does not respond well to burning.
33051		population	eng	A major source of African hardwood. Growth rates are amongst the slowest in the genus.
33051		threats	eng	Exploited heavily throughout its range. Genetic erosion caused by the large-scale depletion of mature individuals from populations has taken place in some countries.
33052		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Guineo-Congolian region.
33052		habitat	eng	It grows in mature little-disturbed lowland rainforest.
33052		population	eng	This timber species is declining in population numbers. In the main Democratic Republic of Congo/Nigeria forest block it is generally rare or absent.
33052		threats	eng	Heavy exploitation and habitat loss.
33053		habitat	eng	Different forest types, from closed rainforest to drier semi-deciduous forest.
33053		population	eng	A West African timber which occurs in moderate densities.
33053		threats	eng	Exploitation rates of the wood are high and causing population declines. The timber acts as a popular substitute for rosewood.
33054		conservation	eng	This species can be found in state parks.
33054		distribution	eng	Kedah, Perak, Penang, Pahang, Johore and Singapore.
33054		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland, submontane and hill rainforests.
33055		habitat	eng	Tropical evergreen rainforest is the optimal habitat for this species. However, it occurs also in gallery forest and semi-deciduous forest and is often found in towns or on the outskirts of villages. It is restricted to fairly wet, well-drained loamy to clayey soils.
33055		threats	eng	Population numbers have declined through logging operations, the expansion of human settlements and poor natural regeneration.
33056		conservation	eng	Improved protection and management (e.g., felling regimes) of existing forest reserves is required.
33056		habitat	eng	Azobé is a pioneer species and occurs abundantly in wet evergreen forest.
33056		population	eng	In Cameroon it is common, widespread and regenerates easily in many areas and does not appear threatened, however, this is evidently not the case in other parts of its range.
33056		threats	eng	Wet evergreen forest continues to experience large-scale destruction. Slow growth rate, poor regeneration in less than optimum conditions and over exploitation as a timber species are contributing to the decline in population numbers through most of its range. Its timber, Azobe, rich in silica, is resistant to marine borer and favoured for use in jetties.
33057		habitat	eng	African walnut or dibetou occurs in evergreen and deciduous forest, generally in moist sites. Regeneration occurs only in canopy gaps.
33057		threats	eng	Germination success is somewhat limited by short-lived seeds which are heavily predated. Exploitation rates are high. It is one of the two principal timber species in Congo.
33058		conservation	eng	Good management of lowland production forest reserves should ensure the survival of this species.
33058		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, up to 800 m altitude (in Cameroon at least)
33058		population	eng	A widespread species which is found in low densities in the wild.
33058		threats	eng	It is heavily exploited for its timber, which is used in general construction work. Regeneration is good in large canopy gaps but the species is outcompeted by other pioneers after clear-felling.
33059		distribution	eng	A timber species occurring in forest areas in West and Central Africa.
33059		population	eng	It is much rarer than, but commonly confused with, <em>P. macrocarpa</em>.
33059		threats	eng	The species appears to be suffering declines because of levels of exploitation through most of  its range.
33060		habitat	eng	A common tree of dry forests.
33060		population	eng	Regeneration is reported to be abundant in areas of logging damage.
33060		threats	eng	Exploitation for the timber occurs at high levels throughout its range and is likely to be causing population declines.
33061		distribution	eng	Widespread in closed forests in West and Central Africa.
33061		population	eng	Although widespread, the species is not common.
33061		threats	eng	It is exploited at a moderate level as a decorative timber. There is also evidence that regeneration may be hampered in places by the absence of its seed disperser, the elephant.
33062		conservation	eng	Attempts at plantation growth have generally failed through frequent diebacks.
33062		habitat	eng	Remaining forest areas. Apparently adult trees are common along roadsides.
33062		population	eng	A West African timber species found scattered in low densities.
33062		threats	eng	Exploitation is moderate. Poor regeneration is often attributed to crop failure.
33063		distribution	eng	There are only two species in the genus.
33063		habitat	eng	An important timber species found mainly in wet evergreen rainforest.
33063		threats	eng	Overexploitation in some countries is leading to serious population declines, notably in Ghana and in Liberia, where there is a possibility of the species becoming extinct. Regeneration may also be limited in parts of its range because of the reduction in elephant numbers and other seed dispersers.
33064		conservation	eng	The tree is sometimes planted on farmland.
33064		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus endemic to the Guineo-Congolian regional center of endemism.
33064		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found in moist semi-deciduous forest, often in poorly drained places.
33064		population	eng	Regeneration appears to be sufficient.
33064		threats	eng	It is exploited at moderate levels for its timber and is becoming rare in places.
33065		conservation	eng	Recorded in a number of proposed reserve sites.
33065		distribution	eng	A timber tree which is widespread.
33065		threats	eng	Land conversion and destruction over the past century.
33066		habitat	eng	A species of mixed peat-swamp forest and heath forest.
33067		habitat	eng	A large tree scattered throughout mixed dipterocarp forest on well-drained soil.
33067		threats	eng	The habitat has been widely cleared and destroyed.
33068		conservation	eng	Some populations occur within reserves.
33068		habitat	eng	On giant podzols and poor sandy soils, often near the coast and in lowland heath forest.
33068		population	eng	A tree that is locally common.
33069		conservation	eng	Recorded within some reserves.
33069		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to sandy low hills.
33069		population	eng	It is widespread but populations are localised.
33069		threats	eng	Declining habitat.
33070		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of the species are known to occur in forest reserves.
33071		distribution	eng	A lowland subspecies found on well-drained land in humid areas.
33072		population	eng	The conservation status of this species is based on the rate of habitat loss and conversion.
33072		threats	eng	Habitat loss and conversion.
33073		population	eng	The conservation status is based upon the rate of habitat loss.
33073		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33074		habitat	eng	A large tree of secondary and primary forest and freshwater swamp forest.
33074		population	eng	The conservation status is based on rates of habitat loss.
33074		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33075		habitat	eng	A species with a localised distribution in mixed dipterocarp forest on leached clay soils.
33076		population	eng	The conservation status is based on rates of habitat loss.
33076		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33077		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of the species are found in forest reserve.
33077		habitat	eng	A large tree which is an important source of keruing timber.
33079		conservation	eng	Some populations are found within forest reserves.
33079		habitat	eng	A large tree which occurs locally in dry forest on coastal hills.
33080		habitat	eng	This species occurs in both primary and secondary forest, especially along rivers and in freshwater swamps.
33081		habitat	eng	A large tree restricted to shallow acidic soils.
33082		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.
33082		habitat	eng	Widespread on coastal hills and inland ridges.
33083		conservation	eng	It is also contained within a number of forest reserves in Peninsular Malaysia.
33083		habitat	eng	Scattered throughout lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33084		habitat	eng	This variety is found growing in the evergreen and semi-evergreen dipterocarp forests. The species, as a whole, represents the only dipterocarp which readily reinvades cultivated land.
33084		threats	eng	The conservation status of the species is based upon the rate of habitat loss.
33085		habitat	eng	A lowland subspecies found locally in permanently wet zones.
33086		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah.
33086		habitat	eng	The species is found in mixed dipterocarp forest on low coastal hills.
33087		distribution	eng	Philippines.
33087		habitat	eng	A widespread species in the greatly diminished evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
33088		habitat	eng	A species of primary lowland forest.
33088		threats	eng	Seriously threatened by the loss of its habitat.
33089		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-east Luzon.
33089		habitat	eng	Lowland primary forest.
33089		population	eng	A locally abundant species.
33089		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
33090		population	eng	A widespread and locally common species.
33091		habitat	eng	Lowland primary forest.
33091		population	eng	This species may already be extinct.
33092		distribution	eng	Philippines.
33092		habitat	eng	Non-seasonal evergreen forest.
33092		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
33093		habitat	eng	A species which is locally common in lowland semi-evergreen forest.
33094		conservation	eng	Proposed reserves occur within the range of this species.
33094		habitat	eng	A tree found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
33095		conservation	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia the species is reported in several forest reserves.
33095		habitat	eng	A relatively small dipterocarp, which is found mainly in lowland evergreen rainforest on sandy soils, and also in heath forest in parts of Indo-China.
33095		threats	eng	Populations in Cambodia are seriously reduced by past chemical warfare, exploitation and habitat reduction.
33096		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of the species is semi-evergreen forest and sometimes evergreen forest.
33096		threats	eng	It is one of the most popular timbers for heavy construction work in the Philippines.
33097		conservation	eng	This threatened species is located in a proposed reserve site.
33097		habitat	eng	A very large dipterocarp tree of lowland primary forest.
33097		threats	eng	Used as white seraya timber and is the most important commercial timber of northern Borneo.
33098		habitat	eng	This species is found in mixed dipterocarp forest on hills.
33099		conservation	eng	An area of forest covering about 50-60,000 ha in different types of peat swamp communities in Brunei may now contain the largest remaining undisturbed stand.
33099		distribution	eng	A large timber tree restricted to Brunei, Sarawak and West Kalimantan.
33099		habitat	eng	It is a characteristic component of the threatened peat-swamp forests, sometimes occurring locally on podzolic soils in heath forest.
33099		threats	eng	Peat-swamp forests are seriously threatened.  Regeneration is reported to be non-existent.
33100		habitat	eng	A large tree, found on hills in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33103		habitat	eng	Common tree of peat-swamp forest.
33104		habitat	eng	This tree grows on yellow sandy loam on undulating land and ridges.
33105		habitat	eng	Found mostly on well-drained lowland coastal hills.
33105		threats	eng	This tree is heavily exploited for white meranti timber, especially in Peninsular Malaysia.
33106		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations also occur in forest reserves.
33106		habitat	eng	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33107		distribution	eng	An endemic tree species of the Philippines.
33107		habitat	eng	Lowland primary evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33107		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
33108		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines.
33108		habitat	eng	This large tree is found in the ever-decreasing lowland seasonal semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33108		threats	eng	It is suffering from exploitation for the light red meranti (or white lauan) timber.
33109		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Sarawak.
33109		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest.
33109		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
33111		habitat	eng	This tree is found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest on well-drained land and is cut for light red meranti timber.
33112		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from some forest reserves.
33112		habitat	eng	A lowland tree locally distributed on deep yellow sandy soils and coastal hills.
33112		threats	eng	It is often cut for dark red meranti timber. The tree is slow-growing and directly threatened by logging because it cannot reach reproductive maturity within a cutting cycle.
33113		habitat	eng	A semi-gregarious species that is found on rocky hillsides and ridges.
33114		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
33115		conservation	eng	In Sarawak trees are protected for the illipe nuts.
33115		habitat	eng	A species found on leached sandy soils and in shallow peat-swamp.
33116		habitat	eng	A large tree often found along streams on clay-rich soils.
33117		habitat	eng	This large tree is found in semi-evergreen and evergreen lowland dipterocarp forest.
33117		threats	eng	This tree produces a good-quality resin (damar temak), which, in the past, was tapped commercially. The wood is used as white meranti timber.
33118		habitat	eng	A species of the dwindling mixed peat-swamp forests.
33118		threats	eng	Threatened by logging for its valuable construction timber, semayur. It is unlikely to survive logging because trees are slow-growing and do not reach reproductive maturity within a logging cycle.
33119		distribution	eng	It produces a high-grade light red meranti timber and for this reason it is a priority plantation tree in Indonesia.
33119		habitat	eng	A lofty tree that occurs locally on well-drained soils at low altitude.
33120		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of the species occur in forest reserves.
33120		habitat	eng	A large tree specific to leached sandy clay soils.
33120		threats	eng	Felled for its valued red balau or red meranti timber.
33122		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some forest reserves.
33122		habitat	eng	A tree that occurs in lowland dipterocarp forest.
33123		population	eng	This species is still found, sometimes in forest reserves.
33123		threats	eng	Has suffered a massive population reduction mainly because of the rates of exploitation of its light red meranti timber.
33124		distribution	eng	Sumatra and northern Borneo.
33124		habitat	eng	An enormous tree of the declining mixed dipterocarp forest.
33124		threats	eng	It is felled for yellow meranti timber.
33126		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of this tree occur in forest reserves.
33127		conservation	eng	Some trees are found in forest reserves.
33127		distribution	eng	One of the main balau timber trees, occurring locally in some abundance on low ridges.
33129		distribution	eng	A widespread subspecies.
33129		habitat	eng	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33130		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33131		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur in primary forest reserves.
33131		distribution	eng	Endemic to northern Borneo.
33131		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33132		population	eng	The species is possibly the most common dipterocarp in Malesia.
33132		threats	eng	It is heavily exploited as the main source of light red meranti timber in South East Asia.
33133		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in primary forest reserves.
33133		population	eng	The species is possibly the most common dipterocarp in Malesia.
33133		threats	eng	It is heavily exploited as the main source of light red meranti timber in South East Asia.
33134		habitat	eng	An immense tree of lowland and hill forest on well-drained soils.
33134		threats	eng	The species is exploited for its valuable dark red meranti timber.
33135		habitat	eng	A timber tree specific to mixed peat-swamp forest.
33136		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are found in primary forest reserves.
33136		habitat	eng	A species found in hilly and mountainous areas on deep fertile soils.
33137		conservation	eng	Protected under the Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).
33137		habitat	eng	A fairly large riverine tree, often occurring in patches in lowland areas.
33138		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are found in some forest reserves.
33138		habitat	eng	A large tree of lowland areas.
33138		threats	eng	Threatened by rates of exploitation. It is the major source of light red meranti timber for north-east Borneo.
33139		habitat	eng	A tree of mixed peat-swamp forest.
33140		habitat	eng	Locally abundant in mixed peat-swamp forest.
33141		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are recorded in some forest reserves.
33141		distribution	eng	A tree, endemic to the Philippines.
33141		habitat	eng	Occurs in the remaining hill evergreen mixed dipterocarp forests.
33141		threats	eng	It is heavily exploited as the most important red meranti timber in the country.
33143		distribution	eng	A large tree that is found throughout the Philippines.
33143		habitat	eng	Well-drained soils in what is left of the evergreen mixed dipterocarp forest.
33144		distribution	eng	Philippines.
33144		habitat	eng	A large, often gregarious, tree that occurs in the remaining lowland seasonal and evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33145		distribution	eng	Philippines.
33145		habitat	eng	This species occurs in non-seasonal evergreen forest.
33145		threats	eng	It is now very nearly extinct because of habitat loss.
33146		distribution	eng	Endemic to the south-west Moluccas.
33146		habitat	eng	This large tree, often the dominant species, occurs in lowland forest.
33148		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus which is endemic to Borneo.
33148		population	eng	It is a slow-growing species but regenerates well in the wild.
33149		habitat	eng	A locally abundant lowland tree.
33150		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo and the Philippines.
33150		habitat	eng	tree, often occurring on ridges, which is restricted to non-seasonal forest.
33151		habitat	eng	Locally common in freshwater swamps and on river banks.
33154		distribution	eng	This species hybridizes with the closely related <em>V. umbonata</em>.
33154		habitat	eng	A small dipterocarp which is scattered in lowland dipterocarp forest.
33155		distribution	eng	A Malayan species, widely distributed from Peninsular Malaysia (Pahang, Tranganu) to Borneo (type locality) and the Philippines (Palawan).
33155		habitat	eng	Common on river banks, but scattered on hillsides up to 1,300 m.
33156		distribution	eng	Distribution is unknown.
33157		distribution	eng	Eastern Luzon and Polillo.
33157		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to very low-altitude evergreen dipterocarp forest.
33158		distribution	eng	Eastern Sumatra and Bangka.
33158		habitat	eng	Found in mixed swamp forest.
33159		distribution	eng	Eastern Sumatra.
33159		habitat	eng	Found below 70 m on sandy soils on low hills.
33160		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.
33161		population	eng	A commercially important timber tree, which is commonly traded in isolation from other members of the genus under the name 'malut'.
33162		habitat	eng	The species is recorded in some primary forest reserves.
33163		distribution	eng	Distributed within Borneo.
33163		habitat	eng	This locally abundant tree occurs on leached sandy soils, sometimes in periodically inundated areas or along streams.
33164		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur within forest reserves.
33164		population	eng	The conservation status of this tree is based upon the rate of habitat loss and conversion.
33164		threats	eng	Habitat loss and conversion.
33166		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur within reserves.
33166		habitat	eng	A large tree of semi-evergreen dipterocarp, evergreen and humid lowland forest.
33166		population	eng	In some areas it is an exceptionally rare tree; in the Philippines only a single collection exists.
33166		threats	eng	Occurs on premium land for conversion to agriculture.
33167		habitat	eng	A tree found in heath forest.
33167		threats	eng	Severely threatened by habitat conversion and degradation.
33168		conservation	eng	Some trees are found in primary forest reserves.
33168		habitat	eng	A small dipterocarp, unusual for its ability to flourish in exposed areas, occurring on rocky, dry land and in bamboo forests.
33170		distribution	eng	Occurrences in Kenya are recorded from the Shimba Hills, Buda and Witu. It is known from a number of forest reserves in Tanzania and is apparently newly found in Somalia in the Jubbada Hoose region.
33170		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree confined to remaining patches of forest.
33170		threats	eng	The demand for agricultural land exerts heavy pressure throughout the range.
33173		conservation	eng	Forest management operations are now discouraging any illegal encroachment or exploitation.
33173		distribution	eng	The range of the species now appears to be confined to undisturbed areas within the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).
33173		threats	eng	Activities in the past resulting from logging and planting commercial timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection have caused extensive damage to the forest.
33174		distribution	eng	In Kenya this small tree occurs in the Shimba Hills National Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve and Buda Mafisini Forest Reserve. More information is needed on the populations in Zaraninge Forest in Bagamoyo and in Mrora forest on Mafia Island, Tanzania.
33174		habitat	eng	Moist semi-deciduous forest.
33174		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation has caused population declines.
33180		habitat	eng	A small tree which occurs in lowland to lower montane rainforest up to 1,220 m, sometimes in swamp forest.
33180		threats	eng	It is exploited throughout its range as one of the best 'bintangor' timbers. The tree has many other uses; bark, roots and latex are used in local medicine and the fruit is edible.
33182		distribution	eng	Confined to Sabah and Sarawak.
33182		habitat	eng	Occurring in secondary forest, especially on periodically flooded sandy alluvium.
33182		population	eng	It is locally common.
33182		threats	eng	An important source of kedondong timber used in house construction.
33183		conservation	eng	It occurs at high densities in a number of forest reserves.
33183		distribution	eng	Endemic to Liberia.
33183		habitat	eng	A lowland forest timber species.
33184		distribution	eng	Gabon, and neighbouring Congo. The Cameroon occurrence is doubtful.
33184		habitat	eng	A speciality timber tree, restricted to areas of coastal forest.
33184		population	eng	Populations in many places are small and scattered, with less than one individual per km². Logging is currently not heavy and populations appear to be stable in areas of Gabon.
33185		distribution	eng	Kribi, Ebolowa and Bipindi in Cameroon and Ogoue and Njole in Gabon.
33185		habitat	eng	A large canopy timber tree found in abundance in lowland rainforest.
33185		threats	eng	The rates of harvesting of the timber are a primary concern throughout its range. Agricultural encroachment upon the habitat is also common.
33186		distribution	eng	Relatively restricted in range, this species occurs in the south of Cameroon on the border with Equatorial Guinea and north of the Ogooué River in Gabon.
33186		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
33186		threats	eng	Both subpopulations are threatened because of the extent of felling and degradation of the habitat.
33187		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.
33187		habitat	eng	Confined to wet evergreen and swampy forest.
33187		population	eng	It occurs commonly in parts of its range.
33187		threats	eng	The effects of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities have caused significant losses in the extent of its occurrence.
33188		conservation	eng	Declared a protected tree in Namibia.
33188		distribution	eng	The dominant species of lowland tropical forest on Kalahari sands.
33188		habitat	eng	Lowland tropical forest.
33188		population	eng	The forests are now degraded and considerably diminished because of increased logging over the last 50 years. Older individuals are also scarce. However, the range of the species has declined fractionally as it can regenerate in modified habitat types and also coppices well.
33188		threats	eng	Logging.  Killed by frequent fires in Namibia.
33189		distribution	eng	A timber species with a wide distribution. There are only two species in the genus.
33189		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33189		threats	eng	No direct information is available on population declines but levels of exploitation are moderate. In much of West Africa habitat degradation is also a problem.
33190		conservation	eng	There are attempts to exploit remaining stands sustainably or at least in a regulated way.
33190		distribution	eng	A key timber species throughout its distribution in woodland areas of East and Southern Africa.
33190		population	eng	Large stands are known to still occur in places, particularly in protected areas in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. Regeneration is sufficient but may be episodic, depending on fire or high rainfall. Individuals are reproductively mature at 15-20 years old.
33190		threats	eng	In most regions, however, the species has become less frequent, especially where it is heavily used by local populations. In most parts of the range there is no control over the rate of harvesting. Large individuals are reported to be suffering from fungal attack.
33191		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.
33191		distribution	eng	A timber species, also known as <em> Afrormosia</em>, which provides an important alternative to teak. Found in Central and West Africa.
33191		habitat	eng	It is a gregarious species, restricted to the drier parts of semi-deciduous forests.
33191		threats	eng	Since 1948 trade in the timber has soared. Levels of exploitation have been unsustainable in all countries and the species' habitat has declined. Regeneration is insufficient to replace lost subpopulations.
33192		habitat	eng	A slow-growing species scattered on low hills and ridges and temporarily inundated sites.
33192		threats	eng	The timber is regarded as very valuable locally and, in the past, exploitation has been considerable in the Philippines.
33193		distribution	eng	In populations on either side of the Dahomey Gap. Occurrence in Cameroon may be incorrect.
33193		habitat	eng	A species which can be found in a variety of moist forest formations.
33193		threats	eng	General forest loss has been high in all three countries where it is found because of logging, mining, oil exploration and commercial forestry activities.
33195		habitat	eng	Species of  lowland seasonal  forest and thicket
33196		distribution	eng	A widespread tree. It is widely planted, both within and outside its natural range.
33196		habitat	eng	Found on sandy beaches near the coast and sometimes inland on sandy soils up to 200 m altitude.
33196		threats	eng	The good quality timber is cut in fairly large amounts and is often traded separately as 'beach calophyllum'.
33197		habitat	eng	Scattered below 300 m in primary freshwater swamp forests and hill forests in drier areas.
33197		threats	eng	This tree is exploited for its highly valued timber. The heavy, hard wood has a similar fragrance to sandalwood and is often used as a substitute.
33198		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam, although the species occurs commonly in areas of evergreen rainforest in the north, there has been severe population declines, resulting in the species being Critically Endangered at a national level (CR A1cd).
33198		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest.
33198		threats	eng	Exploitation of the roots for their commercial essence.
33199		distribution	eng	A very widespread tree.
33199		habitat	eng	Confined to coastal areas in scrub and occasionally in strand forest behind beaches or in thickets behind mangrove swamps.
33199		threats	eng	In the Papuasian region, a major concern has been the heavy exploitation of the species for native carvings and artifacts for the tourist trade, resulting in the rapid disappearance of many mature trees.
33200		distribution	eng	A widespread tree.
33200		habitat	eng	Occurring in various habitat types, including thickets in logged-over forest.
33200		threats	eng	This species is the most important source of geronggang timber.
33201		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland forest.
33202		distribution	eng	Throughout the Philippines.
33202		habitat	eng	An evergreen tree which occurs in primary and secondary forest.
33202		threats	eng	It provides a useful timber and the fruits are edible and also have a medicinal value.
33203		conservation	eng	Felling of the species is now only allowed by quota but continues illegally.
33203		distribution	eng	The species is found only in central and northern Sulawesi.
33203		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland rainforest.
33203		threats	eng	It has been heavily exploited for its fine streaked ebony timber which is used for carving, inlay, furniture and musical instruments. The number of mature trees has declined and large parts of the habitat have been converted to crops.
33206		habitat	eng	A timber tree most often found in rainforests.  In the Philippines it occurs in thickets.
33206		threats	eng	This species is a fairly important source of malas timber.
33208		conservation	eng	The trees are protected from cutting in Kalimantan because wild bees often build nests in the branches. It is also protected in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Bill of 1990.
33208		distribution	eng	There is concern over its conservation status in Sabah.
33208		habitat	eng	One of the tallest rainforest trees ever reported, reaching up to 85 m, found along rivers and in valleys in lowland primary forest and often in secondary growth.
33208		threats	eng	<em>Koompassia</em> timber is currently gaining importance in trade because of the shortage of heavy hardwood timber.
33209		conservation	eng	It is protected in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Bill of 1990.
33209		habitat	eng	This very large tree is found in freshwater peat-swamp forest, usually below 150 m.
33209		threats	eng	It is a useful timber species for heavy construction. <em>Koompassia</em> timber is currently gaining importance in trade because of the shortage of heavy hardwood timber.
33210		habitat	eng	A widespread species found mainly in lowland rainforest, sometimes in hill and montane forest up to 1,400 m.
33210		threats	eng	The wood is traded as perupok timber.  In East Kalimantan, a project has selected out the "superior mother trees".
33211		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout India, Indo-China and Malaysia but uncommon in Sabah.
33211		habitat	eng	This tree grows in ever wet lowland forest, riverine forest, temporarily inundated forest and also on sandy dryland and coral limestone.
33211		threats	eng	All members of the genus are exploited for perupok timber.
33212		conservation	eng	Peninsular Malaysia has banned export of Jelutong logs.  It is also extensively planted.
33212		habitat	eng	A large timber tree, preferring primary evergreen lowland or hill forest up to 300 m.  It is considered Low Risk - least concern because this species regenerates readily in logged-over forest, it coppices well and it is extremely resistant to girdling.
33212		threats	eng	Jelutong has long been exploited for timber and latex and the risk of extinction was recognised 60 years ago.
33213		distribution	eng	Okoumé occurs abundantly in an area covering west and central Gabon and small areas of neighbouring countries.
33213		threats	eng	It continues to be Gabon's most important commercial timber. Repeated felling has led to the deterioration of the gene pool in certain areas. There is some concern as to the long-term status of the species.
33214		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus restricted to small areas in the Usambara Mts., Southern Nguru Mts., Uluguru Mts. and Udzungwa Mts. A population also occurs in the Shimba Hills in Kenya. The nearest relative is a small genus, <em>Brochoneura</em>, in Madagascar.
33214		habitat	eng	Upper moist evergreen forest.
33214		threats	eng	The timber, used for veneer, has been overexploited in the recent past and habitat degradation has also caused population declines.
33215		distribution	eng	Its distribution in Congo and Cameroon is very limited.
33215		habitat	eng	Izombé is a timber species occurring in areas of primary forest and transitional formations.
33215		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation are high and have caused population declines.
33216		conservation	eng	Licences are available now only for the exploitation of dead trees.
33216		distribution	eng	The taxonomic validity of the Mulanje cedar is doubtful. It is most likely to represent a variant of <em>W. nodiflora</em>, which occurs in Zimbabwe and South Africa. It is endemic to Mt. Mulanje, a national park, where the timber has been heavily exploited in the past. The genus contains three or four species, endemic to southern Africa.
33216		threats	eng	Mature individuals appear to be dying at a high rate, possibly because of their sensitivity to fires, which have become more frequent. Regeneration, on the other hand, depends on fire and appears to be extremely poor. <em>Pinus patula</em> has become invasive in areas suitable for <em>Widdringtonia</em> colonization.
33217		distribution	eng	Widespread from Arabia to Zimbabwe. Existing populations in the Arabian Peninsula represent a small fragment of  the woodlands that once existed. Outlying populations in Zimbabwe, the Republic of Congo and Malawi are extremely small and threatened.
33217		habitat	eng	This large tree is found in mountainous areas on rocky ground, mostly between 1,750 and 2,500 m.
33217		threats	eng	At lower elevations populations appear to be regenerating extremely poorly, possibly because of climatic changes. Trees continue to be cut for fuelwood and timber at a local level, and in some places also for export. Changing land-use patterns, browsing, particularly by buffalo and elephants, and the increase in plantations of fast-growing exotic species are also contributing to the species' decline.
33218		distribution	eng	A timber species of West and Central Africa.
33218		habitat	eng	It occurs in various forest types, particularly secondary forest.
33218		threats	eng	Exploitation is moderate. Little is known about regeneration but it does not appear to be abundant and growth rates are slow.
33219		habitat	eng	A species of central African semi-deciduous, sometimes swampy, forest.
33219		threats	eng	In much of its range it is threatened with over exploitation for its decorative timber.
33220		distribution	eng	It grows in the Aegean region on the Greek islands and in Anatolia in Turkey.
33220		habitat	eng	A small tree very similar to <em>Q. coccifera</em>.
33220		population	eng	Populations are localised and isolated.
33221		conservation	eng	It is also widely planted in gardens and within its native range as part of a conservation initiative.
33221		distribution	eng	Occurring, sometimes commonly throughout the eastern end of the island, Harrington Sound, Walsingham and Abbotts Cliff.
33221		habitat	eng	Rocky upland hillsides.
33221		threats	eng	The species is under no immediate threat.
33222		distribution	eng	This species has two forms: forma <em>cuspidata</em> and forma <em>rostrata</em>, both are very common and widespread.
33222		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest.
33223		distribution	eng	Found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and the intervening islands.
33223		habitat	eng	A lowland forest subspecies.
33223		threats	eng	The tree is cut for kedondong timber.
33224		conservation	eng	The species is now the target of a special conservation programme.
33224		distribution	eng	The Liquidambar forests have been reduced from 63 km² to 13.5 km² since 1945. There is some uncertainty in the taxonomy.
33224		threats	eng	Much of the land has been converted for agriculture. Trees are cut for firewood and the resin is collected for the production of fixative in the perfume industry.
33225		habitat	eng	A common tree of lowland primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest.
33225		threats	eng	The timber is strong and durable but difficult to work.
33226		distribution	eng	The species is extremely rare in Papua New Guinea and occurs only on New Georgia and Choiseul in the Solomon Islands, where it is locally common. This species might eventually be split into several distinct species, as the present species concept might be too wide.
33226		habitat	eng	A widespread tree occurring in primary forest reaching an altitude of 1,500 m in some areas.
33227		distribution	eng	Widespread.
33227		habitat	eng	This large tree occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest.  Trees are frequently spared during habitat clearance because the wood is too hard to cut.
33227		threats	eng	Threatened in some cases at a national level.
33229		habitat	eng	A timber species found on low undulating land and hillsides.
33230		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33230		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33231		habitat	eng	A tree of mixed peat-swamp forest. <em>Alstonia</em> spp. Are a fast growing species that readily invades disturbed areas are not considered to be threatened.
33231		threats	eng	In some localities stands of palai are suffering from logging and shifting agriculture.   Traded with other members of the genus as 'pulai'  timber.
33232		distribution	eng	This species has been split into three subspecies. Subspecies <em>costata</em> and <em>rubiginosa</em> are both found throughout most of Malaysia.
33233		distribution	eng	A variable species which has been split into two subspecies (ssp. <em>asperum</em> and ssp. <em>papuanum</em>); subspecies <em>asperum</em> is further divided into two varieties (var. <em>asperum</em> and var. <em>clementis</em>).
33233		habitat	eng	The species is common and occurs in a wide variety of habitats from dry to wet forest, open forest and savanna.
33233		threats	eng	The trees are cut for kedondong timber. It is utilized as a fuelwood and has numerous social uses in the Solomon Islands.
33235		habitat	eng	Primary lowland forest species.
33235		threats	eng	In the Philippines stands have been depleted by logging and shifting agriculture.
33236		habitat	eng	A species found in seasonally and permanent swamp areas and on river banks at low and medium altitudes.
33236		threats	eng	The wood is used as 'penarahan' and the nut is used for nutmeg.
33238		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus. Natural regeneration is sparse and scattered, but it can be good under favourable conditions. The tree is slow-growing; taking about 150 years to reach a diameter of 50 cm.
33238		habitat	eng	Found scattered in the understorey, occasionally reaching the canopy, of primary and secondary lowland rainforest, often mixed dipterocarp forest.
33239		distribution	eng	This monotypic genus is widespread in Malaysia.
33239		habitat	eng	A very large dioecious tree reaching up to 75 m in height. A pioneer species, it regenerates quickly in disturbed habitats such as logged-over forest and areas that were previously cultivated.
33239		threats	eng	This species is one of the major timbers exported from Papua New Guinea, where it is traded under the name 'crima'. In Malaysia and Indonesia, 'bintuang' trees are favoured by local people for the wild bees nesting in the branches.
33241		conservation	eng	Cultivated subpopulations are widely distributed throughout the tropics.
33241		distribution	eng	The Viet Nam subpopulation has been extinct for some 300 years. An extensive forest survey in Sri Lanka has failed to find the species and information on subpopulations in India, Indonesia and the Philippines indicate the species is seriously threatened. Exploitation of the few known stands in Peninsular Malaysia may have caused its extinction there and what are believed to be the largest remaining subpopulations, in New Guinea, are being heavily exploited.
33241		habitat	eng	A widespread tree found in lowland primary and some secondary forest, mainly along tidal creeks and rocky shores.
33241		threats	eng	Subpopulations have declined because of overexploitation, sometimes illegal exploitation, of the narra timber, as well as from increasing general habitat loss.
33242		habitat	eng	A large evergreen tree found in open semi-deciduous forest.
33242		threats	eng	The wood is used in construction, ship-building, furniture-making and carvings.
33243		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in swamp forest, peat-swamp forest and kerangas on groundwater podzols.
33243		population	eng	Less well-known than the more common <em>D. costata</em>. The risk of extinction from overexploitation was recognised 60 years ago. Populations in Sarawak are considered endangered.
33243		threats	eng	The wood is traded as jelutong timber and trees are tapped for the valuable latex.
33244		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea, in the Gulf and Madang Provinces and Bougainville in the North Solomons.
33244		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in primary forest on the banks of streams and rivers.
33244		threats	eng	It is under great threat from habitat destruction in these areas and is considered to be Endangered. The situation is likely to be similar elsewhere.
33245		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
33246		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest.
33247		conservation	eng	It is protected from illegal cutting in Viet Nam and occurs in protected areas.
33247		distribution	eng	A tree widely distributed and scattered in Indo-China.
33247		habitat	eng	Lowland and submontane broadleaved forest.
33247		threats	eng	There has been a rapid decline in the number of large trees because of overexploitation of the precious timber.
33248		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam, it is scattered from Dac Lac to Dong Nai.
33248		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in moist forests up to 1,500 m.
33248		population	eng	The population has declined.
33248		threats	eng	Overexpoitation of the timber.
33249		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33249		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33250		habitat	eng	A timber species of primary lowland forest.
33251		habitat	eng	A species of primary and secondary lowland forests.
33251		threats	eng	It is exploited for its timber and edible fruits.
33252		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in forest reserves.
33257		distribution	eng	This species has a large range. It is uncommon in Sabah and Sarawak and of conservation concern in Sabah. It is considered vulnerable in Sri Lanka because it was found in only three localities during the National Conservation Review surveys. It is confined to the remnant lowland rainforests in the south-west.
33257		habitat	eng	Found below 100 m in lowland forest.
33258		habitat	eng	Lowland forest species.
33258		threats	eng	The timber of this species is used as sepetir. The supply is very limited.
33259		distribution	eng	A rare tree restricted to Preanger and Banjumas.
33259		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
33260		habitat	eng	East Indian satinwood occurs in dry mixed evergreen forest.
33260		threats	eng	It is a slow-growing species which has become very scarce in most areas because of timber exploitation.
33261		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Andaman Islands.
33261		habitat	eng	This tree is found in deciduous and semi-moist deciduous forests up to 100 m.
33264		habitat	eng	A species which occurs in coastal forest.
33265		distribution	eng	Luzon.
33265		habitat	eng	A species of primary lowland forest.
33266		distribution	eng	From south-east Asia. The wild origins of the species are obscured by cultivated and naturalised occurrences.
33266		habitat	eng	Rambutan is a widely-cultivated fruit tree.
33267		habitat	eng	Primary forest tree.
33268		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33268		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33271		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33271		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33273		habitat	eng	A lowland primary forest species.
33275		conservation	eng	Subpopulations have been found in forest reserves.
33275		habitat	eng	This tree is often found on well-drained clay soils on ridges and undulating land.
33276		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some forest reserves.
33276		habitat	eng	A tree of seasonal wet and dry evergreen forest.
33277		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland dipterocarp forest.
33277		threats	eng	This uncommon species, as well as others in the genus, may be seriously threatened by large-scale exploitation of forest.
33278		population	eng	This species has been collected frequently.
33279		habitat	eng	This tree is mainly found in peat-swamp forest; it is rarely found on dry land.
33280		distribution	eng	An endemic to Boyacá.
33281		distribution	eng	On the islands of Luzon and Siargao.
33281		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary lowland forest.
33281		threats	eng	Its timber is in short supply but is traded as white nato, together with that of other species of the genus.
33282		habitat	eng	A large tree of primary forest.
33285		conservation	eng	Although its status is considered low risk, it is recommended that plantation management and development are continued and encouraged.
33285		habitat	eng	A widespread tree found in primary rainforest up to 900 m.
33287		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus, restricted to the vicinity of Malili.
33287		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
33289		habitat	eng	Farming land.
33289		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
33290		distribution	eng	The type locality is in the Linhares Forest Reserve.
33290		population	eng	A species known only from the type locality.
33291		conservation	eng	An occurrence is recorded from INPA Experimental Reserve.
33291		distribution	eng	Vicinity of Manaus.
33291		habitat	eng	Confined to non-flooded forest.
33291		threats	eng	The species is threatened by fires and urban expansion.
33292		distribution	eng	This tree has been collected only once, along the Bartica-Potaro road in 1933.
33292		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
33293		distribution	eng	Occurs in Acre and eastern Peru.
33293		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
33293		population	eng	A rarely collected species.
33293		threats	eng	The area is threatened by increasing land settlement.
33294		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
33294		population	eng	A species known only from the type locality.
33295		distribution	eng	A species which is found scattered in north-east Brazil.
33295		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33296		distribution	eng	Known only from Henri Pittier National Park.
33296		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
33296		population	eng	This species has been collected about three times, each specimen probably from the same tree.
33297		distribution	eng	From Pacific coastal Colombia in the departments of Chocó and Valle.
33297		habitat	eng	A large canopy or emergent tree.
33297		population	eng	Occurring commonly in places, but collected rarely.
33298		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ducke Forest Reserve.
33298		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Manaus.
33298		habitat	eng	A species of non-flooded forest.
33299		distribution	eng	So far the species is known from three populations in southern Bahia.
33299		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forests and roadsides.
33300		distribution	eng	Caribbean slopes of the mountains of north-central Venezuela.
33300		habitat	eng	A small tree, restricted to lowland forest.
33300		population	eng	It has been collected about four times.
33301		conservation	eng	It is present in Ducke Forest Reserve.
33301		distribution	eng	A species which has been collected several times around Manaus.
33301		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
33301		threats	eng	Outside Ducke forest reserve subpopulations are under pressure from urban expansion and fires.
33302		distribution	eng	Type locality in the floodplain of the Zuid River in the Kayser Mts.
33302		population	eng	A small tree, known only from the type locality.
33303		distribution	eng	This species is confined to south-central and south-west Amazonas.
33303		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
33304		distribution	eng	From an area along the Bartica-Potaro road.
33304		habitat	eng	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.
33304		population	eng	This tree has been collected only once, in 1947.
33305		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon in Acre and Colombia.
33305		habitat	eng	Periodically flooded forests.
33306		distribution	eng	Near Manaus. It is not known to occur elsewhere.
33306		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from the roadside in non-flooded forest.
33307		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location in the upper Rio Negro basin.
33308		distribution	eng	Serra Parima.
33308		habitat	eng	A canopy tree, unusual in the genus in occurring at submontane elevation. It has only been collected from cloud forest between 700 and 1,500 m.
33309		distribution	eng	Endemic to French Guiana. It has been collected from two localities, one being in Saül.
33309		habitat	eng	A canopy or emergent tree of non-flooded forest.
33310		distribution	eng	The species has been collected twice from areas on Marajó Island. It is not known elsewhere.
33310		habitat	eng	Forest margin and savannah.
33311		distribution	eng	Known from few localities.
33311		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in secondary deciduous forest and savannah-like vegetation.
33312		distribution	eng	Several collections have been made of this species, but it is thought only to exist in three subpopulations.
33312		habitat	eng	Open forest on white sand in central Amazonia.
33315		distribution	eng	Restricted to Roraima territory in Brazil and adjacent Guyana.
33315		habitat	eng	A small savannah tree.
33315		population	eng	Rarely collected.
33316		distribution	eng	The species is distributed disjunctly with occurrences in the Magdalena Valley in Córdoba, Cundinamarca, Santander and Vaupés Departments in Colombia and in north-west Amazonia in Brazil.
33316		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of non-flooded forest.
33317		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from Campos dos Urupa's.
33317		habitat	eng	A savannah tree.
33317		threats	eng	There is a serious threat of habitat loss through increasing land settlement.
33318		distribution	eng	Known only from Mutumparaná.
33318		habitat	eng	A species of savannah or open woodland.
33318		threats	eng	Much of the natural vegetation has been lost to agricultural encroachment.
33319		conservation	eng	Much of Tijuca Forest is protected. The species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33319		distribution	eng	A species known only from four collections in the Atlantic forests of Tijuca and Itaocara.
33319		threats	eng	Its proximity to Rio de Janeiro places it under serious pressure from urban encroachment and recent intensive fieldwork in the area has failed to find living specimens.
33320		distribution	eng	A large tree, endemic to Sâo Paulo de Olivença.
33320		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33320		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
33321		distribution	eng	The known distribution of this species is confined to its type locality in Imeri.
33321		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
33322		distribution	eng	A Colombian endemic, collected relatively few times in Antioquia, Caldas and Santander.
33322		habitat	eng	Non-flooded lowland forest.
33323		distribution	eng	Central and south-east Bolivia and north-west Argentina. Unusually for the genus, it readily colonises open and disturbed areas, where it is soon supplanted by slower-growing trees. This characteristic makes it useful in the reclamation of eroded slopes.
33323		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in restricted areas of <em>Podocarpus-Alnus</em> forest.
33324		distribution	eng	Restricted to low altitudes in Trapécio Amazonico.
33324		population	eng	This is a rare species.
33325		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33325		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33326		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33326		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33327		threats	eng	An important source of medang timber, this forest species has become rare.
33329		habitat	eng	A timber species of lowland forest.
33330		distribution	eng	A timber species of lowland and hill forest.
33331		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33331		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33332		habitat	eng	A small tree scattered in primary and secondary forest near the mangrove zone.
33332		threats	eng	Habitat decline might threaten this species.
33333		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33333		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33334		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33334		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33335		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree, of lowland primary forest.
33336		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33336		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33337		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33337		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33338		distribution	eng	Restricted to the islands of Homonhou, Dinagat, and the eastern tip of Leyte.
33338		population	eng	The species is naturally rare.
33338		threats	eng	Mangkono yields the hardest of Philippine timbers. The hardness of the wood gives the tree some protection against felling, but local people continue to cut trees of a small diameter because of the depletion of other hardwoods.
33339		conservation	eng	The species is now subject to felling controls.
33339		distribution	eng	Molave is the dominant timber species in monsoon forest in the Philippines.
33339		habitat	eng	It occurs on well-drained limestone soils in monsoon forest.
33339		threats	eng	Exploitation of the highly prized timber has led to the reduction of molave forests.
33340		distribution	eng	A timber tree, endemic to the Philippines.
33340		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33341		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33341		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33342		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines.
33342		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33343		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33343		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33344		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33344		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33345		habitat	eng	A tree found in primary mixed dipterocarp forest up to 2,500 m altitude
33347		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the Philippines.
33347		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33348		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Philippines.
33348		habitat	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33349		distribution	eng	In Taiwan the species is restricted to Lanyu Island.
33349		population	eng	It occurs in very small numbers (<250).
33350		distribution	eng	A fairly widespread monotypic genus.
33350		habitat	eng	Found in lowland primary and secondary forest.
33351		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the Philippines.
33351		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33352		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines.
33352		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in primary forest at low to medium altitudes.
33353		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the Philippines.
33353		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33354		habitat	eng	A widespread species found mainly in lowland primary and secondary forest recorded on many soil types.
33354		threats	eng	The wood is used locally as derum and it is also cut for firewood and charcoal.
33355		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the Philippines.
33355		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33356		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the Philippines.
33356		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33357		distribution	eng	Found in the Philippines, the Fourth Division of Sarawak and north-west Ceram, this tree is the most common member of the genus in the Philippines. It has been collected only once from Sarawak.
33358		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the Philippines.
33358		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33359		distribution	eng	This species has only once been collected, in 1939 in Larecaja, La Paz.
33360		distribution	eng	This is an unusual species, which is known only from the type collection made in 1933 at the mouth of Rio Macauhan.
33361		conservation	eng	Known to occur within a protected area.
33361		distribution	eng	Known only from three subpopulations: at the confluence of the Tiputini and Tivacuno rivers in the Parque Nacional Yasuní, in the Cañon de los Monos, 15 km north of Coca and in the Jatun Sacha private reserve.
33361		habitat	eng	A tree of mainland Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 250–500 m.
33361		threats	eng	The principal threats are oil exploitation, disorganized tourism, and colonization due to road construction.
33362		conservation	eng	It has been found on the north side of Tijuca National Park.
33362		distribution	eng	Restricted to forests around the city of Rio de Janeiro.
33362		habitat	eng	This species grows to a maximum of 2 m.
33362		population	eng	A very rare species.
33362		threats	eng	Increasing urbanization places it under serious threat.
33363		distribution	eng	Current information states that this species is reduced to a single tree in Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve, Ecuador. However, previous information suggests it may also be found in Brazil.
33364		distribution	eng	This small tree is restricted to a fairly small area (less than 20,000 km²) on the coast of Paraíba and Pernambuco states.
33364		habitat	eng	Restinga vegetation.
33364		threats	eng	Restinga vegetation is highly threatened.
33365		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area along Río Magdalena north-west of Bogotá.
33366		distribution	eng	A forest tree, endemic to Ubatuba. It may extend over an area greater than 20,000 km² but there is evidence that it is threatened.
33367		distribution	eng	The species is known from a number of localities in Bolívar and Amazonas.
33367		habitat	eng	Occurring in semideciduous or evergreen forest, frequently bordering igneous outcrops.
33369		habitat	eng	This species is locally abundant in mixed dipterocarp forest and heath forest.
33372		distribution	eng	A large tree endemic to Kalimantan.
33373		habitat	eng	A large tree of lowland dipterocarp forest or semi-swamp forest.
33375		distribution	eng	North-west Sumatra.
33375		habitat	eng	This variety is confined to lowland and hill dipterocarp forest.
33376		distribution	eng	Confined to Nusa Kambangan Island, Java, this species is locally common, covering an area of about 80 km².
33376		habitat	eng	Lowland mixed rainforest.
33376		threats	eng	Despite the presence of three high-security prisons and armed guards patrolling a 20 km² reserve, the tree is illegally harvested.
33377		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland forest on almost swampy land.
33377		population	eng	Close to extinction.
33377		threats	eng	It is close to extinction because of the loss and degradation of its habitat.
33378		habitat	eng	A lowland species, which is locally abundant near freshwater swamps and streams.
33378		threats	eng	It is often used as keruing timber in Sabah and parts of Sarawak, but is mainly threatened by habitat loss.
33379		habitat	eng	A lowland species always found near water.
33380		habitat	eng	This species occurs locally on sandy, podzolic soils in heath forest.
33381		distribution	eng	Endemic to Papua New Guinea.
33381		habitat	eng	This species forms pure stands in secondary forest.
33382		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sumatra
33382		threats	eng	This species is seriously threatened by the loss of its forest habitat.
33383		distribution	eng	Occurs on the sandy islands of Billiton and Banka.
33383		population	eng	The species is locally common.
33384		distribution	eng	Mindanao Island.
33384		habitat	eng	A species which occurs in lowland primary forest.
33384		threats	eng	It is seriously threatened by the loss of its habitat.
33385		habitat	eng	Found scattered on low hills and ridges.
33385		threats	eng	It is unlikely to survive logging activities because it doesn't reach reproductive age within a logging cycle.
33390		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Sumatra.
33390		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
33390		threats	eng	Severely threatened by the loss and degradation of the habitat.
33392		population	eng	This species is possibly extinct.
33393		habitat	eng	A species of seasonal evergreen forest.
33394		threats	eng	The species is under severe threat from the complete loss of its forest habitat.
33396		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland dipterocarp forest on clay-rich alluvium.
33397		habitat	eng	A tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33397		threats	eng	Suffering from forest degradation.
33398		population	eng	There is a possibility that this dipterocarp is extinct in the wild.
33399		distribution	eng	Brunei and Sarawak.
33399		habitat	eng	A tree which occurs in remaining patches of kerangas vegetation. It is locally abundant in heath forest.
33400		habitat	eng	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33400		threats	eng	Under severe threat from habitat degradation.
33401		conservation	eng	An occurrence has been recorded in a proposed reserve.
33401		distribution	eng	Sarawak and Brunei.
33401		habitat	eng	A large timber tree which is confined to moist clay-rich soils.
33402		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.
33402		distribution	eng	An enormous tree, endemic to Borneo.
33402		habitat	eng	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, often on hills and ridges near the coast.
33403		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species occur in forest reserves.
33404		habitat	eng	A tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33404		threats	eng	Suffering from habitat conversion.
33405		distribution	eng	Borneo.
33405		habitat	eng	A tree that is restricted to mixed dipterocarp forest.
33405		threats	eng	It is directly threatened by logging operations because its reproductive cycle exceeds the logging cycle.
33406		habitat	eng	Found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
33406		threats	eng	This tree is threatened by forest conversion and habitat degradation.
33407		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some forest reserves.
33407		habitat	eng	A slow-growing species of lowland dipterocarp forest.
33407		threats	eng	Threatened directly by logging; the tree is unlikely to reach reproductive maturity within a logging cycle. It is currently being exploited for its yellow meranti timber.
33409		habitat	eng	This species is found on undulating land near the coast.
33409		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest conversion and degradation.
33410		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33411		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.
33411		distribution	eng	Confined to north-western Kalimantan and western Sarawak.
33411		habitat	eng	Lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
33412		threats	eng	This lowland species cannot withstand logging because of its slow growth. Balau consignments are often made up of this species.
33413		habitat	eng	A massive tree of mixed dipterocarp forest on clay soils.
33413		threats	eng	Cut for balau timber. This slow growing species cannot reach reproductive maturity between logging cycles and is therefore threatened by logging activities.
33414		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of the species occur in some forest reserves.
33414		habitat	eng	A large tree occurring in mixed dipterocarp forest on leached yellow soils.
33414		threats	eng	It is valued as the most solid balau timber in Brunei. Directly threatened by logging, trees do not reach reproductive maturity in the time between logging cycles.
33415		habitat	eng	A slow-growing species of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33415		threats	eng	Directly threatened by logging activities because trees do not reach reproductive maturity between the current logging cycles.
33416		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are found in forest reserves.
33416		habitat	eng	A tree found infrequently in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest on coastal hills.
33416		threats	eng	It is cut for balau timber but its slow growth does not allow it to reach maturity within the current logging cycle.
33417		habitat	eng	A tree which occurs in the transitional forest between heath and mixed dipterocarp forest.
33417		threats	eng	Forest degradation and logging have brought the species close to extinction. Its slow growth makes it particularly vulnerable to the affects of continual logging.
33418		habitat	eng	A lowland tree.
33418		threats	eng	Particularly threatened by logging operations because of its slow growth.
33419		population	eng	An endemic tree, which has suffered high rates of forest conversion and degradation and may now be extinct.
33420		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in forest reserves.
33420		distribution	eng	Confined to North-west Borneo
33420		habitat	eng	Found in the diminishing mixed dipterocarp forests.
33420		threats	eng	This tree is directly threatened by logging. Its slow growth and maturation rate make it particularly vulnerable to continual cutting.
33421		conservation	eng	Populations are recorded in some forest reserves.
33421		distribution	eng	North-east Sarawak, Brunei and south-east Sabah.
33421		habitat	eng	Confined to coastal hills, the species occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest.
33422		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Sabah.
33422		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
33423		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of the species occur in forest reserves.
33423		distribution	eng	A yellow meranti timber species, endemic to Borneo.
33423		habitat	eng	Found scattered on shallow peat or yellow sandy soils
33424		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the declining mixed peat-swamp forest.
33425		distribution	eng	Sabah.
33425		habitat	eng	A lowland tree found growing over the ultrabasic rocks.
33425		threats	eng	Threatened mainly by forest conversion.
33426		habitat	eng	A tree located in <em>S. selanica</em> hill forest.
33427		conservation	eng	It is also found in some forest reserves.
33427		habitat	eng	A tree that is found on moist hillsides and along rivers.
33428		distribution	eng	Western Sarawak.
33428		habitat	eng	This tree is found only in the threatened mixed dipterocarp forests.
33429		distribution	eng	North-west Borneo.
33429		habitat	eng	A valuable dark red meranti timber species that is restricted to the highly threatened mixed peat-swamp forest, usually near the coast.
33429		threats	eng	It is particularly threatened by logging operations because it grows too slowly to reach reproductive maturity between cutting cycles.
33430		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to northern Borneo.
33430		habitat	eng	Heath forest.
33431		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in primary forest reserves.
33431		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to western Borneo.
33431		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forests and heath forests.
33431		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
33432		conservation	eng	Sometimes within primary forest reserves.
33432		habitat	eng	A species found on lowland coastal hills.
33433		conservation	eng	Also occurs in some primary forest reserves.
33433		habitat	eng	A large tree of mixed dipterocarp and heath forest.
33434		conservation	eng	Occurs in some primary forest reserves.
33434		habitat	eng	This species is found on coastal hills.
33435		habitat	eng	A relatively small tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33435		threats	eng	Threatened by the decline and degradation of its habitat.
33436		habitat	eng	This tree appears to be confined to dry coastal ridges.
33437		habitat	eng	This tree grows on well-drained ground in the lowlands and is found in some primary forest reserves.
33438		conservation	eng	The species also occurs in some forest reserves.
33438		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo.
33438		habitat	eng	A tree that is found in mixed dipterocarp forest on hills.
33439		distribution	eng	Confined to the Kalutara district.
33439		habitat	eng	This small shrub is found in the understorey of swamp forests and in marshy, periodically inundated areas near slow-running streamlets.
33439		population	eng	It was found only once during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
33439		threats	eng	Most swamp forests have been converted to rice fields.
33440		distribution	eng	Sarawak.
33440		habitat	eng	A tree confined to mixed dipterocarp forest.
33441		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kalimantan.
33441		habitat	eng	Usually found beside rivers.
33442		distribution	eng	A tree, endemic to Borneo.
33442		habitat	eng	Found on low hills, often on river banks or in moist areas.
33443		distribution	eng	North-west Borneo.
33443		habitat	eng	Occurring in the patchy kerangas vegetation over podzols.
33444		distribution	eng	Collected twice, this species is found on Mt. Kaladis in the Philippines.
33444		population	eng	The species is considered to be very close to extinction.
33445		distribution	eng	A species restricted to south-east Sulawesi.
33445		habitat	eng	Occurs on hillsides.
33446		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest on coastal hills.
33446		population	eng	An extremely localised tree.
33447		habitat	eng	A tree that is found on dry coastal hills in lowland forest.
33448		conservation	eng	The species is found in some primary forest reserves.
33448		distribution	eng	A tree, endemic to Borneo.
33448		habitat	eng	Confined to leached shallow soils on hills and ridges.
33449		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.
33449		habitat	eng	A subspecies that is found on deep sandy leached soils in what is left of the mixed dipterocarp forests.
33450		conservation	eng	The species is also found in some forest reserves.
33450		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to north-west Borneo.
33450		habitat	eng	Found growing on deep sandy soils on subcoastal hills.
33451		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are recorded in some forest reserves.
33451		distribution	eng	Borneo.
33451		habitat	eng	A tree that grows on deep fertile clay-rich soils.
33452		distribution	eng	Sumatran endemic.
33452		threats	eng	Forest conversion has brought this species close to extinction.
33453		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to fragmented heath forests.
33454		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.
33454		distribution	eng	Western Sarawak.
33454		habitat	eng	An understorey tree endemic to patches of heath forest.
33455		threats	eng	This species is being brought close to extinction by forest conversion and degradation.
33456		habitat	eng	A small tree which is scattered in declining mixed dipterocarp forests on clay-soil hills.
33457		distribution	eng	Endemic to east Sumatra.
33457		population	eng	This species is very close to extinction.
33459		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam.
33459		population	eng	This species may now be extinct.
33460		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. cocomilia</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
33460		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. cocomilia</span> is native to southeast Europe and western Asia (Kurtto 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
33460		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
33460		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
33460		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
33462		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam. Occurrences are known from mixed forest at about 950 m in Quang Ninh, Lang Son, Tuyen Quang, Ninh Binh and Nghe An Provinces.
33462		habitat	eng	This slow-growing tree is valued highly for its hard, heavy timber, which is included in Viet Nam's 'precious timber' group.
33464		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone to Ghana.
33464		habitat	eng	Wet lowland evergreen forest/swampy areas.
33464		threats	eng	The general loss of its habitat, because of commercial forestry activities and mining, has been extensive.
33465		distribution	eng	It ranges from Guinea to Sierra Leone.
33465		habitat	eng	A rare tree which occurs in wet evergreen forests and along riversides in more deciduous  forests.
33465		threats	eng	A general decline in this habitat type has been caused by mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.
33466		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Ituri Forest in Democratic Republic of Congo, where the species is fairly common but scattered. Elsewhere it is found uncommonly in small populations in a few localities in Uganda.
33466		threats	eng	General threats of mining, overcutting for charcoal production and expansive agriculture affect unprotected parts of the range.
33467		distribution	eng	From north-east Tanzania, through Kenya into southern Somalia.
33467		habitat	eng	This species ranges along the coast in semi-evergreen forest or bushland.
33467		threats	eng	Much of the habitat is threatened with overcutting and clearing.
33468		distribution	eng	Southern India.
33468		habitat	eng	A species found in lowland humid evergreen forest. It regenerates prolifically in disturbed areas.
33469		population	eng	A small tree once locally exploited for house posts and now thought to be extinct.
33470		habitat	eng	A gregarious tree, widely occurring in low to medium altitude evergreen forest, especially along riversides.
33472		distribution	eng	The species distribution is disjunct, with subpopulations known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon in the west and eastern Tanzania in the east. It is not under threat in Democratic Republic of Congo.
33473		distribution	eng	Fairly common in places, e.g., Shimba Hills, from south-east Kenya to south Tanzania.
33473		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to pockets of moist coastal forest.
33474		conservation	eng	Populations in South Africa are secure, with a number of subpopulations occurring in protected areas. Dense stands have been recorded from the northern parts of Kruger National Park.
33474		habitat	eng	A timber species occurring in various forest types from upland semi-deciduous forest to coastal dry forest or thicket.
33474		threats	eng	The wood is heavily exploited in the wood carving industries in Kenya and Tanzania.   Increased logging in Mozambique may pose a threat.
33475		conservation	eng	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains a living collection and seed stocks.
33475		distribution	eng	Occurs in parts of the central highlands, including the north-east slopes of Mt. Kenya. It is also widely planted in the western highlands.
33475		habitat	eng	In the wild it is confined to moist evergreen forest.
33475		threats	eng	Most subpopulations, although protected, are in danger of being overexploited.
33476		conservation	eng	Populations are found within forest reserves.
33476		distribution	eng	Conservation status of the species is based upon the rate of habitat loss and conversion.
33476		habitat	eng	A large tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
33476		threats	eng	Habitat loss and conversion.
33477		habitat	eng	In Viet Nam the species is reported to be common in dry forest.
33480		habitat	eng	A dark red meranti timber species, usually found near lowland streams.
33481		distribution	eng	The population in south-east Peninsular Thailand appears to be extinct.
33481		habitat	eng	This tree can be found along the banks of slow-flowing rivers.
33484		conservation	eng	The tree occurs in some primary forest reserves.
33484		distribution	eng	A widespread species.
33485		distribution	eng	A widely but sparsely scattered species in the Western Ghats.
33485		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of low- to medium-altitude forest.
33486		distribution	eng	This species is fairly widespread.
33486		habitat	eng	It is cultivated as an ornamental.
33487		conservation	eng	The species as a whole is protected for its illipe nuts in Sarawak.
33487		habitat	eng	A localised subspecies found on shallow peat-swamp and on leached sandy soils.
33488		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.
33488		distribution	eng	This species is common in summit forest on Sarawak's granodiorite mountains.
33489		conservation	eng	Most of the island is designated as a wildlife sanctuary.
33489		distribution	eng	A large tree known only from the type location on Narcodam Island which covers an area of just 12 ha.
33489		population	eng	Recent explorations have failed to find the taxon.
33490		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to South Andaman Island.
33490		habitat	eng	Apparently occurring in evergreen rainforest.
33490		population	eng	It has not been found since it was first collected. Intact forest remains in Jarwa Reserve, where it is possible the species may still be found.
33490		threats	eng	Large areas of the species' habitat have been logged and cleared.
33491		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Andaman Islands.
33491		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen rainforest.
33491		population	eng	Very little is known about the species as it has not been collected since it was first discovered.
33491		threats	eng	Deforestation has been carried out on a large scale and few intact tracts of forest now remain.
33492		conservation	eng	It is possible that a subpopulation exists in the relatively intact Jarwa Reserve.
33492		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Andaman Island.
33492		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen rainforest.
33492		population	eng	No living specimens have been found since the type collection.
33492		threats	eng	The habitat has been severely deforested.
33493		conservation	eng	A relatively intact tract of forest remains in the Jarwa Reserve where it is possible the species occurs.
33493		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Andaman Island.
33493		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of evergreen forest.
33493		threats	eng	Evergreen forest have declined severely in extent through logging activities.
33494		distribution	eng	A forest tree with subpopulations on Kamorta Island in the Nicobars and also on the Andaman Islands.
33494		threats	eng	Large-scale logging and conversion of the forest for agriculture have caused the loss of the species habitat from much of the Andamans.
33495		distribution	eng	Confined to the Nicobar and Andaman Islands.
33495		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen forest.
33495		threats	eng	Large areas of forest have been logged and lost to increasing agriculture and settlement.
33496		conservation	eng	Intact forest remains in Jarwa Reserve, which is unexplored and may harbour further populations of the species.
33496		distribution	eng	Middle Andaman Island.
33496		population	eng	A small forest tree, known only from the type collection.
33496		threats	eng	The forests here have declined significantly through large-scale logging.
33497		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Andaman Island, the species occurs in scattered small subpopulations.
33497		habitat	eng	Remnant patches of evergreen forest.
33497		threats	eng	Large-scale logging has caused significant population declines.
33498		distribution	eng	A fig tree endemic to South Andaman Island where it is sparsely distributed.
33498		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
33498		threats	eng	Large declines in extent of the forest have been caused by logging.
33499		distribution	eng	A large tree collected from Middle and South Andaman Islands in the nineteenth century.
33499		population	eng	No record of the species has been made since and little is known of its present status, if it still exists.
33500		distribution	eng	Known from South Andaman Island.
33500		habitat	eng	Collected from scrub along the fringes of evergreen forest.
33500		population	eng	The species has not been found again since it was first discovered.
33500		threats	eng	The habitat has declined because of logging and increasing agricultural developments.
33501		habitat	eng	A widespread small tree or shrub which grows on the banks of tidal rivers and in mangrove channels only in saline areas. The fruits are dispersed by water.
33502		habitat	eng	This variety is widespread in primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1,500 m altitude.
33503		conservation	eng	An attempt to introduce the plant in a nearby managed forest area, namely  Mondrain, in 1998 has failed. Currently, there are 54 seedlings at the forestry and National Park nurseries and further re-introduction  will be tried soon as well as an <em>ex situ</em> population set up.
33503		distribution	eng	Mauritian endemic known from very few individuals growing in two subpopulations a few kilometers apart.
33503		habitat	eng	A small tree reaching 4.5-6 m in height. Found in sub-tropical rain forest with annual rainfall of 1-2 m.
33503		population	eng	Only nine individuals are known in the wild, with only one fertile specimen. No natural regeneration has been noted. The largest subpopulation consists of only seven individuals scattered over five hectares of degraded forest at Tamarind Falls. Two other plants grows at Yemen.
33503		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss of habitat due to competition from introduced invasive plants. Browsing by introduced animals is certainly responsible for the absence of regeneration.
33504		distribution	eng	An endemic species.
33504		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33504		population	eng	It was not rediscovered during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, indicating it to be extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33505		distribution	eng	A fairly common species occurring in south-west Sri Lanka.
33505		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
33506		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33506		habitat	eng	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33507		distribution	eng	A species scattered in south-west Sri Lanka.
33507		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
33508		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33508		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.
33509		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33509		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.
33509		population	eng	This species was found in only 10 localities during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.
33510		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33510		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
33510		population	eng	This species was scattered but fairly widespread in the lowland rainforests according to a survey in the late 1980s, but it was not recorded at any of the forest sites during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996, suggesting that this species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33511		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33511		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33512		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33512		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forests.
33512		population	eng	This species was not found during the recent National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct. Previously a population was known from Kanneliya Forest Reserve.
33513		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33513		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33513		population	eng	The species was previously found in the Haycock (Hinidumkanda) Biosphere Reserve. However, it was not found again during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33514		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33514		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33514		population	eng	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
33515		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33515		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33515		population	eng	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33516		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33516		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33517		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33517		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33518		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33518		habitat	eng	A rare tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33518		population	eng	This species was found in eight forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
33519		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33519		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33519		population	eng	It is apparently locally common but confined to a single forest reserve. Only nine individuals were discovered in at a single site during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.
33520		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33520		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.
33521		distribution	eng	A tree confined to south-west Sri Lanka.
33521		habitat	eng	Lowland wet evergreen forest.
33522		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33522		habitat	eng	This rare tree is restricted to lowland rainforest.
33522		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct. Earlier surveys located a subpopulation in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
33523		distribution	eng	Previously recorded from Gilimale Forest Reserve in south-west Sri Lanka.
33523		habitat	eng	A species of lowland rainforest.
33523		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33524		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Sri Lanka east to the Pacific.
33525		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. It is cultivated in Singapore, Penang and Java.
33525		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland wet evergreen forest and disturbed forest.
33525		population	eng	This species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33526		conservation	eng	It is one of the dominant subcanopy species in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
33526		distribution	eng	This Sri Lankan endemic is restricted to the wetter region of the island, where remaining rainforest covers an area of less than 1,440 km².
33526		habitat	eng	The species is locally common in lowland and montane rainforest.
33526		population	eng	It has been collected many times.
33527		conservation	eng	Previously recorded in Sinharaja and Haycock  Biosphere Reserves.
33527		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33527		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
33527		population	eng	This extremely rare species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it might be extinct.
33528		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33528		habitat	eng	This species is confined to lowland rainforest.
33528		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33529		distribution	eng	Found in south-west Sri Lanka and previously known from Kanneliya Forest Reserve.
33529		habitat	eng	A rare tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
33529		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33530		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33530		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
33530		population	eng	This species was previously found in Kottawa and Kanneliya Forest Reserves. However, it was not again found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33532		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33532		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.
33532		population	eng	Previously found in Kottawa, Hinidumkanda, Sinharaja and Gilimale. This species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33533		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33533		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33533		population	eng	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
33534		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33534		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33534		population	eng	This species was found in several sites during a previous survey, but it was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33535		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33535		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33536		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33536		habitat	eng	A rare tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33536		population	eng	Only three localities were identified during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
33537		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33537		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.
33538		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33538		habitat	eng	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33538		population	eng	Only three trees were found in a single site, proposed for reserve status, during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.
33539		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33539		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33540		conservation	eng	It is one of the dominant canopy species in the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and also occurs in several other forest reserves.
33540		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
33540		habitat	eng	This canopy tree is restricted to the wet lowlands.
33541		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33541		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.
33541		population	eng	This species was found in eight sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
33542		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33542		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.
33543		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33543		habitat	eng	A species of lowland wet evergreen forest.
33543		population	eng	It has been recorded from several sites in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, but not during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
33545		distribution	eng	South-west Sri Lanka.
33545		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.
33545		population	eng	This species was not recorded during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.
33546		conservation	eng	All populations are within areas which are given protection.
33546		distribution	eng	The main subpopulation is confined to Silhouette. On Aldabra there are two trees and the subpopulation on Mahé became extinct by 1874, probably because of habitat clearance.
33546		population	eng	About 150 mature trees exist in total, a large population occurring at Mont Cocos Marrons.
33546		threats	eng	The trees were felled in the past for the production of aromatic oils and fuelwood for copra dryers.
33547		conservation	eng	Not present in protected areas. New data on population urgently needed.
33547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. It is only known from three sites on Silhouette (Friedmann 1994, J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006). The entire area of Silhouette is 20 km² (National Statistics Bureau  2005). The EOO and AOO are estimated to be less than 20 km² and 10 km²<sup></sup> respectively. In 1901, the species was collected on Mahé by Thomasset (Summerhayes 1931), but it has not been recorded on Mahé since that collection.
33547		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist forest at intermediate to high altitudes, 400-700 m. It is frequently found climbing on the trunks of trees but has also been found growing on and among rocks or rough cliffs (Carlström 1996). It regenerates well from shoots. Sexual reproduction cannot be observed.
33547		population	eng	No precise data on the population size is available, but it is thought to be very small. Historically, this species was also known from Mahé (Cascade Estate) (Thomasset 1901 in Summerhayes 1931). However is has not been recorded there since the collection in 1901. The only remaining individuals are now confined to Silhouette. The population seems to be healthy and the plant regenerates well from shoots (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The population on Silhouette is very small and it is restricted to three sites in close proximity of each other (Friedmann 1994, J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006). Based on the eight times larger area of Mahé, it is suspected that the subpopulation on Mahé was a respectable fraction of the  total population. A total population reduction of 50% over the past 100  years can be estimated.
33547		threats	eng	Plausible  threats to this species are competition  pressure through invasive species, poor sexual  reproduction, low  genetic variability and limited dispersal. The main threat is its very restricted range. The reasons for extinction on Mahé are not exactly known; the main reason might have been the destruction of the original forests for the cinnamon oil industry. But there must have been other threats affecting the remaining individuals in inaccessible areas. Competition pressure through invasive species such as   <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span> is the major actual and future threat to this species (Carlström 1996). The  effects of these invasive species  on <span style="font-style: italic;">S. procumbens</span> are uncertain. Although the  situation seems to be stable, the  quality of habitat could deplete.
33548		conservation	eng	The species is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks.
33548		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on Mahé, Praslin, La Digue, Silhouette and Félicité. The total area of the five islands is 229 km²<sup></sup> (National Statistics  Bureau 2005).
33548		habitat	eng	Glabrous shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall, but usually much smaller, not or only rarely branched. A typical understory tree of the mist forest but also found on exposed rocky outcrops at lower altitudes. Essentially a tree of the intermediate and high altitudes, being most common between 400-700 m asl on Mahé (Carlström 1996).
33548		population	eng	The population size is unknown. The species occurs in five distinct locations. The species is rather abundant on Mahé, rare on Félicité and very rare on Silhouette and Praslin (Robertson 1989, Carlsröm 1996, Hill 2002, J. Gerlach and  J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006). The subpopulation on Mahé is well distributed and seems to  be in a healthy condition. On Silhouette, the species is extremely rare and prone to accidental  extinction. It is most probable that the individuals on Silhouette are  too rare to form a viable subpopulation. Similarly the subpopulation on  Félicité (area of the island: 2.7 km²) is also extremely small. The species is thought to be rarer on Praslin than on Silhouette (Carlström 1996). The status on  La Digue is unknown. Horne already described the species as not common in the forests in the  1870s (Baker 1877). It appears to reproduce well in natural habitats  (Carlström 1996).
33548		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are its restricted range, the invasion of alien species (causing a decline in the quality of its habitat) and fires.On Praslin, fires are a common phenomenon and fires have also been reported La Digue. In 2006, serious damage to all the individuals in Congo Rouge, Mahé, was observed (M. Huber, S. Ismail and J. Mougal pers. obs. 2006). The soft interior of the stems was eaten causing the terminal  shoots to fall off. It is not known if the effects of  this pest are lethal for the affected plants. This damage was probably caused by an  insect pest or maybe by rodents. The same phenomenon was already observed in 1998 (J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006). The  same damage is probably mentioned by Friedmann (1994) assuming that rats caused  it.
33549		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. The most natural stand is outside the national park and not protected. This species should be accorded high priority for conservation efforts as it is the only species of the genus.
33549		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mahé, the Seychelles. The EOO was determined to be 23.3 km²<sup></sup>. It is known from only nine sites. As the known nine stands are all on Mahé, the population is situated in one geographical location. The only dispersal mode is gravity and each stand is completely isolated from the other stands.
33549		habitat	eng	Historically recorded as a co-dominant species of the canopy in low and intermediate forests. Seven stands are dominated by introduced species leading to a very low habitat quality. High seedling mortality and dispersal by gravity only.
33549		population	eng	The total population size is 58 trees (with a diameter at breast height (1.3 m) more than 10 cm) distributed in nine sites, of which 37-41 are mature individuals. This is the highest number recorded during the past 100 years. The biggest stand, at Riviére  Caiman (L’Abondance), consists of 26 mature trees. Seven sites consist of three or less individuals. Two  stands do not show any sign of regeneration and four stands lack saplings (> 50cm height) indicating a high mortality of seedlings  leading to insufficient regeneration.<br/><br/>Two out of the 41 mature trees are not in the wild (one grows in a tea  plantation and one in a private garden). It is not clear if two  individuals at another site ever reproduced because these smaller plants seem to have grown vegetatively from other stems. One group  consisting of 17 trees did not show any signs of reproduction and seems  to have been planted in the late 1970s.<br/><br/>Historically, this species was recorded as a co-dominant species of the canopy in low and intermediate forests. The main population reduction was most probably more than 100 years ago. This species was already rare in 1899 (Schimper in Diels 1922).<br/><br/>Stand structure data indicates that size classes  are missing in every site indicating severe disturbance of regeneration. Although exact  stand structure data indicates unhealthy age structure a continuing  decline in mature individuals cannot be observed. Natural  regeneration occurs at low level; it is questionable if most of the  subpopulations are big enough to be viable. There have been several  attempts of reintroductions over the past 100 years (e.g., 1911-1914,  late 1970s, late 1990s). The low number of known mature individuals  indicates that the species is depended on such conservation actions.
33549		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are intrinsic factors such as too small subpopulations to support a viable population and limited dispersal. Another main threat is habitat degradation through spreading of alien invasive species.
33550		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.
33550		population	eng	Populations are healthy and stable.
33551		conservation	eng	The species is found in the Morne Seychellois National Park. This genus is endemic to the Seychelles, representing a unique evolutionary lineage and thus this species should be accorded high priority for conservation efforts. The best area for <span style="font-style: italic;">G. sericea</span> is on a Glacis between Copolia and Casse Dent (C. Seng pers. comm. 2006).
33551		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles and occurs on Mahé and Silhouette. The EOO on Mahé is 33.5 km² and the total area of Silhouette Island is 20 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The estimated EOO (and AOO) of this species is therefore at most 55 km².
33551		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree up to 7-8 m tall, with wide-spreading branches, glabrous except in the flowering parts. It occurs mainly on humid mountain summits, exposed rocky slopes and outcrops, 350-800 m (Carlström  1996). It seems that the preferred habitat conditions are  between 600 m  and 700 m (Mt. Jasmin, Congo rouge). At lower altitudes, the  species  occurs as scattered individuals (Copolia, Casse Dent)  (Friedmann 1994,  pers. obs. 2006). Its seeds are wind-dispersed.
33551		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but there might be fewer that 2,500 mature individuals left oft this species. The largest subpopulation is estimated to consist of between 200 to 300 mature individuals (J. Mougal pers. comm.). On Mahé, the population is on the edge of extinction. The species regeneration is poor; in a  few sites no successful  reproduction is observable. Whether the reasons  for this poor  reproduction are intrinsic factors or a decline in habitat  quality is  not known. <br/><br/>The species was collected numerous times (Horne 1871 or 1874, Diels 1899,  Thomasset, Gardinier 1905 or 1908, Vesey-Fitzgerald 1938-39, Jeffrey  1961-62, Schlieben 1970, Fosberg 1970, Procter 1970-72, Bernardi 1973), however these historical records do not give any indication on the abundance or  the range of the species.
33551		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the invasion of alien species (causing competition and a decline in the quality of its habitat), wildfires, its restricted range and poor regeneration. As the favoured habitat is strongly invaded by  invasive alien species  such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> a  continuing decline in  habitat quality is taking place. The species'  regeneration is poor; in a  few sites no successful reproduction is  observable. Whether the reasons  for this poor reproduction are  intrinsic factors or a decline in habitat  quality is not known.
33552		conservation	eng	The only known site is situated within the Morne Seychellois National Park. No site/species related conservation actions are in place.
33552		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mahé Island, Seychelles. It only occurs at one site between the Mission Viewing Lodge and Casse Dent on Mahé. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is&#160; 0.42 km²<sup></sup>.
33552		habitat	eng	Small tree up to 5 m tall, not or only sparingly branched. A typical understory tree in the moist forest at intermediate altitudes. The only remaining site is at about 400 m altitude.
33552		population	eng	This species is currently only known from two mature individuals, which are found in close proximity of each other.
33552		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are intrinsic factors such as poor recruitment and very low population size, which put this species at a high risk of accidental extinction. Furthermore, the mid altitudes, where this species occurs, are heavily invaded by alien species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Psidium cattleianum</span>.
33553		conservation	eng	It is critical that the goats on Guadelupe Island be removed or controlled soon, if the pines are to recover.
33553		distribution	eng	Recorded from Guadelupe Island, an uninhabited island 250 km off the mainland, and from Cedros Island (part of Baja-California), Mexico. The name <em>P. binnata</em> var. <em>cedrosensis</em> is used by some people, for the Cedros Island population. <br/> <br/>The pines on Guadalupe Island are narrowly distributed at the north end of the island, along the uppermost slopes of the central ridge.
33553		population	eng	A census, taken in May 2001, indicates a total population of approximately 200 trees, all of them over-mature (Rogers <em>et al</em>. 2002). No evidence of the pitch canker disease (caused by the fungus <em>Fusarium circinatum</em>) that has affected mainland (California) subpopulations of <em>P. radiata</em> was found. A few seedlings were found in 2001 (indicating natural regeneration is still feasible), but would no doubt soon be eaten by goats.  There has apparently been a 50% reduction in number of trees since 1964. <br/> <br/>On Cedros Island, there are two main subpopulations of pines: a central and northern subpopulation, separated by approximately 13 km, with some scattered trees and small stands outside these two occurrences. The pines are largely restricted to the upper, western slopes of the northern mountain range, which extends from the central to northern regions of Cedros Island in roughly a north-south alignment. There is no comprehensive census, but there are thousands of trees and no apparent losses of habitat over the last several decades. In May 2001, the pines were described as fairly young over much of the current range, with seedlings in all stands.
33553		threats	eng	There has apparently been no natural regeneration of the pines on Guadelupe for many decades, a result of grazing by introduced goats which have become feral. On Cedros Island, although the pines are currently regenerating well, they remain vulnerable to the introduction of pitch canker from the nearby Mexican mainland, and to the uncertain impacts of possibly frequent fires, climate change, and some introduced species.
33554		distribution	eng	Found in Puunianiau, a small cinder cone on the north-west slopes of Haleakala on East Maui.
33554		habitat	eng	Subalpine shrubland.
33554		population	eng	This species has not been seen since it was first collected in 1910.
33555		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. Specimens were known only from Oahu.
33555		population	eng	It has not been found in recent decades and is now presumed extinct.
33556		distribution	eng	A single tree was discovered on Puhielelu Ridge in 1981. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from either Extinct or Critically Endangered species.
33556		habitat	eng	Dry slope.
33556		population	eng	The only known tree has died since its discovery. Seeds were collected but none have germinated.
33557		conservation	eng	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33557		distribution	eng	A species which once grew in the mountains above Hana, on Maui, from where the type specimen was collected. Recent observations suggest that the taxon occurs over an area of several hundred hectares in Kipahulu Valley.
33557		population	eng	In Kipahulu Valley, it is said to be more common than <em>M. balloui</em>.
33557		threats	eng	The species is particularly vulnerable to seed predation by rats and insects. Invasive plants are also prevalent in the area.
33558		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33558		distribution	eng	Originally known from localities on Oahu and Kauai.
33558		population	eng	The species has been reduced to six subpopulations confined to the latter island. About 156 individuals have been counted.
33558		threats	eng	The habitat continues to be damaged by grazing feral animals and invasive plants.
33559		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33559		distribution	eng	Type colection from Wahiawa Bog on Kauai.
33559		population	eng	Known only from the type material collected in 1909, the species had been presumed extinct. However, a small subpopulation of 13 individuals was discovered in 1991.
33559		threats	eng	Potential threats of overcollecting and invading alien plants are present.
33560		conservation	eng	It is reported to be in cultivation on Hawaii.
33560		distribution	eng	East Maui. Two collections have also been made, from Pololu Valley and Kalopa Gulch on Hawaii.
33560		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in dry to moist forest, often on lava, between 700 and 1,200 m.
33561		distribution	eng	Confined to Kauai Island on the Napali coast and on the slopes of Mt. Kahili.
33561		habitat	eng	Found in lowland moist forest up to 350 m.
33561		population	eng	This tree is uncommon.
33562		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
33562		distribution	eng	Originally collected only from Puuwaawaa and Kipuka Puaulu on Hawaii.
33562		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
33562		population	eng	The species has not been recorded since the 1940s. It is possible that a subpopulation remains in the former site but recent surveys in the latter failed to uncover any remnant of a subpopulation.
33562		threats	eng	The montane rainforest habitat has been degraded by introduced plants, goats and fire.
33563		distribution	eng	An endemic to Oahu Island, where the species is scattered sparsely in the Waianae and Koolau Mts.
33563		habitat	eng	Moist forest up to 730 m.
33564		distribution	eng	One of the four endemic <em>Cheirodendron</em> taxa restricted to Kauai. It is ecologically and altitudinally distinct. It occurs just below the summit of Mt. Waialeale.
33564		habitat	eng	A tree or shrub of wet forests on the high central plateau of Kauai.
33564		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population for <em>C. dominii</em> is less than 2,500 mature individuals. There are probably only one or two subpopulations.
33564		threats	eng	<em>C. dominii</em> is threatened by habitat degradation from feral pigs and competition from aggressive alien plants.
33565		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded on Lanai, Maui and from Kilauea around the leeward side to the Kohala Mts., Hawaii.
33565		habitat	eng	A species scattered in dry to moist forest extending over a wide altitudinal range.
33566		distribution	eng	Occasional distribution on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hilo and Puna Districts, Hawaii.
33566		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
33567		distribution	eng	Known only in the vicinity of Kokee.
33567		habitat	eng	A rainforest species.
33568		distribution	eng	A species very localised in distribution known only from the Milolii-Kopiwai area on Kauai within an altitudinal band of just 10 m.
33569		distribution	eng	This subspecies is confined to Oahu Island.
33569		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33570		distribution	eng	It is recorded on Oahu from both the Koolau and Waianae Mts., more commonly from the latter.
33570		habitat	eng	This terrestrial or epiphytic species is found in lowland rainforest.
33571		distribution	eng	Restricted to East Maui on the windward slopes of Haleakala.
33571		habitat	eng	A palm-like tree occurring in rainforest between 945 and 1,450 m altitude.
33572		distribution	eng	Found on all the main islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe.
33572		habitat	eng	Relatively widespread, the species occurs in forest of various types over a wide altitudinal range.
33573		distribution	eng	Confined to the Koolau Mts. on Oahu.
33573		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland rainforest.
33574		conservation	eng	The whole species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.  The remaining subpopulation is partly on State-owned land. A Recovery Plan for the species has been published and some measures are in place to protect the remaining plants (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).
33574		distribution	eng	A variety confined to the leeward side of East Maui, where it occurred in Auwahi and Kanaio districts.
33574		habitat	eng	This slow growing, relatively long-lived tree occurs in various lowland dry to mesic forest types (790–1,070 m).
33574		population	eng	In 1910, J.F. Rock found about 40 trees in the forest of Auwahi on the south slopes of Haleakala. The population size was reported to be large in the first half of the century but has subsequently declined to about twelve individuals within 29 ha of private and State-owned (but privately leased) ranchland.
33574		threats	eng	The main threats in the past included the impacts of feral cattle, goats and pigs; the impacts of invasive alien plant species; damage from the Black Twig Borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>); and seed predation by rodents. <br/> <br/>Current threats include ongoing competition with invasive alien plant species. The Black Twig Borer is still a major problem, with the remaining subpopulation exhibiting severe defoliation and reduced vigor as a result of the infestation.  Seed predation by invasive alien rodents (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>  is an ongoing problem inhibiting regeneration. Feral pigs are impacting the habitat through grazing and trampling.  Grazing and trampling by cattle was a major problem in the past, but now all individuals of <em>Alectryon macrococcus</em> var. <em>auwahiensis</em> are protected from ungulates by small woven-wire excloures. <br/> <br/>Given the limited numbers and restricted range, a single natural or human-caused disturbance could be catastrophic.  Also gene pool limitations may depress reproductive vigor and adaptability.
33575		conservation	eng	The taxon is presently classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
33575		distribution	eng	Known from a location in the south-eastern part of Kamakou Preserve, on Molokai.
33575		habitat	eng	Wet forest. The species grows on forested slopes between 1,100 and 1,200 m altitude.
33575		population	eng	This subspecies is known from a single population of less than 30 individuals.
33575		threats	eng	Feral pigs and goats are an immediate threat to the population, and rats and invertebrates may be predating the fruit and other plant parts.
33576		conservation	eng	The single individual known is within a protected area. Attempts at propagation have so far failed. The taxon is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.
33576		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to one locality on West Maui, populations on Lanai and East Maui having become extinct in 1913 and 1927 respectively.
33576		habitat	eng	Montane wet forest.
33576		population	eng	On West Maui the taxon was first collected in the 1980s and is presently known from a single individual within a protected area. There still exist areas of rainforest on East Maui where a population may yet be discovered.
33576		threats	eng	Threats include pigs and invasive plant species. Rats and invertebrates are also a possible threat.
33577		distribution	eng	Found on all the main islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
33577		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, the commonest in the genus, occurring in rainforest up to 1,620 m.
33578		distribution	eng	One of three subspecies confined to Kauai.
33578		population	eng	This appears to be the rarest subspecies, known from just two collections.
33579		distribution	eng	One of three subspecies confined to Kauai Island.
33580		conservation	eng	The subspecies is classified as Endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
33580		distribution	eng	Known to have occurred at only three sites on the western slopes of Hualalai on Hawaii. One subpopulation is found at Honuaulu Forest Reserve and another at Keokea, 45 km away. In addition two subpopulations have been planted within the native range (45 at Honualua Forest Reserve and six at Puu Waawaa).
33580		habitat	eng	A mesic montane rainforest taxon (1,220–1,740 m).
33580		population	eng	The total population size to possibly more than 50 individuals. However, most of the planted individuals do not appear to have survived.
33580		threats	eng	Invasive plants and grazing are a persistent problem.
33581		distribution	eng	Restricted to an area in the south of Kauai.
33581		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forested valleys up to an altitude of 790 m.
33582		distribution	eng	A palm-like tree known only from East Maui.
33582		habitat	eng	Riparian habitat. It is restricted to rainforest and the margins of subalpine forest between altitudes of 1,520 and 2,000 m.
33582		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, weeds, and possibly rats and invertebrates.
33583		distribution	eng	A species restricted to remnants of lowland dry forest in central Molokai and in more moist forest in Makawao and Olinda on Maui.
33583		habitat	eng	Lowland dry and moist forest.
33584		distribution	eng	Waianae Mts. on Oahu. There are occasional occurrences also in the Kolau Mts.
33584		habitat	eng	The main subpopulation is found in various lowland forest types.
33585		distribution	eng	Confined to Oahu.
33585		habitat	eng	It is restricted to dry and other lowland forest types.  This is a striking species which rarely flowers.
33586		conservation	eng	The species is classified as endangered on the US Federal Register.
33586		distribution	eng	It is currently recorded from six to eight subpopulations in Puuwaawaa, the Kaloko/Kaloao area, the Kapua/Kahuku area and on Holei Pali.
33586		habitat	eng	A species of lowland dry forest on lava fields.
33586		population	eng	Population estimates lie between 300 and 400 individuals.
33586		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened with conversion for residential or recreational use. Grazers, invasive plants and fire are also problems.
33587		distribution	eng	The species is known from two subspecies, this one being the rarer. It is restricted to Lanai. The type subspecies is endemic to Maui.
33587		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
33587		population	eng	It has been collected very rarely in the last 50 years.
33588		conservation	eng	It is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.
33588		distribution	eng	A subspecies recorded from the southern Koolau Mts., Oahu.
33588		habitat	eng	Grew in the understorey of lowland forest (535–700 m).
33588		population	eng	Last collected in 1932 and last seen in 1960.
33588		threats	eng	The major threats at the sites where the taxon had been recorded are alien plants and feral pigs.
33589		distribution	eng	Occurring from India to Malaysia.
33589		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
33590		distribution	eng	Scattered in Sabah and Sarawak.
33590		habitat	eng	A widespread species of mixed dipterocarp forest at low to medium elevations.
33590		population	eng	It is a rare species.
33595		population	eng	A species known only from the type locality.
33596		distribution	eng	Known only from an area in the west of Kauai. A population once recorded in the north of the island near Kilauea is thought no longer to exist.
33596		habitat	eng	The species occurs in various forest types up to an altitude of 900 m altitiude.
33597		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It is known from low elevations on Lanai and near Manawainui on East Maui.
33598		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. Found on Maui and Lanai, on which it has become particularly scarce.
33598		habitat	eng	It is one of the dominant components of high elevation dry forest
33598		threats	eng	Disturbance caused by grazing, conversion to pastureland and the invasion of alien grasses, increasing the likelihood of serious fires, have all contributed to the decline in the habitat.
33599		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It is endemic to Kauai.
33599		habitat	eng	It is restricted to rainforest at high elevations.
33600		conservation	eng	The variety is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.
33600		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species.
33600		habitat	eng	Coastal dry shrubland.
33600		population	eng	Approximately 10 subpopulations, consisting of about 545 individuals in total, are located principally at Kaena Point but with small subpopulations in Alau Gulch, Waianae Kai and Keawaula.
33600		threats	eng	Fires and alien species are the major threats to remaining subpopulations.
33601		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It is found on Niihau, Kauai, Molokai and Kahoolawe.
33601		habitat	eng	Beach vegetation.
33601		threats	eng	The habitat has been in rapid decline because of the spread of goats and other feral animals and invasive plants.
33602		conservation	eng	Protective and monitoring measures are being carried out on the subpopulation in Pahole Natural Area Reserve. <em>Chamaesyce herbstii</em> is propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997).  The species is listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act.
33602		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce herbstii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Currently it is known from four subpopulations in the north and central Waianae Mountains on Oahu.
33602		habitat	eng	A tree, up to 8 m tall, occurring in moist forests in gulch bottoms or gulch slopes.
33602		population	eng	There are estimated to be fewer than 170 plants in total.
33602		threats	eng	The lowland rainforest habitat is steadily being degraded by feral pigs and invasive plants (Koster's curse, silk oak, huehue haole, strawberry guava, and Christmas berry). Fire is also a possible threat to the species.  <em>Chamaesyce herbstii</em> is at risk of extinction from naturally occurring events (such as hurricanes) and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of remaining populations.
33603		distribution	eng	This species was once common over a wide altitudinal range on western Maui and Hawaii.
33603		habitat	eng	Dry open forests up to 2,800 m.
33603		threats	eng	Disturbance caused by grazing, conversion to pastureland and the consequent invasion of introduced grasses increasing the likelihood of serious fires have all contributed to the decline in this habitat.
33604		conservation	eng	<em>C. rockii</em> is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum (G. Koob, pers. comm. 1997).   <br/>The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
33604		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce rockii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is confined to the Koolau Mountains.
33604		habitat	eng	Usually a compact shrub but sometimes a tree. Scattered in rainforest and shrublands, primarily along cloudswept ridges up to 830 m.
33604		population	eng	Between 200 and 400 plants are estimated to exist in fewer than 10 subpopulations.
33604		threats	eng	The vegetation is liable to be damaged or degraded by feral pigs and invasive plants (strawberry guava and Koster's curse). Impacts from human activities, such as military activities, also pose a possible threat to the species.
33605		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.
33605		distribution	eng	Known from approximately 13 populations in north-west Kauai, the Waianae Mts. on Oahu, Molokai, where the one specimen known has died, the south-west slope of Haleakala on Maui and the Kona coast on Hawaii.
33605		habitat	eng	A large forest tree.
33605		population	eng	The total population comprises of fewer than 50 individuals.
33605		threats	eng	The decline in numbers has mainly been caused by the black twig borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>).
33606		conservation	eng	The species is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.
33606		distribution	eng	Restricted to populations found in the Waianae Mts. on Oahu, Hualalai on Hawaii and on Lanai. Subpopulations on Maui and Kauai are now apparently extinct.
33606		habitat	eng	Dry and moist forest.
33606		population	eng	Currently fewer than 50 reproductive individuals are known.
33606		threats	eng	Various factors have contributed to the decline, from overexploitation and habitat clearance to damage caused by feral animals and invasive plants.
33607		distribution	eng	Known localities were in the Aka Hills and Tuzu River Gorge.
33607		habitat	eng	Windswept steep cliffs and slopes.
33607		population	eng	Once reported to be common along windswept steep cliffs and slopes, the species has not been recollected since 1935. The area is remote and the species is likely to be found again.
33608		distribution	eng	Collections of the species are concentrated on the Travancore Hills, just to the north of Agastyamalai. There is also a single record of it further north in the range.
33608		population	eng	It was noted to be scarce at the turn of the century and few, if any, more recent records have been made, despite the area being relatively well surveyed.
33609		distribution	eng	Known from scattered populations in the Western Ghats. It has been collected mostly from isolated peaks in the Nilgiris. Subpopulations have also been recorded from outlying areas, mainly at high altitudes, from South Kanara in Karnataka and the Anamalai range.
33609		habitat	eng	A small tree of evergreen forest. Occurring up to 2,500 m.
33609		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened in places with clearance for the cultivation of commercial crops.
33610		distribution	eng	Collected four times from separate localities in southern Karnataka.
33610		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in evergreen forest.
33611		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
33611		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southernmost part of the Western Ghats in the Agastyamalai Hills.
33611		habitat	eng	A relatively large tree occurring in evergreen forest between 500 and 1,300 m.
33611		population	eng	It has been collected or recorded from approximately six localities.
33611		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
33612		distribution	eng	Confined to the northern tip of Madagascar the species is known from just five sites.
33612		population	eng	Although further locations are likely to be found the known populations are evidently very small; only one, at Ambondromifehy, contains more than a dozen individuals.
33612		threats	eng	This region of northern Madagascar is considerably disturbed by fire and the extraction of firewood and timber. Seed predation by rats also appears to be limiting the chances of population recruitment.
33613		distribution	eng	In Taiwan, the population is confined to Lanyu Island. Information is needed on the populations in Philippines.
33613		habitat	eng	Lowland broadleaved forest.
33613		population	eng	The number of mature individuals in Taiwan is very small (less than 250). Nothing is known of its status in the Philippines.
33613		threats	eng	Poor regeneration and housing developments cause the most serious concern for remaining populations.
33614		distribution	eng	This species is common in the Philippines, however, the distribution in Taiwan is uncertain.
33614		habitat	eng	Grows in disturbed forest and on forest edges.
33614		population	eng	There have been 14 collections in the last 30 years.
33615		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland forest found along rivers and near beaches.
33615		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
33616		distribution	eng	A widespread species found in Indo-China and western Malaysia.
33616		habitat	eng	In Viet Nam, this tree occurs in evergreen tropical rainforest or monsoon forest.
33616		threats	eng	The wood is used for construction of ships, vehicles, posts and agricultural tools.
33617		distribution	eng	An ornamental shrub confined to Lanyu Island.
33617		habitat	eng	Areas of dry scrub.
33617		population	eng	Locally abundant.
33617		threats	eng	None of the populations are protected and, in places, they are susceptible to increasing settlement and cultivation of the land.
33618		distribution	eng	This widespread species is distributed from Hainan throughout Indo-China and Malaysia to New Guinea.
33618		habitat	eng	Coastal forests.
33618		threats	eng	The populations in Sabah are under some threat.
33619		distribution	eng	A species which is highly variable. Found on eastern Kauai, the Koolau Mts. on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.
33619		habitat	eng	Scattered individuals are found in various forest types up to 1,830 m.
33620		conservation	eng	It is the major source of illipe nuts, which ensures its protection under Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).
33620		habitat	eng	This lowland tree is one of the fastest growing species of the genus. It is found frequently along rivers and in areas which are periodically inundated.
33621		conservation	eng	It is protected under Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990) as a major source of illipe nuts.
33621		habitat	eng	This large tree is a riverine and freshwater swamp species.
33622		conservation	eng	It is afforded  protection by Sarawak's  Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).
33622		habitat	eng	A relatively small dipterocarp which occurs in river forest.
33623		conservation	eng	This tree is protected under Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).  Some populations also occur in primary forest reserves.
33623		habitat	eng	This timber species is locally common in the patchy lowland heath forest. It has been planted for its especially large illipe nuts.
33624		conservation	eng	The taxon is classified as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.
33624		distribution	eng	Formerly ranging from Waihanau Valley to Papalaua Valley on East Molokai, the taxon is now reduced to an area stretching for 5 km on the northern coast, where three subpopulations occur.
33624		habitat	eng	Along steep cliffs.
33624		population	eng	There are no more than 100 individuals in the only known extant location.
33624		threats	eng	Feral goats are a major cause of damage to the habitat.
33625		distribution	eng	Known from three localized populations, two on Kauai at Lihue and Olokele Canyon, and in the Waianae Mts. between Kawaihapai and Puupane on Oahu.
33625		habitat	eng	A tree of dry forest and shrubland.
33626		distribution	eng	North-west Kaui
33626		habitat	eng	This subspecies is confined to forest up to 1,100 m.
33627		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
33627		distribution	eng	Confined to Kauai, where two remaining subpopulations occur in adjacent valleys, Limahuli and Hanakapiai, on the north coast. An additional subpopulation in Kalihiwai appears to be extinct.
33627		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
33627		population	eng	After Hurricane Iniki, the subpopulation in Hanakapiai Valley was halved to about 25 plants. The second population consists of between 50 and 100 plants.
33627		threats	eng	The lowland rainforest habitat is frequently damaged by feral pigs and invaded by introduced plants.
33628		distribution	eng	Restricted to populations in Puukeahiakahoe and Kawai Nui on the summit of Koolau Mts.
33628		habitat	eng	A small rainforest tree.
33629		distribution	eng	Confined to Oahu along the crest of the Koolau Mts. from the south-eastern end to Castle Trail.
33629		habitat	eng	Known from populations in cloudswept forest.
33629		population	eng	An uncommon species.
33630		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai in Kokee and Hanapepe Valley.
33630		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rainforest between 1,060 and 1,220 m in altitude.
33631		conservation	eng	The Mt. Cameroon Project has already conducted a detailed survey of this species on the mountain and has been energetic in developing methods for propagating and replanting it.
33631		distribution	eng	Montane Africa (to East and South Africa) and Madagascar. This species is one of about ten Pan-African montane tree species (including e.g., <em>Agauria salicifolia, Ilex mitis</em> and <em>Myrica arborea</em>) and is not remotely in danger of extinction, so long as some montane forest survives somewhere within its enormous range.
33631		habitat	eng	Montane forest, usually at about 1800-2200 m alt.
33631		population	eng	Locally it can be very common.
33631		threats	eng	Harvesting of bark for the European medicinal market. On Mt Cameroon as with some other areas within the range of this species, many trees have died as a result of girdling caused by bark removal. The bark from the trees on Mt Cameroon is transported to the Plantecam factory at Mutengene where it is extracted to produce a powder for export to a company in France. A great deal of attention, and funding has been paid by International Conservation organizations to investigate and address this harvest and perhaps for this reason the species has received a high conservation rating. In the opinion of this author, it merits a "Lower Risk, near threatened"  at  best.
33632		distribution	eng	This variety represents the most threatened of about eight varieties of this widely dominating and variable Hawaiian endemic.
33632		habitat	eng	It is restricted to remaining forms of forest and shrubland, usually along watercourses, from low to middle elevation.
33633		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai from the Powerline Trail to the Maunahina-Wainiha drainage. It is thought a collection from Honopu Valley on the Napali coast may also represent this species.
33633		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to forested valleys up to 650 m.
33634		distribution	eng	Scattered individuals occur on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Felicité.
33634		population	eng	Thought to be once more abundant, the subspecies is now restricted mainly to higher altitudes. Subpopulations once known on Round and Long Island are now extinct.
33634		threats	eng	Declines are probably attributable to historical deforestation.
33635		population	eng	The status of this species is not well consolidated. It appears to have become extinct in the areas from which it was known. There is, however, a possibility that it occurs in Mississippi and Lousiana.
33636		habitat	eng	A tall tree of evergreen forest.
33636		population	eng	Apparently known only from the type collection.
33637		distribution	eng	A species endemic to the Andaman Islands and Great Nicobar Island.
33637		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest.
33637		threats	eng	Large-scale logging has taken place on the Andamans and there is no doubt that the species has declined as a result.
33638		distribution	eng	This subspecies is confined to the Khasi Hills.
33638		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
33638		population	eng	Only a single occurrence is known and numbers are believed to be very small.
33639		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the Palni and Kodaikanal Hills.
33639		habitat	eng	Occurring on the fringes of moist evergreen forest at an altitude of 2,150 m.
33639		population	eng	It has not been found in recent years.
33639		threats	eng	May have suffered the conversion of its habitat to agricultural land.
33640		distribution	eng	Known from a single locality in the Western Ghats.
33640		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest at about 1,500 m.
33640		population	eng	Little is known about this species. It has been collected only once or twice.
33641		distribution	eng	Occurs over a wide range at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
33641		habitat	eng	Evergreen and shola forest between 600 and 2,000 m.
33641		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33642		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Anamalai range and parts of the Nilgiris.
33642		habitat	eng	Occurring in evergreen forest and shola forest above 1,800 m.
33642		threats	eng	Its habitat has been strongly affected by fire and conversion to commercial plantations.
33643		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus known only from the two collections from a small area in the Anamalai Hills in Coimbatore District.
33643		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
33643		population	eng	There are large areas of intact and well-protected forest. However, despite repeated botanical surveys, the species has not been found since 1912.
33645		distribution	eng	Endemic to a small area in the Travancore range, occurring at Ponmudi and Ariankavu.
33645		habitat	eng	A large tree of lowland forest.
33645		population	eng	It appears to have become extremely scarce. No collections have been made in the last 100 years. Only small remnants of forest now exist within its former range.
33645		threats	eng	Forest cutting.
33646		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Aka Hills, Naga Hills and Garo Hills.
33646		habitat	eng	The species is found in open situations in evergreen forest.
33646		population	eng	No recent collections have been made and the species is believed to have become scarce.
33646		threats	eng	Encroaching agriculture has caused declines in the species' habitat.
33647		distribution	eng	Occurs over a range extending from South Kanara in Karnataka to the southern tip of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu.
33647		habitat	eng	A large tree sparsely distributed in evergreen hill forest and deciduous forest, occurring up to 1,000 m.
33647		threats	eng	The population has declined considerably because of overexploitation and habitat degradation. Regeneration appears to be very poor.
33648		distribution	eng	The main concentration of subpopulations occurs near Muthukuzhivayal. Outlying subpopulations exist further north towards Anamalai.
33648		habitat	eng	Evergreen hill forest.
33648		threats	eng	Large areas of forest have been destroyed for the Kodayar Hydroelectric Project and also for the establishment of plantation crops. Fruits have been overcollected.
33649		distribution	eng	Known from just two forest localities in Kerempani, Assam, and Singtam, Sikkim.
33649		population	eng	The species was last collected in 1938.
33650		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Ghats in Kerala.
33650		habitat	eng	The species occurs in scattered pockets of evergreen forest along streamsides.
33650		threats	eng	It is believed to have been wiped out from several locations where there has been logging, clearing for commercial agriculture or other projects.
33651		distribution	eng	Restricted to a single locality in the Nilgiris.
33651		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest, occurring between 1,800 and 2,400 m.
33652		distribution	eng	A small tree scattered in forest remnants in the Western Ghats.
33652		population	eng	Several occurrences recorded from the turn of the century no longer appear to exist. The most recent collections are from Bangare in Upper Bisle Ghat and the Bababudan Hills.
33653		distribution	eng	A species with a disjunct distribution, occurring in the Velligonda Hills in the south of the Eastern Ghats and in Quilon in coastal Kerala.
33653		population	eng	Little is known of the present status of the subpopulations as no record of them has been made since 1923.
33654		distribution	eng	The only record of the species comes from a imprecisely located collection in the Deccan Peninsula. Botanical explorations in the Eastern and Western Ghats have failed to find the species.
33655		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from a single locality in Mangalore in South Kanara District, Karnataka.
33655		population	eng	It has not been found this century despite thorough searches.
33655		threats	eng	Only fragments of the original forest now remain.
33656		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Ghats in Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
33656		habitat	eng	Forest slopes.
33656		population	eng	The species is believed to have disappeared from all its recorded localities except for one on the forested eastern slopes of the Kalrayans Hills, where about 20 trees survive.
33657		distribution	eng	A taxon known only from a few localities in Meghalaya.
33657		population	eng	How many of the localities harbour extant populations is not known. No record of the taxon has been made since 1935 despite explorations in the area.
33657		threats	eng	The forest in Meghalaya has been seriously fragmented and reduced to sacred groves in many places.
33659		conservation	eng	A fence is erected around it and continuing damage has led to construction of a further three fences. Cuttings have been propagated at Kew Botanic Gardens but attempts at re-introduction had failed until 1996, when cuttings raised in Rodrigues successfully rooted.
33659		distribution	eng	<em>Café marron</em> is reduced to just one surviving individual.
33660		distribution	eng	Described in the mid-1800s, this species was apparently restricted to a single locality in Las Pozas, Pinar del Río Province.
33660		population	eng	The type locality has been completely destroyed and the species has not been collected again despite thorough searches.
33661		conservation	eng	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33661		distribution	eng	North-west Haleakala, Maui.
33661		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane wet forest.
33661		population	eng	Sites where the species was historically known to occur no longer appear to harbour subpopulations. Only a relatively recently discovered locality in the Kipahulu Valley in Haleakala National Park still holds a subpopulation, which is estimated to consist of fewer than 300 individuals.
33661		threats	eng	Feral pigs, although presently controlled, require constant vigilance. The spread of introduced plants also presents a serious threat to the long-term survival of the species.
33662		distribution	eng	Known only from the Waianae Mts., Oahu.
33662		habitat	eng	Rainforest between 910 and 1,220 m.
33662		population	eng	The species is uncommon and restricted from Puukaua to Mt. Kaala.
33663		distribution	eng	The main subpopulation occurs in the Waianae Mts. There are also collections from Manoa and Palolo Valleys in the Koolau Mts. and a tentative specimen from Maui.
33663		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33664		distribution	eng	Known only from a few collections, in Kaholuamanu and Mt. Waialeale on Kauai.
33664		habitat	eng	A small tree thought to be taken from boggy rainforest above 1,000 m.
33664		population	eng	It is now probably extinct.
33665		distribution	eng	Recorded from Ukuele, on Maui.
33665		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub found in rainforest at 1,220 m.
33665		population	eng	Last seen in 1919.
33666		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33666		distribution	eng	Originally known only from the type locality on the north side of Haupu, on Kauai, the species has now been found in Waimea Canyon.
33666		population	eng	The first subpopulation no longer exists and at the second site there are two trees 1.6 km apart.
33666		threats	eng	The habitat is frequently degraded by feral goats and the invasion of alien plants.
33667		distribution	eng	Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.
33667		habitat	eng	A variable species of dry, and occasionally moist, forest up to 1,220 m.
33667		threats	eng	The habitat is extensively degraded because of the impact of cattle, feral herbivores and introduced plants.
33668		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Waianae Mts., Oahu, where it has been collected in an area extending from Puukaua to Piko Trail.
33668		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33669		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33669		distribution	eng	Known from Olokele Valley and Waimea on Kauai, and Auwahi and Kanaio, on Maui.
33669		population	eng	On Kauai a total of four isolated individuals are known. On Maui, at one time locally common, the species has been reduced to 20 or 30 plants in two subpopulations.
33669		threats	eng	The habitat has been steadily degraded by grazing and the invasion of introduced plants.
33670		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai.
33670		population	eng	The species is known from just a few collections from two localities, the Robinson's summer house and Kaholuamanu.
33671		distribution	eng	This shrubby tree is endemic to Oahu, in the Waianae Mts. from Palawai to Makaha Valley.
33671		habitat	eng	Rainforest up to an altitude of 1,220 m.
33672		conservation	eng	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33672		distribution	eng	Known from the southern slope of Haleakala on East Maui, and from Kupaia Gulch on Molokai.
33672		habitat	eng	A small tree of dryland forest.
33672		population	eng	On East Maui, the species is kKnown from three collections taken in 1920. On Molokai, it is known from a single collection taken in 1985. The Maui population is likely to be extinct. The population on Molokai consists of just three individuals.
33672		threats	eng	Goats are evidently browsing the trees and there is an immediate threat of invasion by molasses grass.
33673		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type, of unknown locality but thought to originate from Maui.
33673		population	eng	Presumed to be extinct.
33674		distribution	eng	Endemic to Maui, where it is restricted from Pohakea to Honokahua in the west and from Makawao to Koolau Gap in the east.
33674		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in medium-elevation rainforest.
33675		distribution	eng	Collections have been taken from populations on the upper Lihue Ditch Trail at 875 m and from Waihiawa Bog at 580 m.
33675		population	eng	Only three collections have been made of this small tree. The species has not been found in recent years and is now probably extinct.
33676		distribution	eng	Kalalau and Puuokila Look-outs.
33676		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree reported to be scarce and restricted to rainforest above 1,070 m.
33677		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33677		distribution	eng	Endemic to Oahu, in an area between Puu Kaua and Puu Kanehoa to Mauna Kapu in the Waianae and Koolau Mts.
33677		habitat	eng	The species grows to an elevation of 853 m on forested ridges.
33677		population	eng	Eight subpopulations, containing fewer than 150 individuals.
33677		threats	eng	Feral goats, pigs and invasive plants are continuing threats to the native flora.
33678		distribution	eng	A species confined to Oahu, where it is known from subpopulations occurring in the Waianae Mts. and from Kahana Iki to Waimalu in the Koolau Mts.
33678		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
33679		distribution	eng	Wahiawa Bog and an area ranging from Alakai Swamp to Mt. Waialeale on Kauai.
33679		habitat	eng	A many-branched shrub or tree which occurs in open bogs and bog hummocks.
33680		distribution	eng	Known primarily from occurrences in the Koolau Mts. and an occasional appearance in the Waianae Mts. on Oahu. A single collection has also been made from Wahiawa Bog on Kauai.
33680		habitat	eng	A small forest tree.
33681		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
33681		distribution	eng	To date the species has been found in three locations on Hawaii.
33681		population	eng	Only one location, a fenced site at Kipuka Pualu, still harbours an extant population, containing 30 to 35 individuals. Regeneration appears to be taking place.
33681		threats	eng	There are threats of leafhopper infestations, invasive plants and rat damage.
33682		distribution	eng	A genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Found on Kauai, Oahu, and in Olowalu and Lao Valley on Maui. A single collection was also taken from Olokui Plateau on Molokai.
33682		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are found in rainforest up to an altitude of 1,160 m.
33682		population	eng	This is the most common of the species and the only one that attains the stature of a tree.
33683		distribution	eng	Niihau, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii Islands.
33683		habitat	eng	A variable species of dry to occasionally moist forest up to 800 m.
33684		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
33684		habitat	eng	Low montane shrubland and dwarf <em>Hypericum</em>-<em>Cephalocroton</em> shrubland; mainly on granite in the Haggeher, but also less commonly on limestone (Reyged). Typically above 600 m, lower altitudes are atypical. Altitude of (120–)600–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Closely related to <em>H. mysorense</em> a species from Southern India and Sri Lanka.
33684		threats	eng	The subpopulations are believed to be stable and under no immediate threat.
33685		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
33685		habitat	eng	Evergreen and semi-deciduous montane woodland. Altitude of 500–1,350 m. <br/> <br/>Distinct from other species on the island in both its habit and habitat: it is the only species that grows as a tree rather than as a herbs or shrublet and is the only species restricted to the relatively moist submontane vegetation of higher altitudes in the Haggeher mountains. It is probable that I. socotrana has a different evolutionary history from that of most other Soqotran <em>Indigofereae</em>: these radiated in response to the advance of arid conditions throughout Northwest Africa (Schrire 1995) during the Miocene. <br/> <br/>One of the few arborescent <em>Indigofera</em> species. It is scattered relatively sparsely in areas of submontane and montane woodland.
33686		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. Found on Socotra and also Samha, one of The Brothers.
33686		habitat	eng	Locally common over the limestone plateaus of Soqotra; rare in relict woodland at the base of the limestone escarpment on Samha. Altitude of 500–700 m.
33686		population	eng	Its occurrence is very scattered but subpopulations are under no immediate threat.
33687		distribution	eng	Widespread in tropical Africa and Arabia; subspecies <em>socotranum</em> is endemic to Soqotra.
33687		habitat	eng	Widespread on the plains and limestone plateau, and often abundant in succulent shrubland on the escarpments and rocky foothills; extending into <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland in rocky places on the plains and into open semi-deciduous woodland at higher altitudes on the hills. Altitude of sea-level to 700 (–1,050) m. <br/> <br/>With its grotesquely swollen, almost human-like trunks and large bright pink flowers <em>Adenium obesum</em> is one of the most spectacular and characteristic plants of Soqotra. <em>A. obesum</em>, the desert rose , is widely distributed in Africa an Arabia. Across this wide range five subspecies have been recognized. The Soqotran plants have been placed in subspecies <em>socotranum</em> (Vierh.) <em>Lavranos</em> . This is endemic to Soqotra and is distinguished by its massive size and erect, conical stems. They can be up to 5 m high and 3 m across. Where they grow on the edge of escarpment their stems are covered in lichen and they appear to merge into the surrounding rocks. <em>Adenium</em> comes into leaf in winter, drops its leaves in summer and then comes into flower; it is one of the shrubs that does not need rain to flower.
33687		population	eng	It is very common in some areas.
33688		distribution	eng	A variety which is endemic to Soqotra. Usually found below 700 m, but rarely extending to over 1,000 m on the Diksam Plateau (100–1,1050 m).
33688		habitat	eng	Found in succulent shrubland (also referred to as dry woodland) on the limstone escarpments and sides of wadis.
33688		threats	eng	The wood (although soft) was used in the past for making fishing platforms and rafts. The foliage is one of the most important fodders on the island, especially for cattle. If livestock numbers increase, the tree would come under increasing threat.
33689		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
33689		habitat	eng	Dominant in the drought-deciduous woodland which follow the wadis in the Zahr basin (such as Wadi Meyhah); also rare in the western part of the Noged Escarpment. Altitude of 100–500 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to the small valleys which cross the western inland plains and in gullies and ravines in the western plateau. This is the first shrub in the west to comes into leaf after rain and last to die back with the onset of dry conditions. An unusually arborescent member of <em>Convolvulaceae</em>.
33690		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
33690		habitat	eng	Tree < 5 m, branches rather tortuous; bark smooth, grey. Leaves clustered, pinnate with 3–7 leaflets; leaflets ovate to broadly elliptic, 4–9 x 2–6 cm, entire, glabrous or thinly hairy to velvety. Flowers in raceme-like cymes, <em>ca</em>. 5 mm. Fruits fleshy, clustered  on stalks 5–15 cm long, bright green, grape-like, globose, <em>ca</em>. 10 mm long. <br/> <br/>Radcliffe-Smith recognised two varieties have been recognised: var. <em>glabra</em> (from eastern Soqotra) with glabrous leaves and var. <em>ornifolia</em> (from western Soqotra) with hairy leaves. However, there are many intermediates and they have not been maintained here.
33690		population	eng	Although widespread on coastal plains and foothills, the subpopulations are generally scattered and small.
33690		threats	eng	Increasing goat numbers could cause the species to become more seriously threatened.
33691		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
33691		habitat	eng	Widespread in dry areas on Soqotra; locally common in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland on the plains and locally abundant in succulent shrubland on limestone; less common on igneous rocks; rare on Samha. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m. <br/> <br/><em>Dendrosicyos socotranus</em> is a monotypic, endemic genus, and perhaps the best example of the swollen-trunked bottle-trees for which Soqotra is famous. On Soqotra it is widely distributed in several vegetation types but has a rather fragmented distribution; over large areas there are only isolated trees or small, relict populations, whilst in other ares it is relatively abundant. There are a few trees on the island of Samha, but none on Darsa or Abd al-Kuri.
33691		threats	eng	The whole plant is cut and pulped for livestock fodder. Although current levels of use are sustainable, there is a potential risk of increasing livestock numbers placing populations under severe pressure.
33693		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
33693		habitat	eng	Frequent in submontane semi-deciduous woodland on granite; rare in succulent shrubland. Altitude of (100–)500–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from the other species of <em>Croton</em> on Soqotra by its large, cordate leaves and larger, more coarsely and densely stellate-hairy fruits.
33693		population	eng	The species is scattered, although occasionally common.
33693		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
33694		distribution	eng	Widespread in the Moluccas and New Guinea.
33694		habitat	eng	Found in various habitat types, including secondary forest.
33695		distribution	eng	Confined to north-west Borneo.
33695		threats	eng	This tree is one of the major sources of light red meranti timber.
33696		distribution	eng	Found only in St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.
33696		habitat	eng	The species is locally common in thickets on gravel.
33698		habitat	eng	This species grows in lowland forest up to 200 m altitude.
33698		threats	eng	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value in the production of incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.
33700		habitat	eng	An emergent lowland tree that grows on deep clay-rich soils.
33701		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.
33701		distribution	eng	Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Barbados, Virgin Islands and Colombia. Extinct or almost extinct in Antigua, Anguilla and Barbuda.
33701		habitat	eng	A slow-growing species of lowland dry forest, woodland and thicket, frequently growing in coastland areas.
33701		population	eng	Where it still occurs, populations are now severely reduced. Regeneration is good but growth is very slow.
33701		threats	eng	The timber and medicinal resin have been traded for several centuries as lignum-vitae and overexploitation has taken place throughout the species' range.
33702		distribution	eng	Subpopulations in Viet Nam are scarce and restricted to coastal areas in the south.
33703		conservation	eng	Nusa Kambangan is an island controlled by the Prison Service, with very limited access.
33703		distribution	eng	This species is found in forest remnants on Nusa Kambangan and possibly Ujung Kulon.
33703		population	eng	It was last collected in 1970.
33703		threats	eng	The vegetation of the island is threatened by timber thieves, who are removing timber regardless of the armed guard patrol.
33704		distribution	eng	Occurs in scattered populations throughout India to Indo-China and Malaysia.
33704		habitat	eng	An evergreen tree usually occurring in evergreen or monsoon or dry dipterocarp forest below 1,000 m.
33704		population	eng	Populations in Viet Nam are scarce.
33705		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
33705		distribution	eng	This species is found in most of Southeast Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia and south Viet Nam. It is also found in the northeast tip of Australia and Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and to New Caledonia, and in Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) and Palau.
33705		habitat	eng	This species grows in the upstream estuarine areas, riverine influenced areas, areas of high rainfall, and all across intertidal zones. This is a small, sprawling tree and is fast growing. This species is often associated with <em>Nypa fruticans</em> and <em>Acanthus ilicifolius</em>.
33705		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range. It is rare in Australia and is only found in two esturies there (Duke 2006). It is also rare in the south of Viet Nam and in Yap. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
33705		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
33706		distribution	eng	Found throughout Indo-China and much of Indonesia.
33706		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland to montane forests up to 2,400 m.
33707		habitat	eng	A species found in primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest.
33707		population	eng	Three varieties are recognised, all of which are fairly widespread and common.
33709		conservation	eng	Cutting of trees in Mathuata and Mbua is restricted.
33709		distribution	eng	Occurs on four of the high islands. It has become rare on Viti Levu. The subpopulations on the north coast of Vanua Levu are probably the least disturbed.
33709		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry dense forest and occasionally on the inner edges of mangroves.
33709		population	eng	It is sometimes locally abundant.
33709		threats	eng	A desirable timber, used for house posts and marine constructions. Cutting and coastal developments are responsible for its decline.
33710		distribution	eng	Distributed in Indo-China and Malaysia.
33710		habitat	eng	A tree of primary mixed dipterocarp forest up to 2,200 m.
33711		habitat	eng	A widespread small tree, sometimes a shrub.
33711		threats	eng	Utilized for its wood.
33712		distribution	eng	Widespread.
33712		habitat	eng	A small tree.
33712		population	eng	Common.
33713		distribution	eng	West Malaysia.
33713		population	eng	Although fairly widespread, the species has been collected only twice in recent years.
33715		distribution	eng	An extremely widespread species.
33715		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary forest, occurring on most soils types.
33716		habitat	eng	A tree of primary forest and swamp forest up to 1,450 m.
33716		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
33717		habitat	eng	A lowland dipterocarp forest species found growing on sandy clay soils.
33718		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of this species occur in some primary forest reserves.
33719		conservation	eng	In the national park and forest reserves of the area conservation measures are in place.
33719		distribution	eng	Eastern Peninsular Malaysia.
33719		habitat	eng	This species commonly occurs along streams and rivers, in lowland and hill forests.
33719		threats	eng	Pressures from expanding human settlements and logging activities are exerted on the species.  The seed of the tree is used locally as a vertebrate poison.
33720		distribution	eng	Java, Singapore and the states of Penang, Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor, Malacca and Johore.
33720		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist forest between 150 and 1,000 m.
33721		habitat	eng	The species is locally abundant on limestone slopes.
33723		distribution	eng	The species occurs from areas in the west to as far east as Gunung Telomojo.
33723		habitat	eng	Scattered in remnant montane and hill forest.
33723		threats	eng	This habitat has been almost completely cleared in areas below 1,400 m and the pressures are intense on remaining areas.
33724		habitat	eng	A fairly widespread species found in many habitat types.
33725		distribution	eng	A widely distributed species in west Malaysia. It is rare in Sumatra.
33726		habitat	eng	This tree is commonly found in periodically inundated forest on river banks.
33726		threats	eng	The wood is used for construction and for making furniture and agricultural implements.
33728		conservation	eng	In-situ conservation at Mondrain already in practice. Propagation is carried out for public, as the plant has medicinal properties
33728		distribution	eng	Localities: Mondrain, Pieter Both, Gubbies, Piton du Fouge.
33728		population	eng	Fewer than 12 adult individuals are known, most of them in Piton du Fouge Ridge Forest. There is a chance there are more individuals in more remote areas.
33729		distribution	eng	Recorded from the parishes of St Elizabeth and St James.
33729		habitat	eng	Woodlands on limestone, between 400 and 610 m.
33730		distribution	eng	Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts.
33730		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in montane forest at higher altitudes, above 1,700 m.
33731		distribution	eng	A locally common species in St Andrew, St Thomas and Portland.
33731		habitat	eng	Occurring in shady woodland on limestone or shale between 280 and 1,130 m.
33731		threats	eng	Almost all the forest at these altitudes has been destroyed or severely degraded.
33732		distribution	eng	Confined to Portland.
33732		habitat	eng	The species occurs in remaining areas of rainforest and mossy thickets on limestone between 530 and 900 m.
33733		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is distributed from Florida to Venezuela. This variety is endemic to Jamaica, where it is found in small subpopulations in St Andrew and Clarendon.
33733		habitat	eng	Thickets and woodland on limestone between 210 and 790 m.
33734		distribution	eng	Occurring in small numbers, the species is confined to the southern John Crow Mts.
33734		habitat	eng	On rocky serpentine hillsides, between 750 and 900 m.
33735		distribution	eng	One of two varieties of a Jamaican endemic. It has a local distribution in St James and Trelawny.
33735		habitat	eng	Occurring in thickets and on open banks on rocky limestone.
33736		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Jamaica. This variety is known only from the type, which was collected in Manchester.
33737		distribution	eng	Known only from populations in Clarendon and St Ann.
33737		habitat	eng	A slender shrub or tree in woodland on limestone.
33738		distribution	eng	Only three localities are known, containing small populations in St Catherine and St Thomas.
33738		threats	eng	Deforestation has almost removed all forest areas below 1,400 m in St Thomas.
33739		distribution	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs outside the type locality or whether it is now extinct.
33739		threats	eng	The type locality of the species appears to have been cleared for charcoal production.
33740		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species, recorded only from a single herbarium specimen.
33741		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from Westmoreland and Hanover.
33741		habitat	eng	The species occurs locally in thickets and woodlands on limestone rocks.
33742		distribution	eng	Known only from Portland.
33742		habitat	eng	The species occurs locally in wet mossy thickets and woodland on limestone areas.
33743		distribution	eng	Known only from Clarendon and Trelawny Parishes.
33743		habitat	eng	Areas of woodland on limestone rocks.
33743		population	eng	The species occurs in rare and local subpopulations.
33744		distribution	eng	Hanover.
33744		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to a small area of woodland on limestone.
33745		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are restricted to Peckham Woods and Douglas Castle Woods.
33745		threats	eng	There is evidence of cutting and agricultural encroachment in both localities.
33746		distribution	eng	Found uncommonly in the western highlands.
33746		habitat	eng	A montane rainforest species above 750 m.
33747		distribution	eng	This species is known from the summit of Bubby Hill.
33747		habitat	eng	Woodland.
33747		threats	eng	The area is susceptible to selective logging and other disturbances.
33748		distribution	eng	One of two threatened varieties of a Jamaican endemic.
33748		population	eng	It appears to be known from two subpopulations. The one on Quaco Rock is probably extinct as the vegetation has been cleared, largely for charcoal production. There is also a population along the road between Balcarres and Sunbury.
33749		distribution	eng	A variety or possibly a distinct species. It occurs in St Elizabeth, where the only known population is on Top Hill.
33749		threats	eng	The area is susceptible to cutting and encroaching agriculture.
33750		distribution	eng	Apparently, the species is known only from the Ramgoat Cave area in Trelawny.
33751		distribution	eng	Parishes of Clarendon and St Ann.
33751		habitat	eng	Similar in many respects to <em>L. fawcettii</em>, the species occurs in thickets on limestone hills in a narrow altitudinal band.
33752		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic found in a confined area in St James and Trelawny.
33752		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
33753		distribution	eng	Confined to Trelawny.
33753		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
33753		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33754		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to St Thomas Parish.
33754		population	eng	Forest areas in the parish have almost completely disappeared or are severely degraded.
33754		threats	eng	Forest areas in the parish have almost completely disappeared or are severely degraded.
33755		distribution	eng	Endemic to Dolphin Head.
33755		habitat	eng	The species is confined to an area of woodland.
33756		distribution	eng	Known only in Trelawny.
33756		habitat	eng	The species is confined to areas of woodland on limestone.
33757		distribution	eng	Confined to highland areas in the parishes of Manchester and St Ann.
33757		habitat	eng	A rare bushy tree of highland areas of woodland on limestone.
33758		distribution	eng	St Andrew and Portland Parishes.
33758		habitat	eng	This species is found in exposed montane thickets and woodland on steep slopes, 1,200 to 1,500 m.
33758		threats	eng	Disturbance and clearing of the habitat has been extensive but mostly at lower altitudes in more accessible sites.
33759		distribution	eng	It has been recorded only from the parishes of Portland and St Thomas.
33759		habitat	eng	A rare species of swampy forest on limestone between 450 and 760 m.
33759		threats	eng	A large part of the forest at these altitudes has been destroyed.
33760		distribution	eng	St Ann Parish.
33760		habitat	eng	A tree confined to areas of woodland on limestone.
33761		distribution	eng	Occurs in Portland, with a recently discovered population at a lower altitude above Ecclesdown.
33761		habitat	eng	In moist mossy montane forest.
33761		population	eng	A rare tree.
33761		threats	eng	The vegetation has been heavily cleared for agriculture and forestry activities.
33762		distribution	eng	It is confined to St Ann Parish.
33762		population	eng	An extremely rare species, which is poorly known and has not been recently collected.
33763		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, which was collected in St Ann.
33763		habitat	eng	This small tree of montane woodland.
33764		distribution	eng	Westmoreland and Hanover.
33764		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, restricted to woodland areas on limestone.
33765		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus endemic to Jamaica in St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.
33765		habitat	eng	The species is rare and confined to lowland areas of arid thickets on limestone.
33766		distribution	eng	Confined to Manchester Parish.
33766		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree, in upland woodland in rocky limestone areas.
33766		population	eng	Very rare.
33767		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic in Trelawny and St James.
33767		habitat	eng	It is a large tree, valuable for its timber, confined to areas of woodland on limestone hills.
33768		distribution	eng	The only known locality exists in Hanover Parish, part of the Dolphin Head.
33768		habitat	eng	Woodland area on limestone.
33769		population	eng	The total population is estimated to contain fewer than 50 individuals and the number is declining. The single small tree which had survived out of a recorded population of six individuals on Hog House Hill, John Crow Mts., has not been found again. The area is now planted with bananas. Another population of about 30 trees is located in hurricane-damaged forest on Holland Mt. and a single tree has been found in One Day Cave near Bethel.
33772		distribution	eng	Occurring in the western Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts.
33772		habitat	eng	Montane habitats between 1,160 and 1,700 m.
33772		population	eng	The species has an occasional to common distribution.
33773		distribution	eng	Restricted to St Catherine and St Ann Parishes.
33773		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33774		distribution	eng	Confined to Trelawny.
33774		habitat	eng	Areas of woodland on limestone hills.
33774		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33775		distribution	eng	It is found in Westmoreland.
33775		habitat	eng	Wooded limestone hillside.
33775		population	eng	A poorly known and uncommon species.
33776		distribution	eng	Endemic to Dolphin Head.
33776		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas of woodland on limestone in the north-east.
33776		population	eng	A very uncommon tree.
33777		distribution	eng	Occurring only in Trelawny.
33777		habitat	eng	A small tree known only from an area of marsh and one other site along a brook in limestone hills.
33778		distribution	eng	A large tree with a local distribution in St Elizabeth and St James.
33778		habitat	eng	On limestone hills.
33778		population	eng	Population numbers are very low.
33778		threats	eng	The habitat is severely degraded in places and under constant threat from cutting and encroaching agriculture.
33779		distribution	eng	Known only from Trelawny.
33779		habitat	eng	Restricted to areas of woodland on limestone hilltops.
33779		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
33780		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the Cockpit Country in St Elizabeth, Hanover and Trelawny Parishes.
33780		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of woodland on limestone hills.
33780		threats	eng	Both tree and habitat are under pressure from rapid rates of clearing and cutting.
33781		distribution	eng	This species is found only in areas of woodland in St Andrew Parish.
33781		habitat	eng	Woodland.
33781		threats	eng	Almost all forested areas in this parish are completely cleared or severely degraded.
33782		distribution	eng	Confined to Clarendon Parish.
33782		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of wooded rocky limestone at about 760 m.
33782		population	eng	The species appears to be scarce.
33783		distribution	eng	St Ann Parish.
33783		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub found only in woodland areas on limestone hilltops.
33784		distribution	eng	The species appears to have been found in only two locations in Trelawny. One is near a road extension west of Troy and the other is in woodland on a rocky limestone
33784		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub.
33785		distribution	eng	Confined to forested slopes on Dolphin Head.
33785		habitat	eng	Forested slopes.
33785		population	eng	The species is rare.
33785		threats	eng	The habitat has experienced selective logging and hurricane damage.
33786		distribution	eng	Known from only a single locality, in Cooks Bottom, St Elizabeth Parish.
33786		habitat	eng	The species occurs at the base of a wooded limestone cliff.
33787		distribution	eng	Confined to the St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.
33787		habitat	eng	It occurs on wooded hillsides.
33787		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
33787		threats	eng	Almost all the forest in these parishes is either severely degraded or destroyed.
33788		distribution	eng	This shrubby species occurs in south-west Haiti and Portland in Jamaica.
33788		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of wet woodland or thicket on limestone.
33788		threats	eng	The habitat in both islands has suffered severe decline largely because of forestry and agricultural expansion. Threats of cutting and clearing are still strong in remaining wooded areas.
33789		distribution	eng	A species known only from the type locality in Peckham Woods.
33789		threats	eng	Much of the area is degraded by cutting and lower slopes are planted with <em>Pinus caribaea</em>.
33790		distribution	eng	Found only in St Ann Parish.
33790		population	eng	An uncommon species.
33791		distribution	eng	The species has a local distribution confined to Portland and St Thomas.
33791		habitat	eng	Remaining areas of rainforest between 300 and 1,000 m.
33791		threats	eng	The habitat, especially in St Thomas, has been heavily destroyed and degraded. Very little forest remains.
33792		distribution	eng	Found only in Trelawny and Clarendon. A doubtful record also comes from Hanover.
33792		habitat	eng	A tree of moist thickets, especially along streams.
33793		distribution	eng	An endemic to Dolphin Head and Bubby Hill where the species is found in low numbers on the summit.
33793		habitat	eng	Wooded areas.
33794		distribution	eng	Only known from Copse Woods which is conserved by the landowners.
33794		population	eng	A single individual, which has not been satisfactorily identified, is the only currently known specimen of the species.
33794		threats	eng	Disturbance has been limited to hurricane damage.
33795		distribution	eng	The species is distributed between 670–950 m in St Ann and Clarendon Parishes.
33796		distribution	eng	A subpopulation was once located in streamside thickets along the Mason River on the Clarendon-St Ann border.
33796		population	eng	No individuals have been seen or recorded since 1972 and the species is presently presumed extinct.
33797		distribution	eng	Reported to occur in abundance, the species is confined to Portland.
33797		habitat	eng	Moist forest on limestone between 450 and 600 m.
33797		threats	eng	Many areas have experienced logging and conversion to commercial plantations.
33798		distribution	eng	Cockpit Country.
33798		habitat	eng	Restricted to forest areas in the highlands
33799		distribution	eng	A Jamaican endemic, known from just two locations in Cockpit Country.
33799		habitat	eng	Upland forest.
33800		distribution	eng	Occurs in the central parishes.
33800		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub , appearing on wooded rocky limestone hilltops.
33800		population	eng	Uncommon.
33801		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic occurring in Trelawny and Clarendon Parishes.
33801		threats	eng	A subpopulation is recorded from Peckham Woods, where cutting and agricultural encroachment are evident. Similar activities are frequent in other localities.
33802		population	eng	A very rare tree, known only from the type specimen, which was collected in the last century.
33803		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Portland Parish.
33803		habitat	eng	Mossy woodland on limestone above 510 m.
33803		population	eng	Rare and localised.
33804		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic.
33804		habitat	eng	Found in areas of woodland on craggy limestone.
33805		distribution	eng	Found only in the parish of St Catherine.
33805		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub confined to wooded limestone hills.
33806		distribution	eng	Known only from the parish of Clarendon.
33806		habitat	eng	The species occurs on wooded rocky limestone hilltops at about 760 m.
33807		distribution	eng	Occurs in separate localities in Clarendon.
33807		population	eng	Apparently only two trees survive.
33808		distribution	eng	Confined to areas in Manchester Parish.
33808		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree occurring in woodland on limestone hillsides.
33809		distribution	eng	Known from Clarendon, Trelawny and St James.
33809		population	eng	Only three trees remain, in separate localities.
33809		threats	eng	The site at Broom Hall in Clarendon has been almost completely deforested.
33810		distribution	eng	Occurring only in Trelawny.
33810		habitat	eng	The species is known from populations found on wooded limestone hills, between 450 and 600 m.
33811		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of woodland on rocky hillsides along the base of limestone cliffs.
33811		threats	eng	This tree is uncommon in a habitat that is constantly vulnerable to cutting.
33812		distribution	eng	Dolphin Head, Hanover Parish.
33812		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree which is localised in areas of hill forest between 300 and 500 m.
33813		distribution	eng	A tree confined to the western Blue Mts. It has been reported from the headwaters of the Mabess River and also, very rarely, from the Grand Ridge.
33813		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
33814		distribution	eng	Occurs in Westmoreland, Manchester and St Catherine.
33814		habitat	eng	Last collected from an area of damp thicket at the base of a wooded limestone hill.
33814		population	eng	The species is apparently scarce. The most recent collection was taken in 1965.
33815		distribution	eng	Hanover and Westmoreland Parishes.
33815		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to wooded banks and hillsides.
33816		distribution	eng	Known from Dolphin Head, Hanover Parish.
33816		habitat	eng	A small tree from limestone hillsides.
33816		population	eng	Known from three collections.
33817		distribution	eng	Formerly found in St Andrew Parish.
33817		habitat	eng	This small tree was known to occur in montane forests at about 1,200 m.
33817		threats	eng	Almost all the forest below 1,400 m has been cleared or severely degraded.
33818		distribution	eng	The locality of this variety is unconfirmed. It was last reported in Egnor Gap in 1893. The species as a whole is local in distribution and confined to Jamaica.
33819		distribution	eng	Confined to parts of the John Crow Mts. in St Thomas Parish.
33819		habitat	eng	Restricted to remaining areas of moist forest at about 500 m.
33819		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
33819		threats	eng	Almost all of the forest in this parish have been destroyed or severely degraded.
33820		distribution	eng	A poorly known species of Portland and St Andrews Parishes.
33820		habitat	eng	Populations are found at an altitude of about 1,500 m.
33820		threats	eng	Populations are largely safe from high levels of disturbance and human activity.
33821		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area on the Dolphin Head.
33821		habitat	eng	A tree of up to 20 m.
33822		distribution	eng	Only known from the parish of St Elizabeth.
33822		habitat	eng	The species is very localised along riverbanks at sea level.
33823		distribution	eng	Endemic to the John Crow Mts.
33823		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of montane forest at about 1,000 m.
33823		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
33824		distribution	eng	A tree of found only in St Ann Parish.
33824		habitat	eng	Wooded limestone hillsides.
33825		distribution	eng	This species appears to be known only from the vicinity of Aboukir in St Ann Parish.
33825		habitat	eng	Occurs in woodland on a rocky limestone hilltop.
33826		distribution	eng	Endemic to Portland.
33826		habitat	eng	The species occurs at altitudes of 600-900 m.
33826		threats	eng	Much of the habitat has been affected by forestry activities and logging.
33827		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Hanover Parish, where it was collected in 1965 west of Hillsbrook.
33827		habitat	eng	Glade between limestone hills.
33828		distribution	eng	The species has been reported in recent years from two locations, Hog House Hill and Holland Mt. in the John Crow Mts.
33828		habitat	eng	Submontane forest on limestone.
33829		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic, known from localities in Trelawny and Clarendon Parishes.
33829		threats	eng	The woodland in Warsop, where the type specimen was collected, has been severely degraded and attempts to find the species have failed.
33830		distribution	eng	The species is apparently known only from specimens which originated from John Crow Mts. in St Thomas.
33830		population	eng	The area has since been almost comprehensively deforested and no living populations are known.
33831		distribution	eng	Portland.
33831		habitat	eng	Confined to moist thickets on limestone.
33831		population	eng	An uncommon species.
33832		distribution	eng	Found in St Andrew Parish.
33832		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to areas of submontane woodland on steep hillsides.
33832		population	eng	It appears to have been collected only once or twice.
33832		threats	eng	Most of the forest in the parish has been destroyed or severely degraded.
33833		distribution	eng	St Thomas Parish.
33833		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub of mossy montane woodland. It is recorded between 1,830 and 2,000 m.
33834		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Jamaica. This variety is confined to Portland Parish.
33834		habitat	eng	Occurs in mossy woodland on limestone between 450 and 600 m.
33835		distribution	eng	From Clarendon, St James and Trelawny.
33835		habitat	eng	Occurring in woodland on limestone.
33835		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33836		distribution	eng	This variety is known from only a single locality on Croft's Mountain, Clarendon.
33836		habitat	eng	On a steep densely wooded hillside.
33837		distribution	eng	Portland.
33837		habitat	eng	An epiphytic tree or shrub confined to mossy forest on limestone between 450 and 750 m.
33838		distribution	eng	Known only from Trelawny.
33838		habitat	eng	On limestone, at about 680 m.
33838		population	eng	This variety occurs very locally.
33839		distribution	eng	Found only in Portland.
33839		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found on wet mossy thickets on limestone at 750 m.
33840		distribution	eng	Endemic to Portland.
33840		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist thickets on limestone above 600 m.
33841		distribution	eng	The species has been collected at the summit of Dolphin Head.
33841		habitat	eng	Wooded limestone hillsides.
33841		population	eng	Thorough searches for the species in 1989 failed to locate it.
33841		threats	eng	Apart from habitat declines and degradation, it is possible that Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 caused serious damage.
33842		distribution	eng	Recorded from the John Crow Mts.
33842		habitat	eng	Woodlands and thickets in wet areas.
33843		distribution	eng	A single sterile specimen is known from a ridge of woodland south of Sunbury. Another subpopulation is known in forest in St Ann Parish.
33843		threats	eng	Habitat has been severely degraded by cutting and intensive agriculture.
33844		distribution	eng	Only recorded from Portland Parish.
33844		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of moist mossy limestone forest between 450 and 600 m.
33845		distribution	eng	The species is known from four localities: Peckham, Douglas Castle Woods, a location on a ridge south of Sunbury, and a site on jagged limestone on White Rock Hill.
33845		population	eng	At two localities, Peckham and Douglas Castle Woods, attempts to find the species have failed. The Sunbury site is severely degraded. The last site, on White Rock Hill, appears to harbour a population which is in good condition.
33845		threats	eng	Cutting and intensive cultivation
33846		distribution	eng	The species is known from a small range in Hanover.
33846		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone hillsides.
33847		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Cockpit Country, where it occurs locally.
33847		habitat	eng	A small tree or straggling shrub in woodland on limestone rocks.
33847		population	eng	Originally recorded from four locations, attempts to find the species at three of these sites, Peckham Woods, Mango Tree Hill and Miss Laura's Hill, have failed.
33847		threats	eng	Frequent cutting and agricultural encroachment.
33848		distribution	eng	Known from Clarendon and St Ann.
33848		habitat	eng	The species is confined to woodland on limestone hills.
33849		distribution	eng	Confined to Manchester and  St Ann.
33849		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
33849		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33850		population	eng	This species is known only from the type, collected at the beginning of the century.
33851		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from two localities on limestone hills within 5 miles of Troy and on Donkey Trail Hill.
33851		threats	eng	The areas are susceptible to cutting and encroaching agriculture.
33852		distribution	eng	Only found in the parishes of Hanover, St James and Trelawny.
33852		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are confined to hillside woodland on limestone.
33853		distribution	eng	Known only from St Catherine Parish. Collections are recorded from Port Henderson and Great Goat Island.
33853		habitat	eng	The species is confined to a few areas of dry thicket on rocky limestone hills.
33854		distribution	eng	Known only from disjunct limestone localities in St Andrew and St James.
33854		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
33854		threats	eng	Has experienced almost complete destruction or degradation of its habitat, particularly in St Andrew.
33855		distribution	eng	Trelawny and Westmoreland.
33855		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, which is restricted to areas of woodland on rocky limestone.
33856		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic recorded from Peckham and Douglas Castle Woods and other areas of woodland on limestone.
33856		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
33856		threats	eng	There is evidence of cutting and agricultural encroachment at both these sites.
33857		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic with a disjunct subpopulation at the summit of Dolphin Head.
33857		habitat	eng	Subpopulations occur in areas of woodland on limestone.
33858		distribution	eng	Very restricted in range, the species occurs in the area of Port Henderson Hill.
33858		habitat	eng	Low coastal scrub on dog-tooth limestone.
33859		distribution	eng	A tree known only from St Ann and Portland Parishes.
33859		habitat	eng	Restricted to sheltered moist woodland on limestone at about 450 m.
33859		threats	eng	Many areas have been logged or taken over by commercial plantations.
33860		distribution	eng	Confined to Crown Lands  in Troy in Trelawny.
33860		population	eng	An uncommon species.
33861		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Trelawny.
33861		habitat	eng	Found in open glades or woodland on clay banks.
33862		distribution	eng	Known only from Portland Parish, the species has a very local distribution. There is also a putative specimen in the forest above Ecclesdown.
33862		habitat	eng	Confined to mossy thickets in wet areas on limestone.
33863		distribution	eng	Portland.
33863		habitat	eng	A tree confined to rainforest on limestone between 530 and 600 m.
33864		distribution	eng	It evidently occurs very rarely in Portland at 750 m.
33864		population	eng	There is very little information on this species.
33865		distribution	eng	It appears to have been collected from only a single location near Troy.
33865		habitat	eng	A limestone woodland species at about 600 m.
33866		distribution	eng	Known only from localities in St Elizabeth and St Mary.
33866		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
33867		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Cockpit Country, in Clarendon and Trelawny.
33867		habitat	eng	Occurring on rocky limestone.
33868		distribution	eng	Recorded only from Portland.
33868		habitat	eng	The species occurs in damp thickets and mossy forest on limestone.
33868		threats	eng	It has recently been found above Ecclesdown.
33869		distribution	eng	A species known only from the summit slopes of Dolphin Head.
33869		habitat	eng	Occurs locally in moist forest on limestone between 450 and 500 m.
33870		distribution	eng	Known only from the northern parts of John Crow Mts.
33870		habitat	eng	The species is found in areas of moist shady woodland on limestone.
33871		distribution	eng	Confined to the summits of Dolphin Head and Bubby Hill.
33871		population	eng	There appear to be only a few individuals.
33871		threats	eng	There is evidence of selective logging and some hurricane damage.
33872		distribution	eng	This is a variety of a Caribbean endemic. It is known only from St Thomas.
33872		habitat	eng	Montane thickets.
33873		distribution	eng	Recorded only from St Catherine, Clarendon and Manchester Parishes.
33873		habitat	eng	Confined to coastal thickets.
33873		population	eng	The species is very rare.
33874		distribution	eng	Confined to St Andrew and St Elizabeth. Populations have been recorded from the southern side of Long Mt. and Great Pedro Bluff.
33874		habitat	eng	Restricted to a narrow altitudinal range, between 240 and 270 m, in dry thickets on limestone .
33874		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
33875		distribution	eng	Only found in the parish of Trelawny.
33875		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub which occurs very rarely on rocky limestone hills between 480 and 600 m.
33876		distribution	eng	Until 1975 the species was known only from the type specimen collected in thickets in Trelawny Parish in 1780.
33876		population	eng	It was rediscovered in an area which was being rapidly cleared. It is not known whether the species has survived.
33877		distribution	eng	There is little information about this species and no recent collection material. It is, apparently, confined to St Ann and St Thomas Parishes.
33877		population	eng	It is evidently very uncommon.
33877		threats	eng	Almost all forested areas below 1,400 m  in the latter parish have been destroyed or severely degraded.
33878		distribution	eng	Confined to Hanover.
33878		population	eng	The species is very uncommon and little known.
33879		distribution	eng	Known only from St Andrew and Manchester Parishes.
33879		habitat	eng	Dense thicket on limestone hills.
33879		population	eng	The species is found in localised areas.
33880		population	eng	There are no recent records of this obscure species. It is believed to be endemic and is evidently very uncommon.
33881		distribution	eng	Small subpopulations are known only from Clarendon Parish.
33881		habitat	eng	Restricted to rocky limestone hilltops at about 760 m.
33882		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic. Confined to Trelawny and St Ann.
33882		habitat	eng	Occurs in woodland on rocky limestone.
33882		population	eng	It is uncommon.
33883		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to John Crows Mts., the species has been recorded in few localities, one above Ecclesdown and another at Proctor's Pool (a single individual).
33883		habitat	eng	Elfin or moist forest on limestone.
33884		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic, found in the central and west-central parishes.
33884		habitat	eng	Woodland and woodland margins on rocky limestone.
33884		population	eng	Found in low densities.
33884		threats	eng	The habitat is under the constant threat of being cut or cleared for agricultural expansion, e.g., at Peckham Woods.
33885		conservation	eng	There are no known measures to protect the species.
33885		distribution	eng	Keizanchin, Mt. Pungsan and Hamnam.
33885		habitat	eng	A useful timber tree which is restricted to a few localities of upland coniferous forest along the coast.
33886		distribution	eng	This Cockpit Country endemic is distributed in St Elizabeth and Trelawny.
33886		habitat	eng	Forest on craggy limestone.
33886		population	eng	Local and uncommon.
33887		distribution	eng	From Clarendon, St James and Trelawny.
33887		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub occurring in woodland on limestone.
33888		distribution	eng	Cockpit Country.
33888		habitat	eng	Confined to thickets and woodlands in limestone areas.
33888		threats	eng	The species has experienced widespread clearance of its habitat.
33889		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic, confined to Manchester, St Ann and Trelawny Parishes.
33889		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
33890		distribution	eng	Once recognised as a distinct species, this variety is known from just one collection in Westmoreland.
33890		habitat	eng	Damp shady limestone bank.
33891		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic occurring in the west-central parishes.
33891		habitat	eng	Exposed craggy limestone cliffs and woodland margins.
33893		habitat	eng	A tree confined to wet evergreen forest.
33893		threats	eng	Significant declines in habitat because of logging, mining and the commercial planting of exotics.
33894		distribution	eng	The only natural subpopulations appear to occur in Ghana. Occurrences in Côte d'Ivoire are reported to be planted.
33894		habitat	eng	The species regenerates freely in a wide ecological range, but is best established in upland evergreen forest.
33894		threats	eng	There are threats from farming, fires, forest management activities and mining in upland evergreen forest.
33895		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ghana.
33895		habitat	eng	Confined to upland evergreen forest.
33895		population	eng	This tree is generally rare. It is most common in the Atewa range and occurs in neighbouring forest reserves. Its status could prove to be more threatened after necessary survey work.
33895		threats	eng	Farming, fire, forest management and large-scale mining continue to put pressure on the species habitat.
33898		distribution	eng	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.
33898		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33899		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Philippines.
33899		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
33900		habitat	eng	A tree of seasonally dry climate, occurring in caatinga, cerrado and dry forest on deep soils.
33900		population	eng	The species is common and widespread but population numbers are said to be in slow decline.
33900		threats	eng	The wood is used for construction, fuelwood and charcoal.
33901		habitat	eng	A highly exploited species of broadleaved evergreen forest.
33901		population	eng	The largest populations are in Chile.
33901		threats	eng	Under some threat because of the tree's use as the major source of fuelwood and charcoal for southern Chile.
33902		distribution	eng	A widely ranging species, from the eastern Andes to the Atlantic coast.
33902		habitat	eng	Occurring in rainforest up to 1,600 m.
33903		distribution	eng	Iroko, common and widely distributed throughout tropical Africa.
33903		habitat	eng	Found in different forest types.
33903		population	eng	A common species. Trees are often left standing after land clearance and natural regeneration is good in open places.
33903		threats	eng	Suffers from heavy exploitation. East Africa was once a major source of the timber, which was used as a teak substitute until supplies became short. West Africa continues to export large quantities of it. Some subpopulations suffer from gall attacks, especially in plantations, and its seed loses viability quickly.
33904		habitat	eng	Especially common in evergreen forests.
33904		population	eng	A timber species which occurs commonly.
33904		threats	eng	Exploitation rates are high and likely to be unsustainable.
33905		habitat	eng	Logging companies do not distinguish this species from <em>M. excelsa</em>.
33905		threats	eng	The rates of timber exploitation have a more serious impact on this species, with its narrower distribution within a region which has experienced large-scale forest destruction.
33909		distribution	eng	Occurring in east and eastern central Africa.
33909		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in areas of upland semi-deciduous forest.
33909		threats	eng	Unlike most other members of the genus, which are commercial sources of African mahogany, this species is too rare to be exploited as a major commercial source of timber. Habitat loss is a more serious threat.
33910		conservation	eng	The largest and most stable population probably occurs in Cross River National Park in Nigeria.
33910		distribution	eng	Recorded from several localities, including Ejagham, Mamfe, Tabo-agbokem in Cameroon.
33910		habitat	eng	A tall straight timber tree of local cultural importance. Occurs in lowland rainforest.
33910		threats	eng	Forest outside protected areas has significantly declined because of large-scale logging and clearing for agriculture.
33911		distribution	eng	A timber tree restricted to remaining areas of Atlantic forest in Cameroon.
33912		habitat	eng	A large tree of scattered occurrence occurring in river valleys and open woodland on rocky slopes or kopjes.
33912		threats	eng	Unlike other members of the genus, which provide a commercial source of mahogany, this species is generally too rare for more than limited exploitation.
33913		distribution	eng	A widespread species.
33913		habitat	eng	This important timber tree occurs in lowland evergreen forest, often in swamps where it may be dominant.
33913		threats	eng	In many places it suffers from over-exploitation. M. Cheek (pers. comm.) reports that is not over-exploited in the Cameroon, but this may be the case elsewhere.
33914		habitat	eng	A gregarious forest species restricted to swampy areas, rivers and also coastal regions. Regeneration is good in wet areas. It is able to reproduce vegetatively
33914		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the general-purpose timber and habitat degradation in large parts of its range are causing population declines.
33915		distribution	eng	The range of this species is restricted to Côte d'Ivoire and neighbouring Ghana.
33915		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
33915		threats	eng	It is uncommon and has suffered from the significant declines in its habitat caused by logging, mining and expansion of commercial plantations.
33916		distribution	eng	Occurring only in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.
33916		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of upland evergreen forest.
33916		population	eng	It can be common in some areas.
33916		threats	eng	The effects of fire, overgrazing, forest management activities and mining have caused declines in the extent of the species' habitat.
33917		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few scattered populations, e.g., in Atewa and Subri Forest Reserves in Ghana. It is also recorded in Côte d'Ivoire.
33917		habitat	eng	Restricted to wet evergreen forest.
33917		threats	eng	In both countries these habitats have suffered from the effects of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities, e.g., parts of Subri Forest Reserve have been deforested for industrial plantations.
33918		conservation	eng	It is included in the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.
33918		distribution	eng	Occurs in a few privately owned or inaccessible localities in Brazil.
33918		habitat	eng	A slow-growing timber species. It does not occur in open areas of forest or other vegetation types.
33918		population	eng	Subpopulations are now reduced to remaining areas of high dense forest. In Suriname the species is still reasonably common (P. Teunissen pers. comm. 2006).
33918		threats	eng	Declines in numbers continue because of overexploitation.
33919		distribution	eng	Known only from Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.
33919		habitat	eng	This species occurs in relatively dry or semi-deciduous forest.
33919		threats	eng	It can be quite common but the restriction of the species' range and the severe losses of its habitat render it vulnerable.
33920		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
33921		habitat	eng	A large dipterocarp of well-drained, undulating land.
33922		distribution	eng	The main population of this subspecies occurs at the type locality in the Sierra de la Marta where it was nearly exterminated by a forest fire in 1975. There are possibly less threatened small populations at Cerro Mohihora in Chihuahua and in south-east Arizona.
33922		habitat	eng	Coniferous montane forest.
33923		distribution	eng	Confined to Sierra el Cuale in the north-west part of Sierra Madre del Sur.
33923		habitat	eng	The species is present in mostly undisturbed areas of submontane pine-oak forest.
33923		threats	eng	Mining operations are under way in the area.
33924		distribution	eng	Three disjunct populations occur on Cerro Chiqueritas, Cerro Ocotoso and Puerto del Pinabete.
33924		habitat	eng	Distribution is restricted to limestone outcrops among huge boulders above 2,100 m.
33924		population	eng	The two smallest populations contain fewer than 50 trees.
33924		threats	eng	Fire is a hazard but the trees are respected as being unique and are safe from exploitation.
33925		distribution	eng	Ranging from Panama to possibly Peru.
33925		habitat	eng	Occurs widely in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
33925		population	eng	The habitat has seriously declined in Panama and there is almost no evidence of the species outside protected areas.
33928		habitat	eng	Lowland forest types.
33928		population	eng	At one time an abundant and wide-ranging species. Overexploitation has resulted in the species becoming threatened in Colombia and Amazonian Peru. Most natural subpopulations in Ecuador have been destroyed. Some large trees remain in Cuyabeno but they are being felled for export to Colombia. The species has become rare in Bolivia and is now only harvested opportunistically whilst mahogany, <em>Amburana</em> and <em>Machaerium</em> are being sought-after. It is apparently still abundant in the Región Oriental in Paraguay, especially along the Paraná valley. Subpopulations in Argentina are restricted to the north, where they are partly contained within subandean piedmont forest, a habitat which is under severe threat. In Central America there are very few individuals in Costa Rica, if any at all, and few in Panama. The timber is considered inferior to <em>C. odorata</em>, but is sold with the latter in mixed batches. In Suriname, the species is still reasonably common (P. Teunissen pers. comm 2006).
33928		threats	eng	Subpopulations throughout its range have been decimated by overexploitation and habitat loss.
33930		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are found within protected areas.
33930		distribution	eng	The species occurs on north-western or southern slopes. Subpopulations are recorded from a number of localities.
33930		habitat	eng	Mixed savanna. Specimens are often found growing between rocks, in fissures or along ledges in hilly and mountainous terrain.
33930		threats	eng	Outside protected areas, the species is showing some decline because of wood-cutting activities.
33931		distribution	eng	Originally known only from a single locality at the Blyde River Canyon on the Drakensberg Escarpment, the species has since been found at another site on the escarpment north-east of Mariepskop.
33931		habitat	eng	It occurs on quartzite outcrops, where it forms an open <em>Protea</em> savanna woodland.
33931		population	eng	One subpopulation occurs in a publicly owned conservation area and the other is in a privately owned reserve.
33931		threats	eng	No threats are known and no decline has been recorded.
33932		conservation	eng	Small subpopulations of the species have been found in forest reserves.
33932		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
33933		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitat types.
33933		population	eng	A common and widespread tree.
33934		distribution	eng	A widespread tree, ranging from north-east India to Borneo.
33934		habitat	eng	Found in mixed dipterocarp forests.
33935		distribution	eng	Widely distributed.
33935		habitat	eng	The species is found in areas of primary and secondary forest, from sea level to 1,500 m.  The fruits are popular with many bird species, which is probably responsible for its wide distribution.
33936		distribution	eng	Distributed from southern China to Borneo.
33936		habitat	eng	A timber species of primary and secondary forest, including kerangas forest and peat swamps.
33936		threats	eng	Large trees are harvested for the derum timber.
33937		habitat	eng	A rare tree found scattered in lowland primary and secondary forests.
33937		threats	eng	The trees are cut for derum timber but are not commercially exploited because they are too scarce.
33938		habitat	eng	A timber tree of primary and secondary forest.
33938		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat destruction.
33939		habitat	eng	An emergent tree mainly found in freshwater peat swamp forest.  The species is also found in dry heath forest, kerangas, lowland primary forest and hill forest.
33939		threats	eng	Peat swamp forest is an area particularly vulnerable to exploitation.
33940		distribution	eng	A widespread tree of western Malaysia, cultivated in Borneo and Sumatra.
33940		habitat	eng	A tree.
33944		conservation	eng	It is expected that in future the tree will be protected in the permanent and protected forests of the above mentioned states.
33944		distribution	eng	Scattered species of Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor.
33944		habitat	eng	This tree is found in lowland to montane primary forest.
33944		threats	eng	Pressures from logging activities are the principle threat to the species.  Harvested timber is traded on a local and national level.
33945		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of the above mentioned states, the tree is conserved.
33945		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout the lowland/hill forest areas of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor and Johor.
33945		habitat	eng	This tree is a primary forest species of lowland and hill forest areas.
33945		threats	eng	It is threatened by felling activities in many locations.  Trade in harvested timber is on a national and local scale.
33946		distribution	eng	Widespread.
33946		habitat	eng	A tree, found in primary and secondary forest.
33947		habitat	eng	A fairly widespread species of lowland rainforest.
33948		distribution	eng	A fairly widespread species.
33949		habitat	eng	A commonly scattered species of lowland forest and hill forest, found on a variety of substrates, including basalt and calcareous shale.
33949		threats	eng	It is utilized locally for ornamental purposes.
33951		distribution	eng	Very widespread ranging from the east Mediterranean throughout the middle east to the south-east provinces of the Euro-Siberian region.
33951		habitat	eng	The only plane tree of the Old World.  It is confined to temporary, moist, stone or gravel ravines, as the species requires moisture throughout the dry season.
33951		population	eng	Wild populations of this widely cultivated species are rare in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Although considered Least Concern in the Caucasus, the origin of these populations needs to be determined.
33951		threats	eng	It is considered to be endangered in parts its range because of changing water courses for irrigation purposes and the increased expansion of agriculture.
33952		distribution	eng	The species' range is large but declining.
33952		habitat	eng	Occurring in savannah and campo.
33952		threats	eng	Increasing agriculture and cattle ranching, as well as other activities.
33953		conservation	eng	Studies are under way to examine the consequences of population structure changes.
33953		population	eng	In recent years this timber species has been heavily exploited, notably in the provinces of Formosa, Chaco and Santa Fé in Argentina. The population structure is reported to be fundamentally changed. Subpopulations in Bolivia are less rare and threatened.
33954		habitat	eng	An excellent timber tree, which occurs in abundance in lowland dry forest types.
33954		threats	eng	It is exploited widely as a timber, fuelwood and has various other uses.
33955		distribution	eng	A widespread species confined to the lowland plains of eastern Madagascar.
33955		habitat	eng	This fine rosewood timber species grows in lowland rainforest, often in marshy areas and near mangroves.
33955		threats	eng	These forests have been greatly reduced. Large individuals are rare because of overexploitation.
33956		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Azores, now probably extinct in Madeira. It occurs on all the Azorean Islands, except Graciosa and Corvo.
33956		habitat	eng	In laurel-juniper forest up to 1,000 m. It appears to be a vigorous species which is little affected by habitat degradation.
33957		conservation	eng	As far as is known, the tree is given no protection.
33957		distribution	eng	Grows in Nankan near the coast.
33957		habitat	eng	It grows on a hillside at an altitude of 50 m.
33957		population	eng	A relatively recently discovered monoecious species known only from a single tree which apparently has flowered and set seed, although seldom.
33958		conservation	eng	Substantial wild stands are believed to exist still in areas which are unlikely to be exploited. Silvicultural studies are being carried out by FCAP with the assistance of UK institutions.
33958		threats	eng	Populations throughout the species range have seriously declined because of rosewood oil extraction.  where there has been exploitation the population is devoid of mature trees and significant signs of regeneration are absent. Trees of all sizes are harvested indiscriminately, the whole tree and its roots being destroyed. The sole producer at present is Brazil, although the species was wiped out through exploitation over large areas in French Guiana between 1910 and 1930. Harvesting is costly and is taking place in more and more remote locations concentrated around Amazon tributaries, principally in Amazonas and Pará states. Mobile distillation factories have also moved deep into the forest and trees. Levels of exploitation have significantly declined with increased use of synthetic oils, the current world market resting at about 100 tonnes pa.
33959		habitat	eng	A primary species of swamp and inundated forest types. Also recorded from secondary forests.
33959		population	eng	Although the species is listed as globally threatened it is one of the most common trees in lowland Suriname being found in almost all forest types, including secondary forest (P. Teunissen pers. comm. 2006).
33959		threats	eng	The timber is important in international trade.
33961		conservation	eng	It has been cultivated outside its natural range in Jamaica, Trinidad and Singapore.
33961		distribution	eng	It is threatened at a national level in Colombia and is causing some concern in Venezuela.
33961		habitat	eng	A relatively wide ranging species of primary forest.
33962		distribution	eng	A distinctive species within a 50 m altitudinal belt in the Peruvian Amazon. Similar, but undetermined, specimens occur in Napo, in Ecuador.
33962		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
33963		conservation	eng	It occurs in Iparía National Forest.
33963		distribution	eng	Confined to an area possibly less than 20,000 km² in the Amazon of Peru and Ecuador.
33963		habitat	eng	A small tree.
33964		distribution	eng	Extremely localised in eastern Ecuador.
33964		threats	eng	This tree is threatened by increasing settlement and oil exploration.
33965		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Ducke Forest Reserve.
33965		habitat	eng	A species of scattered occurrence in non-flooded forest on clay soil.
33966		distribution	eng	The species distribution is fragmented, subpopulations occur in southern U.S.A., 800 km to the north of the subpopulations in Tamaulipas in Mexico.
33966		population	eng	In USA the species is abundant and the abandonment of farmlands may potentially result in rising subpopulation numbers.
33966		threats	eng	The major threat to the subpopulations elsewhere is increasing conversion of the habitat for agriculture and grazing, which can prevent regrowth. The timber is harvested for international trade mainly from the lower Mississippi valley.  In Honduras balsam is tapped from the trees for commercial application.
33967		distribution	eng	East and Southern Africa. Subpopulations in Mozambique and Zimbabwe are confined to single localities: Garuso forest and Chirinda Forest Reserve, respectively.
33967		habitat	eng	This timber species occurs sparsely in small patches of remaining wet evergreen forest.
33967		threats	eng	Habitat loss and excessive exploitation of the seed-producing individuals are resulting in poor regeneration and a global population decline. Plantations have been unsuccessful because of infestation by <em>Hypsipyla</em>.
33968		habitat	eng	A xerophytic species found growing mainly in deep alluvial soils.
33968		threats	eng	It is suffering a slow decline through its use as a timber, fuelwood and charcoal and through habitat loss and degradation.
33969		distribution	eng	The Panamanian subpopulation is confined to a few trees in two provinces.
33969		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.
33969		population	eng	The species is very widespread but not common anywhere.
33969		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has declined widely because of clearing for settlement, timber and agriculture, resulting in populations becoming threatened at a national level.  The species is also very widely cultivated as an ornamental tree
33970		habitat	eng	A widespread species found in diverse habitats and climates, ranging from lowland rainforest to cerrados.
33970		threats	eng	Selective exploitation of the timber, coupled with poor regeneration, is causing population declines, especially in the coastal areas of Espírito Santo.
33971		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to the department of Alajuela.
33972		habitat	eng	A slow-growing tree, sparsely but widely distributed in remaining areas of primary and slightly disturbed forest.
33972		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, the species produces one of the best woods in the country and is becoming increasingly scarce.
33974		conservation	eng	The species is recorded in reserves in Bahia and Pernambuco. There is also a reintroduction programme at Linareas Reserve and the species is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by IBAMA.
33974		distribution	eng	The species is recorded in reserves in Bahia and Pernambuco. There is also a reintroduction programme at Linareas Reserve and the species is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by IBAMA.
33974		threats	eng	Deforestation. The exploitation of this species as a dyewood dates back to 1501. The original collectors of the dyewood were called <em>brasileiros</em>, after whom the country is now named. Synthetic dyes only became available in 1875, by which time dramatic population declines had already taken place and continued to occur until the 1920s. Natural stands were almost completely destroyed but some subpopulations remained in a few areas on the coastal plain.
33975		conservation	eng	It is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33975		habitat	eng	<em>Restinga</em> vegetation.
33975		threats	eng	The expansion of the tourist industry and holiday homes, as well as exploitation for fuelwood, threatens the species survival.
33976		conservation	eng	The locality is contained within a protected area and the species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33976		distribution	eng	Serra de Macaé in Nova Friburgo.
33976		habitat	eng	An understorey species which is confined to Atlantic forest.
33976		population	eng	It is believed to be naturally rare and only a few collections have been made, dating from the 1800s and more recently between 1987 and 1988.
33977		conservation	eng	It occurs on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33977		habitat	eng	It occurs sparsely in remnant areas of restinga woodland.
33977		threats	eng	The habitat has been widely destroyed by urban expansion. The species is also suspected to suffer from habitat fragmentation because of its dioecious nature.
33978		conservation	eng	The species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33978		population	eng	Formerly known along stream sides, this understorey species appears to have become extremely scarce. Extensive searches have located only two female specimens restricted to forest in Corcovado. One specimen has, however, set seed, suggesting there is at least a pollen-producing male individual in the vicinity.
33979		conservation	eng	The locality is now protected and the species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33979		distribution	eng	Alto Macaé, in Nova Friburgo.
33979		habitat	eng	This rare understorey species is confined to streamsides in areas of humid forest.
33980		conservation	eng	The species is on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33980		distribution	eng	Known from a restricted area in Nova Friburgo.
33980		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
33980		population	eng	This species has yet to be collected or recorded this century. Recent surveys have failed to locate living populations.
33980		threats	eng	The forest continues to be rapidly destroyed.
33981		conservation	eng	There is a biological reserve here within the Serra do Mar State Park. The species is included in the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.
33981		distribution	eng	Serra de Paranapiacaba in Santo André.
33981		habitat	eng	This species is confined to a restricted area of Atlantic forest.
33981		threats	eng	It is under serious threat from uncontrolled industrial pollution.
33982		conservation	eng	Several localities are protected within state parks and biological reserves. The species is included in the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.
33982		distribution	eng	There is also a suggestion that populations exist in Misiones in Argentina and in Paraguay.
33982		threats	eng	Formerly abundant, this slow-growing species has become rare because of the levels of exploitation of its timber. Essential oil is also harvested from the bark for the perfume industry. Its habitat also continues to decline.
33983		conservation	eng	Laws to set up the Serra do Cipó State Botanical Park and to protect the species are not yet well established. This species is included on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33983		distribution	eng	This species occurs in low densities in a restricted area in the Serra do Cipó.
33983		habitat	eng	Areas of campos rupestres.
33983		threats	eng	Trees are indiscriminately cut for timber resources, at levels of exploitation that are unsustainable.
33984		conservation	eng	The species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
33984		distribution	eng	The species' distribution is discontinuous, occurring in coastal forests and also in small woods and forest formations on the southern Brazilian plateau. There is also some indication that it may be found in Misiones in Argentina and also Paraguay.
33984		habitat	eng	Coastal forests and small woods and forest formations.
33984		threats	eng	Commonly known under the name of <em>O. odorifera</em>, the species is an important source of timber and essential oil. Coastal forests continue to be cleared despite legislative measures. Exploitation of the species as a source of sassafras oil has been uncontrolled but largely confined to Santa Catarina, which is the only area to contain trees with sufficiently high safrole content. Remaining stands are no longer capable of sustaining high levels of utilization and no replanting has taken place. Natural sources of safrole are still the preferred source and it is likely that the market will turn to alternative plant species to replace <em>O. pretiosa</em>.
33985		distribution	eng	Occurs on all islands of the Greater Antilles except for Jamaica, where it was reported once but probably in error. In Puerto Rico, ten trees exist in La Silla de Calderon at 1,000 m. It is similarly uncommon on Cuba and Hispaniola but may be recorded under the name <em>J. insularis</em>.
33985		habitat	eng	A large tree occurring in wet montane forest.
33985		threats	eng	The wet montane forest habitat has been extensively destroyed and degraded.
33986		distribution	eng	It is thought to occur naturally in Banda Island in the Moluccas, but it is now widely cultivated in the tropics, becoming naturalised in many areas.
33986		habitat	eng	Lowland forest. The original source of nutmeg.
33988		threats	eng	This species occurred in Nurpur, Tret, Murree Hills, Pakistan, but is now apparently extinct in that country. This was possibly due to over-utilization of this medicinal plant.
33989		conservation	eng	Plantations have been established.
33989		distribution	eng	Confined to Luchu in the Ryukyu Islands.
33989		habitat	eng	Stands occur frequently near sea-water.
33989		threats	eng	During and after the Second World War trees were heavily harvested. The present poor form of the remaining trees precludes further exploitation.
33992		distribution	eng	Endemic to Martinique.
33992		habitat	eng	A large tree, rare within dense humid forest.
33992		population	eng	It is known from only four collections from before the 1940s.
33993		distribution	eng	A species endemic to the Lesser Antilles. The record for Jamaica is based on a single collection from 1786. It is either erroneous or the species has become extinct there.
33994		distribution	eng	An endemic to Uganda, occurring relatively commonly in Kalinzu and Malamagambo Forest Reserve but scarce in Itwara Forest Reserve and elsewhere.
33995		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Windward Islands in the Caribbean. Populations are recorded in Castle Bruce and St Davis Parish on Dominica, Morne Larcheux and La Trinité on Martinique and sites on Guadeloupe, St Lucia and St Vincent.
33995		habitat	eng	It is a lowland forest tree.
33996		habitat	eng	The hybrid occurs at forest edges and in birch groves wherever the two parent species have met in the past.
33996		population	eng	In Poland the number of localities known has halved and the total population is now estimated to number 350 individuals. Regeneration is generally poor but has been observed in certain places.
33997		distribution	eng	Confined to Kauai Island.
33997		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree occurring in moist forest between 825 and 1,275 m.
33997		population	eng	Infrequently collected and scattered in small numbers.
33998		conservation	eng	Occurs within several protected areas.
33998		distribution	eng	Known from at least twelve localities (groves) in the Piute Mts., Greenhorn Mts. and Kern Plateau area.
33998		population	eng	The largest of the groves is approximately 200 ha in extent. Total area of occupancy is certainly less than 100 km², but the total number of mature individuals probably exceeds 1,000 trees.
33998		threats	eng	Some risk occurs from fires, grazing and mining.
33999		conservation	eng	Species management guidelines are adopted in Cleveland National Forest.
33999		distribution	eng	Known only from Cleveland National Forest and Cuyamaca Rancho State Park.
33999		population	eng	Only two populations, approximately 1,000 individuals, exist in fire-prone areas.
33999		threats	eng	The Conejo fire of 1950 extirpated part of the population.
34000		conservation	eng	None of the subpopulations is officially protected.
34000		distribution	eng	Confined to fewer than ten groves in the Santa Cruz Mts.
34000		population	eng	This variety is rare. Each subpopulation is thought to have fewer than 100 individuals.
34000		threats	eng	There are threats from residential and agricultural developments, alteration of fire regimes and introgression of conifer species, which may also increase the risk from fires.
34001		distribution	eng	In Texas occurring near San Antonio and Edward's Plateau and in Mexico confined to the north.
34001		habitat	eng	A tree of brushlands and ravines.
34002		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
34002		distribution	eng	Koolau Mts., on Oahu, in Olokui Reserve on Molokai and in West Maui Reserve on Maui.
34002		habitat	eng	A small shrubby tree, occurring in scattered tiny populations on forested slopes and ridges.
34002		population	eng	In total fewer than 100 individuals exist in 14 populations.
34002		threats	eng	Goats threaten the Molokai population and in other areas feral pigs and invasive plants pose immediate problems.
34003		conservation	eng	This species is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum and the National Tropical Botanical Garden (G. Koob and S. Smith, pers. comm., 1997). The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
34003		distribution	eng	<em>H. arbuscula</em> is endemic to the island of Maui.
34003		habitat	eng	A small shrubby tree or shrub, known from scattered subpopulations in lowland rainforest.
34003		population	eng	It is found in a very remote area and has around 25 individuals (V.L. Caraway, pers. comm.).
34003		threats	eng	Feral pigs and introduced plants pose the most serious threats.
34004		conservation	eng	The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the United States Forest Service (USFS) try to prevent the spread of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora </span>through the use of road closures, monitoring, research and education.<br/><br/>Research is required on the dynamics and mechanisms by which <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora </span>is spread. In additions attempts to breed resistant trees are required.
34004		distribution	eng	Natural populations of Port Orford Cedar are confined to the coastal ranges of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, between Coos Bay in the north and the Mad River in the south. Isolated subpopulations occur near Mount Shasta and the Trinity Mountains in northern California. Occurs at elevations from 0 to 1,500 m.
34004		habitat	eng	Grows in coniferous forest in coastal mountain valleys, often along streams.
34004		population	eng	Occurs in the greatest abundance within about 64 km of the Pacific coast. Further inland, its distribution is patchy, and it is mostly limited to sites with sufficient soil moisture.
34004		threats	eng	International trade in the timber has put enormous pressure on the remaining old growth stands. The spread of the introduced pathogen <em>Phytophthora lateralis</em> continues at a rapid rate and prevents successful regeneration in many areas, especially those accessible by road.
34005		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea arborea</em> was endemic to the slopes of Haleakala on East Maui.
34005		habitat	eng	A palm-like tree formerly known from a narrow altitudinal band in montane forest.
34005		population	eng	It was last collected in 1928.
34006		distribution	eng	This palm-like tree is confined to western Kauai.
34006		habitat	eng	It is found in moist forest 1,000 and 1,300 m.
34007		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
34007		distribution	eng	Confined to the Koolau Mts., Oahu.
34007		habitat	eng	Forested summit ridges.
34007		population	eng	The species has become increasingly scarce and is now restricted to 16 subpopulations. Few subpopulations exceed four individuals, although trees can be overlooked when infertile.
34007		threats	eng	Invasive plants and feral pigs continue to put serious pressure on remaining populations.
34008		conservation	eng	Control of grazing and the removal of sheep have helped oak regeneration on Santa Cruz Island.
34008		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to a few scrubby localities in Santa Rosa, Santa Catalina and Santa Cruz Islands.
34008		habitat	eng	Scrub.
34009		distribution	eng	A variable subspecies known from scattered populations on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai and Maui. It is also presumed to be present on Hawaii.
34009		habitat	eng	Dry to moist forest up to 800 m.
34010		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mendocino coast.
34010		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring on white sand pine barrens.
34010		threats	eng	The area comes under various pressures from development, overland vehicles and fires.
34011		distribution	eng	Small isolated subpopulations occupying an area less than 500 km².
34011		habitat	eng	Restricted to granite outcrops.
34011		threats	eng	The impact of tourism is considerable on Stone Mt Drought; poor regeneration, soil erosion and compaction are all weakening the status of the species.
34012		distribution	eng	This beautiful tree occurs in the wild in the north-east and east of Puerto Rico. The record from St Thomas in the US Virgin Islands dates from over 100 years ago and the habitat there has largely been destroyed.
34012		habitat	eng	Semi-dry woodland on coastal hills.
34012		population	eng	The main extant population consists of 121 plants in Palmas de Mar, Puerto Rico. There are thought to be a further three populations, making the population total 400–500 plants.
34012		threats	eng	Threats of quarrying and development, especially of houses, tourist facilities and roads, are apparent.
34013		conservation	eng	The entire population is protected.
34013		population	eng	Fewer than 250 trees exist in the coastal chaparral of Santa Rosa Island.
34013		threats	eng	Coastal abrasion and fires pose threats.
34014		distribution	eng	Confined to Molokai.
34014		habitat	eng	The species is found in rainforest at medium elevation in the east of the island.
34015		conservation	eng	Most of the population is protected within Torrey Pines State Park.
34015		habitat	eng	Suburban areas.
34015		population	eng	There is a very small population of fewer than 1,000 trees north of San Diego.
34015		threats	eng	Trees on unprotected land are highly vulnerable to fire, recreation activities and urban development. There has been a recent serious infestation of five-spined ips bark beetle in the park, but it is now apparently contained.
34016		conservation	eng	Forty six individuals have been planted in enclosures at Puuwaawaa and Kau Forest Reserve.  It is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
34016		distribution	eng	Restricted to the slopes of Mauna Loa.
34016		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of montane rainforest.
34016		population	eng	It is now known from fewer than 20 individuals in three populations near Keauhou, Kohae and on Puuwaawaa.
34016		threats	eng	Cattle grazing and trampling are major causes for the species decline.
34017		distribution	eng	Waipio valley, Mauna Kea and the windward side of Mauna Loa on Hawaii.
34017		habitat	eng	A palm-like tree occurring in rainforest up to 1,080 m altitude.
34017		threats	eng	Damage by feral pigs has been recorded at a number of sites where the species is known.
34018		distribution	eng	One of three subspecies confined to Kauai.
34019		distribution	eng	The species is now known to be more widespread in the Santa Lucia Mountains than originally thought.
34019		habitat	eng	Confined to mountain ridges.
34019		threats	eng	Fire is a threat but the area is generally inaccessible to grazing animals.
34020		conservation	eng	Part of the population on Santa Rosa is protected in the Santa Rosa Plateau Reserve.
34020		distribution	eng	Only one tree remains on Santa Catalina Island in California.
34020		habitat	eng	Sclerophyllous habitat.
34020		threats	eng	Extensive declines of the habitat of the species have been observed over the past 50 years. Regeneration of the species is poor and the remaining habitat is under threat from grazing and urban, agricultural and industrial developments.
34021		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Chisos Mts. in Brewster County.
34021		habitat	eng	Found in moist wooded canyons.
34022		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
34022		distribution	eng	The total population is restricted to private land in the Wahiawa drainage on Kauai.
34022		habitat	eng	Along forested streamsides.
34022		population	eng	Once estimated to contain 100 plants, only 20 or 30 plants survived Hurricane Iniki.
34022		threats	eng	Feral pigs and invasive plants are the primary threats to the habitat.
34023		conservation	eng	90% of the population is now protected. Schemes to improve management and to plant trees on cleared land are in place.
34023		habitat	eng	An emergent of mixed montane forests.
34023		threats	eng	There was large-scale logging of populations between 1856 and 1955. Fire prevention policy, causing a build-up of undergrowth, may have hampered regeneration in the past.
34024		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">USA National and State Listing:</span><br/>The California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB) maintains global and state rankings for species of concern. Great Basin Bristlecone Pine has a global rank of G4, meaning it is apparently secure, but there may be some cause for concern, and a state rank of S3.3, meaning it is vulnerable (few populations, and/or small population size) in California, with no known current threats. The California Native Plant Society includes it on their List 4.3, meaning it is uncommon in California, but not very endangered. The vast majority of stands and subpopulations are within&#160; protected areas, some of which were specifically designated to protect this species. Active monitoring programmes are also in place. Ex situ gene conservation including seed and pollen in cold storage, and clone banks has been initiated.<br/>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions and Research Needed:</span><br/></p><p>Further research is needed on the potential effects of climate change on the existing distribution of Great Basin Bristlecone Pine, including insect and disease dynamics, and fire dynamics in the denser mixed forests. Active fire management may be needed in some stands.</p>  <p>&#160;Identification, harnessing and deploying (tree planting) rust resistant Great Basin Bristlecone Pine may need to be considered, particularly in areas where regeneration is absent among persistent standing dead stems and no local seed source is available for natural regeneration.<a name="_GoBack"></a> In these cases, special attention should be paid to maintaining the genetic integrity of individual stands, as appropriate.</p>  <p>&#160;Identification of new Research Natural Areas in California, Nevada and Utah may provide protection for additional populations, depending on the current management status of those lands. Other protected areas include designated wilderness.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
34024		distribution	eng	Widely scattered in high mountains near timberline, from the White and Inyo Mountains of eastern California, east through eastern California and southwestern and eastern Nevada, to central Utah. The species occurs on USDA National Forest System lands, USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and National Park Service lands, and Nevada Department of Wildlife lands.<br/><br/>Great Basin Bristlecone Pine occurs in several USDA Forest Service Research Natural Areas (RNAs). RNAs are designated areas that include high quality ecosystems in natural condition, unique ecosystems and ecological features, and plants of special concern. The management emphasis of these areas is on maintaining natural processes. In the Nevada Humboldt-Toiyabe NF, Intermountain Region it is reported from Carpenter Canyon (1,622 ha), Mt Moriah Table (355 ha), Pearl Peak (269 ha), Troy Peak (1,012 ha) and White Pine Creek (319 ha). In the Utah Dixie NF, Intermountain Region it is recorded from Red Canyon (186 ha), Table Cliff (526 ha). In the California Inyo NF, Pacific Southwest Region it is recorded from McAfee (822 ha), Whippoorwill Flat (711 ha) and White Mountain (932 ha).<br/><br/>In addition to Forest Service RNAs, Great Basin Bristlecone Pine occurs within several other areas with a management emphasis on conserving important ecological features. The Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest Botanical Special Interest Area (Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest)(11,732 hectares, established 1958) on the Inyo National Forest in California is managed to protect the Bristlecone Pines for public enjoyment and scientific study.&#160; Reported National Park System locations include Death Valley (CA), Great Basin (NV), Bryce Canyon (UT), and Zion (UT) National Parks, and Cedar Breaks National Monument (UT). BLM locations include Amphitheater Natural Area No. 285 (UT), and Heusser Mountain Bristlecone Pine Natural Area No. 72 (UT). Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is also reported from the Hayford Peak Natural Area No. 71, within the Desert National Wildlife Refuge, managed by the Nevada Department of Wildlife. Additional locations exist throughout the broader range described above (eastern California to central Utah).
34024		habitat	eng	<p>Great Basin BristleconePpine occurs in montane, subalpine, and timberline communities. It occurs in pure stands, but is also frequently codominant with Limber Pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus flexilis</span>). Other associated species, depending on geographic location and site characteristics, include Single Leaf Pinyon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus monophylla</span>) at lower elevations, Quaking Aspen (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremuloides</span>) on mesic sites, and Engelmann Spruce (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea engelmannii</span>), Subalpine Fir (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies lasiocarpa</span>), Rocky Mountain White Fir (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies concolor var. concolor</span>), and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudotsuga menziesii</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">glauca</span>) in eastern Nevada and Utah.&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;The understorey in Great Basin bristlecone pine communities is typically sparse. Shrub associates include Big Sagebrush (<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia tridentata</span>), Low Sagebrush (<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia arbuscula</span>), Wax Currant (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ribes cereum</span>), Curl-leaf Mountain Mahogany (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cercocarpus ledifolius</span>) and others. Common associated herbaceous species include Prairie Junegrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Koeleria macrantha</span>), Bottlebrush Squirreltail (<span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus elymoides</span>), King’s Sandwort (<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria kingii</span>), and Granite Prickly Phlox (<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptodactylon pungens</span>). In general, stands become increasingly diverse eastward through the range of the species, with a corresponding decrease in altitudinal range. Overall, plant diversity in these Bristlecone Pine communities is greater on limestone-derived soils than on quartzite-derived soils.&#160;&#160; &#160;</p>  <p>Great Basin Bristlecone Pine has the longest life span of any nonclonal species in the world. It is believed that the longevity of Bristlecone Pines is directly related to site adversity, with a high proportion of dead: live wood reducing respiration and water loss, thereby extending the life span of the tree. A relationship between tree age and proportion of dead stemwood suggests that the great ages of some individuals are related to their capacity to survive partial die-back while maintaining a constant ratio of photosynthesizing and non-photosynthesizing live tissue. In addition, high-elevation, arid environments are poor habitats for insects and root-decaying fungi that might otherwise reduce the life span of these ancient trees. </p>  <p>Great Basin Bristlecone Pine communities are highly drought-tolerant, generally found on very dry, mid- to high-elevation exposed slopes and ridges, with no evidence of Pleistocene glaciation. Slopes are typically steep, ranging from 10% to 50%.&#160; Stands are typically very open at high elevations, with a sparse understory.&#160; At lower elevations, Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is generally found in denser, mixed forests. Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is shade intolerant and cannot establish in very dense forest environments. Canopy cover may range from approximately 15-50%, with more open stands on harsher higher elevation sites containing massive multi-trunked trees, and tall upright trees with more tapered single trunks characterizing lower elevation sites with higher canopy density.&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;Soils are shallow lithosols, usually derived from limestone or dolomite, though occasionally sandstone or quartzite soils support Great Basin Bristlecone Pine. Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is found in arid climates with cold winters and droughty summers. Annual precipitation ranges from 300-600 mm, with temperatures as low as -18°C in January to 34°C in July.<br/></p>
34024		population	eng	<p>Quantitative information on population sizes is absent or sparse in this high elevation, non-commercial tree species. Utilizing the Research Natural Areas and Ancient Bristlecone Pine  Forest acreages listed in 4b, a rough estimate of the size of individual subpopulations may range from 186 to 11,732 ha. Studies conducted in the mid-1980s concluded that subpopulations at Cedar Breaks (UT) and in the Egan  Range were increasing, while the Wheeler Peak (NV) subpopulation was stable. In the White Mountains (CA) seedlings are establishing beyond the current upper elevational limits of mature trees, and no die-off is currently being observed at lower elevations, potentially indicating a continuing expansion of their range. Seedling establishment appears to be at a rate sufficient to replace current mortality.&#160;&#160; </p>    <p>Though generally restricted to high elevation mountain tops in the Great Basin, on isolated mountain ranges separated by xeric valleys, genetic diversity (He) is moderate to very high (0.134 to 0.327) particularly in Nevada, with little population differentiation (Fst or Gst ranging from 0.011 to 0.169) and low inbreeding coefficients (F ranging from 0.078 to 0.103). Populations in the White Mountains may be less genetically diverse than eastern populations, showing slightly lower than average genetic variation compared to most pine species.</p>    Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is well-known for slow growth rates and extreme longevity approaching 5,000 years. The Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest contains trees as old as 4,600 years, as well as logs more than 4,000 years older and is a noted area for dendrochronology and paleoclimatic work relating to fossil timberlines. Another grove of ancient age is in Wheeler Peak Scenic Area, Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest (NF), Nevada.
34024		threats	eng	<p>Climate change:&#160; The effects of current and future climatic conditions on Great Basin Bristlecone Pine regeneration are uncertain. Climate change may be hindering regeneration on sites in the interior Great  Basin.<br/></p>  <p>The best development of Great Basin Bristlecone Pine forests occurred during the Pleistocene, when the climate was both cooler and wetter. Extensive forests extended down mountain slopes in the Great Basin, and Great Basin Bristlecone Pines occupied Mojave  Basin mountain slopes, where they are now absent.<br/></p>  <p>Mountain top stands, lower elevation stands, or stands now on marginal sites may be threatened by climate change, though it is difficult to predict the complex interactions of changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and shifting insect and disease ranges. In many places, potential habitat occurs upslope of existing populations, indicating potential for upslope shifts in distribution to accommodate a warming climate. Lower elevation populations could potentially be compromised by black stain, introduced by upslope movement of pinyon pine. Shifting patterns of various insects and diseases in response to long term changes in temperature and/or precipitation could affect existing stands, particularly at the current lower tree limit.</p>    <p>Blister rust: Bristlecone Pine is one of the five-needle pines susceptible to the exotic pathogen, White Pine Blister Rust (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cronartium ribicola </span>A. Dietr.). Blister rust resistance is being evaluated at the USDA Forest Service, Institute of Forest Genetics, Placerville, CA. Preliminary results show no evidence of the hypersensitive response with 30% of the seedlings canker-free. Both Rocky Mountain Bristlecone Pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus aristata</span> Engelm.) and Great Basin Bristlecone Pine are highly resistant to blister rust, in part due to wax-occluded stomata. In addition, the predominant alternate host, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ribes cereum</span>, is highly resistant to infection by aeciospores, thereby making it difficult for the rust to complete its life cycle in the alternate host.&#160; However, levels of resistance of Great Basin Bristlecone Pine to blister rust remain unclear. Laboratory studies have shown Great Basin Bristlecone Pine seedlings to be lacking key alleles that confer genetic resistance to blister rust. Populations in the White and Inyo Mountains, which lie close to moderately high infection centres in the Sierra  Nevada, may be at greatest risk for blister rust infection and spread.</p>  <p>Other insects and/or disease agents: Mountain pine beetle, dwarf mistletoe, wood-rot basidiomycetes and wood decay fungi are all known to infest Great Basin Bristlecone Pine. The dry high-elevation sites of most Great Basin Bristlecone Pine currently serve to slow fungal growth and wood decay.<br/></p>    <p>Wildland fire: based on its thin bark, Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is adapted to survive only low-severity surface fires. With low productivity and widely spaced stands, there are usually not enough fuels to carry fire in high-elevation Great Basin Bristlecone Pine sites. When fires do occur at high elevations, they are typically small, low-severity surface fires. Stand dynamics in these areas are generally more influenced by climate and seed dispersal patterns than by fire.<br/></p>  <p>In contrast, fuels are sufficient to carry fire in denser, lower-elevation sites where Bristlecone Pine occurs in mixed forests. Little documentation exists of post-fire establishment, growth rate, and successional role of this species. Post-fire establishment may be favoured on mixed conifer ecotones, lower-elevation limestone soils, and other sites that are marginally productive for other conifer species but relatively good for Great Basin Bristlecone Pine. Further research is needed on this topic.</p>    Commercial timber production: Though Great Basin Bristlecone Pine-limber pine forests were logged in the 1860s for structural timber, the species is no longer commercially important as a timber product.
34026		distribution	eng	The species is relatively common in the Sierra Nevada but less so in the coastal ranges.
34026		population	eng	Much of the population outside protected areas has declined.
34026		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture is mainly responsible for the decline.
34027		distribution	eng	The commoner variety of the two which are recognised. Subpopulations are found on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai and Hawaii.
34027		habitat	eng	Dry to moist forest from low to medium elevation.
34028		conservation	eng	Protective measures and planting were being carried out at Pahole as part of a Recovery Plan. The taxon is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.  Plants are still extant in botanic gardens.
34028		habitat	eng	Grew in the understorey of lowland forest (535–700 m).
34028		population	eng	This subspecies was until recently still extant in the wild, as opposed to ssp. <em>regina</em>. It was known from two small subpopulations, totaling fewer than 10 plants, on the Waianae Mts., one on federal property in Kahanahaiki valley and the other on state land in Pahole Gulch. A third subpopulation, previously reported, appears to have been based on a misidentification.
34028		threats	eng	The major threats to the species and its habitats included invasive alien plants, and predation by feral pigs, rats and slugs.  Other major threats included wildfires generated by activities in the nearby military firing range.  The restricted range of the species also made it very vulnerable to small local disturbances, and hence the last few individuals were easily destroyed.
34029		conservation	eng	In 1921 was declared the National Tree of Mexico because of its splendor, colossal dimensions, beauty and longevity.  Has been cultivated as an ornamental since the time of the Aztecs.  Many ancient trees are protected as "monuments" in Mexico. The Texas Organization for Endangered Species (TOES) has listed this species as being TOES category III: Texas Endangered, which is any species that lacks legal protection and is in danger of extinction or extirpation in Texas.
34029		habitat	eng	It is an important component of gallery forests and always occurs next to rivers or streams where the base of the tree is submerged in water for much of the year. As with other species of <em>Taxodium</em> the roots of <em>T. mucronatum</em>  produce pneumatophores or breathing roots.  It produces seed all year round, but most abundantly from August to November. Its elevational range is from 300 to 2,500 m, though at higher altitudes it is less abundant.
34030		distribution	eng	Edward's Plateau.
34030		habitat	eng	A tree confined to scrub.
34031		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Waianae Mts. on Oahu.
34031		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found in diverse forest types at altitudes between 450 and 950 m.
34032		distribution	eng	Occurs in Cambalache forest in moist submontane limestone forest and in Maricao on serpentine gravel.
34032		habitat	eng	Moist submontane limestone forest.
34032		population	eng	A very rare dioecious tree. Population estimates in 1989 were put at 14 individuals in total.
34032		threats	eng	There are threats from cutting, burning and the development of the area.
34033		conservation	eng	The trees have not been seen to seed but efforts are being made to cultivate the plant from tissue culture.
34033		habitat	eng	Woodland on a limestone cliff.
34033		population	eng	A small tree from a single site. There are 10 individuals in the population, the majority of which are on land owned by a development company.
34034		distribution	eng	Confined to Hawaii Island, where it occurs in Puna and Kau districts.
34034		habitat	eng	A terrestrial or epiphytic species in rainforest from low to high altitudes.
34034		threats	eng	Much of the habitat has been logged and converted into pastureland. Remaining areas are strongly affected by grazing feral pigs.
34035		distribution	eng	A poorly known species which is recorded only from the type collection taken from an area between 915 and 1,220 m on the leeward slopes of Haleakala on East Maui.
34036		distribution	eng	Molokai, Lanai and Maui Islands. Two subspecies are sometimes recognised, of which the type subspecies is locally common but confined to West Maui.
34036		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rainforest or the margins of bogs up to 1,975 m.
34037		distribution	eng	Known from Nevarez, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands National Park on St John. Plants elsewhere are believed to be cultivated.
34037		habitat	eng	Occurring as a vine or tree.
34037		population	eng	There is a small subpopulation of about 12 individuals in Nevarez, and from three to six isolated trees and a core subpopulation of 30-50 trees in Virgin Islands National Park.
34037		threats	eng	The main subpopulation on St John is under little threat. Subpopulations elsewhere are potentially threatened by grazing and quarrying. In cultivation there is some indication that the plants die before reaching reproductive maturity.
34038		distribution	eng	One of three subspecies. It was known to occur near Hanapepe Falls on Kauai. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
34038		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
34038		population	eng	No record of it has been made since 1895.
34039		distribution	eng	This subspecies was known only from a population occurring on the island of Niihau. The genus is endemic to Hawaiian islands.
34039		population	eng	It has not been collected since 1870.
34040		conservation	eng	Seeds have been propagated and planted out in the area, increasing the population to approximately 50 plants. The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
34040		distribution	eng	The only extant form of this species. It is represented by a single tree at Puuwaawaa on Hawaii. All other populations on West Maui, and on the slopes of Hulalai and Mauna Loa on Hawaii are believed extinct.
34040		habitat	eng	A tree.
34040		population	eng	Only one tree known to exist.
34040		threats	eng	Occurs in an area leased for ranching where it is under immediate threat from grazing, fire and also from invasive plants.
34041		conservation	eng	Plantation sources are now available. The species occurs in various national parks in the north-west.
34041		threats	eng	Native populations have been under considerable pressure from the scale of exploitation of the bark by pharmaceutical companies.
34042		distribution	eng	A tree with questionable records dating back to the 1960s from two sites in the Cordillera Central.
34042		habitat	eng	A small tree of wet montane forest.
34042		population	eng	The subpopulations have not been recently located.
34043		population	eng	A total of 45 plants are contained within three populations.
34043		threats	eng	Threats from fire, mining, grazing and road building are evident.
34044		conservation	eng	Listed as  Endangered under the Endangered Species Act. <br/> <br/>At least 95 seeds have been collected and stored at National Tropical Botanical <br/>Garden and 2 specimens are in tissue culture at Lyon Arboretum. <br/> <br/>A Recovery Plan has been developed for this taxon.
34044		distribution	eng	Before 1970, <em>Cyanea hamatiflora</em> ssp. <em>hamatiflora</em> was known from the windward (northeastern) side of Haleakala, stretching from Puu o Kakae to Manawainui on the island of Maui.  Since 1970, this taxon has been recorded from seven subpopulations with a total of 12 individuals within the East Maui Watershed Partnership in Honomanu, Wailuaiki, Kipahulu Valley, Koukouai, and Puu Ahulili on State (Koolau and Kipahulu forest reserves), Federal (Haleakala National Park), and privately owned lands.
34044		habitat	eng	A short-lived palm-like tree which occurs in rainforest between 1,200 and 1,400 m altitude.
34044		population	eng	The population size is now estimated to be between 70 and 125 individuals spread between 10 to 12 subpopulations.
34044		threats	eng	The habitat and the taxon is threatened by introduced pigs; invasive alien plants like <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (Velvet Tree),<em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster’s Curse), and <em>Ageratina adenophora</em> (Maui Pamakani); rats and slugs. In addition unrestricted collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants is a potential threat.  Also threatened by landslides.
34045		conservation	eng	The whole species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.  Two subpopulations occur on Federal property, eight are on State land, three in areas leased to the Federal government as part of the Makua Military Reservation and five are in a State Conservation District.  A Recovery Plan for the species has been published (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).
34045		distribution	eng	This variety has been recorded from the Waianae and Koolau Mts. on O'ahu, in Waimea Canyon and Na Pali Coast State Park on Kauai, on Moloka'i and on the Honokowai Ditch Trail on West Maui.
34045		habitat	eng	This slow growing, relatively long-lived tree occurs in various lowland dry to mesic forest types (360–1,070 m).
34045		population	eng	Oahu holds the largest subpopulations, which totaled about 400 plants; while fewer than 100 plants existed on Kauai; and only a very few plants on the other islands (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997). It has disappeared from parts of its former range. There are 27 known subpopulations which at the time of the recovery plan in 1997 numbered about 500 individuals. This has since declined to less than 300 individuals.
34045		threats	eng	This taxon was once widespread on leeward sides off all the Hawaiian Islands, but is now almost completely eliminated. The main threats in the past included the impacts of feral cattle, goats and pigs; the impacts of invasive alien plant species; damage from the Black Twig Borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>); and seed predation by rodents. <br/> <br/>Current threats include ongoing competition with invasive alien plant species, <em>Schinus terebinthifolius</em> (Christmas Berry) in particular is now replacing all native vegetation on the southern Waianae Mountains and threatens to occupy the range of all the O'ahu subpopulations.  The Black Twig Borer is still a major problem, with most subpopulations sustaining some damage from this.  Seed predation by invasive alien rodents (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>  is an ongoing problem inhibiting regeneration. Feral goats and pigs are impacting the habitat of most subpopulations through grazing, trampling and resultant soil erosion.  Accidental fires as a result of military activities are a potential problem for subpopulations in military training areas on O'ahu, Kauai and Maui. <br/> <br/>Given the limited size and scattered distribution of the subpopulations, gene pool limitations may depress reproductive vigor and adaptability.
34046		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
34046		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a restricted area of the Luquillo Mts. within Toro Negro State Forest.
34046		habitat	eng	Occurring in dwarf or elfin forest on mountain summits.
34046		population	eng	A total of 150 individuals exist within three populations.
34046		threats	eng	The forest has been cut through various forest management activities and also in the development of communication facilities.
34047		distribution	eng	This species is known from nine scattered sites in north California and the extreme south of Oregon. Only one of them extends as far as two miles in length. Locations once known have been lost.
34047		threats	eng	Although fire-adapted, it is vulnerable to intense fires, which break out when the fuel load has built up.
34048		distribution	eng	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It occurs at low elevations on Nihoa, Niihau and Kauai.
34049		conservation	eng	Part of the range is also managed as a wilderness area in the Siskiyou National Forest.
34049		distribution	eng	A species of conservation concern because of its restricted range in the Siskiyou Mts. of south-west Oregon and north-west California.
34049		habitat	eng	It is limited to areas of mixed conifer forest mostly on glacial moraines.
34049		population	eng	It is too rare to be exploited for its timber but it is cultivated on a small scale as an ornamental plant.
34050		habitat	eng	Lowland open forest and scrub on well-drained soils.
34050		population	eng	There is no evidence to suggest that populations have declined, as yet.
34050		threats	eng	Although it is in part dependent on fire for regeneration, it is also especially vulnerable to intense forest fires.
34051		distribution	eng	U.S.A. (Oregon and California) in a coastal belt of forests 725 km long and 50 to 70 km maximal distance inland, from Curry Co. in Oregon to Monterey Co. in California. In the far south the occurrence becomes more patchy and is restricted to the coast.
34051		population	eng	Redwood forests presumably once stretched nearly unbroken from Santa Cruz, well into Orgeon along the coast (A. Farjon, pers. comm). Some 90 to 95% of old growth forest has been felled since, and the remainder is now almost entirely in parks and reserves (A. Farjon, pers. comm).
34052		habitat	eng	A tree of moist forest.
34052		threats	eng	Localised distribution in areas which have been experiencing habitat destruction.
34053		distribution	eng	Known from widely disjunct populations. The current distribution is thought to reflect remnant populations of a more widespread Pleistocene or post-Pleistocene distribution.
34053		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree occurring at the edges of ponds, small streams or standing water.
34054		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia arborescens arborescens</em> is restricted to southern West Maui. The genus is endemic to the Hawaii Islands.
34054		habitat	eng	An epiphytic or terrestrial tree or shrub of montane rainforest.
34054		threats	eng	It has been estimated that as much as 90% of the habitat has been logged and converted into pastureland. Remaining areas are affected by grazing feral pigs.
34055		conservation	eng	There has been some success with propagation and plants have been reintroduced at Kauhao Ridge. The species is also listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.
34055		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai.
34055		habitat	eng	Mostly found on steep forested cliffs or slopes at low elevation.
34055		population	eng	The species, once widely scattered, is now confined to 15 subpopulations. It is restricted to the Napali Coast, Haupu Range and Nounou Mt., each subpopulation amounting to only one or two individuals, with the biggest one containing fewer than 50 individuals.
34055		threats	eng	Invasive plants and animals, including a longhorn beetle, rats and goats, pose serious threats to the survival of the species.
34056		habitat	eng	A variety which is very scattered in the drier parts of <em>Taxodium</em> forests.
34056		threats	eng	It is not under any threat.
34057		habitat	eng	A slow-growing species, usually occurring in open stands on high rocky slopes.
34057		threats	eng	In the Rocky Mountains regeneration may be impeded by grazing livestock. Most stands are protected from cutting or damage. Climatic changes may also be a factor.
34058		distribution	eng	The species is known from occurrences on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands in California and further down the Pacific coast in Mexico.
34059		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, which was recorded in 1981 from two localities in the upper regions of Monte del Estado, Maricao.
34062		distribution	eng	The Forestry Department in Vanuatu recognise this species as a synonym of <em>A. macrophylla</em>, which in turn is synonymous with <em>A. vitiensis</em>. The taxon encompassing <em>A. silbae</em> according to the SSC Conifer Specialist Group is confined to the island of Santo.
34062		threats	eng	Logging is a major threat, but at present land disputes have halted logging activities temporarily.
34064		conservation	eng	Eight of the 39 herbarium collections were made within the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Site. This means that a large proportion of the total population is outside this protected area.
34064		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the Atherton Tableland in north-east Queensland. EOO based on distribution data from herbarium specimens is calculated to be 2,670 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO 1,826 km<sup>2</sup> and is presumed to be inclusive of all localities known.
34064		habitat	eng	Mesophyll vine forest (rainforest) in which it is a small understorey tree with large leaves. The elevation ranges from 57 to 971 m (GIS data), it is most common between 500 and 700 m. No uses have been recorded of this species.
34064		population	eng	Subpopulations are usually small and individuals are scattered, but sometimes more abundant.
34064		threats	eng	Stochastic events like cyclones and fires.
34065		distribution	eng	This species has previously been included in <em>C. mannii</em> and has likewise suffered population declines. It is endemic to, and widespread on Hainan Island.
34065		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
34065		threats	eng	Population decline due to logging and more recently exploitation of bark and leaves which contain the valuable medicinal extracts, cephalotaxine and harringtonine.  As with other members of the genus, the maturation rate of the seed is slow and regeneration is relatively infrequent.
34066		conservation	eng	<p>This species&#160; does not appear on any lists of threatened species at state or national level within Australia (e.g., Briggs 1995, WAGG 2006).<u2:p></u2:p></p>  <u2:p></u2:p>
34066		distribution	eng	This species is native to southwest Western Australia.   <br/><br/>Although its extent of occurrence (EOO) may be less than 20,000 km², there are more than 10 locations for this species, the locations are not severely fragmented and there is no current evidence for continued decline.
34066		habitat	eng	<p></span></p>    <p><em>Podocarpus drouynianus</em> is a multi-stemmed shrub 1–3 m found in the understorey of jarrah and karri forests in SW Australia from Bunbury to Mt Barker, with some records from the <st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Darling</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> east of <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Perth</st1:place></st1:city></st1:place></st1:city>. Usually occurs on lower slopes or lowalands near streams. It survives and regenerates after fire and is able to re-establish itself in disturbed areas and persist within mature managed native forests.</p><p><br/></p><p><u2:p></u2:p>  </p><p>The species is not known to be susceptible to the impacts of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytopthora</span>.</p>
34066		population	eng	Within its main range it is widespread and locally very common.
34066		threats	eng	Its total range and extent of occurrence has been reduced to some extent as a result of past activities such as the conversion of forest to pasture and the replacement of native forest with exotics.   Currently no other threats are known for this species.
34067		distribution	eng	Although recognised as an endemic in Taiwan, populations on the Ryukyu Islands in Japan are also considered to belong to this species. In Taiwan populations are found in the north-central region, and in the far south in Tawushan Nature Reserve.
34067		population	eng	Regeneration is poor.
34068		conservation	eng	The area is well protected.
34068		distribution	eng	The entire range of the species is probably contained within Mt. Kinabalu National Park.
34068		habitat	eng	Confined to forest between 1200 and 2400 m on ultramafic substrates.
34068		threats	eng	There is a potential threat presented by the attractiveness of the substrate for mining.
34069		conservation	eng	None of the presently known collections originates from protected areas.
34069		distribution	eng	Malaysia, Sabah (and on the border with Sarawak). The currently known distribution is based on eight herbarium collections giving four separate localities. Most collections are by the author of the species, David de Laubenfels. It is possible that other localities will be discovered.
34069		habitat	eng	Lower to middle montane rainforest on ridges and summits where the forest is not dominated by dipterocarps, in some localities on ultrabasic soil; elevation 310 to 1,530 m based on information on herbarium specimen labels. No uses have been recorded; podocarps are (dependent on their size) valuable timber trees.
34069		population	eng	At present the (sub)populations appear to be disjunct.
34069		threats	eng	Continuing deforestation and habitat degradation in the region may affect this species.
34070		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree which is confined to Western Australia.
34070		threats	eng	It is not heavily exploited but if fires were to increase the species might become threatened.
34071		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree confined to Western Australia.
34071		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to the species other than its sensitivity to fires.
34072		conservation	eng	Protection is afforded in various national parks.
34072		population	eng	As with all <em>Callitris</em> species, populations have declined because of previous exploitation.
34072		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to grazing, logging and fire in the rest of its range.
34073		threats	eng	Populations in the south-west appear to be under threat from fire and overgrazing.
34074		distribution	eng	A species which is restricted in range.
34074		threats	eng	Under some threat from logging, fires and grazing.
34075		threats	eng	Populations in the south-west appear to under threat from logging.
34076		conservation	eng	Protected populations occur in Yuanyang Lake Reserve and Yushan National Park. Plantations have also been established.
34076		distribution	eng	This taxon is sometimes known under the name <em>C. taiwanensis</em>.
34076		habitat	eng	Occurring in association with, but in a more restricted range than, <em>C. formosensis</em>, this variety is found in moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.
34076		threats	eng	It provides a valuable timber, and rates of exploitation have in the past been very high.
34077		conservation	eng	The area has  national park status.
34077		distribution	eng	They are confined to steep slopes in San Pedro Martír.
34077		population	eng	Very few trees remain in the area where the variety was described.
34077		threats	eng	Large herds of cattle appear to be allowed to graze indiscriminately even though the area has  national park status.
34078		population	eng	This variant of the threatened <em>C. chengiana</em> is restricted to a single tree in Sichuan. It is monoecious.
34079		conservation	eng	Traditional Buddhist culture protects certain trees.  Very few protected areas seem to contain the species. The species is widely cultivated in the region in certain areas, e.g., around Kunming, Yunnan, from where it has subsequently invaded e.g., the Western Hills.  These occurrences were formerly held to be natural and some local botanists still argue that this is the case, which may be the reason why this species does not appear the Red Data Book of Chinese Plants.
34079		distribution	eng	The native range of the species has only recently been better resolved. The truly wild natural stands are very scattered  and confined to deep river gorges of the Yangtse, Yalong (?), Lankong (Mekong) and Nu (Salween) Rivers, SW China. The stands in NW Yunnan appear to be mostly pure.  It was thought previously that these stands may have been planted.
34079		habitat	eng	Grows in dry to moist (seasonal) coniferous forest at altitudes ranging from 1,900-3,300 m.
34079		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat clearance for agriculture and human settlements.  The timber is highly valued both for building and for fuel.  The species is also a popular ornamental tree.
34080		population	eng	A population of 200 is thought to exist in two small stands.
34080		threats	eng	Regeneration is seriously hampered by goats.
34081		distribution	eng	Fewer than five occurrences are known in California. Mexico also harbours few, perhaps two, subpopulations.
34081		habitat	eng	Individuals can be found along roadsides.
34081		threats	eng	One of the localities is relatively inaccessible but the others are susceptible to frequent wildfires and development.
34082		distribution	eng	Border regions of several Mexican states.
34082		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane forest, in oak and mesophillous formations.
34083		distribution	eng	The typical variety is confined to a single inaccessible rocky outcrop on St. Lucia. Variety <em>lucayana</em> is more widespread, being recorded from the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti (now extinct there) and Jamaica. However, it is now rare in Cuba because of past overexploitation is rarely seen in the Bahamas.
34083		habitat	eng	Found in remnant forests on steep slopes, and on inaccessible rocky outcrops.
34083		population	eng	Overcutting in the past and overgrazing today have led to the confinement of the species to an inaccessible rocky outcrop, where it occurs in a dwarfed form. It is thought that forms growing to 15 m were more frequent at one time.
34083		threats	eng	Exploited for fuelwood and timber while overgrazing is a problem for the typical variety.
34084		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, including Area de Conservación Guanacaste, Altos de Campaña, Rincón de la Vieja, Rio Indio Maíz and Mountain Pine Ridge Reserves.
34084		distribution	eng	Widespread across Central America with disjunct populations in Colombia, Equador and Venezuela. The disjunct known localities could indicate that this species occurs in areas of north-west South America (Colombia, Equador, Venezuela) where it has not yet been seen. The EOO calculated on the herbarium collections data is 3,323,940 km<sup>2</sup> and may well be larger than this.
34084		habitat	eng	Mixed conifer-angiosperm forest or pine forest, often along streams. Elevation (from GIS) 1 to 2,369 m, from herbarium specimens 1 to 2,150 m.
34084		population	eng	Reported to be fairly common in several localities.
34084		threats	eng	Locally threatened by logging and deforestation. Increasing human settlement and agriculture have brought about declines in the habitat.
34086		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected area.
34086		distribution	eng	Argentina (Missiones); Brazil (Bahía, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul)
34086		habitat	eng	The exact habitat of this species is poorly indicated on herbarium labels, mostly if mentioned at all it is said to occur in ‘campo rupestre’, we assume in the vicinity of streams and/or in rocky areas. Elevation based on GIS data is between 108 and 1,704 m (one herbarium specimen label recorded 1,800 m).
34086		population	eng	This species, although wide-spread in southern Brazil, is nowhere abundant or even common and usually occurs as scattered individual trees.
34086		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss in the more densely populated coastal regions.
34087		conservation	eng	Most collections were made in Mt. Kinabalu National Park. This species is not known from other protected areas.
34087		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Saba (Mt. Kinabalu), Sarawak (Lawas); Indonesia: Borneo, Kalimantan Timur. The EOO is imperfectly known, due to a single location far to the south of where most other collections were made, which indicates the possibility of further locations in between. Based on present knowledge, the AOO is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
34087		habitat	eng	In primary rainforest with <em>Agathis</em>, often on waterlogged, acidic soils; scattered in primary rainforest and ‘moss forest’; growing as a large emergent tree on rocky ridges on kerangas; dominant in ‘heath forests’ at higher elevations. Elevation (from GIS) 86 to 2,203 m (920 to 1,650 m on herbarium labels, probably the elevation range where most trees occur). Harvested for use as timber.
34087		population	eng	This species occurs with scattered individuals in the forest, but can be dominant in 'heath forests' at higher elevations.
34087		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation for conversion to agriculture and grazing, habitat degradation (this tree does not occur in secondary forest).
34088		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections from a single locality, the species is confined to the summit of Mt. Tapulao in Luzon.
34088		population	eng	No recent reports have been made and it is not known whether the population is still extant.
34089		distribution	eng	Restricted to northern Borneo, but due to the limited number of collections known, the AOO remains unknown.
34089		habitat	eng	Montane tropical forest.
34089		population	eng	The population sizes in the localities from where this species has been collected are unknown.
34089		threats	eng	No threats are mentioned but it may be subject to logging and deforestation.
34091		distribution	eng	Endemic to Taiwan, the species is restricted to a small area in the center of the island in Nan Ton County.
34091		habitat	eng	Broadleaved evergreen forest up to 1,000 m.
34091		population	eng	Populations are small and isolated.
34091		threats	eng	Under threat from increasing settlement, forest management and agricultural activities.
34092		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected area.
34092		distribution	eng	An endemic to the east Tongan Islands (southwestern Pacific). Very restricted, as far as known only on the island of ‘Eua. EOO less than 300 km<sup>2</sup> and AOO likely to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
34092		habitat	eng	Tropical low montane forest, dominated by angiosperms.
34092		population	eng	No data are available on the population size or abundance of this species.
34092		threats	eng	Unknown.
34093		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within a protected area.
34093		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Andes, Cordillera do Merida. This species has been collected in the provinces of Edo Lara, Merida, Tachira and Trujillo.
34093		habitat	eng	Montane mixed rainforest at elevations between 1,400 and 3,000 m, no details are indicated on the herbarium labels.
34093		population	eng	There are <em>ca</em>.5 locations known, based on herbarium specimens. Young trees are said to be locally abundant.
34093		threats	eng	Logging. This species is utilized for timber.
34094		conservation	eng	There is no legislation that regulates the logging or cutting of this species and it has not been found to occur within any protected area.
34094		distribution	eng	Caribbean: Jamaica (Mt Diablo, Sander’s Hill). Limited to the central limestone region of Jamaica, with an EOO estimated to be 1,800 km<sup>2</sup> or less. The AOO is not known as it is uncertain how many subpopulations there are, but since these are likely to be small and scattered, it is probably not more than 10 km<sup>2</sup>. At present, only two locations are known.
34094		habitat	eng	Wet tropical evergreen forest on limestone. The elevation is 800 m at the Mt. Diablo subpopulation.
34094		population	eng	Subpopulations observed so far are very small, with 10 to 20 mature trees (one with a diameter at breast height of 1 m) and many seedlings and saplings.
34094		threats	eng	Logging has reduced the number of large trees dramatically, probably over a long period of time, and may now play a lesser role as a threat but has not disappeared. Evidence was seen of logs of this species perhaps felled 2 to 3 years before lying by the side of the track on Mt Diablo. Removal of saplings used for sticks in the yam growing industry is the current greatest threat. Forest degradation will lead to deforestation, as other land use will take its place where the terrain and soils permit.
34095		conservation	eng	One known location is within Roraima National Park.
34095		distribution	eng	The species occurs on Mt Roraima and the mountains lying on the border between Venezuela and Guyana. There are records from the departments of Bolivar and Amazonas. Its distribution is probably imperfectly known.
34095		habitat	eng	Tropical montane rainforest. No specific details are known.
34095		population	eng	No data are known about population sizes; judging from the number of collections made in one area in a decade it is probably fairly common there.
34095		threats	eng	No threats are known to affect this species at present. No uses are known.
34096		conservation	eng	The recent collection (2005) was made within the Tsaratanana Reserve.
34096		distribution	eng	Madagascar (Antsiranana, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa provinces). The highly disjunct distribution of this species, if correct, seems to indicate a relict status.
34096		habitat	eng	Recorded from rocky slopes on silicious rocks; the elevation is given as 1,800 to 2,400 m (herbarium data) but the range may be greater according to GIS calculations and information from literature.
34096		population	eng	Nothing is known about the size of (sub)populations. A survey of known locations is desirable as only one collection, from Ampomotra, is recent.
34096		threats	eng	Deforestation and grazing.
34098		distribution	eng	An endemic to San Cristobal Island.
34100		distribution	eng	The entire population is contained within the State Forest Reserve on Mt. Lewis near Mossman.
34100		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in montane rainforest in summit localities.
34100		threats	eng	Felling is illegal without permission.
34101		distribution	eng	The species is known from occurrences on Mt. Ophir in Peninsular Malaysia, Morotai in the north Moluccas, Rossel Island in the Louisiade Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
34102		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Mt. Omei in Sichuan and Yunnan.
34105		distribution	eng	Endemic to Trinidad, the species appears to be confined to El Tucuche in the north.
34106		distribution	eng	The species is common to locally dominant in the Blue Mountains. Large populations exist on the Grand Ridge and in southern catchments.
34106		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest. It is less common where slopes are steep or unstable.
34106		population	eng	At very high altitudes it is one of the commonest trees.
34107		conservation	eng	The entire population is contained within a state forest reserve and felling is illegal without permit.
34107		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mt. Spurgeon near Mossman.
34107		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in montane rainforest in summit localities.
34108		conservation	eng	One subpopulation occurs in a reserve at the Chûte de la Madeleine Reserv. Before 1997, this area was freely accessible to the public and was becoming degraded. Since 1997, a management plan has been implemented and some restoration work undertaken. Other subpopulations are not protected.
34108		distribution	eng	This small rheophyte is restricted to the margins of a few watercourses and lakes in the Plaine des Lacs area (at 5 to 250 m asl).
34108		habitat	eng	Grows on river banks and lake shores on ultramafic soils.
34108		population	eng	The population is smaller than 2,500 mature individuals and declining.
34108		threats	eng	The most direct threats come from wild fires and developments associated with mining such as the construction of a major metallurgical plant several kilometres upstream from a major subpopulation. Other longer term threats come from fluctuations in the water flows and the water table.
34109		distribution	eng	An endemic to Serra Pacas Novos.
34110		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. rospigliosii</span> is presently not known to occur in protected areas.
34110		distribution	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span style="font-style: italic;">R. rospigliosii</span> occurs in Colombia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ecuador</st1:country-region>, central Peru and western Venezuela (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Merida</st1:place></st1:city> and Tachira).</p>
34110		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. rospigliosii </span>occurs in montane tropical rainforest, in which it can attain a large size. Its altitudinal range is from 1,500 to 3,300 m (up to 3,750 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>) a.s.l., so it occurs in wet rainforest up to high altitude cloud forest or 'mossy forest'. It can form more or less extensive pure stands on exposed sites, but is more often found scattered among flowering plants or sometimes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Prumnopitys</span> spp.</p>
34110		threats	eng	The main threats are logging and conversion of forest to pasture.
34111		distribution	eng	From Fukushima to Hiroshima on Honshu Island, and also on Shikoku and Kyushu Islands.
34111		habitat	eng	A tree of low to medium elevations occurring in forested areas.
34111		threats	eng	It provides a useful timber and levels of exploitation have been considerable.
34113		distribution	eng	Two collections are known in the Delei valley and a valley in the Dafla Hills in India, and another single collection has been made from Medog in China.
34113		habitat	eng	Moist deciduous forest.
34113		threats	eng	Deforestation has occurred extensively in the area.
34117		conservation	eng	The Chinese Government has recently imposed a logging ban on old growth forest in western China. Occurs in protected areas. Need further research on the range and population status of this taxon.
34117		distribution	eng	Endemic to China; this subspecies has a fairly wide distribution being recorded from SE Gansu, Henan (Nexiang), W Hubei, S Shaanxi, and W Sichuan.
34117		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in high mountain ranges of the SW Plateau of China between 2,100 and 3,000 m asl, on grey-brown mountain podzols, brown earth or lithosols. The climate is cold and moist, with annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,000 mm. It is a rare species, usually mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies fargesi</span>i var. <span style="font-style: italic;">sutchuenensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga chinensis</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Larix potaninii</span> at high elevations, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> spp. at lower elevations; also as a pure forest in Tsin-ling Shan (Wang 1961).
34117		population	eng	This subspecies is rare and is very scattered. A community inventory conducted for this species produced an estimate of 200,000 trees (Y. Yang pers. comm. 2010), but it is unsure what proportion of these were mature.
34117		threats	eng	Logging and deforestation have depleted this most common and widespread subspecies. Logging was mostly a threat in the past.
34118		conservation	eng	The Lijiang Shan is one of the best preserved areas and the majority of the population is found within the protected area.<br/><br/>Further research into the population size, range and particularly the threats is needed. If threats are identified (even potential threats), then the species could well be reassessed under a more threatened category.
34118		distribution	eng	The population is restricted to a small area of forest at Lijiang Shan&#160; in Yunnan province, China.
34118		habitat	eng	Found in high mountains in mixed coniferous forest at 3,000 m altitude and higher.
34118		population	eng	This subspecies is only known from one mountain range in Yuong Shui Shan in NW Yunnan and is believed to count fewer than 1,000 mature trees. Parts of this mountain are a National Park and at least some of the population occurs within this protected area.
34118		threats	eng	Logging has occurred in the past but a logging ban has been imposed by the Government of China.
34120		distribution	eng	Occurring in a sparsely populated area, in two or three subpopulations.
34120		habitat	eng	Restricted to wet north slopes in two river valleys.
34120		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to the two or three subpopulations that exist.
34121		conservation	eng	The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.
34121		habitat	eng	Found at lower altitudes than the other varieties.
34121		threats	eng	As it is found at lower altitudes than the other varieties it may be more vulnerable to exploitation.
34122		conservation	eng	The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.
34122		habitat	eng	The taxon is restricted to forest areas up to 3,000 m or more.
34123		population	eng	A variety which is found in very low densities.
34123		threats	eng	Continues to suffer from extensive logging and habitat loss.
34124		distribution	eng	Extensive forests of it were known to occur in south-west Sichuan and north-west Yunnan.
34124		habitat	eng	Extensive forests of it were known to occur above 3,000 m.
34124		population	eng	Populations have declined.
34124		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation and replanting with commercial species.
34125		population	eng	A variety which occurs in very low densities.
34125		threats	eng	Continues to suffer from extensive logging and habitat loss.
34126		conservation	eng	A study conducted by the Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture through the Administration des Eaux et Forêts et Conservation des Sols (AEFCS, 1996) and funded by the Banque Africaine du Développement resulted in the creation of the 60,000 ha Talassemtane Natural Park to protect the remaining areas of Moroccan fir (Haut Commmissariat aux Eaux et Forêt et á la Lutte contre la Désertification 2004). In 2006 Talassemtane Natural Park was included within the first UNESCO Intercontinental Mediterranean Biosphere Reserve.
34126		distribution	eng	This variety is restricted to a small part of the Rif&#160; mountains in northern Morocco. The main stands are almost contiguous  on the mountains of Sfiha Tell, Tissouka, Lakraa, Talassemtane, Bouslimane, Taloussisse, Fahs and Kharbouch. There is also an isolated subpopulation on Mt Tazaot. The estimated EOO is 75 km² with an estimated AOO of 28 km².
34126		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">marocana</span> occurs in the Mediterranean humid bioclimatic zone. The average annual rainfall is 1,500 mm (Benabid 1983), increasing to 1,900 mm at an altitude of 1,700 m. Stands are typically found on north facing dolomitic limestone slopes of mountain ridges. The optimal altitudinal range is between 1,400 and 1,800 m, where the main tree associates are <em>Acer granatense</em>, <em>Quercus faginea</em>, <em>Q. ilex</em>, <em>Q. rotundifolia</em>, <em>Ilex aquifolium </em>and<em> Taxus baccata</em>. Associated ground flora include <em>Hedera maroccana, Euphorbia characias, Digitalis purpurea var. maurtanica </em>and<em> Paeonia coriacea</em>. Between 1,800 and 2,000 m <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> occurs with <em>Cedrus atlantica,</em> <em>Pinus nigra</em> and <em>Pinus pinaster. </em>&#160;Above 2,000 m the mountain summits are typically dominated by xerophytic species including <em>Berberis hispanica, Bupleurum spinosum and Rosa micrantha</em>,&#160; other species include <em>Crataegus laciniata, <st1:place w:st="on">Rosa</st1:place> micrantha, Rubus ulmifolius </em>and<em> Viburnum tinus</em>.
34126		population	eng	There are no accurate figures for the number of mature individuals or the overall size of the population.
34126		threats	eng	Moroccan Fir underwent a 70% decline between 1938 and 1994 due to logging, fires and forest clearance associated with an increasing rural population, an expansion of agriculture and the cultivation of cannabis (Emberger 1938, Boudy 1951 and DPA 1994 in Moore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). In 1977 most of the forests on Jebel Tazaot was destroyed by fire. A second fire in 2002 damaged part of the remaining forest and there has been little regeneration since then (Esteban 2010). Although the remaining stands are within a National Park, deforestation associated with cannabis cultivation&#160; in the areas surrounding the fir stands remains a problem.&#160; <br/><br/><br/><span lang="EN-US">
34127		distribution	eng	A rare variety with a very restricted range confined to Songpan. Var. <em>ernestii</em> appears to be more widespread in the west of Sichuan Province.
34130		conservation	eng	The Government of China has recently imposed a logging ban in western China.
34130		distribution	eng	Recorded from S Gansu, S Qinghai (Baima Xian), W Sichuan, and E Xizang [Tibet] (Markam Xian) in China.
34130		habitat	eng	A subalpine species of the high mountains of western China, where it occurs between 3,500 m and 4,500 m asl [3,000-4,700 m according to Liu (1971)] making it one of the highest reaching mountain trees in the world. The soils are commonly grey-brown mountain podzols or lithosols. The climate is cold, relatively dry (arid in E Xizang), but usually perpetual snow at higher elevations provides sufficient moisture throughout the year. It is a constituent of mixed coniferous high altitude forests, with among other species <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies recurvata, A. fargesii</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">faxoniana, Picea likiangensis</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">rubescens, P. asperata, P. linzhiensis</span> (in E Xizang), <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix potaninii</span> and possibly also <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga forrestii</span>. There are very few broad-leaved trees at these high elevations, <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula albosinensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. utilis</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">prattii</span> being the most common.
34130		population	eng	This species is widespread and common where it occurs – the trees form forests.
34130		threats	eng	At these high altitudes forests form isolated patches on favourable sites, surrounded by treeless subalpine vegetation. Direct exploitation of the timber in these forest remnants is easily unsustainable due to very slow growth and past exploitation has led to a decline of this and other conifer tree species in these forests.
34131		conservation	eng	All habitats/ subpopulations are inside a National Park, and protected from logging.
34131		distribution	eng	This variant is known from Shikoku island (Mt. Tsurugi, Mt. Ishizuchi), Japan. The AOO is <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
34131		habitat	eng	It occurs near the summits of Mt. Ttsurugi and Mt. Ishizuchi where it forms dense forest on rocky ridges.
34131		population	eng	The localities are mainly limited to Mt. Tsurugi and Mt. Ishizuchi, and each subpopulation is small, but current mature tree numbers are not confirmed.
34131		threats	eng	The AOO is small, making the tree vulnerable to fire and other stochastic events.
34133		distribution	eng	The species is found in an area extending from north-west Sichuan into east Tibet.
34134		conservation	eng	This variety is not recorded from any protected areas.
34134		distribution	eng	China: west Sichuan and south-east Xizang Zizhiqu (Tibet). The range of this species remains incompletely known.
34134		habitat	eng	This variety occurs, with the species in a wider sense, in high montane to subalpine coniferous forests and sometimes in the ecotone to alpine steppe. The elevation based on herbarium specimen data is 3,180 to 3,560 m.
34134		population	eng	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.
34136		habitat	eng	A tree of pine-oak forest, restricted to limestone hillsides.
34136		threats	eng	Deforestation continues to occur on a large scale.
34140		habitat	eng	The most common and widespread variety, <em>J. pingii</em> var. <em>wilsonii</em> is a low shrub. <em>J. pingii</em> var. <em>chengii</em> was described as a small tree.
34140		population	eng	A very rare species but apparently not under threat of extinction.
34140		threats	eng	Deforestation is taking place extensively in north-west Yunnan.
34141		population	eng	As with <em>J. pingii</em> the species is relatively rare but apparently not overly threatened.
34142		distribution	eng	Yunnan and north-west Myanmar.
34142		habitat	eng	A fairly widespread variety of moist montane woodland.
34142		threats	eng	It has been harvested heavily in Yunnan but appears to regenerate well.
34144		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known.
34144		distribution	eng	The known population is confined to Talasskij Ala Tau, Kyrgyzstan.
34144		habitat	eng	On north-facing slopes or in steep ravines at altitudes between 1,300 m and 2,850 m asl where moisture from snowmelt remains available through summer.
34144		population	eng	The species form forests on the upper slopes of the Tien Shan.
34144		threats	eng	Deforestation and logging could pose a threat to the taxon.
34145		distribution	eng	It occurs in the Sierra Santa Catarina, in a single locality that probably extends less than 100 km².
34146		conservation	eng	Many populations are found in protected areas.
34146		distribution	eng	A species with a wide but local distribution, occurring from the North Cape to East Cape in the North Island and in north-west Nelson in the South Island. Regeneration occurs in disturbed sites.
34146		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
34146		threats	eng	Some populations are exposed to forestry, agriculture, and mining activities.
34147		conservation	eng	Almost all subpopulations occur within the Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area and are protected from exploitation, which has been considerable in the past.
34147		distribution	eng	Confined to the Baviaanskloof and Kogua Mountains. The genus contains three or four species, endemic to southern Africa.
34147		threats	eng	Present concerns lie in recruitment being low and the range being restricted to a degree that causes the species to be vulnerable to natural disasters and uncontrolled frequent fires.
34148		conservation	eng	All stands have recently been declared as <em>Natura 2000 Site</em><span style="font-style: italic;">s</span> while some were designated as National Nature Reserves in 1984 and 2000. All human activities and grazing are excluded from the native stands. There is an effective fire protection system in place and a permanent monitoring plan. Gene banks have also been established in the form of ex-situ conservation plantations.
34148		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Tripylos area in Paphos State Forest in the Troodos Mountains in western Cyprus.
34148		habitat	eng	<p>Sometimes in pure forests, especially on the mountain tops but often associated with <em>Pinus brutia</em> and <em>Quercus alnifolia</em> and mixed forest with <em>Platanus orientalis</em>. The substrate is of igneous formations. Good seed crops are typically produced once every five to seven years. There is a 50-60 % seed viability </p>
34148		population	eng	<p>Known from five natural stands (Tripylos, Mauroi Kremoi,Sellae tis Ellias, Throni and Exo Milos). Only the biggest stand at Tripylos has been inventoried with the following data:</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Actual AOO = 1.99 km². </p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 16,000 mature individuals with diameter at breast height (DBH) > 12cm</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 135,000 individuals with DBH < 12cm</p>  <p>Limited genetic research suggests that there is significant genetic differentiation among the neighbouring stands (Eliades 2008). </p>
34148		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are fire and possibly climate changes. Because of the narrow distribution of this species, one fire has the potential of destroying most, if not the entire population. More recently, research has shown a direct correlation between decreasing annual rainfall and canopy die-back. Debilitated trees have also become prone to insect attack (Christou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). </p>
34149		conservation	eng	This species does not occur within a protected area.
34149		distribution	eng	Known from one collection at a location 18 km south-west of Bernhard Camp on the Idenburg River, a remote locality in western Irian Jaya. EOO less than 100 km² and AOO less than 10 km². Further field work could reveal a more substantial distribution.
34149		habitat	eng	Canopy tree (to 34 m tall) in mossy montane rain forest.
34149		population	eng	A poorly-collected species. Nothing is known about the size of the population.
34149		threats	eng	No threats are known or have been reported.
34150		distribution	eng	Collected four times from just two localities near the coast at Bintulu and Kuching.
34150		habitat	eng	A rare tree of lowland rainforest.
34150		threats	eng	Its diminutive size and scarcity render it unlikely to be exploited.
34152		conservation	eng	Most populations are within protected areas.
34152		distribution	eng	Only a few populations are known, between the North Cape and the Coromandel Peninsula.
34152		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of forest up to 700 m.
34152		threats	eng	Few seedlings and juvenile plants are apparent and the species appears to be dependent on disturbance (e.g., volcanic disturbance) for regeneration.
34153		conservation	eng	Most of the range is protected within a World Heritage Site.
34153		distribution	eng	South-west Tasmania. Population ranges constricted during the last Glacial retreat.
34153		habitat	eng	Huon pine, one of the longest living trees in the world, is found mostly in small stands in rainforest associated with the river systems.
34153		threats	eng	Significant areas are open to the persistent threats of mining, logging, hydroelectric schemes and fire regimes. A small proportion of trees are sexually reproductive in one season, a disproportionate number of them being the oldest trees. Regrowth by vegetative reproduction is, however, very strong. Recently heavy loggig has been a threat.
34154		distribution	eng	A dwarf conifer and the only member of the genus on the continent. Its nearest relatives are in New Zealand.
34154		habitat	eng	It occurs as a pioneer in upland scrub in acidic bogs, often with <em>Fitzroya</em> and <em>Pilgerodendron</em>.
34154		threats	eng	The area is vulnerable to fires and habitat degradation.
34155		distribution	eng	Present information suggests the species is confined to the Mujong River drainage and Bako National Park, but it is possible other populations exist in nearby localities.
34155		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of peat-swamp forest.
34155		threats	eng	The area is vulnerable to disturbance from logging and habitat clearance for agriculture.
34156		conservation	eng	The species is recorded in Kenting and Yangmingshan National Parks.
34156		distribution	eng	Southern China, Taiwan, and the southern islands of Japan. The species appears in populations in the northern end and southern tip of Taiwan, separated by the central range of mountains. Its distribution is imperfectly known: the range of natural occurrence (EOO) is probably substantially less extensive than the distribution given in for example the Atlas of the Gymnosperms of China (Ying <em>et al.</em> 2004) which makes no distinction between introduced/planted and occurrence in the wild.
34156		habitat	eng	An important timber species occurring in moist forest (mixed mesophytic evergreen forest and mixed mesophytic deciduous forest) at various elevations.
34156		threats	eng	Selective logging, habitat disturbances, deforestation. There is concern for populations on Shikoku and Kyushu Islands in Japan because of the levels of exploitation. Occurring in lowland mixed evergreen forest, the species has come under threat from habitat declines. Whole plants are also dug up for the horticultural trade.
34158		conservation	eng	Neither of the two known localities is situated within a protected area.
34158		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Gajo Lands in northern Sumatra and the Wissel Lakes in Papua New Guinea. The hugely disjunct range of this species, as presently known, merits a critical revision of this species.
34158		habitat	eng	“In local forest populations, probably on poor soils, … at 2,500 to 3,300 m, near Wissel Lakes at 1,800 m.” (de Laubenfels 1988).
34158		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population size in these two locations.
34158		threats	eng	Unknown.
34159		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan (Borneo, incl. Karimata Island); Malaysia: Sarawak, Sabah. Due to the limited number of herbarium specimens with good geographical data available, the EOO and AOO could not be reliably calculated. The range is extensive and covers much of north-west and north Borneo at higher elevations.
34159		habitat	eng	On mossy rocky ridges, or scattered in nearby forest, in high kerangas forest and on white, sandy soils. Elevation (from literature) 700 to 2,070 m, one collection from a swamp at 360 m. No uses are recorded of this relatively small tree.
34159		population	eng	Population sizes are unknown, but locally common or even dominant (e.g., on the Merurong Plateau).
34159		threats	eng	No particular threats are known affecting this species.
34160		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in a protected area.
34160		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar and restricted to Mount Ambatomenaloha, Itremo and Ibity Massifs. The EOO and AOO of 30,904 km<sup>2</sup> and 21,944 km<sup>2</sup> calculated using all known herbarium collections include the disjunct northern dot (see map) based on a 1920s collection that probably represents a subpopulation that no longer exists. If this is the case, both figures would come down to within the thresholds of the category EN under Criterion B.
34160		habitat	eng	On skeletal sandy soil over quarzite, along streams. Slow growing. Elevation from herbarium specimens 1,320 to 2,000 m.
34160		population	eng	Population size thought to have been reduced.
34160		threats	eng	Deforestation, habitat loss, cutting for firewood, fires, grazing.
34161		distribution	eng	A variety with a patchy distribution.
34161		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining areas of natural forest.
34161		population	eng	Young individuals were noted as being rare as early as 1930. Populations in the Carpathians may fare better.
34161		threats	eng	The forest does not appear to be healthy and has been degraded by war and exploitative activities.
34162		population	eng	Although the species is widespread, it appears to be very rare and poorly collected.
34162		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat in most of its range.
34164		distribution	eng	A taxon restricted to the Himalayas in Xizang Zizhiqu, apparently extending into Langtang Khola in Nepal.
34165		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Yatsugadake Mts. this variety is restricted to a small area (less than 100 km²), most of it being state forest.
34165		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
34166		distribution	eng	A few (less than five) small populations in scattered locations are confined to the volcanic Akaishi range of central Honshu.
34166		habitat	eng	They occur in mixed montane forest.
34167		distribution	eng	A widespread valuable timber tree.
34167		threats	eng	Suffering from overexploitation and loss of the montane forest habitat to logging and clearing.
34168		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34168		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34168		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34168		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34168		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34169		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34169		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34169		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34169		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34169		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34170		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34170		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34170		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34170		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34170		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34171		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34171		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34171		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34171		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34171		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34172		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34172		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34172		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34172		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34172		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34173		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34173		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34173		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34173		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34173		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34174		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34174		distribution	eng	Endemic to Juan Fernández.
34174		habitat	eng	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.
34174		population	eng	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34174		threats	eng	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.
34175		distribution	eng	Mountains of west Sichuan and neighbouring Tibet.
34175		habitat	eng	This variety is restricted to high-altitude coniferous forests.
34175		threats	eng	The tree provides a useful timber and levels of exploitation of both it and the forest in general have caused serious habitat fragmentation and population declines.
34176		distribution	eng	South-west Sichuan.
34176		habitat	eng	A useful timber tree restricted to a small area of high-altitude coniferous forest.
34176		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation of both the tree and the forest in general have caused population declines. There are no signs of the pressure easing and no protection measures are enforced.
34177		conservation	eng	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
34177		distribution	eng	Masatierra Is. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.
34177		habitat	eng	A dominant species of lowland dry forest and lower montane forest.
34177		threats	eng	The extent of the forest has declined through the effects of grazing by feral animals, spread of introduced weeds and soil erosion. Trees were also cut in large numbers for lumber in the past.
34178		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area along the Yalong River and north and west of Kangding in south-west Sichuan.
34178		habitat	eng	A tall tree of  high-altitude cloud forest.
34178		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation of the old growth coniferous forests are substantial and threatening the integrity of all populations.
34180		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered populations on Yakushima and Tanegashima Islands.
34180		habitat	eng	Lowland coniferous woodland.
34180		threats	eng	It was formerly exploited and seems slow to regenerate where conditions have become exposed.
34181		distribution	eng	A timber tree endemic to Taiwan.
34181		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation and the degradation of its montane forest habitat have caused substantial declines in the population.
34182		conservation	eng	Populations are being monitored and protected against fire hazards.
34182		distribution	eng	A number of isolated populations occur within protected areas in the Sierra Nevada at subalpine levels.
34182		habitat	eng	Subalpine altitudes.
34182		threats	eng	The trees are extremely slow-growing and recruitment may be insufficient. Fire and grazing by wildlife are also problems.
34183		distribution	eng	The only certain population occurs on the Azerbaijan-Georgia border. May also occur in Azerbaijan and Iran. The range of this variety of <em>Pinus brutia</em> remains imperfectly known (Farjon 2005).
34183		habitat	eng	Semi-dry pine forests, usually mixed with sclerophyllous angiosperms in an open canopy.
34183		threats	eng	Not known, presumably there is some logging.
34184		distribution	eng	Occurring in Pinar del Río and Isla de Pinos.
34184		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill pine forest and mixed oak-pine forests on slatey rocks.
34184		threats	eng	A heavily exploited tree. Burning and logging of large areas of pine forest have transformed the habitat into savannah. Frequent fires also prevent regrowth of the species in favour of <em>P. tropicalis</em>.
34185		distribution	eng	Mostly in La Laguna, covering a range of about 100 km².
34185		habitat	eng	It occurs in open stands in meadows or with oak above 1,600 m.
34185		threats	eng	Although this taxon is not a valuable timber tree, it is the only pine in this remote region and is exploited at a low level. The area is not protected and, although not easily accessible, it is susceptible to fire and overgrazing.
34189		conservation	eng	In Afghanistan plantations have been established to supply the seeds.
34189		habitat	eng	Montane open forest.
34189		population	eng	Populations are widespread but are small and low in density.
34189		threats	eng	In many areas the seed crop is exploited  unsustainably but the effects on regeneration are not yet clear.
34191		distribution	eng	Known only from Brac, Hvar, Korcula and Pelijesac Islands on the Dalmatian coast. There is evidence that this form hybridises with the mainland subspecies.
34191		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in stands above the Aleppo pine forest.
34191		threats	eng	Threats come from overgrazing and habitat degradation.
34195		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Damingshan.
34196		conservation	eng	It is listed as a chief candidate for afforestation in Xitianmu Shan Nature Reserve.
34196		distribution	eng	Also referred to as <em>P. kaempferi</em>, this species is found in the most densely populated areas of China along the lower and middle reaches of the Yangtze River.
34196		habitat	eng	It is scattered in evergreen and deciduous mixed forest below 1,500 m.
34197		distribution	eng	This variety is given species status in China. Occurs in south-west Guangxi and southern Guizhou.
34197		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas of sparse forest on limestone hills.
34197		threats	eng	There is some overcutting.
34198		distribution	eng	The taxon is widespread, but scattered as isolated individuals or in small stands. The Taiwan subpopulations are known in the country under the synonym <em>P. wilsoniana</em>. They are restricted to the central and northern parts of the main mountain range.
34198		habitat	eng	Primarily on mountain ridges in mixed submontane forest.
34198		threats	eng	In Taiwan the forest is being extensively cleared for apple and peach orchards. The timber is extracted extensively throughout the species' range but most thoroughly in accessible areas.
34199		conservation	eng	A substantial population is protected in Lin'an County, Zhejiang.
34199		distribution	eng	The taxon is treated as a distinct species in China. Occurs in south-east Anhui, north Zhejiang and Jiangxi. There is also a record from Jianning in Fujian.
34199		habitat	eng	Trees are scattered on slopes and in valleys below 1,500 m.
34199		threats	eng	Constant overcutting of the tree and its habitat are a threat and the seeds are said to have poor viability.
34200		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Appalachian Mountains.
34201		conservation	eng	The large part of the range of this subspecies is contained in national parks.
34201		habitat	eng	The taxon is ecologically restricted and occurs only in areas of high-altitude forest where there is plenty of snow cover. Trees which are bent over with a heavy snow burden have a habit of suddenly and unexpectedly springing upright.
34201		threats	eng	One area is in a ski resort.
34202		distribution	eng	Unknown, possibly on Vancouver Island, BC, Canada. Not confirmed recently.
34202		habitat	eng	Presumably mixed coniferous forests of the Pacific Coast of North America.
34203		conservation	eng	Present in the following reserves in Tanzania: Chome, Hanang, Mafwomero, Mkusu, Nou, Shagayu and Wotta. The evidence is that this does not prevent illegal logging on a large scale using sawpits to remove and process individual trees.
34203		distribution	eng	Highland regions (e.g., Usambara Mountains) in Tanzania, Chyulu Hills in Kenya; EOO 1,048,460 km² and AOO 553,798 km² based on locations of herbarium collections. The AOO is overestimated as there are large plains between the various locations which are unsuitable habitat.
34203		habitat	eng	Evergreen rainforest, dry evergreen forest, mixed with co-dominant angiosperms. Elevation (from G.I.S.) 1,456 to 2,889 m and from data with herbarium specimens 1,550 to 3,000 m.
34203		population	eng	Populations are rare and disjunct in much of Tanzania and in Kenya, more common in the Usambara Mountains. Last collected in 2005.
34203		threats	eng	This species is under severe threat from illegal logging in the Chome Forest Reserve in Tanzania (evidence from aerial photography); the same type of saw pit exploitation is known from other locations. General deforestation and fires are also reducing the rainforest, which is usually limited in extent even naturally. This species is the most valuable and specifically targeted tree for (illegal) logging in this type of forest. The timber of this species is highly valued for construction, furniture and other refined uses.
34204		conservation	eng	Populations are protected within the national park.
34204		distribution	eng	Mt. Kinabalu.
34204		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, which is known only from elevations above 2,100 m.
34204		threats	eng	The species is thought to be susceptible to periodic droughts, but populations appear to have successfully survived recent dry spells.
34205		conservation	eng	In Sulawesi, on Latimodjong Mountains, lower slopes have been cleared in places for agriculture.
34205		distribution	eng	In Kalimantan it was known from a now extinct population near Balikpapan. In Sulawesi it is confined to the Latimodjong Mts. Populations in New Guinea are thought to be widespread.
34205		habitat	eng	A tree of submontane swamp or disturbed forest, where it can form pure stands.
34205		threats	eng	In Kalimantan it was known from a now extinct population near Balikpapan. In Sulawesi it is confined to the Latimodjong Mts. Populations in New Guinea are thought to be widespread.
34206		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known. This species does not appear to occur within protected areas.
34206		distribution	eng	Indonesia, New Guinea (Papua), Wissel Lakes and other localities.
34206		habitat	eng	Dominant to nearly pure stands in swamp forests and perhaps also in mossy heath forests between 1,450 and 2,300 m elevation. A photograph in Flora Malesiana ser. I, vol. 10: 366 (1988) shows a dense stand of this tree in the ecotone between montane rainforest and swamp “on black peat”.
34206		population	eng	Unknown. Collections are few, largely because the area is poorly explored.
34206		threats	eng	No threats are known to exist. No uses are known.
34207		distribution	eng	Occurring in two locations on Mt. Dulit and Meruong Plateau.
34207		habitat	eng	A locally abundant tree of primary mossy forest, occurring on exposed ridges. It appears to be confined to ultrabasic soils.
34207		threats	eng	The area could possibly come under the heavy logging regimes which have occurred throughout the country.
34208		conservation	eng	The population here is protected within the national park.
34208		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt. Kinabalu and the summit ridge on Mt. Murud in Sarawak.
34208		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree. On Mt. Murud the species appears to be common at high elevations, particularly on ultramafic substrates.
34210		distribution	eng	Populations are known from the islands of Guadalcanal, Choiseul and Santa Ysabel in the Solomons, from the Louisades in Papua New Guinea and Obi Island in the Moluccas.
34210		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest, especially on ridge crests.
34210		population	eng	The species is scattered to locally common.
34210		threats	eng	Forest management activities and agricultural pressures could cause rapid population losses to most or all parts of the range.
34211		conservation	eng	This species is not within a protected area.
34211		distribution	eng	A little-known tree confined to altitudes over 3,000 m on Mt. Goliath. Limited to a single mountain summit as far as is known, at 4º 32’ S, 139º 51’ E, at 3,000 to 3,600 m elevation. EOO less than 100 km² and AOO less than 10 km².
34211		habitat	eng	Mossy heath forest.
34211		population	eng	Unknown, but presumably less than 1000 mature trees.
34211		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known to occur. No uses are known.
34212		distribution	eng	A relative of the heavily exploited medicinal pepper-bark tree, this species is confined to southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The Kenyan population occurs in Kaembeni-Dida near Kinango.
34212		habitat	eng	Coastal forest patches.
34212		threats	eng	In Tanzania the species is confined to the Msumbugwe Forest Reserve (44 km²), where the forest is heavily disturbed by previous logging activities but otherwise free from the pressure of agricultural encroachment which threatens other coastal forests.
34213		conservation	eng	The Rabai Forest is sacred, and therefore more secure.
34213		distribution	eng	A small tree collected from Rabai and Mombasa over 70 years ago and also apparently from Potwe Forest in adjacent Tanzania.
34213		threats	eng	Forest localities outside Rabai Forest where the species occur, if they still exist, are far less secure.
34214		distribution	eng	Collected only a few times from Pangani, Longo and Magandi Forests.
34214		habitat	eng	A tree of dense evergreen forest.
34216		conservation	eng	There are protected populations in some reserves, such as Mt. Kenya and Kakamega Forest, although some of these areas are being actively logged. The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya has raised seedlings.
34216		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Kenya.
34216		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is restricted to humid areas of upland evergreen or secondary forest.
34216		threats	eng	Loss of habitat to create land for agriculture and land settlement is the greatest threat to the species.
34217		distribution	eng	At the north of the species range two subpopulations occur in rocky places of semi-evergreen woodland and scrub in southern Somalia extending into Kenya near Kiunga. Further south new locations have been found in remaining patches of forest in Lindi and coastal Tanzania, possibly extending into northern Mozambique.
34217		habitat	eng	Rocky places of semi-evergreen woodland and scrub.
34218		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kenya.
34218		habitat	eng	This variety is confined to a few remaining patches of lowland coastal forest.
34219		distribution	eng	A local offshoot of the <em>M. capensis-M. kilimandscharica</em> complex. This species is restricted to two montane forests. A small subpopulation is known from the Taita Hills and another is found in the West Usambara Mts.
34219		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
34219		population	eng	It has been recorded as common in the past, but recent tree plots suggest it is rare.
34219		threats	eng	The explosive increase in the human population in the surrounding area has exerted a heavy demand for wood and land.
34220		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve, Talagwe Forest Reserve, North Mamiwa Kisara Forest Reserve, Mafwemera Forest Reserve, Ruvu Forest Reserve, Uluguru North Forest Reserve, Uluguru South Forest Reserve, Udzungwa Moutains National Park and from Kipengere Forest Reserve.
34220		distribution	eng	Found only in Tanzania from the South Pare Mts in the north and then southwards to the Uluguru, Udzungwa, and Rubeho Mountains. Also recorded from Kipengere Forest Reserve.
34220		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane rain forest on steep slopes and rocky ridges. From the specimens the habitat is variously described as: <span style="font-style: italic;">Allanblackia-Podocarpus-Melchiora-Zenkerella-Cussonia</span> forest; on dry slopes with much bracken; <span style="font-style: italic;">Dodonaea, Myrica</span>, merging into <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea </span>forest; elfin forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Philippia, Agauria, Myrica, Schleffera lukwangulensis, Tecomaria, Syzygium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus</span>, riverine forest; and on granitic rocks covered by evergreen heath or bush, etc.<br/><br/>Usually grows as a free-standing tree, but epiphytic plants have also been recorded, but it appears this is not common.
34220		population	eng	Reported to be locally dominant and common.
34220		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat due to deforestation for expanding agriculture, logging, etc.
34221		distribution	eng	Appears to be known from relatively widely separated localities. The Tanzanian subpopulation is restricted to the highly disturbed 22 km² patch of forest at the Pugu Forest Reserve, near Dar es Salaam. There are also occurrences within the restricted coastal forests of Mozambique, where further fieldwork is needed to consolidate whether the status of the species is more seriously threatened.
34221		habitat	eng	A dry coastal forest species.
34222		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from Kwale and Kilifi districts in Kenya into northern Tanzania in the Pangani River basin.
34222		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
34223		conservation	eng	Populations are contained within several protected areas.
34223		distribution	eng	The main part of the distribution falls within South Africa.
34223		habitat	eng	A multi-stemmed shrub or tree which occurs in woodland, thorn scrub and grasslands on dry sandy hillsides and flats on soil that is usually derived from granite.
34223		population	eng	In South Africa it is recorded from numerous localities and appears to be abundant in places. It often spreads into overgrazed areas and can be regarded as a weed.
34224		distribution	eng	A number of small isolated subpopulations exist. The Tanzanian subpopulation is confined to Mwanihana  in the Udzungwa Mts. In Zimbabwe, the species occurs in Chirinda Forest and in the Vumba Mts., near Mutare, where one or two individuals have been recorded. Poorly collected areas in Mozambique are expected to harbour additional subpopulations.
34224		habitat	eng	A common understorey tree (Zimbabwe).
34225		distribution	eng	Endemic to the South Udzungwa Mts.
34225		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
34226		distribution	eng	South Nguru Mts., North Udzungwa Mts. and Mahenge.
34226		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to moist evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m.
34227		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Uluguru Mts.
34227		habitat	eng	Occurs over 2,100 m in moist evergreen forest.
34228		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern parts of the Nguru Mts. and northern parts of the Udzungwa Mts.
34228		habitat	eng	This species is confined to moist evergreen montane forest within a very narrow altitudinal band.
34229		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to three patches of moist lowland forest: Mvuma, Kiberege and Mohenge.
34230		distribution	eng	The species has been regarded as endemic to countries in the West, where it is uncommon and has suffered habitat losses, however, the concept of the species published in Flore du Gabon 1995 suggests that the species in broader in range and ecology, occurring in various forest and savanna types from Sierra Leone to Angola and Sudan.
34231		distribution	eng	Endemic to the North Uluguru Mts. The genus is monospecific.
34231		habitat	eng	This is a moist evergreen forest species recorded only at altitudes above 1,450 m.
34232		distribution	eng	Found around Lake Lutamba. It may also occur in the East Usambara Mts. The area around the lake has been completely cleared, with the exception of a 10 km² patch of forest protected as Litipo Forest Reserve.
34232		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub is mainly known from a dry forest habitat.
34232		threats	eng	Forest clearing.
34233		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34233		distribution	eng	Endemic tree of Palawan.
34233		habitat	eng	Occurs in thickets and forests at low altitudes, often adjacent to mangrove swamp.
34234		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34234		distribution	eng	This tree is an endemic of Palawan.
34234		habitat	eng	Found in forests at low or medium altitudes.
34235		conservation	eng	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.
34235		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Palawan.
34235		habitat	eng	Found in forest along streams, at about 100 m.
34236		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Palawan.
34236		habitat	eng	Found on forested slopes at low and medium altitudes.
34236		threats	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34237		distribution	eng	Palawan.
34237		habitat	eng	This tree is found at low and medium altitudes in forest.
34238		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Palawan.
34238		habitat	eng	Found in forest at low altitudes.
34239		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34239		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Palawan.
34239		habitat	eng	Found in forests at low and medium altitudes.
34240		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34240		distribution	eng	Confined to Palawan.
34240		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species, between 200 and 450 m.
34241		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34241		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Palawan.
34241		habitat	eng	Found on dry forested slopes at low altitude.
34242		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34242		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Palawan.
34242		habitat	eng	Located in thin forests near seashore.
34243		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34243		distribution	eng	Endemic to Palawan. The species is found on the upper part of Mt. Pulgar at about 1200 m.
34244		distribution	eng	Collected from south Palawan.
34244		habitat	eng	Lowland forest on rocky hills.
34244		population	eng	This tree has been collected only once, 70 years ago.
34244		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss, although Palawan has had less intense deforestation than some of the other Philippine Islands.
34245		distribution	eng	North-east of Mindanao.
34245		habitat	eng	An epiphytic shrub or small tree known from only two collections from montane forest.
34245		population	eng	This species has not been collected since 1912.
34246		distribution	eng	Occurs in central Palawan.
34246		habitat	eng	A montane forest species found on ultramafic soils.
34246		population	eng	It is known from only three herbarium specimens and was last seen in the 1970s–80s.
34247		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the north of Palawan.
34247		habitat	eng	This suberect shrub or small tree reaches about 4 m in height. It occurs in forest on limestone.
34247		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat.
34248		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34248		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Palawan on Mt. Pulgar.
34248		habitat	eng	Occurring in dense thickets on exposed ridges at about 1,200 m.
34249		conservation	eng	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.
34249		distribution	eng	Known only from Palawan in the Philippines and a single collection from Semporna, Sabah.
34249		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
34250		conservation	eng	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.
34250		distribution	eng	Palawan in the Philippines and a single sterile collection on Balambangan Island, Sabah.
34250		habitat	eng	This small tree is known mainly from primary forest (Palawan) plus a single collection on a coastal limestone ridge (Sabah).
34251		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34251		distribution	eng	A species endemic to Palawan.
34251		habitat	eng	Found in primary forests at low altitude.
34252		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34252		distribution	eng	Endemic to Palawan.
34252		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary forests at low altitude.
34253		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34253		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Palawan.
34253		habitat	eng	Found on forested slopes at low altitude.
34254		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34254		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Palawan.
34254		habitat	eng	Found on forested slopes at low altitude.
34255		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34255		distribution	eng	Endemic to Palawan.
34255		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary forest at low and medium altitude.
34256		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34256		distribution	eng	An endemic to Palawan.
34256		habitat	eng	Surviving in old clearings.
34257		distribution	eng	An endemic species to the island of Camiguin.
34257		population	eng	The present population status is not known and may be more seriously threatened.
34258		conservation	eng	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.
34258		distribution	eng	A Palawan endemic.
34258		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining forest at low altitude.
34259		distribution	eng	An endemic genus to Palawan. The species is confined to Mt. Victoria.
34259		habitat	eng	Found along streams at about 150 m.
34261		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34261		distribution	eng	Palawan endemic.
34261		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest next to mangrove stands at sea level.
34261		threats	eng	Mangrove areas continue to be depleted by local people collecting firewood and construction timber, despite their forest reserve status.
34262		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
34262		distribution	eng	Endemic to Palawan.
34262		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of lowland forest up to 150 m.
34263		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34263		distribution	eng	Only found in Palawan.
34263		habitat	eng	A species of primary forest.
34264		distribution	eng	Endemic to Palawan.
34264		habitat	eng	A primary forest species at low altitudes.
34264		threats	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34265		distribution	eng	An endemic variety to the Philippines.
34265		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
34266		distribution	eng	Known from only four collections from Palawan and Luzon.
34266		habitat	eng	A small forest mountain tree.
34266		population	eng	No new material of this species has been collected since 1965, even though there have been collecting expeditions to Palawan since.
34266		threats	eng	Both islands have suffered from massive deforestation.
34268		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Curieuse Marine National Park.
34268		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polyscias sechellarum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">curiosae</span> is known only from a very restricted area of less than 2.9 km²<sup></sup> on Curieuse Island, Seychelles.
34268		habitat	eng	Glabrous shrub or small tree rarely exceeding 10 m in height, not or only sparingly branched occurring in crevices in rocks at low altitudes.
34268		population	eng	The population is declining and very small, consisting of fewer than 50 mature individuals.
34268		threats	eng	The invasion of alien species (causing a decline in the quality of its habitat and species mortality), fires, its restricted range and poor regeneration are the main threats to this variety. There are records of weevils (Coleoptera,  Cuculonidae) attacking the leaves. Two species, one green weevil and one black and white, have  been observed on the tree. Furthermore, the ovaries have been attacked by a moth  belonging to the family Gelechiidae. Fires always have been frequent on  Curieuse Island (Carlström 1996).
34269		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois Parks.
34269		distribution	eng	This endemic variety is known only from a very restricted area of less than 0.5 km² on Mahé Island, Seychelles.
34269		habitat	eng	Glabrous shrub or small tree rarely exceeding 10 m in height, not or only sparingly branched. Forest at intermediate altitudes, at approximately 400 m asl.
34269		population	eng	The population is declining and the current population size is very small. There are probably fewer than 50 mature individuals left, all occurring in one location. The seed set is good but the natural regeneration is poor.
34269		threats	eng	The invasion of alien species (causing a decline in the quality of its habitat), its restricted range and poor regeneration are the main threats to this variety.
34270		conservation	eng	This species occurs&#160; in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks and in St Anne Marine National Park
34270		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and occurs on Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Félicité, Thérèse and St. Anne (Robertson 1989, Hill 2002). The total area of these islands is 222 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005).
34270		habitat	eng	Tree or large shrub up to 10 m tall. It grows mainly on exposed rocky outcrops and in dry well-drained places in forest and scrub at low to intermediate altitudes, at 0-530 m asl. Its fruits are eaten and most probably dispersed by frugivores.
34270		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown. This species does not have a uniform distribution but exists in numerous small populations (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1998). It appears to reproduce well (Carlström 1996), however in  woodlands regenerative success is probably affected by the competition  from exotic species. Although there are a few areas where the species is threatened, the  population seems to be rather stable.
34270		threats	eng	This species is not thought to be threatened at the moment. Its habitat seems to be less affected by invasive species than other habitats (Fleischmann 1997). It is possible, that there has been a reduction in the woodland habitats  due to the impact of invasive alien plants and the unselective cutting  for fuel for the cinnamon oil distilleries. A few habitats are affected by construction activities,   especially on Praslin. Although there are a few areas where the species is threatened, the  population seems to be rather stable. The leaves were used in the traditional medicine, i.e. for  correcting blood pressure and in baths for people with&#160; physical disabilities in the past.
34271		distribution	eng	The endemic status of this tree is uncertain. In Sri Lanka, this forest species is possibly extinct due to over-exploitation. The conservation category is inferred from the situation in Sri Lanka.
34271		population	eng	It was not found in the recent National Conservation Review forest survey indicating that the species is either extremely rare or extinct.
34271		threats	eng	Over-exploitation.
34272		conservation	eng	It appears to be locally common in Horton Plains National Park.
34272		population	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, the species was found in three forest localities.
34273		population	eng	This tree was commonly found in the dry zone of Sri Lanka but it is now very rare.
34274		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.
34274		population	eng	Subpopulations are healthy and stable.
34275		distribution	eng	In the Pitcairn Group the species occurs only on Henderson Island, within a restricted range in the north-west. The subpopulation on Rapa is poorly known
34275		habitat	eng	It is commonly found rooted in deep crevices.
34275		population	eng	There are estimated to be 500 individuals on Henderson Island. The subpopulation on Rapa is not known.
34275		threats	eng	It has been postulated that the Polynesian pigeon, now extinct on the island, alone was responsible for dispersing the seed.
34276		distribution	eng	A variety of a widespread Polynesian species endemic to Henderson Island.
34276		habitat	eng	In the plateau forests it is a semi-decumbent tree, becoming more shrubby and scarcer in cliff and more open communities.
34276		population	eng	The total population size is calculated to be between 2,000 and 4,000 plants.
34276		threats	eng	The regeneration potential of the taxon is likely to be affected by poor fruiting performance. It is also partially parasitic, which hampers the cultivation of the plant <em>ex situ</em>. <br/> <br/>Related taxa have been widely exterminated from their range through exploitation for the perfume and incense industry.
34277		distribution	eng	The species is known from relatively common occurrences in Makatea and Niau in the Tuamotus, Moorea, Tahaa and Tahiti in the Society Islands, Raivavae and Tubuai in the Tubuai Group. In the Pitcairn Group a subpopulation is known only from Henderson Island, where individuals occur in isolation or in small groups and are estimated to number about 100.
34278		distribution	eng	Restricted to hillsides and valleys on Pitcairn Island.
34278		population	eng	The species is still common and often dominates the vegetation that remains. The population probably consists of at least 2,000 mature individuals. Regeneration is strong from cut stumps but rare from the seed.
34278		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and spread of invasive plants have caused the subpopulations to be reduced to their present extent. In the past the timber was also frequently cut for use in construction work.
34279		distribution	eng	Endemic to Henderson. The taxon on the Pitcairn Islands has yet to be determined.
34279		habitat	eng	A dioecious tree, often partially decumbent, widespread in plateau forest and drier areas.
34279		population	eng	The subpopulation on Pitcairn has declined through habitat loss and cutting. Very few individuals there are expected to survive. The total population is estimated to be about 10,000 trees.
34279		threats	eng	Habitat loss and cutting. Seeds are dispersed by the endemic fruit dove on Henderson but on Pitcairn there is a distinct lack of frugivorous birds.
34281		conservation	eng	Most of the population is from protected areas.
34281		distribution	eng	The species is known mainly from the relatively large and protected subpopulations in Costa Rica. Elsewhere subpopulations are small, scattered and show low recruitment. In Panama small subpopulations are apparently confined to Darién National Park. There are also occurrences in the Chocó in Colombia.
34282		conservation	eng	he main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.
34282		distribution	eng	Endemic to Palawan.
34282		habitat	eng	The species is confined to mossy scrub on ridges between 1,000 and 1,200 m.
34283		conservation	eng	It is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of Perak and Malacca in the future.
34283		distribution	eng	Species is reportedly located in the lowland primary forest of Perak, Malacca and Sinagapore.
34283		threats	eng	The tree is used as a timber source and traded on a local level.
34284		conservation	eng	There is hope that the species receives a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves.
34284		distribution	eng	Confined to Selangor and Perak.
34284		habitat	eng	Swamp forests.
34284		population	eng	The species is known only from a few collections.
34284		threats	eng	It is threatened by felling.
34285		habitat	eng	Usually found in lowland peat swamp and <em>kerangas</em> forest.
34285		threats	eng	The species has come under pressure from habitat loss through most of its range.
34286		distribution	eng	It can be found throughout western and southern parts of Peninsular Malaysia, in many areas which have been converted for non-forest land use.
34286		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree up to 16 m tall, inhabiting moist lowland primary forest up to an altitude of 550 m.
34287		conservation	eng	There are no principle threats or pressures on the tree, however in-situ conservation measures are in place in wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserves.
34287		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
34287		habitat	eng	Species is distributed in the lowland and hill dipterocarp forests.
34290		conservation	eng	Within the permanent and protected forest reserves of Malaya the species is conserved.
34290		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in distribution.
34290		habitat	eng	A primary forest species of lowland to mountain forests of  up to 1,200 m.
34290		threats	eng	Harvested for it's timber and traded on a minor international level, such activities are now threats to the tree.
34291		distribution	eng	Found in the states of Kelantan and Pahang.
34291		habitat	eng	A lowland rain forest species, commonly distributed along river banks.
34291		threats	eng	Decline in soil water content is an indirect pressure exerted on the species.
34292		distribution	eng	It is recorded to be common in Sabah and Sarawak.
34292		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree which is found in lowland to submontane forests up to 1,250 m.
34293		distribution	eng	This lowland forest species is known from two collections from Johore, Peninsular Malaysia, and two disjunct, slightly differing subpopulations in Sarawak.
34293		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
34293		population	eng	The subpopulation in western Sarawak was rediscovered 62 years after it was first found near Kuching.  A specimen collected in the late 1800s from Lingga Island is similar to this species.
34293		threats	eng	The subpopulation in western Sarawak is in an area extremely threatened by urban expansion.
34294		habitat	eng	A species from dry forest fringes and forest outliers.
34294		population	eng	Locally common
34294		threats	eng	Widely exploited as a source of chewsticks.
34295		conservation	eng	Further occurrences are expected to be discovered and recovery work is under way to ensure the survival of known populations.
34295		distribution	eng	First discovered in 1975 near Cape Reinga.
34295		habitat	eng	A large tree. The species is associated with streamsides or wetlands, a distribution which probably reflects land clearance patterns rather than a genuine preference. It favours dense forest, where it germinates in the crowns of canopy trees such as <em>Vitex lucens</em> and <em>Beilschmiedia taraire</em>.
34295		population	eng	At present, the entire known population comprises 30 trees at three sites.
34295		threats	eng	There is particular pressure from browsing pigs, possums and livestock. Although widely cultivated, most <em>ex situ</em> plantings are derived from a single tree.
34296		habitat	eng	A small tree of forest and scrub on fertile soils.
34296		population	eng	Approximately 1,000 individuals remain of this species, occurring in isolated subpopulations.
34296		threats	eng	Regeneration is almost absent.
34297		habitat	eng	Lowland beech forest.
34297		population	eng	A tree restricted to a population of about 500 trees in Nelson.
34298		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Chatham Islands.
34298		habitat	eng	A small tree.
34298		threats	eng	It has suffered the whole scale destruction of the forest habitat type.
34300		distribution	eng	The species occurs in localised subpopulations on the Three Kings Islands and Whatupuke Island.
34301		distribution	eng	The coastal forests of the Chatham Islands were once dominated by this small tree. The comprehensive destruction of the forest type has reduced populations to scrubland on exposed cliffs, largely confined to the south shore of Chatham Island, and on Pitt and South East Islands.
34301		habitat	eng	Scrubland on exposed cliffs.
34302		conservation	eng	Occurring commonly in a few reserves.
34302		habitat	eng	It is a large tree of inland forest.
34303		distribution	eng	A small tree occurring sparsely in the North Island.
34305		distribution	eng	Found in the east of South Island.
34305		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland forest and scrub.
34305		population	eng	This species appears to be common in most areas but is showing little regeneration.
34305		threats	eng	In the southern parts of its range it occurs on high-fertility soils, which are  highly sought-after by agriculturists and colonised by aggressive pasture grass.
34306		distribution	eng	Known only from one locality, this species occurs in part of the Forestier Central at Bumbuli.
34306		threats	eng	Pressures exist from overcutting and agricultural expansion.
34307		distribution	eng	Occurring near Kisangani, the species is known from a single locality along the Congo River.
34307		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from logging and agricultural encroachment.
34308		distribution	eng	No wild subpopulations are presently known, but there is a specimen planted in Krakow Botanical Garden. It is also thought to be possible to reconstruct the taxon from the natural hybrid, <em>B. oycoviensis</em>, produced when <em>B. szaferi</em> and <em>B. pendula</em> are crossed. Although the hybrid still occurs in the wild in several central European countries, the parent species evidently do not still coexist in the wild.
34309		distribution	eng	Gulf region of Mexico.
34309		habitat	eng	A canopy tree of remnant rainforest.
34310		distribution	eng	Confined to Portland.
34310		habitat	eng	The species is found in wet areas of woodland on limestone, e.g., above Ecclesdown.
34310		threats	eng	The habitat has declined and continues to be threatened.
34311		distribution	eng	Until now, the species has been found only in low numbers in Portland Parish. Observations in the 1980s also indicated that it may occur in Clarendon Parish.
34311		habitat	eng	Humid woodland at 1,060 m.
34312		distribution	eng	A species restricted to John Crow Peak.
34312		habitat	eng	On karst limestone near the summit. A few individuals were found on shale close to the limestone bluffs of the peak.
34312		population	eng	It can be common or locally dominant.
34313		distribution	eng	Known only from Westmoreland Parish.
34313		habitat	eng	The species occurs locally in woodland on rocky limestone.
34314		conservation	eng	It is well represented in protected areas.
34314		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Cayman Islands. This variety is confined to Grand Cayman
34314		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry evergreen woodland on dolomite karst.
34314		threats	eng	In Grand Cayman the habitat has been 95% destroyed in the west. Clearing continues and trees are cut for fence posts and house construction. No trees are retained for landscaping, nor are they being replanted. There are, however, some areas where the taxon occurs abundantly.
34315		conservation	eng	Well represented in protected areas. Import restrictions and growing interest in the propagation of native trees may help to avoid the problem of hybridisation with the type variety.
34315		distribution	eng	Occurring in dry habitats on all three islands, this variety is widespread. There is potential for hybridization to occur with the type variety, which is being brought onto the islands for landscaping.
34315		habitat	eng	Habitat destruction is also extensive, but trees are often retained for landscaping.
34315		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is also extensive, but trees are often retained for landscaping.
34317		conservation	eng	The plant has not been successfully brought into cultivation.
34317		distribution	eng	Like <em>P. carmichalii</em>, the species, which in this case is a tree growing to 10 m, is found in the marshland at Le Petrin. Isolated individuals also occur on river courses of Mare aus Vacoas ('Lake of Pandanus').
34317		habitat	eng	Marshland and river courses.
34317		population	eng	Fewer than 20 individuals have been counted.
34318		conservation	eng	The islands are under protection in a Strict Nature Reserve and only Picard is inhabited by staff of a research station.
34318		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree which appears to be very sparsely distributed on Malabar, Polymnie and the west of Picard.
34318		habitat	eng	Inland mixed scrub.
34319		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree restricted to a small area in Pedernales.
34319		habitat	eng	Occurs in a unique coastal xerophytic vegetation on 'dog tooth' limestone substrate.
34319		threats	eng	The leaves are a popular source of fragrance and are sold in markets. If exploitation increases, the species will become seriously threatened.
34320		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, collected twice from the same locality near the copper mine at Waimaro River, Viti Levu.
34320		habitat	eng	In forest below 200 m.
34320		population	eng	It has not been seen since 1964.
34321		population	eng	It is found in low densities.
34321		threats	eng	It could become of conservation concern if logging were to become more intensive.
34322		distribution	eng	Within the genus, the species appears to have evolved in isolation. It is endemic to the subandean piedmont forest in north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
34322		habitat	eng	Appears to be restricted to gypsum-based soils.
34322		threats	eng	The ecosystem remains entirely unprotected and threatened by agriculture, logging and pastoralism.
34323		distribution	eng	Central-west Argentina. Its distribution is highly fragmented within an area that has had a long history of human colonisation and pastoralism.
34323		habitat	eng	A scrubland species restricted to semi-arid and arid areas.
34324		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ecuadorian High Andes. Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
34324		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
34324		population	eng	A rare tree species.
34325		distribution	eng	Restricted to the High Andes of Ecuador. Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
34325		habitat	eng	Occurs in the montane forest zone.
34325		population	eng	A rare species of tree or shrub.
34326		distribution	eng	Endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.
34326		population	eng	A rare tree species.
34327		distribution	eng	Endemic to Pichincha province, Ecuador.
34327		habitat	eng	This small tree species inhabits cloud forest at an altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
34328		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree endemic to the High Andes in Ecuador. Populations are known to occur in the provinces of Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Cañar and Azuay. Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
34328		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forests.
34329		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Currently the species is known only from Morona - Santiago Province.
34329		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
34330		distribution	eng	An endemic of the High Andes of Morona - Santiago Province in Ecuador.
34330		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,500 m.
34331		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Ecuador, in Zamora - Chinchipe.
34331		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 1,100 and 2,200 m.
34332		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Ecuador, in Zamora - Chinchipe.
34332		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane cloud forest between 1,100 and 2,400 m.
34333		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes in Morona - Santiago, Loja, and Zamora-Chinchipe.
34333		habitat	eng	This small tree inhabits montane cloud forest between 1,600 and 2,700 m.
34334		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Morona - Santiago, Loja, and Zamora-Chinchipe.
34334		habitat	eng	This subspecies inhabits montane cloud forest between 1,600 and 2,700 m.
34335		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ecuadorian High Andes and currently only known from the provinces of Loja and Zamora - Chinchipe. Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
34335		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane cloud forest.
34336		distribution	eng	A small tree, up to 6 m tall, endemic to Ecuador. At present is only known from Sucumbíos province.
34336		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest at an altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
34337		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the High Andes of Ecuador currently known only from the provinces of Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.
34337		habitat	eng	Upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
34338		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree up to 3 m tall, endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador and currently known from the province of Morona - Santiago.
34338		habitat	eng	Cloud forest, between 2,000 and 3,500 m.
34339		distribution	eng	An endemic tree to Loja Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.
34339		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
34340		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree endemic to Azauy Province in the High Andes of Ecuador.
34340		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
34341		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes, currently known to occur in the provinces of El Oro, Loja and Zamora - Chinchipe.
34341		habitat	eng	Cloud forest, between 2,000 and 3,500 m.
34342		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Currently the species is known only from Morona - Santiago and Azuay.
34342		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
34343		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes, occurring in Morona - Santiago, Azuay and Loja.
34343		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
34344		distribution	eng	An Ecuadorian endemic of the High Andes, in the provinces of Loja and Zamora - Chinchipe.
34344		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
34345		distribution	eng	A tree or shrub which is narrowly endemic to the southern High Andes of Ecuador.
34345		habitat	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
34346		distribution	eng	This Ecuadorian endemic inhabits the High Andean areas of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.
34346		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,500 m.
34347		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador. Currently it is known only from the High Andean areas of Bolívar, Chimborazo and Azuay.
34347		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
34348		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Pichincha and Azuay Provinces.
34348		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 1,000 and 3,500 m.
34349		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe Provinces.
34349		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,500 m.
34350		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, in the High Andes of El Oro Province.
34350		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of cloud forest between 1,000 and 2,500 m.
34351		distribution	eng	Currently known to occur only in the High Andean areas of Bolívar province, Ecuador.
34351		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
34352		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador's High Andean region, at present known only to occur in Pichincha province.
34352		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 1,800 and 2,600 m.
34353		distribution	eng	An endemic to Loja Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.
34353		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,600 and 2,950 m.
34354		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes in Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Bolívar Provinces.
34354		habitat	eng	Cloud forest tree occurring between 1,800 and 2,800 m.
34355		distribution	eng	It extends probably just over 20,000 km².
34355		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland coastal forest.
34355		threats	eng	This small tree is threatened with the loss of its habitat.
34357		distribution	eng	Atlantic forest in the north-east and south-east of Brazil.
34357		population	eng	A scarce species.
34359		distribution	eng	From north-west Argentina to Tarÿa and Chuquisaca in Bolivia.
34359		habitat	eng	A vigorous pioneer species which occurs in moist montane forest.
34359		threats	eng	Bolivian populations are facing heavy exploitation.
34360		distribution	eng	A relatively widespread species. It is well collected in Bolivia
34360		habitat	eng	A species of deciduous forest, woodland or scrub.
34360		threats	eng	In Bolivia it is present in areas which are subject to intense grazing by goats, sheep and cattle.  It is planted as an ornamental and a useful bee plant.
34361		distribution	eng	A tree or shrub, endemic to the subandean piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
34361		population	eng	The species acts as a pioneer and is reported to be regenerating sufficiently.
34361		threats	eng	The ecosystem is unprotected and, at least in Argentina, the habitat is constantly declining because of encroaching agriculture and other human activities.
34362		distribution	eng	Throughout India, Indo-China and Malaysia.
34362		habitat	eng	A widespread tree.
34362		population	eng	Locally common.
34363		distribution	eng	A widespread taxonomically variable species.
34363		threats	eng	Vulnerable to habitat destruction.
34364		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is needed for this species as little is known about its distribution, habitat or ecology, or impact of major threats. It is recommended that mangrove areas should be included in marine and coastal protected areas.
34364		distribution	eng	This species is found in India (Orissa and Sunderbands), Bangladesh, and pennisular Malaysia. It is patchily distributed in Indonesia in northern Sumatra and Kalimantan, the southern coast of Sulawesi, Halmahera, Ambon, Aru, and Irian Jaya. The distribution in the Philippines is questionable.
34364		habitat	eng	This species is not well known. It grows in upstream mid intertidal areas.
34364		population	eng	There is no species-specific population information. However, it is assumed that the general declines in mangroves around the world apply to this species.
34364		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
34365		distribution	eng	The species represents the easternmost member of the genus with definite occurrences on Viti Levu, Ovalau and Vanua Levu.
34365		habitat	eng	A small gnarled tree growing in thickets on ridges and crests in upland areas.
34365		population	eng	There are few trees in each location and the total population consists of less than a hundred individuals.
34366		distribution	eng	Collected only from Waya Island, Yasawas.
34366		population	eng	The only known collection was made in 1937. It was said to be locally common and used in house-building, but no additional material has been gathered.
34367		distribution	eng	This small gnarled tree is known from the two major Fijian islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu).
34367		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense forest and thickets on exposed ridges and open slopes at comparatively high elevations.
34367		population	eng	Three or four subpopulations are known, containing 50 plants each.
34368		distribution	eng	An endemic family of just two species. This species is endemic to Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni.
34368		population	eng	It is relatively abundant.
34368		threats	eng	Logged extensively.
34369		distribution	eng	Numerous collections have been made in Viti Levu, with a single collection from Vanua Levu.
34369		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense, dry or secondary forest or forest edges between 500 and 1,195 m.
34370		distribution	eng	Occurring within a restricted area of south-east Viti Levu.
34370		habitat	eng	The species is found in dense or secondary forest up to 400 m.
34371		distribution	eng	Endemic to Taveuni.
34371		habitat	eng	A dense forest species.
34371		population	eng	Small subpopulations of about 20 plants are known from each of six sites.
34372		distribution	eng	So far populations are known only from Vanua Levu at the type locality and Viti Levu.
34372		habitat	eng	A tree with a compact crown, occurring in dense or open forest or forest edges up to 400 m.
34373		distribution	eng	Type collection gathered from the south-eastern slope of Mt Korombamba on Viti Levu.
34373		population	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection, which was gathered in 1927.
34374		distribution	eng	It is known from numerous collections from Viti Levu, Ovalau and Moala.
34374		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of dense or open forest or thicket.
34375		distribution	eng	Known only from Vanua Levu.
34375		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense forest or thickets on crests or open hillsides between 700 and 1,030 m.
34375		population	eng	Only a few sites are known, each containing about 12 plants.
34376		distribution	eng	It is so far known from a few collections from western Viti Levu.
34376		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree often occurring in dry forest or forest edges along watercourses up to 900 m.
34377		distribution	eng	Known from Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
34377		habitat	eng	The species occurs dry forest or forest edges up to 900 m.
34378		distribution	eng	It is known from Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni
34378		habitat	eng	Found in dense forest, often occurring along creeks and river banks.
34378		population	eng	A well-collected species.
34378		threats	eng	The wood is said to be used for house posts.
34379		distribution	eng	Except for the type collection at Ovalau, the species is known only from Viti Levu.
34379		habitat	eng	It has been collected in dense forest and thickets on crests and ridges between 30 and 1,153 m.
34380		distribution	eng	It occurs in a restricted area of Namosi Province in Viti Levu.
34380		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is found in thickets on crests and summits, between 600 and 1,200 m.
34380		population	eng	Relatively rarely collected.
34381		distribution	eng	Collected from Mt. Kasi.
34381		habitat	eng	Dense forest between 300 and 430 m.
34381		population	eng	The single collection known was gathered in 1934.
34381		threats	eng	The area has been exposed to mineral exploitation and the species may now be extinct.
34383		conservation	eng	There are records of the species in  Yushan and Shueipa National Parks.
34383		habitat	eng	It is usually associated with <em>Tsuga chinensis</em> in areas of montane coniferous forest.
34383		threats	eng	One of the most important timber species in Taiwan. Populations have declined because of overexploitation.
34384		distribution	eng	Afar and Shewa in Ethiopia.
34384		habitat	eng	A species known only from areas of dry woodland or semi-desert bushland.
34384		threats	eng	Its habitat is vulnerable to  overgrazing and cutting for fuelwood.
34385		distribution	eng	A distinct but little-known species which is recorded only from the type locality near Webi Schebele River in Ethiopia.
34385		habitat	eng	It is confined to a small but relatively undisturbed area of bushland on limestone slopes.
34386		distribution	eng	Type collection from the Sidamo region.
34386		habitat	eng	In open <em>Commiphora-Boswellia</em> bushland on steep rocky slopes.
34386		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
34388		distribution	eng	A species with a very restricted range known only on the track to Kelafo in the Ogaden.
34388		habitat	eng	Limestone area of succulent shrubland.
34388		threats	eng	The area, although susceptible to degradation, is relatively unthreatened.
34389		distribution	eng	A species known from only five collections made in the vicinity of the Sof Omar caves.
34389		habitat	eng	Dense woodland on rocky limestone slopes.
34390		distribution	eng	Eastern Ogaden.
34390		habitat	eng	A species of dry <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland with a rich shrub and forb layer.
34390		population	eng	It has been collected five times within an area of 2,500 km².
34390		threats	eng	Although the habitat is affected by overgrazing and agricultural activities in some places, the area is not obviously threatened.
34391		conservation	eng	The species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II controls.
34391		distribution	eng	It is known from Shewa but its distribution may extend into Harerge and possibly Somalia.
34391		habitat	eng	A species which is locally common on lava flows in open deciduous woodland.
34392		distribution	eng	A species recorded only from a small area in Sidamo.
34392		habitat	eng	High <em>Commiphora</em> bushland.
34393		distribution	eng	Endemic to Harena forest, an Afromontane remnant of forest on the Bale Mt.
34393		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest.
34393		threats	eng	The forest is disturbed by logging activities and the building of sawmills in the area has made the activity more intense.
34394		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are isolated and restricted along the Tekeze, Abay and Gibe river systems.
34394		habitat	eng	Woodland on steep rocky slopes.
34394		threats	eng	The human population and agricultural activities are increasing in the area.
34395		distribution	eng	An Ethiopian endemic occurring abundantly in the west.
34395		habitat	eng	Upland savannah.
34395		threats	eng	Increasing human population and their activities threaten the habitat to some extent, especially in the north.
34396		distribution	eng	Found in Harerge. Cultivated specimens are found elsewhere in Ethiopia.
34396		habitat	eng	Known only from an area of bushland between 1,350 and 2,100 m.
34396		population	eng	The species is relatively restricted in distribution but fast growing and under no present threat.
34397		distribution	eng	Confined to parts of west Eritrea, Tigray and Gondar on the high plateau where the majority of the Ethiopian population lives.
34397		habitat	eng	A woodland species.
34397		threats	eng	The northern forests have diminished most noticeably because of the expansion of  farmed land and human habitation and overcutting for fuelwood.
34398		habitat	eng	It is confined to upland scrub and forest margins in an area where the majority of the Ethiopian population lives.
34399		distribution	eng	It ranges throughout the highlands.
34399		habitat	eng	A tree of Afromontane forest, especially along forest margins, and also secondary formations.
34399		threats	eng	In the north the expanding human population and agricultural activities have caused a decline in the extent of the forest and continue to put pressure on the remaining habitat.
34400		habitat	eng	It appears to be confined to woodland along river systems.
34400		population	eng	Regeneration is apparently good.
34400		threats	eng	It is distributed in an area heavily influenced by agricultural activities and the expansion of the human population
34401		distribution	eng	From the Kefa, Shewa, Bale and Sidamo regions. It is not known elsewhere.
34401		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in the margins of upland forest or bamboo thicket above 3,000 m.
34402		distribution	eng	Occurring throughout Central America and Mexico.
34402		habitat	eng	The species is confined to areas of forest above 1,000 m.
34402		threats	eng	It has become extremely sparse in some countries, such as Costa Rica and Panama, and it is almost extinct in El Salvador.
34403		conservation	eng	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.
34403		distribution	eng	A Palawan endemic.
34403		habitat	eng	Confined to forested slopes at low altitude.
34404		distribution	eng	An imperfectly known species. The only information available comes from the type collection, which was taken from Gonâve Island in Haiti in the first part of the century.
34405		distribution	eng	A newly described species, so far known only from the type in the Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve.
34405		habitat	eng	Atlantic rainforest.
34406		distribution	eng	A rainforest species, which appears to be confined to Baja Verapaz in Guatemala.
34407		distribution	eng	The range of the species is extensive geographically and altitudinally.
34407		population	eng	Despite the extensive range, populations are rare and declining.
34408		distribution	eng	A newly described species, endemic to Costa Rica, where it has been collected twice from Heredia.
34408		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
34409		distribution	eng	Endemic to Costa Rica and recorded from a few sites in Alajuela and Cartago.
34409		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
34410		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from a single location in Puntarenas.
34410		habitat	eng	Wet hill forest at about 600 m, near the coast.
34412		distribution	eng	A newly described species so far known only from Los Tuxtlas Biological Station in central Veracruz.
34412		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest over black clay.
34416		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a nature reserve.
34416		distribution	eng	Only known from Kon Tum Province in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. Also reported from two other areas but not yet confirmed.
34416		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane evergreen forest up to 2,300 m.
34416		population	eng	A rare montane species.
34416		threats	eng	No direct threats observed; but there is general deforestation through cutting for firewood, timber, etc.
34417		distribution	eng	So far the species is known only from the southern part of the Sierra de Manantlán in Casimiro Castillo, Cuautitlán and Tuxcacyexco.
34417		habitat	eng	Growing in semi-deciduous forest between 800 and 900 m.
34418		conservation	eng	All the BVI individuals are well inside Gorda Peak National Park, a nationally declared protected area whose boundaries are reasonably well respected.
34418		distribution	eng	In Puerto Rico three sites, each containing a single individual, were originally recorded, only one of which may still be extant. Another subpopulation on the Puerto Rican offshore island of Vieques was destroyed in the construction of a helipad. In the British Virgin Islands (BVI), it is restricted to the island of Virgin Gorda (21 km²) and within Gorda Peak National Park (236 acres). On Tortola, however, the species has not been seen for some time and is considered extinct.
34418		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist forest or wet areas in dry forest. Flowering and fruiting have been observed on Gorda to occur towards the end of the rainy season (November-December). No seedlings have been observed in the field indicating that either germination is not taking place or that the young seedlings do not survive the dry season (March-May).
34418		population	eng	The BVI population comprises 26 mature individuals.  25 individuals occur within one area (the <em>Calyptranthes</em> ridge). A single mature tree located about 100 m from the main group.
34418		threats	eng	In Puerto Rico, habitat loss through developments has been a major threat. On BVI there are no obvious threats, apart from those inherent in such a small population size.  All the BVI individuals are well inside Gorda Peak National Park, a nationally declared protected area whose boundaries are reasonably well respected. There has been one fire in the Park in recent times, thought to have been due to a fire started for land clearance that got out of hand.  Although quite a lot of damage was done this was in an area well away from the <em>Calyptranthes kiaerskovii</em> subpopulation.
34419		distribution	eng	Found only in Puerto Rico. A record of the species from St John in the US Virgin Islands requires confirmation.
34419		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of coastal woodlands on limestone.
34420		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Jari Genetic Reserve and in Linhares Forest Reserve.
34420		threats	eng	Although the species is wide-ranging, its habitat has undergone serious deterioration and declines.
34421		distribution	eng	This small tree is known from a rocky limestone hilltop above 730 m, and possibly from Peckham Woods in Clarendon Parish.
34421		habitat	eng	Rocky limestone hilltop above 730 m.
34422		distribution	eng	Previously the species was known only from the type specimen with no definite locality. In 1992 a population was found on Holland Mt.
34422		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
34423		conservation	eng	It is protected within Rwenzori Mountain National Park. The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
34423		distribution	eng	Uganda: Semuliki, Bundibugyo district.
34423		habitat	eng	A tree with drooping branches which is confined to <em>Cynometra</em> forest.
34423		threats	eng	Regeneration appears to be poor.
34424		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula.
34424		habitat	eng	This tree is an important component of the lowland rainforest.
34424		threats	eng	The habitat is generally disturbed and declining in extent.
34426		conservation	eng	The species is now on the official list of threatened species compiled by IBAMA in 1992.
34426		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
34426		population	eng	Formerly abundant.
34426		threats	eng	This species has been heavily exploited for its wood, used for making luxury furniture.  In Rondônia the number of sawmills, which principally process <em>A. acreana</em>, increased eightfold between 1975 and 1982.
34427		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of riverine forest at medium elevations.
34428		distribution	eng	A species with subpopulations in the Taita Hills, Kasigau, the Usambara and Uluguru Mts.
34428		habitat	eng	A species of moist forest.
34429		distribution	eng	The species ranges from Pangani and Gongoni in south-east Kenya, through eastern Tanzania to Zanzibar.
34429		habitat	eng	Restricted to dry coastal forest in limestone areas.
34430		conservation	eng	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains living stocks for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
34430		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Kenya.
34430		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in riverine or rocky sites in dry bushland.
34430		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture and land settlement in the area.
34431		distribution	eng	Formerly known only from Kenya, this tree has recently been found in Selous National Park in Tanzania. The Kenya population is small and confined to the banks of the Tana River, near Wenje
34431		habitat	eng	Riverine forest sometimes seasonally flooded.
34431		threats	eng	Increasing human settlement and agriculture.
34432		distribution	eng	Known from two collections west of Ramu in Kenya, from parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia and from northern Somalia.
34432		habitat	eng	Restricted to limestone outcrops.
34433		distribution	eng	A species known from southern Somalia and adjacent parts of Kenya.
34433		habitat	eng	<em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on sand.
34433		threats	eng	The habitat is frequently degraded because of overcutting and grazing.
34434		distribution	eng	This species extends in a range from south-east Kenya through to south-east Tanzania.
34434		habitat	eng	Confined to pockets of dry coastal forest or wooded bushland.
34435		distribution	eng	Subpopulations of extremely small size are known from Gongoni Forest Reserve and Dzirihini in Kenya. It was also recorded in Langoya Nwaganid in 1968. In Tanzania there are records from sisal estates in Pangani and Korogwe.
34435		habitat	eng	A strangler fig of coastal dry open bushland.
34435		threats	eng	These areas are in danger of being completely cleared.
34436		distribution	eng	Known from localities in Witu, Mangea and Arabuko-Sokoke.
34436		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of lowland dry evergreen forest.
34437		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Kaya Diani, Gongoni Forest Reserve, Kaya Dzombo, Chale Island and Kaya Kinondo. More information is needed on the Tanzanian population.
34437		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of moist semi-deciduous coastal forest.
34437		threats	eng	The loss and degradation of coastal forest continues at an alarming rate.
34438		conservation	eng	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains living and seed collections.
34438		distribution	eng	This shrub or small tree is endemic to central Kenya, such as Kamiti, Thika Falls, Rojwero Swamp and Kiambu. Population numbers are small.
34438		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas of riverine or swamp forest.
34438		threats	eng	The habitat is under pressure from increasing agricultural and settlement of the area.
34439		distribution	eng	A rare spiny shrub or tree. The only viable  population occurs in central Somalia in a few localities. A collection was also made from a male plant, near Garissa in Kenya.
34439		habitat	eng	Bushland on gypsum soils (sandy soil for the only Kenyan collection).
34439		threats	eng	The habitat is under threat of degradation from overgrazing and overcutting for charcoal production.
34440		distribution	eng	Known from central and southern Somalia, parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia and two localities in north-east Kenya, this species is restricted in range and rare.
34440		habitat	eng	<em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> woodland.
34440		threats	eng	In places, the habitat is degraded because of farming activities and overcutting for charcoal production.
34441		distribution	eng	Confined to the Shimba Hills in Kenya and to coastal forest patches in Tanzania.
34441		habitat	eng	Forest at 375 m (Kenya) and coastal forest patches (Tanzania).
34442		distribution	eng	In Kenya the species is rare and confined to Witu, Mangea, Shimba Hills and Marenji. It has been suggested that the range of the species is more widespread, extending to Angola.
34442		habitat	eng	Groundwater forest.
34443		distribution	eng	In Kenya it is confined to the Taita Hills. In neighbouring Tanzania the species is thought to be less rare than originally suspected. The subpopulation in Mozambique is very poorly known.
34443		habitat	eng	Confined to pockets of forest, especially coastal forest.
34443		population	eng	A rare species with disparate subpopulations.
34445		distribution	eng	This small tree is restricted in range from north-eastern Kenya to neighbouring Somalia.
34445		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry bushland.
34445		population	eng	It is very common near Wajir.
34445		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened with degradation through grazing and overcutting for charcoal production.
34446		distribution	eng	The species is known from only a few localities, ranging from south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania.
34446		habitat	eng	Confined to dry coastal forest or bushland, mostly on shale.
34447		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Meru National Park in Kenya.
34447		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, found across a large part of south-east Africa.
34447		habitat	eng	In Kenya, it is found in <em>Combretum</em> woodland at 790 m.
34448		distribution	eng	Known from a single site in Somalia.
34448		habitat	eng	A small tree, or commonly a shrub.  Found in <em>Acacia-Combretum</em> woodland.
34448		threats	eng	Pressures from charcoal production are high, from small populations in Arabuko-Sokoke and Mangea in Kenya, extending south to Tanzanian coastal forests and Southern Africa.
34449		distribution	eng	A Kenyan endemic occurring in localised populations in the Nairobi-Machakos region.
34449		habitat	eng	Dry upland forest.
34449		threats	eng	The surrounding area is densely populated and agricultural activities, firewood collection and recent droughts are causing habitat degradation.
34451		distribution	eng	Occurrences are recorded in the Usambara Mts. and Uluguru Mts. in Tanzania and in Arabuko-Sokoke and Witu in Kenya.
34451		habitat	eng	<em>Brachystegia</em> woodland.
34452		conservation	eng	Also found in protected area.
34452		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Taita Hills, the species is scattered to scarce. Subpopulations are known from Mbololo, a protected reserve, and Ngangao.
34452		habitat	eng	Areas of moist montane forest.
34452		threats	eng	There is some habitat encroachment by local farmers and settlers.
34453		distribution	eng	Originally known from the north-east, east and south slopes of Mt. Kenya.
34453		habitat	eng	Between 1,900 and 2,100 m in areas of moist <em>Ocotea</em> forest.
34453		population	eng	A shrub or tree which is possibly extinct.
34454		conservation	eng	Only the Pangani site is unprotected.
34454		distribution	eng	Shimba Hills, Gongoni and Pangani.
34454		habitat	eng	This small tree is known only from areas of moist forest.
34455		distribution	eng	Ranging from the lower Tana and lower Galana area in Kenya to eastern Tanzania.
34455		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub is restricted to remaining areas of dry coastal forest.
34456		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree, rarely described as climbing, endemic to the Shimba Hills.
34457		distribution	eng	Ranging from the Taita Hills in Kenya to north-east Tanzania.
34457		habitat	eng	This species is confined to areas of moist montane forest.
34458		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to a few areas of forest or thicket in Kenya and to dry montane forest in Loliondo and Ufiomi in Tanzania.
34458		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest or thickets.
34459		distribution	eng	It is found in Gongoni and Kinondo in Kenya and in remaining forest patches in Tanzania, some of which are given the status of forest reserves.
34459		habitat	eng	A large tree of coastal forests and also woodland and thicket.
34459		threats	eng	Agricultural encroachment is the most serious threat to the habitat.
34460		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Kenya.
34460		habitat	eng	A tree with prop roots.
34461		distribution	eng	Restricted to localised populations on the East African coast.
34461		habitat	eng	A tree of dry forest.
34461		threats	eng	Pressures exist from a growing human population and the demand for land to cultivate.
34462		conservation	eng	The main subpopulation is in the Ngezi Nature Reserve.
34462		distribution	eng	Known from two localities on the island of Pemba: Ngezi Forest and Msitu Msenu forest 80 km east of Ngezi.
34462		habitat	eng	Grows in moist evergreen coastal forest.
34462		population	eng	Although not large, the population appears to be stable at present. It comprises three subpopulations with one being larger than the other two.
34462		threats	eng	There are no major threat to the species at present, but expanding tourist infrastructure could pose a problem in the future. It is occasionally used as poles (e.g., for football goal posts).
34463		population	eng	Subpopulations in Brazil are vulnerable.
34464		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34467		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation has been evaluated as LR/nt
34469		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34471		distribution	eng	In the past the species has been confused with <em>F. catappifolia</em> or <em>F. longifolia</em>. It has a scattered distribution in areas of Atlantic forest in the north-east and south-east.
34471		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
34471		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and poor regeneration have resulted in subpopulation reductions.
34472		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34474		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34475		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34476		population	eng	A species which was once thought to be near extinction.
34478		distribution	eng	A newly described species, apparently endemic to Pitcairn Island, where it is widespread.
34478		habitat	eng	Disturbed scrub and open forest.
34478		population	eng	There are relatively few large individuals, but many shrubby specimens which appear to have reached flowering age. Probably 500–1,000 mature individuals exist.
34478		threats	eng	The timber was heavily exploited in the past for making into joists in construction. There has also been considerable habitat loss and degradation with the spread of exotic plants.
34479		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34480		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34485		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34487		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34492		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34494		population	eng	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.
34496		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a small area of along the Zambezi River. Further indications as to the extent of the species location and its reduction may lead to a more serious status of threat.
34496		habitat	eng	Woodland along River.
34496		threats	eng	The forest is currently being cleared for agriculture.
34497		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-central Somalia.
34497		habitat	eng	This species occurs in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on sand.
34497		threats	eng	The habitat continues to be degraded and destroyed by increasing agriculture and overcutting, particularly in the vicinity of Mogadishu.
34500		distribution	eng	No information is available on the location and habitat of this species.
34501		distribution	eng	A species of restricted range in north-eastern Somalia.
34501		habitat	eng	Only known from semi-desert bushland, usually in rocky places on limestone.
34501		threats	eng	The habitat is vulnerable to degradation.
34502		distribution	eng	Widespread.
34502		habitat	eng	This tree grows in lowland primary and secondary forest.
34503		distribution	eng	Fairly widespread.
34503		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland to submontane forest.
34505		distribution	eng	A forest tree with a restricted and disjunct distribution. It is known from Penang Hill Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia and a site west of Kuching in Sarawak.
34505		population	eng	The subpopulation in Singapore is presumed extinct.
34505		threats	eng	Threatened by urban encroachment (Sarawak).
34506		distribution	eng	Quite widely distributed. It is found in north and east Sumatra, south Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
34506		habitat	eng	A small, sometimes epiphytic tree.
34507		distribution	eng	A fairly widespread species.
34507		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitat types.
34508		distribution	eng	Widely occurring.
34508		habitat	eng	A tree of primary and secondary forests.
34510		distribution	eng	A Somali endemic known only from the north-east of the country.
34510		habitat	eng	Sparse vegetation on gypsum hills.
34510		threats	eng	The habitat is vulnerable to degradation.
34511		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, collected from waterside localities on the plains on the southern side of the Zambezi.
34512		conservation	eng	The species is not protected within any designated protected areas, although it is given some protection on land registered as conservancies or as hunting concessions.
34512		distribution	eng	Outjo and Kaokoveld Districts. Its range extends up to the Angola border but, so far, it has not been recorded from Angola itself.
34512		habitat	eng	Occurring on granite outcrops, ridges and inselbergs.
34512		threats	eng	General habitat degradation through poor land management, coupled with recent droughts may have affected population size and recruitment.
34513		distribution	eng	A species found in northern Somalia and also on the island of Socotra.
34513		threats	eng	Habitat degradation largely from overcutting and charcoal production is a threat.
34514		distribution	eng	A species which is taxonomically unconfirmed and poorly known. It may represent <em>A. burkei</em>.
34515		distribution	eng	A distinct species of uncertain affinity.
34515		habitat	eng	It is confined to the coast, where it occurs in bushland on sand.
34515		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a threat.
34516		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Somalia and eastern Tanzania.
34516		habitat	eng	It occurs in deciduous bushland or woodland in seasonally flooded areas.
34516		threats	eng	It is highly restricted in occurrence, in a habitat which is experiencing declines because of overcutting for charcoal production and grazing.
34517		distribution	eng	A Cameroon endemic restricted to remnant forest.
34518		distribution	eng	A tree collected from the south and known only from its type locality. The species may be more widespread given that the country's forests are relatively unexplored.
34518		threats	eng	Many forest areas are under concession to logging companies.
34519		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.
34519		distribution	eng	With the exception of Perlis, Kedah and Selangor, this species is found scattered throughout Malaya and into Indo-China.
34519		habitat	eng	Primary lowland and hill forests.
34520		conservation	eng	The species is also conserved in permanent and protected forest areas.
34520		distribution	eng	Malaya.
34520		habitat	eng	Common in primary forest, from lowland to submontane areas.
34521		distribution	eng	Pehang, Selangor and Johore in Peninsular Malaysia, and parts of Singapore.
34521		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree scattered throughout the freshwater and peat-swamp forest.
34522		conservation	eng	It is protected in Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary.
34522		distribution	eng	It can be found in Perak, Terengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Johore and Singapore.
34522		habitat	eng	A tall tree up to 39 m, inhabiting moist lowland and hill forest.
34523		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mozambique.
34523		habitat	eng	A woodland species.
34526		distribution	eng	A common tree on the mountains extending from Dhofar in Oman to neighbouring Hauf in Yemen. It also occurs as an outlier in Yemen in Ras Fartak.
34526		habitat	eng	Deciduous escarpment woodland on mountain.
34526		threats	eng	Trees near water-holes are severely damaged and in other areas grazing pressure is high, especially in Oman, where there has been a sharp rise in the population.
34529		conservation	eng	This species is conserved within permanent forest reserves.
34529		distribution	eng	Found throughout Malaya.
34529		habitat	eng	A lowland species.
34530		distribution	eng	A species restricted to Dhofar, Oman, extending into Hauf and Ras Fartak in southern Yemen.
34530		habitat	eng	Escarpment woodland.
34530		threats	eng	In Oman, there has been a sharp population rise in the area and a subsequent increase in grazing pressure and the cutting of wood for domestic use.
34531		distribution	eng	Dhofar, Oman, and neighbouring south-east Yemen.
34531		habitat	eng	A small tree, sometimes dominant, in areas of escarpment woodland.
34531		threats	eng	In some areas, particularly in Oman, where there has been dramatic population increase, the tree is vulnerable to overcutting for domestic use.
34532		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the foothills of the escarpment mountains in Dhofar, Oman, and neighbouring south-east Yemen.
34532		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to cutting for fodder, timber and firewood. Trees are frequently damaged and regeneration is not evident in several subpopulations. The problem is more acute in Oman, where there has been a sharp influx of people since 1975.
34533		distribution	eng	The largest and most widespread occurrence of the species is in northern Somalia. It is also a dominant component of desert-woodland on the escarpment mountains in Dhofar in Oman, extending into Yemen.
34533		habitat	eng	Desert-woodland.
34533		threats	eng	In Oman the tree is so heavily browsed that it rarely flowers or sets seed. Trees appear to be dying and regeneration is poor.
34534		conservation	eng	In the permanent reserves of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan, this tree is conserved.
34534		distribution	eng	This species is scattered throughout most states.
34534		habitat	eng	A species of lowland and hill forests, commonly found in primary forest.
34535		habitat	eng	A timber tree of lowland forest, often on hillsides.
34535		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat destruction.
34536		habitat	eng	A species found in many forest habitats.
34536		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat destruction.
34537		habitat	eng	A tree found in primary and secondary, moist, lowland forest.
34537		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat.
34538		population	eng	A variable species noted to be common in Peninsular Malaysia.
34538		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the main threat to this tree.
34539		distribution	eng	Widespread in Malaysia
34539		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree that grows in lowland rainforest and lower montane forest up to 1,400 m.
34540		habitat	eng	A fairly widespread tree found in evergreen forest, open bamboo forest and lowland rainforest below 300 m.
34541		habitat	eng	A lowland tree which is fairly widespread in marshy forest and freshwater peat-swamp forest.
34542		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland and hill forest found up to 300 m.
34543		distribution	eng	Collected only infrequently.
34543		habitat	eng	A variety found predominantly in freshwater swamp forest.
34544		population	eng	This species is fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia.
34545		distribution	eng	A fairly widespread species.
34546		distribution	eng	A widespread tree found throughout Indo-China and Malaysia.
34547		distribution	eng	A distinctive species which occurs from southern Peninsular Thailand to Sumatra; no recent collections have been made.
34548		distribution	eng	A species widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.
34549		distribution	eng	The species is fairly widespread and locally frequent.
34550		conservation	eng	It is conserved within the productive forest reserves of  Peninsular Malaysia.
34550		distribution	eng	Widely occurring throughout lowland Malaya, with distribution being more frequent locally.
34550		habitat	eng	A tropical, moist forest species.
34550		threats	eng	Primarily used for timber, it has a minor role in international trade.  Pressures are exerted on the species from felling activities.
34551		conservation	eng	It is protected within the Permanent Forest Estates.
34551		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout western Peninsular Malaysia.
34551		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of lowland areas.
34553		distribution	eng	Widespread from south-west India to Borneo.
34553		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland forest.
34554		distribution	eng	This variety is confined to east Peninsular Malaysia.
34554		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland rainforest.  The roots are used for making poultices to treat wounds.
34555		distribution	eng	It is relatively widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia, but known only from a single collection in Peninsular Thailand, two collections from northern Sumatra and one from Singapore.
34555		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree found in both primary and secondary dryland forest, as well as periodically inundated forest up to 350 m.
34556		distribution	eng	A species confined to Mt. Salak near Bogor city in Java. The Singapore record needs confirmation.
34556		habitat	eng	The population occurs at 1,700 m.
34556		threats	eng	There are intense pressures of habitat clearance, degradation and cutting.
34557		habitat	eng	A widely distributed tree, found in a wide range of soil types, habitat types and altitudes. Although the species mainly occurs in lowland and hill forest, it has also been recorded in swamp, heath and limestone forests.
34559		habitat	eng	This lowland tree is relatively common but restricted to remaining peat swamp forest.
34560		distribution	eng	Perlis, Kedah, Penang, Terengganu, Pahang, Johore and Singapore.
34560		habitat	eng	An uncommon medium-sized tree inhabiting lowland, hill and sometimes coastal forests.
34561		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in lowland forest on hill slopes.
34561		threats	eng	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value in the production of incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.
34562		distribution	eng	Found near Kuching, Sarawak.
34562		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub found in swamp forest and heath forest.
34562		threats	eng	The vegetation surrounding Kuching is extremely threatened by urban encroachment.
34563		habitat	eng	This understorey tree occurs on poor sandy and clay-rich yellow soils, often in periodically inundated areas in lowland rainforest.
34565		habitat	eng	A large tree found scattered in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
34565		threats	eng	Forest clearance and degradation because of agriculture and logging are major threats to the habitat. In addition this species is suffering from some genetic erosion.  The fruit is sold in local and urban markets, but the species is rarely planted because of its short fruiting period. The wood is probably one of the most important sources of durian timber in Sarawak.
34567		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo. It is only occasionally cultivated e.g., in Brunei.
34567		habitat	eng	Restricted to lowland mixed dipterocarp rainforest.
34567		threats	eng	The species is suffering from some genetic erosion.   This species has edible fruits which are collected for consumption.
34568		conservation	eng	The species is cultivated for its popular fruits throughout Malesia and are the most similar to those of <em>D. zibethinus</em>.
34568		distribution	eng	Occurring on the foothills of the mountains in central Borneo.
34568		habitat	eng	Wild trees are confined to mixed dipterocarp forest.
34568		threats	eng	The natural habitat of this species is threatened by forest degradation due to logging and shifting agriculture and in Indonesia there is evidence of genetic erosion within populations.
34570		distribution	eng	It is possible that the species is conspecific with <em>D. affinis</em>.
34570		habitat	eng	A species restricted to the lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
34573		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-west Borneo.
34573		habitat	eng	Peat swamp.
34575		distribution	eng	This taxon represents the populations of the dragon tree in the southern escarpments of the Arabian Peninsula. The species, however, is likely to be taxonomically indistinct from <em>D. ombet</em>.
34575		habitat	eng	The Arabian populations are restricted to high altitudes in drier areas.
34575		threats	eng	In Oman  trees on Jabal Samhan have been severely damaged in the last 10 years because of the cutting of leaves for camel fodder. No regeneration is apparent anywhere within its distribution in Oman.
34576		distribution	eng	Scattered in northern Viet Nam and China.
34576		habitat	eng	This pioneer species grows in lowland and submontane moist forest. Natural regeneration is strong on fallow land.
34576		threats	eng	Its distribution has been reduced by shifting cultivation.
34577		distribution	eng	North-west Viet Nam and Laos.
34577		habitat	eng	This species occurs along rivers and streams and on slopes in lowland and submontane moist forest.
34577		threats	eng	Forest fragmentation and shifting cultivation are the main reasons for the decline of this variety.
34578		conservation	eng	The species is now legally protected, but continues to be cut illegally.
34578		distribution	eng	Central and southern Viet Nam.
34578		habitat	eng	A tree scattered throughout broadleaved forest up to 800 m.
34578		threats	eng	The entire population has declined through overexploitation of the valuable timber.
34579		distribution	eng	It is widespread and quite common throughout western and northern Madagascar, as well as in localised forest patches in eastern Africa. However, this species distribution is highly fragmented largely because of extensive deforestation.
34579		habitat	eng	A lowland tree or scandent shrub, occurring in deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland.
34579		population	eng	A 20–50% population decline is expected over the next 100 years in Madagascar.
34579		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation.
34580		distribution	eng	A relatively wide-ranging species. It is known from south-east Kenya, in the Shimba Hills and at Taru. The range extends south through coastal Tanzania to Zanzibar Island.
34580		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub occurring in patches of dry coastal forest at unusually high altitudes.
34581		population	eng	This species is only known from the type collection.
34582		distribution	eng	Endemic to the escarpment mountains from Dhofar in Oman to neighbouring south-east Yemen.
34582		habitat	eng	This species is a common component of  woodlands at lower altitudes.
34582		threats	eng	There has been an influx of people into the area in Oman since 1975 and a subsequent rise in grazing pressure and cutting of wood.
34583		habitat	eng	A tree found in lowland primary and logged-over forest.
34584		distribution	eng	Very localised within the Fourth Division, Sarawak and Beaufort Hill, Sabah.
34584		habitat	eng	A primary forest tree.
34585		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mt. Kinabalu, the species is known from four collections.
34585		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary forest.
34586		distribution	eng	Collected once from Sabah and three times from Sarawak.
34586		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
34587		habitat	eng	This species is apparently specific to primary lowland dipterocarp forests.
34588		distribution	eng	Restricted to lowland areas of Borneo.
34588		habitat	eng	This is a small tree that grows in heath forest, wet kerangas forest, peat-swamp forest and <em>Agathis-Casuarina</em> forest.
34589		distribution	eng	Known from the type collection in Andulau Forest Reserve and from another specimen from Kuala Belait District.
34589		habitat	eng	A species of lowland rainforest.
34592		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo. All the specimens from Sabah were collected from the vicinity of Mt. Kinabalu and they differ from the collections from Brunei and Sarawak.
34592		habitat	eng	A small to medium-sized tree found in montane and kerangas forest.
34593		distribution	eng	Collected from the First Division of Sarawak.
34593		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
34593		population	eng	To date this species is known from just two collections.
34594		distribution	eng	A species restricted to East Kalimantan (two collections).
34594		habitat	eng	It grows in lowland dipterocarp forest and in ridge forest on limestone.
34595		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single herbarium specimen collected from Sarawak. Nothing is known of its ecology or the specific location of the collection.
34595		population	eng	Unknown.
34596		distribution	eng	Confined to Sarawak and Brunei.
34596		habitat	eng	A tree of kerangas and forest on poor soils up to 50 m.
34597		distribution	eng	Type specimen collected in Bukit Kelawai in West Kalimantan. The area is relatively unexplored.
34597		population	eng	A tree known only from the type specimen collected in in 1939.
34598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains extending from the Dhofar region in Oman to south-east Yemen.
34598		habitat	eng	Occurring in escarpment woodlands and the drier summit plateau.
34598		population	eng	It is quite common.
34598		threats	eng	At risk from overcutting for domestic use, especially in Oman, where there has been a sharp rise in the population since 1975.
34599		distribution	eng	Collected in Sarawak.
34599		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
34599		population	eng	Collected only once, in 1971.
34599		threats	eng	Most of the peat-swamp forest in Sarawak has been licensed for timber extraction.
34600		distribution	eng	A regional endemic from a small area in Dhofar, Oman, and neighbouring Mahra, southern Yemen.
34600		habitat	eng	Escarpment woodlands.
34600		threats	eng	Since 1975 the area in Oman has seen an influx of people and their livestock. There has been a subsequent rapid increase in the cutting of wood and grazing. Trees are also browsed by livestock.
34601		distribution	eng	A species, endemic to Borneo.
34601		habitat	eng	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, kerangas forest and montane forest usually below 600 m but occasionally found at altitudes up to 1,500 m.
34601		population	eng	The species has not been collected recently.
34602		distribution	eng	Locally endemic to Tawau.
34602		population	eng	This small tree or shrub is known only from four specimens.
34603		distribution	eng	Mt. Kinabalu and the surrounding area. A collection which is doubtfully this species was taken from east Sarawak.
34603		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in montane forest.
34604		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Beaufort Hill and Jesselton in Sabah and the First Division of Sarawak.
34604		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.
34605		distribution	eng	From Mt. Dulit, Sarawak.
34605		population	eng	This subspecies is known from only four collections.
34606		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Borneo and it is also found in Palembang, Sumatra.
34607		habitat	eng	A small tree found in primary forest and mixed dipterocarp forest.
34608		distribution	eng	West Sabah and Sarawak.
34608		habitat	eng	An understorey tree found in mixed dipterocarp forest.
34609		distribution	eng	This tree is found in north-east Sarawak and Sabah.
34609		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
34610		distribution	eng	All specimens found in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions of Sarawak.
34610		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill mixed dipterocarp forest.
34610		population	eng	This species is based on four specimens.
34611		distribution	eng	An Omani endemic which occurs commonly in the foothills of the Hajar Mts. in the north.
34611		habitat	eng	On rocky slopes and in wadis.
34612		conservation	eng	The subpopulation within Mount Kinabalu National Park is protected.
34612		distribution	eng	This tree is found on Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah, and has recently been discovered on Luzon in the Philippines.
34613		distribution	eng	Found on Mt. Kinabalu and in West Kalimantan.
34613		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is found in primary forest.
34613		population	eng	On Mt. Kinabalu, this species has not been collected since 1930, although the area is well explored. The only specimen from West Kalimantan was collected in 1989.
34614		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Mt. Kinabalu National Park.
34614		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to Mt. Kinabalu.
34614		habitat	eng	Found in mossy forest.
34614		population	eng	It has been collected just four times, the most recent collection dating to 1964.
34615		distribution	eng	Occurs in Sarawak, although a similar specimen has been collected from West Kalimantan on the border with Sarawak. It may also occur in Brunei Darusalaam.
34615		habitat	eng	This tree is confined to peat-swamp forest.
34615		population	eng	There has been no botanical collecting in the area since 1961.
34615		threats	eng	The peat-swamp forest of Sarawak has been licensed for timber extraction.
34616		conservation	eng	The Argentinian population is in a protected area.
34616		distribution	eng	Its distribution is restricted in Argentina to the north-west of Chubut in Lago Puelo, probably in the protected area of that name. Data are not yet available on the status and distribution of the species in Chile.
34616		habitat	eng	Occurring in broadleaved evergreen montane forest.
34618		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland rainforest below 250 m altitude.
34618		threats	eng	The timber is traded as `Calophyllum' in New Guinea.
34619		distribution	eng	It is very scattered on mainland Papua New Guinea but more common on the Solomon Islands.
34619		habitat	eng	This large, possibly dioecious, tree is usually found growing in primary lowland rainforest, sometimes in seasonally inundated or swampy areas.
34619		threats	eng	The excellent timber is used in house and canoe building. It occurs in trade as 'calophyllum' in Papua New Guinea.
34620		habitat	eng	Dry zone tree.
34620		threats	eng	This tree is declining in Sri Lanka, as it is exploited for its timber and its medicinal bark and latex.
34622		distribution	eng	Found in Peninsular India.
34622		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of dry deciduous woodland.
34622		population	eng	It remains fairly common but sparsely distributed.
34622		threats	eng	The gum is tapped and traded.
34623		distribution	eng	Occurring in the south and central Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
34623		population	eng	No subpopulations were found in Sri Lanka during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
34623		threats	eng	This small tree has become threatened in some parts of its range mainly through the loss of its habitat.
34624		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
34624		threats	eng	The ecosystem is entirely unprotected and in rapid decline as agriculture expands.
34625		habitat	eng	A scarce species of low to middle elevation forest types.
34625		threats	eng	The Argentinean population is threatened because its habitat is rapidly being converted into cattle ranches.
34626		distribution	eng	Vogelkop, Irian Jaya and the Morobe, Gulf and Central provinces of Papua New Guinea.
34626		habitat	eng	A primary rainforest tree occurring on coastal plain foothills and stony low hills.
34626		threats	eng	Observations of active exploitation for the timber of this species in Papua New Guinea were made in the 1960s; the timber continues to be in high demand and is heavily exploited in areas subject to logging. As it occurs in primary forest and in readily accessible areas, the species is considered highly vulnerable.
34627		distribution	eng	Island of Luzon.
34627		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary lowland forest.
34628		distribution	eng	Occurs in both the Coastal Cordillera and Andes in Chile, extending into Argentina. There are still extensive areas of intact forest. The species is little represented in Chilean protected areas.
34628		habitat	eng	The species occurs in moist seasonal forest up to 1,900 m.
34628		threats	eng	Most of the lower elevation forest has been logged and converted to agriculture, especially in the northern part of the range, and also to <em>Pinus radiata</em> plantations.
34630		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few locations. In Kenya it occurs in the region of the Shimba Hills, and in Tanzania, Chitoa Forest Reserve (8 km²) is one of the two reserves which harbour a population. The extent of occurrence in Mozambique is little known.
34630		habitat	eng	Restricted to coastal forest.
34631		distribution	eng	Extending from the south-east coast of Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina.
34631		habitat	eng	A good-quality commercial timber tree, which is widely occurring within an area of seasonally dry forest.
34631		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture has caused severe habitat loss in Argentina.
34632		distribution	eng	Ranging from Kwale and Kilifi districts in Kenya into Tanzania.
34632		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree occurring in dry coastal forest patches. In some forest types it forms the dominant canopy element. Soils with impeded drainage and unpredictable water supply are especially favoured by the species.
34633		distribution	eng	It is found in remaining forest patches in east and south-east Tanzania into Mozambique. It has also been collected further north in limestone areas at Buda, Gongoni and Pangani in Kenya.
34633		habitat	eng	A moist forest species which can occur in wetter  or riverine areas of dry forests.
34634		distribution	eng	From south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania.
34634		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to moist forest areas.
34635		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Kenya, through Tanzania to Zanzibar and Pemba Islands.
34635		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to pockets of dry coastal forest.
34636		distribution	eng	The native range of the tamarillo tree is not resolved. It is often thought extinct. Putative wild subpopulations are small, occurring in restricted areas in Argentina and Bolivia. It is widely cultivated in the Andes, Europe, Africa and New Zealand. Wild representatives are important for the genetic improvement and understanding of cultivated forms.
34637		distribution	eng	A spreading tree known from central and southern Somalia and from central Kenya.
34637		habitat	eng	Open bushland, often on alluvium soils.
34637		threats	eng	Overcutting and grazing of this habitat are threats.
34638		distribution	eng	The largest subpopulation occurs in central and southern Somalia. The species extends into small areas of the Ogaden in Ethiopia and north-east Kenya.
34638		habitat	eng	A rare species of <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> woodland.
34638		threats	eng	In places the habitat is under some threat of degradation because of farming activities and overcutting for charcoal production.
34639		distribution	eng	Two localities in Kenya are known, where the species occurs in forest along the Luma and Tana Rivers. The range extends to eastern Tanzania, where populations are restricted to remaining areas of moist forest.
34639		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
34640		distribution	eng	Ranges from Kenya to Zimbabwe. It has been found only once in the Shimba Hills in Kenya. In Tanzania it occurs in the East Usambara Mts., the North Udzungwa Mts., and the Ngurdota Crater on Mt. Meru. The species is confined to Chirinda forest in Zimbabwe. It has also been recorded from Garuso forest in central Mozambique.
34640		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
34640		population	eng	Although the species' range is from Kenya to Zimbabwe, it exists in small and restricted pockets of moist forest, which have declined in extent over the past few decades. It has been found only once in the Shimba Hills in Kenya. In Tanzania it is very scarce in the North Udzungwa Mts. In Zimbabwe, the species is confined to Chirinda forest, where there is a well-protected healthy population.
34641		distribution	eng	Subpopulations in Viet Nam are restricted and considered to be Critically Endangered (CR A1cd).
34642		distribution	eng	At one time more widespread, the species was heavily exploited in the past as a source of wood and fuel. It is currently restricted to small areas in the centre-south of Argentina.
34642		habitat	eng	Campo and savannah.
34643		habitat	eng	A species of scrubland and woodland.
34643		population	eng	It is unknown whether the species is regenerating.
34643		threats	eng	Although occurring widely, it is found in areas which are heavily degraded and overgrazed by goats, sheep and cattle.
34644		distribution	eng	It occurs in Ankasa Game Production Reserve, along with <em>A. strobilacea</em>, in Ghana.
34644		habitat	eng	A species found in swamp forest or along stream banks in wet evergreen forest.
34644		population	eng	Too rare to be recorded in forest inventories.
34644		threats	eng	Although it is common on parts of Mt. Nimba in Liberia, the forest has been cleared extensively by mining operations and by the effects of an increasing population requiring land for farming.
34645		habitat	eng	This species is restricted largely to swampy areas within lowland evergreen rainforest.
34645		threats	eng	The general loss of its habitat, because of commercial forestry activities and mining, has continued at a considerable rate.
34646		distribution	eng	Scattered from Côte d'Ivoire to Democratic Republic of Congo.
34646		habitat	eng	Moist semi-deciduous forest.
34646		population	eng	This species is relatively well represented in population numbers.
34646		threats	eng	Its habitat has substantially reduced in extent because of logging activities and the encroachment of agriculture.
34647		distribution	eng	This timber species is widespread throughout the African tropics.
34647		habitat	eng	Occurring in drier areas of semi-deciduous forest.
34647		threats	eng	The species provides a general-purpose timber and is overexploited in parts of its range. In the timber industry, it is frequently confused with <em>Aningeria robusta</em> (now <em>P. aningeri</em>).
34649		conservation	eng	It is found in Gunung Leuser National Park.
34649		distribution	eng	Collected five times in northern Sumatra.
34649		habitat	eng	A small hemiepiphytic tree. This distinctive species is found in montane forest and along forest edges in deep ravines.
34650		distribution	eng	Restricted to Gunung Sibajak, Sibalangit and Banda Baru of northern Sumatra.
34650		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
34650		population	eng	The species' description was based on eight specimens, the most recent of which was collected in 1983.
34650		threats	eng	The population on Gunung Sibajak is close to a popular tourist destination near Medan. The habitat is also threatened by shifting cultivation.
34651		distribution	eng	This shrubby tree is known from the edges of Río Huallaga in Peru and from a more doubtful collection in Colombia. A record which may be erroneous has also been made in Argentina.
34651		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland rainforest often along rivers.
34652		distribution	eng	Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.
34652		habitat	eng	This species is strictly confined to wet evergreen forest where it is an understorey tree.
34652		threats	eng	General losses of this forest type have been significant over the past century.
34653		distribution	eng	It is endemic to Ethiopia and is found in various localities in the western and south-west highlands.
34653		habitat	eng	A tree of dry <em>Juniperus</em> forest, forest margins and secondary forest.
34654		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread.
34654		habitat	eng	A species of deciduous woodland and scrub.
34654		threats	eng	Used locally as a fuelwood.  It is well collected in Boliva but present in areas which are subject to intense grazing by goats, sheep and cattle.
34655		distribution	eng	A small tree which is common but restricted to the southern dry forests of Ghana, from Tain II Forest Reserve to the Volta region and extending into Togo.
34655		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
34655		threats	eng	Dry forests have suffered the most serious losses of all the forest types in this area. They continue to decline because of fire, felling and agricultural expansion.
34656		distribution	eng	Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and also on Mt. Nzo in Guinea.
34656		habitat	eng	An uncommon small evergreen tree which is confined to areas of upland evergreen forest.
34656		threats	eng	These areas are under pressure from farming, fire, forest management activities and large-scale mining.
34657		distribution	eng	Restricted to small enclaves of moist forest on the north-western highlands of Ethiopia and adjacent parts of Sudan on the Boma Plateau and Mt. Tomadur.
34657		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in moist forest.
34657		population	eng	Common in places.
34657		threats	eng	Large expanses of this forest in Ethiopia have been replaced by coffee plantations in the last two decades.
34658		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is irregular from Côte d'Ivoire to Cameroon. In Ghana it is best known from the Shai Hills. In Cameroon it is known only from an area along the banks of Sanaga River.
34658		habitat	eng	Particularly dry forest, often along river banks.
34658		population	eng	Although generally uncommon, it can occur in some abundance at certain sites.
34658		threats	eng	Its forest habitat, particularly dry forest in Ghana, has experienced serious reductions in extent, mainly because of agricultural expansion, settlement and fires.
34659		distribution	eng	Information is limited, but indicates that the species is endemic to an area extending from northern Argentina into the Rio Uruguay valley in Brazil.
34660		distribution	eng	A hybrid between <em>Q. rugosa</em> and <em>Q. depressipes</em> known from four sites in Chihuahua and one in Durango.
34660		habitat	eng	Submontane woodland or scrub.
34660		population	eng	The subpopulations are isolated and none are believed to be large.
34661		distribution	eng	It is suspected that the species will prove to be threatened when the area of occupancy is calculated, taking into account the altitudinal range of the species.
34662		habitat	eng	Lowland scrub.
34662		population	eng	A number of subpopulations (e.g., Santa Barbara, Hollywood and Griffith Park) have disappeared.
34662		threats	eng	The habitat of the remaining populations is under threat from pollution and the expansion of urban and industrial areas.
34663		distribution	eng	Although widely occurring, the range of the species has probably receded greatly.
34663		threats	eng	Spread and intensification of agriculture.
34664		distribution	eng	Restricted to two subpopulations occupying a narrow band (150 x 10–20 km) from Galeana, Nuevo Leone, to the Miquihrana region in Tamaulipas.
34664		habitat	eng	Occurring in submontane to montane chaparral.
34664		population	eng	A rare species.
34667		distribution	eng	An endemic of Peña Nevada and Miquihuana, locally common, covering an area of less than 500 km².
34667		habitat	eng	Montane pine-oak forest and also chaparral.
34667		threats	eng	Logging activities and overgrazing threaten the habitat.
34668		distribution	eng	Occurring in a few localities in Nigeria and Cameroon and is recently recorded in Ghana.
34668		habitat	eng	An understorey species, a borderline shrub or tree. It occurs in rocky streamside forest.
34668		threats	eng	Populations in unprotected forest have been exposed to extensive logging and clearing for agriculture.
34669		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea.
34669		habitat	eng	A small tree found in dry forest.
34669		threats	eng	Its habitat is most vulnerable to agricultural expansion and the effects of high population growth and fires.
34672		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in many forest habitats and in seasonal swamps.
34672		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the main threat to this species.
34673		habitat	eng	A large tree found in primary forest, secondary swamp forest and on forest margins.
34673		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction.
34674		distribution	eng	Extending from Sierra Leone to Ghana.
34674		habitat	eng	This species occurs only in a restricted wet evergreen forest habitat, generally along rivers.
34674		threats	eng	It is uncommon and has suffered from general declines in this habitat because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34675		distribution	eng	Collected from North Aceh.
34675		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
34675		population	eng	Known from a single collection.
34676		distribution	eng	Collected from Tapanuli and the east coast.
34676		habitat	eng	A small tree.
34676		population	eng	Known from just three collections.
34677		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to Mt. Sago, central and northern Sumatra.
34677		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane and riverine forest.
34678		distribution	eng	Collected from central and south Sumatra.
34678		population	eng	A tree known from two collections.
34679		distribution	eng	This tree is known from five collections on the east and west coast of Sumatra. A collection, which is only doubtfully this species, was taken from Mt. Damoes, West Kalimantan.
34679		habitat	eng	Primary and ravine forest.
34680		distribution	eng	Type collection from the Irdragiri Uplands.
34680		habitat	eng	The subspecies occurs in lowland swamp forest.
34680		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
34681		conservation	eng	It is present in the Gunung Leuser Nature Reserves.
34681		distribution	eng	This tree has been found only in northern Sumatra.
34682		distribution	eng	A rare tree endemic to Kokhida in western Georgia, with a small part of the range extending into Russia along the Black Sea coast.
34682		threats	eng	The population is declining through felling and agriculture.
34683		distribution	eng	Scarcely distributed.
34683		habitat	eng	A species of shrub-thornland and limestone hillsides between 1,300 and 1,600 m.
34685		population	eng	Declines in population numbers have not been recorded.
34685		threats	eng	Extensive forest destruction.
34688		conservation	eng	To enable continued harvesting of this species, it is imperative that a sustainable logging programme is developed. The TROPENBOS Foundation along with scientists like Dr. Hammond are working hard with the forestry companies and officials in Guyana to achieve this. The programme is looking at many aspects including the logging process itself, the retention of stands capable of ensuring continued production , the reduction of collateral damage, the reduction in the size of logging gaps, the creation of suitably large protected areas and general education of both the producers and the consumers.
34688		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorocardium rodiei</em> occurs primarily in Guyana, but is also found in Suriname and possibly in Venezuela but this is unsubstantiated. If the species occurs in western Venezuela it is only likely to be at very low densities. Similarly the species in Suriname is confined to a small area along Maratakka River.
34688		habitat	eng	The species is a dominant component of a restricted belt of lowland rainforest on brown sand and is also found occasionally in other forest types.
34688		threats	eng	Greenheart has been harvested as a commercial timber since the late 1700s, primarily because of the considerable durability and strength of the timber. Estimates based on official reports indicate that almost 4.9 million cubic metres have been harvested since 1850 and that this figure is likely to be closer to 5.5 million cubic metres if unreported harvests are added (Hammond, <em>in litt.</em>). Hammond <em>in litt</em> estimates that this means that between 15.1 and 28.6% of the original population has been harvested. Allegations that production of Greenheart timber has declined significantly over the past 50 years as reported in the <em>The World List of Threatened Trees</em> appear to be unfounded. Hammond <em>in litt.</em> has provided evidence that Greenheart timber production in 1998 was close to 80,000 cubic metres, a similar level of output to that achieved in 1953. Hammond <em>in litt</em> agrees that there was a decline in production between 1963 and 1991, but this was not steady or sustained. It appears this was due to the loss of human capacity and capital resources from the country during that period.  Regeneration in natural stands is very slow and poor germination success inhibits the establishment of plantations. According to work done by TROPENBOS (<em>in litt.</em>) the low growth rates are sufficient to maintain viable populations of the species in undisturbed forests, however, this life strategy is at odds with logging.
34689		distribution	eng	Endemic to north-east Sulawesi, the species has been collected several times.
34689		habitat	eng	From evergreen forest on volcanic soils.
34692		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sulawesi.
34692		habitat	eng	It is found near lowland streams.
34692		population	eng	This species is known from only five collections.
34693		distribution	eng	All collections are from south-east Tanzania.
34693		habitat	eng	Remaining areas of dry coastal forest or bushland.
34693		population	eng	Only four collections of this subspecies have been recorded.
34694		distribution	eng	Central Sulawesi, east of Malili. Sulawesi has the largest tract of forest on ultrabasic rock in the tropics.
34694		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to primary and degraded forest on ultrabasic soils.
34694		threats	eng	It is, at least relatively, secure from conversion to agriculture because of the ultramafic nature of the soil.
34695		distribution	eng	Found on the Moluccan islands of Ceram, Ambon and Sulawesi, including Kabaëna Island. It is running wild in the jungle garden of Singapore's Botanic Garden.
34695		habitat	eng	A forest species.
34696		distribution	eng	A tree collected four or five times in the Talaud Islands. There is a collection from mainland Sulawesi, but it is held in some doubt.
34696		habitat	eng	Old forest at low altitudes on mountain slopes.
34697		distribution	eng	Central Sulawesi, south of Lake Matano. There are no occurrences north of the lake, where the soils have a different origin. It is known from four collections.
34697		habitat	eng	This species is confined to lowland forest on ultrabasic soils.
34698		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Sulawesi.
34698		population	eng	A tree known only from four collections.
34699		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to north and central Sulawesi, from where it has been collected four times, north of Lake Matano. There are no occurrences south of the lake, where the soils have a different origin.
34699		habitat	eng	It occurs on poor soils.
34701		distribution	eng	Found on Bacan, Halmahera, Ternate and Maluku, possibly extending to Waigeo, Irian Jaya. It is known from only a few collections but this could be due to undercollecting in the region. Varieties and subspecies are likely to be identified when more collections are made.
34701		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree.
34702		distribution	eng	South-east Kenya and eastern to south-west Tanzania. It is reported to be common in Diani in Kenya. The type variety is distributed from Central to West Africa.
34702		habitat	eng	A forest tree existing in remaining areas of moist low-altitude forest.
34703		distribution	eng	Scattered populations occur on the Gebel Elba in Sudan and Egypt, from the Tigray region northwards through Eritrea and possibly into Saudi Arabia. There is some intergrading with the other subspecies to the south.
34703		habitat	eng	Evergreen bushland.
34704		habitat	eng	This widespread tree is found in patchy mountain top forests.
34704		threats	eng	It may be threatened in parts of its range i.e., Uganda, Ethiopia and the Comoros.
34705		distribution	eng	Known from single collections from each of the following islands: Morotai, Halmaheira, Ceram and Ambon.
34705		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
34708		distribution	eng	Found on the islands of Ternate, Tidore and Bacan.
34708		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland and montane primary forest.
34709		conservation	eng	Proposals to give the area national park status have failed.
34709		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a forested area near the lake at Taman Hidup in Dataran Tinggi Yang or the Yang Plateau. A variety may possibly occur on Lombok.
34709		threats	eng	The area is relatively isolated, although logging has occurred in the past and commercial plantations have been established.
34710		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected area.
34710		distribution	eng	A species confined to the island of Komodo, a national park, and to West Timor.
34711		distribution	eng	A large tree endemic to Flores Is.
34712		distribution	eng	A tree only known from west Flores at about 800 m.
34713		distribution	eng	Restricted to the north-eastern tip of Somalia.
34713		habitat	eng	A rare evergreen tree of dry and open riverine forest.
34713		threats	eng	Overexploitation and degradation of the forest threaten the species.
34714		habitat	eng	A species of evergreen Guineo-Congolian forests.
34714		threats	eng	Apart from serious habitat losses the species is heavily exploited, with <em>G. afzelii</em>, as a source of chewsticks.
34715		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo (Kinshasa).
34715		habitat	eng	A widespread tree of evergreen forest.
34715		threats	eng	It is probably the most important source of chewsticks. Overexploitation has caused population declines. Seedlings are uncommon and slow-growing.
34716		distribution	eng	From Sierra Leone to Ghana, this species is very rare and has disappeared from previously recorded localities.
34716		habitat	eng	Scattered along riversides in wet evergreen forest.
34716		threats	eng	Habitat losses have been caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34717		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea region.
34717		habitat	eng	A gregarious tree, occurring in swamps in the restricted wet evergreen forest habitat.
34717		threats	eng	Habitat declines have been caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34718		distribution	eng	This small tree is confined to a small area of coastal forest in Santa Catarina.
34718		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
34718		population	eng	Common where it occurs.
34718		threats	eng	The declines in this habitat over centuries have been dramatic.
34719		distribution	eng	Endemic to the state of Thuringia, on the limestone slopes south of Arnstadt.
34719		population	eng	This apomict is found in a population of about 1,000 individuals.
34720		conservation	eng	The area is remote and designated as a nature reserve. Signs of regeneration are evident but they are exceeded in rate by the natural loss of old trees. Attempts at supplementing the existing population of about 500 individuals by planting young trees has met with limited success.
34720		distribution	eng	A small tree known from Glen Diomhan in Arran.
34720		habitat	eng	Occurs in scrub on steep granite crags and in remnant woodland on a stream bank.
34722		distribution	eng	Occurring in oak woodlands, this apomictic species is confined to a small area along the Devon and Somerset coasts.
34722		habitat	eng	Occurring in oak woodlands.
34722		population	eng	Most of the small populations are stable, with the one noted exception being the potentially threatened population above High Town in Minehead.
34723		conservation	eng	Both locations are given limited protection as Sites of Special Scientific Interest and a small number of plants raised from seed have been incorporated into the population.
34723		distribution	eng	Carboniferous limestone cliffs in southern Breconshire.
34723		population	eng	About 20 trees are known in total from two sites.
34723		threats	eng	Quarrying has destroyed some of the former sites.
34724		distribution	eng	Occurs in three small areas in the state of Bayern, northern Bavaria.
34724		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, occurring in beech forest, pine plantation on limestone and at forest edges.
34725		distribution	eng	Populations occur in a small corridor of coast between Culbone in Somerset and an area just west of Trentishoe in Devon. The species is apomictic.
34725		habitat	eng	A small tree, often multi-stemmed from the base. The species grows mainly in oak woodlands.
34725		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to the populations, although inappropriate woodland management and the spread of <em>Rhododendron</em> are potential hazards.
34726		distribution	eng	Found in Catalonia, Aragon, Mallorca, La Rioja and Navarra, possibly extending into France.
34726		habitat	eng	The taxon occurs in dry montane forest.
34726		threats	eng	Fire, forest management activities and hybridisation pose threats to the taxon.
34727		distribution	eng	Confined to an area of less than 200 km² in the mountain range of Fränkische Alb in the state of Bavaria.
34727		habitat	eng	A shrub to medium-sized tree.
34728		conservation	eng	The majority of trees are in the Avon Gorge, where they are under some degree of protection and constructive management.
34728		distribution	eng	Found in the Wye Valley, the Avon Gorge, other locations in Somerset, and also in Bangor in North Wales, a population which was formerly placed under <em>S. porrigentiformis</em>.
34728		habitat	eng	A woodland tree, occurring very locally on carboniferous limestone.
34728		population	eng	About 250 trees exist in total.
34729		habitat	eng	A species found in submontane and montane mixed forest.
34730		conservation	eng	Most sites are protected or inaccessible.
34730		distribution	eng	Found in a number of sites within a 30 km radius of Morecambe Bay.
34730		habitat	eng	A small tree of open woodland or woodland edges, occurring on carboniferous limestone.
34731		conservation	eng	The species is well protected in a number of nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest.
34731		distribution	eng	Occurs locally in small populations, in Devon, north Somerset, the Avon Gorge, Wye Valley, Shropshire, Brecon, Montgomery, Denbigh in the UK and Kerry in Ireland.
34731		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, usually on carboniferous limestone, on the edges of woodland or in scrub.
34731		population	eng	The total population numbers about 600 individuals, the largest subpopulation being on Eglwyseg Mt. in Denbigh.
34731		threats	eng	Subpopulations have been noted to show some variability despite the species being an apomict. It is the product of a cross between <em>S. aucuparia</em> and <em>S. rupicola</em>.
34732		conservation	eng	The area is managed so as to conserve the rare plants.
34732		distribution	eng	Known from both sides of the Avon Gorge in Somerset and Gloucestershire.
34732		habitat	eng	Woodland margins and on cliff edges with other rare <em>Sorbus</em> species.
34732		population	eng	The species is one of the rarest <em>Sorbus</em> species in the UK. As few as 20 trees may remain.
34732		threats	eng	There have been recent reports of the illegal collection and cutting down of trees.
34733		conservation	eng	The species range is almost entirely within a nature reserve and is not considered to be of conservation concern.
34733		distribution	eng	A Croatian endemic, restricted to Velebit Mt.
34733		habitat	eng	Found growing in montane and alpine open dry forest. It is a slow-growing, xerophytic, heliophytic tree.
34734		distribution	eng	Endemic to the states of Bayern and Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany.
34734		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub occurs in woodlands and scrub on upland slopes.
34735		conservation	eng	Most of the population is in Glen Diomhan Nature Reserve.
34735		distribution	eng	Northern Arran.
34735		habitat	eng	Scattered trees are confined to small remnants of woodland, mostly on inaccessible steep slopes, on very acidic soils.
34735		population	eng	About 500 plants remain in the two known sites.
34735		threats	eng	Regeneration is believed to be insufficient for recruitment and grazing deer and sheep contribute to this failing.
34736		distribution	eng	This tree is restricted to the limestone slopes south of Arnstadt in Thuringia.
34736		population	eng	There are fewer than 50 individuals.
34737		distribution	eng	Confined to the limestone area between the villages of Heilingen and Reinstädt in the state of Thuringia, this large tree has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km².
34738		distribution	eng	Restricted to a single locality on the southern slope of a hill in Greifenstein near Blakenburg in the state of Thuringia, this species occurs within an area of 100 km².
34739		conservation	eng	Both sites are given some form of protection.
34739		distribution	eng	Found at two sites in Breconshire.
34739		habitat	eng	A sprawling tree known only fromsubpopulations on shady crags of carboniferous limestone.
34739		population	eng	The subpopulation is stable and inaccessible to grazing animals. The latest count uncovered 44 trees. A small subpopulation of very similar trees is found at Craig Breidden in Montgomery. Further studies are needed to consolidate whether it belongs to this species.
34740		conservation	eng	Japan has apparently turned to importing <em>C. lawsoniana</em> from the USA because of the low levels of supply of the native species. A ban on logging is now in effect.
34740		distribution	eng	Remnant populations are known to occur in South Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu Islands.
34740		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
34740		threats	eng	There is concern over this species because of the extent of timber exploitation.
34741		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Avon Gorge, both the Somerset and Gloucestershire sides.
34741		habitat	eng	The species occurs on carboniferous limestone in woodland and scrub.
34741		population	eng	A population of about 100 plants exists and is increasing in number.
34743		distribution	eng	Native stands of the type variety of Monterey Pine are found in three distinct areas of central-coastal California in San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Monterey, and San Luis Obispo Counties. The northernmost stand is east of point Año Nuevo, the central stand 48 km to the south near Monterey and Carmel, and the southernmost stand about 105 km away in the Pico Creek-Cambria area. The north-south range is about 209 km. <br/> <br/>The area occupied by natural stands of Monterey Pine was once well defined, even though estimates of the total area ranged from 4,860 to 6,480 ha. Precise natural limits, however, are now difficult to determine because of conspicuous amounts of new regeneration. The southern part of the forest at Año Nuevo, for example, is estimated to have increased by as much as 95 ha in recent decades. Additional trees have been planted, and these have also produced seed that led to many acres of new reproduction. Nevertheless, the total area currently occupied probably is thought to be no more than 8,000 ha.
34743		habitat	eng	Monterey Pine is part of the coastal closed-cone coniferous woodland. This habitat is strongly influenced by its proximity to the Pacific Ocean from which the cold waters of southward-flowing currents result in high humidity, low temperatures, and summer fogs. The pine is seldom found more than 11 km from the sea. <br/> <br/>Fire is a major influence affecting the extent and makeup of Monterey Pine stands. Fire is frequent, sometimes of natural causes, often accidental, and sometimes deliberately set. Graziers at Cambria, for example, burned the woods to obtain more grass. At Año Nuevo, frequent fires have helped to maintain the pine forest. Without fire, the taller and longer-lived coast Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em> var. <em>menziesii</em>) would usurp land occupied by pines. Much regeneration and a number of even-aged stands at all three main locations can be traced directly to the influence of fire.
34743		threats	eng	Only half of the historical range remains undeveloped on the Monterey Peninsula. Further land developments, genetic contamination (from ornamental plants), pine pitch canker disease and forest fragmentation are of concern. The three remaining native stands of var. <em>radiata</em> are infected and under threat of extinction from pitch canker, a fungal disease (caused by the fungus <em>Fusarium circinatum</em>) native to the southeast United States and found (in 1986) to have been introduced to California. When trees begin to die of the disease, they attract bark beetles which provide a pathway for infection of other trees. In some stands, 80-90% of trees are infected. The current status of this taxon therefore needs to be reassessed.
34744		distribution	eng	Known from the two largest islands.
34744		habitat	eng	Found in areas of dense forest or forest patches and at the higher elevations on forested crests, ridges and hillsides.
34744		population	eng	The species has been collected on numerous occasions.
34744		threats	eng	The hard wood is valued as a timber.
34745		habitat	eng	Moist upland forest.
34745		population	eng	This tree may be found in some abundance in eastern Tanzania.
34746		distribution	eng	Populations are considered threatened at a national level in Ecuador, Mexico and throughout Central America.
34746		habitat	eng	A common canopy tree of lowland seasonal rainforest.
34746		threats	eng	General habitat losses have been considerable in the last 50 years.
34747		habitat	eng	A large emergent tree, sparsely scattered in areas of lowland non-flooded rainforest, such as Atlantic forest, mesophyllous, riverine or hygrophyllous forest and semi-deciduous woodland. Large trees also remain in agricultural areas and coffee plantations.
34747		threats	eng	Populations frequently occur on fertile land and considerable habitat loss has caused declines in the species.
34748		distribution	eng	The Colombian subpopulation is considered to be Endangered. In Panama, the largest subpopulations are found in the Canal area and in Darién. It is one of the few trees often left uncut after forest clearance because its large size makes handling difficult. Solitary individuals and scattered subpopulations are distributed throughout the rest of Panama, and in neighbouring Central American countries it is relatively common.
34748		habitat	eng	A widely distributed species, occurring in lowland rainforest and in areas which have been disturbed or cleared of forest.
34749		distribution	eng	Occurring from Mexico to the north of South America.
34749		habitat	eng	The species is widespread in various types of forest, mostly in areas of low precipitation. Regeneration is frequent, especially in areas which have been cleared.
34750		conservation	eng	Occurs in Ilha do Cardosa Forest Reserve in Sâo Paulo.
34750		distribution	eng	The extent of occurrence of this species is relatively wide.
34750		habitat	eng	It is found in both restinga vegetation and lowland rainforest.
34751		distribution	eng	A widespread Fijian endemic, occurring on six islands.
34751		habitat	eng	Open and closed forest, in dry gullies and along riversides.
34751		threats	eng	The species has commercial value as a timber.
34752		habitat	eng	A widespread tree found in forest and seasonal swamp up to 1,570 m.
34752		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a potential threat to the species.
34753		habitat	eng	Found up to 1,000 m, this widespread tree occurs in forest.
34753		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by habitat loss.
34754		distribution	eng	A single small population is confined to Chingshan in the centre of the island.
34754		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry open forest at 1,100 m.
34754		threats	eng	The area is given no protection and is somewhat threatened by increasing settlement. Regeneration appears to be poor.
34755		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Arishan area.
34755		habitat	eng	scattered in mixed evergreen forest between 1,500 and 2,200 m.
34755		threats	eng	Populations are unprotected and the area susceptible to forest management activities and expanding settlement.
34756		distribution	eng	The species is scattered in small subpopulations throughout the central mountain range.
34756		habitat	eng	Usually an epiphytic shrub occurring in broadleaved evergreen forest at medium elevations.
34756		threats	eng	Some subpopulations are protected in Yushan National Park; others are under pressure from encroaching housing developments.
34757		distribution	eng	Endemic to the central mountain range on Taiwan, the species occurs in scattered subpopulations.
34757		habitat	eng	Montane coniferous forest and woodland scrub.
34757		threats	eng	Regeneration is reported to be poor and no conservation or protection measures are in place.
34758		habitat	eng	A fairly common tree of forest and kerangas.
34758		threats	eng	Possibly threatened in the future by habitat loss.
34759		habitat	eng	Found up to 1,700 m, this tree grows in primary and secondary forest as well as peat swamp forest.
34759		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat to this species.
34760		habitat	eng	Usually found in secondary forest.
34760		threats	eng	Potentially under threat from habitat destruction.
34761		habitat	eng	A species of lowland, hill and ridge forest up to 1,740 m.
34761		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by habitat destruction.
34762		habitat	eng	A common tree found in both primary and secondary forest.
34762		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat to this species.
34763		habitat	eng	A widespread, variable species of various habitat types, occurring up to 2,100 m.
34763		threats	eng	Habitat destruction could be a serious threat in the near future.
34764		habitat	eng	A widespread species found in the understorey of many different forest types.
34764		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat.
34766		distribution	eng	A species confined to remaining forested areas in south-east Nigeria and neighbouring Cameroon. In Nigeria the largest, if not only, population is in the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park. It appears to be relatively widespread in Cameroon.
34766		threats	eng	Deforestation and clearance for agriculture have been extensive outside protected areas.
34767		conservation	eng	There is an occurrence in the Oban Hills, where the population is protected.
34767		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only in south-east Nigeria and neighbouring Cameroon.
34767		threats	eng	Unprotected forests have been heavily logged and cleared for commercial and subsistence agriculture
34768		conservation	eng	It occurs and is protected in the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.
34768		distribution	eng	Confined to an area extending from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon.
34768		population	eng	This understorey tree is not uncommon.
34768		threats	eng	Outside protected areas deforestation has occurred on a large scale.
34769		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are recorded in the Oban Hills of Cross River National Park in Nigeria and from Douala, Edea and Korup National Park in Cameroon.
34769		distribution	eng	A morphologically distinctive species. It is confined to forested areas extending from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon.
34769		threats	eng	Outside protected areas large-scale deforestation has taken place.
34770		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas.
34770		distribution	eng	The range of this tree extends from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon. Populations are recorded in the Oban Hills of Cross River National Park in Nigeria and in Korup National Park, Masaka-Batanga and the Douala area in Cameroon.
34770		habitat	eng	Small lowland rainforest tree.
34770		threats	eng	Outside protected areas there has been extensive deforestation.
34771		conservation	eng	Found in Korup national park.
34771		distribution	eng	The range extends from south-east Nigeria, including the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park, to Cameroon, where it is known from several localities including Mt. Cameroon, Korup National Park, Kribi, Kompina, Mamfe, Kumba and Campo.
34771		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland rainforest and secondary forest.
34771		threats	eng	Unprotected forested areas have been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.
34772		distribution	eng	Its range extends from south-eastern Nigeria, (although it does not appear to occur in Cross River National Park), to Cameroon, where it has been recorded from Japoma, Dibamba, Eseka, Kribi, Ebolowa and Campo.
34772		habitat	eng	A species with a scattered occurrence in lowland rainforest, especially in swampy areas or along river banks.
34772		threats	eng	Unprotected areas have been extensively logged and cleared for agriculture.
34773		distribution	eng	The species ranges from south-east Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea.
34773		habitat	eng	The species appears to be abundant in secondary and disturbed forest.
34773		threats	eng	Habitat clearance and logging have caused declines in the extent of lowland forest throughout its range.
34774		distribution	eng	Extending from south-eastern Nigeria to Cameroon. There is a subpopulation in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and in Cameroon the species is recorded in Ebone, Mantoum and Mt. Cameroon.
34774		habitat	eng	The species is found sparsely distributed in patches of old secondary and disturbed forest.
34774		threats	eng	Unprotected forests have been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.
34775		conservation	eng	The largest remaining forested area is contained within Oban Hills in Cross River National Park in Nigeria and the contiguous Korup National Park in Cameroon.
34775		distribution	eng	Confined to forest patches in south-east Nigeria and neighbouring parts of Cameroon (SE Nigeria (one collection); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (six collections), Kumba, Kumba-Mamfe (one collection each), Bipindi (six collections); Gabon: Koumemayong (one collection)).
34775		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 200 m alt.
34775		population	eng	A rare species.
34775		threats	eng	Outside of protected areas forest has been comprehensively logged and cleared for agriculture.
34776		distribution	eng	A forest species scattered within an area extending from south-east Nigeria into Cameroon. It is not recorded in the Oban Hills.
34776		population	eng	The present status of remaining populations is unknown and may be more seriously threatened.
34776		threats	eng	Its habitat outside protected areas has experienced heavy declines because of logging and clearing for commercial and subsistence agriculture.
34777		conservation	eng	Subpopulations in the Oban Hills, in Cross River National Park, are protected.
34777		distribution	eng	A small forest tree which occurs within a range extending from south-east Nigeria just into Cameroon.
34777		threats	eng	There has been extensive deforestation in the surrounding area.
34778		conservation	eng	The Nigerian population occurs in the Oban Hills, in Cross River National Park.
34778		distribution	eng	A morphologically unusual and rare <em>Baphia</em> species, which is confined to an area extending from south-east Nigeria into adjacent parts of Cameroon.
34778		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been heavily logged and taken over for cultivation.
34779		distribution	eng	A small forest tree, similar to <em>M. macrophylla</em>, with a range extending from south-east Nigeria into Cameroon.
34779		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.
34780		conservation	eng	The best hope for the survival of this species is in well-protected lowland forest reserves, such as Korup. Future plans to better protect the Mungo River F.R. should also help secure the survival of this tree.
34780		distribution	eng	A small forest tree which occurs in areas of remaining forest, ranging from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon. Also recorded from Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). There are only eight collections in the Kew Herbarium from Cameroon.
34780		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 400 m alt.
34780		threats	eng	Unprotected forest has been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.
34782		conservation	eng	There is a protected subpopulation in the Oban Hills, in Cross River National Park, Nigeria.
34782		distribution	eng	Found in Upper Guinea, extending across the Dahomey Gap to Nigeria and into Cameroon.
34782		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland rain forest.
34782		threats	eng	Unprotected forests have been heavily logged and cleared for commercial and subsistence agriculture. Mining, logging and the establishment of industrial plantations have also caused decline in parts of Upper Guinea.
34783		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kanching Forest Reserve in Selangor and Gunung Bubu in Perak, where some protection is provided.
34783		distribution	eng	Although few collections have been made, the species is expected to be more widespread.
34783		habitat	eng	Lowland and submontane forest.
34784		distribution	eng	A population of unproductive individuals is believed to exist on a wooded hillside in Fengkang. Populations are also recorded from Chuhai and Huiyang in China, and Hong Kong.
34784		threats	eng	A heavily-exploited ornamental species. Overcollecting in Taiwan, has led to the complete absence of mature trees in the wild.
34785		distribution	eng	Confined to Upper Guinea.
34785		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
34785		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
34785		threats	eng	The forest has declined over the past decades as a result of logging, mining and commercial forestry activities.
34786		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea.
34786		habitat	eng	A species which is confined to riversides or swampy areas within lowland wet evergreen forest.
34786		threats	eng	Losses of this habitat through felling for timber, mining and planting of commercial species have been extensive.
34787		distribution	eng	Populations occur in the Tana River area and Kwale in south-east Kenya and in eastern Tanzania.
34787		habitat	eng	A species restricted to patches of riverine forest and moist forest.
34789		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Tanzania to northern Mozambique.
34789		habitat	eng	This species is found only in patches of dry forest.
34789		threats	eng	The habitat has suffered extensively from the exploitation of timber resources and agricultural encroachment.
34790		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known to occur in south-east Tanzania and further south in neighbouring Mozambique.
34790		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
34791		distribution	eng	It is known from the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mts. In the latter, populations are confined to Muraihara and Lulanda.
34791		habitat	eng	A small montane forest tree.
34793		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur within national park boundaries.
34793		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known to occur in upland areas of  Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Ishasha Gorge and Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda and also in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
34794		distribution	eng	Known only from the West Usambara Mts.
34794		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane <em>Juniperus</em> forest.
34794		population	eng	The species occurs in montane <em>Juniperus</em> forest, which has been reduced to 11% of its original cover.
34794		threats	eng	Establishment of commercial pine plantations and the excision of the Shume-Magamba Forest Reserve for local cultivation.
34795		distribution	eng	Confined to the Usambara and Udzungwa Mts., the species is known from four localities at Shume-Magamba, Mwanihara, Myumbenito and Monga.
34795		habitat	eng	Moist forest above 1,000 m.
34796		distribution	eng	The species ranges in south-east Tanzania.
34796		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist semi-deciduous forest remnants.
34797		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree which is known from remnant dry forest patches occurring in the Taita Hills in Kenya, and further south in Tanzania and Zanzibar.
34797		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
34798		distribution	eng	It occurs in abundance in the Kibwezi -Taita area, where the two varieties coexist and interbreed.
34798		habitat	eng	A tree of <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland or open woodland.
34799		distribution	eng	A small tree with a fragmented range restricted to parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia, central and northern Somalia and eastern Kenya.
34799		threats	eng	The habitat has been degraded in places because of farming activities and overcutting for charcoal production.
34800		distribution	eng	A species known only from northern Uganda and neighbouring Sudan.
34800		habitat	eng	Savannah.
34801		distribution	eng	Most specimens of the species in Kenya are ssp. <em>brevicaudata</em>. This subspecies survives only near Kibwezi and on Emali Hill.
34801		habitat	eng	Coastal forest patches.
34802		distribution	eng	East Tanzania and the Gorongosa Mountains in Mozambique.
34802		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in dry evergreen forest at elevations between 1,100 and 1,800 m.
34803		distribution	eng	Although the species is widespread in Africa, from east to west, this subspecies is very rare. Few records of it exist in Ghana.
34803		habitat	eng	Range of forest types.
34804		distribution	eng	Only known from the Taitung coast where it occurs abundantly in a single small location.
34804		habitat	eng	Dry scrub.
34804		threats	eng	There are no conservation or protection measures in place and habitat clearance for agriculture or housing threatens much of the area.
34805		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Upper Guinea region.
34805		habitat	eng	Occurs in dry forests.
34805		population	eng	More information is needed on this species to confirm the status. It is not common.
34805		threats	eng	Dry forests have suffered extensively from the effects of human population growth, agricultural expansion and fire.
34806		distribution	eng	From an unusual genus of five species, this tree is found at low densities in a few localities from Upper and Lower Guinea. In Ghana, it occurs in Atewa and also Cape Three Points and Ankasa Game Park Reserves.
34806		population	eng	Population numbers have been observed to decline rapidly.
34806		threats	eng	Much of its habitat has been lost to agriculture, mining and logging.
34807		distribution	eng	Ranging from Sierra Leone to Ghana.
34807		habitat	eng	This species is largely confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.
34807		threats	eng	Loss of its habitat over the past decades has been caused by mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.
34808		habitat	eng	A species of various rainforest types.
34808		population	eng	Locally common in places. The current category applied should be kept under review.
34808		threats	eng	Levels of exploitation for its timber are moderate and are contributing to the declines in population numbers.
34809		distribution	eng	Widely occurring from Sierra Leone to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
34809		habitat	eng	This species is confined to the more restricted wetter evergreen forests.
34809		threats	eng	In certain areas, forests have been heavily logged and destroyed by oil exploration, mining and commercial forestry operations.
34810		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
34810		population	eng	A species which occurs commonly but only within a restricted and reduced area.
34810		threats	eng	This habitat has experienced significant pressure from mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34811		distribution	eng	The range of this rare tree is almost confined to medium elevations in the Nimba Mts. in Liberia, possibly extending into Sierra Leone. It is also recorded in Ghana.
34811		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest (Ghana).
34811		threats	eng	Mining for iron-ore, logging, the establishment of commercial plantations and the influx of people into these areas have caused large-scale destruction of the habitat.
34812		distribution	eng	Found on both sides of the Dahomey Gap where it can be common. It is a slow-growing species from a monotypic genus.
34812		habitat	eng	Small understorey tree confined to areas of wet evergreen forest.
34812		threats	eng	There has been significant loss of this forest in all countries because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34813		distribution	eng	A species which can occur in some abundance, at least in Ghana.
34813		habitat	eng	It is generally confined to wet evergreen forest, especially in upland areas.
34813		threats	eng	Much of the forest in the area has been adversely affected by mining, logging and commercial planting operations.
34814		distribution	eng	Found solely in Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire, this species is restricted to small areas.
34814		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen forest.
34814		threats	eng	Deforestation in this area has been caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry operations.
34815		distribution	eng	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.
34815		habitat	eng	A species restricted to areas of moist evergreen forest.
34815		threats	eng	Losses in the forest habitat have been incurred from mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34816		distribution	eng	This a common tree in Ghana. Restricted to the Upper Guinea region.
34816		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
34816		threats	eng	A large part of the habitat has suffered losses because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34817		habitat	eng	Like <em>P. attenuatus</em>, this species occurs in remnants of coastal forest.  It is also found in areas of less disturbed wet evergreen or riverine  forest but only in the Upper Guinea region.
34817		threats	eng	The effects of farming, fuelwood collection and commercial forestry have been severe.
34818		distribution	eng	Located in southern Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria.
34818		habitat	eng	Severely degraded dry forests.
34818		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
34818		threats	eng	These areas are vulnerable to the effects of population growth and associated activities.
34819		distribution	eng	A species known from the restricted wet evergreen forests of the Upper Guinea region.
34819		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
34819		threats	eng	The extent of these forests have declined because of mining, logging and the establishment of industrial plantations.
34820		habitat	eng	A species which is rare and confined to small areas of swamp or riverine areas within evergreen forest.
34820		threats	eng	These areas have suffered losses from mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34821		distribution	eng	The range of this species is confined to restricted areas in Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire. This species is hard to distinguish from a common species, <em>T. monadelpha</em>, and it is likely that it continues to  be overlooked.
34821		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
34821		threats	eng	The forest has suffered declines caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.
34824		distribution	eng	Few records exist of this species. Found in the Upper Guinea region.
34824		habitat	eng	It is confined to wet evergreen forest (an understorey tree).
34824		threats	eng	Mining, logging and the establishment of industrial plantations have caused the decline of a significant proportion of this forest type.
34826		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread, the species' range extends from Liberia to Cameroon.
34826		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry forests.
34826		threats	eng	Dry forests have been heavily degraded and lost to agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fire and in some cases the introduction of invasive species such as the neem tree.
34827		distribution	eng	From eastern Tanzania, also said to occur in south-east Kenya.
34827		habitat	eng	A dry coastal forest species.
34828		distribution	eng	Extending from Côte d'Ivoire to Cameroon.
34828		habitat	eng	A swamp forest tree.
34828		threats	eng	The range of this forest type is restricted and has declined because of mining, logging and other commercial forestry activities in all areas.  Although much forest remains in Gabon, it is now largely under concession to logging companies.
34829		distribution	eng	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.
34829		habitat	eng	A species restricted to small areas of wet evergreen forest.
34829		threats	eng	This forest has declined through the effects of mining, logging and other commercial forestry activities.
34830		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Guinea region.
34830		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest in rocky or upland areas.
34830		population	eng	Not commonly recorded.
34830		threats	eng	The habitat has suffered from the effects of farming, fire, certain forestry management systems and large-scale mining.
34831		distribution	eng	Endemic to the coastal forests of Tanzania. Subpopulations have been recorded at four localities: Lake Lutamba, which has been cleared except for the 10 km² of Litipo Forest Reserve, Namatogoro, Mpangapanga Ridge and Nahomba Valley.
34831		habitat	eng	A species of dry forest or woodland formations.
34832		distribution	eng	As with other varieties of this East African endemic, this taxon is restricted in range. Occur on two separate mountains. In the Udzungwa range there are populations at Mwanihana and Chita and to the east in Malundwe National Park.
34832		habitat	eng	It occurs from lowland to submontane elevations in areas of moist forest.
34833		conservation	eng	It is contained within reserves over most of its range.
34833		distribution	eng	Restricted to south-east Kenya and eastern Tanzania.
34833		habitat	eng	This variant occurs within moist forest at high elevations.
34834		conservation	eng	Current forestry management activities are discouraging illegal activities.
34834		distribution	eng	The species range now appears to be confined to the undisturbed areas of Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).
34834		threats	eng	Logging, planting of commercial timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection in the past have caused disturbance to much of the forest.
34835		conservation	eng	Occurs in several forest reserves: Witu, Mrima, Kwamgumi and Rondo. Also in Shimba Hills National Reserve and Mafia Marine Park.
34835		distribution	eng	A Kenyan and Tanzanian coastal species, also found on all the Tanzanian islands.
34835		habitat	eng	A small tree growing in coastal forest.
34835		population	eng	Reasonably common where it occurs.
34835		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to the coastal forests, including expanding agriculture, tourism, mining, etc.
34836		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea.
34836		habitat	eng	An uncommon species restricted to wet evergreen forest.
34836		threats	eng	General losses to this habitat have been caused by mining activities, logging and commercial planting.
34837		distribution	eng	Rare in Ghana and largely confined to Tai National Park in south-west Côte d'Ivoire.
34837		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
34837		threats	eng	This species has suffered extensive logging of its habitat, the effects of mining and the establishment of commercial plantations.
34838		conservation	eng	Occurs within protected area.
34838		distribution	eng	In Uganda it occurs in Ishasha Gorge and Kayonza Forest in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.
34838		habitat	eng	A tree of mid-altitude rainforest.
34838		population	eng	There is no information on populations elsewhere.
34838		threats	eng	There are reports that regeneration is poor because seed dispersal agents are lacking. If it is assumed that the species occurs in Mayombe, subpopulations there are under heavy  pressure from logging and overcutting for charcoal.
34839		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Tanzania into little-known areas of Mozambique.
34839		habitat	eng	A dry coastal forest species.
34840		distribution	eng	Confined to the West Usambara Mts. at Shagayu and Shuwe-Magamba.
34840		habitat	eng	A moist montane forest species.
34841		distribution	eng	A subspecies which appears to extend from Tanzania into Malawi. In Tanzania records are known from the East Usambara Mts., North Uluguru Mts., Udzungwa Mts. and Rungwe Mt.
34841		habitat	eng	Confined to the remaining moist forest areas at submontane to montane elevations.
34842		distribution	eng	Confined to the Mombo Forest Reserve, Makuyuni.
34842		habitat	eng	A dry forest species.
34843		distribution	eng	A Tanzanian endemic restricted to areas in the east and south-east.
34843		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
34844		conservation	eng	Forest management work in the forest reserve is discouraging further illegal activities and encroachment.
34844		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from two populations confined to the remaining forested areas on the Rondo Plateau and Lake Lutamba. It is thought that only 5 km² of the original undisturbed forest remains. Lake Lutamba has been largely cleared of forest except for 10 km² contained within the Litipo Forest Reserve.
34844		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry coastal forest.
34844		threats	eng	The forest on the Rondo Plateau has been heavily disturbed by previous activities, especially logging and shifting cultivation.
34845		conservation	eng	The presence of active forestry measures is helping to discourage local exploitation.
34845		distribution	eng	Now thought to be confined to undisturbed areas of the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).
34845		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
34845		threats	eng	Disturbance in the past has been severe as a result of logging, planting of exotic timbers, shifting cultivation and  wood collection.
34846		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread in Kenya extending into north-east Tanzania.
34846		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in evergreen coastal forest and rocky woodland or bushland along rivers.
34847		distribution	eng	Restricted to central Chile in the Coastal Cordillera, subandean range and central plains.
34847		habitat	eng	The species occurs in moist seasonal forest.
34847		threats	eng	It is of some importance as a timber and is under threat from overexploitation in the north of its range.
34848		conservation	eng	An active conservation programme is now in place.
34848		distribution	eng	East Usambara Mts. A population reported from the Katanga range in Democratic Republic of Congo is considered to be distinct but the taxonomy is not yet published.
34848		habitat	eng	The entire population of this variant is believed to be restricted to moist evergreen forest at relatively low elevations.
34848		threats	eng	Heavy declines and exploitation of the forest have occurred in the past. There is continued pressure from the growing human population.
34852		distribution	eng	The largest of the South American <em>Nothofagus</em>.
34852		habitat	eng	An important component of numerous forest and soil types.
34853		distribution	eng	Niassa Province, Mozambique, and south-east and east Tanzania.
34853		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas of dry coastal forest.
34854		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Albertine Rift along the Waki River in Uganda and Lake Albert in Democratic Republic of Congo.
34854		habitat	eng	Confined to upland forest margins.
34856		distribution	eng	The type was collected from the bank of the Mbakana River in the southern Uluguru Mts. It could represent a form of a more widespread species.
34856		population	eng	The type specimen is the only record of this species.
34857		distribution	eng	An African Dipterocarp. It is cited as occurring at Lake Lutamba, where the only remaining forest is contained within Litipo Forest Reserve (10 km²).
34857		threats	eng	Logging, clearing of the forest for agriculture and wood collection have taken place in the past and continue to put pressure on the reserve.
34858		distribution	eng	From Nchisi Forest in Malawi to eastern Tanzania.
34858		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to areas of moist forest at medium elevations.
34859		conservation	eng	Two forest guards are employed by the Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project to prevent illegal activities.
34859		distribution	eng	The East African form of a taxon also occurring as a distinct subspecies in Chirinda forest, Zimbabwe, and thereafter only in Madagascar. This subspecies is confined to a 4 km² patch of  forest contained within Kimboza Forest Reserve.
34859		habitat	eng	Moist forest on limestone.
34859		threats	eng	The surrounding area is densely populated.
34860		distribution	eng	A variety endemic to the West Usambara Mts.
34860		habitat	eng	Found in moist semi-deciduous forest at elevations above 1,675 m.
34861		habitat	eng	A dry montane forest shrub or small tree.
34862		distribution	eng	Njombe, Udzungwa Mts. and Ukaguru.
34862		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are restricted to areas of moist montane forest.
34863		distribution	eng	A single population is known in the Udzungwa Mts.
34863		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
34864		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji and widespread throughout the archipelago.
34864		habitat	eng	The species is found at the edges of rocky shores and mangrove swamps or in dense forest up to 750 m.
34864		threats	eng	The timber is prized for ship and canoe-building.
34866		distribution	eng	Endemic to the East Usambara Mts.
34866		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.
34867		distribution	eng	Known from low elevations in the East Usambara Mts. and at Lipindi  in Tanzania. The species also occurs in Mozambique.
34867		habitat	eng	Dry forest tree.
34868		distribution	eng	The type was collected at Kiwanda along the Sigi River in the East Usambara Mts.
34868		population	eng	A poorly known tree recorded only from the type.
34869		conservation	eng	The forests are categorised as catchment forest reserves.
34869		distribution	eng	Mbeya range and the nearby Mt. Rungwe.
34869		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub or a small tree known only from moist montane forest.
34869		threats	eng	Fire is causing a decline in their extent in the Mbeya range.
34870		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Shimba Hills, Rabai and Dzombo in south-east Kenya and parts of eastern Tanzania.
34870		habitat	eng	A taxon of dry coastal forest.
34870		threats	eng	It has suffered from habitat degradation in much of its range.
34871		distribution	eng	It ranges from Buda, Marenge, Shimba, Arabuko and Mangea in Kenya to areas of east and south-east Tanzania.
34871		habitat	eng	A sometimes scrambling shrub or small tree from moist coastal forests.
34872		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Udzungwa Mts. at Sanje.
34872		habitat	eng	Restricted to an area of moist montane forest.
34873		distribution	eng	The East African member of this small tropical African genus. It is endemic to the North Udzungwa Mts.
34873		habitat	eng	Found in moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.
34874		distribution	eng	Known only from a few collections, this species is confined to the South Nguru Mts. There is also a collection from Kasigau in Kenya.
34874		habitat	eng	Upper moist evergreen forest (1,200–2,000 m).
34875		conservation	eng	Logging in the past has removed all valuable timbers and has now been banned.
34875		distribution	eng	The entire population is restricted to Litipo Forest Reserve, which covers 10 km².
34875		habitat	eng	This is a unique, almost completely deciduous patch of coastal forest.
34875		threats	eng	There is some pressure from pole and fuelwood collection inside the southern perimeter and also generally from the demand for land for the cultivation of cash crops in the surrounding area.
34876		distribution	eng	This tree occurs at Luhomero.
34876		habitat	eng	Moist forest at 1,750 m.
34876		population	eng	Known only from the type.
34877		distribution	eng	An Afromontane tree with an unusually disjunct distribution. The Cameroon subpopulations are Bamboutos Mts. (one collection in 1974), Ijim (one collection in 1996). The species may possibly be extinct in Cameroon now and survive only in Malawi and the Eastern Arc Mts. of Tanzania.
34877		habitat	eng	Montane forest 1,500-2,100 m alt.
34877		threats	eng	Forest clearance.
34878		conservation	eng	Two forest guards, working under the Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project, are preventing illegal cutting and encroachment.
34878		distribution	eng	A treelet known only from the Kimboza Forest Reserve, a 4 km²  patch of coastal forest at the foot of the Uluguru Mts.
34878		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
34878		threats	eng	The forest has already been cleared of valuable timber and planted with exotic timbers, of which a <em> Cedrela</em> species has become invasive. The surrounding area is densely populated and the demand for agricultural land is strong.
34879		distribution	eng	An endemic of the East Usambara Mts.
34879		habitat	eng	Collected in an area of moist evergreen forest at 800 m.
34879		population	eng	It is known only from the type.
34880		conservation	eng	The Mwanihana subpopulation is within a national park.
34880		distribution	eng	A Tanzanian endemic. Two subpopulations are known, from the vicinity of Ifakara and at Mwanihana in the Udzungwa Mts.
34880		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
34880		threats	eng	The habitat has declined rapidly in the past and is now widely taken over by agricultural land.
34881		distribution	eng	Endemic to Arusha National Park, where it is confined to the Ngurdoto Crater to the east of Mt. Meru.
34881		habitat	eng	A dry montane forest species.
34882		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from the East Usambara Mts., the Uluguru Mts. and the Udzungwa Mts.
34882		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist forest at medium elevation.
34883		distribution	eng	A variety which is confined to the East Usambara Mts. The second variety is endemic to East Africa but widespread.
34883		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
34883		threats	eng	The habitat which has declined considerably in the past because of conversion to agricultural land.
34884		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a range extending from Vohémar to Manakara.
34884		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
34884		population	eng	The forest type is much reduced in extent.
34885		distribution	eng	This species is found in the north-west and south-west in Antsiranana, and from Morondava to Toliary.
34885		habitat	eng	In lowland areas of primary tropophilic forest, wooded savannah and clearings.
34886		distribution	eng	A species confined to the south-west.
34886		habitat	eng	Areas of tropophilic forest up to 600 m.
34887		conservation	eng	Several protected areas fall within its distribution.
34887		distribution	eng	A deciduous tree, widespread in western and northern Madagascar. Its distribution is estimated to be 200,000 km² (EOO).
34887		habitat	eng	Confined to highly fragmented areas of native vegetation.
34888		distribution	eng	In the north-west, the species occurs in Mahajanga, Port-Bergé, Mitsinjo, Ambilobe and also on the Comoros; further east on the mainland in Vohémas, Ambila and Mananjary.
34888		habitat	eng	Populations are found in rainforest, along rivers, salt-water marshes and also in degraded forest.
34888		threats	eng	Both habitat and trees have been heavily exploited.
34889		distribution	eng	Confined to the east coast, the species occurs in three disjunct areas between Antalaha and Ambila.
34889		habitat	eng	It is found in sublittoral rainforest.
34890		conservation	eng	The area is protected.
34890		distribution	eng	This subspecies has a very restricted distribution, confined to Potberg Mt. in De Hoop Nature Reserve in the southern Cape.
34890		habitat	eng	It grows on the lower slopes and flats at the base of the mountain in fynbos in both sparse and dense isolated stands.
34890		population	eng	There is no evidence of a population decline, but frequent fires in the past may have had some impact. An estimated 2000 plants exist within an area of 15 km² (AOO).
34890		threats	eng	Invasion by alien pine trees and hakeas. Frequent fires could still pose a threat, as they may not allow sufficient time for plants to regenerate.
34891		distribution	eng	Restricted to the mountains in East Anatolia in Erzurum, Bingôl and Bitlis Provinces.
34891		habitat	eng	A tree of riverbanks, stream sides and swampy places.
34892		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in middle elevations in dry areas.
34892		threats	eng	Population numbers have been observed to decline through the effects of growing settlement and agriculture, pests and diseases and industrial development.
34893		distribution	eng	Has a restricted range.
34893		habitat	eng	Montane dry scrub and woodlands.
34893		threats	eng	The species is under some threat from grazing and cutting.
34894		conservation	eng	Occurs within national park boundaries.
34894		distribution	eng	A endemic to Hatila National Park.
34899		habitat	eng	Occurring in beech forest.
34899		population	eng	Recorded as a small tree, the species is known from very few adult plants.
34899		threats	eng	Seedlings and saplings are heavily browsed by deer and possums.
34900		distribution	eng	In the North Island only three localities are known and occurrences have been recorded from Nelson, Westland and Canterbury in the South Island.
34900		habitat	eng	A small tree with divaricating branches, found in lowland <em>kahikatea</em>/<em>matai</em> forest, frost flats and clearings.
34900		threats	eng	There is evidence suggesting the species to be a poor competitor, suffering from the lack of periodic disturbance and sites available for recolonisation.
34901		habitat	eng	Forest between 1,700 and 1,900 m.
34901		population	eng	In Taiwan the species has been found in a very restricted area to the north of the island in the boundary area between Taipei and Ilan Counties. The subpopulation here consists of fewer than 50 individuals.
34902		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the Kivu Plateau in Democratic Republic of Congo.
34902		habitat	eng	It occurs in the transitional zone between forest and savannah between 1,000 and 1,350 m.
34903		population	eng	Only a single collection has been made of this subspecies.
34904		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to a single area in south-east Tanzania.
34904		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
34905		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of New Guinea.
34905		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in lowland to midmontane primary and secondary forest.
34905		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a potential threat to this species.
34906		habitat	eng	A large, occasionally emergent, tree found growing in primary and evergreen forest.
34906		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss.
34907		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
34907		habitat	eng	This tree is quite common in primary and secondary forests.
34907		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by habitat loss.
34908		habitat	eng	A rare, scattered timber tree primarily found in evergreen and primary forest along rocky coasts.
34908		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by habitat loss.
34909		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is possibly a threat.
34910		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest and swamp forest up to 1,000 m.
34910		threats	eng	This tree could be threatened by habitat loss.
34911		habitat	eng	A tree apparently confined to primary forest.
34911		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
34912		habitat	eng	Occurring between 20 and 1,700 m, this tree is found in primary and secondary forest and in old wasteland.
34912		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a potential threat to the species.
34913		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found in evergreen and secondary forest. It is an important ornamental species, commonly cultivated, especially the male specimens.
34913		population	eng	The species' status in the wild remains unclear.
34914		distribution	eng	Widespread in the Moluccas, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
34914		threats	eng	This forest tree could soon be threatened by habitat loss.
34915		distribution	eng	A taxonomically variable species endemic to Papua New Guinea.
34915		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest from low to montane elevations.
34915		threats	eng	Potentially serious threats are posed by selective logging and conversion of forest to agriculture.
34916		habitat	eng	A common species found scattered in primary and secondary evergreen forest on limestone.
34916		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction.
34917		habitat	eng	This shrub or tree is found in secondary forests along rivers and in coastal areas.
34917		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat.
34918		distribution	eng	Eastern Borneo.
34918		habitat	eng	A small, rheophytic tree confined to riverine forest on sandy soils.
34918		threats	eng	Habitat loss poses a threat to the species.
34919		habitat	eng	A widespread small tree found up to 3,800 m.
34920		habitat	eng	A small, locally common tree found in lowland primary and coastal forests.
34920		threats	eng	Habitat destruction poses a threat to the species.
34921		habitat	eng	Found between 5 and 2,200 m in primary and secondary forest.
34921		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat destruction.
34922		habitat	eng	A tree of primary and secondary forest up to 2,570 m, often in periodically inundated areas.
34922		threats	eng	The main potential threat to the species is habitat destruction.
34923		distribution	eng	In Papua New Guinea, it is mainly restricted to the Central Province. It occurs also on the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia.
34923		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in lowland coastal and monsoon forest, often in the transition zone between savannah woodland and lowland forest. In Papua New Guinea, it is mainly restricted to monsoon forest.
34924		conservation	eng	The species has proved very difficult to cultivate.
34924		distribution	eng	A shrub known only from two localities near Mongarlowe in New South Wales.
34924		population	eng	Apparently 6 individuals remain and are genetically very similar.
34925		distribution	eng	North Queensland and Papua New Guinea.
34925		habitat	eng	A substage or canopy tree commonly found on forested ridges.
34926		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Wollemia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">nobilis</span> is listed as endangered under both the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 and under the Commonwealth’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. All known locations and individuals are within the Wollemi National Park.&#160; This national park is also within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area.<br/><br/>Protective measures include restricting access to the site and strict phytosanitary precautions for all researchers visiting the sites to undertake approved research and monitoring. An ex-situ conservation and research programme was also initiated. As part of this programme, commercial propagation was undertaken and the resultant plants distributed for sale worldwide. The primary purpose of the commercialisation programme was to protect the wild stands from impacts associated with illegal collections and generate income for the continued conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">W. nobilis</span> and other threatened species.<br/>The official recovery plan is available from the New South Wales Department of Environment and Conservation (2006).<a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/wollemia-nobilis.pdf"></a>
34926		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Wollemia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">nobilis</span> is only known from Wollemi National Park in New South Wales, Australia. Its EOO is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO is under 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
34926		habitat	eng	All stands occur in deep narrow sandstone gorges in warm temperate rainforest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratopetalum apetalum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Doryphora sassafras</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acmena smithii</span>, with an understorey comprising several fern species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicksonia antarctica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyathea australis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sticherus flabellatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum diaphanum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Doodia aspera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Blechnum nudum</span>. Most individuals are located on ledges or grow from cliffs within the gorges. Eucalypt woodland dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus piperita</span> surrounds these gorges (Benson and Allen 2007).
34926		population	eng	There are currently estimated to be 80 mature individuals or multistemmed clumps. Additionally, 300 seedlings and juveniles have been recorded. Some individual trees may reach almost 40 m in height with diameters up to 1 m. Coppicing from the base is frequent (Department of Environment and Conservation NSW, 2006). Genetic studies indicate that there is very little variation within the population (Peakall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
34926		threats	eng	The small population size and very restricted distribution mean that <span style="font-style: italic;">W.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">nobilisis</span> very susceptible to the effects of human activities or stochastic events. Specific threats include exotic pathogens such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora cinnamonii</span>, the introduction of exotic weeds, trampling and other forms of disturbance associated with unauthorised access. Intense catastrophic fires are a significant threat. Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns associated with climate change represent further potential threats (Department of Environment and Conservation NSW, 2006).
34927		conservation	eng	Only a single population of about 20 plants is known to be relatively well protected within a state forest.
34927		distribution	eng	Occurring in Childers District on the southern coast of Queensland.
34927		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
34927		threats	eng	The species is threatened because of habitat clearance.
34928		habitat	eng	This understorey tree is fairly common in lowland primary and secondary forest up to 500 m.
34928		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is loss of habitat.
34929		distribution	eng	Found in Queensland and is widespread in southern Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya; it is also found on the Aru Islands.
34929		habitat	eng	This tree.
34930		conservation	eng	There are protected populations in at least two nature reserves and two demarcated forests.
34930		distribution	eng	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and the Pondoland area of the Eastern Cape.
34930		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species confined to sandstone formations, usually found on forest margins.
34930		population	eng	Very scarce and scattered in occurrence. It is not encountered as frequently as <em>E. erythrophylla</em> and regeneration appears to be poor, although the seed set is viable.
34930		threats	eng	In places, it is threatened by cutting for firewood and timber, and increasing settlement.
34931		conservation	eng	There are recorded populations within three nature reserves and a few demarcated forests.
34931		distribution	eng	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and the Pondoland area of the Eastern Cape.
34931		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species and attractive ornamental tree, confined to sandstone formations on forest margins and in the open on the banks and islands of some of the larger rivers.
34931		population	eng	Locally common in places.
34931		threats	eng	Threats of increasing settlement and cutting for firewood and timber continue to put pressure on these remaining forest patches.
34932		conservation	eng	A subpopulation is found in Mkambati Game Reserve and in demarcated forest reserves, although protection measures in the latter have largely collapsed since 1994.
34932		distribution	eng	A palaeoendemic along the Transkei coast.
34932		habitat	eng	Confined to riverine forest patches in close proximity to, or overhanging the water. It grows in shallow acidic soils derived from sandstones.
34932		population	eng	Initially, only three very small subpopulations were known, each containing between 10 and 15 plants. Additional subpopulations have since been found, the largest of which is near Port St John's where the species is described as locally common.
34932		threats	eng	No seedlings have ever been recorded and, although plants flower prolifically, fruits are rarely seen.
34933		conservation	eng	There are populations in two provincial nature reserves and a local authority reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, also in a game reserve and a few demarcated forest areas in the Transkei.
34933		distribution	eng	A Pondoland endemic in southern KwaZulu-Natal around Port Edward and in the eastern Transkei in the Eastern Cape.
34933		habitat	eng	Confined to sandstone outcrops, as scattered single individuals on sandy soils among rocks on forest margins or streambanks.
34933		threats	eng	The few remaining patches of forest are under threat from cutting for firewood and timber, agricultural activities and coastal development.
34934		conservation	eng	In KwaZulu-Natal, the species occurs in a number of protected areas, of which at least one is managed to exclude fire. In the Eastern Cape, there are subpopulations in several protected areas, but the protected area system has virtually collapsed since 1994.  The tree is also commonly planted as an ornamental.
34934		distribution	eng	Largely occurring in KwaZulu-Natal but extending into the Eastern Cape.
34934		habitat	eng	This species is found on the margins of small remnants of evergreen forest and on rocky sandstone outcrops, often near rivers and streams.
34934		population	eng	Population numbers have almost certainly declined because of fire and other habitat disturbances.
34934		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to the effects of fire and other habitat disturbances. Although legally protected, the bark is widely used as a source of traditional medicine.
34935		habitat	eng	Occurring in thicket vegetation on stony hill sides.
34935		population	eng	The species, for many years, was only known from the type locality. Three localities are now known. The species does not appear to be very abundant, but it is difficult to spot in the dense thickets where it grows. Habitat destruction may result in the species becoming fragmented and the subpopulations becoming isolated.
34935		threats	eng	Large tracts of the habitat have been cleared for agriculture, settlement and industrial development. Any developments at the type locality could seriously affect the species.
34936		conservation	eng	Although most of the localities are contained within protected areas, the degree of protection afforded to them varies greatly.
34936		distribution	eng	Highly scattered distribution in patches of coastal escarpment forest, from near Port St John's in the Transkei, Eastern Cape, northwards to Ngome forest in Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal. At present is known from only five localities within an area of 100 km².
34936		habitat	eng	Coastal escarpment forest; it appears to be associated with granite outcrops.
34936		population	eng	A very scarce tree.
34936		threats	eng	Uncontrolled activities, particularly cutting for firewood and timber, could rapidly result in the local demise of the species.
34937		distribution	eng	An unusual wild tobacco species confined to the Brandberg, Erongo and Spitzkuppe Mts. in northern Namibia. Occurs where there is some protection from human activities and browsing by livestock.
34937		habitat	eng	It occurs as a shrub or small tree of 2.5 m in very arid karroid shrubland in a semi-desert/desert environment, usually in inaccessible, shady areas between huge granite boulders.
34937		population	eng	Nothing is known about its reproductive strategy and few young plants have been seen. Cross-pollination between the isolated localities appears to be impossible, but there are no signs of any genetic decline.
34937		threats	eng	Although the species has a restricted range, and a disjunct distribution, no serious threats are known at present.
34938		distribution	eng	Occurs on the Drakensberg Escarpment near Barberton.
34938		habitat	eng	Both populations are confined to dry summit ridges of schist hills in mixed savanna on serpentine soils.
34938		population	eng	Only two subpopulations are known in low numbers.
34938		threats	eng	There is no evidence of threats or population declines, but both subpopulations are on privately owned land and could easily be destroyed by any change in land-use.
34939		conservation	eng	It is protected in the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, Mkambati Game Reserve and several demarcated forest areas in the Transkei.
34939		distribution	eng	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Transkei in the Eastern Cape. The species has been recorded in fair numbers along several rivers in the Transkei.
34939		habitat	eng	A willow-like tree found along streams and rivers. It is often associated with <em>Gymnosporia bachmannii</em> on the rocky banks and beds of rivers and streams, confined to sandstone outcrops.
34939		threats	eng	In Mkambati Game Reserve, the lack of effective protection, combined with rapid human population increases and proposed developments threaten this and many of the other sandstone endemics in the region. There are also threats from agricultural activities and increasing settlement in southern KwaZulu-Natal.
34940		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree endemic to Pondoland in the Transkei in the area between the Mtentu River and Port St. Johns. It occurs in Mkambati Game Reserve and in a number of demarcated forests, which are no longer well protected.
34940		habitat	eng	Confined to the margins or understorey of evergreen coastal forest on sandstone outcrops.
34940		threats	eng	Under threat from increasing settlement, cutting for firewood and timber, agricultural activities and browsing by livestock.
34941		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Transkei in the Eastern Cape.
34941		habitat	eng	It occurs on sandstone formations on dry evergreen forest margins on moister slopes or drainage lines.
34941		population	eng	Subpopulations are small and very scattered, including those in two provincial reserves and on the margins of a number of demarcated forests in the Transkei.
34941		threats	eng	Transkei forests are no longer well-protected and the margins are particularly susceptible to increased disturbance from settlement, cutting for firewood and timber, and browsing by cattle and goats.
34942		conservation	eng	All the present localities are now in a strictly protected conservation area, with a clear management policy which controls the occurrence of fire and presence of alien invasives.
34942		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the Kogelberg range.
34942		habitat	eng	Occurs on the upper south slopes in seeps growing in wet mountain fynbos.
34942		population	eng	It is usually encountered as single plants, although small subpopulations, never exceeding 100 individuals, are also known. There is a total of approximately 500 mature plants within an area of 10 km² (AOO). Subpopulations may have been more extensive in the past.
34942		threats	eng	Subpopulations have declined because of frequent fires, to which the species is susceptible as it is a reseeder and takes eight years to reach maturity. The deliberate exclusion of fire for many years may not have had a totally beneficial effect because periodic fires are needed to ensure recruitment.
34943		conservation	eng	Plants have been recorded from Mkuze Game Reserve and the species may also occur within Ndumu and Kosi Bay conservation areas.
34943		distribution	eng	Northern Zululand and southern Mozambique.
34943		habitat	eng	A species of mixed woodland and sand forests. It grows in deep sand on the Maputaland coastal plain within 60 km of the coast.
34943		threats	eng	Sand forest is under threat from cutting for firewood and timber. The area is also increasingly threatened by settlement and agricultural activities.
34944		conservation	eng	Some plants are found in a national park and a few provincial and private nature reserves.
34944		distribution	eng	Found along the Suurberg inland from Port Elizabeth to the mountains around Grahamstown. Its extent of occurrence is only about 500 km². Most of the subpopulations occur on privately owned farms.
34944		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree.  The species always occurs on outcrops of Witteberg quartzite in grassy fynbos.
34944		threats	eng	Although there are threats from invasive alien species, especially wattles, and agricultural activities in places, there is no evidence of population declines.  This species is of potential ornamental interest.
34945		conservation	eng	A large proportion of the subpopulations occur in protected areas.
34945		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Kouga, Baviaanskloof and Willowmore mountain ranges. The area of occupancy is 6,300 km².
34945		habitat	eng	Mountain and grassy fynbos vegetation types. It grows on sandy slopes in soils derived from sandstone.
34945		population	eng	Three major subpopulations have been discovered in the last five years, bringing the total number of subpopulations to nine, some of which comprise of more than 1,000 mature individuals.
34945		threats	eng	Frequent fires could also be a problem, as they may not allow the species sufficient time to regenerate from seed.
34946		conservation	eng	It is protected by forestry legislation and to a certain extent by the inaccessible terrain in which it occurs. If the new locality is confirmed, it will lie within a newly-formed conservancy.
34946		distribution	eng	Damaraland, northern Namibia. There is possibly a new locality further to the east.
34946		habitat	eng	A species of very arid savannah, confined to dolomite mountain slopes.
34946		threats	eng	No evidence of serious threats at present, although fire is a potential threat.
34947		distribution	eng	Umtamvuna River in southern KwaZulu-Natal and in a number of river valleys in the Port Shepstone area, including the Lusikisiki and Bizana Districts of the Transkei in the Eastern Cape.
34947		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree growing among sandstone boulders on islands in river bed.
34947		population	eng	In places it occurs in abundance.
34947		threats	eng	Susceptible to periodic flooding. The floods in 1978 destroyed most of the plants in the Umtamvuna River Valley, but the subpopulation was able to recover from the few remaining plants. Subpopulations are found in two provincial reserves and a number of demarcated forests, which are no longer strictly protected and under threat from increasing settlement and cutting for firewood and timber.
34948		distribution	eng	There is considerable confusion in the literature about the identity of this taxon and its correct distribution. More recent accounts indicate that it is confined to the Eastern Cape but absent from KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga as recorded previously. Herbarium specimens are also misidentified and there is little field knowledge of the species.
34949		conservation	eng	It is recorded in two provincial nature reserves, a local authority reserve and a number of demarcated forests.
34949		distribution	eng	Found in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the Pondoland area of the Eastern Cape.
34949		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species confined to sandstone formations, usually found in rocky situations near streams or along the upper edge of sandstone cliffs.
34949		threats	eng	The nature reserves do not receive as much protection as they did prior to 1994, and they are increasingly being used as a source of firewood and timber. Some forest patches are also threatened by expanding settlement.
34950		conservation	eng	Two of the extant subpopulations are healthy, with a range of size classes present; one is also contained within a national park and the other occurs in a local authority nature reserve.
34950		distribution	eng	Along the Great Escarpment from Beaufort West in the east to near Sutherland in the west and northwards to Calvinia.
34950		habitat	eng	A fynbos relic which occurs in karroid vegetation.
34950		population	eng	Information from local farmers indicates that it was once very common along the edge of the escarpment. It was reduced to five remnant subpopulations. There is no evidence of any further declines in recent years.
34950		threats	eng	Being the only woody plant in the area, it was heavily used for firewood.
34951		conservation	eng	Plants are abundant in the Umtiza Nature Reserve and show signs of good recruitment.
34951		distribution	eng	Found from East London to the Kentani District in southern Transkei.
34951		habitat	eng	A small, spiny shrub or evergreen tree, found in forests and thickets along river valleys in coastal areas.
34951		population	eng	It is locally abundant in places and has been recorded from six localities, but has almost certainly been lost from some of them.
34951		threats	eng	Losses have been incurred by habitat clearance for settlement, especially by the uncontrolled squatter camps in the East London area.  he recent collapse of effective conservation measures in the Eastern Cape is likely to lead to plundering of natural resources and habitat loss
34952		conservation	eng	This species can be found in several protected areas.
34952		distribution	eng	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern (mainly Transkei) parts of the Eastern Cape, where it can still be found in a large number of localities.
34952		habitat	eng	A scrambling shrub or small tree found on forest margins and on cliff edges along coastal areas.
34952		threats	eng	Much of its habitat has been destroyed by agricultural activities and increasing settlement.  Provided most of the escarpment forest remains intact, there is no serious threat to this species. It has also been observed surviving successfully in areas which are subject to fairly intense browsing by cattle and goats.
34953		distribution	eng	No information can be traced on its precise distribution.
34953		population	eng	As no information can be traced on its precise distribution and abundance its conservation status must remain Data Deficient.
34953		threats	eng	A previous account by Prof. C. Stirton indicates that urban expansion, land drainage and dam building and frequent fires are major threats to the species.
34954		distribution	eng	Mainly found in the Transkei, Eastern Cape, but also in southern KwaZulu-Natal and in a disjunct subpopulation in Ngoye forest, northern KwaZulu-Natal.
34954		habitat	eng	A species of coastal and riverine forest.
34954		population	eng	It is known from approximately six localities and does not seem to be common anywhere.
34954		threats	eng	Although a number of localities are in demarcated forest reserves, these reserves have not been effectively protected since 1994. Many forest patches are under threat from people collecting firewood and timber and expanding settlements.
34955		distribution	eng	A poorly known multi-stemmed species apparently confined to the lower Orange River Valley in the Goodhouse area of southern Namibia and the Northern Cape. It is recorded from at least three localities on non-perennial tributaries leading down to the Orange River.
34955		habitat	eng	Karroid shrubland in a semi-desert environment.
34955		population	eng	At one locality only a few plants were seen, but all were healthy and flowering profusely. It is likely that this species occurs elsewhere and a field assessment is required to determine its conservation status.
34955		threats	eng	Mining activities in the area could pose a threat. One locality was beside a former main road between South Africa and Namibia.
34956		distribution	eng	The species is known from a number of localities; it has not been found again at Ngoye forest, despite several searches and it is probably extinct at this locality; there are at least two plants in the Nqutu area; a single large tree, which is dying of old age, is in Umdoni Park; the largest number of trees are found in the remnant forest patches between the Msikaba and Umtamvuna Rivers.
34956		habitat	eng	A palaeoendemic usually found on forest margins, both next to and away from stream banks. A few individuals have been recorded from within climax forest, but these were invariably very old and senescent.
34956		population	eng	The total number of mature individuals is estimated to be less than 200.
34956		threats	eng	Regeneration from seed has not been recorded and plants in fruit are seldom recorded. This may be the result of the synchronised dichogamy, where male and female flowers are produced at different times. Their isolated occurrence then provides little chance of pollination.
34957		conservation	eng	More than 50% of the subpopulations are protected in nature reserves and there is no evidence for decline.
34957		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to the Cape Peninsula, where it occurs from Table Mt. to Kommetjie. The larger dense subpopulations occur mainly on the Table Mt. and Constantiaberg ranges, with the southern Peninsula subpopulations being small and scattered.
34957		habitat	eng	It grows on south-facing, damp, rocky  slopes in mountain <em>fynbos</em>.
34957		population	eng	The area of occupancy is only about 150 km² and the estimated population is 5,000 mature plants.
34957		threats	eng	Invasive alien species could pose a threat as scattered pine trees have been recorded from a number of localities. Frequent fires could also be a problem, as they may not allow the species sufficient time to regenerate from seed.
34958		conservation	eng	A large subpopulation is protected in the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve and plants also occur in the Mkambati Game Reserve and a number of demarcated reserves in the Transkei.
34958		distribution	eng	A Pondoland endemic found in remnant evergreen forest patches between Durban in KwaZulu-Natal and Port St John's in the Transkei, Eastern Cape. The species was previously confused with <em>M. acuminata</em> and could be more widespread than is currently known.
34958		habitat	eng	It occurs in isolated groups as an understorey shrub or slender tree in coastal scarp forest, often on river banks.
34958		threats	eng	In two of the known localities, trees have been chopped down at an alarming rate for local use as firewood and timber and the habitat cleared for agriculture and settlement. Little protection is afforded to these forests in the Eastern Cape.
34959		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve and in a number of demarcated forest areas in the Transkei, which are no longer strictly protected.
34959		distribution	eng	Found in the Transkei, Eastern Cape, and southern KwaZulu-Natal, with a disjunct distribution in the Noodsberg area of KwaZulu-Natal and a very strange isolated occurrence on the Piketberg in the Western Cape.
34959		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, found mainly on forest margins. Many of the subpopulations occur on soils derived from sandstone.
34959		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement could pose a problem here, especially at forest margins.
34960		distribution	eng	Damiao Mt. in northern Guangxi, Rongjiang in south-east Guizhou, various mountain localities in Yunnan extending into Tibet and Myanmar.
34960		habitat	eng	The taxon occurs in montane broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,400 and 1,500 m.
34960		threats	eng	It provides a useful timber and its exploitation as well as general habitat loss have caused considerable population declines. There is some concern that the androdioecious nature of the flowering system may be contributing to poor regeneration.
34961		distribution	eng	A species closely resembling <em>M. nitida</em> var. <em>nitida</em>, confined to Emei Mountain., where only male individuals have been found. It is unknown whether further localities and female individuals exist.
34961		habitat	eng	Broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m.
34961		threats	eng	Logging appears to be continuing in the area and no special protection is yet in place to ensure that the population remains intact.
34962		distribution	eng	The species is listed as Vulnerable (VU A1a) in Viet Nam, where it occurs mainly on the High Plateau in the central provinces.
34962		habitat	eng	Evergreen broadleaved forest.
34963		distribution	eng	A very widespread tree endemic to China.
34963		habitat	eng	It generally occurs in broadleaved deciduous forest up to 2,000 m.
34963		threats	eng	The rate of decline of forest and also the levels of bark-stripping of the tree have led to the species becoming rare outside cultivation.
34964		distribution	eng	Previously considered to belong to a separate genus <em>Parakmeria</em>, this variety is scattered over parts of central and southern China and Taiwan.
34964		habitat	eng	It occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest below 1,000 m.
34964		threats	eng	The species is thought to be scarcer now because of the affects of logging and habitat degradation.
34965		distribution	eng	Known from Caoguo Mt. and Nanchang Mt.
34965		habitat	eng	Forested slopes between 1,300 and 1,550 m.
34965		population	eng	A species known from a single population, which consists of just seven mature individuals.
34965		threats	eng	No effective protective measures are in place and the area is open to cutting and clearance. Regeneration is non-existent.
34966		distribution	eng	Scattered occurrences are known from Hainan Island, southern Yunnan and south-west Guangxi.
34966		habitat	eng	They are restricted to remaining areas of lowland monsoon forest.
34966		threats	eng	Lowland monsoon forests have been severely reduced by high rates of habitat clearance and logging.
34967		distribution	eng	Extending from southern China to northern Viet Nam.
34967		habitat	eng	This species is relatively widespread in lowland moist forest.
34967		population	eng	Mature trees are said to be only rarely encountered.
34967		threats	eng	Population declines have occurred because of extensive logging and habitat clearance.
34969		conservation	eng	The site has been declared a nature reserve.
34969		distribution	eng	A recently described shrub known from just a single locality in the Kadincik Valley north of Mersin.
34969		population	eng	About 100 individuals have been estimated to exist in an area of one hectare within the grounds of a dam.
34970		distribution	eng	It has a restricted range in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, extending into Uganda.
34970		population	eng	A difficult species to identify and apparently uncommon.
34971		distribution	eng	The best known subpopulation occurs in Gawen Gorge, near Hobyo. Other subpopulations are thought to exist.
34971		habitat	eng	Bushland.
34971		population	eng	The best known subpopulation is observed to have fewer than 10 individuals.
34971		threats	eng	Although few pressures threaten this population, it remains unprotected.
34972		distribution	eng	From eastern Tanzania and Zanzibar just into Somalia. The type variety occurs from Sudan to Natal and differs in having hairy fruit.
34972		habitat	eng	A riverine forest tree, occurring in coastal areas.
34972		threats	eng	It is threatened by localised habitat degradation.
34973		distribution	eng	A subpopulation is known from Rungwe in Tanzania and further south in  Mozambique up to the mouth of the Zambesi River.
34973		habitat	eng	Confined to remnants of moist lowland and submontane coastal forest,
34973		population	eng	A poorly known taxon, locally relatively common.
34974		distribution	eng	A species endemic to Mozambique.
34974		population	eng	The extent of the population and its status are not known.
34976		distribution	eng	Occurring mainly in central Mozambique. Subpopulations may also exist in southern Malawi.
34976		habitat	eng	Areas of lowland forest.
34976		threats	eng	This species is severely threatened by the decline in quality and conversion of its habitat for agricultural purposes.
34977		distribution	eng	Two collections of this species were made from northern parts of Mozambique 30 years ago, one from the Reserva Florestal  do Mucheve.
34977		habitat	eng	The species occurs in thicket on sandy soils and termite hills.
34978		distribution	eng	Known only from the Ngami valley.
34978		habitat	eng	Open woodland.
34978		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen, collected in 1941.
34979		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Solomon Islands.
34979		habitat	eng	This large tree is restricted to lowland rainforest in alluvial valleys.
34980		distribution	eng	Known only from the Solomon Islands.
34980		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
34981		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viti Levu in Fiji.
34981		habitat	eng	Areas of open forest, often near streams, below 100 m.
34981		population	eng	This small tree has been recorded rarely.
34982		distribution	eng	A slender tree, endemic to Fiji.
34982		population	eng	Known only from the two collections: the type was gathered from Viti Levu in 1840 and the second collection was from Vanua Levu in 1950.
34985		habitat	eng	Mostly occurring in dry or open forests.
34985		population	eng	One of the most abundant trees on Fiji.
34985		threats	eng	Larger trees are considered useful as a timber.
34986		distribution	eng	Widely distributed, collections have been made from eight islands, extending eastwards into the Lau Group.
34986		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in open forest or on open slopes.
34987		distribution	eng	It has been well collected in Viti Levu, Kandavu, Ngau and Vanua Levu.
34987		habitat	eng	Dense forest between 90 and 900 m.
34988		distribution	eng	Occurs on the islands of  Viti Levu, Ovalau, Vanua Levu and Taveuni.
34988		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense forest and secondary forest.
34989		distribution	eng	Restricted to Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Ovalau.
34989		habitat	eng	A tree of dense hill forest.
34990		distribution	eng	A widespread endemic tree to Fiji.
34990		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland dense forest.
34990		threats	eng	The wood provides a useful timber.
34991		distribution	eng	An inadequately known tree, similar to the type variety and collected only once from Rewa Province, Viti Levu.
34992		distribution	eng	Known only with certainty from Vanua Levu in Mathuata Province.
34992		habitat	eng	The species has been collected from forest near creeks on the lower slopes of mountains.
34993		distribution	eng	Occurring on four of the high islands.
34993		habitat	eng	The species is found in dense forest along creeks, rivers and their tributaries.
34993		population	eng	It has not been collected frequently.
34994		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji, it has been collected from five of the high islands.
34994		habitat	eng	Found in dense forest and forest patches in open country.
34995		distribution	eng	Collected from Taveuni.
34995		habitat	eng	A small tree of dense forest between 700 and 900 m.
34995		population	eng	Only known from the type collection, dated 1934.
34996		distribution	eng	A Fijian endemic known from the type collection on Viti Levu and five collections from Vanua Levu.
34996		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense or secondary forest, forest patches in open country, or on forested crests.
35000		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji.
35000		habitat	eng	A slender or spreading tree, occurring in dense forest up to 1,200 m.
35001		distribution	eng	Occurs on the two largest islands.
35001		habitat	eng	A tree of dense forest or forest patches in open countryside, occurring up to 1,200 m.
35002		distribution	eng	This small tree is confined to the Mt. Evans range on Viti Levu, where it is known from the type locality and two collections.
35002		habitat	eng	Crest thickets between 760 and 850 m.
35003		distribution	eng	Occurs on five of the high islands.
35003		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, which is locally abundant in forest and thickets along streams.
35004		distribution	eng	A shrub or slender tree, known only from southern Viti Levu.
35004		habitat	eng	Forested areas at elevations of 50-429 m.
35006		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji.
35006		habitat	eng	Can be found in abundance at elevations up to 1,195 m in areas of dense, open or secondary forest, in thickets and in open, rocky sites.
35006		population	eng	This is the most abundant species of the genus on these islands. It is known to occur on at least nine islands.
35008		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Fiji and known from eight islands.
35008		habitat	eng	A slender tree, it can be found in several habitats, especially on the larger islands. It occurs from near sea level to the highest point at the summit of Mt. Tomaniivi, in dense, dry, or open forest, in the forest-grassland transition or in dense crest thickets.
35008		threats	eng	Locally the leaves and fruit are used as both poisons and medicines.
35009		distribution	eng	Type collection from Mbua Province, Vanua Levu.
35009		population	eng	No record has been made of the species since the type collection, which was gathered in 1878.
35010		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji, the species is known definitely from seven islands.
35010		habitat	eng	Occurring below 250 m in dense or dry forests.
35010		threats	eng	The timber is considered to be of commercial value.
35011		distribution	eng	A widespread endemic tree of Fiji, occurring on five or six islands.
35011		habitat	eng	Found in open, dense or dry forest, sometimes along rocky coasts.
35011		threats	eng	The wood provides a useful timber.
35012		distribution	eng	Occurring relatively infrequently on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
35012		habitat	eng	A forest tree of rocky slopes.
35013		distribution	eng	An endemic tree with a wide distribution, occurring on five Fijian islands.
35013		habitat	eng	A tree of dense forest, forest edges and forested ridges.
35013		threats	eng	The hard wood may have commercial value.
35014		distribution	eng	It has been collected numerous times from 10 Fijian islands but it is expected to occur on most of the high islands in Fiji.
35014		habitat	eng	Most frequently a tree but sometimes a shrub, this newly described species occurs in dense, open and secondary forest types, also thickets and infrequently on rocky coastlines.
35015		distribution	eng	It is known to occur from south-west Nigeria to Gabon.
35015		habitat	eng	A swamp forest tree.
35015		population	eng	Appears to be rare.
35015		threats	eng	Most parts of the range have suffered large-scale declines in its habitat because of logging and the demand for land for cultivation.
35016		conservation	eng	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation is needed.
35016		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a population confined to marshland at Le Petrin.
35016		population	eng	Although the plants appear to flower and fruit regularly, no regeneration has been observed. The species has not been successfully brought into cultivation. The population is recorded as being less than 50 individuals occupying a range of less than 100 km²
35016		threats	eng	Invasive competitors and habitat removal for roads. It is in a very degraded area and no regeneration has been observed
35018		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
35018		distribution	eng	Only ten individuals of this species have been seen in Mauritius recently (1995 onwards) while it may be extinct in Reunion. In Mauritius the species has recently been seen at the top of the Tourelle du Tamarin (six individuals) and at Yemen (Gobert: one individual; Grosse Roches: three individuals).
35018		habitat	eng	Grows on exposed mountain slopes on rocky sclerophyllous woodland where  rainfall averages 1-2 m annually.
35018		threats	eng	There has been loss of habitat due to competition with invasive plants as well as clearing for deer ranching. Also the destruction of the fruits and seeds by introduced monkeys is a major problem.
35019		conservation	eng	Attempts at layering have been unsuccessful. Field surveys need to be done in appropriate habitat.
35019		distribution	eng	The known plant at Bonnefin was extinct in 1996. More field work need to be done to find any existing individual. Formerly eight individuals were known at Grotte Bonnefin near curepipe and a solitary plant in river reserves near La Marie (Flore des Mascareignes).
35019		habitat	eng	River banks and marshlands on the highlands of the central plateau.
35019		population	eng	No plants have been seen since the last plant at Bonnefin was lost in 1995 due to disease. It is possible that the species survives in areas which have not been surveyed.
35019		threats	eng	Habitat removal induced by human settlement and agriculture. No germinating seeds or young plants has been found.
35020		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas.
35020		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from dry forests located between Bourail and Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 197 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 52 km².
35020		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35020		population	eng	The total population size is not known. When present, the species is never abundant and is typically observed as rare and scattered individuals.
35020		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35021		conservation	eng	This species is present in three protected areas. It has also been planted in one <em>ex situ</em> site.
35021		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast, however today it is restricted to remnant patches of dry forest. Its southestern locality is in Paita; it is then found from la Foa to Pouembout with gaps in its distribution as large as 46 and 86 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,154 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 84 km².
35021		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <br/><br/>This species doesn't seem to be as affected by this habitat destruction as other <em>Diospyros</em> species can be. In fact, it shows pioneer characteristics and a good regeneration capacity in case of moderate disturbances. This species can be common along roads and on the edges of slightly disturbed dry forests where it probably plays an important role of cicatrization and recolonization.
35021		population	eng	The population size is unknown. The subpopulations located between Bourail and Pouembout are vigorous but the species becomes rare and scattered in the southern part of its distribution.
35021		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. If <em>D. minimifolia</em> can show pioneer characteristics and a good regeneration capacity in case of moderate disturbance, it can't regenerate in the face of multiple disturbances (repeated fire and clearings).
35022		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area. It is grown from seeds in the Institut Agronomique Calédonien (IAC).
35022		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast, however today it is present in Noumea, Paita, Boulouparis, Poya and Pouembout. Distances between known sites are (respectively and from south to north): 57, 99, 20 and 23 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,913 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².
35022		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35022		population	eng	The population size is unknown. This species is recorded from seven distinct locations in a fragmented habitat. When present, it can be locally common then totally absent from adjacent areas.
35022		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35023		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas. This population is healthy with a good level of regeneration in one of the reserves, but there is not a single recruit in the other. Twentytwo juveniles have been planted <em>ex situ</em> in a reserve near Noumea.
35023		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. Today it is mostly known from the Poya-Pouembout region where it can be locally common in preserved dry forest. Some subpopulations are also mentioned between Boulouparis and Paita.
35023		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35023		population	eng	The total population size is not known. When present, this species can be scarce or common usually depending on the protection status of the site. In fact, it can show abundant regeneration when protected from cattle and deer grazing.
35023		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35024		conservation	eng	This species is located on a private land. The owner has been informed of the critical conservation status of the species. The species need to be cultivated <em>ex situ</em>.
35024		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from a single patch of 21 ha of degraded dry forest located in Paita region (total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.2 km²). This patch is located on a private land except for the "50 géometric steps" belonging to the State's public maritim domain.
35024		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35024		population	eng	The population of adult trees may comprise no more than a couple of dozen individuals. It had been estimated at 20 individuals but a recent trail (created by bulldozers) through the middle of the population may have destroyed a large part of it. Dry forests surrounding the only known location of <em>D. veillonii</em> are well known; they have been surveyed (unsuccessfully) for this species and there seems very little hope that it will be found in any other location.
35024		threats	eng	The presence of this species on a very small private piece of forest makes it difficult to protect. The population has already been dramatically reduced by the opening of a bulldozer-constructed trail that crosses the population and has felled several of these trees. The land, which currently is empty, will soon become a permanent residence. The owner has been informed of the presence of this rare species on his land and he seems willing to take some care of it. Still the conservation of <em>D. veillonii</em> in the wild is entirely dependant on the land-owner. The site holds a large population of the Rusa deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>). This deer was introduced in the 1880s and has adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damages to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems.
35025		conservation	eng	This species is located on a private land. The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) has financed a fence to prevent cattle, wild deer and pigs to come in, thus providing a safer environment for this and other species. A restoration program is underway with 2,500 individual trees planned to be planted in 2007 inside the fenced area in order to help natural regeneration colonizing all the open areas of this degraded patch.
35025		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia where it is known from a single location in Poya. The area is a small (36 ha) private residual dry forest surrounded by pastures, and it has been partly fenced (14 ha) for protection against cattle, deer and wild pigs. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.36 km².
35025		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35025		population	eng	In its unique locality of occurrence, this species is common and the population of adult trees may be of more than a hundred individuals, homogeneously distributed over the forest.
35025		threats	eng	The population was split into two when the reserve was fenced. The population located inside the fence is vigorous and regenerates well. The other population, located outside the reserve, is still impacted by grazing and trampling by cattle, wild deer and pigs.
35026		conservation	eng	This species is present in three protected areas.
35026		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast, however today it is recorded from Noumea, Paita, Bourail, Pouembout and Koumac with gaps in the distribution as large as 125 and 92 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,474 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 44 km².
35026		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including on calcareous substrate). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35026		population	eng	The population size is unknown. When present, this species is never abundant and typically appears as scattered individuals. Little regeneration is observed for this species.
35026		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35027		distribution	eng	Confined to a few locations.
35027		habitat	eng	Sclerophyllous woodlands.
35027		threats	eng	The species has experienced the severe reduction and fragmentation of its habitat. It remains ineffectively protected and threatened by fire, grazing and encroaching agriculture.
35028		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area.
35028		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it has a disjunct distribution. It is mentioned from Bourail, Nepoui, Pouembout and Kaala-Gomen. Distances between known sites are (respectively and from south to north) 42, 26 and 73 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,368 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 48 km².
35028		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal and calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35028		population	eng	Population size is unknown but when present, this species occurs as rare and isolated individuals.
35028		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35029		distribution	eng	It is known from only a few locations.
35029		habitat	eng	A species of sclerophyllous forest.
35029		threats	eng	Its habitat is severely threatened by fires, grazing and encroaching agriculture.
35030		conservation	eng	Propagation of cuttings has failed. <br/> <br/>A steady survey of maturation of fruits have lead to punctual collects. Germination of seeds has been obtained in both nursery and laboratory. Seedlings will be educated in nursery in order to reintroduce the species in Lepredour Island, or to translocate it on surrounding sites (e.g., Pointe Maa, Montagnès peninsula). Before this time, actions of protection of the adult trees have been undertaken, in order to avoid damage from rats (on seeds) or deer (on trunk). At a larger scale, contacts have been taken with local authorities in order to protect the whole remnants of the forest of Lepredour. <br/> <br/><em>P. tanianum</em> is expected to be saved of extinction, and furthermore might be utilized as an ornamental species in gardens of Noumea.  <br/> <br/>All concerned by the precariousness of this type of forest, nine institutions have joined their efforts since 2001 : State of France, New Caledonia Territory, Northern Province, Southern Province, Agronomic Institute of New Caledonia (IAC), Research Institute for Development (IRD), University of New Caledonia (UNC), Centre of Initiation to Environment (CIE), and World Wildlife Fund (WWF). They gave birth to the Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle-Calédonie, which covers several programs, dealing with studies or experimentations, actions of protection, and formation or communication. The Program is placed under the responsibility of a coordinator which is based in Kone, in the northern part of New Caledonia.
35030		distribution	eng	The species was first discovered in 1988 from two specimens on the island of Leprédour.
35030		habitat	eng	Occurs in sclerophyllous forest.
35030		population	eng	Five years after its discovery both known individuals died, one because the surrounding soil had eroded away.  <br/> <br/>In 2002, a single tree was rediscovered. Two additional mature trees were located in the months that followed the initial rediscovery. It is possible that further trees may be found, however, very little of the original forest habitat remains and much of this is still under severe threat.
35030		threats	eng	Only about 1–2% of the initial area of sclerophyll forest is still maintained in New Caledonia, mainly because of high pressure from wild fires and clearing for husbandry. The forest is very fragmented, with islands not larger than a few tens of hectares, and the forest understorey is often invaded by shrubs or lianas and damaged through browsing by cattle and deer. The forest remnants where <em>P. tanianum</em> occurs total about 5 ha and are impacted by deer.
35031		conservation	eng	This species is present in three protected areas. Moreover, more than 250 young produced from seeds have been planted in the course of restoration programmes.
35031		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. Today it is found in dry forests from Noumea to Koumac.
35031		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35031		population	eng	Population size is unknown. It has been recorded from 16 different sites where the species is never abundant and typically appears as scattered individuals.
35031		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35032		distribution	eng	Region of Nouméa.
35032		habitat	eng	A species confined to a restricted area of sclerophyllous forest.
35032		threats	eng	Fires, grazing and encroaching agriculture are continual problems and have caused a severe reduction in the habitat.
35033		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected area.
35033		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast. It is now present from Paita to Pouembout, with gaps in the distribution as large as 102 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,450 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 68 km².
35033		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35033		population	eng	Population size is unknown but this species is never common when present.
35033		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35034		distribution	eng	Once known from the Caves of Hienghène.
35034		population	eng	The species has not been found since 1871. It is questionable whether it should not now be considered extinct.
35036		distribution	eng	A species once collected from an area north-east of La Conception near Nouméa.
35036		population	eng	It has not been found since 1869 despite this being the botanically best known region of Grand Terre.
35037		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Rota.
35037		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in moist forest on limestone.
35037		population	eng	There have been no recent surveys but the population certainly contains fewer than 100 or possibly 50 trees, confined to an area of 15 km².
35037		threats	eng	Lack of regeneration is a serious problem but the causes are unknown.
35038		distribution	eng	Extending from Egypt through Arabia into southern Iraq.
35038		habitat	eng	An important component of and often the sole tree species in desert wadis and hilly areas.
35038		threats	eng	The tree is very vulnerable to overcutting and overgrazing and appears to have become extinct in Kuwait. In the Negev Desert in Israel mortality rates have been observed to be as high as 60%, largely because road building has cut off vital river beds. In other areas, such as the northern mountains of Oman, populations are well established and not threatened.
35039		conservation	eng	Contained within a national forest.
35039		distribution	eng	Three localities of this species are known, two of them having been discovered recently in central-west Arkansas.
35039		habitat	eng	Open glades and shrubland.
35039		population	eng	The subpopulations are small, each numbering less than 500, but stable.
35040		conservation	eng	It is hoped the species is conserved in the protected area of Maxwell's Hills. The collection from Perak possibly comes from these hills.
35040		distribution	eng	Collected once in Perak and once in Pahang.
35040		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
35040		population	eng	A very rare species, collected only twice.
35041		distribution	eng	Subpopulations occur on Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata and Ua Huka.
35042		distribution	eng	A species originally known from Nuku Hiva.
35043		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from Fatu Hiva.
35044		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from Nuku Hiva.
35045		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from Tahiti.
35046		distribution	eng	Populations are known from Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva.
35047		distribution	eng	The species is widespread on the islands of Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata, Ua Huka and Ua Pou in the Marquesas.
35048		distribution	eng	An endemic to Rapa Iti.
35049		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35050		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea and Tahiti.
35051		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
35052		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35053		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Huahine, Raiatea and Tahaa.
35054		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35055		distribution	eng	An endemic of Raiatea and Tahiti.
35056		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Society Islands. It occurs relatively commonly on Tahiti and less abundantly on Huahine, Moorea and Raiatea.
35056		habitat	eng	A small tree.
35057		distribution	eng	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. It occurs in small subpopulations on Fatu Hiva, Hatutaa, Hiva Oa, Mohotani, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata and Ua Pou.
35058		distribution	eng	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. This one is endemic to Tahiti.
35059		distribution	eng	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. The subpopulations of this taxon are confined to the Tubuai Group, on the islands of Raivavae, Rurutu and Tubuai.
35060		distribution	eng	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. Small subpopulations are recorded from the islands of Agakauitai, Akamaru, Kamaka, Mangareva, Taravai in the Gambier Islands and Anaa in the Tuamotus.
35063		distribution	eng	An endemic of Raiatea.
35064		distribution	eng	Only known from the island of Rapa Iti.
35064		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub.
35064		population	eng	Populations are stable and under no threat.
35065		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Raiatea and Tahiti, where the species is most seriously threatened.
35066		distribution	eng	Raivavae and Tubuai.
35067		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35068		distribution	eng	Endemic to Rapa Iti.
35068		population	eng	Subpopulations are stable and under no threat.
35069		distribution	eng	Endemic to Nuku Hiva.
35070		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.
35071		distribution	eng	The species is confined to Rapa Iti.
35071		habitat	eng	Occurring on hill ridges.
35071		population	eng	Subpopulations are stable and under no threat.
35072		distribution	eng	Subpopulations occur on Moorea and Tahiti, where the species is most seriously threatened.
35073		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
35074		distribution	eng	Subpopulations occur on Raiatea and Tahaa.
35075		distribution	eng	Known only from the Tubuai Islands, the species is recorded from Raivavae, Rurutu and Tubuai.
35076		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35078		distribution	eng	Populations occur on Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.
35079		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raivavae.
35080		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35081		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
35082		distribution	eng	An endemic to Rapa.
35083		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35084		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mangareva.
35085		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raivavae.
35087		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Hiva Oa and Tahuata.
35088		distribution	eng	An endemic to Makatea.
35089		distribution	eng	One of four subspecies. This taxon occurs in the Tubuai and Tuamotu Groups, subpopulations having been recorded from the islands Raivavae, Rurutu, Tubuai in the Tubuais and Anaa in the Tuamotus.
35090		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from relatively common occurrences on most of the Marquesas Islands and also on Makatea in the Tuamotus.
35091		distribution	eng	The species occurs relatively commonly on the islands of Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.
35092		distribution	eng	Originally known from Moorea.
35092		population	eng	An extinct species.
35093		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Tubuai Group, the subspecies is recorded only from the islands of Raivave and Tubuai. The latter subpopulation is poorly known.
35094		distribution	eng	Recorded from the island of Tubuai in the Tubuai Group and from Raiatea and Tahiti in the Society Islands.
35094		population	eng	Little is known about the subpopulations of this species.
35095		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35096		distribution	eng	An endemic to Fatu Hiva.
35097		distribution	eng	An endemic to Fatu Hiva.
35098		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahuata.
35099		distribution	eng	An endemic to Hiva Oa.
35100		distribution	eng	An endemic to Rapa.
35101		distribution	eng	Endemic to Rapa.
35101		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree.
35102		conservation	eng	The species has been propagated at the Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. in the USA.
35102		distribution	eng	Only recorded from the Marquesas, the species is found in small subpopulations on the islands of Eiao, Hatutaa, Hiva Oa, Mohotani and Nuku Hiva.
35102		population	eng	Subpopulations on Eiao and Hatutaa are in a notably critical state.
35103		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.
35103		population	eng	The Tahitian subpopulation is notably threatened.
35104		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from Raiatea and Tahiti.
35105		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
35106		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Raiatea.
35107		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
35108		distribution	eng	In the Marquesas the species is confined to Nuku Hiva. In the Society Islands, subpopulations are recorded from Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.
35108		population	eng	The Raiatea subpopulation is Critically Endangered.
35109		population	eng	Little is known about the subpopulation on Raivavae, but on Rurutu the species is in a critical state.
35110		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are restricted to Rapa Iti.
35110		habitat	eng	A glabrous tree with a fragrant wood.
35110		population	eng	Subpopulations are not thought to be under any threat.
35110		threats	eng	It is not thought to be under any threat.
35111		distribution	eng	A species which has been recorded only from Rimatara Island in the Tubuai Group.
35112		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Matotea and Maunganui on the island of Raivavae in the Tubuai Group.
35113		distribution	eng	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.
35114		population	eng	Although little is known about the subpopulations on Rapa, the species is in a critical state on the islands of Raivavae and Tubuai.
35115		population	eng	Little is known about the subpopulation on Tubuai, but the species is critically threatened on the island of Raivavae.
35117		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea and Raiatea.
35118		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Hiva Oa.
35119		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Nuku Hiva.
35120		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35121		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35122		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Raiatea.
35123		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tahiti.
35124		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Huahine, Raiatea and Tahiti.
35125		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
35126		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tahiti.
35127		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahuata.
35128		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
35129		distribution	eng	An endemic to Moorea.
35130		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tahiti.
35131		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Raivavae.
35132		distribution	eng	An endemic to Rapa.
35133		distribution	eng	Populations are recorded on Nuku Hiva and Ua Pou.
35134		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree which is known only from the island of Raiatea in the Society Group.
35135		distribution	eng	The rarer of two varieties of the species occurring on Tahiti. This taxon is also recorded from Moorea.
35136		distribution	eng	As with var. <em>glabrata</em>, the taxon is confined to the island of Raiatea.
35137		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lanyu Island.
35137		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland broadleaved forest.
35137		population	eng	The population appears to be healthy.
35137		threats	eng	The population is unprotected and under considerable threat from the expansion of housing and agriculture in the area.
35138		distribution	eng	Taroko National Park, Hualien, eastern Taiwan.
35138		habitat	eng	A species localised in wooded limestone areas.
35138		threats	eng	There is some threat from mining activities and regeneration does not appear to be good.
35139		conservation	eng	Little regeneration is evident. No protection or conservation measures are in place.
35139		distribution	eng	Occurring in the eastern part of the island.
35139		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is found in small fragmented subpopulations in lowland dry deciduous scrub.
35139		threats	eng	The loss of habitat has been severe, caused mainly by increasing land settlement.
35140		distribution	eng	Central mountain range.
35140		habitat	eng	This species is confined to coniferous scrub at elevations above 2,400 m.
35140		threats	eng	Subpopulations are fragmented and suffering from poor regeneration.
35142		distribution	eng	Confined to a few isolated populations in the region of Hsinchu and Taitung.
35142		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
35142		population	eng	Once widely scattered, the species has become scarce.
35142		threats	eng	The future prospects of its survival are poor as regeneration is severely hampered by the use of the tree as a rootstock in citrus plantations and by the extensive loss of habitat.
35143		conservation	eng	The Kenting National Park covers the entire range.
35143		distribution	eng	Known only from the Nanjenshan area in the Hengchun Peninsula.
35143		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
35143		population	eng	The species occurs in very small and isolated populations.
35143		threats	eng	Little regeneration is evident and the expansion of housing developments has caused declines in the habitat.
35144		conservation	eng	None of the subpopulations are protected.
35144		distribution	eng	Only a few small subpopulations are known in areas of at Lienhunchi in the centre of Taiwan.
35144		habitat	eng	Lowland broadleaved forest.
35144		threats	eng	There is little evidence of regeneration.
35145		distribution	eng	In Taiwan subpopulations are few and restricted to isolated localities in Chingshuishan and Bashienshan. Information is needed on the subpopulation in Japan.
35145		habitat	eng	Broadleaved submontane forest.
35145		threats	eng	They are unprotected and regenerating poorly.
35146		distribution	eng	Populations are scattered over a relatively wide range.
35146		habitat	eng	A tree of low to mid-elevation broadleaved forest.
35147		distribution	eng	Ranging from Ghana to Cameroon.
35147		habitat	eng	A wet evergreen forest tree.
35147		threats	eng	The species habitat has declined because of mining and logging activities and the establishment of commercial plantations.
35148		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea.
35148		habitat	eng	Confined to wet evergreen forest.
35148		threats	eng	This species has experienced general losses in habitat caused by mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.
35149		distribution	eng	The species range is confined to the valley between Hualien and Taitung on the eastern side of the island.
35149		habitat	eng	Shrubs are common in scrub along river banks and on lowland plains on sandy soils.
35149		population	eng	No large individuals are found in the wild.
35149		threats	eng	Exploitation of the plant both for commercial trade and at a local level has led to population declines. Field surveys indicate that seedlings are scattered and few. No conservation or protection measures are in place.
35150		distribution	eng	Found mainly in Ghana, possibly extending into Côte d'Ivoire.
35150		habitat	eng	A small tree of wet evergreen forest.
35150		threats	eng	This forest has declined in extent because of the effects of mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.
35151		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea region.
35151		habitat	eng	A species confined to the restricted areas where wet evergreen forest remains.
35151		threats	eng	This habitat has been lost from the sites where mining, logging and commercial forestry have occurred.
35152		distribution	eng	The species is relatively wide-ranging from Ghana to Gabon.
35152		habitat	eng	An understorey shrubby tree restricted to but locally abundant in wet evergreen forest.
35152		threats	eng	Mining, logging and other forestry activities, particularly in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon, have caused the general decline and degradation of these forests.
35153		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.
35153		distribution	eng	A small tree found in 1991. It is known only from the site of discovery in Kalalau Valley in Napali Coast State Park on Kauai. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is only known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.
35153		habitat	eng	Growing on cliff walls in montane rainforest.
35153		population	eng	Only four trees have been found.
35153		threats	eng	The main threats to the population come from feral goats and pigs and invasive plants.
35154		distribution	eng	The species may be divided into two varieties, vars. <em>californica</em> and <em>hindsii</em>, both endemic to California. Walnut forest is a much fragmented and declining habitat. There are just two or three stands remaining of var. <em>hindsii</em>, although it is widely naturalised in parts of California and was formerly cultivated as a rootstock for <em>J. regia</em>, with which it readily hybridizes.
35154		threats	eng	Threatened in several counties by urbanisation, grazing and possibly by the lack of natural reproduction.
35156		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Fresno County.
35156		habitat	eng	Woodland.
35157		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
35157		distribution	eng	Found on Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.
35157		habitat	eng	A species scattered mainly in dry forest on lava flows up to 1,740 m.
35157		population	eng	At least 11 populations are said to remain on four of the islands, amounting to over 250 individuals. The majority of them are found on Hawaii at Puuwaawaa and Pohakuloa and areas in between.
35157		threats	eng	Competition with alien plants and feral and domesticated grazers continues to put pressure on the remaining subpopulations.
35158		distribution	eng	A species which is endemic to northern Somalia.
35158		threats	eng	Habitat degradation.
35159		distribution	eng	Known only from central Somalia.
35159		habitat	eng	This small tree is restricted to <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland in limestone areas.
35159		threats	eng	Large-scale charcoal production is causing the loss and degradation of the habitat.
35160		distribution	eng	Known only from north-eastern Somalia. It occurs in an area less than 20,000 km².
35160		habitat	eng	A tree of exposed limestone ridges in low vegetation.
35160		threats	eng	Its habitat continues to be degraded and destroyed by overgrazing and overcutting.
35161		distribution	eng	South of Beled Weyne.
35161		habitat	eng	A shrubby spreading tree known only from <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on limestone.
35161		threats	eng	This habitat is vulnerable to degradation.
35162		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-west Somalia.
35162		habitat	eng	It occurs in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland, usually in shallow soil over limestone.
35162		population	eng	Numerous trees were recorded in 1990 in the south-west, where the species is endemic.
35162		threats	eng	Habitat destruction because of charcoal production and overgrazing  is a continuing threat.
35163		distribution	eng	In a small area in the south-west of Somalia.
35163		habitat	eng	This species is confined to bushland on sand over limestone.
35163		threats	eng	The habitat is under pressure from degradation and overcutting for charcoal production.
35164		distribution	eng	Only a few localities are known in central and southern Somalia, in the Ogaden in Ethiopia and a small area in north-east Kenya.
35164		habitat	eng	<em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland.
35164		threats	eng	The <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland habitat is vulnerable to overcutting for charcoal production and the expansion of agricultural activities.
35165		distribution	eng	Only a few localities where this species occurs are known. All are confined to northern and central Somalia.
35165		habitat	eng	Bushland.
35165		threats	eng	Bushland habitat is vulnerable to  degradation.
35166		distribution	eng	Relatively wide-ranging, the species is found in central eastern parts of Kenya, central and southern Somalia and Sidamo in Ethiopia.
35166		threats	eng	In some areas the habitat is vulnerable to degradation from agricultural expansion and charcoal production.
35167		distribution	eng	Scattered in central Somalia and adjacent parts of Ethiopia, the species is not widely spread.
35168		distribution	eng	South of Dhurbo in north-east Somalia.
35168		habitat	eng	A small tree known only from a limestone escarpment, vegetated with sparse low bushes.
35168		threats	eng	The area is vulnerable to degradation.
35169		conservation	eng	The population is unprotected but local inhabitants are aware of its uniqueness.
35169		distribution	eng	Most specimens have been found in the vicinity of El Ellan.
35169		population	eng	In the last 10 years fewer than 10 individuals have been found. Although the true population size is likely to be greater, the tree and its habitat are threatened.
35169		threats	eng	Overcutting and grazing.
35170		distribution	eng	Confined to northern Somalia.
35170		threats	eng	The subspecies is threatened by habitat degradation caused by general overcutting and grazing.
35171		distribution	eng	One collection has been made in Ethiopia but otherwise the species is endemic to southern Somalia.
35171		threats	eng	The habitat is vulnerable to degradation caused by overcutting for charcoal production and expanding agricultural activities.
35172		distribution	eng	A tree from a monotypic genus. It is confined to southern Somalia.
35172		threats	eng	The habitat is extensively degraded because of overcutting for charcoal production and overgrazing.
35173		distribution	eng	Formerly known from a single individual in Kenya, which was felled in the 1980's, the species is now known to occur in a 0.1 ha patch of forest near Ngarama Forest Reserve in Tanzania.
35173		population	eng	Only a single individual exists.
35174		conservation	eng	The presence of forest management staff activities is helping to discourage local exploitation.
35174		distribution	eng	Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).
35174		habitat	eng	A species which appears now to be confined to remaining areas of undisturbed coastal forest.
35174		threats	eng	The forest has been severely disturbed by logging, shifting cultivation, wood collection and plantation establishment in the past.
35175		conservation	eng	The presence of an active forestry programme is discouraging local exploitation at the present time.
35175		distribution	eng	Appears to be confined to the remaining areas of undisturbed forest within Rondo Forest Reserve.
35175		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
35175		threats	eng	Logging activities, shifting cultivation, pole and fuelwood collection and the establishment of commercial plantations have disturbed the forest extensively in the past.
35176		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is protected, occurring in Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²), where human activities have caused extensive disturbance in the past but are presently discouraged by an active forestry programme.
35176		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal forest in Tanzania, this species is known only from four sites.
35176		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
35178		conservation	eng	The stability of the remaining forest is maintained by the presence of forest management activities which discourage local exploitation.
35178		distribution	eng	An endemic species of the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²), limited to areas which remain undisturbed.
35178		threats	eng	Logging, planting of commercial timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection have all contributed to the disturbance of forested areas within the reserve.
35179		distribution	eng	From Côte d'Ivoire to Democratic Republic of Congo.
35179		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen or semi-deciduous forest.
35179		population	eng	A small tree which is very rare in places but ranges widely.
35180		conservation	eng	In Côte d'Ivoire the subpopulation is mainly contained within Tai National Park.
35180		distribution	eng	Upper Guinea region, from Guinea to Côte d'Ivoire.
35180		habitat	eng	This species is confined to moist forest.
35180		threats	eng	Forested areas outside the park have been widely logged and degraded.
35186		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected area.
35186		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is recorded from the Noumea and Paita region, and is also recorded from Nepoui and the Pouembout region. Distances between known sites can be up to 146 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,628 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 32 km².
35186		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35186		population	eng	The population size is unknown. The species is known to occur in five distinct locations in a very fragmented habitat where it always occurs as rare and isolated individuals.
35186		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35187		distribution	eng	Restricted to a very limited area on the west coast. There is a possibility that the species is conspecific with <em>S. veitchii</em>, four specimens of which have been collected in the Bourail region.
35187		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland forest.
35187		population	eng	No new material has been recorded since the late 1800s.
35187		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has been considerable.
35191		distribution	eng	Collected from the eastern slopes of Mt. Aoupinié .
35191		habitat	eng	Humid forest at 600 m occurring on an unusual and highly restricted substrate.
35191		population	eng	Apparently only collected once, in 1972.
35192		distribution	eng	A species known from two small subpopulations, the type locality in Kouaoua and the second location at Petit Koum.
35192		habitat	eng	Rainforest understory on serpentine soils (type locality) and with <em>Agathis lanceolata</em> in rainforest on granite (second locality).
35193		distribution	eng	Only a single location is known where the species occurs on Mt. Mandjélia.
35193		habitat	eng	In dense forest at 600 m.
35203		distribution	eng	Known from only a few, possibly only three, localities on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes.
35203		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of low forest up to 2,700 m.
35204		distribution	eng	Distributed in south-east Brazil.
35204		habitat	eng	A secondary forest species.
35205		distribution	eng	Type collected from Boyaca.
35205		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
35205		population	eng	Known only from the type collected in 1933.
35206		distribution	eng	A species which is confined to black water areas in the Upper Río Negro.
35207		distribution	eng	Known only from Sâo Paulo.
35207		habitat	eng	This species is confined to gallery forest within the cerrado.
35209		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively wide distribution.
35209		habitat	eng	A tree found within mainland forest.
35210		distribution	eng	The type collection fwas gathered from Goiás.
35210		population	eng	The type collection is the only record of this species.
35212		habitat	eng	Woodlands and thickets on rocky limestone.
35212		population	eng	The species is uncommon and local in the central and north-west parishes.
35213		distribution	eng	The species extends in range from Costa Rica to the Urabá region of north-west Colombia. In Panama, subpopulations are small and scattered principally in the humid forests on the Pacific side, few collections coming from the Atlantic slopes. In Costa Rica populations are also largely confined to the Pacific side.
35213		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest.
35213		threats	eng	Most parts of the range are experiencing moderate to high human impact.
35214		conservation	eng	Most of the high-altitude localities are contained within protected areas.
35214		distribution	eng	Distributed widely from mid to high elevations in Costa Rica but only in a restricted area of high forest in Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro in Panama near the Costa Rica border.
35214		habitat	eng	A cloud forest tree.
35214		population	eng	Subpopulations are relatively sparse, with few juvenile individuals.
35214		threats	eng	Subpopulations outside protected areas are highly susceptible to clearing and encroaching agriculture.
35215		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to the vicinity of Manaus.
35215		habitat	eng	Restricted to high non-flooded forest.
35215		threats	eng	Increasing human settlement is a serious threat.
35216		distribution	eng	The species appears to be confined to the Venezuelan Amazon.
35216		habitat	eng	High, non-flooded forests.
35216		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
35217		distribution	eng	This species, endemic to Bahía, is fairly wide-ranging but confined to an area which continues to be deforested.
35217		threats	eng	Confined to an area which continues to be deforested.
35218		distribution	eng	A high-altitude species, confined to Cauca and Meta.
35219		distribution	eng	Rio de Janeiro.
35219		population	eng	A species known solely from a type specimen collected in 1938.
35220		distribution	eng	Type collection gathered at Tafelberg.
35220		population	eng	A species only recorded from the type collection.
35222		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in various sites, covering a relatively wide range.
35222		habitat	eng	This is a cloud forest species from 1,400 to 2,300 m.
35223		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area of high Amazon forest and secondary growth.
35223		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary lowland evergreen forest.
35224		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Vaupés.
35224		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen.
35225		distribution	eng	Ranging from the Caribbean lowlands to upland areas in Venezuela. It has been collected from one locality near Siquirres in Costa Rica, the Chocó in Colombia.
35225		habitat	eng	An evergreen rainforest tree.
35226		distribution	eng	Central parishes.
35226		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in pasture margins and woodlands on limestone.
35227		habitat	eng	Found only occasionally in woodlands on limestone in moderately wet areas.
35228		distribution	eng	The species has been found only in Darién Province.
35228		population	eng	It is present in reasonable numbers in Cerro Pirre within Darién National Park.
35229		distribution	eng	Known only from localities in Westmoreland, Hanover and St James.
35229		habitat	eng	Generally confined to rocky limestone hilltops.
35229		population	eng	The species is infrequent.
35231		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Chaco of Argentina and neighbouring Paraguay.
35231		habitat	eng	Lowland dry forest.
35231		threats	eng	The species range may be extensive but the ecosystem is susceptible to damage caused by human activities.
35232		distribution	eng	Upper Rio Negro.
35232		habitat	eng	Flooded forest.
35232		population	eng	A species which grows quite abundantly, but only in flooded forest.
35234		distribution	eng	The species can be divided into three subspecies, which take up distributions in the north-west, north-east and southern regions of Grand Terre, including some of the neighbouring islands.
35234		habitat	eng	All forms occur largely in rainforest on ultramafic soils.
35234		threats	eng	Exposed to threats from fire, mining activities and habitat clearance or degradation.
35236		distribution	eng	A species which appears to have two disjunct subpopulations, one near Koumac in the north-west and the other further south on the east coast.
35236		habitat	eng	Both populations occur in littoral maquis on ultramafic soils.
35237		distribution	eng	Found in the  in the central and western parishes.
35237		habitat	eng	Thickets and woodlands on limestone.
35237		population	eng	An uncommon species.
35237		threats	eng	General habitat declines have been considerable, mostly caused by increasing agriculture.
35238		habitat	eng	The species has a precarious existence in cultivated fields and also on river borders.
35238		population	eng	Collected very rarely and only recently from an area near Sarraméa.
35240		habitat	eng	The species is confined to coastal woodlands on limestone and sand dunes.
35243		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.
35243		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in two small peninsulas covered by very degraded dry forest. One site is 9 ha and is located in the industrial zone of Noumea; the other is 100 ha and located in Paita region. They are distant of 5 km and separated by the sea. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 1.09 km².
35243		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. This habitat, which was probably characteristic of Noumea and the surrounding area a century ago, is now basically confined to very small and highly degraded patches.
35243		population	eng	The subpopulation of this species in Paita is confined to a small patch of more or less preserved forest. It is locally abundant with several dozens individuals over two or three hectares. In the other known location, the species seems to be represented by very few individuals.
35243		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>E. daenikeri</em> is urbanization. Its two locations are in urban or suburban zones. The biggest subpopulation is close to Paita's public dump; the other is at the extreme west of Noumea's industrial zone. The subpopulations are extremely localized and a single fire could destroy of each of them. Although the Noumea area is safe from wild deer, the Paita location holds a big population of wild deer. These deer consume a wide variety of plant species and also cause severe damage to trees by rubbing their antlers against tree stems.
35244		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.
35244		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present nearly all along the west coast. From south to north, it is found in Mont Dore, Noumea and Paita, Poya, Koné and Voh, Koumac and Poum. Distance between subpopulations can be as high as 127 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 6,970 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 60 km².
35244		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical dry forests and maquis. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Maquis are also extremely vulnerable habitats because of the richness of their soil and their mining value.
35244		population	eng	The total population size is unknown. The species is present in several localities where it is never abundant.
35244		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35249		distribution	eng	A species found in only a few localities confined to Grand Terre. Populations are recorded from the vicinity of Prony, Grand Lac, the Yaté barrage and two sites on the east coast.
35249		habitat	eng	Subpopulations occur in maquis or low forest.
35249		threats	eng	Fires and in some places mining activities are continuing threats.
35250		distribution	eng	Known only from Rio de Janeiro.
35250		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from littoral habitats and small mountains.
35250		population	eng	The paucity of recent collections suggests that the species has become scarce.
35251		distribution	eng	An endemic of Mt. Kaala.
35251		habitat	eng	The species occurs in maquis on ultramafic soils at altitudes of between 600 and 700 m.
35253		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small number of scattered localities on the southern ultramafic massifs.
35253		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35254		distribution	eng	An endemic shrub to the Puerto Padre area of central Cuba.
35254		habitat	eng	Coastal and subcoastal dry evergreen forests and scrub.
35254		threats	eng	The habitat is severely degraded in many places and the remaining areas continue to be susceptible to cutting and clearing. Development for tourism is the present major threat.
35255		distribution	eng	It occurs in three locations in Creek Pernod, La Madeleine and the summits of hills to south-east of Yaté.
35255		habitat	eng	A bushy shrub, sometimes a small tree in low forest or maquis.
35255		threats	eng	Although La Madeleine is protected as a botanical reserve, declines in the habitat have been observed, probably because of the large number of visitors. In other places mining activities and fires are causing serious damage.
35256		distribution	eng	A bushy shrub or small tree which is well represented in the southern ultramafic massifs and also on isolated massifs in the north.
35256		habitat	eng	It occurs in low forest or maquis.
35256		threats	eng	In many places the habitat is degraded and exposed to threats of mining, fires and clearance.
35262		conservation	eng	One individual is present in a protected area and 10 individuals have been planted <em>ex situ</em> in restoration projects.
35262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from two locations, 2 km apart, in the Pouembout region. Its total extent of occurrence is 4 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.3 km².
35262		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35262		population	eng	The exact population size of this rare and discreet species is not known but an estimate can be made. Forty individuals have been identified and are located immediately outside of a fenced reserve (Conservatoire Botanique de Tiéa); only one has been seen inside this reserve. Two more individuals have been found at a second location, 2 km away on private land. It is therefore estimated that there may be less than 100 living individuals of this species.
35262		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.<br/><br/>Unfortunately, most of the known individuals from the largest subpopulation are located immediately outside a fenced reserve. That population was discovered after the limits of the reserve were drawn. A large part of the surrounding forest has already been cleared for agriculture and the remnant patches are highly degraded.
35264		habitat	eng	Secondary thickets, along paths and gullies, generally on limestone.
35264		population	eng	A relatively commonly occurring species.
35265		habitat	eng	Occurring in thickets and woodlands on limestone, mostly in dry coastal or exposed areas.
35265		population	eng	A locally common species.
35266		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas.
35266		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Scattered subpopulations of the species are met from Poya to Voh with distances between sites never exceeding 26 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 577 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 40 km².
35266		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35266		population	eng	Little is known about the population of this rare and discreet species. It mostly occurs as rare and scattered individuals.
35266		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35268		conservation	eng	It occurs in Tijuca National Park and on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.
35268		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are now very restricted and largely confined to the Serra do Mar.
35268		threats	eng	The habitat of this species continues to be rapidly destroyed.
35269		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, this subspecies is restricted to Boyacá.
35270		distribution	eng	A tree species endemic to the Ecuadorian Andes.
35271		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
35272		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
35273		distribution	eng	A tree species endemic to the Ecuadorian High Andes.
35273		habitat	eng	Upper montane forest zone.
35274		distribution	eng	An endemic to Boyacá.
35278		distribution	eng	The few collections known have come from the Cordillera del Darién in Panama, and only recently from Colombia.
35278		habitat	eng	Occurring in evergreen rainforest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
35278		population	eng	The species is scarce and highly restricted in distribution.
35278		threats	eng	Although the species range is entirely contained within a national park, there is still some risk of deforestation.
35279		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
35279		distribution	eng	<em>Brunellia ecuadoriensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Azuay, Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago provinces.
35279		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–2,800 m).
35279		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
35280		distribution	eng	An endemic to Norte de Santander.
35281		conservation	eng	It is protected within Farallones de Cali National Park.
35281		distribution	eng	Although restricted to a small area near Cali, the species is not threatened. The area is steeply sloping and unsuitable for agriculture or other uses.
35282		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cauca.
35283		distribution	eng	A Colombian endemic, occurring only in Caquetá and Huila.
35284		distribution	eng	Considered to be endemic to Panama but possibly also exists in Costa Rica. Only a few collections are known in the Central Cordillera.
35284		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species between 1,000 and 2,500 m .
35284		threats	eng	There are no protective measures in place and the habitat is somewhat exposed to clearing for settlements and agriculture.
35285		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
35285		distribution	eng	<em>Brunellia ovalifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 11 subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, El Oro, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.
35285		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude, dry paramo (2,000–3,700 m).
35285		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
35286		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
35287		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
35288		distribution	eng	An endemic to Caquetá.
35289		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
35291		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
35291		distribution	eng	<em>Brunellia zamorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay, Cotopaxi and Morona-Santiago provinces.
35291		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
35291		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
35292		distribution	eng	A montane forest species occurring commonly near the summit of John Crow Peak, scattered in southern catchments and rare in northern catchments.
35292		threats	eng	Its restriction to altitudes above 1,400 m has led to the species escaping much of the disturbance at lower elevations, although soil erosion and invasive plants still cause habitat degradation.
35293		distribution	eng	Known from occurrences in St Catherine, Clarendon and Trelawny.
35293		habitat	eng	Confined to woodland on limestone.
35293		population	eng	The species is uncommon.
35294		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas.
35294		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is present on the west coast in Tontouta (Uitoe and Montagnes), Pindaï, Poya (Ile Grimault), Koné (Koniambo) and Gomen (Cap Deverd). Distances between sites are (respectively and from south to north) 145, 38 and 55 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,143 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
35294		habitat	eng	This species is present in dry forests (including calcareous forests) and on ultramafic soils. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Formations on ultramafic soils have also been very impacted by mining activities and fires in New Caledonia.
35294		population	eng	Population size is unknown. When present, this species can be locally common in the understorey (Pindai), but mostly it is rare.
35294		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. The Koniambo subpopulation is threatened by nickel industry projects on this mountain.
35296		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are restricted to Trelawny and St Ann.
35296		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone
35297		habitat	eng	A species which is locally common in dry thickets and woodlands on limestone near the sea.
35298		distribution	eng	The taxon is confined to a small area where it is relatively safe from threat.
35298		habitat	eng	Submontane <em>cerrado</em>.
35301		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, thought to occur in Valle.
35307		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two protected areas.
35307		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to dry forests of the Poya region. Its total extent of occurrence is 102 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².
35307		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
35307		population	eng	The population size is unknown. In Nekoro, from where the species has been named, it is common and the subpopulation is healthy and regenerates well. In all other sites it occurs as rare and scattered individuals.
35307		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
35316		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mindanao Island.
35316		habitat	eng	A forest understorey species, often found along creeks.
35317		distribution	eng	Vicinity of Manaus.
35317		habitat	eng	A small tree found on terra firme forest.
35318		distribution	eng	Found near Manaus, Amazonas.
35318		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub found in non-inundated forest.
35319		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree restricted to forest on limestone hills.
35320		distribution	eng	Populations are distributed throughout Panama, but most are apparently from cultivation or planted along roadsides. A naturally-occurring population is recorded from an area near the Panama Canal. Naturalised and wild populations are scattered along the Peruvian Andes.
35320		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree occurring widely in the understorey of moist woodland and forest.
35322		distribution	eng	Found in the southern end of the Western Ghats, occurring from Anaimalai to the southern tip of the Agastyamalai Hills.
35322		habitat	eng	An understorey shrub or small tree which has been well collected in areas of submontane evergreen forest.
35323		distribution	eng	Known only from Manchester and Trelawny. The somewhat inaccessible distribution of the species' habitat is likely to have impeded excessive clearing.
35323		habitat	eng	The species is found on jagged limestone cliffs.
35324		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Manchester Parish.
35324		habitat	eng	It is confined to arid limestone rocks.
35325		distribution	eng	The distribution of the species is disjunct, with populations - possibly representing different taxa - occurring in St James in the west and Portland in the east.
35325		habitat	eng	The species is confined to moist wooded limestone hills.
35326		distribution	eng	Portland and St Thomas.
35326		habitat	eng	Confined to mossy woodland areas between 450 and 900 m.
35326		threats	eng	Areas in the former are also reduced and threatened by forestry activities.
35327		distribution	eng	Endemic to lowland south-west India.
35327		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, found in bush or forest up to 600 m.
35328		distribution	eng	Restricted to the mountains of Rio de Janeiro near Petrópolis and Terezópolis.
35328		population	eng	This tree was last collected in 1968. It is not known whether the species is still extant.
35329		distribution	eng	A forest tree apparently restricted to the mountains around Rio de Janeiro.
35329		population	eng	The most recent collection is dated 1961.
35330		distribution	eng	The type collection supposedly came from Rio de Janeiro.
35330		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection, gathered in 1825. Although this area has since been well studied, the species has not been found again.
35331		distribution	eng	A tree confined to the remaining patches of coastal forest in Sâo Paulo and Paraná.
35331		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
35331		threats	eng	Large-scale destruction of these forests has taken place over several centuries.
35332		conservation	eng	It is also cultivated on a small scale for its much appreciated edible fruits which are shaped like Indian clay pots, or <em>cambuci</em>, from which it derives its vernacular name.
35332		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from sites near Sâo Paulo city and Serra dos Orgâos National Park near Teresópolis in Rio de Janeiro.
35333		distribution	eng	Collected at a location called Rio Manso in Minas Gerais.
35333		population	eng	The species is known only from a collection made in the last century. There is more than one Rio Manso in the state and the species has not been found again.
35334		distribution	eng	It is apparently restricted to Minas Gerais.
35334		habitat	eng	It probably occurs in <em>cerrado</em> vegetation.
35334		population	eng	This species is poorly known.
35335		distribution	eng	From locations in Paraná and Rio de Janeiro.
35335		habitat	eng	An Atlantic coastal forest tree.
35335		threats	eng	The decline in its habitat has been dramatic.
35336		distribution	eng	According to current knowledge, this variety is confined to coastal forests in Sâo Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.
35336		habitat	eng	Coastal forests.
35336		population	eng	Known only from two collections from the last century and one more recent collection. The other varieties appear to be more commonly collected and located in the interior.
35337		distribution	eng	Believed to be distributed on the banks of Rio Sâo Francisco in coastal Alagoas.
35337		habitat	eng	In forest on river bank.
35337		population	eng	Apparently collected only twice, this rare species is poorly known.
35338		habitat	eng	The species has a local distribution on rocky banks or in thickets and pastures on coral limestone or sandy soils near the sea.
35339		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ducke Forest Reserve.
35339		distribution	eng	Confined to non-flooded forest of central Amazonia, near Manaus.
35339		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35339		threats	eng	The species is under threat from increasing land settlement and fires.
35340		distribution	eng	This species has only ever been collected from a single site along the Manaus to Itacoatiana road.
35340		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35341		distribution	eng	Puntarenas Province.
35341		habitat	eng	An understorey shrub or small tree restricted to forest.
35342		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Colombia, the species is known to occur in Antioquia, Bolívar, Caldas, Santander, Tolima and possibly Caquetá. The Peruvian distribution requires confirmation. There may also be a collection from Darién in Panama.
35343		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Chapado do Araripe in Brazil.
35343		habitat	eng	A species of <em>cerrado</em>.
35344		distribution	eng	It is widespread across Mexico.
35344		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub found in low forest or thicket.
35344		population	eng	Relatively well collected.
35346		distribution	eng	Found in central parishes.
35346		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
35346		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
35347		distribution	eng	Confined to the mountains of the Nipe-Baracoa Massif in eastern Cuba.
35347		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine woodland and forest.
35348		distribution	eng	This endemic Colombian species occurs in Valle and Vaupes.
35349		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador. Currently this species is only known from the High Andean areas of Imbabura and Pichincha. Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
35349		habitat	eng	Inhabiting montane and upper montane cloud forest.
35350		distribution	eng	Previously recorded in Tolima and possibly Quindio.
35350		population	eng	An extinct species.
35351		distribution	eng	A forest tree endemic to Fiji.
35356		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread on the Grand Terre and also occurring on Ile des Pins.
35356		habitat	eng	The species has been found in diverse habitats including  humid forest and degraded maquis on ultramafic or schist substrates.
35357		conservation	eng	The area is given some protection as a special botanical  reserve.
35357		distribution	eng	Collections were taken from Mt. Panié.
35357		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
35357		population	eng	The species appears to be known from just two collections.
35359		conservation	eng	The population is believed to be effectively protected.
35359		distribution	eng	Type locality in Rivière Bleue Provincial Park.
35359		population	eng	A large tree known only from the type locality.
35360		conservation	eng	Old trees are protected from being cut or damaged.
35360		distribution	eng	A few isolated populations occur on the Klamath Mountains within USDA National Forest lands.
35360		habitat	eng	Subalpine altitudes.
35360		threats	eng	The trees are extremely slow-growing and populations may be susceptible to fire and the grazing of wildlife.
35361		distribution	eng	Pacific side of the Cordillera Central throughout Panama, and in the Chocó in Colombia and Alajuela in Costa Rica.
35361		habitat	eng	Occurring in medium-altitude forest.
35361		population	eng	The species is found in scattered subpopulations, which are never large.
35361		threats	eng	Throughout the species range, there is evidence of medium to high human disturbance. In Chiriquí, Panama, the population is affected by annual burning.
35362		distribution	eng	In the central and eastern parishes.
35362		habitat	eng	A species found occasionally in woodland on steep limestone hillsides.
35362		threats	eng	General habitat declines have been considerable, mostly caused by increasing agriculture.
35363		distribution	eng	Widely known under the genus <em>Afrosersalisia</em>, this species is known from subpopulations in the Shimba Hills in Kenya, coastal forest in Tanzania, Makurupini  National Park (1.5 km²) in Zimbabwe and the lower slopes of the Chimanimani Mountains. in Mozambique.
35363		population	eng	It occurs in some abundance in some areas, especially towards the drier regions of forest.
35363		threats	eng	It is being actively cut in places (e.g., Mangea in Kenya).
35364		conservation	eng	The species is well protected and the population is healthy.
35364		distribution	eng	Endemic to Chirinda forest, this subspecies occupies an area of just 0.5 km². Other subspecies of this taxon are known from Tanzania and Madagascar.
35364		threats	eng	The forest has been logged in the past and is most heavily disturbed at the perimeter, where it is at risk from invasive species, drought and fire.
35365		distribution	eng	This monotypic genus is confined to the remnant rainforest of the Gulf region of Mexico, only occurring in abundance in Uxpanapa. It is the only New World member of its tribe.
35366		distribution	eng	Other subspecies are confined to the Lesser Antilles and Cuba.
35366		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found infrequently in remaining areas of woodland on limestone in areas of high rainfall.
35367		conservation	eng	Subpopulations in traditional areas are given a degree of protection.
35367		distribution	eng	this species occurs in Mongu and Senanga districts of western Zambia and adjacent parts of Angola.
35367		habitat	eng	Confined to woodland on Kalahari sands in areas of low rainfall.  It is associated with <em>Baikaea plurijuga</em>.
35368		distribution	eng	One of the two species which exist in this genus. This species ranges from the north of Amazonas, in Brazil, to Guyana.
35368		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry evergreen forest over white sand, usually along creeksides.
35369		distribution	eng	Southern Venezuela and central Amazonian Brazil.
35369		habitat	eng	A species of lowland periodically flooded forest, occurring along riversides.
35370		distribution	eng	In a few sites in western Amazonia.
35370		habitat	eng	A timber species recorded from várzea and non-flooded lowland forests.
35371		distribution	eng	Collected from San Martín.
35371		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest between 400 and 800 m.
35371		population	eng	Apparently the species has not been recorded since it was first collected in the first half of the century.
35372		habitat	eng	Widely scattered in dry open forest locations.
35372		population	eng	The species is relatively well collected and does not appear to be declining in any way.
35373		distribution	eng	A newly described species currently known from two main locations in the western Amazon. Recorded in Loreto in Peru and further east in Brazil.
35373		habitat	eng	Several occurrences are recorded in non-flooded forest, usually on white sand.
35374		distribution	eng	From the north of Manaus.
35374		habitat	eng	A tree species of non-flooded lowland forest.
35374		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
35375		distribution	eng	A newly described species. The type was collected from César some 50 years ago and from one other collection from Bolívar.
35375		habitat	eng	It is recorded as a straggling treelet scattered on the forest edge and in savannah.
35375		population	eng	Currently known from the type specimen.
35376		conservation	eng	Distribution includes Ilha do Cardoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.
35376		distribution	eng	It has recently been collected from a number of new sites, including Ilha do Cardoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.
35376		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland coastal rainforest and gallery forest in drier inland localities.
35377		distribution	eng	Atlantic coast.
35377		habitat	eng	A large tree known from several sites of lowland rainforest, one being a plantation.
35377		threats	eng	The natural habitat of the species has been greatly reduced in recent decades.
35378		conservation	eng	It also occurs in Ilha do Cordoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.
35378		habitat	eng	A small tree of coastal rainforest.
35378		population	eng	The known range of this species has increased.
35379		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland coastal rainforest.
35379		population	eng	It has been collected only from the type locality in Laranjeiras Forest, Rio de Janeiro, but it can no longer be found there.
35380		distribution	eng	A newly described species, endemic to Colombia, and currently known only from Cauca.
35380		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest between 2,700 and 3,000 m.
35381		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo.
35381		distribution	eng	The more restricted of the two subspecies. The taxon is confined to the coast of Brazil between Bahía and Rio de Janeiro.
35381		threats	eng	The lowland forest habitat has seriously declined in extent and continues to be threatened by development and settlement.
35383		distribution	eng	Recorded from separate localities, one in Amazonian Peru and the other in the border area between Acre in Brazil and Beni in Bolivia.
35383		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
35384		distribution	eng	A taxon located in pockets of remaining forest in a range stretching from south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania, Zanzibar and the Pemba Islands. The type variety is widespread.
35384		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
35385		habitat	eng	A tree confined to lowland evergreen coastal forest.
35385		threats	eng	Increasing development and settlement are causing serious habitat declines.
35386		distribution	eng	A tree which is currently known from two widely separated areas, occurring in several sites in Carabobo and Lara in northern Venezuela and in a small endangered population in Valle in Colombia.
35386		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest (Venezuela) and montane forest at 2,000 m (Colombia).
35387		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas: Ambangulu Private Forest, Kwamngumi Forest Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve, Kwamkoro Forest Reserve, and Amani Nature Reserve.
35387		distribution	eng	Known only from the East and West Usambara Mtns.
35387		habitat	eng	A tree growing in dry evergreen forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra webberi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>.
35387		population	eng	Rare wherever it occurs, usually only very few trees.
35387		threats	eng	Threatened by loss of forest habitat for agricultural activities (cultivation, e.g. cocoa, tea and cinchona&#160; plantations).
35388		distribution	eng	Occurrences are recorded from the serpentine barrens in Puerto Rico and from St Croix, St John and St Thomas in the Virgin Islands.
35388		habitat	eng	A tree of semi-deciduous dry forest and thickets on hills up to 750 m.
35389		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Kilombero Nature Reserve, and Mazumbai Forest Reserve.
35389		distribution	eng	Found in the West Usambara Mts and again in the Udzwunga Mts (has a disjunct distribution), Tanzania.
35389		habitat	eng	A tree found in sub-montane to montane forest on steep slopes with small streams and swamps, and patches of elfin forest on ridge top.
35389		population	eng	Not very common.
35389		threats	eng	This species is fairly secure in the Udzungwa Mts, but the habitat is under threat in the Usambara Mts due to exapnsion of agricultural and other human activities, increasing use of fire, etc.
35390		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the region of Tarapoto in San Martín.
35390		habitat	eng	Occurs in rainforest at an altitude of 750 m.
35391		distribution	eng	The type locality and several subpopulations are found in Aragua and Miranda in Venezuela, including occurrences in Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Parque Nacional Aragua. A further more tentative record originates from Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in Loreto, Peru.
35391		habitat	eng	A heavily buttressed tree, which is newly described as a species. It appears to be found in lowland and montane evergreen forest in widely separated locations.
35392		distribution	eng	A Tanzanian endemic. It is known from two sites: Nakilala in Kilwa district and Lake Lutamba.
35392		habitat	eng	Occurs in deciduous coastal thicket and open woodland.
35392		threats	eng	Areas around Lake Lutamba were extensively cleared 50 years ago for the cultivation of commercial crops, leaving only a small area of forest contained within Litipo Forest Reserve.
35393		conservation	eng	An occurrence is recorded in the Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo.
35393		habitat	eng	A species restricted to remaining wet coastal rainforest.
35393		threats	eng	Seriously threatened by increasing settlement and development.
35394		distribution	eng	It apparently occurs in two sites.
35394		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
35394		population	eng	Little information is available on this species.
35395		distribution	eng	Type collection from western Amazonia.
35395		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
35395		population	eng	Only known from the type collection made in 1941.
35396		conservation	eng	Active conservation programmes are now in place.
35396		distribution	eng	An endemic species within the Udzungwa Forest Reserve and Lulanda.
35396		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest confined to a 70 m elevation band.
35396		threats	eng	These forests have been heavily exploited and disturbed in the past.
35397		conservation	eng	An active conservation programme is in place in Lulanda Forest.
35397		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is confined to a region covering eastern Tanzania and south-east Kenya. This variety is restricted to the Lulanda Forest in the Udzungwa range.
35398		conservation	eng	Two forest guards are employed under the Tanzanian Catchment  Forest Project to prevent illegal encroachment.
35398		distribution	eng	Restricted to Kimboza Forest Reserve (4 km²), this variety is similarly restricted in range as other varieties of the species.
35398		habitat	eng	Confined to moist coastal forest.
35398		threats	eng	The forest is disturbed, mainly from previous logging activities, and contained within a densely populated area where the demand for land is strong.
35399		distribution	eng	The largest population occurs in forest on the Grand Ridge. Hybridisation takes place between this species and <em>C. occidentalis</em>.
35399		habitat	eng	Forest and forest margins and gaps.
35399		population	eng	This species appears to be common to abundant, especially above 1,800 m.
35399		threats	eng	The forest at lower altitudes has suffered more serious degradation because of logging and the ensuing soil erosion and invasion of aggressive exotic plants.
35402		distribution	eng	Central and western parishes.
35402		habitat	eng	A tree of moist savannahs, thickets and woodlands on limestone.
35402		threats	eng	General habitat declines have been considerable.
35403		distribution	eng	Subpopulations occur in two main areas, Trelawny and St James, and Portland and St Thomas.
35403		habitat	eng	They are confined to remaining areas of woodland on limestone and serpentine soils.
35403		threats	eng	Deforestation has occurred extensively in the latter two parishes.
35404		distribution	eng	From south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania.
35404		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas of dry coastal forest, often on coral.
35405		distribution	eng	This species is found along the south coast.
35405		habitat	eng	On dry limestone along the coast.
35405		population	eng	It is locally common in places.
35406		distribution	eng	A scarce species of Guatemala and Honduras.
35406		habitat	eng	Atlantic wet lowlands.
35406		threats	eng	Continuing conversion of the habitat for agriculture has caused population reductions.
35407		conservation	eng	Relatively well protected by guards or active conservation programmes.
35407		distribution	eng	Found in eastern Tanzania, this tree is known from Kimboza Forest Reserve, the East Usambara Mts. and possibly also the North Udzungwa Mts.
35407		habitat	eng	Restricted to patches of moist evergreen forest.
35407		threats	eng	All these localities are in densely populated areas.
35409		conservation	eng	Only in Darién National Park is there a well-protected subpopulation.
35409		distribution	eng	The main subpopulation of this variety is concentrated in the province of Darién in Panama, with additional occurrences in the Canal area in Panama, and also just over the border into Colombia, in the Serranía del Darién in the Chocó, and Urabá.
35409		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland, sometimes inundated, forest up to 300 m.
35409		population	eng	The species is scarce throughout much of its range
35411		distribution	eng	The type subspecies of a Tanzanian endemic. Populations are known from the Uluguru Mts. and South Nguru Mts.
35411		habitat	eng	Restricted to moist montane forest above 1,430 m.
35412		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from the East and West Usambara Mts.
35412		habitat	eng	The more northerly distributed subspecies of this montane forest tree.
35413		distribution	eng	Found only in St Mary, Portland and St Thomas.
35413		habitat	eng	A small tree of moist woodland areas below 750 m.
35413		threats	eng	The habitat, especially in St Thomas, has been extensively destroyed and degraded.
35414		distribution	eng	Known from only two sites this tree occurs in the Uluguru Mts. and Malundwe.
35414		habitat	eng	Areas of moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.
35415		distribution	eng	Endemic to the East Usambara Mts.
35415		habitat	eng	A tree of moist evergreen forest confined to a narrow altitudinal range.
35416		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from the East Usambara Mts. and Mt. Mlinga.
35416		habitat	eng	Confined to a narrow altitudinal range in moist evergreen submontane forest.
35417		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Udzungwa Mts.
35417		habitat	eng	Occurring in an area of moist montane forest.
35418		habitat	eng	Occurring in secondary rainforest on limestone hills.
35418		population	eng	An uncommon species in central and eastern parishes.
35419		habitat	eng	Occurring in woodland margins on limestone hills.
35419		threats	eng	Exposed to frequent habitat degradation.
35420		habitat	eng	A relatively small tree of non-flooded rainforest, riverine or swamp forest.
35420		population	eng	Known from about 15 collections. The genus is made up of four species.
35421		distribution	eng	A species restricted to the East Usambara Mts.
35421		habitat	eng	Within moist evergreen forest in upland areas.
35422		conservation	eng	Pugu is now part of an active conservation programme and the forest management activities in Rondo are discouraging local exploitation.
35422		distribution	eng	A shrubby species known from remaining forest patches largely existing within Forest Reserves. Subpopulations are known from Pugu and Rondo Forest Reserves.
35422		threats	eng	The forests reserves where it occurs have been heavily disturbed in the past by a range of human activities including logging and agriculture.
35423		conservation	eng	Forest covering 140 km² is protected in the Rondo Plateau as a forest reserve.  The presence of an active forest management programme is discouraging further exploitative activities.
35423		distribution	eng	Known from three sites in south-east Tanzania. It has been collected from an unprotected tract of forest on the Noto Plateau and from the nearby Rondo Plateau.
35423		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
35423		threats	eng	Much of the forest is heavily disturbed because of previous logging, planting of commercial timbers, shifting agriculture and local exploitation.
35424		distribution	eng	The range of the species appears to be confined to the Usambara Mts.
35424		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist montane forest.
35425		distribution	eng	The range of the species is confined to the East Usambara Mts.
35425		habitat	eng	It occurs within moist forests at altitudes of 800 to 1,050 m.
35426		distribution	eng	Known from the East Usambara, North Udzungwa and also probably the Nguru Mts.
35426		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist evergreen forest at altitudes of 1,150 to 1,400 m.
35427		distribution	eng	A Tanzania endemic, this subspecies is restricted to the Kiboriani and Udzungwa Mts.
35427		habitat	eng	Moist montane forests.
35428		distribution	eng	Known only from Tendaguru.
35428		habitat	eng	A species of dry forest or open woodland.
35429		conservation	eng	This species is relatively well protected in the two forest reserves. Local activities and encroachment are discouraged by the presence of forest management operations.
35429		distribution	eng	Known only from Litipo (10 km²) and Rondo (140 km²) Forest Reserves.
35429		threats	eng	Both forests have been extensively logged and other activities have contributed to large areas being disturbed. The demand for land for commercial and subsistence agriculture is also strongly felt.
35430		distribution	eng	Found in three localities: Nyumbanitu, Lulanda and west Mufindi.
35430		habitat	eng	A moist montane forest tree, occurring at elevations exceeding 1,500 m.
35431		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from Mwanihana in the North Udzungwa Mts.
35431		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist submontane forest.
35432		distribution	eng	The only population known occurs on the North Udzungwa Mts. at Bandwa
35432		habitat	eng	2,050 m elevation in moist evergreen forest.
35433		distribution	eng	Confined to the Uluguru Mts.
35433		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in moist evergreen montane forest.
35434		distribution	eng	Vicinity of Manaus.
35434		habitat	eng	This species is known only from areas of non-flooded forest.
35434		threats	eng	Fires, felling and cutting the buttresses are the most major threats.
35435		distribution	eng	It is now confined to forested areas around Rio de Janeiro.
35435		population	eng	At one time the species may have represented a commonly occurring tree.
35436		distribution	eng	An infrequent species known from a few widely geographically separated collections.
35436		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35437		conservation	eng	Common in Darién National Park in Panama.
35437		distribution	eng	Scattered sparsely throughout El Salvador to Ecuador.
35437		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, sometimes in swampy areas.
35437		population	eng	It is noted as common in Nicaragua and in Darién National Park in Panama.
35437		threats	eng	The habitat, especially where unprotected, is under pressure from increasing settlement, logging and agriculture.
35439		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Uluguru Mts.
35439		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist evergreen montane forest.
35440		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Tanzania.
35440		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of dry coastal forest.
35441		distribution	eng	A small tree known from Shagayu in the West Usambara Mts. and Binduki in the Uluguru Mts.
35441		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.
35442		distribution	eng	A small tree with a very restricted range in Kigogo.
35442		habitat	eng	Occurring within a 50 m altitudinal belt in moist montane forest.
35443		distribution	eng	South-east Tanzania.
35443		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree from moist forest or open woodland ranging from low to medium elevations.
35444		distribution	eng	This taxon is found only in a restricted area on Lupembe Hill.
35444		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest.
35445		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known from the East Usambara Mts. and the South Nguru Mts.
35445		habitat	eng	The species occurs at medium elevations in moist evergreen forest.
35446		distribution	eng	Known from a single population on Mt. Njombe in Tanzania. The other variant of the species is similarly restricted to East African montane forest but is more widespread.
35446		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub in an area of moist montane forest.
35447		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tolima.
35448		distribution	eng	South-east Tanzania.
35448		habitat	eng	A variety restricted to coastal thickets.
35449		distribution	eng	An endemic to South Nguru.
35449		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest at 1,800 m.
35450		distribution	eng	Known from a single site in east Tanzania.
35450		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, known from dry montane forest.
35451		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-east Tanzania.
35451		habitat	eng	Shrubby tree which occurs in patches of dry coastal forest.
35452		habitat	eng	Populations are confined to areas of woodland on craggy limestone.
35453		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree confined to a few localities in Kilosa.
35453		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
35454		distribution	eng	A variant of a Tanzanian endemic found in Mlinguru, Tendaguru and the Rondo Plateau.
35454		habitat	eng	Dry lowland forest.
35455		distribution	eng	Type locality: Tendaguru.
35455		habitat	eng	A poorly known small tree or bush.
35455		population	eng	Known only from the type locality.
35456		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area in the department of La Paz, although it may appear in southern Peru.
35456		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
35456		threats	eng	Habitat degradation has been caused by the expansion of agriculture and fires.
35457		distribution	eng	A diminutive tree or shrub restricted to the valleys of Río Beni and Río Chapare..
35457		population	eng	Uncommon.
35458		distribution	eng	From Columbia to northern Peru.
35458		habitat	eng	A small tree of Andean forest, occurring especially on the western slopes, between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
35458		threats	eng	The habitat is seriously threatened by encroaching agriculture and fires.
35459		distribution	eng	Locally common in the West Usambara Mts., the Uluguru Mts. and also Mt. Kilimanjaro.
35459		habitat	eng	A moist montane forest tree.
35460		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Uluguru Mts., this species is confined to high elevations.
35460		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen forest.
35461		distribution	eng	This small tree is confined to south-east of Brazil.
35461		habitat	eng	Confined to the remaining areas of Atlantic coastal rainforest.
35461		population	eng	Quite well collected and widespread.
35461		threats	eng	This habitat has suffered large-scale destruction over the past centuries.
35462		distribution	eng	A variant of an east Tanzanian endemic.
35462		habitat	eng	This is a shrub or small tree restricted to areas of moist evergreen forest over 1,100 m in altitude.
35463		distribution	eng	A variant of slightly lower altitudes than the type variety.
35463		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas of moist semi-deciduous forest between 950 and 1,650 m.
35464		distribution	eng	Known only from the Uluguru Mts., Mahenge and Kigogo.
35464		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree from moist montane forest.
35465		distribution	eng	Distributed in a restricted area of coastal Venezuela.
35465		habitat	eng	This small tree colonises disturbed areas and light gaps in cloud forest over 500 m.
35466		distribution	eng	Panama may contain the only extant populations. Further fieldwork may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate.
35466		habitat	eng	The taxon is restricted to montane or cloud forest between 900 and 1,800 m.
35466		population	eng	A rare species.
35467		distribution	eng	Endemic to the North and South Uluguru Mts.
35467		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is confined to areas of moist montane evergreen forest.
35468		distribution	eng	The range of this subspecies is quite disjunct from the rest of the species, which occurs in the western Amazon basin. It is known from disturbed areas of lowland rainforest in French Guiana and adjacent parts of Brazil, covering an area well over 20,000 km².
35469		conservation	eng	A conservation programme is now in place.
35469		distribution	eng	A species with a very restricted range, known from a small area in the East Usambara Mts. There is a doubtful record from the Uluguru Mts.
35469		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen forest between 900 and 1,000 m.
35469		threats	eng	Population pressure and the demand for fertile land have caused a reduction in the forest.
35470		distribution	eng	Ranging relatively widely in the valleys of Magdalena, Cauca and Patía Rivers. It is geographically isolated from the more widespread type species.
35470		habitat	eng	The subspecies occurs in rainforest and cloud forest.
35471		distribution	eng	All collections are from isolated localities on the south-east coast.
35471		habitat	eng	An unusual species which is morphologically specialised to survive in restinga vegetation along seashores.
35471		population	eng	It is known from four collections, none more recent than 1971.
35471		threats	eng	The loss of this habitat continues to be dramatic.
35472		distribution	eng	Jauneche forest in western Ecuador.
35472		habitat	eng	An unusual species restricted to ravines and forest pockets. It endures a more severe dry season than other species in this section of the genus.
35473		distribution	eng	Endemic to east and south-east Tanzania.
35473		habitat	eng	A dry coastal species.
35474		distribution	eng	Collections originate from coastal restinga vegetation in Pernambuco and caatinga of Bahia. This is the only species in this section of the genus to be found in caatinga.
35474		habitat	eng	Coastal restinga vegetation and caatinga.
35474		population	eng	A small shrub or herb which may be extinct in the wild. The last collection in the wild was gathered in 1933.
35475		distribution	eng	The northern populations in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo are separated from those in the south by 250 km (and by morphologically different leaves and corolla).
35475		habitat	eng	The species occurs in secondary vegetation and disturbed areas in primary forest, coastal cloud forest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest.
35475		threats	eng	Destruction of these forests has been extensive.
35476		distribution	eng	A variety confined to areas in east and south-east Tanzania and on Zanzibar Island.
35476		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
35477		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sibundoy and surrounding areas.
35477		habitat	eng	A small cloud forest tree, between 1,400 and 2,300 m.
35478		distribution	eng	It ranges over about 1,000 km of the southern Brazilian coast.
35478		habitat	eng	An unusual succulent species, which has become specialised and is restricted to restinga vegetation on seashores.
35478		threats	eng	This habitat is seriously threatened and continues to decline.
35479		distribution	eng	In the Guyana Highlands the species exists in two subpopulations on either side of the Orinoco Delta. Some differentiation has evidently arisen between the subpopulations.
35479		habitat	eng	Both subpopulations are restricted to primary forest over 400 m or cloud forest.
35480		distribution	eng	An endemic of the North Udzungwa Mts., at Sanje and Udekwa.
35480		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
35482		distribution	eng	One of the subspecies of a Tanzanian endemic. It is found at Mufindi in the Udzungwa Mts. and at Nditima along the upper Ruhudje River.
35482		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
35483		distribution	eng	One of the two varieties of a species which is endemic to the Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts., especially the Grand Ridge.
35483		habitat	eng	It grows as a shrub or gnarled tree below 1,700 m on ridges
35484		distribution	eng	Most common on the Grand Ridge in the Blue Mts.
35484		habitat	eng	A species which occurs as a shrub or small tree, mostly on ridge crests. It is locally common below 1,850,m.
35485		distribution	eng	Endemic to the South Uluguru Mts.
35485		habitat	eng	This subspecies is restricted to high-altitude moist evergreen forest.
35486		distribution	eng	An endemic of the North Uluguru Mts.
35486		habitat	eng	Cloud forests.
35487		distribution	eng	Ukaguru Mts., South Uluguru Mts. and at Mwanihana in the Udzungwa Mts.
35487		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree occurring in moist montane forest areas.
35488		distribution	eng	The distribution of this small tree is not consolidated. There is a population at Amani and possibly another at Ambangula.
35488		habitat	eng	Medium elevations in moist evergreen forest.
35489		distribution	eng	An endemic from the Uluguru Mts.
35489		habitat	eng	Restricted to upper moist evergreen forest.
35490		distribution	eng	Confined to Poroto and Mt. Rungwe. It is the only species in the genus.
35490		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub of moist montane forest.
35491		distribution	eng	Kimboza Forest Reserve, Misufini, Mtibwa and Mzelezi.
35491		habitat	eng	A small tree from remnant moist coastal forests.
35492		distribution	eng	Known only from the Usambara and Uluguru Mts.
35492		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
35493		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Tanzania.
35493		habitat	eng	This is a small tree or shrub confined to dry coastal forest remnants.
35494		distribution	eng	Confined to south-east Tanzania. Only two subpopulations have been recorded. One is found at Lake Lutamba, which has been completely cleared apart from the 10 km² contained within Litipo Forest Reserve. The other is further south at Masasi, an area which is relatively unexplored and unprotected.
35494		habitat	eng	A species of dry coastal forest.
35495		distribution	eng	A small shrub or tree, endemic to south-east Tanzania.
35495		habitat	eng	Occurs in patches of remaining dry coastal forest.
35496		distribution	eng	A variant known only from a single collection made in Mwakeleli.
35496		habitat	eng	Montane bamboo forest.
35497		distribution	eng	A variant of a Tanzanian endemic, in the South Nguru Mts., the Uluguru Mts. and Kurekese Forest Reserve.
35497		habitat	eng	Subpopulations occur in areas of moist montane forest.
35498		conservation	eng	Two forest guards are employed to prevent illegal activities or encroachment within the reserve.
35498		distribution	eng	This is the lowland variant of a Tanzanian endemic. A single population is known and confined to Kimboza Forest Reserve, 4 km² of disturbed moist forest at the foot of the Uluguru Mts.
35498		habitat	eng	Lowland disturbed moist forest.
35498		threats	eng	The area is densely populated and the demand for land for cultivation is strong.
35499		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two collections: one from forest on the slopes of Mt. Roraima and the other from Kaieteur savanna.
35500		distribution	eng	A newly described species, currently known only from southern sites in Amazonas, Venezuela and from an adjacent site in Brazil.
35500		habitat	eng	Found in high non-flooded rainforest.
35501		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree known from very few collections originating from central Brazilian Amazonia.
35501		habitat	eng	Permanently flooded forest.
35502		distribution	eng	A treelet with a distribution confined to a small area in Amazonas.
35502		habitat	eng	Periodically flooded sandy savannah.
35503		distribution	eng	A newly described species, currently known from just two collections taken from a site near Puerto Ayacucho.
35503		habitat	eng	Low forest over granitic rocks.
35505		conservation	eng	All areas of distribution are protected within national parks.
35505		distribution	eng	Mt. Roraima, Ptari-tepui, Cerro Jáua and the Chimantá Massif in Bolívar State.
35505		habitat	eng	A species recorded from localities of dwarf mossy forest or scrub.
35506		distribution	eng	Ogaden.
35506		habitat	eng	A subspecies confined to dense deciduous bushland on limestone slopes.
35506		population	eng	Not an uncommon taxon.
35506		threats	eng	Source of firewood, charcoal and wood for making tools and implements.
35507		distribution	eng	Three varieties exist within this subspecies, all of which are endemic to Ethiopia. Variety <em>unifoliata</em> is most restricted in range, known only from the type collection in the Gojam region. Specimens from the other varieties are confused.
35507		habitat	eng	Grows well after forest clearance.
35507		threats	eng	The subspecies as a whole is not threatened.
35508		distribution	eng	Sidamo and adjacent parts of Shewa. The type variety is not ecologically distinct and is widely spread from Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania to Saudi Arabia.
35508		habitat	eng	A variety known only from Afromontane forest and forest margins.
35509		distribution	eng	Cuba and Hispaniola. In Cuba and Haiti, the species has disappeared from most places. In the Dominican Republic it has been reported only from Sierra de Barahona.
35509		habitat	eng	A tree confined to semi-deciduous forest.
35509		threats	eng	Logging, settlement and agricultural expansion.
35510		distribution	eng	It is confined to Amazonas State.
35510		habitat	eng	Areas of periodically or permanently flooded forest.
35510		population	eng	The rarest of the four species in the genus.
35511		distribution	eng	A small forest tree with an apparently disjunct distribution, occurring in the remaining forest in south-east Nigeria and also in Democratic Republic of Congo, where the extent of its occurrence is not at present known. In Nigeria the largest, if not only, intact population occurs in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park
35511		threats	eng	Deforestation in the region has been extensive.
35513		distribution	eng	Known from the central parishes.
35513		habitat	eng	The species is locally common in woodland margins on rough limestone.
35513		threats	eng	General habitat declines have been considerable.
35514		distribution	eng	Known from Clarendon, Manchester and St Ann.
35514		habitat	eng	The species is confined to woodland on limestone.
35514		threats	eng	General habitat declines have been considerable.
35515		conservation	eng	included in the Ducke Forest Reserve.
35515		distribution	eng	Although the species is restricted in range in the vicinity of Manaus, it is known from many localities.
35515		habitat	eng	Occurring in non-flooded forest.
35516		distribution	eng	Type locality in the department of Amazonas.
35516		habitat	eng	Lower montane cloud forest, occurring between 1,700 and 2,100 m.
35516		population	eng	A medium-sized tree, relatively newly described. It is known only from the type locality.
35517		distribution	eng	Around Rio de Janeiro.
35517		habitat	eng	Confined to non-flooded forests.
35517		threats	eng	The species range has been extensively reduced through urban expansion and exploitation.
35518		conservation	eng	Included in INPA Biological Reserve and Ducke Forest Reserve.
35518		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Manaus.
35518		habitat	eng	A canopy tree of non-flooded forest.
35519		conservation	eng	Small subpopulations are protected in Chagres National Park.
35519		distribution	eng	On the summits of mountains in the Cordillera Central in central-eastern Panama.
35519		habitat	eng	A species largely confined to cloud forest.
35519		population	eng	In localised areas it may be common, but on the whole it is not frequent.
35519		threats	eng	In Santa Rita and along the road from El Llano to Cartí, in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, a large part of the forest has been destroyed.
35520		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type specimen taken from Veraguas in 1974 and from a recent collection from Costa Rica. Similar specimens in the area have been identified as <em>E. panamensis</em>.
35521		conservation	eng	An occurrence is recorded in Jari Genetic Reserve.
35521		population	eng	Subpopulations are small but relatively widely scattered.
35522		distribution	eng	Currently known only from one location on the Belém-Brasília highway.
35522		habitat	eng	Tree of periodically flooded forest.
35522		threats	eng	Has experienced serious habitat loss over the last two decades.
35523		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known solely from the type locality surrounding Saül.
35523		habitat	eng	Lowland moist forest.
35523		population	eng	To date only two individuals have been located.
35524		distribution	eng	Type collected from west-central Guyana. More collections of flowering material are needed to consolidate the taxonomy.
35524		population	eng	A poorly known species, recorded only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1943.
35526		distribution	eng	The Jamaican subspecies of a Central American taxon most commonly found in the western parishes.
35526		habitat	eng	Woodland.
35527		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, uncommon and confined to areas of woodland on limestone hillsides.
35528		distribution	eng	Manchester, St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes. It may represent a form of <em>E. harrisii</em>.
35528		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found uncommonly on steep wooded hillsides.
35528		threats	eng	The habitat in St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes has been almost completely cleared or severely degraded.
35529		distribution	eng	A tree confined to the Blue Mts.
35529		habitat	eng	Occurs occasionally to commonly on wooded slopes below 1,650 m, mostly in the southern catchments.
35529		threats	eng	Disturbance from encroaching agriculture has been very severe.
35530		habitat	eng	This is an uncommon species found on lowland wooded limestone hillsides.
35531		distribution	eng	Slightly more widespread than the type variety, this taxon occurs in St Catherine and St Elizabeth.
35531		habitat	eng	Confined to woodland on limestone.
35531		population	eng	Uncommon.
35532		distribution	eng	In the western Blue Mts. the species is scattered but moderately common, especially in the relatively extensive forests of the northern catchments.
35532		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest, especially on steep slopes.
35533		distribution	eng	Confined to the Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts. Two varieties have been described but they commonly intergrade.
35533		habitat	eng	A widespread common component of most forest types
35534		distribution	eng	Occurring in central and western parishes, this tree has a local distribution.
35534		habitat	eng	Confined to remaining areas of woodland on limestone.
35534		threats	eng	General declines in the habitat have been considerable.
35535		distribution	eng	The distribution is disjunct, with occurrences in Clarendon, Manchester and Portland Parishes.
35535		habitat	eng	The species is confined to damp shady woodlands on limestone.
35535		threats	eng	The habitat has been severely degraded and converted into commercial plantations in many places.
35536		distribution	eng	Subpopulations occurring occasionally in western parishes.
35536		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub in shaded gullies and on sheltered banks.
35537		distribution	eng	Found in central and eastern parishes.
35537		habitat	eng	Thickets and on rocky banks.
35537		population	eng	A common species.
35539		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the Peruvian Amazon at the mouth of Río Santiago.
35539		population	eng	Apparently known only from the type collection.
35540		distribution	eng	This species is known from few collections, at the base of the Pacific slopes of the Andes, occurring at the type locality in Valle, Colombia, and in Los Ríos, Ecuador.
35540		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
35541		distribution	eng	This small tree is confined to the Peruvian Amazon at Yurimaguas in the department of Loreto.
35541		population	eng	Apparently known only from the type collection.
35542		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia.
35542		habitat	eng	Probably occurring in rainforest.
35542		population	eng	the species is known only from a few collections from the department of Valle on the Pacific coast.
35543		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Amazonia.
35543		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35544		distribution	eng	Occurs in Valle.
35544		population	eng	A poorly known species, recorded only from the type locality.
35545		distribution	eng	Confined to central Amazonia.
35545		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35545		population	eng	the species is known from rare collections on the Manaus-Porto Vello road.
35546		distribution	eng	A species which is confined to forested areas from the Javari River area between Brazil and Peru.
35547		distribution	eng	A species of western Amazonia.
35547		habitat	eng	Occurring in non-flooded forest from sea level to 600 m.
35548		distribution	eng	South-west Amazonia.
35548		habitat	eng	The species is confined to non-flooded forest.
35549		distribution	eng	The species appears to be restricted to the extreme western part of Amazonia.
35549		habitat	eng	Occurring in non-flooded forest.
35550		distribution	eng	Only known with certainty from the Lesser Antilles. The other subspecies are widespread in the Amazon.
35550		habitat	eng	The species occurs in remaining areas of lowland rainforest, often at riversides.
35551		distribution	eng	A tree of Pacific coastal forest. Known from only a few collections taken from the department of Valle in Colombia and Esmeraldas in Ecuador.
35552		distribution	eng	Collected from the Massif de la Hotte in Haiti and near Rincón in Dominican Republic.
35552		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of forested limestone hills.
35553		distribution	eng	Type collection from the Rio Negro basin.
35553		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
35554		distribution	eng	Despite its wide distribution in Amazonian Peru, Brazil, and the border area between Brazil and Guyana, this tree has been collected rarely.
35554		habitat	eng	Scattered in non-flooded forest.
35555		distribution	eng	A species occurring in the middle and upper Rio Negro and adjacent Roraima territory. It has also been collected once south of the Amazon in Pará.
35556		distribution	eng	This understorey species, although locally abundant in places, is confined to western and south-western Amazonia.
35557		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to St Catherine, Hanover and Trelawny.
35557		population	eng	It is uncommon and local in its distribution.
35558		distribution	eng	Amazonian Brazil and adjacent parts of Venezuela.
35558		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to non-flooded forest between 1,250 and 1,300 m.
35559		distribution	eng	Locally common but confined to the vicinity of the type locality in the Tapajós River region.
35559		habitat	eng	An understorey tree in non-flooded forest.
35559		population	eng	Locally common.
35560		distribution	eng	The type locality is in the Rio Cuminá-Mirim region.
35560		habitat	eng	Non-flooded lowland rainforest.
35560		population	eng	A very small tree, known only from the type locality.
35561		distribution	eng	A subspecies which is known in Panama solely from a collection from Darién made in 1962. Similar collections in the area have been identified as ssp. <em>rhodantha</em>. In Colombia there is a collection of the subspecies from the Chocó but no further information is available.
35562		conservation	eng	The greater part of the range is in protected areas.
35562		distribution	eng	Occurring largely in Colombia and extending into Darién and the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve in Panama.
35562		habitat	eng	This subspecies is recorded from low to medium elevation rainforest, often along streamsides.
35562		population	eng	The taxon is reported to relatively common and regenerating well in places.
35563		distribution	eng	An occasional species of the eastern parishes.
35563		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist woodlands on limestone.
35564		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in central and western parishes.
35564		habitat	eng	Areas of woodlands on limestone.
35564		population	eng	Abundant where it occurs.
35565		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, Amapá, Brazil and Guyana.
35565		habitat	eng	A tree.
35566		distribution	eng	Upper Amazon.
35566		habitat	eng	A tree of non-flooded forest.
35567		distribution	eng	A tree which occurs in the parishes of Portland and St Thomas.
35567		habitat	eng	By streams and in damp ravines in submontane woodland.
35567		population	eng	Locally common.
35567		threats	eng	Deforestation has almost completely removed the habitat in the latter parish, areas in ravines probably representing the only remaining fragments.
35568		distribution	eng	Known from western and north-western parishes.
35568		habitat	eng	The tree is confined to areas of woodland on limestone.
35569		distribution	eng	Central and western Puerto Rica.
35569		habitat	eng	A species of moist hills and mountain forest.
35570		distribution	eng	St Andrew, Clarendon, St Ann and Portland Parishes.
35570		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree, confined to moist woodlands on limestone between 700 and 900 m .
35570		threats	eng	The loss of habitat has been particularly severe in St Andrew.
35571		distribution	eng	Known only from central parishes.
35571		habitat	eng	The species is confined to rocky limestone woodland.
35572		distribution	eng	It is thought to be endemic.
35572		habitat	eng	A species confined to coastal vegetation on limestone.
35573		distribution	eng	Blue Mts., sometimes in abundance, on the Grand Ridge and on steep slopes in the headwaters of the Clyde, Green and Mabess Rivers.
35573		habitat	eng	A montane woodland species.
35574		distribution	eng	Eastern parishes and Clarendon.
35574		habitat	eng	In Jamaica the variety occurs in thickets and woodlands.
35575		distribution	eng	Confined at the headwaters of Green River in St Andrews Parish.
35575		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary montane forest above 1,800 m.
35575		population	eng	A locally common species.
35575		threats	eng	Occurring above 1,800 m, the species' habitat has largely escaped the forest destruction and degradation which have been extensive at lower altitudes.
35576		distribution	eng	Throughout Panama and in Chocó and Antioquia in Colombia. The species is generally scarce except in the Canal area and in Darién National Park, Panama.
35576		habitat	eng	Subpopulations occur in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, rarely in secondary forest.
35576		threats	eng	Much of the unprotected forest at these low altitudes is exposed to increasing settlement, farming and agriculture.
35577		distribution	eng	Sagua-Baracoa range in eastern Cuba.
35577		habitat	eng	A small tree found in pine forests, serpentine shrubwoods and shrublands.
35577		threats	eng	The habitat has been degraded in places. Logging and mining activities are constant threats.
35578		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Jamaica.
35578		habitat	eng	The type variety is found in crevices of precipitous rocks.
35578		threats	eng	This habitat is relatively well protected from the extensive clearance which has taken place in more accessible habitats.
35579		distribution	eng	A relatively recently described species, in La Huerta on the coast of Jalisco.
35579		habitat	eng	Occurring as a small tree in deciduous forest.
35579		population	eng	It is known only from the type locality.
35580		conservation	eng	This taxon is recorded in Ilha do Cardosa State Park in Sâo Paulo.
35580		distribution	eng	An Atlantic forest species which is closely related to <em>L. pubescens</em>, also an endemic to Brazilian Atlantic forest but more widely ranging in five states. The separation of the two taxa in Sâo Paulo poses such difficulty that it is possible they may be considered taxonomically the same species.
35581		distribution	eng	An endemic species.
35581		habitat	eng	Atlantic Forest.
35581		threats	eng	Although it has suffered dramatic habitat losses it is not under immediate threat of extinction.
35582		habitat	eng	This species is widely distributed in cerrado vegetation types.
35582		threats	eng	Extensive areas of the habitat type are being cleared and replaced with crops and pastureland.
35583		distribution	eng	Occurrences are known from Westmoreland, Hanover and Trelawny parishes. The species has a local distribution.
35583		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of thickets and woodlands on limestone.
35584		distribution	eng	Frequently common along the south coast.
35584		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dry thickets on limestone.
35585		distribution	eng	Known from a few collections from the Roraima territory of Brazil and adjacent Guyana.
35585		habitat	eng	A small savannah tree.
35586		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Linhares Forest Reserve.
35586		habitat	eng	A relatively widely occurring species of Atlantic coastal forest.
35587		distribution	eng	Collections suggest that this tree is widespread both geographically and ecologically.
35588		distribution	eng	Known only from central Amazonia
35588		habitat	eng	A canopy tree, occurring in non-flooded forest.
35589		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Ducke Forest Reserve.
35589		distribution	eng	Vicinity of Manaus.
35589		habitat	eng	Confined to non-flooded forests.
35589		threats	eng	This species is under some pressure from urban expansion.
35590		conservation	eng	It is found in the Ducke Forest Reserve and INPA Experimental Reserve.
35590		distribution	eng	Central Amazonia.
35590		habitat	eng	A canopy tree confined to non-flooded forest.
35591		distribution	eng	Evidence from collections indicate that this is a wide-ranging species.
35591		habitat	eng	Scattered in non-flooded forest.
35592		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Sierra Maestra mountain range.
35592		habitat	eng	Montane semi-deciduous forest.
35592		population	eng	Subpopulations of this tree are uncommon.
35593		distribution	eng	Clarendon, Portland and St Thomas.
35593		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree of hillside woodlands, occurring at altitudes of 480 to 900 m.
35593		threats	eng	Logging and encroaching agriculture have caused extensive disturbance, causing almost complete loss or severe degradation of forest in St Thomas in particular.
35594		distribution	eng	St Ann, St Mary and St Thomas.
35594		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree found in woodland at about 600 m.
35594		threats	eng	Almost all forested areas at this altitude have been removed or severely degraded in St Thomas.
35595		distribution	eng	Confined to the Blue Mts.
35595		habitat	eng	Mostly in secondary montane forest at altitudes below 1,650 m, the species is relatively common in southern catchments at forest margins. It colonises exposed well-drained sites.
35596		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Blue Mts.
35596		population	eng	The species is generally rare, although locally dominant in a few sites on ridge tops, especially on the Grand Ridge.
35597		distribution	eng	The species is very localised near Monte Verde in the Nipe-Baracoa Massif, Guantánamo.
35597		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree occurring only in rainforest on ferralitic soils.
35597		population	eng	This is a rare species.
35597		threats	eng	Its habitat is susceptible to cutting and logging.
35599		distribution	eng	Found mostly in the north-central and eastern parishes.
35599		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky rainforest and in pasture margins.
35599		threats	eng	It is not common and habitat degradation has been severe in places.
35600		distribution	eng	Sierra de Manantlán and Cacoma in Jalisco. There is also a disjunct subpopulation in Guerrero.
35600		habitat	eng	A majestic tree in mesophyllous montane forest.
35601		distribution	eng	A variety which appears to be known only from a few localities from Zapopan and San Cristóbal.
35601		habitat	eng	Ravines and gorges.
35602		conservation	eng	There is a protected population in La Amistad National Park.
35602		distribution	eng	Recently described, the species is presently known from the Cordillera Central in Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí Provinces, right up to the border with Costa Rica. There is almost no doubt that the species continues into Costa Rica on the Cordillera de Talamanca, although it has yet to be collected here.
35602		habitat	eng	Forest between 2,000 and 2,600 m.
35603		conservation	eng	It is fairly common in Volcán Barú National Park and is expected to be found in other protected areas.
35603		distribution	eng	This subspecies is recorded from Chiriquí and Coclé Provinces. The other subspecies is endemic to Costa Rica.
35603		habitat	eng	Occurs in cloud forest between 1,000 and 2,600 m.
35603		threats	eng	The subpopulations in Coclé are facing significant increase in the human population, and in industrial and tourist activities.
35604		distribution	eng	Brazilian Atlantic coast.
35604		habitat	eng	A primary forest tree, restricted to an altitudinal range between 600 and 700 m.
35604		threats	eng	It provides an excellent timber. Overexploitation of both the tree and the habitat as a whole has caused the species to become scarce.
35605		conservation	eng	The area is protected within Canaima National Park.
35605		distribution	eng	Known only from a location headwaters of Río Pacairao in the Gran Sabana in Bolívar.
35605		habitat	eng	Confined to gallery forest at 1,100 m.
35605		population	eng	The species was found some 30 years ago and it has apparently not been found since.
35606		conservation	eng	It is present in the Duke Forest Reserve near Manaus.
35606		distribution	eng	Northern Brazil.
35606		habitat	eng	Occurring in non-flooded lowland forest.
35606		threats	eng	This species is threatened  primarily by logging activities.
35607		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to a small area in Pernambuco.
35607		habitat	eng	Coastal forest and old secondary forest.
35607		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by felling and increasing settlement.
35608		distribution	eng	Collected between Maraú and Campinhos.
35608		habitat	eng	Restinga forest on roadside.
35608		population	eng	A treelet which has been collected only once, in 1982.
35609		distribution	eng	The type collection originates from Bahia. The only other record was made in 1965, when the species was reported to be relatively abundant in Linhares in Espírito Santo.
35609		population	eng	No recent collections in either of the known locations have since been made and the species is reported to have suffered population declines.
35610		conservation	eng	Occurs within the boundaries of the Tapajós National Forest.
35610		distribution	eng	Banks of the Tapajós River.
35610		habitat	eng	A large tree confined to periodically flooded forest on river bank.
35611		distribution	eng	It is native to Jamaica and Cuba.
35611		habitat	eng	The subspecies occurs in lowland semi-deciduous forest.
35611		threats	eng	Most of lowland semi-deciduous forest has been heavily degraded in Cuba. Although it is a small tree, it has been overexploited for its valuable timber.
35612		distribution	eng	This small tree is found in various sites throughout Cuba.
35612		habitat	eng	Both in coastal dry evergreen forests on limestone and in dry serpentine woodland.
35612		threats	eng	The habitat has suffered severe degradation in many places and continues to be threatened with cutting and burning.
35613		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
35613		population	eng	Recorded to be abundant in Espírito Santo in 1965. This area has been heavily cleared since and recent collections of the species have been rare.
35613		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
35614		habitat	eng	The species is confined to restinga vegetation.
35615		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to the province of Oriente.
35615		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane serpentine shrubwoods, mainly along creeks, ravines and watercourses.
35615		threats	eng	Mining is a constant threat to its habitat.
35616		distribution	eng	Recorded from Belmonte Experimental Station.
35616		population	eng	The species has only been found once, in 1970.
35617		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Caxiuaná  National Forest.
35617		habitat	eng	The range of this species is restricted to non-flooded forest.
35617		threats	eng	Much of its range has been affected by large-scale deforestation.
35618		distribution	eng	Known only from the Kanuku Mountains.
35618		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
35618		population	eng	A tall tree, known solely from the type collection, gathered 50 years ago.
35619		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
35619		population	eng	Populations of this species are numerous. However, recent collections have suggested a decline in the numbers of individuals.
35620		distribution	eng	Found in Pinar del Río and Oriente in Cuba. Two localities are recorded in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. There are also unconfirmed reports of occurrences in Puerto Rico.
35620		habitat	eng	Subpopulations of this tall shrub or tree are found in areas of coastal and subcoastal semi-deciduous forest.
35620		threats	eng	Declines in the habitat have been large-scale because of logging, charcoal production and increasing settlement.
35621		conservation	eng	There is a record from La Yeguada Forest Reserve, which lies just to the west of the principal subpopulation.
35621		distribution	eng	Central Cordillera. Subpopulations are reported to be healthy.
35621		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to areas of evergreen rainforest between 650 and 1,000 m .
35621		threats	eng	Much of the area has been altered by cattle ranching and increasing urbanisation.
35622		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub, endemic to Colombia, recorded only in Cundinamarca.
35623		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded in Antioquia, Cundinamarca and Tolima.
35624		distribution	eng	Occurring in central parishes, the species has a local distribution.
35624		habitat	eng	Confined to woodland on limestone hills.
35625		distribution	eng	Known only from central and western parishes
35625		habitat	eng	The species is found in woodland on rough limestone.
35626		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the eastern half of the island. A  variety is reported in Cuba.
35626		habitat	eng	Moist thickets and forested areas.
35627		distribution	eng	A newly described tree known only from Loreto.
35627		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest over white sand at altitudes between 150 and 200 m.
35628		distribution	eng	Only a few collections have been made of this species, which appears to be scattered sparsely from southern Venezuela to central Brazilian Amazonia.
35628		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest over clay up to medium elevation.
35629		distribution	eng	A newly described species, so far known only from the Manaus to Porto Velho road where the type was collected.
35629		habitat	eng	Non-flooded Amazonian forest.
35629		population	eng	Unknown.
35630		distribution	eng	From French Guiana to adjacent Amapá in Brazil, the species is especially frequent on slopes and ridge tops in the vicinity of Saül in French Guiana.
35630		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35631		distribution	eng	A tree known from a few scattered sites.
35631		habitat	eng	Coastal rainforest.
35632		conservation	eng	A subpopulation occurs in Linhares Forest Reserve.
35632		distribution	eng	Ranging from Bahía southwards to Sâo Paulo.
35632		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
35632		threats	eng	The species habitat has suffered greatly from intensive logging.
35633		distribution	eng	Ranging from western Brazilian Amazonia to Loreto in Peru.
35633		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest, usually in areas which are not flooded.
35634		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, restricted in distribution to areas of campo rupestre on sandstone outcrops.
35634		threats	eng	Overcutting is a particular threat.
35635		distribution	eng	Endemic to Puerto Rico in the Sierra de Naguabo and Luquillo Mts.
35635		habitat	eng	The species is a common upper storey component of old secondary and undisturbed submontane forest.
35636		distribution	eng	It ranges from Pernambuco to Mato Grosso but the populations appear to be highly fragmented.
35636		habitat	eng	A tree of submontane cerrado, caatinga and rocky outcrops.
35637		distribution	eng	The only known collectino originates from Neblina National Park on the Brazilian side.
35637		population	eng	A single collection of the species is known.
35638		distribution	eng	Lower Rio Negro in Amazonas.
35638		habitat	eng	A species of igapó forest and periodically flooded savannah.
35639		distribution	eng	Type was was collected from an altitude of 1,200 m in Loreto.
35639		population	eng	The type is the only record of this species, collected in the first part of the century
35640		distribution	eng	Distributed in central and western Amazonian Brazil and in Loreto in Peru.
35640		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
35641		distribution	eng	The species is confined to a small area of southern Amazonas in Venezuela and neighbouring Brazil.
35641		habitat	eng	Occurring in non-flooded lowland rainforest.
35642		distribution	eng	A Cuban endemic confined to Oriente Province.
35642		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
35642		threats	eng	This species has suffered from overcutting.
35643		habitat	eng	Non-flooded highland and lowland forest.
35643		population	eng	The species is known only from a few collections.
35644		distribution	eng	The type specimen is from the north-west of the Brazilian Amazon.
35644		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
35644		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
35645		distribution	eng	Occurring in central and western parishes, the species has a sporadic distribution.
35645		habitat	eng	Mostly in open situations on limestone hills.
35646		distribution	eng	An apparently disjunct distribution, occurring in French Guiana and neighbouring Brazil and then in the west in Loreto, Peru.
35646		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
35647		distribution	eng	So far this species has been recorded only from the site where it was first collected, north-east of Luepa in Bolívar.
35647		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
35648		distribution	eng	A species known only with certainty from southern Amazonas in Venezuela and adjacent Brazil. Tentative occurrences have been recorded from French Guiana and Amapá in Brazil.
35649		distribution	eng	A newly described tree, so far known only from the type collection in central Brazilian Amazonia.
35649		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest over sand.
35650		distribution	eng	In Bolívar and  Amazonas.
35650		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub occurs in bush islands in the savannah or dwarf forest along watercourses between 1,300 and 2,000 m.
35651		distribution	eng	This species is represented by two herbarium specimens, collected on or near Cerro Venamo in Bolívar.
35651		habitat	eng	Wet montane mossy forest.
35651		population	eng	Unknown.
35653		distribution	eng	Holguín, Pinar del Río and Habana.
35653		habitat	eng	This variety occurs very occasionally in dry serpentine woodland, mostly on deeper soils near ravines.
35653		threats	eng	Its habitat has been severely degraded in most places.
35655		habitat	eng	A widespread species of montane forest.
35656		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35657		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35658		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35659		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35660		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35661		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35662		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
35663		conservation	eng	There are almost no subpopulations outside protected areas or in disturbed forest.
35663		distribution	eng	Ranging from the Canal area towards Darién National Park in the east.
35663		population	eng	The species is very common in places, such as Barro Colorado Island and the forest around the Canal.
35664		distribution	eng	Brazilian Atlantic forest.
35664		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
35664		population	eng	A rare species.
35665		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus which is divided into two varieties. Found in Rio de Janeiro. The other variety is widespread in temperate and subtropical South America.
35665		habitat	eng	This variety is restricted to restinga vegetation.
35665		population	eng	It does not appear to have been collected recently.
35665		threats	eng	This habitat is in serious danger of disappearing.
35666		distribution	eng	A species known from just three locations on the eastern slopes of the Andes from central and southern parts of Bolivia. It is closely related to <em>N. longifolia</em>, a more widespread species in the same region.
35666		threats	eng	One of the most important timber trees in the area, it is being heavily exploited in at least one of these sites.
35667		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from just one site on the Cochabamba to Santa Cruz road. More material is needed to ascertain whether similar collections nearby are the same species.
35667		habitat	eng	Restricted to cloud forest.
35668		distribution	eng	Type collection from a site near Moyobamba.
35668		habitat	eng	A montane species.
35668		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
35669		distribution	eng	From the banks of the Orinoco. Its range covers an area greater than 20,000 km². It is possible that this will increase as additional undetermined material is studied.
35669		habitat	eng	A gallery forest tree.
35670		distribution	eng	This forest species is known from just a few collections in south-east Brazil.
35670		habitat	eng	Rates of deforestation have been considerable.
35671		distribution	eng	Occurs on both sides of the Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela. This includes records from forest reserves, Ticoporo and Caparo.
35671		habitat	eng	A relatively wide-ranging tree from lowland moist forest.
35672		conservation	eng	The area is well protected and essential as a watershed.
35672		distribution	eng	The species is known from just a small population confined to a unique forest on the Cerro Jefe.
35672		habitat	eng	Low-altitude cloud forest.
35672		population	eng	Very little is actually known about the species.
35673		distribution	eng	An understorey species, which occurs in disjunct subpopulations. The 1886 type collection is from La Paz.
35673		habitat	eng	In Peru, the tree has been collected in pastures and in tall forest.
35674		conservation	eng	The park protects 15,328 km² of forest.
35674		distribution	eng	Type specimen is from Manu National Park.
35674		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
35674		threats	eng	There are threats from oil exploitation.
35675		distribution	eng	Type specimen is from Limonococha. Altitude of 240 m.
35675		population	eng	A tree which is known only from the type collection.
35676		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered on the Massif de la Hotte.
35676		population	eng	This species is even less well collected than its close relative <em>N. pulchra</em>. It is known only from the type collection, which was made in 1929. Fieldwork is needed to confirm whether the population is still intact.
35676		threats	eng	These forests are under considerable pressure from local exploitation and encroaching agriculture.
35677		distribution	eng	Collected on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Cutucú. Altitude of 2,000 m.
35677		habitat	eng	Elfin forest.
35677		population	eng	Since the collection in 1976, no other record of this small tree species is known.
35678		distribution	eng	This shrubby tree was originally described from an 1892 collection in Bolivia. Since then another subpopulation has been found along the banks of Río Mayo in Peru.
35679		distribution	eng	Occurs in Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve. Collections from Morona Santiago also seem to concur with this species. Altitude of 250–1,750 m.
35679		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid forest.
35680		population	eng	A tree known only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1933. Information on its ecology and habitat are lacking.
35681		distribution	eng	This species is apparently confined to two adjacent localities. Altitude of 250–1,800 m.
35681		habitat	eng	Occurring as a tall tree in primary and secondary rainforest.
35682		habitat	eng	An Atlantic forest species.
35682		population	eng	Has not been collected for over 100 years.
35682		threats	eng	A tiny fraction of these forests has survived the past centuries of deforestation.
35683		distribution	eng	Type collection from the Alexander von Humboldt National Forest, which extends to 5,708 km².
35683		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type collection.
35684		distribution	eng	Collected from the Cordillera de Cutucu. Altitude of 800 m.
35684		population	eng	A species known only from a collection, in 1989.
35685		conservation	eng	The area is protected within a national park.
35685		distribution	eng	It occurs on the Río Mawarinuma near the Neblina Base Camp.
35685		population	eng	Only one population is known.
35685		threats	eng	Disturbances have been caused by gold mining, and pressures also exist from the influx of people.
35686		distribution	eng	A newly described species. The number of sites where it is found continues to increase.
35686		habitat	eng	An Amazon tree species, occurring in seasonally inundated forest.
35687		distribution	eng	Known only from one locality on the banks of Rio Japurá.
35687		habitat	eng	This species occurs in várzea forest.
35688		distribution	eng	Recorded from three localities along the western part of the Colombian/Ecuadorean border. The species is considered threatened by INEFAN.
35688		habitat	eng	A tall tree of primary lowland rainforest.
35689		distribution	eng	A small tree discovered near Aguas Calientes train station in Machupicchu Historical Sanctuary.
35689		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
35689		threats	eng	The cloud forest extends c. 3,260 km² and is heavily visited by tourists on foot and by train. Aguas Calientes is expanding rapidly as a tourist town. However, regular burning of the forest, including a very serious fire in 1997, remains the greatest threat to the area.
35690		distribution	eng	A tree species confined to a small area in forest in the Iquitos region.
35691		distribution	eng	A newly described species which has been recorded from two sites.
35691		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
35692		conservation	eng	The area is protected.
35692		distribution	eng	A Central American <em>Nectandra</em> species which is most closely related to Amazonian species. This tree is known with certainty from La Selva Biological Station along the Río Puerto Viejo. More material is needed to confirm the species' occurrence in the Sirena Field Station in Puntarenas.
35692		habitat	eng	Secondary woodlands and alluvial forest.
35692		threats	eng	The area occupies a small corridor of forest now surrounded by pastureland and crops.
35693		population	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen collected in the last century. It has not been found since and its locality in the wild remains unknown.
35694		distribution	eng	Province of Beni. A more serious threat category may apply if the area of occupancy were determined.
35694		habitat	eng	Occurring as a small tree or shrub, this species is confined to islands of forest in savannah.
35695		distribution	eng	A seriously restricted species.
35695		habitat	eng	It is recorded only from tall evergreen forest in Chiapas.
35695		threats	eng	These forests, in particular, have suffered dramatic declines in extent, largely because of land settlement and cattle ranching.
35696		distribution	eng	This small tree is known from three collections near Limón.
35696		habitat	eng	Lower ridges in remnant primary forest.
35696		threats	eng	There has been large-scale conversion of these forests over the last 50 years into pastureland.
35697		distribution	eng	Closely related to <em>N. globosa</em>, this species is known from southern coastal Bahia and adjacent Mato Grosso. A disjunct and doubtful locality also exists 1,800 km inland.
35697		habitat	eng	Gallery forest, secondary vegetation and cocoa plantations, where it is used as a shade tree.
35698		habitat	eng	Restricted to deciduous or secondary forests.
35698		threats	eng	There have been considerable declines in the extent of the forest, largely because of land settlement and cattle ranching.
35699		distribution	eng	With more up-to-date information a more serious threat category might apply.
35699		habitat	eng	This tree species is restricted to the remnants of  coastal rainforest and the cocoa plantations which have taken the place of forest.
35700		distribution	eng	Collected from Isla de Pinos and the adjacent mainland.
35700		population	eng	The only collections of this shrub or small tree were made over 50 years ago. Fieldwork is necessary to determine how many individuals exist.
35700		threats	eng	Natural vegetation remains only where land is unsuitable for agriculture.
35701		conservation	eng	Part of the population is in Río Guajalito Floristic Reserve.
35701		distribution	eng	A tree species collected from southernmost Colombia to Ecuador. The number of collections in Ecuador appears to be increasing
35701		habitat	eng	Andean cloud and montane forests.
35702		distribution	eng	Restricted to a fairly small range from southern Ecuador to northern Peru on the eastern slopes of the Andes.
35702		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
35702		threats	eng	Threats exist from fires and encroaching farming activities.
35703		distribution	eng	South-east Brazil. In Sâo Paulo it is restricted to Carlos Botelho State Park.
35703		habitat	eng	A tree which is confined to primary rainforest.
35704		distribution	eng	Largely known from the region of  Río Pastaza. Another slightly different collection has been made in Loreto.  Despite intensive collecting in Ecuador the species has not been found to be more widespread.
35704		habitat	eng	Primary forest species.
35705		habitat	eng	Restinga vegetation.
35705		population	eng	Only four collections have been made in the last 50 years.
35705		threats	eng	The restinga vegetation to which the species is confined is being rapidly destroyed, especially in the region of Rio de Janeiro.
35706		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to forest in the foothills of the Peruvian Andes.
35706		threats	eng	Fires are frequent.
35707		distribution	eng	Collected from the vicinity of Miragoane.
35707		habitat	eng	Limestone crags.
35707		population	eng	The species has not been collected since 1927.
35707		threats	eng	Forest areas in Haiti have declined rapidly in the past century and the demand for land to cultivate continues to put pressure on remaining areas.
35708		distribution	eng	From central Costa Rica to Coclé in Panama.
35708		habitat	eng	This tree species is confined to drier montane forest.
35708		threats	eng	Much of the area is covered by La Amistad Biosphere Reserve but forest destruction in the past decades has been considerable and pressures are still exerted by various activities: expanding agriculture, logging, industrial plantations, oil exploration, hydroelectric projects.
35709		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forests.
35709		threats	eng	Montane forests have declined in extent and continue to be under serious threat of deforestation.
35710		distribution	eng	A tree species which is restricted to the lowland link between the Orinoco and Amazon basins in Venezuela. Its extent of occurrence covers in the region of 50,000 km².
35711		distribution	eng	Originally recorded only from Costa Rican cloud forest, this tree may now have been found in Panama.
35711		habitat	eng	It occurs in submontane forest.
35712		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread.
35712		habitat	eng	Restricted to remnant primary forest, mostly in coffee plantations.
35712		threats	eng	The potentially unbalanced structure of the subpopulations and their location put the species at risk.
35713		distribution	eng	A species known only from the surroundings of Rio de Janeiro city.
35713		threats	eng	Under serious threat from habitat destruction.
35714		distribution	eng	Type was taken on the road from Mérida to La Azulita. It is very closely related to the more widespread <em>N. cissiflora</em>.
35714		population	eng	A tree species which is known only from the type, gathered in 1982.
35715		distribution	eng	Northern Peru.
35715		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in Andean forests.
35715		population	eng	It is known from only two locations and has not been collected again for some years, which may indicate that there has been a serious decline in the population.
35715		threats	eng	It apparently has the reputation of being the most-used general-purpose timber in the Chachapoyas area.
35716		distribution	eng	This is a poorly known tree species from Serra do Frio in Minas Gerais.
35716		population	eng	It is known from only herbarium specimens, the most recent of which is from 1864.
35717		distribution	eng	A species collected only from within a 250 km radius of Rio de Janeiro city.
35718		distribution	eng	A little-known species with only one recorded location along Río Marañon near Teniente Pingo in Loreto.
35718		habitat	eng	Amazon rainforest.
35719		distribution	eng	A species known solely from two collections in the Río Ucayali, one being in the Iparía National Forest. More material would help determine its taxonomic position.
35720		distribution	eng	A Colombian endemic, found in Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander.
35721		distribution	eng	The species is found in St Ann, St Elizabeth and Clarendon Parishes.
35721		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
35722		distribution	eng	Found in the regions of Uxpanapa and Los Tuxtlas.
35722		habitat	eng	A common tree of riparian forest.
35722		population	eng	Half of the forest in Uxpanapa has disappeared through resettlement projects in the 1970s. The forests of Los Tuxtlas are rapidly disappearing and are considered to be extremely threatened.
35724		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas including Selous Game Reserve, Shimba Hills National Reserve, various Kaya forests, Witu Forest Reserve, Pongwe Forest Reserve, and Kimboza Forest Reserve.
35724		distribution	eng	Occurs along the coast of Kenya into Tanzania and inland to the East Usambara and Uluguru Mts. Also on Pemba (at Ngezi) and Zanzibar islands (Tanzania).
35724		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found growing in evergreen coastal forest, often on coral. Specific habitat associations recorded are as follows:<br/><ul><li>Igneous intrusion with moist semi-deciduous forest. Dominants: <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeos, Cola pseudoclavata, C. minor, Ricinodendron, Combretum schumannii, Craibia, Manilkara, Haplocoelopsis, Drypetes</span>. Lianes: <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum, Salacia, Dichapetalum</span>.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachylaena</span> forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia</span>. </li><li>In riverine thicket at Selous. </li><li>Dry evergreen forest on coral limestone rag soil dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Stuhlmannia moavi, Cynometra brachyrrachis, Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>, etc.</li></ul>Said to be a characteristic species of cave wells on Zanzibar.
35724		population	eng	Common where it occurs; usually healthy populations.
35724		threats	eng	The locality at Mangea has been almost if not entirely destroyed by forest clearance for agriculture. Is threatened elsewhere by habitat loss due to forest loss and degradation (agriculture, tourism, mining, fuelwood, charcoal, etc.).
35725		distribution	eng	A tree with an occasional distribution in central and western parishes.
35725		habitat	eng	Woodland and pasture margins on limestone.
35726		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania and Zanzibar Island and possibly Mozambique.
35726		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of dry coastal forest or open woodland.
35727		distribution	eng	Occurring in eastern Tanzania and extending south into north-east Mozambique.
35727		habitat	eng	It is found in remaining riverine forest or thicket.
35728		distribution	eng	Found from the vicinity of the Shimba Hills in south-east Kenya, through eastern Tanzania to Zanzibar Island.
35728		habitat	eng	A small tree found only in areas of dry coastal forest.
35729		distribution	eng	Known from the Taita Hills in Kenya, the West Usambara Mts. and Pare Mts. in Tanzania. There is also an unusual record of occurrence at Nou in Mbulu based on a single collection.
35729		habitat	eng	An upland moist forest species.
35730		distribution	eng	The bulk of the population is found in areas on the eastern mountains of Tanzania. Another subpopulation, which shows some morphological distinctness and was originally published under the name of <em>M. henriquesii</em>, occurs on the island of Sâo Tomé. The population here is small and found in areas which were forest at the turn of the century but are now cultivated or secondary forest.
35730		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen forest.
35731		distribution	eng	A Colombian endemic, known only from Antioquia and Chocó.
35732		distribution	eng	A single collection is known from south-west Mau in Kenya. In Tanzania occurrences are known from Mt. Kilamanjaro, Kilomeni and the Nguru Mts.
35732		habitat	eng	A subspecies of dry montane forest.
35733		distribution	eng	Scattered in a relatively unexplored region extending from Kilwa in southern Tanzania to northern Mozambique.
35733		habitat	eng	A variety from dry forest patches.
35734		conservation	eng	The species is possibly cultivated in Madagascar.
35734		distribution	eng	Ranging in a relatively unexplored area from southern Tanzania in the Kilwa district to northern Mozambique.
35734		habitat	eng	This species is confined to patches of dry coastal forest.
35735		distribution	eng	The Jamaican variety of a Caribbean species. It occurs in the central and north-western parishes.
35735		habitat	eng	Woodlands on limestone.
35736		distribution	eng	Collected from Sâo Paulo de Olivença.
35736		population	eng	Only one collection exists, made in 1932
35737		distribution	eng	A species confined to relatively unexplored coastal areas in Kingupira in Tanzania and northern Mozambique.
35737		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
35738		distribution	eng	This variety is hard to distinguish from the type variety. Both are endemic to the Blue Mts.
35738		habitat	eng	This form apparently is locally common in montane thickets on shale above 750 m.
35739		distribution	eng	In the western Blue Mts., the population is restricted to a small area north of the Grand Ridge at the headwaters of the Mabess River.
35739		habitat	eng	A variable species with distinctive subpopulations in middle-elevation and montane woodlands on limestone.
35740		habitat	eng	An uncommon slender tree, occurring in thickets and woodlands on limestone, especially in wet areas.
35741		distribution	eng	St Andrew and St Catherine.
35741		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree which occurs in some abundance in dry thickets on low limestone ridges, cliffs and ledges.
35742		distribution	eng	Occurs in western and central parishes.
35742		habitat	eng	Woodland and thickets on limestone.
35742		population	eng	An apparently abundant species.
35743		distribution	eng	In Kenya this shrubby species is known from the Arabuko-Sokoke forest. It ranges south to south-east Tanzania.
35743		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
35744		distribution	eng	Known from the Shimba Hills, Dzombo and Witu in Kenya to eastern Tanzania.
35744		habitat	eng	A species confined to areas of moist coastal forest.
35745		distribution	eng	An endemic to Huila.
35746		distribution	eng	Shimba Hills, Buda and Arabuko-Sokoke in Kenya to eastern Tanzania and Pemba Island.
35746		habitat	eng	A species confined to areas of moist coastal forest.
35747		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cuba.
35747		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is confined to coastal habitats in dry forests on limestone.
35747		threats	eng	Only areas which are unsuitable for agriculture or inaccessible have survived. Overcutting, burning and settlement are constant threats.
35748		distribution	eng	A poorly known species, found only in one location on the coast in Pinar del Río Province.
35748		population	eng	Fieldwork is necessary to locate viable populations.
35748		threats	eng	Overcutting and tourism are the main threats but vegetation remains in rugged and inaccessible areas.
35749		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the highlands of Jamaica.
35749		habitat	eng	Highlands above 600 m.
35749		threats	eng	A popular source of firewood but populations are probably most seriously threatened by habitat degradation.
35750		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to the province of Baracoa. Unspoiled areas remain where the terrain is rugged and inaccessible.
35750		threats	eng	The habitat has experienced declines because of logging, overcutting, mining and tourism.
35751		distribution	eng	Known only from Sierra de Nipe in the Oriente, this shrub or small tree is poorly documented. Only areas which are inaccessible remain relatively unspoiled.
35751		threats	eng	Confined to a habitat declining through logging, overcutting, mining and tourism.
35752		distribution	eng	A morphologically interesting species which is known only from the type location, near a stream in Oriente Province.
35752		population	eng	Fieldwork is necessary to search for populations in more inaccessible, intact areas.
35752		threats	eng	The habitat has been extensively degraded by logging, overcutting, mining and tourism. The spread of invasive plants along streams is also a major threat.
35753		distribution	eng	Known from about four localities in Sâo Paulo and Santa Catarina. The type variety is found further inland.
35753		habitat	eng	A coastal forest taxon.
35753		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation and habitat degradation have occurred over the centuries.
35754		distribution	eng	A Hispaniola endemic found in a number of locations.
35754		habitat	eng	Remaining upland broadleaved forest.
35754		threats	eng	The decline in the extent of forest has been drastic.
35755		distribution	eng	Two localities are known. One is in Kenya in Mkongani North and the other is in the East Usambara Mts.
35755		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
35756		distribution	eng	Endemic to north-central Hispaniola.
35756		habitat	eng	This variety grows in forest and woodland areas.
35756		threats	eng	The habitat has been drastically reduced in extent.
35757		distribution	eng	The nominate variant of an East African endemic. Populations occur in the Shimba Hills, Gongoni and Pangani rocks in Kenya. They extend into remaining forest patches in eastern Tanzania.
35757		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
35758		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Peninsular Samaná.
35758		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in areas of forest on limestone.
35758		threats	eng	The forest has been dramatically reduced in extent and continues to be threatened by grazing, agricultural encroachment and logging.
35759		distribution	eng	An important timber tree. It is scattered thinly in nine Mexican states. More information may indicate that a threat category is appropriate.
35759		habitat	eng	Coniferous montane forest.
35759		threats	eng	The population is concentrated around México city and must be under great pressure from urban and other developments. The timber is highly sought-after.
35760		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Kenya to north-east Tanzania.
35760		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub is confined to patches of dry coastal forest.
35761		distribution	eng	This taxon is the more widespread of the two variants of the subspecies <em>nyassica</em>. It is distributed in two small areas in Tanzania and further south in Malawi.
35761		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
35762		distribution	eng	The variety is known from the Udzungwa Mts., Njombe and Rungwe Mts. in Tanzania, also occurring in Malawi. The type variety is more restricted in range.
35762		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of moist montane forests, above 1,800 m.
35763		distribution	eng	Restricted in range. It is possible that the range of this variety extends into Mozambique.
35763		habitat	eng	This is a shrub or small tree found in dry deciduous coastal thickets on sand.
35764		conservation	eng	Plantations have been established but no conservation measures are in place.
35764		distribution	eng	The exact limits of its range are imperfectly known.
35764		habitat	eng	The species is found in upland valleys and plateaux, often growing on deep rich fertile soil, sometimes forming pure stands.
35764		threats	eng	A tree increasingly exploited for its quality timber. Frequently cleared and replaced by secondary shrubland, with <em>P. oocarpa</em>.
35765		distribution	eng	In Kenya this variety has been recorded from Taita Hills and Loitokitok. It also occurs in northern Tanzania.
35765		habitat	eng	Groundwater or riverine forest and rocky bushland.
35766		distribution	eng	A taxon known from a single locality at Mufindi, Tanzania, and also from a population in Malawi.
35766		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
35767		distribution	eng	Although the species ranges from Costa Rica to northern South America, this variant is thought to be endemic to Panama, where it occurs in a number of provinces. It is scarce outside protected areas. The taxon's range closely approaches both national borders and possibly extends into Costa Rica and Colombia, but is recognised there only at the species level.
35767		habitat	eng	Mainly in undisturbed rainforest up to 1,300 m.
35768		distribution	eng	A tree with an occasional occurrence in central parishes.
35768		habitat	eng	In remaining areas of woodland on craggy limestone.
35769		distribution	eng	Known only from Ngangao forest in the Taita Hills in Kenya and a slightly larger area in Tanzania.
35769		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is restricted to patches of dry forest at medium to high altitude.
35770		distribution	eng	The species occurs in east and south Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe.
35770		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of moist montane forest.
35771		distribution	eng	A species ranging from a few localities in Kenya to areas of east Tanzania.
35771		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest or thicket.
35772		distribution	eng	Ranging from south-east Tanzania to Mozambique.
35772		habitat	eng	A dry coastal forest small tree.
35773		distribution	eng	The higher altitude variant of the species. Populations are known from the Nyika Plateau within Malawi and Zambia and further north in parts of Tanzania.
35773		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest.
35774		distribution	eng	This variant, as with the type variety, occurs in the Nyika Plateau and parts of Tanzania.
35774		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest. It is restricted to lower altitudes, from 1,800 to 1,950 m.
35775		distribution	eng	Occurs in four localities, including Ukaguru, Rungwe and Songea in Tanzania.
35775		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to areas of moist montane forest.
35776		distribution	eng	Ranging from the Taita Hills to eastern Tanzania.
35776		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree from forest fringes, rocky bushland and moist forest at medium elevation.
35777		distribution	eng	This variant is more widespread than the type variety. Subpopulations are known from the Uluguru Mts., Mt. Rungwe in Tanzania and also from Malawi.
35777		habitat	eng	Restricted to montane forest at higher altitudes.
35778		distribution	eng	Found from Shimba, Mrima, Marenje and Miongoni in Kenya and further south in east and north-east Tanzania.
35778		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub known from areas of coastal forest.
35779		distribution	eng	Restricted to small areas in three locations. There is a population on the Kivu Plateau, another in Rwanda and a third in Kwiro Forest Reserve in Tanzania.
35779		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub of moist montane forest.
35779		threats	eng	Pressures from a growing agricultural population continue to affect all locations.
35780		distribution	eng	The distribution of this variant is disjunct with populations confined to forest patches in south-east Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar.
35780		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.
35781		distribution	eng	Ranging in distribution from Arabuko and Mangea in south-east Kenya to parts of north-east Tanzania.
35781		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub occurring in patches of dry coastal forest.
35782		distribution	eng	Known from the West Usambara Mts. and also sighted in the South Nguru Mts., this species is locally common.
35782		habitat	eng	Within a 200 m altitudinal range in moist forest.
35783		conservation	eng	The demand for land is high but two forest guards prevent illegal encroachment and activities.
35783		distribution	eng	Known from three localities in Tanzania. A population is confined to Kimboza Forest Reserve, 4 km² of forest in a densely populated area. There are also populations also at low elevations in the East Usambara Mts. and North Udzungwa Mountains.
35783		habitat	eng	A moist lowland forest tree.
35784		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree endemic to the northern part of the Usambara Mountains.
35784		habitat	eng	It is found only in dry forest areas at low to medium altitudes.
35784		threats	eng	The extent of lowland forest has declined severely and agricultural land has taken its place.
35785		distribution	eng	Occurring only in the Nguru Mts. and in the south of the Udzungwa Mountains at Kihanzi.
35785		habitat	eng	A species of moist semi-deciduous submontane forests.
35787		distribution	eng	Three localities are known: the East Usambara Mts., Makuyuni and Mahenge.
35787		habitat	eng	The species is found in moist forest within a narrow altitudinal belt, between 900 and 1,000 m
35788		distribution	eng	An uncommon species along the banks of Ríos Paraná and Paraguay.
35788		habitat	eng	Restricted to gallery forest.
35788		population	eng	Collections appear to be declining in number and in extent of occurrence.
35788		threats	eng	Existing threats to remaining subpopulations include dam construction, tourism and fishing.
35790		distribution	eng	Isolated subpopulations are known from forested areas in the Uluguru Mts., West Usambara Mts. and the Albertine Rift. There is a distinct variance between the subpopulations but it is not thought to be taxonomically significant. The only other member of the genus is endemic to Sâo Tomé.
35790		habitat	eng	Forested areas.
35791		distribution	eng	This variety occurs in south-east Tanzania and Mozambique.
35791		habitat	eng	Remaining areas of dry coastal forest.
35792		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from eastern Tanzania and Mafia Island to northern Mozambique.
35792		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
35792		population	eng	The subpopulations in Mozambique may be extensive.
35792		threats	eng	Much of the habitat has suffered from conversion to agriculture and local exploitation.
35793		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub known only from one locality in St Andrews. Similar specimens come from other parts of the island but their identity has not been confirmed.
35793		habitat	eng	Limestone rocks and cliffs.
35794		conservation	eng	It is cultivated as an ornamental in the Old World.
35794		habitat	eng	Confined to thickets and woodlands on limestone.
35794		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
35797		conservation	eng	The habitat is protected as a forest reserve. Plans have now been drawn up to ensure the conservation of the remaining natural resources and the prevention of further illegal activities.
35797		distribution	eng	Originally known under the genus <em>Dasylepis</em>, this tree is confined to a small area on Mt. Mulanje.
35797		habitat	eng	Montane evergreen forest.
35797		threats	eng	There have been significant declines in the extent and quality of the habitat because of exploitation for wood, encroachment of subsistence cultivation and fire.
35798		conservation	eng	One collection of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. benna</span> is known from the Outamba-Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone and the species’ estimated EOO includes various reserves such as the Tinka and Tangama Forest Reserves in Guinea and the Wara Wara Hills Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone. In addition, habitat and altitude preferences of the species suggest that it might also be found in the Loma Mountains and Tingi Hills Forest Reserves in Sierra Leone, even thought these are outside the current estimated EOO.<br/><br/>The Loma Mountains is a proposed National Park under the authority of the Wildlife Conservation Branch of the Sierra Leone government. Despite calls for it to be made into a National Park, a lack of financial and human resources has hindered progress towards the achievement of this conservation status. Recent civil unrest has set back efforts at protecting the mountains because the region is under the control of rebel forces; it is not known what impact the civil war might have had on the resources of this important area. The same applies to most of the localities in Sierra Leone where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. benna</span> has previously been collected.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Bafodeya benna</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
35798		distribution	eng	Only known for certain from northern Sierra Leone and southern Guinea. One specimen has been collected from Mali, however, no locality data is available for this collection. The description of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">B. benna</span> in Flora of West Tropical Africa includes a specimen from Senegal (Kaichinger). This specimen was later removed from the species description in other publications; however a scientific study in 1990 also lists <span style="font-style: italic;">B. benna</span> as present in Senegal. These are likely to be misidentifications (possibly <span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari curatellifolia</span> which is common throughout Tropical Africa), however, confirmation of the presence/absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. benna</span> in both Mali and Senegal is required.
35798		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bafodeya benna</span> is tree or bush up to 10 m tall. Endocarp inside of fruit has straight, hollow, needle-shaped “spines” protruding into the cavity (cottony substance in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Parinari</span>), which is the part used as a vermifuge.<br/><br/>This species has been collected from forest, savanna, woody savanna and orchard bush savanna on skeleton soils, sandstone outcrops and laterite plateaus. One more detailed habitat description accompanying a specimen from Guinea says:  derived savanna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari excelsa</span> remnants) on well drained moderate depth hill soil, rainfall 75 inches pa, dry season five months. <br/><br/>GIS analysis suggests that the species grows in two main ecoregions, namely Guinean forest-savanna mosaic and Guinean montane forests. Previously believed to only grow between 700 and 1,160 m, GIS analysis suggests that in fact the species also grows at lower altitudes, with several collection localities between 400 and 700 m in altitude. In 1914 a collection was made from Jigaya, Sierra Leone by Thomas from an altitude of 335 m which further supports the fact its distribution may not be restricted to the uplands in the region, as previously thought.<br/><br/>Little is known of the ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. benna</span>, however specimens provide some indication of flowering and fruiting times. Flowering has been observed in February in Guinea and April in Sierra Leone. Fruiting has been observed in February in Guinea and between July and September in Sierra Leone.
35798		population	eng	Said to be locally common (Lebrun and Stork 2006). Several collections were made from Musaia in Sierra Leone and Mamou in Guinea between 1927 and 1997 suggesting either very accessible populations or high species abundance in these areas. GIS analysis suggests that five main subpopulations exist. No other population data is available.
35798		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known. Harvesting of the fruits (needles) is not likely to be a significant threat to any populations. General threats to the two ecoregions where the species is found include mining, unsustainable agricultural activities, fires and deforestation.<br/><br/>Only two percent of the Guinean Forest-Savanna mosaic ecoregion is protected today, and more and more people are burning the dry forests to clear land for farms. The current status of the Guinean montane forest ecoregion is poorly known because of continuing civil war in the region. Although some mountain zones remain largely untouched, others have been severely degraded and fragmented. Slash-and-burn farming and man-made fires were the major threats prior to a decade of civil conflicts in Sierra Leone. On the Fouta Djalon Plateau in Guinea (which is surrounded by the Guinean Forest-Savanna Mosaic ecoregion), agricultural development and periodic burning have transformed the once dominant <span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari excelsa</span> forest into a grassland (Adam 1958) and ecosystems here have undergone marked fragmentation.
35799		conservation	eng	The area is designated as a forest reserve and timber is being extracted.
35799		distribution	eng	Known only from central Kasyoha-Kitomi.
35799		habitat	eng	Upland evergreen rainforest.
35799		population	eng	At present the species is known from a single population of about 20 trees.
35800		distribution	eng	A treelet newly described as a species and, at present, known only from Amapá.
35800		habitat	eng	Upland dry forest.
35801		distribution	eng	At present, the Mucugê region of Bahia is the only site where this species is known.
35801		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
35801		threats	eng	Logging is the most serious threat to its dry forest habitat.
35802		distribution	eng	A newly described species of northern Venezuela. Collections have been made from several localities in Barinas, Falcón, Yaracuy and Zulia.
35802		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35803		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the site where it was first collected in Amazonas.
35803		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35804		distribution	eng	A species which appears to be confined to a restricted area on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Cesar.
35804		habitat	eng	It is restricted to montane rainforest between 1,300 and 2,300 m.
35805		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from the provinces of Pinar del Río, Habana and Oriente and an unconfirmed report suggests it is also present in Las Villas.
35805		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of coastal thickets and dry thickets on limestone hills.
35805		threats	eng	The species is rarely seen today because of extensive habitat degradation.
35806		distribution	eng	Only a few collections of this species are known. They originate from the Rio Negro above Manaus in Amazonas, Brazil, and from further north along Río Atabapo in Amazonas, Venezuela.
35807		distribution	eng	A species from the Welo and Hararge highlands of Ethiopia, west Eritrea and also across the Red Sea in Yemen.
35807		habitat	eng	It occurs in upland wooded grasslands above 1,700 m.
35808		distribution	eng	A tree species which is known only from Bahia.
35808		habitat	eng	Coastal rainforest.
35809		conservation	eng	A population is known to occur in Ilha do Cordosa State Park in Sâo Paulo.
35809		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest treelet.
35809		threats	eng	Confined to an area where logging activities are intense.
35810		habitat	eng	Presumably a lowland forest species.
35810		population	eng	Known only from two collections.
35811		distribution	eng	Collected from the Cerros Campanquiz in Loreto.
35811		population	eng	This species is known from just two collections.
35813		distribution	eng	Western highlands of Eritrea, Tigray and Welo.
35813		habitat	eng	Restricted to wooded grasslands.
35813		threats	eng	This variety continues to lose large parts of its habitat to agriculture, human settlement and overcutting for fuelwood.
35814		distribution	eng	This small tree is known from scattered localities from  northern and south-central Somalia to Sidamo, southern Ethiopia
35814		habitat	eng	Occurring in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on limestone substrate.
35814		threats	eng	Habitat is being degraded in places where there is overcutting for charcoal production and the expansion of agriculture.
35815		distribution	eng	A species which is fairly widespread in Somalia and also in adjacent parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia.
35815		habitat	eng	It is found in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland, always on gypsum soils.
35815		threats	eng	Habitat is being degraded in places where there is overcutting for charcoal production and also an expansion of agricultural activities.
35816		distribution	eng	A large tree, newly described as a species and so far known with certainty only from the site where the type specimen was collected on the Pacific slopes of Colombia in Valle. A second specimen is similar but only tentatively grouped with this species.
35816		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
35816		population	eng	Collections do not seem to have been made in the last 50 years.
35817		distribution	eng	Known only from a few collections in Breves, Marajo.
35817		habitat	eng	This species is confined to non-flooded forest.
35817		threats	eng	Increasing settlement of the area poses the most serious threat.
35818		distribution	eng	A newly described species. Type collection from El Oro.
35818		habitat	eng	On steep forested slopes at about 800 m.
35818		population	eng	Currently known only from the type collection.
35819		habitat	eng	A tree which is restricted to coastal rainforest, up to 900 m.
35819		population	eng	Relatively few collections have been made.
35819		threats	eng	The continuing clearance of the habitat poses a serious threat to any remaining populations.
35820		distribution	eng	Found between southern Bahia and Espírito Santo.
35820		habitat	eng	A large tree confined to a small area of wet coastal forest.
35821		distribution	eng	Known from a few sites in Bolívar.
35821		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of shrub savannah and periodically flooded areas.
35822		conservation	eng	It is sometimes very common in pasture, where it is protected as a shade tree.
35822		distribution	eng	The species is found in a small area of Pacific Ecuador in Los Ríos, where it is recorded from Río Palenque Biological Station, and Pichincha.
35822		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of lowland rainforest up to 700 m.
35823		distribution	eng	Ranging from southern Venezuela to French Guiana in several mountain localities, including the Morabukea forest in the Pakaraima Mts., in Guyana and Monts la Fumée in the Saül region of French Guiana.
35823		habitat	eng	Recorded in forest up to 1,200 m.
35824		distribution	eng	Although the species has a very restricted range in the Ogaden in Ethiopia, it is widespread in Somalia.
35825		distribution	eng	Fairly widespread in Somalia extending into Harerge in Ethiopia.
35825		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in wooded grassland and bushland overlying limestone.
35826		distribution	eng	There is very little information on this species, there being only a single incomplete herbarium specimen. It was found in the Chocó region in 1946.
35826		habitat	eng	Tall rainforest.
35827		distribution	eng	A newly described species. Historical collections indicate the species' range to be greater than 20,000 km². More recent collections suggest there has been a reduction in this area.
35828		distribution	eng	Type collection is from Cuzco.
35828		habitat	eng	Occurred in subxerophilous forest.
35828		population	eng	Information on the species is poor. It is known only from the type collection made at the turn of the century. The current status of the species, if it is still extant, is unknown.
35828		threats	eng	Much of the vegetation in the area is under threat from burning and clearance.
35829		habitat	eng	Farming area.
35829		population	eng	The type collection is the only known occurrence of this species.
35830		distribution	eng	A Pacific coast tree with two populations, occurring in lowland rainforest in the Valle del Cauca in Colombia and from submontane rainforest in Alto Tambo in Esmeraldas in Ecuador.
35830		habitat	eng	Lowland and submontane rainforest.
35831		distribution	eng	It is fairly widespread in Somalia but known only from Harerge in Ethiopia.
35831		habitat	eng	A species of <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland overlying limestone.
35831		threats	eng	In places there is a threat to the habitat from overcutting for charcoal production and from expanding agricultural activities.
35832		distribution	eng	A species which is known only from Amapá.
35832		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forests.
35832		threats	eng	The most serious threat to the species is logging.
35833		distribution	eng	A Cuban endemic confined to the Sierra Maestra mountain range.
35833		habitat	eng	Seasonal rainforest and the lowest elevation wet montane rainforest between 200 and 900 m.
35833		threats	eng	The habitat of this rare tree has been degraded in many places.
35834		distribution	eng	A few collections of this tree are known from north-west Pará. Records show it occurs in some abundance in Jari on terraced hills, but its distribution is highly restricted.
35834		habitat	eng	Dry forest .
35835		distribution	eng	The Cuban form of a Caribbean species.
35835		habitat	eng	Remaining areas of lowland semi-deciduous forest over limestone.
35835		population	eng	Occurs infrequently.
35835		threats	eng	The tree has been overexploited for its valuable timber and a great part of its habitat has been deforested.
35837		distribution	eng	A variable species known from central and southern Somalia extending to the eastern Ogaden in Ethiopia.
35837		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry deciduous bushland.
35837		threats	eng	In places the habitat is suffering from degradation caused by overcutting for charcoal production and by expanding agricultural activities.
35839		distribution	eng	This species is apparently confined to a small area of Magdalena on the slopes of the Santa Marta range.
35839		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest above 2,000 m.
35840		distribution	eng	A newly described species, at present known only from the site where it was first collected along River Vatuma.
35840		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35842		distribution	eng	This species has been rarely collected but its range is extensive.
35842		habitat	eng	Várzea forest.
35842		population	eng	Individuals are believed to be scattered and few.
35843		distribution	eng	A species, newly described, known from just two collections from the Rio Solimôes area in Amazonas.
35843		habitat	eng	Non-flooded lowland forest.
35844		distribution	eng	A newly described species.
35844		habitat	eng	Scattered in dry lowland forest and cerrado.
35844		threats	eng	Some areas are under threat from expanding developments and land settlement.
35845		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Colombian, Venezuelan and Brazilian Amazon.
35845		habitat	eng	Várzea forest below 200 m.
35845		population	eng	Although occupying a relatively wide range, the species is actually known from only a few collections.
35846		distribution	eng	Río Palenque Science Center in Pacific coastal Ecuador.
35846		habitat	eng	A canopy tree known only from lowland rainforest.
35847		distribution	eng	A newly described species. So far it has been collected from only two sites in Loreto.
35847		habitat	eng	Lowland swampy forest.
35848		distribution	eng	A newly described species, which has been recorded only from the site where it was first collected in Tocache Nuevo in San Martin in 1972.
35848		habitat	eng	The population was found in rainforest between 700 and 800 m.
35849		distribution	eng	Ranging over an area greater than 20,000 km², assuming that populations still exist in the collection sites. Further evidence may reveal that the species has been lost from some of these sites.
35849		habitat	eng	A species distributed in restinga.
35849		threats	eng	Habitat clearance has been extensive.
35851		distribution	eng	Western Amazonia in Brazil and in the department of Putamayo in Colombia. More specimen data are needed to confirm its taxonomic status.
35851		habitat	eng	The species is known from two sites of lowland rainforest.
35852		distribution	eng	A small tree known from several locations on the Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela.
35853		distribution	eng	A newly described species, which appears to be confined to a single population on the Kaieteur Plateau.
35853		habitat	eng	Savannah and low savannah forest.
35854		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections at the mouth of Macauhan in Acré, and from Yanomono Explorama Camp in Loreto, Peru.
35854		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland, periodically flooded forest.
35855		distribution	eng	A newly described species. At present it is known from only two sites in Amapá.
35855		habitat	eng	Mixed lowland forest.
35856		distribution	eng	Amazonian Peru and Bolivia. Populations have been recorded in two or three widely separated sites, one in San Martin in Peru, the others in La Paz in Bolivia.
35856		habitat	eng	A tree of montane forest, occurring up to 900 m.
35857		distribution	eng	From upper Rio Negro and Rio Japurá regions.
35857		habitat	eng	A tree which is known only from igapó forest.
35858		distribution	eng	The type specimen was collected in 1910 from Rio de Janeiro. Otherwise known from Bahia.
35858		habitat	eng	The species occurs in restinga vegetation and inland forests.
35859		distribution	eng	Southern Venezuela extending to the upper Rio Negro in Brazil.
35859		habitat	eng	A component of igapó forest.
35860		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Monts la Fumée in the Saül region in French Guiana and Brownsberg Nature Park in Suriname.
35860		habitat	eng	A species of lowland hill forest.
35861		conservation	eng	The species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.
35861		distribution	eng	Not to be confused with <em>A. ballyi</em> this species is confined to the cliffs in the lower Rusitu valley, south Chimanimani in Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique.
35861		habitat	eng	Cliffs.
35862		distribution	eng	Sierra de Nipe, Oriente Province.
35862		habitat	eng	A small tree apparently confined to submontane serpentine forest in what is known as the manacles.
35862		population	eng	The species is poorly known and has been rarely collected.
35863		distribution	eng	A newly described species with a restricted distribution, ranging from Bahia to Espírito Santo.
35863		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35863		threats	eng	The habitat has been extensively logged and cleared.
35864		distribution	eng	A newly described species, the only records of which occur in two sites in the Rio Vaupes region in western Brazilian Amazonia.
35865		distribution	eng	Collected from Sierra de Moa in Oriente province.
35865		population	eng	A small tree known only from the site where it was first gathered in 1955.
35865		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is from the mining of the ferritic soils.
35866		habitat	eng	A species with an anomalous floral structure compared to the rest of the family.
35866		population	eng	A few recent collections now indicate that the species is not as rare as was once assumed.
35867		distribution	eng	Only three collections have been made of this species. They originate from the mouth of Rio Embira in Amazonas, Brazil, and from Loreto, Peru.
35867		habitat	eng	Periodically flooded or várzea forest and upland forest.
35868		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to a single high mountain locality, Sa Pa in Lao Kai Province in north Viet Nam.
35868		habitat	eng	It occurs in subtropical open forests at about 1,500 m.
35869		habitat	eng	A species which appears to occur in both moist and drier lowland forest types.
35870		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the centre and south of Venezuela.
35870		habitat	eng	A component of riverside gallery forest and adjacent areas of deciduous scrub and savanna edges.
35871		distribution	eng	A newly described species currently known from just two collections.
35871		habitat	eng	Lowland secondary forest.
35871		threats	eng	Threatened most seriously by increasing habitat clearance and settlement of the area.
35872		distribution	eng	A newly described species. Present information suggests that it is confined to Linhares Forest Reserve.
35872		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest on sandy soils.
35873		distribution	eng	A tree species which is confined to the Brazilian Amazon.
35873		habitat	eng	Occurs in periodically and permanently flooded forest.
35873		threats	eng	The habitat is generally threatened by logging activities.
35874		distribution	eng	A newly described species, currently known only from the site where it was first collected in 1963 from Porto Velho.
35874		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
35875		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species. The only knowledge of it comes from the herbarium type specimen, which was collected in the last century from a locality which has not been precisely recorded.
35875		population	eng	Unknown.
35876		habitat	eng	Forest on laterite.
35876		population	eng	This species is known only from the site where it was first collected in 1941.
35877		distribution	eng	Although the species is known only with certainty from the type collection, there may be other collections from the Amazon which belong to this taxon. The type specimen was gathered in the Cerros Campanquiz in Loreto.
35877		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
35878		conservation	eng	Occurs in Ducke Forest Reserve.
35878		distribution	eng	A newly described species, confined to two localities.
35878		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35878		threats	eng	The most serious threat comes from continuing logging.
35879		distribution	eng	This shrub or bushy tree is known only from populations in Amazonas.
35879		habitat	eng	Occurring in savannah and occasionally along flooded river margins.
35880		distribution	eng	The type specimen was collected from Ucayali.
35880		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35880		population	eng	A tree known only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1942.
35881		distribution	eng	Few collections exist, one from Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in Loreto, Peru, and several from Amazonian Brazil.
35881		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland rainforest.
35882		distribution	eng	Its only known occurrence is at the mouth of the Rio Javari.
35882		habitat	eng	A large tree in non-flooded forest.
35883		conservation	eng	The species is recorded in the Ilha do Cardoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.
35883		distribution	eng	Along the Atlantic coast.
35883		habitat	eng	A tree of restinga vegetation and granitic outcrops.
35883		threats	eng	Large areas of the habitat are being lost to housing, tourist and other developments.
35884		distribution	eng	A newly described species, known only from the site where it was first collected in 1977 at 750 m in Miranda.
35884		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
35885		distribution	eng	This tree has been collected from just two sites so far, one in the Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in Loreto, Peru, and the other in Sâo Paulo de Olivença in Amazonas, Brazil.
35887		distribution	eng	A newly described species. So far populations have been recorded from two sites in Loreto in Peru, including the Jenaro Herrera Arboretum, and from Rondônia in Brazil.
35887		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest over sand.
35888		distribution	eng	Known from various provinces of Viet Nam.
35888		habitat	eng	An evergreen tree of lowland secondary forest and forest margins.  It regenerates abundantly on waste land, abandoned after shifting cultivation.
35888		population	eng	Rare and scattered.
35888		threats	eng	The wood is used for construction and making implements.
35889		distribution	eng	From Guyana to Pará in Brazil. Not as widely ranging as the type subspecies.
35889		habitat	eng	Occurs in mixed lowland rainforest.
35891		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Saül area of French Guiana and along the Rio Negro in Amazonas, Brazil.
35891		habitat	eng	The species is found in non-flooded lowland forest.
35892		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub found in sandstone scrub and forest islands in savannah, dwarf mossy forest over sandstone and <em>Bonnetia</em> forest up to 2,200 m.
35893		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam, it is a dominant component of some forest localities and has been observed to regenerate well, although population reductions have occurred. In China the species, recognised under the synonym <em>A. tienlinensis</em>, is restricted to limestone areas in the Dayao Mountains., Tianlin and Leye counties in Guangxi and Luodian, Wangmo and Zhenfeng counties in Guizhou.
35893		habitat	eng	Widely occurring in primary rainforest. In China the species is restricted to limestone areas.
35893		threats	eng	A valuable timber is harvested from the tree and in some places is overexploited.
35894		distribution	eng	This subspecies is confined to just a few sites in Bolívar and  Amazonas.
35894		habitat	eng	Dwarf forest or low scrub on stony mountain slopes.
35895		distribution	eng	Confined to northern Venezuela, occurring in Anzoátegui, Distrito Federal, Monagas and Sucre.
35895		habitat	eng	A tree of wet montane forest and shrubby cloud forest.
35896		distribution	eng	A newly described species known from several sites in the Guianas and adjacent parts of Brazil.
35896		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland rainforest, usually on non-flooded land up to 700 m.
35897		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub which appears to be endemic to Viet Nam.
35897		population	eng	It is very rare and restricted to Tây Quàng Nam in Da Nang.
35898		distribution	eng	Populations have been recorded in the Guianas and adjacent Pará in Brazil.
35898		habitat	eng	A relatively widespread tree of rainforest over sand or laterite.
35899		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southern Venezuelan Highlands and in Serra Aracá in northern Amazonas in Brazil.
35899		habitat	eng	It is found in wet or riverside forest on steep slopes up 1,600 m.
35900		distribution	eng	A newly described species, currently known only from the type locality in Jenaro Herrera Arboretum.
35900		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35902		distribution	eng	A newly described species which, so far, is known from just two collections in forest in southern Venezuela.
35903		distribution	eng	A tree known at one time to be confined to Rio de Janeiro.
35903		habitat	eng	Coastal hill forest.
35903		population	eng	Although the area has been visited numerous times by botanists, no recent record of the species has been made.
35904		distribution	eng	This species appears to be confined to a small area near Mucugê.
35904		habitat	eng	A treelet of sandy campo rupestre vegetation.
35905		distribution	eng	Centre of the Brazilian Amazon, especially in the region of Manaus.
35905		habitat	eng	A species confined to non-flooded forest over sand.
35905		threats	eng	Logging activities and fires in the area are the most serious threats.
35906		distribution	eng	It is known from collections made in northern Pará and Amapá, Brazil, and from adjacent French Guiana.
35906		habitat	eng	A newly described species of várzea forest, transitional várzea and non-flooded forest.
35907		distribution	eng	The species has been collected from only a few localities in the Guianas.
35907		habitat	eng	Recorded in wet and dry forest type.
35908		distribution	eng	A newly described species, as yet known from just a few collections in Huánuco in Peru, and from various localities, including Ducke Forest Reserve in Amazonas, Brazil.
35908		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35910		distribution	eng	A relatively widely ranging species. It is a component of clump Walaba forest and Morabukea forest in Guyana and it is also recorded in Ducke Reserve in Brazil.
35910		habitat	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from lowland non-flooded rainforest.
35912		distribution	eng	Extending from southern China to northern Viet Nam.
35912		habitat	eng	The species is confined to forest in limestone areas.
35912		population	eng	Considerable population declines have been observed.
35912		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the timber and lack of sufficient regeneration.
35913		distribution	eng	Type collection from the Cajamarca area.
35913		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection dating back about 180 years. No record of the tree has been made since.
35914		distribution	eng	Western Amazonia.
35914		habitat	eng	A species of lowland periodically flooded or non-flooded forest.
35915		distribution	eng	Occurring in Nam Ha (Phu Li), Ninh Binh (Pho Sau) and Ha Tay (Chua Huong). Its status and distribution elsewhere are poorly known.
35915		habitat	eng	A rare species restricted to primary and secondary evergreen forest on limestone mountains.
35916		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, the species is known only from two localities, Ninh Hoà and Diên Khánh in Khánh Hoà on the east coast.
35918		distribution	eng	Currently known from just two collections from Valle.
35918		habitat	eng	A large buttressed tree of lowland rainforest.
35919		distribution	eng	Type collection from the Rio Taruma region near Manaus.
35919		habitat	eng	Non-flooded lowland forest.
35919		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
35920		distribution	eng	Two collections of this species were made in Rio de Janeiro.
35920		population	eng	The area has since been extensively visited and no evidence of the species has been uncovered.
35921		distribution	eng	A newly described species, which appears to be confined to the north of Brazil.
35921		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35921		threats	eng	The most serious threat is from mining activities.
35922		distribution	eng	A species known mainly from subpopulations in Venezuela, in areas of Bolívar, Territorio Federal Delta Amacuro and Miranda. The subpopulation's locality and status on Trinidad is unknown.
35922		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35924		distribution	eng	The species is apparently confined to in Rio de Janeiro. It has been frequently cited from other Brazilian states but these records have not been authenticated and confusion with another taxon is quite possible.
35924		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
35924		threats	eng	Urban expansion exerts considerable pressure on the habitat.
35925		distribution	eng	A newly described species recorded from a small area on the dry Pacific slopes.
35925		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
35926		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species with no precise data on locality or habitat.
35926		population	eng	It has been described from four collections made in the first half of the century.
35927		distribution	eng	A tree of the Brazilian central Amazon.
35927		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
35927		population	eng	Known from just a few collections.
35928		distribution	eng	A tree apparently confined to the Pernambuco Highlands.
35928		habitat	eng	Seasonal forest.
35928		threats	eng	The habitat is under threat, particularly from agricultural expansion.
35929		distribution	eng	Occurrences are recorded in Monts la Fumée in French Guiana and along the Manaus to Itacoatiara road.
35929		habitat	eng	A tree of mixed lowland rainforest on high ground.
35930		distribution	eng	A small tree, apparently endemic to Viet Nam, where it occurs at about 300 m in Phu Tho in Vinh Phu Province.
35931		distribution	eng	A small tree which has been collected only from Hoi Xuan in Thanh Hoa Province, near the Laos border.
35932		distribution	eng	Endemic to Panama, the species is recorded only from the provinces of Panamá and Darién. The collections from Panamá come from a restricted area and only a single population is so far known from Darién, within a national park.
35932		population	eng	Regeneration appears to be sufficient.
35933		distribution	eng	In Panama, the species is widely distributed on the Pacific side, the largest populations being in the Canal and Darién regions. Regeneration appears to be healthy here. Elsewhere in the Panama and Costa Rica, populations are sparse, showing little recruitment.
35933		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen rainforest.
35933		threats	eng	In places populations are imminently threatened with deforestation.
35934		distribution	eng	A timber tree with a fragmented distribution in the central Andean range.
35934		habitat	eng	Low- to medium-altitude forest.
35934		population	eng	Populations are small, containing not more than a few hundred individuals.
35934		threats	eng	Exploitation is at a high level throughout the range of this species, largely for the woodchip industry.
35936		distribution	eng	Viet Nam, in the north of the country.
35936		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in the middle storey of primary and secondary evergreen forest below 1,000 m.
35936		threats	eng	It has come to be considered threatened here largely because of exploitation of the hard heavy wood, used as a construction timber.
35937		distribution	eng	Hà Tây (Ba Vì) and Ninh Bình (Cúc Phuong) in northern Viet Nam.
35937		habitat	eng	A large tree restricted to lowland primary evergreen forest.
35937		threats	eng	Very little habitat remains and the species is also suffering from poor regeneration, with a complete absence of seedlings and young trees under the canopy of parent trees.
35938		distribution	eng	A scarce tree, which appears to be known only from Hòa Binh (Muòng Thôn, Luong Son: Lâm Son) in north Viet Nam.
35939		distribution	eng	Occurrences are recorded from several provinces in Viet Nam.
35939		habitat	eng	A small pioneer tree found in areas of lowland secondary, disturbed and recolonising forest.
35940		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Viet Nam, in Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Phu Yen and Khanh Hoa Provinces.
35940		habitat	eng	This large tree is scattered sparsely or found in dominant stands in dense evergreen broadleaved and mixed forest.
35941		distribution	eng	A forest species known only from the coastal region between Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina.
35942		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to Viet Nam, where it is known from only a single locality in Kien Giang Province.
35944		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam, in Phú Yên and Khánh Hòa provinces.
35944		habitat	eng	This small tree is scattered in lowland dry open forest.
35944		threats	eng	This species is endangered by overexploitation for its valuable wood.
35946		distribution	eng	Known from the central parishes.
35946		habitat	eng	Occurs in thickets and woodland on rocky limestone.
35946		population	eng	The species is not uncommon.
35947		distribution	eng	One of two varieties of a Jamaican endemic, this is the less common one, confined to central parishes.
35947		habitat	eng	Margins of woodland on rocky limestone.
35954		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam, the species occurs in Hà Giang (Bác Quang: Dông Tâm) and Ba Mùn Island of Quang Ninh.
35954		habitat	eng	A small tree.
35955		distribution	eng	The species appears to be endemic to a restricted area in the north, confined to the provinces of Ha Tay, Hoa Binh and Thanh Hoa.
35956		distribution	eng	In Panama the species is known only from a small subpopulation, containing few mature individuals, in the Cerro Tute in Veraguas. It is a little more widely distributed in Costa Rica, but again few mature individuals exist. Further fieldwork is needed to search for subpopulations in the intervening zone between these two locations.
35956		habitat	eng	A species of evergreen rainforest with a restricted altitudinal range, occurring between 1,000 and 1,200 m.
35956		threats	eng	The Panamanian subpopulation is unprotected and under some threat from deforestation.
35957		conservation	eng	Only a single subpopulation in San Ramón in Costa Rica occurs within a forest reserve.
35957		distribution	eng	Occurring in an area extending from north-west Panama to north-east Costa Rica, the species occurs in sparsely scattered small subpopulations within a rapidly developing region.
35957		habitat	eng	Restricted to lowland forest.
35957		threats	eng	All but one subpopulation are unprotected and under severe threat from agricultural and industrial developments, and from urbanisation.
35958		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, this small to medium-sized tree is known only from Ba Vi, a number of localities in Hoa Binh and Cuc Phuong in Ninh Binh.
35959		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Palo Seco Protection Forest.
35959		distribution	eng	The species occupies a small area between north-east Costa Rica and north-west Panama. In Costa Rica only a few records exist, all in the vicinity of Río Yorkín, very near the Panama border. There are various distinct occurrences in Panama.
35959		habitat	eng	Restricted to lowland areas of semi-deciduous rainforest.
35959		threats	eng	Elsewhere the habitat is unprotected and extensively cleared for cultivating bananas, cocoa and other commercial crops.
35960		distribution	eng	The species' description is based on a single collection from 1932. It came from an area in the Santa Rita Hills, Colón.
35960		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland.
35960		population	eng	Much of original collection area has been cleared for agriculture and grazing.
35961		distribution	eng	Until the taxonomy of Central American specimens is confirmed, the exact range of this species cannot be consolidated but could extend to southern parts of Central America.
35961		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
35961		threats	eng	Because of the rate of destruction of the moist forest habitat in the last few decades the species qualifies as threatened.
35962		distribution	eng	So far recorded only from Viet Nam, this small tree appears to be restricted to Mong Cai in Quang Ninh, on the border with China.
35965		distribution	eng	East and central Guatemala.
35965		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
35965		population	eng	The species has experienced declines in its habitat in the last 50 years.
35965		threats	eng	There are a number of estimated rates of deforestation: all exceed an annual rate of one percent.
35966		distribution	eng	The taxonomic status of the species is uncertain. It is confined to Chiriquí in Costa Rica and Cartago in Panama.
35966		habitat	eng	Wet montane forests.
35967		distribution	eng	A species with a local distribution confined to north-western parishes.
35967		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
35968		distribution	eng	Possibly ranging through all of Central America.
35968		habitat	eng	The species is recorded in high areas in various forest types.
35975		distribution	eng	Type location is in Nechí.
35975		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
35975		population	eng	Although recorded as locally common, this small tree is still known only from its type location.
35976		distribution	eng	Type location is near Tefé.
35976		habitat	eng	Forested river bank.
35976		population	eng	A tree which is known only from the type collection made in 1927.
35977		distribution	eng	A distinctive species which is known only from the type location in the northern part of the valley of Río Magdalena in north-west Colombia.
35977		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
35978		distribution	eng	This small tree has not been collected anywhere other than the type locality in Chimborazo forest near Atacama.
35978		habitat	eng	Altitude of 0–500 m.
35979		distribution	eng	Although relatively widely ranging, this species is confined to the lower Orinoco basin and adjacent areas in Guyana.
35979		habitat	eng	Understorey species of primary forest.
35980		distribution	eng	It is probably endemic to north-west Colombia where it is known from three locations in Nechí and the valley of the Río Magdalena.
35980		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.
35981		distribution	eng	It appears to be endemic to an area, exceeding 40,000 km², in Chocó and adjacent forested areas in Panama, such as Nechí and Darién.
35981		habitat	eng	An understorey species of lowland rainforest.
35983		distribution	eng	Closely related to the more widespread <em>R. ulmifolia</em>, this species is known from two locations: one in the northern forests of the Río Magdalena valley and the other near Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
35984		distribution	eng	Type collection is from the valley of Río Magdalena.
35984		population	eng	This tree species is known only from the type collection, which was made in 1936.
35985		distribution	eng	This species has not been collected from anywhere other than its type locality.
35985		habitat	eng	Confined to non-flooded forest.
35986		distribution	eng	A species collected only from the river banks of the southern Río Magdalena valley.
35987		distribution	eng	The type locality, to which the species appears to be confined, was discovered nearly 200 years ago in Espírito Santo.
35987		habitat	eng	Coastal rainforest.
35988		distribution	eng	A species which appears to be confined to its type location on the slopes of the Coastal Cordillera in Venezuela, between 700 and 800 m.
35989		distribution	eng	Type collection located along a road in northern French Guiana.
35989		population	eng	This species is known only from the 1982 type collection.
35990		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the north of Rio de Janeiro and Alegre.
35990		habitat	eng	Confined to coastal forest refuges and savannah forest.
35991		distribution	eng	A species which, although endemic to north-west Colombia, is relatively well collected in the Río Magdalena valley from Bogotá to Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
35992		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to the type locality along a road in the estate of Santa Maria.
35992		habitat	eng	This species occurs in non-flooded forest.
35993		distribution	eng	The species has not been widely collected although it does have a relatively wide extent of occurrence (>70,000 km²).
35993		habitat	eng	Restricted to areas of montane forest, between 1,200 and 1,900 m.
35995		distribution	eng	The species is known from two disjunct locations in the Amazon. The range may be found to be more extensive after further collections have been fully determined.
35997		distribution	eng	From northern Venezuela this tree is recorded in an area extending over 50,000 km².
35997		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests, savannahs, woods and pastures over a wide altitudinal range.
35999		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, the species is located close to the Chinese border in Phong Tho, Lai Chau Province, between 1,600 and 1,700 m.
36000		distribution	eng	Found in two disjunct locations in Peru, including Tambopata Wildlife Reserve, and in Bolivia.
36000		habitat	eng	This tree or shrub is recorded in forest and savannah areas.
36001		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, this shrub or small tree is confined to a single locality in Cuc Phuong, Ninh Binh.
36003		distribution	eng	The species is confined to  Valle.
36003		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36003		threats	eng	The site of a 1985 collection coincides with the proposed route for a road to a military base.
36004		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree from forest in Rio de Janeiro.
36004		population	eng	It is known from several locations and is not uncommon.
36005		distribution	eng	Fairly wide-ranging, the species is found in Boyacá to Barinas.
36005		habitat	eng	Low-altitude forests.
36006		distribution	eng	Ranges over an area greater than 40,000 km².
36006		habitat	eng	A small forest tree or shrub on the margin of campo cerrado.
36007		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus, confined to Magdalena Valley in Boyacá and Santander.
36008		distribution	eng	Occurs in Portland and St Thomas.
36008		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree or shrub, restricted to moist secondary forest on limestone hills between 360 and 680 m.
36008		threats	eng	The habitat, especially in St Thomas, has been almost completely destroyed or severely degraded.
36009		distribution	eng	St Catherine, Trelawny and St Ann.
36009		habitat	eng	A scrambling shrub or tree, the species has a local distribution in woodland on sheltered limestone banks.
36010		distribution	eng	Restricted to Hanover, Trelawny and St Ann.
36010		habitat	eng	Occurs in woodland on limestone.
36010		population	eng	A small uncommon tree or shrub.
36011		distribution	eng	A small shrub or tree known only from Portland and St Thomas.
36011		habitat	eng	Occurs between 120 and 550 m in lowland forested ravines.
36011		threats	eng	In the more accessible places forest areas are almost completely destroyed or severely degraded.
36012		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub which is locally frequent in St Andrew and St Thomas.
36012		habitat	eng	Thickets and woodland on steep rocky slopes between 240 and 900 m.
36012		threats	eng	Most of the accessible areas of forest have been destroyed.
36013		distribution	eng	Confined to Portland and St Thomas.
36013		habitat	eng	The species occurs up to 600 m in woodland on limestone, especially where it is wet.
36013		population	eng	Uncommon.
36013		threats	eng	Most, if not all, of the forest, especially in the latter parish, has been destroyed or severely degraded.
36014		distribution	eng	Portland, St Andrew and St Thomas.
36014		habitat	eng	A tree of submontane forest.
36014		threats	eng	Almost all the accessible forest below 1,400 m in the latter two parishes has been destroyed or severely degraded.
36015		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam the species is very rare, found in Tam Dao in Vinh Phu in the north. On Hainan Island there are records of the species in Lo Tung.
36015		habitat	eng	Occurring only between 900 and 1,200 m.
36017		distribution	eng	Subpopulations in Viet Nam are concentrated in the south, but also occur near the border with China.
36017		habitat	eng	A tree of primary and slightly disturbed forest, occurring over a wide altitudinal range.  Regeneration is evident along roads and in open places.
36017		threats	eng	Considered threatened, mainly because of their increasing localisation.
36018		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub which appears to be endemic to Vo Xa, Nam Ha Province, in northern Viet Nam.
36020		distribution	eng	Confined to the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia.
36020		population	eng	A rarely collected species.
36021		distribution	eng	A Colombian form of a widespread South American species. It is believed to have occurred in Tolima and/or Cundinamarca.
36022		distribution	eng	The type variety of a Jamaican endemic.
36022		habitat	eng	Locally common in clearings and glades in forest or sheltered thickets on limestone.
36023		distribution	eng	This species is known from St Thomas and Portland.
36023		habitat	eng	Restricted to thickets on limestone in wet areas between altitudes of 250 and 900 m.
36023		population	eng	Both this and <em>S. villosa</em> are uncommon, small trees.
36024		distribution	eng	It occurs in Clarendon, Manchester and Trelawny.
36024		habitat	eng	Confined to pastures, thickets and woodland on limestone.
36024		population	eng	It is uncommon.
36025		distribution	eng	A pioneer species of the Blue Mts.
36025		habitat	eng	It occurs in colonies in forest gaps and as sparsely scattered large trees in submontane forest, especially on steep unstable slopes.
36026		distribution	eng	A tree of the central Brazilian Amazon.
36026		habitat	eng	Occurs in non-flooded forest.
36026		threats	eng	Logging activities are a threat to some populations.
36027		distribution	eng	A tree of the Ecuadorian Amazon in Morona-Santiago and the north-east of Zamora.
36027		habitat	eng	It occurs in submontane forest.
36028		distribution	eng	Western Amazon of Brazil.
36028		habitat	eng	A species confined to várzea forest.
36028		threats	eng	Logging activities are the most serious threat to the area.
36029		distribution	eng	At present the species is known from just two herbarium collections. The specimens were collected from Amazonas in Peru near Teniente Pinglo.
36029		habitat	eng	Were found in lowland rainforest.
36030		distribution	eng	A species apparently endemic to Viet Nam, where it is known only from Phu Loc in Lang Co in the centre of the country.
36031		conservation	eng	Some localities are within protected areas, where regeneration has been observed to be relatively good.
36031		distribution	eng	This species is relatively common in the low mountains of Heredia, Alajuela, Guanacaste and Limón in Costa Rica. In Panama there are a few minor subpopulations around the Canal region and in the province of Panamá and it is expected to be found further west.
36031		habitat	eng	Moist evergreen forest and woodlands.
36031		threats	eng	Outside protected areas subpopulations are affected by the growing settlement of land, logging and extensive agriculture.
36033		distribution	eng	Confined to ultramafic soils in the central Punta range of Puerto Rico.
36033		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
36034		distribution	eng	A species which ranges from Brazil to Argentina. This taxon represents a localised variety which occurs in a calcareous region in the upper reaches of the Río Apa.
36034		population	eng	It is known only from the type locality.
36035		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Andes from Venezuela to Peru.
36035		habitat	eng	It is recorded from open pastures and dry forest at medium elevation and from cloud forest at 2,700 m in Peru.
36035		population	eng	A small tree which is becoming increasingly scarce.
36035		threats	eng	Naturally uncommon, the species has come under intense pressure from habitat clearance.
36036		distribution	eng	Known from the central parishes.
36036		habitat	eng	The tree has an occasional distribution in woodland on rocky limestone.
36037		distribution	eng	Related to <em>S. angustatum</em>, this species is also confined to Oriente Province.
36038		distribution	eng	Confined to Hidalgo and Querétaro states, the species has been recorded only a few times.
36038		habitat	eng	Montane forest and matorral, from the lower limit of the pine-juniper belt.
36039		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to the serpentine plateau of Sierra de Nipe.
36039		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of dry thickets between 300 and 500 m.
36039		population	eng	So far it has been collected just three times.
36040		distribution	eng	A species known only from the site where it was first collected in Barahona at about 700 m.
36041		distribution	eng	Occurring relatively widely, the species ranges from Jalisco to Oaxaca.
36041		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest from near sea level up to 1,600 m.
36042		distribution	eng	This small tree occurs over an area extending from Sinaloa to Guerrero.
36042		habitat	eng	Restricted to deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, frequently on igneous rock.
36043		distribution	eng	Not a well-known species, it is confined to the provinces of Oriente and Pinar del Río.
36043		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest by mangroves and also in dry manacales up to 900 m.
36043		threats	eng	Overexploitation of its timber has caused population decline. Overcutting and clearing are constant threats to the habitat.
36044		distribution	eng	Scattered sparsely over a relatively wide range. Populations occur on the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, Guatemala and Costa Rica and more recently it has been collected from Cerro Jefe in Panama.
36044		habitat	eng	A rainforest species of lowland to medium elevation.
36045		habitat	eng	Forest on limestone.
36045		population	eng	A small treelet recorded, up to now, only twice.
36046		distribution	eng	A small tree which appears to be confined to the Jacinto Hills in Belize, although a specimen collected in Chiapas in Mexico could possibly be the same species.
36047		distribution	eng	Known only from a few collections in Niño Perdido and Baja Verapaz in Guatemala and in the Apatlanco area in Veracruz.
36047		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest and submontane secondary forest.
36048		distribution	eng	A newly described species. It is known only from small subpopulations in the Chilpancingo area in Guerrero and south of San Marcos Arteaga in Oaxaca.
36048		habitat	eng	Arid thorn forest or oak forest on calcareous soil between 1,600 and 2,000 m.
36049		distribution	eng	Izabal and Petén, in Guatemala, and to Toledo in Belize. The type subspecies is confined to Jamaica.
36049		habitat	eng	A rainforest species, confined to lowland limestone sites.
36050		distribution	eng	A taxon endemic to the central parishes of Jamaica.
36050		habitat	eng	Occurs within restricted areas of forest between 600 and 760 m.
36051		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality at La Cumbre, Petén.
36051		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland rainforest dominated by <em>Manilkara zapota</em>.
36052		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only a few times from its range in Baja Verapaz.
36052		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland rainforest.
36053		distribution	eng	Eastern Cuba.
36053		habitat	eng	A valuable timber tree, up to 30 m tall, fairly widespread in the humid mountainous areas, where it grows in submontane and montane rainforest and seasonal evergreen forest.
36053		threats	eng	Population numbers continue to decline because of overcutting.
36054		habitat	eng	The species occurs over a wide range of altitudes and soil types, sometimes on unstable slopes.
36054		population	eng	It is especially common on the Grand Ridge.
36054		threats	eng	At lower elevations there has been logging.
36055		distribution	eng	Occurs in the central parishes.
36055		habitat	eng	Well-drained rocky limestone.
36055		population	eng	An uncommon species.
36056		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub, which is confined to two sites in the southern tip of Baja California.
36056		habitat	eng	Along stream beds and gullies.
36057		distribution	eng	This is the more localised subspecies of a widely occurring Central American tree, covering a range from Chihuahua to Jalisco and Colima.
36057		habitat	eng	Populations are found along watercourses in dwarf deciduous forest up to 1,200 m.
36058		distribution	eng	Central Honduras.
36058		habitat	eng	A small tree, confined to an area of submontane pine-oak woodland and rocky thickets.
36059		distribution	eng	Occurs in central and western parishes.
36059		habitat	eng	Areas of woodland and thicket on limestone.
36059		population	eng	This species is actually quite common where it occurs.
36060		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species. The type collection was taken from a hilltop in Santo Domingo.
36060		population	eng	The type and only collection was gathred in the early part of the century. It has not been recorded since.
36061		distribution	eng	A tree known only from Socorro Island and the Revilla Gigedo Islands.
36061		habitat	eng	Humid forest up to 900 m.
36062		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Petén in Guatemala and adjacent Belize.
36062		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland rainforest dominated by <em>Manilkara zapota</em>, ascending to medium elevations.
36063		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, the species is known from a few localities in Khanh Hoa, Dac Lac and Dong Nai Provinces in the south of the country.
36065		distribution	eng	A gregarious species found in hilly areas in the central parishes. A distinct but similar species appears to have been found in Trelawny.
36066		distribution	eng	Widespread in the Sagua-Baracoa serpentine mountain ranges of north-east Cuba.
36066		habitat	eng	This small tree is typical of the pine forest belt between 600 and 900 m and is also found in the lowland serpentine shrublands in the subcoastal zone (north of the Moa Mountains).
36066		threats	eng	The species is not yet uncommon but has suffered from overcutting and habitat loss.
36067		distribution	eng	North-east Holguín.
36067		habitat	eng	A small tree up to 8 m tall, confined to dry scrub and scrub-woodland communities in the serpentine areas.
36067		threats	eng	Overcutting, overgrazing and urban expansion have confined the population to small areas.
36068		distribution	eng	In Viet Nam, the species is known from only two localities, one on the mainland in Bien Hoa and the other on the island of Con Son.
36069		distribution	eng	An endemic to Valle.
36070		distribution	eng	An endemic of Santander.
36071		distribution	eng	A small tree localised to the mountains of the Guamuhaya Massif.
36072		distribution	eng	Found in the Nipe-Baracoa Massif.
36072		habitat	eng	A canopy tree found mainly in montane serpentine rainforest thriving on acid ferralitic soils.
36072		threats	eng	The species is not yet uncommon but overexploitation and habit disturbance have caused a decline in numbers. Logging, cutting and mining are constant threats.
36073		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Nagua mountain group in Sierra Maestra.
36073		population	eng	An uncommon tree.
36074		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to the Sierra Maestra and other mountains in Guantanamo Province.
36074		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
36074		population	eng	The species is still fairly common but subpopulations have declined over the past few decades.
36075		distribution	eng	A tree sparsely scattered in central and western parishes.
36075		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
36076		distribution	eng	Eastern Cuba.
36076		habitat	eng	Populations of this shrub or small tree are confined to areas of bare limestone with dry littoral scrub woodlands on coastal terraces and seaside karstic slopes.
36076		threats	eng	Its habitat has been severely degraded in places by burning and cutting.
36077		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree widespread in many forest types.
36077		threats	eng	Its habitat has been severely degraded in most places, especially in western and central Cuba. Cutting and clearing remains a threat in the remaining areas and in north-east Cuba mining is a major threat.
36078		distribution	eng	Endemic to Jamaica, in scattered localities throughout the island.
36078		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is found in forest on limestone between 350 and 900 m.
36079		distribution	eng	A newly described species endemic to French Guiana and principally found in the vicinity of La Fumée.
36079		habitat	eng	Primary rainforest.
36080		conservation	eng	The area is protected.
36080		distribution	eng	Endemic to Panama, the species is known from a small area in the Cerro Jefe region.
36080		habitat	eng	Occurs in cloud forest between 800 and 1,000 m.
36080		population	eng	Although current information indicates that the species is very low in numbers, it is possible there are undiscovered populations elsewhere.
36081		conservation	eng	The area is covered by a forest reserve.
36081		distribution	eng	The species is recorded only from Fortuna in Chiriquí and the border between Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro.
36081		threats	eng	The surrounding forest has gradually disappeared over recent years through increasing settlement and logging.
36082		conservation	eng	The only known protected population occurs in La Selva, Costa Rica.
36082		distribution	eng	In Panama this species is known only from the type collection and may now be nationally extinct, but it is also found in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
36082		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36082		threats	eng	Most of the species' range coincides with areas being converted into banana plantations.
36084		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area of Colombia, in the departments of Atlántico, Bolívar and Cundinamarca, and in neighbouring Panama, in the province of Darién.
36084		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland rainforest.
36085		distribution	eng	Confined to parts of central and eastern Amazonia.
36085		habitat	eng	A species of non-flooded forests.
36086		distribution	eng	Southern Bahia.
36086		habitat	eng	Confined to coastal forest.
36086		threats	eng	This species occurs in a habitat constantly under threat of destruction.
36087		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area of the Atlantic lowlands in northern Honduras, Alta Verapaz and southern Petén in Guatemala and adjacent Belize.
36087		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland wet evergreen forest.
36088		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Amazonia, mainly from Humaita and the road from Manaus to Porto Velho.
36089		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread.
36089		habitat	eng	This species generally occupies river banks.
36089		threats	eng	A zone which has experienced serious forest destruction and continues to be threatened.
36090		distribution	eng	From rainforest in Pará.
36090		population	eng	The type collection is the only record of this species.
36091		distribution	eng	It is known only from Rio Acre in the Brazil/Peru border area.
36091		habitat	eng	A species of periodically flooded forest.
36092		habitat	eng	A rare species of coastal forest, confined to the few remaining patches of forest above 400 m in the area.
36093		distribution	eng	Just four collections are known, three taken from western Amazonia and one in Rio Tapajós.
36093		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
36094		distribution	eng	Type collection is from Bahia.
36094		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
36094		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36094		threats	eng	This species is seriously threatened with the loss of its habitat.
36095		distribution	eng	The species is confined to Cerro Huachamacari in the Venezuelan Amazon.
36095		population	eng	Known only from the type locality.
36096		distribution	eng	It is known from only two collections in western Amazonia.
36096		habitat	eng	This species occurs in both non-flooded and periodically flooded rainforest.
36098		distribution	eng	It occurs in Jari Genetic Reserve and Monte Dourado National Park.
36098		habitat	eng	Recent collections of this species have been made in non-flooded forests.
36099		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
36099		threats	eng	The coastal forests, to which this tree is confined, continue to be seriously threatened.
36100		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread. It occurs in the Ilha do Cardosa State Park in Sâo Paulo.
36100		habitat	eng	This species is confined to coastal forest.
36100		threats	eng	Destruction has been severe in the past and continues to be a threat.
36101		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few collections in south-east Brazil.
36101		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36101		threats	eng	Forest destruction has been severe and continues to be a threat.
36102		distribution	eng	At present, the species is known only from a small area at the mouth of the River Amazon. The species may prove to be more widespread.
36102		threats	eng	Deforestation has destroyed a large part of the habitat.
36103		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread.
36103		habitat	eng	Confined to Atlantic coastal forests.
36103		population	eng	Well collected. This species is not under imminent threat.
36103		threats	eng	Atlantic coastal forests continue to be cleared.
36104		distribution	eng	Occurs in a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast.
36104		population	eng	An apparently common understorey species.
36104		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the area has been severe in the past and continues to be a threat.
36105		distribution	eng	A relatively wide-ranging species.
36105		habitat	eng	Restricted to areas of coastal scrub or restinga.
36105		population	eng	Only a few collections have been made, which suggests the species is rare.
36106		habitat	eng	It is restricted to areas of woodland on well-drained limestone.
36106		population	eng	Although widely scattered, the tree is nowhere common.
36107		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Jari Genetic Reserve in Pará.
36107		distribution	eng	This species is wide-ranging but poorly collected, in western and south-western areas of Brazilian Amazonia and eastern Colombia.
36107		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
36108		conservation	eng	It occurs in Linhares Forest Reserve and Ilha do Cardosa State Park.
36108		habitat	eng	Confined to remnant patches of Atlantic coastal forest.
36108		population	eng	Poorly collected.
36108		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to ongoing forest destruction.
36109		distribution	eng	A relatively wide-ranging species which is known from only a few collections in western and south-western Amazon.
36109		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
36110		habitat	eng	This species exists in a number of disjunct populations within dry forest and scrub.
36110		population	eng	In Brazil its status is vulnerable. Elsewhere it appears to be common and unthreatened.
36111		distribution	eng	Known only from the Roraima area.
36111		habitat	eng	An understorey species.
36112		habitat	eng	Occurs in a narrow band of coastal forest.
36112		population	eng	A poorly collected species.
36112		threats	eng	Deforestation has been severe in the past and continues to be a threat.
36113		distribution	eng	No recent accounts of this species appear to be available. Older collections indicate that the species occurs in south-east Brazil.
36113		threats	eng	Forest destruction has been and continues to be severe in the area.
36114		distribution	eng	Apparently known from just two collections, the species is confined to Tarapoto in Loreto Department.
36115		distribution	eng	Endemic to Portland. The type variety is endemic to the Blue Mts.
36115		habitat	eng	Confined to damp rocky thickets around 500 to 600 m.
36115		population	eng	This variety is uncommon.
36116		distribution	eng	Mostly occurring in the central and western parishes.
36116		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to remaining areas of woodland on limestone.
36117		distribution	eng	Generally found in the central parishes.
36117		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to remaining areas of woodland and thicket on limestone crags and cliffs.
36118		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree with a local distribution confined to St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.
36118		habitat	eng	Restricted to rocky shale banks on serpentine between 270 and 900 m.
36119		distribution	eng	Confined to St Catherine, St James and Trelawny.
36119		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone hills.
36119		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
36121		distribution	eng	A species scattered throughout the Blue Mountains.
36121		habitat	eng	Montane forest above 1,200 m. It occurs mostly on steep unstable shale slopes in northern catchments, e.g., Spanish and Mabess Rivers. At higher altitudes it grows as a small shrub.
36121		population	eng	Sometimes locally common.
36122		distribution	eng	Found only in the western parishes.
36122		habitat	eng	Remaining areas of woodland on rocky limestone.
36122		population	eng	An uncommon species.
36123		distribution	eng	Known only from Clarendon, Trelawny and St Ann Parishes.
36123		habitat	eng	The species is locally common in areas of woodland on limestone.
36124		distribution	eng	The species occurs in central parishes.
36124		habitat	eng	Restricted to remaining areas of woodland on rough limestone.
36125		distribution	eng	Known from occurrences in west-central and western parishes.
36125		habitat	eng	The species has an occasional distribution in areas of woodland on limestone.
36126		habitat	eng	The species is relatively widespread in woodlands on limestone.
36126		population	eng	Declines have been recorded in population numbers.
36126		threats	eng	The timber is widely used and the trees are frequently coppiced.
36127		conservation	eng	The species occurs largely within national parks.
36127		distribution	eng	Known only from the Canal zone.
36127		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense forest.
36127		threats	eng	Despite the protected status of these subpopulations, there is concern that growing population pressure will result in much of this habitat  being destroyed.
36128		distribution	eng	The species has an occasional distribution in the central parishes.
36128		habitat	eng	Thickets and woodland on limestone.
36129		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cesar.
36130		distribution	eng	Widespread in the Chaco.
36130		habitat	eng	Dry subtropical forest.
36130		threats	eng	Widely used, the species occurs within an area of considerable human disturbance.
36131		distribution	eng	A relatively widely ranging tree.
36131		habitat	eng	Dry scrub on plains and hillsides, often in rocky areas.
36132		habitat	eng	A species of low elevations, occurring in rocky thickets along streams.
36132		threats	eng	Fires are a frequent threat.
36133		distribution	eng	Occurs on Mt. Mombacho and Ometepe in Nicaragua and various localities in Costa Rica.
36133		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36133		population	eng	A relatively common species.
36133		threats	eng	In parts of its range, especially in Costa Rica its habitat has declined and populations are threatened.
36134		conservation	eng	It occurs in Rincón de la Vieja National Park.
36134		distribution	eng	One collection made in Mexico is probably a new species.
36134		habitat	eng	In Costa Rica and Panama the species is confined to montane forests, between 370 and 2,000 m.
36134		population	eng	This species does not appear to be rare where it occurs but the dramatic declines in the habitat may qualify it for a threat category.
36134		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
36135		distribution	eng	It may be divided up into subspecies.
36135		habitat	eng	A species of moist wooded ravines or rocky hills and dense wet mixed forest at medium to high altitudes.
36136		distribution	eng	Known from seven localities in Beni and La Paz.
36136		habitat	eng	A river or submontane forest species.
36136		threats	eng	Forests in the area have declined because of encroaching farming activities and cutting for wood and charcoal production.
36137		distribution	eng	A species known from a single locality near Mapiri in La Paz, most recently collected in 1939.
36137		population	eng	Fieldwork is needed to ascertain whether it is now extinct.
36138		population	eng	Collections of this species have not been made for over 100 years since it was found in the Yungas, La Paz. The present status of its population is unknown but likely to be seriously threatened, possibly extinct.
36139		distribution	eng	Confined to the Gulf region, extending as far north as northern Veracruz.
36139		habitat	eng	The species occurs in most areas of remaining rainforest.
36140		distribution	eng	A newly found species, known only from the type locality. There are only three species in the genus. Much of Gabon's forests remain to be explored.
36140		threats	eng	Much of Gabon's forests are also largely covered by logging concessions.
36141		distribution	eng	A relatively widespread Mexican endemic in the Gulf region and the Pacific slopes.
36141		habitat	eng	Occurring in rainforest and also drier forest types.
36142		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gulf region, ranging no further north than southern Veracruz.
36142		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the remaining rainforests.
36143		distribution	eng	Confined to the Gulf region from northern Veracruz southwards.
36143		habitat	eng	This taxon occurs in remaining rainforest.
36144		distribution	eng	A species, endemic to remaining rainforest in the Gulf region, occurring as far north as southern Veracruz.
36144		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36145		distribution	eng	Occurring in the regions of Los Tuxtlas, Tuxtepec and Uxpanapa-Chimalapa.
36145		habitat	eng	A tree of high precipitation rainforest.
36146		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Tuxtepec and Uxpanapa-Chimalapa regions.
36146		habitat	eng	A species of high precipitation rainforest.
36147		distribution	eng	Occurring largely in the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region.
36147		habitat	eng	A large tree of high precipitation rainforest.
36148		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gulf region, the species occurs in remaining areas of rainforest, ranging as far north as northern Veracruz.
36148		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36149		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gulf region, ranging as far north as northern Veracruz.
36149		habitat	eng	The species occurs in remaining rainforest.
36150		distribution	eng	In the Gulf region and from the Pacific slope.
36150		habitat	eng	A rainforest species with a distribution confined to high precipitation forest.
36151		distribution	eng	This canopy tree is restricted to the remaining rainforest in the Gulf region, from southern Veracruz to the adjacent states further south.
36151		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36152		distribution	eng	Occurring in the regions of Los Tuxtlas and Uxpanapa-Chimalapa.
36152		habitat	eng	A species of high precipitation rainforest.
36153		distribution	eng	A relatively widespread endemic, occurring in the Gulf and Pacific regions.
36153		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36154		conservation	eng	Much of its distribution lies in protected areas.
36154		distribution	eng	Known from Palmira and Poás through the Cordillera de Talamanca to the Chiriquí highlands in Panama. It has also recently been collected from the Central Cordilleral of Nicaragua.
36154		habitat	eng	A distinctive tree found only in montane and cloud forest.
36154		threats	eng	There is still some threat of deforestation.
36155		conservation	eng	It is planted in Brasília Federal District.
36155		distribution	eng	Savanna regions of central Brazil.
36155		habitat	eng	An easily overlooked tree of gallery forest and dry forest.
36156		conservation	eng	It is well represented in protected areas.
36156		habitat	eng	An evergreen species known from a few locations in dry forest or cloud forest, between 750 and 2,400 m.
36156		threats	eng	There is considerable population pressure in much of its range.
36157		distribution	eng	Type specimen was collected from Bipinde in western Cameroon.
36157		population	eng	The only evidence of this species is the type specimen, which was collected in 1746. The species may be considered to be extinct.
36158		distribution	eng	A species known only from five localities. The two Haitian localities occur in the Massif de la Selle and Massif de la Hotte and date back the 1920s. It is unknown whether these subpopulations remain intact.
36158		habitat	eng	Cloud and pine forests.
36158		threats	eng	Considerable pressure is exerted upon these small areas of forest because of the demand for farming land and wood.
36159		distribution	eng	The species has been collected from only six localities in Hispaniola. The two collections from Haiti from the Massif de la Selle date back over 50 years. It is unknown whether the populations remain intact.
36159		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36159		threats	eng	There is considerable pressure exerted on these small forests because of the demand for farming land and wood.
36160		distribution	eng	Known only from the Oaxaca region of Mexico.
36160		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
36160		population	eng	Several localities are known but most are not definite and more fieldwork is necessary to confirm the distribution of this rare species.
36161		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection made in 1984, from the Cordillera de Talamanca.
36161		habitat	eng	An elfin forest species.
36162		conservation	eng	The Ecuadorian subpopulation is located within Podocarpus National Park .
36162		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities: Huánuco in Peru and Loja-Zamora, Ecuador.
36162		habitat	eng	A montane or elfin forest species.
36162		threats	eng	The Peruvian subpopulation is unprotected and vulnerable to habitat degradation.
36163		distribution	eng	A cloud forest species known only from two localities in Tumango in Huánuco and Oxapampa in Pasco.
36163		population	eng	Collections have been few, illustrating that the species may be very rare.
36164		distribution	eng	Known from only two localities: Cordillera Vilcabamba in Peru and Sandillani in Bolivia.
36164		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36164		population	eng	There have been no collections from Bolivia since 1866 and the original subpopulations may now be extinct.
36164		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion, cutting for wood and charcoal production and fires have caused extensive degradation and loss of this forest habitat.
36165		conservation	eng	Occurs within national park boundaries.
36165		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, this morphologically distinctive species occurs within in Munchique National Park.
36165		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36166		population	eng	This species is poorly known. The locality of the type collection dating back to the 18th century is unknown. Another locality in Valle is tentative. The species has not been definitely collected for over 100 years and may now be extinct.
36167		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in San Martin and Loreto.
36167		habitat	eng	No habitat information is available.
36168		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, this species was collected in 1976 from the Chocó, between Alto del Galápago and San José del Palmar.
36168		population	eng	Fieldwork is needed to ascertain the current status of the population.
36169		distribution	eng	Known from only two localities in Peru; Bongará in the Amazonas region (collected in 1915) and the Cordillera Vilcabamba in Cuzco.
36169		habitat	eng	An elfin forest species.
36169		population	eng	The known subpopulations may be more seriously threatened but fieldwork is needed to give an accurate assessment of their status.
36169		threats	eng	The forest in these areas has suffered from the encroachment of farming activities, burning and cutting for charcoal production.
36170		distribution	eng	Type specimen collected from Alto de Santo Inés.
36170		population	eng	A poorly known species recorded only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1941.
36171		distribution	eng	It has been collected from just three localities. In Peru subpopulations are known from Cordillera Vilcabamba in Cuzco and Oxapampa in Pasco. In Bolivia it was collected over 50 years ago in the Mapiri region of La Paz.
36171		habitat	eng	A large tree of primary cloud forest.
36171		threats	eng	Forests in these areas have been extensively degraded by encroaching farming activities, fires and overcutting for fuelwood and charcoal production.
36172		population	eng	The exact location of this species is not known. The only collections date back to 1842 and are likely to have been taken from forests to the south of Roraima. Reports suggest that this area is no longer forested because of heavy burning. Surrounding forests have not been botanically well explored.
36172		threats	eng	Fires.
36173		distribution	eng	This tree is confined to three localities: Las Orquideas Natural National Park, between Alto del Galápago, San José del Palmar in Chocó and La Argentina in Huila.
36173		habitat	eng	Occurring in cloud forest.
36174		distribution	eng	A poorly known species once collected in 1926 in thickets in the vicinity of Las Vegas, Santander.
36175		distribution	eng	Collected from Huánuco.
36175		population	eng	Little information on this species is available. It has been collected only once in 1923.
36176		distribution	eng	Type collection from Cerro Patascoy in Putumayo.
36176		population	eng	Known only from the type collection, this species has not been seen in the wild since 1869.
36177		distribution	eng	A species occurring in three localities: Tolima in Colombia and from Cantón Montúfar in Carchi and Playón de San Francisco in Napo in Ecuador. The Colombian collection dates back over 100 years and its present status is unknown, possibly extinct.
36177		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36178		distribution	eng	Collected over 140 years ago in the department of La Paz from forests above Sandillani.
36178		population	eng	The current status of this species is not known but is likely to be seriously threatened, possibly extinct.
36178		threats	eng	These areas have been seriously degraded  by encroaching farming activities, burning and overcutting for wood and charcoal production.
36179		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type collection located in Suri-Negracota, in the department of La Paz in 1928.
36179		habitat	eng	Forested areas have been seriously degraded because of encroaching farming activities, fire and overcutting for wood and charcoal production.
36179		population	eng	The current status of the population is not known and it is likely to be seriously threatened, possibly extinct.
36180		distribution	eng	A species known only from a single locality in the summit savanna of Ptari-tepui, in Canaima National Park in Bolívar.
36180		habitat	eng	Savannah.
36180		threats	eng	The habitat is very fragile. At lower elevations, out of the range of this species, pressures exist from mining and tourism.
36181		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from two localities on Cerro Yutaje in Amazonas.  The area is a Natural Monument but not otherwise protected.
36181		habitat	eng	Occurs in the fragile habitat of the tepui summit.
36182		distribution	eng	A species known only from three localities in Bolívar; Uaipán-tepui and Aprada-tepui.
36182		habitat	eng	In fragile summit savannah.
36182		threats	eng	t occurs in Canaima National Park, where mining and tourism are threatening habitats at lower elevations.
36183		conservation	eng	The area is given the status of a National Monument but is otherwise unprotected.
36183		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1974 from the summit savanna of Cerro Guanacoco in Bolívar.
36183		habitat	eng	Savannah.
36183		threats	eng	The habitat is very fragile, although not imminently threatened.
36184		distribution	eng	A species known only from three localities in Amazonas and Vaupés, Colombia.
36184		habitat	eng	No habitat information is available.
36185		conservation	eng	It occurs within Jáua-Sarisariñama National Park.
36185		distribution	eng	A species known only from two localities in Bolívar.
36185		habitat	eng	Tepui summit savannah.
36185		threats	eng	Tepui summit savannah is a very fragile habitat.
36186		conservation	eng	Found within Canaima National Park.
36186		distribution	eng	A species collected only once, in 1978, on the summit of Ptari-tepui, Bolívar, within Canaima National Park.
36186		habitat	eng	Densely wooded area.
36186		population	eng	It has not been seen recently despite efforts to locate it. It is clearly extremely rare or perhaps even extinct.
36187		distribution	eng	Most recent collections have come from Tapajós in Pará. In the past, the species was known from Maranhâo further north.
36187		habitat	eng	Non-flooded forest.
36187		threats	eng	Intense exploitation of the bark to make essential oils has caused the species to become rare.
36188		distribution	eng	A species described in 1988, known only from Sambé, near Rio Bonito.
36189		distribution	eng	A species known only with certainty from Rio de Janeiro, where it was last collected in 1959. The Bahian occurrence is incorrect.
36190		distribution	eng	Occurring on the Atlantic coast, the species is known from a few collections in the area surrounding Rio de Janeiro city and also rarely from Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo.
36190		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36191		distribution	eng	Last collected in 1978, the species is concentrated around Rio de Janeiro, but is also known from forests further inland.
36192		distribution	eng	North-east of Carmen del Atrato, Chocó.
36192		habitat	eng	A small tree from the edge of secondary forest.
36193		distribution	eng	An endemic species to Vanuatu, occurring on the islands of Erromango, Pentecost and Banks.
36193		threats	eng	It is not uncommon but logging and habitat destruction have led to the species becoming increasingly hard to find.
36194		distribution	eng	This small tree is known from just two collections. The type specimen was gathered from a forest island in the Sipaliwini Savannah.
36194		habitat	eng	Evergreen seasonal forest.
36195		distribution	eng	Described in 1842, the type collection is from the Kwitaro River.
36195		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since the type collection.
36198		distribution	eng	Confined to areas of the Gran Sabanna and Cerro Guaiquinima of Venezuela.
36198		habitat	eng	A tree.
36199		distribution	eng	Type collection was gathered on the Pakaraima Mts.
36199		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36199		population	eng	A tree known only from the type collection.
36200		distribution	eng	Described in 1988, this small tree is known only from the type specimen collected in Montagne Bellevue de l'Inini.
36202		conservation	eng	The area is protected.
36202		distribution	eng	Mt. Roraima on the Venezuela-Guyana border.
36202		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to upland rainforest.
36202		threats	eng	Affected to some extent by tourism.
36203		conservation	eng	The area is protected.
36203		distribution	eng	Confined to south Venezuela and south Guyana in the vicinity of Roraima.
36203		habitat	eng	This species is found in scrub forest and on the summit of sandstone mountains.
36203		threats	eng	Pressure from tourism.
36204		conservation	eng	The area is protected.
36204		distribution	eng	Found on the slopes of Mt. Roraima on the border of Venezuela and Guyana.
36204		habitat	eng	A montane species found in rainforest.
36204		threats	eng	Pressure from tourism.
36206		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bolívar Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.
36206		habitat	eng	A cloud forest shrub, growing to 30 cm in height.
36207		distribution	eng	This Ecuadorian endemic is found in Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, and Azuay Provinces.
36207		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 2,850 and 4,300 m.
36208		habitat	eng	An Atlantic forest species.
36208		threats	eng	Threatened by loss and degradation of the habitat and poor regeneration.
36210		distribution	eng	Widely occurring in north, north-east and south-east Brazil.
36210		habitat	eng	An Atlantic forest species.
36210		threats	eng	Subpopulations have declined because of habitat loss, degradation and poor regeneration.
36211		habitat	eng	It is found in clearings and forest edges in Atlantic coastal rainforest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest.
36211		population	eng	These forests has suffered heavy declines over the past centuries.
36212		distribution	eng	Two localities are known, one in Paraná, south-east of Curitiba, and one around Sâo Joaquim. It occurs within an area of 10,000 km².
36212		habitat	eng	Clearings, thickets and waste places in the dwarf montane forest.
36213		distribution	eng	Atlantic coast.
36213		habitat	eng	A relatively widespread species of primary or secondary forest, often in <em>Araucaria</em> groves.
36213		threats	eng	Declines in this habitat have been dramatic.
36214		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36214		distribution	eng	Cameron Highlands of Pahang.
36214		habitat	eng	This species is confined to open or closed rainforest at an altitude of 1,500 to 1,900 m.
36215		conservation	eng	This tree is conserved within forest reserves and permanent forest estates where it occurs.
36215		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
36215		habitat	eng	A tree of lowlands and hill forests
36215		threats	eng	The expansion of settlements is the principle pressure placed upon the species, it is also locally utilized as a fuel source.
36216		distribution	eng	Known only by a single collection from Kinta, Perak.
36216		habitat	eng	A species of lowland forest.
36216		threats	eng	The Kinta area is now mainly mined over and the survival of the species is doubtful.
36217		conservation	eng	This species is conserved within the permanent forest reserves where it occurs.
36217		distribution	eng	Penang, Kelantan and Selangor.
36217		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland primary forests.
36217		population	eng	A relatively uncommon species.
36218		distribution	eng	Recorded only from Larut in Perak. Its exact location is unknown.
36218		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
36219		conservation	eng	Range includes some protected areas.
36219		distribution	eng	North-east Madagascar. Its estimated range covers 20,000 km² (AOO).
36219		habitat	eng	An emergent tree confined to low-altitude evergreen humid forest.
36219		threats	eng	The forest is being degraded by exploitation and agriculture.
36220		conservation	eng	Some localities are protected in Ankarana Reserve.
36220		distribution	eng	A tree known only from a few localities around Autsiranana and the Ankarana Massif. Subpopulations are fragmented.
36220		habitat	eng	Areas of limestone outcrops.
36220		threats	eng	Much of the range is decreasing through forest destruction. The main threat comes from selective felling for timber and charcoal.
36221		distribution	eng	A deciduous tree known only from two locations within a very restricted area north of Morondava. It covers an estimated 1,500 km² (EOO) within a region of fragmented and declining native vegetation.
36221		threats	eng	Declining native vegetation.
36223		conservation	eng	Some protected areas exist within its range, notably Ankarafantsika natural reserve.
36223		habitat	eng	A deciduous tree restricted to lowland, seasonally dry forest and woodland.   Whilst the primary vegetation is declining throughout its range, this species occurs in degraded vegetation and will coppice when cut.
36223		threats	eng	Areas of suitable vegetation are declining and the species is selectively felled for wood, charcoal and fuel.
36224		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution in south-east Madagascar.
36224		habitat	eng	Woodland and scrubland on sand.
36224		threats	eng	The vegetation in this area is very fragmented.
36225		conservation	eng	Little or no conservation measures in existence.
36225		distribution	eng	Recorded from only a few scattered localities in a restricted area of southern Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 16,000 km²
36225		habitat	eng	This deciduous tree occurs on sand near the coast.
36225		threats	eng	Habitat continuing degradation. It is selectively felled for timber
36226		conservation	eng	A small area is protected beside Lake Tsimanampetsotsa.
36226		distribution	eng	Mahafaly Plateau of southern Madagascar, covering an estimated 18,000 km² (EOO).
36226		habitat	eng	A xerophytic species restricted to limestone.
36226		threats	eng	The area is already fragmented and grazed and is continuing to be cleared.
36227		conservation	eng	Contained within a protected reserve.
36227		distribution	eng	Ankarana Massif, north Madagascar. Its area of occupancy covers an estimated 500 km².
36227		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree of limestone outcrops.
36228		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are found in Andasibe/Perinet Reserve.
36228		distribution	eng	Currently known from only four localities. Its range is broad, extending  over 1,000 km² and it is likely that further localities exist.
36228		habitat	eng	This submontane species is uncommon and localised in stands of primary vegetation.
36229		distribution	eng	Widespread in west and north Madagascar.
36229		habitat	eng	A deciduous species that has some capability of regeneration in secondary vegetation.
36230		distribution	eng	Known only from a single location in an area of highly fragmented vegetation on Ankara Plateau, this species occupies an area of approximately 100 km².
36230		population	eng	Trees are very rare, scattered and low in numbers.
36230		threats	eng	The remaining vegetation is declining rapidly as a result of burning and encroachment.
36231		conservation	eng	It is included within Ankarana and Analamerana Reserves.
36231		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities restricted to the Ankarana-Analamerana Massif of north Madagascar.
36231		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species.
36231		population	eng	It is uncommon, covering an estimated area of 500 km² (AOO), within which the forests are declining.
36232		distribution	eng	Its range extends 40,000 km² (EOO).
36232		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species.
36232		population	eng	Restricted and uncommon.
36232		threats	eng	Highly fragmented as a result of agriculture and burning. Recent cotton plantations have had a strong impact and it is likely that at least 50% of the forest has been cleared or degraded in the last 100 years. This decline is continuing although this species is included within Ankarafantsika Reserve.
36233		distribution	eng	Known from only three localities, confined to eastern Madagascar.
36233		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
36233		population	eng	Its range is estimated to lie between 500 and 1,000 km² (AOO), but it is uncommon.
36233		threats	eng	The habitat is almost entirely destroyed, with only small vestiges remaining.
36234		distribution	eng	Recorded from only two sites, at Ambila-Lemaitsu which extends less than 500 km² (AOO).
36234		habitat	eng	This eastern coastal forest species is confined to a forest remnant.
36234		threats	eng	Suffers continual degradation.
36235		distribution	eng	Known only from two restricted sites: Nosy Mangabe and Antongil and Taolanaro. The southern subpopulation extends less than 500 km² (AOO).
36235		habitat	eng	A coastal forest species.
36235		threats	eng	The southern population is threatened by mining.
36236		distribution	eng	A species that is widespread and relatively frequent in localised areas throughout west and north Madagascar.
36236		habitat	eng	Found in deciduous woodland.
36237		distribution	eng	It is confined to an area of less than 500 km² (AOO) in south-east Madagascar.
36237		habitat	eng	A transitional forest species between dry and humid vegetation.
36237		threats	eng	The area is under threat from development, exploitation and mining, and the remaining forest is already highly fragmented.
36238		conservation	eng	It occurs within some reserves such as Ankarafantsika.
36238		distribution	eng	A species of west and central Madagascar.
36238		habitat	eng	A widespread deciduous or evergreen species found in fragmented vegetation.  It can regenerate in secondary or disturbed vegetation.
36238		threats	eng	The extent of native vegetation is declining.
36239		distribution	eng	An important coastal forest species known from only two highly restricted localities in the northern tip of Madagascar near Irodo village. Its entire range is estimated to be just 10 km² (AOO) and only one site has been confirmed recently, on a small patch of highly specialised vegetation .
36239		threats	eng	Threatened by disturbance and exploitation. The site is not protected.
36240		conservation	eng	Both areas are reserves.
36240		distribution	eng	A deciduous species known only from the Bemaraha Massif and Namoroka in west Madagascar. It is confined to this very specialised habitat, which is of little interest for agriculture or exploitation.
36240		habitat	eng	Occurs on exposed limestone.
36241		distribution	eng	Widespread in central and west Madagascar.
36241		habitat	eng	Lowland or submontane woodland.
36241		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
36241		threats	eng	The remaining native vegetation is very fragmented and continues to decline.
36242		conservation	eng	Occurs within the protected Namoroka Reserve.
36242		distribution	eng	Ankara Plateau of west Madagascar. Its range is restricted to an estimated 400 km² (AOO) and areas outside the reserve are declining. It may now be restricted to a single locality within the reserve.
36242		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species restricted to limestone outcrops.
36243		conservation	eng	No protection exists in this area.
36243		distribution	eng	Known only from the small marble outcrops to the south of Amatofinandrahana on the eastern margin of the Itremo Massif in central Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be less than 10 km² (AOO).
36243		habitat	eng	A sclerophyllous woodland species.
36243		threats	eng	These areas are being actively mined for marble and the forest remnants are also being rapidly degraded.
36244		distribution	eng	Known from only two localities, occurs in the upper Mandrare River basin and Ihosy River valley of south-central Madagascar. Its range is restricted to an estimated 1,500 km² (area of occupancy).
36244		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland.
36244		threats	eng	The vegetation is highly fragmented and decreasing.
36245		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area of south and south-east Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 15,000 km² (extent of occurrence) and includes Andohahela Reserve (Parcelle 2).
36245		habitat	eng	A xerophytic scrub and woodland species.
36245		threats	eng	All vegetation in this area is fragmented and declining.
36246		distribution	eng	Confined to the Mahafaly Plateau between the Manombo River and Itambono Corridor, with an estimated range of 5,000 km² (EOO).
36246		habitat	eng	Scrubland species.
36246		threats	eng	The vegetation is fragmented, often disturbed and declining as a result of felling for charcoal and grazing.
36247		distribution	eng	Known only from Baie de Rigney and Baie d'Irodo forests in north-east Madagascar, with an estimated range of less than 10 km² (AOO).
36247		habitat	eng	A coastal forest and woodland species.
36247		threats	eng	These areas are under severe local pressure from selective cutting and degradation.
36248		conservation	eng	It occurs within Analamerana Reserve.
36248		distribution	eng	Known only from a very restricted area of north-east Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 250 km² (EOO) based mainly on old records, and is likely to be considerably smaller.
36248		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species.
36248		threats	eng	This species is declining through habitat destruction and selective cutting of its highly sought-after timber.
36249		conservation	eng	It is found within some reserves such as Ankarafantsika, Bemaraha and Namoroka.
36249		distribution	eng	Widespread but uncommon in west Madagascar. Its range extends an estimated 10,000 km² (AOO).
36249		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species.
36249		population	eng	A rapid decline is expected.
36249		threats	eng	Occurs within extremely fragmented and decreasing patches of vegetation. This species is selectively and intensively felled for its construction properties and for fuel.
36250		conservation	eng	No conservation measures exist.
36250		distribution	eng	Known only from a single recent collection, this species occurs in a highly populated area near a main road, south-east of Antsiranana in north Madagascar. Its range is probably considerably less than the estimated 100 km² (EOO), as there are very few remnants of native vegetation in the area.
36250		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland.
36250		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through development.
36251		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Ankarana Reserve.
36251		distribution	eng	Occurs in the northern tip of Madagascar: Montagne des Français and Ankarana Massif. Its estimated range is 100 km² (area of occupancy).
36251		habitat	eng	A deciduous species that is uncommon and restricted to two limestone outcrops.
36251		threats	eng	Selective and intensive felling for its favoured construction properties mean it is expected to decline rapidly.
36252		distribution	eng	An evergreen species last recorded over 40 years ago from a single very restricted area estimated to cover less than 10 km² at Tampoketsa d'Ankazobe in central Madagascar.
36252		threats	eng	The vegetation is extremely degraded and declining and few small remnant forested patches remain.
36253		distribution	eng	A widespread species in the north and east of Madagascar, with a substantial subpopulation in the coastal forest in the south-east, north of Taolañaro. The largest area of possible occurrence includes Andasibe/Perinet, Montagne d'Ambre and Mont Tsaratanana Reserves.
36253		habitat	eng	Evergreen, humid forest.
36253		population	eng	The subpopulation north of Taolañaro contains many individuals but will be felled for the RTZ (QIT) titanium mines in the near future, reducing the known population by at least 20%.
36253		threats	eng	Felling for the RTZ (QIT) titanium mines.
36254		distribution	eng	Known from only two localities in the Ankarana Massif and Montagne des Français in north Madagascar. Its range extends less than 300 km² (AOO).
36254		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland species in limestone areas.
36254		threats	eng	Subpopulations near Antsiranana are declining as a result of forest degradation and selective felling.
36255		distribution	eng	A very widespread and often frequent species of western Madagascar.
36255		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
36255		threats	eng	Although widespread, all vegetation in the area is fragmented and declining rapidly.
36256		distribution	eng	Occurs in Namoroka and Bemaraha in west Madagascar.
36256		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to limestone outcrops.
36256		population	eng	Covering an estimated 2,000 km² (AOO), the population is declining, especially in the northern extremity (Mahajunga), where it may now be extinct.
36257		distribution	eng	Confined to only four known localities, all in fragments of now very restricted (200 km² area of occupancy) and continually decreasing forest in eastern coastal Madagascar, near Toamasina.
36257		habitat	eng	A coastal, evergreen forest species.
36257		threats	eng	Trees are selectively felled for construction timber.
36258		conservation	eng	The Ankarana subpopulation is protected within the Ankarana Reserve.
36258		distribution	eng	Confined to the Ankarana Massif and around Antsiranana at the northern tip of Madagascar.
36258		habitat	eng	A rare deciduous woodland subspecies on limestone.
36258		population	eng	Covering an estimated 250 km² (AOO), most of the area is very fragmented and declining rapidly.
36259		distribution	eng	A rare and poorly known woodland species confined to the coastal plains of western Madagascar, with a known distribution of 20,000 km² (extent of occurrence). Vegetation in the area is already very fragmented and declining.
36260		conservation	eng	It may be included within Andohahela Reserve (Parcelle 2).
36260		distribution	eng	A species with an uncommon but relatively broad distribution in southern Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 15,000 km² (AOO) but is entirely fragmented and declining rapidly.
36260		habitat	eng	A xerophytic scrub and woodland species on non-calcareous substrates.
36260		threats	eng	The timber is selectively felled for construction purposes.
36261		conservation	eng	It is included within Namoroka and Ankarana Reserves.
36261		distribution	eng	Found in west and north Madagascar towards the coast and on limestone outcrops, covering a range of about 9,000 km² (AOO).
36261		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species.
36261		threats	eng	Selective logging takes place for fuelwood and construction purposes.
36262		conservation	eng	Exists within protected areas that are not imminently threatened.
36262		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout north, south and west regions of Madagascar.
36262		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland and forest species.
36262		population	eng	It is locally common.
36263		distribution	eng	Scattered and widespread distribution across west, south-west and south-east areas of Madagascar. Its distribution is similar to that of <em>D. boiviniana</em> and indeed it may not qualify as a separate species.
36263		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland species.
36264		distribution	eng	Restricted to a narrow strip near the coast of south and south-west Madagascar, the range of this species is extensive.
36264		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland.
36264		threats	eng	Occurs in areas under increasing threat from charcoal production. It is highly utilised locally.
36265		distribution	eng	Occurs commonly in the south-west and west of Madagascar.
36265		habitat	eng	A deciduous woodland species.
36265		threats	eng	Its main subpopulations are in areas of the south-west that are being increasingly reduced for charcoal production.
36266		conservation	eng	Occurs in a fairly inaccessible location within a reserve where it is not threatened.
36266		distribution	eng	Known only from a small population in west Madagascar.
36266		habitat	eng	Lowland deciduous woodland.
36266		population	eng	It was not recorded in a recent botanical survey.
36267		conservation	eng	Occurs within a reserve where exploitation is limited because of the area's remoteness.
36267		distribution	eng	Known only from a single herbarium specimen collected from Tsingy de Bemaraha in west Madagascar.
36267		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland.
36268		distribution	eng	Restricted mainly to south-west Madagascar.
36268		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland.
36268		population	eng	This species is uncommon where it occurs.
36268		threats	eng	Threatened by charcoal burning.
36269		distribution	eng	Known only from two subpopulations in south-west Madagascar, on La Table Hill, with a smaller subpopulation on the plateau above St Augustin.
36269		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas of xerophytic scrubland.
36269		threats	eng	Threats to La Table Hill subpopulation exist from road widening and the collection of mature individuals for the ornamental trade. Both subpopulations are susceptible to fires and neither is protected.
36270		distribution	eng	This deciduous species, previously known only from the type collected from the Ankara Plateau in the Boina, has recently been reported from a small population on the Ankarana Massif. Its location is very inaccessible and no recent survey has been done.
36270		threats	eng	Periodic fires on the Ankara Plateau are a threat.
36271		distribution	eng	Known from only a few small subpopulations in north Madagascar, the main locality of this species is Orangea Peninsula. It has been recorded once from a protected site at Ankarana.
36271		population	eng	A rare deciduous species.
36271		threats	eng	It is severely threatened by charcoal burning.
36273		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to northern Borneo.
36273		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest up to 800 m.
36301		conservation	eng	The species is given a degree of protection, where it occurs within the permanent forest estate.
36301		distribution	eng	Pahang (Cameron Highlands) and Kelantan (Gunung Stong).
36301		habitat	eng	A small tree inhabiting montane rainforest.
36302		distribution	eng	Confined to Kelantan.
36302		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
36302		population	eng	This rare species is known only from a single collection.
36303		distribution	eng	States of Pahang, Kelantan, Kedah, Perak and Selangor.
36303		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland and hills up to 610 m.
36304		conservation	eng	Subpopulations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36304		distribution	eng	Last collected in 1970, north of the Genting Highlands Casino complex and also found in the Cameron Highlands.
36304		habitat	eng	This small epiphytic tree occurs in montane forest and forest edges. It sometimes grows as a crown epiphyte, hence it is seldom collected and may be commoner than realised.
36304		threats	eng	Deforestation for human settlements, agriculture and tourism developments are the key threats.
36305		distribution	eng	All forms are highly localised. The first form is confined to the Cameron Highlands; the second form is from the Genting Highlands resort complex; and the third form occurs locally in Terangannu.
36305		population	eng	The Cameron Highlands form has been collected twice from an isolated area, most recently in 1938. The Genting Highlands form was last seen in 1977. The Terangannu form is known from five collections, the most recent dating from the 1960s.
36306		conservation	eng	Subpopulations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate in Perak and the Cameron Highlands in Pahang.
36306		habitat	eng	A rare large shrub or small tree found in montane cloud forest at about 1,370 m.
36307		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from one specimen collected in 1888 south of Ringlet. This remote locality has not been revisited.
36308		conservation	eng	Within permanent forest reserves however, the species is conserved.
36308		distribution	eng	This species is scattered throughout much of Peninsular Malaysia. Also found in Singapore and in Thailand and its range extends to Sarawak on Borneo (to Malaysia) and to Sumatra and Java (to Indonesia).
36308		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland and hill forest.
36308		threats	eng	Timber from the tree is traded on a minor international level, consequently felling activities by man are the main pressure exerted upon the species.
36310		conservation	eng	This species is common and conserved where it occurs.
36310		distribution	eng	Locally distributed in Langkawi and upper Pirea.
36310		habitat	eng	A species of hilly limestone.
36311		distribution	eng	Regeneration under the canopy of wet forests is reported to be profuse in Viet Nam, where it is known from Ninh Binh (Cuc Phuong National Park), Thanh Hoa and Lam Dong Provinces. Populations are localised in Peninsular Malaysia in Kelantan, Terengganu and Perak.
36311		habitat	eng	A large tree of primary forest, on valley and mountain slopes up to 330 m.
36312		conservation	eng	It receives protection within a national park and the permanent forest estate.
36312		distribution	eng	Found in Gunung Padang, Gunung Mandi Angin in Terengganu and Fraser's Hill, Gunung Ulu and the Kali/Genting Highlands in Pahang.
36312		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane and submontane rainforest.
36312		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
36313		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Peninsular Malaysia.
36313		habitat	eng	Montane forest up to 1,510 m.
36313		threats	eng	Infrastructural development.
36314		conservation	eng	Some areas receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36314		distribution	eng	Extending from the Cameron Highlands to Gunung Angsi and Gunung Panti in Johore. It is locally common on Gunung Inas and Gunung Jerai in Kedah.
36314		habitat	eng	A species found between 450 and 1,830 m.
36315		conservation	eng	Some localities receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36315		distribution	eng	The species is found in Perak, Pahang, Selangor and Johore.
36315		habitat	eng	Scattered in moist forest between 1,000 and 2,000 m.
36316		conservation	eng	The species is protected within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park and within the permanent forest estate.
36316		distribution	eng	State of Pahang.
36316		habitat	eng	Occurring in primary submontane to montane rainforest.
36317		conservation	eng	Populations are protected in the Taman Negara National Park and in the permanent forest estate.
36317		distribution	eng	Gunung Rabong in Kelantan, Gunung Bubu in Perak, Gunung Tahan in Pahang and on Gunung Blumut in Johore.
36317		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree, inhabiting moist forest between 1,000 and 2,000 m.
36318		conservation	eng	It receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36318		distribution	eng	Pahang and Terengganu.
36318		habitat	eng	A species inhabiting hill and mountain rainforest up to 1,070 m.
36319		conservation	eng	Protected populations are found within Taman Negara National Park and the permanent forest estate.
36319		distribution	eng	Perak in Gunung Bubu, Terengganu in Gunung Mandi Angin and Pahang  in the Cameron Highlands, Gunung Berebun.
36319		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane rainforest, distributed between 1,400 and 2,200 m.
36320		conservation	eng	One locality in Ulu Endau is protected within Endau Rompin National Park and the other in Gunung Panti is also a conserved area.
36320		distribution	eng	A relatively recently discovered species in Pahang and Johore.
36320		habitat	eng	Known from areas of rainforest between 500 and 700 m.
36320		population	eng	The full distribution and abundance of the species is still unknown.
36321		distribution	eng	Known only from Kuala Triang in Pahang.
36321		population	eng	The species has been collected only a single time from forest on the banks of the Pahang River.
36322		conservation	eng	The forest at Gunong Nuong is protected.
36322		distribution	eng	There are two main subpopulations; one in mountain forest at Gunong Nuong in Selangor and the other in lowland seasonal swamp in south-east Johore.
36322		habitat	eng	A species of mountain forest and lowland seasonal swamp.
36322		threats	eng	The Johore subpopulation is being deforested for the construction of resorts and it is doubtful that the species will survive there.
36323		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree inhabiting montane rainforest.
36323		threats	eng	Some localities are being cleared for agriculture despite being contained within the permanent forest estate.
36324		distribution	eng	Langkawi and Perak. It is unclear whether the species occurs in Peninsular Thailand or not.
36324		habitat	eng	A small to medium-sized tree occurring mainly in limestone hill forest.
36324		threats	eng	Threatened by increasing settlement and logging.
36325		conservation	eng	Populations are conserved in production and protected forests throughout the country.
36325		distribution	eng	Widely distributed.
36325		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland and submontane forest.
36325		threats	eng	The species might be synonymous with <em>G. rostrata</em>.
36326		distribution	eng	Although confined to the limestone hills of north Malaya, this species is commonly found within such areas.
36326		habitat	eng	A primary regenerations species of limestone hills.  Distribution occurs within a narrow elevation band of approximately 100 m.
36327		conservation	eng	Conservation of the species occurs within forest reserve areas.
36327		distribution	eng	Scattered from the north to the south of Malaya.
36327		habitat	eng	A species of lowland forest that is cultivated in villages for it's fruit.
36327		threats	eng	Cultivation is on a small scale, generally for local use only, with agricultural pressures being a serious threat.
36328		distribution	eng	Known only from Ulu Bera in Perak, a single collection of this small tree was made in the last century.
36328		threats	eng	It is uncertain whether the collection locality is still forested as there has been much settlement and forest clearance in the area.
36329		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Ulu Bubong Hills.
36329		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36329		population	eng	This tree has been collected twice only.
36330		distribution	eng	Known from very few collections from Pahang and Johore.
36330		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest.
36330		threats	eng	Threatened by land conversion for agriculture.
36331		conservation	eng	The species is conserved in the protected forests of Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor.
36331		distribution	eng	Occurring within most Peninsular Malaysia states.
36331		habitat	eng	A tropical tree species of mountain forests and low hills.
36332		conservation	eng	There is hope that the species receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36332		distribution	eng	A tree confined to the states of Terengganu and Pahang.
36332		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36332		population	eng	It is known only from a few herbarium specimens.
36333		distribution	eng	Common in Kedah, Penang, Perak and Selangor.
36333		habitat	eng	A tropical montane forest species.
36333		threats	eng	The species is conserved within the protected forests of Kedah, Penang, Perak and Selangor.
36334		conservation	eng	The species may receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36334		distribution	eng	Confined to the State of Perak.
36334		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
36335		conservation	eng	In the future, this tree is expected to be conserved within permanent and protected forests.
36335		distribution	eng	Distributed in Perak, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor.
36335		habitat	eng	A primary forest species of lowland to mountain forests.
36335		threats	eng	Used as a timber source on a local and national trade level, pressures are therefore exerted on the species as a result of felling activities.
36336		conservation	eng	The species may receive a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves.
36336		distribution	eng	A scattered tree confined to Johore.
36336		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
36336		threats	eng	Most of the lowland forest has been cleared for agriculture in this region.
36337		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in the permanent forest reserves of these states, are expected in the future.
36337		distribution	eng	A widely distributed species found in Terengganu, Pahang and Selangor.
36337		habitat	eng	A lowland species.
36337		threats	eng	Pressures from logging activities are a threat to the species, with harvested timber traded on a local and national level.
36338		conservation	eng	It may receive a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves or virgin jungle reserves.
36338		distribution	eng	Recorded from Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang by a single collection from each state.
36338		habitat	eng	The species grows in lowland forest between the altitudes of 30 and 60 m.
36339		conservation	eng	The species is believed to be protected in permanent forest reserves and/or Taman Negara National Park.
36339		distribution	eng	Collections originate from Pahang and Perak.
36339		population	eng	A hill forest tree known only from two collections.
36340		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single collection from Penare Bukit, Penang at about 300 m.
36340		population	eng	Most parts of Penang have been developed since the collection was made, so the species' existence is uncertain.
36340		threats	eng	Development.
36354		distribution	eng	A newly described species, known only from two collections, found in Selangor and Negri Sembilan.
36354		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
36355		conservation	eng	This species is expected to be conserved within the productive forest reserves of Pahang and Perak.
36355		distribution	eng	Subpopulations have been recorded within Pahang and Perak.
36355		habitat	eng	Tropical, lowland/hill species, occurring in primary forest.
36356		conservation	eng	The species is conserved within the protected forests of Perak, Pahang and Johor.
36356		distribution	eng	Commonly found in the states of Perak, Pahang and Johor.
36356		habitat	eng	A tree of montane or submontane environments.
36357		distribution	eng	Confined to Perak and Pahang.
36357		habitat	eng	Mountain forest.
36357		population	eng	A rare species.
36358		conservation	eng	In the future, the species is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of the previously mentioned states.
36358		distribution	eng	Found within the states of Kedah, Perak and Selangor.
36358		habitat	eng	A species of hill forest and lowlands.  Distribution begins at an altitude of 300 meters.
36359		distribution	eng	Known only from Penang Hill.
36359		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36359		population	eng	This rare species may be extinct as most of Penang has been developed.
36359		threats	eng	Forest destruction because of development.
36360		conservation	eng	Conservation of the species occurs in two protected forests in the state of Pahang.
36360		distribution	eng	Widely distributed within the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill areas in Pahang.
36360		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
36361		conservation	eng	Within the protected forests of Perak and Pahang, the species is conserved.
36361		distribution	eng	Perak and Pahang.
36361		habitat	eng	A montane forest species
36361		population	eng	Locally abundant.
36362		conservation	eng	Within the protected forests of these states, the tree is protected.
36362		distribution	eng	Found scattered within Kedah, Selangor, Pahang and the Langkawi islands.
36362		habitat	eng	A species of mountain and hill forests.
36363		distribution	eng	Collected from Taiping, Perak.
36363		habitat	eng	The species was found in lowland forest.
36363		population	eng	Known only by a single collection.
36364		distribution	eng	Known only from Penang Hill, a conservation area.
36364		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland forest.
36365		distribution	eng	Collected from Temengor, Perak.
36365		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36365		population	eng	A single collection of this species has been made. Some forest remains around Temengor, in which the species may survive.
36365		threats	eng	There has been much forest conversion for agriculture and it is uncertain whether the species still exists.
36366		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taiping near Maxwell's Hills, which is a conservation area.
36366		distribution	eng	Confined to the states of Perak and Kelantan.
36366		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
36366		population	eng	This species has been collected only a few times.
36366		threats	eng	Agriculture is a threat.
36367		conservation	eng	Conserved within the protected forests of these states.
36367		distribution	eng	Kedah, Penang, Perak, Pahang and Kelantan.
36367		habitat	eng	A tropical tree frequently found in the hill and mountain forests.
36367		population	eng	An abundant species.
36368		distribution	eng	Collected from Perak.
36368		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
36368		population	eng	Collected only once. The locality is no longer forested but there is a possibility that subpopulations have survived in surrounding areas.
36369		conservation	eng	The species is conserved within the permanent forest reserves where it is found.
36369		distribution	eng	Located in most states of Peninsular Malaysia.
36369		habitat	eng	A lowland tree
36369		population	eng	A commonly occurring species.
36370		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves of these states the species is conserved.
36370		distribution	eng	Found within the states of Kedah, Perak and Negeri Sembilan.
36370		habitat	eng	A lowland, tropical tree species of lowland and hill forest.
36371		distribution	eng	Confined to Gunung Terai in Kedah.
36371		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in montane forest at 1,000 m.
36372		conservation	eng	The locality is within a protected forest.
36372		distribution	eng	Known only from Gunong Batu Puteh in Perak.
36372		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
36372		population	eng	This tree is known from a single collection.
36373		distribution	eng	Endemic to Langkawi Island.
36373		habitat	eng	Lowland seasonal forest.
36373		population	eng	This species is known only from a single collection.
36373		threats	eng	Langkawi Island is being rapidly developed as a tourist resort.
36374		conservation	eng	Mountain forests are protected forests in Peninsular Malaysia.
36374		distribution	eng	Confined to the Cameron Highlands in Pahang.
36374		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
36375		conservation	eng	Maxwell's Hill is a protected area.
36375		distribution	eng	Recorded only from Maxwell's Hill in Perak.
36375		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in montane forest.
36376		distribution	eng	This tree is found in both Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.
36376		habitat	eng	Inhabiting primary hill rainforest.
36377		distribution	eng	Confined to the lowlands of Perak.
36377		threats	eng	This small understorey species is principally threatened by increasing settlement.
36378		distribution	eng	Confined to the Kluang Forest Reserve in the state of Johor.
36378		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland moist areas.
36378		threats	eng	The principal threat to remaining populations is logging.
36379		distribution	eng	North-west Peninsular Malaysia.
36379		habitat	eng	This rare species is a small tree confined to lowland tropical rainforest.
36380		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas, such as national parks and forest reserves.
36380		distribution	eng	Not restricted in range.
36380		habitat	eng	A hill forest species.
36382		distribution	eng	Maxwell Hill, Taiping, in the state of Perak.
36382		habitat	eng	This tree grows up to 16 m tall and is confined to upper hill forest.
36383		habitat	eng	A small, rare tree of lowland rainforest.
36384		conservation	eng	The species is afforded protection in Taman Negara National Park.
36384		distribution	eng	The species is recorded in Kelantan, Terengganu, Perak and Pahang.
36384		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree inhabiting forested ridge tops between 700 and 2,100 m.
36385		conservation	eng	The species is conserved within the permanent and protected forests of Malaya.
36385		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
36385		habitat	eng	A tropical moist species, located in primary forest throughout lowland and montane areas.
36385		population	eng	A common species.
36385		threats	eng	The tree is threatened by logging activities, with harvested timber being traded on a local and national level.
36386		conservation	eng	The locality is thought to be contained within the protected forests of Perak State.
36386		distribution	eng	Collected from Gunong Batu Puteh in Perak.
36386		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
36386		population	eng	A single collection of this species was made.
36387		conservation	eng	Both localities lie within the boundaries of protected forest reserves.
36387		distribution	eng	Known from Bukit Kutu, Selangor, and Raka Hill Forest Reserve, Pahang.
36387		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland and hill rainforest.
36388		conservation	eng	This species is conserved in protected forests throughout Malaysia.
36388		habitat	eng	A primary, open forest species that is confined to the summits and ridges of mountain forests.
36389		distribution	eng	This endemic tree is found in the states of Perak, Terengganu and Selangor.
36389		habitat	eng	Lowland primary forest between 75 and 450 m, often along stream banks and on moist ground.
36389		threats	eng	Habitat losses have resulted from logging and increasing settlement.
36390		conservation	eng	Believed to be sufficiently well contained in protective forests within the permanent forest estate.
36390		distribution	eng	The species is not restricted in range.
36390		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of submontane primary rainforest.
36390		threats	eng	Some parts of the range are still affected by increasing settlement and agriculture.
36391		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are protected within national and state parks.
36391		distribution	eng	States of Pahang and Johore.
36391		habitat	eng	A species of primary hill forest, occurring up to 1,000 m.
36391		threats	eng	There are few pressures on the species or habitat.
36392		distribution	eng	This endemic species occurs in the states of Perak, Kelantan and Pahang.
36392		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland primary forest, often on ridges.
36392		threats	eng	Logging has caused habitat declines.
36393		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Perak.
36393		habitat	eng	A primary species of lowland evergreen rainforest.
36393		threats	eng	Habitat reductions have been caused by logging and conversion to agriculture.
36394		distribution	eng	Collected from Endau State Park, Johore.
36394		habitat	eng	On a ridge top in hill forest at 180 m alt.
36394		population	eng	This species is known from only one collection.
36395		conservation	eng	It is protected in Taman Negara National Park.
36395		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded in Selangor, Pahang and Johore.
36395		habitat	eng	A species of lowland and hill forest, rarely reaching an altitude of 900 m, occasionally found on quartz ridges.
36396		distribution	eng	Mt. Oplur in Johore State.
36396		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to hill forest.
36397		conservation	eng	The area is contained within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.
36397		distribution	eng	Mt. Tahan in the state of Pehang.
36397		habitat	eng	A rare shrub or small tree, confined to montane rainforest.
36398		distribution	eng	A species which occurs throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
36398		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forests up to 900 m.
36399		distribution	eng	Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca.
36399		habitat	eng	A late secondary and primary species found in lowland open rainforest
36400		conservation	eng	Some localities lie within the wildlife sanctuary in the Cameron Highlands.
36400		distribution	eng	This tree can be found in Kedah, Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore.
36400		habitat	eng	A species of lowland open and closed rainforest on sandy soils.
36401		conservation	eng	It receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
36401		distribution	eng	Kedah, Perak and Pahang.
36401		habitat	eng	This rare tree inhabits cloud forest between 1,500 and 2,000 m.
36402		habitat	eng	An endemic tree most common in hill forest.
36403		distribution	eng	A subpopulation occurs at the north of  Lake Nyasa, the Tanzanian part of Lake Malawi, and the species is believed to range into northern Malawi.
36403		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
36404		distribution	eng	A distinct variant of an East African endemic. It has a restricted range in northern Tanzania. Specimens from northern Kenya previously placed here are now known as var. <em>borenensis</em>.
36404		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest.
36405		distribution	eng	From south-east Kenya to Tanzania.
36405		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub confined to patches of dry coastal forest.
36406		distribution	eng	There are subpopulations in parts of eastern Tanzania and Malawi.
36406		habitat	eng	A species of moist forest of medium to high elevations.
36407		distribution	eng	Known from Mafia Island and parts of south-east Tanzania.
36407		habitat	eng	This sometimes scandent small tree or shrub occurs in dry coastal forest or bushland.
36408		conservation	eng	The Rondo Plateau is protected by the activities of a forest management programme.
36408		distribution	eng	Currently the species is known only from Mlinguru forest. This area has not been visited recently but, if it still exists, it is believed to be 10–20 km from Lindi. Specimens that possibly represent the same species have been found on the Rondo Plateau, 140 km² of mostly disturbed forest.
36409		conservation	eng	In the Rondo Plateau, the little remaining undisturbed forest is protected in a reserve with an active forest management programme, which discourages any illegal activities or encroachment.
36409		distribution	eng	In Tanzania two populations are known. One is recorded in the Rondo Plateau, the other population is found at the Mozambique border at Kitangari. The species is also found in Mozambique.
36409		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub or small tree. occurs in patches of dry coastal forest.
36410		distribution	eng	The type collection was made a century ago in the north-west of the country.
36410		population	eng	The species has not been collected since the type collection was made.
36417		distribution	eng	A species restricted to West Java.
36417		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
36418		habitat	eng	Found on well-drained undulating land, this variety grows in lowland dipterocarp forest.
36433		distribution	eng	During the comprehensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in only three localities in Kegalle and Ratnapura.
36433		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lower montane forest.
36434		population	eng	This small tree is known only from the type collection. It did not turn up during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36435		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from Gilimale forest in Ratnapura District.
36435		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36436		population	eng	A single tree was found in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
36437		population	eng	A spindly tree, known only from the type locality. This species did not turn up during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36438		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an area of river bank on a tributary of the Kelani River.
36438		population	eng	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36439		population	eng	This species was found only once in Haycock Biosphere Reserve during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36440		population	eng	This small tree was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36441		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
36441		population	eng	This dipterocarp was known from Kanneliya and Hinidumkande, however, it was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.
36442		distribution	eng	Known from four localities. In Nigeria, it exists only on the Obudu Plateau in Cross Rivers National Park, where it is confined to forested valleys. In Cameroon, the species is restricted to the west, at sites near Obang, Limbe and Ediki.
36442		habitat	eng	A rainforest treelet.
36442		threats	eng	Damage to the habitat is incurred from frequent fires and also from encroaching agriculture, especially banana plantations but also subsistence farming.
36443		distribution	eng	Near Libreville. The species distribution may be more extensive given that Gabon's forests are relatively unexplored.
36443		habitat	eng	This treelet has been collected in rainforest.
36443		threats	eng	The habitat is degraded where there has been logging. Most areas are under concession to timber companies and their future remains uncertain.
36444		habitat	eng	Closed forest.
36444		population	eng	Known only from two collections. Further collecting may extend the distribution.
36444		threats	eng	There is concern about logging and the extent to which forest areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.
36445		habitat	eng	A species of semi-deciduous forests.
36445		population	eng	Known only from two collections. It is possible that further collecting may extend the distribution.
36445		threats	eng	There is concern over logging and the extent to which forest areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.
36446		distribution	eng	Occurring in two nearby locations in the Sierra Lamata.
36446		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
36447		distribution	eng	Records of three localities have been made within a small area in the department of La Paz. Two of these are over 100 years old.
36447		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36447		threats	eng	The extent of the forest in this area has declined because of widespread fires, encroaching farming activities and cutting for wood and charcoal production.
36448		distribution	eng	Confined to a small number of localities, all from the La Paz region.
36448		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36448		threats	eng	The extent of forest has been reduced by increasing fires, encroaching farming activities and cutting for wood and charcoal production.
36449		distribution	eng	Known from several localities in La Paz and Cochabamba in Bolivia, extending into Cusco, Peru. Of the six Bolivian collections four were made in 1866.
36449		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36449		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and local exploitation and burning of forested areas have caused a decline in the habitat.
36450		distribution	eng	Probably only two localities exist where this species occurs. One is in Chuquisaca and the other in Santa Cruz, mainly in Samaipata.
36450		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
36450		threats	eng	Forest in this area has declined or  become degraded because of heavy exploitation for wood and the encroachment of farming activities.
36451		distribution	eng	Known from three localities: Cordillera Vilcabamba in Cusco, Pan de Azúcar and Tumango
36451		habitat	eng	An elfin or cloud forest species.
36451		threats	eng	Encroachment of farming activities, burning and overcutting for wood and charcoal production are causing widespread degradation of forested areas.
36452		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities in Magdalena, Risaralda, Cundinamarca and Valle regions of Columbia.
36452		habitat	eng	Occurring in cloud forest.
36453		distribution	eng	Known from four localities in the Azuay and Loja regions of Ecuador.
36453		habitat	eng	A small cloud forest species.
36453		population	eng	The populations may be more seriously threatened but fieldwork is needed to give an accurate assessment of their status.
36454		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in various localities in central Antioquia.
36454		habitat	eng	Occurring in cloud forest.
36454		population	eng	Nowhere is it found to be common.
36455		distribution	eng	It is known from five localities, in Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha (Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve) and Tangurahua.
36455		habitat	eng	Primary or secondary cloud forest.
36455		population	eng	Some of the collections date back over 100 years and fieldwork is needed to evaluate the current situation.
36456		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36456		population	eng	Although relatively widespread in areas of cloud forest, this species is rare wherever it occurs.
36456		threats	eng	In most of its range the habitat has been degraded or destroyed through burning and encroaching agriculture.
36457		distribution	eng	Several localities, all in the department of La Paz.
36457		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36457		threats	eng	Cloud forest has suffered from the encroachment of agriculture and farming activities, burning and overcutting for wood or charcoal production.
36458		conservation	eng	It occurs within the Canaima National Park.
36458		distribution	eng	A small tree collected from several localities on the Chimantá Massif in the Bolíar region.
36458		habitat	eng	Summit savannah.
36459		conservation	eng	Its range is contained within Sipapo Forest Reserve.
36459		distribution	eng	A small tree known from only two localities on the summits of Cerro Sipapo and Cerro Autana (a single collection) in Amazonas State.
36459		habitat	eng	Low forests and thickets.
36460		conservation	eng	The area is a Natural Monument within La Paragua Forest Reserve.
36460		distribution	eng	It is known from various localities on the summit and slopes of a single mountain, Cerro Guaquinima, in Bolívar.
36460		habitat	eng	Swampy flats or savannah on mountain summit and slopes.
36461		conservation	eng	Found within national park boundaries.
36461		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities on the summit plateau and slopes of a single mountain, Cerro de la Neblina inside Serranía de la Neblina National Park, Amazonas State.
36462		conservation	eng	Within national park boundaries.
36462		distribution	eng	Known from three <em>tepui</em> summits in Bolívar State: Ilu-tepui, Yuruaní-tepui and Sierra de Lema, all of which are contained within the borders of Canaima National Park.
36462		habitat	eng	Woodland species.
36462		threats	eng	Mining and tourism threaten habitats at lower elevations.
36463		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in exposed summit areas at Roraima, Wokomung and Ayanganna.
36463		habitat	eng	Exposed summit areas.
36464		distribution	eng	Region of west Eritrea, Tigray and Gonder.
36464		habitat	eng	It is a dominant component of <em>Combretum-Terminalia</em> woodland and wooded grassland.
36464		threats	eng	Factors of agricultural expansion and increasing human activities are causing declines and degradation of the habitat.
36465		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a relatively small range covering west Eritrea, north-west Ethiopia and adjacent areas of Sudan.
36465		habitat	eng	<em>Combretum-Terminalia</em> woodland.
36465		population	eng	Reported to be often common.
36465		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and human activities are causing declines in the extent of this habitat in the area.
36466		distribution	eng	Type collection from the boundary area between Bale and Harerge.
36466		habitat	eng	Dense bushland.
36466		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
36467		distribution	eng	It is known only from the type locality in Bale.
36467		habitat	eng	Bushland.
36468		distribution	eng	A bushy tree known only from two disjunct localities, one in Wogera, on the Maye-Borhha Plateau in Tigray, and another in Choa in Shewa.
36468		habitat	eng	Beside streams.
36468		population	eng	It has not been collected recently.
36469		distribution	eng	The species apparently occurs disjunctly, with subpopulations in eastern Eritrea and in Illubabor in the west of Ethiopia. It is also reported in Sudan.
36469		habitat	eng	Lowland wooded grasslands.
36470		distribution	eng	Three localities in Kefa, Gamo Gofa and Sidamo regions are known.
36470		habitat	eng	The species occurs in <em>Combretum-Terminalia</em> woodland.
36471		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree endemic to the lower Tana River.
36471		habitat	eng	Occurs in areas of riverine forest or woodland.
36472		distribution	eng	A variety endemic to Zanzibar Island.
36472		habitat	eng	It occurs in small areas of moist semi-deciduous forest.
36473		distribution	eng	A narrow-leaf form of a widespread species. It is found on the Zimbabwe/Mozambique border and also on Mt. Mulanje in Malawi.
36473		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
36474		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
36474		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
36475		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
36475		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
36476		conservation	eng	No conservation or protection measures are in place in any part of the species' range.
36476		distribution	eng	Populations are scattered in central to northern parts of Taiwan.
36476		habitat	eng	Submontane broadleaved forest.
36476		threats	eng	Declines in numbers have been caused by the illegal digging up of whole trees for the trade in ornamental plants.
36477		conservation	eng	There is a subpopulation in Lopé Forest Reserve, a portion of which has become Gabon's first national park.
36477		distribution	eng	It is confined to remaining areas of coastal forest in the south of Cameroon, extending into Gabon. It is also locally common in the rabi-Kounga area.
36477		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
36478		distribution	eng	A small tree limited to two localities in mountainous areas in the east and central south. The species may be found to be more widespread, given that large areas of Gabon's forests are unexplored.
36478		threats	eng	These areas are also largely under concession to logging companies.
36479		distribution	eng	In southern Cameroon. One subpopulation is also known in central south Gabon.
36479		habitat	eng	The tree is known to occur in coastal forest extending inland along rivers.
36479		threats	eng	Both areas of forest have been heavily degraded in places where there have been logging and agricultural activities.
36480		distribution	eng	A newly described species which is known only from an area near Mbel. It may be more widespread given that Gabon's forests are relatively unexplored.
36480		threats	eng	Most areas of forest are now concessioned off to logging companies.
36481		population	eng	The population in the wild is unknown. The species is known only from herbarium specimens.
36482		population	eng	The wild population remains unknown. The species is known only from herbarium specimens.
36483		distribution	eng	Described in 1994 from Kitulanghalo Forest Reserve in the Morogoro region.
36483		habitat	eng	This small tree is confined to dry evergreen forest, characterised by the frequency of <em>Euphorbia</em> and <em>Encephalartos</em>.
36484		distribution	eng	This species was first described in 1994. It is known from two localities: Mafia Island and the Selous Game Reserve.
36484		habitat	eng	It occurs in patches of forest, woody savannah or <em>Brachystegia</em> thicket.
36485		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Belinga Mts. Several other restricted-range variants of this species exist because of the tendency for variable characteristics to stabilise when populations become isolated.
36485		threats	eng	The vegetation in some areas is degraded by agricultural encroachment.
36486		distribution	eng	This variety is known only from the type locality in the Forestier Central. Several other restricted-range variants of this species exist because of the tendency of variable characteristics to stabilise when populations become isolated.
36487		conservation	eng	Heightened protection of remaining forest at the Bakossi Forest Reserve may help to preserve this taxon. Further botanical inventory work in lowland sites, such as the neighbouring Loum Forest Reserve, may reveal further populations; care should be taken to accurately identify all future collections of <em>S. lehmbachii</em> to variety level.
36487		distribution	eng	This variety is localised in the remaining protected forests in the Oban Hills (Cross River State, Nigeria), and is also found in Cameroon (S.W. Province):  Bakossi Forest Reserve (1 coll.), 15km S. of Akwaya (1 coll.), and in the S. Province: S. of Ebolowa (3 coll.). <br/> <br/><em>Salacia lehmbachii sensu lato</em> is distributed from Sierre Leone to Tanzania; the complex comprises seven varieties of which var. <em>pes-ranulae</em> is both the most localised in distribution and the most distinct morphologically. Several restricted range variants of this species exist because of the tendency for variable characteristics to stabilise when populations become isolated.
36487		habitat	eng	Occurs in dense lowland forest understorey, 450–700 m alt.
36487		threats	eng	Forests outside protected areas have been extensively felled and cleared for agriculture. There is continued loss of lowland forest throughout the species range, particularly in Cross River State, Nigeria and the forests of South Province, Cameroon. Illegal encroachment of agriculture into the Bakossi Forest Reserve, facilitated by European Community road building, threatens this population.
36488		distribution	eng	Known from six sites, this newly described species is confined to a small area in central-southern Bahia.
36488		habitat	eng	It can occur as a climbing shrub or a treelet in semi-deciduous forest.
36489		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, which is known only from and probably endemic to the Grao Mogol in Minas Gerais.
36489		habitat	eng	It occurs scattered amongst rocks in campo rupestre.
36490		distribution	eng	This is the only species of the genus in India. It is endemic to Great Nicobar Island where it is found on the north to south road near South Bay.
36490		habitat	eng	Forested slopes.
36490		population	eng	It is a rare species.
36490		threats	eng	There is evidence of insect damage on the flowers.
36491		distribution	eng	A newly described genus, endemic to Rossel Island in the Louisiade Archipelago. The area was thickly forested a century ago.
36492		distribution	eng	A newly described species occurring in the Monteverde and Heredia Biological Reserve in Costa Rica and from areas along Río San Juan near Caño Chontaleño in Nicaragua.
36492		habitat	eng	Cloud forest.
36493		distribution	eng	A distinctive small tree known from one location in the Uruçua municipality of Bahia.
36494		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities immediately to the east and south of the Chimanimani Mts. in western Mozambique.
36494		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of moist deciduous woodland at about 600 m.
36494		population	eng	Although this area is largely unexplored and further subpopulations may be found, the species distribution is very restricted and the populations are unprotected and small, one locality containing in the region of 20 individuals.
36494		threats	eng	This woodland type is being extensively destroyed throughout south and central Africa.
36495		distribution	eng	A newly described species from Morapitiya and Kanneliya Forest Reserves.
36495		habitat	eng	Lowland dipterocarp forest.
36495		threats	eng	In some places logging is threatening the habitat.
36498		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree, newly described and known only from the type collection in Pico das Almas.
36498		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree in secondary vegetation at the edge of forest.
36499		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area stretching from northern Zambia to Shaba Province in Democratic Republic of Congo.
36499		habitat	eng	Occurring in <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland on lake shores or river terraces, often on termite hills.
36500		distribution	eng	A few localities are known in the region of Kuching. All forms of this species are restricted in range.
36500		habitat	eng	The taxon occurs in primary lowland forest.
36501		distribution	eng	A tree of Sarawak occurring in a number of localities in Lundu District. All the forms of this species are restricted in range.
36501		habitat	eng	Hill forest.
36502		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, this newly described subspecies is found in Sumatra.
36502		habitat	eng	Lowland ridge forest.
36503		distribution	eng	A newly described species known from Gunung Leuser National Park in Sumatra.
36503		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest and mossy forest.
36505		distribution	eng	Mindanao, Mindoro, Luzon and possibly Sibuyan.
36505		habitat	eng	A tree found in remaining upland forest.
36506		distribution	eng	It was collected from Tayabas on Luzon.
36506		population	eng	This variety is very poorly known and the status of any remaining subpopulations in the wild is completely unknown.
36507		distribution	eng	This small tree is recorded in Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and one location in Kalimantan.
36507		habitat	eng	Occurring in open shrubland.
36508		distribution	eng	It was collected in 1919 from two small islands, Bucas Grande and Dinagrat, off the north-east tip of Mindanao.
36508		population	eng	Little is known about the present status of this lowland species.
36509		distribution	eng	Known only from Peninsular Malaysia, this species is probably endemic to Fraser's Hill in Pahang. A more serious threat category may be appropriate pending further information.
36509		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
36510		conservation	eng	The area has national park status.
36510		distribution	eng	Type collection from Mt. Apo on Mindanao. Other specimens from Leyte Island are similar but more material is needed to confirm they are the same species.
36510		habitat	eng	Steep sloping forest.
36510		population	eng	A tree only definitely known from the 1909 type collection. The mountain has been relatively well-visited.
36510		threats	eng	Shifting cultivation and illegal logging continue to take place.
36511		distribution	eng	A New Guinea endemic recorded from a few locations.
36511		population	eng	It has not been collected in recent years.
36512		conservation	eng	Occur in protected area.
36512		distribution	eng	A small tree known from one location in Mt. Kinabalu National Park.
36512		habitat	eng	Scrubby forest.
36513		distribution	eng	Known from just two collections, this species occurs in Tutong District in Brunei and in Sarawak.
36513		habitat	eng	Near river banks in valley forest.
36514		distribution	eng	A newly described species known only from the type collection. It occurs along Bot River in Merauke District.
36515		distribution	eng	A species known from one location on Simalue Island, north-west Sumatra.
36515		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
36516		distribution	eng	A forest tree restricted to a few locations in  Java and Bali.
36517		distribution	eng	A tree known from Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.
36517		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
36517		population	eng	It has not been collected since 1929.
36518		distribution	eng	Kalimantan and the Mt. Kinabalu region in Sabah.
36518		habitat	eng	Montane forest tree.
36519		distribution	eng	The type locality is in the Cuernos Mts.
36519		population	eng	A subspecies known only from the type locality, where it was collected in 1908. New information may indicate that the species is extinct or that a more serious threat category is appropriate.
36520		distribution	eng	A tree that is found in Mindoro, Negros and Mindanao.
36520		habitat	eng	Damp montane forest habitats.
36521		distribution	eng	The type locality is in Zamboanga District in Mindanao.
36521		habitat	eng	Monsoon forest.
36521		population	eng	This subspecies is known only from its type locality, from where it was collected at the beginning of the century.
36521		threats	eng	The monsoon forest here has been almost completely degraded.
36522		distribution	eng	Recently found and described, this tree is known only from in Dumoga Bone National Park.
36522		habitat	eng	Lower montane forest.
36524		distribution	eng	A variant known only from the type locality in the Moluccas.
36524		habitat	eng	In thinned-out forest at the sides of a river.
36524		population	eng	It is said to be common where it occurs.
36525		distribution	eng	A lowland tree known only from a relatively recent collection made on a ridge top in Morowali in north-east Sulawesi.
36526		distribution	eng	Collected from Minahasa, north Sulawesi. There are reports from the early part of the century that it was planted and protected as a sacred tree. New information may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate.
36526		population	eng	A tree known only from one collection.
36527		distribution	eng	A Sulawesi endemic known only from Minahasa.
36528		distribution	eng	An evergreen tree, apparently restricted to a single location in forest on Cerro Avila in north Venezuela.
36529		distribution	eng	Endemic to the coastal forest of Bahía.
36529		population	eng	This small evergreen tree is little known and rare.
36530		distribution	eng	Presumed to be an evergreen tree, collected from Minas Gerais.
36530		population	eng	This species was collected only once, over a century ago.
36531		distribution	eng	A tree known only from one location along Río Marañón in the Amazonas region of Peru.
36532		distribution	eng	A relatively wide ranging species of Malaya. It is also cultivated in Ecuador as an ornamental tree.
36532		habitat	eng	A deciduous species occurring only in remnants of semi-deciduous forest, often on hillsides.
36533		distribution	eng	Found in south-east coastal Brazil.
36533		habitat	eng	An evergreen species found in rainforest, often near rivers.
36533		population	eng	It is well collected which may indicate that it is common.
36533		threats	eng	It is restricted to a habitat which has been extensively destroyed.
36534		distribution	eng	Collected from remnant forest in Rio de Janeiro state.
36534		population	eng	A small tree which has been collected only once, over 50 years ago.
36535		distribution	eng	A species with a very local distribution. It was once well collected, probably because of its proximity to the city of Rio de Janeiro.
36535		population	eng	It does not appear to have been collected this century.
36536		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside the Parque Nacional Machalilla.
36536		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's dry coastal forest (in Guayas, Loja, Manabí and El Oro provinces). Described in 1991 from a poor-quality type collection collected in Portovelo in 1923. In 1993 the species was rediscovered in the Río Ayampe watershed, inside and close to the southern border of the Parque Nacional Machalilla. Other records are from the Quemazones creek of the Bosque Petrificado Puyango; from the Cerro Montecristi (a single tree); and in forest patches along the road 8 km from Bahía de Caráquez (four trees).
36536		habitat	eng	A rare deciduous tree found in dry coastal forest to lower montane coast (0–1,000 m).
36536		population	eng	Its estimated population is under 500 individuals.
36536		threats	eng	Threatened by logging, anthropogenic fires and ongoing habitat destruction. The the native vegetation at the type locality has been destroyed by deforestation and mining. Even inside the Parque Nacional Machalilla, the species is logged (X. Cornejo, pers. obs.).
36537		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bahia in Brazil, the species is presently known from just two locations. Evidence suggests that the species is unusual for its family in possibly being dioecious.
36537		habitat	eng	Campo rupestre or in sandy grassland.
36538		distribution	eng	A newly described forest species, known only from Rondônia in Brazil.
36539		distribution	eng	A large tree, relatively poorly known but distributed over a relatively large area from Pakistan to Western China. It was once common in the Western Himalayas.
36539		habitat	eng	Usually found in open grassy places and in moist patches of broadleaved forest.
36539		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the timber for commercial and local use has caused a decline in population numbers. Seeds and plants are also present in the ornamental trade.
36540		distribution	eng	This subspecies is recognised as a species in China. It is recorded infrequently in the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan and also in Guangdong.
36540		threats	eng	Apparently valuable as a timber, the species is threatened with overcutting and loss of habitat.
36541		conservation	eng	<em>A. yangjuech</em> subpopulation is given protection from felling or damage.
36541		distribution	eng	A forest tree known from two main subpopulations which occur disjunctly and were previously known under two different species names, <em>A. miaotaiense</em> and ,<em>A. yangjuechi</em>. The former is confined to the Qinling and Bashan Mountains. The second subpopulation contains two individuals on Xitianmu Mountain. To the east in Zhejiang.
36541		threats	eng	<em>A. miaotaiense</em> subpopulation shows poor regeneration and is under some threat from forest clearance.  <em>A. yangjuech</em> subpopulation produce seeds that appear to be frequently sterile.
36543		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bolívar in the Venezuelan Guayana.
36543		habitat	eng	This tree or shrub grows on rocky summits, cliff ledges and in gullies in the sandstone table mountains.
36545		distribution	eng	This forest tree is only known from the Reserva Ducke near Manaus, central Amazonian Brazil.
36546		distribution	eng	Known only from two disjunct collections, one gathered from North Antioquia, Colombia, the other from Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
36546		habitat	eng	A lowland wet forest species.
36549		distribution	eng	Confined to the Gran Sabana in Venezuela, Pakaraima and Kanuku Mts. in Guyana and Tafelberg, Surinam.
36549		habitat	eng	A montane savanna-forest species.
36551		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub restricted to an area along Río Vaupés and Apaporis in Vaupés.
36552		distribution	eng	This variety is extremely local in terra firme forest in Manaus.
36553		distribution	eng	Only known from the east slope of the Cordillera Central in Antioquia.
36553		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane rainforest.
36554		distribution	eng	A tree restricted to the Cordillera Central in Antioquia.
36554		habitat	eng	Confined to the margin of humid montane forest.
36555		distribution	eng	A small tree known from a single collection from Caldas, Colombia, and from two localities on the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes.
36555		habitat	eng	It occurs in submontane and montane forest, meadows and open hillsides. Trees sometimes survive forest clearing.
36556		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from near Turrialba in Cartago and Villa Quesada in Alajuela.
36556		habitat	eng	Wooded hills.
36557		distribution	eng	Restricted to the east and north-central Minas Gerais.
36557		habitat	eng	A tree confined to wooded hillsides.
36558		distribution	eng	Found in lowland wet Atlantic forest and restinga along the coast of Bahia and Espírito Santo.
36558		population	eng	A formerly common tree.
36559		distribution	eng	A species restricted to the remnants of Atlantic coastal forest and restinga along the coast of Bahia between 14°S and 16°S.
36559		habitat	eng	Atlantic coastal forest and restinga.
36560		distribution	eng	Atlantic coastal forest, disjunctly distributed from Paraíba to Bahía.
36560		habitat	eng	A tree or arborescent shrub of the Atlantic coastal forest, and on disturbed mato do cípo, cerrado or campo rupestre, sometimes reaching an altitude of 1,100 m.
36561		distribution	eng	Jamaican endemic.
36561		habitat	eng	Occurring in remaining areas of woodland or thicket on limestone soils.
36562		distribution	eng	Jamaican endemic.
36562		habitat	eng	Occurring in remaining areas of woodland and thickets on limestone soils.
36563		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-east Dominican Republic.
36563		habitat	eng	A tree confined to broadleaved woodland on limestone soils.
36565		distribution	eng	Collected from the Cordillera Guajiquiro, south-west Honduras.
36565		habitat	eng	Mixed montane forest.
36565		population	eng	Known only from a single collection dating to 1964.
36566		distribution	eng	A tree localised to the upper tributaries of the Río Negro in Venezuela. An unconfirmed variant of the species is also found growing in terra firme forest in the lower Río Negro basin in Brazil.
36566		habitat	eng	Periodically inundated riparian forest.
36567		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality. It was found near the west boundary of Comisaría del  Caquetá.
36567		habitat	eng	Montane woodland.
36568		distribution	eng	Found only on the east slope of the Bolivian Andes.
36568		habitat	eng	A small tree known only from humid montane forest.
36569		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-eastern Cuba.
36569		habitat	eng	This tree grows in palm-savannah and subcoastal dry evergreen forest.
36569		threats	eng	The good-quality construction timber has been overexploited for years.
36570		distribution	eng	An endemic to a small area of subandean piedmont forest, occurring from north-west Argentina to Paraguay, possibly extending into Bolivia.
36570		threats	eng	It is a notably uncommon tree within a habitat which is unprotected and under constant decline with logging, encroaching agriculture and pastoralism.
36571		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, in the lower Río Paragua, Bolívar State.
36572		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type collection, gathered from north Bahía.
36572		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous woodland.
36573		distribution	eng	Along the coast of Rio de Janeiro state.
36573		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree restricted to restinga and thickets on sandy soils along the coast.
36575		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Bolívar.
36575		habitat	eng	Xeromorphic scrub woodland.
36578		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, known only from Rio Xingú, near Altamira.
36578		habitat	eng	Growing on the margins of flooded forest.
36579		distribution	eng	Occurring locally in Vaupés in Colombia, Amazonas in Venezuela and Amazonas in Brazil.
36579		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland igapó woodland.
36580		distribution	eng	Only know from sites along the Rio Aracá in north Amazonas.
36580		habitat	eng	This shrubby tree is found growing on seasonally inundated white sand savannah and on sandy riverbanks.
36581		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Atlantic forest in the Atlantic-Uruguay River watershed.
36581		habitat	eng	Araucaria forest and mata branca.
36582		distribution	eng	Found only in south-west Paraná and west Santa Catarina in the basins of Río Iguaçú and Río Uruguai.
36582		habitat	eng	A species of Araucaria woodland.
36584		distribution	eng	North-west of Haiti.
36584		habitat	eng	A small tree, localised in dry thickets.
36586		distribution	eng	Caribbean lowlands of north Colombia and north-west Venezuela.
36586		population	eng	A locally abundant tree.
36587		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the type locality in the Maracaibo basin.
36589		distribution	eng	There are three small disjunct subpopulations of this species, one occurring in the lower Magdalena valley, Bolívar State in Venezuela extending into north Magdalena in Colombia, another in the Orinoco valley, Venezuela and one in Guayas, Ecuador.
36589		habitat	eng	This species grows on periodically inundated forest in seasonally dry areas where it is locally common.
36591		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type collection, near San Benito, in Cajamarca.
36592		distribution	eng	This species is found in the main Amazon river valley and its tributaries.
36592		habitat	eng	Occurs in terra firme forest.
36594		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub so far found only along the Orinoco River between Pto Ayacucho and Sanariapo,  Amazonas.
36595		distribution	eng	Found in Acre.
36595		habitat	eng	A tree known from non-inundated Amazonian forest.
36598		distribution	eng	Collections taken from an unspecified location in Minas Gerais.
36598		habitat	eng	Campo.
36598		population	eng	A tree known only from two collections, the most recent dated 1906.
36599		distribution	eng	Known only from Chapada do Contagem, Distrito Federal.
36599		habitat	eng	The species is found in cerrado and gallery woodland.
36608		distribution	eng	Cook District, Queensland.
36608		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in lowland rainforest, coastal rainforest and complex mesophyll forest.
36608		population	eng	More information is needed on the status of the forest in this region.
36609		distribution	eng	Restricted to New Guinea.
36609		habitat	eng	Understorey forest species.
36609		population	eng	Fairly widespread but rare.
36609		threats	eng	There is a potential threat from logging and forest conversion.
36610		distribution	eng	Endemic to the east side of the Cape York Peninsula from Atherton Tableland south to Mount Bartle Frere.
36610		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in montane and ridge-top rainforest.
36610		threats	eng	Loss of habitat is the main threat to the species.
36611		distribution	eng	Collected along the Terengganu-Besut road.
36611		population	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection found in 1953. It may now be extinct.
36612		distribution	eng	Borneo.
36612		habitat	eng	An understorey tree restricted to primary forest on limestone.
36612		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a threat to this species.
36613		conservation	eng	About 1,000 km² of forest are protected within sanctuaries.
36613		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Agastyamalai Hills in southern India.
36613		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing and the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
36614		distribution	eng	A species endemic to Sarawak.
36614		habitat	eng	Confined to primary and riverine forest.
36615		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to New Guinea.
36615		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forest.
36615		threats	eng	Habitat destruction poses a threat to this species.
36616		habitat	eng	A tree scattered throughout primary and secondary forest, kerangas, swamps and along rivers between 200 and 430 m.
36616		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the main threat to the species.
36617		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to the Philippines.
36617		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss.
36618		distribution	eng	Southern India and Sri Lanka.
36618		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest, primary and secondary forests.
36618		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction.
36619		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to primary forest on limestone.
36619		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction.
36620		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the island of New Guinea. So far it is known from only four localities.
36621		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Solomon Islands.
36621		habitat	eng	This small tree is found in primary montane forest.
36622		habitat	eng	This species is found in both secondary and primary forests.
36622		threats	eng	Loss of habitat is a potential threat to the species.
36623		distribution	eng	Collected from between Mt. Nanggaranambuluta and Mt. Namama, Viti  Levu.
36623		habitat	eng	Forest on mountain ridge.
36623		population	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection taken in 1947. It is possibly extinct.
36624		distribution	eng	Endemic to Papua New Guinea.
36624		habitat	eng	An understorey tree.
36624		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
36625		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to Papua New Guinea.
36625		habitat	eng	It grows in secondary forest and hill forest.
36625		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction.
36626		distribution	eng	Colleted from Eua Island, Tonga.
36626		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection in 1952. It might be extinct.
36627		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia. It is known from only four localities.
36627		habitat	eng	Restricted to primary forest.
36628		distribution	eng	Known from only three localities.
36628		habitat	eng	A small rheophyte, locally common but confined to riverine forest on granite soils, especially next to the deeper areas of fast-flowing stony rivers.
36629		distribution	eng	A Fijian endemic known only from three collections.
36629		habitat	eng	Dense forest.
36630		distribution	eng	A very small tree, endemic to New Guinea. The species is probably confined to only four localities.
36630		habitat	eng	Found growing in the understorey of primary and montane forest.
36631		habitat	eng	A small tree found in many forest habitats up to 2,100 m.
36631		threats	eng	Habitat loss could threaten this species.
36632		distribution	eng	A small, shrubby tree endemic to New Guinea. It is apparently confined to two forest localities.
36633		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Moluccas; it is apparently confined to four localities.
36633		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
36634		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland primary forest.
36634		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat destruction.
36635		distribution	eng	Endemic to Fiji.
36635		habitat	eng	Found between 50 and 1,075 m in primary forest.
36635		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat to this species.
36636		distribution	eng	Confined to the Mt. Evans range of north-west Viti Levu.
36636		habitat	eng	A forest shrub or tree.
36637		distribution	eng	Sabah and Sarawak.
36637		habitat	eng	This species is confined to primary forest between 430 and 840 m.
36637		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss.
36638		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to the Philippines.
36638		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction.
36639		distribution	eng	New Guinea.
36639		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to primary forest between 60 and 2,000 m.
36639		threats	eng	Habitat loss threatens this species.
36640		distribution	eng	Confined to northern Borneo and the Philippines.
36640		habitat	eng	A species of primary, secondary and gallery forest up to 1,330 m.
36640		threats	eng	Forest destruction threatens this species.
36641		distribution	eng	Borneo, excluding Sarawak.
36641		habitat	eng	A tree species restricted to primary forest and periodically inundated dipterocarp forest.
36641		threats	eng	Loss of habitat threatens this species.
36642		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from two collections from Luzon.
36642		population	eng	It was last collected in 1916 and may be extinct.
36643		distribution	eng	Found in only a few localities in east and central Peninsular Malaysia. On Borneo, this species is known only from the type collection.
36643		habitat	eng	A small tree of primary lowland forest.
36643		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest destruction.
36644		distribution	eng	A small tree found only in south Viet Nam, although there are unconfirmed reports of an occurrence in Cambodia.
36644		population	eng	It is only known from two nineteenth-century collections. This species might be extinct.
36645		distribution	eng	It is confined to Sabah and Kalimantan, except for a single collection from eastern Peninsular Malaysia.
36645		habitat	eng	A small forest tree ascending up to altitudes of 2,000 m, sometimes occurring in freshwater swamp forest.
36645		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by habitat destruction.
36646		distribution	eng	A Malawi endemic known from two forest reserves 70 km apart. Near Blantyre the species occurs on Mt. Soche in a forest that has been reduced to 1.5 km² and continues to suffer from illegal logging. A subpopulation also occurs on Mt. Chese in the Mulanje Massif, where the forest is also much reduced.
36646		threats	eng	Illegal logging and encroaching agriculture.
36647		distribution	eng	Known only from five localities in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
36647		habitat	eng	Tree of primary forest between 330 and 500 m.
36647		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss.
36648		distribution	eng	A forest tree endemic to Fiji.
36648		population	eng	It appears to be confined to a single locality, but may be extinct.
36649		distribution	eng	So far it is known from only four localities in Papua New Guinea.
36649		habitat	eng	A small tree restricted to lowland deciduous hill forest.
36650		distribution	eng	Known only from three localities.
36650		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
36651		distribution	eng	A forest tree known only from three localities on Viti Levu.
36652		distribution	eng	Restricted to the type locality in northern Kerala. There is also a second field record of an occurrence further north in Wayanad.
36652		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
36652		population	eng	A fairly common tree where it occurs.
36654		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Cuzco.
36654		habitat	eng	A species of semi-deciduous forest.
36654		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36659		distribution	eng	This forest species was collected from Puno.
36659		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen.
36660		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered from a site in the department of Amazonas.
36660		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36664		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from forest in the department of Huánuco.
36664		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36665		distribution	eng	The type collection was taken from the department of Loreto.
36665		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36666		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered in the department of Huánuco.
36666		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland Amazon forest.
36666		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36667		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the department of Amazonas.
36667		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36667		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36674		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36674		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36674		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36675		distribution	eng	The type collection site occurs above 1,500 m in the department of Junín.
36675		population	eng	The species has been recorded only from the type collection.
36677		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Cajamarca.
36677		habitat	eng	Shrubland above 2,500 m.
36677		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36681		distribution	eng	The type collection is from Huánuco.
36681		habitat	eng	The species occurs in elfin forest.
36681		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36683		distribution	eng	The species occurs in forest in the department of San Martin.
36683		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36684		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread, the species is endemic to Peru.
36684		habitat	eng	Lowland forests.
36686		distribution	eng	This species appears to be confined to the department of Cuzco.
36686		habitat	eng	Andean cloud forest above 2,000 m.
36687		distribution	eng	Departments of Ancash, Cuzco and Huánuco.
36687		habitat	eng	Occurring above 3,500 m, the species is recorded from areas of forest.
36689		distribution	eng	Department of Ayacucho.
36689		habitat	eng	A species which is known from elfin forest.
36690		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peru.
36690		habitat	eng	The species occurs relatively widely in forest up to 2,000 m.
36692		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the department of Huánuco.
36692		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest and shrubland between 1,500 and 2,000 m.
36693		distribution	eng	Department of Pasco.
36693		habitat	eng	A species recorded from forest between 2,000 and 2,500 m.
36696		distribution	eng	Recorded in the departments of Cuzco and Pasco.
36696		habitat	eng	A tree of montane forest above 3,000 m.
36700		distribution	eng	Departments of Junín and Pasco.
36700		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland areas between 2,500 and 3,500 m.
36701		distribution	eng	Departments of Huánuco and San Martin.
36701		habitat	eng	A species occurring in montane forest above 3,500 m.
36707		distribution	eng	Known only from the department of Ayacucho.
36707		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest on rocky slopes above 3,500 m.
36709		distribution	eng	Departments of Cuzco and Pasco.
36709		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in forest roughly between 2,500 and 3,000 m.
36714		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to the departments of Cuzco and Puno.
36714		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest between roughly 2,500 and 4,000 m.
36715		distribution	eng	Known only from the department of Cuzco.
36715		habitat	eng	A subspecies of cloud forest to 2,500 m.
36716		distribution	eng	A species of Peru, it is relatively widespread within its range.
36716		habitat	eng	Restricted to Peruvian lowland rainforest.
36718		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Piura.
36718		habitat	eng	Shrubland.
36718		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36723		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Loreto.
36723		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland rainforest.
36723		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36725		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered from near Yurimaguas in the department of Loreto.
36725		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36725		population	eng	Apparently the species is known only from the type collection.
36728		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36728		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36728		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36729		distribution	eng	The type collection originates from the department of San Martin.
36729		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36729		population	eng	This variety is known only from the type collection.
36732		distribution	eng	Species of the Peruvian Andes, in the departments of Apurímac and Cuzco.
36732		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species recorded from disturbed areas.
36735		distribution	eng	Known only from the department of San Martin.
36735		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species occurring roughly between 3,000 and 3,500 m.
36736		distribution	eng	This cloud forest species occurs in the department of Amazonas.
36736		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36737		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cuzco.
36737		habitat	eng	This cloud forest species occurs within the altitudinal range of 2,500 to 4,000 m.
36738		distribution	eng	Known only from the department of Piura.
36738		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36739		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered in the department of Puno.
36739		population	eng	Recorded only from the type collection.
36745		distribution	eng	From the department of La Libertad.
36745		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36745		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36746		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Cajamarca.
36746		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36749		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered in the department of Cajamarca.
36749		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest between roughly 2,000 and 3,500 m.
36749		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36750		distribution	eng	The type collectino was gathered in the department of Cajamarca.
36750		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest above 2,500 m.
36750		population	eng	Recorded only from the type collection.
36751		distribution	eng	From the department of Junín.
36751		habitat	eng	A species of forest above 2,500 m.
36751		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36752		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cajamarca.
36752		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest above 2,500 m.
36752		population	eng	Recorded only from the type collection.
36753		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the department of Loreto.
36753		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
36754		distribution	eng	Recorded from the department of La Libertad.
36754		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest above 2,500 m.
36754		population	eng	Recorded only from the type collection.
36755		distribution	eng	Departments of Cuzco and Puno.
36755		habitat	eng	This cloud forest species occurs in forest between 3,000 and 3,500 m.
36760		distribution	eng	This forest species has been recorded only from the department of Cuzco.
36760		habitat	eng	Occurring between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
36761		distribution	eng	The species is recorded in the departments of Cuzco and Huancavelica.
36761		habitat	eng	Restricted to areas of cloud forest between 2,500 and 4,000 m.
36763		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the department of Huánuco.
36763		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
36765		distribution	eng	Department of Cuzco.
36765		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to cloud and elfin forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
36766		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered in the department of Cajamarca.
36766		habitat	eng	The species occurs in cloud forest between 2,500 and 4,000 m.
36766		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36767		distribution	eng	The type collection was gathered from the department of Huánuco.
36767		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species.
36767		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36770		distribution	eng	The tree occurs in San Martin.
36770		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36770		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36772		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36772		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36772		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36774		distribution	eng	The type collection was taken from the department of Huánuco.
36774		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
36778		distribution	eng	The type collection was taken from the department of Loreto.
36778		habitat	eng	The species occurs in terra firme forest.
36778		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36788		distribution	eng	Department of La Libertad.
36788		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of grassland and shrubland, between 1,500 and 2,000 m.
36791		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the department of San Martin.
36791		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest.
36791		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36797		distribution	eng	Found within the departments of Amazonas, Huánuco and Madre de Dios.
36797		habitat	eng	An Amazonian species, which occurs at low elevation in disturbed areas and riversides.
36798		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from lowland Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
36798		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
36798		population	eng	A variety known only from the type collection.
36799		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are known to occur within the departments of Huánuco, Junín, Loreto and Pasco.
36799		habitat	eng	A lowland species.
36800		distribution	eng	Type collectino taken from the department of Huánuco.
36800		habitat	eng	Rocky slopes between 2,500 and 3,000 m.
36800		population	eng	So far the species is known only from the type collection.
36801		distribution	eng	Occurring in the departments of Amazonas and Huánuco.
36801		habitat	eng	The species is found in various habitats including forest, grassland and shrublands, especially along riversides, between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
36808		distribution	eng	Type specimen collected in the department of Loreto.
36808		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36808		population	eng	A species, so far, known only from the type specimen.
36809		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from San Martin.
36809		population	eng	At present the species is known only from the type collection.
36810		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the department of Loreto.
36810		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland Amazon forest.
36810		population	eng	Currently known only from the type collection.
36812		distribution	eng	The species is found in San Martin.
36812		habitat	eng	<em>Terra firme</em> forest.
36812		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36813		distribution	eng	A Peru endemic, occurring in Amazonian forest in Huánuco, Loreto and Madre de Dios.
36813		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazonian forest.
36814		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Peruvian Andes.
36814		habitat	eng	A widespread species of elfin forest and shrublands between 2,000 and 4,000 m.
36815		distribution	eng	Restricted to the departments of Amazonas, Cajamarca and Huánuco.
36815		habitat	eng	The species occurs at middle elevations in disturbed areas of forest.
36816		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the Cajamarca region of the Peruvian Andes.
36816		habitat	eng	Disturbed areas of lowland forest and shrublands.
36816		population	eng	A species currently known only from the type collection.
36817		distribution	eng	Departments of Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura.
36817		habitat	eng	A species found on rocky slopes at medium elevation.
36818		distribution	eng	A species known only from the Andes in Cuzco, between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
36819		distribution	eng	Currently restricted to the departments of Cuzco, Huánuco and Pasco.
36819		habitat	eng	A variety of middle elevation forest.
36820		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread, this subspecies occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes.
36820		habitat	eng	Up to 2,000 m altitude in disturbed areas and <em>terra firme</em> forest.
36823		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from lowland Amazonian forest in Loreto.
36823		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazonian forest.
36823		population	eng	A species known only from the type collection.
36824		distribution	eng	Currently known only from the Tumbes delta in the north-west.
36824		habitat	eng	A species of submontane forest.
36825		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the department of Amazonas.
36825		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36825		population	eng	The only record of the species is from the type collection.
36826		distribution	eng	The species occurs in lowland  Amazon forest in Loreto.
36826		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36826		population	eng	Currently recorded only from the type collection.
36827		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Loreto.
36827		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest on white sand.
36827		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36828		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the lowland eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru.
36829		distribution	eng	Known only from Loreto and San Martin.
36829		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
36830		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the departments of Amazonas, Loreto and Madre de Dios.
36830		habitat	eng	Occurring in seasonally inundated areas and <em>terra firme</em> forest.
36831		distribution	eng	A small tree which has a relatively wide range on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes.
36831		population	eng	Recent collections have been few.
36833		distribution	eng	Type collection from San Martin.
36833		population	eng	A species known only from the type collection.
36834		distribution	eng	Occurring in the departments of Loreto, Madre de Dios and Pasco.
36834		habitat	eng	A species of <em>terra firme</em> forest.
36835		habitat	eng	Occurring in <em>terra firme</em> forest on white sand.
36835		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
36838		distribution	eng	A species restricted to the departments of Amazonas, Cuzco and Junín.
36838		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36839		distribution	eng	Type collected in Huánuco.
36839		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.
36839		population	eng	Known only from the type collected.
36840		distribution	eng	Type collected in Amazonas Department.
36840		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.
36840		population	eng	Recorded from the type only.
36842		distribution	eng	Collected in Huánuco Department.
36842		population	eng	A species known only from a single collection.
36843		distribution	eng	A species apparently confined to the department of Huánuco in the Peruvian Andes.
36843		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species between altitudes of 3,000 and 3,500 m.
36845		distribution	eng	Collected from Amazonas Department in the Peruvian Amazon.
36845		population	eng	A species known only from its type.
36847		distribution	eng	A species confined to the Peruvian Andes, recorded from the departments of Cajamarca, Cuzco, Lima and La Libertad.
36847		habitat	eng	Rocky areas of forest between 2,500 and 4,000 m.
36847		threats	eng	Extensive burning and clearing have caused declines and fragmentation of the habitat.
36848		distribution	eng	A small tree apparently confined to a single area in the department of Apirímac in the Peruvian Andes.
36848		habitat	eng	Disturbed forest between the altitudes of 2,500 and 3,000 m.
36848		threats	eng	Extensive burning and clearing have caused declines and fragmentation of the habitat.
36850		distribution	eng	Only found in the department of Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes.
36850		habitat	eng	A forest species, found between 2,000 and 2,500 m.
36851		distribution	eng	Endemic to Peru, the species is found in the departments of Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios and San Martin.
36851		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36855		distribution	eng	The species occurs in San Martin Department.
36855		habitat	eng	In lowland rainforest.
36855		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36856		distribution	eng	The species occurs in San Martin Department.
36856		habitat	eng	In lowland rainforest.
36856		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36857		distribution	eng	Collected in the department of Loreto.
36857		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
36857		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36859		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Peruvian Andes, from the department of San Martin.
36859		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
36859		population	eng	The species has been collected only once.
36860		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Junín.
36860		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36860		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36862		distribution	eng	From the department of Huánuco.
36862		population	eng	A species which has been collected only once.
36863		distribution	eng	Type collected in Huánuco Department.
36863		population	eng	A species which is recorded only from the type.
36864		distribution	eng	Type collected in Huánuco Department.
36864		population	eng	A species which is recorded only from the type.
36865		distribution	eng	Type collected from the department of Loreto.
36865		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36865		population	eng	This species is known only from its type.
36867		distribution	eng	Type taken from the department of Loreto.
36867		habitat	eng	Occurring in Amazon forest.
36867		population	eng	The only record of the species is its type collection.
36871		distribution	eng	A genus endemic to the Andes.
36871		population	eng	This species is known only from the type, collected in Loreto.
36872		distribution	eng	A genus endemic to the Andes.
36872		population	eng	This species is known only from the type, which was collected in Loreto.
36873		distribution	eng	A genus endemic to the Andes.
36873		population	eng	This species is known only from the type, which was collected in Loreto.
36883		distribution	eng	Type taken from the department of Loreto.
36883		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
36883		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36884		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Junín.
36884		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest between 2,500 and 3,000 m.
36884		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36886		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of San Martin in the Peruvian Andes.
36886		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
36886		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36892		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
36892		population	eng	Known only from the type locality.
36894		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
36894		distribution	eng	Currently known from four subpopulations on the central Ecuadorean coast. The first is in the Jauneche private reserve, where it is very common within primary and secondary forest (Gentry (1986) reports 36 individuals >2.5 cm dbh in 0.1 ha). The second is 39 km northeast of Balzar and the third in El Barro, 6 km from Quevedo and currently flooded by the Daule-Peripa dam (C. Bonifaz, pers. comm.). Valverde (1991) reports a fourth subpopulation in secondary forests of the Cordillera de Chongón Colonche, in Cerro Vacas Muertas.
36894		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of wet coastal forests, found within an elevational range of 0–500 m.
36894		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and conversion of coastal forest to croplands over the last 50 years.
36896		distribution	eng	Relatively widely ranging, the species occurs in the Peruvian Andes.
36896		habitat	eng	Forest up to 4,000 m.
36897		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Loreto.
36897		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest.
36897		population	eng	Known only from the type.
36900		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of La Libertad.
36900		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
36900		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36901		distribution	eng	A species from the coast in the department of Tumbes.
36901		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
36904		distribution	eng	Type collected in San Martin Department.
36904		population	eng	A species known only from its type.
36905		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Loreto.
36905		habitat	eng	Occurring in forest up to 1,500 m.
36905		population	eng	The species is known only from its type.
36906		distribution	eng	An Amazon forest species. Type collection taken from the department of Loreto.
36906		population	eng	Known only from the type collection .
36907		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazon forest in the Loreto Department.
36907		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36909		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
36909		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36912		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to the department of Apurímac.
36912		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest roughly between 1,500 and 2,000 m.
36914		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the department of Junín.
36914		population	eng	This species is known only from its type collection.
36917		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36917		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36917		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36920		distribution	eng	Department of Huánuco region.
36920		habitat	eng	This species is known only from forest between 1,500 and 2,000 m.
36921		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Loreto.
36921		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
36921		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36922		distribution	eng	Type collected from the department of San Martin.
36922		population	eng	A variety known only from the type.
36923		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of La Libertad.
36923		habitat	eng	A species of submontane forest.
36923		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36924		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Loreto.
36924		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36926		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.
36926		population	eng	A species known only from the type collection.
36927		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.
36927		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36928		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Amazonas.
36928		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36929		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.
36929		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36930		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36930		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36931		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Junín.
36931		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36932		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Loreto.
36932		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36936		distribution	eng	Type collection in the department of San Martin.
36936		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon rainforest.
36936		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36937		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36937		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon rainforest.
36937		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36939		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread.
36939		habitat	eng	Confined to the Peruvian Andes up to 2,500 m.
36940		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Amazonas.
36940		habitat	eng	The species is found in terra firme forest above 2,000 m.
36940		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36944		distribution	eng	Type collected from the department of Puno.
36944		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36945		distribution	eng	Type found in the department of Huánuco.
36945		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type collection.
36946		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Puno.
36946		population	eng	A tree which is known only from the type collection.
36947		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Cajamarca.
36947		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type collection.
36948		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Puno.
36948		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type collection.
36949		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Amazonas.
36949		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type collection.
36953		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Cajamarca.
36953		population	eng	A species which is known only from type collection.
36954		distribution	eng	Collected only twice, in Huánuco.
36954		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in sclerophyllous bush between 1,800 and 2,500 m.
36960		habitat	eng	An arborescent <em>Ipomoea</em> species from a savannah area above 1,000 m.
36960		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36961		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36961		habitat	eng	<em>Terra firme</em> forest.
36961		population	eng	It has been recorded only from the type collection.
36963		distribution	eng	This species has been collected just once, from Lima.
36964		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the department of San Martin.
36964		habitat	eng	<em>Terra firme</em> forest over 1,000 m.
36964		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36965		distribution	eng	Type collected from below 2,000 m in the department of San Martin.
36965		population	eng	This forest species is recorded only from the type collection.
36966		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.
36966		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type.
36969		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Puno.
36969		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland rainforest along a riverside.
36969		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36970		distribution	eng	Type collected from the department of Puno.
36970		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
36971		distribution	eng	Type collected from the department of Cajamarca.
36971		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
36972		distribution	eng	Recorded from the department of Loreto.
36972		habitat	eng	A lowland grassland species.
36972		population	eng	Recorded just a single time.
36973		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of San Martin.
36973		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
36973		population	eng	Recorded only from the type collection.
36974		distribution	eng	Department of Loreto.
36974		habitat	eng	This variety is known only from lowland Amazon rainforest.
36975		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Loreto.
36975		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
36975		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36976		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.
36976		habitat	eng	Along a riverside in shrubland above 3,000 m.
36976		population	eng	A small tree which is known only from the type collection.
36978		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.
36978		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36979		distribution	eng	Department of Tumbes.
36979		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to coastal forest.
36983		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the department of  Amazonas.
36983		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
36985		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Peruvian Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
36985		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36986		distribution	eng	Type collected taken from lowland Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
36986		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
36987		distribution	eng	This Amazonian forest species occurs in Loreto.
36987		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
36990		distribution	eng	Type collected from Amazonian forest in Loreto.
36990		population	eng	A variety which is known only from the type collection.
36993		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
36993		population	eng	A species which is recorded only from the type collection.
36996		distribution	eng	Huánuco.
36996		habitat	eng	This species is known from submontane forest up to about 3,500 m.
36997		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from Amazon forest in Loreto.
36997		population	eng	A species which is known only from the type collection.
36999		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.
36999		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane forest.
36999		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37000		distribution	eng	Type collected from the Amazon in Loreto.
37000		habitat	eng	Lowland forest species.
37000		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37002		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of San Martin.
37002		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37002		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37004		conservation	eng	Known to occur in a number of national parks and reserves.
37004		distribution	eng	A Peruvian form of a widely distributed rainforest species. Found in Amazonian Peru, within the departments of Amazonas, Loreto, Madre de Dios and Ucayali.
37004		habitat	eng	A species of terra firme forest.
37006		distribution	eng	Collected in the Peruvian Andes in the departments of Puno and Cuzco.
37006		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to cloud forest.
37006		population	eng	Collected only once or twice.
37007		distribution	eng	Known only from the department of Junín in the Peruvian Andes.
37007		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
37008		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of lowland forest on white sand.
37008		population	eng	Known only from a few collections, the last of which is dated 1974.
37009		distribution	eng	Appears to be fairly widespread on the slopes of the eastern Andes. Specimens identified as this species have also been collected a few times from Brazil and Ecuador, although these may represent distinct subspecies.
37009		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
37010		distribution	eng	Type collection taken from the department of San Martin.
37010		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
37014		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.
37014		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37022		distribution	eng	This species appears to be confined to the department of Cajamarca in the Andes.
37022		habitat	eng	Submontane shrubland.
37022		population	eng	It is known only from the type locality.
37024		distribution	eng	So far known only from the type locality in the department of Junín.
37024		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest.
37025		distribution	eng	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.
37025		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
37027		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Amazonas.
37027		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane forest.
37027		population	eng	Recorded only from the type collection.
37029		distribution	eng	This Andean species appears to be confined to Cajamarca.
37029		habitat	eng	Submontane shrubland.
37029		population	eng	It has been recorded only from the type collection.
37030		distribution	eng	Type collected in Cuzco Department.
37030		habitat	eng	A shrubland species, in scrub occurring below 1,500 m.
37030		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37033		distribution	eng	It was recorded from the department of Junín.
37033		population	eng	Only the type collection is known.
37034		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the department of Amazonas.
37034		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
37034		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37036		distribution	eng	A Peruvian endemic. The type was collected from the department of Cajamarca.
37036		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37037		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the department of Cajamarca.
37037		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37042		distribution	eng	An Amazon forest species, apparently restricted to Amazonas and Loreto Departments.
37048		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in the department of Loreto.
37051		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Pasco.
37051		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane shrubland.
37051		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37052		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Amazonas.
37052		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane forest.
37052		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37053		distribution	eng	Type collected in Huánuco region.
37053		population	eng	A species known only from the type collected.
37054		distribution	eng	Type collected in Puno Department.
37054		habitat	eng	This species is confined to subandean forest.
37054		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37058		distribution	eng	Collected from in San Martin.
37058		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37058		population	eng	This variety has been collected just once.
37059		distribution	eng	Type collection was taken near Iquitos in the department of Loreto.
37059		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37059		population	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
37060		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Loreto.
37060		habitat	eng	A species restricted to terra firme forest.
37060		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
37063		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Arequipa.
37063		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37065		distribution	eng	Known only from the department of Apurímac.
37065		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest between 3,000 and 3,500 m.
37066		distribution	eng	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.
37066		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in submontane forest.
37066		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37069		distribution	eng	Type collected in the departments of Loreto and San Martin.
37069		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest.
37069		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37070		distribution	eng	Type collected from Cajamarca.
37070		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
37070		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37071		distribution	eng	This variety is endemic to the Peruvian Andes in Junín Department.
37071		habitat	eng	Found in cloud forest.
37073		distribution	eng	Known only from San Martin.
37073		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
37073		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37074		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Peruvian Andes.
37074		habitat	eng	A species of lowland and submontane rainforest.
37074		population	eng	Only two collections are known.
37076		distribution	eng	The type specimen is recorded with no specific location.
37076		population	eng	A species known only from the type specimen.
37077		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Amazon forests in Ucayali.
37077		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37081		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Loreto.
37081		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest.
37081		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37083		conservation	eng	It is poorly represented in protected areas but is occasionally given protection or planted in farmed areas.
37083		habitat	eng	Restricted to dry savannah and woodland.
37083		threats	eng	This species has been overexploited for timber, firewood and charcoal production. Its habitat is also suffering from agricultural encroachment and increasing population pressure.
37084		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests, usually in swampy areas.
37084		threats	eng	The tree is felled to make dugout canoes. It is also used in mine shafts and as a fuelwood. The levels of exploitation, notably in Uganda, as well as a general decline in the extent or condition of the habitat, are major threats.
37086		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Atlantic lowlands.
37086		habitat	eng	The species is found in damp forest or secondary formations, often on limestone and occasionally pine ridges.
37087		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Cuba. There is an unconfirmed record from a relatively inaccessible montane area in south-central Cuba.
37087		habitat	eng	This small tree is found in dry forests, savannahs and coastal areas.
37087		threats	eng	Logging, grazing, urban expansion and mining have significantly reduced the original subpopulations. Tourism is also a major threat.
37088		distribution	eng	It has been collected from four locations, S. Vicente, Jou, a site between Nova Moka and Bom Sucesso and also Monte Café.
37088		habitat	eng	A tree of secondary forest, occurring up to 1,000 m.
37089		distribution	eng	Known only from the island of Babeldaop in the Republic of Palau.
37089		habitat	eng	A primary forest tree.
37089		population	eng	It does not appear to have been collected in the last 50 years.
37090		distribution	eng	This monotypic genus is quite widespread but restricted to the threatened Atlantic coastal forests of south-east Brazil.
37090		habitat	eng	Atlantic coastal forests.
37091		distribution	eng	This tree is confined to Cochinchina, south Viet Nam.
37091		habitat	eng	Lower montane forest.
37091		population	eng	It is known from five collections.
37092		distribution	eng	Type collected in Chantabun, south-east Thailand in 1930.
37092		habitat	eng	A small tree found in evergreen forest.
37092		population	eng	Known only from the type.
37093		distribution	eng	Found only on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
37093		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree.
37094		distribution	eng	All known collections were taken from Nicobar Island, Pinang Island in Peninsular Malaysia and Atjeh in Sumatra.
37094		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
37094		population	eng	A total of six collections are known of this tree.
37095		distribution	eng	Collected in Thailand, including some island localities.
37095		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
37095		population	eng	This subspecies has been collected only four times.
37096		distribution	eng	Collected only once in Annam.
37096		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree.
37098		distribution	eng	Found in Malaysia, Simaloer Island off Sumatra, and west Java.
37098		habitat	eng	A tree.
37099		distribution	eng	Upper Laos and Tonkin, Viet Nam.
37099		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in montane forest.
37100		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo.
37100		habitat	eng	This variety is found in primary forest.
37101		distribution	eng	Found in central-east Kalimantan and Sarawak.
37101		habitat	eng	A primary forest variety.
37102		distribution	eng	A total of five collections have been found on the east coast and Riouw Island off Sumatra and the Anambas Islands off Borneo.
37104		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Palawan; it has been further divided into two varieties: var. <em>latericia</em> and var. <em>subtilis</em>.
37104		habitat	eng	The variety <em>subtilis</em> grows in primary dipterocarp forest.
37104		threats	eng	Logging.
37105		distribution	eng	Found throughout Borneo.
37105		population	eng	A locally frequent subspecies.
37106		conservation	eng	Some populations are contained within a wildlife sanctuary and protected forests within the permanent forest estate.
37106		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to the mountains of Pahang and Selangor.
37106		threats	eng	The known localities are under pressure from infrastructural development.
37107		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality in the Cameron Highlands.
37107		habitat	eng	A subspecies of montane forest.
37107		threats	eng	The locality is under pressure from infrastructural development.
37108		distribution	eng	Sabah.
37108		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in lowland primary forests.
37108		population	eng	Known from three collections.
37109		distribution	eng	Sabah.
37109		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in primary forest
37109		population	eng	Known only from the type.
37110		distribution	eng	This tree appears to be restricted to Kanchanaburi Province.
37110		habitat	eng	Found in mixed deciduous forest.
37112		distribution	eng	Type collected from Annam.
37112		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
37112		population	eng	Known only from type collection, this tree was found in 1939.
37114		distribution	eng	Very localised, this variety is known only from the type collected in Brunei.
37114		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37115		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo.
37115		habitat	eng	This uncommon variety is restricted to sandy ridges.
37115		population	eng	It has not been collected recently.
37117		distribution	eng	Type collected near Da Nang in Annam.
37117		habitat	eng	This tree is found in evergreen montane forest.
37117		population	eng	Known only from the type collection.
37118		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in the Forth Division in Sarawak, Brunei and west Sabah.
37119		distribution	eng	First Division, Sarawak. A collection from Brunei possibly belongs to it.
37119		habitat	eng	This subspecies is apparently restricted to primary lowland dipterocarp forest.
37120		distribution	eng	Found on Sulu and Mindanao Islands.
37120		population	eng	This is a rare species.
37121		distribution	eng	From the province of Nueva Ecija in the Philippines.
37121		population	eng	This species is known from only two collections.
37122		distribution	eng	Widely and commonly scattered species found in the Western Ghats.
37122		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland to medium elevation forest.
37123		distribution	eng	Known only from four collections in south-east Thailand.
37123		habitat	eng	This tree is found in evergreen forest.
37124		distribution	eng	Near Da Nang, Annam.
37124		habitat	eng	This tree is found in montane forest.
37125		distribution	eng	A tree, known only from the type collection, in Annam in 1923.
37125		habitat	eng	Was found growing in montane forest on rocky clay soil.
37126		distribution	eng	A montane forest species collected only twice, in Annam, Viet Nam.
37128		distribution	eng	This variety is known from occurrences in east Kalimantan, east Sabah and from a collection in Sarawak.
37129		distribution	eng	A frequent subspecies endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.
37131		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo.
37131		habitat	eng	A subspecies usually found in peat-swamp forest.
37131		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
37132		distribution	eng	Sarawak, Sabah and west and south Kalimantan.
37132		habitat	eng	A subspecies of submontane to montane forest.
37133		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from only five collections on the Samar Islands.
37135		habitat	eng	This tree is usually found in lowland primary riverine forest.
37136		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found throughout Peninsular Malaysia and from a couple of collections from Indragiri, Sumatra.
37137		distribution	eng	This subspecies is widespread in Borneo.
37138		distribution	eng	Known from three or four collections in Bukit Raya, central Kalimantan, and from a slightly different collection from Sarawak.
37138		habitat	eng	Primary riverine forest.
37139		distribution	eng	This subspecies appears to be restricted to the Fifth Division, where it has been collected only three times.
37140		distribution	eng	Recently described and known only from three collections from Bukit Tawau and Keningau in Sabah and Gunung Maeru Tagal in north-east Kalimantan.
37140		habitat	eng	A small tree of hillside forest.
37141		distribution	eng	A recently described small tree, which has been collected four times in the upper reaches of Katingan and Kahayan Rivers.
37141		habitat	eng	It is locally common in secondary forest.
37142		distribution	eng	This recently described subspecies is known only from the type collection in west Kalimantan.
37142		habitat	eng	It was found in primary hill dipterocarp forest.
37143		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections in Fourth Division of Sarawak and west-central Kalimantan.
37143		habitat	eng	This small tree is found in hillside forest and occasionally mixed dipterocarp forest.
37144		conservation	eng	The area receives limited protection as a wilderness area.
37144		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type collection in Palanan, north-east Luzon.
37144		habitat	eng	Found growing by a stream on ultrabasic soil.
37144		threats	eng	Illegal logging and expansion of settlements.
37145		distribution	eng	A subspecies which frequently hybridises with related species. It is confined to Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, where it occurs in small stands totaling no more than a few tens of square kilometers.
37145		habitat	eng	Between 3,000 and 4,100 m.
37145		threats	eng	Burning activities, combined with overgrazing, soil erosion and firewood collection, continue to have a serious impact on remaining subpopulations.
37146		distribution	eng	Confined mainly to the northern part of the Titicaca basin, where it is the only naturally occurring <em>Polylepis</em>. Other <em>Polylepis</em> species have been planted in the area and the subspecies readily hybridises with <em>P. racemosa</em> ssp. <em>triacontandra</em>. Subpopulations in Bolivia may all be planted. It has been estimated that the stands cover 166 km² in total. Growth rates are fast and the tree is a good candidate for reforestation programmes.
37146		habitat	eng	A small tree growing in large stands on limestone hills.
37147		distribution	eng	This subspecies is variable and readily hybridises with other <em>Polylepis</em> in its range. It is endemic to central Bolivia.
37147		habitat	eng	Montane forest above 3,000 m.
37147		threats	eng	Fires and overcutting are the main causes of concern.
37148		distribution	eng	This species was included within <em>P. besseri</em>. It is believed to be of hybrid origin. Small stands, totaling less than 100 km² in area, occur in central to south-east Bolivia.
37148		habitat	eng	Above 3,200 m or at lower elevations, down to 2,500 m, found in mixed <em>Podocarpus-Alnus</em> forest.
37149		distribution	eng	Recently discovered, the species occurs mainly in the Chuquisaca and Cochabamba area.
37149		habitat	eng	The species occurs in more humid areas of <em>Podocarpus-Alnus</em> forest. It rarely forms the dominant component.
37149		threats	eng	Continual burning of large areas of vegetation, firewood collection and charcoal production are causing the decline of these forests.
37150		distribution	eng	This subspecies intergrades and hybridises with ssp. <em>triacontandra</em>. It is known only from the wetter parts of the Cordillera Tunari in Cochabamba, where it can form a dominant element of the vegetation.
37150		threats	eng	The continual burning of vegetation is clearly causing the decline in the extent of the forest.
37151		distribution	eng	This subspecies intergrades and hybridises with ssp. <em>lanata</em>. It occurs within a small range in the Cordillera de Apolobamba. It is a fast-growing and frequently planted tree.
37151		habitat	eng	Above 3,600 m, at the upper limit of the humid montane forest.
37151		threats	eng	Continual burning, as well as cutting for firewood and charcoal production, are causing declines in the extent of the forest.
37152		distribution	eng	Small and dispersed patches of the species occur from Arequipa, Moquegua, Tacna and possibly Puno into northern Chile. It is generally the only tree in the area.
37152		habitat	eng	Arid regions above 3,400 m.
37152		threats	eng	The extent of the habitat is declining, with constant overgrazing and overcutting for firewood and charcoal production.
37153		distribution	eng	A common tree, usually dominating, in a small area of forest, totaling about 20 km², between 2,500 and 3,400 m in the Cochabamba area.
37153		threats	eng	Burning activities are a major threat to the habitat.
37154		distribution	eng	A tiny shrub found in a very restricted mountainous locality, south-east of Cochabamba in northern central Bolivia. It covers an area of just 75 ha.
37154		habitat	eng	It occurs in degraded woodland.
37154		threats	eng	It is affected by firewood collection and domestic grazing.
37155		distribution	eng	A variable subspecies. It is relatively widespread, occurring in dispersed stands between 3,200 and 4,500 m in south-east Bolivia extending into north-west Argentina. There are some large stands, up to 60 km² in area, growing on lava and pumice where they are safe from burning.
37156		distribution	eng	Found throughout the Moluccas and possibly in Sulawesi.  There is a deviating collection from Luzon.
37156		habitat	eng	A tree which is found in disturbed forest and forest with sparse undergrowth.
37158		distribution	eng	Collected only five times, in Annam.
37158		habitat	eng	The species appears to be restricted to submontane evergreen forest.
37161		distribution	eng	Obi and Morotai Islands.
37161		habitat	eng	This variety is found in well-drained forest.
37162		distribution	eng	A locally common variety found in Vogelkop and on the islands of Noemfoer, Meos, Waar, Japen and Waigeo.
37162		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37163		distribution	eng	Known from three collections from the Vogelkop Peninsula and Batanta Island.
37163		habitat	eng	The variety grows in lowland secondary and coastal forest on limestone.
37164		distribution	eng	So far known from four collections from the Vogelkop Peninsula.
37164		habitat	eng	This variety is common in primary and secondary forest on limestone.
37165		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to Luzon, where it has been collected just three times.
37166		distribution	eng	A Philippines endemic found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Sibuyan, Samar and Leyte.
37166		habitat	eng	Lowland forests in moist valleys.
37167		distribution	eng	This small tree is known only from the type, which was collected on Samar Island.
37168		distribution	eng	Found only on the Palau Islands.
37168		habitat	eng	This tree is locally common in primary lowland forest.
37169		distribution	eng	Located in Digul, Irian Jaya and the Western province of Papua New Guinea.
37169		habitat	eng	This species is found in many habitat types.
37170		distribution	eng	So far it is only known from three collections from East Sepik Province.
37170		habitat	eng	A tree found in both primary and secondary forest.
37172		distribution	eng	Morobe Province. It has been collected only six times.
37172		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, which is restricted to mixed lowland rainforest.
37173		distribution	eng	Although locally common, has been collected only three times in the Northern Province.
37173		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree from tall lowland forest on well-drained soils.
37174		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection which was found in Sepik Province.
37174		habitat	eng	Dense humid forest.
37175		distribution	eng	Known from two collections, one from Sepik Province and the other from Morobe Province.
37175		habitat	eng	A small tree of lower montane rainforest.
37177		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from the type collection, which was gathered from a site in south-west New Guinea.
37179		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from Etappenberg, Sepik Province.
37179		habitat	eng	A variety of mossy montane forest.
37180		distribution	eng	Known only to occur in the Solomon Islands.
37180		habitat	eng	A primary and secondary forest species collected many times on a variety of soils.
37182		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to central and south Sulawesi. Sulawesi has the largest tract of forest over ultrabasic soils in the tropics. The nature of the soil renders it unattractive to agriculture.
37182		habitat	eng	Forest areas on ultrabasic soils
37183		distribution	eng	Known from three or four collections from Misima, Tagula and Rossel Islands. The collection from San Cristobal is doubtful.
37183		habitat	eng	A subcanopy tree.
37184		distribution	eng	This tree is known from six or seven collections from areas in Vogelkop in Irian Jaya and  West Sepik in Papua New Guinea.
37184		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary forest.
37185		distribution	eng	This variety is known from only four collections from northern Papua New Guinea.
37187		distribution	eng	East Sabah and east and south Kalimantan.
37187		habitat	eng	A subspecies found in lowland forest and <em>Shorea laevifolia</em> forest.
37188		distribution	eng	Sarawak and west Sabah. The collection from West Kalimantan is doubtful.
37188		habitat	eng	A variety found in primary lowland and lower montane forest.
37189		distribution	eng	This variety is known only from the type collected in west Sabah and one other dubious collection from East Kalimantan.
37189		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37190		distribution	eng	Known from just two collections.
37190		habitat	eng	A variety found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
37191		distribution	eng	A species known from five localities.
37191		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37192		distribution	eng	It is known from five collections from Pahang and Johore and from a single sterile collection from Jambi, Sumatra.
37192		habitat	eng	A rare tree of lowland primary forest and swamp forest.
37193		distribution	eng	A small tree found only once in Sarawak. In addition, three slightly different collections have been identified as this species. They may represent intermediates between <em>H. paucinervis</em> and <em>H. gracilis</em>.
37193		habitat	eng	Primary lowland forest.
37194		distribution	eng	There are 8 collections in total.
37194		habitat	eng	A rare tree found growing in lowland primary mixed dipterocarp forest and swamp forest.
37195		distribution	eng	This variety is found in Sarawak, Sabah and East Kalimantan.
37195		habitat	eng	Lowland mixed forest.
37196		distribution	eng	This species is apparently endemic to the Cameron Highlands, from where it has been collected three times.
37196		habitat	eng	Lower montane forest on granite and in ridge forest.
37198		distribution	eng	Only three collections are known, two from east Sarawak and one from Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah.
37198		habitat	eng	Montane forest species.
37199		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Sulawesi.
37199		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to primary and disturbed forest on ultrabasic soil.
37200		habitat	eng	This variety is known from only two collections.
37201		distribution	eng	Restricted to west and central Java, this variety has been collected just five times.
37201		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
37202		distribution	eng	A locally common understorey shrub or small tree restricted to the Western Province and known only from three collections.
37203		distribution	eng	Collected two or three times.
37203		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub from lowland primary rainforest.
37205		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection from Fraser's Hill.
37206		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type collection, gathered in East Kalimantan, and from some doubtful specimens from Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei.
37207		distribution	eng	It is known from seven collections from Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
37207		habitat	eng	A tree found in primary dry montane forest.
37208		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from four collections from Borneo.
37208		habitat	eng	It is found in forest on hills and ridges.
37209		distribution	eng	A small slender tree known only from the type collection from the Ulu Endau Forest  Reserve.
37210		distribution	eng	Known from four collections in Bacan, Obi and Buru Islands.
37210		habitat	eng	A small tree, found on limestone.
37211		distribution	eng	This subspecies is locally common in forest on Morotai Island of the Moluccas and is also known from the Vogelkop Peninsula, Irian Jaya. It has been collected 5 times.
37212		distribution	eng	This subspecies is locally common on the northern Moluccan Islands (Sula, Halmaheira and Obi).
37212		habitat	eng	Lowland well-drained forest.
37213		distribution	eng	Mainly known from Mindanao Island of the Philippines and the Moluccas, but also known from a deviating specimen from south-east Kalimantan.
37213		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in well-drained forest.
37214		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from Bacan Island.
37214		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
37215		distribution	eng	Vogelkop peninsula  and Waigeo Island, Irian Jaya and Obi Island of the Moluccas. It is locally common along creeks on Waigeo Island, Irian Jaya.
37215		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in hillside and riverine forest over limestone.
37216		distribution	eng	A subspecies found throughout the Lesser Sunda Islands and Moloccas in forest areas.
37217		distribution	eng	This subspecies, known from five collections, is found in south-west New Guinea and in Aru and Pulau Wokam Islands of the Moluccas.
37217		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37219		distribution	eng	So far the species is known from four collections, all from Halmaheira and Obi.
37219		habitat	eng	Solitary trees are found in both open and dense primary forest.
37220		distribution	eng	A distinctive solitary tree, known only from the type collection.
37220		habitat	eng	Found in disturbed lowland forest with little undergrowth.
37220		threats	eng	The lowland forest in Bacan is rapidly disappearing.
37221		distribution	eng	It is locally common in Gunung Sangawo of Morotai Island and it has also been found on Halmaheira and Bacan Islands.
37221		habitat	eng	A species found in submontane rainforest on volcanic ridges.
37222		distribution	eng	Vogelkop peninsula and nearby islands of Irian Jaya, and on the Moluccan islands of Ceram, Obi and Morotai.
37222		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland and submontane forest over limestone.
37224		distribution	eng	Known only from four collections, this small tree is found locally in Mission Beach area of north-east Queensland.
37224		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37225		distribution	eng	A locally common subspecies, described recently, in the north-west Northern Territory, including Melville Island.
37225		habitat	eng	Found in lowland rainforest, monsoon forest and riparian evergreen vine forest.
37227		distribution	eng	This tree appears to be restricted to the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides.  It has been split into four forms: forma <em>procera</em>, forma <em>platyphylla</em>, forma <em>mesophylla</em> and forma <em>nanophylla</em>.
37227		habitat	eng	Usually found growing in lowland forest on well-drained soils, but sometimes found in alluvial forest or swamp forest.
37228		distribution	eng	Endemic to the islands of Guadalcanal, Rennell and Malaita.
37228		habitat	eng	A tree found in well-drained primary and secondary forest.
37229		distribution	eng	Restricted to Guadalcanal and San Cristóbal.
37229		habitat	eng	A tree locally common in well-drained forest.
37230		distribution	eng	It is known from only two collections, both from Choiseul.
37230		habitat	eng	A primary forest tree, possibly restricted to ultrabasic soils.
37232		distribution	eng	Islands of Santa Ysabel, San Cristóbal and Guadalcanal.
37232		habitat	eng	A tree that occurs in well-drained forest and ridge forest up to 250 m.
37233		distribution	eng	A forest tree known only from two collections: Santa Ysabel and Big Nggela Island.
37235		distribution	eng	Vanua Levu Islands in Fij and east, north-east and Vanikoro of the Santa Cruz Islands.
37235		habitat	eng	This tree is found in both primary and secondary well-drained forest.
37237		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections from the Arfak Mts. in north-east Vogelkop Peninsula.
37237		habitat	eng	A small montane forest tree.
37238		distribution	eng	The type specimen is the only known collection of the tree. It was gathered near the border of Papua New Guinea in south-eastern Irian Jaya.
37238		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37240		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to Manus Island and the Bismarck Archipelago.
37240		habitat	eng	This variety is found in lowland forest near rivers over limestone.
37241		distribution	eng	The type species was gathered in 1955 in logged-over forest near the Seribi River in the Gulf Province. It is the only known collection of the species.
37242		distribution	eng	A small tree collected only on one occasion in tall foothill forest in the Central Province.
37243		distribution	eng	Known from only two collections from the Northern Province.
37243		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest.
37244		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection of 1968 in West Sepik Province.
37244		habitat	eng	This species occurs in degraded Fagaceous forest.
37245		distribution	eng	A species which provisionally unites three collections until further material becomes available. So far its distribution is restricted to the Vogelkop Peninsula.
37245		habitat	eng	Primary forest.
37246		distribution	eng	Mount Suckling, Milne Bay Province. It is known from only two collections.
37246		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in open montane <em>Araucaria</em> forest near creeks.
37247		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from the coastal mountains of northern Irian Jaya.
37247		habitat	eng	A primary forest subspecies.
37248		distribution	eng	Occurring on the northern side of the main range. It is known from four collections.
37248		habitat	eng	A tree of primary montane forest.
37249		distribution	eng	Collected three times, this species is locally common in the upper Sepik River region of Sepik Province.
37249		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary forest.
37250		distribution	eng	This tree is locally endemic to the Buso River area of the Morobe Province. It has been collected six times.
37250		habitat	eng	Coastal swamp forest, river flat forest and lowland secondary forest.
37251		distribution	eng	Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea.
37251		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree found in lowland forest.
37252		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from the type collection taken from the Kebar Valley in the Vogelkop Peninsula.
37252		habitat	eng	Found in old primary forest.
37253		distribution	eng	Collected four times from localities near Isuarava and Lala, Central Province.
37253		habitat	eng	A subspecies of primary and secondary montane forest.
37254		distribution	eng	East Sepik, Gulf and Madang Provinces, known only from four collections.
37254		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in foothill and montane forest.
37255		distribution	eng	West Irian Jaya.
37255		habitat	eng	A small tree found only once in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.
37256		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from the type specimen, collected from the lower Lorentz River in south-west Irian Jaya.
37257		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type specimen collected on Rossel Island.
37257		threats	eng	This island has a fragile ecosystem, with very poor soils, which is possibly threatened by gold and copper mining and logging.
37258		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, this species occurs in Kiunga, Western Province.
37258		habitat	eng	Seasonally inundated swamp forest.
37259		distribution	eng	This subspecies has been further split into two varieties: var. <em>papuana</em> and var. <em>foremaniana</em>. The variety <em>foremaniana</em> is only known from the type collected in forest in Madang Province.
37260		distribution	eng	South-east Irian Jaya, the Western Province and possibly West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.
37260		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland rainforest.
37261		distribution	eng	A tentative new subspecies described from one specimen in Southern Highlands Province.
37261		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary forest over limestone.
37262		distribution	eng	It has only been collected only twice from the Kuper Range area of the Morobe Province.
37262		habitat	eng	A subcanopy species, occurring as solitary trees in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.
37263		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality, near Busilmin, West Sepik Province.
37263		habitat	eng	The species occurs in secondary regrowth at medium elevation.
37264		distribution	eng	A single locality exists on mainland Irian Jaya and three collections come from Japen Island.
37264		habitat	eng	The species is reported to be locally common in primary forest.
37265		distribution	eng	A variety known from two collections, along the Bodem River, Irian Jaya and East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.
37265		habitat	eng	Occurring in primary forest.
37266		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from the southern border between Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea.
37266		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in disturbed forest or semi-swamp in valley forest.
37267		distribution	eng	A large tree known from two collections in south-east Irian Jaya.
37267		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
37268		distribution	eng	A small tree, known from four collections, locally endemic to forest in the Central and Milne Bay Provinces.
37269		distribution	eng	Known only from four collections from near Amazon Bay, Central Province.
37269		habitat	eng	An understorey rainforest tree.
37270		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, the tree was discovered in the Kiunga area, Western Province.
37270		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37271		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from the type collection. It was found on Mt. Don of Rossel Island.
37271		habitat	eng	Lowland hill forest.
37271		threats	eng	Rossel Island has quite a fragile ecosystem with very poor soils; possible threats include mining and logging.
37272		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type locality on Mt. Dayman, Milne Bay Province.
37272		habitat	eng	Oak forest.
37273		distribution	eng	A small tree found only once near Ingambit in the Western Province, near the border with Irian Jaya.
37273		habitat	eng	Valley forest.
37274		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from a site at the junction of the Ugat and Mayu Rivers in Milne Bay Province.
37274		habitat	eng	<em>Castanopsis</em> forest.
37275		distribution	eng	Restricted to Goodenough Island, where it has been collected twice. The D'Entrecasteaux Islands harbour many locally endemic species and require botanical investigation.
37275		habitat	eng	A canopy or subcanopy tree.
37276		distribution	eng	An endemic to Manus Island, this tree has been collected twice.
37276		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37277		distribution	eng	A small tree, endemic to Morobe Province, where it has been collected twice.
37277		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest and logged forest.
37278		distribution	eng	The only specimen of this understorey tree was collected in 1908 in forest near Pema, Morobe Province.
37279		distribution	eng	The sole collection of this tree was gathered at Modewa Bay, Milne Bay Province.
37279		habitat	eng	Riverine rainforest.
37280		distribution	eng	A total of five collections have been gathered from Morobe Province.
37280		habitat	eng	This understorey tree grows in  <em>Castanopsis</em> forest.
37281		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Sogeri region of Central Province, it has been collected twice in foothill forest.
37281		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree in foothill forest.
37282		distribution	eng	It is known from five collections.
37282		habitat	eng	This variety is found in montane <em>Nothofagus</em> or <em>Castanopsis</em> forest.
37283		distribution	eng	A variety known from three disjunct localities of forest in the Vogelkop Peninsula, Irian Jaya, and Western and Sepik Provinces, Papua New Guinea.
37284		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality in the Gulf Province.
37284		habitat	eng	A small tree, near streamside in lowland rainforest.
37286		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to the Tamrau Range of the northern Vogelkop Peninsula, where it has been collected twice.
37286		habitat	eng	Primary oak forest.
37287		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from Fergusson Island and a single collection from Rossel Island.
37287		habitat	eng	A subspecies of hill forest.
37288		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Jayapura area, this small tree has been collected twice.
37288		habitat	eng	Lowland periodically flooded forest.
37289		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from two collections, one in south-east Irian Jaya and the other in south-west Papua New Guinea.
37289		habitat	eng	Secondary forest.
37290		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection from Sudest (Tagula) Island and from one or two collections from Rossel Island.
37290		habitat	eng	A subcanopy tree of lowland forest.
37291		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to the West Sepik and Western Provinces, where it has been collected five times.
37291		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
37293		distribution	eng	East Highlands Province, where it has been collected twice, and possibly Sepik Province.
37293		habitat	eng	This subspecies is restricted to mixed primary montane forest.
37294		distribution	eng	This subspecies has been collected five times from the northern slopes of New Guinea.
37295		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in Sarmi, northern Irian Jaya.
37295		habitat	eng	An understorey tree from mixed primary lowland forest.
37296		distribution	eng	Known from five collections from the Vogelkop and Bombarai Peninsulas.
37296		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in secondary forest on limestone.
37297		distribution	eng	This variety is known from only four collections on the Vogelkop peninsula.
37297		habitat	eng	Gathered in forest on bedrock.
37298		distribution	eng	This subspecies is newly described, based on three herbarium specimens on the islands of Luzon and Sibuyan.
37298		habitat	eng	It is found in lower montane forest.
37299		distribution	eng	The only species in the genus to be found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It has been collected a total of eight times, three times in the nineteenth century.
37299		habitat	eng	A handsome tree of evergreen hill forest, rainforest or mixed forest.
37300		distribution	eng	A newly described tree known only from the type collected from Basilan Island in 1912.
37301		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats in the Tinnevelly District. This subspecies has been collected only twice.
37301		habitat	eng	Wet evergreen forest.
37302		distribution	eng	Kerala and East Madras. Only five collections are known.
37302		habitat	eng	This tree is found in montane wet and relatively dry evergreen forest.
37303		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Palanan area of north-east Luzon, this recently described tree has been collected three times.
37303		habitat	eng	Lowland forest over ultrabasic soil.
37304		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from Brunei and four collections from Sabah.
37304		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland primary forest and logged-over forest.
37305		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to lowland primary mixed dipterocarp forest.
37306		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Sulawesi, this tree has been collected three times from the area north of Lake Matano.
37306		habitat	eng	Forest on ultrabasic rock.
37307		distribution	eng	Five collections have been gathered from Sarawak, a single collection is known from Brunei and two collections have come from central and east Kalimantan.
37307		habitat	eng	A species of lowland primary forest.
37309		distribution	eng	Found on the islands of Luzon, Leyte and Mindoro. It is known from five collections.
37309		habitat	eng	An understorey tree, of primary and disturbed lowland forest.
37310		distribution	eng	Found in central and south-west Sulawesi, known only from four collections.
37310		habitat	eng	A primary forest tree.
37311		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from only two collections from forest on Mt. Sohoton, Samar Island.
37312		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection from south Surigao, north-east Mindanao.
37312		habitat	eng	Found in hillside forest.
37313		distribution	eng	This forest tree is known only from three collections from the islands of Luzon and Biliran.
37314		distribution	eng	Agastyamalai Hills. There are also two records of the species occurring in northern Kerala and North Kanara in Karnataka. Very little of the habitat remains.
37314		habitat	eng	A large tree and dominant component of a restricted area of lowland evergreen swamp forest.
37315		distribution	eng	A newly described subspecies, known only from three collections from Sarawak.
37317		distribution	eng	Discovered in 1990, this tree is known only from the type collection found in the Ruwa catchment area of Ceram.
37318		distribution	eng	A tree restricted to Samar and Mindanao and known from only two herbarium specimens.
37319		conservation	eng	The main island is a biosphere reserve.
37319		distribution	eng	So far this variety is known only from three collections from Palawan.
37319		habitat	eng	Occurs in stunted montane rainforest, sometimes on ultrabasic rock.
37320		distribution	eng	Islands of Palawan, Mindoro and Leyte. It is known from a total of only five collections.
37320		habitat	eng	A newly described variety found in rainforest, montane and ridge forest.
37322		distribution	eng	Flores Island. It has been collected a total of nine times.
37322		habitat	eng	This variety is confined to montane forest.
37324		distribution	eng	To date it is known from west and north-east Kalimantan and west Sarawak.
37324		habitat	eng	A forest tree, usually found on limestone.
37325		distribution	eng	Found on the Moluccan islands of Obi, Morotai and East Ceram.
37325		habitat	eng	A lowland subspecies.
37326		distribution	eng	A solitary species, known from a single collection on Bacan Island.
37326		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37327		distribution	eng	Central Sulawesi. It has been collected four times.
37327		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to forest over ultrabasic (nickel) soils.
37328		distribution	eng	A tree currently known only from two collections from the lower eastern slopes of the Andes at the rim of the Amazon basin. The type was collected in central Peru and the other specimen is from southern Ecuador. The area is botanically undercollected.
37329		conservation	eng	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
37329		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known only from the type (in Pichincha province). Discovered by V. Zak in 1986, along the Quito-San Juan de Chiriboga-El Empalme road at kilometer 59, 16 km northeast of the main road, in a forest fragment. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
37329		habitat	eng	A tree found in low Andean forest (1,700–2,000 m).
37329		threats	eng	Road construction in the area has been responsible for the removal of a considerable area of forest. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
37330		conservation	eng	Not collected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
37330		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes. Apparently restricted to the Bosque Protector Maquipucuna, in northwestern Pichincha province. Grows along the Río Tulambi, to the northeast of Loma Cachillacta and Cerro Santa Lucia.
37330		habitat	eng	A tree found in low Andean secondary forest (1,000–2,000 m).
37330		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
37331		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is confirmed in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
37331		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from six subpopulations (in Carchi, Imbabura, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). One subpopulation is confirmed in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus; others are along roads and around towns.
37331		habitat	eng	An understorey shrub, treelet or tree found in high Andean forest to humid paramo (2,000–3,500 m). Possibly persists or thrives in disturbed forests.
37331		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
37333		conservation	eng	Known to occur in inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
37333		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from the 1988 type collection (in Napo province). The type locale is Challua Yacu, near the Volcán Sumaco, along the road between the Río Hollín and Loreto, and inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
37333		habitat	eng	A tree found in lower montane Amazonian forest (1,000–1,500 m).
37333		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
37334		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality, on Waigeo Island, where it is locally common.
37334		habitat	eng	This small tree is found in open woodland.
37335		distribution	eng	To date this tree has been collected only three times from a single locality.
37335		habitat	eng	Dry montane forest.
37336		distribution	eng	Collected only three times.
37336		habitat	eng	The species occurs in secondary and primary montane forest.
37337		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two collections from Penang Island.
37337		habitat	eng	Primary and disturbed forest.
37338		distribution	eng	Endemic to Papua New Guinea, this tree has been collected twice.
37338		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary montane forest.
37339		distribution	eng	Central and south-east Sulawesi. The species is only recently described and is known from three collections.
37339		habitat	eng	A treelet restricted to the coralline limestone or serpentine soils.
37340		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality, Mount Bulusan on Luzon.
37340		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
37341		distribution	eng	Found on the islands of Catanduances, Luzon, Leyte and Surigao.
37341		habitat	eng	A tree of hill forest between 150 and 525 m.
37342		distribution	eng	A tree, known only from the type collection. It is apparently endemic to Davao Province of Mindanao Island.
37342		habitat	eng	Found in forest on deep rich soils at an altitude of 40 m.
37343		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Sibuyan Island, this tree has been collected only once.
37343		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
37344		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to the Philippines, so far found only on Samar and Leyte Islands.
37345		distribution	eng	Restricted to Samar Island. It has been collected only three times.
37345		habitat	eng	Restricted to Samar Island, this small evergreen tree occurs in dipterocarp forest on river banks between altitudes of 100 and 250 m.
37346		distribution	eng	Occurring in Luzon and Mindanao, this tree is known only from three herbarium specimens.
37346		habitat	eng	Found in forest in the foothills of mountains.
37347		distribution	eng	Found in Johore in Peninsular Malaysia, Kalong and Marundi in Sarawak and in west, east and south Kalimantan.
37347		habitat	eng	An evergreen tree of swamp and montane forest.
37348		distribution	eng	A rare tree restricted to Mindanao, Samar, Leyte and Luzon.
37348		habitat	eng	Primary dipterocarp forest.
37349		distribution	eng	This forest species is endemic to Luzon and known only from one or two collections.
37350		distribution	eng	Luzon and Polillo. It is known only from five collections.
37350		habitat	eng	A small tree found in secondary forest.
37351		distribution	eng	Restricted to Timor and Flores, this small tree is known only from six collections.
37352		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a total of seven collections from Luzon, Mindanao and Sabtang.
37352		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in logged-over forest.
37353		distribution	eng	Known only from four herbarium specimens, this small tree is confined to Luzon and Samar.
37353		habitat	eng	Primary dipterocarp forest.
37354		distribution	eng	An extremely localised species known only from four collections near the Buso River.
37354		habitat	eng	From lowland rainforest and advanced secondary forest.
37354		threats	eng	Large areas of lowland forest in Papua New Guinea are threatened by increased logging activity.
37355		distribution	eng	The only record of this species is the type specimen collected in 1890 in Gulf Province. Despite the area being relatively well studied, it has not been recorded since.
37356		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, this small tree is endemic to Waigeo Island, which is an undercollected area.
37358		distribution	eng	A tree known from 2 collections, both from Morotai Island.
37359		distribution	eng	A very localised tree, collected twice in the 1940s, found in Jayapura.
37359		habitat	eng	Rainforest on river banks.
37360		distribution	eng	To date there are just two collections from the 1950-'60s.
37360		habitat	eng	Understorey tree of alluvial swamp.
37360		threats	eng	The area is not under threat but it is not well visited by botanists.
37361		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections from the early 1900s.
37361		habitat	eng	This small tree is found in the rainforest/savannah transition zone on steep ground and in old secondary forest.
37362		distribution	eng	Endemic to Luzon, this forest species, known from 19 specimens, has not been collected since the 1940s.
37363		distribution	eng	Confined to the Milne Bay province on Normanby Island, this tree is known from only four collections to date.
37364		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type specimen, collected in west New Britain.
37364		habitat	eng	<em>Casuarina rumphiana</em>-dominated montane forest.
37365		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub endemic to Palawan, where it has been collected only a few times.
37365		habitat	eng	Lowland forest on ultrabasic rock and in stunted montane rainforest.
37366		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from three collections in the Southern Division of Irian Jaya and the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. These areas are underexplored.
37366		habitat	eng	Found in lowland secondary forest.
37367		distribution	eng	This species was found only once in the Ilocos Norte province of Luzon.
37367		habitat	eng	Dry slopes.
37368		distribution	eng	It is known from a total of seven collections from the islands of Ambon, Buru, Ceram and Obi.
37368		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to the transitional area between coral sand beach and open forest on nickel-rich soils.
37369		distribution	eng	A shrubby tree only known from three disjunct collections in an area which is underexplored.
37370		distribution	eng	To date this species is known only from three collections in Milne Bay Province in Rossel Island. There has been little collecting from this island.
37370		habitat	eng	Secondary hill rainforest.
37371		distribution	eng	Confined to the diminishing forests of Luzon. It has not been collected since the 1960s-'70s.
37371		habitat	eng	A secondary forest tree.
37372		distribution	eng	Morobe province. It has been collected only twice.
37372		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree restricted to primary montane forest.
37373		distribution	eng	Found only on Mindanao Island. Collected only twice, it has not been recorded since the 1960s.
37373		habitat	eng	A tree of dense moist mossy forest.
37374		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from four collections.
37375		distribution	eng	Schouten and Japen Islands;  this small tree has been collected three times, most recently in 1945.
37375		habitat	eng	Restricted to secondary scrubby vegetation.
37376		distribution	eng	A large, very distinctive tree known only from a few collections near Tawau. There is a possibility that this species is extinct, as it is suspected that the locality has been deforested.
37378		distribution	eng	A small palmoid tree known only from the type collection from Madang province.
37379		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sulawesi, this small palmoid tree has been collected only a few times.
37380		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in the Northern Province.
37380		habitat	eng	This small palmoid tree occurs in <em>Euphorbia-Ficus</em> forest.
37381		habitat	eng	A rare understorey tree of lowland rainforest, often found on riverbanks and near swamps.
37382		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub known only from the type collection from Central Province.
37383		distribution	eng	Central Province;  known only from the type collection.
37383		habitat	eng	A small tree found in secondary vegetation.
37385		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type collection, gathered from West Highlands Province.
37386		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type collection, which was located near a dry creek in Central Province.
37386		habitat	eng	Scrub.
37387		distribution	eng	An tree from Western Province, known only from a single collection .
37387		habitat	eng	Understorey tree.
37388		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type collection from Mt. Bonthain.
37389		distribution	eng	A small tree which is confined to a few locations in the greatly diminished lowland coastal forests of Java. It is known from 10 collections, most of which are from the early 1900s; the last collection was made in 1960. Populations are found in Ujung Kulon National Park and on Nusa Kambangan, an island which is controlled by the Prison Service.
37389		habitat	eng	Lowland coastal forests.
37389		threats	eng	Despite the very limited access to the island, the vegetation is threatened by timber thieves who are removing timber regardless of the armed guard patrol.
37390		distribution	eng	Mindanao Island in the Philippines, and north and central Sulawesi. There have been no recent collections from the Philippines and only a few new collections from Sulawesi. Central Sulawesi has the largest tract of forest on ultrabasic rock in the tropics.
37390		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in primary and secondary forest on volcanic and ultrabasic soils.
37391		distribution	eng	A very rare forest tree known from only five collections from Luzon, Mindoro, Sibuyan and Mindanao Islands.
37392		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to forest on Mt. Pulog and Mt. Tabayog on Luzon. Despite Mt. Pulog being relatively well explored, the species remains poorly known and has been collected only three times, most recently in 1968.
37393		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam.
37393		habitat	eng	This taxon is scattered in secondary forest and on forest edges especially near streams in several provinces. It is also planted in major cities.
37394		habitat	eng	A species of medium- to high-altitude mixed forest.
37395		distribution	eng	this large-flowered and conspicuous species is known from only a few locations in Loreto, including  Alexander von Humboldt National Forest, and in Beni and Pando. A collection of doubtful identity has also been found in Manabí in Ecuador.
37395		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist lowland forest.
37396		distribution	eng	So far only three locations are known. Localities include Río Zubineta in Loreto, Peru, and Rio Envira in Amazonas, Brazil. Each subpopulation in each country is notably distinct.
37396		habitat	eng	Várzea forest or rainforest at the mouth of rivers.
37397		distribution	eng	The complete distribution of the species is not consolidated. It occurs for certain in the western Amazon. In Peru subpopulations have been recorded in Iparía in Huánuco National Forest, near Vitoc in Junín, and in three locations near rivers in Loreto. A subpopulation occurs along Rio Japurá in Amazonas in Brazil. Specimens with some similarities have been collected in two locations in the Peruvian Andes.
37397		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37398		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few collections, each so different that they may be worthy of distinction. In Ecuador the species is found in the Cordillera de Cutucu. In Peru it has been collected from a location near Quebrada, from Cajamarca and from three locations in Pasco.
37398		habitat	eng	Populations are found in pastureland or primary forest.
37399		distribution	eng	There is some question over the existence of this large forest tree in the wild. A subpopulation is known from an area between Semarang and Yogyakarta in central Java. There are also possible occurrences in Madura, Java, Bali and Sumatra and perhaps further afield.
37399		habitat	eng	In Java encroaching agriculture and logging have almost completely eradicated lowland forest. This species is obviously highly valued for its fruit, which appears in large quantities in local markets.
37400		distribution	eng	Endemic to west Java, the species is known only from a 1975 collection made in the Ciapus Gorge on Mt. Salak near Bogor city. More information is needed on its present status.
37401		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout Java and also in Bali.
37401		threats	eng	Most of the forests in lowland areas have been cleared.
37402		distribution	eng	This species is confined to west Java.
37402		threats	eng	Most lowland forest has been cleared and population pressure continues to be the greatest threat to remaining forested areas.
37403		distribution	eng	This species is confined to west Java.
37403		threats	eng	Most lowland forest has been cleared and population pressure continues to be the greatest threat to remaining forested areas.
37404		distribution	eng	A species distributed throughout Java.
37404		threats	eng	Most forest in lowland areas has been cleared and population pressure continues to be the greatest threat to remaining forested areas.
37405		distribution	eng	It is not known whether the species is still extant in the wild. The only known location, which was situated in a seasonally dry area in Pugur in the Lampesan Valley and Watangan Hills, is now deforested.
37405		threats	eng	Intense population pressure has been the main cause of habitat loss.
37406		distribution	eng	The only known locations of this species are in Nusa Barung and Puger, nearby on the mainland.
37406		threats	eng	The whole of Barung is actually a nature reserve but there is evidence of disturbance caused by illegal logging. Encroachment and habitat clearance threaten the mainland population.
37407		conservation	eng	An area of 60 km² on Mt. Lawu is being proposed as a nature reserve.
37407		distribution	eng	The only known location of this species is on Mt. Lawu.
37407		habitat	eng	Forest from 1,500 to 1,700 m.
37407		threats	eng	Pressures of encroachment and cutting are severe.
37408		distribution	eng	Known from subpopulations near Pelabuhan Ratu and a formerly forested area near Pringombo. The current status of these subpopulations is unknown.
37408		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
37408		threats	eng	Subpopulations are bound to be affected by the almost complete clearance of their habitat.
37409		distribution	eng	This species has not been collected since the last century; it occurred near Meru Betiri National Park. Given the extent of habitat loss, it is very likely that the species is now extinct.
37409		habitat	eng	It occurred in lowland forest.
37409		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
37410		distribution	eng	Little is known about this species other than that it was collected only once before 1850, probably from forest in west Java. Given the extent of habitat clearance, it is very likely this species is now extinct.
37410		threats	eng	Habitat clearance.
37411		distribution	eng	A species known from a single specimen, collected from Mt. Payung in Ujung Kulon National Park. It is not known whether the species is now extinct.
37412		distribution	eng	Little is known about this species which is endemic to central Java, but it is believed to be seriously endangered.
37412		habitat	eng	There are intense pressures on remaining areas of natural vegetation.
37414		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ujung Kulon and Sukawayana, a remnant of forest near Pelabuhan Ratu.
37414		threats	eng	The Ujung Kulon population occurs in a national park but continues to be threatened by illegal logging, fuelwood collection and agricultural encroachment. The latter is unprotected and under intense pressure.
37415		distribution	eng	It is known from just two upland locations in the region of Kouaoua at Mé Ori and Aréha.
37415		habitat	eng	On ultramafic soils.
37415		threats	eng	The area is unprotected and exposed to threats from mining activities, fires and habitat clearance.
37416		distribution	eng	It is known from just two collections from the Kouaoua area.
37416		habitat	eng	Only a small tree or shrub in relict lowland forests and maquis on ultramafic substrate.
37416		threats	eng	The area is unprotected and exposed to threats from fire, mining activities and habitat clearance.
37417		distribution	eng	Found on Mt. Panié; collected infrequently
37417		habitat	eng	A small tree from wooded slopes at various altitudes.
37417		threats	eng	Although the area is given the status of a botanical reserve, it is thought that these plant populations are given insufficient protection.
37419		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area.
37419		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Historically, it was present between Noumea and Paita, and was also was recorded 90 km north in Bourail and on Pine Island. However, the two unique (wild) collections from Noumea date back to 1981 and 1969; they both come from the Promenade Pierre Vernier that is a very busy pedestrian trail from where <em>Acropogon</em> has obviously disappeared today. The locality of Noumea should probably not be considered as valid anymore. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,506 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 60 km².
37419		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal forests and calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <em>Acropogon bullatus</em> prefers the proximity of the sea; it mostly grows in the littoral parts of dry forests.
37419		population	eng	Population size is unknown. The species is known to occur in 13 distinct locations and is never abundant.
37419		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. The subpopulation mentioned from Noumea has probably disappeared due to intense urbanization of the city and its suburbs.
37424		conservation	eng	None for the moment.
37424		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is only present in the south part of the main island (Grande Terre) and has a fragmented distribution. It is found between Paita and Dumbea, then in Bourail, Farino and Canala. Distances between sites are 70, 30 and 32 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,063 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
37424		habitat	eng	It is known from dry forests and mesic forests. There's a need to clarify habitat and ecology of this species.
37424		population	eng	The population size is unknown but the species is never common and only known from a few herbarium specimens.
37424		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
37429		habitat	eng	A small tree or treelet of wet thickets within thin forest or in second growth, principally in the Atlantic lowlands.
37429		threats	eng	The habitat is reduced through conversion to agriculture.
37430		distribution	eng	Although widespread, the species is never abundant.
37430		habitat	eng	Occurring in remaining areas of lowland rainforest and thickets, often in marshy places.
37431		habitat	eng	An uncommon species of humid forest, occurring at medium elevation.
37432		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of submontane pine-dominated humid forest.
37432		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this variety is frequent fires.
37433		habitat	eng	A tree of open forest on dry lowland plains.
37433		threats	eng	Frequently affected by fires.
37434		habitat	eng	A rare species of wet lowland forest.
37435		distribution	eng	A species of doubtful nomenclature.
37435		habitat	eng	Known only from an area of dry submontane forest.
37436		distribution	eng	Its nomenclatural status is somewhat uncertain.
37436		habitat	eng	A tree of humid forest at high elevations.
37437		distribution	eng	Occurring on the Pacific coast.
37437		habitat	eng	A scarce species of lowland dry forest.
37437		threats	eng	Fires and encroaching agriculture are frequent threats.
37438		distribution	eng	A tree restricted to the Atlantic drainage, occurring at low to middle elevations.
37439		distribution	eng	An endemic species.
37439		habitat	eng	Found along rocky streams in dry forest at middle elevations.
37440		distribution	eng	A scarce species, collected only once in Honduras from a locality.
37440		habitat	eng	Atlantic wet lowlands.
37441		distribution	eng	A species known from small subpopulations.
37441		habitat	eng	Lowland wet mixed forest.
37443		habitat	eng	A tree of high-elevation cloud forest.
37445		habitat	eng	A lowland tree of dry rocky hillsides.
37446		distribution	eng	A species of the dry Atlantic lowlands. There are doubts surrounding the nomenclature.
37447		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in mixed forest types of varying humidity.
37448		distribution	eng	A rarely collected tree.
37448		habitat	eng	Found in groves near river banks and on forested plains at medium elevation.
37449		distribution	eng	Only a small population is known, occurring in the wet Atlantic lowlands.
37451		distribution	eng	A tree confined to the wet Atlantic lowlands.
37451		threats	eng	It has experienced gradual habitat loss to encroaching agriculture.
37452		distribution	eng	A tree found in thicket on lowland plains, sometimes along rocky creeks or on hillsides.
37453		distribution	eng	A rarely collected tree.
37453		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
37454		habitat	eng	This tree occurs on rocky wooded river banks and open areas in pine-oak forest.
37455		distribution	eng	The species is mainly known from the critically endangered population in Honduras. The distribution apparently extends to southern Mexico.
37455		habitat	eng	Occurring in medium to high elevation mixed forest.
37457		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree of the Atlantic lowlands.
37459		distribution	eng	Confined to the wet Caribbean lowlands, the species is scattered in sparse subpopulations, including a rare occurrence in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.
37460		habitat	eng	The species occurs in moist lowland thickets, often in secondary growth.
37461		habitat	eng	Mainly occurring at middle and upper elevations of mountain slopes, the species is found in areas of rainforest or cloud forest.
37462		distribution	eng	Occurring in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.
37462		habitat	eng	A tree of the wet Atlantic lowlands.
37463		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to mixed rainforest on Atlantic slopes.
37464		distribution	eng	A rarely collected species, of somewhat uncertain nomenclature.
37465		distribution	eng	Collected only once in Honduras. Its occurrence in Guatemala is uncertain.
37465		habitat	eng	A species of moist forest.
37465		threats	eng	Various developments are causing considerable loss of habitat.
37466		distribution	eng	A rarely collected species.
37466		habitat	eng	Lowland moist forest.
37468		habitat	eng	A tree of the wet Atlantic lowlands.
37469		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to high-altitude pine forest.
37470		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in damp thickets in the Atlantic lowlands.
37471		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland damp forest, sometimes pine forest on Atlantic slopes.
37473		distribution	eng	In Honduras this species has been collected only once.
37473		habitat	eng	Submontane pine forest.
37474		habitat	eng	A tree of wet forest and thickets in the Atlantic lowlands.
37475		habitat	eng	A species of moist forest or thickets in ravines or sometimes dry hillsides.
37476		distribution	eng	A species of uncertain nomenclature, found mainly on the Caribbean side.
37476		habitat	eng	Monsoon forest and semi-evergreen forest.
37477		distribution	eng	Found on both sides of the continental divide.
37477		habitat	eng	This species occurs in monsoon or semi-evergreen forest and cloud forest.
37478		habitat	eng	A species of wet mixed forest, occurring at medium to high elevations.
37479		conservation	eng	Trees are occasionally cultivated for the production of pods.
37479		distribution	eng	Geographically restricted, both the varieties of this species are known from only a few wild subpopulations.
37479		threats	eng	Grazing pressure and the harvesting of pods for their edible seeds put considerable pressure on the remaining subpopulations.
37480		conservation	eng	Trees are occasionally cultivated for the production of pods.
37480		distribution	eng	The more restricted in range of the two varieties of this Mexican endemic. Few wild subpopulations are known.
37480		threats	eng	There are strong pressures from grazing and collection of the pods for their edible seeds.
37481		conservation	eng	Trees are often protected within the traditional agricultural system.
37481		habitat	eng	A species confined to the forest understorey within a restricted range. It is only occasionally found outside forest areas.
37481		threats	eng	Grazing pressures have reduced the species distribution to less accessible areas.
37482		distribution	eng	A species restricted in range, low in numbers.
37482		threats	eng	Generally reduced to inaccessible areas because of the pressures of constant grazing.
37483		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known but seemingly very restricted in range. During the last 50 years it has been recorded from a single site in central Sonora.
37484		conservation	eng	The protection afforded the species within traditional agroforestry systems mitigates the threats to remaining stands.
37484		distribution	eng	A highly localised species confined to northern Honduras
37484		habitat	eng	Degraded forest.
37485		distribution	eng	The total population is restricted to fewer than 400 individuals, occupying an area of less than 400 km² in south-eastern Chiquimula.
37485		threats	eng	The species is unprotected and exposed to pressures of grazing and habitat degradation.
37486		habitat	eng	A species which is confined to a very small area of remaining dry forest.
37486		threats	eng	The stands are exposed to pressures from grazing and habitat degradation.
37487		distribution	eng	An endemic species of the Tehuacan Valley. It is never found in abundance.
37487		threats	eng	Subpopulations have been largely reduced to areas which escape from the pressure of grazing.
37488		conservation	eng	The species is frequently protected within traditional agroforestry systems.
37488		distribution	eng	The species occurs relatively commonly across southern Honduras and northern Nicaragua with a very restricted population in eastern El Salvador.
37488		threats	eng	The habitat is severely degraded in places.
37489		distribution	eng	A locally common species, restricted to a single locality on Bukit Irau in the Kebar Valley of the Vogelkop Peninsula.
37489		habitat	eng	Primary rainforest.
37489		threats	eng	Its restricted occurrence and narrow genetic base place the species in a precarious state.
37490		distribution	eng	A tree known from a single collection near the Tauri River in the Gulf province, which is outside the general range of <em>Nothofagus</em> in New Guinea. A future taxonomic revision may change the status of this species.
37490		habitat	eng	Mixed lower montane forest.
37491		distribution	eng	A common canopy tree, endemic to the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa area.
37492		distribution	eng	An apomictic species of the <em>S. latifolia</em> complex, arising from a cross between <em>S. aria</em> and <em>S. torminalis</em>.  Occurs in Burgberg, Thuringia State. At the beginning of the 19th century about 100 individuals were counted, but now only 50 individuals remain within an area of less than 100 km².
37492		habitat	eng	It is confined to submontane open woodland on one limestone hill.
37493		conservation	eng	Trees are protected and also cultivated in local agroforestry systems for the production of pods bearing edible seeds.
37493		distribution	eng	This subspecies is uncommon.
37493		threats	eng	Confined to a habitat which is restricted in extent and severely degraded.
37494		distribution	eng	A common species confined to Lopé Forest Reserve and a 50 km radius around the northern boundary.
37494		threats	eng	Part of the range is under concession to logging companies and there is concern over future plans for intensive logging. The species is notable in being wholly dependent on the lowland gorilla for seed dispersal.
37495		distribution	eng	An endemic species to Lopé Forest Reserve, extending about 100 km outside the reserve's boundaries.
37495		threats	eng	Part of the range is under concession to logging companies and there is concern over future plans for intensive logging.
37496		distribution	eng	A common tree confined to the central part of Lopé Forest Reserve, extending a few kilometers to the south.
37496		threats	eng	Part of the range is under concession to logging companies and there is concern over future plans for intensive logging.
37497		conservation	eng	A reintroduction progamme is being developed at Cordoba Botanic Garden.
37497		distribution	eng	Occurring in three mountain systems in Spain, the Sistema Central, Sierra Nevada and Sierra de Cazorla and possibly also the Sierra Moreno, and in the Rif Mountains in Morocco. The subpopulations are small and dispersed.
37497		habitat	eng	A species of dry montane woodland.
37497		threats	eng	The spread of housing developments, as well as decline in water availability, fires, cutting and tourism, pose serious threats.
37498		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are protected.
37498		distribution	eng	A taxon restricted to areas along Rio Estena in Montes de Toledo and to the Sierra de Río Frio in the Sierra Morena.
37498		habitat	eng	Lowland dry forest.
37498		threats	eng	Some subpopulations are exposed to housing and tourist developments, declines in water availability and fires.
37499		conservation	eng	Trees are legally protected throughout the range.
37499		distribution	eng	This species is present in a large part of the Iberian Peninsula. It is locally abundant, forming extensive woodlands in places.
37499		habitat	eng	Lowland dry forest up to 2,000 m.
37499		threats	eng	Subpopulations are exposed to overcutting, fires, expanding agriculture and declining water availability.
37500		conservation	eng	It is also legally protected in Spain.
37500		distribution	eng	The species is abundant over a relatively wide range.
37500		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist forest up to altitudes of 1,800 m.
37502		distribution	eng	A scarce species which is known only from the type locality on the island of Great Nicobar.
37502		habitat	eng	Lowland mixed dense rainforest.
37503		distribution	eng	Yet to be found in the wild, this species is cultivated widely in Sabah, Sarawak and also south Kalimantan and probably Sumatra.
37503		habitat	eng	It is adapted to wet lowland conditions and is best grown in areas without a pronounced dry season.
37505		distribution	eng	This massive tree is known only from the type locality in North Sumatra Leuser Nature Reserve.
37505		habitat	eng	Found in lowland rainforest at 400 m.
37506		distribution	eng	There is very little known about this species on the basis of a collection found in south-western Yunnan at 1,500 m. It is even doubtful that the specimen fits the limits of the genus <em>Mangifera</em>.
37507		distribution	eng	Restricted to Chiang Mai region in north Thailand.
37507		habitat	eng	This uncommon tree is found in montane, wet evergreen and deciduous forests.
37508		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Karimun Djawa Islands, north of Java. It is cultivated in south Sulawesi.
37509		distribution	eng	The species occurs commonly in Salem and Coorg Districts.
37509		habitat	eng	Remnants of shola forest.
37511		distribution	eng	The species is based on a sterile herbarium specimen collected from a mountain locality in Sikkim.
37513		distribution	eng	A tree known from two sterile herbarium collections from northern Sumatra and from dubious collections from Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah.
37513		habitat	eng	It is reported to be fairly common in well-drained rainforest at 900 m.
37514		distribution	eng	A distinctive tree, which superficially looks like a <em>Campnosperma</em> species. It is known from only a single sterile specimen collected in Purukcau near Kelaseh in south Kalimantan.
37514		habitat	eng	Well-drained wet evergreen forest at 260 m.
37514		threats	eng	The forest near Purukacau has been destroyed and the species may already be extinct.
37516		distribution	eng	A small tree found in the district of Funing in south-east Yunnan, south-west Guizhou and south Guangxi. It is frequently found or planted near villages.
37516		habitat	eng	It is frequently found or planted near villages.
37517		distribution	eng	Very little is known about this species.
37518		distribution	eng	The species was originally described in 1755 as a remarkable species with fruit hanging transversely off the stalks. It is recorded as being endemic to Banda-Neira Island and introduced to Amboina Island. In 1993, this species was described by Kostermans based on a small cultivated tree, which is reputed to be common on Banda-Neira Island.
37524		distribution	eng	A species known only from a single collection from Samar Island.
37527		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of this species are known to occur in forest reserves.
37534		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to the Philippines.
37534		habitat	eng	It grows in mixed dipterocarp forest and is confined to ridges in permanently wet areas.
37535		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to Borneo.
37535		habitat	eng	Grows in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 600 m.
37545		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to coastal Pahang and Trengganu.
37545		habitat	eng	Grows in forest on low hills.
37546		distribution	eng	A species found only on Vanua Lava Island and at Tisbel on Malekula Island in medium-altitude forest.
37547		distribution	eng	A species for which there is little information and few collections. It is found in the mountains in the west.
37548		distribution	eng	A species of coastal forest occurring in one location in eastern Cameroon and further south around Libreville in Gabon.  The present status of these subpopulations, if they are still extant, is uncertain.
37548		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
37548		threats	eng	There have been large declines in the extent of this habitat, mainly through logging.
37549		distribution	eng	The possible wild progenitor of cultivated durian.  The species can be locally common. There are possible occurrences in Sarawak and Brunei.
37550		distribution	eng	A small tree, which was relatively well collected on expeditions at the turn of the century and before.
37550		habitat	eng	In the present day it appears to be localised to a number of primary forest sites at high altitudes (>1,000 m).
37550		threats	eng	The bark is an important ingredient in a fortifying drink for swordfish hunters and also in an aphrodisiac drink. There is evidence that some trees are dying from overcollection of the bark.
37551		distribution	eng	Known from a few sites on Morro Claudino.
37551		habitat	eng	An upland forest tree found above 1,000 m.
37551		threats	eng	Regeneration is reported to be very feeble or non-existent in the 5 sites where it has been studied.
37552		distribution	eng	Relatively well collected, most recently in Diogo Vaz in 1972. The original forest habitat was extensively felled and cleared for agriculture in the first half of the century.
37552		habitat	eng	The species occurs on cultivated or abandoned plantations.
37553		conservation	eng	Trees must be planted if the resource is to be harvested sustainably over the long term (its fruit is edible and traded locally).
37553		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree collected numerous times.
37554		distribution	eng	Rarely collected, the taxon is known from two locations, S. Pedro and S. Nicolau. It is noticeably absent from recent collections, although large areas of Sâo Tomé remain to be explored.
37554		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
37556		conservation	eng	Protective measures are in place and a large-scale replanting programme has resulted in the establishment of 20 subpopulations of sub-adult trees. The species is interfertile with <em>B. lenta</em> and introduced subpopulations contain hybrids. It is listed as threatened in the US Endangered Species Act.
37556		distribution	eng	Described in 1918 and subsequently thought to have become extinct, the species was rediscovered along the banks of Cressy Creek in 1975.   The population is found in highly disturbed second-growth forest along a 1 km stretch of the river owned by private and federal government parties. The number of individuals has been reduced from 41 to 11.
37556		habitat	eng	Highly disturbed second-growth forest along river.
37558		distribution	eng	Confined to New Guinea.
37558		threats	eng	This species is suffering from habitat destruction.
37561		conservation	eng	Increased control of feral pigs and deer has brought about improved regenerative capacity. Stump sprouting and seedlings have recently been observed.
37561		distribution	eng	Endemic to Santa Catalina Island, mainly on the Channel slopes. The species' range has shown historical declines, presumably as a consequence of climate changes.
37561		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in groves in moist humid areas of canyons and mountain sides.
37561		threats	eng	The introduced Acorn Woodpecker may also be causing damage by drilling into tree trunks.
37562		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, which is endemic to Catalina Island. A single wild population exists, consisting of seven individuals in a canyon covering an area of approximately 250 m².
37563		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree endemic to Catalina Island.
37564		conservation	eng	The islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and are uninhabited.
37564		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the Aldabras, where it occurs only on Malabar, the east of Grand Terre and Michel Island.
37564		habitat	eng	A small slender tree with an occasional distribution in mixed scrub.
37565		distribution	eng	Only known from the Port Moresby region and Motupore Island in Papua New Guinea and Murray Island in Australia.
37565		habitat	eng	A small tree of scrub and savannah.
37566		distribution	eng	This endemic tree is so far known only from areas in the Port Moresby region and Motupore Island.
37566		habitat	eng	Monsoon forest.
37567		conservation	eng	The Aldabran Islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and  only Picard is inhabited with a research station.
37567		distribution	eng	Found only on Malabar, the west of Picard, the east of Grand Terre in the Aldabras and Menai on Cosmoledo.
37567		habitat	eng	An occasional constituent of mixed scrub.
37568		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections in the Kuper range, Morobe District.
37568		habitat	eng	This medium-sized tree is confined to submontane rainforest on steep slopes.
37569		distribution	eng	Central and Northern provinces.
37569		habitat	eng	A tree of lower montane rainforest between 1,050 and 1,525 m.
37570		distribution	eng	This variety is found near Jayapura, Irian Jaya and in the West Sepik District of Papua New Guinea.
37570		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest up to 300 m altitude.
37570		threats	eng	It is a fine timber tree restricted to areas being extensively logged and therefore is threatened by felling and habitat loss.
37571		conservation	eng	The islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and only Picard has a population of staff from a research station.
37571		distribution	eng	This shrub or small tree is found infrequently on Polymnie, the east of Picard and the east of Grand Terre.
37571		habitat	eng	Mixed scrub.
37572		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the New Georgia group.
37572		habitat	eng	In well-drained, lowland, primary rainforest.
37573		conservation	eng	Aldabra is protected as a Strict Nature Reserve.
37573		distribution	eng	This species appears on Assumption and all the main islands of Aldabra, except the western portion of Grand Terre.
37573		habitat	eng	It occupies crevices on limestone pavement (<em>platin</em>) and on pinnacled micro-karst limestone (<em>champignon</em>).
37573		threats	eng	Assumption has experienced some habitat clearance for strip-mining for phosphate or guano.
37574		distribution	eng	Known only from Rossel Island.
37574		habitat	eng	This canopy species is found on ridges in colline forest.
37574		threats	eng	The fragile ecosystem of Rossel Island is possibly threatened by logging and mining for copper and gold.
37575		conservation	eng	The island is protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and is uninhabited.
37575		distribution	eng	A small tree known from just a few individuals in Takamaka Grove on Grand Terre, in the Aldabras. It was once locally common.
37575		threats	eng	Changes in the vegetation appear to have reduced the population significantly.
37576		conservation	eng	The islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve. Only Picard has a small number of inhabitants in the research station.
37576		distribution	eng	Found only in the Gionnet Channel and in the Takamaka area on Picard and Grand Terre. The entire population occurs within an area of less than 1,000 ha.
37576		habitat	eng	A small tree of mixed and tall scrub.  The fruits are eaten and apparently dispersed by tortoises.
37577		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus lusitanica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">azorica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Various conservation and research actions are required for this species (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008):<br/><ul><li>Habitat management, conservation and restoration</li><li>Invasive species control</li><li>Recovery of existing populations and reintroductions of new subpopulations</li><li>Establishment of protected areas</li><li>Information campaigns to raise awareness</li><li>Studies on the species taxonomy, biology, population dynamics and distribution, threats, habitat trends, and the impacts of conservation measures</li></ul>
37577		distribution	eng	Occurrences have been recorded from the islands of Sâo Miguel, Terceira, Sâo Jorge and Pico but in recent years only a few specimens have been found on Pico da Vara and Lombadas on Sâo Miguel and on Pico.
37577		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Prunus lusitanica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">azorica</span> is an endemic species to the Azores, Portugal, and occurs at the islands Flores, Faial, Pico, São Jorge, Terceira, and São Miguel (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its area of occupancy is 104 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
37577		habitat	eng	A low-growing tree which is found in deep narrow ravines and in stands of undisturbed laurel-juniper forest.
37577		habitat	eng	This plant is found at medium altitude in humid and thermophile laurisilva forests together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica</span> spp. (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Another source describes it as growing in natural grasslands between 400-600 m asl, in deep, developed soils   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
37577		population	eng	The subpopulations have very few individuals and in total, there are only between 100 and 200 mature individuals. The populations are declining (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
37577		threats	eng	Clearing of the habitat for agriculture and plantations, and the invasion of introduced plants and animals, are the most serious problems.
37577		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to the invasion of exotic species that also increase competition for this plant, agricultural development, changes in land use, forest plantations, and infrastructure development. Trampling by introduced livestock, recreational activities, and natural factors such as landslides and storms can affect the species (Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
37578		distribution	eng	A poorly known species collected only once from Japen Island.
37579		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from the islands in Geelvink Bay.
37579		habitat	eng	It occurs in colline rainforest at approximately 200 m altitude.
37579		threats	eng	Because of its restricted distribution and the possibility of exploitation, this species is considered seriously endangered.
37580		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species of Gebeh Island, known only from the type collection made last century.
37581		distribution	eng	Endemic to Morobe Province.
37581		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland rainforest on alluvium.
37581		threats	eng	It is under threat mainly from logging.
37582		distribution	eng	This tree is found on the islands of Choiseul, Santa Isabel and Malaita.
37582		habitat	eng	Restricted to primary forest on ridges or flooded coral platforms.
37583		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance 7 of 1996.  Present within the Sandy Bay National Park, as described in the SLUP (revised 1998/9).
37583		distribution	eng	Formerly a very abundant tree of the mid-altitudes, 300-600 m.  By the time the Island was first settled in 1659 the Gumwood and other native forests had already suffered one and a half centuries of browsing by goats and rooting by pigs.  Fewer and fewer seedlings survived and the aging forest was already unable to regenerate.  The only woodland now remaining is at Peak Dale where about 1,000 trees grow on steep slopes in an area of 3 ha. There are smaller, scattered subpopulations at Deep Valley (21 trees), Marias (less than five trees), Rock Rose (seven trees), Longwood (two mature trees growing adjacent to farm land and were probably planted to mark a boundary), and Thompson’s Wood (one tree). Most of these are found growing close to or out of cliffs.  It is possible that there is genetic exchange between the trees at Peak Dale and Marias but the other sites are geographically and reproductively isolated.  Large scale replanting has taken place at Peak Dale (500 trees in 2002) and Horse Point (2,400 between 1986–1992 although survival rates are less than  50% and 5,000 between 2000–2003), Ebony Plain (where it is planted with its congener, <em>C. rugosum</em> with which it is known to hybridise), Longwood and at Deep Valley.  Peak Dale has been the source of all material for plantings at Horse Point (now known as the Millennium Forest), Ebony Plain  and elsewhere. The Longwood and Deep Valley provenances have been maintained separate at only material from these sites has been used when planting at either Longwood or Deep Valley.
37583		habitat	eng	Tree, formerly up to 10 m, but now typically half this. The trunk of this species is  usually knarled and crooked and the canopy is umbrella shaped due to the regular di- or trichotomous branching immediately under the terminal inflorescence.  <em>C. robustum</em> has inflorescences of one or few capitula, the capitulum of ray florets are female and disc florets are hermaphrodite.  Seeds germinate freely and natural regeneration is rapid as long as there is no interference by grazing animals or pests. The seedlings do not resemble the adults, being quick growing, slender and straight with much larger leaves. They develop the adult shape when they reach the canopy.
37583		threats	eng	Regeneration of <em>C. robustum</em> can be good, especially when grazing is restricted, however, a number of factors restrict recovery:  <br/>1.  Occasionally animals still stray into Peak Dale, although it is fully fenced, causing damage to planted seedlings. The subpopulation at Marias is on privately owned land which is rented for grazing cattle, thus preventing  regeneration. <br/>2.  Competition from introduced plants at all the sites where the Gumwood now grow.  Introduced plants are competitors for space and when not kept under regular control, can crowd out the Gumwoods. <br/>3. The introduced scale insect, <em>Orthezia insignis</em> Browne, which inflicted considerable damage to the population between 1991-3 and threatened to destroy the whole woodland by 1995.  This species was brought under control with a biological control programme using the agent <em>Hyperaspis pantherina</em> (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Fowler 2001).  <em>Orthezia insignis</em> continues to infect small numbers of trees and has been observed on young seedlings (Rebecca Cairns-Wicks, pers obs). Whilst the infestations are brought under control by the <em>Hyperaspis</em>, and are not considered a threat to adult trees, it is possible that the impact on seedlings and thus regeneration is more significant.
37584		distribution	eng	Manus Island.
37584		habitat	eng	A species restricted to lowland rainforest on ridges.
37584		threats	eng	The habitat has been heavily logged and degraded.
37585		distribution	eng	Known only from Morobe district, the species is rarely collected.
37585		habitat	eng	Occurring on ridges and hillsides between 30 and 300 m, often associated with dipterocarps.
37586		distribution	eng	So far it is only known from Japen Island and from an area near Jayapura.
37586		habitat	eng	A tree found in secondary forest and as the main component of forest clumps in secondary savannah.
37587		distribution	eng	In the Morobe district and near Ioma in the Northern district. However, the limits of this taxon are unclear.
37587		habitat	eng	This uncommon tree is found in lowland rainforest.
37587		threats	eng	It is vulnerable on account of restricted distribution and possible exploitation.
37588		conservation	eng	There is a real need to have regular site visits, weed control and annual seed collection and thereafter seed sowing.  The Draft Recovery Action Plan for this species has a number of recovery action objectives, these are: <br/>1. To care for all existing individuals in wild and cultivated sites. <br/>2. To propagate all individuals from both wild and cultivated sites. <br/>3. To establish seed orchards where individuals from all sites can be grown together. <br/>4. To carry out a programme of reciprocal pollinations.
37588		distribution	eng	Known from just eight individuals in the wild: one old plant on a cliff at Coles Rock and seven plants on a cliff (690 m.) at Mt. Vesey. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to St Helena.
37588		habitat	eng	A small branching tree growing to 3 m., flowering from November to March.  According to Cronk (1989) the False Gumwood would once have been a constituent species of the wet gumwood woodland which existed on the slopes and cliffs just below the central ridge (500-650 m.) and a subdominant species of the Cabbage tree woodland (600 – 750 m.).
37588		threats	eng	Historically used as a fuel wood.  <em>C. spurium</em> also suffered from habitat loss, primarily through land clearance to make way for pasture and New Zealand Flax Plantations.  <br/>Current cause of continued decline is considered to be the lack of consistency in conservation efforts.  This species also has a self-incompatibility mechanism, that prevents individuals sharing s-alleles from reproducting.
37589		distribution	eng	A very poorly known tree known only from Geelvink Bay.
37589		habitat	eng	It was found in <em>Agathis</em> forest at 400 m altitude.
37590		distribution	eng	Known from only two specimens, one from Gebeh Island of the Moluccas and the other from Waigeo Island of Irian Jaya.
37590		habitat	eng	A montane forest species.
37591		conservation	eng	Trees have been successfully established in cultivation at Pounceys and the ECS Nursery at Scotland and form the basis of recovery efforts for the species. Seedlings raised in 2002 from seed from tree 8 at Pounceys have now been planted at Barren Ground. However because of barriers to reproduction this species still faces an uncertain future in cultivation unless consistent effort is made to propagate it through seed.
37591		distribution	eng	<em>C. rotundifolium</em> is extinct in the wild.
37591		habitat	eng	A tree, formerly common on dry areas, 400 – 520 m.  According to Cronk (1989) the Bastard Gumwood was associated with the dry gumwood woodland 300-500 m. and to some extent wet gumwood woodland 500-650 m.
37591		threats	eng	Historically used a fuel wood. Regeneration prevented by browsing livestock.   <br/> <br/>All trees currently growing at Pounceys are smothered in lichen growth. Lichens are parasitic and will be an additional burden on already weakened trees but they also harbour moth larvae which are known to burrow into living wood (of Redwoods, Gumwood and She Cabbage, RCW pers. obs) further compounding senescence. White Ants <em>Cryptotermes</em> are pests present at both Pounceys and Scotland sites.
37592		distribution	eng	In Digul, Irian Jaya and the Western district of Papua New Guinea; this area is poorly collected.
37592		habitat	eng	A tree found in forest in or near swamps below 40 m altitude.
37593		distribution	eng	This shrub or small tree is restricted to the Port Moresby region and Morupore Island.  It is known only from five or six collections.
37593		habitat	eng	It is found in savannah or scrub.
37594		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996). Although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.
37594		distribution	eng	The most abundant of the cabbage trees, found on the central ridge between 580 – 820 m, usually common above 700 m.  Patchy distribution across the Peaks within Diana’s Peak National Park and at High Peak.
37594		habitat	eng	A tree, characteristic of damp flushes on the mountain slopes. Often observed to germinate on the tree-fern trunks, rooting into the soil when the tree-fern falls.
37594		threats	eng	Threats to this species arise from it's small area of occupancy and vulnerability to competition from <em>Phormium tenax</em>.
37595		conservation	eng	A Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>L. arborea</em> has been produced and over the next five years the objective is to encourage the long-term persistence of the She-Cabbage through coordinated and agreed action between the Environmental Conservation Section of the ANRD, the SNCG and RBG Kew.  The specific objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. To maintain and encourage the healthy growth of She Cabbages at Osbornes, near Coles Rock and Grape Vine Gut/Beales.  <br/>2. To maintain the existing gene banks at Scotland and Behind High Peak and to establish a third field gene bank at Taylors. (and possibly Newfoundland – She cabbage quick growing short lived tree – might help establish succession of endemics in this area which is heavily invaded with exotic pioneers – e.g., Whiteweed) <br/>3. To extend plantings at Napoleon’s Tomb and Mount Pleasant to complement field gene banks.   <br/>4. To describe the life history characteristics, genetic diversity and reproductive biology of the She Cabbages as an aid to recovery planning. <br/>5. To establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.  <br/> <br/>Seedlings have been raised and planted out. It is a short-lived tree (c. 20yrs), which takes considerable effort to conserve in cultivation.
37595		distribution	eng	Once a common tree, occurring on the central ridge between 600 and 800 m, the species was thought to have become extinct until three old trees and some seedlings were discovered in 1976 above Osborne's Cottage. Today only seven wild plants are known to exist at the Osborne's site.  It is not known how many species are left at Coles Rock.
37595		habitat	eng	A small tree 6(-7.5) m, flowering in the winter and spring months.  Found in 1976 in Pastureland.  The genus is monotypic.
37595		threats	eng	Formerly used in building (roofing timbers of old houses like Mount Pleasant).  Former habitat range cleared for pasture and flax plantation.
37596		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1995 although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.  <br/> <br/>Regeneration has been successful where invasive plants, such as New Zealand flax, have been cleared.
37596		distribution	eng	Rare tree of the central ridge, at High Peak and from Cuckhold’s Point to Mount Actaeon. Grows at 720 – 800 m but has probably occurred at lower altitudes in the past (Cronk 2000).  The total population size is probably less than 50 mature individuals.
37596		habitat	eng	The seed viability of the He Cabbage is variable, which partly explains the low numbers of seedlings raised at the Environmental Conservation Nursery at Scotland and subsequently reintroduced. It is suspected that like the She Cabbage, seed viability is affected by incompatibility magnified by low populations numbers and inbreeding. He cabbage resembles the She Cabbage, which it is allied to (Mabberley 1975) in its soft bark, susceptibility to damage by moth caterpillars and its fast growth and shorter life span compared to the other cabbage trees.
37596		threats	eng	A seed orchard bringing together most of the germplasm of He cabbage has been established at Taylors, however, management of the site has been erratic since 1998.  Low subpopulation numbers, small area of occupancy, fragmented distribution, low levels of re-introductions and lack of regular seed collection threaten the recovery of this species.
37597		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1995, although it still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.
37597		distribution	eng	Local on the central ridge above 600 m. In 1995 the subpopulation size within the Diana’s Peak National Park was estimated as about 80.  Since then consistent alien plant control has been carried out as part of a management plan for Diana’s Peak National Park and restocking of the endemic trees including Whitewood.  Between 1996 and 2000 about 780 seedlings and cuttings were planted.  A much smaller (<20) but significant population exists at High Peak.
37597		habitat	eng	The smallest of the cabbage trees, this species grows in damp, relict tree-fern thicket or cabbage tree woodland.  It is dioecious. However, the sexuality requires further investigation and it may prove gynodioecious. Female plants appear to be much rarer than the ‘males’ (Cronk 2000). Flowering in the months of March to June.
37597		threats	eng	Because larger numbers of seedlings have been successfully reintroduced and flowering and seedling production has been observed the status of the Whitewood is not considered as threatened as that of the He-Cabbage. Further investigation however is required into sexuality in <em>Petrobium</em> to determine whether skewed sex ratios might impact upon recovery.  Seed viability of the Whitewood is also notably higher than that of He-cabbage.  Competition from alien plants and small area of occupancy are the greatest threat to this species.
37598		conservation	eng	The Draft Recovery Action Plan for this species set out a number of objectives to encourage the long-term persistence of the Olive, these objectives were: <br/>1. To maintain and encourage the growth of the Olive at Pounceys <br/>2. To carry out pollinations when the tree is in flower <br/>3. To establish seed in micropropagation at the RBG Kew
37598		distribution	eng	Previously known from localised subpopulations on the highest parts of the eastern central ridge. <em>N. elliptica</em> became noticeably rare in the nineteenth century, when the subpopulation was recorded as consisting of only 12 to 15 trees on the northern side of Diana's Peak, after a time this subpopulation was thought to be extinct. In 1977 a single tree was discovered on a precipitous cliff near Diana's Peak, this was reported to have died in 1994. The last remaining plant in cultivation died in December 2003. The genus is monotypic.
37598		habitat	eng	A small tree, that was known to be pollinated by an endemic syrphid fly, which also visits other endemic trees.
37598		threats	eng	The threat to this species was loss of habitat through felling for timber and to make way for plantations. <br/><em>N. elliptica</em> also has a self-incompatibility mechanism (99% self-incompatible), making successful propagation difficult. Pests and systemic fungal infections that are carried through to seed are other threats that are affecting the survival of <em>N. elliptica</em>.
37600		distribution	eng	A poorly understood species, collected twice from Mt. Carstensz and Mt. Tamrau, Mimika District.
37600		habitat	eng	Forest between 200 and 860 m.
37601		distribution	eng	An unarmed succulent tree which was recorded, up to 1977, as locally common in several localities. Recent surveys have been less successful in locating the species. In total no more than 250 plants exist around Saddle Peak on North Andaman, representing a serious decline from original population numbers.
37601		threats	eng	There are no known reasons for the decline as the area is relatively isolated and unthreatened.
37602		distribution	eng	This variety is known from a single site, where it occurs commonly, on the banks of the Rouffaer River in Jayapura district.
37602		habitat	eng	River bank.
37603		distribution	eng	A small semi-erect tree found only once on Guadalcanal.
37603		habitat	eng	Hillside secondary forest on well-drained soil.
37605		distribution	eng	Confined to the Morobe district.
37605		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to a small area of <em>Nothofagus</em>- dominated forest on ridges up to 1,800 m.
37606		distribution	eng	Mt. Dayman.
37606		habitat	eng	A small tree, so far known only from lower montane forest between 2,000 and 2,200 m.
37608		distribution	eng	This small tree found is known only from Milne Bay District.
37608		habitat	eng	Occurring in ridge forest between 1,600 and 1,900 m.
37609		distribution	eng	This small tree is restricted to Manus Island in the Bismarck Archipelago.
37609		habitat	eng	Occurs in ridge forest between the elevations of 100 and 550 m.
37609		threats	eng	This species may face extinction through the commercial logging of its habitat.
37610		distribution	eng	This lowland tree is known only from Namatanai, New Ireland.
37610		habitat	eng	It is thought to occur in coastal forest.
37611		conservation	eng	This species is subject to the provisions of CITES Appendix II.
37611		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tamil Nadu. Populations occur in Kalakkad Forest, Kodyar, Sirumalai and Highwavys. More detailed information is needed on their status.
37611		habitat	eng	This small succulent tree or shrub occurs in submontane forest.
37612		conservation	eng	This species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
37612		distribution	eng	A succulent species localised to the sward-covered summit of Mt. Agasthya on the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border.
37612		habitat	eng	Individuals survive in sheltered and moist places.
37612		threats	eng	Most localities have apparently been destroyed, frequently because of accidental and intentional fires. Trees are also cut and dried to be used as firewood by pilgrims trekking up to the temple on the summit of Mt. Agasthya.
37613		conservation	eng	The species has been successfully cultivated. The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
37613		distribution	eng	The species was described in 1940 from three old specimens growing on a rocky ledge on the eastern spur of a hill in Pallasana situated in the Palghat Gap. The vegetation is monsoon forest and succulent plants are absent apart from this single species. It has been postulated that the climate in the past was drier and this small remnant of a previously xerophytic community survived because of its exposed position. Thorough searches have failed to locate any living wild specimens today.
37614		distribution	eng	A tall tree found only once near Wagau in the Morobe province.
37614		habitat	eng	Mid-montane open forest at 1,350 m.
37615		distribution	eng	This tree is found in Western District and has recently been discovered on Sudest Island.  The taxonomic limits of the species are presently unknown. It could represent more than one taxon.
37615		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland seasonally flooded or ridge forest.
37616		distribution	eng	Known from two collections: one from Geelvink Bay, Irian Jaya, and the other from an area near Angoram in the East Sepik district of Papua New Guinea.
37616		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland rainforest.
37617		distribution	eng	This small tree, known only from the type collection, was found along Pinini Creek in the Gulf province. The taxonomic limits of this species are unclear.
37618		distribution	eng	It is known from a few scattered localities in an area that is poorly known.
37618		habitat	eng	A tree that occurs in primary well-drained forest between 60 and 420 m.
37619		distribution	eng	A rainforest tree known only from two collections from East Sepik. The taxonomic limits of this species are unclear.
37620		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type collection, found in Buso, south of Lae in the Morobe district.
37621		distribution	eng	The description of this species is based on two herbarium specimens. This tree is found along the Veimauri River, where it is reported to be quite common.
37621		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37622		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, so far known only from two collections taken in the Vogelkop district.
37622		habitat	eng	It is reported to be common in young secondary lowland forest.
37623		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are relatively well protected within sanctuaries.
37623		distribution	eng	One of the trees endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills.
37623		threats	eng	Large parts of the forest here have been affected by fires, grazing, the incursion of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
37624		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
37624		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
37624		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the margins of submontane evergreen forest.
37624		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
37625		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
37625		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats. The species has been collected only twice.
37625		habitat	eng	Areas of submontane evergreen forest.
37625		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
37626		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality, the species is endemic to a small area in the Agastyamalai Hills. More information is needed on the status of the species and direct threats to its populations.
37626		habitat	eng	Margin of montane forest.
37626		threats	eng	Although relatively intact, large parts of the forest have been affected by fires, grazing, the increasing incursion of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
37627		distribution	eng	Known only from an area near Kuching. It is known from a total of four collections, two of which were recently gathered from the Sumengo Arboretum.
37627		habitat	eng	Multi-stemmed tree, sometimes epiphytic.
37627		threats	eng	Extremely threatened by urban expansion.
37629		distribution	eng	Coastal semi-dry region around Noumea and Anse Vata in south-east New Caledonia. A lot of urban development has taken place in this region. Anse Vata is a fully developed beach resort area and the species was last collected there in 1925. It was collected in 1926 in the Montravel Reserve. It was introduced into cultivation in the 1860s in the UK, where it became a popular table pot plant. It may still be in cultivation. The specimens from Bourail are most likely to be <em>S. apioidea</em>.
37629		habitat	eng	This tree is restricted to lowland forest below 100 m.
37629		threats	eng	Urbanization.
37630		distribution	eng	Endemic to central and south New Ireland.
37630		habitat	eng	An understorey tree in ridge-top forest on limestone between 750 and 850 m.
37631		distribution	eng	A sparsley branched tree, known from only a single imperfect collection of no precise locality. It is likely to come from Triton Bay, Fakfak district.
37632		distribution	eng	Endemic to Santa Isabel, this species is known only from the site where it was first collected.
37632		habitat	eng	Steep hill forest at 700 m.
37633		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type collection on Guadalcanal Island.
37633		habitat	eng	The type was found in a riverine community on the debris banks of a deep gorge at 300 m.
37634		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guadalcanal, known only from the type specimen.
37634		habitat	eng	This small tree was collected at 1,470 m.
37635		distribution	eng	Milne Bay district.
37635		habitat	eng	A many-branched tree, presently known only from areas of secondary or disturbed lowland hill forest.
37637		distribution	eng	A small tree, so far known only from the type collection from the Malaita district.
37642		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guadalcanal; it is known only from the type collection.
37642		habitat	eng	A small tree from coastal forest.
37643		distribution	eng	Confined to the Port Moresby region and Motupore Island. Two trees had been recorded but were not found in 1990.
37643		habitat	eng	Grassland-savannah border.
37644		distribution	eng	It is found in the Central and Milne Bay districts of Papua New Guinea and on the islands of Geelvink Bay and on the Vogelkop peninsula of Irian Jaya. It is also found on the Aru Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago (except New Ireland).
37644		habitat	eng	This tree is found scattered in primary rainforest up to 610 m altitude.
37644		threats	eng	This tree is cut for its bintangor timber and is traded as `Calophyllum' in Papua New Guinea.
37645		distribution	eng	New Guinea and Morotai Island of the Moluccas.
37645		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in well-drained forest up to 800 m altitude.
37645		threats	eng	Papua New Guinea might trade this species as `Calophyllum' timber.
37646		habitat	eng	A large tree found in well-drained lowland or lower montane rainforest.
37648		distribution	eng	Abundant on the Solomon Islands and on Vanuatu.
37648		habitat	eng	A large tree found in well-drained primary forest usually on ridges up to 800 m altitude.
37648		threats	eng	The wood is used locally to make canoes, houses, bowls and spears.
37649		habitat	eng	This canopy tree is found in lowland to montane forest up to 1850 m altitude.
37649		threats	eng	The timber is traded in Papua New Guinea as 'Calophyllum'.
37650		distribution	eng	Found near Kiunga. This species is poorly known and variation is seen in the sterile material.
37650		habitat	eng	A rainforest tree occurring up to 560 m altitude.
37651		distribution	eng	Found in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.
37651		habitat	eng	Possibly dioecious, this tree is found in lowland or colline rainforest; it is found in swampy areas in the Western province and Woodlark Island.
37651		threats	eng	The wood, which is good for veneer, hardboard and paper, is traded in Papua New Guinea as 'Calophyllum'.
37653		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Guinea, this species is found in the Snow Mountains, Irian Jaya and the Western and Morobe districts of Papua New Guinea. These areas are poorly collected.
37653		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forest up to an elevation of 500 m.
37665		conservation	eng	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.
37665		distribution	eng	Known only from Gran Canaria and Tenerife, the species exists in fragmented subpopulations in inaccessible areas.
37665		habitat	eng	Dry woodland.
37666		distribution	eng	Found throughout New Guinea mainland except for the Vogelkop Peninsula.
37666		habitat	eng	A tree of montane forest, usually lower montane forest.  This species is possibly dioecious.
37666		threats	eng	The timber is likely to be traded as 'Calophyllum' in Papua New Guinea. The green wood is also utilized as fuel.
37667		habitat	eng	In Indo-China and northern Thailand, this species occurs as a shrub or small tree, widely scattered in rocky or sandy places near streams. In Malaysia, it is found as a larger tree in swamp or riverine forest below 50 m.
37667		threats	eng	Probably cut as bintangor timber
37669		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas and regional legislation.
37669		distribution	eng	Laurisilva in Madeira is now said to be increasing in extent.
37669		habitat	eng	An uncommon species of laurisilva and, at higher altitudes, cloud forest.
37669		threats	eng	Past exploitation of its habitat has resulted in the reduction and fragmentation of populations. Areas close to habitations are still under the threat of fire.
37671		conservation	eng	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.
37671		distribution	eng	A species known from Tenerife, Gomera and Hierro.
37671		habitat	eng	It occurs in areas of woodland from low to medium elevation.
37672		habitat	eng	A tree of savannah woodland, riverine gallery forest and sometimes secondary forest up to 200 m altitude.  A slightly different form from the Moluccas and northern New Guinea is found in rainforest up to 650 m altitude.  The taxonomic limits of this species are unclear.
37672		threats	eng	In Papua New Guinea, trees are cut to make canoes.
37673		conservation	eng	The species is listed in government legislature of 1991.
37673		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Canary Islands, populations are found on all the main islands except for Lanzarote. The extent of its known occurrence appears to be expanding.
37673		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, locally common in scrub on steep cliffs and in rocky areas.
37677		conservation	eng	The Cordoba Botanic Garden is carrying out work on the wild populations in order to determine their status and to establish the species in cultivation.
37677		distribution	eng	A species occurring within a restricted area of the Sierras de Algeciras in the south of Spain. It is possibly also found in Portugal.
37677		habitat	eng	Largely confined to forest patches in humid ravines and inaccessible places.
37677		threats	eng	Of the various threats to the remaining plants, fire appears to be the most significant.
37678		distribution	eng	The species represents a relict component of a Tertiary ecosystem which has retreated with the drying of the climate. Remaining populations are isolated
37678		habitat	eng	Widely scattered in moist forest enclaves in the Iberian Peninsula and in humid ravines in the north of the Rif Mts. in Morocco.
37678		threats	eng	Threatened with fire, overcutting and forest management activities, as well as a decline in the availability of water.
37679		distribution	eng	The species extends along the west coast from near Itampolo in the south-west to Soalala in the north-west.
37679		habitat	eng	Occurring in spiny and dry forest.
37679		threats	eng	This wide distribution ensures the species is conservationally secure, although populations north of Toliara are threatened with destruction for charcoal production. There has been considerable population declines in the past because of the dramatic rate of habitat loss. The long generation time of baobabs makes them more vulnerable.
37680		distribution	eng	From Andohahela and the Mandrare River in the south-west through southern and western Madagascar to the Boina region and the Sambirano River basin. It is less abundant and restricted to riverine areas in the north-west.
37680		habitat	eng	A species of dry or spiny forest, savannahs and scrubland.
37680		threats	eng	The abundance and the wide range of the species ensures that it is relatively safe. However, several subpopulations are threatened with forest clearance and, given the long generation time of the baobab and the dramatic habitat loss that has occurred in the past, the species may be more vulnerable.
37681		distribution	eng	The species extends from Antsiranana to the Sambirano region and perhaps Soalala. Occurrences in the south-east of the country appear to be  Adansonia za.
37681		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry or moist forest.
37681		threats	eng	Little is known of the conservation status but the clearance of the habitat has been extensive in places.
37682		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen collected from Ulu Balleh in the Kapit district.
37682		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
37683		distribution	eng	A generally uncommon tree, though locally abundant in places.
37683		habitat	eng	Occurring in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 600 m.
37684		distribution	eng	Known only from its type locality in Bengkoka in the Kudat district.
37684		habitat	eng	A tree of open secondary vegetation at the edge of a steep gully.
37685		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from Bengkoka in the Kudat district.
37685		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in secondary lowland forest at an altitude of 50 m.
37686		distribution	eng	This species is highly localised and known only from Kuala Penyu in south-west Sabah and the Niah area of north-east Sarawak.
37686		habitat	eng	It grows in lowland secondary or disturbed mixed dipterocarp forest on sandy soils.
37687		distribution	eng	This monotypic genus is found in Borneo, Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.
37687		habitat	eng	Restricted to all types of peat-swamp forest. Larger trees occur in the wetter swamp forests.
37691		distribution	eng	Collections have been made from two sites in Haiti and two from the Dominican Republic. There are also unconfirmed reports of an occurrence in Puerto Rico.
37691		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of forest on rocky limestone hills up to 400 m.
37691		threats	eng	The timber is exploited locally but the destruction of the habitat is the main cause of concern.
37693		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from two collections,  in Gunung Lambir and Gunung Raya.
37693		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37694		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak.  So far collections are known from Kapit, Lubok Antu, Gunung Penrissen and Simanggang.
37694		habitat	eng	This small uncommon tree occurs in lowland to low submontane forest.
37695		distribution	eng	A tree known from few collections. Occurrences have been recorded in Tabasco, from Lake Izabal and the Subin River in Guatemala and from an unknown locality in Belize.
37696		distribution	eng	The species is scattered in several localities in Costa Rica and Panama.
37696		habitat	eng	Occurring in remnants of lowland forest.
37697		distribution	eng	Apparently a Peruvian endemic, although there are, as yet, unconfirmed reports of the species occurring in Panama, in Cocha Cashu in Madre de Dios, from the area of the Yurimagunas in Loreto and from Tarapoto in San Martin.
37697		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded from lowland rainforest, sometimes periodically flooded.
37698		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Windward Islands in the Caribbean. A single population is recorded on each of Dominica, Martinique, St Lucia and Guadeloupe, where the exact locality of the species is unknown.
37698		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland rainforest up to 600 m.
37698		threats	eng	Little rainforest remains on Martinique.
37699		distribution	eng	Massif de la Hotte in Haiti and in Maricao Insular Forest in Puerto Rico.
37699		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded in forest over limestone at about 1,200 m.
37700		distribution	eng	At present only three sites are recorded, one in Izabal in Guatemala and the other two in the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region between Oaxaca and Veracruz States in Mexico.
37700		habitat	eng	A species of lowland evergreen forest, occurring in damp valleys and along streamsides.
37701		distribution	eng	The variety is known only from Bukit Hampuan in Ranau district, in Sabah, and from scattered populations in the 3rd, 4th and 5th districts in Sarawak. It is also found in Brunei.
37701		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland to submontane forest.
37702		distribution	eng	This variety is known only from Kalimantan and from a single collection from Sabah.
37702		habitat	eng	Restricted to coastal mixed swamp forest.
37703		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak, this small tree has only been collected once in the Nyabau catchment area, Bintulu.
37703		habitat	eng	Mixed dipterocarp forest.
37704		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection. This tree was found in Sabal Forest Reserve.
37704		habitat	eng	Hill forest at an altitude of 360 m.
37705		distribution	eng	So far known from only four collections, two from Kapit in Sarawak and two from Ranau in Sabah.
37705		habitat	eng	A rare emergent tree of lowland hill forest.
37706		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected from Ulu Balleh of Kapit. Another collection from Sabah might also be identified as this species.
37706		habitat	eng	A small tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.
37707		distribution	eng	This small tree is uncommon in Sarawak, where it has been collected only once on Ulu Sg. Maria, Lawas.
37707		habitat	eng	Ridge top at 1,400 m.
37708		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, this small tree was found near the Pamerario River at Bario in the Kelabit Highlands.
37708		habitat	eng	Old secondary forest.
37709		distribution	eng	Rarely occurring, known only from a few collections from Sabah and Sarawak.
37709		habitat	eng	Tree of lowland and hill forest.
37710		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in just two isolated sites: one in Heredia in Costa Rica and the other from the Santa Rita Ridge in Panama.
37710		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland and submontane rainforest.
37711		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak. So far it is known only from Sg. Jelalong, Selampit, Balingian, Mulu National Park and Lambir National Park.
37711		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1,600 m.
37712		distribution	eng	This variety is common in the threatened swamp forests of Sarawak.
37712		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
37712		threats	eng	The habitat has been licensed for timber extraction by the year 2000. The wood is cut for kedondong timber; small amounts of <em>Santiria</em> timber are exported to Japan.
37713		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak, this variety is known from only two collections from the Lambir National Park.
37713		habitat	eng	It was found in mixed dipterocarp forest on ridges at 250 m.
37714		distribution	eng	This uncommon tree is endemic to Sarawak. It is known only from two collections, from the Miri and Sabel Forest Reserve.
37714		habitat	eng	Tree of lowland forest up to 120 m.
37716		distribution	eng	Distributed from central Costa Rica to central Panama. Collections have been made from Cartago, Puntarenas and San José Provinces in Costa Rica and Coclé, Colón and Barro Colorado Island in Panama.
37716		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland evergreen forest and seasonal semi-evergreen forest up to 600 m.
37717		distribution	eng	Found in two main areas: one in Panama in adjacent Colón and Panamá Provinces, the other in Colombia on the Pacific side in Norte de Santander and Valle.
37717		habitat	eng	Ranging from sea level to 2,000 m, the species occurs in wet rainforest.
37718		distribution	eng	Information on this species may not be complete. Collections have been made from the provinces of Chiriquí and the Canal Zone. There is a possibly erroneous record from Costa Rica in the Flora of Panama checklist.
37718		habitat	eng	Remaining areas of wet lowland forest.
37719		distribution	eng	A buttressed tree, newly described as a species. It is confined to two main areas, in Chontales, Nicaragua, and in Manuel Antonio National Park, Costa Rica.
37719		habitat	eng	Both areas are near sea level in lowland rainforest.
37720		distribution	eng	Known from scattered collections from the south of Panama in Darién Province and from single sites in Amazonian Ecuador and Colombia.
37720		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
37721		distribution	eng	Ranging from Guatemala to Nicaragua.
37721		habitat	eng	The species occurs in well-drained Atlantic forest near sea level.
37722		distribution	eng	The only certain occurrences of this tree are recorded in Petén in Guatemala and adjacent parts of Belize.
37722		habitat	eng	The species is found in seasonal semi-evergreen forest over limestone in sites up to 800 m.
37723		distribution	eng	Northern Borneo and the Philippines. It is widely distributed in Sarawak, but restricted to Mt. Kinabalu National Park in Sabah.
37723		habitat	eng	A small tree found in hill and montane forest.
37724		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Santa Rosa, Braulio Carillo and Santa Ana National Parks in Costa Rica.
37724		distribution	eng	A species mainly known from Costa Rica, but also occurring in Coclé in Panama.
37724		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-deciduous forest and in association with oak, ascending to 1,100 m.
37725		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah, the species has been collected only once from Ranau and once from Sandakan.
37725		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37725		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the large-scale clearance of the forest.
37726		distribution	eng	This variety is known only from the type collection found in Limbang.
37726		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37727		distribution	eng	Locally abundant in Bako National Park.
37727		habitat	eng	This variety is found in heath forest.
37729		distribution	eng	Recorded from a number of sites in Alajuela in Costa Rica and Coclé, Colón and Panamá provinces in Panama.
37729		habitat	eng	A montane or cloud forest species.
37730		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from Nabawan, Tawau and Sandakan.
37730		habitat	eng	This small tree, occurring infrequently in lowland swamp and hill forest.
37731		distribution	eng	A widely occurring species of the Atlantic slopes of Brazil from Espírito Santo to Santa Catarina and Paraná.
37731		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest up to 1,000 m and also in periodically flooded forest.
37734		distribution	eng	Occurring on a plateau in Belaga, this small tree is known only from a single collection.
37734		habitat	eng	Found in kerangas forest.
37735		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree locally abundant on Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah. In Sarawak, it is known only from a single collection found in the Lambir National Park.
37735		habitat	eng	Grows in kerangas and montane forest up to an altitude of 2,400 m.
37736		distribution	eng	Known only from five collections.
37736		habitat	eng	This uncommon small tree is found in mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest, usually growing near streams, up to 500 m.
37737		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sarawak, this variety is so far known from only two specimens, one collected from Bukit Panjo of Lundu and the other from Lubok Antu.
37737		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forest.
37738		distribution	eng	A variety known from the type collection only.
37739		distribution	eng	This uncommon shrub or small tree is known only from Lanas, Keningau.
37739		habitat	eng	Lowland forest.
37741		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah, known only from the type specimen collected from Kinabatangan.
37741		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland and seasonal swamp forest.
37742		distribution	eng	An endemic to Sarawak, that has been collected only once.
37742		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland forest near streams.
37744		distribution	eng	It is endemic to Sabah.
37744		habitat	eng	This large tree is locally common on ultramafic soils up to 1,200 m.
37746		distribution	eng	This tree, endemic to Sabah s known only from Lanad Datu, Sandakan and Tawau.
37746		habitat	eng	Found in lowland forest and in forest along streams.
37748		distribution	eng	To date this small tree is known only from Sandakan and Mostyn of Sabah.
37748		habitat	eng	Restricted to primary mixed dipterocarp forest.
37749		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from Luzon in the Philippines and from Miri in Sarawak.
37749		habitat	eng	Grows in mixed dipterocarp forest at 75 m.
37751		distribution	eng	Mt. Kinabalu.
37751		habitat	eng	Small tree or shrub from upper montane forest between the altitudes of 2,500 and 3,000 m.
37753		distribution	eng	Only two collections are known from Gunong Api in the Gunong Mulu National Park.
37753		habitat	eng	The shrub up to 1 m high, is found on exposed ridges and cliff faces of limestone.
37754		distribution	eng	Probably endemic, recorded only from Mt. Tambuyukon
37754		habitat	eng	Very small tree or shrub in stunted subalpine vegetation on ultramafic soils at an elevation of 2,500 m.
37756		distribution	eng	A small tree restricted to Mt. Kinabalu.
37756		habitat	eng	Found in primary forest between 1,200 and 2,000 m.
37758		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection found in the Ulu Segama Forest Reserve.
37758		habitat	eng	Lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
37759		distribution	eng	Known only from the Mamut Copper Mine and the Mesilau area in Kundasang, Mt. Kinabalu.
37759		habitat	eng	A rare tree of lowland mixed dipterocarp and submontane forest.
37760		distribution	eng	This uncommon tree is known only from the type specimen, which was collected in Mendalom Forest Reserve.
37760		habitat	eng	Primary mixed dipterocarp forest.
37763		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Bukit Ampuan area in Ranau.
37763		habitat	eng	This tree is found in hill forest up to 1,200 m.
37766		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah, this small tree of hill forest seems to be restricted to Mt. Silam in Lahad Datau District.
37768		distribution	eng	Endemic to west Borneo. It is restricted to the 1st Division of Sarawak and Kalimantan.
37768		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
37769		distribution	eng	It is found occasionally in Sabah and Sarawak.
37769		habitat	eng	A tree of primary mixed dipterocarp forest, occurring up to 1,200 m.
37772		distribution	eng	This small tree is known only from three localities; Bukit Pa'it and Bukit Bra'ang in Kuching District and Bukit Mentagai in Baram District.
37772		habitat	eng	Restricted to the rocky limestone slopes between 150 and 300 m.
37773		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality, this variety is found on limestone near the Bidi Cave, Kuching.
37775		distribution	eng	A small forest tree known only from Mount Pueh.
37776		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Kuching district, this small lowland tree is known from only 4 collections.
37776		habitat	eng	Found in primary kerangas forest and secondary forest.
37778		distribution	eng	This shrub or tree is endemic to Sabah.
37778		habitat	eng	Confined to forest between 22,50 and 2,400 m.
37779		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree endemic to Sabah.
37779		habitat	eng	It is restricted to forest between the altitudes of 1,500 and 2,400 m.
37780		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah.
37780		habitat	eng	This shrub or tree occurs in primary montane forest between 1,200 and 2,600 m, descending occasionally to as low as 180 m.
37781		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park, but is not legally protected. Ex-situ propagation programs in Kew Royal Botanic Gardens and Biodiversity Center Mahé are in place.
37781		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mahé Island (Bernica, Mont Sebert, Mont Copolia and Mont Jasmin), Seychelles. The EOO is estimated to be approximately 25 km². While the AOO was not determined, it is thought to be less than 10 km².
37781		habitat	eng	Shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall, glabrous in all its parts. The species is occurring on exposed massive granite outcrops between 150 and 500 m. Its seeds are wind dispersed.
37781		population	eng	This species was thought to be extinct but was rediscovered in 1970 by  J. Procter (Wise 1998). At present, there are only four known sites on Mahé. In a survey in 2006, 86 mature individuals were found (Matatiken  2006), of which 77 are located in the largest subpopulation at Bernica (89.5% of the total number of mature individuals). Only the largest known subpopulation is know to reproduce. The three  other sites consist only of scattered individuals,  which do not  regenerate. Dead trees can be observed at these sites and a past decline is therefore suspected. A future decline of range and  individuals must  be suspected due to lack of regeneration in three  subpopulations. It is  possible that the largest subpopulation is big enough to  be viable, but overall the  population can be regarded as severely fragmented.
37781		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are intrinsic factors such as poor recruitment/regeneration, very restricted geographic range, limited dispersal and high seedling mortality.
37782		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah. Often this species is solitary or in small subpopulations.
37782		habitat	eng	This rather uncommon tree or shrub is found in the understorey of lowland forest, usually on slopes and ridges of low hills.
37784		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sabah. It is located in the foothills and low mountainous regions of Kota Marudu, Ranau and Tambunan districts and on the offshore islands of Pulau Banggi and Pulau Bohayan.
37784		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary and secondary inland forest up to an elevation of 1,300 m.
37785		distribution	eng	Found in Peninsular Malaysia and throughout Borneo.
37785		habitat	eng	A large tree of primary mixed dipterocarp forest, reaching up to 90 m in height,
37786		distribution	eng	So far known only from around Sandakan and Lahad Datu. Subpopulations in localities to the south of Telupid have most probably disappeared.
37786		habitat	eng	This enormous tree, sometimes reaching heights of 90 m, is found on ultramafic soils.
37790		distribution	eng	In Sarawak, the species is only known from a single collection from Belaga.
37790		habitat	eng	An uncommon tree restricted to lowland primary forest.
37792		conservation	eng	The Aldabran Islands are under protection within a Strict Nature Reserve and only Picard is inhabited with a research station.
37792		distribution	eng	Occurring on the islands of Malabar, Polymnie, Picard, Grande Terre, Michel,  Assumption and Menai.
37792		habitat	eng	A frequent constituent of inland mixed scrub.
37792		threats	eng	Areas of Assumption have been disturbed by strip mining for phosphate or guano.
37793		distribution	eng	Known only by the type specimen in Ulu Balleh, Kapit.
37793		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest at 500 m.
37794		conservation	eng	Aldabra is protected as a Strict Nature Reserve.
37794		distribution	eng	Occurs on most of the islands making up Aldabra, Assumption, Cosmoledo and Astove.
37794		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, it is a constituent of inland mixed scrub.
37794		threats	eng	Assumption has experienced strip-mining for phosphate or guano and the other islands have been cleared to some degree for the establishment of coconut and <em>Casuarina</em> plantations.
37795		conservation	eng	The islands of Aldabra are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve.
37795		distribution	eng	Found on most of the islands in Aldabra, Assumption, Cosmoledo and Astove. The species is found on the African mainland.
37795		habitat	eng	A frequent constituent of mixed scrub.
37795		threats	eng	Trees are frequently infested by woolly coccids. Strip-mining for phosphate or guano has taken place on Assumption and areas of Cosmoledo and Astove have been cleared and planted with coconuts and <em>Casuarina</em>.
37796		conservation	eng	The Aldabran Islands are under protection within a Strict Nature Reserve.
37796		distribution	eng	A small tree or shrub on the islands of Malabar, Polymnie, Picard, Grand Terre, Assumption, Cosmoledo and Astove.
37796		habitat	eng	Inland scrub communities.
37796		threats	eng	Some disturbance has occurred on Assumption because of strip-mining for phosphate or guano, and on Cosmoledo and Astove, where areas have been cleared for the establishment of coconut and <em>Casuarina</em> plantations.
37797		conservation	eng	The Aldabras are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve.
37797		distribution	eng	This small tree or shrub is found on most of the Aldabran islands and also Menai and Astove.
37797		habitat	eng	Occurring in inland scrub.
37797		threats	eng	Areas of Cosmoledo and Astove have been cleared for the establishment of coconut and <em>Casuarina</em> plantations.
37798		distribution	eng	El Salvador. More information is required on the population status in Guatemala.
37798		habitat	eng	Confined to cloud forest, where it ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 m.
37798		threats	eng	Threats are posed mainly by fires and tourism.
37799		distribution	eng	Endemic to El Salvador, the species occurs in Chalatenango, Los Esesmiles and in the east of la Palma.
37799		habitat	eng	It is found in montane pine-oak forest.
37799		threats	eng	Widely exposed to threats of logging, agriculture and pastoralism.
37800		conservation	eng	There are restrictions on threats in the national park.
37800		distribution	eng	Confined to Chalatenango and El Imposible National Park.
37800		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in forest areas up to 1,200 m.
37800		threats	eng	The main threats to the subpopulations are posed by habitat loss through logging, forest management activities and the spread of agriculture.
37801		distribution	eng	Originally the species was thought to be restricted to central Panama, including Altos de Campana National Park. Recent reports indicate that the species occurs in Bocas del Toro and La Amistad National Park on the border with Costa Rica.
37801		habitat	eng	Rainforest along rivers and lakesides.
37801		threats	eng	Occurrences are uncommon and outside protected areas populations are severely threatened by habitat loss.
37802		conservation	eng	Occurs in Darién National Park.
37802		distribution	eng	Ranging from the Gulf Region of Mexico to Colombia. the species is reported to be most common in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In Panama small populations have been recorded from the provinces of Panamá and Darién. The Colombian population appears to be confined to Antioquia.
37802		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37802		threats	eng	Throughout the species range the habitat has been extensively cleared for agriculture, settlement and its timber resources.
37803		distribution	eng	Ranging from Mexico probably to Colombia, the species is widely occurring and frequent in some areas.
37803		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-deciduous forest and woodland up to 1,600 m, sometimes occurring in cloud forest or swamp forest.
37803		threats	eng	Although the habitat is declining in much of its range and some populations are considered threatened at a national level, the species is not threatened at a global level.
37804		distribution	eng	Occurring mainly on the Atlantic side of Panama, and on the Pacific coast in Colombia. There are also reports of occurrences in Costa Rica. None of the populations appears to be large.
37804		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in areas of evergreen rainforest up to about 1,200 m.
37804		threats	eng	Occur in areas which are largely unprotected and prone to logging.
37805		distribution	eng	There is an unconsolidated report that the species has been found in Panama. Otherwise subpopulations are confined to Chocó, Córdoba, Valle del Cauca and other parts of Colombia and also Ecuador. Population numbers do not appear to be large.
37805		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest types of varying humidity.
37805		threats	eng	Much of the habitat is under threat from increasing settlement, logging and agriculture.
37806		distribution	eng	In Costa Rica several collections have been made in Burica, Puntarenas, near the Panama border. In Panama collections have come from the Atlantic slopes through the length of the country to Colombia, into which it possibly extends.
37806		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest species.
37806		threats	eng	Subpopulations are small and under pressure from increasing land settlement, logging and agriculture, particularly banana plantations.
37807		distribution	eng	Scattered as isolated individuals.  It is recorded from Alajuela and Guanacaste in Costa Rica, from Bocas del Toro to Darién in Panama, being present in larger numbers in the Canal area and Barro Colorado Island, and from Urabá and other areas of Colombia. No information is available on its distribution in Venezuela.
37807		habitat	eng	The species is distributed in lowland evergreen to semi-evergreen rainforest, preferring humid or swampy zones.
37807		threats	eng	Throughout the range the habitat is affected by the growing human population, agricultural activities and logging.
37808		distribution	eng	It is rarely collected and, so far, known only from eastern Vanua Levu and a site in Taveuni.
37808		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, which occurs infrequently in dense forest between 400 and 820 m.
37809		distribution	eng	Apparently this shrub or small tree is endemic to Fiji, on the two largest islands and Ovaluau.
37809		habitat	eng	Known from dense forest in rocky places up to 1,130 m.
37810		distribution	eng	A relatively widely occurring endemic to Fiji.  Found on 6 islands, it is probably found on other high Fijian islands.
37810		habitat	eng	Occurring as a shrub or tree to 8 m, the species is found in various habitat types from sea level to 1,200 m.
37811		conservation	eng	Only the Panamanian subpopulation is contained within a protected area.
37811		distribution	eng	In Panama, the species has been collected only from San Blas, very close to the border with Colombia. There are reported to be a few dispersed individuals, including a very few adult trees. The species' range in Colombia is restricted to a small area in Antioquia.
37811		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest along river banks.
37812		distribution	eng	Collections have been made only in Darién, the type collection coming from Darién National Park.
37813		distribution	eng	Found in three provinces in the east of Panama, including Chiriquí near the border with Costa Rica.
37813		habitat	eng	The species occurs principally as a shrub, in areas of semi-deciduous rainforest up to 1,100 m.
37813		threats	eng	The habitat is declining under increasing human activities, logging, agriculture and farming.
37814		habitat	eng	A common species of forest habitats, occurring from sea level to 1,500 m.
37814		threats	eng	It provides various useful products, including a commercial timber.
37815		conservation	eng	A number of populations here are in reserves of various kinds.
37815		distribution	eng	A few collections have recently been made between 1,800 and 2,000 m on the Cordillera de Talamanca, mostly within La Amistad National Park, Costa Rica. Elsewhere the species is known from Panama in the Cordillera Central in Coclé towards the west.
37815		habitat	eng	Cloud forest above 800 m.
37815		threats	eng	Where no protection exists the habitat is susceptible to clearance and conversion into agriculture.
37816		distribution	eng	In Panama the species is known solely from the type collection from the Valle de Antón, in Coclé. The area has since been relatively well explored but no more specimens have been reported. A record of the species has now been made in Amazonian Peru.
37817		distribution	eng	The variety <em>Pithecellobium rufescens</em> var. <em>vallense</em>, is known from just four collections taken from the Valle de Antón, in Coclé in Panama, has been included within this species.
37818		distribution	eng	A small tree found only in the vicinity of Libreville.  It is possible, with further exploration, that the species may be found to be more widespread.
37818		threats	eng	Logging has taken place in the area and nearly all the remaining forest is concessioned off to logging companies.
37819		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area near Lastoursville.
37819		habitat	eng	A small forest tree.
37819		threats	eng	The area is under exploitation and there is a serious likelihood that the species' habitat is already lost.
37821		distribution	eng	A beautiful ornamental shrub, which became extinct in 1984 during the construction of a dam and the flooding of its only known locality in the wild at Feitsui. For several centuries it has been in cultivation and is widely planted in gardens around the country.
37822		distribution	eng	Two small subpopulations are known to exist on Chiben Mt. in the south.
37822		habitat	eng	Trees are scattered sparsely in mixed forest between 1,800 and 2,100 m.
37822		threats	eng	Regeneration is noted to be poor and no conservation or protection measures are in place.
37823		conservation	eng	The area is partially protected as a national park.
37823		distribution	eng	A relict species confined to a small area in the Yangmingshan area, northern Taiwan.
37823		habitat	eng	Broadleaved evergreen forest.
37824		distribution	eng	Although the species is widely scattered throughout the island, populations are mostly isolated.
37824		habitat	eng	Low to medium elevation forest.
37824		threats	eng	Heavy exploitation for the medicinal extract that can be obtained from the leaves and bark. Establishment of industrial plantations and increasing land settlement have also had an extensive impact on the habitat.
37826		distribution	eng	Endemic to Taiwan in a small area to the east around Tienshiang.
37826		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forest.
37827		distribution	eng	The populations in China are confined to south and west Yunnan and are steadily being reduced. The distribution in Viet Nam is not known.
37827		habitat	eng	A small composite tree scattered in hot dry valleys.
37827		threats	eng	Local exploitation of the wood for fuel and the bark for medicine (China)
37828		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Subpopulations across part of its range are found at Man and Horse Cliffs and Mt Vesey, both sites are within the boundary of Sandy Bay National Park designated in the revised SLUP 1998/9, however, specific Protected Area legislation and management plans have not yet been developed or implemented. There is currently no specific conservation action for this species
37828		distribution	eng	Cronk (2000) records it as growing at: Horse Point (one plant – now surrounded by Gumwoods within the Millennium Forest), Flagstaff Hill, Bank’s Valley, Pipe Ridge, The Barn, Cliffs, Turk’s Cap (in 1986 there were 10 on the lower slope of the southern side and by 1995 there were 100), Prosperous Bay House, Boxwood Hill, Long Range, Great Stone Top, Deep Valley (about 50 plants on the eastern side of the cliffs viewable from Rock Rose), nr Powells Valley Battery, Partridge Rock, Sandy Bay Barn, Cole’s Rock, Lot, Peak Gut waterfall (cliffs), Distant Cottage, Great Hollow, Asses Ears, Devil Hole Cap, cliffs from Manati Bay to Man and Horse (where it was seen spreading well in 1995), High Hill and Horse Pasture.  Population monitoring has been carried out by staff of the Environmental Conservation Section between 1995 – 2001.  The estimated population size is 5,000.
37828		habitat	eng	<em>C. rugosum</em> occupies a wide range of habitats: steep coastal cliffs, deep gorges and dry anthropogenic eroded wastelands known as the Crown Wastes. This species has spread  from the Crown Wastes since the removal of goats (although continued vigilance is needed to ensure that goats and donkeys do not again become established on the Crown Wastes).  <em> C. rugosum</em> is able to tolerate severe drought once established, and can grow in very poor eroded and saline soils occupied by <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>.  It is a good condenser of fog, and the fallen leaves trapped under its canopy add useful humus to the eroded saline soils on which it grows.  It is even able to germinate amongst the carpet forming <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em> through which it subsequently grows and eventually shades out.  Scrubwoods can be found in flower most of the year, except in drought. Seed set is good.
37828		threats	eng	Most subpopulations are very small and restricted geographically, making them vulnerable to intrinsic and stochastic events.  Threats to this species also include poor levels of recruitment at sites and seed predation by moth larvae.
37830		conservation	eng	In the permanent and protected forests of these states, the species is conserved.
37830		distribution	eng	Predominantly found in the states of Kedah, Perak, Pahang, Terengganu and Johor.
37830		habitat	eng	A widely distributed species, occurring within lowland to montane forest areas.
37831		distribution	eng	A rare tree known only from Penang, Perak and the east coast from Terengganu to Johore.
37831		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland rainforest.
37832		distribution	eng	Widespread within Peninsular Malaysia.
37832		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland rainforest.
37833		distribution	eng	An uncommon tree in Fraser's Hill and the Genting Highlands.
37833		habitat	eng	Lowland and hill forest.
37833		threats	eng	Both areas are threatened by the encroachment of settlements and tourism.
37834		distribution	eng	West coast from Perak to Johore.
37834		habitat	eng	Confined to lowland moist forest.
37834		threats	eng	This tree is threatened by urban encroachment and habitat felling.
37835		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, this tree was found on Gunung Bubu, Perak.
37835		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
37836		distribution	eng	Known only from Perak, Selangor, Trennganu and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia. A single collection has been made from near Belaga, Sarawak.
37836		habitat	eng	A species of seasonal lowland and montane forest with a single collection from mixed dipterocarp forest (Sarawak).
37837		distribution	eng	This tree is known only from Lanit Hills, Perak.
37837		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland and hill open forest.
37837		threats	eng	Threatened by tourism and expanding settlements.
37838		distribution	eng	Usually occurring on the coastal hills of Penang, Perak and Pahang.
37838		habitat	eng	A tree found scattered within open forest.
37839		distribution	eng	Known only from Bubu Forest Reserve in Perak and Bukit Bauk Forest Reserve in Terengganu.
37839		habitat	eng	A scattered tree of lowland and hill forest.
37840		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves where the species is found, it has a conserved status.
37840		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed among the lowland forests of Malaya, with the exception of Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan.
37841		conservation	eng	Within permanent forest reserves this species is conserved.
37841		distribution	eng	Species is widely distributed throughout lowland areas of Malaysia.
37841		threats	eng	Timber is traded on a local and national level.
37842		distribution	eng	A variety confined to north-west Peninsular Malaysia.
37842		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland moist forest.
37843		distribution	eng	This variety is confined to Johore.
37843		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree (18 m high) found on the edges of lowland rainforest and in swamps.
37844		distribution	eng	Confined to Aceh, Sumatra.
37844		habitat	eng	This variety occurs in lowland rainforest.
37845		conservation	eng	Conservation of the species occurs in permanent forest reserves.
37845		distribution	eng	Found in most Malaysian states.
37845		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland, hill and montane primary forests.
37846		distribution	eng	Confined to Pulau Tioman. Only two collections have been made.
37846		habitat	eng	A lowland forest tree.
37846		threats	eng	The island is being developed into a resort and the chances of the conserving the species are remote.
37847		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas the species is conserved.
37847		distribution	eng	Found in Penang, Selangor, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor
37847		habitat	eng	A scattered lowland and hill forest species.
37847		threats	eng	Felling activities outside of conservation zones are a threat to the species, with the harvested timber being traded on a local and national level.
37848		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of Kedah, Perak and Pahang, conservation measures are in place.
37848		distribution	eng	Found in the states of Kedah, Perak and Pahang.
37848		habitat	eng	A lowland, primary forest species.
37848		threats	eng	Felling/logging pressures is the primary threat to this species.
37849		distribution	eng	Found at 1,200 m, this tree is known only from Fraser's Hill, Pahang.
37849		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
37849		threats	eng	The area is under threat from rapid development as a tourist resort. It is hoped that the species will survive in remnant forest.
37850		distribution	eng	Confined to the south Johore in Pontina and Sg. Sedili, the species has doubtfully survived the conversion of both localities for agricultural use. A population may possibly remain in the Sg. Sedili swamps.
37850		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
37851		distribution	eng	Distributed from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve in Panama, to Venezuela and Colombia, where the largest subpopulations are found. The Panamanian subpopulation is very restricted and considered to be endangered.
37851		habitat	eng	Occurring in forest from low altitude to 1,500 m.
37852		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from Costa Rica to Bolivia.  In Central America it occurs on both the Atlantic and Pacfic sides, appearing abundant in La Selva, Costa Rica, and in old forest in Bocas del Toro, the Canal area and Darién in Panama. Little information is available on the species in Ecuador and Bolivia. In Peru it is reported to be abundant and in Colombia it is found chiefly in the Chocó.
37852		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
37852		threats	eng	Habitat declines have occurred throughout the range and the species is rare outside protected areas.
37853		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum coriaceum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>The entire range is contained within the National Park of Madeira.  Efforts are being made to propagate the species, with limited success. Species recovery and reintroduction programmes should continue, together with campaigns to raise public awareness. Biology and ecology, population dynamics, threats and impacts of conservation actions should be studied further (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
37853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, Portugal, where it is only found on northern slopes (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its extent of occurrence is 477 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
37853		habitat	eng	This tree grows in deep ravines in laurisilva forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea foetens</span> (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008, Morgan and Leon 1992). It is found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
37853		population	eng	The total population counts between 40 and 50 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are very small and fragmented with isolated individuals but have a stable population trend (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
37853		threats	eng	The main threats are the disturbance of sensitive areas, fires and landslides. Several unfavourable intrinsic factors such as a low regeneration rate further reduce the survival chances of this species (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
37854		distribution	eng	It became extinct in 1870.
37854		habitat	eng	Formerly a rare shrub or small tree of thickets on the central ridge above 600 m.
37855		conservation	eng	Cuttings were collected from the upper plant on the cliff in 1980 which rooted readily. Approximately 4,000 plants were propagated between 1980 and 1992 and planted out on the island. Planting has been carried out at Pounceys, High Peak Ebony Plain, Casons, Scotland, the Jamestown Public Gardens, and in many other private gardens.   <br/>The Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>T. ebenus</em> has set out a number of objectives in order to encourage the long-term persistence of the Ebony through coordinated and agreed action between the members of the ANRD, the SNCG and the Species Recovery Group. The specific objectives are: <br/>1. To carry out a programme of propagation and seed collection.  <br/>2. To maintain and expand the established gene banks, at Whites Cottage – Norman Williams Nature Reserve, Pounceys and Scotland and establish a new field gene bank at the Millennium Forest.  <br/>3. To maintain ex-situ stocks at RBG Kew and Eden Project and establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.
37855		distribution	eng	Once distributed commonly in dry places between 200 and 500 m, especially in northern and western parts of the island. The populations declined sharply in the eighteenth century, principally because of goat grazing, and was thought at one time to be extinct.  In 1980, two low shrubs were discovered near the Asses Ears.  The genus is made up of just three species endemic to St Helena, two of which are extinct in the wild.
37855		habitat	eng	Formerly a small tree up to 4-5 m., now a low shrub.  The only individuals of <em>T. ebenus</em> known to exist in the wild were discovered on a cliff.
37855		threats	eng	All existing material in cultivation is derived from two individuals, inbreeding inevitable and potential inbreeding depression. Current plantings dominated by one clone and planted with hybrid supporting problems associated with inbreeding or introgression. The ebony has not yet been properly secured in an ex-situ gene bank where it is isolated from the hybrid.  <br/> <br/>This species was previously burnt in limekilns to produce mortar.  The wood was also used in 19th century for turnery and ornament making and was introduced to British gardens around 1800.
37856		distribution	eng	Although it is doubtful whether any pure material of this subspecies still exists, its characters are frequently seen in hybrid populations at Peak Dale. The taxon was at one time distributed on the central ridge between 400 and 700 m. There is also a tree of questionable identity found in Deep Valley. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to St Helena.
37857		habitat	eng	Frequently found on ridge tops between 300 and 1,300 m.
37858		distribution	eng	The only known locality is in Mt. Galunggung, where it may have suffered damage from a volcanic eruption in 1982.
37858		habitat	eng	In forest from 1,300 to 1,400 m.
37858		threats	eng	The habitat is under constant pressure from the activities of surrounding populations.
37859		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Mt. Willis in central Java.
37859		habitat	eng	Forest between 1,300 and 1,500 m.
37859		threats	eng	Strong pressures are exerted by the activities of surrounding populations.
37860		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Haggier Mts., Soqotra,  the species occurs very rarely.  The populations are stable. Atlitude of 600–750 m.
37860		habitat	eng	A rare small tree or shrub known from a handful of sites in sheltered submontane woodland. Also recorded by Popov (in 1957) in a limestone gorge, known as the RAF Pass; this locality has not been traced. An attractive tree with large white flowers. It is night-flowering.
37861		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37861		habitat	eng	A fairly common small tree or shrub, occurring in submontane, drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 250–600 m.  <br/> <br/>Leaves provide good livestock fodder, and trees are frequently damaged to obtain them. Often heavily grazed.
37862		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37862		habitat	eng	Deciduous woodland; usually on cliffs. Altitude of 600–1,000 m.  <br/> <br/>The species occurs as a scattered solitary small tree or shrub in dry woodland or shrubland.
37862		threats	eng	At present populations are under no major threat. But its restricted range makes it vulnerable.
37863		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37863		habitat	eng	Limestone cliffs, boulders and wadi sides. Altitude of 30–650 m.
37865		conservation	eng	The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
37865		distribution	eng	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra. Approximately 15 small subpopulations, each of about 10 mature individuals, are known. All subpopoulations are confined to Jebel Saleh on the western side of Abd al Kuri, an island to the west of Soqotra.
37865		habitat	eng	Succulent shrubland (associated with <em>Euphorbia balsamifera</em> and <em>E. schimperi</em>) on rocky slopes; only on Abd al Kuri (J. Saleh). Altitude of 200–350 m. <br/> <br/>This remarkable shrub is endemic to Abd al Kuri and has been described as the most remarkable species of <em>Euphorbia</em> (Lavranos 1971). It is locally common on J Hassala where it grows in sandy soils in open semi-desert shrubland and is not reported from other places on the island.
37866		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37866		habitat	eng	Scattered on limestone cliffs in dry, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 20–550(–1,050) m. <br/> <br/>A narrower concept of this species has been adopted here (compared to that of Thulin and Al-Gifri 1998), including all cliff-rooting trees bearing leaves with white-felted undersurfaces. It is found on limestone (and occasionally granite) cliffs in central-northern and central-southern Soqotra and includes. Two, distinct forms can be recognized: those with entire, rather regularly crenate leaves, found in the wadis draining to the south of the island; and those with simple or deeply lobed leaves with irregularly crenate and somewhat sinuate margins from the limestone areas to the northwest of the Haggeher mountains. Trees in Wadi Terubah bearing both entire and simple leaves are possibly the result of hybridsation with <em>B. elongata</em>.  A dwarf, prostrate form of <em>B. popoviana</em> (cf. forms of <em>B. nana</em>) was recently also found on the limestone ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub) limestone in the extreme west of Soqotra above Bandar Shu'ub.
37866		threats	eng	Some <em>Boswellia</em> species are exploited for the resin but none at a commercial level.
37868		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra.
37868		habitat	eng	Uncommon, in dense montane woodland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 550–1,300 m.  <br/> <br/>Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) notes that he found it in the valley opening upon the Kadhab [Qadhub] plain . This is presumably Wadi Ayheft and it probably grows at the headwaters of the valley.
37869		conservation	eng	Trees are planted near settlements as dry season fodder for livestock.  The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
37869		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra, Samha and Abd al Kuri. There is a doubtfully distinct variety which is rare and confined to higher altitudes.
37869		habitat	eng	Locally common on Soqotra in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland and occasional in drought-deciduous woodland; a common emergent and sometimes form small groves on the desertic plains; also there are small populations on Samha and Abd al Kuri. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>A common emergent over most of the island, sometimes planted, and forming small groves, in places on the plains. It flowers in the hot, dry season and survives severe drought. On Abd al Kuri there is a small but flourishing colony. Here goats do not browse the young plants and trees are found at all stages of growth. The small population on Samha shows no signs of regeneration. On Soqotra low and windswept forms occurring at higher altitudes have been called var. <em>montana</em>.
37870		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. Subpopulations appear to be scattered and relatively rare.
37870		habitat	eng	Locally common in succulent shrubland and dry, semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone plateaus; also found but less frequent in montane semi-deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 450–900 m. <br/> <br/>A tree, or rarely a shrub, which is readily distinguished by its pale brown or almost white bark and the glaucous leaves which are clustered at the tips of branches and persist on the tree well into the dry season. It drops its leaves in summer and comes into new leaf only if it rains. Reported to be on the increase in the western Haggeher.
37871		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37871		habitat	eng	An attractive small tree or shrub which is scattered, occasionally common, in areas of moist submontane woodland, with large bluish flowers and distictive grandular-hairy calyces.
37871		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
37872		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37872		habitat	eng	A local tree of cliffs in ravines on limestone plateaus in the west of Soqotra; less commonly on granite in the Haggeher. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>The attractive sweet-smelling cream flowers emerge before the leaves.
37873		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. <br/> <br/>A species which has been collected only once. The paucity of material available prevents the taxonomy from being consolidated.
37873		habitat	eng	Rare in semi-deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 450–1,400 m. <br/> <br/>Much rarer than <em>Vernonia cockburniana</em> Balf.f. Far less ecologically tolerant and restricted to the eastern Haggeher where it is found as isolated inviduals.
37874		habitat	eng	A large tree found on flat land and hillsides up to 700 m altitude.
37875		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
37875		habitat	eng	Widespread and in places abundant in drought-deciduous woodland and succulent shrubland on both limestone and granite on the escarpments and plateaus; also in patches of woodland by wadis on the inland plains. Altitude of 50–1,100 m.
37875		threats	eng	The subpopulations are under no immediate threat.
37876		habitat	eng	Confined to evergreen rainforest up to 1,200 m.
37877		habitat	eng	A widespread species fairly common in evergreen to deciduous forest and beach forest up to 400 m.
37877		threats	eng	Trees are cut for 'penarahan' timber in the Philippines and sometimes in Sabah.
37878		distribution	eng	Found in New Guinea, New Britain and New Ireland.
37878		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland rainforest.
37878		threats	eng	The wood is likely to used as 'penarahan' timber.
37880		distribution	eng	In the main part of its range in North and East Africa, the species is fairly abundant. There is an outlying subpopulation in Arabia, restricted to Jebel Iraf on the old North Yemen-South Yemen border.  The species is also thought to be extinct in Eritrea.
37880		threats	eng	The woodland here is believed to be in good condition, although it may come under threat after the completion of a new road to the area. The tree produces a high-quality gum mastic and damage is frequently incurred from the tapping process. The subpopulations around Nairobi are said to be wiped out from overexploitation.
37881		distribution	eng	Luzon. No recent collections of this species have been made.
37881		habitat	eng	A small tree restricted to the lowlands.
37882		distribution	eng	One of the largest trees in Yemen. It occurs as ancient solitary individuals or in small groups, restricted to the large wadis which dissect the inhospitable limestone plateau of the Hadramaut in South Yemen. Regeneration is lacking in most areas.
37883		distribution	eng	A small tree from a genus of just two species. The natural distribution is thought to be restricted to populations in the region of Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Bari and Nugaal in Somalia and in Hadramaut in South Yemen. It occurs in cultivation elsewhere in East and North Africa and Arabia.
37883		habitat	eng	Wild subpopulations are confined to localities along water courses in the semi-desert coastal zone.
37884		distribution	eng	Known only from the Mahra region of South Yemen. Further fieldwork is needed to estimate subpopulation sizes.
37884		habitat	eng	The species is scarce and scattered in a few dry valleys.
37885		conservation	eng	The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.
37885		distribution	eng	It has now become scarce, particularly in Saudi Arabia and South Yemen, although it remains common in places in North Yemen.
37885		habitat	eng	A succulent tree, once an important component of the succulent shrubland between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
37886		distribution	eng	A small tree with populations divided between Somalia and Yemen. In the latter country the species is very sparsely scattered along a few wadis near Turbah in the south.
37886		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to areas of riverine forest and bushland in the northern mountains of Somalia. Trees are often stunted because of browsing.
37886		threats	eng	The increasing demand for timber and wood is putting remaining populations under some pressure.
37887		distribution	eng	Endemic to east Sabah.
37887		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland primary dipterocarp forest.
37888		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from a single collection in Serawai, west Kalimantan.
37888		habitat	eng	Primary dipterocarp forest at 1,200 m.
37889		distribution	eng	Known only from a restricted area in south Brunei.
37889		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest on ridges between 50 and 350 m.
37890		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in the Sugud Recreation Park, Penampang District.
37890		habitat	eng	This small tree was found on a ridge at 400 m.
37891		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection found south of Tabilong in north Sabah.
37891		habitat	eng	This subspecies was found on a hill at 650 m.
37892		distribution	eng	A recently described species known only from the type specimen gathered in the Arfak Mts.
37892		habitat	eng	Ridge forest.
37893		distribution	eng	It is known from two collections, one from Sudest Island and the other from Rossel Island.
37893		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in rainforest on ridge crests between 100 and 300 m.
37894		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in the Waskuk Hills, East Sepik Province. Another collection from Irian Jaya might belong to this recently described species.
37894		habitat	eng	This subcanopy tree was found growing on a ridge at approximately 50 m.
37895		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic, occurring in the parishes of Clarendon and Trelawny.
37895		habitat	eng	Moist wooded limestone crags, between 600 and 900 m.
37896		habitat	eng	A very large tree of moist lowland and hill forest .
37896		threats	eng	The timber is traded internationally, but the greatest threat to the species is from the expansion of settlements.
37897		conservation	eng	The species is given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.
37897		distribution	eng	Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Selangor.
37897		habitat	eng	A small tree inhabiting montane and submontane rainforest.
37898		conservation	eng	Protected subpopulations are found within Taman Negara National Park.
37898		distribution	eng	Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, Penang, Pahang and Selangor.
37898		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree, distributed in lowland rainforest areas.
37899		distribution	eng	Occurring in low-lying parts of Manchester and Clarendon Parishes.
37899		habitat	eng	A species of scrub and woodland on arid rocky limestone.
37899		threats	eng	The woodland has been extensively destroyed in this area since 1980, mainly for the production of charcoal.
37900		distribution	eng	A rare and localised species in Trelawny. A single tree is recorded on Mango Tree Hill, near Spring Garden, in low disturbed woodland.
37900		habitat	eng	Occurring on limestone cliffs and ledges.
37901		distribution	eng	Known only from Trelawny, the species occurs very locally.
37901		habitat	eng	Dry scrubby woodland on rocky hillsides.
37901		threats	eng	There is a constant threat of overcutting and encroaching agriculture.
37903		distribution	eng	A Cockpit Country endemic which is found in Clarendon and Trelawny Parishes.
37903		habitat	eng	Woodland on limestone.
37904		distribution	eng	Once known from a restricted area of streamside thicket in Clarendon, the species has not been collected since 1976 and is now presumed extinct. The habitat in the area has been completely cleared.
37905		distribution	eng	Recorded only from Portland Parish.
37905		habitat	eng	A very uncommon small tree or shrub of mossy woodlands on limestone between 450 and 760 m.
37906		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single locality in Peckham Woods, Clarendon.
37906		habitat	eng	It occurs on a rocky limestone hilltop at about 760 m.
37907		distribution	eng	Little is known about this species, other than that it was known to occur in the parish of St Ann and has not been recorded or collected since the beginning of the century.
37908		distribution	eng	Occasional distribution in the Blue Mountains.
37908		habitat	eng	A montane woodland species between 1,400 and 1,700 m.
37909		distribution	eng	Recorded from the parishes of Clarendon and St Ann. A locality at Broom Hall in Clarendon was destroyed in 1983/4.
37909		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of wooded limestone on slopes between 450 and 670 m.
37910		distribution	eng	A rare Cockpit Country endemic, only foin Clarendon and Trelawny Parishes.
37910		habitat	eng	Open woodland on arid limestone between 400 and 760 m.
37911		distribution	eng	The species occurs locally in St Andrew and St Catherine Parishes.
37911		habitat	eng	In thickets on limestone.
37912		distribution	eng	Recorded from Clarendon and St Ann Parishes.
37912		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub occurs locally in thickets and open woodland on limestone.
37913		distribution	eng	It is recorded only from the parishes of Clarendon and St Ann.
37913		habitat	eng	A rare small tree or shrub of exposed craggy sites on limestone.
37914		distribution	eng	It is known only from the parish of Trelawny from a locality at about 530 m.
37915		distribution	eng	Located on the islands of Viti Levu, Ovalau, and Taveuni.
37915		habitat	eng	A compact shrub or small tree of dry forest, thickets on crests, ridges and exposed places, occurring between 350 and 1,323 m.
37917		distribution	eng	Only known from the type collection of 1947, the species was found on summit of Mt. Numbuiloa, east of Lambasa, Vanua Levu.
37917		habitat	eng	Dense thickets on summit ridge.
37918		distribution	eng	Widely distributed but scattered.
37918		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in moist lowland forest.
37918		threats	eng	Its wood is valuable and continues to be exploited illegally.
37921		distribution	eng	Recorded from Raivavae, Tubuai and Rapa Iti in the Tubuai Group and Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Group. The Raivavae subpopulation is in a critical state and the subpopulation on Henderson consists of fewer than 6 adult plants in tall forest on the north-west beach.
37921		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree.
37922		distribution	eng	A small genus endemic to East Polynesia. This species is recorded only on Bora Bora.
37923		distribution	eng	A small genus endemic to East Polynesia. This taxon represents one of 2 subspecies. It is confined to Raiatea.
37924		distribution	eng	Only ever known from Taravai in the Gambier Islands.  The genus is endemic to East Polynesia.
37924		habitat	eng	Occurring as either a shrub or small tree.
37925		distribution	eng	This species comes from a small genus, endemic to East Polynesia. It has been found only on Tahiti.
37926		distribution	eng	One of the six species in the genus, which is endemic to East Polynesia. It occurs only on Tahiti.
37927		distribution	eng	Endemic to Rapa Iti.  This species is the least threatened of the 6 species in the genus.
37927		habitat	eng	Small tree.
37928		distribution	eng	One of the two species in the genus, both of which are endemic to the Rapa Group.
37928		threats	eng	Although subpopulations are restricted, they are under no threat.
37929		distribution	eng	One of the two species in the genus, both of which are endemic to the Rapa Group.
37929		threats	eng	Although subpopulations are restricted, they are under no threat.
37930		conservation	eng	This taxon has horticultural potential as an ornamental. At was planted around houses and the flowers used for personal decoration by the people of Raiatea in the 1700s (Sachet 1987).
37930		distribution	eng	This subspecies is a shrub or small tree which occurs on various islands in the Marquesas, Tuamotu and Society Groups. As the subspecies varies from island to island, these different subpopulations have been treated as five varieties. Populations on Moorea, Raiatea, Tahiti, Tetiaroa are apparently now extinct and on other islands they are under some threat.
37930		habitat	eng	Grows on coral sandy beach crests and 'motu'. Where the habitat is not transformed, the subspecies appears to thrive. The seeds are very hard and long-lived; they germinate readily after scarification and seedlings grow easily and fast (Sachet 1987). The plant can form large groves, with many germinations in the undergrowth, in full sun or in the dappled shade of native strand trees or even under coconut plantations (Sachet 1987).
37930		threats	eng	Threatened by expanding human settlements on the islands (Sachet 1987). Hurricanes which hit the Society and Tuamotu Islands in 1983 destruopyed the known stands on Tupai and Tikehua Atolls, but some seeds survived and restored the subpopulations. There may be cases where they are wiped out, if sand is completely washed off the atoll or flooding is prolonged (Sachet 1987).
37931		distribution	eng	Only occurring on Rapa Iti, populations are thought to be stable and under no threat.
37932		distribution	eng	Although the species is restricted to Rapa Iti, subpopulations are stable and not thought to be under any threat.
37933		distribution	eng	Endemic to Rapa Iti, the species is not thought to be under any threat.
37934		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Fatu Hiva in the Marquesas.
37935		distribution	eng	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species, found only on Tahiti.
37936		distribution	eng	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. This taxon was once abundant in areas of humid forest and was the main source of wood for early European colonists.
37936		threats	eng	Overexploitation led to extensive deforestation and the reduction of the taxon to small remnants of its former population.
37937		distribution	eng	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. It is known from a small population at Tanga on Rapa Iti.
37938		distribution	eng	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. The main population occurs on Moorea. It is also known from Raiatea, where its status is critically endangered.
37939		distribution	eng	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. It occurs only on Raivavae in the Tubuai Group.
37940		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Rapa Iti.
37941		distribution	eng	The genus is made up of the three poorly defined species. This represents the taxon endemic to Tahiti.
37942		distribution	eng	Endemic to Rapa Iti, subpopulations are stable and are under no threat.
37943		distribution	eng	The subspecies occurs on Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva.
37944		distribution	eng	A species which is only known from Tahiti. Subpopulations are stable and under no threat.
37945		distribution	eng	One of the numerous varieties of this Polynesian species. It is known only from Ua Pou in the Marquesas.
37945		threats	eng	An important tree for various uses: a source of fibre, thatch, wood and also a famine food.
37947		distribution	eng	The species was described in 1991 from collections originating from Jari. So far only four individuals are known.
37948		distribution	eng	A species with sparse distribution.  Subpopulations in Atlantic forest have declined extensively, especially in Bahia, as the habitat has been cleared and logged.
37948		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
37948		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance and logging.
37949		distribution	eng	Known from few collections. The type specimen is from Santa Catarina and it has also been found at Parati in Rio de Janeiro near the border with Sâo Paulo.
37949		habitat	eng	The species is confined to areas of rainforest on the Atlantic coast.
37950		distribution	eng	A tree or treelet, which occurs infrequently in remaining areas of Atlantic forest.
37950		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37951		distribution	eng	Present information suggests the species is endemic to Rio de Janeiro. It has been found in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and on Mage.
37952		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
37953		distribution	eng	Restricted to Atlantic coastal forest in the south-east.
37953		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
37953		threats	eng	The species has suffered from extensive reductions in habitat.
37954		distribution	eng	Restricted to Atlantic coastal forest in the south-east.
37954		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
37954		threats	eng	The species has suffered from extensive reductions in habitat.
37955		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type collection.
37956		distribution	eng	A rarely occurring species of Atlantic forest. It is recorded from only two states.
37956		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37958		distribution	eng	The species was collected twice in the early part of the 19th century, but since then it has not been found.
37959		distribution	eng	First described in 1857, the species has only recently been rediscovered from a population in the Poça d'Antas Biological Reserve.
37960		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
37961		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
37962		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.
37963		distribution	eng	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.
37963		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37964		distribution	eng	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.
37964		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37965		distribution	eng	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.
37965		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37966		distribution	eng	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.
37966		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37973		distribution	eng	Confined to the states of Sâo Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.
37973		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37973		threats	eng	The species has suffered dramatic habitat loss and has been extensively exploited for its timber.
37974		distribution	eng	Confined to the slopes of the Serra do Mar.
37974		habitat	eng	A species of montane forest.
37975		distribution	eng	Subpopulations of the species are principally confined to forest on the slopes of the Serra do Mar.
37976		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is restricted, occurring in Atlantic forest in the south of the state.  The current status of remaining subpopulations is uncertain.
37976		threats	eng	The habitat appears to have been taken over by commercial crops.
37977		distribution	eng	Known only from a restricted distribution.
37977		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37977		threats	eng	The species has suffered dramatic habitat declines and levels of exploitation.
37978		distribution	eng	Endemic to one state in Brazil.
37978		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest.
37978		threats	eng	The species has suffered dramatic habitat declines.
37979		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to areas of Atlantic forest in the south of the state.
37980		distribution	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia it is apparently restricted to the Kledang Saiong range in Perak. The taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.
37980		habitat	eng	A rare shrub to small tree found in lowland rainforest.
37981		distribution	eng	Although the species is geographically widespread, its distribution is discontinuous. Occurrences are rare in Sâo Paulo and questionable in Rio de Janeiro. It has, however, been recently collected from Paraná.
37981		habitat	eng	It is found principally in areas of <em>Araucaria</em> forest, but also in more open areas and pastureland.
37982		distribution	eng	The species is poorly known.
37982		habitat	eng	Collections indicate that it occurs in restinga and other Atlantic forest types.
37983		distribution	eng	Although widely distributed in Atlantic forest in the south and south-east of Brazil, the species occurs sparsely and populations are in decline.
37983		threats	eng	Extensive habitat loss and degradation.
37984		distribution	eng	The species is known from few localities and populations are believed to be small.
37984		habitat	eng	Occurring in areas of montane evergreen rainforest.
37985		distribution	eng	An Atlantic forest species which is restricted to localities in the Linhares Reserve in Espírito Santo and to forest on Mussununga. The subpopulations are reported to be small.
37986		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
37986		distribution	eng	A frequent species of Atlantic coastal vegetation types in the south and south-east.
37986		habitat	eng	Coastal vegetation.
37987		habitat	eng	An Atlantic forest species.
37988		habitat	eng	A relatively widely ranging species of Atlantic coastal forest.
37989		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
37989		distribution	eng	The species appears to occur in isolated subpopulations.
37992		distribution	eng	First described in 1981 from a specimen taken from scrubby vegetation in Santa Izabel, the species is poorly known. Only two additional collections are recorded, from earlier dates, one of unknown origin and the other from Miguel Arcanjo.
37993		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Thailand and the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia.
37993		habitat	eng	Inhabits open and closed rainforest below 300 m. It is occasionally found in coastal and limestone forest.
37994		distribution	eng	Known only from the Linares Forest Reserve, the species is extremely rare and has not been collected since 1982.
37995		distribution	eng	Subpopulations have been recorded at Boracéia Biological Station, Salenópolis in Sâo Paulo and Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo. It was last collected in 1985. Of the three collections from Salenópolis, the most recent dates to 1967.
37996		distribution	eng	Once occurring in Atlantic forest, principally in the state of Rio de Janeiro, the species has been extinct in the wild since 1942. There still exist two individuals in the Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden.
37997		distribution	eng	Restricted to a relatively small range.
37997		habitat	eng	The species occurs in remaining areas of Atlantic forest, preferring riverside locations.
37998		conservation	eng	It is under some protection in Linhares Forest Reserve.
37998		distribution	eng	Besides the type specimen of 1943 the species is known from two other collections in Ilhéus in Bahia and from Linhares Forest Reserve in Rio de Janeiro.
37999		distribution	eng	Appears to be confined to the Vale of Mid Itajaí and Serra do Madador in Santa Catarina.
37999		habitat	eng	An Atlantic forest species.
38000		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus, first discovered in 1909 in the northwest of the island (known only from a single plant initially). Attempts to find the species again had failed until a healthy population of about 250 trees was discovered in 1997 in the Anjahanaribe-Sud Special Reserve in the northeast, 150 km from the original locality.
38001		distribution	eng	Confined to the state of Perak.
38001		habitat	eng	A small tree of hill rainforest.
38002		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
38003		distribution	eng	An endemic to Nariño.
38004		distribution	eng	A small tree which is found in three sites. Regeneration is good in at least one of the sites.
38004		habitat	eng	It occurs commonly in secondary forest above 1,300 m.
38005		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only two individuals were found at a single locality in Kegalle district.
38005		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest
38006		distribution	eng	Kedah, Perak, Penang, Pahang and Selangor.
38006		habitat	eng	A variety found in lowland forest.
38007		distribution	eng	Found in only five forest localities during the extensive forest surveys for the National Conservation Review.
38007		habitat	eng	A dry zone tree.
38008		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in only two sites: Horton Plains National Park and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.
38009		distribution	eng	A tree recorded only twice in a single locality in Knuckles State Forest, which covers 300 km², during the extensive forest surveys by the National Conservation Review.
38010		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only one individual was found in a single forest site in Ratnapura District.
38011		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only five individuals were found in the Peak Wilderness Wildlife Sanctuary.
38012		conservation	eng	It appears to be fairly common in the Peak Wilderness  wildlife sanctuary.
38012		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species turned up in only two forest localities.
38013		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species only turned up in only four forest localities.
38014		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to the wet zone of Sri Lanka, this species was collected in five forests during the extensive fieldwork carried out for the recent National Conservation Review.
38015		conservation	eng	One population occurs in Rammalakanda Biosphere Reserve.
38015		distribution	eng	The comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review located this species in four forest localities in Ratnapura and in a population consisting of five individuals in Rammalakanda Biosphere Reserve.
38015		habitat	eng	Wet-zone.
38016		distribution	eng	A rare species which was found in only two localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38016		habitat	eng	Wet zone forest.
38017		distribution	eng	This rare species turned up in only four localities in Kalutara and Ratnapura during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.
38018		distribution	eng	In Sri Lanka, a recent survey uncovered the species in only three localities. In India, populations are widely scattered over a large altitudinal range in the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38019		distribution	eng	During the recent National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in eight of the surveyed forest sites.
38020		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Peak Wilderness wildlife sanctuary.
38020		distribution	eng	This rare species turned up in only four forest localities during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.
38021		distribution	eng	A rare species found in only two forest localities during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.
38021		habitat	eng	Wet zone.
38022		distribution	eng	A rare species which was found in only four wet zone forests during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38022		habitat	eng	Wet zone forest.
38023		distribution	eng	A species found in only 10 localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38024		distribution	eng	A species found in only eight localities in the districts of Kurunegala, Badulla and Monarangala during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38025		distribution	eng	During the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review between 1991 and 1996, this species was discovered in only three forest localities.
38026		distribution	eng	A species found in only six forest localities in Ratnapura District and in a single locality in Kalutara District during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38027		distribution	eng	This species was found in seven forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38028		distribution	eng	A rare species which was found in only three localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38029		distribution	eng	A rare species found in only five localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38030		distribution	eng	A rare species found in only two forests during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38030		habitat	eng	Wet zone forests.
38031		distribution	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this wet zone species was found in only seven of the surveyed sites.
38032		habitat	eng	A species of lowland and hill rainforest up to 700 m.
38032		threats	eng	Threatened mainly by the expansion of settlements.
38033		distribution	eng	Found in the states of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor and Johor.
38033		habitat	eng	Occurring in swampy or semi-swampy rainforest.
38033		threats	eng	This tree is exploited as timber for major international trade and as a medicine for minor international trade. The greatest threats are increasing settlement and logging activities.
38034		distribution	eng	Only six individuals of this species were found in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting it to be either extremely rare or possibly extinct.
38035		distribution	eng	This species has been found in only six forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.
38036		distribution	eng	This species was found in three of the sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review.
38036		habitat	eng	Apparently it is restricted to forest in the wet zone.
38037		distribution	eng	Only three trees were found in a single proposed reserve in Ratnapura District during the surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
38038		conservation	eng	It appears to be locally common in Knuckles State Forest.
38038		distribution	eng	The species was found in three of the sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review.
38040		distribution	eng	The species was found in only seven of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.
38041		distribution	eng	This species was recorded only once in Matara district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
38042		distribution	eng	This species was found in 10 forest localities, mainly in Nuwara Eliya district, during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.
38043		distribution	eng	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded  in seven forests.
38044		distribution	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in three forest localities including the Peak Wilderness Wildlife Sanctuary.
38045		distribution	eng	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in only one forest locality in Badulla District.
38046		distribution	eng	Confined to western Borneo.
38046		habitat	eng	A tree of primary rainforest and heath forest up to 100 m.
38055		habitat	eng	A lowland species, of primary or old secondary forest up to 400 m altitude.
38056		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to the lowlands of Sarawak.
38057		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to Sarawak up to 500 m.
38059		distribution	eng	Borneo.
38059		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in evergreen, non-inundated rainforest.
38060		distribution	eng	A tree confined to the lowlands of Brunei and Sarawak.
38062		distribution	eng	This small tree is endemic to Sarawak.
38062		habitat	eng	Apparently restricted to limestone hills.
38063		distribution	eng	A lowland species endemic to Sarawak.
38064		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the lowlands of south-west Sarawak.
38065		distribution	eng	A lowland tree endemic to Sarawak.
38066		distribution	eng	A small tree endemic to Sarawak.
38067		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest, sometimes in swamp forest, up to 800 m.
38067		threats	eng	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value for making incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.
38068		distribution	eng	East Kalimantan, the Moluccas and the Philippines.
38068		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of primary forest.
38068		threats	eng	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value in the production of incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.
38069		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Eucador’s protected areas network, but should be searched for in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
38069		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Andes of south-east Ecuador in Zamora-Chinchipe province. So far it is known only from two localities and one historical record. The species may occur in more inaccessible areas of south-east Ecuador.
38069		habitat	eng	This small palm tree is scattered in cloud forest and montane open forest (high Andean forest) <br/>between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
38069		threats	eng	At least one of the subpopulations has suffered from a severe reduction in numbers from fire and felling. Habitat destruction due to agricultural activities is also a threat.
38070		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
38070		distribution	eng	Three subpopulations have been reported, apparently restricted to the Papallacta lake district inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, within the Napo and Pichincha provinces.
38070		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
38070		threats	eng	Possible threats could be the various engineering projects in the area of the Empresa Municipal de Alcantarilla and Agua Potable de Quito.
38071		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38071		distribution	eng	Known from at least four collections from the central Andes. The first collection was made between Pomallacta and Alausí, later records were reported from the slopes of Chimborazo and near Ambato.
38071		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
38071		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38072		conservation	eng	Three subpopulations have been recorded within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
38072		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations confined to the southwestern slopes of the Andes, found within the provinces of Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador.
38072		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree in high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–3,000 m).
38072		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38073		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38073		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree endemic to Ecuador. Widely distributed in the northern and central Andes, especially on the western slopes, where 11 of its 12 subpopulations have been reported.
38073		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–3,000 m.
38073		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38074		conservation	eng	Several collections have been recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
38074		distribution	eng	Known from several subpopulations confined to the northern Andes, within the provinces of Imbabura, Pichincha and especially Carchi.
38074		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest and high altitude páramo, found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.
38074		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires set by humans and grazing.
38075		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38075		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, within the provinces of Loja and Azuay, Ecuador.  One subpopulation was recorded north of Sevilla de Oro and another 12 km off the Loja-Zamora road, in the property of D. Espinosa.
38075		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
38075		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38076		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38076		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in the central Andes. The first collection was recorded on the slopes of Mount Chimborazo. The second collection was recorded in 1937 somewhere on Volcán Tungurahua.
38076		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
38076		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38077		conservation	eng	The type locale, in the surroundings of Cuicocha lake, is currently protected in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
38077		distribution	eng	Known from 12 subpopulations, ten in the southern Andes and two in the northern Andes.  Recorded within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Imbabura, Loja and Pichincha, Ecuador.
38077		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
38077		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38078		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38078		distribution	eng	Known from four locales in the central and southern Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo and Cañar.
38078		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
38078		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38079		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38079		distribution	eng	Known from four Andean collections, within the Azuay, Chimborazo, Napo and Pichincha Provinces, Ecuador.
38079		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
38079		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38080		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38080		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations within the Chimborazo, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha Provinces, Ecuador.
38080		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
38080		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38081		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38081		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in Azuay province, two of them near Parroquia Baños and one in the southeast of the province. The Baños collections were recorded at the Hacienda Yanasacha and in the Cruz Pambo region; the other collection was made 3 km southeast of Gima on the road to San Miguel de Cuyes.
38081		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest to shrubland (2,500–3,500 m).
38081		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
38082		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been reported inside the Parque Nacional Cajas
38082		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, one near the border with Colombia and four in the central Andes, between Chimborazo and Azuay provinces. The northern subpopulation was reported on the Tulcán-Maldonado road, near the western slopes of Volcán Chiles. The four central subpopulations were recorded in a small area between Chimborazo, Cañar, and Azuay provinces.
38082		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2500–3500 m).
38082		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38083		conservation	eng	Two subpopulations are protected inside the Parque Nacional Cajas, and others have been recorded near the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
38083		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Andes and known from at least 15 subpopulations, within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces. <br/>.
38083		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, growing by roadsides, trails and in disturbed areas (2,500–3,500 m).
38083		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38084		distribution	eng	A tree species endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador.
38085		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38085		distribution	eng	<em>Tournefortia ramosissima</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
38085		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
38085		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
38086		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
38086		distribution	eng	<em>Brunellia pauciflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi province.
38086		habitat	eng	High Andean Forest (3,000–3,500 m).
38086		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
38087		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
38089		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
38093		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador, currently known to occur only in Azuay and Loja. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
38093		habitat	eng	In areas of montane and upper montane cloud forest.
38094		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador, found only in the provinces of Loja and Azuay. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
38094		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane and upper montane cloud forest.
38095		distribution	eng	An Ecuadorian endemic in the High Andes, known from the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Cotopaxi.
38095		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forest.
38096		distribution	eng	Restricted to the western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes.
38096		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs on steep slopes in remnant forest fragments and disturbed areas between 1,550 and 1,770 m. This region was formerly covered in cloud forest.
38097		distribution	eng	Ecuadorian Andes.
38097		habitat	eng	Found between 1,700 and 1,900 m, this tree is restricted to the upper Amazonian slopes in disturbed areas, roadsides and pastures. This region was formerly covered in montane rainforest.
38098		conservation	eng	The area is in a precarious position, threatened by fires and encroachment.
38098		distribution	eng	Confined to the 100 ha Jauneche Reserve in Los Ríos Province. Altitude of 50–200 m.
38098		habitat	eng	A small understorey tree of seasonal lowland mixed forest.
38099		distribution	eng	Yasuní National Park. Altitude of 200–250 m.
38099		habitat	eng	An understorey tree, known only from non-flooded lowland rainforest.
38100		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Ecuador in the High Andes.
38100		habitat	eng	Inhabiting montane cloud forest, between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
38101		distribution	eng	Endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe Provinces.
38101		habitat	eng	A tree, growing up to 8 m. It inhabits cloud forest between 2,500 and 3,500 m .
38102		distribution	eng	Endemic to the provinces of Loja, Chimborazo and Zamora - Chinchipe.
38102		habitat	eng	A small tree of the High Andes, found in areas of montane and upper montane cloud forest between 1,700 and 3,500 m
38103		distribution	eng	Ecuadorian High Andes, known only from Loja and Azuay Provinces.
38103		habitat	eng	A small tree of cloud forest between 2,400 and 3,500 m.
38104		distribution	eng	An endemic of the High Andes in Ecuador, in the provinces of Pichincha, Morona - Santiago, Cañar, Azuay and Loja.
38104		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,000 and 4,000 m.
38105		distribution	eng	This small tree is endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador, currently known only from Azuay Province.
38105		habitat	eng	Cloud forest, between 2,500 and 3,500 m.
38106		distribution	eng	Confined to Azuay Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.
38106		habitat	eng	A species of montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
38108		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes. The species can be found in he province of Azuay.
38108		habitat	eng	Cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
38109		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Morona - Santiago, Cañar, Azuay and Zamora - Chinchipe.
38109		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,500 and 3,500 m.
38110		distribution	eng	Endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador in Azuay Province.
38110		habitat	eng	A small tree, 5-6 m tall, confined to cloud forest at 2,000–2,500 m.
38111		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Napo and Pichincha Provinces.
38111		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,500 and 3,500 m.
38112		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
38112		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from two populations (in Loja province). One was recorded along the Loja-La Toma road, close to Cerro Villonaco, 20 km from Loja; the other was recorded in Saraguro, along the roadside at kilometer 25 of the detour to Buena Vista and Taquil. Previously classified as Vulnerable (Oldfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), but currently considered Endangered due to its geographic range of < 5,000 km².
38112		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree found in high Andean cloud forest (2,200–2,650 m).
38112		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
38113		conservation	eng	Although widely distributed, the species has not been recorded inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. However, it is expected to be found in the Los Ilinizas, Machalilla and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas, and perhaps in Mache-Chindul and the forested areas of Manglares-Churute.
38113		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from 21 subpopulations to the west of the Andes and one disjunct subpopulation on the eastern slopes, near Valladolid and Zamora (Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). The subpopulations on the coast were recorded in dry areas near Cordillera de Chongón y Colonche and on the western Andean slopes.
38113		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in humid and dry coastal forest to high Andean forest (0–2,500 m).
38113		threats	eng	There has been massive alteration of the species' habitat over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
38114		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
38114		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where four subpopulations are known (in Bolívar, Loja and Napo provinces). One is confirmed inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
38114		habitat	eng	A tree found in high Andean forest to páramo (2,000–3,000 m).
38114		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires set by people and forest conversion to pasture.
38115		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.
38115		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from seven subpopulations (in Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Collected in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa, la Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Maquipucuna private reserve. The only type was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War, but apparently this has not hampered identification of new specimens.
38115		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree found in Andean cloud forest to humid paramos (1,500–3,500 m).
38115		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
38116		conservation	eng	Two subpopulations are in protected areas: the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, in southern Ecuador; and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua near Quito.
38116		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Loja, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Two of the five known subpopulations are in protected areas. The others are mostly along roadsides.
38116		habitat	eng	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
38116		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
38117		distribution	eng	Ecuadorean endemic in the province of Azuay.
38117		habitat	eng	Inhabits cloud forest between 2,600 and 2,700 m.
38118		distribution	eng	Ecuadorean endemic from Loja Province.
38118		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane cloud forest.
38119		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorean High Andes, currently known to occur in Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cañar and Azuay Provinces.
38119		habitat	eng	Tree of cloud forest between 2,750 and 3,500 m
38120		distribution	eng	Ecuadorian endemic. Currently it is known to occur in the High Andean regions of Morona-Santiago and Loja.
38120		habitat	eng	Inhabits cloud forest between 2,250 and 3,500 m.
38121		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in  Zamora-Chinchipe.
38121		habitat	eng	Currently known only from an area of montane cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,700 m.
38122		distribution	eng	An Ecuadorean endemic of the High Andean regions in Imbabura, Morona - Santiago and Azuay.
38122		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 2,260 and 3,450 m.
38123		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorean High Andes in the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Bolívar and Loja.
38123		habitat	eng	Inhabiting areas of cloud forest between 3,200 and 3,290 m .
38124		distribution	eng	This endemic of Ecuador is known to occur in Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
38124		habitat	eng	Montane cloud forest.
38125		distribution	eng	Endemic to the High Andean areas of Pichincha, Ecuador.
38125		habitat	eng	A montane cloud forest tree.
38126		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador currently known from Chimborazo in the High Andes.
38126		habitat	eng	Upper montane cloud forest.
38127		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador, in Chimborazo Province in the High Andes.
38127		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest at 2,850 m.
38128		distribution	eng	High Andean regions of Carchi and Pichincha.
38128		habitat	eng	An endemic tree of Ecuador, inhabiting upper montane cloud forest.
38129		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Ecuadorean High Andes, in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe Province.
38129		habitat	eng	Currently known to occur in areas of cloud forest between 2,300 and 3,400 m.
38130		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Ecuador, in the High Andean areas of Imbabura.
38130		habitat	eng	Currently known to inhabit montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,400–3,100 m.
38131		distribution	eng	This tree is endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Currently known from Morona-Santiago, Azuay and Loja.
38131		habitat	eng	Inhabits cloud forest between 2,700 m and 3,400 m.
38132		distribution	eng	Found in the Ecuadorean High Andes; currently only known to occur in Cañar and Azuay Provinces.
38132		habitat	eng	A cloud forest tree. Altitude of 2,250–3,000 m.
38133		distribution	eng	An Ecuadorean endemic in the High Andean areas of Bolívar.
38133		habitat	eng	Inhabiting cloud forest at an altitude of 1,400–2,600 m.
38134		distribution	eng	Ecuadorian High Andes.
38134		habitat	eng	A tree of montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 1,800–3,200 m.
38135		distribution	eng	Endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes.
38135		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forest between 2,000 and 4,000 m.
38136		distribution	eng	An endemic tree of Ecuador, in Cotopaxi and Bolívar.
38136		habitat	eng	Montane cloud forest at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,500 m .
38137		distribution	eng	This Ecuadorian endemic is currently known only from Azuay province.
38137		habitat	eng	Inhabits cloud forest at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,000 m.
38138		distribution	eng	This endemic tree of Ecuador is found in the High Andean areas of Bolívar province.
38138		habitat	eng	Inhabits cloud forest at 2,600 m altitude.
38139		distribution	eng	Endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes in Bolívar.
38139		habitat	eng	Montane cloud forest at 2,500 m.
38140		distribution	eng	Confined to Western Province in south Papua New Guinea and adjacent Digul District, Irian Jaya, extending into the Aru Islands.
38140		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in lowland rainforest and monsoon forest.
38140		threats	eng	The subpopulation around the Oriomo River in Western Province, is a relatively restricted and confined to a fragile ecosystem, which is under pressure from logging and destructive activities. It is expected that the subpopulation across the border into Irian Jaya is similarly threatened.
38141		distribution	eng	An uncommon species of isolated occurrence. It has been recorded from the Vogelkop Peninsula and Jayapura in Irian Jaya and the East Sepik and Morobe provinces in Papua New Guinea.
38141		habitat	eng	Lower montane forest on serpentine soils.
38141		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction.
38142		distribution	eng	In Papua New Guinea, it is known only from the Western province.  The status of this species in Northern Australia has not been considered in this threat category.
38142		habitat	eng	A tree usually found in patches of rainforest along rivers and streams.
38142		threats	eng	Its restricted occurrence renders it vulnerable.
38143		distribution	eng	Normanby and Fergusson Islands of the D'Entrecasteaux Group.
38143		habitat	eng	A small tree found in mossy forest on ridge crests at 800 to 950 m.
38144		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Gulf, Central, Milne Bay and Northern Provinces of Papua New Guinea and New Britain of the Bismarck Archipelago.
38144		habitat	eng	A tree scattered on slopes and ridges in primary and secondary rainforest up to 800 m.
38145		distribution	eng	Occurs only on New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago.
38145		habitat	eng	A tree of primary and secondary forest up to 400 m.
38145		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by ongoing and future logging activities and encroaching agriculture.
38146		distribution	eng	A large tree, widespread but of sporadic occurrence on mainland Papua New Guinea, Seram Island and Tanimbar Islands of the Moluccas.
38146		habitat	eng	Throughout lowland and submontane rainforest.
38146		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is logging. The wood has commercial value as a veneer and is used to make high-class furniture.
38147		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. The species occurs in the Oriomo River ecosystem in Western Province. The above threat category applies only to the population in Papua New Guinea. More information is needed from Queensland.
38147		habitat	eng	This tree is found in monsoon and gallery forest up to 50 m.
38147		threats	eng	The area is relatively restricted, fragile and threatened by logging activities.
38148		conservation	eng	It has a sporadic occurrence in hill forest in Varirata National Park, Central Province, where it is hoped populations will survive.
38148		distribution	eng	This large tree is threatened in New Guinea by exploitation and logging activities.  Its status in Australia is not considered in this evaluation.
38148		habitat	eng	Found in monsoon, gallery and hill forest on elevated ground.
38149		distribution	eng	In Papua New Guinea, the species is widespread but uncommon and sporadic. The population status in Australia is not taken into consideration in this evaluation.
38149		habitat	eng	A large tree found mainly in lower montane rainforest or in foothill rainforest.
38149		threats	eng	It has been heavily exploited in the Bulolo/Wau region of Morobe Province. Populations on spurs and ridges of mountain ranges may be spared from future exploitation.
38150		distribution	eng	The above threat category refers to the species' situation in New Guinea.
38150		habitat	eng	This species is widespread in monsoon, hill and lower montane forest.
38150		threats	eng	In Papua New Guinea, it was subject to exploitation in two major logging areas in Morobe and Western Provinces. Subpopulations in the rugged mountains of Owen Stanley Range may be spared from exploitation.
38151		distribution	eng	Mostly confined to the Bulolo/Wau region in Morobe Province. It is not certain how many mature specimens remain but it is certainly less than 250.
38151		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in submontane and montane rainforest between 1,200 and 2,700 m.
38151		threats	eng	The region has been heavily exploited, logged and converted into <em>Araucaria</em> plantations.
38152		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Guinea. It is restricted to Gulf and Western Provinces.
38152		habitat	eng	This tree grows in seasonally inundated forest along rivers, in freshwater swamps and on well-drained soils up to 50 m.
38152		threats	eng	The area is now subject to heavy logging activities. The timber is sought-after for its decorative grain.
38153		distribution	eng	Occurring on the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago.
38153		habitat	eng	This large well-formed tree can be locally dominant in lowland primary rainforest.
38153		threats	eng	It has been and still is heavily exploited through intensive logging practices. It is much sought-after for the production of plywood.
38154		distribution	eng	Confined to Central Province.
38154		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly in small pockets of riverine forest surrounded by savannah woodland, and occasionally in lowland rainforest.
38154		threats	eng	It is mainly threatened by urban expansion, local exploitation and logging activities.
38155		distribution	eng	Restricted to San Cristobal and Guadalcanal.
38155		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38155		threats	eng	This timber species is subject to overexploitation. It is further threatened by habitat loss from indiscriminate logging practices.
38156		distribution	eng	A species confined to north-east Madagascar. This rare species is poorly known, apparently having a restricted distribution.
38156		habitat	eng	Humid, broadleaved evergreen forest between the altitudes of 400 and  500 m.
38156		threats	eng	Declining forest.
38157		distribution	eng	A recent taxonomic revision includes this species in the relatively common <em>G. haematoxylon</em> but this arrangement is disputed. Endemic to the Blue Mts., small subpopulations are restricted to a very small range.
38157		habitat	eng	Montane rainforests between 1,550 and 1,700 m. The plant is stunted and seldom exceeds 2 m in height because it grows in nutrient-starved conditions on deep acid mor humus.
38158		distribution	eng	Confined to south-west Papua New Guinea and south-east Irian Jaya.
38158		habitat	eng	This large tree grows in lowland seasonal moist forest.
38158		threats	eng	This species occurs in a large forest logging concession area of Papua New Guinea which is subject to ongoing exploitation for log exports; continued exploitation will render it vulnerable.
38159		distribution	eng	Restricted to New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands.
38159		habitat	eng	A large timber tree of primary lowland rainforest.
38159		threats	eng	New Britain is one of the most intensively logged islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, thereby threatening this species with habitat destruction. The Solomon Islands subpopulation is also at risk from logging activities.
38160		distribution	eng	It has been collected only once from an area between the Marivorahona Massif north of the Tsaratanana Massif. This restricted area is little known.
38160		habitat	eng	A submontane, rainforest tree.
38160		threats	eng	Suffering from a decline in natural vegetation.
38161		distribution	eng	In Papua New Guinea subpopulations are mainly confined to Western Province. More information is needed on the subopulation status in Australia.
38161		habitat	eng	Scattered in primary rainforest or monsoon forest.
38161		threats	eng	Confined to an area which is heavily logged. Ongoing exploitation will result in population decline and habitat destruction.
38162		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Solomon Islands. It is locally common in parts of the New Georgia group.
38162		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest tree.
38162		threats	eng	Populations are located in a prime logging area and the tree makes up a fairly large proportion (6-10%) of the logs exported to Japan. Habitat loss is also a threat.
38163		conservation	eng	Very few adult specimens have been recorded and the population is severely fragmented.
38163		distribution	eng	North and south of Toamasina, eastern Madagascar.
38163		habitat	eng	A tree confined to a few small areas of lowland, evergreen, humid forest, mainly along river margins.
38163		threats	eng	This species is a fine rosewood and is traded nationally and locally. As a result of selective exploitation, this species is now very rare.
38164		distribution	eng	Confined to the islands of Bougainville in the North Solomons and Guadalcanal in the South Solomons.
38164		habitat	eng	This timber tree is found mainly in primary lowland rainforest.
38164		threats	eng	It is threatened by logging activities and over-exploitation, especially as it occurs in a region subject to heavy logging activities.
38165		distribution	eng	New Guinea and the Moluccas. In Papua New Guinea, this species is extremely rare and known from a single sterile collection made from the Vanimo area, West Sepik province.  The above threat category applies to the situation in Papua New Guinea only.
38165		habitat	eng	A tree of primary lowland forest.
38165		threats	eng	This part of Papua New Guinea is heavily logged and there is grave doubt as to its continuing existence in this country.
38166		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread but uncommon. It occurs mainly in areas where intense logging is being carried out, such as New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago and the north-west of Papua New Guinea.
38166		habitat	eng	This timber tree is scattered in primary lowland rainforest.
38166		threats	eng	Logging.
38167		distribution	eng	A rare climbing species known from very few collections in an area of eastern Madagascar.  The total population is fragmented and few mature individuals remain.
38167		threats	eng	The area has been largely cleared of lowland forest.
38168		distribution	eng	Currently the only population known can be found north of Lake Aloatra in a region with only a few patchy forest remnants; these remnants are still in decline.
38168		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen, humid forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
38168		threats	eng	This species is traded locally and nationally as fuel and timber.
38169		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in lowland coastal and monsoon forest, often in the transition zone between savannah woodland and lowland forest. It is mainly restricted to monsoon forest in Central Province.
38170		conservation	eng	In Irian Jaya, the species is known only from Geelvink Bay and Jayapura.
38170		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Guinea, this tree is known from only a few collections. In Papua New Guinea, the species was collected once in an area in Madang Province.
38170		habitat	eng	Primary and secondary rainforest.
38170		threats	eng	The forest is subject to ongoing logging, including 'wood chipping' operations.
38171		distribution	eng	Known only from the Western district in Papua New Guina and Irian Jaya.  Sterile material may be incorrectly assigned to this species.
38171		habitat	eng	A montane forest tree mainly between 400 and 900 m altitude.
38172		distribution	eng	A small tree collected only once, from Dalmar in Geelvink Bay.
38173		distribution	eng	This species is so far known from the Vogelkop Peninsula and the Snow Mountains in Irian Jaya and in the Western province in Papua New Guinea.
38173		habitat	eng	This species appears to grow into canopy trees on low ridges at 100 m altitude but forms only shrubs and treelets on poor loam soils at 1,200 to 1,300 m.
38174		distribution	eng	A locally abundant small tree confined to the Arfak Mountains and the Wissel Lake region.
38174		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in <em>Nothofagus</em>-conifer forest.
38175		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution within Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
38175		habitat	eng	A tree, found in many habitat types ranging from fresh-water swamps to dry thickets by the coast.
38176		distribution	eng	Endemic to Thailand. It has been collected several times in a single locality, at Sam Roy Yot National Park.
38176		habitat	eng	This tree grows in dry rocky areas on limestone up to 300 m.
38177		distribution	eng	This species is known by the type specimen, collected in Cambodia, and by an additional three specimens from Thailand.
38178		distribution	eng	This species is known from three collections.
38179		distribution	eng	It is known from several collections from Sulawesi and Rossel Island of Papua New Guinea.
38179		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree up to 10 m high, occurring in submontane scrub or forest.
38179		threats	eng	The fragile ecosystem of Rossel Island is threatened by logging and mining activities.
38180		distribution	eng	So far it is known from a total of seven localities. In Brunei this species is confined to Mt. Biang and in Sabah it is confined to Kota Kinabalu.
38180		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree occurring in the understorey of lowland forest up to 250 m.
38181		conservation	eng	Seed production is monitored.  This species is widely cultivated in gardens in Mauritius.
38181		distribution	eng	Réunion and south-west Mauritius. On the latter island only a single population of 150 mature individuals in Etoile valley in the eastern range remains viable. Regeneration is occasional.
38181		habitat	eng	A palm tree of mixed moist forest, occurring between 250 and 650 m altitude.
38182		conservation	eng	Some localities lie within the Manakambahin Natural Reserve.
38182		distribution	eng	A species restricted to remnants of forest around the capital, Antananarivo, and Lake Aloatra.
38182		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
38182		threats	eng	Some areas are exposed to exploitation and clearance.
38183		habitat	eng	A widespread palm that is the most frequently collected in the genus.
38184		distribution	eng	Myola area and Black Mountain in the Kuranda range. The total population is estimated to contain 400 to 500 mature trees and remains unprotected. Regeneration is good.
38184		habitat	eng	Restricted to an altitudinal range of 350 to 400 m, the species occurs in riverine rainforest on metamorphic rocks.
38185		distribution	eng	A rare species known from only four collections from two localities in remnants of forest in central Madagascar.
38185		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest between 1,200 and 1,300 m.
38185		threats	eng	These forest fragments are seriously threatened and declining.
38186		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
38186		habitat	eng	This small clustering palm tree is restricted to lowland rainforest.
38186		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by the expansion of human habitation.
38187		distribution	eng	An endemic palm tree of the Moluccas. More fieldwork is needed to assign a category.
38187		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest.
38187		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by increasing agriculture and forest management activities.
38188		conservation	eng	Trees are planted in sacred places and cemeteries.
38188		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Solomon Islands.
38188		habitat	eng	A small palm tree of primary forest.
38188		threats	eng	It is under threat from logging, increasing agriculture and mining.
38189		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid, evergreen forest up to 1,000 m altitude.
38189		threats	eng	Although widespread, it occurs mainly in lowland forest which has been and continues to be extensively cleared.
38190		distribution	eng	Endemic to Christmas Island.  Christmas Island is only 140 km² .
38190		habitat	eng	This palm tree is scattered in lowland rainforest on plateaux and terraces.
38190		threats	eng	Phosphate mining is a major threat to all of the native flora. The species, which has only one flowering phase during its life cycle, is further threatened by seed-predating crabs which limit the potential for regeneration.
38191		habitat	eng	A monocarpic palm of dense forest, occurring on slopes between 150 and 1,000 m.
38191		threats	eng	It is threatened by logging activities and increasing settlement and agriculture.
38192		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Peninsula de Paria in Venezuela.
38192		habitat	eng	This is a small palm tree that is scattered in montane cloud forest between 750 and 1,000 m altitude.
38192		threats	eng	Urban expansion is a potential threat up to 800 m.
38193		conservation	eng	Protected populations are known from Ankarafantsika Natural Reserve, Namoroka Reserve and Bemaraha Reserve.
38193		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic fairly widespread in western Madagascar.
38193		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland, seasonally dry deciduous forest.
38193		threats	eng	The primary vegetation in this area has been extensively destroyed and is still decreasing. The species is selectively felled for timber and fuel for export.
38194		distribution	eng	A palm tree of lowland rainforest, restricted to Guatopo National Park and Cerro Bachiller of Miranda State.  No reports exist of occurrences elsewhere in suitable habitat types.
38194		threats	eng	Increasing settlement has caused habitat losses in some areas.
38195		distribution	eng	Confined to the mountain ridge of Santa María and on La Chapa ridge in Yaracuy state.  This tree was not found in any of the neighbouring cloud forests and is presumed to have a very restricted distribution.
38195		habitat	eng	A small palm, up to 5 m tall, restricted to cloud forest.
38195		threats	eng	Two years ago, a team from the Herbario Nacional de Venezuela visited this area and found a massive deterioration of the habitat mainly due to agriculture and logging.
38196		conservation	eng	Despite its presence in Ankarafantsika Natural Reserve, the species is still under threat from logging.
38196		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality.
38196		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in lowland, seasonally dry, deciduous forest.
38196		threats	eng	Occurs in an area where <em>Dalbergia</em> species are being selectively felled for the export market.
38197		distribution	eng	Rainforest found along the Atlantic coast.
38197		habitat	eng	A small palm tree common in the fragmented lowland rainforest.
38197		threats	eng	The main threat is the expansion of human habitation. It is possibly conspecific with A. alatum.
38198		conservation	eng	It is in cultivation at the Fairchild Tropical Garden, but the mature palms do not flower.
38198		distribution	eng	Confined to the south-west peninsula of Haiti. In 1996, fewer than 30 individuals were found in two adjacent river valleys.
38198		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland forest in river valleys.
38198		threats	eng	The species is threatened by encroaching agriculture and local exploitation of the edible seeds.
38199		distribution	eng	South-east Madagascar, near Taolanaro.
38199		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland, evergreen, humid forest.
38199		threats	eng	Selective felling for export, coupled with the fragmented and declining state of the habitat has brought the species into danger. Its restricted distribution coincides with a proposed site for titanium mining, which threatens all the remaining forest in the area.
38200		distribution	eng	Widespread in the western Amazon region.  It is possibly of hybrid origin.
38200		habitat	eng	This palm tree grows in lowland terra firme rainforest.
38201		conservation	eng	Some localities are protected within Andohahela Natural Reserve.
38201		distribution	eng	A widespread species in southern Madagascar. It is relatively common.
38201		habitat	eng	Deciduous, dry vegetation.
38201		threats	eng	Mainly found in rapidly-declining areas of forest, the species is selectively felled for minor timber trade.
38202		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations have been reported inside the Parque Nacional Podocapus.
38202		distribution	eng	Known from 15 subpopulations, mainly distributed in the eastern Andes. Well represented near Baños where it can be common in shady, wet places, mainly in forests near the Río Pastaza at 1,300–1,800 m elevation.
38202		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of moist montane forest found at an elevational range of 500–3,000 m.
38202		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
38203		distribution	eng	A species known from two forest remnants in a very restricted area of Ivohibe.
38203		habitat	eng	Submontane, evergreen forest.
38203		threats	eng	Trees are selectively felled and the habitat is in decline.
38204		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.
38205		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38205		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38206		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38206		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38207		distribution	eng	The species appears to be endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38207		threats	eng	Occurs in an unprotected ecosystem which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38208		conservation	eng	Populations are recorded in Ankarana and Bemaraha Reserves.
38208		distribution	eng	Two subspecies are recognised. Both have a restricted range within declining areas.
38208		habitat	eng	Seasonally dry forest and woodland on limestone outcrops.
38208		threats	eng	Trees are selectively felled to supply local and national markets.
38209		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38209		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38210		distribution	eng	Thought to be endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38210		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38211		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38211		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38212		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38212		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38213		distribution	eng	Endemic to piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38213		threats	eng	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.
38214		distribution	eng	Currently this species is known only from the Sambrino margins of north-west Madagascar.  Its habitat is severely fragmented.
38214		habitat	eng	Deciduous, seasonally dry, sandstone forest.
38214		threats	eng	It is selectively felled for the local and national timber markets.
38215		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38215		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38216		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38216		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38217		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38217		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38218		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38218		habitat	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38219		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest in Bolivia.
38219		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38220		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38220		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38221		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.
38221		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38222		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest in Bolivia.
38222		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38223		distribution	eng	Endemic to the piedmont forest in Bolivia.
38223		threats	eng	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.
38224		conservation	eng	Some localities are protected in Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve and in Ankarana Special Reserve.
38224		distribution	eng	Still widespread in western Madagascar, but population numbers have declined over the entire range.
38224		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland up to 800 m.
38224		threats	eng	Trees are sought after and selectively felled for the high-quality wood which forms the bulk of timber wood exports from western Madagascar.
38225		distribution	eng	Information on the species is somewhat limited. Currently known only from the type collection from eastern Bolivia.
38225		habitat	eng	It is thought to be a tree of montane forest.
38226		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to the department of Santander del Sur in Colombia, this small tree is known from two collections, which were gathered between 1,800 and 1,900 m. There is no available information on the species habitat type.
38227		distribution	eng	A tall tree known only from the type collection, gathered at 2,100 m in Antioquia.
38228		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, the species is locally common in forest on the lower slopes of the Cerro Neblina near the Brazilian Venezuelan border.
38229		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree restricted to a small area of rainforest between 600 and 700 m.
38230		distribution	eng	Restricted to the state of Rio de Janeiro.
38230		habitat	eng	A small tree of coastal forest between 500 and 1,000 m.
38231		distribution	eng	Although widespread, the species is uncommon.
38231		habitat	eng	Lowland dry forest and woodland.
38231		threats	eng	The habitat is being gradually reduced and fragmented.  The species is selectively felled for the valuable rosewood timber.
38232		distribution	eng	Restricted to Tafelberg Mountain.
38232		habitat	eng	This small tree is known from a few locations of low bush or <em>Clusia</em> bush.
38233		distribution	eng	Amazon River in Pará.
38233		habitat	eng	A small tree up to 8 m tall, found only along flooded banks.
38234		distribution	eng	A recently described species known only from the type collection on the bank of the River Xingu in Pará.
38234		habitat	eng	Non-flooded lowland forest.
38235		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from Cuzco and Manu National Park and Río Sotileja in Madre de Dios.
38235		habitat	eng	Found between 350 and 400 m in lowland flood plain forest.
38236		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single forest remnant at Tsiroanomandidy.
38236		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen, seasonally dry forest between 900 and 1,100 m.
38236		threats	eng	The total population is selectively felled and the entire forest exploited.
38237		distribution	eng	Endemic to Espírto Santo.
38237		habitat	eng	An understorey tree, found in rainforest on the coastal plains and in hill forest up to 800 m.
38238		distribution	eng	Apparently only in Sâo Paulo.
38238		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree up to 2.5 m in height, found on sand dunes and in beach scrub.
38239		conservation	eng	Protected areas in which the species is found are Ankarana Special Reserve and Bemeraha.
38239		distribution	eng	West and north Madagascar.
38239		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland on a few isolated limestone massifs.
38239		threats	eng	Although these areas are largely protected, selective felling still takes place and populations are declining.
38240		distribution	eng	A species known only from two collections without exact locality.
38241		distribution	eng	A small tree known from only two collections in Juan Guerra in Loreto and from Río Huallaga in San Martin.
38241		habitat	eng	Rainforest at 250 m.
38242		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar.
38242		habitat	eng	A tree confined to deciduous, seasonally dry forest on sand.
38242		threats	eng	Although apparently widespread, most records are from near Morondava, where the habitat is being rapidly reduced and the trees are selectively felled.
38243		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to central Amazonas near Manaus, this tree is known only from a few collections.
38243		habitat	eng	Non-flooded lowland rainforest.
38244		distribution	eng	Eastern Madagascar. Populations of this rare rosewood species are now severely fragmented.
38244		habitat	eng	A species confined to the drastically reduced lowland, humid forest.
38244		threats	eng	Selectively felled for the export market.
38245		distribution	eng	A tree known from a few collections in Bahia and Espírito Santo.
38245		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
38246		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from Rio de Janeiro; its present status and location, if it is still in existence, are unknown.
38246		habitat	eng	This tree is likely to have occurred in rainforest.
38247		distribution	eng	Rio de Janeiro.
38247		habitat	eng	This treelet, up to 4 m tall, is restricted to dense low arboreal restinga near the coast.
38248		distribution	eng	Known only from three collections from the River Tapajoz in Pará.
38248		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in non-flooded lowland forest.
38249		conservation	eng	In the permanent forest reserves of Malaya the species is conserved.
38249		distribution	eng	Located in Kelantan, Perak, Pahang and Malacca.
38249		habitat	eng	A lowland hill species.
38250		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the type collection in Sierra de la Macarena Natural National Park.
38250		habitat	eng	At 1,700 m in dense mossy forest.
38251		distribution	eng	North and east Madagascar.
38251		habitat	eng	A widespread species found along river margins in the humid, evergreen forest.
38251		threats	eng	The extent of the forest is in decline and trees are selectively felled for the timber.
38252		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type collection found at 2,200 m on Sororopán-tepui in southern Venezuela.
38253		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from western Amazonas.
38253		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland forest on terra firme.
38254		distribution	eng	In Costa Rica, subpopulations are restricted to the Osa Peninsula and it is also apparently reported from Colombia.
38254		habitat	eng	A tree found in lowland evergreen forest up to 200 m.
38255		habitat	eng	A lowland tree restricted to humid, evergreen, coastal forest.
38255		threats	eng	This type of forest has been almost completely destroyed. The remaining forests are seriously threatened by exploitation and clearing. Selective felling for export, fragmented subpopulations and titanium mining activities threaten this endemic species.
38257		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to Santa Caterina and Rio Grande do Sul.
38257		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest between 900 and 1,000 m.
38258		distribution	eng	Rio de Janeiro.
38258		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in rainforest on hills between 900 and 1,200 m.
38259		conservation	eng	Many localities receive protection in Perinet/Andasibe, Zahamena, and Ranomafana Protected Areas.
38259		distribution	eng	Extensive distribution along the eastern escarpment of Madagascar, including areas with extensive forest cover.
38259		habitat	eng	A tree of evergreen, humid forest.
38259		threats	eng	This much sought-after rosewood is selectively felled for export and mature trees are considered rare.
38260		distribution	eng	A small tree, endemic to Costa Rica. An estimated total of 1,037 km² montane forest remain in Costa Rica.
38260		habitat	eng	Confined to wet montane forest between 900 and 1,750 m.
38261		distribution	eng	A tree known only from the type locality in the Amboró National Park, Santa Cruz.
38261		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane rainforest at 1,380 m.
38262		distribution	eng	Mainly found in Rio de Janeiro, but also from Rio Grande do Sul, where a single collection has been made and provisionally included in this species.
38262		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree confined to restinga forest.
38263		distribution	eng	Los Tuxtlas region of southern Veracruz.
38263		habitat	eng	A small tree, restricted to an area of rainforest adjacent to mangroves.
38264		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest estates of the area, the tree is conserved.
38264		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout lowland and hill forest regions of Malaysia.
38264		threats	eng	Pressure is exerted on the species from felling activities, with the harvested timber used and traded at a local and national level.
38265		distribution	eng	There is some confusion over the taxonomy. It appears that the same taxon occurs in Argentina as two species, <em>Temu divaricatum</em> and <em>T. crucksanksii</em>.  Whether these are all the same entity remains to be confirmed.
38265		habitat	eng	The species occurs in wet or swampy areas in lowland forest.
38265		threats	eng	The habitat is under particular pressure in the Metropolitana region (IV-VI) of Chile, mainly from felling and clearing for agriculture and pastoralism.
38266		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to the state of Pará, only a few collections of this small tree have been found.
38266		habitat	eng	Disturbed rainforest on non-flooded sites.
38267		conservation	eng	Good subpopulations are recorded at Bemaraha Reserve.
38267		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar. Only a few isolated subpopulations are known.
38267		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland, seasonally dry, deciduous forest, mainly confined to specialised limestone habitats.
38267		threats	eng	The area of forest is declining and the species is selectively felled.
38268		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Tarapoto region of San Martin.
38268		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub grows in dry low forest between 200 and 300 m.
38269		distribution	eng	Known only from central Panama.
38269		habitat	eng	A small tree of wet lowland and montane forest up to 900 m.
38270		distribution	eng	A very rare species known from only two localities, Antalaha and the Isle Sainte Marie in north-east Madagascar.
38270		habitat	eng	It inhabits very fragmented humid, evergreen, coastal forest.
38270		threats	eng	This tree has been severely exploited for the excellent quality of its rosewood.
38271		distribution	eng	A little-known and rare species is distributed through eastern Madagascar. It is most frequently recorded around Fort Carnot, east of Fianarantsoa.
38271		habitat	eng	Evergreen humid forest between 100 and 1,200 m altitude.
38271		threats	eng	The forest is decreasing and this species is selectively felled for timber.
38272		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to the states of Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo.
38272		habitat	eng	The tree is found in rainforest on hills and along riversides up to 1,000 m.
38273		distribution	eng	Known only from south-east Costa Rica.
38273		habitat	eng	This tree is found in disturbed lowland to montane rainforest up to 1,300 m.
38274		distribution	eng	Central Panama.
38274		habitat	eng	A small tree confined to a restricted area of lowland rainforest near rivers.
38275		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar.
38275		habitat	eng	A widespread species of deciduous, seasonally dry, lowland forest on sand.
38275		threats	eng	The species is still relatively common and less sought-after than other <em>rosewoods</em> because of its softer wood.
38276		habitat	eng	A dry forest tree found along rivers and the Pacific coast at low altitudes.
38277		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within protected area boundaries.
38277		distribution	eng	This locally common species is very widespread in southern, western and northern Madagascar.
38277		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in broadleaved, deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland, usually between 50 and 300 m altitude.
38277		threats	eng	The vegetation in this zone is fragmented and the species is selectively felled.
38278		distribution	eng	This small tree is known from two localities on the lower slopes of Cerro Neblina.
38278		habitat	eng	Periodically flooded gravel bars and in swamp forest up to 800 m
38279		conservation	eng	Within the permanent forest reserves of this region, the species is conserved.
38279		distribution	eng	Known to occur within the states of Penang, Perak and southern Kedah.
38279		habitat	eng	A tree of hill and mountain ridges.
38279		threats	eng	Clear-felling activities.  The timber from this tree is traded on a minor international scale.
38280		distribution	eng	The species is mainly recorded from northern Madagascar. Little is known about its frequency, but population reductions have occurred.
38280		habitat	eng	Occurring in evergreen, humid forest between 50 and 1,000 m.
38280		threats	eng	Selective felling for the high-quality timber, which is sold on national and local markets.
38281		distribution	eng	A collection labeled Rio de Janeiro is suspected to be misidentified.
38281		habitat	eng	A species of hill forest occurring between 900 and 1,000 m.
38282		distribution	eng	Confined to the states of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro.
38282		habitat	eng	A small tree of coastal rainforest.
38283		distribution	eng	Discovered in Qiaojiaxian in 1991 and described a year later, the species is so far known from a total population of 20 trees. More fieldwork is needed to establish the health and status of this population and whether there are any more subpopulations in the vicinity. The closest relative of the taxon is <em>P. bungeana</em>, which occurs 500 km to the south.
38283		habitat	eng	Moist montane woodland.
38284		conservation	eng	Some localities are in the protected areas of Ankarana, Namoroka and Bemaraha.
38284		distribution	eng	Widespread in east, west and south-west Madagascar, where it is locally common.
38284		threats	eng	This species produces a notably attractive high-quality rosewood which is selectively felled, seriously reducing populations.
38285		distribution	eng	A tree known from several collections from Rio de Janeiro.
38285		habitat	eng	Occurs in rainforest on hills at approximately 1,200 m.
38286		distribution	eng	From Bahia to Rio de Janeiro.
38286		habitat	eng	A tree, reaching 6 m in height, found in disturbed lowland wet forest.
38287		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Osa Peninsula in south-eastern Costa Rica.
38287		habitat	eng	An understorey tree in high rainforest.
38288		distribution	eng	A tree occurring in the northern tip of Madagascar, around Antsiranana. The extent of occurrence is very small, and the forest very fragmented within it.
38288		habitat	eng	Lowland deciduous forest.
38288		threats	eng	Selective felling of this species has drastically reduced the population.
38289		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Osa Peninsula in south-eastern Costa Rica.
38289		habitat	eng	A tree of undisturbed lowland rainforest between 50 and 150 m.
38290		distribution	eng	Restricted to Minas Gerais and the coastal zone of Bahia.
38290		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of lowland rainforest up to 600 m.
38291		distribution	eng	Known only from three localities in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz.
38291		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs in cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,500 m.
38292		distribution	eng	Uxpanapa region of Veracruz and the Tuxtepec area of Oaxaca.
38292		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland evergreen rainforest. It grows on deep soils on limestone outcrops below 200 m.
38292		threats	eng	The forest at Uxpanapa has been severely reduced through clearance for a government relocation scheme.
38293		distribution	eng	This uncommon species has a distinct distribution.
38293		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in lowland deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland.
38293		threats	eng	Selective felling in fragmented vegetation is causing a reduction in the total population.
38294		distribution	eng	From Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro.
38294		habitat	eng	A small tree found in wet forest between 400 and 800 m.
38295		conservation	eng	It occurs within the Carará Biological Reserve.
38295		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area of San José Province.
38295		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of seasonal semi-deciduous rainforest.
38296		distribution	eng	This treelet, up to 3.5 m tall, is known only from Manu National Park in Madre de Dios.
38296		habitat	eng	Confined to flood plain forest between 350 and 400 m
38297		distribution	eng	A poorly known rosewood tree in north-east Madagascar. The species is known from only three rapidly diminishing sites, all of which are fragmented and isolated.
38297		habitat	eng	Restricted to broadleaved transition forest.
38298		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, between Shintuya and Manu in Madre de Dios in 1974.
38298		habitat	eng	This small tree was found in lowland rainforest.
38299		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from two collections from eastern Peru.
38299		habitat	eng	It occurs in wet forest between 200 and 300 m.
38300		distribution	eng	A small tree known only from the type locality in Alajuela.
38300		habitat	eng	It grows on poorly drained flat land in rainforest near sea level.
38301		distribution	eng	Few subpopulations are known and all are confined to the Tsaratanana Massif in Madagascar.
38301		habitat	eng	Broadleaved, submontane, moist forest.
38301		threats	eng	Trees are selectively felled and the habitat is in rapid decline because of increasing cultivation.
38302		distribution	eng	Restricted to central Panama. It is known only from four collections.
38302		habitat	eng	Tree of wet lowland forest.
38303		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Pacific drainage region of Costa Rica.
38303		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in semi-deciduous forest extending into evergreen forest near the Pacific coast.
38304		distribution	eng	Very restricted, this poorly known species occurs around Soalala and Mahajanga in western Madagascar.
38304		habitat	eng	Coastal, lowland, moist forest.
38304		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is very reduced and fragmented. This good-quality rosewood is selectively felled.
38305		conservation	eng	It is present in Rincon de la Vieja National Park.
38305		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guanacaste Province.
38305		habitat	eng	This localised tree is found in forest at around 400 m.
38306		distribution	eng	Northern edge of the Central Depression in Chiapas and Uxpanapa in Veracruz. This population is similar to and may prove to be <em>I. dasycarp</em>.
38306		habitat	eng	A tree of deciduous forest high evergreen rainforest.
38306		threats	eng	Half of the forest in the Uxpanapa has disappeared through land clearance for a government relocation scheme.
38307		distribution	eng	A tree known from only one locality near Antsiranana.
38307		habitat	eng	Lowland, deciduous, seasonally dry forest.
38307		threats	eng	This rare species is easily accessible, selectively felled and in an area of forest degradation and clearance.
38308		distribution	eng	This small tree is restricted to Isla Margarita off the north coast of Venezuela.
38308		habitat	eng	It grows in windswept evergreen cloud forest between 400 and 850 m.
38309		distribution	eng	A poorly collected subspecies from the Osa Peninsula and from a single collection from montane forest in San José.
38309		habitat	eng	Mixed lowland rainforest up to 500 m.
38310		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Los Tuxtlas region of Veracruz. Most collections of this species were made near the Los Tuxtlas Biological Station.
38310		habitat	eng	This tree is found in evergreen rainforest up to 200 m.
38311		distribution	eng	Confined to the Tuxtepec district of Oaxaca.
38311		habitat	eng	This understorey tree occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest on limestone.
38311		threats	eng	Although there has been extensive deforestation, this area is perhaps less susceptible to development and clearance because of the difficulty of working on the karst substrate.
38312		distribution	eng	Known from just two collections from the middle Tapajoz River.
38312		habitat	eng	A small tree of secondary forest on non-flooded land.
38313		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to Manaus. It is known from two collections.
38313		habitat	eng	This recently described tree grows in mixed rainforest on non-flooded sites.
38314		distribution	eng	Bahia.
38314		habitat	eng	A tree restricted to the threatened Atlantic coastal lowland rainforest.
38314		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
38315		distribution	eng	A species known only from the type collection from Rio Maturacá in Amazonas.
38316		distribution	eng	Bahia.
38316		habitat	eng	Found below 100 m, this small tree occurs in secondary vegetation derived from wet lowland rainforest.
38317		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Bahia.
38317		habitat	eng	This treelet is confined to restinga over white sand at sea level.
38318		distribution	eng	Bahia.
38318		habitat	eng	Found below 100 m, this small tree occurs in wet lowland rainforest and associated secondary vegetation.
38319		conservation	eng	It is cultivated in the CEPEC Arboretum.
38319		distribution	eng	A treelet known from only two collections.
38319		habitat	eng	Restinga and disturbed wet lowland forest.
38320		conservation	eng	It is afforded protection in a number of national parks including; Cephalonia N.P., Mt Parnassos N.P., Mt Oeti N.P. (Duffey 1982). In all of these National Parks it forms extensive forests and the sub-populations are considered to be stable. However, the population in the Mt Parnitha National Park was reduced by 2,180 ha in 2007 due to fire (Arianoutsou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
38320		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece where it has a very widespread distribution in the Regions of:&#160; Espiros (five locations), Macedonia (Mt. Olympus and Mt. Athos), Peloponnisos (11 locations), Sterea Ellas (10 locations), Ionian Islands (Kefallinia) (Strid 1986). There are no published figures for the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy but there is no doubt that these will exceed the thresholds for any of the threatened categories.<br/><sup><br/></sup>
38320		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> <em>cephalonica</em> is found between 400 and 1,800 m and rarely up to 2,000 m or more. It grows in pure stands, or occasionally with <em>Juniperus</em> <em>oxycedrus</em>, usually at higher elevations, while at lower elevations can be found in association with <em>Fagus</em> <em>orientalis</em>, <em>Quercus</em> spp, <em>Castanea</em> <em>sativa</em> and <em>Pinus</em> <em>nigra</em> (Papanikolaou 2006). The Greek fir grows on soils derived from a variety of parent materials such as limestone, dolomites, shale, serpentine, sandstone, mica-schist and argillic-schist with pH ranging from 5 to 8&#160; (Panetsos 1975).</p>
38320		population	eng	Although there have been recent reductions in some locations, for example fires in 2007 resulted in the loss of 2,180 ha on Mt Parnitha and 4,500 ha on Mount Taygetos (Arianoutsou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), the overall extensive population is relatively stable.
38320		threats	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cepahlonica</span> has a widespread distribution and is abundant where it occurs. Historically it has been subject to human pressures for  thousands of years, the impacts of which are visible in the condition of some of Greek fir  forests today. Grazing, woodcutting,  agriculture, hunting and fires are the main factors causing the degradation of  natural ecosystems (Knees 2011) and including drought-related extreme periods, infestation of mistletoe, pathogens or insects (Kailidis and Georgevits 1968). The greatest current-day threat is from fire to which the species is not adapted and in recent years several fires have destroyed important stands. For example, in 2007 the fire in the Mt Parnitha National Park caused the loss of 2,080 ha and the loss of&#160; 4,500 ha <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> in Mount Taygetos (Arianoutsou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The firs at this location also show signs of stress and dieback which is thought to be caused by air pollution (Heliotis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988). In 2000 the first of Greece's 'megafires' destroyed a large area of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cephalonica</span> on Mt Mainalon which contained one of the most extensive and developed forest of the the Greek Fir. Post-fire observations of these forest fires has noted little or no regeneration of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cephalonica.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>  <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
38321		conservation	eng	All areas are contained within effective national parks.
38321		distribution	eng	Brazil (Amazonas, Serra da Neblina), Venezuela (Amazonas, Sierra da Neblina, Bolivar, Chimanta, south-west Amuri-tepui)
38321		habitat	eng	High montane tropical rain forest and cloud forest.
38321		population	eng	Sizes of the two disjunct populations are not known.
38321		threats	eng	No threats are at present known, but road access to the Serra da Neblina area from Brazil has been established, which may result in threats affecting the species in the future.
38322		distribution	eng	Distributed from Paraíba to Espírito Santo.
38322		habitat	eng	A tree of arboreal restinga on sand near the coast. In Espírito Santo, the species is also found in lowland rainforest near sea level.
38324		distribution	eng	Endemic to Costa Rica, populations are known only from Volcan de Poas and Cerro las Vueltas.
38325		distribution	eng	So far known only from a few collections from Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo.
38325		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland secondary forest and swampy areas.
38326		distribution	eng	Restricted to the state of Sâo Paulo.
38326		habitat	eng	This treelet occurs in lowland rainforest.
38327		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area of Amazonian Peru near Iquitos.
38327		habitat	eng	A small tree of undisturbed lowland rainforest on non-flooded land  between 120 and 150 m.
38328		distribution	eng	It appears to be restricted to the Osa Peninsula.
38328		habitat	eng	A small tree found in gallery forest and secondary vegetation.
38329		distribution	eng	Confined to central Panama.
38329		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in gallery forest along rivers and sandbars below 100 m.
38330		distribution	eng	Recorded under the name <em>Oncodostigma hainanensie</em> in the China Plant Red Data book, the species is endemic to Hainan Island, with the exception of a population which apparently can be found at Hepu in Guangxi. Found in the Guoling, Limu, Bawang and Jianfeng Mountains and also other localities.
38330		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense montane forest.
38330		threats	eng	Rapid population declines have taken place because of increasing habitat loss through logging and clearing for cultivation.
38331		distribution	eng	No collections have been made of this species since it was first discovered by Humboldt and Bonpland on the Río Atabapo in Amazonas, early in the nineteenth century.
38331		habitat	eng	Flooded riparian forest.
38332		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Venezuelan Guyana, the species occurs in the upper reaches of the Río Parguaza in Bolívar and on Río Sipapo near the confluence with Río Orinoco in Amazonas.
38332		habitat	eng	Secondary forest and riparian forest.
38333		conservation	eng	This species is protected within the national and state parks where it occurs.
38333		distribution	eng	Found throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
38333		habitat	eng	A tree of primary, hill and lowland forest species.  Often located on ridges in such environments.
38333		threats	eng	This tree is used on a national and local scale for it's timber.  Logging activities by man, are the greatest pressure exerted on the species.
38334		distribution	eng	Found in a number of localities in Amazonas.
38334		habitat	eng	A treelet which occurs in shrub islands in white-sand savannah.
38335		distribution	eng	Ranging from central to south-western Amazonas.
38335		habitat	eng	This species occurs along smaller rivers and creeks, probably in seasonally flooded sites.
38336		distribution	eng	With occurrences in Serranía de los Pijiguaos in Bolívar and in western Amazonas.
38336		habitat	eng	A tree of riverine forest.
38337		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina in Amazonas.
38337		habitat	eng	The species occurs within a restricted altitudinal range in lower montane <em>Clusia</em> forest.
38337		threats	eng	The area is protected but has suffered from fires and illegal mining.
38338		distribution	eng	Occurring along Río Casiquiare in Amazonas.
38338		habitat	eng	A tree of non-flooded evergreen forest.
38339		distribution	eng	The species has been found in localities along Río Casiquiare and Río Negro in Amazonas.
38339		habitat	eng	Occurring in seasonally flooded evergreen forest.
38340		conservation	eng	The area is protected within a national park.
38340		distribution	eng	A shrub or low tree, which is endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina.
38340		habitat	eng	Upper montane forest.
38341		conservation	eng	Both areas are contained within national parks.
38341		distribution	eng	The species is so far known from two disjunct populations, one on Cerro Marahuaka and the second further south on the border with Brazil on the Sierra de la Neblina.
38341		habitat	eng	Upper montane forest.
38342		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gran Sabana within Canaima National Park.
38342		habitat	eng	The species is found in riparian forest on sandstone plateaux.
38342		threats	eng	The tourist industry is rapidly growing, with some damaging consequences.
38343		conservation	eng	The area is protected within a national park.
38343		distribution	eng	A tree so far only known from a restricted zone on Cerro Aracamuni in Amazonas.
38343		habitat	eng	Semi-open montane forest.
38344		distribution	eng	Apparently confined to Misima Island in Milne Bay Province.
38344		habitat	eng	This small rare tree occurs in streamside rainforest in a gorge.
38344		threats	eng	The population is threatened by mining and cutting for local use.
38345		distribution	eng	A tree scattered throughout the small coral islands in the Kiriwina (Trobriand) Group and the Louisiade Archipelago. Very few mature trees, if any, remain.
38345		habitat	eng	Occurs in beach scrub on coral limestone at sea level.
38345		threats	eng	It is heavily exploited by the local people for its black heartwood, which is used in carvings, native hair combs and ceremonial pieces.
38346		distribution	eng	Found in only a few localities in the Solomon Islands and New Ireland of the Bismarck Archipelago.
38346		habitat	eng	A tree of primary lowland rainforest.
38346		threats	eng	Overexploitation and logging have resulted in the species becoming highly endangered, possibly critically endangered.
38347		distribution	eng	So far the species has been found in only a small area in the Serra Pirapucú in Brazil, near the Venezuelan border.
38347		habitat	eng	Montane forest
38348		conservation	eng	The area is contained within a national park.
38348		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas.
38348		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane forest bordering streams between 1,100 and 1,200 m.
38350		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Bolívar, in an area stretching from El Paují to Uaiparú near Kavanayén.
38350		habitat	eng	Occurs in semi-deciduous to evergreen submontane forest.
38351		conservation	eng	The area is contained within Duida Marahuaca National Park.
38351		distribution	eng	Known only from Cerro Huachamacari in Amazonas.
38351		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a site of dense montane forest along a creek at about 1,800 m.
38352		distribution	eng	The only recorded occurrence of this tree is located at Usino near the Bigei River in Madang Province. The population may no longer exist.
38352		habitat	eng	Open hillside forest.
38353		distribution	eng	A slender tree, found only in the Río Pasimoni basin in Amazonas State.
38353		habitat	eng	Occurs in periodically flooded riparian forest.
38354		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Venezuelan Guyana, the species occurs in the vicinity of Icabarú and Santa Elena in Bolívar State and in the basins of Ríos Casiquiare, Cuao and Siapa in Amazonas State.
38354		habitat	eng	Riparian forest.
38355		distribution	eng	Confined to Adi Island in Kaimana district.
38355		habitat	eng	This tree occurs in rainforest below altitudes of 15 m.
38356		conservation	eng	The area is protected within a national park.
38356		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina.
38356		habitat	eng	The species occurs on forested slopes along streams between 700 and 800 m.
38357		conservation	eng	Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaka are contained within a national park.
38357		distribution	eng	Cerro Coro Coro, Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas.
38357		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree, which is found in dwarf forests on tepui summits.
38358		distribution	eng	Cerro Guaiquinima in Bolívar State.
38358		habitat	eng	A species of seasonally dry evergreen forest, occurring between 700 and 900 m.
38359		conservation	eng	The Duida Marahuaka National Park covers the locality.
38359		distribution	eng	A species which is very similar to <em>I. oliveriana</em> and may prove to be conspecific. It is known only from a restricted area on Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas State.
38359		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38360		distribution	eng	In New Guinea, this tree is restricted to Digul District in Irian Jaya and the Oriomo River area in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. More information is needed on subpopulations in eastern and northern Australia.
38360		habitat	eng	Savannah and monsoon forest up to an altitude of 50 m.
38360		threats	eng	Part of the range is subject to logging. Continued exploitation and habitat destruction have reduced the number of mature individuals and, if not halted, will render the species as a whole vulnerable.
38361		conservation	eng	Both populations are protected within national parks.
38361		distribution	eng	Disjunct populations are known from Auyán-tepui in Bolívar, and Cerro Huachamacari in Amazonas. The former may prove to be a distinct taxon.
38361		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of shrubby meadows and dwarf riparian and mossy forest, generally on sandy soils.
38362		distribution	eng	Occurring on Serranía de los Pijiguaos in Bolívar State and Cerro Aratitiyope in Amazonas State.
38362		habitat	eng	The species is found in submontane semi-deciduous and evergreen forest on igneous rock.
38363		conservation	eng	The Cerro Jáua population is contained within a national park.
38363		distribution	eng	Occurring on Cerro Jáua and Serranía Marutaní in Bolívar State.
38363		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane riparian forest.
38364		distribution	eng	The species appears to be endemic to the lower slopes of Ptari-tepui, near Río Caruay in Canaima National Park.
38364		habitat	eng	Occurring in dense riparian forest and semi-deciduous and evergreen forest on sandstone.
38365		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Kavanayén.
38365		habitat	eng	The species is found on slopes in semi-deciduous and evergreen forest.
38366		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Western Province, Papua New Guinea, and to Queensland, Australia.
38366		habitat	eng	A tree of savannah woodland, monsoon forest and gallery-type forest at altitudes of between 10 and 30 m.
38366		threats	eng	Logging is occurring and the timber is actively sought-after.
38367		distribution	eng	The species is known from localities on Cerro Parú, Cerro Ualipano, Cerro Yutajé, Río Coro Coro and Río Parucito in Amazonas State.
38367		habitat	eng	Gallery forest or semi-deciduous to evergreen forest up to 1,800 m.
38368		conservation	eng	Both areas are contained within Duida Marahuaka National Park.
38368		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cerro Huachamacari and Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas State.
38368		habitat	eng	Montane slope forest.
38369		conservation	eng	Both areas are contained within Canaima National Park.
38369		distribution	eng	Occurring on Auyán-tepui and Macizo del Chimantá in Bolívar State.
38369		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of dwarf cloud forest and <em>Bonnetia</em> shrublands.
38369		threats	eng	Tourism is a rapidly growing industry with some damaging consequences.
38370		conservation	eng	The area is protected within a national park.
38370		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina on the Venezuela-Brazilian border.
38370		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree found on steep forested slopes along sandstone escarpments.
38371		distribution	eng	Cerro Guaiquinima in Bolívar State. It is similar to and may be conspecific with <em>I. steyermarkii</em>.
38371		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of broadleaved meadows and riparian montane forests between 1,600 and 1,700 m.
38372		distribution	eng	Found in the Río Icabarú basin and along Río Paragua at the base of Cerro Guaiquinima.
38372		habitat	eng	A small tree of savannah and forest margins.
38373		distribution	eng	It is confined to the Central province.
38373		habitat	eng	A late secondary tree scattered in lowland rainforest.
38373		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction from felling and urban expansion.
38374		distribution	eng	Occurring in several localities in Bolívar State.
38374		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree which occurs in forest and shrubby savannah on tepui summits and slopes.
38375		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cerro Moriche in Amazonas State.
38375		habitat	eng	The variety occurs in shrublands and broadleaved meadows between 1,200 and 1,300 m.
38376		distribution	eng	Occurrences have been recorded from Caño Yagua and the basins of Río Atabapo, Río Guainía and Río Pasimoni in Amazonas State.
38376		habitat	eng	This variety is known from areas of white-sand savannah, bordering streams or forests or in shrub islands.
38377		conservation	eng	Sierra de la Neblina population is contained within a national park.
38377		distribution	eng	Río Erebato basin in Bolívar State and in the Sierra de la Neblina in Amazonas State.
38377		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree which occurs in savannahs and submontane forest.
38378		distribution	eng	Occurring in a locality east of Los Pijiguaos in Bolívar State and elsewhere on Cerro Guanay and Cerro Sipapo in Amazonas State.
38378		habitat	eng	A montane forest and shrubland species.
38379		distribution	eng	Occurs in a number of localities in Amazonas State.
38379		habitat	eng	A lowland shrub or tree, which occurs in white-sand savannahs on exposed igneous rock and in riparian forest.
38380		conservation	eng	Much of the range is contained within a national park.
38380		distribution	eng	The species may prove to be conspecific with <em>I. parvifructa</em>. It is known from Bolívar State, in places such as Auyán-tepui, Gran Sabana and Toronó-tepui in Macizo del Chimantá.
38380		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest from mid to high elevation at the base of sandstone escarpments.
38381		conservation	eng	Much of the range is contained within a national park.
38381		distribution	eng	Collections have been made on Auyán-tepui, Cerro Venama, Gran Sabana and Macizo del Chimantá in Bolívar State.
38381		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of shrubland, gallery forest and swampy depressions in meadows at mid to high elevation.
38382		conservation	eng	All the localities are contained within national parks.
38382		distribution	eng	Cerro Aracamuni, Cerro Duida and Sierra de la Neblina in Amazonas State.
38382		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree which has been collected from riparian and semi-open forest between 1,400 and 1,500 m.
38383		conservation	eng	Both localities are contained within Canaima National Park.
38383		distribution	eng	Collections have been made from Auyán-tepui and Macizo del Chimantá in Bolívar State.
38383		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of montane thicket and riparian forest on sandstone.
38384		distribution	eng	Occurring in various localities in Bolívar and Amazonas States.
38384		habitat	eng	The species is found in tepui meadows, dwarf riparian forests, forested slopes and on the edges of escarpments.
38385		distribution	eng	Restricted to East Sepik province, New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago.  Its long-term survival is highly questionable.
38385		habitat	eng	This tree grows in lowland rainforest.
38385		threats	eng	Found mainly in areas under siege from intensive logging activities.
38386		conservation	eng	Much of the range is contained within protected areas.
38386		distribution	eng	Known from various localities in Bolívar State, including the Gran Sabana and Macizo del Chimantá, and on Cerro Sipapo in Amazonas State. It is possible that the specimens from high elevations on the Macizo del Chimantá represent a distinct species.
38386		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shrublands, swampy depressions in meadows or savannahs and at the margins of gallery forest between 500 and 2,200 m.
38387		conservation	eng	The species is conserved within national parks and protective forest in permanent forest estates.
38387		habitat	eng	This species is located in lowland and hill forests of Peninsular Malaysia, up to 1,100 m.
38387		threats	eng	Felling activities and human settlement expansion are the chief pressures exerted on the species, it's timber is traded on an international scale.
38388		distribution	eng	Occurs along the coast of the Central Province.
38388		habitat	eng	A tree occurring in monsoon forest, <em>Eucalyptus</em> savannah and swamps near mangroves.
38388		threats	eng	Its restricted distribution, coupled with local exploitation, renders the species vulnerable.
38389		distribution	eng	It occurs in a small patch on Woodlark Island, in the headwaters of the Watut River in the Morobe Province and in the Western and East Sepik Provinces.
38389		habitat	eng	This tree is locally common, sometimes forming pure stands, in scattered areas of rainforest up to 1,500 m.
38389		threats	eng	The species has been logged and exported from Woodlark Island and occurs in areas subject to further exploitation.
38390		distribution	eng	Found in the eastern part of Western Province and possibly also in south-east Irian Jaya.
38390		habitat	eng	A parasitic or semi-parasitic species found in open savannah vegetation and in savannah forest in gullies.
38390		threats	eng	As with all other sources of sandalwood, this species is overexploited for its scented wood, which is used for incense, perfume, essential oil and carving. In Papua New Guinea the exploitation began at the turn of the last century; now the resource is greatly depleted as there are few mature trees or virgin stands.
38391		distribution	eng	Found in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.
38391		habitat	eng	A tree scattered in monsoon forest, savannah woodland and lower montane forest up to 1,200 m.
38391		threats	eng	In Papua New Guinea, the subpopulation has suffered from logging activities over recent years in the Oriomo River area, Western Province, where the species was once fairly common.
38392		conservation	eng	Parts of the range occur within the National Park of Madeira.
38392		distribution	eng	In Madeira the species has a sporadic distribution. In some of the lower zones it is locally abundant.  A population also exists on Desertas Island in the Madeira Group.
38392		habitat	eng	Lowland forest and laurisilva up to 1,000 m.
38392		threats	eng	There are pressures from grazing and burning throughout the island.
38393		conservation	eng	Parts of the range are protected within the National Park of Madeira.
38393		distribution	eng	A common tree in most forest areas of Madeira and the Canary Islands.
38393		habitat	eng	It is frequent in laurisilva, a forest type which appears to be on the increase.
38393		threats	eng	Some areas are under pressure from habitat conversion and invasive species.
38394		conservation	eng	Subpopulations occur within protected areas.
38394		distribution	eng	Occurring sporadically but in local abundance.
38394		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly at lower altitudes in scrub and laurisilva.
38394		threats	eng	Laurisilva may be increasing in Madeira, but throughout much of the range there are pressures, particularly from grazing and fires.
38395		conservation	eng	Parts of its range are protected within the National Park of Madeira.
38395		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madeira.
38395		habitat	eng	One of the major components of laurisilva.  There is evidence that this habitat type is increasing in extent.
38396		distribution	eng	In Madeira, the species is known only from a single location on the north coast in a small area of the within the National Park of Madeira.
38396		habitat	eng	Laurisilva.
38397		habitat	eng	One of the major components of laurisilva, occurring over a wide altitudinal range.
38397		threats	eng	Threats exist from grazing, fires and habitat conversion, but recent evidence suggests the laurisilva is now expanding.
38398		habitat	eng	A locally abundant component of laurisilva, occurring in lower altitudes mostly in areas which are disturbed.
38399		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt. Percy.
38399		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub.
38400		distribution	eng	Localised distribution only on the east coast of the North Island.
38400		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub.
38401		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree, occurring in scattered localities in the North and South Islands.
38401		threats	eng	It appears to be a poor competitor and has suffered from the lack of periodic disturbance and available sites to recolonise.
38402		distribution	eng	Confined to Canterbury, this small tree is found in one main population near Peel Forest and a few smaller populations. The total population consists of a few hundred individuals. Reproduction is sufficient in the main population. The genus consists of three species endemic to New Zealand.
38402		habitat	eng	Occurring on steep rocky slopes in riparian scrub or on forest margins.
38402		threats	eng	An increase in farming has caused a retraction of the species.
38403		distribution	eng	Confined to Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Populations are stable and there are extensive primary stands of the habitat remaining.
38403		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dry evergreen woodland on dolomite karst.
38403		threats	eng	If the trends in real estate development spread from Grand Cayman, there is potential for rapid deforestation.
38404		conservation	eng	The subpopulations in Campana National Park are well protected.
38404		distribution	eng	Found along the Cordillera Central, in the provinces of Veraguas, Coclé and Panamá. It is known from only a few records, but a large part of these mountains remains poorly explored.
38404		habitat	eng	The species is distributed in rainforest up to 1,000 m.
38404		threats	eng	Outside protected areas there are strong influences from encroaching settlement, agriculture and pastoralism.
38405		distribution	eng	Known under the genus <em>Talauma</em> in Panama, the species occurs in small sporadic populations in Darién National Park and slightly more frequently in the Serranía de Pirre, both in Panama. In Colombia, populations are recorded in Antioquia and more recently in Valle del Cauca.
38405		habitat	eng	Usually in inundated forest.
38405		threats	eng	Outside protected areas the habitat has been extensively cleared for settlement and agriculture.
38406		distribution	eng	Endemic to the mountains of El Copé in Coclé Province.  It appears to be common in this small area.
38406		habitat	eng	The species occurs in cloud forest, mostly on riversides.
38406		threats	eng	The forest here has been much reduced by increasing settlement.
38407		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from Mexico to Panama, possibly extending into Colombia, the species is relatively common throughout its range.
38407		habitat	eng	Occurs in secondary and primary forest types.
38408		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen is known. It was collected from Púcuro within Darién National Park, where a large area of forest is still intact and unexplored.
38409		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
38410		distribution	eng	A small tree, endemic and relatively widely scattered in moist forest in Colombia.
38410		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
38411		habitat	eng	A small tree occurring in lowland and hill forest up to 830 m.
38411		threats	eng	Habitat loss could pose a threat.
38412		distribution	eng	Collections from the Moluccas and New Guinea may represent a distinct species.
38412		habitat	eng	A widespread tree of primary and secondary forest up to 1,670 m.
38412		threats	eng	Declines in habitat could pose a threat to this species.
38413		habitat	eng	This widespread tree is found in primary and secondary forest up to 2,000 m.
38413		threats	eng	Loss of habitat is a potential threat to the species.
38414		distribution	eng	Philippines, Bumbun Island of Sabah, Bali, Sumbawa, Flores and Sulawesi of Indonesia.
38414		habitat	eng	A tree found in forest, including swamp forests.
38414		threats	eng	The species might be at risk in the near future from habitat loss.
38415		distribution	eng	The species was probably introduced to Niue.
38415		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland forest up to 520 m.
38415		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss.
38416		habitat	eng	A small tree mainly found in coastal forest.
38416		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
38417		distribution	eng	Trees may be easily overlooked as this dioecious species is only identified from the fruit. It is only definitely known from the type locality. Additional collections, which differ from the type specimen but may represent the same species, have been gathered from three localities.
38417		habitat	eng	A canopy tree most commonly found in mid-elevation forest.
38417		threats	eng	Forest fragmentation is likely to impede reproduction as it has been found that pollination is most efficient when individuals are less than 250 m apart.
38418		distribution	eng	An endemic to Valle.
38419		distribution	eng	A scarce species known only from a few collections in the region of Santa Rita in Colón Province. The area is relatively well studied.
38419		habitat	eng	Lowland moist open forest.
38419		threats	eng	The area is unprotected and has experienced an influx of people over recent years, resulting in the loss of a large part of the forest.
38420		distribution	eng	An endemic of the Santander area.
38421		distribution	eng	Known under the genus <em>Ardisia</em> in Panama, this species is restricted to Fortuna Forest Reserve and its vicinity in Gualaca, Chiriquí Province. It is known only from a few collections and appears to be particularly sparse outside the reserve boundaries.
38421		habitat	eng	Confined to cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,600 m.
38421		threats	eng	The growth in ranching and agriculture has caused considerable habitat loss.
38423		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
38424		conservation	eng	Much of the species range coincides with either Chagres National Park or Darién National Park.
38424		distribution	eng	Occurring commonly in the Cordillera de Cerro Jefe, including the Cerro Azul, and in the Serrania de Pirre, very close to the border with Colombia.
38424		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species.
38425		conservation	eng	There are protected subpopulations in La Amistad National Park and in the Valle de Antón in Panama.
38425		distribution	eng	Usually known under the genus Ardisia, the species occurs in the Cordillera de Talamanca in south-east Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is fairly common. Apart from subpopulations in protected areas, large subpopulations also occur in Boquete and Volcán in Chiriquí, Panama, but these are diminishing.
38425		habitat	eng	Areas of closed and open rainforest above 800 m.
38425		threats	eng	Chiriquí subpopulations in Panama are diminishing because of agricultural development.
38426		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
38427		distribution	eng	An endemic to Santander.
38428		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland dry forest.
38428		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat through forest management activities, increasing agriculture and settlement.
38429		distribution	eng	Restricted to John Crow Mountain and Cockpit Country.
38429		habitat	eng	This rare palm tree grows in submontane rainforest between 300 and 750 m. The species can survive forest degradation and destruction and is reputed to grow in pastures.
38430		distribution	eng	A small palm tree of  lowland rainforest, occurring up to 1,000 m.
38430		habitat	eng	Alajuela, Heredia and Limón.
38430		threats	eng	The species is scarce and threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance.
38431		habitat	eng	A small palm tree, up to 2.5 m tall, scattered in lowland Atlantic rainforest and restinga up to 500 m.  The species does not survive outside the rainforest.
38431		threats	eng	Subpopulations have been greatly reduced because of building work and plantation agriculture near the coast.
38432		habitat	eng	A widely occurring palm tree of rainforest up to 1,700 m.
38432		threats	eng	Many areas are subject to forest clearance.
38433		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viti Levu.
38433		habitat	eng	This endemic palm occurs in various forest types, from lowland to submontane elevations.
38433		threats	eng	Ceremonial spears are made from the trunk and the kernal is edible.
38434		distribution	eng	Confined to Viti Levu.
38434		habitat	eng	A palm of submontane dense forest.
38434		threats	eng	Its habitat is severely reduced because of conversion to agriculture and forestry plantations.
38435		distribution	eng	The species is confined to localities on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
38435		habitat	eng	Occurring in dense lowland forest over a very narrow altitudinal range.
38435		threats	eng	Its habitat is severely reduced because of conversion to agriculture and forestry plantations.
38436		distribution	eng	This species occurs in some frequency in various forest types on Vanua Levu and Taveuni.
38436		habitat	eng	Various forest types.
38438		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a small area on Mont Banié.
38440		conservation	eng	It is effectively protected in a national park.
38440		distribution	eng	The species is confined to a small area in the south-east.
38441		distribution	eng	A species occurring as solitary individuals in the north-east.
38441		habitat	eng	Wet forest on ridges on schist or mica-schist soils.
38443		conservation	eng	It is effectively protected within a national park.
38443		distribution	eng	A localised species, confined to the south-west.
38443		habitat	eng	It is found in wet forest on serpentine between 900 and 950 m
38445		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a ridge on Mt Nakada.
38445		habitat	eng	Schistose ridge between 1,000 and 1,100 m.
38448		distribution	eng	Only two subpopulations are known, occurring in Mantady and the south-west.
38449		conservation	eng	It is also present in protected areas and planted in several botanic gardens.
38449		distribution	eng	A single-stemmed palm tree, confined to the southern Western Ghats.
38449		habitat	eng	It occurs on slopes in moist evergreen hill forest.
38450		distribution	eng	A palm of importance ornamentally, known only from Great Nicobar Island.  No recent collections exist.
38450		threats	eng	Increasing settlement has caused habitat losses.
38451		distribution	eng	Northern Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand. A number of high-density subpopulations are known.
38451		habitat	eng	his palm species occurs in lowland rainforest up to 500 m.
38451		threats	eng	Forest management activities and limestone mining.
38452		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Madagascar.  Some consider the species to be conspecific with <em>B. aethiopum</em>.
38452		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland open forest along rivers, on alluvium.
38452		threats	eng	Encroaching settlement is the most imminent threat.
38453		distribution	eng	This majestic species is endemic to the lowland alluvial plains of north-west Madagascar. It has been poorly collected. Fifteen mature individuals have been found in Sambirano. Although seedlings exist there are no young trees.
38453		threats	eng	Fire is suspected to prevent establishment.
38454		habitat	eng	An endemic palm of open forest, occurring in very dry areas on rocky soils up to 600 m.
38455		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guadalupe Island. Approximately 1,100 moribund individuals were counted in 1988
38455		habitat	eng	This ornamental palm tree is confined to dry scrub on rocky volcanic slopes and cliffs on the foggy north-west slope.
38455		threats	eng	Introduced feral goats predate the seeds and are believed to be inhibiting natural regeneration.
38456		habitat	eng	A palm of oak forest, occurring in dry areas on limestone hills between 900 and 1,500 m.
38456		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor.
38457		distribution	eng	A Mexican endemic, confined to the west. Population numbers are small.
38457		habitat	eng	Confined to temperate and tropical pine-oak forest in areas near streams and on hillside.
38457		threats	eng	Fibre from the leaves is traded in local markets and used locally in handicraft.
38458		distribution	eng	Confined to the north-east.
38458		habitat	eng	A species of wet forests on schists and siliceous soils.
38462		conservation	eng	The species is widely cultivated.
38462		distribution	eng	Restricted to southern Brazil. Wild subpopulations are declining.
38462		habitat	eng	A small palm tree of open forest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest between 700 and 1,200 m.
38463		conservation	eng	The subpopulation near Jataí is in an area protected by the Brazilian military.
38463		distribution	eng	A small palm tree known only from an area of  <em>cerrado</em> in Goiás. The only confirmed population occurs near Jataí, where individuals are doing well. Trees in nearby pastureland are not regenerating.
38463		threats	eng	Seed predation by bean weevils is very high.
38465		conservation	eng	The species is protected and the subject of a conservation plan managed by the Vanuatu Forestry Department.
38465		distribution	eng	Aneityum, Tanna and Futuna. Approximately 40 individuals exist in the wild and another 120 mature trees are cultivated around villages. Regeneration is moderate.
38465		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of lowland rainforest.
38465		threats	eng	A palm tree of ornamental interest.
38467		conservation	eng	There is now mounting pressure to halt overcollection.
38467		distribution	eng	The national tree of Colombia, occurring in the Andes.
38467		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
38467		threats	eng	The habitat has come under severe pressure from increasing agriculture. Adult trees, although protected by law, are removed for ornamental use. The leaves, too, are collected in large quantities for use in religious festivals.
38468		distribution	eng	Principally found in the Cordillera Oriental.
38468		habitat	eng	A palm tree of montane rainforest. Trees survive in coffee plantations.
38468		threats	eng	Leaves are used in religious festivals.
38469		distribution	eng	Restricted to the north-east of the island.
38469		habitat	eng	A species of schistose soils.
38471		distribution	eng	Found  the Pacific lowlands of Colombia. In some undisturbed areas, the species occurs in abundance and is under little threat at present.
38471		habitat	eng	A single-stemmed palm of rainforest, occurring on well-drained soils.
38471		threats	eng	Leaf sheath fibre is used locally for pillow stuffing.
38473		distribution	eng	Occurring on Viti Levu, Gau, Vanua Levu and Taveuni, the species is found in numerous subpopulations.
38473		habitat	eng	Dense forest and crest thickets up to 900 m.
38474		distribution	eng	Restricted to south-east Santa Isabel.
38474		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland <em>Casuarina</em> forest on ultrabasic soils.
38475		distribution	eng	Endemic to Vanuatu. The population is extensive with 100,000s of mature trees. Regeneration is good.
38475		habitat	eng	This palm tree occurs in wet rainforest on ridge tops and the adjacent steep slopes.
38476		distribution	eng	A palm confined to Upolu Island, Western Samoa. Remaining subpopulations appear to be healthy and stable, the species occasionally being quite common.
38476		habitat	eng	Broadleaved lowland forest.
38476		threats	eng	The major part of the broadleaved lowland forest habitat is now destroyed.
38477		distribution	eng	A rare palm tree endemic to the Bonin Islands. Very little has been published on this species.
38477		habitat	eng	Wet forest.
38478		distribution	eng	This palm is restricted to Matanzas. The area of occupancy is less than 10 km².
38478		habitat	eng	Occurring on raised limestone beaches near the sea.
38479		distribution	eng	A Cuban endemic.
38479		habitat	eng	Found in lowland, seasonally flooded savannah up to 500 m.
38479		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and local exploitation of the plant parts are causing population reductions.  The species is traded locally as an ornamental.
38480		distribution	eng	A Cuban endemic.
38480		habitat	eng	Lowland, seasonally-flooded savannah up to 500 m.
38480		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and local exploitation of the plant parts are causing population reductions.  The species is traded locally as an ornamental.
38481		distribution	eng	Little is known about the species status in Dominican Republic but it is very likely to be threatened in Haiti.
38481		habitat	eng	A palm tree found in dry scrub forest on limestone on rocky hills or near the sea.
38482		distribution	eng	A palm tree found near the coast of central and eastern Cuba.
38483		distribution	eng	A rare palm found in coastal areas.  Little information is available on its conservation status.
38483		habitat	eng	This species occurs in scrub on sandy or limestone soils.
38484		distribution	eng	Confined to Camagüey, Holguin and Oriente in Cuba. The area of occupancy is small and populations are declining.
38484		habitat	eng	This small tree, grows in open forest on limestone hills or on serpentine savannah between 200 and 250 m.
38485		distribution	eng	Restricted to Pinar del Río and Isla de Pinos.
38485		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland savannah on quartzine soils.
38485		threats	eng	It is suffering from excessive exploitation of trunk wood, leaves and fruit for local use. Regeneration is poor.
38487		distribution	eng	Las Villas and Pinar del Río are the only known localities of this palm tree.
38487		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland woodlands and in open wetlands.
38487		threats	eng	Local overexploitation of the timber and leaf fibre is causing a decline in population number and few individuals remain in the wild.
38488		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-west Haiti.  In 1996, a field survey found about 1,200 individuals in four subpopulations, ranging from a single relict tree to healthy subpopulations numbering around 500.
38488		habitat	eng	This palm tree occurs in lowland scrub on rocky shores near the sea.
38488		threats	eng	The leaves are used locally for thatching and the trunks are used for construction; this exploitation is the major threat to this species.
38489		distribution	eng	Eastern Cuba.
38489		habitat	eng	A palm tree confined to seasonally flooded woodland and savannah.
38489		threats	eng	It is suffering from excessive local exploitation of the trunk wood and leaves.
38491		distribution	eng	A palm tree known only from the middle and south Andaman Islands. Its present status is unknown.
38492		distribution	eng	The species distribution is not confirmed. It appears to be confined to Biliran Island.
38492		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38493		conservation	eng	Plants are in cultivation and the single plant on Dhaka University campus needs to be monitored, so that when it flowers seed can be collected for distribution and <em>ex situ</em> propagation.
38493		distribution	eng	This monocarpic palm tree is not known in the wild. Specimens are growing in the Indian Botanic Garden and the Fairchild Tropical Garden. The identity of the single plant found growing in the scrub jungle on the Dhaka University campus in Bangladesh, back in the 1950s still needs to be confirmed.
38494		distribution	eng	Restricted to Karnataka and the Malabar coast of Kerala. It is difficult to distinguish between wild and semi-wild subpopulations.
38494		habitat	eng	A monocarpic palm of moist forest.
38495		conservation	eng	A few plants are protected in Tortu Guero National Park.
38495		distribution	eng	The most morphologically distinct species in the genus. Individuals or small groups are scattered in Atlantic lowland rainforest near Limon. The present adult population is estimated to number less than 100 individuals. The range of the species is presumed to have been larger in the past.
38495		habitat	eng	Atlantic lowland rainforest.
38495		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to agriculture has caused major population declines. Logging, increasing settlements and decline in dispersal/pollination agent populations have also contributed to losses.  The palm heart is eaten locally for medicinal purposes.
38496		conservation	eng	There is a protected population in Carava Biological Reserve.
38496		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are small and widely scattered.
38496		habitat	eng	A single-stemmed palm of lowland rainforest, occurring on limestone on the Pacific slope.
38496		threats	eng	Increasing agriculture and settlement and logging.
38497		conservation	eng	Large subpopulations still exist in protected areas in Costa Rica, including Corcorado National Park, Carava Biological Reserve and Golfito Wildlife Reserve.
38497		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland rainforest.
38497		threats	eng	Lowland rainforest has greatly declined through conversion to agriculture.  The heart of the palm is eaten locally for medicinal purposes.
38498		distribution	eng	Ranging from eastern Panama to western Madalena, Colombia. The Colombian subpopulations have been divided into two subspecies, both of which are considered endangered by the Instituto de Investigacion de Recursos Biologicos Alexander von Humboldt.  In remote, undisturbed areas the species remains relatively common.
38498		habitat	eng	A single-stemmed palm of lowland to submontane rainforest.
38498		threats	eng	Much of the original habitat has been converted for agriculture and the species has become rare or absent in places.
38499		distribution	eng	Subpopulations have become scarce or have completely disappeared at lower elevations. In relatively undisturbed areas in upper altitudinal limits, the species can be common.
38499		habitat	eng	Occurring on the Pacific coast, the species is found in areas of dry deciduous forest, often pine-oak woodland, up to 1,700 m.
38499		threats	eng	Much of the original dry forest along the coast is cleared or greatly altered as a result of logging and conversion to agriculture and settlements.
38501		distribution	eng	This species is localised to the north-east.
38501		habitat	eng	Low-lying areas of schistose rocks.
38502		distribution	eng	The entire population is reduced to a small area on the north-east coast of Lifou in the Loyalty Islands.  The only other species in the genus is also threatened and confined to north-east New Caledonia.
38502		habitat	eng	Forest on raised coral.
38502		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor.
38504		distribution	eng	Only a few subpopulations are known, confined to areas on Viti Levu.
38504		habitat	eng	Dense forest.
38504		threats	eng	Cutting by the Forestry Department resulted in the serious depletion of one subpopulation in 1970 and also continues to affect another more recently discovered subpopulation. Seed crops of reasonable size appear to be extremely infrequent.
38505		distribution	eng	A few small subpopulations are known from areas on Vanua Levu and Taveuni.
38505		habitat	eng	Dense forest between 600 and 760 m.
38505		threats	eng	Some areas are being cleared for coconut plantations.
38506		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Cumberland Peninsula and Espírito Santo. Less than 100 mature individuals are known.
38506		habitat	eng	A small palm tree scattered in rainforest on volcanic soils.
38507		distribution	eng	A palm endemic to the islands of Choiseul and Baga.
38507		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland to submontane rainforest.
38508		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected (Laws of Seychelles 1991) and is represented in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks and in the Curieuse Marine National Park.
38508		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on the islands of Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, La Digue, Curieuse and Félicité (Robertson 1989, Dogley and Matatiken 2006). The EOO and the AOO were not determined, but the total area of the six islands is 232 km<sup>2</sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005).<br/><br/>In 1994, the species was recorded in 36 sites of total 73 surveyed areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This represents the broad distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. nobilis</span> that still can be observed.
38508		habitat	eng	Erect palm tree sometimes up to 30-40 m tall but frequently much smaller. It was probably one of the co-dominant species in the canopy in the former forests of the drier type on well-drained soils and on exposed cliff ledges at low and intermediate altitudes from sea level up to 600 m. The species is dispersed by frugivores (Kronauer 2005).
38508		population	eng	The current population trend is unknown. It has recently established in new areas. In the Vallée de Mai National Park, the  increase in abundance between 1985 and 2005 ranks first compared with the other  endemic palms (Fleischmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). But this situation  is of course not representative for Seychelles lowland habitats, which  are affected by a number of threats.
38508		threats	eng	This species is not highly threatened at the moment. It has a restricted range and threats like the reduction of habitat by invasive species, human settlements, infrastructure and tourism development occur at low rates. It was exploited for food (Millionaire’s Salad) and horticultural reasons in the past. The exploitation is  now prohibited (Laws of Seychelles 1991).
38509		conservation	eng	The trees are protected in a managed, weeded and fenced reserve. Seed production is monitored.
38509		distribution	eng	Known only from Florin Reserve in south-west Mauritius. Less than 10 mature individuals remain and there are no authenticated reports of natural regeneration.
38509		habitat	eng	A palm tree of submontane forest.
38510		conservation	eng	Seeds were obtained from the tree before it died and 25 offspring were raised. These individuals have been introduced to a 25 ha island reserve called Ile aux Aigrettes. The remaining wild tree produced seeds for the first time in December 1996.
38510		distribution	eng	Restricted to l'ile Ronde off the north-east coast of Mauritius, this palm tree has been reduced to a single wild individual. Two trees survived until 1994, when a cyclone killed one of them.
38511		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Solomon Islands. The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.
38511		habitat	eng	A rainforest palm, occurring up to 600 m.
38512		distribution	eng	Confined to Ambon Island. The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.
38512		habitat	eng	A single-stemmed palm of lowland rainforest.
38513		distribution	eng	Confined to Makira Island.  The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.
38513		habitat	eng	This palm tree is located inland in moist lowland forest up to 600 m.
38514		distribution	eng	Savai'i and Upolu Islands.
38514		habitat	eng	A rare palm of montane cloud forest.
38514		threats	eng	Natural disasters pose the most serious threat.
38515		distribution	eng	The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.
38515		habitat	eng	A palm tree, scattered in lowland rainforest.
38516		distribution	eng	This endemic of Madagascar has not been collected for over 80 years and is possibly extinct.
38516		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
38517		conservation	eng	Both sites are protected within Lokobe Special Reserve.
38517		distribution	eng	This Madagascan endemic is known from only two locations in Nosy Be and Manongarivo Mts.
38517		habitat	eng	On steep slopes in moist lowland forest.
38517		threats	eng	Tree poaching occurs.
38518		distribution	eng	Restricted to Manangarivo and the Marojejy Massif in north Madagascar.
38518		habitat	eng	A small branching palm of open montane forest or heath, although occasionally it is found on rocks in denser forest.
38519		conservation	eng	Restricted to Mananara Avaratra Biosphere Reserve.
38519		distribution	eng	Confined to Mananara Avaratra Biosphere Reserve. There are fewer than 50 individuals in total.
38519		habitat	eng	Trees are scattered between 250 and 290 m on steep slopes and ridge tops in open rainforest on ultramafic soils.
38520		distribution	eng	It is confined to an area lying between Soanierana-Ivango and Vatomandry.  Population numbers are thought to be very low.
38520		habitat	eng	A littoral forest species, found near fresh water.
38520		threats	eng	Various developments and fires continue to threaten the habitat.
38521		distribution	eng	Vatovavy, Madagascar.
38521		habitat	eng	This tree is confined to small crown submontane forest on gneiss.
38522		distribution	eng	An endemic of Madagascar, known from only two sites in the bay of Antongil.
38522		habitat	eng	Moist lowland forest.
38523		conservation	eng	One of the localities is protected.
38523		distribution	eng	It is known only from three sites in north-eastern Madagascar, only one of which is protected. The population is estimated to consist of 50 individuals.
38523		habitat	eng	This palm of forest undergrowth inhabits open lowland rainforest or sand forest next to black water and peat swamps.
38524		distribution	eng	The species has not been seen since 1951 and may possibly be extinct.  Known from two locations which are geographically far apart, one in the Manongarivo area and another from Ampasimanolotra.
38524		habitat	eng	The two known collections were gathered from lowland forest on sandstone.  Its flowers remain unknown to science.
38525		distribution	eng	This species has not been seen for over 50 years and may now be extinct. There is confusion over the type locality, which could either be at Ambaliha on the Ampasindava Peninsula or Ambaliha on the left bank of the Sambirano River.
38525		habitat	eng	The habitat is defined as lowland moist forest on sandstone.
38526		distribution	eng	Marojejy area and Betampona. It has not been seen since 1949.
38526		habitat	eng	This species is known only from moist lowland forest.
38527		distribution	eng	A little known Madagascan endemic.
38527		habitat	eng	South-eastern lowland rainforest.
38527		threats	eng	Most of the habitat has been cleared and the remainder is under intense pressure from the expanding human population.
38528		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic. Subpopulations are confined to Masoala, Mananara and Betampona. One site is protected.
38528		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest in peat swamps, on ridge tops or flat ground.
38529		conservation	eng	Confined to a protected area.
38529		distribution	eng	The global population is confined to the Marojejy area, which is restricted in size.
38529		habitat	eng	A palm of moist montane forest or dense sclerophyll forest on ridges, usually found on gneiss and quartzite between 900 and 1,850 m.
38530		conservation	eng	Occur in Mananara Biosphere Reserve.
38530		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Madagascar, in Manongarivo, Masoala Peninsula and Mananara Biosphere Reserve.
38530		habitat	eng	Confined to areas of lowland open forest. Seedlings require frequent submerging in water, which may explain the species' common occurrence by streamsides.
38531		conservation	eng	It is listed in CITES Appendix II.
38531		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a small area of southern Madagascar. About 1,000 individuals are thought to exist in the wild. In cultivation the species is widespread and grown in a wide variety of climates.
38531		habitat	eng	Dry forest or bush on stony soils.
38531		threats	eng	Fire is a major threat and nearly all the seeds are harvested for export.
38532		conservation	eng	Listed in CITES Appendix II.
38532		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central Madagascar, between Ankazobe and Fianarantsoa. The number of individuals in the wild is estimated at about 100.
38532		habitat	eng	They inhabit remnant forest near streams or on rocky sites between 1,400 and 2,000 m.
38532		threats	eng	Prone to forest destruction and fire. Cultivation of the palm remains small-scale .
38533		distribution	eng	This species inhabits a single site on the western side of Masoala Peninsula in north-east Madagascar.
38533		habitat	eng	Littoral forest on coastal white sand.
38533		threats	eng	The habitat is fragile and prone to grazing and clearance for agriculture or settlements.
38534		distribution	eng	An endemic species confined to areas in Maroantsetra, Mananara and near Fenoarivo. Fewer than 50 individuals are estimated to exist in total.
38534		habitat	eng	Areas of littoral forest or lowland moist forest.
38534		threats	eng	The lowland rainforest in these areas is not well protected.
38535		distribution	eng	Within an area stretching from Antalaha and Marojejy to Betampona in the north-east of Madagascar.
38535		habitat	eng	A coastal forest palm, rarely extending inland.
38535		threats	eng	The habitat is often affected by fires.
38536		distribution	eng	Confined to Tsaratanana, Marojejy and Anjanaharibe in northern Madagascar. The area is not botanically well known.
38536		habitat	eng	A palm of moist montane forest.
38537		distribution	eng	Known only from Maroantsetra and Mananara. The known subpopulations consist of few individuals.
38537		habitat	eng	An impressive rainforest tree growing on steep slopes or ridge crests.
38537		threats	eng	Both sites are under pressure from increasing agriculture.
38538		distribution	eng	Ifanadiana area. Fewer than 50 individuals are known in total.
38538		habitat	eng	A slender palm, known only from lowland rainforest
38538		threats	eng	The area is undergoing continuous deforestation.
38539		distribution	eng	Fewer than 50 individuals are confined to a single locality in Manombo in Madagascar.
38539		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38539		threats	eng	Steadily dwindling lowland rainforest.
38540		distribution	eng	Currently known only from a single collection in the south-east of Madagascar around Ifanadiana and Ambinanindrano.
38540		habitat	eng	An ornamental palm of hill forest undergrowth.
38540		threats	eng	The forests of Ambinanindrano are gradually being destroyed by shifting cultivation.
38541		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Grande Comore and Moheli in the Comoro Islands. Information is lacking on the current population status and the species may be more seriously threatened.
38541		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforest between 500 and 1,000 m.
38542		distribution	eng	A tree last seen over 70 years ago in the lowland moist forest of north-west Madagascar.
38543		distribution	eng	Although rare, the species is widespread in north-west and western Madagascar. The total population consists of several thousand individuals.
38543		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist rainforest and semi-deciduous dry or plateau forest up to 650 m. Populations are also found rarely in palm grassland, dry bushland and coastal forest.
38543		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is reducing the number of subpopulations. Harvesting of palm heart and wood continues, even in the single protected location in Lokobe Special Reserve.
38544		conservation	eng	Occur in protected area only.
38544		distribution	eng	This palm is known only from Andohahela Special Reserve.
38544		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane moist forest on slight or steep slopes, occasionally near forest streams.
38545		distribution	eng	Between Vatomandry and Talanaro in eastern Madagascar.
38545		habitat	eng	This species is confined to lowland moist and dry forest remnants.
38545		threats	eng	The entire area suffers high levels of habitat destruction as a result of various anthropogenic activities.
38546		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic, confined to Mananara Biosphere Reserve. There is an old collection from the lower Mangoro River. Only a single sighting has been made recently, consisting of fewer than 20 individuals in a forest patch surrounded by agriculture.
38546		habitat	eng	Littoral or lowland rainforest.
38546		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion.
38547		conservation	eng	The area of occurrence is partially protected.
38547		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic, confined to the mountains in the south-east. The area of occurrence is small.
38547		habitat	eng	Rainforest edges between 300 and 1,100 m.
38548		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic known only from two recent collections in Fianarantsoa Province. Fewer than 20 trees are known to exist.
38548		habitat	eng	Coastal lowland forest.
38548		threats	eng	The area is being rapidly cut down.
38549		distribution	eng	A timber species, confined to Lokobe Forest in the north-west. Fewer than 25 trees have been counted.
38549		threats	eng	A number of palm species are being felled for timber in this area.
38550		distribution	eng	A palm confined to north-west, west and south-central Madagascar. Total numbers are estimated to be less than 1000. The species is most abundant within the flood level on the rocky banks of the Analabe River. The area of occurrence is fairly large.
38550		habitat	eng	Riverine forest and evergreen forest.
38550		threats	eng	The habitat is prone to outbreaks of fire.
38551		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Madagascar confined to areas in Tsaratanana, Marojejy, high ground near Maroansterta and Mandritsara.
38551		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
38551		threats	eng	The distribution is limited and the palm heart is highly esteemed, putting the species under considerable pressure.
38552		distribution	eng	This palm is known only from two sites on the western side of Madagascar's central plateau.
38552		habitat	eng	Inhabiting relict dry evergreen forest on steep-sided valleys between 1,100 and 1,450 m.
38552		threats	eng	Neither subpopulation is protected and their habitat is under severe threat from cutting and annual fires.
38553		conservation	eng	Contained within Mananara Biosphere Reserve.
38553		distribution	eng	A Madagasacan endemic, known from a single population of fewer than 10 individuals contained within Mananara Biosphere Reserve.
38553		habitat	eng	It is found in moist submontane forest on ultramafic soil with a deep humus layer.
38554		distribution	eng	An endemic palm.
38554		habitat	eng	Occurring along the east coast in small pockets of peat swamp developed on white sand adjacent to the beach zone and also found in swampy areas further inland.
38554		threats	eng	Although the coastal lowland forest, which the species inhabits, is widespread it is threatened.
38555		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Madagascar, in Marojejy, Masoala and Mananara Avaratra. Despite its fairly wide distribution, the species is uncommon wherever it is found.
38555		habitat	eng	Inhabiting moist forest between 150 and 800 m.
38555		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the palm heart is a major threat.
38556		distribution	eng	This endemic palm of Madagascar is confined to the Sambirano region, Marojejy and Mantady.
38556		habitat	eng	Moist montane forest.
38556		threats	eng	Harvesting of the palm heart continues even within Marojejy and Mantady protected areas.
38557		distribution	eng	The entire population does not exceed 200 individuals, confined to the Midongy area. The former subpopulation in Mahanoro appears to be extinct.
38557		threats	eng	In no part of its range is it protected.
38558		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic, confined to the area around Antongil.
38558		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38558		threats	eng	The lowland rainforest habitat in this area is under threat from shifting cultivation.
38559		distribution	eng	A palm confined to east Madagascar, between Soanierana Ivongo and Ambila-Lemaitso. The area of occupancy is small, containing fewer than 100 trees.
38559		habitat	eng	Lowland coastal forest.
38559		threats	eng	The lowland coastal forest habitat is being destroyed.
38560		distribution	eng	A palm confined to Mananjeba River, at Manongarivo and Ankarafantsika. The total population is estimated to contain less than 100 individuals.
38560		habitat	eng	It inhabits streamside forest between 130 and 300 m.
38561		conservation	eng	Local taboos do provide some form of protection.
38561		distribution	eng	Formerly known only from the type collection of 1911, the species has now been found in an area on Mt. Vatovavy, eastern Madagascar. Population numbers are low.
38561		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
38561		threats	eng	The forest is unprotected. The status will become critical in the next few years if forest clearance continues.
38562		distribution	eng	Confined to a single site in Sainte-Luce Forest, the species is known from a total population of 50 individuals.
38562		threats	eng	The area is threatened by proposed mining operations for mineral sand (ilmenite ore).
38563		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of south-east Madagascar.
38563		habitat	eng	Inhabiting forest and heath scrub on white sand between 10 and 515 m.
38563		threats	eng	The species range is small and the habitat is under threat from mining operations and fire.
38564		distribution	eng	A palm confined to Mananara Biosphere Reserve in Madagascar, where it is locally abundant.
38564		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest on steep slopes and ridgetops on ultramafic soils, between 240 and 280 m.
38565		distribution	eng	Confined to Manombo Forest. The number of trees remaining is estimated to be less than 100.
38565		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland rainforest at the base of slopes.
38565		threats	eng	Shifting cultivation, fire and logging have gradually destroyed the forest.
38566		distribution	eng	This palm, endemic to Madagascar, has not been seen for 70 years. Mt. Tsaratanana, where the species occurs, has not been visited for a long time.
38567		distribution	eng	This endemic palm is confined to Marojejy,  Maroantsetra and Mananara. Population numbers are low and two of the sites are under pressure from agriculture.
38567		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane primary woodland on steep slopes or ridgetop hollows.
38568		distribution	eng	This gregarious palm is restricted to eastern Madagascar. Numbers are thought to be small.
38568		habitat	eng	It is restricted to only a few streamside sites of swamp or moist forest between 950 and 1,000 m.
38569		distribution	eng	A clustered palm tree of great taxonomic interest, restricted to Cordillera Yanachaga.
38569		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey of moist cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,500 m.
38569		threats	eng	The species range is extremely small and threatened by forest clearance.
38570		distribution	eng	Puerto Rico.
38570		habitat	eng	A palm tree confined to steep-sided, extremely well-drained limestone hills.
38571		distribution	eng	The population size is small.
38571		habitat	eng	A forest species, scattered in rocky places on limestone soils at low elevations.
38572		distribution	eng	An endemic to Jatibonico, a limestone plateau in central Cuba. Fewer than 150 mature trees remain in five subpopulations.
38573		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Solomon Islands.
38573		habitat	eng	This palm tree is scattered in broadleaved, swamp and cloud forest on ultrabasic soils from 100 to 1,500 m.
38574		distribution	eng	Only found on the islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
38574		habitat	eng	A scarce species of steep forested slopes, occurring between 180 and 260 m.
38574		threats	eng	Some areas have been lost to agriculture and logging.
38575		conservation	eng	Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Site, most of which is a permanent park reserve.
38575		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lord Howe Island, on the slopes of Mt. Glower and Mt. Lidgbird.
38575		habitat	eng	This palm tree dominates palm forest.
38576		conservation	eng	A valuable ornamental, the seeds of wild trees are collected and germinated, and the seedlings are exported. The seed industry is strictly regulated. Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Site, most of which is a permanent park reserve.
38576		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lord Howe Island.
38576		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland and submontane moist forest between 100 and 300 m.
38577		conservation	eng	Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Site. The seeds of wild trees are collected and germinated, and the seedlings are exported. The seed industry is strictly regulated.
38577		distribution	eng	A palm tree endemic to Lord Howe Island.
38577		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane moist forest up to 300 m.
38578		conservation	eng	Collection are storage of pollen for self pollination under controlled conditions.  Cloning of remaining genotype:  Material has already sent to Kew Garden by National Parks and Conservation Service and they are using <em>H. lagenicaulis</em> as test plant whereby they have been successful with the somatic embryogenesis of the said species.
38578		distribution	eng	Last individual existing in the wild and hence the risk of extinction is very high.  Also intrinsic factors in the only plant preventing pollination. Last specimen of this species growing in Curepipe Botanical Garden.  Had been reported in the past on the top of Peter Both Mountain.  For a very long time it has been confused with <em>H. ilagenicaulis</em> (Round Island bottle palm). This single specimen has persisted within the Curepipe Botanical Garden for over fifty years, and flowers and fruits regularly.  However, the fruits are sterile because the male flower open before the female, thus precluding any pollination.  Although this palm does not produce viable seeds, plants have on several occasions, been cloned by tissue culture of the embryo at Wye, Edinburg, and Kew.  Unfortunately, each time the plants were removed from sterile medium, they died.
38578		habitat	eng	Tropical degraded forest (upland forest).
38578		threats	eng	Only individual existing in the wild.  Hence very susceptible to disease, and cyclone.  Prone to hybridization.  No natural pollination because of intrinsic factors
38579		distribution	eng	Persisting in low numbers only.
38579		habitat	eng	A palm tree of moist primary forest between 175 and 600 m.
38579		threats	eng	It is threatened by the expansion of agriculture and human habitation.
38580		conservation	eng	Regeneration is increasing since rabbits and goats were eradicated from the island. The island is a managed reserve.
38580		distribution	eng	Round Island. Fewer than 10 mature trees remain in the wild.
38580		habitat	eng	A palm tree with a bottle-shaped bole, confined to lowland palm savannah.
38580		threats	eng	Regeneration is sporadic <em>in situ</em>.
38581		conservation	eng	It is already planted in Conservation Management Area where there is a wild subpopulation. Collection of seeds and propagation of the plant should be continued.
38581		distribution	eng	Occurs at Mauritius-Macchabee, Brise Fer, Mare Longue, Florin. The population size is less than 50 individuals.
38581		habitat	eng	It grows in montane tropical rain forest at 400-550 m altitude.
38582		distribution	eng	Fewer than 60 individuals remain in the wild, occurring in Grand Montagne, Anse Quitor and Ravine de la Cascade, St Louis.
38582		habitat	eng	Limestone areas.
38582		threats	eng	There is no evidence of regeneration and grazing pressures are strong. There is also a threat of hybridisation with the introduced <em>H. lagenicaulis</em>.  The species is of commercial interest as an ornamental.
38583		distribution	eng	A palm tree restricted to the coastal areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra between the latitudes of 18° and 23°.
38583		threats	eng	The area is mainly threatened by increasing settlement and development.
38584		conservation	eng	In Colombia it is known from a remote locality in a national park.
38584		distribution	eng	Confined to the western Amazon regions of Brazil, Colombia and Peru. In Colombia it is known from a remote locality in a national park.
38584		habitat	eng	An understorey palm of lowland rainforest.
38584		threats	eng	At a local level the trunk is burned for the production of salt and leaves are used for thatch.
38585		conservation	eng	Felling of the tree has been prohibited. The Juan Fernandez islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.
38585		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Masatierra Is.
38585		habitat	eng	This palm tree occurs on steep slopes and ridges in lowland rainforest between 190 and 900 m.
38586		distribution	eng	Subpopulations were once relatively common between the latitudes of 32° and 35° south, but they are now confined to a few small areas.
38586		habitat	eng	A palm tree of dry river valleys in the Andean foothills and of open hillsides in seasonally dry regions.
38586		threats	eng	This species is felled as a source of palm wine, which is reduced to make honey.
38587		distribution	eng	Occurring in the lowlands, the species is restricted to a small area of the south-west and centre of the island.
38588		conservation	eng	Regeneration has been good since the eradication of goats and rabbits. The species is widely cultivated as an ornamental.
38588		distribution	eng	Remaining wild subpopulations are confined to offshore islands.
38588		habitat	eng	A palm of coastal savanna.
38589		distribution	eng	Occurring on the coast between Petite Ile and Saint-Philippe, the species was once common.
38589		threats	eng	The species has declined in extent through increasing agriculture and settlement.  It is traded internationally as an ornamental.
38590		distribution	eng	Confined to Fond la Bonté, Baie aux Huîtres, remaining populations account for about 500 individuals.
38590		threats	eng	There is almost no evidence of regeneration and the harvesting of leaves for use as thatch is not controlled, despite regulations.
38591		distribution	eng	An endemic to Mt. Panié.
38591		habitat	eng	Occurring in wet forest on a steep rocky slope at 500 m.
38592		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Madagascar known only from two subpopulations, totaling an estimated 50 individuals.
38592		habitat	eng	They occur in submontane primary forest on steep slopes and in a deep narrow valleys at elevations between 200 and 450 m.
38592		threats	eng	This species is used as an ornament for minor international, national and local trade.
38593		conservation	eng	It is adequately represented in national parks and World Heritage areas.
38593		distribution	eng	Confined to north-east Queensland.
38593		habitat	eng	This small palm tree, up to 2 m in height, is commonly found in lowland to montane rainforest near the coast.
38594		conservation	eng	The population is conserved within Millstream National Park.
38594		distribution	eng	Endemic to Western Australia.
38594		habitat	eng	This palm tree is scattered in dry open forest between 100 and 150 m.
38594		threats	eng	Potential threats include fires, natural disasters and tourism.
38595		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Nature Conservation Act (Queensland) 1994.
38595		distribution	eng	Confined to an area extending from Kurramine Beach and Hinchin Island southward to Conway Beach.
38595		habitat	eng	A palm tree of moist open forest up to an altitude of 150 m.
38595		threats	eng	The main cause of population decline is land clearance. The species is mainly found on privately owned land.
38596		distribution	eng	Existing in two disjunct subpopulations. One subpopulation is in Endau Rompin State Park and the other is found in the coastal hills of south Terengganu.
38596		habitat	eng	A lowland palm tree of open and closed forest.
38597		conservation	eng	Occurs entirely within a protected area.
38597		distribution	eng	The entire range of this palm tree falls within Finke Gorge National Park.
38597		habitat	eng	Occurs in dry sparsely vegetated habitats along creeks and watercourses.
38598		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Palillo, the species has been little studied.
38598		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38598		threats	eng	Its lowland rainforest habitat is under pressure from logging and increasing agriculture and settlement.
38599		conservation	eng	Occurs entirely in protected area.
38599		distribution	eng	Restricted to Gunung Tahan within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.
38599		habitat	eng	A locally common palm tree of upper montane forest on peat soils between 1,000 and 1,200 m.
38600		distribution	eng	The description on which the species is based in insufficient.
38601		distribution	eng	Restricted to Nggela Island.
38601		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland rainforest and swamp forest.
38602		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected by the Breadfruit and other trees Act (Laws of Seychelles 1991) and the Coco-de-Mer (Management) Decree 1978, revised in 1994. It is found in the Praslin National Park and the Curieuse Marine National Park.
38602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs naturally only on the two islands of Praslin (Fond Ferdinand, Vallée de Mai, Anse Marie-Louise) and Curieuse (Dogley and Matatiken 2006). These two islands have a total area of 41 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). Historically, the species was also known from Round, St. Pierre and  Chauve-Souris (Dogley and&#160; Matatiken 2006). It is planted on several other granitic islands, but these  stands cannot be counted as naturalized. It occurs at less than six locations and the EOO is estimated to be less than 100 km² (maybe even less than 50 km²).
38602		habitat	eng	This palm can be found on almost all soil types though it is confined to hill slopes and valleys. It grows best in forests on deep valley soils with good drainage. In such locations it forms the canopy species in almost pure stands of forest or mixed stands with other palms, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Deckenia nobilis</span> and screw pines <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus hornei</span>. Undergrowth is limited by the lack of light and the thick leaf litter. Epiphytes such as lichens are found in tiny crevices in the bark. Ferns grow around the inflorescence in the crown of the tree. The endemic fauna associated are the Black Parrot (<span style="font-style: italic;">Coracopsis nigra barklyi</span>) the Seychelles Bulbul (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypsipetes crassirostris</span>), and three Gecko species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma sunbergi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma asiatica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailuronyx sechellensis</span>. Among the Seychelles snails only one, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pachnodus praslinus</span>, is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Lodoicea</span> forest. The complex interactions between the palm and the fauna are yet to be discovered.
38602		population	eng	The population consists of a total of 8,282 mature individuals, of which most are found within three subpopulations (1,440 individuals in the Vallée de Mai, 1,380 individuals in Fond Ferdinand, 1,750 individuals on Curieuse). Some individuals are also found scattered across Praslin. The reduction in population size is estimated to be more than 30% over the last three generations. The reduction is based on the decline in area of occupancy and is not clearly reversible. Most of the areas previously occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">L. maldivica</span> were degraded at  one point in time by fire. As a result, there has been a loss in the quality of its habitat in parts of its range. This applies especially for Curieuse and is to date very  obvious. Parallel to loss in quality habitat, infrastructure development  has taken place on Praslin in areas, which were once occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">L.  maldivica</span>. The actual or potential levels of exploitation combined with the effects  of introduced taxa like pathogens, pollutants or parasites can not be  quantified, although figures on seed collection are available which  indicate that the amount of nuts harvested has more than doubled in the  past 11 years. This clearly confirms that actual exploitation has been intensified. At the same time efforts to ensure new recruitment have been very limited for a range of different reasons including poaching. Therefore, in a worst-case scenario, a population size reduction of more than 30% can be suspected within a maximum of 100 years if the actual level of exploitation is continued and for example an invasive pathogen is accidentally introduced.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
38602		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are harvesting and poaching, fires (human induced and wildfires), infrastructure development and introduced taxa (such as pathogens and parasites). Its restricted range, slow growth rate, limited dispersal ability and poor recruitment are other threats to this species.<br/><br/>Current levels of utilisation are thought to be unsustainable and  illegal harvesting of kernels is a significant additional threat (Rist <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
38603		conservation	eng	It occurs within Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.
38603		distribution	eng	Monotypic genus.
38603		habitat	eng	A palm tree, occurring in moist closed forest between 300 and 742 m.
38603		threats	eng	This monotypic genus is present within the national ornamental trade and the seeds are used locally as a betel nut substitute.
38604		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-east New Caledonia.
38604		habitat	eng	The species occurs in wet montane forest or gallery forest on schistose rocks.
38605		distribution	eng	This solitary species is known only from a single site near Maroantsetra.
38605		habitat	eng	Upland swamp in a valley bottom between 400 and 450 m.
38606		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Madagascar. Despite its wide distribution, ranging from Marojejy to Andohahela, the size of individual subpopulations are small. The total number of individuals is estimated at less than 2,000.
38606		habitat	eng	Inhabiting rainforest on ridge tops or steep slopes.
38606		threats	eng	Harvesting of the palm heart continues.
38607		distribution	eng	A relatively newly described species, currently known only from the Ifanandiana area.
38607		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforest on sandy/quartz soils between 450 and 550 m.
38607		threats	eng	The forest and the subpopulations in this small area are steadily disappearing because of shifting cultivation.
38608		distribution	eng	This endemic palm is known only from Marojejy, Masoala and Mananara. The number of individuals in all known sites is low.
38608		habitat	eng	Inhabiting lowland rainforest on dry hillside or swampy valley bottoms, occasionally on ultramafic soils.
38609		distribution	eng	Widespread but uncommon, this species is found in the Amazon region.
38609		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland forest.
38610		distribution	eng	A palm tree endemic to Ponape and Truk in the Caroline Islands. Areas are remote and unattractive for settlement.
38610		habitat	eng	This scarce species is found in moist forest up to 550 m in mountainous areas.
38611		distribution	eng	This species has a very large, widely distributed population.
38612		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-east New Caledonia.
38612		habitat	eng	The species occurs in wet forest on schistose soils between 500 and 800 m.
38613		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viti Levu, in Naitasiri Province. It is the only species in the genus.
38613		habitat	eng	The species is reduced to a small area of secondary forest.
38613		threats	eng	Over the past few decades the decline in population numbers has been rapid as the habitat has been logged and cleared for cultivation of commercial crops, such as bananas.
38614		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected (Laws of Seychelles 1991) and occurs in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks, and St Anne and Curieuse Marine National Park.
38614		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, where it occurs on at least ten islands. It is currently known from Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Curieuse, St. Anne, Cerf, Moyenne, Conception and Therese (Robertson 1989, Hill 2002, L. Chong Seng pers. comm.). It can be suspected that the species occurs on even more islands (except the extremely small and very dry islands) (J. Mougal pers. comm. 2006). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy were not determined, but the total area of these 10 islands is 233 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>In a survey in 1994 the species was found in 48 sites of total 73 surveyed areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This indicates its rather wide intra-island distribution.
38614		habitat	eng	Erect, medium-seized palm tree, 5-13 m tall. It is rather common in open exposed rocky places, by the sides of shady streams and in forest at low and intermediate altitudes. The seeds are successfully dispersed by birds (Dogley and Matatiken 2006).
38614		population	eng	The current population size is unknown, but it surely exceeds 10,000 mature individuals. It is unlikely that there is a continuing decline. It was a common and abundant species on Mahé and Silhouette in 1942, while is was infrequent on Praslin (Vesey-Fitzgerald in Bailey 1942). Presently, it is locally very abundant in certain areas on Praslin such as Glacis Noir.
38614		threats	eng	The favoured habitat is the low and intermediate altitude. The quality of these habitats is strongly affected by alien invasive species and developments for human settlement.
38615		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Nature Conservancy Act (Queensland) 1994.
38615		distribution	eng	Restricted to north-east Queensland.
38615		habitat	eng	An ornamental palm tree of coastal rainforest up to 300 m.
38615		threats	eng	This uncommon species is in decline because of land clearance.
38616		distribution	eng	Endemic Colombian palm found in Amazonas. The species is restricted to two remote localities, where few pressures are evident.
38616		habitat	eng	Lowland scrub, often in white sand areas or on rocky outcrops.
38617		distribution	eng	The species is known only from one location in a remote area of north-western Amazonia.
38617		habitat	eng	A palm of lowland rainforest, bordering areas of white sand.
38618		distribution	eng	Known only from an undisturbed remote area in the north-west Amazon.
38618		habitat	eng	An understorey species of lowland rainforest.
38619		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
38619		habitat	eng	A palm tree of the wet lowland.
38620		distribution	eng	Confined to the island of Negros.
38620		habitat	eng	A species of primary forest at low to medium elevations.
38621		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mindoro.
38621		habitat	eng	A primary forest species.
38622		distribution	eng	A rare palm endemic to Madagascar, known only in the north-west and east.
38622		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and submontane rainforest between 40 and 550 m.
38623		distribution	eng	This Madagascan endemic is known only from three sites in the north-east. The total population is estimated to consist of 500 individuals.
38623		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38624		distribution	eng	The subpopulation in West Java has been reduced to fewer than 200 individuals in a single locality. The species is extinct in Singapore.
38624		habitat	eng	This palm tree is confined to coastal rainforest up to 200 m.
38625		distribution	eng	Fewer than 50 individuals are known from three locations, all of which are under threat of destruction.
38625		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38626		conservation	eng	Although local communities are concerned about the species' conservation and two subpopulations are now contained within a protected area at El Palmar, no research or action has been taken to deal with the lack of regeneration.
38626		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Bolivian Andes.
38626		habitat	eng	The species is scattered in dry forest on steep rocky slopes between 2,400 and 3,400 m in inter-Andean valleys.
38626		threats	eng	There is little evidence of regeneration: most stands almost completely lack seedlings and juveniles.
38627		distribution	eng	A monotypic palm genus restricted to Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas.
38627		habitat	eng	It grows in rainforest at 40 m.
38627		threats	eng	The main threats are grazing by feral pigs and land clearance for agriculture and human habitation.
38628		conservation	eng	Present in Morne Seychellois Curieuse Marine National Park, St. Anne and Praslin National Parks. The species is protected by the Breadfruit and other Trees (protection) Act.
38628		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species occurs on the eight islands: Mahé, Praslin Silhouette, La Digue, Frégate, Curieuse, Félicité and St. Anne (Robertson 1989, Matatiken and Dogley 2006). These islands have a total area of 235 km<sup>2</sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The extant of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>The species is able to establish itself in different habitat types from deep forests to rocky outcrop areas. In a survey in 1994 it was found in 56 out of 73 areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This indicates is wide distribution.
38628		habitat	eng	Understory tree in forests at low and intermediate altitudes. Colonizes bare eroded ground where drought is severe and able to establish on rocky outcrops. Frequently associates with <span style="font-style: italic;">Lodoicea maldivica</span> on Praslin and Curieuse.
38628		population	eng	In 1942, this species was said to be the most abundant of the endemic Seychelles palms (Bailey 1942). This is still thought to be the case (Carlström 1996). It is also used for rehabilitation of degraded areas. The leaves of this species are used for thatching (Carlström 1996), but it seems that this practice does not reduce the population size. The species is able to establish itself in different habitat  types from deep forests to rocky outcrop areas. There is no continuing  decline observable, as the species reproduces  extremely well in most  areas (Carlström 1996). In areas with closed  canopy it is also able to  compete with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> (Fleischmann  1999).
38628		threats	eng	The species seems to face no threat that cannot be balanced by its natural regeneration. The most severe threat is loss of habitat in lower areas due to construction activities. An additional threat is the use of the leaves for thatching of roofs. The extent of usage is not known but it does not seem to affect the population size.
38629		distribution	eng	Occurring in the lower Himalayas Mts.
38629		habitat	eng	A small palm tree of rocky slopes up to 450 m.
38629		threats	eng	Increasing settlement of the area is the main threat.
38630		conservation	eng	The largest subpopulation is protected under Greek law.
38630		distribution	eng	On Crete, there are eight subpopulations; the largest contains a few thousand individuals. Four subpopulations are known in Turkey.
38630		habitat	eng	A palm tree found in the sandy beds of temporary streams up to 250 m.
38631		distribution	eng	Peninsular Malaysia.
38631		habitat	eng	Restricted to swamp forest.
38631		threats	eng	This palm tree is threatened by rapid habitat conversion for agriculture and urbanisation.
38632		distribution	eng	Restricted to Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.
38632		habitat	eng	A palm tree of swamp forest up to 500 m.
38632		threats	eng	Most of the swamp forests are subject to forest conversion and forestry activities.
38633		habitat	eng	A palm tree found in gullies and on lower hill slopes in damp shaded forests between 200 and 700 m.
38634		distribution	eng	Endemic to Vanuatu. It is regenerating well.
38634		habitat	eng	This palm tree occurs in rainforest and mossy cloud forest between 200 and 1,000 m.
38635		distribution	eng	Small subpopulations exist on mountain summits, such as Mt. Kambalau, Mt. Mariko, Mt. Seatura and Mt. Sori on Vanua Levu. There are also a few plants on Taveuni.
38635		threats	eng	Some areas are affected by logging.
38636		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are taking place, and a recent project on the sustainable use of the seeds has resulted in local awareness of the importance of the species and its protection.
38636		distribution	eng	Large subpopulations remain along some rivers on the Pacific coast of Colombia.
38636		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland rainforest.
38636		threats	eng	Seeds are used for vegetable ivory, which is traded at a minor international level.
38638		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Colombia.
38638		habitat	eng	Found in lowland moist forest on alluvial soils.
38638		threats	eng	Subpopulations have been severely decimated by agriculture and are now restricted to only a few rivers.  The species has a variety of uses as a food, thatching and as a source of vegetable ivory. Utilization and trade continue at local and minor international levels.
38639		distribution	eng	Found in Colombia and Peru.  Although known from a small number of collections, its range is relatively wide and includes large areas of undisturbed forest.
38639		habitat	eng	A small palm of lowland and premontane rainforest.
38640		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Guyana Highlands.
38640		habitat	eng	This palm tree grows in cloud forest between 1,200 and 2,000 m.
38641		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
38641		distribution	eng	Confined to an area stretching from South Kona to Punaluu. About 60 trees are known in the wild, although some of these might be aboriginal.
38641		habitat	eng	This tree is scattered in lowland open forest on the leeward coast and in inland gulches.
38641		threats	eng	Severe damage is caused by rats and pigs.  Regeneration is limited.
38642		distribution	eng	Two individuals are confined to Kaali Cliff on Niihau Island.
38642		habitat	eng	Dry scrub.
38643		distribution	eng	Restricted to Kumoa Valley, Lanai Island, the species was not found during a 1992 survey of the vicinity. The taxonomy is questionable.
38644		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are recovering well in areas where feral pigs have been eradicated.
38644		distribution	eng	Restricted to Mount 'Eke in the Honokohau drainage basin in west Maui.
38644		habitat	eng	A palm tree of wet montane open forest.
38645		distribution	eng	A very small palm tree, known only from Iao Needle in Maui.
38645		habitat	eng	Restricted to moist open forest and scrubland at about 550 m.
38645		threats	eng	Damage is caused by feral pigs, rats and goats and competitive pressure is exerted by invasive plants such as <em>Rubus rosifolius</em>.
38646		distribution	eng	Found along the Powerline Trail on Kauai Island. Only 30 individuals are known in the wild and regeneration is limited.
38646		habitat	eng	A small palm tree, up to 5 m high, scattered in wet open forest between 500 and 750 m along.
38647		conservation	eng	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
38647		distribution	eng	Fewer than 130 individuals are known from five subpopulations in the central and north-central Waianae Mountains.
38647		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland moist forest on slopes and cliffs between 450 and 980 m.
38647		threats	eng	Regeneration is by seed predation by rats and goats.
38648		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Kohala Mts. on Oahu Island.
38648		habitat	eng	This small palm tree occurs in dense rainforest on a flat, boggy plateau between 1,000 and 2,000 m.
38648		threats	eng	Subpopulations are in decline and there is limited regeneration. Habitat degradation caused by pigs is the major threat to the species.
38649		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities near the northern shore of Molokai Island.
38649		habitat	eng	This small palm tree is not regenerating well because of seed predation by rats, pigs and goats.
38650		conservation	eng	A fence has been erected to keep feral pigs and goats out of the immediate area. The species is listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act.
38650		distribution	eng	A single wild tree remains on the leeward side of Molokai Island. A second immature individual may exist.
38650		habitat	eng	Dry shrubland.
38651		conservation	eng	A few trees exist within an enclosure but the fence is not secure. The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.
38651		distribution	eng	Found along the Napali coast. Fewer than 90 individuals are left in the wild.
38651		habitat	eng	A palm tree of moist lowland forest.
38651		threats	eng	Regeneration is limited, mainly as a result of seed predation by rats and goats.
38652		conservation	eng	The species is proposed for listing under the US Endangered Species Act.
38652		distribution	eng	Known from only two populations containing approximately 680 individuals.
38652		habitat	eng	A palm tree of dry lowland scrub.
38652		threats	eng	The area is apparently free from feral animal.
38653		distribution	eng	Only 12 individuals in three subpopulations remain in the wild on Hawaii.
38653		habitat	eng	Areas of lowland moist forest between 600 and 800 m.
38653		threats	eng	The remaining trees are threatened by seed predation, grazing and agriculture.
38654		conservation	eng	It is widely cultivated.
38654		distribution	eng	An important ornamental palm which is confined to the Lau Group in eastern Fiji.
38654		habitat	eng	The species is locally abundant on limestone soils.
38655		distribution	eng	Restricted to the windward side of Kauai Island. Only two wild trees were known until recently, when two more were discovered; one of which has been harvested.
38655		habitat	eng	A palm tree of open wet forest between 500 and 700 m.
38655		threats	eng	Hurricane Iniki caused a decline in the population. The current threat is seed predation by rats, pigs and humans.
38656		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kauai Island.
38656		habitat	eng	This palm tree is scattered in wet lowland open forest between 450 and 800 m.
38656		threats	eng	It is threatened by seed predation by rats.
38657		distribution	eng	Endemic to Nggela Island. There is some indication that the taxon represents a form of <em>P. pacifica</em>.
38657		habitat	eng	This palm tree occurs in moist open forest up to 20 m.
38658		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the south-west.
38658		habitat	eng	Grows on a steep slope on serpentine soils at 200 m.
38659		distribution	eng	Barahona Peninsula. The population has been depleted by the previous felling of trees for the production of palm wine.
38659		habitat	eng	This palm tree is restricted to dry lowland scrub.
38659		threats	eng	Present threats are grazing and agriculture.
38660		distribution	eng	Found in the south-west peninsula. In 1989 only 30 trees were found in the wild.
38660		habitat	eng	A rare palm tree restricted to dry scrub in river valleys.
38660		threats	eng	Locally the fruit is fed to livestock.
38662		distribution	eng	Confined to New Ireland and New Britain.
38662		habitat	eng	This palm tree is scattered in rainforest on both limestone and volcanic soils. This species can survive in open vegetation or in secondary forest if it is allowed to regenerate.
38662		threats	eng	Subpopulations have declined because of rapid and extensive deforestation for plantation agriculture.
38663		distribution	eng	A taxonomically unique species, restricted to eastern New Britain.
38663		habitat	eng	Palm tree of lowland forest.
38663		threats	eng	Rapid and extensive deforestation for plantation agriculture has caused population decline.
38664		distribution	eng	A palm known from two recently identified localities. One subpopulation contains up to 40 trees with trunks, 100 young trees without trunks and several seedlings.
38664		habitat	eng	Lowland moist forest on ultramafic soil.
38665		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic confined to the area between Marojejy Mountains and Ifanadiana. Subpopulation numbers at each site are low.
38665		habitat	eng	Moist forest.
38665		threats	eng	Subpopulations at Ifanadiana are under threat of destruction.
38666		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic confined to the centre and south. The status of subpopulations in Andringitra is unknown, no collections having been made there since 1922. Elsewhere it is known only from Isalo, where the subpopulation size is estimated to be made up of a few hundred individuals.
38666		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
38667		distribution	eng	Confined to the islands of Grand Comore, Moheli and Anjouan. No collections have been made for a considerable time.
38667		habitat	eng	The species is considered endangered because all forest in the Comoros Islands is under severe threat.
38668		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to east Madagascar between Mananara Avaratra and Vangaindran. The population numbers are very low: fewer than 50 trees have been counted. The more southern localities, where most of the trees are found, are rapidly being destroyed.
38668		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist lowland forest.
38668		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
38669		distribution	eng	An endemic palm found only in one site at Andohahela in Madagascar. There are approximately 60 individuals at this site.
38669		habitat	eng	Submontane moist forest.
38670		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of eastern Madagascar, occurring between Andasibe and Vangaindrano. The species is found in a very limited number of sites. The two more southerly subpopulations contain fewer than 20 trunked trees.
38670		habitat	eng	Moist lowland forest on slight mid-slopes or ridge crests.
38670		threats	eng	Several of the sites are being rapidly destroyed. The subpopulation at Mantady consists of pruned rosettes as a result of the harvesting of the young leaves for fibre.
38672		distribution	eng	Confined to Andasibe in Madagascar. There are fewer than 25 individuals with trunks and rejuvenation is minimal.
38672		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist forest on a steep slope near the crest between 800 and 1,000 m.
38672		threats	eng	The population exists outside the protected area.
38673		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is protected in Mantady National Park.
38673		distribution	eng	An endemic of central and east Madagascar. The species is fairly widespread and in some areas locally common.
38673		habitat	eng	Inhabiting moist to dry hill forest on steep slopes or hill crests between 25 and 1,700 m.
38674		distribution	eng	Only two female palm trees are known from a patch of forest last seen in October 1993.
38674		habitat	eng	Secondary submontane rainforest.
38675		distribution	eng	A true water palm, endemic to south Madagascar. The population consists of about 450 trees.
38675		habitat	eng	It inhabits flowing water to a depth of 0.5-2.5 m along a single river.
38675		threats	eng	This aquatic environment is very changeable and the palm is somewhat exposed and vulnerable.
38676		distribution	eng	A palm confined to eastern Madagascar, between Marojejy and Andohahela. The species is known only from three localities and has not been collected for 30 years.
38676		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane ericoid bush or forest on rocky sites on gneiss and quartzite.
38677		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of south-central Madagascar, confined to Mangoky and Onilahy River Valleys. Only two subpopulations are known.
38677		habitat	eng	Occurring in shallow standing water, river banks and swampy valley bottoms.
38678		conservation	eng	The species is recorded in Ranomafana National Park, Marojejy, Manongarivo Reserve and at Analamazaotra.
38678		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic. Its occurrence, although widespread, ranging from Manongarivo to Marojejy and south to Andohahela, is not common.
38678		habitat	eng	Occurring in moist forest in valley bottoms near water or on hill crests up to 1,000 m.
38678		threats	eng	Trees continue to be cut within the reserves. If harvesting of palm heart and cutting for the timber continue at present rates, the status of the species may become threatened.
38679		distribution	eng	Occurring in north-west, west and east Madagascar.
38679		habitat	eng	The species is found in various habitats, such as littoral forest on white sand, dense moist forest, dry montane forest and riverine forest remnants
38679		threats	eng	Although widespread, the subpopulations are small and threatened by felling, exploitation of the palm heart and increasing settlement.
38680		distribution	eng	Known only from south Madagascar, between Ampanihy and Anpingaratra Mts. In recent studies two subpopulations have been located, consisting of 65 trunked trees and 80 seedlings.
38680		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry spiny bush or low dry forest on laterite or gneiss.
38680		threats	eng	Overgrazing is destroying the Tranoroa site.
38681		distribution	eng	Nicobar Island.
38681		habitat	eng	A palm tree of lowland forest in moist hill valleys and slopes.
38682		distribution	eng	Solomon Islands.
38682		habitat	eng	A primary forest palm tree found in moist lowland.
38683		conservation	eng	Healthy subpopulations exist in protected areas.
38683		distribution	eng	This species is common in south Peninsular Malaysia and in the remnant forests of Singapore.
38683		habitat	eng	Scattered in lowland rainforest.
38683		threats	eng	Outside the parks, subpopulations are subject to forestry activities and are becoming locally extinct.
38684		conservation	eng	The Norfolk Island Group is a World Heritage Site.
38684		distribution	eng	National park on Norfolk Island.
38684		habitat	eng	This variety is now largely confined to rainforest.
38684		threats	eng	The species is widely cultivated and traded as an ornamental.
38685		conservation	eng	Raoul Island is a nature reserve.
38685		distribution	eng	This variety is abundant on Raoul Island of the Kermadec Group.
38685		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
38685		threats	eng	The species is widely cultivated and traded.
38686		habitat	eng	An ornamental palm tree found in lowland moist forest up to 400 m.
38687		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks and is legally protected (Laws of Seychelles 1991).
38687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs on Mahé, Praslin and Silhouette (Robertson 1989, Dogley and Matatiken 2006).  The extent of occurrence (EOO) was not determined, but the total area of the three islands is 216 km<sup>2</sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005). Important sites are Morne  Blanc, La Reserve and Congo Rouge on Mahé.
38687		habitat	eng	Erect, small to medium-sized palm with a single trunk, 5-8 m tall. Its fruits are probably dispersed by frugivores. The species is rather common in the under story of several  habitat  types (Carlström 1996). It is dominant in moist shaded forests  at  intermediate and higher altitude between 500 to 900 m on Mahé  (Dogley and Matatiken 2006).
38687		population	eng	The current population size is unknown, but most likely exceeds 10,000 mature individuals. The species is rather common in the under story of several  habitat types (Carlström 1996).<br/>A past decline of the population can be suspected,   but quantification is not possible as it is still relatively   wide distributed in different habitat types. It is not adequate to   assume that a future decline caused by habitat quality loss through   invasive species will exceed 30% population reduction.
38687		threats	eng	The main threats to this species a its restricted range and a decline in the quality of its habitat due to spreading invasive alien species.
38688		distribution	eng	Confined to Guantánamo province. This species is difficult to distinguish from the common <em>R. regia</em>.
38688		habitat	eng	This early pioneer palm tree occurs in lowland open forest and anthropic landscapes between 350 and 420 m.
38689		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Great Morass region of western Jamaica. Two main subpopulations exist, covering an area of less than 400 km². The total population size is unknown but estimated at between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals.
38689		habitat	eng	An early pioneer which occurs in wetland areas below 10 m.
38689		threats	eng	Increasing settlement and the decline in soil water content are the main threats.
38690		distribution	eng	Confined to Yagruma Terrace in the Maisí region of Cuba. No trees were found in 1990 during a search of the area.
38690		habitat	eng	This palm tree occurs in lowland open forest.
38690		threats	eng	For the last four decades, its preferred habitat has been converted to coffee plantations.
38691		conservation	eng	Natural stands are protected under the Tree Preservation Orders and the Woodland Preservation Orders.
38691		distribution	eng	The largest subpopulation is in Paget Marsh.
38691		habitat	eng	An endemic species confined to the few remaining patches of lowland dry or marshy scrub.
38691		threats	eng	This ornamental palm tree is widely cultivated and traded internationally.
38692		distribution	eng	A palm confined to the Yucatán Peninsula.
38692		habitat	eng	Inhabiting open disturbed herbaceous vegetation on sandy soils at low elevations.
38692		threats	eng	It is used locally as a source of timber, food, fibre and thatching.
38693		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Mexico confined to the Balsas Valley.
38693		habitat	eng	Found on sandy soils in the transition zone between tropical deciduous forest and oak forest.
38693		threats	eng	Increasing agriculture is causing habitat loss.
38694		distribution	eng	An endemic palm of Mexico, confined to the Sierra Madre Occidental.
38694		habitat	eng	Scattered in thorn forest and oak forest along watercourses.
38695		conservation	eng	A reserve has been set up to protect the subpopulations on Ishigaki Island.
38695		distribution	eng	A palm tree endemic to Ishigaki Island and Iriomote Island in the southern Ryukyus.
38696		distribution	eng	Endemic to Manara Biosphere Reserve. A single population is known, consisting of 30 trunked trees, 40 immature individuals and many seedlings.
38696		habitat	eng	The species inhabits moist forest on shallow soils, overlying ultramafic rock.
38697		distribution	eng	An ornamental palm tree restricted to Mountain Pine Ridge and Cayo District.
38697		habitat	eng	Scattered in open and closed dry forest up to 500 m.
38697		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction and encroachment by agriculture and forestry.
38698		habitat	eng	A tree of Atlantic coastal rainforest.
38698		threats	eng	The species responds badly to forest clearance. Seed production and seedling survival decline outside forest areas.
38699		distribution	eng	Confined to Serra da Diamantina of Minas Gerais. Population numbers are declining at an alarming rate. Only a few small trees remain and mature individuals are almost completely absent from certain rocky areas. There is evidence that adult palms have been collected, possibly transplanted into cultivation.
38699		habitat	eng	A small palm tree of cerrado and campo rupestre on rocky outcrops.
38700		distribution	eng	It is particularly rare in Espírito Santo. No large subpopulations are known.
38700		habitat	eng	The species is confined to Atlantic coastal forest.
38700		threats	eng	Trees are so sparsely scattered that outcrossing may be seriously limited.
38701		distribution	eng	Confined to the Serra do Mar.
38701		habitat	eng	This pioneer tree grows in Atlantic coastal rainforest between 300 and 500 m.  The survival of certain subpopulations is safeguarded by their location in inaccessible localities on igneous and metamorphic rock faces.
38702		distribution	eng	Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo.
38702		habitat	eng	Endemic to Atlantic forest, this palm tree is found at sea level in the south but only in the mountains up to 900 m in the north.  Stands are found on good-quality soils and also rocky outcrops on steep slopes with less agricultural value.
38703		distribution	eng	South-eastern Brazil.  It is distributed in an area which is unattractive for agriculture and pastoralism.
38703		habitat	eng	A palm tree, endemic to Atlantic forest between 100 and 400 m.
38703		threats	eng	The only threat is fire.
38704		distribution	eng	A widespread palm of the north-western Amazon region.
38705		conservation	eng	In French Guiana one of these sites is in Las Neuragus Nature Reserve.
38705		distribution	eng	A palm tree that occurs in fewer than 10 localities in the Guianas.
38705		habitat	eng	Granite outcrops in low transitional moist forest.
38705		threats	eng	Fire and poor regeneration are the principal threats.
38706		habitat	eng	The species remains in upland areas, occurring between 570 and 650 m.
38706		threats	eng	Regeneration is hampered by the invasion of alien weeds and by seed predation.
38707		distribution	eng	Only a single wild population is known, in Las Villas. Fewer than 100 mature individuals remain and regeneration is poor.
38707		habitat	eng	Seasonal scrub.
38708		distribution	eng	Restricted to Oriente and Sierra de Moa.
38708		habitat	eng	A palm of wet savannah or wooded areas near streams up to 20 m.
38708		threats	eng	The region of Cuba is attracting increasing settlement.
38709		distribution	eng	Restricted to Oriente and Sierra de Moa.
38709		habitat	eng	A palm of wet savanna or wooded areas near streams up to 20 m.
38709		threats	eng	The region is attracting increasing settlement.
38710		distribution	eng	Occurs in southern Brazil.  Subpopulations in Paraná are under considerable threat but the status of subpopulations in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina is not known.
38710		habitat	eng	A palm tree of Atlantic rainforest.
38713		distribution	eng	Although the species is not frequent, it occurs fairly widely on most of the major Fijian islands.
38714		distribution	eng	Very large subpopulations are found throughout Espiritu Santo, Malakula and Pentecost.
38714		habitat	eng	This palm tree is found in rainforest on volcanic soils over limestone substrate.
38715		distribution	eng	Only a small population of this palm species exists, on Vanua Lava.
38715		habitat	eng	Scattered in rainforest on basalt between 400 and 1,000 m.
38716		distribution	eng	Confined to Efaté Island. Only small subpopulations remain.
38716		habitat	eng	An ornamental palm tree, scattered in lowland rainforest at 350 m.
38716		threats	eng	Land clearance for expanding agriculture, forestry and settlement has caused a decline in this species.
38719		distribution	eng	Endemic to Vanua Levu and Taveuni, the species occurs in small subpopulations.
38719		habitat	eng	Dense forest between 300 and 600 m.
38719		threats	eng	Some areas have been logged or cleared for agriculture.
38720		distribution	eng	Endemic to Aneityum and Futuna Islands. A subpopulation with thousands of mature plants was discovered recently in eastern Ameityum.
38720		habitat	eng	This palm tree is abundant in lowland rainforest up to 400 m.
38721		distribution	eng	Small subpopulations occur on the islands of Viti Levu, Kandavu, Ovalau and Beqa.
38721		habitat	eng	Dense or open forest up to 900 m
38722		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park and in the Praslin National Park. It is legally protected by the Breadfruit and other Trees (protection) Act.
38722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. It only occurs on three islands: Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin (Robertson 1989, Matatiken and Dogley 2006) with a total area of 216 km<sup>2</sup> (National Statistics Bureau 2005). It occurs from near sea level up to 850 m and is common above 300 m.
38722		habitat	eng	Canopy or under story palm tree in moist forest, on steep hillsides and ledges, from near sea level to 850 m becoming scarcer at the highest altitudes. Rare below 300 m except in river valleys. It  appears to reproduce well in wet shady places in forests (Carlström  1996).
38722		population	eng	No data on the population size is available. It is possible that the total population size exceeds 10,000 mature individuals. In a survey in 1994, the species was found in 35 out  of 73 areas of special conservation value (Carlström 1996). This  indicates that this species is quite well distributed on the islands.  The fruits are dispersed by birds (Dogley and Matatiken 2006). As the  species occurs only on three islands it is questionable if there is  successful exchange of propagules between the islands.
38722		threats	eng	The main threats are the restricted range and alien invasive species causing habitat alteration. It appears to reproduce well in wet shady places in forests (Carlström  1996). In less shady places invasion of introduced species is in  general more severe (affecting habitat quality), which can affect  reproduction success. In the lower altitudes, where the species is rare,  there is a habitat loss due to human settlement. On Praslin, fires are an additional threat.
38723		distribution	eng	A Madagascan endemic on the Masoala Peninsula. Fewer than 10 trees are known to exist in the wild.
38723		habitat	eng	Inhabiting primary forest on gentle slopes at about 400 m.
38723		threats	eng	Deforestation and palm heart exploitation are the main threats. Unless effective protection can be given to areas of forest on the Masoala Peninsula and the trees are safeguarded against exploitation, the species is unlikely to survive.
38724		habitat	eng	A small palm of dense forest on humid soil.
38725		distribution	eng	An estimated 25,000 wild desert palm trees exist in the Sonoran Desert.
38725		habitat	eng	Found in about 116 seeps, springs and streams.
38725		threats	eng	The species is traded internationally as an ornamental.
38726		distribution	eng	Eastern slopes of the Andes.
38726		habitat	eng	This palm is found in rainforest and cloud forests.
38727		distribution	eng	This endemic Colombian is found on the Pacific slope of the Andes.
38727		habitat	eng	Palm of 3 to 6 m height which occurs abundantly in montane cloud forests.
38728		distribution	eng	Found in the north-west Amazon.
38728		habitat	eng	A widespread species of lowland rainforest.
38729		distribution	eng	Confined to the Andes and particularly abundant along the western slopes of the western Cordillera, where large areas of forest still remain.  Subpopulations of smaller trees in the northern part of the range are at some risk.
38729		habitat	eng	A montane rainforest palm.
38730		distribution	eng	This endemic Colombian is found in the valleys of Río Magdalena and Río Sinu.
38730		habitat	eng	Palm tree of between 4 and 12 m in height found in lowland and montane rainforest.
38730		threats	eng	Much of the forest is fragmented in the middle Magdalena Valley because of encroaching agriculture and the species has become scarce here.
38731		distribution	eng	Found in the Andes. It is abundant along the western slope of the Western Cordillera in Colombia, where large areas of forest still remain.
38731		habitat	eng	Palm tree found in lowland and montane cloud forest.
38731		threats	eng	The timber is used locally for construction work.
38732		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
38732		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the Cordillera de Cutucú, Morona-Santiago province, Ecuador. No additional subpopulations were found in the range in 1995, suggesting the species is highly localised.
38732		habitat	eng	A montane rainforest (low Andean forest) tree up to 6 m high, that occurs at 1,500–2,000 m.
38732		threats	eng	The principal threat to this poorly-known species is deforestation in areas close to the cordillera.
38733		conservation	eng	The entire population is protected within the Cape Melville National Park, where it appears to be regenerating well. The species is listed in the Nature Conservation Act (Queensland) 1994.
38733		distribution	eng	Confined to the Melville range, Cape York Peninsula.
38733		habitat	eng	A canopy tree of open woodland between 50 and 400 m.
38735		distribution	eng	Occurring over a wide altitudinal range, the species is relatively common on the Pacific slopes of Costa Rica, in all mountain areas of Panama and in the Chocó in Colombia. Almost all localities in Panama are in areas of minimal human impact.
38736		distribution	eng	Common in Darién National Park and the Canal area in Panama, and also occurring at the beginning of the Andes in Peru and Colombia.
38736		habitat	eng	A species of lowland rainforest.
38737		distribution	eng	Currently only known to occur in the central region near Ambositra.
38737		habitat	eng	The species is found among rocks and in remnant of riverine forest between 1,300 and 1,500 m.
38740		distribution	eng	Confined to an area stretching from the upper Nannalli drainage gulch to the Waialala gulch.
38740		habitat	eng	A palm of lowland mesic shrubland.
38740		threats	eng	No regeneration has been observed and the species is suffering from seed predation by rats and deer.
38741		distribution	eng	Fewer than 100 individuals of this palm tree are known from Limuhuli Valley, Kauai.
38741		habitat	eng	Lowland moist forest.
38741		threats	eng	Regeneration is limited, mainly because of seed predation by rats and pigs.
38742		distribution	eng	Fewer than 500 individuals are scattered in Waioli Valley on Kauai Island.
38742		habitat	eng	Moist lowland forest.
38742		threats	eng	Regeneration is poor because of seed predation by rats and pigs.
38743		distribution	eng	Occurring along the southern coast of Mozambique, the species is reported to occur in large subpopulations in dry forest. Regeneration is good and there is no reason to suspect population declines.
38744		distribution	eng	A well-collected species, endemic to an area running the length of the Agastyamalai Hills.
38744		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38745		distribution	eng	This taxon is poorly recorded, known only from a single site in Wynaad near the border with Karnataka.
38745		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38746		distribution	eng	A poorly known tree from an imprecisely recorded localities on the border between Karnataka and Maharashtra.
38747		conservation	eng	The species is protected by its inaccessible location. The supply of plants and seeds in the nursery trade appear to be abundant.
38747		distribution	eng	Coastal areas of Coron, Palawan Island.
38747		habitat	eng	A palm tree occurring in open forest on steep limestone slopes in coastal areas.
38748		distribution	eng	Occurrences are sparsely scattered; three records have been made in the Agastyamalai Hills and three from sites further north, including the Nilgiri Hills and the Karnataka and Kerala border.
38748		habitat	eng	A poorly known species, which occurs in the understorey of stunted evergreen forest between 900 and 1,600 m.
38749		distribution	eng	A poorly collected species, known from a few scattered localities. In Kerala records have been made to the north of the Agastyamalai Hills, near Trissur, and in the Vavulmalai Hills. A single collection also originates from central Karnataka.
38749		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
38750		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38750		distribution	eng	A medium-sized tree collected only from a small area in the Agastyamalai Hills on the Kerala/Tamil Nadu border.
38750		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
38750		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38751		distribution	eng	Known from sparse collections from the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38751		habitat	eng	An understorey tree from submontane evergreen forest.
38752		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in suitable habitats of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
38752		distribution	eng	Recorded from western Ecuador in the provinces of Azuay, Esmeraldas and Pichincha. <br/>.
38752		habitat	eng	A small palm tree up to 3 m in height, occurring in moist forest and cloud forest (humid coastal forest to low Andean forest) between 300 and 2,100 m.
38752		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
38753		distribution	eng	Confined to the Western Ghats within an area stretching from the Nilgiri Hills to a site at the north of Shencottah, this understorey tree has been rarely collected.
38753		habitat	eng	Scattered sites within submontane evergreen forest.
38754		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only twice from a small area to the north-west of the Nilgiri range.
38754		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
38755		habitat	eng	A palm of the Atlantic rainforest, occurring up to 1,000 m.
38755		threats	eng	The species is able to survive forest clearance, but reappears in a shorter shrubbier form, which is doubtfully capable of reproduction. Cattle too tend to avoid it.
38756		distribution	eng	Known from scattered occurrences in the Western Ghats between Anamalai and Travancore.
38756		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
38757		distribution	eng	Endemic to Atlantic coastal forest, the species occurs between 50 and 800 m.
38757		habitat	eng	Atlantic coastal forest.
38757		threats	eng	Over-exploitation of the leaves as building materials and grazing has apparently caused a decline in reproductive potential. Germination is poor in full sun.
38758		distribution	eng	A poorly collected species, reported from a few scattered locations.
38758		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38759		distribution	eng	Known from a few reports and even fewer herbarium specimens, the species occurs in scattered locations in the Western Ghats.
38759		habitat	eng	In low to medium altitude forest.
38760		distribution	eng	Two collections of the species have been gathered from widely separated localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38760		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
38761		distribution	eng	Collected only once in the Bababudan range.
38761		habitat	eng	A small tree of stunted montane forest.
38762		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest is now under protection within sanctuaries.
38762		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the Agastymalai range.
38762		habitat	eng	An understorey tree in submontane evergreen forest.
38762		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38763		distribution	eng	Recorded only a few times, the species occurs in scattered localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38763		habitat	eng	Low to medium elevation evergreen forest.
38764		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, the species occurs on the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border.
38764		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
38765		distribution	eng	Occurring in two main areas: in the west of the Nilgiri range and in the Anaimalai range. Only a few collections are known.
38765		habitat	eng	A species of submontane evergreen forest.
38766		distribution	eng	Known from two collections, this variety appears to be endemic to the Travancore range.
38766		habitat	eng	Occurring in submontane evergreen forest.
38767		distribution	eng	Although relatively wide-ranging, the species is known from only a few collections.
38767		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
38768		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a single locality in the Nilgiris.
38768		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
38769		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only rarely from sites at medium elevation in southern Karnataka. It has also apparently been found in the Travancore range.
38769		habitat	eng	Occurring on forest margins.
38770		distribution	eng	A species which has been collected rarely from scattered localities along the coast and base of the Western Ghats.
38770		habitat	eng	A lowland forest species.
38771		distribution	eng	Travancore range. Since the type specimen was collected in the last century, a second record of the species has been made in an area close by.
38771		habitat	eng	This variety is sympatric with var. <em>trijuga</em>, occurring in a small area of submontane forest .
38772		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, the species is located in the north of the Nilgiris.
38772		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane forest between 1,350 and 2,000 m.
38773		distribution	eng	Known from seven collections, the species occurs in scattered localities.
38773		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest at low to medium elevations.
38774		distribution	eng	Occurring in scattered localities in Wayanad and the Nilgiris with some outlying subpopulations further south.
38774		habitat	eng	A small tree of low to medium elevation evergreen forest.
38775		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38775		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38775		habitat	eng	This canopy tree occurs in a restricted area of submontane forest.
38775		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38776		distribution	eng	Collections are recorded from the Travancore range down to the Agastyamalai Hills and field data have identified further subpopulations to the south of the Nilgiris.
38776		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the lower storey of evergreen forest, mainly at low altitudes.
38777		distribution	eng	The type collection was taken from the Bababudan range. An occurrence has also been recorded from Wayanad in Kerala.
38777		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
38778		conservation	eng	About 1,000 km² of forest remain protected within sanctuaries.
38778		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38778		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the forest understorey at 1,400 m.
38778		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood
38779		distribution	eng	Known from three or four collections from scattered localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38779		habitat	eng	A tree of submontane forest.
38781		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species, recorded from a single unspecified locality.
38782		distribution	eng	A small tree known from a single collection.
38782		habitat	eng	Occurring in a restricted area of submontane forest.
38783		distribution	eng	Collected three or four times from three widely separated localities.
38783		habitat	eng	A poorly known species of submontane forest.
38784		distribution	eng	Rarely collected, the species occurs in widely scattered localities along the Western Ghats, from Kodachadri to the Agastyamalai Hills.
38784		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38785		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38785		distribution	eng	The species has been collected twice, only in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38785		habitat	eng	Forest between 1,200 and 1,350 m.
38785		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood
38786		distribution	eng	The species is known from only a few collections from scattered localities in Wayanad and the Nilgiris, the Palni Hills and Elamalai range.
38786		habitat	eng	Occurring in submontane forest.
38787		distribution	eng	A medium-sized tree, known only from the type collection near Shencottah.
38787		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38788		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Anamalai and Palni Hills.
38788		habitat	eng	Occurring from 1,000 to 2,500 m.
38789		distribution	eng	Apparently collected only twice, the species is known from two forest localities to the north and south of the Travancore range.
38790		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38790		distribution	eng	Collected only from the Agastyamalai range.
38790		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane forest.
38790		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38792		distribution	eng	A bushy species, restricted to two small populations in north-west Santa Cruz and Eden Islet.
38792		habitat	eng	Lowland scrub.
38792		threats	eng	The Santa Cruz population is subject to grazing by introduced goats, but there is no firm evidence of decline.
38793		conservation	eng	A fence is under construction to prevent access. A single plant has been raised in cultivation in the Galápagos and the vegetatively produced offspring of two other adults are growing in Copenhagen Botanical Garden.
38793		distribution	eng	A single population of three individuals exists in a crater on Santiago Island. In 1997, seven seedlings were also counted.
38793		threats	eng	The plants are subject to grazing by introduced goats.
38794		distribution	eng	Restricted to Pinzón Island.
38794		habitat	eng	The subspecies occurs in areas of open woodland and scrub which are free of introduced herbivores.
38794		threats	eng	As long as goats and other grazing animals are denied access to the island, the subpopulations are likely to remain stable.
38795		distribution	eng	Found on three of the Galápagos Islands. There is a single population on North Seymour, two on Baltra and several small populations on the north and east coasts of Santa Cruz.
38795		habitat	eng	Most typically a bush, the species is confined to areas of lowland scrub.
38795		threats	eng	There is no firm evidence of decline, despite the damage caused by introduced herbivores on Santa Cruz.
38796		distribution	eng	Restricted to the north-eastern half of San Cristóbal Island, the species, most typically occurring as a bush, has become scarce in areas where it was previously recorded as abundant.
38796		threats	eng	Introduced goats, the main cause of these population declines, continue to cause extensive damage to remaining stands.
38797		distribution	eng	Confined to the south-west coast of San Cristóbal Island, this bushy species occurs in a single population of 200 to 300 individuals, including all age groups.
38797		threats	eng	The area is susceptible to damage caused by introduced herbivores and also, to some extent, by tourism.
38798		conservation	eng	It is hoped that Santa Fé population will fully recover now that the animals have been eradicated from the island.
38798		distribution	eng	A bushy species, existing in two populations. The population on Santa Cruz Island is very low in numbers and confined to the south-east. There is some indication that this latter population actually represents a hybrid form between <em>helleri</em> and <em>retroflexa</em>.
38798		threats	eng	On Santa Fé Island, population numbers have been severely reduced by introduced goats. Goats also cause damage on Santa Cruz, but there is no firm evidence of population declines.
38799		conservation	eng	The species is used as a garden plant in Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz.
38799		distribution	eng	A bushy species, represented by several small subpopulations principally confined to the south-west coast of Santa Cruz Island, with a few individuals on La Fe Islet.
38799		threats	eng	Although the Santa Cruz populations are subject to damage by introduced goats, there is no firm evidence of a decline.
38800		distribution	eng	Endemic to San Cristóbal Island, this small tree is scattered in a restricted area in the east.
38800		threats	eng	Trees are subject to damage by introduced goats, but there is no firm evidence of a population decline.
38801		distribution	eng	Six small subpopulations occur within 6 ha on the south-east coast of Santa Cruz Island. About 4,600 plants, including 1,400 adults, are thought to exist.
38801		habitat	eng	Open forest and scrub.
38801		threats	eng	Although there is evidence of damage by introduced goats, there is no firm indication that the population is declining as a result.
38802		distribution	eng	This tree species is restricted to a sparsely vegetated area in the east of Santiago Island and to a population of fewer than 250 individuals on the neighbouring islet of Bartolomé.
38802		threats	eng	The Santiago localities are vulnerable to introduced goats, although no decline in population numbers has yet been documented.
38803		distribution	eng	Typically occurring as a bush, the species is found on Floreana Island and the islets of Champion, Enderby, Caldwell and Gardner-near-Floreana.
38803		threats	eng	The population on the main island is subject to damage by introduced goats, although no decline in numbers has yet been documented.
38804		distribution	eng	An uncommon species found in eastern and central Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola.
38804		habitat	eng	Dry evergreen forest.
38805		distribution	eng	Occurring in central and eastern parts of Cuba and in the province of Pinar del Río, and also Hispaniola.
38805		habitat	eng	A tree of montane rainforest and submontane semi-deciduous forest.
38805		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat from felling.
38806		distribution	eng	In Cuba this small tree is confined to the deeply eroded haystack mountain ranges of Pinar del Río Province and the Isla de Pinos.
38807		distribution	eng	This tree was formerly common in some areas throughout Cuba.
38807		habitat	eng	Lowland semi-deciduous forest.
38807		threats	eng	As a result of burning and grazing, the habitat has been largely replaced by secondary savannah.
38808		distribution	eng	Habana and Matanzas provinces. In the past this species was locally abundant.
38808		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree restricted in range to dry serpentine shrubwoods.
38808		threats	eng	Its habitat has declined considerably through urbanisation, agriculture and grazing.
38809		distribution	eng	A poorly known species which has been recorded just once from an unspecified locality in the Palni Hills.
38810		distribution	eng	An uncommon species, it is confined to the Moa Mountains.
38810		habitat	eng	This shrub rarely attains the size of a small tree. It is confined to coastal lowland serpentine shrubland.
38810		threats	eng	In some places the habitat is degraded.
38811		distribution	eng	Known from just two collections, the species occurs at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38811		habitat	eng	In submontane evergreen forest.
38812		distribution	eng	Probably also extending into Tamil Nadu, the species has only been collected from scattered localities in the Anamalai Hills. A single occurrence is also recorded further south nearer the Travancore range.
38812		threats	eng	Submontane forest.
38813		distribution	eng	Very poorly known and collected only once from North Kanara in Karnataka and once from an imprecise locality in the Wayanad area in Kerala.
38813		habitat	eng	A small tree of lowland evergreen forest.
38814		distribution	eng	In Cuba, where it is uncommon.
38814		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree up to 15 m tall, occurring in montane rainforest and cloud forest.
38815		distribution	eng	Collections have been made from areas along the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38815		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
38816		distribution	eng	Known from single records from three different locations at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38816		habitat	eng	An understorey tree of evergreen forest.
38817		distribution	eng	A small tree, known largely from field data and a few collections, occurring along the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border.
38817		habitat	eng	Submontane evergreen forest.
38818		distribution	eng	A shrub or small tree up to 8 m tall, endemic to western Cuba.
38818		habitat	eng	Coastal dry evergreen forest.
38818		threats	eng	Habitat declines have been great in the past decades; overcutting and clearing for urbanisation continue to be threats.
38819		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in the Agastyamalai Hills and from a less precisely located record in the Anaimalai range.
38819		habitat	eng	A relatively large tree of submontane evergreen forest.
38820		distribution	eng	Collected seven times, the species occurs in scattered localities in the Nilgiris, Anamalai and Palni Hills.
38820		habitat	eng	Montane forest, above 1,500 m.
38821		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in two separate localities on the border with Kerala, the species is poorly known but appears to be confined to the Agastyamalai Hills and Elamalai Hills.
38821		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
38822		distribution	eng	The main concentration of collections comes from the Agastyamalai Hills. A single collection has also been made in the Anaimalai Hills.
38822		habitat	eng	A medium-sized tree of submontane evergreen forest.
38823		distribution	eng	Known from an imprecisely recorded collection taken from North Kanara.
38823		habitat	eng	A tree of evergreen forest.
38824		distribution	eng	Endemic to a relatively small area in the north of Pinar del Río province in the Cajalbana range.
38824		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is confined to sclerophyllous evergreen scrub and woodland on serpentine-derived soils.
38825		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38825		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type collection  in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38825		habitat	eng	Montane forest.
38825		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38826		distribution	eng	A medium-sized tree, recorded from scattered localities in the Agastyamalai Hills and in two sites in the mountain ranges further north.
38826		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen forest between 700 and 1,500 m.
38827		conservation	eng	About 1,000 km² of forest remain protected within sanctuaries.
38827		distribution	eng	Recorded only rarely from scattered localities in the vicinity of the Agastyamalai Hills.
38827		habitat	eng	A species of lowland forest.
38827		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38828		distribution	eng	A small tree, currently known only from a single record from a locality at the base of the Nilgiris.
38829		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Nilgiris.
38829		habitat	eng	Occurring in montane forest above 1,900 m.
38830		distribution	eng	This species is known from a collection taken from a confined area in the Elamalai Hills and from an imprecisely recorded locality further south.
38830		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38831		distribution	eng	Occurring in the Nilgiris and in the Agastymalai Hills further south.
38831		habitat	eng	A small tree of montane forest.
38832		distribution	eng	A relatively large tree, which has only been recorded from a small locality in south Kerala.
38832		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
38833		distribution	eng	A small tree, recorded from scattered localities.
38833		habitat	eng	Lowland forest along the coast.
38834		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from a few collections between the Anaimalai Hills and the Travancore range.
38834		habitat	eng	Forest between 600 and 1,000 m.
38835		distribution	eng	A small tree, poorly collected but recorded from a few scattered localities from the Pushpagiri Hills to the Nilgiris and Anaimalai range.
38835		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38836		distribution	eng	Known only from a few collections and field records in the Anamalai Hills and an imprecisely recorded location in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38836		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane forest.
38837		distribution	eng	A small tree described from a single locality in El Retiro, Santa Cruz, Pinar del Río province.
38837		threats	eng	The habitat in the area has been severely degraded.
38838		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38838		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, this small tree is recorded from a restricted area in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38838		habitat	eng	Forest at medium elevation.
38838		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38839		distribution	eng	This shrubby tree has been collected only once from the Travancore range.
38839		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
38840		distribution	eng	Only two collections are known, one from the Nilgiris and the other from the Palni Hills.
38840		habitat	eng	A shrubby tree of montane forest, occurring above 2,000 m.
38841		distribution	eng	Known from only a few collections, mainly from the Nilgiris but also from scattered localities extending into southern Karnataka.
38841		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane forest.
38842		distribution	eng	Agastyamalai Hills and Elamalai Hills.
38842		habitat	eng	A poorly known species of forest margins, recorded from restricted areas of forest between 1,400 and 1,600 m.
38843		distribution	eng	Collected twice, this relatively large tree is recorded from two localities in the region of the Anamalai Hills.
38843		habitat	eng	Lowland evergreen forest.
38844		distribution	eng	Although scattered over a wide area from north of the Kalinadi River in Karnataka to the Agastyamalai Hills in Kerala, the taxon has rarely been collected or recorded. The type subspecies is well collected but confined to the Agastyamalai Hills.
38844		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen forest up to 1,000 m.
38845		distribution	eng	Collected from 2 localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.
38845		habitat	eng	A small tree of submontane evergreen forest.
38846		conservation	eng	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.
38846		distribution	eng	A small tree, known only from the type specimen collected from a restricted area in the Agastyamalai Hills.
38846		habitat	eng	Submontane forest.
38846		threats	eng	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.
38847		distribution	eng	Zapata Peninsula in Matanzas Province.
38847		habitat	eng	A subspecies restricted to fenwoods and swamp forests on peat.
38847		threats	eng	The habitat has been degraded by logging and charcoal production.
38848		distribution	eng	An endemic tree discovered in the mid 19th century in Loma Pelada, Los Palacios, Pinar del Ríos Province. Thorough searches for the species over the past 25 years have been unable to locate it.
38848		threats	eng	Its habitat has been severely degraded by cutting and clearing.
38849		distribution	eng	Eastern Cuba.
38849		habitat	eng	A tree found in lowland semi-deciduous forest on rocky limestone soils.
38849		threats	eng	Subpopulations have declined substantially in the past decades through habitat clearance and burning for logging, grazing and agricultural encroachment.
38850		distribution	eng	Cuba and infrequently on Hispaniola.
38850		habitat	eng	A rare tree found in the remaining stands of semi-deciduous forest on limestone-derived soils.
38850		threats	eng	Its habitat has been severely degraded in most places in Cuba.
38851		distribution	eng	A small dioecious tree, endemic to Pitcairn. Only 10 individuals of flowering size were seen in 1997, and these are mostly well scattered in the eastern half of the island. Evidence of natural regeneration is limited to a single sapling.
38851		habitat	eng	Degraded areas of forest.
38852		distribution	eng	This rare species is confined to the Sierra Maestra range.
38852		habitat	eng	A small, aromatic tree occurring in montane rainforests.
38853		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded from Cauca, Santander and Tolima.
38854		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cauca according to confirmed records and from Valle from less definite records.
38855		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron calimaense</em>. It is recorded only from Valle.
38856		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron calophyllum</em>. The species is recorded from Naraiño.
38857		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron cararense</em>. The species is recorded only from Norte de Santander.
38858		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron colombianum</em>. The species has been recorded only from Huila.
38859		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron guatapense</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.
38860		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron lenticellatum</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.
38861		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron mahechae</em>. The species is recorded only from Valle.
38862		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron urraoense</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.
38863		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron yarumalense</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.
38864		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma caricifragrans</em>. The species is recorded from localities in Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander.
38865		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma cespedesii</em>. The species is recorded from Cundinamarca and from a less definite record in Boyaca.
38866		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma espinalii</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.
38867		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma georgii</em>. The species has been recorded only from localities in Boyaca and Santander.
38868		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma gilbertoi</em>. The species is restricted to Risaralda and Valle.
38869		distribution	eng	Western Sierra Maestra mountain range, Santiago de Cuba province.
38869		habitat	eng	A rare shrub or small tree found in cloud forest on the highest peaks.
38870		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma hernandezii</em>. The species is recorded from localities in Antioquia, Qiomdío, Risaralda and Valle.
38871		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma henaoi</em>. The species is recorded only from Huila.
38872		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma katiorum</em>. The species is known only from Antioquia.
38873		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma narinensis</em>. The species is known only from Nariño.
38874		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma polyhypsophylla</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.
38875		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma sanderiana</em>. The species is recorded only from Santander.
38876		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma virolinensis</em>. The species is recorded from localities in Boyaca and Santander.
38877		distribution	eng	The accepted name for <em>Talauma wolfii</em>. The species is recorded only from Risaralda.
38878		distribution	eng	Possibly now extinct, the species was known from a locality in Tolima.
38879		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
38880		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species has been recorded from Cundinamarca, Huila and Santander.
38881		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
38882		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tolima.
38883		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
38884		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded from Cundinamarca, Huila, Meta and Tolima.
38885		distribution	eng	An endemic to Magdalena.
38886		distribution	eng	An endemic to Boayaca.
38887		distribution	eng	An endemic species known to occur in Santander and possibly also Boyaca.
38888		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded from Boyaca and Santander.
38889		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cauca.
38890		distribution	eng	An endemic to Huila.
38891		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded to Cundinamarca and Valle.
38892		distribution	eng	Possibly now extinct, the species has been recorded only from Cundinamarca.
38893		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
38894		distribution	eng	An endemic of Antioquia.
38895		distribution	eng	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Cundinamarca.
38896		distribution	eng	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Guajira.
38897		distribution	eng	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Huila.
38898		distribution	eng	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Santander.
38899		distribution	eng	An endemic to Antioquia.
38900		distribution	eng	An endemic of Nariño.
38901		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
38902		distribution	eng	An endemic to Cundinamarca.
38903		distribution	eng	An endemic to Valle.
38904		distribution	eng	An endemic to Putumayo.
38905		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to Cundinamarca, Tolima and Valle.
38906		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to localities in the departments of Cundinamarca and Tolima.
38907		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to localities in the departments of Norte de Santander and Santander.
38908		distribution	eng	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to localities in Cundinamarca and Tolima.
38909		distribution	eng	It has been overexploited for its valuable timber in the West Indies and is now reduced to very small populations on most islands: one tree on Jamaica, five trees on Puerto Rico. More information is needed on the Central American populations.
38909		habitat	eng	A relatively widespread tree of semi-deciduous forest.
38909		threats	eng	Logging and habitat destruction continue to pose a serious threat.
38910		distribution	eng	A single population, now thought to be extinct, was once recorded from El Sabalo in Pinar del Río Province, Cuba, where the habitat has largely been deforested. Elsewhere in the Greater Antilles, the species and habitat have also suffered from overcutting. A record exists from northern Venezuela.
38910		threats	eng	Deforestation.
38912		distribution	eng	Originally described from a cultivated plant, the wild population was discovered in 1990 in the Ruaha Valley. The area measures little more than a square kilometre and is situated a short distance from the main road.
38912		habitat	eng	Confined to an area of scrub on limestone.
38912		threats	eng	There is no current threat from collecting, but grazing and loss of habitat may be a problem.
38913		distribution	eng	Occurring in the same area as <em>M. arborescens</em> in the Ruaha Valley, this species is more abundant and not restricted to limestone but more widely distributed on hillsides and the summits of the surrounding mountains.
38914		distribution	eng	Known in Cuba from a single locality in the coastal areas of Daiquirí, Santiago de Cuba province. The species is more widespread and more common in Hispaniola.
38914		habitat	eng	This small tree occurs infrequently in dry evergreen shrubwood and shrubland on limestone.
38914		threats	eng	Its habitat type has been degraded in many places. Tourism is the major threat in Cuba.
38916		distribution	eng	Its distribution extends from Sierra Madre in Chiapas, Mexico to Honduras.
38916		habitat	eng	A species of oak forest occurring at medium elevations.
38917		distribution	eng	Occurring from the Gulf region of Mexico to Guatemala.
38917		habitat	eng	The species is found in areas of moist seasonal forest from medium to high elevations.
38918		conservation	eng	Parts of the range are contained within protected areas.
38918		distribution	eng	Occurring from central and southern Mexico to Guatemala.
38918		habitat	eng	A species of montane pine-oak forest.
38918		threats	eng	Most regions have experienced large-scale deforestation.
38919		conservation	eng	Parts of the range are contained within protected areas.
38919		distribution	eng	Occurring from central and southern Mexico to Guatemala.
38919		habitat	eng	A species of montane pine-oak forest.
38919		threats	eng	Most regions have experienced large-scale deforestation.
38920		habitat	eng	A scarce species of cloud forest or mesophyllous montane forest.
38921		habitat	eng	A scarce species of pine-oak forest and mesophyllous montane forest.
38922		conservation	eng	There is an occurrence in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.
38922		distribution	eng	So far known only from Mexico but possibly also occurring in Guatemala.
38922		habitat	eng	A tree of oak forest or mesophyllous montane forest.
38923		distribution	eng	The species is restricted in altitudinal range and distribution. Populations are recorded from southern Mexico and Guatemala.
38923		habitat	eng	Occurring in dry montane scrub or pine-oak formations.
38923		threats	eng	The habitat is considerably reduced by the effects of growing agriculture and pastoralism.
38924		distribution	eng	Occurring in the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala.
38924		habitat	eng	A species of mesophyllous montane forest.
38924		threats	eng	The habitat has been considerably reduced by logging, increasing agriculture and ranching.
38925		distribution	eng	Occurring in the highlands of southern Mexico and Guatemala.
38925		habitat	eng	A species of mesophyllous montane forest or cloud forest.
38925		threats	eng	The habitat has been considerably reduced by logging, increasing agriculture and ranching.
38926		distribution	eng	Although it is scarce, it is relatively wide-ranging and the habitat is well represented in protected areas.
38926		habitat	eng	A species of moist seasonal montane forest or cloud forest.
38927		distribution	eng	A small tree rare in and locally confined to the Trinidad Mts. in the Guamuhaya Massif in Cienfuegos Province.
38927		habitat	eng	Rainforests.
38928		distribution	eng	A weedy tree, abundant in but confined to the Yucatán Peninsula.
38928		habitat	eng	Semi-evergreen forest and secondary formations.
38929		conservation	eng	The numbers of plants in cultivation, mostly located in Fairchild Tropical Garden, exceed those in the wild.
38929		distribution	eng	A horticulturally attractive small tree, known from two populations in the wild, accounting for about 18 individuals.
38929		habitat	eng	One population occurs on a moist limestone hill.
38929		threats	eng	The population from moist limestone hill may be under potential threat from quarrying. Grazing and farming are also concerns.
38930		conservation	eng	It is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.
38930		distribution	eng	Known from a single tree with four root sprouts on Cerro de Punta and a few small plants and seedlings scattered along ridge tops on Monte Jayuya in Toro Negro State Forest. The species is thought to be dioecious, although male flowers have never been observed.
38930		habitat	eng	A small tree of cloud forest.
38930		threats	eng	The construction of communication towers is likely to have destroyed a large part of the original population on Cerro de Punta. Further development, road building and trampling threaten remaining plants.
38932		distribution	eng	Only two records of the species have been made since the type specimen was collected from Cerro Pate Macho in Chiriquí Province. All records come from the same region. Although it would be possible tentatively to evaluate the species status as Critically Endangered, it may not be appropriate given that the species described by Lundell are frequently identified as synonyms.
38933		distribution	eng	Originally collected from Cerro Punta in Chiriquí Province, the species is known from few other collections in the same region and from Cerro Azul in Panamá Province. Although no further occurrences have been identified, it is possible that subpopulations exist in the Cordillera Central in between these two areas.
38933		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist evergreen forest from 800 to 2,500 m and appears to be uncommon.
38934		distribution	eng	The species is known from three collections: the type from the El Llano-Cartí highway, from Cerro Campana in Altos de Campana National Park and most recently in 1982 from a collection without a named locality but with co-ordinates which fall in the middle of the ocean.
38935		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, gathered from Cerro Tute in Veraguas in 1975. There are problems of identification with the members of this family in Panama and a taxonomic revision is needed.
38936		distribution	eng	In Chiriquí, Panama, occurring in Volcán Barú National Park, La Amistad National Park, on both the Panama and Costa Rica sides, and Fortuna Forest Reserve. It is also reported from Bocas del Toro, Panama, and in high areas of the provinces of Alajuela and Puntarenas in Costa Rica.
38936		habitat	eng	A common species of montane forest.
38937		distribution	eng	The species was described in 1971 on the basis of a single collection from Bocas del Toro in 1928. The exact locality from which the specimen was collected is not known. The family in Panama is in need of taxonomic revision.
38938		distribution	eng	A species known only from two collections.
38939		distribution	eng	Collected only once, the species is restricted to a region which has been poorly explored until now. <em>Stylogyne</em> is known from several collections in Darién, identified as other species.
38940		conservation	eng	Much of the range lies within protected areas, outside which occurrences are less common.
38940		distribution	eng	A relatively common species in Panama occurring in Darién Province, Valle de Antón in Coclé, and the Canal area. In Colombia, there are populations in the Chocó and Valle de Cauca.
38940		habitat	eng	Lowland seasonal rainforest.
38941		conservation	eng	It is primarily found in Munchique and Farallones de Cali National Parks.
38941		distribution	eng	Endemic to an area of approximately 200 km² in the Cordillera Occidental. It is primarily found in Munchique and Farallones de Cali National Parks.
38941		habitat	eng	A montane rainforest species.
38941		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and forest management activities are the principal causes of habitat loss.
38942		distribution	eng	Occurring only in a few forest fragments in the Cordillera Central.
38942		habitat	eng	A species of broadleaved montane rainforest.
38942		threats	eng	Increasing pressure is felt from habitat conversion to agriculture and plantations.
38943		distribution	eng	A widely distributed endemic occurring in the central and eastern cordilleras.
38943		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest.
38943		threats	eng	The habitat is gradually losing way to increasing agriculture and forestry activities.
38944		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti and Moorea.
38945		distribution	eng	Occurring on the slopes of the western cordillera of Colombia.
38945		habitat	eng	A common species of montane rainforest.
38945		threats	eng	The seeds are edible and exploited on a local level.
38946		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Entiman-Lanjak Wildlife Sanctuary, and is in cultivation at Semengoh Arboretum near Kuching, Sarawak.
38946		habitat	eng	A single-stemmed palm of lowland moist forest, often located near river banks, on slopes or in open areas.
38946		threats	eng	Forest management activities are affecting some areas within the species range.
38947		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
38948		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
38949		distribution	eng	Populations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Ua Huka.
38950		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Niau.
38951		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Nuku Hiva.
38952		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Makatea.
38953		distribution	eng	A single collection is also recorded in Brunei.
38953		habitat	eng	A solitary palm of lowland moist forest, often occurring in limestone crevices.
38954		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.
38955		distribution	eng	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.
38956		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
38957		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Nuku Hiva.
38958		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tubuai Island.
38959		distribution	eng	An endemic to Moorea.
38960		distribution	eng	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.
38961		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
38962		distribution	eng	An extremely rare species that occurs in the western Amazon basin and more recently two individuals were discovered on the Mont Grand Maroury, near Cayenne, French Guiana.
38962		threats	eng	The principal threats to remaining individuals are fire and logging.
38963		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raivavae.
38964		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.
38965		distribution	eng	An endemic to Huahine.
38966		distribution	eng	An endemic to Raiatea.
38967		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
38968		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Huahine.
38969		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Raiatea.
38970		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea and Tahiti.
38971		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tahiti.
38972		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tahiti.
38973		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Raivavae.
38974		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Tahiti.
38975		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Tahiti.
38976		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tahiti.
38977		distribution	eng	An endemic to Tubuai.
38978		distribution	eng	A small glabrous tree or shrub, endemic to Nuku Hiva.
38979		distribution	eng	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.
38980		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea and Tahiti.
38981		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are recorded from Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.
38983		distribution	eng	An endemic of Tahiti.
38984		distribution	eng	A threatened subpopulation occurs on Raivavae in the Tubuai Group. In the Society Group there are subpopulations on Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.
38985		distribution	eng	Its distribution is currently restricted to forest fragments in the middle Magdalena River valley.
38985		habitat	eng	A lowland rainforest palm, which occurs on alluvial plains or gentle slopes.
38985		threats	eng	The main threats come from increasing agriculture and forest management.
38987		distribution	eng	The species occurs on Moorea and Tahiti.
38988		distribution	eng	The subpopulations on Tubuai and Raivavae are severely threatened. The species also apparently occurs on Rapa but is little known. In the Society Group the species only occurs on Tahiti.
38989		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tahiti.
38990		distribution	eng	The species only occurs on Raiatea.
38991		distribution	eng	Confined to Río Miriti-Paraná.  It has previously been listed as Endangered according to the pre-1994 IUCN Red List Categories. However, it has not been possible to attain an accurate reflection of the species' abundance and status since it is located in a remote and poorly-visited area.
38991		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland rainforest.
38992		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Marquesas, occurring as a herb, shrub or small tree in Eiao, Nuku Hiva, Ua Huka, Ua Pou in the northern group and Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Mohotani in the south.
38992		habitat	eng	It is a strictly littoral species, occurring from sea level to 450 m on rocky beaches, cliffs and rarely in secondary forest and abandoned pasturage.
38993		distribution	eng	Occurring in the same lagoon on the sister islands of Tahaa and Raiatea, the species is localised on the summital crest of Mt. Ohiri on the former and scattered on the plateaux of Temehani Rahi and Temehani Ute Ute on the latter. The populations are fragmented and reduced in extent.
38994		distribution	eng	A small tree.  Endemic to Moorea, occurring in the north. The subpopulations are small and fragmented.
38994		habitat	eng	A small tree, usually found in local abundance in mesophyllous open forest on crests between 420 and 800 m.
38995		distribution	eng	Confined to a single locality in the Papenoo Valley.
38995		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree at the edge of riverine forest.
38995		threats	eng	A hydroelectric project has been responsible for the destruction of large parts of the natural vegetation in the valley and the invasion of <em>Miconia calvescens</em> also presents a threat to the survival of the species.
38996		distribution	eng	It appears to be relatively common but never abundant.
38996		habitat	eng	A shrub or very small tree of mesophyllous or riverine forest, humid rocks or cliffs in mountain or littoral areas.
38997		distribution	eng	A small tree confined to the Toovii Plateau in the central part of Nuku Hiva. Although restricted in range, the species is relatively common.
38997		habitat	eng	It has been collected between 710 and 1,000 m from primary riverine forest, on moist forested crests, in secondary forest and relict forest within pasture land.
38998		distribution	eng	A dioecious tree, restricted to the central crest of Huahine Nui, on Mts. Mato Ereere and Turi.
38998		habitat	eng	It is common or co-dominant in ridge forest between 390 and 669 m.
38998		threats	eng	There are signs of a spreading invasion of <em>Merremia peltata</em>.
38999		distribution	eng	Subpopulations are found on the islands of Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Tahuata.
38999		habitat	eng	The species occurs between 330 and 780 m in humid or riverine areas of forest or mesophyllous forest, and also in open dry rocky areas and basalt cliffs.
38999		threats	eng	It is relatively scarce and distributed in areas sensitive to degradation.
39000		conservation	eng	In French Guiana, the species is found in Les Nouragues and La Trinite nature reserves.
39000		distribution	eng	Found in the eastern Amazon basin, French Guiana (14 collections), Suriname (six collections) and Guyana (two collections).
39000		habitat	eng	This multi-stemmed palm tree occurs in the understorey of moist forest and wetland areas.
39001		distribution	eng	Endemic to Florida, the species ranges from Leon and Wakulla counties westward to Santa Rosa county along the southern half of the Florida Panhandle. A record in Texas appears to be a misidentification. The species is sporadic and scarce in distribution.
39001		habitat	eng	Occurring in broadleaved or mixed forest on ravine slopes and bluffs.
39001		threats	eng	It doesn't respond well to disturbance and competition with more aggressive plants.
39002		distribution	eng	Only two specimens are known: occurring south of the Cayenne area. One has been transplanted to Orstom Botanical Garden, where it has been observed to flower. The other specimen is located close to a road.
39002		habitat	eng	A small multi-stemmed palm found in the understorey of swamp forest.
39002		threats	eng	The specimen located close to a road may come under threat from logging activities or clearing for settlement and agriculture.
39003		distribution	eng	Restricted to Baracoa in eastern Cuba.
39003		habitat	eng	A rare tree of montane rainforest and cloud forest.
39004		distribution	eng	A widespread species, occurring over a wide range of altitudes, soil types and habitats.
39004		threats	eng	The tree is used at a local or national level as a timber and ornamental.
39006		distribution	eng	Confined to the Sierra Maestra.
39006		habitat	eng	A scarce tree of lower montane rainforest.
39006		threats	eng	The habitat has been disturbed by logging and overcutting.
39007		distribution	eng	known from restricted localities in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is a little more widespread in Kenya in Diani, Mrima and Witu. The Madagascan material could be genetically different.
39007		habitat	eng	A tree of the evergreen forest.
39008		distribution	eng	The species is confined to an area stretching from Namacurra to Quelimane and the Zambezi Delta.
39008		habitat	eng	Scattered in woodland remnants in swampy or wetland places.
39008		threats	eng	The subpopulations are unprotected and contained within a zone which is under pressure from growing human populations and their activities.
39009		conservation	eng	One small subpopulation is protected within Chagres National Park.
39009		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a few small scattered subpopulations in the vicinity of Lago Alajuela.
39009		habitat	eng	Occurring in lowland areas.
39009		threats	eng	Much of the original habitat was flooded by the construction of this artificial lake. Logging and increasing agriculture and settlements are the principal threats to remaining subpopulations.
39012		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Maguan in the south-east.
39016		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Xichou in the south-east.
39017		distribution	eng	An endemic to Xishuangbanna.
39018		distribution	eng	The conservation status of the species needs to be assessed for Hispaniola and Dominica.
39018		habitat	eng	A rare shrub or small tree, up to 12 m tall, occurring in montane shrubwoods and rainforests.
39019		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador.  It is particularly widespread on the Pacific slopes of Colombia and Ecuador.
39019		habitat	eng	A lowland to montane forest palm, that reaches a height of 2-10 m.  Often found in shady areas.
39020		habitat	eng	A species of montane rainforest.
39020		threats	eng	In Colombia, the species is particularly under threat from habitat conversion to agriculture, but trees survive in deforested areas or coffee plantations. Regeneration is poor.
39022		distribution	eng	A species of south-eastern New Caledonia.
39022		habitat	eng	Occurring on serpentine soils in wet forest at an altitude of 850-880 m.
39023		distribution	eng	A localised species of north-eastern New Caledonia.
39023		habitat	eng	It occurs in wet forest, often on schists or mica-schists.
39024		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus, restricted to Taveuni, Vanua Levu.
39024		habitat	eng	Subpopulations occur on ridges and steep slopes in moist forest.
39024		threats	eng	The habitat suffers some pressure from increasing agriculture and forestry activities.
39025		distribution	eng	A poorly known species found in only a few localities in Mindanao.
39025		habitat	eng	Primary forest at low altitude.
39026		distribution	eng	It is confined to southern Luzon.
39026		habitat	eng	A species of streamsides and forest at low to medium altitude.
39027		distribution	eng	Very scanty information is available on the species. It may be a variety of <em>A. catechu</em>. Subpopulations appear to be confined to lowland rainforest in Zambanga, Mindanao.
39027		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest.
39028		distribution	eng	Carnarines Province in Luzon.
39028		habitat	eng	A species of lowland rainforest, occurring along streamsides.
39028		threats	eng	The area is strongly affected by slash and burn agriculture.
39029		distribution	eng	The species occurs in several localities in Luzon and Mindoro.
39029		habitat	eng	Semi-swampy forest at low altitude.
39029		threats	eng	Slash and burn agriculture affects most localities.
39030		distribution	eng	In areas where it was once noted as abundant, the species is almost extinct.
39030		habitat	eng	This species is located at elevations in the dry Andean valleys and transition zones to the puna, where agricultural activity is most intense.
39030		threats	eng	Grazing, habitat clearing and collection as a fuelwood is affecting remaining subpopulations.
39031		distribution	eng	Originally described under the genus <em>Talauma</em>, the species is known only from forest in the foothills of Amboro Park and the Chapare region.
39031		threats	eng	Deforestation is ongoing.
39032		distribution	eng	A recently described species, known only from very few sites in Santa Cruz. It appears to be a relict species, occurring in the outskirts of a rapidly growing city.
39033		conservation	eng	Of the four sites, only Kaya Rabai is not legally protected.
39033		distribution	eng	Reportedly common in places. Populations are known from Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kaya Rabai, a locality along Mwache River and Mkongani North.
39033		habitat	eng	A small tree of rocky riverine areas.
39033		threats	eng	There is a threat of habitat degradation and increasing elephant numbers could also pose a problem.
39034		conservation	eng	The entire species range is contained within protected areas, although there is no enforcement of protective measures.
39034		distribution	eng	There are populations in Witu Forest Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve and the Shimba Hills National Reserve. It is also thought to extend into Tanzania.
39034		habitat	eng	A coastal shrub or small tree up to 8 m, confined to a few isolated areas of semi-deciduous lowland moist or riverine forest and dense bushland/woodland.
39035		distribution	eng	Occurring in the state of Trengganu, in Peninsular Malaysia. It has been collected only once and little is known about its altitudinal range.
39035		habitat	eng	This small tree or shrub is confined to rainforest.
39035		threats	eng	The area is under some pressure from increasing settlement.
39036		distribution	eng	The species is confined to two sites in the Genting Highlands and Fraser's Hill, both in Pahang.  One of these sites is a forest reserve, which offers little protection; the other is privately owned.
39036		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub, found in primary montane forest.
39036		threats	eng	Both areas are likely to undergo tourism-related development.
39037		habitat	eng	A species of lowland hill forest on steep slopes.
39037		threats	eng	The habitat has declined through logging and increasing settlement.
39038		conservation	eng	Feral herbivores have been removed from San Clemente and stump-sprouting has now been observed.
39038		distribution	eng	Restricted to the islands of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Clemente, the subspecies is limited in occurrence.
39038		threats	eng	Threatened in parts of its range by damage caused by grazing animals.
39039		distribution	eng	A species of no recorded locality, endemic to Suriname.
39040		distribution	eng	A species of no recorded locality, endemic to Suriname.
39041		distribution	eng	No locality is recorded for the species.
39042		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality in central Suriname and the Nassau Mountains.
39042		habitat	eng	Forested slopes.
39043		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Tafelberg.
39044		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to an area around the upper Saramacca River.
39045		distribution	eng	A poorly known species which has been collected only from a single locality at 1,200 m on Julianatop.
39046		distribution	eng	An endemic to Brownsberg.
39047		distribution	eng	Locally abundant in places. It is endemic to Brownsberg and the Tapanahony River.
39047		habitat	eng	An upland rainforest tree.
39048		distribution	eng	An endemic species known only from the type locality along the Left Coppename River.
39049		conservation	eng	The Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation is working with government agencies to mitigate the decline of Whitebark Pine. Some individual Whitebark Pine trees have been found to be resistant to blister rust. </span>Seeds from these trees are being collected and propagated in nurseries then re-planted in the wild. Unfortunately these “rust resistant” trees are not immune to beetle attacks. </span>Verbenone, an anti-aggregation pheromone, has been used to protect high-value trees such as the rust resistant ones, but is not practical for widespread use in a beetle epidemic. Prescribed burns may be effective in fighting beetle attacks and are very advantageous at clearing areas for whitebark pine regeneration. </span>However, fires are risky to undertake and politically sensitive.
39049		distribution	eng	Whitebark Pine is limited in distribution to the high mountains of western <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>, where it has been present for the past 8,000 years. It occurs along high-elevation ridges, and is therefore not contiguous. </span>Whitebark Pine forests extend longitudinally between 107°</span> and 128° West and latitudinally between 37°</span> and 55° North (Arno and Hoff 1990, McCaughey and Schmidt 1990).&#160; In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region>, it grows along the coastal range in <st1:state w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:state> and in the Rocky Mountains in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alberta</st1:place></st1:state>.&#160; </span>In the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> the range extends from the Canadian border of the Cascade Mountains through <st1:state w:st="on">Washington</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Oregon</st1:state> to southern California and is at high altitudes throughout the Rocky Mountains of Montana, <st1:state w:st="on">Idaho</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Wyoming</st1:place></st1:state>.<br/><br/>  Many Whitebark Pine stands are geographically isolated by large intervening valleys between them (Arno and Hoff 1990). </span>Whitebark Pine is typically found just below the alpine timberline and extends downward in elevation into associations with several other conifers.&#160; The upper elevation limits of Whitebark Pine decrease with increasing latitude.&#160; </span>It occurs as high as 3,050–3,660 m in the Sierra Nevada and 2,590–</span>3,200 m in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Wyoming</st1:place></st1:state>; and as low as 900 m in the northern limits of its range in British Colombia (Arno and Hoff 1990).
39049		habitat	eng	<p>Whitebark Pine is a keystone species of the upper subalpine ecosystem and serves several important ecological functions throughout its range, such as protecting watersheds, promoting post-fire forest regeneration, and providing an important food source for wildlife. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Whitebark Pine seeds and ungulates are considered the two most important foods of the grizzly bear. </span>Whitebark Pine has the largest seeds of all conifers in its range, having about 52% fat by weight and a supplying high-energy food source for wildlife, particularly valuable for animals during cold weather and for bears who need a source of fat for hibernation.&#160; </span></p>
39049		population	eng	The population is decreasing.
39049		threats	eng	<p>Whitebark Pine is facing three major threats that are working together to reduce the population:</p>    <ol><li></span>White Pine Blister Rust:&#160; This disease specific to five-needled pines is caused by a fungus, <em>Cronartium ribicola,</em> which was introduced in the early 1900s. Since introduction of the fungus, blister rust has steadily spread throughout the range of Whitebark Pine and in some areas mortality has reached 90%.<br/></span></span></li><li> </span>Mountain Pine beetle epidemic:&#160; This native pest, <em>Dendroctonus ponderosae, </em>is at record high levels within Whitebark Pine communities.&#160; </span>There is currently an epidemic throughout western <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place> and warming temperatures have allowed the beetles to move into normally protected high altitude forests.</li><li> </span>Fire exclusion: Stand replacement fires provide Whitebark Pine a successional advantage over other conifers because its seeds are planted by nutcrackers throughout the burned areas. </span>Since about 1929 fire exclusion has led to extensive successional replacement of Whitebark Pine by shade-tolerant species and in some areas sampled, there are no Whitebark Pine trees under 50 years old.</li></ol>
39053		conservation	eng	Protection is also given populations in forest reserves or protective forests under the permanent forest estate.
39053		distribution	eng	Confined to the Genting Highlands.
39053		habitat	eng	The species is found in hill rainforest on sandstone between 600 and 1,500 m.
39053		threats	eng	There are pressures of increasing settlement and tourism development in the area.
39054		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are found in a Wildlife Sanctuary and in the protective forests within the permanent forest estate.
39054		habitat	eng	A primary species of submontane rainforest, occurring between 800 and 1,500 m.
39055		conservation	eng	Subpopulations in Peninsular Malaysia are contained in a national park and protective forests within the permanent forest estate.
39055		distribution	eng	Scattered in Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia.
39055		habitat	eng	A species of hill forest and cloud forest.
39056		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES.
39056		distribution	eng	An arborescent aloe, endemic to southern Madagascar, where two or three subpopulations are known to occur in the Fort Dauphin region. Each subpopulation consists of less than 10 adult individuals. No regeneration has been observed.
39056		habitat	eng	Thorny bush on sandy shores.
39057		conservation	eng	The species has been cultivated from wild seed, but fewer than six reared plants exist in nurserys in Madagascar. The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.
39057		distribution	eng	An arborescent aloe confined to the Amboasary region and Itampolo in south and south-west Madagascar. Only a few adult individuals are known in each subpopulation and there is no evidence of regeneration.
39057		habitat	eng	Thorny bush on sandy shores.
39058		distribution	eng	It is widely ranging throughout India up to the sub Himalayas.
39058		habitat	eng	A small tree of open waste land and degraded places.
39058		threats	eng	The flowers are traded for use in ayurvedic formulations and the species is grown in numerous gardens.
39059		conservation	eng	Attempts at propagation have failed.
39059		distribution	eng	The species is confined to the central region of Jalcomulco, Rinconada, Plan del Rio and Sierra de Manuel Diaz on karst topography. The forest is fragmented and widely disturbed. There is evidence of natural regeneration.
39059		habitat	eng	Occurring in a range of forest types from evergreen rainforest to more deciduous forest.
39060		conservation	eng	There is great interest in the species as an ornamental and cuttings have been propagated at Xalapa Botanic Garden.
39060		distribution	eng	This shrub or small tree is now confined to a single locality near Mozomboa in the Sierra de Manuel Diaz, where about 500 individuals survive.
39060		habitat	eng	On rocky shallow soils.
39060		threats	eng	The only evident regeneration is vegetative from stolons.
39061		distribution	eng	A cloud forest species with a wide range, extending from northern Mexico through Central America.
39061		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in the upper ranges of cloud forest, penetrating into pine-oak forest, between 1,900 and 2,250 m.
39061		threats	eng	The timber is exploited and the habitat has declined significantly.
39062		distribution	eng	Occurring in central India and Orissa, Gujarat and Maharashtra. About 20 fragmented populations are known within a range of less than 20,000 km². It is not known if population or habitat declines have taken place.
39062		habitat	eng	A small tree of dry deciduous forest.
39063		distribution	eng	Information from India indicates the species has declined by 50% in population numbers in the last 10 years. Fewer than 20 locations are known in northeastern India. More information is needed on the subpopulation status in Myanmar.
39063		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest between 200 and 800 m (India).
39063		threats	eng	Oil is harvested from the fruits and traded locally.
39064		distribution	eng	Endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Transkei area of the Eastern Cape.
39064		habitat	eng	A shrub or rarely a small straggling tree. It occurs on sandstone outcrops on the rocky banks and beds of rivers and streams.
39064		threats	eng	It is present in most of the protected areas in the region and also many of the demarcated forest areas in the Transkei, which are ineffectively protected and under threat of losing their habitat through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement. Agricultural activities upstream have also caused habitat loss through the siltation of rivers.
39068		distribution	eng	A once-abundant tree which has reduced in area of occupancy from 24 million ha to 1.6 million ha in 1985. Subpopulations continue to become increasingly scattered and restricted to parks and reserves.
39068		threats	eng	Areas where the species once occurred have been taken over by plantations of <em>P. taeda</em> and <em>P. elliottii</em>.
39112		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
39146		distribution	eng	This taxon is now rare in Cuba because of past overexploitation. It is technically extinct in Haiti and is rarely seen in the Bahamas. Of all trees in the Blue Mountains in Jamaica, this is considered to be under the most direct threat. It has a local and scattered distribution, mostly on steep slopes.  Regeneration is spasmodic and young trees frequently colonise exposed sites and landslides.
39146		threats	eng	Exploitation for fuelwood and timber. In the Blue Mountains it occurs most commonly on southern slopes, where deforestation is prevalent and once remote populations are now accessible by road.
39147		conservation	eng	In Afghanistan, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. contorta</span> has been provisionally assessed as Nationally endangered by the Afghanistan Wildlife Executive Committee (N. Kanderian pers.comm March 2010) and the eastern conifer forests have been identified as important areas for conservation work as soon as possible. In Pakistan, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. contorta</span> is known from a number of protected areas but these are under severe pressure from fuelwood collecting and other activities that are leading to forest degradation. In northwest India it was assessed as critically endangered at a regional level (Ved <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and harvesting of wild trees has been banned. In Nepal <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus 'wallichiana</span>' has been nationally assessed as endangered and the government has imposed harvesting and exporting restrictions (Bhattari 2004, Dhungana and Bhattarai, 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus contorta</span> is listed under CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallichiana</span>).
39147		distribution	eng	This is the only yew occurring in Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwestern India and western Nepal. It also occurs in the Jilong Xian in Xizang, China.The total extent of occurrence is in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) is uncertain, but given that subpopulations are usually small and localized, it is likely to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
39147		habitat	eng	In Afghanistan, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. contorta</span> was originally recorded as a minor component of mid altitude coniferous forests (2,400-2,900 m asl) in the northeastern Hindu Kush area (Freitag 1972). In Pakistan, its distribution is also restricted to a relatively narrow altitudinal band (2,000-3,100 m asl) in the NorthWest Frontier Province, the Federally Administered Tribal Area and the Pakistan territory of Kashmir (Azad Kashmir). In these areas it occurs in mixed coniferous forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus deodara</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pindrow</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea smithiana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus wallichiana</span>), usually on north facing slopes (Schikoff 1996). Its altitudinal distribution appears to be moisture limited at lower altitudes and temperature limited at higher altitudes (Shafique 2008).<br/><br/>In northwestern India, it occurs in small scattered populations, usually along streams within coniferous forests in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. It occurs at lower altitudes than in Pakistan (1,700-2,600 m asl), probably due to increased precipitation. In western and central Nepal (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 83° 30’ E) <span style="font-style: italic;">T. contorta</span> occurs in similar situations as in northwest India. <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus contorta</span> is also recorded from southwestern Xizang in the Jilong Xian at altitudes of 2,500-3,100 m asl.
39147		population	eng	Subpopulations are usually small and localized. Genetic investigations in Pakistan (Shah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and northwest India (Mohapatra 2009) indicate greater differences between subpopulations than within subpopulations. Regeneration is poor in most areas.<br/>&#160;<br/>Population decline: in Afghanistan, coniferous forests (its sole habitat) have declined by up to 50% over the last 25 years due to conflict and uncontrolled logging (Nasri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, UNEP 2003). Although there is no specific data for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. contorta</span>, it is very likely that its subpopulations will have been significantly impacted. In Pakistan declines of up to 80% have been reported (Ahmed 2004, Hussain 2006, Mullikin 2008). In NW India and Nepal the population is estimated to have declined by up to 90% due to harvesting for medicinal use. In China a decline in the AOO has been reported (Wang and Xie 2004) but it is uncertain how this has impacted the local subpopulation.
39147		threats	eng	Throughout its range in the western Himalayas, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. contorta </span>is declining in response to a range of threats. In Afghanistan, up to 50% of the forests where it occurs have been destroyed or heavily logged (UNEP 2003) over the last 30 years. In Pakistan, overexploitation for fuel, fodder and medicinal use has led to a significant decline. In northwest India and western Nepal, exploitation associated with Taxol production has led to a national decline of up to 90% in <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus</span> populations throughout the country.
39148		threats	eng	Like <em>T. jackii</em> this taxon is confined to heavily populated areas. Habitat degradation and destruction have been considerable
39150		distribution	eng	Occurrences are recorded from Morne la Selle and Morne la Visite, although the latter subpopulation is now thought to be extinct.
39151		distribution	eng	Viable populations were recorded in 1984 in Pic la Selle. Since then attempts to find this shrubby taxon have failed. It appears to be reduced to inaccessible areas.
39151		threats	eng	Much of its habitat has been destroyed.
39154		conservation	eng	Some collections were made in the following protected areas: El Trunfo Reserve, Reserva de la Biósfera El Cielo, Cuenca Hidrografica del Rio Necaxa and Pico Pijol Reserves in Mexico and Honduras.
39154		distribution	eng	Mexico (Chiapas, Jalisco, Puebla, Tamaulipas, Veracruz); El Salvador; Guatemala (Huehuetenango); Honduras. Although reported from El Salvador and Guatemala, no herbarium collections were seen by the assessors from these countries, and only one from Honduras. This indicates two major disjunct subpopulations (possibly three): in eastern Mexico (possibly disjunct from western Mexico) and in Chiapas through to Honduras.
39154		habitat	eng	Found in mixed pine forest, pine-oak forest (along stream beds), montane rain forest and evergreen cloud forest. Elevation based on data on herbarium labels is 1,050 to 2,418 m, GIS based calculations indicate it could occur as low as 250 m above sea-level, but due to the method of calculation (average of altitudes in the 1 km<sup>2</sup> in which the specimen has been reported; the exact location is often inferred from information given on the herbarium label and may be farther out than 1 km) this would need verification. This species is utilized for timber.
39154		population	eng	There are no indications of population sizes; generally, trees of this genus in the area are scattered and confined to moist sites or stream beds.
39154		threats	eng	Logging and deforestation, habitat degradation.
39155		threats	eng	The status of this widely occurring forest taxon is affected by slow growth rates, infrequent regeneration, poor seed dispersal and predation by rats. Forest clearing and habitat modification have also contributed to population declines.
39156		distribution	eng	Coastal Oregon, Sutton Lake Swamp Preserve.  Known from two localities, but has been refound recently at only one of these. It has been extensively looked for in the region, but no new locality has been found.
39156		habitat	eng	Near a road adjacent to a lake on wet rotten wood, leaf litter, etc.
39156		threats	eng	Housing development, water pollution, earthquake-related subsidence, and human-induced changes in hydrology are the primary threats.
39157		conservation	eng	<p><em>Archidium elatum</em> is listed as a “nationally endangered” (the second highest level of threat classification in NZ) species in the most recent edition of the N.Z. Department of Conservation’s species threat classifications (Hitchmough <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).</p>
39157		distribution	eng	In the previous assessment this species was only known from two localities in North Auckland and hence was thought to be a New Zealand endemic. However,   it has now also been recorded in Queensland and New South Wales in Australia. The species is now also known from additional "new" localities in New Zealand like Moturoa Island and associated Black Rocks (which are small islands in the Bay of Islands, on the east coast of the North Island), and at Otauwae Covenant on Chatham island. Therefore, this taxon is probably more widespread. Recorded from sea level up to 100 m asl.
39157		habitat	eng	Grows on coastal rocks, especially basalt. At Black Rocks the best documented collections came from damp or waterlogged depressions on an exposed basalt platform on the Northwest Crater Rim (one of the Black Rocks), where it was associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Campylopus introflexus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratodon purpureus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Disphyma australe</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Astelia banksii</span>.&#160; At the Otauwae Covenant site this species (<span style="font-style: italic;">fide </span>P. de Lange pers. comm.) was a “dark brown wispy moss” growing “extremely exposed to southerly storms.”&#160; It grew “amongst basalt cobbles, saprolite, and on the margins of semi-permanent pools within [the] drip zone [a] steep overhanging basalt bluff."
39157		population	eng	The population size is assumed to be very small, however, the trend is not known. There are early records at Ahipara&#160; (northern North island mainland), but we believe this population is extinct, so a small decline can be suspected.
39157		threats	eng	Threatened by human activities. Although it is difficult to speculate as to whether <em>A. elatum</em> was more common in the past, reduction in range and habitat since its original discovery is likely given the disturbance of coastal habitats in New Zealand.&#160; The population at Ahipara is quite likely extinct, due to invasion by the invasive and exotic kikuyu grass [<em>Pennisetum clandestinum</em>]<em>.</em>
39158		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to see if an extant population of this species can be found.
39158		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in 1911 in Santa Cruz Cordillera of Bolivia. Occurred at 1,400 m.
39158		habitat	eng	This species was apparently epiphytic and grew in montane forest.
39158		population	eng	Probably extinct.
39158		threats	eng	The forest at the type locality and immediate vicinity has been logged and cultivated over the years.
39159		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities in Siberia in Altai Mountains and Western Sayan Mountains.
39159		habitat	eng	On rotten old logs in Pinus-Larix forest.
39159		threats	eng	The old-growth forest is fast-disappearing.
39160		distribution	eng	Less than five known localities in Madeira.
39160		habitat	eng	On moist and dripping volcanic rocks in shaded streams in Laurus forest.
39160		threats	eng	Habitat threatened by the recent logging and clearing of Laurus forest for agricultural development and pasture land.
39161		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities in the western coastal region of the Andean foothills.
39161		habitat	eng	On trees in humid premontane forests.
39161		threats	eng	Deforestation and over-collecting.
39162		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in Uttar Pradesh.
39162		habitat	eng	On montane forest soil.
39162		threats	eng	Human activities.
39163		distribution	eng	Known from only one locality in Cornwall. In recent years, the population is known to have disappeared from one of the three original sites.
39163		habitat	eng	The species is known from copper mine waste in a granite area.  Plants grow on compacted, well-drained peaty, loamy or gravelly soil where the vegetation is sparse and open.
39163		threats	eng	Habitat is threatened by encroachment of rank vegetation and excessive human disturbance, for example from vehicular activity.
39164		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities in South Georgia and part of Fuegian Island.
39164		habitat	eng	Associated with <em>Sphagnum</em> in boggy areas.
39164		threats	eng	Increasing human activities.
39165		distribution	eng	Known from three small localities in Sichuan, Daliang-shan at Yanyuan; Lungdschu-shan at Huili and Yunnan, Lidjiang.
39165		habitat	eng	Submerged in clean, flowing rivers.
39165		threats	eng	The natural vegetation at the sites is seriously disturbed today by a growing human population, deforestation and industrialisation which cause rivers to be heavily blocked with silt.
39166		distribution	eng	Only one locality remains in Texas, Edwards County.
39166		habitat	eng	Growing on boulders in calcareous spring water.
39166		threats	eng	The calcareous spring habitat is unusual and is easily degraded by settlements, dam constructions, and water pollution.
39167		distribution	eng	Less than ten known localities on five islands in the Azores.
39167		habitat	eng	On rocks in forested, deeply shaded ravines and craters above 500 m altitude.
39167		threats	eng	Because of changes in land policy the Laurel forest habitat is threatened by logging activities.
39168		distribution	eng	Confined to less than five localities in northwestern Madeira.
39168		habitat	eng	On stones in deep and narrow valleys among shading ferns.
39168		threats	eng	Natural forest habitat is potentially threatened by changing land uses.
39169		distribution	eng	Known from less than five localities in the mountains of northern Luzon.
39169		habitat	eng	Epiphytic on trees in montane mossy forests.
39169		threats	eng	Habitat has been disturbed for decades by agricultural expansion, logging and mining operations.
39170		distribution	eng	South-eastern area at the foot of the Andes along Rio Bombonasa in Amazonia.  Known only from the type collected in 1857.
39170		habitat	eng	Submerged in flowing rivers in rainforest.
39170		threats	eng	The forest in the area has been disturbed.
39171		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in Witpütz.
39171		habitat	eng	On quartzite outcrops in dwarf succulent shrublands.
39171		threats	eng	The small locality is surrounded by diamond mines. The threat is resulting from these mining activities that may be on the increase.
39172		distribution	eng	Four localities in the States of Querétaro and Zacatecas. One of the locality in Zacatecas may have been destroyed by human interference.
39172		habitat	eng	On soil-covered rocks in dry lands.
39172		threats	eng	Habitats are threatened by farmland expansion and housing.
39173		distribution	eng	Cerro Arizona, Veraquas Province.  Not known outside the type locality.
39173		habitat	eng	Epiphytic in tree crowns in elfin cloud forest.
39173		threats	eng	Rapid deforestation is threatening habitat of this species.
39174		distribution	eng	Know only from the type collection made in 1932 in Sarawak.
39174		habitat	eng	Epiphytic on rotten logs and lianas inside primary lowland rainforests.
39174		threats	eng	Logging.
39175		distribution	eng	Known only from one locality in the Nizke Tatry Mountains.
39175		habitat	eng	On granite stones in streams at subalpine elevation.
39175		threats	eng	Human activities.
39176		distribution	eng	Known only from between five and seven localities in Russian Far East near Khabarovsk, however, fewer than five of these localities are recent.
39176		habitat	eng	In mixed deciduous forest.
39176		threats	eng	Forests seriously threatened by on-going economic development.
39177		distribution	eng	Only one locality in Mayotte.
39177		habitat	eng	On boulders in mesic evergreen forest.
39177		threats	eng	Excessive logging.
39178		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality in Uttar Kanad, formerly North Kanara, District of Karnataka State.
39178		habitat	eng	Rheophyte attached to rocks in a fast flowing stream.
39178		threats	eng	Rapid destruction of forests due to population expansion.
39179		distribution	eng	Formerly known from Ontario, Hastings County.  Known only from the type and two other collections made in the same general locality between 1862 and 1864.
39179		habitat	eng	Formerly found on elms in a swamp.
39180		distribution	eng	Last recorded subpopulations were in Montevideo in Uruguay and Isla Recreo in Argentina.  But it is not currently known from any locality.  The old collections were made more than 100 years ago. The genus <em>Orthotrichum</em> may be under-recorded in southern South America, and therefore more field work is needed to confirm its extent and population size.
39180		habitat	eng	On trees near human settlements.
39180		threats	eng	Heavy urbanization.
39181		conservation	eng	Given its wide range this species must occur in a large number of protected areas.
39181		distribution	eng	A large number of recent reports of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. scanicum</span> and the examination of herbarium specimens have expanded the limits of distribution for this species considerably in the Mediterranean and Caucasian regions. In addition, the revision of the original collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. holmenii</span> from Kazakhstan shows that this taxon is conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">O. scanicum</span>. However, the name <span style="font-style: italic;">scanicum </span>is older than <span style="font-style: italic;">holmenii</span>. Today <span style="font-style: italic;">O. scanicum</span> appears to occur throughout a wide circum-Tethyan area, including southern and Eastern Europe (Garilleti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999; Lara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, 2003), northern Africa (Garilleti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Draper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Turkey (Erdag <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and Georgia. However, it also spans a great part of central Europe and southern Fennoscandia, even if the subpopulations in some of these areas have vanished in recent years. It seems to have its optimum centre of occurrence in the mountainous areas of the Mediterranean Region, where it is frequent and abundant and colonizes several phorophytes (Draper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Erdag <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004; Garilleti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999; Lara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, 2003).<br/><br/>Since the initial evaluation of the conservation status of this species our knowledge of the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. scanicum</span> has remarkably improved. It has been collected in many new localities and re-found at other ones. Moreover, the size of several known populations is significant, so it seems that previous considerations were based on imperfect knowledge regarding its status.
39181		habitat	eng	It grows on trunks and branches of conifers as well as broad-leaf deciduous trees; is very rarely found on rocks (Garilleti <em>et al</em>. 1999).
39181		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">O. scanicum</span><span style=""> is no longer considered a rare moss in the mountains of the Mediterranean and the Caucasian regions, as it can be locally abundant in some forests, such as those of the Rif mountains in Morocco (Draper <span style="font-style: italic;">et a</span><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2003), or frequent in large areas, such as the Pyrenees (Garilleti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), northern Greece (Lara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) or northern Turkey (Erdag <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). However, in northern Europe it is still very rare and has not yet recovered from past decline.
39181		threats	eng	Although there were past threats to this species in the northern European part of its range (logging and pollution), in the southern and eastern parts of its range there are no significant threats.
39182		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality in Kansas.
39182		habitat	eng	Strongly calcareous, porous rock outcrop ledges charged with moisture, surrounded by prairie.
39182		threats	eng	Cattle grazing and human disturbance.
39183		distribution	eng	Known from three counties in Kansas.
39183		habitat	eng	Quartz pebbles in sandy Pleistocene gravel covered partly by the persistent protonema of this species.
39183		threats	eng	Because of its rarity, the populations are now severely threatened by over collection and also by cattle grazing in the area.
39185		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities in Sagara Ridge of West Usambara Mts. and Uzungwe Mts.
39185		habitat	eng	Epiphyte on branches in mossy montane forest.
39185		threats	eng	Illegal deforestation.
39186		distribution	eng	Less than ten localities are known in Honshu.  It has disappeared from at least one of these (the type locality) by cutting of host trees.  The others are only small colonies.
39186		habitat	eng	Grows on the bark of <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> (it may occasionally also grow on the bark of pines; <em>Pinus</em> spp.) in gardens of Buddhist temples, shinto shrines and old castles.
39186		threats	eng	The subpopulation at the type locality has disappeared because the trees have been felled or damaged by typhoons.  At the remaining sites the growth is threatened by tree removal, most of the sites being very close to human settlements.
39187		conservation	eng	Protection of the forest at the two known localities is needed. Attempts are required to relocate this species and to survey the population to get more up-tio-date information on its status.
39187		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities (one collection from each locality): First the type locality:&#160; Southern Mexico, Oaxaca, Sierra Juarez above Valle Nacional, Route 175, cloud forest near km 96. Here it was reported as an epiphyte in cloud forest, on tree branches and trunk of Clethra.  Last observed year: 1964.<br/><br/>The second locality is: southern Mexico, Oaxaca, slopes at the pass above Llano de las Flores, on the road between Ixtlán de Juárez and Tuxtepec. Trunk of Clethra, 2,743 m a.s.l. Last observed year: 1966.
39187		habitat	eng	Grows on the tree bark of <span style="font-style: italic;">Clethra</span> sp. in forested ravines in cloud forest belt (2,700 to 3,000 m.asl).
39187		population	eng	Probably there are less than 100 trees (=phorophytes) which have this species as an epiphyte. Species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Acritodon </span>usually grow in very small patches on the mossy lower part of the tree trunk.
39187		threats	eng	The whole area where the two localities are located are still continuously disturbed by timber-cutting, road construction and cattle raising. The species was last seen in 1966.
39189		distribution	eng	Found in Nepal, Sikkim, Xizang, Yunnan and Aleutian Islands (the largest subpopulation).
39189		habitat	eng	On shaded, damp cliffs and very wet ground with late snow cover.
39189		threats	eng	Human activities.
39190		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to less than five locations in Madeira.
39190		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in permanently wet habitats, such as dripping rocks or waterfalls above 1,000 m.
39190		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the expansion of agriculture and grazing.
39191		conservation	eng	The only locality is in a nature reserve.
39191		distribution	eng	Only one locality in Derbyshire, England.
39191		habitat	eng	Shaded cliff beside a calcareous spring or on limestone in a stream.
39191		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to disturbance from a possible new footpath, rock-climbers and cavers, collection by bryologists. Any pollution of the spring in which it grows may also threaten it. Possibly the greatest threat is desiccation caused by extensive periods of drought when the spring does not flow.
39192		distribution	eng	Western Himalayas: Himchal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.  Recorded from several localities at 1,000–2,500 m a.s.l., but has disappeared from some of them.
39192		habitat	eng	Moist rocks between 1,000 and 2,500 m
39198		distribution	eng	Known from two localities in Sikkim and one in Nepal.
39198		habitat	eng	Epiphytic on bark in montane forest at 3,650–4,000 m.
39198		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.  Therefore, following the precautionary principle, we consider it important to highlight the species on the Red List.
39199		distribution	eng	Several old localities are known but it has disappeared from most of these in Europe; very few sites are unspoiled today except for several recently found sites in northern Asia (Siberia, Chukotka, Kamchatka, Manchuria) where it may be more common than is currently known.
39199		habitat	eng	In fens and mires.
39199		threats	eng	Habitat destruction by drainage, flooding for reservoirs, forest planting and cattle grazing.
39200		distribution	eng	Taiwan, five localities; Yunnan; Bhutan, one locality;  recently found in East Nepal.  A subspecies <em>villosum</em> Schust. has recently been separated and the Himalayan (and probably also the Yunnan) specimens belong to this subspecies. while the subpopulations on Taiwan belong to subspecies <em>speciosum</em>.
39200		habitat	eng	In Taiwan occurring on forest floor at 2,000–2,400 m asl.  In Bhutan on a damp mossy log in a shady ravine in wet mixed broad-leaved forest.
39201		distribution	eng	Southern Japan. Formerly known from three localities. It is currently known only from one of these sites.
39201		habitat	eng	Epiphyte in evergreen forest.
39201		threats	eng	Deforestation of evergreen forest in the vicinity and the subsequent changes in humidity and light conditions.
39202		distribution	eng	South part of New Caledonia.  Known only from three localities within a small area, 580–880 m a.s.l.
39202		habitat	eng	On rotten logs and bark in moist forest.
39202		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.  Since neither sexual nor asexual reproduction has been found the future of this species is by no means assured.
39203		distribution	eng	Known from only one locality in the southern part of Bhutan.
39203		habitat	eng	On crumbling shaded rock faces in subtropical forest.
39203		threats	eng	Deforestation and other human activities.
39204		distribution	eng	Only known from the type specimen in Zhejiang province.
39204		habitat	eng	Humid forest, 300 m a.s.l.
39204		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by rapid development resulting from growth in the tourism industry.
39206		distribution	eng	Three localities in East Nepal and one in Bhutan.
39206		habitat	eng	On trunks of <em>Juniperus</em> in damp <em>Abies</em>/<em>Juniperus</em> forests.
39206		threats	eng	Deforestation.
39207		distribution	eng	Known from five localities.
39207		habitat	eng	On tree trunks in montane Araucaria forests.
39207		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39208		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection.
39208		habitat	eng	On tree bark in humid rainforest, 450 m a.s.l.
39208		threats	eng	Habitat destroyed by a hurricane.
39210		distribution	eng	Kalimantan and two localities in Sarawak.
39210		habitat	eng	Submontane rainforest.
39210		threats	eng	Deforestation.
39211		conservation	eng	Today, Madeira <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus </span>forest is under regional, national and international protection. It is included within the Natura 2000 Network and in 1999 was declared a World Natural Heritage site by UNESCO.
39211		distribution	eng	<span style=""></span>Restricted to the Canary islands (Tenerife- to Spain) (Bouman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988) and Madeira (to Portugal) (Bouman and Dirkse 1990). On Tenerife it is known from one locality (Mt Anaga, Pico do Limante) and on Madeira, it was known from nine localities in 2008 (M.Sim-Sim pers. comm.). All localities are very small both on Tenerife<span style=""> </span>and Madeira (G. Dirkse pers. comm.). Recorded to occur from 400 up to 1,000 m asl.
39211		habitat	eng	A leafy liverwort which occurs exclusively in ravines and on north slopes with old growth Laurel forest growing   on host trees like <em>Laurus novocanariensis, Ocotea foetens</em> and <em>Clethra arborea</em>. The Tenerife subpopulation was on shaded, humid rocks.
39211		population	eng	All subpopulations are very small and fragile. There are probably less than 1,000 mature individuals (including the sole site in Tenerife).
39211		threats	eng	This species live in a fragile ecosystem which is strongly dependent on rainfall and mist. Currently, the main threats to this species include anthropogenic activities, especially those related to ecological tourism, especially if not carefully implemented. These activities may contribute to changes in the microhabitat conditions and the vitality of this sensitive liverwort. Examples of the other tourist impacts relate to footpath management, which should take into account this species. The increase of rubbish and water nitrification by the tourist activity as well as destruction of habitats when opening new paths through the <em>Laurus </em>forest is a problem. Threats also include the destruction and opening-up of the native forests. Any management that disrupts the existing humidity and light regime in these forests, such as excessive tree-felling, may damage this species. Future climate change is also likely to impact this species.
39212		distribution	eng	Known from two localities and not seen since 1938.
39213		conservation	eng	<span style="">No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species. Further field surveys are required to determine the full range, population status and threats for this species.<br/></span>
39213		distribution	eng	This liverwort was described in 1936  from collections in the Murmansk Region, and for a long time was  considered to be an endemic plant of the Murmansk Region (Schljakov and Konstantinova 1982,  Buch and Tuomikoski 1936). Repeated attempts to find this species at the  type locality (Murmansk Oblast in the European part of Russia) have been unsuccessful (Schljakov 1973, Konstantinova 1992). Since then, however, it has been reported from the Kamchatka region (Central Kamchatka; the Primorsky Kray on the Sikhote-Alin mountain range) and South Siberia (mountain areas) in the Kluchevskoj national park. In total less than 15 extant localities within about five very disjunct locations are now known (Bakalin 2008, Konstantinova and Potemkin 1994, Sofronova and Potemkin 2000). [Source: Dulin 2009. Bryological Notes. <span style="font-style: italic;">Journal of Bryology</span> 31: 208.]
39213		habitat	eng	<em>Scapania sphaerifera</em> has mainly been found on acidic shaded boulder in ravines with high air humidity or on fine earth between boulders in rock fields (kurumy), often associated with <em>Andreae rupestris,</em> <em>Anastrophyllum saxicola, Macrodiplophyllum microdontum, </em>and <em>Tritomaria quinquedentata.</em>
39213		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends, but is presumed to be commoner than the original records suggested.
39213		threats	eng	<span style="">The species is not considered to be safe at any of the known localities and may even have been lost from one area. The threats are not known, but it is assumed to be the impacts of&#160; human activities. Climate change may also pose a future threat, especially the increasing occurrence of droughts.<br/></span>
39214		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality in West Sepik Province.
39214		habitat	eng	On fallen trunks in undisturbed tropical rainforest, 800–1,050 m asl.
39214		threats	eng	Mining of copper and logging activities.
39215		distribution	eng	One locality in Yunnan and one in Bhutan.
39215		habitat	eng	In Yunnan, on plant stems in monsoon forest and in Bhutan on a damp mossy log in a shaded ravine in wet mixed broad-leaved forest.
39215		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39216		conservation	eng	No site with this species is protected in the Himalayas. An attempt to transplant the species to a bryophyte garden in Kumaon failed because of lack of funds for maintenance.
39216		distribution	eng	A monotypic species occurring mainly in the Western Himalayas; known from the Kumaon region in India (North-West Himalaya: Mussoorie, Simla, Kuku, Dulchi Pass) and recently (2010) from China (Sichuan).
39216		habitat	eng	The species occurs   on dry exposed slopes, meso-xerophytic, on moist mud-capped rocks in mixed oak forest (<em>Quercus leucotrichophora </em>A.Camus and <em>Q. incana </em>Roxb.) on hillsides between 2,000 and 2,950 m asl.
39216		population	eng	At each site the species occurs in small patches (less than 200 plants at each). Before   1929 (  Kashyap 1929) it was considered as fairly common in the region, however, today it is very rare.
39216		threats	eng	<p>The main causes of decline are habitat destruction through deforestation, development, and destruction of hillsides due to widening of roads. The species also seems to have a low reproductive capacity (Udar and Srivastava 1983).</p><p></p>
39217		distribution	eng	The only two recent localities are found in Austria.
39217		habitat	eng	Clay–loam soils in open areas.  Seems to be restricted to crop fields (primary habitat unknown).
39217		threats	eng	Its habitat has undergone drastic changes due to changes in agricultural practices.
39218		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Japan as CR/EN (in 2007) and hopefully some conservation actions will be undertaken to prevent this species from becoming extinct in Japan.
39218		distribution	eng	Recorded from Taiwan, central Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Tokunoshima Island, Yakushima Island, Nansei-shoto (Ryukyu islands) and Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands and Kusaie (Federated States of Micronesia). According to the herbarium in Canberra <span style="font-style: italic;">D. japonicus</span> has also been found on Norfolk Island (Australia) in 1995, however, according to experts on this genus in the region, this is an incorrect identification.
39218		habitat	eng	Grows on tree-trunks or (more seldom) on rocks in temperate and subtropical evergreen forest.
39218		population	eng	There is a population decrease of this species in Japan because of habitat loss.
39218		threats	eng	Threatened by deforestation and forest degradation. The local range in Japan has decreased considerably through the destruction of its habitat. Several human activities are disturbing the existing humidity and light which are both potentially damaging to this species. It has been recorded in 11 prefectures in Japan, however. Dr. T. Furuki (pers. comm.) could not confirm its growth in two prefectures when he was preparing the account of this species for the Japanese Plants Red Data Book.
39219		conservation	eng	One locality (Cocos Islands) in a nature reserve.
39219		distribution	eng	Three localities on the mainland and one recently found in a nature reserve on Cocos Island.
39219		habitat	eng	Epiphytic on trunks in rainforest.
39219		threats	eng	Few localities makes it vulnerable to stochastic events.
39220		distribution	eng	Four localities in the Orient province in east Cuba.
39220		habitat	eng	On bark and rotten logs in undisturbed lower montane rainforest.
39220		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39221		distribution	eng	Found in less than five localities at the foot of Mt. Roraima.
39221		habitat	eng	On rotten logs in periodically flooded, riverine forest and in dense, submontane "mossy" forest between 550 and 1,550 m.
39221		threats	eng	Small distribution area.
39223		distribution	eng	Western Himalayas: Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, 1,000–2,700 m asl.
39223		habitat	eng	Exposed soil.
39223		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to urbanization.
39224		distribution	eng	Known from two localities in Southeast of the country (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States).  Not found since 1922.
39224		habitat	eng	Epiphyllous in old-growth rainforest.
39224		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39225		conservation	eng	Protection of the forest stands at each of the known sites is needed.
39225		distribution	eng	When the previous assessment of this species was done, it was only known from the type specimen found in 1957 in Chocó Department (isotype). However, since 2000 it has   also been found at four additional localities. One in the southern Colombian Amazon (Ruiz-Agudelo and Aguirre 2004), the second in the middle Amazonian basin in Manaus, Brazil (Zartman 2003), and the third in eastern Amazon area more than 3,000 km east of the previous report (Ilkiu-Borges 2000). The most recent fourth site is   Tutunendo, Colombia, located in the centre of the Choco region (5°45'27" N, 76°31'13" W) with an elevation of approximately 100 m.
39225		habitat	eng	A very small epiphyllous species found growing in old-growth lowland rainforest (várzea forest in Brazil) Recent collections from the Choco area (Colombia) were made in secondary forest, so the species appears to be tolerant of some disturbance.
39225		population	eng	<span style="">We have no information about population sizes or trends.<br/></span>
39225		threats	eng	Habitat destruction. All sites are situated in unprotected lowland rain forest. The species depends on living trees for its survival. When forest are clear-cut the local population is lost. Even if it has been found also in a secondary forest, primary forest is still the major habitat for the main population in order to survive. Logging of lowland rain forest continues across the entire area of its distribution.
39226		distribution	eng	Only one extant locality known in El Ríos Department, western Ecuador.
39226		habitat	eng	The original habitat was lowland evergreen forest, however, today remaining just on the trunks of five old cocoa trees in a site close to remnant natural forest in the bottom of a narrow valley and influenced by periodically inundation.
39226		threats	eng	Destruction of nearby lowland evergreen forest.
39227		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in Cauca Department.
39227		habitat	eng	Epiphyllous in montane forest.
39227		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39228		distribution	eng	Along the Rio Topo in the Amazonian sector.  Known only from the type collection made in 1857.  Recent efforts to relocate the species have been unsuccessful.
39228		habitat	eng	On twigs of shrubs located near streams in undisturbed rainforest areas, about 1,000 m.
39228		threats	eng	Deforestation and deterioration of water courses.
39229		distribution	eng	Found only once since 1900 (1996) on Réunion island.  The only locations previous to that are in Northern Madagascar.
39229		habitat	eng	Epiphyte in rainforest.
39230		distribution	eng	Only known from the type specimen.
39230		habitat	eng	Epiphyllous.
39230		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39232		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas, but given its wide range, this is very likely.
39232		distribution	eng	This species has a fairly wide range in Meso-America and northern South America being recorded from Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia (five localities), and Peru.
39232		habitat	eng	Grows on dead wood in lowland to submontane forest in tropical zone.
39232		population	eng	The species is probably not declining.
39232		threats	eng	<span style="">No immediate threats known although there is likley to be some loss of habitat due to logging and agricultural activities in parts of its range<br/></span>
39233		distribution	eng	Known from two nearby localities in east Usambara Mountains.
39233		habitat	eng	Epiphyllous on ferns in mountain forests.
39233		threats	eng	Deforestation.
39234		conservation	eng	The two recently reported localities in mainland China are in a protected area. However, the protection must be stricter and more awareness about epiphylous species in the park should be generated.
39234		distribution	eng	Known from the type locality in Taiwan (not seen since 1934 and so possibly extinct there) and two recently discovered localities in mainland China (Zhejiang Province).
39234		habitat	eng	An epiphyllous and epiphytic species growing on leaves and bark on tree trunks in forest. There is a decline in habitat quality and extent in all the known localities.
39234		population	eng	The subpopulations are very small, containing few individuals.
39234		threats	eng	Even if the land area where the two known sites are located is protected, the forest quality in those two parks is decreasing and other habitats disturbance continue to be a problem because of ill-planned public construction work.
39235		distribution	eng	Two localities in Northern Madagascar.
39235		habitat	eng	On bark of stems and dead wood in undisturbed lowland rainforest.
39235		threats	eng	Deforestation.
39236		distribution	eng	Found in less than five localities in Northeast Madagascar and the Seychelles.
39236		habitat	eng	On bark in lowland rainforest.
39237		distribution	eng	It is currently known from three localities in Belize and Costa Rica.  Four old records are known from Guatemala, Belize and Panama.
39237		habitat	eng	Shade epiphyte in undisturbed wet lowland rainforest.
39237		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39238		distribution	eng	Known from three localities in Luzon island.
39238		habitat	eng	Epiphyllous in evergreen forest.
39238		threats	eng	Extensive logging and agricultural expansion.
39241		distribution	eng	East Madeira in a restricted area.
39241		habitat	eng	On volcanic deposits near cliffs exposed to the sea.
39241		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39242		conservation	eng	Only one of the sites lies within a protected area (the Santa Rosa Plateau Ecological Reserve in southern California). Attempts should be made to see if any other subpopulations still exist and to provide those sites with the necessary protection to safeguard this species.
39242		distribution	eng	Endemic to the immediate vicinity of San Diego, California, USA. Wolery and Doyle (1969) conducted extensive searches for this taxon in the wild, and found eight subpopulations in this small area. Since then, the human population of the San Diego urban area has doubled (1,358,000 in the 1970 census, 2,498,000 in the 1990 census estimated population ca. 2,800,000 in 1994). Consequently, the whole native range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Geothallus </span>has been subjected to rapid, intense urban development. Tomas Hallingbäck (pers. comm.) looked for it in March 2009 at Riverside County, Santa Rosa Plateau Ecological Reserve in the Santa Ana Mountains where Doyle had found it relatively recently (in year 2000). The site is still intact, however, the size of the population is very small (less than 10 patches).
39242		habitat	eng	The Santa Rosa Plateau Ecological Reserve is cooperatively managed by The Nature Conservancy. The Reserve contains basalt-capped mesas, granite outcrops, vernal pools, riparian areas with deep year-round water-filled holes, oak woodlands, native grasslands, coastal sage scrub, and chaparral. Populations were found both in the Reserve and across the road in the Sylvan Meadows Ranch, previously under private ownership, but recently purchased to be part of the Reserve Open Space. The presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. tuberosus</span> in the Reserve is a range extension to the north of about 110 km. More significantly, however, these populations are protected from habitat destruction by urbanization. The best site seem to be the margins of wet areas, for example, along Waterline Road.
39242		population	eng	In 2009, the population size was estimated to comprise a minimum of 10 mature individuals, a maximum of 1,000, and a best estimate of most likely 500 mature individuals.
39242		threats	eng	The species is very sensitive to habitat destruction by urbanization or drainage. It needs semi-shaded places with moist soil.
39243		conservation	eng	The recently discovered new locality is in an ecological reserve without any immediate human threat.
39243		distribution	eng	California: Known from seven localities within one small region around San Diego (some of them, however, having been recently destroyed), plus a recent one on Santa Rosa Plateau, approximately 110 km north of the localities around San Diego.
39243		habitat	eng	Under shade of coastal sage brush.  Appears to be associated with <em>Geothallus tuberosus</em>.
39243		threats	eng	Most localities are within urbanised areas and are therefore threatened by urban development.
39244		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality in Tasmania.
39244		habitat	eng	On rotten logs in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus delegatensis</em>.
39244		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.
39245		conservation	eng	The species is included on the Appendix I of the Bern Convention and on Annex 2 of the EC Habitats and Species Directive. The species is the only European species in the genus.<br/><br/>It urgently needs protection, through the designation of SACs. Important that the remaining sites are protected. The sites also need regular monitoring to ensure survival of the species. If it decreases in extent, transplanting of some individuals to some of the other localities could be considered. A small amount should be taken into cultivation for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation.
39245		distribution	eng	<span style="">Has a very widespread but highly scattered and disjunct range being recorded from localities in Europe, </span><span style="">China and Japan.</span><span style=""><br/><br/>In Germany it is nationally red listed as Endangered; it is known to be extant at one site only and there have been repeated unsuccessful searches searched at other older known sites (Lübenau-Nestle pers. comm. 1998). One of the old sites was recently destroyed by road construction. In Switzerland it is considered to be Extinct in the Wild (one site known, last observation in 1981). In Austria considered as Extinct in the Wild, with two old sites. Outside Europe found in Japan (one site </span><span style="">Honshu)</span><span style=""> and China (two sites: </span><span style="">Sichuan and Hunan</span><span style="">).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/></span>
39245		habitat	eng	Grows on wet <span style="">calcareous </span>cliffs in wooded ravines and on tree trunks in deciduous forest in mountains.
39245		population	eng	All known populations are very small. At all the European sites, the subpopulations have decreased over historic time.
39245		threats	eng	Seems to be very sensitive to subtle changes of habitat conditions, for example lowering of air humidity and increased air pollution.
39246		conservation	eng	<span style="">The species is not known to occur in any protected areas and no conservation measures are in place for it at all.<br/></span>
39246		distribution	eng	<span style=""></span><span style="">This species is confined to only a few localities </span>on the main island of New Caledonia; it has been recorded from <span style="">the </span>Plateau de Dogny, Forêt de Tao and from Mt Panie.<br/><br/>The island was visited in 2010 by Professor Dr Kjell Ivar Flatberg (a world expert on the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum</span>) and he recorded the species at two different locations. The largest location is Mt Panie where he found the taxon at three sites close to each other, probably the same area as where Z. Iwatsuki originally found it, but at somewhat lower altitudes. At the first of these sites on Mt Panie the species was on the southern side of a small river (20.56105° S, 164.78720° E) at ca. 500 m asl and it had a relatively large subpopulation size. The other two sites on Mt Panie were&#160; along small rivulets on percolated stones and boulders and was rather sparse at each site (20.55982° S, 164.78487° E), at ca. 550 m asl and (20.56070° S, 164.78160° E), at ca. 530 m asl.<br/><br/>He also found <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum novo-caledoniae</span> on the Plateau de Dogny (21.61798° S, 165.88229° E) at ca. 930 m asl. However, this site was quite small and facing a rivulet border growing on a vertical wall of mixed silt and sand, with surprisingly no peat.
39246		habitat	eng	Grows on rocks and silt, in and along small streams in shaded forest between 530 m and 1,200 m.
39246		population	eng	The population is estimated to number about 100 mature individuals and is scarce to relatively common in the places where it is found. The population trend is not known.
39246		threats	eng	The main potential threat is pollution of stream water from either mining or agricultural activities
39247		distribution	eng	Few localities in southwestern Tasmania.
39247		habitat	eng	Buried in wet sandy soil in alluvial wash sites.
39247		threats	eng	Uncontrolled, intensive burning of the sedge vegetation.
39248		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single locality on Tenerife in the Canary Islands.
39248		habitat	eng	The plant grows submerged on rocks in a waterfall.
39248		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, although a change in waterflow or pollution of the river is a potential threat to the species.
39249		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the state of Sao Paulo (southeast Brazil) and known from only three localities, two from the 19th century and one from 1975.
39249		habitat	eng	A rheophyte, occurring in and along rivers.
39249		threats	eng	Deforestation and deterioration of water courses due to hydroelectric schemes and water pollution.
39250		conservation	eng	In Canada, three National Parks (Kluane, Nahanni and Ivvavik), covering 36,976 km², protect <em>ca.</em> 3,200 Dall’s sheep (i.e., <em>ca.</em> 12% of the estimated total Canadian population) from industrial development and sport-hunting. Territorial wildlife reserves include no provision for habitat protection, but <em>ca.</em> 2,700 Dall’s sheep within these reserves are off limits to non-aboriginal hunters. Protected areas in British Columbia are strictly managed to allow a limited harvest of thinhorn sheep. Management of thinhorn sheep populations involves regulating annual licensed harvests, habitat enhancement (usually through burning), limited predator control, and involvement in the environmental screening process with respect to access, mining, forestry and agriculture on crown land. Aboriginal peoples are permitted by Yukon and Northwest Territories Acts (1898) to hunt thinhorn sheep for subsistence purposes within and outside national and territorial parks, and wildlife reserves. Similar treaty rights were granted to aboriginal people in northeastern British Columbia in 1906. A recent federal court ruling in British Columbia has inferred that all Canadian Indians have subsistence rights, subject to conservation considerations. Outside national parks, licensed harvest of thinhorn sheep is regulated by territorial or provincial wildlife acts and associated regulations. Status Indians are not required to possess a hunting license. Only in Yukon is the aboriginal sheep harvest systematically estimated, and overall, it is believed to be minimal. Adult males with horns of 4/5 curl (Northwest Territories) or full curl (Yukon and British Columbia) can be hunted by non-aboriginal hunters under license, with mandatory reporting of kills. Wildlife regulations can be amended annually with ministerial consent, and are strictly enforced. Typically, trends in the number and age of males killed by licensed hunters provide the basis for more restrictive management. Quotas or limited-entry hunting, that set a ceiling on the harvest or ‘which restrict hunting opportunities, have been implemented in some areas to further control hunting pressure. The licensed annual harvest of thinhorn sheep typically averages 280 in Yukon (Hoefs and Barichello, 1985), 200 in the Northwest Territories (Poole and Graf, 1985) and 500 in British Columbia (J. Elliot, unpubl. data). Guided, non-resident hunters account for about 70% of the total licensed thinhorn sheep harvest.<br/><br/>In the United States, Dall’s sheep occurs in eight Federal protected areas in Alaska: Denali, Gates of the Arctic, Lake Clark, Noatak, and Wrangell-St. Elias National Parks; Arctic, Kenai, and Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuges; and Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve. Seven of these areas are among the largest such reserves in the United States. About 70% of all Dall’s sheep in Alaska occur in hunted areas. Most harvest is regulated by the state, though federal regulations are being used for some federal lands. Under Alaska Department of Fish and Game regulations, most harvesting of Dall’s sheep is conservative, with only mature males being hunted. Dall’s sheep are prized as big game trophies. Primarily males are hunted, with around 1,200 to 1,300 mature males taken each year. Native subsistence hunting is allowed in some areas and may threaten local populations. The Department monitors populations, and with other agencies, conducts research on the species. Dall’s sheep is rated secure in the US because it is abundant, widely distributed throughout its native range, and occurs in many areas protected such as national parks, preserves, and wildlife refuges.
39250		distribution	eng	This species is found in the United States (Alaska), through to northern British Columbia, Yukon, and Northwest Territories (Canada). <br/><br/>Thinhorn sheep are represented by two subspecies in Canada. Dall’s sheep (<em>O. d. dalli</em>) occurs west of the Mackenzie River throughout the Richardson and the Mackenzie mountains on the Yukon-Northwest Territories border, throughout the mountainous regions in Yukon, and south into the extreme northwest corner of British Columbia. Stone’s sheep (<em>O. d. stonei</em>) is found only in Canada, and here its range extends from an area of integration with Dall’s sheep in south-central Yukon (Cassiar and Pelly mountains, MacArthur ranges, and White Mountains), south to the Cassiar range (<em>ca.</em> 56° N) in British Columbia. In Alaska, Dall’s sheep occupies drier areas of the Kenai, Chugach, Wrangell, and Talkeeetna mountains, and the Alaska and Brooks ranges. Scattered populations also occur in the low mountains between the Tanana and Yukon rivers. Separate herds are not usually identified in these large areas.  A recent genetic analysis has confirmed the presence of two subspecies (Worley <em>et al</em>. 2004).
39250		habitat	eng	This species has broad habitat preferences in the arctic and sub-arctic regions but occurs mostly in high mountain ranges. They typically inhabit dry mountainous regions and select subalpine grasslands and shrublands (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992). They are dependent upon steep, rugged cliffs and outcrops that provide escape terrain from predators. They use nearby open grass and meadows for feeding. In winter they prefer areas with light snowfall and strong winds that remove snow and expose forage (Nichols and Bunnell, 1999). Most populations occupy distinct summer and winter ranges, although some are sedentary. Migrations are correlated with snow depth, temperature and plant phenology. Most of the year is spent in the winter range in wind-swept areas that expose forage (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992).<br/><br/>Adult males can occupy six seasonal home ranges: pre-rutting, rutting, midwinter, late winter and spring, salt-lick, and summer (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992). Females usually have four ranges: winter, spring, lambing, and summer. Lambs inherit home ranges from older individuals and they return annually to these inherited ranges (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992).There seems to be no competition with other ungulates in their ranges for food or space. Wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) prey on the sheep in regions where their ranges overlap and may decrease the populations severely if no other prey is available. Coyotes (<em>Canis latrans</em>), golden eagles (<em>Aquila chrysaetos), grizzly bears (<em>Ursus arctos</em>), and wolverines (<em>Gulo gulo</em>) are also predators. Deaths from accidental falls and avalanches are also common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Deep snow, low temperatures, high population density, disease, low-quality forage, and predation are primary sources of mortality, especially among lambs (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992).
39250		population	eng	The total population of thinhorn sheep in Canada is <em>ca.</em> 41,500 animals. Of this total, 27,000 are Dall’s sheep (with 19,000 in the Yukon (Hoefs and Barichello, 1985), 7,500 in the Northwest Territories (Poole and Graf, 1985; unpubl. data), and 500 in British Columbia (J. Elliot, <em>in litt.</em> to D. Hebert)), and 14,500 Stone’s sheep (with 3,000 in the Yukon (Hoefs and Barichello, 1985), and 11,500 in British Columbia (J. Elliot, <em>in litt.</em> to D. Hebert)). The total U.S. population is estimated at 70,000 to 75,000 animals.
39250		threats	eng	This species is primarily affected by hunting, both for sport and subsistence, but for the most part this is tightly managed, and hunting is not believed to constitute an overall threat to the species.
39255		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>balcanica</em> is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive, and subspecies <em>tatrica</em> is listed on Annexes II* and IV. Chamois occur in a number of protected areas. Subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> has been subject to intensive conservation management, including reintroductions. Detailed conservation recommendations are given in Shackleton (1997). In general, conservation recommendations that apply to all subspecies include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and awareness-raising, and provision of alternative livelihoods where necessary), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and protecting the genetic integrity of populations (by avoiding translocations of 'foreign' subspecies that could hybridise with the local population) (Shackleton 1997). Monitoring of all subspecies is required, especially those that are rare and/or declining. <br/><br/>To protect the High Tatras subspecies, Jurdíková (2000) recommends reducing illegal hunting (by closing and guarding parts of the western Tatra mountains). <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> introduced into Slovakia (e.g. the Lower Tatras National Park) should be removed as they pose a threat to the wild population of <em>R. r. tatrica</em> (Shackleton 1997).
39255		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The subspecies <em>balcanica</em> is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and subspecies <em>tatrica</em> is listed on Annexes II* and IV. Chamois occur in many protected areas. The subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> has been subject to intensive conservation management, including r-eintroductions. Detailed conservation recommendations for the species were given in Shackleton (1997). In general, conservation recommendations that apply to all subspecies include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and awareness-raising, and provision of alternative livelihoods where necessary), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and protecting the genetic integrity of populations (by avoiding translocations of 'foreign' subspecies that could hybridise with the local population) (Shackleton 1997). Monitoring of all subspecies is required, especially those that are rare and/or declining. <br/><br/>To protect the High Tatras subspecies, Jurdíková (2000) recommends reducing illegal hunting (by closing and guarding parts of the western Tatra mountains). <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> introduced into Slovakia (e.g. the Lower Tatras National Park) should be removed as they pose a threat to the wild population of <em>R. r. tatrica</em> (Shackleton 1997).
39255		distribution	eng	The Alpine chamois is native to mountainous parts of central and southern Europe and Asia Minor, where it occurs as  seven subspecies: <em>balcanica</em>, <em>carpatica</em>, <em>cartusiana</em>, <em>rupicapra</em>, <em>tatrica</em>, <em>asiatica </em>and <em>caucasica</em>(Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). It has been introduced to Argentina and New Zealand. Subspecies <em>balcanica</em> inhabits most of the mountain regions of Albania, as well as Bulgaria's four main massifs. In Greece, it is currently restricted to 11 mountains, and comprising at least six distinct and widely scattered population groups from Mount Rodopi in the northeast and the Epirus mountains in the northwest, to Mount Giona in central Greece (Shackleton 1997). Subspecies <em>carpatica</em> occurs in many populations throughout the Transylvania alps and the Carpathian mountains. There have been a number of successful reintroductions (Shackleton 1997). Subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> is endemic to France, where it is restricted to a 350 km<sup>2 </sup>area of the Chartreuse limestone massif, centred around Grenoble, at the western edge of the French Alps. Subspecies <em>rupicapra </em>is found in the Alps of Austria, Germany, and eastern France, and subspecies <em>tatrica </em>occurs in the Tatra mountains of Poland and Slovakia. In Slovakia, it has also been introduced to the Low Tatras (Shackleton 1997). <em>R. r. asiatica </em>occurs in Asia Minor and <em>R. r. caucasica </em>has a restricted range in the Caucasus. It occurs from 500 m to 3,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).
39255		distribution	eng	The northern chamois is native to mountainous parts of central and southern Europe and Asia Minor, where it occurs as  seven subspecies: <em>balcanica</em>, <em>carpatica</em>, <em>cartusiana</em>, <em>rupicapra</em>, <em>tatrica</em>, <em>asiatica </em>and <em>caucasica</em>(Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). It occurs from 500 m to 3,100 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002). It has been introduced to Argentina and New Zealand (not mapped). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>asiatica </em>occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Turkey.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>balcanica</em> inhabits most of the mountain regions of Albania, as well as Bulgaria's four main massifs. In Greece, it is currently restricted to 11 mountains, and comprising at least six distinct and widely scattered population groups from Mount Rodopi in the northeast and the Epirus mountains in the northwest, to Mount Giona in central Greece (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>carpatica</em> occurs in many populations throughout the Transylvania alps and the Carpathian mountains. There have been a number of successful re-introductions (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> is endemic to France, where it is restricted to a 350 km<sup>2 </sup>area of the Chartreuse limestone massif, centred around Grenoble, at the western edge of the French Alps. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>caucasica</em> is restricted to the Caucasus Mountains in southern Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. It occurs on both sides of the Greater Caucasus from just east of Pshada River near Gelendjik, southeast for about 900 km to Mount Babadag in Azerbaijan (Alekperov <em>et al</em>., 1976; Durov, 1977). Although still relatively continuously distributed, it becomes increasingly less numerous east of North Ossetia, particularly in Daghestan, and more occur on the southern slopes in Azerbaijan than on northern ones. However, its range in the Greater Caucasus is beginning to fragment all over. In the Caucasus Minor, populations are scattered and isolated, and are confined mainly to the Meskhet and Trialeti ridges in Georgia, which are the wetter parts of the Caucasus Minor.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>rupicapra </em>is found in the Alps of Austria, Germany, and eastern France. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>tatrica </em>occurs in the Tatra mountains of Poland and Slovakia. In Slovakia, it has also been introduced to the Low Tatras (Shackleton 1997).
39255		habitat	eng	Alpine chamois inhabit steep, rocky areas in the mountains, utilising a variety of habitats including alpine meadows, open rocky areas, mixed broadleaf woodland, and coniferous woodland (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). They feed on grasses and herbs, and on the leaves of trees (Sägesser and Krapp 1986).
39255		habitat	eng	Alpine chamois inhabit steep, rocky areas in the mountains, utilizing a variety of habitats including alpine meadows, open rocky areas, mixed broadleaf woodland, and coniferous woodland (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). This species occupies rocky areas and alpine meadows, and feeds on grasses, herbs, leaves of trees, buds, shoots, and fungi (Sägesser and Krapp 1986). Females gestate for 170 days, and usually have 1 offspring per pregnancy.  Females are sexually mature at 2.5 years, while males mature 1-1.5 years later.  They live 14-22 years.  Females and young occur in flocks of 5-30 animals, while adult males remain solitary.
39255		population	eng	The Alpine chamois is widespread and generally increasing. Excluding the Caucasus population, there are an estimated 440,000 individuals in Europe, and in some protected areas densities may exceed 20 individuals per hectare (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, with the exception of the Alpine subspecies <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>, many subspecies are rare and/or declining: <br/><br/><em>R. r. asiatica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is believed to have undergone substantial declines (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. balcanica</em>: The total population numbers some thousands of individuals. Numbers are believed to be declining in all subpopulations (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/><em>R. r. carpatica</em>: In 1990, the total population was estimated to be around 9,000 animals (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/><em>R. r. cartusiana</em>: The population was estimated at 300 to 400 individuals in the 1970s, and 150 individuals in 1986-1987, but has since increased to c.2,000 individuals (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. caucasica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is declining and has virtually disappeared outside protected areas (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. rupicapra</em>: This subspecies is widespread and abundant in the Alps. The number of individuals culled per year in the Swiss Alps and Jura mountains has increased steadily from c.4,000 individuals in 1950 to c.17,000 individuals in 2000 (Loison <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em>R. r. tatrica</em>: The population was estimated at 220 in 1999 (Jurdíková 2000), and had dropped below 200 by 2002 (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have been declining steadily since the 1960s (Jurdíková 2000).
39255		population	eng	The northern chamois is widespread and generally increasing. Excluding the Caucasus population, there are an estimated 440,000 individuals in Europe, and in some protected areas densities may exceed 20 individuals per hectare (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, with the exception of the Alpine subspecies <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>, many subspecies are rare and/or declining: <br/><br/><em>R. r. asiatica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is believed to have undergone substantial declines.<br/><br/><em>R. r. balcanica</em>: The total population numbers some thousands of individuals. Numbers are believed to be declining in all subpopulations (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/><em>R. r. carpatica</em>: In 1990, the total population was estimated to be around 9,000 animals (Shackleton 1997). I. Coroui (pers. comm. 2006) confirmed that the population of this subspecies in Romania is increasing.<br/><br/><em>R. r. cartusiana</em>: The population was estimated at 300 to 400 individuals in the 1970s, and 150 individuals in 1986-1987, but has since increased to <em>c</em>. 2,000 individuals (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. caucasica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is declining and has virtually disappeared outside protected areas. The total population was estimated in the early 1990s to be <em>c</em>. 15,000 chamois, with about half in the western half of the Greater Caucasus and only ca. 500 in the Caucasus Minor. Of total chamois, an estimated 5,000 occur in Georgia. Numbers of this chamois have decreased drastically over the last 20 years throughout their range, and are still declining. Over the last two to three years, the decline has accelerated and numbers are believed to have been reduced by as much as 50% (P. Weinberg, unpubl. data).<br/><br/><em>R. r. rupicapra</em>: This subspecies comprises the bulk of the global northern chamois population, and is widespread and abundant in the Alps. The number of individuals culled per year in the Swiss Alps and Jura mountains has increased steadily from c.4,000 individuals in 1950 to c.17,000 individuals in 2000 (Loison <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em>R. r. tatrica</em>: The population was estimated at 220 in 1999 (Jurdíková 2000), and had dropped below 200 by 2002 (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have been declining steadily since the 1960s (Jurdíková 2000).
39255		threats	eng	Poaching and over-hunting may be a problem for the species in parts of its range, especially where it occurs outside protected areas and private hunting reserves (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Many of the less numerous subspecies (e.g. <em>R. r. balcanica</em>, <em>R. r. cartusiana</em>, and <em>R. r. tatrica</em>) are threatened by the deliberate introduction of subspecies from other geographic areas (especially <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>), leading to hybridisation and genetic swamping (Shackleton 1997). Human disturbance, particularly as a result of increased tourism and leisure activities in mountain areas, may also be a problem (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Competition with domestic livestock and introduced species such as the mouflon <em>Ovis aries</em> is a threat to the more vulnerable subspecies, although it is not considered to be a major problem for <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>. <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> does, however, suffer periodic outbreaks of sarcoptic mange, causing local population declines (Shackleton 1997). In 2006 a new disease, pestivirus, was first recorded in this subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In general, habitat loss is not a major threat to the species, as much of its range falls within protected areas. However, habitat loss may be a problem in some areas (e.g. for subspecies <em>balcanica </em>in Albania) (Shackleton 1997). Because its population is very small indeed, subspecies <em>cartusiana </em>is susceptible to extinction as a result of stochastic demographic or environmental events (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).
39255		threats	eng	Poaching and over-hunting may be a problem for the species in parts of its range, especially where it occurs outside protected areas and private hunting reserves (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Many of the less numerous subspecies (e.g. <em>R. r. balcanica</em>, <em>R. r. cartusiana</em>, and <em>R. r. tatrica</em>) are threatened by the deliberate introduction of subspecies from other geographic areas (especially <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>), leading to hybridisation and genetic swamping (Shackleton 1997). Human disturbance, particularly as a result of increased tourism and leisure activities in mountain areas, may also be a problem (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Competition with domestic livestock and introduced species such as the mouflon <em>Ovis aries</em> is a threat to the more vulnerable subspecies, although it is not considered to be a major problem for <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>. <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> does, however, suffer periodic outbreaks of sarcoptic mange, causing local population declines (Shackleton 1997). In 2006 a new disease, pestivirus, was first recorded in this subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In general, habitat loss is not a major threat to the species, as much of its range falls within protected areas. However, habitat loss may be a problem in some areas (e.g. for subspecies <em>balcanica </em>in Albania) (Shackleton 1997). Because its population is very small indeed, subspecies <em>cartusiana </em>is susceptible to extinction as a result of stochastic demographic or environmental events (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra asiatica</em><br/>The main threats are poaching and competition with livestock, coupled with natural predation (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica</em><br/>In Albania, habitat loss is a major threat in some regions due to land demands from expanding human populations. There appears to be no competition from domestic livestock. Poaching does occur but the extent is not known. In Bulgaria, the major threat is hybridization with Alpine chamois. In Rhodope this is almost complete, and is also a potential danger at Rila. The Balkan population which has been isolated for about 100 years is still small and vulnerable, and poaching has not yet been eliminated. The majority of the populations in Rila and Pirin are not directly threatened, but neighbouring populations are potentially threatened by hybridization. Outside the protected areas, poaching remains a problem. In Greece, poaching facilitated by road developments, and predation by feral dogs are the main threats to chamois survival (Hatzirvassanis, 1991). Another serious threat is domestic livestock grazing which creates ecological competition and habitat loss, and all three threats occur both within and outside national parks (Hatzirvassanis, 1991; Tsunis, 1988). Forestry and tourist developments are the main causes of increased road construction, which in turn create access for poachers. In some areas, recreation activities may significantly disturb chamois (Adamakopoulos, in prep.).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra carpatica</em><br/>Grazing by domestic sheep in summer tends to disturb chamois causing them to be more dispersed. In some areas, high densities of these domestic animals create intense grazing pressure.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra cartusiana</em><br/>Many factors threaten this subspecies, and the most important include: food and space competition with domestic livestock, red deer and introduced mouflon; hybridization with introduced Alpine chamois; over-harvesting and poaching; forestry; summer tourism and winter cross-country skiers. <br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica</em><br/>Until recently, this chamois was common in the western half of the Greater Caucasus but very rare in Daghestan where they are often displaced by wild goats (<em>Capra aegagrus</em>). The reason for the decline in numbers in some populations, even in protected areas, is unknown, although outside of these areas, poaching related to political unrest is a major threat. In some areas, competition with domestic livestock is a problem, and competition with tur, red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), and roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>) is also possible.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra</em><br/>Sarcoptic mange is a problem in Austria and will continue to be so unless measures are taken to prevent its spread. There are also concerns about the relative over-harvesting of older males (e.g. Zeiler <em>et al</em>., 1990, 1992). Although not threatened overall in Germany, the small sub-alpine populations are vulnerable to poaching and stochastic events, and possibly to inbreeding depression. Disturbance acts as a major threat to small populations and has caused declines in some. Unless steps are taken to reverse this threat, declines will continue and most small populations are on the verge of extinction. Even large populations face threats. Numbers in the Bavarian Alps are currently decreasing due to sharply increased harvest rates. Tourist development has also affected many subpopulations negatively (e.g., disturbance, habitat isolation). In Italy, competition with introduced mouflon may cause problems for Alpine chamois in some parts of its range.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica</em><br/>Major threats include poaching, because access to firearms is now relatively easy, and disturbance and habitat loss caused by tourists. An estimated three million people visited Tatra National Park in 1990. In Slovakia, interbreeding with animals from introduced populations of Alpine chamois threaten one of the two remaining populations of <em>R. r. tatrica</em>. Both populations are relatively small and their effective population sizes may make the maintenance of genetic diversity and adaptability limited over the long-term.
39258		conservation	eng	Law 64-00, General Law on Environment and Natural Resources of the Dominican Republic establishes general protection for all its biodiversity, under articles 138 and 140. Article 139 gives protected status to all species considered endangered. Presidential Decree 801-02 reconfirms this protection for all wild reptile species and other taxa of the Dominican Republic. <br/> <br/>An intensive field survey is required to determine if this species still exists, and if so, to develop an appropriate species recovery and management plan.
39258		distribution	eng	Recorded from south-central Dominican Republic up to moderate elevations.
39258		habitat	eng	Presumed to be a burrowing species that occurs in mesic lowland broadleaf forest.
39258		population	eng	If still extant, has an extant of occurrence of < 100 km², an area of occupancy of < 10 km², and is presumably a single subpopulation of < 50 individuals.
39258		threats	eng	Threatened by loss of habitat, especially deforestation for agricultural activities (planting crops and creating pastures). This species may also be killed by local people who mistakenly consider these lizards to be venomous. Lizards are also killed by dogs, cats and mongooses. The introduction and spread of the mongoose on Hispaniola combined with habitat alteration, are most likely the proximate causes for the recent precipitous decline in giant species of <em>Celestus</em> (Powell and Henderson 2003).
39260		conservation	eng	Law 64-00, General Law on Environment and Natural Resources of the Dominican Republic establishes general protection for all its biodiversity, under articles 138 and 140. Article 139 gives protected status to all species considered endangered. Presidential Decree 801-02 reconfirms this protection for all wild reptile species and other taxa of the Dominican Republic. <br/> <br/>Field surveys are required to determine the remaining population size and distribution, so that a species recovery and management plan can be put in place.  Animals are being successfully captive bred at Nashville Zoo (McGinnity 2002). This captive breeding programme should be intensified or increased.
39260		distribution	eng	The entire distribution is on Hispaniola (northern Haiti and northern Dominican Republic) where it occurs up to moderate elevations.
39260		habitat	eng	Presumed to be a burrowing species that occurs in mesic lowland broadleaf forest. The captive longevity record is 11 years.  But this occurred at a time when the captive husbandry requirements for these species were poorly understood. Based on captive specimens it appears that sexual maturity is reached at 3–4 years of age.  A conservative estimate of generation time based on the known captive longevity record and age of sexual maturity from the captives would be 7 years.  However, it is probable that once more data is collected over time that this figure will be significantly larger.  McGinnity (pers. comm., 2003) believes these animals are long lived (25–30 years, maybe longer), but that we may not know this for sure for a very long time.
39260		population	eng	Most of the population appears to be in Haiti, and it appears that all the subpopulations in the Dominican Republic (those that constituted <em>C. carraui</em> may be largely extirpated. The last collection was of a female collected in the Puerto Plata area, but there are occasional reports of sightings made by local people (S.J. Incháustegui and M. Hernández, pers. comm. 2004). In Haiti, the species is known with confidence from only a single locality.
39260		threats	eng	Threatened by loss of habitat, especially deforestation for agricultural activities (planting crops and creating pastures). This species is killed by local people who mistakenly consider these lizards to be venomous (the species reportedly has significance in Voodoo religion). Lizards are also killed by dogs, cats and mongooses. The introduction and spread of the mongoose in Hispaniola combined with habitat alteration, are most likley the proximate causes for the recent precipitous decline in giant species of <em>Celestus</em> (Powell and Henderson 2003).
39262		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered by the state of Texas and by the Federal Government. There is a need for continued close monitoring of this species.
39262		distribution	eng	This species can be found in San Marcos Pool of the Edwards Aquifer, Hays County, south-central Texas, USA (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). They are unlikely to range beyond this region.
39262		habitat	eng	It can be found in water-filled subterranean caverns, and have been observed climbing rock surfaces or swimming in open water. In some sites it is known only from individuals washed out of artesian wells. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown in nature; however, this species has bred on several occasions in captivity, at the Dallas Aquarium at Fair Park, Cincinnati Zoo, Aquarena Centre (San Marcos), and San Marcos National Fish Hatchery and Technology Centre (L. Ables pers. comm.).
39262		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown. Individuals of this species still appear common in outflows of Diversion Spring, a pipe that carries outflows from the Edwards Aquifer at San Marcos Springs. However, numbers collected vary widely from year to year; currently, most individuals recovered are juveniles (Chippindale 2005).
39262		threats	eng	It is sensitive to changes in water quality and thus vulnerable to groundwater pollutants (Matthews and Moseley 1990). It is potentially threatened by falling groundwater levels that have resulted from increased pumping to support residential and commercial development in the region. Over collecting in the past (1960s) might have reduced populations in accessible locations.
39263		conservation	eng	It is listed as "threatened" by the state of Texas.
39263		distribution	eng	This species is apparently parapatric with <em>Eurycea rathbuni</em> in the San Marcos pool of the Balcones aquifer, in south-central Texas, USA. The type locality has been recorded as beneath the Blanco River, 178m asl, 5km north-east of Hays County Courthouse, San Marcos, Hays County, Texas.
39263		habitat	eng	This species apparently occurs in subterranean caves, and is completely aquatic and does not appear to metamorphose.
39263		population	eng	This species is known from four specimens observed in 1951. Two were eaten by a heron, two were preserved, and one of these is now lost (Potter 1963; Potter and Sweet 1981). Its current population status is unknown, although its subterranean aquatic habitat might be largely inaccessible to attempts to survey for it.
39263		threats	eng	The threats to this species are presumably aquifer degradation or depletion.
39270		conservation	eng	No information.
39270		distribution	eng	&#160;North, Baltic, White, Black (south to Rioni drainage) and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France; possibly introduced southward of Loire) and Mediterranean basin in France (Hérault and Rhône drainages). In Aral, Marmara and Anatolian Black Sea basins west of Ankara. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Italy, Adriatic basin, Crimea, Great Britain (except southeast), Scandinavia north of Sundsvall (Sweden) and 65°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Spain and northeastern Italy. In France apparently introduced in small coastal drainages of Var.
39270		distribution	eng	North, Baltic, White, Black (south to Rioni drainage) and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France; possibly introduced southward of Loire) and Mediterranean basin in France (Hérault and Rhône drainages). In Aral, Marmara and Anatolian Black Sea basins west of Ankara. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Italy, Adriatic basin, Crimea, Great Britain (except southeast), Scandinavia north of Sundsvall (Sweden) and 65°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Spain, northeastern Italy. In France apparently introduced in small coastal drainages of Var.
39270		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of shallow, warm lowland lakes and slow-flowing lower reaches of large rivers and canals. Often very abundant on bottom of large sandy rivers. Spawns along shores on submerged vegetation, roots or even on shallow gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predominantly nocturnal. Gregarious. Lives more than 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Most individuals spawn 2-3 times per season, at intervals of about 10 days and spawn in more than one year. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 15°C, in early morning. Eggs are sticky and larvae inhabit still water bodies. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Often hybridizes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Vimba vimba</span>. Most reported hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em> in fact are <em>A. brama</em> with pharyngeal teeth 2,5-5,2 (vs. usually 5-5).
39270		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of shallow, warm lowland lakes and slow-flowing lower reaches of large rivers and canals. Often very abundant on bottom of large sandy rivers. Spawns along shores on submerged vegetation, roots or even on shallow gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predominantly nocturnal. Gregarious. Lives more than 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Most individuals spawn 2-3 times per season, at intervals of about 10 days and spawn in more than one year. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 15°C, in early morning. Eggs are sticky and larvae inhabit still water bodies. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Often hybridizes with Vimba vimba. Most reported hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em> in fact are <em>A. brama</em> with pharyngeal teeth 2,5-5,2 (vs. usually 5-5).
39270		population	eng	Abundant.
39270		threats	eng	No major threats known.
39272		conservation	eng	None.
39272		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Axios river basin in Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and to the lower part of the Aliakmon, Strymon, and Pinios river basins in Greece. Also reported in the Karla river basin.
39272		habitat	eng	Lives in rivers, canals, ditches, and lakes. Does not appear to require clear waters.
39272		population	eng	No data.
39272		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, and habitat alteration.
39273		conservation	eng	None.
39273		distribution	eng	It is known only from the Cetina river basin and to the Livanjsko, Glamocko, and Grahovo Polje karsts in Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. It is possibly absent in the Cetina river basin (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm).
39273		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in the karst region.
39273		population	eng	Declining (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm)
39273		threats	eng	Water extraction, drought, water pollution (fertilizers and pesticides from intensive agriculture), dam construction and introduced fish species.
39274		conservation	eng	None.
39274		distribution	eng	It is restricted to endoreihic river systems in the karst region in Croatia including Jadova, Novcica, Ricica, Otuca and in Gacko Polje.
39274		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers in karst region and can be found in caves.
39274		population	eng	No data.
39274		threats	eng	Water pollution (from intensive agriculture), water extraction, dam construction and introduced alien species.
39276		conservation	eng	None.
39276		distribution	eng	It is restricted to karstic streams (e.g., Buna River) and springs in Popovo Polje, Ljubomirsko Polje, Dabarsko Polje and Fatnicko Polje and springs in coastal southern Dalmatia.
39276		habitat	eng	It lives in streams, springs and subterranean cavities.
39276		population	eng	No data.
39276		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, introduction of fish exotic species.
39277		conservation	eng	None.
39277		distribution	eng	It is restricted to karstic streams and springs in the Musica river, Nevesinjsko polje, Gatacko Polje, Cernicko Polje, Dabarsko Polje and Ljuta river in southern Dalmatia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
39277		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers, springs and caves in the karst region.
39277		population	eng	No data.
39277		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species (trout).
39280		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
39280		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the right-hand tributary of the Neretva river (Matica, Norin, Tihaljina and Trebizat rivres) and some polje karst (Imocko) in Bosnia-Hercegovina and in Croatia. It is also present in the Kuti lake and Bacena lake (Mrakovcic pers comm).
39280		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers of the karst region and in lakes.
39280		population	eng	No data.
39280		threats	eng	Water extraction and agricultural pollution (Mrakovcic pers comm).
39281		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
39281		distribution	eng	It is restricted to tributaries Lake Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was thought to have disappeared after the introduction of <em>Sander lucioperca</em>. However, in 1993 the species was found in one spring connected to the lake.
39281		habitat	eng	A small species. Occurs in brooks and springs. Prefers slow-moving water (not lacustrine).
39281		population	eng	In 1993, the species was caught from a spring connected with Egirdir Lake. However, it is no longer known from other tributaries of the lake.
39281		threats	eng	Introduction of exotic fish predator. In 1955 was introduced the Zander, <em>Sander lucioperca</em>. Three species of <em>Phoxinellus</em>, perfect prey for the Zander, totally disappeared 30 years later. <em>P. egridiri</em> was thought to have disappeared, but it was rediscovered in 1993 (Erk'akan, F. pers. comm).
39288		conservation	eng	None.
39288		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Strymon, Varda and Nestos river basins in northern Greece and Bulgaria. It is also reported to be present in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) but the actual distribution information was not obtained.
39288		habitat	eng	It is a small riverine species that prefers the larger streams and is not found in the smaller creeks. It is absent in channelised habitats and prefers the fast flowing water in mid-stream.
39288		population	eng	A non-commercial species for which there is little population data.
39288		threats	eng	Channelisation, modification of stream morphology, water abstraction, pollution and dams.
39290		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Çaysuyu Stream in Turkey.
39290		habitat	eng	Inhabits highland water courses.
39296		habitat	eng	Cave-dwelling species.
39300		conservation	eng	None known.
39300		distribution	eng	The holotype of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. boueti</span>, type species of the monotypic genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Typhlosynbranchus</span> Pellegrin, 1922, junior synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Monopterus</span>, has been caught in the surroundings of Monrovia (Liberia), in a small freshwater rivulet flowing into a swamp, at a distance of 2 or 3 km from the sea
39300		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 34.0 cm TL maximum size
39300		population	eng	No available data.
39300		threats	eng	None known.
39303		conservation	eng	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is present in marine protected areas in some parts of its range. More information is needed on potential spawning aggregation sites and, once located, protection should be afforded these areas.<br/><br/><em>D. inermis</em> was included on the Red List of the IUCN in 1996. Marbled grouper were classified as vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society based on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)’s concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al</em> 2000).
39303		distribution	eng	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is a western Atlantic species ranging from North Carolina (USA) to Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A separate range exists from northern Brazil to Rio de Janeiro, including the off-shore islands.
39303		habitat	eng	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is a reef-associated species usually found on deep ledges, at depths to 210 m and on reefs, usually in caves or deep crevices. Marbled grouper are solitary and secretive, but presumably form spawning aggregation like other species of the genus.
39303		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is relatively rare throughout its range and rarely seen in markets.<br/><br/><strong>Abundance</strong><br/>There are very few studies for this Atlantic species. <em>D. inermis</em> is scarce in catches from US waters or apparently elsewhere (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Huntsman <em>et al</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent Data</strong><br/>The Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (FGBNMS) Research Team has conducted 187 remotely operated vehicle (ROV) surveys for a duration of 218 H 13 M between February 2001 and March 2007. The survey times ranged from 0.5 H to approximately 4 H at average depths of 68.5 m. Of these 187 surveys, 144 were conducted at the FGBNMS, located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The remaining 43 were conducted at other shelf edge and mid shelf banks in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, outside of the Sanctuary boundaries. During these surveys, 150 records of individual <em>D. inermis</em> were made. It is estimated, based on annotations and dive tracks that conservatively, 10% of these animals were repeat counts, leaving 135 records of individuals. The most animals seen in one location was nine individuals. Based on these observations and compared to other observations Caribbean wide, the reefs and banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico are hotspots for this species, although still at relatively low abundance levels. The majority of the observations are of adult-size animals (Table 1). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: records of <em>D. inermis</em> sighted on remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives between February 2001 and March 2007.<br/><br/>This species was also sighted during manned submersible fish surveys in 2002. Six surveys were conducted between 19 and 90 meters depth for a duration of 28 H (Table 2). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: records from submersible dives targeting fishes in 2002.<br/><br/>During these submersible surveys, several juvenile <em>D. inermis</em> were filmed taking refuge in and around spines of sea urchin that were creating mounds on the sea floor.<br/><br/>In addition to these observations, unquantified sightings of <em>D. inermis</em> have been made by qualified SCUBA divers at Stetson Bank, East and West Flower Garden Banks and at Bright and Geyer Banks (source: Emma Hickerson, P.P. Schmahl, Flower Garden Banks NMS, Galveston, Texas).<br/><br/>The Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF)’s Fish Survey Project (www.reef.org) allows volunteer SCUBA divers and snorkelers to collect and report information on marine fish populations in the USA from 1993 to present.  Throughout the sampling period 1993 to 2005, it seems that the sighting frequency of <em>D. inermis</em> could be regarded as a rare species (<0.6% of all surveys) (Table 3).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: sighting frequency estimates collected by volunteer divers and snorkelers (1993-2005) by the Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF).<br/><br/>A recreational fishing charter (head boat) operator, Captain Elliot’s, out of Freeport, Texas, confirmed landing 67 <em>D. inermis</em> between August 23-25 2006. Due to the large number of fish, this could possibly represent the only known spawning aggregation. The location of the catch was not reported specifically, but as on the shelf edge banks off the coast of Louisiana. This corresponds to the shelf edge banks in the vicinity of the Flower Garden Banks NMS. (NOAA Fisheries, Pascagoula, MS SEAMAP Data; source:  Christopher Gledhill and Kevin Rademacher, NOAA Fisheries, Pascagoula, MS).<br/><br/>In drop-camera surveys conducted in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico from 1992 to 1997, 2001, and 2004 to 2005, over a duration of 1,260 hours 44 minutes of video, a total minimum count of sixty six (66) <em>D. inermis</em> was documented. "Mincount" is the minimum count (see MAXNO in Ellis and DiMartini 1995), the largest number of fish observed in a single frame of video. Mincount was not available for 1992, however it can be estimated that a further three animals were present. <br/><br/>Chris Koenig (PhD. Reef Fish Ecology Group, Florida State University Coastal and Marine Laboratory) gives the following expert personal assessment of the species: the species is “rare almost everywhere; the only place where we find them is in the western Gulf of Mexico Banks, and they are being systematically fished out. I spoke with fish collectors in the Fla Keys, including Billy Causey in his former life, and they say that they don't see them anymore, but did in the distant past.  I consider this fish similar to the ivory-billed woodpecker, never abundant, but existing now only in small pockets".<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/><em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> represented only 2.5 % of the total weight recorded during a survey using long-line in the shelf break in the Central coast of Brazil, with a maximum catch rate of 2.6 kg per 1,000 hooks in the 100 to 300 depth.<br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/><em>Gulf of Mexico region</em><br/>According to NMFS annual landings of commercial catches in the USA from 1986 to 2004, the quantity caught ranged from 0.4 in 1987 to 19.7 metric tonnes in 1993. From 1999 to 2004, the average annual landings were less than 1.4 metric tonnes (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 5th Jan 2006) (Table 4).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: commercial catch estimates from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) from 1986 to 2004.<br/><br/>According to NMFS’s annual harvest estimates from 1981 to 2004, a total number of 7,891 fish (8,955+ lbs) were caught for recreational purpose. (Note: there are very large proportional standard errors associated with the annual estimates of landings by number, which suggest these are rare-event landings in the recreational fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico). (Tom Sminskey pers. comm., 10th Jan 06) (Table 5).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 5</strong>: recreational catches of <em>D. inermis</em> between 1981 and 2004.<br/><br/>Head boat landings collected by NOAA Fisheries, Beaufort, since 1986 report <em>D. inermis</em> landings from headboats originating from two areas in Texas (see Table 6).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 6</strong>: head boat landing statistics from Areas 25 (Sabine Pass to Freeport, TX) and Area 26 (Pt. Aransas, TX) between 1995 and 2006.<br/><br/>The increased level of landings in 2006 suggests extraction from a spawning aggregation.
39303		threats	eng	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is threatened by overfishing both as adults within the commercial and recreational fishery and as juveniles by the aquarium trade, including on spawning aggregations.
39314		conservation	eng	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
39314		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species occurs in Ecuador and Peru east of the Andes (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). The type locality is Gualea, at 1,300 m, Mount Pichincha, in the western slopes of the Andes, but this seems erroneous since all others known records are from the lowlands of the eastern side (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
39314		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It occurs in lowland and perhaps montane rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
39314		population	eng	It is rare, known from fewer than 10 individuals (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
39314		threats	eng	The major threats to this species, if any, are not known.
39315		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. No specific conservation measures required.
39315		distribution	eng	<em>Microtus gerbei </em>is endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in northern Spain and western and central France (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo 1999).
39315		habitat	eng	At lower altitudes, it is found in pastures and arable land, whereas in the mountains it inhabits grassland and rocky woodland edges. Relatively cool (15º - 16º annual medium temperature) and dry areas are preferred (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is a fossorial species, although it burrows less in mountainous areas (Palomo 1999).
39315		population	eng	It is locally abundant in at least parts of its range, reaching densities of up to 100 individuals per hectare (Palomo 1999). It is most abundant in western France (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).
39315		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
39316		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appenix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas throught its range.
39316		distribution	eng	<em>Glis glis </em>has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to northern Iran and the Caucasus. In Europe, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kryštufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kryštufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.
39316		distribution	eng	<em>Glis glis </em>has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to the Caucasus, northern Iran and Turkmenistan. In the Mediterranean, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kryštufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kryštufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.
39316		distribution	eng	<em>Glis glis </em>has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to the Caucasus, northern Iran and Turkmenistan. In the Mediterranean, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kry?tufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kry?tufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.
39316		habitat	eng	It is typically found in mature deciduous and mixed woodland, where it frequents the canopy, although it also occurs in maquis and shrubland on rocky areas along the Mediterranean coast. Man-made habitats such as gardens and orchards are sometimes used, and the species often enters buildings (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Kryštufek 1999).
39316		habitat	eng	It is typically found in mature deciduous and mixed woodland, where it frequents the canopy, although it also occurs in maquis and shrubland on rocky areas along the Mediterranean coast. Man-made habitats such as gardens and orchards are sometimes used, and the species often enters buildings (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Kry?tufek 1999).
39316		population	eng	In northern parts of its range it is scarce and may be declining, whereas in southern parts of its range it is sufficiently abundant to be considered an agricultural pest in years of high population density. In central Europe, typical population densities may be c.5 individuals per hectare, although densities of 20-22 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Kryštufek 1999).
39316		population	eng	In northern parts of its range it is scarce and may be declining, whereas in southern parts of its range it is sufficiently abundant to be considered an agricultural pest in years of high population density. In central Europe, typical population densities may be c.5 individuals per hectare, although densities of 20-22 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Kry?tufek 1999).
39316		threats	eng	In parts of its range, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, there is a tradition of hunting this species. In the past, it was a source of meat, fat, and skins for subsistence and trade, but today it is hunted recreationally (Kryštufek 1999). The species is protected in Italy, but is sometimes illegally hunted (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In northeastern Europe, cutting of oak forests is a threat (Juškaitis 2003).
39316		threats	eng	In parts of its range, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, there is a tradition of hunting this species. In the past, it was a source of meat, fat, and skins for subsistence and trade, but today it is hunted recreationally (Kry?tufek 1999). The species is protected in Italy, but is sometimes illegally hunted (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In northeastern Europe, cutting of oak forests is a threat (Ju?kaitis 2003).
39319		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
39320		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
39321		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
39322		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> conservation is already in practice and <em>ex situ</em> conservation is to be carried out.
39322		distribution	eng	A herbaceous plant reaching 0.3-0.8 m. A recent collection shows that there is a possible introgression with <em>F. flexuosa</em>.  The range of this species is less than 100 km².
39322		habitat	eng	Montane and tropical rain forest, at altitude 500-600 m.
39322		threats	eng	Invasive competitors and traditional use of the species.
39323		conservation	eng	The species is the focus of both <em>in-situ</em> (active management in nature reserve) and <em>ex-situ</em> conservation.
39323		distribution	eng	This species can be found on Ilot Bernache, Round island, Ile aux Aigrettes.
39323		habitat	eng	This is a prostrate or an ascending herb of short life cycle with branches reaching 30 cm in length. Found on coastal rocky cliffs and slopes.
39323		threats	eng	Invasive competitors, and grazing are the main threats to this species.
39324		conservation	eng	There is generally no management of fisheries or protection for this species, although it occurs in at least one marine reserve in South Africa.
39324		distribution	eng	This shark is wide ranging, appearing in mostly temperate coastal seas worldwide. It has been reported from the following areas: <br/><br/><strong>Western South Atlantic</strong>: southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern South Atlantic and Indian Ocean</strong>: Namibia and South Africa, Tristan da Cunha, possibly India and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/><strong>Western Pacific</strong>: possibly Siberia, southern Japan, the Koreas, Taiwan (Province of China), China, possibly Vietnam, Australia (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia) and New Zealand.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: British Columbia, Canada, to southern California, USA, also northern Gulf of California, Mexico, off Peru and central Chile.<br/><br/>The species occurs on the continental shelves at depths to at least 136 m, but mostly at less than 50 m and often in shallow water less than 1 m deep and at the surface (Compagno in prep. a).<br/><br/>The Broadnose Sevengill Shark's disjunct distribution suggests that subpopulations may occur at least in the western South Atlantic and eastern South Pacific (possibly continuous across the Patagonian region but this is not certain), Tristan da Cunha, southern Africa (Atlantic and western Indian Ocean), western North Pacific, southern Australia, New Zealand, the eastern North Pacific from British Columbia to southern California, USA and possibly with an isolated subpopulation in the Gulf of California off Mexico (Compagno in prep. a).
39324		habitat	eng	This large, powerful shark has a diet of other sharks, bony fish, seals and carrion (Last and Stevens 1994). The gestation period is unknown, but may be a year or less. It has relatively large litters; 82 young recorded, with counts of large eggs in ovaries of mature females suggesting a range of 67?104 (Ebert 1996). Born at a size of 40?45 cm, age at maturity is 4?5 years (150 cm) for males and 11?21 years (220 cm) for females (Van Dykhuizen and Mollet 1992). Maximum lifespan is estimated at about 30 years (Compagno in prep. a).
39324		threats	eng	This shark's flesh is of good quality and it is also taken in some areas for its hide and liver oil. Intensive commercial and sports fisheries in San Francisco Bay targeting it for its fine meat caused a marked local decline in numbers during the early 1980s. It is utilised in China for its skin and liver. Pollution may be a possible threat to inshore bays which are nurseries.<br/><br/>Although wide ranging in temperate waters and moderately common where not heavily exploited (e.g., southern Africa), this large shark has a limited inshore bathymetric range in heavily fished temperate waters and is often concentrated in shallow bays. This exposes it to intensive inshore bycatch and sometimes targeted commercial, sports and semi-commercial fisheries over most of its range, particularly off China, California, Argentina, Namibia and South Africa (Compagno in prep. a). Catch statistics are not reported, except for the west coast of the USA, which show a peak in landings of 1.55 t in 1981 with a sharp decline to less than 0.1 t in 1986 (Compagno in prep. a).
39325		conservation	eng	<strong>Existing</strong>:  <br/>The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) - the main intergovernmental decision-making body on fishery management in the Mediterranean has made the decision to refrain from expanding deep water fishing operations beyond the limit of 1,000 m. The decision was adopted at the 29<sup>th</sup> session of the GFCM held in Rome in February 2005. Unless objections from member countries arise, it will come into force in July 2005. For more information, see: <a href="www.iucn.org/places/medoffice/documentos/deepsea_en.pdf"><em>Mediterranean Conservationists and Fishermen Work Together to Protect Deep Seas</em></a>. <br/> <br/><strong>Recommended</strong>:  <br/>Further study is required for taxonomic resolution of the genus, and on reproductive cycle and general life history, validation of ageing methods, population identification, and determination of nursery areas, migrations and spatial distribution. Monitoring fishing pressure is essential. This must include recording specific fishery statistics (including bycatch), and monitoring possible plans for development of target fisheries or increasing fishing pressure in their habitat. <br/> <br/>There are currently no conservation measures at this time in the Northwest or the Southeast Atlantic. Examination of the <em>Centrophourus</em> spp. which occur in the latter region is strongly recommended to determine the proper identification of the species involved.
39325		distribution	eng	Thought to be a circumglobal species, in temperate and tropical waters, however considerable taxonomic confusion of the genus still persists (see Taxonomy). This species occurs in the following regions and countries: <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: France, Spain, Portugal, Madeira. <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: Albania, Algeria, France, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey. Absent from the Black Sea. (Baino et al. 2001, Boutan 1926, Maurin 1968, Jardas 1984, Fischer et al. 1987, Papakonstatinou 1988, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1994, Kabaskal 2002). <br/><strong>West Africa</strong>: Canary Islands, Morocco, Sahara Republic, Senegal, Liberia, Ivory Coast to Nigeria, Cameroon to Congo.  <br/><strong>Sub Equatorial Africa</strong>: Angola, Namibia, and the west coast of South Africa (Northern Cape Province. Southern Mozambique, Madagascar, Aldabra Island.  <br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong>: Yemen, Somalia (the Gulf of Aden), nominal records from India, which are at least in part based on <em>Centrophorus atromarginatus</em>. <br/><strong>Australia and Oceania</strong>: Probably Australia (temperate waters off Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, and New South Wales as <em>C. uyato</em>, but possibly including other species). <br/><strong>Asia and the Northwest Pacific</strong>: Taiwan Island and Japan. <br/><strong>Northeast Pacific</strong>: Possibly Hawaiian Islands. <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: Northern Gulf of Mexico (United States). <br/><strong>Central America</strong>: possibly wide ranging in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean (the north coast of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Caribbean off the Lesser Antilles (Burgess pers. comm.), possibly Colombia and Venezuela, and off French Guiana.  <br/><strong>South America</strong>: Brazil (Northern). <br/> <br/>Note that the species from the SE Atlantic may not be the same as found elsewhere, or may represent two or more species. The species needs to be critically evaluated from different regions. This or a similar species has also been found in Taiwanese waters (D.A. Ebert, unpubl. data).
39325		habitat	eng	A large deepwater species inhabiting the upper continental slopes and outer continental shelves. Usually demersal or benthopelagic, at depths from 100 to 1,490 m (Mediterranean Sea), with most records between 300 to 800 m depth (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Compagno 1984, Gilat and Gelman 1984, Guallart 1998). <br/> <br/>It is thought to have schooling habits (Maurin 1962, Gilat and Gelman 1984, Compagno 1984, Compagno in prep. a) because of the abundance in some catches or by the simultaneous presence of several individuals in baited cameras set over the bottom. It may also aggregate in particular areas of the slope, particularly in the margins of submarine canyons (Guallart 1998). Some evidence suggests that individuals present in the lower half of the depth range are mainly juveniles (Guallart 1998).  <br/> <br/>Age at maturity is estimated at 12 to 16 years (females) and 7 to 8 years (males) (Guallart 1998) with earlier estimates of 4 to 5 years for both males and females (Rizzo <em>et al</em>. 1995). Estimates of female size at maturity are 89 to 102 cm (93 cm when half mature) (Gullart 1998) and earlier estimates range between 70 to 95 cm (Capapé 1985, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Mature male size estimates are 79 to 85 cm (80 cm at half maturity) (Guallart 1998) and 70 to 80 cm (Capapé 1985, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987, Rizzo <em>et al</em>. 1995). Maximum recorded size is about 120 cm (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987, Guallart 1998). Size at birth range from 30 to 46 cm (Guallart and Vicent 2001, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987) and <em>C. granulosus</em> can live for over 30 years (Guallart 1998). The average reproductive age of this species is unknown. <br/> <br/>A lecitotrophic aplacental viviparous (ovoviviparous) species (Ranzi 1932, Guallart and Vicent 2001, <em>C. granulosus</em> has an extremely low reproductive rate, with only one pup/litter (Tortonese 1956, Capapé 1985, Guallart 1998), a gestation period of about two years and occasional resting periods between pregnancies (Guallart 1998). The three-generation period is estimated to be about 50 to 60 years. This probably makes it the elasmobranch species with the lowest reproductive potential. <br/> <br/>Feeds on a variety of prey, mainly fishes but also cephalopods and other invertebrates, both benthic and mesopelagic; also probable scavenging habits (Boutan 1926, Capapé 1985, Guallart 1998).
39325		population	eng	The determination of the range and population of this species is hindered by unresolved taxonomic issues (see taxonomy section). Within the Mediterranean, there is no evidence of the existence of different populations. No information is available on relationships between Mediterranean and Atlantic populations of <em>Centrophorus</em>. However, like most Mediterranean deepwater species, some degree of isolation is expected due to the barrier of the Straits of Gibraltar. Analysis of the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) data from 1994 to 1999 show a low frequency of occurrence (only 2% of total hauls), for <em>C. granulosus</em>. Its overall biomass was estimated to be 2.9 kg/km², with a presence throughout the Mediterranean, though more abundant in the western central and in the western area (5.5 and 2.7 kg/km² respectively). The depth distribution of the biomass index show values of less than 0.1 from 50 to 100 m of depth and between 1 to >10 kg/km² between 200 to 800 m. Baino <em>et al</em>. give a standing stock biomass estimate of only 1,528 t (3%) for the west, north and east Mediterranean from 0?800 m depth. These data clearly indicate that this species is very rare. The MEDITS experimental trawl program surveys waters up to 800 m in depth. The depth range of this demersal deepwater shark extends from 100 to 1,490 m, however it is most commonly recorded between 300 and 800 m, therefore this data can serve as a good indicator of the abundance of this species.
39325		threats	eng	This is a widespread species that is reported to be heavily fished and caught as bycatch in the Northeast Atlantic, the Northwest Pacific and other regions. As the global fishing fleet tends towards deeper and deeper unexploited fishing grounds, the threat from incidental catch to this species grows.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>In the Northeast Atlantic this species is caught with bottom trawls, long lines, fixed bottom nets, hook and line and pelagic trawls (Compagno in prep). For this region, landings data were obtained from ICES (2006) for the Portuguese coast (main distribution range). These show a strong decline in catch from about 1,000 t in 1990 to less than 100 t in 2004. As a crude index of abundance a delury depletion model was implemented, assuming constant effort over the time series. The results of this suggest that the stock has declined by between 80 and 95% of its initial size when fishing began. This is based on two assumptions of effort. This assumes that recruitment does not occur. Though this is clearly not true, the extreme low fecundity and reproductive output suggests that effect of recruitment is very low indeed. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>Within the Mediterranean, one of the main threats facing this species is development of target fisheries with longlines and gillnets in areas on the continental slope, where this species tends to aggregate. However, the global trend for fisheries reaching deeper unexploited grounds may not necessarily be the case for within the Mediterranean, due to the relative low level of biomass found in the deepwaters of this sea and as the fishing fleets are composed mainly of artisanal vessels. Local factors such as the fleet characteristics, the distance from the coast to suitable substrates and the perceived appreciation of the flesh and other by products of this species may, in many countries limit the potential for a targeted fishery to develop. A number of authors have commented on the economic potential to develop a targeted fishery for <em>Centrophorus</em> species (e.g., Boutan 1926 in Algeria, Rancurel 1983 in France, Gilat and Gelman 1984 in Israel), however there is no information regarding potential developments at present. Given the record low reproductive potential of this species, it is highly vulnerable to overexploitation and population depletion under even moderate fishing pressure. Therefore extreme caution should be exercised before the development of any targeted fishery. <br/> <br/>There are a few examples of fisheries targeting <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em> in the Balearic Sea over the last 10 years (Guallart pers. comm. 2003). One of which was an alternative fishery, which developed in periods when other target species had declined, this artisanal fleet used bottom longline gears. Abundance (catches of about 50?80 specimens or 300?400 kg/ship and journey) and price of flesh was comparable to that of the original target species. However, catches decreased dramatically within a matter of weeks. An increase in abundance within these depleted areas took place after several months, presumably by migration from other unexploited areas. In another example, a semi-industrial fishery was carried out for several years. One ship made trips of several days covering wide areas unexploited for this species. Catches reached up to 900 specimens (about 5,000 kg). Flesh, livers and tails (as lower quality shark fins) were marketed.  <br/> <br/>Within the Mediterranean this species is also caught as bycatch, with bottom longlines and bottom gillnets and in bottom trawls targeting red shrimp <em>Aristeus antennatus</em> (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Further information on the catch rates of this species by this trawling fleet are required before the impact that this has on the <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em> population can truly be assessed. <br/> <br/><strong>Other regions</strong> <br/>This species is widespread throughout the Western North Atlantic at appropriate depths where it is only taken as bycatch in longline fisheries. At this time it appears that it does not constitute significant numbers in the fisheries, but data is lacking. <br/> <br/>In southern Africa it is occasionally taken as a bycatch and possibly in the experimental Namibian deepsea fishery. However, it is uncommon relative to several other species, e.g. <em>C. squamosus, Centroscymnus</em> spp. and <em>Deania</em> spp. which are taken in far greater numbers. <br/> <br/>Along the west African coast, this species is widespread, but scattered. It is infrequently caught along the Namibian coast, but this may represent a different species and possibly two or more species may be involved in this taxonomic confusion. Proper identification of this species in southeastern Atlantic waters is critical before this species can be reassessed.
39326		conservation	eng	Despite several decades of warnings of unsustainable fishing pressure and reported steep stock declines, very few conservation or management measures are in place for spiny dogfish; measures in place have not been effective in terms of rebuilding populations. A notable exception may be New Zealand, where quotas have been introduced to limit catches to sustainable levels in response to the first signs of fishery development to meet European demand for meat. Spiny dogfish were brought under the New Zealand Quota Management System in October 2004 (M. Francis, pers. comm).  <br/> <br/>Holden (1968) first warned that part of the Northeast Atlantic stock was over-exploited, but there is still no effective management in this region despite wide-spread recognition that fishing levels are unsustainable and several parts of the stock have collapsed. A minimum landing size established in Norway in order to protect mature females is of limited value for a migratory species that is intensively fished in other parts of its range. Total Allowable Catches in EU waters, first established in 1998, have consistently exceeded recent landings and do not appear, therefore, to have had any constraint upon current unsustainable levels of fishing pressure. This fishery needs to be closed if the stock is to recover, ICES recommended a zero quota in 2006, but this advice was not heeded by the EU.  <br/> <br/>In the Northwest Atlantic, the 1999/2000 US federal dogfish rebuilding plan has yet to reverse population decline and fishing mortality targets continue to be grossly exceeded.  <br/> <br/>Federal Fishery Management Councils in the eastern US developed a spiny dogfish rebuilding plan in the late 1990s coincident with the stock being officially declared overfished. Low priority and controversy over cuts led to serious delays. Implemented in mid 2000, the plan aimed to rebuild the population through a low fishing mortality target (F=0.03) and corresponding quota (four million lbs) and trip limits (300 to 600 lbs for two periods) that would discourage targeted fishing and yet allow some landing of incidental catch. Once that the ten-year legal limit to recover the population became impossible, federal law allowed the rebuilding period to be extended, opening the plan up for relaxation of measures. <br/> <br/>As Federal measures developed, the dogfish fishery shifted into state waters (within three miles from shore). Continued state fisheries have undermined the federal plan ever since. Most notably, Massachusetts, the Atlantic state with the largest directed dogfish fishery, adopted a 2000 state quota at nearly twice the Federal allotment for the entire Atlantic and excessive possession limits that allowed for continued directed dogfish fishing. Under the federal plan, overages are not deducted from the subsequent year?s quota.  <br/> <br/>n late 2002, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) adopted a federally compatible dogfish rebuilding plan for state waters. In early 2003, however, the ASMFC rejected scientific advice and accepted a Massachusetts proposal to more than double the quota (to 8.8 million lbs) and increase trip limits by an order of magnitude (to 7,000 lbs) to allow directed dogfish fishing. The ASMFC did impose scientifically defensible limits for the 2004 fishing year (beginning in May), but rejected the 2005 advice for a 50% quota cut for 2006 in favour of the status quo (4 million lbs). This advice, from a joint state and federal technical committee, was also rejected by the New England Fishery Management Council, but adopted by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council (MAFMC). The decision on catch limits for the 2006 fishing season now lies with the NMFS, but pressure to relax recovery efforts is increasing due to the movement of a larger percentage of the population to nearshore waters and therefore fishing gear. The ability to set catch limits for a multi-year period (3 to 5 years) is currently being considered by both state and federal authorities and may be realized as soon as this year. <br/> <br/>Canada began restricting Atlantic dogfish catch in May of 2002, following a significant increase in landings in years just prior. The government capped 2002 commercial landings at 2,500 metric tons for the fixed gear groundfish sector off Nova Scotia and in the Bay of Fundy, based on landings history at the time. In addition, bycatch caps for other fisheries consistent with historical landings and an additional 700 mt for a cooperative industry sampling program were granted. The Canadian government has stated that the caps are aimed to limit harvest while future sustainable catch levels are investigated. The Canadian government intends to maintain dogfish catches at roughly 3,200 mt for directed fishing and research while they collect data and develop their own population assessment, expected by 2007 (Campana 2002, pers comm). <br/> <br/>In the Northeast Pacific, British Columbia spiny dogfish have been broadly and minimally managed through groundfish regulations since 1978. A quota of 3,000 tonnes has been in place for the Straight of Georgia (British Columbia) and 12,000 t for the rest of the Northeast Pacific for decades; landings in recent years average 1,200 tonnes under constant catch per unit effort and appear sustainable (King and McFarlane 2005). In 1998, Alaska prohibited commercial shark fishing, although experimental dogfish fisheries in the region are being authorized.  <br/> <br/>Washington includes dogfish in bottomfish management plans, but there are few species-specific measures. Concern over large catches from pupping grounds prompted closure of East Sound. In 2005, NMFS addressed concern over a growing directed Pacific spiny dogfish by imposing a control date of April 2005 as a first step to limiting entry into the dogfish fishery and announced trip limits of 100 to 200,000 lbs per two months for the last nine months of 2006. Trip limits were deemed necessary as a precautionary measure until the stock is assessed and subject to species-specific quotas. Other new measures include gear-specific and depth-based closed areas designed primarily to reduce mortality on overfished rockfish stocks, but expected to reduce fishing pressure on spiny dogfish. Although the U.S and Canada conduct cooperative surveys for Northeast Pacific spiny dogfish, there is no coordinated, international management for the stock (Camhi 1999). <br/> <br/>There are no management programs for spiny dogfish in Australia (Simpfendorfer, pers. comm.), nor in Japan.  <br/> <br/>In southern Africa, South African fisheries for teleosts (mainly hake), which take dogfish as bycatch, appear to be managed sustainably although efforts to improve observer data for these fisheries have not yet been implemented.
39326		distribution	eng	Spiny dogfish are a boreal and temperate cosmopolitan species with principal populations found in the east and west North Atlantic, the eastern South Pacific, the South Atlantic off South America, the Cape coast of South Africa, the southern coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and in the east and west North Pacific. (Compagno 1984).
39326		habitat	eng	Spiny dogfish are ovoviviparous. Their 18 to 22 month gestation period (Compagno 1984) is among the longest of any animal. Pups measure between 20 and 30 cm at birth (Castro 1983). Fecundity increases with size (Templeman 1944, Nammack <em>et al</em>. 1985). Castro (1983) reported that, in the North Atlantic, dogfish pup offshore in deepwater wintering grounds, while Templeman (1944) suggested mature females off Newfoundland pup inshore January through May. Spiny dogfish move into the waters off the San Juan Islands of Washington (US) to pup in July and August (Camhi 1999). <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish prey opportunistically on a variety of small fish and invertebrates (Castro 1983). Aside from humans, adult dogfish have few enemies. They are eaten by larger sharks, large bony fishes, seals, and killer whales (Castro 1983, Compagno 1984). Although dogfish are regularly blamed for preying heavily on economically valuable groundfish, stomach content analyses reveal that most groundfish are uncommon in dogfish diets and the amount of groundfish removed by dogfish is a small fraction of fishery removal and stock sizes (Link <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish are highly migratory, travelling in large, dense "packs", segregated by size and sex. Primarily epibenthic, they are not known to associate with any particular habitat (McMillan and Morse 1999). They are thought to mate in winter (Castro 1983, Compagno 1984). In Australia, breeding occurs in large bays and estuaries (Last and Stevens 1994), while North Atlantic mating grounds are still unknown. <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish reach maturity late and are very long-lived. Nammack <em>et al</em>. (1985) reported that individuals in the Pacific grow more slowly and larger than those in the Atlantic. Life history characteristics are summarized below. Smith et al. (1998) found spiny dogfish to have the lowest intrinsic rebound potential of 26 shark species analysed.
39326		population	eng	Little mixing occurs between populations. They are found from the intertidal zone to depths of 900 m, but mostly <200 m (at least in the Mediterranean). Usually coastal and demersal, they migrate north and south as well as near shore and offshore in 7 to 15°C water (Compagno 1984).
39326		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species worldwide is over-exploitation, by target and bycatch fisheries. This is a valuable commercial species in many parts of the world, caught in bottom trawls, gillnets, line gear, and by rod and reel. <br/> <br/>France was the largest importer of dogfish meat within the EU from 1990-1994, importing an annual average of 5,000 tonnes (98% spiny) with the UK as their top European supplier. During 1988?1994, Norway was the largest of nine non-EU suppliers to the EU of fresh or chilled spiny dogfish, followed by the US. As European stocks decline, demand is being met by frozen imports from 25 countries, dominated by the US and Argentina.  <br/> <br/>According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), dogfish catches reached a peak in 1972 (73,500 t) then declined and stabilized in a range between 36,000 and 51,000 t in the 1990s. Most of the catch reported to FAO comes from the North Atlantic, with minor amounts reported from the Northeast Pacific (maximum 5,314 t in 1988) and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. There are, however, some data discrepancies: in 1999, the US landed nearly 15,000 t of spiny dogfish and 9,800 t was landed from ICES areas, most of this by the UK fleet (UK fisheries statistics report over 9,000 t landed), yet FAO reports 1999 global catch at 22,756 t with the largest catches coming from Canada (5,536 t) and Norway (1,461 t) (FAO 2000). <br/> <br/>Locally high biomass initially supports large catches, but most large-scale spiny dogfish fisheries have depleted populations and collapsed (Ocean Wildlife Campaign 1996). An aggregating habit makes it possible for fishers to continue to target highest value mature females even after stocks have been depleted to a few percent of baseline. The species is also taken as a bycatch in mixed species fisheries, meaning that fishing pressure can continue even after stocks have been so seriously depleted that they can no longer support viable fisheries.  <br/> <br/>There are potential impacts on spiny dogfish associated with habitat loss and degradation. Coastal development, pollution, dredging and bottom trawling affect coastal or benthic habitat on which spiny dogfish or their prey rely (ASMFC 2002). <br/> <br/>Where spiny dogfish are taken as an unwanted bycatch in fisheries and discarded, their high survival rates and competitive release from retained demersal fish species may well lead to increased stocks of dogfish. This may have occurred in the Northwest Atlantic before declining fish stocks and high demand from European markets caused the species to be targeted there.  <br/> <br/>We must take into account that official fisheries statistics in most regions only consider landed biomass, and not actual captures. If we consider the possibility that a decade ago discards of these non targeted species were higher than discards nowadays (and this fact can easily be explained due to the collapse in most traditional fishing stocks, that lead to an increase in the commercialisation of these by-catch species), then the real decrease in the population biomass can be much higher than many of the estimates presented here. <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Rey (1928) refers that in the 1920s this was a very abundant species in the Iberia Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) both for the Atlantic and the Mediterranean coasts. He added that this species probably aggregated during some periods because sometimes huge amounts were captured with longlines and nets. Heessen <em>et al</em>. (2003) identified a single Northeast Atlantic stock of spurdog, distributed from the north of the Bay of Biscay to the Norwegian Sea. This has been fished off Europe (mainly in the North and Irish Seas) since the early 1900s, primarily by British and Norwegian fishermen, later by the French and Irish as well (Bonfil 1994). Today, the UK fishery lands around 80% of the European Union catch. Annual catches were well below 10,000 t throughout the ICES area before the 1930s, had more than doubled by 1937, then reached a peak of over 58,000 t in 1963 (Heessen <em>et al</em>. 2003 and see Figure). Holden (1968) considered the female portion of the Scottish-Norwegian stock to be overfished in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s, landings continued to decline and by 1978, the Norwegian fishery north of Scotland had collapsed (Hjertenes 1980). The important North Sea fishery declined steeply from around 37,000 t in the early 1970s, to 3,000?4,000 in recent years, while the more recent Celtic Seas fishery peaked at about 22,000 t in 1987, since declining to under 5,000 t. Total landings from the entire ICES area are now under 10,000 t, around 17% of peak landings.  <br/> <br/>Portuguese official fisheries statistics for landings of <em>Squalus acanthias</em> for fishes captured in Portuguese waters, have shown a decrease of 51% between 1987 and 2000. Since then, landings increased again until 2002, so the overall decrease from 1987 to 2002 has been 11.3% (DGPA, 1988?2004). When a linear regression was fitted to the log transformed data of these annual landings, projections were made for a three-generation period in the past, with a reduction of landed biomass of 43%. Taking into account that this species continues to be fished nowadays and there are no perspectives of reducing exploitation levels for the future, future projections were also made, and another 43% reduction of landed biomass in the next three generations estimated. <br/> <br/>We must take into account that official fisheries statistics only consider landed biomass, and not actual captures. If we consider the possibility that 15 years ago discards of these non targeted species were higher than discards nowadays (and this fact can easily be explained due to the collapse in most traditional fishing stocks, that lead to an increase in the commercialisation of these by-catch species), then the real decrease in the population biomass can be much higher than one estimated here. <br/> <br/>The species is still the region?s most commercially important elasmobranch, with most of the catch being incidental although there are still local, directed fisheries in the north (Pawson and Vince 1998). Heessen <em>et al</em>. (2003) describe the stock as severely depleted, with an estimated decline in biomass from 1977 of over 5,000,000 (at which time landings had already fallen to 60% of peak catches) to well under 100,000 in 2001; a decline in biomass of well over 98%. Estimates of total numbers of mature adults in 2000 range from 100,000 to 600,000 individuals. Hammond and Ellis (2004) estimate depletion of this stock to about 5% of virgin biomass. The decline in biomass over the >75 year three generation period for this stock is also greater than 90% and the stock therefore assessed as Critically Endangered. There is currently no indication that effective management will be introduced to regulate the fishery and allow the stock to rebuild; quotas apply to only part of the stock (North Sea) and significantly exceed recent landings for this area, while ICES advice for a zero quota in 2006 was not adopted by the EU.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>Depth distribution is from 20?30 m down to 800 m, with peaks of abundance in shallow water (to 50 m) and from 200?500 m. The species is most abundant in the Eastern Central area (southern Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian Sea), less so in the Eastern Aegean, and fairly scarce elsewhere. Spiny dogfish occurred in 5% of MEDITS trawls (1994-98). These data were used to calculate a total standing stock biomass in the entire MEDITS area of 6,682 tonnes (Serena in lit.). There are very few trend data. Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. (2001) do not report any significant change in occurrence of <em>S. acanthias</em>. Aldebert (1997) reports a decline in observations of <em>S. acanthias</em> landings beginning in the 1980s. Anecdotal evidence from fishermen interviews in the Balearics indicates a significant decline in abundance in captures with bottom longlines and gillnets over the 17 years from 1985/6 (Gabriel Morey, personal communication). Directed fisheries undertaken for this species during the 1970s ceased as a result of these stock declines. This stock is therefore assessed as Endangered.  <br/> <br/><strong>Black Sea</strong>: <br/>Although trend data are scarce for the Black Seas, some declines have been observed. A stock assessment for the Black Sea stock (Prodanov <em>et al</em>. 1997) identified a decline in abundance of <em>Squalus acanthias</em> of 60% between 1981 and 1992. Overall, the stock seems likely to be in a better state than in the Northeast Atlantic, which has been fished more intensively and for much longer. Fishing pressure is, however, likely to continue to remain high and the declines seem likely to continue and therefore the stock is assessed as Vulnerable.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Spiny dogfish were fished intensively for liver oil off the eastern US during World War II until the synthesis of vitamin A (Castro 1983). Landings increased from 500 t in the early 1960s to 9,689 t in 1966 and peaked in 1974 at 25,620 t. Foreign fleets (from the former USSR and East German Republic, Poland, Japan and Canada) accounted for virtually all the reported catch from 1966 to 1977 (NOAA 1995). Annual US commercial dogfish landings from the Atlantic increased from only a few hundred tonnes in the late 1970s to around 4,500 t during 1979?1989. Increasing European demand led to a sevenfold increase in landings, to a peak of 27,200 t in 1996. Estimates of dogfish discards have ranged from 3,700 mt to 47,000mt for the years 1990?2002 (NEFSC 2003). Landings fell to 14,906 t in 1999, prior to the introduction of management (Rago and Sosebee 2002), but federal mortality targets have yet to be achieved. US recreational catches increased from about 350 t annually in 1979?1980 to about 1,700 t in 1989, averaged about 1,300 t from 1990-1994, then declined in 1996 to 386 t (NOAA 1998). Recreational landings remained stable through 2000 and then rose to roughly 2,000 mt in 2001 and 2002, a level that for the first time is considered significant (NEFSC 2003). Stock assessments indicate that total biomass was stable at a high level into the late 1990s, but, based on declines in targeted mature females, the stock was declared overfished in 1997. In the first stages of management, actual fishing mortality (F=0.27) greatly exceeded the target level (F=0.03) (MAFMC 2001). By 2002, fishing mortality had dropped to F=0.09, but still exceeded the rebuilding target by a factor of 3. Reproductive biomass peaked in 1989 and then declined by more than 75% by 2002 (NEFSC 2003). Average weight of landed females declined from 4 kg in 1987 to 2 kg in 2000 (Rago and Sosebee 2002). Recruitment estimates from 1997?2003 are the seven lowest in the 35-year time series. Average size of pups taken in surveys has also declined, consistent with new data regarding reduced average size of pups produced by smaller females. Reproductive potential is expected to continue to decline as these weak year classes mature. (NEFSC 2003). Overall, US federal efforts to manage the Northwest Atlantic stock for recovery have been hampered by delays, non-compliance and continued exploitation in state waters to supply European market demand. Whereas significant rebuilding (90% of SSB target) was anticipated by 2003, the population in 2005 had yet to show signs of recovery in mature females or significant improvement in recruitment. (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005). The U.S. Atlantic federal plan?s fishing mortality target was scheduled to increase from 0.03 to 0.08 in 2004 based on this stock rebuilding that was anticipated but not realized (MAFMC 2001). Increases in fishing mortality are now possible under the FMP, but scientists recommended maintaining a target fishing mortality rate of 0.03 because of lack of rebuilding. Under the most optimistic scenario, rebuilding will take at least 15 years. Recovery under the target fishing mortality rate (yet to be realized) could take three decades. Long term projections, which account for lower survivorship of pups, predict stock collapse under current fishing mortality (NEFSC 2003). <br/> <br/>US commercial landings of spiny dogfish amounted to 1,170 mt (approximately 2.5 million lbs) in 2003 and 980 mt (roughly 2 million lbs) in 2004; total landings are approximately 99% was female (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005). NMFS reported Massachusetts landings for the fishing year spanning May 1, 2004 to April 30, 2005 at less than 1 million pounds; however, Massachusetts officials claim two processors in New Bedford processed about 2 million pounds, collectively during that time period (Pierce 2006). The average size of females landed is increasing over time, primarily due to a shift in fisheries (more landings from gill net and hook fishing, fewer from trawls). The ratio of total landings to numbers removed reveal that the number of females landed increased roughly 16-fold, indicating that the average size has greatly decreased. Dead discards from US commercial fisheries were estimated to be between 6,400 to 13,285 mt (14.1 and 29.3 million pounds) depending on the assumed discard mortality by gear type. Recreational landings of spiny dogfish increased from a very low number in 2000 to a high value of 81,972 animals in 2002. In 2005, the relevant scientific committee recommended the continuation of very low possession limits and a quota (?bycatch cap?) reduction of 50% (down to 2 million lbs annually). In recent years, the fraction of the dogfish population found in nearshore waters has increased markedly for unknown reasons (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005).  <br/> <br/>Resulting increased interactions with fishermen have sparked widespread demands for loosening dogfish restrictions.  <br/> <br/>The Dogfish Technical Committee in 2005 expressed concern about constraining effects that dogfish discards in commercial fisheries and the directed Canadian dogfish fishery are having on progress toward spiny dogfish population recovery. They recommended a 50% reduction in the quota (?bycatch cap?), continuation of low trip limits and measures to reduce discarding (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005). A full ?benchmark? population assessment for this stock is scheduled for July 2006. <br/> <br/>In the Canadian Atlantic, dogfish are targeted in the Bay of Fundy, Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Foreign landings on the Scotian Shelf peaked at 24,000 t in 1972?1975, but were then replaced by national fisheries (ICES 1997). Atlantic Canadian landings prior to 1979 were insignificant (OWC 1996). A directed fishery then developed off the Maritimes and took off as the US fishery came under regulation. Canadian Atlantic landings increased from an average of 500 t from 1979-1988 to 1,800 t in 1994. After a subsequent decline to roughly 400 t in 1996 and 1997, catches (primarily from Nova Scotia) rose nearly six times from 1997 to 2001 (as U.S. regulations went into effect) and soon represented the largest proportion of the landings from the stock (NEFSC 2003). Canadian landings dropped slightly in 2002 and 2003, but were back up again in 2004 at 2336 mt (approximately 5 million lbs) allocated for the fishery as well as a 700-ton research fishery (ASMFC and MAMFC 2005). The driving force behind these fisheries continues to be international trade to satisfy the European market demand. <br/> <br/>In 2003, Canada announced its intention to develop their own dogfish population assessment after a five year data collection program and their anticipation to maintain Canadian fishing effort, deemed unsustainable in U.S. assessments, in the meantime (Bundy 2003). Canadian Maritime officials note increased interest in the species from U.S. buyers and their industry?s reports of good markets for dogfish. According to Department of Fisheries and Oceans statistics, in just two years (1999 to 2001), the volume of dogfish exports doubled while its value nearly tripled. <br/> <br/>At its annual meeting in 2005, Parties to the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO), in accordance with the recommendations from the 2002 NAFO Symposium on Elasmobranch Fisheries that ?the NAFO Scientific Council [be directed] to investigate the status and management needs of elasmobranchs in NAFO waters,? requested the NAFO Scientific Council (SC) to review all available information from both research vessel surveys and commercial catches on the stock structure, relative biomass, geographic distribution, life history, and size/age/sex composition of spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) occurring within the NAFO Regulatory Area. The SC was also requested to provide historical and recent information on catches and by-catches, and to identify those fisheries in which spiny dogfish is taken as bycatch. <br/> <br/>This stock is currently assessed as Endangered (A2+4bd) on the basis of past and continuing declines, persistent market demand and targeted fishing, increasing discarding, and growing pressure to reopen fisheries. The population would be assessed as Vulnerable (A1) if science-based management measures were introduced and adhered to over the long term across the whole stock. <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong>:  <br/>Spiny dogfish have been fished in British Columbia (Canada) for over 4,000 years. More intense exploitation (for liver oil and meat) began in the late 1800s (Ketchen 1986) and evolved into the region?s most important shark fishery. By 1870, dogfish were surpassing whales in economic importance, producing 50,000 gallons of oil, mostly for export to Great Britain. In 1876, oil exports constituted at least 24% of the total value of all fish. Production peaked in 1883 at more than one million litres, equivalent to 9,000?14,000 t of round weight exports (Bonfil 1999). Ketchen (1986) speculates that a combination of factors (including the advent of petroleum lubricants, lighting fuels and electric lamps) led to fishery collapse around 1910. From 1917 to 1939, dogfish was used for fishmeal and meat exported to the US. Increased value of liver oil resulted in an expansion of the fishery and, by 1944, spiny dogfish supported the most valuable Canadian west coast fishery (Ketchen 1986). Landings reached 31,000 t then fell to <3,000 t in 1949. Fishable biomass had been reduced 75% (reviewed in Anderson 1990) by 1950, when the synthetic production of vitamin A led to the collapse of the oil market. Dogfish fisheries within this region were re-instituted in the mid 1970s as European and Asian markets for dogfish meat developed. Quotas of 3,000t within the Straight of Georgia and 12,000t for outside waters have been in place since the 1980s but as these are well over twice as high as any landings made since the 1940s collapse. Recent catch data for the northeast Pacific indicate a steep upward trend in landings since the early 1990s.  <br/> <br/>Washington state?s directed dogfish fishery was re-established by the early 1980s. Most of the state?s landings came from Puget Sound, yet both this and the coastal fishery have declined dramatically. Annual landings averaged 1,500 t between 1982 and 1998. Catches from Washington waters declined from a peak of 8.6 million pounds in 1979 to a less than 140,000 pounds in 2000. Puget Sound population estimates fell from 25?42 million pounds from 1987 to 1991 to less than 7 million pounds for comparable areas in recent years. Dogfish in Puget Sound are now taken primarily by recreational fishermen and as bycatch (Palsson 2005).  <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish are also the predominant shark species taken off Alaska, which banned directed shark fishing in 1998, but where dogfish bycatch (90% discarded) comprises the bulk of shark landings (Camhi 1999). In 1997, over 1,000 t of total shark catches were reported from the region?s groundfish fisheries. Spiny dogfish in the Gulf of Alaska are now included in a category known as ?other species? for which limits are set at a percentage of the total allowable catch for target species. The North Pacific Fishery Management Council is in the process of changing the limit from 5% to  <br/>Based on a generation time of 42 years, the current three-generation period therefore commences in the 1870s, when liver oil production first peaked. This has been followed by several periods of boom followed by collapse. Recent analyses suggest that abundance of spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia has declined very slightly in recent years; landings of 1,200 mt annually on average over the last five years appear to be sustainable and catch per unit effort has remained constant (King and McFarlane 2005). However, the aggregating habit of spiny dogfish means that catch per unit effort (CPUE) is not an adequate indicator of stock status; high CPUE can be maintained even when populations are severely depleted. Scientists describe the overall Northeast Pacific dogfish population as stable, with a possible shift northward in distribution (McFarlane <em>et al</em>. 2005). This stock is likely still to be reduced to around 50% of baseline, although could be recovering under current low exploitation pressures. Recognizing much variation among regions with the Northeast Pacific, this population is considered to be Vulnerable. <br/> <br/><strong>Western North Pacific</strong>: <br/>Japanese coastal and offshore fisheries (longline, trawl and gillnet) have historically taken large amounts of spiny dogfish and have shown similar patterns of decline to those in the North Atlantic (reviewed by Anon 2004). Catches dropped from more than 50,000 t in 1952 to only 10,000 t in 1965 (Taniuchi 1990) The following trends are reported by the Government of Japan Fisheries Agency (2003): offshore trawl catches of spiny dogfish were over 700 t in 1974?1979; since then, catches have decreased to 1?200 t in the late 1990s and up to 2001; catch rates for Danish seines and bull trawls fell from 100?200 kg per haul in the mid 1970s to 10?20 kg per haul in the late 1990s; this 90% reduction in CPUE (catch per unit effort) may indicate that stocks have declined to a similar extent during this period. According to the same source, in the Sea of Japan, spiny dogfish have been fully exploited with longlines and trawl-nets since before 1897. Harvests in this region from 1927 to 1929 were 7,500 to 11,250 t, accounting for 17?25% of Japan?s overall catch. Available statistics since 1970 show a decrease in CPUE from 8?28 units in the 1970s, to only 1?5 between 1995 and 2001, an overall decrease of around 80?90%. Spiny dogfish make up 16.8% of the shark bycatch associated with salmon gillnet fisheries (Nakano 1999). CPUE and stock assessment data are lacking, but the decline seems to be to less than 50% of baseline, fishing pressure continues, and no management is in place to enable the stock to rebuild. This stock is at least Endangered, but may prove to be Critically Endangered once a full regional review can be undertaken. <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong>: <br/>Considered coarse, dogfish meat is of little value to Australians (Last and Stevens 1994). Tasmanian recreational gillnet fisheries do, however, take substantial amounts (Simpfendorfer, pers. comm. in Fordham 2005).  <br/> <br/>Reported New Zealand landings increased from 3,000?4,000 t during the 1980s to 7,000?11,000 t from the mid 1990s to the mid 2000s (Manning <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sullivan et al. 2005). However some, if not most, of the apparent increase was probably a result of better reporting. It is not known if this level of fishing is sustainable, but catch rate analyses and trawl survey biomass indices show no sign of significant declines; indeed one of the main stocks on the Chatham Rise has shown a 5-fold biomass increase since 1991 (Manning et al. 2004, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population assessments for spiny dogfish off New Zealand are not yet available. Spiny dogfish were introduced to the New Zealand Quota Management System in October 2004 with a TAC of 12,660 t (M. Francis, pers. comm.). As such, this stock can be assessed as Least Concern. <br/> <br/><strong>South America</strong>:  <br/><em>Squalus acanthias</em> is, together with the similar shortspine spurdog <em>S. mitsukurii</em> and shortnose spurdog <em>S. megalops</em>, one of the more important coastal commercial species in Brazil, where landings of the genus have declined considerably. It is also taken as bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries and the target fishery for <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em>. Unregulated and expanding target and bycatch fisheries take spiny dogfish in Uruguay and Argentina, where declines of ~50% have been reported (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2002). Patagonian trawlers fishing for hake and shrimp take a bycatch of spiny dogfish. Rising effort in these fisheries and a lack of bycatch control is considered to be a threat to this and other elasmobranch populations in the region (Van Der Molen <em>et al</em>. 1998). As in so many other regions, pregnant females are commonly targeted. The South American stocks are assessed as Vulnerable, but may prove to be Endangered when a more detailed regional review can be undertaken.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southern Africa</strong>: <br/>Spiny dogfish are considered a nuisance off South Africa and are not currently targeted. Demersal trawl dogfish catch for the South Coast was recently estimated at 4.7 t, 99% of which is discarded. Off the West coast, an estimated 3.4 t is taken annually (100% discarded). The lack of data on historical dogfish catch will make it difficult to monitor future trends.
39327		conservation	eng	In the Australian Southern Shark Fishery, <em>P. cirratus</em> has been harvested as byproduct or bycatch to the targeting of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> and <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> in oceanic waters since the mid-1920s and possibly earlier in inshore areas. Baited hooks attached to bottom-set longlines was the principal fishing method until the early 1970s when the method was replaced by bottom-set gillnets. Management measures in this fishery include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, Total Allowable Catches (TAC) (for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> combined) (since 2002). Input controls include limits on length of net (since 1988), various 4 to 6 week closed seasons to protect pregnant animals of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994), and a legal minimum mesh-size of six inches for gillnets (since 1975) for most of the fished area. During 2002, the TAC for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> was 191 tonnes for the Southern Shark Fishery, 124 tonnes for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 31 tonnes for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery. The three-mile closure of all Victorian waters to shark fishing provides a large refuge for the species.
39327		distribution	eng	<em>P. cirratus</em> is endemic to the waters of southern Australia?s outer continental shelf. Last and Stevens (1994) considered that the distribution was poorly defined, but most likely to be between Jurien Bay in Western Australia and Eden in New South Wales, including Tasmania. Compagno (1984) reported a possible occurrence in the Philippines. The recorded depth range is 40 to 310 m (Last and Stevens 1994). The highest concentrations are in Bass Strait (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).
39327		habitat	eng	<em>P. cirratus</em> is a small, slightly dorso-ventrally compressed, shark with a long rostrum (snout), narrow and tapering with numerous lateral rostral teeth. Paired elongated barbels originate from the ventral side of the rostrum and the second dorsal fin is nearly as large as the first. The upper body is pale yellow to greyish brown with distinctive dark markings incorporating spots and wide bands. Detailed descriptions can be found in Compagno (1984a) and Last and Stevens (1994). Sawsharks can be distinguished from the morphologically similar sawfishes by lateral (as opposed to ventral) gill slits and the presence of barbels originating from the rostrum. <br/> <br/>Maximum total length and maximum total body mass are higher for females (149 cm, 8.5 kg) than for males (132 cm, 3.5 kg). Ageing studies indicate that the species has a maximum life span of 15 years and hence has comparatively high productivity among chondrichthyans. The species exhibits aplacental viviparity and produces 6 to 19 offspring biennially, and the young are born at approximately 38 cm total length. Total length at which 50% of the females matured is 107 cm. The diet consists of mainly small teleosts and, to a lesser extent, crustaceans (T.I. Walker, unpublished data).
39327		threats	eng	One threat to the population of <em>P. cirratus</em> is their capture as byproduct from targeting <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> with gillnets of 6?6½-inch mesh-size off South Australia (Walker 1999), Victoria and Tasmania. During 1970?01 the catch of <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>Pristiophorus nudipinnis</em> combined from the Southern Shark Fishery varied 43?301 tonnes (carcass weight), 7% of the total catch of all shark species (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>Another threat is their capture as byproduct in the South East Trawl Fishery, which targets a range of quota teleost species with demersal trawl nets off New South Wales, eastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania. The sawshark catch from this sector was 106 tonnes during 2002. <br/> <br/>In addition, small quantities of <em>P. cirratus</em> are taken by the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery. The catch from this sector was 28 tonnes during 2002. <br/> <br/>Minor threats include gillnets in the shark fishery of Western Australia and fishing with long-lines and other methods. <br/> <br/>In Bass Strait, observed catch rates from research vessels during 1973 to 1976 and from scientific observations on board commercial vessels during 1998?01 indicate that the number of animals per thousand km-hours in bottom-set gillnets of six-inch mesh-size declined from 381 to 292. This is a decline to 67% of former levels over a 25-year period. (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press). Catch per unit effort reported by commercial fishers over this same period declined from 15.32 to 7.71 kg per km-lift for <em>P. nudipinnis</em> and <em>P. cirratus</em> combined; i.e., a decline to 50% of former levels.  The decline in the commercial catch rate for these species occurred during 1974 to 1982 and catch rates subsequently stabilized during 1983 to 2001. A steady decline in fishing effort since the mid 1980s and adoption of a Total Allowable Catch during 2002 for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> jointly are expected to help secure the stocks of these species. There is negligible targeting of <em>P. cirratus</em>; most of the catch of these species is taken as byproduct to targeting <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em>.
39328		conservation	eng	The Pacific Angelshark is considered to be overfished. The fishery is now indirectly regulated, mainly through the ban on nearshore gillnet fisheries in southern California, which originally targeted the California halibut (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1992, Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992). Nevertheless, an interest still remains in commercially exploiting this species and conservation measures should be implemented to protect its populations in the future.
39328		distribution	eng	The Pacific Angelshark occurs off the coast of North America from Alaska to the tip of Baja California, Mexico (including the Gulf of California) and perhaps to Ecuador and southern Chile, but the taxonomy of the southern population has not yet been validated. It is relatively common in central and southern California (US) waters, especially off the coast of Santa Barbara (Natanson and Cailliet 1986, 1990, Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992, 2001). It lives in relatively shallow waters to depths of 100 m, but it is much more abundant in nearshore, coastal waters (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
39328		habitat	eng	Pacific Angelsharks are relatively small, bottom-dwelling elasmobranchs, which commonly remain partially buried on flat, sandy bottoms during the daytime, but which can become active at night (Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992, 2001). They are primarily piscivores, apparently waiting for vulnerable prey to swim overhead. In southern California, they are reported to eat croakers, damselfish and squid (Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992, 2001), but their diet extends to pelagic fishes as well. Numerous techniques of ageing and age verification have been used on Pacific angelsharks, but none except tag-recapture have been successful at estimating their growth rates or age-specific processes (Natanson and Cailliet 1990, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1992). These tag-recapture data, however, allowed an estimate of von Bertalanffy growth and demography parameters that predicted relatively slow growth and moderate fecundity, with maturity occurring relatively late in life. Reproduction starts in both males and females at about 90?100 cm TL or ~13 years of age, with gestation taking approximately 10 months, resulting in up to 11 pups (mean of six) per female born between March and June.
39328		threats	eng	The growth and demography parameters from the tag-recapture study indicated that Pacific Angelsharks grew slowly enough and had relatively few offspring relatively late in life to indicate that they could not handle strong exploitation (see Richards 1987). There was a rapid increase in angel shark landings between 1983?1986 (Richards 1987), leading to concern that stocks could be over-exploited. Even though a minimum size was proposed for the gillnet fishery targeting both California Halibut (<em>Paralichthys californicus</em>) and Pacific Angelsharks, this measure proved not to be effective at reversing the declining population levels along the Santa Barbara/ Ventura coast and Channel Islands areas, California (Richards 1987, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993). Because of the gillnet fishery ban (Proposition 132) voted into law by Californians in 1990, there is now a reduced threat to the California population of Pacific Angelsharks. However, little is known about the effect of fisheries on the overall stock of this population, which is being heavily fished along both the Pacific and Gulf coasts of Baja California (C. Villavicencio pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Because of its rather limited geographical range and evidence of only limited exchange among regional stocks within this range, resident stocks near large population centres may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localised fishing pressure. This is especially true since past commercial catch data have exhibited a typical elasmobranch fisheries pattern. Angel shark landings in California increased from about 45.4 t in the late 1970s, to >545 t in 1985 and 1986. This was followed by a rapid decline in total catch to <90t in 1989 and an almost complete collapse by the early 1990s (Richards 1987, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993).
39329		conservation	eng	Since 1992 there is a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel sharks in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003).  <br/> <br/>In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult. A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Perez pers. comm). The conservation status of this species will rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels should provide accurate monitoring of trends in the future.
39329		distribution	eng	<em>Squatina argentina</em> is endemic to the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 32°S (Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 43°S (north Patagonia, Argentina) (Cousseau 1973, Vooren and Silva 1991). Nursery areas of the species have not been found in southern Brazil and may exist further south off Uruguay and/or Argentina.
39329		habitat	eng	<em>Squatina argentina</em> is a bottom-dwelling shark of smooth sandy and muddy grounds on the outer shelf and upper slope at depths of 120 to 320 m, at temperatures of 14 to 16°C, but has also been sporadically recorded to 50 m (Vooren and Silva 1991, Vooren 1997).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size is 138 cm TL; size at maturity ~120 cm TL for both sexes (Silva 1996). Aplacental yolksac viviparous with two functional ovaries. Fecundity is 7 to 11 embryos per litter (Vooren and Silva 1991), with most females carrying 9 or 10 young. The breeding cycle of the female lasts at least two years.
39329		population	eng	<em>Squatina argentina</em> appears to be the less abundant of the three angel shark species captured by fisheries off Rio Grande do Sul State (30°S to 34°S), Brazil (Perez and Warhlich 2005).
39329		threats	eng	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between angel shark populations makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>S. guggenheim, S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> combined. The term ?angel shark? in the present assessment refers to this assemblage of species. These three species occur on the continental shelf with <em>S. argentina</em> and <em>S. occulta</em> also occurring on the upper slope. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000 t in 1986 to 1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003). In the trawl and gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> at the shelf edge and upper slope, <em>S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> have been significant bycatch species, indicating that there is also considerable pressure on the outer shelf and slope for <em>S. argentina</em>. Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of <em>S. argentina</em> has decreased to 15% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Perez and Warhlich (2005) noted that <em>Squatina argentina</em> was one of the most retained bycatch species in the gillnet monkfish fishery, with bycatch estimated at 1.052 per 100 nets in 2001 (total 8,698 individuals), and these authors suggest that this is unlikely to be sustainable for the species. <br/> <br/>At present there is no evidence of the existence of abundant populations of the species outside southern Brazil. In Uruguay and Argentina the species is uncommon in commercial landings but its distribution and abundance have not been studied. In Argentina, angel shark landings have shown a negative trend since a peak in 1998 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004), but landings apparently consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but the largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm). While most information is available from Brazil, trawl and other demersal fisheries operate over the species' area of occurrence, exerting fishing pressure across both the latitudinal and bathymetrical range of the species.
39330		conservation	eng	Since 1992 there has been a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel shark in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult.    <br/> <br/>Vooren and Klippel (2005) recommend the protection of the coastal nursery grounds in southern Brazil (waters south of 32°30?S) from fishing as an essential measure for the conservation of this species.
39330		distribution	eng	<em>Squatina guggenheim</em> is endemic to the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 24°S (Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 43°S (northern Patagonia, Argentina). Gosztonyi (1981) recorded specimens of <em>Squatina</em> spp. from 47°S, which may be this species, however this requires confirmation. Gravid females migrate in spring to shallow inshore nursery grounds to give birth (Silva 1996).
39330		habitat	eng	<em>Squatina guggenheim</em> is a relatively small, shelf bottom-dwelling shark. In Brazil the species occurs mostly at depths of 10 to 80 m at bottom temperatures of 10 to 22°C (Vooren and Silva 1991). Cousseau (1973) refers to captures of <em>S. guggenheim</em> from the coast to 150 m in Argentinean waters, Gosztonyi (1981) at depths of 26 to 135 m, and Menni <em>et al.</em> (1981) at 22 to 121 m.  <br/> <br/>Maximum size in Brazil is 92 cm TL (Silva 1996); size at maturity 70 to 80 cm TL for both sexes (Cousseau 1973, Vooren and Silva 1991). Aplacental yolksac viviparous with one functional ovary. Number of embryos per litter is 3 to 9 (Vooren and Klippel 2005, Compagno in prep). The breeding cycle of the female is triennial (Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim</em> migrates in spring to shallow coastal waters where the females give birth and where small juveniles occur all year round (Vooren and Silva 1991, Vooren and Klippel 2005). For <em>S. guggenheim</em> in southern Brazil, Vieira (1996) established the following Von Bertalanffy parameters: K=0.274, L<sub>?</sub>=94.7 cm TL, and t<sub>0</sub>=-1.145. The age at sexual maturity was calculated as 4 to 5 years and longevity 12 years. For Argentina, Chiaramonte (unpublished data) calculated K= 0.107 using the indirect methods of Holden (1974).
39330		population	eng	Although the species lives in a geographical continuum of ~20 degrees of latitude, the range is probably composed of local populations each with its own inshore-offshore migration pattern within their local temperature regime. One such population exists in southern Brazil. These local populations can be extirpated by fishing activities. Shallow inshore regions are important as nursery grounds throughout the geographical range of the species.
39330		threats	eng	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005).   <br/> <br/>Gravid females of <em>S. guggenheim</em> have been observed to abort embryos easily upon capture, further reducing the reproductive capacity (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between populations also makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. Furthermore, pupping and nursery areas in Brazil occur in shallow inshore waters at depths of <30 m. Intensive fishing by gillnet and trawl in these nursery areas results in additional pressure on gravid females and juveniles of the species (Silva 1996, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>S. guggenheim, S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> combined. The term ?angel shark? in the present assessment refers to this assemblage of species. These three species occur on the continental shelf with <em>S. argentina</em> also occurring on the upper slope. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000t in 1986-1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003, Vooren and Klippel 2005). While <em>S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> have been significant bycatch species in the trawl and gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> at the shelf edge and uppermost slope, <em>S. guggenheim</em> occurs shallower than that fishery. <br/> <br/>Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of <em>S. guggenheim</em> has decreased to 15% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005).  <br/> <br/>In Argentina, the shark bycatch from gillnet and bottom trawl fleets targeting species such as school shark, croakers and flatfishes is poorly known. However, Cousseau (1973), based on Nani and Gonzalez Alberdi (1966), estimated <em>Squatina</em> as 6% of the total weight of the catches of the coastal bottom trawling fleet. The predominant size in these catches was about 70 to 80 cm TL; small sizes (25 to 45 cm TL) were uncommon. Cousseau (1973), based on García Cabrejos and Malaret (1969) calculated the total landings of angel shark in Mar del Plata harbour in 1964 to be 1,074 MT and 2,355 MT in 1965. Otero <em>et al.</em> (1982) considered the angel sharks to be species with a low concentration on the Buenos Aires coast, with an annual biomass for 1981/2 estimated at 4,050 tons. However, in 1991 as much as 4,167 MT were taken, and 4,281 MT in 1996. Chiaramonte (1998) stated that the angel sharks were the second most important fish landed by the gillnet fleet of Puerto Quequen. Total captures of angel sharks in Argentina oscillated around 1,000 MT between 1979 and 1984 then increased to maximums of over 4,000 MT in the 1990s. Catches consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. Peaks were reached in 1997 and 1998, before landings dropped in 2002 to >2,000 MT, rising again in 2003 to 3,550 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thus there has been an overall negative trend in landings during the period 1998-2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, Vooren and Klippel (2005) (citing Massa and Hozbor 2003) suggested a 58% decline in the CPUE of angel shark in the coastal bottom trawl fleet. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm).
39332		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Squatina</em> is protected within three Balearic Islands marine reserves, where fishing for these species is forbidden. <em>Squatina squatina</em> was proposed for strict protection under the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act in 2001; a decision is still (2006) awaited from government [Update by LRH May 27th 2010 - species now listed under UK Wildlife and Countryside Act, and will be protected against killing, injuring or taking (section 9(1)) on land and up to 3 nautical miles (nm) from English coastal baselines]. UK and Belgium proposed <em>S. squatina</em> for listing on the OSPAR Priority List of Threatened and Endangered Species, and although the proposal was deemed appropriate by the Study Group on Elasmobranch Fishes (ICES, 2002), the nomination was not accepted. <em>Squatina squatina</em> is listed on Annex III of the Barcelona Convention. <br/> <br/>There is an urgent need to confirm the status of this species in the southern Mediterranean, Canary Islands and other areas where populations may still persist. If so appropriate conservation measures are needed to protect this species there.
39332		distribution	eng	Original range from Scandinavia to North-western Africa (Mauritania and the Canary Islands), including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Current distribution appears to be reduced from this historic range, as a result of severe population depletion, local extirpations, and some contraction in range; for example it is now considered to be extinct in the North Sea (ICES ACFM 2005) and is no longer encountered in most areas of the northern Mediterranean.
39332		habitat	eng	A temperate-water bottom-dwelling angel shark of the European and North African continental shelves, occurring on or near the bottom from close inshore (5 m) in the intertidal or subtidal zone to at least 150 m depth. This shark prefers mud or sandy bottom, where it lies buried with little more than its eyes protruding. It may penetrate estuaries and brackish water. The angelshark is nocturnal and can be found swimming strongly up off the bottom at night, but is torpid in the daytime and rests on the bottom. In the northern parts of its range the angelshark is seasonally migratory, and makes northwards incursions during the summer. (Compagno in prep.). <br/> <br/>Most life history data were provided by Capape <em>et al</em>. (1990) for the Mediterranean. Females reach maturity at 128 to 169 cm, and males at 80 to 132 cm (Lipej <em>et al</em>. 2004), with maximum sizes of 183 cm and possibly up to 244 cm (Compagno 1984, in prep.), with estimates of less than 240 cm in the Mediterranean Sea (Tortonese 1956). Age at maturity and longevity are unknown. This shark is ovoviviparous, with both ovaries functional. It has moderate-sized litters of 7 to 25 young which vary according to the size of the female (Tortonese 1956, Bini 1967, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990, Compagno in prep). Records of size at birth are 24 to 30 cm (Compagno in prep.) and 24 cm (Tortonese 1956, Bini 1967). Gestation period is 8 to 10 months (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990, Compagno in prep.), born in December to February in the Mediterranean but apparently later in northern parts of its range (July in England). Reproductive age and periodicity, rate of population increase and mortality are unknown. <br/> <br/>The angelshark feeds primarily on bony fishes, especially flatfishes (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1996) but also other demersal fishes and skates, crustaceans and molluscs. Specific items include hake (<em>Merlucius merlucius</em>, Merluciidae), sparids (<em>Pagellus erythrinus</em>, Sparidae), grunts (<em>Pomadasys</em> sp., Haemulidae) flatfish (<em>Bothus</em> sp., Bothidae, <em>Citharus linguatula</em>, Citharidae), sole (<em>Solea solea</em>, Soleidae), squid (<em>Loligo vulgaris</em>), cuttlefish (<em>Sepia officinalis</em>, <em>Sepiola</em> spp.), and crustaceans (<em>Dorippe lanata</em>, <em>Geryon tridens</em>, <em>Dromia vulgaris</em>, <em>Goneplax rhomboides</em>, <em>Macropipus corregatus</em>, <em>Atelecyclus rotundatus</em>). It occasionally swallows odd items, including eelgrass and seabirds (a cormorant was once recorded) (Compagno in prep.).
39332		population	eng	<em>Squatina squatina</em> was reported to be common, or at least frequently or regularly recorded in many areas, during the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th</sup> centuries. For example, It was particularly common on the south and east English coasts (Yarrell 1836, Day 1880?04), and also common in the North Sea, on the Dogger Bank, in the Bristol Channel and Cornwall, and ?by no means uncommon? in the Firth of Clyde (Day 1880?4). Historically it has also been caught in Tralee Bay and Clew Bay, Ireland. It was still being caught regularly and considered common in the UK at the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Garstang 1903). Although more common off the Atlantic Iberian coasts, <em>Squatina squatina</em> was also reported as frequent in the Mediterranean during the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century by Lozano Rey (1928). Steep population declines have, however, now been reported from several parts of this species? range, including in the North Sea (ICES ACFM 2005) UK coastal waters (Rogers and Ellis 2000), the French coast (Quero and Cendrero 1996, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 2000), and large areas of the Mediterranean (e.g., Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). During the early 1900s, an average of one specimen was taken during every ten hours of trawl survey, but in recent years the species has virtually vanished (Rogers and Ellis, 2000). CEFAS surveys recorded angel sharks in low numbers in Cardigan Bay during the 1980s (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1996) but report just one individual in the last 15 years. The population is clearly becoming increasingly fragmented and records are now extremely infrequent (for more information, see ?Threats?). It has now virtually disappeared from much of its former range in the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean. Off the North Africa coastline the species may be more common, e.g., as reported off the coast of Tunisia (although it is considered rare in the Gulf of Gabès) (Bradai 2000).  <br/> <br/>Vacchi <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the dramatic decline in the elasmobranch catch of a tuna trap operating in Baratti (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1898 and 1922. For the genus <em>Squatina</em>, catches decreased from an average of 134 specimens from the period 1898 to 1905, to 95 between 1906 and 1913, and down to 15 between 1914 and 1922.  <br/> <br/>Declines have also been reported from studies off the Balearic Islands where this species, previously relatively frequent, may now be absent. Off the Balearic Islands <em>Squatina squatina</em> was historically documented in checklists (Delaroche 1809, Ramis 1814, Barceló I Combis 1868, Fage 1907, De Buen 1935). Captures of <em>S. squatina</em> spp. were relatively frequent until the 1970?s, becoming increasingly sporadic during the 1980?s in coastal artisanal fisheries (trammel nets and gillnets), lobster tanglenets, trawls and bottom longline fisheries. Since the mid 1990?s no reports of <em>Squatina</em> spp. have been reported in the area (Gabriel Morey, pers. comm). Recently, Massutí and Moranta (2003) reported no captures of <em>Squatina</em> spp. from four bottom trawl fishing surveys (131 hauls, at a depth range of 46 to 1,800 m) carried out between 1996 and 2001 around the Balearic Islands. In addition, the likely low interaction with stocks from other areas further affects the already low recovery capacity of isolated populations such as those around the Balearics.  <br/> <br/>Catch data for this species in the north Mediterranean exist for the period from 1985 to 1999, when two major trawl surveys were carried out: the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) and the Italian National Project (National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND)).  <br/> <br/>During the MEDITS program (1995?1999), a broad scale survey of the north Mediterranean coastline from west Morocco to the Aegean Sea in depths of 10 to 800 m, <em>S. squatina</em> appeared in only two of a total of 9,095 tows, at a depth range of 50 to 100 m, resulting in an estimated standing biomass of 14 t throughout the survey area (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001), which equates to 1,400 individuals assuming an average individual weight of 10 kg.  <br/> <br/>In the Italian survey, captures of <em>S. squatina</em> were reported in only 0.41% of 9,281 hauls (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000). <em>Squatina squatina</em> was reported from trawl surveys carried out in the Adriatic Sea in 1948, but MEDITS trawls in 1998 indicated this species may now be absent from this area (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, evidence points to angel sharks being absent nowadays from most of the northern Mediterranean coastline. <br/> <br/>Landings in the Northeast Atlantic compiled by WGEF (2004) from 1978 to 2002 for all ICES Areas are variable because of recent misreporting of other species (primarily <em>Lophius</em>) as this non-quota species. After deleting these records, landings have declined from 15 to 20 t in the 1980s, to 1 to 2 t in the 1990s, with the last reported landing in 1998.
39332		threats	eng	Angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch in trawls as they lie on the bottom. Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency on the shelf and slope area of the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean over the last 50 years. The species is also bycaught in trammel nets and bottom longlines throughout its range. Human disturbance by habitat degradation and tourism are also possible threats to its preferred sandy nearshore habitat.There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 between 1914 and 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area, to which angel sharks are highly susceptible. A low rate of exchange between <em>Squatina</em> populations may makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Tunisia reported small catches of this species during the past decade (10 to 53 t), with the 1997 catch at 37 t; other Mediterranean countries that report 'angelsharks' to FAO with this species as part of the catch include Albania, Turkey, Malta and France. Landings in the Northeast Atlantic collated by WGEF (ICES 2004) may include some misreporting of other (quota) species (e.g., <em>Lophius</em>) as angel shark is a non-quota species, but otherwise landings have declined from an average of 17 t/annum in the 1980s, to 1 to 2 t in the 1990s.
39333		conservation	eng	Like other hornsharks, <em>Heterodontus francisci</em> is a hardy species and can survive capture in drift and trawl nets. Individuals should be returned to the water if alive after capture. <br/> <br/>Further information on distribution, population structure and biology is required. <br/> <br/>The development and/or implementation of National Shark Plans under the FAO IPOA-Sharks, where necessary.
39333		distribution	eng	In the US, it is most common off southern California but ranges to Monterey Bay and may occasionally penetrate as far north as San Francisco Bay (where it is not resident) during northern influxes of warm water (Compagno 2001). In Mexico, it occurs off Baja California, in the Gulf of California and slightly further south.
39333		habitat	eng	The horn shark is a common small warm temperate to subtropical benthic endemic shark. It is found on the continental shelf from the intertidal zone out to a depth of 152 m, although it is most common at a depth of 2 to 11 m. During the winter, horn sharks migrate into deeper waters, usually below 30 m. They exhibit a high degree of segregation corresponding to their life history. Adolescent sharks (between 35 to 48 cm) tend to remain in deeper water, usually between 40 to 150m, and as they mature they migrate back into relatively shallow water. This segregation of habitat by size and stage of maturity reduces competition for food and habitat between younger and older sharks. Habitat also changes ontogenetically, with juveniles inhabiting sandy bottoms with little vertical relief and adults inhabiting rocky reefs with caves and crevices, or areas of thick algae cover. Juveniles use bat ray <em>Myliobatis californica</em> feeding pits in sandy areas as shelter and foraging areas. Adults that occur in the algal habitat have noticeably longer fin spines than those in the reef habitat. This is due to their spines being worn down by going in and out of caves. Horn sharks show distinct diel patterns of activity, which is controlled by light intensity. Adults are relatively inactive diurnally, but are very active nocturnally. They are site specific, returning to the same resting place at dawn and remaining there until the evening. They have a small home range, usually no larger than 1,000 m², and they long-term site fidelity as sharks have been recovered in their tagging locations after up to 11.25 years at liberty. The furthest distance a horn shark has been documented as traveling is 16.3 km. Water temperature is an important factor controlling the relative abundance of the horn shark, as they prefer water over 70°F (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Nelson and Johnson 1970, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Finstad and Nelson 1975, Strong 1989, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Horn sharks are oviparous, and females lay two eggs every 11 to 14 days usually between February and April, depositing up the 24 eggs in a single breeding season. Egg cases are usually laid in shallow water between 2 and 13 m deep. Development of embryos lasts 6 to 10 months, depending on temperature. Size at birth is 15 to 17 cm. Males mature at 56 to 61 cm and reach a maximum length of 83cm, while females over 58 cm are mature, with a maximum length of 96 cm, but possibly up to 120 cm. Very little is known about age and growth of this species. Growth rates are generally slow and very variable, and they do not correspond to size. The unconfirmed maximum age is 25 years (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Dempster and Herald 1961, Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983, Michael 1993, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Horn sharks feed on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates and on small teleosts. Adults prey upon gastropods, crabs, shrimp, squid, sea urchins, sea stars, and small teleosts, namely the blacksmith <em>Chromis punctipinna</em>. Juveniles feed on polychaetes, small clams, and sea anemones in addition to opportunistically feeding on squid and small teleosts when available (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Strong 1989, Compagno 2001, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>: Unknown (male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>: Female: >58 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1995); Male: 56 to 61 cm (Strong 1989). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>: 25 years (unconfirmed) (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>: Female: 96 cm, possibly up to 120 cm; Male: 83 cm (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974). <br/><strong>Size at birth </strong>: 15 to 17 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>: 6 to 10 months (Dempster and Herald 1961, Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: 24 eggs in a single breeding season (Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>: Unknown.
39333		population	eng	Rare north of southern California. Occurs year-round in San Ignacio Lagoon, Mexico with lower abundance in summer and fall (Segura-Zarzosa <em>et al</em>. 1997).  Differences in egg case morphology between the Channel Islands, California and the mainland suggest that they may be separate populations (Ebert 2003).
39333		threats	eng	In California horn sharks are of no commercial value. They are taken as bycatch in traps and trawls and occasionally by recreational anglers. In Mexico they are caught as a bycatch of the shrimp fishery and other bottom-trawling operations. Caught as bycatch in the demersal gillnet fishery in the northern Gulf of Mexico and likely on the Pacific side of Baja California during the winter and spring. The Mexican population could have problems in the future if the gillnet fishery expands (Wade Smith, pers comm). They have been captured by divers for sport and for the large fin spines, which are made into jewellery; decreases in numbers of horn sharks have been noted in areas with intense diver activity in Southern California. Horn sharks are often harassed and grabbed by divers, but when provoked may swim after their assailants and bite them. These sharks are kept in many public aquaria in the US. They are hardy, attractive, readily maintained, will breed in captivity, and have been displayed for many years (Compagno 2001, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Captured as bycatch, large sharks are eaten, but smaller ones are discarded. They have also been captured by divers for sport and for the large fin spines, which are made into jewellery. Also utilized (non-consumptive) for display in public aquaria in the US. In Mexico these sharks are probably utilized (or formerly utilized) for fishmeal.
39334		conservation	eng	The only specific management regulation that exists for Port Jackson Sharks is the recreational trip limit for sharks imposed by Western Australia (four of any species). No other States have bag or size limits that cover Port Jackson Sharks. Commercial collectors of live specimens for the aquarium trade are normally licensed by State Governmental legislation.
39334		distribution	eng	The Port Jackson Shark is a common inhabitant of the Australian continental shelf south of 20°S. It has been recorded from estuarine areas, to depths of 245m (Last and Stevens 1994).
39334		habitat	eng	Port Jackson Sharks feed mostly on benthic invertebrates, especially sea urchins (Last and Stevens 1994). Other reported prey include sea stars, polychaete worms, gastropods, prawns, crabs and small fish (Compagno 1984a). <br/>The Port Jackson shark is oviparous, with mature females producing 10?16 eggs each year. The eggs are deposited in fissures and caves of shallow rocky reefs. Juveniles hatch at a size of 23 cm from the eggs after 12 months. Males mature at an age of 8?10 years at a size of 75 cm, while females mature at 11?14 years and 80?95 cm. These ages at maturity are based on captive animals and the age and growth of the wild population needs to be examined to confirm these estimates. Males grow to a maximum size of 105 cm; females grow to at least 123 cm (McGaughlin and O?Gower 1971, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/>Port Jackson sharks are abundant inhabitants of coastal reefs throughout their ranges (Last and Stevens 1994). They are most active at night when they are feeding. McGaughlin and O?Gower (1971) gave a detailed description of the habitat use and movements of Port Jackson sharks in the waters off New South Wales. Males and females move into inshore reef areas in July. Mating occurs in July and August and eggs are laid in August and September. At the end of the breeding season males move into deeper water, followed by females at the end of their egg laying period. Some adults remain offshore over summer, while others migrate. Animals have been recorded up to 850 km from the reproductive areas. Females appear to migrate further than males. Juveniles hatch in the nearshore reef areas and normally remain there until they near maturity. <br/><br/>McGaughlin and O?Gower (1971) estimated that the growth rates of captive animals were 5?6 cm for juveniles and 2?4 cm for adults.
39334		threats	eng	Port Jackson Sharks are commonly caught in demersal gillnet fisheries operating in southern Australia. At times they may account for the majority of the catch (in numbers). Catch figures, however, are unavailable as fishermen do not land this species. Their flesh and fins are considered of poor quality and they are not used commercially. Most are discarded, often alive. Some fishers consider them to be a pest and kill them before discarding them. Observations on catches of demersal gillnet fishers in southern Western Australia have indicated that stocks remain relatively healthy, with large catches regularly made after 20 years of intensive fishing (Simpfendorfer unpubl.).<br/><br/>Small individuals are captured for use in the hobbyist aquarium trade and fetch good prices. Live animals are sold both domestically and internationally. Port Jackson Sharks advertised by aquarium suppliers in the US sell for up to US$180. Specimens are also collected by commercial aquaria for display purposes, but in relatively small numbers. Large commercial aquariums are able to successfully breed Port Jackson Sharks in captivity, reducing the reliance on wild caught animals.<br/><br/>Recreational fishers occasionally catch Port Jackson Sharks, but they are not specifically targeted because of their low flesh quality. A survey of recreational boat anglers on the lower west coast of Western Australia estimated that the recreational catch by this sector of the recreational fishery was 273 individuals in the period from September 1996 to August 1997 (N. Sumner pers. comm.). These levels of catch are very minor when compared to commercial catches.
39335		conservation	eng	Only limited areas of its habitat are protected on the Great Barrier Reef, and the species is not directly protected.
39335		distribution	eng	Inshore on the continental shelf in shallow water (5 m), of the east Coast of Australia, western South Pacific. Most records are from Moreton Bay near Brisbane, Queensland, with a few records from southern Queensland between Gladstone and Coolangatta, and in north-eastern Queensland off York Peninsula and the Great Barrier Reef (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001). No subpopulation details; possibly only one population exists.
39335		habitat	eng	An ovoviviparous species, with 6?8 pups per litter. Term foetuses are 174?186 mm; size at birth is probably 17?18 cm. Maximum size is at least 75.5 cm. Pregnant females have been recorded at 65.8?75.5cm and males are adolescent at about 48.2?51.6 cm. Age at maturity, average reproductive age and longevity are all unknown (Compagno 2001). The behavioural ecology of this shark needs to be investigated. Studies should include underwater census and tagging.
39335		threats	eng	Bluegrey Carpetsharks are caught as limited inshore bycatch of fisheries and exploited at low levels for the marine aquarium trade. No information is available on trends in numbers or range, but they are not found in quantity at any locality despite reasonable survey coverage. Habitat degradation could become a problem as human usage of coastal waters increases, since it has a restricted distribution to areas heavily utilized by humans.
39336		conservation	eng	None.
39336		distribution	eng	This shark is very rarely recorded, but apparently with a wide but disjunct distribution in the Atlantic (centre of distribution possibly in Brazilian waters) and Pacific Oceans. <em>Odontaspis noronhai</em> (Maul 1955), was described from a single specimen from Madeira, caught in 1941. There were no further records, until nine specimens were reported from Brazilian waters (24ºS? 44ºW) in 1981. Two more specimens were also caught off Brazil from the same area in 1982 and 1984 and Sadowsky <em>et al.</em> (1984) provided the second published record of this species and confirmed its existence.<br/><br/>Further records of single fish have been reported from the Gulf of Mexico (1984) and Madeira (1952) (Branstetter and McEachran 1986), Hawaii (Humphreys et al. 1989) and southern Brazil (31ºS?49ºW, in 1991) (Araujo and Teixeira 1993). The species was also seen another nine times from November 1982 to April 1985 at 23º?26ºS and again in 1989 (U.L. Gomes pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A jaw of <em>O. noronhai</em> has been collected from the Indian Ocean or South China Sea (Sadowsky <em>et al.</em> 1984) and some teeth were also collected from bottom deposits in the central North Pacific, although not clearly identified as <em>O. noronhai</em> (Belyaev and Glikman 1970).
39336		habitat	eng	Very little information has been collected from the few specimens obtained. The maximum size reported was 367cm total length (TL) (male). A female of 321 cm TL was still immature. The reproduction of this species is presumably similar to that of the better-known laminids (oviphagous, see above).
39336		threats	eng	<em>Odontaspis noronhai</em> is rarely captured by fishing. All catches of <em>O. noronhai</em> from Brazil were made by tuna longliners based in Santos, except the one from southern Brazil, caught by gillnet (Sadowsky <em>et al.</em> 1984, Araújo and Teixeira 1993, Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Presumably it is taken occasionally by deepwater fisheries with line and net gear, including pelagic gillnets, purse-seines and deep-set longlines. It may live mostly below the depths normally fished by horizontal pelagic longlines and purse-seines and is possibly too large to be a regular bottom or pelagic trawl catch (Compagno 2001).
39337		conservation	eng	None.
39337		distribution	eng	An oceanic and circumtropical species that occurs at the surface to at least 590 m depth, usually found offshore and far from land but sometimes occurring inshore and near the bottom (Compagno 1984a).<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: off Brazil, eastern Atlantic: south¬east of Cape Verde Islands, between them and Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Angola and South Africa (Western Cape).<br/><br/><strong>Western Indian Ocean</strong>: Mozambique Channel south¬west of southern Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Indian Ocean</strong>: Bay of Bengal (possibly erroneous).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Pacific</strong>: off Japan, Taiwan (Province of China) and the Koreas.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Pacific</strong>: west of New Zealand (North Island), Coral Sea, Indonesia (south of Sumatra near Sunda Straits and off Java).<br/> <br/><strong>Central Pacific</strong>: Marquesas Islands, Hawaiian Islands, open ocean between Marquesas and Hawaiian islands, open ocean between Hawaiian Islands and Baja California.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: off Costa Rica and Panama.<br/><br/>Subpopulation details are unknown (Compagno 2001).
39337		habitat	eng	A small wide-ranging and apparently uncommon pelagic species, for which very little biological data are available. Large eyes suggest nocturnal activity or deepwater existence (Last and Stevens 1994). Feeding habits of this shark are sketchily known. Its long, flexed teeth, strong and long jaws, and its vigorous activity when captured adapt it to moderately large, active, oceanic prey. Of seven specimens examined for stomach contents, the stomachs of four were empty and three others had a number of small bristlemouths (gonostomatids), possibly lanternfish (myctophids), unidentified fish scales, small shrimp and squid beaks in their stomachs (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Reproduction is oviphagous, with a litter size of four, born at about 40 cm. Males mature by 74 cm and females by 89 cm. Maximum reported length 110 cm. Age at maturity, gestation period, longevity and average reproductive age/generation time are all unknown (Compagno 1984a).
39337		threats	eng	This species is too small to be of much value for fins and is little utilised for flesh and so is a generally discarded and largely unrecorded bycatch of large-scale pelagic longlining operations targeting scombroids and possibly other oceanic fisheries. It has a relatively large mouth and strong teeth and is readily caught on longline hooks fished near the surface. Catch records are very limited and largely confined to a small number of specimens (fewer than 50) deposited in museums. It does not appear to be abundant anywhere, with the known exception of the Mozambique Channel in the western Indian Ocean during the 1960s (Compagno 2001).
39338		conservation	eng	None.
39338		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens but probably it is circumtropical and wide ranging. Known records are from the following areas:<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: Brazil. <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Senegal.<br/><strong>South-eastern Indian Ocean</strong>: Western Australia.<br/><strong>Northwest Pacific</strong>: Japan, Philippines, Indonesia.<br/><strong>Central Pacific</strong>: Hawaiian Islands (Oahu).<br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: USA (southern California).<br/><br/>A coastal and oceanic, epipelagic and neritic species, it has been found in water as shallow as 5m in a bay and 40 m deep on the continental shelf. It has also been recorded offshore in the epipelagic zone at 8?165 m depth in water 348?4,600 m deep and some have been washed ashore (Yano <em>et al.</em> 1997).
39338		habitat	eng	The only known prey of the Megamouth Shark are epipelagic and mesopelagic euphausiid shrimp, copepods and jellyfish (Yano <em>et al.</em> 1997). The feeding structures of this shark may allow it to feed on other pelagic invertebrates and even small fishes, but so far the stomach contents studied suggest that it primarily targets euphausiid shrimp (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Observations made on a live-captured megamouth shark which was later tagged with an acoustic telemetric tag and tracked for two days, suggested it could breathe readily by gill-pumping and was not dependent on constant swimming like other lamnoid sharks. During the tracking period, the shark revealed a pattern of vertical, crepuscular migration in the epipelagic zone. It has been suggested that the Megamouth Shark may follow vertical migrations of euphausiid prey during diel cycles (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>The mode of reproduction is probably aplacental viviparous with uterine cannabilism or cannibal vivipary suspected in the form of oophagy. A late immature or early adolescent female had two ovaries with many tiny oocytes, while an adult female had numerous larger oocytes. This is similar to the ovaries of other lamnoids.
39338		population	eng	This rare shark is known from less than 20 specimens since its discovery in 1976.
39338		threats	eng	Taken as a rare incidental bycatch of various high-seas and coastal fisheries, including commercial littoral drift gillnets, set fish traps, and pelagic longlines and purse-seines, vulnerable to pelagic gillnets and pelagic trawls. Seldom reported. So far, specimens have been utilised by museums and oceanaria for research and display.
39339		conservation	eng	Time and area restrictions were imposed off California, USA, since 1990, but <em>A. vulpinus</em> is not managed internationally and there are no quotas.<br/><br/>Family Alopiidae is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g., ICCAT, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the fishing of thresher sharks for their fins alone.
39339		distribution	eng	This oceanic and coastal shark is virtually circumglobal in tropical to cold-temperate seas, but is most common in temperate waters (Compagno 2001). <br/><br/>Western Atlantic: ranges from Canada (from Bay of Chaleur, Gulf of St. Lawrence, south), USA (whole Atlantic Coast, although it is rare south of New England and in the Gulf of Mexico), Cuba, Mexico, Venezuela, south to Argentina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Russell 1993, Anonymous 1997, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic: ranges from Norway and the UK, south, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas, Madeira, the Azores, and down the coast of western Africa (Ghana, Côte d?Ivoire) to Angola, Namibia, and South Africa (Moreno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Indian Ocean: South Africa, Tanzania, Somalia, Kenya, northwestern coast of Madagascar, Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, Gulf of Aden, northwest Red Sea, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Australia (Western and South Australia) (Gubanov 1972, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001). Presence off Oman is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>Western Pacific: southern Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan (Province of China), Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia), New Zealand and several of the Pacific Islands, including, New Caledonia, Society Islands, Fanning Islands (Kiribati) (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Eastern Pacific: From British Columbia south, along the western coast of the USA (Washington, Oregon, California), Mexico, south to Panama, and from Colombia to southern Chile (Compagno 2001). Also reported off the Hawaiian Islands (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Nursery areas (inshore temperate waters appear to be preferred) have been identified in the Adriatic Sea (Notabartolo Di Sciara and Bianchi 1998, Constantini 1997), northeastern Atlantic, western Mediterranean (Alboran Sea), southern California, South Africa and probably elsewhere, with young sharks occurring in shallow bays (Moreno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno 2001, S.E. Smith pers. comm.).
39339		habitat	eng	The Common Thresher Shark is virtually circumglobal in temperate oceans, penetrates into tropical waters (Compagno 1984), and also has a noted tolerance for cold waters (Castro 1983, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1989). While found both in coastal and oceanic waters, it is most abundant in waters up to 40 or 50 miles offshore (Strasburg 1958, Gubanov 1972, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Bedford 1992). It ranges between surface waters and 366 m depth (Compagno 1984).<br/><br/>Maximum recorded size varies with sex and geographic location and ranges from 415-573 cm total length (TL) (Gubanov 1972, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Compagno 1984, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Size at maturity varies. Females are reported to mature from 260-465 cm total length (Strasburg 1958, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Bedford 1983, Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Gubanov 1978, Ebert 2003) and males at 260-426.7 cm TL (Cailliet and Bedford 1983, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983). Estimated age at maturity for females ranges from 3-9 years (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Strasburg 1958, Gubanov 1978, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Cailliet and Bedford 1983, Hanan 1984) and from 3-7 years for males (Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Cailliet and Bedford 1983). The species reaches an age of at least 24 years (Gervelis 2005) and Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1983) stated that off California it may reach an age of 50 years; providing k coefficients from the von Bertalanffy growth equation ranging from 0.158-0.215. These parameters were early estimates based on a sample size of 143 specimens (16 male, 23 female, 104 unknown). The most recent estimates of generation time are 8-14 years (Cortés 2008 unpubl. data).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Alopias vulpinus</span> is viviparous, with oophagy and a gestation period of nine months (Gubanov 1978, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Bedford 1992, Gilmore 1993, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983). Litter sizes range from only two in the Indian Ocean to between 3-7 in the Northeast Atlantic, while 3-4 (predominantly four) pups are common in the eastern Pacific (Gubanov 1972, Gubanov 1978, Holts 1988, Cailliet and Bedford 1983, Hanan 1984, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Size at birth is 100-158 cm TL (Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Hanan 1984). Ratios of male to female pups also vary geographically. Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1989) noted a high degree of sexual and size segregation in the northeast Atlantic during pupping season. Mating occurs in middle to late summer and parturition occurs during the spring in both the Northeast Atlantic and the eastern Pacific (Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Bedford 1992). In the Indian Ocean, there is a high degree of sexual segregation, between January and May, with pregnant females in the western Indian Ocean and males around the Maldives (Gubanov 1972). However, pregnant females have also been noted in August and November indicating that birth of young thresher sharks in this area occurs throughout the year (Gubanov 1978). Size at parturition varies considerably, from 115 cm and 156 cm TL with slight variation among geographical locations (Compagno 1984, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Young A. vulpinus, in all locations, generally remain close to shore after parturition and during their first few years (Moreno et al. 1989).<br/><br/>The range of prey items taken varies geographically, however their diet consists mostly of small bait fish. Prey items include anchovies (<span style="font-style: italic;">Engraulis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa</span>), herring (Clupeidae), mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber</span>), Pacific hake (<span style="font-style: italic;">Merluccius</span>), lancetfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alepisaurus</span>), lanternfishes (Myctophhidae), Pacific salmon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorynchus</span>), squids, octopus, pelagic crabs and shrimp (Gubanov 1972, Stick and Hreha 1989, Bedford 1992, Goldman pers. obsv.).
39339		population	eng	Common Thresher Sharks appear to exhibit little to no immigration and emigration between geographic areas. The California drift gill net fishery provided insight into the population dynamics of this species, indicating that numerous isolated subpopulations or stocks exist globally (see Threats section). An ongoing global population genetic study (Trejo 2004) using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial control region indicates significant structuring of <em>A. vulpinus</em> populations within the Pacific Ocean, and significant structure between Pacific and northwest Atlantic populations. Differences in length at maturity and fecundity of specimens examined from different regions of the world also provides evidence for isolated subpopulations or stocks (Gubanov 1972, Moreno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Bedford 1992). In the absence of records of transatlantic migrations a single northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean stock of <em>A. vulpinus</em> is assumed (ICES 2007).
39339		threats	eng	Members of the genus <em>Alopias</em>, thresher sharks, are threatened from a combination of slow life history characteristics, hence low capacity to recover from moderate levels of exploitation, and high levels of largely unmanaged and unreported mortality in target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries. <br/><br/>Many countries fish thresher sharks commercially throughout their extensive ranges, with <em>A. vulpinus</em> probably being the most important species (Compagno 1990). This species is frequently caught by offshore longline and pelagic gillnet fisheries (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006), is also fished with anchored bottom and surface gillnets, and is a bycatch of other gear including bottom trawls and fish traps (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). Although sometimes referred to as a bycatch in fisheries for other pelagic fishes, this bycatch is normally utilised and would better be described as a secondary target catch. They are also an important sport fishery resource, the meat is considered excellent for consumption, and the large fins highly valued. The growing and largely unregulated shark fin trade also represents a serious threat to thresher sharks. Clarke <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that thresher sharks compose at least 2?6% of the trade in a market study using DNA-based species identification techniques.<br/><br/>The impact of fisheries on <em>A. vulpinus</em> on a global scale, while difficult to assess, has most likely been significant. For example, Japanese and Russian vessels fish the northwest Indian Ocean and central Pacific, and Mexican-Japanese joint ventures have operated longline vessels off Baja California, Mexico, for many years. Furthermore, the number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, catch statistics are not available (Compagno 2001, Holts 1988, Smith 1998) and where they are, they are under-reported. A recent FAO review of the status of highly migratory pelagic species states: ?unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider <em>Alopias</em> species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally? (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Pacific</strong><br/>A target pelagic gillnet fishery for this species developed off the west coast of the USA, Eastern Central Pacific (particularly California, and also Washington and Oregon) in the late 1970s (Goldman 2005, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). This fishery serves as a well documented case of population depletion and provides strong evidence that there are numerous isolated subpopulations or stocks globally. Starting with 15 vessels in 1977, the fishery expanded to over 225 vessels in 1982 (Holts 1988, Hanan <em>et al</em>. 1993). The fishery peaked in 1982 with reported landings of 1,089.5 t (Anonymous 1993), declining due to overfishing to less than 300 t by the late 1980s (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fishing had heavily reduced the number of juvenile and subadult <em>A. vulpinus</em> off central and southern California, virtually eliminating them from the catch. In 1996, California catches of Common Thresher Shark were down to one-fifth of former levels (Smith 1998). This fishery was effectively eliminated by restrictions on the use of gill nets by 1990 (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). It was originally believed that a Pacific-wide distribution of the species would act as a buffer against over-harvesting (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998). However, this was shown not to be the case, as that portion of the population remained at low levels for several years, and is only reappeared in the catch records and in market places some time later (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998). The species is still caught as bycatch or as a secondary target, although to a far lesser extent, of the swordfish gillnet fishery and may be sold for higher prices in the market than swordfish (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>While the majority of fishery data for this species in the Pacific has come from California, it is fished in numerous locations throughout its range there. The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific, with effort expanding from the traditional grounds in the southeast Pacific into the central south Pacific and areas of the north Pacific in recent years (Mejuto 2005). <em>A. vulpinus</em> is taken in both artisanal and commercial longline fisheries in areas off South America, including Peru and Chile (M. Romero pers. comm., Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005). Hong Kong customs data shows that Peru is amongst the 20 countries that export the most dried fins to Hong Kong (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>Little information is currently available on <em>A. vulpinus</em> in the Indo-West Pacific. Whereas records of <em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. pelagicus</em> are recorded in the catches of fisheries operating in this region, albeit very under-reported, very little information is available on catches of <em>A. vulpinus</em>. Although pelagic fishing effort in this region is high, with reported increases in recent years, <em>A. vulpinus</em> is more characteristic of cooler waters and further information needs to be collected on records and catches of the species in this region.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Thresher sharks are also an important pelagic species in the north Atlantic, although <em>A. vulpinus</em> is only sporadically recorded in the northwest and western central Atlantic and <em>A. superciliosus</em> is the more common thresher shark in this area. Thresher sharks are generally recorded by genus by observers as well as in logbooks. Analysis of U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline data from their scientific observer program for 1992?2005, suggest that the region of the US east coast where <em>A. vulpinus</em> is somewhat common is from about 35°N?40°N (approximately North Carolina to Philadelphia), where <em>A. vulpinus</em>: <em>A. superciliosus</em> are caught in a ratio of ~1:3 (Baum unpublished data). The first longline fisheries in the Atlantic were begun by the Japanese in 1956 in the western equatorial waters (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Fishing pressure is high and ongoing and as <em>A. vulpinus</em> is an incidental catch in these fisheries monitoring of catches of this species is extremely limited. Currently, there are no management measures specific to this species in any EEZ or within international waters, and no stock assessments have been done. In Canada and the U.S., less than 5% of the pelagic longlining fleets are monitored by observers, making it difficult to elucidate reliable trends in abundance from these data. Fisheries monitoring in international waters is even more limited. The pelagic longline fishing grounds for the US fleet extend from the Grand Banks (about 45°N) in the northwest Atlantic to 5?10°S off the South American coast, within which geographical areas of longline fishing are defined for classification (Cortés <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Baum <em>et al</em>. (2003) concluded from their analysis of Northwest Atlantic pelagic longline data that the relative abundance of all thresher sharks (<em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em> combined) had declined 80% from 1986?2000. This analysis is based on estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S. pelagic longline fishery logbook data, and the fifteen year time period is over one generation length for this species. Although the analysis is not species specific, the sample size of thresher sharks in this data is over 20,000. Furthermore, the area covered by the dataset analysed, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the confirmed range of <em>A. vulpinus</em> in these two regions (Compagno 2001). An alternative analysis of the same logbook dataset for 1986-2005 that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>, resulted in an overall decline of 63% (Cortés <em>et al. </em>2007). Fishing pressure on thresher sharks began over two decades prior to the start of this time series, thus the estimated declines are not from virgin biomass.<br/><br/>A more recent analysis of <em>Alopias</em> species trends from scientific observer data between 1992 and 2005 in the same U.S. pelagic longline fishery found an almost identical instantaneous rate of decline (-0.12 up to the year 2000) as in the logbook analysis (Baum <em>et al.</em> unpublished manuscript). For this nine year period (1992?2000), the decline amounts to 68%, therefore the decline back to when the fishery started in the 1960s (less than three generation period of 51 years) would be much greater. However, because of recent increases in the catch rates in 2004 and 2005, the overall trend from 1992-2005 of -0.024 was non-significant, and would amount to only a 26% decline (Baum <em>et al</em>. unpublished manuscript). Cortés <em>et al.</em> (2007) also conducted an alternative analysis of this same observer dataset for the same time period that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>. This analysis of the observer dataset showed a trend opposite to that of the logbook analysis, with a 28% increase since 1992. In contrast, the nominal observer series showed a 39% decline and the logbook index for the same time period showed a decrease of 50%. Furthermore the sample size in the observer analysis was much smaller (n=14?84) than that in the logbook analysis (n=112?1,292) and thus the trend estimated should be regarded with caution. Cortés <em>et al.</em>'s (2007) observer analysis was restricted to four out of the 11 geographical areas covered by the pelagic longline fishing fleet to keep a balanced statistical design (Cortés <em>et al</em>. 2007). Their full logbook analysis, which showed an overall decline of 63%, had much larger sample sizes and is thus better to estimate trends with more certainty (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>The thresher shark <em>A. vulpinus</em> is not as common in regional longline catches compared as the bigeye thresher <em>A. superciliosus</em>. Amorim <em>et al</em>. (1998) document its occurrence in the Santos (São Paulo) tuna longline fishery as ?low? with only six specimens observed from 1974 to 1996. Gadig <em>et al.</em> (2001) reported on small numbers of juveniles taken by gillnet off São Paulo State.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>Adults and juveniles of <em>Alopias vulpinus</em> are regularly caught as bycatch in longline, purse seine and mid-water fisheries throughout the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in recreational fisheries (Lipej <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species has some important parturition and nursery areas in the Mediterranean (Adriatic and Alboran Seas). Moreno and Moron (1992) observed aggregations of pregnant females of <em>A. vulpinus</em> in the Strait of Gibraltar.<br/><br/>Even though driftnetting is banned in Mediterranean waters, this practise has continued illegally (WWF 2005). The Moroccan swordfish driftnet fleet in the Alboran Sea operates year round, resulting in high annual effort levels (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2005). Even though sharks are a secondary target or bycatch of this fishery, some boats deploy driftnets 1?2 miles from the coast where the chance of capturing pelagic sharks is higher. The catch rate for <em>A. vulpinus</em> is higher in boats actively fishing for sharks (from 0.7 to 1.5 N/fishing operation and 0.09 to 0.11 catch per km net). Both annual catches and mean weights of <em>Alopias vulpinus</em> have fallen as a result of fishing mortality in the Moroccan driftnet fishery, illustrating the likely impact of this illegal fishery on stocks in the Alboran Sea and adjacent Atlantic (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). Valeiras <em>et al.</em> (2003) also report that pelagic sharks are forming an increasing proportion of the catch of Spanish swordfish sleets. Pelagic fishing pressure is high and ongoing throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Tudela 2004, Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/><em>A. vulpinus</em> is caught primarily as a bycatch of longline fisheries for tuna and swordfish in the northeast Atlantic, and are also taken in driftnets and gillnets (ICES 2005, 2007). As a highly valuable species, it is very likely that this bycatch is retained (ICES 2005). Limited information is available on thresher shark catch in this region. ICES 2006 reports estimated landings of thresher shark at 13?107 t from 1996 to 2005 in the ICES area, however these data are still considered incomplete. Prior to 2000, estimated landings fluctuated at 17?13 t, in 2000?2001 they exceeded 100 t, after which they dropped to 4 t in 2002 and have not exceeded 7 t since. Increased targeting of pelagic sharks by Moroccan drift-netters in the Alboran Sea and Strait of Gibraltar (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005), mentioned above, has also likely impacted <em>A. vulpinus</em> in this area.
39340		distribution	eng	Basking Sharks occur in temperate and boreal oceans. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs from the transition between Atlantic and Arctic waters (including the Gulf of Maine, south and west of Iceland and off the North Cape of Norway and Russia) to the Mediterranean, and occasionally as far south as Senegal and Florida. The different morphological characteristics of Basking Sharks in the Pacific and the north and south Atlantic oceans are not thought to indicate separate species (Compagno 1984), but geographically isolated populations.
39341		conservation	eng	A vast improvement in the collection of data is required and effective conservation of this species will require international agreements. Fishing pressure must be considerably decreased through reduction in effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture, when released and possibly through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Closed areas can only be effective if overall fishing effort is reduced, rather than merely displacing effort outside of the closed area (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To date, there has been little progress (see http://www.unclos.com for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO?s) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as shortfin mako whose stocks are exploited by many State on the high seas. Steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states (e.g., Canada, USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More are likely to follow suit.<br/><br/>A recent shark stock assessment (ICCAT 2005) reported that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals of sharks and that the data are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. It is noted that improvements in the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment into monitoring the overall catch composition and disposition of the catch of sharks and by-catch species. The workshop recommended larger monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular and by-catch species. The group also identified a number of research activities that could provide for improved advice on the status of these species. This situation applies to all RFOs and is included here as a standard that needs to be applied internationally.<br/><br/>In 2004 ICCAT requested that management recommendations for this species be developed in 2005 for consideration by the Commission (ICCAT 2004), so far without effect. In the fall of 2008, ICCAT and the ICES Working Group on Elasmobranch Fishes (WGEF) plan to assess shortfin mako jointly. In 2007, at the data preparatory meeting of ICCAT?s Shark Sub-committee, it was emphasized that the contribution of CPUE and historical catch data by the member countries would be very important for the stock assessment of this species to be made at the 2008 meeting.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic and western central Atlantic</strong><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans (NMFS 1993; Joyce 1999).  In the US, this species is included in the Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP). The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 100 t for Shortfin Makos in the longline pelagic shark fishery. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) recently assessed Shortfin Mako in Canada as ?threatened?. It has undergone a Recovery Potential Assessment and it is being determined whether the species will be placed on Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, by-catch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied.<br/><br/>Within the north Atlantic and Mediterranean this species has been identified as a high priority for management. Anonymous (2003) suggested that a collaborative stock assessment should be carried out in the future.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>The draft action plan for the conservation of cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Anonymous 2002) highlights that the Shortfin Mako, along with other large pelagic sharks (whether as target or bycatch), urgently require measures to ensure their sustainable management in the Mediterranean.<br/><br/><strong>Pacific </strong><br/>On the west coast of the US, declines in the coastal driftnet fishery taking thresher and shortfin makos led to management actions in 1985. Management now comprises of limited entry, mandatory logbooks, and specific time-area closures. An experimental longline fishery targeting Shortfin Makos was terminated (Hanan <em>et al</em>. 1993, Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). Bag limits for recreational take of makos in California were introduced in 1991. The draft Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (PFMC 2003) indicates that the shortfin mako population is not overfished and they have set a harvest guideline of 150 t off California, Oregon and Washington. US west coast based longline fishing for swordfish is currently prohibited and expected to reopen in the fall of 2005 under new restrictions. The Hawaii based swordfish longline fishery recently reopened with restrictions aimed at preventing turtle mortalities. New Zealand included shortfin mako shark in its Quota Management System in October 2004.<br/><br/>In Chile, there are gear regulations for the shortfin mako artisanal fishery and since 2002 fishing areas and register of boats in the National Marine Service is required, the access to the fishery is also regulated (E. Acuña pers. comm.).
39341		distribution	eng	Shortfin Mako is a coastal, oceanic species occurring from the surface to at least 500 m depth and is widespread in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans from about 50°N (up to 60°N in the northeast Atlantic) to 50°S. It is occasionally found close inshore where the continental shelf is narrow. It is not normally found in waters below 16°C (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Summary of range</strong> <br/>Western Atlantic: Grand Banks (Canada) to Uruguay and northern Argentina, including Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Eastern Atlantic: Norway, British Isles and Mediterranean to Morocco, Azores, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Côte d?Ivoire, Ghana, southern Angola, probably Namibia, and South Africa (west coast). <br/><br/>Indo-West Pacific: South Africa (east coast), Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Kenya north to Red Sea and east to Maldives, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Viet Nam, China, Taiwan (Province of China), North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Russia (Primorskiyi Kray), Australia (all states and entire coast except for Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait), New Zealand (including Norfolk Island), New Caledonia, Fiji. Central Pacific: From south of Aleutian Islands to Society Islands, including Hawaiian Islands. Eastern Pacific: USA (Southern California and exceptionally Washington), south to Mexico, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru and central Chile.<br/><br/>In addition to the distribution given in Compagno (2001), Shortfin Mako may also occur from 20?50° between Australia and Chile, and to almost 60° Southeast of New Zealand (Yatsu 1995, M. Francis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic</strong><br/>Casey and Kohler (1992) suggest that the core distribution in the western north Atlantic is between 20?40°N, bordered by the Gulf Stream in the west and the mid-Atlantic ridge in the east (see Habitat and Ecology section for more details). Shortfin Mako in Atlantic Canadian waters represent the margins of the distribution of the population (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the eastern North Atlantic, it is presumed that the Strait of Gibraltar is nursery (Buencuerpo <em>et al</em>. 1998 and Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The area between 17° to 35°S off the coast of Brazil is an area of birth, growth and mating (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). Pregnant females with near term embryos have been found there, but not females in early pregnancy stages (Costa <em>et al.</em> 1995, Costa 1994). The presence of this species in Uruguayan waters year round has been confirmed by the observers on board the Uruguayan tuna fleet. Although a few new borns were captured, no pregnant females have been found (Domingo pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Highest abundance is reported in the western Mediterranean and mako are rarely reported in eastern waters (Aegean Sea and Sea of Marmara). Recent investigations suggest that the western basin is a nursery area (Buencuerpo <em>et al. </em>1998). It is possible that this nursery area is from the eastern central Atlantic population, which is affected by the swordfish longline fishery off the western coast of Africa and Iberian peninsula. Two Shortfin Makos a few months old were reported in the western Ligurian Sea as bycatch of the swordfish longline fishery (Orsi Relini and Garibaldi 2002). They are not reported from the Black Sea. In the eastern Adriatic Sea, Shortfin Makos were reported as common a century ago (Katuri 1893 and Kosi 1903), recent publications consider it to be rare (Mili?i? 1994, Jardas 1996). Soldo and Jardas (2002) report that there have been no records of Shortfin Mako in the eastern Adriatic since 1972.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong><br/>There are comparatively few records of pregnant females, especially in the eastern north Pacific. However, there are a large number of juveniles and young of the year fish in the southern California Bight indicating that it is a nursery area. In summer, the Southern California Bight is home to a large population of Shortfin Mako sharks (Klimley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Holts and Kohin 2003). Abundance surveys and fishing reports indicate that juvenile mako sharks appear in the Bight in spring when water temperatures rise above 16°C and may depart from the area in fall when water temperatures decline.
39341		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al</em>. 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001). This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17?22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern Californian waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20?21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford 1992). However, this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>. Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three shortfin makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118?275 cm TL) in June?July 2002 for 2?4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20?911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23?43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviours. Sepulveda <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7?9 years for males, and 19?21 years for females Bishop <em>et al.</em> (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al</em>. 2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29?32 years (Bishop <em>et al.</em> 2006, Natanson <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265?280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198?204 cm and females at 301?307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203?215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275?293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15?18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Litter size is 4?25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10?18), which are about 60?70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos (over 3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish <em>Xiphias gladius</em>. It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).
39341		population	eng	Shortfin Mako contribute some 9.5?10% of the pelagic sharks caught by Spanish longline fleets (targeting sharks and swordfish) in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007).<br/><br/>Shortfin Mako in the north and the south Atlantic constitute genetically distinct groups (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996). Casey and Kohler (1992) hypothesized from tag-recapture data that western north Atlantic makos form a separate population from those in the eastern Atlantic although limited intermixing is possible as shown by crossings to the Azores and Europe. Mitochondrial DNA data indicate separation of female makos between the western and eastern north Atlantic, but a lack of differentiation in nuclear DNA suggests male mixing across the north Atlantic (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996, Schrey and Heist 2003). For fishery assessment purposes, mixing between the western and eastern North Atlantic is considered minimal.<br/><br/>Mature males were occasionally caught in the western English Channel in the 1960s and 1970s but are now rarely encountered (J. D. Stevens, pers. comm.), suggesting possible range contraction in the north-east Atlantic.<br/><br/>Analyses of catch per unit effort (CPUE) from US pelagic longline fishery logbooks reported that <em>Isurus</em> spp. may have declined by about 40% in the northwest Atlantic between 1986 and 2000 (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). A more recent assessment of observer data for the same fishery found a similar instantaneous rate of decline of 38% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al.</em> in prep). A similar analysis of the same dataset and species grouping that restricted the areas of analysis to account for unbalanced observations, resulted in an overall decline of 48% from beginning to end of the time series (1992-2005; Cortes <em>et al</em>. in press). A 2004 ICCAT stock assessment workshop reported that stock depletions for north Atlantic Shortfin Mako are likely to have occurred based on CPUE declines of 50% or more. Demographic model results varied widely, with one approach suggesting present stock size is about 80% of virgin level, and another approach suggesting reductions to about 30% of virgin biomass (1950s) (Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>In the South Atlantic, the magnitude of decline appears to be smaller than in the north Atlantic and the stock size appears to lie above MSY, although only one modeling approach could be applied to the available data and assessments results were more uncertain than for the North Atlantic.<br/><br/>For both north and south Atlantic populations, uncertainties about demographic parameters and catches, and the uninformative nature of available catch data indicate that further analysis is necessary to properly delineate stock status. If historical Shortfin Mako catch is higher than the estimates in this report, the likelihood of the stock being below the biomass at MSY will surely increase (ICCAT 2005). A standardized catch rate index from the commercial large pelagic fishery off Canada suggested a decline in the 1970s and stable abundance since 1988 (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the analysis did not have the statistical power to detect anything less than a severe decline and these sharks represent the margins of the population. The most heavily fished areas lie outside of Canadian waters. The median size of mako sharks in the commercial catch has declined since 1988, possibly indicating a loss of larger sharks (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Off Brazil, the highest and lowest catches of shortfin mako from Santos longliners were 235 and 29 t from 1971?2001. The CPUE and average weight decreased from 4.5 to 4.1 kg/1,000 hooks and 60 to 37.3 kg respectively (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 2002). About 20 t/yr were caught by gillnetters in southern Brazil between 1993?94 (Jorge Kotas, pers comm, CEPSUL-IBAMA, Brazil). The unstandardised CPUE in the Uruguayan longline fleet was low and stable (average 35 kg/1,000 hooks) from 1983 to 1998 and has increased steadily to 2004 (185 kg/1,000 hooks), lower in 2005 (90 kg/1000 hooks) (ICCAT data). According to Mourato <em>et al.</em> (in press), based on the landings records and logbooks from the Sao Paulo fleet operating off Southern Brazil, the standardized CPUE for the period 1971-2006 was fluctuating but showed a slight decline. In contrast, the standardization of the CPUE of 29 years in the Brazilian tuna longline fleet showed a slight upward trend (Hazin <em>et al.</em> in press). In Uruguay, the total captures oscillated through the years, mainly in low values (8 to 21 tons per year), and reached maximum values in 2003?2005 (up to 200 tons per year) (Domingo 2002, Domingo <em>et al.</em> 2008). The standardization of the mako shark CPUE in the Uruguayan pelagic longline fleet for the period 1981?2006 show a slight increase between 1989 and 2003, and a decreasing trend towards 2006 (Pons and Domingo in press).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, ?Tonnarella? (tuna-trap) catches in the Ligurian Sea from 1950 to the 1970s show a rapid decline and eventual disappearance of the Shortfin Mako (Boero and Carli 1979). Landings data from Maltese waters for 1979?2001 (data from the Maltese fishery department) shows a decline although the fishing pressure was not changed. Historically described as common (end of 19th/beginning of 20th century), Soldo and Jardas (2002) report that there have been no records of Shortfin Mako in the eastern Adriatic since 1972. Since 1998, there have been few records of mako sharks from the central and eastern Mediterranean (A. Soldo pers. comm.). Previously, the species was considered common throughout the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>In the eastern north Pacific, tagging studies have been carried out by the California Department of Fish and Game (Anon. 2001), and more recently by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center (Holts and Kohin 2003, Holts <em>et al</em>. 2004). Using a consistent sample size of 28 sets of 200 hooks during each of eight years (1994?1997, 2000?2003), CPUE data showed a slight decline (Holts <em>et al.</em> (2004); y = -0.0696x + 1.0982, R2 = 0.5107). However, it does not appear to be sufficient to warrant serious concern about the population. The large horizontal (primarily north-south along the coastline, but with some inshore-offshore movements) (Holts <em>et al</em>. 2004) and vertical (up to ~500 m) (Holts and Kohin 2003, Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. 2004) movements of Shortfin Makos, a behaviour that could make them more or less available to the gear spatially but not necessarily indicating a population decline.  Likewise, for males and females, there appeared to be a slight increase in the average size caught over the same eight years (y = 1.8368x + 112.38, R2 = 0.3751). This, combined with the CPUE changes would suggest that the biomass indices had not changed. The variability among years in CPUE can also be attributed to inter-annual oceanographic and climate changes, especially water temperature (http://www.pcouncil.org/hms/hmsback.html). Thus, although there are no precise or accurate population estimates, it appears that the population of shortfin makos in the eastern North Pacific has been relatively stable. (Taylor and Holts 2001, PFMC 2003).
39341		threats	eng	The Shortfin Mako is an important species for pelagic longline, drifting or set gill nets and on hook-and-line fisheries wherever it occurs, particularly from nations with high seas fleets (Holts <em>et al</em>. 1998), because of its relatively high abundance (9.5?10% of pelagic sharks caught in Spanish long line fleets (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007) and high quality meat. It is taken as a bycatch from tuna and swordfish longline fisheries worldwide, with carcasses and fins being retained. Big-game sports angling for mako sharks is widespread, New Zealand and South Africa being traditional places for offshore sports fishing.  The International Game Fish Association lists the shortfin mako as a record game fish. In the 1980s mako angling became popular in the USA off southern California, with numerous anglers involved and mako tournaments rivaling competitive angling for marlin (Compagno 2001). Recreational fishing has also been reported in the Mediterranean, although there are no official data (A. Soldo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fisheries for Shortfin Mako exist or existed in the eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, off Cuba, in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, off southern California, and in the western and central Pacific (Compagno 2001). This is also a target of pelagic swordfish fisheries in the Atlantic and Pacific (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> IBID).<br/><br/>Despite the role of Shortfin Makos in worldwide pelagic fisheries, catches have been poorly reported to FAO. Catch data are incomplete, and the extent of finning in high seas fisheries is unclear. Brazil, New Zealand and the United States reported very small catches (2?76 t) to FAO from 1987?1997 (FAO FishStat Plus database 2000). Although it is difficult to accurately assess the conservation status of this shark because it is migratory and caught in numerous poorly monitored fisheries worldwide, it is reasonable to assume that decreases may be occurring in those areas for which there are limited or no data (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic</strong><br/>Shortfin Makos have been caught in large numbers particularly on the high seas in pelagic longline fisheries, but also in other commercial pelagic fisheries and recreational fisheries. The first longline fisheries were prosecuted by Japan in western equatorial waters beginning in 1956 (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Throughout the Atlantic, the fleet landed mako sharks and fins (Nakano 1993). In the US and Canadian pelagic longline fisheries, Shortfin Mako is one of the most commonly caught sharks. The index of abundance in the commercial longline fishery off the Atlantic coast of US has shown a steady decline (Cramer 1996) and other reports on declines are now available (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, Baum <em>et al.</em>, in prep, ICCAT 2005, Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press: see Population section for details). As for recreational fishing, Casey and Hoey (1985) stated that the recreational catch of Shortfin Makos along the US Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Mexico in 1978 was 17,973 fish weighing some 1,223 t. Between 1987 and 1989, the catch was about 1000 t/year (Casey and Kohler 1992) taken by longline and gillnet in the Southwest Atlantic (see Population section). Shortfin Mako shark is a high value bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries on the Atlantic coast of Canada and therefore retained (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In 1989, Bonfil (1994) estimated that 5,932 Shortfin Makos were caught by Korean longliners in the (mainly equatorial) Atlantic and that 763 t of makos were landed in the Spanish swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Mejuto (1985) noted that 304?366 t of mako shark was landed by longliners operating from northern Spain in 1983?84. More recently, shortfin mako sharks have comprised about 7% (~2,500 t) of the total catch of the large Spanish pelagic longline swordfish fleet in the Atlantic (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2005). Munoz-Chapuli <em>et al.</em> (1993) estimated that some 4,500 makos/year are landed from a longline fishery based at Algeciras, southern Spain (given an average weight of 20 kg this would represent about 90 t). The landings of Shortfin Makos as bycatch from the swordfish fishery of the Azorean fleet also showed a decrease (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999). Shortfin Mako landings reported to ICCAT from Portuguese surface longline fisheries in the north Atlantic averaged about 698 t during 1993?1996 and 340 t for the period 1997?2002. Off Namibia, the large pelagic fisheries caught an estimated 123 t in 2001, 399 t in 2002 and 393 t in 2003 by means of pelagic longline. The 2001 catch is an underestimate as many boats grouped different shark species as ?sharks? (MFMR catch data). Domingo (2002) records high catches of Shortfin Makos by the Uruguayan fleet in the early-mid 1980s (to a maximum of 144 t in 1984), followed by much lower catches (10?20 t/annum) in the 1990s. This does not necessarily reflect stock abundance because changes in the distribution and depth of fishing operations and rising mean temperature of water masses in the area had also occurred.<br/><br/>It has been estimated that in the early 1990s, the Spanish longline fleet caught approximately 750 t/y of Shortfin Mako sharks in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). The Brazilian longlining fleet based in Santos landed between 13.3 and 138.3 t annually between 1971 and 1990 (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1996, Compagno 2001). Despite increasing fishing effort during this period, the CPUE of Shortfin Makos has remained relatively stable with an initial slight decreasing trend followed by a slight increasing trend (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>No complete data are available for the northeast Atlantic, but the species is taken as a bycatch of the pelagic fishery. The area around the Strait of Gibraltar is considered a nursery area for central Atlantic Shortfin Makos and most specimens caught are juveniles. This area is heavily fished by the swordfish longline fishery off the western coast of Africa and Iberian peninsula. There is also evidence that Shortfin Makos are becoming increasingly targeted in the western Mediterranean. EU vessels fishing for small pelagic species off the western coast of Africa are also known to take significant elasmobranch bycatch, including Shortfin Makos in unknown numbers.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Reports of ?Tonnarella? catches in the Ligurian Sea from 1950 until the 1970s show a rapid decline and eventual disappearance of the Shortfin Mako (INP 2000). Recent investigations of the shortfin mako bycatch from the swordfish longline fishery in the western basin show that catches from this fishery consist almost exclusively of juveniles. It is likely that the western Mediterranean is a nursery area for the eastern Central Atlantic population Soldo and Jardas (2002) report that there have been no records of shortfin mako in the eastern Adriatic since 1972 (where they were historically common).<br/><br/>Even though driftnetting is banned in Mediterranean waters, this practise has continued illegally (WWF 2005). The Moroccan swordfish driftnet fleet in the Alboran Sea operates year round, resulting in high annual effort levels (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). Even though sharks are a secondary target or bycatch of this fishery, some boats deploy driftnets 1?2 miles from the coast where the chance of capturing pelagic sharks is higher. The catch rate for Shortfin Mako is nearly three times higher in boats actively fishing for sharks (from 0.6 to 1.9 N/fishing operation and 0.06 to 0.14 catch per km net). Both annual catches and mean weights of shortfin mako have fallen as a result of fishing mortality in the Moroccan driftnet fishery, illustrating the likely impact of this illegal fishery on stocks in the Alboran Sea and adjacent Atlantic (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Megalofonou <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported 321 specimens caught as bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Of those, 268 specimens were caught in Alboran Sea, 42 in Balearic Islands area, three in Catalonian Sea, while only eight specimens were caught in central and eastern Mediterranean area, e.g., Levantine basin. Furthermore, most of caught specimens were juveniles, with only a few large specimens from Levantine basin. Of 595 specimens caught in south Spain waters all of them were immature juveniles (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998).  Reports from the Ligurian Sea show a significant decline since the 1970s (Boero and Carli 1979).<br/><br/><strong>Pacific</strong><br/>Estimates of mako bycatch in various gillnet fisheries in the north Pacific are given in Bonfil (1994). Bycatch in the Japanese salmon fishery in 1989 was about 15 t, and about 63 t was taken in the squid fishery in 1990. In the Japanese large-mesh driftnet fishery in the South Pacific, about 286 t of Shortfin Mako was caught in 1990. The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific. Shortfin Makos comprise about 5% (~600?700 t) of the total catch of this fleet (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Reported average catch rates for Shortfin Makos vary from 0.3?3.4 sharks per 1,000 hooks (Stevens and Wayte 1999). Stevens (in press) used stratified catch rates in conjunction with fishing effort and average weights to estimate a catch of 4,100 t caught by high-seas longlining in the Pacific in 1994. Longline fleets take about 100?200 t from around New Zealand each year (Ministry of Fisheries Science Group 2006) and about 100 t were taken in Australian EEZ waters by Japanese tuna vessels each season (Stevens and Wayte 1999).<br/><br/>A coastal driftnet fishery for juvenile Shortfin Mako shark developed during the late 1970s in California; landings reached 242 t in 1982, fluctuated between 102-278 t from 1983?91 and declined to less than 100 t after 1991 (Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). An experimental coastal longline fishery targeting makos took between 50 and 120 t annually during 1988?91 before the fishery was closed. Bycatch will continue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline fisheries until effective measures are developed which reduce the bycatch to close to zero (Crooke 2001). Although makos are not targeted in these fisheries, they are kept as the third most valuable species. The Short?n Mako shark was taken by the high seas shark and sword?sh drift longline ?shery, which developed between 1991 and 1994 (Taylor and Holts 2001) outside the US 200-nm Exclusive Economic Zone prior to its closure in spring 2004. A small portion of the catch was landed in California with annual landings ranging from 9,523 to 128,116 pounds between 1991 and 1999.<br/><br/>The present status of the short?n mako shark in state and federal waters off California is not known but is of some concern (Taylor and Holts 2001). This is mainly because adult mako sharks do not frequent California?s coastal waters. A possible threat to the mako population off California and in the eastern Paci?c would be the potential for over-development of ?sheries within the coastal nursery. Therefore, continued efforts to monitor the Short?n Mako shark juveniles are needed.<br/><br/>Makos have long been prized game fish along the east coast of the U.S. (Taylor and Holts 2001) (see Threats section). In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually: the principal target being Shortfin Mako. After the increase during the 1980s, the sport fishery has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308 pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger fishing vessels run fishing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in southern California.<br/><br/>In Chile, the only target fishery for shortfin mako is a spring-summer longline fishery off the northern coast (Acuña <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Ecuador, there is evidence that catches of Shortfin Makos have declined from a high of 2,000 t in 1994 to lows approaching 100 t in 2000 and 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Off California, early juvenile shortfin makos were targeted by a short-lived experimental drift longline fishery and are a welcome bycatch in the driftnet fishery for swordfish (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993, Compagno 2001). Up to 475 t of Shortfin Makos were taken jointly by these fisheries in 1987, and although CPUE did not show a declining trend there, concerns over the heavy exploitation of immature fish prompted the closure of the experimental longline fishery in 1992 (O?Brien and Sunada 1994, Compagno 2001). Total bycatch of shortfin makos in the former high-seas driftnet fisheries in the North Pacific in the early 1990s was estimated at about 360 t/y (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). This species is apparently very common in the tuna fisheries of Indonesia: unconfirmed reports indicate that landings of shortfin makos from Indonesian waters attained 5 200 t in 1995 and that the estimated potential is about 16 000 t/y (Priyono 1998, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>This species is taken by tuna and shark longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) and throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954-1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2006). Sharks are targeted in several areas, including off India where they are captured on using hook and line and in large mesh gillnets, which are among the worlds largest (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al</em>. 2006) reported that sharks in this region are considered fully to over-exploited. Its distribution overlaps many intensive pelagic fisheries in this area. Although species-specific catch data are not currently available from this region, given the declines observed where it is heavily fished elsewhere, declines in this area are inferred based on continuing high levels of exploitation.
39342		conservation	eng	Sharks are currently listed in the Federal Groundfish Management Plans for the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands as ?other species? and are allowed as bycatch. They are included in the commercial bycatch TAC (Total Allowable Catch) for Alaska Federal waters. How much of this bycatch is salmon shark (vs. Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) and Sleeper Shark (<em>Somniosus pacificus</em>)) is unknown. The North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC) is considering closure of directed commercial fishing for sharks in Federal waters as no Federal Management plan exists specifically for sharks in the Gulf of Alaska, Aleutians and the Bering Sea (J. DiCosimo, personal communication 2007).<br/><br/>Commercial fishing for all shark species in Alaska State waters has been illegal since 1997. State of Alaska regulations prohibit directed commercial fishing of sharks statewide except for a spiny dogfish permit fishery adopted by the Alaska Board of Fisheries for the Cook Inlet area in 2005. Sharks taken incidentally to commercial groundfish and salmon fisheries may be retained and sold provided that the fish are fully utilized. The state limits the amount of incidentally taken sharks that may be retained to 20% of the round weight of the directed species on board a vessel except in the Southeast District where a longline vessel or a troller may retain up to 35% round weight of sharks to round weight of the target species on board. All sharks landed must be recorded on an Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) fish ticket.<br/><br/>The ADF&G manages the recreational shark fishery in state and federal waters with a daily bag limit of one shark of any species per person per day, and an annual limit of two sharks of any species per person. There is a directed fishery for salmon sharks in Prince William Sound involving a small number of charter boats. There have been no reported incidents of sport-caught sharks being finned and discarded, and state regulations prohibit the intentional waste or destruction of any sport-caught species. Recreational harvest of all shark species combined is estimated through a mail survey of sport fishing license holders. In addition, harvest of salmon sharks by guided anglers is required to be reported in charter logbooks. About 1,600 sharks of all species were harvested by the sport fishery in state and federal waters of Southeast and Southcentral Alaska in 2005 (most recent estimate). No sport harvest of sharks was reported in western Alaska. Charter boats reported a salmon shark harvest of about 240 fish statewide in 2005. Although estimates of salmon shark harvest are not available for unguided anglers, the charter fleet is believed to account for the majority of salmon shark harvest. In addition to the mail survey and logbook, shark fisheries are monitored in Southcentral Alaska through biological sampling for species, size, age, and sex composition, as well as spatial distribution of the harvest.<br/><br/>Family Lamnidae is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g. USA), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (IATTC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the harvesting of salmon shark bycatch on the high seas for their fins alone.
39342		distribution	eng	The Salmon Shark is a coastal and oceanic inhabitant of the north and central Pacific Ocean, ranging between 35°N-65°N in the Northwest Pacific (greatest densities between 42°N?52°N) and 30°N?65°N in the northeast and eastern central Pacific (appear to be most concentrated between 50°N?60°N) (Neave and Hanavan 1960, Farquhar 1963, Compagno 1984, Blagoderov 1994, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996). They have been caught as far as 67°N and a few specimens have been taken at around 10°N (Nagasawa 1998). In general, the southern boundary of this sharks? range in the western Pacific is the transitional domain separating the subarctic current from the central Pacific current (McKinnell and Waddell 1993, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996, Nagasawa 1998). In the eastern central Pacific, Salmon Sharks occur as far south as 30°N (Croker 1942, Strasburg 1958, Hart 1973) to Baja California, Mexico (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Recent electronic tagging studies have demonstrated that the salmon shark is extremely wide ranging throughout the north Pacific with individuals traveling from Prince William Sound, Alaska into waters as far south as Baja California, Mexico and Hawaii (Weng <em>et al</em>. 2003, Weng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Bycatch of Salmon Sharks are reported in the equatorial central Pacific (Nakano and Bayliff 2003), although the authors are convinced that the reports are misidentifications since the shark is otherwise not reported in waters south of 20°N. An improved set of criteria will be used for fishery observers in the Eastern Central Pacific starting in 2004, and should help to resolve the misidentifications.<br/><br/>This species is abundant in water temperatures ranging from 5?18°C, and high catches have been recorded in sea surface temperatures (SST) of 9?16°C (Nakano and Nagasawa 1996).
39342		habitat	eng	Salmon Sharks occur in both the nearshore and oceanic environments. Typical vertical distribution is from surface waters to 150 m (Farquhar 1963, McKinnell and Waddell 1993, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996, Robinson and Jamieson 1984), with recent tagging studies showing they penetrate depths >600 m (Weng <em>et al</em>. 2003, Weng <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Adult Salmon Sharks typically range in size from 180?210 cm PCL (where TL = 1.1529?PCL + 15.186, from Goldman and Musick 2006) for northeast Pacific ? no conversions are given in the literature for Salmon Sharks in the northwest Pacific), and can weigh upwards of 220 kg. Reported lengths of 260 cm PCL (>300 cm TL) and greater with weights exceeding 450 kg are unsubstantiated. Length-at-maturity in the northwest Pacific has been estimated to occur at approximately 140 cm PCL (age five) for males and between 170 and 180 cm PCL (ages 8?10) for females (Tanaka 1980), while length-at-maturity in the northeast Pacific has been estimated to occur between 125 and 145 cm PCL (age 3?5) for males and between 160 and 180 cm PCL (ages 6?9) for females (Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick 2006).<br/><br/>In addition to length and age-at-maturity, growth rates and weight-at-length of <em>L. ditropis</em> also differ between males and females from northeast Pacific and the northwest Pacific. Tanaka (1980), (also see Nagasawa 1998) states that maximum age from vertebral analysis for northwest Pacific <em>L. ditropis</em> is at least 25 years for males and 17 for females, and that the growth coefficient (k) for males and females are 0.17 and 0.14 respectively. Goldman (2002) and Goldman and Musick (2006) gave maximum ages for Northeast Pacific <em>L. ditropis</em> (also from vertebral analysis) of 17 years for males and 20 years for females, with growth coefficients of 0.23 and 0.17 for males and females, respectively. Longevity estimates are similar (20?30 years) for the northeast and northwest Pacific. Salmon sharks in the northeast and northwest Pacific attain the same maximum length (approximately 215 cm PCL for females and about 190 cm PCL for males). However, past approximately 140 cm PCL for males and 110 cm PCL for females, salmon sharks in the northeast Pacific are of a greater weight-at-length than their same-sex counterparts in the northwest Pacific (Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick 2006).<br/><br/>The reproductive mode of salmon sharks is aplacental viviparity and includes an oophagous stage (Tanaka 1986, cited in Nagasawa 1998). Litter size in the western Pacific is three to five pups and litters are reportedly male dominated 2.2:1 (Nagasawa 1998). Data from a single pregnant female taken in Alaska waters in December 2006 provide the only insight to litter size and sex ratio of pups in the northeast Pacific. That shark had four pups with a 1:1 sex ratio (Gallucci <em>et al</em>. unpub. data). Gestation times throughout the north Pacific appear to be nine months with mating occurring during the late summer and early fall, and parturition occurring in the spring (Tanaka 1980, Nagasawa 1998, Goldman 2002, Goldman and Human 2005, Goldman and Musick 2006, Goldman and Musick in press, Tribuzio unpub. data). Size at parturition is between 60?65 cm PCL in both the northeast and northwest Pacific (Tanaka 1980, Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick 2006).<br/><br/>In the northwest Pacific, a salmon shark pupping and nursery ground may exist just north of the transitional domain in oceanic waters. According to Nakano and Nagasawa (1996), larger juveniles than term (70?110 cm PCL) were caught in waters with SST?s of 14?16°C with adults occurring in colder waters further north. Another pupping and nursery area appears to range from southeast Alaska to northern Baja California, Mexico, in the northeast Pacific (Goldman and Musick in press).<br/><br/>Salmon Sharks are opportunistic feeders, sharing the highest trophic level of the food web in subarctic Pacific waters with marine mammals and seabirds (Brodeur 1988, Nagasawa, 1998, Goldman and Human 2005). They feed on a wide variety of prey including salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus</em>), rockfishes (<em>Sebastes</em>), Sablefish (<em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em>), lancetfish (<em>Alepisaurus</em>), daggerteeth (<em>Anotopterus</em>), lumpfishes (Cyclopteridae), sculpins (Cottidae), atka mackerel (<em>Pleurogrammus</em>), mackerel (<em>Scomber</em>), pollock and tomcod (Gadidae), herring (Clupeidae), Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>), tanner crab (<em>Chionocetes</em>), squid and shrimp (Sano 1960, 1962; Farquhar 1963; Hart 1973; Urquhart 1981; Compagno 1984, 2001, Nagasawa 1998).<br/><br/>As with all members of the family Lamnidae, this species is endothermic, retaining heat created by its own oxidative metabolism (Carey <em>et al</em>. 1985, Goldman 1997). Body temperatures from moribund or recently dead specimens have shown elevations (over water temperature) of 8?11°C in smaller specimens and up to 13.6°C in larger specimens (Smith and Rhodes 1983, Anderson and Goldman 2001). Body temperature can exceed ambient water temperature in free-swimming salmon sharks by as much as 21.2°C (Goldman 2002, Goldman <em>et al</em>. 2004).
39342		population	eng	No detailed information exists on salmon shark abundance, and nothing is known about stock structure. No abundance estimates are available for salmon sharks in the Northeast Pacific. Minimum stock size for the Northwest and Western Central Pacific has been estimated via catch data from several Japanese drift/gillnet fisheries to range from 1.66 x 106 to 2.19 x 106 (Shimida and Nakano unpublished data, cited in Nagasawa 1998), however no detailed information was given as to how these estimates were obtained.<br/><br/>While sexual segregation is relatively common in sharks, a remarkable sex ratio difference occurs in salmon sharks across the North Pacific basin. The western side is male dominated and the eastern side is female dominated, with dominance increasing with latitude (Sano 1962, Nagasawa 1998, Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick in press). Larger sharks range farther north than smaller individuals, and southern catches generally occur in deeper waters (Nagasawa 1998, Goldman and Musick unpublished data).
39342		threats	eng	Historical records of commercial catch and bycatch of salmon sharks are sparse.  Japanese commercial catch was reported to the FAO between 1952 and 1965 totaling 110.4 metric tons (mt), with 40.1 mt being the highest amount taken in any single year (Compagno 1990). The current fishing mortality on salmon sharks comes mainly from their being taken as bycatch in purse seine fisheries (e.g. for salmon), but they are also taken in longline fisheries for halibut and sablefish. There is also a small amount of directed commercial and sport fishing taking place off Japan and in Alaska, respectively.<br/><br/>Historically, salmon sharks were commonly caught in gillnets set for salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus</em> species) and flying squid (<em>Ommastrephes</em>) primarily by Canadian, Japanese and Russian fisheries, with smaller numbers taken by Taiwanese and North Korean fisheries (Blagoderov 1994, McKinnell and Waddell 1993, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996, Robinson and Jamieson 1984).  Based on the number of boats, average number of sets and the average CPUE reported in Robinson and Jamieson (1984), flying squid fisheries may have taken between 105,000 and 155,000 salmon sharks as bycatch over a four-month period each year (Goldman and Human 2005).<br/><br/>With the elimination of open ocean driftnet fishing and the cessation of the Japanese open ocean salmon fishery, it is likely that there is considerably less salmon shark bycatch in the open north Pacific and the population appears to have rebounded to its former levels (Nagasawa <em>et al</em>. 2002, H. Nakano pers. comm.). However, Salmon Sharks are still taken in U.S. waters (particularly the Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound, PWS) as bycatch in trawl, gillnet, and seine fisheries, but this bycatch has been poorly documented (Camhi 1999), and salmon shark bycatch from other countries fisheries is not reported. However, according to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), trawl, gillnet, and (particularly) seine fisheries are probably responsible for a large number of shark interactions. The state extended the sport fishing regulations to include the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) (to 200 miles). Anecdotal reports from fishermen are that there are less salmon sharks in PWS in recent years, and that there is more time between hook-ups. However, there are no abundance estimates to support a decrease in the number of salmon sharks at this time.<br/><br/>The most recent demographic analysis support the contention that salmon shark populations in the eastern and western north Pacific are stable at this time (Goldman 2002).<br/><br/>The State of Alaska and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation has also noted high levels of methyl mercury content in Salmon Shark muscle tissue samples provided by the ADF&G, suggesting that pollution is having an affect on this species.<br/><br/>The conservation status of this species is still of some concern because there is so little data on catch in other fisheries, discards and potential finning from the major pelagic fisheries in the north Pacific. There is a great need to document the bycatch in U.S. State and Federal waters in order to foster responsible management of this species, as well as to obtain catch records from the northwest and central Pacific.
39343		conservation	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Norway is allocated a quota of 200 t of porbeagle in European Community (EC) waters, reduced in 1985 from the 500 t established in 1982 (Gauld 1989). Since 1985, the Faeroe Islands can also take 125 t from EC waters (originally 300 t in 1982, 150 t in 1984a). These quotas currently exceed total landings from shelf areas in the region and yield no management benefit.  <br/> <br/>Annex V of the Convention on the Protection and Conservation of the Ecosystems and Biological Diversity of the Maritime Area [also called OSPAR (Oslo-Paris) Convention] requires OSPAR to develop a list of threatened and/or declining species and habitats in need of protection or conservation in the OSPAR maritime area (Northeast Atlantic). OSPAR member states were invited in 2001 to submit proposals for inclusion on this list. In response, Portugal – on behalf of the Azores, proposed to list porbeagle Lamna nasus in the wider Atlantic because of its biological sensitivity, keystone importance and the severe decline in its population. This proposal has not yet been adopted.  <br/> <br/>The status of the largely unmanaged, unmonitored Northeast Atlantic stock is likely worse than the seriously depleted Northwest stock, with stringent conservation and management action (fisheries closure and stock assessment) needed urgently to enable stocks to rebuild to levels where sustainable commercial and recreational fisheries are possible.
39343		distribution	eng	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1 to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers.comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 and 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances travelled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nautical miles (nm), with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002). Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004).
39343		habitat	eng	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for <em>Lamna nasus</em> (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December–February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen et al. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8 to 9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004).
39343		population	eng	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of sub-populations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground.
39343		threats	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Porbeagle has been fished in this region by many European countries, principally Denmark, France, Norway and Spain. There has never been any restriction on fishing effort on this stock. The Northeast Atlantic fishery began when Norway started targeting porbeagle in the 1930s using longlines. Norwegian landings first reached a peak of 3,884 t in 1933. About 6,000 t were taken by the Norwegian fleet in 1947, when the fishery reopened after the Second World War, followed by a progressive drop in landings to between 1,200–1,900 t from 1953–1960. The collapse of this fishery led to the redirection of fishing effort by Norwegian and Danish longline shark fishing vessels into the Northwest Atlantic. Norwegian landings from the Northeast Atlantic subsequently decreased from 160 to 300 t/annum in the early 1970s to only 10 to 40 t/year in the late 1980s/early 1990s, while average Danish landings fell from over 1,500 t in the early 1950s to less than 100 t throughout the 1990s (DFO 2001a, Gauld 1989).  <br/> <br/>French and Spanish longliners have operated directed fisheries for porbeagle since the 1970s. Reported landings from the main French fishing grounds in the Celtic Sea and Bay of Biscay decreased from over 1,092 t in 1979 to 300 to 400 t in the late 1990s. Spanish vessels appear to have taken porbeagle opportunistically both in the early and late 1970s and since 1998. Landings off Spain tend to be greater during the spring and autumn, with a drop in the summer (Mejuto 1985, Lallemand-Lemoine 1991). It is unclear, however, whether the very variable early landings data from the Spanish fleet (from nil to nearly 4,000 t/year) represents huge variations in catches, possibly the result of ‘boom and bust’ fisheries removing different segments of the stock, or differences in catch reporting. Bonfil (1994) estimated that 50t of porbeagle were taken as a supplementary catch in the Spanish longline swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic during 1989. The long line fishery in the Bay of Biscay (ICES Area VIII), directed at the more abundant blue shark, also landed about 30 t of mainly porbeagle and some shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus during 1998–2000. ICES data (Heessen 2003) indicate that annual landings from Area IXa into mainland Portugal peaked at almost 3,000 t in 1987 to 1988 and have since declined (these records do not appear in the FAO statistics).  <br/> <br/>Reported landings from the historically most important fisheries, around the UK and in the North Sea and adjacent inshore waters have decreased to very low levels during the past 30 to 40 years, while catches from the offshore ICES sub-regions west of Portugal, west of the Bay of Biscay and around the Azores have increased since 1989. This is attributed to a decline in heavily fished and depleted inshore populations and redirection of effort to previously lightly exploited offshore stocks.
39344		conservation	eng	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 1,500 t for porbeagle in the target shark fishery. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, bycatch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). The porbeagle TAC was reduced to 1,000 t in 1997 (O’Boyle <em>et al</em>. 1998), then to 1,700 t during the two years 2000–2001 while additional scientific information was collected (DFO 2001b). As a result of these studies, it was concluded that the population was seriously depleted (to 10–20% of virgin biomass) and would require a greatly decreased fishing mortality if recovery is to occur. An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth. However, annual catch levels of about 1,000 t would be sustainable over the long term once the population has recovered. These DFO analyses, which are the basis for the regional assessment, are contested by COSEWIC (2004), who notes that the quota for 2002 to 2007 of 200 to 250 t represents a substantial reduction from catches in the mid-1990s, but even this amount now corresponds to a high exploitation rate because of the low population abundance. It is highly uncertain if this quota reduction will be sufficient to halt the porbeagle decline, and if so, to what extent the population will recover, given that there is uncertainty in estimating FMSY and the quota, the low number of mature animals remaining in the population, that at its current low abundance the population may experience depensation (Allee effects), and that reduction in fishing pressure is not always sufficient for population recovery (Hutchings 2001). COSEWIC (Committee on the status of endangered wildlife in Canada) designated porbeagle as Endangered in 2004 (COSEWIC 2004). <br/> <br/>Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas in the US EEZ for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle. Commercial fishers require an annual shark permit, and finning is prohibited.
39344		distribution	eng	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1 to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers.comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 and 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances travelled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nautical miles (nm), with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002). Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004).
39344		habitat	eng	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for <em>Lamna nasus</em> (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December to February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8–9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004).
39344		population	eng	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of subpopulations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground.
39344		threats	eng	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Porbeagle fishing in the Northwest Atlantic started in 1961, when the fleet of Norwegian shark longliners began operating off the coast of New England and Newfoundland after the Northeast Atlantic stocks had been depleted. Catches increased rapidly from about 1,900 t in 1961 to more than 9,000 t in 1964. By 1965 many of the vessels had switched to other species or moved to other grounds because of the population decline. The fishery collapsed after only six years, landing less than 1,000 t in 1970. Smaller landings were also reported by Faeroese fishing vessels from around the same time and throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Norwegian and Faeroese fleets have been excluded from Canadian waters since the establishment of Canada’s EEZ in 1995. Canadian and US authorities reported all landings after 1995. Porbeagle sharks are now taken almost exclusively by a Canadian directed longline fishery. Bycatch in swordfish longline fisheries and various inshore fisheries are minimal, rarely exceeding 40 t in recent years (DFO 2001a).  <br/> <br/>Following the collapse of the fishery in the 1960s, it took ~25 years for recovery to ~30% of virgin biomass to take place. Three Canadian vessels entered the targeted Northwest Atlantic fishery in 1994. Catches of 1,000 to 2,000 t/year throughout much of the 1990s reduced population levels to a new low in under ten years: the average size of sharks and catch rates (number/hook) were the smallest on record in 1999 and 2000. By 2000, catch rates of mature sharks were reduced to 10% of the 1992 peak, and immature catch rates to 30% of the 1991 peak. The biomass in 2000 was estimated as 11 to 17% of virgin biomass and fully recruited F estimated as 0.26 (DFO 2001a). The current porbeagle population is seriously depleted and will require a greatly reduced fishing mortality if recovery is to occur (DFO 2001). The 2001 stock assessment by the Canadian Department of Fisheries states: ‘An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth.’ Following this advice, the Canadian quota was reduced to 250 t for the period 2002 to 2007 to allow population growth and recovery. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle in the US EEZ.
39345		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present. The population size needs to be reassessed given its reduced range and previous misidentification of other species for this one. The recent taxonomic revision of this genus should make species identification easier for the genus.
39345		distribution	eng	<em>H. edwardsii</em> is endemic to South Africa, and a recent taxonomic revision has shown that this species occurs from Langebaan Lagoon, Western Cape, to Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape. In the west of its range it prefers shallow rocky reef and kelp forest, however, in the east of its range it prefers deeper water on sandy bottom. This species has been recorded as being abundant, but this may be incorrect due to species misidentification. The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be close to 20,000 km².
39345		habitat	eng	Depth range of this species varies within its range. In the west of its range, it occurs from the intertidal to 30m (pers. obs.) in kelp forests and rocky reefs, whereas in the east of its range it has been recorded from the intertidal, on rocky reef and kelp forest, but is found predominantly on sandy bottom where it has been recorded as deep as 130m (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Human 2003, 2007).<br/><br/>H. edwardsii has an extended single oviparous reproductive strategy and lays two egg cases without an obvious breeding season (Bertolini 1993, Dainty 2002). Size at 50% maturity was given by Bertolini (1993) as about 325 mm TL, for sexes combined, for the False Bay population, and 450 mm TL, for sexes combined, for the Eastern Cape population. Dainty (2002), using an annual vertebral band deposition rate, determined that <em>H. edwardsii</em> is seven years old at 50% maturity for sexes combined, and lives to at least 22 years of age. Bertolini (1993) reported that two egg cases collected by him hatched after three months in an aquarium, and hatching size was 93 mm TL. Egg cases collected by Dainty (2002) had not hatched after seven months. Smith and Griffiths (1997) found that <em>Haploblepharus</em> sharks have a high rate of hatching success (60?75%).
39345		population	eng	Previously recorded as abundant, <em>H. edwardii</em>?s population size may be overestimated due to misidentification of other species for this species. Different maximum sizes and habitat preferences for this species within its range suggest multiple populations. Anecdotal observations also suggest that these catsharks are highly site specific, suggesting severely fragmented populations. It is likely that at least two populations exist, given that this species grows to a larger size in the east of its range, and the population size and population sub-structuring needs quantifying (Human 2003, 2007).
39345		threats	eng	The main threat is recreational fishing, where this shark is commonly taken as discarded bycatch, generally regarded as a nuisance by the fishermen, and persecuted as such. Survival rates from recreational angling are unknown, although are presumed to be low (Human 2003, 2007). <em>H. edwardsii</em> is used in aquaria, however, there is no directed fishery for this species for the aquarium trade at present (Human 2003, 2007). As with any endemic with a restricted range, it is vulnerable to habitat degradation and loss. It occurs on a heavily utilized and narrow strip of habitat with heavy and increasing human utilization including extensive and intensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing, coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments.
39346		conservation	eng	The biology of this species is virtually unknown, which is of concern given that this is an inshore shark and caught with relatively high frequency by shore anglers in the Eastern Cape. The gathering of biological data for this species should be considered a priority given that it is an endemic with a restricted range, with a habitat preference that is in a zone that experiences significant fishing pressure (Human 2007). Recommend that recreational catches be monitored. Education and awareness is recommended, to reduce/prevent persecution.
39346		distribution	eng	<em>H. fuscus</em> endemic to a relatively small stretch (less than 1,000 km) of the South African coastline, ranging from Storms River mouth, eastern Western Cape, to just south of Durban in KwaZulu-Natal. It is a rare vagrant west of the Storms River mouth, with one record from the western Western Cape (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975; Human 2003, 2007). This inshore highly site-specific species? estimated area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
39346		habitat	eng	<em>H. fuscus</em> prefers inshore rocky reef habitats. All specimens examined by Human (2003, 2007) were collected very close to shore (rock and surf angling), with no records of specimens being caught by offshore fishing activities.<br/><br/>Very little of the life history is known for <em>H. fuscus</em>. Maximum size is reported at 73 cm total length (TL) (Compagno 1984). Males are juvenile at 43.8?46.0 cm TL, adolescent at 49.5?54.3 cm TL, and mature at 55.0?64.9 cm TL. Females are adolescent at 49.6?56.8 cm TL, and mature at 60.9?63.1 cm TL. The juveniles of this species are scarce and there appears to be an unknown habitat that is used by <em>H. fuscus</em> for egg laying, and where juveniles spend that stage of their life history (Human 2003, 2007). Other members of this genus produce a single eggcase per uterus which is assumed here for this species.
39346		population	eng	There is anecdotal evidence that these catsharks are highly site-specific and that the population is very sub-structured, suggesting that it may be severely fragmented.
39346		threats	eng	Persecution from recreational anglers and potential loss of habitat are the greatest threats to this inshore, restricted endemic. It appears not to be taken by other inshore fisheries, suggesting a very shallow habitat preference for this species, giving rise to this sharks potential vulnerability to habitat degradation. Survival rates from recreational angling, where it is a common bycatch within its range, are unknown. This shark is released alive during angling competitions, but this situation my not hold true in other forms of recreational angling, as is seen with other species of catshark in South Africa. This species is also occasionally used in aquaria, however, there is no directed fishery for this species for the aquarium trade at present (Human 2003, 2007).<br/><br/>This species? inshore habitat is subject to heavy and increasing human utilizations, including extensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing along with coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, holiday-making, beach utilization and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments.
39347		conservation	eng	Captures of this species in fisheries are not recorded and there are no conservation or management initiatives underway.
39347		distribution	eng	The Narrowmouth Catshark is an endemic shark from the coasts of South America within the Magellanic province (Norman 1937). It originates from the Pacific basin (Krefft 1968), and inhabits the Southwest Atlantic from Brazil (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1995) to the Beagle Channel (Lloris and Rucabado 1991, Matallanas <em>et al.</em> 1993) and the Southeast Pacific to north of Chile (Compagno 1984b). It occurs from the surface to 179m in the Atlantic Ocean (Bellisio <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni <em>et al</em>. 1979) and reaches 359 m in the Pacific Ocean (Ojeda 1983).
39347		habitat	eng	The Narrowmouth Catshark shows an unusual secondary sexual dimorphism, with longer males than females and females heavier than males (Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni 1986). It reaches a maximum size of about 80 cm total length (TL) in males and 70 cm in females (Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni 1986). Males reach sexual maturity at 53 cm TL and are all sexually mature at 66.5 cm TL; females reach sexual maturity at 40 cm TL and are all sexually mature at 45 cm TL (Gosztonyi 1973, Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni 1986).<br/><br/>It is an oviparous species, probably laying one egg at a time per oviduct (Gosztonyi 1973, Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Compagno 1984b, Menni 1986). Menni <em>et al.</em> (1979) reported females carrying egg capsules in autumn (April? May) and spring (August?September). The egg cases are anchored onto the seabed in estuaries and other sheltered areas.The Narrowmouth Catshark uses estuaries and other sheltered areas to lay  their egg cases and as nurseries. Egg cases have so far only been  recovered from the estuary of Ria Deseado (Gosztonyi 1973). There have  been no reports made of egg cases from continental shelves. <br/><br/>Menni <em>et al.</em> (1979) pointed out that females from 42.2? 44.2 cm TL showed neither a nidamental gland nor widening of the uterus and oocytes measured under 2 mm. From lengths of 45?51.2 cm TL, oocytes of 1?15 mm were observed. Nidamental gland width was 3?22 mm and a wider uterus (22×3 mm to 45×7 mm) was observed in 66% of individuals. From 51.2?62.5 cm TL, egg capsules were absent in 49.1% of the sample, 3.8% showed a flaccid and vascularised uterus (probably recently emptied), 15% of the sample had oviductal eggs and 32% carried egg capsules, always one in each organ. The same authors reported that when maturity begins, the right ovary develops, while the left one goes into regression.<br/><br/>Gosztonyi (1973) shows that both the mouth and teeth shape are sexually dimorphic in this species and that this change starts in both sexes at 30 cm TL. Teeth in adult males are unicuspidate and twice as high as the tricuspidate teeth of females of similar size. Although Menni <em>et al.</em> (1979) and Menni (1986) pointed out some sexual segregation, with more numerous females in the shallow stratum (below 100 m) while large numbers of males occur between 100?130 m, Matallanas <em>et al.</em> (1993) did not find any segregation with depth in their sample.<br/><br/>The diet of this shark, according to Matallanas <em>et al.</em> (1993), in the Beagle Channel during summer is predominantly monophagous, consisting mainly of <em>Munida subrugosa</em> (Crustacea: Decapoda). The presence of other incidental prey was higher in males than in females. For example, the frequency of teleosts in the diet was higher in males of over 40 cm TL, but not significantly. In comparison, analysis of data from two cruises on the Southwest Atlantic continental shelf indicated that the diet was less selective than in the Beagle Channel (although the methodology of analysis was different and the results not strictly comparable). This variation can be explained by a change in predation behaviour in different habitats: leptobenthic behaviour on the continental shelves, as defined by Compagno (1990a) for <em>Schroederychthys</em> species and a crab-eating littoral behaviour in the more restricted habitat of the Beagle Channel, typical of the smoothhounds and related species (Compagno 1990a).
39347		threats	eng	Local sport and commercial fishermen have not caught any pintarroja in the above estuary in the last eight years, although it was formerly very common there.<br/><br/>The marked increase in the use of Patagonian natural harbours by fishing and oil vessels over the last 15 years, with consequent disturbance, oil and noise pollution in these estuaries and bays, has not been assessed in terms of its impact on shark breeding grounds. However, acoustic pollution in these inlets could be one reason for the loss of this reproductive habitat. For example, a study of the association between noise levels in the Ria Deseado and the behaviour of Commerson?s Dolphin (<em>Cephalorhynchus commersonii</em>), has demonstrated an association between rising noise levels and escape behaviour (M. Iniguez pers. comm.). However, other sharks, such as Narrownose Smoothhound (<em>Mustelus schmitti</em>) and probably the Broadnose Sevengill Shark (<em>Notorynchus cepedianus</em>) (Chiaramonte and Pettovello 2000), also use the estuaries and sheltered areas in Patagonia as nursery grounds, and these species have apparently not shown any decline in connection with human use of the areas.<br/><br/>The species is taken as bycatch by bottom-trawlers and outriggers in Patagonian waters, but it has not been possible to estimate the scale of capture. This species may also be taken by directed commercial fisheries and possibly exported (Chiaramonte 1996).
39348		conservation	eng	The species occurs in two marine reserves within its range, but is not specially protected within these reserves. <br/>The South African Sea Fisheries Research Institute is considering laws to decommercialise the pyjama shark along with its congener the Leopard Catshark (<em>Poroderma pantherinum</em>). This would not specifically protect either species from being killed as commercial bycatch, nor would it prevent sports fishers from catching them, but it would restrict targeted commercial fishing for export including the aquarium, shark meat and fin trade as well as sport fisheries for lobster bait.
39348		distribution	eng	This endemic coastal species is confined to the extreme Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean off South Africa, from the intertidal to 100 m depth, but mostly found in waters shallower than 100 m. It is restricted to temperate waters of South Africa off the Northern, Western and Eastern Cape Provinces, but has its centre of abundance off the Western Cape. There are old records of this species from Madagascar and Mauritius, but these require confirmation and may be erroneous (Compagno in prep. b).
39348		habitat	eng	Most male Pyjama Sharks are adolescent at about 78?81 cm and adult males are recorded between 75? 91 cm. Most females are adolescent at about 79?83 cm and adult between 75?93 cm. All individuals of both sexes are mature above 89 cm (10?13 years old). Size at hatching is about 14?15 cm. This species apparently reproduces all year long, with both sexes gonadally active (Compagno in prep. b).<br/><br/>The oviparous (egg-laying) females produce one egg from each of the two oviducts at a time, but the number of eggs laid yearly is unknown (probably two or more). The single ovary averages about 15?20 ovae between 4?35 mm in diameter all year, but it is not known if all of these mature and are laid during a given year. Eggs are laid in large (5×10 cm) egg cases which hatch after several months on the bottom (over five months in captivity).<br/><br/>In the intertidal and subtidal zone this social shark congregates and rests in favoured caves and crevices on rocky reefs and in kelp beds during the daytime. It is more active at night but will feed by day. Prey includes a variety of small marine organisms including cephalopods, crustaceans, bony fishes, hagfishes, small batoids, bivalves and polychaete worms as well as fish offal. Cephalopods are favoured food items but the food spectrum varies by size and area. It readily takes baited hooks on fishing tackle.
39348		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch locally in unregulated inshore line and net fisheries and caught on longlines, in gillnets and beach-seines, and in bottom-trawls in open access waters. This bycatch is largely unutilized. There is little human consumption but the species is sometimes taken for lobster bait. <br/>Adults attain a sufficiently large size and are common enough locally in the Western Cape to have the potential for a high-value export fishery for human consumption, though it is unlikely that this could be sustained for more than a short period. The Nursehound (<em>Scyliorhinus stellaris</em>) and the Smallspotted Catshark (<em>S. canicula</em>) are fished in the northeast Atlantic for human consumption, but these species are far more wide ranging than the Pyjama Shark.<br/><br/>Sports anglers regularly catch the species throughout its limited range but the catch is usually not utilised and either killed or released after capture. Some individuals are tagged and released. The species is also taken in small numbers for the aquarium trade. It is a hardy shark that regularly survives capture trauma and thrives in captivity.<br/><br/>There are no data to indicate any past reduction or ongoing decline in numbers, range or habitat quality, but this could possibly have already occurred, or may occur in future. For example, this species and other local catsharks deposit their eggs in benthic spawning areas which could be adversely affected by pollution or by ecological changes that increase egg predation by gastropods and other benthic predators.
39349		conservation	eng	Need for monitoring of bycatch and potential habitat degradation by demersal trawl fisheries.
39349		distribution	eng	A limited distribution in Eastern South Atlantic and Western Indian Ocean, common inshore to offshore on the continental shelf and upper slope of South Africa, uncommon to rare northwestwards to KwaZulu-Natal and northeastwards to Namibia. Depths recorded 26 to 530 m, possibly confined to deep water (420 m) off KwaZulu Natal than off the Cape Provinces of South Africa, where it occurs in shallow bays such as False Bay and Table Bay (Compagno in prep. b). This may be an example of tropical submergence, in which minimum depth range becomes greater in warmer waters.
39349		habitat	eng	Oviparous, laying one egg from each of the paired oviducts at a time, rate of deposition per year unknown. Maximum total length 122 cm, but most of over 200 specimens examined were below 100 cm. Size at hatching near 25 to 27 cm (size of smallest free-living individual). Males immature at 27 to 84 cm, adolescent at 61 to 83 cm, and adult at 72 to 102 cm. Females immature at 25 to 73 cm, adolescent at 55 to 80 cm, and adult at 75 to 88 cm (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Both adults and juveniles tend to occupy rocky reef habitats more than soft bottom substrates (D. Ebert, pers.comm. 2004).
39349		population	eng	Possible single population throughout its range.
39349		threats	eng	This species is not targeted, but regularly caught, mostly as unutilised bycatch in the large demersal South African hake trawl fishery, and probably in other benthic fisheries. Its chief fishery, the trawl fishery for hake species, is regulated but based on sustainability for hake, not for this or other elasmobranchs of the hake fishing zone. No statistics are available on catches. It is also occasionally caught by skiboat anglers and of minor interest in the international aquarium trade. Habitat degradation may occur as a result of trawling on the fishing grounds where it occurs, although there should be some areas of refuge over untrawlable grounds. None of its habitat is legally protected.
39350		conservation	eng	None in place.
39350		distribution	eng	This shark occurs in the eastern Atlantic: Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola, possibly ranging north to Morocco and Mediterranean. Found inshore at depths of 5?75m (Compagno 1984b).
39350		habitat	eng	No life history parameters are known for this live-bearing (placentally viviparous) species.
39350		threats	eng	This small, coastal and inshore benthic shark is or was moderately common but irregularly caught in heavily fished tropical inshore coastal waters of West Africa, and was formerly reported as being particularly common off Goree, Senegal and the Congo and Cuanza River mouths. It is probably of limited importance to intensive inshore artisanal and commercial fisheries in the West African area, where it is taken with hook-and-line, fixed bottom gillnets and by bottom¬trawlers. The bycatch may be discarded by some fisheries, but its flesh is utilised fresh, smoked, or dried-salted for human consumption and its skin is used for leather. No fisheries statistics are available for this species. Probably not taken for sport except incidentally.
39351		conservation	eng	Management measures in the Western Australian gillnet fishery are in part targeted at conservation of whiskery sharks. These measures include effort controls and mesh size restrictions. At present there are no other conservation measures in place.
39351		distribution	eng	This species is distributed form North-West Cape in Western Australia to eastern Victoria (Last and Stevens 1994).  Its distribution also includes northern Tasmania.  It is found in greatest abundance in south-western Australia from Albany to Kalbarri.
39351		habitat	eng	The whiskery shark is most commonly found in rocky reef seagrass areas on the continental shelf. Its diet is highly specialized, with cephalopods making up approximately 95% of food eaten (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2001). Mature females produce litters of 4 to 29 (mean 19) young every second year (Simpfendorfer and Unsworth 1998). The young are born at 25 cm, males and females mature at around 110 cm, and reach a maximum of 150 cm. The age at maturity is 4.5 years for males and 6.5 years for females (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2000). Maximum age is probably 15 years.
39351		population	eng	There is no evidence supporting the existence of subpopulations. Regular stock assessments are carried out for this species as it is targeted by gillnet fishing in Western Australia (see Threats for results of stock assessment).
39351		threats	eng	Whiskery sharks have been caught in commercial fisheries in Western Australia since the 1940s (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998). Early longline fisheries captured small numbers in the 1940s and 1950s, but the introduction of multifilament gillnets in the 1960s increased catches. Concerns about mercury in sharks in the mid-1970s saw a reduction in catches for a few years. However, once these concerns were addressed and dedicated well equipped shark fishing vessels entered the fishery levels of fishing effort and catch rose dramatically. The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the whiskery shark population reduced to less than 30% of virgin levels (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the mid-1980s Western Australia introduced management to the gillnet fishery, restricting effort levels and other management measures. Since then whiskery shark abundance has remained relatively stable at 25 to 30% of virgin over a period of 20 years. Whilst management has not yet rebuilt the stock to the 40% of virgin biomass target, the final phase of effort reductions in the target fishery was not implemented until 2000/01. Early indications are that there have been significant and steady increases in CPUE in the center of the species' range (and an overall increase) for the last 4 to 5 years and that a 'pulse' of young adult whiskery sharks are currently recruiting into the fishery. Continued management of the fishery, including several effort reductions, has maintained whiskery shark abundance at this lower level and should do for the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>In addition to catches in Western Australia this species is also caught in the Southern Shark Fishery, especially in Western Australia. Catches in this fishery, however appear to be low and pose no threat to the population.
39352		conservation	eng	Outside Australia and New Zealand there are no, or few, regulations established for populations of <em>G.galeus</em>, see Walker (1999) for a fairly recent review. However, there is increasing international recognition of the threats facing this species. At the CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP) 13 held in 2004, the CITES Animals Committee had a specific recommendation regarding <em>G. galeus</em>. The following text is taken from CoP13 Doc. 35, Annex 2 (<a href="www.cites.org">CITES</a>): <em>G. galeus</em> are valued for their meat and fins and are (or have been) important in target and multispecies fisheries in temperate waters world-wide. Most stocks are shared between several range States, and in most regions are seriously depleted. Only a small number of States have achieved successful management of this biologically-vulnerable species. The Animals Committee recommends that range States request FAO's assistance with developing a capacity building workshop for this species in order to train managers from developing States and other States where coastal shark fisheries are not being managed. This would also serve as a case study for the management of other coastal shark fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition, CITES CoP13, Decision 13.42 directed to Parties states that Parties "should take note of the species-specific recommendations in document CoP13 Doc. 35 Annex 2 with a view to ensuring that international trade is not detrimental to the status of these species." This includes <em>G. galeus</em>. <br/> <br/>See Walker (1999) for a fairly recent and thorough review of relevant management measures, some updates are provided below: <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong> <br/>Management measures in the fishery of southern Australia where the stock is most depleted include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, TAC (since 2000). Input controls include limits on length of net (since 1988), various 4 to 6 week closed seasons to protect pregnant animals of <em>G. galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994), and a legal minimum mesh-size of six inches for gillnets (since 1975) for most of the fished area. Closed areas to commercial gillnetting in inshore waters of Tasmania have been variously implemented since 1954 to protect newborn, juvenile and pregnant <em>G. galeus</em> on nursery areas. A more extensive closed area was adopted during 1988 when all Victoria proclaimed waters (inside three-mile limit) were closed to the use of shark gillnets and longlines. Legal minimum lengths were phased in by the States and Commonwealth during 1949 and the early 1950s and remain current. During 2002, the TAC for <em>G. galeus</em> was 269 t for the Southern Shark Fishery, 33 t for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 2 t for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery. <br/> <br/>In New Zealand, minimum mesh-sizes of 125 mm and 150 mm apply for <em>G. galeus</em> in northern New Zealand and southern New Zealand, respectively. Numerous general restrictions apply to the use of commercial and recreational gillnets and longlines, including limits on the length of gillnets, number of hooks per longline, number of longlines, soak time, the amount of an estuary or bay that can be blocked by a gillnet, and areas that can be fished. The restrictions vary regionally and are designed to reduce the number of nets lost and the amount of fish wasted to sea lice and decay because of excessively long sets, and to minimise conflict with other users of inshore waters. Also, <em>G. galeus</em> is covered by the mixed species daily bag limits for recreational fishers of 20 and 30 fish for the northern and central regions and southern region of New Zealand, respectively. In October 1986, the commercial TAC was set at 2,590 t, but this had increased to 3,107 t by 1995 to 1996 (as a consequence of quota appeals, not stock assessment) and was current in 2003. The commercial TAC was exceeded by up to 10% in the late 1990s. <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>In the El Rincon area of Argentina where gravid females occur, a restriction has been established for the fishing fleet during the months in which these sharks approach the shore (A. Massa pers. comm). No other conservation or management measures are in place for this species. A ban on fishing <em>G. galeus</em> is recommended at the regional level involving Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa</strong> <br/>There are no conservation measures in place at present. Proposed policy for 2005 indicates that long-term rights for the elasmobranch fishery will be allocated and multi-species permits will be revoked and replaced with single-species permits. It is envisaged that only six demersal longline permits will be issued to target soupfin sharks. The number of traditional handline vessels permitted to catch traditional linefish (including sharks) will also be restricted in terms of numbers. This will alter the characteristics of the fishery and it is highly recommended that another stock assessment be completed within 3?5 years to evaluate the effect of the aforementioned changes on the population. McCord (2005) made several management recommendations for the period 2005?2010 including restrictive licensing, size restrictions and seasonal/area closures. <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong> <br/>There are no conservation measures in place currently other than in California, gillnets are prohibited in State waters, although gear regulations do not apply specifically to <em>G.galeus</em> here or in other areas of its Eastern North Pacific range. The status of the population is unknown, and this species hasn?t been intensively studied for over 50 years. The situation needs to be studied in detail in terms of stock assessment and biological parameters (e.g., age and growth has never been studied for the species in this region), and this assessment revisited when more information is available.
39352		distribution	eng	Widespread in temperate waters. <br/> <br/>In southern Australia the species occurs from Perth in Western Australia to Morton Bay in Queensland, including Lord Howe Island (uncertain) and Tasmania. It also occurs in the Southwest Atlantic (on the shelf from southern Brazil to Patagonia) and Northeast Atlantic (including the Mediterranean where it is present but uncommon (Whitehead 1984, Notarbartolo e Bianchi 1998), eastern North Pacific (from British Columbia to southern Baja California including the Gulf of California), off Peru and Chile, and in the South Pacific, New Zealand and off South Africa (Compagno in prep b). In the Subequatorial Africa region, it ranges from Namibia to East London on the southeast coast of South Africa (Compagno in prep b). It is absent from the Northwest Atlantic and Northwest Pacific.
39352		habitat	eng	Most abundant in cold to warm temperate continental seas, from the surfline and very shallow water to well offshore (Compagno in prep b). In Australasia <em>G. galeus</em> occurs over the continental shelf from shallow, inshore bays (mainly juveniles) to about 800 m depth on the continental slope. At least in some areas (Northeast Atlantic, Tasman Sea) they also extend offshore up to 1,610 km from the coast (Fitzmaurice 1979, Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species is primarily found near the bottom but ranges through the water column even into the pelagic zone. Similar to the Australian and South American populations, the South African population inhabits cool waters from the coastal surfline to the continental shelf (>400 m). <br/> <br/>The life history parameters of <em>G. galeus</em> varies between regions. For a review of life history from different regions see Walker (1999) which draws on a number of sources including: Ripley (1946), Olsen (1954, 1959, 1984), Freer (1992), Capape and Mellinger (1988) and Peres and Vooren 1991). For a summary of life history characteristics by regional population see the tables at the end of this assessment (these will be specifically drawn upon for regional reports). <br/> <br/>The maximum size varies considerably: the maximum size recorded is ~200 cm total length (female) in the Mediterranean (Capape and Mellinger 1998), but is somewhat smaller in the Southwest Atlantic with a maximum size of 155 cm (female); 148 cm (male) (Peres and Vooren 1991). Differences are also apparent in the size at maturity in different regions. The smallest sizes at sexual maturity are in the Southwest Atlantic where males attain sexual maturity at 107?117 cm and females at 118 to 128 cm (Peres and Vooren 1991), elsewhere the range is generally between 120 and 135 cm for males and 134 to 140 cm for females (Olsen 1954, Capape and Mellinger 1988, Peres and Vooren 1991, Freer 1992), although Ripley (1946) noted 150 cm for females and McCord (2005) reports 101 cm for males. <br/> <br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparity with average litters of 20 to 35 pups, with as few as six and as many as 52 observed with an average of 35 in the Eastern North Pacific (Ripley 1946, Ebert 2003)) produced in spring or early summer after a gestation period of ~12 months; the young vary in length at birth between 26 and 40 cm, depending on the region. The litter size increases in larger females. Males appear to breed every year but individual females have been reported to breed every year in the Mediterranean, every second year in Australia, and every third year in Brazil (Capape and Mellinger 1988, Peres and Vooren 1991, Olsen 1954). These may reflect real differences or may be due to the difficulties of sampling a species, which shows marked temporal and spatial sexual and size segregation, and which makes extensive movements. <br/> <br/>These animals are very long-lived and are estimated to live for up to 60 years, although estimates vary (from around 22 years to around 40 years to up to 60 years) with region and ageing methods used. In Australia, tags have been returned from animals at liberty for more than 40 years. Age at maturity is 8 to 10 for males and 10 to 15 for females (Olsen 1954, Peres and Vooren 1991, Freer 1992, Walker 1999, Ebert 2003). The annual rate of population increase has been estimated by Cortes (2002) at 1.077 ( 95% C.I. 1.037 to 1.128) and the natural mortality by Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) at 0.113. <br/> <br/>The species feeds mainly on teleost fish, most often on bottom-associated species although pelagic fish are also taken (Walker 1999). Cephalopods, mostly squid and octopus, are also important in their diet. Small juveniles include a high proportion of crustaceans and other prey such as annelids and gastropods in their diet (Olsen 1954, Stevens and West 1997, Walker and Punt 1998). Predators (especially of juveniles) include the great white shark <em>Carcharadon carcharias</em>, sevengill shark <em>Notorynchus cepedianus</em>, and possibly marine mammals (Ripley 1946; Ebert 2001, 2003).
39352		population	eng	This species makes extensive migrations, for example, animals tagged in the United Kingdom showing mixing throughout their Northeast Atlantic distribution and being recaptured as far away as to the north of Iceland (2,461 km), the Canary Islands (2,526 km) and the Azores (1,610 km off the coast of Portugal) (Fitzmaurice 1979, Holden and Horrod 1979, Stevens 1990). In Australia, tagging has shown mixing across most of the southern half of the continent (with movements of up to 1,260 km) and a number of animals have moved across the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand (Olsen 1984, Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Spatial and temporal variations in size structure and sex ratio are apparent for various populations of <em>G. galeus</em> (see Walker 1999), which have implications for management. The species appears to have fairly discrete pupping and nursery areas, which are often in shallow, protected bays and estuaries (Olsen 1954). <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong> <br/>Inshore waters of Victoria and Tasmania include nursery areas for this species. Olsen (1959,1984) reported a decline in abundance of juveniles in two Tasmanian nursery areas sampled regularly over a five-year period. He attributed this decline to fishing pressure on pregnant females during their pupping migration and to intensified fishing of juveniles in inshore areas such as Port Phillip Bay during the period 1940 to 50. In Port Phillip Bay during 1943 to 1945, 60,000 juveniles averaging 0.9 kg in weight were caught annually. A continuation of this nursery area sampling during the 1990s (Stevens and West 1997) indicated a substantial further reduction in abundance of school shark pups and small juveniles in Tasmanian and Victorian embayments and estuaries. Since the abundance of pups sampled in these areas seems insufficient to account for the current adult stock size it is likely that other pupping areas exist, either outside Victoria and Tasmania, or more likely, close inshore along ocean beach coastlines. In New Zealand inshore embayments such as Kaipara Harbour are nursery areas for this species (Walker 1999). <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>The southwest Atlantic population of <em>G. galeus</em> migrates seasonally between wintering grounds off south Brazil and Uruguay, and summer grounds off Argentina where the pupping and nursery areas are situated. <br/> <br/>In the wintering area off south Brazil the species occurs from April to November, south of latitude 33°S over smooth bottom at depths of 40 to 330 m (Vooren 1997). Only large juveniles (mostly with TL from about 70 cm onwards) and adults of both sexes migrate in winter to south Brazil, where at that time the gravid females concentrate during the final phase of gestation and where the non-gravid adult females copulate in a specific area on the upper continental slope (Peres and Vooren 1991, Ferreira and Vooren 1991). Birth does not occur in south Brazil. <br/> <br/>In Argentina the commercial fishery operates inshore at depths of 18 to 57 m, from September to December off Buenos Aires Province, then in January and February in northern Patagonia, then in March-April again off Buenos Aires (Chiaramonte 1998, Elías <em>et al</em>. 2004). These periods correspond with the months of departure and arrival of the species in south Brazil. It is inferred that the age groups older than about five years of the population as a whole migrate between Argentina and south Brazil, and that the nursery grounds are situated in Argentine waters and in some cases are where critical habitat is known to have been lost (e.g., Bahía Blanca and El Rincón). <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa</strong> <br/>Little is known about the movements of the South African population of <em>G. galeus</em> (Freer 1992). Seasonal differences exist in catch composition, females comprise the majority of the catch (~90%) from December to January and males comprise close to 100% of the catch between April and September (Freer 1992, M. Kroese pers. comm. 2003). Catch records from the RV Sardinops and RV Africana indicate that midsummer (December) catches are dominated by pregnant females (Freer 1992). Individuals have been caught up to depths exceeding 400 m, although they are most frequently caught between 55 to 150 m (McCord 2005). It is thought that female <em>G. galeus</em> give birth in lagoons and estuaries along the west coast of South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), and although no nursery areas have been conclusively identified, Freer (1992) suggests shallow embayments such as Struis, St.Helena, Walker and False Bays, and data from the Gansbaai longline fishery with a high proportion of the catch being immature females may also be a nursery area for this species (M. McCord pers. comm). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>Little is known regarding critical habitats but nursery areas may occur off Portugal and around the Canary Islands (Munoz-Chapuli 1984), and possibly in the Bristol Channel, UK (see Walker 1999 for further details). <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong> <br/>In the eastern North Pacific, young and immature sharks are caught off Ventura Flats, San Francisco Bay, Monterey and Tomales Bay. Southern California below Point Conception (especially Ventura Flats, east of Santa Barbara) is an important <em>G. galeus</em> nursery ground, with considerable numbers of adult females and newborns being found there in the spring.  They are known to segregate by sex and size. South of Point Conception, adult males tend to be found further offshore in deeper water (>20 m), while females are in usually found in shallower water (<15 m). The proportion of large mature males is highest in northern California, while mature females are most abundant in southern California. North of Point Conception there is a greater proportion of smaller immature females, but in central California the sex ratio is about even (Ripley 1946, Ebert 2001, 2003). They are highly migratory, moving north during the summer and south during the winter or into deeper waters. They are swift moving and can travel up to 34 miles per day and have been reported to travel at a sustained rate of 10 miles per day for up to 100 days. One shark tagged off Ventura in southern California was captured 26 months later off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Another shark was tagged in San Francisco Bay and recaptured 12 months later in the same location.
39352		threats	eng	<em>G. galeus</em> has a long history of exploitation in target fisheries in most parts of its range where the species has been in demand for liver-oil, meat and fins. The main threat to the various populations of <em>G. galeus</em> is from targeting widely with gillnets and longlines. Minor threats include fishing with trawls and other methods. There is accidental capture of pups on nursery grounds in gillnets of small mesh-size and recreational fishers operating in inshore shallow-water areas. Habitat degradation in potential nursery areas due to development and siltation may also negatively affect recruitment to populations of this species.  Other threats are habitat degradation by the effects of trawling through disturbance of substrates (Walker 1998) and installation of high voltage direct current sub-sea cables with induced magnetic and electric fields across their migration lanes (Walker 2001). <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong> <br/>In south-eastern Australia, the harvest of <em>G. galeus</em> began in the mid-1920s, but increased markedly during the war years with the market for shark liver oil. Catches levelled off at about 2,000 t live weight during 1949 to 1957 with the decline of the liver market and as the fishery spread from inshore to offshore waters (Olsen 1959). Establishment of the shark meat market and the introduction of gillnets in 1964, production rose rapidly to peak during 1969 at 3,158 t. Following a ban on the sale of large school sharks in 1972 because of high mercury levels, catches declined for about 10 years. With relaxation of the mercury laws catches again increased, reaching 3,060 t during 1986. Since 1986, the total annual catch from the Southern Shark Fishery had declined to 172 t by 2001 (Walker 1999, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2002). The mature biomass has been estimated from age-based model outputs to be below 20% of the level before commercial target fishing began (Punt <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>In New Zealand, <em>G. galeus</em> have been exploited since the mid-1940s. With the demise of the liver oil fishery in the 1950s, a market for the meat developed (some is exported to Australia) and catches peaked at 5,000 t live weight in 1984 (Francis 1998, Paul and Sanders 2001). Catch levels have been ~3,000 t for the past decade, but it is not known if this, or the current commercial TACs (3,107 t), are sustainable, or if they are at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield. <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>In this region mean annual individual fecundity is only seven pups, age at first breeding is about 13 years in both sexes, and natural mortality rate is low as evidenced from the longevity of 40 years (Peres and Vooren 1991, Ferreira and Vooren 1991). These parameter values characterize the species as susceptible to recuitment overfishing. In Uruguay the species was fished intensively in the 1940s for liver oil. The southwestern Atlantic population of the species has been subject to intensive fishing in its entire area of distribution since about 1985. Statistics of the fishery CPUE in south Brazil and Uruguay are evidence that as a result of intensive fishing from 1985 the abundance of the species had decreased by 85% in 1997, and the fishery in this region continues without restraint (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Since 1995 the species has disappeared in the coastal fishery off Uruguay (A. Domingo unpublished data). The species migrates seasonally between wintering grounds in south Brazil and Uruguay and summer grounds off Argentina where the pupping and nursery areas are situated, where intense and directed fishery of gravid females occurs and where critical habitat is known to have been lost (e.g., Bahía Blanca and El Rincón). Yields in Argentina dropped sharply after intensive fishing and high landings in the years 1988 to 1992 (Chiaramonte 1998). Since then declines have continued. The declared landings for ?sharks+cazón? in the SAGyP statistics (the national authority for fisheries in Argentina), and in which <em>G. galeus</em> comprises most of these landings, show overall declines of over 80% between 1992 (4,012 t) and 2004 (757 t), with landings around 1,000t or less since 2000, yet in the mid-1980s the landings were >5,000 t. These declines are attributed to recruitment overfishing and if the fishery continues, the population will very likely be extirpated. Despite this, in the late 1990s new access to the fishery was granted to a large number of artisanal fishermen (at present around 700 are registered in Buenos Aires province), and no management is in place. <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa</strong> <br/>In South Africa <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> is targeted (mainly when catches from other non-elasmobranch fisheries are low) in longline and handline fisheries and taken incidentally in artisanal and recreational fisheries. In 2003, 23 permits were issued to shark fishermen, however no seasonal/temporal restrictions have been placed on the fishery nor on number or size of <em>G. galeus</em> landed. Kroese and Sauer (1998) determined that the landed catch of soupfin shark between 1992 and 1994 reached a peak of 48 t (1994, dressed carcass weight) and a minimum of 5.2 t in 1993. Anecdotal evidence suggests that CPUE of soupfin sharks has declined in the last 15 years (G. Kingma, soupfin shark longline fishermen, Hout Bay, Western Province, pers. comm. February, 2003) and data from the South African Shark Management Plan (MCM 2002) indicates that the annual commercial linefish catch of soupfin shark has significantly declined, from a peak of 249 t in 1992 to 71 t in 1999. It is unclear whether this is due to a change in target species, change in effort, or change in the population size. According to Freer (1992), 41.6% of total catch by mass in the Gansbaai longline fishery is female, 87.4% of which are immature females. This indicates that a relatively high number of immature females are being extracted from the population, thereby possibly influencing future recruitment (Freer 1992). Similar to other populations of soupfin shark, those in South Africa segregate according to sex and size. This combined with life-history parameters make these sharks vulnerable to over-exploitation. There are indications that the South African population is currently being fully exploited and any increase in fishing pressure may result in a decline of biomass to below 40% of the pre-exploitation condition (McCord 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>Tope is of limited commercial importance in commercial fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic where it is typically a bycatch of mixed demersal and pelagic fisheries, especially French vessels fishing in the English Channel, Western Approaches and northern Bay of Biscay. Data is apparently limited, as landings data are often included as "dogfishes and hounds". Nevertheless, England and France have species-specific landings data and there are limited data from Denmark and Ireland in recent years (ICES 2004). France appears to target tope, and reported landings of approximately 350 to 500 t/year during the 1990s (landings were higher in 1987 at 600 t, some 6% of the total shark catches, with tope ranking third behind spurdog and lesser spotted dogfish). Tope also feature in catch statistics for Portugal Mainland and in the Azores. In the Azores this species is a bycatch of the demersal longline fishery. Biological data for Northeast Atlantic stocks are limited (SGRST 2002). <br/> <br/>Tope is important in recreational fisheries with some anglers specializing in tope catching. Recently, a newspaper article (Fishing News, June 17th 2005) urged English North Sea fishermen to target tope for meat and for the fin trade out of Lowestoft, East Anglia. This has raised cause for concern, including among the recreational fishers (see www.sharktrust.org for further details). The value of this species for recreational angling on the south coast of England (and presumably elsewhere off the UK) is high. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Although no direct fisheries for <em>G. galeus</em> exist in the Mediterranean, it was traditionally caught as bycatch in gillnets and trammel nets in the Northern Adriatic Sea, also as bycatch of semi-industrial (Adriatic Sea and Sicily) and artisanal fisheries in pelagic and demersal nets, deep longlines, drift lines and troll lines (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 1987). A small directed gillnet fishery targeting <em>Mustelus</em> spp. and <em>Squalus</em> spp. operated off the Balearic Islands in the past which reported catches of <em>G. galeus</em>. In recent times, only bottom trawl and longline fisheries have reported continuous bycatch of <em>G. galeus</em>, and such reports are very rare nowadays. The development of the bottom trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean over the first half of the 20th century in the northern range, and during the latter half in the southern range, is considered as one of the principal factors responsible of the decline of many demersal elasmobranch species. In this sense, both overfishing and habitat degradation must be considered as factors potentially responsible for declines. The analysis of the Medits trawl survey data from 1994?1999 shows a very low frequency of occurrence for <em>G. galeus</em> in the Mediterranean (only five positive hauls or 0.05 %), although it should be noted that trawling is a minor threat to this species and numbers in trawl surveys would not be expected to be high. Its overall biomass was estimated to be 0.2 kg/km² for the Mediterranean. The standing stock biomass was estimated at 126 t (0.23%) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Off Italy, Relini <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported the capture of <em>G. galeus</em> in only one of the 11 zones studied as part of the Italian national project (9,281 hauls in total, around the Italian coast, from 1985?1998), although data on biomass for this species were not provided. Tuna trap data from the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea from 1898 to 1992 shows a dramatic decrease in the abundance of <em>G. galeus</em> catches (80 individuals between 1898 and 1905; only eight for the 1906 to 1913 period and 0 from 1914 to 1922) (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). Thus, these data can perhaps be interpreted as an indication of early depletion of the population at least in shallow waters in this area, which could also have occurred in other Mediterranean areas where similar practices historically operated. Data from the Medits survey for the Adriatic Sea were compared with those from the survey Hvar, carried out in 1948 (Jukic-Peladic 2001). Although no data on individual species captured biomass are reported, <em>G. galeus</em> appeared in the 1948 survey, but not in the Medits survey. Data on elasmobranch landings from the long-line fleet at the Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands) central fish auction wharf reported only one specimen in 1996 (B. Reviriego pers.comm.), six in 1999 (G. Morey pers.comm.) and recent regular visits have reported no further specimens. In addition, <em>G. galeus</em> was not specifically reported in the official landing statistics, since it did not appear in the 1999 to 2001 period, thus furthering the difficulties in monitoring of the population. For the Spanish long-line fleet off the Levantine coast, operating mainly in the Alboran Sea and around the Balearic Islands, the observed catch rate (as bycatch) of <em>G. galeus</em> is about five specimens per ship and year (D. Macías pers.comm.) In Tunisian waters, where there exists a lower fishing pressure than off the northern Mediterranean coasts, the species is considered to be very rare (Bradai 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong> <br/>In the Northeast Pacific the shark fishery off California rapidly expanded during the 1930s due to the demand for liver-oil. Catches increased, peaking at 4,185 t in 1939 with around 75 to 80% of the catch being <em>G. galeus</em> and prices for the liver-oil rose from some US$50/t in 1937 to US$2,000/t in 1941 (Ripley 1946). While the fishery was intensive and expanded rapidly it only lasted eight years, during which CPUE was reported to decline dramatically. Although the fishery collapsed in the 1940s (due primarily to the synthetic production of Vitamin A) it seems unlikely that the stock itself collapsed. Only the large animals were being targeted, with 10-inch mesh size, fishermen were not interested in catching the young animals, which had lower grade Vitamin A in the liver oil. Therefore while it appeared that the adult stock might have collapsed there would have been large stocks of juveniles to allow for a population recovery. Since the 1940s given the low price for soupfin shark and low interest in the meat there has been no economic incentive to target it, and it is now caught at low levels as bycatch with bottom and pelagic gillnets, bottom and pelagic longlines, bottom and pelagic trawls, and with hook-and-line. (Ripley 1946, Ebert 2003, Compagno in prep b). Thus although there has been no stock assessment for over 50 years, the fishing mortality can be expected to be low. Cailliet <em>et al</em>. (1992) reported the fishery over the past several decades had remained fairly steady, even declining due to increasing fishing restrictions.
39353		conservation	eng	None.
39353		distribution	eng	This species occurs ion the Northwest Pacific: Philippine Islands (Dumaguete, Negros, also Bagac Bay, Bataan Prov., Luzon). It is found inshore down to 48 m.
39353		habitat	eng	Most details of ecology and life history parameters are unknown, for this species is only known from two free-swimming individuals reported. The only gravid female reported was 96 cm total length (TL) and had 12 foetuses. Size at birth at least 20?22 cm (term foetuses).
39353		threats	eng	The species is probably taken as utilized bycatch by local fisheries in the Philippines. The holotype was taken in a fish trap. No statistics are available for fisheries catches ? there have been no confirmed records of this species for over 50 years. However, past and continuing population reduction is probable, due to the heavy inshore fishing occurring throughout its limited area of distribution. It may also be suffering from habitat loss and deterioration, for dynamite and cyanide fishing have affected much of the reef habitat in its area. A further complication is that there are apparently two Philippine <em>Hemitriakis</em> that have been confused under this species, but they differ in vertebral counts, colouration and possibly morphometrics (Compagno 1970, 1984b, 1988, in prep. b).
39354		conservation	eng	There are currently no specific management or conservation measures in place for this species. However, the directed shark fishery in Western Australia that catches this species is a limited entry fishery with effort controls and gear restrictions (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998).
39354		distribution	eng	Recorded in the western Pacific from Japan (Miyosi 1939), Taiwan (Province of China) (Chen 1963) and Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, southern Queensland (Heald 1987, Last and Stevens 1994); in the Western Indian Ocean from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania (Zanzibar) and Kenya (Smith 1957, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975b). Compagno (1988) dismissed the reported occurrence of this species from the Arabian Gulf as a case of a mis-identified species of <em>Paragaleus randalli</em>. Generally believed to have an Indo-West Pacific distribution (Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994) although this may be discontinuous and the species is apparently rare or uncommon except off southern Australia. The occurrence of this species in the deeper waters of the continental shelf (40?230m), however, may make recording its precise distribution more difficult (Compagno 1988). It has only been reported in Australian waters in recent years, and the distribution map of Compagno (1984b) failed to recognise its occurrence there. Last and Stevens (1994) gave the distribution in Australian waters as south of 20°S. However, it is observed to occur only very infrequently in the shark fishery in south-eastern Australia (T. Walker pers. Comm.), suggesting that it rarely occurs in this part of its range. It is unknown whether there are discrete subpopulations in the Western Indian Ocean, off Australia and in the Northwest Pacific off Japan and Taiwan (POC).
39354		habitat	eng	There are few details of the biology of Blacktip Topeshark available in the literature. To supplement this published information, unpublished data from a biological monitoring project in the Western Australian shark fishery is also included below. Bass <em>et al</em>. (1975b) reported specimens up to 127 cm total length (TL) from the east African coast. Reports of this species from Asia are all for specimens less than 90 cm. Last and Stevens (1994) reported a maximum length of 130 cm. The maximum size of this species recorded from extensive catch sampling in the Western Australia shark fishery is 117 cm (Simpfendorfer pers. Data). Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975b) reported stomach contents from two specimens from Africa, both of which contained teleosts. Stevens (1990) reported that of nine specimens caught in southern Western Australia six contained teleosts and four cephalopods. Blacktip Topeshark is placentally viviparous and has been reported to have a seasonal reproductive cycle by Bass <em>et al</em>. (1975b) and Stevens (1990). Recent results from the biological monitoring of the catch of the Western Australia commercial shark fishery have provided a clearer picture of the reproductive biology of Blacktip Topeshark (Simpfendorfer unpublished data). Males mature at approximately 98 cm and females at approximately 102 cm. Ovulation occurs in March and April, while the largest embryos are observed from December to February. Last and Stevens (1994) suggest that the gestation period was greater that 12 months, with parturition around February. The gestation period is probably around 10?11 months. Litter sizes range from 3?15, with a mean of 10. On the basis of full term embryos the size at birth is approximately 30 cm, a value similar to that of 33?35 cm suggested by Bass <em>et al</em>. (1975b) from full term embryos observed in southern Africa. Pregnant females do not produce yolky ova, suggesting that breeding occurs every second year.
39354		threats	eng	There are no targeted fisheries for Blacktip Topeshark, but it is caught as bycatch in a number of fisheries throughout its range, including Australia, South Africa and Japan. It is taken in demersal gillnets set by commercial shark fishers in western Australia (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998). Catch and effort data are available in this fishery from 1989?1990 and show that although catches have decreased from 12t to 6t over this period the catch rates have remained stable, suggesting there has been little impact on the stocks (Simpfendorfer unpubl.). The species is also caught in trawl fisheries off the east coast of southern and east Africa, including the shrimp trawl fishery off KwaZulu-Natal. Little data are available for this fishery, but intensive fishing may have caused some decline in the stocks. There are currently no data available on the occurrence of this species in other commercial fisheries. However, it is probable that it is caught in bottom fisheries (e.g., trawl, gillnet and longline) on the outer continental shelf where it occurs. It is unlikely to be caught regularly in artisanal fisheries because of its restriction to deeper parts of the shelf.
39355		conservation	eng	Management measures in this fishery include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, Total Allowable Catches (TAC) (since 2000) and various input controls. Limits apply to length of net (since 1988) (initially 6,000 m but subsequently reduced to 4,200 m) and depth of net (20-meshes). Various 4 to 6 week closed seasons have been in place to protect pregnant animals of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994). There is a legal minimum mesh-size of 6 inches (since 1975) and a legal maximum length of 6.5 inches (since 1997) for gillnets for most of the fished area. Closed areas to commercial gillnetting in inshore waters of Tasmania have been variously implemented since 1954 to protect newborn, juvenile and pregnant <em>G. galeus</em> on nursery areas. A more extensive closed area was adopted during 1988 when all Victorian proclaimed waters (inside three-mile limit) were closed to the use of shark gillnets and longlines. Legal minimum lengths were phased in by the States and Commonwealth during 1949 and the early 1950s and remain current. During 2002, the TAC for <em>M. antarcticus</em> was 1,750 tonnes for the Southern Shark Fishery, 86 tonnes for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 28 tonnes for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery.
39355		distribution	eng	<em>M. antarcticus</em> is endemic to southern Australia from about Port Stephens in New South Wales (32°S) to about Geraldton in Western Australia (28°S). The species is demersal, occurring mainly on the continental shelf from the shore to about 80 m depth, but also on the upper slope down to 350 m. Very similar (possibly the same) species occur on the east and west coasts of Australia between latitudes of about 17° and 30°S in depths between 120 and 400 m (Last and Stevens 1994).
39355		habitat	eng	Female <em>M. antarcticus</em> reach a longer total length (185 cm) than the males (148 cm) (T. I. Walker, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Victoria, Australia, unpublished data), and reach a maximum weight of 24.8 kg (Walker 1983). Tagging and ageing studies indicate that the species has a maximum life span of about 16 years (Moulton <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/> <br/>The species exhibits aplacental viviparity with uterine compartments. Ovulation occurs October to mid-December in Bass Strait and off South Australia (Walker 1996) and November to February off Western Australia (Lenanton <em>et al.</em> 1990). Pregnant sharks carry 1 to 38 young, and large mothers carry more embryos than smaller ones. The length at first maturity and the proportion of sharks longer than this length found to be pregnant increases from east to west (Walker 1996). In Bass Strait about half of the population of large female sharks breed each year whereas off South Australia (Walker 1994a) and Western Australia (Lenanton <em>et al.</em> 1990) most breed each year. The sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 and mean length at birth is about 33 cm (Walker 1983). The young are usually born in shallow coastal areas. <br/> <br/>The blunt, flattened teeth of gummy sharks are more suited to crushing rather than cutting their prey. They prey on a wide variety of demersal species from areas of sandy and, to a lesser extent, rocky substrate. Studies of stomach contents show that gummy sharks in Bass Strait feed on at least 95 species and that squid and octopus contribute most weight (36%) to their diet. Crustaceans contribute 25% by weight and teleost fish 11%. The remaining 28% consist of 12 other classes of organism and unidentifiable material (Walker 1996). These animals do not exhibit well defined migration patterns, but tag data indicate that some large females leave Bass Strait and move to waters off South Australia and Western Australia. Movements rates from South Australia to Bass Strait are much lower (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2000).
39355		population	eng	Tagging (Walker 1983, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2000), genetic (MacDonald 1988, Gardner and Ward 1998) and morphometric (Heemstra 1973) studies indicate the presence of three genetic stocks of <em>M. antarcticus</em>. One ranges along the southern coast of Australia from Bunbury in the west to Eden (Bermagui based on tag data) in the east, a second is located off New South Wales in the region from Newcastle to Clarence River, and a third is located off Queensland near Townsville. Shark fisheries mainly harvest animals from the stock on the south coast.
39355		threats	eng	In the Australian Southern Shark Fishery, <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> have been targeted in oceanic waters since the mid-1920s and possibly earlier in inshore areas. Baited hooks attached to bottom-set longlines was the principal fishing method until the early 1970s when the method was replaced by bottom-set gillnets. <br/> <br/>Today the main threat to populations of <em>M. antarcticus</em> are from targeting widely across southern Australia with gillnets of 6 to 6½-inch mesh-size off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania of 6½ to 7-inch mesh-size off Western Australia. In Bass Strait (Walker 1994, 1998), South Australia (Walker 1994b), and Western Australia (Simpfendorfer 1999), stock assessment indicates that the level of biomass was 40 to 55% of initial biomass for most of the past two decades. A steady decline in fishing effort since the mid-1980s and adoption of a total allowable catch during 2000 led to a steady increase in abundance. There is negligible targeting for <em>M. antarcticus</em> off New South Wales and south of Bass Strait off Tasmania. In accordance with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing, the biomass is above the level required to provide the maximum sustainable yield. <br/> <br/>Application of age-based fishery assessment models, allowing for age- and density-dependent natural mortality and incorporating information on growth and reproduction of the species and on selectivity of gillnets indicates that current catch levels are sustainable and shows that while the number of births is closely related to the number of maternal animals, recruitment to the fishery at age two years is remarkably stable for a wide range of population sizes (Walker 1992, 1994a,b, 1998). For this species, there are advantages in harvesting the middle-sized sharks and in protecting the large older sharks for breeding purposes and for protecting the young animals to improve the yield from growth. This is achieved by gillnets of mesh-size ranging 6 to 6½ inches (Walker 1998, 1999). <br/> <br/>Minor threats include fishing with long-lines, trawls, and other methods.
39356		conservation	eng	Managed under Quota Management System.
39356		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout mainland New Zealand and the Stewart Is ? Snares Is Shelf. Absent from Chatham Islands and subantarctic islands.
39356		habitat	eng	Female rig grow longer (151 cm total length (TL)) than males (126 cm TL). Length at maturity varies among stocks, but females mature at larger sizes than do males. Growth studies indicate that rig grow rapidly, reaching maturity at 5-8 years depending on the sex and stock. They live at least 15 years. Natural mortality (M) is estimated to be in the range 0.2 to 0.3. The Maximum Constant Yield (Annala <em>et al.</em> 1999) for rig populations is estimated to be about 3 to 7% of virgin biomass. <br/> <br/>Rig are ovoviviparous, the gestation period is about 11 months, and young are born at a length of 20 to 32 cm. Fecundity increases with the length of the mother; it ranges from 2 to 37 embryos with a mean of about 11. Most mature females probably breed every year, with only a short resting period (1 to 2 months) between pregnancies. Parturition, ovulation and mating occur mainly during spring and early summer. The young are either born in, or make their way to, shallow coastal areas including harbours, bays and sheltered coastlines. They remain there for the summer and autumn before migrating into deeper water. <br/> <br/>Rig feed on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates, especially brachyuran and pagurid crustaceans, echiurans and molluscs.
39356		population	eng	Recent analyses indicate that one fishstock (management area) has increasing catch per unit effort (CPUE), several have stable CPUE, and one has declining CPUE. These varying trends reflect the differing knowledge of stock status, and the ability to set appropriate total allowable catches (TACs), when individual transferable quotas (ITQs) were introduced in 1986. Overall, the rig population has probably remained stable for 17 years.
39356		threats	eng	Commercial fisheries (mainly set net and bottom trawl) take 1,600 to 1,900 tonnes per year.
39357		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/>Few species-specific landings data exist and improved data collection on commercial landings are required. There are some inshore areas where this species is locally abundant, including potential nursery grounds in outer estuaries and bays, and such areas should be monitored appropriately.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>Improved data collection on commercial landings to species-level is required. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus </span>species are protected within Balearic Island marine reserves. Management measures are needed to prevent further declines in this region.
39357		distribution	eng	Starry Smoothhound is distributed from the Shetland Islands and southern Norway in the Northeast Atlantic, south, including the Mediterranean to northwestern Africa in the Eastern Central Atlantic (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span>: from Scotland and southern Norway in the North to North-west Africa in the south, occurring in the waters of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, France, United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.<br/><br/>Whole Mediterranean Sea, but not in the Black Sea (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Central Atlantic</span>: Morocco, Western Sahara.
39357		habitat	eng	Starry Smoothhound is a demersal species found in waters of up to ~200 m in depth, on sandy and gravelly bottoms (Compagno 1984, Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a), and may migrate inshore during the summer. It attains a maximum length of 140?150 cm and matures at a length of approximately 80?85 cm (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987). This species is viviparous and produces 7?15 pups per litter after a 12 month gestation period (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Size at birth is approximately 30 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The stomach contents of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus</span> species have been studied by Ford (1921) and Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996). Age data are not available for this species, but they are available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus mustelus</span>. Da Silva (2007) reported that female <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> mature at 10.75 years of age and live to a maximum observed age of 25 years. Using these data and the formula: age of maturity + 0.5*(length of reproductive period in life cycle), generation period of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustleus</span> can be estimated at 17.8 years. This may provide a rough proxy for the generation period for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span>. Starry Smoothhound feeds predominantly on crustaceans, including squat lobsters and crabs, and especially swimming crabs. Predation on other taxa is low.
39357		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus asterias</span> is more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> in the Northeast Atlantic. Within UK waters, it seems to be most abundant in large bays, outer parts of large estuaries and in coastal areas, including the Outer Thames, Solent, Bristol Channel and Cardigan Bay (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a). Fishery-independent surveys suggest stable trends in catch per unit effort (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005b), though the numbers caught are generally quite low in these surveys. Though it has a continuous distribution, there are certain areas where it is locally abundant, including potential nursery grounds in outer estuaries and large bays.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus asterias</span> is less common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> in the Mediterranean Sea. Frequency of occurrence in scientific surveys (MEDITS) of the northern Mediterranean Sea was very low, with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span> recorded in only five of 6,446 hauls conducted from 1994?1999 at 10?800 m depth (Baino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Aldebert (1997) reports a clear decrease in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus</span> species in comparable surveys in the Gulf of Lions, southern France, from 1970 onwards. The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span> also decreased in comparable trawl surveys conducted in 1948 and 1998 in the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Hvar trawl surveys conducted in 1948 in the Adriatic Sea occurrence (frequency log-transformed) of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span> was ~1.0, compared to ~0.1 in comparable MEDITS surveys conducted in the same area in 1998.
39357		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/> <em>Mustelus</em> species are generally regarded as locally  common, although they are not very abundant. They are occasionally taken by  trawl and gill net, although they have little market value in northern European  seas, and are often discarded. They may be landed for human consumption and also  as bait for the inshore whelk fishery in England and Ireland. ICES landing  statistics combine dogfish and hounds together and so there are little accurate  data on North Atlantic landings, and levels of bycatch are unknown. In some  areas, such as the Bristol Channel and English Channel in the United Kingdom,  they are a relatively important sport fish (Ellis pers. obs.).<br/> <br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>There is a high level of exploitation on the  continental shelf and upper slope to about 800 m depth in the Mediterranean Sea  (Massuti and Moranta 2003). <em>Mustelus</em> species are captured with demersal  trawls, trammel nets, gillnets and longlines in this region (Bauchot 1987, STECF  2003). Semi-industrial fisheries in the Adriatic Sea, off Sicily, Spain and  Cyprus are known to take these species, and also artisanal fisheries elsewhere.  <em>Mustelus</em> species are retained and utilised in the Mediterranean Sea, where  they regularly sold for human consumption in many areas (Fischer 1987). Trawl  surveys in areas of the northern Mediterranean Sea show that frequency of  occurrence of this species has declined over the last 50 years. Landings data  reported to FAO show that landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus </span>spp (probably including <em>M.  mustelus, M. asterias and M. punctulatus</em>) steadily increased between 1950  and 1978 to 14,000 t, after which they fluctuated between ~6,500 t and 14,000 t from  1978?1994 (FAO 2008). After 1994, landings dropped significantly, decreasing to 2,980 t in 1997 and did not exceed 2,200 t from 2001?2006 (FAO 2008). Although these  landings are not species-specific, combined with the results of  fishery-independent trawl surveys described above, they also suggest that this  species has declined in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea.
39358		conservation	eng	There are no specific management measures in place for <em>M. mustelus  </em>throughout the majority of its range. <em>Mustelus</em> species are protected  within Balearic Island (Spain) marine reserves.<br/><br/>Few species-specific  landings data exist and improved data collection on commercial landings are  needed in all areas of its range. Current catch levels appear to be  unsustainable throughout the majority of this species? range and management  intervention is required to reduce catches. Da Silva reported that size and  fishing effort control methods may be most effective for <em>M. mustelus</em>.
39358		distribution	eng	Distributed from the UK in the Northeast Atlantic, south, including the  Mediterranean Sea, Canary Islands, Morocco and south along the western African  coast to eastern South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Serena 2005,  Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span>: UK, Republic of  Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal, possibly Azores and Madeira.  <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span>: Whole Mediterranean, not in the Black Sea.  <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic</span>: Morocco, south to South  Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Indian Ocean</span>: Eastern Cape of South Africa and Kwa-Zulu  Natal.
39358		habitat	eng	This demersal coastal species is found on the continental shelves and uppermost  slopes, from the intertidal to at least 350 m depth, but usually in shallow  waters from 5?50 m on sandy and muddy substrates (Bauchot 1987, Zamboni 1999,  Serena 2005, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Reproduction is viviparous with yolk-sac placenta. Biological information is  available from Tunisia, South Africa, Mauritania and other areas of the  Mediterranean Sea. Males mature at 70?112 cm total length (TL) and females at  107.5?124 cm TL (Saïdi <em>et al.</em> 2008, Da Silva 2007) and 80cm TL reported in  the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987, Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1984, Serena 2005).  Saïdi <em>et al.</em> (2008) report that reproduction is annual with parturition  taking place during late April and early May and mating during May and early  June off Tunisia. The gestation period is 9?11 months (Saïdi <em>et al.</em> 2008,  Da Silva 2007, Smale and Compagno 1997, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Females  give birth to 4?18 pups per litter and larger females have significantly larger  litters (Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987, Saïdi <em>et al.</em> 2008, Smale and  Compagno 1997). Size at birth is 34?42 cm TL (Saïdi <em>et al. </em>2008, Bauchot  1987, Serena 2005, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Da Silva (2007) studied the  age and growth of <em>M. mustelus</em> off South Africa. Maximum observed age was  25 years. Age at 50% maturity was determined at 10.75 years for females and 9.1  years for males. Using these data and the formula: age of maturity + 0.5*(length  of reproductive period in life cycle), generation period can be estimated at  17.8 years. Natural mortality (M) for <em>M. mustelus</em> was estimated at 0.05  yr<sup>-1</sup> (Da Silva 2007). The species preys on fishes (mainly anchovy), crustaceans  (<em>Squilla mantis</em>) and mollusks bivalve (<em>Ensis</em> spp.) and cephalopods  (<em>Eledone moscata</em>) (Costantini <em>et al.</em> 2000).
39358		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus mustelus </span>is less common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias </span>in the  Northeast Atlantic. Trend data are not available for this species for this  region. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus mustelus </span>is more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M.  asterias </span>in the Mediterranean Sea. Scientific surveys (MEDITS) of the northern  Mediterranean Sea conducted between 1994 and 1999 at 10?800 m depth recorded this  species in 111 (2%) of 6,336 hauls (Baino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Aldebert (1997) reports  a clear decrease in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus </span>species in comparable surveys in the Gulf  of Lions, southern France, from 1970 onwards. The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> in  comparable trawl surveys conducted on the shelf of the Adriatic Sea in 1948 and  1998 remained approximately the same (Jukic-Peladic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Hvar trawl  surveys conducted in 1948 on the shelf of the Adriatic Sea occurrence (frequency  log-transformed) of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustleus</span> was ~1.0, compared to ~1.0 in comparable MEDITS  surveys conducted in the same area in 1998. In Grund surveys conducted in  Italian seas between 1985 and 1998, percentage presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> was 21.9%.  Most of the population was concentrated in the Adriatic Sea and southern waters  of Sicily and the species was absent from the Ligurian Sea and Sardinian waters  (Relini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Central Atlantic</span><br/>Trends in abundance  are available from data from scientific trawl surveys conducted off Mauritania  from 1982?2006, from 5?200 m depth (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Biomass estimates were  made for 24 different demersal species over the whole continental shelf,  including <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span>, using standard linear model techniques. Estimated biomass  for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> decreased significantly over this period, with biomass declining  from ~150,000 t in 1982 and 1988, to ~40,000 t in 2006 (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The  mean yearly rate of decrease in biomass was estimated at -0.3%. The decrease in  abundance mainly occurred in areas of low densities and marginal habitat for  this species, in the deepest strata sampled (80?200 m depth), suggesting that  there may have been a contraction in the distribution of this species (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southeast Atlantic</span><br/>Relative survey biomass indices from  fishery independent research trawl surveys conducted along the western and  southern coasts of South Africa are available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus</span> species from 1986?2003  (Da Silva 2007). Survey biomass indices for the southern coast showed a clear  decline in trend from 1986 to 2003 (Da Silva 2007). The survey biomass indices  for the western coast increased from 1984 to 1994 and then decreased to levels  similar to indices observed prior to 1994 (Da Silva 2007).
39358		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/><em>Mustelus</em> spp. are generally regarded as locally  common, although they are not very abundant. They are occasionally taken by  trawl and gill net, although they have little market value, and are often  discarded in this region. They may be landed for human consumption and also as  bait for the inshore whelk fishery in England and Ireland. ICES landing  statistics combine dogfish and hounds together and so there is little accurate  data on North Atlantic landings, and levels of bycatch are unknown. In some  areas, such as the Bristol Channel and English Channel in the United Kingdom,  they are a relatively important sport fish (Ellis pers.  obs.).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>There is a high level of exploitation on the  continental shelf and upper slope to about 800m depth in the Mediterranean Sea  (Massuti and Moranta 2003). Mustelus spp are captured with demersal trawls,  trammel nets, gillnets and longlines in this region (Bauchot 1987, STECF 2003).  Semi-industrial fisheries in the Adriatic Sea, off Sicily, Spain and Cyprus are  known to take these species, and also artisanal fisheries elsewhere.  <em>Mustelus</em> spp are retained and utilised in the Mediterranean Sea, where  they regularly sold for human consumption in many areas (Fischer 1987). Landings  data reported to FAO show that landings of Mustelus spp (probably including  <em>M. mustelus, M. asterias</em> and <em>M. punctulatus</em>, of which <em>M.  mustelus</em> is the most common in this region) steadily increased between 1950  and 1978 to 14,000 t, after which they fluctuated between ~6,500 t and 14,000 t from  1978?1994 (FAO 2008). After 1994, landings dropped significantly, decreasing to  2,980 t in 1997 and did not exceed 2,200 t from 2001?2006 (FAO 2008). Although these  landings are not species-specific, combined with the results of  fishery-independent trawl surveys described above, they also suggest that this  species has declined in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern  Central Atlantic</span><br/>This coastal species? range is heavily exploited by demersal  fisheries off western Africa. Fishing effort has increased in both efficiency  and intensity in this area during the past 50 years. For example, effective  fishing effort of the small scale fleet operating off Mauritania is estimated to  have increased by a factor of 10 during the past 25 years (Gascuel <em>et al.  </em>2007). The number of and effort exerted by industrial fishing vessels off  Mauritania has also increased dramatically, from ~150 vessels to more than 300  and from <40,000 days to >60,000 days, respectively, from 1982?1997  (Gascuel <em>et al.</em> 2007). Fisheries in other countries in the region have  also undergone similar development. Increased fishing pressure has been linked  with declines in demersal fish stocks in several areas of the region, including,  Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea, most notably, higher-trophic level predators,  such as sharks (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Fishing pressure has not decreased and the  declining trend in abundance in <em>M. mustelus</em> observed off Mauritania from  1988?2006 described above, is likely to continue. Declines are also inferred to  have occurred elsewhere, given that fishing pressure is high throughout much of  this species? range in this region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southeast Atlantic</span><br/>Declines in  linefish species off South Africa has led to increased exploitation of demersal  sharks, such as <em>Mustelus mustelus</em> as both target and bycatch. Fisheries  catch data for <em>M. mustleus</em> in this area is problematic due to  misidentification and high levels of underreporting. Da Silva (2007) present  information on catches and conducted a stock assessment for <em>M. mustelus</em>  off South Africa, using three dynamic pool models (yield per recruit, spawner  biomass per recruit and an extended yield and spawner biomass per recruit). The  replacement yield model showed that average catches over the past decade are 2.5  times higher than the replacement yield is on the South Coast and 1.30 on the  West Coast of South Africa. A comparison of the models showed that current  catches need to be halved for exploitation of smoothhound sharks to be  sustainable. The species is also taken by recreational anglers off Namibia  (NATMIRC 2003).
39359		conservation	eng	No demographic modelling has been done to predict how the North Atlantic population of Dusky Smoothhounds will respond to this recent increase in fishing pressure and what management measures will be most appropriate. Currently there is no management for this species.
39359		distribution	eng	Dusky Smoothhounds are found in the western Atlantic from Massachusetts to Florida, USA, in the northern Gulf of Mexico including Cuba, Jamaica, Barbados, Bermuda, Bahamas and southern Brazil to northern Argentina (Compagno 1984b). There are probably several discrete populations separated by large areas geographically with little movement between different populations (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Dusky smoothhounds are primarily demersal sharks that inhabit continental and insular shelves and upper slopes and are typically found in inshore waters down to 200 m depth (Compagno 1984b).
39359		habitat	eng	The maximum reported size of Dusky Smoothhound is about 150 cm total length (TL) (Compagno 1984b). Data on longevity of the species is sparse in the literature. Dusky Smoothhounds are viviparous sharks that form a yolk-sac placenta and have litters ranging in size from 4?20, but averaging 10?20 per litter. The north Atlantic population has a yearly seasonal reproductive cycle with the mating season occurring from mid to late summer. The gestation period is about 10 months with parturition occurring from early May to the middle of July (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Female Dusky Smoothhounds reach maturity at about 102 cm and males reach maturity about 84 cm (Conrath unpubl.). Rountree and Able (1996) suggest that Mid-Atlantic Bight estuaries may serve as critical nursery grounds for this species. They report the size at birth to be around 28?39 cm. The north Atlantic population undergoes a seasonal migration responding to changes in the water temperature. This population winters between Chesapeake Bay and South Carolina. In early spring Dusky Smoothhounds begin migrating to their summer grounds between Delaware Bay and Cape Cod, remaining there until late autumn before migrating south again (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Castro 1983). Dusky smoothhounds possess low, flattened teeth specialised for crushing crustacean prey. Their diet consists primarily of large crustaceans but also includes squid, small bony fish (menhaden, stickleback, wrasses, porgies, sculpins and puffers), gastropods, bivalves, marine annelid worms and occasionally garbage (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Gelsleichter <em>et al</em>. (1999) found that adult dusky smoothhounds captured in Virginia waters had a diet dominated by crustaceans, especially by rock crabs, lady crabs and blue crabs, but also included other crustaceans, molluscs, teleosts, horseshoe crabs and polychaetes.
39359		threats	eng	Historically this species has not been utilized in fisheries, except for collection to use in classroom exercises (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Compagno reports that this species is fished off Cuba, Venezuela, Brazil and possibly other locations in the Caribbean, using longline gear and bottom-trawls and is utilised as a food resource (Compagno 1984b). Recently a gillnet fishery for dusky smoothhounds has started on the eastern shore of Virginia and North Carolina. Total landings of Dusky Smoothhounds in Virginia waters remained fairly low (less than 25,000 lbs or 11 t) until 1993 when landings exceeded 220,000 pounds (100 t). Total landings remained around this level for two more years but decreased to around 140,000 pounds (63.5 t) in 1996 (Virginia Marine Resources Commission unpubl.). In North Carolina Dusky Smoothhound landings have only been reported separately from Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) landings since 1995. In 1995 total landings reached 2,182,577 lb (990 t) but dropped in 1996 to 463,047 pounds (210 t) (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries unpubl.).
39360		conservation	eng	None.
39360		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely restricted range in the Western Indian Ocean, off the east coast of South Africa (north¬eastern part of the Eastern Cape to northern KwaZulu-Natal). The Flapnose Houndshark is found close inshore at the surfline and in the intertidal (Compagno in prep. b).
39360		habitat	eng	This is a little-known and uncommon inshore demersal shark with an extremely restricted range. Less than 30 specimens recorded, including unpublished material. A live-bearing species (with presence or absence of placenta uncertain) with litter size of 2?4 (usually two or three) young and a gestation period of 9?10 months. It is unknown whether there is a year break in the reproductive cycle, but the low litter size suggests a year-long cycle and a yearly fecundity of similar numbers, 2?4 young per year (this needs further investigation). The species feeds predominantly on crustaceans, also squid (Compagno in prep. b).
39360		threats	eng	The Flapnose Houndshark occurs in inshore waters that are subjected to heavy commercial and sports hook-and-line fisheries. Small numbers have been taken in directed inshore fisheries for small sharks and the species has been sporadically utilised for its flesh recently in southern KwaZulu-Natal. No fisheries statistics are available on catches. It may also be a possible bycatch of inshore fisheries, but details are lacking. The species is caught by sports surf anglers and possibly recreational boat anglers. Increased fishing pressure in its limited environment suggests that the population may be vulnerable and could decline. Loss of habitat as a result of development and pollution along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal (where there is extensive coastal development) and the Eastern Cape during the last few decades may also be a threat.
39361		conservation	eng	There is little effective management of inshore fishing activities in continental Ecuador. Specific management regulations have been lacking, but the recent development of a shark plan and recently introduced measures should lead to improvements. Decree 2130 banned target fisheries and fin trade in 2004, but implementation and enforcement was insufficient and fins continued to be exported illegally. Subsequently, Decree 486 permitted trade in fins from bycatch, mandated the full utilisation of all shark meat, and required monitoring of all bycatch and a licensing system for the trade of fins. This decree provided an important means of monitoring shark catches. <br/><br/>Field surveys are required to accurately document the species? distribution and habitat requirements. An assessment of what fisheries are catching the species and where it is being landed is also required. The sharpfin houndshark, along with other inshore elasmobranch species, would then benefit from effective regulation of these fisheries. However, given the rarity of this species, along with its occurrence in exploited inshore waters, it likely requires more immediate conservation actions, i.e. full protection.
39361		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific: found only in tropical continental waters of the Province of Manabí in Ecuador. The type locality is Isla de La Plata (01°16?29.28?S, 81°04?12.10?W) (Kato 1968, Compagno in prep. b), and it has also been recorded in landings of the coastal fishing port of Daniel López (21 nm from Isla de La Plata) (J. Martínez pers. comm.).
39361		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of <em>Triakis acutipinna</em> is virtually unknown. Documented specimens are a 102 cm TL adult female and a 90 cm TL adult male caught inshore (Kato 1968, Compagno in prep. b). All life-history parameters are unknown.
39361		population	eng	Unknown.
39361		threats	eng	Throughout Ecuador, several (mainly artisanal) fisheries land various species of carcharhinoid sharks (including houndsharks) as bycatch. In some cases, small-scale fishing communities have specifically targeted sharks, however target fisheries for sharks were prohibited in 2004 (see Conservation Measures). Catch statistics are limited, with inadequate monitoring of fishing activities and landings. Bostock and Herdson (1985) estimated that in the early 1980s small-scale fishers landed some 1,800?2,000 t of sharks per year. Later catch estimates from only a subset of landing ports amounted to ~4,000 t/year for 1993?1995. Martínez (1999) noticed a reduction in shark landings in small-scale coastal fisheries in more recent years when compared with those of the early 1980s.<br/><br/>The sharpfin houndshark is rarely landed in coastal monofilament gillnet artisanal fisheries in the fishing port of Daniel López in Manabí, Ecuador (J. Martínez pers. comm.). It is unknown if the species is taken in other inshore artisanal fisheries.
39362		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least one marine reserve, but it is not specifically protected. There is a proposal currently under consideration at Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the main fisheries research and body in South Africa, to decommercialise the spotted gully shark and protect it from expanding commercial export fisheries for small sharks, although it still could be caught by sports anglers.
39362		distribution	eng	Found in the eastern south Atlantic and western Indian Ocean in temperate coastal waters of southern Angola, Namibia and South Africa (Northern, Western and Eastern Cape coasts, rarely north-east to KwaZulu-Natal).
39362		habitat	eng	An inshore, bottom-dwelling shark of temperate coastal waters with a limited geographic and bathymetric range, found often in shallow water up to the surfline. It prefers sandy shores and rocks and crevices in shallow bays. During summertime this shark congregates in schools, particularly in False Bay and off the Cape Peninsula, Western Cape, South Africa, which may include pregnant females. Development is ovoviviparous, without a yolk-sac placenta and the number of young is 6?10 per litter. This shark eats crabs, bony fishes and small sharks (one had eaten a <em>Scyliorhinus capensis</em>) (Compagno in prep. b).
39362		population	eng	This species is uncommon to locally common in the intertidal and surfline to less than 50 m (Compagno in prep. b).
39362		threats	eng	There is a fairly large directed commercial shark demersal longline fishery centred in Gansbaai and False Bay in South Africa, which takes the Spotted Gully Shark as a minor bycatch along with the target species, Soupfin or Vaalhai (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>), and other more abundant bycatch species such as Common Smoothhound (<em>Mustelus mustelus</em>) and Bronze Whaler (<em>Carcharhinus brachyurus</em>). There are no separate statistics available for commercial catches of Spotted Gully Sharks. The meat of such sharks is dried into shark ?biltong? or jerky, which sells for a relatively high price locally, or is shipped fresh or frozen overseas (Italy or Taiwan (POC)). Also caught recreational anglers in South Africa and Namibia, but not eaten much locally although perfectly edible.
39363		conservation	eng	The Leopard Shark is one of the many species considered, but not now actively regulated, under the Pacific Fishery Management Council?s Groundfish Management Plan (PFMC 1982). <br/><br/>Regulatory actions enacted by the State of California have contributed significantly toward protecting this species in recent years. In 1991, efforts increased to protect the leopard shark in California, and late that year California established new sport fishing regulations which took effect on January 1, 1992, establishing a 36-inch (91cm) minimum size and a possession limit of three fish. The recreational fishing sector not only strongly supported the move, but also did much to promote it. Effective January 1, 1993, an 18-inch (45.7cm) minimum size limit was extended to the commercial fishery for leopard sharks and all sharks and rays, to prevent over-harvesting for the aquarium trade (State of California 1996).<br/><br/>Commercial sportfishing boat catches of leopard shark in California have dropped from an average of 6.8 fish per trip between 1980-91 to an average of 4.0 fish after the size limit was imposed 1992-95, as more fish are being released (Kevin Hill pers. comm.). Also encouraging is evidence that mortality from hooking injuries is quite low (Smith and Abramson 1990).<br/><br/>Additionally, the state has general restrictions on usage of certain types of commercial gear in the near shore zone, which offers a good degree of protection for the leopard shark, at least for the present time.<br/><br/>The State of California?s imposition of a sport and commercial fishing size limit and general curtailment of gillnetting within this slow-growing species' near shore range appears to have halted the increase if not reduced total fishing mortality over the past decade (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998).
39363		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: Oregon, USA to Mazatlan, Mexico, including the northern Gulf of California (Ebert 2003). This species is commonly found in bays and estuaries (including Elkhorn Slough, Drakes Estero, and San Francisco, Tomales, Humboldt, Morro, Santa Monica, San Pedro, Alamitos, Anaheim, Newport, Mission, and San Diego Bays in California) but is also found along the open coast and around offshore islands (Monaco <em>et al.</em> 1990, Ebert 2003).
39363		habitat	eng	This shark occurs in cool to warm temperate waters, both inshore and offshore (Compagno in prep). It is most often found on or near the bottom in shallow water from the intertidal to 20m depth, and less commonly down to 91m depth, in flat sandy areas, mud flats, and bottoms strewn with rocks near rocky reefs and kelp beds (Compagno in prep). The leopard shark is commonly found in shallow, enclosed, muddy bays, often entering them as the tide rises and leaving when it retreats (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/>Leopard sharks are viviparous, without a yolk sac placenta, and the female produces from 4 to 36 offspring in an annual reproductive cycle. Gestation time is 12 months, and size at birth is 17 to 25 cm TL (Ackerman 1971, Compagno 1984, Kusher 1987, Kusher <em>et al.</em> 1992, Smith 2001, Compagno in preparation). Age at maturity for females is between 10 and 15 years and 105 to 135 cm TL. Males mature between 7 and 13 years and at 100 to 105 cm TL. Maximum age is at least 24 yrs, but is estimated to be about 30 years, and the maximum size is 198 cm TL with reports of sharks up to 213 cm TL (Miller and Lea 1972, Feder et al. 1974, Kusher <em>et al.</em> 1992, Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Leopard sharks grow slowly, reportedly averaging less than 2.2 cm per year, with fish of the same age varying greatly in size (Kusher <em>et al.</em> 1992). The fastest growth takes place prior to maturity; large fish are particularly slow growers, e.g., a 125 cm fish released in September 1979 in San Francisco Bay measured only 129 cm when it was recaptured in November 1991 at Santa Cruz--gaining only 4 cm in twelve years (S.E. Smith unpublished data). <br/><br/>Bays and sloughs appear to be important nursery areas in the north. Reported nursery areas include San Francisco Bay, Tomales Bay, Elkhorn Slough, Humboldt Bay, San Diego Bay, Catalina Harbor, and Bodega Bay (Eigenmann 1891, Bane and Bane 1971, Talent 1985, Smith 2001, Ebert 2003). In San Francisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough, California, parturition appears to occur from March through September, with a peak in April and May (Ackerman, 1971, Talent 1985, Smith and Abramson 1990). It also reportedly occurs between March and July in Humboldt Bay, Tomales Bay, Morro Bay, Santa Monica Bay and San Pedro Bay (Monaco et al. 1990). In San Diego Bay parturition is reported as occurring in September (Eigenmann, 1891). In Humboldt and San Francisco Bay, females have been observed releasing their young in beds of eel grass (Ebert 2003), while in southern California females are thought to release their pups along more open coastal areas, and have been observed giving birth to young in water 1m in depth over a shallow flat in Catalina Harbor, the pups milling about in water only 0.3 m deep (Smith 2001). Newly born pups are reportedly found in northern California bays and sloughs in April and May; also in the shallow surf zone in more southerly areas such as Santa Monica Bay in southern California around late May and June where they were harvested by hook and line for the aquarium trade in the late 1980s and early 1990s (S.E. Smith pers. obs. 1991). Juveniles are often found in more sheltered, shallow, inshore areas such as bays, mudflats, and tidal creeks (Barry and Cailliet 1983).  <br/><br/>This shark is an opportunistic benthic feeder, devouring a variety of invertebrates and fishes, including the fat innkeeper worm (Urechis caupo), crustaceans (grapsid crabs and shrimp), clam siphons, teleosts, fish eggs, and small elasmobranchs. They may disturb the mud and use suction to capture prey.  Their diet shifts with the season and the size of the shark (Russo 1975, Talent 1976, Ebert 2003).  Pups caught in the surf zone along sandy ocean beaches in southern California reportedly feed heavily on sand crabs and presumably other sandy-bottom invertebrates. Predators on leopard sharks include the sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus), and the great white shark (Carcharadon carcharias); man is probably the most important predator. <br/><br/>Strong swimming and nomadic, they are known to suddenly appear in an area, and then move on ? possibly in relation to feeding or reproductive behaviour. They often occur in schools, sometimes with smoothhounds, spiny dogfishes, sevengills, and bat rays. Schools are often segregated by sex and size, and newborn leopard sharks have been observed to form loose schools (Feder et al. 1974; Ebert 2003). They are seasonally abundant in bays and estuaries (such as Elkhorn Slough, Humboldt Bay, Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, and San Francisco Bay) during the spring and summer, and during the winter they often move out of the bays to coastal waters, likely as a result of decreased salinity and temperature due to winter storms and rain. In San Francisco Bay, California, the population is mainly resident but about 10% move out of the bay in fall and winter (Smith and Abramson 1990, Hopkins 1993, Ebert 2003). Their movements in several bays are strongly correlated to tides. During incoming tides they move into shallow mudflats to forage and retreat to deeper water as the tide goes out (Ackerman et al. 2000, Ebert, 2003). They appear to exhibit limited long distance movement. There have been several instances of sharks travelling between Monterey Bay and San Francisco Bay, and one shark tagged in San Francisco Bay was recaptured in Santa Monica Bay in southern California 10 years later, but in general movements appear to be limited (Smith 2001).<br/><br/>Along beaches in southern California it is not uncommon to observe large groups of leopard sharks in or just beyond the surf zone. Generally timid and wary around divers, this species is not considered dangerous, though there is a recorded minor attack on a skin diver in 1955 in California (Feder et al. 1974). Groups confined in aquaria have been observed to form a loose social hierarchy, where larger individuals assert dominance over smaller ones by gentle pectoral fin nipping (Smith pers. obs. 1979).
39363		population	eng	This is one of the most common nearshore sharks along the west coast of North America. It is thought that the population consists of regional stocks with limited exchange (Smith and Abramson 1990). Centers of abundance in U.S. Pacific coast estuaries appear to be Elkhorn Slough, and San Francisco, Tomales, Humboldt, Morro, Santa Monica, and San Pedro bays in California. In Oregon waters, Emmett <em>et al.</em> (1991), in their survey of Pacific coast estuaries recorded this species only from Coos Bay, where it is listed as ?rare?. According to port samplers (ODFW, Seabourne pers. comm.), it seldom enters the Oregon commercial and recreational catch. In Mexican waters, the Pacific coast and Gulf of California stocks may be disjunct populations, since there are few taken in the southern Gulf of California (Carlos Villavicencio pers. comm.).
39363		threats	eng	In California, where nearly all of the US catches occur, the leopard shark is taken primarily by recreational anglers. It is considered a desirable food fish. Over the past two decades, leopard sharks have been harvested by angling with baited hooks from piers, jetties, beaches, banks and skiffs; spearfishing by divers; commercial gillnetting along the coast; and commercial longlining. Some fish are taken incidentally in ocean bottom trawl nets. The species has also been captured for the cold-water aquarium trade and is highly prized for its distinctive markings and hardiness (commercial collectors C. Winkler and F. Nielson pers. comms). There have also been reports of illegal poaching of juvenile leopard sharks for the aquarium trade, for example from San Francisco Bay (Anon 2006). <br/><br/>The commercial and recreational catch of leopard sharks in the extreme northerly part of its range in Oregon is thought to be negligible (Emmett <em>et al.</em> 1991, Seabourne, Oregon Dept. Fish and Wildlife pers. comm. 1999). <br/><br/>A problem exists in accurately judging the extent of the commercial harvest because an unknown portion of the commercial catch may be landed under the general category ?shark, unspecified? and different species are often marketed under the generic name ?shark.? California commercial landings specifically reported under the ?leopard shark? category are relatively minor, and have ranged from 9270 pounds (4.2t) in 1958 to a high of 101 417 (46t) pounds in 1983. Curtailment of inshore gillnetting in the San Francisco/Monterey Bay area probably contributed to a decline in California landings after 1986 (Smith 1992). <br/><br/>The recreational leopard shark catch is much more extensive than the commercial catch reported specifically for this species. Estimated sport landings in California between 1980 and 1995, for years when data were collected, averaged over 304 000 pounds (138t) per year (US Dep. Commerce, Pacific Coast Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey, W. Buskirk pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Habitat loss could potentially be a problem, as bays and estuaries, which are often used as nursery grounds, are being greatly altered and destroyed through development, agriculture, aquaculture, pollution, etc, throughout the range of the leopard shark. However, the dependence of leopard sharks on these habitats has not been evaluated.<br/><br/>The size of the California leopard shark population has not been estimated, but considerable work has been done on its biology and population dynamics. In 1990, tagging and other life history data were used to estimate fishing mortality, yield, and stock replenishment rates to determine the degree of vulnerability to fishing pressure (Smith and Abramson 1990). Researchers indicated that, given the amount of fishing pressure exerted in the 1980s and that leopard sharks are more susceptible to overexploitation than previously thought, some measure of protection was necessary to assure replenishment of the population (Au and Smith 1997).<br/><br/>Because of its rather limited geographical range and evidence of only limited exchange among regional stocks within this range (Smith and Abramson 1990), resident stocks near large population centres may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localized fishing pressure. <br/><br/>Even though the commercial catch may be under-estimated because of reporting problems, this species does not appear to be at risk judging by the combined landings in relation to previously calculated estimates of fishing mortality (mean F=0.084) and exploitation rates (mean E=0.075) (Smith and Abramson 1990). Additionally, current management measures appear to have reduced these rates (see below).<br/><br/>Little is known of the biology and full extent of harvest of this species in Mexican waters, but it is estimated that less than one percent of the Pacific Ocean catch off Baja California under the category of ?small sharks? is comprised of this species (Villavicencio pers. comm.) and most of the shark catch in the central Gulf of California fishery is comprised of other, larger species (e.g., Alopias, Carcharhinus and Sphyrna spp., (Villavicencio <em>et al. </em>1996).
39365		conservation	eng	Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) found this species to have moderate rebound potential, so it should respond positively to effective management measures. Because Grey Reef Sharks are found in clear tropical waters over coral reefs, they are ideal for non-consumptive (but much more lucrative) use in the form of tourism diving, as has been shown by Anderson and Ahmed (1993). For this reason, shark populations at some of the most important reef diving sites in the Maldives are now protected.
39365		distribution	eng	The Grey Reef Shark is a widespread species occurring in the central Pacific and westwards to the eastern Indian Ocean. Garrick (1982) notes his most eastern records of this species from Tuamoto Archipelago in the south and the Hawaiian Islands in the north, west through the Pacific, northern coast of Australia, Indonesia, Sumatra and west to Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, including the Seychelles and Reunion (see Compagno 1984 and Last and Stevens 1994 for maps).
39365		habitat	eng	The species is found in clear tropical waters often from 10 m to more than 50 m around coral reefs, particularly near drop-offs and passes of fringing reefs. It is more common at ancient atolls, and less common at high profile islands with extensive human habitation, or in turbid continental waters (Randall 1986, Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). At unexploited sites Grey Reef Sharks are one of the most common tropical reef sharks that may be found in groups or individually. Potentially dangerous when harassed, they have been shown to display stereotypical threats (Johnson and Nelson 1973, Nelson 1981, Randall 1986). Divers are advised to keep their distance and not take strobe photographs when sharks display erratic swimming.<br/><br/>Males mature at 120?140 cm total length (TL) and attain a size of 185 cm; females mature at about 125 cm TL and attain 190 cm (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997) at about seven years. Litters are small, up to six embryos (Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994, Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). Seasonality is uncertain because of limited data. Parturition may be in August with a nine month gestation possible in the southern hemisphere (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). Mating and fertilisation take place in March?May (or July). Pupping appears to occur from March to July off Hawaii, suggesting a 12 month gestation, but females reproduce every other year (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). Fishes form the bulk of the prey while squids, octopuses and crustaceans are less important food items (Salini <em>et al.</em> 1992, Wetherbee <em>et al. </em>1997).
39365		population	eng	This shark has been recorded as locally highly abundant at some sites. Some local populations have been severely depleted.
39365		threats	eng	This shark shows high site fidelity and some local populations have been severely depleted by modest fishing pressure, as has been shown off Hawaii (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). Very marked declines of sharks, including Grey Reef Sharks, have been reported in the Chagos Archipelago (Indian Ocean) between the 1970s and 1996. Shark numbers here were reduced to only 14% of the numbers found in the 1970s (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998). The quality of its coral reef habitat is threatened in many parts of the world.
39366		conservation	eng	Given the low incidence of this species in commercial catches, there are no known conservation and management initiatives.
39366		distribution	eng	The Pigeye Shark is sporadically distributed in tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-West Pacific Ocean, including the east coast of southern Africa, Madagascar, Gulf of Aden, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and northern Australia (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1973, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (1984) indicates several localities in the Indo-West Pacific where its suspected occurrence awaits confirmation. It also occurs in Nigeria (Compagno 1984). This species inhabits coastal waters, usually close to the bottom. It also occasionally enters brackish water (Last and Stevens 1994).
39366		habitat	eng	The following information, unless otherwise acknowledged, is based on studies by Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) in northern Australia and Cliff and Dudley (1991) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/>Males mature at about 210 cm and females at 215?220 cm. The largest Australian individuals were a 231 cm male and a 242 cm female; in South Africa they were a 238 cm male and a 245 cm female. Fourmanoir (1961) recorded a 280 cm female from west Madagascar. Size at birth is 60?75 cm. In Australia the largest embryo was 59 cm and the smallest free-swimming individual was 66 cm. In South Africa the smallest free-swimming individual was 75 cm (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973) and the largest embryo 79 cm. These findings imply that there may be a regional difference in size at birth. Litter sizes range from 3?13, averaging five in South Africa and nine in Australia. In South Africa gestation appears to be about 12 months, with mating in January?February and term embryos found in December?January. Five out of eight South African mature females were pregnant. Data from Australia indicated a nine-month gestation, with birth in November?December. In both studies males and females were sampled in equal numbers.<br/><br/>In South Africa, the Pigeye Shark feeds on teleosts (62% frequency of occurrence), elasmobranchs (45%), crustaceans (13%) and cephalopods (12%). Most of the prey were demersal, associated with soft bottoms; Australian sharks had similar diets. Tag returns from juveniles in Australia indicated that their movements are relatively localised (up to 60 km), while two larger sharks moved 240 and 1,080 km (Last and Stevens 1994). On the east coast of South Africa, two tagged sharks were recaptured after 76 and 320 days, 23 and 84 km from their respective tagging localities. Based on catches in the nets that protect the swimming beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, this species is often solitary and does not appear to swim in large packs. No information is available on age and growth.
39366		threats	eng	This species is caught in small numbers for its meat and fins in the Northern Shark Fishery which comprises longlining and pelagic and demersal gillnetting off northern Australia (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1994). The Northern Pelagic Fish Stock Programme sampled in this fishing area with similar gear between January 1984?May 1985 and found that <em>C. amboinensis</em> comprised 0.5% of the pelagic gillnet and 3.5% of the longline catch of sharks (Bentley 1996).<br/><br/>Pigeye Shark constituted 0.5% (16 specimens) of the annual shark catch in the nets protecting swimming beaches in KwaZulu-Natal. The catch rate fluctuated at about 0.4 sharks per km of net per year between 1978?1990; data from the early years of this fishery (1952?1977) are not available. Richards Bay, the northernmost netted beach, where nets were introduced in 1981, had the highest catch of this species (annual average six, range 0?25). At this locality there was a significant decline in catch rates (Cliff and Dudley 1991), suggesting highly localised depletion. Immature sharks dominated the catches in all the above fisheries, and mature sharks may occur to the north of the netted region in this area.
39367		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
39367		distribution	eng	The Borneo Shark is an Indo-West Pacific species, recorded from Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak, Malaysia) and possibly also China (Chusan Island). Nominal and possible records also exist from Java (Indonesia) and the Philippines but these cannot yet be confirmed (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, 1988, in prep. b).
39367		habitat	eng	This is a small, rare inshore coastal shark, known only from five undoubted specimens (four of which were collected from Borneo) and very few valid localities. Virtually all details of its biology and life history parameters are unknown. The maximum size is estimated to be around 70 cm.
39367		population	eng	This is a rare shark that has not been recorded since 1937. Only five confirmed specimens are known.
39367		threats	eng	This rare shark is (or was) found in areas that have been and are being heavily exploited by artisanal and commercial fisheries. These are likely to have detrimentally affected the population of this species, which has not been recorded since 1937.
39368		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
39368		distribution	eng	The Spinner Shark is cosmopolitan in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical continental and insular shelf waters. It is known from off Cape Cod, Massachusetts (USA), to southern Brazil in the western Atlantic. It is found from the Mediterranean Sea southward to central Africa in the eastern Atlantic; the species is widespread in the Indian Ocean from South Africa to western Australia, including the Red Sea and Gulf of Oman; and in the western Pacific Ocean it is recorded from throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago, the China Sea and the north and east coasts of Australia (Compagno in prep. b).
39368		habitat	eng	The Spinner Shark is common in nearshore waters off beaches, in bays and off river mouths and also occurs pelagically offshore. It is common year round in southern areas of the United States and occasionally migrates north in the summer into the Middle Atlantic Bight. <br/><br/>This shark has an unusual habit of leaping from the water, rotating as many as three times and falling back in the water, usually on its back. Spinner Sharks are often found in schools that may include large numbers of individuals (Compagno in prep. b). The species has an 11?15 month gestation period and is placentally viviparous, producing 3?20 pups (usually 7?11). The reproductive cycle is two years (Castro 1993). In the western North Atlantic, ovulation occurs in late June and mating occurs in late June through early July; pups are born in late May?July at 60?75 cm total length (TL). In South Africa newborns of 60?80 cm TL have been reported, with parturition in April?May. Pregnant females have been caught in February?March in southeastern Australia, with parturition occurring in March?April; pup lengths of 66?77 cm TL are reported. Young are also born in the summer off the north-west coast of Africa and in the eastern Mediterranean and Red seas. The Spinner Shark uses nearshore beaches and bays, and higher saline portions of estuaries throughout the south-east United States as nursery grounds, but parturition probably takes place in waters deeper than 5 m. <br/><br/>Compared to many shark species, the Spinner Shark grows at a relatively fast rate, although only one growth study exists for this species, that addressing a north-west Atlantic population. Since other populations differ greatly in many life history characteristics and maximum sizes, the values reported here may not be applicable to those regions. For the northwest Atlantic, neonates born at 60?75 cm TL increase by as much as 30 cm in length by the onset of winter (<em>circa</em> six months). One-year olds continue to grow at about 25 cm/year, with the growth rate slowly declining to about 10 cm/year through adolescence. Males mature at ~130 cm TL, or at 4?5 years of age, females at 150?155 cm TL or 7?8 years of age. Maximum recorded age is 11 years (a 208 cm TL female) but the species attains a much larger size (225? 250 cm TL). Age at the largest known sizes (assuming a continued 5 cm annual growth) would be 15?20 years, although as the sharks get older, incremental growth should decline, thus age at maximum size may be substantially greater (Branstetter 1987a). <br/><br/>The species is primarily a fish-eater, with diet including 10-pounders (<em>Elops</em>), sardines and herring, anchovies, sea catfish, lizardfish, mullets, bluefish, tunas, bonito, croakers, jacks, mojarras, grunts, tongue-soles, stingrays, cuttlefish, squid and octopuses. It frequently uses an unusual method of feeding on schools of small, bony fishes that gives this shark its common name; it swims rapidly upwards through the schools with open mouth, spinning along its long axis and snapping in all directions, and then shoots out of the water after its feeding run. Off Madagascar this species is associated with and probably feeds on migrating schools of scombrids and jacks. As with <em>C. limbatus</em>, this shark will congregate to eat trash fish dumped off shrimp trawlers and no doubt participates in feeding frenzies like its smaller relative (Compagno in prep. b).
39368		threats	eng	In the northwest Atlantic this species is part of the recreational fishery and is one of a suite of carcharhinids targeted by the directed commercial fishery operating along the southeast coast from North Carolina to Florida and throughout the Gulf of Mexico. It is a common component of the commercial catch in the north-central Gulf of Mexico, but is less often caught in the fisheries along the eastern seaboard of the United States. As with most carcharhinid species, the Spinner Shark meat is sold under the name ?Blacktip Shark? because of wide consumer preference for the product. It is a constituent of the substantial Mexican Gulf of Mexico shark catch. Probably it is represented in the shark catches in most areas within its range, but owing to confusion with the Blacktip Shark, it is likely that the species is not recorded in landings data. Fins are dried and shipped to the Far East where they are used in shark fin soup. In some areas the hides are likely to be utilized in preparing leather and the livers are used to extract oil.
39369		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
39369		distribution	eng	This Indo-West Pacific species has only been recorded from a small number of widely-separated sites (most of them in India) and is represented by fewer than twenty specimens in museum collections, most of which were captured before 1900. The last record was in 1979 in India; it has not been seen since anywhere, despite detailed surveys in Borneo, Philippines and Indonesia.
39369		habitat	eng	Occurs inshore on continental and insular shelves. No information available on the biology or life history parameters of this rarely recorded and poorly known inshore shark.
39369		population	eng	Considered to be extremely rare globally (possibly even extinct).
39369		threats	eng	This apparently rare shark occurs (or occurred) in inshore localities and habitats subject to large, expanding, and unregulated artisanal and commercial fisheries. If still extant, it is probably caught and utilized as bycatch of other fisheries, although market surveys have failed to locate it. Its populations are thought to have been severely depleted as a result of this exploitation.
39370		conservation	eng	Silky Shark is a member of the family <em>Carcharhinidae</em>, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g. ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the capture of oceanic sharks for their fins alone.
39370		distribution	eng	Silky Shark has a circumglobal distribution in tropical waters (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Western Atlantic: ranges from Massachusetts, USA, to southern Brazil, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Also from St. Paul's Rocks in the Central Atlantic (Marín <em>et al</em>. 1998, Compagno in prep). Eastern Atlantic: ranges from Madeira, the Atlantic coast of Spain, and from Senegal to northern Angola (Compagno in prep). Indian Ocean: occurs off Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Comoros and Aldabra Island, also from Somalia to the Maldives, Oman, Red Sea, and Sri Lanka (Compagno in prep.). Western Pacific: occurs off Thailand, Philippines, New Caledonia, New Zealand, China and Taiwan (Province of China). Also Caroline Islands, Phoenix and Line Islands westwards (Compagno in prep). Eastern Pacific: ranges from Southern Baja California to Peru. Also Hawaiian Islands, Cocos Island, Revillagigedo Islands, Clipperton and Malpelos Islands (Compagno in prep.).
39370		habitat	eng	The Silky Shark is essentially pelagic and is most often found near the edge of continental and insular shelves at depths of 200 m or more in the epipelagic zone although it occurs to at least 500 m depth offshore (Compagno in prep). It is often associated with islands, near insular slopes and over deepwater reefs. It has also been recorded inshore to as shallow as 18 m depth (Compagno in prep). It is an active swift species, preferring warmer waters (about 23°C). Smaller sharks are often found in coastal nurseries and adults further offshore over deeper water. However, in the central Indian Ocean juveniles are oceanic, associated with drifting objects (C. Anderson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Silky Shark is a live bearer, usually having around 6?12 pups every one or two years (2?15 per litter, Last and Stevens 1994). The gestation period is 12 months (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 1993). Life history parameters of silky sharks seem to vary geographically, perhaps reflecting the existence of distinct stocks for different ocean basins. In the Gulf of Mexico, Silky Sharks grow at a moderate rate and first attain maturity at about 215?225 cm TL for males and 232?246 cm TL for females, or around 6?10 years and 7?12+ years respectively (Branstetter 1987, Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 1993). They can live to at least 22+ years (Bonfil 1990) and attain a length of up to 330 cm TL. In this part of the world, the young are born at about 76 cm TL during the summer, whereas in other oceans the species seems to have no seasonality in reproduction (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 1993). This species has a moderate to low intrinsic rate of increase; estimated at 0.043 by Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) (moderate range: 0.04?0.07). Hoyos (2003) provides information on the life-history parameters of silky sharks from Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific and Ruíz and Ixquiac (2000), Morales (2002) and Villatoro and Rivera (1994) from Guatemala and El Salvador. Both males and females reportedly mature at 180?182 cm TL off Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific, with females reaching a maximum size of 316 TL and producing 2?9 pups per litter (Hoyos 2003). Oshitani <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported on the age and growth of silky sharks in the Pacific Ocean (using samples collected from Japanese tuna longline and purse seine fisheries). They found that males mature at >186 cm TL and at 5?6 years of age, and females at 193?200 cm TL and 6?7 years of age. Size at birth ranged from 65?81 cm TL. In contrast to earlier studies in the Pacific Ocean, Oshitani <em>et al</em>. (2003) noted that their results were similar to those of studies in the Atlantic Ocean. In the Maldives, Indian Ocean, males are estimated to mature at about 205 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 242 cm TL; females reaching a maximum size of 263 cm TL (Anderson unpublished data). Size at birth is reported at 56?72 cm TL in this area (Anderson unpublished data).<br/><br/>Recently, intensive demographic modelling of shark populations revealed that the silky shark from southern and northern Gulf of Mexico has moderate levels of intrinsic rate of increase (ca. 0.10 and 0.055) (Cortés 2002).<br/><br/>Silky Sharks generally leave their coastal nursery grounds and move offshore to a more oceanic existence as sub-adults, frequently joining tuna schools on which they seem to feed (Branstetter 1987). The Silky Shark is a piscivorous shark feeding on sea catfish, mullets, mackerel, yellowfin tuna, albacore, porcupine fish and other fish species, as well as on a variety of cephalopods (Compagno 1984, Bonfil 1990).
39370		population	eng	This oceanic and coastal-pelagic shark is circumglobal in tropical waters, where it dominates as a target species or bycatch in certain pelagic fisheries, particularly purse seines on drifting FADs (fish aggregating devices). Population dynamics and structure are poorly known, although life history parameters seem to vary geographically, perhaps reflecting the existence of distinct stocks for different ocean basins.
39370		threats	eng	The Silky Shark is probably fished either directly or as a bycatch throughout its range. It is taken in coastal longline fisheries, oceanic purse seine fisheries on drifting FADs (fish aggregating devices) (particularly the latter) targeting tuna, swordfish and other billfish around the world, as well as by coastal artisanal fisheries. Whether they are an incidental catch or not, Silky Sharks are often retained for their meat and fins. Catch statistics for this species are under-reported. Total catch reported to FAO has decreased steadily since 2000; 11,680 t were reported in 2000, 9,330 in 2001, 8,384 in 2002, 5,305 in 2003, to 4,358 in 2004 (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific, with effort expanding from the traditional grounds in the southeast Pacific into the central south Pacific and areas of the North Pacific in recent years (Mejuto 2005).<br/><br/>Silky Sharks were found to represent at least 3?4% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center?the 3rd highest after Blue Sharks (<em>Prionace glauca</em>) and Scalloped Hammerhead Sharks (<em>Sphyrna lewini</em>) (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2006a)?and Hong Kong is thought to make up more than 50% of the global shark fin trade (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006b). Silky Shark fins are valuable to the trade, although they are not one of the highest value fin types (S. Clarke, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Rough estimates of numbers of Silky Sharks taken as bycatch in tuna longline fisheries of the south and central Pacific Ocean (Bonfil 1994) indicate that perhaps up to 900,000 individuals were taken there during 1989. However, there is large uncertainty surrounding these calculations and there are no estimates of numbers discarded alive and numbers actually killed. Large numbers of Silky Shark are caught in Mexico, Yemen and Sri Lanka. Bonfil <em>et al</em> (1993) conclude that local stocks of this species cannot support sustained heavy fishing pressure.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong><br/>Silky Sharks are taken in pelagic commercial fisheries in the eastern central and southeast Pacific, as well as in artisanal fisheries. Fishing pressure from longline and purse seine fisheries targeting tunas and swordfish is high, and it is the main shark species caught using fish aggregating devices (FADs). The IATTC observer database from 1993-2005 shows that silky sharks were caught throughout the ocean west of central America, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru out to about 170°W on purse seines set on FADs. Accurate identification is an issue because of the similarity to other Carcharhinids and it is often grouped with other Carcharhinid species. Silky Sharks are the most commonly caught species of shark in the purse seine fishery for tunas in the eastern Pacific Ocean (IATTC 2007). Preliminary estimates of relative abundance trends for large Silky Sharks derived from purse-seine fisheries in the eastern Pacific Ocean show steadily decreasing trends over the period 1993?2004 for each of three types of purse-seine sets, from a catch per set of 10.4 in 1994 to 3.6 in 2005 (decline of ~65%) (IATTC 2007). According to IATTC it is not known whether these decreasing trends are due to fishing, changes in the environment (e.g., the 1997?98 El Niño event), or other processes. These results were also consistent, however, with a preliminary descriptive study of Silky Shark bycatch rates in dolphin sets. Whilst it is thought that Silky Sharks are attracted to floating objects, Silky Sharks caught in dolphin sets may have been caught simply by chance. Because the distribution of Silky Shark bycatch per set in dolphin sets is extremely right-skewed, the descriptive analysis focused on bycatches above and below the following three thresholds: presence or absence of any sharks, presence or absence of more than five sharks per set, and presence or absence of more than 20 sharks per set. This analysis showed a decrease in the probability of obtaining sets with bycatches greater than or equal to each of the three threshold levels from 1994?2005 (IATTC 2007).<br/><br/>Strasburg (1958 in Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999) noted that Silky Sharks comprised 52% of all sharks caught south of 10°N latitude in the equatorial Pacific, in a sample of 4,157 sharks. Silky Sharks are important in many fisheries along the Pacific coast of Central America. Observations made on a longline research vessel that sampled waters in the EEZs of Panama, El Salvador, and Guatemala found that silky sharks constituted 30.94%, 47.21% and 29.11% of the total catch respectively, and 79.80%, 63.3% and 44.29% of the shark catch respectively (Porras 1996). Off Chiapas, southern Mexico, Silky Sharks along with Scalloped Hammerheads form the large bulk of the shark catch (Soriano-Velásquez and Acal Sánchez 2008). In Tres Marías Islands, Mexico, Silky Sharks are one of the most important species, constituting 27% of landed sharks in 1996 (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al</em>, 2005). In San José and Buena Vista, Guatemala, Silky Sharks constituted 73% of recorded catches landed, in a sample of 4,211 sharks, from 1996 to 1999 (Ruiz and Ixquiac 2000). In Acajutla, El Salvador, from 1991?1992, Silky Shark landings ranged from 60.3% to 32.6% of the total catch, in a sample of 412 sharks (Villatoro-Vaquiz and Rivera-González 1994).<br/><br/>International longline vessels operating in the eastern central Pacific landed and exported over 8,000 tons of shark carcasses and 900 tons of shark fins from Costa Rica in 2002 (Costa Rica official INCOPESCA Fishery Statistics 2003), the large majority of which are recorded as Silky Sharks. However, these figures are likely underestimates, because landings also occur at private docks where enforcement and monitoring is very difficult. Furthermore, international vessels are known to trans ship shark products on the high seas, going unreported. A comparison of standardized catch rates of pelagic sharks (species-specific information was not available) in the EEZ of Costa Rica from 1991?2000 showed a decrease of 60%, with Silky Sharks comprising 60?70% of recorded shark catch (Arauz <em>et al</em>. 2004). In 1991, sharks formed 27% of the total catch. In 2000, only 7.64% of the total catch was sharks, 71% of which were Silky Sharks. In 2003, the proportion of sharks in the total catch decreased further to 4.9% of the total catch, 58.2% of which were silky sharks (Arauz <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In Manta (the largest fishing port in Ecuador), Southeast Pacific, artisanal fisheries data from September 2003 to the end of 2006 showed the total landings of sharks was 150,321 individuals, of which <em>C. falciformis</em> represented 15% of the total (over 22,000 individuals) (J. Martínez pers. comm. Feb. 2007). The females ranged in length from 61-309cm total length, and the males ranged in length from 63 -288cm total length. In the tuna purse seine fishery, Silky Shark is caught as a bycatch, and is the main shark species caught using FADs) (J. Martínez pers. comm. Feb. 2007.<br/><br/>Recent information from the tropical Central Pacific suggest community biomass reductions to only 11% of historic levels, from the 1950s to the 1990s, with a current community of smaller fish and fewer large predators (Ward and Myers 2005). This study estimated that the Silky Shark population had declined in abundance by about 90% and in biomass by more than 90% (Ward and Myers 2005). These estimates were made by a comparison of pelagic longline research surveys in the 1950s carried out in the tropical Pacific Ocean with recent data (1990s) collected by observers on pelagic longline fishing vessels, which have been standardized to account for differences in depth and soak time (Ward and Myers 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific</strong><br/>This species is a very common component of shark and tuna longline and tuna gillnet fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) and throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. They are usually retained and marketed. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954?1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2006) and Mejuto <em>et al</em>. (2006) report that fishing effort has increased since 1993. Sharks are targeted in several areas, including off India where they are captured using hook and line and in large mesh gillnets, which are among the world?s largest (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Pelagic fishing effort is high and continuing. Silky Sharks were the most commonly caught shark at FADS in the Indian Ocean during a small pilot study of observers onboard French vessels - 61.5% of silkies were discarded dead at sea, 30.5% partially alive kept onboard, ~7% discarded alive (Viare and Pianet 2006).<br/><br/>In the Maldives, it is estimated that some 85% of oceanic shark catch is <em>C. falciformis</em> (C. Anderson unpublished data). Although no specific data are available, Maldivian shark fishermen who specialize in longlining for oceanic sharks report declining catch rates of Silky Sharks (C. Anderson unpublished data). A fishery for Silky Sharks has operated off Sri Lanka for many years and Sri Lanka are one of the only countries to report species-specific Silky Shark catch to FAO (although Bonfil noted that only 75% of the reported catch may be attributed to silky sharks). Landings reported to FAO progressively rose from 5,000 t in 1960 to a peak of 25,400 t in 1994, after which they began to decline to 20,875 t in 1998, 8,240 t in 2001, 6,830 t in 2002, and continued to decrease to just 1,960 t in 2006, suggesting that the fishery collapsed.<br/><br/>The tropical waters of the western and central Pacific Ocean currently support the largest industrial tuna fishery in the world with an annual catch approaching one million metric tonnes. The two main gear types, longline and purse seine, accounted for over 90% of the target tuna catch in this area in 1999 (Williams 1999). The most prevalent species found in longline sets are Blue Shark, Silky Shark, Pelagic Stingray and the Oceanic Whitetip. The most prevalent species found in purse seine sets are Silky Shark and the Oceanic Whitetip (Williams 1999).<br/><br/>Japanese assessment of data from research longline surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans suggests that silky shark catch per unit effort showed no remarkable change in the 1990s when compared to levels in the 1970s. In recent years, based on longline logbook data, recorded Japanese catches of Silky Sharks worldwide ranged from 0?11 mt with an average of 2.2 mt. The resource is considered stable with no management action required other than ongoing monitoring (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).<br/><br/>Whilst the Japanese longline surveys described above showed no change in CPUE of Silky Sharks between the 1970s and 1990s, pelagic effort began 20 years earlier in the 1950s and has reportedly increased in recent years. Given the significant declines observed in other areas including the central tropical Pacific, the large decline in reported landings off Sri Lanka after 1994, reports of declines in catch rates off the Maldives and high fishing pressure across this region, with reports of increasing effort, continued fishing pressure is thought to be unsustainable. <br/><br/>There are data on Silky Shark catches from the Australian east coast Tuna and Billfish Fishery, however, these have not been analyzed to date, and need to be looked at in the future (J.D. Stevens pers. comm. Feb. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/>The first longline fisheries in the Atlantic were begun by the Japanese in 1956 in the western equatorial waters (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Fishing pressure is high and ongoing. In the US, Silky Sharks are caught by the commercial shark bottom longline and the pelagic longline fishery, and in recreational shark fisheries. The northwest and western central Atlantic assessment is based on several estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices. The first analysis is for the Gulf of Mexico, and is based on data from U.S. pelagic longline research surveys in the mid-1950s and U.S. pelagic longline observer data in the late-1990s. This analysis suggests that silky sharks in the Gulf of Mexico declined by 91% (95%CI: 85-95%) over this forty year period (Baum and Myers 2004), which is similar to the length of three generations (~45 years).<br/><br/>The second analysis, which encompasses both the northwest and western central Atlantic regions, is of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 and 2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003). This analysis is not species-specific (because of problems with identification among Carcharhinid sharks), but instead estimated a decline of 61% (95%CI: 55?66%) over this time period for six species in the genus <em>Carcharhinus</em> combined. Species-specific analysis on the same US logbook data set for 1992?2000 by Brown and Cramer (2002) reveals a non-significant trend, although accurate identification of Silky Sharks in the data set is an issue, as stated above. Another species-specific analysis of the same logbook data for the same time period by Cortés <em>et al</em>. (2007) estimated a decrease of 50% in Silky Shark since 1992. Cortés <em>et al</em>. (2007) also report the results of this logbook analysis restricted to the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas only, for the 1992?2000 period, which showed a decline of 48%. This analysis had little temporal overlap with Baum and Myers (2004) analysis of data from the longline research surveys and observer data in the same area (described above), which covered almost the entire three generation period for this species (1950s-1990s).<br/><br/>The most recent analysis of observer data from the US Atlantic pelagic longline fishery from 1992?2005 (which combined catches of Dusky Sharks, Silky Sharks, and Night Sharks because of identification problems) suggests that this species complex has continued to decline significantly, by 70% (95%CI: 54?81%) during this recent time period (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep). When the two estimates obtained by (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep) for <em>Carcharhinus</em> species are combined (i.e., 1986?2005), the estimated decline amounts to 85%. However, it should be noted, again, that this is not a species-specific estimate for silky shark, but it is difficult to obtain species-specific estimates for silky sharks because of difficulties distinguishing it with other carcharhinid sharks. Cortés <em>et al</em>.?s (2007) species-specific analysis of the observer dataset for the same time period, showed a similar decline since 1992 to that they estimated in the logbook data (46% vs 50%), but larger inter-annual variation (r=?0.047, 95% CI: ?0.290 to 0.197). The nominal observer series showed a 40% decline from beginning to end.<br/><br/>Silky Shark is one of the five most important shark species caught in the Cuban longline fishery (Espinosa 2004). In Belize, Silky Sharks were frequently caught off the barrier reef and atolls by commercial pelagic longline fisheries during the 1980s and 1990s. Although no landings data are available, anecdotal observations by former shark fishers noted a decline in catches and mean size for all shark species caught and pelagic fishing pressure has declined as a result (R. Carcamo and D. Neal pers. comm.). Landings data recorded at artisanal shark fishing ports in Mexico and Central America also indicate that Silky Sharks constitute one of the main components of the catch. In 1987, the Silky Shark (and Scalloped Hammerhead Shark), represented >80% of the shark by-catch of the winter swordfish/tuna longline fishery of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (Branstetter 1987).<br/><br/>Silky Sharks are thought to be overexploited as juveniles in the fishery of Yucatan (Bonfil 1990), but due to the lack of estimates of total catches of this species and the size of the population, the status of the stock as a whole is unknown.<br/><br/>In Venezuela, sharks are targeted by both artisanal and industrial longline fisheries, and Tavares (2005) comments on a history of over-exploitation. In artisanal longline fisheries targeting sharks around Venezuelan offshore islands, the Silky Shark is one of the most important species (Tavares 2005). Shark fishing is increasing at these Venezuelan oceanic islands and a monitoring programme has been instigated (Tavares 2005). However, given the life-history of the species, it is unlikely that Silky Sharks will be able to sustain continued, let alone increasing, directed fishing.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is taken in several longline fisheries in the Southwest Atlantic, including those off Santos, southern Brazil (Arfelli and Amorim 1994, Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998), Natal, northeastern Brazil (Hazin <em>et al</em>. 1990) and Uruguay (Marín <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is primarily oceanic and epipelagic, although it is taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries off southern Paraná State (Costa and Chaves 2006). Lessa <em>et al</em>. (2000) also noted that Silky Shark was the main species to be targeted by fisheries in northeastern Brazil. They are generally retained and marketed (Arfelli and Amorim 1994, Marín <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>Rincon <em>et al</em>. (2000) analysed fins unloaded in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, from April to July, 1998. This species represented 50% of total fins sampled; however the number of shark fins did not correspond to the number of carcasses. In 1997, 233 tons of dry fin corresponded to 15,533 tons of carcasses, while only 2,603 tons of unloaded carcasses were registered. This may indicate extensive finning practices being carried out at sea.
39371		conservation	eng	None in place.
39371		distribution	eng	The Smoothtooth Blacktip Shark occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, where it has only been recorded from Qishn, southern Saudi Arabia, in the Gulf of Aden.
39371		habitat	eng	The holotype  was a 75 cm long immature male, probably collected from inshore waters. The species has not been recorded elsewhere since being described and details of biology and life history are completely unknown.
39371		population	eng	This shark is known only from the holotype. It is presumed that the population size is small.
39371		threats	eng	Presumably the species is taken as bycatch in local fisheries.
39372		conservation	eng	No specific management or conservation programmes are known for this species. It is managed in the U.S. east coast shark fisheries as part of the ?large coastal? groups of species. The current quota for this group is 1,285 t/year (1997), but Bull Sharks make up only small percentage of this group (see above). Recent closures of coastal waters in several states in the southern US to gillnetting have removed pressure on the juveniles in estuarine and coastal nursery areas.
39372		distribution	eng	The Bull Shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate areas, with seasonal appearances in cool, temperate waters (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). This has resulted in multiple descriptions and numerous common names for the species (including Zambezi Shark, Swan River Shark and Lake Nicaragua Shark) from throughout its range (see Compagno (1984) for a full list of synonyms).<br/><br/>Primarily the Bull Shark is an inhabitant of continental shelf waters to a depth of about 150 m (but mostly less than 30 m), but it commonly moves into estuarine and fresh waters. It has been documented as travelling large distances up rivers (Thorson 1972), including the Amazon, Gambia, Ganges, Mississippi, San Juan (and Lake Nicaragua), Tigris and Zambezi. It also has been observed to tolerate hypersaline conditions up to 53 parts per thousand (ppt) (sea water is approximately 35 ppt). Although mostly a continental species, there are insular records from the Philippines and the South Pacific islands of New Caledonia, Fiji and Rangiroa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).
39372		habitat	eng	The Bull Shark is one of the few shark species that can tolerate long periods of time in freshwater, often penetrating long distances up freshwater rivers that connect to the ocean. For example, Thorson (1971) reported the movement of Bull Sharks from the ocean through the Rio San Juan system and into Lake Nicaragua, a large freshwater lake. <em>C. leucas</em> move into estuarine or fresh waters to give birth to their young (Springer 1963), while neonates and young juveniles appear to use these habitats as nursery areas (Snelson <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Bull Sharks grow up to about 340 cm in total length. The young are born at between 56?81 cm. Males mature at 157?226 cm and females at 180?230 cm (Compagno 1984b).<br/><br/>The diet of this species is relatively diverse, including turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms, teleost fishes and elasmobranchs (Last and Stevens 1994). However, the most diverse diet is restricted to larger individuals that are capable of consuming larger prey. The most commonly eaten prey items are teleost fishes and elasmobranchs. In the coastal lagoons of Florida, Snelson and Williams (1981) recorded a wide array of species in the diet including jacks, snook, tarpon, mullets, catfish, croaker, stingrays and sandbar sharks, but noted that saltwater catfish and stingrays (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) were most commonly eaten.<br/><br/>Reproduction is by placental viviparity. Litter sizes range from 1?13 (Compagno 1984b), with most between 6?8 (Pattillo <em>et al.</em> 1997). The gestation period is 10?11 months, with birth normally occurring in late spring and summer (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973, Branstetter 1981). In warmer areas (e.g., Nicaragua) breeding (and hence parturition) may occur year?round (Castro 1983). The length of the reproductive cycle has not been published, but is probably biennial (Compagno in prep. b).<br/><br/>Thorson and Lacy (1982) and Branstetter and Stiles (1987) have provided age and growth data for this species. Thorson and Lacy (1982) used tag recapture information to estimate the growth rates of Bull Sharks in Lake Nicaragua. They estimated that the growth rates in the first two years of life were 18 and 16 cm per year, respectively. Growth subsequently slowed to 11?12 cm per year and finally to 9?10 cm per year. They estimated that females would live up to 16 years and males to 12 years.<br/><br/>Branstetter and Stiles (1987) used vertebral ageing techniques to estimate growth parameters for animals from the northern Gulf of Mexico. They estimated the von Bertalanffy parameters to be L?=285 cm, k=0.076 year<sup>-1</sup> and t = -3.0 years. The oldest estimated male was 21.3 years and the oldest female 24.2 years. Their estimates of growth for early years were similar to those of Thorson and Lacy (1982), but growth in later years was thought to be much slower (4?5 cm per year), accounting for the larger maximum ages. Ages at maturity based on Branstetter and Stiles (1987) data are 14?15 years for males and 18+ years for females.<br/><br/>A number of migratory habits have been documented for this shark. Pregnant females migrate to estuarine areas to give birth. The juveniles remain in these areas until temperatures drop below optimum levels and then migrate to warmer offshore waters. A general migration along the United States east coast is also observed, with movement northwards during the summer as water temperatures rise and southwards again as temperatures cool in the north (Castro 1983).<br/><br/>Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) have reported the results of demographic analysis for <em>C. leucas</em>. The technique that these authors used estimated the rebound potential (r2M, similar to the intrinsic rate of increase) from litter size, age at maturity, maximum age and natural mortality. They estimated natural mortality to be 0.166 year<sup>-1</sup> based on a maximum age of 27 years. The estimated the rebound potential was 0.027?0.039 year<sup>-1</sup>.
39372		threats	eng	The frequent use of estuarine and freshwater areas by the Bull Shark makes it more susceptible to deleterious human impacts than species of sharks occurring in other coastal or offshore areas. Bull sharks more frequently encounter humans while in waters of low salinity, and are thereby subjected to increased fishing pressure and environmental changes associated with habitat modification.<br/><br/>Bull Sharks are commonly caught in both commercial and recreational fisheries. Thorson (1982a) reported that a commercial fishery existed for <em>C. leucas</em> in Lake Nicaragua and the Rio San Juan river system in Central America. However, in most situations, Bull Sharks are not normally a fishery target species but are caught as bycatch or as part of a multi-species fishery. For example, in the US Atlantic region they are an important component of inshore ecosystems, but only comprise 1?6% of the large coastal shark catch for this area (Branstetter and Burgess 1997). <br/><br/>While the Bull Shark has been exploited commercially for its skin, liver oil and flesh, currently its fins are the major product driving demand for this and many other species. There are limited data on recreational catches of this species. The best data come from the Gulf of Mexico where Casey and Hoey (1985) reported that in 1978 <em>C. leucas</em> made up about 11% (by weight) of the recreational shark catch of around three million pounds (Casey and Hoey 1985). Recreational catches of large sharks in the Gulf of Mexico have decreased substantially since the 1970s, but Casey and Hoey?s results illustrate that recreational fishing may have a substantial impact on Bull Shark populations.<br/><br/>Beach protection programmes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Queensland, Australia also regularly catch Bull Sharks. Cliff and Dudley (1992) reported that between 1978 and 1990 the South African programme caught 59 Bull Sharks, 21% of which were released alive. Species identification problems occurred in the Queensland programme until the early 1990s, thus the importance of <em>C. leucas</em> can only be based on data from latter years. Gribble <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that after identification was improved 16% of the sharks caught state-wide were Bull Sharks, with the majority caught in the central part of the state. The lack of historical data for the Queensland programme and the low abundance in the South African programme make it impossible to assess the impact of beach meshing on Bull Shark populations.<br/><br/>The location of nursery areas in estuarine and freshwater systems makes the species vulnerable to pollution and habitat modification, but there has been only limited study of these impacts on Bull Sharks. Canal developments have been prolific in some estuarine areas where the species is commonly found. It is not known whether these developments have negative impacts. In Florida, USA and the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia, these developments have substantially altered the environment. Bull Sharks occur frequently in Gold Coast canals and the species has been responsible for a number of attacks on humans (Simpfendorfer unpubl.). The warm water effluent from power stations may also impact this shark. In Florida, USA, juveniles have been reported to be trapped in the warm water outfalls during winter when they would normally have migrated to warmer water areas (Snelson <em>et al. </em>1984, <em>C. Manire</em>, Center for Shark Research, Mote Marine Laboratory pers. Comm.). The potential impacts of pollution and habitat modification need to be further investigated for this species.<br/><br/>This shark is also exploited by large aquariums. The species is good for public display, adapting well to life in a tank and providing a good example of a larger, aggressive shark. With the number of public aquaria rising worldwide there is an increasing demand for this and other species of sharks for display. While populations are healthy the needs of aquaria can probably be met without affecting the wild population. However, if a wild subpopulation is depleted this may not be the case and aquaria need to have responsible collection policies that will not result in further pressure being placed on a species. At present there is no evidence that collecting for aquariums has any impact on the wild population of Bull Shark.
39374		conservation	eng	Conservation and management action are urgently required for this species; the only known conservation measure at present is a broad, multi-species pelagic shark quota for U.S. Atlantic waters. Specifically, fishing pressure on this species must be considerably decreased through reduction in fishing effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture and possibly also through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Effective conservation of this species will require international cooperation. The oceanic whitetip is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard. See <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further details. Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for pelagic sharks such as <em>C. longimanus</em> whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning, to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines (R. Cavanagh, pers. comm).
39374		distribution	eng	This is one of the most widespread of shark species, ranging across entire oceans in tropical and subtropical waters, usually found far offshore between about 30°N and 35°S in all oceans.
39374		habitat	eng	This is one of the most widespread sharks, ranging across entire oceans in tropical and subtropical waters. The oceanic whitetip is an oceanic-epipelagic shark, usually found far offshore in the open sea in waters >200 m deep, between about 30°N and 35°S in all oceans; it is normally found in surface waters, although it has been recorded to 152 m. It has occasionally been recorded inshore, but is more typically found offshore or around oceanic islands and areas with narrow continental shelves (Fourmanoir 1961, Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). Temperatures of waters in which it regularly occurs are 18 to 28°C, with water above 20°C preferred. Although one whitetip was caught in water of 15°C it tends to withdraw from waters that are cooling below this, as in the Gulf of Mexico in winter (Compagno in prep.). <br/> <br/>This is a slow-moving but quite active shark, apparently equally active at daytime or night (Compagno in prep., Ebert 2003).  <br/> <br/>Development is viviparous and embryos have a yolk sac placenta that attaches to the uterine wall of the mother (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Born at about 60 to 65 cm TL after a gestation period of about 10 to 12 months (Compagno in prep.), males mature at about 170 to 96 cm and females at 170 to 190 cm TL (Seki <em>et al</em>. 1998). Oceanic whitetip sharks grow to a large size, with some individual reaching almost 4 m. However, most known specimens are <3 m in length. Litter sizes vary from about 1 to 14 (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973, Stevens 1984, Seki <em>et al</em>. 1998), although 15 foetuses were recorded from a female of 245 cm TL from the Red Sea (Gohar and Mazure 1964) and larger females appear to carry more young, although there may be regional variation (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973). Birth is thought to occur in early summer in the northwest Atlantic and south west Indian Oceans (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973), and January to March off New South Wales (Stevens 1984), whereas Seki <em>et al</em>. (1998) found that parturition was February to July in the North Pacific. Pregnant females of this species are less frequently found in the Indian Ocean than other sharks of this genus (Gubanov 1978). In the Central Pacific, females with small embryos have been found throughout the year, suggesting a less tight seasonality of birth (and presumably mating) than the Western Atlantic (Compagno in prep). Also, non-breeding adult females have been found to outnumber gravid females in the equatorial Central Pacific (Compagno in prep). The location of nurseries has not been reported, but very young oceanic whitetip sharks have been found well offshore along the southeastern US, suggesting offshore nurseries over the continental shelves (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/>Seki <em>et al</em>. (1998) studied the age, growth and reproduction of the oceanic whitetip in the north Pacific. They found similar growth rates in both males and females with a Von Bertalanffy equation of: L<sub>t</sub> = 299.58 * {1 - e<sup>-0.103</sup> x (t + 2.698)} where L<sub>t</sub> is expressed as precaudal length in cm at age t. They used Bass <em>et al</em>.?s (1973) transformation of TL = 1.397 x PL for conversions to total length. Using vertebral analysis they showed that annular formation occurred in spring. Both male and female oceanic whitetips matured at 4 to 5 years of age. Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) investigated the intrinsic rebound potential of Pacific sharks and found that oceanic whitetips to be among a moderate rebound potential, because of their relatively fast growth and early maturation. <br/> <br/>This pelagic species feeds mainly on bony fishes (including tunas, barracuda, white marlin, dolphinfish, lancetfish, oarfish, threadfish, swordfish) and cephalopods and to a lesser extent, seabirds, marine mammals, stingrays, and flotsam, including garbage.
39374		population	eng	This species, together with the silky shark <em>Carcharhinus falciformis</em> and blue shark <em>Prionace glauca</em>, has often been described as one of the three most abundant species of oceanic sharks and large marine animals (Compagno 1984, Taniuchi 1990, Bonfil 1994, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). Recent observations, however, indicate that this species that was formerly ?nearly ubiquitous in water deeper than 180 m and above 20°C? (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999) is now only occasionally recorded (e.g., Baum and Myers 2004, Domingo 2004).  <br/> <br/>The population dynamics and structure of this species are unknown. Distribution appears to depend on size and sex and the nursery areas appear to be oceanic (Seki <em>et al</em>. 1998). Larger individuals are caught deeper than smaller ones and there is geographic and sexual segregation (Anderson and Ahmed 1993). Longline catches in the Central Pacific show that this species definitely increases in abundance as a function of increasing distance from land, and, unlike the silky shark <em>Carcharhinus falcifomis</em>, it does not congregate around land masses (Compagno in prep.).  <br/> <br/>In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic enormous declines are estimated to have occurred. Two estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices have been made from independent datasets. An analysis of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 and 2000, which covers the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic regions, estimated declines of 70% (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003). An analysis of the Gulf of Mexico, which used data from US pelagic longline surveys in the mid-1950s and US pelagic longline observer data in the late-1990s, estimated a decline of 99.3% over this forty year time period (Baum and Myers 2004). When trends in abundance from the former analysis are extrapolated back to the mid-1950s, they match the latter analysis almost exactly (99.8%). Over a period of three generations (30 years), the estimated decline is 98%. However, the latter study has recently been criticized because temporal changes in fishing gear and practices over the time period were not taken fully into account and the study may, therefore, have exaggerated or underestimated the magnitude of the declines (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2005, Baum <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39374		threats	eng	Oceanic whitetip sharks have been caught in large numbers virtually everywhere they occur, particularly in pelagic longline and drift net fisheries. This species was initially described as the most common pelagic shark beyond the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico (Wathne 1959, Bullis 1961), and throughout the warm-temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic and Pacific (Mather and Day 1954, Strasburg 1957). In the Gulf of Mexico, for example, between 2 and 25 of these sharks were usually observed following the vessel during longline retrieval on the exploratory surveys in the 1950s and their abundance was considered as a serious problem because of the high proportion of tunas they damaged (Bullis and Captiva 1955, Backus <em>et al</em>. 1956, Wathne 1959). Recent shark papers on the Gulf of Mexico have either not mentioned this species or have dismissed it as rare, not recognising its former prevalence in the area (Baum and Myers 2004). <br/> <br/>Few data are available on the catch rate of these sharks, and this is a serious hindrance to assessing the status of this species in regions other than the Northwest Atlantic and Eastern Central Pacific. Strasburg (1958) reported that the oceanic whitetip shark constituted 28% of the total shark catch in exploratory tuna longline fishing south of 100 N latitude in the central Pacific Ocean. According to Berkeley and Campos (1988), oceanic whitetip sharks constituted 2.1% of the shark bycatch in the swordfish fishery along the east coast of Florida in 1981 to 1983. Taniuchi (1990) analysed Japanese fishery statistics and noted that this species was most commonly taken by fishery boats in the Pacific, where they made up 20 to 30% of the number of sharks taken by tuna longliners, compared to about 3 to 4% in the Indian Ocean, because the boats are fishing for southern bluefin tuna in cooler waters. Guitart Manday (1975) demonstrated a marked decline in the oceanic whitetip shark landings in Cuba from 1971 to 1973. In the Maldives, Anderson and Ahmed (1993) reported that oceanic whitetip sharks were taken commercially by pelagic shark longliners and incidentally by tuna fishermen, and that in a previous exploratory fishing survey oceanic whitetip sharks constituted 23% of all sharks caught.  <br/> <br/>Domingo (2004) reported that the Uruguayan longline fleet observer programme in 1998 to 2003 recorded catch rates of only 0.006 sharks/1,000 hooks in Uruguayan and adjacent high seas South Atlantic waters (latitude 26° to 37°, 16 to 23°C) and 0.09 sharks/1,000 hooks in international waters off the Atlantic coast of Africa. He notes that similarly infrequent records are obtained by Brazilian and Ecuadorian Atlantic longline fleets.
39375		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation or management plans in effect for this species.
39375		distribution	eng	Blacktip Reef Shark is a common tropical Indo-West Pacific and Central Pacific species with a range extending from Thailand to China, Japan, the Philippines, New Caledonia and northern Australia (Compagno 1984). Blacktip Reef Sharks have been reported from many Pacific Islands including: the Marshall Islands (Bonham 1960), the Solomon Islands (Blaber and Milton 1990) the Gilbert Islands, the Society Islands south to the Tuamotu Archipelago (Randall and Helfman 1973) and also the Hawaiian Islands (Randall and Helfman 1973, Compagno 1984, Taylor and Wisner 1989). The species is also present in South Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles and Madagascar to the Red Sea, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Andaman and the Maldive Islands (Compagno 1984). This shark has also penetrated the eastern Mediterranean Sea, probably via the Suez Canal from the Red Sea. The Blacktip Reef Shark is commonly found in shallow waters on and near coral reefs (Randall and Helfman 1973, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). This species is often seen in water only a few metres deep and is occasionally present in brackish waters (Last and Stevens 1994).
39375		habitat	eng	Most authors agree that Blacktip Reef Sharks range from 30?50 cm at birth. Adults reach total lengths of up to 180 cm and mature between 90?110 cm (Compagno 1984, Stevens 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/>Stomach contents show the primary item of prey to be teleost fishes (Lyle 1987, Stevens 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Prey items also include crustaceans, cephalopods and other molluscs (Stevens 1984, Lyle 1987, Last and Stevens 1994). Interestingly, the species is also reported to have consumed terrestrial and sea snakes (Lyle 1987, Lyle and Timms 1987). Lyle (1987) also reported that predation upon other elasmobranchs was rare. <br/><br/>Information on reproductive biology is limited and conflicting. Blacktip Reef Sharks are viviparous with a yolk sac placenta and give birth to 2?4 pups (usually four) (Compagno 1984, Lyle 1987, Last and Stevens 1994). In northern Australia mating probably occurs in January and February, with parturition occurring in November (Lyle 1987). This cycle would allow an 8?9-month gestation period, however, Compagno (1984b), Melouk (1957) and Randall and Helfman (1973) list the gestation period for this species as being possibly 16 months. Observations of Blacktip Reef Sharks at the Aldabra Atoll (Indian Ocean) showed mating to occur in October?November and parturition the following October. These animals would therefore undergo a 10?11 month gestation period (Stevens 1984b). Stevens (1984b) also noted that individuals in this area generally breed every other year, but that this may be due to competition for food in the area because of its high shark population.
39375		population	eng	Common in tropical and subtropical waters.
39375		threats	eng	The Blacktip Reef Shark is not a target of major fisheries, but is regularly caught by inshore fisheries in India and Thailand (Compagno 1984b). It is rarely taken by northern Australian gillnet fisheries because of its shallow habitat (Last and Stevens 1994). Although this species is used fresh and dry salted for human consumption and for its liver-oil (Last and Stevens 1994) it is considered to be of little commercial importance (Lyle 1987). Data concerning the take of this species in artisanal fisheries is scarce, but due to its inshore, shallow water habitat it is likely to be a target of such activities. However, it is common in tropical and subtropical waters and not, therefore, considered to be in any immediate danger of serious population depletion worldwide.
39376		habitat	eng	<em>C. obscurus</em> is a coastal-pelagic species found inshore and offshore in warm-temperate and tropical waters of the continental and insular shelves and the oceanic waters adjacent to them. The species ranges from close inshore in the surf zone to well out to sea and from the surface to 400 m depth. It does not prefer areas with reduced salinities and tends to avoid estuaries. Adult dusky sharks are often seen offshore and commonly follow ships. This shark is strongly migratory in temperate and subtropical areas in the eastern north Pacific and western north Atlantic, moving north during the warmer months of summer and retreating south when the water cools. Dusky sharks eat a wide variety of reef, bottom, and pelagic bony fishes, as well as other elasmobranchs, crustaceans, octopi, cuttlefish, squid, starfish, barnacles, bryozoans, whale meat, and occasional garbage (Compagno 1984).
39376		threats	eng	The species has a very slow growth rate, with late maturation, long gestation period, and small litters. Its very low intrinsic rate of increase makes it particularly vulnerable to depletion by man. The species is taken with other more productive sharks in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch.
39378		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation or management measures in place for the Tiger Shark. However, in the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico this species is managed under a Fisheries Management Program (FMP) introduced in 1993. It is included in the large coastal group which has an annual quota of 1,285 t. This group is dominated by Sandbar Shark (<em>C. plumbeus</em>) and the Blacktip Shark (<em>C. limbatus</em>). A new FMP was introduced in early 1999, placing Tiger Sharks in the ridgeback large coastal group which have a quota of 622 t and a minimum size of 137 cm fork length. A court placed an injunction on these new regulations pending further court action by commercial fishers.
39378		distribution	eng	The Tiger Shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas. Randall (1992) described its distribution as follows: 'In the western Atlantic it ranges from Cape Cod to Uruguay, including the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and islands of the Caribbean; in the eastern Atlantic it is found on the West African coast from Morocco to Angola; it remains unknown from the Mediterranean Sea, but there are reports from Iceland and the United Kingdom (these were probably based on vagrants transported there during a warm year by the Gulf Stream) (Compagno 1984). It occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific region from the northern Red Sea to South Africa and east through the islands of Oceania and northern New Zealand (though not yet reported from Easter Island); in the eastern Pacific it ranges from southern California to Peru, including the Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands.'<br/><br/>Little is known of the Tiger Shark's depth range. Clark and Kristof (1990) illustrate a female Tiger Shark of about 250 cm total length (TL) from a photograph taken from a submersible in 350 m of water off Grand Cayman. The species is also encountered in very shallow water.
39378		habitat	eng	Randall (1992) reviewed a large number of studies on the feeding behaviour of Tiger Sharks, including Norman and Fraser (1937), Springer (1938), Whitley (1940), Bigelow and Schroeder (1948), Gudger (1948a,b, 1949), Kauffman (1950), Ikehara (1960), Springer in Gilbert (1963), Gohar and Mazhar (1964), Clark and von Schmidt (1965), Randall (1967, 1980), Tester (1969), Fujimoto and Sakuda (1972), Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975), De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) and Stevens (1984). He concluded that this species has probably the most diverse diet of any shark species. Prey includes numerous bony fish, sharks, rays, turtles, sea birds, seals, dolphins, sea snakes, cephalopods, crabs, lobsters, gastropods and jellyfish. They consume carrion and readily take baited hooks. Tiger Sharks also have a propensity to consume ?garbage? of human origin, including plastics, metal, sacks, kitchen scraps and almost any other item discarded in the sea.<br/><br/>The age and growth characteristics of Tiger Sharks have been investigated by a number of authors, most notably De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) and Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987). Working in the north-west Hawaiian Islands De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) estimated that a Tiger Shark with a precaudal length of 200 cm is about five years old and that one of 300 cm is about 15 years old. Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987) used similar techniques to De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) to produce growth curves for Tiger Sharks from the coast of Virginia and the northern Gulf of Mexico. They estimated that initial growth was very fast, but that the rate of growth of very large animals is 5?10 cm year<sup>-1</sup>; thus, individuals of 400?450 cm TL would be 20?25 years of age. Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987) gave a maximum age of 45?50 years. Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase of a tiger shark population at MSY to be 0.043 year<sup>-1</sup>. Randall (1992) summarised that the size at maturity of male Tiger Sharks is 226?290 cm TL and in females 250?350 cm TL.<br/><br/>The Tiger Shark is the only species of the family Carcharhinidae that is ovoviviparous. Litter sizes are large, with between 10?82 embryos reported from a single female. Mean litter sizes of 30?35 have been reported (Tester 1969, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975, Simpfendorfer 1992). The size at birth is 51?90 cm TL (Randall 1992, Simpfendorfer 1992). Clark and von Schmidt (1965) gave the gestation period as 13?16 months. There have been few other estimates of gestation period. Mating is reported to take place in the Northern Hemisphere in spring, with pupping the following spring to summer. Mating occurs before full-term females have given birth to young, indicating that litters are produced every two years or less. In the Southern Hemisphere Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) and Simpfendorfer (1992) have reported pupping during summer. The young are very slender with a flexible body and caudal fin; they swim with an inefficient anguilliform motion. Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987) concluded that they are probably very vulnerable to predation at this stage, especially by sharks, including their own kind. <br/><br/>Tagging studies, particularly in the western Atlantic, have provided the best information on the movements of Tiger Sharks. Randall (1992) provided data from a range of studies that indicated that two patterns of movement are observed in tagging studies. The first of these is where the release and recapture positions are close together, suggesting that the individual may have remained in a relatively small area. The other pattern observed is where the individual is recaptured a long distance from the release site, often after a short period at liberty. The maximum reported distance between release and recapture for a Tiger Shark was approximately 3,430 km.
39378		threats	eng	Tiger sharks are caught in numerous fisheries world wide, both as target species and bycatch. Products utilised from Tiger Sharks include flesh, fins, skin, liver oil and cartilage. Although not considered of high quality, the mercury content of this shark's flesh is lower than other large carcharhinid species (Simpfendorfer pers. data). The fins, skin and liver oil from Tiger Sharks are all considered to be of high quality and can fetch good prices. The high value of products has increased commercial fishing pressure on this and similar species worldwide, especially since demand for high quality shark fins has increased. Catches of Tiger Sharks in directed shark fisheries have been documented for a number of areas including the western Atlantic (e.g., Kleijn 1974, Hoey and Casey 1986, Berkeley and Campos 1988, Bonfil 1994, GSAFDF 1996), Australia (Stevens <em>et al. </em>1982, Lyle <em>et al.</em> 1984), India (Burman 1994), Papua New Guinea (Chapau and Opnai 1986), Brazil and Taiwan (Province of China) (Bonfil 1994). Commercial catches are also taken in many other areas but few records of their capture exist. Tiger Sharks are not typically the target species in these fisheries but are bycatch in fisheries targeting other shark species. Catches of Tiger Sharks in these fisheries are often not reported directly, but observer data on the species composition can be used to make estimates.<br/><br/>In the US East Coast/Gulf of Mexico shark fishery tiger sharks are the third most common large, coastal species caught in the fishery, accounting for 12?20% of the catch (GSAFDF 1996). However, they account for only 5% of the landed weight as they are considered of limited value since finning is not allowed in this fishery. Most of the individuals caught in this fishery are juveniles less than 150 cm FL, although large animals are also taken (S. Branstetter pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In northern Australia gillnet fisheries catch Tiger Sharks, although the mesh sizes used have precluded the capture of significant numbers (Lyle <em>et al.</em> 1984). In northern West Australia a number of fishers have used heavy drumlines to fish for large sharks. Tiger Sharks have been a major target of these fishers, with catches reaching 116 t (live weight) in 1994/95 (Simpfendorfer and Lenanton 1995). All operators who have targeted Tiger Sharks in this area have now ceased fishing.<br/><br/>Tiger Sharks are taken as bycatch in a variety of fisheries including tuna and swordfish longline fisheries (e.g., Anderson 1985, Berkeley and Campos 1988), particularly those operating on, or close to, the continental and insular shelves. They are also taken in trawl fisheries  (e.g., squid, fish and crustacean trawl fisheries), although normally in small numbers. There are few records of Tiger Shark catches for these fisheries. Tiger Sharks are undoubtedly caught in tropical and subtropical artisanal fisheries. However, gear limitations in these fisheries probably precludes the capture of large numbers, especially of larger individuals. There are few published data on artisanal fishery captures and it is not possible to quantify catches or the impact that these may have on Tiger Shark populations.<br/><br/>Tiger Sharks are caught by recreational fishers. The species is one that has International Game Fish Association (IGFA) status, the current record being 596 kg. Catches have been documented off the east coast of the United States, Australia and South Africa (e.g., Stevens 1984, Anderson 1985, Casey and Hoey 1985, Pepperell 1992, Anon. 1994). Estimates of total catches of shark by recreational anglers off the east coast of the United States (including the Gulf of Mexico) in 1978 are 10,300 t (Casey and Hoey 1985) and in 1980 over 15,000 t (Anderson 1985). Estimates of the species composition of the recreational catch indicates that Tiger Sharks represent 0.8?2.1% of the catch. Based on these estimates of species composition, the recreational Tiger Shark catches in 1978 and 1980 would have been approximately 10?20 t and 15?30 t, respectively. More recently recreational catches have declined, and tagging and release has become more common. In Australian waters Pepperell (1992) estimated that Tiger Sharks represented approximately 10% of the sharks captured by IGFA associated clubs off the New South Wales coast during the 1970s. This increased to approximately 20% during the 1980s, due to increased targeting. Size composition data provided by Pepperell (1992) indicate that the bulk of the catch was 80?130 kg. Stevens (1984) estimated that Tiger Sharks comprised 17% of the recreational catch by anglers off New South Wales between 1979 and 1982, based on catch sampling.<br/><br/>Tiger Sharks are undoubtedly caught by recreational fishers in many countries, and not only those documented above. Recreational fishing is likely to account for significant mortality in Tiger Shark populations in coastal waters of some countries.<br/><br/>The large size, and propensity to occasionally attack humans, makes Tiger Sharks a target of shark control programmes, particularly those operating in tropical areas (e.g., Queensland (Paterson 1990) and Hawaii (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1994)). However, they are also taken in other programmes (e.g., South Africa (Dudley and Cliff 1993) and New SouthWales (Reid and Krough 1992)). These control programmes use either large mesh gillnets and/or heavy lines to capture large, dangerous sharks. The theory behind the programmes is that fishing reduces the abundance of the large, dangerous sharks and so reduces the probability of attacks in areas where there has previously been relatively high records of shark attacks. There is conflicting evidence as to whether these control programmes are effective in reducing the abundance of Tiger Sharks. Evidence from Paterson (1990), Simpfendorfer (1992) and Dudley and Cliff (1993) indicates that Tiger Shark abundance has either remained steady, or even increased in ?meshed? areas. Catch rate data from Hawaii indicated that shark control programmes did reduce Tiger Shark abundance (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1994). These data suggest that at best the use of shark control programmes to reduce population levels of Tiger Sharks may be of only limited value.<br/><br/>Tiger Shark populations face a variety of threats. These include not only a large range of directed and bycatch fisheries, but also problems such as the ingestion of human garbage. The high value of some products (especially fins) from Tiger Sharks has resulted in increased fishing pressures on this species in recent years. Musick <em>et al. </em>(1993) noted a precipitous decline in Tiger Sharks off Virginia, USA, due to both recreational and commercial harvesting between 1980 and 1992. There is anecdotal evidence that in areas where catches in commercial fisheries are high, abundance has been significantly reduced (e.g., Taiwan (POC) (Bonfil 1994)). There is some evidence from shark control programmes that localised catches of Tiger Sharks do not affect abundance.<br/><br/>The widespread distribution of this species increases the likelihood that it will survive increasing levels of exploitation in certain areas. Its growth and reproductive rates are also relatively high, making the levels of mortality that the Tiger Shark can survive higher than for many other species of shark. Additionally, juvenile survivorship increases where adult Tiger Shark populations have been depleted by fisheries and hence predation of young is lessened. However, the overall life history constraints to increased mortality applicable to all sharks must also be borne in mind when considering the conservation status of this species.
39379		conservation	eng	In Australia,   this species is protected in Commonwealth waters, listed as Critically Endangered on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999. It is listed as Vulnerable under the Territory  Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000, but no management program was in place as of June 2002 (Stirrat and Larson 2002). A Recovery Plan is currently being drafted and will be completed by mid-2003 (S. Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).
39379		distribution	eng	The Speartooth Shark is   known from few specimens in scattered localities off northern Australia and New Guinea (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recorded from relatively fresh water in the Bizant and Wenlock Rivers (Queensland), Adelaide and East and South Alligator Rivers (Northern Territory) in Australia and from close to Port Romilly and Fly River in New Guinea (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The holotype is stuffed (no vertebral column except that of the caudal fin) and without locality. There are two similar species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis </span>in the Western Pacific. Recent comparison of specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis </span>sp. A has confirmed that they are conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis glyphis</span>. This species appears to be a large inshore marine and freshwater, euryhaline species like the Bull Shark (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus leucas</span>), but far rarer, less wide ranging and perhaps more restricted in habitat and habits. A survey in mid-late 2002 of freshwater elasmobranchs using gillnets and longlines in northern Australia (Kimberleys, Western  Australia east to the Cape York drainages of Queensland) yielded no additional specimens of this species despite collecting in 38 rivers and 136 sites (J. D. Stevens, pers. comm. March 2003).
39379		habitat	eng	The Speartooth Shark occurs inshore, in estuarine and freshwater habitats. The largest whole specimen was a 175 cm total length (TL) female (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but they may reach 200-300 cm TL (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). One adolescent male measured 144.7 cm TL and all other males examined were juveniles (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Size at birth is estimated at ~59 cm TL (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The ecology (i.e., critical habitat, salinity tolerances) and life history parameters (age and size at maturity for males and females, litter sizes, longevity) of this species need further investigation. The small eyes and slender teeth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis </span>species suggest that they are primarily fish eaters adapted to living in turbid waters with poor visibility (Compagno 1984, Fowler 1997).
39379		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but is suspected to be small based on current knowledge and their apparent rarity. The number and size of subpopulations is also unknown. All populations need to be preserved to maintain the genetic diversity within this species. Kakadu National Park (Northern Territory) is probably an important site for this species as it may be afforded more protection here than in other areas.
39379		threats	eng	Speartooth Sharks occur in the lower reaches of the Bizant River in Queensland, Australia, in rivers in Northern Territory, in inshore or estuarine waters of southern Papua New Guinea and far up the Fly River (which has had severe problems because of release of toxic substances from mining operations up the river). Some of the most threatened chondrichthyan species are those restricted to such habitats, and with naturally very small populations. In addition to all the biological constraints of the marine chondrichthyans, freshwater/brackish species are more seriously limited by threats (such as fisheries and habitat degradation) affecting their restricted populations than are more widely ranging marine species (Compagno 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis glyphis </span>is likely to be threatened by both commercial and recreational fishing and possible habitat degradation. Commercial fishing may be in the form of gillnetting (legal or illegal) or longlining. Recreational fishing may be in the form of illegal gillnetting or hook and line fishing (using bait and/or lures). The potential impacts of fishing operations on this species need further investigation.
39380		conservation	eng	There are no management plans in place for the Lemon Shark. Some research, however, has dealt with related issues so there is a base of knowledge should a plan ever be implemented.
39380		distribution	eng	This inshore species is common along the coasts in the Atlantic Ocean ranging from the US in the north down to southern Brazil and possibly in some areas on the West African Coast. It is not known whether these populations are the same species (Compagno 1984). Lemon Sharks also occur in the Pacific Ocean from Baja California in the north to Ecuador in the south.
39380		habitat	eng	The Lemon Shark inhabits shallow waters around coral keys, mangrove fringes, around docks, on sand or coral mud bottoms, in saline creeks, in enclosed sounds or bays and in river mouths. It may enter fresh water but has not been found far up in rivers (Compagno 1984b). Occasionally it ventures into the open ocean and has been found down at depths of at least 90 m (Springer 1950).<br/><br/>Mating occurs during spring and summer with parturition in shallow nursery grounds the following year after a 10?12 month gestation period (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Springer 1950, Clark and von Schmidt 1965). The female Lemon Shark gives birth to 4?17 young (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Compagno 1984b) of 50?60 cm TL (Gruber and Stout 1983, Brown and Gruber 1988). Maturity is reached at 225 cm (males) and 235 cm (females) or at an age of 12 and 13 years, respectively (Compagno 1984b, Brown and Gruber 1988). Growth follows the von Bertalanffy equation (Brown and Gruber 1988): <br/><br/>PCL = 317.65 × (1-e -0.057 (t + 2.302)), n = 110, r2 = 0.99 , where PCL is precaudal length (m) at time t (yrs). <br/><br/>This equation assumes the maximum length to be 317 cm, but the lemon shark can become bigger. Hueter and Gruber (1982) examined a 368 cm large male. The normal size range of the adult is 250?290 cm with females being slightly bigger than males (Brown and Gruber 1988) but sizes of up to 3 m or more are not unusual (Clark and von Schmidt 1965). At this size the shark would have a weight of approximately 250 kg (Gruber 1984) and is probably more than 30 years old.<br/><br/>Activity space ranges from a few km² in the highly site-attached juveniles (Morrissey and Gruber 1993a) up to several hundred km² in the more active adults (Compagno 1984b). Juvenile Lemon Sharks appear to select shallow (0?50 cm) and warmer water (30°C or more). They also prefer rocky or sandy substrate (Morrissey and Gruber 1993b). Almost all field research on the Lemon Shark originates from the waters in and around the Bimini Lagoon, Bahamas where a high annual, density-dependent mortality rate (35?62%) for young-of-the-year Lemon Sharks was found (Gruber <em>et al</em>. 2001). This is probably due to predation by larger sharks (Manire and Gruber 1993). Jacobsen (1987) suggested that the same area could support about 250 juveniles while Henningsen and Gruber (1985) estimated the population to be around 500 specimens with a density of five sharks per km². The annual production of these Lemon Sharks was 320 kg corresponding to about 0.3 g of new Lemon Shark tissue for every m² of lagoon (Henningsen 1989). Later, Gruber <em>et al</em>. (2001) estimated that the maximum number of juveniles that could survive each year in the Bimini Lagoon was 30. Young Lemon Sharks feed mainly on teleosts, crustaceans (small portunid crabs and panaeid shrimp) and octopods. As they grow the diet becomes dominated by teleost and cartilaginous fishes and the adults even eat sea birds (Springer 1950, Cortés and Gruber 1990). The energy consumed and later used for growth depends on the daily feeding rate but maximum conversion rate is probably close to 25% (Cortés and Gruber 1994).
39380		threats	eng	Lemon Sharks are caught commercially on longlines and the meat is dried, salted, or smoked. The fins fetch a very high price. The Lemon Shark is consumed in the United States and in Central and South America (Rose 1996). The rough and heavy skin has made the lemon shark preferable among tanneries for the production of leather. However, it is not included in TRAFFIC Network?s list of species frequently appearing in available information on worldwide shark fisheries (Rose 1996). It is a target species in Belize, Mexico and USA and reported as bycatch in St Lucia (Oliver 1996, Anon. 1997). Lemon Sharks were seen at a fish market in Cameroon in 1991, but not since then (C. Grist pers. comm.). The species is also caught in recreational fishing and was reported as the 13th most common shark species in the US recreational fishery (Casey and Hoey 1985). A decrease in the number of juvenile Lemon Sharks between 1986?1989 in the lower Florida Keys may have been caused by several years of shark fishing tournaments and 20 years of targeting with gillnets affecting the return of females to bear new litters (Manire and Gruber 1990). The Lemon Shark is a popular aquarium species and it is also used extensively for research purposes. Lemon Sharks used to be common in the western Atlantic, from New Jersey, USA to Brazil, but lately their numbers have been depleted, especially around Florida (S.H. Gruber pers. comm.).
39381		conservation	eng	The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 250 t for Blue Shark in the target shark fishery. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, bycatch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook-and-release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998).<br/><br/>In 1991, Australia brought in legislation that prevented Japanese longliners fishing in the EEZ from landing shark fins unless they were accompanied by the carcass.<br/><br/>Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. Commercial fishers require an annual shark permit, and finning is prohibited. In Mexico, a high-seas longline fishery taking pelagic sharks was banned within the EEZ in 1990 (Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998).
39381		distribution	eng	The Blue Shark is one of the most wide ranging of all sharks, being found throughout tropical and temperate seas from latitudes of about 60°N'50°S. It is oceanic and pelagic, found from the surface to about 350 m depth; occasionally it occurs close inshore where the continental shelf is narrow. The Blue Shark prefers temperatures of 12'20°C and is found at greater depths in tropical waters (Last and Stevens 1994).
39381		habitat	eng	The Blue Shark reaches a maximum size of about 380 cm TL. About 50% of males in the Atlantic are sexually mature by 218 cm, although some may reach maturity as small as 182 cm. Females are sub-adult from 173?221 cm and fully mature from 221 cm (Pratt 1979), although pregnant fish as small as 183 cm have been recorded from the eastern Pacific (Williams 1977).<br/><br/>Blue Sharks are placentally viviparous, producing litters averaging about 35 (maximum recorded 135) after a gestation period of 9?12 months. At birth the pups are 35?50 cm long. Reproduction has been reported as seasonal in most areas, with the young often born in spring or summer (Pratt 1979, Stevens 1984a, Nakano 1994) although the periods of ovulation and parturition may be extended (Strasburg 1958, Hazin <em>et al. </em>1994). The skin of females is about three times thicker than that of males to withstand the extensive courtship bites of males. Females can store sperm in their nidamental glands for extended periods, for later fertilisation (Pratt 1979). Ageing studies suggest a longevity of about 20 years with males maturing at 4?6 and females at 5?7 years (Stevens 1975, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1983b, Nakano 1994). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of population increase at MSY to be 0.061.<br/><br/>Blue Sharks are highly migratory with complex movement patterns and spatial structure related to reproduction and the distribution of prey. There tends to be a seasonal shift in population abundance to higher latitudes associated with oceanic convergence or boundary zones as these are areas of higher productivity. Tagging studies of blue sharks have demonstrated extensive movements of blue sharks in the Atlantic with numerous trans-Atlantic migrations which are probably accomplished by swimming slowly and utilising the major current systems (Stevens 1976, Casey 1985, Stevens 1990). More limited tagging in the Pacific has also shown extensive movements of up to 9,200 km (P. Saul pers. comm.). Substantial data from the North Atlantic on the distribution, movements and reproductive behaviour of different segments of the population suggest a complex reproductive cycle. This involves major oceanic migrations associated with mating areas in the north-western Atlantic and pupping areas in the north-eastern Atlantic (Pratt 1979, Casey 1985, Stevens 1990).<br/><br/>The diet of Blue Sharks consists mainly of small pelagic fish and cephalopods, particularly squid; however, invertebrates (mainly pelagic crustaceans), small sharks, cetaceans (possibly carrion) and seabirds are also taken (Compagno 1984b). While most of the fish prey is pelagic, bottom fishes also feature in the diet. Blue sharks are known to feed throughout the 24-hour period but have been reported to be more active at night, with highest activity in the early evening (Sciarrotta and Nelson 1977).
39381		threats	eng	Blue Sharks are rarely target commercial species but are a major bycatch of longline and driftnet fisheries, particularly from nations with high-seas fleets. Much of this bycatch is often unrecorded. Blue sharks are also taken by sport fishermen, particularly in the United States, Europe and Australia. <br/><br/>Periodically, small target fisheries have existed for Blue Sharks such as a seasonal longline fishery for juveniles of 50?150 cm near Vigo, Spain. Some 3t of gutted individuals were observed over a two-day period at Vigo fish market (A. Kingman pers. comm.). A Taiwanese (POC) longline fishery in Indonesian waters took about 13,000 t live weight of blue sharks in 1993 (N. Bentley pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Blue Shark catch rates reported from commercial longlining in the Atlantic Ocean range in average values from 2.9?100 (Stevens and Wayte 1999), while average catch rates as high as 145.0 have been recorded from research longlining (A. da Silva pers. comm.). Stevens (in press) estimated a catch of 137,800 t of Blue Shark from high-seas longline fleets, and 2,300 t from high-seas purse¬seining, in the Pacific in 1994. Bonfil (1994) calculated that 21,152 t of Blue Shark were taken by high-seas driftnet fleets in the Pacific during the 1989?90 period. The annual global catch of blue sharks is likely to be around 20 million individuals.<br/><br/>The limited fishery assessments carried out to date have shown no evidence of a declining trend in catch rates of Blue Sharks with time in the Atlantic or Indian Oceans. However, a 20% decrease was evident in the North Pacific between the periods 1971?1982 to 1983?1993 (Nakano 1996). No consistent decline in catch rates through the fishing season was evident for Japanese longliners fishing in Australian waters (Stevens and Wayte 1999).
39382		conservation	eng	In the United States, the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is classified as a small coastal species in the Federal Management Plan (FMP) for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, together with the Blacknose Shark (<em>Carcarhinus acronotus</em>), the Finetooth Shark (<em>C. isodon</em>), the Bonnethead Sharl (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>), the Smalltail Shark (<em>C. porosus</em>), the Atlantic Angel Shark (<em>Squatina dumeril</em>) and the Caribbean Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon porosus</em>) (NMFS 1993). The small coastal shark complex is not currently considered to be overfished, but there are fishing regulations in effect, which include an annual commercial quota of 1,760 t dressed weight, and a recreational daily bag limit of two sharks per vessel per trip, with an additional allowance of two Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks per person per trip. A more recent FMP (NMFS 1999) called for more stringent measures, including a reduction of the annual commercial quota for small coastal sharks to 359 t and making the Atlantic angelshark, Caribbean sharpnose and smalltail sharks prohibited species.<br/><br/>This is a very abundant species, with early age at maturity, short lifespan and generation time, and moderately high litter size and population growth rates, capable of withstanding a higher level of removals than many other species of sharks. It is thus considered to be of low risk of extinction because of its life history and population characteristics.
39382		distribution	eng	The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark occurs in the western North Atlantic, ranging as far north as New Brunswick, Canada, to the Yucatan Peninsula in the south, including the Gulf of Mexico.
39382		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found off sandy beaches and in estuaries and enclosed bays and sounds, mostly over mud and sand bottoms. There is a seasonal inshore-offshore migration, with individuals moving to deeper offshore waters in winter (Compagno 1984).<br/><br/>The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is a small, coastal carcharhinid that rarely exceeds 110 cm total length (TL). The life history of this species in the US Gulf of Mexico has been fairly well described. In this area, female seldom exceeds 107 cm TL and males rarely surpass 105 cm TL. Females generally mature between 85?90 cm TL (or 2.8?3.9 years of age) and males mature between 80?85 cm TL (or 2.4?3.5 years of age) (Parsons 1985, Branstetter 1987). Thus, both males and females reach maturity at about 80% of their maximum size. Maximum observed ages in two separate studies were 6+ years and 7+ years for both sexes combined, whereas theoretical longevities derived from von Bertalanffy growth curves predict that this species should reach at least 10 years (Cortés 2000a). Recent tag-recapture information has shown that this species can live to at least nine years (J. Carlson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is a placental viviparous species that reproduces annually. Gestation period has been reported to last from 10?12 months; litter size is generally 4?6, ranging from 1?7. Offspring are born at 30?35 cm TL or about 30% of maximum adult size. There is a positive correlation between maternal size and litter size and evidence of a trade-off between the number and size of offspring, i.e. there is a negative correlation between litter size and offspring size (Parsons 1983). Mating occurs between mid-May and mid-July and parturition generally takes place mostly in June. The sex ratio at birth is 1:1.<br/><br/>This species uses enclosed bays and sounds as nursery areas. Despite the abundance of this shark, its diet has not been very well described quantitatively. It is dominated by teleost fishes (66%) and crustaceans (32%), but also includes some molluscs (Branstetter 1981, Gelsleichter <em>et al.</em> 1999, Cortés unpubl. data). <br/><br/>Cortés (1995) extensively studied the demography of the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark in the Gulf of Mexico and found that the life history characteristics of this species did not allow it to withstand the levels of fishing mortality it was thought to be subjected to. Recent demographic studies of this species by Cortés (in press) that incorporate uncertainty in estimates of vital rates indicate that the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark has moderate population growth rates (?) (mean=1.056 yr<sup>-1</sup>; 95% confidence interval = 0.970?1.195 yr<sup>-1</sup>) and short generation times (?) (mean=4.9 years, 95% CI = 4.0?5.4 years). Elasticity analysis (which examines the proportional sensitivity of ? to a proportional change in a vital rate) also showed that ? is more sensitive to juvenile survival and adult survival than to fertility (which includes survival to age-1). Annual survivorship values used in Cortés (2002) were estimated through five indirect life history methods and ranged from 55?79%.
39382		population	eng	The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is an abundant, small coastal shark of warm temperate and tropical waters (Compagno 1984b).
39382		threats	eng	In the United States, Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks are caught in commercial and recreational fisheries and also as bycatch. Recent commercial landings of this species indicate that it accounted for over one-third of all landings of small coastal sharks in the south-eastern United States during 1996?1999. In 1998 and 1999, over 90% of small coastal sharks were landed in Florida?s east coast, the majority of which were caught with drift gillnet gear. Commercial landings of Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks averaged 61,000 individuals from 1995?1999 (Cortés 2000b).<br/><br/>Recreational catch estimates from several surveys indicate that about 72,000 Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks were caught annually from 1981?1998, ranging from a minimum of about 18,000 sharks in 1985 to a peak of about 137,000 sharks caught in 1991 (Cortés 2000b). Additionally, bycatch estimates from the shrimp trawl fishery operating in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that about 1.75 million individuals were caught annually from 1972?1999 (Cortés unpubl.).<br/><br/>The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is also heavily exploited in Mexico. A monitoring programme conducted in the Gulf of Mexico between November 1993 and December 1994 showed that it is the most important species in the artisanal fisheries, accounting for 46% of the landings numerically, especially in Campeche where 46% of the total is landed (Castillo <em>et al.</em> 1998). By month, the highest landings corresponded to May and October. This species is caught mostly with gillnets. Elsewhere this species has been documented as bycatch in Canada.<br/><br/>Nursery areas for this species are located inshore and adults frequent inshore waters, making this species vulnerable to exploitation and human-induced habitat degradation.
39383		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation or management measures that apply specifically to this species.
39383		distribution	eng	The Spadenose Shark is an abundant inshore species throughout Southeast Asia and north-eastern Africa. It occurs in the Indonesian archipelago as far as Java and Kalimantan. It is commonly recorded from the lower reaches of rivers in at least Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo (Compagno 1984b).
39383		habitat	eng	The Spadenose Shark is a small species, growing to a maximum length of approximately 74 cm. It feeds mostly on small benthic fish, cephalopods, crabs and stomatopods (Setna <em>et al. </em>1948, Compagno 1984b, Wang <em>et al. </em>1996).<br/><br/>This shark is placentally viviparous, with arguably the most advanced reproductive mode of the elasmobranchs. Eggs are ovulated at only 1 mm in diameter and the stalked placenta forms when the embryos are only a few millimetres in length (Wourms 1993). The young are born at a length of 12?15 cm. Males mature at 24?36 cm and females at 33?35 cm (Devadoss 1979, Compagno 1984b). Breeding occurs throughout the year (Devadoss 1979) and females probably mate at least once each year. Litter sizes range from 6?18, with a mean of 13 (Devadoss 1979). The young are born throughout the year, after a gestation period of five or six months (Compagno 1984b).<br/><br/>There are limited age and growth data available for the Spadenose Shark. Nair (1976) and Kasim (1991) used length frequency data to estimate age and growth parameters. Nair (1976) estimated that they mature at one or two years of age, and that males live approximately five years and females six years. Kasim (1991) gave more rapid estimates of growth, producing growth curves that estimate the size of maturity being reached in less than six months. The use of length frequency data to estimate growth parameters, however, may be erroneous for the Spadenose Shark since the young are born throughout the year, making age-class identification problematic. Further work on the age and growth of this species using vertebral ageing and/or tag-recapture would prove useful. <br/>Kasim (1991) used his growth data from length-frequency analysis to make estimates of natural mortality (M). Using the method of Pauly (1980) he estimated that M = 1.53 year<sup>-1</sup> for females and M = 1.76 year<sup>-1</sup> for males. He also estimated total mortality to be very high, in the range of 3.32 year<sup>-1</sup> to 8.73 year<sup>-1</sup>. These estimates are very high and suggest that the methods or data used were inappropriate.
39383		threats	eng	The abundance of this species in inshore waters makes it a major component of a variety of fisheries in Southeast Asia. For example, Kasim (1991) reported that the annual recorded catch of Spadenose Shark in the Verval coast, India from 1979?1981 averaged 823 t. This was taken mostly by trawl and gillnet fishing. Parry-Jones (1996) reported that the Spadenose Shark was the most commonly observed coastal species in Chinese market surveys. Unfortunately, there are no data available on the overall catch of this species, or the impact of fishing on stocks.<br/><br/>The occurrence of this species in estuarine and inshore areas may also make this species susceptible to the impacts of habitat degradation and modification. However, there are no data available on this subject.
39384		conservation	eng	No specific management or conservation plans are known to exist for this species and it must be regarded as potentially under threat from continuing tropical multi-species fisheries. Marine reserves of appropriate size and locality could protect this species, given the pattern of residency shown by Randall (1977). Its distribution in clear waters over coral reefs makes this species ideal for non-consumptive use in the form of tourism diving, as has been shown in a preliminary analysis by Anderson and Ahmed (1993).
39384		distribution	eng	The Whitetip Reef Shark is wide ranging in the Indo-Pacific. It occurs along the east coast of Africa from South Africa to Red Sea, Indian Ocean islands, northern Indian Ocean, including India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, New Guinea and Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia to the Hawaiian Islands and Pitcairn group. The species is also found in the eastern Pacific, Cocos Islands, Galapagos and Panama to Costa Rica (Compagno 1984b). It is found in shallow tropical waters from about 1 m down to 330 m depth, but mainly between 10?40 m (Randall 1977).
39384		habitat	eng	Whitetip Reef Sharks are closely associated with coral reefs in clear, tropical waters. Primarily nocturnal, they shelter in caves by day, often communally. They often return to a home cave for periods of days, weeks or more (Randall 1977). Active at night, they hunt fish and other prey, often in caves and crevices. Maturity is attained at about 105 cm, although a mature male of 95 cm and a pregnant female of 102 cm have been recorded in the Maldives (Anderson and Ahmed 1993). Mating has been recorded in the wild by Tricas and Le Feuvre (1985) and pups are born at 52?60 cm after a gestation period of at least five months. Litter size has been recorded as 2?3 in Madagascar (Fourmanoir 1961, Last and Stevens 1994) and 1?5 elsewhere (Randall 1977, Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Growth is slow in the wild, estimated at 2.1?4.2 cm year<sup>-1</sup> (Randall 1977), and they may attain sexual maturity at eight to nine years and live to about 16 years (Randall 1977, Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). Maximum size is around 200 cm TL but adults are very rare over 160 cm (Compagno in prep. b).
39384		threats	eng	Taken in line and net trawl fisheries operating in shallow reef areas, this shark has been recorded as part of the multi-species shark catch taken by tropical fisheries, e.g. Barnett (1996), Hayes (1996) and Keong (1996). Although its life history pattern suggests a moderate capacity for rebound (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998), heavy fishing pressure inshore and lack of management plan in most places suggest that this species may be under threat in heavily fished areas, including remote tropical reefs (Anderson <em>et al.</em>1998).
39385		conservation	eng	Scalloped hammerhead is a member of the family Sphyrnidae, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g., ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the capture of oceanic sharks for their fins alone.<br/><br/>Management plans, fishing regulation, and monitoring programs are needed throughout this species? range.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic</strong> (including Caribbean Sea)<br/>In the U.S. this species is included in the Large Coastal Shark complex management unit, on U.S. Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks). There are, however, no management measures specific to this species, and no stock assessments. Efforts to limit catches of this species, and increased monitoring of incidental catches in commercial fisheries are both recommended.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>In Brazil, there are laws restricting the length of pelagic gillnets and banning trawl fishing at a distance of less than three nautical miles from shore (equivalent depths of less than about 10 m), however enforcement of these laws has been difficult. Therefore trawling in inshore nursery grounds has continued and gillnetting within nursery areas is not regulated. Some fisheries along the coast are poorly documented and the multi-species nature of many of the fisheries makes species-specific regulation very difficult. Therefore, it is recommended that coastal protected sea areas are established, in which fishing is banned, to protect nursery grounds.<br/><br/>In 1998, the Brazilian Government?s Environmental Agency (IBAMA - Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) made a first effort to control "finning" by issuing a federal regulation (Portaria IBAMA nnordm; 121 of August 24th, 1998), prohibiting shark finning by all vessels licensed to fish in Brazilian waters (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002). The enforcement of this law has been proven difficult and probably will require international financial aid, trained personnel for sampling work along the main fishing harbours and the establishment of a national observer program (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong><br/>There are no species-specific measures in place for <em>S. lewini</em> in the Eastern Pacific, although steps are being taken towards the management of elasmobranch fisheries. In Ecuador the current regulations prohibit shark fishing in the core zone of the Galápagos marine reserve, however extensive poaching has been reported. Ecuador issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec). In Mexico, some known adult aggregating sites are protected within the Revillagigedo Island archipelago, however enforcement is lacking and there are many reports of poaching. Protection of known nursery adult aggregating sites is recommended. Estimates of acceptable catch rates should be viewed with precaution until there is more certainty in age and growth parameters.<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>Although Australian fisheries are generally well-managed, the recent increase in illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing vessels in the waters of northern Australia is of concern for this species.
39385		distribution	eng	The Scalloped Hammerhead has a circumglobal distribution in coastal warm temperate and tropical seas (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Western Atlantic the species ranges from New Jersey to Uruguay, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007, Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong><br/>This shark possibly occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and around the Azores. Probably present all along the western Africa coast, confirmed from Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Gabon, and Congo (Compagno in prep, M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Recorded from South Africa (Western Cape to kwaZulu-Natal), Maldives, and Red Sea to Pakistan, India, Myanmar (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Western Pacific</strong><br/>In the Western pacific, this shark occurs from Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, China (including Taiwan, Province of China), Japan, Philippines, Australia (Queensland, Western Australia), New Caledonia (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, the Scalloped Hammerhead ranges from southern California and Gulf of California to Panama, Ecuador and possibly northern Peru (Compagno in prep). Also Hawaii and Tahiti (Compagno in prep.).
39385		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2?10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20?24°C) and give birth in spring (November?February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species? range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40?45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40?50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9?12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12?41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31?57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219?340 cm TL for males and 296?346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140?198 cm TL and females at around 210?250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter?s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>?s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054?0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ?medium growth species? (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).
39385		population	eng	Recent studies indicate that the Northwest Atlantic, Caribbean Sea and Southwest Atlantic populations of this species are each genetically distinct from each other, and from Eastern Central Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations (D. Chapman and M. Shivji, Nova Southeastern University unpublished data). The boundaries between each population are not yet completely defined due to sampling constraints, but the "Caribbean Sea" population includes Belize and Panama and the "U.S. Gulf Of Mexico" sample covers from Texas to south-western Florida, the boundary or transition zone will be in between Texas and Northern Belize (D. Chapman and M. Shivji, Nova Southeastern University pers. comm. 2007). Further studies are planned to obtain more samples from the Caribbean Sea. Adult site fidelity and annual homing to seamounts are known to occur in the Gulf of California (Klimley 1988, Klimley unpublished data).
39385		threats	eng	The Scalloped Hammerhead is taken as both a target and bycatch by trawls, purse-seines, gillnets, fixed bottom longlines, pelagic longlines and inshore artisanal fisheries. The latter catch large numbers of pups and juveniles in some regions. The species? aggregating habit makes them vulnerable to capture in large schools. This also means that they may appear more abundant in landings, where they are caught in high, localised concentrations. Intense fishing pressure can deplete regional stocks rapidly, and re-colonization of depleted areas from neighboring regions is expected to be a slow and complex process. This species is expected to have a low resilience to exploitation because of its life-history characteristics (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species? fins are highly valued and they are being increasingly targeted in some areas in response to increasing demand for shark fins. Hammerhead shark species <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini</em> were found to represent at least 4-5% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Hammerhead shark fins are generally high value compared to other species because of their high fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 1.3 and 2.7 million <em>S. zygaena</em> or <em>S. lewini</em> are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 49,000 to 90,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong> (including Caribbean Sea)<br/>In the USA this species is caught in both commercial coastal shark bottom longline and gillnet fisheries and the pelagic longline fishery, where it suffers high mortality (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also taken in recreational shark fisheries. The USA pelagic longline fishery has operated since the 1960s and encompasses the entire range of this species in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, from the equator to about 50°N. Although this is quite a fecund shark, its late age at maturity in this region (15 years) will render it quite vulnerable to overexploitation, and limit its recovery potential.<br/><br/>Estimates of trends in abundance of <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. are available from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S.A. pelagic longline fishery, from logbook data between 1986 and 2000 and from observer data between 1992 and 2005. The area covered by this fishery, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the range of this species in these two regions. Although this fishery will not sample individuals closest to the coast, the sample size of hammerheads recorded in the logbook data (the majority of which are thought to be <em>S. lewini</em>) is substantial, with over 60,000 recorded during this period. This subpopulation of Scalloped Hammerhead sharks is estimated from the logbook data to have declined by 89% over the 15 year time period, from 1986?2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003), which is less than one generation. A more recent analysis of the pelagic longline observer data indicates that <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. declined by 76% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The pelagic longline fishery has operated in these regions since the 1960s, thus declines from 1986 were certainly not from virgin population abundance.<br/><br/>Using logistic regression of <em>S. lewini</em>, Ha (2006) showed that the probability of capture in a fisheries independent sampling program off Virginia, USA, declined by an order of magnitude between 1975 and 2005. Species-specific trends in abundance are available for <em>S. lewini</em> from a shark-targeted longline survey conducted annually between 1972 and 2003 near Cape Lookout, North Carolina, by Dr. F.J. Schwarz at the University of North Carolina. Standardized CPUE from this research survey based on a sample size of 495 <em>S. lewini</em> indicates that it has declined by 98% over this 32 year time period (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007). Off southern Carolina, Ulrich (1996) reported a 66% decrease between 1983/84 and 1991/95. In contrast to all other data, a more recent research survey (1989?2005) along the southeast U.S. coast shows a significant increase in juvenile scalloped hammerheads (Myers <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Off the Atlantic coast of Belize hammerheads were fished heavily by longline in the 1980s and early 1990s (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Hammerheads are a favoured target species for their large fins. Interviews with fishermen indicate that the abundance and size of Sphyrnids has declined dramatically in the past 10 years as a result of over exploitation, leading to a halt in the Belize based shark fishery (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). However, the pressure is still sustained by fishers driving into Belizean waters from Guatemala (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Fin prices are rising above US$50/lb in the neighbouring countries of Guatemala, driven by Asian buyers, according to these interviews (R.T. Graham pers. obs). This species is probably caught in other fisheries but is usually placed in a combined "hammerhead" category. Species identification (<em>S. mokarran</em> vs. <em>S. lewini</em>) is a large obstacle in the proper assessment of this species. The high at-vessel fishing mortality for both species of hammerhead makes the threat of fishing high. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is also taken in various fisheries along the Caribbean coast of South America. It is taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries targeting mackerel off Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and in pelagic tuna fisheries of the eastern Caribbean (Chan A Shing 1999). <br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>The Scalloped Hammerhead faces two main threats related to fisheries in this region: 1) fishing of juveniles and neonates on the continental shelf by gillnets and trawl nets (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Doño 2008); and 2) fishing of adults by gillnets (only in Brazil) and longlines on the continental shelf and oceanic waters, mostly for fins (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Kotas and Petrere 2003, Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The species therefore faces intensive fishing pressure throughout its range in this area and at all points in its life cycle. Because all Brazilian fisheries statistics for hammerhead sharks are grouped under the headings ?shark? or ?hammerhead shark?, it is not possible to determine species-specific trends. Annual landings of hammerhead sharks (six species of hammerhead sharks occur off Brazil) in the ports of Rio Grande and Itajaí (Brazil) combined increased rapidly from ~30 t in 1992 to 700 t in 1994, after which catches decreased, fluctuating between 100?300 t from 1995?2002. The majority of this catch was taken by surface gillnet fisheries that targeted hammerhead sharks on the outer shelf and slope between 27° and 35°S (Kotas 2004, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Neonates and small juveniles are caught in coastal waters by directed gillnet fishing and as bycatch by bottom trawls (Vooren and Klippel 2005). In the inshore nursery area (depths down to 10 m), neonates are fished intensively by coastal gillnets and are also caught as bycatch by shrimp trawl, pair trawl and intensive recreational fisheries. Their abundance in coastal waters has decreased markedly as a result (Haimovici and Mendonça 1996, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data). Finning of hammerhead sharks, with discarding of the carcasses at sea, is often practised (Kotas 2004, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Fisheries statistics only refer to the landed carcasses and therefore the true extent of catches is unknown.<br/><br/>In southern Brazil and northern Uruguay, adult hammerhead catches (<em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em>) by monofilament longliners are highest in winter and spring at the shelf edge and the continental slope between 30° and 35°S (Kotas and Petrere 2002). The Brazilian pelagic fishery based in Santos catches significant numbers of sharks, including <em>S. lewini</em> (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Until 1997, most of this shark catch was discarded but greater demand for fins and flesh has resulted in a substantial increase in retention rates and targeting of sharks (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). Because hammerhead shark fins are highly valued for their high fin-ray count, this species is unlikely to be released alive. The artisanal fishing fleet in São Paulo has operated since 1996 and also takes sharks. The majority of the hammerheads caught by this fishery were newborns or juveniles (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Uruguay (oceanic coast) some neonates are also captured (together with <em>S. zygaena</em>) in artisanal gill nets, in summer (between December and February) (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007). In view of the intensive fisheries in the coastal and offshore areas where <em>S. lewini</em> occurs in this region and documented declining trends where the species has been heavily fished in other areas of its range, the species is assessed as Vulnerable in the Southwest Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Data to indicate trends in abundance are generally not available for the Eastern Central Atlantic. Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that similar population trends for hammerheads (grouped) to those documented in the Northwest Atlantic can be expected in the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic because longline fleets in this area exert comparable fishing effort, and effort is seen to shift from western to eastern Atlantic waters (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998, Serafy <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006). European industrial freeze trawlers targeting small pelagic fish (Sardinella, sardine, and horsemackerel) operate on the northwestern African shelf nearly year-round with five to ten large vessels (9,000-18,000 horse power). A study of bycatch rates in more than 1,400 trawl sets off Mauritania from 2001?2005, showed that <em>Sphyrna</em> species combined represented 42% of total bycatch during this period (Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Hammerheads are caught by both inshore artisanal fisheries and offshore European fisheries operating along the coast of western Africa. The Subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26?28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Anonymous 2000) noted the high threat to sharks in the West African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. Walker <em>et al.</em> (2005) also noted that there is concern for <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> off Mauritania, with catches comprised exclusively of juveniles, often newborn. Increased targeting of sharks began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005). There has been rapid growth in the shark fin market in this region, for export to the Far East, and yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau alone is estimated at 250 t (dry weight) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is frequently caught along the western African coast and is heavily targeted by driftnets and fixed gillnets from Mauritania to Sierra Leone (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). There is anecdotal evidence for some declines in catches off Senegal and Gambia (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles are very susceptible to coastal fisheries using drift or fixed gill nets such as sole, sciaenid and Sepia spp fisheries (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). They were taken as bycatch in the milk shark fishery and in the Banc d'Aguin national park, Mauritania, until the fishery was stopped in 2003 and they are still caught in large quantities in the Sciaenid fishery. A specialized artisanal fishery for carcharhinid and sphyrnid species was introduced in Sierra Leone in 1975, and since then fishing pressure has been continuous (M. Seisay pers. obs. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Western Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Reliable species-specific catch information is available for shark nets set off the beaches of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, in the southewestern Indian Ocean, from 1978?2003 (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Catch per unit effort of <em>S. lewini </em>declined significantly during this period from approximately 5.5/km net/year to approximately 2/km net/year (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). This fishery independent data indicates a decline of approximately 64% over a 25 year period. About 120 longline vessels were reportedly operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean prior to 2005, and this number was expected to increase (IOTC 2005). These vessels are primarily targeting hammerhead sharks and Giant Guitarfish (<em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em>) for their fins (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Illegal fishing by industrial vessels and shark finning are reported in other areas of the Indian Ocean also (Young <em>et al. </em>2006). Dudley and Simpfendorfer (2006) also report large catches of newborn <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> by prawn trawlers on the Tudela Bank, South Africa, ranging from an estimated 3,288 in 1989 to 1,742 in 1992, with almost 98% mortality. An inshore, artisanal fishery that uses multiple gear types (including seine nets and gillnets) along the coast of Mozambique and takes sharks as bycatch also potentially affects <em>S. lewini</em> (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006).<br/><br/><em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is captured in various other fisheries throughout the rest of its range in the Indian Ocean. Few species-specific data are available from other areas, however, declines are also likely to have occurred in other areas where this species is heavily fished. Other countries with major fisheries for sharks include the Maldives, Kenya, Mauritius, Seychelles and United Republic of Tanzania (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Sharks are considered fully to over-exploited in these waters (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Landings data are available from FAO for Oman since 1985. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is one of five dominant species in the catches of Oman. Landings of sharks for Oman varied between 2,800? 8,300 t, since 1985, with peaks noted from 1986?1988 and 1995?1997. After 1997 landings continued to decline to under 4,000 t in 2000 (FAO 2008). Oman has a long-established traditional shark fishery (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) surveyed landings sites in Oman between 2002 and 2003 and report a notable decline in catches of <em>S. lewini</em> in 2003, although the trend varied between areas. Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) note that large pelagic sharks such as <em>S. lewini</em> were displaced during 2003 by smaller shark species. Although it is possible that this is due to sampling bias, informal interviews with fishermen revealed a general trend of declining shark catches over the last number of years, particularly large pelagic species (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Artisanal gillnet and longline fisheries also target sharks off Madagascar for their fins, which are exported in the international shark fin trade. A study of directed shark fisheries at two sites in southwest Madagascar from 2001?2002 showed that hammerhead sharks represented 29% of sharks caught and 24% of the total wet weight, but species-specific data are not available because fishermen do not differentiate between <em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em> (McVean <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is also high in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, with many countries in this region among the largest shark fishing nations in terms of global catch in the world (Clarke and Rose 2005, SEAFDEC 2006). Indonesia has the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world, with a reported 105,000 and 118,000 tonnes landed in 2002 and 2003 respectively (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is a target and bycatch of shark longline, tuna gillnet fisheries and trawls in several areas of this region (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). The species is utilised for its fins (high value in adults), meat, skin and cartilage (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). White <em>et al.</em> (2008) suggest that this species is prone to overfishing in Indonesian waters, where substantial catches of <em>S. lewini</em> are taken in gillnet and longline fisheries. They found that almost all of the <em>S. lewini </em>caught by gillnetting, and the majority caught by longlining, were immature, and were therefore removed from the population before they had the opportunity to breed. Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout Southeast Asia and juveniles and neonates are very heavily exploited, with large numbers of immature sharks in catches in other areas also (SEAFDEC 2006). Foreign vessels are also reported to target sharks in eastern Indonesian waters (Clarke and Rose 2005). Given the marked declines in this species? abundance in areas for which data are available, there is every reason to suspect that declines have also occurred in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, where fishing pressure is high.<br/><br/>Japanese data on hammerhead species are limited, but reported landings in Japan?s coastal ports totaled 11?34 mt annually between 2000 and 2004 with an average of 24 mt per annum.  No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong><br/>Throughout this species? range in the Eastern Pacific, juveniles and neonates are heavily exploited in directed fisheries, and are also taken as bycatch of shrimp trawlers and coastal fisheries targeting teleost fish. Fishing pressure directed at juveniles also appears to have increased in parts of the Gulf of California and in Costa Rica, and is likely to be increasing elsewhere as other, more valuable fishery stocks are depleted. Patchy distribution resulting from aggregating behavior of adults and the use of historic nurseries, where neonates shoal with spatially confined movements, make this species particularly easy to target. As in other areas, the large fins of this species are highly prized for their value in the international shark fin trade. Increased fishing pressure from international longline fleets in the Eastern Central Pacific and Southeast Pacific, driven by increasing demand for fins, is of concern. Furthermore, as traditional and coastal fisheries in Central America are depleted, domestic fleets have increased pressure at adult aggregating sites such as Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), or along the slopes of the continental shelf where high catch rates of juveniles can be obtained (Vargas and Arauz 2001).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California, <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is a common catch in the directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries of Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, Mexico. Juveniles, including neonates, dominate the overall landings of this species; most are less than 100 cm total length (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> in press). Bottom set gillnets and longlines produce the majority of the catch. Adults are landed in artisanal pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries, but represented less than 20% of the total <em>S. lewini</em> observed in artisanal catches during 1998 and 1999 fisheries surveys (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> In Press). The indirect take by trawlers and artisanal teleost and shrimp fishermen is unknown. Landings data for 1996?1998 from the Gulf of Tehauntepec, Mexico, indicates that Scalloped Hammerheads were the second most important shark caught in the artisanal shark fishery, representing 36% of the total catch from a sample of 8,659 individuals (Soriano-Velassquez  <em>et al.</em> 2002). The size of the individuals in this sample is unknown. Marquez (2000) reports that this species represented only 4.61% of the total catch of the artisanal fishery in the Gulf of California, contrasting with reports for Sinaloa, Mexico in 1994, 1995 and 1996, in which scalloped hammerheads represented 80.3%, 52.54% and 85.68% of the shark catch respectively (Marquez 2000). Off Pacific Guatemala, the importance of this species in the fishery landings appears to vary across areas, from 6% (n=339) to 74% (n=800) of the total catch from 1996?1999 (Ruiz and Ixquiac 2000). Data from El Salvador collected from July of 1991 to June of 1992, indicate this species represented 11.9% of the landed catch in a sample of 412 (Villatoro and Rivera 1994).<br/><br/>The number of adult individuals at a well-known <em>S. lewini</em> aggregation site in the Gulf of California (Espiritu Santo seamount) has declined sharply since 1980. In 1981 Klimley and Nelson estimated the size of a school at 525 individuals using Lincon Index mark recapture methods. Between 1998 and 2004 at least 20 attempts have been made to recreate this study, however in most cases fewer than 8 individuals have been observed at one time (Klimley 1999, Klimley and Jorgensen unpublished data).<br/><br/>Large hammerheads were formerly abundant in coastal waters off Central America, but were reportedly depleted in the 1970s (Cooke 1990). Industrial longlining initiated in the early 1980s, and again large hammerheads provided valuable fins for this market. A comparison of standardized catch rates of pelagic sharks (species-specific information was not available) in the EEZ of Costa Rica from 1991?2000 showed a decrease of 60% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 1991, sharks formed 27% of the total catch. In 2000, only 7.64% of the total catch was sharks, and in 2003 this decreased further to 4.9% of the total catch, 58.2% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 2001 and 2003, scalloped hammerheads only constituted 0.14% and .09% of the total catch by individuals, respectively.<br/><br/>In Ecuador, catch records (grouped for the entire family Sphyrnidae) indicate a peak of approximately 1,000 tons in 1996, followed by a steady reduction until 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 2003). Landings in the port of Manta (accounting for 80% of shark landing in Ecuador) of <em>S. lewini</em>, caught by artisanal longline and drift net fleet were about 160 t in 2004, 96 t in 2005 and 82 t (2006). Artisanal fishery landings into the port of Manta for <em>Sphyrna</em> spp declined by 51% between 2004 and 2006 (Martínez-Ortíz <em>et al. </em>2007). According to Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) the percentage of juveniles in landings is 83% for females and 71% for males. Most of the landings for this species (74%) take place between January and June.<br/><br/>Divers and dive guides in the Galapagos have noted a severe decrease in shark numbers and schools of hammerhead sharks (P. Zarate pers. comm.). Illegal fishing around the Galapagos is not only practiced by fishermen from the Galapagos, but also by the industrial and artisanal fleet from continental Ecuador and international fleets (Coello 2005). These illegal fisheries target sharks for their fins. There are no species specific data for these fisheries, but <em>S. lewini </em>is one of the most common species around the Galapagos (J. Martinez pers.obs.), and given the high value of fins of this species, it is very likely that it is targeted in illegal finning activities. In an effort to help stopping the illegal finning occurring in the Galapagos, the Ecuadorian Government issued Decree 2130 in 2004 prohibiting fin export from Ecuador. Unfortunately, the Decree had the reverse effect of establishing illegal trade routes, with fins being exported mainly via Peru and Colombia where there is no finning ban in place. Interviews with fishermen and traders in both Ecuador and Peru suggested that illegal trade routes operated for fins transported both from Ecuador and directly from Galapagos to Peru (Saenz 2005, WildAid 2005). Ecuador then abolished Decree 2130 and issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec).<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>There has been a large increase in illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in northern Australia in the last few years (J. Stevens pers. obs.). Several initiatives are underway to identify which species are being taken and in what quantities. Hammerheads are known to feature in the catches, and are suspected targets for their large valuable fins, although no specific data are available. Some domestic boats are also suspected to be targeting species for their fins in the Northern Territory, and this likely includes hammerheads. There is an urgent need to obtain data to form an accurate assessment of the population in this region.
39386		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for <em>S. mokarran</em>. <br/> <br/>This species is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this unproductive shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. <br/> <br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (ICCAT) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the harvesting of hammerhead sharks for their fins alone. <br/> <br/>In the U.S. this species is managed as a Large Coastal Shark on U.S. Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks). <br/> <br/>In South Africa there is a shark bycatch limit in the tuna longline fishery of 10% of the weight of tuna landed, and a recreational line fishery Bag Limit of one shark per angler per day.
39386		distribution	eng	The great hammerhead ranges widely throughout the tropical waters of the world, from latitudes 40°N to 35°S (Last and Stevens 1994). It is apparently nomadic and migratory, with some populations moving polewards in the summer, as off Florida and in the South China Sea (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Widespread in the south-west Indian Ocean but in South Africa is confined to the KwaZulu-Natal coast, where it co-exists with the scalloped hammerhead <em>S. lewini</em>, also an inhabitant of the tropic, and the smooth hammerhead <em>S. zygaena</em>, which favours cooler waters (Cliff 1995, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975). There is a pupping and nursery ground in a coastal mangrove estuarine area of southern Belize (R.T. Graham pers. obs).
39386		habitat	eng	<em>Sphyrna mokarran</em> is a coastal-pelagic and semi-oceanic tropical hammerhead occurring close inshore and well offshore, over the continental shelves, island terraces, and in passes and lagoons of coral atolls, as well as over deep water near land, at depths ranging  from near-surface to over 80 m (Compagno in prep. b). The maximum total size is reported as 550 to 610 cm by Compagno (in prep. b), though 400 cm is more common for a mature adult (Compagno in prep. b, Last and Stevens 1994). Males mature at about 234 to 269 cm, and reach at least 341 cm, and females mature at about 250 to 300 cm and reach 482 to 549 cm (Compagno in prep. b). <em>S. mokarran</em> is viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta. Litter size ranges from 6 to 42 pups after 11 months? gestation (Compagno in prep. b). Size at birth is 50 to 70 cm. Females breed once every two years (Stevens and Lyle 1989). Pups are born in late spring to summer in the Northern Hemisphere and between December and January off Australia (Compagno in prep. b, Last and Stevens 1994).   <br/> <br/>The diet includes fish (mainly demersal species), other elasmobranchs, crustacea and cephalopods (Compagno in prep. b). Strong <em>et al.</em> (1990) observed a large (<em>ca</em> 4 m) great hammerhead feeding on a southern stingray <em>Dasyatis americana</em> (disc width 1.5 m).
39386		threats	eng	Due to the distinctive head shape of this genus, it is typical for catches to be reported at the genus level, <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. Therefore, it is rare to find fisheries statistics that are specific to one species of hammerhead shark. Due to the great hammerhead?s preference for warmer waters, it can be expected to make up a greater proportion of tropical catches of hammerheads than more temperate fisheries. <em>Sphyrna mokarran</em> is taken by target and bycatch, fisheries (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006, Zeeberg <em>et al</em>. 2006) and is regularly caught in the tropics, with longlines, fixed bottom nets, hook-and-line, and possibly with pelagic and bottom trawls (Compagno in prep). Hammerhead sharks, <em>S. mokarran</em> in particular, have been noted as a favoured target species due to the size of their fins (R.T. Graham pers. comm). Fin prices are rising, driven by the Asian Fin market (R.T. Graham pers. obs). <br/> <br/>There was a directed shark fishery operated by Taiwan around the northern coast of Australia that regularly caught great hammerheads up until 1986 (Stevens and Lyle 1989). Other possible threats include sport fishing (Pepperell 1992) and capture in anti-shark measures around the beaches of Australia and South Africa (Paterson 1990, Cliff 1995). Bonfil (1994) gives an overview of global shark fisheries. This species is mentioned specifically with reference to fisheries in Brazil, East USA and Mexico, however <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. are mentioned in the majority of tropical fisheries cited. <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Mainly taken by drift gillnets, bottom gillnets and on longlines, hook and line, pelagic and bottom trawls (Schneider 1990). This species is a bycatch in both the industrial and artisanal fisheries but a specialised artisanal fishery for charcharhinid and sphyrnid species was introduced in Sierra Leone in 1975, and since then fishing pressure has not decreased (M. Seisay pers. obs). The Subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26-28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Ducrocq 2002) noted the high threat to sharks in the west African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. This workshop identified <em>S. mokkarran </em>as particularly threatened. The subsequent sub-regional plan of action for sharks of West Africa (member states of the Sub Regional Fishing Commission) states that landings of <em>S. mokarran</em> have collapsed and lists this as one of the four most threatened species, deserving the greatest attention in the whole region (Ducrocq 2002). <br/> <br/>Previously observed from Mauritania to Angola, reportedly abundant from November to January in Senegal, and in October in Mauritania (Cadenat and Blache 1981). However, recent scientific trawl surveys off Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia and Guinea-Conakry between 20 to 1,000 m have failed to record it, except in very low numbers off Guinea-Conakry and one record from Senegal in 1995 (FISA unpublished data). Anecdotal evidence from interviews with fishermen in Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Guinea suggest there was a large decline in all shark species during the 1990s and that <em>S. mokarran</em> is almost extirpated from these areas (M. Ducrocq pers. obs.).   <br/> <br/>Data are lacking as there is little species specific data collection in the region, however this is a very distinctive species with a large dorsal fin which is highly valued for the shark fin trade. Increased targeting of sharks began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). There has been rapid growth in the shark fin market in this region, for export to the Far East, and yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau alone is estimated at 250 t (dry weight) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>Sphyrna</em> species combined represented 42% of bycatch in the European industrial pelagic trawl fishery off Northwest Africa (Zeeberg 2006). <br/> <br/>Although there are very little species specific data available, the absence of recent records and region-wide recognition of the extent of the decline, give cause to suspect that the population has decreased by least 80% in the past 25 years. Fisheries in this region remain largely unmonitored and unmanaged, leading to an assessment of Critically Endangered in the Eastern Atlantic.   <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Indian Ocean</strong> <br/>This species is widely distributed in the SW Indian Ocean and is a summer migrant to KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) (east coast of South Africa), where the annual catch in the KZN shark nets is 11 sharks (1978 to 1999), consisting mainly of adolescents and adults. Over this period there has been a significant decline in annual catch (18 to 4 sharks) and catch rate (0.5 to 0.2 sharks.km-net<sup>-1</sup>.yr<sup>-1</sup> (p = 0.000) (Dudley 2002). A continued decline in catch rate was reported for the period 1978 to 2003 (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Over this period, regression of catch and catch rate against year revealed a significant decline in annual catch from 18 to two sharks (89%) and in catch rate from 0.44 to 0.09 sharks.km-net<sup>-1</sup>.yr<sup>-1</sup> (79%) (S. Dudley pers. obs. 2006). It is uncertain whether these declines reflect highly localized stock depletion or whether they reflect a general decline in the Southwest Indian Ocean, but large numbers of longline vessels have been reported to be operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean where they are targeting primarily hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> (IOTC 2005 in Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). This species is generally regarded as solitary, and is therefore unlikely to be abundant wherever it occurs. This is in contrast to other large hammerheads, such as <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> which forms large schools. <em>Sphyrna mokarran</em>, like other hammerheads, readily takes baited hooks and is sought after for its fins. Based on these characteristics, together with the decline of 79% in catch rates in the KZN shark nets, this species is assessed as Endangered in the southwest Indian Ocean. <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species is caught primarily as a bycatch in the pelagic longline, bottom longline and net fisheries along the northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. It is also caught in the recreational fishery. The species represents 0.7% of the species catch and suffers from greater than 90% at-vessel fishing mortality in the U.S. bottom longline fishery (Commercial Shark Fishery Observer Program unpubl. data). The U.S. pelagic fishery logbook data has shown a decline close to 90%, however this data-set is known for inaccurate data reporting (Beerkircher <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is probably a lack of reporting of the catch of great hammerheads because this species is routinely finned and discarded, which is illegal in the US Atlantic Federal Waters (Commercial Shark Fishery Observer Program unpub. data). Both the pelagic and bottom longline observer programs have recorded a 2 to 3:1 ratio for <em>S. Lewini</em> to <em>S. mokarran</em>. The meat is not valuable but the fins are high grade and bring in a good price, thus finning still occurs in the U.S. fishery. Interview with shark fishermen in Belize indicate that hammerheads (<em>S. mokarran</em> in particular) are a favoured target species for their large fins (R.T. Graham pers. obs.). Fin prices are rising above US$50/lb in the neighbouring countries of Guatemala, driven by Asian buyers, according to these interviews (R.T. Graham pers. obs).  This species is probably caught in other fisheries but is usually placed in a combined ?hammerhead? category. Species identification (<em>S. mokarran</em> vs. <em>S. lewin</em>i) a large obstacle in the proper assessment of this species. The high at-vessel fishing mortality for both species of hammerhead makes the threat of fishing even greater for this species. In the Pacific Ocean off of Guatemala this species is caught as by-catch in the commercial longline fishery. <br/> <br/>There appear to be little data for landings and catch effort for this species in Central America and the Caribbean. Off the coast of Belize hammerheads were fished heavily by longline in the 1980s and early 1990s. Interviews with fishermen indicate that the abundance and size of Sphyrnids has declined dramatically in the past 10 years as a result of over exploitation, leading to a halt in the Belize based shark fishery (R.T. Graham pers. obs). However, the pressure is still sustained by fishers driving into Belizean waters from Guatemala (R.T. Graham pers. obs). The Cuban directed shark fishery (longline) between 1983 and 1991 recorded <em>S. mokarran</em> (subadults and juveniles) as one of 23 species caught. Since 1992 small increases in mean sizes were noted, indicating partial recovery of the species. In Mexico between November 1993 and December 1994 (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan) 901 vessels were monitored every day. <em>Sphyrna mokarran</em> represented 86% of the total catch. <br/> <br/>The difficulty in species identification and accurate recording make an assessment of this species very difficult. However, low survival at capture makes this species very vulnerable to fishing pressure, whether directed or incidental. This species is listed as Endangered in the Northwest Atlantic under criterion A2 based on a suspected decline of at least >50% over the past 10 years. The decline is poorly documented and has not been curtailed. <br/> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>There has been a large increase in the illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in northern Australia in the last few years (J. Stevens pers. obs.). Several initiatives are underway to identify which species are being taken and in what quantities. Hammerheads are known to feature in the catches, and are suspected targets for their large valuable fins, although no specific data are available. Some domestic boats are also suspected to be targeting species for their fins in the Northern Territory, and this likely includes hammerheads (J. Stevens pers. obs). It is not a productive species and is coming out at the ?high-risk? end in recent Risk Assessments of northern Australian elasmobranchs (J. Stevens pers. obs). There is concern that this species is being increasingly targeted, and therefore an urgent need to obtain data to form an accurate assessment of the population in this region.
39387		conservation	eng	In the USA, the Bonnethead Shark is classified as a small coastal species in the Federal Management Plan (FMP) for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, together with the Blacknose Shark (<em>Carcarhinus acronotus</em>), the Finetooth Shark (<em>C. isodon</em>), the Smalltail Shark (<em>C. porosus</em>), the Atlantic Angel (<em>Squatina dumeril</em>), the Atlantic Sharpnose (<em>Rhizoprionodon terranovae</em>) and the Caribbean Sharpnose (<em>R. porosus</em>) sharks (NMFS 1993). The small coastal shark complex is not currently considered to be overfished, but there are fishing regulations in effect. A more recent FMP (NMFS 1999) called for more stringent measures, including a reduction of the annual commercial quota for small coastal sharks to 359 t.<br/><br/>The Bonnethead Shark is a very abundant species, with early age at maturity, short lifespan and generation time, and high litter size and population growth rates, capable of withstanding much higher removal levels than many other species of sharks. It is thus considered to be of lesser risk because of its life history and population characteristics.
39387		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the American continent only. In the western Atlantic it has been reported from southern Brazil to North Carolina, USA, and occasionally further north. It is also common in the Gulf of Mexico and part of the Caribbean. In the eastern Pacific it is reported from southern California to Ecuador (Compagno 1984b). <br/>The bonnethead shark is an abundant, small coastal shark commonly found in shallow estuaries and bays over grass, mud and sandy bottoms. Off Florida?s west coast it is very abundant in shallow estuaries during the summer months and moves to deeper water off the beaches in winter (Hueter and Manire 1994). This species shows sexual segregation.
39387		habitat	eng	The Bonnethead Shark is a small coastal sphyrnid that reaches about 150 cm total length (TL). The life history of this species in the Gulf of Mexico has received considerable attention. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, female Bonnethead Sharks seldom exceed 130 cm TL, whereas males rarely surpass 110 cm TL. Females generally mature between 80?95 cm TL (or 2?3 years of age) and males mature between 68?85 cm TL (two years of age). Maximum observed ages are 6?7 years or more for females and 5?6 years or more for males, whereas theoretical longevities derived from von Bertalanffy growth curves range from 5?6 years for males and from 10?12 years for females (Parsons 1993a, Carlson and Parsons 1997). Empirical data for populations of this species in the eastern Gulf of Mexico reveal a latitudinal increase in maximum size, size at maturity and offspring size (Parsons 1993, Carlson and Parsons 1997, C.A. Manire pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Bonnethead Shark is a placental viviparous species that reproduces annually. Its gestation period is one of the shortest known in sharks, lasting approximately 4.5?5 months; litter size averages nine. The periodicity of parturition also varies latitudinally, taking place in mid to late August in Florida Bay (southernmost location), early September in Tampa Bay (middle location) and mid to late September off north-west Florida (northernmost location) (Manire <em>et al.</em> 1995, J. Carlson pers. comm.). Size at birth ranges from an average of 27 cm TL in Florida Bay to 35 cm TL in Tampa Bay (Parsons 1983). Parsons (1993) and Manire <em>et al.</em> (1995) found that mating occurs in November and sperm is stored until ovulation/fertilisation the following March or April. Ongoing tagging studies along the west coast of Florida (R.E. Hueter and C.A. Manire pers. Comm.) indicate that individuals of this species are highly site-attached, with little evidence for long-distance migrations and mixing of populations.<br/><br/>The shallow grass bottoms off Florida?s west coast are documented nursery grounds for this species, which probably utilises similar habitats as nursery areas throughout its range (Hueter and Manire 1994). The Bonnethead Shark's diet off south-west Florida is very homogeneous, dominated by crustaceans, consisting mostly of portunid crabs (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 1996). Stomach contents also show a high incidence of angiosperms, which are likely ingested incidentally to prey capture and denote the benthic feeding habits of this species (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species also feeds on cephalopods and fish, but to a much lesser extent. Bonnethead sharks are specialist hunters (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 1996) that appear to have higher daily rations than other species of sharks for which quantitative food consumption data exist (Cortés unpubl.).<br/><br/>Cortés and Parsons (1996) compared the demography of two populations off Florida?s west coast and found short generation times (4?5 years) and high population growth rates (1?28% per year). Recent demographic studies of this species by Cortés (in press) incorporating uncertainty in estimates of vital rates indicate that the bonnethead has very high population growth rates (l) (mean=1.304 yr<sup>-1</sup>; 95% confidence interval=1.150?1.165 yr<sup>-1</sup>) and short generation times (A) (mean=3.9 years, 95% CI=2.6?4.5 years). Elasticity analysis (which examines the proportional sensitivity of l to a proportional change in a vital rate) also showed that l is most sensitive to juvenile survival and adult survival than to fertility (which includes survival to age<sup>-1</sup>). Annual survivorship values used in Cortés (in press) were estimated through five indirect life history methods and ranged from 55?81%. The high l values and elasticity patterns for this species are a result of its ?fast? life history characteristics.
39387		threats	eng	In the USA, Bonnethead Sharks are caught in commercial and recreational fisheries and also as bycatch. Recent commercial landings of this species indicate that it accounted for over 50% of all landings of small coastal sharks in the south-eastern USA in 1995, but was the least important small coastal species of shark represented in commercial landings from 1996?1999. Commercial landings of bonnetheads in numbers averaged about 22,000 individuals from 1995?1999 (Cortés 2000b).<br/><br/>Recreational catch estimates from several surveys indicate that about 29,000 bonnetheads were caught annually from 1981?1998, ranging from a minimum of about 13,000 sharks in 1991 to a peak of about 53,000 sharks caught in 1986 (Cortés 2000b). Additionally, bycatch estimates from the shrimp trawl fishery operating in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that about 410,000 individuals were caught annually from 1972?1999 (Cortés unpubl.).<br/><br/>Bonnetheads are also exploited in Mexico. In Mexican coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico, <em>S. tiburo</em> is the second most important species in the artisanal fisheries, accounting for 15% of the landings numerically (Castillo <em>et al.</em> 1998). Targeted fisheries for this species have also been documented for Trinidad and Tobago (Shing 1999) and Ecuador (Martinez 1999). Bycatch in other fisheries, mainly from shrimp trawling, is probably also significant in other fishing nations of the American continent. <br/>Nursery areas for this species are located inshore and adults frequent inshore waters, making this species vulnerable to exploitation and human-induced habitat degradation. Preliminary results of an ongoing study on the reproductive endocrinology of this species off Florida?s west coast show that high levels of organochlorine contaminants are present in tissues of sampled individuals (C.A. Manire pers. comm.).
39388		conservation	eng	Smooth hammerhead is a member of the family Sphyrnidae, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia, Brazil), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g. ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the capture of oceanic sharks for their fins alone. Strict enforcement of these bans is required if they are to be effective.<br/><br/>Management plans, fishing regulation, and monitoring programs are needed throughout this species? range. Estimates of acceptable catch rates should be viewed with precaution until there is more certainty in age and growth parameters and further research on the species? life-history characteristics is required. Protection of known adult aggregation sites and coastal nursery areas is also recommended.<br/><br/>In the USA, this species is included in the Large Coastal Shark complex management unit on the US Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan, however there are no management measures specific to this species and no stock assessments have been undertaken for it. Enforcement of Brazilian laws restricting the length of pelagic gillnets and banning trawl fishing at a distance of less than 3 nm from shore has been difficult and therefore trawling in inshore nursery grounds has persisted.
39388		distribution	eng	This shark is found in coastal and open ocean (Domingo in prep) temperate and tropical waters, with a wider range than other members of its family (Compagno in prep). The full extent of this species? range in tropical waters may be incompletely known at present, due to probably confusion with the more abundant Scalloped Hammerhead (<em>S. lewini</em>) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: From Nova Scotia to Florida, USA and Virgin Islands to southern Argentina (Compagno in prep, Domingo in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: From the UK and as a vagrant in the North Sea, southwards, including the Mediterranean Sea, where has been reported as more common in the western basin (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998), to Mauritania, Senegal, Cape Verde Islands, Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Angola (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong>: South Africa and southern Mozambique, Comoros Islands, southern India, Sri Lanka, and Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania) (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Western Pacific</strong>: From Viet Nam (Gulf of Tonkin) to Japan and southern Russia in the Northwest Pacific. Australia (New South Wales), New Zealand, Lord Howe and Kermadec Islands in the Southwest Pacific (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: From northern California, USA, to Gulf of California, Mexico, Panama, and from Ecuador to Chile, including Galapagos Islands (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/>Also occurs off the Hawaiian Islands, USA and possibly off Samoa (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994).
39388		habitat	eng	The large majority of the information for this section is taken from Simpfendorfer (2005). <br/><br/>The Smooth Hammerhead is a coastal-pelagic and semi-oceanic and occurs on the continental shelf, to 200 m depth (Ebert 2003). Smale (1991) reported that large individuals were commonly found over deep reefs on the edge of the continental shelf. The species has also been observed in freshwater in Indian River, Florida, USA (G. Burgess pers. comm.) and in the Rio de la Plata estuary in Uruguay (Doño 2008, Domingo in prep.). In the demersal gillnet fishery in southern Western Australia, juvenile <em>S. zygaena</em> are caught on the bottom in depths from the shore to at least 60 m (C. Simpfendorfer pers. comm.). Compagno (in prep.) reports that this species occurs at or near the surface in the East China Sea, whereas <em>S. mokarran</em> and <em>S. lewini </em>range into deeper water in this area. The nursery habitat of this species is smooth sandy substrate in shallow waters, down to depths of 10m. Large schools of juvenile <em>S. zygaena</em> have been reported from off South Africa (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975). Off southern Brazil in South America, <em>S. zygaena</em> occurs at depths of 10?100 m (Kotas 2004, Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nursery areas and juveniles have been reported in coastal waters off Uruguay from mid-Rio de la Plata to the Atlantic Ocean bordering with Brazilian waters from November to March at temperatures of 16?23°C and salinities of 12?27 ups (Doño 2008, Domingo in prep.).<br/><br/>There are only limited published biological data on <em>S. zygaena</em>, despite its widespread occurrence. Compagno (1984, in prep.) reported that the species reaches a maximum size of 370?400 cm total length (TL). Stevens (1984) reported that off the east coast of Australia males mature at about 250?260 cm TL and females at about 265 cm TL. Castro and Mejuto (1995) reported gravid females between 220 and 255 cm fork length (FL), but gave no relationship between fork and total length. Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975) reported a female <em>S. zygaena</em> from South Africa that appeared to have recently mated in February and another female caught in November that contained full-term embryos. Stevens (1984) reported that off the east coast of Australia parturition occurs between January and March, with ovulation at about the same time. The gestation period off eastern Australia would appear to be 10?11 months. Castro and Mejuto (1995) reported 21 gravid females with a mean litter size of 33.5 from the waters of western Africa. Off eastern Australia Stevens (1975) reported litter sizes between 20?49 (mean 32). The sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 (Stevens 1984, Castro and Mejuto 1995). Compagno (1984, in prep) gave the size at birth as 50?61 cm. Smale (1991) and Doño (2008) reported juveniles with open umbilical scars from South Africa at sizes between 59 and 63 cm, and from Uruguay between 49 and 55 cm TL, respectively. Possible pupping grounds and nursery areas for this species include the northern Gulf of California and shallow coastal waters off southern Brazil and Uruguay (Vooren 1997, 1999, Vooren and Klippel 2005, Doño <em>et al.</em> in prep). In Uruguay pupping grounds and nursery areas were reported in coastal waters by Doño (2008).<br/><br/>Although maximum age has yet to be determined for this species, it is thought that the lifespan of the smooth hammerhead may be 20 years or longer (FLMNH 2008). Further information is required on the biology and life-history parameters of this species.<br/><br/>Squid and teleosts are the most common prey. Based on specimens caught by recreational anglers off New South Wales, Australia, Stevens (1984) reported that 76% of specimens with food in their stomachs contained squid and 54% teleosts. For <em>S. zygaena</em> less than 2 m in length from the waters off South Africa, Smale (1991) reported that the diet was dominated by inshore squid (mostly <em>Loligo v. reynaudii</em>), with teleosts such as Hake, Horse Mackerel and Ribbonfish also important. Crustaceans and elasmobranchs have also been reported from stomach analyses (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (1984) reported that sharks and rays were a favoured food, presumably of larger specimens. However, of 145 <em>S. zygaena</em> from South Africa examined by Dudley and Cliff (1993) only 0.7% contained elasmobranch prey.
39388		population	eng	Specific data on populations of this species are generally unavailable in many areas because hammerhead shark catches are often grouped to include several <em>Sphyrna</em> species. Furthermore, this species has sometimes been confused with the Scalloped Hammerhead (<em>S. lewini</em>) in the tropics and these two species are probably misidentified with each other.
39388		threats	eng	Smooth Hammerhead is caught with a variety of gears, including with pelagic longlines, handlines, gillnets, purse-seines and pelagic and bottom trawls (Bonfil 1994, Compagno in prep, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). In a review of world elasmobranch fisheries Bonfil (1994) listed <em>S. zygaena</em> as being reported in catches from directed shark fisheries off the east and west coasts of the USA, Brazil, Spain, Taiwan and Philippines. It also is taken in the shark fishery off south-western Australia (Heald 1987) and western Africa (Castro and Mejuto 1995). This shark is undoubtedly caught in shark fisheries in other parts of its range, but has not been reported separately from other hammerhead species. Very often these sharks are finned and the carcasses discarded. Bonfil (1994) also reported that this species is caught as bycatch in a number of non-shark fisheries, particularly pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries that operate close to temperate and subtropical continental shelves (e.g., South Pacific driftnet fishery, Mediterranean drift net fishery, Spanish longline fishery operating in the Mediterranean Sea and eastern Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean tuna longline fishery). The capture of <em>S. zygaena</em> in many of these fisheries is infrequent (Bonfil 1994). Although size data are limited, catches in pelagic fisheries appear to be dominated by larger individuals, while juveniles are common in inshore shelf fisheries.<br/><br/>This species? fins are highly valued and they are being increasingly targeted in some areas in response to increasing demand for shark fins. Hammerhead shark species <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini</em> were found to represent at least 4?5% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Hammerhead shark fins are generally high value compared to other species because of their high fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 1.3 and 2.7 million <em>S. zygaena</em> and/or <em>S. lewini</em> are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 49,000 to 90,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b).<br/><br/>Catches of Sphyrnidae have been reported only from the Atlantic Ocean since 1991 and these landings are undoubtedly under-reported. The catch was near 2,200 tonnes in 2004 (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). Only <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini</em> are reported as individual species in the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) fisheries statistics, but hammerhead catches are often grouped in one category as, Sphyrna species, which makes identification of actual catches of <em>S. zygaena</em> difficult.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The Smooth Hammerhead appears to be less common in the central Mediterranean, in comparison to the western regions of this sea. Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that 757 specimens were captured during their pelagic longline and gillnet survey from July 1991-July 1992 off southern Spain. Most of these specimens were presumed to be part of the Atlantic population. In the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea this species is mainly caught by longlines and gillnets, particularly as bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries. Despite a ban on driftnetting in Mediterranean waters, this practice continues illegally (WWF 2005). A recent study of the Moroccan driftnet fleet operating in the Alboran Sea (southwest Mediterranean) and around the Strait of Gibraltar by Tudela <em>et al.</em> (2005) indicates that pelagic fishing pressure in this area is beyond the reproductive capacity of several other semi-oceanic shark species that were previously caught with <em>S. zygaena</em> (such as Alopias vulpinus). Some of these vessels appear to be increasingly targeting sharks by deploying driftnets closer to shore (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> is not mentioned in this study. However, this species was reported in Buencuerpo <em>et al.?s</em> (1998) survey of longline and gillnet landings from the same area in 1992. Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> (1998) report the highest catches of <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> in the Spanish swordfish fishery from the western African coasts and near the Strait of Gibraltar.<br/><br/>Ferretti <em>et al. </em>(2008) compiled nine time series of abundance indices from commercial and recreational fishery landings, scientific surveys and sighting records, to reconstruct long-term population trends of large sharks in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Of the taxa for which there were enough data to investigate, hammerhead sharks (<em>Sphyrna</em> spp) declined the fastest; they appeared to disappear from coastal waters after 1963 and catches declines consistently in pelagic waters in the early 1980s in all sectors. Meta-analysis showed an average instantaneous rate of decline of -0.17 (CI 95%: ?0.34, ?0.003; time range 178 years) in abundance and -0.36 (CI 95%: -0.56, -0.1?6; time range: 107 years) in biomass, which translated into an estimated species decline of >99.99% in both cases. Walker <em>et al.</em> (2005) also report that the species has virtually disappeared from the central-southern Mediterranean Sea since 1986.<br/><br/>Mejuto <em>et al. </em>(2002) estimate landings of 240 tons of <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. And 1.1 ton of <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> in the North Atlantic for the Spanish Surface longline fleet in 1999. De la Serna <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported only eight specimens of <em>S. zyagaena</em> (0.05%) in a total 17,759 sharks caught during a survey of the Spanish Mediterranean Fisheries from 1997?1999. This is significantly lower when compared to results of the same fishery along the west African coast and Iberian peninsula (where 757 specimens in period July 1991?July 1992 were caught). Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> (2000) only recorded four specimens during their survey of shark bycatches and discards in Mediterranean large pelagic fisheries in 1998?1999 (one in the Adriatic, two in the Ionian Sea and one in Spanish Mediterranean waters). There are few recent records of Sphyrna species in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. A total of 16 records of <em>S. zygaena</em> were collected in the eastern Adriatic from the 19th century to the 1950s, including reported catches were distributed throughout whole of the eastern coast. A higher number of records were reported during the 19th century in comparison to the 20th century (10 vs. 6, respectively) and the species has not been reported in this area since 1956 (Soldo and Jardas 2002). Although it occurs in open waters of southern Adriatic, it is only caught very rarely (Bello 1999). There were only 13 records of <em>S. zygaena</em> in the Northern Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas from the 1960s-1995 and there are no reports of this species during the last five years (F. Serena pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>Longline fleets exert intense fishing pressure throughout the Northwest Atlantic (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). Baum <em>et al. </em>(2003) estimated that hammerhead sharks (grouped data for <em>S. lewini, S. mokarran</em> and <em>S. zygaena</em>) have declined in abundance by 89% since 1986 (95% confidence interval (CI): 86 to 91%) in their analysis of U.S. pelagic longline logbook data. This group is primarily composed of <em>S. lewini</em>; in Virginia Institute of Marine Science sampling programmes since 1973, <em>S. lewini</em> outnumbered <em>S. zygaena</em> by more than ten to one (Ha 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Southwest Atlantic <em>S. zygaena</em> faces two main threats related to fisheries: catches of juveniles and pups along the continental shelf by different fishing gears (mainly bottom gillnets and trawlers (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Doño 2008); and adult and juvenile catches by gillnets and longlines throughout the continental shelf and oceanic environments for the international fin market (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kotas and Petrere 2002ab, Kotas and Petrere 2003, Zerbini and Kotas 1998, Domingo in prep). The species therefore faces intensive fishing pressure at all points in its life-cycle in this area. Off southern Brazil; from 1983?2005, indices of abundance of neonates of <em>S. zygaena</em> varied from 1?5% of the abundance of those of <em>S. lewini</em> in the same area (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Catches of neonates, juveniles and adults are taken by longline fleets based in Itajaí, which operate along the coast of southern Brazil (Kotas and Petrere 2002). The species is also a known bycatch of domestic, as well as Taiwanese, Japanese and other international longline fishing fleets operating throughout the South Atlantic Ocean (Joung <em>et al.</em> 2005, Matsushita and Matsunaga 2002). Juveniles and adults are also taken as bycatch by longline fleets operating in shelf and oceanic waters off Uruguay and Brazil (200-3000m). Given the declining trends apparent in other areas of the species? range where it is heavily fished, for example the Mediterranean Sea, the population in the Southwest Atlantic may be unable to withstand continued fishing pressure.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong><br/><em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> is taken as both target and bycatch in artisanal and industrial fisheries along the eastern Pacific coast of the Americas. Landings of this species in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama and Mexico have been reported as 1% of the total chondrichthyan catch. Seasonal surveys of fisheries on the eastern coast of Mexico, conducted during 1998?1999, showed that <em>S. zygaena</em> was a common component of the landings of directed shark fisheries. The majority of those landed were juveniles in many areas (Bizzaro <em>et al.</em> 2007). This study reports that large sharks, such as <em>S. zygaena</em> were usually targeted in directed drift gillnet, or to a lesser extent, surface longline fisheries. Márquez-Farías (2000) report an overall decline in catch rates for all shark species in the Gulf of California. This species has also been reported as bycatch in longline, bottom trawl and gillnets in the landings of other Central and South American countries, down to Peru. In Ecuador, <em>S. zygaena</em> represents 11% of the total chondrichthyan landings. There is a high proportion of juveniles in these Ecuadorian landings; 91% of female (measuring <240 cm TL) and 89% of male (measuring <215 cm TL) specimens landed by the Ecuadorian fleet are juveniles (Martinez in prep). In Peru, <em>S. zygaena</em> represented 12.5% of total chondrichthyan landings over the period 1996-2005 (Romero, M. PANtiburones).<br/><br/>An artisanal fishing fleet targeting sharks south of Tres Marias Islands in the Central Mexican Pacific operated out of La Cruz Huanacaxtle from the early 1990s to 1997, after which they moved to Yavaros in the Central Gulf of California, apparently following the migratory movements of some of the shark species (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al</em>. (2005) monitored the shark landings of this fleet from 1995?1996. <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> was the most important of 10 species recorded in 607 sets taken south of the Tres Marias Islands, composing 35% of 2,004 sharks recorded. This artisanal fleet has not caught sharks south of the Tres Marias Islands or in the Central Gulf of California since the late-1990s (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Illegal fisheries target sharks for their fins around the Galapagos Islands. There are no specific data for these fisheries, but given the high value of its fins, it is very likely that it is targeted in illegal finning activities. Illegal fishing in this area is not only practiced by fishermen from the Galapagos, but also by the industrial and artisanal fleets from continental Ecuador and international fleets (Coello 2005). Divers and dive guides in the Galapagos have noted a severe decrease in shark number and schools of hammerhead sharks (P. Zarate pers comm.). The Ecuadorian Government issued a decree in 2004 prohibiting fin export from Ecuador, in an attempt to help stop illegal finning in the Galapagos. Unfortunately the Decree had the reverse effect of establishing illegal trade routes with fins now being exported mainly via adjacent Peru and Colombia, where there is no regulation banning finning. Interviews within fishermen and traders in both Ecuador and Peru suggest that there are illegal trade routes for fins transported both from continental Ecuador and directly from the Galapagos to Peru, and illegal finning activity is ongoing (Sáenz 2005, WildAid 2005).<br/><br/>Hammerhead sharks, including <em>S. zygaena</em>, are also caught by international purse seine fleets targeting tunas in the high seas of the Eastern Pacific, particularly those associated with Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) (Román-Verdesoto and Orozco-Zöller 2005). IATTC conducted a one year species sampling programme to determine the accuracy of identification by fisheries observers on these vessels. <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> was found to represent 1.7% and <em>S. lewini</em>, 3.6% of the sharks recorded during this programme, respectively.<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>In the West Australian demersal gillnet fishery <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> is an important bycatch species, but appears not to be impacted by this low fishing pressure. The species is reasonably abundant around the northern North Island of New Zealand, and the most abundant shark species recorded in aerial surveys along the northwest coast. In New Zealand, neonates and small juveniles are a common bycatch in commercial gillnet fisheries for flatfish, and are also commonly taken by trawlers and Danish seiners. They are usually discarded, although juveniles discarded from gillnets are usually dead. Adults are mainly taken by gamefishers as bycatch when targeting marlin with live baits, and consequently the annual catch is small. Many of the sharks taken by game fishers are released alive (C. Duffy, pers. comm.). <em>S. zygaena</em> is abundant in the region, and significant numbers of adults do not appear to be taken in commercial fisheries.<br/><br/><em>Sphyrna zygaena</em>, along with <em>S. lewini</em> and <em>S. mokarran</em>, are exploited by the commercial line fishery and recreational game fishery off New South Wales. The majority of the hammerhead catch in commercial and recreational fisheries is composed of <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini </em>(Scandol <em>et al.</em> 2008). Total commercial hammerhead landings peaked in 1993/94 at 15/7 t. Annual commercial catches have averaged ~3 t in the last five years. Most hammerhead landings come from the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (74%), but they are also taken in the Estuary General and Ocean Trawl Fisheries.<br/><br/>Information on catches of <em>S. zygaena</em> by recreational anglers is very limited due to the lack of species identification. Total catch of hammerhead sharks by recreational gamefishing and protective beach meshing remained at about 250 sharks per year between the 1970s and 2001, with >95% of recreational gamefishing catches being tagged and released. It is likely that <em>S. zygaena</em> is caught in recreational fisheries off temperate and subtropical coasts. This species has also been reported from nets set in the New South Wales beach protection programme (Krough 1994). This employs large mesh gillnets to catch large sharks as a measure to protect beach users from shark attack. In the New South Wales programme, hammerheads (mostly <em>S. zygaena</em>) made up nearly 50% of the catch of 4,715 sharks in the period from 1972?73 to 1989?90 (Reid and Krough 1992). The large mesh nets used by shark control programmes appear to be very efficient at catching hammerhead sharks, including <em>S. zygaena</em>, while catches are very low on the large baited lines used in some programmes (Simpfendorfer 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>Hammerhead sharks, including <em>S. zygaena</em>, are taken in a variety of artisanal and commercial fisheries in this region as both target and bycatch, however, no reliable species specific data are available because catches tend to be grouped into ?<em>Sphyrna</em> spp.?, if recorded at all. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954?1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2005). Large hook and line and in mesh gillnet fisheries are known to target sharks off India, where this species occurs (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006) reported that sharks in this area are considered fully to over-exploited. Large numbers of longline vessels have also been reported to be operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean, primarily targeting hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish (IOTC 2005, Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006).<br/><br/>Japanese data on hammerhead species are limited, but reported landings in Japan?s coastal ports totaled 11-34 mt annually between 2000 and 2004 with an average of 24 mt per annum.  No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).
39389		conservation	eng	<em>Anoxypristis cuspidata</em> has been assessed as Vulnerable by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2000) and may be nominated for protection as ?at Conservation-risk? under Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC). <br/> <br/>India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected all species of sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001.  <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay with the help of outside experts.<br/><br/>All species of Pristidae have been listed under Appendix I of CITES (2007), except <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristis microdon</span> which is listed under Appendix II.<br/><br/>Also found within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
39389		distribution	eng	The knifetooth sawfish was historically a relatively common euryhaline or marginal large-bodied sawfish of the Indo-Pacific Region. It has been reported in inshore and estuarine environments from the mouth of the Suez Canal, Egypt, throughout the Red Sea, the Persian (Arabian) Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the Indo-Australian Archipelago from Australia north to Borneo, but not reported from the Philippines (Last and Stevens 1994). In Southeast Asia it was reported from the Gulf of Thailand, Kampuchea (Cambodia) and Vietnam. In eastern Asia it was reported from China to Korea and out to the southern portion of Japan (Honshu), as well as the north west corner of Taiwan (Annandale 1909, Fowler 1941, Blegvad and Loppenthin 1944, Stead 1963, Misra 1969, Chen and Chung 1971, Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984, Sainsbury <em>et al</em>. 1985, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a).  <br/> <br/>Brackish water records have been reported from the Oriomo River estuary, Papua-New Guinea (Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1991). Records of this species occurring well up rivers in India (Day 1873), Malaysia (Stead 1963) and Thailand (Smith 1945) need verification (Compagno and Cook 1995a).
39389		habitat	eng	A marine, euryhaline (moving between fresh and salt water) or marginal (brackish water) species found from inshore waters to a depth of 40 m. Though details of its ecology are not precisely known, it probably spends most of its time on or near the bottom in the shallow coastal waters and estuaries it inhabits. The sawfishes are all ovoviviparous. Females of this species can be pregnant at 246 to 282 cm. Litters range from 6 to 23 young. Age at maturity, longevity and average generation time are unknown. Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Last and Stevens 1994, Setna and Sarangdhar 1948 and 1949, Southwell 1910.
39389		population	eng	Populations are becoming increasingly rare and fragmented and all those known are severely threatened by target and bycatch fisheries and deterioration of habitats.
39389		threats	eng	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, commercial and subsistence. Their morphology, particularly the long tooth-studded saw, makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including primitive fishing technology, and regardless of population size (which was probably always fairly small). When sawfish are taken in bycatch, they are often retained (particularly in areas where there is no legal protection) because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and rostral saws extremely valuable in international trade). They are also targeted opportunistically for the same reasons. <br/> <br/>This species has been landed intensively in broad spectrum fisheries from India to Thailand and most other locales where it occurs in the Indo-Pacific. It is caught for its flesh in parts of Asia, and has an oil-rich liver. The rostrum has been reported ground up for use in traditional Chinese medicine (McDavitt 1996). <br/> <br/>According to the FAO online database, FIGIS, sawfish landings were recorded between 1962 and 2001, with a peak of 1,759 t in 1978 worldwide, but many of these were from the Atlantic and some annual figures appear to be extrapolations from previous years. A strong decline in reported landings took place between 1984 and 1995, partly masked by estimates of constant landings by FAO (it is unclear how these estimates were reached). Landings declared by Pakistan between 1987 and 1995, reaching an unlikely 84 t in 1990, may have included this species. Reported landings have since declined steeply. Most reports suggest that numbers taken by fisheries from a great many localities have fallen noticeably since the 1960s, if not earlier.<br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria. The mortality rates associated with securing live sawfishes for this use is unknown.<br/> <br/>During Stanford University's field collection expeditions for the George Vanderbilt Foundation (GVF) from 1959?1962 in the Gulf of Thailand this species was commonly reported in commercial catches. A number of specimens were returned to the United States and are currently housed with the GVF collection at the California Academy of Sciences, Department of Ichthyology, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, CA 94118. In recent visits to Thailand (1993 and 1996), Sabah (N. Borneo, Malaysia) (1996), mainland Malaysia (1996), and Singapore (1996), the account authors did not observe any specimens of this species in the commercial catch in 25 market visits. Local observers in Thailand report this species has not been seen in the catch there for most of the past 15 years. There is one small fairly recently-collected specimen of knifetooth sawfish in the Zoological Research Collection (ZRC), at the National University of Singapore (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Due the virtual disappearance of this species from commercial catches in regions where it was once considered fairly common, the global population of this species is considered to be much less than 80% of its former levels 30 to 50 years ago.
39390		conservation	eng	<em>Pristis clavata</em> was assessed as Endangered by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species possibly occurs within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area, Queensland, towards the south-eastern edge of its range.  <br/> <br/>Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002 recommended listing this species as a threatened species under Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC). <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay with the help of outside experts.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II.
39390		distribution	eng	Confirmed from tropical coastal and estuarine habitats in Northern and Northwestern Australia. Other records unconfirmed, but it may occur or have occurred more widely in adjacent Indo-Pacific areas.
39390		habitat	eng	Coastal and estuarine habitats in tropical Australia, particularly over mudflats in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). It occurs some distance upriver, almost into freshwater (Last and Stevens 1994).
39390		population	eng	No information is available on range or populations outside Australia, but if this species occurs outside Australian waters, it is likely to be nearing extirpation there. Populations have been significantly reduced in Australia, as a result of bycatch in various commercial and recreational fisheries (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Fishing pressure continues and these declines are, therefore, also likely to continue.
39390		threats	eng	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, commercial and subsistence. Their morphology, particularly the long tooth-studded saw, makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including primitive fishing technology, and regardless of population size (which was probably always fairly small). When sawfish are taken in bycatch, they are often retained (particularly in areas where there is no legal protection) because of the very high value of their products. The meat of this species is likely to be good eating (Last and Stevens 1994). Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) noted that sawfish fins were valued at up to A$250/kg dried weight in Asian markets. Rostral saws can also be valuable in international trade, particularly for large specimens from other species). These species are also targeted opportunistically, for the same reasons.  <br/> <br/>This species is taken as bycatch in commercial and recreational fisheries (particularly gill nets and trawls, possibly also fish traps) throughout its limited confirmed range in northern and north-western Australia. Populations have been significantly reduced in this area, where sawfish have been identified as the species least likely to be subject to sustainable levels of bycatch (Stobutski <em>et al</em>. 2000). Bycatch of members of the family Pristidae (four or five Australian species, including <em>P. clavata</em>, combined) has been recorded in commercial catch and effort logbooks for a targeted shark fishery in northern Australia. Reported catches have declined steeply during the past decade (4,944 kg in 1994/95, 985 kg in 1995/96, 1,604 kg in 1996/97, 139 kg in 1997/98, 230 kg in 1998/99) (Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2002, NTDPIF 2000).  <br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria, with most exports for this purpose currently coming from Australia. The mortality rates associated with securing sawfishes for this use is unknown.  <br/> <br/>This species? known distribution could extend outside Australia, but these areas are far more intensively fished and it is, therefore, likely to be nearing extirpation elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific. In this case, the global population of this species will have declined to significantly less than 80% of its former levels 30 to 50 years ago. Even in Australia, where bycatch pressures are less acute, population declines are likely to continue, particularly in the absence of legal protection for this species.
39393		conservation	eng	India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001. <br/> <br/>This species may occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia.  <br/> <br/>The species was listed as an Endangered Species in New South Wales (Australia) waters in 1999, under the Fisheries Management Act 1994. <br/> <br/>Listed as Endangered by the Australian Society for Fish Biology.  <br/> <br/>Nominated and considered for listing as Vulnerable under the Commonwealth's Endangered Species Protection Act 1992, but listing not made because of lack of information.  <br/> <br/>Actions needed:  Strict legal protection throughout range; monitoring of bycatch; collection of biological and demographic data from accidental captures and aquarium specimens.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II (comment added by LRH May 27th 2010).
39393		distribution	eng	This Indo-Pacific species has been recorded from South Africa to the Persian/Arabian Gulf, Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago (Fowler 1941, Blegvad and Løppenthin 1944, Smith 1945, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Stead 1963, Misra 1969, Grant 1972, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno <em>et al</em>. in press b, Last and Stevens 1994). Freshwater records have been made from Thailand, possibly in the Tachin River and Songkhla Lake (where the species has not been recorded for many years, Cook and Compagno 1994), Malaysia, Indonesia (Kalimantan at Bandjermassing, Java and Ternate Islands) and in Australia from Queensland in Lake Macquarie, and New South Wales in the Clarence River (Fowler 1941, Smith 1945, Stead 1963, Grant 1972, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno <em>et al</em>. in press b).  <br/> <br/>Contraction of the range of this species has been reported in Australia, where green sawfish once occurred at least as far south as Sydney, but now are virtually extinct in New South Wales and are very rarely found south of Townsville (CSIRO Media Release - Ref PR04_158 - Sep 01, 2004), and in South Africa, where sawfishes are apparently no longer resident in areas such as Lake St Lucia.
39393		habitat	eng	<em>Pristis zijsron</em> inhabits muddy bottom habitats and enters estuaries (Allen 1997). It has been recorded in inshore marine waters to at least 40 m depth, in brackish water (estuaries and coastal lakes) and in rivers. Stead (1963) reported that this species was frequently found in shallow water. Its habitat is heavily fished and often also subject to pollution, habitat loss and degradation from coastal, riverine and catchment developments.  <br/> <br/>This is the largest sawfish species, growing to at least 5 m and possibly over 7.3 metres long. Males are mature by 430 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). It is ovoviviparous, giving birth to large young. Grant (1978) suggested that adult males use their saws during mating battles. Sawfishes generally feed on slow-moving shoaling fish such as mullet, which are stunned by sideswipes of the snout. Molluscs and small crustaceans are also swept out of the sand and mud by the saw (Allen 1982, Cliff and Wilson 1994). A male captured as a juvenile survived 35 years in captivity.
39393		population	eng	No information available on original population size or abundance, but this formerly common very large sawfish has undergone significant contraction of its range and a huge decline in abundance in areas where it is still reported to occur.
39393		threats	eng	This species has been exploited intensively, both as a target species and as incidental bycatch in commercial, sport or shark-control net fisheries and for aquarium display throughout its range. As a result of past landings, combined with its strongly K-selected life history pattern, it has become severely depleted in recent decades and now appears to have been extirpated from many parts of its range, including South Africa, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. It also has not been seen in some of its former freshwater habitats (i.e., Songklha Lake, (Malay Peninsula) Thailand for some 30 to 40 years (Cook and Compagno 1994). The species is probably now only easy to find in Australia, where it is commonly entangled in net gear set for barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>), considered a good eating species for human consumption and finds ready markets where landed (Last and Stevens 1994). Even in Australia, the species has declined significantly in range and abundance. In the past, net fishermen working the muddy estuaries of the Queensland coastline found high bycatch of <em>Pristis zijsron</em> to be a serious problem, even though the meat was high quality and marketed (Grant 1978, Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). An average of 0.0020 <em>Pristis zijsron</em> (standard deviation of 0.0020) per hour trawled per km of headrope length (n/h/km) were taken as bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fishery in the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1997 to 1998 (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Moreton Bay area there have been no reports of this species since the 1960s (Johnson 1999). It has also been extremely rare anywhere on the east coast of Australia in the last 25 to 30 years, with no new specimens having been secured by museum and research institute collections (Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).
39394		conservation	eng	Monitoring and documentation and direct and indirect artisanal and commercial catches is required where the species is being fished. Species-specific catch and effort data should be collected throughout its range, which will require capacity-building, education and training programmes. Further investigation into the taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology of <em>R. djiddensis</em> is urgently required. Harvest and trade management is needed, including control of fin trading activities where they occur and as such precautionary curtailment of commercial exploitation throughout its range is recommended given that it will not be able to sustain intense and uncontrolled targeting. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. djiddensis</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. djiddensis</em>.
39394		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to the Eastern Cape in South Africa.
39394		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental shelf to 70 m (generally to 35 m). A large (reaching 300 cm TL) inshore guitarfish. Relatively little information is available on this species across its range. Off KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa it occurs mainly off sandy beaches during summer (van der Elst 1988), where it is especially abundant in the surf zone but does occur along the edges of deeper reefs down to 30 m. Tagged animals have been shown to travel a mean distance of only 49 km, reflecting local movement during the summer (Mann 2003). It is unknown where the animals go in winter but it is possible that they move north into the warmer waters of Mozambique. <br/> <br/>Over the period 1981 to 2000 <em>R. djiddensis</em> catches constituted 33.5% of the total batoid catches in the protective shark nets of KZN, South Africa (Young 2001). Females dominated by 1.95:1, significantly different from unity. Catches are strongly seasonal, occurring primarily (77%) in the summer months of December to April. The median size of females caught (175 cm precaudal length; PCL) was significantly greater than that of males (148 cm PCL) and there was no significant change in size of animals caught between 1981 and 2000. <br/> <br/>Initial indications from tagging data are that growth is very slow (Bullen and Mann 2003). This species is aplacental viviparous, with low fecundity (four pups/litter; van der Elst 1988), but little other details of reproductive biology are known. <br/> <br/>Diet includes crabs, bivalve molluscs and small fish (van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  150 cm TL (sex not specified; van der Elst 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  310 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  60 cm TL (van der Elst 1988). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4 pups/litter (periodicity not given; van der Elst 1988). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
39394		population	eng	In South Africa, although it reaches the Eastern Cape Province, it is common only in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN).
39394		threats	eng	The restricted coastal habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. <br/> <br/>Most detailed information on catches of <em>R. djiddensis</em> is from South Africa and further data are required from throughout its range where the species faces a number of threats. <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa:</strong> <br/>The mean annual catch in the KZN protective shark nets, South Africa, over the period 1981?2000 was 118 individuals, of which 74% were released alive (Young 2001). There was no significant trend overall (Young 2001) but catch and catch rate declined during the 1990s. Survival of released animals is unknown but, of 460 netted animals tagged and released between 1988 and 2002, 32 (7%) were recaptured (Natal Sharks Board unpublished data). There was no change in the mean size of animals caught in the nets during the time period examined (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Catch rate (number of fish per angler hour) in competition shore angling in KZN showed an increase over the period 1977?2000, as did the mean mass of animals caught (Pradervand 2003). By contrast, anecdotal reports from anglers indicate that the species is less commonly caught than in previous years (Mann 2003). Pradervand (2003) notes that targeting biases do occur in competition shore angling. Hence it is possible that such biases may mask any decline in abundance. A popular target species for shore anglers because of its fighting ability, it has become common practice to release these fish (van der Elst 1988). Of a total of 3,426 animals tagged (including those caught in the shark nets), 198 (5.8%) have been recaptured (Mann 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> is taken as bycatch by demersal prawn trawlers operating in 20 to 45 m depth on the Tugela Bank off central KZN, primarily in summer and at a rate of 123 to 231 per year (Fennessy 1994). Most (82%) of those caught in a sample of 100 trawls were alive and released, although subsequent survival is not known. <br/> <br/><strong>Outside South Africa:</strong> <br/>Various fishing activities impact <em>R. djiddensis</em> over most of its range outside of South Africa. In most, if not all cases, however specific data are limited. Increased local and foreign targeting and landing of giant guitarfish threatens the species across its range. <br/> <br/>The fins from large animals of this species and other members of its genus fetch exceptionally high prices, creating a significant incentive for bycatch to be retained. The species is exploited commercially, primarily for its fins, off Tanzania in bottom-set gillnets and possibly also by spearfishermen (Barnett 1997, Saleh Yahya pers. comm. Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar, September 2003). Given the ready accessibility of the species (due to its size and inshore habitat) and the high value of its fins, these catches are cause for particular concern (Barnett 1997). It is also taken as bycatch by prawn trawlers off Tanzania (Barnett 1997). In neighbouring Kenya there is artisanal gillnetting as well as prawn trawling, and there is an established trade in shark fins (Marshall 1997). Although species-specific data are not provided, it is likely that <em>R. djiddensis</em> is an important component of coastal elasmobranch catches in Kenya. <br/> <br/>Similar fisheries occur in Mozambique (Sousa <em>et al</em>. 1997) and where fins were the main product supporting the shark fishing industry (Mihara and Donato 1986 in Sousa et al. 1997). Large <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> are landed for their fins by artisanal fisherman in southern and central Mozambique and this practice is increasing (Andrea Marshall, University of Queensland, pers. comm). Furthermore, catches of <em>R. djiddensis</em> by recreational anglers have also been recorded in southern Mozambique (Sousa <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Inshore fisheries (including gillnet and trawl) are also prevalent in the Red Sea, where it is an important landed species (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Catch data from this area are required. <br/> <br/>It is not, however, solely local fishing activities that impact upon <em>R. djiddensis</em>. Of great concern is the large number of foreign vessels targeting guitarfish fin in the region. At the time of writing, there was some 150 to 200 Taiwanese operated fishing vessels (most Taiwanese flagged vessels, some Indonesian flagged) fishing for shark fin off East Africa and the Middle East in the Western Indian Ocean (IOTC 2005). The main target species for these fishers is reportedly hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish (IOTC 2005). The fishing grounds targeted by these vessels can be divided into two areas: 1). Offshore Mozambique, Tanzania and Madagascar (almost year-round fishing season), and 2). Offshore Oman, Yemen and Somalia (April to July) (IOTC 2005). These areas represent large proportions of the giant guitarfish?s range. These foreign vessels are known to be poaching from territorial waters where surveillance and policing are insufficient (IOTC 2005). A recent report of illegal fishing by foreign vessels in Mozambican waters included a seizure of an entire cargo consisting of sharks, mostly <em>R. djiddensis</em>. See: <a href="?http://www.environment.gov.za/NewsMedia/MedStat/2004Mar19/foreignVessels_19032004.html?">South Africa And Mozambique Tighten Noose On Foreign Vessels For Illegal Fishing</a>. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) are likely affecting this species given its inshore occurrence.
39396		conservation	eng	The Pacific Electric Ray is not presently one of the species actively regulated by the Pacific Fisheries Management Council. The demand for electric ray has been relatively low, with no indication that this trend will change.
39396		distribution	eng	The Pacific Electric Ray is the only member of the family Torpedinidae occurring along the west coast of the United States (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). It ranges from Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja California to Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, occurring at depths between 3?274 m (Miller and Lea 1972). It is most common south of Point Conception, California (Love 1996).
39396		habitat	eng	Information regarding movement patterns of the Pacific Electric Ray is scarce. Limited telemetry studies indicate that Pacific electric rays begin active movements after dusk and are primarily nocturnal (R. Bray pers. comm.). Traditionally thought to be sluggishand passive hunters, in situ observations indicate that <em>T. californica</em> actively hunt for prey in the water column near rocky reefs and kelp beds and move rapidly in both offensive and defensive situations (Bray and Hixon 1978, R. Bray pers. comm.). Catch records from southern California suggest summer inshore migratory patterns and possible segregation by sex (R. Fey pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The diet of the Pacific Electric Ray is not well documented. They are effective piscivores, capturing prey by electric discharge using either an ?ambush-style predation? by day or a ?search-and-attack-style? predation at night (Lowe <em>et al.</em> 1995). Their diet in southern California consists mainly of Northern Anchovy (<em>Engraulis mordax</em>), Olive Rockfish (<em>Sebastes serranoides</em>), California Tonguefish (<em>Symphurus atricauda</em>), White Croaker (<em>Genyonemus lineatus</em>) and White Surfperch (<em>Phanerodon furcatus</em>) (R. Bray pers. comm.).
39396		threats	eng	A small fishery exists for the acquisition of biological and biomedical research specimens (Love 1996). Small numbers of animals are harvested, either directed or as bycatch in bottom-trawls, for their electric organs. The fishery may currently have as few as two active fishers.
39397		conservation	eng	It is recommended that suitable non-trawling areas are defined to protect both adults and deposited eggs as these are both susceptible to capture by trawling gear.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g. mesh size regulations, effort reduction). <em>Diptutus batis</em> has been identified by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Study Group on Elasmobranch Fish as one which ?requires information on either fisheries statistics, biology or status of exploitation? or in the case of <em>D. batis</em>, all three (Anonymous 1995). Demographic information indicates that population recovery might be achieved by allowing increasing juvenile survival (Walker and Hislop 1998). <em>Dipturus batis</em> was proposed for strict protection under the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act in 2001; a decision is still (2006) awaited from government. <em>D. batis</em> is also a Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) species in the UK, and was listed on the OSPAR Priority List of Threatened and Endangered Species. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>For the conservation of chondrichthyans within the Mediterranean region, the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem recommended that all fishing states implement a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of chondrichthyans, in line with IPOA sharks (International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of chondrichthyans). <br/> <br/>The MEDLEM project was adopted at the last SAC meeting (FAO, Rome 2005) for data collection within the Mediterranean basin on large elasmobranches. The Bern Convention encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of chondrichthyans in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Italy a national action plan (PAN-SHARKS) was co-ordinated by ICCRAM (Central Institute for Marine Research) within the guidelines of the Bern Convention and FAO IPOA-Sharks (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). The Barcelona Convention proposed this species for urgent legal protection under its Mediterranean Action Plan.<br/><br/>A new European requirement is that common skates, when caught, should be returned to the sea - applies only to the North Sea.
39397		distribution	eng	The historical geographical range of <em>D. batis</em> covered much of the continental shelf of the North-east Atlantic, from Madeira and the coast of northern Morocco in the south, to Iceland and northern Norway in the north, including the Mediterranean Sea. In several parts of its range, including the Western Baltic, western Mediterranean and southern North Sea, it is considered scarce (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). It is absent from the Black Sea and Levantine Mediterranean basin (Serena 2005). At the start of the twentieth century it was considered to have a wide distribution over the shallower waters of the continental shelf surrounding the British Isles, albeit more common in the northern and western regions (Walker and Heesen 1996). Though individual specimens are reported very occasionally from the Irish Sea, Bristol Channel and central North Sea, the current range tends to occupy the deeper waters off northwestern Scotland and in Celtic Sea, and along the edge of the continental shelf.
39397		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found from shallow coastal waters down to depths of 600 m, although it is primarily within the 200 m depth range (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Bouchot 1987, Serena 2005). This is the largest species of skate attaining a length of more than 250 cm. The age and growth of <em>D. batis</em> has been reported by Du Buit (1972 1976) and more recently by Fahy (1991) who examined the vertebrae of 75 individuals landed in Ireland. Du Buit (1976) gave the following growth parameters: Maximum length 253.73 cm; k = 0.057; t<sub>0</sub> = -1.629. Males are thought to mature at a length of 125 cm (Du Buit 1972) and although the size at maturity has not been accurately determined for females, an estimate of 150 cm was presented in the 2000 Red List assessment (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2000). Du Buit (1976) determined that maturity is reached at 11 years of age and that individuals may live for 50 years. The overall sex ratio has been reported to be approximately 1:1, although this may differ geographically and seasonally (Fulton 1903, Steven 1933). The fecundity has not been accurately determined but was estimated at 40 eggs/year over the spawning season (Brander 1981) and the rate of reproduction has been calculated at 0.38. Oviparous, with large egg-cases covered with close-felted fibres (150 to 250 mm long and 80 to 150 mm wide reported in the Mediterranean (Serena 2005) and 145 to 245 mm long in the UK (Clark 1922, Wheeler 1969). The egg-cases are deposited in spring and summer in both the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic (Clark 1922, Wheeler 1969, Serena 2005). The young hatch at a lengths of up to 21.2 to 22.3 cm (Clark 1926). There is no detailed information on the developmental time.  <br/> <br/><em>Dipturus batis</em> preys mostly on crustaceans and teleost fish, although Steven (1947) reported several species of elasmobranch, including other species of rajid, in the stomach contents of fish landed in Devon and Cornwall. The skate hunts actively and envelops its prey prior to capture and ingestion. The dark ventral surface may facilitate hunting in the pelagic phase. <br/> <br/>While there is almost no life history and ecological information specific to the Mediterranean it is likely that it is similar to that exhibited in more northerly waters.
39397		population	eng	North-east Atlantic: Common skate, as the name implies, was historically one of the most abundant skates and rays in the North-east Atlantic. It was widely distributed in the seas surrounding the British Isles, though catch rates of this species in this area declined during the 20<sup>th</sup> century. By the 1970?s common skate was considered extirpated from the Irish Sea (Brander 1981), and they have also disappeared from the English Channel and the southern and central North Sea (Walker 1999, Rogers and Ellis 2000). Though individual specimens are reported occasionally from these areas (e.g., Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005), common skate are now only regularly observed off northern and north-western Scotland, Celtic Sea and along the edge of the continental shelf (>150 m depth).  <br/> <br/>A time series of comparative trawl surveys in the Gulf of Lions between 1957?1960 indicate that <em>D. batis</em> was historically present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys. It was captured in 10% of hauls (n=27) in shelf surveys (coast?150 m depth) and in approximately 17% of hauls (n=37) in slope surveys (150?800 m) (Aldebert 1997). In contrast, comparable surveys carried out from 1966?1995 in the Gulf of Lions (totalling 1,295 hauls) did not record this species (Aldebert 1997). In the Adriatic Sea, the ?Hvar? 1948 trawl surveys (based on 138 valid hauls taken in the spring-summer of 1948) revealed <em>D. batis</em> present in 3.2% of hauls. In a comparable survey conducted in the spring-summer of 1998 (127 valid hauls) (MEDITS) it was not recaptured, suggesting <em>D. batis</em> may now be absent from this area (Jukic-Peladic 2001). The MEDITS survey began in 1994 while another study of the Adriatic Sea had begun in 1985 (GRUND), with each project carrying out one survey per year. A single individual was captured in the first GRUND survey of 1985 and since then no specimens have appeared in the Adriatic in either of these surveys (Marano <em>et al</em>. in press). It is now regarded as locally extinct in the Adriatic Sea (Tinti <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although these surveys are exhaustive, it should be noted that the MEDITS net is thought to have a low sampling efficiency of truly benthic species (Jukic-Peladic 2001). Along the Algerian coast from 1996?1997, regular systematic surveys of elasmobranchs present in markets have been undertaken. Although eight species of skate have been recorded, <em>D. batis</em> has not been reported (Hemida 1998). Tunisian fisheries use prawn trawl and larger ?French? trawls, which frequently capture skates and demersal sharks. While this species has been documented from Tunisian waters in the early part of the 20th century, it has not been recorded since 1971 and it is now presumed absent from this area (Bradaï 2000). <br/> <br/>The former range of this skate included much of the west, north and eastern shelf and slope habitat of the Mediterranean. These results suggest that this species may only be found in the western area of the Mediterranean (Morocco, Spain and France) representing a substantial reduction in area of occurrence of this species.
39397		threats	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Rajids are an important component of the demersal fisheries of northwest Europe (Holden 1977) and Dipturus batis has traditionally been landed due to its large size (see Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2000 for details). It has taken in targeted fisheries where/when abundant, and as a bycatch elsewhere within its range. Accurate species-specific landings data are not available, though species-specific data from Iceland indicate declining landings of this species. Though French data appear more stable, these landings include landings from fisheries operating towards the edge of the continental shelf, where the population now appears to be concentrated. Given that this species is likely to be taken in trawl and gillnet fisheries that target high-value telesosts (e.g., megrim, anglerfish and hake), it is unlikely that fishing effort will decrease. Common skate are targeted by recreational fisheries (e.g., off Scotland), most anglers release captured individuals.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>The situation appears similar in the Mediterranean, where <em>D. batis</em> is probably captured as part of the bycatch of multispecies trawl fisheries. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croation, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic et al. 2001). The large body size, slow growth, low fecundity and large size of juveniles of this species makes it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation when compared to other rajids (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are taken in fishing nets, including the eggs (which are often found in the trawl cod-end, Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003), as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm. Considering the large size at maturity (around 130 cm) this means that the exploitation of juveniles is likely to be high. Additionally <em>D. batis</em> has been found to have undergone declines and disappearance from other shelf seas, notably the Irish and North Sea (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000).
39399		conservation	eng	Several of the UK?s local Sea Fisheries Committees have by-laws for a minimum landing size (e.g., 40 cm DW in the Southern and the Kent and Essex Sea Fisheries Districts). Such localised management initiatives will not, however, be of significant effect in conserving regional populations. Due to European rajid fisheries being a component of multispecies fisheries, which also target several species of flatfish and gadoid, gear restriction using mesh size is not a viable management measure. Minimum landing sizes have been implemented in some areas of the UK by Sea Fisheries Committees.
39399		distribution	eng	The Thornback Skate, or roker, is one of the most abundant rajids in north European coastal waters and can be the dominant rajid in commercial landings and research vessel catches (Rousset 1990a, Ellis unpubl.). It is widely distributed from Iceland and Norway (south of the Arctic Circle), to the North Sea (where it is now less abundant in south-eastern areas (Walker 1998), the Mediterranean, the western Black Sea, Madeira, the Atlantic coasts of Africa, and as far south as South Africa and the south-western Indian Ocean (Stehmann 1995). The status of this species in West and South African waters, and its relationship with <em>Raja (Raja) cf. clavata</em>, which is reported from the waters off Namibia and southern Africa (Macpherson 1986, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1991, Smale and Cowley 1992) needs further research.
39399		habitat	eng	The Thornback Skate is a demersal coastal species which inhabits a variety of substrates, including mud, sand, shingle, gravel and rocky areas, in water down to 300 m, although it is most abundant in 10? 60 m of water off coastal areas (Wheeler 1969, Stehmann and Buerkel 1984). Rousset (1990a) studied the elasmobranch assemblage off the coast of Brittany and found that <em>R. clavata</em> was the most abundant rajid due to the fact that it was able to inhabit this range of benthic habitats. Thornback Skate is the second most important species, after the Smallspotted Catshark (<em>Scyliorhinus canicula</em>), in the demersal elasmobranch assemblage in the northern Bristol Channel and constitutes between 7.4?8.8% of the elasmobranch biomass (Ellis unpubl.). The age and growth of this species have been studied by examining the vertebrae of fish caught in the Bristol Channel (Ryland and Ajayi 1984), although Brander and Palmer (1985), using length-frequency analysis, have indicated inconsistencies for the smaller sized fish used in this work. Ryland and Ajayi (1984) gave maximum age and length of 12 years and 1,047 mm (k = 0.090). Vertebral growth rings have been shown to be annual (Holden and Vince 1973). Growth has also been estimated from tagging studies (Holden 1972). Validated age studies of specimens from the southern North Sea have shown thornback skates to have a maximum length of 118 cm for females and 98cm for males (Walker 1998). The size at maturity for females and males have been estimated at 45?50 cm disc width (DW) and 38?44 cm DW (Fitzmaurice 1974); 85 cm total length (TL) (54 cm DW) and 75 cm TL (48 cm DW) (Capapé 1976); 45 cm DW and 42 cm DW (Nottage and Perkins 1983) and 59 cm TL and 60 cm TL (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Walker (1998) estimated length at 50% maturity to be 77 cm TL for males and 68 cm TL for females. The corresponding ages at 50% maturity were eight and seven years. It has been reported that <em>R. clavata</em> first spawn in their fifth year (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Eggs are laid during a protracted breeding season from February to September (Holden 1975), with a peak in May and June. However, this is for the population as a whole and the egg-laying period for individual fish may be shorter. Ellis and Shackley (1995) maintained one female in captivity and reported that egg laying lasted six weeks, with a mean egg-laying rate of 1.07 eggs per day, a pair of eggs being laid on alternate days. These data concur with the observations of Holden (1971). Development lasts 16?20.5 weeks (Ellis and Shackley 1995), although this period may vary with temperature. The young hatch at a length of 10?13 cm. The nursery areas used are coastal, estuarine and tidal flat areas (e.g., the Wash and Thames estuary in the UK). The fecundity of <em>R. clavata</em> in British waters has been estimated at 150 eggs per year (Holden 1971), 140 eggs per year (Holden 1975) and 100 eggs per year (minimum of 62? 74) (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Capapé (1976, 1977a) estimated a fecundity of 70?167 eggs per year in Tunisian waters, although it may be as low as 48 (Ellis and Shackley 1995). The feeding habits have been well documented from many areas over its geographical range, including British waters (Holden and Tucker 1974, Ajayi 1982, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1996), Ireland (Fitzmaurice 1974), France (Du Buit 1968, 1978?79, Quiniou and Andriamirado 1979), Portugal (Marques and Re 1978, Cunha <em>et al.</em> 1986), the Mediterranean (Capapé 1975, 1977; Abdel-Aziz 1986), the Southeast Atlantic waters off Namibia (Macpherson 1986) and southern Africa (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1991). Young and juvenile <em>R. clavata</em> predominantly eat small crustaceans, such as shrimps, mysids, amphipods and small crabs. Larger specimens prey on larger crustaceans, including prawns and crabs and will also consume fish. The migratory habits have been studied by Steven (1936) who found that very little movement occurred, especially in young fish, with 71% of tagged fish moving less than five miles. Fish tagged in the southern North Sea also showed a sedentary pattern, with 80% being recaptured within 40 nautical miles of their release position (Walker <em>et al.</em> 1997). The recapture percentage was nearly 30%. Fitzmaurice (1974) studied the populations within two bays in Ireland and reported a sex ratio of 1:1 and, of 71 tagged, eight (11.3%) recaptures. Rousset (1990b) observed that mature females were more common in exposed areas and juveniles and mature males were more common in more sheltered areas.
39399		threats	eng	Thornback Skate is a very important component of demersal fisheries in most European waters and is taken by trawl and gillnet, particularly as bycatch. There is or has been limited directed longlining and netting for the species. Landings of this species are not known, as landings of all rajids are combined in the records (ICES 1958?1987). Holden (1963) looked at the species composition of rajids landed by commercial trawlers at Milford Haven and Fleetwood, UK, during 1961 and 1962 and <em>R. clavata</em> accounted for 34.9% and 12.72% respectively. There is no evidence of severe population depletion, as has been documented for the Common Skate (<em>Dipturus batis</em>), although landings are considered to be in decline and a management strategy is required. Thornback Skates are also regularly caught by recreational anglers, although mortality from this source of fishing pressure will be of little impact for the population as a whole, particularly in areas where catch and release is practised.
39400		conservation	eng	There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm for skates and rays caught in the inshore waters of South Wales. Though there are no species-specific management measures, they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations).
39400		distribution	eng	The Smalleyed Ray is restricted primarily to the Atlantic coasts of Northwest Europe, from the British Isles southwards to Gibraltar and northwestern Africa (Morocco and Western Sahara) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1989) and is most abundant in bays and other inshore sandy areas.
39400		habitat	eng	Juveniles tend to occur in relatively shallow water, with larger individuals more abundant further from shore, though it is uncommon in waters more than 100m deep (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a). The Smalleyed Ray attains a maximum length of 91 cm total length (LT ) and begins to mature at 57.5?58 cm LT (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). The fecundity has been estimated at 54-61 eggs per year, with egg-laying activity peaking between June and September (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Size at birth is approximately 10 cm TL (Ryland and Ajayi 1984).The feeding habits have been described for those populations inhabiting Carmarthen Bay (Ajayi 1977, 1982; Ellis unpublished) and the Cove of Bertheaume in Brittany (Rousset 1987) and it is known that they feed on a variety of crustaceans and teleosts (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2005). Juveniles predate primarily on small shrimps and amphipods, with fishes (e.g., sand eels and dragonets) becoming more important in the diets of larger individuals.
39400		population	eng	Over much of its geographical range it is relatively rare, though it can be locally abundant in certain areas, for example smalleyed ray is one of the dominant rajids occurring in the Bristol Channel (ICES division VIIf), Bertheaume Bay (Brittany) and south-eastern Ireland (Fahy and O'Reilly 1990, Rousset 1990, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b). No formal stock assessments have been undertaken for this species. The Smalleyed Ray?s geographic range is smaller than many of the more common European skates and rays. Furthermore there are certain areas where it is particularly abundant. For example, within UK waters it is only reported occasionally in the Irish Sea and North Sea, caught in low numbers in the English Channel and is very abundant in the Bristol Channel. Hence, this inshore species seems to have a fragmented population, possibly due to the fragmented nature of its favoured habitat. Catch rates in beam trawl surveys of the Bristol Channel appear steady (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b), though this is based on catch rates of all individuals. It is likely that the equipment used in this survey does not sample mature fish effectively, and fishery-independent data for mature fish are limited.
39400		threats	eng	Taken as a bycatch in trawl and set net fisheries, with most landings from the Bristol Channel (ICES Division VIIf). <em>R. microocellata</em> is commercially important for ports in South Wales, Devon and Cornwall in the UK. Exploitation in areas further south is not known. Due to its restricted distribution, inshore habitats and overall scarcity, albeit with areas of localised abundance, it may be at risk from overfishing and habitat disturbance. Sand banks in the Bristol Channel (UK) are regularly dredged to supply the aggregate industry and the potential consequences of this activity on <em>R. microocellata</em> are unknown (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2005).
39402		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Monitoring of the unregulated ornamental fish trade, policing of the illegal trade, and education to limit persecution are essential. Although the population has not been negatively affected by the Tucuruí Dam, it is important to estimate the impact of a series of dams along the Tocantins river.
39402		distribution	eng	A black-backed stingray endemic to the Rio Tocantins and Rio Araguaia.
39402		habitat	eng	It seems to prefer mud bottoms where it hunts gastropod molluscs, their most important food item (Pantano-Neto 2001). Maximum size 104.2 cm total length (TL) (71 cm disc width (DW)). Females mature at approximately 80 to 85 cm TL (around 50 cm DW). Ovoviviparous, number of young ranges from 1 up to nine embryos a litter and number of embryos is related to maternal size. Size at birth is approximately 25 to 30 cm TL. Gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown. In the area of the Tucuruí reservoir it breeds year-round, probably due to the artificial water level control inside the reservoir.
39402		population	eng	An important population increase occurred after the construction of the Tucuruí dam, lower Rio Tocantins.
39402		threats	eng	Persecution occurs along the sandy beaches in some parts of its range in summer or during the dry season (July and August), however there are no estimates available for the numbers of this species killed. This species is exported for the ornamental trade as <em>P. motoro</em>, officially from Manaus and illegally from Belém. Legal ornamental fishing of this species was recently approved on the grounds that scientific research is also carried out in order to provide sustainable levels. Habitat degradation caused by illegal mining activities is likely to be indirectly impacting this species.
39403		conservation	eng	Further management plans and legislation improvement are required conservation measures for <em>P. leopoldi</em>. Local residents and communities should be involved in the management of this species and it is essential to develop public awareness through education and capacity building programmes. Public awareness could also help reduce persecution (due to fear of injury) associated with tourism, recreation and human settlement.<br/><br/>Sustainable yield limits for ornamental purposes must be monitored to ensure the survival of this species. Preliminary data (Charvet-Almeida unpublished data) indicate that illegal captures have reduced significantly after the establishment of an export quota system but further study is needed to ensure this is maintained. Adequate law enforcement is an essential conservation measure when it comes to the ornamental fish trade.<br/><br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation are also fundamental aspects to be included in management plans and need to be enforced by existing and new legislation. Headwaters are certainly among a priority.<br/><br/>Further studies about life history and population dynamics are already underway.
39403		distribution	eng	South America inland waters: Northern Brazil. Possibly endemic to the Xingu River Basin (Brazil) (Rosa 1985). Incorrectly indicated as being restricted to a single river (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003), this species has been observed and photographed in the Xingu River and at least two of its tributaries (Curuá and Iriri Rivers) (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.).
39403		habitat	eng	This species seems to prefer rocky river bottoms where it probably more easily finds freshwater snails and crabs that are among its main food items (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.).<br/><br/>The available unpublished data indicates that this species has a relatively high fecundity compared with other potamotrygonids, ranging from 4 to 12 pups per litter (average of 7?8) (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida unpublished data).<br/><br/>Further information regarding habitat and ecology aspects of <em>P. leopoldi</em> are currently under study.
39403		population	eng	Population trends and dynamics have never been estimated for this species but are currently under study.
39403		threats	eng	Despite occurring in a large river basin, this species has a relatively restricted range (limited to the Xingu River Basin), and serious impacts in this region may result in population declines.<br/><br/>Habitat loss/degradation involving the development and expansion of agriculture, livestock, ongoing gold mining, fisheries and logging are a threat to this species. Water contaminants originating mainly from agricultural, domestic, sediment, sewage and solid wastes, as a consequence of this development, are also considered threats for <em>P. leopoldi</em>.<br/><br/>Inadequate land management and deforestation, mainly in the Xingu River headwaters and some of its tributaries, are significantly increasing and could bring serious impacts to the entire basin.<br/><br/>Geological characteristics of the Xingu River favour the building of dams throughout the basin and potentially represent a threat to this species; however, it is uncertain how <em>P. leopoldi</em> populations will be affected by this impact. Genetic isolation is likely to take place if the proposed dams of the Belo Monte Hydroelectric Complex are built in the near future.<br/><br/>Human settlement, tourism and recreation often lead to persecution (killing freshwater stingrays due to fear of sting injuries).<br/><br/>This species is seldom used as a food source but is captured as bycatch (mainly by hooking, netting, entanglement and occasionally by poisoning) in other target species fisheries.<br/><br/>Juveniles are captured for the international ornamental fish trade and at present this activity is regulated by an export quota system that must be correctly enforced by the environmental and export related national agencies. It is important to note that captures for ornamental purposes represents an important socio-economic activity for riparian residents in this region.<br/><br/>Historically, severe droughts (associated with the El-Niño phenomenon) in some small tributaries of the Xingu river have caused high mortality (Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.).
39404		conservation	eng	None.
39404		distribution	eng	Rio Paraná, middle and lower reaches; Río Uruguay middle, Río de la Plata, Río Pilcomayo and Río Bermejo. Río Guapore, Río Negro, Río Branco, Río de Janeiro and Río Paraguay.
39404		habitat	eng	Like all river rays, the ocellate river ray is found in calm waters, especially on the sandy margins of lagoons, brooks and streams. They are most commonly caught when water levels are low (August? September and March?April in Río Paraná, Santa Fe region (Castex and Maciel 1965b)), and observed still and partly buried during the warmest period of the day (09.00?20.00). Fishermen also harpoon these rays during floods when they are found resting over vegetation in shallow water. <em>Potamotrygon motoro</em> catches coincide with a rise in water temperature (Castex and Maciel 1965a), with abundance increasing in the Paraná Medio from September to mid January, stabilising in early March, declining in April then disappearing (Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach 1976). It is possible that they remain permanently in the area, but are concealed on the bottom at other times. Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach (1976) consider that <em>Potamotrygon</em> species are ovoviviparous. <em>Potamotrygon motoro</em> reaches sexual maturity during its third year, at a disk width of 30?35cm. A specimen with a disk of 30 cm expelled nine foetuses immediately after being captured. Another, with a disk of 45 cm, gave birth to a litter of 15 young, eight females and seven males. The largest foetus was 13.5 cm in diameter and the smallest 9.5 cm. The diameter of the females was between 11? 13.5 cm, whereas the diameter of the males ranged between 9.5?12cm. Female <em>P. motoro</em> were in an advanced stage of pregnancy in January (Castex 1963). Smaller females give birth to fewer young. The litter size is always odd, varying from 3?21 (Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach 1976).<br><br>According to Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach, plankton is the first food taken after birth. Juveniles complement their diet with small molluscs (Lamellibranchs and Gastropods), crustaceans and the larvae of aquatic insects. Fish of the family Loricaridae, <em>Astyanax</em> sp. and <em>Pimelodella gracilis</em> were found in the stomach contents of adults.
39404		population	eng	This is the most abundant and widespread endemic ray species of the Parano-plata.
39404		threats	eng	All species of river stingray in the Parano-plata Basin have delicious meat and are harpooned by fishermen when seen in shallow water. Artisanal and commercial fishermen also catch some specimens on lines. The attractively patterned juveniles of this species are collected for the ornamental fish trade. The major threats to the species possibly derive from habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Río Paraná system for navigation and hydroelectric plants and the construction of many ports along the river.
39406		conservation	eng	None.
39406		conservation	eng	None known.
39406		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, collected from the Sanaga River and Cross River, Cameroon. Elsewhere, known from the Niger and Benue Rivers, and the Lagos Lagoon (Compagno and Roberts 1984). <em>Dasyatis garouaensis</em> is restricted to fresh waters (Séret 1990). D. garouaensis is rare in collections.
39406		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The Smooth Freshwater Stingray is a primarily freshwater elasmobranch known from Benue River in Cameroon and Nigeria, from the Niger River downstream of Jebba dam, Lagos Lagoon, Cross River (Compagno and Roberts 1984).<strong><strong> </strong></strong>Recently recorded from the Sanaga River (Cameroon).
39406		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to freshwater habitats. It is recorded from three West African river systems in Nigeria and Cameroon; the Niger and Benoue, Cross and Sanaga Rivers. Also occurs in Lagos, Nigeria, from uncertain habitat, possibly transported from elsewhere (Compagno and Roberts 1984a, b). Subpopulation details are unknown.
39406		habitat	eng	<em>Dasyatis garouaensis</em> is a demersal, ovoviviparous species (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). It exhibits ovoviparity (aplacental viviparity), with embryos feeding initially on yolk, then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus, fat or protein through specialised structures (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). It has distinct pairing with embrace (Breder and Rosen 1966).
39406		habitat	eng	It grows to 40 cm in diameter. Bottom dwelling fish. Ovoviviparous with the embryos initially feeding on yolk. Low fecundity with less than 10 young expected. Migratory.
39406		habitat	eng	This freshwater stingray is present primarily in the Niger-Benoue river system of West Africa. The few specimens examined for diet had eaten aquatic insects. Age at maturity is estimated at about two years for both sexes, with a maximum lifespan of five years for males and seven years for females. Generation time and average annual fecundity are unknown.
39406		population	eng	A rare to common small stingray.
39406		population	eng	No available data.
39406		population	eng	No information available.
39406		threats	eng	Dredging of river for water transportation. In addition the habitat quality and quantity is declining throughout it's range due to the combined effects of agriculture, deforestation and urban development. The range is also being restircted through dam construction.
39406		threats	eng	Its conservation status is uncertain, given its restricted distribution (known from only four rivers) in a region with known habitat degradation. This species has apparently become less common after the construction of a dam on the Benue River (Séret pers. obs.).
39406		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch of fisheries on the rivers and subject to increasing fisheries pressure and habitat degradation in an area of dense and expanding human populations and political problems. Although dull-coloured, young of this species are sufficiently small to be usable in the ornamental fish trade, as are a number of species of South American Potamotrygonidae, although there is no evidence that this has happened to date.<br/><br/>A declining population in its former main centre of abundance, the Niger-Benoue system, is suggested by sequential attempts to collect these rays by Stauch and Blanc (1962) and Thorson and Watson (1975). It has declined or disappeared at the type locality at Garoua in the Benoue River in Cameroon, where it was formerly abundant, due (according to local residents) to local drought. On the other hand, this ray was fairly common in the Sanaga River near Edea, Cameroon (Taniuchi 1991) but with no baseline on former abundance.
39407		conservation	eng	There is no <em>in situ</em> protection for the species or its habitat (Compagno 2005). The Thai government   started a project in the 1990s to breed this and other freshwater   stingrays <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in captivity at Chai Nat above a dam on the Chao Phraya   River to counter declines of freshwater rays in the river, and young   were successfully bred. The breeding project ceased without specimens being released to the wild.<br/><br/>This species occurs in areas subjected to heavy  fishing pressure; it is a utilised bycatch but is not specifically  targeted. New dams built in the Mekong basin probably have impacted the  habitat and movement of this species (Compagno 2005). Further research and protection is required for the species.
39407		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be endemic to the Mekong River from Stung Treng in Cambodia to Chiang Rai in northern Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002). It is possibly present in the lower part of the main tributaries, and might also be expected as far downstream as the Mekong delta (I. Baird pers. comm. 2011). Records from the Chao Phraya River near Chai Nat in Thailand (Compagno 2005) are considered to pertain to a population introduced for<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span> breeding and were sourced from the Mekong population (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
39407		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to freshwater habitats. It is found in sandy and rocky bottoms in mainstreams and rapids. Little life history information is available for this species. The generation length is estimated at 15 years (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
39407		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range. Population decline has been observed (from occurrence in markets) for the past twenty years, and almost absent from markets in Thailand in the last ten years, though fishers in southern Lao PDR do not consider it to be especially rare (I. Baird pers. comm. 2011). Fish sellers report that a specimen has not been landed for several years in Thailand, and a population decline of 50% is inferred to have occurred over the last twenty years. This decline  in numbers is estimated to continue in the future, and will be exacerbated by mainstream dam development on the Mekong mainstream and tributaries.
39407		threats	eng	The species is subject to heavy fishing pressures, being taken as bycatch in intensive fisheries. The  species is also impacted by large-scale habitat degradation through  dam-building and pollution from agricultural and industrial development,  which has apparently drastically decreased fish diversity in the rivers  where this species occurs. Its population is considered to have  declined as a result and this decline in numbers is projected to  continue (Compagno 2005). The development of mainstream dams on the Mekong, if they were to be developed, would have further severe impacts on the species reproductive success and recruitment (MRC 2009; WWF 2010). Barlow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) consider the species to be "highly vulnerable" to impacts from mainstream dam development.<br/><br/>Young are sufficiently small to be suitable for the  aquarium trade, and they have been taken from the wild for aquaria and scientific research.
39411		conservation	eng	The Thai government started a project in the 1990s to breed this and other freshwater stingrays in captivity at Chai Nat above the dam on the Chao Phraya River to counter declines of freshwater rays in the river. Two specimens of what was possibly this species (or a closely related species) were seen in captivity here in 1993. We later (1996) learned that the project had been put on hold, at least temporarily.
39411		distribution	eng	This is a freshwater species, occurring in the rivers of Southeast Asia. It is known from the Kapuas River in western Kalimantan and Indragiri River, Sumatra, Indonesia; Perak River, western Peninsular Malaysia; and Chao Phrya River, Thailand (Taniuchi 1979, Compagno and Roberts 1982).<br/><br/>Subpopulation details are unknown. If, as seems likely, this ray is unable to transit marine habitats, each riverine population will be completely isolated.
39411		habitat	eng	This rarely recorded freshwater species is known from about 10 specimens in museum collections, mostly from the Kapuas River, Kalimantan. No information is available on any of this species? life history parameters.
39411		population	eng	Rare.
39411		threats	eng	This rare ray is taken infrequently as bycatch in freshwater teleost fisheries, which are intensive through much of its range. It is possibly taken for the aquarium trade (unverified). It lives in areas where riverine pollution and habitat degradation are continuing apace. Populations (which are probably isolated in each river where it occurs) are likely to be under serious continued threat as a result of logging activities and pollution from agricultural chemicals, sewage and industrial waste in the river catchments and loss of habitat due to dam construction (e.g., Chao Phraya River). Habitat loss and degradation are likely a major impact on the species.
39412		conservation	eng	No conservation or management initiatives have been identified.
39412		distribution	eng	Widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, including South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Tanzania (Zanzibar), Kenya, Red Sea (Lohaja and Massaua), Saudi Arabia, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomons, Australia, Melanesia and Polynesia (Fowler 1941, Herre 1953, Last and Stevens 1994, Last and Compagno 1999). <br>No information exists on subpopulations.
39412		habitat	eng	A small stingray characteristic of coral reef habitats. Also found foraging near seagrass patches (Yahya and Jiddawi pers. comm.). Moves with rising tide into shallow, sandy areas to feed on molluscs, and shelters in caves and under ledges when the tide falls (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Despite its relative abundance in some areas, almost no information is available on its life history parameters (age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age, generation time and annual fecundity are all unknown).
39412		threats	eng	This ray is commonly taken where heavy artisanal and small-scale commercial fisheries occur in or around coral reef habitats. Additionally, it may possibly be exploited locally for capture for the marine aquarium trade. It is at risk in many areas because of its dependence on coral reef habitats. These are under massive assault from net, dynamite and cyanide fisheries for teleosts in many places where the species occurs. In East Africa, artisanal fishers catch <em>T. lymna</em> using bottom¬set gillnets, longlines and skin-diving with spears, and also as bycatch in fence traps (S. Yahya and N. Jiddawi pers. obs.). Habitat loss and degradation therefore likely exert a significant impact on populations.
39413		conservation	eng	No conservation or management initiatives have been identified.
39413		distribution	eng	Wide ranging, but relatively uncommon, in the Indo-West Pacific; also possibly tropical West Africa (Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast) and invasive in the eastern Mediterranean (via Suez Canal).<br><br>Localities include South Africa, Madagascar, Kenya, Seychelles, Red Sea (Koseir), Saudi Arabia, Oman (Muscat), Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, Pakistan, India (Bombay, Madras, Malpe, South Canara on Malabar Coast), Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula, Penang), Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia (Jakarta, Java, Kalimantan), possibly the Philippines, Vietnam (Cholon), Australia (Queensland, Western Australia, Northern Territory), New Guinea and Melanesia (Fowler 1941, Herre 1953, Capape and Desoutter 1990, Last and Stevens 1994, Last and Compagno 1999).
39413		habitat	eng	There is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species. Age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age, generation time and average annual fecundity are all unknown. Although very wide ranging, this ray appears to be uncommon compared to various species of <em>Himantura</em>, <em>Dasyatis</em>, <em>Pastinachus</em> and <em>Taeniura</em> which are sympatric with it.
39413		threats	eng	The species is presumably largely taken as bycatch in unregulated fisheries in open access and nearshore waters. It appears to have disappeared or become extremely rare (compared to certain other batoids) in the batoid catches landed in Bangkok from the Gulf of Thailand over the last three decades (Compagno and Cook unpubl.). This suggests probable local over-exploitation here and possibly also in the Bay of Bengal. Similar trends are likely to be occurring or will occur in other areas where batoids are taken in multi-species fisheries. Human modification and degradation of the ray?s habitat is also possibly occurring in some of the more highly populated and polluted coastal areas as a result of human influences. Overfishing in these areas could also affect populations of prey species.
39414		conservation	eng	No conservation or management initiatives are known.
39414		conservation	eng	None known.
39414		distribution	eng	A freshwater species, occurring in rivers and lakes of West Africa: Nigeria from Old Calabar River, Gabon from Lake Ezanga and the Ogooué River system and Democratic Republic of Congo from the Congo River at Binda (Smith 1863, Compagno and Roberts 1984a,b). Also possibly from marine coastal waters of Nigeria, according to the original description (Smith 1863), but this needs verification. All modern records are from fresh water.<br/><br/>Subpopulation details are unknown. There could be discrete populations in different rivers, or interchange between the river systems may take place by individuals transiting in coastal marine environments.
39414		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Specimens of <em>Urogymnus ukpam</em> from Binda on the lower Congo River are here confirmed as <em>D. ukpam</em>. Elsewhere, there are confirmed records from the Lower Guinea region from various localities on the Ogowe River, Gabon, and the lower Sanaga. Elsewhere it was originally described from Old Calabar River, Nigeria, where it was reported by Smith (1893) to be “abundant”, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, and Guinea-Bissau. This species is sometimes placed in <em>Urogymnus</em> (Compagno 1999). The few known specimens of the species indicate that it has a wide but scattered distribution in a handful of western and central African tropical rivers (Séret 1990). The present-day rarity of such a large fresh water stingray, once reported to be abundant, is a probable indication that it is severely threatened.
39414		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Specimens have been identified from photographs in Guinea Bissau and Côte d'Ivoire. Also recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is widely distributed in Ogowe River (Gabon), Sanaga River (Cameroon) and Binda and Azingo Lakes in Congo.
39414		habitat	eng	<em>Urogymnus ukpam</em> is a demersal species that is found in rivers and lakes of West Africa. It is ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). It has distinct pairing with embrace (Breder and Rosen 1966).
39414		habitat	eng	Freshwater bottom dwelling fish. Ovoviviparous with the embryos initially feeding on yolk. Low fecundity with less than 10 young expected. Migratory.
39414		habitat	eng	There is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species. Age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age and generation time are all unknown. One adult female has been recorded with two foetuses, but number of litters and average annual fecundity is also unknown.
39414		population	eng	No information available.
39414		population	eng	The subpopulation from the rivers around Calabar (Nigeria) are reported to have declined significantly.
39414		threats	eng	All known specimens were collected by local artisanal fisheries. There are heavy local marine and riverine fisheries in West Africa with a burgeoning human population. Over-exploitation for food is, therefore, a possibility; the ray was described as being abundant in the rivers of ?Old Calabar? in the nineteenth century, but it has seldom been reported since Binda (Smith 1863; Compagno and Roberts 1984a,b; Capape and Desoutter 1990). <br/>Human modification and degradation of the ray?s habitat is also possibly occurring in the area as a result of population increase.
39414		threats	eng	Dredging of rivers for water transportation. Dams have limited its distribution.
39414		threats	eng	None known.
39415		conservation	eng	Fisheries taking <em>A. narinari</em> are generally unmanaged throughout large parts of the species? range. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, and further reproductive studies are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>A. narinari</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. <br/> <br/>Of highest priority is the resolution of taxonomic issues to better define the actual ranges of the various forms/species of the <em>A. narinari</em> species-complex. <br/> <br/>A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>A. narinari</em>. <br/> <br/>This species is protected in Florida State waters under the Florida Adminstrative Code, with the purpose of increasing public awareness of the need for extensive conservation action. As such, the spotted eagle ray cannot be harvested, possessed, landed, purchased, sold or exchanged in Florida. <br/> <br/>The species is afforded protection on the east coast of Australia in the extensive Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (although only a third of the park is closed to commercial fishing) and the use of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) in prawn trawl fisheries across northern Australia is mandatory. TEDs are likely to decrease the catch of at least large individuals, as was shown for numerous batoid species by Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2002). The spiritual significance of these rays to some indigenous communities has limited traditional catches in parts of northern Australia (Puruntatameri <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In the Maldives, the species is afforded protection in marine reserves created around diving sites in recognition of the high value of sharks and rays to tourism (Anderson and Waheed 2001). The Maldives also banned the export of rays in 1995 and the export of ray skins in 1996. Again, this was to protect the tourism resource (Anderson and Waheed 2001). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>A. narinari</em>.
39415		distribution	eng	Widespread in tropical and warm temperate waters. <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> is probably a species-complex with different forms having more restricted ranges than the presently considered wide-ranging single species.
39415		habitat	eng	Coastal and semipelagic over the continental shelf from the surface to 60 m depth. Sometimes enters lagoons and estuaries and often associated with coral-reef ecosystems (Michael 1993, Homma <em>et al</em>. 1994, Last and Stevens 1994). Solitary or found in large schools of up to several hundred individuals (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). Although primarily observed near the coast and around islands and reefs, the species is likely to be capable of crossing ocean basins (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>Around coral reef environments, spotted eagle rays often enter coral lagoons to feed (Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia; Homma <em>et al</em>. 1994). Diet consists of a wide variety of benthic species including polychaetes, bivalve and gastropod molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans and teleost fishes (Homma and Ishihara 1994, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999, McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) with fish important prey items for adults (Michael 1993). <br/> <br/>Aplacental viviparous. Little information available on reproductive biology although known to have low fecundity, bearing 1 to 4 pups/litter (Last and Stevens 1994). Homma <em>et al</em>. (1994) observed three gravid females in the Caroline Islands, two individuals carrying a single embryo and one carrying two embryos. Gestation has been reported at 12 months (Michael 1993) and reproductive periodicity may not be annual. These factors combine for limited reproductive output. Reported to reach sexual maturity after 4 to 6 years (Last and Stevens 1994). Although reaches 330 cm DW most observed are less than 200 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>Catches taken in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, occur throughout the year but peak in summer (January and February) (Young 2001). The overall sex ratio is unity but there is a significant association between sex and time of year, with more males than females caught in summer and more females than males in winter. Median disc width for each sex is 100 cm (Young 2001). Catches are rare in the southern part of the netted region, an apparent consequence of lower water temperatures (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>It should be recognised that life history parameters are likely to vary between the different forms of <em>A. narinari</em>, which may turn out to represent interspecific differences. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  4 to 6 years (Last and Stevens 1994) (female); 4 to 6 years (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); Between 100 and 115 cm DW (Indonesia; W. White unpubl. data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  330 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  26 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994), 17 to 36 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months (Michael 1993), but may be less.. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 4 pups/litter (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
39415		population	eng	Population structure of the various forms will likely differ and will need to be considered on a species by species basis once taxonomic issues are resolved.
39415		threats	eng	Details of catches of this species throughout its range are scant. Nevertheless its small litter size, schooling behaviour, inshore habitat and hence availability to a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl etc.), its marketability and the generally intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across large parts of the species? range warrant a global listing of Near Threatened, and a Vulnerable listing in Southeast Asia where fishing pressure is particularly intense and the species is a common component of landings. With further data it will likely fall into a threatened category in other regions also. <br/> <br/>This species occurs in coastal inshore waters where fishing pressure is typically very heavy, especially in SE Asian waters, in parts of Africa and through portions of the species? range in the Americas. The strong swimming nature of this species makes it quite susceptible to a range of fisheries, especially inshore gill net fisheries, which are extremely intensive in some regions (for example, Kalimantan in Indonesia). The species also enters estuarine waters where fishing pressure is also extremely high and where (in SE Asia at least) pollution is also a major factor for all marine life.  <br/> <br/>The species is likely to contribute substantially to numerous inshore artisanal fisheries across its range and it is known to be landed regularly in some places. In Southeast Asia, <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> is landed in most countries within its range, for example, Indonesia (W. White unpublished data), Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002), the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), Taiwan (W. White and P. Kyne pers. obs.) and Malaysia (Manjaji 2002), all of which are countries where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is intense and generally unregulated. In Indonesia the species is presently caught consistently but in only small numbers in many fisheries (W. White unpublished data) and expected future declines in SE Asia are the basis for the Vulnerable listing there. The species is probably widely utilized across its range (Compagno and Last 1999) due to its availability to fisheries. Fishing pressure on the inshore environment across most of the species? range is only likely to increase in the future. <br/> <br/>Off eastern Africa, it is commonly caught by artisanal fishermen, in bottom set gillnets, trawls and longlines in Tanzania (Bianchi 1985), by artisanal gillnet fisheries off northern Madagascar (Doukakis and Jonahson 2003, Robinson in prep.) and by hook and line and harpoon off Somalia (Sommer <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/> <br/>Although specific details are not available, pressure on the inshore environment through artisanal fishing activities off West Africa, throughout the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and in large portions of the species? American range has likely affecting this species. There is nothing to suggest that pressure will decrease in these regions in the future. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, between 1981 and 2000 there was a non-significant increasing trend in catch of <em>A. narinari</em> in the protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal (Young 2001). Of the mean annual catch of 16 animals, 82% were released alive. The species contributed 4.6% to the total batoid catch. Aetobatus narinari is taken in small numbers as bycatch in a shallow water prawn trawl fishery that operates off central KwaZulu-Natal (Fennessy 1994). <br/> <br/>It is a popular public aquarium species and is collected for the marine aquarium trade. In some localities it is likely to be persecuted when considered a pest of mollusc aquaculture farms, as has occurred with other myliobatid species, for example <em>Myliobatis californicus</em> (Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>In a few parts of its range the species faces lower levels of threat. These include South Africa where catch levels are low, the USA where the species is protected in Florida (see Conservation Measures below), the Maldives where the exportation of ray product is banned, parts of Oceania where human populations are low, and Australia. The species is afforded some protection and impact reduction in parts of Australia in Marine Protected Areas, by the use of Turtle Exclusion Devices in prawn trawl fisheries and because of spiritual significance in some indigenous communities (see Conservation Measures). However, there is still concern for the species in Australia where it is taken as bycatch in inshore net fisheries and marketed as ?skate wings?, ?ray flaps? or ?eagle ray flaps?. Eagle ray is becoming an increasingly popular seafood product in Australia and the landing of this product is likely to increase in the future.
39416		conservation	eng	The Bat Ray is presently one of the many species considered, but not yet actively regulated, under the Pacific Fishery Management Council?s Groundfish Management Plan for the U.S. eastern Pacific. Additionally, the state has general restrictions on usage of certain types of commercial gear in the nearshore zone, which offers a good degree of protection for Bat Rays and Angel Sharks <em>Squatina californica</em> (Leet <em>et al</em>. 2001). Thus, despite the fact that there are no current conservation measures the demand for bat ray has been relatively low allowing for some protection for this species, at least within the centre of its U.S. distribution at the present time. More needs to be learned about the status of critical reproductive and nursery habitat. Possible future fishing mortality increases within regulatory constraints could be a concern if mature females become an increasingly important component of the catch, or if inshore fisheries develop that are efficient at targeting this species. Considering its localised and limited distribution, it is unknown how much additional fishing pressure might be necessary to exceed its intrinsic compensatory limits and subject it to recruitment overfishing. In addition, a re-assessment of the combined sport and commercial harvest is recommended. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>M. californicus</em> specifically or for most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch landings in México are poorly monitored and lack species specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya? in catch records. Although easily identified, these rays are rarely documented on a species-specific basis in México. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México is necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific landings and bycatch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range are needed from the southern portion of the species? range. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations of this ray. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anon. 2004).
39416		distribution	eng	The bat ray occurs from Oregon, USA to Baja California, México (including the Gulf of California) in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
39416		habitat	eng	Bat rays are commonly found in shallow bays and have been reported from intertidal zones to 108 m but are more common in shallower waters (Morris <em>et al</em>. 1996). In southern California, it occurs along the open coast and around islands where it frequents kelp beds and sandy bottoms near rocky reefs and sandy beaches. <br/> <br/>The reproductive mode of bat rays is aplacental viviparity. Females produce up to 12 offspring (more commonly smaller litter sizes) in an annual reproductive cycle, with gestation lasting about one year (Baxter 1980, Martin and Cailliet 1988a). The pups are born at ~20 cm DW (Martin and Cailliet 1988a). Females reach a larger size and age and have a growth coefficient (k) in the von Bertalanffy growth equation of 0.0995 (Martin and Cailliet 1988b), reaching its asymptotic size (~159 cm DW) in approximately 25 years. Age at maturity for females has been observed by Martin and Cailliet (1988a) to be ~5 years, at ~88 cm DW. Males reportedly mature at ~60 cm DW and an age of ~2 to 3 years. Ageing by means of counting rings in the vertebral centra of this species has not been validated, either by tagging or by vertebral marginal increment or centrum edge analyses. In southern Baja California, México, these rays apparently mature at smaller size than reported from California with males attaining maturity between 40 and 50 cm DW and females ?70 cm DW have been found to be immature (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, 1996), however limited biological information on the species from this region is available. <br/> <br/>In San Francisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough in Monterey County California, parturition appears to occur from March through June, with a peak in April and May. It also reportedly occurs at approximately the same time in other bays (Humboldt, Tomales, Morro, Santa Monica and San Pedro Bay) in California (Talent 1985, Martin and Cailliet 1988a). Bays and sloughs appear to be important nursery areas. Females are also thought to release their pups along more open coastal areas in southern California, and have been observed giving birth to young in water 1m in depth over a shallow flat in Catalina Harbor. Newly born pups are reportedly found in northern California sloughs in April and May; also in the shallow surf zone in more southerly areas such as Santa Monica Bay in southern California around late May and June (Talent 1985, Martin and Cailliet 1988a, Monaco <em>et al</em>. 1990). In Estero de Punta Banda along the northern portion of the Baja California peninsula, <em>M. californicus</em> abundance increases from October to a maximum in January and become uncommon in the spring and summer months (Beltrán-Félix <em>et al</em>. 1986). Peak abundance of bat rays in Bahía Almejas, México along the southern portion of the Pacific Baja California peninsula occurs in March and consists primarily of adults (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, 1996). Both locations appear to serve as pupping and reproductive grounds for the bat ray. <br/> <br/>This ray is an opportunistic benthic feeder, consuming numerous types of bottom-dwelling invertebrates, including the eggs of some fish species such as herring, topsmelt, jacksmelt, and midshipman (Talent 1982). Pups caught in places like Elkhorn Slough consume crustaceans and molluscs (Barry et al. 1996). Bat rays are preyed upon by larger sharks such as the sevengill, <em>Notorynchus cepedianus</em>, and white, <em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>, (Ebert 1989) as well as pinnipeds. However, man is probably the most important predator. The bat ray occasionally occurs in epipelagic schools (Walford 1935, Roedel and Ripley 1950). Movement patterns may be associated with thermal tolerance or preference (Matern <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although it possesses a spine, this ray is not considered dangerous. Groups kept in aquaria have been observed to interact with each other and with visitors (G. and V. Dykhuizen, pers. comm). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  50% maturity: 5 years (Martin and Cailliet 1988b) (female); First maturity: 2 to 3 years (Martin and Cailliet 1988b) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50% maturity: 88.1 cm DW (Martin and Cailliet 1988a) (female); Maturity: 45 to 62.2 cm DW (Martin and Cailliet 1988a), first maturity (Bahía Almejas): 50 cm DW, 100% maturity: 60 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1996) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  At least 24 years (females) (Martin and Cailliet 1988b). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  180 cm DW (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  22 to 35.6 cm DW (Baxter 1980, Martin and Cailliet 1988b). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  9 to 12 months (Martin and Cailliet 1988a). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 12 pups (Baxter 1980; Martin and Cailliet 1988a). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
39416		population	eng	The Pacific coast and Gulf of California stocks may be disjunct subpopulations, since there are few taken in the southern Gulf of California (C. Villavicencio-Garayzar pers. comm.). No information on the population size or subpopulations is available. <br/> <br/>Centres of abundance in US Pacific coast estuaries appear to be Elkhorn Slough and San Francisco, Tomales, Humboldt, Morro, Santa Monica, and San Pedro Bays in California (Talent 1985, Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ebert 2003). Other California bays such as Drakes Estero in northern California, and Alamitos, Anaheim, Newport, Mission, and San Diego Bays in southern California are also frequented by this species (Monaco <em>et al</em>. 1990). In México, these rays are uncommonly reported in the southern Gulf of California but are often observed or captured in the Pacific coast of Baja and the northern Gulf of California.
39416		threats	eng	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries (in México). <br/> <br/>Recreational fisheries (in U.S.). <br/> <br/>Indirect landings by demersal trawls, longlines, and gillnets (in U.S. and México). <br/> <br/>Bat rays are not directly targeted but are landed in multi-species artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in México. Fishery surveys conducted in the Gulf of California (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data) and Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Bizzarro and Smith unpublished data) indicate that this species is not a common component of artisanal landings. No information is available on the species? contribution to bycatch in other artisanal or trawl fisheries, but they are taken in shrimp trawls. <br/> <br/>In Humboldt Bay, California, bat rays were persecuted because of perceived predation on commercial oyster beds. This activity was undertaken under permit by the oyster company and an average of over 1,100 individuals (minimum in one year, two; maximum, 9,197) were removed from 1956, with a total reported catch of 42,996 rays from 1956 to 1992 (Gray 1994, Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997). Bat rays were captured by trawl, longline and trap, however, information on fishing effort is not available. Furthermore, there are no details of population size that would allow the detection of changes in density as a result of this removal policy, and so the localized affect of this practice is unknown. Gray (1994) demonstrated that predation by bat rays in oyster beds was in fact rare which later prompted a change in the oyster company permit and extermination effectively ceased. Ironically, bat rays fed extensively on red rock crabs, a major oyster predator (Gray 1994, Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997).
39418		conservation	eng	The Giant Devilray is included in the Annex II 'List of endangered or threatened species' to the Protocol concerning Special Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean of the Barcelona Convention, which came into force in 2001. Recent regional legislation (e.g., GFCM, ICCAT) has introduced new basin-wide banning of pelagic driftnets; if implemented, this would eliminate one of the most severe threats to the species.<br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the future are the incorporation of <em>Mobula mobular</em> into the nat. I legislation of the Contracting parties to the SPA Protocol to the Barcelona Convention and the implementation of this policy. The Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary could be an effective for this species against driftnets. Raising awareness with fishermen to maximise the live release of bycatch, after disentanglement, is also important.
39418		distribution	eng	The Giant Devilray occurs in offshore, deep waters and, occasionally, in shallow waters (Bradai and Capapé 2001) throughout the Mediterranean Sea, in waters ranging in depth from few tens of metres to several thousands (with the exception of the northern Adriatic) and possibly in the nearby North Atlantic. Outside the Mediterranean it occurs along the coast of Africa from Morocco to Senegal, the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores, Portugal, and as a vagrant, off southern Ireland (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987). However, since expert examination is needed to distinguish <em>M. mobular</em> from <em>M. japanica</em>, a species known from the tropical Atlantic (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987), past reports of Giant Devilrays from the Atlantic may have been due to incorrect identification of Spinetail Devilrays.
39418		habitat	eng	Like all mobulids, the Giant Devilray is an epipelagic batoid feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small schooling fishes, which are trapped on its specialised branchial filter plates. In the Mediterranean a likely important prey item for the Giant Devilray is the euphasiid shrimp <em>Meganyctiphanes norveggica</em>. Mobulids are aplacental viviparous matrotroph rays, in that the pups receive their nourishment from uterine milk secretion (Wourms 1977). They give birth to a single huge pup. A term embryo of <em>M. mobular</em> born from a specimen, caught in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea in late spring 1986 (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Serena, 1988), with a disc 1659 mm wide and a weight of 35 kg is the largest <em>Mobula</em> embryo on record (Notarbartolo di Sciara, 1987). It is not apparent from the literature whether <em>M. mobular</em> has a restricted reproductive season in the Mediterranean. Tortonese (1957) described a rather undeveloped embryo from a female caught in Palermo in September. The observations of Notarbartolo di Sciara and Serena (1988) suggest that in the northern Mediterranean the species gives birth in summer and that the pup could be up to 1,660 mm disc width at birth; the gestation period is still largely conjectural, but could be one of the longest known in Chondrichthyans (Serena 2000).
39418		population	eng	There are no population estimates for the Giant Devilray. The species appears to live in very low densities throughout its range.
39418		threats	eng	Although there is no direct fishery for Giant Devilrays, high mortality rates are reported for this species from accidental takes in swordfish pelagic driftnets in the Mediterranean (Muñoz-Chàpuli <em>et al</em>. 1994), to unsustainable levels. Giant Devilrays are also accidentally captured in longlines, purse seines, trawls (Bauchot 1987), and fixed traditional tuna traps 'tonnare'. They are also occasionally caught as bycatch in the western central Ligurian Sea, where long line catches have been monitored since 1999, especially from the harbours of Imperia and Sanremo. Devilray bycatch in the Ligurian Sea is always discarded (Orsi Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/> <br/>The extent of influence of Mediterranean habitat degradation on Giant Devilrays is unknown. Given their low position in the trophic web, high levels of contamination from organochlorine compounds or trace elements are unlikely. However, their epipelagic habits make devilrays particularly vulnerable to oil spills and to disturbance from high levels of maritime traffic.
39419		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of both the USSR and Russia.
39419		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and the Russian Far East (part of Sikhote-Alin Mountains in the south of Primorye Region). It has been recorded in China at around 1,000m asl.
39419		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat specialist; it is adapted to the upper reaches of small mountain streams in both coniferous and mixed cedar pine and broad-leafed forests. Inhabited streams have both a thick bed of pebbles and rich, humid vegetation on moist banks surrounding the streams. Animals are present in the stream sections that have minimal direct sunlight, a maximum size of pebbles and abundant hiding places, such as holes under logs, snags, and large stones. It may also be found in underground spring habitats. It breeds in streams; larval development takes place in the streams. The species is presumed to be very sensitive to habitat change.
39419		population	eng	It is generally uncommon over its range, with populations in China being relatively difficult to find. In the Republic of Korea this species is considered to be nationally threatened.
39419		threats	eng	The loss of specialized habitat, such as that caused by tree felling in stream headwaters, appears to be the main threat to this species. Pollution of stream headwaters and extraction of pebbles from streams might be potential threats to the species. Further research into the threats to this species is needed.
39420		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists. It is recorded from many protected areas. It is present in the largely protected Hyrcanian Forests of Iran. The species was re-introduced near Sochi Town in Sochi National Park (Russia).
39420		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern side of the Balkan Peninsula (extreme southeastern Serbia, eastern FYR Macedonia, most of Bulgaria, northeastern Greece, and European Turkey) through western and northern Turkey along the edges of the Black Sea, to the Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan). There are apparently isolated populations in central Serbia, on the Crimean Peninsula (Ukraine), and in the southern Caspian region of northern Iran. The map for this species largely follows Arntzen, (2003). It can be found from sea level to elevations approaching 2,100m asl (southern Caucasus).
39420		habitat	eng	It can be found in mountain forests (broad-leaved and coniferous species) and their surroundings; the forest steppe and even true steppe sites within the mountains. The majority of such populations are the relics of a former forest fauna. Within these landscapes, these populations inhabit slopes and plateau covered with meadows or xerophytic vegetation. Such habitats are especially widespread in the parts of the species' range in Crimea and southern Azerbaijan. In general, <em>T. karelinii</em> seems to be more resistant to xeric habitat conditions than other <em>Triturus</em> newts. Breeding takes place in slow moving stream pools, ponds and occasionally drainage ditches. The female deposits approximately 100-250 eggs; these are individually wrapped in aquatic vegetation. The species can withstand some degree of habitat modification.
39420		population	eng	In West Asia it is reasonably common in suitable habitat. Within the former Soviet Union habitat loss has caused the decline of many populations (especially in the Crimea and the Caucasus).
39420		threats	eng	Deforestation and pollution of wetlands by agrochemicals appear to be the main threats to this species. In the former Soviet Union there is significant commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. In Turkey there are no immediate threats to this species, as it is widespread and found in many habitat types. Within Iran it is threatened by urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation) and logging. In the Balkans, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change. In Greece the loss of aquatic habitats is a serious threat to this species.
39421		conservation	eng	Listed in the Red Data Books of Azerbaijan and Russia (and in the Red List of Krasnodar Region and Adygea in particular). It has been recorded from one nature reserve (and two national parks) in Russia, nine nature reserves in Georgia, three in Azerbaijan. In Iran the species is present in the protected northern Hyrcanian forests. Further research into populations in northeastern Turkey is needed to better determine the presence and distribution in this country of <em>Bufo verrucosissimus</em> and <em>Bufo bufo</em>.
39421		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Caucasus, including Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia (records from Chechnya require further verification; not present in Dagestan [Mazanaeva, 2000]), northeastern Turkey (although records here might be confused with <em>Bufo bufo</em>) and the Caspian coastline of northwestern Iran. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,900m asl (former Soviet Union).
39421		habitat	eng	Its habitat is mountain coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests upwards to the sub alpine belt. The toad prefers wet, shaded sites in forests, bush lands, their edges and glades. Spawning occurs in clear, flowing or semi-flowing water, mainly in brooks, springs and small rivers, but also in puddles, ponds, lakes and seepage pools.
39421		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species.
39421		threats	eng	Destruction of forests and drainage of wetlands by people might result in population declines of this hygrophilous forest species. Some Iranian populations might be impacted by development in the Caspian coastal area. Because of its highly specialized habitat requirements, this species is particularly susceptible to anthropogenic threats. The recent spread within the Caucasus of the predatory North American Raccoon <em>Procyon lotor</em> has resulted in population declines of <em>Bufo verrucosissimus</em>.
39422		conservation	eng	Listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR, Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, as well as the Adygea and Krasnodar Regions (Russia). The species occurs in the Caucasian Biosphere Reserve and Sochi National Park (500,000 ha). It is present in several protected areas of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. It is not known as to whether or not the Turkish populations occur in protected areas, or are protected by national legislation. There is a need to eradicate raccoons from the range of this species. There is a need to monitor breeding localities to record any further changes in species abundance.
39422		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Caucasus Mountains in the mountainous parts of Krasnodar Region, Russia through the northern slope through Georgia and small area in northwestern Azerbaijan to mountainous areas of the eastern Black sea region (northeast Anatolia) Turkey. The presence in North Ossetia and Chechnya (Russia), require verification. It is found from sea level to 2,300m asl.
39422		habitat	eng	This species is associated with broad leaved, mixed coniferous deciduous and, rarely, coniferous mountain forests. It generally occurs in dense vegetation (bushes and grasses). Aquatic habitats of the species include the shores and banks of ponds and streams with clear and cold flowing water, and still waters. Adults can be found in shady damp areas, sheltering under stones and other cover during the day. The species breeds in slow moving streams or stagnant waters with 1,000-2,000 eggs laid during warm period (generally May to Oct and June to Aug. in mountains). It requires leaf liter and is not tolerant of leaf litter removal (i.e. clear cutting). It is a rather subterranean species only being encountered, after rain and during the breeding season.
39422		population	eng	Very abundant locally in appropriate habitat. It has apparently declined in the former Soviet Union.
39422		threats	eng	Population declines of this species in the former Soviet Union are poorly known, but in addition to a general loss and pollution of habitats (including through pesticides, mineral fertilizers, and cattle), populations are increasingly threatened by predation from the introduced North America Raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>). Within Turkey, the Uzungol Lake (Trabzon) population of this species is seriously threatened by the localized loss of suitable vegetation (especially the horsetail <em>Equesetum telmatera</em>) through drainage of areas surrounding the lake as part of tourism development. Other populations within the country are patchily distributed.
39426		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas including Ranomafana, Mantadia, Marojejy, Montagne d'Ambre and Bemaraha National Parks, and Analamazaotra Special Reserve. Further field research on the taxonomic distinction of both the northern and western subspecies from the eastern nominate subspecies would be useful.
39426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the eastern, northern and western forests from sea level to around 1,950 m asl on the Andringitra massif (Albignac 1973; Goodman 1997).
39426		habitat	eng	This largely terrestrial, diurnal species is present in tropical humid lowland and montane forest, and tropical dry deciduous forest in the west of its range. An agile climber, it has occassionaly been seen in trees, and is also an adept swimmer. It has been recorded preying on crayfish in freshwater (Dunham 1997). It is recorded from secondary forests, although only where immediately adjacent to primary forest, and can be found at the forest edge, close to areas of slash-and-burn cultivation. This species is also regularly known to scavenge in human refuse in primary forest camps. Animals typically spend the night in burrows in the forest. Although sometimes solitary, it is a social species usually found in pairs with up to three offspring (Dunham 1997).The gestation period is unclear, but it appears to be between 52 and 90 days, after which a single young is born (Goodman 2003). Sexual maturity is attained at about two years.
39426		population	eng	This is the most common and widespread native carnivore species on Madagascar (Goodman 2003).
39426		threats	eng	The species, which remains widespread, is found at reasonably high population densities, and it occurs in a number of protected areas and even persists in forest fragments. As with most forest-dwelling animals in Madagascar, deforestation for the conversion of forested areas to cultivated land is the most important threat. This species is also certainly hunted in some areas, and is persecuted for raiding local poultry (Golden 2005) and killed by dogs accompanying hunters in the forest. Certain parts of the animal (e.g. the tail) are used for cultural purposes by some tribal groups (Goodman 2003). Competition with the introduced <em>Viverricula indica</em> and feral cats and dogs may threaten this species in parts of its range.
39427		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The subspecies is restricted to waters of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New   Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region>; therefore national conservation measures are discussed here. The New Zealand Marine Mammals Protection Act (MMPA) prohibits deliberate killing or injury of marine mammals.&#160; </span>Bycatch in fishing gear is not illegal but can be regulated. Hector's Dolphins are listed as threatened under <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region> legislation.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The New Zealand Government has created a protected area for <em>C. h. maui</em> where gillnetting is prohibited along 390 km of coastline, but the area does not extend far enough south to cover the range of recent sightings and falls well short of covering the historic range. The latter has clear implications for the prospects of recovery. Gillnetting continues inside harbors, trawling is not restricted, and there are no observer programs to estimate the number of dolphins taken (Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006b).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Discussions between the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries and Department of Conservation are currently (early 2008) underway to develop a comprehensive management plan for Hector’s dolphin (including <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin). Species-wide, a continuing high level of bycatch mortality indicates that stronger protection from entanglement in commercial and recreational fisheries is needed.&#160; Protected areas, reduced gillnet fishing effort, and changes in fishing methods have been recommended as necessary to ensure the long-term persistence of <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin (e.g. Martien <em>et al.</em> 1999, Burkhart and Slooten 2003, Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007).&#160; </span>Meetings of stakeholders have concluded that fishery mortality must be reduced to zero to allow the subspecies to recover (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2006b).&#160; Recent surveys (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2004, Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006a,b) indicate that restricting gillnet fisheries to waters >100m deep would have a major benefit in terms of reducing bycatch.&#160; </span>In waters <100m deep it would also be advisable to institute observer programs on any trawl fisheries that operate in the habitat of <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin habitat. </p>
39427		distribution	eng	Hector's dolphin (<em>C. hectori</em>) is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region> waters (Dawson and Slooten 1988).&#160; The North Island subpopulation (<em>C. h. maui</em>) is currently restricted to the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand, between Taranaki and Ninety Mile Beach (Russell 1999; Baker <em>et al.</em> 2002; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006).&#160; </span>The range of the subspecies has undergone a marked reduction (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160; Previous sightings off the east coast of the North Island (e.g., Russell 1999) suggest either that there used to be a much larger contiguous population or that a separate subpopulation on the <st1:place w:st="on">North Island</st1:place> has already become extinct.</span>
39427		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The habits and biology of Hector's dolphins in the South Island have been well studied in the last couple of decades (Dawson 2002) and there has been increasing research effort on <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphins also.&#160; Maui’s dolphins appear to have similar behaviour and ecology to those belonging to the <st1:place w:st="on">South  Island</st1:place> subspecies.&#160; </span></p>  <p><strong><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></strong></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">There is little information on the feeding ecology of <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphins but it is thought to be broadly similar to that of other Hector's dolphins, which feed opportunistically on several species of small fish and squid (Dawson 2002).&#160; </span></p>
39427		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA show that North Island Hector's dolphins are genetically distinct from any of the <st1:place w:st="on">South Island</st1:place> subpopulations (Pichler <em>et al.</em> 1998). Every sampled individual (n=11) in the contemporary <st1:placename w:st="on">North</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> subpopulation has a single maternal lineage that has not been detected in the <st1:place w:st="on">South  Island</st1:place> (n=97).&#160; In addition, these animals have unique microsatellite alleles at three of the ten loci surveyed.&#160; </span>A further four loci have alleles that are either fixed or at high frequency, yet are rare in <st1:place w:st="on">South Island</st1:place> subpopulations.&#160; Such differences over such a small geographic scale have not been observed in any other genetic studies of marine mammals (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001).&#160; </span>For example, two subspecies of Commerson's dolphin show less genetic divergence yet are separated by 8,500 km.&#160; The <st1:place w:st="on">North Island</st1:place> subpopulation also has morphological and coloration differences, and taken together this evidence has allowed it to be recognized as a distinct subspecies (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2002).</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Recent surveys show that the South Island Hector’s dolphin populations collectively number about 7,270 individuals (CV=15.8%; Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2004), while the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">North</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> population numbers around 111 (CV=44%; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2006b). The latter’s range appears to have been drastically reduced (Russell 1999; Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005). </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">An age-structured model (Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2000) indicates that approximately 50% of Hector’s dolphins are mature individuals.&#160; </span>If about half of the estimated 111 <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphins are mature, and half of them are females, it means that only around 28 mature females remain.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Population viability analyses using current abundance together with entanglement rates and historical and current fishing effort indicated a high risk of decline, and that gillnet entanglement had caused a decline since 1970 in the North Island subspecies population (Martien <em>et al.</em> 1999; Slooten 2007).&#160; Estimated abundance in the late 1990s was around 25% of the 1970 estimate of 437 individuals (Martien <em>et al.</em> 1999), and the most recent estimate of depletion is that about 7% of the 1970 population remains (Slooten 2007).</span></p>
39427		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Like the species as a whole, <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin faces serious pressures from human activities.&#160; The main threat is entanglement in gillnets (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten 2005; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2006b).&#160; </span>Of 14 stranded dolphins in which cause of death could be determined, seven had clear net markings, and an additional four had injuries suggestive of removal from nets (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001).&#160; Recreational gillnet fishing may be a more serious problem than commercial gillnet fishing, due to the proximity of Auckland, New Zealand’s largest city. Bycatches in trawl nets also have been reported.&#160; </span>Additional potential threats include those listed for Hector’s dolphin, i.e. pollution, disease, vessel traffic and habitat modification (Stone and Yoshinaga 2000) although there is no direct evidence that pollution or disease is affecting this subspecies.</p>
39428		conservation	eng	The Action Plan for the Conservation of Freshwater Populations of Irrawaddy Dolphins (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2007; also see Kreb and Budiono 2005) recommended </span>that core conservation zones be established in the Mahakam at key river confluences, including of about 10 km of river in both upstream and downstream directions.&#160; </span>The Action Plan also recommended a strict ban on gillnetting in the proposed core conservation zones, to be implemented on a step-wise basis as alternative gears or employment options are provided.&#160; Outside the core conservation zones, current regulations prohibiting the use of gillnets with a mesh size of 10 cm or greater should be enforced (Kreb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007 found that most of the documented deaths of <st1:place w:st="on">Irrawaddy</st1:place> dolphins in the Mahakam were due to entanglement in nets of mesh size 10-18 cm). Additional regulations requiring net attendance and prohibiting nighttime fishing also should be adopted.</span> The use of large coal barges in narrow tributaries needs to be replaced by some form of land transport. Regular patrols are needed to prevent illegal fishing techniques such as electro-fishing, poison, and trawling, and better protection is needed for fish spawning sites in and near areas with high densities of dolphins.</span>
39428		distribution	eng	The subpopulation of <st1:place w:st="on">Irrawaddy</st1:place> dolphins in the Mahakam River of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, ranges in the mainstem of the river from about 180 km above the mouth to 600 km upstream, seasonally inclusive of Kedang Kepala, Kedang Rantau, Belayan, Kedang Pahu, and Ratah tributaries, as well as Semayang and Melintang lakes (Kreb 1999, 2004).&#160; In the early 1980s, dolphins were still commonly reported in Samarinda, about 60km upstream of the coast, but in the early 1990s they rapidly disappeared and are now observed only upstream of about 180 km from the coast.&#160; </span>The apparent 120 km range decline represents a loss of about 15% of their historic range (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007).
39428		habitat	eng	<p>Significant differences have been recorded among encounter rates of dolphins in the Mahakam for eight 40-km long segments of the river mainstem and tributaries (χ² = 35.91, df = 7, P < 0.01). The three segments with the highest rates included particularly large numbers of confluences and appended lakes. Also, the confluence at Muara Pahu and another confluence about 10 km upstream, in the Kedang Pahu tributary, accounted for 89% of the sightings of newborns (N = 9). The majority of deaths (54%) with known location (N = 46) between 1995 and 2005 also occurred in confluences (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <span times="" new="" roman=""="">  <p>The average daily home ranges of 27 groups, which were followed for more than six hours, was 10 km of river length (SD = 8.6, range = 1-45 km). River length ranges were also calculated for 53 photo-identified dolphins during 3.5 consecutive years. Individuals were identified on average 12.5 times (SD = 9.5, range = 2-39) and during 6.2 different survey days (SD = 3.7, range = 2-20). These dolphins moved within the river an average of 61 linear km (SD = 44, range = 4-181) (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p></span>
39428		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The most recent (2005) best estimates of total population size varied between 67 and 70 dolphins (CV<em> </em>= 10%; CL<em> </em>= 59-79), based on direct counts and Petersen mark-recapture analyses of photo-identified dolphins, respectively (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007). </p>
39428		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to this subpopulation is undoubtedly gillnet entanglement, which accounted for approximately 66% of the 46 deaths documented between 1995 and 2005. Five of these dolphins were eaten by local people, and the skins of two were used as medicine for skin allergy. Dolphins in the Mahakam often are observed feeding in close proximity to gillnets and fishermen use the dolphins’ feeding patterns to determine the location and time to set their gillnets. Deliberate kills accounted for 9% of the documented deaths, occurring mostly in isolated areas where the animals were rarely found. Vessel strikes caused 7% of the deaths. Seven percent of the deaths were judged to represent fetal or neonatal mortality, and electro-fishing and hook-fishing each caused 2% of the deaths (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007). </p>  <p><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p>From 1974 until 1988, 28 dolphins were live-captured and taken to Jaya Ancol oceanarium in <st1:city u4:st="on"><st1:place u4:st="on">Jakarta</st1:place></st1:city>. Local people provided detailed accounts of illegal captures in 1997 (three dolphins) and 1998 (four dolphins). The fates and destinations of these animals remain unknown (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  The high density of gillnets in Semayang and Melintang lakes physically obstructs dolphin movements, thereby reducing available habitat. This problem, together with high sedimentation caused by de-vegetation of the surrounding shorelines, has probably eliminated these lakes as primary areas of occupancy, as reported by Tas’an and Leatherwood (1984). Leaks of chemical wastes, including mercury and cyanide, from retention dams at gold mines in the upper reaches occurred in 1997 and resulted in a massive fish kill (D. Kreb, pers. comm.). Cleaning waste from coal mines enters the Kedang Pahu tributary during floods, and on two occasions dolphins have been observed there with changes skin pigmentation (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007). An additional threat is heavy vessel traffic, particularly large coal barges that operate in narrow tributaries and which the dolphins actively avoid (Kreb and Rahadi 2004).</span>
39430		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39431		conservation	eng	The species is easily propagated by cuttings and seeds.  More than 200 plants currently stand in NPCS nursery.
39431		distribution	eng	Known in the wild from ten plants in the Corps de Garde Mountain of Mauritius and 26 new plants very recently discovered on the top of Le Morne Brabant mountain.
39431		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in exposed dryish positions in mountainous areas.  It is an ornamental tender, evergreen shrub with pink to carmine red flowers and luxuriant deep green glossy foliage. Regeneration is poor.
39431		threats	eng	There is very heavily invasion by exotics in the natural habitat of this species (threatened by exotic competitors and hybridization).
39433		conservation	eng	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation. Cuttings and fruits need to be propagated.
39433		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Plaine des Roches, Montagne de Chat.
39433		habitat	eng	It has been collected from tropical rain forest areas and mountain crests.
39434		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the species be secured <em>ex-situ</em>.
39434		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Lion mountain, Case Noyale, and Montagne Le Chat.
39434		habitat	eng	The plant has been recorded in montane tropical rainforest on mountain tops. It has a smooth pale pinkish bark.
39435		conservation	eng	The species is the focus of both <em>ex-situ</em> and <em>in-situ</em> conservation.
39435		distribution	eng	This species is reported to occur at Mt. St Pierre, Plaine des Roches and Mt Villars (total range less than 100 km²).  The population contains less than 50 individuals.
39436		conservation	eng	It is recommended that this species is planted in a Conservation Management Area.
39436		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Perrier, Henrietta Vallee des Couleurs, and Gavarnny.  The population is less than 50 occurring within a range of less than 100 km².
39437		distribution	eng	This species is rare. It is known only from the Maccabe forest and two other collections from unknown localities.  It is thought that there are less than five plants remaining.
39438		conservation	eng	In-situ conservation of this species is already in practice. It is recommended that <em>ex-situ</em> conservation is instigated.
39438		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mauritius.  It has been recorded from Fixson, Perrier, and Brise Fer, with a further, unconfirmed collection in Mont Ver.  The total population is estimated at less than 12, occupying a range of less than 100 km².
39438		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are invasive competitors and predators (rats and monkeys), and human-induced habitat removal.
39439		conservation	eng	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation of this species is recommended.
39439		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mauritius.  The population is estimated at less than 50 and declining.  Total range is less than 100 km².  The species is not well known and <em>G. truncata</em> may be a simple variation of <em>G. psychotrioides</em>.
39440		conservation	eng	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation of this species has already been implemented, and it occurs in cultivation as ornamental plants in private gardens.
39440		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mauritius.  It has been recorded from Corps de garde, Trois Mamelles, Yemen, Magenta, and Chamarel.  Total population is recorded as less than 50 occurring within a range area of less than 100 km².  A net decline in area of occupancy has been recorded based on direct observation.
39440		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tropical lowland montane forest at 300-500 m altitude.
39441		conservation	eng	<em>Ex-situ</em> and <em>in-situ</em> conservation of this species have already been implemented.
39441		distribution	eng	This species is known from  Mont du Pouce, Bassin Blanc, La Fenetre, Pieter Both and Cascade Cinq Cent Pieds.  This rare herbaceous plant occurs within a range of less than 100 km².
39441		habitat	eng	<em>P. laevicaulis</em> has been recorded from montane tropical degraded forest. It grows on exposed sites such as cliffs and rock crevices filled with humus.
39442		conservation	eng	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation.
39442		distribution	eng	This species is confined to North-West of island in the region of the Pouce and Deux Mamelles.  Total range is less than 100 km².
39443		conservation	eng	One plant has been propagated (in 1996).  There is a need to create awareness about this species and future propagation and reintroduction should be carried out.
39443		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mauritius, the total population of this species is recorded as 30 plants occurring at Yemen (Grosse Roche).  The population is localised and there is a net decline based on direct observation.
39443		threats	eng	The main threats to the population are invasive competitors and grazing of seedlings.
39444		conservation	eng	It is proposed to propagate this plant through seeds.
39444		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mauritius, this species has been recorded from Goat Rock, Snail Rock, and Corps de Garde. Around 60 individuals have been found at these sites and the total existing population is estimated at less than 100.
39444		habitat	eng	The species grows on exposed rocky cliffs in mountainous areas.
39445		conservation	eng	It is proposed that plants be propagated through cuttings.
39445		distribution	eng	This species occurs at Gaullette Serre and Montagne Cocotte.
39445		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the presence of invasive competitors.
39446		conservation	eng	Propagation through cuttings and reintroduction of the species into appropriate habitat is being carried out.
39446		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tamarin Falls area of Mauritius.
39446		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in montane tropical rain forest, especially in exposed humid areas.
39447		conservation	eng	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation through cuttings and seeds, and <em>in situ</em> conservation in secured areas are already in practice.
39447		distribution	eng	Only five mature individuals of the species remain.
39447		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane tropical degraded forest.
39449		conservation	eng	The cauliflorous fruit is protected against monkeys. It is proposed to fence the saplings
39449		distribution	eng	Less than seven mature individuals and seven browsed saplings found at Magenta mountain slopes.
39449		habitat	eng	Mountain slopes in dry region
39449		threats	eng	Invasive competitors and predators (monkeys and browsed by deer).
39450		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> conservation is already in practice and there are three known plants in a Conservation Management Area. In future more propagation should be carried out using cuttings and layering.
39450		distribution	eng	There is only one population remaining at Montagne Cocotte.
39450		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the presence of invasive competitors combined with the fact that no male tree has been seen. Young fruits were last recorded in December 1978 and January 1979. There is also a poor pollination record for this species.
39451		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> conservation of this species is already in practice at Mondrain. For this to be successful, the plant must be grown beyond the seedling stage and <em>Achatina</em> species (which are mainly responsible for destroying the seedlings) eliminated.
39451		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Flanc sud de Pieter Both, Mountain Lagrave, and Bassin Blanc, Macchabee.  The total population is recorded as less than 50.
39452		conservation	eng	The species has been planted in the arboretum of the Forestry Service at Curepipe, National Parks and Conservation Greenhouse. In future there will be reintroduction of the species in a Conservation Management Area.
39452		distribution	eng	The total population is recorded as being less than 50 individuals: 30 individuals exist at Cascade Cinq Cent Pieds, and 10 at Mt. Le Pouce.
39454		conservation	eng	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation has successfully been implemented at the National Parks Conservation Service and Forestry Service.
39454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mauritius.
39454		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from mid altitude dry forest.
39454		threats	eng	The main threat to the population are invasive species (competitors) and fire.
39455		conservation	eng	It is recommended that both <em>ex situ</em> and <em>in situ</em> conservation measures be implemented.
39455		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cogliano River at Perriet and at S.L Mont Vert.
39455		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane and tropical rain forest at an altitude of 550 m.
39455		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat removal for forest plantation, and invasive competitors such as <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> and <em>Ligustrum</em>.
39456		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of this species is currently in progress at the National Park Conservation Service and at the Forestry Service.
39456		distribution	eng	This species occurs at Montagne Le Pouce.
39456		habitat	eng	It is found in montane tropical rain forest areas on wind exposed sites.
39457		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> conservation of this species has already been implemented at the Petrin Conservation Management Area.
39457		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the region of Petrin.
39457		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane tropical rain forest areas with short layered laterite soil.
39458		conservation	eng	It is recommended that in-situ conservation be initiated. <em>Ex situ</em> conservation of the species is already in practice.
39458		threats	eng	The main threat to the species comes from invasive competitors such as <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> and <em>Ligustrum</em>.
39459		conservation	eng	<em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of this species should be initiated immediately.
39459		distribution	eng	Only one individual exists at Ilot Sanchot, Riviere des Gallets.
39459		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the presence of invasive competitors such as <em>Latana camara</em>.
39460		conservation	eng	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation of the species is in progress at the National Park Conservation Service and the Forestry Service.
39460		distribution	eng	Formally found at Trou Kanaka, this species is now no longer seen in the area. One individual is found at Bel Ombre.
39460		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from montane tropical rain forest amongst waterfalls, on humus.  It is rarely epiphytic.
39462		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers.
39462		habitat	eng	Prefers river channels. Rarely found in lakes.
39463		distribution	eng	was in the Aral Sea where it was extirpated, but still extant in the Amu Darya River.
39466		conservation	eng	Some of the populations are located within the National Park and Nature Reserves in the Conservation Management Area where alien species are regularly controlled.
39466		distribution	eng	This species is mainly located in the uplands within most of the native forest.  It has a rather broad distribution extending from southwest of the island to the east at Mt. des Creoles, and as far north as Gaulettes Serres.  Historically it has been collected at Le Pouce (in 1864), but no collection from this locality has been made since.  The Pouce forest is extremely degraded by alien species.  It has been collected from Savanne, Colville near Moka, Mt. Bambous and Mt. Blanche, in the past but is now extirpated from these localities.
39466		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in climax montane rain forest and lowland moist forest to open <em>Sideroxylon</em> forest.  Altitude ranges from 280 to 700 m.
39467		distribution	eng	This species is known from at least five locations with one subpopulation known to number more than 50 individuals. area of occupancy is less than 10 km² and the total population is estimated at less than 150 individuals.
39467		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in evergreen dry forest at an altitude ranging from 115 to 300 m.
39467		threats	eng	There is a marked deterioration of the habitat caused by alien and animal species.  The principal invasive plants are <em>Schinus terebinthifolius, Hiptage benghalensis</em> and <em>Eugenia uniflora</em>.  In addition the ground flora is browsed by exotic Javanese Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>).  Monkey (<em>Macaca fascicularis</em>) damage to fruiting plants is also very evident.
39468		conservation	eng	The high altitude sites in Bakossi may prove important for the conservation of this taxon and so should be assessed more fully; atypically for Acanthaceae taxa, this species is readily identifiable when sterile, aiding population assessments.
39468		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Nigeria (Cross River State), Equatorial Guinea (one collection from Bioko) and southwestern Cameroon. In Cameroon, it is known from Korup (seven collections), where it is locally abundant. It has also been recorded from Mt. Cameroon (14 collections). The inventories of the 1990s yielded a further nine specimens of this species from Mt. Cameroon, from all lowland forest areas, except from Mokoko. There are two collections from Bakossi and one from Banyang-Mbo. It seems relatively abundant in Onge. Occurs at 0–500 m, rarely in mid-elevation forest 900–1,400 m (Bakossi).
39468		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland closed-canopy evergreen forest, often growing in damp, shady spots on the forest floor.
39468		threats	eng	Forest clearance is the main threat to the survival of the species. However, higher altitude sites discovered in Bakossi are less threatened.
39469		conservation	eng	The range of this species should be investigated to determine whether it really is confined to Mann Spring or is widespread in the montane forest. Further information is also required on the size of the population, whether regeneration is occurring, and current and potential threats to the species.  Care must be taken to avoid confusion with <em>Isoglossa glandulifera</em> which occurs at lower altitudes and is widespread.
39469		distribution	eng	this species has been collected from Mt. Cameroon.  The type specimen was collected in 1862 and the species was not recollected until 130 years later.  The last known collection was from an area west of Mann Spring in 1993. The species is known only from these three collections.
39469		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest at 2,000-2,500 m altitude.
39470		conservation	eng	More data are needed on the range and population size of this species.  An evaluation of the extent of the threat posed by exploitation for trapping is also recommended, and local trappers should be encouraged to use alternative, more common taxa.
39470		distribution	eng	This species has been collected on the Obudu Plateau, Nigeria (one collection); and from Mt. Cameroon (two collections) and Mt Kupe (three collections), Cameroon.
39470		habitat	eng	An understorey shrub of closed canopy submontane and montane forest, 1,100–1,400 m alt.
39470		threats	eng	Current threats to the species on Mt Cameroon are unknown. Stems are cut for trap "springing sticks" on Mt Kupe (M. Cheek, pers. obs.); this is likely to have an impact upon the population of mature individuals at the two Kupe sites.
39471		conservation	eng	Botanical surveys of other suitable sites in S.W. and Littoral Provinces should reveal further populations of this taxon; monitoring of the riparian plant communities in response to increased upstream run-off should be carried out.
39471		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Cross River State, Nigeria (two collections); Cameroon S.W. Province: Onge, Mt. Cameroon (six collections), south Bakundu Forest reserve (one collection), Bakossi (two collections), and in the Littoral Province: near Nkongjok (one collection) and near Yingui (one collection).
39471		habitat	eng	The species occurs in fast-flowing rivers, growing half submerged and rooted amongst boulders; often around waterfalls, 0–750 m alt.
39471		threats	eng	The proposed conversion of lowland forest around Mt Cameroon to plantation is likely to threaten the plant communities of the rivers that drain the area, such as the Onge, an important site for this taxon, through flooding and excessive silting of their habitat. Illegal logging for timber in lowland Bakossi is likely to have a similar impact.
39472		distribution	eng	Was originally though to be confined to Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and Mt Cameroon (Cameroon), but now known to have a wider distribution with records from Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Guinea.  Although discovered on Bioko, the species has not been recollected there this century. It is possibly extinct there due to clearance of almost all forest below 1,000 m altitude. In Cameroon, it is known from Likomba (where it is now probably extinct) and Mabeta-Moliwe where numerous specimens were collected in 1992.
39472		habitat	eng	A shrub or samll tree (up to 20 m) found in lowland rain forest .
39472		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.
39474		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Cameroon and Gabon. On Mt. Cameroon the species known only from a single sterile specimen from Mokoko collected in 1994. It needs to be recollected in this area to confirm the species identity.
39474		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for timber and agriculture.
39475		conservation	eng	An attempt should be made to rediscover this tree and to determine whether there are scattered individuals in the area.  Incorporation of some individuals in a heavily protected area might be investigated.
39475		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to coastal Cameroon and Bioko. It is known from 8 specimens, occurring at only five localities. The type specimen is from Bipindi and it is also known from Kribi and Korup, besides Bioko. On Mt. Cameroon, it is known only from Nkeng 69.  This species has conspicuous flowers and fruits, and is not easily overlooked when fertile. Consequently, the sparse and scattered collections probably indicate rarity, rather than undercollection.
39475		threats	eng	The clearance of forest for timber extraction, followed by agriculture and plantations threaten the survival of this species. Plantations in the Idenau area are believed to be scheduled for expansion soon. Lowland forest is probably the most heavily threatened vegetation type on Mt Cameroon.
39476		conservation	eng	Although <em>U. fuscum</em> is restricted in its range to Mt. Cameroon and Bioko, within its range it seems widely spread (particularly on Mt. Cameroon) and is common at some locations. Compared with many other species with such a range, it seems in no immediate danger of extinction.
39476		distribution	eng	This species is known from collections made at Bioko, and Mt. Cameroon.  The two collections on Bioko are both historic and there is no evidence of a recent sighting.  Care should be taken not to confuse this species with its congeners, for example <em>U. giganteum, U. mirabile</em> or <em>U. connivens</em>.
39476		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from lowland to submontane areas of evergreen forest (sea-level to 1,500 m altitude).
39476		threats	eng	There is no evidence that traditional use is a threat to this species, but this should be investigated further.
39477		conservation	eng	This ornamental species is a prime candidate for cultivation and multiplication at Limbe Botanic Garden, with a view to reintroduction to the wild at secure sites.
39477		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, and the southern Province, Cameroon.  This species was only known from a leafless specimen, until a collection was found in the southern Bakundu area.  Recently it was recollected in Mabeta-Moliwe, on the southern base line, at 400 m from the original collection site.  This species is undoubtedly very rare. More work is needed on the delimitation of this species from <em>P. ceropegioides</em>, also on Mt. Cameroon and also rare.
39477		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from disturbed lowland forest areas.
39477		threats	eng	The main threat to the species comes from forest clearance. All known sites of this species are under pressure from timber extraction or forest clearance.
39478		conservation	eng	The now well-known plant above Likombe should be protected by agreement with the local landowner. A search for more individuals in the same area was carried out without success in 1995. This species may be a candidate for propagation at Limbe Botanic Garden for reintroduction to a protected, managed area or areas. The site at Mt Kupe remains the primary hope for the survival of this species in the wild. Regular monitoring by Martin Etuge and the author over the last eight years has shown the subpopulation at this site to be stable.
39478		distribution	eng	Known from Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Kupe; Côte d'Ivoire; and the Central African Republic.
39478		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland to submontane forest, withstanding and perhaps benefiting from some disturbance (sea-level to 1,000 m altitude).
39478		threats	eng	Although known to withstand some disturbance, presumably being able to regenerate after cutting, there is no doubt that intensive agriculture and tree clearance would destroy this rare species.
39481		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
39481		distribution	eng	This species is found in large parts of Portugal and Spain and most of France except the north and west. In Switzerland, it occurs in Vaud, Valais and the Jura. It is rare in South Germany, Northwest Italy and Austria. The extent of distribution is not clear yet. Its elevation range is 300-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species. The status of this species in the northeast of Turkey requires revision.
39481		habitat	eng	This grizzled skipper occurs in warm, flower-rich grasslands, preferring those in sheltered situations, for example on slopes or near shrubs or woodland. In the northern part of its range, it is only found in very warm places. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of various cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.), choosing the smaller plants. This butterfly hibernates as a very tiny caterpillar in the egg, in which it remains until the spring. It then emerges and spins a small shelter from leaves. In the last larval instar, this is replaced by a parchment-like shelter. It pupates in a cocoon. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), inland sand-dunes (10%), fallow land, waste places (10%).
39481		population	eng	Although widespread in part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovenia. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Switzerland. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
39481		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
39482		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
39482		distribution	eng	This species is declining in Turkey, but the status in the Caucasian republics is poorly known.
39482		distribution	eng	This species is present on the southern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, northwest of the Caucasus. Up to 1,800 m (Tshikolovets 2003, Baytas 2007). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
39482		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist, herbaceous clearings, roadsides and other open places in mixed and deciduous woodland and feeds on species of <em>Aristolochia</em> (Aristolochiaceae).
39482		habitat	eng	The Caucasian Festoon occurs in moist bushy clearing and other open places in deciduous and mixed forests and on wet meadows on hills. female lays its eggsThe female lays its eggs mostly on a birthwort species (<em>Aristolochia iberica</em>). The species has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage (Tshikolovets 2003, Baytas 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
39482		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is not clear if there are populations in the part of Southern Russia considered to be European.
39482		threats	eng	There are no main threats known in Europe.
39483		conservation	eng	A well coordinated search for the species should be conducted to make sure that there is not a population left somewhere on the island. If a remaining population is found, immediate research on the ecology and conservation should be carried out.
39483		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.
39483		habitat	eng	This butterfly was mostly found in north-exposed valleys in the Laurisilva forests on Madeira. They occurred in many habitat types where the larval hostplant grows in abundance and where many nectar-rich plants, such as thistles and knapweed, were available as a source of nectar. The females deposited the eggs in batches on the leaves of diverse genera and species of crucifers, such as Caper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis spinosa</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropaelum majus</span>. The caterpillars lived in small groups, dispersing in the later instars, when they were ready to pupate. Hibernation took place in the pupal stage. This butterfly produced several generation a year and could be found from March until late October. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
39483		population	eng	The Madeiran Large White is an extremely local species, restricted to the island of Madeira. In the 1970s, it was considered rare. There are some reports from the 1980s, in which lepidopterists reported it to be widely distributed, but searches for this species in the early 1990s were unsuccessful. As the species has not been seen on this relatively small island for at least 20 years, it is believed to probably be extinct.
39483		threats	eng	The causes for the decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris wollastoni </span>are unknown, but Gardiner (2003) proposed the introduction of diseases and Lozan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2008) the introduction of the alien parasitoid <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotesia glomerata</span> as possible causes.
39484		conservation	eng	More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
39484		distribution	eng	The Canary Islands Large White is restricted to the Canary Islands. This species is widespread and locally common on La Palma. On Tenerife, it is restricted to the northern coastal region. It is probably extinct on Gomera. Its elevational range is 200-1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
39484		habitat	eng	The Canary Islands Large White occurs in wet and shaded, rocky gullies in laurel forests and wet cliffs. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of Crambe strigosa, a plant species endemic to wet places in laurel forests and on the introduced species <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropaelum majus</span>. The caterpillars live in much the same way as those of the Large White (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris brassicae</span>). They are gregarious but disperse in the late larval instars. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
39484		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
39484		threats	eng	Destruction of primary, natural habitat appears to be largely responsible for the decline in many areas and possibly for its extinction on some islands. The habitat is endangered because of anthropogenic pressure (Wiemers, 1995). Like with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris wollastoni, </span>the introduction of the alien parasites <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotesia glomerata </span>(Lozan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) might be a possible cause of the decline, as the former population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris cheiranthi</span> on La Gomera also became extinct in the 1970s.
39485		conservation	eng	More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
39485		distribution	eng	The Madeiran Brimstone is restricted to the island of Madeira at elevations between 500-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
39485		habitat	eng	The Madeiran Brimstone occurs only in the dense primary laurel forest at middle altitudes. The larval foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnus glandulosa</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnaceae</span>). The number of generations per year is unknown. Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).
39485		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. This butterfly has low population densities. It is declining on Madeira.
39485		threats	eng	The species is restricted to primary vegetation, susceptible to human interference. The most direct threat comes from habitat loss because of reclamation and change to agricultural land.
39486		conservation	eng	There is legal protection for some important butterfly habitats in three countries and has been a research subject in at least one country.
39486		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
39486		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southeastern Europe, with the main distribution focused on Albania, Greece and Turkey.
39486		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe from Bosnia and Herzegovina via Montenegro to Bulgaria and Greece (including some islands). Very rare in the northern part of distribution range. 0-1,600 m, although mostly below 1,000 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
39486		habitat	eng	Found in wet valleys and wet areas near the coast in Mediterranean evergreen woodlands and maquis, broad-leaved woodlands, heathland and scrubland. Feeds on species of <em>Rumex</em> (Polygonaceae).
39486		habitat	eng	The Grecian Copper can be found in low, scrubby vegetation, maquis and woodland clearings and also occurs in dry and moist grassland at the bottom of valleys. Sorrel, especially Sheep's Sorrel (<em>Rumex acetosella</em>), is used as larval foodplant. This butterfly species has two generations a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), mesophile grasslands (16%), mixed woodland (8%).
39486		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
39486		threats	eng	It is threatened by any coastal developments and human activity.
39486		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
39488		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
39488		distribution	eng	Occurs very locally: only in Switzerland (Berner Alps and Walliser Alps) and in the north of Italy (Piedmont -Val di Cogne and Val d'Ossola- and Val Venosta), between 800-2,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
39488		habitat	eng	This is a butterfly of warm, dry grassland and dry, coniferous forests on calcareous soils. In Switzerland, it is only found where its foodplant <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus exscapus</span> grows. In Italy, it also lays its eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">A. centralpinus</span>, a milk-vetch that does not occur in Switzerland. The caterpillars hibernate when they are half-grown and resume feeding in spring, choosing young shoots near to the ground. They are also attended by <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica </span>ants. This blue has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
39488		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
39488		threats	eng	The most severe threats comes from agricultural improvements, especially irrigation of xerothermophilous steppes and the intensification of grazing by sheep. Habitats abandonment is also a threat.
39489		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
39489		distribution	eng	Occurs in isolated populations in several mountainous areas in south and central Spain: near Granada (Sierra Nevada, S. de Alfacar), near Teruel (S. de Albarracin), near Madrid and Toledo. Found at altitudes from 400-1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
39489		habitat	eng	This Blue mostly occurs on dry grassland, waste ground and scrub. The caterpillars feed on the milk-vetches <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus alopecurioides</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. turolensis</span> and possibly other <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus </span>species. The milk-vetches only occur very locally which explains the local occurrence of this butterfly. The female deposits the eggs on the leaves of the foodplant where the caterpillars feed. Hibernation takes place in the early larval instars. It has one generation a year and both the caterpillars and pupae are attended by ants of species from several genera, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span>. When the caterpillars are ready for pupation, they often search for a safe place in the entrance of an ant nest. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).
39489		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
39489		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
39490		habitat	eng	Found on uncultivated shrub land.
39490		population	eng	Known only from the type locality where the species still survives in low numbers.
39490		threats	eng	The construction of a nearby dam does not appear to have affected the species, and no actual threats were observed. However, a number of potential threats were identified.
39491		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Italy, not all populations are in the European Natura 2000 networking programme areas.
39491		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a very small area in the southern part of the Simplon in Switzerland and Italy. In all, there are five locations known in Switzerland in an area of 10 x 10 km² and only two in Italy. It occurs between 1,600-1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
39491		habitat	eng	Rätzer’s Ringlet is found on steep, sunny slopes on acid soil with patches of grassy vegetation and rocks and scattered larch or fir trees. It is one of the rarest European butterflies, with not more than six or seven populations. The butterflies often bask in the sun with their wings wide open. The males congregate regularly on damp ground. The females visit different nectar plants and are especially fond of thyme. They lay their eggs on the dry grass stems of Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>). Before completing their development, the caterpillars hibernate twice. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
39491		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. A strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% has been reported from Italy (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). In Switzerland, in the 1980s, road building destroyed some of the largest subpopulations. After that there is no information on the trend in Switzerland.
39491		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by habitat destruction. The species is popular with collectors, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline.
39492		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Czech Republic, Poland and Romania, the species only occurs in protected areas.
39492		distribution	eng	This is a European species that occurs very locally in widely separated areas: in France in the Massif Central (Monts du Cantal) and the Alps (Savoie and Isère), in central Switzerland (Grindelwald), in Czech Republic (Sudeten) and in Romania in three places in the Carpathians. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
39492		habitat	eng	The Sudeten Ringlet occurs on alpine and sub-alpine grasslands, especially those near the tree-line. They are most numerous on damp grasslands with tall grasses and flowering plants, but they also reproduce on dry grassland. Although Sweet Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>) is probably the most important foodplant, other grasses, such as Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa annua</span>), are also used. It has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (37%), coniferous woodland (25%), mixed woodland (12%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%).
39492		population	eng	The Sudeten Ringlet is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Poland. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland. Populations are more or less stable in France. In Czech Republic, there is a (quite strong) range decline, but the population size appears to be stable (Eionet 2010).
39492		threats	eng	The main threats are intensified grazing and abandonment. Considering its limited distribution, the Sudeten Ringlet may become threatened in the long term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.
39494		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
39494		distribution	eng	This butterfly species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.
39494		habitat	eng	This species can be found in areas with herbaceous covering above 1,000 m and in areas of the Laurisilva where heath is predominant. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (20%), coniferous woodland (20%), mixed woodland (20%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (20%), volcanic features (20%).
39494		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
39494		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
39497		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Ukraine the type-locality is under protection in the Ialta state reserve.
39497		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Crimea, Ukraine. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is smaller than 5,000  km². This is a European endemic species.
39497		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs in Ukraine on the Crimean mountain steppes and in pine forest on a limestone mountain area covered by grassland. The foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pennata</span>. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%).
39497		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
39497		threats	eng	Populations are reported to be threatened by tourist activities and fires.
39498		conservation	eng	It is recommended that an attempt be made to relocate and safeguard the rediscovery site on Mt. Cameroon.  Propagation of the species should be considered.
39498		distribution	eng	Known from southwestern Cameroon, Kivu, and Uganda. The species was first collected in Rio del Rey, Cameroons in 1887 but the associated notes are poor and the habitat and altitude of Rio Del Rey are unlikely.  It was first reliably found on Mt. Cameroon on 14 February 1927, near Buea and was rediscovered many decades later.
39498		habitat	eng	The plant occurs in submontane forest 850-1,200 m altitude.
39498		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance.
39499		conservation	eng	This species is not such a high priority for action as are the threatened strictly endemic species. However, it would be useful to relocate the plant from which the 1995 collection was made and attempt to propagate it with a view to reintroduction. Data on the range of this species on the mountain would be useful for conservation management.
39499		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Bioko, and the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania.  It was discovered on Mt. Cameroon in 1995 northwest of and above Likombe at 1,050 m altitude.  The species is known from only four collections: two in Tanzania and one each in Bioko and Mt. Cameroon.
39499		habitat	eng	Recorded from montane forest at 1,000-1,600 m altitude.
39499		threats	eng	The creation of new cocoyam farms in the submontane belt may threaten this species on Mt. Cameroon.
39500		conservation	eng	This species should be relocated in the wet season and the state and extent of the population assessed.
39500		distribution	eng	This species is strictly endemic to Mt. Cameroon  and is known only from a single collection taken in 1979.
39500		habitat	eng	The type specimen is epiphytic, collected from deeply shaded montane forest at 1,150 m altitude.
39501		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the population be monitored.
39501		distribution	eng	<em>I. etindensis</em> is strictly endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It was first collected near the summit of Mt. Etinde in 1990, and again in 1992.  Three other collections have been made since.  This species, related to <em>Impatiens grandisepala</em>, is common as an epiphyte on the peak  and ridges of Etinde, but not known elsewhere apart from the Njoni collection.
39501		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane-montane forest at 1,500-1,700 m altitude.  This plant grows in the forks of stunted trees only 3 m from the ground near the peak of Etinde, but the Njonji collection was taken from the upper part of a tall fallen tree.
39502		conservation	eng	Subpopulations in the S.W. Province of Cameroon, and probably also in Bioko, are fairly secure, lacking threats. In the N.W. Province of Cameroon the substantial subpopulation in the well protected Kilum-Ijim site (Mt Oku and the Ijim Ridge) may be the only locality where the taxon will survive, unfortunately, thus protection here is important.
39502		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (four collections), Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts (five collections), Rumpi Hills (one collection), Bamboutos Mts (two collections), Muanenguba (one collection), Bamenda Highlands (17 coll.); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (six collections from two sites); and southeastern Nigeria (one collection). The range data are from the account of the species in the recently published revision of <em>Begonia</em> sect. <em>Tetraphila</em> (de Wilde 2002).
39502		habitat	eng	Known from submontane and montane forest at 1,200–2,200(–2,400) m altitude. The increasing density of this species, moving northwards (Mt Cameroon and Bioko only <em>ca</em>. 2 sites each; Bamenda Highlands numerous sites and coll.) is perhaps a reflection of a longer dry season requirement.
39502		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for wood and agriculture (mainly in the Bamenda Highlands).
39503		conservation	eng	This taxon is most likely to survive in lowland forest reserves such as the Bakossi F.R. and Mokoko F.R., but only if their boundaries are respected. Resources need to be found to achieve this.
39503		distribution	eng	This species is known from Equatorial Guinea, Bioko (one collection); Cameroon: Edea-Kumba (15 collections); and Nigeria (three collectons).  It is closely related to <em>B. oxyanthera</em>.
39503		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen forest, 850–1,000 m alt.
39503		threats	eng	clearance of forest for wood and agricultural land (especially plantations) is a major threat throughout its range and probably accounts for the lack of collections from Bioko in the last century (where forest was largely cleared below 1,000 m alt.).
39504		conservation	eng	It is recommended that this subspecies be relocated, and its range and population re-assessed. Care should be taken  not to confuse it with the six other yellow-flowered <em>Begonia</em> taxa on the mountain.
39504		distribution	eng	This plant is strictly endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  Only two of the earlier collections have detailed locality data, and both are from Bakingili, so it appears that the subspecies may be restricted to a belt between 500-800 m altitude between Bakingili and Njonji. <br/>This taxon is one of seven yellow-flowered Begonias on the mountain, one of largest conglomerations in Africa and perhaps indicative (see Sosef 1994) of its importance as a refuge area.
39504		habitat	eng	Found on tree trunks or wet rocks in deeply shaded undergrowth of forest at 500-800 m altitude.
39504		threats	eng	The main threat to the taxon is forest disturbance for timber extraction and clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.
39505		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bioko, Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Oku and the Bamenda Highlands, Chappal Wadi and Mambila Plateau. This Giant Lobelia is the only representative in West Africa of a group for which East African mountains are famous. Although there are numerous collections from Mount Cameroon, was found to be extremely rare during the 1992 survey of Etinde, when only one or two specimens were seen. In contrast, it is relatively abundant in many localities on Mt. Oku (M. Cheek, pers. obs., Nov. 1996), where it is gregarious with 10-50 plants being found at each site.
39505		habitat	eng	Occurs on the boundary between montane forest and grassland at an altitude of 2000-2200 m.
39506		conservation	eng	Assessing the size of the subpopulations, ideally when the plants are in flower and most conspicuous, is advisable. Monitoring variation in numbers of individuals present from year to year would also help better assess the threat to this taxon.
39506		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (four collections), Bamenda Highlands (two collections), Muanenguba, Chappal Wadi and Mambila Plateau (only one collection from each of these places).  This species was first collected on Mt. Cameroon in Dec. 1861. The third collection was made in Dec. 1930. In 1992, it was twice recollected between Mann’s Spring and Bokwangwo Hut 3.
39506		habitat	eng	Grows in montane grassland along the forest ecotone. This small (4–15 cm tall) erect, blue-flowered annual herb is usually found between <em>Sporobolus</em> grass tussocks with <em>Radiola</em> and on shady banks, at an altitude of 1,500–2,600 m.
39506		threats	eng	Unknown, but possibly trampling by cattle during the wet (growing) season.
39507		distribution	eng	It is scattered thinly, between Mann’s Spring and Bokwango Hut 3 on Mt. Cameroon (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). Its closest relative may be <em>S. burchellii</em> Otth., a species of montane eastern Africa. However, <em>S.  lynesii</em> Norman is less geographically distant, occurring in the Tibesti as well as in S. Sudan and is also noted to occur on volcanic soils. Ten historic specimens are known, the earliest being the type, collected at Mann’s Spring in November 1862. It has also been collected above Buea at Huts 2 and 3, and so appears to be distributed around a good swathe of the mountain, perhaps around its whole circumference.
39507		habitat	eng	It favours sparse grassy areas, often on lava and cinder slopes at an altitude of 2,700-3,600 m.
39508		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (one pre-1988 collection) and Kwahu in Ghana. Apparently known from only two collections, one in each part of its range. The Mt. Cameroon specimen was probably collected before 1910. No modern specimen is known from Cameroon. The lacerated sepal margin of this species is unusual in the genus and the source of the specific epithet.
39508		habitat	eng	Was said to be found in a "flowing stream", presumably in submontane forest at an altitude of 1,000 m.
39508		threats	eng	Since this species has not been recollected recently there is cause for concern regarding its survival, especially since Buea, which is given as the locality, has lost much of its natural vegetation through deforestation.
39509		conservation	eng	It should be feasible to retrace this plant to the plot in which it was discovered in Mabeta-Moliwe, and thence to survey the area to acquire the information necessary to protect this species at that site.
39509		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in Mt. Cameroon, Abang Mbang, and Gabon.  It is known from only three sites and appears to be extremely rare, even though the range covers a fairly widespread area.
39510		conservation	eng	Since all of the sites from which this species is known are under heavy threat, it is advisable to assess the surviving population of with the aim of developing a means of protecting the species.
39510		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bioko, where it may already be extinct,  and Mt. Cameroon where three collections were made, all before 1988. The type collection, and the only record from Bioko refers to a "climbing shrub’". However, Maitland records it as "a small tree of 30 ft on edge of forest". Two other historic collections are also from above Buea and from Kumba, but the only modern collection is from the Onge forest. The species is known from a total of only 5 collections.
39511		distribution	eng	The range of this species includes Bioko (three collections), Mt. Cameroon (14 pre-1988 collections), and the Bamboutos Mountains (one collection).  Segregated from <em>C. vitellinum, C. bougheyanum</em> is a larger plant (90-180 cm tall), with a more restricted distribution. <em>C. montuosum</em> is another closely related species and care should be taken to avoid confusion in identification. On Mt. Cameroon,  <em>C. bougheyanum</em> has been collected most frequently from above Buea and from near Mann’s  Spring. It is curious that no recent collections have been made. Perhaps this reflects the "weedy" look of this species.
39511		habitat	eng	Recorded from clearings and at the edge of montane forest (1,500-2,500 m altitude).
39512		conservation	eng	High priority should be given to finding this species, preferably searching in December, in the forest (grassland ecotone). An attempt to investigate the range and numbers of individuals of this species to discover whether it is really restricted to only Mann’s Spring is important for conservation planning. If the species does occur at this ecotone, it is hoped that its range extends to cover a larger part of the grassland-forest perimeter than just that near Mann’s Spring.
39512		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Mt. Cameroon.  It is known from only two collections. The type specimen was collected in 1862" and is probably from somewhere in the vicinity of Mann’s Spring. The second collection was made in 1952 and is described as a  "woody herb in second tongue of forest from Mann’s Spring". Recent inventories have not found this plant, but since searches are not known to have been conducted in this habitat during December, the species may have been overlooked.
39512		habitat	eng	Recorded from the edge of montane forest at 2,100-2,200 m altitude.
39512		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, but the potential threat of lava flow over Mann’s Spring could destroy this species, if it is as localized as it appears to be.
39513		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Oku, Bafut-Ngemba, and Chappal Waddi. It is apparently absent from Bioko.
39513		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected from montane grassland areas, particularly on old lava flows at 1,900-3,000 m altitude.
39514		distribution	eng	Known from Bioko, and Mt. Cameroon. The absence of specimens of <em>H. mannii</em> in the 1992 inventory probably indicates the lack of coverage of altitudes above 3,000 m. This species was collected above Buea in 1995.
39514		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane grassland areas, particularly on cinders at high altitudes (up to 4,000 m).
39515		conservation	eng	This rarely-seen species is perhaps most easily refound and studied at the sites where it has most recently been seen, both in Bakossi. Data on demography and population size would better inform management decisions. In the meantime, education of the public by means of e.g., conservation posters might help reduce pressure on subpopulations that survive.
39515		distribution	eng	The range of this species includes Nigeria: Chappal Waddi (two collections), Bioko (one collection), Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (five collections), Bakossi-Kupe (two collections at two sites). It appears not to have been collected much during the last decade.
39515		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest gaps, sometimes with <em>Mimulopsis solmsii</em> (1,000–2,200 m altitude).
39515		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood, particularly likely at the lower part of its altitudinal range at sites such as Chappal Waddi and Mt Cameroon (plantation expansion to the 1,000 m contour is a major threat).
39516		conservation	eng	This species appears to be in no immediate danger of extinction, being relatively common within its range. Nonetheless, if surveys at the montane forest grassland ecotone are being conducted, the opportunity should be taken to collect data on the population size and range of this species.  There is insufficient data currently available to suggest management regime, but fire is possibly important at intervals in preventing shading-out by shrubs and trees.  The underground rootstock is likely to provide protection in the event of dry season fire.  The large lax leaves help minimise competition from adjoining herbs by smothering them.
39516		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Mt. Cameroon, the Bamboutos Mountains, and Mt. Oku.
39516		habitat	eng	The plant ocurs in montane grassland, near boundary with forest at 2,000-2,800 m altitude.  Observations on Mt. Oku, above Oku-Elak in October 1996, showed that this species survived, though not abundantly, and was flowering in fired grassland that was being cattle grazed. Cattle seem to avoid eating <em>S. trichotocephala</em>. On Kilum, dense populations were seen in <em>Gnidia glauca</em> woodland and in a <em>Pteridium</em>-grassland island inside montane forest.
39516		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species within the Kilum-Ijim area, beyond clearance of forest to facilitate agriculture.  Grazing by horses and cattle was prevalent in one area where the species was observed to be fairly common but appeared to cause no adverse effects to the <em>Succisa</em>.  The absence of intermittent fire may threaten the existence of this species.
39517		conservation	eng	If further inventory work is conducted in the eastern foothills, this species should be looked out for.
39517		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cameroon.  It has been collected from Rio Muni and Mt. Cameroon.  The type specimen was collected in Rio Muni in 1908/09 and had not been recollected until a specimen believed to be conspecific was collected at Likomba in November 1928.
39518		conservation	eng	A population census, focussing upon the known sites at Kupe-Bakossi and Bali-Ngemba, should be carried out and specific threats recorded. A poster campaign focussing on this striking species may serve to promote forest conservation to the local communities.
39518		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (c. 6 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (13 coll. at 6 sites), Bamenda Highlands: Bali-Ngemba.
39518		habitat	eng	Found insubmontane to montane evergreen forest; (400–)800–1,950 m alt.
39518		threats	eng	Forest clearance for wood and agriculture. This is most significant at the lower parts of the altitudinal range (below 1,000 m) at all three areas. In the Bamenda Highlands the tree is probably now restricted to the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve. These extensive highlands were probably once home to the main subpopulation of the species given the density of the species at the Bali Ngemba remnant. Elsewhere in the Bamenda Highlands, 25% loss of forest in the eight years between 1987–1995 is recorded by Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. (2000). With 13 collections at six sites, Kupe-Bakossi appears to be the stronghold for this species, where it is relatively secure and unthreatened.
39519		distribution	eng	The species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Kupe, and the Bakossi Mountains. It may also occur in Nigeria.  The species can be locally dominant, as in parts of the saddle between Fako and Mt. Etinde, or in montane forest near Kodmin (Bakossi Mountains). Two collections were made on Mt. Cameroon during the inventories of the 1990s.
39519		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane/montane forest areas at 1,000-1,400 m altitude.
39520		conservation	eng	In view of the extreme rarity of this species and the evolutionary isolation of the genus, it is worth considerable effort to relocate it. The best starting point would be Mokoko, where the most recent collection has been made. It is recommended that the site where the original collection was made be pinpointed.
39520		distribution	eng	<em>H. pierreanum</em> occurs in coastal Cameroon evergreen forest, including Mt. Cameroon. This tree, one of only two species in this  tropical African family, is endemic to Cameroon and only known from the type collections at Bipindi in 1903-08 (no recent collections from this area have been seen) and from the foothills of Mt. Cameroon.
39520		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland evergreen coastal forest at or near sea-level.
39520		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for timber and agriculture, especially plantations.
39521		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the vicinity of Buea be searched for this species.
39521		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mt Cameroon. It is possibly extinct.
39521		habitat	eng	The species was collected from submontane forest at 940 m altitude.
39521		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture and habitation.
39522		conservation	eng	Re-evaluation of the Oxford University specimens against the FDC account is a priority. Searching for fertile <em>Beilschmeidia</em> in the Mabeta-Moliwe area in March should follow. Given that no other species is recorded from that area, but that at least 10 specimens of the genus are known from Mabeta-Moliwe, there must be a fair chance that this species persists. If this is confirmed, population data should be gathered to enable formulation of a management plan for this species.
39522		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen collected from Mt. Cameroon a century ago. It may already be extinct.
39522		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for small-holder agriculture, housing, plantations of <em>Hevea</em> and <em>Elaeis</em>.
39523		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two collections from coastal Cameroon forest, including Mt. Cameroon.
39523		habitat	eng	This distinctive tree occurs in lowland coastal evergreen forest, particularly near rivers.
39524		conservation	eng	Rediscovery of this possibly extinct species is necessary if its population biology and habitat requirements are to be discovered.
39524		distribution	eng	This species is apparently endemic to Mt. Cameroon. It is known only from two collections, both taken before 1988.  It may now be extinct. However, as far as we are aware, no effort has yet been made to look for this tree. For want of tree climbers, tree species have been undercollected in recent surveys, so this species may simply have been passed by.
39524		habitat	eng	A lowland or possibly submontane species found in evergreen forest.
39524		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations, is the main threat to the species.
39525		conservation	eng	It is worth conducting a survey for any surviving patches of natural vegetation in the lowland belt of the eastern slopes. If this fails to yield more plants of this species, Mabeta-Moliwe may be the best hope for rediscovering this species on Mt. Cameroon.
39525		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, and Gabon.  The shrub was collected on Mt. Cameroon below Buea in 1931. It has not been collected since. The only other collections (two) of this species are from Gabon, both dating from the last century. Forest on the eastern slopes of Mt. Cameroon has virtually ceased to exist, apart from at Mabeta-Moliwe, and this species may be extinct in Cameroon. The best chance of this species surviving is in Gabon where habitat destruction is believed to have been less extensive than in its Cameroonian locality. However, there have been no recent collections of  <em>O. klainei</em> from that country.
39525		habitat	eng	The species has been collected from lowland forest at circa. 450 m altitude.
39525		threats	eng	Clearance for agriculture and housing areas is the main threat to the survival of this species.
39526		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cameroon coastal forest areas, including Mt. Cameroon.  It may yet be found in Equatorial Guinea, and even Nigeria.
39527		conservation	eng	The Mt. Cameroon specimens of this genus need to be evaluated against Taton’s revision to establish if any more collections of this taxon can be found. An attempt should then be made to evaluate the population of this species in the field.
39527		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two collections in Cameroon: one from Mt. Cameroon, the other from Eseka.
39527		habitat	eng	Collections have been made from lowland/submontane forest at circa. 600 m altitude.
39528		conservation	eng	Weberbauer’s itinerary should be researched and . Existing Ardisia specimens from Mt Cameroon should be reassessed against the criteria for this species listed by Taton.
39528		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It is known only from one collection and it is thought that the species may already be extinct.
39528		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is unrecorded, but is probably montane or submontane forest.
39528		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown in absence of locality data, but the main threat is probably forest clearance.
39529		conservation	eng	Weberbauer’s itinerary should be researched. Existing <em>Ardisia</em> specimens from Mt. Cameroon should be reassessed against the criteria for this species listed by Taton.
39529		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt. Cameroon.
39529		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is presumably lowland evergreen forest, near sea-level.
39529		threats	eng	Lava-flows, clearance for agriculture and settlement.
39530		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (6 collections) and the Bamenda Highlands (1 collection). The type collection was made at Mann’s Spring presumably in about 1928.  Four recent collections  are probably this species, so may be commoner than thought.
39530		habitat	eng	Found in montane forest at 1,800-3,200 m alt.
39530		threats	eng	This species, though rare, appears to be widespread in the montane forest of Mt Cameroon and is in no immediate danger of extinction. The main threat would be clearance of forest for agriculture.
39531		conservation	eng	Some attempt should be made to rediscover this species on Mt Cameroon. A search for Myrtaceae between Bibundi and Debundscha would be worthwhile, as would research on Dusen’s itinerary to identify the locality of the type specimen.
39531		distribution	eng	Known only from a single pre-1988 collection made on Mt. Cameroon and is possibly extinct.
39531		habitat	eng	Probably grew in lowland evergreen rainforestat c. 200 m alt.
39532		conservation	eng	Although threatened at Manenguba, it appears secure at the other known sites. This species should be looked for during any further surveys in the montane forest on the mountain. Care should be taken to discriminate it from the seven other species of the genus on the mountain, e.g., the larger and more common <em>P. vulcanica</em>. <em>Peperomia kamerunana</em> can be recognized by its broadly obovate leaves only 1–1.5 cm long. Quantitative data on each of the subpopulations would be valuable for developing a management plan for the taxon.
39532		distribution	eng	Recorded from Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (two collections); Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon (five pre-1988 collections), Mt Kupe (two collections) and Manenguba (one collection). Owing to imprecise data on the seven specimens known from Bioko and Mt Cameroon, it is known with certainty from only three sites at these places. If the new specimens are added, the species is known from a total of ten collections at five sites. While the species is locally plentiful, it must be extremely local, given that it has not been collected again on Mt Cameroon in over 50 years, despite intensive surveys there in the 1990s, including a large and expert botanical survey team based for a week in 1992 at or very near the site where it was collected previously. Although two specimens were recently discovered (1992) at Mt Kupe, this is in comparison to 24 specimens of <em>P. fernandopoiana</em> from the same area. It may simply have been overlooked in view of its inconspicuous green flowers.
39532		habitat	eng	An epiphytic species found in submontane and montane forest at an altitude of 1,400–2,300 m.
39532		threats	eng	Threatened by forest reduction at Manenguba for firewood and due to man-made fires set by pastoralists.
39533		conservation	eng	No extra protection is required as long as the existing Kilum-Ijim boundaries are respected.
39533		distribution	eng	Recorded from Sao Tome (three collections), Bioko (one collection), Mt Cameroon (five pre-1988 collections) and the Bamenda Highlands (three collections). This species appears not to have been recollected in recent surveys on Mt. Cameroon.
39533		habitat	eng	Epiphytic in montane forest at 1,460-2,100 m alt.
39534		conservation	eng	A survey of the range of this subspecies on the mountain is advisable. Rootstock presence should be investigated since this has implications for the fire ecology of the taxon.
39534		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt Cameroon (seven pre-1988 collections) and Bamboutos/Bamenda Highlands (three collections). This subspecies overlaps in the Bamboutos and Bamenda Highlands with <em>P. tenuicaulis</em> subsp. <em>tayloriana</em> Paiva which extends to Mambila Plateau, and Chappal Waddi. The first collections on Mt Cameroon are from near Mann’s Spring and subsequent collections on the mountain have been made in the same area, and not from above Buea, so its range may be limited.
39534		habitat	eng	Grows in montane grassland, within a few hundred metres of the forest boundary, but not at the forest edge; 2100-2400 m alt.
39534		threats	eng	This subspecies may require fire for regeneration.
39535		conservation	eng	If this species can be relocated, the forestry department authorities at Kumba, who manage this forest, should be notified and involved in any protection measures taken.
39535		distribution	eng	Strictly endemic to Mt Cameroon and known only from two collections made near Banga in the S. Bakundu Forest Reserve before 1988 (possibly extinct). <br/>.
39535		threats	eng	The S. Bakundu Forest Reserve. has suffered from illegal timber extraction in recent decades and Nigerian yam farmers are reported to be cultivating the southern part.
39536		conservation	eng	A survey of the population of this species is advisable, as are measures to protect what remains from further destruction. It seems relatively common in the western foothills and this area seems most suited for developing a plan for the conservation of this species. Improved policing of existing protected areas and reinforcement of the level of official protected status, would help secure the future of the species. The main site for this species is the Onge forest in the western foothills of Mt Cameroon. It is advised that resources for the conservation of this species be focussed here.
39536		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt Cameroon (one pre-1988 collection) and Mt Kupe. <em>Cola praeacuta</em> is only known from about 10 collections in the northern and western foothills, and in the coastal strip. It is unknown from Mabeta-Moliwe. It seems to be relatively common in the western foothills.
39536		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 0–400 m alt.
39536		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for timber, followed by agriculture.
39537		conservation	eng	Site protection is required.
39537		distribution	eng	From southwestern and southern Cameroon and Bipindi. Known only from four collections fide Nordal and Poulsen, pers. comm.
39537		threats	eng	Conversion of forest to oil-palm plantations poses a major threat.
39538		conservation	eng	Rocky areas and cliff faces around Buea should be searched during the flowering period in order to rediscover the species on Mt Cameroon. Further analysis of the subpopulation on Mt Nlonako should be made to determine whether this is a distinct subspecies. A fuller assessment of its status in the Bakossi Mts should be carried out.
39538		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (1 site, 3 collections), Bakossi (1 collection at Bangem, recorded but not collected elsewhere), Mt Cameroon (1 site, 2 collections), Littoral Province: Mt Nlonako (1 collection), W. Province: Bangou nr. Bangwa (1 collection). <br/> <br/>This taxon was originally described in 1892 based upon 2 specimens from Buea, Mt Cameroon, from where it has not subsequently been collected and may be extinct. However, it has since been recorded in the 1960s at Bangou and in the 1970s on the western slopes of Mt Nlonako. Inventory work in the 1990s revealed this species to be locally abundant above Nyasoso on the western slopes of Mt Kupe; it has also been collected at Bangem and recorded flowering elsewhere in the Bakossi Mts (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). This species is sometimes locally gregarious, as recorded on Mt Kupe and on Mt Nlonako, where Letouzey recorded it as "abundant".
39538		habitat	eng	Found in the understorey of montane forest, particularly on rocky slopes; 800–1,600 m alt. <br/> <br/><em>A. preussii</em> is not easily confused with other African species of the genus when in flower; it more closely resembles some Asian species (Hetterscheid and Ittenbach (1996). In the S.W. Province, Cameroon, it has been recorded in flower in December to January.
39538		threats	eng	Subpopulations at the lower altitudinal limit of its range (<em>ca</em>. 800 m) on Mt Kupe are threatened by agricultural encroachment linked to the expansion of Nyasoso town. The Mt Cameroon subpopulation is feared extinct following habitat loss above Buea.
39539		conservation	eng	The only known subpopulation on Mt. Kupe is protected (through a rental agreement) and regularly monitored. The continuation of this is recommended.
39539		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mt. Cameroon, where it may now be extinct, and Mt. Kupe.  It was first collected near Moliwe in 1905 and has not been rediscovered since on Mt. Cameroon, despite searches. The species was rediscovered on Mt. Kupe in October 1995.
39539		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca.</em> 700 m alt.
39539		threats	eng	Clearance of forest areas for agriculture and plantations form the main threat to the survival of this species. Stochastic events could easily wipe out the remaining plants.
39540		conservation	eng	The population is protected (through a rental agreement) and regularly monitored on Mt. Kupe. This needs to be continued.
39540		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cameroon, Nigeria and Uganda. It was first collected near Moliwe in 1905 and despite searches, it has not been rediscovered since on Mt Cameroon. The species was discovered on Mt Kupe in May 1996 and since then new sites have been discovered, at Korup and at Banyang Mbo, both in S.W. Province, Cameroon.  The Nigerian material has been suggested as belonging to a different, new, unpublished species.
39540		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–700 m alt.
39540		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture, timber and plantations.
39543		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation and management initiatives.
39543		distribution	eng	This subpopulation occurs in the Southwest Indian Ocean from Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa.
39543		habitat	eng	The following information, unless otherwise acknowledged, is based on studies by Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) in northern Australia and Cliff and Dudley (1991) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/>Males mature at about 210 cm and females at 215–220 cm. The largest Australian individuals were a 231 cm male and a 242 cm female; in South Africa they were a 238 cm male and a 245 cm female. Fourmanoir (1961) recorded a 280 cm female from west Madagascar. Size at birth is 60–75 cm. In Australia the largest embryo was 59 cm and the smallest free-swimming individual was 66 cm. In South Africa the smallest free-swimming individual was 75 cm (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973) and the largest embryo 79 cm. These findings imply that there may be a regional difference in size at birth. Litter sizes range from 3–13, averaging five in South Africa and nine in Australia. In South Africa gestation appears to be about 12 months, with mating in January–February and term embryos found in December–January. Five out of eight South African mature females were pregnant. Data from Australia indicated a nine-month gestation, with birth in November–December. In both studies males and females were sampled in equal numbers.<br/><br/>In South Africa, the Pigeye Shark feeds on teleosts (62% frequency of occurrence), elasmobranchs (45%), crustaceans (13%) and cephalopods (12%). Most of the prey were demersal, associated with soft bottoms; Australian sharks had similar diets. Tag returns from juveniles in Australia indicated that their movements are relatively localised (up to 60 km), while two larger sharks moved 240 and 1,080 km (Last and Stevens 1994). On the east coast of South Africa, two tagged sharks were recaptured after 76 and 320 days, 23 and 84 km from their respective tagging localities. Based on catches in the nets that protect the swimming beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, this species is often solitary and does not appear to swim in large packs. No information is available on age and growth.
39543		threats	eng	This species constituted 0.5 % (16 specimens) of the annual shark catch in the nets protecting swimming beaches in KwaZulu-Natal. The catch rate fluctuated at about 0.4 sharks per km of net per year between 1978–1990; data from the early years of this fishery (1952–1977) are not available. Richards Bay, the northernmost netted beach, where nets were introduced in 1981, had the highest catch of this species (annual average six, range 0–25). At this locality there was a significant decline in catch rates (Cliff and Dudley 1991), suggesting highly localised depletion.
39545		distribution	eng	In the North Pacific, the species occurs around Japan and off the Chinese coast, and from California north to British Columbia. The different morphological characteristics of Basking Sharks in the Pacific and the north and south Atlantic oceans are not thought to indicate separate species (Compagno 1984), but are geographically isolated subpopulations.
39548		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39551		threats	eng	Widespread and locally reasonably common species, but occurs in substantial numbers in the food trade.
39552		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
39552		threats	eng	Considered threatened by the levels of trade and scarcity of this species.
39553		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas throughout its range. Subspecies <em>fuscus</em> and <em>coloratus</em> of the Appalachian Mountains are listed by USFWS as Endangered.
39553		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution throughout northern North America from Alaska in the United States, across Canada to the eastern provinces. It extends into the United States in several prongs. One extends to southern California, another to southern Utah, a third to northeastern South Dakota, and a fourth to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. There are many disjunct populations in the southern portions of the range.
39553		habitat	eng	It prefers coniferous and mixed forest, but will utilize deciduous woods and riparian woods. Optimal conditions have been reported as cool, moist, mature forest with abundant standing and down snags. Often most abundant near surface water; that is, swamps or streams (Heaney, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). In the Oregon Cascades, Rosenberg and Anthony (1992) concluded that flying squirrels are habitat generalists and are not more abundant in old growth than in younger, second-growth stands. Occupies tree cavities, leaf nests, underground burrows; uses large number in alternate den sites in Alaska. Prefers cavities in mature trees as den sites. In winter in British Columbia, squirrels appeared to select nest trees more for suitable nest sites than for tree size: diameter at breast height was 16.7-79.0 cm, age was 42-174 years, and height was 11.2-32.7 m (Cotton and Parker 2000). Small outside twig nests sometimes are used for den sites. Sometimes uses bluebird boxes. <br/><br/>Breeding season: February-May; July. Gestation lasts 37-42 days. One or two litters of 2-6 young (average 4-5) are born March-early July, and late August to early September (apparently one litter in spring or summer in the southern Appalachians). Weaned at about two months. Sexually mature at 6-12 months.<br/><br/>Highly social, especially in winter when nests may be shared. Apparently lives in family groups of adults and juveniles. Weigl (1978) recorded <em>G. sabrinus</em> home ranges of up to 35 ha. Summer home range estimated at 2-3 ha in North Carolina, 5-7 ha in West Virginia . Home range has been estimated at about 3-7 ha and 5-13 ha in North Carolina and Pennsylvania, respectively (see Witt 1992). In western Oregon, home range was estimated at about 3-5 ha (Witt 1992).<br/><br/>Diet consists largely of fungi and lichens plus plant and animal material (insects, nuts, buds, seeds, fruit). Apparently can subsist on lichens and fungi for extended periods, and may depend on having these food items available. Spends considerable time foraging on the ground. Active at night. Peak activity in the southern Appalachians occurs from sunset to two hours after and one hour before sunrise (Wells-Gosling and Heaney 1984). Active throughout the year.
39553		population	eng	This species has a large range in North America and is common in many areas. Recorded densities vary from <1/ha to 10/ha. In western Oregon, population density was 0-0.24/ha (mean 0.12) in second growth forest and 0.52-1.28/ha (mean 0.85) in old-growth forest (Witt 1992). Density averaged 2.0-2.3/ha in Douglas-fir habitats in western Oregon (Rosenberg and Anthony 1992). In Utah, density was 0.2-1.8/ha in <em>populus</em>-dominated forest, 1.2-5.8/ha in <em>Abies</em>-dominated forest, and 0.2-2.1/ha in <em>Picea</em>-dominated forest (see Witt 1992).
39553		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. Declines in the southern Appalachians may be due to a roundworm parasite (<em>Strongyloides robustus</em>) of southern flying squirrels that is lethal or debilitating to northern flying squirrels. Habitat changes favourable to <em>Glaucomys volans</em> are likely to be detrimental to <em>Glaucomys sabrinus</em>.
39554		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39555		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39556		conservation	eng	Continued searches for this species on Mt. Cameroon are recommended.
39556		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon.  It was first collected near Moliwe in 1905 and has not been rediscovered since on Mt. Cameroon, despite searches. The Oxford University expedition to Mt. Cameroon in 1993 had the rediscovery of this species, together with <em>Afrothismia</em> as a key objective.
39556		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are forest clearance for agriculture and plantations.
39557		conservation	eng	This species should be relocated and its range and population density assessed. Efforts to protect this species should be centred on the eastern slopes of Mt Cameroon where it appears to be most common. More material on the Mt Kupe subpopulation is needed to determine whether this is either aberrant, or represents a distinct taxonomic entity.
39557		distribution	eng	This species is known from Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (one collection); Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon (seven collections) and Mt Kupe (one collection).  Five new collections, mostly from the eastern slopes of Mt cameroon, were made of this species in the 1990s and it appears to be in no danger of immediate extinction.
39557		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane/montane forest; 1,200–2,000 m alt.
39557		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for agriculture e.g., cocoyam farms on Mt Cameroon, is the main threat to the species.
39558		conservation	eng	More data on the size of each subpopulation is required to fully assess its vulnerability to local stochastic events. Further botanical inventory work on montane grassland sites in e.g., the Bamenda Highlands, or Mt Nlonako in Littoral Province, may reveal further populations, in which case the conservation status might be downgraded.
39558		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Cameroon (one site, two collections), Mt Kupe (one collection), Littoral Province: Mt Muanenguba (one collection), N.W. Province: Bali Ngemba F.R. (one collection). This diminutive sedge, probably an annual, was only known from the types until it was recollected in the 1992 inventory, 130 years later, in the same general area of the mountain, near Mann’s Spring. However, it is an inconspicuous plant, so may also have been overlooked.  Care must be taken not to confuse this plant with the sympatric typical variety. It has subsequently been recorded at Mt Kupe, Muanenguba and the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve. There are no records as yet from the Bakossi Mts.
39558		habitat	eng	occurs in montane grassland; 1,800–3,000 m altitude.
39558		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to local stochastic change, such as lava flow on Mt Cameroon or natural fires.
39559		conservation	eng	This species is not the highest priority for conservation, since it appears widespread and relatively common on the mountain and extends to the Bamenda Highlands. If surveys of rare plants in the montane grassland are being conducted however, this species should be included. More data on the density of individuals in the population, and the range of the species on the mountain would be useful.
39559		distribution	eng	The species is known from Mt. Cameroon, the Bamenda Highlands, Chappal Waddi, and a specimen from the Loma Mountains (Sierra Leone).  The most recent specimens date from the 1992 `Etinde’ inventory.
39559		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane grassland at 2,400-3,300 m altitude.
39559		threats	eng	The main threat to the population is the absence of annual burning that may favour this species in order to reduce competition from other species, or to trigger flowering.
39560		distribution	eng	The range of this speies includes Mt. Cameroon, and the Bamenda Highlands, including seven collections from Mt. Oku, and one from Mambila Plateau. Although restricted in distribution on Mt. Cameroon, it appears widespread, and perhaps common, in the Bamenda Highlands.
39560		habitat	eng	The species occurs in gaps in the montane forest (2,100-2,400 m altitude).
39560		threats	eng	Current threats to the species on Mt Cameroon are unknown, but clearance of montane forest in the Bamenda Highlands is a major threat.
39561		conservation	eng	Only the gathering of further fertile specimens will enable us to sort out the tree <em>Dracaena</em> on the mountain and establish which are rare and in need of protection.
39561		distribution	eng	Known from Mt. Cameroon where it is possibly extinct (one pre-1988 collection) and from one collection in Ghana.
39562		distribution	eng	Known from Bioko (six collections), Mt. Cameroon (15 pre-1988 collections), and the Cameroon Highlands (one collection each from Bamboutos and Oku).  The number of collections suggests that this species is relatively abundant on Mt. Cameroon.
39562		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane grassland, sometimes at the forest edge (1,850-3,800 m altitude).
39563		distribution	eng	<em>H. mannii</em> is known from Bioko (four collections) and Mt. Cameroon (10 collections, all pre-1988).  The most recent collections of the species from the mountain were in 1992 and in 1995.
39563		habitat	eng	Occurs in clearings in forest and on deep soils in montane grassland (1,700-3,000 m altitude).
39564		conservation	eng	More ecological, range and population data are needed on this scarce endemic, but it is possible that, as an annual of the lusher, lower altitude grassland it needs open areas for establishment, and regular firing of grassland may be found to favour the survival of this species.
39564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It is known from only six collections and is the rarest and the only incontestably strictly endemic grass on the mountain.
39564		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane grassland at 2,100- 2,800 m. Frequent between tufts of high grass, 2,800 m, and in grassland strewn with boulders.
39565		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It is known from 20 collections, all taken before 1988.  It is notable that this plant is not found on neighbouring mountains, such as Bioko or Mount Oku, nor is any other <em>Pentaschistis</em> although those mountains have sufficient altitude to sustain this species.  Most botanists ascending to the peak (where it is one of only six flowering plant species) collect it. The absence of recent collections owes to the fact that altitudes above 3,000 m were not covered in the 1992 inventory.
39565		habitat	eng	Occurs in upper montane grassland (2,700-4,000 m altitude). Habitat has been described as "summit with mosses in tussocks on bare volcanic ash" .
39566		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the site be revisited to see if this species can be rediscovered. Numbers of individuals present should be recorded, and possible threats (if any) evaluated.
39566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  Described as a new species only recently (Cribb 1996), this species is known only from the type collection made during an ODA funded botanical inventory of Etinde.
39566		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane mist forest dominated by <em>Agauria salicifolia</em> and <em>Schefflera</em> on old lava flow, adjacent to grassland areas (1,900-2,000 m altitude).
39567		conservation	eng	This species should be introduced into cultivation, commencing at the CRES site at Nyasoso.
39567		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (3 collections), Muanenguba (1 collection), Bamboutos Mts (1 collection), Bakossi Mts (3 collections), Kodmin (2 collections) and Enyandong (1 collection); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (four collections).
39567		habitat	eng	The species is an epiphyte of montane forest; 1,200–1,500 m altitude.
39567		threats	eng	Threatened by conversion of forest to small-scale agriculture or plantations.
39568		conservation	eng	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats. Much of the  forest around this crater lake survives due to the steepness of the walls being inconvenient inter alia for timber extraction and agriculture.
39568		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Gabon, and Mt. Cameroon (Mbalomayo and the Bakossi Mountains).  This species is spectacular in bloom, with 4-5 white flowers each 7-8 cm across on each spike. It is unlikely to be overlooked in flower and so the scarcity of collections suggests that it has not been overlooked by collectors, but is actually highly rare.
39568		habitat	eng	The species is epiphytic in lowland forest.
39569		conservation	eng	It is recommended that efforts be made to rediscover this species and safeguard it.
39569		distribution	eng	The species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Korup, and the Niger Delta.  It was described from a collection made between Bimbia and Limbe in 1984 and was recollected later at Man O War Bay.  In March 1995 it was rediscovered at Mabeta-Moliwe, i.e., in the same general area as the original collections, during an Earthwatch funded expedition.
39569		habitat	eng	This is a species of lowland evergreen forest, where it occurs as an epiphyte.
39569		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.
39570		conservation	eng	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats.
39570		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bioko and Mt. Cameroon.
39570		habitat	eng	The species is epiphytic in montane forest (1,500 m altitude).
39570		threats	eng	On Mt Cameroon, past and future forest clearing for cocoyam farms pose a moderate threat.
39571		conservation	eng	This species merits effort to rediscover it and to assess population size and threats. It is possible, from the collection data available, that it may be restricted to the edge of the large town of Buea, and so threatened by urban expansion and proximity. Relocation of plants and promotion of the rarity of this species to those unwittingly threatening it should be considered.
39571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  Published in 1957, this species is known only from three collections, all from Buea.  A fourth possible collection from Bambui (Bamenda) is dubious since it is sterile.
39571		habitat	eng	An epiphytic species from montane forest (900-1,200 m).
39571		threats	eng	A possible threat is forest clearance for agriculture, firewood, and housing, all believed to be at their most intense in this vegetation type in the Buea area.
39572		conservation	eng	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats. An exhaustive survey of the 1922 lava flow in 1995 did not turn up this species.
39572		distribution	eng	Recorded from S. Nigeria (Okumu, Sapoba and Usonigbe Forest Reserves, and Calabar: at least five collections), Mt Cameroon (two pre-1988 collections) and Congo (one collection). Known on  Mt Cameroon from only two collections, it is debatable whether this species qualifies as sufficiently rare for this list in view of its widespread distribution, but it seems to be scarce wherever it occurs.
39572		habitat	eng	Grows as an epiphyte, but also reported to occur on the 1922 lava flow as a lithophyte.
39573		conservation	eng	This species merits effort to rediscover it and to assess population size and threats. It is possible, from the collection data available, that it may be restricted to the edge of the large town of Buea, and so threatened by urban expansion and proximity. Relocation of plants and promotion of the rarity of this species to those unwittingly threatening it should be considered.
39573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon and the Cameroon Highlands. As the specific epithet suggests, <em>D. bueae</em> was first collected at Buea and was rediscovered there over 40 years later. More recently it has been found near Mt. Oku. A possible record of this species from the Ivory Coast is still to be confirmed.
39573		habitat	eng	The species occurs in submontane forest as an epiphyte.
39573		threats	eng	All localities known are believed to be under pressure for forest clearance for agriculture, firewood collection, and, in Buea, urban expansion.
39574		conservation	eng	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats. The identification of the whereabouts of "Musake Camp" would allow a potential second locality for the species to be searched and a better idea of the natural range (possibly former) of this species.
39574		distribution	eng	Recorded only from Mt Cameroon where it is known from two pre-1988 collections. This species is possibly extinct as it has not been seen since 1930. It is curious that this species was not recollected in 1992 during the "Etinde" inventory, since this was conducted in the same habitat as that in which the type collection was made, at the same time of year. It may be that the species is localized to Buea area, which was not covered so thoroughly as other areas in 1992.
39574		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species occurring in montane and submontane forest, at 1,100-1,800 m alt.
39575		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt Cameroon possibly Mt Kala. This appears to be the western most and only native African species of a genus of about 35 species of mycotrophic, sometimes edible and medicinal orchids, mostly found in S.E. Asia and tropical Australia. Collected by Dusen at Mt Cameroon between "Love and Ndiva" in the month of April, it is unclear where these localities are or were. However, if the letter 'v' in these words is converted to 'b'  then the localities are rendered Lobe and Ndibe, recognizable as a major plantation area immediately to the north of Mt Cameroon. The type was destroyed by the Allied bombing of Berlin in March 1943.
39575		habitat	eng	Unknown, but presumably lowland forest.
39575		threats	eng	Unknown, but if lowland forest, then forest clearance at low altitude poses a major threat to this species, if it is not already extinct.
39576		conservation	eng	Collection sites should be revisited to see if this species can be rediscovered. Numbers of individuals present should be recorded, and possible threats, if any, evaluated.
39576		distribution	eng	Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge.
39576		habitat	eng	An epiphytic species occurring on tree trunks at the margin of mist forest (2,260 m altitude).
39577		conservation	eng	Effort should be made to rediscover this species and protect it.
39577		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections made on Mt Cameroon.  A third collection from Douala-Edea  awaits confirmation, but may well extend the range of this species.
39577		habitat	eng	An epihyte in lowland evergreen forest.
39577		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations, and urban spread.
39578		conservation	eng	A survey to estimate the range, density and threats (if any) to the population on Mt Cameroon seems worthwhile.
39578		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bioko (one collection),  Mt. Cameroon (three pre-1988 collections), and the Bamenda Highlands (two collections).  This species was rediscovered in October 1992 on Mt. Cameroon, when two collections were made at 2,400 m alt.
39578		habitat	eng	Montane grassland, sometimes at the ecotone with forest (rarely epiphytic); 2,000-3,050  m alt.
39578		threats	eng	Unknown, but grazing and trampling by cattle, sheep and goats are a cause for concern in the summit area.
39579		conservation	eng	A survey to estimate the range, density and threats (if any) to the population on Mt Cameroon seems worthwhile.
39579		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (seven collections) and Mt. Oku. This species was rediscovered in grassland at 2,820 m alt. in early October 1992 above Mann’s Spring where it was said to be "reasonably common in grassland, seen down to around 2,400 m alt."
39579		habitat	eng	Terrestrial orchid in montane grassland at 2,150-3,050 m alt.
39579		threats	eng	Unknown, but fire, grazing and trampling are potential threats to this species in its habitat at the summit of Mt Oku.
39580		conservation	eng	Although this species was not rediscovered in the botanical inventory of Mabeta-Moliwe in 1992, nor in 1993, it may not yet be extinct on Mt. Cameroon, and efforts should be made to rediscover it in Mabeta-Moliwe.
39580		distribution	eng	There has been one collection of this species in Nigeria and three collections in west Cameroon, one of which was from Mt. Cameroon. The type collection is from Moliwe and the only other collections known are from south of Ngu at the Plain of Mbaw, Takamanda, and the Niger Estuary.
39580		habitat	eng	Terrestrial in evergreen forest usually of foothills.
39580		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture (particularly plantations) and firewood.
39581		conservation	eng	<em>P. albescens</em> merits effort to rediscover it and to assess population size and threats. It is possible, from the collection data available, that it may be restricted to the edge of the large town of Buea, and so threatened by urban expansion and proximity. Relocation of plants and the promotion of the rarity of this species to those unwittingly threatening it should be considered.
39581		distribution	eng	Four collections of this species have been made on Mt. Cameroon. It was discovered in 1947, and the four collections from which this epiphyte is known (all collected before 1988), are all from near Buea.
39581		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from submontane forest at about 900 m altitude.
39581		threats	eng	Possibly forest clearance for agriculture, firewood, and housing forms the main threat to this species.
39582		conservation	eng	Confirmation of this species’ presence on Bioko is required. Surveys of this taxon at each of the collection localities should be made in order to assess its abundance. Continued protection of the submontane forest on Mt Kupe should ensure this species’ future survival.
39582		distribution	eng	Recorded from Equatorial Guinea, Bioko (1 doubtful collection); Cameroon, S.W. Province: Banyong Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (1 collection), Buea (3 collections), Mt Cameroon (unlocated, 1 collection), Mt Etinde (1 collection), Mt Kupe (2 collections at 2 locations); W. Province: Bamboutos Mts (1 collection); N.W. Province: Mt Oku (1 collection).
39582		habitat	eng	An epiphyte of submontane and montane forest; 950–2,000 m alt.
39582		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and firewood, particularly in the Bamboutos Mts and above Buea on Mt Cameroon.
39583		conservation	eng	Although this species was not rediscovered in the botanical inventory of Mabeta-Moliwe in 1992, nor in 1993, it may not yet be extinct on Mt. Cameroon, and efforts should be made to rediscover it in Mabeta-Moliwe.
39583		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bioko (one collection), Mt. Cameroon (two pre-1988 collections) and Mt. Oku. No recent collections are known.
39583		habitat	eng	An epiphytic species growing in submontane and montane forest at c. 900-2000 m. alt.
39583		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture (particularly plantations) and firewood.
39584		distribution	eng	Found in coastal Gabon (one collection) and Cameroon (six collections, two of which are from Mt. Cameroon).
39584		habitat	eng	An epiphytic species growing in lowland evergreen forest.
39584		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.
39585		conservation	eng	The site at Bulutu should be revisited. If this forest has not been cleared, as is feared, a survey of the subpopulation of <em>Belonophora ongensis</em> should be conducted as a baseline for future monitoring and an education programme initiated concerning the species. Conservation efforts for the species should be concentrated at the Onge Forest (Mt Cameroon) since the densest population is found here.
39585		distribution	eng	Known from Mt. Cameroon, northern part of Korup National Park and Kupe-Bakossi. This species only came to light during the identifications made after the Onge inventory of October 1993. Five specimens are known from Onge and initially the species was thought to be endemic to that forest. However, a further specimen, from the northern Korup came to light at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew whilst the species was being described. The range has been further expanded by the collection in 1999 of another specimen from a single site in the Kupe-Bakossi area, in the Mungo River Forest Reserve, just north of Bulutu on the Ebonji-Ngusi road (only two plants were found). Southwestern Cameroon is the centre of diversity for this small genus.
39585		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 200–500 m alt.
39585		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture. In the western foothills of Mt Cameroon, the type locality, <em>Belonophora ongensis</em> is threatened by expansion of timber plantations. The forest at the new Kupe-Bakossi locality was threatened (M. Cheek, pers. obs. 1999) by upgrading of the Ebonji-Ngusi road – then in progress under EU sponsorship.
39586		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe peglerae</em> is protected in the Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment declared in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989, Section 16.  In Gauteng it also occurs in Saronde Private Nature Reserve and the Kings Kloof Natural Heritage Site near Krugersdorp.  In the North West Province it is found in the Rustenberg Nature Reserve although many of the plants have disappeared from the <em>Aloe peglerae</em> trail, probably removed by hikers.  Less than ten plants were counted along this trail during a survey in 1999.
39586		distribution	eng	This distinctive species is found mainly in the Magaliesberg range of South Africa in the provinces of Gauteng and North West Province, with outlier subpopulations near Krugersdorp and on the Witwatersberg. Known from three locations (subpopulations). The extent of occurrence is between 3,000 and 5,000 km² (best estimate 3,809 km²), and the area of occupancy is 300 to 600 km² (best estimate 489 km²). <br/> <br/>All regions of the Magaliesberg falling within the border of Gauteng were surveyed for <em>Aloe peglerae</em> by walking transects along the mountain.  An average number of plants per km was calculated for regions of the Magaliesberg within urban areas and those in rural areas.  The number of plants within rural and urban areas both inside and outside the province of Gauteng was then calculated by multiplying the length of the Magaliesberg (in km) by the average number of plants per km.  Scattered subpopulations in Krugersdorp area were added to this number.  Due to reports of small subpopulations of the plants on the Witwatersberg, a population size was assumed for the Witwatersberg. <br/> <br/>Observed size of Magaliesberg subpopulation within Gauteng = 18,270. <br/>Estimated size of Magaliesberg subpopulation outside Gauteng = 45,720. <br/>Observed size of Krugersdorp subpopulation = 1,024. <br/>Estimated size of Witwatersberg subpopulation = 2,925 (estimated using lower density figures from Magaliesberg since access higher on this range). <br/> <br/>Results of surveys in the Magaliesberg seem to indicate that areas impacted by mining, pipelines, hiking trails, urbanization are the cause for lower <em>Aloe peglerae</em> densities.  It is hypothesized that increased access to the Magaliesberg through these activities (especially hiking, e.g., the <em>Aloe peglerae</em> trail in the Rustenberg Nature Reserve has no more than 10 plants along the trail) has resulted in significant population declines of the species.  Many international plant collectors and nurseries advertize <em>Aloe peglerae</em> plants, even though only limited trade has been recorded by TRAFFIC since 1981.  Advertisements for the species range from packets of seed (15 to 10,000 seeds per packet) to plants which are sometimes advertised as wild-collected (Pfab and Patterson 1998). <br/> <br/>It was therefore assumed that areas presently unimpacted show ideal population sizes for the species.  An average of plants per km was calculated for these unimpacted areas and taken as the probable plant densities per km 60 to 105 years ago.  Krugersdorp and Witwatersberg populations were assumed to be at least double their present sizes - accounts from the Witwatersrand national botanical gardens indicate that the species used to be common on the ridges of Krugersdorp area, but have declined steadily with an increase in urban sprawl. <br/> <br/>Assumed past size of Magaliesberg subpopulation within Gauteng = 39,600. <br/>Assumed past size of Magaliesberg subpopulation outside of Gauteng = 79,200. <br/>Assumed past size of Krugersdorp subpopulation = 2,048. <br/>Assumed past size of Witwatersberg subpopulation = 13,500. <br/> <br/>It was assumed that access will continually increase with an increased impact and that harvesting of plants and seed will continue into the future.  The average number of plants per km in three generations time was calculated by using current plant densities from surveys in impacted and accessible areas. <br/> <br/>Future size of Magaliesberg subpopulation in Gauteng = 5,830. <br/>Future size of Magaliesberg subpopulation outside of Gauteng = 19,800. <br/>Krugersdorp subpopulation = 1,024 (no further decline assumed since all plants occur in fairly inaccessible and protected areas). <br/>Witwatersberg subpopulation = 900 (access to Witwatersberg is expected to increase).
39586		habitat	eng	A stemless plant, growing singly or in small groups.  Leaves about 30, in a compact rosette, curved inwards, having a reddish tint in hot weather, with the lower surface covered with a few sharp spines with white, tubercled bases.  Inflorescence single, occasionally two or three, a densely-flowered, cylindrical raceme.  Flowers tubular, reddish in bud, greenish cream tinged with red on opening.  Flowering time July and August (Germishuizen 1997). <br/> <br/>Grows in rocky places, often on gravelly quartzite. Confined mainly to the Magaliesberg range, usually on the northern slopes and summit, in scanty grassland and in areas with very little soil.
39586		threats	eng	The major threat is the removal of wild plants, seedlings and entire fruiting heads from entire subpopulations by overzealous collectors.  The species is expected to become locally extinct in highly accessible areas, for example, only one plant was located on cable Hill, Pretoria, a very accessible area.  Urbanization  has threatened the Krugersdorp subpopulation.  Most of the remaining habitat falls into protected areas, hence no decline in quality, extent or area of habitat is expected.
39587		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Bronberg Nature Area, however, this nature area has no legislative backing and if the status quo remains, half this area will have become urbanized (western portion) within 5 to 10 years. Found in Faerie Glen Nature Reserve, however, the reserve is neglected and threatened by frequent fires, erosion, trampling and alien vegetation. Historically also recorded from Wonderboom Nature Reserve where again threats such as urbanization, trampling and alien vegetation may have lead to the loss of the species.
39587		distribution	eng	Known from ten locations in the area between Donkerhoek and Hartebeestpoort Dam, Pretoria area, Gauteng, South Africa.  The extent of occurrence is 50 km² and the area of occupancy is only 8 km². <br/> <br/>The population is estimated to be 1,000 mature individuals or less.  This estimate was obtained by surveying 50% of the historically recorded localities. For localities not yet searched, population sizes were estimated by calculating average subpopulation sizes of those areas surveyed. <br/> <br/>Subpopulations in areas currently threatened with new urbanization (western portion of Bronberg) will decrease to resemble subpopulations currently isolated in urban areas. These isolated urban occurrences are expected to become extinct (e.g., Meintjieskop above the Union Buildings and the Muckleneuk Hills).  The subpopulations in relatively rural areas, where urbanization is not expected or is not likely to occur due to legislative backing (Daspoort range, Magaliesberg), should remain of similar sizes.
39587		habitat	eng	Grows in direct sunshine or shaded situations, in rocky outcrops of the quartzitic Magaliesberg mountain series, in pockets of soil among rocks, in shade of shrubs and low trees, can be seen twining around grass spikes.
39587		threats	eng	Alien vegetation, habitat fragmentation and transformation through urbanization
39588		conservation	eng	The Klipriveirsberg Nature Reserve population comprises 25 to 50 individuals.  This subpopulation is becoming increasingly isolated by urban development. The largest known subpopulation is protected in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve where between 82 and 200 mature individuals have been counted.  There is, however, no specific management plan for this species in the Nature Reserve.
39588		distribution	eng	<em>Cineraria longipes</em> is apparently endemic to the Witwatersrand area and confined mainly to the environs of the city of Johannesburg, with a possible "relative" or form with scabrid hairs known only from Harrismith in the Free State. <br/> <br/>During the Gauteng Red Data plant project, 7 of the 10 known localities for this specieswere searched.  Subpopulation sizes were recorded as follows: Rietvlei (50-100), Mondeor (55-85), Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve (82-200), Naturena (200-300), Eikenhof quarry (80-150), Opposite Eikenhof quarry (8-15), and Klipriviersberg Nature Reserve (25-50).  The sizes of the remaining subpopulations were estimated as follows: Brakfontein (56) - rural area, Turffontein (0) - highly urbanized area of Johannesburg, and Heidelberg (8) - urbanized area. <br/> <br/>The Turffonmtein subpopulation is assumed to have become extinct in the last ten years, while the Rietvlei, Mondeor, Eikenhof quarry, ooposit Eikenhof and Naturena subpopulations are all expected to become extinct or be substantially reduced.
39588		habitat	eng	It grows on the hills to the south of Johannesburg, amongst rocks and along seep lines in association with <em>Pteridium</em>, occurring exclusively on basalt on south-facing slopes. This herb has a perennial growth form, resprouting from the woody base, but may be forced into an annual cycle if the habitat is badly burned or a drought is too severe.
39588		threats	eng	Threatened by urbanization, gold mining activities and encroachment by alien invasive vegetation.
39590		distribution	eng	An endemic to the Kuen Luen Mts.
39591		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas.
39591		distribution	eng	This Japanese endemic is found on Hokkaido, at high elevations, including Hidaka, Daisetsu, Teshio, and Kitami Mountains, and Shiribeshi, Yootei, and Oshima districts. It is also found on the islands of Rishiri, Rebun, as well as Shikotan (South Kuril Islands) and Shibotsu (Habomai Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
39591		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane forests on mainland Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is also found in conifer plantations, scrublands, and grasslands on Hokkaido. The species is found in grasslands and abandoned farmlands on Rishiri and Rebun Islands. In areas of co-occurrence with <em>Clethrionomys rufocanus bedfordiae</em>, the latter species is dominant.
39591		population	eng	It is a naturally rare species.
39591		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
39592		distribution	eng	Although confined to the Nevada de Colima, the species is abundant where it is found, numbering tens of thousands of individuals. The population is not obviously threatened and may occur in additional locations.  The taxonomy of the species is held in some doubt.
39593		conservation	eng	Found in several protected areas in India: Eturnagaram WS, Gundlabrahmeshwaram Metta WS, Kawal WS, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam TR, Bori WS and NP, Pench NP, Pench (Priyadarshini) NP, Tadoba NP, Chandaka Dampara WS, Satkosia Gorge WS (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39593		distribution	eng	Endemic to peninsular India. Present in eastern, central, southwestern and southern parts of peninsular India. It does not occur in a very wide area of northern and central India south of the Ganges.
39593		habitat	eng	The species occurs in scrub jungle, dry and moist deciduous forests and in montane sholas (wet evergreen forests) (Chakraborty 2005).
39593		population	eng	Locally common in appropriate habitat.
39593		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but the species has undergone localized declines mainly due to habitat loss (due to dams, wood plantations, human settlement, logging and clear-cutting); there is also limited mortality due to road kills, and some trade for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
39594		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in its range. Detailed surveys are recommended to better determine its distribution, population abundance and ecological requirements (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern India, where it is known only from a few records from Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is inferred to be widely distributed occurring up to an elevation of 700 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39594		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry deciduous scrubby areas with acacia and rocky habitats. It is fossorial and nocturnal in habit (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39594		population	eng	It is locally common in appropriate habitats in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39594		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to collection of fuel wood, logging, agriculture and urbanisation are major threats (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39595		distribution	eng	In Cambodia the species is confined to the Elephant Mts.
39596		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39596		habitat	eng	Burrowing species
39596		threats	eng	Recent rediscovery of a few specimens in markets in Myanmar and across the border in China confirm the rarity and threatened status of this rarely-seen species.
39599		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39599		habitat	eng	Terrestrial nest sites
39599		threats	eng	Known from only 4 specimens this species has acquired a mythical reputation that will make any further animals extremely valuable in the pet trade. There are no data to estimate its extent of occurrence, but it is presumed to be either extremely rare or restricted to one or very few small localities.
39602		conservation	eng	Most locations recorded are outside protected areas, only one collection was from the Wudaoxia Reserve. There are probably other reserves that have this species growing in the wild.
39602		distribution	eng	China: south Gansu, south Hebei, west Henan, Hubei (Badong Xian), Shaanxi, west Shandong, Shanxi, north Sichuan.  Distribution is based on the mapping of herbarium specimens, mostly in Beijing, which we believe have been collected from trees growing in the wild. This map is roughly in agreement with that given by Ying <em>et al.</em> (2003). Other sources mention a wider distribution but seem to include planted specimens as well. This species is highly ornamental (bark is attractive) and has been planted in temple grounds etc. for many centuries. A conservative estimate of the EOO based on our data is 347,807 km<sup>2</sup>.
39602		habitat	eng	In mountains, often on limestone rocks and on south-facing slopes, scattered and mixed with <em>Pinus tabuliformis</em> and angiosperms. Its altitudinal range is probably between 500 and 2,150 m; records from lower elevations are probably not from natural occurrences but from planted trees. Highly valued as an ornamental and therefore widely planted in China. Fairly common in arboreta and parks in Europe and North America.
39602		population	eng	This species forms populations of scattered individuals.
39602		threats	eng	No specific threats are known to affect this species.
39606		distribution	eng	China: Guangdong (Gaoyao, Longmen, Zengcheng), Guangxi (Hepu), Yunnan (Mengzi, Pingbian); Vietnam. This species is also reported from Cambodia and Lao PDR, but this has not been verified with herbarium specimens and we think these reports probably pertain to <em>Nageia wallichiana</em>.
39606		habitat	eng	Most often found on limestone formations (karst) in mixed angiosperm/conifer forest; also in montane tropical rainforest dominated by evergreen broadleaved angiosperm trees.
39606		population	eng	This species occurs in disjunct populations and/or in disjunct forest remnants.
39606		threats	eng	Selective logging, habitat disturbances, deforestation.
39608		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected area.
39608		distribution	eng	Restricted to a limited area in San José Province of Costa Rica (earlier records from Panama are based on erroneous identifications). EEO not calculated but estimated to be less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on 8 collections in 4 locations.
39608		habitat	eng	Lower montane tropical rainforest. No specific uses are known, the wood is probably valuable.
39608		population	eng	This species is uncommon and (sub)population sizes are presumably small.
39608		threats	eng	Deforestation, conversion to agriculture and grazing.
39609		conservation	eng	This species has been collected in the following protected areas: Tsaratanana Reserve, Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. Only one collection, from Mont Tsaratanana, was made recently, in 2001.
39609		distribution	eng	The known localities are all in Antsiranana in the northern tip of Madagascar, important sites are Mont Anjanaharibe, Mont Tsaratanana and Mont Marojezy. The EOO is 2,103 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO 588 km<sup>2</sup> based on the distribution of herbarium specimens.
39609		habitat	eng	This species is reported from sub-humid forest, dry lowland deciduous forest, and ericoid thickets or wooded heath on mountain summits of gneiss and granite. The elevation ranges from 934 m to 2,410 m (GIS and herbarium data).
39609		population	eng	There are no data indicating the size of subpopulations.
39609		threats	eng	Whereas the heath-like habitat on mountain summits may be relatively safe, woodlands and forests at lower elevations are likely to be under pressure from fires and grazing.
39611		distribution	eng	Populations are known from Mt. Beratus in east Kalimantan and Mt. Banajao, Lucban on Luzon in the Philippines.
39613		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39613		threats	eng	A decline has been observed in the market supply of this species.
39616		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39618		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
39618		threats	eng	This species is traded in East Asian markets at volumes of 30–40 tons/week.
39619		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
39619		threats	eng	This species is traded in East Asian markets at volumes of 60 to 80 tons/week.
39620		threats	eng	While this species is commercially farmed in vast numbers (several millions per year) for the food trade, the wild populations continue to be exploited for food and possibly farm founder stock, resulting in a decline in abundance throughout its wide range.
39621		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).
39621		threats	eng	The only confirmed area of occurrence for this species is seriously impacted by pollution. These animals are intensively exploited for food trade and would be for pet trade if captured alive.
39622		threats	eng	The international live animal trade has placed some pressure on this restricted-range species, especially in Indonesia. There is also some local consumption in Papua New Guinea, where it does not appear to be seriously threatened at this time.
39623		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range and is utilized for local consumption and the international live animal trade.
39624		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39624		habitat	eng	Common in peat-swamp forest dominated by <em>Shorea albida</em>; also occasionally in heath forest on white sand soils; from sea-level to 950 m altitude.
39625		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39625		distribution	eng	Found in central Sumatra on Singgalang and Talang mountains.
39625		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest at 1,000-2,700 m alt.
39626		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
39626		distribution	eng	The species is known from only a single locality from Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa.  The locality is described as "camp above Louis Botha Home" which may be a small hillside on the Rietondale Experimental Farm in Queenswood.
39626		habitat	eng	This perennial herb or subshrub up to 500 mm tall occurs in mixed grassland and shrubland.
39626		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the modification of land through urbanization.  Other threats as a result of urbanization can be assumed such as trampling damage, pollution, and invasive vegetation.
39627		conservation	eng	May occur in the Loskop Dam Nature Reserve.
39627		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa from Bronkhorstspruit between Verena and Groblersdal.  Has a very restricted distribution being known from only two localities.  The plants are locally common, but do not occur outside of this area. Collections from Swaziland have allegedaly been named as this species, but these are probably misidentifications, and are more likely to be <em>Gladiolus sericeovillous</em> Hook.f.
39627		habitat	eng	Grows in bushveld on granite outcrops, often among loose boulders, with their corms firmly wedged in rock crevices, making it virtually impossible to extract them.
39628		conservation	eng	Not protected in any conservation areas at present.
39628		distribution	eng	This mat-forming, succulent species is apparently endemic to the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Known only from three locations. Has an extent of occurrence of <250 km² and an area of occupancy of <0.2 km², but because the population is not considered to be severely fragmented does not qualify for CR under criterion B. <br/> <br/>Only one extant subpopulation has been confirmed at Spaarwater Dam comprising 50-80 individuals.  Of the remaining three locations, there is no reason to suspect that the species has become extinct at two of the sites, therefore size estimated at 50-80 for south of Nigel.  On road to Balfour evidence of plant collection was noted but presence of the subpopulation was not confirmed (Chesselet <em>et al</em>. 1998) - reduced subpopulation size assumed at 20-30 individuals.  It is unlikely that the species remains at the other location (Johannesburg).
39628		habitat	eng	Open areas on shallow surfaces above rocks in grassland.
39628		threats	eng	Habitat transformation and fragmentation through urbanization, road building and invasive alien plant species are the main threats. Quarries have also resulted in the destruction of suitable habitat. Removal by succulent collectors may also pose a problem.
39629		conservation	eng	Conserved in the core of the Sterkfontein World Heritage Site.
39629		distribution	eng	The species is apparently endemic to the Gauteng Province of South Africa and known only from three locations. <br/> <br/>The subpopulation sizes are as follows:   Cornwall Hill, Irene (100-120 individuals surveyed), Lanseria Road (100-120 individuals surveyed), Krugersdorp - Waterval (assumed extinct), and roadside at Hennops River (100-120 individuals assumed).  The latter is in a rural area with no apparent threats.  The Cornwall Hill subpopulation will be destroyed in the next two years by the Cornwall Hill Estate project (urban development).
39629		habitat	eng	An erect shrublet found growing in grassland.  Recruitment in <em>Melolobium</em> seems to be stimulated by fire.  Fire frequency in grassland is estimated at 2-3 years.  As a small shrublet, longevity is estimated at not more than 10 years, but average age of parents estimated between 3 and 6 years.
39629		threats	eng	Habitat transformation and fragmentation by urbanization is the main threat.
39636		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II
39637		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39637		habitat	eng	Occurs in mossy forest at 800-2,400 m altitude.
39638		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II
39638		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to east-central Sumatra.
39638		habitat	eng	Specific habitat is unrecorded, but the species has been collected from altitudes of 100-1,000 m.
39639		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39639		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in lowland kerengas forest, or on exposed ridge-tops.  It occurs on limestone or sand-stone from sea-level to 1,100 m.
39640		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39640		habitat	eng	Occurs in damp, shady forest, in Borneo swamp forests, in New-Guinea Araucaria forests, also in secondary forests, open microphyllous vegetation, or swamp grassland. The species has been recorded from sea-level to 2,100 m altitude.
39641		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39641		habitat	eng	Found in moist montane woodland at 1,500 m altitude.
39642		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39643		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39643		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, occurring in Sibuyan and Romblon Province.
39643		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from subalpine shrubbery with a smooth wind-clipped canopy 30 cm tall on an ultrabasic ridge (1,400 m altitude).
39644		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39644		distribution	eng	<em>N. aristolochioides</em> is known from Mt. Kerici in Sumatra.
39644		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mossy forests at 2,000-2,200 m altitude.
39645		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39645		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mindanao and Surigao provinces in the Philippines.
39645		habitat	eng	It occurs at 250-800 m altitude.
39650		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II. Plants are now in cultivation.
39650		distribution	eng	Found in East Kalimantan at Ilas Bungaan.
39650		habitat	eng	Grows onsheer limestone walls at 300 m alt.
39651		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39651		distribution	eng	Recorded from Halmahera (Moluccas) and on the north coast of Waigeo island (Papua New Guinea).
39651		habitat	eng	Most commonly in open scrub or on bare soils on ultrabasic rock, also in forest, but then not bearing pitchers. Occurs from sea-level to 300 m alt.
39652		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39652		distribution	eng	Occurs in eastern Borneo on Mt. Kelam.
39652		habitat	eng	Grows on sheer granite walls.
39653		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39653		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection.
39654		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39654		distribution	eng	Recorded from Aceh Province (northern Sumatera)
39654		habitat	eng	Found in montane scrub at 1,700-3,000 m alt.
39655		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39655		distribution	eng	Confined to northern Sumatera.
39655		habitat	eng	Grows in montane scrub and mossy forest at 2,400-2,600 m alt.
39656		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39656		habitat	eng	Grows in waterlogged open scrub, along road embankments and other cleared areas, also in forest; from sea-level to 700 m.
39657		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39657		distribution	eng	Confined to central Sumatera.
39657		habitat	eng	Occurs at 1,000-2,500 m alt.
39658		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39658		distribution	eng	Recorded from the mountains of central Kalimantan (Mt. Raya and Mt. Lesong).
39658		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest at 1,000-1,900 m alt.
39659		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39659		distribution	eng	Recorded on Sumatera, from Lake Toba in the north to the Padang region in the south.
39659		habitat	eng	Occurs on forest margins, from sea-level to 1,600 m alt.
39660		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39660		distribution	eng	Found on the eastern arm of central Sulawesi.
39660		habitat	eng	Grows on narrow mossy ridges from 1,500-1,800 m alt.
39662		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39662		distribution	eng	Found in central Sulawesi.
39662		habitat	eng	Occurs in open, high forest at 1,600-2,000 m alt.
39663		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39663		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland peat-swamp forest or disturbed areas on poor soils, podsol heath scrub, swamp edges, on sandstone or ultrabasic soils; from sea level to 800 m alt.
39664		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39664		distribution	eng	Occurs in western and central Java.
39664		habitat	eng	A forest species found at 1,000-2,750 m alt.
39665		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39665		habitat	eng	Grows in thick peat on sandstone soils along ridgetops at 600-1,000 m alt.
39666		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39666		habitat	eng	Grows in heath forest at 100-800 m alt.
39667		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39667		habitat	eng	Epiphytic species growing rooted in thick moss layer, particularly on trees overhanging rivers, more occasionally growing in sediment bars along rivers at 80-800 m alt.
39668		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39668		habitat	eng	Habitat unknown, probably grassland between 100 m and 2000 m alt., where it is apparently sympatric with <em>N. maxima</em>.
39669		conservation	eng	Most, if not all, of the population occurs in protected areas. On CITES Appendix II.
39669		distribution	eng	In Sabah occurs on Mts. Kinabalu and Trus Madi, while in Sarawak it is on Hose Mts., G. Buli, Tama Abu Range, Bario, Mt. Murud and Mt. Mulu.
39669		habitat	eng	Grows in mossy forest along ridge tops at 1,600-2,600 m alt.
39670		conservation	eng	Most, if not all, of the population found occurs in protected areas. On CITES Appendix II.
39670		habitat	eng	Grows on mountain ridges, usually in shady sites on mossy banks at 1,000-2,150 m alt.
39671		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39671		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt. Trus Madi in Sabah.
39671		habitat	eng	Grows in mossy forest along ridge tops at 2,000-2,600 m alt.
39672		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39672		distribution	eng	Occurs along the east coast as far north as Masoala peninsula, commonest in south around Fort Dauphin.
39672		habitat	eng	Found along the edges of swamps and in peaty/sandy soils at low altitudes.
39673		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to east Kalimantan (the Sambaliung range).
39673		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from limestone areas at 700-800 m altitude.
39674		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39674		distribution	eng	This species is known only from east Madagascar (the Masoala peninsula and the Mt. Ambato region).
39674		habitat	eng	Recorded from pandanus and sphagnum swamp, mountain ridgetops, and xerophytic vegetation (30-400 m altitude).
39675		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39675		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded as epiphytic in mossy forest, or terrestrial in swamp grassland or on ridge tops. It is usually found at 600-2,500 m, but occasionally at lower altitudes (for example, it has been recorded at 40 m at Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea).
39676		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Mindanao (the Surigao Province, including Dinagat Island).
39676		habitat	eng	It has been collected from forest areas on steep slopes near the coast (20-1,700 m altitude).
39677		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39677		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sumatra, this species has been recorded from Aceh (Gajo and the Leuser Mountains), and Riau (G.Pangulubao).
39677		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mossy forests and montane scrub areas at altitudes of 100-2,400 m.
39678		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39678		habitat	eng	<em>N. mirabilis</em> is found in a remarkable range of habitats, but usually is most abundant in disturbed, swampy, or grassland areas. Mostly it is found at low altitudes (up to 200 m), but can occur up to 1,000 m, and, more rarely, to 1,500 m.
39679		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39679		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is not recorded.  It is noted as having been collected from an area at 1,500 m altitude.
39680		conservation	eng	Most, if not all, of the population is located within protected areas. On CITES Appendix II.
39680		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt. Mulu on Sarawak.
39680		habitat	eng	Grows in shrub vegetation at 1,900-2,400 m alt.
39681		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39681		distribution	eng	Known only from Gunung Murud (also known as Mt. Muru) on Sarawak.
39681		habitat	eng	Grows in stunted scrub forest, or moss forest on sandstone at 2,200-2,500 m alt.
39682		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
39682		distribution	eng	From the Papua New Guinea mainland and d'Entrecastaux archipelago.
39682		habitat	eng	Grows on river edges and river gravel bars, ridge crests, rarely open grassland or disturbed forest. From sea-level to 900(-1400) m alt.
39683		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39683		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sumatra (Mt. Pangulubao).
39683		habitat	eng	It is recorded as being a climber or epiphyte occurring in open, wet mossy forest at 1,800 m altitude.
39684		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39684		distribution	eng	<em>N. paniculata</em> is known from Irian Jaya (Doorman Top).
39684		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from mossy forest on a ridge top at 1,460 m altitude.
39685		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39685		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern Irian Jaya (from Fakfak to Balim valley).
39685		habitat	eng	It has been collected from forest edges at 250-900 m altitude.
39686		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39686		distribution	eng	<em>N. pectinata</em> is endemic to central Sumatra.
39686		habitat	eng	The species occurs in undisturbed dense forest, hill dipterocarp forest, and wet mossy forest on ridge tops (950-2,750 m altitude).
39687		conservation	eng	<em>N. pervillei</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39687		distribution	eng	A species endemic to the Seychelles, this has been recorded from Mahé and Silhouette.
39687		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky areas near granitic mountain summits (350-500 m altitude).
39688		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39688		habitat	eng	Recorded from ridge top forest at 1,000-1,800 m altitude.
39689		conservation	eng	<em>N. rafflesiana</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39689		distribution	eng	This is a common lowland species in Borneo, but is rare in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.
39689		habitat	eng	Occurs in open areas to shady forest, from sea-level to 1,000 m.
39690		conservation	eng	Most, or possibly all, of the population occurs within a protected area.  The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix I.
39690		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sabah (Mt. Kinabalu and Mt. Tamboyukon), Borneo .
39690		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from open sites in mossy forests, on ridges or landslips (1,500-2,650 m altitude), and is restricted to serpentine soils.
39691		conservation	eng	<em>N. ramispina</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39691		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia.  It has been recorded in the western mountain ranges, and Banjaran Titiwangsa.
39691		habitat	eng	The species occurs at forest edges, and ridgetops at 900-2,000 m altitude.
39692		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39692		habitat	eng	Recorded from lowland peat-swamp forest, high altitude ridges (sandstone or limestone), or more rarely moss forest. The species is occasionally found on ultrabasic soils.  It occurs from sea level to 1,450 m.
39693		conservation	eng	<em>N. rhombicaulis</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39693		distribution	eng	This species is known only from G. Pangulubao in northern Sumatra.
39693		habitat	eng	The main habitats of the species are not recorded.
39694		conservation	eng	<em>N. sanguinea</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39694		habitat	eng	The species occurs on mountain ridges amongst scrub of <em>Dacrydium</em> and <em>Rhododendron</em> (900-1,800 m altitude).
39695		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39696		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39696		habitat	eng	Recorded from montane forest at 2,000-2,900 m altitude.
39697		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39697		distribution	eng	<em>N. spathulata</em> is endemic to southern Sumatra.
39697		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from forest habitat to the top of mountains 1,500-2,000 m altitude).
39698		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Sumatra. It has been recorded from Aceh to the Lake Toba area.
39698		habitat	eng	<em>N. spectabilis</em> has been collected from sub-alpine shrubberies at 1,450-2,000 m altitude.
39699		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39699		habitat	eng	Recorded on wet sandy soils and noted as abundant in open areas or on ridge tops at 1,000-2,600 m altitude.
39700		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39700		habitat	eng	Thought to have been collected from forest areas from sea-level to 1,000 m altitude.
39701		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39702		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39702		habitat	eng	Collected from peaty soils in mossy forest at 1,200-2,550 m altitude.
39703		conservation	eng	<em>N. tenuis</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39703		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type collection.
39704		conservation	eng	<em>N. thorelii</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39704		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seasonally dry savannah grassland from sea-level to 200 m altitude.
39705		conservation	eng	<em>N. tobaica</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39705		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Sumatra.
39705		habitat	eng	It is recorded from forest edges, with <em>Leptospermum/Rhodomyrtus</em>. It is found in the scrub of old clearings at altitudes of 950-2,750 m.
39706		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39706		distribution	eng	<em>N. tomoriana</em> is endemic to central Sulawesi.
39706		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open scrubland areas, mangrove swamps, and on ultrabasic soils. It has been recorded from sea-level to 400 m.
39707		conservation	eng	<em>N. treubiana</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39707		distribution	eng	This species is known from western New-Guinea (Sorong and Misool Island).
39707		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from forest edge areas.
39708		conservation	eng	<em>N. truncata</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39708		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Mindanao (Surigao and Agusan provinces).
39708		habitat	eng	The species occurs on open mountainside from 230-600 m altitude.
39709		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39709		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland Dipterocarp forest (especially near rivers), and on ridgetops in mossy forest areas (55-1,200 m altitude). It is rarely epiphytic.
39710		distribution	eng	<em>N. ventricosa</em> is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Luzon.
39710		habitat	eng	The species occurs in low mossy oak forest at 1,200-1,500 m altitude.
39711		conservation	eng	<em>N. veillardii</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39711		habitat	eng	The species is found in scrub areas, and in forests by streams (30-800 m altitude).
39712		conservation	eng	Most, or possibly all, of the population is located within a protected area. Listed on CITES Appendix II.
39712		distribution	eng	<em>N. villosa</em> is known only from Mt. Kinabalu in Borneo.
39712		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mossy forest with <em>Dacrydium</em> and <em>Leptospermum</em>, or among boulders, shrubs, and grass in open conditions. It is found only on ultrabasic soils (2,400-3,200 m altitude).
39713		conservation	eng	<em>S. alata</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39713		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.
39713		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39715		conservation	eng	<em>S. flava</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39715		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage areas and open savanna bogs.
39715		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39716		conservation	eng	<em>S. leucophylla</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39716		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.
39716		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39717		conservation	eng	<em>S. minor</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39717		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.
39717		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39718		conservation	eng	<em>S. oreophila</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix I.
39718		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage bogs and streambanks.
39718		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39719		conservation	eng	<em>S. psittacina</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39719		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.
39719		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39720		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39720		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage, savanna, and mountain bogs.
39720		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39722		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39722		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage, savanna, and mountain bogs.
39722		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39723		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39723		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage, savanna, and mountain bogs.
39723		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39724		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
39724		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage bogs.
39724		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39725		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix I.
39725		habitat	eng	Recorded from seepage bogs.
39725		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
39726		conservation	eng	Half of the population is located within the Gamka Mountain Reserve, a protected area. Plants are also grown at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden as part of an <em>ex situ</em> programme.
39726		distribution	eng	This species occurs primarily on the Gamka Mountain range on the south-eastern margin of the little Karoo of the Western Cape.  It is known from eight subpopulations comprising approximately 1,000-1,500 mature individuals scattered over just 60 km² of rugged mountainous terrain.
39726		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from relatively dense dry mountain fynbos vegetation, usually on steep southeast facing sandstone slopes at elevations between 800 and 1,040 m. It flowers mainly in April and May and the fruits take eight months to mature before they are shed in December. The species regenerates purely from seed, therefore it is important that fires are not too frequent to prevent the maintenance of the soil-stored seedbanks.
39726		threats	eng	Frequent fires, especially uncontrolled wildfires pose a major threat. If too frequent the plants would be prevented from reaching flowering maturity and the seedbanks would rapidly be depleted. Invasive alien species, in particular <em>Hakea</em> from Australia, is present in low densities at all of the locations.
39727		conservation	eng	This taxon is completely unprotected.  It is recommended that efforts be made to protect the surviving forest patch at Tum (site of the largest known subpopulation of this taxon but outside of present protected area boundary) and to establish whether other sites for this variety exist apart from the three listed.
39727		distribution	eng	<em>P. a. ijimense</em> is only known from Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge.
39727		habitat	eng	It occupies lower montane forest with <em>Garcinia smeathmannii, Solanecio mannii, Cuviera longiflora</em> and <em>Pouteria altissima</em> (1,750-1,900 m altitude).
39727		threats	eng	The main threat to the taxon is clearance of forest for the cultivation of crops.
39728		conservation	eng	It is recommended that during surveys of cliff spaces in forest in the Kilum-Ijim area, this species should be looked out for, and, if located, the number of plants and localities recorded.
39728		distribution	eng	The species is known from collections made from Obudu Plateau in Nigeria, and Manenguba, Mt Nlonako, Bamboutos Mts, Bamenda Highlands, and the Kongoa Mountains, Cameroon.
39728		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocks and vertical rock faces, in moist to comparatively dry places, in primary submontane to montane forest, the latter sometimes with trees not higher than 6–12 m (1,500–2,300 m altitude).
39728		threats	eng	While cliff faces generally are unlikely to be disturbed, clearance of adjoining forest for fuel and agriculture could endanger this species by removing the shade necessary for its survival.
39729		conservation	eng	A survey is needed to find all the sites for this species at Kilum-Ijim, and to confirm that it is indeed specific to rock outcrops. Information on its palatability would be useful.
39729		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bamboutos Mountains, Bamenda Highlands, Mbam, and Mambilla Plateau.
39729		habitat	eng	It has been collected from rock outcrops at 1,800-2,800 m altitude.
39729		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is grazing by herbivores.
39730		conservation	eng	This species still awaits rediscovery in the Kilum-Ujim area.  It may be extinct within the checklist area, in which case consideration might be given to its reintroduction, providing that a source of seed-bearing plants can be found.
39730		distribution	eng	Known from Cameroon (Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau).  It is curious that despite collecting expeditions in 1996,1998 and 1999, this species has not been rediscovered from its type locality.  It may be that it is not only narrowly endemic, but within its small range, extremely rare and possibly declining.
39730		habitat	eng	The species is found on grassy slopes, sometimes near forest boundary or in wet hollows (1,500-2,500 m altitude).
39730		threats	eng	The current threats to this species are unknown, but the incidence of grazing and fire are likely to be important factors in the survival of this species.
39731		conservation	eng	The reason for the rarity of this species is not clear and needs more study.
39731		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Cameroon. It is known only from the Bamenda Highlands (principally Kilum-Ijim) and the Bamboutos Mountains. Only three localities are known with about 30 plants seen in 1996-1999.
39731		habitat	eng	The species occurs on banks and cliffs or cliff edges, in scrub or grassland near forest (2,000 m altitude).
39731		threats	eng	There are no known obvious threats to this species.  However, it appears so rare that unintentional clearance (for example, for a cattle compound or road diversion) at any of its three known sites might endanger it.
39732		conservation	eng	More research is required on the management regime necessary for this plant. Plants seen in long grass at the Mbesa swamp in 1998 seemed less healthy and were far fewer than those seen in close cropped grass at Afusa swamp.
39732		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Bamboutos Mountains, and the Bamenda Highlands.  The largest population of this species seen was at Afua swamp in November 1999 where it lines the border of the swamp for about 100 m or more.
39732		habitat	eng	It occurs in damp grassland at the edge of swamps, or banks (1,800-2,600 m).
39732		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are drainage or development of swamp areas, shading-out by the growth of grasses, and possibly trampling by cattle.
39733		conservation	eng	More data is needed on the numbers of individuals at each site, and on the type and level of regeneration.
39733		distribution	eng	This species was recognised in 1996 from four localities in Bamenda Highlands, the Bamboutos Mountains, and the adjoining Mambilla Plateau. It has been located since then in three further locations, all at Ijim.
39733		habitat	eng	Occurs in swamp grassland, often at the interface with montane forest or scrub (1,800-2,460 m altitude).
39733		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, but may include trampling by cattle.
39734		conservation	eng	The range and frequency of this species at Kilum-Ijim and the factors influencing recruitment and survival need to be established.
39734		habitat	eng	Recorded from montane grassland areas at 1,800-2,500 m altitude.
39734		threats	eng	The current threats to this species are unknown, however, fire and grazing may adversely affect the population.
39735		conservation	eng	The natural habitat of <em>Crotalaria ledermannii</em> is not well characterized.  More research is needed to rectify this. A survey to find the range of this species and levels of regeneration is recommended.
39735		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon (Manenguba Mountains, and the Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau). There is also a recent collection from Bali-Ngemba.
39735		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from grassland and forest edge areas (1,200–2,200 m altitude).
39735		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown, but conversion of land to cultivation and grazing areas, trampling, or fires may be the main sources. This is an annual or short-lived perennial species and a deleterious change in the habitat or poor seed set in one year could reduce the population within 12 months.
39736		conservation	eng	An attempt should be made to rediscover this species in the wild and to assess whether, as is suspected, it is threatened.
39736		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two collections from the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon.
39736		habitat	eng	The main habitats of this species are probably grassland areas and forest edges at about 1,000-2,200 m altitude.
39736		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, but conversion of land to cultivation and grazing areas, trampling, or fires main form the main threats.
39737		conservation	eng	A field survey of <em>Indigofera</em> is recommended at Kilum-Ijim in order to facilitate identification of this narrowly endemic subspecies and to gather data on its distribution and frequency.
39737		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge, Cameroon. Although known from only two specimens, this taxon may be undercollected. Its habitat can include fallow fields, which are not the usual target areas for plant collecting.
39737		habitat	eng	The main habitats include montane grassland and fallows areas (2,000-2,300 m altitude).
39738		conservation	eng	Every effort should be made to rediscover and protect any trees that might be left of this species, if it is not already extinct. Forest destruction in the Bamboutos Mountains is as extensive, perhaps more so, than in the Bamenda Highlands.
39738		distribution	eng	<em>N. camerunensis</em> is endemic to the Bamenda Highlands and the Bamboutos Mountains of Cameroon.  Only five specimens are known. Both the earliest and latest collections were made from the Ijim area, below the Ijim ridge on the north side at Nchian and on the west side at Njinikom.  Two collections were made near Bamendou in the Bamboutos Mountains. Despite plant collections in this area over several years, this tree has not been recorded recently.  All collecting locations are in densely populated areas now.  Indications are that this species is extremely rare, even within this small range.
39738		habitat	eng	Recorded from montane forest with <em>Albizia gummifera, Carapa grandiflora, Syzygium staudtii</em>, and <em>Prunus africana</em> (1,600-1,800 m altitude).
39738		threats	eng	It is likely that this substantial tree is used as a timber and it may well have been over-exploited. This species may already be extinct.
39739		conservation	eng	More detailed data is required on the size of the population and its area in Kilum-Ijim.
39739		distribution	eng	<em>T. letouzeyi</em> is endemic to the Bamenda highlands, Cameroon. It is known only from five collections, all taken before 1996.
39739		habitat	eng	The species is parasitic on trees, particularly <em>Gnidia glauca</em> on the edges of montane forest (1,300-2,500 m altitude).
39739		threats	eng	Some harvesting of host-parasite haustorial connections occurs in this area and may have an effect on this species. The extent of this threat is unknown, but is thought unlikely to be severe. The felling of host trees for firewood and to clear ground for agriculture is the main threat.
39740		conservation	eng	No individuals are known to occur in any protected areas. The possibility of protecting the subpopulation at Mbingo should be investigated.
39740		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon (the Bamboutos Mountains, Bamenda highlands, and Ngaoundere), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau). The largest subpopulation is estimated at about 50 trees (at Mbingo).
39740		habitat	eng	This species is known from lower montane forest areas, often at edges of the forest (1,500-2,000 m altitude).
39740		threats	eng	The clearance of forest areas for wood and agricultural land forms the main threat to the survival of this species.
39741		conservation	eng	Communication and education is needed to raise awareness on species protection. Also, the site needs to be protected to conserve the habitat of this species. Further research on species ecology, current threats and population trends is also needed.
39741		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cameroon. It is known only from Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge area, Cameroon.
39741		habitat	eng	Rocks at water-level in small streams; steep granite cliff-face under dripping water, on basalt boulders in clear, turbulent running water in full sunlight.
39741		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
39741		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to land management of non-agricultural areas, and extraction of groundwater have been identified as threats. It may also be affected by cultivation upstream of the site which causes erosion  and introduction of silt to the stream.
39742		conservation	eng	Wetlands protection, conservation and research actions are needed to protect this species.
39742		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only in Cameroon and Nigeria. It may also be present in <span class="bold">Ghana and Niger but records need to be confirmed.
39742		habitat	eng	It has been recorded on exposed basalt boulders below a high waterfall (c.30 m) at 1,400 m altitude above sea level. It is a moss-like plant on smooth rocks in fast-flowing streams.
39742		population	eng	Species with small occurrence in west Africa and populations are severely fragmented.<span class="dist-lvls-c"><span class="dist-lvl-src"><br/></span>
39742		threats	eng	Drought and water pollution have been identified as major threats. The species may be   threatened by pollution from laundry operations at the town of Fundong, Cameroon just upstream from the waterfall. Also, a lot of debris has been seen at the side of this pool.
39743		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon (the Bamboutos Mountains, Bamenda Highlands, and Ngaoundere), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau and Vogel Peak).
39743		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in rocky grassland areas at 1,900-2,400 m altitude.
39744		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the population is required to determine whether this taxon is declining.
39744		distribution	eng	<em>A. fischeri</em> is confined to the summit of Mt. Oku where it is relatively abundant within a small area.
39744		habitat	eng	The species was recorded from rocky grassland and scrub areas at 2,800-3,000 m altitude.
39744		threats	eng	The main threats to the population are fires, grazing by cattle, goats and sheep, and direct attacks from insect larvae.
39745		conservation	eng	A survey of this species on Mt. Oku is required to determine numbers of plants, their distribution, regeneration levels, and current threats to the species.
39745		distribution	eng	<em>A. asperuloides</em> is known from Bioco, Mt. Cameroon, the Bamboutos Mountains, and the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon.
39745		habitat	eng	It has been collected from upper montane grassland and scrub areas at 2,400-3,000 m altitude.
39745		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, but it is thought that grazing, fire, and trampling, known to occur in this habitat, may have adverse effects on the species.
39746		conservation	eng	More information is required on the location, numbers of individuals on the mountain, and on the extent of the threats posed by fire and grazing on this species.
39746		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Bioko, Mt. Cameroon, and Mt. Oku.
39746		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane grassland areas at 2,700-4,000 m altitude.
39746		threats	eng	Possible threats to the species are grazing pressures and/or fires.
39747		conservation	eng	More information is required on the extent, distribution, and current threats to the species.
39747		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon (the Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau and Jos Plateau).
39747		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from woodland areas at 1,220-1,980 m altitude.
39747		threats	eng	The main threats to the population are clearance for agriculture and over-exploitation for bast fibre.
39748		conservation	eng	More detailed data is required on the frequency and range of this species. Surveys should probably be carried out in October and November, when the plant is conspicuously in flower. Direct observations of the current threats to this species are desirable.
39748		distribution	eng	<em>P. angustisectum</em> occurs in the Cameroon Highlands from Mt. Cameroon to the Bamboutos Mountains, extending to the Mambilla Plateau (Chappal Waddi, Nigeria).
39748		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in rocky montane grassland areas at 1,900-3,200 m altitude.
39748		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, however, grassland fires and grazing by domesticated animals are likely to affect the survival and establishment of this species.
39749		conservation	eng	More detailed data on frequency and range of this species is required.  October and November, when the plant is conspicuously in flower, is probably the best time to conduct this work. Direct observations of current threats to this species are desirable.
39749		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from rocky montane grassland areas at 2,300-2,800 m altitude.
39749		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, however, grassland fires and grazing by domesticated animals are likely to affect the survival and establishment of this species.
39750		conservation	eng	Annual monitoring of the three sites is required to determine numbers of individuals, signs of damage to plants, and regeneration. Afua should be revisited to confirm that this species has indeed disappeared from the area.  Similar sites to those already known should be searched for to discover potential new locations.  Some evidence of fire scorching on the Afua specimens was noted, therefore some burning at the correct season may be required in management of habitat for this species or important for promoting flowering.  Propagation by seed and replanting in, for example, Afua Swamp may be considered.
39750		distribution	eng	The species is known from Kinkolong near the summit of Mt. Oku, Mbi crater, and Ijim Ridge.
39750		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from swamps or stream edges at 1,750-2,900 m altitude.
39750		threats	eng	This species has suffered from extensive recent habitat destruction.
39751		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Ankarafantsika National Park is the only protected area in which it is confirmed to occur. No specimens are reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). Additional survey work is needed to determine the full extent of the species' range. Serious consideration should be given to establishing a protected area that includes the Mariarano Classified Forest.
39751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. The type specimen for this species was collected adjacent to Lac Ravelobe, from which its scientific name is derived. Based on morphological measurements, Zimmermann <em>et al.</em> (1997, 1998) concluded that two species of mouse lemur inhabited the forests of Ankarafantsika in north-western Madagascar, where <em>M. ravelobensis</em> is now known to occur sympatrically with <em>M. murinus</em>. It is also known from the Bongolava Classified Forest and Mariarano Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). Sea-level to 500 m.
39751		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry deciduous lowland forest and can be observed even in degraded patches. It appears to prefer forests with a lower canopy height and more lianas than those inhabited by <em>M. murinus</em>, and also uses tree holes less often than that of other species.
39751		population	eng	Common in Ankarafantsika.
39751		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture and seasonal bushfires. The species also may be susceptible to predation from feral carnivores and invasive non-endemic carnivores.
39758		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Bangladesh as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. In India, it is listed in Schedule I, part I, under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002. This species is protected in Thailand under the Wildlife Protection of 1992; in China it is Class I, and is given the highest protection in Viet Nam under the Wildlife Protection Law (List IB, Decree 32, 2006) on a par with tigers, elephants and bears. In Cambodia, it is protected under law 359 of the Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries, 1994.<br/><br/>This species is found in a large number of protected areas throughout its range, but possibly at low numbers. Actual surveys rather than anecdotal reports are necessary to determine the true abundance of this species in the wild (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008). The species has been recently transfer from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris and Nijman 2007).
39758		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (southern Yunnan and possibly southern Guangxi), north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), Lao PDR, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), Thailand, and Viet Nam (except the south). It may possibly occur as well in northern Peninsular Malaysia.
39758		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, nocturnal species that inhabits tropical evergreen rainforest, semi-evergreen forest, and moist deciduous forest. In Viet Nam it is found only in secondary forests, and on the edge of primary forests; they are also known to come close to agricultural fields and plantations (V. Thanh pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level (U. Streicher pers. comm.) up to 2,400 m (Choudhury 2001). It feeds on fruits and gums, but very few insects as compared to slender or pygmy lorises (U. Streicher pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This animal?s life span is about 15 years, and generation time is 7-8 years. Females give birth to one offspring per litter once every two years in semi-wild conditions (Rowe 1996). In captivity, this rate may be slightly higher (U. Streicher pers. comm.).
39758		population	eng	In Lao PDR, the population seems to be fairly undisturbed and occurs in large forest tracts (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Duckworth (1994) and Ratajszczak (1998) both reported the species as being very rare in Lao PDR, with the former reporting abundance indices of about 0.30-0.65/km, and the latter detecting only three after a several week survey. It is recorded in two areas in Bangladesh: Chittagong and Sylhet (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In India, the encounter rates vary from 0.1 to 0.77/km (Radhakrishna <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Viet Nam, the populations are severely reduced and have disappeared from many forests (Fitch-Snyder and Thanh 2002; V. Thanh pers. comm.). In Cambodia it is widespread, though a long-term survey by Starr has also failed to detect this species in most forests. It is also widespread in Thailand (W. Brockelman pers. comm.), though an on-going study by Pliwsungnoen has found that they are absent from many forests, and are at very low densities when they are present (Pliwsungnoen pers. comm.).
39758		threats	eng	The major threats that this species' habitat faces include farming, timber removal, human settlement, road building, dams, power lines, fragmentations, soil loss and erosion, and deliberately set fires. They are hunted and traded for food, traditional ?medicine,? sport, and as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Nekaris and Nijman 2007; V. Thanh and U. Streicher pers. comm.). Road kills represent another threat to this species.
39759		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Studies on Sumatra are urgently needed to confirm conservation status. The species is protected by law in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia, and has been recently transfer from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris and Nijman 2007).
39759		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Indonesia (Sumatra, Batam and Galang in the Riau Archipelago, and Pulau Tebingtinggi and Bunguran in the North Natuna Islands), Malaysia (on the Peninsula and the island of Pulau Tioman), southern peninsular Thailand (from the Isthmus of Kra southward), and Singapore (Groves 2001; M. Shekelle pers. comm.)
39759		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest, gardens, and plantations (Timm and Birney 1992). It is seen more often in edge habitat of forest, possibly because the edge has more supports that may increase foraging efficiency (Johns 1986), but this also may be due to sampling bias, as they are more easily seen on forest edges (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in press). It is frugivorous, but will also eat insects, leaves, and bird eggs (Johns 1986). One long-term study has shown that they consume mainly nectar gum and sap, with fruit and arthropods forming small proportion of diet. Nectar from the flowers of the burtram palm (<em>Eugeissona tristus</em>) seems to be a key resource (Wiens and Zitzmann 2003).
39759		population	eng	Surveys in Sumatra have found this species to occur at very low densities. Its presence is patchy through Peninsular Malaysia. Several short-term studies indicated that it usually occurs at low densities: Pasoh Forestry Research Centre, Peninsular Malaysia (0.01-0.02 animals/km); Petalang Jaya, Malaysia (0.40 animals/km); Genting Sempah, Malaysia (3 captures after 30,000 trap nights) (Barret 1981; Rudd and Stevens 1992; Nekaris <em>et al.</em> in press). It was described as uncommon in Panang Island, where one was shot after 11 nights (Liat <em>et al</em> 1971). But at sites where long-term studies were chosen found forests where they occur at particularly high densities (Sungai Tekam Forestry Concession, Malaysia, 0.3-0.8 animals/km in logged primary forest, 0.5-1.2 animals/km in unlogged primary forest; Manjung District, Perak, Malaysia, 1.6-4.0 animals/km in unlogged primary forest and 0.4-1.0 animals/km in logged swamp forest and secondary savanna). In general, though, slow lorises of all taxa appear to occur at very low densities (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in press).
39759		threats	eng	The species is collected for use as pets, and the animals are sold throughout Southeast Asia (Nekaris and Bearder 2007; Nekaris and Nijman 2007). The teeth are often pulled, resulting in infection and/or death. If animals survive, lack of teeth makes reintroduction impossible. Well-meaning rescue centres haphazardly reintroduce lorises into local forests without knowledge of their taxonomy or social needs. Sumatran populations are particularly impacted by the pet trade. There is little information available on other threats to this species. It is relatively adaptable to anthropogenic habitats, and so it might less affected by forest loss than some other primate species. Nevertheless, forest loss has been so severe in the region that it is likely to have had some negative impacts. Animals are shot as crop pests and for other reasons (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 1994).
39760		conservation	eng	This species is included in Appendix I of CITES and is protected by Indonesian law. Surveys to study the status of all populations, including those from the Philippines and other small Indonesian islands are required. Some forest fragments where the species occur remain protected. There is a particular need for field guides for this and other nocturnal Indonesian primate species, as they are often confused in rescue centers and elsewhere. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, though its status there is uncertain (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008).
39760		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan Borneo, Belitung and Banka), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo) and the Philippines (Tawi Tawi, Bongao, Sangasanga, and perhaps some other small islands in the Sulu Archipelago) (Fooden 1991; Timm and Birney 1992). Ethnographic survey records suggest local extinction in some islands in the Tawi Tawi group (Philippines), though the species is still likely to be found on smaller islands (Garcia pers. comm. 2006).
39760		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest, gardens, and plantations (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985; Timm and Birney 1992), at elevations between 35-100 m. According to interviews with local people in the Philippines, the species tends to be sighted in citrus trees (<em>calamansi</em>) (Garcia pers. comm. 2006) and may be tolerant of a variety of habitats. It is nocturnal, and almost entirely arboreal. In Sabangau National Park, of four sightings of lorises, 50% contained two or more individuals, feeding together in the same tree (<em>Callophylum hosei</em> and <em>Szygium cf. nigricans</em>).
39760		population	eng	Based on data collected from researchers in the field and old specimens from museum collections, Meijaard <em>et al</em>. (2005) claimed that this species is common throughout Borneo. However, loris ?presence? is usually not determined first-hand (Chivers and Burton 1988; Indrawan and Rangkuti 2001), and it also cannot be presumed that lorises still occur in areas from where they were once collected. The species actually seems to be very uncommon throughout its range. It has a very limited distribution in the Philippines (Dagosto and Gebo 1995; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Kalimantan, a 3-month survey in a protected peat swamp forest (Sabangau National Park) revealed very low densities of slow lorises, 0.21 - 0.38 animals/km (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in review). When comparing this to other studies of <em>Nycticebus</em>, it seems clear that this species, when it does occur, is rare. Indeed, in 46,000 trapping nights in Kinabalu National Park, Wells <em>et al</em>. (2004) trapped this species only 3 times, and noted that in nocturnal walks over five years, it was rarely seen.
39760		threats	eng	Burning of habitat and conversion, especially to palm oil plantations, almost certainly represents a threat to this species. Although it is relatively adaptable to anthropogenic habitats, and so it might less affected by forest loss than some other primate species, forest loss has been so severe in the region that it is likely to have had some negative impacts. The species is collected locally for use as pets; subsequent uncontrolled release of pets in some areas is also a threat.
39761		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Indonesian law and is listed on CITES Appendix I. It occurs in several protected areas, though its status there is uncertain (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008), and is currently represented in at least three captive collections (Prague, Czech Republic; Jakarta, Indonesia; Singapore). There is a need for field guides for this and other Southeast Asian nocturnal primate species as they are often confused in rescue centers and elsewhere.
39761		distribution	eng	This species is only known from western and central Java in Indonesia.
39761		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and arboreal, and is found in both primary and secondary disturbed forest. It needs arboreal connectivity (vines and lianas) due to its unique locomotive adaptations. It feeds on sap and floral florescence and on gum and insects. Thought to occur between 0 and 1,600 m, although it seems to be more common at higher elevations (likely due to the fact that lower elevation habitat is rare) (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). Further studies are urgently needed.
39761		population	eng	This species has been recorded at very low densities (0.20-0.02/km) (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in review).
39761		threats	eng	This species is used for traditional ?medicines? (Nekaris and Nijman 2007). Due to their non-saltatory locomotion, their choice of sleeping sites on exposed branches, and nocturnal habits, the animals are easily caught by humans, who seek them both for the pet trade as well as opportunistically collect them during forest felling (Nekaris and Bearder 2007). It is also threatened locally by the loss of forest habitat.
39771		conservation	eng	The status of the barndoor skate has been the subject of considerable debate since Casey and Myers (1998) reported on its decline, which they described as a ?near extinction?, and a number of petitions were made to list the species under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA). <br/> <br/>As a result, fisheries scientists used US Northeastern Fisheries Science Centre (NEFSC) research survey data from the southern part of the barndoor skate?s range (<45°S from the Gulf of Maine to southern New England) to assess its status. These data indicate declines in biomass and abundance indices of 96% and 99% respectively over approximately three generations (18 to 33 years), with mean catch rates in 1963 to 1965 of 1.922 kg/tow and average 1.82 individuals/tow, declining to 0.0786 kg and 0.025 individuals in 1996 to 1998 (Table B17, Anonymous 2000). However, there have been apparent recent increase in abundance and biomass in surveys in US and Canadian waters and the species has been discovered in waters deeper than previously covered by these surveys (Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2000), where fishing effort is very low. It was concluded that there was no evidence that 'they were in danger of extinction or likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future' (Anonymous 2000). The ESA petitions were not accepted.  <br/> <br/>To date no management or regulatory measures are in place apart from ad hoc protection in closed areas of the Georges Bank, although the increased numbers of juveniles reported from this area indicates that recovery is possible.
39771		distribution	eng	Restricted to the NW Atlantic continental shelf and slope of Canada and the USA. Its range was thought to extend from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to southwestern Grand Bank, Canada (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002). Recent fisheries observer data, however, indicate the barndoor skate extends further north along the Labrador shelf edge and slope as far as 63°N in deep slope waters (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002). The barndoor skate is found on most bottom types and is typically caught in cool water, with a preferred temperature range between 0.4 to 10.9 ºC and up to 20 ºC (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2002, McEachran and Musick 1975, Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). Historically it was found as shallow as the tideline (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Anonymous 2000) and the lower depth distribution was thought to be around 715 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran and Musick 1975, Scott and Scott 1988) but recent observer data indicate a depth distribution down to 1,400 m (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002).
39771		habitat	eng	The barndoor skate attains a maximum length of 153 cm and a maximum weight of 20 kg; the largest skate species in the Northwest Atlantic and eleventh largest in the world (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Age at maturity was assumed to be similar to that of the common skate <em>D. batis</em> (the sister species from the Northeast Atlantic): an estimated 11 years (Casey and Myers 1998), but this is likely to be an overestimate. Age at maturity has been estimated as eight years by extrapolating from skate allometric relationships (Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2001). The average age of mature individuals in the population (generation length) therefore can be estimated to be 10 to 14 years. It is likely that the lower value for age at maturity is closer to reality. Longevity has been estimated as between 13 and 18 years, assuming that the age of maturity is 60% of the lifespan, then age at maturity can be assumed to be 8 to 11 years (Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2001). Length frequency data indicate few adult individuals remaining in the population, with these generally less than 130 cm long. However, these data were using a sample gear (scallop dredge) that may underestimate the abundance of larger size classes. <br/> <br/>Length at maturity has been estimated to be 115 cm for females and 112 cm for males (T. Gedamke, pers. comm.), but these may have changed due to variations in population density, food availability and exploitation rates. Egg production is estimated as 47 per year, based on the inverse relationship between fecundity and weight of hatchlings and common skate life history parameters (Casey and Myers 1998). Body size is a good general predictor of demography and vulnerability to exploitation in skates; the large size of the barndoor skate suggests that it is one of the most vulnerable of all the skates (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002, Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2002, Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2001, Musick <em>et al.</em> 1999, Walker and Hislop 1998).  <br/> <br/>The diet includes bivalves, squid, rock crabs, lobsters, shrimps, worms and fishes (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003, Robbins and Ray 1986).
39771		population	eng	Historically, it is not exactly known how abundant the barndoor skate was on the continental shelf, but it is now generally uncommon throughout its range. A comprehensive examination of all available data indicates they were captured in only 1,015 of a total of 80,427 gear sets (1.26%) (Simon <em>et al</em>. 2002). These data came from nine surveys, including both non-standard and standardised research vessel surveys, and covered virtually all of the Canadian continental shelf waters. Surveys off Newfoundland have been carried out since 1950, the Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence surveys commenced in 1970 and 1971 respectively. The species is currently more abundant in the southern part of its range, including the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, Scotian Shelf and southern New England (Anonymous 2000). But it appears to be very rare on the shallower continental shelf and the main part of the population is now found in shelf channels and along the continental shelf edge in waters > 450 m deep (Anonymous 2000, Kulka 1999). The shelf locations where barndoor skate can be captured with any regularity are along the southern and eastern edge of the Georges Bank and inside areas closed to trawling on the Georges Bank and along the Scotian Shelf (J.A. Musick, T. Gedamke and S. Murawski, pers. comms., Simon <em>et al</em>. 2002).
39771		threats	eng	The barndoor is too rare to be specifically targeted, but is captured as part of the skate complex in USA waters (Anonymous 2000). Skate landings are not recorded by species and total skate catch in the USA never exceeded several hundred metric tonnes until the advent of distant water fleets during the 1960s (Anonymous 2000). Skate landings reached 9,500 mt in 1969 then rapidly declined during the 1970s, falling to 800 mt in 1981 (this excludes landings in Canada, including the Grand Banks and Scotian Shelf.) <br/> <br/>Since 1981, USA skate landings have increased substantially, primarily due to the increased export market for 'skate wings' and to a lesser extent because of the increased demand for lobster bait (Anonymous 2000). It is thought that the winter, thorny and little skates comprised most of this catch. Total skate landings increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and declined to 7,200 mt in 1995, since then landings have increased to 17,000 mt, the highest on record (Anonymous 2000). It must be noted that there is little fishing activity in waters greater than 200 m deep, where the remainder of the barndoor skate population exists. Landings data were aggregated across species. However, the large size and distinctive colouration of barndoor skate may mean some have been identified correctly, indicating commercial fishery discards of a few hundred metric tonnes per year (Anonymous 2000). <br/> <br/>In Canada, a directed fishery for all skates began in 1994 in northerly areas of the barndoor skates distribution, on the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks. However, the major threat to this species? continued existence is bycatch in commercial fisheries (Casey and Myers 1998), particularly the benthic trawl fisheries for cod and redfish (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.) and dredge fisheries for scallops. It should be noted that fishing effort on demersal fish in Canadian waters has declined substantially in the past decade as a result of several moratoria (cod, plaice), closed fisheries (grenadier) and reduced quotas (redfish, witch) (D. Kulka, pers. comm.).   <br/> <br/>A number of fishery-independent trawl survey data collected in both spring and autumn consistently indicate declines in the abundance and biomass of the barndoor skate and a truncation of the population size structure, indicating the loss of the largest individuals in USA waters (Anonymous 2000). Historical abundance is unknown but must have been higher given the North Atlantic-wide depletion of large high trophic level fishes (Christensen <em>et al</em>. 2003); consequently the patterns of decline observed could be regarded as conservative. Surveys in most areas off Canada began in the early 1960s, but some areas have been surveyed since the 1950s (S. Grand Bank, St Pierre Bank, Sydney Bight). In northerly parts of the barndoor skate distribution, the major abundance decline, according to survey data, was from the 1950s. In more southerly areas, namely USA waters, the major decline in abundance occurred between the 1960s-1970s. On average the mean catch rate was 1.922 kg per hour in 1963?5, which declined to an average of 0.0786 kg per hour in 1996?8. This represents a 96% decline in abundance (catch rate) over approximately three generations (30?42 years) (Table B17, Anonymous 2000). According to Casey and Myers (1999) the barndoor range has also contracted over this time. They described it as being currently found in three of the nine NAFO statistical areas in which it was formerly abundant. This is not strictly correct, it continues to be found in all NAFO areas, but at reduced numbers (Kulka 1999, Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002, Simon <em>et al.</em> 2002). The trends in abundance and biomass of barndoor skate in deepwater (> 200 fathoms) off the US coast are unknown. One highly regulated fishery (for monkfish) currently operating in waters > 200 fathoms could catch barndoor skate (D. Kulka, pers. comm.).   <br/> <br/>According to these survey data there appears to have been a steady increase in the barndoor skate abundance in the centre of their range on the SE Georges Bank and the SW of Browns Bank since 1992. An alternative interpretation of these data has been suggested. It has been argued that the census biomass was not statistically significant from zero (i.e., the species was ?statistically extinct?) in 17 of the 18 years from 1980 to 1998 inclusive. Thus, the trawl surveys from which the population trends are derived may have very low power to detect either further increases or decreases in abundance (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, it has been argued that such patterns are common even in more abundant fishes due to the large extent to which they are aggregated or clumped (contagion) (D. Kulka, pers. comm.). Such patterns will produce highly skewed sampling distributions that would invalidate the use of statistics based on the assumption of normality.    <br/> <br/>Trends in survey abundance and biomass indices for barndoor skate in shallow waters (< 200 fathoms) are well documented for Canada (Kulka 1999, Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002). A decline in the survey indices occurred in the mid-1960s to early 1970s, likely caused by the high fishing effort of the distant water fleet on Georges Bank, followed by a period of low to zero catches. In 1985, consistent catches of barndoor skate began occurring and increases in survey indices were observed that have continued through 2001. <br/> <br/>The current overall population trend should be considered uncertain at the worst or increasing at best. Some areas of the Georges Bank and southern New England shelf have been closed to fishing since 1993, primarily to protect scallop stocks, and there is good evidence for an increase in the abundance of barndoor skate within these no-take areas (S. Murawski, pers. comm.). Also, fishing effort surrounding these areas has declined with the closure of the cod fishery. It is possible that opening the no-take areas and increasing fishing effort will again lead to the decline of the barndoor skate in these areas. However, this evidence for increase should be considered in light of the sampling issues touched upon above. In addition to this problem it is worth considering other sampling issues that would provide cause for a more optimistic view of the barndoor skate abundance.  The historical trawl data comprising the early parts of the time series compiled by Casey and Myers (1999) have been criticised (Kenchington 1999). It is argued that the survey gears and design were not optimised for barndoor skate also that historical data are not comparable with more recent surveys (Kenchington 1999). It should be noted that survey estimates are not absolute abundance, but they are estimates of relative abundance, this results in two reasons for a more cautious and more optimistic view of the reported declines can be taken. A large part of the barndoor skate is rarely or never sampled, particularly the northern > 520 and in deep water > 400 m, thus abundance indices may not fully reflect population trends (D. Kulka, pers. comm.). The survey abundance estimates should be considered as minimum estimates of the population because it is believed that the catchability of barndoor skate by the survey gear is low (D. Kulka, pers. comm.). For example, using underwater cameras attached to the head ropes of standard trawl gear, it was noted that the barndoor skate were, "extraordinarily adept at avoiding capture" (Edwards 1968). Also the escapement of all sizes of skates from ?Engels? survey gear was high (Walsh 1992). Consequently this makes any assessment of the conservation status of the barndoor skate quite uncertain because catchability may well change with skate density and changing gears or technological creep. Therefore accounting for and understanding the influence of this potential source of error upon the estimate of population trends is difficult.
39773		conservation	eng	Currently there are no known conservation or management initiatives for <em>Cephalopholis boenak</em>. Chocolate hind occur in a number of marine protected areas, some in need of better management.
39773		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis boenak</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species with a broad distribution from East Africa (Kenya to southern Mozambique), to southern India, and the western Pacific, including the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Taiwan, and China, and extending south to New Caledonia and northern Australia. <br/><br/>Chocolate hind are exported from the Arafura Sea, but the species is not reported from oceanic islands in the Indian Ocean, except for Aldabra (Seychelles), Comoros, Madagascar, and the Andaman and Lakshadweep islands (India). It is also unknown from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and from the islands of Micronesia, except for Palau. The record from Rodríguez by Heemstra and Randall (1984) could not be verified and is probably erroneous, as is the record from the Seychelles.<br/><br/>Country range reference: <a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> accessed on 19th April 2006.
39773		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis boenak</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species, mainly found in coastal areas down to 30 m. The chocolate hind inhabits silty dead reefs in protected waters and is secretive, but may also be seen on live coral (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The species is the most abundant in Hong Kong although it is infrequently taken in the coldest winter months when water temperatures go down to 15 to 16°C. More information on biology and fishery is needed for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The chocolate hind feeds mainly on fish and crustaceans. Based on a preliminary study on the gut contents of 406 <em>C. boenak</em> collected from the market from Oct 1997 to Mar 1999, identified food items included the body remains of crustaceans (crabs and shrimps), fish, worms and other unknown items (Chan 2000). Myers (1991) and Shao <em>et al.</em> (1992) also recorded <em>C. boenak</em> feeding primarily on fish and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Courtship and pair spawning were observed by Donaldson (1989) in Papua New Guinea. In Hong Kong, it was observed that <em>C. boenak</em> spawned around 22:00 to 01:00 from August to September 2000 for 35 consecutive days and unrelated to moon phase in captivity, where it was taken from local reefs (Liu and Sadovy 2001). Spawning is in pairs and stable groups of a single male and several females were also recorded in the field in Hong Kong (Liu and Sadovy 2005). Based on the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and histological examination of gonads (n=490), the natural spawning season of <em>C. boenak</em> in Hong Kong is from April to October (Chan and Sadovy 2002).<br/><br/><em>C. boenak</em> is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite, with the smallest female and male maturing at 80 mm SL and 116 mm SL, respectively (Chan and Sadovy 2002). The smallest and largest transitionals (i.e. apparently changing from female to male) were 128 mm SL (one year old) and 145 mm SL (four years old), respectively (Chan and Sadovy 2002). In captivity, the species can also change sex from adult male to adult female and the sex of juveniles is plastic and can depend on social factors (Liu and Sadovy 2004a, b).<br/><br/>No information is available on fecundity or recruitment. The sex ratio of mature females to mature males was 1.6:1 in Hong Kong according to market samples; it is not known whether this reflects natural sex ratios (Chan and Sadovy 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Maturity and growth</strong><br/>Among other similar-sized <em>Cephalopholis</em> species, <em>C. boenak</em> has the smallest size of female maturation, sex change (diandric) and faster growth rate (Chan and Sadovy 2002); the species also exhibits plasticity of sexual development in juveniles which can be mediated by social conditions, as well as male to female sex change (Liu and Sadovy 2004a, b). Such characteristics may make <em>C. boenak</em> more resilient to local fisheries than related species that take longer to mature or that exhibit monandry.<br/><br/>Length-age relationship: Length-at-age von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>C. boenak</em> (n=461) was  SL =147.66 mm (1<sup>-e</sup>(-0.49(Age+1.52)) in Hong Kong (Chan and Sadovy 2002).
39773		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although widespread, the geographic range of the chocolate hind is centered in southeast Asia where there is extensive destruction of reef habitat. Following the declines in larger groupers in the Hong Kong area, this species has become a significant component of the grouper catch. Heavy exploitation of the species and absence of management is expected to cause declines in populations in the long term, however, further information is required on abundance and landings in the northern sector of the South China Sea before the extent of the fisheries threat to the population can be determined.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>Chan (2000) described <em>C. boenak</em> as the last remaining commercially important grouper in Hong Kong, which is being heavily fished in its smaller size and age classes; half of all specimens sampled from local municipal markets within the last few years were small (112 mm and 143 mm SL) and young (ages two to four years). Despite its importance, there are no official records of landings in Hong Kong (Chan and Sadovy 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Among other similar-sized <em>Cephalopholis</em> species, <em>C. boenak</em> has the smallest size of female maturation, sex change (diandric) and faster growth rate (Chan and Sadovy 2002); the species also exhibits plasticity of sexual development in juveniles which can be mediated by social conditions, as well as male to female sex change (Liu and Sadovy 2004a, b). Such characteristics may make <em>C. boenak</em> more resilient to local fisheries than related species that take longer to mature or that exhibit monandry.<br/><br/>More information on biology and fishery is needed for this species.
39773		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although <em>Cephalopholis boenak</em> was once considered to be too small to be of commercial importance (Heemstra and Randall 1993) it does occur in local markets in Southeast Asia (Sadovy pers. obs.). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>This species is heavily exploited in some areas in southeast Asia now that many larger groupers have become severely reduced in commercial catches. It is only a small component of the live reef food fish trade, however, in Hong Kong, a major consumer market for live fish, and there is no management for the species. It is also taken for the marine aquarium trade in Sri Lanka. Nonetheless, if larger groupers continue to decline, it is probable that pressure on this species will increase. In other areas, the species is unlikely to be targeted, but it is a species that occurs as incidental catch in handline fisheries in Australia and speared in Okinawa.
39774		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Measures by Country</strong><br/><strong>Indonesia</strong><br/>In Indonesia, about 1 million and more than 3 million juveniles (4-5 cm TL) were produced by hatcheries in 2000 and 2001, respectively. In 2003, 2 government, 7 commercial and more than 100 farmer backyard hatcheries were actively producing juveniles (Sugama <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hatchery-produced fish are used exclusively for the grow-out industry and aquarium trade. <br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/><em>C. altivelis</em> is listed as a protected species under the <a href="http://bar.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_reg/gbrmpr1983366/s29.html">Great Barrier Reef Marine Regulations 1983 – Reg 29</a> (accessed on 18th Jan 2006). <br/><br/><em>C. altivelis</em> is also listed as Lower Risk (conservation dependent) in Australia (see <a href="http://www.asfb.org.au/research/tscr/tf_constat2001.htm?print=1">Conservation Status of Australian Fishes - 2001</a>; accessed on 18th Jan 2006). According to Division 3, Part 2 of Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan 2003 (Reprint No. 2), taking or possessing of <em>C. altivelis</em>  in Queensland is prohibited by both state (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland) and federal (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority) agencies (<a href="http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/F/FisherCRFFMP03.pdf">Queensland Fisheries Act 1994: Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan 2003</a>; accessed on 18th Jan 2006).  However, it is permissible to take small numbers under permit for aquaculture (broodstock) purposes under the approvals from both the state and federal governments (Mike Rimmer, Northern Fisheries Centre of Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, PO Box 5396, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia.  pers. comm. on 25th Jan 06).<br/><br/><strong>Papua New Guinea</strong><br/>The minimum size limit for exporting <em>C. altivelis</em> is 40 cm TL (<a href="http://www.pngbd.com/forum/showthread.php?s=2a61aeff60b0ae90dd1fde40c5516ec0&p=29704#post29704">Live Reef Fish Food Trade (LRFFT) in Papua New Guinea</a>; accessed on 19th Jan 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Vanuatu</strong><br/>Listed as an Endangered Species in Vanuatu (<a href="http://www.volcanolive.com/vanuatu68.html">Endangered Species in Vanuatu</a>; accessed on 19 Jan 2006).
39774		distribution	eng	<em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> can be found in the western Pacific from southern Japan (Ogasawara) to Palau, Guam, New Caledonia, Fiji and southern Queensland (Australia). One report from western Indian Ocean (Kenya) has not been confirmed. Records from Hawaii are probably based on released aquarium fish (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
39774		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The species is found in lagoons and seaward well developed coral reefs, typically in dead or silty areas. It also occurs in tide pools and can be caught at depths of 40 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles (<15 cm) are found inshore, in lagoons and in fringing reefs and seagrass. Recorded maximum size is 70 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  Preliminary data suggests a maximum age of at least 14 years (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1999). Feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Myers 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Gardner <em>et al.</em> 2005) and matures at 39 cm TL (Lau and Li 2000). Spawning aggregations are not known, although spawning activities were observed in captivity. <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> can spawn many times within a reproductive season (Ou<em> et al.</em> 1999b). There has been one anecdotal report of a spawning aggregation formation from northern Papua New Guinea (Sadovy pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Natural (without hormonal treatment) spawning activities in floating cages among 15 males and 24 females (in 2 cages) were observed in Komodo, Indonesia over a period from October 2000 to July 2003.  <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> spawned in pairs between 2100h to midnight, and occurred from the 3rd quarter to the 1st quarter of the moon. Cage spawning was observed to last for at least 8 consecutive days (Sudaryanto <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Induced gonad development by hormone injection of a female (380 mm TL, 1.5kg) and a male (405 mm TL, 2kg) under experimental conditions spawned 390,000 eggs, in which 40,000 were fertilized. The majority of the hatched fry had abnormal morphology and died after 30 hours (Ou <em>et al.</em> 1999b)
39774		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is naturally uncommon over most of its range. The species is a favored target species within the live reef fish trade and is, therefore, likely experiencing population declines in areas where the trade operates; it is reported to be increasingly harder to find for import into live reef food fish trade markets. <br/><br/>Individuals are recorded more commonly from sheltered versus exposed sites. Divers and spearfishers typically record greater abundances from inner shelf reefs. Individuals are often encountered in pairs although small aggregations of three to six individuals have been recorded at some sites. It is not known if these small groups are reproductive.<br/><br/><strong>Abundance</strong><br/>Global and regional abundance of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is virtually unknown from both fishery dependent and independent data. Several underwater visual censuses suggested that this species is rare in nature (CRC 2001, Halford and Russell 2001, Allen 2003, Halford 2003, Sabetian 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent Data</strong><br/>Underwater visual census is the main tool for estimating its abundance in the wild. Currently, no coordinated or comprehensive stock assessment has been done on <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> in the region. Existing data has been sporadically collected and assessments have not used standardized methodologies, making population trend analysis using fisheries-independent data problematic. <br/><br/><em>Additional Abundance Data: Pears (2005)</em><br/>Due to the highly cryptic nature of this species standard UVC data for <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> are suspect. Pears (2005) estimated abundance of this and other cryptic serranids using a special search protocol. The resultant estimates confirm the observations of survey divers that this species is rare and patchily distributed in reef habitats.<br/><br/>Individuals (+/- SD) per 1,000 m² on mid shelf reefs at four regions on the GBR in a north/south gradient:<br/> <br/>Lizard I. 0.2 (0.04)<br/>Townsville   0.1 (0.02)<br/>McKay 0.3 (0.09)<br/>Pompey 0 (0)<br/><br/>Partitioning of reefs into exposed and sheltered sites at these four localities:<br/><br/>Sheltered sites<br/>Lizard I. 0.08 (0.01)<br/>Townsville   0.2 (0.08)<br/>McKay 0.5 (0.05)<br/>Pompey 0 (0)<br/><br/>Exposed sites<br/>Lizard I. 0.2 (0.08)<br/>Townsville   0 (0)<br/>McKay 0.3 (0.09)<br/>Pompey 0 (0)<br/><br/>Abundance estimates of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> from New Caledonia were 0.063 individuals/1000 sq. m and is consistent with other localities in terms of the extreme rarity of this species (IRD database). <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/><em>Great Barrier Reef, Australia</em><br/>According to underwater visual census and video-recordings in early 2001, counts of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> indicated that they were relatively rare on mid- and outer-shelf reefs (CRC 2001). <br/><br/><em>Bali, Indonesia</em><br/>From 28th April to 5th May 2001, no <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> was observed during a 80-hour underwater visual survey in 60 sites using SCUBA (depth up to 45 m) in Sangihe-Talud (Halford and Russell 2001).<br/><br/><em>Papua, Indonesia</em><br/>From 30th October to 22nd November 2002, only five <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> were observed in 57 sites in 70 hours of underwater visual survey using SCUBA (depth up to 52 m) in the Raja Ampat Islands, Indonesia (Allen 2003).<br/><br/><em>Wakatobi National Park, Indonesia</em><br/>In May 2003, no <em>C. altivelis</em> were observed during a 14-day 50-hour underwater visual survey in 33 sites (depth up to 40 to 45 m) in the Wakatobi islands group (Halford 2003).  <br/><br/><em>Kolombangara Island, Solomon Islands</em><br/>Underwater visual census (2x100 m transect at depths 10 and 20 m) estimated the density of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> at < 0.5 fish/m² (Sabetian 2003).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, the population of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> appears to be decreasing (Kulbicki pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/>The landing and export volumes of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> in the region are lacking or incomplete. For example, official figures from Indonesia only cover all groupers as a whole, without differentiating the statistics into different species.  However, import figures from the Census and Statistics Department of the Hong Kong SAR Government since 1997 provides useful information on the harvesting of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>Papua New Guinea (PNG)</em><br/>From February to April 1998, only three <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> (6 kg) were exported from PNG, comprising 0.02% of all live reef fish exported (0.05% by weight) (Lokani and Kibikibi 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Demography and population dynamics</strong><br/>Davies <em>et al.</em> (2006) aged 199 of a sample of 228 individuals from the GBR. Samples ranged in size from 350 to 710 mm FL and between 1 and 19 years of age. The median age distribution was 6 to 7 years and strongly skewed to younger individuals. <br/><br/><strong>Growth parameters</strong><br/>Tmax was 19 years with L max 610 mm FL, Linf  738 mm FL, K  0.08 , Z  0.28.<br/>Linear growth was relatively rapid with FL of ~ 410 mm being achieved in five years. Demographic analysis was compromised by the absence of small individuals in the samples. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Davies <em>et al.</em> (2006) identify <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> as a protogynous hermaphrodite, although in the absence of histological data and analysis of gonads of small individuals; thus, protogyny cannot be confirmed. Males were present in the population as young as four years of  age with the proportion of males showing a gradual increase with 50% male representation occurring at 8.2 years of age. However a number of sexually transitional individuals between six and ten years of age were recorded. Sexual maturity was estimated to occur at two years of age and 330 mm FL. A more comprehensive analysis of the pattern of sexual ontogeny must await increased sampling of smaller individuals.<strong><br/><br/></strong><strong>Trade</strong><br/>Live Reef Food Fish Trade (LRFFT)<br/><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is considered to be a high-valued principal LRFFT species (Sadovy <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, the wholesale price of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> in 1999 was about US$64 per kg (Chan 2000). In July 2003, the wholesale and retail prices averaged US$ 62 and $110 per kg (unpublished data from the International Marinelife Alliance Hong Kong 2003).<br/><br/>According to Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department declaration forms, the volume (kg) of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> imported into Hong Kong decreased from 14.4 metric tonnes (mt) (valued at > US$ 460,000) to 4.4 mt (>US$ 131,000) in 2000. The second peak occurred in 2002 (11.9 mt, US$ 402,000) and then declined again to 1.5 mt (<us$ 50,000)="" in="" 2004.="" from="" 1997="" to="" 2003,="" indonesia="" was="" the="" major="" exporter="" of=""><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> into Hong Kong.<br/><br/>Combining the figures of the imports of <em>C. altivelis</em> from the Census and Statistics Department and the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (which collects data from fish traders on a voluntary basis), more than 133 mt (valued at US$ 9.95 million) of <em>C. altivelis</em> were imported into Hong Kong. The lowest quantity of <8.8 mt (< US$ 0.4 million) was observed in 2003, probably due to the poor sale performance of the catering industry during/after the outbreak of the SARS.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Tables 1</strong> and <strong>2</strong>, showing the volume (kg) and value (US$) of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> imported into Hong Kong from 1997 to September 2005 (Source: Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong SAR Government).</us$><br/><us$ 50,000)="" in="" 2004.="" from="" 1997="" to="" 2003,="" indonesia="" was="" the="" major="" exporter="" of=""></us$>
39774		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>In Southeast Asia, <em>C. altivelis</em> is heavily exploited and its habitat is being degraded.  <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Live reef fish trade</em><br/>Juveniles are taken for the aquarium trade, sometimes using cyanide (Min pers. comm.), while adults are highly prized in the live reef fish trade centered in Southeast Asia. Individuals are taken in quite high numbers according to general observations and anecdotal information (Lee and Sadovy 1998) at about 40-70 cm (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999). The live fish fishery for this species operated in Queensland from 1995 (Elmer 1998) to 2003, but is now closed. The grouper's geographic distribution lies almost exclusively within an area of considerable exploitation for this species and where its habitat is likely to be subject to damage (Cesar <em>et al.</em> 1997). Humpback groupers are among the more important (by volume) species imported into the major live food fish centre (Hong Kong) and come principally from Indonesia, China and the Philippines.<br/><br/>Continued high prices in Hong Kong will inevitably lead to localised depletions. Further pressures are likely to be placed on this species in other parts of its range (e.g. Australia or other Southeast Asian countries), once Indonesian populations are reduced. The live reef fish trade is a potential threat to the survival of the species, particularly in Southeast Asia where it is heavily targeted.<br/><br/>There is an illegal trade of the species (and other live reef food fish) from the Philippines through Malaysia (Cabanban pers. comm.).
39775		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. In China, about three-quarters of the Wuliang Mountain population?s range is protected, much of it within the Wuliang Mountain Nature Reserve and Ailao Mountain Nature Reserve; the species occurs as well in Huanglianshan Nature Reserve, Fenshuilin Nature Reserve, Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Nanguanhe Nature Reserve, Lancangjiang Nature Reserve (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Lao PDR it occurs in two protected areas, Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kan National Biodiversity Conservation Area. The provincial governor of Luang Namtha province (Lao PDR) in 2004 set very steep fines for wildlife trade and also instigated measures for gun control; both actions, if enforced, should protect the Laotian gibbon populations from opportunistic hunting (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005).
39775		distribution	eng	The species as a whole occurs discontinuously in southwestern China, northwestern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). One thousand years ago, gibbons that may have been crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus </em>) were distributed over a large part of southern and central China up to the Yellow River (Geissmann 1995; Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; van Gulik 1967).<br/><br/><em>Nomascus concolor concolor</em> <br/>This taxon occurs in southern China (southwestern Yunnan) and northern Viet Nam (Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Son La, and  Lai Chau provinces) (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).  It is found between the Song Da (Black) and Song Hong (Red) Rivers, north to 23°45?N and south to about 20°N (Groves 2001). Reported occurrences west of the Black River are unconfirmed (T. Geissmann pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Nomascus concolor furvogaster</em> <br/>This taxon occurs in southern China (southwestern Yunnan).  It is found only in a small region near the Myanmar border, west of the Mekong River (23°15??23°40?N, 99°05??99°29?E) (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Nomascus concolor jingdongensis</em> <br/>This taxon occurs in southern China (west-central Yunnan).  It is found only in a small region around Wuliang Mountain, between the Mekong and Chuanhe rivers (about 24 to 25°N) (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>N. concolor lu</em><br/>This taxon occurs in northwestern Lao PDR. An isolated population, it is known for certain only in a tiny area in on the east bank of the Mekong at about 20°17?? 20°25?N (Groves 2001). It is confirmed in Nam Ha National Protected Area, Luang Namtha province, and in the Nam Kan Provincial Protected Area, Bokeo province (Geissmann 2007; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005).
39775		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subtropical and montane evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forest (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; Jiang <em>et al.</em> 2006). In China it is likely restricted to broadleaved evergreen forests (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Yunnan province, <em>N. c. concolor</em> and <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> occur at altitudes ranging from 1,900 to 2,700 m (Bleisch and Chen 1991; Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), but at other sites in Yunnan the species may also occur at elevations as low as 500 m (Lan 1989a,b). In northern Viet Nam, the species was reported to occur at elevations of 1,600-2,000 m (Dao Van Tien 1983). A survey area in Nam Kan National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao PDR, covered an altitudes range of about 440?900 m, but gibbon habitat and gibbons mainly occurred at altitudes above 550 m (Geissmann 2007).<br/><br/>Most gibbon species are mainly frugivorous (Leighton 1987). Field studies on Chinese <em>N. concolor</em>, however, report a lower intake of fruits and flowers (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000) as compared to most other gibbon species except siamangs. On Mount Wuliang (central Yunnan), <em>N. concolor jingdongensis</em> eat more fruit during the rainy season, whereas they eat a higher percentage of leaves and spend more time foraging during the dry season (Sheeran 1993, 1995).<br/><br/>Average group sizes for <em>N. c. concolor</em> and <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> in Yunnan province also appear to vary strongly according to locality and/or study, ranging from 2.9 to 6.6 individuals (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005), with a mean of 5.0 individuals (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006). This mean value is clearly higher than average group sizes found in other gibbon species (Leighton, 1987). It is unknown whether this high value applies to other populations of this species, such as <em>N. c. lu</em> in Lao PDR, <em>N. c. furvogaster</em> in western Yunnan or <em>N. c. concolo</em>r in Viet Nam. Based on five groups of <em>N. c. lu</em> observed in Nam Kan PPA in Lao PDR, an average group size of 3.6?3.8 individuals was determined (Geissmann 2007).
39775		population	eng	The global population is estimated at approximately 1,300-2,000 individuals (T. Geissmann pers. comm.2006). There are known declines and local population extinctions throughout the species? range (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2003; Ni and Ma 2006). The overall rate of decline is extremely severe.<br/><br/>Density estimates for <em>N. c. concolor</em> and <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> in Yunnan province (China) range from 0.43 to 0.82 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005), with a mean of 0.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Geissmann pers. comm. 2006). Using an average group size of 5.0 individuals, this would translate into a density of about 3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006). For <em>N. c. lu</em> in Lao PDR, a short survey covering an area of 20 km<sup>2</sup> in the Nam Kan National Biodiversity Conservation Area suggests a density of 0.45 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 1.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, using a more conservative average group size of 3.4 individuals (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Population estimates for the Chinese portion of this species range from about 200 to 260 groups (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006). Using an average group size of 5.0 individuals, this would translate into 1,000 to 1,300 individuals. Perhaps the most important subpopulation in China resides in the Wuliang Mountains and numbers about 100 groups (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are 98 groups of <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), with a total of about 490 individuals, if an average groups size of 5 individuals is used. For <em>N. c. furvogaster</em> there are about 26-42 groups remaining (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), which would represent about 130-210 individuals, if an average groups size of 5 individuals is used. A survey in the northern part of Ailao Mountain National Nature Reserve found approximately 45 groups of <em>N. c. concolor</em>, with around 200-250 individuals (X. Jiang pers. comm. 2006). In southern Yunnan there are three areas where this species occurs, in Bajiaohe, Jingping County (2 groups recorded), Jinpingfenshuiling Nature Reserve (only one group recorded), and Huanglianshan Nature Reserve (3 groups recorded) (Ni and Ma 2006). The total population in Yunnan was reported to be 74-106 groups (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), which translates to about 370-530 individuals, if an average groups size of 5 individuals is used.<br/><br/>The Laotian population in the Nam Kan PPA is small. At least 13 distinct groups were recorded in the Nam Kan valley in a survey area of about 6 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a density of about 2.2 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Geissmann 2007). The total population of the Nam Kan could be up to 200 individuals, although this is a very tentative extrapolation (T. Geissman pers. comm. 2006). Five groups were recorded from Nam Ha NPA (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005), but there is no population estimate. There are forest blocks in northern Lao PDR where there have not been any surveys for gibbons, and there could be populations in these areas.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, field surveys carried out by Fauna and Flora International throughout most of the remaining larger forest areas in the historic range of the species in Viet Nam lead to an estimate of less then 100 individuals. The two largest populations may live in Che Tao and Ho Nam Mu forests (Yen Bai and Son La provinces) with about 70 and 20 individuals, respectively (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). As of 2000, <em>N. concolor</em> in Viet Nam has been confirmed in Nam Pam commune of Muong La District in Son La Province with 15-20 individuals (Tri and Long 2000). This is probably the same population that survives in Che Tao commune of Mu Cang Chai district in Yen Bai Province (Tallents <em>et al.</em> 2000). Another population has been confirmed in Nam Xe commune of Van Ban District in Lao Cai Province. This commune borders Yen Bai Province as well, to the north (Dat <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are known subpopulation extinctions in Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).
39775		threats	eng	The biggest threats to <em>Nomascus concolor</em> throughout its range include destructive local forest use and hunting (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Lao PDR, despite the presence of local taboos on hunting gibbons (Geissmann 2007), these animals are captured and killed for subsistence as well as the pet and ?medicine? trades (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Viet Nam, depending on the locality, these gibbons are threatened by mostly human impact on habitat (Van Ban, Lao Cai Province) or mostly hunting pressure (Mu Cang Chai, Yen Bai Province and Son La Province), but it is ultimately always a combination of the two (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; Tallents <em>et al</em>. 2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b; Le Trong Dat <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2001; Ngo Van Tri and Long 2000).
39776		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. In Viet Nam it is listed on Appendix 1B of Decree 32, 2006. In Cambodia, yellow-cheeked gibbons have been recorded from several protected areas, including Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary, Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary, and Virachey National Park (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Lao PDR, they are present in effectively all protected areas within their range (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Viet Nam, Bach Ma National Park, Cat Tien National Park, Bu Gia Map National Park and Nui Chua National Park hold important populations (T. Geissmann <em>et al</em>. pers comm.).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions for this species include: regulation of hunting and wildlife trade; minimization of habitat disturbance; and research and field surveys throughout the range, specifically sound recordings, genetic analysis and photographic recordings to help better define the distribution area (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/>The species is the second-most common species of crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) maintained in zoos (Gibbon Network 2006; Moisson and Baudier 2005; Varsik 2000).
39776		distribution	eng	Traditionally, the range of <em>N. gabriellae</em> includes northeastern Cambodia, south of Ratanakari province, and southern Viet Nam, south of Bach Ma. The range here extends further to the north to include animals that, at least phenotypically (coloration), are <em>N. gabriellae</em>, to include southern Lao PDR, as far north as Savannakhet and to Thua Thien Hue province (and possibly Quang Tri province) in central Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).
39776		habitat	eng	This species is found in tall evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (Geissman <em>et al.</em> 2000), although it probably ranges into other forest types (like mixed bamboo and woodland forest) adjacent to these, and may also occur in riverine and gallery forest associations. In Bach Ma National Park (central Viet Nam), gibbons appeared to live in lowland evergreen forest at altitudes between 400 and 800 m, although the park area also includes forest areas at higher altitudes (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Lao PDR, gibbons are found from the Mekong plains up to at least 1,550 in the Phou Ahyon area, and 1,650 m in Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), but the species is scarce above an altitude of 1,500 m (Eames and Robson, 1993).<br/><br/>Like other gibbons, yellow-cheeked crested gibbons are arboreal and diurnal. Average group size is on the order 3?5 individuals. They feed mainly on fruit and leaves (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005). Home range sizes in Nam Cat Tien National Park range from less than 30 ha in evergreen forest to up to 100 ha in bamboo forest (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005).
39776		population	eng	It is likely that this species is the most common of the crested gibbons in Viet Nam, although this is difficult to assess given the uncertainty of the identity of animals in the northern part of the range (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). Brickle <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that it was fairly common in some areas of Dak Lak province, and the Lam Dong Plateau seems to support a relatively large population of this species (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bach Ma National Park (central Viet Nam), eight groups were recorded during a survey covering one 6 km<sup>2</sup> of the park (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Cat Tien National Park the population has been estimated at 150 groups and around 500 individuals (Hao <em>et al</em>. 2005). Based on a status report, Geissmann <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded 15 localities where traditional <em>N. gabriellae</em> should occur, of which five no longer held any populations. There were an additional nine localities for the questionable <em>N. gabriellae</em> area, and gibbons no longer occurred in three of these. These must have been relatively recent losses. Recent disappearance of individual groups (for undetermined reasons) was also reported for Bach Ma National Park (Tallents <em>et al</em>. 2001), and disappearance of individual groups as a result of habitat clearance was reported for Nam Cat Tien (Geissmann 1995).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, in Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, the population is estimated at between 1,300 and 1,700 groups (Rawson and Clements in prep.), but including the surrounding forested areas the total population may be twice this size (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other estimates include: about 850 groups in Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary; about 360 groups in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary estimated; 330 groups in Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary; 5,750 groups in Virachey National Park, and 1,100 groups in the Pheapimex concession (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, high gibbon densities have been reported from Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1999). There is an estimated 400-6,720 groups from Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1995). The large Xe Pian-Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Areas population is of major global significance for gibbon conservation (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>During a survey of about 6 km<sup>2</sup> of Bach Ma National Park (Thua Thien Hue province, central Viet Nam) where forests occupy 220 km², a density of about 1.3 goups/km<sup>2</sup> was estimated (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2007). Among six provinces from Thua Thien Hue (central Viet Nam) to Thanh Hoa (southern part of north Viet Nam), Dak Rong Nature Reserve (Quang Tri province, central Viet Nam) was identified as one locality with the highest gibbon density, with an estimated density of only 0.06 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al</em>. 2005). Estimated population densities in Cambodia range from 0.00 to 3.73 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (n = 15), with an average of 1.47 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39776		threats	eng	The major threat in Cambodia and Viet Nam is hunting for the pet trade, although in Lao PDR hunting takes place mainly for food. Areas in southern Viet Nam have been heavily degraded by the spraying of aerial defoliant, agricultural encroachment, and logging, though this species appears to survive in moderately disturbed forest, as suggested by its continued presence in Cat Tien National Park and Dak Uyn Sate Forest Enterprise (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000).
39779		conservation	eng	This species is protected throughout its range, both by local laws as well as internationally through its listing on CITES Appendix I (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is known to occur in at least nine protected areas: Bukit Barisan National Park, Gunung Leuser National Park, Way Kambas National Park, West Langkat R (Indonesia); Fraser?s Hill R, Gunong Besout Forest Reserve, Krau Wildlife Reserve, Ulu Gombak Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia); Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) (M. Richardson pers. comm.). There is a large worldwide captive population, in 96 collections.
39779		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (Barisan Mountains of west-central Sumatra), Malaysia (mountains of the Malay Peninsula south of the Perak River), and a small area of southern peninsular Thailand (Chivers 1974; Khan, 1970; O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; Treesucon and Tantithadapitak 1997). It may have formerly occurred on the island of Bangka (Indonesia) as well. Reports of this species from Myanmar are almost certainly erroneous.
39779		habitat	eng	This species lives in primary and secondary semi-deciduous and tropical evergreen forest. All levels of the canopy are used, although emergent trees are required for resting and sleeping. Siamangs occur at lower densities in secondary forest, but can persist in secondary areas. They range from the lowlands up to 1,500 m in elevation. During a short survey in southern Sumatra, siamangs appeared to be less sensitive to habitat degradation than sympatric agile gibbons, <em>Hylobates agilis </em>(Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2006). Since Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park coffee plantations have no canopy, they provide no habitat for this species (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Though this species is primarily folivorous in mainland Asia (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1984), it is primarily frugivorous on Sumatra (Palombit 1992; West 1982), feeding mostly on figs (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). Palombit (1992) argues that these animals are flexible foragers, preferring fruit when available, but able to switch to leaves when necessary. Such flexibility may help reduce siamang vulnerability to habitat disturbance (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). Siamang are strictly arboreal, highly territorial, and primarily monogamous (Chivers 1974). Extra-pair copulations have been reported in Ketambe, Gunung Leuser National Park, Sumatra (Palombit 1994), and groups with more than one adult male have been reported in the Way Kambas National Park population, Sumatra (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; Lappan 2005, 2007). Home range has been recorded at 15-47 ha on the Malayan peninsula (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1977; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980), and dispersal distance is less than 3 km. O?Brien <em>et al.</em> (2003) found that monogamy and strict territoriality may limit the range of possible response to fire and other severe disturbances by this species.
39779		population	eng	In a study on this species in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, O?Brien <em>et al.</em> (2004) calculated an average group density of one group for every 2.23 km<sup>2</sup>, with an average group size of 3.9, and a population estimate of 22,390 individuals. Healthy populations persist at the southern limit of its range in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, and these populations should survive over the long-term if the park maintains its present forest area, and if illegal hunting and habitat degradation are stopped (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). While some populations of this species appear secure today, its future is uncertain and will depend on vastly improved conservation efforts, especially in Sumatra?s remaining parks and protected areas (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). Population densities for this species range from 2.4 to 24.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).
39779		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest conversion and opportunistic collection for pet trade on Sumatra, where both of these threats extend to populations in national parks and protection forests (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). Between 1995 and 2000, almost 40% of the habitat for this species on Sumatra was damaged or destroyed by logging, road development (barrier and hunting) and conversion to agriculture or plantations (O?Brien unpubl. data). Legal logging seems to be accelerating in Sumatra (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2006). Forests, where they remain, are extremely fragmented. Coffee plantations present an increasing threat (O?Brien and Kinnaird 2003). The siamang is one of the most heavily traded gibbon species for illegal pet trade (V. Nijman pers. comm.).
39780		conservation	eng	Pongo abelii is listed on Appendix I of CITES and is strictly protected under Indonesian domestic legislation (UU No 5/1990). Protection of large areas of primary forest below 1,000 m asl is needed to secure their long term future.<br/><br/>A major stronghold is the Leuser Ecosystem conservation area: 2.6 million ha supporting circa 75% of remaining Sumatran orangutans. The Leuser Ecosystem was inaugurated by Presidential Decree in 1998 and its conservation is called for in the Act of Parliament No 11/2006 concerning Governance in Aceh. Management of the Ecosystem does not exclude non-forest uses, but stresses the importance of sustainable management with conservation of natural resources as the primary goal. Within the Leuser Ecosystem is the designated 900,000 ha Gunung Leuser National Park, but this mountainous area supports only 25% of the orangutans. The Gunung Leuser National Park is also a Man and Biosphere reserve and part of the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra World Heritage Cluster Site. Outside of the Leuser Ecosystem there are no other notable large conservation areas harbouring this species.<br/><br/>In the wake of the December 2004 tsunami, efforts are also underway to establish a second ?Ulu Masen? ecosystem along similar lines to Leuser, incorporating the North East and North West Aceh populations. However, this process is in its early stages and there are already threats to open at least four large logging concessions in this area.
39780		distribution	eng	<em>Pongo abelii</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is generally restricted to the north of the island, north of the Batang Toru river on the west coast of North Sumatra province (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2003). It was once far more widespread and populations occurred as far south as Jambi and Padang up until at least the mid 1800s (see Rijksen 1978). There were reports of its existence in some parts of West Sumatra province as recently as the 1960s. However, surveys by Wich <em>et al</em>. (2003) found no evidence of their continuing survival south of the Batang Toru river.<br/><br/>The majority of wild Sumatran orangutans survive in the province of Aceh (more formally known as Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, or NAD), at the northernmost tip of the island. There are populations within North Sumatra province, but the largest of these also straddles the border with Aceh. Only two potentially viable populations lie entirely within North Sumatra province: West Batang Toru and East Sarulla, both near, but south-west of lake Toba (for precise locations see Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Within Aceh, almost all remaining forest patches of any size still harbour orangutans at the lower altitudes, but there are few, if any reproducing populations in the large tracts of forest above 1,000 m asl.
39780		habitat	eng	The Sumatran orangutan is almost exclusively arboreal. Females virtually never travel on the ground and adult males do so only rarely. This is in contrast to Bornean orangutans (especially adult males) which more often descend to the ground. While both species depend on high-quality primary forests, Bornean orangutans appear better able to tolerate habitat disturbance. In Sumatra densities plummet by up to 60% with even selective logging (see Rao and van Schaik 1997).<br/><br/>Sumatran orangutans are primarily frugivores, but also eat leaves, insects (termites and ants) and on occasion, the meat of slow loris (Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004, Wich <em>et al</em>. 2006). Female home ranges are 800 to 1,500 ha. The true extent of male home range size is not fully known, although ranges in excess of 3,000 ha are inferred (Singleton and van Schaik 2001).<br/><br/>Females first give birth at about 15 years of age (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2004). Interbirth intervals are 8.2 to 9.3 years (compared with 6.1 to 7.7 years for <em>P. pygmaeus</em>; Wich <em>et al</em>. 2004, van Noordwijk and van Schaik 2005) and gestation lasts approximately 254 days (Kingsley 1981). Males exhibit bimaturism, whereby fully flanged adult males and the smaller unflanged males are both capable of reproducing, but employ differing mating strategies to do so (see Utami Atmoko <em>et al</em>. 2002). Longevity in the wild has been estimated at 58 years for males and 53 years for females (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2004).
39780		population	eng	The most recent estimate for <em>Pongo abelii</em> is around 7,300 (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004), occupying forests that cover 20,552 km², but of which only those regions below 1,000 m asl (circa 8,992 km²) harbour permanent orangutan populations. Each population listed in Table 1 is considered to comprise a single contiguous population, but increasing fragmentation may result in further subdivisions in the near future. All except Seulawah have been adopted by the UNEP/UNESCO GRASP (Great Ape Survival Programme: see Caldecott and Miles 2005) initiative as priority populations for conservation. A few small fragments of forest outside of those listed may still contain small numbers of orangutans but none are considered viable in the long term. (See supporting documentation).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: <em>Pongo abelii</em> populations.<br/><br/>In addition to the above, original wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing.
39780		threats	eng	This species is seriously threatened by logging (both legal and illegal), wholesale conversion of forest to agricultural land and oil palm plantations, and fragmentation by roads. Animals are also illegally hunted and captured for the international pet trade but this appears to be more a symptom of habitat conversion, as orangutans are killed as pests when they raid fruit crops at the forest edge.<br/><br/>A new threat is the Ladia Galaska road network in Aceh province, which if legitimized by the government will rapidly fragment most of the populations listed above. Another major concern is the re-issuing of logging permits for large tracts of forest in Aceh.<br/><br/>An assessment of forest loss in the 1990s concluded that forests supporting at least 1,000 orangutans were lost each year within the Leuser Ecosystem alone (van Schaik <em>et al</em>. 2001). These loss rates subsequently dropped dramatically during major civil conflict in the province, and the imposition of a moratorium on logging in Aceh. A peace deal negotiated in 2005 led to political stability and many new applications to open up logging concessions and palm oil estates in orangutan habitat.<br/><br/>In parts of North Sumatra orangutans are also still hunted on occasions for food.
39781		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39781		distribution	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39781		habitat	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39781		population	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39781		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39782		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39782		distribution	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39782		habitat	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39782		population	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39782		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
39792		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It is listed as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, Category I under the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act (1989), and as Schedule II under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Chetry <em>et al.</em> 2003) amended up to 2002. <br/><br/>Northern pig-tailed macaques are known to occur in numerous protected areas, including Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Lawachara National Park, Rema-Kelanga Wildlife Sanctuary (Bangladesh); Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Nanguanhe Nature Reserve, Wuliangshan Nature Reserve, Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve (China); Balpakhram National Park, Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary, Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary, Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary, Intanki National Park, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Lengteng Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Murlen National Park, Namdapha National Park, Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary, Padumoni-Bherjan-Borajan Wildlife Sanctuary, Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park, Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary, Siju WS, Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary (India); Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuary (Myanmar); Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand); Cat Tien National Park, Pu Mat National Park (Viet Nam). May possibly occur in Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR) (M. Richardson pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003)
39792		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Bangladesh, Cambodia, southern China (southwestern Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura), Lao PDR, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), Thailand (from about 8°N and including adjacent islands), and central and southern Viet Nam. There might be a gap in the distribution in central and northeastern Myanmar between about 20 and 25°N, where it has not been recorded except on the coast at Arakan. In India found north to the Brahmaputra River (Groves 2001).<br/>Records from Xizang (China) are probably misidentified rhesus macaques (MacKinnon in press).  It has recently been recorded from Namdapha National Park in northeastern India (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>The precise taxonomic boundary between <em>M. leonina</em> and <em>M. nemestrina</em> is not well defined. There are populations of the two taxa found on either side of the distribution limits in the Isthmus of Kra, but many of these populations are the result of release by humans. The two species hybridize in a small area of southern peninsular Thailand, as well as on the islands of Phuket and Yao Yai (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/>In Viet Nam, there are historical records from as far north as Nghe An province, but there is uncertainty as to whether the species was ever found north of this province. It is widely distributed throughout the lower elevations (below 500 m) of Lao PDR and Cambodia (R. Timmins pers. comm.). It is found over much Myanmar except in areas of human settlements.
39792		habitat	eng	This is a predominantly terrestrial animal, although it readily climbs and forages in the canopy. It is diurnal and frugivorous. It occupies tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, tropical wet evergreen forest, tropical moist deciduous forest, coastal forest, swamp forest, low elevation pine forests (in Lao PDR and China) and montane forest, including degraded forests. In China the species occupies elevations between 50-2,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; Choudhury 2003). In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species is associated with lowlands, usually below 500 m. Its generation time is 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). According to secondary information and recent records, populations in Myanmar live between 190-400 m (S. Htun pers. comm.).
39792		population	eng	In China, the species’ population is estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002). No information is available on the status of the population, but is thought to be declining rapidly. A very small population occurs in Bangladesh, which is isolated from the neighboring Indian locations. This habitat is degrading rapidly, thereby causing a continuing decline in mature individuals in the country (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). A group density of 0.07 individuals/km² was recorded in Namdapha National Park, India, by Chetry <em>et al</em>. (2003). There is no precise information available on population numbers in Myanmar or India, but populations are declining rapidly in India, and declining steadily in Myanmar. The animals are very patchily distributed in Myanmar. <br/> <br/>The species is widely distributed and common in large forest blocks remaining in south and central Lao PDR, but the species is much scarcer in northern Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R. Timmins pers. comm.). It is widely distributed through the remaining forest areas of Cambodia. Populations are stable in Thailand. <br/>Declines are due to different threats in different countries. There have been declines of more than 30% in the last 30-35 years in India, Bangladesh, China, Viet Nam and Myanmar. There are perceptible declines in Lao PDR and Cambodia, but the rates are close to or lower than 30%. In most of the countries, the species is predicted to decline at a rate higher than 30% over the next three generations.
39792		threats	eng	Habitat disturbances that affect this species' survival include: selective logging; timber and firewood collection for making charcoal; building roads, dams, power lines; and deliberately setting fires. These threats lead to forest fragmentation and soil loss/erosion. Specifically, a decrease in habitat quality has been due to the loss of fruiting trees and sleeping sites through monocultures and plantations, selective felling, and a subsequent increase in the canopy gaps. These animals are hunted and traded for food, sport and traditional “medicine”, and accidental mortality due to trapping occurs. There is a local trade for bones, meat for food and the live animals as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Habitat loss and poaching are the major threats in India and Bangladesh. There has been a reduction in forest in Assam by over 10% in two years between 2001 and 2003 (Forest Survey of India 2003).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia, hunting for food and trade is the primary threat, but as a predominantly lowland species habitat loss likely is also a major threat to the species.  In Thailand, the males of this species are exploited for picking coconuts by the industry.  Sometimes, a well-trained macaque is sold for 1,000USD. They are also in demand by resorts for show (R. Boonratana pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, hunting, trade, habitat loss in varying degrees, shifting cultivation in the north, logging in the east and south, and rubber plantations are the major threats (S. Htun pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, hunting, habitat loss and disturbance are major threats. There is a perceptible change in habitat quality that has an impact on the species (Huang <em>et al.</em> pers. comm.).
39794		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected areas. Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971; conservation education, especially regarding hunting; and the development of alternative economic models for the local people, to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39794		distribution	eng	This species occurs exclusively on the southern Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Pagai Selatan, Pagai Utara, and Sipora) (Roos <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39794		habitat	eng	This species is found in both primary and disturbed areas (Whitten and Whitten 1982; Fuentes 1996/1997), preferring primary riverine coastal swamp forest (Wilson and Wilson 1976). It is primarily frugivorous (Whitten and Whitten 1982).
39794		population	eng	All populations of this species are urgently in need of protective measures (Whittaker 2006). The most recent estimates of density for it suggest 7-12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in suitable habitat in the Pagai Islands (Paciulli 2004), giving a total of about 2,100 to 3,700 individuals (down from 15,000 in 1980) (Whittaker 2006). This species lives at much higher densities in logged forest than in unlogged forest, and their highest density is in forest logged 20 years ago (Whittaker 2006).
39794		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006), as well as by conversion to oil palm plantations and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Only 10-15% of the original forest cover remains on Sipora (Fuentes 1996/1997). Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of improved access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles (anything larger is illegal in Indonesia) (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade is also a threat to this species (Whittaker 2006). Though this species is not a preferred food item, it is still hunted and poisoned as it is considered a crop pest (Whittaker 2006). While habitat disturbance appears to positively affect population densities, it is found in lower densities near human settlements (Whittaker 2006).
39795		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, but its legal protection in Indonesia is questionable as it is a new species. It occurs in one protected area, Siberut National Park. There are no specimens in captivity.<br/><br/>Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement, formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible, conservation education, especially regarding hunting, and the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.
39795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Siberut, one of the Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra (Roos <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39795		habitat	eng	It is found in both primary and disturbed areas (Whitten and Whitten 1982; Fuentes 1996/1997), preferring primary riverine coastal swamp forest (Wilson and Wilson 1976). It is primarily frugivorous (Whitten and Whitten 1982).
39795		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be between 17,000 and 30,000, down from 39,000 in 1980 (Whittaker 2006). They have higher densities in logged than unlogged forest, and reach their highest densities in forest logged 20 years ago (Paciulli 2004).
39795		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006), as well as by conversion to oil palm plantations, and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of improved access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles (anything larger is illegal in Indonesia) (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade is also a threat (Whittaker 2006). Though this species is not a preferred food item, it is still hunted and poisoned as it is considered a crop pest (Whittaker 2006). While habitat disturbance appears to positively affect population densities, it is found in lower densities near human settlements (Whittaker 2006).
39803		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. The majority of the remaining populations are found in national parks. The species is protected in Sarawak. Further research and surveys are necessary to confirm the persistence and population size of the five remaining sites, which include Maludam National Park, Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Similajau National Park, and Tanjung Datu National Park in Malaysia, and possibly Betung Kerihun National Park in Indonesia. It is present as well in the Lingga area of Sarawak, which has recently been proposed as a protected area.
39803		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo, it occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). It is found north and northeast of the Kapuas River in northwestern Kalimantan, and through Sarawak (mainly in coastal areas) and Brunei as far as Melalap, Sabah (Groves 2001). The species is found only in remaining habitat within its extent of occurrence; much of its mapped range is historical. There is some confusion about where this species still remains, as many of the records are also historical.<br/><br/><em>P. c. chrysomelas</em>: <br/>Occurs in western Brunei, northwestern Kalimantan (northeast of the Kapuas River) and western Sarawak, as far as the IV Division of Sarawak (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>P. c. cruciger:</em><br/>Ranges from the Baram District (in northeastern Sarawak) to Sabah (Groves 2001).
39803		habitat	eng	This species is found in swamp and lowland forests, as well as mangrove. Group size is 3-7 individuals (J. Hon pers. comm.).
39803		population	eng	This species was reported as common in the early 20th century (Baccari 1904; Banks 1931), in areas where today it no longer occurs. Recent records are from five sites: Maludam National Park (Malaysia); Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary (Malaysia); Similajau National Park (Malaysia); Tanjung Datu National Park (Malaysia); the Lingga area of Sarawak (Malaysia); and possibly Betung Kerihun National Park (Indonesia) (J. Hon pers. comm.). Combined population estimates from these sites are very low (approximately 200-500 individuals) (J. Hon and V. Nijman pers. comm.).
39803		threats	eng	Habitat conversion has historically been the main threat to this species, resulting in its disappearance from most of its former range. It has in particular been affected by expanding plantations, especially oil palm, in recent years.
39826		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, as well as under Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. Both Viet Nam and Lao PDR have legislation regarding the hunting of this species, but this is not enforced (Lippold 1989; Timmins and Duckworth 1999).<br/><br/><em>P. nemaeus</em> has been recorded from a number of protected areas throughout its range, including Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Phou Xang He National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Xe Bang Nouan National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR); Bach Ma National Park, Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Pu Mat National Park (Viet Nam). The species also occurs in Viet Nam in the proposed Khe Net Nature Reserve (M. Richardson pers. comm.) and Son Tra Nature Reserve (Lippold and Thanh 2008).<br/><br/>There is an ongoing captive-breeding program at the Endangered Primate Rescue Centre at Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam.
39826		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Lao PDR and northern and central Viet Nam and has recently been recorded in northern Cambodia. In Viet Nam, the southern limit is Kon Tum province and the northerly limit is Nghe An Province. This species is the only one of its genus found for certain in Lao PDR (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2004), ranging from Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Bolkhamsay in the north south to the Xe Kong River in Attapeu Province. Doucs occur south of the Xe Kong, but pelage characteristics are ambiguous making identification problematic (Timmins and Duckworth 1999). The species was recently confirmed for northern Cambodia in Voensei district, Ratanakiri through genetic analysis, however, the extent of the species distribution in Cambodia is still to be determined. It should, however, be noted that these individuals show the same pelage characteristics as those described from southernmost Lao PDR (Timmins and Duckworth 1999; B. Rawson pers. comm.).
39826		habitat	eng	This species occurs in undisturbed primary and secondary evergreen and semi-evergreen broadleaf forests (Lippold 1989); it is also associated with forests on limestone (karst). It is diurnal and arboreal (Timmins and Duckworth 1999), although the animals are sometimes seen on the ground. In Lao PDR, the species was recorded at up to 1,600 m in elevation (Timmins and Duckworth 1999).<br/><br/>They are mainly folivorous (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003), with an estimated 75% of their diet consisting of small tender leaves (Lippold 1989). They will also eat buds, fruit, seeds, and flowers (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Behavioral characteristics of this species make it easy to hunt (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Recent fieldwork has substantiated that groups vary in size, and that this variation may be related to environmental and human disturbance, especially hunting (Lippold 1989), although this may also be attributable to a fission-fusion social structure.
39826		population	eng	The population in Lao PDR is likely to be large, and is much more stable than that in Viet Nam, where after several decades of intense human pressure, populations have undergone significant declines. However, a recent survey conducted in the Son Tra Nature Reserve, revealed twelve groups of red-shanked douc langurs with at least 171 individuals at high densities (Lippold and Thanh 2008). In Lao PDR, the largest population occurs in the Nam Theun basin and surroundings, and encompasses several protected areas, representing the most important global population of the species (Timmins and Duckworth 1999).
39826		threats	eng	Hunting is currently the major threat to this species, most often for subsistence use and traditional “medicine”, as well as sometimes for the international pet trade, especially from Lao PDR to Viet Nam and Thailand (Timmins and Duckworth 1999; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2004). Destruction of its natural habitat is also a threat to this species; a large portion in the central part of Viet Nam has suffered from post-war human demographic explosion and extensive logging for coffee, rubber, and cashew plantations (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2004), as well as wood collecting. The translocation of some three million people from the north of Viet Nam to the central highlands is likely to exacerbate rates of habitat loss through the Vietnamese range of the species. In Lao PDR and Viet Nam, general infrastructure development, and specifically the construction of the Ho Chi Minh Highway, poses a major threat to the habitat of this species.
39827		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I, and listed on Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. The species occurs in several protected areas in Viet Nam, especially Song Thanh, Ngoc Linh, Kon Kai Kinh, and Kon Cha Rang; however, protection against hunting and habitat disturbance is not completely enforced (Ha Thanh Long 2004). A long-term study in Gia Lai Province included in the ?Viet Nam Primate Conservation Program? of the Frankfurt Zoological Society is currently in place (Ha Thanh Long 2004), and additional surveys in the distribution area are also included in the program, which may perhaps identify new populations. There is an ongoing captive-breeding program for this species at the Endangered Primate Rescue Center at Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam, which also incorporates an education component.
39827		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Viet Nam, in Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Binh Dinh, Kon Tum, and Gia Lai provinces (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003; Ha Thang Long 2004).
39827		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen primary and highly degraded forest. Like the other doucs, <em>Pygathrix cinerea</em> is largely arboreal and mainly folivorous, though plant buds, fruit, seeds, and flowers are also taken (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39827		population	eng	The total population for this species is estimated at 550 to 700 individuals, but some areas with assumed occurrence are not yet surveyed (Ha Thang Long 2004).
39827		threats	eng	The Viet Namese Central Highland forests where these animals occur lose almost 10,000 ha of forest annually due to logging and agricultural conversion. This creates a progressively more fragmented habitat and population structure. Additionally, they are hunted for food, traditional "medicine" (for example it is used in the preparation of "monkey balm"), and for sale as pets (Ha Thanh Long 2004). Their behavioural responses to hunting, hiding motionless in the canopy rather than fleeing, make them more vulnerable (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003); they also become susceptible to snaring when they come to the ground to move in degraded habitats.
39828		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix I, as well as under Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam and is protected under The Law on Forestry NS/RKM/0802/016, article 49, identified as <em>Pygathrix nemaeus</em> in Prakas 020 PR.MAFF in Cambodia.<br/><br/>It is known to occur in several protected areas: Mondulkiri Protection Forest, Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Snuol Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary (Cambodia); Bu Gia Map National Park, Cat Tien National Park, Kon Kai Kinh National Park, Kong Cha Rang Nature Reserve, Mom Ray Nature Reserve, Nui Chua National Park (Viet Nam) (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 2007; BirdLife unpubl. data; Timmins and Ou Rattanak 2001; Walston <em>et al</em>. 2001; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). A recommended action for the conservation of this species in Viet Nam is the expansion Bu Gia Map National Park to include all unprotected contiguous forests, particularly since this is adjacent to a protected area network containing the largest population of black-shanked doucs in neighboring Cambodia. Additional survey work is also required to identify key populations.
39828		distribution	eng	The species is found in north-eastern Cambodia and southern Viet Nam. Although once thought to be rare with a limited distribution, recent fieldwork has demonstrated that populations of this species are quite widespread (Lippold 1995). In Cambodia, they are found only east of the Mekong with an unknown northerly extent, although it provisionally occurs sympatrically with <em>Pygathrix nemaeus</em> in Voensei district, Ratanakiri (B. Rawson pers. comm.). The diversity and species identities of populations found in northernmost Cambodia, specifically Virachey National Park, is unknown. The presence of this species in Lao PDR has never been confirmed (Nadler<em>et al</em>. 2003). In southern Viet Nam, this species has a fragmented distribution extending from Sa Tay district (Kon Tum Province) in the north to just south of Cat Tien National Park in the south.
39828		habitat	eng	These animals are predominantly arboreal but may occasionally come to the ground. They are found in evergreen, semi-evergreen and semi-evergreen-mixed deciduous forest mosaics, as well as in coastal dry forest. It seems that species of this genus can adapt to relatively heavily disturbed forest (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Diet is apparently variable by site, being mainly composed of leaves with differing levels of supplementation with seeds, fruits and flowers (Hoang Minh Duc and Baxter 2006; Rawson 2006). Behavioral characteristics of this species make it easy to hunt (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39828		population	eng	The largest known population exists in Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri province, Cambodia, where distance estimates provide a population estimate of approximately 42,000 individuals (95% confidence interval of 27,309 – 66,460) (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 2007). The densities found in Seima are probably close to carrying capacity for the species in such habitat. The largest population in Viet Nam may be in Nui Chua National Park (Ninh Thuan Province), which is estimated at 500-700 individuals (Hoang Minh Duc and Ly Ngoc Sam 2005). The only other known population estimate comes from the Nam Cat Tien sector of Cat Tien NP (Dong Nai, Binh Phuoc and Lam Dong Provinces) and is estimated at 109 individuals (Phan Duy Thuc <em>et al.</em> 2005). In southern Viet Nam, this species survives in a large number of small, isolated forest fragments, in comparison with the situation with the red-shanked doucs in the north, where the species is not able to persist in small forest fragments.
39828		threats	eng	Hunting is currently the major threat to this species (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is most often hunted for traditional “medicine”, mainly from people coming from the north of Viet Nam where hunting of doucs for this purpose is more common; in the southern part of Viet Nam, hunting is primarily for the pet trade.<br/><br/>Destruction of its natural habitat is also a threat to this species; a large portion in the centre and south of Viet Nam suffered from massive wartime damage, and the post-war human demographic explosion and extensive logging for coffee, rubber, and cashew plantations have reduced its natural habitat. Most forest at lowland elevations has been cleared and little forest remains undisturbed (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). The translocation of some 3 million people from the north of Viet Nam to the central highlands is likely to exacerbate rates of habitat loss through the Viet Namese range of the species.
39832		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is on Schedule II, Part I, Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002, and Bangladesh: Schedule III, Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species occurs in at least 7 protected areas: Achanakmar Sanctuary, Bhitarkanika National Park, Chandaka-Dampara Sanctuary, Gomarda Sanctuary, Palamau Sanctuary, Valmiki National Park and Valmiki Sanctuary. Its status in captivity is difficult to determine, owing to taxonomic confusion with related forms.<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al. </em>(2003) recommended research on taxonomy, human-animal conflicts, and more surveys, as well as habitat management, wild population management, public education, monitoring, and limiting factor management.
39832		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Bangladesh and eastern India (in Andhra Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, and West Bengal). The Bangladesh population is very likely to have originated from a single pair introduced by Hindu pilgrims on the bank of the River Jalangi (Delhi Gazette 2 March 1867; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Brandon-Jones 2004)
39832		habitat	eng	This species is mainly terrestrial, folivorous, and diurnal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in a wide variety of habitats, including close to human habitations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003) at elevations up to 400 m (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003).
39832		population	eng	The total population of this species is unknown. Most of the populations occupy human-dominated landscapes, with very few actually occurring in forested areas. Conflict with humans are a major cause of concern and predicted declines are based on this.
39832		threats	eng	Molur <em>et al. </em>(2003) lists the following threats for this species: intensive agriculture, habitat loss, man-animal conflict, and fires. Hunting for food by newly settled human populations in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa is very rampant and many populations are affected locally.
39833		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and Schedule II Part I, of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its occurrence in protected areas is difficult to determine owing to taxonomic uncertainty. The following areas are in need of research: taxonomy, life history, survey studies, limiting factor research, behavioral ecology. The following management actions for the conservation of this species are needed: wild population management, monitoring, public education, and limiting factor management (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).
39833		distribution	eng	This species is reported as occurring in northwestern India in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (Groves 2001). It is claimed by Brandon-Jones (2004) that this species occurs in Melemchi, Nepal. Concrete evidence indicates its occurrence only in Chamba Valley in Himachal Pradesh (C. Groves pers. comm.). The species range is very restricted (<5,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and therefore also its area of occupancy (<500 km<sup>2</sup>).
39833		habitat	eng	This species is found in pine, moist temperate and alpine cedar forest from 2,200 to 4,000 m. It is folivorous, diurnal, and mainly terrestrial (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39833		population	eng	Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated a total population of this species of less than 500 individuals (250 mature). The valley where it lives is surrounded by snow peaks and therefore it has remained isolated from other langurs, and the population is very small (M. Singh and C. Groves pers. comm.). Decline in the past is not known but it is predicted to decline by less than 10% in the next 10 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39833		threats	eng	Molur <em>et al. </em>(2003) list the following past threats: overgrazing, building roads through forests, logging, deforestation, agriculture, and fire. Present and future threats include agriculture and development (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39835		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and Schedule II, Part II, Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed in the taxonomy of this species.
39835		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern and west-central India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharshtra, Goa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). It is found from the Godavari east to Diguvamatta and south through the foothills of the Nilgiri and other hill systems to Shernelly, but not including the enclave where <em>S. hypoleucos</em> is found (Groves 2001). The distribution of this species is very wide, with large subpopulations.
39835		habitat	eng	This species ranges from 100-1,700 m in tropical rainforest, dry deciduous forest, sacred groves, moist deciduous forest, gardens, riparian forest, and open scrub, and is commensal in many places (Molur, <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is well adapted to cultivated areas, and provisioning (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is arboreal, semi-terrestrial, primarily folivorous, and diurnal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Group size varies from 15 to 150 (A. Chhangani and M. Singh pers. comm.).
39835		population	eng	Total population size is unknown, but likely runs into several hundred thousands. Current decline is not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). There seems to be a high fluctuation in the population in Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).
39835		threats	eng	No major threats are identified for this species. In some areas there are serious local threats such as road kills, predation and domestic animal diseases, like mange, in commensal areas. Some areas in the Aravalis are under threat from mining (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).
39837		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and the Nepal National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) lists it as a common animal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Occurrence in protected areas and in captivity are difficult to determine owing to taxonomic uncertainty (M. Richardson pers. comm.), though it is known to occur in Rajaji National Park and Valmiki Sanctuary (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following areas in need of research: taxonomy, life history, survey studies, and limiting factor research. The following management actions are needed: habitat management, wild population management, monitoring, and public education.
39837		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bhutan, northern India (Uttaranachal, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal), and Nepal. It is found in the Himalayan foothills from Rajaji National Park (Uttaranchal) in the west to near Pankhabari (southwestern Bhutan) in the east, and throughout in between (Brandon-Jones 2004).
39837		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, such as moist deciduous forest of the Siwaliks, to oak forest in higher altitudes (A. Kumar pers. comm.). It ranges from 150 m to 1,600 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). It is arboreal, mainly terrestrial, diurnal, folivorous, and occurs in multi-male multi-female groups (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been observed feeding in orchards and crop fields outside of Rajaji National Park (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).
39837		population	eng	The population numbers are not known. It has avery patchy distribution due to human settlements and habitat loss. A continuing decline has been observed in extent, area and quality of habitat, and inferred in locations and mature individuals.
39837		threats	eng	Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following threats: mining, firewood and charcoal collection and production, timber collection, and land distribution (resettlement) for landless people. Loss of habitat, urbanization, and electrocution by power lines are other threats identified for this species.
39838		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and Schedule II, Part II, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Karnataka it occurs in the Bhadra Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Sanctuary, Kudremukh National Park, Nagarahole National Park, Pushpagiri Sanctuary, Sharavathi Valley Sanctuary (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003), and in Kerala in the Aralam Sanctuary and Wayanad Sanctuary.<br/><br/>Molur<em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following areas in need of research: taxonomy (on captive animals also), life history, survey, ecology and behavior. The following management actions are needed: habitat management, monitoring, and Population and Habitat Viability Assessment.
39838		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western India (Goa, Karnataka and Kerala), centred on the Western Ghats. It is found from Molem in Goa in the north to the periphery of Silent Valley in the south. The total range covers over 35,000 km<sup>2</sup>, with the species occurring both in and outside of protected areas.
39838		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical rainforest, moist deciduous forest, sacred groves, gardens, and riparian forest, from 100 to 1,200 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unusual among <em>Semnopithecus</em> species in that it is a specialized wet forest form (Groves pers. comm.). This species is arboreal, semi-terrestrial, primarily folivorous, and diurnal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).
39838		population	eng	The total population size is unknown, and current decline is not known, yet it is predicted to decline by more than 10% in the next 10 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some areas (south of Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary), hunting is serious and the population is expected to decline (M. Singh pers. comm.). The species has been extirpated from the eastern slopes of the Brahmagiri Hills in Coorg (except in Nagarahole National Park) due to hunting pressures (S. Molur pers. comm.)
39838		threats	eng	In the past, expanding timber plantations were threats; in the present and future, threats include agriculture, human settlement, fragmentation, habitat loss, mining, deforestation, hunting, deliberate fires, and local trade for live animals and meat for food and traditional medicine (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Hunting is considered the most serious threat to the taxon.
39840		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. The species is found in at least 10 protected areas in South Asia: Chail WLS, Changthang WLS, Dachigam NP, Hemis NP, Kanchanjunga NP and Karakoram WLS in India; Langtang NP, Makalu Barun NP and Everest Nature Reserve in Nepal; and Manshi WLS in Pakistan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).
39840		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the monsoon forests of North Western Frontier province of Pakistan through the high Himalayan elevations (1,500-4,000 m) of India, Nepal and up to the Sankosh river in Bhutan. In China it is found in the Tibetan regions in Bo Qu, Ji Long Zang Bu and the Chumbi valleys.
39840		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical to temperate broadleaved forest, pine forest, riparian, montane forest, riverine forest, rocky outcrops, and scrub jungle (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). A. Kumar (pers. comm.) has observed this species at 3,500 m, but has reports of its occurrence above this elevation, may be up to 4,000 m. It is diurnal, terrestrial, arboreal, and folivorous.
39840		population	eng	Global population numbers are unknown, although the species is generally common. It occurs at relatively low densities in Sikkim (India), where it occupies mixed pine forests (A. Kumar pers. comm.). There are four locations of occurrence in China with more than 1,000 individuals (Zhang Yongzu pers. comm.).
39840		threats	eng	The taxon, although widely distributed across the Himalayas, is subject to various threats from human interference including logging, habitat loss, fires, human habitations, expansion, developmental activities, encroachment, and war, which makes it susceptible to declines in areas subject to such threats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting is a threat in China (Zhang Yongzu pers. comm.); this species is used in traditional native “medicine” in Tibet.
39853		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Since the 1980s, in China, it has been listed as a Category I species under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1989.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam it occurs in several protected areas, including two national parks. At least two protected areas have been established specifically for this species: Sinh Long-Lung Nhoi Species and Habitat Conservation Area (Tuyen Quang Province) and Nam Xuan Lac Species and Habitat Conservation Area (Bac Kan Province).<br/><br/>In China it is found in 21 protected areas, three of which are national level (Lou <em>et al</em>. in litt.) Also, it is legally protected from hunting, though it faces additional threats there from unrestricted resource extraction and habitat disturbance (Hu <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is a successful captive-breeding program for this species now underway in China in Wushou (Nadler <em>et al. </em>2003).
39853		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern China (Chongqing, Guangxi and Guizhou provinces and Chongqing Municipality in Sichuan province), and northeastern Viet Nam. It is found from the Song Hong (Red River) in Viet Nam across the Chinese border as far as the Daming Hills in Guangxi, and about 25°N 105°E in Guizhou (Groves 2001).
39853		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-tropical monsoon and moist tropical and subtropical rainforests in limestone (karst) areas (Marsh 1987), though not in cone karsts. The animals utilize the cave formations and overhangs in these areas as shelter from weather, and for refuge. It ranges in elevation up to 1,500 m.  <br/><br/>Like other <em>Trachypithecus</em>, <em>T. francoisi</em> is mostly folivorous, with the remainder of its diet consisting of shoots, fruits, flowers, and bark. Males and females reach sexual maturity in five and four years, respectively. Litter size is usually one, and birth intervals for this species are recorded at about 20 months (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003).
39853		population	eng	This species is widespread, but populations are highly fragmented and isolated. There is no reliable population estimate for Viet Nam, but they are not likely to number more than 500 individuals there; no subpopulation contains more than 50 mature individuals (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). In China, in the southern part of the range (Guangxi Province), the largest population is estimated at 75 individuals in Nonggang Nature Reserve (Li <em>et al.</em> 2007). In the northern part of the range, the largest population is in Mayanghe Nature Reserve, where the population is estimated at roughly 700 individuals. The population estimate for 2003 in China was 1,400-1,650 individuals (Lou <em>et al</em>. in litt.).
39853		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, the major threat to this species is hunting, although some populations face pressures from mining and other resource extraction in the karst hills (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting mainly takes place for traditional “medicines” and to a lesser degree for meat (feeding predominantly Chinese restaurant markets). The isolation of populations due to habitat fragmentation taking place for agricultural development (rice paddies, maize) also threatens the genetic viability of small populations in Viet Nam (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Guangxi province, China, the threat of hunting is extremely severe, due to the illegal production of “black ape wine,” which is made specifically from this species; the animals are even imported illegally from Viet Nam for this purpose. Throughout the range in China, populations are threatened by habitat loss due to local cultivation and firewood extraction (Li <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Unmanaged fires that spread into limestone karst habitats also result in the loss of habitat.
39869		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. In Myanmar it is a protected species under the Wildlife Protection Law and occurs in at least two protected areas: Hukaung Tiger Reserve where taxonomic status is unresolved, Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary and Hkakaborazi National Park. In China it is a protected species and occurs in one protected area, Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.).
39869		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern China (Dulongjiang Valley, northwestern Yunnan) and northeastern Myanmar. In Myanmar, south of the Hukaung valley, it is found only east of the Chindwin River, with allied <em>T. pileatus</em> to the west (Pocock 1939). The situation in the Chindwin headwaters (Hukawng valley) is unclear, because animals show morphological variation suggesting the possibility of intergradation with <em>T. pileatus</em> and/or undescribed variation within <em>T. shortridgei</em> (Duckworth and Tizard pers. comm.). Morphologically typical animals also occur east of the Hukaung (Pidaung) and north almost to Hkakaborazi (Pocock 1939). It also occurs along the Dulong River in Gongshan District, Yunnan (Groves 2001).
39869		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. It is largely arboreal, sometimes terrestrial, and folivorous. Records with known altitudes range from 200 to 2,500 m (Pocock 1939) but it is possible that the species does not have viable populations in the upper 600-1,200 m of this range: collecting expeditions very rarely encountered it in the highlands, compared with its evident abundance in the Chindwin lowlands. It does not occur in the lower Chindwin, below the change from largely evergreen forest to largely deciduous.
39869		population	eng	Numbers are not known, but are believed to be declining owing to loss of habitat and hunting. The total population must be small, given the species’ restricted geographical  range.
39869		threats	eng	These animals are hunted for food and traditional “medicine,” sometimes as illegal exports to China. Habitat loss for agriculture and wood extraction is also a major threat. A large length of the Chindwin (where the species was discovered) and its adjacent plains are scheduled to be inundated by the Tazone hydro-electric power dam. As well as direct loss of habitat through inundation this will result in massive increases in hunting as the construction labourers will be expected to live off the land, and the reservoir formed will greatly increase accessibility to a huge area of foothill forest; without specific, directed, management, hunters will no doubt take advantage of this. A very large area of suitable habitat falls within the proposed Hukaung Tiger Reserve, but it is unclear whether this area supports morphologically typical animals. If they do not occur in Hukaung, habitat loss is a sever threat to the species, because most other protected areas in the Myanmar part of its range are highland, and habitat below 900 m is heavily degraded and fragmented, and such processes are ongoing.
39874		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded from Phu Quoc National Park (Viet Nam), and probably still occurs in Cat Tien National Park (Viet Nam), and it occurs in several protected areas in Thailand. Further survey and taxonomic work is needed to elucidate and better understand the population status and limits of distribution of this species, and especially to resolve the status of the form <em>margarita</em> relative to <em>germaini</em>.
39874		distribution	eng	The precise limits of distribution of this species are unclear. It is reliably recorded from Cambodia, Viet Nam, and from southern Lao PDR, where Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported them as far north as about 15.4°N. To the west of this, they extend to Kanchamburi Province in southern Thailand right to the Bay of Bengal in Myanmar, as Groves (2001) notes intersecting between the distributions of <em>T. obscurus</em> and <em>T. phayrei</em>. Records from Assam and elsewhere in north-east India, which have been attributed to this species, presumably relate to another species and indeed it is not mentioned as part of the range of this species by Groves (2005).
39874		habitat	eng	This is primarily a lowland species, with a preference for evergreen and semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, riverine and gallery forest. Records in hilly areas or at higher elevations are few.
39874		population	eng	This is a widespread but very rare species throughout most of its range (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). The apparently extremely low density of this species in Viet Nam suggests that the population has been seriously reduced due to human pressure (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). There are only a few sightings documented in that country over the last 50 years, though this may be a result of limited surveys conducted in the species' range (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been recorded in Cat Tien National Park but its relative abundance is not as high as douc langurs (<em>Pygathrix</em> spp.). In Lao PDR, it is probably localized though possibly common in a small number of areas; however, no large continuous area is known to support high populations (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is widespread in Cambodia, and, in certain areas (such as the lowlands of northern Mondulkiri) it may be the most common primate; in other areas, it is surprisingly rare or uncommon (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Thailand the taxon is moderately common in several protected areas, but has declined significantly (W. Brockelmann pers. comm.). In Kien Giang Province (confirmed <em>germaini</em>), five or six limestone hills have significant remaining populations. Overall, the impression is one of a significantly declining population.
39874		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are hunting, mainly for subsistence use and traditional “medicine”, the pet trade and habitat loss, mainly due to agricultural expansion.
39876		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I and on schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Overall, it is found in 30 protected areas in India (Choudhury 2001) and many others throughout its range.
39876		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Bangladesh, northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), and northwestern Myanmar (west of the Chindwin River). It might possibly occur in China (extreme southeastern Tibet). The distribution in India is restricted to points south of the Brahmaputra and east of the Dibang (Dingba Qu) Rivers (Choudhury 2001). Animals that once were common in the plains of Arunachal Pradesh (northeasternmost India) before that habitat was cultivated for agriculture and tea are not so anymore (Islam and Feeroz 1992). <br/><br/>The boundary between the two species of <em>Hoolock</em> is the Chindwin River, which flows into the Ayerawady (Irrawady) River. At the headwaters in the north there is a hybrid zone or cline between the two species (since they are almost certainly not reproductively isolated). Das <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported the discovery of a population of <em>H. leuconedys</em> in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India, which has traditionally been considered to be part of the range of <em>H. hoolock</em>.
39876		habitat	eng	This species is a forest-dweller that, depending on its locale, inhabits tropical evergreen rainforests, tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, tropical mixed deciduous forests, and subtropical broadleaf hill forests. It has also been noted in bamboo “brakes” and hollock (<em>Terminalia myriocarpa</em>) and ajhar (<em>Largerstroemia flosreginae</em>) plantations. One gibbon pair in the Borajan Reserved Forest (north-east India) was observed to habitually descend from the trees to move over scrub and short bamboo especially while trying to reach the isolated food trees inside a village. This pair was found sleeping at heights of 0 m or less in bamboo clumps (Kakati 1997). Although gibbons may be moving through, or sleeping in, bamboo forest or plantations, they cannot survive in monocultures (W. Brockleman pers. comm.). Additionally, the species has been observed in two plains forest locations (Choudhury 1991). Its preferred habitat, however, is dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (Choudhury 2001). It has been recorded at altitudes of up to 2,500 m in Manipur, northeast India (Choudhury 2001).<br/><br/>Home ranges in most populations range from 8-63 ha (Ahsan 2001; Alfred 1992; Alfred and Sati 1986, 1990; Feeroz and Islam 1992; Gittins and Tilson 1984; Islam and Feeroz 1992; Kakati 2004; Mukherjee 1986; Tilson 1979), but unusually large home ranges of 200-400 ha were reported from Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India (Mukherjee 1982; Mukherjee <em>et al</em>. 1988). The western hoolock is a frugivorous species, with ripe fruits composing a majority of its diet (Ahsan 2001; Alfred and Sati 1986, 1994; Feeroz and Islam 1992; Islam and Feeroz 1992; Kakati 1997; Tilson 1979). A dominantly folivorous diet was reported during studies carried out in Assam’s Borajan Reserved Forest, and in Tripura (Kakati 1997; Mukherjee 1986), and gibbons living in small forest fragments were observed to experience a period of almost total lack of fruit in their diet at the end of the dry season (Kakati, 2004). Low fruit availability may contribute to the relatively large home range sizes of some populations. In northeast India, the hoolock gibbon is recognized as being an important disperser of undigested seeds from large and small fruit-bearing trees (Das 2003).
39876		population	eng	There are estimated to be about 200-280 hoolocks in Bangladesh (Islam <em>et al.</em> 2006; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, a population has been identified in Medog Nature Reserve in southeastern Tibet, just across the border from Arunachal Pradesh, but the identity of this taxon is not established and there has been no survey conducted to determine the population numbers (W. Bleisch pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species occurs in several of India’s northeastern states, but populations there tend to be isolated. It is common in certain areas of occurrence, but rare in others due to intense hunting by local tribes (Choudhury 1991), and is considered rare throughout its range (Choudhury 2001). The species was found in all forested patches in northeastern India about 30 years ago, but they are reduced to a few forest fragments now. The total population in northeastern India was estimated to be about 2,600, of which the majority—about 2,000—occurs in the state of Assam (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). A population of about 170 gibbons has more recently been identified as <em>H. leuconedys</em> (Das <em>et al</em>. 2006) and should be subtracted from the population estimate if this identity is proven. Moreover, there are surveys needed in Mehao region, where there is uncertainty as to which species the gibbons there represent (Das <em>et al.</em> 2006; Das pers. comm.). Namdapha National Park in the Changlang District of Arunachal Pradesh is a relative stronghold for this species in India, offering the population there its largest contiguous stretch of protected habitat (Chetry <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>There are no population estimates available for Myanmar. It is possible that the largest and most viable populations of western hoolock are to be found in this country, where at present almost no attention is paid to it (W. Brockelman pers. comm.). There are several thousand square kilometers of unsurveyed forest habitat in the central-west and north-west of this country, with a particular need to survey the western areas west of Chindwin/Ayerawady River. There are reports of gibbons in Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range, but there is no knowledge of the actual population level there (W. Brockelman pers. comm. 2006). The western part of Hukuang Tiger Reserve with a large area of forest (>1,000 km<sup>2</sup>) has not been surveyed, but is likely to have this species. The northern limit is just south of Hkakaraborazi National Park.
39876		threats	eng	In Bangladesh, the main threats are the combined effects of habitat loss, fragmentation, human interference and hunting (Islam and Feeroz 1992; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Hunting is universal all over Bangladesh as well as India, and may be in Myanmar also. In China, the Tibetan population could be under threat from hunting for food or non-targeted hunting, but this is not established.<br/><br/>In some Indian locales, these animals are rare due to large scale hunting for food and because some ethnic groups believe the gibbons have medicinal properties (Gupta 2005; J. Das pers. comm.). Additionally, jhoom cultivation threatens the habitats of Indian populations, some of which are relatively isolated already (Choudhury 1991). Affecting all northeastern Indian primate populations are harvesting of bamboo for paper mills, oil mining and exploration, and coal mining, which deplete habitat and cause pollution and disturbance (Choudhury 2001). Habitat fragmentation and loss are major threats in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Small and restricted groups may not be viable because of genetic and demographic instabilities and because they are more affected by hunting pressure and habitat loss. Many small forest fragments are reported to have only one or a few gibbon groups. These have limited chances of surviving more than a few generations without translocation.<br/><br/>In Myanmar, shifting cultivation is a major threat, and so is hunting. Although logging is restricted on the western side of the Chindwin, it is still considered a threat for this species. Political and ethnic conflicts have prevented the Myanmar government to promote development and conservation activities effectively in areas of northwestern and central western Myanmar along the borders with India and Bangladesh. Thus, most conservation efforts have been concentrated within the range of <em>H. leuconedys</em>.
39877		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. In China there are two nature reserves with eastern hoolocks (Gaoligongshan and Tongbiguan National Nature Reserves). In Myanmar, the Mahamyaing Sanctuary was created in part as a gibbon refuge, and the species occurs as well in the Bumhpabum, Hponkan Razi and Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuaries, and in the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve (W. Brockelman unpub.). Unfortunately, there is no viable protected area in Myanmar between the northern Ayerawady and Salween Rivers, near the borders with Yunnan and Thailand. Gibbons in this zone could be genetically different from those along the Chindwin; therefore, it is critical to save the small numbers that survive west of the Salween River in Yunnan. A project has been implemented by Wildlife Conservation Society to help educate local residents – especially school children – around Mahamyiang Sanctuary, and to urge them not to hunt wildlife. The project also provides some support to the wildlife sanctuary for increased patrols. Such projects need to be implemented in the Hukaung Tiger Reserve as well, in order to reduce hunting pressures. At present tourism is not promoted in the Hukaung Valley because it is a politically sensitive area, but there is great potential for tourism to have a positive impact on local development in the future. In the meantime, alternative sources of income are needed to compensate for the bans on direct resource exploitation (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
39877		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China (western Yunnan) and northeastern Myanmar (east of the Chindwin River). In China it is found as far east as the Salween River, and north to nearly 26°N (Groves 2001). Das <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported the discovery of a population of <em>H. leuconedys</em> in eastern Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India, which has traditionally been considered to be part of the distribution area of <em>H. hoolock</em>. This record has yet to be proven (T. Geissmann pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The boundary between the two species of hoolock gibbon is uncertain in the Chindwin headwaters in the north, and possibly includes a zone of intermediates or variable population (T. Geissmann pers. comm.). More fieldwork is needed to investigate populations on both sides of the river and in the headwaters of the Chindwin, where there is likely to be one or more hybrid zones or clines (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
39877		habitat	eng	This gibbon is a forest-dweller that inhabits primary evergreen, scrub and semi-deciduous hill forest, as well as mountainous broadleaf and pine-dominated forest. It ranges up to 2,700 m in elevation, as reported by the Vernay-Cutting expedition (Anthony 1941), in mixed pine/broadleaf forest in northeastern Myanmar.<br/><br/>It is a frugivorous species, with ripe fruits composing a majority of its diet. Individuals also eat a large proportion of figs and some amount of leaves, shoots, and petioles. This diet contributes to a relatively large home range of some populations.<br/><br/>No intensive studies have been carried out on the behaviour or ecology of <em>H. leuconedys</em>, but it may be assumed to be similar to that of <em>H. hoolock</em>, with diet varying somewhat by habitat (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
39877		population	eng	There are an estimated 50-300 individuals in western Yunnan province, China (Lan 1994; Tian <em>et al.</em> 1996; Zhang 1998; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002). In India, a population of about 170 gibbons, which have been tentatively identified as <em>H. leuconedys</em>, occurs in the Mehao region, in eastern Arunachal Pradesh state (Das <em>et al.</em> 2006), but further surveys are needed (J. Das pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The total population of <em>H. leuconedys</em> in Myanmar is over 10,000 individuals, and perhaps up to 50,000 or so; however, much more survey work is needed. There have been some Wildlife Conservation Society surveys in Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, which have approximately two groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Htun pers. comm. 2006). There are approximately two groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Mahamyaing Wildlife Sanctuary based on vocal surveys, with a total population of 4,000–8,100 individual gibbons (about half of which would be adult animals) (Brockelman 2006 unpub. draft).<br/><br/>The species is doing relatively well in Myanmar, but there is no guarantee of continued political protection in the next few decades (W. Brockelman pers. comm.). Political instability is presently slowing down logging (W. Bleisch pers. comm.).
39877		threats	eng	Eastern hoolocks are threatened by habitat loss and hunting, both for meat as well as for use in traditional “medicine” (M. Richardson pers. comm.). In Myanmar, commercial logging may eliminate most forest habitats outside of protected areas, but in and around Mahamyiang Sanctuary, selectively logged forests (with dipterocarps removed) still contain many gibbons. The more than 50,000 people settled in the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve constitute a threat to all wildlife in the area, and the future of the reserve will depend on the ability of the government as well as international conservation groups to curtail hunting. Gold mining has become a threat to conservation in Kachin State (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).
39879		conservation	eng	Bornean white-bearded gibbons are protected throughout their range by Indonesian law and are listed on CITES, Appendix I. They are found in a number of protected areas, including Bukit Baka ? Bukit Raya National Park, Ganung Palung National Park, and Tanjung Puting National Park.
39879		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kalimantan, Indonesia south of the Kapuas River and west of the Barito River (Marshall and Sugardjito 1986).
39879		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary, secondary and selectively logged tropical evergreen forests, as well as peat swamp forest types (Buckley 2004; Buckley <em>et al.</em> 2006). These arboreal and diurnal primates are dominantly frugivorous, preferring fruits high in sugar, but will also eat immature leaves and insects. They are recorded from forests up to 1,200 m asl (V. Nijman pers. comm.) with densities decreasing at higher elevations. Average home range sizes of 28 ha and 45 ha were determined at Gunung Palung and the Sabangau catchment area, respectively (Buckley <em>et al</em>. 2006; Mitani 1990).
39879		population	eng	This species is generally common in suitable habitat (J. Hon pers. comm.). A tentative estimate suggests a population size of 19,000 individuals within the mixed-swamp forest habitat subtype in Sabangau, representing one of the largest remaining continuous populations of this species (Buckley 2004; Buckley <em>et al.</em> 2006). Density estimates range from 7.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (2.16 groups/km<sup>2</sup>) in the logged peat swamp forest of the Sabangau catchment area of central Kalimantan (Buckley 2004; Buckley <em>et al</em>. 2006), and 8.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in primarily heath forest of Tanjung Puting National Park (Mather 1992), to 14.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in a dominantly mountain forest area of the Gunung Palung Reserve (Mitani 1990).
39879		threats	eng	This species was certainly affected by fires of 1990s and continuing deforestation (legal and illegal logging, draining of peat swamps, expanding oil palm plantations, etc), but no recent surveys are available on population trends. A large part of the species range is in peat swamp ? an extremely threatened ecosystem. From 2003-2004, Nijman (2005) observed 79 individuals in markets in Kalimantan. It is also hunted for human consumption.
39895		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in Viet Nam (Appendix 1B of Decree 32, 2006), though enforcement against forest encroachment and poaching is not adequate in most cases. In China it is protected by wildlife protection law (issued in 1989) (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.). It occurs in a mixture of protected areas and national parks throughout its range. In Viet Nam it is present in Pu Huong Nature Reserve and Ben En National Park. In Lao PDR, it is present in Nam Et and Phou Loey, Nam Xam, Phou Khao Khoay, Phou Panang, Nam Kading, and Phou Dene Din National Protected Areas, and also in Santong Training and Model Forest. In China, it was previously reported in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, but only in the two sections bordering Lao PDR.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include prevention of hunting and wildlife trade; minimization of habitat disturbance; and research and field surveys throughout the range, specifically tape recordings, genetic analysis and photographic recordings to help better define the distribution area of the taxon relative to <em>N. siki</em>. This is among the most common species of crested gibbon (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) maintained in zoos (Varsik 2000; Gibbon Network 2006; Moisson and Baudier 2005).
39895		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and China. In Viet Nam, it occurs west and south of the Black River; it has been extirpated from several areas from which it was previously recorded and is now only known from a few localities in the north-west and north-central parts of this country (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Lao PDR, it occurs in the northern parts, east of the Mekong River, except for a small area in northwestern Lao PDR on the east bank of the Mekong at about 20°17??20°25?N, where it was replaced by <em>N. concolor</em> (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the 1980s, a very small population still occurred in Xishuangbanna in southernmost Yunnan province, China, just across the border from Viet Nam (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1990), but the species might no longer survive there (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). It was formerly sympatric with <em>N. concolor </em>in Luchin, Yunnan (China), and possibly also in the Ma River region in Viet Nam (Dao Van Tien 1983; Ma and Wang 1988; Geissmann <em>et a</em>l. 2000). There may be an apparent overlap or interdigitation between the ranges of <em>N. leucogenys</em> and <em>N. siki</em> between about 19 and 20°N (Groves 2001).
39895		habitat	eng	This species is found in tall primary and heavily degraded evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. In northeastern Viet Nam and northern Lao PDR, the animals live in the lowland, in a subtropical climate with a short and not very cold winter without frost, at elevations of 200?600 m (Dao Van Tien 1983). In Yunnan province, China, the species was observed at altitudes of 700?1,000 m (Hu <em>et al</em>. 1989). In Lao PDR, gibbons are found from the Mekong plains up to at least 1,650 m in Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Gibbons are strictly arboreal and mainly frugivorous (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000), but there is very little field data on the behavioral ecology of <em>N. leucogenys</em>. Dao Van Tien (1983) studied the content of the stomach of six wild-shot crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) from Viet Nam, including three <em>N. leucogenys</em>, and found 90?100% fruits, associated with some leaves and insects. This data cannot be directly compared to field observations, which usually measure the time spent eating various food items (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). Food composition in Xishuangbanna (southern Yunnan) included fruits (39%), leaves (36%), and flowers (5%) (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989). During the rainy season (May?October), when many fruits are available, gibbons travel less, whereas in the dry season (November?April), the gibbons eat more leaves and travel for longer distances (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989). Average group size in Yunnan province, China, was 3.78 (range 3-5, n = 9) (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989). In anecdotal reports, group sizes of three gibbon groups from Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces (southern part of north Viet Nam) were specified as 3, 3, and 4 individuals, respectively (Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al.</em> 2005).
39895		population	eng	There have been no records of this species from China since 1990 despite survey work, and it might now be extinct in that country (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). In Lao PDR, population numbers of this species are highest due to the larger areas of remaining natural habitat, though increased hunting since 1990 to support the wildlife trade threatens these animals. Relative to <em>N. siki </em>and <em>N. gabriellae</em>, densities and numbers of this species in equivalent forest blocks are significantly lower due to higher exploitation. Forest fragmentation is also much higher in the range of <em>N. leucogenys</em> than in the ranges of the other two gibbon species (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Viet Nam, the forest habitat for this species is particularly fragmented, and the data from two provinces (Lai Chau and Son La) suggest that gibbons here cannot be sustained on the remaining forest patches (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Pu Huong Nature Reserve, the number of groups remaining is less than 10, while in Pu Hoat Nature Reserve fewer than three groups survive (Nguyen Man Ha <em>et al.</em> 2005). In a status survey report, Geissmann <em>et al.</em> (2003) recorded 27 sites at which this species should have occurred, but it was only confirmed surviving at four, and may survive in a further three. Even protected areas that are known to have suitable remaining habitat, such as Cuc Phuong National Park, no longer hold any surviving gibbon populations (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).
39895		threats	eng	<em>Nomascus leucogenys</em> has suffered from deforestation through agricultural encroachment into mountainous areas and fuel-wood and timber extraction from remaining forests, especially in China and Viet Nam. Hunting for food, traditional ?medicines,? and their cultural value is a major threat across the range, and is likely to have been the primary cause for the decline of the species in all three countries, including the presumed extinction of this species in China (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999; Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2000).
39896		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. Although it occurs in a mixture of protected areas and national parks throughout its range and is legally protected in Viet Nam (Appendix 1b of Decree 32, 2006), there is inadequate enforcement against forest encroachment and poaching. Recommended conservation measures include prevention of hunting and wildlife trade; minimization of habitat disturbance; and research and field surveys throughout the range, specifically tape recordings, genetic analysis and photographic recordings to help better define the distribution area of the taxon relative to <em>N. gabriellae </em>and <em>N. leucogenys</em>.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, the most important populations are in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and Pu Mat National Park (Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et a</em>l. 2005). In Lao PDR, the most important population is in Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Timmins and Evans 1996).
39896		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern Lao PDR and north-central Viet Nam east of the Mekong River, and is found between 17°N and about 19.3°N (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). There is an apparent overlap or interdigitation between the ranges of<em>N. siki</em>and <em>N. leucogenys</em> between about 19 and 20°N. Traditionally, the range of <em>N. siki</em> includes central Viet Nam as far south as Bach Ma, but it here extends less to the south to exclude animals that, at least phenotypically (coloration), are <em>N. gabriellae</em>, such that the range extends only as far south as Savannakhet in southern Lao PDR and Quang Binh province, and possibly Quang Tri province in central Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).
39896		habitat	eng	It lives in tall primary broadleaf evergreen forest, and is found in the lowlands at elevations of 30–100 m, in a typical wet tropical climate, with no influence of the north east monsoon and no conspicuous dry season (Dao Van Tien 1983). In some areas such as Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in central Viet Nam, these gibbons live in steep karst forest (Ruppell 2007). In Lao PDR, gibbons are found from the Mekong plains up to 1,800 m in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Gibbons are strictly arboreal, diurnal and mainly frugivorous (Geissmann <em>et al.</em>2000), but there are virtually no field data on the behavioral ecology of <em>N. siki.</em> Dao Van Tien (1985) studied the contents of the stomach of six wild-shot crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) from Viet Nam, including one <em>N. siki,</em> and found 90–100% fruits, associated with some leaves and insects. These data cannot be compared directly to field observations, which usually measure the time spent eating various food items (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). Average group size is unknown. A gibbon group with three individuals was reported from Khe Giua State forest enterprise (Quang Binh province, central Viet Nam), and in another gibbon group in Nui Giang Man area (also Quang Binh province), five individuals were counted (Le Khac Quyet 2004; Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39896		population	eng	Many populations in Viet Nam are supported by too little contiguous habitat and experience too high a degree of human disturbance to remain viable, especially those in forested areas that are not shared with Lao PDR (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Pu Mat, numbers are believed to have declined where encounter rates declined from 22.6 per 100 survey days in 1999 to 14 in 2004 (Grieser Johns <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a status survey report, Geissmann <em>et al. </em>(2003) recorded six localities where traditional<em>N. siki</em>were previously known to occur, of which all but one still had surviving populations at the time. During a survey covering about 15 km<sup>2</sup> of the Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park (Quang Binh province, central Viet Nam; total area: 858 km<sup>2</sup>), 13 gibbon groups were heard, suggesting a density of about 0.7 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Ruppell 2007). There are no available population estimates in Lao PDR, but the species is widespread and common in all large forest blocks within its distribution area (T. Geissmann pers. comm.).
39896		threats	eng	Unlike in Lao PDR, the forest habitat of <em>Nomascus siki</em> in Viet Nam is heavily fragmented due to logging and agricultural encroachment, and a high population density of humans continues to threaten this species’ habitat and population numbers. Hunting, in particular, is a major threat in both Viet Nam and Lao PDR where they are used both in traditional “medicine,” food, and in the pet trade (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000; Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al.</em> 2005).
39900		distribution	eng	<em>Dipsas indica cavalheiroi</em> is known only from Queimada Grande Island, an area of only 0.43 km².
39900		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland tropical rainforest areas.
39900		threats	eng	The main threat to the population is loss and declining quality of habitat.  The island habitat has already been partially destroyed by the construction of access routes to a lighthouse.
39901		distribution	eng	<em>Liophis atraventer</em> is known from only three localities in Brazil.
39901		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in montane rainforest areas.
39901		threats	eng	The rainforest habitat of this species is becoming increasingly fragmented due to forest clearance to make way for agriculture and urban areas.
39902		distribution	eng	<em>Bothrops pirajai</em> is known from Brazil.
39902		habitat	eng	Piraja's lancehead occurs in lowland tropical rainforest areas.
39902		threats	eng	The deforestation of rainforest areas to make way for cocoa plantations is the main threat to this species.  The population has a very restricted distribution and continuing deforestation is causing increasing habitat fragmentation.
39903		distribution	eng	The Atlantic bushmaster is endemic to Brazil.
39903		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland tropical rainforest habitat.
39903		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture and urbanization is causing increasing fragmentation of the rainforest habitat.  The resulting decline in extent and quality of habitat is threatening the <em>L. m. rhombeata</em> population.
39904		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. Conservation measures, such as area management, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring in the Atlantic Forest. Further research is required to assess and monitor the population of this species, due to its restricted range and presumed small population size.
39904		distribution	eng	This species has a very limited distribution at Miracatu in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The range of this species is known to be 300 km²<sup></sup> (Stafford and Henderson 1996). This species is only known to be found between 40 and 45 m above sea level.
39904		habitat	eng	This species is found on or near the coastal plain in the southern portion of the Atlantic Forest (O. Marques pers. comm.).   This large and conspicuous snake feeds on mammals. An arboreal tendency is obvious, but its morphology (size of tail and lateral compression) suggests that this snake spends more time on the ground than the sympatric boid <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hortulanus</span> (Pizzatto<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
39904		population	eng	This species is arguably the rarest boid in the world, but is unquestionably the rarest boid in the New World (Stafford and Henderson 1996). Despite over 100 years of sampling, the   Instituto Butantan has only collected four specimens of the species. Two specimens were collected in the 1960s and another in 1970. The last specimen was collected on 26 May 2003 (33 years after). In comparison, another sympatric boid of the same genus, <em>C. hortulanus</em> has been well sampled by the Instituto  Butantan (O. Marques pers. comm.). There are many people living within the distribution of these species, who usually collect several snakes and send these to the Instituto Butantan. Therefore the lack of specimens of this large snake is likely to reflect genuine rarity.
39904		threats	eng	The three localities from which this species has been taken all occur within a narrow strip of degraded forest, and all are within 50-100 km of Sao Paulo. The Atlantic Forest was estimated to have at one time covered 1.0-1.5 million km sq., but 90 to 98% of habitat has been lost to anthropogenic activities or has become severely degraded. Most of the clearing is a result of shifting agriculture. Stafford and Henderson (1996) state that within its 300 km²<sup></sup> range, the area of suitable habitat is significantly less.
39910		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix chrysoleuca</span>).
39910		distribution	eng	Very poorly known species that occurs in a sliver south of the Rio Amazonas, between the Rios Madeira and lower Aripuanã in the west and the Rio Canumã (= Cunumã) in the east (Hershkovitz 1977; Silva Jr. and Noronha 1996; Ferrari 2008). It occurs on the north (left) bank of the Paraná Urariá (<em>M. mauesi</em>.  Silva Jr. and Noronha (1996) observed <em>M. chrysoleucus</em> at Santa Bárbara on the left bank of the Rio Canumã. The southernmost locality is Prainha, a short distance north of the mouth of the Rio Roosevelt, on the east (right) bank of the Rio Aripuanã. It is probable that Prainha is near to the southern limit to its distribution, which may be marked by the headwaters of Rio Sucundurí, Serra do Sucundurí towards 8ºS.
39910		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals.  Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>H&B 19.5-23.6, TL 29.8-35.5 cm (n=28) (Ferrari 2008).
39910		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
39910		threats	eng	There is no information available on major threats. They are probably not hunted, although there may be some use as pets.
39911		conservation	eng	Not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix intermedia</span>).
39911		distribution	eng	<em>Mico intermedius</em> occurs between the Rios Roosevelt and Aripuanã including the entire basin of the Rio Guariba. <em>Mico intermedius</em> and <em>M. melanurus</em> are not sympatric between the Rios Aripuanã and Roosevelt (as had been suggested by Hershkovitz 1977). The exact southern limits are not known, but probably around the headwaters of these two rivers.
39911		habitat	eng	Inhabits humid tropical rain forest, with a preference for secondary growth and edge habitat. The lowest densities were found in areas of tall old growth forest with a sparse understorey. The highest densities were in areas with abundant secondary growth patches and denses understoreys, arising either from tree falls or human activities (Rylands 1982, 1986a, 1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Rylands (1982) found a mean group size of 11.5 ±2.78 (range 8-15, n=8 groups) at the village of Aripuanã, left bank of the Rio Aripuanã, Mato Grosso. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. A single <em>Mico intermedius</em> group studied by Rylands (1982, 1986a) used a home range of 28.25 ha.<br/><br/>The ecology and behaviour of <em>Mico intermedius</em> were studied by Rylands (1979, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1986a,b).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult males and females 400-450 g (Rylands 1982).
39911		population	eng	Population censuses carried out by Rylands (1982) indicated densities that ranged from 0.44-4.69 groups/km² or 7.53-54.37 individuals/km². The lowest densities were found in areas of tall old growth forest with a sparse understorey. The highest densities were in areas with abundant secondary growth patches and denses understoreys, arisiing either from tree falls or human activities.
39911		threats	eng	The range of this species is in the arc of deforestation resulting from the northerly progressing agricultural frontier in northern Mato Grosso. Much of its range is being logged and clear-cut for cattle ranching and agro-industry. The northern part of its range is bisected by the Cuiabá-Porto Velho highway resulting in intensive and widespread logging with accompanying settlement and forest destruction and degradation. In spite of this, as noted under habitat, the species apparently is adapted to some anthropogenic disturbance. Generally not hunted, but some use as pets.
39912		conservation	eng	Does not occur in any protected areas. The buffer zone of the Amazônia National Park, proposed in its management plan (Brazil, MA-IBDF and FBCN 1979), would include populations of this marmoset. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix leucippe</span>).
39912		distribution	eng	<em>Mico leucippe</em> is known only from a small area in the state of Pará, between the Rios Cuparí and Tapajós (right bank of the Rio Tapajos), south to the Rio Jamanxim, (Hershkovitz 1977; Pimenta and Silva Jr. 2005).
39912		habitat	eng	Inhabits humid tropical rain forest, with a preference for secondary growth and edge habitat (Vivo 1979). Vivo (1979, 1991) observed <em>Mico leucippe</em> at Pimental during surveys in the Amazônia National Park. Vivo found it to be most common in degraded and secondary forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>H&B 20.5-23.5 cm, TL 26.5-37.0 cm (n=7) (Ferrari 2008).
39912		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
39912		threats	eng	The region where this species occurs was already being impacted in 1973 by the construction of the Transamazon (BR-230) highway and subsequently by the Cuiabá-Santarem (BR 163) highway (Mittermeier and Coimbra-Filho 1977; Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1978; Rylands and Mittermeier 1982), and now is a focal area for the establishment of soy plantations which has resulted in substantial loss of habitat. It is generally not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.
39913		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix nigriceps</span>).<br/>Further research is needed to better determine the geographic range, demography, and ecology of this species. Also surveys are needed to evaluate threats with increasing development in the region.
39913		distribution	eng	This marmoset is believed to occur between the Rio dos Marmelos in the north and east, the Rio Madeira in the west and the Rio Jiparaná in the south, in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. Ferrari (1993) reported on the capture of two adult male <em>M. nigriceps</em> at the Tenharin Indian settlement, on the west bank of the Rio dos Marmelos (07º57’S, 62º03’W). (The location of Tenharin on the map, Figure 1, in Ferrari [1993] was incorrect. The correct location was shown in Ferrari [1994].) Ferrari and Lopes (1992) and Ferrari (1993) argued that it is unlikely to extend further west than the Rios Madeira and Jiparaná, nor east to the Rios Aripuanã and Roosevelt, and the south-eastern limits are defined by an area of savanna/cerrado vegetation at the headwaters of the Rio dos Marmelos and along the middle Rio Jiparaná.
39913		habitat	eng	Inhabits humid tropical rain forest, with a preference for secondary growth and edge habitat.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimgra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Information on the gut morphology of <em>M. nigriceps</em> and its relation to gum feeding is provided in Ferrari <em>et al.</em> (1993).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>H&B 21.1 cm. TL 33.2 cm (n = 6) (Ferrari 2008)<br/>Male weight 380 g (n=3) (Ferrari 1993).
39913		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size and densities in the wild.
39913		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are generally not understood. The area can be reached by paved road from Rondônia and is traversed by the Transamazon highway where cattle-ranching and logging are underway (Ferrari and Lopes 1992). It is not hunted, but there is some use as pets.
39914		conservation	eng	Not recorded from any protected area. A priority species for further survey work. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix marcai</span>).
39914		distribution	eng	Its range is unknown but probably extends south along the left bank of the Rio Roosevelt and at least part way north to meet, somewhere, the southern limits of the range of <em>M. manicorensis</em>. Ferrari (1993, 1994) reported the collection of an adult female “<em>C. emiliae</em>” on the east bank of the Rio dos Marmelos opposite the Tenharin Indian settlement (on the west bank, 07º57'S, 62º03'W). (For the correct location of Tenharin, see Ferrari 1994). Ferrari (1993) said it was easily distinguished from <em>M. nigriceps</em> (collected on the west bank at the same location) by the lack of pigmentation on the facial skin. It would seem that Ferrari (1993) presumed the identity of this animal to be <em>C. emiliae</em> based on Vivo (1985, 1991) who stated that <em>C. emiliae</em> occurred on the left (west) bank of the Rio Aripuanã: a belief arising from his interpretation of the identity of the marmoset of the Rio Castanho, here listed as <em>Mico marcai</em> (Alperin 1993). However, the true identity of the marmoset from the east bank of the Rio dos Marmelos at Tenharin has yet to be determined in light of this.<br/><br/>Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2000) inadvertently indicated that <em>Mico manicorensis</em> occurred at the type locality of this species.
39914		habitat	eng	Inhabits dense tropical rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>No behavioural-ecological field studies have been carried out on this species.
39914		population	eng	Known only from type locality. Never been seen in the wild.
39914		threats	eng	There is no information on major or potential threats. Probably not hunted, possibly some use as pets.
39915		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (306,000 ha) (possibly in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>El Tuparro Natural National Park (548,000 ha) (possibly in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (Solano 1985, 1986).<br/><br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aotus lemurinus brumbacki</span>).
39915		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus brumbacki</em> is a lowland night monkey, that extends east from the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia between the Ríos Arauca and Guaviare (Hershkovitz 1983; Defler 2003, 2004). The form occurring along the middle and lower reaches of the Meta, Tomo and Vichada and Guaviare has not been ascertained. Based on a specimen collected at Maipures, near the mouth of the Río Tomo on the Río Orinoco, Defler and Bueno (2007) indicated that the night monkeys of eastern central Colombia north of the Río Guaviare may be <em>A. brumbacki</em>, extending the range of this species to the Río Orinoco. Neither Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) nor Linares (1998) give any indication of the occurrence of <em>A. brumbacki</em> in Venezuela, north of the lower Río Arauca.
39915		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level (the specifically montane forms are <em>Aotus lemurinus</em> and <em>Aotus miconax</em>) (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk.  The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007). <em>Aotus azarae</em> has been observed to include a significant portion of leaves in its diet (Ganzhorn and Wright 1994; Wright 1985; Arditi and Placci 1990; Giménez and Fernandez-Duque 2003), as has <em>Aotus zonalis</em> on Barro Colorado Island in an early study by Hladik and Hladik (1969).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Solano (1995) estimated a home range of 17.5 ha for <em>A. brumbacki</em> on the Río Duda in Tinigua Natural National Park, Colombia. Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1985) recorded a weight of 875 g for one individual (sex unknown), and 455 g for a female, probably not fully grown.
39915		population	eng	No population information available. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
39915		threats	eng	Except for the region around Villavicencio, Meta, the distribution of this species remains poorly known. However, over much of the known range, their habitat is declining rapidly due to expanding illicit crops, armed conflict and expanding cattle ranching. The taxon may extend south to the Rio Guaviare, where there would be healthy populations protected by one or two large national parks.<br/><br/>Many <em>Aotus </em>have been released from captivity outside of their range and could be hybridizing, but very little is known of the effects of this practice.
39916		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Cruce Caballero Provincial park (435 ha) (at least two groups, Di Bitteti <em>et al</em>. 1994; Parera 2002)<br/>Urugua-í Provincial Park (Parera 2002)<br/>Piñalito Natural Reserve (3,796 ha) (Parera 2002). (<em>A. caraya</em> also occurs in this park, between the Rios Uruguai and Paraná, and hybrids have been recorded there (Di Bitteti 2005). Di Bitetti (2005) suggested <em>A. caraya</em> was replacing <em>A. guariba</em> in ths region due to forest destruction and degradation).<br/><br/>Brazil<br/><br/>Espírito Santo<br/>Linhares Forest Reserve (Companhia Vale do Rio Doce) (22,000 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1995).<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (3,572 ha) (Mendes, 1991; Pinto <em>et al</em>. 1993)<br/>Sooretama Biological Reserve (27,943 ha) (rare, Chiarello 1999)<br/>Córrego Grande Biological Station (1,489 ha)<br/>Pedra Azul State Biological Reserve (1,200 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>Duas Bocas State Biological Reserve (2,910 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>Fazenda Montes Verdes Forest  Reserve (1,500 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>Santa Lúcia Biological Station (400 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>São Lourenço Biological Station (22 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Caparaó National Park (across the Espírito Santo border) (31,853 ha)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (35.973 ha) (Stallings and Robinson 1991; Hirsch 1995)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (13,210 ha) (Cosenza 1993)<br/>Ibitipoca State Park (1,488 ha) (Hirsch <em>et al.</em> 1994)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station RPPN Feliciano Abdala (Mendes 1985, 1989)<br/><br/>Paraná<br/>Ilha Grande National Park (108,166 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/>Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Protection Area (1,003,059 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/><br/>Rio de Janeiro<br/>Serra dos Órgãos National Park (10,527 ha)<br/>Serra da Bocaina National Park (across border with São Paulo) (98,115 ha)<br/>Itatiaia National Park (28,155 ha) (Diblasi-Filho and Borsoi Jr. 1983)<br/>Tinguá Biologica Reserve (24.902 ha)<br/>Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (5,065 ha)<br/>Desengano State Park (22,500 ha)<br/>Floresta da Cicuta State Area of Outstanding Ecological Interest (144 ha)<br/><br/>São Paulo<br/>Turístico Alto Ribeira State Park (36,712 ha) (González-Solís <em>et al.</em> 2001) <br/>Carlos Botelho State Park (37,644 ha) (González-Solís <em>et al.</em> 2001) <br/>Morro do Diabo State Park (Coimbra Filho 1976b)<br/>Serra do Mar State Park<br/>Cantareira State Park (7,000 ha) (Cordeiro da Silva 1981; Oliveira and Ades 1993)<br/>Paranapiacaba State Biological Reserve (336 ha)<br/>Juréia-Itatins State Ecological Station (79,270 ha)<br/>Xitué State Ecological Station (González-Solís <em>et al.</em> 2001)<br/><br/>Rio Grande do Sul<br/>Aparados da Serra National Park (13,081 ha)<br/>Itapuã State Park (5,566 ha) (Prates <em>et al</em>. 1990; Buss 2001; Marques 2003)<br/>Espigão Alto State Park (1,319 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Rondinha State Park (1,000 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Turvo State Park (17,491 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Serra Geral State Biological Reserve (4,846 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Ibicuí-mirim Biological Reserve (598 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Aracuri-Esmeralda Ecological Station (277 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Lami Municipal Biological Reserve (Marques 2003)<br/>São Francisco de Paula National Forest (1,607 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Parque do Morro do Osso (Marques 2003)<br/>Rota do Sol Environmental Protection Area (52,535 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Cruce Caballero Provincial park (435 ha) (at least two groups, Di Bitteti <em>et al</em>. 1994; Parera 2002)<br/>Urugua-í Provincial Park (Parera 2002)<br/>Piñalito Natural Reserve (Parera 2002). (<em>A. caraya</em> also occurs in this park, between the Rios Uruguai and Paraná, and hybrids have been recorded there [Di Bitteti 2005]. Di Bitetti (2005) suggested <em>A. caraya</em> was replacing <em>A. guariba</em> in ths region due to forest destruction and degradation).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
39916		distribution	eng	This species inhabits a large part of the Atlantic forest of Brazil, south from southern Bahia (formerly south from the Rio Paraguaçú), extending south into basin of the Rio Jacuí, municipality of São Lourenço do Sul, state of Rio Grande do Sul (Printes <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the extreme north of Argentina in the Department of Misiones (Crespo 1954; Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988; Di Bitetti <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rylands 1994; Marques 2003). Aguiar <em>et al</em>. (2007) recorded sympatry and probable hybridization with <em>A. caraya</em> in riparian forest along the left margin of the Rio Paraná (between Porto Figueira and Port Camargo) in the Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Preotection Area on the state of Paraná. This region is considered to be an ecotone between Cerrado (the typical domain of <em>A. caraya</em>) and the Atlantic forest (<em>A. guariba</em>).<br/><br/>Kinsey (1981) argued that the Rio Doce separated a northern subspecies (the nominate) from the southern subspecies (<em>A. g. clamitans</em>). However, through a large part north of the Rio Doce, howler monkeys were indistinguishable from those south (S. Mendes pers. comm.). Surveys by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (1988) resulted in the discovery of groups just south of the lower Jequitinhonha, which were all pale gold in colour, whereas further west, north of the middle Jequitinhonha, groups in dedicuous forests showed sexual dichromatism typical of <em>clamitans</em> further south (females dark brown, males golden brown). North of the Jequitinhonha, there are very few records of any Brown Howler Monkeys at all, and few significant populations remain. If the uniformly pale howlers of the lower Jequitinhonha are, in fact, a distinct subspecies (the nominate), then the populations can only be miniscule. But, the validity of the two subspecies remains doubtful, and confused even with a recent genetic analysis comparing populations in the south of its range in the states of Santa Catarina, Sao Paolo and Rio de Janeiro suggesting strong subpopulation differentiation in <em>clamitans</em>.
39916		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland, submontane and montane forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil, extending inland to mesophytic semideciduous seasonal forest inland in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Paraná (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988; Mendes 1985, 1989; Chiarello 1993, 1995, 1999; Marques 2001). In Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, it occurs in the highly seasonal subtropical and temperate, mixed broadleaf/<em>Araucaria</em> forest (Schneider and Marques 1999; Buss 2001). Aguiar <em>et al.</em> (2007) recorded it in periodically flooded, seasonal, semideciduous forest in the floodplains of the Rio Paraná, Paraná.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for chewing leaves through shearing. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).  <br/><br/>Brown Howler Monkeys an be seen in groups of four or five, but up to 11 or so, individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being subordinate younger male, sub-adults, or juveniles, with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight mean 6.73 kg (n=4) (Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>Adult female weight mean 4.35 kg (n=5) (Smith and Jungers 1997).
39916		population	eng	There have been a fair number of population estimates thorughout the range of this species. Most of them in very small forest fragments. González-Solís <em>et al.</em> (2001) provide a recent summary. They list 11 sites (forests) where brown howlers were counted, ranging from from 50 ha to 100,000 ha. Densities can be very high. When not hunted, densities can vary in even very small forests due to their folivory and dietary flexibility. In the 50 ha site (Lageadinho, São Paulo) group size was 6-12, and the density 98 individuals/km² (Torres de Assumpção 1983). Chiarello (1993) recorded a density of 177 individuals/km² at the Santa Genebre Reserve (259 ha), São Paulo. Estimates of densities at the Caratinga Biological Statiion (survey area ranging from 570 to 800 ha), Minas Gerais, have varied from 92 to 149 individuals/km² (Mendes 1985, 1989; Hirsch 1995). Lower densities, 10.1 individuals/km², were recorded in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (4,000 ha), Espírito Santo, by Pinto <em>et al</em>. (1993). Hirsch (1995) estimated densities of 1.8 to 49.0 individuals/km² in the Rio Doce State Park (32,210 ha), Minas Gerais.  González-Solís <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimated a density of 0.79 individuals/km² in the Serra do  Paranapiacaba, in four contiguous protected areas in the state of São Paulo totalling 140,000 ha (the state parks of Intervales, Turístico Alto Ribeira and Carlos Botelho, and the Xitué State Ecological Station). Surveys by Chiarello (1995) in the Linhares Forest Reserve, Espírito Santo failed to register howlers even though they were present. In later surveys in the same reserve, Chiarello (1999) recorded an encounter rate of 0.15 groups/10 km. Schneider and Marques (1999) estimated a density of 92-125 individuals/km² in the southern part of the range of this species, in mixed broadleaf/<em>Araucaria</em> forest in the Aracuri-Esmeralda Ecological Station. Buss (2001) estimated 65 to 85 individuals/km² in the Itapuã State Park.<br/><br/>Note that there have been quite a number of behavioural-ecological field studies of this species, and a number of density estimates available in the literature are a result of these studies. The study sites chosen were those where howler monkeys were found to be numerous and visible, so these high densities are undoubteldy at the top end of the densities possible for this species and do not reflect a situation typical of the entire range of the species. Where they are hunted they will occur in very much lower numbers or not at all. In some areas they are scarce even though hunting is minimal or absent (for example, the Rio Doce State Park, or the Augusto Ruschi Biological Station). The explanation for low population densities in these cases is generally sought in disease epidemics, especially yellow fever.<br/><br/>In Misiones, Argentina, densities of both <em>A. guariba</em> and <em>A. caraya</em> are extremely low probably as a result of the dramatic habitat fragmentation suffered in the last few decades, and of an older yellow fever outbreak that occurred in 1966.
39916		threats	eng	Widespread forest loss and fragmentation throughout its range, hunting, and disease epidemics are the main threats. However, the species is able to survive in even quite small forest fragments if there is no hunting. Selective logging for prized <em>Araucaria</em> pine is a threat in the south of its range. Mortality has also been reported due to electrocution from power lines, mainly in the small populations surviving in urban parks such as Lami Municipal Reserve, Porto Alegre (Lokschin <em>et al.</em> 2007).
39924		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including: Abiseo National Park (274,500 ha) (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007); Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo (182,000 ha) (DeLuycker 2007); and Reserved Zone Cordillera de Colán (64,100 ha) (established in 2002 with assistance from the Asociación Peruana para la Conservación de la Naturaleza ? APECO). However, this last mentioned protected area is still awaiting a formal categorization of its status. There have been proposals for a number of other parks, including the National Sanctuaries of Cordillera de Colán and Este del Marañón (Rios and Ponce del Prado 1989).<br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Urgent conservation initiatives necessary for the Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey?s survival include: increased protection within designated parks, reserves, and protected forests, which currently lack enforcement; the establishment of a contiguous area of protected forest, to create a biological corridor; the establishment of a national park or reserve in the semi-isolated Valle de los Chilchos area; control of illegal logging; purchase of land; the provision of alternative economic models for local communities living along buffer zones, in order to prevent further migration into the primary cloud forests; and the implementation of a strong conservation education plan (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).
39924		distribution	eng	The Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey is endemic to the montane rain forests and cloud forests of the Departments of San Martín (eastern part) and Amazonas (western part) in the Peruvian Andes, south and east of the Río Marañón, at altitudes of 1,400 to 2,700 m above sea level. Shanee <em>et al. </em>(2007) reported that it may still also occur in small areas of Cajamarca, Huanuco, Loreto and La Libertad departments (Mittermeier 1975; Graves and O?Neil 1980; Leo Luna 1980, 1982, 1989; Parker and Barkley 1981), but according to DeLuycker and Heymann (2007) they are now restricted to irregular, scattered parts of only two Departments: Amazonas and San Martín.
39924		habitat	eng	<em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> is known to persist only in primary premontane, montane and cloud forest between 1,500 and 2,700 m above sea level (Leo Luna 1982; Butchart <em>et al.</em> 1995; DeLuycker 2007).<br/><br/>Sizes of multi-male/multi-female groups range from 5 to 18 individuals (Leo Luna 1989). <em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> eats a variety of fruits, flowers, leaves, lichens, leaf bases of bromeliads, epiphyte roots and bulbs, and possibly insects (Leo Luna 1982; DeLuycker 2007).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>About 10 kg (Leo Luna 1984).
39924		population	eng	There are no current estimates of remaining population numbers (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007). They have been recorded occurring in low densities, from 0.25 to 1 group per km² (Leo Luna 1987). This is not too dissimilar from the density of 1-2 groups/km² recorded in a small forest fragment, with groups ranging in size from 7-10 individuals (F. Cornejo pers. comm., 2007).
39924		threats	eng	As reported by Leo Luna (1987, 1989), the inaccessibility of its habitat protected the species until the 1950s. However, colonization projects, road-building (the carretera central through the cloud forests of the region and new construction throughout their distribution), selective logging, deforestation, forest fragmentation, and subsistence hunting, have contributed to a drastic change in their status (Leo Luna 1987, 1989; Aquino and Encarnación 1994; Butchart <em>et al.</em> 1995; DeLuycker 2007, DeLuycker and Heymann 2007; Shanee <em>et al</em>. 2007). Recently, mining companies have been granted concessions in areas where this species occurs and these growing mining operations (including open pit mining) represent an increasing threat to the habitat and habitat quality. The species appears to be highly sensitive to alterations in its habitat (Leo Luna 1987; DeLuycker 2007).<br/><br/>In 1981, it was estimated that its potential forested habitat was at least 11,240 km² (Leo Luna 1984). It was predicted that at least 1,600 km² would be deforested for agriculture by 1991 (Leo Luna 1984). Projecting this value for 15 additional years, and using a very conservative similar rate of deforestation, this leaves an estimated 7,240 km² of potential habitat area, undoubtedly optimistic (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).<br/><br/>Clearing the forest for agriculture continues at an alarming rate, even in protected areas, such as the Protected Forest of Alto Mayo (BPAM). It has been estimated that between 2,300 and 2,500 ha of forest have been destroyed in BPAM (ParksWatch, Peru). The forest of the BPAM is now considerably fragmented, a result of lack of enforcement and a substantial population living in the Protected Forest itself. The BPAM also suffers from illegal selective logging (De Luycker 2007; DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).<br/><br/>The species is heavily hunted for subsistence by native communities. Illegal hunting still occurs, and if the monkeys are encountered, they are likely shot, because of their large size and trusting behaviour toward humans, and because they are believed to cause damage to crops. The species? velvety, thick, long fur, its skin and skull, and yellow genital hair-tuft are sought after as trophy items. Mothers are shot so that infants can be taken and sold in markets as pets (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).
39925		conservation	eng	This species occurs, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana cana</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazonia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (in range)<br/>Mapinguari National Park (1,572,422 ha) (in range)<br/>Abufari Biological Reserve (224,819 ha) (in range)<br/>Jaru Biological Reserve (353,386 ha) (in range)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha) (in range)<br/>Cuniã Ecological Station (49,886 ha) (in range)<br/>Jatuarana National Forest (837,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Macauá National Forest (173,475 ha) (in range)<br/>São Francisco National Forest (21,235 ha) (in range)<br/>Santa Rosa do Purus National Forest (230,257 ha) (in range)<br/>Humaita National Forest (468,790 ha) (in range)<br/>Jamari National Forest (215,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Bom Futuro National Forest (280,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Purus National Forest (256,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Mapiá-Inauini National Forest (311,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Pau Rosa National Forest (827,877 ha) (in range)<br/>Tefe National Forest (1,020,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em><br/><br/>Entire known range in Bolivia is within two protected areas:<br/>Apolobamba Natural Area of Integrated Management <br/>Madidi National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
39925		distribution	eng	<em>Lagothrix cana cana</em><br/>Occurs south of the Rio Amazonas-Solimões in Brazil, between the Rio Juruá and the rios Tapajós and Juruena. There are localities on the upper reaches of the Juruena (Fooden 1963), and possibly west extends from there to the Rio Guaporé on the Bolivian border (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1996). Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) clarified the southern limits to the range of <em>L. cana</em> in the state of Rondônia. They found that <em>L. cana</em> was absent from all of the sites they surveyed in the interfluvium of the rios Mamoré, Madeira and Jiparaná. It was recorded at two sites on the BR364 highway north of the rios Abunã and Madeira, and it occurs along the right (north) bank of the Rio Jiparaná and its tributary the Rio Pimenta Bueno. They also found it at two localities south of the Rio São Pedro, west of the Rio Pimenta Bueno. The south of Rondônia is a mix of montane and lowland areas and forest and savanna and Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) concluded that <em>L. cana</em> may be limited in the southernmost part of its range by areas of unsuitable low transitional forest on sandy soils. <em>Lagothrix cana</em> is evidently absent from the Guaporé grasslands and from the right bank of the Rio Abunã in Bolivia (Iwanaga and Ferrari 2002). In Peru, it occurs between the ríos Pachitea and Ucayali and south from the Río Inuya to both sides of the Río Madre de Dios and the Río Tambopata basin, as far as the Río Inambari to the frontier with Bolivia (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). However, surveys in Tambopata and lowland Bahuaja-Sonene have not registered this species over the past 10 years. Peres (1987) reported that woolly monkeys do not occur between the upper Rio Purus and Iaco. A large part of the range of <em>L. cana</em> in Peru may well in fact be that of <em>L. cana tschudii</em>, perhaps at least in the higher elevations of the Andean forests (see below).<br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em><br/>Groves (2001, 2005) recognized the form <em>tschudii</em> as a valid subspecies, but the type locality is not known (Bolivia or Peru). He indicated that two forms with more precise type localities were junior synonyms:<br/><em>Alouatta nigra</em> J. Allen, 1900 – Peru, Puno, “Juliaca” [= Inca mines], 5,000 ft, Allen, 1901, field notes.<br/><em>Lagothrix thomasi</em> Elliot, 1909, Peru: Cuzco, Rio Comberciato, Callanga, 1,500 m. BM 98.11.6.2. <br/>Both are localities in the south east of Peru.<br/><br/>An isolated population of <em>Lagothrix</em> was discovered by Wallace and Painter (1999) in Madidi National Park, Bolivia, at 1,500 m which may be a new taxon or quite possibly <em>L. cana tschudii</em> Pucheran, 1857. There was some variation but “overall Individuals were dark smoky gray with ventral area noticeably darker and head and face essentially black." Wallace and Painter (1999) concluded that the population was localized and isolated. There is no evidence of its occurrence in the adjacent Bolivian lowland forests below 1,000 m. Further investigation is required. This is the only modern record of <em>Lagothrix</em> occurring in Bolivia.
39925		habitat	eng	<em>Lagothrix cana cana</em> is typical of lowland rain forest in the upper Amazon. Peres (1996) found that they preferred high terra fimra forest to low-lying, water logged for most of the year. Only 2.6% of their time was spent in creekside forest. Wallace and Painter (1999) observed an isolated population of woolly monkeys in Madidi, Bolivia, which may be <em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em>. The habitat they described as low-elevation Andean cloud forest, with abundant mosses, tree ferns, bromeliads and orchids and a mossy ground layer on step slopes. Small basins where canopy reaches 30-35 m but they also use dryer and lower forest found on the steeper slopes. In Madidi, informants told Wallace and Painter (1999) that they were common in higher cloud forest between 1,500 m and 2,500 m. They are not found below 700 m (the lowest record in Madidi).<br/><br/>Ramirez (1980, 1988) studied <em>L. l. tschudii</em> in the Manu National Park (see also Terborgh 1983). Peres (1994b, 1996) studied <em>Lagothrix cana</em> at an undisturbed <em>terra firma</em> forest on the upper Rio Urucu in 1998/1989. The study group comprised 39-41 independantly locomoting individuals that ranged over 962 ha. They ranged in large, loose social units, covering several to many hectares of forest at any one time. They were not observed to split into separate units, foraging and travelling independantly. The spread of the group averaged 431 m (range 60-1,920 m, n=76 mapped locations). The woollies were most cohesive during the middle of the wet season and least cohesive during the late dry season. They fed mainly in large- to very large-crowned trees. The diet recorded by Peres (1994a) comprised ripe and unripe fruits (80.7% of records), young leaves (14.4%), mature leaves (0.1% from a single tree <em>Couratari stellata</em>, Lecythidaceae), petioles (1.7%) and flowers (3.1%). They also eat exudates of <em>Parkia</em> seed pods. Young leaves, flowers, seeds and exudates tend to be eaten more when fruit availability is low (Peres 1994).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male H&B 49.5 cm, TL 70.5 cm; adult female H&B 46.7 cm, TL 65.8 cm (as for <em>L. puruensis</em> Lönnberg, 1940).<br/>Adult male weight mean 9.49 kg (8.93-10.2 kg, n=3), adult female weight 7.65 kg (n=1) (Peres 1994a,b).
39925		population	eng	Peres (1990) compared densities of <em>Lagothrix cana cana</em> in hunted and unhunted sites:<br/>Hunted: Tahuayo (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 1988) 1.2 individuals/km²; Ponta da Castanha (Johns 1985, 1986) 6.0 individuals/km².<br/>Not hunted: Igarapé Acu (Peres 1988) 30.5 individuals/km²; Urucú (Peres 1988) 27.7 individuals/km²; Tefé (Peres 1988) 20.0 individuals/km²; Açaituba (Johns 1985, 1986) 17.0 individuals/km². <br/><br/>Peres (1997) estimated the densities of <em>Lagothrix cana cana</em> at two sites in the Brazilan Amazon: Condor 11.1 individuals/km²; Altamira 26.2 individuals/km². Rylands (1982) estimated densities of (hunted) woolly monkeys in <em>terra firma</em> forest ranging from 7.4 to 13.3 individuals/km² (four trails) at Aripuanã, northern Mato Grosso (left bank of the Rio Aripuanã.
39925		threats	eng	This species is heavily hunted and infants are much favoured as pets. In his primate population surveys in a number of sites in the upper Amazon, south of the Rio Solimões in Brazil, Peres (1990) found that <em>Lagothrix</em>, <em>Ateles</em> and <em>Alouatta</em> were prime targets for hunting. Both the woolly monkeys and the spider monkeys were "extremely rare, if not locally extinct", he believed because of hunting, at three of the sites. They were not seen during his transect surveys at the three sites (150 km walked). At one of these sites (Riozinho), between the rios Juruá and Tefé , Peres (1990) reported that the single extended family of rubber tappers (three hunters) there killed over 200 woolly monkeys in a little less than two years, resulting in their local extinction (spider monkeys were nearly extinct there and howlers "drastically reduced"). For these larger species, hunting is the main threat prior to deforestation, and even low-intensity colonization severely reduces their numbers. The females with offspring tend to be targeted by hunters, so that they can sell the infants as pets. Heavy deforestation also occurs in many parts of this species' range, notably in the east and south (Mato Grosso, Rondonia). Mining (e.g., cassiterite) is a cause of forest loss and hunting in the south of its range, <br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em> would appear to have a very restricted range, but large parts of it are completely uninhabited (Wallace and Painter 1999).
39926		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the three contiguous protected areas of: <br/><br/>La Macarena National Park (630,000 ha) (see Nishimura and Izawa 1975; Nishimura 1986; 1988, 1990a,b; Stevenson 1992)<br/>Tinigua National Natural Park (201,875 ha) (see Stevenson <em>et al.</em> 1994; Stevenson 2000; Stevenson and Castellanos 2000)<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (in range: Defler 2003, 2004).<br/><br/>Also present in Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
39926		distribution	eng	The range was delimited by Defler (2003, 1004) and Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976). Occurs to the north of the lower Río Guayabero, where it is scarce (Klein and Klein 1976). More common through the piedmont of the Uribe region (between La Macarena and the Cordillera Oriental and in the Serrania La Macarena). It extends north to the along the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental to about 3,000 m. In Central Colombia, <em>L.  lugens</em> extends from the upper Magdalena valley to at least southern Tolima, west of the of the Río Magdalena and historically at least to the southern part of the Department of Cesar, on the west side of the Cordillera. It is almost certainly extinct there today. There is an isolated enclave in the Serrania de San Lucas in south-eastern Bolivar and northern Antioquia at the northern end of the Central Cordillera. The San Lucas population, studied briefly by Kavanagh and Dresdale, 1975), may have been connected to the populations of the upper Magdalena valley when there was forest there.  <em>L. lugens</em> meets <em>L. lagothricha</em> somewhere in the Department of Caquetá, but exactly where is not known.<br/><br/>Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) reported that no woolly monkeys have been collected in Venezuela, but that they would expect <em>L. lugen</em>s to occur in the Selva San Camilo. State of Apure (following the distribution proposed by Fooden [1963] and Hernández-Camacho and Cooper [1976]).
39926		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary forest from lowlands up to elevations of 3,000 m. They have also been recorded in gallery and Mauritia palm forest odf the eastern plains of Colombia as well as in seasonally flooded forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Klein and Klein 1976; Moynihan 1976). Studying a group of <em>L. lugens</em> in the Tinigua National Park, Colombia, Stevenson <em>et al</em>. (1994) observed a preference for mature forest (82% of the group's time spent there) over open, degraded forest (11%) and flooded forest (5%).<br/><br/>In 1967, Klein and Klein (1976) made some observations on the habitat and distribution of this species in La Macarena Natural National Park, Colombia, and Bernstein <em>et al</em>. (1976a) and Kavanagh and Dresdale (1975) made a brief study of its behaviour in a patch of cloud forest in the Serrania de San Lucas, Bolívar, Colombia. Woolly monkeys are frugivores, eating also young leaves, leaf buds, flowers, nectar and bark (Ramirez 1980). Stevenson <em>et al.</em> (1994) reviewed observations on group sizes in the Tinigua National Park. Seven groups observed during the late 1980s and early 1990s ranged in size from 14 to about 33. One of the groups (17 individuals: 4 adult males, 5 adult females, 1 subadult male, 1 subadult female, 2 infant males and 2 infant females) ranged over 169 ha.<br/><br/>Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals (typically around 3 years) makes it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats. Females begin mating at 5 or 6 years of age, when they leave their natal groups, but do not conceive until 1.5-3 years later (Nishimura <em>et al</em>. 1992).
39926		population	eng	Occurs at densities of up to 50 individuals/km² in protected areas (P. Stevenson pers. comm.).
39926		threats	eng	The major threats are hunting for food (mainly subsistence) and habitat loss due agricultural development/expansion. Habitat loss is also taking place due to clearance of forest for coca plantations, accompanied by fumigation of coca plantations that results in defoliation of contiguous forests. Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals (typically around 3 years) makes it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.
39927		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (Lopes and Rehg 2003) <br/>Jutaí -Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha)<br/>Javarí-Burití Area of Ecological Interest (15,000 ha)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Di Fiore 2003; Tirira 2007)<br/>Sangay National Park (517,765 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Podocarpus National Park (146,280 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Soini 1990)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
39927		distribution	eng	<em>Lagothrix poeppigii</em> occurs south of the Ríos Napo and Amazonas (in Ecuador below 1,800 m), north of the Marañon it extends east from the Cordillera Oriental (Río Morona), but south of the Río Marañón to the west of the Río Huallaga as far south as the east (left bank) of the Rio Mayo. From there, the species is known from the east of the Hualaga soiuth as far as the Rio Aguaytia and Pachitea. <em>Lagothrix cana</em> occurs between the Ríos Ucayali and Pachitea. <em>L. poeppigii</em> occurs east of the Río Ucaylai as far south as the Río Inuya (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). According to Fooden (1963), the eastern range limit of <em>L. poeppigii</em> is the Rio Juruá, but variable shapes of reddish brown typical of the species extend through to the Rio Purus.
39927		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary forest, and does not occur in disturbed and secondary forests. In Ecuador, it occurs on tropical and subtropical <em>terra firma</em> and seasonally inundated forests at altitudes of 200 to 1,600 m above sea level<br/><br/>Field studes of this species have been carried out in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru (Soini 1986a,b, 1990) and the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador (Di Fiore and Rodman 2001; Di Fiore 2003, 2004, 2005; Di Fiore and Fleischer 2005). Di Fiore (1997) observed two groups in the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador; one of 22-23 and the other of 24-25, each woth multiple adult males and females. The home range of the former group was 124 ha, and the latter 108 ha (Di Fiore 2003). <br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male weight mean 7.1 kg (n=6), adult female weight 4.53 kg (n=9) (Lu 1999, in Di Fiore and Campbell 2007))
39927		population	eng	In lowland Ecuador, where they have not been hunted, they are the most abundant primate in terms of biomass and numbers of individuals (T. di Fiore pers. comm.). Di Fiore (1997) recorded a density of more than 31 individuals/km² in the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
39927		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is subsistence and market hunting for food, and habitat loss due to small-holder agriculture.
39928		conservation	eng	This species occurs in La Macarena National Park and Tinigua National Park. Although some populations are found within protected areas, guerilla activity makes it difficult to monitor these areas (T. Defler, pers comm.).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39928		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Colombia, in the department of Cundinamarca (Medina) north as far as the lower Río Upía/Río Meta, and south into the department of Meta, along the base of the Cordillera Oriental and the Sierra de la Macarena to the Río Guayabero/upper Río Guaviare. It is the only member of the <em>cupreus</em> and <em>moloch</em> group occurring north of the Rios Amazonas/Solimões/Napo axis, in the upper Río Orinoco basin and is separated from the nearest other member of the <em>cupreus</em> group (<em>Callicebus discolor</em>) in the south by at least 350 km (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
39928		habitat	eng	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>Callicebus ornatus</em> typically occurs in lowland tropical forests (canopy 15-20 m) (Defler 2004) and disturbed habitats (Mason 1968). <br/><br/>The ecology of this species has been studied in the department of Meta by Mason (1965, 1966a, 1966b, 1968, 1971) and Robinson (1977, 1979a, 1979b, 1981, 1982a,b). Polanco (1992) and Porras (2000) studied a population near the Duda River.
39928		population	eng	Robinson (1977) recorded a population density of 5 individuals/km².
39928		threats	eng	This species occurs in an area subject to intense human colonization that has been subject to widespread habitat destruction and fragmentation.
39929		conservation	eng	The species is not found in any officially protected area. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39929		distribution	eng	Endemic to Brazil, the Blond Titi Monkey occurs in the states of Bahia (Hershkovitz 1990) and Sergipe at approximately 240-900 m asl (Printes 2007) from the Rio Paraguaçu river basin to the border between the states of Bahia and Sergipe along the margins of the Rio Real. Prior to the survey of Printes (2005, 2007), this species was known from only four localities: Lamarão (type locality), Formosa, Bandeira de Melo and Mirorós in the municipality of Ibipeba all in the State of Bahia (Hershkovitz 1990; Marinho-Filho and Veríssimo 1997). However, the taxon has now been confirmed at over 55 sites in Bahia and Sergipe (Printes 2007; Estrela <em>et al.</em> 2007). In recent surveys (195 km) undertaken in Lamarão in Bahia, the species was registered in four locations, all caatinga scrubland fragments (Estrela <em>et al</em>. 2007), some considerably smaller than previously estimated (A. Estrela pers. comm.). In the past, the coastal forests of the ‘Agreste’ in eastern Bahia probably supported large populations; however, this type of vegetation is rare today (Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Populations have been located in three main regions: Agreste, Lamarão and north of the Chapada Diamantina. No titis were recorded in the region west of Araci and Nova Soure, which is dominated by the Cerrado. However, <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> was recorded in the Caatinga of the moister uplands northeast of Araci (Mandacaru, Mirandela and Serra Branca). The species was also recorded in Caatinga habitat further north as far as the Salitre river, 170 km from Juazeiro, but titis were not recorded west of the Chapada Diamantina (Printes 2007; Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<br/><br/><em>Callicebus melanochir</em> replaces <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> in the region known as the ‘Recôncavo Baiano’ (south of the Paraguaçu river in the municipality of Igrapiuna). The lower Paraguaçu forms the limit between the geographic ranges of <em>C. coimbrai</em>, restricted to the left or north bank, and <em>C. melanochir</em>, found on the right bank. Further west, in the region of Feira de Santana, <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> occurs on both banks of the Paraguaçu. There appears to be no physical barrier between the eastern limit of the range of <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> and the western limit of <em>C. coimbrai</em> (Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>The extent of occurrence of the Blond Titi Monkey is estimated to cover an area of some 291,438 km², but its area of occupancy is only thought to be 2,636 km² (Printes 2007; Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Approximately 90% of all records are between 37º and 41ºW and 09º and 13ºS (Printes 2007).
39929		habitat	eng	Occurs in caatinga (dry scrubland) with a preferences for dense arboreal caatinga (Printes 2007). There are no available data on ecology.
39929		population	eng	The estimated minimum population is 260 individuals (Printes 2007).
39929		threats	eng	Occurs in a region of Brazil with widespread deforestation and habitat fragmentation. Cattle ranching, agriculture and continuing urbanisation are the main threats. The area is characterized by rapid development facilitated by an extensive network of highways. Other threats include potential dangers from roads and power-lines and predation by domestic pets. This species occurs in small fragmented populations that are exposed to synergistic genetic and demographic risks. Hunting pressure needs to be ascertained, but it is probably moderate due to the small body size. During surveys, a few individuals were found being kept as pets (Printes <em>et al.</em> in prep).
39930		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including the Pau Brasil National Park, south of the Jequitinhonha. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39930		distribution	eng	According to Hershkovitz (1990), <em>Callicebus melanochir</em> is found in Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil between the right margin of the rio Paraguaçu in the state of Bahia and the left bank of the rio Mucur in northern Espírito Santo. Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) claimed that the species may overlap with <em>C. personatus</em> in the Itaúnas and Mucuri river valleys, in the north of Espírito Santo. Cerrado (savanna) acts as a barrier to the distribution of titis today and it is likely that <em>C. melanochir</em> ranges no further west into Minas Gerais than Montes Claros (Printes 2005). To the north, <em>C. melanochir</em> extends as far as the Rio Paraguaçu, where it meets the ranges of <em>C. coimbrai</em> and <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> (Hershkovitz 1990; Oliver and Santos 1991; Flesher 1999; Sousa in prep). It may formerly have occurred in the Pardo-Jequitinhonha interfluvium, but the forests of this region have now been replaced by cattle pasture and recent surveys found no <em>Callicebus</em> there (Printes <em>et al</em>. in press). This species may reach as far south as the Rio Doce (300 km to the south), while to the west it is replaced by <em>C. personatus</em> (Printes in press).
39930		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Brazil's Atlantic forest, where it occurs also in areas of degraded habitat. There are very few studies on the ecology and behaviour of members of the <em>personatus</em> group. However, <em>Callicebus melanochir</em> has been the subject of  a few studies in Bahia. They live in small family groups, with a home range of 22–24 ha (Müller 1996; Heiduck 2002) and a mean day range of approximately 1 km (Müller 1996). The diet comprises mainly fleshy fruit parts, seeds and young leaves (Heiduck 1997). A group in Serra do Teimoso Reserve, Jussari, was highly frugivorous, with 90% of their diet composed of fruit, complemented by leaves, flowers and other items (Cardoso and Santos 2005).
39930		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. The populations are highly fragmented.
39930		threats	eng	This species inhabits the most developed and populous region of Brazil, in a region that has suffered from extensive habitat loss and fragmentation and where there is now very little remaining forest cover (estimated from between 5 to 10%). The reduction of available habitat for the eastern Brazilian titis is ongoing, mainly due to pressures for cattle ranching and agriculture. Hunting pressure is probably negligible to moderate in most cases, given their small body size.
39931		conservation	eng	Management suggestions for <em>E. asteroides</em>: <br/>(1) A survey of basalt pavement should be made in the Kilum-Ijim area.  When areas are located, these species should be searched for and vouchered if found.  A rough number of the area of occupancy and total number of plants should be made.  This will allow a more complete mapping of the species and a more comprehensive understanding of their population size. <br/>(2) Considerations should be given to using experimental means to examine the effects of the possible threats mentioned above.  Several square metres of one population could be fenced off and protected from fire and grazing.  The effects of these could be monitored on an annual basis.  Another area could be subjected to cattle or horse trampling to look at the effect of this on the soil that hosts these species.  The results of this experimentation could then be used to guide management of the habitat of these species.
39931		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cameroon (Mamenda Highlands, Mt. Oku, and the Ijim Ridge area), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau (Chappal Waddi)).  Six localities are known.
39931		habitat	eng	Occurs on Basalt pavement, i.e., thin, peaty, seasonally waterlogged soil in the cracks between blocks of basalt; with <em>Utricularia scandens, Loudetia simplex</em> and <em>Scleria interrupta</em> (circa. 1,700-2,500 m altitude).
39931		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown, however, too much trampling by cattle may cause damage to these small annual <em>Eriocaulon</em> plants by dislodging them from the basalt substrate the thin layer of peaty soil in which they grow.  Conversely, lack of grazing or of intermittent grassland fires might permit the built-up of enough soil on the pavement to allow a <em>Sporolobus</em>-based community to encroach upon the basalt pavement and smother or compete with the <em>Eriocaulon</em>.
39932		conservation	eng	A population census of the known sites should be completed, and the sites monitored for changes in numbers of individuals annually. Information on the demography of this species is deficient.  Work is needed to discover the relative importance and levels of recruitment from division of clumps, seeds and parthenogenesis from viviparous capitula.
39932		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon (Mt. Oku, the Ijim Ridge, and the Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mayo Daga).
39932		habitat	eng	The plant occurs on basalt pavement, i.e., thin, peaty, seasonally waterlogged soil in the cracks between blocks of basalt; with <em>Utricularia scandens, Loudetia simplex</em> and <em>Scleria interrupta</em> (circa. 1,700-2,500 m altitude).
39932		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable, above all, to changes to the water table. Drainage of swamps or conversely, flooding for use as reservoirs would threaten this species with extinction.  The species is also vulnerable to trampling by cattle.
39933		conservation	eng	Management suggestions for <em>E. parvulum</em>: <br/>(1) A survey of basalt pavement should be made in the Kilum-Ijim area.  When areas are located, these species should be searched for and vouchered if found.  A rough number of the area of occupancy and total number of plants should be made.  This will allow a more complete mapping of the species and a more comprehensive understanding of their population size. <br/>(2) Considerations should be given to using experimental means to examine the effects of the possible threats mentioned above.  Several square metres of one population could be fenced off and protected from fire and grazing.  The effects of these could be monitored on an annual basis.  Another area could be subjected to cattle or horse trampling to look at the effect of this on the soil that hosts these species.  Results of this experimentation could then be used to guide management of the habitat of these species.
39933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge in Cameroon.
39933		habitat	eng	It is known to occur on basalt pavement, i.e., thin, peaty, seasonally waterlogged soil in the cracks between blocks of basalt, with <em>Utricularia scandens, Loudetia simplex</em> and <em>Scleria interrupta</em> at altitudes of 1,700-2,500 m.
39933		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown, however, trampling by cattle may damage these small annual <em>Eriocaulon</em> plants by dislodging them from the basalt substrate the thin layer of peaty soil in which they grow.  Conversely, lack of grazing or of intermittent grassland fires might permit the built-up of enough soil on the pavement to allow a <em>Sporolobus</em>-based community to encroach upon the basalt pavement and smother or compete with the <em>Eriocaulon</em>.
39934		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bioko, Mt Cameroon, Bamboutos Mountains and Mt. Oku.
39934		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane grassland, sometimes at forest edges at 1,850-3,800 m alt.
39935		conservation	eng	Management is best focused upon the Kilum-Ijim subpopulation which is best protected and at which the species appears from the surveys done so far to be at its most numerous.
39935		distribution	eng	Found in the Cameroon Highlands from Manenguba (one collection) to the Bamenda Highlands (five collections from four locations) including Mts Neshele, Lake Bambuluwe and Lake Ohu.
39935		habitat	eng	Grows on lower branches or leaning trunks of trees, rarely terrestrial, in densely canopied areas of montane forests at 1,800–2,800 m alt.
39935		threats	eng	Continued clearance of remaining montane forest at Muanenguba and in the Bamenda Highlands outside of protected areas, together with possible future encroachment into protected areas, severely threaten this species.
39937		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection at Ijim at Nchian, Ijim Ridge, Cameroon. <br/>This species has not been seen since it was first discovered in 1931, which suggests that it may be highly localised geographically, and possibly extinct.
39937		habitat	eng	Grows in rocky grassland at 1,860 m alt.
39938		conservation	eng	The species has been found in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve.
39938		distribution	eng	In the Limpopo Province it has been recorded from the Waterberg district, while in Gauteng it has been recorded from the Heidelberg area and Bronberg/Magaliesberg area east of Pretoria. Known from five locations.
39938		habitat	eng	A terrestrial orchid restricted to steep slopes, growing among grass or bush on sandstone-derived soils.
39938		threats	eng	Habitat transformation and fragmentation mainly through urbanization and agriculture are the main threats. The Bronberg subpopulation is severely threatened by expanding urbanization.  Also  threatened by collectors.  This orchid is highly sought after by orchid collectors because it is so rare.
39939		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Tweedsmere Ranch Natural Heritage site and Nature Reserve. Also occurs in the Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve and the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve.
39939		distribution	eng	This species is apparently endemic to the Gauteng Province of South Africa, although there are indications that it may formerly have occurred near Queenstown in the Eastern Cape Province (C. Archer, pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is less than 2,600 km² and the area of occupancy <5 km².  The species is known from seven locations and is not considered severely fragmented, hence does not qualify for listing as Critically Endangered under criterion B. <br/> <br/>All seven known localities have been surveyed in recent years. The Uitkomst-Tweedsmere Ranch (Sterkfontein World Heritage Site) locality comprises 61-70 individuals; the Irene Koppie locality (which is currently being urbanized) still has 35-40 individuals, but these will disappear as the development grows; the <br/>Thorntree Kloof, Johannesburg locality probably has 12-15 individuals based on an unconfirmed observation, in an urbanized area; the Waterval WNW of Krugersdorp locality could not be found and is presumed to be extinct; the Sterkfontein locality comprises 35-40 individuals in a relatively rural area; the Rietvlei Dam Nature Reserve locality also comprises 35-40 individuals and the Linksfield Ridge locality is assumed to comprise 12-15 individuals, based on an unconfirmed observation from this urban site.
39939		habitat	eng	An erect herb rising from an ellipsoid tuber which grows in open grassland on dolomite or in black sandy soil.
39939		threats	eng	Expanding urbanization is the greatest threat.  One of the sites is now an aerodrome.
39940		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the number of individuals at the known sites and about levels of regeneration. Enforcement of existing protected area boundaries would help protect a significant portion of the surviving plants.
39940		distribution	eng	Known from the Bamenda Highlands (several sites) and Muanenguba (one collection) in Cameroon and Mambilla Plateau in Nigeria (one collection).
39940		habitat	eng	Grows in the understorey of montane evergreen forest at 1,650–2,000(-2,400) m alt.
39940		threats	eng	Clearance of forest primarily for agricultural expansion.
39941		conservation	eng	Both the Lake Oku and Ajung cliffs are inside the Kilum-Ijim boundary, and so are protected, so long as the boundaries are respected.  More information is needed on the number of individuals present at the two known sites, and on levels of regeneration.  The plant at the potential third site (Ntum) should be vouchered.  This species should be looked for in other areas of forest in the Bamenda highlands.
39941		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge in Cameroon.
39941		habitat	eng	Found in the understorey of montane evergreen forest (1,800-2,200 m altitude).
39941		threats	eng	The species is possibly cut for firewood.  This along with forest clearance for agriculture.
39942		distribution	eng	In rock slides, at base of cliff on north side of Magazine Mountain at around 2,800 ft.
39943		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas, including the Serra do Mar reserve complex, the Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA Sul), in the municipality of Nova Lima, south of the metropolitan region of Belo Horizonte and even the Cantareira State Park in the centre of the city of São Paulo. The extensive fragmentation of remaining habitat throughout its range may necessitate a metapopulation management strategy in the future (Printes <em>et al.</em> in prep).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39943		distribution	eng	<em>Callicebus nigrifrons</em> is distributed over a relatively wide area in south-eastern Brazil. Its range includes much of São Paulo, southern Minas Gerais, and eastern Rio de Janeiro states. It has the largest distribution of any species in the <em>personatus</em> group (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002), It is found north of the Tietê and east of the Rios Paraná and Parnaíba, and on both margins of the upper Rio São Francisco. The species extends east as far as the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço ranges, where it meets the range of <em>C. personatus</em>.
39943		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the Atlantic forest, occurring in both mature rain forest and disturbed fragments. The ecology of this species is relatively unknown, with most data coming from inferences based on studies of other members in the genus, which suggest that this species is frugivorous, monogamous, lives in small family groups (2 to 5 individuals) and is territorial (Cäsar <em>et al.</em> in press). A considerable amount of time is spent of foraging and feeding (47%), and a significant amount of time resting (21%) (Franco 2006).
39943		population	eng	The population density of <em>C. nigrifrons</em> in a 50-ha forest fragment was estimated at 80–100 individuals per km² (Soares 2006), which is six times higher than for <em>C. personatus</em> (a similar-sized species living in the same habitat). In the Atlantic forest, a mean density of 15.67 ± 6.51 individuals/km² has been recorded (Chiarello and Melo 2001).
39943		threats	eng	This species inhabits the most developed and populous region of Brazil, and has suffered extensive habitat loss and fragmentation. Although the species is widespread, urbanization, expanding agriculture and logging practices have led to extreme fragmentation of the forests within its range and resulting small isolated populations. In many places, they have been locally or regionally extirpated even where forests patches remain.
39944		conservation	eng	Occurs in La Paya National Park (Defler 2004), but due to the park's remote location, land tenure problems, and local political conflicts, it a difficult area to manage. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39944		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Colombian Amazon between the Ríos Caquetá and Putumayo in the Intendencia del Putumayo and the southern part of the Intendencia de Caquetá (Hershkovitz 1990). Martinez and Rowe (2003) confirmed that the species that occurs in Ecuador is <em>C. lucifer</em> not <em>C. medemi</em> as suggested by van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002).
39944		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
39944		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
39944		threats	eng	The main threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation due to timber extraction, uncontrolled slash-and-burn agriculture and cattle grazing, and the planting of illegal crops and aerial spraying (even within the La Paya National Park; E. Palacios pers. comm.). There is also some hunting and trapping of animals for food and pets.
39945		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus n. nigricollis</em><br/><br/>If it occurs north of the Río Içá in Brazil, it may be present in the 745,830-ha Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station. In Colombia, it probably occurs in the Amacayacú National Natural Park, and possibly in the La Paya National Natural Park and the Cahuinarí National Natural Park (Defler 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus. n. graellsi</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>None<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Limoncocha Biological Reserve (4,613 ha) (S. de la Torre, in litt. 1996; Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve (655,781 ha) (de la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995b; Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambé-Coca Faunal Ecological Reserve (350,000 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Faunal Ecologicla Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>None (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus. n. hernadezi</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Tinigua National Park (Tovar 1994)<br/>It is not known if it occurs in the Cordillera de los Picachos National Natural Park to the north of Tinigua, and also on the west bank of the Río Guayabero.
39945		distribution	eng	There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis nigricollis</em><br/>Hershkovitz (1977) recorded that it occurs between the Rios Solimões-Amazonas and Içá-Putumayo, at least as far west as the mouth of the Río Napo. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) documented its occurrence west from there along the left (north) bank of the Río Napo in Peru, upstream at least as far as the Ríos Aguarico, Lagartococha and Güepi on the border with Ecuador, where it is replaced by <em>S. n. graellsi</em>, as was proposed by Hershkovitz (1982). In Colombia, its distribution is poorly known, but Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Defler (1994) reported that it occurs north of the Río Putumayo to the Río Caquetá, and east to the Brazilian border, indicating its, as yet undocumented, presence between the Rios Japurá and Iça in Brazil (Hershkovitz 1977, 1982). However, evidence for its occurrence north of the Río Putumayo in Colombia is sparse. Its supposed presence in two large protected areas in this region (La Paya National Natural Park and Cahuinarí National Natural Park) has not yet been confirmed (Defler 1994). Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) reported that they observed <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> groups mixed with <em>S. f. fuscus</em> at Puerto Leguízamo, located on the north bank of the upper Putumayo. According to them <em>S. n. graellsi</em> is sympatric with <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> at Puerto Leguízamo, and west from there between the Ríos Putumayo and Caquetá. For this reason, they argued that the form <em>graellsi</em> should be considered a distinct species (see also Defler 1994). Otherwise the only evidence is that of a young specimen collected in 1960 by H. Granados and H. Arévalo labeled “Caquetá-Putumayo”, as reported by Hershkovitz (1982) who pointed out that it may have been taken from the left bank of the Río Putumayo. Hershkovitz (1982) argued that the evidence for the occurrence of <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> north of the Río Putumayo is not yet conclusive. In this case, the possibility remains that its range is restricted to the right bank of the Río Putumayo. This being so, Hershkovitz (1982) pointed out that there would be a gap between the ranges of <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> (north of the Río Caquetá) and <em>S. n. graellsi</em> (south of the Río Putumayo). Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976), however, give place <em>S. n. graellsi</em> as occurring north of the upper reaches of the Río Putumayo, north to the Río Caquetá, in which case the ranges would be continuous with <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> north of the Río Caquetá. The exact range of <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> in Colombia remains unclear. North of the Río Putumayo, <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> would be sympatric with <em>S. fuscicollis fuscus</em>.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis graellsi</em><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis graellsi</em> occurs in the upper Amazon, in southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador and north-eastern Peru. Its range is not well known, however, and our interpretation of the current evidence indicates that it is probably more restricted than is indicated by Hershkovitz (1977, 1982). According to Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976), in Colombia it occurs south from right (south) bank of the upper Río Caquetá to the Ríos Sucumbios and Putumayo on the border with Ecuador. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) recorded that it occurred in the neighborhood of Puerto Asís on the upper Putumayo, east as far as Puerto Leguízamo. These authors informed that <em>S. n. graellsi</em> is sympatric with <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> in the region of Puerto Leguízamo, and the form <em>graellsi</em> should, therefore, be considered a distinct species, although doubts remain. Defler (1989, 1994) argued for this possibility, although Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1988) listed it as a subspecies of <em>S. n. nigricollis</em>. Hershkovitz (1982) argued that there is no definite evidence for <em>S. n. graellsi</em> occurring north of Ecuador, and suggested that Black-mantle Tamarins reported by Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) may be either of the other two subspecies. He restricted its northern limit to the Ríos Putumayo and Sucumbios, indicating as such that it does not occur in Colombia at all. According to Hershkovitz (1982), in Ecuador <em>S. n. graellsi</em> extends throughout a large part of the Amazon region, south from the Río Putumayo, west to the foothills of the Andes. The altitudinal range is between 100 m and 1,000 m (Hershkovitz 1982). Hershkovitz (1977) suggested that the range in Ecuador may extend as far south as the right bank of the upper Río Santiago, although in a later publication (Hershkovitz 1982) he was more conservative, giving the north (right) bank of the Río Pastaza as the limit. The only specimens from the Ríos Pastaza and Tigre are from their uppermost reaches in Ecuador. <br/><br/>According to Aquino and Encarnación (1994), eastwards, <em>S. n. graellsi</em> extends into Peru along the right (south) banks of the Río Napo to its mouth, and restricted to the north (right) banks of the Ríos Amazonas and Marañón. However, <em>S. n. graellsi</em> has not been recorded in Peru except for the banks of the Napo and Curaray, and its occurrence in the basins of the northern tributaries of the Río Marañón has yet to be confirmed. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that <em>S. n. graellsi</em> has never been found along the Rios Tigre and Pastaza, for example, despite a number of primatological surveys along these rivers between 1981 and 1986. The known distribution in Peru is restricted to the region between the Ríos Nanay and Napo. Although occurring north of the Río Napo in Ecuador, it extends east only as far the Ríos Güepí and Lagartococha on the frontier with Peru (Hershkovitz 1982), where it is replaced by <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> (Hershkovitz 1982; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It has been recorded recently in a number of localities in northern Ecuador between the Ríos Napo and Putumayo, including the basins of the Río Aguarico, Cuyabeno and Pacuyacu (S. de la Torre, in litt. 1996). However, it has not been found in the Yasuní National Park, covering the basin of the Rio Yasuní, where it would seem that only <em>S. tripartitus</em> and <em>S. fuscicollis lagonotus</em> occur (Albuja 1994; S. de la Torre, in litt., 1996). Although Hershkovitz (1977) argued for the restriction of the type locality to the right bank of the Río Napo above the mouth of the Rio Curaray, no definite records or specimens are available for <em>S. n. graellsi</em> in Ecuador between these rivers (Hershkovitz 1977, 1982; Albuja 1994), and it would seem probable that only two <em>Saguinus</em> species occur there: <em>S. tripartitus</em> and <em>S. fuscicollis lagonotus</em>.<br/><br/>The distribution of <em>S. n. graellsi </em> therefore has yet to be clearly defined. However, if it occurs in Colombia it would be sympatric with <em>S. fuscicollis fuscus</em>, and in Ecuador and Peru it is sympatric, at least in some areas such as the upper reaches of the Rios Napo, Curaray, Pindo Yacu and Pastaza, with <em>S. fuscicollis lagonotus</em> (see Hershkovitz 1982; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It would appear that it does not occur between the Ríos Curaray and Napo in Peru and Ecuador, and is not, therefore, sympatric with <em>S. tripartitus</em>. Tirira (2007) reported that the limjits of its range in Ecuador are poorly defined. In the north of the country, it is not known if it reaches the ríos Sucumbíos and Putumayo, and that the identity of the tamarins to the south of the Río Napo in the provinces of Oreallana and Pastaza is uncertain. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis hernandezi</em><br/><em>Saguinus n. hernandezi</em> occurs in eastern Colombia between the Ríos Caquetá, Caguan, and Orteguaza and the base of the Cordillera Oriental, Intendencia de Caquetá (Hershkovitz 1982). K. Izawa (in Hershkovitz 1982) reported that <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> was not seen on the north bank of the Río Caquetá, but it has been found to the north and north-east of the Caquetá in the Department of Meta, Angostura I, on the right bank of the Río Guayabero (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1988; Tovar 1994). Presumably it occurs at least along the eastern slopes of the Andes from the headwaters of the Río Caguan to the Río Guayabero. The altitudinal range is 150-500 m above sea level (Hershkovitz 1982).
39945		habitat	eng	The Black-mantled Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, dry forests in Colombia, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Izawam 1978; Snowdon and Soini 1988; Tovar 1994; De la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995a). Tovar (1992) observed <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> on the south bank of the Río Guayabero in highly seasonal dry forest and spiny-leaved scleromophic scub (<em>arrabal</em>). In Ecuador, Tirira (2007) describes the habitat of <em>S. n. graellsi</em> as tropical and subtropical humid forests between 200 and 1,300 m above sea level, although most commonly found below 400 m above sea level. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects) (Izawa, 1978). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Tovar (1994) studied a group which ranged in size from 7 to 11. Eight groups of <em>S. n. graellsi</em> observed by de la Torre <em>et al.</em> (1992, 1995a) ranged in size from 2-9. Ten groups of <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> observed by Izawa (1978) averaged 6.3 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. One <em>Saguinus n. graellsi</em> group of 7-9 was found to use a home range of 56.2 ha in the dry season and 41.7 ha in the wet season (De la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995a). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult males weigh 468 g (n=8) (Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985; Defler 2004)<br/>Adult females weigh 484 g (n=6) (Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985; Defler 2004)<br/>Adult males and females 390-470 g (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis hernandezi</em><br/>Adult female holotype H&B 22.0, TL 34.0 cm (Hershkovitz, 1977).
39945		population	eng	Izawa (1978) calculated an ecological density for <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> on the Río Peneya, Colombia, of 1-24 individuals/km², and a crude density of 10-13 individuals/km².<br/><br/>Population density estimated for <em>S. n. graellsi</em> in the Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve, Ecuador, by De la Torre <em>et al</em>. (1995a) was 22-33 individuals/km². Delfer (2004) recorded crude denties at four sites aloing the upper Río Purité, Colombia, that ranged from 4-15 individuals/km².
39945		threats	eng	<em>Saguinus n. nigricollis</em> is regarded as common in Peru by Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989), and although it was heavily exploited for export for biomedical research in the 1960/1970s, it was reported by Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) to be common in Colombia too. Its status in Brazil is unknown. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus n. graellsi</em> in Ecuador remains widespread north of the Río Napo, but its distribution overlaps a region that is experiencing high rates of forest loss.<br/> <br/><em>Saguinus n. hernandezi</em>, on the other hand, has a small distribution restricted to Colombia, but, although there is little information available regarding its conservation status, it occurs in the Tinigua National Park, is evidently adaptable, and there is no reason to believe that there are any major threats to its survival in the short term  (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985; Defler 1994).
39947		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/>This species occurs, or may occur, in numerous protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Reserve (284,285 ha), within range, unconfirmed<br/><br/>Peru <br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (745,830 ha), within supposed range, unconfirmed<br/>Mamirauá State Ecological Station (1,124,000 ha) within supposed range, unconfirmed<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>La Paya National Natural Park (422,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Cahuinarí National Natural Park (575,000 ha), possible, unconfirmed (Defler 1994)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha), possibly on left bank of Rio Purus<br/>Lago Ayapuá State Environment Protection Area (610,000 ha)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (1,478,800 ha) (Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Abiseo National Park, possibly above altitudinal range<br/>Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (122,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Alto Mayo Protection Forest (182,000 ha), probably the low-lying parts.<br/>Panguana Biological Station (200 ha), south of its range (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Yanesha Communal Reserve (34,744 ha), possible, within range<br/>San Matias-San Carlos Protection Forest (145,818 ha), possible, within range <br/>Pui-pui Protection Forest (60,000 ha), possible, within range<br/>It has not been recorded for the Río Abiseo National Park probably due to the high altitude.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em><br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em><br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi National Reserve (1,844,375 ha)<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (77,500 ha)<br/>Cuniã State Environmental Protection Area (104,000 ha)<br/>Samuel State Ecological Station (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Serra dos Três Irmãos State Park (99,813 ha) (Ferrari <em>et al</em>, 1996a)<br/>Guajará-Mirim State Park (258,000 ha) (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>Pimenta Bueno Municipal Park (532 ha) (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996b)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha)<br/>Tambopata Natural Wildlife Reserve (5,500 ha).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis primitivus</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>None
39947		distribution	eng	There are 10 recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis</em> (Brazil, Peru)<br/>Spix’s Saddleback Tamarin occurs to the south of the Rio Solimões in Brazil, between the Rio Javarí in the west, east through the Rio Jutaí basin to the Rio Juruá (left bank) (Hershkovitz 1977, Peres 1993a). Hodun <em>et al.</em> (1981, see also Soini 1990a,b; Aquino and Encarnación 1994) also found it in Peru, west of the Río Yavarí as far as the Río Tapiche, an eastern tributary of the Río Ucayali, and extending north from there as far as the Río Blanco (left or western bank), where it meets the range of <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em> (right, eastern bank of Río Blanco). <em>S. f. illigeri</em> occurs west of the Río Tapiche (left bank), and <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> is replaced by <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em> again at the headwaters of the Río Tapiche. In the south, it is replaced by <em>S. f. weddelli</em> on the uppermost reaches of the Rios Javarí and Juruá near the frontier with Peru (see Aquino and Encarnación 1994; Peres 1993a; Peres <em>et al</em>. 1996). The altitudinal range is 75–150 m above sea level (Hershkovitz 1977). <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> is sympatric with Spix’s Moustached Tamarin, <em>S. m. mystax</em>, throughout its geographic distribution.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus</em> (Brazil, Colombia)<br/>Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin is the most northerly known subspecies of the Saddleback Tamarin. It occurs in the lowland forests north of the Rio Solimões, ranging north-west between the Rio Japurá-Caquetá and Içá-Putumayo in Brazil and Colombia (Hershkovitz 1968). In Brazil, the easternmost locality known for <em>S. f. fuscus</em> is the Rio Tonantins, a north bank tributary of the Rio Solimões (Hershkovitz 1977). According to Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976), in Colombia <em>S. f. fuscus</em> also extends north of the middle Río Caquetá, west of the Río Yarí (a northern tributary), through the basin of the Rio Caguán, and lower parts of the Río Orteguaza, west to the Andean foothills to an altitude of 500 m above sea level. It extends north to the right bank of the Río Guayabero and possibly east to the region of around San José de Guaviare on the southern bank of the Río Guaviare, about 1 hour by boat downstream from the confluence of the Ríos Guayabero and Ariari, to the headwaters of the Ríos Vaupés and Apaporis in the southern department of Meta (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). To the east from there it is replaced by <em>Saguinus inustus</em> (see Defler 1994, 2004). On the upper Río Putumayo it follows the left (north) bank of the Río Sucumbíos (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989). Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976, see also Defler 1994) indicated that the form found north of the Río Caquetá, to the region of San José de Guaviare is possibly not <em>S. f. fuscus</em> but a subspecies which has yet to be described. It is not known if <em>S. f. fuscus</em> or some undescribed form of <em>S. fuscicollis</em> occurs between the Riós Apaporis and Caquetá, along the left (east) bank of the Río Yarí (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). In this region, <em>S. inustus</em> is believed to be limited to the north (left) bank of the Río Apaporis. Regarding the occurrence of <em>S. f. fuscus</em> to the north of the Río Caquetá, it should be noted that Hershkovitz (1977, 1982) restricted its range to the basin of the Río Orteguaza and the right bank of the Río Caguán.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi </em> (Brazil)<br/>Although based only on its type locality at the mouth of the Lago de Tefé, south bank of the Río Solimões, and a specimen from Ayapuá, left bank of the Rio Purus (Napier 1976), more recent evidence has confirmed the distribution of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> proposed by Hershkovitz (1977) as extending along the south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Juruá and Purus, including the basins of the Rios Urucu and Coarí, and probably the Río Tefé. Johns (1985, 1986) recorded <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> at his study site on the Lago de Tefé, left bank of the Rio Tefé, although it was very uncommon there, and Peres (1991) recorded the subspecies from Jaraqui, on the right (east) bank of the Rio Juruá. These records confirm the distribution proposed by Hershkovitz (1977). The southern limits are not known but possibly in the region of the north bank of the Rio Tapauá, an affluent of the Rio Purus, but Saddleback Tamarins have not been recorded for this region.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai</em> (Brazil?, Peru)?<br/>The distribution of this subspecies is not known with certainty. Through some rather complicated detective work, as well as indications concerning its affinities in pelage colour and patterns, Hershkovitz (1968) concluded that the most likely provenance of this distinct Saddleback Tamarin is the upper Rio Purus in Brazil. Hershkovitz (1968, 1977, p.636) placed it tentatively in the upper Rio Purus region, south of the Rio Tapauá to the Rio Pauiní, both left bank tributaries of the Rio Purus. However, following the discovery of <em>S. f. primitivus</em>, described by Hershkovitz (1977) in an addendum and evidently occupying this region, he placed it, equally tentatively, north of the Rio Tapauá, where no Saddleback Tamarins have recorded to date (Hershkovitz 1977, p. 622). This is to the south of the known geographic range of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em>, at the headwaters of the Rio Coarí, and the Rio Repartimento, a right bank tributary of the Rio Tefé. <br/><br/>Van Roosmalen (5 August 2003) reported locating <em>S. fuscicollis cruzlimai</em> in the wild, and informed that Hershkovitz (1977) had been correct in believing that it occurred between the Rios Pauiní and Tapauá, west of the Rio Purus. It was observed by T. van Roosmalen on 21 June 2002, on the west bank of the Rio Purus, opposite the mouth of the Rio Sepatini (Van Roosmalen, 16 August, 2003).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em> (Peru)<br/>This subspecies is confined to north-central Peru, from San Martin, through Huanaco and Pasco to the Río Perene, northern Juno, east to the río Ucayali in Loreto to as far north as the Río Pisqui (Hershkovitz 1977). To the west, it is limited by the Andes, probably not occurring above altitudes of about 900-1,000 m (Hershkovitz 1977). Freese <em>et al.</em> (1982) observed no primate species at Moyobamba, in the upper Mayo Forest Reserve, at an altitude of 1,000 m above sea level. <em>S. fuscicollis</em> occurs in the Panguana Biological Station, on the left (south) bank of the Río Yuyapichis, a tributary of the Río Pachitea, in Department of Pasco, about 150 km south of Pucallpa, in the eastern central part of Peru (9º37'S, 74º56'W) (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 1995), and is presumably <em>S. f. leucogenys</em>.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em> (Peru)<br/>This subspecies occurs in Peru, between the Ríos Amazonas and Yavarí, and along the right bank of the Río Ucayali as far as the Río Blanco (Hodun <em>et al</em>. 1981; Soini 1990a; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Upstream of the Río Ucayali along both sides of the river (to the south of the Rio Blanco), it is replaced by Illiger’s Saddleback Tamarin, <em>S. f. illigeri</em>. Strangely, <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em> appears again on the the right (east) bank of the Río Ucayali at the headwaters of the Río Tapiche, a left bank tributary of the Rio Blanco, probably extending east as far as the Río Yavarí, on the border with Brazil. This southern population is based on a specimen collected by R. W. Hendee in the Cerro Azul, Contamana, in 1927 (Hershkovitz 1977). The southern limit is given by Hershkovitz (1977) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) as the right bank of the Río Ucayali across the river from Pucallpa. There are, therefore, two disjunct populations of <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em>, separated by <em>S. f. illigeri</em> (between the Ríos Ucayali and Tapiche/Blanco), and <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> which crossed the Río Yavarí from the east to occupy the left bank of the Río Blanco (as far as the mouth of the Río Tapiche) and the right bank of the Río Tapiche (Soini 1990a,b).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em> (Ecuador, Peru)<br/><em>Saguinus. f. lagonotus</em> occurs between the Ríos Napo and Marañón, west to the Andes in Peru and eastern Ecuador (Hershkovitz 1968, 1977). In Peru, it occurs north of the Río Marañón as far west as the Río Chinchipe along the foothills of the Cordillera del Condor (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Hodun <em>et al.</em> (1981) confirmed its presence on the left bank of the Río Marañón, and Aquino and Encarnación (1996) recorded it from the right bank of the Rio Napo from Pantoja (frontier with Ecuador) to its confluence with the Rio Amazonas. <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> is in this case sympatric with <em>S. tripartitus</em> between the Ríos Curaray and Napo in Ecuador (see Albúja 1994; Tirira 2007). Thorington (1988) argued that Hershkovitz’s (1977) restriction of <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> to the right bank of the Río Napo is not necessarily valid and that it may extend north of the river, where it would be sympatric with (but not necessarily occurring in the same habitats) as <em>S. tripartitus</em>. For this reason, Thorington (1988) regarded <em>S. tripartitus</em> to be a full species, whereas Hershkovitz (1977) regards it as subspecific to <em>S. fuscicollis</em>. Aquino and Encarnación (1996) were unable to provide any evidence for the presence of <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> on the north (left) bank of the Río Napo in Peru. The only locality where it is known to extend north of the Napo is in Ecuador at La Coca, mouth of the Río Coca, a northern tributary (Hershkovitz 1977). The altitudinal range is from 100 m to approximately 1,200 m in the far west of its range (Hershkovitz 1977). Tirira (2007) gives and altitudinal range of 200 m to 1,160 m above sea level in Ecuador.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em> (Peru)<br/>This subspecies occurs in Peru, between the Ríos Huallaga and Ucayali, south of the Río Marañon (Hershkovitz 1977). <em>S. f. illigeri</em> also extends east of the Río Ucayali, from the mouth of the Río Blanco and along the left bank of the Río Tapiche (Hodun <em>et al</em>. 1981, Soini 1990a,b; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). How far south it occurs, east of the Río Ucayali, is not clearly known, although Hershkovitz (1977) indicated that it is limited to the Ríos Caxiabatay or Pisqui, west of the Río Ucayali, in the region of Contamana. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated that it occurs south to about 6º10'S, north of Hershkovitz’s projection, although in their distribution map (p.108) they extended the range to nearly 9ºS.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> (Bolivia, Brazil, Peru)<br/><em>Saguinus f. weddelli</em> has the widest distribution of the <em>S. fuscicollis</em> subspecies. It ranges from southern Peru, from the Río Abujao (east tributary of the Río Ucayali), south along both banks of the Río Ucayali east of the Andes, east of the Río Apurimac, and along the upper reaches of such rivers as the Apurimac, Inambari, Urubamaba and Tambopata, to the Rios Madeira and Beni or Mamoré in Bolivia. It extends north in Brazil between the Rios Purus and Madeira in Acre and Amazonas and part of Rondônia, but is known only as far north as the Rio Pixuna (Hershkovitz 1977). It crosses the upper Rio Madeira to its right bank in Rondônia in the region of the Rio Jamarí, south of the Rio Ji-paraná, forming mixed-species groups there with <em>Mico</em> cf. <em>emiliae</em> (see Vivo 1985; Lopes and Ferrari 1994). Ferrari <em>et al</em>. (1995) also recorded <em>S. f. weddelli</em> (but not <em>Mico</em> cf. <em>emiliae</em>) from the Guajará-Mirim State Park in Rondônia, just north of the Rio Guaporé.<br/><br/>Heltne <em>et al</em>. (1976) and Izawa and Bejarano (1981) believed it to be the only tamarin occurring south of the Río Madre de Dios, although judging from the distribution map supplied by Aquino and Encarnación (1994) it would seem that the Rio Madidi, south of the Río Madre de Dios might be the southern limit for the Bearded Emperor Tamarin, <em>S. i. subgrisescens</em>. The southern limit to its range is given by Hershkovitz (1977) as the upper Río Mamoré in Bolivia (about 16ºS), although he provided no evidence for its occurrence east of the Rio Beni. In Peru, it follows the Andean foothills extending as far south as the upper reaches of such rivers as the Apurimac. Heltne <em>et al</em>. (1976) observed it at Ixiamas, Bolivia (13° 46' S, west of the Río Beni) where it was found to be less common than other primates in the area, and they indicated that this locality may be near to the southern limit of its range.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis primitivus</em> (Brazil)<br/><em>Saguinus f. primitivus</em> is known from Pauiní, below the mouth of the Rio Pauiní on the Rio Purus, and from an unspecified locality on the Rio Juruá. Hershkovitz (1977) suggested that the geographic range extends from north (left) bank of the Rio Pauiní, along the left (east) bank of the Rio Purus, north to the Rio Tapauá (right or south bank). It extends west between the Rios Pauiní and Tapauá to the right bank of the Rio Juruá, and Rio Tarauacá (Hershkovitz 1977). Whether Saddleback Tamarins occur on the left (north) bank of the Rio Tapauá is not known. Cruz Lima’s Saddleback Tamarin, <em>S. f. cruzlimai</em>, may occur there or, alternatively, the Rio Tapauá may mark the southern limit to the range of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> (Hershkovitz 1977).
39947		habitat	eng	The Saddleback Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland and lower montane rain forests, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988). Altitude ranges from 100 m to 1,200 m above sea level (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> groups defend home ranges of 16-120 ha (see Garber 1993), the size depending on seasonality, availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. <br/><br/>Saddleback Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). Saddleback Tamarins tend to form mixed-species groups with the larger, sympatric moustached tamarins: <em>Saguinus mystax</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>Saguinus imperator</em> (see Yoneda 1981; Buchanan-Smith 1990; Peres 1992a,b, 1993c; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). The moustached tamarins trravel higher on the forest, spending more time in the lower and middle canopy, above 10 m. In Bolivia, they also travel with <em>Callimico goeldii</em> (Pook and Pook 1982; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991a; Porter 2001, 2007).<br/><br/>Peres (1991) observed <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> in stable groups of 5-8 individuals, always, during the day, associated with somewhat larger groups of 8-11 <em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em>. Home range sizes were found to be larger than any previously recorded for the genus, estimated at 145 ha. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size. <br/>Mean adult male body weight for:<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em> 412.8  ±25.7 g (range 365.0-482.5 g, n=33) (Garber and Teaford 1986)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em> 354 g (n=39) (Soini and Cóppula 1981)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 405 g (n=4) (Yoneda 1981)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em> 320 g (n = about 13) (Soini and Cóppula 1981)<br/>Mean adult body weight for:<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 315 g (n=7 males and one female) (Ferrari and Martins 1992)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em> 330-560 g (Tirira 2007).
39947		population	eng	Recorded densities of saddleback tamarins include the following: <br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresii</em> Igarapé Jaraqui 31.5 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresii</em> Vai Quem Quer 30.2 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em> 15.0 individuals/km² (Freese <em>et al</em>. 1982)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em> 4.8-29.4 individuals/km² (Freese <em>et al.</em> 1982)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em> 2.4-13.8 individuals/km² (Freese <em>et al</em>. 1982)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicillos nigrifrons</em> 23.0 individuals/km² (Soini 1987)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 16.0 individuals/km² (Terborgh 1983)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 12.8-20.8 individuals/km² (Yoneda 1981)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Barro Vermelho 20.0 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Fortuna 29.7 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Vira Volta 28.1 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Riozinho 24.4 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><br/>The population density of <em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi</em> at Urucu, Amazonas, was very low: 1.78 groups/km² or 9.8 individuals/km² -- below the lowest values reported for any site where mixed species groups of tamarins have been studied. Peres (1990, 1991) also surveyed two other sites where <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> and <em>S . mystax pileatus</em> occur. The density of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> at the Igarapé Açu, downstream of his study site on the left bank of the Rio Urucu, was 8.9 individuals/km² (mean group size 5.0), and at a site denominated SUC, on the right bank of the Rio Tefé, 10 individuals/km² (mean group size 4). Peres (1993b) attributed these low densities to a lack of heterogeneity of successional and climax forest, along with nutrient-poor soils, strong seasonality in ripe fruit production, lack of successional forest, and a weak staggering of fruiting peaks between different habitats.
39947		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis </em><br/>The status of Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin is unknown in Brazil, but Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) consider that all the Peruvian subspecies of the Saddleback Tamarin are common. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus </em><br/>Moynihan (1976b) found the distribution of <em>S. f. fuscus</em> to be patchy but reported it common in many areas between the Ríos Caquetá and Putumayo in Colombia. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1989) concluded that, although hunted to some extent both for food and for pets, it is not threatened. Its status in Brazil is unknown. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi</em><br/>Status unknown, but there is no evident reason to believe it is vulnerable or threatened. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai</em><br/>The conservation status of <em>S. f. cruzlimai</em> is unknown, but if it occurs north of the Rio Tapuauá, in the Rio Purus basin, it is probably not under threat, the region being isolated and little exposed to human activities.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri </em><br/>Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported it to be common along with the other Peruvian subspecies of the Saddleback Tamarin. It adapts quite well to areas with human disturbance, often seen visiting plantations of bananas and other cultivated fruits. They are rarely hunted in areas where the human population density is low, and threats to their survival arise only when forests are completely eliminated or fragmented over wide areas for cattle pasture and agriculture.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em><br/>Freese <em>et al.</em> (1982) reported that <em>S. fuscicollis</em> (presumably <em>S. f. leucogenys</em>) was common in their Pucallpa survey area to the west of the Río Ucayali. Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported it as common.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em><br/>Soini <em>et al. </em>(1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported it to be common.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em><br/>Freese <em>et al.</em> (1982) reported that <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> was one of the most frequently encountered primates on the Río Nanay, a left bank tributary of the Río Amazonas a short distance above the Río Napo (see also Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1978). Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) regarded it as common.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em><br/>Brown and Rumiz (1986) reported it common in Bolivia. Izawa and Bejarano (1981) found it to be the most common of the callitrichids in a large area of the Pando region, north-west Bolivia, between the Ríos Acre and Madre de Dios. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis primitivus</em><br/>Endemic to the Brazilian Amazon, it is completely unknown in terms of its ecology, behaviour and conservation status.
39948		conservation	eng	<em>Saguinus imperator</em> is included on the national official lists of threatened species of both Brazil and Peru. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The Rio Acre Ecological Station (77,500 ha) is within the distribution described by Hershkovitz (1979). It probably also occurs in a number of other protected areas, including the Chico Mendes Extractivist Reserve (970,570 ha), the Macauá National Forest (173,475 ha), and the Macauá and Antimari State Forests to the north, all lying between the Rios Acre and Purus, although none of them are specifically for the preservation of wildlife.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus i. subgrisescens</em> has a larger range than <em>S. i. imperator</em>, and is protected in the Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) in south-eastern Peru (Terborgh 1983; Terborgh and Goldizen 1985; Terborgh and Janson 1985). There are no protected areas within its range in Brazil, but in Bolivia it occurs in the Manuripí Heath Nature Reserve (1,844,375 ha) in the Pando region.
39948		distribution	eng	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus imperator imperator</em> (Brazil, Peru)<br/>South-western Amazon, east of the upper Rio Purus, between the Purus and the Rio Acre (Hershkovitz, 1979). Izawa and Bejarano (1981) did not record <em>S. i. imperator</em> for Bolivia, but reported an isolated population on the left bank of the Rio Acre, in the basin of the Rio São Pedro in Brazil, in an area otherwise occupied by <em>S. l. labiatus</em>. Encarnación and Castro (1990) found populations of <em>S. i. imperator</em> (but not <em>S. l. labiatus</em>) on the right and left banks of the Rio Acre near the Quebrada Río Branco, approximately 20 km west of Inapari, close to the region indicated by Izawa and Bejarano (1981). The population on the south bank of the Río Acre is evidently highly restricted, the subspecies not having been found anywhere else further south in Peru despite a number of surveys (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1990). It is not known how far it extends into Peru along the Rio Acre, nor whether it occurs between the Rio Purus and Pauiní and the Rios Purus and Ituxí (Hershkovitz 1979).  <br/><br/><em>Saguinus imperator subgrisescens</em> Bolivia, Brazil, Peru<br/>South-western Amazon, in Brazil along the east (right bank) of the upper Rio Juruá east to the Rios Tarauacá and Juruparí, to the Brazil/Peruvian frontier. Into Peru, west from the Juruá headwaters, it occurs as far as the foothills of the Andes in the upper Río Ucayali, east of the mouth of the Río Apurimac and to the south of the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya. Its range extends east into Bolivia on both sides of the Río Madre de Dios (Izawa 1979). It is probably limited to the south of the Río Tahuamanú. Izawa and Bejarano (1981) reported it only from the Río Muyumanu basin, a south bank tributary of the Río Tahuamanú. Castro <em>et al.</em> (1990) found that it was absent from the area between Iñapari (just south of the Río Acre) and Iberia (north bank of the Río Tahuamanú) in Peru where <em>S. l. labiatus</em> occurs. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) extended the range indicated by Hershkovitz (1979) east to the basin of the Río Tambopata to the Bolivian border, indicating that the Río Madidi, an eastern tributary of the Río Beni in Bolivia, may mark the southern limit to this species.
39948		habitat	eng	The Emperor Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland and lower montane rain forests, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Terborgh 1983).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Average group size recorded by Terborgh (1983; Terborgh and Janson 1985) was 8-10 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds. Home range size found to be about 30 ha, in Manu National Park (Terborgh 1983). <br/><br/>Emperor Tamarins tend to form mixed-species groups with the smaller, sympatric saddleback tamarins: <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> (Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). The Emperor Tamarins travel higher in the forest, spending more time in the lower and middle canopy, above 10 m, whereas the saddlebacks spend more time foraging and travlleing at 10 m or lower. Azevedo Lopes and Rehg (2003) observed <em>S. imperator</em> travelling with <em>Callimico</em> in the Serra do Divisor Nastional Park, Acre, Brazil.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult 500 g (Terborgh 1983) <br/>Adult 474 g  (Smith and Ungers 1997).
39948		population	eng	Population densities in Manu National Park have been estimated at 8-12 individuals/km² (Terborgh and Janson 1985).
39948		threats	eng	Much of the range of <em>Saguinus imperator</em>, previously remote, is increasingly subject to progressive deforestation largely as a result of colonization along highways, associated with logging and cattle ranching (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1993). The species is probably not hunted, but they may be subject to some trade as pets.
39949		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<em><br/>Cebus apella apella</em> occurs in numerous protected areas, many of which are very large.<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecological Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Terra do Meio Ecological Station (3,373,111 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000a)<br/>La Trinité Natural Reserve<br/>Kaw Reserved Area  (76,800 ha) <br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaietur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (probable: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Monding Nature Reserve (12,000 ha) (probable: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Galibi Nature Reserve (100 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Wia-wia Nature Reserve (36,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em> <br/>Several recommendations have been proposed for the conservation of the Margarita Island capuchin (Marquez and Sanz 1991; Sanz and Marquez 1994; Martinez <em>et al.</em> 2000; Sanz 2001, 2003): <br/><br/>•To survey accurately the natural population of <em>Cebus apella margaritae</em>.<br/>•To carry out population demography studies.<br/>•To determine accurately home range and use of habitat.<br/>•To carry out productivity studies.<br/>•To solve the monkey-farmer conflict for crop raiding.<br/>•To determine the presence/absence of <em>Cebus olivaceous</em> in the mountains.<br/>•To control the illegal hunting and the illegal traffic of monkeys.<br/>•To evaluate risks of zoonoses.<br/>•To declare a protected area including the mountains in the north part of the island, in order to facilitate the movements of the monkeys between those mountains.<br/>•To conduct environmental educational programmes. <br/>•To conduct genetic studies <br/><br/>Unfortunately, most of these recommendations have not yet been implemented. The regional office of INPARQUES (National Parks Institute) about seven years ago started to plan the increase in area of the Cerro El Copey National Park, in order to include the mountains in the north and the west of the park. Nevertheless, this plan has not been executed until now. There is still a need to develop proper management strategies for the Margarita capuchin monkey and its habitat. There is an ongoing project of ecology and conservation of the Margarita Island capuchin that will generate actual information about this monkey population.
39949		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus apella apella </em><br/>This is a wide ranging subspecies in the lower Amazon. The definition of <em>Cebus apella apella</em> of course determines the geographic range. As this is still controversial, the geographic range is correspondingly uncertain. Here we follow the taxonomy and proposed distributions of Silva Jr (2001). The taxonomic arrangement proposed by Groves (2001) was discussed by Rylands <em>et al</em>. (2005), especially in relation to the work of Torres de Assumpção (1983). It was not possible to delimit the ranges of the subspecies he recognized, but those of the species were mapped in Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> (2004). The one exception is in the lack of precision in the ranges of <em>C. libidinosus</em> and <em>C. apella</em>. Groves (2001) recognized <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> as the form occurring from the upper Juruá (type locality: Brazil: Frente a João Pessôa, Rio Juruá) extending east in a swathe through northern Mato Grosso. In the map provided in Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> is restricted to the upper Juruá (a range proposed by Hill [1960]), and entirely surrounded by <em>C. apella</em>, which of course is unreasonable: it should have a range which is contiguous with other <em>C. libidinosus</em> subspecies. If a valid taxon, the range of <em>C. l. juruanus</em> should extend through northern Mato Grosso to meet the range <em>C. l. libidinosus</em>, but its limits are unclear. The requirements for any conservation assessment and subsequent conservation action are that the taxon is defined and its geographic distribution delineated. Silva Jr. (2001) provided a taxonomy and distribution maps. This in no way discards the taxonomy proposed by Groves (2001). Further research is needed.<br/><br/>The range of <em>Cebus apella apella</em> described here includes that of <em>C. apella tocantinus</em> Lönnberg, 1939, from the south of the lower to middle Amazon, <em>Cebus libidinosus pallidus</em> Gray, 1866 from the central and northern Bolivia (as indicated by Groves 2001), part of the range of <em>C. macrocephalus</em> Spix, 1823 (lower to middle Amazon north of the Rio Amazonas), and the part of that of <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> that Groves (2001) proposed extended through Rondônia to northern Mato Grosso.<br/><br/>The stronghold of the type species is the Guianas, and Brazil, at least east of the Rio Negro. Boher-Bentti and Cordero-Rodríguez (2000) extended it to the southern extreme of the Orinoco Delta, although it is otherwise not recognized as occurring in eastern Venezuela (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linares 1998). In Venezuela, it occurs in the Federal Territory of Amazonas, along both sides of the upper Rio Orinoco, its precise range being limited by savannas.  The range to the west is constrained by <em>C. macrocephalus</em> and to the south by <em>C. libidinosus</em>. In the east to the interfluvium of the rios Itapecuru and Parnaiba in the state of Maranhão. In Bolivia, <em>Cebus apella</em> occurs south of the Madre de Dios, south to the headwaters of the ríos Mamoré and Beni, where it meets the range of <em>C. cay</em> occurring in southern Bolivia, the Brazilian Mato Grosso, Paraguay and Argentina. It extends into south-east Peru along the south of the Río Madre de Dios, west as far the Rio Inambari (recognized as <em>C. a. pallidus</em> by Aquino and Encarnación [1994]). In the southern Amazon, <em>C. apella</em> would be restricted by the transition to Cerrado, the bush savanna of central Brazil where <em>C. libidinosus</em> occurs.<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em> lives in four forest fragments on the east side of Margarita Island in Venezuela: El Copey Nacional Park (7,130 ha) rising to 930 m above sea level; the Serranía of Cerro Tragaplata (~4,400 ha) an unprotected area rising to 680 m above seas level; Cerro Matasiete Natural Monument (1,145 ha) rising to 660 m asl; and Cerro Taguantar (~1,000 ha) an unprotected area rising to 520 m above sea level. Monkeys were reported in Cerro Taguantar in 2007 (Ceballos-Mago, direct observation).
39949		habitat	eng	Tropical lowland and submontane and montane rain forest, seasonally inundated forest, mangroves and savanna forests. <em>Cebus apella</em> inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types in Suriname and is probably more flexible in choice of habitat than any other primate species in the Guianas. It is common in high rain forest, low rain forest, riverbank high forest, mountain savanna forest, liana forest marsh forest (including <em>Mora</em> forest), swamp forest (including <em>Euterpe</em> <em>Symphonia</em> swamp forest and <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> open swamp forest), swamp woodland (including <em>Erythrina glauca</em>and <em>Pterocarpus Tabebuia</em> associations) and various secondary formations, and also has been reported from high forest and white sand savanna forest, savanna scrub, ridge forest (littoral woodland) and mangrove forest (<em>Avicennia</em>) along the coast (Mittermeier 1977; Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1981). In Guyana, it is one of the species most often encountered along rivers (Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> 1976). Arboreal quadrupeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understory (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). <br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Izawa 1979; Fernandes 1991). Largely sympatric with the untufted capuchins, either<em>Cebus olivaceus</em> or <em>C. albifrons</em>. The species differ most markedly in their diet through their use of palm fruits (Terborgh 1983; Spironello 1991, 2001). Mean group size for <em>Cebus apella</em> is 18 individuals, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males (adult sex ratio of 0.85). Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). Zhang (1994, 1995a,b; Zhang and Wang 1995a,b) carried out a field study of the ecology and behaviour of this species in French Guiana. <br/><br/>In the Guianas, <em>C. apella</em> group sizes usually range from 10-20 animals (Mittermeier 1977; Spironello 1991; Zhang 1995b). Groups sometimes split into subgroups and forage on their own in different directions. The home range of the best known group in the Voltzberg site of Mittermeier (1977) was roughly 146 ha, and a second group, which ranged outside as well, covered 62 ha of his study area. Larger home ranges have been recorded by Zhang (1995b) in French Guiana (approximately 355 ha) and by Spironello (2001) north of Manaus in Brazil (around 900 ha). <br/><br/>Size: Adult male 1.35-4.8 kg (mean 3.05 kg); adult female: 1.76-3.4 kg (mean 2.4 kg) (Jack 2007).<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em><br/>The vegetation cover of the mountains inhabit by Margarita Island Capuchins have particular ecological interest, because they support an isolated cloud forest at an exceptionally low altitude (ca. 600 m above sea level) contrasting with an arid lowland (Sugden 1986). Home range is about 78 ha (Márquez and Sanz 1991; Sanz and Márquez 1994). The diet is comprised of fruits, insects, flowers, leaves, seeds and piths. Margarita Island Capuchins are particularly shy and cryptic, avoiding human contact probably due to the hunting pressure.
39949		population	eng	The nominate subspecies is widespread and common.<br/><br/>Population density of the Margarita Island Capuchin has not been properly estimated yet. Results of an ongoing project about ecology and conservation of the Margarita Island Capuchin will allow the determination of densities in the near future. According to Sanz and Marquez (1994), total population is only 250-300 animals. Marquez and Sanz (1991) estimated between 0.02 and 0.23 groups/hours of observation in different forest fragments. Group size was 4.5 ind/group in average. During surveys conducted in 2007, group size varied between 2 and 15 individuals (N. Ceballos-Mago, direct observation).
39949		threats	eng	<em>Cebus apella apella </em><br/>The Guianan tufted capuchin is hunted for food and as pets (this is the most common primate kept as pets), but is an adaptable species.<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em><br/>Although part of the distribution of the Margarita Island Capuchins is within protected areas (Cerro el Copey National Park and Cerro Matasiete Natural Monument), they are still threatened by hunting pressure and by habitat loss and fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation on Margarita Island is mainly caused by road construction and growth of towns. Sanz and Marquez (1994) considered that hunting pressure for pest control could be the main factor driving this subspecies to extinction in a few years. Currently, hunting pressure for pest control has been reduced only in the Cerro el Copey National Park. Capture of monkeys for pet trade in the whole distribution area of the monkeys has increased and can be currently one of the most important threats (Ceballos-Mago direct observation). Preliminary results of surveys have revealed an important national and international illegal traffic of primates. Release of monkey pets in the habitat of the Margarita Island Capuchin is another threat for these primates (Martinez <em>et al.</em> 2000). Such releases must be considered in terms of the level of risk of disease transmission and hybridization.
39950		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range:<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em><br/><br/>Trinity Hills Wildlife Sanctuary (6483 ha) (Bacon and ffrench 1972)<br/>Bush Bush Wildlife Sanctuary and immediate surrounding area (1,550 ha) (Bacon and ffrench 1972)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons versicolor</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Nevado del Huila National Park (158,000 ha) ? (Defler 1994)<br/>Catatumbo-Bari National Park (158,125 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/><br/>Venezuela <br/>Perija National Park (295,288 ha)?<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons malitiosus</em><br/><br/>Tayrona National Park  (15,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Sierra Nevada de Sanata Marta National Park (383,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons cesarae</em><br/><br/>Macuira National Park (25,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Los Flamencos Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (7,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (23,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons albifrons</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazonas National Park<br/>Serra do Divisor Narional Park<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha)<br/>Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Puinawai Natrual Reserve (1,092,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Nukak Natural Reserve (855,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>El Tuparro National Park (548,000 ha) (Defler 1979a,b)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Sangay National Park (517,765 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve (403,103 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Protection Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh 1983)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha)<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Serrania de la Neblina National Park (1,360,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Parima Tapirapecó National Park (3,420,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Jauá-Sarisarinama National Park (330,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Yapacana National Park (320,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons aequatorialis</em><br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Machalilla National Park (56,814 ha)<br/>Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve (119,172 ha)<br/>Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (49,894 ha)<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Cerros de Amotape National Park (91,300 ha)<br/>Tumbes Reserved Zone
39950		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus albifrons</em> extends from northern coastal Colombia (<em>C. a. malitiosus</em>) along the northern slopes of the Sierra Santa Marta, south the Río Magdalena valley into the Department of Tolima (exact southern limit unclear) and the lower Río Cauca valley to the eastern parts of central Antioquia and southern parts of the Department of Sucre in the west (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004). It occurs in western Ecuador and extreme north-eastern Peru and from the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru and Ecuador to the Venezuelan Amazon, south through eastern Peru, east to the Rio Tapajós in Brazil, and south into northern and central Bolivia.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons albifrons</em>. (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela)<br/>In Colombia, Defler (2004) indicated that <em>C. a. albifrons</em> is the form occurring in the Department of Arauca (south of the Río Arauca) and also in Vichada between the ríos Meta and Tuparro. A population also occurs between the upper reaches of the ríos Vaupés and Isan in the Department of Vaupes (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). Its occurrence in other parts of central Colombia, east of the Cordillera Oriental is otherwise supposed but not yet ascertained. <em>Cebus a. albifrons</em> occurs throughout the Colombian Amazon north of the Rio Napo and east of the Río Ucayali in Peru south as far as right bank of the upper Río Purus (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It occurs in the Venezuelan Amazon, south into Brazil into the states of Amazonas and Roraima, along the right (west) banks of the Rios Branco and Negro, and further east south of the Rio Amazonas as far as the Rio Tapajós, south through the Madeira-Tapajós interfluvium to the north-west Mato Grosso and northern Rondônia, extending south of the Madre de Dios, across the Río Beni basin to Río Mamoré-Guaporé to about 17ºS (Brown and Rumiz 1986; Anderson 1997). The range limits in the southern part of the distributions of <em>C. a .cuscinus</em> and <em>C. a. albifrons</em> are poorly defined.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons cuscinus</em>. (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru)<br/>This capuchin (here considered a senior synonym of <em>C. albifrons yuracus</em>, following Groves [2001]) occurs south of the Río Guamés in Colombia according to Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Defler (2004). However, they place <em>C. albifrons albifrons</em> between the Rios Putumayo and Amazonas in the Colombian trapezium. Aquino and Encarnación (1994), on the other hand, regard the form between the Napo and Putumayo to be <em>C. a. yuracus</em> (= <em>cuscinus</em>). So, the identity of the White-fronted Capuchin between the Napo and Putumayo is confused. A provisional hypothesis would be that that, from the Rio Guamés, <em>C. a. cuscinus</em> south of the Rio Aguarico in Ecuador and south of the Río Napo as far as the Amazonas, in Peru. It extends south along the left (west) bank of the Río Ucayali, occurring along south (right) bank of the Purus to the Rio Acre and taking in the far north-west corner of Bolivia., north of the Río Madre de Dios (Brown and Rumiz 1986; Aquino and Encarnacíon 1994; Anderson 1997). The range limits in the southern part of the distributions of <em>C. a .cuscinus</em> and <em>C. a. albifrons</em> are poorly defined.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons cesarae</em>. (Colombia)<br/><em>Cebus a. cesarae</em>, is a well-defined, light coloured subspecies occurring in the Department of Magdalena, southward from Ciénaga Grande, and the lowlands of the Department of Cesar, right bank and north of the Río Magdalena as far as the west bank of the Río César, north to the deciduous and gallery forests of the Río Ranchería, Department of Guajira (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons malitiosus</em>. (Colombia)<br/>Central and northern Colombia. Deciduous and humid forests of the northern slopes of the Santa Marta Mountains at least as high as 1,300 m, although the eastern and southern limits of its range are not well defined (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons versicolor</em>. (Colombia)<br/>Cauca-Magdalena interfluvium, including the eastern parts of central Antioquia and southern parts of Sucre to the west. It extends north along the slopes of the northernmost reaches of the Cordillera Oriental and along the Serranía de Perijá, west of Lake Maracaibo, and east of Lake Maracaibo to the Serranía de Merida (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Bodini 1989; Linares 1998). To the east of the Cordillera Oriental it occurs in Norte de Santander, and Santander (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em>. (Trinidad)<br/>An isolated population on the Island of Trinidad.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons aequatorialis</em>. (Ecuador, Peru)<br/>All of western Ecuador along the Pacific coast, extending into the Department of Tumbes in Peru (Encarnación and Cook 1998; Tirira and da la Torre 2001).
39950		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry, deciduous forest in the north of its range, tropical lowland and submontane and montane rain forest, seasonally inundated forest, and savanna forests. Arboreal quadrupeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007; Tirira 2007). <br/><br/>Frugivores-insectivores. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Largely sympatric with the tufted capuchins, either<em>Cebus apella</em> or <em>C. macrocephalus</em>, but the species differ most markedly in their diet through their use of palm fruits (Terborgh 1983; Spironello 1991, 2001). Mean group size for <em>Cebus albifrons</em> is 19.8 individuals, with numbers of males similar to numers of females (adult sex ratio of 1.08). Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, with males dominant to females (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). A field study of the ecology and behaviour of <em>C. albifrons albifrons</em> was carried out by Defler (1979a,b) in the llanos of El Tuparro Natinal Park, Colombia. There he observed groups of 8-15 individuals, with one group using a home range of about 120 ha. Groups of up to 35 indviduals use  home ranges of similar size (120-150 ha in the tropical humds forests of Ecuador (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Size: Adult male 1.7 kg-3.3 kg (mean 2.48 kg); adult female: 1.4-2.3 kg (mean 1.8 kg) (Jack 2007).
39950		population	eng	In eastern Vichada (El Tuparro), Colombia, ecological densities of this species reach 30 individuals/km² (Defler 1979a). Densties on the Río Purité, Colombia, (four sites) were found to range from 4.4 to 15.8 individuals/km² (Defler 2004).<br/>Desnties of <em>Cebus albifrons</em> tend to be lower when sympatric with <em>Cebus macrocephalus</em> (Defler 2004). Freese (1975) estimated a density of 24 individuals/km² in Manu National Park, Peru.<br/><br/>Peres (1988) estimated population densities of <em>Cebus albifrons albifrons</em> at a number of sites in the Braziliian Amazon: Lago da Fortuna (<em>terra firma</em> forest) 7.81 individuals/km²; Lago da Fortuna (<em>várzea</em> forest) 45.8 individuals/km²; Igarapé Açú (<em>terra firma</em> forest) 15.47 individuals/km²; SM1 (<em>terra firma</em> forest) 9.5 individuals/km²; São Domingos(<em>terra firma</em> forest) 25.64 individuals/km². <br/><br/>Rylands (1982) estimated a population density of 4.7-7.5 individuals/km² at Aripuanã, northern Mato Grosso (<em>terra firma</em> forest). <br/> <br/>The total population of <em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em> is estimated at around 61 with an effective population size of 35 (Census from December 1996 to November 2000, by Kimberly A. Phillips). In Bush Bush Wildlife Sanctuary and the immediate area (Nariva Swamp - a 24,000-ha wetland) surrounding the sanctuary, the subpopulation was 49. Troops were commonly encountered in Bush Bush. However, in Trinity Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, the subpopulation totals 12 and capuchins are encountered very rarely (Agoramoorthy and Hsu 1995; Phillips and Abercrombie 2003).
39950		threats	eng	The major threat to this species across its range is hunting combined with forest loss and fragmentation. . <br/><br/>On Trinidad, <em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em> the two subpopulations in Trinity Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and Bush Bush Wildlife Sanctuary are entirely isolated. In Trinity Hills, hunting is allowed in some areas adjacent to the sanctuary. Hunting camps are established near the border of the sanctuary, though the extent of incursions into the sanctuary per se is unknown. In Bush Bush, the main threats are habitat destruction due to illegal logging and planting of marijuana, which occurs regularly (Phillips and Abercrombie 2003).
39953		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Ensenada de Utría Natural National Park (54,300 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Farallones de Cali Natural National Park (150, 000 ha) (Colombia, INDERENA, 1989) In Defler 2003<br/>Las Orquídeas Natural National Park (32,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Los Katios Natural National Park (72,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Munchique Natural National Park (44,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Paramillo Natural National Park (460,000 ha) (Colombia, INDERENA, 1989) (could be <em>A. griseimembra</em> Defler 2003)<br/>Tatamá Natural National Park (could be <em>A. jorgehernandezi</em>) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>La Selva Biological Reserve (possibly: Timm 1988)<br/><br/>Panama<br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Bastimentos National Marine Park (15,000 ha) (Timm 1988)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (in range)<br/>Altos de Campaña National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>Darién National Park (555,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sarigua National Park (8,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>La Fortuna Water Production Reserve (26,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7,090 ha) (in range)<br/>Canglón National Park (31,650 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>La Tronosa Forest Reserve (13,040 ha) (in range)<br/>Serranias de Majé (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Camiño de Cruces National Park (4,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>More research is need on this species population status, habitat and threats.
39953		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus zonalis </em>occurs in the lowlands of Panama and the Chocó region of Colombia, extending south, west of the Andes, to the Río Raposo just south of Buenaventura, and including the Urabá region and eastward to the Ro Sinú, and possibly including the upper San Jorge valley to the region of Puerto Valdivia in northern Antioquia (Hall 1981). The range limits with <em>A. griseimembra</em> are not known. Its occurrence in Costa Rica is possible, but not documented (Timm 1988; Timm <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/><br/>Defler and Bueno (2007) described <em>A. jorgehernandezi</em> from a specimen in captivity in Quindío Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border between Quindío and Riseralda. This locality is within the range currently considered to be that of <em>A. zonalis</em>.
39953		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is poorly known. It is found in lowland, submontane forests up to 1,000 m in Panama and western Colombia, west of the Andes (Defler 2004). It occurs in secondary forest and plantations (Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flowers, leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.889 kg (n=6), adult female weight 0.916 kg (n=11) (Crile and Quiring 1985).
39953		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
39953		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are largely unknown, although deforestation is known to be taking place in parts of its range. For example, in Panama forests have been converted to agriculture in an approximately 30% of its range (as described in Central American Ecosystem Map (CATIE, J. Jones, 1999). However, in Colombia, forests in less than 10% of its range have been converted to pastures and agriculture (Alba Lucia Morales pers. comm.).
39954		conservation	eng	A state protected area "Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Mata do Junco" was created in December 2007. This protected area was created in part to protect <em>Callicebus coimbrai</em>. The distribution of the species appears to occur within the newly decreed Serra de Itaiana National Park, although its presence has yet to be confirmed at this site (Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> 2006). At both state and municipal levels, less specific initiatives have already been implemented; more are being planned, including privately owned reserves.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39954		distribution	eng	Kobayashi and Langguth (1999) believed the range of <em>Callicebus coimbrai</em> was limited to the coastal rainforests at the mouth of the rio São Francisco in Sergipe and the mouth of the rio Itapicuru in northern Bahia, Brazil. Printes (2005) recorded the species at Lamarão do Passé, extending its range some 200 km further south. Knowledge of this species’ range and conservation status has increased substantially in the recent years (Kobayashi and Langguth 1999; Sousa 2000, 2003; Printes 2005; Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> 2006; Sousa <em>et al</em>. in prep). The taxon has now been confirmed at at least 70 sites in the states of Bahia and Sergipe. The largest is a 3,000 ha tract in São Francisco do Paraguaçu, Bahia; the smallest is a 6 ha fragment in Nossa Senhora da Glória, Sergipe (Sousa 2003). The sites where this species has been confirmed encompass an estimated total area of 15,400 ha (154 km²), 4,800 ha of this in Sergipe, and 10,600 ha in Bahia (Sousa <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/><br/>The lower Paraguaçu forms the limit between the geographic ranges of <em>C. coimbrai</em>, restricted to the left or north bank, and <em>C. melanochir</em>, found on the right bank. Further west, in the region of Feira de Santana, <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> occurs on both banks of the Paraguaçu. There does not appear to be a physical barrier between the eastern limit of the range of <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> and the western limit of <em>C. coimbrai</em> (Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Further surveys are needed.
39954		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary tropical rainforest, seasonal and dry forests, and forests with a Caatinga influence.
39954		population	eng	Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> (2006) calculated that (based on very generous estimates of four individuals per group and five groups/km²), the 30 confirmed sites in the State of Sergipe (covering approximately 5,000 ha), would contain a theoretical population of approximately 1,000 individuals. Using the same calculations, and taking only total area into account, the estimated total population of <em>C. coimbrai</em> in both Sergipe and Bahia would be as high as 2,000 individuals. However, as the area of occupancy is split into 70 separate fragments, over half of which are 100 ha or less, a more realistic estimate of total population is likely to be in the range of 500-1000 individuals.
39954		threats	eng	An inhabitant of Brazil's Atlantic Forest, a region of widespread deforestation where only an estimated 5-10% of original cover remains distributed in isolated fragments. Cattle ranching, agriculture and continuing urbanization are the main threats. The area is characterized by rapid development facilitated by an extensive network of highways. In addition to loss of habitat, other threats include potential dangers from roads and power-lines and predation by domestic pets. The small fragmented populations of titi monkeys are exposed to synergistic genetic and demographic risks. Hunting pressure needs to be determined, but it is probably moderate due to the small body size. During extensive surveys, a few individuals were found being kept as pets (Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> 2006; Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep).
39956		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/>The primary federal protected area within this region is the Gurupi Biological Reserve (REBIO Gurupi) in Maranhão State (original area 341,650 ha). Together with contiguous Amerindian reservations, it forms a nucleus of continuous forest covering an estimated one million hectares. Despite its potential importance for the conservation of <em>Chiropotes satanas</em> (and the threatened <em>Cebus kaapori</em>), this area suffers intense pressure from local ranchers, timber companies and illegal land settlers, and almost one-third of the Gurupi Reserve?s forest has already been lost. <br/><br/>The following state protected areas occur within the range of this species, although their presence within all these areas has not been confirmed: Pará state - APA Lago de Tucuruí ? margem direita (568,667 ha); Maranhão state - APA do Maracanã (18,131 ha), APA da Baixada Maranhense (1,775,035 ha), APA das Reentrâncias Maranhenses (2,680,911 ha), APA Upaon-Açu/Miritiba/Alto Preguiça (1,535,310). They may also occur in the following extractive and forest reserves (Maranhão): RESEX do Ciriaco (7,550 ha), RESEX do Quilombo do Frechal (9,542 ha) RESEX Mata Grande (10,450 ha), and Reserva Florestal de Buriticupu (9,454 ha) (Veiga <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>The Primate Protection Centre (Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros: ICM/CPB), of the Federal Environmental Protection Institute (Instituto Chico Mendes), supports and coordinates primate conservation programmes throughout Brazil. ICM/CPB together with local has been working towards the resolution of some of the key problems in the REBIO Gurupi but a large-scale operation and continuous monitoring are required to ensure its effective protection. An international committee (Comitê Internacional para Conservação e Manejo dos Primatas Amazônicos) was established by the Chico Mendes Institute (ICM) in conjunction with the the CPB to discuss and define the conservation of Amazonian primate taxa, and together with members of the Pitheciine Action Group (PAG) are developing a Conservation Action Plan for the Black Bearded Saki. <br/><br/>Surveys are needed to identify remaining populations both in protected reserves and other areas. The CPB implemented ?Projeto Kaapori? for the <em>Cebus kaapori</em> and have undertaken surveys and conducted interviews with local people in the central-north, north and west of Maranhão. They collected data on all primate species including <em>C. satanas</em>, which will be used in the development of the Action Plan. Given the current situation of the REBIO Gurupi and the lack of other federal protected areas, both privately owned reserves and Amerindian reservations are becoming increasingly important for the long-term conservation of <em>Chiropotes satanas</em> (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999). Research on the effects of fragmentation on isolated populations is also key if we are to be able to evaluate the long-term chances of survival and manage the remaining populations. As the range of <em>C. satanas</em> coincides largely with that of <em>Cebus kaapori</em>, joint research and conservative initiatives can be planned to benefit both species.
39956		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Amazonia in Brazil, this species has a restricted range between the right bank of the rio Tocantins and the eastern limits of the Amazon forest in the Brazilian states of Pará and Maranhão. Although it resides in terra firme forests, its distribution extends as far as the coastal (mangrove) forests and forested areas in the transitional zone between Amazon Forest and Cerrado (savanna) at the southern and eastern borders of its distribution. The most southerly record is at -06 31' 59'' -47 27'00'' in Estreito, Maranhão State (Hershkovitz 1985; Silva Jr. 1991; Lopes 1993).
39956		habitat	eng	Endemic to the fluvial plain of eastern Amazonia, where predominantly found at low altitudes in tall terra firme rain forests; it has also been observed in secondary forests and on rare occasions in mangroves (Silva Jr. 1991; Lopes 1993). Recent field studies (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999b; Port-Carvalho and Ferrari 2002; Santo 2002; Silva 2003; Veiga 2006) have demonstrated that this taxon is able to survive and reproduce (in the absence of hunting), in fragments much smaller than previously thought possible. Small groups have been found in fragments and on islands of less than 20 ha, some of which have been isolated for over 20 years. They are relatively abundant in tracts of forest of between 100 and 1,000 ha, suggesting a degree of tolerance to anthropogenic habitat disturbance and behavioural flexibility in the face of change. Groups with 4 to 39 individuals have been recorded in fragmented habitats (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999; Port-Carvalho and Ferrari 2002, 2004; Santos 2002; Silva 2003; Veiga 2006). <br/><br/>The species is a highly frugivorous and is a specialist seed predator: immature seeds can represent as much as 90% of their diet in certain months. Other important plant resources are fruit pulp and flowers. Small quantities of pith, shoots and young leaves are also eaten, as well as a range of arthropods including caterpillars, termites, ants and spiders (Veiga and Ferrari 2006). One means by which some groups coped with extreme fragmentation is by increasing the proportion of flowers and non-reproductive plant parts in the diet (Santos 2002; Silva 2003; Veiga 2006). The home range of a group (39 members) residing in a forest fragment (1,300 ha) over a period of 12 months was 98.6 ha (Veiga 2006). No studies have been undertaken in areas of continuous forest, but it is likely that groups would range over much larger areas, probably covering several hundred hectares; a group of <em>Chiropotes albinasus</em> was recorded using an area in excess of 1,000 ha over an 11-month period (Pinto 2008).
39956		population	eng	From studies using standardized line transects, population densities and sightings/10 km, have been calculated for the a number of areas (see table 1). Density varies depending on the differing influences of hunting pressure and habitat disturbance, but appears to be greater in smaller fragments with lower levels of hunting pressure.
39956		threats	eng	The greatest risks for the future survival of the Black Bearded Saki are the loss and fragmentation of its habitat and hunting pressure. It has the smallest range of the genus, which coincides with the most densely populated part of Brazilian Amazonia, a region with a long tradition of colonization, and which now has deforestation levels that begin to rival those of the Atlantic Forest. Over the last few decades, the establishment of highways, implantation of the Tucuruí hydroelectric dam, logging, and agricultural and ranching activities have lead to widespread devastation of forested areas in this region. The proliferation of secondary roads has further exacerbated this process. <em>Chiropotes satanas</em> is already locally extinct in a large part of its original range and what remains is extremely fragmented and under constant deforestation pressure. <br/><br/>Despite not being particularly lucrative or an easy target, this species is also hunted for its meat and fur. Habitat fragmentation processes are probably increasing hunting pressure on this species by providing easier access and through the loss of preferred game. Although this species is more tolerant of habitat fragmentation than previously thought, this should not be considered a motive for complacency with regard to the importance of the implementation of conservation measures, particularly the establishment and adequate control of protected areas. In addition, small populations living in isolated fragments with few opportunities for dispersal are probably not genetically viable in the long-term. There is an obvious need for some management of metapopulations.
39957		conservation	eng	In the Atlantic Forest, the species occurs in Guaribas Biological Reserve, Paraiba (2,71 ha) (re-introduced), RPPN Pacatuba, and RPPN Mata da Estrela. In the Amazon, it occurs in a number of protected areas, including Caxiuanã National Forest (200,000 ha) (see Jardim and Oliveira 1997; Pina <em>et al</em>. 2002), Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha) and Tapirapé Biological Reserve (99,703 ha).<br/>   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
39957		distribution	eng	<em>Alouatta belzebul</em> occurs in the lower Amazon, states of Amapá, Pará and Maranhão and in north-east Brazil, in the Atlantic forest of the states of Rio Grande do Norte, Piauí, Pernambucoo, Paraiba and Alagoas. It occurs in a small area of southern Amapá and on the islands of Marajó and Caviana in the Amazon estuary. It is limited to the east of the rios Xingu and Iriri. The range limits of <em>Alouatta discolor</em> and <em>A. belzebul</em> south along the lower Amazon are poorly understood and confused. Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> (1989) attributed the howler monkeys on Marajo and the other islands of the Amazon estuary to the form <em>discolor</em>, but Fernandes (1994) subsequently identified the howlers on the islands of Marajó, Caviana and Mexiana as <em>A. belzebul</em> (Gurupá, he found, was occupied by <em>Alouatta macconelli</em>). Gregorin (2006), likewise identified <em>A. belzebul</em> as the howler occupying Marajo, Caviana and Mexiana. Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> (1989) also identified a howler from the Rio Pracupy, Portel (their locality number 35) just south of the estuary as <em>A. discolor</em>. Ferrari and Lopes (1996) suggested, and Gregorin (2006) confirmed, its identity as <em>A. belzebul</em>, and not <em>A. discolor</em>. This would mean that <em>discolor</em> would be confined to a narrow strip to the immediate south of the Rio Amazonas extending west from Gurupá, across the Xingu.<br/><br/>Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1995) argued that <em>A. belzebul</em> once occurred throughout the north-east (except the coastal populations now ascribed to <em>A. ululata</em>) as far as the left (north) bank of the Rio São Francisco. Neiva and Penna (1916) recorded the species on southern Piaui at the beginning of the early 20th century (see Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1995). They have been eliminated from a large part of this range by hunting and the almost total elimination of their forests (Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996).
39957		habitat	eng	Occurs in a mix of habitats including lowland Amazon rainforest, Marajó várzea forest, and fragments of the northern Atlantic Forest.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 km (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Fourteen  is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Pina <em>et al.</em> (2002) studied two groups of 5-6 and 7-9 individuals (each with just one adult male and two adult females), with home ranges of 13.5 ha and 18.05 ha, respectively. <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. The diet of two <em>A. belzebul</em> groups in the Caxiuanã National Forest was studied by Souza <em>et al.</em> (2002). They were largely folivorous but would switch to fruits whenever available, especially during the wet season. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 7.27 kg (n=27), adult female weight 5.52 kg (n=26) (Peres 1994a)<br/>Adult male weight 6.5-8.0 kg (mean 7.3 kg, n=27), adult female weight 4.85-6.2 kg (mean 5.5 kg, n=26) (Ford and Davis 1992).
39957		population	eng	Extremely common in some areas (such as Marajó), but very rare in the Atlantic Forest portion of the range (Rio Grande do Norte, Alagoas, Paraíba and Pernambuco). There are around 200 individuals surving in a total of 10 isolated locations: six populations in Paraiba, two in Rio Grande de Norte, one in Pernambuco, and one in Alagoas. The largest population in the Atlantic Forest is in Pacatuba in Paraiba with about 80 animals. There have been five registered local extirpations from forest fragments in the last 50 years.
39957		threats	eng	In the Amazon, the species is widespread, although they are hunted. The Amazon populations have suffered severely from forest loss throughout their range in southern Pará over the last decade. In the Atlantic Forest population, the major threat is the fragility of the remaining small forest patches to stochastic and demographic affects (habitat loss and fragmentation has been mainly due to sugar-cane plantations).
39960		conservation	eng	This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata palliata</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica </span><br/>Santa Rosa National Park (21,913 ha) (Fedigan and Rose 1995; Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Rincón La Vieja National Park (14,083 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Palo Verde National Park (5,704 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996) <br/>Tortuguero National Park (18,946 ha) (in range)<br/>Braulio Carrillo National Park (44,898 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Manuel Antonio National Park (682 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Volcán Irazú National Park (2,309 ha) (in range)<br/>Cahuita National Park (1,067 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad (Talamanca) International Park (193,929 ha) (in range)<br/>Chirripó National Park (50,150 ha) (in range)<br/>Corcovado National Park (41,788 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Guanacaste National Park (33,786 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Volcán Tenorio National Park (12,819 ha)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha)<br/>Lomas de Barbudal Biological Reserve (2,279 ha) (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 1989)<br/>Carara Biological Reserve (4,700 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve (9,154 ha)  (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve (7,683 ha) (in range)<br/>Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve (14,258 ha) (Lippold 1989)<br/>La Selva Protection Zone (2,815 ha) (Fishkind and Sussman 1987; Campbell and Sussman 1994)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span><br/>Punta Sal National Park (78,200 ha) (Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Montaña de Cusuco National Park (18,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Pico Bonito National Park (68,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Pico Pijol National Park (11,400 ha) (in range)<br/>Montaña de Yoro National Park (15,500 ha (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Santa Bárbara National Park (13,000 ha) (Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Cerro Azul Meambar National Park (39,000 ha (Marineros and Gallegos 1998) <br/>Sierra de Agalta National Park(27,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Celaque National Park(18,000 ha (in range)<br/>Montaña de Comayagua National Park (9918,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Montecristo-Trifinio National Park (5,400 ha) (in range<br/>La Tigra National Park (7,571 ha) in range)<br/>Laguna de Guaymoreto (5,000 ha) ((Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Capiro Calentura National Park (5,500 ha) (Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Laguna de Caratasca Wildlife Refuge (120,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Misoco Biological Reserve (4,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Pacayita Biological Reserve (9,700 ha) (in range)<br/>Guisayote Biological Reserve (7,000 ha) (in range)<br/>El Pital Biological Reserve (3,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Opalaca Biological Reserve (14,500 ha) (in range)<br/>El Chile Biological Reserve (6,000 ha (in range)<br/>Montecillos Biological Reserve (12,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Montaña San Pablo Biological Reserve (in range)<br/>Guajiquiro Biological Reserve (7,000 ha) (in range<br/>Yerba Buena Biological Reserve (3,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Chiflador Biological Reserve (500 ha) (in range<br/>Uyuca Biological Reserve (1,100 ha) (in range<br/>Yuscarán Biological Reserve (2,300 ha) (in range)<br/>Río Negro Biological Reserve (60,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Barras Cuero y Salado Wildlife Refuge (12,300 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Texiguat Wildlife Refuge (10,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Muralla National Park 7,000 ha (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Armado Wildlife Refuge (3,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Erapuca Wildlife Refuge (5,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Puca Wildlife Refuge (4,900 ha) (in range<br/>Montaña Verde Wildlife Refuge (8,300 ha) (in range)<br/>Mixcure Wildlife Refuge (8,000 ha) (in range<br/>Montaña de Corralitos (5,500 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span><br/>Saslaya National Park (11,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Masaya National Park (5,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Archipelago Zapatera (5,227 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Escalante – Chococente Wildlife Refuge (4,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Bismuna – Pahau – Cayos – Miskitos (80,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerros de Bana Cruz Natural Reserve (10,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Cordiella Diplito y Jalapa (1,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Laguna Wonta (30,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Wailwas (1,200 ha) (in range)<br/>Kilambe Natural Reserve (6,000 ha (in range)<br/>Peñas Blancas (7,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Santa Maria de Osuma (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Lagunas de Wancarlaya (8,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Salto del Rio Estanzuela (200 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Musún Natural Reserve (4,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Boca del Rio Grande de Matagalpa (68,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Lagunas Tecomapa, Moyua y La Playitas (in range)<br/>Cordillera de Amerisque Natural Reserve (1,500 ha (in range)<br/>Costa Sur del Pacifico (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Tomasu (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Cosiguina Natural Reserve (12,240 ha (in range)<br/>Estero Real Natural Reserve (38,725 ha) (in range)<br/>Complejo Volcánico Momotombo y Momotombito Natural Reserve (10,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Peninsula de Chiltepe (1,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Laguna de Tisma Natural Reserve (4,438 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Mombacho – Laguna Mecatepe Natural Reserve (2,847 ha) (reported) (Crockett <em>et al</em>. 1997)<br/>Volcan Madera Natural Reserve (4,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Concepción Natural Reserve (2,200 ha) (in range)<br/>Los Maribios (in range)<br/>Estero Padre Ramos Natural Reserve (7,815 ha) (in range)<br/>Reserva de la Biosfera Bosawas (1,100,000 ha) (Crockett <em>et al.</em> 1997)<br/>Refugio Bartola / Río Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve (295,000 ha) (Crockett <em>et al.</em> 1997)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata mexicana</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span><br/>Rio Dulce National Park (24,200 ha) (Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998)<br/>Colcán Pacaya National Park (4,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Lake Atitlan National Park (3,250 ha) (possible, Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sipacate-Naranjo National Park (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera Quetzal (1,150 ha) (<em>A. pigra</em> according to Curdts (1993), but <em>A. palliata</em> according to Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo de Chocon Machacas (7,000 ha) (sympatric with <em>A. pigra</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo Cerro Cahui (700 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo San Miguel La Palotada (49,300 ha) (sympatric with <em>A. pigra</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve (236,300 ha) (Silva-Lopes <em>et al</em>. 1995) (Sympatric with <em>A. pigra</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1998;  Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span><br/>Cañon del Sumidero National Park (21,789 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984)<br/>Volcán de San Martin Special Biosphere Reserve (1,500 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1988; Mexico, SEDUE, 1989; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sierra de Santa Marta Special Biosphere Reserve (20,000 ha) (Silva-López 1982; Silva-López and Portilla-Ochoa 2002; Silva-López and Garcia-Orduña 1984; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1988, 1993; Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/>Selva del Ocote Special Biosphere Reserve (48,140 ha) ( Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Triunfo National Biosphere Reserve (119,595 ha) (in range)<br/>Estación Biologica Tropical ‘Los Tuxtlas” (700 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1994)<br/>Naja (Hernandez-Yañez pers. comm. in Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Metzaboc (Hernandez-Yañez pers. comm. in Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Parque La Venta Municipal Park (8 ha) (Fuentes <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Parque Yumká Municipal Park (101 ha) (Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2001; Del Valle <em>et al.</em> 2001; Muñoz <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span><br/>Ensenada de Utría Natural National Park (54,300 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Los Katios Natural National Park (72,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Munchique Natural National Park (44,000 ha) (possibly, Defler 1994)<br/>Sanquinaga Natural National Park (80,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Paramillo Natural National Park (460,000 ha) (possibly, Defler 1994)<br/>Los Farallones Natural National Park (150,000 ha) (possibly, Defler 1994)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span><br/>Machalilla Nartional Park (56,814 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve (119,172 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Manglares Churute  Ecological Reserve (49,894 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Los Cedros Protected Forest (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span><br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (in range)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad International Park (207,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (in range)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Baru National Park (14,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Altos de Campana National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>Darién National Park (555,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Fortuna Water Production Reserve (26,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7,090 ha) (in range)<br/>Canglón National Park (31,650 ha) (in range)<br/>Cienega de Changuinola (in range)<br/>Peninsula Valiente (in range)<br/>Estero Rio Bayano (in range)<br/>Cienega de Urey (in range)<br/>Ensenada de Copal (in range)<br/>Estero Golfo de San Miguel (in range)<br/>Cienega de Matsugarati (in range)<br/>Cerre Cerrezuela – Rio Grande (in range)<br/>Estero Bahia de Muertos (in range)<br/>Playa de la Barqueta Agricola (5,935 ha) (in range)<br/>Estero Río Fonseca (in range)<br/>Estero Ríos Tabasara – Bubi (in range)<br/>Estero Golfo de Montijo Recreation Area (89,452 ha) (in range)<br/>Palo Seco Protection Forest (244,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Serranias de Majé (in range)<br/>Cayo Swan (in range)<br/>Cayo Tigre (in range)<br/>Lagunas del Volcán (142 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Gaital (in range)<br/>Cerro Chame (in range)<br/>Picachos de Ola (in range)<br/>Gran Valera de Chorcha (in range)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha) (Carpenter 1965)<br/>Isla de Majé Scientific Reserve (1,433 ha) (in range)<br/>Kunayala Private Reserve (2,357 ha) (in range)<br/>Golfo de Chiriquí National Park (14,740 ha) (in range)<br/>Lago Gatún Recreation Area (348 ha) (in range)<br/>Metropolitano Natural Park  (265 ha) (in range)<br/>Alto de Darien Protection Forest (201,000 ha) (in range)<br/>San San Pond Sak (16,125 ha) (in range)<br/>Punta Patiño (13,805 ha) (in range)<br/>Los Pozos de Calobre(3.5 ha) (in range)<br/>El Salto de Las Palmas (348 ha) (in range)<br/>Camiño de Cruces National Park (4,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Filo del Tallo (in range)<br/>Maski Private Reserve (544 ha) (in range)<br/>San Blas Reserve (141,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata coibensis</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span><br/>Isla Coiba National Park and Jicarón (270,125 ha) (Milton and Mittermeier 1977)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata trabeata</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span><br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Rowe 2000; Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
39960		distribution	eng	There are five recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata palliata</em><br/>The range limits separating <em>A. p. aequatorialis</em> from <em>A. p. palliata</em> are not clear. Lawrence (1933) cited a specimen of <em>A. p. palliata</em> from Cotó, extreme western Panama, and Hill (1962, p.106) mentioned that specimens from Sevilla Island, western Panama, collected by J. H. Batty were “manifestly” <em>A. p. palliata</em>. Hall (1981), on the other hand, lists Sevilla Island, and Puerto Cortez, Costa Rica, as marginal records for <em>A. p. aequatorialis</em>. Many individuals from Panama are intermediate (Lawrence 1933). From eastern Costa Rica, at least, <em>A. p. palliata</em> extends through Nicaragua to northern Honduras and, according to Curdts (1993), it just extends into Guatemala to the Río Motagua and possibly along the coast a short distance to the Cabo de Tres Puntas, where it meets <em>A. pigra</em>. Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) found the northern most limit of <em>A. palliata palliata</em> in the south margin of Rio Dulce. It is not known to occur in El Salvador to the south (Burt and Stirton 1961). There are no current records of this subspecies in El Salvador, although it evidently occurred there in the past (Daugherty 1972). <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata mexicana</em><br/>The range of <em>A. p. mexicana</em> extends eastward from south-eastern Mexico, provinces of Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and northern Chiapas and Oaxaca. As discussed by Smith (1970), in Tabasco <em>A. p. mexicana</em> meets, and is sympatric with, <em>A. pigra</em> in a region five miles south-east of Macuspana. García-Orduña <em>et al.</em> (1999) found mixed populations of the two species in small habitat fragments in Tabasco (see also Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 2001). Cortés-Ortiz <em>et al.</em> (2003) recorded a zone of contact and possible hybridization between <em>A. palliata mexicana</em> and <em>A. pigra</em> between the ríos Grijalva and Usamacinta on the Mexico-Guatemala border. Although several published maps include its range as extending into the highlands of Chiapas and into north-central Guatemala, an ongoing study (A. Cuarón) indicates that this subspecies range is restricted to western Chiapas, central and western Tabasco, south-eastern Veracruz, and eastern Oaxaca.<br/><br/>Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) provide the most recent review of the limits of the distributions of <em>Alouatta palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em> in Central America and Mexico. They found that the highland massif of northern Central America (including the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and central highland of Guatemala) and its associated coniferous and subalpine vegetation formed a geographic barrier separating <em>A. pigra</em> from <em>A. palliata</em>, and define the southern limit of <em>A. pigra</em>. They discussed the two contact zones between them: the broad range of overlap north of the highland massif in Mexico over the lowlands of the states of Tabasco and Campeche, and a narrow area of contiguous, non-overlapping ranges in eastern Guatemala where the highlands extend almost to the Caribbean. In the first, the localities where parapatry has been observed include Macuspana, Tabasco (Smith 1970, Horwich and Johnson 1986), around Zapata, Tabasco (Horwich and Johnson 1986) and the northern point of the Laguna de Términos in Campeche (Serio-Silva <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no geographical barrier separating the species, both occur in the same forests and on both sides of the Rio Usamacinta, for example (Cortés-Ortiz <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the second, the ranges are narrowly parapatric, separated by the Río Dulce and the Lago Izabal: <em>A. palliata</em> to the south and <em>A. pigra</em> to the north and west. South-west of Lake Izabal, <em>A. pigra</em> occurs in the highlands of the Sierra de las Minas, but not in the lowlands, occupied by <em>A. palliata</em>. Any past range overlap in this region will have been lost by the extensive loss of forest (the area is heavily farmed).  Baumgarten (2006) found no evidence to support sympatry supposed previously by Horwich and Johnson (1986), Curdts (1993) and Silva-López <em>et al.</em> (1998).<br/><br/>Baumgarten ansd Williamson (2007) argued that <em>A. palliata</em> will have occurred on the Pacific side of the highland massif of northern Central America in the past. There are historical records in Mexico (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984), Guatemala (Handley 1950), and El Salvador (Daugherty 1972).<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em><br/><em>A. p. aequatorialis</em> occurs in Panama, from the southern limit to the range of <em>A. p. palliata</em> (either in western Panama or extreme eastern Costa Rica), through the Serranía del Darién (Anthony 1916, Lawrence 1933) into western Colombia, north through the basins of the Ríos Sinú and Atrato to the Caribbean coast, and south through the Serranía del Baudó (Defler 2003) and the foothills, lowlands and lower montane areas west of the Andes to the Pacific coast, through Colombia and Ecuador, just into the Tumbes and Piura region of northern Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994; Encarnación and Cook 1998; Tirira 2001, 2007).<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata coibensis</em> <br/>This howler monkey is known only from Coiba Island and neighbouring Jicarón, off the Pacific coast of Panama.<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata trabeata</em><br/>This subspecies is endemic to the Azuero Peninsula, Panama (Froehlich and Froehlich 1987, Rowe 2000, Mendes-Carvajal 2005).
39960		habitat	eng	This species occupies a number of vegetation types and can be found in seasonal and nonseasonal forests, and in mangroves and swamps (Baumgarten and Williamson 2007). According to the last authors, <em>A. palliata</em> does not occur above 2,000 m, and most of its montane localities are at lower elevations.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Howler monkeys have small incisors and large, sexually dimorphic canines. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1–2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier, 1993). The red howlers (<em>A. seniculus</em>, <em>A. macconnelli</em>, <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. puruensis</em>, and <em>A. sara</em>) have the largest voice boxes and the deepest roars, while the Mexican, Central American and northern Colombian mantled howlers, <em>A. palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em>, have the smallest, and their howls are more high pitched as a result.<br/><br/>The Mantled Howler Monkey is exceptional in the genus in that it may form large groups of more than 40 individuals, with a number of breeding males, although group size is generally less, averaging 14. For the other species, 14 is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). The large groups of <em>A. palliata</em> may have home ranges extending to 60 ha (Estrada 1982), whereas in the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982a).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. Red howler monkeys have also been seen to eat and lick clay at so-called “salado” sites in the Colombian Amazon (Izawa 1975). The reason for this and the consumption of soil from termitaria is still not clearly understood, but may involve the need for certain minerals, or may be due to the properties of clay which, by adsorption, can reduce the effects of toxins ingested with leaves.<br/><br/>The diet of <em>A. macconnelli</em> has been studied by Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) in Suriname and more recently during a long-term study in the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana (Julliot and Sabatier 1993; Julliot 1994b,c, 1996a,b). It feeds mainly on soft parts of many different kinds of fruits, as well as flowers and young leaves.  Also included in the diet are mature leaves, immature fruits, moss, bark, and the soil of termitaria. Julliot and Sabatier (1993) recorded the use of 195 plant species from 47 families. Seeds are ingested but only rarely eaten. As a result <em>Alouatta</em>, like <em>Ateles</em>, is an important seed disperser. Julliot (1996a) found that <em>A. macconnelli</em> dispersed the seeds of more than 95% of more than 100 plant species (especially Sapotaceae) from which they eat fruit over the two years of her observations. <br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. In Suriname, newborn infants have been seen in March, April, and November, and January (Mittermeier 1977). Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). The llanos forests are more seasonal, however, than in the Guianas, and it is possible that this is not the case elsewhere. Oestrus lasts 2–4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).<br/><br/>Size (see Glander (2006) for a discussion of body weight in mantled howling monkeys):<br/>Adult male weight 7.15 kg (n=110+) (Peres 1994)<br/>Adult female weight 5.35 kg (n=177+) (Peres 1994).<br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Adult male weight 6.53 kg (n=14) (Glander <em>et al</em>. 1991)<br/>Adult female weight 5.35 kg (n=18) (Glander <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>Panama<br/>Adult male weight 7.8 kg (n=15) (Thorington Jr. <em>et al.</em> 1979)<br/>Adult female weight 6.6 kg (n=15) (Thorington Jr. <em>et al.</em> 1979)<br/>See Glander (2006) for a  discussion of body weight in mantled howling monkeys.
39960		population	eng	<em>Alouatta palliata palliata</em><br/>This subspecies is known to occur in densities of 8–10 individuals/ha in fragmented habitats. In Nicaragua (Williams-Guillen, Otterstrom, Hagell, Gomez-Fuentes, 2007) and Costa Rica this subspecies is abundant.<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata mexicana</em><br/>Although this subspecies has a very restricted range, encompassing areas of highly disturbed vegetation with extremely high rate of loss, in some fragments the subspecies may be locally common. <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em><br/>In one study in Colombia, 20 individuals/km² were recorded near a biological station Armargal (Ramirez-Sanchez 2003). Recent faunal surveys in Utria National Park found them to be extremely rare, in areas where they were much more common in years past (H. Rubio pers. comm.). On the Osa pennisula, Costa Rica, in Corcovado National Park, densities were recorded at 0.2 groups/km² and in Golfo Dulce at 0.1/groups/km² (Carrillo <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata trabeata</em><br/>There is an observation of 430 individuals in 35 troops recorded within 355 km² of fragmented forest (Méndez-Carvajal 2005).
39960		threats	eng	Across its range, there are no major threats, although it is certainly susceptible to hunting and habitat loss. For example, forests on the Azuero Peninsula (the range of <em>A. p. trabeata</em>) have been largely destroyed and are highly fragmented. Likewise, habitat within the range of A. p. mexicana are known to have experienced very high rates of decline (Cuarón 1997).<br/><br/>In the Chocó region of Colombia, <em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em> is at risk of widespread hunting by Afro-Colombian and indigenous people. Furthermore, over 90% of forests on the Atlantic coast of Colombia have been destroyed for agricultural and pasture; it is estimated that at least 31% of forest has been lost over the past 10 years alone (based on calculations from satellite photos; Miller <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ground truthing of this data found only 2.5% of viable secondary forest habitat remaining in this region (Miller <em>et al.</em> 2004).
39961		conservation	eng	<em>Ateles hybridus hybridus </em>is found in several protected areas in Colombia, including: Catatumbo-Bari National Natural Reserve (158,125 ha); Tamá National Natural Park (48,000 ha); El Cocoy National Natural Park (306,000 ha); and<br/>Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (383,000 ha) (Defler 2004). They may also occur in Chingaza Natural National Park (50,374 ha). <br/><br/>In Venezuela, the species occurs in the Guatopo National Park (92,640 ha), which is of particular importance because it is one the major water reservoirs for the capital city, Caracas. The Sierra de Perijá National Park (295,288 ha) is the other major protected area with brown spider monkeys. In these national parks, enforcement against hunting and wood extraction is needed. There are no NGOs working actively with <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> as target species, and governmental agencies should improve their conservation efforts. However, there is interest for continuing with surveys on these primates especially in central Venezuela as well as an awareness programme particularly at a local level. It is also fundamental to increase the number of park rangers and improving their economical condition. They also occur in Caparo Forest Reserve (Venezuela) (B. Urbani pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Bernstein <em>et al.</em> (1976a) showed the effect of forest disturbance, especially on <em>A. h. brunneus </em>(and <em>Lagothrix lugens</em>), and (1976b) made a plea for the establishment of reserves for this and other threatened primate taxa. Fortunately, the Serranía de San Lucas in southern Bolívar still contains extensive forest which has been identified as a possible national park site. The establishment of a San Lucas National Park ought to have high priority in Colombia, since it would preserve many elements of the Nechí refugium, including <em>Saguinus leucopus</em> and <em>Lagothrix lugens</em>. However, the presence of political insurgents, the military and some mine fields make the region very difficult for work and for the presence of the government. The Cienaga de Barbacoas represents another priority area for consideration for the creation of a protected area.<br/><br/>Censuses are required for a better understanding of the status of <em>Ateles hybridus</em>, and local populations need to be clearly identified and actively managed, something that is not taking place even in the protected areas where <em>A. h. hybridus</em> is known to occur.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
39961		distribution	eng	In Colombia, <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> is found from the right bank of the Río Magdalena in the Departments of Magdalena, César (northward to the southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta), the south-western portions of Guajira in the northernmost parts of the Serranía de Perijá, and in the middle Río Magdalena valley at least to the Departments of Caldas and Cundinamarca. There are also two populations of this subspecies on the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes on the Venezuelan border: one population is found in the Río Catatumbo watershed in the Department of Norte de Santander and the other population is found in the north-east piedmont forest of the Department of Arauca (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). <br/><br/>The subspecies has a disrupted distribution in Venezuela (Mondolfi and Eisenberg 1979). It is located in the north, along the south-eastern part of the Central Mountain Range (Cordillera de la Costa) in the state of Miranda, and probably the state of Vargas. It is also located on both sides of the Venezuelan Andean Mountains (states of Zulia, Táchira, Mérida, Trujillo, Portuguesa, Apure and Barinas). In its eastern part, this primate is distributed on the piedmont forest and in the highly threatened lowland forests of San Camilo and Ticoporo. On the western side, it is also distributed in the piedmont of the Andes throughout the lowland areas of southern Lake Maracaibo to the Perijá Mountains (Sierra de Perijá) along the border with Colombia (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linares 1998; Cordero-Rodríguez and Biord 2001; Portillo and Velásquez 2006; Duque 2007; B. Urbani, unpubl.).<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>Ateles hybridus brunneus</em> is found between the lower Cauca and Magdalena Rivers in the Department of Bolívar, Antioquia and Caldas. This population has sometimes been included with <em>A. h. hybridus</em>, but is here considered distinct.
39961		habitat	eng	In Venezuela, <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> inhabits mainly the high and lowland primary evergreen rainforests from 20 to 700 m asl. <br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus</em> was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition, the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for the closely related <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976).<br/><br/>Congdon (1996) provided a brief remark on the behaviour of these monkeys at the Reserva Forestal Caparo, and Duque (2007) provided a list of potential feeding trees for <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> in the El Ávila National Park (however, this primate species was not observed at the time of Duque´s survey). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals makes it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.<br/><br/>Size<br/>Adult male weight 7.9-8.6 kg (mean 8.25 kg, n=2) (see Di Fiore and Campbell 2007<br/>Adult female weight 7.5-10.5 kg (mean 9.1 kg, n=7) (see Di Fiore and Campbell 2007).
39961		population	eng	In Colombia, Bernstein <em>et al.</em> (1976a) calculated a density of 9-14 individuals/km² for <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> in the San Lucas mountains. Green (1978) calculated densities of 8.2-9.6 groups/km² at his study site, which if multiplied by his average group size (3.3 individuals) seems to suggest higher densities at his Cerro Bran site when compared with the other study site.<br/><br/>There is no reliable population information available for Venezuela (B. Urbani pers. comm.).
39961		threats	eng	In Colombia, both <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> and <em>Ateles hybridus brunneus</em> are subject to habitat loss and to hunting. The habitat of <em>A. h. hybridus</em> is extremely fragmented, and there may be few populations of an adequate size to be viable in the mid- to long-term (Defler <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Habitat alteration appears to be the most important threat to the Venezuelan population of <em>A. h. hybridus</em>. The lowland forest of the state of Zulia and the piedmond of the Perijá Mountains are heavily destroyed from expanding cattle-ranching activities (B. Urbani, unpubl.). Portillo and Velásquez (2006) undertook a gap analysis for this primate species within the Perijá Mountains and found that, while the total forest extent is still very large (813,257 ha), only 30% is relatively well preserved and protected. The rest remains affected by rapid human expansion and land clearance. Also in the Perijá Mountains, these monkeys seem to be favourite game animals (Lizarralde 2002). In central Venezuela, some areas that were reported with these monkeys (Cordero-Rodríguez and Biord 2001) were resurveyed by Duque (2007) without reports of any sightings; most of the area is already converted to secondary vegetation. Also in this region, B. Urbani (unpubl.) found that buffer areas around the protected areas—with confirmed populations of <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> (P. N. Guatopo) and unconfirmed populations (M. N. Cueva Alfredo Jahn, P. N. Henry Pittier, P. N. San Esteban and P. N. El Ávila)—are transformed into cleared areas for slash-and-burn agriculture and human settlements as well as secondary forests. The lowland forest from the eastern part of the Andean Mountains, which are San Camilo and Ticoporo, are under severe pressure from logging.
39974		conservation	eng	No known protection measures are in place for this species. Lemmings are listed as unclassified game by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service with no closed season and bag limit. No protection measures currently are needed; however, populations should be monitored to ensure that protection needs do not change.<br/><br/>Research needs include: 1) Genetic analysis to substantiate species status of <em>Dicrostonyx unalascensis</em>. 2) Determine factors that affect cyclicity of lemming populations on Unalaska and Umnak islands. 3) Study habitat preferences and ecosystem structure involving lemmings. 4) Determine effects of winter breeding and reproductive patterns in relation to cyclicity. 5) Determine the impact of introduced species on the populations.
39974		distribution	eng	The species' range includes Umnak and Unalaska Islands, in the Aleutian Archipelago, Alaska, United States (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993, 2005). Umnak Island is approximately 85,920 hectares and Unalaska Island is 137,849 hectares (total 2,238 square kilometers).
39974		habitat	eng	This species is an Arctic tundra inhabitant, but specific ecological information is sparse.
39974		population	eng	No population estimates are available (Jarrell 1997), but the total adult population size (though variable) presumably exceeds 10,000. Each of the two occupied islands could be regarded as a single occurrence or subpopulation.<br/><br/>No population trend information is available. Although Fay and Murie did not believe that lemming populations on Umnak Island are cyclic (Fay pers. comm.; Murie 1959, in Fay and Sease 1985), they noted that populations fluctuate widely from scarce to abundant. However, according to Stenseth and Ims (1993), "Lemmings are characterized by, and known for, their pronounced density cycles combined with shifts in habitat use both at a local and regional scale." They discussed reasons for controversy over accepting cyclicity in lemmings and possible ways to account for this phenomenon. No information has suggested a positive or negative population trend, so the population may be stable.
39974		threats	eng	The restricted range of this species increases its vulnerability to outside threats (e.g., rat introduction). Effects from the development of Nikolski village, Umnak Island, appear to be insignificant (Fay and Sease 1985). This is an important prey species for red fox and predatory birds on both islands (Fay and Sease 1985; Peterson 1967); however, red fox is native to these islands (not introduced) so the <em>Dicrostonyx</em> population may be able to tolerate fox predation. The effects of Norway rat, house mouse, and ground squirrel introductions on Unalaska Island and European hare introduction on Umnak Island are unknown. The Arctic fox was introduced on Unalaska Island in 1922 but has since disappeared (Bailey 1993).
39985		conservation	eng	<em>P. m. milleri</em> occurs in the La Paya National Park (422,000 ha) (T. Defler pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>P. m. monachus</em> occurs in the following national parks in Colombia: Cahuinaría, Amacayacu, and Puré (T. Defler pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species occurs in several reserves and protected areas in Peru, but protection may be limited. Reported to occur in the Cuyabeno Reserve in Ecuador (de la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
39985		distribution	eng	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Pithecia monachus monachus</em> has a relatively wide range in the upper Amazon. It is found throughout eastern Ecuador and Peru, south to Ucayali and east to the Rio Juruá in Brazil. In Colombia, it occurs south of the Caquetá River (including the Columbian trapezium) to the region of Puerto Lopez (Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Pithecia monachus milleri</em> has a poorly known range, but is thought to occur between the Orteguaza River to the Putumayo River up to about 500-600 m in Colombia. (T. Defler pers. comm.). The exact limit between the subspecies is unknown. It may be found between the Ríos Caguán and Yarí.
39985		habitat	eng	The nominate subspecies prefers terra firme tropical forest in Ecuador (de la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995), but may use flooded forest and can survive in forest patches (Defler 2003). <em>P. m. milleri</em> occurs in primary forest and flooded forest (Igapó).
39985		population	eng	Near the Purite river in Colombia, densities were calculated at between 2 and 14.5 individuals/km² (Defler 2003). Palacios and Peres (2005) estimated a density of 11 individuals/km² in Ayo, below the Caqueta River.
39985		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to human settlement and land-use changes (Defler 2003). It is also subject to hunting.
39992		conservation	eng	Listed as Class A under the African Convention, and on Appendix I of CITES. In Tanzania, this taxon is nominally protected under the Forest Resource Management and Conservation Act of 1996. <br/><br/>Less than half of the taxon is legally protected within the small Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park (about 60 km²) where<br/>the monkeys are reasonably secure. The installation of speedbumps at Jozani has also reduced the incidence of road kills. The creation of a new protected at Kiwengwa, protection of the remaining patches of coral thicket in the south, and corridors between remaining habitat patches, are needed (Siex and Struhsaker in press).
39992		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Zanzibar Island where it occurs at elevations of 0-110 m (Siex and Struhsaker in press). Kirk's Red Colobus may once have occurred on the mainland (as, for example, does Aders' Duiker <em>Cephalophus adersi</em>), but is certainly extirpated there now. On Zanzibar, it is found mainly in the south-eastern part of the island in Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park, the adjacent agricultural areas to the south, and the coral thickets and mangrove swamps of Uzi Island 10 km to the south-west. Also found at low densities in isolated populations in the coral thickets along Zanzibar’s eastern coast from Kiwengwa in the north to Mnyambiji in the south, and on the west coast there is a small isolated group in the mangrove swamps of Maji Mekundu. A small translocated population of ca. 56 individuals also occurs in Masingini Forest Reserve (Siex and Struhsaker in press). <br/><br/>Approximately 14 animals were introduced to Ngezi Forest Reserve, Pemba Island, around 1974 (Struhsaker and Siex 1998: Oryx), where the species is believed to persist in small numbers (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001).
39992		habitat	eng	This species lives primarily in areas of ground-water forest, and scrub forest on coral rag on the southern and eastern side of the island; it is also found in mangrove swamp (Struhsaker and Siex 1998: Primate Conservation; Siex and Struhsaker in press). It lives in multi-male groups (average 30 individuals), with overlapping home ranges. Young leaves and leaf buds account for more than 50% of the diet. In forest-dwelling groups, unripe fruit accounts for an additional quarter of the diet, whereas in groups living in agricultural areas, leaves from herbaceous species are the second most consumed item (approx. 15% of the annual diet). Some groups frequently feed on mangrove leaves, and the populations on coral rag appear to subsist on a drier, coarser diet than any recorded for red colobus (Siex 2003).
39992		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be less than 2,000 individuals (Siex 2003; Struhsaker 2005; Siex and Struhsaker in press). The Jozani subpopulation was thought to contain ~500 animals. The highest densities occur in ca. 40 ha of agricultural lands adjacent to the southern border of the national park (784 individuals/km² in 1999); these high densities are due to population compression following destruction of adjacent habitat rather than to intrinsic growth (Siex 2003). Density in the coral thickets adjacent to Jozani Forest is probably less than 50 individuals/km² (Siex and Struhsaker 1999).
39992		threats	eng	The remaining populations are severely threatened by habitat destruction resulting from timber felling, charcoal production, clearance for cultivation, and bush-burning. This species is occasionally shot for food, sport, or as a supposed crop pest, but habitat loss remains the most serious threat (Siex 2003). In Jozani Chwaka Bay National Park, habitat degradation occurred in the past mainly from commercial logging, agriculture, tree-cutting for fuelwood, and charcoal production, but this has now stopped. There are occasional deaths due to road kills south of the park.
39993		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in several protected areas across its range, and at least two of these, Kibale National Park and the Tana River Primate Reserve, are the last true bastions for the survival of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> and <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em>, respectively (see below).<br/><br/>Approximately 40% of the population of <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> occurs within 13 km² of forest within the 169 km² Tana River Primate National Reserve. Stringent habitat protection is required and there is a need to re-establish the Mchelo Research Station.<br/><br/><em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is present in the 766 km² Kibale Forest National Park in Uganda, which may contain the only viable population; hunting by humans is virtually non-existant in this park (Struhsaker 2005). It is also present in the Gombe and Mahale National Parks in Tanzania. Long-term monitoring of the Ngogo situation is required, as well as a comprehensive, long-term monitoring programme for the colobus throughout Kibale. Kibale has the largest and perhaps only viable population of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> (although the population in Mbizi exceeds 1,000), and is the last hope for conservation of this taxon. <br/><br/>The southernmost population in the Mbizi forest should be protected; this is the only remaining montane forest of any size in Ufipa, and the only source of water for Sumbawanga’s growing population. There is also a need for immediate intervention if Mbuzi is not to be lost completely following the recent fate of both the Misheta and Nsangu forests. The forest patch is very small, isolated and has no protected status or management (Davenport <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tholloni</em> is present in the Salongo National Park.<br/><br/>The range of <em>P. r. oustaleti</em> overlaps with the Okapi Faunal Reserve in DR Congo, and the proposed Mbaere-Bodingue national park in CAR.<br/><br/><em>P. r. ellioti</em> may persist in the Semliki Forest Reserve, Uganda, and is possibly found in the Kahuzi-Beiga and Maiko National Parks, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>P. r. permentieri</em> and <em>P. r. langi</em> are not known to occur in any protected areas.<br/><br/>The taxonomy of this species is extremely complex and much debated (see Struhsaker and Grubb in press; Groves in press; and references therein), and in need of urgent revision.
39993		distribution	eng	North of the Congo River, this species ranges widely from about the River Sangha in the west to Lake Albert; south of the Congo River, it occurs as far south as the Kasai and Sankuru Rivers. Also occurs in isolated fragments (as <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em>) east of the Albertine Rift, and an isolated form, <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em>, persists on the lower Tana River in Kenya (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Struhsaker and Grubb in press). The species ranges from near sea-level to 2,500 m.<br/><br/>In this treatment, the species includes nine subspecies: <br/><br/><em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> is found only on the levees of the lower Tana River in Kenya. The total known range is 60 km from Kipende in the north to Mitipani in the south, where the Lamu-Garsen road enters the Tana River floodplain. It is restricted to ca. 34 patches of fragmented gallery forest, notably Guru South, Sifa East, Baomo South, Mnazini East, Bubesa West 1, Hewani South 2 forests (Butynski and Mwangi 1994). <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> is broadly sympatric with <em>Cercocebus galeritus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus</em>, and narrowly sympatric on the forest edges with <em>Papio cynocephalus ibeanus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is present on the eastern border of the Rift Valley in western Uganda and western Tanzania (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). Five distinct populations are known in western Uganda in Kibale, and in western Tanzania in Biharamulo on the south-western shores of Lake Victoria, Gombe and Mahale Mountains on the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, and Mbizi and Misheta on the Ufipa Plateau (Rodgers <em>et al</em>. 1984). However, recent surveys in Misheta found little if any forest left of any consequence in the area, and the red colobus population is probably now extinct there (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2007). A subpopulation subsequently recorded in a forest patch near the village of Nsangu (post the surveys by Rodgers et al.) is probably also now extinct (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2007). Davenport <em>et al</em>. (2007) reported a new and previously unrecorded population of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> in Mbuzi forest. They also surveyed the Chala forest, which was in poor condition; no primates were seen, although it is not known if red colobus ever existed there. This subspecies may be present in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, but its presence has not yet been confirmed.<br/><br/><em>P. r. foai</em> from Democratic Republic of the Congo between the Rivers Lowa and Osa in the north and about 6°S in the south along the western side of Lake Tanganyika (Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. oustaleti</em>, occurs in Congo, southern Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo and marginally in southern Sudan, from the River Sangha in the west across the Oubangui River east to Lake Albert; the southern border of its range is the Congo River, the eastern limit is the River Aruwimi-Ituri, and in the north its range extends into the savanna woodlands north of the River Uele (Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. 1999; Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. lulindicus</em> is present in Democratic Republic of Congo in lowland forest east of the Lualaba River from the Lowa-Osa River in the north to the Elila River in the south (Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. langi</em> occurs in pure form in the cul-de-sac between the Lualaba and Aruwimi-ituri Rivers in north-east Democratic Republic of Congo and extends as a variant within the population eastward to the vicinity of Lake Kivu (P. Grubb unpubl.).<br/><br/><em>P. r. ellioti</em> ranges from Congo-Lualaba River east to the Semliki Valley, and the west shore of Lake Edward and Lake Kivu. The northern limit is the Aruwimi-Ituri River, and the southern limit the Maiko River (Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. parmentieri</em> in the area between the Lomami and Lualaba Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo, as far south as the Rivers Ruiki and Lutanga (Colyn and Verheyen 1987; Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tholloni</em> is a little-known taxon that occurs in a patchy distribution from south of the great bend of the Congo River, west of the River Lomami, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Southern limits bounded by the Kasai and Sankuru Rivers (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). Except for <em>P. r. parmentieri</em>, this is the only red colobus taxon to occur south of the Congo River.
39993		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of forest types, including riverine and gallery forest (e.g., the nominate subspecies <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> in Kenya, where the forests are dominated by <em>Pachystela</em> and <em>Barringtonia</em>), forest-miombo savanna mosaic, old-growth lowland, mid-altitude, and montane moist rain forest, degraded secondary forests, and raphia palm swamps (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). <br/><br/>In Kibale, <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is most abundant in moist, old-growth, evergreen forest with emergent trees reaching 50 m in height (Struhsaker and Grubb in press, and refs therein). It can persist in lightly logged forest as long as important food trees remain (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1988). Groups of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> average about 45-50 individuals in Kibale, and 55-59 individuals in Gombe (Struhsaker and Grubb in press, and refs therein). The mean group size recorded in Mbizi was 41 and in Mbuzi, 34 (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/><em>P. r.oustaleti</em>, the most widespread subspecies, is found in mature primary lowland tropical moist forest, swamp forest and gallery forest, as well as in in savanna woodland. However, in Ngotto Forest in Central African Republic, this species only occurs in flooded forests on alluvial river banks (Gautier-Hion and Brugiere 2005). Galat-Luong and Galat (1979) reported that they spent 30% of their time <10 m above ground and regularly enter into water to collect bulbs of aquatic plants.<br/><br/>In the Congo Basin, <em>P. r. tholloni</em> is common in flooded forests where they eat a lot of seeds (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 1994).
39993		population	eng	There are no overall population estimates for most of the forms of red colobus assigned to this species. <br/><br/><em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> numbers at least 20,000 animals, with the largest and most viable population in Kibale Forest in Uganda where the population is estimated at ≥17,000 (Struhsaker 2005). Approximately 60% of the Kibale park represents suitable habitat for red colobus and published density estimates for them in this habitat range from 93-313/km² (Struhsaker 2005). Although Kibale would appear to have a healthy and viable population, long-term studies in two areas of the park indicate statistically significant declines in red colobus numbers. In the Ngogo study area, census data spanning nearly 24 years indicate a 43% decline in groups (Mitani <em>et al.</em> 2000), mainly due to Chimpanzee <em>Pan troglodytes</em> predation. A similar long-term study spanning 28 years at the Kanyawara site of Kibale also indicated a 40% decline in red colobus numbers within old growth and protected forest, as well as in nearby selectively logged forest (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 2000). Red colobus density in forest fragments on the western boundary of Kibale averaged 2.1 animals per hectare and ranged from 0 to 8.33 animals / ha (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The red colobus in Gombe National Park also seem to have declined in numbers due to predation by Chimpanzees. Red colobus group sizes have declined by nearly 50% over a 25-year period (Stanford 1998) and 16–40% of them are killed each year by chimpanzees (Wrangham and Bergmann-Riss 1990).<br/><br/>Recent survey work by Davenport <em>et al</em>. (2007) shows that a total of at least 1,354 red colobus survive on the Ufipa Plateau, with 1,217 in Mbizi and 137 in Mbuzi.<br/><br/>The total population of <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> is estimated at 1,100-1,300, down from an estimated 1,200-1,800 in 1975 (Butynski and Mwangi 1994, 1995; Mbora 2003). This is not considered a significant decrease and suggests that the species may have developed strategies to cope with the shrinking habitat. Recent surveys indicate at least 86 groups occur in 34 forest patches (Butynski and Mwangi 1994; Mbora 2003); mean group size has declined by about 50% since the 1970s (Struhsaker and Grubb in press; and refs therein). Densities of <em>P. r. ufomitratus</em> along the Tana River, Kenya have ranged from 33-253 individuals/per km² (Marsh 1978; Decker 1994; Mbora 2003).<br/><br/><em>P. r. oustaleti</em> is likely to be among the more numerous of the Red Colobus taxa, given the size of the range (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). This was the third most observed species in the flooded forests of Ngotto Forest in south-western CAR (Brugiere <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39993		threats	eng	Across the range, localized declines are taking place due to ongoing habitat loss (mainly as a result of deforestation for timber and agricultural land), and from hunting for meat and skins (although, in most cases, levels of offtake due to hunting are not well quantified). The two forms most at risk are <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> (which also suffers exceptionally high rates of predation from Chimpanzees) and <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em>, although <em>P. r. tholloni</em> is also certainly at risk<br/><br/><em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> appears to have declined as a result of several causes: (a) drastic changes in vegetation due to dam construction, irrigation projects, and water diversion which changed the water table; (b) forest clearance for agriculture; (c) fires eroding levee forests; (d) degradation due to livestock and wood collection; (e) selective felling of Ficus trees for canoes; and (f) hunting. Because all remaining forest patches inhabited by colobus are small and seriously threatened, the population is highly vulnerable. The proposed Tana Integrated Sugar Project in Tana River and Lamu Districts threatens more than 200 km² of semi-natural habitat in the area.<br/><br/>The main threat to <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is habitat loss through selective logging of mature forest for timber, conversion to agricultural land, the production of charcoal, and forest fires. To some degree, hunting for meat and skins remains a threat (e.g., around Mbizi; Davenport <em>et al.</em> 2007). The taxon also appears to be heavily predated by chimpanzees. At Ngogo in Kibale National Park, the colobus live with the largest community of chimps recorded anywhere. They form huge hunting parties against the reds that result in the highest hunting success rate known for any large vertebrate predator (T. Struhsaker pers. comm.). The population in Gombe National Park appears to be seriously threatened with extinction because of predation by chimpanzees and because of the very small size (ca. 80 km²) and isolation of the Gombe park (Struhsaker 2005).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tholloni</em> is vulnerable to hunting which has increased markedly since the Congo war (1996-2003), and habitat loss for timber and agricultural land likely effects some populations locally. It is known to be extensively hunted throughout its range (J. Thompson pers. comm.); A. Vesper (pers. comm.) reports that between the Tshuapa and the Lomami Rivers they are usually one of the first primates hunted out because they are so large and slow to flee.<br/><br/>The status of most of the remaining taxa included here is poorly known.
39994		conservation	eng	Detailed information on conservation measures to protect the Eastern Gorilla and its two subspecies can be found in chapters 8, 13 and 16 of Caldecott and Miles (2005). <br/><br/>The Eastern Gorilla is listed under Class A of the African Convention and Appendix I of CITES. The subspecies is found only within National Parks. These protected areas all have active national programmes for conservation management, assisted by international NGOs. Although the protected areas are relatively well monitored, measures of the impacts of illegal activities on the gorillas should continue.<br/><br/>Most subpopulations of <em>G. b. graueri</em> are found in protected areas, where international NGOs are supporting rehabilitation and conservation programmes, such as in Kahuzi-Biega NP, Maïko NP, Tayna Nature Reserve and Kisimba-Ikobo Nature Reserve. However, due to the presence of armed militia groups in some areas, conservation activities sometimes require assistance from the United Nations Mission in the Congo (MONUC). Efforts are underway to establish up-to-date distribution, abundance, and threats to improve conservation management. It is important to identify key populations of <em>G. b. graueri</em> and continue to provide active protection. Work must continue to document the post-conflict distribution, abundance and conservation status of Grauer’s Gorilla throughout its range. Efforts must also be made to support and maintain active protection for Grauer’s Gorilla where it is already established, while simultaneously developing and mobilizing conservation activities in the more remote and inaccessible sectors of its range.
39994		distribution	eng	Eastern Gorillas are found in Rwanda, Uganda, and eastern DR Congo. There are two subspecies.<br/><br/><em>G. b. beringei</em> (Matschie, 1903) is found in the Virunga Volcanoes region, an area of 440 km² straddling the border between Uganda (Mgahinga Gorilla National Park), Rwanda (Volcanoes National Park), and DRC (Virunga National Park), and also in the 330 km² Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in southwestern Uganda (Schaller 1963; Butynski 2001).<br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em> (Matschie, 1914) is endemic to eastern DRC, and is found from the lowlands east of the Lualaba River and the Mitumba Range from Mount Tshiaberimu in the north of Virunga National Park, south to the Itombwe Massif, and formerly even further south in the area west of Fizi on the escarpment west of Lake Tanganyika (Schaller 1963; Butynski 2001; Mehlman 2008). The southern limit of the current Grauer’s Gorilla range has been extended by the discovery in late 2007 of a hitherto unreported population in the Hewa Bora region east of Kilembwe in Fizi District (J. Hart, pers comm.).
39994		habitat	eng	The Mountain Gorillas of the Virunga Volcanoes are confined by surrounding cultivation to altitudes above 1,500 m, extending up perhaps to 4,000 m. That range of altitude covers many Afromontane habitat types, from bamboo forest to subalpine zones, typically with dense ground vegetation and relatively little canopy cover (Schaller 1963; Vedder 1984; Watts 1984). The Mountain Gorillas of Bwindi live at altitudes of 1,100-2,400 m, in a forest characterized by steep hills of predominantly mixed forest habitat with a dense understorey. While both subpopulations feed mainly on herbaceous vegetation, diet composition varies greatly with altitude, and the Bwindi gorillas incorporate a considerable amount of fruit into their diet (Ganas <em>et al.</em> 2004; Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em> is distributed from lowland tropical rainforest habitat through transitional forests to Afromontane habitat (500–2800 m). <em>G. b. graueri</em> has a different diet from that of <em>G. b. beringei</em>, largely due to differences in what plant species are present, but they also feed predominantly on herbaceous vegetation, as well as on fruit from many species (Ferriss <em>et al</em>. 2005; Yamagiwa <em>et al</em>. 2005).
39994		population	eng	<em>G. b beringei</em><br/><br/>The Mountain Gorilla subspecies is found in only two isolated subpopulations in Rwanda, Uganda, and the DRC. The Virunga subpopulation was estimated at 380 individuals in 2003, an increase from 320 in 1989 (Gray <em>et al.</em> 2006). Approximately half of the subpopulation is mature individuals (Kalpers <em>et al.</em> 2003; Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, all population growth in the Virungas between 1989 and 2003 has been limited to one sector of the population, the four gorilla groups in perhaps ecologically the richest area, which is also relatively well protected (Kalpers <em>et al</em>. 2003; Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006). Not only do unhabituated (and therefore less well-protected) groups have a lower ratio of juveniles to adults, but the current rate of growth of the whole population is lower than that during the 1980s (Kalpers <em>et al</em>. 2003). Additionally, a resurgence in poaching and killing of gorillas (approximately 3% of the entire Virunga subpopulation in 2007: see below) directly limits population growth and emphasizes the fragile nature of this small population.<br/><br/>While the <em>G. b. beringei</em> subpopulation in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park was believed to have increased from about 300 gorillas in 1997 to 320 individuals in 2003 (McNeilage <em>et al</em>. 2006), a census in 2006 that combined genetic analysis of the entire population with traditional census methods revealed that there are only approximately 300 individuals in Bwindi (Guschanski <em>et al</em>. in review). These new results do not lead to the conclusion that the population has declined in size; instead, due to the ‘sweep census’ method used, it is not possible to put error estimates around the population estimates and therefore it is difficult to assess how the population size has been changing over time.<br/><br/>In total, the subspecies <em>G. b. beringei</em> has only approximately 680 individuals remaining in two isolated populations.<br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em><br/>In 1995, the population of <em>G. b. graueri</em> was estimated at 16,900 animals (Hall, Saltonstall <em>et al</em>. 1998; Hall, White <em>et al</em>. 1998). In the last decade, it is believed that the total population has declined dramatically, as the lowland populations have been progressively fragmented and reduced (Hart and Liengola 2005; Hart <em>et al</em>. 2007). Many populations have disappeared in the last 30 years (comparing Schaller 1963 and Hall, Saltonstall <em>et al</em>. 1998); for example, Itombwe lost about half of its subpopulations between 1960 and 1996 (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999). Their habitat continues to become fragmented and discontinuous; the current occupancy range for Grauer’s Gorilla is estimated at 21,600 km², a decline of 25% from surveys completed in 1959 (Mehlman 2008). However, data are lacking to determine the extent of decline, apart from in the uplands of Kahuzi-Biega National Park, where the population dropped from an estimated 270 in 1996 to only 170 animals in 2000 (WCS 2000).
39994		threats	eng	Detailed information on the threats to the Eastern Gorilla and its two subspecies can be found in chapters 8, 13 and 16 of Caldecott and Miles (2005). <br/><br/><em>G. b. beringei</em><br/><br/>For the Mountain Gorilla, <em>G. b. beringei</em>, the Virunga Volcanoes region and Bwindi Impenetrable NP are surrounded by some of the highest human densities in Africa (Plumptre and Williamson 2001; CIESIN and CIAT 2005) in countries with some of the fastest increasing human populations in Africa (World Resources Institute 2007). So many people with so much need for land pose significant threats to both subpopulations of Mountain Gorilla. While a key conservation strategy for both subpopulations of Mountain Gorillas is tourism, there is concern about the risk of disease transmission and disturbance to the gorillas, both of which could jeopardize these conservation programmes (e.g. Butynski and Kalina 1998; Homsy 1999). Transmission of infectious disease agents has been proven among habituated wild gorillas, people, domestic animals and other wild animals. Although not yet documented in gorillas, human-origin viral respiratory disease has recently been shown to cause high mortality among habituated chimpanzees (Köndgen <em>et al.</em> 2008). However, overall, Mountain Gorillas visited by researchers and tourists have consistently done better than those not visited, due to the level of protection afforded to areas and groups that are monitored daily (Harcourt 1986; Weber 1993). For instance, in both the 1981 census and 2003 census of the Virunga gorillas, the ratio of immatures to adults were higher in gorilla groups visited by researchers or tourists than in groups not visited (Harcourt <em>et al</em>. 1983; Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006), at 0.4 vs. 0.6 juveniles per non-silverback adult in 2001 (Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006, Table 3). Nevertheless, the threats remain considerable, and intensive conservation activities must continue.<br/><br/>The Virunga subpopulation of <em>G. b. beringei</em> suffered numerous impacts from more than a decade of war and instability in the region (Plumptre and Williamson 2001). Threats included incursions by militia, habitat destruction for firewood and farmland, illegal cattle grazing, illegal timber extraction, and illegal hunting, including snares set for other mammals such as antelope that can injure or kill gorillas. In 2004, 15 km² was deforested for conversion to farmland (NASA 2005) and recently there has been a sharp increase in timber extraction for the illegal production of charcoal. There has also been a resurgence of poaching for the illegal pet trade and bushmeat (Kalpers <em>et al</em>. 2003) and since 2003, 12 orphans (both Grauer’s and Mountain Gorillas) have been confiscated and taken into the care of veterinarians. In 2007, at least eight gorillas were shot dead in three incidents in Virunga NP (Williamson and Fawcett 2008). These losses amount to about 3% of the Virunga subpopulation. Since September, the Mikeno sector, where DRC’s Mountain Gorillas are found, has been under rebel control and park authorities have been prevented from monitoring the gorillas. The failure of the 2008 Peace Conference means that the region remains volatile and the gorillas vulnerable, despite the efforts of international NGOs and UN observers. <br/><br/>Threats to the Bwindi subpopulation of <em>G. b. beringei</em> include illegal use of forest resources (poaching, pit-sawing, firewood collection, etc.), encroachment and demand for land, human-induced fires, invasive exotic species and human-wildlife disease transmission (McNeilage <em>et al</em>. 2006). The forest is also recovering from high levels of timber extraction, gold-mining, encroachment and poaching that occurred prior to designation of National Park status in 1991.<br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em><br/><br/>In eastern DRC, Grauer’s Gorillas face substantial threats to their survival: agriculture and pastoral activities are leading to massive loss and fragmentation of forest habitat (as noted already, the current occupancy range for Grauer’s Gorilla is approximately 21,600 km², a decline of 25% since 1959; Mehlman 2008); widespread illegal mining activities in the forests increase demand for bushmeat, including consumption of gorillas; and illegal capture of infants (and concomitant killing of group members), which has increased substantially since 2002. Ongoing political unrest and military activity, including occupation of national parks, and killing of gorillas for food, have compounded the problems (Hall, Saltonstall <em>et al</em>. 1998; Plumptre <em>et al</em>. 2003; Yamagiwa 1999, 2003). At present, there is no commercial logging in the Grauer’s range, but there are continuous low-level extractive activities (charcoal production, bamboo harvesting and wood cutting), which put further stress on the habitat (J. Hart pers. comm. 2007). As some of the country emerges from civil war, new concessions for timber, minerals, and possibly petroleum will pose conservation challenges for the future (Caldecott and Miles 2005, Ch. 16).
39996		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. <br/><br/>The remaining populations of <em>P. p. pennantii</em> on Bioko are confined to Gran Caldera and Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve (510 km²), and perhaps still to Pico Basile National Park (330 km²); however, there is almost no control of hunting within these protected areas. Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) have called for an immediate ban on shotgun hunting and the confiscation of all shotguns on Bioko Island. <br/><br/><em>P. p. epieni</em> is not represented in any protected areas, although a forest reserve, Apoi Creek, near Gbanraun had been proposed. Protection of the remaining habitat of this taxon is an urgent priority.<br/><br/>The range of <em>P. p. bouvieri</em> overlaps with the Lefini Reserve. This taxon is a priority for further survey work to determine whether it remains extant in the wild.
39996		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution, being found on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea), the Niger Delta, and from a small area roughly between the Lefini and lower River Sangha in the Republic of Congo (Groves in press; Grubb in press). It ranges in elevation to at least 1,500 m asl, and perhaps even 1,800 m on Bioko (Grubb <em>et al.</em> in press). The ranges of the three subspecies are as follows:<br/><br/><em>P. p. pennantii</em> is endemic to the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, where it is now restricted mainly to the south-west of the island with a range of less than 500 km² (Butynski and Koster 1994; Hearn and Mora 2001; Hearn <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are no confirmed historical or present records from Pico Basile (contra the map in Hearn <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>P. p. bouvieri</em> is known to occur on the right bank of the Congo River, along the lower reaches of the Alima to the mouth of the Likouala-aux-Herbes (i.e., west of the Sangha River), tributaries of the lower Congo River, in Republic of Congo (Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. 1999; Grubb <em>et al</em>. in press). However, records from Inoni, Lefini Reserve (see Groves in press), at 3ºS, 15º30?E, some way south of the known distribution, require confirmation.<br/><br/><em>P. p. epieni</em> is present between the Forcados-Nikrogha Creek and the Sagbama-Osiama-Agboi Creek in the marsh forest of the Niger Delta, Nigeria (Grubb and Powell 1999; Werre 2000).
39996		habitat	eng	It is a largely arboreal species found in lowland and mid-montane tropical moist forest, and marsh forest. On Bioko, they can form groups of more than 30 animals. Often found in polyspecific associations (Grubb <em>et al.</em> in press).
39996		population	eng	The total numbers across its range are not known. There appear to have been no reliable sightings of <em>P. p. bouvieri</em> for 25 years and it may be extinct (Oates <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>There are probably less than 5,000 animals remaining on Bioko, where Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated a 45% decline in numbers between 1986 and 2006.<br/><br/><em>P. p. epieni </em> was discovered only in 1993, and was then quite common within its limited range in the mid-1990s (Werre and Powell 1997), but recent reports suggest rapid declines as a result of habitat degradation and hunting (Grubb and Powell 1999; L. Werre pers. comm.).
39996		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is hunting (e.g., Butynski and Koster 1994) and habitat degradation. On Bioko, Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated that more than 550 individuals were killed in 2004 alone. Artisanal scale logging has seriously degraded the habitat of <em>P. p. epieni</em>, removing many important red colobus food trees, such as <em>Hallea ledermannii</em> (Werre and Powell 1997; Grubb and Powell 1999).
39998		conservation	eng	A series of three workshops has identified priority actions for the conservation of <em>G. g. diehli</em>, and these have been formulated into an IUCN Action Plan (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007). There are several cross-cutting actions which require attention throughout Cross River gorilla range, notably increasing conservation education and awareness, fostering improved community participation in conservation issues, increasing trans-boundary conservation activities such as joint patrols to control timber and bushmeat between the two countries, and further research. The most urgently-needed actions identified, which must be undertaken for any longer-term measures to be effective, are habitat protection and the control of hunting. In Nigeria the majority of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population occurs within formal protected areas (Cross River National Park and Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary), but in Cameroon none of the population is as yet protected in this way (although two areas are in process of establishment: Takamanda National Park and Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary). Further areas, including migration corridors, need to be brought under conservation management to increase the chances for the long-term survival of a viable population of Cross River gorillas, and the effectiveness of existing management improved.
39998		distribution	eng	<em>G. g. diehli</em> (Matschie, 1903) occurs in a small area on the Nigeria-Cameroon border, extending a short distance on either side of the border in the forests on the upper drainage of the Cross River.
39998		habitat	eng	Two studies of <em>G. g. diehli</em> (at Afi and Kagwene) demonstrated flexible grouping patterns with groups ranging in size from 2 to 20. These grouping patterns likely occur for several reasons, including restricted habitat, feeding competition related to fruit consumption, high hunting pressure, and limited opportunities for male migration between nuclei (McFarland 2007). Each group’s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. Today, Cross River gorillas are restricted mostly to hilly areas, and range from lowland to submontane forest (Allen 1932, Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sunderland-Groves <em>et al</em>. 2003), although they occasionally use lowland areas between hills (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bergl 2006).
39998		population	eng	Although gorillas in the Cross River region first became known to science in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, little attention was paid to their conservation status until the late 1980s (Harcourt <em>et al</em>. 1989). Early reports had referred to their precarious situation, but little had been done to thoroughly examine their distribution and abundance, or to protect the remaining population and habitat (Anon 1934, Critchley 1968, March 1957). Intensive surveys over the last decade have found that approximately 250 to 300 <em>G. g. diehli</em> persist in a forested area of roughly 8,000 km². This estimate is of uncertain accuracy and is based primarily on nest counts and estimated range size. The gorillas are found in at least 10 localities (Groves 2002, Beamont 2004, Bergl 2006, Bergl and Vigilant 2007). Though the localities where the gorillas are found are geographically distinct, the majority of these areas are connected by forested land. Recent genetic evidence suggests that three subpopulations are present, but that these subpopulations do have limited reproductive contact (Bergl and Vigilant 2007). These localities are primarily rugged highlands, typically in areas relatively less disturbed by human activity. While there may be an ecological component to this distribution, the gorilla’s concentration in highland areas is almost certainly strongly influenced by human hunting pressure, which is more intense in the lowlands. Ebola has not been reported in the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population, but their close proximity to dense human populations puts them at high potential risk of acquiring human pathogens (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007).
39998		threats	eng	The remaining population of <em>G. g. diehli</em> is small and fragmented, occurs mostly outside of protected areas (especially in Cameroon) and is surrounded by some of the most densely populated human settlements in Africa. This subspecies is at risk from its small size and associated increases in inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. The lack of strictly protected areas throughout much of the range of <em>G. g. diehli</em> makes the future of sizeable portions of gorilla habitat uncertain. Conversion of forest for agriculture and grazing is occurring rapidly in many parts of the gorillas’ range and the largest current protected area in which Cross River gorillas occur (the Okwangwo Division of Nigeria’s Cross River National Park) contains enclaves of human settlements whose farmlands have spread beyond their legal boundaries and threaten to divide the park into two. The construction and improvement of roads in both Cameroon and Nigeria also threatens to increase subdivision of the population. Though legal prohibitions against the killing of gorillas exist in Nigeria and Cameroon, enforcement of wildlife laws is often lax, and most protected areas suffer from poorly-controlled poaching. Although recent conservation efforts have reduced hunting of Cross River gorillas to a low level, the threat remains and the small size of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population means that almost any level of hunting off-take is likely to be unsustainable and have a significant negative effect on population size.
40014		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
40014		distribution	eng	<em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> (Gray, 1862) is found only in Nigeria and Cameroon, north of the Sanaga River.
40014		habitat	eng	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).
40014		population	eng	<em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> is the least numerous subspecies with a total population of less than 6,500 individuals remaining (B. Morgan and J. Oates pers. comm. 2006). The only relatively large and secure population of <em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span><em></em> is in Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria, with an estimated population of up to 1,500 (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003).
40014		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).
40015		conservation	eng	It is listed as Class A under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. At present, only about half of the range of this species is protected within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and this population is reasonably secure. The remaining habitat is unprotected either on public land or in forest reserves (including New Dabaga/Ulangambi Forest Reserve) that are not effectively protected (e.g., Magombero Forest Reserve, which still needs to be legally incorporated into Selous Game Reserve, which the Government of Tanzania had promised to do in 1980). This species is nominally protected by law in Tanzania as ‘Presidential Game’, and enforcement of these laws is essential in areas where the species is hunted.<br/><br/>Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> (in press) highlight the following conservation priorities for this species:<br/><br/>1) annexation of the following Forest Reserves to the Udzungwa Mountains National Park: West Kilombero (including: Ndundulu, Nyumbanitu, Ukami, Iyondo), Udzungwa Scarp, Matundu, and Nyanganje;<br/>2) annexation of the following forests to the Selous Game Reserve: Magombera, Ibiki, and all other forest remnants along the Msolwa River;<br/>3) prevention of fire to allow forest expansion and establishment of corridors between forest blocks, thereby facilitating the dispersal and increase of forest-dependent species, including <em>P. gordonorum</em>;<br/>4) and more effective law enforcement to prevent fires, illegal logging, and poaching.<br/><br/>Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. (2004, in press) outline recommendations for future research.
40015		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Udzungwa Mountains, including the Uduzngwa Mountains National Park and several adjacent forest reserves, namely West Kilombero, Matundu, Udzungwa Scarp, Nyanganje, Kiranzi-Kitungulu, and New Dabaga/Ulangambi (Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> in press). Also present in the Kilombero Valley at the eastern base of the Udzungwa Mountains in several forest patches (Magombera, Kiwanga, and Kalunga, the last mentioned of which is now essentially gone), and in gallery forest along the Msolwa River south of the railway to its confluence with the Kilombero River, including the Ibiki and Msitu ya Kinjugu Forests (Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. in press). It is found at elevations ranging from 250-2,200 m, although abundance is lowest at high elevations (Marshall <em>et al</em>. 2005; Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. in press).
40015		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of forest habitats, including lowland old-growth, secondary and montane forests of the Udzungwa Mountains, and miombo Brachystegia woodland adjacent to old-growth or secondary forest in the lower parts of the Mwanihana forest and elsewhere (Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> in press). Group size, as recorded by Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. (2004), is highly variable, ranging from 7–83. Groups are smaller in forests that are small (<5 km²), dominated by deciduous trees, and/or are heavily degraded by human activities than are groups living in large, intact, and relatively mature blocks of moist, mixed evergreen and semi-deciduous forest (Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. 2004).
40015		population	eng	The total population of this species is unknown and difficult to determine, but clearly in the thousands. At least one published estimate puts the population at 15,400 individuals (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 2001), but this might be too high. An earlier estimate by Rodgers and Homewood (1982) is 10,000 red colobus; however, they emphasized that the largest single interbreeding population is certainly <2,000 individuals. The Magombero forest in the Kilombero Valley appears to hold at least 1,000 individuals (Struhsaker 2005). In the Udzungwa Mountains, this was the most frequently seen primate (mean= 0.59 groups/km walked) (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2006).
40015		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, due to logging, conversion to agriculture, collection of firewood, and charcoal production, and hunting. The population in Magombera, in the Kilombera Valley, was severely affected by the construction of the Tanzania-Zambia railway (in 1972-1975) which bisected the Magombero forest, as well as by selective logging and agricultural expansion.  The presence of the railway facilitated agricultural encroachment onto the reserve, and increased the number of bush fires. Agriculture was responsible for a decline in reserve size from 15 km² in 1955 to less than 11 km² by 1979. The area was threatened with total destruction in 2002 when the Government of Tanzania agreed to relocate squatters there from the nearby Kilombero Sugar Estate. Fortunately, the international conservation community was alerted in enough time to launch an appeal to the Government of Tanzania that averted destruction of this forest, which contains >1,000 red colobus (Struhsaker 2005).<br/><br/>The local Wahehe people reportedly hunt <em>P. gordonorum</em>, particularly in the western and south-western parts of the range (Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> in press).
40019		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from the Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha) (Queiroz 1992) and Lago de Tucuruí State Environmental Protection Area (568,667 ha) (Cunha <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
40019		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus kaapori</em> was described from the eastern Amazon in the state of Maranhão and eastern part of the state of Pará in 1992. The distribution of this form is now quite well known, occurring east of the lower Rio Tocantins to the right bank of the Rio Grajaú in Maranhão where it entres the Zona dos Cocais (Queiroz 1992; Ferrari and Queiroz 1994; Ferrari and Souza Jr 1994; Ferrari and Lopes 1996; Silva, Jr. and Cerqueira 1998; Carvalho, Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1999; Cunha <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although possibly extending as far east as the Mearim-Itapecuru interfluvium in the past, Silva Jr and Cerqueira (1998) concluded that it can be "considered practically absent from the right bank of the Rio Grajaú, eastwards".
40019		habitat	eng	Undisturbed and and slightly disturbed dense lowland Amazonian high forest, at altitudes of 200 m or less (Queiroz 1992). Can also be found in edge habitat in the transition with the Zona dos Cocais due to its propensity to feed on palm fruit. Capuchin monkeys are arboreal quadrepeds, and are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). <br/><br/>Capuchin monkeys are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Groups seen by Carvalho Jr <em>et al.</em> (1999) ranged in size from 1 to 7 individuals. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Paratype. Adult male HB 46.5 cm, TL 51.0 cm, 3.05 kg (Queiroz 1982).
40019		population	eng	Ferrari and Lopes (1996) estimated a density of 0.98 individuals/km² in the Gurupí Biological Reserve. Ferrari and Lopes (1996) attribute the scarcity of this species to hunting and to interspecific competition with sympatric <em>Cebus apella</em>.<br/><br/>Carvalho Jr. <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported  a population survey in the Fazenda Cauaxi in Paragominas, north-eastern Pará, Brazil. The realtive abundance of <em>Cebus kaapori</em> was 0.99 groups/10 km (over 71 km). Lopes (1993) saw three groups in 480 km walked in the Gurupí Biological Reserve.
40019		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, as its forests in southern Pará and Maranhão have been extensively destroyed over the last 10 years and continue to be so. It is the region with the highest human population density and the highest level of deforestation and habitat degradation in the entire Brazilian Amazon (Carvalho Jr. <em>et al.</em> 1999). The Gurupí Biological Reserve is the only protected area where it is known to occur, but the reserve has lost more than half of its forest. Lopes (1993) concluded that selective logging was particularly prejudicial to <em>Cebus kaapori</em> due to the loss of trees providing fruits that are a significant component of its diet. The species is also hunted. Guajá indians keep them as pets (Queiroz 1992).
40020		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus capucinus</em><br/><br/>Panama<br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Darién National Park (555,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/>Los Cedros Protected Forest (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus imitator</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Santa Rosa National Park (21,913 ha) (Reid 1997; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Rincón La Vieja National Park (14,083 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Chirripó National Park (50,150 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Corcovado National Park (41,788 ha) (in range)<br/>Guanacaste National Park (33,786 ha)  (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1989)<br/>Palo Verde National Park (5,704 ha) (Reid 1997)<br/>Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve  (14,258 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/>Panama<br/>La Amistad International Park (207,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Baru National Park (14,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Altos de Campaña National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Coiba National Park and Jicarón (270,125 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Montuoso Forest Reserve (10,375 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus limitaneus</em><br/><br/>Honduras<br/>Montaña de Cusuco National Park (18,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Pico Bonito National Park (68,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Montaña de Yoro National Park (15,500 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Sierra de Agalta National Park (27,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Punto Isopo Wildlife Refuge (11,200 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus curtus </em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Isla Gorgona National Natural Park (1568 ha)
40020		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus capucinus</em> is the only capuchin monkey in Central America, ranging from Honduras in the north, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama and through the Chocó-Darién into Colombia (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996; Reid, 1997; Marineros and Gallegos 1998). Four subspecies are recognized here:<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus capucinus</em><br/>In Colombia, the White-throated Capuchin occurs south from the Panamanian border along the Pacific Coast, west of the Andes (up to 1,800–2,000 m above sea level) into northwestern Ecuador. It is restricted to the west bank of the upper Río Cauca (between the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central) and extends north across the Río Sinu into Cordoba, Sucre and Atlantico to the town of Barranquilla on the northern coast of Colombia (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004). In Central America, <em>C. c. capucinus</em> extends west as far the Panama Canal (Baldwin and Baldwin 1977; Hall 1981).<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus limitaneus</em><br/>In Honduras, Marineros and Gallegos (1998) recorded this subspecies from throughout the north (Departments of Gracias a Dios, Colón, Atlantida, and Cortés) besides Santa Bárbara in the north-west, and Olancho and El Paraíso in the east. Hollister (1914) also listed a skin from British Honduras (Belize). There have been unauthenticated reports of capuchins in the Mayan Mountains of western Belize (the Chiquebul forest and in the region of the Trio and Bladen branches of the Monkey River) and in Sarstoon National Park on the southern border. Its occurrence in Belize has never been confirmed (McCarthy 1982; Dahl 1984, 1987; Hubrecht 1986). Silva-López <em>et al.</em> (1995; Silva-López 1998) also reported on the possible occurrence of <em>C. c. limitaneus</em> in Guatemala, in the Sierra del Espíritu Santo near the Guatemala-Honduras border. This also remains to be substantiated.<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus imitator</em><br/>Hall (1981) places this subspecies in western Panama, west from the Canal, and in adjacent areas of Costa Rica.  Populations also occur on the islands of Coiba and nearby Jicarón. Baldwin and Baldwin (1976, 1977) documented the occurrence of <em>C. capucinus</em> in a number of localities in the Province of Chiriquí, south-western Panama.  Crockett <em>et al.</em> (1997) listed localities in Nicaragua, and Allen (1908, 1910) recorded specimens of <em>Cebus capucinus</em> (referred to as <em>Cebus hypoleucus</em> in Allen, 1908), from Ocotal (northern highlands, 4,500 ft), and localities on the east slope of the highlands, Savala (800 ft), Chontales (lowlands east of Lake Nicaragua, altitudes 500-1,500 ft), and the Río Tuma (500 ft) and Muy Muy (Matagalpa Province, 1,500-2,000 ft).<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus curtus</em><br/>Gorgona Island, Colombia, possibly introduced in the 16th or 17th centuries.
40020		habitat	eng	In Central America, present in dry deciduous forests on Pacific coast (rainfall less than 1,750 mm) and, humid subtropical forests on the Caribbean coast (rainfall as much as 5,000 mm), mangroves and second growth (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981: Reid 1997).  In Colombia, <em>C. capucinus</em> occurs in primary and advanced secondary forest remnants, degraded forests and forests with large concentrations of palms, especially <em>Scheelea magdalenica</em> at altitudes up to 2,000 m above sea level (Defler 2004). In Ecuador, it occurs in humid tropical and sutropical forests from sea level to 1,800 m (Tirira 2007). <br/><br/>Capucins are frugivores-insectivores, including wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Multi-male groups range in size from 5-30 individuals. Fedigan and Jack (2001) recorded a mean group size of 15.8 for 20 groups in the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. The adult sex-ratio was 0.71. In Chiriqui, Panama, Baldwin and Baldwin (1977) found <em>C. capucinus</em> occupying small forest patches of 0.2 to 40 ha in small groups of 2-5 individuals, whereas groups in larger forests reached sizes do 20 or more iindividuals.<br/><br/>Although new born offspring can be seen year round, <em>C. capucinus</em> in the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, shows a birth peak in the dry season and early rainny season (Fedigan <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>HB 33.0-49.5 cm, TL 39.7-54.0 cm.<br/>Weight 1.8-4.3 kg (Reid 1997).
40020		population	eng	No information on population densities are available for this species.
40020		threats	eng	Although habitat loss is certainly a threat, all subspecies have a varied diet, and are able to live in a variety of different habitats and disturbed areas. They are sometimes kept as pets and hunted.<br/><br/>There are no current major threats to <em>Cebus capucinus curtus</em> on Gorgona Island, which is a protected area (Parque Nacional Gorgona). However, as this is the only location in which this subspecies is found (Gorgona Island has an area of 15 km², it remains very susceptible to any natural or anthropogenic threats in the near future.
40021		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs in many protected areas across its range:<br/><br/><em>Cebus olivaceus olivaceus</em><br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecological Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/>Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve (56,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Tafelberg Nature Reserve (140,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982) <br/>Eilerts de Haan Gebergte Nature Reserve (220,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Savanna Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982) <br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (within range)<br/> <br/>Guyana<br/>Kaieteur Falls National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha) (Sussman and Phillips-Conroy 1995)<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Canaima National Park (3,000,000 ha)<br/>Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park (330,000 ha) <br/><br/><em>Cebus o. brunneus</em><br/><br/>Venezuela <br/>Sierra Nevada National Park<br/>Henri Pittier National Park<br/>El Tama National Park?<br/>Yurubi National Park? <br/>Yacambu National Park? <br/>Guatopo National Park? <br/><br/><em>C. o. nigrivittatus</em><br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Yapacana National Park <br/>Duida-Marahuaca National Park <br/><br/>Undescribed subspecies <br/>Aguaro-Guariquito National Park?
40021		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus olivaceus</em> is found in lower Brazilian Amazonia, north of the mainstream of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro, extending north through the Guianas and into northern Venezuela (Hill I960; Napier 1976). In the northern parts of its range, <em>C. olivaceus</em> extends north to the Río Orinoco and west to the Río Caroni. It has been recorded on the Island of Caviana in the Marajó Archipelago (Fernandes <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/><br/><em>C. o. olivaceus</em> extends south from there throughout the Guianas it would seem (excepting a possible hiatus in French Guiana where the form <em>castaneus</em> might occur), but the limits to its range in Brazil are unclear. <em>C. o. olivaceus</em>, type locality São Joaquim, upper Rio Branco, Roraima, Brazil, is the form occurring in the Venezuelan Amazon (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) and to the south and east it perhaps extends across the Rio Branco into Brazil, limited in the north by the Serra Parima and Serra Pacaraima, meeting with <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> somewhere in northern Pará or Amapá, but this is conjecture. Hill (1960) extends the range of <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> as far as the Rio Parú, a north bank tributary of the Amazon just above the Rio Jari. In Suriname, <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> is almost entirely restricted to the interior. Like <em>Chiropotes</em> and <em>Ateles</em>, it just enters the old coastal plain in a small part of western Surinam (Mittermeier 1977). Sussman and Phillips-Conroy (1995) indicated that it occurs throughout Guyana, and there is no evidence to suggest otherwise for French Guiana.<br/><br/><em>Cebus o. brunneus</em> probably occurs throughout the Cordillera de la Costa and it would seem the Cordillera de Merida of extreme north-western Venezuela (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987).<br/><br/><em>Cebus o. apiculatus</em> is distributed throughout central Venezuela, south of the Orinoco between the ríos Caroni and Ventuari (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987).<br/><br/><em>Cebus o. nigrivittatus</em> occurs in the Venezuelan Amazon, north of the Rio Orinoco, east into Roraima, and across upper the Rio Branco, restricted to the south of the Serra Pacaraima and the highlands along the southern boundaries of the Guyana to the Rio Paru do Oeste. It is not known which subspecies of <em>Cebus olivaceus</em> occurs in northern Pará and Amapá in Brazil, but possibly the Rio Jari marks the boundary between <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> (to the east) and <em>C. o. nigrivittatus</em> (to the west).<br/><br/>Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicate an as yet undescribed form north of the Rio Orinoco, and <em>C. o. apiculatus</em> west of the Rio Caroni, extending west to the Río Orinoco.
40021		habitat	eng	In Suriname, <em>Cebus olivaceus</em> is for the most part restricted to undisturbed high forest, although it is occasionally seen in liana forest and mountain savanna forest as well. Although Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) never observed <em>C. olivaceus</em> along rivers in Surinam, Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) sighted four groups in river edge forest in Guyana. However, it is not clear from their description if the sightings were in marsh forest or riverbank high forest. In Venezuela, <em>C. olivaceus</em> occurs in habitats quite different from those occupied in Suriname. In Suriname, they were found to use mainly the lower canopy and understory, a pattern very similar to the tufted capuchins (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1981). Superficially, the locomotor repertoire of <em>Cebus olivaceus</em> is similar to that of <em>C. apella</em>, with quadrupedal walking and running, bounding and galloping, climbing and leaping being the major patterns.<br/><br/>The best information available on the ecology and behaviour of <em>C. olivaceus</em> comes from studies of a population on a cattle ranch, Hato Masaguaral, in low, seasonally dry gallery forest (14–23 m in height) in the Venezuelan <em>llanos</em>, pioneered by Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer (1973) and continued by Robinson (1981, 1984a,b, 1986, 1988a,b; De Ruiter (1986), Srikosomatara (1987), Fragaszy (1986, 1990), O’Brien (1990), and others. Miller (1996a,b, 1998) has carried out a study over three years of the feeding ecology and social behaviour of the species in another ranch in the Venezuelan llanos, Hato Piñero.<br/><br/>The species lives in multimale-multifemale groups of 8-40 individuals; generally larger than <em>C. apella</em>. Miller (1996b) made a special study of the effects of group size on seasonal foraging costs, intergoup and intragroup competition and aggression. Her two study groups ranged in size from 15-18 (1-2 adult males and 0-4 adult females) and 35-39 (5-6 adult males and 17-19 adult females) over two years of her study. Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) counted 11 groups in Guyana which ranged in size from 6-15 and averaged 9.0 per group. Two groups accurately counted by Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer (1973) in Venezuela contained 19 (one adult male, one subadult male, eight females, six juveniles, three infants) and 33 animals (four adult males, three subadult males, eight females, 12 juveniles, six infants). Eleven groups observed at Hato Masaguaral ranged from eight to more than 40 animals (De Ruiter 1986; Robinson 1986) and the group of 22 animals studied by Fragaszy (1986) contained three adult males.  The groups studied by Robinson (1988a) all had more females than males. This resulted from a bias in the birth sex ratio, higher female than male survivorship (irrespective of group size) between the ages of 3 and 7 when the males disperse, and differences in maturation rates between the sexes. Males and especially females form quite stable dominance hierarchies in the group. The highest-ranking female is dominant to all except for the highest-ranking male (Robinson 1981). Females may sometimes emigrate, and males emigrate from their natal groups usually between the age of two and eight, but do not appear to reach adult size until they are about 15, and even then may remain reproductively inactive if they have not assumed a dominant position in a new group (Robinson and Janson 1987).<br/><br/>A group in the Voltzberg study area of Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) covered roughly 100 ha, although this was only a small portion of the group's range. Robinson (1986) recorded a range size of 275 ha (over 14 months) for his group of about 20 animals at Hato Masaguaral. <br/><br/>Less information on diet is available for <em>C. olivaceus</em> than for any other Guianan primate. They eat fruits, seeds, insects and other arthropods, supplemented by some leaves and flowers. At Hato Masaguaral, Robinson (1986) recorded that fruits, mostly ripe and fleshy, constituted the largest category of food items (56%), and included 50 species from 30 families, especially Moraceae and Rubiaceae. Fig trees (<em>Ficus</em>) which fruit throughout the year, were a staple almost every month. Buds, leaves and shoots were infrequent items in the diet, and were generally chewed and the fibrous remains spat out. They spend a  large amount of time foraging for insects and small animal prey. Robinson (1986) recorded that they spent almost 70% of their day searching for and processing food. Foraging behaviour, including age and sex differences, is described by Fragaszy (1986). The range of animal prey is enormous, and includes snails, arthropods including spiders, millipedes, and insects (cockroaches, mantids, stick insects, termites, grasshoppers, cicadas and scale insects, caterpillars, beetles and their grubs, ants, bees and wasps), frogs and their eggs, iguanas, bird’s eggs and nestlings and even an adult ground dove (<em>Columbina talpacoti</em>), and squirrels (<em>Sciureus granatensis</em>). The relative proportions of different items in the diet changed throughout the year.  Invertebrates replaced ripe fruit as the chief item in the diet as the number of fruiting species declined (November and December). The beginning of the rainy season (April, May) was marked by a flush of new leaves and an increase in phytophagous insects taken by the monkeys. The amount of fruit in the diet peaked in the late wet season, declining towards the beginning of the dry season.<br/><br/>Unlike the tufted capuchins which are often seen with squirrel monkeys, <em>C. olivaceus</em> groups rarely associate with other species although, <br/><br/>The data currently available are insufficient to determine if <em>C. olivaceus</em> has a distinct breeding season.  Newborn infants have been seen in the Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve in December and early January, in the middle of the wet season (Mittermeier 1977). In northern Venezuela, the birth season is from May to August, during the wet season (Robinson and Janson 1987). Males reach maturity in about eight years but reach fully adult size at about 12, whereas females become reproductively active at about six years of age (Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer 1973; Robinson 1988a). Adulthood lasts about 30 years in females and 24 in males (Robinson 1988a). They give birth to single young, which maintain close contact with their mothers for the first nine months (Levy and Bodini 1986).  Vocalizations and a number of behaviour patterns, including such as urine rubbing, “bouncing”, tooth grinding, and head-shaking are described in the pioneer study by Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer (1973; see also Freese and Oppenheimer 1981) and a detailed analysis of their vocalizations was carried out Robinson (1984b).
40021		population	eng	This species is common. The density of <em>C. olivaceus</em> in the Voltzberg Study area in Surinam was estimated by Mittermeier (1977) to be about 4 individuals/km². At the Nourague Field Station in French Guiana, <em>C. olivaceus</em> is much rarer than <em>Cebus apella</em>. Guillotin <em>et al.</em> (1993) estimated densities of 2/km² and a biomass of 6.3 kg/km², compared with 29.1/km² and a biomass of 86.9 kg/km² for the tufted capuchins. The only other density data for this species comes from Guyana, where Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) found a range of 1.8-22.2 animals/km² in five different localities.
40021		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but they are certainly impacted by hunting in some regions.
40022		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
40022		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens caught in northern Madagascar near Analamera in the Irodo River Valley in 1910 (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 1995) and has not be found in recent surveys of northern and western Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2006).
40022		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about the natural history of this species.
40022		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens and has not been recorded since 1910. There was a team in 2003 that surveyed this area, but did not find this species.
40022		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
40023		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in India like Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, Nagarjuna Sagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve and Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, and Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
40023		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia. It is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, Southern and Western provinces) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of around 800 m asl. The extent of occurrence is  greater than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
40023		habitat	eng	This species is primarily a found in dense dry and tropical moist forests. It roosts either as solitary animals or in pairs in caves, dilapidated buildings, large trees with hollows, wells, ledges in cave systems, old and unused tunnels (A. Madhavan pers. comm. March 2002; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). This is a low flyer and feeds on a variety of insects especially beetles and termites (Bates and Harrison 1997).
40023		population	eng	Though this is a widely distributed species, the overall population is considered to be relatively small because of its great dependence on forest habitats and vulnerability to habitat destruction (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
40023		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
40024		conservation	eng	This species is known from Kirindy CFPF and Parc National de Zombitse-Vohibasia (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also common in villages adjacent to several protected areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003).
40024		distribution	eng	This species is known from Madagascar, where it is found from the north to the south-west of the island (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995) at an elevation span of 5 to 950 m above sea level (Eger and Mitchell 2003). It also occurs on two islands, Mohéli and Anjouan, on the Comorian archipelago (F. Ratrimomanarivo pers. comm.)
40024		habitat	eng	Most of the recorded roosts of this species are in buildings, but it has also been recorded from some caves and a hollow baobab tree (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is frequently associated with buildings near dry deciduous forest and although it does not require intact forest to survive (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) it is occasionally netted inside forest habitats (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). In the east of Madagascar, it is known to feed on coleopterans and hemipterans (Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006).
40024		population	eng	The population and local abundance of this species are not known.
40024		threats	eng	In some areas it is hunted for food (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008) or persecuted, but these are not thought to be serious threats.
40025		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in three protected areas: Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana and Daraina forest (Ranivo and Goodman 2006; Russell <em>et al.</em> 2007). Conservation should be focused at the known cave roosts to secure the existing populations and closely monitor seasonal and annual population changes.
40025		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has a restricted range in the north-western tip of the island, ranging between 50 m and 160 m above sea-level (Ranivo and Goodman 2006; Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2007). The Andrafiamena Mountains likely form the southern limit of this species (S. M. Goodman pers. comm.).
40025		habitat	eng	This is an obligate cave-dwelling species that can be locally abundant, but has also been noted as rare within certain parts of its range (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its patchy local distribution and density may be related to the presence of suitable caves for roosting (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and this species seems to prefer relatively narrow caves (Cardiff 2006). This species is thought to be dependent on relatively intact forest for foraging (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40025		population	eng	This species is thought to be relatively abundant within a localized area in the northern part of Madagascar. The largest roost recorded was 2,000 individuals in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (S. G. Cardiff pers. obs.) and up to 1,000 individuals were recorded from a mine tunnel approximately 5 km from Andavokoera (J. Ranivo pers. comm.).
40025		threats	eng	As a forest dependent species any decline in extent or quality of the remaining forest poses a threat to this species. In northern Madagascar, forest is lost because of expanding agriculture. There is also the threat of disturbance to cave roosting sites.
40026		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in many protected areas: Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana, Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, Parc National d’Isalo, Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, Parc National de Masoala and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Tsaratanana (Ranivo and Goodman 2006; Russ <em>et al.</em> 2003; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2007).
40026		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995), where it is widespread (Ranivo and Goodman 2006). It is not thought to be common on the central plateau of the eastern humid forest (Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003), but is common along the west coast (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and occurs between sea-level and 1,300 m above sea-level.
40026		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with tropical forests, but it may not need large areas of intact habitat and is not considered to be forest-dependent (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is known from the spiny forest of the south-west and also in dry deciduous forest, and in the rainforest of the north-east of Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003). It roosts in caves which it frequently cohabits with <em>Triaenops furculus</em> (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Olsson <em>et al</em>. 2006). It feeds mainly on lepidopterans (Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and frequently forages at the edge of relatively intact forest rather than inside (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007).
40026		population	eng	The species is thought to be locally common in many parts of western Madagascar. A single roost in deciduous forest near the Onilahy River in southern Madagascar contained over 40,000 individuals (Olsson <em>et al.</em> 2006).
40026		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species even though its is occasionally hunted for food (Goodman 2006) and is often associated with forests that are subject to ongoing degradation (Russell <em>et al.</em> 2007).
40027		conservation	eng	Conservation of Amazon forests.. The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
40027		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern Brazil (Handley and Ochoa, 1997; Engstrom and Lim, 2000; Lim and Engstrom 2000).
40027		habitat	eng	Strongly associated with granitic outcrops and similar rock formations. Occurs in lowland raindforest. It is associated with multistratal tropical forest. This bat is an aerial insectivore (Sampaio pers. comm.). Other aspects of the species biology are poorly known.
40027		population	eng	The population status is unknown. The species may be more widely distributed than its currently known range suggests.
40027		threats	eng	It is expected to decline in response to increasing habitat destruction.
40028		conservation	eng	Forest conservation.
40028		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil (Xingu, Peters pers. comm.), Guyana, French Guiana and Peru (Simmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Specimen from Sao Paulo also (Simmons <em>et al</em>. 2002). Also Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.
40028		habitat	eng	Bats in this genus feed on insects and occasionally fruit. Found in mature rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Almost nothing else is known of the species.
40028		population	eng	Rare (Emmons and Feer 1997). There may be disjunct populations in northern Amazonia and the Atlantic forests of Brazil. Little else is known about the population of this species.
40028		threats	eng	Deforestation.
40029		conservation	eng	Few conservations areas - existing ones do not protect areas well.
40029		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northeast of Brazil (Simmons, 2005).
40029		habitat	eng	This small bat is likely insectivorous.
40029		population	eng	This species might be rare.
40029		threats	eng	None known - however, found in Caatinga which is a fragile and threatened ecoregion.
40031		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
40031		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand (Chiang Mai Province, Amphoe (District) Mae Ai, Doi (Mount) Pha Hom Pok, at 1,500 m asl) and possibly neighbouring China although there are no records from there yet.
40031		habitat	eng	The mapped range probably does not represent the real range of the species, which could be due to lack of surveys. It is probably associated with hills; early records are known from mountainous regions (G. Csorba pers. comm.). In Viet Nam it is found in limestone and non limestone forest (N. Furey pers. comm.), and has been recorded from primary and mildly disturbed forest and also flying around a stream there at 1,200 m asl (Son pers. comm.). In Thailand it is found from 2,000 m asl in hill evergreen forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
40031		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
40031		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
40032		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. Research is required in the areas of population status, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. This species has been regionally Red Listed in China as Endangered C2a(i,ii); D (Wang and Xie 2004).
40032		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is known only from remote mountain areas of the Indomalayan Regions (Csorba and Lee 1999); however, it is likely that the species is widely distributed on the island (Csorba, G. pers. comm.). The type locality was recorded at 1,800 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
40032		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected from forests in the highlands of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008).
40032		population	eng	There are no data regarding the current population status of this species.  It is suspected that the population is stable (Csorba, G. pers. comm.).
40032		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding infrastructure development for housing, industry, roads, etc. as well as large scale agriculture is a threat in the lowlands of Taiwan, but its habitat at higher elevations is most likely secure.
40033		conservation	eng	This species has yet to be recorded from inside protected areas, but is known to use agricultural land adjacent to Parc National de Mantadia (Randrianandriananina <em>et al.</em> 2006).
40033		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and appears to be largely restricted to an area in the eastern highlands between 970 and 1,300 m above sea level (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006).
40033		habitat	eng	It is found alongside humid forests and has also been recorded from open anthropogenic agricultural and grassland areas (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006; Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006). It has been netted emerging from buildings and Bates <em>et al</em>. (2006) consider it to be relatively common in synanthropic settings (although published evidence of this is lacking).
40033		population	eng	The population and local abundance of this species are not known, but it is thought to be locally common (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006).
40033		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
40035		conservation	eng	It is found in Gomantong Forest Reserve. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, ecology and threats.
40035		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities in Sabah, Borneo: Gomantong Caves and Baturong Caves (Francis and Hill 1998). It is probably also found in most major cave systems in Borneo.
40035		habitat	eng	This species roosts in limestone caves, and lives in small colonies. It is not known what kind of foraging habitat the species prefers.
40035		population	eng	It occurs in small numbers in some places (C. Francis pers. comm.).
40035		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, however, cave destruction could be a threat.
40036		conservation	eng	The known locality in Thailand is in a protected area, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas elsewhere in its range. Further information is needed on the range, ecology and threats to this poorly known species. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
40036		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern coastal China (in the provinces of Hebei, Beijing, Nei Mongol, Liaoning and Shandong), north and central Lao PDR, and just across the border into north central Thailand. In Japan, there are only three records, all of vagrants, on Amami-oshima, Kuchinoerabu Island, and Yoron Island (Kagoshima Prefecture) (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records from Lao PDR were originally identified as <em>T. teniotis</em> and are assumed to be <em>T. latouchei</em> based on range.
40036		habitat	eng	This species roosts in caves, and forages in the surrounding forest. In Thailand it has been recorded from dry evergreen forest at 1,500 m asl, on top of a mountain (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
40036		population	eng	It is probably locally rare, as usually only a single specimen is ever collected. One large colony is known from Lao PDR. The record from central Lao PDR was purchased in a market (C. Francis pers. comm.). It presumably originated nearby. Three specimens have been found in Japan, after the type was recorded in China 1917.
40036		threats	eng	Disturbance of the cave habitat of the species is a potential threat, including mining. In some parts of its range, such as northern Lao PDR, it is known to be trapped for food and this may be occurring in other parts of its range.
40037		conservation	eng	The species' known range in Lao PDR is outside of any protected area (G. Csorba pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
40037		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Malaysia (Pahang State, Cameron Highlands, Tana Rata, Gunung Jasar at 4º28'N and 101º'22'E) and from Lao PDR.
40037		habitat	eng	This species was found in upper montane forest in Malaysia at 1,600 m asl (G. Csorba pers. comm.). The Lao PDR specimen was collected in front of a cave.
40037		population	eng	This species is known only from three to four specimens from two localities (G. Csorba pers. comm.). There is no information known about population status and trends.
40037		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
40039		conservation	eng	This species is reported from a few protected areas, such as Parc National de Masoala and Parc National de Mantadia (Russ and Bennett 1999; Randrianandrianina <em>et al.</em> 2006). Some of these records may need to be reassessed in view of the ongoing taxonomy of this genus in Madagascar (Goodman and Maminirina 2007).
40039		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and has a sympatric distribution with <em>Miniopterus sororculus</em> in the highlands of Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007) and is widely, but patchily, distributed across the island (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 1995; Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008). Records from the Comoros Islands are thought to be from bats collected in Madagascar (Goodman and Maminirina 2007).
40039		habitat	eng	This species is known to roost in caves with <em>Miniopterus manavi</em>, <em>Miniopterus gleni</em> (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 2005) and <em>Miniopterus sororculus</em> in Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been trapped roosting in a cave within relatively intact humid forest (Randrianandrianina <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is known to occur in a variety of vegetation types, including humid forest and spiny bush (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).
40039		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
40039		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known. It could be susceptible to cave disturbance in some sites and it could perhaps be hunted in some areas.
40040		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many of the forest protected areas in western and eastern Madagascar and as such does not require specific conservation measures. Additional information on its ecology would be helpful to better understand how it responds to deforestation and roost disturbance. There is some uncertainty about the taxonomy of <em>M. manavi</em> and that this taxon is actually a complex of new species (F. Ratromomanarivo pers. comm.). Further studies on morphology, acoustics and genetics are therefore needed.
40040		distribution	eng	This species is found on Madagascar and the Comoros islands (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Madagascar, it is widely distributed (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and has a wide elevational range, from 20 to 1,500 m above sea-level.
40040		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wide variety of vegetation types, such as dry deciduous forest, humid rainforest, degraded forest, plantations and agricultural areas (Goodman 1999; Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007), but requires the presence of suitable roost sites. It is not thought to be forest dependent, but is unlikely to forage in completely open areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40040		population	eng	It is locally abundant in cavities or rocky overhangs that provide suitable roosting features. A colony of approximately 4,000 was found in Makira (Bayliss and Hayes 1999).
40040		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. In Makira, this species is eaten by people (Golden 2005), but it is not known if this species is hunted in other parts of its range. It is probably not forest dependent, but is rarely netted in areas without vegetation stands.
40042		threats	eng	There are two subpopulations, a healthy one and one which has been exposed to a plastic spill.
40043		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring is required at selected sites to ensure&#160; disturbance is not impacting the species.&#160; There are few protected areas in the range of this species, and establishment of a small area would benefit the species through reduction of the impact of development for tourism.
40043		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran archipelago, where it is restricted to the southwestern coast of Madeira, between Paul do Mar and Ponto do Pargo (Seddon 2008). &#160;There are at present between 5 and 10 locations (assuming some locations are less accessible and have not been recorded) in this small area of occupancy.
40043		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland, scrub and&#160;on rocky slopes, where it is typically found on the underside of stones and in litter at the base of crags (Seddon 2008).
40043		population	eng	The population trends for this species are not known.
40043		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat disturbance, agricultural improvement of grassland (pesticides) and fire. Building development for tourism in the region of Paul do Mar over the last ten years, has reduced the habitat quality in the area.
40044		conservation	eng	This species is not listed on the Habitats Directive list of protected species, although it is one of the most threatened species due to the small area of suitable habitat and the likelihood that this maybe disturbed.&#160;Research actions include habitat monitoring as a proxy for population monitoring given the likely small population size.
40044		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the small island of Porto Santo in the Madeiran island Archipelago. The majority of the species no longer live in their original natural habitats as the vegetation prior to human colonisation in 1419 was apparently dry forest, and today it is open grassland which is grazed (Seddon 2008).&#160; There are subfossil specimens from many parts of the island, however today it survives is two small patches of habitat on the island (Seddon 2008).
40044		habitat	eng	The species is found amongst small areas of scree on grassy slopes of two small hills on the island.
40044		population	eng	Small remnant sub-populations survive, which are very localised.
40044		threats	eng	The major threats to the species remain the very small area of surviving habitat, which is vulnerable to disturbance by grazing animals, habitat trampling and possible disturbance by shell collectors.
40045		habitat	eng	A cave snail living in streams within Foushee Cave system. It is almost totally blind.
40047		conservation	eng	This species was given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2 (critically imperiled to imperiled) by NatureServe (2009). Further research is needed on the population status of this species and how abundance has changed over time.
40047		distribution	eng	This species is known from Warm Springs in the Moapa Valley, southern Nevada, in the Colorado River drainage (Hershler 1994). It has been recorded from six springs in the Warm Springs system, all in close proximity (Nevada Natural Heritage). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 900 km²<sup></sup>, with an area of occupancy estimated as less than 20 km²<sup></sup>.
40047		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs (Hershler 1994).
40047		population	eng	This species was once locally abundant, and was recorded at a density of five individuals per cm² in 1973. Recent estimates are not available (USFWS 1995).
40047		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by the introduction of the Oriental Snail, <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides turberculatum </span>(USFWS 1995), by conversion of natural spring-fed streams to concrete ditches (Scoppettone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), and replacement of natural riparian vegetation by the non-native palm, <span style="font-style: italic;">Washingtonia filifera</span> (Scoppettone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
40049		habitat	eng	This species requires a free-flowing, cold water environments. It lives on stable rocks in flowing waters in the free flowing reaches of the Snake River and in several cold-water springs in the Hagerman Valley. During the daytime, the snail resides on the sides and undersides of rocks.
40049		threats	eng	This species habitat is subjected to modification and deteriorating water quality from altered natural flow conditions and water pollution.
40054		habitat	eng	Found in coastal forest along a gorge. Occurs at a fairly low density in leaf litter.  This group is predatory, but details of the prey are not known.
40055		habitat	eng	This species lives at a fairly low density in the leaf litter layer. This group is predatory, but details of the prey are not known.
40057		conservation	eng	<p>Habitat management in the Laurisilva zone is required to ensure the regeneration of large trees, as well as management of the woodland to retain large trees and other shaded rocky habitats that the species likes.</p>
40057		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is restricted to Madeira (700–1,000 m elevation). It is more frequently found in the northern areas on the laursilva zone.</p>
40057		habitat	eng	<p>The species is usually found on the trunks of large trees (Laurisilva), living in crevices of the bark, or on leaf-litter at base of trunks. It is sometimes found on the rock-crags where it lives amongst leaf-litter on ledges.</p>
40057		population	eng	The population is believed to be stable, but it requires specialist survey rather than general surveys to locate the species.
40057		threats	eng	<p>Major threats come from the loss of large trees due to storm damage or fire.</p>
40058		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry, and Vasiha, Southeastern Madagascar (300–860 m asl) and also on St. Louis (500–530 m), Mounts Vohibololo (340–420 m) and Teloboko (640 m) near Mount Mahermana.
40059		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry, and Vasiha, Southeastern Madagascar, (100–600 m asl) and also on St. Louis at (380–530 m), Mounts Vohibololo (110–310 m), Teloboko (530–640 m), Esetra (summit), and near Mount Maher.
40059		threats	eng	It is restricted to the southern third of Madagascar’s eastern rainforest, with severely fragmented populations that occur in deteriorating forest habitats.
40060		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Ilapiry and Vasiha (200–400 m asl), but not in the northern Vohimena chain. It is found on Andohahela (430–1,600 m), but not at Col Beampingaratra. It is apparently restricted to the Anosy and Vohimena chains.
40061		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is known only from the Vohimena chain from Mounts Mahermana and Ilapiry (200–540 m asl) and Pic St Jacques (520 m).
40063		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, but is restricted to the Vohimena Mountain chain.
40064		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on the two eastern Vohimena Mountain chain from Mounts Mahermana and Ilapiry (200–540 m asl). It is considered to be a very wide-ranging species within Madagascar’s eastern rainforest.
40065		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry and Vasiha (100–860 m asl). It was originally described from the Anosy chain, north of Mt Vasiha, at about 1,000 m asl.
40066		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mount Mahermana (100–300 m asl) and is also reported from Mounts Mahermana and Varabe (part of the Vohimena Mountain chain), from Col Beampingaratra (Anosy chain), and 40 km east of Midongy.
40067		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Maherma, Ilapiry and Vasiha, southeastern Madagascar, through the full range of elevations (100–860 m asl). It is also found on three other peaks in the Vohimena Mountain chain (St Louis, Vohibolo and Esetra) and in two patches of coastal forest amongst other locations.
40068		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is found on Mounts Mahermana and Vasiha (300–860 m asl). It is also reported from Mounts Teloboko, near Mahermana, Andohahela (400–1,100 m) and Beampingaratra in the Anosy chain (380–500 m) amongst other locations.
40069		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is only known from Mount Ilapiry (400–540 m asl).
40070		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is known from only Mount Vasiha, on a local summit of 860 m asl.
40071		distribution	eng	Occurs Madagascar, Tulear Province: on both Vohimena-Chain mountains (Mahermana and Ilapiry), from 100–340 m elevation and also found in  two patches of coastal forest just east of the Vohimena Chain (Ste. Luce and 4.6 km south of Manambato), and other locations.
40072		distribution	eng	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: Mounts Ilapiry and Vasiha (540–860 m elevation) and also on Andohahela (800–1,900 m) but nowhere else (Emberton, in press). Its range, therefore, seems to be restricted to southern Anosy and Vohimena Chains.
40073		distribution	eng	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: Mount Ilapiry (500 m elevation). Emberton (in press) also gives localities from Androhahela (430–1,400 m), Col Beampingaratra (600–800 m), and Mount Ramabeafo (580–700 m). Thus with a range in the Anosy and southern Vohimena Chains.
40073		habitat	eng	This species is threatened by a decline in area and quality of habitat and exists in extremely fragmented populations in high-elevation "islands" of forest.
40074		distribution	eng	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province and is known only from Mount Ilapiry (500 m elevation) (Emberton, in press).
40075		distribution	eng	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: the summit of Mount Mahermana (340 m elevation) and is also found at high elevations (530 m) on the adjacent Mount Teloboko, but nowhere else (Emberton, in press).
40075		population	eng	This species is fragmented into two isolated subpopulations.
40076		distribution	eng	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry and Vasiha (100–700 m elevation).
40077		conservation	eng	This is a protected species in Tuscany and it has been listed in Annexes A (both natural and semi-natural habitats and also animal and vegetables species of regional interest, whose preservation can ask for the designation of SIR) and B (protected animal species) of the Tuscany Regional Law 56/2000. It is also in the Tuscany Naturalistic Repertoire (Re.Na.To), originally listed as a “Vulnerable” species and, since 2008, as an “Endangered” species.
40077		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis etrusca&#160;</span> is endemic to southern Tuscany (Italy) where it lives in a small areas of thermal springs.&#160; The range has been declining over the last few decades and now is only known from 4 locations all with multiple springs.<br/></p><a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/40077/0"></a>
40077		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to thermal springs.
40077		population	eng	The loss of recent subpopulations means that the species has a declining population (Cianfanelli pers. comm. 2010).
40077		threats	eng	The site at Poggetti Vecchi (Grosseto), inside the Ceccarelli’s Farm, represents one out of seven last sites where the mollusc is still alive, and here the species is currently threatened with extinction, as water was temporary removed from the pool in which most of the population lived. This operation, started in September 2009 and still in progress, has caused the death of thousands of individuals. Today the population, even if seriously compromised, is still present in the near pool but Farm’s owner is working with the aim to empty temporarily all the wet area. This will lead to the extinction of the sub-population.
40078		distribution	eng	Occurs in Madagascar, previously known only from Vato Vavy and Vato Lahy summits near Mananjary, <em>ca</em>. 500 m elevation (Emberton 1994). Emberton and Pearce (1999) recorded specimens from Mount Ilapiry (300 m).
40079		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Tulear Province: known only from Mount Mahermana (100–200 m elevation).
40081		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Madagascar, Tulear Province: Known only from Mount Ilapiry (200–500 m).
40083		distribution	eng	Occurs in South Africa and is known only from the Port St. Johns Area, eastern Cape.
40083		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest.
40084		distribution	eng	Occurs in South Africa on the coastal plain of north Zululand and south Mozambique (St. Lucia- Maputo).
40084		habitat	eng	A carnivorous species. Occurs in coastal and coastal Scarp Forest.
40085		distribution	eng	Occurs in South Africa and is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal.
40085		habitat	eng	It is known only from the coastal region between Durban and the Mtamvuna River, with one inland record from Qudeni Forest in the Kranskop area. Only known from forested habitats, primarily coastal lowland and coastal scarp forests.
40086		distribution	eng	Occurs in South Africa from the foot hills of central Natal Drakensberg to northeastern Cape (foothills of central Natal Drakensberg to Port St. Johns).
40086		habitat	eng	Found in afromontane Podocarpus forest; in leaf litter, under logs and stones.
40087		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
40087		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
40087		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
40087		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
40087		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina oweniana</em> ranges along the western African coastline from Liberia to Angola. In central Africa, this species occurs all along the coastal region.
40087		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Recorded from fresh to brackish waters along the Angolan coast, however the distribution within Angola is not well known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Liberia to Angola.
40087		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast from Liberia to Angola.
40087		distribution	eng	This species is found from Liberia to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs all along the coastal region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from fresh to brackish waters along the Angolan coast, however the distribution within Angola is not well known. Its distribution extends to Port St Johns in South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present Liberia to Cameroon along the coast.
40087		habitat	eng	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.
40087		habitat	eng	It is found in very low salinity (0.3 to 1.1 parts per th) between freshwater and brackish water.
40087		habitat	eng	Salinity range 0-1.1 0/00 (parts per thousand)
40087		habitat	eng	Tolerates salinity range 0-1.1 0/00 (parts per thousand)
40087		population	eng	Little information available. In the Ebrie Lagoon, Cote d'Ivoire, out of 185 sites, this species was only found in 15, suggesting that it may not be common even where it is present.
40087		population	eng	No information.
40087		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
40087		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
40087		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats
40087		threats	eng	No information available.
40087		threats	eng	Unknown.
40088		distribution	eng	Known only from Table Mountain, southwestern Cape, South Africa.
40089		distribution	eng	Known only from Table Mountain, southwestern Cape, South Africa.
40090		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
40090		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
40090		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
40090		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina rubricata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Cameroon.
40090		distribution	eng	This species is found from Gambia to Cameroon.
40090		habitat	eng	Inhabits mangroves.
40090		habitat	eng	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.
40090		habitat	eng	This species is found in mangroves, mudflats and lagoons.
40090		population	eng	No information available.
40090		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. The population is likely to be declining as mangroves are destroyed in central Africa, but the rate of decline is not known.
40090		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes. The population is likely declining as mangroves are destroyed in central Africa, but the rate of decline is not known.
40090		threats	eng	Destruction of mangrove habitat.
40090		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats
40090		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the destruction of its mangrove habitat, coastal erosion and sedimentation in the Gulf of Guinea.
40091		conservation	eng	This snail was historically present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
40091		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this extinct snail was found only on Mahé island.
40091		habitat	eng	This snail once inhabited  high forests, requiring constant humidity levels in excess of 90%. By the early 1990s, it was restricted to the dampest area of moss forests, and by 1994 it had become extinct.
40091		threats	eng	Being vulnerable to dessication, this species was historically threatened by habitat degradation and climatic changes. Hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pachnodus niger</span> led to the extinction of this species in 1994.
40092		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken. Legal protection of Silhouette island is required to protect 75% of the known populations. Research is also needed into the species' life history and ecology.
40092		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé (Riviere Cascade, Le Niol) and Silhouette (Grande Riviere, Riviere Macabee and west of Mt. Dauban). A record from Somalia is believed to be erroneous.
40092		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits mid-altitude, shallow, gravel-based pools in high altitude streams (240-250 m a.s.l.).
40092		population	eng	In 1994, four populations were known and the total population size was estimated to be 125 individuals. There was a 20% decline in 2002 due to loss of one site, and the associated subpopulations, to pollution. Since 2002, only three sites have been occupied, with a total population of approximately 100 adults.
40092		threats	eng	Pollution has caused the loss of one of the sites the species inhabited. The remaining populations are currently secure from this threat, but vulnerable to changes in water conditions caused by development or habitat change.
40093		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrina oligodonta</span> is currently the only chondrinid species that has been placed on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable (Kokshoorn and Gittenberger 2010). More research is needed on the distribution and population of this species and its site should be protected.
40093		distribution	eng	According to www.animalbase.org and Kookshoorn and Gittenberger (2010) the species is known only from Alpi Apuane, Italy.
40093		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
40093		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to    assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
40093		threats	eng	According to Kokshoorn and Gittenberger (2010): <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrina oligodonta</span> (Del Prete, 1879) is currently the only chondrinid species that has been placed on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable in 2000, since “This species has a small range and declining quality of habitat, combined with possible competition from other species, therefore making it Vulnerable”. Its occurrence is restricted to the Alpi Apuane in Italy, which are well known for the origin of the Carrera marbles. Quarrying of these marbles presently poses the greatest threat to the species. In Europe, this is exceptional however, so that most Chondrina species are not endangered by any direct anthropogenic factor.
40094		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Italy and is endemic to the Isola di Monticristo and Scoglio La Scola.
40095		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as Vulnerable (VU) D2 by Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001); this assessment has also been incorporated in the subsequent versions of "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". The known site is in urgent need of protection as there are realistic threats known.
40095		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia (Italy). It is only recorded from southwestern Sardinia from a restricted dune stretch, called "Is Arenas", in the estuarian area of the small coastal rivers Riu Piscinas and Riu Naracauli in the municipality of Arbus, province of Cagliari. The type locality is called "Cuccurru Pranu". This species is recorded from one location and one site.
40095		habitat	eng	The species lives in sand dunes with natural vegetation, at the base of bushes or under sparse plant cover; usually hidden in the sand during the day (Giusti and Manganelli 1998, Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
40095		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
40095		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are changes in habitat structure like economic or tourist exploitation of the sand dunes, or forestation with pine trees.
40096		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the law of the Regione Toscana (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56). It is assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) by Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001); this assessment has also been incorporated in the subsequent versions of "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". A voluntary monitoring exists since 2003.
40096		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality, Boccheggiano in the Colline Metallifere, province of Grosseto in southern Tuscany (Italy), where it lives in two small, neighboured, but disjunct, populations. These can be considered as a single location.
40096		habitat	eng	This is a xerotolerant species living in extensively pastured biotopes and garigues on calcareous ground at the foot of calcareous rocks; annual life cycle with fluctuating populations, most adults occur in September.
40096		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable (see observations since 2007 by Alessandro Margelli in Natura Mediterraneo).
40096		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is overgrazing (destruction of the typical vegetation), goat trampling, and fire.
40097		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the law of the Regione Toscana (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56). It was assessed as Vulnerable (VU) D2 by Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001); this assessment has also been incorporated in the subsequent versions of "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". The island is highly protected under the legislation of the Parco Nazionale del Arcipelago Toscano
40097		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is endemic to the island of Montechristo (Italy). It is only recorded from its type locality at Cala Maestra, on Isola di Montecristo, Arcipelago Toscano (Italy)
40097		habitat	eng	The species lives on granitic ground under stones, fallen tree trunks and in leaf litter, particularly in damp shady sites with macchia vegetation and abundant <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailanthus glandulosa </span>vegetation (Giusti and Manganelli 1990, Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
40097		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, but from field observations, low population densities can be assumed.
40097		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is any structural change of its habitat like overgrazing and fire. It is unknown whether the threat are actually impacting the species, but a single event can erase the whole population.
40098		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure for this species. It had been assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) by Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001); this assessment has also been incorporated in the subsequent versions of "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species".
40098		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Italy. It is known from five locations only: <br/>– Colle della Mologna piccola, versante di Gressoney 2000 m, Valle d‘Aosta, autonomous Region (Lessona 1880)<br/>– Piedicavallo, Valle del Cervo, Provincia Biella, Piemonte (Pollonera 1885)<br/>– Rosazza, contorni, Valle del Cervo, Provincia Biella, Piemonte (Pollonera 1885); confirmed also in the last decade by S. Birindelli<br/>– Vallone di Valdobbia in Valsésia, Provincia Vercelli, Piemonte (Pollonera 1885)<br/>– Bocchetto Sessera, env. (Sindaco et al. 2008); refound by R. Sindaco in 2009
40098		habitat	eng	The inhabited area is a very wild alpine area, with rocky mountains, intermixed with large scree and boulders of acidic rocks; at lower altitudes broadleaf woods are present. The species was also found on concrete walls.
40098		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown. The species’ densities are apparently very low, and it is not easy at all to find living animals (nor dead shells).
40098		threats	eng	Acid precipitation is possibly a threat (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Some areas of the Val Sessera have recently been subject to forest road construction.
40099		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.<br/>&#160;This collection should be managed to halt or reverse the observed decline in the species' population.&#160;Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2001) proposed the inclusion of the species into Appendix 1 of CITES.&#160;Monitoring of population trends should continue to identify if the current decline of the subpopulations continues.
40099		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north-western coastal part of Sicily. The distribution area is severely fragmented, the sub-populations live in isolated spots. The area of occupancy is thought to be quite small, and inferred from the available information surely less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
40099		habitat	eng	The species is found in crevices amongst calcareous rocks.
40099		population	eng	The population size of <em>Cornu mazzullii</em>&#160;is unknown but is observed to be decreasing.
40099		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is population reduction as a direct result of the collection of individuals for alimentary purposes. Another threat is habitat destruction due to urban development and road construction which directly leads to a serious decline of available habitat. Another threat are uncontrolled wild-fires, which regularly (each year) devastate large areas of the habitats. In some of the places, pasturing also poses a threat, and a large population of wild boars, which feed on the snails.
40104		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40104		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in southern Kalimantan on Mt.Sakoembang.
40104		habitat	eng	Occurs at an altitude of 950 m.
40105		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40105		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mt. Kinabalu.
40105		habitat	eng	Restricted to ultrabasic soils at 1,200-2,250 m alt.
40107		distribution	eng	Known only from Mt Kinabalu and Mt Tamboyukon.
40107		habitat	eng	A large climber, occasionally epiphytic, in mossy forest at 1,500-2,700 m alt.
40108		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the Malaysian part of Borneo.
40108		habitat	eng	Grows on wet sandy soils, abundant in open areas or on ridge tops at 1,000-2,600 m alt.
40109		habitat	eng	Found in mossy forests on ridge tops at 1,200-2,500 m alt.
40110		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40110		distribution	eng	Found in Peninsular Malaysia on the eastern mountain ranges, Banjaran Timur, G.Tahan and G.Tapis.
40110		habitat	eng	Occurs in open areas or amongst scrub, on quartzitic soils or heavily weathered rock; 1,300-2,100 m alt.
40111		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40111		habitat	eng	Occurs on open ridge-tops, rooted in moss and climbing into trees at 1,400-2,500 m alt.
40112		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40112		habitat	eng	Epiphyte in mossy forest at 2,300-2,590 m alt.
40113		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40114		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40114		habitat	eng	Grows in shrubberies, landslides and cliffs only on ultrabasic soils at 300-1,220 m alt.
40115		conservation	eng	On CITES Appendix II.
40115		distribution	eng	From near Bau on Sarawak.
40115		habitat	eng	Apparently confined to limestone cliff faces with permanent water seepage; 300 m alt.
40116		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
40116		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Appalachians Mountains.
40116		habitat	eng	Occurs in seepage, savanna and mountain bogs.
40116		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
40117		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
40117		habitat	eng	Occurs in seepage bogs.
40117		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
40118		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix I.
40118		habitat	eng	Found on streamside edges and mountain bogs, usually on soils of the Toxaway silt loam or Hatboro loam series. Most sites are depression bogs apart from the streamside edges.
40118		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
40119		conservation	eng	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.
40119		habitat	eng	Grows in seepage bogs.
40119		threats	eng	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).
40488		conservation	eng	Conservation of the Platypus is limited to its listing as a legally protected species in all states in which it occurs and its incidental inclusion in some national parks and reserves. Legislation prohibiting or controlling problematic fishing activities has been enacted in New South Wales and Victoria, but regulations concerning illegal netting and trapping are often poorly enforced. The most widespread field monitoring program for the species is in Victoria (Australian Platypus Conservancy). There are also a few system-specific studies in other states and community-based reporting of anecdotal occurrences of the species to a variety of institutional and private databases. Still more information about population numbers and monitoring are crucial, especially for a long-lived species such as the Platypus where a lack of recruitment can be masked until a dramatic population crash occurs as adults reach the end of their lifespan.<br/><br/>Population studies of fragmented populations should be a research priority, together with studies to help verify the current distribution and baseline population parameters in areas where the species has declined (Grant and Temple-Smith 2003). Once the Platypus becomes extinct in a river system, the likelihood of its re-colonising that system without human intervention is minimal (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). One reintroduction program is underway in a single fire-affected stream in Victoria (Australian Platypus Conservancy). <br/><br/>Some populations of Platypuses have exhibited antibodies to <em>Leptospirosis</em>, probably transmitted via cattle, but no clinical symptoms have been observed. Mortality from an ulcerative dermatitis caused by Mucor fungus, however, has been recorded in at least one river system in Tasmania. There is currently no active investigation of this disease, which should be a research priority both in that state and on the mainland where the fungus is also found (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.).
40488		distribution	eng	The Platypus is endemic to Australia, where it is dependent on rivers, streams, and bodies of freshwater. It is present in eastern Queensland and New South Wales, in eastern, central, and south-western Victoria, throughout Tasmania, and on King Island. An introduced population is established at the western end of Kangaroo Island (Carrick <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its occurrence is reasonably continuous within some catchments, but discontinuous in others (e.g., the Bega River catchment in New South Wales; Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and in many catchments its actual distribution is poorly known. In Victoria, fewer than 200 individuals occupy the Wimmera-Avon River basin (distributed over an area of >2,400,000 ha), and the species appears to have recently become extinct in the neighbouring Avoca River basin (Australian Platypus Conservancy, unpublished data) (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). The species now appears to be extinct also from its former range in the Adelaide Hills and Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia.
40488		habitat	eng	The Platypus is restricted to streams and suitable freshwater bodies, including some shallow water storage lakes and ponds (Carrick <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its food is almost exclusively benthic macroinvertebrates and so the species is water-dependent. Platypuses are largely solitary, and when not foraging in water they normally occupy a resting or nesting burrow in earth banks, although some individuals have been found resting in accumulated stream debris or in low dense vegetation. The species is seldom observed moving on land in mainland Australia, but is frequently seen out of the water in Tasmania, where its predator, the fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>), has been introduced only relatively recently (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). The breeding season varies widely depending on location. Females produce one to three eggs annually, but usually two (Carrick <em>et al.</em> 2008). Platypuses are long-lived animals (up to 20 years in the wild).
40488		population	eng	It is a common species. Its overall distribution appears to be little changed from its historical distribution (except in South Australia). However, many local populations are known to have declined or disappeared within the last few decades, and in general there is a surprising lack of knowledge about its abundance (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). Specifically, there are insufficient data at the catchment and local levels to predict population trends reliably in the long term.
40488		threats	eng	Currently, the predominant threat to the species on the mainland is reduction in stream and river flows due to recent successive droughts, stream regulation, and extraction of water for agricultural, domestic, and industrial supplies. It is also at risk from the opposite extremes associated with climate change – extensive flooding both in space and time associated with recent tropical cyclones that have resulted in increased mortality and all but eliminated recruitment in 2006 over a substantial part of the species’ northern range. Habitat modification due to bank erosion and stream sedimentation (as a result of poor land management practices in agriculture, forestry, and urbanization) are also of great concern. In the case of urban streams, Platypus populations may be adversely affected both by poor water quality (in the form of suspended solids and nutrient enrichment) and contamination of sediment by heavy metals (Serena and Pettigrove 2005). Accidental drowning in nets and traps set for fish and crustaceans has the potential to impact Platypus distribution and abundance in all parts of its range, especially in small streams where populations may be critically small.
40489		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
40489		distribution	eng	The species occurs from northeast Brazil to central Argentina.
40489		habitat	eng	Encountered in a wide variety of habitats, on plains, marshes, grasslands, marginal and rain forests at high altitudes and at subtropical latitudes. Tolerates areas next to cultivation, cultivated lands, and deforested zones. In the Caatinga, they are found in zones of high and low chaparral and thorny vegetation, and in dísturbed areas (Mares <em>et al.</em> 1981, Streilen 1992).
40489		population	eng	Often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40489		threats	eng	There no known threats to this species.
40500		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
40500		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal Brazil from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul, west of the lower Rio Paraguay, to eastern Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Gardner 2007).
40500		habitat	eng	<em>D. aurita</em> is found in the Atlantic and Aracaria forests, living in primary and secondary forests, also found in forests that have been fragmented by urban development and deforestation (Grelle 2003). The diet of <em>D. aurita</em> is omnivore (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>D. aurita</em> is scansorial, nocturnal and solitary. It is mainly terrestrial, but its forelimbs and claws allow it to climb trees (Grelle 2003).
40500		population	eng	The species can be very abundant. <span style="font-style: italic;">D. aurita</span> often move long distances (Gentile and Cerqueira 1995) and are habitat generalists (Emmons and Feer 1997).
40500		threats	eng	There are no major threats known although deforestation effects some populations (e.g. eastern Paraguay).
40501		conservation	eng	This species can be found in many protected areas throughout its range.
40501		distribution	eng	The species is found from Tamaulipas, Mexico and is Cozumel and the Yucatan, south to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina, including Trinidad and the Lesser Antilles (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007). It can be found to about 2,000 m elevation (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40501		habitat	eng	This species tolerates a wide variety of habitats, including rainforest and subtropical forest, secondary forest, and near human settlements where they feed on garbage. However, this species appears to be more sensitive to human disturbances than <em>Didelphis albiventris</em>. This species does not live at extreme altitudes (above 2,232 m) or in extremely arid zones. <br/><br/>This species has been reasonably well studied in the northern portion of its range. It is nocturnal, arboreal, and usually solitary, although two or more may be encountered together during the breeding season when males actively court females. The females build a leaf nest in a tree cavity or burrow. Litter size varies with latitude, with smallest litters near the equator. Gestation period takes fourteen to fifteen days (Eisenberg, 1989). Given adequate shelter and a sustained food supply, the home range of a lactating female may be rather stable, but the animals are opportunistic feeders and readily shift home ranges to adapt to fluctuating resources. Mean Home-range ranged up to 123 ha for males, and to 16 ha for females. This species can be sympatric with D. albiventris in southeastern Brazil.
40501		population	eng	This species is common, and is hunted for meat only where other game is scarce (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Densities of 0.25-0.75 individuals per hectare are found in Venezuela (O'Connell, 1979), and of 0.09-1.32 in Panamá (Fleming 1972).
40501		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. In Suriname, it is collected for its meat which is illegally exported to French-Guiana (John de Bruin, in litt.).
40502		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place to protect the Virginia opposum, it likely occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
40502		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central America, from Costa Rica to Mexico and in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and north into southwestern Ontario, Canada. Some populations are also found along the west coast of the United States. Their range, limited by winter temperatures and snow depth, appears to be expanding northwards (Gardner, 2005).This species can be found from lowlands to 3,000 m (Reid, 1997).
40502		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, ranging from relatively arid to mesic environments. They prefer wet areas, however, especially woodlands and thickets near streams and swamps. Also in suburban areas. The opportunistic denning and feeding habits of the Virginia opossum has led to the success of the species, especially in areas of habitat fragmentation. High reproductive potential further contributes to increasing population size (McManus, 1974). Abandoned burrows, buildings, hollow logs, and tree cavities are generally used for den sites.
40502		population	eng	D. virginiana is common and widespread.
40502		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Opossums are hunted and trapped for food and fur in certain areas of their range, but the majority of mortality is caused by collision with motor vehicles (Gardner, 2005).
40503		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
40503		distribution	eng	The species has a disjunct range in South America. The species is found from north-central Argentina to Uruguay, Paraguay, part of Bolivia, and the southern region of Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro through to the Beni River in Bolivia. The northern range is from eastern Colombia, Venezuela through western Guyana (Gardner 2007). The species has been recorded from southeastern Peru on the border of Bolivia (Romo <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is suspected to be found continuously down the Orinoco River in Venezuela, although there are no records (D. Lew and P. Soriano pers. comm.).
40503		habitat	eng	Very little information is available on this species. Occurs in wet grasslands It is reported to be nocturnal, preying on small vertebrates, fish, and insects. One stomach contained remnants of mollusk shells and sand, and this species has been caught in traps baited with mice. In captivity Lutreolina will eat insects and fruit and kills birds and mammals up to the size of Microcavia. This mesic-adapted animal is found along areas of permanent water. It is somewhat weasel-like in shape and apparently in habits as well. It can swim, and it climbs well. It occurs to at least 2,000 m elevation in the Andes of southern Bolivia (Emmons and Feer 1997).
40503		population	eng	This species is generally rare but can be common in appropriate habitats.
40503		threats	eng	No major threats although in the southern part of its range, drainage of wetlands for agriculture may be affecting the species.
40504		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas across the range.
40504		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marmosa mexicana</span> is widely distributed across tropical and subtropical forests and shrubby habitats below 1,600 m elevation from Mexico to Panama. It is also known to occur on two Caribbean islands: Isla de Roatán (Honduras) and Isla del Maíz Grande (Nicaragua) (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Recent molecular evidence has suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mexicana</span> could represent an entity formed by at least two species, which might be recognized after future studies. This information allows revision of the geographical distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mexicana</span> (see Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
40504		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marmosa mexicana</span> occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including dry and moist tropical forests, pine-oak forests, mangroves, and scrublands (as defined by Olson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). For decades, <span style="font-style: italic;">Marmosa zeledoni</span> was treated as a junior synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mexicana</span>, and because the two species — both currently recognized as valid (see Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) — present broadly overlapping distributions, it is difficult to determine whether the sparse natural history information that has been published for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mexicana</span> actually corresponds to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. zeledoni.</span>
40504		population	eng	Although there are no published estimates of population size for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mexicana</span>, the large number of specimens housed in zoological collections suggests that this species is locally common.
40504		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
40505		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
40505		distribution	eng	This species is found in Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Surinam, Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, north and central Brazil, eastern Bolivia, and Trinidad and Tobago (Gardner, 2007). In Venezuela it extends through the north coast range to the Maracaibo basin. It is found at elevations below 1,300 m (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40505		habitat	eng	This marsupial is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forest. It is found in rainforest, often in the dense, tangled forest understory or in weedy areas. It is also found in vegetation along rivers and in secondary forests. This species is especially common in swampy, disturbed areas such as those dominated by Heliconia species in areas of modified forest. It tolerates secondary gowth and disturbed areas, such as plantations, fields, orchards, and human settlements.<br/><br/>This mouse opossum is arboreal, nocturnal, and insectivorous, but it is versatile in its habitat exploitation and is frequently trapped on the ground, sometimes near human dwellings. Its diet consists of about two-thirds insects and other small animals,and one-third fruit. The female is tolerant of the male only during estrus; copulation may last several hours, and gestation takes thirteen days. The litter size averages 5.8. The female constructs a leaf nest by transporting nesting material with her prehensile tail. Young are weaned at about 12 g body weight (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40505		population	eng	This species is widespread and often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40505		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
40506		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.
40506		distribution	eng	The known distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Marmosa robinsoni </span>extends from Finca Santa Clara in the western Panamanian province of Chiriquì, eastward across the isthmus to Colombia and northern Venezuela. Although most Venezuelan specimens are from north of the Orinoco River, Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) found one specimen from Ciudad Bolivar on the south (right) bank of the river in Bolivar state. The species is also known from several islands on the continental shelf of Central America (e.g., Isla del Rey, Isla Saboga) and South America (Isla Margarita, Trinidad, and Tobago), and from the Caribbean island of Grenada.
40506		habitat	eng	The species occupies a variety of habitats from sea level to 2,600 m elevation, including lowland and montane moist forests, lowland dry forests, mangroves, savannas, and xeric shrublands (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). <br/><br/>A study conducted in a xeric shrubland of northwestern Venezuela found that females of <span style="font-style: italic;">Marmosa robinsoni</span> increase in mass three time faster than males (Alvizu and Aguilera 1998). The same study also found that individual of both sexes typically are active in areas of approximately 25 m², but pregnant females dramatically reduce such area to <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 1–6 m²<sup></sup>. There are observations that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. robinsoni</span> feeds on fruits of columnar cacti (Naranjo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), although the species is also expected to predate on insects (as many didelphids do). In Venezuela, specimens inhabiting agricultural lands and disturbed forests are larger than those from cloud and gallery forest likely due to the higher productivity of the former habitats (López-Fuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).
40506		population	eng	As noted by Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010), the large numbers of museum specimens with the same locality data suggest that this species is often among the most abundant of non-volant small mammals in the open habitats it occupies (e.g., llanos, xeric shrublands; see Handley 1976, Handley and Gordon 1979). Nevertheless, a recent study found moderately high levels of divergence between cytochrome-b sequences of specimens from Panama and one specimen from northwestern Venezuela (Gutiérrez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010), which suggest the possibility that future studies might find additional evidence for recognizing more than one species in the taxon currently referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. robinsoni</span> (sensu Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
40506		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
40507		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
40507		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon River basin adjacent to the Andes in eastern Ecuador and Peru (Gardner, 2007).
40507		habitat	eng	This species has been trapped on the ground and in the thatched roof of a house. It is found in lowland forest and secondary forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40507		population	eng	This species can be locally common, but may have a patchy distribution (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40507		threats	eng	Unknown.
40508		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas.
40508		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon Basin of Ecuador, Peru, and western Brazil south of the Amazon, and Bolivia (Gardner, 2007).
40508		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforests. It prefers wetland areas and zones close to bodies of water with dense formations of Platanillos (Heliconia spp.). This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on insects and fruit. It is found in mature, disturbed, and secondary forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is found also in open areas well outside of the forest in agricultural fields.
40508		population	eng	This species is common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40508		threats	eng	No major threats.
40509		conservation	eng	This species occurs in number of protected areas, but the taxonomy needs to be revised.
40509		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Nicaragua to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Emmons and Feer 1997). There is a record from southern Mexico (Gardner 2007)  It is found from lowlands to 1,200 m (Reid 1997). This species may also be encountered in Bolivia (Salazar <em>et al.</em> 1994). In Colombia, this species is found up to 1,500 m (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000). Quite rare in parts of Central America. Just one record in Chiapas (F. Reid pers. comm.). Locally common in Panama.
40509		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in mature evergreen forests in lowlands and foothills, and occasionally in deciduous or dense secondary forest (Reid 1997). Individuals seem to prefer mature forests with little undergrowth, although they can also be present in dense vegetation. <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nudicaudatus</span> is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary (Emmons and Feer 1997). It is omnivorous with a diet that includes fruit, small vertebrates, and insects and other invertebrates. Unlike other opossums, these are extremely nervous and wary. They travel on the ground and along the tops of fallen logs, trotting or walking quickly and silently. Their nests are in well-hidden hollows in or near the ground. Litter size ranges from one to nine, with a mean of five (Eisenberg and Redford 1999, Emmons and Feer 1997).
40509		population	eng	Widespread and often common, this species lives at low population densities (Emmons and Feer 1997).
40509		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
40510		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
40510		distribution	eng	This species is found from Péru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela through the Guianas, south to northern and central Brazil to southern Bahia (Gardner 2007). In Colombia, this species is found up to 1,800 m asl (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000).
40510		habitat	eng	This species forages both arborally and on the ground. In Venezuela it was trapped 46% of the time on the ground and 53% in trees and bushes. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, it was found in brushy and forested habitats, though almost always off the ground. Feeds on insects and small animals, fruit, and nectar, but an examination of three stomachs showed only insects. It is nocturnal, solitary, and constructs open, arboreal nests. This species is usually seen in the middle to upper levels of the forest, but they will descend to the ground when food is scarce in the dry season.  From the limited data from southern South America, it appears that this species lives mostly in rich subtropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40510		population	eng	Widespread and often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40510		threats	eng	No major threats.
40511		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
40511		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Amazon Basin and eastern Andean slopes from Colombia, Ecuador, to southern Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil at least until the Rio Jurua. It is found up to 1,634 m in the Andean foothills (Emmons and Feer 1997; Gardner 2007; D. Tirira pers. comm.).
40511		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid tropical forests forests along the eastern flanks of the Andes, and in secondary growth (Gardner, 2007).
40511		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40511		threats	eng	No major threats.
40512		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
40512		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in eastern Panamá, Colombia, and eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, western Venezuela and north and central Bolivia (Gardner 2007). This species has an altitudinal range of 110 to 2,200 m (S. Solari pers. comm.).
40512		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial and feeds on invertebrates (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is less arboreal than most opossums (Eisenberg, 1989). It is found mostly in a variety of habitats, including Pacific wet forest, lowland rainforests, and montane wet forests at mid elevations (1,400 to 2,200 m), however, it is sometimes found as low as 200 m in rainforest and wet grassland (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species seems to tolerate human presence, as it has been caught in human dwellings (S. Solari pers. comm.).
40512		population	eng	This species is estimated to be widespread with locally low densities. The rarity of this species may be due to unknown ecological factors. In Bolivia, this species is known from three specimens. It is locally common in some localities in Peru (S. Solari pers. comm.).
40512		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
40513		conservation	eng	Found in several protected areas.
40513		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, south to northern Brazil (bounded by Orinoco, Negro and Amazon) (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2001; Gardner 2005).
40513		habitat	eng	It tolerates a variety of habitats types. Although occurs in rain forests in all strata, including secondary forest. It also may be found in edge habitats around clearings. It is less abundant in dry deciduous forests. Found in mature, disturbed, and secondary rainforest, gardens, and plantations. This species is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular in its habits. It is apparently chiefly insectivorous. Up to seven young are born in a single litter. In northern Venezuela the breeding season extends from May through August. The behaviour patterns and breeding biology are probably similar to those of M. domestica, a species well studied in captivity (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). It occurs at up to 1,200 m elevation (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40513		population	eng	Sometimes common, but populations show large year-to-year variation: they may be common one year and absent the next (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40513		threats	eng	No major threats, however, there is habitat loss in parts of its range.
40514		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
40514		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in eastern and central Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and north Argentina (Gardner 2007). In Paraguay is extremely abundant in the Chaco region in western Paraguay, but the records from Argentina are scarce.
40514		habitat	eng	Primarily found in xeric situations, this species has been trapped in grassy areas, brush piles, and among jumbled rocks in a dry riverbed. It is also tolerant of man-made clearings. It is an accomplished predator, feeding primarily on invertebrates (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Extensive work on colony animals has made <span style="font-style: italic;">M. domestica </span>one of the best studied of the South American small opossums. In captivity this species breeds throughout the year, and some females produce four litters a year, some studies suggest up to six litters. The female builds a compact, complicated nest, carrying nesting material with her tail. Gestation lasts fourteen or fifteen days; young are born at about 0.10  g; litter size is three to fourteen, with an average of seven; and the oestrous cycle is twenty-eight days. Other studies give age of first reproduction is five to seven months, and a litter range from 6 to 11 with an average of 8.4. Young are attached to the nipple for about two weeks and then enter a nest phase. The female does not have a pouch but will transport young on her back. Young eat solid food at four to five weeks, can be separated from the females at seven weeks, and can reproduce at fifteen months. In captivity males often weigh considerably more than females.
40514		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monodelphis domestica</span> is common in the wild (Eisenberg and Redford 1999, Emmons and Feer 1997). In Paraguay is abundant in the Chaco region in western Paraguay, but the records from Argentina are scarce.
40514		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
40515		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
40515		distribution	eng	Found in southern Venezuela, in the upper reaches of the Amazon Basin, in eastern Colombia, Ecuador, the Department of Ucayali in Peru, and the state of Acre in western Brazil. In Colombia, this species is found up to 500 m asl (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000).
40515		habitat	eng	Found in mature and disturbed lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997) Nocturnal, terrestrial, arboreal and solitary.
40515		population	eng	Locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
40515		threats	eng	No major threats.
40516		conservation	eng	More research is needed on methods to provide for more habitat protection and for surveys to establish range of occurrence and occupation, ecology, and abundance. This species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
40516		distribution	eng	This species is found from Tamaulipas, southern Mexico including the Yucatan, south to Boliva and western Ecuador, eastern Peru, and southwestern Brazil. It is found in lowlands to up to 1,600 m (Reid 1997).
40516		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid forest, secondary growth, and along watercourses. It is found most commonly in moist areas, but it occurs through nearly all vegetation types. Can be found in deciduous and evergreen forest, second growth, and sometimes disturbed habitat; often found near streams (Reid, 1997). This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, with good swimming abilities.
40516		population	eng	This species is common and widespread; sometimes abundant (Reid, 1997).
40516		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
40517		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
40517		distribution	eng	This specie is found west of the Andes in central Chile (Gardner 2007).
40517		habitat	eng	Tolerates a wide variety of habitats, including cloud forests, brushlands, and riverbank chaparral. lt is typical of chaparral brusblands of Chile. This species presents an ample altitudinal range, from sea level to elevations of 2,500 m asl. Can be arboreal or terrestrial. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arobreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
40517		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species.
40517		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however, numerous populations are in decline. Central Chile is a highly perturbed ecosystem, which has high rates of deforestation for forestry and agricultural activities.
40520		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least two protected areas.
40520		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in the cerrado and caatinga of east-central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Gardner 2007).
40520		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the cerrado and caatinga. This species appears to be omnivorous, and 75% of its diet is animal in origin, including 44% arthropods. Home ranges based on recaptures were estimated at 2.3 ha for males and 1.7 ha for a female. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). This species is found in the Cerrado and Caatinga of Brazil (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
40520		population	eng	Appears locally rare over its wide distribution range (Vieira pers. comm.).
40520		threats	eng	There are no major threats. However, there is intense habitat destruction over much of its range.
40521		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Cajas National Park (Ecuador) (Barnett, 1999). This species needs further research into its distribution, population and natural history.
40521		distribution	eng	This species is found in central Ecuador and northwestern Peru (Gardner, 2007). The species occurs above 1,500 m (Albuja and Patterson 1996).
40521		habitat	eng	This species is known from subtropical forests (Gardner, 2007). The diet of this species most likely consists of invertebrates including worms, small vertebrates, fruit, and other vegetation (Nowak, 1999). Other information on the ecology of this species is unknown, but likely similar to that of large forest shrews (Nowak, 1999). This species is mostly terrestrial, but a good climber, and is nocturnal (Nowak, 1999). It prefers cool, wet areas covered by thick vegetation. This species is found in subtropical and lower montane forest (Albuja and Patterson, 1996). The species is likely dependent on forest.
40521		population	eng	Few specimens of this species have been collected, possibly due to poor sampling, rather than the rarity of the species (GMA Andes).
40521		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation. In its Ecuador range, much of the land is under conversion for agriculture, while in Peru the forest is being removed for timber sales.
40522		conservation	eng	There is a need for further research on this species' distribution and natural history. The species has been recorded from some protected areas, Tatama National Park in Colombia, and Antisana and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserves in Ecuador.
40522		distribution	eng	This species is found in two range sections in the Andes of western Colombia and north central Ecuador (Gardner, 2007)). In Colombia, it is found from 1,800 to 3,800 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Ecuador, it is found from 1,100 to 2,980 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.). There is a record at 4,100 m in the eastern cordillera in Ecuador (Albuja and Patterson 1996).
40522		habitat	eng	The species is found in lower to upper montane forest, and has been found in secondary forest and adjacent to forested areas.
40522		population	eng	Unknown.
40522		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture occurs in both range segments; however, historic deforestation was more intense in the southern range segment.
40523		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park and Litchfield National Park). Further studies are needed into possible threats (response to fire and toads) to the species. Monitoring is needed, along with increased management of the area.
40523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the tropical monsoonal part of Northern Territory (Watson and Calaby 2008). It is present in Kakadu National Park and Litchfield National Park.
40523		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of woodland and open forest, dominated by eucalypts, with a grassy or shrubby understorey (Watson and Calaby 2008). The females may give birth to 10 young (Watson and Calaby 2008).
40523		population	eng	The population size of this species fluctuates. The species is patchily distributed, even in appropriate habitat.
40523		threats	eng	Cane toads may be a threat (research underway). The spread of exotic grasses and changes in fire regime may be threats (affecting foraging success).
40524		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas.
40524		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges through the east of the country from north-eastern Queensland to extreme south-eastern South Australia, and is also present as a disjunct population in south-western Western Australia. It is the most widespread of Antechinus species.
40524		habitat	eng	It is found in many habitat types including tropical moist forest, dry sclerophyll forest, swampy habitat, mulga and suburban areas (e.g., in Brisbane) (Crowther 2008). It breeds once a year with the female giving birth to as many as 12 young (Crowther 2008).
40524		population	eng	This species is common, although sparsely distributed.
40524		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, but it is occasionally preyed upon by feral cats. There is some evidence that the species survives fragmentation better than most small marsupials.
40525		conservation	eng	The Swamp Antechinus is present in a few protected areas; most of the mainland population is found in protected areas (and, indeed, there have been a few efforts to protect and maintain suitable habitat in grazed areas in South Australia). Much of the species' range in the western half of Tasmania is in a World Heritage Site. There is a need for a systematic survey of the current range of <em>A. m. minimus</em> to obtain accurate distribution baseline and determine current threats, as has recently been done for <em>A. m. maritimus</em> in South Australia (Bachmann and van Weenen 2001), as the subspecies is probably undergoing declines and the amount of suitable habitat available is likely to be small.
40525		distribution	eng	The Swamp Antechinus is endemic to Australia. The subspecies <em>A. m. maritimus</em> (Finlayson 1958) is found as fragmented populations in near-coastal areas of south-eastern South Australia and Victoria west of and including Sunday Island and Wilsons Promontory. Isolated populations in southern Gippsland Plain have been most affected by habitat modification and/or alienation. In South Australia, recorded since 1970 from coastal lakes and swamps south of Robe. In Victoria, recorded since 1970 from three main areas, the south-western Wannon region, the Otways, and the southern Gippsland Plain (Menkhorst 1995; Bachmann and van Weenen 2001). <br/><br/><em>A. m. minimus</em> (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1803) is present on Tasmania and the Bass Strait Islands (Wilson and Bachmann 2008).
40525		habitat	eng	This species occurs in damp habitats with dense understorey vegetation. It has been found in forest, woodland, heathland, tussock grassland, and sedgeland. It prefers lower elevation areas, with a southerly aspect and moderate slope (Wilson and Bachmann 2008).
40525		population	eng	The Swamp Antechinus is rare in South Australia and Victoria, and patchily distributed given the habitat, but more common in Tasmania (Wilson and Bachmann 2008). The largest population densities have been recorded on Great Glennie Island off Wilsons Promontory (Victoria) with an estimated 80 individuals per hectare (Wainer 1976). Wilson <em>et al.</em> (1986) recorded a maximum density of 14 per hectare near Anglesea in the Otways.
40525		threats	eng	The subspecies <em>A. m. maritimus</em> is likely to be further threatened from continuing drainage and grazing of swamp habitats (and clearance of swamp vegetation), habitat/population fragmentation into small remnant habitat 'islands', and wildfire (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Currently <em>A. m. maritimus</em> is impacted by introduced predators (Bachmann and van Weenen 2001). The habitat of this subspecies also could be greatly reduced due to future climate change (Brereton <em>et al.</em> 1995; Burgman and Lindenmeyer 1998). There appear to be no major threats to <em>A. m. minimus</em>.
40526		conservation	eng	The Brown Antechinus is present in protected areas. This species is not believed to be a conservation concern due to its abundance and widespread range (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000).
40526		distribution	eng	The Brown Antechinus is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from southern Queensland to southern New South Wales (Crowther and Braithwaite 2008). Sea level to around 1,500 m.
40526		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of forest types; seldom found in anthropogenically disturbed habitats.
40526		population	eng	Van Dyck and Crowther (2000) consider this species to be one of the most common and widespread species of small mammals in eastern Australia.
40526		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, with the exception of some localized habitat loss.
40527		conservation	eng	Present in Rudall River and Kennedy Range National Parks. Monitoring of the species is needed.
40527		distribution	eng	This Kaluta is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the Pilbara region, Carnarvon Basin and the Little Sandy Desert of Western Australia. The species is present in Rudall River National Park, Kennedy Range National Park, and on Potter Island.
40527		habitat	eng	The species is found in Triodia hummock grassland and tussock grassland on sand plains and dunes (Woolley 2008).
40527		population	eng	The Kaluta is widespread and abundant within its range.
40527		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40529		conservation	eng	The Wongai Ningaui is present in a number of protected areas including Wanjarri and Gibson Desert Nature Reserve (Western Australia), Uluru National Park (Northern Territory), and Simpson Desert National Park (Queensland). This species is also found in several nature reserves in Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).
40529		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs throughout much of the arid areas of Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland, and South Australia (McKenzie and Dickman 2008).
40529		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in sandplain areas, arid spinifex (Triodia) grasslands, mallee, and open shrublands (McKenzie and Dickman 2008). Females generally give birth to a single litter in their lifetime of between five and eight young (McKenzie and Dickman 2008).
40529		population	eng	The Wongai Ningaui is common in suitable habitat (McKenzie and Dickman 2008). Numbers fluctuate with rainfall.
40529		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40530		conservation	eng	The Pilbara Ningaui is present in the Hamersley Range National Park and Chichester Range National Park. The species is also found in the Meentheena pastoral lease station, which is being converted into a conservation area.
40530		distribution	eng	The Pilbara Ningaui is endemic to Australia, where it is found mainly in the Pilbara region, but also in the Gascoyne region and the Little Sandy Desert of Western Australia.
40530		habitat	eng	The Pilbara Ningaui is found in semi-arid spinifex grasslands on outwash plains close to rocky outcrops and ridges (Dunlop <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females gives birth to usually five or six young. Animals can survive into a second breeding season (Dunlop <em>et al.</em> 2008).
40530		population	eng	The species is reasonably abundant in suitable habitat.
40530		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40531		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas – several of which are located Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
40531		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, and has a broad distribution across semi-arid regions of southern Australia (Carthew and Bos 2008).
40531		habitat	eng	The species is most common in areas of spinifex (Triodia) grassland, but is also found in heathland and mallee scrub vegetation (Carthew and Bos 2008). It is a little known species, with only one population (on Eyre Peninsula in South Australia) studied in any detail (S. Carthew pers. comm.). Triodia seems to be an important component of its habitat, and it is normally found where there is at least some Triodia - the dense spiny nature of which provides permanent cover as well as invertebrate prey (Bos <em>et al.</em> 2002; Bos and Carthew 2003). Breeding is seasonal, and takes place in mid- to late spring, with 5-7 young in a litter (Carthew and Bos 2008). Beginning in February, dispersing juveniles are present in the population. By this time, most adults in the population have died, and juveniles make up 97% of the population (Bos and Carthew 2001; Carthew and Bos 2008).
40531		population	eng	The species can be rare or locally common, but is generally patchily distributed, and often only captured in small numbers (S. Carthew pers. comm.). It is most common when associated with spinifex (Triodia), with highest population densities recorded to date at a site in the Middleback Ranges on Eyre Peninsula (Bos and Carthew 2001), where it is the most commonly captured small mammal species (Carthew and Keynes 2000).
40531		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Inappropriate fire regimes, sheep grazing, and mineral sand mining are localized threats and may lead to habitat fragmentation.
40533		conservation	eng	It is presumably found in many protected areas.
40533		distribution	eng	Giles' Planigale is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in the arid and semiarid portions of south-western Queensland and western New South Wales to eastern South Australia, and includes small portions of Victoria and the Northern Territory.
40533		habitat	eng	Giles' Planigale is found in areas with deep cracking clay soils on the floodplains of creeks and rivers, on grassy plains and in interdune areas among sandhills (Read 2008). Females give birth to one or two litters of six to eight young after a gestation period of 16 days (Read 2008).
40533		population	eng	It is sparsely distributed within abundant suitable habitat (Read 2008). This species is irruptive after rain.
40533		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Giles' Planigale is affected by cultivation in parts of its range. It is probably not impacted much by sheep and cows. Cats adversely affect the species in parts of its range.
40534		conservation	eng	Long-tailed Planigales occur in many protected areas, although it is unknown from some within its range.
40534		distribution	eng	The Long-tailed Planigale is endemic to Australia, where it has been recorded mainly across the northern part of the country.
40534		habitat	eng	Long-tailed Planigales are the smallest marsupials. They are found mainly on cracking clay grasslands. Females give birth to between four and eight young (Fisher 2008).
40534		population	eng	It is extremely abundant within its range.
40534		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the Long-tailed Planigale. Pastoralism reduces the abundance of this species. Localized predation by cats affects Long-tailed Planigales.
40535		conservation	eng	Common Planigales are present in many protected areas.
40535		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in northern and eastern parts of the country.
40535		habitat	eng	Common Planigales occur in a wide variety of habitats, including sclerophyll and temperate forest, grasslands, marshland, mangroves, and rocky areas. It can be found in gardens at the fringes of urban areas and in some agricultural areas. Females give birth to a litter of up to 10 young in the east and as many as 12 in the Top End (Burnett 2008).
40535		population	eng	It is an abundant species (Burnett 2008).
40535		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although it is preyed upon by domestic cats. Coastal urban development may result in declines in some areas.
40536		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
40536		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the eastern interior of the country (Read 2008).
40536		habitat	eng	It is found in open grassland, mallee scrub, and bankside vegetation in areas with cracked clay soils (Read 2008). This species is nocturnal and spends much of its time hunting within the clay cracks. In captivity females give birth to two litters of an average of six young annually, but in the wild probably only a single litter is produced (Read 2008).
40536		population	eng	It is a locally common species in appropriate habitat (a hectare or more of cracking clay). The population fluctuates with rainfall. There have been declines in the eastern portion of range due to habitat conversion.
40536		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species. There is a localized threat through habitat conversion to agriculture.
40537		conservation	eng	The species is found in a number of protected areas. There is some monitoring in the MacDonnell Ranges in Northern Territory.
40537		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in central parts of Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, and presumably South Australia, with an isolated record from Queensland).
40537		habitat	eng	It is found in sparsely vegetated rocky localities, and sometimes in association with termite mounds (in the Tanami Desert), in mostly arid areas (Woolley 2008). Females produce a single litter of up to six young a year (Woolley 2008).
40537		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.
40537		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The habitats they live in are rugged and not affected by rabbits or pastoralism. Cats may be a threat locally.
40538		conservation	eng	The species is known from several protected areas, including several national parks. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia and into north-western Northern Territory. It is known from Augustus Island and the Heywood Islands off the Kimberley coast (Woolley 2008).
40538		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudantechinus ningbing</em> is found in rocky habitats. It is potentially a generalist insectivore.
40538		population	eng	This species is probably common (Woolley 2008).
40538		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Altered fire regimes could potentially affect it, though possibly less so in the rocky habitats (due to its dietary habits).
40539		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g., Barlee Range Nature Reserve, Rudall River National Park, and Chichester Range National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40539		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in arid portions of western Western Australia.
40539		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of vegetation types, but favors rocky areas (Woolley 2008). Little is known about the breeding habitats of this species (Woolley 2008).
40539		population	eng	The abundance of this species is unknown, though it is probably common.
40539		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40540		conservation	eng	As of May 2008, the Tasmanian Devil is listed as Endangered under the Tasmanian Government's <em>Threatened Species Protection Act 1995</em>. It is also listed as Vulnerable under the Australian Government <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em>. <br/><br/>At the end of 2003, the Tasmanian State Government's Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment (now Department of Primary Industries and Water) launched the Tasmanian Devil Disease Program to investigate and respond to the threat of Devil Facial Tumour Disease. This program, now called the <em>Save the Tasmanian Devil Program</em>, has attracted many collaborative researchers. A forum exclusive to those directly involved in DFTD research in February 2007 was attended by approximately 80 people. The mission of the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program is ?to maintain the Tasmanian Devil as an ecologically functional species in the wild? (AUSVET 2005). Conservation actions, including research directed towards improving conservation management, are driven by three future scenarios that have the potential to turn the epidemic around and bring devils back into the landscape as an ecologically functional species (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). These are extinction in the wild and reintroduction, the evolution of resistance, and the broad-scale application of a vaccine. Four management actions can therefore potentially be employed: establishing insurance populations; disease suppression in wild populations; selection for disease resistance; and development of a vaccine (McCallum and Jones 2006). Each of these is included in the current Strategic Plan of the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program.<br/><br/><strong>Insurance strategy</strong><br/>The highest priority is to establish insurance populations of healthy devils in places isolated from the disease, firstly to avoid total extinction and, secondly, as a source for reintroduction to the wild if devils, and therefore also the disease, become extinct. Because these populations will possibly carry the species for 25-50 years and because devils already have low genetic diversity, a conservative retention of genetic diversity of 95% is recommended (Jones et  al. 2007; Save the Tasmanian Devil Program Insurance Population Strategy 2007). A large founder base of 150 individuals is recommended, to be built up to an effective population size of 500 individuals. This would mean maintaining an actual population size of about 1700 individuals, if they were all maintained in captivity where breeding is closely managed, or 5,000 individuals if they were all wild-living (Jones et  al. 2007; Save the Tasmanian Devil Program Insurance Population Strategy 2007). <br/><br/>Insurance populations would ideally be managed as a metapopulation of multiple captive and wild populations with managed migration between populations to maintain genetic diversity (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Maintenance of wild as well as captive insurance populations is important because wild-living animals retain natural behaviours and natural suites of parasites, pathogens and commensals, all of which are progressively lost in captive animals (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). The options for wild insurance populations are offshore islands, and fenced enclosures on mainland Australia and disease free areas on mainland Tasmania. There are a number of issues to be considered with these possible types of insurance populations, including the number of potential sites, the number of devils that could be held, balancing the conservation value of the sites for other purposes, ecological functionality, biosecurity risk, whether the site is currently disease-free or whether disease eradication would be required (see disease suppression below), cost of establishment and maintenance, stakeholders and timescale. <br/><br/>To date, there have been three intakes of founders for captive insurance populations from the wild: 26 devils from eastern (n=13) and north-western (n=12) genetic provenances in 2005, 25 north-western founders in 2007, and 63 north-western founders in 2008. Founders were collected from as wide a geographic area as assurity of disease-free status permitted at the time (established though intensive and extensive surveys and including a buffer zone). This intake area gets smaller each year as DFTD spreads, and is currently the north-west corner and a strip down the west coast. Founder devils were accepted for collection according to a strict set of protocols: recently weaned and likely to be pre-dispersal, no biting injuries and no signs of sexual maturity / oestrus in females. The first two intakes were maintained in quarantine in Tasmania for 20 months and 8 months, respectively, in facilities where there are no wild devils on the outside (e.g. suburban, island). The current intake will be maintained in quarantine for a shorter period. These founder devils are transferred to mainland zoos where they are managed by the Australasian Regional Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (ARAZPA).<br/><br/>A risk reduction document has been distributed to wildlife park operators and the zoological industry (DPIW 2005; Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumour Disease Management Strategy) outlining biosecurity measures to maintain the health of current captive populations. These measures include adaptation of husbandry protocols to include use of footbaths, employ appropriate waste disposal principles or secure enclosures to prevent contact between wild and captive Tasmanian Devils. Actions have been moderately successful in terms of increasing biosecurity at existing wildlife parks. An intra-state movement guideline was established requiring special permits to transfer Tasmanian Devils between parks.<br/><br/>Updates on the disease and quarantine protocols are regularly disseminated to all stakeholders. <br/><br/><strong>Disease suppression adaptive management trial</strong><br/>The only technique currently available to manage or even eradicate the disease in wild populations is detection and removal (euthanasia) of infected individuals. This comes lower in the decision tree than establishment of insurance populations (McCallum and Jones 2006), but is also part of an insurance strategy (McCallum and Jones submitted). If this technique works, it is a means of eradicating the disease in isolatable areas. If eradication is not achievable, disease suppression is still potentially a cost-effective way of protecting wild devil populations (per devil cost per annum of A$1,000 cf. A$12,000 to maintain a devil in captivity). Disease suppression has other uses as well, such as maintaining buffer zones around fenced enclosures and eradicating incursions (McCallum and Jones submitted).<br/><br/>An adaptive management trial in disease suppression commenced in January 2006 (after an 18-month pilot study) on the Forestier peninsula, where the disease has newly arrived and prevalence was low, and where movement of diseased Tasmanian Devils across a bridge and canal can be restricted. Work is underway with the state road authority and an engineering consulting firm to construct a barrier to devils on the bridge. Diseased Tasmanian Devils are being removed from the peninsula population through intensive trapping, in the hope of reducing or extirpating the disease there and to learn more about possibilities of controlling DFTD elsewhere. If it is not possible to eradicate or even control the disease in this isolated site, it is probably not possible to do so elsewhere. The suppression has succeeded in limiting the extent of the population decline, age structure changes and geographic spread and the size of the tumours now being detected is smaller (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007, unpubl.). In late 2006, the rate of transitions to new disease cases peaked and prevalence is now in decline (Lachish <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It is too early to say whether eradication is possible (M. Jones unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Selection for resistance </strong><br/>Research is in progress to identify resistant genotypes, in the MHC gene complex associated with tumour recognition (Siddle <em>et al</em>. 2007), and in the peri-centric inversion in chromosome 5 (Pearse and Swift 2006). If resistant individuals are found, management could be directed towards artificial selection in captive or wild populations, or in translocating resistant individuals to depleted parts of the devil?s range.<br/><br/>Current evidence suggests that lack of diversity at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is responsible for the disease being able to transmit between devils (Siddle <em>et al</em>. 2007). There is evidence that some individuals from the as yet uninfected West Coast have MHC profiles that differ from those found in the infected Eastern populations (Belov pers. comm). Whether these differences are sufficient to be protective is currently unknown, but it is an area of active research.<br/><br/><strong>Vaccine and treatment research</strong><br/>Vaccine research is ongoing and potentially promising, but is expected to take many years to achieve success. To be effective for disease control in wild populations in Tasmania, much of which is rugged and inaccessible by vehicle, a vaccine would need to be orally delivered, preferably by aerial baiting.<br/><br/>Research into treatment using cytotoxic drugs is underway. Treatment could be a viable option for saving captive individuals with valuable bloodlines but is too intensive and expensive to ever be useful for conserving wild populations (Stephen Pyecroft pers. comm. in Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Currently, approximately 40% of the state of Tasmania is protected, but this is unlikely to counter the effects of DFTD.
40540		distribution	eng	The Tasmanian Devil is found throughout mainland Tasmania, Australia, an area of 64,030 km². The species disappeared from the Australian mainland 430 +/-160 years ago (Archer and Baynes 1972), possibly through competition with dingos (Guiler 1982) and Aboriginals (Johnson and Wroe 2003). Tasmanian Devils were introduced to the small offshore Badger Island in the mid-1990s, but as of August 2007 all Tasmanian Devils were thought to have been removed from this island (N.Mooney unpubl.).<br/><br/>Tasmanian Devils were present on Bruny Island (a large inshore island off south-eastern Tasmania) in the early 1800s, but there are no confirmed records from after 1900. Tasmanian Devils also occur on Robbins Island, a large inshore island to the north-west, semi-connected to mainland Tasmania.
40540		habitat	eng	Tasmanian Devils are found throughout Tasmania, in all native terrestrial habitats, as well as in forestry plantations and pasture, from sea level to all but the highest peaks of Tasmania (Jones and Rose 1996, Jones and Barmuta 2000). Densities are lowest in the buttongrass plains of the south-west and, prior to Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) emergence, highest in the dry and mixed sclerophyll forests and coastal heath of Tasmania's eastern half and north-west coast (Jones and Rose 1996). Open forests and woodlands are preferred, while tall or dense wet forests are avoided (Jones and Rose 1996; Jones and Barmuta 2000). The highest population densities are found in mixed patches of grazing land and forest or woodland. Relative trapping success and spool-and-line tracking indicate that Tasmanian Devils travel through lowlands, saddles and along creeks, avoiding steep slopes and rocky areas, and favouring predictably rich sources of food such as bush/pasture mosaics on farms, carcass and rubbish dumps, and roads (Jones and Barmuta 2000, Pukk 2005; N. Mooney and D. Pemberton pers. comm.).  Tasmanian Devils are able to reach very high densities, even in suboptimal habitat, if sufficient food and den sites are available. The 14 km² Badger Island at one time supported 120 Tasmanian Devils.<br/><br/>Seabird colonies, such as Short-tailed Shearwaters (or muttonbirds, <em>Puffinus tenuirostris</em>), are thought to have traditionally been a preferred habitat for Tasmanian Devils, providing an important food source. These are now much reduced along the east coast, but some sites remain along the west coast (D. Pemberton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Dens are typically underground burrows (such as old wombat burrows), dense riparian vegetation, thick grass tussocks and caves. Adults are thought to remain faithful to their dens for life so den disturbance is destabilizing to populations (Owen and Pemberton 2005). In settled areas, dens are often under buildings which may be occupied by people.<br/><br/>Tasmanian Devils are the sole host to the only threatened invertebrate parasite, a tapeworm, <em>Dasyurotaenia robusta</em>, which is currently listed as Rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Tasmanian Devils are considered to be generalist predators and specialized scavengers; prey comprise primarily medium- to large-sized mammals, although they will eat large invertebrates such as bogong moths (<em>Agrotis infusa</em>) and the carcasses of any dead vertebrates, leading them to focus on areas where lambing, calving or wallaby shooting are in progress (Guiler 1970a, Jones and Barmuta 2000, Jones 2003, Owen and Pemberton 2005). Tasmanian Devils solitarily and actively hunt prey up to about 20 kg in size (including Bennett?s Wallabies, <em>Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus</em>, and Common Wombats, <em>Vombattus ursinus</em>) using a combination of ambush and short, moderate-speed pursuits (Jones 1998, 2003; Owen and Pemberton 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Movement patterns</strong><br/>Devils are usually nocturnal. There are no data to suggest seasonal changes in pattern of movement, apart from reduced activity of females with young in their dens (Pemberton 1990), although longer range movements (see below) are observed more frequently in winter. Tasmanian Devils occupy several different dens, changing dens every 1-3 days, and travelling a mean nightly distance of 8.6 km (Pemberton 1990). However, individuals have occasionally been observed to move up to 50 km in a single night (M. Jones pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Home ranges are found to overlap considerably. A typical home range across a two to four week period is estimated to be 13 km², ranging from 4-27 km² (Pemberton 1990). Different breeding females may be caught outside the same den site (Badger Island, N. Mooney unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Life-cycle</strong><br/>The Tasmanian Devil is promiscuous and breeds once a year during February to June (Hesterman <em>et al.</em> 2008; M. Jones pers. comm., Save the Tasmanian Devil Program unpubl.). In earlier studies the mating season was found to occur over a much shorter period, primarily during February-March (Guiler 1970b; D. Pemberton pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The majority of individuals mature at two years old; in DFTD-free areas, 5-10% of females typically mature at one year (Guiler 1970b; Hughes 1982; Pemberton 1990; Jones <em>et al</em>. in review; Hesterman <em>et al.</em>, in prep.). <br/><br/>Reproductive success is high in wild, non-diseased populations, with nearly all females of breeding age (2-4) bringing the full complement (n = 4) of pouched young through to weaning (Pemberton 1990; H. Hesterman unpubl.). Success to maturity of post-weaning individuals is unknown. <br/><br/>Tasmanian Devils are thought to breed and raise their young in traditional dens (Owen and Pemberton 2005), but new sites (e.g. under buildings) are also used. <br/><br/>Longevity in the wild is 5-6 years (Guiler 1978; Jones 2001; Jones <em>et al</em>. in press). The sum effect of mortality and emigration at Mount William (pre-disease) was estimated as 80% between the first and second year, followed by 20% in subsequent years (Pemberton 1990). <br/><br/>Increased contact between individuals in breeding season results in higher injury rates as a result of intra/inter-sexual aggression. DFTD is thought most likely to be most easily transmitted between Tasmanian Devils through biting (AUSVET 2005; Pearse and Swift 2006; Hamede 2007), therefore this is a time of higher potential for disease spread.
40540		population	eng	In the early to mid-1990s, the total population estimate was 130,000–150,000 individuals (M. Jones pers. comm.; N. Mooney pers. comm.; DPIW unpubl.), based on extrapolations of population density estimates according to habitat. Systematic statewide spotlighting surveys have been carried out since 1985. Spotlighting sightings of Tasmanian Devils across the state have declined significantly since emergence of Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) in the mid-1990s: by 27% by early 2004, by 41% by early 2006, by 53% by early 2007 (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 2006; McCallum <em>et al.</em> 2007), and by 64% by early 2008 (C. Hawkins <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). The decline was significantly sharper in regions where DFTD had been reported earliest, such that in north-east Tasmania, mean sightings have declined by 95% from 1992-1995 to 2005-2007, with no indication of recovery or plateau in decline. Comparison of mark-recapture results in the same area from the mid-1980s and 2007 supports this finding (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007). At the Freycinet peninsula, on the east coast of Tasmania, where the population has been monitored through trapping from 1999 to the present, the population has declined by at least 60% since the disease was first detected in 2001 and the adult population still appears to be halving annually (Lachish <em>et al</em>. 2007). Other indicators of devil abundance, such as roadkills, predation on stock, and carrion removal, also support this conclusion of a substantial decline.<br/><br/>If a 64% decline based on spotlighting surveys is applied to the population estimates from the mid-1990s, the 2007 population size would have been an estimated 25,000 mature individuals (50,000 individuals total). Another method generated an estimated total population size in 2004 of approximately 21,000 mature individuals (C. Hawkins, unpubl.). This estimate was derived from mark-recapture density estimates from ten sites (four disease-free sites, six diseased sites) in the highest density areas (north-east and south-east Tasmania) and from one disease free site outside the high density area. The population estimate at each trapping site incorporated 95% confidence intervals of +/-c. 25%. A standard buffer was placed around each trap site to calculate the area from which Tasmanian Devils are trapped during a survey, and this area varies between sites, affecting density calculations. If this estimate is of a population that had declined by 27% of the pre-disease population size, then the 2007 population (estimated to have declined by 64%) would be 10,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/>For both estimates, the potential error is high and still under discussion. The estimation of mature individuals is particularly subject to error since the disease has so reduced the proportion of older individuals: in disease-free sites, half of all individuals trapped are typically mature, but this proportion is much less in diseased sites (varying locally according to time since disease emergence). Acknowledging these provisos, the best estimate of total population size based on current evidence thus lies within the range of 10,000-25,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/>While Tasmanian Devil distribution across the state appears to be continuous, two management units have been identified, with devils in north-western Tasmania being genetically distinct from those found across the rest of the State (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2004; Farmer 2006).<br/><br/><strong>North-western</strong>. Jones <em>et al</em>. (2004) identified a genetically distinct management unit in northwestern Tasmania, across approximately 13,400 km², west of the Forth river and south to Macquarie Heads (Farmer 2006). This region encompasses four sites intensively surveyed by the Devil Disease Team since 2004, and one surveyed by C. Hawkins (unpubl.) in 2003. One of the Devil Disease Team sites, Woolnorth, holds the highest population density of Tasmanian Devils found in any of the Team's surveys, which is more than double that at the other sites. Extrapolating from the resulting density estimates, this management unit may currently consist of between 3,000 and 12,500 mature individuals. This management unit is not currently declining, but DFTD is expected to continue to spread into it.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern/South-western</strong>. The remaining 50,630 km² area covers nine sites surveyed by the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program since 2004. The mean of the density estimates for each of these sites applied to this area (separating formerly high eastern areas and from long term low density southeastern areas as described above) indicates an approximate population size of 7,000 ? 12,500 mature individuals. <br/><br/>Jones and Rose (1996) related statewide survey results to environmental and climatic features, generating a CORTEX spatial model predicting distribution and relative densities across the state (Figure 1). Findings from mark-recapture trapping surveys and other trapping work by the Department of Primary Industry and Water (DPIW) Save the Tasmanian Devil Program broadly support these predictions for DFTD-free regions. However, in central and eastern regions, marked population declines have been detected, in association with the earlier reports of Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006; McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007), subsequent to the time of the Jones and Rose survey. The north-west region is thus now thought to support the highest population densities.<br/><br/>The general population trend for the entire species is a decline (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007; Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006; DPIWE, 2005).
40540		threats	eng	The major threat to this species at present is Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD), compounded by roadkills, dog kills and persecution.<br/><br/><strong>Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD)</strong><br/>Current evidence suggests that DFTD is an infectious, widespread disease (McCallum <em>et al.</em> 2007), so that any attempt to delineate boundaries between affected and unaffected locations is likely to be outdated swiftly. DFTD has been associated with local population declines of up to 89% since first reported (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006, McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007), indicated by long-term spotlighting data, widespread trapping and laboratory results. The declines, and the prevalence of the disease, have not eased off in any monitoring sites, and DFTD is present even in very low density areas. It is estimated that the adult population is approximately halving annually on the Freycinet peninsula (Lachish <em>et al</em>. 2007) with extinction predicted at this site 10-15 years after disease arrival (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007). Declines were most marked in areas where the disease had been reported earliest, in north-eastern and central eastern Tasmania.<br/><br/>Mean spotlighting sightings of Tasmanian Devils per 10 km route, obtained from across the core Tasmanian Devil range (eastern and north-western Tasmania), have declined by 53% since the first report of DFTD-like symptoms in 1996 (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007). The most immediately threatened location is thought to be the region where DFTD was reported prior to 2003: across 15,000 km² of eastern Tasmania. By 2005, the Devil Disease Project Team had confirmed DFTD in individuals found across 36,000 km² of eastern and central Tasmania (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006). DFTD is now confirmed across more than 60% of the devil?s overall distribution (C. Hawkins unpubl.), and there is evidence for continued geographical spread of the disease (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006), so that Tasmanian Devils across between 51% and 100% of Tasmania may be, or have already been, subject to >90% declines in a ten-year period. The currently affected region covers the majority of the formerly high-density eastern management unit, involving what was perhaps around 80% of the total population.<br/><br/>DTFD has resulted in the progressive loss of first the older adults from the population and then the younger adults (Lachish <em>et al</em>. 2007) so that populations are comprised of one and two year olds (Jones <em>et al</em>. in press, Lachish <em>et al</em>. submitted). As female devils usually breed for the first time at age two, they may not successfully raise a litter before they die of DFTD (Lachish <em>et al</em>. submitted). An increase in precocial breeding indicates some compensatory response, but as yet this appears to have been insufficient to counter mortality (Jones <em>et al</em>. in press, Lachish <em>et al</em>. submitted).<br/><br/>DFTD behaves like a frequency-dependent disease, probably because the majority of the injurious biting, which is the type of contact most likely to lead to disease transmission, occurs between adults during the mating season (Hamede <em>et al</em>. in press). Frequency-dependent diseases, which are typically sexually transmitted, can lead to extinction (McCallum and Jones 2006). Because transmission occurs between the sexes at mating irrespective of population density, these types of diseases lack a threshold density below which they become extinct.<br/><br/>Cannibalism is considered fairly common in Tasmanian Devils and renders the species particularly vulnerable to disease transmission (Pfennig <em>et al</em>. 1998; Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, modes of transmission of DFTD are not as yet known.<br/><br/><strong>Road-kills</strong><br/>A recent three-year study of roadkill frequency on the main roads of Tasmania estimated 2,205 Tasmanian Devils are killed on roads annually (Hobday and Minstrell submitted). This suggests that 2-3.% of the total Tasmanian Devil population are killed on roads (based on an estimated population of 60,000–90,000 individuals at the time of the survey). The roaded parts of Tasmania closely match the core distribution area for Tasmanian Devils.<br/><br/>Roadkill was attributed as the cause of up to 50% and 20% of Tasmanian Devil death during a recording period of 17 months at Cradle Mountain and 12 months at Freycinet National Parks, respectively (Jones 2000; M. Jones pers. comm.). Local extinction and a similar rate of population decline at Cradle Mountain indicates that roadkill can cause local extinction, in which the road becomes a local sink (Jones 2000). Future impact is likely to remain at the same level.<br/><br/><strong>Dog kills</strong><br/>Reports of about 50 devils killed per year by poorly controlled dogs are served from about 20 dog owners. There is no obligation or incentive for such reports, and generally some hesitance even among those providing them, so the real figures are more likely of the order of several hundred devils killed by dogs each year.<br/><br/><strong>Foxes</strong><br/>There have been spasmodic, small-scale introductions of the red fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) into Tasmania since early European colonisation. Early incursions were sometimes efforts at acclimatisation and others for short-term hunting. More recently, there has been at least one accidental incursion (from a container ship in 1998) and credible reports of a concerted, malicious campaign of introduction. Hard evidence (confirmed scats, carcasses) of foxes has been found in the north-west and northern and southern midlands. Credible sighting reports have come from most of the eastern half of the State including the central highlands and the far north-west (Fox Free Tasmania, 2006), mostly areas where Tasmanian Devil populations are suppressed by DFTD.<br/><br/>A commonly held view has been that the abundance of Tasmanian Devils has prevented fox establishment through interference competition, either aggressive exclusion or predation on denned juveniles (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Red Foxes and Tasmanian Devils share preferences for den sites and habitat, and are of a similar size. Tasmanian Devils abundance is likely to slow, if not prevent, fox establishment. It is possible that foxes have been present in Tasmania for many decades at sub-detectable levels, and that a degree of ecological release has occurred due to DFTD, with foxes increasing to detectable numbers. The current impact of the red fox has been quantified (N. Mooney pers. comm.), and it is unlikely that fox numbers are currently at a level to impose a measurable impact.<br/><br/>A decline in Tasmanian Devils number may create a short to medium-term surplus of food, for example carrion; ideal for fox establishment. Fox establishment may cause both direct and indirect effects on Tasmanian Devils. Direct effects include (reciprocal) killing by then abundant foxes of then rare juvenile devils at dens while the female forages (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fox establishment may also cause ecosystem disruptions through changes in other species (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007) - a feature of foxes on mainland Australia (e.g. Saunders <em>et al</em>. 1995) and something that might then also indirectly affect Tasmanian Devils. Tasmania has the potential to hold up to 250,000 foxes (based on modelling of habitat preferences and densities in south-east mainland Australian) which could replace most medium- to large-sized marsupial carnivores (N. Mooney unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Persecution</strong><br/>In the past, persecution of the Tasmanian Devil has been very high throughout settled parts of Tasmania, and is thought to have brought about very low numbers at times. Through the 1980s and 1990s, systematic poisoning in many sheep-growing areas (particularly fine-wool with its reliance on merinos) was widespread and probably killed in excess of 5000 devils per year (N. Mooney unpubl., from interviews with landowners). In the 1990s, control permits were occasionally issued to individuals who were able to argue that Tasmanian Devils were pests (e.g. killing valuable lambs).<br/><br/>Current persecution is much reduced, but can still be locally intense with in excess of 500 devils thought to be killed per year (N. Mooney pers. comm.). However, this is reducing since devil numbers have declined. While the small amount of current persecution is likely to persist it is unlikely to constitute a major threat unless the Tasmanian Devil population becomes extremely small and fragmented.<br/><br/><strong>Low genetic diversity</strong><br/>Jones <em>et al</em>. (2004) found the genetic diversity of Tasmanian Devils to be low relative to many Australian marsupials as well as placental carnivores. This was consistent with an island founder effect, but previous marked reductions in population size may also have played a role. Low genetic diversity can reduce population viability (Eldridge <em>et al</em>. 1999) and resistance to disease (Acevedo-Whitehouse <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40541		conservation	eng	The Fat-tailed Dunnart is found in a number of protected areas.
40541		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of western, southern, central, and eastern Australia.
40541		habitat	eng	Fat-tailed Dunnarts are found in a variety of grasslands, shrubland, and open woodland. They also occur in farmland (Morton and Dickman 2008). Females give birth to between eight and ten young, of which an average of five survive (Morton and Dickman 2008).
40541		population	eng	Fat-tailed Dunnarts are common (Morton and Dickman 2008). They are common even in degraded and agricultural areas.
40541		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40542		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas (Friend and Pearson 2008). Further work taxonomic work is needed in order better define its distribution in relation to other species of the genus (Friend and Pearson 2008).
40542		distribution	eng	The Little Long-tailed Dunnart is endemic to Australia, where it is found in arid parts of south-western Western Australia and southern South Australia (Friend and Pearson 2008).
40542		habitat	eng	Little Long-tailed Dunnarts are found in arid and semi-arid woodlands, shrubland, heathland, and hummock grassland (Friend and Pearson 2008). Females generally give birth to a single litter of up to eight young (Friend and Pearson 2008).
40542		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat (Friend and Pearson 2008). Populations might fluctuate.
40542		threats	eng	The species is probably preyed upon by introduced foxes and cats, although populations generally seem to be secure (Friend and Pearson 2008). The Wheatbelt habitat has contracted in the last century. Little Long-tailed Dunnarts are not found in agricultural lands, but they do occur in intervening areas.
40543		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas including the Tuttanning Flora and Fauna Reserve, Dragon Rocks Nature Reserve, and Nuytsland Nature Reserves.
40543		distribution	eng	Gilbert's Dunnart is endemic to Australia. It is restricted to Western Australia, where it is found from the Darling Scarp near Perth and across the central and southern wheat belt, with outlying populations on the Roe Plain (Morris and McKenzie 2008).
40543		habitat	eng	It is found in heathland, mallee, shrubland, and open woodlands (Morris and McKenzie 2008). One female captured had seven young (Morris and McKenzie 2008).
40543		population	eng	Gilbert's Dunnart is a common species (Morris and McKenzie 2008). It was one of the most common species recorded during a 2000-2002 wheatbelt survey (Keighery <em>et al.</em> 2004).
40543		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to Gilbert's Dunnart. Salinity and rising water tables through land degradation is a threat to remnant habitat.
40544		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including: Kalbarri National Park, François Peron National Park, Wanjarri Nature Reserve, Neale Junction Nature Reserve, Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve (all Western Australia), Uluru National Park (Northern Territory), and the 'Unnamed' Conservation Park (South Australia) (Pearson and McKenzie 2008).
40544		distribution	eng	The Hairy-footed Dunnart is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in arid and semi-arid habitats from Western Australia to western Queensland, with an outlying population in the Eyre Peninsula. There is a historical record from Bernier (or Dorre) Island, but it is no longer present there.
40544		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of sand plains, sand dunes, open woodland, shrubland, mallee, and hummock grasslands (Pearson and McKenzie 2008).
40544		population	eng	Hairy-footed Dunnarts are common (Pearson and McKenzie 2008). The species is abundant in good rainfall seasons. On Peron Peninsula, they are regularly caught, but in lower numbers than <em>S. dolichura</em>.
40544		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Broad-scale, altered fire regimes and foxes/cats are threats in local areas.
40545		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is also listed as Vulnerable by the Northern Territory (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000). <br/><br/>It is present in a few protected areas (e.g., Gibson Desert Nature Reserve, West MacDonnell National Park, Kennedy Range National Park). This species needs studies on its distribution, population size, and threats facing it (Pavey 2002).
40545		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in rocky areas of central Western Australia and central southern Northern Territory. In Northern Territory, this species has been recorded at only six sites, all in West MacDonnell National Park between Serpentine Gorge and Mt. Sonder (Pavey 2002). In Western Australia it is found in the Pilbara, Murchinson, Northeastern Goldfields, Ashburton, and Gibson Desert regions (Pavey 2002).
40545		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky scree and plateau areas, generally with little vegetation or of spinifex hummock grassland, shrubs, and open woodland (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is nocturnal, and its diet includes a variety of invertebrates. Females in captivity give birth to up to five young between the months of October and December (Pavey 2002).
40545		population	eng	It is a rare species that is patchily distributed, but at times it can be locally common (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 2008).
40545		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In the range within central Australia this species is affected by the spread of exotic buffel grass, which increases frequency and intensity of fires. This is also likely to be an issue in some areas in Western Australia.
40546		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine if this is a species complex.
40546		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of arid and semi-arid inland Australia. The species range has been lost from the agricultural band of south-east New South Wales and Victoria.
40546		habitat	eng	It is found in tussock and spinifex grasslands, shrubland, and rocky areas. Females generally give birth to two litters of around eight young in captivity, but it is unknown how many litters are produced in the wild (Woolley 1990; Morton and Dickman 2008).
40546		population	eng	It is a common species (Morton and Dickman 2008).
40546		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There are localized threats from high levels of cattle and sheep grazing, which seemed to have played a role in the loss of this species in the south-eastern part of its range (Frank and Soderquist 2005).
40547		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to reassess the taxonomic status of the subspecies <em>Sminthopsis murina tatei</em> from Queensland. Populations of this species should be monitored because there may be declines in the southern part of its range.
40547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed over much of the south-east extending into north-eastern Queensland (Fox 2008).
40547		habitat	eng	It is found in woodland, open forest, and heathland and is also known from transitional habitat at the edge of tropical moist forest (Fox 2008). The species appears to benefit from periodic burning of its habitat (Fox 2008). The female usually gives birth to two litters of up to ten young a year (Fox 2008).
40547		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range, but rare elsewhere (for example, thought to be uncommon in the southern part of its range). There may be declines happening in parts of its range.
40547		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species, although predation by cats and foxes and habitat degradation may be resulting in some localized declines.
40548		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including: Uluru National Park, West MacDonnell National Park, Gibson Desert Nature Reserve, Plumridge Nature Reserve, Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Lands, and in the Maralinga Tjarutja Lands (Foulkes 2008).
40548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in the arid central parts of the country.
40548		habitat	eng	It is found in loams, compacted soils, mulga woodland, shrubland, and hummock grassland (Foulkes 2008). Females give birth to seven or eight young in captivity, and probably less than this in the wild (Foulkes 2008).
40548		population	eng	The species is sparely distributed, but can be locally common. The populations fluctuate with rainfall.
40548		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40549		conservation	eng	It occurs in a single protected area on the island of New Guinea; present in numerous reserves in Australia. Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed (the species having once been separated into a number of distinct species).
40549		distribution	eng	This species is present on the Aru Islands of Indonesia, the southern Trans-Fly regions of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and from northern Australia where it exists as distinct populations in north-eastern Queensland, the Northern Territory (including Melville and Bathurst Islands), and northern Western Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Woolley 2008).
40549		habitat	eng	In New Guinea it occurs in grassland savanna (Flannery 1995a). In Australia they are associated with woodland savanna and grassland, and swampy areas and wetland habitats; also found in agricultural landscapes such as sugar cane plantations. Teat number varies between populations and females may have up to six or eight young in the pouch (Woolley 2008).
40549		population	eng	It is believed to be common in New Guinea, but uncommon and localised in Australia. In the Aru Islands, it is known only from a single specimen.
40549		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although in Australia the species is thought to be subject to predation by feral and domestic cats.
40550		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Rudall River National Park (Western Australia) and Uluru National Park (Northern Territory).
40550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed through the arid regions of Western Australia, Northern Territory, the top edge of South Australia, and Queensland (McKenzie and Cole 2008).
40550		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in areas of sand plains, sand dunes, inter-dune habitats, hummock grasslands, tussock grasslands and open shrubland (McKenzie and Cole 2008). Females give birth to five or six young (McKenzie and Cole 2008).
40550		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat. There is no evidence of widescale population declines.
40550		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Predation from introduced cats and frequent, large-scale fires are localized threats.
40551		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kakadu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40551		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the Top End region of Northern Territory (Woinarski 2008). It occurs from sea level to a few hundred meters.
40551		habitat	eng	Kakadu Dunnart has been recorded from stony hills within eucalypt woodlands (Woinarski 2008).
40551		population	eng	This species is rarely recorded (Woinarski 2008). There are only about 20 records in total.
40551		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Feral cats are probably predators, but only at low levels based on body size.
40552		conservation	eng	Northern Brown Bandicoots are present in several protected areas.
40552		distribution	eng	This species ranges through much of northern and eastern Australia, and occurs in the lowlands of southern and south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges from sea level to 1,200 m asl. In Queensland, Australia its range has contracted from parts of inland pastoral country and it has undergone local contraction in distribution elsewhere due to the impacts of development, farming, and grazing (G. Gordon pers. comm.).
40552		habitat	eng	Northern Brown Bandicoot is found in areas of tall grassland, shrubland, savanna and various forested habitats containing some grassy or open areas. It can be found in disturbed areas including suburban gardens (Gordon 2008). Females give birth to a litter of between one and seven young, with several litters born during the breeding season (Gordon 2008).
40552		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range in suitable habitat, although somewhat sparsely distributed in the tropical savanna regions in the north.
40552		threats	eng	On New Guinea, the species is threatened by overhunting for meat. Although the range of the species contracted in Australia with European settlement, the species is adaptable and has survived well even in modified habitat (Gordon 2008). Depredation by domestic dogs, however, may be a problem in some areas. <br/><br/>In Queensland, Australia it has contracted from part if its range in inland pastoral country and has undergone local contraction in distribution elsewhere due to the impact of development, farming, and grazing (G. Gordon pers. comm.). Inappropriate fire regimes, in the form of too frequent burning, have resulted in declines in some regions, particularly across the tropical savanna in the north.
40553		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine its relationship to <em>I. auratus</em>. Populations require close monitoring, especially for some subspecies that are particularly at risk. The Southern Brown Bandicoot has been reintroduced successfully to a number of locations. Reintroduction efforts should continue as well as exotic predator control. Fire management, maintenance of habitat integrity, and preservation of habitat are all important to this species.
40553		distribution	eng	The Southern Brown Bandicoot is endemic to Australia. It is absent from the interior of the country but occurs from south-western Western Australia to south-eastern Victoria and into New South Wales. It also occurs on the island of Tasmania and in a widely disjunct populations in northern Queensland.
40553		habitat	eng	The Southern Brown Bandicoot inhabits a range of forest, woodland, shrub, and heath communities (Paul 2008). It is omnivorous and active in both the day and night. Females give birth to up to six young, but usually only two survive until they are weaned (Paul 2008).
40553		population	eng	This species is rare and scattered overall (Paul 2008). It is thought to be numerous in Western Australia, but greatly reduced in terms of numbers and extent of occurrence since European settlement. It occurs in highly fragmented locations in South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales. It is common within its small range in Queensland. There is no information about populations in Tasmania.
40553		threats	eng	This species is primarily threatened by introduced predators (mainly foxes and cats), and by changes to the fire regime. These factors have resulted in a large decline in the species since European settlement, but the species has also declined due to the clearing of native vegetation and habitat modification.
40554		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. There is an urgent need for habitat maintenance across the range of the species.
40554		distribution	eng	The Long-nosed Bandicoot is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in the east from just south of Cooktown to Wilsons Promontory. An isolated population also occurs well north of Cooktown, on upper Cape York Peninsula in the McIlwraith Range and Iron Range regions (G. Gordon pers. comm.). The elevational range of this species is sea level to 1,400 m asl, but it is most abundant below 1,000 m.
40554		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats including suburban gardens in towns and cities. Its preferred habitat is heath and forested areas near open, grassy feeding sites (Dickman and Stodart 2008). It is a nocturnal, solitary animal that spends the day in a nest (Dickman and Stodart 2008). Females can give birth to up to five young (usually 2 or 3), and may produce litters in quick succession (Dickman and Stodart 2008). The species is generally poorly studied.
40554		population	eng	Long-nosed Bandicoots are common. Their populations probably fluctuate to some degree.
40554		threats	eng	The Long-nosed Bandicoot is primarily found at lower elevations, where it is adversely affected by continuing agricultural clearing, logging, burning, and predation by foxes, dogs, and cats.
40555		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas in South Australia. There is a need to reduce inbreeding among York Peninsula populations, likely through translocation and the introduction of individuals.
40555		distribution	eng	The Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat is endemic to Australia, where it is largely distributed in southern South Australia, west of the Murray River, and patchily distributed on the York Peninsula and Eyre Peninsula; also present across the Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia. There are two colonies in New South Wales. Its range may have expanded in the last 45 years.
40555		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-arid areas of grassland, open plains, shrublands, savanna, and open woodland. Animals live in colonies within extensive burrow systems. Each warren contains several animals (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). The species is long-lived (reaching more than 15 years in the wild) (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008), and has a low rate of recruitment. Females are thought to be monogamous, and they produce a single young that lives in the pouch for six to seven months and is weaned after about a year (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). However, in drought years reproduction may cease and three consecutive years of ample rainfall are needed for there to be an increase in a population (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). Animals become sexually mature at about 3 years of age (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008).
40555		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed within its range. It is abundant on the Nullarbor Plain, where there are estimates of between 50,000 and 100,000 in the South Australia portion. There are no population estimates for the Western Australia portion of the Nullarbor Plain. In the Murray Lands, there seem to be 10,000 - 15,000 individuals, but the population has declined by about 70 percent here since 2002, probably due to drought and sarcoptic mange. The species is now highly fragmented on the Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas. Remnant York Peninsula populations include: Wool Bay with about 100 individuals, Port Victoria has about 400, Urania has about 200; and there are 50 - 100 on Kadina. There are 100 - 1,000 estimated in Lake Eberard. The Bawler Ranges hold about 10,000 individuals (but this estimate is about 25 years old). Ellistron holds approximately 3,000 individuals. Small Kellidie contains about 100, and there are about 100 on Wedge Island (the latter is an introduced population).
40555		threats	eng	Presumably the range of the Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat declined through conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land (in the past, for part of its range, though much of the current range is in pastoral lands). It is threatened by competition for grazing by domestic stock and introduced rabbits (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). Sarcoptic mange is now major a threat in the Murray Lands to the east; it kills 80-90 percent of affected populations/groups. Drought is another threat, especially for successful reproduction (the species needs a minimum of three years without drought to increase in number and reproduction ceases during drought years).
40556		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas. It is protected in most states except for eastern Victoria where it is classed as vermin, mainly because of the damage it causes to fencing.
40556		distribution	eng	The Common Wombat is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it has a discontinuous and fragmented range from south-eastern Queensland to south-eastern South Australia on the mainland, and on Flinders Island and Tasmania (McIlroy 2008). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,800 m.
40556		habitat	eng	It is found in temperate forested areas, sclerophyll forest, coastal scrub, and heathland (McIlroy 2008). It is a largely solitary species, that lives in a system of burrows. Breeding can take place at any time of the year, with a single young being born (McIlroy 2008). The young are dependent on the female for at least 17 months. Common Wombats become sexually mature at about two years, and can live up to 11 years in the wild (McIlroy 2008).
40556		population	eng	This species is common.
40556		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has historically declined through conversion of native vegetation to agricultural land, and may continue to be threatened by this in parts of its range. Individual animals may be killed by feral dogs and by road vehicles. Populations at the fringes of the range are susceptible to sarcoptic mange.
40557		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
40557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland and in southern coastal New South Wales to about Newcastle (How 2008). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
40557		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, mostly scansorial species, of various tall open and closed forest types. It is most common in forested gullies containing trees with hollows (How 2008). It also occurs in exotic pine plantations where it can do considerable damage (How 2008). The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of between 15 and 17 days; the young have a pouch life of five to six months (How 2008).
40557		population	eng	It is a common species (How 2008).
40557		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Clearance of land for agriculture and forestry is a threat in some parts of its range. Foxes also can be a problem. It is shot as a pest in pine plantations and was harvested for its pelt by trappers during regulated open seasons around a century ago.
40558		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Population monitoring of the species would be a useful measure.
40558		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in the east of the country from near Cooktown to north of Newcastle. It formerly in the Murray Valley of New South Wales and Victoria.
40558		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in wooded areas with a grassy understorey. It has been recorded from tall coastal eucalypt forests, and dry open woodlands west of the Great Dividing Range (Dennis and Johnson 2008); also occurs in grazing lands. The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of 22-24 days (Dennis and Johnson 2008).
40558		population	eng	This species is common in Queensland and fairly common in New South Wales (where it still occurs in coastal habitats). Population densities of the species vary markedly depending on the area (Dennis and Johnson 2008).
40558		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species. It has undergone declines and loss of range in the south due to intensification of agricultural practices, increases in numbers of introduced, predatory foxes, and habitat destruction from introduced rabbits (Dennis and Johnson 2008). Foxes, rabbits, and climate change could each become major threats in the future (Dennis and Johnson 2008).
40559		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas, including national parks, forest reserves, and the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (Dennis and Johnson 2008).
40559		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the tropical forests of north-eastern Queensland (Dennis and Johnson 2008). It ranges from Mount Amos in the north to Mount Lee in the south (Dennis and Johnson 2008). It is found from sea level to around 1,100 m (S. Burnett pers. comm.).
40559		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland and highland wet tropical rainforests, and does not persist in forest fragments (Dennis and Johnson 2008). It is a diurnal, generally solitary, species that spends the night in nests (Dennis and Johnson 2008). The females give birth to one to four young (usually 2) (Dennis and Johnson 2008).
40559		population	eng	This species is common and secure (Dennis and Johnson 2008).
40559		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although feral cats and dogs may be causing some localized declines. The species does not survive in forest fragments. Its former range has been reduced through conversion of tropical forest to agricultural and pastoral land, particularly in the coastal lowlands.
40560		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Indonesia or Papua New Guinea, but it is known to be present in a number of protected areas in northern Australia.
40560		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of southern and extreme south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); on Goodenough (Vivigani Plains), Fergusson, and Kiriwina islands (Papua New Guinea); and throughout much of northern Australia (isolated populations occur on North and South Stradbroke Island, Peel, and Groote Islands). The species was introduced to Vanderlin Island. It may also be present on the islands of Normanby and New Ireland, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995).
40560		habitat	eng	Within Indonesia and Papua New Guinea it occurs in lowland savanna grasslands. In Australia, it is generally found along rivers and streams in open woodland and grassland habitats, but can also occur in areas of coastal sand dunes and inland hilly regions (Merchant 2008). It shelters in dense vegetation. It is gregarious and generally lives in groups of up to ten animals, which may form larger aggregations with other groups (Merchant 2008). In Australia, breeding can take place throughout the year with a single young being born (Merchant 2008).
40560		population	eng	In New Guinea, it is uncommon in the south-eastern portion of its range, but it is abundant in suitable habitat in the southern, largely uninhabited, part of its range. It is a common species in northern Australia and is widespread (Merchant 2008).
40560		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Within New Guinea, the species is locally threatened by overhunting for meat in the south-eastern part of its range. It is considered to be a pest species over some of its Australian range, where it is largely controlled by shooting and, in the past, directed poisoning campaigns (however, whereas people were actually hired in the past to shoot them in some regions, such as Western Australia, such actions no longer appear required as they are not so abundant). There is an illicit commercial trade in the species in parts of northern Australia.
40561		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. A monitoring program for it is required. About 50 sites across Australia have been surveyed, recording distribution and abundance, habitat preferences, social organisation, diet, and the genetics between populations (E. Ritchie pers. comm.).
40561		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the northern monsoonal tropical woodlands (Ritchie 2008). It typically occurs below 500 m asl.
40561		habitat	eng	It is found in open monsoonal woodlands of <em>Eucalyptus</em>, with an understorey of perennial grasses (Ritchie 2008). It is also found in regenerating woodlands and open grassland. This species is gregarious and it may be observed in groups of up to 30 animals.
40561		population	eng	This species sparsely, and patchily distributed. There is concern that this species is undergoing a gradual, minor decline in numbers; localized declines have occurred (E. Ritchie pers. comm.).
40561		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is probably threatened to some extent by increased pastoral activities and development on available land. Inappropriate fire regimes and traditional hunting are also possible threats.
40562		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
40562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from north-eastern Queensland to north-eastern New South Wales. There seems to have been a contraction in the species' distribution range in New South Wales.
40562		habitat	eng	It is generally found in forested country with a dense shrub understorey (Johnson 2008); in the northern part of its range it occurs in dry vine thickets and adjacent grasslands. It is gregarious and forms groups of about 20 animals (Johnson 2008). The gestation period of the species is 33 to 36 days, with a pouch life of 192 to 225 days (Johnson 2008).
40562		population	eng	This species is locally abundant, but patchily distributed.
40562		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Although much of the original habitat of this species has been destroyed or modified for agricultural use (some of which may still be happening, though introduction of Queensland Management Act means no new land clearing claims), the species is still locally abundant and is considered to be an agricultural pest in these areas (Johnson 2008). There is still some illegal shooting.
40563		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas and is well protected by national legislation. This species has the longest running monitoring program of any Australian vertebrate.
40563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Australia, where it is widespread from the Indian Ocean in the west to western Victoria and New South Wales (Coulson 2008). The subspecies <em>Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus</em> is endemic to Kangaroo Island (South Australia). The range is expanding in mainland South Australia, and expanding eastward within New South Wales.
40563		habitat	eng	This species is found in various types of open woodland, scrubland, and grassland areas. It occurs in pastureland.
40563		population	eng	It is an abundant species that is subject to commercial take under nationally approved management plans. The population estimate for areas subject to commercial harvest (which does not cover the species' entire range) in 2005 was 5,251,000 animals (P. Mawson pers. comm.).
40563		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The population has expanded markedly in recent decades. In addition to commercial take permits, animals may be shot under license to prevent damage to crops or pasture.
40564		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
40564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from Cooktown, north-eastern Queensland to northern New South Wales (Johnson 2008). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,400 m asl.
40564		habitat	eng	It is found in undulating country with open forest and a grass understorey (Johnson 2008); sometimes found in agricultural landscapes. It is gregarious and lives in groups of up to 50 animals (Johnson 2008).
40564		population	eng	This species is common, but patchily distributed. It is not thought to be declining.
40564		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although land clearing has probably resulted in the loss of suitable habitat and certainly has been responsible for range contraction at the southern end of its range. This species is commercially harvested in Queensland.
40565		conservation	eng	Mainland populations are present in a number of protected areas.
40565		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of Australia. The subspecies <em>Macropus robustus isabellinus</em> is known only from Barrow Island, off the Pilbara coast of Western Australia.
40565		habitat	eng	The species is generally found in varied habitats, usually with steep escarpments, rocky hills, overhangs, and caves that provide shelter during periods of high temperature (Clancy and Croft 2008). It also shelter in dense shrub around streams. The species grazes on grasses and shrubs.
40565		population	eng	This species is widespread and relatively common in appropriate habitats. It is sparse in the wheatbelt of New South Wales, common in other areas of its range. In Queensland, it is common in some agricultural areas with removal of <em>M. giganteus</em>. It is subject to commercial take under nationally approved management plans. Total population size on Barrow Island is estimated at 1,800 individuals.
40565		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall. The Barrow Island population has recently been found to suffer from anaemia and poor condition and this may be related to nutritional stress (S. D. Bradshaw pers. comm.).
40566		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas.
40566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it ranges through the south-east of the country. It is present on Tasmania, King Island, and on the Furneaux Group.
40566		habitat	eng	It is generally found in eucalypt forests with a shrub understorey and nearby open areas. It has also been recorded from tall coastal heathland communities (Johnson and Calaby 2008). This species can be found in crop or pastureland. It is mostly solitary, but may aggregate to feed, especially in winter (Johnson and Calaby 2008). Females give birth to a single young; the population on Tasmania breeds seasonally, while the mainland population breeds throughout the year (Johnson and Calaby 2008).
40566		population	eng	This species is very common in Tasmania. On the mainland, they have declined in some parts of Victoria and southern New South Wales, but they have increased at some sites in south-east Queensland and are still common in northern New South Wales.
40566		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, on Tasmania it is sometimes killed under license where it is a pest of crops or pasture, and are commercially harvested for their meat.
40567		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. Harvesting of the species is regulated.
40567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed throughout the arid regions of the country.
40567		habitat	eng	It is found in arid and semi arid habitats. Animals are dependant on green herbage, and populations subsequently decline during drought periods (Croft and Clancy 2008). It is capable of traveling long distances (over 200 km) in response to localized rainfall.
40567		population	eng	It is an abundant species (Croft and Clancy 2008) that is subject to commercial take under nationally approved management plans. Its abundance is limited by dingo predation, hence it is generally greater in abundance south of the dog fence or within dingo controlled zones. The species has benefited from pastoral infrastructure (i.e., artificial water sources).
40567		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is regulated harvesting of this species for meat and hides.
40568		conservation	eng	The species is found in some protected areas, although the preferred habitats of this species are poorly represented in the region's protected areas (Ingleby and Gordon 2008). None of the protected areas in Northern Territory hold high population numbers, and almost all records in Western Australia are from outside of protected areas. The population numbers of this species should be monitored in order to detect any declines early on that might occur, particularly if foxes expand their range northward.
40568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread in the northern part of the country.
40568		habitat	eng	The species is usually found within ecotones between sandy loams and clay. It is found in areas of open woodland with tussock grasslands and shrublands with scattered trees or shrubs (Ingleby and Gordon 2008). It is also found in coastal plains with scattered <em>Melaleuca</em> thickets (Ingleby and Gordon 2008). It is generally a solitary, nocturnal animal.
40568		population	eng	This species is generally scarce and patchily distributed within its range, though it can be locally abundant. There have been no known population declines in the last few decades.
40568		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is potentially affected by changing fire regimes and pastoralism. It has declined from the southern portions of its range, potentially from fox predation. If foxes move further north, this could pose a risk to the species. The two congeners of this species have suffered under similar threats; one becoming extinct and the other confined to a small population.
40569		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, including Blackbraes National Park and Bowling Green Bay National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
40569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it generally ranges from Townsville to the Burdekin and Bowen Rivers, north-west to Croydon and south-west to Hughenden in north-eastern Queensland (Eldridge and Close 2008). Populations are also present on the Magnetic and Palm Islands. It is found from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
40569		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas with open forest or tropical woodlands (Eldridge and Close 2008). It persists in habitats surrounded by grazing areas.
40569		population	eng	This species is common within its limited suitable habitat, although it is rarer in the west (Eldridge and Close 2008).
40569		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, but more intensive pastoralism could affect populations. Introduced cats may predate on young.
40570		conservation	eng	This species is locally common in several protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park, Purnululu National Park, Drysdale River National Park). There is a need to monitor populations, research possible threats, and to study its responses to changes in the fire regime.
40570		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it occurs in Kimberley, Arnhem Land, and islands in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Eldridge and Telfer 2008).
40570		habitat	eng	This species occurs in low rocky cliffs, hills, and gorges within savanna grassland and monsoon rainforest (Eldridge and Telfer 2008). A research project on its ecology was recently completed by Wendy Telfer.
40570		population	eng	It is locally common, though highly patchily distributed. There is evidence for local extirpations at least in the southern parts of its range in Northern Territory, though no data exists on Western Australia populations.
40570		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species. It could be adversely affected by changed fire regimes in parts of its range.
40571		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in Tasmania. Fox control programs should be implemented in Tasmania.
40571		distribution	eng	This species is present on the island of Tasmania and the larger islands of the Bass Strait, Australia. It was formerly present in south-eastern South Australia and Victoria (Johnson and Rose 2008), but became extinct in this region in the 1920's. It occurs up to around 1,400 m asl in Tasmania.
40571		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of dense vegetation within wet sclerophyll forest, temperate moist forest, scrubland and open grassy areas containing refuges of dense vegetation (Johnson and Rose 2008). It may form loose groups of up to ten animals when feeding (Johnson and Rose 2008). Breeding is continuous throughout the year (Johnson and Rose 2008). It is tolerant of some degree of habitat disturbance.
40571		population	eng	It is an abundant species in Tasmania (Johnson and Rose 2008).
40571		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its Tasmanian range it is considered to be a pest species of agricultural crops (Johnson and Rose 2008). The mainland populations were driven to extinction mainly by introduced foxes. In Tasmania the recent introduction of foxes could become a major threat if they are not controlled.
40573		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
40573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from extreme south-east Queensland (Lamington National Park) to central eastern New South Wales. It previously occurred on the far south coast of New South Wales but has not been recorded from here since the 1890's.
40573		habitat	eng	This species is generally found close to the edge of dense rainforest and eucalypt forest; it often occurs where forest meets grassy areas or pasture (Johnson 2008). It is sometimes considered a pest in agricultural lands. The females reach sexual maturity at about 17 months of age and breed continuously (Johnson 2008).
40573		population	eng	It is a common species (Johnson 2008).
40573		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Clearing for agricultural land resulted in the extinction of the southern New South Wales populations, and decreased the range of the northern populations.
40574		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas in Australia. It does not occur in any protected areas in New Guinea.
40574		distribution	eng	This species is found in the extreme southern Fly region of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and throughout much of eastern Australia, where it ranges from the Cape York Peninsula to eastern New South Wales. It is found from sea level to 1,200 m asl.
40574		habitat	eng	This species is a largely solitary forest species. In Australia, it has been recorded from lowland and highland tropical moist forest, wet sclerophyll forests, deciduous vine thickets and is occasionally found in lantana thickets in formerly forested areas (Johnson and Vernes 2008). In New Guinea, it is largely confined to the gallery forests, and is not present in adjacent grasslands. This species is out competed by <em>T. brunii</em> in New Guinea with which it shares similar habitat affiliations.
40574		population	eng	In Australia, it is common within suitable habitat (Johnson and Vernes 2008). It is believed to be uncommon in New Guinea.
40574		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. In Australia, the species may be somewhat threatened by fragmentation of suitable forested areas (the species generally does not persist within fragments, and has, for example, disappeared from patches of scrub in Cape York and on the Atherton Tablelands) and by predation by dogs. Within New Guinea, overhunting for meat is a threat to this species.
40575		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas.
40575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from Cape York, Queensland in the north, to Victoria and south-eastern South Australia (Merchant 2008). There are populations of this species on the islands of Fraser, Bribie, Moreton, and North and South Stradbroke, Queensland (Merchant 2008). It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,800 m asl.
40575		habitat	eng	It is generally a solitary species, associated with dense vegetation within various forest, woodland, heath, and scrub type habitats. It can be found grazing in pasture, agricultural crops, and exotic tree plantations (Merchant 2008). The species breeds throughout the year, when both sexes are between 15 and 18 months old (Merchant 2008). A single young is born after a gestation period of 33 to 38 days; the young have a pouch life of eight to nine months (Merchant 2008).
40575		population	eng	It is a common species (Merchant 2008), and its population is expanding along the western drainages of its range. On the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland it is a scarce species. Its range is also expanding in south-east South Australia.
40575		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
40576		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas.
40576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Australia, where it ranges from Western Australia to southwestern Victoria. There are recent records of the species from New South Wales. It is present on Kangaroo Island, South Australia.
40576		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and mainly arboreal species is generally found in mallee heath and in dry sclerophyll forest with an undergrowth of shrubs (Carthew <em>et al.</em> 2008). Animals usually spend the day in a leaf-lined nest. The species breeds throughout the year. Females can give birth to up to three litters consecutively of six young, but that is under ideal conditions (Carthew <em>et al.</em> 2008).
40576		population	eng	It is an abundant species within suitable habitat (Carthew <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has a large population overall, although there are no estimates. The population likely fluctuates with climatic conditions.
40576		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Although it is preyed upon by domestic and feral cats, it has a high reproductive rate and is adapted to heavy predation. The species is locally threatened in parts of its range by clearance of suitable scrub habitat through rural or urban development.
40577		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, and threats to this species.
40577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs throughout much of Tasmania and western Kangaroo Island, and on the mainland at the border between south-eastern South Australia and northwestern Victoria.
40577		habitat	eng	It is a little-known, nocturnal species. In Victoria, it has been recorded from mallee scrub, dry sclerophyll forests, and from heath on Kangaroo Island and in eastern Tasmania, and from wet sclerophyll forests in western Tasmania. Females gives birth to litters of three or four young (Carthew and Cadzow 2008).
40577		population	eng	This species is not common.
40577		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, but inappropriate fire regimes on the mainland and continued clearance of sclerophyll forests in Tasmania are problems, and in some areas degradation of habitat by spreading of weeds, and predation by introduced cats may cause localized declines.
40578		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas. Research is needed into methods to determine abundance, as the species is notoriously difficult to catch.
40578		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern and southeastern Australia, including the island of Tasmania (and Flinders and King Islands).
40578		habitat	eng	It is found in temperate rainforest, dry and wet sclerophyll forest, banksia woodland, and coastal heath (Ward and Turner 2008). It is generally nocturnal and arboreal. The species shelters in a spherical nest of bark and leaves in tree hollows or other crannies (Menkhorst 2001). Females give birth usually to litters of four young (Ward and Turner 2008).
40578		population	eng	This species is usually common. At a number of sites where the habitat appears to be suitable they have not been caught, but this may be because it is a difficult species to capture.
40578		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is a mid-story species and is susceptible to habitat loss from clearing and grazing. Inappropriate fire regimes (fires taking place at more frequent intervals or at higher intensity) may also be adversely affect this species.
40579		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas. The maintenance of undisturbed forest containing suitable hollows for nesting is needed to conserve this species.
40579		distribution	eng	The Greater Glider is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from Windsor Tableland in far northern Queensland to the Wombat Forest in central Victoria. It occurs from sea level up to around 1,200 m asl.
40579		habitat	eng	It is a strictly nocturnal, and largely solitary, arboreal species of various undisturbed eucalypt-dominated woodland and forest habitat types. It does not inhabit rainforest or pine plantations (McKay 2008). The female gives birth to a single young which has a pouch life of three to four months, after which it is carried on the mothers back and becomes independent at about nine months of age (McKay 2008). It requires large tree hollows so it is therefore dependent on mature forest (McKay 2008).
40579		population	eng	This species is locally common, including in forest patches surrounded by farmland.
40579		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Land clearing for agriculture, logging, and bushfires adversely affects this species throughout its range.
40580		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas including Kakadu National Park and Lawn Hill National Park, Queensland. Research is needed into the abundance and population trends of this species, as well as into the effects of changed fire regimes.
40580		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it ranges from the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the west, through areas of suitable habitat in Northern Territory, to Lawn Hill National Park in north-western Queensland. It is also present on the offshore Groote Eylandt (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008).
40580		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species of rocky outcrops with nearby trees and foliage (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008). It eats a variety of foliage and fruits. This species is very social and lives is small groups where the males contribute to rearing young (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008).
40580		population	eng	The species is patchily distributed and locally uncommon. There is some concern that there might be ongoing population declines, but as yet there is no evidence of this and more research into its abundance and trends is required.
40580		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, its habitat is specialized and many populations are isolated. Changes to the fire regime are a potential threat, and managers should use fire judiciously to maintain a high diversity of food trees near rock outcrops for this species (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008).
40581		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
40581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread from Cape York south through eastern Australia, to south-eastern Australia as far west as south-eastern South Australia (McKay and Ong 2008). It is present on the island of Tasmania and also on many offshore islands (e.g., Fraser Island).
40581		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species, found in many habitat types ranging from tropical moist forest and temperate forest, coastal scrub, to rural gardens and urban areas. The female gives birth to one or two litters of two young annually (McKay and Ong 2008).
40581		population	eng	This species is common, though very sparse on the Cape York Peninsula.
40581		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There may be some localized declines due to inappropriate fire regimes, bushfires, clearing of land, and predation by domestic cats and dogs.
40582		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, harvesting levels, and threats to this species.
40582		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Arfak Mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It may be distributed more widely on the Vogelkop Peninsula. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 2,250 m asl.
40582		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to undisturbed tropical montane forest.
40582		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare. It is known from only three adult specimens and a few trophy skulls.
40582		threats	eng	It is threatened by overhunting for food by local people. Its forest habitat is also declining.
40583		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas. Reserves should be managed to decrease the likelihood of extensive and frequent wildfires.
40583		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-western Western Australia (Australia).
40583		habitat	eng	This is a crepuscular species. Its diet includes nectar and some pollen. It is commonly found in diverse vegetation communities on the coastal sand plain heaths of south-western Western Australia (Renfree 2008). In cold weather animals may become torpid. The females give birth to two to three young, and may give birth twice a year (Renfree 2008).
40583		population	eng	There are no reliable estimates of its global population, but it is likely to number in the hundreds of thousands.
40583		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is adversely affected by changes to the fire regime and destruction of habitat by the water mould <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>. Cats and foxes may have some affect on populations.
40584		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas.
40584		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges throughout much of the east and southeast of the country; also on Fraser Island. Sea level to 1,200 m.
40584		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species most frequently inhabits tall subtropical and temperate forests and mature woodland (Ward and Woodside 2008); it also occurs in suburban fringes. Females may have two litters of three or four young annually (Ward and Woodside 2008).
40584		population	eng	It is believed to be a common species in some parts of its range (i.e., north-east Queensland), although rarer in the south. It is apparently more common in wet and old-growth forest than in dry or regenerating forest (Menkhorst 2001).
40584		threats	eng	While there appear to be no major threats to this species, it may be locally threatened by logging of stands of mature forests and predation by cats and foxes.
40585		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. Fox control is crucial in semi-arid and arid areas.
40585		distribution	eng	The Common Brushtail Possum is endemic to Australia where it is widespread. It ranges over much of northern, eastern, and south-western Australia. It occurs as scattered populations in the arid central part of the country. It is also present on the island of Tasmania and a number of offshore islands (e.g., Barrow, Kangaroo, and the Bass Strait Islands) (Kerle and How 2008). There is a large, introduced population in New Zealand (not mapped) (Kerle and How 2008).
40585		habitat	eng	It is a largely arboreal, nocturnal species, that is generally found in dry eucalypt forests and woodlands. Large populations of this species can be found in pine plantations and suburban and urban areas (Kerle and How 2008). It breeds year round in some areas, in others it will breed in one or two seasons. Females begin breeding at about one year of age and a single young is born after a getstation period of 16 to 18 days; it has a pouch life of four to five months (Kerle and How 2008).<br/><br/>This species is commercially harvested in Tasmania. On Kangaroo Island, it is treated as a pest species (to humans and other threatened species) and there are removal permits. It is major a pest species in pine plantations in Australia where it can do considerable damage, and acts as a host of bovine tuberculosis in New Zealand (Kerle and How 2008).
40585		population	eng	The species can be locally abundant, particularly in south-eastern Australia, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island. In many other areas it has declined drastically, especially in arid and semi-arid Australia. <br/><br/>It is generally sparse and declining in monsoonal northern Australia. In South Australia it is only common on the offshore islands and in metropolitan areas. Populations on the western plains of New South Wales are restricted to riverine habitat. In the iron bark forest of the Brigalow belt bioregion of New South Wales, there has been 90% decline in the last 15 years.
40585		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Predation by introduced dingoes, cats, and foxes, as well as by native pythons can impact populations where the species is rare. Changed fire regimes in South Australia and the Northern Territory adversely affect Common Brushtail Possums, especially with the decline of large trees.
40586		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park; Andohahela National Park and Marotandrano Special Reserve. Further studies of this species taxonomy, biology and ecology are needed.
40586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it ranges throughout the eastern humid forests. It has an altitudinal range of between 810 and 2,450 m asl.
40586		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that occurs in tropical humid forest, forest margin habitats, pseudo-steppe (anthropogenic grassland), pine plantations, heavily disturbed areas and agricultural land.
40586		population	eng	It is a common species.
40586		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
40587		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Marojejy National Park; Ankarafantsika National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park and Kalambatsitra Special Reserve.
40587		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the lowland to montane forests of eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between sea level to 2,050 m asl (above the treeline).
40587		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that occurs in lowland to montane eastern humid forests, forest margin habitats, pine plantations, heavily disturbed areas, agricultural land, and non-forested regions of the eastern humid forest.
40587		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
40587		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
40589		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas including the Marojejy National Park; Andringitra National Park; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Mangerivola Special Reserve and Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve. There are no specific conservation measures for this species currently needed.
40589		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread in the eastern rainforest belt and central highlands of Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 140 and 1,990 m asl.
40589		habitat	eng	It is widely distributed in the humid forest zone of the island and outside the forests in bottomlands, including natural marshes and those converted to rice paddies. Also recorded in disturbed habitats such as the edge of gardens and in fields. It is a semi-fossorial species.
40589		population	eng	Based on standard trapping techniques it appears to be an uncommon species.
40589		threats	eng	Drainage of suitable wetland habitat (for example, through conversion to urban areas) is the main threat to this species.
40591		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Andringitra National Park. Further studies are needed into the ecology, population abundance and threats to this species.
40591		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to the south-central highlands and the flank of the eastern escarpment of Madagascar. It is only known from less than 10 sites, although it may be difficult to trap. It is found between 850 and 2,450 m asl.
40591		habitat	eng	Appears to be largely confined to montane areas of the central eastern portion of the central highlands (only above the forest zone in Andringitra). It tends to occur in moist bottomland. It is semi-fossorial. There is nothing known about the ecology of this species, and it is not known if it can be found in modified habitats.
40591		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. It may be difficult to trap.
40591		threats	eng	The threats to this species are generally not known, and it may be that there are no major threats to the species. It occurs outside forested zones, and may be less affected by current levels of deforestation than many other species of forest-dependent small mammals.
40592		conservation	eng	This species is found in numerous protected areas, including Andohahela National Park and Berenty Private Reserve. No conservation measures are needed.
40592		distribution	eng	This species is generally distributed in southern and south-western Madagascar. It has recently been recorded in south-eastern Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1999).
40592		habitat	eng	It is found in the dry deciduous forest areas of western Madagascar and the xerophytic spiny forest and gallery regions of southwest Madagascar. It has also has been found in open grasslands tens of kilometres from forest, including in disturbed habitats of non-native vegetation (S.M. Goodman pers. comm).
40592		population	eng	This species is relatively common where sampled.
40592		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
40593		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas including Pic d’Ivohibe, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Mantadia National Park, Ranomafana National Park, Masoala National Park, Andringitra National Park, and Analamazaotra Special Reserve.
40593		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs in the eastern and northern parts of the island from sea level to 1,550 m asl.
40593		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary tropical humid forest, and also occurs in agricultural land and gardens. This species is often found in pseudo-steppe (anthropogenically created grasslands).
40593		population	eng	The species is very abundant, including in urban areas.
40593		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species and it adapts well to anthropogenic environments. It is sometimes hunted for food.
40594		conservation	eng	It is known from many protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Ankarana Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Ranomafana National Park; Ankarafantsika National Park; Bora Special Reserve; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park; Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve; Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park and Isalo National Park. There are no conservation measures needed for this adaptable species.
40594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is generally found throughout the island. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to around 2,250 m asl.
40594		habitat	eng	Found throughout the island in all habitat types with the exception of wetlands and marshes. Recorded even from some urban areas, such as Antananarivo, and is occasionally encountered in areas with extensive human disturbance. Widepsread omnivore favouring eastern forests and lower elevations, but found in moist and dry zones.
40594		population	eng	It is very abundant in some areas, and seems to adapt well to disturbed habitats.
40594		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by overhunting in some parts of its range.
40595		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this species. It is known from many protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Analamerana Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Ankarana Special Reserve; Forêt d'Ambre Special Reserve; Inetegral Lokobe National Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Tsaratanana RNI; Andringitra National Park; Isalo National Park; Manombo Special Reserve; Manombo Special Reserve; Midongy du Sud National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Ambohijanahary Special Reserve; Ankarafantsika National Park; Baie de Baly National Park; Bemaraha National Park; Bemaraha RNI; Bemarivo Special Reserve; Bora Special Reserve; Kasijy Special Reserve; Maningoza Special Reserve; Marotandrano Special Reserve; Tampoketsa-Analamaitso Special Reserve; Betampona RNI; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Mananara-Nord National Park; Mangerivola Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park; Masoala National Park; Zahamena National Park; Andohahela National Park; Andranomena Special Reserve; Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve; Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve; Kirindy Mitea National Park; Tsimanampetsotsa RNI; Vohibasia National Park and Zombitse National Park.
40595		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found throughout the island. It has been introduced onto the neighbouring Indian Ocean islands of the Comoros, Rèunion, Mauritius, and the Seychelles, originally as food for plantation workers. It ranges from sea level up to 2,050 m asl.
40595		habitat	eng	It is found in all natural forest formations and plantations, farmlands, secondary open wooded grasslands, and has even been recorded from urban centres. The largest tenrec species weighing up to 2 kg. It is omnivorous; enters seasonal torpor. This species has the highest reproductive potential of any mammal; the female gives birth to up to 32 young and may breed twice per year.
40595		population	eng	It is a very common species.
40595		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by overhunting in some parts of its range and by fires particularly in lowland dry deciduous areas.
40596		conservation	eng	Occurs in the following conservation areas: Inyanga National Park; Mtarazi Falls National Park; Chimanimani National Park; Vumba Botanical Reserve; and Bunga Forest Reserve. However, recent reports suggest that baseline management and policing of these conservation areas has collapsed owing to political and economic instability, so the extent of protection these areas afford is uncertain.
40596		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Inyanga Highlands of eastern Zimbabwe between latitudes 18°S and 20°S, and altitudes of 850–2,000 m, with a marginal intrusion into the Vila Perey district of western Mozambique.
40596		habitat	eng	Favours loamy soils in montane grasslands and the fringes of rainforests, but is dependent on areas with less cover (Lundholm 1955), and does not penetrate deep into forests (Smithers and Lobao-Tello 1976, Smithers and Wilson 1979). Also common in cultivated lands and gardens.
40596		population	eng	Locally common but no abundance data.
40596		threats	eng	Habitat alteration associated with political instability and land transformation initiatives in Zimbabwe, and a breakdown of conservation management in protected areas, is likely to be a major threat. The extent and intensity thereof, and impacts on this species, are not known. Predation by domestic cats and dogs probably represents a more localized threat.
40597		conservation	eng	it is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine the distribution limits and systematic status of this species and of described subspecies.
40597		distribution	eng	Recorded only from scattered localities in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Central African Republic. <em>C. l. leucorhinus</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of Congo southwards to northern Angola. <em>C. l. cahni</em> is known from Cameroon and Central African Republic. Variation in some dental characters (Bronner 1995) suggests that this taxon may include cryptic species.
40597		habitat	eng	Lowland equatorial and montane forests.
40597		population	eng	No data on abundance.
40597		threats	eng	There is no information available on the major threats to this species.
40600		conservation	eng	Protected in many national and provincial conservation areas. No species-specific conservation actions deemed necessary. Research to clarify status of described forms/subspecies is needed, as some of these may be distinct taxa given that their range largely corresponds with the Western Cape fold mountains which may serve as barriers to gene flow between some populations.
40600		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. Cape Peninsula (Western Cape) eastwards across Cape Flats to Bredasdorp and Swellendam, and northwards along the Atlantic coast to Port Nolloth in Northern Cape. Occurs inland to Ceres, Worcester and Stellenbosch in the south, and Calvinia, Garies and Kamieskroon in the north, but not in the arid Karoo. One specimen (type of <em>C. damarensis</em>) recorded from Damaraland in Namibia is probably a misidentified specimen from Little Namaqualand (Meester <em>et al</em>. 1986).
40600		habitat	eng	Sandy soils in the Fynbos and Nama-Karoo biomes. Recorded from a wide variety of vegetation types, most commonly in Renosterveld, Fynbos and Strandveld Succulent Karoo. Common in parks, gardens and cultivated lands, readily invade lawns. Also forages on beaches, presumably for amphipods and isopods associated with kelp wracks (Bennett and Spinks 1995). Coexists with <em>A. hottentotus</em> at Stellenbosch, but prefers drier, sandier soils (Broom 1907).
40600		population	eng	Common in most habitats, depending on soil friability and invertebrate prey resources; less common on rocky mountain slopes, but nevertheless have still colonized even mountain plateaux. Inferred densities of up to four per hectare in prime habitat.
40600		threats	eng	Natural habitats of this species have undoubtedly been dramatically altered by urbanization, coastal tourism developments, mining for alluvial diamonds and agriculture during the past 350 years, but is not considered a threat as it coexists (indeed even thrives) in close association with humans. Persecuted by gardeners and greenkeepers, regularly caught by domestic dogs and cats, but such mortalities are negligible given the abundance of this widespread species, and its wary nature.
40601		conservation	eng	Present in a number of protected areas across its range.
40601		distribution	eng	Known from scattered localities in central and eastern Africa, with a relict population in Cameroon. <em>C. s. stuhlmanni</em> known from Ruwenzori Mountains along border of Uganda and DR Congo, southwards to Rutshuru and Rukiga district of Rwanda. <em>C. s. fosteri</em> recorded from Mt. Elgon, Uganda and Cherangani Hills, Kenya. <em>C. s. tropicalis</em> ocurs in the Uluguru mountains and Rungwe district, Tanzania. <em>C. s. balsaci</em>, described by Lamotte and Petter (1981), reported from only Mt. Oku, Cameroon.
40601		habitat	eng	Well-drained soils at high-altitudes, from 1,700-3,500 m. Widespread in montane grasslands, bamboo thickets and ericaceous vegetation, as well as Podocarpus and Hagenia/Hypericum woodlands. Prefer light soils with sparse vegetation cover. Less common in heavily grazed grasslands above 3,000 m; avoids exotic plantations (Duncan and Wrangham 1971).
40601		population	eng	Locally common but no quantitative data. Given its wide range, the global population is presumed to be large.
40601		threats	eng	No data, except that they tend to avoid overgrazed areas.
40602		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably found within some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
40602		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in West Africa, Central Africa and East Africa. It ranges from Senegal and southern Mauritania in the west, through the savanna areas of West Africa, and northern Central Africa, to Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia, from here it ranges south into East Africa, ranging as far south as Malawi and southern Zambia, with possible records from northern Mozambique.
40602		habitat	eng	This seemingly little known, but widespread, species inhabits savanna and grassy areas with light undergrowth. Animals form nests in rock crevices, in hollow trees and similar habitats.
40602		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
40602		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
40603		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance of this species. If it is shown to comprise several species, it is possible that some of these might prove to be threatened. Research should be carried out to determine whether or not this species can survive in large-scale oil-palm plantations.
40603		distribution	eng	The Moonrat occurs in the Sundaic region of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand and southern Myanmar. It can be found throughout Borneo (Brunei, Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak), Labuan island (off Sabah), Sumatra, Tebingtinggi island (off the east coast of Sumatra), Peninsular Malaysia, Peninsular Thailand south of 12ºN, and extreme southern Myanmar (Corbet 1988). It has not been reported from Singapore, though it might once have occurred there. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 1,000 m asl.
40603		habitat	eng	The Moonrat prefers primary and secondary lowland forests, including very moist areas such as mangroves and swamp forests. It is also found in hilly forests. The species can also tolerate a certain degree of habitat modification, and can be found in rubber plantations and other cultivated areas. According to Lekagul and McNeely (1977), moonrats prefers wet areas and often enters water.
40603		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known, but it is believed to be relatively common in sutable locations.
40603		threats	eng	Serious forest loss is taking place through much of the range of this species, especially at lower elevations. In particular, forest in being cleared for oil palm plantations, and forests are being burnt in many places. Although these large-scale changes must be having an impact on the species, it is relatively adaptable, and so is probably not seriously threatened at present.
40604		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas.
40604		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland China from about 29'N (i.e. a little south of the Yangtze) north to the Amur Basin and Korea. It may also occur in Sichuan, China (Corbet and Hill, 1992).
40604		habitat	eng	Inhabits different biotopes excluding highlands, extensive marches and cultivated fields. It preferrs valleys and lowlands with mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, with high grass. Usually lives at border line between forest and open spaces. Active mostly during dark. Feeds on earthworms and other ground invertebrates, rarely small vertebrates and fruits.
40604		population	eng	Common species in Russian Far East.
40604		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
40605		conservation	eng	There is no information on any conservation measures in place for this species.
40605		distribution	eng	Found on Rhodes (Greece); also "Asia Minor to Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq and Iran; S Caucasus" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.
40605		distribution	eng	Its global range is Asia Minor to Israel, Syria, Lebanon, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran; and the southern Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean region, <em>Erinaceus concolor</em> occurs on Greece (Rhodes), Anatolian Turkey, Israel, Syria and Lebanon.
40605		habitat	eng	The species' preferred habitat is urban, suburban and agricultural areas to natural vegetation. Hedgehogs are primarily nocturnal, feeding primarily on beetles and earthworms. The duration of pregnancy of <em>E. concolor</em> in captivity is 35 to 36 days and litters were 3-7 young (Zherebtsova 1992).
40605		population	eng	Very little population information is available. It is widespread in Turkey, and considered common in Jordan (Amr 2000).
40605		threats	eng	There are no serious threats to this species at present.
40606		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
40606		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Sahara and the Middle East. In Africa, it is distributed from Mauritania, Western Sahara and Morocco in the west, to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia in the east. In the Middle East, it has been recorded from Syria, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and marginally in Iran, and from most of the Arabian Peninsula. Insular populations occur on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain and Tanb (Persian Gulf). It is also thought to occur on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands through introduction (although it may also have been mistaken for <em>Aletrix algirus</em>) (Stone 1996).
40606		habitat	eng	It is widespread throughout arid desert and dry steppes (Harrison and Bates 1991; Stone 1996). It tends to favour areas where food is more easily available, such as oasis and vegetated wadis (Harrison 1991).
40606		population	eng	This is generally a common species.
40606		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
40607		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. There are no specific conservation measures necessary for this species.
40607		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. The species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.
40607		distribution	eng	<em>Hemiechinus auritus</em> has a global range that extends from the eastern Mediterranean region, through southwest Asia to western Pakistan in the south; and from eastern Ukraine through Mongolia (Gobi desert), to China (Xinjiang).
40607		distribution	eng	Widespread in the steppe zone from Northeast Africa to Central Asia. In Europe it occurs in Southeast Ukraine, the lower Don River and Volga River basin steppes (Russian Federation) and Cis-Caucasus.
40607		habitat	eng	<em>H. auritus</em> inhabits different types of dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. It prefers dry river valleys, gullies, forest shelter belts, abandoned irrigation ditches and shrubby areas, and often settles in oases and around human settlements (sometimes in cultivated habitats). It avoids tugais and high herbage.<br/><br/>This mainly solitary, nocturnal species lives in burrows that it usually digs itself, although sometimes it occupies abandoned burrows of turtles, gerbils, foxes and otters. It hibernates in the winter and may also aestivate in hot, dry weather.
40607		habitat	eng	Inhabits different types of dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. Prefers dry river valleys, gullies, forest shelter belts, abandoned irrigation ditches and shrubby areas. Often settles in oases and around human settlements. Avoids tugais and high herbage. Lives in burrows that it usually digs itself, although sometimes it occupies abandoned burrows of turtles, gerbils, foxes and otters. Active at night. In nothern parts of distribution area hibernates from late October/early November to late March/early April. Heat occurs in April after hibernation. Gestation is about 40 days, females give birth to 3 to 8 pups (5-6 on average). In the European part of the distribution area it usually gives birth once a year, in southern parts often twice.
40607		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species across most of the distribution area, although some marginal populations are fragmented and declining (e.g., in Ukraine).
40607		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species in most of the distribution area, but in marginal parts of its range populations are usually fragmented and often declining. There is a lack of detailed data on population size in the European part of the distribution area, but it is considered Critically Endangered in the Ukraine owing to its very small range and declining trend in that country (I. Zagorodnuik pers. comm. 2006). Since 1950 three fragmented populations have been recorded in Ukraine: one around the Streltsovskie Stepi Nature Reserve (last record about 50 years ago), one record from amateur source found near Lugansk city in 2001/2, and one in the Donetsk Region near shore of Azov sea. The third population is the only stable one and is largest in Ukraine. It is partly covered by the Kamennye Mogily Nature Reserve (I. Zagorodnuik pers. comm.).
40607		threats	eng	No major threats are known for most of the distribution area.
40607		threats	eng	No major threats are known for most of the distribution area. In marginal populations (e.g., Ukraine) it could suffer from habitat loss.
40608		conservation	eng	It is known from Narayan Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary, Desert National Park (India), Lal Suhanra National Park, Kirthar National Park and Indus Game Reserve (Pakistan). Detailed surveys are recommended to determine its distribution and population structure, with general ecological studies also needed (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
40608		distribution	eng	This south Asian species is endemic to Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh) and India (Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh). It is widely distributed occurring up to an elevation of 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
40608		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, semi-fossorial species inhabiting deserts, and semi-deserts close to water bodies and is also found in agricultural fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Roberts 1997).
40608		population	eng	It the most common hedgehog species in Pakistan (Roberts 1997).
40608		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, although some populations might be locally threatened (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40609		conservation	eng	The species is seen in the Narayan Sarobar Wildlife Sanctuary (Gujarat) and Desert National Park (Rajasthan) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Taxonomic, ecological and monitoring studies, surveys and effect of changing habitat on the population structure are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
40609		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it is distributed in Pakistan (largely east of the Indus River in Punjab and Sindh provinces) as well as northwestern India (Rajasthan, Gujarat and a single record from Maharashtra). It is widely distributed in the arid regions of the two countries at an altitudinal range of sea level to 700 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
40609		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and crepescular, semifossorial species occuring in semi-arid and arid habitats, often being found under hedges and bushes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is absent from the dryer parts of Rajasthan it does occur in the extreme eastern part where monsoon influence produces slightly more mesic conditions (Roberts 1997). Largely insectivorous but feeds on frogs, toads, lizards, and fallen fruits (Roberts 1997).
40609		population	eng	It is comparatively uncommon in Pakistan and of very local distribution (Roberts 1997).
40609		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by encroachment of the invasive introduced shrub <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, agricultural expansion into the arid areas that this species inhabits (including the associated construction of canal and irrigation systems). There is some localised hunting for subsistence food and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
40610		conservation	eng	In Pakistan, it has been recorded in Hazarganji National Park, Baluchistan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
40610		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from the Arabian Peninsula and Iran, through southern areas of Central Asia to western South Asia. The distribution is little known on the Arabian Peninsula, although it has been recorded from Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates and on the islands of Tanb and Kharg (to Iran) in the Persian Gulf (Harrison and Bates 1991). Harrison and Bates (1991) suggest that it might be a relict species in the region, largely limited to montane areas. It appears to range over much of Iran. In Central Asia, it is generally limited to more southern parts of the region, occurring in Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and adjacent parts of Tajikistan. In South Asia, most records are from eastern, southern and western Afghanistan (Habibi 2003), with the species widely distributed in many provinces along river Indus in Pakistan up to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40610		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species prefering riverine and moist steppe of semi desert and desert habitats (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).  It appears to prefers clay and loess soils (Habibi 2003).
40610		population	eng	There is little information on the abundance of this species. According to Roberts (1997) the population in Pakistan is declining and it is nowhere plentiful. Habibi (2003) reports on few records of this species in Afghanistan.
40610		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
40611		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas.
40611		distribution	eng	The species ranges widely in southeast Asia. It ranges from southern Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), through eastern and southern Myanmar, most of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, northern Cambodia and most of Thailand, south to Penininsular Malaysia, Tioman (Malaysia), Sumatra (mainly in the mountain chain), Java, and Borneo (Brunei, northern Kalimantan, Sabah and northern Sarawak) (Ruedi <em>et al</em>. 1994; Ruedi and Fumagalli 1996). It is generally, though not always, found in hilly areas. A survey conducted by Nor (2001) on Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia, found individuals of this species at 1,700 m asl and higher. In other areas, such as in Sumatra, the species can be found as high as 3,000 m asl, while on the Asian mainland it has been found as low as 90 m asl.
40611		habitat	eng	This species prefers humid montane habitats, but it is also found in lowland forests. Individuals found on the Bolaven Plateau in southern Lao PDR were living in degraded scrubland, and the species appears to be adaptable to a number of anthropogenic habitats. These animals find shelter in nests of dead leaves located in hollow structures on the ground and under rocks. The diet is predominately composed of invertebrates, including insects and earthworms, but it can also feed on fruits. The species breeds throughout the year, giving birth to up to three young. The lifespan does not usually exceed two years.
40611		population	eng	This is a common species in many places. Its population is probably stable, as it is adaptable to anthropogenic habitats.
40611		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
40612		conservation	eng	Listed as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997). Approximately 7% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. Listed as a rare species in Russia and protected in Daurskii State Reserve. Conservation measures as expanding of protected areas, protection against fires, insecticides and poison use prohibition are required.<br/>Further research and public awareness is required to aid conservation of this species.
40612		distribution	eng	Occurs in a semi-arid zone in North East China, ranging from Inner Mongolia to West Manchuria, northeast Mongolia and the Transbaikalia and upper Amur Basin in Russia. Steppe and forest-steppe habitats in north-eastern Mongolia, along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range, Orhon and Selenge river basins in north-eastern Hangai Mountain Range (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989), Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia. Recently recorded in northern portions of Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi.
40612		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppe and forest steppe, in south taiga also occurs in grassland areas, associated with birch, poplar, larch, willow, Vaccinium spp, pea shrubs and Poaceae. Often found near human settelments, in agricultural fields. Higher density found near water, at places with good food sources and mixed biotopes. Inhabits abandoned burrows of other species such as marmots, susliks and ground squirrels, and hibernates through the winter until April. <br/>Breeds once per year in June/July. Litter size is 3 to 7 pups, youngs become independent at 7-8 weeks old. Youngs cover long distances during depersal before hibernation. Base of the diet are beetles, orthopteroids and other invertebrates. Sometimes feeds on small reptiles, bird eggs and nestlings, small rodents and carrion. Main predator is badger, rarely wolf, fox, eagle, and eagle owl.<br/>(Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Pavlinov, 2002).
40612		population	eng	There is no reliable data on population size available, but it is thought to be abundant with a wide range in Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.). In Russia it is rare protected species. Evident population decrease happened in 1960s due to poisoning of rodent plague carriers. Current population trend is stable, though there are no data on precise population size. In steppe zone of Chita region at the beginning of breeding period abundance is 1 - 1.5 animals per 10 ha. High density found near human settlements because of lower predator pressure and higher food availability.
40612		threats	eng	Habitat loss through increased mining activities, and grazing by increasing livestock numbers may create habitat degradation. Occasional accidental vehicular mortality also constitutes a low level threat. Poisoning against plague carriers doesn't occur at large scales, but still occurs locally due to local people's initiatives.
40613		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is probably present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, habitat status, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for liusting as Vulnerable B1ab(i,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
40613		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the province of Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 1,500-3,000 m asl (Jiang <em>et al.</em> 2003).
40613		habitat	eng	This species typically occurs in riparian habitats ranging from coniferous forests to the alpine zone, but sometimes occupies secondary forest away from streams (Smith and Xie 2008).
40613		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
40613		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agriculture, urban development and logging are a threat to the species' habitat.
40614		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of South Asian populations are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40614		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species is found in northern South Asia, central to southeast China, and northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from India (Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Guizhou, Beijing, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hubei, Sichuan, Ningxia and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present on the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam (Francis 2008). It is found at altitudes of 800 to 1,500 m asl in the Himalayas (Corbet and Hill 1992).
40614		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic animal that is generally associated with clear streams in temperate evergreen forests. It inhabits burrows on the banks or near streams (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008).
40614		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
40614		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In Nepal, habitat loss due to agriculture expansion, selective logging, harvesting for medical use, poisoning, pest control activities and decline in prey species are some threats to the species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
40615		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in numerous protected areas.
40615		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Honshu and Kyushu in Japan, and occurs primarily above 300 m asl in southern regions, and in the northern regions nearly from sea level.
40615		habitat	eng	It favours rapid streams (and therefore streams usually at high elevations), with abundant boulders, large rocks or fallen logs.
40615		population	eng	It has been recorded from more than half of all survey sites ranging all over Honshu, but only a quarter of survey sites on Kyushu; thus, the species is believed to be common on Honshu, while the population in Kyushu appears smaller and fragmented.
40615		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although small dam construction and the paving of river embankments is a problem across the range.
40616		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
40616		distribution	eng	This species distribution ranges widely in China, where it is found in southeastern Xizang (Tibet), northern and western Yunnan, Sichuan, southern Qinghai, and southern Gansu (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It also extends into northern Myanmar, and might possibly occur in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India, though there are not records. Its elevational range is 1,570-3,500 m asl.
40616		habitat	eng	This species is semi-aquatic (Lunde and Musser 2002). In China it occurs in high-altitude areas between 1,700-3,500 m asl, where it is found in or adjacent to cool mountain streams, often in forest. In Myanmar, individuals were recorded in high altitudes between 1,570-3,100 m asl. Very little is known about this species, but it is likely to be altitudinally allopatric with the Himalayan Water Shrew, although they are geographically sympatric. It is morphologically distinct from other members of its genus, as it lacks the brown body color, and is predominantly grey.
40616		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. However, it is believed to be reasonably common in suitable habitat.
40616		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range. It is believed to be susceptible to stream degradation.
40617		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
40617		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura aleksandrisi</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region; it is restricted to Cyrenaica in Libya. It is found from sea level up to 200 to 300 m.
40617		habitat	eng	Suitable habitat includes Mediterranean vegetation, including littoral and rocky areas. It is likely to be found in degraded habitats. A terrestrial and nocturnal species.
40617		population	eng	At least three surveys have been carried out, all of which have collected <em>C. aleksandrisi</em>. Therefore, it is not thought to be extremely rare. More than 100 skulls have been found in owl pellets.
40617		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present. The species could be affected by habitat loss.
40618		conservation	eng	In a preliminary status of the terrestrial mammals of Oman, the species was considered Data Deficient (Fisher 1999). No specific conservation measures are known.
40618		distribution	eng	Occurs in the southern Arabian Peninsula, specifically Yemen and Oman (including the exclave of Musandam, which is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates).
40618		habitat	eng	"Coastal plains" (Hutterer 2005).
40618		population	eng	Population size and trends have not been quantified, but the population does not appear to be declining.
40618		threats	eng	Unknown.
40619		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas (eg. Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal, India). General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40619		distribution	eng	This widespread Asian species ranges from India and perhaps Pakistan in the west of its range, through much of eastern China and mainland Southeast Asia. It is present on the islands of Hainan and Taiwan. In the Philippines, the species was believed to be restricted to Batan Island (Heaney and Ruedi 1994), however, a 2004 survey recorded the species from Calayan Island and the Babuyan Islands (Oliveros <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is unclear if the species is present on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is found from sea level up to 3,000 m asl.
40619		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide variety of habitats including lowland and montane tropical and subtropical moist forest, bamboo forest, herbaceous vegetation, scrubland, foothills of Terai and Babbar regions (South Asia). It can be found in secondary forest close to rivers (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
40619		population	eng	This species is generally abundant and stable, although there have been some localised population declines. It is often the most common shrew present in any given habitat throughout its range.
40619		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia it is locally threatened by habitat loss and invasive species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
40620		conservation	eng	Has been reported from several protected sites in Gabon (including the newly established Minkebe Forest) and the Central African Republic. Additional taxonomic studies are needed to better understand the validity of this species.
40620		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from southern Cameroon to northern and central Gabon. Although it has additionally been reported from southeastern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and adjacent parts of Congo. However, it is difficult to define a distribution because of the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this taxon.
40620		habitat	eng	This species is associated with primary lowland forest, and is not considered to be present in degraded areas.
40620		population	eng	This species is relatively common.
40620		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened by deforestation
40621		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
40621		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura bottegi</em> has been recorded from sites in Ethiopia (including the type locality of 'north-east of Lake Turkana, "between Badditu and Dime"' [Hutterer 2005]) and a single locality in northern Kenya (Marsabit). There are taxonomic uncertainties related to this species which need to be resolved. All populations previously recorded in West Africa have been found to be other species such as <em>Crocidura obscurior</em> and <em>Crocidura eburnea</em>. It has been recorded at an elevation of 1,750 m asl.
40621		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
40621		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
40621		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
40622		conservation	eng	In Ghana, one of the specimens was collected from the Adumanya Sacred Grove which is a traditionally protected 1.5 ha remnant of forest near Dodowa on the Accra Plains (Decher <em>et al.</em> 1997). It has also been found at the Draw River Forest Reserve in south-west Ghana. It may be present in Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, but the specimen from there is unconfirmed. There is a need to protect remaining patches of suitable habitat for this species.
40622		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in Nigeria and has also been recorded in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia and Guinea. It is thought that this species may also occur in Sierra Leone (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Ghana, one of the specimens was collected from the Adumanya Sacred Grove which is a traditionally protected 1.5 ha remnant of forest near Dodowa on the Accra Plains (Decher <em>et al.</em> 1997). Two other specimens where collected at the Draw River Forest Reserve in southwestern Ghana by McCullough <em>et al.</em> (2005). The Nigerian specimens are described by Hutterer and Happold (1983).  <em>C. buettikoferi </em> occurs at elevations from near sea-level, up to a few hundred metres.
40622		habitat	eng	<em>C. buettikoferi</em> is restricted to patches of undisturbed primary lowland forest. Its habitat is very fragmented into isolated patches. The fact that this species has been collected from both the dry semideciduous forest of the Adumanya Sacred Grove on the Accra Plains and the Draw River Forest Reserve which is located within the Wet Evergreen Zone indicates that this species is able to tolerate a range of climatic conditions (Decher pers. comm.).
40622		population	eng	This species is thought to be uncommon throughout its range.
40622		threats	eng	This main threat facing this species is habitat loss. The forest patches it inhabits can also be invaded by other more common shrew species which can become an additional threat as competitors to <em>C.buettikoferi</em>.
40623		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as a subspecies of <em>Crocidura russula</em>). Further research is required to determine population status and trends and to investigate potential threats.
40623		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura pachyura</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region. It occurs on the islands of Ibiza (Spain), and Sardinia and Pantelleria (Italy). It also occurs in North Africa, where its range is poorly known but includes Tunisia and eastern Algeria (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Its range in Algeria may extend further west than is shown on the map (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The Pantelleria population may be a separate subspecies (<em>cossyrensis</em>). It occurs from sea level to 800-1,000 m above sea level (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). Populations on the islands are certainly the result of introductions from the mainland (prior to 1500 A.D. for Sardinia at least) (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
40623		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Ibiza (Spain), and Sardinia and Pantelleria (Italy). It also occurs in North Africa, where its range is poorly known but includes Tunisia and eastern Algeria (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The Pantelleria population may be a separate subspecies (<em>cossyrensis</em>). It occurs from sea level to 800-1,000 m above sea level (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
40623		habitat	eng	<em>C. pachyura</em> occupies a very wide range of habitats on Sardinia (R. Hutterer pers comm. 2007). It occurs in a variety of habitats including pastures, cultivated fields, low shrubland, gardens, and old agricultural terraces with dry-stone walls (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
40623		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats including pastures, cultivated fields, low shrubland, gardens, and old agricultural terraces with dry-stone walls.
40623		population	eng	Little is known about population size and trends for this species, but it is not rare (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). On Sardinia it is common and widespread (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
40623		population	eng	Little is known about population size and trends in this species, but it is not rare (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
40623		threats	eng	No serious threats are known at present, although accidental poisoning with pesticides may be a problem. The population on Pantelleria may be threatened because of its highly restricted range.
40623		threats	eng	No serious threats are known at present, although accidental poisoning with pesticides may be a problem. The population on Pantelleria may be threatened because of its highly restricted range (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
40624		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Gambari Forest Reserve (Happold 1997) and is presumably present in a number of West African protected areas. Further research is needed into the range of both this species and the partially sympatric <em>Crocidura jouvenetae</em>. This is a widespread and common species of no immediate conservation concern.
40624		distribution	eng	Hutterer (2005) records this West African species as probably ranging through lowland forest from Guinea to western Cameroon. Although it is largely a lowland species, there is a record from Mount Cameroon.
40624		habitat	eng	In Nigeria, this species has been recorded from primary lowland tropical moist forest, or relict forests in derived savanna, and is possibly present in tree plantations (Hutterer and Happold 1983; Happold 1987; Decher <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is a terrestrial species that searches through leaf litter and siimilar ground cover for food (Happold 1987).
40624		population	eng	This is thought to be the commonest shrew in Nigerian rainforest (Happold 1975; Happold 1987). Comprised 70% of the two species of shrew captured during a three-year study in the Gambari Forest Reserve, Nigeria (Hutterer and Happold 1983).
40624		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
40625		conservation	eng	This species is found in several well-protected areas. It is present in at least ten protected areas in Namibia.
40625		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura cyanea is a southern African species which occurs in Angola, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho (recorded from Mahlanapeng and Sehonghong [Lynch 1994]), Swaziland, Zambia (where the species overlaps in range with <em>C. parvipes), Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It may also be present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi and Tanzania but its presence has not been confirmed. Records from Kenya and to the north of this country are of <em>C. parvipes</em>. <em>Crocidura cyanea is found from sea level to 2,000 m asl.
40625		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of montane grasslands and temperate and subtropical forests. In Namibia, a population has been found inhabiting a cave, where they feed on cave invertebrates and possibly dead bats (Marais and Irish 1990).
40625		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in certain areas.
40625		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
40626		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas in Gabon, Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species, and into the taxonomic status of populations of <em>Crocidura</em> from west Africa currently allocated to this species.
40626		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura denti has a disjunct distribution in Central and West Africa. In Central Africa, it is found in the mountains of Cameroon, the Congo basin including the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the type locality is Ituri forest), Gabon and Uganda (and possibly Congo and Central African Republic). There are isolated records of this species from mountain tops in West Africa from Guinea and Sierra Leone (at Mount Loma), however, it is unclear whether these records truly represent <em>C. denti because of taxonomic difficulties with this species (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002). It might be present near Lake Tana in Ethiopia, however, this needs confirmation. Its elevational range is approximately 500 to 1,500 m asl (Mount Oku, Cameroon).
40626		habitat	eng	This species is found in subtropical and tropical moist lowland forest and moist savanna. It is not known if it can persist in secondary habitats.
40626		population	eng	There in no population information available for this species.
40626		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats as a whole to this species.
40627		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in protected areas.
40627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Mishima Island, Oki Islands, Sado Island, Izu Islands, Tane Island, Yaku Island, Nakanoshima Island (Tokara Islands), Okinoshima Island (Fukuoka Prefecture) and other small islands in Japan. Populations on Hokkaido and Cheju Island (Republic of Korea) are introduced from northern Honshu and northern Kyushu, respectively (Ohdachi <em>et al.</em> 2004). It occurs from sea level up to less than 1,000 m asl.
40627		habitat	eng	It is found along river banks, waterfronts, and in bushes around cultivated lands at low-lying elevations (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
40627		population	eng	It is a common species.
40627		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
40628		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas including the Kongana Forest in southern Central African Republic, Korup National Park in Cameroon and Kibira National Park in Burundi.
40628		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura dolichura is generally distributed in western West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Nigeria, Cameroon (Mount Cameroon and Korup National Park), Equatorial Guinea (Bioko and Rio Muni), the Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic of the Congo and Uganda (including the Ruwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable Forest), Burundi (Kibira National Park) and possibly Rwanda. It is generally a lowland species, however, in West Africa it reaches elevations of up to 1,500 m asl, and can be found up to 2,310 m asl in the eastern parts of its range (Kibira National Park).</em>
40628		habitat	eng	This species is associated with both lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It is a climbing shrew that probably uses its long tail for balancing (Happold 1987).
40628		population	eng	This species is never abundant, but it is widely distributed. The species is infrequently found in surveys.
40628		threats	eng	There is some localised habitat loss over much of this species range. In eastern parts of the species range, people displaced by social instability have established settlements within the forest.
40629		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little known species.
40629		distribution	eng	<p><em>This species is found in the forest-savanna border of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, and possibly <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The Nigerian records, which are based on specimens recovered from owl pellets, might be misidentifications (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Adiopodoume (type locality) and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Taï</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, and from Sérédou in upper <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</em><em></em></p>
40629		habitat	eng	<em>C. douceti is a semi-arboreal species that inhabits the inner parts of primary forests. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
40629		population	eng	This species occurs at very low densities.
40629		threats	eng	The current threats to this species are not well known, but presumably include general deforestation.
40630		conservation	eng	This species is presumably present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
40630		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern and central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005).
40630		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and montane rain forests. It can tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, and can be found in degraded and sedondary forests, and scrubland at lower elevations.
40630		population	eng	This species is common above 1,000 m asl.
40630		threats	eng	Habitat loss from clearing of primary rainforests, quarrying, and conversion to agriculture can threaten local populations of this species.
40631		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas.
40631		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central and southern China and most of mainland Southeast Asia. The species has been recorded from India, however, the distribution in this country is unclear (Sanjay Molur pers. comm.) and it is not mapped here.
40631		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats, and has been recorded from primary and degraded tropical moist forest, open disturbed areas, and possibly from drier habitats (Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008).
40631		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
40631		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
40632		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species wide range, it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed.
40632		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura fulvastra</em> is found discontinuously from Mali in the east to Kenya and Ethiopia, through the Sudan savanna zone. It is largely restricted to dry, savanna-filled valleys. A mummified specimen was found in Thebes, Egypt, but this species is now extinct in that area.
40632		habitat	eng	<em>C.fulvastra</em> occurs in Sudan savanna habitats and in arid parts of Kenya.
40632		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
40632		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this widespread species.
40633		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It seems probable that the species is present within many protected areas.
40633		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura fuscomurina</em>is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal, through West African and Central Africa to southern Sudan and Ethiopia in the east, and from here into southern Africa, ranging as far south as northeastern South Africa
40633		habitat	eng	In southern part of its range, this species tends to prefer drier regions and occurs in dry savanna, grasslands and the Kalahari. In the eastern part of its range it is found in woodland and moist bush savanna.
40633		population	eng	This species is relatively common locally.
40633		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
40635		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of possible threats on this species.
40635		distribution	eng	There have been many sightings at widespread locations in the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2003). The distribution is not fully known, but it appears to be limited to the Indo-Pacific region (Culik 2004). The collected specimens are from Australia, Somalia, South Africa, the Maldives, Kenya, the Philippines, Taiwan and Japan. These beaked whales are relatively infrequently seen in the eastern tropical Pacific and may be more common in the western Pacific. They also appear to be more common in the western Indian Ocean, especially around the Maldives archipelago (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2006).
40635		habitat	eng	The sightings of this species come from scattered locations, many in deep, oceanic waters, in the tropical to subtropical Indo-Pacific. Sightings have occurred in areas with surface water temperatures of 21-31°C.<br/><br/>Nothing is known of its feeding habits, except for the stomach contents of a single specimen from Japan (Yamada 2003). These suggested that the species feeds primarily on cephalopods, like other beaked whales.
40635		population	eng	While it is certainly not the rarest of beaked whales, the paucity of recent sightings of Longman’s beaked whales indicate that it is not particularly common either. The only estimates of abundance available are of 1,007 individuals (CV=126%) in the waters around Hawaii (Barlow 2006), and 291 (CV=100%) in the eastern North Pacific (Ferguson and Barlow 2001).<br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.
40635		threats	eng	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this naturally rare cetacean.<br/><br/>It is unknown if military, seismic or other loud noise-producing human activities resulted in the live stranding of a possible mother/calf pair in NE Taiwan (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, “bubble-like lesions” were reported in at least one of these whales by Yang <em>et al</em> (2008). There is some evidence from Sri Lanka for occasional incidental or directed takes of animals identified as ‘bottlenose whales’ which are likely to be <em>Indopacetus</em> (Dayaratne and Joseph 1993).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species of beaked whales indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
40636		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas. Surveys should be conducted in appropriate habitat for other populations, and monitoring of existing populations is very important. Fire management is needed in national parks.
40636		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia. It is most abundant in the Western Arnhem Land escarpment, but it also occurs on Marchinbar Island, in the Table Top Range, and at Wollogorang Station (Woolley 2008).
40636		habitat	eng	It is found in rugged, or rocky, areas of sandstone with a vegetation covering of open eucalypt woodland and perennial grasses (Woolley 2008). It might move into deciduous vine thickets during the dry season (Woolley 2008). Females give birth to up to four or five young annually (Woolley 2008).
40636		population	eng	The species is locally common within its range, but it is declining in some areas. The global population is less than 10,000 mature individuals. There have been 20-30% declines at 2 sites, and the species was completely lost from another site.
40636		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not well known. The species' range is subject to frequent fires, which are a major threat. Cane toads might be a threat.
40637		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, including: Tangkoko-DuaSudara Nature Reserve, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Morowali National Park, and a host of forest reserves. This species is nominally protected by Indonesian law.
40637		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia, and the adjacent Indonesian islands of Butung, the Peleng Islands, the Togian Islands, and possibly Muna (Flannery 1995). It ranges from sea level to over 600 m asl.
40637		habitat	eng	It is typically found in undisturbed tropical lowland moist forests. This species does not readily use disturbed habitats, thus it is not usually found in gardens or plantations (M. Kinnaird pers. comm.). It is a largely diurnal, arboreal species that is often found in pairs. Its diet consists of a variety of leaves, preferring young leaves, and like many other arboreal folivores it spends much of its day resting in order to digest (Dwiyahreni <em>et al.</em> 1999).
40637		population	eng	It is widespread and common in suitable habitat. A density estimate (based on line transects) of 2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> was reported for North Sulawesi in the 1993-1994 (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1996). This species, however, was at one time much more plentiful. From 1979-1994, there had been a 95% decline in Tangkoko-DuaSudara Nature Reserve due to hunting and this decline may be indicative of trends for North Sulawesi (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1996). This decline is only getting worse due to hunting and the pet trade (M. Kinnaird pers. comm.).
40637		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to clearance of forest for small-scale agriculture and through large-scale logging. It is also heavily hunted by local people for food, and collected for the pet trade.
40638		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a couple of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40638		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is widespread throughout the lowland hill forests in the central region of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), from the Vogelkop Peninsula (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) in the east. It is also present on the islands of Salawati and Yapen (Indonesia). It has been recorded between sea level and 1,300 m asl.
40638		habitat	eng	It occurs in both primary and secondary lowland tropical hill forest. Females have been collected with between one and three young; the species is thought to breed throughout the year (Flannery 1995a).
40638		population	eng	This species is generally rare throughout its range. It is rarer at higher elevations.
40638		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is threatened by overhunting for food by local people in about 25% of its range. It is also threatened to some degree by habitat loss through conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural use and general human encroachment.
40639		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40639		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Guinea, where it occurs in the south-east portion of the island (Papua New Guinea).
40639		habitat	eng	It is a tropical forest species found in both primary and disturbed habitats. Animals nest in dreys and tree hollows.
40639		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
40639		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known. It is presumably hunted for food by local people.
40640		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40640		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges from 1,500 to 3,600 m asl.
40640		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane primary tropical forest. Animals may use degraded forest but not regrowth. This species has a wide diet (Flannery 1995). Animals build dreys in which they spend the day (Flannery 1995).
40640		population	eng	It is highly abundant in some areas.
40640		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food by local people, however, the highlands where it occurs are least affected by hunting as people seldom visit these areas.
40641		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a national park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
40641		distribution	eng	This little-known species is restricted to the Arfak mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Province, Indonesia on the island of New Guinea. It is known from a handful of localities, but there is reason to believe that this species occurs throughout the Arfaks. It ranges between 750 m and 1,900 m asl.
40641		habitat	eng	It has been found in lower primary montane mossy forest. Little more is known about the natural history of this species.
40641		population	eng	This species is rare. Less than 10 specimens have been collected.
40641		threats	eng	It is threatened by hunting for food by local people, and also by conversion of suitable forest habitat to cultivated land.
40642		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous, and large, protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecolopical Station (207,370 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000 ha)<br/>Kaw Reserved Area  (76,800 ha) <br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaietur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Monding Nature Reserve (12,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Wia-wia Nature Reserve (36,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
40642		distribution	eng	<em>Alouatta macconnelli</em> occurs throughout a large part of the Guiana Shield, north of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Negro and east and south of the Rio Orinoco (Gregorin 2006). It would seem that it occurs on the Ilha Tupinambarana, between the rios Tapajós and Madeira south the Rio Amazonas, along with <em>Alouatta nigerrima</em> (Gregorin 2006). The distribution and taxonomy in Brazil were discussed by Gregorin (2006), and the distribution in Venezuela by Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987).
40642		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary lowland rain forest, gallery forest, and dry deciduous forest. In Suriname, <em>A. macconnelli</em> is found most often in high rain forest, but occurs in many other forest types as well, including riverbank high forest, marsh forest (creek forest and Mora forest), swamp forest, <em>Pterocarpus</em>-<em>Tabebuia </em>swamp, savanna forest (including <em>Eperua falcata</em> forest), mountain savanna forest and ridge forest. It is also sometimes seen in liana forest, in swamp scrub and mangrove forest, although it appears to be quite rare in these formations (Mittermeier 1977). In Guyana, it is one of the commonest species along rivers (Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> 1975). Kinzey <em>et al</em>. (1988) reported it to be common in the areas they surveyed in the eastern part of the state of Bolívar in Venezuela (Río Caroni and Río Supamo), and elsewhere in the country it is known from secondary forests, highly seasonal semi-deciduous forests, gallery forests and mangrove forest, as well as forest tracts in the llanos (Neville <em>et al.</em> 1988). Howlers spend most of their time in the middle to upper canopy, although they will use all levels, and may even go to the ground to cover short distances between trees.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are frugivore-folivores. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993). The red howlers (<em>A. seniculus</em>, <em>A. macconnelli</em>, <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. puruensis</em>, and <em>A. sara</em>) have the largest voice boxes and the deepest roars, while the Mexican, Central American and northern Colombian mantled howlers, <em>A. palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em>, have the smallest, and their howls are more high pitched as a result.<br/> <br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>The diet of <em>A. macconnelli</em> has been studied by Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) in Suriname and more recently during a long-term study in the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana (Julliot and Sabatier 1993; Julliot 1994a,b, 1996a,b). It feeds mainly on soft parts of many different kinds of fruits, as well as flowers and young leaves.  Also included in the diet are mature leaves, immature fruits, moss, bark, and the soil of termitaria. Julliot and Sabatier (1993) recorded the use of 195 plant species from 47 families. Seeds are ingested, but only rarely eaten. As a result <em>Alouatta</em>, like <em>Ateles</em>, is an important seed disperser. Julliot (1996a) found that <em>A. macconnelli</em> dispersed the seeds of more than 95% of more than 100 plant species (especially Sapotaceae) from which they ate fruit over the two years of her observations. <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata</em> may form large groups of more than 40 individuals, with a number of breeding males but group sizes can be smaller, averaging 14. For the other species, 14 is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. In Suriname, <em>A. macconnelli</em> lives in small groups that usually include one adult male, one or more adult females and one or more juveniles and infants. Twenty-four groups counted in various parts of Suriname ranged in size from 2-8 and averaged 4.25 animals per group (Mittermeier, 1977).  In the largest group observed (eight animals), one of the two adult males was definitely peripheral. Husson (1957) mentions groups of 5-6 in Suriname, and in French Guiana, Julliot (1992) studied a group over two years which varied from 6-8 individuals. In Mittermeier’s (1977) study, the home ranges for three groups in the Voltzberg study area on which adequate data are available were 6 ha, 10 ha and 11 ha over a one-year period. Julliot’s (1992) study group in French Guiana had a larger home range, however, encompassing 45 ha over two years.<br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. In Suriname, newborn infants have been seen in March, April, and November, and January (Mittermeier, 1977). Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days.  Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 5.2-7.1 kg (mean 6.2 kg, n=4), adult female weight 4.1-5.0 kg (mean 4.5 kg, n=3) (Ford and Davis 1992).
40642		population	eng	The population density of <em>A. macconnelli</em> at the Voltzberg study area in Suriname has been estimated at 17 individuals/km² (Mittermeier 1977). In Guyana, Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) registered an overall density of 7.5 animals/km², but local densities varied from 4.7-63.8 individuals/km². The population density estimated over nine years at the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana was 18.9 individuals/km², having the largest biomass of the primate community there at 144.6 kg/km² (Guillotin <em>et al</em>. 1994). More recent surveys at Nouragues by Kessler (1998) provided density estimates of 11-15 individuals/km² or 2-3 groups/km².
40642		threats	eng	There are no major range-wide threats, but they are affected locally by some hunting, and, in the southern part of its range, there is deforestation due to cattle ranching.
40643		conservation	eng	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al</em>., 1990; Fonseca <em>et al</em>., 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the state of Minas Gerais (Machado <em>et al.,</em> 1998). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The Una Biological Reserve (18,500 ha), created to protect <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, has an estimated population of about 400-450 animals, and a key strategy which has guided conservation efforts over the last decade has been to promote the preservation of the forests adjacent to the Reserve (Alger and Araújo 1996; Alger <em>et al</em>. 1996; Blanes and Mallinson 1997; Santos and Blanes 1997, 1999). Besides the Una Biological Reserve, this species also occurs in: Serra sa Lontras National Park (16,800 ha), Una Wildlife Refuge (23,000 ha), Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (495 ha), and Canavieiras Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (500 ha). <br/><br/>There is a well-managed captive breeding programme for <em>L. chrysomelas</em> with a good founder stock (Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although not currently contributing directly to the conservation of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins in the wild, the captive population of <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, which arose from animals confiscated from illegal trade in the 1980s (Mallinson 1984; Konstant 1986), is an important genetic reservoir: a guarantee of a portion of the genetic variation in this species, while the wild populations continue to decline with ongoing deforestation.
40643		distribution	eng	A species of the Atlantic forest, in forest fragments in the state of Bahia, and at least formerly in extreme northeastern Minas Gerais. The distribution of <em>L. chrysomelas</em> originally extended between the Rio de Contas (northern limit) and the Rio Pardo (southern limit) in southern Bahia (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1977), but it has also been found south of the Rio Pardo along its middle reaches to the Rio Jequitinhonha on the border between the states of Bahia and Minas Gerais; probably a recent range extension due to forest destruction and the silting of the Rio Pardo (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988, 1991/1992). In the north-west, it occurs on both banks of the lower Rio Gongoji, a southern tributary of the Rio de Contas, but along its middle reaches, it is limited to the west of the river, and to the west of the Rio Novo. It crosses the Rio Gongoji, westward, again at its headwaters, occurring in the basin of the Rio Catolé Grande, a northern tributary of the Rio Pardo, which forms the westernmost extent of its range (Pinto and Rylands 1997). The western limits are defined by vegetational changes (mesophytic forest changing to liana forest in the west of its range) associated with an increase in altitude approaching the plateau of Vitoria da Conquista. The westernmost point is about 150 km from the coast. To the south, <em>L. chrysomelas</em> crosses the Rio Pardo, occurring in the lower basin of the Rio Maiquinique and east of the Córrego Pau Grande, south to the Rio Jequitinhonha in extreme north-east Minas Gerais (Pinto and Rylands 1997). The range of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin extends over approximately 19,000 km².<br/><br/>There are two lacunae in the range, one in the north near the coast south of the lower Rio de Contas to the mouth of the Rio Ilhéus, and the other between the lower reaches of the Rio Pardo and the Rio Jequitinhonha (Pinto and Tavares 1994; Pinto and Rylands 1997). Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier (1973, 1977) argued that the original range of <em>L. chrysomelas</em> extended south only to the Rio Pardo, and that deforestation and the silting up of the river (see Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996) has resulted in lion tamarins crossing it along its middle reaches in recent times (the last century), thus explaining its presence there today, and its absence between the Jequitinhonha and Pardo downriver, further east. There is no obvious explanation for the absence of <em>L. chrysomelas</em> between the Rio de Contas and Ilhéus to the north-east of its range.
40643		habitat	eng	Lowland seasonal rain forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil, <em>restinga</em> and white sand piaçava forest, and secondary forest. Also know to use cabruca - cacao plantations which are shaded with some few native trees remaining from the original forest. They have been observed in secondary growth forest in abandoned rubber plantations, but evidently always require old-growth forest for its abundance of tree holes, which they use as sleeping sites, and epiphytic bromeliads, which are key foraging sites. Lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973). Near the coast, in the cocoa growing region, there is no distinct dry season wth rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm a year (the heaviest rains are from March to June), but in the west of their range the forests are mesophytic with a distinct dry season, and in some areas the forests are semideciduous, with rainfall as low as 1,000 mm a year (Rylands 1989; Pinto and Rylands 1997). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects (see Rylands 1993; Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a).<br/><br/>Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the behavioural ecology of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callithrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads. Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. Four groups observed by Rylands (1989) had a mean size of 6.7 (range 5-8) individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). A group studied by Rylands (1982, 1989) in the Lemos Maia Experimental Station, Una, used a home range of about 40 ha. Home ranges in the Una Biological Reserve were found to be larger, from 90 to more than 100 ha (Dietz <em>et al</em>. 1996). The smaller home range of the group in Lemos Maia may have have been due to a higher availability of food due to surrounding secondary forest. <br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male 620 g (n=2) (Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984)<br/>Adult female 535 g (n=6) (Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984).
40643		population	eng	The total wild population is estimated at 6,000-15,000 animals (Pinto 1994; Pinto and Rylands 1997). The estimated population in the Una Biological Reserve (7,059 ha) is about 400-450 individuals.<br/><br/>Recorded population densities include 5.0 individuals/km² in the Una Biological Reserve (Dietz <em>et al.</em> 1996), and 5.0-17.0 individuals/km² or 0.90-3.0 groups/km² in Lemos Maia Experimental Sytation, Una, Bahia (Rylands, 1982, 1989).
40643		threats	eng	With records of over 100 localities where <em>L. chrysomelas</em> still occur through the region bounded by the Rio de Contas in the north and the Rio Jequitinhonha in the south, more populations remain than of all the other three lion tamarin species combined. However, the remaining forests are being destroyed at an unprecedented rate for the region and the populations surviving are seriously depleted and fragmented. An important aspect which has contributed to the more favourable situation of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin is the traditional and fairly widespread use of the “cabruca” system for shading cacao trees. Some of the original canopy trees are left standing, and this allows for connectivity between forest patches. If well managed, this could be an important management tool for future conservation efforts. <br/><br/>Threats to Golden-headed Lion Tamarins come from socio-economic transformations resulting from the difficulties of the cocoa industry (low prices and disease epidemics), that have dominated the region over the last 15 years, resulting in the expansion of alternative crops, notably African palm oil and coconuts (Alger and Caldas 1994). In the west of its range, the forest is increasingly destroyed and fragmented as a result of cattle ranching (Pinto 1994; Pinto and Rylands 1997).<br/><br/>A study by Dietz <em>et a</em>l. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third. There is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, most especially in the western half of its range where forest fragmentation is extreme (Pinto and Rylands, 1997).
40644		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I and on the US Endangered Species List.<br/><br/>The conservation and management of this species (<em>in situ </em>and <em>ex situ</em>) is overseen by the Committee for the Conservation and Management of Amazonian Primates, coordinated by the Center for the Protection of Brazilian Primates (<em>Centro de Protecao de Primatas Brasileiros – CPB</em>) of the <em>Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade - ICMBIO</em> of the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (Baker and Bampi 1999; Oliveira <em>et al.</em>  2005).<br/><br/>This species is recorded from a number of protected areas, including: <br/>Sumauma State Park<br/>Rio Negro State Park<br/>Sauim-castanheiras Wildlife Refuce (97 ha)<br/>Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) (10,000 ha)<br/>Walter Egler Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) (630 ha). <br/>Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve<br/>Margem Esquerda do Rio Negro Environmemtal Protection Area - Tarumã-Açú/Tarumã-mirim Sector<br/><br/>A very important reserved area, the largest for the species, is a 115,000-ha forest just east of Manaus that is owned by the military - the Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (CIGS). There is just a small corridor of forest remaining that connects the east side of the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve with the area of CIGS. The Adolfo Ducke Reserve is otherwise now completely isolated.<br/><br/>The main areas of the urban district of Manaus where <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> still survives are the Mindu Municipal Park (26.5 ha), the campus of the Fundação Universidade do Amazonas (670 ha), around the two airports of Manaus, Eduardo Gomes (800 ha) and Ponte Pelada (57.6 ha), in the worker's country clubs of SESCI (49.5 ha) and SESI (100 ha), on the campus of the Instituto Nacuonal de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA) (14 ha), and around the Manaus military zoo (1ºBIS/CIGS).<br/><br/>There is a captive breedng programme (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2005), derived laergely from pied tamarins from the Rio de Janeior Primnate Centre (CPRJ) and the Universität Bielefeld, Germany. All of the pied tamarins are registered as the property of the Brazilian government. The studbook of 2004 (31 December 2004), recorded 117 pied tamarins in captivity in 19 institutions (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Since the early 1980s, there have been a number of environmental education campaigns in Manaus on behalf of the pied tamarin. An example of one of the most recent is "Sauim-de-Coleira, Ele Tem o Direito de Viver", by the Fundação Vitória Amazônica (FVA) and the Centro de Ciência do Ambiente of the Universidade do Amazonas, Manaus (Subirá <em>et al</em>., undated)
40644		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus bicolor</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Negro, in the vicinity of Manaus, the capital of the state of Amazonas, Brazil. Surveys by Ayres <em>et al.</em> (1980, 1982) reported that the range extended only approximately 30-45 km to the north of Manaus and to the east as far as the town of Itacoatiara, approximately 100 km from the capital. Localities beyond these points indicate only the presence of <em>S. midas</em>. Ayres <em>et al.</em> (1980, 1982) and Egler (1983) supposed that it might occur as far north as the Rio Jauapurí right bank tributary of the Rio Negro, but this seems unlikely (Subirá 1998a,b). The known range today extends from the left bank of the Rio Negro, south from the Rio Cuieiras, east, north of the Rios Negro and Amazonas, to the Rio Urubu (Subirá 1998a,b). Subirá (1998b) found <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> only as far as 35 km from Manaus on the BR174 highway. North of there, she found only <em>S. midas</em>.
40644		habitat	eng	Lowland rain forest in the central Amazon. Vidal and Cintra (2006) reported on a census carried out in the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve, Manaus. They found 41 groups widely distrbiuted in areas of plateau (20 groups at altitudes between 11 and 140 m above saea level), slopes (12 groups at 70-100 m above sea level) and stream valley bottoms (nine groups at 40-60 m above sea level). In the city of Manaus, they apparantly thrive in secondary forest, but are dependent on forest canopy (Rylands 1994).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Subirá (1998b) recorded group sizes of 3 to 15 individuals (mean 6.19 ±2.62, n=46). Vidal and Cintra (2006) recorded group sizes that ranged from 2 to 11 and averaged 4.8 individuals (n = 41). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Tamarin groups defend home ranges of 10-100 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. A <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> group studied in the extensive forest of the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve was found to use a home range of about 100 ha (M. Gordo pers. comm. in Vidal and Cintra 2006).<br/><br/>Aspects of the  behaviour and ecology of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> were studied by Egler (1986, 1992, 1993) at Tarumã-Açú, near Manaus. She studied a group of 6-10 individuals for 11 months in 1983-1984. Twins were born to a single breeding female in May and November 1983. The group used 12 ha of forest, which included mature old growth, old and young secondary forest and white sand forest (<em>campinarana</em>). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>H&B 20.8-28.3 cm, TL 33.5-42.0 cm (Gregorin and Tahara 2008)<br/>Males 428 g (n=4) (Smith and Jungers 1997).
40644		population	eng	Commonly seen in habitats where it occurs. <em>S. bicolor</em> groups survive in small, highly degraded forest patches around housing estates and in the suburbs of Manaus. <em>S. midas</em> populations are gradually replacing <em>S. bicolor</em>, either naturally, or through alteration and degradation of the forests by human activities (Ayres <em>et al.</em> 1980, 1982; Subirá 1998b).<br/><br/>Vidal and Cintra (2006) recorded 41 groups of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> in the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (10,000 ha). They indicated that it was probable that this gives a rough estimate of the entire population in the reserve. <br/><br/>Subirá (1998b) carried out population surveys for <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> at a number of sites and recorded several Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (115,000 ha) - 1.85 individuals/km² or 0.37 groups/km² (indicating around 426 groups or about 2,100 individuals)<br/>Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (10,000 ha) - 2.35 individuals/km² or 0.4 groups/km² (indicating about 43 groups or 235 individiuals)<br/>Forest fragment Souza Arnold (10.5 ha) - 57.14 individuals/km² or 9.52 groups/km² <br/>Forest fragment João Bosco (12.8 ha) - 62.5 individuals/km² or 7.81 groups/km².
40644		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss through urban growth and agriculture and cattle ranching in the vicinity of the capital of the state of Amazonas, Manaus. However, more importantly, the species is disappearing rapidly in areas of contact on the northern and eastern periphery of its range, where it is being replaced by the Golden-handed Tamarin <em>Saguinus midas</em>. They are probably not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.
40647		conservation	eng	It is listed under Appendix II of CITES, and as Vermin under the African Convention. Found in a number of protected areas, including Tsavo and Lake Manyara National Parks. The isolated subpopulations on Saharan massifs merit further research.
40647		distribution	eng	This is the most extensively distributed of the baboons, ranging throughout the Sahelian woodland and forest-mosaic habitats from southern Mauritania and Mali to the Sudan and southwards to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania. Outlying populations inhabit the Tibesti and Air massifs in the Sahara. In East Africa, the distribution is actively changing. Wherever the range of this species encounters that of other species there are hybrid zones and a strong implication that it is a species which is still in a phase of active expansion. For example, it forms a narrow hybrid zone with <em>P. hamadryas</em> below the Awash Falls and elsewhere in northern Ethiopia, and hybridizes with <em>P. cynocephalus</em> in the eastern part of Tsavo and Amboseli National Parks in Kenya. There is a broad clinal hybrid zone of <em>P. anubis</em> x <em>P. cynocephalus</em> between Laikipia District, just to the north-east and east of Mt. Kenya, and the Lower Tana River, Kenya coast. Baboons in this >200-km wide region are intermediate and cannot be readily allocated to either <em>P. anubis</em> or <em>P. cynocephalus</em> (baboons become increasingly “yellow-like” in their phenotypes towards the Kenya Coast; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). <em>Papio anubis</em> x <em>P. cynocephalus</em> are found in the Pare and Usambara Mountains in Tanzania, and elsewhere sporadically along a north-east/south-west trending line across the region. It is possible that this species has caused the ranges of neighbouring, smaller baboon species to contract. Sympatric with <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em>, <em>Erythrocebus patas</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Ranges to 2,500 m asl (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
40647		habitat	eng	Inhabits Sahelian woodland and forest-mosaic habitats; able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated areas. This species is an omnivorous opportunist, and its diet varies according to region, season, and even the time of day. In open areas, it primarily feed on grasses, while in forests the principal food is fruits. Resin or gum act as buffers in dry seasons and locusts provide the occasional glut. As a result of this variable feeding strategy, there are differences in social organization and behaviour. Males may form associations called 'cabals' which can show co-operation or have elements of hierarchy.
40647		population	eng	The Olive Baboon is widespread and locally common in spite of vigorous trapping, shooting, and poisoning campaigns.
40647		threats	eng	In the long term, the Olive Baboon is probably excluded from closed forests by competition and disease. Is actively persecuted in places as a pest species.
40649		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas.
40649		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Sierra Leone in the west through southern parts of West Africa and throughout Central Africa, to possibly as far east as north of Lake Victoria in Uganda and Tanzania, west of Lake Victoria. It is found as far south as the southern Congo Basin (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Lunda District (Angola), and possibly as far south as the Lukuga River in the east. Widely sympatric with <em>Galagoides thomasi</em>.
40649		habitat	eng	This species is associated with the understory of secondary forest and forest edge habitats. It is also present in primary tropical moist forest, particularly in tree-fall zones. It sleeps in small groups of up to 10 individuals. It appears to be restricted to dense undergrowth with fine branches. It gives birth to one or two young per year.
40649		population	eng	This species is common and widespread.
40649		threats	eng	This species is presumably locally threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion to agricultural land.
40650		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in the East Ngorima Reserve and Chimanimani National Park of Zimbabwe.
40650		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the East African coast between the Rufiji River (Tanzania) in the north and the Limpopo River in southern Mozambique, and is also found inland in montane areas (the Thylo mountains of western Malawi (Wallace 2005), extending westwards into Chimanimani, Zimbabwe. Recorded to at least 1,800 m asl (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). A record from Mount Namuli in Mozambique requires verification.
40650		habitat	eng	This species is present in coastal and submontane evergreen forest, gallery forest, and species-rich woodlands, including some hilly miombo woodlands (e.g., Mahenge foothills) (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.
40650		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species.
40650		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be threatened in parts of its range, such as in the coastal areas, by localised habitat loss.
40651		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in a number of protected areas throughout the range, including the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, both in Tanzania, and Taiti Hills Forest Reserve, Kenya. Further studies on the taxonomy, population range and numbers, and threats to this species are needed.
40651		distribution	eng	This species is present is present in many of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded from the West and East Usumbara Mountains, the Uluguru Mountains, the Udzungwa Mountains, and Rubehos (all Tanzania). Similar forms have been recorded from the Taita Hills, Kenya (Perkin <em>et al.</em> 2002), and from Rungwe Mountain in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania (A. Perkin and S. Bearder pers. comm.). Appears to occur at elevations from 1,200 to 2,000 m. Sympatric with <em>G. zanzibaricus</em> and <em>Otolemur garnettii</em>.
40651		habitat	eng	It is found in the mid- to high canopy of submontane and montane tropical forest. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.
40651		population	eng	Widespread, but fragmented range, and present at low densities.
40651		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss through deforestation for timber, and conversion to agricultural land.
40652		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from the Rondo Forest Reserve and the Litipo Forest Reserve and from Pugu Forest Reserve, Tanzania. All currently known sites of occurrence require improved management. Additional surveys in the intervening areas to determine whether the species is present or not are urgently required.
40652		distribution	eng	This species is known from seven isolated forest patches: Zareninge, Pande Game Reserve, Pugu/Kazimzumbwe, Rondo, Latipo and Ziwani. It occurs at elevations of 100-900 m. The known distribution encompasses 92 km² of coastal forest. The occurrence of the species between these forest patches is unknown.
40652		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal dry forest and scrub in forest patches usually on east facing slopes and escarpments. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.
40652		population	eng	Uncommon. A. Perkin (pers. comm.) recorded four individuals in a 0.5-heactare plot.
40652		threats	eng	It is highly threatened by the logging of remaining forest fragments.
40653		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas.
40653		distribution	eng	This species is found in West and Central Africa. Animals currently assigned to this species have been recorded from Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), Gabon, Congo, Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Zambia. The species may also occur in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Central African Republic, Togo, Senegal, Burundi and Rwanda and southern Sudan. There are possible records of this species from Mount Marsabit, Kenya, but this remains to be confirmed. <br/><br/>Grubb <em>et al.</em> (2003) indicate the following areas and localities from which animals currently identified as this species have been reported: Côte d'Ivoire (Tai National Park); Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau in the Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve); Cameroon (Ebom; Dja Reserve; Lobeké Reserve; Korup; Mount Kupe; Mount Cameroon; Mount Oku); Equatorial Guinea (Moreca on Bioko Island); Gabon (Makokou; Makandé; Franceville; Gamba); Angola (Loanda (= Luanda) highlands); Democratic Republic of the Congo (localities north of the Congo River; along, and to the south of the Aruwimi River; the Itombwe Massif; the Ubangi-Uele River Basin; Bili; and the region between Dilolo and Kolwezi); Uganda (west of the Victoria Nile; Kibale and Bwindi Forests; Semliki Forest; Mabiru Forest Reserve). Its presence has recently been confirmed in northern Tanzania (S. Bearder pers. comm.), though these are not mapped.
40653		habitat	eng	This species is found in all strata in savanna and open woodland areas (e.g. Miombo), and at the margins of montane forest. This species avoids areas of grassland. They have been found in forests where no other galagos are present. They build nests in thorn trees or nest in tree holes. Group size is 1-5, though they forage separately at night. This species is presumed to give birth to between one and two young annually.
40653		population	eng	This is a common, widespread and adaptable species.
40653		threats	eng	This species is very locally threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion to agricultural land, but there are no major threats to the species as a whole.
40690		conservation	eng	Surveys of known and potential habitat should attempt to determine the presence and abundance of blunt-nosed leopard lizards throughout the range (USFWS 1998). An effort should be made to determine appropriate habitat management and compatible land uses (USFWS 1998). Remaining populations on public and private land should be protected, as should additional suitable habitat for the species (see Recovery Plan, USFWS 1998). It occurs in a number of protected areas.
40690		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to California in the United States. The historical range encompassed the San Joaquin Valley and adjacent foothills of southern California, from Stanislaus County to extreme northern Santa Barbara and Ventura counties, at elevations below 800 m (2,600 feet) (Jennings 1995, USFWS 1998). The currently known occupied range includes scattered parcels of undeveloped land on the floor of the San Joaquin Valley and in the foothills of the Coast Range (see USFWS 1998 for further details). In the northern part of the San Joaquin Valley,  Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizards have been found in the Firebaugh and Madera Essential Habitat Areas (Williams 1990). Other northern locations include the Ciervo, Tumey, and Panoche Hills, Anticline Ridge, Pleasant Valley, and the Lone Tree, Sandy Mush Road, Whitesbridge, Horse Pasture, and Kettleman Hills Essential Habitat Areas. In the southern San Joaquin Valley, known extant populations exists in the following locations: Pixley National Wildlife Refuge, Liberty Farm, Allensworth, Kern National Wildlife Refuge, Antelope Plain, Buttonwillow, Elk Hills, and Tupman Essential Habitat Areas; on the Carrizo and Elkhorn Plains; north of Bakersfield around Poso Creek; in western Kern County in the area around the towns of Maricopa, McKittrick, and Taft; at the Kern Front oil field; at the base of the Tehachapi Mountains on Tejon Ranch; and just west of the California Aqueduct on the Tejon and San Emizdio Ranches (USFWS 1998). The species is presumed to be extant in the upper Cuyama Valley (USFWS 1998). The distribution approaches that of <em>Gambelia wislizenii</em> in the Cuyama Valley drainage, where <em>wislizenii</em> occurs above 1,100 m and sila occurs below 790 m (see McGuire 1996).
40690		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-arid grasslands, alkali flats, low foothills, canyon floors, large washes, and arroyos, usually on sandy, gravelly, or loamy substrate, sometimes on hardpan. It is common where there are abundant rodent burrows, and rare or absent in dense vegetation or tall grass. Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: 1) clump grass and saltbush grassland, with sandy soil, 2) washes with brush, in grassland, with sandy soil, 3) alkali flats, with saltbush in sandy or gravelly soil, and 4) grassland with hardpan soil. See Warrick <em>et al</em>. (1998) for additional habitat information. This lizard cannot survive on lands under cultivation (it may use edges adjacent to suitable habitat); repopulation of an area after tilling ends requires at least 10 years. It basks on kangaroo rat mounds and often seeks cover at the base of shrubs, in the burrows of small mammals, or in rock piles. Adults may excavate shallow burrows for shelter but depend on deeper burrows of rodents for hibernation (and egg laying). Eggs typically are laid in an abandoned rodent burrow, at a depth of about 50 cm (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1980).
40690		population	eng	There are not many more than a few dozen distinct populations. The total population size is unknown but probably includes more than 1,000 adults. The species had been eliminated from 94% of the original range since the mid-1800s (Jennings 1995). Populations fluctuate greatly with environmental conditions, so determination of the trend in abundance is difficult. However, the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have probably continued to decrease.
40690		threats	eng	Its distribution and abundance have been greatly reduced, and populations are now severely fragmented, due primarily to loss of habitat to urbanization, water development projects, and agricultural development; intensive mineral development, off-road vehicle activity, pesticide application (for ground squirrels), overgrazing, and flooding also have been detrimental (USFWS 1998). Thick cover of non-native grasses degrades the habitat in some years and locations (Germano and Williams 2005). These lizards use mammal burrows for shelter, so activities that compact soil or crush burrows should be avoided. Habitat disturbance, destruction, and fragmentation continue as the greatest threats to Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard populations (USFWS 1998).
40692		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Murray-Darling River system. It has been reported from a number of lakes including Alexandrina (South Australia), Hattah (Victoria) and the Kerang Lakes area (New South Wales).
40692		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the margins of slow, lowland rivers, and lakes, billabongs and backwaters.
40693		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.
40697		conservation	eng	None known.
40697		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the small tributaries of two rivers, the Loukkos and Sebou, of the Atlantic coast of northern Morocco.
40697		habitat	eng	No information available.
40697		population	eng	This is an abundant species where found (Azeroual, A. pers. comm.).
40697		threats	eng	Introduced competitor <em>Lepomis</em> spp could threaten this species, and in the Loukkos river there is the threat of pollution from agriculture but only in main channel and not in the tributaries.
40698		conservation	eng	No information available.
40698		distribution	eng	Europe north of the Alps, from Meuse eastward to Neva drainages and Lake Ladoga; northern Black Sea basin from Danube eastward to Kuban; Caspian basin in Volga and Ural drainages. In Black Sea basin, absent south of Danube and Kuban. Not native to Great Britain, Scandinavia, Apennine and Iberian Peninsulas, Crimea, and Adriatic, Aegean and White Sea basins. Locally introduced in Rhône drainage (France) and perhaps elsewhere. Extirpated from Switzerland, recent records (in the 1990-2000s) are actually the alien species <span style="font-style: italic;">Paramisgurnus dabryanus</span>.
40698		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Backwaters and side channels of lowland streams, rivers and lakes. Mostly restricted to densely vegetated habitats with slow or no current and soft, mud bottom. Spawns in dense vegetation, often in flooded meadows. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, at about 110 mm SL. Spawns in March-July. Males have a larger second pectoral ray and shallow vertical swellings of flanks above anal base, enlarged during spawning time. Male follows female into dense vegetation and forms a complete ring around her body, behind dorsal fin. Sticky eggs are released into vegetation. Larvae move to bottom and hide in mud. Larvae have large external gill filaments, reabsorbed after 10-12 days. Adults nocturnal, burrows into mud to hide during day and, especially in shallow habitats, during dry periods and strong frosts. Usually burrows 200-300 mm deep, occasionally down to 700 mm during dry periods. Able to survive in habitats with low oxygen concentrations by cutaneous and intestinal respiration. Frequently swallows air, oxygen being absorbed through the walls of the gut. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Swims slowly above bottom and dig for invertebrates, which are localized by olfaction.
40698		population	eng	Slowly declining.
40698		threats	eng	River regulation for water transport,  has reduced the number of back waters (oxbow lakes etc) where, in the last phases of succession the species is found. The species moves between the backwaters during times of flooding, which has also been regulated by the channelization and damming of the rivers. The succession of the back waters takes many years and the number of available and suitable sites for the species is slowly reducing as they dry out and no new ones are created. The species is known to have been extirpated from many locations.   &#160;Regionally, the species inhabits secondary waterbodies such as drainage canals.
40703		conservation	eng	No information available.
40703		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few isolated wells in the vicinity of Bud-bud Uaesele, in central Somalia.
40703		habitat	eng	This blind, hypogenean cavefish has been found in seven localities within a range of 30 km around the type locality. All specimens are completely anophthalmic and highly anatomically specialized, and found only in a few isolated wells in this arid region.
40703		population	eng	No information available.
40703		threats	eng	There is no information available on particular threats. However, this species is highly specialised to a few wells, where it is vulnerable to any changes, particularly from pollution.
40705		conservation	eng	Restocked in Chiemsee.
40705		distribution	eng	Austrian subalpine Lakes Attersee, Mondsee and Wolfgangsee. A small population seems to exist in Austrian stretch of Danube. Extirpated in Lakes Traunsee (Austria) and Chiemsee (Germany). Stocked in Chiemsee. Rutilus populations of unclear identity from upper Tisza system (Slovakia, Hungary) might belong to this species.
40705		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water layers of subalpine lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Spawns in May-June in lake tributaries or streams connecting lakes, in shallow areas with current, near shore. In spawning season, males have conspicuous, strong, almost spiny, nuptial tubercles on head and upper half of body.
40705		population	eng	Abundant and stable in Attersee and Mondsee.
40705		threats	eng	Damming of spawning rivers (the species spawns downstream). Chiemsee was dammed in the 1960s and the last individual was caught in the 1993 as the species is long lived. Traunsee the spawning river was also dammed (unknown date) and is now extirpated.
40706		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
40707		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake Towuti in central Sulawesi.
40708		conservation	eng	A (EU) Natura 2000 species.
40708		distribution	eng	Adriatic basin, from Italy to Montenegro.
40708		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, lakes and large to medium size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Found mainly on open sand or mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns after first winter in March-July. Individual females spawn several times during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.
40708		population	eng	Very abundant.
40708		threats	eng	No major threats known.
40709		distribution	eng	The Balkhash perch occurs naturally in Lake Balkhash and the Alakol lake group (Kazakhstan), and associated catchment areas (extending into China) (Sokolovsky, pers. comm). It has also been introduced into Kyrgyzstan (MEP 1998, Sokolovsky pers. comm.) and Uzbekistan (Kamilov 1966, Nuriyev 1967).
40709		habitat	eng	<em>Perca schrenkii</em> has several ecological forms (ecomorphs): pelagic, shoreline and dwarfish, which allows the species to occur in different biotopes and maximize food resources in the water body.
40709		population	eng	Before acclimatization works were carried out in catchment areas of Balkhash and Alakol lakes, <em>Perca schrenkii</em> was the predominating species in the lakes and lowland rivers. In the 1930s and 1940s this fish constituted up to one third of commercial fishery volume in Balkhash Lake and two thirds in the lakes in the Alakol group (Sokolovsky <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the mid-1960s the population decreased in Balkhash Lake and it catchment area, and since the mid-1970s the species has no longer been accounted for in statistical reports on yields in Balkhash Lake and Elee River (Sokolovsky, pers. comm.).  In the Alakol catchment area, <em>P. schrenkii</em> were no longer caught in Sasykkol and Kaschkarkol lakes since the mid-1980s, although the species does still remain in the shoreline areas (Sokolovsky, pers. comm.). However, the perch population in Alakol lake is still substantial and is used by commercial fisheries (Sokolvsky, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, this species migrated or was introduced into many other water bodies in Kazakhstan and Middle Asia, including Chyrchyk River (Kamylov 1966) and Kattakurgan Reservoir (Nuriev 1967) in Uzbekistan, and the Nizhne-Ala-Archa Reservoir in Kyrgyzstan (Pivnev 1985). <br/> <br/>Information on subpopulatons of Balkhash perch in China is currently unavailable.
40709		threats	eng	Population declines in Balkhash Lake and the surrounding rivers have been attributed to the introduction of bream and predatory fish species, such as Zander <em>Sander volgensis</em>.
40710		conservation	eng	No information available.
40710		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwestern Black Sea basin in the estuaries and coastal lakes, and the rivers Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr and their lower reaches.
40710		habitat	eng	This fish occurs in fresh and brackish waters with salinity up to 7%. It is abundant at depths around 5 m over black mud.
40710		population	eng	The species is more or less abundant in the lower reaches of rivers and coastal lagoons.
40710		threats	eng	The species may become threatened by increasing salinity due to reduced flow in all  the large rivers within the species range which are now dammed.
40712		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
40712		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia and Amvrakia in western Greece. In the 1980s it was introduced to Lake Volvi, northern Greece and to Lake Pahvotis in western Greece (date of introduction unknown).
40712		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes exclusively.
40712		population	eng	No data.
40712		threats	eng	Water pollution. Overfishing.
40713		conservation	eng	No information.
40713		distribution	eng	North, Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, as far north as southern Sweden and Finland; Aegean Sea basin, in Maritza and from Stuma to Sperchios drainages; Turkey. Absent from rest of Mediterranean basin. Introduced in Rhône drainage in 1857 and in British Isles during second half of 19th century. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe and Lake Balkhash basin (Kazakhstan).
40713		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large and medium size lowland rivers, backwaters and well vegetated lakes. Spawns in shallow, warm and well vegetated riverine habitats without current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 80 years in the wild. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and 1-2 kg. Spawns in April-June, in northern areas until August, when temperature reaches about 20°C. In spawning grounds, males defend small territories and build nests of plant material, dig shallow depressions or clean spawning substrate such as willow (<em>Salix</em>) roots. Nests are defended by males until larvae emerge. Spawns in pairs. During spawning act, the male embraces the female. Eggs hatch in 2-3 days and larvae remain in nest until yolk sack is absorbed (2-4 days). A nocturnal predator, feeding near bottom and in water column. Very sensitive to extra-aquatic sounds. Head sensory canal system allows to track the wakes [a trail of hydrodynamic and chemical signatures left by a swimming fish] of prey up to 10 seconds old over distances up to 55 times the length of the prey. Larvae and juveniles benthic and negatively phototactic, feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates and fish. Adults feed on fish and other aquatic vertebrates.
40713		population	eng	Abundant.
40713		threats	eng	River regulation destroying shallow spawning sites.
40715		conservation	eng	This species has been identified or protected by the following conservation actions. <br/><ul><li>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> all syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> on 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</li><li>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, all syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under section 248 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation&#160; (EPBC) Act 1999 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002)</span>.</li><li>This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in its 2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes document, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007).</li></ul>
40715		distribution	eng	<p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> has a wide geographic range. It has been recorded in surveys and taxonomic overviews from the Red Sea and the African east coast to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Knysna</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Dawson 1985, Dawson 1986).&#160; It is also found in the Indo-Pacific from the east coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, throughout the South China Sea and has been recorded as far northward as northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It has been found in three states and one territory in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>: <st1:state w:st="on">Western  Australia</st1:state>, the <st1:state w:st="on">Northern Territory</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state> (Paxton <em>et al.</em> 1989). </span>It has been recorded near the islands of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Micronesia</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on">Samoa</st1:place> (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which Has Been Recorded (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, <em>S. biaculeatus</em> is found in the following marine protected areas: Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve, off northern <st1:state w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:state>, Cartier Island Marine Protected Area, <st1:city w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef  Marine Park</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, and <st1:placename w:st="on">Coburg</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Marine</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype>, in the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Northern Territory</st1:place></st1:state> (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>    <p>Museum Records Worldwide: in Australia, there are 106 specimens (standard length 100-288 mm), collected from a depth range of 0 to 5 m, ranging in geographical distribution from the Timor Sea, Northern Territory south-eastwards to Batemans Bay (35°44’S), New South Wales on the east coast of Australia, and from Ashmore Reef (12°13’S) southwards to Geraldton (28°46’S) on the west coast of Australia. Outside <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> there are specimens from the Andaman Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, Malay Archipelago, <st1:city w:st="on">Guam</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Papua New Guinea</st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Solomon Islands</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Specimens were collected between circa 1879 and 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Other museum records are available from FishBase and the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) and include specimens collected from Suva Harbor in Fiji, Singapore, Kenya, and Yemen (Froese and Pauly 2007, Ocean Biogeographic Information System 2007). Specimens listed in Fishbase/OBIS have collection dates from 1828 to 2004.</span>
40715		habitat	eng	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> is generally found in seagrass beds or algal flats in the protected shallow waters of lagoons and bays, its colouring matching plants well<em> </em>(Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997). Adults are found in large <em>Sargassum</em> rafts (Kuiter 1996) and juveniles are occasionally found among debris floating offshore (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). In <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, this species is found in estuaries, usually in association with <em>Zostera </em>seagrass, to which it anchors itself by means of its prehensile tail (Grant 1978).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology<u></u></p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus </em>has a breeding season of between October and April in <st1:city w:st="on">Moreton Bay</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) but year-round in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bootless</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype></st1:place>, PNG (Barrows <em>et al</em>. unpub). Males mature and can begin brooding at a length of about 180 mm (Dawson, 1985; Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) although smaller mature males have been observed (Barrows <em>et al</em>., unpub). Brood size for males was comparable to that of other syngnathids, at 60-200 eggs (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) although ongoing research suggests that larger broods can occur (Barrows <em>et al</em>., unpub). The eggs can vary in colour (they can be clear, white, brown, or green) as they develop and are carried on the abdomen of the male until they hatch (Grant 1978, Takahashi 2000).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> is a poor swimmer, propelling itself by the winnowing action of the dorsal and pectoral fins (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Some individuals have been observed near the surface of the water or jumping out of the water entirely (Dawson 1986, Kuiter 1996). Prey items<em> </em>include shrimps, fish, and amphipods (Nakamura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) as well as other tiny crustaceans (Allen and Swainston 1992).<strong></strong></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p>Size<u></u></p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> has been reported to achieve a maximum length of between 260 to 300 mm (Kuiter 1996, Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) and displays significant size dimorphism, with males growing bigger than females (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although growth of <em>S. biaculeatus</em> has been reported as rapid over a life span of less than two years (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003), more recent studies suggest that growth rates are slower and life spans can reach three years (Barrows <em>et al</em>. unpub data). </span></p>
40715		population	eng	<p>While <em>S. biaculeatus</em> has been reported by many authors in its range, there is no information available to our knowledge about population structure or sizes. Takahashi <em>et al.</em> (2003) (and earlier thesis Takahashi 2000) report on index of population size (CPUE) and seasonal changes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Moreton Bay</st1:city>,  <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place>. Work in Bootless Bay, PNG (Barrows, Baine and Martin-Smith unpub. data) shows they are very common (found at all seagrass sites) in moderate abundance (2-6 individuals/100 m²) with no systematic changes across the year.</p>
40715		threats	eng	<p>This species has a history of use in the Chinese traditional medicine trade. Known as Hailong (Shi <em>et al.</em> 1993), it has been observed for sale in traditional medicine stores in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sydney</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (C. Woodfield, pers. comm., Martin-Smith and Vincent 2006). The origins of the specimens that enter the medicine trade have not been established, although it is likely there are from wild populations as <em>S. biaculeatus</em> rearing in aquaculture facilities has not been reported. Live specimens are also sold as pets for home aquariums and this trade could threaten wild populations if individuals are being removed from the wild to fulfill the home aquarium industry demand (S. Bartnik, pers. obs).</p>
40718		conservation	eng	The population of the species is found within a regional reserve. This allows the preservation of this natural space. However, the area of occupancy as well as its density and species biology should be studied.<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. cotiellae</span> is included within  the Threatened Species List of Aragón.
40718		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cotiella massif in the Spanish central Pyrenees.
40718		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation. Is found above <st1:metricconverter productid="2000 m" w:st="on">2,000 m</st1:metricconverter> in karst areas, being refugeed under limestone rocks with vegetation in its vicinity, as well as in areas of accumulation of stones. They remain inactive during the dry season showing activity in humid conditions. During the winter months it is protected from freezing by being inactive under seasonal snow.
40718		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
40718		threats	eng	The main threat is determined by a possible global warming, since it is a species of alpine affinities, living just above <st1:metricconverter productid="2000 m" w:st="on">2,000  m</st1:metricconverter>. The very small range of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to environmental change.
40747		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
40747		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey.
40747		habitat	eng	It is a pelagic lacustrine species. Unlikely to move into tributaries.
40747		population	eng	No data on population size. The species may be extinct: it was not found during surveys in 1993 (F. Erk'akan pers. comm.).
40747		threats	eng	Introduction of exotic fish predator: in 1955 was introduced the Zander, <em>Sander lucioperca</em>. Three species of <em>Phoxinellus</em>, perfect prey for the Zander, totally disappeared 30–40 years ago.
40758		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the headwaters of the Namoi and Gwydir Rivers, west of Armidale New South Wales, between 700 and 800 m asl. A disjunct and possibly distinct population also occurs in Bald Rock Creek, southeastern Queensland. The western boundary of the distribution coincides with where the rivers leave the escarpment before meeting the Darling River.
40758		habitat	eng	Occurs in the upper reaches and smaller tributaries of major rivers flowing through granitic bedrock. The riverbed is sandy and rocky, with small beds of aquatic vegetation. Has terrestrial nest sites. <br/> <br/>Much of the land surrounding the rivers is used for grazing sheep and cattle. Some riparian vegetation remains in the form of numerous Eucalypts and introduced willows.
40761		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
40761		threats	eng	Trade in the species in East Asian markets, discovered among shipments in the early 1990s, peaked at an estimated annual level of 2,000–3,000 animals in 1998 and collapsed to 100 animals in 1999.
40762		habitat	eng	Semi-aquatic
40765		conservation	eng	Control exotic species and access to the island, and enact a program to prevent the introduction of common rats.
40765		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Galápagos Islands. It occurs in Fernandina (= Narborough) Island (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
40765		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and nocturnal. There is no information about its diet. This species co-occurs with <em>N. fernandinae</em>. It has been captured in lowland and highland areas into the Fernandina Island; at high-elevation (about 1,300 m) along the volcano rim the vegetation is primarily Scalesia spp., and was most dense (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
40765		population	eng	This rat is locally common (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
40765		threats	eng	The main current threat to the species is possible introduction of exotic species, in particular <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>.
40766		conservation	eng	There are currently no active conservation measures in place. The species does not occur in any protected area (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Further searches for this species are urgently needed.
40766		distribution	eng	The only known specimen was trapped near the source of the Little Abbai River (flows into Lake Tana and then into the Blue Nile), at Gojjam, north western Ethiopia (11°7'20"N, 37°12'40"W). It was collected at an elevation of 2,600 m asl.
40766		habitat	eng	It was recorded from highland, riparian habitat (Nowak, 1999) and the species represents the most extreme adaptation to an aquatic environment amongst the African Murids.
40766		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen, and it may now be extinct. Leonid Lavrenchenko (pers. comm.) has attempted to recollect this species on two occasions (Duane Schlitter has also tried, but without any success).
40766		threats	eng	The habitat was already severely degraded when the type specimen was collected in the 1920s. Leonid Lavrenchenko (pers. comm.) confirms that the area today is pure pastureland.
40767		conservation	eng	This species is not currently known from any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
40767		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from type locality: 1.6 km east of Ziarat, northeastern Baluchistan Province, Pakistan (Holden, 1996). Its distributional limits are unknown, but it is believed to be restricted to a relatively small area within Baluchistan, and so its extent of occurrence is likely to be less than 20,000 km².
40767		habitat	eng	This species is apparently restricted to dry steppe juniper forest in the Baluchistan Province, Pakistan.
40767		population	eng	This species is currently known only from three specimens, although an additional five specimens may exist in the collections of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (Holden 2005).
40767		threats	eng	The dry steppe juniper forest in the Baluchistan Province, on which this species depends, has been greatly fragmented and degraded due overgrazing by livestock, removal of wood, and expanding agriculture and human settlements.
40768		conservation	eng	There is a few of protected areas in its range.
40768		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity: Chile, Valdivia Province, Region de Los Lagos, 42 km N and slightly E Valdivia, near Mehuín, 100 m; 39°26′S, 73°10′W. But this species may inhabit other areas of the Valdivian temperate rainforest zone, west-central Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005). D'Elia <em>et al.</em> (2006) have recorded four new localities in southern Chile.
40768		habitat	eng	The species appears to to be endemic to southern beech (<em>Nothofagus</em> forest) in the Valdivian temperate rainforest zone (see Patterson 1992).The Valdivian temperate rainforest habitat is characterized by a majority of evergreen and a few deciduous trees, high annual rainfall (1500–3000 mm), wet and frost-free winters, and short dry summers (D'Elia <em>et al.</em> 2006).
40768		population	eng	It is considered a rare species.
40768		threats	eng	In the region, forests are highly fragmented and under increasing pressure from logging activities.
40773		conservation	eng	This species was moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998. Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
40773		distribution	eng	<em>H. subelongatus</em> is known from Freemantle, Perth, Swan River, and Houtman Abrolhos Islands in Western Australia (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
40773		habitat	eng	The species is found on the edge of rocky areas, muddy bottoms, and areas of high sediment load; jetty piles and mooring; and it is often associated with sponges or sea squirts or attached to man-made objects. They have been reported to occur at depths of 1 to 25 m and to move to deeper waters in winter (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
40773		population	eng	Data are not currently available on wild populations.
40773		threats	eng	<em>H. subelongatus</em> is collected for the aquarium trade, but the effects of this collection on the persistence of populations is debated. In addition to exploitation for the aquarium trade, habitat degeneration is a potential threat to the species.
40774		conservation	eng	This species was moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research on this species is needed
40774		distribution	eng	<em>H. zebra</em> is endemic to Australia (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
40774		habitat	eng	This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995) and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
40775		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Sepilok Forest Reserve. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species. There is need of urgent survey work using a variety of survey methods for this species.
40775		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Sepilok Forest Reserve (05°52'N, 117°56'E) in Sabah in Malaysian Borneo at close to sea level.
40775		habitat	eng	The only known habitat for this species is lowland dipterocarp forest. The only known specimens were trapped in the understorey of tall forest, but the species is probably a canopy species, and so perhaps under collected.
40775		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens (two from which the species was described). It has not been recorded since 1992 but is probably declining if restricted to lowland forest.
40775		threats	eng	The only known location for this species is a forest reserve. Outside of the reserve, forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat.
40776		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Krau protected area (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
40776		distribution	eng	The species is known from western Peninsular Malaysia.
40776		habitat	eng	According to available information this is a lowland species (G. Csorba pers. comm.). It was found at the type locality  in primary and secondary forest near a stream at 266 m asl (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
40776		population	eng	It is probably a rare species.
40776		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat to this species.
40782		conservation	eng	This species is now extinct.
40782		distribution	eng	<em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em> is mostly known from southern localities of coastal to lowland Madagascar (see a list of locality in Stuenes 1989). Last appearance datum of Madagascan dwarf hippopotamids remains uncertain. Most recent dates were provided through 14C dating and indicate ca. 1000 AD (Dewar 1984; Burney <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, MacPhee and Flemming (1999) proposed it as recent on the basis of local oral tradition (Flacourt 1661; and see Burney and Ramilisonina 1999) and possible younger age of some localities. However, this may only reflect sporadic occurrence of <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>.
40782		habitat	eng	Stuenes (1989) indicated that <em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em> was probably well adapted to the amphibious way of life observed in the extant <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>. She based her conclusion notably on the relatively prominent orbits and developed muzzle of this species. In terms of diet, cranio-mandibular morphology may also indicate similarity with <em>Hip. amphibius</em> (Stuenes 1989), i.e. a diet mainly based on fresh grass. Overall, <em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em> seems to have been a dweller of freshwater rivers crossing the lowlands of Madagascar.
40782		population	eng	This species is now extinct.
40782		threats	eng	Island dwarf hippopotamids were probably easy preys for human hunters. This may have lead to their quick extinction in the Mediterranean (Simmons 1988). The same impact from human hunters may have been effective in at least accelerating extinction of Madagascan hippopotamids. MacPhee and Burney (1991) indicate evidence for hippopotamid butchery in south-western Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD. Co-occurrence of humans and hippopotamids on Madagascar, therefore, lasted for at minimum of 1,000 years. How much humans have contributed to this extinction is yet to be determined.
40783		conservation	eng	This species is now extinct.
40783		distribution	eng	<em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> is mostly known from localities of highland Madagascar (see a list of locality in Stuenes 1989). Last appearance datum of Madagascan dwarf hippopotamids remains uncertain. Most recent dates were provided through 14C dating and indicate ca. 1000 AD (Dewar 1984; Burney <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, MacPhee and Flemming (1999) proposed it as recent on the basis of local oral tradition (Flacourt 1661) and the possible younger age of some localities. However, this may only reflect sporadic occurrence of <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>.
40783		habitat	eng	<em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> retains low orbits and a relatively short muzzle. Stuenes (1989) used these features to propose a more terrestrial way of life for this species than in <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>. Similarly, Stuenes (1989) indicated a cranio-mandibular morphology closer to that of <em>Choeropsis liberiensis</em>, the extant Pigmy Hippo from western Africa. She further noted that <em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> exhibited teeth generally more worn than in <em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em>. These characters both suggest a diet differing from that of the other Madagascan dwarf hippopotamid.<br/><br/>The ecology of <em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> may have been close to that of Mediterranean extinct dwarf hippopotamids, but further investigation of this question is required, notably on postcranial anatomy, stable isotope enamel/bone contents, and dental wear.
40783		threats	eng	Island dwarf hippopotamids were probably easy prey for human hunters. This may have lead to their quick extinction in the Mediterranean (Simmons 1988). The same impact from human hunters may have been effective in at least accelerating extinction of Madagascan hippopotamids. MacPhee and Burney (1991) indicate evidence for hippopotamid butchery in south-western Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD. Co-occurrence of humans and hippopotamids on Madagascar, therefore, lasted for a minimum of 1,000 years. How much humans have contributed to this extinction is yet to be determined.
40784		conservation	eng	None.
40784		distribution	eng	Formerly occurred along the coasts of Canada (New Brunswick, Newfoundland) and in coastal eastern North America (Massachusetts, Maine). The Sea Mink apparently had been exterminated, last record collected in 1894 (Campbell 1988, Nowak 2005). Its range seems subsequently to have been occupied by <em>M. vison</em> (Nowak 1999).
40784		habitat	eng	The sea mink reportedly made its home among the rocks along the ocean. The diet consisted mainly of fish and probably also included mollusks (Nowak 2005).
40784		population	eng	Extinct.
40784		threats	eng	This species was hunted to extinction (fur trade).
40785		conservation	eng	Protection and maintenance of its existing habitat is a priority for this species, as it is currently not known from any protected area.
40785		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Farellones (33° 32'S; 70°19'W), Central Chile, 35km north-east of Santiago, at an altitudinal range of 2,300-3,000m asl, though it is possibly more widely distributed.
40785		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species has been found under stones, close to mountain streams, where the surrounding vegetation comprises grasses and shrubs characteristic of cold Andean areas. It has free-swimming tadpoles.
40785		population	eng	The population is currently believed to comprise only a few adults. Like its congener, <em>A. montanus</em>, it was last collected in 2003, and the population has declined substantially in recent years. Areas where the species is known to breed were found to have been completely destroyed by February 2002.
40785		threats	eng	Currently, the primary threat to this species is from recreational skiing and tourist infrastructure development, since the only known locality where the species is found is in a ski resort.
40789		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is found in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003), and small numbers are present as well in Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. A protected area has been proposed in Quang Tri Province, but there is a need for the elimination of poaching of this species. Nadler <em>et al.</em> (2003) outlines the following recommended conservation action for the species in Viet Nam: conduct further field status surveys and reinforcement of conservation in the protected areas network. <br/>There is a need for further survey and taxonomic research to resolve the status of this species relative to <em>T. laotum</em> and <em>T. ebenus</em>, and to determine the current population status of this species with more accuracy.
40789		distribution	eng	Although the historical range of this species may once have been much more extensive, it seems to be currently restricted to limestone areas in the western part of Quang Binh and Quang Tri Provinces (from 19°39’N, 105°29’E south to 16°10’N, 107°40’E), and in the eastern part of Khammouan Savannakhet Provinces in Lao PDR (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its range in Lao PDR appears to be limited (Nadler <em>et a</em>l. 2003), where it has only been recorded with certainty from Hin Nam No National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). The western limit of the range of the species in Lao PDR is unclear.  In Viet Nam, it is confirmed from Tuyen Hoa, Minh Hoa, Bo Trach, Le Thuy, and Quang Ninh districts in Quang Binh Province (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Huoug Hoa in Quang Tri Province (BirdLife International 2005). There is no current evidence for the distribution of the species north of Quang Binh, but the extent of limestone suggests that historically it may well have occurred further north. Records from Gia Lai Province are based on misidentification. The form <em>ebenus</em> is restricted to Khammouane and Savannakhet Provinces in Lao PDR, with a marginal extension into the western part of Quang Binh Province, Viet Nam. The precise limits of the range are unclear, particularly in Viet Nam. The overlap zones of this form with <em>laotum</em> and <em>hatinhensis</em> are not well defined.
40789		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in forested habitats associated with karst/limestone environments (Pham Nhat 2002). The natural habitat in Quang Binh and Quang Tri is now restricted to a band of forest near the Lao border (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003), and forests are heavily degraded in Tuyen Hoa and northern Minh Hoa Districts (Pham Nhat <em>et al</em>. 1996a). In Lao PDR, the species is associated with non-limestone rock outcrops on steep or precipitous mountain slopes. It reaches approximately 1,500 m in elevation. It is folivorous, terrestrial and arboreal, and diurnal.
40789		population	eng	There is no reliable population estimate available for this species. The Phong Nha-Khe Bang area probably has the largest remaining single population of <em>hatinhensis</em> globally (Nadler <em>et a</em>l. 2003). Sightings in Lao PDR are occasional (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although a large area of suitable habitat remains in Phong Nha, population density appears very low (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Based on interviews and field observations, Pham Nhat <em>et al.</em> (1996) estimated 530-670 individuals in Phong Nha-Ke Bang; 50-70 in the Hoa Son area; 250-350 in the Thuong Hoa area; and 200-250 in the Phong Nha area. However, this is very likely to be a significant underestimate of the size of this population, and may also include individuals currently assigned to the form <em>T. ebenus</em> in Lao PDR. Individuals assigned to <em>T. ebenus</em> are also <em>hatinhensis</em>, assuming it is confirmed that this form is only a morph of the species.
40789		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hunting, as shooting of primates is quite common throughout its range (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). The animals are killed for meat, as well as for traditional “medicine” and the wildlife trade (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Snaring is reported to be the predominant hunting method in Phong Nha-Ke Bang (Timmins <em>et al.</em> 1999), with an increase since 1996 (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Hunting with rifles has appeared to diminish since 1995, probably due to gun legislation controls, confiscation of guns by local authorities, and a decrease of hunting success (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Road construction around Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park has increased hunting and illegal logging (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Habitat loss is also a problem in some areas.
40792		conservation	eng	Enhanced protection of riparian zones in desert canyons would benefit this species. It appears not to be known from any protected areas, though it might occur in some.
40792		distribution	eng	This species is known only from California in the United States. It is known several locations in desert mountains of Inyo and Mono counties, east-central California (Stebbins 2003). Some specific locations include the following: Panamint Mountains (Brewery and Limekiln springs, Surprise Canyon, Pleasant Canyon, Wildrose Canyon, middle fork of Hanaupah Canyon), Nelson Mountains (Grapevine Canyon), Inyo Mountains (Daisy Canyon, Lime Hill, Long John Canyon, French Spring), White Mountains (Batchelder Spring, Westgard Pass, Marble Canyon, Tollhouse Spring, Black Canyon, Cottonwood Canyon, Silver Creek Canyon, Coldwater Creek, above Chalfant and Hammil valleys), eastern Argus Mountains, Cosos Mountains (Banta <em>et al</em>. 1996). Its occurrence in talus habitat suggested to Banta <em>et al</em>. (1996) that the geographic range may be broader than is now known. However, the known area of occupancy is very small (probably less than 5 sq. km if one assumes that each occupied patch is 2 km long and 0.1 km wide). Elevational range is about 2,500 to 7,500 feet (760 to 2,300 m).
40792		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs in regions dominated by scrub desert, Joshua tree woodland, and the lower edge of the pinyon-juniper belt (Stebbins 1985). Most known locations are in canyon riparian zones below permanent springs; but individuals may range into talus slopes some distance from the immediate riparian zone (Good 1988, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Banta <em>et al</em>. 1996). Individuals have been found under willow thickets along watercourses, under shrubs in drier areas, and in rock slides. When inactive, the lizards hide underground, under stones or wood, or in crevices. Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) along creeks with riparian vegetation, (2) along small springs with riparian vegetation, (3) near small springs in pinyon-juniper or Joshua tree woodland, (4) pinyon juniper and Joshua tree woodland in canyons or washes. Occupied riparian zones are typically only a few metres wide and less than three km long (Jennings and Hayes 1994).
40792		population	eng	Only 24 museum specimens from 16 localities and an additional 11 sight records have accumulated since the species was described in 1958 (Banta <em>et al</em>. 1996). Banta <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 23 locations. The total adult population size of this secretive and apparently rare lizard is unknown, but probably it is at least 1,000 (assuming at least 20 subpopulations of 50 or more adults). Population trends cannot be determined with certainty, but the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have probably been relatively stable over the long term. Abundance probably has declined in some areas where the habitat has been degraded.
40792		threats	eng	According to Jennings and Hayes (1994), all but a few of the known populations occur on private lands and are currently at risk from mining, feral and domestic livestock grazing, and increasing off-road vehicle activity.
40793		conservation	eng	Being rare, this species  has some protection in Japan. According to the 2000 Red List of Japan, the subspecies <em>G. k. toyamai</em> is Critically Endangered, <em>G. k. yamashinae</em>, <em>G. k. splendens</em> and <em>G. k. orientalis</em> are considered Endangered and <em>G. k. kuroiwae</em> is considered Vulnerable. Population monitoring is required for this species.
40793		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan and is divided into several subspecies, which have the following distribution: <em>G. kuroiwae yamashinae</em> on the island of Kumejima, <em>G. k. splendens</em> on the island of Tokunoshima, <em>G. k. orientalis</em> on the islands of Tonakijima, Akajima, Tokashikijima and Iejima, <em>G. k. toyamai</em> on Iheyajima Island, and <em>G. k. kuroiwae</em> on the islands of Okinawajima, Sesokojima and Kourijima (Grismer <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>The distributional area of this species has been calculated as 1,601 km²<sup></sup>. It ranges from sea level to 450 m above sea level.
40793		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the leaf litter of subtropical forests in karst limestone areas (Dial and Grismer 1992). It chiefly preys at night on small invertebrates on the ground surface by switching motive and passive (ambushing) foraging tactics (Werner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, 2006). Each adult female lays one to three clutches per breeding season (from late May to early August), and each clutch consists of no more than two eggs (H. Ota pers. comm. 2010). Hatchlings, appearing from late August to early October, usually become mature in the late breeding season of the next year or in the early breeding season in two years later (Tanaka and Nishihira 1987, 1989; H. Ota pers. comm. 2010).
40793		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
40793		threats	eng	This species is threatened by human activities including deforestation (Ota 2000). Large areas of the native subtropical forest on the Ryukyu Islands was cleared and converted for agriculture, and habitat degradation took place during World War II (Watanabe <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is also seriously threatened by predation by introduced carnivores, such as the mongoose (on Okinawajima), weasel (on Akajima), and domestic and feral cats (everywhere). The species has also been collected by illegal pet traders (on Tokunoshima, Okinawajima, Kumejima, and Iheyajima).
40797		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation or management measures targeted at this species. In northern Australia shark fisheries are regulated limiting the exploitation of this species.
40797		distribution	eng	This species occurs in continental shelf waters of the tropical Indo-West Pacific, including Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Viet Nam, China, Thailand, India, Sri Lanka and the Gulf of Aden (Compagno 1984, Parry-Jones 1996). Distribution records from this region are not continuous. However, given its relatively low abundance, and morphological similarity to other more abundant species of <em>Carcharhinus</em>, its distribution is likely to be continuous through southern Asia.
40797		habitat	eng	This species is found on continental and insular shelves. <br/><br/>Information on the ecology and life history of the Graceful Shark is scant. The only available data are from the waters of northern Australia. The largest recorded size for this species is 167 cm from the Gulf of Thailand (Garrick 1982), while the largest size from Australian waters is 162 cm (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). Males and females mature at 110?115 cm and probably mate each year. Litter size ranges from 1?9 pups, with a mean of three and the size at birth is 50?60 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Mating probably occurs in February and ovulation in March or April. The gestation period is 9?10 months with parturition occurring in January and February (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991).<br/><br/>The Graceful Shark's diet is composed mostly of bony fishes. Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) reported fish from 91% of specimens with food in the stomach, while crustaceans occurred in 6% and cephalopods in 4%. In a study of predatory fish around Groote Eylandt in Australia?s Gulf of Carpentaria, Brewer <em>et al.</em> (1995) reported that 88.5% of specimens with food in the stomach had consumed fish, 1.3% crabs and 8.5% cephalopods. Over 60% of the fish eaten were from the family Carangidae.
40797		threats	eng	This shark is caught regularly in gillnet and longline fisheries throughout its range. In northern Australia, Lyle and Timms (1984) reported that in gillnets <em>C. amblyrhynchoides</em> made up 1.5% of the shark catch by numbers and 2.7% by weight. Lyle and Griffin (1987) reported that in longline catches in northern Australia it comprised 0.2% of the shark catch by number and 0.6% by weight. Current levels of the catch of sharks in northern Australia are low. However, catch levels during the 1970s and 1980s were considerably higher when foreign gillnet vessels operated in the fishery. Foreign vessels caught up to 17,000 t of sharks annually during this period (Bentley 1996), but ceased fishing in Australian waters in 1986 when the length of gillnets was restricted.<br/><br/>Records of <em>C. amblyrhynchoides</em> catches in other countries are scant. Parry-Jones (1996) reported landings in China, and Keong (1996) reported their occurrence in fish markets in Thailand. Catches are probably also taken by commercial fisheries in India and Sri Lanka (Compagno 1984b). The Graceful Shark is exploited for its flesh and fins. There is no information available on the impact of fishing on <em>C. amblyrhynchoides</em> stocks.
40798		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park. Improved protection of the remaining montane rainforest of Mindanao is needed.
40798		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of north-western and central Mindanao Island, in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
40798		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and has not been found outside forests. It breeds by direct development.
40798		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens, and is considered to be rare, although it is poorly known.
40798		threats	eng	It inhabits high-elevation forests, which are generally less threatened by habitat conversion and agriculture and human encroachment. However, some populations of this species are subject to these threats.
40799		conservation	eng	There remains a need for much improved protection of the remaining rainforest habitats on Mindanao, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides. Human exploitation of this species needs to be investigated to determine if this activity needs to be regulated.
40799		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Diuata Mountains and Mount Kitanglade, in Mindanao, in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
40799		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
40799		population	eng	It is a common species.
40799		threats	eng	Threats to this species include deforestation due to agriculture, and the pollution and siltation of streams and rivers from agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and mine tailings. Harvesting for human subsistence is a possible threat.
40800		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for <em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em>.  There are very little data concerning the habitat, ecology, status of the population and its habitat.  Research in these areas is recommended.
40800		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em> occurs in a restricted geographic range (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It occupies the subalpine regions of the Hentiyn Nuruu ridge of the Bayan-Ulan range in Mongolia, as well as the Erman Mountain range of the Russian Federation (Formozov <em>et al.</em> 1996; Formozov and Baklushinskaya 1999).  The total extent of occurrence is approximately 600 sq. km (Formozov pers. comm.)
40800		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of <em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em> is rock and talus.
40800		population	eng	There are no data regarding the current population status of this species.
40800		threats	eng	This species is threatened by rising global temperatures.  As a rock dwelling species, <em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em> is unable to disperse to more suitable habitat due to the intolerable ambient temperatures of connecting terrain.
40802		conservation	eng	Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
40802		distribution	eng	<em>H. barbouri</em> is recorded from the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
40802		habitat	eng	A marine species, occurring in shallow seagrass habitat. This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
40802		population	eng	Population declines are inferred based on substantial exploitation, decreased availability in the trade, and habitat degeneration.
40802		threats	eng	<em>H. barbouri</em> is sold in the aquarium, curiosity, and TM trades, particularly the first (Pajaro, unpubl. data).  It is also a by-catch in other gears used in its shallow seagrass habitat (Pajaro, unpubl. data).  In addition to the substantial demand for this species for TM and aquaria, its seagrass habitats are also threatened.
40816		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40816		distribution	eng	One single location of approximately 400 km². Total population is size is ca. 3,000 and is comprised of a number of small subpopulations.
40816		habitat	eng	Lower slopes of calcareous hills with alluvial ridges of pebble.
40816		threats	eng	Construction of roads and settlements and expanding agriculture.
40817		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40817		distribution	eng	Geographically isolated on the eastern slopes of Sierra Madre Oriental, known only in one valley around Acultzingo (range is 300 km²). In the last untouched corners of the valley the population is still healthy but comprises only a few hundred plants.
40817		habitat	eng	Lava-soil with grass and small bushes.
40817		threats	eng	Any extension of human activities in the valley pose a threat.
40818		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.   Plants are being propagated through <em>ex situ</em> cultivation.
40818		distribution	eng	Plants are very scattered on the prairies west of Cerro Potosi in Nuevo Leon (range is 7,000 km²).
40818		habitat	eng	Sandy-loamy alluvial plains.
40818		threats	eng	Constant loss of plants by agricultural activities (cultivation) has been observed in recent years. The size of the untouched prairie is diminishing from year to year.
40819		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40819		distribution	eng	Found in the Río Verde, Villa Juárez y Cd. del Maíz Municipalities.  The plants at all locations are scattered and form large groups. There are several thousand plants left.
40819		habitat	eng	The main site is in the dry lagoon of Las Tablas in gypsum soil with grass.  The habitat is locally classified as: eastern subpopulation - Zacatal (Grassland); central subpopulation - Matorral Desértico Micrófilo with Yuccas (Rzedowski 1978).
40819		threats	eng	There is constant loss of plants due to agricultural cultivation. Road construction decimated one of the locations. Illegal collection is an ongoing problem.
40820		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40820		distribution	eng	The exent of occurrence is large (28,000 km²), but there are only a few locations left, most of them containing less than 20 plants. In total the remaining population probably only totals several hundred plants.
40820		habitat	eng	Deep and flat lava soils in grass or besides anthills. Occurs together with opuntias.
40820		threats	eng	The remaining portions of habitat with suitably  large enough populations should be protected. Plants should also be propagated.
40821		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Extensive surveys have been conducted by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and various conservation measures have been proposed.
40821		distribution	eng	There are several hundred plants scattered in endangered habitats.  The small range is treated as a single location, 600 km² in extent.
40821		habitat	eng	Occurs in flat and sparsely vegetated areas or on flat hilltops in semi-desert grasslands.
40821		threats	eng	Threatened primarily by expanding urbanization.  However the introduced and invasive Lehman's lovegrass has a major impact, as do off-road vehicles, fires and illegal removal by collectors.
40822		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  However, the laws governing international trade in this species need to be enforced in the countries of destination.
40822		distribution	eng	Without doubt a 'good' species. However, this was originally described in the genus <em>Puna</em>, a recent study (Stuppy 2001) has shown that the taxon undoubtedly belongs to the genus <em>Tephrocactus</em>. The extent of occurrence is about 20 km². The range may extend to the tops of the hills or even higher up the mountains south of the present location. But this needs verification.
40822		habitat	eng	Occurs in semi-desert scrub.
40822		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. However, the type locality is no longer on the main route (a new road was made and the old one abandoned), and the other places where Kiesling found <em>T. bonnieae</em> again are unknown to others. It is also difficult to find the plants because of their geophytic habit.
40823		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  Protection of the habitat and propagation in cultivation are urgently required.
40823		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area (<9 km²) east of the town of San Luis Potosí, Cerro de San Pedro Municipality. There are about 3,000 mature individuals, usually forming large clumps. Two locations where the species was formerly known to occur have been completely destroyed in recent years.
40823		habitat	eng	Grows in clusters hidden in the grass on lava soils.  The habitat is now an induced grassland as a result of the felling of the <em>Quercus</em> woodland which previously dominated the area.  The habitat is locally classified as pastizal inducido (Induced Grassland) (Rzedowski 1978).
40823		threats	eng	Erosion, deforestation and over-pasturing.  Illegal collection is also a problem.
40824		conservation	eng	There is a need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination (listed on CITES App. II). Recently a portion of the site has been enclosed with a chain link fence by El Charco del Ingenio of San Miguel de Allende with the support of the British Cactus and Succulent Society. Under the circumstances, it appears this measure may well be effective. The species has long been propagated around the world.
40824		distribution	eng	The population of this species has been diminished by an estimated 50% over the past 20 years. Current estimated population is 5,000 individuals growing over 5 km². Occurs to the south of Pozos.
40824		habitat	eng	Grows on sloping calcareous rock in semi desert at about 2,000 m altitude.
40824		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors. A residential development is in progress in the area and the developers are cooperative with the idea of establishing a protected area.
40825		conservation	eng	Need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination (listed on CITES App. II). These plants have been widely propagated worldwide for 20 years.
40825		distribution	eng	Occurs on Cerro Bernal where it grows on a steep volcanic rock face over about 2,000 square meters (plan view). Current estimated population is less than 500 individuals.
40825		habitat	eng	Steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 2,400 m altitude.
40825		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors and is protected only by the difficulty of access.
40826		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination.
40826		distribution	eng	Occurs northeast of San Luis Potosí where there are many subpopulations over a range of 250 km² with a total population estimated to be less than 10,000 individuals.
40826		habitat	eng	Found on flat to sloping calcareous rocky terrain in semi desert at about 1,800 m altitude.
40826		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting, commercial and amateur.
40827		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination.
40827		distribution	eng	Occurs north of San Andreas from two sites about 3 km apart, probably best considered a single location. The estimated total range is 25 km². It is estimated that the total area of occupancy of the two subpopulations is less than 1 km², and with a total population estimated to be less than 100 individuals.
40827		habitat	eng	Sloping volcanic rocky terrain in semi-desert at about 1,600 m altitude.
40827		threats	eng	Currently little threatened by collectors. Although the habitat is known to collectors, the trip to the type locality from and back to the nearest rudimentary facilities takes a full day thus discouraging tour groups and casual collectors. Natural disasters seem to be the main cause for concern.
40829		conservation	eng	Insufficient data.
40829		distribution	eng	From San Luis Potosí State and perhaps other adjacent states.
40829		habitat	eng	On volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,800 m altitude, based on the <em>M. leucantha</em> description of the type locality.
40829		threats	eng	Unknown.
40831		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40831		distribution	eng	Range unknown from the description but presumably in Hidalgo State near Venado and perhaps also in adjacent states.
40831		habitat	eng	Unknown.
40831		threats	eng	Unknown.
40832		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is required. Plants from the type locality have been widely propagated, although collecting by individuals and tour groups continues.
40832		distribution	eng	The southern most of the two known populations has been somewhat diminished by collecting over the past 10 years. Current estimated population is estimated at 500 individuals.
40832		habitat	eng	Found on volcanic rock in semi-desert at an altitude of 2,000 m.
40832		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting and land development.
40833		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. This species is widely propagated.
40833		distribution	eng	Occurs near Lake Chapala in Jalisco State and near Irapuato in Guanajuato State. Only four small subpopulations are known, extending over a total range of less than 2,500 km² (Fitz Maurice 1992, Pilbeam 1999). It is estimated that the total area of occupancy of the four subpopulations is less than 10 km², with a total population estimated to be less than 2,500 individuals.
40833		habitat	eng	On sloping volcanic rocky terrain (calcareous soils) in semi-desert at 1,600 to 1,900 m altitude.
40833		threats	eng	threatened by illegal collecting, both commercial and amateur.
40834		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II ,but need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination. The number of habitats where this species occurs which have quite difficult access make it a low conservation priority.
40834		distribution	eng	Since this species was discovered near San Pedro by Moeller (Fitz Maurice 1997), the population has been diminished somewhat. Current estimated population is less than 2,500 individuals in a 30 km² area.
40834		habitat	eng	On volcanic and calcareous rock in semi desert at about 1,400 m.
40834		threats	eng	Moderately threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40835		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40835		habitat	eng	Grew on steep volcanic rock at about 700 m altitude in a deep canyon in semi-desert.
40835		threats	eng	Illegal collecting has apparently resulted in the extinction of this species.
40836		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is required. New plants are currently being propagated from seed sown <em>in situ</em>. This propagation should also counteract the impacts of the illegal collections.
40836		distribution	eng	This species is found west of Nazas in an area of about 6 km². It had an estimated population size of more than 10,000 plants in 1994. A subsequent visit in 2000 revealed a population reduced by more than 95% to less than 500, apparently largely a result of the 1997 freeze on Mexico’s altiplano.
40836		habitat	eng	On volcanic rocky outcroppings in semi-desert at about 1,400 m altitude.
40836		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and temperature extremes.
40837		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40837		distribution	eng	Plants meeting the description given for <em>M. guillauminiana</em> had been found plentifully by a number of well known cactus specialists at eight known locations from 31 km west-southwest of Cd. Durango to 214 km west of El Palmito in the State of Sinaloa, a range of about 100 km. This range includes what appears to be the type locality. The population is estimated to have been more than 2,000 individuals.
40837		habitat	eng	Grew on steep volcanic rock at about 2,200 m altitude in semi-desert.
40837		threats	eng	Minor collecting before the freeze.
40838		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The species has long been propagated around the world.
40838		distribution	eng	Current estimated population is less than 50 individuals growing over 1 km² to the west of Presa Zimapan.
40838		habitat	eng	Grows on sloping calcareous rock in semi desert at about 1,800 m altitude.
40838		threats	eng	Very threatened by illegal collecting. The population of this species has been diminished by an estimated 95% over the past 20 years. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors. A nearby commercial cactus nursery has almost stripped the site. Local children collect and offer plants to visitors. A very small amount of residential development is in progress in the area.
40839		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The plants are widely available throughout the world as a result of propagation from illegally exported specimens propagated from the original collection with approval of low level Mexican government officials. At this time, conservation measures would be counterproductive if they involved the type locality.
40839		distribution	eng	Grows over a range of less than 200 square meters. Current estimated population is less than 200 individuals.
40839		habitat	eng	Grows on sloping calcareous rocky terrain in semi desert at an altitude of about 800 m.
40839		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. The precise locality is known only to Hinton and Luethy. An intensive search for the locality continues by ego driven amateurs and commercial collectors.
40840		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed.
40840		distribution	eng	Found east of Xichu where it grows over a range of less than 1 km². Current estimated population is less than 150 individuals.
40840		habitat	eng	On steeply sloping volcanic rocky terrain in semi-desert at an altitude of about 1,200 m.
40840		threats	eng	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40841		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The number of sites unknown to amateur and commercial collectors make conservation action for this species a low priority.
40841		distribution	eng	Occurs east and north of Querétaro in a 100 km² area.
40841		habitat	eng	Grows among volcanic rocks in semi-desert at about 1,800 m.
40841		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting and land development. The type locality is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40842		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The small decline in number of mature individuals does not constitute a major threat at present but needs to be monitored.
40842		distribution	eng	Found over a 7,200 km²r range in the central part of the state, with a population estimated to be more than 2,500 individuals.
40842		habitat	eng	Grows among volcanic rock in semi-desert at 2,000 to 2,600 m altitude.
40842		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40843		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40843		distribution	eng	The type locality is given as near San Juan del Rio, Guanajuato and <em>M. crinita</em> subsp. <em>crinita</em> is commonly found there.
40843		habitat	eng	Volcanic based soil (based on type locality).
40843		threats	eng	Unknown.
40844		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. Plants have been propagated worldwide for 25 years.
40844		distribution	eng	Current estimated population is less than 250 individuals over a range of about 2,500 square meters to the north of Durango.
40844		habitat	eng	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,500 m altitude.
40844		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40845		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. Plants have been widely propagated worldwide for more than 40 years.
40845		distribution	eng	Current estimated population is less than 1,000 individuals over a range of about 250 km² northwest of Gómez Palacio.
40845		habitat	eng	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,300 to 1,500 m altitude.
40845		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40846		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. Plants have been widely propagated worldwide for more than 40 years.
40846		distribution	eng	Current estimated population is less than 1,250 individuals over a range of about 250 km² northwest of Gómez Palacio and north of Durango.
40846		habitat	eng	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,300 to 1,500 m altitude.
40846		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40849		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The number of subpopulations and individuals makes conservation action a low priority.
40849		distribution	eng	Subpopulations of <em>M. rettigiana</em> found to the area noted by Pilbeam, occupy a 5,000 km² area with a total population size estimated to be more than 5,000 individuals.
40849		habitat	eng	Among volcanic rocks in semi-desert at about 1,900 m altitude.
40849		threats	eng	There is some illegal collecting by tour groups and individuals. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. There is evidence of a substantial decrease in the number of individuals as a result of the 1997 freeze with some subpopulations extirpated.
40850		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. This species is widely propagated.
40850		distribution	eng	Since this species was discovered by Gonzalez more than 15 years ago, the population has diminished by an estimated 75%. Grows among low calcareous rock outcroppings over a range of 1 km². Current estimated population is less than 500 individuals.
40850		habitat	eng	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 2,300 m altitude.
40850		threats	eng	Very threatened by illegal collecting. The location is well known to both commercial and amateur collectors. While the area is enclosed by an electric fence to prevent theft of farming machinery, access is available for a small fee.
40851		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the law in countries of destination is needed. This species has been widely propagated worldwide for 40 years.
40851		distribution	eng	Grows near San Felipe on a steep volcanic rock face about 100 m (plan view) by 4 km long. Current estimated population size is less than 1,000 individuals.
40851		habitat	eng	Grows on steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 2,300 m altitude.
40851		threats	eng	very threatened by illegal collecting. The locality is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
40854		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the law in countries of destination is needed.
40854		distribution	eng	Less than 10 subpopulations are known from north of Ascension and to the south of Rayones, about 50 km, with an east-west range of about 25 km. The total population is estimated to be less than 2,500 individual plants.
40854		habitat	eng	Sloping terrain among calcareous rocks in semi-desert at an altitude of about 2,100 m.
40854		threats	eng	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting, commercial and amateur. There has been an overall reduction of more than 10% during the past 10 years.
40855		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the law in countries of destination is needed. These plants have been very widely propagated worldwide for 40 years and the locality probably remains unknown to collectors.
40855		distribution	eng	Since this species or form was rediscovered near San Miguel de Allende in 1987 (Fitz Maurice 1988), the number of individuals has varied widely as is typical for <em>M. crinita</em> (Fitz Maurice 1989). The range is about 1 km². Current estimated population size is less than 250 individuals.
40855		habitat	eng	Grows on steep volcanic rock face in semi-desert at about 2,000 m.
40855		threats	eng	To the best of our knowledge, this locality is not known to either amateur or commercial collectors and is threatened only by natural causes.
40857		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. It has been taken into cultivation as a hedge plant in the region where it is native.
40857		distribution	eng	Found in the drainage of the Rio Doce, central-southern and eastern Minas Gerais to central Espírito Santo, apparently cultivated elsewhere. Endemic to the core area within South-eastern Brazil.
40857		habitat	eng	Southern humid/subhumid forest element: drier phases of Mata atlântica, c. 50–1,400 m.
40857		threats	eng	Its native habitat continues to decline.
40858		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40858		distribution	eng	Found in central-southern Bahia to central-northern and north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area of Eastern Brazil. Extent of occurrence is 60,627 km².
40858		habitat	eng	Southern caatinga (inselberg) element: in caatinga/agreste, especially in association with gneiss/granite inselbergs or derived substrates, 300–920 m.
40859		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40859		distribution	eng	Found in the drainage of the Rios Paraguaçu, de Contas and Jequitinhonha, eastern Bahia and north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area of Eastern Brazil.
40859		habitat	eng	Eastern caatinga element: margins of gneiss/granite outcrops, on inselbergs and occasionally on calcareous soils, in caatinga-agreste, 100–650 m.
40859		threats	eng	Mining and loss of habitat.
40860		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II under <em>Opuntia</em>.
40860		distribution	eng	Found east of the Rio São Francisco, Mun. Iuiú, southern Bahia.
40860		habitat	eng	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on exposed Bambuí limestone outcrops in caatinga, c. 500–550 m.
40861		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40861		distribution	eng	Found east of the Chapada Diamantina crestline in northern and central-eastern Bahia, and in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha (associated with gneiss/granite inselbergs and lajedos) of north-eastern Minas Gerais (apparently disjunct, but possibly under-recorded through destruction of habitat in intervening areas).
40861		habitat	eng	Eastern caatinga-agreste element: within and at the margins of caatinga-agreste, 40–700 m.
40861		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40862		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  Occurs in some protected areas.
40862		distribution	eng	Found from the Chapada Diamantina and Serra do Espinhaço eastwards, Bahia, Minas Gerais and (?) Espírito Santo; Central-western (Goiás and Mato Grosso) and South-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).
40862		habitat	eng	Widespread humid forest/campo rupestre element: epilithic or epiphytic, campo rupestre, mata de brejo and Mata atlántica and their ecotones with caatinga-agreste, 50–1,050 m.
40862		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and logging.
40863		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  Occurs in some protected areas.
40863		distribution	eng	Found in south-eastern Bahia (and Espírito Santo?); to South-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Serra do Mar).
40863		habitat	eng	Humid forest element: epiphyte in perhumid Mata atlântica, at low elevations.
40863		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and logging.
40864		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40864		distribution	eng	Found in Mun. Caruaru, eastern Pernambuco; South-eastern Brazil (coast E of Rio de Janeiro between Niterói and Cabo Frio, and inner São Paulo). The single record from Pernambuco is markedly disjunct from other known sites in Rio de Janeiro (Cabo Frio, Silva Jardim, Saquarema and Itacoatiara) and São Paulo (Rio Claro and Altinópolis).
40864		habitat	eng	Humid/subhumid forest element: epiphyte in mata de brejo. <em>Rhipsalis crispata</em> is a species of more markedly seasonal or drier habitats, where it has been found as an epiphyte or lithophyte, both near the coast and far inland, but it can also grow in the sand of the restinga (Cabo Frio, RJ).
40864		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.
40865		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40865		distribution	eng	Found in eastern Pernambuco, eastern Bahia, central-eastern Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Endemic to Eastern Brazil.
40865		habitat	eng	Humid forest element: epiphyte in Mata atlântica, low elevations to c. 900 m.
40865		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40866		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40866		distribution	eng	Found in southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); Rio de Janeiro (Mun. Nova Friburgo). Endemic to South-eastern Brazil.
40866		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: at c. 900 m.
40866		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40867		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40867		distribution	eng	Found in southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); Rio de Janeiro (Mun. Nova Friburgo). Endemic to South-eastern Brazil.
40867		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: at c. 900 m.
40867		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40868		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40868		distribution	eng	Found in southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); Rio de Janeiro (both sides of the Baía de Guanabara).
40868		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest (inselberg) element: lithophyte on gneissic inselbergs (rarely epiphytic on nearby trees).
40868		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40869		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40869		distribution	eng	Range poorly understood; only one collection of documented provenance has been seen.
40869		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: ecology poorly understood.
40869		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40870		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40870		distribution	eng	Found in region of Catolés (Mun. Abaíra), Chapada Diamantina, eastern and central Bahia. Endemic to Bahia.
40870		habitat	eng	Disjunct Bahian humid forest element: epiphyte (rarely lithophyte) in Mata atlântica (Hileia Baiana), at low elevations to c. 500 m, and in mata de neblina (1,650–1,800 m).
40870		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40871		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40871		distribution	eng	Found in southern Minas Gerais (Rio Preto) and southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); South-eastern and Southern Brazil (to Paraná).
40871		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte (rarely lithophyte) in Mata atlantica, 500–900 m.
40871		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40872		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40872		distribution	eng	Details unknown
40872		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: precise habitat details unknown.
40872		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40873		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40873		distribution	eng	Found in central-southern Espírito Santo. Endemic.
40873		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest (inselberg) element: lithophytic on inselbergs, rarely epiphytic, Mata atlântica, 900–1300 m.
40873		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40874		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Most of the remaining population is in protected areas.
40874		distribution	eng	Found in Serra do Caparaó, Minas Gerais / Espírito Santo; Rio de Janeiro (Serra de Itatiaia).
40874		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: lithophytic or epiphytic, mata de neblina, at >2,000 m.
40874		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40875		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Included within some protected areas.
40875		distribution	eng	Found in Serra da Mantiqueira, southern Minas Gerais; to north-western Rio de Janeiro (Itatiaia) and eastern São Paulo (Campos do Jordão).
40875		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: lithophytic/epiphytic, mata de neblina, c. 1,700 m.
40875		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40876		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40876		distribution	eng	Found at 850–1,000 m in the region of Grão Mogol, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40876		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: carrasco.
40876		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40877		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40877		distribution	eng	Occurs at c. 150–750 m in south-western Maranhão and western Bahia to central northern and western Minas Gerais (Rio São Francisco drainage), and disjunctly in east central Minas Gerais (Rio Doce/Rio Jequitinhohna watershed); occurrence in eastern Goiás is uncertain.
40877		habitat	eng	Cerrado element: mostly in sandy phases of the cerrado and more open places of the cerrado-caatinga ecotone.
40877		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40878		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. The range of the species is entirely within the Reserva Particular de Patrimônio Natural do Caraça.
40878		distribution	eng	Found at 1000–1500 m on the Serra do Caraça, south-central Minas Gerais. Endemic to Minas Gerais.
40878		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: deeply fissured quartzitic outcrops on steep hill slopes and cliffs in campo rupestre, in constant association with <em>Philodendron cipoense</em>. The plant is most abundant at lower elevations, below 1,400 m. Above this elevation the populations are very small and appear to be marginal, probably being limited by winter frosts. Plants at these elevations occur only under the protection of rocks or bushes and exposed stems are invariably damaged and re-sprout from below.
40879		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40879		distribution	eng	Found north of Diamantina, Serra Negra and east side of Serra do Espinhaço at 500–1200 m, Minas Gerais.
40879		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (cerrado) element: in sandy cerrado/carrasco associated with crystalline rock outcrops.
40879		threats	eng	Loss of habitat, especially because of the activities of charcoal producers. The species hybridizes with <em>C. minensis</em> when they come into contact.
40880		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40880		distribution	eng	Found at 500–1200 m in Serra do Cabral and west slope of Serra do Espinhaço, Minas Gerais. Endemic to this area.
40880		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre, carrasco or cerrado.
40880		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and exploitation of seed.
40881		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Part of the population is in a protected area.
40881		distribution	eng	Found at 900–1,300 m on the Serra do Cipó and Lapinha, southwards to Cocais and Itabirito, central-southern Minas Gerais.
40881		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: on cliffs and between rocks.
40881		threats	eng	Loss of habitat through excessive burning, mining and logging.
40882		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Maintained in a few <em>ex situ</em> collections in Europe, including that at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
40882		distribution	eng	Found at 800–1,000 m on the west slope of Serra Geral (northern Serra do Espinhaço), east of Monte Azul, central-northern Minas Gerais.
40882		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre element: on cliffs and ledges of crystalline rocks.
40883		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Part of the population is in a protected area.
40883		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Bahia.
40883		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: on cliffs and rock ledges in sun or deep shade, campo rupestre, c. 1000–2000 m.
40883		threats	eng	Threatened by collectors.
40885		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40885		distribution	eng	Found at 550–1400 m in central-southern Bahia (from c. 13º55'S southwards) and northern Minas Gerais (south to Bocaiúva) in the Serra do Espinhaço (and Serra Geral). Endemic to the core area within Eastern Brazil.
40885		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre element: sandy cerrado, campo rupestre (sometimes on rocks), gerais and in the caatinga / campo rupestre ecotone.
40885		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss (particularly through the activities of charcoal producers) and collectors.
40886		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40886		distribution	eng	Found on SE edge of the Chapada Diamantina and eastern drainage of Serra do Espinhaço, at 700–950 m, in central-southern Bahia and northern Minas Gerais.
40886		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre element: in sandy cerrado.
40886		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss (particularly through the activities of charcoal producers) and collectors.
40887		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40887		distribution	eng	Occurs north of Salvador (BA) to Rio Grande do Norte, extending up the São Francisco River valley and westwards to the caatinga region around the borders of Bahia (Raso da Catarina), Alagoas, Sergipe and Pernambuco. Endemic to North-eastern Brazil.
40887		habitat	eng	Widespread caatinga / humid forest (restinga) element: in dense or sparse restinga on sand-dunes. Locally co-dominant with other arborescent vegetation, near sea level to 550 m. The pollination of this subspecies by the phyllostomid bat, <em>Glossophaga soricina</em> Pallas, and by hawkmoths, has been documented and photographed by Locatelli <em>et al</em>. (1997).
40887		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.
40888		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40888		distribution	eng	known only from the region of Pedra Azul, Minas Gerais (and from perhaps the same area recorded as a vaguely localized collection from south of Vitória da Conquista, Bahia). Endemic to the core area within Eastern Brazil. A single living specimen of this taxon has been observed in semi-shade of dry forest (agreste), sympatric with <em>Pilosocereus floccosus</em> subsp. <em>quadricostatus</em>. Although flowering material has yet to be examined, vegetative morphology and seeds suggest that this species belongs to the <em>P. arrabidae</em> Group, which is otherwise unrepresented in the region of the Rio Jequitinhonha drainage, where all other Groups in Subg. <em>Pilosocereus</em> are present. The alternative explanation, that it is a hybrid involving <em>P. floccosus</em> subsp. <em>quadricostatus</em> and one of the other <em>Pilosocereus</em> from the area (eg. <em>P. multicostatus</em>, <em>P. pachycladus</em>), does not seem plausible given the characters it displays.
40888		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: associated with gneissic inselbergs in caatinga-agreste.
40888		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40889		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40889		distribution	eng	From southern Bahia and Espírito Santo to Rio de Janeiro.
40889		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest (restinga) element: in dense or sparse, sandy restinga, near sea level.
40889		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40890		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40890		distribution	eng	Occurs in Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro. Endemic to South-eastern Brazil.
40890		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest (restinga) element: in restinga and gneissic inselbergs of the coast, to 100 m.
40890		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and tourism developments.
40891		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40891		distribution	eng	Found in southern and south-eastern Bahia and north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area of Eastern Brazil.
40891		habitat	eng	Eastern caatinga element: in dense caatinga-agreste of the Rio de Contas (Rio Gavião) and Rio Pardo drainage systems, c. 400–900 m.
40891		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40892		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40892		distribution	eng	Known only from Chapada Diamantina, in central Bahia.
40892		habitat	eng	Caatinga / Northern campos rupestres (Chapada Diamantina) element: in ‘caatinga de altitude’, c. 740–950 m, on calcareous substrates.
40892		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40893		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40893		distribution	eng	Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40893		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga element: in caatinga and on associated gneissic inselbergs within the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha and high ground separating it from the Rio Pardo, c. 250–800 m. Also in the Rio São Francisco (Rio das Velhas) caatinga / mata seca element: mostly on Bambuí limestone outcrops west of the Serra do Espinhaço.
40893		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Limestone quarrying may pose a problem in the future.
40894		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40894		distribution	eng	Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40894		habitat	eng	Rio São Francisco (Rio das Velhas) caatinga / mata seca element: mostly on Bambuí limestone outcrops west of the Serra do Espinhaço, c. 600–800 m.
40894		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Limestone quarrying may pose a problem in the future.
40895		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40895		distribution	eng	Found in north-eastern Minas.
40895		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga element: in caatinga and on associated gneissic inselbergs within the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha and high ground separating it from the Rio Pardo, c. 250–800 m.
40895		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40896		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40896		distribution	eng	In central-northern and northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40896		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol region and Rio São Francisco drainage) element: locally co-dominant with other woody vegetation on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre, Serra do Espinhaço, in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha and Rio das Velhas, c. 720–1,000 m.
40896		threats	eng	Habitat loss and collecting.
40897		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40897		distribution	eng	Found in Serra do Espinhaço, in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha, c. 720–1000 m, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40897		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol region) element: locally co-dominant with other woody vegetation on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre.
40897		threats	eng	Habitat loss, collecting and inundation.
40898		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40898		distribution	eng	Found in Serra do Espinhaço, in the drainage of the Rio das Velhas, central-northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40898		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Rio São Francisco drainage) element: on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre, c. 800 m.
40898		threats	eng	Habitat is being lost through the development of infrastructure and also impacted by collection of plants.
40899		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40899		distribution	eng	Found in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha, north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40899		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: locally co-dominant with other arborescent cacti on gneissic inselbergs in caatinga-agreste, c. 250–700 m.
40899		threats	eng	Habitat loss and collecting.
40900		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40900		distribution	eng	Found at 800–900 m on the Serra do Cabral, Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40900		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Serra do Cabral) element: locally co-dominant with other cacti on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre.
40900		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40901		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40901		distribution	eng	From central Bahia, east bank of the Rio São Francisco.
40901		habitat	eng	Western cerrado element: amongst arenitic rocks in cerrado, c. 450–550 m.
40901		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40902		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40902		distribution	eng	Found in north-eastern Minas Gerais.
40902		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: on gneissic inselbergs amongst caatinga-agreste in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha, c. 670–900 m.
40902		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40903		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. The southernmost subpopulation is protected within Parque Nacional da Serra da Capivara.
40903		distribution	eng	Found in south-eastern Piauí, Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte. Endemic to North-eastern Brazil.
40903		habitat	eng	Northern caatinga element: on arenitic/granitic rock outcrops associated with caatinga, c. 200–850 m.
40904		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40904		distribution	eng	From Serra da Bocaina and Serranópolis, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40904		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre (N Serra do Espinhaço) element: amongst rocks at c. 900–1100 m.
40904		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40905		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40905		distribution	eng	From Serra do Espinhaço (Serra Geral) northern Minas Gerais and adjacent southernmost Bahia.
40905		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre element: between crystalline rocks and on cliffs in campo rupestre, c. 800–1000 m.
40905		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40906		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Part of the population occurs in a protected area.
40906		distribution	eng	From Serra do Barão and vicinity, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.
40906		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: between crystalline rocks and in quartz sand, c. 750–1000 m.
40906		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to inundation.
40907		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40907		distribution	eng	Occurs west of Seabra in central Bahia.
40907		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: in the campo rupestre/cerrado de altitude ecotone, c. 1100 m.
40907		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40908		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40908		distribution	eng	From Mun. Caitité in southern Bahia.
40908		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre element: in quartz sand amongst crystalline rocks, c. 900–1000 m.
40908		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to mining.
40909		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40909		distribution	eng	Found west of the Rio São Francisco in south-western Bahia.
40909		habitat	eng	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on Bambuí limestone outcrops surrounded by caatinga or forest with caatinga elements, c. 450–650 m.
40909		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to quarrying and destructive collection of seeds.
40910		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40910		distribution	eng	Has a disjunct distribution, being found south-eastern and south-western Minas Gerais.
40910		habitat	eng	Southern humid/subhumid forest (inselberg) element: on gneissic inselbergs/lajedos (100–1,000 m).
40910		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to mining.
40911		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40911		distribution	eng	Rio Jequitinhonha valley, north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the Rio Jequitinhonha valley.
40911		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: on gneiss/granite outcrops/inselbergs in caatinga-agreste (170–350 m).
40911		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
40912		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40912		distribution	eng	From north-eastern Minas Gerais.
40912		habitat	eng	Southern humid/subhumid forest (inselberg) element: locally dominant on gneissic inselbergs/lajedos, in the agreste/Mata atlântica transition, c. 650 m.
40912		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to urban expansion.
40913		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40913		distribution	eng	Found at c. 250–300 m near the Rio Jequitinhonha, north-eastern Minas Gerais. The range of this species deserves further investigation, but is clearly much more restricted than that of its sister species, <em>C. aureus</em>, and is currently known only from a single locality. Uebelmann (1996) states it is from Itaobim, which is here assumed to refer to the Itinga locality, since the former is the closest town of any size and is the likely starting point for the short journey to Itinga. However, it should not be difficult to determine the extent of the species’ range more precisely, working eastwards from the known locality along the Rio Jequitinhonha valley.
40913		habitat	eng	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: on gneissic inselbergs and lajedos in caatinga.
40913		threats	eng	Habitat loss and collection of seed and plants.
40914		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.  Occurs in a protected area.
40914		distribution	eng	Found near Serra do Periperi, Mun. Vitória da Conquista, south-eastern Bahia. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is estimated to be <10 km².
40914		habitat	eng	Eastern caatinga/Northern campo rupestre element: under and between shrubs in quartz gravel, campo sujo / cerrado de altitude, c. 1,050 m.
40914		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to mining and removal of plants and seed by collectors.
40915		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40915		distribution	eng	From central-southern Bahia ,where it appears to have a very limited distribution east of the Rio São Francisco and is presently known from only one locality, where it is a co-dominant element of the rupicolous vegetation.
40915		habitat	eng	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on a gneissic inselberg in caatinga east of the Rio São Francisco, 500–540 m.
40915		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and impact of collectors.
40917		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40917		distribution	eng	Found in the region of Irecê and lower drainage of the Rio Jacaré, central-northern Bahia.
40917		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at c. 450–750 m.
40917		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and impact of collectors.
40918		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40918		distribution	eng	Found in the upper drainage of the Rio Jacaré and tributaries, between América Dourada, Barro Alto and Souto Soares, central Bahia.
40918		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on raised, exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at c. 700–850 m.
40918		threats	eng	Loss of habitat, mining and impact of collectors.
40919		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40919		distribution	eng	Found near the Rio Salitre and in the region of Irecê, northern Bahia.
40919		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, ± exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at 520–750 m.
40919		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and collecting.
40920		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40920		distribution	eng	Found near the Rio Salitre, northern Bahia.
40920		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, ± exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at 520–620 m.
40920		threats	eng	Loss of habitat by urban and agricultural expansion.
40921		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40921		distribution	eng	Found in the region of Irecê, central-northern Bahia.
40921		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, ± exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at 700–750 m.
40921		threats	eng	Loss of habitat by agricultural expansion.
40922		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40922		distribution	eng	Known from Mun. Caetés, south-eastern Pernambuco, but may also occur elsewhere.
40922		habitat	eng	Eastern caatinga element: on exposed granitic outcrops of serras in caatinga, c. 900 m
40922		threats	eng	Loss of habitat.
40923		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.  A reserve has been proposed to protect this species.
40923		distribution	eng	From Chapada Diamantina, Mun. Morro do Chapéu, Bahia.
40923		habitat	eng	Caatinga / Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: in the open and between low shrubs of the caatinga on flat or sloping, ± exposed, crystalline rock outcrops with accumulation of gravel, 700–900 m.
40923		threats	eng	Collectors and loss of habitat.
40924		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40924		distribution	eng	Found in the Chapada Diamantina and northern Serra do Espinhaço, central to southern Bahia.
40924		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre element: in sand or quartz gravel, cerrado de altitude and campo rupestre, c. 1,100–1,500 m.
40924		threats	eng	Collectors and loss of habitat.
40925		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40925		distribution	eng	Rio Grande do Norte to Rio de Janeiro, but apparently rather discontinuous, perhaps for lack of suitable habitats and due to extensive habitat destruction.
40925		habitat	eng	Widespread humid forest (Mata atlântica/restinga) and Northern campo rupestre (cerrado) element: between shrubs in sand of the coastal restinga, riverine sand-dunes and similar habitats further inland, 0–150 m (in sandy cerrado de altitude at 1,100 m.
40925		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.
40926		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40926		distribution	eng	Rio Grande do Norte to Rio de Janeiro, but apparently rather discontinuous, perhaps for lack of suitable habitats and due to extensive habitat destruction.
40926		habitat	eng	Widespread humid forest (Mata atlântica/restinga) and Northern campo rupestre (cerrado) element: between shrubs in sand of the coastal restinga, riverine sand-dunes and similar habitats further inland, 0–150 m (in sandy cerrado de altitude at 1,100 m, NE Minas Gerais only).
40926		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.
40927		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40927		distribution	eng	Found near Jacobina and above Rui Barbosa, central-eastern Bahia.
40927		habitat	eng	Eastern caatinga / Northern campo rupestre element: between Vellozia shrubs in fine quartz sand or gravel, campo rupestre, c. 450–860 m.
40927		threats	eng	Habitat loss and collectors.
40928		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II. Away from the coast it is most abundant and currently best protected in the state ecological reserve at the Serra de Itabaiana, Sergipe, managed by the local office of IBAMA.
40928		distribution	eng	Alagoas, Sergipe and eastern Bahia (south to Salvador).
40928		habitat	eng	Northern humid/subhumid forest (restinga) element: on coastal dunes of fine, white sand and inland (Serra de Itabaiana, SE), near sea level to c. 400 m.
40928		threats	eng	Habitat loss, especially due to tourist developments.
40929		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40929		distribution	eng	From north-western edges of the Chapada Diamantina, from the region of Xique-Xique to the Serra da Chapada, central-northern Bahia.
40929		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: in caatinga at c. 500 m or more.
40929		threats	eng	Not known
40930		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40930		distribution	eng	Found at 550–750 m in south-central and south-western Bahia (W of the Rio São Francisco) and central-northern Minas Gerais.
40930		habitat	eng	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: locally co-dominant on outcrops of raised Bambuí limestone within caatinga/cerradão.
40930		threats	eng	Limestone mining.
40931		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40931		distribution	eng	Found at 550–750 m in south-western Bahia (W of the Rio São Francisco) and central-northern Minas Gerais.
40931		habitat	eng	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: locally co-dominant on outcrops of raised Bambuí limestone within caatinga/cerradão.
40931		threats	eng	Limestone mining.
40932		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40932		distribution	eng	Known from a single locality in central-southern Bahia (east of the Rio São Francisco).
40932		habitat	eng	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on outcrops of raised Bambuí limestone amidst high caatinga forest, at 600–650 m.
40932		threats	eng	Limestone mining.
40933		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40933		distribution	eng	The distribution of this isolated species is markedly disjunct between northern and eastern Bahia (Rio de Contas valley), the southern form showing some differences (notably smaller stems and more exserted olive-brown fruits) that could justify subspecific status. The better-known northern population, whence the type came, covers an extensive area within the município of Jaguarari and in some parts of this region the plant dominates the vegetation, forming impenetrable groves around and upon quartzitic outcrops. The southern populations are found on gneissic inselbergs (not quartzite) and are associated with a quite different suite of caatinga Cactaceae. Its disjunct distribution and the differences between the plants from the two areas implies that the species may be an ancient relict in decline.
40933		habitat	eng	Found in eastern caatinga element: dominant or co-dominant on gneiss/granite inselbergs or quartzitic rock outcrops and in the surrounding caatinga, at 300–650 m.
40934		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40934		distribution	eng	Found at c. 900-1,500 m, in central, southern and south-western Minas Gerais.
40934		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: in sandy, gravelly and rocky places in campo rupestre.
40935		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40935		distribution	eng	In south-western Minas Gerais.
40935		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: in sandy, gravelly and rocky places in campo rupestre, drainage of the Rio Grande.
40936		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40936		distribution	eng	Found at c. 1,500 m on the Serra do Ibitipoca in southern Minas Gerais.
40936		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: amongst rocks in campo rupestre.
40937		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40937		distribution	eng	Found at c. 900 m in central-southern Minas Gerais.
40937		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: amongst rocks in campo rupestre.
40938		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40938		distribution	eng	Found at c. 700–1,200 m on the Serra do Cabral and west slope of Serra do Espinhaço in central Minas Gerais.
40938		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: between rocks and in bushy places, campo rupestre.
40939		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40939		distribution	eng	Found at 1,300–1,750 m, east and south of Belo Horizonte, central-southern Minas Gerais
40939		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre element: on iron-rich rock (canga) in campo rupestre.
40940		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40940		distribution	eng	Found at 450–500 m in Mun. Sento Sé, Bahia and at c. 700–1,000 m, in northern Bahia.
40940		habitat	eng	Occurs in the Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on exposed arenitic rocks and gravelly soil in caatinga. Also in the Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: on exposed arenitic rocks often with an accumulation of gravel or in pure quartz sand, caatinga/campo rupestre.
40941		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40941		distribution	eng	Found at 450 to 500 m, Mun. Sento Sé, northern Bahia.
40941		habitat	eng	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on exposed arenitic rocks and gravelly soil in caatinga.
40942		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40942		distribution	eng	Found at c. 700–1,000 m in northern Bahia.
40942		habitat	eng	Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: on exposed arenitic rocks often with an accumulation of gravel or in pure quartz sand, caatinga/campo rupestre.
40943		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40943		distribution	eng	Found at 380–650 m, in the Rio São Francisco drainage of northern Bahia (probably in adjacent Pernambuco), Ceará and north-western Piauí (Rio Canindé).
40943		habitat	eng	Northern caatinga element: on exposed, gravelly river terraces amongst limestone or iron-stained quartzite, and seasonally inundated river flood plain, under and between jurema-preta (<em>Mimosa tenuiflora</em>) and carnaúba (<em>Copernicia prunifera</em>) within the caatinga.
40944		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40945		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40945		distribution	eng	Found at 450–700 m, south-western Piauí, western and central-southern Bahia and north-western Minas Gerais.
40945		habitat	eng	Western cerrado element: on exposed gravel or sand, cerrado and cerrado-caatinga ecotone.
40946		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40946		distribution	eng	Found at 550–1,275 m, east of the Rio São Francisco, in central and northern Minas Gerais.
40946		habitat	eng	Widespread South-eastern campo rupestre/cerrado element: on arenitic rocks, quartz sand and gravel, cerrado/campo rupestre, rarely within the southern limits of the caatinga.
40947		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.
40947		distribution	eng	Found at 700–1,000 m, Mun. Cristália and Mun. Grão Mogol, in northern Minas Gerais.
40947		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: in pure quartz sand or sand between arenitic rocks, campo rupestre.
40948		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  A state reserve has recently been established (‘Reserva Estadual da Serra do Barão’) and should result in increased protection, the authorities being well aware of the interest in the plant (M. Machado, in litt. 2000).
40948		distribution	eng	Found at c. 1,000 m on the Serra do Barão in northern Minas Gerais.
40948		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: in quartz gravel and sand beneath shrubs in campo rupestre.
40948		threats	eng	This remarkable Brazilian cactus was heavily collected in the 1970's for the European horticultural market (Buining 1974: 70).
40949		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40949		distribution	eng	Found at c. 1,200 m on the Serra Negra in Minas Gerais.
40949		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Serra Negra) element: on slabs of quartzitic rock amongst gravel, campo rupestre.
40950		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40950		distribution	eng	Found at 900–1,600 m on the Serra Negra in Minas Gerais.
40950		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Serra Negra / Serra do Ambrósio) element: in quartz sand, campo rupestre.
40951		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40951		distribution	eng	Found at c. 650–1,250 m on Serra do Espinhaço, north-east and south of Diamantina, Minas Gerais.
40951		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Diamantina) element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre.
40952		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40952		distribution	eng	Found at c. 1,200–1,350 m on Serra do Espinhaço, west of Diamantina, Minas Gerais.
40952		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Diamantina) element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre.
40953		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40953		distribution	eng	Found at c. 700–850 m on the western slopes of the Serra do Espinhaço (‘Serra Mineira’), Mun. Bocaiúva, Minas Gerais.
40953		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Rio São Francisco drainage) element: on sandstone outcrops.
40954		conservation	eng	No official conservation measures are in place, although the best known tree is on a private cattle ranch and is protected by the owners.
40954		distribution	eng	Known from the Davis Mts and the Guadalupe Mts in western Texas, USA.  There is also an uncertain record from a locality in Sonora, Mexico.
40954		habitat	eng	Grows in canyons on rocky slopes in dry, temperate scrub vegetation.  Found at an altitude of 1,800 - 2,000 m.
40954		threats	eng	Threatened by fire, grazing and felling.
40955		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I.
40955		distribution	eng	Found at c. 650 to 1,350 m on the Serra do Espinhaço in Minas Gerais.
40955		habitat	eng	South-eastern campo rupestre (Diamantina) element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre.
40956		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The plants are widely propagated in the trade. The illegal collecting is relatively less important with the larger number of plants now known.
40956		distribution	eng	Early observations indicated that this species occurred in few areas around the city of Tula and were being heavily impacted by illegal collecting and urban development (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994). However, recent fieldwork in the past 10 years (Fitz Maurice 1999) has clearly shown the species to occur over 400 km² and numbering more than 100,000 individuals in at least six known subpopulations.
40956		habitat	eng	Semi-desert among outcroppings of calcareous rocks.
40956		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40957		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The plants are propagated in the trade.
40957		distribution	eng	Found on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert near Nuñez, and in the Desert proper near Matehuala.  Early observations indicated that this species occurred in a single small area where it had been accidentally discovered. The original location has become well known to collectors and the population has been severely depleted, with more than 70% of the plants removed within the last five years. However, recent fieldwork has shown additional nearby subpopulations that are at present undisturbed. The decision to place <em>Ariocarpus fissuratus</em> var. <em> hintonii</em> as a subspecies under this species, greatly expanded the known range. The species population exceeds 10,000 individuals in several distinct colonies comprising more than ten locations.
40957		habitat	eng	Chihuahuan Desert, among outcroppings of limestone rocks at an altitude of 1,500-2,000 m.  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo (Rzedowski 1978).
40957		threats	eng	One location is very near a village, and there is a serious threat of habitat alteration. The site is also known to collectors and there is definite evidence of illegal collecting.  In fact, plants of this species have been confiscated in Europe.  Other sites are far from villages or other human activities, so there is less likelihood that those localities will be affected by habitat alteration.  However, the number of individual plants in each locality (except for the newly discovered one) is only in the thousands, so collectors could quickly decimate any of these small populations.  Local people also use several <em>Ariocarpus</em> species, including <em>A. bravoanus</em>, for medicinal purposes.
40958		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The plants are propagated in the trade.
40958		distribution	eng	Early observations indicated that this subspecies occurred in a single small area where it had been accidentally discovered. The original location has become well known to collectors and the population has been severely depleted, with more than 70% of the plants removed within the last five years. However, recent fieldwork has shown additional nearby subpopulations that are at present undisturbed. The subspecies totals In the order of 3,000 mature individuals in several distinct colonies extending over a known range of approximately six km². This whole range is considered a single location.
40958		habitat	eng	Chihuahuan Desert, among outcroppings of limestone rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m altitude.  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo (Rzedowski 1978).
40958		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and collecting by indigenous people for medicine.
40959		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This taxon has been widely propagated for ten years.
40959		distribution	eng	There are three isolated subpopulations (one colony in the southern subpopulation, five colonies in the middle and five large colonies in the north) separated by a distance of about 75 km.  In total approximately 100,000 plants are known to date, distributed over 200 km² with an area of occupancy <7 km².
40959		habitat	eng	Grows on flat and slightly sloping terrain among calcareous rocks in semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert) at about 2,000 m altitude.  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo (Rzedowski 1978).
40959		threats	eng	One location is very near a village, and there is a serious threat of habitat alteration. The site is also well-known to both commercial and amateur collectors and there is definite evidence of illegal collecting.  The other sites are far from villages or other human activities, so there is less likelihood that they will be affected by habitat alteration.  Local people also use several <em>Ariocarpus</em> species, including this taxon, for medicinal purposes. Seed predation by rodents also seems to be a problem at two of the colonies.  The type locality was depleted through intense illegal collecting.
40960		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is being propagated, but for a long time most plants traded were field-collected.
40960		distribution	eng	Early observations indicated that this species was restricted to one small locality in the Valley of Rayones. More recently G.S. Hinton (pers. comm.) has found a wider distribution in this location (all within 10 sq km). Large numbers of plants occur on several hills, considered to be a single location. The population is estimated to total more than 25,000 individuals in this area.
40960		habitat	eng	Semi-desert (on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert), on calcareous shale hills and slopes.
40960		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40961		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.  In the US the species is recorded from two National Wildlife Refuges - Lower Rio Grande Valley NWR and Sanata Ana NWR.
40961		distribution	eng	Much of its original habitat has been destroyed by agriculture in Texas and in Tamaulipas. Once fairly widely distributed in south Texas, the species is now known from only one locality near Rio Grande City. Several localities are known in Mexico, both north and south of Ciudad Victoria. The species may also have occurred in the State of Nuevo León and is hence Regionally Extinct there (NatureServe 2002). The total population numbers more than 5,000 plants from known localities in both countries.
40961		habitat	eng	Currently, this species is found in sparse, fairly open thorny shrubland (semi-desert). It is most often found growing in gravelly, sometimes saline or calcareous, clays or loams in the partial shade of other plants or rocks. The vegetation in these areas was originally a subtropical grassland or grassland/savanna, but fire suppression, overgrazing, and pasture improvement have converted it to thorny shrublands and stands of non-native pasture grass (NatureServe 2002). It is uncertain what habitat this species occupied in the original grassland ecosystem. Occurs below 500 m, with most records being below 200 m.
40961		threats	eng	The species continues to be threatened by cactus collectors (despite successful commercial propagation techniques) and by habitat alteration/destruction due to severe overgrazing, brush eradication, and conversion to cropland (NatureServe 2002).
40962		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This is one of the most widely propagated cacti, with literally millions of individuals grown by commercial nurseries and hobbyists, thus making it very readily available throughout the world, but that does not stop the ongoing poaching.
40962		distribution	eng	This species occurs on medium to steep slopes of volcanic rock near Mesa de Léon.  The extent of occurrence is 25 km² whereas the area of occupancy is less than 10 km².  The total number of plants is estimated to be less than 250.
40962		habitat	eng	Semi-desert, among volcanic rocks on medium to steep slopes at an altitude of about 1,400 m.
40962		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40966		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is in propagation.
40966		distribution	eng	Occurs in Sierra de la Paila over a range of 1 km². It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.
40966		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m.
40966		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40967		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.
40967		distribution	eng	Grows in an area of about 400 km² in a valley north of Vizarrónan, with a population estimated at less than 5,000 individuals.
40967		habitat	eng	Semi-desert in calcareous soils at an altitude of about 2,000 m.
40967		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and use by indigenous people for medicine.
40968		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  The species is widely propagated.
40968		distribution	eng	This species has been the object of several surveys during the past 20 years.  An international team sponsored by WWF studied it in 1986 (Anderson, <em>et al</em>. 1994), and a CITES-funded project monitored a major population in the early 1990s (CANTE A.C. and Desert Botanical Garden 1997). In addition, W.A. and B. Fitz Maurice have visited the population three times. The total population is estimated to have decreased by about 50% in the past 50 years. The current population is estimated to be about 5,000 individuals.
40968		habitat	eng	Semi-desert (or Tamaulipan Shrubland according to Anderson <em>et al</em>. (1994)) in the Valley of Jaumave at an altitude of about 1,000 m.
40968		threats	eng	Erosion is being accelerated by the grazing activities of livestock and plants uprooted as a result have been recorded (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Illegal commercial collecting and collecting by local people for medicinal purposes (used to treat rheumatism) affect some subpopulations.  Road construction and urban development at one site may also pose a threat.
40969		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.
40969		distribution	eng	It occurs near Sandia over a range of 3 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,500 plants.
40969		habitat	eng	In coniferous forest among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,800 to 2,100 m.
40969		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40970		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been propagated for many years.
40970		distribution	eng	Found near the town of Aramberri where it grows over a range of 20 km². It is estimated that there are more than 3,000 individuals
40970		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert (on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert) among calcareous rocks at about 1,500 m altitude.
40970		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40971		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  The number of plants and the current threat of collecting make this a low priority for conservation measures.
40971		distribution	eng	It occurs near near Mesa de León in an area of about 50 sq. km. It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 plants.
40971		habitat	eng	Semi-desert (a disjunct extension of the Chihuahuan Desert) on calcareous soil at about 1,900 m altitude.
40971		threats	eng	Some illegal collecting, limited as a consequence of difficult access.
40972		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is currently propagated in Europe from illegally collected plants.
40972		distribution	eng	Since its discovery, the population has been reduced by more than 50%.  It grows in a single location of less than 10 km² near Xichu. The current estimated population size is less than 5,000 individuals.
40972		habitat	eng	Semi-desert on steep rocky calcareous slopes at about 1,900 m altitude.
40972		threats	eng	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat has become widely known to collectors.
40973		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been widely propagated for many years.
40973		distribution	eng	It occurs over a range of 450 km² near Via Juarez in the Rí Verde and Via Juarez Municipalities.  It is estimated that there are about 5,000 mature individuals.
40973		habitat	eng	In semi-desert in calcareous soil among outcrops of limestone rocks and in rock crevices at about 1,000 m altitude. The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).
40973		threats	eng	Illegal collecting is the main threat followed by mining for road construction material, road construction and human induced fires.
40974		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.
40974		distribution	eng	It occurs over a range of 5 km² near Galeana.  It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.
40974		habitat	eng	In semi-desert in calcareous soil at about 1,800 m altitude.
40974		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40975		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been propagated and made widely available for 60 years, yet the demand for field collected plants remains.
40975		distribution	eng	Since this species was rediscovered in 1988 near Cuidad Maiz (Fitz Maurice 1988), the population has been diminished substantially (at least by 80% in the last five years).  Grows on a slope, in an area of about 0.9 km².  Current estimated population size is about 4,000 mature individuals.
40975		habitat	eng	Semi-desert on rocky calcareous slope at about 1,500 m altitude.  The species is strongly dependent on edpahic conditions.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo, (Rzedowski 1965).
40975		threats	eng	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat has become widely known to collectors.
40976		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been propagated and made widely available for many years.
40976		distribution	eng	Known only from a single location near the town of Aramberri.  It has a range of less than 1 km². It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants
40976		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at about 1,800 m altitude.
40976		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40977		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is widely propagated.
40977		distribution	eng	The range is about 500 km². The current population is estimated to be less than 50,000 individuals.
40977		habitat	eng	Semi-desert vegetation among calcareous rocks.
40977		threats	eng	Illegal collecting continues.
40978		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is widely propagated.
40978		distribution	eng	It occurs in the Cd. Del Maíz Municipality over a range of 10 km². It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 individuals
40978		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks and in rock crevices.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Desértico Micrófilo (Rzedowski 1965).
40978		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40979		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The large number of plants widely scattered over 400 km² makes conservation measures of low priority.
40979		distribution	eng	This species occurs near Villar over a total estimated range of 400 km² (Sotomayor <em>et al</em>. 2001). The total number of plants is probably more than 30,000.
40979		habitat	eng	In semi-desert on calcareous soil among pinon and juniper trees and in open meadows at an altitude of about 1,800 m.
40979		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40980		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated, yet the demand for field collected plants remains.
40980		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cerritos and Villa Juárez Municipalities. Six subpopulations are known in a restricted area of about 250 km² (gypsum or gypsum-calcareous soil) and an area of occupancy of less than 5 km². The total population is estimated to comprise 4,000 mature individuals.
40980		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert, although not typical) among bare areas with <em>Helieta parvifolia</em> and <em>Ptelea trifoliata</em> as neighbouring vegetation. Occurs on gypsum-calcareous or gypsum soils (a stenoendemic) at about 1,000 m altitude.  One of the localities is characterised by massive, dark-coloured limestone rocks (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).
40980		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and fires.  The type locality has been quarried for limestone in the past, but it seems unlikely that this would be reactivated.
40981		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.  The substantial number of plants makes this a low priority for conservation action.
40981		distribution	eng	Found in the Río Verde, Villa Juárez, Ciudad del Maíz and Ciudad Fernández Municipalities over a range of about 1,700 km². The population is estimated to comprise 20,000 mature individuals.  This species always grows in association with <em>Coryphantha maiz-tablasensis</em>. But there are some areas with <em>C. maiz-tablasensis</em> without <em>T. lophophoroides</em>.
40981		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert or short grassland vegetation with <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>.  Occurs in agricultural and livestock areas. Grows on calcareous-gypsum and gypsum soils.  The habitat is locally classified as Zacatal (Grassland) and Matorral Desértico Micrófilo with <em>Larrea tridentata</em> (Rzedowski 1978).
40981		threats	eng	Illegal collecting, agricultural activities and road construction.  Insect parasitism is also a problem in places.
40982		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated for 40 years.
40982		distribution	eng	It grows south of Parras on rocky calcareous hills over an area of about 5 km². Current estimated population is more than 25,000 individuals.
40982		habitat	eng	Semi-desert on rocky calcareous hills at about 1,500 m altitude.
40982		threats	eng	This species is threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat has become widely known to collectors although it is difficult to reach.
40983		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.
40983		distribution	eng	Has a fairly wide range of about 900 sq. km extending over the States of Hidalgo and Querétaro.  The total population size is about 7,000 plants.
40983		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks.
40983		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and mining of limestone.
40984		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.
40984		distribution	eng	It occurs over a range of 20 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,000 plants.
40984		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks.
40984		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40985		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.
40985		distribution	eng	It has a range of about 900 km² straddling the States of Hidalgo and Querétaro.  It is estimated that there are less than 5,000 plants.
40985		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks.
40985		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and to a lesser degree mining of limestone.
40986		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated, although Anderson <em>et al</em>. (1994) reported that not many were being grown from seed.
40986		distribution	eng	The range is about 30,000 km² extending over the states of Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas. The current population is estimated to be less than 10,000 individuals.
40986		habitat	eng	Most of the known sites are at a higher altitude than true Chihuahuan Desert.  Some of the sites occur in pinyon pine and juniper woodland or even grassland with virtually no woody vegetation (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  All the sites have calcareous soils.
40986		threats	eng	Illegal collecting is the main threat.  Anderson <em>et al</em>. (1994) reported that alarming numbers were being exported.  Agricultural development does not appear to be a problem, although trampling by livestock and increased erosion as a result of over-grazing may be a problem in some places.
40987		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.
40987		distribution	eng	It occurs over a range of 12 km² near Río Verde.  It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.
40987		habitat	eng	In semi-desert in calcareous soil at about 1,000 m altitude.
40987		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40988		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated for 40 years.
40988		distribution	eng	Since the locality near Tula was visited in 1987 (Fitz Maurice 1988), the population has diminished by more than 50%. It grows over an area of about 1 km². Current estimated population is less than 200 individuals.
40988		habitat	eng	Semi-desert among calcareous rocks on a hill at about 1,250 m altitude.
40988		threats	eng	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting.
40989		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.
40989		distribution	eng	Found over a wide area in the States of Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.
40989		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert) among calcareous rocks.
40989		threats	eng	Illegal collecting is the major threat, although overgrazing and subsequent erosion poses a lesser threat.  Other agricultural activities and building of infrastructure seems to have minimal impact.
40990		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40990		distribution	eng	It occurs east of Matehuala over a range of about 3 km² . It is estimated that there are less than 500 plants
40990		habitat	eng	In semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert) among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,800 m.
40990		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40991		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40991		distribution	eng	It occurs near the town of Aramberri over a range of 5 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,000 plants.
40991		habitat	eng	In semi-desert on a steep slope, among limestone rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m.
40991		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40992		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40992		distribution	eng	It occurs near Santa Rita del Rucio over a range of about 3 km².  It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.
40992		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,800 m.
40992		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40993		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40993		distribution	eng	It occurs near the twon of Aramberri over a range of 12 km².  It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 individuals.
40993		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,250 m.
40993		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
40994		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40994		distribution	eng	It occurs near Entronque Huizache in the Guadalcazar Municipality.  There are thousands of adult plants (>20,000) occurring in four disjunct subpopulations at eight locations, scattered over an area of 450 km².
40994		habitat	eng	Grows in typical Chihuahuan Desert among calcareous rocks and in rock crevices at the tops of limestone hills an altitude of about 1,780-2,200 m.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).
40994		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and road construction.  The habitat is unsuitable for agriculture other than grazing by livestock and there does not appear to be any threat from mining (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).
40995		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40995		distribution	eng	It occurs near Matehuala, San Luis Potosí  (Matehuala and Villa de Guadalupe Municipalities) but also extends into neighbouring areas of Nuevo León State.  The etxent of occurrence is about 275 km².  The population is dividid into thgree disjunct subpopulations.  It is estimated that there are less than 100,000 plants.
40995		habitat	eng	In the Chihuahuan Desert on fairly steep limestone hills at an altitude of about 1,600 m. The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).
40995		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and habitat loss.  The population occurs near a small settlement, thus people and their livestock may have some impact (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).
40996		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40996		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in a very restricted area (1 sq. km) and is only known from the rocks and low hills west of Miquihuana.  Although difficult to count, it is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants
40996		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks on the eastern edge of the Chihuahuan Desert at an altitude of about 2,000 m.
40996		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.  Grazing does not pose a problem as the plants are barely accessible to the mouths of goats (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).
40997		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.
40997		distribution	eng	It occurs near Charco Blanco (Guadalcazar Municipality) over a range of 5 km². It is estimated that there are less than 3,000 mature individuals.  The area of occupancy is only about 0.1 km²
40997		habitat	eng	In semi-desert vegetation in the heart of the Chihuahuan Desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).
40997		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.  The population has been heavily impacted by collectors.
40998		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.  The large distribution area and number of widely distributed plants makes conservation measures a relatively low priority.
40998		distribution	eng	Early observations indicated that this species occurred in very few locations and was being heavily impacted by illegal collecting. However, fieldwork in the past 10 years has clearly shown the species to be more widespread over 1,000 km² and numbering fewer than 10,000 individuals located in no more than 10 subpopulations/locations.
40998		habitat	eng	In typical Chihuahuan Desert (usually growing under other shrubs)  among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 2,000 m.
40998		threats	eng	Illegal collecting continues with the help of the local inhabitants.
40999		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.
40999		distribution	eng	It occurs near Rayones over a range of 1 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,000 plants.
40999		habitat	eng	In semi-desert among steep calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 2,000 m.
40999		threats	eng	Illegal collecting, although access is difficult.
41000		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.
41000		distribution	eng	It occurs from Saltillo, in Coahuila State southwards nearly to Matehuala in San Luis Potosí State, an area of 40,000 km². It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 plants.
41000		habitat	eng	In typical Chiuhuahuan Desert among calcareous rocks at altitudes ranging from 1,400 to 1,600 m.
41000		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and human activities.  The northernmost subpopulations near Saltillo are those affected by the construction of an airport and the expanding chicken farms.
41001		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.
41001		distribution	eng	It occurs over a range of 2,000 km². It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 plants.
41001		habitat	eng	In semi-desert (Tamaulipan Shrubland) among calcareous rocks.
41001		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.  Some localities have been cleared of plants through selective collecting (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).
41002		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.
41002		distribution	eng	It grows near Tula in an area about 20,000 square meters. Current estimated population is less than 250 individuals.
41002		habitat	eng	Semi-desert among calcareous rock at about 1,250 m altitude.
41002		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting.
41003		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated. The relative stability of the number of individuals makes conservation measures a low priority
41003		distribution	eng	This species occurs on gypsum hills near Zaragosa over a total estimated range of 25 km². Individuals are scattered in no more than 10 known locations. The total number of plants is estimated at less than 10,000.
41003		habitat	eng	Semi-desert, on gypsum hills at an altitude of about 1,500 m.
41003		threats	eng	Some illegal collecting.  The construction of a road through the area may have had some impact.  Trampling by goats and overgrazing leading to erosion may be a problem.
41004		conservation	eng	<em>H. angustus</em> was moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998. Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41004		distribution	eng	Very little is known about the species that is now recognised as <em>H. angustus</em>.
41004		habitat	eng	The species has been trawled from depths of 3-63 m (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999) and has also been collected from algal reef habitat from 12-25 m depth (Kuiter 2000).  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41004		population	eng	Unknown.
41004		threats	eng	This species is known to be caught as by-catch in trawls in northern Australia (S. Lourie, pers. comm.).
41005		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hipppocampus</em> is listed on Appendix II of the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), effective May 2004.  <em>H. mohnikei</em> is listed (as <em>H. japonicus</em>) as Vulnerable in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41005		distribution	eng	Confirmed distribution: Japan, Suspected distribution: Cambodia, China, Thailand, Viet Nam (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>H. mohnikei</em>.
41005		habitat	eng	No research has focused on the <em>in situ</em> ecology of adult <em>H. mohnikei</em>. One study has examined planktonic juveniles of the species that range in size from 6.0–65.3 mm (standard length (SL) as measured from the tip of the tail to the dorsal margin of the opercular opening and from this point to the tip of the snout) (Kanou and Kohno 2001). These juveniles were found in plankton tows from May–January. Young from 15–34 mm SL showed high gut fullness and had consumed small prey including <em>Oithona davisae</em> and <em>Penilia avirostris</em>. In contrast, large planktonic individuals ≥35 mm showed low gut fullness, preying on larger but less abundant prey items such as species of <em>Brachyura</em>.
41005		population	eng	Unknown.
41005		threats	eng	Unknown.
41006		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Full declaration of the trade in live and dead syngnathids is required in the European Union, and full monitoring of the dried trade is underway there. <em>Hippocampus guttulatus</em> is protected in Slovenia under the 1993 Protection of Threatened Animals Act. It is also included in the Red Data Books of France and Portugal.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.
41006		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus guttulatus</em> is primarily a species of European waters, occurring in the Eastern Atlantic from the Netherlands, south to Portugal, and the Mediterranean. It may also occur in the Suez Canal.
41006		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, muddy waters amongst eelgrass and seagrass beds (Lythgoe and Lythgoe 1971, Whitehead 1986, Wheeler 1985); estuaries; and rocky areas (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). It may overwinter in deeper water (Boisseau 1967). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow seagrass beds (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).
41006		threats	eng	Seahorses are caught both intentionally and incidentally in Portugal, and sold for curiosities (J. Curtis, in litt. to P. LaFrance).  They are also caught incidentally in Italy, France, Spain and Croatia (pers. comm. to P. LaFrance).  The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries
41007		conservation	eng	Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41007		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Atlantic coastal areas of West Africa.
41007		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences are currently unknown (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999).  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41007		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are currently unknown.
41008		conservation	eng	<em>Hippocampus comes</em> has been studied <em>in situ</em> in the central Philippines since 1995, as part of a conservation program in an area where this species is of considerable economic importance (Vincent and Pajaro unpubl. data). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41008		distribution	eng	The primary range of <em>H. comes</em> is the Philippines, where they are heavily exploited by subsistence fishers. <em>H. comes</em> are also collected for the aquarium industry in Lampung, Sumatera, Indonesia, but were not found elsewhere in Indonesia during an intensive three-month field survey (Lourie unpubl. data). Moreover <em>H. comes</em> is known in the Andaman Islands only from a single photograph, and in Malaysia only from a single specimen (Lourie unpubl. data).
41008		habitat	eng	<em>H. comes</em> are found on coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove habitats. This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41008		threats	eng	<em>Hippocampus comes</em> is targeted by fishers supplying a substantial trade in seahorses for medicinal and aquarium uses. This species is also incidentally caught (bycatch) in other fisheries and affected by habitat degradation.
41009		conservation	eng	As of 1998, all syngnathids caught in Australian waters require export permits.  Further research is needed on this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41009		distribution	eng	<em>H. fisheri</em> is known from Hawaii. A single specimen from Lord Howe Island, Australia is tentatively assigned to this species, although further specimens need to be seen to confirm its occurrence there (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Similarly, further specimens from New Caledonia need to be examined to confirm the species' occurrence in that region.
41009		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences for this species are currently unknown.  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41009		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown. The species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> in review, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41010		conservation	eng	<em>H. kelloggi</em> is listed in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book, although the accompanying image is of <em>H. trimaculatus</em> (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). Australian populations have been protected under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act since 1998. The species is also listed under wildlife protection laws in the People's Republic of China (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41010		distribution	eng	<em>H. kelloggi</em> has a relatively wide range. It has been recorded from Zanzibar in Tanzania, Pakistan, India, and southeast Asia, and north to China and Japan. Specimens from Australia have been trawled from depths of 18–156 m, however, further research is required to determine whether these are <em>H. kelloggi</em> or a separate species (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41010		habitat	eng	This species may be particularly susceptible to declines. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Parante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41010		threats	eng	<em>Hipocampus kelloggi</em> is heavily traded for traditional medicines, and also sold for aquaria and souvenirs, but the volume of this trade, and the proportion of the population that it represents, is unknown at this point.
41011		conservation	eng	Further research is required on this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41011		distribution	eng	<em>H. lichtensteinii</em> is only known from type specimens collected from the Red Sea. Exact localities are not stated (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41011		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences are currently unknown. The species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41011		population	eng	Known only from the type specimens.
41011		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are currently unknown.
41013		conservation	eng	Plains Zebra occur in numerous protected areas across their range, including the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania), Tsavo and Masaai Mara (Kenya), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), Etosha National Park (Namibia), and Kruger National Park (South Africa).<br/><br/>Hack <em>et al.</em> (2002) proposed the following conservation actions for the species: 1) Improve coverage and frequency of monitoring; 2) Improve risk assessment; 3) Quantify and manage genetic diversity both globally and locally; 4) Increase the understanding of the species' basic biology'; and 5) Investigare the economics of alternative utilization stategies.
41013		distribution	eng	Plains Zebra range from southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia, east of the Nile River, to southern Angola and northern Namibia and northern South Africa (formerly ranging south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers to the Cape) (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002; Klingel in press). They are now extinct in two countries in which they formerly occurred: Burundi and Lesotho. There is no information on their status in Angola, where they may also be extinct.<br/><br/>The six morphologically defined subspecies are distributed as follows (following Groves and Bell 2004, and Klingel in press): <br/><br/><em>E. q. crawshaii</em>(Crawshay’s Zebra) occurs in Zambia, east of the Luangwa River, Malawi, south-eastern Tanzania from Lake Rukwa east to Mahungoi, and Mozambique as far south as the Gorongoza district; <br/><br/><em>E. q. borensis</em> ranges in north-west Kenya, from Guas ngishu and Lake Baringo, to the Karamoja district of Uganda and south-east Sudan, east of the Nile River to the northern limit of the species at 32°N; <br/><br/><em>E. q. boehmi</em> (Grant’s Zebra or Boehm's Zebra) is found in Zambia, west of the Luangwa River, west to Kariba, Shaba Province of DR Congo north to Kibanzao Plateau; Tanzania north from Nyangaui and Kibwezi into south-west Uganda, south-west Kenya as far as Sotik, and east Kenya, east of the Rift Valley, into southern Ethiopia and perhaps to the Juba River in Somalia. <br/><br/><em>E. q. chapmani</em> (Chapman's Zebra) ranges from north-east South Africa, from about 24°S, 31°E, north to Zimbabwe, west into Botswana at about 19°S, 24°E, the Caprivi Strip in Namibia, and southern Angola;<br/><br/><em>E. q. burchellii</em> (Burchell's Zebra) formerly occurred north of the Vaal/Orange Rivers, extending north-west via southern Botswana to Etosha National Park and the Kaokoveld, south-east to KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland. It is now extinct in the middle of its range. <em>E.b. antiquorum</em> is now included in this subspecies;<br/><br/><em>E. q. quagga</em> (Quagga) occurred in the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers and west of the Drakensberg. Now extinct.
41013		habitat	eng	Plains Zebra live in all habitats in Africa from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya, with the exception of rain forests, deserts, dune forests, and Cape Sclerophyllous vegetation (Duncan 1992; Klingel in press). Plains Zebra are selective grazers, and in the Serengeti Grogan’s (1973) research indicated that <em>Pennisetum mezianum</em> was a preferred species. He compared proportions ingested to their availability in the sward and found that there was significant selection and rejection of grass species. <br/><br/>In several areas, their movements are directly correlated with the availability of water, moving to grazing areas during the rains and concentrating near permanent rivers or pools during the dry season. The Serengeti migratory subpopulation concentrates during the rains from November to May in the Serengeti plains. At the beginning of the dry season in June it migrates to the western and northern parts of the Serengeti National Park and adjacent areas, and into the Mara National Reserve in Kenya (Klingel in press).
41013		population	eng	Plains Zebra are locally common throughout their range both in and also outside protected areas (especially in Kenya and Tanzania). Total numbers were estimated at ~660,000 in 2002 (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002). Over 75% of the world’s Plains Zebra are of the Grant’s subspecies (<em>E. q. boehmi</em>), with some 200,000 in the greater Serengeti/Mara ecosystem; Serengeti National Park supports the world’s single largest Plains Zebra population (151,000) (East 1997; Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002). Current information on total population size is limited. Aerial survey data from Tanzania indicate that there may have been a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000’s (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002; TAWIRI/TWCM pers comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The True Quagga subspecies (<em>E. q. quagga</em>) has been extinct since the end of the 19th century (ca. 1883).<br/><br/>Recorded densities of Plains Zebra include 0.9/km² in Kruger National Park (Smuts 1976) and 22/km² in Ngorongoro (ground count) (Klingel 1967).
41013		threats	eng	No major threats appear to be resulting in range-wide population declines, but habitat loss and overhunting are resulting in localized declines in some areas. Although no country within this species’ range is free of either problem, loss of habitat appears to be more of a concern in the southern half of the range, while poaching appears to be more significant in the northern half. Nonetheless, the Plains Zebra is a relatively resilient species that has demonstrated a remarkable ability to recover from population declines when provided with suitable habitat and protection from overhunting (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The Quagga was driven to extinction in the late 19th century by overhunting and competition with livestock.
41023		conservation	eng	Based on the current destruction of this environment, it has been suggested that today <em>M. bororo</em> is the most threatened deer species in Brazil.  It will be necessary to join forces to protect and conserve it (Duarte and Jorge, 2003). Wemmer (1998) recommended a scientific description of the species to establish its biological reality.
41023		distribution	eng	<em>Mazama bororo</em> is known from the southeastern part of the state of São Paulo to the northeastern part of the state of Paraná, Brazil.
41023		habitat	eng	<em>Mazama bororo</em> lives in small fragments of the remaining Atlantic Forest.
41023		population	eng	This taxon has been proposed as a new species (Duarte and Giannoni 1996), but has not yet been formally described with vouchered material. The current size and distribution of the population is not known., as it was only discovered in 1992 (Duarte and Giannoni 1996). A population is known to exist in an isolated patch of Atlantic rain forest near the city of Capao Bonito in the state of São Paulo. The maximum population size for species is 4,500 individuals (Duarte <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41023		threats	eng	The main threat to the population is thought to be habitat fragmentation as Atlantic rainforest is being broken into isolated patches in the region (Duarte and Giannoni 1996).
41026		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. <em>P. p. preussi</em> is present in Korup National Park (1,260 km²) and its perimeter in Cameroon, with a small number residing in the adjacent Oban division of Cross River National Park (Nigeria). It is also recorded from Ebo Wildlife Reserve, just north of the Sanaga River, which has been proposed as a new national park.
41026		distribution	eng	<em>P. p. preussi</em> is present in south-eastern Nigeria in the Cross River National Park (Oban Division) extending into the adjacent Korup National Park and surrounds in south-western Cameroon; they also occur in Ebo Forest just north of the Sanaga River (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 2000; Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2001), and at least until fairly recently still persisted in Makombe forest to the north of Ebo where the were heard in 2003 (B. Morgan pers. comm.).
41026		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland and mid-altitude moist forest up to 1,400 m (Kingdon and Butynski in press). Edwards (1992) recorded group sizes of 20-64 animals for <em>P. p. preussi</em>, similar to those recorded by J. Linder (pers. comm.).
41026		population	eng	Between 10,000 and 15,000 <em>P. p. preussi</em> may be present in Korup National Park, the stronhold for the taxon (Oates 1996). Edwards (1992) estimated group densities in north-eastern Korup at 0.52-0.56 groups/km², which is not too dissimilar from more recent estimates by J. Linder (pers. comm.) in the same area (0.46 grps/sq. km). No absolute  density is available for southern Korup, but J. Linder (pers. comm.) encountered 12 groups in 243 km walked.
41026		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is hunting (e.g., Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2001) and habitat degradation. <em>P. p. preussi</em> made up a relatively large proportion of the total primate offtake in Korup National Park, especially in the north-east (22% of carcasses) (J. Linder pers. comm.).
41027		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required in order to identify whether the recently collected shells are 'subfossil' or whether the species survives somewhere at the lake.   As water quality needs to be good for these small freshwater gastropods, the use of fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use for agricultural purposes needs to be drastically reduced.
41027		distribution	eng	<em>Graecoanatolica macedonica</em> was endemic to Lake Dorjan, on the border of Macedonia and Greece. It was first described from shells taken from a site on the western shore of the lake, on the border of Macedonia and Greece (Ryan and Griffiths 2001).
41027		habitat	eng	<em>Graecoanatolica macedonica</em> was a freshwater species. It was restricted to stony and sandy substrates in the littoral zone of Lake Dorjan, usually at depths of 0 to approximately 50 cm (Ryan and Griffiths 2001).
41027		population	eng	The population was noted to have suffered declines in the 1970s as the lakes water levels lowered from maximum depth of 10.4 m in the 1930s to 5.6 m in 1995. In 1987, densities were estimated at 2,500 individuals per m², however, in 1988 the lake's water level decreased by a further 60 cm as a result of a single outflow event (Ryan and Griffiths 2001). The species was not recorded in the area between 1992 and 2001 (Griffiths pers. comm. 2001). The species was thought to be extinct as a result of habitat loss through water abstraction (Ryan and Griffiths 2001). Water abstraction is still ongoing in the area as the lake's feeder streams and underlying aquifer continue to be used for agricultural purposes. Recently (2009) some fresh looking shells have been found at the lake, suggesting that it is possible that the species may survive in a small pocket, or has modified its habitat. Further survey work is required in order to identify whether these shells are 'subfossil' or whether the species survives somewhere at the lake.
41027		threats	eng	The species is thought to have become extinct as a result of habitat loss through water abstraction (Ryan and Griffiths 2001). Lake levels declined from maximum water depth of 10.4 m in the 1930s to 5.6 m in 1995, and water abstraction is still ongoing in the area as the lake's feeder streams and underlying aquifer continue to be used for agricultural purposes (Ryan and Griffiths 2001). Recently, shells have been found at the lake, suggesting that it is possible that the species may survive in a small pocket, or has modified it's habitat.
41028		conservation	eng	All populations are found within Cape Melville National Park. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its restricted range.
41028		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four streams in boulder fields in northern Queensland, Australia, above 60m asl.
41028		habitat	eng	This species is found associated with rocky streams with large granite boulders and granite bedrock in rainforest and mesophyll vine forest with Melaleuca emergents. It is often seen sitting on rocks, vines and twigs adjacent to cascades and riffles. It shelters under rocks and vegetation. It breeds in summer with the onset of the wet season. Males can be heard calling in late November.
41028		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, but it is believed to be stable.
41028		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
41029		conservation	eng	Development of a management plan is under way, but much further research and survey work is needed as is protection and rehabilitation of remaining habitat. The range of the species includes several protected areas, and it is given protection where it occurs in state forests. Given the probable threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures will probably need to include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
41029		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic ranges from the Queensland border south down the Great Dividing Range almost to the Victorian border. It has not been recorded from the Northern Tablelands during the past 15 years despite extensive surveys. The only extant population in Northern New South Wales is near Tamworth. The area of occupancy of this species is only approximately 10km² and is severely fragmented. It has been recorded between 200 and 1,000m asl.
41029		habitat	eng	This is a highland species associated with western-flowing rocky streams on the slopes and tablelands of the Great Dividing Range. Streams are slow-flowing and bordered by grassy vegetation. Males begin calling in August from rocks in or near the water. It is most active at night but also often found in daylight on rocks on the waters edge.
41029		population	eng	There have been very few records of the species in the past five years and the species is believed to have undergone massive declines over its entire range.
41029		threats	eng	The widespread disappearance of this species across most of its range is probably due to chytridiomycosis. In addition, introduced fish occur in many streams where the species has been recorded, which exert predatory pressure upon tadpoles of this species. Land clearing, forest grazing and timber harvesting have occurred adjacent to or in the headwaters of catchments in which the species has been recorded. Flow modification and weed invasion (particularly by willows) has also occurred along many streams where the species occurs.
41030		conservation	eng	<p>The South African National Water Act 1998 (Act 36) requires that all rivers should have an Ecological Reserve amount set aside. The Ecological Reserve relates to "the water required to protect the aquatic ecosystems of the water resource", including both rivers and estuaries (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a).&#160; Ecological reserves have been determined for some systems in South Africa but not for any estuaries inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri</span>. When dams were built on the Kariega and its tributary rivers, a water release policy was issued for downstream agriculture but the environmental requirements of estuaries and rivers were not included (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a).</p>
41030		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>is known only from the Bushmans, Kariega, and Kasouga estuaries on the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa (Whitfield 1995, Cowley 1998, Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
41030		habitat	eng	<strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen&#160;1966). Sexual maturity is attained at approximately 10 cm standard length with males retaining up to 44 embryos. Reproductively active specimens were collected in the Kariega estuary during late September (Whitfield 1995). The life cycle is completed within the estuary.<br/><strong><br/>Habitat</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>occurs in&#160;brackish, tidal areas of rivers&#160;and is found primarily in association with the eelgrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera capensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruppia cirrhosa</span>, where it feeds almost exclusively on zooplankton (Whitfield 1995).
41030		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus watermeyeri </span>has been recorded in small numbers and its presence/absence in surveys has fluctuated dramatically since these surveys began. Initial surveys in 1963 found 10 River Pipefish in the Bushmans estuary, 11 in the Kariega estuary and two in the Kasouga estuary (Whitfield 1995). Between 1989 and 1992, intensive surveys were conducted in all three estuaries with no specimens recorded. As a result, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>was listed as officially Extinct in the 1994 IUCN Red List but in 1996 a new breeding population was discovered in the East Kleinemonde estuary (Cowley 1998). This new population, however, was declared locally extinct in 2003 when a large flood was thought to have washed their preferred eelgrass habitat out to sea, no specimens have since been found in the East Kleinemonde (James <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>The most recent surveys occurred in 2006 and found juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>once again in its historic range (Bushmans, Kariega and Kasouga estuaries) where it had not been reported for over four decades (Whitfield and Bruton 1996). These intensive surveys found a total of 20 juvenile specimens in the Kariega estuary, ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 individuals per square metre (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). No mature individuals were found. Peaks in abundance were found in areas where mesohaline conditions prevailed and the percentage vegetation cover exceeded 80% (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/></p>
41030		threats	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus watermeyeri</span> relies on freshwater pulses which provide the nutrients that enable phytoplankton development and, together with particulate organic material brought down by the rivers, support the zooplankton community upon which these pipefish depend for food. The construction of dams and other impoundments have caused a deprivation of fresh water pulses and a subsequent decline in food supply (Whitfield 1995). Dry conditions in the last few years have caused the Kariega river to stop flowing, which will likely result in the absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri</span> in this system once again (A.K.Whitfield pers. comm.).<br/>&#160;<br/>This species may also be particularly susceptible to hypersaline conditions and to large flood events (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). A flood event in the East Kleinemonde estuary in 1996 (Cowley 1998) resulted in the apparent localized extinction of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri</span>. This was thought to be the result of primary <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>habitat, submerged eelgrass beds, being flushed out to sea (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
41031		conservation	eng	Its known range is in a very remote area, and might include Drysdale River National Park.
41031		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only from the Kimberley region of Western Australia, where its estimated altitudinal range is 150-300m asl.
41031		habitat	eng	It is a species that is known only from caves and refuges between boulders in the sandstone gorges flanking the Mitchell Plateau of the Kimberley region.
41031		population	eng	There is no specific information regarding its population status.
41031		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
41032		conservation	eng	Most of the population is protected in the Cooloola or Great Sandy National Park. Fraser Island was inscribed into the list of UNESCO World Heritage Areas in 1992. Measures need to be taken to prevent the spread of <em>Gambusia</em> within its range, and to control the impacts of tourism.
41032		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from south-eastern Queensland in Cooloola (or Great Sandy) National Park on Fraser Island, and North Stradbroke Island.
41032		habitat	eng	The species is found in sandy coastal and island freshwater lakes and wallum creeks, where it has a preference for dense reed beds. It is a spring and summer breeder, with males calling from reeds or trees around freshwater lakes. Eggs are deposited on submerged vegetation; larvae are free-swimming.
41032		population	eng	It occurs in large numbers on Fraser Island.
41032		threats	eng	High human visitation to the freshwater lakes important for breeding is a major threat, as is the trampling of reed beds and the pollution of water. Water extraction for sand mining and domestic use has had significant impacts on populations on North Stradbroke Island through habitat loss, deterioration in water quality and alterations in hydrology. More significantly, this species has virtually disappeared from Brown Lake on North Stradbroke Island following the introduction of predatory <em>Gambusia</em> fish there in 2003. However, overall these threats are relatively localized.
41033		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas, including Fraser Island National Park.
41033		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from Fraser Island in Queensland, south to Jervis Bay in mid-eastern New South Wales.
41033		habitat	eng	This species occupies a variety of habitats, but is most commonly seen in the vicinity of temporary coastal swamps (wallum). These areas typically have low nutrient soils and heath, sedge land, Melaleuca swamp or Banksia woodland vegetation. It is mostly a nocturnal species, and is a spring and summer breeder. Eggs are demersal and laid in shallow water, and the larvae are free-swimming.
41033		population	eng	There is no information on population status.
41033		threats	eng	Clearing of habitat for agriculture, pine plantations, housing and other infrastructure is a threat; they occur in an area with the highest rate of human population growth in Australia. Other threats include habitat degradation through alterations in hydrology and increased nutrient loads, invading weeds, and inappropriate fire regimes.
41034		conservation	eng	A recovery plan for the frog species in the Wet Tropics has been written which will benefit this species. Its range includes a few protected areas within its range. The taxonomic status of the different populations needs to be assessed. Some of the taxonomically distinct populations might require specific conservation actions.
41034		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia in the Queensland Wet Tropics. As currently recognized taxonomically in New Guinea, this species is widespread across most of central New Guinea and also occurs on islands off the west coast. It occurs up to 1,500m asl in New Guinea, and occurs from around 100m to 1,500m asl in Australia.
41034		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small streams and rocky creek beds in lowland and foothill rainforest, and also persists in degraded forest and rural gardens. In Australia breeding starts in August. It breeds in slow-moving or still streams and temporary pools. Egg clumps of 843 eggs in a firm jelly have been recorded, laid in a pool.
41034		population	eng	<em>Litoria genimaculata</em> is currently common throughout the Australian Wet Tropics but underwent population declines in the early 1990s (Laurance <em>et al.</em>, 1996; McDonald and Alford, 1999). Populations appear to have recovered to pre-decline levels across the Wet Tropics (McDonald and Alford, 1999; Richards and Alford, 2005).In In New Guinea, this species is abundant wherever it occurs. In Australia it is common throughout the year, but it is sparsely distributed.
41034		threats	eng	Declines were noted in the Wet Tropics in Australia in the 1990s. A chytridiomycete fungus (<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em>) has been identified as the most likely proximate cause of these declines (Berger <em>et al.</em>, 1998), and chytrid is known to be a source of mortality in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Speare and Berger, 2005). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Topaz, Queensland.
41035		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. There are also disease control protocols.
41035		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occupies the eastern coastal strip only, from far southeastern Queensland to southeastern New South Wales. It is uncertain whether or not populations north of Sydney represent this species or another taxa.
41035		habitat	eng	It can be found in coastal lowlands only-coastal swamps, heath and woodlands. They are found around lagoons, hind-dune creeks, swamps and waterholes. The substrate is usually loose sand. Males call in spring and summer from on the ground or in low vegetation at pond edges. Eggs are in small jelly clumps attached to vegetation. Tadpoles are found in still water in dams, ditches, isolated pools and flooded hollows.
41035		population	eng	No indications of population decline in recent years. Populations apparently stable, but data very patchy and limited.
41035		threats	eng	The major threats are uncertain. Coastal developments that fill in swamps and adjacent lands are most likely a threat.
41036		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
41036		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the east coast from central New South Wales to eastern Victoria, from 280-1,200m asl, although it might occur at lower altitudes than this.
41036		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet or dry sclerophyll forest associated with sandstone outcrops on the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range. In some areas it prefers flowing rocky streams and is often found with L. citropa. In the northern part of its range, it calls around permanent and ephemeral pools in heath, woodland and forest. It calls all year round but sporadically but has a peak of activity from July to October. Eggs are in small jelly clumps attached to vegetation. Tadpoles are found in still water in dams, ditches, isolated pools and flooded hollows.
41036		population	eng	It is a relatively uncommon species.
41036		threats	eng	Logging might be a threat to the species' habitat. It has been found to persist in some logged areas but whether or not it can persist long-term is not known.
41037		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41037		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Lake Woongeel, Fraser Island, south to near Woolgoolga including Bribie, Moreton and Stradbroke Island, south-east Queensland, Australia (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999).
41037		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal sand plains and dunes of "the wallum" (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Vegetation types typical of these environments include heath land, Melaleuca swamp, sedge land and Banksia woodland (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). It is associated with low pH waters characteristic of wallum environments, usually found in sedge swamps, and less commonly in coastal lakes and creek environs (Liem and Ingram 1977; James 1996; Ehmann 1997). During wet periods these swamps are heavily inundated and the species can be found clinging to emergent vegetation (grasses, reeds and Bungwall Fern; E. Meyers pers. comm.). During dry periods individuals may be found at the base of sedges, grass clumps and/or Bungwall Fern in the same swamps (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Ingram and Corben (1975) termed this species an ‘acid’ frog as it is confined to sandy heaths and their acidic water. Non-breeding habitat is not known. Limited information is available on the breeding biology of the species. Ehmann (1997) recorded males calling in spring, summer and early autumn at night and by day when swamps were rising or ample water was available. It mainly breeds following heavy rain in perched swamps, amidst sedges, grasses and/or Bungwell Fern (<em>Blechnum indicum</em>) in still water 0.5-1.5m deep (E. Meyer pers. comm.). The wallum waters in which the species breeds are typically heavily tanin-stained, highly acidic and generally dilute (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Eggs are attached to grasses and sedges and larvae are nektonic in form and dwell amongst reeds and grasses in water 0.5-1.5m deep (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Fish are largely absent from habitat occupied by the species (E. Meyer pers. comm.).
41037		population	eng	There is no information on population size, structure or dynamics (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The species exhibits genetic structuring on a north-south gradient (James 1996). Populations in northern New South Wales, North Stradbroke Island, Moreton Island and Cooloola-Fraser are each genetically different and significantly divergent from each other, and should be considered demographically independent due to their insular nature (James 1996).
41037		threats	eng	Populations appear to be relatively stable in protected habitat; however, this species is at risk from continuing loss of habitat through clearing for agriculture, pine plantations, housing and infrastructure such as canal development, drainage projects and transport corridors (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Melaleuca forest and heathland are particularly threatened and have been extensively cleared since 1974 (Catterall and Kingston 1993) suggesting an extensive loss of habitat. Other threats include habitat degradation through changes in hydrological regimes, increased nutrients or sediments, weed invasion, inappropriate fire management, competition from invading frog species and predation from introduced fish (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Weed invasion is a potentially threatening process (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Competition from invading frog species and predation from introduced fish (i.e., <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) have been identified as potentially threatening processes (Ehmann 1997; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999) but further research is required.
41038		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41038		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs on the eastern escarpment of the Great Dividing Range from "The Flags" near Walcha, New South Wales, in the south, to Girraween National Park, Queensland, in the north (Mahoney <em>et al.</em> 2001). It occurs at altitudes above 600m, and possibly up to 1,400m asl.
41038		habitat	eng	The species lives near slow-flowing and small streams in dry and wet sclerophyll forest, rainforest, montane forest and heath land. It is also found in semi-cleared grazing lands. It breeds in spring and tadpoles have tentacles around their mouths (rather than a horny beak).
41038		population	eng	It appears that this species underwent historical declines. However, most populations were discovered from 1990 onwards and so little historical basis exists for assessing the level of these declines. Noticeable declines have been recorded in three populations on the coast of northern New South Wales. It is now absent from some sites, but the status of populations at other sites is not well known.
41038		threats	eng	The removal of riparian vegetation, especially by grazing and timber harvesting, is a major threat. Pollution of streams by agricultural and domestic by-products is a threat to this riparian species. Trout have also been released into streams that support small populations of the frog.
41039		conservation	eng	All populations occur within a protected area in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, which was inscribed in 1988. Plans for wildfire management and cool controlled burning have been developed.
41039		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found only in a small area called Bowling Green Bay National Park on Mount Elliott, south-east of Townsville in northern Queensland. It has been recorded at 900-1,200m asl.
41039		habitat	eng	Individuals are usually seen on palm fronds in the rainforest. Breeding takes place by direct development.
41039		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
41039		threats	eng	The threats to this species mainly come from human impacts on existing protected areas, primarily habitat degradation due to erosion following increased human traffic and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. The increased occurrence of wildfires is also a threat, and the species may be at risk of climate change.
41040		conservation	eng	All populations occur within a protected area in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, which was inscribed in 1988. Further monitoring of this species is needed in order to determine whether its range is receding altitudinally due to the impacts of climate change.
41040		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found between Cairns and Innisfail, in northern Queensland. The species occurs between approximately 900 and 1,500m asl, although there is evidence to suggest that the lower altitudinal limit is receding. In particular, recent surveys in 2000 and 2001 failed to record the species below 1,150m asl, and in 2001 to 2004, there were no records from below 1,200m asl.
41040		habitat	eng	This species is found beneath cover on the floor of high-altitude rainforest. It calls from under leaves and bark, for example. Eggs are laid on the ground; a group of 14 eggs were observed being attended by an adult frog (other clutches have been as large as 32 eggs). The young develop directly into fully formed froglets.
41040		population	eng	It occurs at moderate to high densities in some parts of its range.
41040		threats	eng	The threats to this species mainly come from human impacts on existing protected areas, primarily habitat degradation due to erosion following increased human traffic and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. Climate change could have serious implications for this species and may already be impacting the lower elevational range of the species.
41041		conservation	eng	All populations are within Black Mountain National Park, which lies at the northern end of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
41041		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is restricted to Black Mountain, south of Cooktown, in Far North Queensland.
41041		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rainforest patches. It is found on an unusual formation of granite boulders on Black Mountain where the frog lives in caverns formed between the huge boulders. It breeds by direct development.
41041		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
41041		threats	eng	The main threats to this species derive mainly from human impacts on the parks, for example, erosion following human traffic, and habitat degradation as a result of the development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities.
41042		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41042		distribution	eng	This species was collected from an area 30km north-east of Coen, in northern Queensland, Australia.
41042		habitat	eng	The known specimens were found in low vegetation at the edge of a creek in rainforest.
41042		population	eng	Only two specimens currently exist.
41042		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
41043		conservation	eng	It is found in Cape Melville National Park.
41043		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from northern Queensland.
41043		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest inhabitant that is suspected to be a terrestrial breeder, as with other members of the genus.
41043		population	eng	Only three specimens are known.
41043		threats	eng	Logging was a threat to this species in the past. It is more likely to be threatened now by habitat degradation resulting from increased visitation to the area.
41044		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Studies are urgently needed on this species, since it could prove to be threatened.
41044		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from mid New South Wales and south into Victoria, but its distribution is very poorly known.
41044		habitat	eng	It is known to be associated with temporary pools in grassland, and it is usually only found after rains. Males call whilst floating in water.
41044		population	eng	This is an uncommon species and there have only been a few records.
41044		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
41045		conservation	eng	It is protected in some National Parks in both Queensland and New South Wales (including Fraser Island).
41045		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from Litabella National Park on the south-east coast of Queensland, south to Kurnell in mid-eastern New South Wales. It also occurs on a number of offshore islands including Fraser Island, Bribie Island, Moreton and North Stradbroke Island.
41045		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of habitats, usually in association with coastal sand plains and dunes; it is commonly associated with acidic swamps, and may breed in drainage ditches as well as shallow ephemeral waters in marsh/swamp areas. It breeds throughout the year, though breeding peaks in colder months. Eggs are deposited in water with a pH value of 4.3-5.2.
41045		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
41045		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to mining, infrastructure development (for human settlement and for tourism), and the spread of invasive species.
41046		conservation	eng	It is listed as Vulnerable in the states where it occurs (Victoria and New South Wales) and is therefore protected by State legislation. It is also protected where its habitat occurs within State Forest or National Parks. This species is the subject of two major studies in New South Wales.
41046		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range and coastal regions from the south end of the Olney State Forest north of Sydney, New South Wales (Australian Museum records), to Walhalla in the central highlands of eastern Victoria (Littlejohn and Martin 1967). It has been found from near sea level up to 1,000 m asl, from the coast to almost 100 km inland along the escarpment of the Great Dividing Range (Gillespie 1990, Rescei 1997, Australian Museum records). Most records are either from the north end of the range in the Sydney region, or eastern Victoria and south-eastern New South Wales (see Gillespie 1990, Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). There is a notable disjunction in records between Jervis Bay and the Eden District, which might be due to either the rarity of the species or the limited survey effort in the region. However, recent records have nearly filled in this gap (F. Lemckert pers. comm.). Large river valleys seem to have played a major role in determining the distribution of this species (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
41046		habitat	eng	In the south end of its range the species occurs in a wide range of forest communities including montane sclerophyll woodland, montane riparian woodland, wet, damp and dry sclerophyll forest (Gillespie 1990). In the central coast of New South Wales the species is associated with sandy soils that support heath vegetation (Mahony 1993). Breeding activity occurs in spring to autumn (Gillespie 1990), although the species has been found to be active throughout the entire year, with activity peaks in the months of February, April and May (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Males call from partially flooded burrows at the base of creek banks or beneath dense vegetation beside creeks (Littlejohn and Martin 1967, Gillespie 1990). Breeding occurs at ephemeral pools and sometimes-permanent pools. Watson and Martin (1973) recorded 775-1,239 eggs (2.6mm diameter) from four foamy egg masses deposited in standing or slow water in vegetation or burrows, while near Jervis Bay they ranged from 698-807 (Daly 1996 in Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Tadpoles are free-living and metamorphosis occurs at 3 and 11 months (Daly 1996).
41046		population	eng	Available information indicates that <em>H. australiacus</em> is now rare (Webb 1987, Gillespie 1990, Rescei 1997), and populations appear to have declined. However, information is lacking on the demography of the species and on the size of populations. With few exceptions, recent records of this species have been of a single individual or few individuals (Gillespie 1990, Daly 1996).
41046		threats	eng	There are a number of threatening processes operating across the range of this species, including intensive timber harvesting, cattle grazing, fuel reduction burning, introduced terrestrial and aquatic predators, and disturbances resulting from urbanization (Gillespie 1990, Rescei 1997), in addition to pollution and disease (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Road mortality has also been observed (Mahony 1993). The potential impacts of most of these processes have not been examined. Foxes and cats are common and widespread throughout south-eastern Australia and are potentially a major threatening process to terrestrial frog species such as <em>H. australiacus</em> (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Springwood, New South Wales. Fires may also constitute a threat to this species (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and while logging is currently excluded from the species' known breeding habitat, it has the potential to impact individuals that may occur beyond these habitats (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Different degrees of suspended sediments in water (that may result from e.g. storms, logging activities) were found not to affect growth of tadpoles; however, survivorship was found to be higher in the high sediment regime (Green <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
41047		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mitchell River National Park.
41047		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region of Western Australia, where its estimated altitudinal range is 0-300m asl.
41047		habitat	eng	It is found on rock platforms near the Mitchell River in northern Western Australia, and has also been found at the entrance to a small gorge at Mount Elizabeth Station. It presumably breeds by larval development in water.
41047		population	eng	There is no information available regarding its population status.
41047		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species, and there are unlikely to be any due to the isolation of its range.
41048		conservation	eng	It is listed as threatened in Australian legislation. A comprehensive recovery plan was developed for this species (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000), and is now probably in need of revision.
41048		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area near Ravenshoe, north Queensland, were it has been found at 22 discrete sites with 36 populations (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species has only a small area of occupancy (less than 50ha; McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). All records of the species have been from above 800m asl (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is known from Timber Reserve 245, State Forest 754,488, and 251; Millstream National Park and Ravenshoe rubbish dump reserve, road reserves and freehold land (Ingram and Corben 1994; McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41048		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to specific habitats with all records being from the rhyolites of the Glen Gorden Volcanics (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has been found around seepage areas in open eucalypt forests with an understorey comprising <em>Themeda triandra</em>, <em>Xanthorrhoea</em> sp., <em>Gahnia</em> sp., <em>Lophostemon suaveolens</em>, <em>Allocasuarina littoralis</em> and <em>A. torulosa</em> (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). In areas where cattle grazing has reduced ground cover the species has also been located in leaf-litter build up in first order streams (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its non-breeding habitat is unknown. It generally calls from seepage areas at the base of grass tussocks on wet summer and autumn nights (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). Though primarily nocturnal, it may also call on overcast days (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). The call is very similar to the winter-breeding <em>Pseudophryne major</em>, from south and central Queensland (Ingram and Corben 1994). From 6-82 eggs are laid on moist soil in or near seepage, usually under vegetation (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). Observations suggest that the development of eggs pauses prior to hatching (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). After hatching, the larva makes its way down the seepage or is washed into first order streams where development continues in small pools (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41048		population	eng	Limited information is available on its population size, although known populations cover small areas (the largest being approximately 0.5ha, but most less than 0.1ha) and the number of calling males at each site ranges from 1-20 (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41048		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation appears to be the major threat. Its habitat occurs on land under a variety of tenures, including national parks, state forests, local government reserves, grazing leasehold properties, crown land, freehold lands and road reserves. Ninety-seven percent of frog sites are located on unprotected land, most of which is in state forest or timber reserve. There are several activities likely to occur on these lands, which may impact on the amount and quality of the frog’s habitat, including grazing, logging, road works, clearing and development. Habitat in the south-east of Timber Reserve 245 and Tumoulin State Forest has been severely affected by cattle grazing. Grazing and trampling has the potential to degrade and destroy the seepage areas used by the frogs for breeding. Similarly, erosion and subsequent siltation may cover seepage areas if future logging or clearing occurs. Roads and cuttings can alter the water quality and hydrology and may affect seepage areas and first order streams. Regrowth forest uses more water than old growth and therefore has the potential to reduce seepages. The population at the Ravenshoe rubbish dump has declined. Dump activities have destroyed or modified habitat, and previously known populations are now absent.
41049		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41049		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the arid zone of Western Australia, from the northwest Cape and Pilbara highlands. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 77,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-1,200m asl.
41049		habitat	eng	The species inhabits deep, shaded, well-vegetated, permanent pools or permanent seeps in gorges and canyons. They have also been seen in shallow creeks and streams where they have burrows under stones at the water’s edge. Breeding has been recorded in spring when 90 large eggs were found in a watery depression under stones with a female on the nest.
41049		population	eng	The species is restricted to small, localized populations. It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.
41049		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in a region with very little human disturbance.
41050		conservation	eng	It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Much of the species' habitat is protected within reserves and state forests. Research and monitoring protocols are in place for this species.
41050		distribution	eng	Examination of museum records indicate that this species, an Australian endemic (recorded at the time as the northern form of the Corroboree Frog <em>Pseudophryne corroboree</em>; see Pengilley 1966; Osborne, Zentelis and Lau 1996) was most frequently collected in the Brindabella and Bimberi Ranges near Canberra. Specimens were examined from Snowy Flats, Ginini Flats, Bulls Head, Lees Spring, Coree Flats, California Flats and Hume Sawmill. Osborne (1989) found that the species was still present at most of these sites, but was unable to find frogs in the vicinity of Hume Sawmill at the northern extremity of its range. Osborne (1989) also found the species to be widely distributed and common throughout the Fiery Range and Mount Bogong. This species occurs in two allopatric populations (Osborne 1989): the Fiery Range population occurs from Yarrangobilly to Buccleuch State Forest at 960-1,520m asl (Osborne 1989), while the Brindabella Range population occupies only 60km² from California Flats to Mount Bimberi at 1,090-1,840m asl (Osborne 1989).
41050		habitat	eng	The Northern Corroboree Frog is restricted to montane and sub-alpine woodlands, heathland and grassland above about 1,000m asl (Osborne 1990a). It prefers to breed in sphagnum bogs and wet heath in sub-alpine areas and dense patches of herbaceous vegetation in openings or seepages amongst fallen tussocks at lower elevations (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Non-breeding habitat occurs in forest, woodland and heath adjacent to breeding sites (Osborne 1990a). It breeds in bog pools at high altitudes (above 1,400m asl) and in shallow seepage pools in gullies at lower altitudes (1,000-1,400m asl) (Osborne 1990a). Osborne (1990a) summarized the main features of the reproductive ecology of this species (after Pengilley 1966, 1971, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl.). Field measurements (Pengilley 1973) suggest that the species reaches sexual maturity at three years of age (i.e. one year as an embryo/larva and two years as a juvenile/sub-adult), which is consistent with observations of captive-reared individuals (Osborne 1990a). It is unlikely that many adults survive for more than one breeding season (Osborne 1990a). Breeding occurs from January to March (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl..) and 16-40 eggs (Pengilley 1973) of ovum diameter 3.1-3.6mm (capsule diameter 6.0-10.0mm, W. Osborne unpubl.) are deposited terrestrially (Pengilley 1966; W. Osborne unpubl.). Larvae develop within the egg capsule and hatching occurs when high ground-water levels after rain cause the nest to become flooded (Osborne 1990a). Hatching occurs at 4-6 months (W. Osborne unpubl.) and the larval development period is 6-8 months (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl.). Metamorphosis occurs between December and early February (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl.).
41050		population	eng	Between 1994 and 1998, restricted surveys were undertaken (mainly along vehicle tracks) throughout the known range in the Fiery Range and Mount Bogong. More extensive surveys were conducted in the Brindabella Range and Bimberi Range (Osborne and Hunter unpubl.). The species was still relatively abundant and widespread in the Fiery Range; however, it was not found in the Yarrangobilly-Peppercorn Hill area where it was previously recorded by Pengilley (1966) and Osborne (1989). It was found at breeding sites (often remote from each other) throughout suitable parts of the Brindabella and Bimberi Range, both in the Australian Capital Territory and contiguous areas of New South Wales (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). The numbers present at breeding sites in the region were considerably lower than was recorded by Osborne (1989 and unpubl.). Long-term monitoring was only undertaken in the Brindabella Range. Only one population, Ginini Flats-a sub-alpine site (1,600m asl) in the Australian Capital Territory was subject to annual monitoring. Numbers present at Ginini Flats declined substantially during the first few years of monitoring and have remained low ever since. Less-regular monitoring was undertaken at Coree Flats (980m asl) in New South Wales. By contrast, the Coree Flats population has supported a larger number of calling males (at least during the years the survey was carried out). However, monitoring at Coree Flats commenced after a major drop in numbers had occurred at other sites. Earlier collecting and observations by Pengilley (1966 and pers. comm.) at this site indicated that the population was very large (perhaps over 500 individuals). The low numbers detected in 1998 are likely to be a direct response to the extreme drought conditions prevailing during the breeding season. The Northern Corroboree Frog has declined at higher altitudes (above 1,400m asl) but remains common at montane altitudes in the Fiery Range (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). The species is known from Namadgi National Park (Australian Capital Territory), Kosciuszko National Park (New South Wales) and Buccleuch State Forest.
41050		threats	eng	The Northern Corroboree Frog is one of a number of Australian alpine amphibian species that have experienced pronounced population declines for unknown reasons (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). There is no single aspect of the field biology of these species that stands out as a feature in common that may help explain the declines (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) reviewed some of the possible factors contributing to population declines at high altitudes including long-term weather patterns and pathogens such as the chytrid fungus (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Chytrid fungus has recently been detected in some museum specimens by R. Speare (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Management of Buccleuch State Forest in the northern Fiery Range and exotic conifer plantations, which cover a considerable extent of the northern part of the region, is also a concern (Osborne 1990a). Osborne (1990b) noted that invasive exotic plant species occurred at a number of breeding sites in the Fiery Range and northern Brindabella Range. The two most prominent species in terms of their potential to cover large areas of breeding habitat were Blackberry <em>Rubus fruticosus</em> and Monkey Musk <em>Mimulus moschatus</em>. Blackberry has the potential to completely smother and shade breeding habitat rendering it unsuitable for frogs. In contrast, Monkey Musk, a short, broad-leafed herb, forms dense patches in seepages where it often occurs with a similar-sized native species, <em>Gratiola latifolia</em>. Breeding was observed in areas with Monkey Musk and it is not known if it has any detrimental affect. Excavation by feral pigs and trampling by horses have also been identified as potentially threatening processes for the species (Osborne 1990a; W. Osborne pers. comm.).
41051		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
41051		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in southern Victoria and eastern Tasmania, and a small population in northwestern Tasmania, as well as the Bass Strait Islands. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 99,400km2.
41051		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry forest, woodland, shrubland, grassland and heaths at lower elevations. They shelter under leaf-litter and other debris in moist soaks and depressions. Late summer to early winter breeding (February to June). Between 70 and 170 eggs are laid in shallow burrows under litter or in grassy depressions in low areas near water. The nests are often covered over with soil. The burrows are flooded after heavy rain and tadpoles released into pools. Tadpoles develop in 6-8 months.
41051		population	eng	Some declines are suspected, but the population sizes and trends are unknown.
41051		threats	eng	Infrastructure development and agro-industry farming are threats to the species habitat.
41052		conservation	eng	Fourteen populations are on private property north, west and east of Bow Bridge, with the remainder in the Mount Franklin National Park or on land designated to form part of the Mount Roe-Mount Lindesay National Park but not yet declared (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999; D. Roberts pers. comm.). There are no threats to populations on publicly owned lands that cannot be controlled by appropriate management but there has been no analysis of threats to populations found on private property (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Fieldwork is currently being undertaken to evaluate declines and variation in population size by assessing population size more directly using mark-recapture techniques and surveys of tadpole populations (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999).
41052		distribution	eng	This species, an Australian endemic, was discovered in 1994 (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). When first described in 1997, the species was only known from three well-separated peat swamps in the south-west corner of Western Australia (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, survey work undertaken from 1997 to 2000 increased the number of known populations to 27, all occurring near the Western Australia south coast, east and north-east of Walpole (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999; Burbidge and Roberts 2001). This species has a small area of occupancy (135ha) and a very fragmented range (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999; Burbidge and Roberts 2001).
41052		habitat	eng	<em>Spicospina flammocaerulea</em> is a habitat specialist. The region from which it has been recorded is thought to have undergone a change from a subtropical wet to a seasonally arid climate about 5 to 6 million years ago and the peat swamps where the species occurs are considered to be relicts of an earlier environment (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996). The persistence of the species in well-separated swamps is no doubt attributable to this change in environment (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996). The species is found in isolated and permanently moist peat-based swamps with organically rich soils (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997), in a high rainfall area of moderate relief with granite outcrops and associated ranges of hills rising to 300-400m asl (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). These sites have high moisture content in the soil and are protected from climatic extremes, often by local seepages that maintain water availability uncharacteristically into spring and summer (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Males call between October and December from shallow pools, water seepages, large hollows containing water, or in open water along creek margins (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996; Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Less than 200 eggs are deposited singly and may be supported by algal mats just below the waters surface (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). The tadpole stage is presumably free swimming (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Explosive breeding appears unlikely as numbers of calling males have been observed to remain relatively stable over extended periods throughout the breeding season at some sites (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999).
41052		population	eng	No reliable data on population size are available, however, counts of males have been recorded at several sites from 1994-1997 (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Surveys of calling males usually report less then ten individuals, however, 150 males were estimated to be present at Trent Road (Bow River) in 1997 (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). An apparent decline in the number of calling males has been recorded at Mountain Road (north and south) where 120 males were observed calling in 1994 and three years later only two males were recorded (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). The actual population size at sites with few or no calling males is unknown (D. Roberts pers. comm.). Two sites with a long history of visitation and no calling activity contained individuals in 2000 (D. Roberts pers. comm.). Overall, there is little evidence of a decline, and the population is probably stable (D. Roberts pers. comm.).
41052		threats	eng	An extremely small geographic range makes this species particularly susceptible to local catastrophes. An apparent decline in frog numbers at one locality (Mountain Road, Mount Franklin National Park) following wildfires in 1994 suggests a possible risk from fire (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Frequency of fire varies between localities but the majority of sites have experienced wildfires in the last 50 years (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). This suggests some capacity to recover post-fire but the time and conditions required for full recovery, which could set an optimal fire interval and intensity regime, are unknown (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Fires, which burn the substrate (peaty swamps), or changing fire regimes, which lead to a greater propensity of substrate ignition, might well be detrimental to the persistence of the species (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Loss of vegetation through fire or disease (such as the fungus <em>Phytophthora</em>) might alter soil water tables affecting both availability of breeding sites and peat formation and maintenance (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996; Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Excavation by feral pigs is common in swamps close to the type locality and pigs might have a direct impact on frog survival (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, monitoring of known populations and adjacent control sites from 1997-1998 has shown little indication of pig damage (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999).
41053		conservation	eng	Its range includes Kakadu National Park.
41053		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from a small area in the north-west section of Northern Territory, on the western edge of the Arnhem Land escarpment, where it has a restricted distribution. This very flat area is at a low altitude.
41053		habitat	eng	This species is known from sandy soils at the edge of temporary creeks. Only males have ever been seen.
41053		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
41053		threats	eng	It does not have any known threats.
41054		conservation	eng	Its range includes Curtin Air base, a military training area northeast of Derby. It is not known from any National Parks or other nature reserves.
41054		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to the Kimberley region in the vicinity of Derby and Broome in northern Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 20,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.
41054		habitat	eng	The species is known from grassland at the edge of filled gravel-scrapes. It only occurs in flooded sites where there are clumps of grass and rain creates temporary pools. Breeding biology is unknown.
41054		population	eng	It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.
41054		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present, although it is not well known.
41055		conservation	eng	Its range includes a national park in the Western Australia and Northern Territory border region (Keep River).
41055		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the eastern section of the Kimberley region of Western Australia extending east into the Northern Territory. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 36,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41055		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sparsely vegetated areas of temporarily inundated grassland. Males call from February from the base of grass tussocks or among stones in static or flowing water.
41055		population	eng	It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the relatively small known range of the species.
41055		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present, although it is not well known.
41056		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41056		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Mitchell Plateau in the remote western coast of the Kimberley Division of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.
41056		habitat	eng	The species inhabits areas that are partially flooded and cleared areas surrounded by sparse Livistonia and Eucalyptus forest. Breeding has been observed in January when males call from the base of grass tussocks close to the water in flooded areas. A female has been observed laying 368 eggs.
41056		population	eng	It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.
41056		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and its range is in an area with little human disturbance.
41057		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.
41057		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to coastal East Gippsland in Victoria, although its range is very uncertain.
41057		habitat	eng	It is found in dry forest, woodlands, shrublands and grasslands in open and disturbed areas. It is most common near water but can be found in dry depressions that flood in winter or spring. Males call in spring and summer from the pond edge or from low vegetation overhanging the water.
41057		population	eng	This species' population status is very unclear.
41057		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41058		conservation	eng	Its range does not overlap any protected areas.
41058		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only in the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory and the adjacent north-eastern arid zone of Western Australia. It is only known from 2 sites in Western Australia, Stafford’s Bore and Well 38 canning Stock Route. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 46,900km2.
41058		habitat	eng	The species is found in an area of red soil and sand plain bearing scattered mulga trees (Acacia aneura) and a dominant understorey of spinifex (Triodia species) and soft grasses. It emerges after heavy rain to breed in flooded clay pans.
41058		population	eng	It is probably a common species.
41058		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with very little human influence.
41059		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Keep River National Park and Mitchell River National Park.
41059		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from a few specimens collected from the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, and from Keep River and Kirkimbie Station in the Northern Territory. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-300m asl.
41059		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dense grassland subject to flooding. Breeding biology is unknown.
41059		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens.
41059		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.
41060		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
41060		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to the lower Fitzroy River in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 38,400km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.
41060		habitat	eng	The species inhabits shrubland and open floodplains. It shelters under dense low growing vegetation and logs. Breeding occurs in February after cyclonic rains. Spawn and tadpoles are unknown.
41060		population	eng	It is a common species.
41060		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.
41061		conservation	eng	The species' range is likely to overlap with King Leopold Ranges Nature Reserve.
41061		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to the vicinity of the lower Fitzroy River in the Kimberley zone of Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 49,700km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.
41061		habitat	eng	The species occurs in areas of sparsely vegetated grassland with sandy soils that are subject to flooding. Males call in summer from leaf-litter and from holes at the base of isolated eucalypt and baobab trees. Details of spawn and tadpoles are unknown.
41061		population	eng	It is a common species.
41061		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.
41062		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
41062		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is currently known from a large area of land stretching across central Northern Territory, around the region of Elliott, and in northwestern Queensland, and into a small area of northeastern Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 241,000km2.
41062		habitat	eng	The species is found amongst grassland on blacksoils and grey self-mulching cracking clays. The areas flood during the wet season. Breeding biology and tadpoles are unknown.
41062		population	eng	It is known from only 10 specimens.
41062		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.
41063		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.
41063		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found along the coast of New South Wales, from mid-eastern New South Wales to the border of Victoria and into coastal East Gippsland, Victoria. Its range is very uncertain.
41063		habitat	eng	It is found in dry forest, woodlands, shrublands and grasslands in open and disturbed areas. It is commonly found near water, but can be found in dry depressions that flood in winter and spring. Males call in spring and summer from the ground or in litter along the water’s edge. The eggs are small and the larvae are aquatic.
41063		population	eng	This is a rare species.
41063		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is infrastructure development for human settlement around the central coast of New South Wales.
41064		conservation	eng	<em>Rhinobatos horkelii </em>has been listed as Critically Endangered on the Brazilian federal law of Threatened and Overexploited Aquatic Species since 2004 (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Permits for directed fishing of the species are no longer issued, transport and sale of the species are prohibited, and incidental catches of the species must be discarded at sea. This law is gradually becoming more effectively enforced. Also the prohibition of trawl fishing within three nautical miles from the coast of southern Brazil is now being enforced satisfactorily. However, the species is still caught as bycatch in the legally permitted coastal gillnet fisheries and offshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. For the conservation and recovery of the stocks of <em>R. horkelii</em> and several other critically threatened elasmobranchs, Vooren <em>et al.</em> (2005) recommend fishery exclusion areas (no-take areas) on the continental shelf of southern Brazil (latitudes 28°30'S to 34°30'S) as follows: one continuous area along the entire coastline, within 5 to 10 nautical miles from the coast, for the protection of the coastal nursery; three large shelf areas, one starting from the coastline, two from mid-shelf, and all three extending to the shelf edge. The latter three protected shelf areas are critical wintering areas of <em>R. horkelii</em>. The four proposed no-take areas constitute 46% of the total shelf area. The Law of Threatened and Overexploited Aquatic Species determines that actions for the recovery of these species must be taken. In this context, steps will be taken towards implementing the proposed no-take areas on the shelf of southern Brazil.
41064		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> was named the Brazilian guitarfish by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) for its wide distribution along the Brazilian Coast and further south to Mar del Plata (Argentina). These authors recorded the southern guitarfish <em>Rhinobatos percellens</em> as having the same distribution, but Refi (1973) concludes that <em>R. percellens</em> does not occur on the Argentinean coast, and that these Argentinean records of <em>R. percellens</em> refer to <em>R. horkelii</em> (Devincenzi 1920, Lahille 1921, Devincenzi and Barattini 1926, Lopez 1946 in Refi 1973). Specimens examined by all those authors are deposited at the Museo de La Plata, Argentina. Fishery statistics of <em>R. horkelii</em> show important commercial catches of the species only in southern Brazil between latitudes 28 to 34°S. This is evidence that the species has its centre of distribution in southern Brazil and is scarce elsewhere (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41064		habitat	eng	This is a coastal species. Its seasonal migration and breeding cycle in southern Brazil are described below, from data published by Lessa (1982), Lessa <em>et al. </em>(1986) and Vooren <em>et al.</em> (2005). In southern Brazil the adults migrate to coastal waters with depths of less than 20 m from November to March. At that time artisanal fisheries operate from the beaches, and the guitarfish catches are 98% pregnant females. Adult males reach the beach fishing grounds at the end of February. Parturition and mating take place in March. Soon after, the males and females return to deeper waters and disperse to depths of 40 to 150 m over the continental shelf. Newborn pups and juveniles remain in shallow waters throughout the year. The smallest pregnant females found were 91 cm TL. The proportion of pregnant females increases with size, and 100% pregnancy occurs in females of >119 cm TL. Litter size is 4 to 12 pups, the number increasing with the size of the mother. Pregnancy is divided into two stages: <strong>a) Period of dormancy</strong> (embryonic diapause). This occurs from April to November, while the pregnant females are in deeper water (40 to 150 m), at temperatures of 13 to 18°C. Ovulation occurs in April when the fertilized eggs are enclosed within a common shell (candle). However, they remain dormant in the uterus with no embryonic development. <strong>b) Period of embryonic development.</strong> This requires higher summer temperatures in shallow waters and does not start until females return to shallow waters in November. From November to March, bottom temperature at depths of 10 to 20 m near the coast are 20 to 25°C. Embryonic development starts when the common shell (or candle) breaks up in December and ends with birth in February. Embryos are found only from December to late February. Their size increases from 1 cm TL in December to 29 cm TL in February, when birth takes place. A von Bertalanffy growth curve was established on the basis of annuli counts in vertebrae of 289 individuals from 36 to 123.1 cm TL. Annulus formation occurred in September, and growth parameters obtained for observed length-at-age were: L<sub>8</sub>=135.51 cm TL; K=0.1940 and T<sub>o</sub>=-1.0785. Full maturity is reached at nine years for females and six years for males. The fact that the females grow to a larger size and reach greater ages (longevity 28 years) than the males (longevity 15 years) reflect differences in mortality rates between the sexes. From the analysis of catch curves (Ricker 1975) carried out on a large sample collected in 1983 in southern Brazil, it was observed that females recruited to the fishery from the age of four years, with complete recruitment at the age of nine years. A total mortality coefficient of Z=0.72 was calculated for females. In contrast, males entered the fisheries at the age of four years, and recruitment was complete at the age of six years. A mortality coefficient Z=0.98 was determined for males.
41064		threats	eng	<em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> was formerly abundant in southern Brazil, where in the 1980s it was the only economically important species of batoid caught in the area. In southern Brazil the main fishery ports are Rio Grande and Itajaí. <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> is fished by otter trawl, pair trawl, shrimp trawl, beach seine and gillnet (Klippel <em>et al.</em> 2005). Statistics on the annual catch and effort of the Rio Grande fleet of otter trawl and pair trawl provide a record from 1975 onwards. Total landings at Rio Grande by fishery methods combined increased from 842 t in 1975 to 1804t in 1984 and then declined continuously to 157 t in 2001. The average trawl CPUE of <em>R. horkelii</em> in southern Brazil over the years 1993 to 1999 was 17% of that observed during 1975 to 1986, indicating a decline in abundance of >80% since 1986 in southern Brazil (Miranda and Vooren 2003, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/> <br/>Catches increased slightly after 2000 to 0.3 tons/trip in 2002, when trawl fleets from Itajaí and Rio Grande exploited a refuge area for a part of the Rio Grande do Sul population (Martins and Schwingel 2003, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Following this, CPUE fell again by 31% from 2002 to 2003 and the overall population is still considered to be at critically low levels (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Monitoring of beach-seine catches and reports from fishers in 2004 confirmed that <em>R. horkelii</em> is now scarce in coastal waters, and in a trawl survey in February 2004 of 62 trawl stations at depths of 7 to 20 m along 700 km of southern Brazil coastline, only 23 individuals were caught, 17 of which were juveniles (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005).   <br/> <br/>Across the rest of the species range, where it is scarce, inshore fishing pressure is generally high. For example, a coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates off Quequén, Argentina (38°37'S, 58°50'S), in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total catch (Tamini <em>et. al.</em> 2006).
41065		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this highly invasive species; rather, conservation measures for those species adversely affected by the expansion of the range of this species are what is required. Research on biology, impacts and methods to control their population growth in Australia are in place, but to date no effective controls have been implemented. In Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Philippines and Japan, the impacts of this species on native frogs should be examined. An officially organized eradication programme has been initiated in the Grenadines (Daudin and Silva 2007).
41065		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Texas, USA, through tropical Mexico and Central America to northern South America (central Brazil and Amazonian Peru and northern parts of Amazonian Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela [including Margarita Island] and the Guianas, throughout Trinidad and Tobago). It is introduced in southern Florida, Puerto Rico (introduced in the 1920s), St Croix, St Thomas, Hawaii (introduced from Puerto Rico in 1932, now common on all main islands), Jamaica (including Cabarita Island) (introduced from Barbados in 1844, common throughout island in lowlands), the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, the Grenadines, Martinique, St Lucia, St Vincent, Barbados, Aruba, Grenada, Guam (McCoid 1993), Saipan (Wiles and Guerrero 1996), and many other tropical and subtropical localities (Schwartz and Henderson 1988). It is also an invasive and introduced species in much of the lowlands of Papua New Guinea, the Admiralty and Bismarck Islands and the Solomon Islands. It was introduced to Australia in 1935, to north tropical Queensland to control sugar cane pests (which it failed to do). Now the southern limit of its distribution is near Coffs Harbour in northeastern New South Wales, and its range extends through most of Queensland and into the Northern Territory to Kakadu National Park (first recorded at Koolpin Gorge, 24 June 2002 and Twin Falls, 10 June 2002). It is also introduced and now widespread in the Philippines. It is found on most of the major islands. It was introduced into Japan first from Hawaii to Taiwan, Province of China, and then from Taiwan through Daito Islands (1930) to Ishigaki Island (1978). The population of Bonin Island was introduced from Guam, which in itself had the species introduced in 1937 (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is also found on Hatomajima. It occurs from sea level up to 3,000 m asl.
41065		habitat	eng	A nocturnal and terrestrial toad that inhabits humid areas with adequate cover, including cane fields, savannah, open forest, well watered yards and gardens. It also inhabits dry equatorial forests. It thrives in degraded habitats and man-made environments, and is occasionally found in pristine lowland and montane rainforests, but generally prefers open or disturbed habitat such as tracks, roads, low grassland and areas that are near human settlement, e.g. grazing land, suburban parks and gardens. It tends to avoid more densely vegetated areas (eg. wet sclerophyll and rainforest), which can then act as a barrier to their dispersal. It can be found by day beneath fallen trees, loose boards, matted coconut leaves, and similar cover (Lynn 1940). It feeds on arthropods (especially ants and termites) and small vertebrates. It is flexible regards breeding site (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1996); eggs and larvae develop in slow or still shallow waters of ponds, ditches, temporary pools, reservoirs, canals, and streams. Clutch size is between 8,000 and 17,000. Eggs and tadpoles are poisonous and displace native tadpoles. It may sometimes breed in slightly brackish water in Hawaii. Larvae are tolerant of high temperatures.
41065		population	eng	It is a very abundant species, and its range is increasing.
41065		threats	eng	Overall, there are no significant threats to this very adaptable, invasive species. Introduced animals are carrying salmonella in Puerto Rico, putting other native species at risk. In some parts of its introduced range it competes with native frogs and has a negative impact on native wildlife that attempt to consume it. Survival and development of tadpoles<em></em> in Bermuda are being affected both by contaminants found in a number of its ponds and by transfer of accumulated contaminants (Bacon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
41066		conservation	eng	It occurs within a few conservation parks and reserves.
41066		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from the northeastern corner of the Northern Territory, throughout coastal and sub-coastal Queensland and into New South Wales.
41066		habitat	eng	It is found in temporarily inundated grasslands and open forest in semi-arid and drier/seasonally wet coastal areas. They are generally associated with clay soils. Activity has a positive correlation with rainfall and the availability of freestanding water. In drier times they spend most of their time buried underground close to temporary ponds (in aestivation). An opportunistic breeder, it lays its eggs in temporary pools when there is sufficient rainfall. Tadpoles develop quickly to avoid desiccation. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming.
41066		population	eng	More information is needed.
41066		threats	eng	One major threat is agricultural expansion (sugar cane and cotton farming in particular) resulting in extensive habitat loss and degradation. Land pollution associated with the widespread use of agrochemicals might also adversely affect this species.
41067		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41067		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of northern Australia, and it occurs from the Kimberley zone in Western Australia, east through the Northern Territory and into the Gulf District of northern Queensland. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.
41067		habitat	eng	A large ground-dwelling frog, it principally inhabits grassland and open woodland. In the wet season it is active during the day and can be found basking beside temporary pools. At night it is active in poorly vegetated areas and is commonly sighted on roads. In the dry season it burrows underground. Breeding occurs from December to February and females lay up to 7,000 eggs in temporary ponds. The spawn clumps sink to the bottom while tadpoles swim in large shoals and can tolerate water temperatures up to 43ºC. Development takes between 30-50 days.
41067		population	eng	It is the most commonly sighted native frog in northern Australia.
41067		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41068		conservation	eng	The species might occur in some protected areas.
41068		distribution	eng	There is some uncertainty regarding the extent of occurrence of this species. It is known with certainty to be from northeastern New South Wales extending northwards to mid-eastern Queensland and into central Queensland. Ingram and Longmore (1991) recorded the species from Cape York and the Gulf of Carpentaria, however the specific identity of the specimens from these localities is unclear. Cogger (2000) gave the geographic range as occurring from extreme northeastern New South Wales northwards along coastal and inland Queensland including Cape York, but excluding the Gulf of Carpentaria.
41068		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of open grassland and lightly forested areas. It is active during and after rain. It spends drier times in aestivation buried near temporary pools. Males emerge after heavy rain to call from the margins of ponds. The eggs are laid in the pools and tadpoles are free-swimming and are quick to develop. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming.
41068		population	eng	More information is needed.
41068		threats	eng	Agro-industry farming, in particular the expansion of farming and the widespread use of agrochemicals will have resulted, and will continue to result in, habitat loss and degradation. Secondary salinity associated with land clearing might also impact significantly on this species.
41069		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41069		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from the lower reaches of the Ord and Fitzroy Valleys in the Kimberley zone, Western Australia, east into the Northern Territory and just over the border into Queensland. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.
41069		habitat	eng	It is found in open grassland associated with clay soils. Males call from the base of tall grasses at the edge of temporary water and flooded depressions in summer (January and February). Spawn is deposited in large irregular masses. The water is usually milky from clay and can reach temperatures above 40ºC. Tadpoles metamorphose in about 1 month.
41069		population	eng	It is a common species.
41069		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41070		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not its range overlaps any protected areas.
41070		distribution	eng	This species is an Australian endemic known from the eastern portion of the Kimberley zone in Western Australia, east through southern Northern Territory and southwest Queensland. It is widespread in the Northern Territory and Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 401,800km2.
41070		habitat	eng	It occurs in open grassland and sparsely wooded areas, floodplains adjacent to creeks and other low-lying areas exposed to flooding in the wet season. Breeding begins in January when the grassland is flooded and males call from open positions within one metre of a small pool. The tadpoles of this species have not been observed.
41070		population	eng	It is a common species.
41070		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41071		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41071		distribution	eng	This widespread species is known from throughout the Kimberley zone of Western Australia, extending eastwards through the northern portion of the Northern Territory and northern Queensland. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.
41071		habitat	eng	A ground-dwelling frog found in open grassland. It is capable of burrowing and surviving in a wide variety of soil types. Breeding occurs in summer at the commencement of the wet season. Spawn clumps of 50-2000 eggs are laid in shallow water and sink to the bottom. Tadpoles develop after 1 month.
41071		population	eng	It is a commonly sighted species.
41071		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41072		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
41072		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to central Northern Territory and just over the Queensland border. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. Its extent of occurrence is approximately 557,400km2.
41072		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of open grassland in the arid zone, its breeding cycle and tadpoles are unknown. It is presumed to respond to rainfall like other species of Cyclorana.
41072		population	eng	It is a common species.
41072		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41073		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41073		distribution	eng	This species is an Australian endemic occurring in the central arid zone of Western Australia and into the southern portion of the Northern Territory and the northwest corner of South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,000m asl.
41073		habitat	eng	This species lives in some of the harshest country in central Australia. Habitats include open grassland, clay pans, lightly forested areas and temporary marshes and streambeds in temporary flood plains. It is an opportunistic breeder that responds to heavy rainfall. It breeds in temporary pools and tadpoles are quick to develop. In "Habitat Preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41073		population	eng	It is a common species.
41073		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41074		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
41074		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central coastal portion of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, Australia. Its extent of occurrence is approximately 48,000km2.
41074		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of open grassland, it is a summer breeder. Males call after heavy rainfall whilst floating in temporary, shallow puddles in grassy depressions. Spawn and tadpoles are unknown.
41074		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41075		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
41075		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout almost all of Queensland, except for the far western areas, and into the northeastern corner of New South Wales, in Australia.
41075		habitat	eng	It occurs in varied habitat. It does not occur at high altitudes or in heavily forested areas; mostly occurs in semi-arid/seasonally dry areas; it may breed in roadside ditches. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming. Eggs are deposited in clumps of about 1,000 in shallow, static or slowly flowing water, larvae are free swimmers, males call from waters edge. It spends dry/drought periods in aestivation underground.
41075		population	eng	It is a commonly sighted species.
41075		threats	eng	The species might be affected by secondary salinity with clearing. Some habitat loss/degradation is attributable to agro-industry farming. It might also be adversely affected by the expansion of the range of the Cane Toad (B. marinus). It is reared in the USA as a vivarium species.
41076		conservation	eng	The range of the species most likely overlaps at least one protected area, but this is not confirmed.
41076		distribution	eng	There are three separate populations of this species in Australia. One in the central arid zone of Western Australia from Winning Pool east to Lake Disappointment and south to Morawa and Laverton. There is a small area in the northeastern Northern Territory. These regions are very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. Another large area extends from northern South Australia into New South Wales and southwestern Queensland; including southeastern Northern Territory.
41076		habitat	eng	This species is found in grasslands, temporary swamps, clay pans and billabongs in arid and semi-arid areas and is usually associated with clay soils. It is able to survive extended dry periods (months to years) in aestivation underground. Spawn is laid in large masses of up to 500 eggs in temporary pools and static waters such as those that occur during flooding; larvae are free-swimming.
41076		population	eng	This species is commonly sighted.
41076		threats	eng	Is likely to have suffered habitat loss/disturbance as a result of agro-industry farming; and might also be affected by secondary salinity associated with land clearing.
41077		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41077		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations in the Kimberley region, Western Australia; King Sound and Joseph Bonaparte Gulf. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.
41077		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of open grassland, the males call from the edge of shallow, temporary static water during the wet season. It is presumed to breed by larval development in water.
41077		population	eng	It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the fact that it is known from only two localities.
41077		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41078		conservation	eng	It occurs in a small number of conservation parks/reserves.
41078		distribution	eng	This species is confined to inland southeastern Queensland and into central New South Wales in Australia.
41078		habitat	eng	It occurs in open grassland; woodland on clay soils; emerges from underground (spends dry periods underground in aestivation) following heavy rain. It breeds in spring/summer and autumn; eggs are laid in shallow water; larvae are free swimming. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species.
41078		population	eng	More information is needed.
41078		threats	eng	Agro-industry farming has resulted in; and will continue to result in habitat loss/degradation.
41079		conservation	eng	There is a big conservation estate covering most of the range of the species. It has been bred in captivity in Perth Zoo in 2004.
41079		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest region of Western Australia, from Port Gregory south and east to Bremer Bay and from Esperance to Mount Ragged. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41079		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent swamps and lagoons. Frogs are usually found on the ground or among emergent vegetation at the water’s edge of static or slow-flowing water. Breeding occurs in spring, and males call from the water or adjacent soil and vegetation. Spawn is laid in a loose mass attached to submerged vegetation at the surface of the water.
41079		population	eng	It is a common species.
41079		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species at Lake Gwelup and Perth in Western Australia.
41080		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas in Australia. The taxonomic status and Extent of Occurrence of the southern New Guinea populations need to be determined.
41080		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Australia, from the Kimberley zone of Western Australia through northern part of the Northern Territory and into northern Queensland and down the coast to Bowen in coastal Queensland. In the New Guinea region, it is known only from the Aru Islands including Naiguli and Terangan. There is some doubt regarding whether or not the specimens assigned to this species in the Aru Islands is actually another species.
41080		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in grassland or marshy areas, often forming vast populations. It is found around permanent or semi-permanent streams, billabongs, and floodplains. Breeding begins with the summer rain. Males call from grass stems, bushes and small trees inundated by or surrounding water. About 10-20 eggs are laid in temporary pools in small clumps attached to submerged vegetation. Tadpoles metamorphose in 70-80 days.<br/>Its habitat preferences on the Aru Islands are not known. If it presumed that, the habitat preferences are similar to that of the Australian populations and to other members of this species complex.
41080		population	eng	The population status of the species in the Aru Islands is unknown.
41080		threats	eng	Agriculture might pose a threat in Queensland. Sometimes individuals are relocated through transportation of fresh produce. There are no threats specifically known for this species on the Aru Islands, however the Aru Islands are being logged and cleared for agricultural land, which is most likely affecting the species' habitat.
41081		conservation	eng	Most of the species' habitat is within the Western Tasmanian World Heritage Area and other crown land.
41081		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to western Tasmania. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 23,300km2.
41081		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to montane areas, especially grassland, rainforests and sedge land. It is typically found near ponds and dams and is a spring and summer breeder. Spawn is attached to vegetation in static or slowly flowing water. Eggs hatch after 6 days and larvae are free-swimming.
41081		population	eng	More information is needed.
41081		threats	eng	Drainage of wetlands and ponds is a threat to this species.
41082		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. In New Guinea its distribution, ecological requirements and population status need to be documented, especially in relation to the impacts of wild harvest. In Australia restrictions on the pet industry are in place i.e. must have a permit to keep frogs. It has been bred in captivity at some Australian zoos.
41082		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely, in Australia from the Kimberley Region of Western Australia, through most of Northern Territory, all of Queensland, northern and central New South Wales and the northeast corner of South Australia. In New Guinea this species is known from widely scattered locations in the northern and southern lowlands and from the Vogelkop Peninsula, occurring in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. In New Guinea it lives in lowlands below 200m asl.
41082		habitat	eng	In Australian it is found in a range of habitats including dry forest/woodland and grassland; rarely in wet forest, near streams and swamps on rocks and trees or in crevices in rocks and hollow tree trunks. It also found in woodlands on hills and plains often far from water. It is also found in domestic environments, including letterboxes, toilet bowls and cisterns, bathrooms and meter boxes. It is commonly kept as a pet within Australia and overseas (but it is now protected). Breeding occurs from November to February. Males call near water and often down pipes. Clumps of 200-2000 eggs are deposited on the surface of still water. The spawn sinks within 24 hours. Development is usually complete in 6 weeks; larvae are free swimming. In New Guinea it occurs in open, monsoon forest, and around human habitation such as rural gardens and houses in townships. It breeds in temporarily flooded ponds and ditches.
41082		population	eng	In New Guinea it is probably common but occurs patchily.
41082		threats	eng	Pollution and predation by cats and dogs is a threat where the species occurs in suburban areas. Some animals have been found to be sick with chytrid fungus. The collection of tadpoles and movement of tadpoles; juveniles often relocated by the transportation of fresh produce. It is kept as a pet outside Australia. Habitat loss associated with urban expansion is a significant threat in coastal areas. Although its distribution is poorly documented in New Guinea, its occurrence in a wide variety of habitats, including disturbed habitats, in Australia suggests that it is unlikely to be at risk in New Guinea. However, 75,000 animals were exported from Indonesia in 2002 for the international pet trade, and this level of trade is increasing. Such harvest might impact some populations locally.<br/>Overall the only major threat to this very widespread species in the near future is the potential for a disease epidemic.
41083		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas and its habitat is protected where it occurs in rainforests.
41083		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution along the Queensland and New South Wales coastline, from Prosperine in the north to mid-eastern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 220,000km2.
41083		habitat	eng	Usually associated with rainforest or wet sclerophyll forest. It spends much of its life high in the trees and is usually only seen in association with heavy rain when it descends to breed. Breeding is in spring and summer (October-February) after heavy rain when they congregate around flooded roadside ditches and dams in or near wet forest or along rainforest streams. Calling, amplexus and oviposition occurs in permanent and semi-permanent shallow pools in or beside streams, eggs are laid singly or in small clumps entangled in vegetation. Larvae are free swimming.
41083		population	eng	More information is needed.
41083		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat to some populations. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat to the species.
41084		conservation	eng	The species range includes several protected areas. It is sometimes bred in some Australian zoos.
41084		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the coast from mid-eastern New South Wales to eastern Victoria. It has been recorded between 100-800m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 60,000km2.
41084		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet or dry forest, temperate rainforest and woodland. Its preferred habitat is rocky flowing streams in heavily forested areas. It often hides under rocks along streams. It is restricted to streams with intact riparian vegetation. Breeding occurs in spring (September and October). Males call from a variety of positions, including from rocks and low vegetation within a few metres of shallow slow-flowing water. About 650-900 eggs are laid and sink to the bottom where they adhere to rocks in pools and backwaters of streams.
41084		population	eng	This species is rarely seen.
41084		threats	eng	Loss of habitat for farming and urbanization is a localized threat. Disturbances upstream of breeding sites are also a problem
41085		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Kakadu National Park and the Musselbrook Reserve.
41085		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region of Western Australia and Arnhem Land in the northern region of the Northern Territory. It has also been recorded from far northwestern Queensland in the Musselbrook Reserve (Horner, 1998). It most likely occurs in suitable habitat in between but for now the map records only this locality. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.
41085		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rock escarpments and scree slopes. It shelters in rock caves and deep crevices by day and in the dry season and by night it is active along the edges of creeks passing over rock. Breeding occurs from October to December. Males call from open sandstone rock surfaces near water after rain. The eggs are scattered singly or in small clumps, falling to the floor of rock pools or slow-moving temporary streams in rocky areas. Tadpoles emerge after about 52 days. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "Rocky escarpments".
41085		population	eng	It is a common species.
41085		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41086		conservation	eng	The range of the species is well covered in National Parks and Nature Reserves in Western Australia.
41086		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest and arid zones of Western Australia, from Dalyup River east to Israelite Bay and inland to Scaddan and Coragina Rock. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41086		habitat	eng	This species occurs near swamps and permanent water. It breeds in spring and summer. The details of egg masses and tadpoles are not yet known.
41086		population	eng	It is a common species.
41086		threats	eng	Clearing of land is leading to an increase in the salinity of the waterbodies/streams. This species hybridises with L. moorei at the western edge of its range.
41087		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41087		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the eastern corner of the Kimberley region in Western Australia, east along the coast of the Northern Territory and into northwestern Queensland in Cape York Peninsula. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.
41087		habitat	eng	This species is associated with large expanses of water upon the flood plains and savannah woodlands of northern Australia. It commonly occurs around the edges of permanent water or areas where the water remains for several months during the wet season. During the day it may be seen basking on the ground beside water. In the dry season it hides in cracks and crevices in the soil. It breeds during the summer-wet season from February to March. Males have been observed calling whilst floating in water. Spawning and larvae have not been witnessed.
41087		population	eng	It is a common species.
41087		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41088		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas.
41088		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from central and northwestern Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 105,000km2.
41088		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats. It is usually found around the periphery of semi-permanent swamps and temporary waterholes in eucalypt woodland. It is also found within buildings. Calling has been recorded in December after summer rains cause flooding in swamps.
41088		population	eng	More information is needed.
41088		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41089		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas within its range. There are no conservation measures required at present for this abundant species.
41089		distribution	eng	This species is known in Australia from the Mc Ilwraith Ranges and northern Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland. It is widespread throughout the lowlands and foothills of New Guinea, where it occurs up to 1,500m asl.
41089		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with rainforest streams and rocky creek beds in lowland and foothill rainforests. It is a spring and summer breeder. About 800-900 eggs are laid in a sticky clump in a slow-moving water body. Tadpoles are adapted to flowing water. Development is complete within 60-80 days. It also persists in gardens and disturbed habitats such as slow streams running through gardens and re-growth forest.
41089		population	eng	In New Guinea it is an extremely abundant species.
41089		threats	eng	In the past habitat loss through logging was a threat in Queensland. Now threats are more likely to be habitat degradation through recreation or agricultural practices, like grazing that affects water quality. In New Guinea there are no major threats to this species.
41090		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas throughout its range. Monitoring of the population is necessary in order to detect any occurrence of chytridiomycosis.
41090		distribution	eng	This Australian species occurs from the southeastern corner of South Australia, east along the south coast of Victoria and into far southeastern New South Wales. Isolated populations occur along the coast and ranges of central New South Wales. It is widely distributed in Tasmania. It has also been introduced to New Zealand where it is widespread across South Island and in the southwest North Island. It has recently been discovered in Northland near Dragaville and they are known from around Auckland. It has been recorded up to 1,200m asl.
41090		habitat	eng	This species is found in various habitats from alpine to semi-arid shrubland, but most commonly in flooded grassland or marshes. It can also be found in suburban gardens. It is common in both temporary and permanent water. Breeding occurs at any time of year with peaks in spring and autumn. Males call from the ground or in low vegetation (up to 2m above the ground) at the water’s edge or in water on floating vegetation. About 500-700 eggs are laid in small clumps attached to submerged vegetation, in still water in ponds, dams, lakes, streamside ponds and flooded roadside ditches. Metamorphosis takes 6-7 months.
41090		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species in Australia. In New Zealand there are many thousands, but local declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis have been observed.
41090		threats	eng	Water pollution where the species occurs in urban areas, drainage of wetlands and the construction of dams are localized threats. Chytrid fungus or other/associated pathogens might be a threat to the species in its native range, and might already be affecting the species in its introduced range in New Zealand. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Woodville, South Australia. The Utilisation information refers to New Zealand populations.
41091		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas including Fraser Island National Park. It is sometimes bred in Australian zoos.
41091		distribution	eng	This Australian species occurs along the coast and in adjacent areas from Cairns in northern Queensland south to southern New South Wales, including Fraser Island.  It has been introduced to Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 300,000 km².
41091		habitat	eng	It is usually found in vegetation bordering swamps, streams, lagoons, ponds and farm dams often in large numbers. In the day it shelters in the leaf-axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>and emergent vegetation and or/nearby trees. It can be found well away from water/breeding sites. Breeding occurs throughout spring/summer, usually after rain. Small clumps of eggs are laid attached to submerged vegetation; larvae are free swimming.
41091		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
41091		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and habitat degradation associated with development of infrastructure is a threat.
41092		conservation	eng	The species' range overlaps a few protected areas.
41092		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the mountain ranges and associated rivers and streams of central Australia in south-central Northern Territory (McDonnell Ranges). This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 7,600km2
41092		habitat	eng	This species is confined to rock gorges where there are permanent streams and waterholes or temporary water. It hides in cool spaces beneath boulders during the day. The breeding biology is largely unknown.
41092		population	eng	It is a common species.
41092		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41093		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.
41093		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the coast of Queensland and northern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 320,500km2. This species is commonly relocated in the transportation of fresh produce.
41093		habitat	eng	The species is found in moist forest or woodland habitats. It is also common in disturbed habitats such as fruit plantations. During winter it shelters in the crowns of trees well away from water. Breeds in spring and summer, usually in ephemeral waters. Eggs are attached to stems of grass in ponds. Tadpoles take about 14 weeks to mature. outside the breeding season it shelters in trees and low vegetation, sometimes some distance from water.
41093		population	eng	This is a common species.
41093		threats	eng	This species might be adversely affected by habitat loss/degradation associated with coastal development.
41094		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
41094		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found from the Kimberley Region of northern Western Australia, through the northern part of the Northern Territory and northeastern Queensland to the central coast of Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 1,700,000km2.
41094		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal and river floodplains, monsoon forest, savannah woodland and open grassland. Breeding occurs in spring and summer from November to March. Males call from exposed sites (usually steeply sloping banks) adjacent to temporary pools. About 100-330 eggs are laid in free-floating clumps in pools where there is little to no emergent vegetation. Pools are often surrounded by gravel or sandy soil. Development takes about 10 weeks.
41094		population	eng	It is a common species.
41094		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41095		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed. The range of the species includes a few protected areas, however in New Guinea these are in need of better management. The impacts of capture in Indonesia for the pet trade need to be assessed, but it is unlikely to be a threat to the species overall. It is often bred in captivity in Australian zoos.
41095		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Indonesia and East Timor on the islands of Timor and Karakelong (Talaud Group). In Australia this species is known from coastal and adjacent areas of northeastern Queensland, north of Townsville and extending around Cape York Peninsula and into the Gulf of Carpentaria. It is also widespread throughout the lowlands of New Guinea, and on the Maluku Islands to the west, and to the east as far as New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago. It occurs up to about 600m asl in New Guinea.
41095		habitat	eng	It inhabits a wide variety of habitats including tropical rainforest, monsoon woodlands, and wet sclerophyll forest. It persists in heavily modified environments including human habitation such as in gardens, within houses, parks, fields, agricultural areas, and roadsides and disturbed forest. It is usually active on warm and humid nights. Breeding is in the spring and summer, in forest pools, deep and slow streams, and in ditches and pools in disturbed (including urban) areas. Eggs are laid in clumps and tadpoles develop in about 8 weeks.
41095		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range.
41095		threats	eng	Loss of habitat through logging is a threat within its Australian range. It is sold for the pet trade in Indonesia and internationally, but this is unlikely to represent a threat to its survival. Impacts on local populations of the trade have not been documented.
41096		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a number of protected areas.
41096		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs on the coast and in the interior of eastern Australia, from central Queensland to central New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 1,542,000km2.
41096		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open forest, woodland, coastal and riverine floodplains, and is found in both dry inland and mesic coastal environs including near permanent or semi-permanent pools and billabongs. Breeding begins in spring when rain coincides with high temperatures, and continues to the end of summer. Males call from the edge of ephemeral and semi-permanent ponds. Eggs are laid in loose clumps amongst vegetation in shallow water. Tadpoles are free-swimming and development takes 50-90 days.
41096		threats	eng	Development and forestry in coastal and near-coastal areas are threats to the species' habitat.
41097		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes at least one protected area.
41097		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is restricted to Rocky River in the McIlwraith Range, Cape York Peninsula northern Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 7,100km2.
41097		habitat	eng	This species inhabits upland rainforest streams and monsoon closed forest. Frogs have been spotted sheltering in the buttress roots of trees and upon rocks in or adjacent to a rainforest stream. Breeding takes place in September and males call from leaves over water. Approximately 29-60 lime green eggs are laid out of water. The eggs have been found on tree trunks, upon rocks, under leaves and in or on dead palm fronds near gently flowing or static water.
41097		population	eng	More information is needed.
41097		threats	eng	Logging was a threat to the species in the past.
41098		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41098		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and across into Arnhem Land in the north of Northern Territory. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 342,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.
41098		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with permanent creeks, small pools and waterholes on the face of rock outcrops. It is active by day and has the ability to "skip" across the surface of water to escape danger. By night it congregates on floating vegetation or at the water’s edge. It shelters in caves. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter and open rock faces at the edges of streams and pools. About 30-40 eggs are laid in small static pools upon or at the foot of rock escarpments on submerged rocks. Development takes 3-4 weeks.
41098		population	eng	It is a common species.
41098		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41099		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41099		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known in coastal Queensland, from northern to central Queensland, and also occurs from the Kimberley region of Western Australia and the coast of the Northern Territory. It might occur across all of northern Australia in suitable habitat, but is extremely difficult to detect due to its tiny size (16mm).
41099		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet regions. It is often found among long grass surrounding swamps, marshy areas and ponds. It also hides in tufts of low-growing grasses and beneath large rocks and logs. Breeding occurs in summer when males call from vegetation up to 30cm off the ground. Spawn clumps contain 60 small eggs, which are laid in shallow water in temporarily flooded areas.
41099		population	eng	More information is needed.
41099		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41100		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41100		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the southwest corner of Western Australia, from the Murchison River southeast to Pallinup River. It also is found on Rottnest Island. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41100		habitat	eng	This species is associated with permanent water-streams, swamps, lagoons, farm dams and ponds. It hides beneath bark, logs or other large objects. It is a spring breeder. Spawn clumps are laid as a large floating mass attached to vegetation.
41100		population	eng	It is a common species.
41100		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat. Chytrid fungus has been detected in this species.
41101		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
41101		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the coast and adjacent areas of northern and eastern Australia, from the Kimberley region of Western Australia along the coastline to mid-eastern New South Wales. It is also widespread in open forest in the southern lowlands and southeastern peninsula of New Guinea, occurring in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It lives near sea level, below 50m in New Guinea.
41101		habitat	eng	In Australia it is known from open forests and woodland in coastal/sub coastal areas with understorey of grasses and/or sedges. Forages among the leaf-litter of the forest floor and on the open flats exposed by receding waters. In New Guinea it occurs in open, woody savannah, and breeds in swamps. In Australia breeding takes place in spring and summer mostly in ephemeral waters (isolated pools; inundated grass/sedge land). Eggs are laid in clumps of 50-100 in static water. Tadpoles take between 1-5 months to develop depending on the time the eggs were laid.
41101		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species in New Guinea.
41101		threats	eng	Human settlement, and in some areas agro-industry farming, along the east coast especially, is a threat to the species habitat. It is unlikely to be at risk in its savannah habitats in New Guinea. There is a small international pet trade, with 750 animals that were exported from Indonesia in 2002. The information given in the Utilisation section refers to Indonesia.
41102		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be better documented in New Guinea. Its range includes the Bensbach Wildlife Management Area in New Guinea as well as a few protected areas in Australia.
41102		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Australia in northern Queensland, on the Upper Cape York Peninsula and Torres Strait Islands. It is also moderately widespread in the lowland savannahs of southern New Guinea in Papua New Guinea. It occurs in lowlands up to 250m asl.
41102		habitat	eng	Primarily in seasonally dry forest and woodland habitats. Also occurs in small dams and marshy areas. Congregates around creeks and flooded depressions where there is ground cover during the wet season. In the dry season it emerges to forage in moist microhabitats (creekbeds and soaks). Breeding takes place in summer. Males call from the banks of temporary pools. Spawn consists of around 450 eggs and is deposited in pools in creeks and streamside pools. It has also been observed in artificial waterbodies (dams and cattle water tanks). In New Guinea this species inhabits open woody savannah. It breeds in swamps and temporary pools.
41102		population	eng	It occurs at moderate densities in New Guinea.
41102		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss from development and logging Australia.
41103		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
41103		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region in Western Australia through the northern part of the Northern Territory and into northern Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 922,000km2.
41103		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species ranges from dry, open forest to the periphery of floodplains and temporarily flooded grasslands. Males call from November to March from the edge of water. About 50-350 eggs are laid on the surface of water in temporary pools. Tadpoles develop in 8-10 weeks.
41103		population	eng	More information is needed.
41103		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41104		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41104		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from a small area of northeastern Victoria. It has been recorded from between 200-800m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 28,000km2.
41104		habitat	eng	This species inhabits woodlands, open and disturbed areas including alpine habitats, slow flowing creeks or backwaters of rivers, still water in ponds, roadside ditches, dams and lakes. Males call in water floating among vegetation or from the ground, or in low vegetation. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.
41104		population	eng	It is a common species.
41104		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41105		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. It is sometimes bred in captivity in Australian zoos.
41105		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in southeastern and southwestern Queensland, from Kroombit Tops south throughout all of New South Wales and into Victoria and southeastern South Australia. There are recent records from near Bollon and Winton in west Queensland. It also occurs on North Stradbroke Island.
41105		habitat	eng	This species is found in varied habitats; wet and dries forest, woodlands, shrublands and open areas. Along the coast it is often found in trees and shrubs among streamside vegetation. In inland regions it is often found in low-lying areas adjacent to creeks, rivers and lagoons. It is often found a long distance from water. Males call from the ground or in vegetation near water in spring and summer. Eggs are laid in still water; larvae are free swimming. Outside the breeding season, individuals are generally highly arboreal and occur in the canopy of forests.
41105		population	eng	More information is needed.
41105		threats	eng	Development in southeastern Queensland and central New South Wales is a threat to the species. Clearing for farming is another threat.
41106		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Kakadu National Park.
41106		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic has been recorded from the edge of escarpments of Western Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 14,000km2
41106		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open forest, woodland and grassland. It often seeks refuge beneath boulders and in cracks in the rock surface, and in the wet season is found near permanent and temporary water. During the dry season they are found among sedges and shrubs bordering small, permanent streams. Males call November to late January from exposed positions upon the rock face. Breeding takes place in pools and rock crevices. Eggs are unknown.
41106		population	eng	It has only a restricted distribution.
41106		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41107		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41107		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and in adjacent areas of New South Wales (from the Wollondilly River northwards) and southeastern Queensland (north to the Connondale Ranges, with an isolated population further north in Kroombit Tops) (Donnellan <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41107		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rocky and mountain streams in rainforest and wet and dry forest including swamps. It is often found on shrubs and low vegetation beside creeks and streamside ponds, seldom in still water. It breeds in summer and spring. Males call from rocky riverbanks or streamside vegetation. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation in streams and ponds. Larvae take 12 weeks to metamorphose.
41107		population	eng	It is a common species.
41107		threats	eng	In the past logging in forest was a threat. Development and clearing of wet sclerophyll forest and drainage of swamps are now more serious threats. It is probably also impacted by introduced fish, notably trout. Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species by PCR testing. There has been extensive monitoring across the distribution and significant declines have been noted in high altitude populations, some of which have disappeared.  However, there is also a recorded recovery of population numbers in one closely monitored population of this species, and overall it remains abundant in many places and is not significantly threatened.
41108		conservation	eng	Listed as rare in Queensland and protected in southeast Queensland where some of its habitat occurs in Lamington National Park. Its range includes a few other protected areas as well.
41108		distribution	eng	There are three known populations of this Australian endemic species, one in the Atherton Tablelands in northeastern Queensland, one in the Clarke Range in mid-eastern Queensland and one occurring from Mount Tamborine (Southeast Queensland) to Ballina northeastern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 190,000km2.
41108		habitat	eng	This species is found from coastal swamps and ponds to montane rainforests. It is a spring and summer breeder. It breeds in still water (swamps and ponds) where males call from reeds and grasses around or in water; larvae are free-swimming. It is also found in pastureland.
41108		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. There is no information on population size and structure. There have been no recorded declines.
41108		threats	eng	Some sites continue to be disturbed through clearing, timber harvesting and associated activities and cattle grazing. Although the species is quite frequently detected at disturbed sites, like farm dams, the viability of these populations is unknown as are the impacts of disturbance on the species.
41109		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and abundance of this species in Papua New Guinea need to be properly assessed. It occurs within the Bensbach Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea and in several protected areas in Australia.
41109		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Northern Australia, from the Kimberley region in Western Australia, throughout the northern part of the Northern Territory and northern Queensland and down the coast to Fraser Island (but not including the island). It is also known from several localities along the south-central coast of New Guinea, in Papua New Guinea. It occurs in lowlands up to about 50m asl in Papua New Guinea, and up to 500m asl, and possibly even 1,000m asl in Australia.
41109		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, from wet eastern coastal forests to more inland areas, usually in association with large river systems in inland habitat. It is found on trees and shrubs beside watercourses (rivers or streams), temporary or permanent swamps, lagoons and large temporary pools. It is also common on buildings and in fruit plantations. It breeds at the end of spring and into summer after heavy rains. Males call from elevated positions near water. The spawn is deposited in small clumps in temporarily flooded areas and temporary pools. Tadpoles take around 65 days to complete development. In Papua New Guinea it occurs in savannah habitats, but few data are available for the New Guinea populations. It breeds in temporary flooded pools.
41109		population	eng	It is a relatively uncommon species in Papua New Guinea, but is common in Australia.
41109		threats	eng	It is sometimes relocated in the transportation of fresh produce. There are no known threats to the species in Papua New Guinea. Its savannah habitats In Papua New Guinea are unlikely to be at risk.
41110		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas in Australia.
41110		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Australia except the extreme south. It is also known from several locations in the southern savannahs of western Papua New Guinea, including Daru Island, and Timor island in East Timor and Indonesia. It has not yet been recorded from the Indonesian side of New Guinea. All records are from below 50m in New Guinea. It has an estimated altitudinal range of 0-500m asl, possibly even as high as 1,000m asl in Australia.
41110		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide range of habitats, from eastern coastal forest to desert, generally associated with more open vegetation (ie. open forest/woodland). In inland regions it is largely confined to ranges or larger watercourses. It is usually found in trees and shrubs beside watercourses, temporary or permanent swamps and lagoons. It also makes use of water pipes in houses and buildings. It avoids extreme temperatures by sheltering beneath stones, bark, logs, buildings etc. In Australia it breeds after the summer rains. Males call from the ground in open grassy areas near water. The spawn clumps of 40-300 eggs are laid on the surface of static water. Larval life is brief, lasting only 2-4 weeks (shorter where the temperature is high). In Papua New Guinea it lives in open, savannah habitats and human-made grasslands. It breeds in temporary pools, and human-made ditches, and drains.
41110		population	eng	It is common where it is found in New Guinea, and also in Australia, but there is no information on population for Timor.
41110		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Within parts of the species' range in Australia there is some habitat loss in coastal areas due to human settlement, and in inland areas there is some habitat loss/degradation associated with agro-industry farming.
41111		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. It is sometimes bred in captivity in Australian zoos.
41111		distribution	eng	This Australia endemic is known from the Kimberley Region, Western Australia, and northwestern Northern Territory to Bradshaw Station. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 119,900km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl, and it possibly occurs even as high as 900m asl.
41111		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a large variety of moist forest habitats and rural and urban environments. During the daytime it can be found sheltering in caves, crevices beneath boulders and in and around buildings and public toilets. It breeds early in the wet season at the onset of monsoon rains. A female lays up to 6,500 small, separate eggs, which sink to the bottom of the pool. Larvae take 1-4 months to develop depending on the time the eggs were laid.
41111		population	eng	It is a common species.
41111		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41112		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
41112		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia. It occurs from the Kimberley region of Western Australia into Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and over the border into the northwestern corner of Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.
41112		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitats including forest, woodland, coastal floodplains, grassland, and permanent swamps. It is commonly found around temporary pools. Breeding occurs from October to April. Males call from the ground beneath leaves or at the base of grass tussocks, around the edges of shallow, temporary pools. Eggs are laid in large clumps floating on the surface of water. Tadpoles take 6-7 weeks to develop.
41112		population	eng	It is a common species.
41112		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41113		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41113		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the eastern Coast of Australia from southeastern Queensland to southern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 73,000km2.
41113		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range of habitats: Melaleuca woodland, upland, and lowland wet sclerophyll forest. It is often found in trees and other vegetation overhanging permanent ponds. It is a spring breeder. Males call from vegetation surrounding still water where spawn is deposited and tadpoles develop. It breeds in permanent and semi-permanent water. It also occurs in pasture lands.
41113		population	eng	More information is needed.
41113		threats	eng	Loss of habitat in southeastern Queensland is a major threat.
41115		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41115		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in Northern Australia, from the Kimberley region of Western Australia into Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and the northwestern corner of Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 616,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.
41115		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open forest and the banks of permanent and semi-permanent swamps, streams and soaks throughout its range. It is commonly found at the foot of rock outcrops. It breeds in spring and summer. Males call in open areas close to water. Spawn is laid in floating clumps of 30-200 eggs in temporary pools with sandy or gravel substrate. Development takes 8 weeks.
41115		population	eng	It is a common species.
41115		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41116		conservation	eng	It is protected within the National Parks in the Wet Tropics.
41116		distribution	eng	These Australian endemics occur along the northern Queensland coastline between Cooktown and Townsville. It has been recorded from around 100m to 1,500m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 19,600km2.
41116		habitat	eng	The species is confined to dense rainforest where it lives in the tree canopy and descends to the ground only to breed. It emerges after heavy rain. Details of breeding are unknown but are believed to be similar to the very closely related Litoria chloris.
41116		population	eng	This species is common, predominantly in warmer months.
41116		threats	eng	In the past, loss of habitat from logging was a threat. Now habitat degradation due to tourism in northern Queensland's rainforest is more of a threat.
41117		conservation	eng	It only occurs in a small area of state forest (McDonald 1992), which provides protection for its habitat, although the species does not occur in a national park.
41117		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from Windsor Tableland, Thornton Peak, Shiptons Flat, Mount Boolbun South and Cape Tribulation, in northern Queensland, Australia, from 900-1,300m asl.
41117		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist vine forest, and calls from sticks, logs and low vegetation, and from under leaves on the forest floor. It appears to have persisted in areas selectively logged within the past 15 years. Breeding is believed to take place by direct development.
41117		population	eng	It occurs at high densities.
41117		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is surface water extraction and resulting changes in flow regimes.
41118		conservation	eng	The range of the species is wholly within Daintree National Park in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.
41118		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found at elevations above 1,100m asl on Thornton Peak, between Mossman and Cooktown in north-eastern Queensland. The area of suitable habitat available to this species is only 718ha.
41118		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species, it inhabits rainforest and boulder fields at high elevations, and is often found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It calls from tree trunks, logs, and bushes. It breeds by direct development; unpigmented eggs are laid in a string under rocks or logs in moist soil.
41118		population	eng	It is known to be an abundant species, with a large population size.
41118		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat degradation as a result of human impacts associated with touristic activities and infrastructure development for these. However, overall, these threats are localized. Of greater significance is a predicted decline in the coming years because of climate change (C.J. Hoskin pers. comm.).
41119		conservation	eng	Its range is within a protected area.
41119		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only from a single location, north-east of Coen, in the McIlwraith Range, eastern Cape York Peninsula, in the far north of Queensland.
41119		habitat	eng	This species is confined to vine forest within tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development.
41119		population	eng	It has a large population, spread over a moderate area, despite being known only from a single location.
41119		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation resulting from tourist activities.
41120		conservation	eng	Improved management of the protected areas in this species' range is necessary to limit the disturbance caused by tourist activities.
41120		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in a small area south of Cooktown, north-eastern Queensland, where, after a gap of 25 years, it was recently collected from Big Tableland, between 555 and 620m asl.
41120		habitat	eng	This species is found beneath cover (logs, stones, and leaf-litter) in rainforest comprising vine forest, including areas with <em>Acacia</em>. It calls from beneath leaves and in hollow tree trunks. Breeding takes place by direct development.
41120		population	eng	It is an abundant species within its restricted range.
41120		threats	eng	Threats to this species arise mainly from human impacts on the national parks it inhabits, including for example: erosion following human traffic, and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities.
41121		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
41121		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in a small area north of Cairns and Mount Lewis, in northern Queensland. It has been recorded from between 800 and 1,370 m asl.
41121		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rainforest. Males call from sticks, palms, and vegetation up to 1 m above ground. The eggs are laid terrestrially and develop directly into fully formed froglets.
41121		population	eng	The species has a relatively large population, and is one of the most frequently encountered amphibians within its known range.
41121		threats	eng	The major threat to this species comes mainly from human impacts on parks, for example, erosion following human traffic, and habitat degradation from the development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. However, these threats are localized, and overall, the species is probably not significantly threatened at present. Climate change is a potential future threat.
41122		conservation	eng	The habitat of the species is protected within National Park, but better management is required for the mitigation of impacts resulting from tourism.
41122		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to the area between Cairns and Ingham, in northeastern Queensland. It has been recorded up to 900m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 8,400km2.
41122		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest inhabitant. It calls from sticks, logs, standing vegetation and debris on the forest floor, and is often associated with rocky substrate. It lays its eggs terrestrially, laying 8-13 eggs in a connected string in a moist situation away from water. Entire development occurs within egg membrane and the young develop directly into fully formed froglets.
41122		population	eng	It appears to be patchily distributed and not a very common species. This can be explained by the availability of the rocky substrate that is seems to prefer.
41122		threats	eng	The species occurs in National Parks in the Wet Tropics. Threats are mainly from human impacts on the parks, for example: erosion following human traffic, increased visitation, habitat degradation and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities.
41123		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many sites within a World Heritage Area.
41123		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in mid-eastern Queensland between Mossman and Townsville, from sea level up to 1,500m asl. It also occurs on Hinchinbrook Island. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 15,000km2.
41123		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest inhabitant. It hides under ground cover, logs and rocks by day. By night, males call from either the ground or more commonly from shrubs and trees up to 2m off the ground. It is a terrestrial breeder. It lays between 11 and 22 eggs in a string in a concealed position. An adult frog generally tends the nest and the young develop directly in to fully formed froglets.
41123		population	eng	It can be a very abundant species in parts of its range, in particular in the middle of its altitudinal range.
41123		threats	eng	It occurs in National Parks in the Wet Tropics. Threats are mainly from human impacts on the parks, for example: erosion following human traffic, increased visitation, habitat degradation and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. However, overall this species is not thought to be very seriously threatened at present.
41129		conservation	eng	It is protected in Shark Bay due to World Heritage Listing and also protected in Kalbarri National Park and Zuytdorp National Park.
41129		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in a strip along the coast in the southwest and arid zones from Edel Land (Shark Bay) south to Murchison River, Western Australia. It is also on Dirk Hartog Island. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.
41129		habitat	eng	The species is found in course-grained coastal sand dunes. It relies on moisture in the sand and rainfall. It burrows in the soft sand and shelters up to 10cm underground. It is active in the winter months when it emerges from the burrow to feed. Males call in the spring. Pairs spend summer together underground and then eggs are deposited in Autumn (April). Large eggs are laid in deep burrows up to 80cm under the ground in moist sand. There is no free-swimming tadpole and tiny frogs hatch from the eggs after about 2 months.
41129		population	eng	It is a common species.
41129		threats	eng	There is no human infrastructure development within the species' range as there is no freshwater and the coastline is comprised of cliffs. There is a minor threat from cattle grazing in the range. Desiccation through drought is a possible threat. But overall, this species is not significantly threatened.
41130		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is within protected areas. It is listed as rare in Queensland and vulnerable in New South Wales.
41130		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic has disjunctive distributions from the Conondale and Blackall Ranges in southeastern Queensland south to the Dorrigo Plateau in northeastern New South Wales. Populations also occur on the D’Aguilar, Main, Gibraltar and Border Ranges.
41130		habitat	eng	The species is generally found in wet forest environs amongst leaf-litter. About 10 eggs are laid in a large mass of jelly on the ground in late summer. The male approaches hatching tadpoles and allows them to wriggle up onto his back and into hip pouches where they remain for about 2 months before emerging as tiny frogs. There is evidence to suggest that logging has had a negative impact on this species.
41130		population	eng	The species is common in some areas with suitable habitat (eg. Lamington National Park, southeast Queensland). There is no data on population size, structure or dynamics.
41130		threats	eng	In the past much of its habitat was cleared or logged for timber resources. A majority of its remaining habitat however is in protected areas.
41132		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41132		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region of Western Australia and further east into the Northern Territory. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41132		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with marginal vegetation of temporary swamps and creeks. Spawn is laid in small clumps attached to aquatic vegetation and metamorphosis only takes around 14 days.
41132		population	eng	It is a common species.
41132		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41133		conservation	eng	There are none in place.
41133		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found mainly in the dry mid-region of Australia, but it is also known from the coast in Queensland where it has been recorded often in Townsville and near Cooktown. In the mid-region it is distributed from the mid-western border of northern Territory, southeast into Queensland and New South Wales and the northeast corner of South Australia.
41133		habitat	eng	The species is found in arid regions. It is often associated with static temporary or permanent waterbodies where it shelters under leaves. It has also been found in artificial habitats, like farm dams, and sheltering under corrugated iron and timber piles. It is commonly found in areas of black soil. Spawn clumps are attached to submerged vegetation in pools or swamps.
41133		population	eng	More information is needed.
41133		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41134		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41134		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, from Gingin in the north, inland to Dumbleyung and east to the vicinity of Cape Le Grand. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,000m asl.
41134		habitat	eng	The species occurs in coastal plains and forests where there is ample shallow water in winter. It lives amongst vegetation beside creeks or soaks. Breeding occurs from July to October on cold nights. About 70 large eggs are laid separately in shallow seep water and sometimes in roadside gutters. Tadpoles develop in about 4-7 weeks. It also inhabits anthropogenic habitats such as agricultural lands and rural gardens.
41134		population	eng	It is a common species.
41134		threats	eng	There are no threats listed, but increasing development along the coast of Western Australia might pose a threat in the future. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Elleker, near Albany in Western Australia.
41135		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41135		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41135		habitat	eng	The species is found in areas of permanent moisture, such as the edge of marshes. Females lay approximately 70 eggs singly, in shallow water. It is often found in association with C. georgiana. Tadpoles take about 4 months to develop. It also found in human habitats such as agricultural lands and rural gardens.
41135		population	eng	It is a common species.
41135		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species, but coastal development in the southwest of Australia might be a threat in the future.
41136		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41136		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, between Gingin and Busselton. It also occurs on Rottnest Island. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.
41136		habitat	eng	The species inhabits temporary swamps on coastal plains after rains. At other times it shelters under logs, debris etc.<br/>Males call in winter. Eggs are laid or in small clumps in shallow water and fall to the floor. Females lay 66-268 eggs and tadpoles take 3-5 months to develop.
41136		population	eng	It is a common species.
41136		threats	eng	The species inhabits temporary swamps on coastal plains after rains. At other times it shelters under logs, debris etc. Males call in winter. Eggs are laid or in small clumps in shallow water and fall to the floor. Females lay 66-268 eggs and tadpoles take 3-5 months to develop.
41137		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several conservation parks and reserves.
41137		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in central Queensland, south through New South Wales and into mid-Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m asl.
41137		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seasonally dry areas in forest, woodland and grassland habitat, it is also moderately common in disturbed habitat. It is often found beneath debris at the edge of swamps and ponds. It breeds in shallow ephemeral water, including inundated drainage ditches. Calling can be heard from Autumn to Spring. Males call around permanent ponds and pools in streams. Breeding takes place in mid-winter and tadpoles take 11-12 weeks to develop.
41137		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
41137		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation through urban development is a future threat, but there are no major threats to the species at present.
41138		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41138		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only from the southwest corner of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41138		habitat	eng	The species occurs in temporary swamps associated with run-off from granites on the Pre-Cambrian shield in the extreme west of Western Australia. Males call in winter from July to September. Females lay 77-207 single eggs in shallow water. Tadpoles metamorphose after three months. It is also found in disturbed habitats.
41138		population	eng	It is a common species.
41138		threats	eng	Vegetation clearing for agriculture leads to salinity increases over most of the species range as well as habitat fragmentation. Future infrastructure development is also a threat. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Sawyer's Valley in Western Australia.
41139		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence for this species needs to be documented in New Guinea. It occurs in the Tonda Wildlife Management Area and the Wasur Nature Reserve in New Guinea and several protected areas in Australia.
41139		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Australia along the coastline of the Northern Territory and northern Queensland. It also occurs in the southern lowlands of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) below 50m asl.
41139		habitat	eng	In Australia this species occurs in diverse habitats including flooded grassland or at the edge of swamps and billabongs. In New Guinea it inhabits low-lying grassy areas in mixed tropical savannahs. It breeds in temporary pools and ditches. It is not known how adaptable it is to secondary habitats.
41139		population	eng	It is an uncommon species in New Guinea.
41139		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41140		conservation	eng	The species is found in Flinders Ranges National Park.
41140		distribution	eng	The range of this Australian endemic is restricted to a small area of the Flinders Ranges in central South Australia. It has been recorded from 200-600m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 56,000km2.
41140		habitat	eng	This species is found beneath boulders and stones on the edges of rock-strewn creeks. Spawn is laid beneath rocks at the edge of creeks. The tadpoles are adapted to fast-flowing creeks. It apparently breeds in spring.
41140		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
41140		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41141		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41141		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from Kroombit Tops in southeast Queensland south throughout the New South Wales coast and into Victoria and the southeast corner of South Australia. It also occurs throughout Tasmania. It also is known from North Stradbroke Island in Queensland. It has a broad altitudinal range, occurring between 0-1,000m asl.
41141		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range of habitats (disturbed and undisturbed, natural and man-made). It is found beneath rocks, vegetation and debris at the edge of creeks, ponds, swamps and areas of seepage. It is also found in urban and suburban environments too. It breeds throughout the year, except mid-summer. Females lay 100 -150 eggs in small clumps in shallow water. Tadpoles take 1-3 months to develop. Females may produce more than one clutch per season.
41141		population	eng	This is the most common, most widely spread frog in southeast Australia. It is the least threatened of probably all Australian frogs.
41141		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this common and widespread species
41142		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several parks and state forests across the south coast, including Stirling Range National Park.
41142		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, from Manjimup south and east to Cheyne Beach, extending to Cape Arid. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.
41142		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary Melaleuca swamps after rains. At other times it shelters under logs and debris etc. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is presumably by larval development in water.
41142		population	eng	It is a common species.
41142		threats	eng	Clearing for agro-industry farming can increase salinity. Future development might also pose a threat.
41143		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41143		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only from Tasmania, but it is widespread across the island. The area of occurrence of the species is approximately 56,500km2. Frequently found between 1,000 and 1,160m asl, but it does occur down to sea level.
41143		habitat	eng	The species is very aquatic and is always near shallow water. It is most commonly at the edge of streams, roadside gutters, near marshes or areas of shallow seepage. Males call in spring. About 40-70 eggs are laid singly or in small clumps in shallow pools. Tadpoles develop in 3-4 months.
41143		population	eng	More information is needed on the population status of this species.
41143		threats	eng	Drainage of wetlands for the creation of agricultural land, and drainage of waterways reduces the available habitat for the species.
41144		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41144		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in southwestern Victoria and into South Australia. It also occurs over a significant portion of Tasmania. The population is less dense in South Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 77,400km2.
41144		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry sclerophyll and pine forests at low altitudes. It is often found amongst leaf-litter, under logs and stones in areas subject to temporary flooding or in permanent and non-permanent swamps. It breeds late summer and autumn. About 70-150 large eggs are laid in March or April in loose, elongated masses attached to vegetation in temporary pools or along the margins of permanent waterbodies. Larvae continue development in egg capsules until the breeding site is flooded and then they are released as tadpoles. Tadpoles are free-swimming and take approximately 6 months to complete development.
41144		population	eng	There are at least 100,000 individuals in Tasmania.
41144		threats	eng	Habitat clearing for agriculture and grazing are a major threat. Logging is a threat in Tasmania.
41145		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41145		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only from the south-west corner of Western Australia, along coastal and near coastal regions from Dandaragan south and east to Two Peoples Bay, and inland to Nannup and the Porongorups. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 80,700km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41145		habitat	eng	This species is associated with vegetation along streams and in swamps in jarrah forest and coastal areas. It breeds from autumn to winter and is reported to lay spawn containing 52-96 eggs attached to aquatic vegetation above the water line. The larvae fall into the water when they hatch and take 120 days to metamorphose.
41145		population	eng	It is a common species.
41145		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41146		conservation	eng	Its habitat is protected within Walpole-Nornalup National Park and Mount Frankland National Park, and most of its range is within state forest. There are many new protected areas also being created in this region.
41146		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in the south-west corner of Western Australia, near Walpole and in Nornalup National Park, from 0-300m asl.
41146		habitat	eng	It is found in dense vegetation adjacent to streams, and also hides in wet forest litter on peaty sand. Males call from tunnels in hummocks of mud or clay covered with low matted vegetation, where females lay 25-30 eggs. The larvae undergo direct development and emerge after approximately 50 days.
41146		population	eng	This is a common species that occurs at many sites within its restricted range.
41146		threats	eng	Too frequent fires can be a major threat to the species. However, most of its habitat is protected so it is not significantly threatened.
41147		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41147		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 2,300km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.
41147		habitat	eng	This species is confined to wet karri forest. It is found in tunnels under streamside vegetation, or in and under rotting logs. Breeding occurs in spring (from September to October). Females lay 26-32 eggs out of water in shallow depressions or tunnels beside the stream. The tadpoles remain in the eggs and hatch as small frogs in November.
41147		population	eng	It is a common species.
41147		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, although its restricted range increases its vulnerability to threatening processes. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Big Brook, Western Australia.
41148		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41148		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in southeastern Victoria, and the very southeastern tip of New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 123,200km2. It is found up to 1,500m asl.
41148		habitat	eng	It is found in moist areas ranging from rainforest through wet and dry forests, woodlands, shrublands, grasslands and even alpine bogs. About 90-162 eggs are laid in moist leaf-litter or at the bases of grass tussocks in areas that will later flood. The larvae can survive in the egg capsule for 4 months before hatching into water at the onset of rain. Tadpoles are found in dams, flooded ditches and ponds.
41148		population	eng	It is widespread and common, but secretive.
41148		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41149		conservation	eng	Most of the range of the species is within reserves and state forest.
41149		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia, on the Darling Range from Bullsrock south to Mount Williams and Dryandra. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.
41149		habitat	eng	Its burrows can be found along the banks of temporary watercourses that flow in winter. The watercourses are generally on clay or granite, where the water is clear and turbulent. Males call during autumn. Amplexus occurs in the burrow. Eggs are laid in a foam nest in burrows excavated in the side of a vertical bank by the male frog. Tadpoles enter the water after flooding of the nest.
41149		population	eng	It is a common species.
41149		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41150		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41150		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia, along the coastline from Irwin River south and east to Cape Arid, then inland to Marchagee, Boddington and Darkan. It also occurs on Rottnest and Bald Islands. The area of occurrence of the species is approximately 92,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41150		habitat	eng	Burrows of this species are found in sandy swamps. Males call from April to May. Amplexus takes place in the male’s burrow. About 80-500 eggs are laid in burrows, which are dug at 45 degrees to the land surface. Tadpoles enter the water after rains flood the burrows.
41150		population	eng	It is a common species.
41150		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Elleker, near Albany in Western Australia.
41151		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41151		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia, in the Darling Range from Chidlow south to the vicinity of Nannup and east to Walpole and Mount Barker. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.
41151		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in sandy acid peat bogs where the principal vegetation is Xanthorrhoea (grass trees). It is a winter breeder. Females select a mate and amplexus takes place within the burrows built by the males. About 100-250 eggs are laid in a foam nest within a burrow often penetrating the side of a bank or sloping ground near water. In flooding the tadpoles are released from the nest.
41151		population	eng	It is a common species.
41151		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41152		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41152		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia on the Darling Range from Geraldton south to Walpole and east to Mount Barker, then inland to Coorow and Dongolocking. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 78,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41152		habitat	eng	The species is confined to angular fine-grained sands and sandy clays. Males call from burrows in April and May. Amplexus and oviposition takes place in the burrows in the banks of watercourses. Embryos develop in the froth of the nest until the flooding of the burrow stimulates them to hatch. They can delay hatching for a considerable amount of time.
41152		population	eng	It is a common species.
41152		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present.
41156		conservation	eng	Protected where it occurs in National Parks as in Queensland. The extent of occurrence needs to be documented further in New Guinea. It is not known from any protected areas in New Guinea but occurs in several in Australia.
41156		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Australia from the Kimberley region in Western Australia, east through the Northern Territory and northern Queensland in Eurimbulah National Park. It also occurs in the southern lowlands of central New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), below 50m asl. In Australia, its range occurs within a region that is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.
41156		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical savannahs, and is usually found in swampy areas among long grass, and low-lying areas exposed to seasonal flooding. It breeds between October and March. Males call from concealed positions at the base of grass tussocks, in debris or in vacated burrows of freshwater crabs. The eggs are deposited in a floating foam nest in temporary pools and ditches. It survives well in disturbed areas and towns.
41156		population	eng	It is a very common species in New Guinea, and is considered common in Australia.
41156		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41157		conservation	eng	Its range includes a national park in the Western Australia and Northern Territory border region (Keep River).
41157		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the east Kimberley region of Western Australia, through Victoria River region (Northern Territory) to Daly River Basin, Northern Territory. It was known originally from the Argyle Homestead, which is now submerged by Lake Argyle. The area of occurrence of the species is approximately 11,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-200m asl.
41157		habitat	eng	The species inhabits woodland/grassland on cracking clay soils. It is found near permanent water. Its breeding biology is unknown.
41157		population	eng	It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the relatively small known range of the species. There have been no observed recent declines in the population, apart from one population lost because of dam construction.
41157		threats	eng	The flooding of Lake Argyle created by a dam appears to have caused local population extinction. Surveys have failed to relocate it in the area. Otherwise, there are no threats to the species' habitat at present.
41158		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia
41158		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, from the lower Murchison River south and east almost to Wattle Camp, and inland to Galena, Kulin, Lake Cronin, Frank Hann National Park and Coragina Rock. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 350,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41158		habitat	eng	The species is found in permanent dams, swamps and creeks in many areas. It is usually found hiding in thick vegetation by the bank, occasionally found foraging in the open. It inhabits a burrow during arid conditions. It also is found in agricultural lands. It breeds in winter. Males call from hidden sites, either under vegetation or overhanging banks. Spawn is in the form of a large foam nest on the surface of static or slowly flowing water.
41158		population	eng	It is a common species.
41158		threats	eng	Clearance for agriculture leading to salinity increases is occurring throughout most of its range.
41159		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas throughout its range.
41159		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the southeast coast of Australia from southeast Queensland south along the coast of New South Wales, throughout Victoria and into the southwest corner of South Australia. It is also found along the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania, as well as an isolated population in the centre. It also occurs on many offshore islands. Five sub-species are recognized. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 700,000km2.
41159		habitat	eng	The species frequents all habitats except alpine areas, rainforest and extremely arid zones. It is found commonly in suburban gardens, dams and swamps. It burrows in loamy soils and forages on the surface after rain. It breeds in dams, small lakes, marshes and slow-flowing streams. From August to April males may travel up to 1km to breeding sites. Males call in concealed positions, usually in floating vegetation. Up to 4,000 eggs are laid in a floating foam nest. In warm weather they complete development in 4-5 months, in cold weather development may take 12-15 months.
41159		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species. There are at least 100,000 in Tasmania alone.
41159		threats	eng	Expanding development along the east coast of Australia might pose a threat in the future. Drainage of wetlands for the creation of agricultural land is an ongoing threat. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Goomburra, Queensland.
41160		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a number of protected areas.
41160		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from southern Queensland through central New South Wales and into northwestern Victoria and South Australia.
41160		habitat	eng	The species inhabits woodlands and river floodplains. It is often associated with slow moving or still water found in inundated grassland, around ponds, dams and along creek lines. By day they hide under large rocks and logs and have been found in cracks in dried mud. In dry weather they often aggregate in groups. By night they are found alongside water. Breeding is varied; in wetter areas it breeds from October to March, in drier areas it breeds after heavy rains. Males call from floating vegetation. About 300 eggs are contained within a floating foam nest. Eggs hatch after one day and metamorphose after 1-2 months.
41160		population	eng	More information is needed on the population status of this species.
41160		threats	eng	The species might suffer from habitat loss/degradation associated with agro-industry farming. Increased salinity is also a threat.
41161		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for the species, but management plans for the Murray-Darling Basin aim to mitigate problems in this area and help to conserve some natural landscape. The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41161		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic inhabits the dry and sandy region of central New South Wales and into northern Victoria where it is restricted to the floodplains of the Murray River.
41161		habitat	eng	Adults have been found in open and disturbed areas and in natural woodland. They spend daylight hours and drier months buried beneath the surface. They have been found aestivating in mounds of Mallee Fowl. Males call in spring and summer whilst floating on vegetation or concealed in burrows at the edges of dams. It breeds in swamps or dams and slow flowing creeks with marginal vegetation. Calling and oviposition take place in flooded burrows. Tadpoles are aquatic and are usually associated with slow or still waters.
41161		population	eng	It has a large and stable population.
41161		threats	eng	Agriculture and land-use practices associated with the Murray Darling Basin are a major threat.
41162		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41162		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from the Kimberley zone in Western Australia, across northern Northern Territory, northern and southeastern Queensland and into the central coast of New South Wales.
41162		habitat	eng	The species is found in dry coastal and inland areas including areas of woodland, grassland and savannah. It is often found along dry, sandy watercourses some distance from permanent water. They burrow in the daytime and may spend the dry season in a dormant state well beneath the surface. It breeds after heavy rain in shallow ephemeral waters. Males call whilst floating in the water, which may be only a small puddle. Females lay about 1,000 eggs in a foam nest that collapses after a few hours to form a floating layer up to 7cm across. Females may breed more than once each season.
41162		population	eng	More information is needed.
41162		threats	eng	There are no major threats overall to this extremely widespread species, however there is some localized habitat loss/degradation associated with human settlement and agro-industry farming. Tadpoles of the introduced Bufo marinus can out compete the tadpoles of this species.
41163		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. It is listed as "Rare" on the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995.
41163		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found along the east coast of Australia, from far-north Queensland along the coast through New South Wales and into Victoria and the southeast corner of South Australia. It is also known from King Island and from the northwest and a few populations in the far northeast of Tasmania.
41163		habitat	eng	The species can be found in many habitats including rainforests, wet and dry forests, woodlands, and shrublands, open and disturbed areas. They also frequent swamps, flooded grassland, suburban pools and ponds. Secretive by day, hiding under logs, stones or underneath flood debris and from crayfish burrows. It is a robust species that is able to persist and/or re-colonise heavily disturbed habitat. Breeding occurs from August to April and potentially any month of the year. Males call by day hidden in thick vegetation, forest debris or overhanging ledges. At night they call from the water floating in concealed sites. Females lay 700-1000 eggs in a foam nest tangled in vegetation (reeds and rushes) at the water’s edge.
41163		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant and there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that the species might be increasing in numbers and extending its range in Queensland. It is often referred to as a weed species in Queensland and New South Wales. It is apparently rare in Tasmania, and it is estimated that there are less than 5,000 adults.
41163		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. In Tasmania, drainage of habitat for agricultural purposes is a threat.
41164		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a small number of conservation parks/reserves.
41164		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs from central Queensland into northeastern New South Wales and central New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 564,000km2.
41164		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of habitats including flooded grassland and swamps and is generally associated with clay soils. It usually hides under dense vegetation, logs, loose bark or stones. The species burrows in unfavourable weather. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming. Males call between September and April from matted vegetation on the edges of flood depressions. They construct large foamy nests containing 1,500-2,500 eggs.
41164		threats	eng	This species has suffered significant habitat loss/degradation associated with agro-industry farming. Expanding development might threaten these frogs in the future.
41165		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
41165		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs throughout the arid central region of Western Australia and into southern Northern Territory and northern South Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 1,240,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,000m asl.
41165		habitat	eng	The species occupies areas where there are sandy soils within rocky terrain. It is common in sandy creek beds. In areas where the sand is moist they build burrows from which they emerge at night. Breeding takes place following heavy rain. Up to 1,130 eggs are laid in foam nests in temporary ponds.
41165		population	eng	It is a common species.
41165		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41166		conservation	eng	The species occurs within a number of conservation parks and reserves. It is sometimes bred in captivity in Australian zoos.
41166		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs over most of eastern Australia in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, central Queensland and eastern Tasmania. It was also thought to be present in the Kununurra district in north eastern Western Australia, however this was a result of misidentification, and the specimens collected in this area have now been correctly identified as L. depressus (Schäuble <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
41166		habitat	eng	The species is typically found in marshy country, particularly in the vicinity of grass-lined streams and ponds or flooded paddocks. By day it hides under logs, stones and debris near the water’s edge. Breeding can occur at anytime during the year but most commonly between August and March. Males call from the edge of shallow water, partly concealed by vegetation. The species lays floating foam nests of 90-1,350 eggs in water attached to emergent vegetation. Tadpoles take 3-5 months to develop. Some sites have been recorded as having non-foamy egg masses. It can reproduce in juvenile form at 80-100 days after metamorphosis. In Tasmania, spring flooding rains trigger enormous breeding activity.
41166		population	eng	It is a widely distributed and abundant species.
41166		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall. In Tasmania, drought and the lowering of the water table is a threat to some populations. Competition from the tadpoles of Bufo marinus can effect the growth of the tadpoles. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Adelaide, Western Australia.
41167		conservation	eng	The range of the species overlaps with several protected areas.
41167		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs all along the coast of Queensland and into northeastern New South Wales then west of the Great Dividing Range into southern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 600,000km2.
41167		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a variety of habitats along the edges of permanent streams, dams, swamps and other areas of static water including roadside depressions. There must be cover in the form of grass and other dense vegetation. Breeding commences about October and continues until May. Males call from hidden sites in vegetation on banks and eggs are deposited in a large foam nest attached to emergent vegetation.
41167		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species. Competition from the tadpoles of Bufo marinus can effect the growth of the tadpoles.
41169		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41169		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the southwest region of Western Australia, from Dunsborough south and east to Albany, Two Peoples Bay. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 50,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-800m asl.
41169		habitat	eng	The species is found amongst leaf-litter, under stones and logs in karri forests. Breeding occurs in late summer. It is reported to lay 25-30 eggs under cover, such as beneath a log. The eggs are laid on land, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
41169		population	eng	It is a common species.
41169		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41170		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is protected within National Parks, State Forests and Wet Tropics World Heritage Area in north east Queensland.
41170		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from three disjunct areas of northeastern Queensland: Big Tableland; Thornton Peak; and the Atherton Tableland between Lamb Range in the north and Charmillan Creek in the south (Mahony <em>et al</em>, 2006). It occurs from around 100m to about 1,500m asl.
41170		habitat	eng	The species is found around fast-flowing streams and nearby pools in mountainous rainforest. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter or buried up to 5cm under leaf-litter near streams and ponds. Egg deposition sites are unknown but larvae develop in water.
41170		population	eng	It is a common species, but it is sparsely distributed and uncommonly seen.
41170		threats	eng	In the past, habitat loss from logging and clearing for farmland was a major threat. Most habitat is in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and national parks or equivalent protected areas. High-use tourism and recreation occurs in a few areas and consists mainly of graded tracks and small picnic areas. However, this frog survives in these areas where suitable rainforest habitat occurs, thus indicating no significant impact.
41171		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41171		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest and arid (central) zones of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41171		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open woodland and dense scrub in sand hills or where soil is leached grey sand. It is often found in association with termite nests as it feeds on termites. It is otherwise found in soft sandy soils buried under logs and rocks. They avoid hard substrates and drainage channels. It emerges after rain. It breeds after heavy rain that triggers emergence. Males call from the soil surface or with only their heads uncovered. Eggs are very large and up to 40 are laid about 1-1.2m underground. Development is terrestrial and occurs within the egg capsule.
41171		population	eng	It is a common species.
41171		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in an area where there is very little human disturbance.
41172		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41172		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southern arid (central) zone and eastern areas of southwest Western Australia, from Narembeen and the Stirling Range east to Cape Arid. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-800m asl.
41172		habitat	eng	The species is known from temporarily flooded areas in the wheat belt of southwestern Australia. Breeding occurs in spring and summer and after heavy autumn rains. Males call from concealed positions, such as beneath bushes, and near deep (30-50cm) water. Egg deposition and tadpoles have not been observed.
41172		population	eng	It is a common species.
41172		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41173		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41173		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley and central arid zone of Western Australia (Derby-Broome region). The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.
41173		habitat	eng	The species is found in sparsely vegetated country, like grasslands and open forests. It is active on the edge of water after rain. It breeds in shallow, flooded areas following summer rains. Females have been recorded laying over 1,400 eggs.
41173		population	eng	It is a common species.
41173		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41174		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
41174		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from throughout the arid central region of Western Australia, most of South Australia (with the exception of the coastline) and into the far western reaches of Queensland and New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 544,900km2
41174		habitat	eng	This species often inhabits sparse woodland and Triodia covered sand hills. It is associated with sand and clay soils. It is active just before, during and after rainfall. It breeds in flooded clay pans after summer and autumn rains. Details of spawn and tadpoles are not known. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41174		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
41174		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41175		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia
41175		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from Western Australia, on the central western coast from North West Cape south to Wooramel River. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.
41175		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from dunes and open mulga woodland. It is usually on red or brown sandy loam. It breeds after summer and autumn rains in flooded clay pans. Details of spawn and tadpoles are unknown. In the "Habitat preferences" section "other" refers to "clay pans".
41175		population	eng	It is a common species.
41175		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs an area with very little human disturbance.
41176		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia
41176		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest and central zones of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41176		habitat	eng	The species is found on impervious soils that are lightly vegetated. It is an opportunistic breeder emerging and spawning after heavy rainfall. Eggs are deposited in pools on clay soil where the water is milky and opaque. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41176		population	eng	It is a common species.
41176		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41177		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41177		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in southwestern Western Australia from Geraldton in the north to Esperance in the south. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41177		habitat	eng	The species is generally associated with clay or loam soils. It breeds in autumn or early winter in temporarily flooded clay pans, or pools in granite outcrops. Tadpoles take up to 120 days to metamorphose. In the "habitat preferences" section "other" refers to "clay pans".
41177		population	eng	It is a common species.
41177		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41178		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41178		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southeastern corner of South Australia into western Victoria. It occurs from 50-400m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 362,000km2
41178		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a variety of habitats encompassing those with moderate amounts of water to deserts, including open grassland, woodland. It appears only after heavy rains. It breeds in autumn or winter and males call whilst floating in static water. They lay approximately 1,000 eggs in a chain entwined with submerged vegetation.
41178		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
41178		threats	eng	Agriculture can be a threat to the species' habitat in some parts of its range.
41179		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41179		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from south-central Queensland throughout central New South Wales and into central Victoria.
41179		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of dry regions. It is found in woodlands, shrublands, mallee and open grassland as well as disturbed areas. It becomes active after rains and is buried in loam or clay soils much of the time. It breeds after heavy rain and flooding. Males call whilst floating in open, shallow and still water. Eggs are clumped together and are wrapped around and adhered to submerged vegetation in ponds, dams, ditches and flooded clay pans. Tadpoles are aquatic and take 4-7 months to develop. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41179		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation associated with the expansion of agro-industry farming is a threat in some parts of the species' range.
41180		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia
41180		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs throughout the arid central and southwestern zones of Western Australia (except along the southern coastline). It also extends into far northwestern South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-800m asl.
41180		habitat	eng	The species inhabits sparsely vegetated areas on clay or loam soils. It spends most of its time buried and only emerges after rains. It is a summer breeder. It breeds in clay pans following heavy rain. Males call whilst floating in water. Amplexus also occurs in water. Eggs are laid in static water and the larval stage is 40 days. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41180		population	eng	It is a common species.
41180		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41181		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41181		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the southern-central regions of Western Australia from Carnarvon in the north to Kalgoorlie in the southeast. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.
41181		habitat	eng	The species inhabits sparsely vegetated clay pans subject to flooding. It spends most of its time buried emerging after rain. It breeds after summer rains flood the clay pans. Eggs are laid in clay pans and tadpoles develop in 40 days. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41181		population	eng	It is a common species.
41181		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41182		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
41182		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in central inland New South Wales and the interior of southern Queensland, west of the Great Dividing Range. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 615,000km2.
41182		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the black soil slopes and flood plains of the large river systems in its range. It is found in savannah, woodland and mallee areas. It spends most of its life underground and only emerges after heavy rains. It breeds in temporary pools after heavy rain. Males call whilst floating in pools. Eggs are deposited in water. Larvae are free swimming.
41182		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
41182		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation associated with intensive agro-industry farming is a threat to the species in parts of its range. Competition from the tadpoles of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span> can effect the growth of the tadpoles.
41183		conservation	eng	The range of the species overlaps several protected areas.
41183		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the northwestern Kimberley region of Western Australia, northern Northern Territory and into Cape York Peninsula of Queensland. It is also known from the Townsville region in Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 772,000km2.
41183		habitat	eng	The species is found in sparsely timbered savannah, sclerophyll woodland and grassland on clay soils. It spends most of its life buried underground and emerges only after heavy rain when it can be found on low-lying swampy ground, which remains saturated after rain. It breeds after heavy rains in shallow flooded areas. Males call whilst floating in water and their bodies are inflated with air from their distended lungs. About 500-1400 eggs are laid in long chains tangled in submerged vegetation. Tadpoles hatch and complete development in 8 weeks.
41183		population	eng	It is a common species.
41183		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41184		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41184		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the southern Kimberley region of Western Australia, extending south almost to Carnavon (80km north) in Western Australia, and through the southern section of Northern Territory into western Queensland and South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,100m asl.
41184		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open country with sparse vegetation on impervious or clay soils. It spends most of its time underground and only comes to the surface to feed and breed after heavy rains, but has been found under dry conditions also. It has been found buried up to 1m underground. It breeds after heavy rain in desert clay pans that become filled with water. Males call whilst floating in water. Spawn containing up to 1,000 eggs is laid in jelly chains enmeshed in submerged vegetation. Tadpoles are quick to develop taking just over 2 weeks to metamorphose. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41184		population	eng	It is a common species.
41184		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41185		conservation	eng	The species range includes a number of protected areas.
41185		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in coastal areas from the north coast of New South Wales through to eastern Victoria. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 96,500km2. It occurs from below 50m up to at least 700m asl.
41185		habitat	eng	The species inhabits wet sclerophyll forests and marginal vegetation of creeks, swamps and dams within coastal heath lands. It hides under stones in creekbeds. It breeds in spring and summer. Males call from grasses and sedges emerging from the water. Eggs are laid in permanent water.
41185		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, although it is a moderately widespread.
41185		threats	eng	Expanding development along the east coast and tourism are major threats to the species' habitat.
41186		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
41186		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in southeastern Queensland and coastal areas of central and northern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 57,000km2. It occurs from 20-1,000m asl.
41186		habitat	eng	The species inhabits sclerophyll forest and low-lying marshes. It is often found hiding under logs, fallen bark, leaf-litter or deep in grass besides creeks or along the edges of swamplands. Breeding begins in February and continues through winter to August. About 80 eggs are laid in moist earth and hatch into pools after heavy rain. Development takes about 2 months. Calling in southern half of the range at least can be heard from September to April and even May.
41186		population	eng	It is a very common and widespread species.
41186		threats	eng	Development and tourism are threats to the species.
41187		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
41187		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to southeastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria. It occurs from 100-1,200m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 51,400km2.
41187		habitat	eng	The species is found in both wet and dry sclerophyll forest, inundated grassy areas and also in alpine mossy bogs and grassland. It usually hides under logs or rocks where the ground is damp. They may also be found in tunnels in the soil in the absence of rocks or logs. It breeds at the end of summer and into autumn. Males call from shallow nests or burrows in low-lying areas near water. About 70-170 eggs are spawned in a burrow or nest and they are loosely clumped and coated in mud or soil. The eggs hatch after heavy rain and tadpoles develop in pools over 3-7 months.
41187		population	eng	It is a common species.
41187		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41188		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41188		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is widely distributed throughout the southwest zone of Western Australia, south from Kalbarri to Mount Ragged. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41188		habitat	eng	The species inhabits wet and dry sclerophyll forest and inundated grassy areas. It is usually found in moist areas under rocks, logs, dead grass and debris. It also occurs in agricultural areas. It breeds in late summer, autumn and early winter. Eggs are deposited on damp soil in tunnels and an adult usually remains with the eggs. Tadpoles emerge at an advanced stage of development when the tunnels are flooded. Development is 3-7 months.
41188		population	eng	It is a common species.
41188		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41189		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of conservation parks/reserves.
41189		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in southeastern Queensland, and into northeastern New South Wales. It also occurs on Moreton Island and North Stradbroke Island. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 126,000km2
41189		habitat	eng	The species inhabits wet and dry sclerophyll forest and grassland in or near seepages or dry creek beds. It often hides under logs, stones and leaf-litter or in tunnels. It breeds late summer, autumn and early winter. Eggs are deposited in depressions in damp leaf-litter under stones or logs. They hatch after heavy rain creates small pools of water. Tadpoles develop in 3-7 months.
41189		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
41189		threats	eng	Increasing human settlement at limits of distribution is a major threat, i.e. southeastern Queensland.
41190		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41190		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in inland regions of southwestern Western Australia, and a separate population is known from a small area of northwestern South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.
41190		habitat	eng	The species inhabits sclerophyll forest. It is often found beneath rocks, logs and dried vegetation near temporary or permanent waterholes and clay pans. It burrows in damp mud when the waterholes dry up. At some locations in Western Australia it is associated with granite outcrops. Breeding occurs during summer and autumn, but tends to be more opportunistic than other species in the genus due to the dry conditions in its habitat. Eggs are laid following rains on damp soil or in tunnels. Tadpoles emerge at an advanced stage. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41190		population	eng	It is a common species.
41190		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41191		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
41191		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is confined to the high-elevation areas on the Atherton and Windsor Tablelands in far northern Queensland, and is generally on the western side of the coastal range. It is not known from lower altitudes on the eastern side.
41191		habitat	eng	This species is confined to high-altitude moist eucalypt woodland and open forest. It has been found in an area disturbed by mining activities. Breeding biology and larvae are unknown.
41191		population	eng	More information is needed on the population status of this species.
41191		threats	eng	Mining activities might be a threat to the species' habitat.
41192		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
41192		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from southwestern Queensland and northwestern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 325,100km2
41192		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of dry woodland (mulga woodland) and plains habitats. It is often found in association with river overflows and at waterholes. It breeds in areas temporarily flooded by spring and summer rains. Breeding and larvae are unknown.
41192		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41192		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41193		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of conservation parks/reserves.
41193		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and ranges of eastern Australia, from about the central coast of Queensland to the central coast of New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 222,400km2.
41193		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly in open forest with a grassy understorey. It has also been found around coastal lakes amongst sedges and grasses. It breeds after spring and summer rains in grassy depressions that are temporarily flooded. It also breeds in artificial ponds/dams in open forest/woodland. Males call from bare ground. Larvae are free swimming.
41193		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to human infrastructure development around southeastern Queensland and to a lesser extent northeastern New South Wales is a major threat.
41194		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41194		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the arid central coast of Western Australia near Pilbara. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 11,200km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.
41194		habitat	eng	The species is known from temporarily flooded areas, including grassland and marshes. It is often seen along the edges of creeks or at the edge of clay pans. It has also been found in the water in roadside ditches. It breeds in flooded depressions after summer and autumn rains. Males call from the bases of sedges and grasses near water. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41194		population	eng	It is a common species.
41194		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and its range is in a remote area with little human influence.
41195		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41195		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from northern Northern Territory and into northwestern Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 162,300km2.
41195		habitat	eng	The species is confined to grassland and open forest at the edge of floodplains where monsoon rains temporarily flood the ground. It shelters in burrows.<br/>Breeding occurs in January and February. Males call from shallow water at the base of grass tussocks, under leaves and logs and from grass stems in water. Clumps of about five or so eggs are laid in very shallow water and sink to the bottom. Larval development has been reported to take 7-8 weeks, but may be shorter under drying conditions.
41195		population	eng	It is a common species.
41195		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
41196		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few conservation parks/reserves.
41196		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in eastern Australia, from southeastern Queensland, through New South Wales to eastern Victoria. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 442,200km2.
41196		habitat	eng	The species is found in seasonally dry areas; associated with grassland and woodland habitats. It breeds in shallow, ephemeral waters. Larvae are free-swimming. It is often found in partly disturbed habitat and occasionally artificial habitat including artificial ponds and roadside ditches/drainage ditches.
41196		population	eng	More information is needed.
41196		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation associated with human settlement and agro-industry farming are major threats.
41197		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence in southern New Guinea needs to be documented. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
41197		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Australia, from the northern section of the Kimberley region in Western Australia, across the northern region of Northern Territory and into northeastern Queensland. In New Guinea this species is known from the southern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. It has not yet been recorded from Papua (Indonesia). In Australia the estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl, and possibly even as high as 1,000m asl.
41197		habitat	eng	This species is found in woodland and grassy habitat, including areas that have been cleared, which is subject to flooding. It breeds during the wet season. Males call from the base of grass tussocks or exposed positions on coarse gravel soil near temporary water, rarely further than 10m away from water. It breeds in flooded grassland and temporary pools.
41197		population	eng	It is an uncommon species in New Guinea, but is a common species in Australia.
41197		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41198		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
41198		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from east-central Queensland.
41198		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forests, woodland and savannah dominated by Iron Bark and Bloodwood. These areas have a grassy understorey and generally flood after rain. It breeds in the wet season in depressions temporarily flooded. Males call from the bases of Triodia tussocks. Breeding and larvae are unknown.
41198		population	eng	More information is needed.
41198		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present.
41199		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes protected areas.
41199		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in northeastern Queensland, including Cape York and the islands of the Torres Strait.
41199		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open eucalypt and Melaleuca woodland with grassy understorey and grassland. It breeds in temporary pools such as clay pans and drainage ditches that are flooded by monsoon rains. It is a summer breeder. Males call from beneath leaf-litter. Few eggs are laid in flooded depressions. Tadpole development is unknown.
41199		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in a remote region with little human interference.
41200		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
41200		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from coastal and inland areas of southeastern Queensland, northeastern and central New South Wales (west of the Great Dividing Range). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 963,500km2.
41200		habitat	eng	The species is found in dry sclerophyll forest and open woodland and grasslands. It shelters underground emerging after heavy spring and summer rains to breed in flooded grassland or in billabongs and slow-flowing streams. It can tolerate disturbances such as grazing and selective clearing. It breeds in spring and summer in temporary pools. Males call from the water’s edge whilst hidden beneath ground debris or in cavities at the base of grass tussocks. In disturbed areas it may call from depressions left in the mud by the hooves of livestock. Eggs and larvae are unknown.
41200		population	eng	More information is needed.
41200		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation associated with human settlement and agro-industry farming are major threats.
41201		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.
41201		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in the central arid zone of Western Australia, near Gascoyne, Ashburton and Pilbara regions. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.
41201		habitat	eng	The species is often in or near grassland. It is found around permanent pools in creeks and riverbeds and also around flooded clay pans and roadside drainage channels. After rain it can be found well away from water sources. It hides under rocks and logs often half-buried in damp gritty soil. It breeds in summer. Breeding biology and tadpoles are unknown. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".
41201		population	eng	It is a common species.
41201		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.
41202		conservation	eng	Its occurs in several protected areas throughout its range
41202		distribution	eng	This species is known in Australia from the Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland, south to about Townsville/Rollingstone, and from a disjunctive population in northeastern Arnhem Land in Northern Territory. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. It also occurs widely along the south coast of New Guinea and, along the north coast from Milne Bay to Huon Peninsula, and parts of the north coast of Papua Province (Indonesia). There are records from the islands of Yapen and New Britain. It occurs up to at least 900m asl in New Guinea.
41202		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic frog found in rainforest, seasonally dry monsoon forests and tropical woodlands, usually associated with permanent slow streams, swamps, lakes, pools, puddles and lagoons. It hides amongst dense vegetation near water. It breeds in summer and spring. It lays several thousand eggs in a large mass. Tadpoles are free-swimming. In New Guinea this species inhabits slow streams, swamps and lakes in savannah and grassy habitats. It has also been recorded from disturbed habitats, such as rural gardens and urban areas.
41202		population	eng	It is one of the most widespread and abundant species in New Guinea.
41202		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is used for food on a subsistence basis in New Guinea.
41209		conservation	eng	<em>Nesolagus timminsi</em> is found in Umat and Phong Nha nature reserves and Nakai-Nam Theun conservation areas. It is also found in Nam Chat/Nam Pan provincial protected area, and Xe Sap protected area in Lao (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is also reported from unprotected forest north of Xe Sap (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The range of <em>N. timminsi</em> straddles the Viet Nam/Lao PDR border and both governments do not actively support any conservation measures for the species (Duckworth 2006).<br/><br/>Development of management plans, legislation to protect this species, education regarding the species, and research regarding population status, ecology, and effects of threats are needed to assess and protect this species.
41209		distribution	eng	<em>N. timminsi</em> occurs in the northern Annamites, almost certainly in the central Annamites where there have been reports of a striped rabbit, and possibly in the southern Annamites in Viet Nam and Lao PDR.  It was described in the 1990s from Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam, and is known only from the vicinity of the type locality (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). The known distribution is based on about 10 localities (Averianov <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Presence of <em>N. timminsi</em> in the central Annamites seems likely because of the ecological similarity with northern areas, and a forest dwelling rabbit has been reported to be present (Long 2006).  Presence further north and south of its known range cannot be ruled out on the basis of ecological factors.  Total extent of occurrence is thought to be no more that 10,000 sq. km in the northern Annamites (within five main forest areas).  A similar extent of occurrence is expected in the central Annamite region, although it is likely smaller in total area and broken into a series of generally smaller forests.  If the species should be confirmed as occurring in the southern Annamites and the northern highlands, the distribution would be much more restricted.  The elevational range is unknown, but all records of the species come from relatively low altitudes (below 1,000 m) and the species probably could utilize habitats down to sea level (although few such areas now exist).
41209		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season and generally occur on the seaward facing slopes of the Annamite mountains.  A number of records come from heavily logged areas (not clear felled), suggesting that habitat degradation per se may not be a major threat.  <br/><br/><em>Nesolagus timminsi</em> is morphologically very similar to <em>N. netscheri</em> (Surridge <em>et al.</em> 1999; Averianov <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Nothing is known about the litter size of the species and other reproductive information is lacking (Duckworth 2006).
41209		population	eng	Unlike a number of mammal species in it's range, records suggest that it is still well distributed in suitable habitats.  However, in some portions of the range <em>N. timminsi</em> is presumed to be uncommon or rare, although in at least one town in the southern portion of its range hunters report that the species may in fact not be uncommon (Touk 2006).  This species could possibly occur at lower densities naturally than other rabbits in southeast Asia.
41209		threats	eng	<em>Nesolagus timminsi</em> is primarily threatened by hunting either by snares, or probably to a lesser extent by dogs. Snaring operations range from very low key subsistence levels to well organized gangs focusing primarily on sub-national and international trade, to supply both bushmeat and medicinal markets (a very wide range of species are involved). There is no evidence that <em>N. timminsi</em> has a high value if only in feeding hunters while in the forest. Almost all mammals seem to have some medicinal use, but there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for <em>N. timminsi</em>. Hunters from Viet Nam using snares in the Lao portion of range affect the area heavily (Duckworth 2006). <em>N. timminsi</em> is trapped in the southern portion of Viet Nam range (Touk 2006). Hunters with dogs likely exploit the species, but the effects of this exploitation are not known (Duckworth 2006).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation increase accessibility to hunters. Shifting cultivation and establishment of permanent agriculture is probably the biggest threat, the latter generally at lower altitudes and the former throughout. Viet Nam's aggressive road building policy has increased accessibility to undisturbed habitat for farmers and timber harvesters (semi-commercial and commercial logging operations).  Dams, which so far has had minimal impact, but looks to increase in the future, results in lost habitat and increased accessibility to hunters and harvesters of other forest products. Mining for gold, gems, and other minerals seems to be on the increase, which results in habitat destruction and increased hunting levels.<br/><br/>There is lack of foresight in protected area designation and management. Most conservation strategies focus on remote, higher altitude areas; lowlands are generally marginalized and lost in conservation management.
41210		conservation	eng	It is found in at least three protected areas, the best of these is probably Bwindi Impenetrable Forest in Uganda. There is an urgent need to conserve areas of forest within the range of this species.
41210		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from  the Albertine Rift Mountains in Burundi, Rwanda (range unclear) and Uganda (Van der Straeten and Kerbis Peterhans 1999). It is restricted to high forested elevations, and occurs at 1,900 to 2,600 m asl on the eastern side of the Albertine Rift. This is a distinctive species in the <em>P. jacksoni</em> complex, but occurs at much higher altitudes than other taxa within that complex.
41210		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded only from moist montane forest. It does not occur in modified habitat.
41210		population	eng	It is very abundant on the high mountain tops.
41210		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for agriculture (grazing and crops) and collection of firewood and building materials. In Rwanda much of the suitable habitat has been cleared. There has also been extensive clearing on both sides of the Virunga Mountains.
41211		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a need to develop protected areas to maintain the forest habitat of this species.
41211		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Gotel Mountains in southeastern Nigeria. It ranges from 1,600 to 2,400 m asl.
41211		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest. This species does not occur in modified habitats.
41211		population	eng	It is known from two localities, there are not many specimens in collections, and it is not thought to be abundant.
41211		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, presumably largely through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
41212		conservation	eng	It is thought that this taxon might be a complex of different species, however, more research is required to confirm this. In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in several protected areas.
41212		distribution	eng	This taxon occurs from Senegal in the west to southern Sudan in the east, southwards through northeastern-most Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Uganda and western Kenya, to north central Tanzania. It is found from sea level to 1,220 m asl.
41212		habitat	eng	It is found in grassy woodlands and savannas (Guinean and Sudanian) south of the Sahara Desert, but there are also some records from within the Sahel (Carleton and Van der Straeten 1997). It has also been recorded from degraded areas, burnt grasslands and cultivated areas (cassava and oil palms).
41212		population	eng	It is locally common, but the northern records (from the Sahel), which are likely to be separate species, are much scarcer and poorly known.
41212		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this taxon.
41214		conservation	eng	The area where this species has been described from is a protected area. No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
41214		distribution	eng	This species is known from three specimens from Loei Province in northeastern Thailand, although it is likely that the species also occurs in Lao PDR, southern China and Viet Nam (Cox 1991). This species occurs at around 800 m of elevation.
41214		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sub-montane forests. This species may be aquatic or semi-aquatic feeding on frogs and fishes.
41214		population	eng	No population data is available for this snake, which is known from three historical specimens.
41214		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
41217		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated. The relatively large number of individuals plus wide range makes conservation measures a low priority, however, close monitoring is required.
41217		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in Mexico, occurring from west of Saltillo, Coahulia southward into the state of Querétaro.  It is estimated that the population comprises about 100,000 mature individuals, distributed over about 60,000 km².
41217		habitat	eng	Occurs in and around the edges of the Chihuahuan Desert where it grows on calcareous or gypsum soils.  The species is mostly confined to silty flood plains.  Some of these areas become flooded periodically during the summer rainy season.  As the plants never rise above ground level, they are very difficult to see; in addition, silt often blows over them in the dry season completely hiding them (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo and Mezquital Extradesértico (Rzedowski 1978).
41217		threats	eng	Human settlement, waste dumps, illegal collecting, local medicine uses.  Some localities have been partly depleted by illegal collectors. Others were partly depleted by illegal collectors and for local medicinal uses and are also declining through human activities (Sotomayor <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41218		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II.  The species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would ensure the survival of the species. The medicinal value of the species has to be verified through scientific research.  Its possible utilization could lead to its conservation through management.
41218		distribution	eng	Restricted to the summits of La Trinidad and El Azul mountain ranges, in San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Only nine localities are known.  The population size is <10,000 mature individuals
41218		habitat	eng	Found in areas of disturbed grassland and chaparral of <em>Quercus striatula</em> and <em>Agave asperrima</em>.  The soils are relatively deep-dark clay, with limestone outcrops.
41218		threats	eng	Natural vegetation is almost totally modified, due to livestock raising.  The species is under some pressure due to its medicinal uses.
41219		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  The species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would ensure the survival of the species. The medicinal value of the species has to be verified through scientific research.  Its possible utilization could lead to its conservation through management.
41219		distribution	eng	Restricted to some fragments of the summits of La Trinidad and Álvarez mountain ranges, in San Luis Potosí, Mexico.  The extent of occurrence is ca. 1,895 km², fragmented into two subpopulations with an area of occupancy of ca. 50 km².  Only four discrete locations have been recorded.  The population size is less than 2,500 mature individuals.
41219		habitat	eng	Found in areas of disturbed grassland of <em>Bouteloua gracilis</em> or <em>Heteropogon contortus</em>, and chaparral of <em>Quercus striatula</em> or <em>Q. edwardii</em>.  The soils are relatively deep-dark clay, with limestone outcrops.
41219		threats	eng	Natural vegetation is almost totally modified, due to livestock raising.  The species is under some pressure due to its medicinal uses.
41221		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  Part of distribution area of the species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would warrantee the survival of the species.
41221		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area (ca. 1,420 km²) in northern San Luis Potosí, and southern Nuevo León and Tamaulipas, where 15 localities are known.  The population estimate of less than 10,000 is highly speculative.
41221		habitat	eng	Usually found in limestone slopes and canyons of <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>-<em>Hechtia glomerata</em> scrub.
41221		threats	eng	Habitat destruction mostly by goat over-pasturing and mining.
41222		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  Establishment of protected areas, as the species grows together with other endangered or highly endangered species.
41222		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area (ca. 63 km²) in Zacatecas, and present in very low population densities. Only three (probably four) highly disjunct localities are known.  The population estimate of <1,000 individuals is highly speculative.
41222		habitat	eng	Found in silty flood plains with scarce desert vegetation, mostly <em>Prosopis</em> and <em>Larrea</em>.
41222		threats	eng	Habitat destruction mostly by cattle over-pasturing.
41223		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  One of the subpopulations of this species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would ensure the survival of the species.
41223		distribution	eng	The extent of occurrence for this species is 2,144 km², in northern San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.  The  range is divided into two separate subpopulations with an area of occupancy of ca. 580 and 32 km² respectively; five and four localities respectively have been recorded. The population estimate of less than 4,000 individuals is highly speculative.
41223		habitat	eng	Usually found in limestone slopes with <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>-<em>Hechtia glomerata</em> scrub.
41223		threats	eng	Habitat destruction mostly by goat over-pasturing.
41224		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES App. II.  One of the subpopulations of this species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would warrant the survival of the species.
41224		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area (ca. 250 km²) in northern San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas, where only seven localities (confirmed by herbarium specimens) are known.  The population estimate of less than 6,000 individuals is highly speculative.  Pilbeam (1999) reports this species as having a larger distribution range in San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Guanajuato, and Coahuila; however, no additional herbarium specimens exist to confirm this.
41224		habitat	eng	Usually found in limestone slopes of <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>-<em>Hechtia glomerata</em> scrub.
41224		threats	eng	Habitat destruction mostly by goat over-pasturing.
41225		conservation	eng	Its range does include a few protected areas, such as Mount Malindang, but the designation of remaining rainforests on the island of Mindanao as protected areas is a necessary conservation measure for this species.
41225		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities on the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, and the Sulus, in the southern Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
41225		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in streams and quiet pools of water in undisturbed and disturbed lowland forests. Very little information is known about its ecology or habitat requirements.
41225		population	eng	It is a common species.
41225		threats	eng	Important threats to this species are the loss of lowland rainforests and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, especially due to agricultural effluents.
41226		conservation	eng	The effective protection of the remaining lower montane and lowland rainforest on Palawan is the most significant conservation measure required. Field surveys are needed to gather updated information on the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species.
41226		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Mount Balabag, in the Mantalingajan mountain range, on the island of Palawan in the western Philippines. It might range more widely.
41226		habitat	eng	It has been found on the forest floor leaf-litter in lower montane forest, and probably breeds on land by direct development, like other members of its genus.
41226		population	eng	It is still known only from the type specimens, so there is no information regarding its population status.
41226		threats	eng	The most important threats to this species include deforestation and habitat conversion to agriculture. The Mantalingajan mountain range is generally well protected but some areas of the range are subjected to disturbance through shifting agriculture and selective logging.
41228		conservation	eng	This species can be found within protected areas and private conservation land. It has been listed in the South African Red Data Book (Branch 1988) as Restricted.
41228		distribution	eng	This restricted species is endemic to the Cape Fold Mountains, from Cederberg to Worcester, in the Republic of South Africa.
41228		habitat	eng	This species can be found on rocky mountain slopes, often seeking out moist areas.
41228		population	eng	Only one specimen of this species was collected between 1926 and 1973, making it one of South Africa's rarest lizards. It is now known to be locally common but shy (Branch 1998).
41228		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat. The habitat in which it can be found is rugged and not easily accessible, providing protection against human disturbance (A. Turner pers. comm.).
41231		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Based on present information, conservation measures are still not needed for this species in the immediate future.
41231		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the central and southern islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Camiguin, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Negros, Panay and Sibuyan in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
41231		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and rivers in low elevation forests, forest edges, and in some populations, swamps and other wetlands. Eggs are deposited on vegetation overhanging bodies of water.
41231		population	eng	It is common in appropriate habitats.
41231		threats	eng	It appears to thrive even in degraded and man-made environments; hence forest loss might not be a significant threat.
41232		conservation	eng	Although it is recorded from several protected areas, there is a need for improved protection of the remaining rainforest on the islands, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides. There might be a need to work with local communities to ensure that human exploitation of this species is managed sustainably.
41232		distribution	eng	This species is known from Masbate, Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay and Siquijor (the central islands) in the Philippines.
41232		habitat	eng	It inhabits cool streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It also thrives in forest edges, agricultural areas and artificial habitats near natural forests. Eggs are deposited outside the water, typically on vegetation or rocks just above the water.
41232		population	eng	It is a common species. It has been observed in good numbers even in disturbed habitats near forest, but might have declined in some areas due to over-harvesting.
41232		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is threatened by severe deforestation and the pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural effluents and mine-tailings. It is also heavily exploited by humans for food, which is thought to have lead to localized declines.
41233		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo Natural Park. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest habitats, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests.
41233		distribution	eng	This species is found in several localities on Mindanao Island, in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
41233		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests; it is apparently absent from non-forested areas. Breeding takes place by larval development.
41233		population	eng	It is locally common where present.
41233		threats	eng	Threats include habitat loss due to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural toxins and mine-tailings.
41234		conservation	eng	Its range includes many protected areas. Conservation measures are not needed for this adaptable species at present. Research to determine whether or not harvesting is a threat is needed.
41234		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on Luzon, Polillo, Palaui and Catanduanes Islands, in the northern Philippines.
41234		habitat	eng	It is found in lower montane and lowland forests, riverine habitats, and natural and artificial lakes and ponds. It also thrives in disturbed habitats.
41234		population	eng	It is common to abundant in many natural and anthropogenic habitats.
41234		threats	eng	A possible threat might be the pollution of riverine habitats. Harvesting for human subsistence is also a possible threat.
41235		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Management and conservation of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
41235		distribution	eng	This species is found in the rainforests of Rio de Janeiro State and Espirito Santo State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 200-1,400m asl.
41235		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the canopy of primary and old secondary forest. It carries its eggs on its back and is a direct developing species. It requires big trees in which to live and hence it does not tolerate a lot of habitat disturbance.
41235		population	eng	It was originally only known from two specimens, but it is now considered very common. It is hard to find as it occurs high up in the canopy.
41235		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural encroachment are localized threats to this species.
41236		conservation	eng	Its one known locality is within Su Thep National Park. Assessment of the taxonomic status of this species, particularly its affinity to <em>Chaparana palavanensis</em>, <em>C. fansipani</em>, <em>C. tweediei</em> and <em>C. nitida</em>, and its generic assignment, would be desirable.
41236		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Doi [Nga] Chang, north of Chiang Mai city, in northern Thailand (Smith 1922; Taylor 1962). The type series was collected at 1,500m asl according to the original description, presumably at or near the top of the mountain, which is 1,462m high. It might occur more widely.
41236		habitat	eng	The habitat at the type locality is montane evergreen forest. This species presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
41236		population	eng	This species was first recorded in 1920, and has been recorded only once since, in the 1980s.
41236		threats	eng	Possible threats to it might include shifting agriculture and water pollution from agricultural activity, although it is known that no logging occurs at this location.
41237		conservation	eng	The Thai population is wholly within several protected areas, as is the range in Cambodia. The species should probably be protected under the WARPA law of Thailand, and under Cambodian wildlife legislation. Studies of exploitation pressure are needed.
41237		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cardamom region of south-eastern Thailand and south-western Cambodia (Inger 1970; Ohler, Swan and Daltry 2002). It has been recorded from 150-1,000m asl.
41237		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of swift-flowing mountain streams in evergreen forest. It is a stream-breeding amphibian and is usually found in, or very close to, streams on large boulders.
41237		population	eng	It was reported as being "reasonably abundant ... along forested mountain streams in SE Thailand" (Inger, in Humphrey and Bain 1990), though these authors also note the limited size of available suitable habitat and exploitation pressures.
41237		threats	eng	It is collected for consumption by local villagers using flashlights (Brockelman, in Humphrey and Bain 1990). It is also under threat from habitat loss through fires, agriculture, and logging.
41238		conservation	eng	Koh Chang is a National Park, and protected areas have been established in the Cardamom Mountains. Taxonomic revision of this species is needed. This is a protected species by law in Thailand.
41238		distribution	eng	This species is known from the islands of Koh Chang, Koh Kut and Koh Mehsi in southeast Thailand, the nearby Thai mainland at Ok Yam, and from the Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Mountains of Cambodia (Smith, 1922; Bourret, 1942; Ohler <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Stuart and Emmett, 2006). The record from northern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999) is in error. Records from southern Vietnam (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2002; Nguyen, 2005) refer to <em>Limnonectes poilani</em> (Ohler <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It has been recorded between 300 and 1,200m asl in the Cardomom Mountains (Stuart and Emmett, 2006).
41238		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from hill, evergreen forest, and breeds in slow moving sections of streams. It is also found in anthropogenic habitats. Individuals are found dispersed on the forest floor outside the breeding season.
41238		population	eng	It is a common species in the Cardamom Mountains (S. Swan pers. comm.)
41238		threats	eng	Threats are mostly unknown although wildfire and future logging might affect the species.
41239		conservation	eng	It has been designated a natural monument by the Okinawa Prefecture and is totally protected. However, there remains a need for improved protection of the habitat of this species in northern Okinawa.
41239		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan and is found only on Okinawa-jima.
41239		habitat	eng	It inhabits upstream regions surrounded by primary broad-leaved evergreen forest, where it breeds in streams. It preys mainly on crustaceans and earthworms.
41239		population	eng	It used to be a common species, but it has declined considerably.
41239		threats	eng	Until the early 1970s this species ranged over nearly the entire northern half of the island. However, recent deforestation accompanied by road and dam construction in its original range has drastically reduced its habitat. It has also been impacted by invasive mongooses.
41240		conservation	eng	It occurs in Khlong Naka Wildlife Sanctuary, Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khaolak Lamru National Park. The species is fully protected from exploitation under Thailand's WARPA law.
41240		distribution	eng	This species is known from five locations in Thailand: Tasan (in Chumphon Province); Mamoh and Khlong Naka Wildlife Sanctuary (in Renong Province); Khlong Saeng National Park (in Surat Thani Province); and Khaolak Lamru National Park (in Phagnga Province), near the Isthmus of Kra. One recent record is from Tong Pha Phume in Kanchanaburi Province further north in western Thailand (Wichase Khonsue pers. comm.). Possible records from Phuket (P. van Dijk pers. comm.) remain to be verified. It probably occurs in southern Tenasserim (Myanmar), but this has not yet been confirmed. It has been recorded at around 1,000m asl.
41240		habitat	eng	It lives in primary rainforest near streams. It has also been observed on near-vertical bedrock in the spray zone of rainforest waterfalls. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other members of its genus.
41240		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
41240		threats	eng	The major threat is loss of forest habitat due to subsistence wood collection, agriculture, and human settlement.
41241		conservation	eng	This species is present within a protected area in Greece, and is found in three protected areas in Turkey.  More research is needed on the distribution of this species.
41241		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Fethiye to Finike, in south-western Anatolia, Turkey, where it apparently has a fragmented distribution. An endemic subspecies (<em>Lyciasalamandra luschani basoglui</em>) is found on the nearby Greek island of Kastellorizo (= Megisti).  It may have a more continuous range than shown (Avci and Oz, pers. comm. 2008).
41241		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in marquis scrub or pine woodlands (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.
41241		population	eng	It is common to fairly abundant.
41241		threats	eng	Within its naturally restricted range, the species is potentially threatened by habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.
41246		distribution	eng	Known from the lakes of the upper course of the river Tsipikan, Vitim basin, Baunt, Siberia (Kottelat 1997).
41246		habitat	eng	This taxon spawns in spring, as do other coregonid stocks in Finland, but from genetic data these are not closely related taxa (Kottelat 1997).
41248		conservation	eng	No information available.
41248		distribution	eng	<em>Micropanchax loati</em> is Regionally Exctinct in northern Africa. It used to be found in freshwater regions of Lakes Mariut and Manzala in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the White Nile drainage in Sudan, the Nile and its delta in Egypt, lakes in north eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, drainages in Uganda and central Tanzania.
41248		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile River and Lake Victoria system in Uganda, Lake Victoria drainage in Kenya, Lake Victoria, Malagarasi River and Wembere River drainage in Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).
41248		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nile River, and south to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Nile River and Lake Victoria system, and the Malagarasi River and the Wembere River drainage in Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species used to be found in freshwater regions of Lakes Mariut and Manzala in Egypt, but is now thought to be Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile drainage in Sudan
41248		habitat	eng	Inhabits small bodies of water, shallow and vegetated parts of larger bodies of water, swamps,  irrigation ditches, brooks and small rivers (Wildekamp 1995).
41248		habitat	eng	It is found in small bodies of water and shallow weedy parts of larger water bodies, swamps, and irrigation ditches. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is oviparous and hangs its eggs in bunches to the twigs of plants by means of little threads. It keeps mostly to the surface of water. It does not exceed a length of 3.3 cm.
41248		habitat	eng	This species is found in small bodies of water and shallow weedy parts of larger water bodies, swamps, and irrigation ditch. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is oviparous and hangs its eggs in bunches to the twigs of plants by means of little threads. It keeps mostly to the surface of water.
41248		population	eng	No information available
41248		population	eng	No information available.
41248		threats	eng	No information available.
41248		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
41250		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been placed on the North Carolina Watch List (Clamp 1999). It is considered by Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) to be currently stable. In addition NatureServe, have given this species a status of G4   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). The Greenbriar River has been proposed as a Wild and Scenic River, but is not currently protected   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Owing to the noted declines in some areas, monitoring of the extent of the range and population numbers is needed.
41250		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the New River drainage system, from the upper reaches of Greenbrier River, Pocahontas and Monroe counties, West Virginia, south through Virginia to Alleghany, Ashe and Watauga counties, North Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1989). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to exceed 15,900 km².
41250		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be found in permanent rocky streams. They are however limited to fast-flowing, often large, turbulent tributaries (Cooper and Braswell 1995). It does not frequent quiet pools, springs or mountain "feeder brooks" (James 1996).
41250		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been described as abundant in the Greenbrier River, West Virginia (James 1966). Furthermore, it is described as common throughout most of its limited range, but may be rare in some areas (WV Nongame Wildlife and Natural Heritage News 2001). Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995) recorded species from 33 localities. LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) cite rivers and large streams in the New River drainage, North Carolina.
41250		threats	eng	There is extensive surface water abstraction occurring (6.2 million gallons per day) in the New River basin, North Carolina (Division of Water Resources 2001). As this species is vulnerable to habitat degradation, its population is currently declining as watersheds are developed   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). The Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway crosses the entrance to the New River and has been created after dredging occurred to create shipping lanes. This dredging is causing the South Island to disappear. Impoundment of these moving waters may eliminate the riffle habitat required by this species (Cooper and Cooper 1977). Furthermore, this species preference for large streams could prevent its establishment in smaller headwaters.
41255		conservation	eng	In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  This species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41255		distribution	eng	<em>Octotona alpina</em> occurs in the northern mountain ranges around the Gobi desert and in the regions east and south of Lake Baikal (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species also occurs in northwestern and northeastern China (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. alpina</em> occurs at elevation of 400-2,500 m in the Altai Mountains (Ognev 1966), in China, <em>O. alpina</em> occurs at elevations greater than 2,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41255		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona alpina</em> occupies rocky regions and talus piles (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Because this is a rock-dwelling species it occupies naturally fragmented habitat, as talus piles are generally separated by terrain that pikas rarely traverse.  It prefers talus sites where vegetation is present (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species is a generalized herbivore that collects foodstuffs to create haypiles (Smith and Xie 2008).  This pika is considered an important factor in the health of the ecosystem, as it is prey for sables in the region (Khlebnikova 1978).  It has been noted that pika haypiles have been utilized by several species during winter months (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Siberian wapiti (<em>Cervus elaphus sibiricus</em>) and reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>) will eat from the haypiles during heavy snowfall (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It has been reported that vegetation diversity and composition are largely influenced by the presence of this species (Khlebnikova 1978).  It is primarily a diurnal species, but vocalizations can be heard at night (Ognev 1966).  Reported mortality rates differ according to habitat type; 41% in alpine zones and 53% in forested areas (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Longevity of O. alpina can be as high as six years, but is usually only three years in the northern extents of its range (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  O. alpina produces two litters per year, with an average of three young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  Gestation is approximately 30 days and newborns are 5.8-6.0 cm in length (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Total length is 15.2-23.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41255		population	eng	There are few data regarding the current status of <em>Ochotona alpina</em>.  A density decline occurred in the 1970's throughout the western region of the Sayan mountain range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This reduction was characterized as "catastrophic" and the causes are unclear (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  As of the late 1980's areas that once had high densities are now gone (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41255		threats	eng	Predation was noted as a threat, for this species, when population numbers dropped in the 1970s (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). There are no known major threats at present.
41256		conservation	eng	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> occurs in Luoshan (CSIS 2008) and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005).  There is little information regarding the current status of the isolated population of <em>O. c. morosa</em>, and it is therefore recommended that research be conducted to determine population numbers.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41256		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic distribution extends from northern Xizang and Sichuan, up through central and eastern Qinghai to the southern regions of Gansu (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <em>O. c. morosa</em> occurs in Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies elevations of 2,700-3,800 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41256		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> is a burrowing species of pika and one of the simplest among pikas (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occupies shrubland with adjacent alpine meadows (Jiang and Wang 1991; Smith and Xie 2008).  This habitat consists of the deciduous shrubs <em>Potentilla fruticosa</em> and <em>Caragana jubata</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is excluded from open alpine meadows, where it is sympatric with <em>O. curzoniae</em> (Jiang and Wang 1991, Su 2001).  Home range size fluctuates with seasonal variation (Jiang and Wang 1991).  <em>O. cansus</em> is considered a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008) and is diurnal (Jiang and Wang 1991).  Litter size varies with one to six young per litter and up to three litters per year (Smith and Xie 2008).  The breeding season for this species is from early April through late August (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Gestation last for 20 days (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Total length is 11.6-16.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41256		population	eng	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> is characterized as fairly abundant (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The subspecies <em>O. c. sorella</em> is only known from a few specimens and has not been recorded in the wild for over 70 years (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Additionally, the status of the isolated <em>O. c. morosa</em> population is unknown (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41256		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <em>Ochotona cansus</em>.  It is speculated that application of chemical pesticides may have negatively affected the subspecies population of <em>O. c. sorella</em>, which has not been recorded in the wild for about 70 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41257		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  Recent changes to the hunting regulations in Alaska allow for the unlimited, year-round hunting and trapping of <em>Ochotona collaris</em> (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2006).  Monitoring for negative consequences should be implemented, as this species occurs naturally at low densities and has one of the lowest reproductive rates for small mammals.
41257		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona collaris</em> has a wide geographic distribution that includes central and southern Alaska, almost the entirety of the Yukon Territory, northwestern British Columbia, and the western regions of the Northwest Territory (MacDonald and Jones 1987, Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species has been recorded occurring above the treeline in Alaska and the Yukon Territory, as well as elevations near sea level (MacDonald and Jones 1987).
41257		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona collaris</em> is a typical rock-dwelling species of pika (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Talus sites are often located in proximity to vegetation patches and meadows (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  Home ranges for this species are typically 30 m in diameter (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  <em>O. collaris</em> is a general herbivore that constructs haypiles (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990; Franken and Hik 2004).  However, individuals that occupy nunataks (rocky outcroppings) of the Yukon Territory in Canada will collect and forage upon the brain matter of dead birds to supplement their diet (Krajick 1998).  A recent study found that increased risk of predation did not alter vegetative selection, but did decrease the overall amount collected (Morrison 2007).  <em>O. collaris</em> is a diurnal pika, active in the morning and late afternoon (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  The breeding season peaks from May to early June (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  The season is timed to allow parturition to coincide with the start of vegetative growth.  Litter size for this species is two to six, with two litters produced per year (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  A recent study suggests that a reduced breeding season, resulting from high latitudinal orientation, may limit this species to a single litter per year (Franken and Hik 2004).  Young are weaned within three to four weeks and reach reproductive maturity by one year of age (Franken and Hik 2004).  Gestation time is approximately 30 days (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  Adult size is reached between 40-50 days (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  The total length of this species is 18.9 cm (Hall 1981).
41257		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona collaris</em>.  Population densities have been estimated at 6.4-7.2 individuals/ha (Broadbooks 1965).  In other regions of the Yukon population density ranges from below 1.0 up to 4.0 pikas/ha (Morrison 2007).  A study conducted in the Ruby Range (Yukon, Canada) indicated that population abundance at the study site has experienced a decline since 1995 (Morrison 2007).  A population viability analysis on census data collected from 1995 to 2006 produced a greater than 90% probability of extinction within 10-15 years, for the study site at Ruby Range (Morrison 2007).
41257		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Ochotona collaris</em>, although it may be vulnerable to global climate change.  It is unlikely that this species will be negatively influenced by human activities, as it occurs in remote regions of Alaska (USA) and northwestern Canada (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Recent changes to Alaskan hunting regulations permit the unlimited trapping of pika for food and pelt (Mowry 2006) during a year round open season along the eastern regions of the state (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2006).  This policy may lead to local depression of populations as a result of intrinsic low density and reproductive rate.
41258		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in Annapurna CP in western Nepal (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005), Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserve in China (CSIS 2008), and is presumed to be present in the Qiangtang, Kekexili, Sanjiangyuan, and Aerjinshan Nature Reserves of China.  This species is regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient in India and as Vulnerable in Nepal under criteria B2ab(iii) based on IUCN Red Listing Guidelines ver. 3.1 and 3.0 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It is recommended that research be conducted to determine the status of the Indian and Nepalese populations (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <em>O. curzoniae</em> is a keystone species of the Tibetan plateau, one whose decline as a result of poisoning negatively impacts species richness and abundance (Lai and Smith 2003). Therefore, current efforts to exterminate this species in China should be curtailed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41258		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> can be found throughout the Tibetan Plateau (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic distribution extends through northern Nepal and Sikkim, India, north into Xizang, and the western regions of Sichuan, Qinghai and the southern regions of Xinjiang (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), and Gansu (CSIS 2008).  It occurs at elevations of 3,000-5,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41258		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> is a burrow-dwelling species of pika (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species occurs in "high alpine desert, steppe and meadows" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  In India and Nepal in occupies tropical and subtropical montane forests (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Competition of habitat results in the exclusion of <em>O. cansus</em> in areas where it and <em>O. curzoniae</em> are sympatric (Su 2001).  Social behavior for <em>O. curzoniae</em> and <em>O. dauurica</em> differs when they exist sympatrically, than when they do not (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Under sympatric circumstances, <em>O. curzoniae</em> exhibits "mowing" behavior, while <em>O. dauurica</em> exhibits "hoarding" behavior (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <em>O. curzoniae</em> is exclusively an herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species of pika is considered a highly social animal (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is predominantly a diurnal species (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).  Average home range for <em>O. curzoniae</em> is 1,375 ± 206 square meters (Smith and Gao 1991).  Densities drop during winter to yearly lows in the spring, but increase during the summer to approximately 380/ha (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The breeding season for this species extends from April, possibly into late August (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. curzoniae</em> has three to five litters per year with two to eight young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  Young become reproductively active the summer of their birth (Smith and Gao 1991).  Generation length is estimated to be 1.2 years for <em>O. curzoniae</em> (Wang and Dai 1989).  Total length is 14.0-19.2 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/><em>O. curzoniae</em> is a keystone species of the Tibetan plateau.  It is speculated that <em>O. curzoniae</em> contributes to the overall health of alpine meadows by aerating the soil via their burrowing activities (Smith and Foggin 1999).  A recent study demonstrated that greater plant species diversity is associated with small-burrowing mammals (<em>O. curzoniae</em> and <em>Alticola stoliczkanus</em>) of the Trans-Himalayan plateau (Bagchi <em>et al</em>. 2006).  It is also an important component of the prey base for many carnivores within their geographic range (Lai and Smith 2003).  Burrows constructed by <em>O. curzoniae</em> serve as homes for lizards and small birds on the Tibetan plateau (Smith and Foggin 1999).
41258		population	eng	There are no data regarding the current status of <em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> populations.  It is inferred that declines have resulted during widespread poisoning of pikas throughout its range to control population sizes (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41258		threats	eng	<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> is the target of mass control in an effort to eliminate competition for vegetation with livestock (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Habitat in India and Nepal has experienced a qualitative and quantitative decline estimated at a rate of less than 10% since 2000 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  This trend is expected to continue until 2010 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Small-scale logging and fuel wood collection has been identified as a reason for habitat loss (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41259		conservation	eng	It is recommended that persecution as a pest species be mitigated and that awareness of its positive, ecological impact be implemented.  In Mongolia, approximately 8% of the range of this species occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and it has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  In China, it occurs in Xinglongshan, Baijitan, and Liupanshan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  It has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (LC) in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41259		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution includes the majority of Mongolia, southern regions of the Russian Federation, and several provinces of China (Gansu, Hebei, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, and Shanxi) (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), and Henan (Smith and Xie 2008).
41259		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona dauurica</em> is a burrow-dwelling species that is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species constructs haypile food stores (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies low-lying desert grassland habitat where flooding can occur (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1999, Smith and Xie 2008).  The ecology of <em>O. dauurica</em> seems to be quite similar to that of <em>O. curzoniae</em> (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).  Social behavior for <em>O. curzoniae</em> and <em>O. dauurica</em> differs when they exist sympatrically, than when they do not (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Under sympatric circumstances, <em>O. curzoniae</em> exhibits "mowing" behavior, while <em>O. dauurica</em> exhibits "hoarding" behavior (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  The total length of this species is 15.0-20.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. dauurica</em> is capable of producing several litters per year with litter size varying from one to 11 young (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Young born early in the season may become reproductively active the summer of their birth (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Reproductive periodicity varies according to location.  In the Trans-Baikal region, reproductive periodicity of <em>O. dauurica</em> begins around April and extends through August (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Periodicity extends from April to September across much of Mongolia (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Longevity of <em>O. dauurica</em> is approximately two years (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>This species is considered a keystone species for the geographic range in which it occurs (Smith and Xie 2008).  One treatment found that <em>O. dauurica</em> and livestock do not compete for forage as each prefers different vegetation (Nikolski <em>et al</em>. 1984).  The burrowing activities of this species also contributes to the overall health of the habitat it occupies (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41259		population	eng	<em>Ochotona dauurica</em> populations appear to undergo sizeable yearly fluctuations (Ognev 1966, Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1994).  Several isolated populations around the northern and southern edges of the Gobi Desert are considered very vulnerable (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41259		threats	eng	This species has been the target of wide-scale pest control in China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).
41260		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Qinghaihuniaodao and Wolong Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  There are few or no data concerning the population status of <em>Ochotona erythrotis</em>.  It is therefore recommended that research be conducted in this area.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41260		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona erythrotis</em> encompasses the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Yunnan.  <em>O. erythrotis</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is generally located at elevations ranging between 2,000-4,000 m (Zheng 1989).
41260		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona erythrotis</em> inhabits rock faces and crags (Smith and Xie 2008).  These typically lie adjacent to alpine shrubland or meadows (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species of pika creates simple burrows of one to two meters in length (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. erythrotis</em> can have three to seven young per litter, with two liter per year (Smith and Xie 2008).  The reproductive periodicity of this species is from May to August (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length for this species is 18.1-28.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41260		population	eng	There are no data regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona erythrotis</em>.
41260		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.  Collateral poisoning due to control measures directed at <em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> may be a potential threat.
41261		conservation	eng	There is little information regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona gloveri</em>, research in this area is needed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41261		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona gloveri</em> is endemic to China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic range includes southwestern Qinghai, northeastern Xizang, northwestern Yunnan, and western Sichuan provinces of China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. gloveri</em> is typically found at elevations ranging from 3,500-4,200 m, but may occur at an elevation of 1,700 m (Sichuan) (Smith and Xie 2008).
41261		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona gloveri</em> typically inhabits talus piles (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), but is also known to inhabit the walls of adobe buildings (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species does not occur in habitat utilized for agriculture or by livestock (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It is a haypile construction species (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. gloveri</em> is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of <em>O. gloveri</em> is 16.0-22.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41261		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.  However, <em>Ochotona gloveri</em> occurs in remote regions of China and is therefore thought to be free of negative human influence (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41261		threats	eng	<em>Ochotona gloveri</em> is locally poisoned and trapped as a pest.
41262		conservation	eng	There are little data regarding the ecology, reproduction, and population status for <em>Ochotona himalayana</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Research in these areas is needed.  This species occurs in Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserve in China (CSIS 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41262		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona himalayana</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona himalayana</em> occurs along the northern length of the Himalayan Mountains in Xizang province (Smith and Xie 2008).  CAMP (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005) speculate that the form may cross the Himalayan crest and enter Nepal; there currently is no evidence to support this claim.  <em>O. himalayana</em> occurs at elevations of 2,400-4,200 m (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).
41262		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona himalayana</em> occupies talus piles, walls, and precipices (Smith and Xie 2008).  These areas border coniferous forests of the Himalayan range in Xizang, China (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is active from 08.00 - 09.00 and again at dusk (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species of pika is a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. himalayana</em> produces litters of three to four young (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).  The total length of this species is 14.0-18.6 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41262		population	eng	There is currently no information regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona himalayana</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41262		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41263		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species throughout most of its range.  The Hokkaido subspecies is protected in national parks (Ichikawa 1999).  In China, this species occurs in Liangshui Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008).  In Mongolia, approximately 40% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  At present, the newly recognized species of <em>Ochotona mantchurica</em> (formerly <em>O. hyperborea mantchurica</em>) is not treated individually for this reassessment of Ochotonids.  However, this is a species that requires research to determine its current status (Lissovsky pers. comm.).  This species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41263		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> has the largest geographic range of any pika.  It extends from the Ural Mountains across northeastern Eurasia to Sakhalin, and Hokkaido (where it is an endemic subspecies <em>Ochotona hyperborea yesoensis</em>) (Ichikawa 1999).  This species is also found on several islands in the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  On Japan, found from sea level to 2,000 m, but usually above 800 m.
41263		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> primarily inhabits "the montane taiga of boreal Asia" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species of pika is primarily a rock-dweller (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  However, it is known to utilize driftwood mounds that collect along riverbanks (Ognev 1966).  Population densities remain relatively constant over time, but total density will vary according to location (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  A study of seven pairs of <em>O. hyperborea</em> found an average territory size of approximately 900 square meters (Gliwicz <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <em>O. hyperborea</em> constructs large haypiles that are often fed on by other fauna within its range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  One study conducted in Siberia found evidence that <em>O. hyperborea</em> is selective in choosing plants for their haypiles, preferring those that had high secondary compound content (i.e. tannins and secondary metabolites) (Gliwicz <em>et al</em>. 2006).  This species was recorded as active day and night in the Ural Mountains (Ognev 1966).  One study has proposed that longevity for this species rarely exceeds three years (Gashev 1971).  The breeding season begins in the spring (Revin 1968).  There are generally one to two litters produced each year (Revin 1968), but there are numerous exceptions to these values (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Typical litter size ranges from one to nine young (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Gestation for this species lasts 28 days (Gashev 1971; Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Reproductive periodicity varies according to region, but will typically begin in April (sometimes May) and extend through August (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Newborns are 5.0-6.0 cm in length (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  The total length of <em>O. hyperborea</em> is 15.0-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41263		population	eng	<em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> is characterized as common throughout its geographic distribution (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The Hokkaido subspecies is fragmented on isolated mountains (Mount Ashibetsu, Mount Yubari, and Hidaka Mountains) and patches of talus (Kawamichi pers. comm.).
41263		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> throughout the majority of its range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species was targeted for its pelt, but this activity ceased in the 1950's (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. h. yesoensis</em> on Hokkaido Island was formerly considered a pest species and was the subject of control efforts (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The isolated population in the Yubari-Ashibetsu Mountains appears vulnerable due to increasing development (Ichikawa 1999).
41264		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary in India (Mallon 1991).  There are little data on the natural history of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41264		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona ladacensis</em> has a geographic distribution that extends from southwestern Xinjiang, through western Qinghai and south to eastern Tibet (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  Its range extends in to the northwestern regions of Pakistan and Kashmir, India (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  Although it is sympatric with <em>O. curzoniae</em>, it is not as widely distributed across the Tibetan Plateau (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species occurs at elevations of 4,200-5,400 m (Smith and Xie 2008) .
41264		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona ladacensis</em> normally occupies xeric alpine valleys at high elevation (Smith and Xie 2008).  These expanses are quite barren, in some areas only supporting widely distributed patches of cushion plants (<em>Primula</em>) (Büchner 1894) or <em>Carex moorcroftii</em> and <em>Arenaria musciformis</em> (Feng <em>et al.</em> 1986; Zheng 1989).  <em>O. ladacensis</em> is a burrow-dwelling pika (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This pika is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 18.0-22.9 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  The reproductive periodicity for this species is late June to early July (Zheng 1989).
41264		population	eng	There are few data regarding the population status of this species.  Locals described the species as widespread and fairly common during survey conducted in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir, India) from 1980-1986 and again in 1989-1991 (Mallon 1991).
41264		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41265		conservation	eng	In India, this species occurs in Hemis National Park and Kanji Wildlife Sanctuary and may be present in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary (Mallon 1991).  In China, this species occurs in Tuomuerfeng and Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  Research to determine the current population status is needed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41265		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona macrotis</em> includes southeastern Kazakhstan, eastern Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, northeastern Pakistan and Afghanistan, northern India, Nepal, and Bhutan (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), and in the mountainous regions of several provinces of China (Xizang, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Yunnan, Qinghai, and Gansu) (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species occupies elevations ranging from 2,300 m (Gurung and Singh 1996) to 6,400 m (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. macrotis</em> will occupy higher elevations when sympatric with <em>O. roylei</em> (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41265		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona macrotis</em> is a rock-dwelling species of pika (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occurs in high alpine deserts and spruce forest expanses within its geographic distribution (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. macrotis</em> is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  It typically feeds on grasses, leaves, twigs, mosses, and lichens (Gurung and Singh 1996).  Not all populations of this species construct haypiles for the winter (Ognev 1966).  <em>O. macrotis</em> is primarily a diurnal species (Gurung and Singh 1996).  The total length of this species is 15.0-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Longevity of this species of pika is three years of age (Bernstein and Klevezal 1965).  Litter size and number of litters in a year is variable according to location, but <em>O. macrotis</em> usually has two litters per year, with two to three young per litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Yearlings of a population are able to breed (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The reproductive periodicity of <em>O. macrotis</em> is April to mid-August (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Gestation is approximately 30 days (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).
41265		population	eng	There are no data regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona macrotis</em>.  It is thought to be common (Gurung and Singh 1996).  Population sizes typically do not fluctuate over time, but total density can range from six to eighteen individuals at different localities (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41265		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Ochotona macrotis</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41266		conservation	eng	Two of the subspecies (<em>O. p. sunidica</em> and <em>O. p. hamica</em>) are experiencing isolation from the main distribution (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Efforts should be made to determine the current status of their populations.  Approximately 17% of the Mongolian distribution of <em>Ochotona pallasi</em> occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  It has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41266		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona pallasi</em> inhabits a widespread, but discontinuous geographic range throughout the Gobi Desert region (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occurs in Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The historical range of <em>O. p. hamica</em> is in the Tsagaan Bogd Uul (Mountains) of Mongolia, where it has not been seen in recent history (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It is currently believed to occupy isolated mountains within the Atas Bogd Uul of Mongolia (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). Likewise, <em>O. p. sunidica</em> is thought to be isolated from the main distribution (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The distributional range of <em>O. p. pallasi</em> has decreased (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species occupies elevations ranging from 1,000-3,200 m (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).
41266		habitat	eng	Habitat preference differs among the subspecies; <em>Ochotona pallasi pallasi</em> occurring in rocky settings, <em>O. p. pricei</em> within arid steppes, and <em>O. p. sunidica</em> among rock crevices (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is known to construct large haypiles, 80-100 cm in height (Smirnov 1974).  Total length of this species is 16.0-22.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  The longevity of <em>O. pallasi</em> is up to four years (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. pallasi</em> produces several litters per year, with litter sizes varying from one to 12 young (Smith and Xie 2008).  Breeding season for this species may last from April to August (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1987).  Gestation time is 25 days (Smith and Xie 2008).  Young born early in the season may become reproductively active the summer of their birth (Smith and Xie 2008).  Wesche <em>et al</em>. (2007) examined the effects of <em>O. pallasi</em> burrowing on the vegetation (community composition, richness, and biomass production) and alteration of abiotic resources on the arid environment (<150 mm annual precipitation) of the southern Mongolian steppes.  Their study indicated that <em>O. pallasi</em> has a positive impact on the local landscape, where it burrows (Wesche <em>et al</em>. 2007).
41266		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.  Densities are variable, but have been recorded as high as 100/ha (Smirnov 1974).  The status of <em>Ochotona pallasi hamica</em> is also uncertain, but a decline is inferred from its extirpation from its historical range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This subspecies is thought to occupy isolated mountains of the Gobi Desert (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <em>O. p. pricei</em> has been experiencing declines, on the Choyr Mountains that have left it at very low numbers (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  In Mongolia, populations appear to be stable (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41266		threats	eng	In the southern Gobi province of Mongolia, pesticides are used to control the species, which is thought to be a carrier of the marmot plague (Clark <em>et al.</em>  2006).
41267		conservation	eng	<ul><li>Pikas occur in many national parks and other protected areas throughout their range in the United States and Canada. Pikas tend to occupy areas away from human habitations or influence, and they appear to not be negatively influenced by trails or nearby roads that do encroach on their habitat (for example, they often colonize road cuts (Manning and Hagar 2011, Millar and Smith pers. obs.). Neither hunting nor trapping of American Pikas is allowed throughout their range.</li><li>Additional research on the potential competitive relationship between livestock grazing and pikas in the Great Basin should be initiated, and if it is shown that competition between pikas and livestock occurs and increases the probability of local extirpation of Great Basin pika populations, management plans should be enacted to eliminate grazing in areas adjoining known pika populations.</li><li>The American Pika should be considered an early-warning indicator species for the effects of climate change and continuously monitored throughout their range to demonstrate how a species with these attributes could adapt and be resilient in the face of climate change, or to determine their decline and how it could be reversed. Particular attention should be given to the establishment of scientifically valid protocols for 1) long-term monitoring of populations; 2) parsing out the relative contributions of acute cold stress, acute heat stress and chronic heat stress on pikas given climate change throughout the range of the species; 3) monitoring of pika behaviour with relation to micro-climates present in their environment; 4) determining how food selectivity indices may vary across the range of the species and how these may be affected by climate change; 5) determining any measurable manifestations of physiological stresses on pikas, such as disease, increased levels of stress hormones, reduced reproductive capacity, reduced longevity, etc., as a result of climate change; 6) understanding the relationships of American Pikas with other syntopic and sympatric species such as marmots (<span style="font-style: italic;">Marmota</span> spp.), woodrats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neotoma</span> spp.), chipmunks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tamias</span> spp.), etc.; and 7) understanding the additive or synergistic roles that multiple types of climate stress can have in concert (such as lower growing season precipitation combined with warmer summer average temperatures).</li><li>Particular attention should be given to examine and inventory sites of accurate historical low-elevation records of occurrence of pikas, as contemporary observations at these sites can give us a quantitative measure of potential change over time in the distribution and abundance of American Pikas with regard to climate change.</li><li>If it is shown that climate change is negatively influencing the American Pika range-wide and potentially endangering the species, accommodation, mitigation and active conservation strategies should be enacted at the regional, national and international scales.</li></ul>
41267		distribution	eng	<p>The American Pika has a widespread, but discontinuous geographic distribution throughout mountainous areas of western United States and southwestern Canada (British Columbia and Alberta) (Smith and Weston 1990, Hafner and Smith 2010). The accompanying range map demarcates the five recognized subspecies (Hafner and Smith 2010).</p>  <p>There is paleontological evidence that supports a past distribution that once included now-uninhabited, low-lying regions of the Great Basin and other parts of North America (Mead 1987, Hafner 1993, Grayson 2005). Following Brown's (1971, 1978) suggested mechanism of Holocene extinctions after a period of colonization during the Pleistocene, Grayson (1987, 2005) and Mead (1987) concluded that the American Pika became extinct from low-lying regions in the Great Basin between 7,500 and 5,000 B.P. The current discontinuous distribution; however, is not supported by a colonization-driven system (Brown 1971, 1978; Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003; Smith 1974a). Elevational distribution varies with latitude. Pikas may live from close to sea level (for example, the Columbia River Gorge, Oregon; Simpson 2009) to 3,000 m in the northern extent of their range (Smith and Weston 1990). In the southern-most portions of their range they only occasionally extend below 2,500 m and are known to occupy sites as high as 3,887 m in the White Mountains, California, and 3,786 in the Sierra Nevada, California (Smith and Weston 1990, Millar and Westfall 2010).&#160; Pikas have been reported to occur as high as 4,146 m on Wheeler  Peak, New Mexico (Howell 1924) and 4,175 m on Mt. Evans and Pike’s Peak, Colorado (Markham and Whicker 1973, Erb pers. comm.). There are numerous locations where pikas persist in what would appear to be climatically marginal sites, such as:&#160; Lava Beds National Monument, California; Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho; the Columbia River Gorge, Oregon (where they are found as low as 30 m in elevation); the western Cascade Range, Oregon; and select localities throughout the Great Basin (Howell 1924, Horsfall 1925, Anthony 1928, Beever 2002, Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Simpson 2009, Millar and Westfall 2010, Rodhouse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Manning and Hagar 2011). Persistence of American Pikas in these localities appears to reflect a strong decoupling of microclimates used by pikas (which are notably temperature sensitive; see Habitats and Ecology, below) from the macroclimate of the region.&#160; </p>  In contrast to recent findings of pikas at atypical low-elevation areas, other studies have documented extirpations of pikas on a number of historically occupied low-elevation sites throughout the Great Basin. Surveys conducted from 1994-1999 in the Great Basin found that six of 25 historical American Pika localities (records of occurrence documented from 1898–1956) appeared to be extirpated (Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). Follow-up surveys conducted from 2003-2008 documented three additional extirpations and one site that appeared functionally extirpated (Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, 2011). This rapid and accelerating rate of extirpation has been accompanied by an upslope movement of the low-elevation range boundary of pikas on extant sites in the Great Basin, and taken together these shifts appear to be driven by contemporary climate change (Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, 2011; Wilkening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Recent surveys of historical sites in regions other than the Great Basin have also noted some extirpations, albeit at a smaller proportion of sites. For example, Erb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(in press) sampled 69 historical sites in the southern Rocky Mountains from New Mexico to Wyoming, including the lowest elevation sites within regions, and documented four extirpations (and two of these sites were subsequently recolonized (Erb pers. comm.). The Grinnell resurvey in Yosemite National Park, California, found a single extirpation of a pika population along a transect from the eastern to the western extent of the Sierra Nevada (Moritz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Numerous inventories and surveys are currently underway to document the extent of the species’ distribution across the geographic range of the American Pika and the status and trend of pika populations with regard to factors associated with contemporary climate change.
41267		habitat	eng	<em></em>  <p>The American Pika is a candidate indicator species for the effects of climate change (in particular, global warming, although interactions with precipitation and snowpack merit continuing attention), because it occurs in a very specific insular habitat type, has a very low reproductive rate (counterbalanced by being relatively long-lived for a small mammal), exhibits very limited dispersal ability, and is primarily diurnal and extremely sensitive to warm temperatures.</p>  <p>The American Pika is a typical rock-dwelling species of pika (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). It primarily inhabits talus and talus-like formations adjoining a meadow or source of vegetation in cool and moist microclimates across western North America (Smith and Weston 1990, Hafner 1994, Millar and Westfall 2010). Talus habitat is typically insular or patchy in nature at several spatial resolutions (Smith 1974a, Smith and Gilpin 1997). Pikas prefer talus in RIF (rock-ice-feature) formations (83% of sites in one study of 420 pika sites), and with rock diameters of 0.2-1.0 m (Tyser 1980, Hafner 1994, Beever <em>et al.</em> 2010, Millar and Westfall 2010). They may also occur in lava flows and anthropogenic habitats such as mine ore dumps or road cuts; occasionally they may live in piles of logs or similar habitat (Smith 1974a,b; Millar and Westfall 2010; Rodhouse <em>et al</em>. 2010; Manning and Hagar 2011).</p>  <p>American Pikas are individually territorial on talus habitat (as calculated above; at a density approximating 20 individuals per hectare). Pikas are relatively long-lived for a small mammal (120–175 g); some pikas may live to the age of 6 or 7 years, and many live to the age of 3-4 years (Millar and Zwickel 1972a; Smith 1978). The reproductive rate of American Pikas is low; females initiate two litters per year, although it is most common for only one litter to be weaned successfully (Smith 1978; Smith and Ivins 1983a; Smith and Weston 1990). Average litter size at time of parturition ranges from 2.3–3.7 (range 1–5 young), although there is an erosion of fecundity during weaning such that most females only successfully wean two (or at the most three) young per year (Smith 1978; Smith and Weston 1990). Mortality rate is highest in the juvenile age class (Millar and Zwickel 1972a; Smith 1978). Juveniles must claim a vacant territory to survive the winter, and in saturated populations availability of vacant territories is contingent on the low mortality rate of adults (Smith 1978; Smith and Ivins 1983b). </p>  <p>In ecological studies where pikas have been individually marked, American Pikas have consistently been found to be poor dispersers (Tapper 1973, Smith and Ivins 1983b, Smith 1987, Peacock 1997). It is rare for an adult to disperse; once settled on a territory, they tend to remain there for life (the occasional dispersal movement by an adult is to move to a vacant site adjoining its home territory if it is of substantially higher quality; Smith and Ivins 1983b; Smith 1987). Juveniles tend to remain philopatric, largely occupying space in the interstices between adult territories. Juveniles also time-share activity periods with resident adults; they are primarily active when adults are inactive. This strategy ensures that juveniles are familiar with a region of talus so that they can claim any territory vacancy that may appear (Smith and Ivins 1983, 1987; Tapper 1973; Smith 1987). As a result, few juveniles attempt to disperse away from their birthplace. When juveniles attempt to disperse within a talus patch, they are socially rebuked by non-parental adults; when they leave a patch in an attempt to find available talus elsewhere, they increase their exposure to predators and are unable to use the safety of the talus to cool themselves if the ambient conditions are too warm (Smith 1974b, Smith and Ivins 1983, Smith 1987). Ability of juveniles to engage in long-distance (intra-patch) dispersal appears related to temperature. At low elevations dispersal distance and probability of success are low (Smith 1974 a,b; Peacock and Smith 1997; Smith and Gilpin 1997). Most observed long-distance dispersal has occurred at higher elevations where the talus tends to be more continuous and it is cooler (Tapper 1973; Smith 1974 a,b; Smith 1987; Peacock 1997). An understanding of pika dispersal is necessary because most observed pika population extirpations have occurred at low (hot) elevations, and it is under these conditions that probability of subsequent re-colonization of these sites is extremely low. When a high-elevation population temporarily disappears, its chance of being recolonized is significantly greater (Tapper 1973, Smith 1987).</p>  <p>Pikas are very sensitive to warm or hot temperatures; when daytime temperatures are hot during summer, they tend to avoid the warmer temperatures and concentrate their activity at dawn and dusk (MacArthur and Wang 1974, Smith 1974b). Under these conditions, they may even exhibit nocturnal behaviour (Smith 1974b). Pikas have a relatively high body temperature and a relatively low upper lethal temperature; thus, they have very little flexibility with regard to physiological temperature regulation. Field experiments have shown that when confined in the sun and unable to behaviourally thermoregulate (such as by darting into the interstices of the talus where it is always significantly cooler), they can die at relatively low ambient temperatures (25.5 – 29.4<sup>o</sup>C)(MacArthur and Wang 1973, 1974; Smith 1974b). This temperature sensitivity puts dispersing pikas, particularly at lower, warmer elevations, at increased risk and is why restricted dispersal distances under these conditions are most commonly observed (Smith 1974a,b). Relative vulnerability of pika populations to climatic stress may be indexed by variables such as latitude and elevation, two factors known to affect local climate and, in turn, the distribution of American Pikas (Grinnell 1917, Smith 1974a, Beever <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>  <p>Pikas are generalized herbivores. As the American Pika does not hibernate, it must collect food during summer that it stores in a haypile or cache in the talus to serve as food during winter. Thus, during the summer the pika has two distinctly different foraging strategies: the direct consumption of food and haying behaviour (Huntly <em>et al</em>. 1986). Haying reaches a crescendo in mid-late summer; during this time a pika may make hundreds of trips each day off the talus to clip and harvest plants for its haypile (Smith and Ivins 1984). The plants available to a pika to eat or hay are restricted to the vegetation on or adjoining its territory. Pikas are highly selective of which plants they consume or harvest, choosing plants that are higher in water content, protein, and select micronutrients (West 1981, Millar and Zwickel 1972b) and other characteristics (reviewed in Smith and Weston 1990). The timing of haying is related to the phenology of plants at any given altitude (that is, they begin and end this activity earlier at lower elevations), gender (males generally initiate haying earlier) and age (adults begin haying before juveniles) (Smith 1974b, Smith and Weston 1990).</p>
41267		population	eng	<p>American Pikas are individually territorial (male and female territories are of approximately similar sizes; Smith and Ivins 1984) on a very discrete and identifiable habitat type, talus or piles of broken rock. Although territory size may vary seasonally and by habitat quality, a rough average from several detailed studies (reviewed in Smith and Weston 1990) is approximately 500 m²<sup></sup>. This size also roughly corresponds to the area as determined by the average nearest-neighbour distance (diameter of a pika territory; area determined by πr²) between centers of activity of individuals (basically, the average distance between haypiles; Smith and Weston 1990). Thus in prime talus habitat, about 20 pikas may occur per hectare. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 918,920 km²<sup></sup> (the sum of the minimum convex polygons of each of the five subspecies), and this naturally includes a significant amount of habitat that is unsuitable for pikas (intervening low-elevation valleys, forests, wetlands, cliff faces). Assuming that the area of occupancy (AOO; suitable talus habitat occupied by pikas) is a very conservative 0.1% of the EOO, the global population of the American Pika is approximately 1,837,839. This rough calculation of abundance of mature individual American Pikas globally far exceeds the cut-off for a threatened category listing using Criteria C (<10,000 mature individuals). We caution that our estimate of AOO at 0.1% of EOO needs to be verified; the proportion of area within the species’ range that is comprised of talus is unknown, and to determine this area will take a detailed remote-sensing analysis. In addition, the extent of available talus that contains suitable pika habitat is unknown (for example, talus comprised of pika-relevant rock diameters and occurring within the thermal belt that can be occupied by pikas). Finally, it is necessary to know the proportion of suitable pika habitat that is occupied over the global range of the species, and extensive censuses conducted throughout the range of pikas are needed to determine this value. </p>  As highlighted in the discussion of Distribution (above), pika populations are declining in some parts of the species’ geographic range, primarily at low elevations in the Great Basin (populations being lost, and other populations shifting their distribution upslope). From everything we know about pika biology (thermally sensitive) and dispersal ability (extremely limited, especially in warm environments; MacArthur and Wang 1973, 1974; Smith 1974a,b), it is unlikely that any of these lost populations can be resettled within ecological time – thus they represent a loss and we conclude that the global population is decreasing.
41267		threats	eng	<p>The most pervasive threat affecting the American Pika appears to be contemporary climate change. While the species as a whole is Least Concern, large tracts of the EOO—namely across the Great Basin – have seen local population extirpations, range contractions (upslope movement of the lower-elevation range boundary), and reduced densities (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2010, 2011; Wilkening <em>et al</em>. 2011). Three alternative classes of direct thermal stresses may affect the persistence of pika populations (Beever <em>et al.</em> 2010): 1) acute cold stress (number of days below a very cold threshold temperature); 2) acute heat stress (number of days above a warm threshold temperature; and 3) chronic heat stress (such as average summer temperature). Acute cold stress may arise from reduced snowpack (observed across western North America; Mote <em>et al.</em> 2005) which in turn may result from more precipitation falling as rain and less as snow, or warmer days leading to a more rapid melt-off of snowpack, or both. Without the snowpack that acts as an insulator during winter, pikas might freeze or extinguish their food supplies while attempting to thermoregulate leading to an increase in mortality (Smith 1978, Beever <em>et al.</em> 2010). While some areas have extant populations at higher elevations to and from which pikas could disperse, the insular nature of talus habitat means that many populations that become extirpated will remain so on an ecological time scale – the likelihood of recolonization is extremely remote. While extinctions in the Great Basin have been going on for a long time (~7,500 years), the recent rate is high and indicative of observed increases in temperature in the region due to climate change (Beever <em>et al.</em> 2011). Current American Pika distributions in the Great Basin represent a perfect storm generated by the high temperatures (in summer) and reduced snowpack (in winter; Mote <em>et al</em>. 2005) caused by climate change. </p>  <p>A counterbalance to the data accumulated in the Great Basin is the population of pikas at Bodie, California, at about 2,550 m elevation just 35 km west of the Sierra Nevada crest where summer temperatures are relatively warm. There pikas occupy insular patches of habitat (ore dumps left by mining activity) that are spaced across a landscape of Great Basin shrub vegetation. This classic metapopulation, the longest-term study of any pika species, has been observed since the late 1940s (Severaid 1955) and semi-continuously since 1969 (Smith 1974 a, b, 1978, 1980; Smith and Gilpin 1997), including annual censuses (with a couple of two-year gaps) from 1989 to 2010 (Smith unpublished data). Approximately 78 ore dump patches have been included in each census. In 1991 the southern half of the figure-eight-shaped study area experienced a meta-population collapse and has not recovered (Smith and Gilpin 1987); in 2010 the southern constellation of patches was still void of pikas. However, the 37 patches in the northern constellation showed a slightly higher occupancy rate in 2009 (84%; the lowest percent occupancy was 49% in the north) than in the first full census in 1972. Thus, there appears to be no evidence that heat stress in summer at Bodie causes mortality or population decline of pikas on these small habitat islands, although warm temperatures may have inhibited colonization of the southern constellation. </p>  Another largely Great Basin threat is competition with free-ranging and feral cattle in those situations where livestock are allowed to graze within the typical pika foraging distance from the talus margin (Beever <em>et al.</em> 2003). Most pikas live in cattle-free areas or, in Colorado, grazing temporally occurs primarily in fall after pikas have completed their haypiles. But in the Great Basin cattle graze adjoining many of the limited pika populations. Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) noted that cattle grazing could be contributory to some pika population extirpations. Pika density was lower in areas that were heavily grazed – primarily small sites with more edge compounding the effect of grazing (Beever unpublished data). Further, presence of livestock grazing increased in importance from the 20<sup>th</sup> century observations to the 1999–2008 observation period in terms of predicting the pattern of site-level persistence of pikas in the Great Basin (Beever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Millar (in press) has compared placement of pika haypiles in Great Basin ranges at sites with and without cattle grazing. Normally, pikas place their haypiles close to the talus/vegetation interface; at her cattle-free sites this distance averaged 1.8 m from the talus edge. At grazed sites pikas placed their haypiles an average of 30 m upslope from the talus edge and were forced to forage on comparatively poor vegetation growing amidst the rocks. Millar concluded that grazing effects could be contributing to observed regional differences in viability of pikas
41268		conservation	eng	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> occurs in Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41268		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> occurs in the Himalayan massif through Pakistan, Kashmir, northwestern India, Nepal, and Tibet (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Records exist from western China, but these should probably be attributed to <em>O. macrotis</em> chinensis (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. roylei</em> occurs from 2,400-4,300 m in elevation (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41268		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> is a primarily crepuscular, talus-dwelling species (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). They live in groups composed of parents and their offspring, with low densities (12.5 per ha) characteristic of talus-dwelling pikas (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). Females of the species may produce one or two litters annually with an average of 3 offspring per litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is 15.5-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><em>O. roylei</em> exhibits a symbiotic relationship with <em>Pnoepyge albiventer</em>, the Scaly Breasted Wren Babbler in Nepal.  This species of bird will co-occupy the pika's haypile, forage for food in close proximity to the pika, and sun itself with the pika.  Potential reasons for the relationship are: 1.) lack of nesting sites for the babbler, 2.) similar life styles, 3.) the additional heat provided by the bird to the haypile is beneficial to the pika, 4.) utilization of different food sources, and 5.) additional protection against predation (Khana 2007).
41268		population	eng	Though there are no current population assessments of <em>Ochotona roylei</em>, it is considered widespread without serious threats to jeopardize its status (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In the Ladakh region of India, it was characterized as uncommon, but without any known threats (Mallon 1991).
41268		threats	eng	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> is affected by small-scale logging and livestock grazing, but these are not considered serious threats to the distribution or abundance of the species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41269		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for <em>Ochotona rufescens</em>.
41269		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona rufescens</em> is a widespread species that occurs in the mountains of southwestern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/><em>O. rufescens</em> is found between 1,900 and 3,500 m in elevation (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41269		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona rufescens</em> is most commonly found in rocky desert habitat, but may create burrow systems in fields where no stones exist.  <em>O. rufescens</em> also burrows in adobe houses and walls (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The species may be found in juniper forests and prefers habitats with vegetation cover between 30% and 60%, not higher (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. rufescens</em> survives on a diet of native xeric plants, such as thistles, <em>Ephedra</em> and <em>Artemisia</em>, creating haypiles to store vegetation twice in each year (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <em>O. rufescens</em> also consumes agricultural crops, making it a pest to humans in some areas (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>The reproductive rate of <em>O. rufescens</em> is high, with litter size averaging from 5.2 to 7.1, producing as many as five litters annually. The breeding season is long, from mid-March to late September, and young individuals begin breeding in their first summer (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41269		population	eng	A population found on the Small Balkan Ridge may be endangered due to isolation, but it is unclear whether this population is the subspecies <em>shukurovi</em> or <em>regina</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The subspecies <em>O. r. shukurovi</em> is found in the Great Balkhan Mountains and is isolated but does not appear to be threatened (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>Population density of <em>O. rufescens</em> may reach 70 individuals per hectare, but this is variable depending on weather conditions (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41269		threats	eng	Because <em>Ochotona rufescens</em> is considered a pest in some areas where it damages agricultural crops, it has been subject to control (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). The spread of agriculture also constitutes a threat, as habitat is converted to farmland, after which the pikas feed on crops, particularly by debarking trees in orchards (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>A population of <em>O. rufescens</em> on the Small Balkan Ridge may be endangered due to isolation. It is also unclear to which subspecies this population belongs, as it is found between populations of <em>O. r. shukrovi</em> and <em>O. r. regina</em> (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. rufescens</em> is the only pika that has been domesticated for laboratory research, where it was once used in France and Japan, though this is probably not a future threat to wild populations (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41270		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in practice for <em>Ochotona rutila</em>, as it is not considered a species under current threat.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41270		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona rutila</em> occurs in isolated ranges in the Pamirs of Tajikistan, and Tien Shan of south-east Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, southeast Kazakhstan (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005), and eastern Xinjiang region of China (Smith and Xie 2008). The species may also occur in northern Afghanistan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. rutila</em> does not usually occur above 3,000 m in elevation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41270		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona rutila</em> prefers to find shelter in large stones within scree and talus habitat (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <em>O. rutila</em> feeds on turf in an area within two meters of the talus habitat, rather than foraging in open meadows away from the talus (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <em>O. rutila</em> is a diurnal species that exhibits more activity at dusk and dawn (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>Female of the species <em>O. rutila</em> typically bear two litters annually averaging 4.2 young, which is a relatively low fecundity rate (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is between 19.6 and 23.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41270		population	eng	Despite the discontinuous range of <em>Ochotona rutila</em>, and its rarity in museum collections, there are currently no known threats to abundance or distribution to this species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). <em>O. rutila</em> is considered common in a few localities, including the Great Alma-Ata Lake region in Kazakhstan, and the Iskander-Kul Lake region of Tajikistan (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>Population density of <em>O. rutila</em> is low, with 12-20 individuals per ha, in families composed of an adult pair and their offspring, with population levels remaining constant over time (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41270		threats	eng	No major threats to <em>Ochotona rutila</em> have been identified. However, the naturally low population density, low fecundity, and sporadic distribution of the species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990) could make <em>O. rutila</em> susceptible to pressures in the future.
41271		conservation	eng	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> occurs in Wanglang, Wolong, Zhumulangmafeng, Changshanerhai, Nujiang, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species could benefit from research on the effects of habitat loss throughout its range, and regional action may be necessary to halt the ongoing habitat destruction that affects <em>O. t. sikimaria</em> in Sikkim, India.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41271		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> occurs in the mountains of the eastern Tibetan Plateau and along the Himalayan massif in China (southern Qinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, and southern Tibet), India (Sikkim), northern Myanmar (Burma), and Bhutan (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><em>O. thibetana</em> usually occurs between 2,400 and 4,100 m in elevation (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), but has been recorded as low as 1,800 m (Allen 1938).
41271		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> is a social, burrowing pika that occurs in bamboo and rhododendron forest in the low elevations of its range and in subalpine forest in the high elevations (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Smith and Xie 2008). Between elevations of 2,400 m to 4,100 m, it can inhabit rocky areas under the forest canopy (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. thibetana</em> is a generalized herbivore that creates haypiles to store vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).  The reproductive season for <em>O. thibetana</em> extends from at least April to July, and generally has a litter size of 1-5 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is between 14.0 cm and 18.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41271		population	eng	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> is considered fairly common throughout most of its range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, the subspecies <em>O. t. sikimaria</em> in Sikkim, India may be endangered due to the destruction of the rhododendron vegetation that it prefers, resulting in less suitable habitat for this subspecies (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).
41271		threats	eng	Throughout southern China, <em>Ochotona thibetana</em> may be threatened by deforestation, but this has not been thoroughly researched (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species is also targeted as a pest in southern Gansu (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1982; Giraudoux <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>O. t. sikimaria</em> of Sikkim, India has been reported to be threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, settlement, deforestation, and road construction, where the rhododendron vegetation has been almost completely eradicated (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41272		conservation	eng	The presence of <em>Lepus alleni alleni</em> has been verified within Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona.  <em>L. alleni tiburonensis</em> is currently listed under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, because it is an insular and endemic species, granting it "special protection" (AMCELA pers. comm.).
41272		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus alleni</em> occurs from south-central Arizona (USA) to northern Sonora, Sinaloa, and the northern part of Nayarit (Mexico) and Tiburon Island in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Best and Henry 1993).  It also occurs in the extreme south-west region of Chihuahua (Cuenca and Cervantes 2005). This species can be found at elevations ranging from sea level (Sonora) to 1,500 m (southern Arizona) (Best and Henry 1993).
41272		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus alleni</em> is associated with common dense scrub. This species is nocturnal and crepuscular (Best and Henry 1993).  In Arizona, <em>L. alleni</em> occurs in a variety of habitats, but is most common in areas with desert shrub and grasses (Best and Henry 1993).  In areas of southern Arizona where Lehmann lovegrass (<em>Eragrostis lehmanniana</em>) has become established population numbers of <em>L. alleni</em> have been declining (Best and Henry 1993).  In Mexico, <em>L. alleni</em> is sited along coastal foothills, low and open grasslands, and the arid upper-tropical subzone (Best and Henry 1993).  The average home range is 642.8 ha (Swihart 1986).  The breeding season extends from January to October and gestation is approximately 42 days (Vorhies and Taylor 1933).  <em>L. alleni</em> is capable of having seven litters per year with an average litter size of 1.93 (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  It is estimated that <em>L. alleni</em> reaches sexual maturity between seven to 11 months, based on related species (<em>Lepus, californicus, L. callotis</em>, and <em>L. flavigularis</em>) (AMCELA pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Studies analyzing stomach content determined the diet of <em>L. alleni</em>.  Various grass species (45%), mesquite (<em>Prosopis juliflora</em>) (36%) and several cacti species (7.8%) constituted the bulk of their intake (Vorhies and Taylor 1933).  Overall percentages varied according to seasonal precipitation (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  The total length is 55.3-67.0 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  Specimen measurements, from the National Mammalogy Collection at UNAM (CNMA), show that <em>L. a. tiburonensis</em> tends to be smaller with total length ranging from 50.0-60.5 cm (AMCELA pers. comm.).
41272		population	eng	<em>Lepus alleni</em> populations do not experience cyclic fluctuations in population density (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There are undocumented reports of population declines in southern Arizona.  The average population density is 0.3/ha (Swihart 1986). <em>L. a. tiburonensis</em> is considered endemic and rare.
41272		threats	eng	Habitat changes are occurring along the coasts of Nayarit, Sinaloa and Sonora as a result of expanding agriculture (Best and Henry 1993). The impact has been negligible, but it is anticipated that problems associated with habitat change will produce population declines (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 1983).  Hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation and exotic predation are considered threats for this species.  In some places the animal competition (livestock), habitat fragmentation and human-induced fire represent important threats for their populations.  Competition from <em>L. californicus</em> could become a future threat, as the black-tailed jackrabbit's range expands (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41273		conservation	eng	In some southern states, hunting has been closed either temporarily or permanently to try to restore populations. The efficacy of such efforts usually has not been monitored carefully. In some cases hares have been stocked in an attempt to bolster the populations. This method also seems to have limited utility because captive-bred hares are highly vulnerable to predation and transplanted wild hares often succumb to death in captivity during transport.  Conservation and management efforts have been recommended for the New Mexico extent of <em>L. americanus</em>, stemming from the restricted distribution and low abundance (Frey and Malaney 2006).<br/><br/>Lepus americanus is known to occur in the following U.S. National Wildlife Refuges (NWR):<br/>Tetlin NWR (as of 2003)<br/>Sherburne NWR<br/>Seney NWR (as of 2004, reported as abundant)<br/>Innoko NWR<br/>Koyukuk NWR<br/>Red Rock Lakes NWR (found in forested areas)<br/>Kodiak NWR (as of 2006, reported as common)<br/>Alaskan Peninsula/Becharof NWR (as of 2003)<br/>Rachel Carson NWR (as of 2001, reported as common).
41273		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus americanus</em> appears in boreal and mixed deciduous forests of North America. It occurs in all provinces of Canada, except Nunavut. In the USA it is present in Alaska, as well as the western mountain states of Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, North and South Dakota, and Colorado, and small pockets in high elevation areas in New Mexico, Utah, and California. Its distribution also includes the Great Lakes region and eastern states of Pennsylvania, New York, Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Historically in mountain portions of West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia, but those populations seem to have declined recently.
41273		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus americanus</em> is associated with boreal and mixed deciduous forest of North America.  It requires fairly dense vegetation, which it uses as cover.  This species requires snow cover, because of its white winter pelage.  Two subspecies along the Pacific coast fail to turn white and may be more common in Pacific forests with little or no winter snow cover.  Requires mixed forest with dense understory.  Typically, stands aged 25-40 years are ideal. <em>L. americanus</em> also seems to favor edge habitat.  Diet consists mostly of grasses, forbs, sedges, and ferns (Murray 2003).<br/><br/>The total length of <em>L. americanus</em> is 36.0 - 52.0 cm (Banfield 1974; Hall 1981).  The breeding season of <em>L. americanus</em> is from March to September and is subject to photoperiod control (Murray 2003).  The average number of litters by <em>L. americanus</em> varies according to location with 1.9 litters per year in Alaska and 3.8 litters per year in Wisconsin (Murray 2003).  Litter size varies according to location and number of previous litters produced (Murray 2003).
41273		population	eng	Population is more or less continuous in Canada and Alaska but patchily distributed in the contiguous USA. Populations in the boreal forest fluctuate according to a 10-year cycle, where their densities may vary 100-fold over the span of several years. Southern populations may be noncyclic or fluctuate with reduced amplitude. <br/><br/>The status of southeastern populations is unclear, but the range limit may be receding northward. This may be related to habitat loss, increase in predator (especially coyote) numbers, and perhaps climate change and loss of snow during winter.
41273		threats	eng	Southern populations may be subject to excessive habitat loss and fragmentation, perhaps climate change plays a contributory role as well.
41274		conservation	eng	Some jurisdictions have seasonal limits on Arctic hare harvest, but for the most part there are no restrictions due to the fact that most of the harvest probably is of Native origin.
41274		distribution	eng	The geographic range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus arcticus</span> consists of arctic tundra of Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, including Arctic islands, and western Newfoundland.  <em>L. arcticus</em> is also located along the coastal regions of Greenland where ice is not present (Parker 1977).  It also occurs in northern Quebec and a small portion of northern Manitoba, along Hudson Bay.  The southern range periphery borders with treeline.  Some Arctic hares may move into the treeline during winter.
41274		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus arcticus</em> requires tundra habitat lacking tree cover.  Home range for this species is variable, ranging from 9-290 ha (Murray 2003).  <em>L. arcticus</em> is a ground-dwelling species, but will utilize natural shelters or create small dens in the snow to regulate body temperatures (Gray 1993).  This species is omnivorous, but it derives the bulk of its nutritional requirements from woody plants (Best and Henry 1994).  <em>L. arcticus</em> has an average of one to two litters per year, with an average litter size of five to six (Best and Henry 1994).  Gestation is approximately 53 days for this species (Parker 1977).  There is uncertainty regarding the breeding season for <em>L. arcticus</em> (Best and Henry 1994).  The season may extend from April to mid-September, as inferred from male gonad enlargement (Best and Henry 1994).  The total length is 48.0-67.8 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).
41274		population	eng	Population is more or less continuous and is thought to be stable and healthy.  Populations may undergo cyclic fluctuations.  However, little/no monitoring of populations is ongoing.
41274		threats	eng	Southern populations may be subject to habitat loss, perhaps climate change as well, although this is highly speculative.
41275		conservation	eng	Recent declines in density require the implementation of research actions to determine population trends, numbers and range.  It is also recommended habitat and site-based actions be undertaken with emphasis on maintenance and conservation. In areas where density declines have been recorded recovery management should be employed.
41275		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus brachyurus</em> is endemic to Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sado Island, Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishinoshima), Awaji Island, Shodo Island, Goto Islands (Fukue, Nakadori), Amakusa Islands (Shimojima), Shimokoshiki Island.
41275		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus brachyurus</em> occupies forests to grasslands from lowlands to subalpine zone, though more common from low montane and montane zones (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><em>L. brachyurus</em> has three to five times of parturition in a year and one to four offspring per litter.   Females reach sexual maturity at 10 months and their breeding season is from February to July (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>L. brachyurus</em> is a nocturnal species (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41275		population	eng	<em>Lepus brachyurus</em> is common on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu; rare on Sado Island (where it used to be common).<br/><br/>Total population size in Japan is unknown; however, recent density became very low compared with those in 1970-80s when most forests were logged.  Fecal pellet counts indicated that population densities are likely to be higher in younger stands, where open canopy allows for greater herbaceous content (Shimano <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Population size only in forests (505,000 ha in total size) in Niigata prefecture in 2002-2003 was estimated as 140,000 hares.  Density of <em>L. b. angustidens</em> was estimated to be 0.4/ha on Honshu (Hayashi 1978).
41275		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but the population on Sado Island is declining due to the predation of introduced Japanese marten.
41276		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures are recommended for <em>L. californicus</em>, research in monitoring/trends and species-based action regarding harvest management.  Long-term research is recommended with regard to ecological relationships and population dynamics and genetics (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  There is also a need for more definitive classification of jackrabbit subspecies (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Furthermore, data are needed to determine gaps in distribution and relationship dynamics between <em>L. californicus</em> and other jackrabbits that occur sympatrically (Flinders and Chapman 2003).
41276		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus californicus</em> is widely distributed across Mexico and the USA (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Its range in Mexico includes the states of Hidalgo, Queretaro, northern Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, eastern Tamaulipas, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, eastern Durango, Chihuahua (excluding the southwest region), the extreme northeast region of Jalisco, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, northern Sonora, and the entire Baja peninsula (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  In the USA its range includes Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, eastern Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, most of Oklahoma including an isolated population in eastern section of the state, western Missouri, Utah (excluding the northeast), California (excluding part of the central region), most of Oregon (excluding western and central regions), southeast Washington, southern Idaho, and isolated population in Montana, and the extreme western region and southeast portion of Wyoming (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  <em>L. californicus</em> was successfully introduced into Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia and southern Florida (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  It occurs in elevations ranging from - 84 m to 3,750 m (Flinders and Chapman 2003).
41276		habitat	eng	<em>L. californicus</em> is capable of inhabiting many types of habitat (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  This species is positively associated, in terms of abundance and distribution, with overgrazing by domestic livestock (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Diet is also variable for this species, dependent upon vegetation availability and location (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Generally, grasses and forbs are selected during the summer, while shrubs are chosen during winter months (Flinders and Chapman 2003). Variability in home range size is due to multiple factors like cover, predators, and competition (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  <em>L. californicus</em> exhibits crepuscular feeding behavior (Flinders and Chapman 2003).<br/><br/>The total length of <em>L. californicus</em> is 46.5-63.0 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  The breeding season is variable, contingent on latitude and environmental factors (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  In Idaho the season is restricted to February to May (French <em>et al.</em> 1965).  Where distribution occurs at lower latitudes the breeding season extends; in the southwestern USA it may last from early January to September (Griffing and Davis 1976).  Gestation is variable but ranges from 40-47 days (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  The litter size varies from 3.8-4.4 in the north to three to six in the south, giving a total output per female per year of about 10-14 (Best 1996).  Total length at birth is variable dependent upon litter size, but a measurement in Arizona gave a length of 14.0 cm (Vorhies and Taylor 1933).  Adult mortality is approximately 57%, while juvenile mean mortality ranges from 59-63% (Flinders and Chapman 2003).
41276		population	eng	In the Reserva de la Biosfera de Mapimi: <br/>14-37 individuals/km² shrublands<br/>12-44 individuals/km² grassland.
41276		threats	eng	<em>L. californicus</em> is at risk from hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation and exotic predation. In some places the animal competition (livestock), habitat fragmentation and human-induced fire represent important threats for their populations.
41277		conservation	eng	It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Captive breeding has been carried out in order to maintain the numbers available for shooting. Recommended measures include better regulation of hunting, and measures to control and limit the number of bush fires.
41277		conservation	eng	National legislation does exist:<br/>Protected by law in Jordan, UAE, Oman, and Bahrain. Hunting is permitted in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Hares are present in all terrestrial protected areas.<br/><br/>In Arabia, hare specific surveys are required to confirm if populations are still extant.  According to colleagues who have visited Masirah Island, Oman for coastal surveys, there are no longer any hares there.  If it is true, this would be of concern as it is possible that <em>L. c. jefferyi</em> is in fact a separate species.  There were no representatives from Bahrain; however, from previous conversations with wildlife biologists from Bahrain it seems possible that <em>L. c. atallahi</em> may no longer exist there.  It was also recorded, provisionally, as occurring in Qatar.  There are still hares in Qatar but their taxonomy is uncertain.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy for <em>L. capensis</em> includes sections of established protected areas in Africa (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41277		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus capensis</em> has a large global range in Africa and the Near East, where it occurs in two separate non-forested areas; the first in the region bounded by southern Angola, Mozambique and South Africa, and the second extending across North Africa, the Sahara and the Sahel to East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, Syria and Iraq. In Europe, it is found only on the island of Sardinia (Italy), where it occurs as a distinct subspecies <em>L. capensis mediterraneus</em> and is found throughout the island. This population is considered to have been introduced by humans in prehistoric or early historic times (Gippoliti and Amori 2004, G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to 4,000 m in Africa (Angelici 1999).
41277		distribution	eng	The geographic range (in Arabia) includes isolated populations scattered across the entire peninsula and extends east into India.  It is also found on the islands of Sardinia and Cypress.  Geographic range in Africa is extensive and separated into two distinct regions of non-forested areas (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The southern extent of occurrence includes the following countries: South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern portions of Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The northern extent of occurrence includes: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, Chad, Niger, Tunisia, Algeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Senegal.
41277		habitat	eng	Globally, it occupies a variety of open habitats including desert, semi-desert, grassland and steppe. On Sardinia, it is found in almost all habitats on the island, but prefers cultivated land and maquis (Spagnesi and de Marinis 2002).
41277		habitat	eng	The following information applies to <em>L. capensis</em> on the Arabian Peninsula.  This species breeds all year round, with one or two offspring in each litter.  <em>L. capensis</em> prefers shrubs, rather than grasses, to shelter under in summer.  However, whether this is a limiting factor or not is not known.  <em>L. capensis</em> has experienced habitat loss since the 1950's resulting from urbanization, overgrazing, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure related to tourism (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It has been noted that pastureland that has been overgrazed by domestic livestock is favored (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/>In Africa, it is commonly associated with open habitats (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Reproduction varies according to location (Happold pers. comm.).  Equatorial expanses have a year-round breeding season, with up to eight litters per year and 1.3-2.0 young per litter (Flux 1981).  In Kenya, <em>L. capensis</em> produces six to eight litters per year with a mean litter size of 1.5 (Happold pers. comm.).  Hares at higher altitudes will have smaller litters than those at lower altitudes (Happold pers. comm.).  Home range for this species varies, depending on the type of habitat in which it is found (Flux and Angermann 1990 ).  There is little information available on the diet of <em>L. capensis</em>, but is presumed to vary according to habitat as well (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41277		population	eng	There are no figures available on population size of <em>L. capensis</em>.  Even in UAE, the population is highly variable and is dependent entirely on habitat availability - both for feeding and for sheltering from the summer sun.  Population trends for the Arabian distribution are characterized as declining at a rate of less than 20% (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There is concern regarding the current population status of <em>L. capensis</em> on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain.<br/><br/>In the southern region of its African range, there is a current and an anticipated "slow rate of population decline," with total population number for this species currently at greater than 10,000 individuals (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The predicted rate of decline is 10% until the year 2104 (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004).  No population information was available for the northern African region of this species.<br/><br/>Although characterized as locally common, the population on Sardinia has been experiencing a decline (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41277		population	eng	The Sardinian population is suspected to be suffering ongoing decline, even though it is considered locally common in at least parts of its range (Angelici 1999).
41277		threats	eng	Because of oil wealth and a desire within Gulf States to increase the human population size (in order to become less dependent on foreign labour) there are numerous threats to the species throughout its range:<br/>Urban development: current and future threat<br/>Infrastructural development: current and future threat<br/>Road kills: current and future threat<br/>Livestock competition: current and future threat<br/>Recreational activities: current and future threat<br/>Harvest/hunting: current and future threat<br/>Pesticides: likely to become a threat within the next 10 years<br/>Poisoning: likely to become a threat within the next 10 years<br/>Climate: current and future threat<br/>Disease: possible future threat<br/>Loss of habitat: current and future threat<br/>Habitat fragmentation: current and future threat<br/>Predation: current and future threat<br/><br/>These threats are likely to lead to a population decline.  Current estimates are that the population has declined by less than 20% since the 1980's.  This figure is derived from another estimate that the available habitat has declined by approximately 20% since the 1950's.  Predictions are that available habitat will continue to decline until the year 2024.<br/><br/>In Africa, loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting (sport and subsistence) pose a threat to <em>L. capensis</em> (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41277		threats	eng	In Italy the Sardinian hare is considered a game species, and hunting and poaching may have contributed to population declines. Predation by feral dogs is also a potential threat, and anthropogenic bush fires may cause local population declines (Spagnesi and de Marinis 2002). However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this species on Sardinia.
41278		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following nature reserves; Shilin (Yunnan), Changshanerhai, Daweishan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), and Tongbiguan (CSIS 2008).  The Chinese regional Red Listing classifies <em>L. comus</em> as Near Threatened nearly meeting criteria A2cd+3cd for listing as Vulnerable (Wang and Xie 2004).  Research is needed to determine this species' habitat, ecology, and population status (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41278		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution for <em>L. comus</em> is Yunnan, western Guizhou, and southern Sichuan in China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is found on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau at elevations of 1,300-3,200 m (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1985, Smith and Xie 2008).  Its presence has also been recorded in northern Myanmar (Wu <em>et al</em>. 2000).
41278		habitat	eng	There are few data regarding the habitat and ecology of <em>L. comus</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990; Wu <em>et al.</em> 2000).  It is assumed that Lepus comus inhabits high montane pastures within its range (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This habitat is thought to be similar to that of Lepus oiostolus in Tibet (Flux and Angermann 1990; Wu <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Hunters have reported that each adult hare has three burrows, with male burrows smaller, shallower, and straighter and female burrows that are bigger and oval (Luo 1988).  <em>L. comus</em> is diurnal, but ventures into cultivated fields at night to forage (Luo 1988).  <em>L. comus</em> produces a litter size of one to four young, two to three times per year (Smith and Xie 2008).
41278		population	eng	Reports from local inhabitants of the region state that <em>Lepus comus</em> is very common (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41278		threats	eng	Populations that occur on mountains may become isolated as agriculture expands into surrounding valleys (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41279		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  It is not known is this species is present in any protected areas.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41279		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>L. coreanus</em> encompasses the entire Korean Peninsula, as well as southern Jilin, China (Smith and Xie 2008).
41279		habitat	eng	<em>L. coreanus</em> occupies various habitats across its geographic distribution from plains to mountains (Flux and Angermann 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).  They have also posed a problem to barley growing near the mountains in Kyeonsnam Province and have girdled half the peach trees that were growing on a five hectare farm in Jeonnan Province (Flux and Angermann 1990).  A study conducted in Mt. Chirisan National Park, South Korea indicated that <em>L. coreanus</em> abundance was positively associated with the percent of shrub cover within a given landscape (Rhim and Lee 2007).
41279		population	eng	This species is considered common in Korea (Flux and Angermann 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).  The density of <em>L. coreanus</em> varies according to habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Values ranged from no presence on coastal and cultivated land, up to 4.1/sq. km on hills, and 5.1/sq. km on mountains (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41279		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41280		conservation	eng	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> is recognized as an important game species throughout its distribution and as such conservation measures are required to halt declining populations (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The recent decline of this species has garnered it protection under the Bern Convention as an Appendix III listing (Vaughan <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, population declines have resulted in country-specific Red Listing as "near threatened" or "threatened" (Reichlin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine population dynamics specific to habitat type and the effects habitat change has on life history parameters with regard to declines (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).  There is a lack of understanding as to why hare numbers are low in pastoral landscapes and therefore, research should be conducted within this habitat type with particular emphasis paid to demography and behavioral ecology (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005). When population declines are the direct result of agricultural intensification, which results in increased application of fertilizer, landscape homogeneity and mechanization, population declines of <em>L. europaeus</em> can be countered by augmenting habitat to boost heterogeneity (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Spain, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the Cantabric population has unique mtDNA in relation to other European populations (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  As an important hunting species, declining numbers have prompted the importation of non-Iberian hares (from France and elsewhere) to supplement hare densities (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  In an effort to conserve this population's gene pool, a captive breeding program has been implemented (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  As of 2003 this program has successfully bred leverets and in 2004 turned its focus to increasing genetic variability by introducing individuals from new localities (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41280		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. In Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, population declines have resulted in country-specific Red Listing as "near threatened" or "threatened" (Reichlin <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the effect that habitat change has on life history parameters with regard to declines (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a lack of understanding as to why hare numbers are low in pastoral landscapes, and therefore research should be conducted within this habitat type with particular emphasis paid to demography and behavioral ecology (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005). When population declines are the direct result of agricultural intensification, which results in increased application of fertilizer, landscape homogeneity and mechanization, population declines of <em>L. europaeus</em> can be countered by management practices that increase heterogeneity (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Spain, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the Cantabric population has unique mtDNA in relation to other European populations (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). As an important hunting species, declining numbers have prompted the importation of non-Iberian hares (from France and elsewhere) to supplement hare densities (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). In an effort to conserve this population's gene pool, a captive breeding program has been implemented (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). As of 2003 this program has successfully bred leverets and in 2004 turned its focus to increasing genetic variability by introducing individuals from new localities (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41280		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> has a large global range extending from western Europe to western Siberia (Russia) and south-western Asia (Iran). In Europe, the species is widely distributed throughout, with the exception of most of the Iberian peninsula, northern Fennoscandia and northern Russia. It occurs on a number of Mediterranean islands. The population in Ireland was introduced recently, and the population in the UK is a long-established naturalised population, that may originally have been introduced by the Romans (Battersby 2005). As a game species, the European hare has widely been introduced to countries across the globe (Flux and Angermann 1990). It is found from sea level to 2,300 m (Spitzenberger 2002).
41280		distribution	eng	The current Eurasian distribution of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> extends from the northern provinces of Spain, to introduced populations in the United Kingdom and southern regions of Scandinavia, south to northern portions of the Middle East, and has naturally expanded east to sections of Siberia (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species has been introduced as a game species extensively to countries across the globe.  These countries are: Argentina, Australia, Barbados, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Falkland Islands, New Zealand (North and South Island), Rèunion, the United Kingdom and the United States (Flux and Angermann 1990). There is recent evidence of an introduced population in Ireland (Reid pers. comm.).  This species can be found at elevations ranging from sea level up to 2,300 m (Spitzenberger 2002)
41280		habitat	eng	A highly adaptable species, it occupies a wide variety of habitats, including grassland, steppes, open temperate woodland, arable farmland, and pastures (Flux and Angermann 1990, Homolka and Zima 1999). It tends to be particularly abundant in open, flat areas where cereal cultivation predominate. Dense old-growth forests are avoided (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Woodland, scrub, hedges and shelterbelts are used as cover when the species is resting (Homolka and Zima 1999). It feeds mainly on grasses and herbaceous plants. When available, weeds and wild grasses are preferred, but where intensive agricultural practices have reduced the availability of these food sources crop species are selected (Reichlin <em>et al.</em> 2006). Unlike <em>Lepus timidus</em>, it does not feed on shrubs.
41280		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> is a highly adaptable species that can persist in any number of habitat types (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There is a positive association with hare abundance and habitat density and diversity (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).  When available, weeds and wild grasses are selected by L. europaeus; however, intensified agro-practices have reduced this food source resulting in the selection of crop species (Reichlin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>L. europaeus</em> averages three litters/yr, but can vary from one to four litters/yr (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Litter size can vary with respect to the season, smaller litters produced earlier in the season and larger litters later (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  The birth weight of <em>L. europaeus</em> is approximately 100 g (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Gestation is 41-42 days and reproduction occurs year round (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Average life expectancy for this hare is 1.04 years, with a maximum age span in the wild of 12.5 years recorded in Poland (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Females reach maturity around seven to eight months and male at six months (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The total length of L. europaeus is 48.0-70.0 cm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).
41280		population	eng	It is considered locally common in at least parts of its range, with typical population densities ranging from 0.2 to 0.7 individuals per hectare (Homolka and Zima 1999). In western and central Europe, the species has undergone significant decline in the last 50 years (Flux and Angermann 1990, Homolka and Zima 1999, Battersby 2005, Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005), although there are indications that the population trend has stabilised in recent years in at least some countries (Battersby 2005, Zima pers. comm. 2006). Hunting bags suggest that populations in Finland are currently stable (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). There is no information on population trends in eastern and south-eastern Europe.
41280		population	eng	Populations of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> have been experiencing declines in many areas across its geographic range in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Population densities range from 0.1/ha to 3.4/ha (Flux and Angermann 1990). <br/><br/>A study conducted in the Czech Republic found mean hare densities were highest in habitat with the following characteristics (Pikula <em>et al.</em> 2004): elevation: sea level to 200 m (231.47/10 sq. km); annual snow cover duration: 40-60 days (183.95/10 sq. km); mean annual precipitation: 450-700 mm (174.71/10 sq. km); annual sunshine duration: 1801-2000 (169.72/10 sq. km); mean annual air temperature: >10.0?C (245.00/10 sq. km); and Pikula <em>et al.</em> (2004) states the highest mean densities with respect to climatic areas was in: "A warm and dry district with mild winter and longer duration of sunshine; a warm and dry district with mild winter and shorter duration of sunshine; a warm and moderately dry district with mild winter" (227.91/10 sq. km) (Pikula <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41280		population	eng	Populations of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> have been experiencing declines in many areas across its geographic range in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Population densities range from 0.1/ha to 3.4/ha (Flux and Angermann 1990). <br/><br/>A study conducted in the Czech Republic found mean hare densities were highest in habitat with the following characteristics (Pikula <em>et al.</em> 2004): elevation: sea level to 200 m (231.47/10 sq. km); annual snow cover duration: 40-60 days (183.95/10 sq. km); mean annual precipitation: 450-700 mm (174.71/10 sq. km); annual sunshine duration: 1801-2000 (169.72/10 sq. km); mean annual air temperature: >10.0˚C (245.00/10 sq. km); and Pikula <em>et al.</em> (2004) states the highest mean densities with respect to climatic areas was in: "A warm and dry district with mild winter and longer duration of sunshine; a warm and dry district with mild winter and shorter duration of sunshine; a warm and moderately dry district with mild winter" (227.91/10 sq. km) (Pikula <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41280		threats	eng	Agricultural intensification, in particular the increased use of pesticides, fertilizers and heavy machinery in arable farming, is generally considered to be the main cause of population declines in western and central Europe (Homolka and Zima 1999). A recent study that reviewed available literature on the relationship between hare abundance, demography, habitat, and land-use practices in 12 European countries confirmed that the primary cause of hare decline was intensification of agriculture (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is inferred that this threat may impact on the species throughout its global range, wherever farming is practiced. Agricultural intensification in eastern and south-eastern Europe is a potential cause for concern, especially in countries that have recently acceded to the EU, or that may join in the near future. In Greece, restocking with hares from other regions has been identified as a threat to local gene pools (Mamuris <em>et al.</em> 2001). This issue has also been identified as a concern for the Cantabric population in Spain (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is a popular game species throughout it range in Europe, but hunting is regulated and appears sustainable. Smith <em>et al</em>.'s (2005) review found no evidence of a link between hunting pressure and population density.
41280		threats	eng	A study, reviewing available literature regarding population densities in connection with habitat that was identified as primarily farmland from 12 European countries, concluded that the primary cause of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> decline was intensification of agriculture (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is inferred that this threat is pertinent to the species across its geographic range where farming is practiced.  Smith <em>et al</em>. (2005) also identified negative associations with predation and precipitation in respect to abundance.  However, "Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on density throughout Europe" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).  L. europaeus is susceptible to localized extinction when hare densities become too low (Soule 1987).  In Greece, the restocking of hares has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools (Mamuris <em>et al</em>. 2001).  This issue has also been identified as a concern for the Cantabric population in Spain (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Disease is an additional threat to L. europaeus and several have been identified as the principle sources of mortality (Lamarque <em>et al</em>. 1996). These diseases are European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), Pasteurellosis, Yersiniosis (Pseudo-tuberculosis), Coccidiosis and tularaemia (Lamarque <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Genetic diversity of <em>L. europaeus</em> in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany indicates that hare populations still retain sufficient diversity (Fickel <em>et al</em>. 2005).  However, it is cautioned that restricted gene flow could eventually lead to allelic fixation and inbreeding depression within populations that become isolated (Fickel <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41281		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Honghe, Liangshui, Xingkaihu, Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  Research should be undertaken to address the lack of data regarding population for <em>Lepus mandshuricus</em>.  Research is also needed to determine the status of habitat for this species (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species was regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in China (Wang and Xie 2004).
41281		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus mandshuricus</em> includes eastern China, the Ussuri region of Russia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005), and may extend into North Korea (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is possibly parapatric with L. coreanus in North Korea (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It inhabits elevations between 300-900 m (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41281		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus mandshuricus</em> is a forest dwelling hare that prefers mixed forest to homogeneous conifer (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species avoids open habitat and human settlements (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is presumed that the ecology of <em>L. mandshuricus</em> is equivalent to that of <em>L. americanus</em>, its New World ecological equivalent (Angermann 1966).  Litter size is usually one to two but periodically can be as high as four to five (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The total length of <em>L. mandshuricus</em> is 41.0-54.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41281		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding population for this species.
41281		threats	eng	Forest clearing results in loss of habitat for <em>Lepus mandshuricus</em> that promotes replacement by <em>L. tolai</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41282		conservation	eng	This species is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.  No specific conservation action has been framed to protect the species in the wild in India.  However, a number of individuals are present within sanctuaries and national parks and are somewhat protected from human intervention.  Further taxonomic research is needed for this species, as well as increased public awareness (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41282		distribution	eng	The Indian hare is distributed throughout India, except the high reaches of the Himalayas and mangrove areas within the Sundarbans in the state of West Bengal.  The geographic distribution extends into eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh excluding the Sundarbans (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is thought to occur in Bhutan as well, but exact locations are not known (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  This species can be found at elevations ranging from 50-4,500 m (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>This species has been introduced to many islands of the Indian Ocean; Mauritius, Gunnera Quoin, Anskya, Rèunion, and Cousin (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  Lepus nigricollis is considered native to Java by McNeely (1981), but its origin is considered uncertain by Hoffmann and Smith (2005).
41282		habitat	eng	Lepus nigricollis can be seen in wide variety of habitats such as short grasslands, barren agricultural fields, crop fields, and forest roads.  The species can be seen in forests of many types other than the mangroves and tall grassland habitats.  However, one can see the species adjacent to forest areas in agricultural fields.  It breeds throughout the year, but the peak breeding season is during the monsoon season (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Litter size is one to four, but can be higher (Gurung and Singh 1996).  Forbs and grasses constitute the bulk of their diet (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>L. nigricollis</em> is characterized as a shy species (Gurung and Singh 1996).  It exhibits activity during crepuscular and nocturnal hours (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Total length is 33.0-53.0 cm (Corbet and Hill 1992).
41282		population	eng	<em>Lepus nigricollis</em> is very common wherever they occur.  However, the population in India is subjected to severe fragmentation due to expanding agricultural fields and pressure on forest in terms of fuel wood collection and sometimes illegal hunting.
41282		threats	eng	Major threats for <em>Lepus nigricollis</em> include habitat destruction and conversion of prime forest areas for agricultural purposes, as well as intensive hunting by locals for meat.  Individual hares, especially the young ones living in the forest areas, are subjected to predation by carnivorous mammals and birds.  <em>L. nigricollis</em> is also threatened by domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human set forest fires (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41283		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas in Nepal (Annapurna, Makalu Barun, Sagarmatha, and Shey Phuskondo) (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In China, it occurs in Qinghaihuniaodao, Wolong, Zhumulangmafeng, Meihualutiebu (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The status of <em>Lepus oiostolus</em> in India has been assessed as Endangered B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii), due to restricted distribution, fragmentation and decline in habitat area and quality (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  However, <em>L. oiostolus</em> was regionally assessed as Least Concern in Nepal (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005) and China (Wang and Xie 2004).
41283		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus oiostolus</em> includes western and central China, northern regions of Nepal and India (Smith and Xie 2008).  Lepus oiostolus can be found at elevations between 3,000-5,300 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41283		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus oiostolus</em> can be found occupying montane subtropical grasslands (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It also inhabits, "upland grasslands of various types, montane meadows, shrub meadows, and alpine cold desert" (Smith and Xie 2008). Diet is predominantly grasses and herbaceous plants (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species only molts once a year (Flux and Angermann 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. oiostolus</em> is primarily nocturnal, but can be observed during the day (Smith and Xie 2008).  Breeding season for <em>L. oiostolus</em> begins in April (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species produces two litters annually with four to six young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length is 40.0-58.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41283		population	eng	There are no available data regarding population for <em>Lepus oiostolus</em>.  Flux and Angermann (1990) speculated that numbers were "very low except in a few favored areas."
41283		threats	eng	There has been an overall decrease in quality and total area of habitat available to <em>Lepus oiostolus</em> resulting from destruction and fuelwood harvesting (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  This decline is estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 and is expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and the inability to migrate (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Subsistence harvesting by locals also poses a threat (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41284		conservation	eng	<em>Lepus peguensis</em> is found within protected areas throughout its range.  Research is needed in the following areas: taxonomy, distribution, and behavior (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The evident lack of hares within the mid-altitude ranges of central Indochina, despite suitable habitat, requires further investigation to determine potential taxonomic distinction between low and high altitude hare populations (Duckworth pers. comm.).
41284		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Myanmar from the Chindwin River valley east through Thailand, Cambodia, southern Lao PDR, southern Viet Nam, and south into the upper Malay Peninsula (Myanmar, Thailand) (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This distribution may include the northern and central regions of Lao PDR, as signs of its presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been identified, but only to the genus level (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1994; Duckworth 1996).  Distribution is enigmatic in the north and east, with few confirmed records.  Thai distribution would suggest that the species has spread with human-related forest loss in the northern highlands of Lao PDR, particularly one might surmise along the lowland valleys.  The mapped range in Myanmar is largely speculative, further work is likely to show that the species is more restricted within this country.  A collection expedition in Thailand (pre-1950's) recorded this species as occurring at 4,300 feet on Doi Ang Ka (modern name Doi Inthanon) (Allen and Coolidge 1940).  Further work is needed to determine the upper limit of this species.
41284		habitat	eng	This species occupies mostly in low altitude dipterocarp forest, and plain non-forest habitats with numbers especially high in the grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. It can be found in rain/flood-fed low intensity rice fields, but avoids irrigated multi-crop rice fields which cover much of Thailand (Duckworth pers. comm.).  Species appears to be absent from Nakai plateau, Lao PDR, despite what appears to be suitable habitat (possibly due to high altitude) (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). Also absent from Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand, again despite suitable habitat at a relatively high altitude (Steinmetz pers. comm.). For these reasons and the fact that there have been numerous field surveys for the species above 700 m without detecting the species (in Thailand and Lao PDR) the 1,200 m upper elevation limit may be too high, though a comprehensive examination of specimens is lacking (Duckworth, Steinmitz, Pattanavibool pers. comm.).  There are insufficient data regarding the home range and population density of <em>Lepus peguensis</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Total length of this species ranges from 36.0-50.0 cm (Corbet and Hill 1992).  <em>L. peguensis</em> may have several litters per year with litter size ranging from one to seven (three to four average) (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).  Gestation lasts approximately 35-40 days (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).  It is estimated that the longevity of this species is six years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).  This species is crepuscular and nocturnal (Duckworth pers. comm.)  L. peguensis actively feeds at night on grass, bark and twigs (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).
41284		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
41284		threats	eng	Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in localized areas (Duckworth pers. comm.). The species is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to constitute a major threat (Duckworth, Steinmitz, Pattanavibool pers. comm.).  Habitat in Lao PDR and Viet Nam is regularly burnt during the dry season (February-May), posing a threat to young that may be present (Duckworth pers. comm.)
41285		conservation	eng	<em>L. saxatilis</em> occurs widely throughout its distribution range, which includes many protected areas.  Research in the following areas has been recommended: survey studies, taxonomic, genetic research, and life history (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004a).  Other has been checked on the Conservation Measures list and is identified as "limiting factor research" (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a).  Sustainable utilization has also been identified as a needed management measure (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a).
41285		distribution	eng	The geographic range of <em>L. saxatilis</em> includes the southern regions of Namibia (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999), South Africa (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a), Swaziland (Swaziland National Trust Commission 2008) and Lesotho.
41285		habitat	eng	<em>L. saxatilis</em> starts foraging at dusk and continues throughout the night (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It, "prefers scrub or savanna woodland habitat with grass cover but easily takes to agriculturally developed areas" (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004b).  Home range is variable depending on habitat type and season (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004b).  Reproduction is suspected to be year round with a peak breeding season occurring from September to February (Happold pers. comm.)  HB length of this species ranges from 45.0-76.8 cm (Happold pers. comm.)
41285		population	eng	<em>L. saxatilis</em> is fairly common throughout its distribution.  Population trend for this species has been declining and is expected to continue to decline by at least 20% until the year 2104 (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004a).<br/><br/>Population size: >10,000
41285		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation resulting from agriculture, commercial plantations, and development are threats to this species (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004a).  Hunting pressure has reduced population sizes, especially in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a).
41286		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following nature reserves; Niumulin, Wuyishan, Nanling, Heishidingkuoyelin, Damingshan (Guangxi), Dayaoshanshuiyuanlin (Guangxi), Shiwandashan, Leigongshan, Maolan, Jiugongshan, Taoyuandong, Dongdongtinghu (Hunan), Bamianshan, Mangshan, Poyanghuhouniao, Yanquan, Taohongling, Jinggangshan, Nanjiliedao, Qingliangfeng, Tianmushan, Gutianshan, Wuyanling, and Dawuling (CSIS 2008).  Research should be conducted to determine the distribution and status of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> to investigate possible isolation due to increasing agricultural practices (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species was regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in China (Wang and Xie 2004).
41286		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern China from the Yangtse River southward. It is also found on Taiwan, with minor range in northeast Viet Nam (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). There are a few records of hares west of the range of this species and it is not known if they belong to <em>Lepus sinensis</em> or <em>L. peguensis</em> (Duckworth pers. comm.).  <em>L. sinensis</em> can be found occupying bamboo at elevations up to 4,000-5,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41286		habitat	eng	Records of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> suggest a relatively low altitudinal distribution.  This species inhabits hilly expanses with open edge grassland and scrubby vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of <em>L. sinensis</em> is 35.0-45.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Diet consists of leafy plants, green shoots and twigs (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. sinensis</em> is nocturnal, but is occasionally active during daylight hours (Smith and Xie 2008).  The breeding season extends from April to August with an average litter size of three (Smith and Xie 2008).
41286		population	eng	Populations of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> in Viet Nam are thought to be very small, with the last confirmed records from the 1990s. The species was surveyed recently in Viet Nam (by Phan Trong Anh) without detection (Do Touc pers. comm.).  There are no data regarding population for the remaining distribution for this species.
41286		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, the original range of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> was very small, in a heavily populated region.  Habitat for this species is in decline and it is inferred from heavy hunting pressure on other species, that hunting is likely a major threat for this species in Viet Nam (Do Touk pers. comm.).
41287		conservation	eng	Research is needed for <em>Lepus starcki</em> in the areas of biology and habitat requirements (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species is recorded as "quite abundant and sufficiently represented in existing protected areas" (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  It is present in Bale Mountains protected area (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).
41287		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus starcki</em> is restricted to the Ethiopian Highlands (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It occurs on the Bale Mountains (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>L. starcki</em> occurs at elevations of 2,140 m to 4,380 m (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41287		habitat	eng	There are few data regarding the ecology of this species (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  This species occupies grassland and Afro-alpine moorland habitats within its range (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  HB length of <em>Lepus starki</em> is 44.0-54.4 cm (Happold pers. comm.).
41287		population	eng	The population status of <em>Lepus starcki</em> is reported as being "relatively numerous" (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41287		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41288		conservation	eng	Research should be conducted to ascertain the ecological role of this species within the sage steppe ecosystem (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Furthermore, efforts should be made to determine the "life-history, demography, and predator-prey relationship" (Berger <em>et al</em>. 2006).  It is also recommended that this species be removed from the 'varmint' list produced by the State of Wyoming (Berger <em>et al</em>. 2006).  More data are needed to understand the factors that operate when <em>L. californicus</em> and <em>L. townsendii</em> occur sympatrically (Flinders and Chapman 2003).
41288		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus townsendii</em> has a wide geographic distribution.  Its current distribution extends across the southern regions of Canada, including south-central British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba and the extreme southwest of Ontario (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The distribution within the USA includes: Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Nebraska, Kansas, North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This distribution represents an expansion from its historical distribution, which resulted from the creation of suitable habitat (see reference for map) (Lim 1987).  There is some debate to whether this species was introduced to Wisconsin (Lim 1987).  Some treatments indicate that this species has been extirpated from Nebraska and Kansas, and recent distribution maps exclude Missouri (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  <em>L. townsendii</em> is excluded from some areas of its range resulting from the expansion of <em>L. californicus</em> (Lim 1987).  This species was recorded at an elevation of 4,319 m on Mt. Bross, Colorado (Lim 1987).  Its lower limit is recorded as 30 m on the Columbian plains (Lim 1987).
41288		habitat	eng	The primary habitat of <em>Lepus townsendii</em> is open prairie and plains, but will vary with locality (Flux and Angermann 1990).  They are also found on montane pastures among scattered evergreens to 3,100 m altitude in Colorado (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Diet of this species is predominantly grasses and forbs, with shrubs during the winter (Lim 1987). The total length of <em>L. townsendii</em> is 56.5 - 65.5 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  The breeding season was recorded to extend from late February through mid-July in North Dakota (Flux and Angermann 1990).  A similar breeding season was recorded in Wyoming (Rogowitz 1992).  The season is shortened in the northern extent of its range to May through early July (Lim 1987).  The gestation period is variable; one account sets it as low as one month and another as high as 43 days (Lim 1987).  It is thought that elevation and latitude may influence total gestation time (Lim 1987).  Breeding conditions and environmental factors influence the total number of litters produced each year (Lim 1987).  Common litter size is recorded as four to five young, with total litters per year ranging from one to 11 (Bear and Hansen 1966).  Longevity is unknown but speculated to be up to five years (Forsyth 1999).
41288		population	eng	Sightings of <em>L. townsendii</em> have declined in Grand Teton National Park since 1970, from sightings characterized as "numerous" and "common" to only three individuals since 1978 (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  This may represent a satellite population, resulting from the continuous distribution within the Gros Ventre River corridor that leads to the Upper Green River Basin (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  In Yellowstone National Park, where the species was once considered abundant, no sightings have been confirmed since the 1990's  (Berger 2008).  Cause(s) for extirpation from both parks is currently unknown (Berger 2006; Berger 2008).
41288		threats	eng	There are numerous hypothesized factors contributing to the decline of <em>Lepus townsendii</em> in Wyoming (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  These are listed as "inclement weather (e.g., severe winter), disease, predation, human persecution, habitat change, high ungulate biomass, and change" (Berger <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Habitat alteration has led to the exclusion of <em>L. townsendii</em> where the distribution expansion of <em>L. californicus</em> has occurred (Lim 1987).
41289		conservation	eng	This species is present in Awash National Park, Mago National Park, and possibly Yangudi-Rassa National Park (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).  It has been suggested that the range of <em>Lepus habessinicus</em> may be expanding into areas where overgrazing occurs (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Research to determine its true geographic distribution should be conducted.
41289		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus habessinicus</em> includes Somalia (excluding the southern region, eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea, and minor distribution in Sudan and possible distribution in the extreme north of Kenya (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1986).  It is suspected that this species' distribution is expanding into areas where overgrazing occurs (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species can be found at elevations that range from sea level up to 2,000 m (potentially as high as 2,500 m) (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).
41289		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus habessinicus</em> occupies a variety of habitats from open grassland, steppe, and savanna, to desert regions, where some shrub is required for cover (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In these habitats, <em>L. habessinicus</em> replaces <em>L. capensis</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Other <em>Lepus</em> species occupy areas where shrub cover is denser (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is suspected that <em>L. habessinicus</em> is nocturnal, like the Cape hare (Flux and Angermann 1990).  HB length of this species is 40.0-55.0 cm (Happold pers. comm.).
41289		population	eng	<em>Lepus habessinicus</em> is considered an abundant species (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41289		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41291		conservation	eng	Conservation for <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> was delayed for several decades after their decline became apparent.  Efforts began to take shape in the late 1980's due to previous political isolation of its native range and the lack of information on the species as a keystone to Iberian ecosystems. The issue of eradication of <em>O. cuniculus</em> from introduced areas (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and many islands) may have diminished the appearance of rabbit decline in its native range.  Increased interest in the specialist predators that depend upon the rabbits and the issue of the sustainability of hunting populations have brought <em>O. cuniculus</em> into the public eye, but fail to address some issues of rabbit conservation, such as its role as an ecosystem modeler and the effects of agriculture on populations (Gibb 1990, Ward 2005).<br/><br/><em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> occurs in some protected areas within its natural range, including Donana National Park in Spain (Ward 2005) and Serra da Malcata Nature reserve in Portugal (700 km²) where the Iberian lynx is protected.<br/><br/>Dan Ward's 2005 report outlines specific goals needed to achieve rabbit recovery:<br/>- Establish rabbit monitoring programs to accurately describe decline directly.<br/>- Create and implement a management plan for rabbit recovery that prioritizes critical ranges and populations. Some plans have begun for local regions, including Donana National park.  <br/>- Programs to limit the incidence and impact of new and existing diseases may be difficult in the wild, though some success has been observed in captive populations.  Current vaccines do not confer total immunity to RHD or myxomatosis, have side effects such as increasing vulnerability to predators, and have short-lived effectiveness.  A genetically modified live myxomatosis virus vaccine, LapinVac, is controversial because of the possibility of unpredictable evolution of the virus, and its potential spread to rabbit populations outside the natural <em>O. cuniculus</em> range where eradication, not conservation, is the objective. Increasing habitat quality may indirectly help rabbit disease resistance.  Controlling disease vectors for myxomatosis has not been found to be effective.  Preventing the spread of modified immunocontraceptive viruses engineered in Australia to control rabbit fertility may become an issue.<br/>- Reducing hunting impact is not guaranteed to reduce decline because disease effects often outweigh hunting as a threat, and because implementation of restrictions would likely not be realistic given the prevalence of hunting in Iberia.  Revisions to existing hunting seasons have been proposed and some tested, but even moving the season to summer when rabbits are most abundant has caused concern in trials because the overall catch increases and the season coincides with a peak in death from disease.  A growing recognition among hunters of the issue of rabbit decline has led to some self-restraint, and though often well intentioned, uninformed management strategies are leading to inappropriate actions.  Rather than focusing on hunting restraint, many hunters exert efforts to reduce rabbit predators, which are not directly responsible for decline.  As a very large demographic, hunters could represent a powerful force in maintaining sustainable hunting populations, if the awareness of the issue of decline increased within this group.<br/>- Rabbit populations affected by agriculture represent a sensitive issue, as rabbits are typically seen as a pest and an economic liability for farmers.  Despite pressures from environmental groups, many farmers continue to take measures to eradicate rabbits from their land, even in areas where rabbit populations have declined dramatically.  Awareness among farmers of rabbit conservation issues is low.  Government policy allows farmers to control rabbits with permits, and though crop loss due to rabbit damage is economically subsidized, no requirement of those compensated is made for conservation.  <br/>- Halting and reversing habitat loss and fragmentation was aided in the 1990s by the establishment of many national parks in Spain, but much optimal rabbit habitat is on private land.  A shift from high-intensity farming and monoculture forestry back to mixed agro-forestry and small scale farming would help sustain rabbit populations.  Natura 2000 promotion of sustainable development and EU subsidies supporting environmentally friendly agriculture are promising but underfunded and too new to demonstrate a significant impact. Eucalyptus plantation removal has demonstrated a positive effect on rabbit populations, but may compromise other environmental issues such as erosion and conditioned bird habitat, as well as economic impact.  <br/>- Reintroductions have been a key focus of conservation efforts, with up to 500,000 released annually in Spain and France.  The efforts so far have not increased rabbit populations, due to increased mortality from predation and inadvertent spread of disease, which may actually have a net negative impact.  The flaws in reintroduction practices do not completely negate the importance of the efforts, which have been shown to help sustain predators and hunting populations.  The success of reintroductions may be increased by fencing from predators and competitors and preventing dispersal.<br/>- Though rabbit predators have not directly caused rabbit decline, factors that have caused initial decline (e.g. disease, habitat loss) are exacerbated by some opportunistic predators (while not caused by specialist predators like the Iberian lynx and Imperial eagle).  Game keeping efforts to increase rabbit populations often focus on predator reduction, sometimes counter productively, causing decline of top predators that are already threatened.  Efforts could be more productively focused on habitat protection, reduction of rabbit mortality by humans (hunting and poisoning), and reducing disease impacts.<br/><br/>The importance of <em>O. cuniculus</em> within its natural range requires that it be considered for listing in spite of its global abundance. It is a keystone to the Iberian ecosystem, as prey for specialist predators (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005) and as a landscape modeler (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ward 2005).  It is an important game species in Spain and Portugal (Ward 2005).
41291		conservation	eng	The issue of eradication of <em>O. cuniculus</em> from its introduced range (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and many islands) may have overshadowed the significance of rabbit decline in its native range. However, the importance of <em>O. cuniculus</em> within its natural range necessitates that it be considered for listing as threatened in spite of its global abundance. It is a keystone component of the Iberian ecosystem, as prey for specialist predators (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005) and as a landscape modeller (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ward 2005). It is an important game species in Spain and Portugal (Ward 2005). <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> occurs in some protected areas within its natural range, including Donana National Park in Spain (Ward 2005) and Serra da Malcata Nature reserve in Portugal (700km<sup>2</sup>) where the Iberian lynx is protected.<br/><br/>Ward (2005) summarises key issues regarding the conservation of the European rabbit within its native range: <br/>"- Establish rabbit monitoring programs to accurately describe decline directly.<br/>- Create and implement a management plan for rabbit recovery that prioritizes critical ranges and populations. Some plans have begun for local regions, including Donana National park.  <br/>- Programs to limit the incidence and impact of new and existing diseases may be difficult in the wild, though some success has been observed in captive populations. Current vaccines do not confer total immunity to RHD or myxomatosis, have side effects such as increasing vulnerability to predators, and have short-lived effectiveness. A genetically modified live myxomatosis virus vaccine, LapinVac, is controversial because of the possibility of unpredictable evolution of the virus, and its potential spread to rabbit populations outside the natural <em>O. cuniculus</em> range where eradication, not conservation, is the objective. Increasing habitat quality may indirectly help rabbit disease resistance. Controlling disease vectors for myxomatosis has not been found to be effective. Preventing the spread of modified immunocontraceptive viruses engineered in Australia to control rabbit fertility may become an issue.<br/>- Reducing hunting impact is not guaranteed to reduce decline because disease effects often outweigh hunting as a threat, and because implementation of restrictions would likely not be realistic given the prevalence of hunting in Iberia. Revisions to existing hunting seasons have been proposed and some tested, but even moving the season to summer when rabbits are most abundant has caused concern in trials because the overall catch increases and the season coincides with a peak in death from disease. A growing recognition among hunters of the issue of rabbit decline has led to some self-restraint, and though often well intentioned, uninformed management strategies are leading to inappropriate actions. Rather than focusing on hunting restraint, many hunters exert efforts to reduce rabbit predators, which are not directly responsible for decline. As a very large demographic, hunters could represent a powerful force in maintaining sustainable hunting populations, if the awareness of the issue of decline increased within this group.<br/>- Rabbit populations affected by agriculture represent a sensitive issue, as rabbits are typically seen as a pest and an economic liability for farmers. Despite pressures from environmental groups, many farmers continue to take measures to eradicate rabbits from their land, even in areas where rabbit populations have declined dramatically. Awareness among farmers of rabbit conservation issues is low. Government policy allows farmers to control rabbits with permits, and though crop loss due to rabbit damage is economically subsidized, no requirement of those compensated is made for conservation.<br/>- Halting and reversing habitat loss and fragmentation was aided in the 1990s by the establishment of many national parks in Spain, but much optimal rabbit habitat is on private land. A shift from high-intensity farming and monoculture forestry back to mixed agro-forestry and small scale farming would help sustain rabbit populations. Natura 2000 promotion of sustainable development and EU subsidies supporting environmentally friendly agriculture are promising but underfunded and too new to demonstrate a significant impact. Eucalyptus plantation removal has demonstrated a positive effect on rabbit populations, but may compromise other environmental issues such as erosion and conditioned bird habitat, as well as economic impact.<br/>- Reintroductions have been a key focus of conservation efforts, with up to 500,000 released annually in Spain and France. The efforts so far have not increased rabbit populations, due to increased mortality from predation and inadvertent spread of disease, which may actually have a net negative impact. The flaws in reintroduction practices do not completely negate the importance of the efforts, which have been shown to help sustain predators and hunting populations. The success of introductions may be increased by fencing from predators and competitors and preventing dispersal.<br/>- Though rabbit predators have not directly caused rabbit decline, factors that have caused initial decline (e.g., disease, habitat loss) are exacerbated by some opportunistic predators (while not caused by specialist predators like the Iberian lynx and Imperial eagle). Game keeping efforts to increase rabbit populations often focus on predator reduction, sometimes counterproductively, causing decline of top predators that are already threatened. Efforts could be more productively focused on habitat protection, reduction of rabbit mortality by humans (hunting, poisoning), and reducing disease impacts."
41291		distribution	eng	<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> is a widespread and abundant species, which has been introduced to all continents except Antartica. It was originally restricted to Spain, Portugal, western France, and northern Africa, but it has spread over the last two millenia to almost all parts of the European region, including the British Isles, many Mediterranean islands, the Azores, and Madeira. This range expansion occurred partly because of deliberate introductions, as the rabbit was widely exploited as a food source, and partly through natural spread. It remains absent from most of Fennoscandia, and occurs only sporadically on the Balkan peninsula. Outside Europe, it was introduced to Australia, in 1788 and again in 1859, where it is now widespread (Thompson and King 1994). It was introduced to South America unsuccessfully several times since the mid-nineteenth century, and successfully in about 1936; it now maintains a limited range in Argentina and Chile (Thompson and King 1994). Found in many islands in the Pacific, off the African coast, New Zealand, and the Caribbean (Thompson and King 1994).
41291		distribution	eng	Original distribution after last ice age included Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) to western France and northern Africa, and the introduction throughout western Europe is thought to have occurred as early as the Roman period (Gibb 1990, Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Currently ranges through all Western European countries, Ireland and the UK (including islands), Austria, parts of Sweden, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, and Mediterranean islands Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Crete, the Balearics (Thompson and King 1994), Croatia, and Slovakia (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Introduced to Australia, in 1788 and again in 1859, where it is now widespread (Thompson and King 1994). Introduced to South America unsuccessfully several times since the mid-nineteenth century, successfully in about 1936 where it maintains limited range in Argentina and Chile (Thompson and King 1994).  Found in many islands in the Pacific, off the African coast, New Zealand, and the Caribbean (Thompson and King 1994).<br/><br/><em>O. cuniculus</em> is usually found below 1,500 m in elevation (Fa <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41291		habitat	eng	<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> prefers a mixed habitat of Mediterranean oak savanna or scrub-forest, or areas with around 40% cover for shelter from predators and open areas that support their diet of grasses and cereals (Thompson and  King 1994; Ward 2005).  <em>O. cuniculus</em> builds warrens in soft soil, but find shelter in scrub in rocky areas, though predation risk is higher in above ground dwellings.  The natural range of the Iberian peninsula and northern Africa is warm and dry (Angulo 2003), rarely occurring above 1,500 m (Fa <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The rabbits are territorial and tend to live and forage in colony groups of up to 20 adults (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999), and are crepuscular (Ward 2005).  <br/><br/><em>O. cuniculus</em> can breed throughout the year (uncommon in lagomorphs), though this is limited by climate and resource availability (Bell and Webb 1991).  They raise altricial young between three and six at a time, which leave the warren in under a month (Gibb 1990). Females reach sexual maturity on average in 3.5 months, males 4 months, and can live up to 9 years (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), though many succumb to predation and other perils much earlier.  Up to 75% of young rabbits are killed by predators before they establish a territory (Chapman and Flux 1990, Angulo 2004). Annual mortality was 30% in a studied island population (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The head-body length of <em>O. cuniculus</em> is 34-50 mm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).<br/><br/><em>O. cuniculus</em> is a keystone species, composing the diet of over forty species, several of which specialize in <em>O. cuniculus</em> (Delibes and Hiraldo 1981).  The diet of the Iberian lynx consists of 80-100% rabbits (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000), the Imperial eagle consumes 40-80% of its diet in rabbits, and the decline of <em>O. cuniculus</em> has been linked to the near extinction of these two predators (Zofio and Vega 2000).  <br/><br/>O. cuniculus is responsible for landscape modelling that supports vegetation growth typical to Spain and Portugal and creates habitat for invertebrate species (Virgos <em>et al</em>. 2005), increases species richness, and increase soil fertility (Willott <em>et al</em>. 2000).
41291		habitat	eng	The rabbit occupies a variety of habitats, including grassland, meadows, pastures, arable field-margins, sand-dunes, grassy cliffs, heathland and open woodland. In summer, it feeds on the vegetative parts of a variety of grasses and herbaceous plants, and in winter it eats grasses, bulbs and bark (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). It can be an agricultural pest in areas where it is abundant, and it has caused severe damage to native ecosystems in some areas where it has been introduced (for example Australia) (Ward 2005). Rabbits are an essential keystone element of the Mediterranean ecosystem in Spain and Portugal, being preyed on by at least 39 predator species including the Critically Endangered Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> and the vulnerable and range-restricted Iberian imperial eagle <em>Aquila adalberti</em> (Ward 2005, BirdLife International 2006). Rabbit declines are considered to have had a negative impact on both of these threatened species (Ward 2005, BirdLife International 2006).
41291		population	eng	<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> decline has escalated in recent years.  In Spain the rabbit has declined to 20% of the population size from 1975 (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005). As of 2005, rabbit populations in the Iberian peninsula have declined to as little as 5% of the number from 1950, based on the decrease in Donana National Park, a protected area (Delibes <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Density of rabbits has been recorded at a maximum of 40 per hectare in prime habitat, though the abundance has declined significantly since the arrival of new threats in the mid 20th century (Angulo 2004). <br/><br/>In Portugal, a population reduction of 24% was recorded between 1995 and 2002 (Alves and Ferreira 2002).<br/><br/>Decline has been uneven across the range, due to varying degrees of threat (Ward 2005).
41291		population	eng	It is a common species throughout much of its European range. Population densities of 0.5 to 10 individuals per hectare are typical, with densities of up to 100 individuals per hectare having been recorded (Homolka and Zima 1999). However, in at least some parts of Europe the species has undergone significant decline in recent years. In Portugal, a population reduction of 24% was recorded between 1995 and 2002 (Alves and Ferreira 2002), and in Spain and Portugal as a whole it is estimated that there are now as few as 5% of the number of rabbits that existed 50 years ago (Ward 2005). Large declines since 1990 have also been noted in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005) and Germany (Eylert 2004), and in the UK the species declined significantly between 1995 and 2002 (different survey methods give a 48% decline from 1995-2002 and a 23% decline from 1997-2002: Battersby 2005). Subspecies <em>O. c. huxleyi</em>, which occurs on certain Atlantic and Mediterranean islands, has a restricted range and may be threatened (Homolka and Zima 1999).
41291		threats	eng	Myxomatosis caused severe population declines in the 1950s, but numbers subsequently rallied as the myxoma virus become less virulent and the rabbit more immune (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Macdonald and Tattersall 2001). Myxomatosis was deliberately introduced to Europe in 1952 in an effort to control rabbit numbers; it originates from South America (Ward 2005). Declines in recent years have been attributed to Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD; also known as DHV), myxomatosis, and over-hunting (Ward 2005, Spitzenberger 2005). RHD is believed to have originated in Europe, where it was first detected in 1987 (Ward 2005). Habitat loss (due to agriculture, forestry, development, forest fires and land abandonment) is considered to be a contributory factor to rabbit decline in Iberia (Ward 2005). It is a popular game species, and over-hunting may be a problem in some parts of its range. Pest control measures may cause local population declines. There have been attempts in Australia to develop a genetically modified immunocontraceptive virus for rabbits, and accidental or deliberate illegal spread of such a virus could be a threat to rabbits in the future (Henzell and Cooke 2003, Trout 2003, Ward 2005).
41291		threats	eng	The greatest force behind the decline of <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> has been two diseases that appeared in the 20th century.  Myxomatosis is a South American virus, primarily spread by insect (mosquito and flea) vectors, that was intentionally introduced by a farmer in the mid 1950s in France to control the rabbit population (Angulo and Cooke 2002).   An estimated 90% of European rabbits have perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005). After symptom onset, death results in an average of 13 days (Ward 2005).  Rabbits with the virus are made more vulnerable to predators (Villafuerte <em>et al</em>. 1995).  Juveniles are more susceptible to myxomatosis than adults. Myxomatosis cases peak during early summer to fall (Angulo 2004). <br/><br/>Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD) is a virus that appeared in Europe in the late 1980’s, initially causing the death of 55-75% of rabbits in the Iberian peninsula (Villafuerte <em>et al</em>. 1995).  RHD is primarily spread by direct contact.  Death typically results within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time of under 48 hours (Villafuerte <em>et al</em>. 1995).  Adult rabbits are more susceptible to RHD than juveniles (unlike myxomatosis), and RHD is more prevalent in late winter and spring (Angulo 2004).  Global warming may increase disease incidence by creating a warmer, drier climate in Spain and Portugal (Ward 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat loss and fragmentation are continuing causes of decline for <em>O. cuniculus</em>, which requires scrub-forest vegetation for food and shelter (Ward 2005).  Modern intensive agriculture negatively impacts rabbits more than small scale mixed farming, which may have initially increased suitable habitat within the rabbit’s natural range (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000).  High intensity livestock production contributes to habitat degradation and resource competition.  Fallow farm land often returns to closed forest rather than scrub, which is not a suitable habitat (Ward 2005).  Tree plantations planted in Spain and Portugal have replaced habitat for both rabbits and their predators and urbanization presents a threat as does increased fire danger in existing habitat, and climate change (Ward 2005). <br/><br/>Exploitation of <em>O. cuniculus</em> by humans has recently become a threat, especially as the populations are already declining due to other causes, so rabbits cannot sustain hunting and control measures as well as in the past.  Farmers control rabbit populations directly by poisoning, trapping, and destroying warrens.  They indirectly cause decline through habitat conversion and excessive pesticide and fertilizer use.  Hunting presents a threat to rabbit populations, compounded by their existing decline from disease, possibly eliminating many rabbits that have acquired resistance to the diseases (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000).  70% of Spain is designated as hunting area.  Hunter registration doubled between 1960 and 2005 (Angulo 2003), though the overall catch is declining, probably due to shrinking rabbit abundance (Ward 2005).<br/><br/>Future threats to the European rabbit may include a genetically modified version of the myxomatosis virus being developed in Australia to suppress rabbit fertility where the European rabbit has been introduced (ABC 2003).  Unlicensed release of the modified virus to the native range could devastate the remaining populations (Ward 2005).
41292		conservation	eng	<em>Poelagus marjorita</em> is found in protected areas within its range, including the Garamba National Park in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>It is possible that no form of additional protection may be required (Duthie and Robinson 1990), but more research regarding population size, ecology, and the effects of threats should be conducted.
41292		distribution	eng	Specimen records included in a 1974 report (Kingdon 1974) indicate that <em>Poelagus marjorita</em> occurs in two separate areas of central Africa. This report and a later review (Duthie and Robinson 1990) concluded that the northern extent of the larger range stretches from southeastern Chad through southern Sudan to northwestern Kenya, through most of Uganda (excluding the extreme southeast), western Rwanda and Burundi, northern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, former Zaire), all of Central African Republic (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Kingdon 1974). The second area is predominantly in northwestern Angola and southwestern DRC (Kingdon 1974; Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>A new survey of specimen distribution (Happold and Wendelen 2006) proposes that the distribution of <em>P. marjorita</em> is actually smaller than previous accounts have reported. Based on specimen records, there is no indication that <em>P. marjorita</em> exists in Angola, southern DRC, northwestern Kenya, Rwanda, Chad, or Burundi. The accounts are restricted to Uganda, southern Sudan, northeastern DRC, and eastern (and possibly central) Central African Republic (Happold and Wendelen 2006).
41292		habitat	eng	<em>Poelagus marjorita</em> exists primarily in moist savanna grassland, woodlands with rocky outcrops, and less prominently in forested areas (Duthie and Robinson 1990). They often dwell in rock crevices, and are associated in some areas with hyrax habitat (Kingdon 1974). It is a nocturnal feeder, foraging on flowers, newly sprouted grasses, and "much attracted to heavily grazed, newly mowed or burnt areas where the grass is short" (Duthie and Robinson 1990). The primary habitat of grassland is periodically burnt and grazed, which provides for a more frequent supply of sprouted plants (Kingdon 1974).  <br/><br/>Breeding probably occurs throughout the year (Duthie and Robinson 1990). Gestation is around 5 weeks (Kingdon 1974) with litters of one or two altricial young (Duthie and Robinson 1990).
41292		population	eng	<em>Poelagus marjorita</em> is widespread and common within some parts of its range, including northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan, though little is known about abundance in other areas (Duthie and Robinson 1990).
41292		threats	eng	Little is known about the threats to <em>Poelagus marjorita</em>. Though the grassland habitat is annually or biannually burnt leaving the rabbit vulnerable to predators, this pattern actually promotes vegetation growth included in <em>P. marjorita</em>’s diet (Kingdon 1974). <br/><br/><em>P. marjorita</em> is hunted locally and some of its habitat is utilized for cultivation of peanuts and rice, but little is known of the effects of these threats (Duthie and Robinson 1990).
41293		conservation	eng	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> exists in abundance in national and provincial parks and wildlife refuges within its range, and protected seasonally as a game species by Provincial Nature Conservation agencies (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Sustainable utilization is recommended, as well as research in the areas of life history, genetics, and survey studies (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41293		distribution	eng	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> is found in south-eastern South Africa (provinces of Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and Mpumalanga), Swaziland (Lumbobo and highveld regions), southern Mozambique (Maputo Province), and eastern Lesotho (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999; Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is found from sea level to 1,550 m in elevation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>Extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km², and area of occupancy greater than 2,001 km² (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41293		habitat	eng	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> occurs in rocky areas on hill and mountain slopes with grass or scrub vegetation (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  The habitat of P. crassicaudatus is naturally fragmented due to the distribution of suitable habitat (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>The diet of <em>P. crassicaudatus</em> consists of sprouting grasses (Duthie and Robinson 1990)
41293		population	eng	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> is fairly common throughout its distribution, though the population is experiencing a decline due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting/trapping pressure in rural areas where the rabbit occurs (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Greater than 10,000 mature individuals exist (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There is a predicted decline in total population of 20% or more until the year 2022 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41293		threats	eng	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> is found in a limited area in coastal and inland southern Africa.  Here, human populations largely of lower income who hunt local fauna for subsistence are increasing, thereby increasing the threat to this otherwise abundant species (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Agriculture and habitat encroachment are also causing a decline of <em>P. crassicaudatus</em> (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Since the 1900's, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss (until 2022) is expected to remain between 21-50% (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41294		conservation	eng	In South Africa, <em>Pronolagus randensis</em> occurs in national and provincial parks and wildlife refuges, and is seasonally protected by Provincial Nature Conservation agencies as a game species (Duthie and Robinson 1990).
41294		distribution	eng	<em>Pronolagus randensis</em> occurs in northeastern South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, and a separate population exists marginally in western Angola to central Namibia (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km², and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41294		habitat	eng	<em>Pronolagus randensis</em> occurs in rocky areas on hill or mountainsides with grass or scrub vegetation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). Tracts of unsuitable habitat cause natural fragmentation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>P. randensis</em> consists of sprouting grasses (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  This species breeds year round and has 1-2 young per litter (Duthie and Robinson 1990).
41294		population	eng	<em>Pronolagus randensis</em> is fairly common throughout its distribution (Duthie and Robinson 1990). There is no evidence of gene flow between the two isolated populations (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Greater than 10,000 individuals exist in South Africa (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Future decline in total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41294		threats	eng	Some decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine and eucalyptus within <em>Pronolagus randensis</em> habitat (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Since the 1900s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2102 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Hunting of <em>P. randensis</em> occurs for food and sport (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41295		conservation	eng	In South Africa, <em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> occurs in national and provincial parks and wildlife refuges, and is seasonally protected by Provincial Nature Conservation agencies as a game species (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Sustainable utilization is recommended, as well as research in the areas of status surveys and life history (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Few data exist for the east African distribution and research should be conducted in the areas of threats,  population and habitat status.  Taxonomic revision is also suggested for this species.
41295		distribution	eng	<em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> occurs in South Africa (Free State, North-West, and Northern Cape provinces), and Lesotho, and in a separate population in south-western Kenya, central Tanzania, eastern Zambia, and Malawi (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999; Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).   It is no longer thought to occur in Namibia as indicated by other treatments (Bronner <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km², and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41295		habitat	eng	<em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> occurs on rocky slopes and the tops of rocky outcrops of mountains and hills, where grass or scrub vegetation occurs (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004). Areas of unsuitable habitat cause some natural habitat fragmentation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>P. rupestris</em> consists of sprouting grasses (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Litter size is 1-2 young (Duthie and Robinson 1990).
41295		population	eng	This species is characterized as abundant in the Springbok and Kuruman areas of its distribution (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It has a population size of greater than 10,000 in South Africa (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In South Africa, population decline of greater than 10% is predicted to occur by the year 2022 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  There is no data regarding the status of the east African distribution.
41295		threats	eng	Hunting of <em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> poses a threat to the species (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Habitat loss due to building houses on rocky outcrops also occurs, but this is not currently considered a serious threat (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  There has been a greater than 20% loss of habitat since the 1900's and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until the year 2022 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41296		conservation	eng	Hunting of <em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> is managed individually by state wildlife agencies (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Because <span style="font-style: italic;">S. aquaticus</span> occurs in many instances on small tracts of private land, management becomes problematic (Scheibe and Henson 2003). Increasing the area of continuous tracts of suitable habitat may be key to <em>S. aquaticus</em> conservation (Scheibe and Henson 2003).<br/><br/><em>S. aquaticus</em> is currently found in three managed areas in Missouri: Mingo National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Duck Creek Conservation Area, and Donaldson Point Conservation Area (Scheibe and Henson 2003). It also occurs in White River NWR in Arkansas, Panther Swamp NWR, Mathews Brake NWR, Hillside NWR, and Morgan Brake NWR in Mississippi, Atchafalaya NWR in Louisiana, Deep Fork NWR in Oklahoma, and Chickasaw NWR in Tennessee (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2006).
41296		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> occurs in the southeastern United States in eastern Texas and Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, most of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, the western tip of the Florida panhandle, western Georgia, western Tennessee, far western Kentucky, the northwestern tip of South Carolina, far southern Illinois, and the south sections of Missouri (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  <br/><br/><em>S. a. littoralis</em> occurs only in the southern gulf coastal section of the range. <em>S. a. aquaticus</em> occurs in the northern section of the range, more common in dense forest (Chapman and Feldhamer 1981, Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
41296		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> occurs in swampy, lowland, or river bottom areas, always near water (Chapman and Feldhamer 1981). Forested wetlands and lowland hardwood forests are also preferred (Scheibe and Henson 2003). The amphibious nature of <em>S. aquaticus</em> offers it some protection from predators and hunters (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. aquaticus</em> prefers a diet of sedges and also feeds on grasses and forbs (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  <br/><br/>Females have litter sizes from one to six, and produce two to five litters per year (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Gestation is 35-40 days (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998).
41296		population	eng	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> is an important game species in much of its range and is known to be locally abundant in some areas and appears to be declining in others (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Barbour <em>et al.</em> 2001; Scheibe and Henson 2003). Few studies have been conducted to determine the abundance or decline of <em>S. aquaticus</em>.<br/><br/>In Missouri, the overall area of suitable habitat is decreasing, but there are still several viable populations within the known range, and there is some indication that new populations have recently been naturally established, possibly due to dispersal facilitated by flooding (Scheibe and Henson 2003). <br/><br/>In Illinois, a 1995-1997 study showed a stable distribution of <em>S. aquaticus</em> in this range over the previous ten years (Barbour <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In Louisiana, there are large tracts of suitable habitat and it is an important game species (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>In South Carolina, Rabbit Hunter Survey 2006-2007 shows that there is a decline in rabbits jumped/hour, 1.39 (2006) to 1.26 (2007) (South Carolina Rabbit Hunter Survey, 2006-2007).
41296		threats	eng	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> is a favourite game species, though its speed, ability to swim, and nature of its habitat offers some protection from hunters and predators (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). Hunting is regulated by individual state wildlife agencies (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). While hunting is not a major threat to stable populations, <em>S. aquaticus</em> appears to have a sensitivity to harvest in the late season (winter) (Bond <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Habitat loss has been the greatest cause of decline of <em>S. aquaticus</em>. In Missouri in 1973, a decline of suitable habitat from 850,000 ha to 40,000 ha was recorded over the previous 103 years (Korte and Fredrickson 1977). The habitat was converted from forest to cropland. <br/><br/>Habitat fragmentation is an issue associated with human encroachment upon <em>S. aquaticus</em> habitat. Many <em>S. aquaticus</em> populations exist on small tracts of private property, impeding dispersal and creating difficulties for management (Scheibe and Henson 2003). <br/><br/>Flooding of wet forested areas has a negative impact on S. aquaticus populations, but floods in some areas induce dispersal (Scheibe and Henson 2003).
41297		conservation	eng	<em>S. audubonii</em> is managed a game species in the USA by individual state wildlife agencies. None of the subspecies are known to be under threat and no new conservation measures are needed (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
41297		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus audubonii</em> occurs in the western USA and north and central Mexico. In the USA the western  boundary  is the Pacific Ocean and in the east it barely extends into the Great Plains. The far northern extent of the range almost reaches Canada in eastern Montana and southwestern North Dakota, extending south through Wyoming, western South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, the panhandle of Oklahoma, and western Texas. Except for extreme mountainous areas, the range includes Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, south and central Utah, southern Nevada, and all but northern California (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). In Mexico, the range includes all of Baja California, Baja California Sur, most of Sonora and Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, western Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, eastern Durango, northern Sinaloa, north-eastern Jalisco, northern Guanajuato, northern Queretaro, central Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, north-central Puebla, and a small area in western Veracruz (Vargas Cuenca and Cervantes 2005).<br/><br/><em>S. audubonii</em> occurs from below sea level in Death Valley, California, to 1,829 m or higher (Chapman and Willner 1978).
41297		habitat	eng	<em>S. audubonii</em> inhabits arid and mountain regions from woodlands, grasslands to deserts at low elevations (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  They appear to avoid midday heat and are active in the twilight hours of dawn and dusk as well as at night (Hoffmeister 1986).<br/><br/>The breeding season begins in December or January for a length of seven to nine months. Mean litter sizes vary among populations, between 2.6-3.6 young per litter, which is small for the genus (Chapman and Willner 1978).  Total length for this species ranges from 37.2-40.0 cm (Vargas Cuenca and Cervantes 2005).<br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. audubonii</em> varies depending on habitat and cover. Field dwelling rabbits feed almost exclusively on grasses, but will eat diverse vegetation when available (Chapman and Willner 1978, Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/>Early evidence indicated that <em>S. audubonii</em> is short-lived and one study found that no rabbit lived past the age of 19 months, while most rabbits lived less than one year (Chapman and Willner 1978).
41297		population	eng	Little specific data regarding population density and abundance exists, but <em>S. audubonii</em> is known to be common throughout most of its range in Mexico and is not considered to be threatened by state game agencies in the USA (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). A report in 1947 showed that a population in the San Joaquin Experimental Range in California had a population density that fluctuated over three years (1939-41) of 4.7, 1.6, and 2.9 individuals per hectare (Chapman and Willner 1978). A study in northeastern Colorado showed a density of 16.3 individuals per hectare (Flinders and Hansen 1973).<br/><br/>In the Reserva de la Biosfera de Mapimi in Durango, Mexico, the <em>S. audubonii</em> population is declining (Portales 2004).
41297		threats	eng	<em>S. audubonii</em> is widespread and common in many parts of its range, including Mexico, but cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing may affect some populations (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Predation by invasive alien species, including domestic dogs and cats, presents a threat in some areas populated by humansi (Chapman and Willner 1978). <br/><br/><em>S. audubonii</em> is hunted for sport and local subsistence and as an important game species it is managed by individual states in the USA, where it is not considered to be under threat (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  <br/><br/>Human-induced fire may represent a threat for some populations. Competition with <em>Lepus californicus</em> may affect <em>S. audubonii</em> populations.
41298		conservation	eng	<em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> is in need of a systematic survey. Its distribution remains unclear with regard to the Amazon region and most of the ecological data is from studies of rabbits in the Paramos of Venezuela (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  The effect of deforestation on abundance requires more study (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
41298		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> occurs from southern Tamaluipas, Mexico along the eastern coast of Mexico (excluding the states of Yucatan, Quintana Roo, and Campeche), through Guatemala, (possibly) El Salvador, Honduras, eastern Nicaragua, eastern Costa Rica, Panama, and through the northern half of South America (except at high altitudes), including Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina, and most of Brazil.  Distribution in the Amazon region is unknown (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 4,800 m (Ruedas and Salazar-Bravo 2007).
41298		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> primarily inhabits tropical rain forests, deciduous forests, and second growth forests in Mexico and Central America (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). It is also found in pastures bordering forest habitat (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/>As recorded in two localities, Chiapas, Mexico, and the Andean Paramos in South America, <em>S. brasiliensis</em> reproduces year-round (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Gestation time is variable according to location (28-44 days) (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  This species has a small mean litter size (1.2) compared to other members of the genus (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Total length ranges form 25.0-42.0 cm (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41298		population	eng	No recent population assessments are available, but in Mexico, <em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> populations are known to decline when its habitat is deforested, though it is able to survive well in second growth forest and pasture (Alvarez de Toro 1977).  According to Durant (1986), abundance of <em>S. b. meridensis</em> in high mountains of Venezuela was reduced to 0.04 animals/ha from previously recorded levels of 4.8 animals/ha due to habitat loss.
41298		threats	eng	Habitat loss by deforestation and human settlement poses a threat to this species.  As artificial savanna and scrubland replaces tropical forest, <em>S. floridanus</em> range expands and displaces S. brasiliensis (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  This species may be at risk to predators that follow <em>S. floridanus</em> as it spreads new habitat that borders its own (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  The effect of deforestation on the abundance of <em>S. brasiliensis</em> is not well known (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  In Mexico populations decline when habitat is deforested, but <em>S. brasiliensis</em> is known to do well in pasture and second growth forest (Alvarez de Toro 1977).
41299		conservation	eng	<em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> is the most important regulated game animal in the USA. While <em>S. floridanus</em> does not appear to be declining, it has spread and has been introduced widely outside its original range, where it sometimes presents a threat to sympatric species, such as <em>S. transitionalis</em> in north-eastern USA (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Research is needed regarding taxonomy, distribution, population size, and to determine how <em>S. floridanus</em> affects other species.
41299		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> is widely distributed throughout the USA (eastern USA east of the Rocky Mountains, portions of southwest and northwest), Central America (central and eastern Mexico, southwestern Guatemala, southern Honduras, El Salvador, central Nicaragua, northwestern Costa Rica), and occurs in southern Canada (Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec) and the northern part of South America (Colombia and Venezuela) (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/><em>S. floridanus</em> can survive in diverse habitats, allowing the range to spread quickly (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
41299		habitat	eng	The historical habitat of <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> was diverse, including deserts, swamps, glades, prairies, rain forests, boreal forests, hardwood forests, and woodlands (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980). In developed areas, S. floridanus survives well in farmland, pasture, and hedgerows (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. floridanus</em> is variable, depending on the type of habitat and the season, including woody plants in the dormant season and herbaceous plants in the growing season (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980).  Breeding season varies depending on elevation and latitude, with breeding activity beginning later at higher elevations and northern latitudes (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980).  Average gestation time is 28 days and size at birth ranges from 3.06-5.06 cm (Lorenzo and Cervantes 2005).  Litter sizes are 3-5 with 3-4 litters per year (Lorenzo and Cervantes 2005).  Total length ranges from 33.5-48.5 cm (Lorenzo and Cervantes 2005).
41299		population	eng	<em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> is abundant and widespread, and is a highly effective colonizer. New populations of <em>S. floridanus</em> have been successfully introduced outside its range, and in some cases, <em>S. floridanus</em> has been known to displace native Leporids, including <em>S. transitionalis</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Peak densities have been recorded at eight to ten individuals per ha (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>In Virginia, the population has declined over the past fifty years or so. This decline may be due to the loss of early successional habitat that is being turned into farmland and is exacerbated by an increase in the cottontail's predators.  In most years, 80% or more of the adult cottontails are killed.  However, in areas where there is good habitat there are still abundant populations (Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries).
41299		threats	eng	Although abundant, subpopulations of <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> are at risk from hunting pressure (sport and local subsistence) throughout its range, human perturbation, and predation from invasive alien species.  In some locations it is threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation.
41300		conservation	eng	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> is a common game species managed by individual state wildlife agencies, which regulate bag limits and hunting seasons (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
41300		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> occurs in the western USA in the intermountain area, from just north of the Canadian border in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan to northern New Mexico and Arizona, and from the eastern Rocky Mountains to the eastern Cascade-Sierra Nevada Range, extending north just into British Columbia (Chapman 1975).  The range of <em>S. nuttallii</em> has been largely taken over by <em>S. floridanus</em> in south-eastern North Dakota (Genoways and Jones 1972).<br/><br/>In California, <em>S. nuttallii</em> occurs from 1,372 m to at least 3,200 m in elevation (Chapman 1975).
41300		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> occurs in a variety of habitats throughout its range. In the north it primarily occupies sagebrush habitat, while in the south it occurs more frequently in forested areas (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/><em>S. nuttallii</em> feeds on sagebrush and juniper all year where this vegetation occurs, but grasses are preferred when available in spring and summer (Chapman 1975).  The breeding season is variable throughout the range of <em>S. nuttallii</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Gestation is 28-30 days (Chapman 1999).  A female may produce between two and five litters each year, with between four and six young in each litter (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  HB length is 33.8-37.1 cm (Chapman 1975).
41300		population	eng	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> is a common species throughout most of its range (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). The species has a varying population density from 0.06 to 2.5 per hectare in central Oregon, where it inhabits juniper scrublands (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).
41300		threats	eng	The spread of <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> has led to displacement of <em>S. nuttallii</em> in southeastern North Dakota (Genoways and Jones 1972).
41301		conservation	eng	Conservation measures proposed to prevent the decline of <em>Sylvilagus  obscurus</em> include:<br/><br/>1. Conservation of critical habitat and establishment and management of “Important Mammal Areas” (as in Pennsylvania) containing known populations, with appropriate publicity and public education programs.<br/>2. Additional surveying and population monitoring.<br/>3. Research on nest sites, dispersal, habitat, use of corridors, response to climactic change and stochastic events, effects of sport hunting, competition with other lagomorphs (i.e. eastern cottontail and snowshoe hare), and response to invasive vegetative species.<br/>4. Development and implementation of state management plans.<br/>5. Public education and awareness programs, particularly to educate the sportsmen public about the habitats that <em>S. obscurus</em> favours, to distinguish from the habitat that the game species <em>S. floridanus</em> prefers, as the two species are easily confused (Chapman 1999).
41301		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> occurs in discontinuous upland patches in the eastern United States including central Pennsylvania, western Maryland, western Virginia, eastern West Virginia, eastern Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, western North Carolina, north-western South Carolina, northern Georgia, and northern Alabama (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/>The type locality for <em>S. obscurus</em> is Dolly Sods, West Virginia (Tucker and Grant counties) in Monongahela National Forest, which is an important source population.
41301		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> is found at high elevations with conifers and ericaceous species; mixed oak forests and early successional (recent clearcut) habitats with dense, ericaceous vegetation (Bunch <em>et al.</em> 1997; Chapman 1999) or blackberry (Bunch <em>et al</em>. 1997). <em>S. obscurus</em> has also been recorded from old growth forest with dense understory (Bunch <em>et al.</em> 1997; Bunch and Dye 1999).  Dense understory that provides concealment and thermal cover is important (Laseter 1999).<br/><br/><em>S. obscurus</em> feeds on ferns, grasses, forbs, shrubs, and, unique among cottontails, conifer needles (Chapman 1999).  HB length is 38.6-43.0 cm (Chapman 1999).  Early March through early September is the breeding season for this species (Chapman 1999).  Gestation is 28 days and an average of 24 young/female are born annually (Chapman 1999).
41301		population	eng	<em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> populations are highly fragmented and in much of the range it is considered rare, except in portions of eastern Tennessee and the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia (Laseter 1999).  Densities of <em>S. obscurus</em> at Dolly Sods, West Virginia, reached a high of 0.7 individuals/ha, and densities in eastern Tennessee reached 0.8 individuals/ha (Laseter 1999).  In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, on the Tennessee side, only three records exist and none have been recorded since 1960.
41301		threats	eng	Threats to <em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> include:<br/><br/>1. Destruction, fragmentation, and maturation of habitat (Barbour and Litvaitis 1993). <br/>2. Urban and suburban development.<br/>3. Indirect encroachment on habitat by <em>S. floridanus</em>, which thrive better in developed areas and require less cover than <em>S. obscurus</em> (Barbour and Litvaitis 1993).<br/>4. Indiscriminate hunting may result from lack of knowledge by sportsmen or because <em>S. obscurus</em> is phenotypically similar to <em>S. floridanus</em> (Chapman 1999). <br/>5. Lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of this species.
41302		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for the species as a whole.<br/><br/>The San Joaquin Valley population of subspecies <em>Sylvilagus bachmani riparius</em> has been listed by the state of California as an endangered species (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000), and has been the subject of a recovery plan involving habitat management and captive breeding (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998, Hansen 2006).<br/><br/>The following timeline includes recent conservation measures implemented for <em>S. b. riparius</em>:<br/>1) Distribution and status review in 1986 (Williams and Basey 1986).<br/>2) Listing as a California Species of Special Concern (Williams and Basey 1986).<br/>3) Ecology and habitat management plan for Caswell Memorial State Park developed (Williams 1988).<br/>4) Populations estimate made for Caswell MSP in 1993, the only known population at the time (Williams 1993).<br/>5) Listed as an endangered species by the State of California in 1994 (State of California 1994).<br/>6) Featured species in the multi-species Recovery Plan for Upland Species of the San Joaquin Valley, California (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). <br/>7) Habitat management plan focused on wildfire and flooding developed (Close and Williams 1998).<br/>8) Listed as a USA endangered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2002 (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>9) Controlled Propagation and Reintroduction Plan for Riparian Brush Rabbits developed for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Williams and Hamilton 2002).<br/>10) Habitat acquisition and restoration begun by multi-agency CalFed Program with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as the land owner and manager, starting in 2000 and continuing to date (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>11) Controlled propagation facility constructed beginning in 2001 and completed in 2002 by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>12) Controlled propagation of riparian brush rabbits initiated in December 2001 with 3 males and 3 females (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>13) Forty-nine young rabbits from controlled propagation facility released in the wild in unoccupied historical habitat between July and October 2002 (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>14) In December 2002, 18 adult rabbits introduced into 3 controlled propagation pens (3 of each sex, each pen), producing 284 young, of which 214 had been released in the wild as of March 2004 (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41302		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em> is distributed along the Pacific coast of North America. It reaches the Columbia River in the north (Oregon-Washington border) and in the south it extends to the southern tip of Baja California. It extends east from the Pacific Ocean to the western Sierra Nevada mountain range (Chapman 1974). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. b. riparius</em> occurs only in Caswell Memorial State Park (MSP) on the Stanislaus River, and the South Delta area of the San Joaquin River, including Paradise Cut and Tom Paine Slough.  The park size is 253 acres, and population on the South Delta occurs on privately owned land (Williams and Hamilton 2002).  Even though there is other ideal habitat for <em>S. b. riparius</em> in MSP they are unable to reach it because there is no connecting habitat above flood level in MSP (Sandoval, Williams, and Colliver 2006). It occupies an elevational range of 0-2,070 m (Chapman 1974).<br/><br/>In Caswell Memorial State Park, Stanislaus River, San Joaquin County, California, USA, <em>S. b. riparius</em> occurs in about 90% of the park's 102 ha when populations are high, but about 20-40% of the Park at other times (Williams 1988, Williams 1993).<br/><br/>The South Delta population of <em>S. b. riparius</em>, in the vicinity of Mossdale and Lathrop, San Joaquin County, CA, USA, exists on about 122 ha of private land within an area of about 2,927 ha. Populations are found along Paradise Cut, Tom Paine Slough, Grantline Canal, and the San Joaquin River. Rabbits also are found along the narrow right-of-ways of two railroads running through the area. Habitat for <em>S. b. riparius</em> is distributed in discontinuous, narrow strands of riparian vegetation along streams, sloughs, and railroad beds adjacent to intensely cultivated fields. Most land in this area is planned for urban and industrial development within the next 1-10 years. Existing habitat is periodically cut or burned for weed and flood control (Williams and Hamilton 2002). <br/><br/>The re-introduced population of <em>S. b. riparius</em> is located in the San Joaquin River National Wildlife Refuge in Stanislaus County, California. This refuge has about 285 ha of habitat for brush rabbits. An additional few hundred hectares are actively being restored from cropland to natural, riparian vegetation. Refugia from flooding are also being established on the refuge for rabbits and other terrestrial wildlife (Hansen 2006).
41302		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em> requires dense brush cover, occupying disjunct bramble clumps, with the size of the clumps affecting home range size and suitability for occupation (Chapman 1974). Home ranges are small (less than 2,000 sq. meters) and are dependent upon habitat uniformity (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). The bramble habitat contains runways and occasionally burrows formed by other species (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Their diet consists predominantly of grasses, but it will consume alternative vegetation when seasonally available (Chapman 1974).  <br/><br/>The breeding season for <em>S. bachmani</em> varies from north to south, but appears to be uniform in length (Chapman 1974). In California, <em>S. bachmani</em> breeds from December to May or June, and in Oregon between February and August (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Litter size varies regionally, with an annual mean of 2.87 in Oregon, 3.50 in north and central California, and 4.00 in west-central California (Chapman 1974). Fecundity of <em>S. bachmani</em> is lower than other <em>Sylvilagus</em> species, producing about 15 young annually (Chapman 1974).  Gestation time is approximately 27 days (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005). Total length is 30.0-37.5 cm (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. b. riparius</em> occupies both old-growth riparian forest, dominated by Valley Oak (<em>Quercus lobata</em>) and riparian communities dominated by thickets of willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), wild roses (<em>Rosa</em> spp.), blackberries (<em>Rubus</em> spp.), and other successional trees and shrubs and when available dense tall stands of herbaceous plants adjacent to patches of riparian shrubs in the northern San Joaquin Valley, California. <em>S. b. riparius</em> stays close to dense stands of vegetation into which it retreats for escape, resting and nesting. They do not normally burrow or use burrows (Williams and Basey 1986, Williams 1988, Williams and Hamilton 2002).  <em>S. b. riparius</em> eats a great variety of woody and herbaceous plants, preferring green foliage of shrubs, grasses and forbs. Much of its foraging is concentrated at the edge between thickets of woody plants and more open ground with herbaceous plants. A favored habitat is willow thickets along stream banks (Orr 1940, Chapman 1974).
41302		population	eng	Except for the Riparian brush rabbit (subspecies <em>riparius</em>) which is state and federally listed as endangered (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004), <em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em> is considered common where it is known to exist, throughout Oregon, California, and Baja California (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/>The <em>S. b. riparius</em> population at Caswell Memorial State Park in San Joaquin County, California, USA, was statistically estimated in 1993, when there were 241 rabbits (approximate 95% confidence interval = 170-608) (Williams 1993). Similar censuses were conducted in 1997-2004, resulting in capture of 0 (1997) to 16 (2002) rabbits. Capture rates in the best year (2002) were only 27% of that of 1993, and captures and recaptures were too few in any one year since 1993 to use capture-recapture population models to meaningfully estimate population size (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/> <br/>Population censuses for the <em>S. b. riparius</em> South Delta metapopulation have not been conducted because of restrictions on activities on private land. However, capture rates for short-term assessments of presence and to capture breeders for a controlled propagation program suggest that this metapopulation has remained at fairly high densities for the past 7 years (when it was discovered). Capture rates for the South Delta metapopulation varied from 127% to 626% of the capture rate of the Caswell MSP population in 1993. The South Delta population probably consists of about 300-600 rabbits at peaks in population cycles (Lloyd <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41302		threats	eng	Hunting for food and the establishment of human settlements pose a threat to <em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em>, but the extent and severity are not quantified. <br/><br/>Decline in numbers and threats of extinction of subspecies <em>S. b. riparius</em> stem principally from actions involved in developments of irrigated agriculture in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Foremost of these developments were stream impoundment, channelization of streams on the valley floor and the San Joaquin River delta, and clearing and cultivation of natural communities. Riparian communities in the San Joaquin Valley have been reduced to about 1% of their historical extent, are found almost entirely within the levees of channelized streams. Most existing patches have been extensively degraded by wood cutting, livestock, invasion of exotic species, greater levels of flooding within levees, and lack of natural riverine processes (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). <br/><br/>Principal existing threats to <em>S. b. riparius</em> can be summarized in order of importance as: 1) stochastic environmental processes, wildfire and flood; 2) additional habitat loss and degradation due to urbanization and conversion to agriculture; 3) increased predation from domestic and feral cats and dogs due to urban development adjacent to existing inhabited sites; and 4) genetic and demographic stochasticity in small populations. While all of these are proximate threats, wildfire and flood are probably the most severe threats to the population at Caswell MSP. A less imminent threat is natural successional processes that are reducing habitat quality. Because the park has multiuse objectives, and because up-stream impoundments have greatly modified the natural flooding regime, secondary successional patches, especially those caused by scouring floods, are disappearing from the Park. The changes are noticeable and may be associated with the decline in <em>S. b. riparius</em> within the park (Williams and Hamilton 2002).<br/><br/>For the South Delta metapopulation of <em>S. b. riparius</em>, wildfire is a serious threat to each subpopulation, but would unlikely affect all subpopulations simultaneously. Flooding poses a more immediate metapopulation threat, because the entire area is approximately at sea level or below, rivers are channelized, and there are few or no refugia above flood level. Over the past several decades there have been numerous breaks in levees and widespread flooding. The most recent was in 1997 when only the top of the railroad beds were not under water. Typically, the only areas not flooded are built-up areas for railroads, levee tops, multilane highways and other developed sites. Likely these areas will be inundated at some time in the future when flooding is greater than it has been in recent decades. Urbanization also is viewed as an imminent threat because most of the known populations are adjacent to areas undergoing development planning, with construction slated to begin within 1-10 years. However, this threat may be mitigated by appropriate design and management of conservation lands set aside for brush rabbits and other organisms (Williams and Hamilton 2002).
41303		conservation	eng	<em>S. p. hefneri</em>: <br/><br/>Policy-based Actions: <em>S. p. hefneri</em> was listed as an endangered species by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service in 1990. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (1999) has developed and is in the process of implementing a recovery plan for the subspecies. Although feral and domestic cats are known threats to the subspecies, control measures have yet to be implemented, except on United States Navy land.<br/><br/>Research Actions: The distribution of the subspecies was recently updated (Faulhaber 2003) but the current population size has not been estimated. The ecology of the Lower Keys marsh rabbit is fairly well known (Forys and Humphrey 1996), though further research is needed concerning nighttime habitat use and nestling/juvenile mortality (Faulhaber 2003). Further research should also examine the movements, habitat use, and impact of feral and domestic cats throughout the rabbit's range. A population viability analysis model was developed for the subspecies (Forys and Humphrey 1999). Current distribution data need to be added to the model, and additional demography data would improve the model's predictive capability. <br/><br/>Habitat-based actions: Approximately two-thirds of local populations occur entirely on publicly-owned and military land (Faulhaber 2003). Faulhaber (2003) estimated that nearly 500 ha of privately-owned land could be purchased to ensure the protection of existing occupied and potential habitat patches and the area immediately surrounding these patches. Further land acquisition would help protect connectivity between local populations. Efforts to control invasive exotic vegetation are ongoing in rabbit habitat under public and military ownership. Future research and management should involve restoring rabbit habitat and enhancing cover in existing habitat (Faulhaber 2003).<br/><br/>Species-based Actions: A pilot reintroduction program has recently been initiated for the subspecies (Faulhaber 2003). If current efforts prove successful, the reintroduction program could be expanded in the future, possibly in conjunction with <em>in situ</em> captive propagation (Faulhaber 2003).  Translocation of wild-caught marsh rabbits had a 100% and a 81% survival rate for the individuals released on Water Key and Little Pine Key, respectively.  This study showed that translocation of a small founder group can be successful, important when working with a species, like <em>S. palustris</em>, whose source group could be imperiled by the removal of too many individuals (Faulhaber <em>et al.</em> 2006).
41303		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus palustris</em> occurs in the south-eastern coastal lowlands of the United States from the Dismal Swamp of southeastern Virginia, through eastern North Carolina, southeastern South Carolina, southern Georgia, southern Alabama, and most of Florida, excluding the extreme southeast, but including the Lower Keys of Florida (Chapman and Willner 1981; Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em>: <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em> is restricted to the Upper and Lower Keys of Florida (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Historically, the subspecies probably occupied all keys with suitable habitat in the Lower Keys. Currently, <em>S. p. hefneri</em> can be found on only 4 of the larger keys (Boca Chica, Saddlebunch, Sugarloaf, and Big Pine Keys) and on some of the surrounding smaller keys. More than 50% of the total occupied habitat was found on Big Pine and Boca Chica keys during a 2001-2005 survey (Faulhaber <em>et al.</em> 2007).  This survey also concluded a net loss of occupied patches compared to a conglomerate of surveys conducted between 1988-1995 (see discussion for possible cause) (Faulhaber <em>et al</em>. 2007).  The greatest loss of occupancy occurred on Saddlebunch Keys (Faulhaber <em>et al</em>. 2007).  There is a gap in the rabbit's current distribution between Big Pine Key and Sugarloaf Key, and the rabbit has been extirpated on Key West (Faulhaber 2003).  A recent phylogenetic analysis determined that populations on either side of the gap island complex (islands extending from Middle Torch Key to Cudjoe Key) represent distinct haplogroups with little gene flow between the two (Crouse 2005).  However, the author notes that an investigation of more individuals from a greater variety of locations east of the gap would elucidate the degree of geographic separation (Crouse 2005).  Fecal pellets of <em>S. p. hefneri</em> were discovered in a single patch on No Name Key in 2001 but have not been located on the island since (Faulhaber 2003).<br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em> exists as a metapopulation in small patches of brackish and freshwater wetland habitat. A distribution survey conducted by Faulhaber (2003) found 535 ha of occupied habitat and 266 ha of potential habitat. However, because the subspecies exists as a metapopulation, the area of occupancy varies through time. These estimates are conservative, as they only included areas of known use (e.g. areas with fecal pellets or sightings of individuals). It is possible that these estimates underestimate the area of occupancy, because the degree of use of adjacent, "unsuitable" vegetation types (e.g. upland hardwood hammocks, pinelands, and mangrove swamps) could not be determined. The greatest abundance of the subspecies occurs on Boca Chica, Saddlebunch, Sugarloaf, and Big Pine Keys. <br/><br/>The current extent of occurrence for the subspecies <em>S. p. hefneri</em> is 90 km² (Faulhaber 2003).
41303		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus palustris</em> occurs in marshy habitats, mostly with brackish waters, but is also known to occur along freshwater wetlands (Tomkins 1935; Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It has also been documented in grassy fields; mangroves; hammocks; fallow tomato fields; and “rank vegetation” along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields (Carr 1939; Schwartz 1952; Layne 1974). It is a nocturnal species that often walks as opposed to hopping and is a good swimmer (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Reproduction occurs all year for <em>S. palustris</em>, with around six litters annually per each adult female, with approximately three young per litter (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Gestation is approximately 39-40 days (Hamilton and Whitaker 1979).  The diet of <em>S. palustris</em> includes a variety of aquatic plants, herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants, cultivated crops (Chapman and Willner 1981), as well as grasses, sedges, and flowers (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><br/>S. p. hefneri:<br/><br/>S. p hefneri is usually found in saltmarsh/buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes within the Lower Keys (Forys <em>et al.</em> 1996; Faulhaber 2003). The saltmarsh/buttonwood transition zone forms the transition between lowland mangrove areas and upland hardwood hammocks and pineland. This transition zone can be subdivided into: 1) an intertidal marsh, occurring at lower elevations and characterized by low halophytic vegetation; 2) a grassy saltmarsh, which occurs at slightly higher elevations and is dominated by grasses and Cyperaceae; and 3) buttonwood transitional vegetation, consisting of grasses and Cyperaceae with an open canopy of buttonwood transitional habitat for foraging and daytime resting sites (Forys 1995). Forys (1995) found that the grassy saltmarsh was commonly used for nests. Rabbits also forage in the intertidal marsh and mangroves, and they occasionally use mangroves for daytime form sites (Forys 1995; Faulhaber 2003). <br/><br/>Freshwater wetlands used by S. p. hefneri are usually dominated by sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) and often include patches of buttonwood trees or other hardwoods (Faulhaber 2003). Faulhaber (2003) noted that rabbits on Boca Chica Key inhabited disturbed mesic grasslands dominated by Schizachyrium gracile, with patches of invasive exotic lead tree (Leucaena leucocephala) used for cover. Historically, S. p. hefneri also was found on coastal beach berms (United States Fish and Wildlife Service 1999).<br/><br/>S. p. hefneri exists as a metapopulation in small patches of habitat spread throughout the Lower Keys (Forys and Humphrey 1996). Adult rabbits establish permanent home ranges within these patches, with same sex ranges rarely overlapping (Forys 1995). The average home range reported by Forys and Humphrey (1996) was 3.96 ha, while data collected by Faulhaber (2003) suggests a mean home range of 1.2 ha .  Females reproduce year-round, with a mean of 3.7 litters per year and 1-3 young per litter (Forys 1995). The reproductive rate of the Lower Keys marsh rabbit may be lower than that of other subspecies; Holler and Conaway (1979) noted a mean of 5.7 litters per year with 2-4 young per litter for S. p. paludicola. Young leave the nest after about 2 weeks and often disperse from their natal patch after 8-10 months (Forys 1995). Dispersal appears to be male-biased, and dispersing rabbits tend to use thick cover and native vegetation types rather than disturbed areas (Forys 1995).<br/><br/>Known predators of the S. p. hefneri include raptors, eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) (Howe 1988; Forys 1995).
41303		population	eng	Other than the Lower Keys subspecies, little is known about the populations of <em>Sylvilagus palustris</em>, but it is known to be locally abundant in favorable habitat, with the largest populations occurring along the Ogeechee, Satilla, and St. Mary’s rivers in Georgia (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em>: <br/><br/>Once common in the Lower Keys, <em>S. p. hefneri</em> is now rare and has become extirpated on several islands within its range. In 1999, the United State Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that only 100-300 adults remained (Faulhaber 2003). A widened search led to the discovery of additional occupied habitat patches from 2001-2003. However, the overall population size remains low. A recent study by Faulhaber (2003) at Texas A&M University estimated that the current population contains 200-700 mature individuals, with no key containing more than 250 mature individuals. A PVA model using data collected from 1991-1993 predicted that the species would have a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years (Forys 1995; Forys and Humphrey 1999).<br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em> occurs as a metapopulation in small habitat patches on 4 larger keys and several smaller surrounding islands. A distribution survey conducted between 2001-2003 mapped 220 patches of occupied (n=102) and potential (n=118) habitat ranging in size from 0.1-51 ha. The median patch size was 2.4 ha (interquartile range = 0.7-5.1 ha) (Faulhaber 2003). Some of these patches may be part of the same local population; Faulhaber (2003) hypothesized that the occupied patches are arranged into 56 occupied local populations. These local populations interact through dispersing individuals. Dispersal may be frequent enough that these local populations do not fit the IUCN's definition of "subpopulations." Lower Keys marsh rabbits have been known to disperse as far as 2 km (Forys and Humphrey 1996), so most patches within keys are likely part of the same "subpopulation."<br/><br/>However, although the species is thought to be an excellent swimmer (Tomkins 1935), the rate of genetic exchange between keys is unknown (researchers at Texas A&M University were examining this issue at the time of writing). Certainly, rabbits on Big Pine Key and its surrounding islands are isolated from rabbits on Boca Chica, Saddlebunch, and Sugarloaf keys. Moreover, rabbits have not naturally recolonized the keys between Big Pine Key and Sugarloaf Key, indicating that the interchange of dispersers among keys is probably low. The Lower Keys marsh rabbit may therefore be separated into three large subpopulations (Boca Chica Key, Saddlebunch/Sugarloaf complex, and Big Pine Key) and several small subpopulations on outer islands (Faulhaber 2003).
41303		threats	eng	<em>Sylvilagus palustris</em> is considered an agricultural pest in some areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). They are hunted in the southern United States (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em>:<br/><br/>The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed S. p. hefneri as endangered in 1990. The primary reason cited for listing the species was the loss and fragmentation of its habitat due to human development. Over the last 25 years, greater than 50% of the Lower Keys marsh rabbit's habitat was lost to human development. Human development has also resulted in increased isolation for some patches, reducing the likelihood of recolonization. Although the rate of habitat loss has slowed since the rabbit received legal protection, habitat destruction and fragmentation remain significant threats to the species' persistence (Faulhaber 2003).  LaFever <em>et al.</em> (2007) modelled the potential impact resulting from oceanic rise, due to thermal expansion only, on <em>S. palustris</em> habitat.  They found that the three most important factors impacting potential change were: the rate at which sea-level rise impacts the ability of flora migration upslope, the magnitude in terms of the overall oceanic rise and whether it is great enough to reach <em>S. palustris</em> habitat, and whether or not humans abandon low-lying habitat, where abandonment would facilitate greater ease of upslope migration by vegetation.  They concluded that non-static strategies needed to be implemented regarding management of the local ecosystem (i.e. consideration of land-use planning, use of bioclimatic reserve systems in conjunction with corridors) (LaFever <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/><br/>Additional threats to the subspecies include mortality from cars and cats, both domestic and feral. Cars and cats accounted for more than half of the mortalities observed by E.A. Forys on Boca Chica in the early 1990s (Forys 1993). Faulhaber (2003) estimated that just over half of occupied local populations are reasonably likely to have current or future impacts due to cats. A recent population viability analysis supports this assertion, indicating that without predator control, habitat improvement efforts may result in a negligible increase in the chance for persistence (LaFever 2006). The subspecies is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing and off-road vehicle use (Forys 1993). If left unchecked, invasive exotic vegetation can render patches unsuitable for rabbits. Management efforts have reduced the threat of invasive exotic vegetation on some government-owned properties, but invasive exotic vegetation remains a problem on privately-owned land parcels and even on some government properties. Currently, trash dumping and off-road vehicle use appear to be less of a problem than in the past (Forys 1993; Faulhaber 2003).<br/><br/>It has been suggested that invasive exotic fire ants (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>) and elevated raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) densities also pose a threat to the subspecies, but this has not been confirmed (Forys 1993). Historically, poaching may have contributed to the rabbit's decline, but poaching does not appear to be a major threat at the current time. Feral hogs degraded habitat and may have caused the extirpation of rabbits on Little Pine Key, but hogs were removed from the islands in the 1990s (Wilmers 2003).
41304		conservation	eng	<em>Ochotona nigritia</em> is a newly described species that requires comprehensive studying.  Taxonomic data are needed to determine if this is a melanistic form of <em>O. forresti</em>.  In China, this species has been regionally assessed as Endangered under criteria C2a(i,ii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
41304		distribution	eng	<em>Ochotona nigritia</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is "known only from the vicinity of the type locality," Piyanma, Yunnan (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species can be found at 3,200 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41304		habitat	eng	There is no information concerning the habitat and ecology of <em>Ochotona nigritia</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).
41304		population	eng	There are no data regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona nigritia</em>.
41304		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Ochotona nigritia</em> is exposed to any major threats.
41305		conservation	eng	The main conservation actions are:<br/>-improve data of the distribution and status of the species in Italian peninsula and in Corsica<br/>-conservation and improvement of natural populations<br/>-habitat improvement<br/>-minimizing risk factors<br/>-planning specific oriented management both in protected areas and in hunting territories at a local level<br/>-carrying out a number of enclosures for captive breeding and initiating behavioral study on <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corsicanus</span><br/>-promote a public educational campaign to develop the awareness and understanding of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corsicanus</span><br/>-prepare a training program on biology and conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corsicanu</span>s for field biologists, conservationists, game keepers, and protected areas staff<br/>-creation of a data bank on the species<br/>-improvement of scientific research <br/>-place the species on a suitable legal status for international legislation<br/><br/>Today <em>L. corsicanus</em> is legally protected in continental Italy because of its conservation status (primarily low population size).  However, the problematic discrimination in the field between <em>L. corsicanus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> (a game species) produces remarkable problems for effective protection.  Since <em>L. corsicanus</em> was recognized as a true species (1998), hare hunting has been banned in Sicily.  During the 2004-2005 hunting season, this ban was lifted allowing the hunting of hares in Sicily.  In Corsica it is considered a game species, in the French hunting act, since it cannot easily be distinguished from <em>L. europaeus</em>.<br/><br/><em>Lepus corsicanus</em> can be found in many protected areas in Italy.  The following is a partial list.<br/>Continental Italy:<br/>Parco Regionale della Maremma<br/>Parco Regionale Monti Lucretili<br/>Parco Regionale dell'Appennino "Monti Simbruini"<br/>Parco Regionale del Cilento<br/>Parco Nazionale della Sila<br/>Parco Nazionale del Pollino<br/>Parco Nazionale dell'Aspromonte<br/><br/>Sicily:<br/>Parco Regionale dell'Etna<br/>Parco Regionale dei Monti Nebrodi<br/>Parco Regionale delle Madonie
41305		distribution	eng	Until the 1930s, <em>L. corsicanus</em> was distributed in south-central Italy (the northern limit being marked by Elba Island on the Tyrrhenian coast and the province of Foggia on the Adriatic coast) and Sicily. It was also present in Corsica, where it was introduced by man in historical times (maybe between the 14th and 17th centuries). The current distribution of <em>L. corsicanus</em> is still poorly known. In Sicily, the distribution seems to be continuous, whereas in the Italian Peninsula, populations are known only in Tuscany (in Grosseto province), Latium, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia (Gargano), Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,400 m a.s.l. on Mount Etna. Recently the presence of <em>L. corsicanus</em> has been rediscovered in Corsica, too (Scalera and Angelici 2002). As of 1984, <em>L. corsicanus</em> was thought to be possibly extinct in Corsica; however, one dead specimen was found in 2000 and two dead specimens were examined in 2001 (Scalera and Angelici 2002).
41305		habitat	eng	Information about the ecology of this species is still limited. However, it seems well adapted to the Mediterranean environment, although it has been recorded from sea level to 2,400 m a.s.l. on Mount Etna (Sicily). The preferred habitats are the Mediterranean maquis and the mosaic of clearings (also cultivated), bushy areas, and broad-leaved woods. Furthermore <em>L. corsicanus</em> inhabits also coastal dune habitat. When <em>L. corsicanus</em> is in sympatry with <em>L. europaeus</em>, the latter species tends to be more a habitat generalist, while <em>L. corsicanus</em> seems to inhabit almost only pastures and grasslands. In Sicily, the species inhabits a variety of natural and artificial habitats: open grassland, bushy pastures, cultivated areas, etc.<br/><br/>In terms of elevation, L. europaeus and L. corsicanus do not differ significantly when they live allopatrically. According to Angelici and Luiselli (in press), when the two species coexist in sympatry, <em>L. corsicanus</em> occurs at elevations significantly higher than <em>L. europaeus</em>. <em>L. europaeus</em> inhabits significantly higher elevations when it lives allopatrically than when it lives sympatrically, and L. corsicanus inhabits significantly higher elevations when it lives sympatrically than when it lives allopatrically. However, this ecological allocation is not shared by Trocchi and Riga who always directly observed, in sympatric condition, <em>L. europaeus</em> occupying the mountain grassland and <em>L. corsicanus</em> inhabiting the lower and warmer areas with thermophilous oak woods.<br/><br/>The diet of <em>L. corsicanus</em>, studied in Sicily, varies seasonally as the available vegetation changes.  Monocotyledones, Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, are ingested year round, while Gramineae and Labiatae are consumed during spring and summer, respectively (De Battisti <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Dicotyledones ingested year round by <em>L. corsicanus</em> are Leguminosae and Compositae (De Battisti <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41305		population	eng	Populations of <em>L. corsicanus</em> in the Italian peninsula have a fragmented distribution and are sometimes in sympatry and syntopy with Lepus europaeus. Density estimates highlight low values in hunting areas (0.5 hares/km²) and higher in protected areas (11 hares/km²). In mainland Italy <em>L. corsicanus</em> is decreasing because of habitat degradation, hunting pressure, and probably, from competition with introduced <em>L. europaeus</em>.  However, in Sicily, where there are not populations of <em>L. europaeus, L. corsicanus</em> is continuously distributed and locally abundant (protected areas: 10 hares/km²; hunting areas: 2 hares/km²). No data are actually available on abundance and distribution of <em>L. corsicanus</em> in Corsica (where <em>L. europaeus</em> is present too).
41305		threats	eng	The main threats to <em>L. corsicanus</em> have been identified in the following aspects: fragmentation of the range, low or absent genetic flow between populations, low population density, habitat loss, introduction of <em>L. europaeus</em> in central and southern Italy (with interspecific competition and disease spread - <em>L. corsicanus</em> is fully susceptible to EBHS), competition with the European rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> (mainly in Sicily, where this species is widely distributed), over-hunting, poaching and predation by foxes and feral dogs (both abundant and largely distributed in southern Italy).  L. corsicanus is susceptible to accidental mortality due to difficulties distinguishing it from <em>L. europaeus</em> by hunters (Angelici and Luiselli 2001).  Potential hybridization between <em>L. europaeus</em> and <em>L. corsicanus</em> could constitute a future threat to the species (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003).  On the major threat list "other" has been checked and identified as intraspecific genetic pollution.
41306		conservation	eng	<em>Lepus granatensis</em> is listed as an Appendix III species under the Bern Convention as part of <em>L. capensis sensu lato</em> (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41306		distribution	eng	The geographic range of <em>Lepus granatensis</em> includes Portugal and nearly the entire extent of Spain (Alves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  It is excluded from northern regions of Spain where <em>L. castroviejoi</em> and <em>europaeus</em> exist (Alves <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In most of the northern provinces (Navarra, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragon, Catalunya, and Basque Country), <em>L. europaeus</em> and <em>L. granatensis</em> exist in parapatry, the Iberian hare inhabits the southern region and the brown hare can be found to the north (Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <em>L. granatensis</em> is also located on the island of Mallorca of the Balearic chain (Schneider 2001).  It has gone extinct on the island of Ibiza (Balearic Islands) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/><em>L. granatensis</em> has been introduced in southern France (Perpignan) (Alves <em>et al</em>. 2003).
41306		habitat	eng	<em>Lepus granatensis</em> can persist in a variety of habitats within Spain and Portugal (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). It occupies arable lands of central Spain and mountainous forests of northwestern Spain (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Other has been checked on the Habitat Preferences list and has been identified as dunes along the Mediterranean coast (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Reproduction in <em>L. granatensis</em> is continuous year round, with peaks experienced between February and June (Alves <em>et al</em>. 2002; Farfan <em>et al</em>. 2004).  It has been estimated that the mean number of litters per productive female per year and the mean litter size are 3.48 and 2.08, respectively (Farfan <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41306		population	eng	<em>Lepus granatensis</em> is considered locally abundant and common in the southern and central portions of its range (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999; Farfan <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In the autonomous communities of Galicia and Asturias, it is thought to be extremely rare or extinct (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999). On the island of Mallorca it has become extinct in the western mountain range and is rare throughout the remainder of the island (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Population trends in Navarra and Donana National Park, monitored over several years, have been increasing (Carro <em>et al</em>. 2004).  A study of relative abundance and population trends in northeast Spain indicated that <em>L. granatensis</em> experienced, "a general positive trend during the study period" which occurred from 1992-2002 (Gortazar <em>et al</em>. 2007).
41306		threats	eng	No major threats to <em>Lepus granatensis</em> have been cited.
41307		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for <em>L. tibetanus</em>.  Research should be conducted to ascertain population status, as well as taxonomic studies (see Taxonomic Notes) to elucidate species status.  This species was regionally Red Listed in China as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41307		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>L. tibetanus</em> includes Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, extending east through northwestern China, southern Mongolia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It is allo- to parapatric with <em>L. tolai</em>, except in the Tien Shan range where is thought to be sympatric with <em>L. tolai</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  <em>L. tibetanus</em> can be found up to elevations of 3,500-4,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).
41307		habitat	eng	<em>L. tibetanus</em> occurs in grassland or scrub areas of desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is primarily crepuscular, but can be observed during the day (Smith and Xie 2008).  Diet varies including "herbaceous plants, seeds, berries, roots and twigs" (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length of this species is 40.1-48.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Litter sizes range from three to 10 young (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. tibetanus</em> undergoes parturition one to three times a year (Smith and Xie 2008).
41307		population	eng	There are no data regarding the population.
41307		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41308		conservation	eng	In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  This species is present in many nature reserves in China (CSIS 2008).  In China, it is regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).  It has also been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41308		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus tolai</em> extends from the northern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, south to Iran, east through Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, and southern Siberia, as well as the "Middle Asia republics to Mongolia; and W, C, NE China" (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species was observed at an elevation of 8,000 m on Yihe-Bogdo, Mongolia (Ognev 1966).  In China, it is usually located at elevations between 600-900 m (Smith and Xie 2008).  Evidence of a single specimen in South Asia, may extend the distribution as far south as Jammu and Kashmir, India (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41308		habitat	eng	In Mongolia, this species inhabits semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitats (Tsevegmid and Tsendjav 2004).  The following information is in respect to the Chinese distribution.  This species occurs in grasslands and forest meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008).  Diet consists of roots, grass and other herbaceous plants (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length of this species is 40.0-59.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. tolai</em> will produce two to three litters per year, with two to six young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  No data was available for the rest of its distribution.
41308		population	eng	In Mongolia, populations are characterized as large, with no apparent decline (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One study looked at Mongolian commercial harvest data obtain from Dornad Aimag between 1932-1993, which did not indicate any apparent change in <em>L. tolai</em> takes (Reading <em>et al.</em> 1998).  The authors specify that the data may or may not provide a valid indication of population trends (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1998).  In southern Uzbekistan, pelt takes decreased from 8,751 in 1959 to 595 in 1977 (Volozheninov 1980).  It is inferred that this species is sufficiently abundant in China, where is it categorized as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).  There are no data available to characterize populations for the remainder of its distribution.
41308		threats	eng	Hunting for meat, skins, and for traditional medicines has been identified as threats to <em>Lepus tolai</em> in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
41309		conservation	eng	As a recently split and relatively unstudied species, there are currently no conservation measures in place for <em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em>. Research is needed to determine the population status, threats, and habitat requirements for this species before recommendations can be made.
41309		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em> occurs in the Manzano Mountains of New Mexico, USA (Hall 1981). It is known from the type locality within the vicinity of Rea Ranch, New Mexico, on the “northeast side of Bosque Peak, at 2,880 m” elevation (Frey <em>et al</em>. 1997). There are records of a specimen found in 1956 on the eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains, at 8,500 ft, and another was possibly sighted at 11,650 ft near Sandia Crest (Ivey 1957) but it is unclear whether the Sandia Mountains are included in its current distribution.
41309		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em> occurs in a high elevation area where conifer forest dominates. It is unknown what type of cover <em>S. cognatus</em> requires. It is assumed that habitat requirements and ecology are similar to <em>S. floridanus</em>.
41309		population	eng	There is no information available about the population status of <em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em>.
41309		threats	eng	The threats to <em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em> are not known, but the New Mexico Drought Task Force indicates that the species may be affected by loss of habitat, drought, and wildfire (New Mexico Drought Task Force 2005). The degree of threat is not known.
41310		conservation	eng	The Natural Heritage Program in Texas considers <em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> to be rare or uncommon, but no state of federal listing currently exists, largely because of lack of data regarding population status and vulnerability (Ruedas 1998).<br/><br/>Detailed studies are necessary to determine the best approaches to conservation, including studies on population genetics, life history, population status, and the effects of threats (Ruedas 1998), followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.
41310		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> has historically been known to occur in the Guadalupe Mountains (Texas and New Mexico), the Chisos Mountains (Texas), the Davis Mountains (Texas), and the Sierra de la Madera (Coahuila, Mexico). Currently, it is suspected that the Guadalupe and Chisos Mountains populations have been extirpated (Ruedas 1998). An unconfirmed <em>Sylvilagus</em> population may exist in the Sierra del Carmen, but it is unknown if it is <em>S. robustus</em> (Ruedas 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. robustus</em> is not known to occur below 1,500 m in elevation, and becomes more common above 1,800 m (Ruedas 1998). The contiguous area in the Davis Mountains that contains suitable vegetation preferred by <em>S. robustus</em> is 1,815 km², but when considering the areas above 1,675 m only, potential habitat within the range is reduced to approximately 730 km² (Ruedas 1998).
41310		habitat	eng	<em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> occurs in the mountains in Madrean evergreen woodland (Ruedas 1998). <br/><br/>Little is known about the specific ecology of <em>S. robustus</em>, though it can be assumed that it is similar to <em>S. floridanus</em>, of which <em>S. robustus</em> was formerly a subspecies (Ruedas 1998).<br/><br/>Total length ranges from 37.5-46.3 cm (Cervantes and Lopez-Hernandez 2005).
41310		population	eng	The population of <em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> in the Guadalupe Mountains has decreased in size continually since it was initially reduced to approximately 50 individuals in the 1940’s (Ruedas 1998). No individuals have been verified from the Chisos or Guadalupe Mountains since the 1960’s (Ruedas 1998).  There have been two unconfirmed sightings in the Guadalupe Mountains from the 1970's, but it is probable that both populations have been extirpated (Ruedas 1998). In the Davis Mountains, the only recent specimen that exists is a roadkill from 1997, and that was the first record in 20 years from that area (Ruedas 1998). The population status of the Sierra de la Madera is not known, but it is reported that there may be a population of <em>Sylvilagus</em> in good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, in Coahuila, Mexico, though it is not confirmed to be <em>S. robustus</em> (Ruedas 1998).<br/><br/><em>S. robustus</em> probably occurred historically in low densities and population numbers, resulting in greater sensitivity to threats and leading to local extinctions (Ruedas 1998).
41310		threats	eng	The nature of <em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> to occur in small population numbers and densities increases the sensitivity of the species to threats. It is likely that <em>S. robustus</em> is sensitive to drought, as they are observed less frequently in dry years (Ruedas 1998). Habitat destruction, in the form of urbanization, development, cattle grazing, and brush clearing, are reducing the habitat available for <em>S. robustus</em> (Ruedas 1998).
41311		conservation	eng	More research is necessary to determine the population status and effects of threats on <em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em>, which has only been studied in detail regarding some aspects of reproductive physiology, morphology, and habitat relationship (Durant and Guevara 2000a; Durant and Guevara 2000b; Durant and Guevara 2001). It may be necessary to establish management plans and protected areas for the species.
41311		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em> occurs in the lowlands of Venezuela in the states of Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico. It is only known from a few localities: “Fundo Millano” (18 km northeast of the town of Sabaneta), the type locality in Barinas, “Chorrosco Bajo” in Barinas (112 km east of type locality), “Hato Cantaclaro” (15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa), “Hacienda Las Mercedes” in Portuguesa (25 km west of the city of Guanare), “Finca Las Lajitas” in Guarico (5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco) (Durant and Guevara 2001).  It is suspected that the total distribution is more extensive than what is currently known.
41311		habitat	eng	A study conducted in 1989 found that 74% of all captures and 80% of all sightings of this species were in conjunction with "Escobillal" vegetation type (<em>Sida</em> spp. and <em>Malvastrum</em> spp.), which was characterized as "low shrubby-herbaceous savanna composition" (Durant and Guevara 2000a).  The study area was in close proximity to four tropical dry forests (Durant and Guevara 2000a).<br/><br/>Diet consists primarily of <em>Sida</em> spp. (Durant and Guevara 2000a).  HB length is 43.4-44.5 cm, with females larger than males (Durant and Guevara 2000b).  Litter size is 2.63 embryos per female, with gestation lasting 35 days (Durant and Guevara 2000b).  September through December had the greatest reproductive activity for sampled females, but activity was recorded for 270 days of the year (Durant and Guevara 2000b).
41311		population	eng	Very little information exists about abundance and population status of <em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em>.  In the study that resulted in the description of the species conducted in 1989-1990, the researchers were able to obtain 45 adult rabbits (Durant and Guevara 2001), and another study in 1989 resulted in the observation of 273 individuals, and a capture of 53.5% of that amount (Durant and Guevara 2000a).
41311		threats	eng	Little is known about the direct threats to <em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em>, but some threats to other <em>Sylvilagus</em> species in the area are likely to apply to <em>S. varynaensis</em> as well. Anthropogenic factors, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, and hunting, present threats to rabbits in Venezuela, as well as predation by feral dogs and competition with domestic animals (Durant and Guevara 2000a).
41312		conservation	eng	This species is found in two protected areas on New Guinea and presumably is present in many protected areas in Australia. There is a need to monitor numbers of animals killed along selected sections of main tourist roads. Most likely there are adequate protected areas in Australia already in place for this species, however, in Papua New Guinea (where less than 2% of the land is protected) none of the protected areas are large enough (other than Crater Mountain Wildlife Reserve) to contain a viable population of this species (L. Salas pers. comm.).
41312		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Australia, including Tasmania and a number of offshore islands, and also occurs in south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the Markham valley. The subspecies <em>Tachyglossus aculeatus multiaculeatus</em> is endemic to Kangaroo Island, South Australia (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,675 m asl (New Guinea) and up to the highest peak in Australia.
41312		habitat	eng	It is found in various open woodland types, savanna and semi-arid and arid areas, and rainforest (e.g., Queensland Wet Tropics). It is also found in agricultural areas. The female lays a single egg, which hatches after about ten days (Augee 2008).
41312		population	eng	It can be a locally common species.
41312		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species over most of its range. It is threatened by overhunting for food in parts of New Guinea, and there may be some localized declines. Although not a threat, they are used for ceremonial purposes throughout their range.
41313		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
41313		distribution	eng	Prior to its extinction this species occurred on Puerto Rico (including Vieques Island) and the U.S. Virgin Islands (on the islands of St Johns and St Thomas).
41313		habitat	eng	It was a nocturnal and Insectivorous mammal. It was the largest species of <em>Nesophontes</em> because it evolved on an island where there where no large <em>Solenodon</em> competitors.
41313		population	eng	This species most likely became extinct sometime around the 16th century, it is known to have survived across its range (based on radiocarbon dating) until the time of European arrival (post 1500) (Turvey <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>According to Wilson and Reeder (2005), this species may have died out much earlier than 1500 AD. McFarlane (1999) reported a date of 5410 +/- 80 yrs B.P.
41313		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most likely reason for the species' extinction.
41314		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from three protected areas: Ambohitantely, Analamazaotra and Mantadia. Further studies are needed into the habitat and ecology of this species.
41314		distribution	eng	This species is found in many localities in eastern and the central highlands of Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,650 m asl.
41314		habitat	eng	It occurs in wide range of habitats including the forest margin, heavily disturbed areas, agricultural zones, paddy fields, sedge marshes, and non-forested regions of the eastern humid forest.
41314		population	eng	It is relatively common in suitable habitat (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.). The ability of this species to live outside forests suggests it may not be declining as much as other species of <em>Microgale</em>.
41314		threats	eng	This species can adapt to non-natural habitats and so the main threat may be habitat degradation and mortality through fires.
41315		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas including the Marojejy National Park, d'Andringitra National Park, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Ranomafana National Park, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Ambohitantely Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park. No additional conservation measures are needed.
41315		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in areas of relatively intact eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It ranges between 100 and 2,300 m asl.
41315		habitat	eng	This species appears to prefer relatively intact tropical humid forest habitats. It is not very adaptable to habitat disturbance.
41315		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
41315		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
41316		conservation	eng	Adequately conserved in many protected areas; see Bronner (1995) for a list of these.
41316		distribution	eng	This species as presently known is found in South Africa and Swaziland. Coastally from the Eastern Cape, in the vicinity of Van Staden's River, northwards to St Lucia district in KwaZulu-Natal. Ranges inland to the foot of the Drakensberg escarpment, from Maclear/Ugie in the south to Van Reenen in the north, with an apparently isolated subspecies (<em>A. h. meesteri</em>) in the Barberton/Graskop region of Mpumalanga. Previously reported from Lesotho, based on a misidentified specimen (representing <em>Chlorotalpa sclateri</em>); a marginal occurrence in Lesotho in the northern Drakensberg (near Bethlehem) cannot, however, be discounted as species limits and distributions of this taxon and <em>A. septentrionalis</em> await clarification.
41316		habitat	eng	Wide variety of woodland and grassland habitats in southern African savanna, also in Afromontane forests and marshes; also found on coastal dunes. Marginal intrusion into the Fynbos and Nama-Karoo biomes in the southern parts of its range. Particularly abundant in moist soils near rivers and dams, but also found far from water provided the substrate is friable and not too rocky. Common in gardens, agricultural lands and golf courses; less common in exotic plantations.
41316		population	eng	Common throughout range. Densities of up to 15–20 individuals/ha recorded in prime habitat (inferred from Kuyper 1985).
41316		threats	eng	No major threats. Inferred minor threats include persecution and poisoning by landowners, and predation by domestic dogs and cats.
41317		conservation	eng	<em>C. cinderella</em> is present in a protected area in Senegal. Further general research is needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known species.
41317		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Senegal, The Gambia, southern Mauritania near the border with Senegal, Mali and Niger. <em>C. cinderella</em> has not been recorded in Burkina Faso but it is likely that it occurs there also.
41317		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Sudan savanna zone in acacia bush and grassland habitats. It is thought that sufficient habitat remains in this area to support this species.
41317		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Only single specimens have been recorded from various localities. The low number of specimens suggest that this species could be rare.
41317		threats	eng	While the species is poorly known, there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41318		conservation	eng	<em>C. goliath</em> has been reported from protected areas in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Central African Republic. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of animals from West Africa.
41318		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura goliath</em> is widely distributed in Central Africa. It has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Central African Republic, Gabon (five specimens collected from the Minkebe forest) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Animals from an isolated population at Mount Nimba (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Liberia) in West Africa have been attributed to this species (<em>Crocidura goliath nimbasilvanus</em>), but these may represent a distinct species (Heim de Balsac and Meester 1977; R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2004; Hutterer 2005).
41318		habitat	eng	This species has typically been recorded from areas of primary lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if it can persist in secondary habitats.
41318		population	eng	This species is not rare, but is also not very abundant.
41318		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.
41319		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place.
41319		distribution	eng	Occurs from Iran through Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and China (NW Xinjiang) to Mongolia. May occur in Israel.
41319		habitat	eng	Steppe and semi-desert (Stone 1996). Found in a range of arid habitats, including salt-grass plain with sand dunes; arid tamarisk shrubland, and ecotones between tamarisk and salt-grass; also known from thick riparian vegetation (Smith and Xie in press).
41319		population	eng	Population size and trends have not been quantified.
41319		threats	eng	No known major threats.
41320		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to be extinct.
41320		distribution	eng	This species was known only from the type locality in Jujuy, Argentina. Type locality - Argentina, Jujuy, "Yuto" (Gardner, 2007, Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41320		habitat	eng	The originlal type specimen was collected when theregion was less disturbed by agricultural development. Nothing is known about the natural history of this species (Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41320		population	eng	This species has not been seen since 1962. Even as was is being described as a new species, it is difficult to know if it still exists in the region (Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002). After numerous searched to the regions where it was knonw to occur - no individuals have been located (Diaz, M. pers. comm), the forest habitat was destroyed and the species is presumed to be extinct.
41320		threats	eng	The major threats to this species which are presumed to have driven it to extinction are human impact of agricultural and technological development, cattle ranching, and indiscriminate deforestation (Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41321		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. There is a need to affectively conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the species distribution, natural history and threats. There is a need to actively monitor known populations of this species, and to survey remaining forest fragemnts to locate any additional viable populations.
41321		distribution	eng	This West African species has been recorded from Guinea (Decher 2004, Decher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Nicolas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), Liberia (Decher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), Côte d'Ivoire (with an important population in Taï National Park [Churchfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Quérouil <span style="font-style: italic;">et&#160;al.</span> 2005]), Ghana (type locality of the Krokosua Hills and Atiwiredu [Weber and Fahr 2007]), southern Benin (Bekker and Ekou 2004), Nigeria (west of the Niger River, but may occur to the east [Happold 1987]) and is possibly present in Cameroon (a dubious record from Korup National Park). Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) suggest that the species might range as far west as Sierra Leone.
41321		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with primary lowland tropical moist forest. The type specimen was trapped in a natural grassy clearing in high forest at 1,800 m asl; paratypes were collected on a cocoa farm and in a hole in the ground in secondary bush (Hutterer 1983; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Ghana, the habitat of this species is now composed of small, scattered forest fragments.
41321		population	eng	In general, <em>C. grandiceps</em> appears to be relatively uncommon. Taï forest in Côte d'Ivoire probably contains one of the largest populations of this species. Surveys at the type locality in 2003 did not encounter any animals (Jan Decher pers. comm.).
41321		threats	eng	<em>C. grandiceps</em> is threatened by continuing general habitat destruction, fragmentation, and degradation, especially in parts of Nigeria and Ghana.
41322		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in Kenya, and is presumably present in additional protected areas over its wide range. There is a need for further studies into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
41322		distribution	eng	This Central African and East African species has been reported from Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Central African Republic and eastern Cameroon. Additionally, there is one locality in southern Sudan and a single record from Ethiopia (Osgood, 1936). This species is not found south of the Congo River and a number of western populations, including records from Mount Cameroon and southern Nigeria, are <em>Crocidura virgata</em> (Hutterer 2005).
41322		habitat	eng	<em>C. hildegardae</em> is principally a tropical moist forest species. While this species has been recorded from some degraded areas, it is believed to be only able to tolerate minor habitat disturbance.
41322		population	eng	This species is not uncommon and is regularly found in samples. In Kenya it is the most common of all shrews sampled in forests.
41322		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this wide ranging species as a whole.
41323		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas. Research is needed into the taxonomic status of animals from Kenya, Somalia and Namibia. There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for the species as a whole.
41323		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura hirta</em> is widespread in Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa. It has been recorded from Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. Earlier records from Kenya and Somalia probably refer to other <em>Crocidura</em> species, with additional research needed to confirm this. It occurs from several hundred meters asl up to between 1,200 and  1,400 m asl in South Africa.
41323		habitat	eng	This species is found in grassland, savanna and bush savanna. The Nambian subspecies <em>Crocidura hirta deserti</em> occurs in arid areas.
41323		population	eng	This species is well adapted to living in association with humans or in habitats modified by humans. It is the dominant species in Ngorogoro in Tanzania but is less common in southern parts of its range.
41323		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41324		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this poorly known species.
41324		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it has been recorded from Sri Lanka (widely distributed), India (Mysore and Ladakh) and Nepal (Hutterer 2005; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It generally occurs from 100 to 2,500 m asl, although a record from Ladakh is at 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41324		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal animal that lives in the montane wet zone, lowland wet zone and wet patana grasslands in Sri Lanka, and tropical moist forests in India and Nepal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41324		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41324		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
41325		conservation	eng	<em>C. jacksoni</em> is present in several forest reserves in Kenya, and has been recorded from forest reserves in the Usambara mountains of Tanzania.
41325		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. A single record from Ethiopia, near Lake Tana, is probably a misidentified <em>Crocidura denti</em> and is not included here. The elevational range is possibly from as low as 600 m asl at the base of the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania up to 1,500-2,200 m asl.
41325		habitat	eng	<em>C. jacksoni</em> is found in subtropical and tropical lowland and montane forests and also occurs in areas of mixed forest-savanna. It appears to be relatively tolerant of disturbance; it has been recorded at foot of the Usambara mountains (Tanzania) in relatively disturbed habitat.
41325		population	eng	This species is reasonably common and relatively widespread. It is the second most common species in some parts of its range (N. Oguge pers. comm.).
41325		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41326		conservation	eng	This species has been found in forest in Korup National Park, Cameroon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
41326		distribution	eng	This species ranges through West Africa to western Central Africa. It occurs in Sudan and Guinea savanna from Senegal in the west, through much of West Africa, to western Cameroon in the east.
41326		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Sudan and Guinea savanna. There is some evidence that it also inhabits forest-savanna mosaic habitats. Forest is not present over most of the species range.
41326		population	eng	This species is not common but has a fairly widespread distribution.
41326		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41327		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii) in Chinese Red List.
41327		distribution	eng	Distributed in temperate zone in East Asia: from Amur River (Russia) in north, through Korea and NE China till Shanghai.
41327		habitat	eng	Occupies broad-leafed forest, forest glades, bogs, and dry meadows, shrubby thickets along the banks of rivers and lakes; also in agricultural fields and roadside verges overgrown with sagebrush. The nutrition of the Ussuri white-toothed shrew is based on animal foods.  Its diet is predominantly insects and other invertebrates, and small vertebrate animals.  Females may produces up to 3 litters with 6-8 youngs. Reproduction occurs from May to beginning of October. Young start reproduce in second half of summer. Longevity is 15-16 months.
41327		population	eng	Common species through the range.
41327		threats	eng	No major threats.
41328		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41328		distribution	eng	This species is only known from northern and central Sulawesi (Hutterer 2005). It might occur more widely on the island. It has been found at elevations up to 1,000 m asl.
41328		habitat	eng	The species inhabits tropical rainforest at altitudes up to 1,000 m. It shows preference towards primary forests, but can survive in secondary forest. The species is thought to be nocturnal. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
41328		population	eng	<em>Crocidura lea</em> has been found to be locally common when adequately sampled using pitfall taps.
41328		threats	eng	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species. However, if it is dependent on reasonably undisturbed forest, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation for agriculture and timber extraction.
41329		conservation	eng	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41329		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005). It is found at lower to mid-elevations up to 1,000 m asl.
41329		habitat	eng	<em>C. levicula</em> is considered to be the smallest mammal of Sulawesi (Ruedi 1995). It is found from lower to mid-montane tropical rainforests at altitudes up to 1,000 m asl. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
41329		population	eng	<em>Crocidura levicula</em> has been found to be very abundant when adequately sampled using pitfall taps.
41329		threats	eng	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species, although general widespread threats in the lowlands include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. These factors might cause population declines if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
41330		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species wide range it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed.
41330		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura littoralis</em> is found in the rain forest zone of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya. The type locality for this species is the east shore of Lake Albert, close to the Ugandan border. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is known from Kisangani, Masako Forest and has recently been recorded in Kikwit (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). This species occurs at elevations up to 500-800 m asl.
41330		habitat	eng	<em>C. littoralis</em> inhabits primary rainforest and is usually found in lowland areas.
41330		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range.
41330		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41331		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas within its range.
41331		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in East Africa, ranging into parts of Central Africa and southern Africa. It ranges from northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya (Nairobi to central highlands), through Rwanda and Tanzania (Mount Meru), to eastern Angola, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia (Cotterill, 2002), Malawi, northern and western Mozambique, to eastern Zimbabwe (Manicaland). This species occurs at elevations over 1,000 m asl. In Malawi it is found at 2,000 to 2,300 m asl on the Nyika Plateau.
41331		habitat	eng	<em>C. luna</em> inhabits the fringes of montane tropical moist forest. These areas are characterised by cool, generally moist with an annual rainfall of over 1,000 mm. A specimen was collected during the ploughing of an old cassava field at Hillwood Farm, Zambia (Cotterill 2002).
41331		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in some areas.
41331		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41332		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Awash National Park in Ethiopia (Demeter 1982; Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996), and is presumably present in additional protected areas over its wide range.
41332		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura lusitania</em> is found throughout the Sahelian zone of Africa, including Senegal, Mauritania, Mali (including a single record from the Sahara), Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia  and Eritrea. It is also present in southern Morocco and northern Western Sahara.
41332		habitat	eng	<em>C. lusitania</em> occurs in Sahelian savanna, steppe, and semi-desert.
41332		population	eng	This species is considered to be uncommon.
41332		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41333		conservation	eng	This species is present in Meru National Park in Kenya were it is well protected. Further studies into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species are needed.
41333		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura macarthuri</em> occurs in the savanna of Kenya and Somalia. The species has recently been recorded from the Nguruman area of Kenya. This species occurs at an elevation of approximately 800 m asl.
41333		habitat	eng	<em>C. macarthuri</em> has been recorded from dry acacia savanna habitats.
41333		population	eng	This species is very uncommon.
41333		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, generally resulting from increased irrigation for agriculture.
41334		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.
41334		distribution	eng	This largely southern African species, ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south into Zambia, Angola, northeast Namibia, northwest Botswana (the Okavango Delta), Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, Swaziland and eastern South Africa.
41334		habitat	eng	This species has highly specific habitat requirements. It occurs in close proximity to open water, has a distinct preference for marshy ponds, and also needs riverine and semi-aquatic vegetation such as reed beds.
41334		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitat.
41334		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41335		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Kibira National Park in Burundi and may also occur in areas of Bwindi forest in Uganda which are protected. Additional surveys are needed to better understand the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
41335		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura maurisca</em> has largely been recorded from the swamps and primary forest of the Albertine Rift in Central Africa and East Africa. It has been recorded from Uganda (type locality at Entebbe), Rwanda, Burundi (including Kibira National Park) and Kenya. There is a single very disjunct record of this species from Gabon (Goodman <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It occurs at elevations around 2,000 m asl, except for the type locality which is at 800 m asl.
41335		habitat	eng	<em>C. maurisca</em> appears to be dependant on <em>Cyperus</em> swamps. Most of the records for this species are from Albertine rift montane areas. The Gabon record and type collection from Uganda, were recorded from lowland tropical moist forest.
41335		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41335		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41336		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41336		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to Indonesia. It occurs on Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands, including Bali, Penida, Lombok, Pandjang, Sumbawa, Mojo, Liang, Nglali, Rak, Sangeang, Banta, Komodo, Jaco, Padar, Rintja, Sumba, Flores, Raidjua, Sawu, Dana, Roti, Semau, Usu, Wokam, Timor (including Timor-Leste), Solor, Adonara, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Pura, Marisa, Rusa, Atauro, Liran, Wetar, Kisar, Leti, Moa, and Lakor. It has also been reported from Ambon island, in the Maluku Islands (Indonesia) (Hutterer 2005), where it is probably introduced. The species is also introduced to Wokam in the Aru Islands, by Kitchener <em>et al</em>. (1994).
41336		habitat	eng	It is a poorly known species, occurring in lowland and montane forest. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
41336		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41336		threats	eng	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human-induced habitat degradation, as a result of agriculture, plantations, timber extraction and human settlement.
41337		conservation	eng	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution, especially focusing on whether or not the speciesw can survive in anthropogenic ha bitats, such as oil palm plantations. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41337		distribution	eng	This species is known for certain from Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei. It has been recorded from Java, Sumatra, Borneo (Brunei, Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak) Records from Peninsular Malaysia require confirmation (Hutterer 1993, 2005). Likewise, records from the following islands also require confirmation: Ambon; Sumbawa, Lombok, Sumba, Flores, Komodo, Obi and Timor, but all of these need confirmation (Jenkins 1982).  It has been recorded from sea-level up to 2,000 m asl.
41337		habitat	eng	This species can be found in primary lowland and montane forests. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
41337		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41337		threats	eng	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human induced habitat degradation. In particular there is a rapid expansion of plantations, including oil palm, taking place within its range.
41338		conservation	eng	Both the Kenyan and Ugandan parts of Mount Elgon are protected as part of a National Park. The Tanzanian and Ruwenzori populations are also protected in National Parks. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the separate populations of this species. There is a need to maintain habitat within the range of this species.
41338		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura montis</em> is a montane species found in East and Central Africa. In Uganda it occurs on Mount Elgon and also on Mount Ruwenzori (the type locality). It has been collected from Kijabe in Kenya, Mount Meru in Tanzania and the Imatong Mountains in Sudan. It is also possibly found in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been found at a range of elevations. In Uganda, the Mount Elgon population occurs at an elevation of 2,900-4,200 m asl. At Mount Ruwenzori the species has been recorded between approximately 2,950-3,370 m asl. In the Democratic Republic of Congo it is found at approximately 2,130-2,740 m asl.
41338		habitat	eng	On Mount Elgon <em>C. montis</em> is found in montane forest, erica forest, montane grasslands.
41338		population	eng	<em>C. montis</em> is the dominant species on Mount Elgon and is highly abundant on top of the mountain. Although other shrew species live lower down <em>C. montis</em> is the only shrew species found at such high altitudes. It is highly abundant in montane grasslands, above 3,000 m asl.
41338		threats	eng	<em>C. montis</em> is affected by human-caused fires which cause habitat destruction on Mount Elgon.
41339		conservation	eng	<em>C. muricauda</em> has been recorded in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. There is a need to maintain suitable areas of lowland forest for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natrual history of this species.
41339		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone, through Liberia (including the type locality of Mount Coffee) and Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana.
41339		habitat	eng	This is a climbing shrew restricted to West African lowland primary forest.
41339		population	eng	<em>C. muricauda</em> is not common and is thought to have a small population size.
41339		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation throughout its range, generally through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
41340		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats, and general ecology of this species.
41340		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura mutesae</em> has a seemingly disjuct distribution in Central Africa and East Africa. It is known from the type locality of Kampala in Uganda, and then from Central African records from Dzangha-Sanga and Batouri in the Central African Republic, and from Tandala in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (R. Hutterer pers. comm.).
41340		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
41340		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41340		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41341		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.
41341		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura nana</em> is known from two localities, the type locality, Dollo in Somalia and from Addis Ababa in Ethiopia (Hutterer 1981). The elevational range of this species is unknown.
41341		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from dry grassland and is probably a lowland species.
41341		population	eng	The is no information on the population size of this species. The area of Somalia where it may be present has not yet been surveyed.
41341		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, however, there appears to be plenty of suitable habitat available for this species within its recorded range.
41342		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species presumably wide range, it seems probable that it is present within some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
41342		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from both West Africa and East Africa, and presumably ranges more widely between the known records. In West Africa, it has been recorded from Mauritania, The Gambia (at Sapu), Senegal, Mali, Sierra Leone (Mount Loma) (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998; Hutterer 2005). It has also possibly been recorded from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana (Pinkwae) and Nigeria, but the identity of these animals is unclear and they are not mapped here. In East Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda (the type locality is probably Entebbe), Kenya and Tanzania (including Ngorogoro) (Hutterer 2005).
41342		habitat	eng	<em>C. nanilla</em> is found in a variety of dry and moist savanna habitats, and might be a savanna specialist.
41342		population	eng	<em>C. nanilla</em> is thought to be a rare species but it has a widespread distribution. It is a very small shrew that is difficult to catch.
41342		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41344		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
41344		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura nigeriae</em> is found in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko). It may also be present in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, but its presence there is uncertain. On Bioko Island, it occurs at low elevations just above sea level.
41344		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical moist forest, but also in farmlands and grasslands within the forest (Happold 1987).
41344		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Happold (1987) reports that they are not as common as <em>Crocidura crossei</em> in Nigeria.
41344		threats	eng	<em></em>The species may be affected by habitat loss in parts of its range.
41345		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.
41345		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura nigricans</em> is endemic to the central Angolan plateau. The type locality is Quindumbo.
41345		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this montane species.
41345		population	eng	The abundance of this species are not known, but the population size is not thought to be declining.
41345		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41346		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.
41346		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura nigrofusca</em> is a widespread species which is found from southern Ethiopia and Sudan through East Africa to Zambia and Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has possibly been recorded from Cameroon, however, this needs confirmation and is not mapped here. It generally occurs in lowland areas but has been found above 2,000 m asl in some areas.
41346		habitat	eng	<em>C. nigrofusca</em> is found in a wide variety of tropical moist forest habitats.
41346		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41346		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41347		conservation	eng	<em>C. niobe</em> is present in well-managed parks in Uganda, and is present in Kibira National Park in Burundi and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Further details are needed on the natural history of this species, including its adaptability to habitat degradation.
41347		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura niobe</em> occurs in montane forests in  the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Burundi and possibly Rwanda. Mount Ruwenzori (1,890 m asl) in Uganda is the type locality for this species. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it is found in the Kivu range, west of Lake Kivu (Dieterlen). In Burundi, specimens have been collected from the southern Bururi Forest Reserve at 2,170 m asl and in the north-west of the country from Kibira National Park between 1,950-2,250 m asl. In Uganda in addition to Mount Rwenzori <em>C. niobe</em> has been recorded in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest National Park at 1,600 m asl and in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park between 2,600-2,980 m asl (J. Kerbis pers. comm.).
41347		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. <em>C. niobe</em> has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest.
41347		population	eng	This species is very uncommon.
41347		threats	eng	Significant habitat loss is ongoing within the localities of Kibira National Park in Burundi and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, largely resulting from continuing civil conflict and settlement by refugees in these two parks.
41348		conservation	eng	It has been collected from several protected areas including Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park, Rwenzori National Park, Mgahinga National Park all in Uganda, and from Kibira National Park in Burundi. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species as a whole.
41348		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura olivieri</em> is a very widespread African species, that ranges from Senegal and Ethiopia in the north of its range, throughout Subsaharan Africa to northeastern Namibia, northern Botswana, northern Zimbabwe and northern Mozambique. A disjunct population is present along the Nile Valley of Egypt. It has been recorded up to 2,680 m asl (Mgahinga National Park, Uganda).
41348		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded from both moist and dry forests, and moist and dry savanna. In the southern part of its range it tends to be more restricted to streams. This species is also found in human settlements and is often regarded as a pest species. In Egypt, it has been recorded from moist areas incliuding canal embankments, irrigated fields, cultivated areas and gardens (Hoath 2003).
41348		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species.
41348		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41349		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species wide range, it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species.
41349		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura parvipes</em> is found in the Guinea and Sudan savanna from Cameroon to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia and Angola.
41349		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from dry savanna and areas of mixed forest and savanna. It sometimes also occurs in gallery forests in the southern Congo basin.
41349		population	eng	This species is always uncommon. Only small numbers are ever recorded, even in large survey collections.
41349		threats	eng	There are no known threats as a whole to this species.
41350		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in the Awash National Park, Ethiopia (Demeter 1982). Additional studies are needed to better determine the full extent of the species range.
41350		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura pasha</em> is found in Sudan, Mali (Dobigny <em>et al</em>., 2002), and Ethiopia (Demeter, 1982). Although only four localities are known, it is suspected that it is considerably more widespread than is currently known as this is a small species of shrew that is infrequently captured. Current locations have mainly been found by identifying remain of this species in owl pellets.
41350		habitat	eng	This species is found in Sudan and Sahelian savanna habitats. It is thought to be a very hardy species.
41350		population	eng	<em>C. pasha</em> might be a relatively uncommon shrew species. Even the number that have been identified from owl pellets is small. However, this shrew has been found to be common in the Adrar des Iforas Massif in northern Mali (Dobigny <em>et al</em>., 2002).
41350		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <em>C. pasha</em>. Most of the areas it inhabits are largely uninhabited by people.
41351		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded from the Yankari Game Reserve in Nigeria (Happold 1987). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
41351		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Crocidura planiceps</em> is uncertain. The type locality is 'Rhino Camp, Lado Enclave, Uganda' (Hutterer 2005). It is reported to be present in at several localities in Nigeria (Happold 1987). It was previously recorded as present in "Egyptian Sudan" which is now part of Uganda, and is possibly present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan and Ethiopia (Bahar Dar and Jimma) (Hutterer 1981; Hutterer 2005). Happold (1987) suggests that it might be widespread in the Northern savanna zone of Africa.
41351		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. Happold (1987) reports that animals allocated to this species were caught in a <em>Cyperus </em>swamp near a stream in Yankari Game Reserve, Nigeria.
41351		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41351		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41352		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.
41352		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura poensis</em> is found in West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia , through Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria to Cameroon. It is also present on Bioko Island in Equatorial Guinea and Principe Island in Sao Tome and Principe. It may range further east than Cameroon, however, there is some unresolved confusion between the distribution of this species and <em>Crocidura batesi</em>. Its elevational range is from just above sea level up to several hundred metres in Cameroon highlands.
41352		habitat	eng	<em>C. poensis</em> is usually found on primary forest, and can be found in relict forest patches on the Jos Plateau in Nigeria (Happold 1987). It has also been recorded from a few localities in derived Guinea and Sudan savanna zones (Happold 1987), and can be found in various types of grasslands, grass clearings and farm bush (Jones 1962; Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41352		population	eng	This species is locally common.
41352		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation.
41353		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
41353		distribution	eng	This little known species has been reported from northern Kashmir in India and Pakistan and the Ladakh region of India (Jiang and Hoffmann 2001, Hutterer 2005).
41353		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
41353		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41353		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41354		conservation	eng	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41354		distribution	eng	The species occurs in northern, central, and southwestern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005).
41354		habitat	eng	<em>C. rhoditis</em> inhabits lowland and montane forests. It has been found in secondary forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats outside forest.
41354		population	eng	The population of this species seems to be stable, at least in suitable habitat.
41354		threats	eng	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species, although general widespread threats in the lowlands include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. These factors might cause population declines if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
41355		conservation	eng	<em>C. roosevelti</em> is found in Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda and Garamba National Park in northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo.
41355		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura roosevelti</em> occurs across the forest-savanna margin of the Central African forest block. There are records from Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, and Tanzania (Hutterer, 1981). It is possibly present in Sudan. Its elevational upper limit is between 900 and 1,200 m asl.
41355		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist savanna around the Congo Basin forest block. It inhabits lowlands, under 1,200 m asl.
41355		population	eng	This species has a low local abundance.
41355		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.
41356		conservation	eng	Approximately 14% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.
41356		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Russian Federation, China, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. <br/><br/>Regional distribution: Known from five localities in semi-desert habitats between Mongol Altai and Hangai mountain ranges, and also recorded in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). This species was previously confused with <em>C. suaveolens</em>, and localities were recorded under this species name.
41356		habitat	eng	Inhabits a variety of habitats including steppe, semi-desert, open tundra, montane coniferous forest, and river valleys. <br/>Like other white-toothed shrews, it is primarily insectivorous.
41356		population	eng	Population size and trends have not been quantified, but this species is believed to have a wide but patchy distribution at low densities (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).
41356		threats	eng	There are no major threats. <em>Crocidura sibirica</em> is regarded as a pest species and consequently persecuted.
41357		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Kruger National Park, South Africa. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
41357		distribution	eng	This southern African species is present in Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, South Africa and Swaziland, and might be present in parts of Lesotho, Botswana, southern Malawi, Zambia and Angola, although this requires confirmation.
41357		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest, savanna, bush, grassland and coastal forest. It appears to tolerate a wide range of habitats.
41357		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41357		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41358		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional details are needed on the natural history of this species and its possible presence in Somalia.
41358		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura smithii</em> occurs in arid regions of Senegal, Ethiopia and possibly Somalia (where suitable habitat exists). The two known populations are distinct subspecies that are extremely isolated from one another.
41358		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known. <em>C. smithii</em> has been recorded from dry Sahelian savanna.
41358		population	eng	This species is very uncommon.
41358		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41359		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to determine if this species is present in Somalia.
41359		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura somalica</em> is found in Sudan (Angolo, Kordofan Province), Ethiopia (several localities), and Mali (Adrar de Iforas) (Hutterer <em>et al</em>., 1991). It probably also occurs in Somalia but has not been recorded there yet.
41359		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in arid habitats, such as dry savanna and semi-desert areas.
41359		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon at known sites.
41359		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41360		conservation	eng	This species is present in Bwindi Forest Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. There is a need to effectively conserve remaining areas of suitable upland forest habitat. Additional surveys are needed to locate additional viable populations of this forest shrew. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species and into the identity of animals recorded from Mbanga Forest, Uganda.
41360		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range in the montane region of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda. It is currently known only from three localities. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it has been recorded from Chaya, Ruchuru (type locality). In Uganda, it has been recorded within the Bwindi Forest Impenetrable National Park (Kasangaki <em>et al</em>. 2003) and possibly occurs in the Mbanga Forest ~113 km (70 miles) northwest of Entebe. Surveys within the area suggest that it does not range to the west of the known localities. It occurs at elevations between 1,000-2,000 m asl.
41360		habitat	eng	Although little is known about the natural history of this species, it has been recorded from mid-elevation tropical moist forests close to highlands.
41360		population	eng	This species is believed to be relatively uncommon.
41360		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest fragmentation, presumably largely through logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use, which has resulted in small patches of forest surrounded by severely degraded areas.
41361		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the current conservation status of this species.
41361		distribution	eng	This North African species has been recorded from Morocco (south of Agadir), Western Sahara and Mauritania. Much of the information available on the distribution of <em>Crocidura tarfayensis</em> is from old records; surveys undertaken since 1980 have failed to find a live specimen, but owl pellets and dead specimens have been collected. This species was recorded as <em>C. whitakeri</em> from the Western Sahara (Heim de Balsac 1968).
41361		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal, stony and sandy areas with scarce vegetation. It also occurs on stony plains with no vegetation. In these areas it rarely rains but is always humid, especially in the winter. The extreme conditions in which it lives means that populations of this shrew remain small.
41361		population	eng	<em>C. tarfayensis </em>is a rare species. It is possible that the species is declining as remains of this shrew in fresh owl pellets are less common that they used to be. Ongoing conflict within the range of this species limits survey effort.
41361		threats	eng	In some areas climate change is a plausible threat to this species, with some parts of its range now too dry for populations to persist. Additional threats include phosphate mining and possibly overgrazing by domestic livestock in coastal areas. Overgrazing in these areas removes much of the vegetation apart from euphorbs which are not eaten by cattle.
41361		threats	eng	In some areas climate change is plausible threat to this species, with some parts of its range now too dry populations to persist. Additional threats include phosphate mining and possibly overgrazing by domestic livestock in coastal areas. Overgrazing in these areas removes much of the vegetation apart from euphorbs which are not eaten by cattle.
41362		conservation	eng	This species may be present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.
41362		distribution	eng	This West African species is distributed in the Guinea savanna habitat of Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. It is possibly present in Liberia, however, this needs confirmation.
41362		habitat	eng	<em>C. theresae</em> has been recorded from the moist Guinea savanna, and mixed forest and savanna areas.
41362		population	eng	It is a common species.
41362		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41363		conservation	eng	This species is present in some protected areas. There is a need to better determine the geographic range of this species.
41363		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Central Africa, East Africa and parts of southern Africa. It ranges from Equatorial Guinea (Bioko) and Cameroon in the west, as far east as southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya in the east, and as far south as Angola, Zambia and northern Malawi. The full extent of its range not known, due to confusion with <em>Crocidura nigrofusca</em>). It occurs at elevations of up to 1,500 m asl.
41363		habitat	eng	<em>C. turba </em>is a tropical moist forest dwelling species. It is found mainly lowland to mid-elevation forest and the Shimba Hills in Cameroon.
41363		population	eng	This species can be locally common especially in the southern parts of its range.
41363		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41364		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Further surveys are needed to confirm the species presence in Tanzania.
41364		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura viaria</em> ranges from Morocco (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2000), Western Sahara and Mauritania in the north of its range, through northern West Africa and northern Central Africa, to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and possibly Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar) in the east.
41364		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura viaria</em> ranges from Morocco (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2000), Western Sahara and Mauritania in the north of its range, through northern West Africa and northern Central Africa, to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania (in the Udzungwa Mountains) in the east. Has been included in faunal inventories for Zanzibar, but this requires confirmation.
41364		habitat	eng	This species has a broad savanna distribution and occurs in all Sudan savanna and in Sahelien savanna. It appears able to tolerates disturbance, but is more common in more natural savanna. In Kenya it has been found in the Shimba Hills in a disturbed forest mosaic habitat.
41364		population	eng	This can be a very common species.
41364		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41365		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional surveys are needed for this species in the west of its range.
41365		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura voi</em> is a relatively widespread African species ranging from Sudan and Ethiopia to Kenya and Somalia (Hutterer 2005). There are single records of this species from Nigeria and Mali.
41365		habitat	eng	This species is found in very dry savanna. It occurs in Sudan savanna in Mali in the western part of its distribution. It is also found in coastal areas in Kenya and Somalia.
41365		population	eng	It appears to be a relatively uncommon species. Scattered specimens have been found across its range.
41365		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41366		conservation	eng	None in place.
41366		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura whitakeri</em> is endemic to Atlantic and Mediterranean parts of North Africa; Western Sahara (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007), Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (see references in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It also occurs on Ceuta and Melilla (Spanish Northern African Territories) (L.J.P. Muñoz pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,800 m and is especially well distributed along the Atlantic front of Morocco. It seems to be absent from most of Algeria's coastal zone, where its distribution runs along southern border of the Saharan Atlas mountains. There is one record from coastal Egypt (Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>New localities have recently been found in southern Tunisia. Some data are also available from western Libya, where it was reported as <em>Crocidura russula</em> but may be <em>C. whitakeri</em> (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
41366		habitat	eng	<em>C. whitakeri</em> seems to be dependent on dry and stony habitats, with sparse vegetation (i.e., steppe or subdeserts). It is also found in sandy coastal dunes. The species shelters among rocks and in rodent burrows.
41366		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. It is a very difficult species to find and to track in the field.
41366		threats	eng	The main natural predator of this species is the Barn Owl. It can be affected by pesticides, which are used massively against locusts in the southern part of its range.
41367		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.
41367		distribution	eng	This African species ranges from Cameroon (R. Hutterer pers. comm.) and Nigeria, to Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.
41367		habitat	eng	<em>C. yankariensis</em> is found in the Sudan savanna zone, including dry savanna and arid savanna.
41367		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41367		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41368		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known with certainty if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this poorly known species.
41368		distribution	eng	This little known species has only been recorded with certainty from Kaffa Province in southern Ethiopia, and Kaimosi in Kisumu District, Kenya. Some records for <em>C. zaphiri</em>, such as those from Gamo Gofo Province in Ethiopia, might be misidentifications of other <em>Crocidura</em> species.
41368		habitat	eng	In Ethiopia this species is found in Charada Forest. In Kenya, it occurs in Kaimosi which is near Kakamega Forest.
41368		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41368		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
41369		conservation	eng	It has been reported from Hingol National Park and Ziaret Juniper Forest Wildlife Sanctuary in Baluchistan, Pakistan (Roberts 1997). General field surveys, and research into the natural history ofthis species is needed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41369		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Afghanistan, Pakistan and southeastern Iran, ranging from 500 to 3,000 m asl (Habibi 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41369		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and solitary species that lives in semi-desert to hot desert environments. It generally inhabits mountains and steppes (Habibi 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41369		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41369		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this species.
41371		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas (national parks and reserves).
41371		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mexican highlands from 1,550 to 3,000 m asl in Guerrero, and from 2,250 to 3,200 m asl in Oaxaca (Hutterer, 2005; Woodman and Timm, 1999). There is an unconfirmed record from La Reserva de la Biosfera La Sepultura, in Chiapas (Espinoza Medinilla <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41371		habitat	eng	It usually is found in wet, highland, pine-oak or fir forest, and sometimes in dry, lowland forest (Reid, 1997). It burrows up to 10 cm in to the soft humus, most often need the edge of logs, and is often collected under rotting logs (Carraway 2007). In Oaxaca it is found along streams in damp leaf litter and humus (Carraway 2007).
41371		population	eng	This species is fairly common (Reid, 1997).
41371		threats	eng	Deforestation and development are major threats to this species.
41372		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas, such as Montecristo and Celaqui National Parks, Reserva Ecológica El Triunfo, and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve.
41372		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highlands above 1,200 m asl in southern Mexico (Chiapas) and southern Guatemala, northern El Salvador, and western Honduras (Hutterer, 2005). It is known from 900 to 3,400 m asl (Reid, 1997).
41372		habitat	eng	It is thought to occur primarily in humid montane forests. Most specimens have been obtained in forests of pine or oak, frequently containing cypress, fir, or alder, and often interspersed with sacaton or mosses (Choate and Fleharty 1974). Its biology is poorly known.
41372		population	eng	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
41372		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species. In the highlands of Chiapas (in the eastern part of the Sierra Madre) there is significant habitat loss reaching almost 40% (Alfredo Cuaron and Paloma Carton de Grammont pers. comm.).
41373		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas.
41373		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Venezuela, where it is only known from the Cordillera de los Andes in Trujillo, Mérida, and eastern Táchira states (Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004). There is a record of <em>Cryptotis</em> from the Coastal Cordillera west of Caracas, Venezuela that was reported under <em>meridensis</em>, but this likely does not represent this species (Ojasti and Mondolfi 1968; Woodman 2002; Hutterer 2005). The species likely occurs throughout the Cordillera, although there are no records from the northern part of the range. It is found from 1,640 to 3,950 m asl (Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004).
41373		habitat	eng	This species is insectivorous and forages terrestrially in leaf litter. It occurs in cloud forest and páramo (Handley 1976; Aagaard 1982; Durant and Díaz 1995; Hutterer 2005). The species is also found in "Coloradito", high Andean stands of arborescent Polylepis and Espeletia in sheltered areas surrounded by páramo (Aagaard 1982; Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004). It tolerates various degrees of habitat disturbance, and is found in the following types of habitat; primary closed-canopy cloud forest, disturbed forest (including burned), secondary scrub along streams, disturbed cloud forest-páramo transition, and open páramo (Handley 1976; Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004).
41373		population	eng	This species is moderately abundant in the Venezuelan Andes (Aagaard 1982). It typically is abundant relative to other small mammals with which it occurs in páramo and cloud forest (Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004).
41373		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however, there is deforestation outside of the Cordillera's protected areas. This species is at least moderately tolerant to disturbance so this is not presumed to be a major threat.
41374		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in a few protected areas within its range.
41374		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chiapas, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Veracruz, in Mexico. It is found from 520 to 2,600 m asl (Hutterer, 2005).
41374		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid montane tropical forest (Hutterer, 2005) and in cold, wet, pine-oak forest and forest edge. It favours damp, grassy areas bordering streams or orchards (Reid, 1997) and prefers primary forest (Choate, 1973). It is terrestrial and probably breeds throughout the year. One litter of three has been reported (Choate, 1973; Reid, 1997).
41374		population	eng	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
41374		threats	eng	Deforestation and possibly pesticides are a major threat to this species. In 2005, 58% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable for this species as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41375		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
41375		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andean zone of central and southern Ecuador (Hutterer 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,300 to 4,000 m asl (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
41375		habitat	eng	Barnett (1992) studied this species in southern Ecuador. Analysis of stomach contents demonstrated that it feeds on invertebrates including beetles, spiders, and caterpillars. It was found in habitats with closed, continuous vegetation at elevation. A litter size of 2, and 2 litters per year were inferred from the trapping data.
41375		population	eng	It is an uncommon species (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
41375		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Although it is found in a region with high rates of habitat loss, the species apparently tolerates some degree of disturbance of its habitat.
41376		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
41376		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands above 800 m asl in Costa Rica, and above 1,000 m in western Panama (Hutterer, 2005). It is known from 800 to 2,900 m asl (Reid, 1997).
41376		habitat	eng	It can be found in cool, evergreen forest and forest edge, and in drier, open woodland on the Pacific Slope. It is also found in pastures and other open areas. The litter size is one to three (Reid, 1997).
41376		population	eng	This species is locally common (Reid, 1997).
41376		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
41377		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in North America.
41377		distribution	eng	This species is found from the eastern United States and southeastern Ontario, Canada to eastern New Mexico and northeastern, central and southern Mexico (Nowak, 1999). In Mexico, its elevational range is from 0-2,750 m asl Carraway, 2007).
41377		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs in open country with dense herbaceous vegetation. It can be found in grassy, weedy and brushy fields in the northern part of its range and in marshes and a variety of wooded habitats in the southern part of its range (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It can sometimes be found in scrubby live oak, pine-oak, dense humid tropical forest, and cloud forest, and near water in Mexico. It has also been found in grain fields and pastures (Álvarez and Sánchez-Casas, 1997), and often in rocky areas, as well as on sandy river backs and in arid coastal plains in Mexico.<br/><br/>They primarily feed on insects and other invertebrates (e.g., earthworms, spiders), and some vegetable matter.
41377		population	eng	This species is thought to be common, but is often hard to find (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Populations may occur in small colonies. The nest is the centre of activity. It is usually more abundant than snaptrap surveys show. Densities may be 10-15 per acre. They appear in owl pellets much more frequently than in traps of collectors.
41377		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41378		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from at least one protected area, Munchique National Park in Colombia. More research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology, and major threats to this species.
41378		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern portions of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia and Ecuador (Hutterer 2005). It is found at 2,640 m asl (B. Rivas Pava pers. comm.).
41378		habitat	eng	The species has been found in primary and secondary forest. It has been found in an area of high grasses near pine plantations which had been previously deforested suggesting it may be adaptable to disturbance of its habitat.
41378		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens and population trends are unknown.
41378		threats	eng	Any major threats to this species are unknown. The region has experienced deforestation, although the extent to which this affects the species is unknown.
41379		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, including Chingaza Natural National Park.
41379		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, in the highlands above 2,700 m asl around Bogotá in the Eastern Cordillera (Hutterer 2005). It occurs from 2,700 to 3,500 m asl.
41379		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to higher elevations (Woodman 2003; Hutterer 2005), in paramos and cloud forest. This is the only shrew that may be sympatric with <em>C. brachyonyx</em> (Woodman 2003).
41379		population	eng	Population trends for this species are unknown, it is assumed to be moderately common (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).
41379		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified for this species.
41380		conservation	eng	This species is present in several National Parks where management is thought to be effective. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
41380		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex babaulti</em> is found in Uganda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may occur in Rwanda but it has not been recorded there so far. It occurs on the mountains to the west and east of Lake Kivu and also on Idjwi Island in Lake Kivu. It is also found on from the Ugandan side of the Virunga Mountains. <em>M. babaulti</em> co-occurs with <em>Myosorex blarina</em> in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda (Kasangaki <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It also occurs in Kibira National Park and Biriwi National Park in Burundi (J. Kerbis unpubl.). It has been recorded between 1,850 (Burundi) and 3,300 m asl (Kivu).
41380		habitat	eng	<em>M. babaulti</em> inhabits primary mesic, tropical montane forest. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
41380		population	eng	This species is uncommon and has a low population density. It represents a low percentage of shrews recorded at sample sites.
41380		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
41381		conservation	eng	<em>M. cafer</em> is present on some areas of private property, where they are well conserved. The larger forest patches where it occurs also have a reasonable degree of protection.
41381		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex cafer</em> is found in South Africa from the eastern escarpment and north to the Transvaal. It is also present in western Mozambique, eastern Zimbabwe and Swaziland. In 1993, the subspecies <em>M. sclateri</em> was re-classified as a separate species and as a result the distribution of  <em>M. cafer</em> now recognized as being more disjunct. This species can occur at elevations up to 2,000 m asl.
41381		habitat	eng	<em>M. cafer</em> occurs in primary afromontane and coastal forest. There is very little continuous forest habitat in its range and it is restricted to forest patches. In South Africa it occurs at higher elevations above 1,000 m asl in moist, evergreen forests.
41381		population	eng	This species generally occurs at densities of around ten individuals per hectare. However, in some areas they may occur at densities of 30 individuals per hectare.
41381		threats	eng	One of the main threats to this species is the degradation of the some of the forest patches it inhabits. In theory these forests are protected by South African law but they are still being degraded as a result of human encroachment for livestock grazing.
41382		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumably present in a number of protected areas.
41382		distribution	eng	This southern African species has been recorded from southern South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
41382		habitat	eng	<em>M. varius</em> occurs in every biome in South Africa including coastal forests, thickets, Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo and Fynbos. It is present in both primary habitats and degraded areas.
41382		population	eng	In some areas this species can be the dominant small mammal at higher elevations. It is found at lower numbers in coastal parts of its range.
41382		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41383		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon, and is presumably present in several additional protected areas.
41383		distribution	eng	This Central African species is largely limited to the Congo basin. It has been recorded from southern Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Central African Republic. Records south of the Congo River are isolated populations in gallery forest. It has not been recorded to the east of the Oubange River.
41383		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known. It appears to have only been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest.
41383		population	eng	This species is locally abundant to the north of Congo.
41383		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss and degradation.
41384		conservation	eng	Part of the species' range is in Glacier Bay National Park. This species is not protected. In Alaska, shrews are designated as "unclassified game" by the Department of Fish and Game (1992). There is no closed season or bag limit on this species.
41384		distribution	eng	This species' range is limited to flats around Gustavus and Bartlett Cove, Alaska. The type locality is Cooper's Notch muskeg behind Point Gustavus, Glacier Bay, Alaska.
41384		habitat	eng	This species is a water shrew, presumably the habitat includes wet areas, bogs, and streams typical of the American water shrew (<em>Sorex palustris</em>) elsewhere (Beneski and Stinson 1987).
41384		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and from just a couple of locations nearby, based on specimens collected in 1899 and 1970. Extensive population surveys of the Gustavus Peninsula area are needed to determine the population status of this species.
41384		threats	eng	No current threats to the species' habitat are known, but the poorly known distribution prevents an adequate evaluation. Urban development in the Gustavus area could potentially result in reduction and loss of habitat.
41385		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41385		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Yukon and Northwest Territory to Quebec in Canada; southwards to North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin in the United States (Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Kirkland and Schmidt 1996). The disjunct populations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have now been elevated to species status (<em>S. maritimensis<em>).
41385		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in grass-sedge marshes, wet meadows, and other moist openings in and adjacent to boreal forest. It is also present, in fewer numbers, in tamarack-spruce bogs and cedar swamps. Small globular nests are usually made above ground under logs or other material.  In the south, breeding occurs in late winter to mid-summer. Gestation lasts three weeks and litter size is five to nine, with an average of three litters per year. Young-of-the-year may breed in the first summer in some areas (Baird <em>et al.</em> 1983).<br/><br/>The species' home range is around 1/4 acre (Buckner 1966). Populations fluctuate annually from less than one to four per acre (Buckner 1966). High population turnover, with approximately 80% of each generation dead prior to sexual maturity (Buckner 1966). The arctic shrew is dependent nearly exclusively on insects. Destructive sawfly larvae seasonally constitute a large part of their diet (Buckner 1964). It is active day and night and like many shrews, major activity peaks at night.
41385		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species.
41385		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41386		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
41386		distribution	eng	Distributed in China (NW Xinjiang), Kazakhstan (Fumagalli <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Hoffmann, 1987), and south of Kyrgyzstan.
41386		habitat	eng	Poorly known.  The Tian Shan Shrew is probably an alpine specialist, as are cansulus and excelsus.  The species is known to inhabit spruce forests, moist alpine meadows and stands of shrubs and reeds, generally at elevations of 2,000-3,000 m.  It favors cluttered places with a thick layer of friable litter.  It is active throughout the year.  Most of its activity is during twilight and night, but it is occasionally encountered during the day.  Its diet is diverse, but is predominately comprised of insects.  Breeding begins at the end of March or early in April.  At this time the testes of males enlarge to 6 mm. They remain in this condition to the end of July, and then regress to their original dimensions, 1-2 mm.  Litter size:  1-8 (average 5.3).  Independent young are first noticed in early July.
41386		population	eng	No data available.
41386		threats	eng	Unknown.
41387		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41387		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern Oregon from the Pacific coast east to the Cascades, and from the Columbia River south to Benton and Lane counties, in the United States (Carraway, 1990).
41387		habitat	eng	It is found in moist coniferous forests with shrubby understorey, and forages near logs and rocks (Alexander, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is an invertivore.
41387		population	eng	This species is endemic to a single state but it is apparently secure.
41387		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41388		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.
41388		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern South Asia, central and south China, and from northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is known only from eastern Nepal where it has been recorded from Khumjung and Ringmo (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from montane forests of south Gansu and west Shensi to Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is known only from northern parts of Myanmar. In China it occurs between 2,135 and 4,270 m asl.
41388		habitat	eng	In Nepal it has been recorded from montane forests and alpine areas (above 4,000 m asl) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). In China it can be found at lower elevations (3,500 m asl) in the rhododendron-conifer zone (Smith and Xie 2008). It lives in the ground litter, and forages on insects.
41388		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41388		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
41389		conservation	eng	The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) have listed this species as; Endangered (29Apr2006). It most likely occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41389		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the coastal lowlands of western North America, from southwestern British Columbia, Canada (Fraser Lowland Ecosection, usually below 600 m asl but up to 850 m asl) to northwestern California in the United States (Nagorsen, 1996, Galindo-Leal and Zuleta, 1997).
41389		habitat	eng	The marsh shrew is a riparian habitat specialist; associated with wet forests, marshes, and areas adjacent to water (usually streams/springs); generally in areas of coniferous or mixed forest with downed logs; often, but not always, in mature stands (Nagorsen, 1996).<br/><br/>Considering the entire range, the breeding season extends from late January to late August, with most young born in March (Nagorsen 1996). Gestation lasts about three weeks. Litter size is three to four (Nagorsen, 1996). Males do not breed in their first summer (Nagorsen, 1996). Apparently, adults breed in only one season (they do not survive overwinter).<br/><br/>They feed primarily on aquatic insects and other small invertebrates. Food may be captured on land or in water. May cache excess food. It is active throughout the year.
41389		population	eng	It is apparently rare throughout its range. There are no current population estimates.
41389		threats	eng	In Canada, suitable habitat has disappeared at a rapid rate and most remaining habitat is highly modified, fragmented, and isolated, due to rapid and unplanned urbanization and agricultural development (Galindo-Leal and Zuleta, 1997).
41390		conservation	eng	Further reseach is recommended.
41390		distribution	eng	Distributed in Pamir Mts: Petr Pervyi Ridge, Devon-Su, Sigazy, Sagran, Kyrgyz-Ob, Ob-Mazar Riveres valleys, Gissar and Mazar Ridges.
41390		habitat	eng	Ihnabits mountain birch and poplar forests on slopes and piedmonts. Occur sporadically, but prefer moist places with rich vegetation and thick leyer of fallen leaves. Feed on insects, mostly beatles. Litter size is about 7 youngs (data by embryos).
41390		population	eng	No data available
41390		threats	eng	Unknown
41391		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Further research on ecology, threats and population trend is recommended.
41391		distribution	eng	Distributed in Kamchatka peninsula, to headstream of Omolon River in the north and along Okhotsk Sea coast to Magadan and headstream of Kolyma River in Russia.
41391		habitat	eng	Inhabit shrubby river banks. Reproduce from end of April till September, some youngs start reproducing in same year. Overwintered females have up to 3 litters per year, with 5-11 young in each.
41391		population	eng	Naturally rare species.
41391		threats	eng	Unknown.
41392		conservation	eng	This species occurs protected areas throughout its range.
41392		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Alaska, in the United States, to Labrador/Newfoundland in Canada, south to Washington, Utah, New Mexico, the Northern Great Plains, southern Indiana and Ohio, through the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia and western South Carolina, and on the east coast to New Jersey and northern Maryland in the United States (Whitaker, 2004).
41392		habitat	eng	It occupies most terrestrial habitats excluding areas with very little or no vegetation. Thick leaf litter in damp forests may represent favoured habitat, although it appears to be adaptable to major successional disturbances. In Nova Scotia, diet indicated that much foraging was done among wreck on beaches (Stewart <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Nest sites are typically in shallow burrows or above ground in logs and stumps. Breeding season may last from March through September (there is evidence of mid-winter births in at least some years in Nova Scotia) (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are usually two litters, may be three. Gestation lasts 18 days, and litter size is two to 10 (average around seven). Young are weaned in three weeks. They reach sexual maturity in 20-26 weeks, and some young may breed in the year of their birth.<br/><br/>There are large annual fluctuations in population size. Density estimates range from one to 12 shrews per acre, with a home range of about 0.10 acre. They are usually in scattered, locally abundant populations. It rarely lives past a second summer. <br/><br/>It is a generalist, opportunistic invertivore, and eats primarily insects and other invertebrates, carrion, small vertebrates, occasionally seeds. It consumes daily its own weight in food, and is active throughout the day (and the year) to secure enough food to maintain high metabolic rate. Cloudy, rainy nights increase nocturnal activity.
41392		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant.
41392		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41393		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas across the range (approximately 7% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research is recommended. In China listed as Data Deficient, in Russia as Least Concern.
41393		distribution	eng	Distributed in Russian Federation, Mongolia, and China, from Ural mountains to Pacific Ocean. In Mongolia occurs along the Orhon and Selenge river basins in north-eastern Hangai Mountain Range (Chotolchu and Stubbe, 1971; Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985), along the Herlen River which passes through eastern Hentii Mountain Range, Middle Halh Steppe, Eastern Mongolia (Dmitriev <em>et al</em>. 1984), Mongol Daguur Steppe and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range. In China: Heilongjiang, Nei Mongol, Jilin (Smith and Xie in press).
41393		habitat	eng	Inhabits moist and humid areas  in mixed forest (conifer and broad leafed types) over much of its range, and it may also occupy birch groves in the wooded steppe.  In the Altai region daphaenodon may be sympatric with S. minutus, caecutiens and araneus, as well as Crocidura sibirica.  Diet consists of earthworms, spiders, millipedes, and insects (lepidoptera, orthoptera, crickets, diptera and a variety of beetles).  Breeding occurs in the summer months, and pregnant females are encountered in June-August.  Females usually give 3-4 litters per year with 4-9 young (average 7).  Males with enlaged gonads have been recorded from June to the middle of September.  The Large-toothed Siberian Shrew is preyed on by nocturnal and diurnal birds of prey and mammalian carnivores (Sable, Siberian Weasel, Ermine). Longevity is 14-16 months.
41393		population	eng	No population estimates are available, but research at a station ran by the National University of Mongolia in Khonin Nuga has found by measuring the abundance and density of this species, that its abundance is lower than the Sorex caecutiens in Mongolia (R. Samiya pers. comm.). In Russia it is generally not abundant, but in some parts (Barabinsk forest-steppe, headstrea of Selenga River, Prikhankaiskaya Lowland) it is the most abundant species among shrews.
41393		threats	eng	Human disturbance resulting from logging activity and fires in some parts of its range, which could also lead to habitat loss.
41394		conservation	eng	Many populations are in national forests, parks, or other public lands, and many are in areas protected by their remoteness. Protection of habitat from gross disturbance is the primary protection need. Habitats for these shrews should be protected from contamination by heavy metals and pesticides.
41394		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Appalachian Mountains, from Nova Scotia (Scott, 1987) and southeastern New Brunswick, Canada southward along the mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee in the United States (Kirkland, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Recent data indicate that populations formerly recognized as <em>Sorex gaspensis</em> actually should be included in <em>S. dispar</em>, so the range of <em>S. dispar</em> extends northeastward to the Gaspe Peninsula in Quebec and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, Canada (Rhymer <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
41394		habitat	eng	It occurs in mountainous, forested areas (deciduous or evergreen) with loose talus. Rocky damp areas with deep crevices covered by leaf mold and roots are preferred. It may occur along small mountain streams. It will use artificial talus created by road construction and pit mines. Trapping results reported by Richmond and Grimm (1950) suggest that long-tailed shrews spend most of their time in the labyrinth of spaces between rocks about a foot beneath the surface. Nest sites are usually associated with natural subterranean tunnels among boulder crevices. Breeding occurs in spring and summer, possibly late April to August (Kirkland and Van Deuen, 1979). One or two litters may be produced from May through August, with two to five young per litter. Sexual maturity is reached in less than a year. Like other shrews, this species probably does not survive beyond about 18 months.<br/><br/>The shrew's partly subterranean existence among rocks makes observation, direct or indirect, very difficult. Virtually all data comes from trapping. Nothing is known of territoriality or home range size. The same predators that feed on other shrews probably take long-tailed shrews, e.g., weasels, snakes, hawks and owls, but there is no specific information. External parasites include fleas, ticks, mites and chiggers. While no internal parasites have been reported, nematodes and tapeworms are common in other shrew species. Examination of the digestive tracts of long-tailed shrews indicates a diet primarily of small invertebrates. Some better-known species of shrews are reported to consume approximately their own weight in food daily, and, with their high metabolic rates, may die within a few hours when deprived of food.
41394		population	eng	It is an Appalachian Mountains endemic with a habitat that is not often suited for human use and development. Due to the difficulty of trapping this species, there are probably more occurrences than are currently known. The long-tailed shrew is, therefore, apparently secure and likely stable over most of the range, but few population data are available.
41394		threats	eng	Overall there are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Habitat destruction is a localised threat, but less so than for many rare species because the preferred habitat, talus, is often unsuitable for development, and provides a very uniform subterranean environment that is not highly vulnerable to disturbance. However, ski area expansion may be a threat to some populations, as in Vermont (Fichtel pers. comm., 1992). Highway construction may create more habitat than it destroys, as long-tailed shrews have been collected in the artificial talus slopes of road cuts (Conway and Pfitzer, 1952). Logging is unlikely to adversely impact this shrew; Kirkland (1979) showed that shrews persisted in recently clearcut red spruce stands in West Virginia. Shrews feed on invertebrates and may accumulate and concentrate pesticides and heavy metals in their tissues.
41395		conservation	eng	It occurs in a small protected area in Aguascalientes. Is not included under any protective legislation (Ivan Castro-Arellano pers. comm.).
41395		distribution	eng	This species is known from Durango, Zacatecas, and Jalisco, in Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). It ranges from 1,830 m up to 3,660 m asl.
41395		habitat	eng	It occurs in temperate forests (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
41395		population	eng	It is a fairly uncommon species (John Matson pers. comm.).
41395		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species (John Matson pers. comm.).
41396		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41396		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the northeastern United States, from the middle of the Appalachians northwards to southeastern Canada. It ranges west to Ontario, Canada and northeastern Minnesota in the United States (Jannett and Oehlenschlager 1994). Apparently the range has been expanding westward, perhaps due to a logging-caused change in cover from coniferous forest to a forest with a greater deciduous component.
41396		habitat	eng	The smoky shrew is most abundant in damp wooded areas, both in conifer and hardwood habitats. Nest sites are beneath stumps, rotted logs, or rocks (Whitaker, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Breeding season begins March to August and gestation lasts three weeks. Litter size is two to eight, with an average of five. Up to three litters may be produced each year. Unlike many shrews, this one reaches sexual maturity after its first winter. Diet consists mainly of insects and earthworms; also other inverts. Some small vertebrates and vegetative material may be occasional items. It is active throughout the day and night.
41396		population	eng	This smoky shrew is common throughout its range. Local densities may reach 25-50 shrews per acre (van Zyll de Jong 1983). Local populations are most abundant in late summer. Surviving winter populations may be only 20-25% of the post-breeding season population (Hamilton 1940).
41396		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41398		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
41398		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern Far East region, from the southern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk (Russia) to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang and Jilin in northeast China, Sakhalin Island and Kunashir Island (Russia), and Shikotan, Hokkaido, Rishiri and Rebun Islands in Japan (Hutterer, 2005; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
41398		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grasslands and coniferous forests on lowland and low mountain regions. It can also occur in large bamboo stands. It avoids agricultural areas, although it reaches greater densities in secondary woodland than in deep, continuous taiga (Smith and Xie, in press). It mainly feeds on invertebrates found in the surface litter and soil. Reproduce from May to October, with a peack in summer. Gives up to 3 litters per season, with 3-8 (more often 5-6) youngs in each.
41398		population	eng	On the continent is common, but not abundant. On Sakhalin and Kuril Island dominate among shrews. On Hokkaido, Japan, it is common in the northern and eastern regions; but rare in central and southern parts.
41398		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41399		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41399		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central North America from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, Canada southwards to the northern Great Plains in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, and Iowa in the United States. It was recently recorded in north-central Kansas and northern Missouri; its presence there may represent recent dispersal rather than previously undetected occurrence (Frey and Moore 1990). New Mexican specimens tentatively identified as <em>S. cinereus</em> appear to have a close sister relationship to <em>S. haydeni</em> and may be the first records of <em>S. haydeni</em> from New Mexico; further study is needed (Demboski and Cook 2003).
41399		habitat	eng	Prairie shrews are found in grasslands; prairies, parklands, marshes, grassy bogs, edges of lakes and rivers and in wet meadows. Breeding probably extends from late April to September or October. Gestation is believed to be about 19-22 days. Females may produce one to three litters per year of four to ten young per litter (Bee <em>et al.</em> 1981). Young probably are reproductively active by the spring of the year of their birth.<br/><br/>A voracious hunter, the prairie shrew forages for insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes). It may also consume small vertebrates and some vegetable matter. It forages just beneath ground cover. It is active throughout the year. Although active at any time throughout the day or night, shrews generally are most active during the early morning and evening hours.
41399		population	eng	There are no recent population estimates but this species is apparently secure across its range. Based on studies of the closely related <em>S. cinereus</em>, the home range size is estimated to be approximately 1/10 acre; with a population density of 0 to nine per acre (Banfield 1974).
41399		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41400		conservation	eng	At present, there are no major global level protection needs, though protection of the disjunct southern populations may be a priority at a national or subnational scale. They probably occur in several protected occurrences in federal and state/provincial parks/refuges.
41400		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout much of Canada and Alaska (United States), excluding northern tundra zones. Contiguous American populations are limited to the northern Rocky Mountains, Great Lakes region, and New England, with disjunct populations in the Southern Rockies (e.g., northern Colorado) and Appalachians (e.g., widespread and locally abundant in Virginia). In the 1970s and 1980s, it was recorded in southern Indiana, Kentucky, and western Tennessee (see Feldhamer <em>et al.</em> 1993), and South Carolina (Mengak <em>et al</em>. 1987).
41400		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of habitats, and appears to prefer grassy openings of boreal forest. Moist habitats are preferred over dry areas. In Kentucky-Tennessee, it was much less active above ground than was <em>S. longirostris</em> (Feldhamer <em>et al.</em> 1993). Nest sites are not well known. In Kentucky-Tennessee, the primary birth period was January to early March; individuals entered the trappable population about eight weeks later; births also occurred August to December but at a lower rate; few were born in June and July (Feldhamer <em>et al</em>. 1993). Gestation lasts probably two to three weeks, and litter size is five to six. They reach sexual maturity in their second summer.<br/><br/>The pygmy shrew is primarily dependent upon invertebrates. Their diet in New Brunswick included mainly insect larvae, beetles, and spiders (Whitaker and French 1984). The peak activity occurs at night.
41400		population	eng	The total population size of this species is unknown but most likely is greater than 10,000. On a global scale, there is little reason to believe that a significant decline has occurred. In Michigan, densities of 0.2 to two individuals per acre were estimated (Baker 1983).
41400		threats	eng	This species is not significantly threatened at present.
41401		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41401		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southeastern United States, from southern Maryland to central Florida, west to northeastern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Louisiana (Taylor and Wilkinson 1988). Subspecies <em>eionis</em> occurs in the northern two-thirds of peninsular Florida, the subspecies <em>fisheri</em> occurs in the vicinity of the historical Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina and possibly also coastal South Carolina (further study is needed), and subspecies <em>longirostris</em> occurs across the remainder of the range. (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1991).
41401		habitat	eng	It is found in various habitats ranging from bogs and damp woods to upland shrubby or wooded areas; apparently prefers moist to wet areas, usually bordering swamps, marshes, or rivers, and most often associated with heavy ground cover (French 1980). It generally resides underground or under ground cover. It might respond favourably to disturbances that allow dense ground cover to thrive (Pagels <em>et al.</em> 1982). <br/><br/>Subspecies <em>eionis</em> occurs in cypress swamps, bay swamps, hydric hammocks, slash pine and longleaf pine flatwoods, palmetto thickets, longleaf pine sandhills, xeric hammocks, sand pine scrub, clear-cuts. Subspecies <em>longirostris</em> occurs in various lowland habitats, fields and forest edges in mountains, areas with heavy ground vegetation; in Virginia, it is common throughout the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, but uncommon in western highlands. Subspecies <em>fisheri</em> is most abundant in mesic successional habitats (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>Young are born from April through October. The litter size is one to six (average around four), and there are one to three litters per year. Gestation probably lasts two to three weeks (if same as other shrews). Little is known about this species' life cycle. Southeastern shrews eats small invertebrates, particularly spiders, caterpillars, slugs and snails, crickets, beetles, and centipedes; also some vegetative material (see French 1980). The most commonly reported predators include barred and barn owls and domestic cats. Mostly nocturnal; however, also active throughout the day.
41401		population	eng	It is widespread in southeastern North America and present in a wide variety of habitats. Snap traps significantly underestimate the true abundance and density. Pitfalls have been found to better reflect population levels (Rose 1980). In Alabama, density was estimated at 30/ha and 44/ha on two plots; usually not more than ten have been captured in the same locality (French 1980).
41401		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very widespread species.
41402		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is protected in Yosemite National Park. No special protection efforts are needed at this time. Basic habitat protection needs include the adoption of good watershed management practices, the protection of wetlands, the prevention of flooding of canyons such as that which results from the construction of dams, and the protection of meadows and other vulnerable communities from excessive grazing or other degrading activities. <br/><br/>Surveys along the crest and east slope of the Sierra Nevada from Mono County north to the Warner Mountains, Modoc County, might yield previously undetected populations. All aspects of life history and population biology are in need of further study.
41402		distribution	eng	The known range of this species spans a small area of the east-central Sierra Nevada, California, including areas in and around Yosemite National Park, in Tuolumne, Mariposa, and Mono counties, at elevations of 6,900-10,350 feet (2,100-3,155 m asl) (Grinnell 1933; Williams 1984). This shrew may possibly occur in similar habitat from Mono County to Modoc County, but the area outside the known range has not been adequately surveyed.
41402		habitat	eng	Specimens have been found primarily in wetland communities, near streams, in grassy areas, under willows, and in sagebrush steppe community (Grinnell 1933, Williams 1984, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology data). These shrews are active voracious hunters that feed primarily on insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes). They are active throughout the year. Though active at any time throughout the day or night, they are most active during the early morning and evening hours.
41402		population	eng	The total adult population size of the Mount Lyell shrew is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. As of 2005, this species was represented by fewer than 10 known distinct occurrences (counting closely adjacent locations as one occurrence). However, the habitat is remote, collecting methods are specialized, and relatively little collecting effort has been made, so it is likely that there are additional undocumented occurrences. Surveys in and near Yosemite National Park in 2003-2005 yielded specimens from several locations (University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology data).
41402		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, largely due to the remoteness of its habitat and the lack of commercial value.
41403		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western United States (Verts and Carraway 1998) and extreme southern British Columbia, Canada (D. Nagorsen pers. comm.). It occurs in the Great Basin, Columbia Plateau, northern Great Plains and southern Rocky Mountains. It ranges between elevations of 650 to 9,500 ft asl (Armstrong and Jones 1971). George (1990) provided information on range extensions in New Mexico. Benedict <em>et al.</em> (1999) discussed new collections in northwestern Nebraska.
41403		habitat	eng	Habitats include various grasslands, including grasses in sagebrush scrub and pinyon-juniper woodland, as well as mountain mahogany shrublands and mixed woodlands (Clark and Stromberg 1987, Benedict <em>et al.</em> 1999). Merriam's shrew has been recorded also in spruce-aspen habitat in New Mexico (George 1990). It seems to prefer drier habitats than those used by other shrews. It may utilize the burrows and runways of other animals (Armstrong, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>In Washington, pregnant females have been captured from April to July, and nursing females in March, July and October. Three litters ranged from five to seven (Johnson and Clanton 1954, cited in Verts and Carraway 1998). In Washington and Wyoming, this species was frequently found in association with <em>Lagurus curtatus</em>. Owls are the only known predators. Merriam's shrew feeds primarily on lepidopteran caterpillars, beetles, cave crickets, ichneumon wasps, and spiders, as well as other arthropods (Johnson and Clanton 1954, cited in Verts and Carraway 1998; Clark and Stromberg 1987). It has the highest relative bite force of all western shrews studied, indicating that it is adapted to forage on relatively large, hard-bodied prey (Verts and Carraway 1998).
41403		population	eng	There is no information about population densities for this species. It is thought to be nowhere abundant; at known sites, several hundred trap-nights are needed to capture one animal (Verts and Carraway 1998). It is sparse and uncommon, but its range is large (much of southwestern North America) and conservation status is secure on a global basis.
41403		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species. Grassland and shrub steppe is being lost to agriculture and other development and the species' tolerance of grazing is unknown, but this is not a major threat at present (Verts and Carraway 1998).
41404		conservation	eng	Protected by law, occurs in some protected areas. In China listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,iii); D2. In Russia considered as Rare species, category III (=Near Threatened).
41404		distribution	eng	Distributed in Primorye (Russia), N Korea and NE China (Heilongjiang and Jilin).
41404		habitat	eng	A poorly known and rarely encountered species. Apparently its preferred habitat consists of  primary broadleafed and coniferous-broadleafed forest. Inhabits valleys and the slopes of hills.  The Ussuri Shrew demonstrates a higher level of activity than in other Red-toothed shrews. Apparently this activity is related to the lesser nutritional value of  its primary foodstuffs - earthworms, other invertebrates, and flesh of rodents that this shrew consumes. It consumes 214.2% of its body weight daily. Breeding occurs once a year, with young beginning to appear in traps only at the end of August.  In favorable years two litters are possible. Young first become sexually maturity in the following warm season.
41404		population	eng	Very rare species.
41404		threats	eng	Unknown.
41405		conservation	eng	In Mexico it is included in legislation protection under the NOM 059 SEMARNAT 2001, under the name of <em>Sorex vagrans monticola</em>. In the State of California the species is listed as a "Species of Special Concern". It presumably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41405		distribution	eng	This widespread species occurs from Alaska and western Canada, south through the western United States (although patchily distributed) and the highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico (Baker and Greer, 1962). The highest altitudinal records in Mexico are around 2,600 m asl in Durango (Baker and Greer, 1962).
41405		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of habitat types: montane boreal and coastal coniferous forest and alpine areas; damp meadows surrounded by coniferous forest, in grass among spruce-fir, mid-elevation fir-larch, along streams and rivers in high prairie, mossy banks of small streams, alpine tundra, sphagnum bogs.
41405		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species.
41405		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although habitat loss may be occurring in some parts of its range.
41406		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several designated wilderness areas (Absoroka-Beartooth).
41406		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the United States and is found across central Montana to northwestern Wyoming; southeastern Montana; western South Dakota; the Rocky Mountains from southeastern Wyoming, south across western Colorado and southeastern Utah to south-central New Mexico; in the Kaibab Plateau, San Francisco Peaks, and White Mountains in Arizona (Hoffmann and Owen 1980, MacCracken <em>et al.</em> 1985, Berna 1990, George 1990, Backlund 1995).
41406		habitat	eng	It is found in various habitats including rocky areas in alpine tundra and partly into subalpine coniferous forest, other types of rocky slopes (e.g., with ponderosa pine, George 1990), sedge marsh, subalpine meadow, dry brushy slopes, arid shortgrass prairie, dry stubble fields, and pinyon-juniper woodland. In some areas the dwarf shrew is sympatric with <em>S. monticolus</em>. <br/><br/>At high elevation, breeding probably begins in late June-early July; and the first litters are produced in late July-early August; and the second litters are born in late August-early September; embryo counts averaged 6.5 for second litters; females breed in their second year. At lower elevations, breeding may begin earlier and litter size and frequency may be greater (Clark and Stromberg 1987). It is an active hunter, and feeds primarily on insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes, etc.). It may also consume vegetable matter as well as some small vertebrates (salamanders, etc.). It is active throughout the year.
41406		population	eng	There are no population estimates available. It is rarely captured except in pitfall traps; and it is likely to occur in many more locations than currently known. Its population is apparently secure.
41406		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41407		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Thai law, and is found within a National Park (Pai Basin NP), but this does not necessarily protect the species as there is little restrictions on agricultural practices and regulation of tourism is needed to reduce the potential impacts to the species habitat at some sites.
41407		distribution	eng	Observed from eight subterranean sites within a large karst system (Pang Mapha karst formation) in Mae Hongson Province, Thailand. It has been recorded from the Susa (from where it was first collected in May 1985) and Mae Lana caves (Borowsky and Vidthayanon 2001). The connectivity of this karst systems is unknown, some are definitely connected. It may also occur in other submerged caves in the area.
41407		habitat	eng	It is depigmented and has no visible eyes. This species coexists with another hypogean loach, <em>Schistura oedipus</em>. The species is specialized for fast subterranean flowing water in the deeper zone of the cave (more than 500m from the entrance). It depends on cave micro-organism and organic matter, and is very sensitive to disturbance, water quality and hydrographic change.
41407		population	eng	A population of less than 2,000 individuals has been estimated by Borowsky and Vidthayanon (2001) from molecular analysis.
41407		threats	eng	Human disturbance from tourism activity (some of the habitat sites are popular for caving tourism and sightseeing) may threaten the species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> Agriculture and deforestation are future major threats.
41408		conservation	eng	It is listed as subject to special protection under Mexican legislation NOM 059 SEMARNAT 2001. It occurs in protected areas; San Pedro Martir National Park in Mexico, as well as in the United States.
41408		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the coastal region of California, United States southward discontinuously to the tip of Baja California, Mexico (Wilson and Ruff, 1999), San Pedro Martir, Sierra de la Laguna and El Socorro marsh (Sergio Ticul Alvarez pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level up to 2,080 m asl (Carraway, 2007).
41408		habitat	eng	Its habitat is marshes, salt and fresh; low, dense vegetation adjacent to rivers, lakes, and streams; grassy hillsides and chaparral slopes; occasionally into adjacent woodlands (Hoffman, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It may use burrows of other animals.
41408		population	eng	This species was formerly common and widespread, but populations in coastal salt marshes, freshwater swamps and marshes and in the highly agricultural regions of central California have been greatly reduced or eliminated (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41408		threats	eng	Isolated populations in Baja California are vulnerable to human encroachment and environmental fluctuation (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). The subspecies <em>juncencis</em> is extinct (Maldonado, 2004).
41409		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least several protected areas, including Crater Lake National Park and various state parks and natural areas.
41409		distribution	eng	This species' range is limited to western Oregon, including two disjunct areas, one in the Coast Range and the other in the Cascade Range in the United States (Carraway 1990, Verts and Carraway 1998).
41409		habitat	eng	Habitats include moist wooded areas, including especially shady riparian thickets and areas with decaying logs (Bailey 1936; Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981; Morrison and Anthony 1989; Maldonado, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). These shrews tend to avoid grass habitats occupied by <em>S. vagrans</em> (Morrison and Anthony 1989). Typical litter size is four or five, but may vary from two to six (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981). Reproductively active males are found primarily from February to August; pregnant females recorded 18 April to 1 November (Carraway 1988, Carraway 1985). Apparently some females may produce more than one litter/year (Carraway 1988). It is an active hunter, and feeds primarily on insects but also consumes a large number of other small invertebrates, worms, molluscs, and centipedes. It may eat small amphibians and some vegetable matter. It is active throughout the year. Although some authors have indicated that this species is nocturnal, Verts and Carraway (1998) suspect that activity is "merely depressed in the daytime."
41409		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Verts and Carraway 1998). The total adult population size is unknown, but it does not appear to be uncommon and presumably the population exceeds 10,000, based on the area occupied and typical <em>Sorex</em> densities. This shrew is readily obtained in field surveys; Verts and Carraway (1998) listed 589 museum specimens. Morrison and Anthony (1989) found that only 2% of 829 individuals of 10 species captured were <em>S. pacificus</em>, but the sampling was conducted in early successional clearcuts, which may not be the most favourable habitat for this species, and the methods used may not have been optimal for shrew capture.<br/><br/>The short-term population trend is not definitely known, but probably the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have not declined more than 10 percent over the past 10 years. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined more than 25 percent over the long term.
41409		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species. It is restricted to part of western Oregon, but is known from at least 50 collection sites; there is little information on population status but evidently it is not threatened.
41410		conservation	eng	The water shrew is a boreal species, also inhabiting relict habitat in southern mountains. It requires high quality water, preferably mountain streams, and abundant cover such as rocks, logs, or overhanging stream bank. Suitable management consists primarily of maintaining these conditions. There are many areas (e.g., state and national parks) in which habitat is adequately protected. The southern range of the water shrew may be shrinking through habitat fragmentation and local extirpation, but current information is inadequate to allow an evaluation of this hypothesis.
41410		distribution	eng	This species occurs in boreal and montane regions of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New England across Canada to east-central Alaska (Cook <em>et al.</em> 1997), south to the northern Great Lakes region and in the western mountains to mid-California, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico in the United States. A small, disjunct population in Arizona's White Mountains has not been observed in recent years (Hoffmeister 1986); there is another apparently disjunct series of populations in the Appalachians ranges from southwestern Pennsylvania to North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia.<br/><br/>Pagels (1990, 1991) noted that in the southern Appalachians the water shrew is limited to prime habitat: "high elevation situations where moist, cool, shaded situations have prevailed throughout historic time…elevations ranging from about 760 m (2,500 ft.) in Pennsylvania to 1150 m (3,800 ft.) and above in North Carolina and Tennessee."
41410		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant along small cold streams with thick overhanging riparian growth. Also around lakes, ponds, marshes, bogs, and other lentic habitats. Though normally associated with water, water shrews "have been found more than 100 m (328 ft) from streams in mature northern hardwood stands in northern New Hampshire" (DeGraaf and Rudis 1986). This and other captures far from water probably represent dispersing individuals. <br/><br/>Nest sites are near water in underground burrows, rafted logs, beaver lodges, and other areas providing shelter. <br/>It breeds from February to August in Montana (Conaway 1952). Gestation lasts probably 3 weeks. Litter size is 3-10, average 6; with 2-3 litters/year (Montana). Optimum conditions in captivity, or abundant food supply in nature, may increase the number of litters (Churchfield 1992). They sexually mature in their second calendar year. Their maximum lifespan is about 18 months (Beneski and Stinson 1987).<br/><br/>Common predators include fishes such as trout, bass, and pickerel, minks, otters, weasels, snakes, and occasionally, hawks and owls (Merritt 1987). The water shrew is primarily dependent upon aquatic insects; but also eats various other invertebrates. It may take small vertebrates (fishes, amphibians) when available. It hunts under and on top of water, and may even be seen running across the water surface. Water shrews, with their high metabolic rates, need to consume approximately their weight in food every day (Conaway 1952, Sorenson 1962). In the wild they seem unable to store significant body fat and can die of starvation within a few hours. When a surplus of food is available, it is often horded, the shrew sometimes defecating on it to keep other shrews away.
41410		population	eng	This species has a large range in the boreal and montane regions of North America, and its population is secure, if not abundant, throughout the northern part of the range; in the south, its habitat has been fragmented since the retreat of the last glaciers, making isolated populations vulnerable to extirpation; some subspecies are rare enough to be of concern.<br/><br/>Information on population density is limited. Population densities in the Appalachians appear to be quite low, though numbers are not available (Pagels, <em>et al.</em> 1991). In Canada, Banfield (1974) reported that this shrew is usually uncommon but sizeable populations sometimes occur in favourable locations. Generally numbers are highest in summer when young are born and drop off sharply in autumn, with very little decrease through winter.
41410		threats	eng	Churchfield (1992) stated that water shrews (both <em>S. palustris and <em>Neomys sp.</em>) "are particularly vulnerable to the destruction of their aquatic habitats through pollution and drainage." Activities such as logging, agriculture, road building, and surface mining contribute to the loss of habitat. Logging may not be a serious threat if water quality is protected and buffer strips are maintained at the site (Christian pers. comm., 1994). <br/><br/>Regarding the subspecies <em>S. p. punctulatus</em> in the east, Pagels <em>et al.</em> (1991) stated: "Perhaps the greatest continuing threats to the water shrew are the loss of additional habitat resulting from infestation of introduced insect species, such as the gypsy moth, or the use of insecticides to control such infestations. The effects of acid rain, particularly on the shrew's microhabitat and food supply could be particularly devastating." Shrews feeding on invertebrates accumulate and concentrate pesticides and heavy metals in their tissues. Northern short-tailed shrews (<em>Blarina brevicauda</em>) were found to contain DDT nine years after application of the pesticide to a forest habitat (Dimond and Sherburne 1969). "Contamination of habitats, and the resultant effects on the food chain, by mining and refining of metalliferous ores, by motor exhausts and even by the application of sewage sludge to land, is becoming more widespread. Shrews from contaminated grasslands have been found to accumulate some of the highest concentrations of metals recorded in wildlife" (Churchfield 1992). <br/><br/>Southern populations are limited to the mountains in both the east and west and consequently tend to be isolated. When an isolated population disappears for any reason, it is unlikely to be restored by natural dispersal. Hence these isolated populations may be especially vulnerable to extirpation from human activities or long-term climate change.</em>
41411		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
41411		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Asia and China. In South Asia, it has been recorded from the area of Kashmir (administered by India and Pakistan) and North Western Frontier Province in Pakistan, occupying an altitudinal range from 2,280 to 3,970 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from far west Xinjiang and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008).
41411		habitat	eng	The Kashmir Shrew lives in coniferous forest and alpine rocky habitats that may be covered with snow for up to eight months of the year (Smith and Xie 2008). Presumably they live on various species of arthropods, woodlice and beetles (Roberts 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).
41411		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
41411		threats	eng	The major threats faced by Kashmir Shrew are not known.
41412		conservation	eng	None known.
41412		distribution	eng	Distributed in Chukotka peninsula (Russian Federation), from Palevaam River in west to Anadyr River valley in east.
41412		habitat	eng	Poorly studied species, no data on ecology available.
41412		population	eng	No data available.
41412		threats	eng	Unknown.
41413		conservation	eng	This species is known from Sheldon National Antelope Refuge, Nevada (Hoffmann and Fisher 1978) and Timpie Spring Waterfowl Management Area, Utah (Tomasi and Hoffman 1984). There is a need for more pitfall trapping across western North America to determine the species' population status and range. Since its habitat needs are poorly known, this is critical to protecting the species.
41413		distribution	eng	This species is known from Western North America, from the Columbia Plateau to the northern Great Plains (Junge and Hoffman 1981, Cornely <em>et al.</em> 1992, Long and Hoffmann 1992). Recorded occurrences include northeastern California, northwestern and northeastern Nevada (Ports and George 1990), central and eastern Oregon, southeastern Washington, south-central British Columbia (D. Nagorsen pers. comm.), west central Idaho, Montana (east to the North Dakota border), northwestern and southwestern Wyoming, west central Colorado (Long and Hoffmann 1992), and the south shore of the Great Salt Lake; there are no records for Snake River Plain of southern Idaho or from the bulk of the Great Basin in Nevada or Utah south of the 40th meridian. It has been recorded from elevations of about 1,280-2,550 m asl.
41413		habitat	eng	Recorded habitats for this species include arid and semiarid shrub-grass associations, openings in montane coniferous forests dominated by sagebrush (Washington), willow-fringed creeks, marshes (Oregon), bunchgrass associations, sagebrush-aspen associations (California), sagebrush-grass associations (Nevada), alkaline shrubland (Utah) (Hoffman <em>et al.</em> 1969, Williams 1984, Cornely <em>et al</em>. 1992). Diet probably resembles other shrews, feeding primarily on insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes, etc.). It is active throughout the year, and may be active at any time throughout the day or night, but probably most active during morning and evening hours.
41413		population	eng	Neither population numbers nor area of occupied habitat is known. Verts and Carraway (1998) suggest that the apparent rarity of this shrew is primarily an artefact of little sampling effort.
41413		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41414		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas (approximately 10% of the species’ range in Mongolia). In the Russia Red List is listed as Least Concern, and is Not Evaluated for the China Red List. Further research is recommended.
41414		distribution	eng	Distributed in taiga and forest-tundra from Ural Mts to Pacific Ocean coast. In Mongolia occurs along the Onon River Basin in Hentii Mountain Range (Chotolchu and Stubbe, 1971), Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Dawaa <em>et al.</em>, 1973; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992) and along the Halh River Basin in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range. In China occurs in Xinjiang (Altai mountains).
41414		habitat	eng	Inhabits taiga and meadows in tundra habitats. In the northern parts of the range feed mostly on earthworms, in southern - on insects (especially beetles). Reproduce in summer, has up to 3 litters per year, with 7-8 young in each.
41414		population	eng	This species is quite rare in Mongolia, and marginal parts of the range. In central parts common.
41414		threats	eng	Human disturbance resulting from logging activity in some parts of its range, which could also lead to habitat loss. Wildfires and human-caused fires also constitute a threat. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
41415		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
41415		distribution	eng	Distributed in northern Turkey and the Caucasus.
41415		habitat	eng	Where the species co-occurs with Sorex raddei, apparently competition pushes the species outside of forests into sub-Alpine habitats (i.e. in the Caucasus) . The species occurs in Alpine meadows with rocky outcrops but also in forests in the west. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,600 m. Feed mainly on beetles, but also consume other insects. Reproduce in spring and first half of summer. Has up to 3 litters per season, with 4-8 young in each.
41415		population	eng	In the Caucasus is common, but never abundant.
41415		threats	eng	No major threats to the species. Local overgrazing in the Caucasus is a concern.
41416		conservation	eng	It is included in Mexican legislation under special conservation (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001) at the sub-species level (<em>cristobalensis</em>, <em>veraecrucis</em> and <em>oaxacae</em>). Taxonomic studies are needed to resolve the range of this species.
41416		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico, from Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, México, Distrito Federal, Morelos and Puebla, from 2,100 to at least 3,650 m asl (Carraway, 2007). A disjunct population in Guatemala was provisionally included by Junge and Hoffmann (1981) but is most likely a separate species.
41416		habitat	eng	It can be found in high elevation forest, as well as high elevation fields with corn or oats planted (Carraway, 2007). It is terrestrial and travels in shallow burrows in the leaf litter or near the soil surface (Reid, 1997).
41416		population	eng	It is an uncommon to locally common species (Reid, 1997).
41416		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in parts of its range, although this is not considered a major threat since it is such a widespread species.
41417		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in several protected areas.
41417		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found only on Honshu (Kii Peninsula and the mountains north of Kyoto Prefecture), Shikoku, and Sado Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,900 m asl.
41417		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf litter and humus layers in primary and secondary forests and shrublands at high elevations in central Honshu and Shikoku. In northern Honshu and on Sado Island, the species also occurs in lower mountain areas (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
41417		population	eng	It is common in mountain regions of central and northern Honshu (where <em>Sorex hosonoi</em> is absent) and Sado Island. It is rare in Shikoku where it is confined to high altitude regions.
41417		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41418		conservation	eng	it occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41418		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central western Oregon, south through northwestern California to Marin County in the United States (Carraway 1990).
41418		habitat	eng	The fog shrew occurs in chaparral, coastal coniferous (redwood, spruce) forest and marshy areas (Maldonado, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is often found under and among decaying logs and stumps, or other surface cover. Pregnant females have been recorded from 20 March-24 September in California (Carraway 1988). Litter size is from two to six, and probably some females produce more than one litter/year (Carraway 1988). This species probably feeds primarily on insects but also consumes a large number of other small invertebrates. It is active throughout the year.
41418		population	eng	It has a relatively restricted range, but is found at more than 100 locations. No information on density is available (Verts and Carraway 1998).
41418		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41419		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are found in national parks (Lassen Volcanic, Great Basin) or on other public lands that may be reasonably protected from most kinds of development. No specific protection measures are needed at the present time.
41419		distribution	eng	Until recently, the known range of this species encompassed east-central California and west-central Nevada; but sampling during 2000-2004 found this species in Great Basin National Park in eastern Nevada (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 2004) and in Lassen Volcanic National Park in northern California (Shohfi <em>et al.</em> 2006). These new, widely disjunct locations suggest that additional sampling will result in further range extensions.
41419		habitat	eng	Habitats include riparian zones and canyon bottoms; rocky mountain habitat in areas with logs, boulders, or sagebrush scrub (Ingles 1965); and red fir communities (Williams 1984). This species may be more tolerant of dry habitat than are other closely related shrews. In Great Basin National Park, this shrew was found at 3,000 m asl in habitat dominated by Engelmann spruce (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 2004). A voracious hunter, this species feeds primarily on insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes, etc.). It may feed on bodies of wind-borne insects deposited at higher elevations. It is active throughout the year.
41419		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but presumably far exceeds 10,000, based on typical <em>Sorex</em> densities and the potential area of occupancy. This species is currently known from about a dozen different areas (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shohfi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further sampling using pitfall traps undoubtedly will reveal additional localities in California and Nevada.
41419		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified.
41420		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
41420		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to China, where it is distributed in Qinghai (south of the Kunlin mountains), Sichuan, Gansu and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). There are ongoing taxonomic difficulties with this species, and the range map indicates just an approximation of the possible Chinese range of this taxon.
41420		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in temperate montane areas, ranging to high elevations.
41420		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41420		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
41421		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41421		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal southwestern British Columbia south of Burrard Inlet, south through western Washington and Oregon to northwestern California, south through coast ranges to Santa Barbara County, east to Warner Mountains (northeastern California), south through Sierra Nevada to Kern County, California in the United States (George 1989). It occurs from sea level up to 1,820 m asl.
41421		habitat	eng	It is found in mature forest (dry or moist) with abundant ground litter; forested canyons and ravines, and swampy woods; deep rank grass near salmonberry thickets (Destruction Island off Washington); riparian fringe areas (but not streamside); under chaparral (at southern edge of range); cut forest if sufficient ground cover present (George, in Wilson and Ruff 1999; George 1989). <br/><br/>Maximum life-span is estimated at about 18 months. Populations decline after forest wildfires. Fall population tends to be about double the spring population (George 1989). Pregnant females have been recorded from March-May in Washington; with three to four embryos. It breeds in February-early June in Sierra Nevada; with an average of five embryos; post-partum pregnancy is probably common. Average of 3.9 embryos in Oregon. The age of sexual maturity is less in areas with a warmer climate. This shrew is primarily insectivorous, and also feeds on spiders, worms, and centipedes. It feeds on more vegetable matter than other shrews in this genus (Banfield 1974). It is known to feed on the seeds of Douglas-fir, pine, and other plants, especially in winter. It is active throughout the year.
41421		population	eng	This species is widely distributed, it is often the most abundant (or at least the most commonly captured) shrew where it occurs (Verts and Carraway 1998).
41421		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species. One study showed a decline following logging, but another showed an increase, indicating that dominant vegetation structure may not be responsible for regulating abundance (Verts and Carraway 1998).
41422		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures known or required.
41422		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures known or required. This species occurs within protected areas.
41422		distribution	eng	Distributed in tundra and forest zones from west of the Urals (Russia) to Alaska (USA); Yukon, Northwest Territories (Canada); south to the Altai Mtns (Russia), Mongolia and NE China. Also occurs along water courses in steppe zones. In Europe found along the European slope of the Ural mountains and the valley of the Ural river and along the Pechora river.
41422		distribution	eng	Distributed in tundra and forest zones from west of the Urals (Russia) to Alaska (USA); Yukon, Northwest Territories (Canada); south to the Altai Mtns (Russia), Mongolia and NE China. Also occurs along water courses in steppe zones. In Europe found along the European slope of the Ural mountains and the valley of the Ural river and along the Pechora river.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, it is found in the Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985), Great Lakes Depression, Hangai Mountain Range (Dmitriev <em>et al</em>. 1992), Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Litvinov, 1982; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992), along the Herlen and Onon rivers, which pass through eastern Hentii Mountain Range through Middle Halh Steppe and Eastern Mongolia, and along the Ulz River in Mongol Daguur Steppe (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1985).<br/><br/>In China it is found in the north-east (Altai mountains, Xinjiang).
41422		habitat	eng	Prefers river meadows with osier, settles in fire-sites and overgrown glades. Along rivers penetrates to semi-deserts. Inhabits dense vegetation of grasses and shrubs. Solitary, the size of individual space is up to 1,500 m<sup>2</sup>. Feeds mainly on beetles. Reproduction is usually in summer, produces 3-4 litters per year; litter size is about 7-10 young.
41422		habitat	eng	Prefers river meadows with osier, settles in fire-sites and overgrown glades. Along rivers penetrates to semi-deserts. Solitary, the size of individual space is up to 1,500 m<sup>2</sup>. Feeds mainly on beetles. Reproduction is usually in summer, gives 3-4 litters per year; litter size is about 7-10 young.
41422		population	eng	A widespread and very abundant species. The most common species of small mammal found along Siberian rivers.
41422		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41423		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas across its range.
41423		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mainland tundra west of Hudson Bay (Canada) and northern Alaska in the United States (Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
41423		habitat	eng	The primary habitat for this shrew is tundra; low sedge-grass meadows and thickets of dwarf willow and birch (van Zyll de Jong, in Wilson and Ruff 1999).
41423		population	eng	This species is common and widespread.
41423		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41424		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas.
41424		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific coast of Russian Far East from Vladivostok to the Amur, south into northeastern China in the provinces of Heilongjiang and eastern Nei Mongol, and northeastern Democratic People's Republic of Korea, as well as on the islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan), and the Japanese islands of Rebun, Rishiri, Teuri, Moyuyuri, Yagishiri, and Daikoku (Corbet, 1978; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Hutterer, 2005).
41424		habitat	eng	It occurs in most habitats from lowlands to montane regions, and inhabits leaf litter and humus layers. Grasslands and open fields are particularly suitable and they can reach high densities in these habitats (Smith and Xie, in press). It is a semifossorial species. Diet consists of earthworms, insects, centipedes and snails. In China it occurs in sympatry with S. caecutiens and S. isodon, to which it is often subordinate (Smith and Xie, in press). In the southern part of the range reproduction occurs from beginning of April till end of September, in Amur Region and Khabarovsky Krai only in summer. Has up to 3 litters per season, with 3-7 young in each.
41424		population	eng	It is common on Hokkaido in Japan. In China they can be very common in suitable habitat (Smith and Xie, in press). In Russia is common, in some places abundant.
41424		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
41425		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas and is common where it occurs (John Matson pers. comm.).
41425		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern British Columbia, Canada south to Monterrey, California, and east to Idaho, western Montana, and northern Utah in the United States. A disjunct subspecies <em>S. vagrans orizabae</em> found in the transverse volcanic belt of Mexico was recently elevated to species status (Carraway, 2007).
41425		habitat	eng	These shrews live in moist habitats and are often found along lakesides, streams, and in coastal salt marshes. They also occur in mesic forest (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They are known to nest in decayed logs. The nests are approximately 4" in diameter and are made of dry grass. It primarily feeds on forest insects (eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults), slugs, earthworms, and other invertebrates. Occasionally may feed on salamanders and other small vertebrates. It is active all year. Throughout the year it is most active at night. In spring, diurnal activity increases.
41425		population	eng	This species is considered abundant (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41425		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very widespread species.
41426		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, such as Los Volcanes National Park.
41426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, and ranges from México eastwards through Distrito Federal, Puebla, Tlaxcala, southwards to Oaxaca in central and southern Mexico (Carraway, 2007).
41426		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane coniferous forest (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005), and in meadows adjacent to the forest. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
41426		population	eng	In some localities it is apparently abundant (Castro-Arellano and Ceballos in Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).
41426		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat, in particular in the north of its range and outside the protected areas. However, overall there are no major threats to the species at present.
41427		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in Mexico and Guatemala (Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, eastern Guatemala; and several of the volcanoes in Guatemala). In Mexico the two sub species are listed under special protection (NOM 059 SEMARNAT 2001).
41427		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Guerrero, south through the highlands of Oaxaca and Chiapas in Mexico, and Guatemala (Carraway, 2007). It is known from 1,800 to 3,100 m asl (Reid, 1997).
41427		habitat	eng	This species can be found in cold, wet, pine-oak and broadleaf forest (Reid, 1997). It is terrestrial and uses shallow burrows in the leaf litter, and may travel on fallen logs (Reid, 1997).
41427		population	eng	It is a locally common species (Reid, 1997). In Guatemala and Oaxaca (Mexico) the species' habitat is considered to be stable, but in Chiapas (Mexico) it is decreasing.
41427		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat in many parts of the species range. In 2005, 24% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41428		conservation	eng	In South Asia, it is found in a few protected areas of Nepal, such as Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Barun National Park, Langtang National Park, Rara National Park, Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is presumably present in some Chinese protected areas as well.
41428		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern South Asia, central and southern China and present in parts of northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is widely distributed in northern India (Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal; not Kashmir as reported by Hutterer [2005]) and Nepal (western, midwestern, central and eastern) at elevations of 1,800 to 3,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Xizang, Sichuan, Gansu and southwestern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is limited to northern Myanmar.
41428		habitat	eng	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and terrestrial species found in montane temperate coniferous and alpine forests and meadows (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is widespread above 2,200 m asl, being found in dense oak-rhododendron forest and subalpine and alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008). It is common at the edge of rhododendron and coniferous forests, and is additionally found in riparian habitats with rich ground litter, or to rocky ground supporting grasses and mosses (Smith and Xie 2008). It is frequently found near human habitation and cultivated fields (Smith and Xie 2008).
41428		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
41428		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss and degradation.
41429		conservation	eng	This species is present in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), but it is not known if it occurs in any additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
41429		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations up to 2,438 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It is sympatric with <em>C. sodalis</em> at Tsuifeng (2,300 m asl) and Alishan (2,438 m asl) (Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1997).
41429		habitat	eng	This species prefers dense ground cover in both broadleaf and coniferous forest, and subalpine shrublands in high mountains of central Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It exhibits nocturnal and diurnal activity (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs from March to June, litter size ranges from 2-4 (Smith and Xie 2008).
41429		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
41429		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
41430		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Taibaishan, Wolong (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41430		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Xizang, Hebei (Smith and Xie 2008), Beijing, and Gansu (CSIS 2008). The distribution in Hebei represents an isolated population (Smith and Xie 2008). The bulk of the distribution (central China) occupies elevations ranging from 1,200-3,500 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). The Hebei population occurs at an elevation of 300 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
41430		habitat	eng	This core distribution of this species occupies a highly diverse range of habitats including forest and shrubland associated with the altitudinal variation occurring within the Hengduan Shan Mountains (Smith and Xie 2008).
41430		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
41430		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41431		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
41431		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central southern China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations around approximately 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It most likely occurs at many other localites in between current known locations.
41431		habitat	eng	This species is believed to occupy high montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
41431		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
41431		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
41432		conservation	eng	In South Asia, it has been recorded from protected areas in Nepal such as Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Barun National Park, Langtang National Park and Rara National Park. It is presumably present within some protected areas in China. In South Asia, ecological and population studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41432		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in South Asia, southwestern China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded widely from Nepal and India (Sikkim) at altitudes up to 2,900 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Yunnan and Xizang at elevations of 3,000 to 3,500 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam.
41432		habitat	eng	In South Asia it has been recorded from temperate and evergreen forests in Nepal and Sikkim (Molour <em>et al</em>. 2005). Smith and Xie (2008) indicate that within China, the species is associated with moist conifer, rhododendron and broadleaved deciduous forests. The species has been recorded from moist stands of dwarf bamboo, shrubs and grasses, and is known to inhabit villages and cultivated fields (Smith and Xie 2008).
41432		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41432		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41433		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.
41433		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from South Asia, central China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Darjeeling in West Bengal, India, and probably occurs in Nepal as well. In China, the species is present in Yunnan and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam. It is generally found in highland areas.
41433		habitat	eng	In South Asia, it is nocturnal and terrestrial species associated with temperate forest. It is found to occupy wet habitats with dwarf bamboo, scrub and grasses in temperate zone (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, this species is believed to have semi-arboreal habits. It is found from temperate broadleaved evergreen forests to lower rhododendron forests where it is adapted to a life on the ground in closed evergreen forests with little undergrowth (Smith and Xie 2008).
41433		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41433		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, it is generally threatened by habitat loss and degradation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41434		conservation	eng	In South Asia, the species is known from the protected areas only in Nepal, where it is known from Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Barun National Park, Langtang National Park, Rara National Park, Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
41434		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern South Asia and southwestern China. In South Asia, it is widely distributed in altitudes between 1,500 and 4,300 m asl of the Himalayas in Nepal, Bhutan and India (Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Xizang and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008).
41434		habitat	eng	This species is found in mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, conifer-rhododendron forest, and above timberline, the alpine zone (Smith and Xie 2008). In South Asia, it is additionally reported from open rocky areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41434		population	eng	In China it is a common species (Smith and Xie 2008). The population status in South Asia is unknown.
41434		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In South Asia, the major threats faced by this species are habitat loss due to agriculture expansion and human settlements (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41435		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
41435		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern China (Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan) to northern and eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand and northern Viet Nam (Hutterer 2005; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It presumably also occurs in Lao PDR, though there have not so far been any records. Its elevational range is 1,500 to 3,000 m asl.
41435		habitat	eng	Specimens collected from near the Chinese border in Viet Nam were from montane bamboo forests between 1,500-2,000 m asl, and in western Yunnan they have been recorded up to 3,000 m (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. The species can be mistaken for <em>C. smithii</em> due to similar external dimensions, but in <em>C. parca</em>, the skull, ears and feet are relatively smaller than those of <em>smithii</em> (Allen 1923). The species' colour has been characterised as "dark mouse gray" by Allen (1923), with feet distinctly brown with touches of white. This shrew measures approximately 70 mm, compared to 80 mm in the larger species, <em>C. smithii</em>.
41435		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41435		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range.
41436		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Shennongjia Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008). Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history, and threats. Habitat based conservation measures in the form of maintenance/conservation and restoration are needed to prevent further declines in the population. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
41436		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in Sichuan, Shaanxi, Chongqing (Smith and Xie 2008), and Hubei. Most specimens have been collected at 3,000 m asl or higher (Smith and Xie 2008). It is widely sympatric with <em>C. hypsibia</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).
41436		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. Most specimens have come from mountain forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
41436		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species, but it is inferred that the population is declining as a result of habitat degradation and loss.
41436		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss resulting from logging, agriculture and conversion to wasteland are threats to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).
41437		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, general ecology and threats to this species.
41437		distribution	eng	This Subsaharan African species has a seemingly wide but disjunct range. It is found as distinct populations in South Africa and Kenya (Rumruti and Rongai), with additional isolated records from Central African Republic and Cameroon. It possibly occurs in Uganda, however, this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded from 1,700 to 2,100 m asl.
41437		habitat	eng	The area where has been recorded in Kenya (Rongai) is arable land (cereal and maize) at an altitude of 1,700-2,100 m asl. Within South Africa, it has been found in forest and grassland, including moist-subtropical, up to 2,000 m asl. The records are often associated with termitries. The record in the Central African Republic was from the forest edge.
41437		population	eng	This species has an extremely small body size (2.5-3 grams), and is rarely captured during field surveys.
41437		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41438		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas (eg. Kruger National Park, South Africa). Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
41438		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges through East Africa, Central Africa and southern Africa. It has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi (including the type locality of the Nyika Plateau), Democratic Republic of Congo (a single specimen), Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola (a single specimen), Botswana, southwestern Mozambique, Swaziland (Malolotja Nature Reserve) and South Africa.
41438		habitat	eng	This species has generally been recorded from dry savanna and dry woodland habitats. It has also been encountered in riverine forest, open dry scrub, open grassland, coastal lowland froest, Acaicia woodland and suburban gardens (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
41438		population	eng	It appears to be common in Kruger National Park, South Africa.
41438		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41439		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas (eg. Andohahela National Park). Further studies into the systematic relationship between this taxon and Suncus etruscus are needed. Further studies are needed into the biology, ecology and population abundance of this species.
41439		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and the Comoros, where it may be widely distributed. The full extent of its range is uncertain. It is found from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
41439		habitat	eng	There is little known about the behaviour and ecology of this largely forest-dwelling species. As with many other shrews of this genus, it is presumed to be insectivorous, and largely solitary and nocturnal in its habits (Goodman <em>et al</em>., 2003). The species has a maximum litter size of two young.
41439		population	eng	In Madagascar it appears to be more common in the drier western and southern parts of the island (Goodman <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
41439		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by the conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land and pasture, and extraction of timber.
41440		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas and no direct conservation measures are needed.
41440		distribution	eng	This very widespread species occurs virtually throughout the Indomalayan Region, and has been widely introduced by human agency in the Philippines, parts of Africa, coastal Arabia, islands in the Indian Ocean and many other regions (e.g. Guam) (Hutterer and Tranier 1990; Hutterer 2005).
41440		habitat	eng	This species is found in a very wide variety of habitats, including natural forests, scrubland and grasslands and nearly all secondary amd degraded habitats, such as plantations, pasture, cultivated fields, suburbans and urban areas. It is a human commensal.
41440		population	eng	This is a fairly abundant and stable species. It lives in and around human settlements.
41440		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41441		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, with populations present in Dandeli National Park (Karnataka, India), Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Maharashtra, India); Makalu Barun National Park (Eastern Nepal) and Rara National Park (Mid Western Nepal); Lal Suhanra National Park (Punjab, Pakistan) and Kirthar National Park (Sindh, Pakistan) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Additional studies into the distribution, natural history and abundance of this species are needed.
41441		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Asia and has been recorded from India, Nepal, Pakistan and possibly Bangladesh (Hutterer 2005; Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). Although it has only been recorded from a relatively few locations, it is inferred to be very widely distributed occurring up to 500 m.
41441		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal, crepuscular, terrestrial animal, that occupies grassy embankments, can be found near water courses, riverine areas, and in open areas interspersed with scrub in tropical forests. It is also reported from gardens and paddy fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41441		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41441		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range, it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from agricultural expansion and increased use of pesticides (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41442		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species outside of southern Africa.
41442		distribution	eng	This species largely occurs in South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe, with widely scattered records from Mozambique, Zambia, Tanzania, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, and Nigeria (known only from skull fragments collected from an owl pellet, in the Guinea savanna zone close to the Jos Plateau).
41442		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with termite mounds, which provide refuges in the species grassland habitat. In Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, the species is found in a wide variet of habitats, from secondary forest margins and coastal forest, through open savanna, to suburban gardens (Taylor 1998).
41442		population	eng	The species is considered common enough to be used in capture-mark-recapture studies.
41442		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
41443		conservation	eng	This species is present within several protecte areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the various populations.
41443		distribution	eng	This species is generally distributed in the afromontane regions of Central Africa and East Africa, including the Albertine Rift and the Kenyan and Tanzanian Highlands. It has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (including the Ruwenzori Mountains found in these two countries), Rwanda, Kenya (including Mount Elgon) and Tanzania (including Mount Kilimanjaro). It is found up to 4,000 m asl.
41443		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety on montane habitats including tropical moist forest, areas of bamboo, and alpine regions.
41443		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
41443		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is likely to be locally threatened at lower elevations through ongoing general deforestation.
41444		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas and similar reserves. There is a need for further research into the distribution of this species in the Congo basin.
41444		distribution	eng	This species has a seemingly disjunct distribution, being found in much of western Central African, and then in parts of eastern Central Africa and East Africa. In the west of its range it is found in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko and Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo and southwestern Central African Republic. In the east of its range it is present in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda (including Sango Bay Forest), northwestern Tanzania, and is possibly present in southwestern Kenya (Hutterer 1986; Dowsett and Granjon 1991; Quérouil <em>et al</em>. 2003; Hutterer 2005). It is unclear if the species ranges across the Congo basin between the two known populations. In the west of its range it has been recorded from 100 to 625 m asl; in the east it is found from 1,000 to 2,250 m asl.
41444		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with primary tropical moist forest. In the west of its range it is found in lowland forest, while in the east it occurs in montane and mid-elevation forest.
41444		population	eng	This species can be locally common, and is often the most abundant shrew in many samples from the western part of its range.
41444		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by severe forest degradation (eg. Burundi).
41445		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumably present within several protected areas (Virungas National Park). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
41445		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift Mountains of Central Africa. It has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. The range includes Bururi in south Burundi; Achuri, Bwindi and Ngahinga in Uganda; the Virunga Mountains of Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda; and the mountains to the east and west of Lake Kivu, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is found at elevations of between 1,785 and 4,500 m asl.
41445		habitat	eng	It appears to be limited to primary montane tropical moist forest.
41445		population	eng	This is a common species.
41445		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
41446		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of its wide range, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas.
41446		distribution	eng	This widespread Subsaharan African species ranges from Guinea in the west, through West Africa, to Cameroon, and from here into southern Central African Republic, northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, into much of East Africa, ranging from Ethiopia in the north to Mozambique and Malawi in the south, also ranging into northern Zimbabwe, Zambia and parts of Angola.
41446		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of forest and savanna habitats, including both lowland and montane tropical moist forest, forest edge habitats and moist savanna.
41446		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon, but regularly recorded, species.
41446		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
41447		conservation	eng	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41447		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern and central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser 1987).
41447		habitat	eng	Field observations suggest that this species inhabits lowland and montane forest and is primarily nocturnal. It has been found in secondary forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats outside forest. Very little information on its ecology or behaviour is available at the present time.
41447		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41447		threats	eng	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species, although general widespread threats in the lowlands include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. These factors might cause population declines if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
41448		conservation	eng	There are no special conservation measures applied. A common species in most parts of the range.
41448		distribution	eng	Distributed in sand deserts in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and marginally in Russia.
41448		distribution	eng	Distributed in sand deserts in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Russia.
41448		habitat	eng	Inhabits semi-fixed and fixed sands covered by saxaul (<em>Haloxylon</em> sp.). Active at dusk and night. Usually uses rodent burrows. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, often eats ants, sometimes hunts small lizards. Breeding season is from March to October. Young animals start reproduction in the second half of summer. Litter size is 4-5.
41448		population	eng	In some places is common, but it is a naturally rare species. Quantitative data on population size is lacking.
41448		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. In the areas of overlapping range <em>Hemiechinus auritus</em> and <em>Crocidura</em> spp. are food competitors.
41449		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
41449		distribution	eng	This Central African species is found within the Congo Basin and adjacent mountain ranges. It does not occur to the west of the Oubangi River. There are records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. It ranges between 700 and 2,230 m asl.
41449		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both lowland and montane tropical moist forest. In montane areas, the species is often associated with stream edges. It appears to be a forest obligate species.
41449		population	eng	It does not appear to be a particularly rare species.
41449		threats	eng	In view of its wide range, there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by deforestation resulting from logging and mining operations, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
41450		conservation	eng	In India, it has been recorded from Murlen National Park, and is presumably present in several more protected areas throughout its range. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41450		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern South Asia, central and southern China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is now known only from Mizoram in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Gansu, Shaanxi and Hubei to Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam.
41450		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and fossorial species, mainly associated with montane forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008).
41450		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
41450		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species as a whole.
41451		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41451		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout southern Canada, west to central Saskatchewan and east to south east Canada, and south to Arkansas and Georgia in the United States.
41451		habitat	eng	it is most abundant in hardwood forests with deep leaf-litter and abundant food, and avoids areas with little cover and extremes of temperature and moisture. It is semifossorial; and digs tunnels or uses existing ones. It constructs elaborate underground nest. Nests are placed under logs or stumps, or underground. It breeds mainly in early February or March through to September; and peaks may occur in spring and late summer or early fall. Gestation length is three weeks, and litter size is three to 10, average four to six. They have three or more litters per year, and are weaned by 25 days. They sexually mature in one to two months. (George <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>Home ranges of this species can be more than twice the size of those of most shrews. Estimates of home range size average about 2.5 ha; and ranges generally overlap (George <em>et al</em>. 1986). The northern short-tailed shrew is a carnivore and invertivore. It eats earthworms, slugs, snails, insect larvae, millipedes, other invertebrates, and small vertebrates (especially mice in winter). It may hoard food (especially snails).
41451		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant. Population density estimates range from 1.6/ha to about 121/ha (George <em>et al.</em> 1986). In a 14 year study in Illinois, the northern short-tailed shrew displayed annual but not multiannual population fluctuations; annual peak occurred in July or in October in different habitats; average minimum density about 1-6/ha in winter, average peak density about 10-20/ha in summer or early fall; none survived more than 10 months following first capture (Getz 1989).
41451		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41452		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41452		distribution	eng	This species current known distribution is from Virginia to southern Illinois, southward to eastern Texas (Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992) and southern Florida in the United States (McCay 2001).
41452		habitat	eng	It occurs in various upland and wetland habitats, including moist deciduous woods, brushy areas, pine woodland and forest, mixed oak-pine-juniper woods, grassy situations, and densely wooded floodplains. It may favour areas with abundant leaf litter and fallen logs (Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992). Nest sites are probably under logs, stumps and other debris. Breeding season is from spring to late summer (as early as February in Texas). Gestation lasts probably between 21-30 days. Litter size is five to seven, with two to three or more litters per year. Few live as long as two years.<br/><br/>Average home range size is 0.96 hectares (n=7); maximum movement of 603 meters (Faust <em>et al.</em> 1971). Multiple individuals may use a common burrow system. The southern short-tailed shrew will eat small vertebrates as well as large numbers of invertebrates (which may be immobilized by toxic saliva), and some vegetable matter. May cache some food (e.g., snails) for later use.
41452		population	eng	This species is common, and is usually more abundant than other shrews in its range (McCay 2001).
41452		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41453		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41453		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Colorado, southern Nebraska, southwestern Iowa, and Missouri south through Kansas and Oklahoma to central and coastal Texas (known from three counties; Davis and Schmidly, The Mammals of Texas, in press), Arkansas, and Louisiana in the United States (Hall 1981; Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992).
41453		habitat	eng	Recorded habitats for this species include mature parts of oak-elm floodplain forest, woody ravines, beneath decaying logs in wooded floodplain communities, grassy pastures adjacent to woody areas, savanna-like areas, and grassy areas strewn with rocks (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989, Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992); also mottes of live oak trees on sandy soils, grassy vegetation with an overstorey of loblolly pine, and grassy vegetation several metres from some post oak trees (Davis and Schmidly 1994). It may burrow extensively under leaf litter, logs, and deeply into the soil, but ground cover is not required if soils afford easy burrowing (Davis and Schmidly 1994).<br/><br/>It breeds from February to October in Arkansas. Gestation is about three weeks. The litter size is five to eight; and there are multiple litters per year (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). Most will live no more than two years. They will eat various invertebrates as well as small vertebrates and some plant material (Caire <em>et al</em>. 1989). Larger prey is subdued by toxic saliva.
41453		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
41453		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41454		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It is also found in a private reserve in Colima (Rancho el Jabali) (Ivan Castro-Arellano pers. comm.).
41454		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nayarit to Guerrero, México (Carraway, 2007). The known altitudinal range is from 80-1,800 m asl (Armstrong and Jones, 1972).
41454		habitat	eng	It occurs in temperate forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest, shrublands and coffee fields (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It has been recorded near streams in damp areas beneath the cover of logs and rocks, and in weedy vegetation away from heavy forest. A female captured in June was lactating (Armstrong and Jones, 1972).
41454		population	eng	This species is considered rare (Armstrong and Jones, 1972).
41454		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In 2005, 68% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41455		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas in Nepal, and is probably present in protected areas within China as well. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
41455		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from northern South Asia, central and southern China, and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from North Sikkim (India) and Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is present in Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is limited to parts of northern Myanmar. It is a largely montane species found from 900 to 2,270 m asl.
41455		habitat	eng	It is a fully aquatic and diurnal species. Animals have been recorded foraging for aquatic invertebrates and small fish in rapidly flowing streams in mountainous regions (Smith and Xie 2008). Animals often work their way upstream at the water’s edge, exploring under rocks, sticks, and stream bank vegetation, and then to swim out into swift water, where they float downstream (Smith and Xie 2008).
41455		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
41455		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
41456		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a threatened species in Mexico (Norma Oficial Mexicana, 2002). It occurs in several protected areas in the United States.
41456		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the southeastern United States and in Mexico in Baja California Peninsula, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Sonora and Zacatecas (Carraway, 2007).  <br/><br/>It ranges up to 2,600 m asl in Arizona, and 2,317 in Zacatecas in Mexico.
41456		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is desert shrub, including plant communities dominated by mesquite, agave, cholla, and oakbrush. However, the animals also have been captured in riparian woodlands, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine woodlands, and grassy or gravelly desert washes. Found in arid areas having adequate cover for resting and nesting; deserts, semiarid grassland with scattered cactus and yucca, chaparral slopes, alluvial fans, sagebrush, gullies, juniper woodland, riparian associations, village dumps.<br/><br/>The diet in the wild has not been studied in detail. Foods accepted by captives have includes mealworms, cutworms, cock-roaches, crickets, earwigs, sowbugs, months, beetles, centipedes, and carrion of mammals, birds, and lizards. Its reproductive cycle is unknown; some pregnant females have been recorded from April to November. The gestation period is unknown; a typical litter is 3 to 5 young (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).<br/><br/>In California and Baja California it can be found in chaparral (John Matson pers. comm.).
41456		population	eng	This species status is difficult to study; specimens are from widespread localities and generally have been taken opportunistically; the few intensive local studies suggest that the animals are common in suitable habitat (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41456		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
41457		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of animals reported from Nigeria.
41457		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura obscurior</em> is a West African species that has been recorded from Liberia, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Sierra Leone. Animals recorded from Nigeria are suspected to be misidentified <em>Crocidura bottegi</em>. It occurs at elevations up to approximately 600 m asl.
41457		habitat	eng	This species is found within lowland tropical moist forest and at the forest edge.
41457		population	eng	This is abundant in some localities, such as in the Taï National Park of Côte d'Ivoire.
41457		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations are probably threatened by habitat loss or degradation resulting from logging operations or conversion of land to agricultural use.
41458		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
41458		distribution	eng	This species is primarily distributed in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, from Labrador, Quebec, and Nova Scotia westward to eastern North Dakota and southeastern Manitoba, and south to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Ohio, south in the Appalachians to the Great Smoky Mountains, and south along the Atlantic coast to southeastern Georgia and the northern edge of Florida. It ranges farther north than all other native mole species.
41458		habitat	eng	The star-nosed mole is seldom far from bodies of water. It prefers wet soils in flood plains, swamps, meadows, and other openings near water. It is a good swimmer and diver, and may be active in water under ice in winter. It is more dependent on water in winter when the ground is frozen. It occasionally occurs in leaf mold on the floor of dense forests. Tunnels may be shallow or deep and may open at the ground surface or under water. The nest usually is placed in a hummock, under a stump or log, in humus among rotten tree roots, or in other areas above high water, often near a stream. Gestation lasts about 45 days. Parturition occurs in spring or early summer (late March-early August in central New York). Litter size is three to seven, with an average of five to six, with one litter per year. They sexually mature in 10 months. They may maintain the pair bond throughout the breeding season.<br/><br/>In some areas this species eats mainly aquatic invertebrates; benthic prey may constitute entire winter diet. Earthworms are abundant in the diet in some areas (Peterson and Yates 1980). It is active all year, and active day or night, but may be more active at night.
41458		population	eng	This species is common over a large range in southeastern Canada and the eastern United States. Its home range probably is about 0.4 ha (Banfield 1974). A density of four to seven per ha has been recorded for swampland (Hamilton 1931). In New York, two to three per ha were found during winter.
41458		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41459		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
41459		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sichuan and Yunnan, China, and may occur in Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008), but there are no records from there yet to confirm its presence. It has been reported as occurring in northern Viet Nam, but the specimens this was based on have now been identified as <em>E. longirostris</em> by Miller (1940). The current distribution is uncertain with regard to its southern extent. This species occurs at elevations ranging from 1,000-3,000 m asl (Lunde and Ruedas 2004).
41459		habitat	eng	It inhabits high mountain slopes usually associated with loose soil in the vicinity of streams (Lunde and Ruedas 2004), as well as the surrounding forest (Smith and Xie 2008). It can tolerate medium human disturbance (Lunde and Ruedas 2004).
41459		population	eng	This species has an uneven distribution across its range.
41459		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
41460		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41460		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China (southern Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008)), extending to eastern Myanmar, the highlands of northern and western Thailand, and most of the mountainous regions of Lao PDR and Viet Nam. There is an isolated population in the mountains of Peninsular Malaysia.
41460		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest habitat, and areas with loose sandy soil, especially near streams. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
41460		population	eng	This species is locally abundant throughout its range.
41460		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.
41461		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wuyishan, Houhe, Taoyuandong, Shimenhupingshan, Badagongshan, Wanglang, Wolong, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is likely to be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1acd (Wang and Xie 2004).
41461		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Fujian, Yunnan, Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008), Hunan, Guangxi, Shaanxi, Gansu (CSIS 2008), Hubei and Jiangxi. Its range also extends into north-west Viet Nam (Kawada <em>et al.</em> 2007; Kawada <em>et al.</em> in press). It occupies elevations ranging from 1,800-2,900 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
41461		habitat	eng	There are few data regarding this species. It is thought to occur in montane regions within its range, particularly mesic mossy habitat in alpine birch forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
41461		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
41461		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss resulting from logging and agriculture, and exploitation for use in traditional Chinese medicine are threats to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press) .
41462		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (West Bengal), Murlen National Park (Mizoram) and Kaziranga National Park (Assam) in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41462		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Himalayas in South Asia in Nepal, Bhutan and northeastern India (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005) and has been recorded from western Yunnan in China (Smith and Xie 2008). A seemingly disjunct population of this species has additionally been identified from the Cameron Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia (Kawada <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been recorded from 100 to around 2,750 m asl.
41462		habitat	eng	The Himalayan Mole is a nocturnal animal that inhabits subtropical and tropical montane forests, where it lives in the leaf litter and rocky gravelly areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been reported to occupy forest habitats where it usually uses surface tunnels and does not construct large mounds or dig deeply into the ground (Smith and Xie 2008).
41462		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41462		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In northeastern India, the species is locally threatened by habitat loss due to expansion of agricultural lands and hunting for trade for local consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41463		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Nanling, Fodingshan, Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, Bawangling, Jiugongshan, Mangshan, Wuyishan, Jinggangshan, Tianmushan, and Gutianshan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance (especially Hainan and Taiwan, Province of China) of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1abcd (Wang and Xie 2004).
41463		distribution	eng	This species was previously thought to be endemic to China, occurring on Hainan and Taiwan, Province of China, and the provinces of Guangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Anhui, Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008), Jiangsu, Guangdong (CSIS 2008), and Jiangxi.  However, it has now very recently been recorded from Viet Nam, but is not yet mapped here (Kawada <em>et al.</em> 2007; Kawada <em>et al.</em> in press).
41463		habitat	eng	This species occurs, in the hill country of southern China, as well as in high mountains (Smith and Xie 2008) in forest habitats.
41463		population	eng	This species has been reported as common in the hill country of southern China, as well as in high mountains (Smith and Xie 2008).
41463		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
41465		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in protected areas.
41465		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu and Shikoku. The main distribution in Honshu ranges from the central part (Shizuoka, Nagano and Ishikawa Prefectures) northwards, excluding central parts of Echigo Plain and including Awashima Island in Niigata Prefecture. Small isolated populations have been found in Kii Peninsula, Kyoto and Hiroshima Prefectures in Honshu and on Shikoku and Shodo Island (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41465		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands and cultivated fields on lowlands to forests on mountains, and is common in low alluvial plains with soft deep soils.
41465		population	eng	It is a very common and dominant species in the northern half of Honshu.
41465		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41466		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Listed as Least Concern in Russia. In the Chinese Red List it is considered Near Threatened; although it nearly met the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1c. Taxonomic revision is urgently needed.
41466		distribution	eng	Distributed in NE China (<em>M. r. coreana</em> Thomas, 1907; Liaoning, Henan, Anhui; <em>M. r. robusta</em> Nehring, 1891; Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Jilin), Korea and south of Russian Far East (Abe 1995; Jones and Johnson 1960).
41466		habitat	eng	Habitat is montane woodland, forest, grassland and farmland. Prefers primary forests. Rarely found on steep slopes with rocky soils. Feeding passages are at 8-10 cm below ground. Main passages are at 30 cm and lower, total length is up to 450 m. Those passages connect feeding and watering places. Nests are in empty roots, or in the center of complex passages up to 30 cm below ground. Feed on earthworms, caterpillars and insects. Mating starts at the end of March. Reproduces twice a season (in end of May and in July) with 2-8 young per litter. Longevity is up to about 4 years, but more often less than that.
41466		population	eng	Common species, in some areas abundant.
41466		threats	eng	No major threats. In the 1930s to 1960s this species was exploited for its fur, but it is not a species of commercial importance today.
41467		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
41467		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found from the southern half of Honshu, Shikoku, Shodo Island and some small islands of the Seto Inland Sea, Kyushu, Oki Islands, Tsushima Island, Goto Islands, Tane Island, and Yaku Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to near 1,000 m asl.
41467		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands and cultivated fields in lowlands, to forests on mountains, and is common in low alluvial plains with soft deep soils.
41467		population	eng	It is a very common species.
41467		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41468		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41468		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern North America, from southwestern British Columbia (Fraser River region), Canada, south through western Washington (including Destruction Island), western Oregon, and western California to Fremont Peak, Monterey County in the United States. It ranges up to 2,440 m asl in Washington.
41468		habitat	eng	In Washington it is found in moist habitats with soft earth free of sod; lower elevation ravines with deep soils, much vegetative surface litter (logs, leaves), and big-leaf maple and other plants; less commonly in lakeshore willow thickets; rarely in drier habitats (Dalquest 1948). In Oregon it is most common in riparian alder and alder-salmonberry thickets; less commonly occurs in mature and immature conifer, riparian hardwood, sitka spruce-salal, skunkcabbage marsh, wet pasture, headland prairie, and headland scrub habitats (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981); also montane areas with low cover of lichen and few snags, and Douglas-fir forest (see Carraway and Verts 1991). In California it occurs in redwood, Douglas-fir, and yellow pine forests and forest edges, usually near streams (Ingles 1965). It constructs runways near the surface of duff layer and deeper but shallow burrows, usually near streams. This species is less fossorial than other moles.<br/><br/>It seems to be more social than other insectivores; and may travel in loose bands (Dalquest and Orcutt 1942, Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981). Most breeding occurs from early March to mid-May, but even then only a few percent of specimens are in breeding condition. The length of gestation not known. Litter size varies from one to four young, newborns altricial. It is reported to have an XO system of sex determination. The shrew-mole may consume more than its own body weight in food in one day. It feeds primarily on earthworms, gastropods, centipedes, sowbugs, insects, and other invertebrates. It also eats some plant seeds, fungi, and lichens. It is sightless and detects prey with its snout. It is active throughout the year.
41468		population	eng	The population density in favourable habitat has been estimated at 12-15/ha (but up to 247/ha after removal of all other small mammals) (Dalquest and Orcutt 1942).
41468		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41469		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
41469		distribution	eng	This species ranges primarily in the northeastern United States and southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Its range extends south to the Great Smoky Mountains region.
41469		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous woodlands with thick humus. It is adapted to second growth stands, old fields, hedgerows, and prefers well-drained, light, moist soil with well-mixed organic matter and minerals. It avoids soils that are hard, dry, or with a large clay content. Two tunnel systems are constructed. A deeper system (10-18" deep) gives resting, breeding space, and winter shelter. Males leave tunnel systems in search of females in breeding season. Breeding is from March-April, and gestation lasts for four weeks. Litter size is four to five. Young are born in April-May, and there is usually one litter annually. Sexual maturity is attained 11 months after birth. This species eats primarily soil invertebrates; earthworms, insect larvae, and pupae comprise approximately two-thirds of diet.
41469		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species. Its home range is about 0.2 acres, and expands in summer. Densities vary from 1.2 to 11 per acre (Eadie 1939).
41469		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41470		conservation	eng	It is known from the following protected areas within Bangladesh, Hagherkhil Wildlife sanctuary and Lawachara National Park. In India, it has been reported from Nongkhyllen Wildlife Sanctuary and Balphakram National Park (Meghalaya), Murlen National Park (Mizoram) Rowa Wildlife sanctuary (Tripura) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys and population studies are recommended for this species in the South Asia region.
41470		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, southern China and northwestern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Bangladesh and northeastern India at an altitudinal range of 100 to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is present in Yunnan and Sichuan to 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is limited to northern and western parts of Myanmar (Francis 2008).
41470		habitat	eng	This is a subterrenean species that inhabits the tropical forest and subtropical montane forest and scrub-grassland, where it lives in leaf litter (Moulr <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith and Xie 2008)
41470		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
41470		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In South Asia, the species is threatened by habitat loss due to clear cutting of forest, woodland clearing, human settlements, expansion of agricultural lands and the increased use of agrochemicals and pesticides (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).
41471		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range.
41471		distribution	eng	This species has the widest range of any North American mole, and is found from the southern tip of Ontario Canada, southern South Dakota to eastern Massachusetts, in the United States, south to the tip of Florida and northern Tamaulipas, Mexico (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Its distribution, however, is patchy (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Colonies in southwestern Texas and Coahuila and Tamaulipas, Mexico are isolated and small (Nowak, 1999).
41471		habitat	eng	This species inhabits well-drained soil in fields, meadows, pastures and open woodlands (Nowak, 1999). It prefers moist loamy or sandy soils and avoids soils that are too wet or clayey (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). In some marginal areas, human activities such as the building of roads and golf courses often provide beneficial habitat due to higher quality soils and adequate moisture (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41471		population	eng	This species is common in most of the United States. Populations in southern Texas and Mexico are considered extremely rare and possibly extinct (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41471		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41472		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Xinglongshan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, and Wanglang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1bc (Wang and Xie 2004).
41472		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Qinghai (Smith and Xie 2008), and Hubei. It occurs at elevations ranging from 2,700-3,000 m asl (Stone 1995).
41472		habitat	eng	This species occupies the mossy undergrowth of montane fir forest (Smith and Xie 2008).
41472		population	eng	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.
41472		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
41473		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. In Mexico it is listed as threatened under Mexican Legislation considering it has a very restricted range in that country.
41473		distribution	eng	This species is found from south-central Oregon, in the United States to northern Baja California, in Mexico (Nowak, 1999). It can be found from lowlands up to 3,000 m asl (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41473		habitat	eng	It prefers moist, fairly rich soils with little vegetation (Wilson and Ruff, 1999; and Carraway 2001).
41473		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of its range, except it is rare in the San Pedro Martir Mountains of Baja California, Mexico (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41473		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a garden pest in suburban areas but this is not a major threat.
41474		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern. However, an inventory of populations east of the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon would clarify the status in that region (Verts and Carraway 1998).
41474		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, south through western Washington and Oregon to coastal northwestern California in the United States; it is also in parts of eastern Washington and Oregon, and extreme west-central Idaho.
41474		habitat	eng	It inhabits agricultural land, coastal dunes, grassy meadows, coniferous and deciduous forest and woodland, along streams. It is fossorial, and occasionally active on the surface (especially dispersing juveniles in summer). It quickly recolonizes formerly flooded areas. Breeding nests are located about 15 cm below the surface of the ground. The nest cavity is lined with coarse grass. It is about 20 cm across and has several entrances (van Zyll de Jong 1983). This species is solitary except when breeding. It breeds January to early March. Parturition occurs in late March or early April. The litter size is two to four, with one litter annually. Females are reproductively active at 9-10 months. The maximum longevity probably is about four to five years. The diet is dominated by earthworms; other common food items include adult and larval insects, and other invertebrates. It is active throughout the year. The average home range has been estimated at 0.12 ha.
41474		population	eng	This species occurs commonly in a wide variety of habitats. Population density is highly variable, and ranges from 1/0.10 ha to 1/14 ha (van Zyll de Jong 1983).
41474		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41475		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas within its range. It is considered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) to be Endangered (01 May 2003), but this is mostly because it has such a small range in this country.
41475		distribution	eng	This species is found in the extreme southwestern British Columbia, Canada, southward through the Olympic Mountains (Washington) and Coast Range and interior valleys of Oregon (eastward to the foothills of the Cascades) to Ferndale, California, in the United States where it is restricted to the coast. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 1,677 m asl in the Cascade Mountains and 1,615 m asl in the Olympic Mountains (Verts and Carraway 1998; Carraway <em>et al.</em> 1993).
41475		habitat	eng	In general, this species inhabits more open habitats with heavier soils with higher water content than <em>S. orarius</em> (Verts and Carraway 1998). It is generally found in pastures, prairies, and shrub habitats in lowlands and flood plains, and occasionally in true fir (<em>Abies</em>) forests (Verts and Carraway 1998). This species is common even within human-modified lands such as lawns, golf courses, cemeteries and pastures. It is primarily fossorial, though juveniles often move on the surface in spring and summer. It digs shallow foraging tunnels as well as deeper permanent tunnels. It may vacate a flooded area and return to home area when waters recede. A spherical breeding nest cavity is excavated seven to 50 cm below ground level. It contains a grass breeding nest; three to 11 lateral tunnels may enter the cavity. Mating takes place in February. One litter averaging three young is born in late March or early April. Young are hairless at birth, grow rapidly, and disperse from maternal tunnels mainly in May and June (van Zyll de Jong 1983). They sexually mature in about 10 months.<br/><br/>This species is generally solitary and antagonistic toward other individuals. Young disperse up to several hundred metres from natal site (mean around 170-180 m) (see Carraway <em>et al.</em> 1993). Diet mainly consists of earthworms and insect larvae and pupae; also consumes centipedes, slugs, mature insects, spiders, and some vegetable matter. They are active throughout the year. Little is known about daily activity patterns (van Zyll de Jong 1983). Home range is up to at least 110 m in diameter.
41475		population	eng	This species is considered to be common. Population densities may be as high as 12/ha (van Zyll de Jong 1983).
41475		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Economically, this species damages some crops by eating or pushing up roots and by covering above ground portions of plants with mounds of soil; it may reduce forage for dairy cattle by 10-50%; soil mounds may interfere with operation of farm machinery or reduce quality of silage; some garden damage attributed to moles may be caused by other small mammals that use mole tunnels (see Carraway <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/>Formerly, skins had a commercial value through use in clothing accessories, but this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.
41476		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jiyuanmihou, Laotudingzi, Luoshan, Liupanshan, Pangquangou, Taibaishan, Saihanwula, and Huanghesanjiaozhou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).
41476		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread endemic of China, occurring in the provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Beijing, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, and Jiangsu (Smith and Xie 2008).
41476		habitat	eng	This species occupies sandy grasslands and meadows, loess regions, and even the borders of deserts, such as the Ordos (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>As an adaptation to its habitat, its diet is predominantly larvae of beetles and other arthropods, which differs from other moles (Smith and Xie 2008).
41476		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
41476		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41477		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas, and it has recently been recorded from the Mount Tay Con Linh II Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41477		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and southern China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending to northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam where it has recently been recorded from Mount Tay Con Linh II (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). It can be expected from northern Lao PDR, but there are not so far any records. At least two subspecies are recognized in China: <em>S. f. affinis</em> Thomas, 1912 from Yunnan and Guizhou; <em>S. f. fusicaudus</em> Milne-Edwards, 1872 from Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Guizhou. Its range in China appears to avoid the Sichuan Basin, but it is present on the surrounding mountains.
41477		habitat	eng	Although small, like <em>Uropsilus</em>, this is a true mole, and is apparently fully fossorial. It appears to be restricted to high altitudes (2,000-4,100 m), in montane coniferous forests with damp, friable soils (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Here it digs shallow burrows, recognizable because of their small diameter compared to other larger Chinese moles. <em>Scaptonyx</em> is geographically sympatric with all four species of <em>Uropsilus</em>, but this is not surprising, since the former forages below the soil surface, while the latter species seek food on the surface in leaf litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to habitats outside forest.
41477		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41477		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.
41478		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas (approximately 16% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Listed as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997).  Further research is recommended.
41478		distribution	eng	Distributed in western and central Siberia, to Irtysh River basin in west and Transbaikalia in east. In north up to forest-tundra, in south occurs in forests of Altai and N Mongolia, where recorded from two localities in Hövsgöl Mountain Range, and also occurs in northern parts of Great Lakes Depression. The southern boundary of its Mongolian range is along the mid-course of the Tes River in Hangai Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954).
41478		habitat	eng	Inhabit different forests, excluding boggy ones. Prefers leafy forests with mixed grasses and mildly moist soils. In permafrost regions occurs in river valleys and forest clearings. This species feeds mostly on earthworms, rarely on insects, catepillars and millipedes. Mating occurs in summer, but reproduction is delayed till next spring. Gestation is with embryonic diapause, and often lasts for up to 9 months. Females give birth in end of April - end of May, with 3 - 6 per litter. Females start mating during their first year, males on the second. Longevity is about 5 years (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).
41478		population	eng	No population information is available, but it is known to have a restricted range in Mongolia. In Russia it is abundant, and is locally utilized for its fur.
41478		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
41479		conservation	eng	It is not protected under international legislation. It occurs in protected areas across its range. In Italy it is not protected.
41479		distribution	eng	<em>Talpa caeca </em>is endemic to Europe, where it is found in the western Alps, the Apennines, and the Balkan peninsula. It is likely to occur in Albania. Records from the Carpathians (Romania) require confirmation. Small blind moles recently found in Turkish Thrace and southern Bulgaria have been ascribed to <em>T. levantis</em>, but the possibility that they are in fact <em>T. caeca </em>merits further investigation. The species occurs from sea level to 2,000 m, although it is found more often above 1,000 m (Kryštufek 1999).
41479		habitat	eng	It occurs in deciduous woodland, meadows and pastures in hilly or mountainous areas. It requires deep soil that is not too dry, which explains it sporadic distribution in karstic areas. Its diet is probably similar to that of the common mole <em>T. europea</em>, which feeds on soil-dwelling invertebrates, especially earthworms. It tends to be competitively displaced into marginal habitats by the larger <em>T. europea</em> in areas such as the Balkans (Kryštufek 1999). In Italy it is similarly displaced by <em>Talpa romana</em> where the two species occur in sympatry (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
41479		population	eng	Its population status is unknown across the whole range, but it is common in the mountainous areas of Italy (G. Amori pers. comm.). It is possible that it is locally common across its whole range. Its distribution is sporadic in karst limestone areas (Kryštufek 1999).
41479		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
41480		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas.
41480		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwest Caucasus (Russia, Georgia, northeastern Turkey (Kefelioglu and Gencoglu, 1996)), through to the Talysh Mountains (Iran) (Krystufek and Benda, 2002).
41480		habitat	eng	The species requires humid substrate, particularly in deciduous forests and wet meadows. Elevation from sea level to 2500 m, exceptionally. Has two types of passages: main, connected to nest cell and feeding passages (superficial and deep). In moist soils superficial passages are about 5 cm below ground, in dense and dry soils at 8-20 cm. Nests are under shelters, tree roots, big stones, mounds. Molehills differ in size and depend on type of soil. Feed mainly on earthworms, however, also consume catepillars and millepedes. Mating starts in February, females give birth from end of March till end of April. Reproduce once a year, litter size is about 3 young.
41480		population	eng	The species is common and locally abundant.
41480		threats	eng	No major threats.
41481		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.
41481		distribution	eng	The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kryštufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is generally widespread, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other <em>Talpa </em>species); and northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).
41481		distribution	eng	The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kryštufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread on the European continent, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other <em>Talpa </em>species). It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).
41481		distribution	eng	The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kry?tufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread on the European continent, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other <em>Talpa </em>species). It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kry?tufek 1999).
41481		habitat	eng	It is present in most habitats where there is sufficiently deep soil to permit the construction of its extensive burrows. It prefers meadows, pastures, arable land, gardens and parks, and is rarely found in coniferous forests, or habitats with sandy, stony or permanently waterlogged soils (Kryštufek 1999). It feeds mainly on earthworms, as well as other soil invertebrates (Niethammer 1990).
41481		habitat	eng	It is present in most habitats where there is sufficiently deep soil to permit the construction of its extensive burrows. It prefers meadows, pastures, arable land, gardens and parks, and is rarely found in coniferous forests, or habitats with sandy, stony or permanently waterlogged soils (Kry?tufek 1999). It feeds mainly on earthworms, as well as other soil invertebrates (Niethammer 1990).
41481		population	eng	It is generally common in appropriate habitats, with densities of up to 16 individuals per hectare recorded (Kryštufek 1999). It is sufficiently common to be considered a pest of farmland and lawns in many parts of its range.
41481		population	eng	It is generally common in appropriate habitats, with densities of up to 16 individuals per hectare recorded (Kry?tufek 1999). It is sufficiently common to be considered a pest of farmland and lawns in many parts of its range.
41481		threats	eng	It is widely persecuted as a pest, but although this may cause local population declines it is not a serious threat to the species. In the past, it was hunted in great numbers for its fur, but mostly in the northern parts of its range (outside of the Mediterranean) and this no longer occurs anyway.
41481		threats	eng	It is widely persecuted as a pest, but although this may cause local population declines it is not a serious threat to the species. In the past, it was hunted in great numbers for its fur, but this no longer occurs.
41482		conservation	eng	In Turkey at least it occurs in well protected areas.
41482		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in protected areas in the Caucasus.
41482		distribution	eng	<em>Talpa levantis</em> is found along the southern edge of the Black Sea, from southeastern Bulgaria through Turkey through the Caucasus region to the Caspian sea countries of Azerbaijan and Iran (Corbet 1978, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m in the Caucasus.
41482		distribution	eng	<em>Talpa levantis</em> is found along the southern edge of the Black Sea, from southeastern Bulgaria through Turkey to the Caucasus region (Corbet 1978, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to at least 2,000 m, possibly higher in the Caucasus (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).
41482		habitat	eng	It inhabits various biotopes from the lowland to the mountains. In its European range it is found in meadows and deciduous forests. Only a few specimens have been collected in the European part of the range through trapping. The majority of records are based on analyses of raptor and owl pellets. In the eastern parts of its range (the Caucasus) it also occurs in alpine meadows (Kryštufek 2001).
41482		habitat	eng	It inhabits various biotopes from the lowland to the mountains. In its European range it is found in meadows and deciduous forests. Only a few specimens have been collected in the European part of the range through trapping. The majority of records are based on analyses of raptor and owl pellets. In the eastern parts of its range (the Caucasus) it also occurs in alpine meadows (Kry?tufek 2001).
41482		habitat	eng	It inhabits various biotopes from the lowland to the mountains. In its European range it is found in meadows and deciduous forests. Only a few specimens have been collected in the European part of the range through trapping. The majority of records are based on anlyses of raptor and owl pellets. In the eastern parts of its range (the Caucasus) it also occurs in alpine meadows (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).
41482		population	eng	No information is available.
41482		threats	eng	No major threats.
41482		threats	eng	No major threats. In Turkey, the species occurs in well protected forested areas.
41483		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. No further actions are required.
41483		distribution	eng	The Iberian mole is endemic to Portugal and Spain (Foy 1999). It occurs from the coast to 2,300 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
41483		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species, and like its congener the European mole <em>T. europaea</em> it is found in a variety of habitats so long as there is deep soil that is not excessively stony, sandy, or waterlogged. It is often found in meadows and pastures. In southern parts of its range it is restricted to upland areas (Loy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It feeds on invertebrates, especially earthworms (Niethammer 1990).
41483		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitats throughout its range (Loy 1999). However, in the southern part of its range it is confined to mountainous areas (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal it may be considered a single subpopulation or three separate subpopulations if the rivers are shown to be major barriers to dispersal (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006).
41483		threats	eng	It is a pest species causing damage to pastures, so it is persecuted by farmers. Loss of meadows to afforestation is probably the main threat to the species, but this is not thought to be a severe threat at present (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
41484		conservation	eng	It is not protected under national or international law. No specific conservation measures are known. Occurs in protected areas within its range.
41484		distribution	eng	The Roman mole is endemic to Italy. It is now confined to the mainland, having last been recorded on Sicily in 1885 (Loy 1999). Reports of an isolated subpopulation in the Var region of southern France (Saint Girons 1973 in Niethammer 1990) have not been confirmed (Niethammer 1990, Loy 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005).  It is found from sea level to about 2,000 m (Loy 1999).
41484		habitat	eng	Its ecology is similar to that of the European mole <em>T. europaea</em>. It is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, pastures, and woods, and it feeds predominantly on earthworms (Niethammer 1990, Loy 1999).
41484		population	eng	It is widespread throughout its range (Loy 1999). No information is available on abundance although it is assumed to be stable (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).
41484		threats	eng	Local population declines are suspected in areas where there is intensive arable farming (Loy 1999). The mole is widely persecuted as a pest. However, these are not thought to be major threats at present.
41485		conservation	eng	It receives no protection under European legislation. It occurs in some protected areas in northern Greece (for example the Pelister mountains). No further actions are required at present.
41485		distribution	eng	The Balkan mole is endemic to the Balkans, where it is found in southern Montenegro, western Macedonia, north-eastern Greece, and the island of Corfu. It is likely to occur in Albania. Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).
41485		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of open habitats including sandy beaches, pastures and arable land (Kryštufek 1999).
41485		population	eng	Its population status is not known, but it may be locally abundant (Kryštufek 1999).
41485		threats	eng	No major threats.
41486		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wawushan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas. Mt. Emei was named a World Heritage Site in 1996 (UNESCO 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, habitat status, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii); C2a(i,ii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
41486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the province of Sichuan where it is only known from Emei Shan and "adjacent small area of China where it is in limited geographic sympatry with <em>U. gracilis</em> and <em>U. soricipes</em>" (Smith and Xie 2008).
41486		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. It is suspected that it has similar requirements to other species in the genera (Smith and Xie 2008).
41486		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
41486		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41487		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
41487		distribution	eng	This species mainly occurs in southwestern China, extending to northern Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
41487		habitat	eng	There is little information available on this species. It inhabits mixed deciduous-coniferous forests, usually above the rhododendron zone and up to timberline (between 3,000-4,000 m depending on topographic conditions). Unlike its congeners, it occupies alpine tundra habitats, at least in the Likiang range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenically disturbed habitats.
41487		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
41487		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, at least at lower elevations, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.
41488		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in several protected areas.
41488		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Honshu (including the Kii Peninsula), Shikoku and Kyushu (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005) in Japan, and is usually found at elevations above 1,000 m asl.
41488		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands, bushes and forests at high elevations.
41488		population	eng	It is a common species.
41488		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41489		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas.
41489		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Awaji Island, Shodo Island, Oki Islands, Tsushima Island, Goto Islands, Mishima Island (Yamaguchi Prefecture) and Awashima Island (Niigata Prefecture) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.
41489		habitat	eng	A semifossorial species that is common in grasslands, shrubland, and forests at low to medium elevations.
41489		population	eng	It is a common and dominant species.
41489		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41490		conservation	eng	It is present in several national parks and protected areas. Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam, and in Lao PDR in Hin Namno National Biodiversity Consevation Area, Nam Ghong Provincial Protected Area, and Hin Namno NBCA. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41490		distribution	eng	Historical records include sightings in southern Viet Nam, south-east Thailand and probably Cambodia. Recent records show their range extending much further north in Viet Nam (at least to 17º20'N and probably to 21º27'N), into Lao PDR, where it is confined to the south-east, and confirm their presence in Cambodia, where currently localized to Mondulkiri Province (Timmins <em>et al.</em> 2003)
41490		habitat	eng	Most records of the species are from evergreen forest (at varying stages of degradation), but it has also been<br/>found in mixed deciduous forest, extensive secondary bamboo lacking any dicotyledonous canopy, and in streamside tangles amid rocky savanna. Records range from the plains up to 1,500 m asl (Timmins <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species mainly uses the under- and mid-storeys, but also enters the canopy; recent observations come primarily from under-storey tangles, especially of bamboo, almost exclusively between 30 and 300 cm above ground level (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Thailand, has been observed on the branches of fruit trees (Timmins <em>et al.</em> .2003).
41490		population	eng	Locally quite common (Parr 2003). Timmins <em>et al.</em> (2003) note that while in some areas (e.g. Cat Tien National Park, Viet Nam, and a part of Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia) the species is clearly common, elsewhere records are infrequent.
41490		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, but they may be undergoing localized declines in parts of their range due to habitat loss.
41491		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas, including Danum Valley (Sabah, Malaysia), Bukit Lambir (Sarawak, Malaysia) and Pasoh Forest Reserve (Peninsular Malaysia), and some nearby offshore islands of Lumut-Sitiawan area, Perak (Peninsular Malaysia). A substantial colony has also been recently discovered (2006) in a forest remnant of an Acacia mangium plantation in the Bintulu Division, Sarawak (Han <em>et al.</em> in press; R. Stuebing pers. comm.).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41491		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Thailand, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula, Sabah, Sarawak, Labuan), Brunei, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Riau, Batu, Siberut, Bangka, and Serasan Islands) (Helgen 2005). There are only a few records of this species from northern Sumatra. <br/><br/>This is a lowland species occuring up to 1,200 m (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41491		habitat	eng	The only nocturnal tree shrew, this species is found largely in primary forest, in areas with lots of vines and undergrowth, which it requires as it comes down to the ground to forage for insects (K. H. Han pers. comm.). However, on Borneo, it has been observed in secondary forests and in gardens (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998). It does appear to live in family groups, unlike diurnal tree shrews.
41491		population	eng	The species is probably rare throughout most of its range.
41491		threats	eng	The major threat to this arboreal species is loss of forest-canopy habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to non-tree crops. It survives in older (>5years) mosaics of natural forest and tree plantations (Han <em>et al.</em> in press; R. Stuebing pers. comm.).
41492		conservation	eng	It is found in numerous protected areas throughout its range, such as Kang Kachan National Park (Thailand) and Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, and Singhalila National Park (India). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41492		distribution	eng	Found in South-east Asia, north of the isthmus of Kra, including: Thailand, Bangladesh, Burma, far north-eastern India and Nepal, southern China, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and associated coastal islands, including Hainan. It probably also occurs on Preparis Island north of the Andaman Islands (Helgen 2005). Listed as present in Bhutan by Molur <em>et al.</em> (2005). Recorded to 3,000 m in China (E. Smith pers. comm).
41492		habitat	eng	This widespread species is found in deciduous and evergreen primary forest and secondary forest, commonly in karst and associated natural scrub vegetation, from sea level up to upper montane areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It is highly adaptable and may be found in oil palm plantations (K. H. Han pers. comm.), coconut plantations (Parr 2003), and regenerating scrub and ruderial mixes above abandoned dry rice fields (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It has been seen very far from tall forest, and is probably able to live independently of tall forest (such as in far northern Lao PDR; W. Duckworth pers. comm).
41492		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
41492		threats	eng	There are no major known threats to this species.
41493		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas, including Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Han and Engkamat 2000) and Gunung Marut National Park. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41493		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo where it is found in Sabah, Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei, and Kalimantan (Indonesia) except in the south-east (Helgen 2005). This species has not been recorded in Sabah in the last 20 years (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It is generally a lowland species (though not recorded from coastal regions in northern part of range), recorded up to 1,200 m.
41493		habitat	eng	Recorded from primary and secondary forests (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998), but otherwise little else is known of its habitat preferences.
41493		population	eng	This species is rare, and is known from only about 20 to 30 specimens (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41493		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations (oil palm).
41494		conservation	eng	This species is commonly found in protected areas, including Pasoh Forest Reserve on the Malay Peninsula and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41494		distribution	eng	Occurs in Southeast Asia, south of about 10° N latitude, from the vicinity of Hat-Yai, southern Thailand through mainland Malaysia (and adjacent coastal islands) to Singapore and Indonesia on the following islands: Siberut, Batu, Sumatra, Java, Bangka, Riau, Lingga and Anambas (Helgen, 2005). This species is also found in western Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). Recorded up to 1420 m (Corbet and Hill 1992).
41494		habitat	eng	Usually found in primary dipterocarp forest; however, it is tolerant to some degree of habitat modification, and has also been recorded from secondary forest, plantations, fruit orchards and trees near housing areas (Parr 2003; K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41494		population	eng	This species is very rare on Java, with only a single specimen in the last 100 years (Boeadi pers. comm.). However, the species remains fairly common on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41494		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is severe deforestation due to conversion for agriculture and plantations, and commercial logging, although the species can adapt to a degree of habitat modification.
41495		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Han and Engkamat 2000). The preservation of old and regenerating forested areas, and natural forest remnants within tree plantations, will benefit this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41495		distribution	eng	This species is found on Borneo below 1,200 m, in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia) except in the south-east; west to the islands of Karimata, Belitung, and Bangka, and north to Banggi Island (Helgen 2005). It is sympatric with <em>Tupaia minor</em>, <em>T. longipes</em>, and <em>T. tana</em> on Borneo (.
41495		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland old growth forests, secondary forest and in older (>5years) tree plantations (R. Stuebing pers. comm.).
41495		population	eng	This species is somewhat rare (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It seems patchily distributed, being present at low densities in some sites, but apparently absent from other forested areas (R. Stuebing pers. comm.).
41495		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to logging, agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations.
41496		conservation	eng	This species is found in Gunung Ciremai National Park, and Cibodas Botanical Garden and Pangandayan Nature Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41496		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia on Bali, Java, Nias, and western Sumatra (Helgen 2005). It ranges up to 1,700 m (K.H. Han pers. comm.).
41496		habitat	eng	This species is invariably found in primary forest, and very rarely enters secondary habitats. It is largely arboreal, although it has been trapped on the ground occasionally.
41496		population	eng	This species is rare throughout its range.
41496		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are logging and habitat degradation due to shifting agriculture.
41497		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas, including Krau Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41497		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern peninsular Thailand, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula, Sabah, Sarawak, and Laut), and Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, the Lingga Islands, Banggi, and Balambangan) (Helgen 2005). It is sympatric in parts of its range with <em>T. glis</em>, <em>T. longipes</em> and <em>T. gracilis</em>. It is a lowland species, most commonly found up to about 1,000 m (K. H. Han pers. comm.), though recorded to 1,700 m by Corbet and Hill (1992).
41497		habitat	eng	This species occurs in both primary and secondary forest (K. H. Han pers. comm.). In Thailand, Parr (2003) recorded it to occur in monsoonal evergreen forest, and Malayan mixed dipterocarp forest, and from plantations in the southern parts of Thailand. It has been recorded from older tree plantations on Borneo (R. Stuebing pers. comm.), and Wells<br/>(2005) recorded this to be a common species in a logged site in Sabah (44 out of 320 captures).
41497		population	eng	This species is relatively common on Borneo, but not abundant (Han <em>et al</em>. 2000); it is widespread in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo), but relatively rare on the Malay Peninsula and on Sumatra.
41497		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture and conversion to plantations, particularly on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.
41498		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Gunung Niut Nature Reserve (Simons 1987), Gunung Penrissen Nature Reserve (Medway 1977) - although it has not been found there recently in a survey by K.H. Han (pers. comm.) - Danau Sentarum National Park in western Kalimantan (Jeanes and Meijaard 2000), Crocker Range National Park and Kinabalu Park (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from Kayan Mentarang National Park (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41498		distribution	eng	This is a Borneo species, with a disjunct range across several isolated montane outcrops of Sarawak and western Sabah (Malaysia); probably also found in northern Kalimantan (Indonesia). Although it has been trapped as low as 300 m (Medway 1977), such records are very rare, and the species is most common above 600 m.
41498		habitat	eng	This species is found only in submontane and montane forest, but can tolerate disturbed forest.
41498		population	eng	This species is very common in north-western Borneo (Han <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41498		threats	eng	A general threat for species living in the montane Borneo is loss of habitat due to deforestation for agriculture, such as the conversion of upland forests to vegetable farms (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41499		conservation	eng	It is found in a few protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41499		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo where it occurs in central and eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia), Brunei, and throughout lowland northern Sarawak (Helgen 2005), inlcuding Pulong Tau National Park (E. Bennett pers. comm.).
41499		habitat	eng	This species survives in old growth and secondary forest, and forest remnants within a mosaic of natural forest and older (>5yrs) tree plantations (R. Stuebing pers. comm.). It is more likely to be found in the lowlands (up to 300 m), though it is found up to 1000 m (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41499		population	eng	This species is rare, though more commonly obtained than <em>Tupaia splendidula</em>, based on trap success. However, it has not been recorded in Sabah for the past 20 years (K. H. Han pers. comm.), although there are recent records from the Bintulu Division (a mixed-use tree plantation) in the Bintulu Division of Sarawak (Han <em>et al.</em> in press).
41499		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss.
41500		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41500		distribution	eng	This species is found in Malaysia and Indonesia, including southern Borneo (subspecies <em>splendidula</em>) and Karimata Island (<em>carimatae</em>), Bunguran (<em>natunae</em>) and Laut (<em>lucida</em>) in the northern Natuna Islands, and Riabu (<em>riabus</em>) in the Anambas Islands (Helgen 2005).
41500		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary lowland forest; it presumably occurs in secondary forests, and lightly degraded forests.
41500		population	eng	This species is rare and usually only a few are taken for every few hundred trap nights of survey effort (K. H. Han pers. comm.). However, it is said to be locally common at Puruk Cahu in central Kalimantan (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
41500		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat degradation, due to logging and conversion to agriculture.
41501		conservation	eng	This species is very common in the older forests of protected areas on Borneo (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41501		distribution	eng	This species is found in Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak, Banggi) and Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, the Batu Islands, Lingga Islands, Bangka, Tambelan, Serasan) (Helgen, 2005). It appears to be absent from the south coast of Borneo, with no records from Sebangau and Tanjung Putting. Probably occurs to 1,500 m, but more common up to 1,200 m (K.H. Han pers. comm.).
41501		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in lowland forest, but is also fairly common in fruit orchards and secondary forest. Wells (2005) found that in selectively logged forest with a dense understorey, this species increases significantly.
41501		population	eng	Common on Borneo (Han <em>et al.</em> 2000), but there is little information from Sumatra where they almost certainly have undergone declines (K. H. Han pers. comm).
41501		threats	eng	Although this species is found in fruit orchards, it is not present in unforested agricultural areas; thus deforestation remains a threat (K. H. Han pers. comm.).
41502		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation, and is found in many protected areas, including in Peninsular Malaysia (Han pers. comm.), and in a few protected areas on Java, such Halimun National Park (U. Sinaga pers. comm.) and Masigit-Kareumbi Hunting Park (Farida pers. comm.).
41502		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Indochina (including Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia), south through Thailand, eastern Myanmar and Malaysia (Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak) to Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan and western Java). It is known from several localities in northern and central Lao PDR (Ruggeri and Etterson 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). The mapped population in the general vicinity of Kao Yai in central Thailand is unlikely present.
41502		habitat	eng	This species is a forest-dependent species, but can be found in secondary habitats close to human populations (Boeadi pers. comm.). It is found in evergreen forest below 1,000 m asl (R. Steinmetz pers. comm.), mostly sleeping in coconut trees during the day, feeding on young fruits of surrounding trees (Boeadi pers. comm.). This species was reported from a mangrove forest in Bako National Park, Sarawak (Giman pers. comm.). It is found quite readily in plantations, perhaps even breeding there in Thailand and Viet Nam (R. Steinmetz pers. comm.).
41502		population	eng	There have been population declines on Java, where it occurs only on the western part of the island (Boeadi pers. comm.). Since 2001, there has been an ongoing study of this species by M. Baba, Kitakyusyu Museum in Japan (Boeadi pers. comm.), and there was as a study done in Singapore by the Raffles Museum in 2003. This species is probably not common in Sarawak (Giman pers. comm.).
41502		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting by local people on western Java for consumption, though there is not much meat, thus it is not hunted widely, only traditionally (Boeadi pers. comm.), with increased hunting pressure every four years, by the Baduy Tribe (Boeadi pers. comm.). Deforestation is a threat to this species, as it is dependent on lowland forest. In the northern part of the range, including Thailand and Viet Nam, habitat loss is the main threat to this species, not hunting (R. Steinmetz pers. comm.). Populations in plantations might be threatened by competition with the Plantain Squirrel <em>Callosciurus notatus</em>.
41503		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  Research should be conducted to determine the current population status, as little data are available in this area.  Furthermore, more data are needed regarding the biology and ecology of <em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em>.
41503		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em> extends from the southern expanse of the Yenesei River to Lake Baikal and the middle region of the Lena River in Russia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  <em>O. turuchanensis</em> is "widely sympatric with <em>O. hyperborea</em> over much of its range" (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).
41503		habitat	eng	<em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em> is a rock-dwelling species of pika (Lissovsky pers. comm.).  This is an herbivore that demonstrates preference in which plants it consumes (Lissovsky 2004).  It is diurnal, avoiding nighttime activity due to low temperatures (Lissovsky 2004).  Reproductive periodicity extends from mid-June through late August (Lissovsky 2004).  Females have 3.4 ± 1.4 (n=8) embryos (Lissovsky 2004).  Juveniles begin to appear in mid-July (Lissovsky 2004).  Total length of the species is 15.8-19.0 cm (Lissovsky 2004).
41503		population	eng	There are few data on the current population status of this species.  On the Putorana plateau in Siberia, Russia, <em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em> is considered abundant (Lissovsky pers. comm.)
41503		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41504		conservation	eng	There are no major conservation problems facing this taxon, and they are present in a number of large and well-managed protected areas across their range. Therefore, no targeted conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.
41504		distribution	eng	The Aardvark is widely distributed south of the Sahara from Senegal to Ethiopia to South Africa, being absent from the Sahara and Namib Deserts. It is also present in the Congo Basin, although its distribution in West African rainforests is poorly known (Taylor in press). The distribution of the Aardvark is largely determined by the distribution of suitable ant and termite species.
41504		habitat	eng	Aardvark occur in a broad range of habitats, including the semi-arid Karoo areas of southern Africa, grasslands, all savanna types, rainforests (but not swamp forests; F. Maisels pers. comm.), woodlands and thickets (Shoshani <em>et al.</em> 1988; Taylor in press). They are absent from hyper-arid habitats and avoid very rocky terrain that is difficult to dig in; for example, they occur in the eastern Namib Desert. Aardvarks have been recorded at 3,200 m asl in the highlands of Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996). They feed almost exclusively on ants and termites but sometimes eat other insects, such as pupae of scarabaeid beetles (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2002). They can obtain all their water requirements from their food. Aardvarks are anatomically adapted to dig, and they extract all their food from underground. They also dig burrows in which they rest during the day and which they use to escape predators (Taylor and Skinner 2003).  Because many animals, from invertebrates to other mammals, use these burrows the Aardvark is often considered a keystone species (Cilliers 2002). Aardvarks are generally nocturnal, although they may come out in the afternoon in cold weather. They are solitary, only coming together occasionally for very short periods. Very little is known about reproduction in the wild.
41504		population	eng	Current population trends are not known. In southern Africa there is no reason to believe that they are decreasing or increasing significantly due to any factors other than natural variations due to the variable nature of the arid habitats they occupy. However, in eastern, central, and western Africa, numbers may be declining as a result of the expansion of human populations, the destruction of habitat, and hunting for meat. Densities vary according to habitat suitability, including the abundance of prey.
41504		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species. Localized threats include habitat loss due to agriculture and subsistence hunting. Hatt (1934) recorded indigenous hunters in the Congo killing Aardvarks trapped in burrows, and Mbuti pygmies in the Ituri Forest in DR Congo smoke them out of their burrows (Carpaneto and Germi 1989). The meat is prized, while other parts of the Aardvark, such as the skin, claws and teeth, are used to make bracelets, charms and curios, and for some medicinal purposes (Carpaneto and Germi 1989). In western Kenya (1960s), local hunters flooded burrows to kill animals for food (G. Rathbun pers. comm.)..
41506		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
41506		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Andes of northern and western Colombia, Ecuador, and western Venezuela. In Colombia it is found from 2,000 to 3,800 m (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Ecuador it is found from 1,600 to 4,000 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
41506		habitat	eng	This species is found in paramo and upper montane forest. In Ecuador, this species may be absent or rare at high altitudes due to natural competition with Cryptotis montivaga (Barnett, 1991).
41506		population	eng	This is the most common and most widely distributed of the genus.
41506		threats	eng	There are no major threats; however, the habitat is locally heavily used for cattle grazing.
41507		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. Much of its range falls within some type of protected areas.
41507		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern Peruvian Andes, from southeastern Peru through westernmost Bolivia (Anderson 1997; Gardner 2007). The species ranges from 1,800 to 3,500 m.
41507		habitat	eng	This animal is terrestrial and nocturnal in its habits. It appears to be invertebrate feeder (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The species is found in upper montane forest including cloud and elfin forest. It is not found outside of forest. Its ecology appears to be similar to Caenolestes (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
41507		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.
41507		threats	eng	No major threats.
41508		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas, including in the Grampians National Park (where the form <em>A. s. insulanus</em> occurs). There is a need to reassess the taxonomy of this species, including the possible species-level validity of <em>A. s. insulanus</em> and other isolated populations of the species in Victoria and in the north.
41508		distribution	eng	<em>Antechinus swainsonii</em> is endemic to eastern and south-eastern Australia. There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>A. s. insulanus</em> is restricted to the Grampians Range of western Victoria (Dickman 2008). <em>A. s. mimetes</em> is present in south-eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, southern Victoria, except Grampians Range (Dickman 2008). <em>A. s. swainsonii</em> ranges throughout much of Tasmania (Dickman 2008).
41508		habitat	eng	The Dusky Antechinus is found in alpine heathland, usually in damp areas with a dense low understorey of ferns or shrubs (Dickman 2008). The species is not present in secondary or modified habitats. The females give birth to between six and ten young (Dickman 2008).
41508		population	eng	The Dusky Antechinus is patchily distributed, but common in good habitat.
41508		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species. Isolated populations may be threatened by inappropriate fire regimes and by wild fires (as may other non-isolated populations), and predation by introduced carnivores may also be having an impact on some populations (Dickman 2008).
41509		conservation	eng	The species is known from several large protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
41509		distribution	eng	The White-tailed Dunnart is endemic to Australia, where it is found in south-western Western Australia.
41509		habitat	eng	This little-known species is generally found in areas of sand plain environments (raised in the surrounding landscape) shrubland – often with sparse mallee on sandy or gravely substrates, and on sandsheets on coastal limestone (McKenzie and Kitchener 2008).
41509		population	eng	It is a common species within its limited habitat (McKenzie and Kitchener 2008).
41509		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to White-tailed Dunnart. Much of its previous range has been cleared for agriculture. Increased fire frequency on sand plains in combination with habitat fragmentation will continue to be an issue for this species.
41510		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Western Australia. In South Australia, both known localities are within protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations on Boullanger Island; should that population warrant species status it would almost certainly qualify within a threatened a category (Crowther <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41510		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in south-western Western Australia. The species also occurs on Boullanger Island (see Taxonomic Notes), and there are records (in 2003) from two isolated areas in the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia.
41510		habitat	eng	It is found in open Eucalyptus and Banksia woodland, dense heathland and seasonal swampland (Dickman 2008). Females generally give birth to a single litter of up to eight young annually (Dickman 2008).
41510		population	eng	The Grey-bellied Dunnart is common in its limited habitat (Dickman 2008).
41510		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Locally, the species is threatened by continued habitat clearance and fragmentation. Feral cats affect them, though the populations have been able to withstand this predation.
41511		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. A national recovery plan is in preparation. The Long-nosed Potoroo is considered threatened by the Queensland government and by the Australian government. Fox control measures are being implemented in Tasmania and these should be fully supported.
41511		distribution	eng	The Long-nosed Potoroo has a patchy distribution along the coast and the Great Dividing range of the south-east Australian mainland, from south-eastern Queensland in the north, through coastal New South Wales, Victoria, and marginally in south-eastern South Australia. It is also occurs on the Bass Strait islands and Tasmania (Johnston 2008).
41511		habitat	eng	This largely solitary species is found in areas with coastal heath, and dry and wet sclerophyll forests. It generally requires dense ground cover and a light or sandy soil (Johnston 2008). It has the longest gestation period of any known marsupial at 38 days, and there are two breeding seasons in the wild, early spring and late summer (Courtenay and Friend 2004). Females give birth to a single young that have a pouch life of about four months. This species starts reproducing at about one year in age. A life span of seven years has been recorded in the wild (Johnston 2008).
41511		population	eng	On the mainland, the Long-nosed Potoroo is rare, and populations are extremely fragmented; the species may undergo fluctuations in numbers. It is rare on the Bass Straits islands and is common in Tasmania (Johnston 2008). Subfossil remains suggest that the species was formerly more widespread. The reasons for decline are unclear, however, habitat loss through clearance of native vegetation is likely to have at least partly caused a decline in populations (Johnston 2008).
41511		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There has been a substantial historical loss of suitable habitat on the eastern Australian coast. Presumably, mainland populations of the species are currently threatened to some degree by predation from introduced cats, dogs, and foxes. Populations in Tasmania will now also face the threat of predation by recently introduced foxes to the island, which is potentially a major threat. Inappropriate fire regimes and logging may open up the understorey, reducing their suitable habitat – thereby making them vulnerable to predation.
41512		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas. Continued reintroduction programs and fox control programs are important to the conservation of this species. Also important to the species is maintaining an appropriate fire regime within its habitat.
41512		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and south-western Australia. It was formerly much more widespread. It is currently known from a number of islands: three islands in the Houtman Abrolhos (West Wallabi, East Wallabi, and North, the last being introduced from one of the Wallabi islands and causing vegetation degradation and erosion), Garden Island (near Perth), Middle and North Twin Peak Islands (Archipelago of the Recherche), and Kangaroo Island. Natural subpopulations remain on the mainland at Tutanning, Boyagin, and Perup Nature Reserves, in Fitzgerald River National Park. It has been translocated to several sites, the majority being successful. These include Batalling, Julimar, and Warup Forests, Nambung National Park, and Avon Valley National Park and the adjacent Paruna Sanctuary. Populations have also been introduced to Greenly (c. 1905) and Boston (1971) Islands from Kangaroo Island. Feral populations of this species exist in New Zealand, including Kauwau Island.
41512		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal scrub, heath, dry sclerophyll forest, and mallee woodlands (Hinds 2008). It requires open grassy areas for feeding and low dense vegetation for daytime shelter (Hinds 2008).
41512		population	eng	Historically it was locally very abundant, but it is now much rarer. It is considered common within its limited habitat by Hinds (2008). In south-western Australia ongoing fox control programs and reintroductions have helped the species increase in number recently. It is still abundant on Kangaroo Island (Hinds 2008).
41512		threats	eng	This species declined due to a combination of land clearing, impacts of settlers' fires, predation by introduced predators (especially cats and foxes), and hunting by early settlers. <br/><br/>There are no current major threats to <em>Macropus eugenii</em>. Predation by foxes is a threat in parts of its range, and fox control is thought essential for survival on the mainland (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Inappropriate fire regimes may also be a threat in places. On Kangaroo Island, it is considered to be an agricultural pest.
41513		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas and is protected by national legislation. Regulated harvesting takes place under the supervision of state and federal governments (the latter only manages harvesting when animals are exported).
41513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern mainland Australia and the island of Tasmania (introduced to Maria Island). On the mainland it ranges extensively from north-eastern Queensland (Cape York Peninsula) to south-eastern South Australia (including Fraser Island). It ranges in elevation from sea level to subalpine areas. The subspecies <em>Macropus giganteus tasmaniensis</em> is restricted to Eastern Tasmania (Barker and Caughley 1990).
41513		habitat	eng	This species is found in sclerophyll forest, woodlands (including mallee scrub), shrubland and heathland (Coulson 2008); also occurs in agricultural lands, introduced grasslands and other modified landscapes. It is nocturnal, gregarious, and large mobs gather where food is abundant.
41513		population	eng	Mainland populations are abundant (Coulson 2008); these populations have expanded because of increased artificial water points for cattle. The abundance of <em>M. g. tasmaniensis</em> has been estimated between 10,000 and 20,000 animals (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).
41513		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Animals may be shot under license (in some states a license is not required) where they damage crops, pasture or fences. <em>M. g. tasmaniensis</em> is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural clearing.
41514		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from protected areas, including the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and the northern Carbine Tableland. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
41514		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, where it is restricted to the area between Mitchell River and near Mount Carbine, west to 'Pinnacles' and north to Bathurst Head (Eldridge and Close 2008).
41514		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of rocky outcrops and plateaus.
41514		population	eng	This species is common.
41514		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, but there may be some competition from domestic and feral exotic herbivores (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Feral cats may take a few young animals.
41515		conservation	eng	It is recorded from protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
41515		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Queensland, Australia, where it ranges from Nanango, northward to the south bank of the Fitzroy River at Rockhampton and westward to beyond Rubyvale and Clermont (Eldridge and Close 2008).
41515		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of rocky outcrops.
41515		population	eng	It is common.
41515		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
41516		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
41516		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Queensland, Australia. It is found in the central coastal ranges of Queensland from Home Hill southwards to the north bank of the Fitzroy River at Rockhampton, and is also present on some offshore islands of the Whitsunday group (Eldridge and Close 2008).
41516		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of rocky outcrops and plateaus.
41516		population	eng	This species is common.
41516		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
41517		conservation	eng	All of the known islands are protected areas. This species also occurs in Karajini National Park and other protected areas. There is an ongoing fox control program on Dolphin Island and the adjacent mainland. Monitoring of this species' populations is needed.
41517		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Australia, Australia, where it is found in the Pilbara region and offshore islands in the Dampier Archipelago.
41517		habitat	eng	It is found in areas rugged rocky habitat.
41517		population	eng	This species is locally common, although patchily distributed. Mainland populations have declined, particularly from some of its southern range. The Dolphin Island population was almost extirpated by fox predation before fox control was implemented, and has since recovered. Island populations have increased due to fox control and benign introductions. Populations were lost from two offshore islands (East and West Intercourse Islands) during the 1960s due to fox predation.
41517		threats	eng	Mainland populations have declined through predation by introduced foxes (Pearson and Eldridge 2008). Foxes do not occur in some of the higher elevation areas of its current range; most of the fox threat is concentrated within the coastal section of the range.
41518		conservation	eng	The following protected areas are within the species geographical range (* indicates possibly introduced and mixed populations of <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em>):<br/><br/>Sete Cidades National Park (6,221 ha) PI<br/>Serra da Capivara National Park (97,93 ha) PI<br/>Ubajara National Park (563 ha) CE<br/>Serra Negra Biological Reserve (1,100 ha) PE<br/>Saltinho Biological Reserve (548 ha) PE<br/>Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve (4,469 ha) AL<br/>Guariba Biological Reserve (4,321 ha) PB<br/>Mamanguape Ecological Station (9,992 ha) PB<br/>Seridó Ecological Station (1,116 ha) RN<br/>Itabaiana Ecological Station (1,100 ha)* SE<br/>Uruçuí-Una Ecological Station (135,000 ha) PI<br/>Aiuaba Ecological Station (11,525 ha) CE<br/>Foz do São Francisco Ecological Station (5,322 ha) AL<br/>Raso da Catarina Ecological Reserve (99,772 ha)* BA<br/>Ponta do Cabo Branco State Park (379 ha) PB<br/>Guaramiranga State Park (55 ha) CE<br/>Dunas Costeiras State Park (1,160 ha) RN<br/>Buraquinho State Biological Reserve (471 ha) PB<br/>Tapacurá State Ecological Station (392 ha) PE<br/>Níisia Floresta National Forest (170 ha) (RN) (Castro, 2003)<br/><br/>The Tijuca National Park (3,200 ha), and the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (5,065 ha), state of Rio de Janeiro, contain an introduced population of <em>C. jacchus</em>.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41518		distribution	eng	The Common Marmoset occurs in the scrub forest (forest patches in dry caatinga thorn scrub) and Atlantic forest of north-eastern Brazil, in the states of Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, and Piauí, Maranhão, Bahia, and possibly north-eastern Tocantins, originally extending south as far as the Rio São Francisco and its west (left) bank tributary the Rio Grande (about 11º30’S). Hershkovitz (1977) indicated that it also probably extends north-west into the state of Maranhão, to the left bank of the Rio Parnaíba and the Serra do Valentim (Hershkovitz 1977). Hershkovitz (1977) extended the distribution no further west than the middle reaches of the Rio Grande (left bank) and the upper Rio Parnaíba (right bank), with a lacuna between these points and the Rio Tocantins. Silva Jr. (1999) reported on localities in Maranhão and Piauí marking the north-western limit to its range, and determined that, as Hershkovitz (1977) had indicated, it extends to the left bank of the Rio Parnaíba, but there is a lack of information concering its occurrence or otherwise west from there into the basin of the Rio Itapecuru (Sillva Jr. 1999; unpubl. data, 2008). The Black-handed Tamarin, <em>Saguinus niger</em>, occurs to the west, but the easternmost locallities are in the interfluvium of the rios Mearim and Itapecuru (J. S. Silva Jr., unpubl. data, 2008). Flesher (2001) recorded <em>C. jacchus</em> in the Serra das Mangabeiras at the headwaters of the Rio Parnaíba in Piauí, approximately 10ºS, 46ºW. South of the Serra da Mangabeiras, it is possible that the Serra Geral de Goiás marks the divide with <em>C. penicillata</em> to the west. It has spread into numerous other regions as a result of introductions outside of its original range, south of the Rio São Francisco, accompanying the destruction and degradation of the Atlantic coastal forest and its associated ecosystems (Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996). Introduced and recent populations include those in the state of Sergipe and the north and north-east of Bahia, including the ‘Recóncavo da Bahia’ (Alonso <em>et al</em>. 1987), the state of Rio de Janeiro in south-east Brazil (Coimbra-Filho, 1984; Ruiz-Miranda <em>et al</em>. 2000), the Ilha de Santa Catarina in southern Brazil (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2005) and they are also reported to have established themselves in Buenos Aires. Alonso <em>et al</em>. (1987) indicated that the Recóncavo da Bahia shows a relatively narrow zone of mixing between <em>Callithrix penicillata</em> and <em>C. jacchus</em>. However, Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1991/1992; Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996) have shown that this region was originally forested, and argued that the destruction of the natural vegetation over vast areas since the European discovery of Brazil in 1500, along with frequent and repeated introductions, certainly of  <em>C. jacchus</em> but probably also of <em>C. penicillata</em>, has resulted in a confused picture of hybrids between these species and between <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. kuhlii</em> (see Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1993). They argued that pure <em>C. kuhlii</em> was the original form occurring there.
41518		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of gallery forest, semideciduous and deciduous scrub forest (forest patches in dry caatinga thorn scrub) and humid Atlantic forest of north-eastern Brazil. It is very adaptable, being able to live in urban parks and gardens and rural villages where it is not persecuted and has sufficient food. It has been introduced into many areas outside of its natural range, where it is able to thrive and is believed to compete with and displace other (native) marmosets.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1994). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season.  <br/><br/><em>Callithrix jacchus</em> is a gum-feeding specialist, with gouging lower incisors to excavate holes in gum-producing trees to guarantee gum year-round. This allows it to live in very seasonal habitats, including deciduous forests and scrub in the north-east of Brazil. Associated with its specialization in gum-feeding, it defends home ranges that are much smaller than are typical of the genus: 0.72 to 5.2 ha. Castro (2003) recorded home ranges of 0.3 to 2.4 ha at Níisia Floresta National Forest, Rio Grande do Norte. Maier <em>et al</em>. (1982) and Alonso and Llangguth (1989) recorded home ranges of 2-5 ha in the urban district of João Pessoa, Paraíba, and Mendes Pontes and Monteiro da Cruz (1995) of 4 ha in an urban park in Recife, Pernambuco. Group sizes have been recorded to range from 2 to 15 at the Tapacurá State Ecological Station, Pernambuco (Hubrecht 1985; Scanlon <em>et al</em>. 1988). Usually one female breeds in each group. Twins are produced twice a year.
41518		population	eng	<em>Callithrix jacchus</em> can occur in very high densites.
41518		threats	eng	Although widespread and common in many localities, and even replacing other <em>Callithrix</em> species where it has been introduced, <em>C. jacchus</em> populations are declining through habitat destruction in many parts of their distribution (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1988; Coimbra-Filho 1984). There is some limited hunting for pets.
41519		conservation	eng	It has been introduced into part of the Rio Dôce State Park (35,973 ha), the Ibitipoca State Reserve (1,448 ha), both in the state of Minas Gerais (Mittermeier and Rylands pers. obs.), and the Ilha Grande State Park (56,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro (H.K.M. Corrêa pers. comm.). The following conservation units are within its geographical distribution (* indicates possibly introduced and/or mixed populations of <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em>):<br/><br/>Brasília National Park (28,000 ha) DF<br/>Emas National Park (131,868 ha) GO<br/>Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park (60,000 ha) GO<br/>Serra da Canastra National Park (71,525 ha) MG<br/>Serra do Cipó National Park (33,800 ha) MG<br/>Araguaia National Park (?) (562,312 ha) TO<br/>Grande Sertão Veredas National Park (84,000 ha) MG<br/>Chapada da Diamantina National Park (152,000 ha) BA<br/>Pirapitinga Ecological Station (1,090 ha) MG<br/>Raso da Catarina Ecological Reserve (99,772 ha)* BA<br/>Ibitipoca State Park (1,489 ha) MG<br/>Acauã State Reserve (5,000 ha) MG<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41519		distribution	eng	<em>C. penicillata</em> has a very wide distribution, occurring in the cerrado region of east central Brazil. According to Hershkovitz 1977), this species occurs in the states of Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goiás, the south-west tip of Piauí, Maranhão and the north of São Paulo, north of the Rios Tieté and Piracicaba. In the north, it would seem that it is restricted to the south of the Rio Grande and Rio São Francisco (<em>C. jacchus</em> occurring to the north of the Rio Grande), although Vivo (1991) identified two skins in the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, from the north-east coast of Maranhão, at Miritiba (now called Humberto dos Campos), which he indicated extends its range right through eastern Maranhão, along the left bank of the Rio Parnaiba. The large gap between the next northernmost locality to the south (Canabrava, Rio Tocantins, Goiás, locality 275a of Hershkovitz 1977, p.490) and this northern Maranhão locality, indicates that they were probably introduced animals. They were not located by Hershkovitz (1977) and were presumed by him to be <em>C. jacchus</em>, following Ávila-Pires (1969). Silva Jr. (1999) carried out surveys in Maranhão and Piauí and did not report the occurrence of <em>C. penicillata</em>, only <em>C. jacchus</em>. The western limits of its range would seem to be marked by the Rio Araguaia, south from around 8ºS in the region of the Serra das Cordilheiras, extending into the north-east of the state of Mato Grosso Sul, east of the Serra de Maracaju to the level of the Rios Pardo or Taquaraçú, west (right) bank tributaries of the Rio Paraná.<br/><br/>Surveys in the north of the state of Minas Gerais have shown that <em>C. penicillata</em> extends its range through the region between the upper Rio São Francisco and the Rio Jequitinhonha, along the western slopes of the Serra do Espinhaço. <em>C. penicillata</em> occurs both sides of the Rio Jequitinhonha as far east as the Rio Araçuaí, a south (right) bank tributary of the upper Jequitinhonha, beyond which it is restricted to the north of the river, with <em>C. geoffroyi</em> occurring to the south (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988), the result of a recent introduction (ca. 1975) in the vicinity of Belmonte (Coimbra-Filho unpubl.). <em>C. penicillata</em> is typically of the cerrado region of Minas Gerais (in the central, south-west, west, and north of the state). Those parts originally covered by Atlantic coastal forest in the east and south-east (the Zona da Mata) are the domain of <em>C. geoffroyi</em>, <em>C. flaviceps</em>, and in part of the Rio Doce valley, <em>C. aurita</em>. However, with the destruction of the forest and also resulting from introductions (misguided release of confiscated animals), <em>C. penicillata</em> is taking a hold and probably replacing other species in numerous localities east and south of its original range (see, for example, Olmos and Martuscelli 1995). This is happening in the Rio Doce State Park, and is possibly also the case of <em>C. penicillata</em> reported by Vivo (1991; see also Coimbra-Filho 1984) from the Itatiaia National Park straddling the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. In both cases, <em>C. aurita</em> is the species naturally occurring in the area.
41519		habitat	eng	Gallery Forest, dry forest and forest patches in the Cerrado of Central Brazil. As is true of other marmosets, they show a preference for disturbed and secondary growth forest (Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984; Lacher Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1984; Rylands 1984; Seabra <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rylands and Faria 1993).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984; Rylands and Faria 1993). The most specialized of the <em>Callithrix</em> marmosets in this respect are <em>Callithrix jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em> (see Rylands 1984; Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984; Lacher Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1984; Rylands 1984; Rylands and Faria 1993). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Associated with their tree-gouging and gum-feeding specialisation, groups generally have small home ranges: 1.25 ha to 4.5 ha (Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984) or 3.5 ha (Faria 1986, 1989). <br/><br/><em>Callithrix pencillata</em> has been the subject of a number of short studies (see, for example, Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984; Lacher Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1984; Faria 1984a,b, 1986, 1989; Miranda and Faria 2001; Vilela and Faria 2004; Vilela 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Male 344 g (n=8) (Smith and Jungers 1997).
41519		population	eng	There are no recorded population densities.
41519		threats	eng	This is an adaptable, widespread species, which has been introduced in a number of regions in Brazil (for example, Espírito Santo, Paraná, São Paulo and Santa Catarina), and is considered a competitor, displacing native species. However, as with <em>C. jacchus</em>, although widespread and hardy, and able to survive in extremely degraded habitats, populations of this species have disappeared or are declining in many parts of its range. Hunted for pets.
41520		conservation	eng	This species is present in Tapajós National Forest (600,000 ha) and Caxiuanã National Forest (200,000 ha). It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix&#160;argentata</span>).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the limits of their geographical distribution, and the degree of forest loss within their known range. Soy bean cultivation, cattle ranching and logging have increased over the past decade and the impacts of these should be monitored.
41520		distribution	eng	<em>Mico argentatus</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas, in relatively flat, lowland forest, between the mouth of the Rio Tocantins in the east and the Rios Tapajós and Cuparí (an eastern tributary) in the west (Ferrari and Lopes  Ferrari 1990; Ferrari and Lopes 1996; Vaz 2001; Pimenta and Silva Jr. 2005), extending south to the Rio Irirí as far as the lower Rio Curuá (Hershkovitz 1977). Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari (1990) (see also Ferrari 1993; Ferrari and Lopes 1996) argued that its restricted range (lowland floodplain) east of the Rio Tocantins is due to habitat differences and sympatry with the Black-handed Tamarin <em>Saguinus niger</em> (a wider ranging species extending between the Rio Xingu and east to the Rio Parnaíba).<br/><br/><em>Mico argentatus</em> does not occur south of Belo Monte on the Rio Xingu (Transamazon highway) and is restricted to the north of the Tucuruí dam reservoir on the Rio Tocantins (Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari 1990; Ferrari and Lopes 1996). This restricts the range of <em>M. argentatus</em> well to the north of the mouth of the Rio Irirí on the eastern bank of the Xingú, with the southern limits being somewhere between the Rios Cuparí and Irirí to the west of the Rio Xingu as indicated by Hershkovitz (1977; see also Martins <em>et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/>Ferrari (2008) pointed out that there is probably a zone of contact between <em>M. argentatus</em> and <em>M. leucippe</em> in the south-west of the formers range, but there is a gap in our knowledge of the occurrence of this genus between the Rios Teles Pires and Irirí.
41520		habitat	eng	The species was found to be common near the mouth of the Rio Tapajós (Mittermeier and Coimbra-Filho 1977) in <em>terra firma</em> primary forests and in extensive areas of secondary growth forest (Belterra and Fordlândia, east bank of the Rio Tapajós). Between the rios Xingu and Tocantins, it is largely restricted to the dense lowland forests of the flat Tertiary/Quaternary floodplain of the Amazon, and is limited in the south by the montane and submontane forests of the Brazilian Shield (Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari 1990). Between the rios Xingu and Tapajós it ranges further south, entering mixed open forest. It has been observed in forest patches in Amazonian white-sand savanna at Alter do Chão, south of Santarém, Rio Tapajós (Albernaz and Magnusson 1999). <br/><br/>Sympatric in part of their range with <em>Saguinus niger</em> (see Veracini 1997). Ferrari (1993) indicated that <em>S. niger</em> has the competitive edge in forests on the relatively nutrient poor soils of the Brazilian Shield, and that <em>M. argentatus</em> was a “newcomer” resulting from a Holocene range expansion of the genus. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species forms a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Mean group sizes recored by Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> (2003) in four localities in the west of its tnage were as follows: 1) 5.3 ±1.3; 2) 5.0 ± 0.9; 3) 5.6 ±2.1; and 3) 7.6 ±1.2. The group studied by Veracini (1997) and Tavares (Tavares and Ferrari 2002) on the Rio Curuá ranged from eight to 10 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. Tavares (1999) recorded a range size of 11.8 ha over 6 months. <br/><br/>Ecological and behavioural studies have been carried out by Veracini (1997), Tavares and Ferrari (2002) in dense lowand rain forest on the Rio Curuá at the Ferreira Pena Scientific Station at Caxiuanã, Pará., and by Albernaz and Magnusson (1999) and Corrêa (2006) in savanna forest patches at Alter do Chão, near Santarém.<br/><br/>Group sizes known to range from 4 to 11 individuals at Alter do Chão, near Santarém (Albernaz and Magnusson 1999; Corrêa <em>et al</em>. 2002; Corrêa 2006;).<br/><br/>Siize:<br/>Weight 273-435 g.
41520		population	eng	Can reach high densities in secondary forests and forest fragments (Ferrari 2008).<br/><br/>Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded the following population densities at three sites in the west of the species' range, a short distance south of Santarém, along the Rio Tapajós:<br/><br/>Massafra: 9.3 individuals/km² or 1.9 groups/km²<br/>São Benedito: 12.6 individuals/km² or 2.3 groups/km²<br/>Tabocal: 101.1 individuals/km² or 13.3 groups/km²<br/><br/>These three sites were all forest fragments along the Santarém-Cuiabá highway. Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. (2003) also carried out a census in the Tapajós National Forest, but the densities there were too low to quantify.
41520		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss. There has been much forest loss within its range along the Transamazon and Santarém-Cuiabá highways, and south of the lower Rio Amazonas due to roads, logging, agro-industry and cattle-ranching. The species is not hunted, although there may be some limited use as pets. <br/><br/>Although apparently able to thrive in disturbed forest and forest fragments, Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. (2003) found that isolated remnant populations are genetically quite distinct and appear to have suffered the effects of inbreeding or genetic drift, which may be prejudicial to the long-term survival of the small (50 or less) populations, even though this species occurs in naturally fragmented forests in savannas in some parts of its range (Albernaz and Magnusson 1999; Corrêa 2006).
41521		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amazônia National Park (994 000 ha), Pará, where population surveys were carried out by Ayres and Milton (1981) and Branch (1983).<br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix&#160;humeralifera</span>).
41521		distribution	eng	Field research since the publications of Hershkovitz (1977) and Rylands <em>et al.</em> (1993) has diminished the supposed distribution of the Santarém marmoset. Hershkovitz’s (1977) range is now divided into four, being occupied by marmosets now considered distinct species: <em>M. mauesi</em>, <em>M. saterei</em> and <em>M. acariensis</em> besides <em>M. humeralifer</em>. According to our current understanding, <em>M. humeralifer</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas, between the Rio Maués (and possibly its tributary the Rio Parauari) in the west, and the Rio Tapajós in the east. The southern limit is not known, but may be in the region of the Rio Paracari. The southernmost locality for the Santarém marmoset plotted by Hershkovitz (1977) was Vila Braga, 4º25'S, on the Transamazon highway, just north of the Amazonia National Park.
41521		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Males 475 g (n=15) (Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>H&B 20.0-27.0 cm, TL 31.0-37.0 cm (n=10) (Ferrari 2008).
41521		population	eng	There is no information avaiable on the population status of this species.
41521		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. However, it may be vulnerable because of its proximity to a number of expanding urban centres, as well as the mainstream of the Rio Amazonas, and the resulting forest destruction (Coimbra-Filho 1984). Its distribution is also cut by the Transamazônica highway (BR-230). It is probably not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.
41522		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/>Present in numerous protected areas across its range:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Los Katios National Natural Park (72,000 ha)<br/><br/>Panama<br/>Altos da Campaña National Park (4,816 ha)<br/>Darien National Park (579,000 ha)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha)<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,257 ha)<br/>Sarigua National Park (8,000 ha)<br/>Camiño de Cruces National Park (4,000 ha) (Skinner 1985b)<br/>Portobelo National Park (35,929 ha)<br/>Metropolitano National Park (265 ha)<br/>General Omar Torrijos National Park (25,275 ha) <br/>Soberanía National Park (22,140 ha) (Skinner 1985b)<br/>Interoceánico de las Américas National Park (40,000 ha)<br/>Nargana Marine National Park (147,540 ha)<br/>El Montuoso Forest Reserve (10,375 ha)<br/>La Tronosa Forest Reserve (20,579 ha)<br/>Chepigana Forest Reserve (257,219 ha)<br/>Canglon Forest Reserve (31,650 ha)<br/>Cenegon del Mangle Wildlife Refuge (1,000 ha)<br/>Peñón de la Onda Wildlife Refuge (3,900 ha)<br/>El Peñón del Cerro de los Pozos Wildlife Refuge (30 ha) <br/>Playa de la Barqueta Agrícola Wildlife Refuge (5,935 ha)<br/>Playa de Boca Vieja Wildlife Refuge (3,740 ha)<br/>Corregimiento del Nargana Wildlife Refuge Area (100,000 ha)<br/>Isla Canas Wildlife Refuge (25,433 ha)<br/>La Barqueta Agricola Wildlife Refuge (5,935 ha)<br/>Barro Colorado natural Monument (5,400 ha)<br/>Isla Majé Scientific Reserve (1,433 ha)<br/>Lago Gatun Recreation Area (348 ha) (introduced?)<br/>Filo del Tallo Hydrological Protection Zone (24,722 ha)<br/>Tapagra Hydrological Protection Zone (2,520 ha)<br/>Jurado Resguardo Indígena (16,700 ha)<br/>Comarca Kuna Yala (San Blas) (Indigenous area) (320,000 ha)<br/>Punta Patiño Private Reserve(13,805 ha)<br/>Golfo de Montijo Protected Area (89,452 ha)<br/>Cienega de las Macanas Protected Area (2,000 ha)<br/>Corregimiento del Nargana Protected Area (34,330 ha)<br/>Bagre Biological Corridor (31,275 ha)<br/><br/>Skinner (1985a) registered the need for increased measures to controil hunting for sale as pets, for educational awareness materials and for the monitoring of trends in population numbers and habitat loss.
41522		distribution	eng	Central and eastern Panama extending into Colombia. The exact western limit is not clearly defined, but marked by Reid (1997) at just a little west of the Canal Zone. Their range it seems is restricted to the east of the Azuero peninsula.<br/><br/>In discussing habitat preference in Panama, Moynihan (1970) stated that “Rufous-naped tamarins are abundant in some parts of the Pacific coastal region, and also occur in some central areas approximately equidistant from both coasts. To my knowledge, however, they are completely absent from the whole of the Atlantic coast of the isthmus, except for one small, highly modified or “unnatural” area.” (p.2). The exception he mentioned is around the Canal Zone, the city of Colón, and Lake Gatún where the original forest has been almost entirely destroyed, and Moynihan (1970, 1976) argued that their occurrence there is the result of a recent range extension. The map of localities provided by Hershkovitz (1977, p.915) confirms Moynihan’s observation, with only two records on the Atlantic side of the isthmus except in the vicinity of the Canal Zone. The two outlying Atlantic coast records listed in the gazetteer (p.925) are: Locality 6c, San Blas, Mandinga, 9º27'N, 79º04'W, C. O. Handley, Jr., May 1957, a series of six specimens in the American Museum of Natural History, New York; and locality 6d, San Blas, Armila, Quebrada Venado, 8º40'N, 77º28'W, C. O. Handley, Jr. February-March 1963, a series of 12 specimens, also in the US National Museum. Moynihan (1970, 1976) suggested that their absence from the Atlantic coast was related to a preference for drier forests (“of moderate humidity”) typical of the Pacific coast. Skinner (1985) confirmed their occurrence in San Blas and reported the presence of <em>S. geoffroyi</em> in 21 sites all in moist tropical forest from the western Río Chagres basin to the Darién, from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts.<br/><br/>In Colombia it occurs along the Pacific coast, south as far as the Río San Juan. The Río Atrato was believed to be the eastern limit to its range (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977), but Vargas (1994, cited in Defler 2003) found the species occurring around the National Natural Park of Las Orquídeas in the vicinity of the village of Mandé, Antioquia, at elevations as high as 1,000 m, extending its range to the west of the upper Río Cauca. Barbosa <em>et al.</em> (1988, in Mast <em>et al</em>. 1993) also recorded the species at Quibdo, a town just east of the upper Río Atrato.
41522		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist seasonal dry forests and secondary forests and scrub (Moynihan 1970; Dawson 1976; Skinner 1985; Garber 1993).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Average group size recorded for <em>Saguinus geoffroyi</em> by Dawson (1977) was 5-7 individuals (range 3-9). Generally, only one female per group breeds. Home ranges vary from 9.4 ha (Garber 1980a,b), to 26 ha or 32 ha (Dawson 1979), depending evidently on seasonal resource distribution and abundance.<br/><br/>There have been a number of ecological/behavioural studies of the species in Panama—first studied by Moynihan (1970) and Hladik and Hladik (1969) on the Island of Barro Colorado, then Dawson (1976, 1977, 1979; Dawson and Dukelow 1976) and subsequently Garber (1980a,b, 1984), both at the Rodman Naval Station, near Balboa, Lindsay (1980) at Punta Escoces, San Blas, and Skinner (1985, 1986) carried out a survey of 30 sites in Panama.<br/><br/>Infants are born throughout the year, <em>S. geoffroyi</em> shows a peak of births between April and June (Dawson and Dukelow 1976). Oestrous cycles average 15.5 days. Gestation unknown, but probably similar ot <em>S. oedipus</em> at about 145 days. Interbirth intervals range from 154 to 540 days (average 311 days) (Skinner 1986).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Mean adult male body weight 486 g (n = 53).
41522		population	eng	Population densities of 3.6 individuals/km², 4.7 individuals/km², and 5.6 individuals/km² have been recorded for the island of Barro Colorado (Eisenberg 1979). Dawson (1977) estimated 20-30 individuals/km² in the Rodman Naval Station, Balboa. Skinner (1985) reported group densities in six areas in Panama ranging from 0.34 groups/km² to 5.35 groups/km².
41522		threats	eng	This species has a relatively restricted range in a region that has undergone extensive deforestation over the last 50 years (Rasmussen <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, it remains relatively common within this range, and is able to persist in slightly modified habitats. Nonetheless, there may be localized declines taking place due to ongoing habitat loss. In Panama, the species is frequently hunted and captured for the pet trade (Rasmussen <em>et al</em>. 2002). Vargas (1994, in Defler 2004) reported trapping and trade in this species west of the Río Atrato.
41523		conservation	eng	In Brazil, occurs in Jáu National Park (2,272,000 ha) (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2002; Iwanaga 2004) and the Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve (Souza <em>et al</em>. 2004) and in Colombia only in Nukak National Natural Reserve (855,000 ha). Indigenous lands make up 60-70% of its entire range in Colombia (Delfer 2004). It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41523		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus inustus</em> occurs between the upper Rios Negro and Japurá, west from opposite the Rio Padauarí (64°), a northern tributary of the Rio Negro, into Colombia between the Ríos Apaporis and Guaviare (possibly also occurring in gallery forest of the Río Ariari to the north) to the base of the Serranía La Macarena (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977). Its distribution in Colombia is poorly known (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989). Hershkovitz (1977) puts the western limit in the region of the upper Ríos Apaporis and Guaviare. Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1989) reported that it is also known from Cano Yaviya, Río Yarí, Caquetá, and although Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) supposed the Apaporis (left bank) to be the southern limit to its range in Colombia, Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1989) were able to report that it occurs as far south as the left bank of the Caquetá (see Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). Hershkovitz (1977) places the eastern limit in Colombia along the Ríos Atabapo and Guainia and Trio Negro and certainly Handley (1976; see also Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) gives no hint that it may occur in Venezuela. It has been observed near the mouth of the Rio Japurá, on the left bank at the Lago Amanã (Souza <em>et al</em>. 2004), which extends its distribution further east between these rivers than was indicated by Hershkovitz (1977).
41523		habitat	eng	The Mottled-face Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). May be found in primary white-sand forest (<em>campina</em> and <em>campinarana</em>, and also occurs in successional forest, and even seems to prefer these habitats (Defler 2004). Often found in association with villages.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Palacios <em>et al.</em> (2004) recorded group sizes from three to six (mean 4.4 ±1.14, n=5), but saw larger groups of nine and 11 as well. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. One <em>Saguinus inustus</em> group was found to defend a home range of 35 ha (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). Mottled-face Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adults H&B 20.8-25.9 cm, TL 33.0-41.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).
41523		population	eng	This species can be relatively common where it occurs. On the lower Río Caquetá in Colombia, it has been recorded at 19.6 individuals/km² (Castillo-Ayala and Palacios 2008).
41523		threats	eng	This species is common around Indian villages along the lower ríos Caquetá and Apaporís (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, plots cultivated by Indians, slash-and-burn agriculture and small-scale logging have transformed many areas within its range. It is probably not hunted, though they are sometimes found as pets.
41524		conservation	eng	<em>Saguinus labiatus labiatus</em> probably occurs in the Cuniã Ecological Station (49,886 ha) and the Lago do Cuniã Extractivist Reserve (52,321 ha) in Brazil, but is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru or Bolivia. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus l. rufiventer</em> possibly occurs in part of the Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha), Amazonas, to the east of the Rio Purus.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus thomasi</em> has not been recorded from any protected areas in Brazil.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41524		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus labiatus</em> occurs in the central and south-central Amazon. It occurs south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Madeira and Purus. The southernmost part of its range extends along the left bank of the Rio Abunã, crossing the headwaters of the Abunã into the Pando region of northern Bolivia, along both sides of the Rio Acre, and south as far the Río Tahuamanu, a tributary of the Río Orthon, itself; a tributary of the Río Beni (Hershkovitz 1977; Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). Its range in Peru was reported for the first time by Encarnación and Castro (1990). There it occurs on the basin of the Río Acre, extending south as far as the Río Tahuamanu. It also occurs between the Rios Japurá and Solimões, in the region between the left bank of the Tonantins to beyond the Auatí-Paraná.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus labiatus</em> (Brazil, Bolivia, Peru)<br/>This subspecies occurs south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Madeira (left bank) and Purus, on the right bank (Hershkovitz 1977), south from the Rio Ipixuna. It extends along the left bank of the Rio Madeira and Abunã, to Bolivia, crossing the headwaters of the Rio Abunã, as far south as both sides of the Rio Acre, limited to the north of the Río Tahuamanú, a tributary of the Río Orton (tributary of the Río Beni). Extends into far south-eastern Peru, north of the Rio Tahuamanú (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus thomasi</em> (Brazil)<br/>The range of <em>Saguinus l. thomasi</em> is well separated from the other two subspecies. It is known from very few specimens. According to Hershkovitz (1977), it occurs between the Rios Japurá and Solimões, throughout the region between the left bank of the Tonantins to beyond the Auatí-Paraná. It may extend west as far as the Rio Içá, but there is no record of it occurring in Colombia. In the east, it is probably restricted to <em>terra firma</em> forest, not inhabiting the extensive inundated forest (<em>várzea</em>) near the confluence of the Rios Japurá and Solimões (Silva Jr. 1988).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus rufiventer</em> Brazil<br/>Occurs in the central Amazon, south from the Rio Solimões between the Rios Madeira and Purus to the Rio Ipixuna, an east bank tributary of the Rio Purus. <em>Saguinus l. labiatus</em> occurs south of the Rio Ipixuna.
41524		habitat	eng	Red-bellied Tamarins occur in primary and secondary rainforest (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They generally avoid seasonally flooded forest, although they enter it when there is no flooding.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Puertas <em>et al</em>. (1995) found a mean group size of 6.1 individuals (range 2-10). Hardie (1998) also recorded a mean group size of 6.1 (n=15 groups), and Buchanan-Smith (1999) a mean group size of 6.8 (range 1-13, n=23 groups). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. <em>Saguinus labiatus</em> groups defend home ranges of 33.5 ha (range 23-41 ha, n=4) (Yoneda 1981), the size depending on seasonality, availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Red-bellied Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the middle land upper layers of the forest above 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They tend to form mixed-species groups with the smaller, sympatric Saddleback Tamarins <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> (see Yoneda 1981, 1984a,b; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991b, 1999; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). In Bolivia, they also travel with <em>Callimico goeldii</em> (Pook and Pook 1982a; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991a; Porter 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult male weight: 491 g (Yoneda 1981), <br/>Aduilt male weight 490 g (n=136) (Puertas <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Adult female weight 529 g (n=77) (Puertas <em>et al</em>. 1995)
41524		population	eng	This is a common species in Espiritu Santo to Rio Nareuda and the Rio Acre in Bolvia, where Heltne <em>et al.</em> (1975) recorded a density of 4.6 groups/km² which translates to about 27 individuals/km².  In the Pando, Pook and Pook (1982a) estimated 22 individuals/km² and Yoneda (1981) estimated densities of 7.2-12.2 individuals/km² or 1.7-2.9 groups/km². In Peru, Encarnación and Castro (1978) estimated 3.78 individuals/km² over eight separate locations. Puertas <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated 18.6 individuals/km² or 2.7 groups/km².
41524		threats	eng	There is no evidence for any major threats to this species, although it may be susceptible to forest destruction and fragmentation in the western Pando region of Bolivia and south-eastern Peru. The species is not hunted to any great extent, but there is some use as pets.
41525		conservation	eng	Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen (1982) and Baal <em>et al.</em> (1988) discuss its conservation status and its occurrence in the protected areas of Suriname. The following conservation units are within its geographical distribution: <br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (619,000 ha) AP<br/>Monte Roraima National Park (116,000 ha) RR<br/>Mountains of Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (385,000 ha) PA (probable)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (357,000 ha) AP<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (560,000 ha) AM<br/>Anavilhanas Ecological Station (350,012 ha) AM<br/>Maracá Ecological Station (101,312 ha) RR (possible)<br/>Niquiá Ecological Station (286,600 ha) RR (possible)<br/>Jarí Ecological Station (227,116 ha) PA<br/>Fragmentos Florestais - Amazonia Area of Relevant Ecological Interest (ARIE) (3,288 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve  (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Sipaliwini Savanna Nature Reserve (100 000 ha) (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Herten rits Nature Reserve (100 ha)<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Mouth Nature Reserve (10,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Wia-Wia Nature Reserve (36,000 ha)<br/>Galibi Nature Reserve (4,000 ha)<br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaieteur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Wai Wai Community-owned Conservation Area (600,000 ha)<br/>Conservation International Conservation Concession (20,000 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Nouragues Research Station (Kessler 1995; Yioulatos 1995)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41525		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus midas</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazonas and east of the Rios Negro and Branco in Brazil, extending north and east to the coast of Amapá and the Guianas (Napier 1976). It is also evidently absent from a large part of central Guyana. It does not occur around the city of Manaus, the domain of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em>, and shows only a narrow zone where it mixes with this species on the periphery of <em>S. bicolor</em>'s range (Ayres <em>et al</em>. 1980). The situation is probably the same with the two <em>Saguinus martinsi</em> subspecies. In the north of its range, <em>Saguinus midas</em> occurs in French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana (Husson 1957), but is largely restricted to the east of the Essequibo River (Norconk <em>et al</em>. 1996). It would seem that it has crossed the Essequibo along the lower reaches of the river, judging by sightings at Hosororo Hill on the Venezuelan border and from Waraputa on the west bank of the Essequibo just south of Mabura Hill (Sussman and Phillips-Conroy 1995; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 1996). There had been no reports of callitrichids occurring in Venezuela (Handley 1976; Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987), until Linares (1998) indicated its occurrence in eastern Bolívar. Urbani (2006), on the other hand, was unable to find evidence of the presence of <em>S. midas</em> in Bolívar, and concluded that it is not present there or is extremely rare.
41525		habitat	eng	<em>Saguinus midas</em> occurs in lowland and hilly Guiana shield rainforest, savanna forest, white-sand forest, and also in secondary habitats in close proximity to villages and cities. They do particularly well in edge habitats. In Suriname, the species is common in the interior, the savanna belt and old coastal plain, but does not enter the young coastal plain (Mittermeier 1977; Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981, 1982). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Thorington Jr. (1968) observed eight groups in Amapá that ranged in size from 2-6. Kessler (1995, 1998) observed 13 groups ranging in size from 3-7, mean 4.2 ±1.5.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult male weight 515 g (Fleagle and Miittermeier 1980; Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>Adult female weight 575 g (Fleagle and Miittermeier 1980; Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>Mean adult weight 590 ±70.7 g (n=23) (Pack <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/>Adults H&B 23.0 cm, TL 35.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).
41525		population	eng	Undoubtedly common throughout the majority of its range, it is considered the most widespread and abundant of all callitrichids and is currently expanding its range, at the expense of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> (see Ayres <em>et al</em>. 1980; Subirá 1998b).<br/><br/>Recorded population densities include: <br/>Raleighvallen-Voltzberg: Suriname 23.5 individuals/km² or 4 groups/km² (Mittermeier 1977)<br/>Four localities in Guyana: 2.3-13.9 individuals/km² or 0.4-2.7 groups/km² (Muckenhirn <em>et al</em>. 1976)<br/>Porto Platon, Amapá: 16.4-33.5 individuals/km² (Thorington Jr. 1968)<br/>Fragmentos Florestais, north of Manaus: 3.9 individuals/km² or 0.6 groups/km² (Rylands and Keuroghlian 1988)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve: 22.9 individuals/km² or 5.4 groups/km² (Kessler 1998)
41525		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. They are rarely hunted, but are a least preferred food species. Their tails are used for ornamentations, but otherwise it is the only species usually found in the immediate vicinity of villages where there is hunting.
41526		conservation	eng	Present in the following protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax  mystax</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (605,000 ha)<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Reserve (284,285 ha)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em><br/><br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pluto</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>State Environment Protection Area of Ayapuá (610,000 ha)?<br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha)<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41526		distribution	eng	There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax mystax</em><br/>Spix’s Moustached Tamarin occurs in Peru, south of the Río Amazonas, west to the Ríos Ucayali and Tapiche, south to the junction of the Ríos Urubamba and Ucayali (Hershkovitz 1977; Soini and Soini 1990). Soini and Soini (1990) reported that its Peruvian distribution is more restricted than was indicated by Hershkovitz (1977), occurring only as far west as the east banks of the middle and lower Río Tapiche and lower Río Ucayali. Further south, it extends west again as far as the Río Ucayali, crossing the Río Tapiche at about 6º 40'S. This is based on a specimen from Cerro Azul, Contamana, collected by R. W. Hendee in 1927. Pekka Soini never recorded a moustached tamarin in the basins of the Ríos Pacaya and Samiria despite many years of research there (since 1979), and a specimen from the mouth of the Samiria west of the Río Ucayali (locality 96, Hershkovitz 1977, p.684) collected by H. Bluntschli in 1927 is as such enigmatic. According to Hershkovitz (1979) and the distribution map provided by Aquino and Encarnación (1994), the southernmost limit in Peru is marked by the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya. This is based on the southernmost specimen known for this subspecies from Lagarto on the right bank of the Río Ucayali (Hershkovitz 1977, locality 110, 10º41'S, 73º48'W), collected by the Olalla Brothers in 1928. <em>S. imperator subgrisescens</em> replaces <em>S. m. mystax</em> south of the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya (Hershkovitz 1979). In their text (as opposed to their distribution map), Aquino and Encarnación (1994) give the Río Sheshea, an eastern tributary of the Río Ucayali to the north of the Río Urubamba, as the southern limit, although there is no evidence given for this.<br/><br/>In Brazil, <em>S. m. mystax</em> occurs south of the Rio Solimões, and is largely restricted to the west of the Rio Juruá (Hershkovitz 1977). However, Peres (1990, 1991) recorded <em>S. m. mystax</em> from Jaraqui on the right (east) bank of the lower Rio Juruá. Likewise, Johns (1985, 1986) found that <em>S. m. mystax</em> the Moustached Tamarin occurring on the west bank of the Rio Tefé (east of the lower Río Juruá), with <em>S. m. pileatus</em> replacing it on the east bank. Above the headwaters of the Rio Tefé, the Moustached Tamarin occurring on the right (east) bank of the Rio Juruá is <em>S. m. pileatus</em>, this based on a specimen collected by E. Garbe in 1902, at approximately 7ºS (Hershkovitz 1977).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em><br/>According to Hershkovitz (1977), <em>S. m. pileatus</em> occurs south of the Rio Solimões, west of the Rio Purus, south at least as far as the Rio Pauiní or Rio Mamoria. Although Hershkovitz (1977) indicated that it occurs west to the lower Rio Juruá, Johns (1985, 1986) found that the Rio Tefé, its type locality, was its western limit. Judging from a specimen from ‘Juruá (Rio), Amazonas’ (locality 174b, Hershkovitz 1977, p.684), <em>S. m. pileatus</em> extends west to the Rio Juruá above the headwaters of the Rio Tefé. Despite Hershkovitz’s (1977) conviction that <em>S. m. pileatus</em> occurs east as far the Rio Purus on its lower reaches (that is east of the Rio Coarí), we argue that the limited evidence for the distributions of these tamarins suggests that it only reaches the Rio Purus above the Rio Tapauá, with <em>S. m. pluto</em> occurring from the Rio Tapauá, along the left bank of the Rio Purus downriver, and as far west as the Rio Coarí (see the description of the geographic range of <em>S. m. pluto</em>). <em>S. m. pileatus</em> is sympatric with <em>S. fuscicollis avilapiresi</em> throughout its known range.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pluto</em><br/>The distribution of <em>S. m. pluto</em> is rather problematic. Hershkovitz (1968, 1977) argued that it occurs south of the Rio Solimões, between the Rios Purus and Madeira, south to at least 7° or 8° latitude, but the southern limits are not known. The distribution as described by Hershkovitz is based on three localities: 1) The type locality, Lago Ayapuá is on the left (west) bank of the Rio Purus, but Hershkovitz (1977) argued that it must have come from the right bank. 2) Lago do Mapixí, a lake on the right bank of the Rio Purus. Although Hershkovitz states that specimens from Lago do Mapixí are labelled ‘eastern of Rio Purus’ (1977, p.700), this is contradicted in Hershkovitz’s gazeteer (p.933, locality 185, Lago do Mapixí), which states under <em>S. m. pluto</em> ‘C. Lako, June 1931 (left bank of Purus)’. A specimen of <em>S. labiatus</em>, of the same collector with the same date and locality, is ascribed to the right bank of the Purus. (3) Jaburú, on the left bank of the Rio Purus (locality 186, p.933). As in the Ayapuá locality, Hershkovitz (1977) insists that the specimens were in fact taken from the right bank of the Rio Purus and even places the locality on the right bank in the distribution map for <em>S. mystax</em> (p.684, 1977). The problem with accepting that <em>S. m. pluto</em> is known only from the left bank of the Rio Purus is that it would have to be sympatric with <em>S. m. pileatus</em>. Ávila-Pires (1974) placed <em>S. m. pluto</em> to the west of the Rio Purus, and regarded it as a different species for this reason. However, the only specimen of <em>S. m. pileatus</em> recorded for the Rio Purus is São Luis da Mamoria, Rio Purus (locality 188,p.933, Hershkovitz 1977), which is far to the south, near the Rio Pauiní. Although different species, it would be very difficult to accept that <em>S. mystax</em> is sympatric with <em>S. labiatus</em>, because, along with <em>S. imperator</em>, they are evidently ecologically very similar. We suggest that <em>S. m. pluto</em> is in fact restricted to the left bank of the Rio Purus, but is not sympatric with <em>S. m. pileatus</em>, and probably extends east as far as the Rio Coarí and south only to the rio Tapauá. The Mamoria locality for <em>S. m. pileatus</em> is downstream of the mouth of the Rio Pauini and upstream of the mouth of the Rio Tapauá. The Lago do Ipixuna, another locality (183, p.933, Hershkovitz 1977) for <em>S. m. pileatus</em>, is west of the Rio Coarí. There is no evidence of <em>S. m. pileatus </em>occurring east of the Rio Coarí, nor north of the Rio Tapauá.<br/><br/>Izawa and Bejarano (1981) reported two isolated populations of <em>S. mystax</em> from the south of the Rio Acre, north of the Río Tahuamanú, in Bolivia: one between Cobija and Buenos Aires, right bank of the Rio Acre, and another from 10 km north-east of Porvenir, 11°12'S, on the Brazil/Bolivia frontier beyond the headwaters of the Rio Abunã.  Izawa and Bejarano (1981) presumed them to be <em>S. m. pluto</em> because Hershkovitz (1977) extended its range south as far as the Abunã headwaters. According to Izawa and Bejarano (1981), these two populations of <em>S. mystax</em> are sympatric with <em>S. labiatus</em>, but do not form mixed species groups as they do independently with <em>S. fuscicollis</em>. There is no ready explanation for these Bolivian populations, more than 3 degrees to the south of the southernmost locality for <em>S. m. pileatus</em>. We consider that they are unlikely to be <em>S. m. pluto</em>, but may be <em>S. m. pileatus</em> (if they cross the upper Rio Purus) or, more likely, a different undescribed subspecies.  Izawa and Bejarano (1981) also report a population of <em>S. imperator</em> within the distribution of <em>S. labiatus</em>, along with a new form of <em>S. labiatus</em> (undescribed). It would appear that the distributions of these species are mixed, forming fine-grained mosaics, in the southernmost parts of their ranges, traversing headwaters in a region lacking large rivers as barriers. <em>S. mystax</em> distributions are evidently more complex than portrayed by Hershkovitz (1977) and require further study. Buchanan-Smith <em>et al.</em> (2000) found no evidence for the occurrence of <em>Saguinus mystax</em> in northern Bolivia.
41526		habitat	eng	The Moustached Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Garber (1988a,b, 1993a,b) and Peres (1991, 1993c) have carried out a study of the diet and feeding behaviour of <em>Saguinus mystax</em>. Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Moya <em>et al.</em> (1990) recorded an average group size of 4.63 ±2.07 individuals (range 2-10) for <em>S. mystax mystax</em> in the Río Yarapa basin, Peru. Garber (1984; Moya <em>et al</em>. 1980) recorded a mean group size of 5.2 individuals for 18 groups (range 3-8) on Padre Isla, Peru. Ten years later this had increased to an average of 7 individuals per group in 13 groups (range 4-11) (Garber <em>et al</em>. 1993). The home range of a mixed-species group of <em>S. mystax</em> and <em>S. fuscicollis</em> studied by Garber (1988c) was 40 ha, overlappiing with seven other groups. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. <br/><br/>Moustached Tamarins travel and spend much of their time in the middle and upper layers of the forest above 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They tend to form mixed-species groups with the smaller, sympatric Saddleback Tamarins <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> (see Yoneda 1981, 1984a,b; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991b, 1999; Peres 1991; 1992a,b, 1993c; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/><em>Saguinus mystax mystax</em><br/>Adult male 564.5 g ±48.0 g (range 502.6-681.0 g, n=16) (Garber and Teaford 1986)<br/>Adult male 491.0 ±23.0 g (n= 95) (Moya <em>et al.</em> 1990)<br/>Adult female 511.0 ±49.0 g (n=80) (Moya <em>et al</em>. 1990)<br/><br/>Adult female length. Total  62.0 ±29.0 cm (n=80) (Moya <em>et al</em>. 1990)<br/>Adult male length. Total 61.2 ±31.2 cm (n=95) (Moya <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41526		population	eng	<em>S. mystax mystax</em> <br/>Moya <em>et al.</em> (1990) estimated a density of 43.2 individuals/km² or 9.5 groups/km²  in the basin of the Río Tarapa, Peru. Peres (1997) estimated densities at eight sites: 1) Sobral 87.8 individuals/km²; 2) Condor 54.5 individuals/km²; 3) Barro Vermelho 29.8 individuals/km²; 4) Fortuna 34.7 individuals/km²; 5) Igarape Jaraqui 49.2 individuals/km²; 6) Vira Volta 55.4 individuals/km²; 7) Vai Quem Quer 34.4 individuals/km²; 8) Riozinho 36.4 individuals/km².<br/><br/><em>S. mystax pileatus</em><br/>Peres (1997) estimated densities at a site called Altamira at 71.5 individuals/km².
41526		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species. <em>Saguinus mystax mystax</em> is considered to be common in Peru by Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989), tolerating mild habitat disturbance and even in some areas subsistence hunting (Soini and Soini 1990). The same is undoubtedly true for the Brazilian populations. Johns (1985, 1986) found it to be the most abundant of the primates at his study site on the west margin of the Rio Tefé, and likewise it was found to be common in three sites surveyed by Peres (1990).<br/><br/>Nothing is known of the conservation status of <em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em> and <em>Saguinus mystax pluto</em>, but there is no reason to believe either form is currently threatened.
41527		conservation	eng	Retention of primary forest. Presumably the species occurs in some protected areas. This is true for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.
41527		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central and South America. It's widely distributed from central Nicaragua through Panama; west of the Andes to northwestern Ecuador; and east of the Andes from Venezuela and the Guianas to Amazonian Peru, Brazil and Northern Bolivia (Wilson and Reeder 1993; Reid 1997; Eisenberg 1989; Tirira 1999). Found from lowlands to 1,000 m (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997; Linares 1998). Distribution follows moist lowland forest areas. Note that this species may no longer occur in the southernmost part of the range due to forest loss. It is found from Nicaragua south to Peru and Central Brazil (Simmons 2005).
41527		habitat	eng	These bats are associated with streams and moist areas, preferably in lowland and multistratal tropical evergreen forests (Eisenberg 1989; Reid 1997). They live in the forest and forage in small open spaces, chiefly flying in long, slow, beats of about 20 m long between the forest canopy and subcanopy (Emmons and Feer 1997). Frequently recorded at forest edges. (Sampaio, pers comm.). Active soon after sunset, it feeds on small flying insects near forest edge or over water (Reid 1997). <em>Cormura brevirostris</em> has not been the subject of a detailed field study (Eisenberg 1989). It is an aerial insectivore of background cluttered space.
41527		population	eng	Locally common in the Amazon but generally understudied (Bernard pers. comm.). This species may be undersampled due to methodological issues.
41527		threats	eng	Deforestation. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.
41528		conservation	eng	Suitable conservation actions for Seri's Sheath-tailed Bat are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification and protection of additional important roosting sites. Identification of foraging habitat would also be of use.
41528		distribution	eng	Seri's Sheath-tailed Bat is known from four caves on the islands of Los Negros Island and New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from Jatut Cave (Loniu), Medina Cave (Medina), Matapara Cave (Medina) and Riri Cave (Kalom) (Bonaccorso 1998). It may be present on New Britain and other islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, although recent expeditions have not recorded it (Bonaccorso 1998; Chiroptera Specialist Group 2000). It has also been recorded from Yapen Island (Indonesia) and it will likely be shown to have a wider range encompassing small islands off the northern mainland of New Guinea than is currently recognised (Helgen 2007; K. Helgen pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level up to 300 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).
41528		habitat	eng	This little-known, nocturnal species has been recorded from limestone caves. It emerges before sunset to forage (Bonaccorso 1998).
41528		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
41528		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats to this species.
41529		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In South Asia, the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Ecology and population monitoring are the two main recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas within China or Southeast Asia.
41529		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern South Asia into northern Southeast Asia, and much of central, southern and southwestern China. In South Asia it has been recorded from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia it has been reported from northern Myanmar and Viet Nam. In China, it is widely distributed, being reported from Yunnan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Guizhou, Xizang, Fujian and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). In South Asia it has been recorded from 500 to 2,769 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41529		habitat	eng	In South Asia, this species is commonly found in montane forests with heavy rainfall. It roosts in colonies or singly in caves, old disused tunnels, temples, houses, wells and hollows of trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Nepal, it has been found in disturbed forest far from any known caves (G. Csorba pers. comm.). In central Viet Nam a specimen was found in a cave surrounded by degraded forest and farmland at 650 m asl. In northern Myanmmar the species has been recorded from thick tropical moist forest with some bamboo vegetation (P. Bates pers. comm.).
41529		population	eng	In South Asia it is considered to be declining (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). It is reasonably common in southern China (Smith and Xie 2008).
41529		threats	eng	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is little information available on threats to this species from the rest of its range.
41530		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
41530		distribution	eng	The species occurs from lowlands to 600 m asl in Central and South America; it is widely distributed from Chiapas, southern Mexico through Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela (and Trinidad) to Central Amazonia to Peru and northeastern Brazil (there are no recorded specimens south of the Amazon River) (Sampaio pers. comm. and Reid, 1997).
41530		habitat	eng	It has been taken in both moist and dry deciduous sites.  It can be found in primary forest, secondary forest, forest fragments and pastures surrounding forest (Sampaio pers. comm.). In Venezuela, specimens have been observed roosting with other species in hollow trees (Handley, 1976). This bat eats insects (chiefly beetles, katydids, and Homoptera) arachnids, lizard, and some  fruits (Bonaccorso, 1979). It is attracted by calling cicadas and the distress calls of small bats (Reid, 1997). It is usually caught in mist nets set over streams or across forest trails and usually travels in the subcanopy as opposed to the understory level (Reid, 1997). Two females from Peru were found to contain two embryos each (Gardner, 1976).
41530		population	eng	Uncommon (Reid, 1997).
41530		threats	eng	Habitat loss in some parts of its range though this is not considered a major threat.
41531		conservation	eng	Approximately 17% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. Also, appears in protected areas in Russia and Kazakhstan.
41531		distribution	eng	Distributed in Russian Federation (Tuva), E Kazakhstan (Tarbagatai, Zaisan), Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Iran (Elburz), China (Xinjiang and Xizang), Mongolia (Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Govi Altai Mountain Range, southern parts of Hangai Mountain Range, southern parts of Middle Halh Steppe, Northern Govi, Eastern Govi, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans Altai Govi Desert, and Alashani Govi Desert), Pakistan, N India (Gilgit), and Nepal (DeBlase, 1980; Bates and Harrison, 1997). Records from Tajikistan and W China including Tibet are uncertain (Horácek <em>et al.</em>, 2000). However, both subspecies have been recorded from Xinjiang (Smith and Xie in press).
41531		habitat	eng	Inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats and dry areas. Usually roost in shaded areas, such as the cracks of rocks or buildings, but not in trees' cracks. Sometimes found in frontal parts of caves. Generally solitary or found in small groups. This species has not been thoroughly researched, and so there is a lack of information on the ecology of this species.  It is thought that some eat butterflies, and that they are the prey items of nocturnal raptors. These species has a low reproductive rate and a slow growth rate, giving birth to small numbers of young, often one at a time (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).
41531		population	eng	Widespread and regularly distributed in Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.), Kazakhstan and Russia (Tuva). There is no data available on abundance at present, however, it is naturally not abundant in Russia and Turkmenia.
41531		threats	eng	Drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. A proposed hydro-electric dam in along the Chono Haraikh River in Great Lakes Depression will potentially create habitat loss along the river connecting the lakes. Accidental mortality constitutes a minor threat, as it roosts in livestock pens which are frequently moved.
41532		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat destruction. It occurs in several protected areas.
41532		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south California, Arizona, and New Mexico south to Baja California, west and central Mexico (Simmons, 2005).
41532		habitat	eng	This species occupies a range of habitats of extremely arid areas to dry areas. It inhabits savannas, secluded woodlands, regions dominated by pasture or croplands, and even tolerates residential areas. It is insectivorous. It often roosts in trees, where it generally hangs from the midrib of a leaf using its hind claws and possibly its thumbs. Mating probably occurs in autumn; the litter size in this species varies from one to four, with three being most common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Western yellow bats are thought to be noncolonial. Individuals usually roost in trees, hanging from the underside of a leaf. Usually two babies are born in June, but the presence of up to four embryos suggests that size of litter may vary from two to four.
41532		population	eng	It is common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Some populations may be migratory, although some individuals appear to be present year-round, even in the northern most portion of the range. Western yellow bats probably do not hibernate; activity has been observed year round in both the southern and northern portions of the range. Capture sites are often associated with water features (e.g. stock tanks, ponds, streams, and rivers) in open grassy areas and scrub, as well as canyon and riparian situations.
41532		threats	eng	Probably one of the primary threats in the U.S., however, is the cosmetic trimming of palm fronds. The use of pesticides in date palm and other orchards may also constitute a threat to both roosting bats and the insects upon which they forage. Domestic cats, whether pets or feral, may be a significant source of predation, as they are for many lizards, songbirds, and rodents. Few threats for the survival for this bat can be reported.
41533		conservation	eng	None in place.
41533		distribution	eng	Distribution is split into two: one range in W Africa (including N Senegal, S Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria), and one covering much of E and S Africa (as far south as NE Swaziland).  The species is absent from much of the Horn of Africa, NE Ethiopia, E Tanzania, and NE Mozambique.  There is a smaller central African range in NE Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).  There are also records from Niger, Central African Republic (CAR), and the Nile delta in Egypt.
41533		habitat	eng	Inhabits dry and moist savanna, dry shrubland, desert, and semi-desert.<br/><br/>Roosts under the roofs of huts or in crevices in trees. Taken from under the bark of a dead <em>Acacia nigrescens</em> tree in mopane savanna in Zinave National Park (Smithers and Labao Tello, 1976).
41533		population	eng	Rather common.
41533		threats	eng	None known.
41534		conservation	eng	In Southeast Asia the species is thought to occur in some protected areas. Taxonomic, ecological, population and habitat studies are recommended for this species.
41534		distribution	eng	This species appears to be patchily distributed in northern South Asia, southern China and widely in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Assam [A. Ali pers. comm.], Meghalaya, Mizoram and Sikkim [S. Mistry pers. comm.]) and Nepal (Eastern Nepal). In China it has only been recorded from Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, there are widespread records from Myanmar in the west, to Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and the island of Java (Indonesia). In South Asia it has been recorded from 1,300 to 2,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).
41534		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species in South Asia except that it is reported from montane forests and also found in secondary teak forest (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Myanmar it has been collected at 1,940 m asl in temperate forest (P. Bates pers. comm.), while it has been recorded in wet evergreen and undisturbed forest between 1,300 and 1,700 m in Viet Nam. It has been recorded from undisturbed forest in Cambodia. Nothing is known of its natural history in China.
41534		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are poorly known. It is usually found as individual animals.
41534		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear, but might include habitat degradation in parts of its range.
41535		conservation	eng	The following protected areas are within its known range:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi Health Nature Reserve (1,884,375 ha)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (605,000 ha) AC<br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha) (left bank of Rio Purus) AM<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (72,000 ha) AC<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (745, 830 ha) AM<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Reserve (284, 285 ha) AM<br/>Mamirauá State Ecological Station (1,134,000 ha) AM<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (INDERENA 1989; Defler 1994, 2003, 2004)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park Within range (Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (INDERENA 1989; Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 1999) Within range (Defler 2003, 2004). <br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuni National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/>Limoncocha Biological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/>Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno (De Vries <em>et al</em>. 1993; De la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995b; De la Torre 1996; Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh <em>et al.</em> 1984: Gazzo, 1985)<br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (1,478,800 ha)<br/>Tambopata Natural Wildlife Reserve (5,500 ha).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix pygmaea</span>).
41535		distribution	eng	Following Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (1997), the Western Pygmy Marmoset <em>C. p. pygmaea</em> occurs in the upper Amazon basin, north of the Rio Solimões in Brazil west from the Rio Japurá, and south of the Río Caquetá in Colombia, Amazonian Ecuador and Peru, north of the Solimões-Amazonas-Marañon, and east (left bank) of the Rio Pastaza in Peru. The easternmost localities in Brazil include the Paraná do Aranapu and Paraná do Jarauá on the lower Rio Japurá. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Defler (2003, 2004) recorded that it is well known south of the Río Caquetá in Colombia, but that reports of its occurrence further north in the upper Río Guaviare region, remain to be confirmed. The only evidence to date is a captive specimen believed to have been obtained from Cano Morrocoy on the south bank of the Río Guaviare. Izawa (1975) reported that it is absent from the Río Peneya, north of the Río Caquetá, and during further surveys was unable to confirm its presence anywhere else north of the Río Caquetá, although in a later publication (Izawa 1979) he indicated that it may occur on the Río Orteguaza, a northern tributary of the uppermost reaches. It would evidently be the subspecies throughout the Ecuadorian Amazon (De la Torre 2000). In Peru, Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) extend the range to the west of the Río Pastaza, to the region of the Cerro Campanquiz and basin of the Río Santiago, south to the Río Mayo in the Department of San Martín, a left bank tributary of the Río Huallaga, and to both sides of Río Marañon. The range south of the Río Marañon west of the Rio Huallaga could belong to either <em>pygmaea</em> or <em>niveiventris</em> according to the distribution proposed by Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (1997). <br/><br/>Following Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen’s (1997) hypothesis, the Eastern Pygmy Marmoset <em>C. p. niveiventris</em> would be the form south of the Rio Solimões-Amazonas-Marañon and east of the lower Río Huallaga and middle to upper Río Ucayali. Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) indicated a larger range in Peru, occupying the entire Amazonian lowlands and Andean foothills east of the Río Mayo and the Río Huallaga above the Río Mayo, and including the Río Pachitea and the Río Ucayali basins, south to the upper Río Purus and the basins of the Rió Madre de Dios, and Río de las Piedras and the Rio Tambopata. From there it extends east into northern Bolivia to the region of Cobija (Freese <em>et al</em>. 1982; Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Bolivia, Izawa (1979) and Izawa and Bejarano (1981) confined it to the north and west of the Ríos Orthon and Manuripi, northern tributaries of the Río Madre de Dios. However, Brown and Rumiz (1986) doubt that it occurs as far south as the Río Manuripi, limiting its distribution to the north of the Río Tahuamanu. Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. (2000) confirmed their presence south of the Río Tahuamanu along the Rio Muyumanu. The easternmost record they obtained was at Santa Rosa on the Río Abunã. Its presence in northern Bolivia indicates that it should occur in parts of eastern Acre, including the Ríos Acre and uppermost Abunã, not indicated by Hershkovitz (1977). This was confirmed by Bicca-Marques and Calegaro-Marques (1995). Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (1997) observed Pygmy Marmosets between the lower Rios Purus and Madeira, and indicated a range extending south at least to the Rio Ipixuna (right bank tributary of the Rio Purus). The Río Abunã is a left bank tributary of the Rio Madeira so it is reasonable to believe that Pygmy Marmosets occur throughout the interfluvium of the Rios Purus and Madeira south to the Rio Abunã. The southernmost locality reported so far is the Manu National Park, approximately 12ºS (Soini 1988).
41535		habitat	eng	This species is largely restricted to river-edge forest (Soini 1988) and its abundance in a given locality is dependent on the availability of suitable habitat. However, a number of authors have indicated its occurrence in secondary forest (Moynihan 1976; Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). It may be particularly abundant in areas moderately affected by agricultural activities and hunting (Soini 1982, 1988) and is capable of existing in isolated forest patches near human settlements (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985). It generally travels in the lower layers of the forest, keeping to dense vegetation in the understorey. In Ecuador, it is known to occur between altitudes 200 and 940 m, but usually below 400 m above sea level (Tirira 2007). As in Peru, it shows a marked preference for inundated forests, liana forest, and the edges of rivers and lakes, and can also be found in secondary forest (Tirira 2007). <br/><br/><em>Cebuella</em> is a gum-feeding specialist, with behavioural and dental adaptations to gnaw holes in the bark of certain species of trees and vines to stimulate gum production (Soini 1988; Yepez <em>et al</em>. 2005). Saddleback tamarin, <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em>, groups tend to pirate these gum feeding holes wherever the two species are sympatric (Soini 1988, 1993). <br/><br/>Group sizes range from 5-9, with 1-2 adult males and 1-2 adult females. As in other callitrichids, the single breeding female in the group produces twins twice a year, and the adult males and other group members help her to carry them (Soini 1988). Home ranges are typically small from 0.1 to 0.4 ha, centred on one or two trees which supply the gum they need. The entire group will move to a new home range when the gum sources become inadequate (Soini 1988).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 110 g (n=36) (Soini 1988)<br/>Adult female weight 122 g (n=27) (Soini 1988).
41535		population	eng	This species is generally considered common (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1978; Coimbra-Filho 1984; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985, 1989; Soini 1982; Soini <em>et al</em>. 1989). It can reach very high densities in riparian forest (Soini 1988). Density estimates from a river edge site in the Maniti basin in Peru over three years ranged from 210-227 individuals/km² (Soini 1988). In Ecuador, densities range from 1-6 individuals/km² of river (De la Torre <em>et al</em>, in press). Peres (1997) estimated densities of <em>Cebuella pygmaea</em> at 5 sites: 1) Porongaba, Rio Juruá, 15.9 individuals/km²; 2) Altamira, Rio Juruá, 2.3 individuals/km²; 3) Barro Vermelho, Rio Juruá, 2.2 individuals/km²; 4) Fortuna, Rio Juruá, 4.7 individuals/km²; and 5) Riozinho, Rio Riozinho, 4.3 individuals/km².
41535		threats	eng	There is hunting in some parts of the range (e.g., in Ecuador), as well as some use as pets. The principal reason for its inclusion on the CITES Appendix I in 1977-1979 (now relegated to Appendix II; see Mack and Mittermeier 1984) was the international trade, particularly from the area of Iquitos, Colombia. There is also some localized habitat loss taking place.
41536		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is found in many protected areas.<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis</em><br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Madidi National Park (1,571,500 ha) <br/>Manuripi National Reserve (1,884,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000)<br/>Beni Biosphere Reserve (135,000 ha) (Painter <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Amboro National Park<br/>Carrasco National Park<br/>Isibore-Secure National Park and Indigenous Territory<br/>Pilon Lajas Indigenous Teriitory and Biosphere Reserve<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (southern part, in range)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Tambopata National Reserve (262,315 ha)<br/>Bahuaja-Sonene Community Reserve (1,091,416 ha)<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994<br/>Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park (122,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Hershkovitz 1984; Aquino and Encarnación 1994)
41536		distribution	eng	According to Hershkovitz (1984) and R. Wallace (pers. comm. 2007), <em>S. b. boliviensis</em> occurs in the upper Amazon, south of the Rio Solimões-Amazonas, between the Rios Juruá and Madeira in the states of Amazonas and Acre, into Bolivia, west of the Rio Negro in northern Santa Cruz Department, in the departments of Pando, Cochabamba, Beni, and Santa Cruz. Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) did not find squirrel monkeys in the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park, and indicated that there are no records of this subspecies east of Perseverancia where they surveyed, on the Río Negro, although there are reports of it occurring as far east as the upper Río San Martín. In Peru, Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated its occurrence south from the Río Abujao, Department of Ucayali, to Bolivia, and in parts of Huánaco, Pasco, Junín and Cusco. Altitudinal range according to Hershkovitz (1984) is 50 to 500 m above sea level. It is not known which of the two subspecies may occur on the upper Rio Juruá, between the west (left) bank of the Jurua and the Río Ipixuna in Brazil and north of the Río Sheshea to the Rio Abujao in Peru (Hershkovitz 1984; Aquino and Encarnación 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis</em> occurs south of the Ríos Amazon and Marañón, between the Rios Huallaga and Ucayali, from the west bank of the Río Tapiche (tributary of the Ucayali), south between the Ríos Pachitea and Tambo (Hershkovitz 1984). Hershkovitz (1984) indicated that the southern limits were unknown, but presumed to be at least as far as the Río Abujao (a west bank affluent of the Río Ucayali). Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated the region of the Río Perené, a tributary of the Rio Pachitea. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that is sympatric with <em>Saimiri sciureus macrodon</em> east of the Río Ucayali from about 04ºS southward to the Rio Abujao. In their map, <em>S. b. boliviensis</em> extends across the Rio Blanco to the Río Yavarí. Its occurrence in Brazil to the east of the Rio Javarí has not been documented.
41536		habitat	eng	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b) allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000).<br/><br/>In <em>S. boliviensis</em>, studied by Terborgh (1983) and Mitchell <em>et al.</em> (1991), groups range from 45 to 75 individuals. Females form stable, probably kin-based, coalitions and dominance hierarchy. Females are philopatric (remain in the groups they were born in), while males leave their groups at 4-5 years old, form all-male (bachelor) groups and then disperse into other groups with both sexes. Males are generally unfriendly to each other, and change groups every one or two years. Females commonly show social agression amongst themselves. Adult females are always dominant to males, harass them, and maintain on them on the periphery of the group. Unlike <em>S. oerstedi</em>, males do not show anti-predator vigilance. The fruits they typically exploit occur in large patches of moderate density, and feeding competition is higher than in <em>S. oerstedii</em>, but lower than in <em>S. sciureus</em>.<br/><br/>In <em>S. sciureus</em>, studied in Suriname by Boinski (1999a,b, 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), group sizes range from 15 to 50, and both sexes form a single, linear hiearchy in the group, with most males being dominant to females. Aggression between females is uncommon, but they  do not form coalitions. Males form coalitions and can aggressive to each other. Males show vigilance in defense agianst predators. The fruits they exploit typically occur in small but extremely dense patches, and there is considerable feeding competition between group members, much higher than in <em>S. boliviensis</em>. <br/><br/>In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, females do not form dominance hierarchies, and there is no evidence of coalition formation in social interactions. Females transfer between groups before first mating season, and males are philopatric. There is little competition or agonistic interactions between groups, and males show high levels of vigilance for predators.  Reproductively mature males collaborate in mobbing females during the mating season. Their fruits they typically exploit occur in small and very scarce patches, and feeding competition is very low. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em> sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only one or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced, and the female gives birth occur once a year (Rowe 1996). In <em>S. boliviensis</em>, the interbirth interval is 24 months (Mitchell 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> and <em>S. sciureus</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance caused by the capuchin monkeys above them, which flushes out insects and small animal prey.<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Weight: Adult male 992 g, adult female more than 751 g.
41536		population	eng	The species is common, occurring frequently in large groups of more than 50 animals. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that <em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> was a common species in Peruvian Amazonia. Abundance characteristics are not appreciably different between the two subspecies.<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Wallace <em>et al</em>. (2000) recorded primate encounter rates along transects at eight sites in the Rios Blanco y Negro Wildlife Reserve, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. <em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> was seen at two of the sites with an encounter rate of 0.2 and 0.7 groups/10 km, or 4.9 and  9.8 individuals/10 km, respectively. In the Beni Reserve, Painter <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded an encounter rate of 0.6 groups or 20 individuals/10 km. In the Bosque Chimanes, Rumiz and Herrera (1994) recorded 1.7 groups or 36.4 individuals/10 km. Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) did not find squirrel monkeys in the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park where they surveyed (east of the Río San Martín, Santa Cruz Department).<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Peres (1997) estimated densities of <em>S. boliviensis boliviensis</em> at várzea (white-water flooded forest) in the Brazilian Amazon: Sacado do Condor 70.7 individuals/km²; Boa Esperança 149.2 individuals/km². They are less abundant in <em>terra firma</em> forest: Porongaba 11.3 individuals/km²; Kaxinawá Reserve: 36.4 individuals/km²; Penedo 19.1  individuals/km²; Altamira 28.7 individuals/km².<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Terborgh (1983) estimated a density of 50 individuals/km² in Manu National Park, Peru.
41536		threats	eng	This species is hunted for subsistence use particularly in areas that have already suffered the loss of larger primate species. Habitat loss is also occurring, although not levels that warrant threatened status. Some capture for pets and medical research occurs, notably in Peru.
41537		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus sciureus</em><br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecolopical Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Terra do Meio Ecological Station (3,373,111 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000 ha) (Kessler 1998)<br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaieteur Narional Park<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (probable: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982) <br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Monding Nature Reserve (12,000 ha) (unconfirmed (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus albigena</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (in range)<br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (306,000 ha) (in range?)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (in range) (or cassiquiarensis?)<br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (in range)? (or cassiquiarensis?)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus cassiquiarensis</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pico da Neblina National Park (2,298,154 ha)<br/>Jau National Park (2,378,410 ha) <br/>Juamí Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus macrodon</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha (in range, Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (Tirira 2007) <br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (Tirira (2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Protection Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encanrfación 1994)
41537		distribution	eng	There are four recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus sciureus </em> is a wide-ranging subspecies in the north-eastern and eastern Amazon. Distribution, according to Hershkovitz (1984), extends through the Guianas, Amapá and the Brazilian Amazon east of the Rios Deminí and Negro north of the Rio Amazonas, and east of the Rio Xingú south of the Rio Amazonas, Guyana. Silva Jr. (unpublished) places it east of the rios Tapajós and Juruena to extending east to upper reaches of the Rio Teles Pires, a little north and then east, south of the Serra od Cahimobo, across the middle Xingu, the Araguaia and Tocantins to the Rio Parnaiba valley in Maranhão. Hershkovitz (1984) placed its eastern limit as the Rio Pindaré in Maranhão. It also occupies a small area south of the Rio Solimões between the Rio Madeira and the Tapajós on the Ilha Tupinambarama, east to Parintins. <em>Saimiri s. sciureus</em> has not been recorded above 100 m above sea level.<br/><br/>The range of <em>Saimiri sciureus albigena</em> according to Hershkovitz (1984) is gallery forests of the Colombian llanos (Llanos Orientales) from the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in the Departments of Arauca, Casanare and Guaviare, and the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, and Meta to unknown limits eastward. It also occurs in the upper Río Magdalena, but how far it extends north in the Magdalena valley is not known (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003; 2004). Altitudinal range between 150 and 600 m or higher, possibly to 1,000 m.<br/><br/>The range of <em>Saimiri sciureus cassiquiarensis</em> according to Hershkovitz (1984) is the upper Amazon and Orinocean regions, in Brazil the state of Amazonas from north of the Rio Solimões and west of the Rios Demini and Negro into the Orinoco-Cassiquiare basin in Venezuela, form there west into eastern Colombia between the Ríos Apaporis and Inírida in the Departments of Vaupés, Guaviare and Guiania (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003; 2004). Occurrence in Venezuela was mapped by Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) and Linares (1998).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus macrodon</em>, according to Hershkovitz (1984), ranges in upper Amazon, in Brazil in the state of Amazonas between the Rios Juruá and Japurá, westward; in Colombia from the Rio Apaporis south into eastern Ecuador, throughout the Ecuadorian Amazon east pf the Andes to asltitidues of 1,200 m (Tirira 2007), and into Peru in the departments of San Martín and in Loreto, to the north bank of the Río Marañon-Amazonas. Hershkovitz (1984) indicated that the portion of the range between the Ríos Ucayali and Tapiche is occupied by both <em>S. s. macrodon</em> and <em>S. boliviensis peruviensis</em> (see also Aquino and Encarnación 1994). In Peru, it extends south as far as the ríos Amazonas and Marañón and west of the Huallaga to the Andes, south to a little beyond 8ºS. It extends south of the Rio Amazonas east of the Río Ucayali from the Rio Blanco, where it is sympatric with <em>Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis</em> (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). East of the Ucayali it ranges south to the west of the Serra do Divisor, but not known to reach the Río Tamaya.
41537		habitat	eng	<em>Saimiri sciureus</em> typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. Can also be found in gallery forest, low forests of sclerophytic vegetation, forested slopes, and palm forests (particularly associations of <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em>). They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000).<br/><br/>In <em>S. sciureus</em>, studied in Suriname by Boinski (1999a,b, 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), group sizes range from 15 to 50, and both sexes form a single, linear hiearchy in the group, with most males being dominant to females. Aggression between females is uncommon, but they do not form coalitions. Males form coalitions and can aggressive to each other. Males show vigilance in defense agianst predators. The fruits they exploit typically occur in small but extremely dense patches, and there is considerable feeding competition between group members, much higher than in <em>S. boliviensis</em>. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season.  In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> and <em>S. sciureus</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance casued by the capuchin monkeys above them which flushes out insects. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Weight: Adult male 740 g, adult female more than 635 g (Jack 2007).
41537		population	eng	Recorded population densities for <em>S. s. macrodon</em> include:<br/><br/>Klein and Klein (1975) recorded a density of 50-80 individuals/km² at La Macarena, Colombia;<br/>Peres (1997) estimated population densities at the following várzea (white-water flooded forest) sites: Nova Empresa 73.8 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho II 109.5 individuals/km²; Lago da Fortuna 189.8 individuals/km². They are more scarce in <em>terra firma</em> forests: Sobral 5.9 individuals/km²; Condor 36.1 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho I 16.7  individuals/km²; Fortuna 23.2 individuals/km²; Vira Volta 17.7 individuals/km²; Riozinho 36.4 individuals/km².
41537		threats	eng	<em>Saimiri sciureus</em> is wide-ranging throughout the northern Amazon. The species occupies secondary forest and is often found close to human settlements. Although they are not commonly hunted because of their small size, in some parts of their range, such as Colombia and Ecuador, they are commonly trapped for the pet market (Defler 2003, 2004; S. de la Torre pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>Saimiri sciureus albigena</em> occurs in a region subject to high rates of deforestation.
41538		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Amazônia National Park (1,114,917 ha)<br/>Pacaás Novos National Park (764,801 ha)<br/>Juruena National Park <br/>Jarú Biological Reserve (353,386 ha)<br/>Guaporé Biological Reserve (618,173 ha)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41538		distribution	eng	<em>Saimiri ustus</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas in Brazil. It has more restricted range than was supposed by Hershkovitz (1984), who placed it east of the Rio Purus south as far as the region of the rios Sepatini and Guaporé, east to the Rios Xingu or Iriri. J. S. Silva Jr. (pers. comm.) believes it extends east of the Rio Purus to the riosTapajós and Juruena, with its range including a belt along the southern margin of the Rio Solimões along the lower reaches of the southern tributaries, including the rios Coarí and Tefé to the east (left bank) of the Rio Juruá. It extends south to the upper reaches of the Rio Guaporé and the headwaters of the Juruena. It is replaced by <em>Saimiri sciureus sciureus</em> just south of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Tapajós, on the Ilha Tupinambarama, east to Parintins.
41538		habitat	eng	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b) allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000). There have been no studies of this species, however, and its ecology is inferred from those of other species. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/>Amazonian <em>Saimiri</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance casued by the capuchin monkeys above them which flushes out insects. <br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male 620-1,200 g (mean 910 g); adult female 710-880 g (mean 795 g) (Jack 2007).
41538		population	eng	There are no published density estimates available.
41538		threats	eng	Although the species is wide ranging, much of its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para is undergoing massive deforestation along the so-called arc of deforestation (the advancing agricultural frontier of logging, cattle, and soy bean).<br/><br/>In the Rio Madeira region, there are several hydroelectric projects that are likely to inundate flooded forests, this species' preferred habitat. Also, in the past 15 years there has been intensive habitat loss in the southern third of this species range due to agriculture and logging activities.
41539		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in many national parks, several of which are quite large.   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.  <br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae azarae</em><br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Plicomayo National Park<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Kaa-Iya Gran Chaco National Park (3,441,115 ha)<br/>Estación Biológica Beni (135,000 ha) (Garcia and Tarifa 1988)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Tinfunque National Park<br/>Defensores del Chaco National Park (780,000 ha) (Stallings 1985, 1989)<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae boliviensis</em><br/><br/>Bolivia <br/>Isiboro Secure National Park (1,200,00 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (1,500,00) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998))<br/>Pilón Lajas National Park (400,000 ha) Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Amboró National Park (180,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Carrasco Ichilo National Park (622,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Madidi National Park(1,571500 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae infulatus</em><br/>Araguaia National Park (557,726 ha) (in range)<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (136,046 ha) (in range)<br/>Gurupi Biological Reserve (272,379 ha) (in range)<br/>Tapirapé Biological Reserve (99,703 ha) (in range)<br/>Tapajós National Forest (600,000 ha) (in range)
41539		distribution	eng	There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>A. azarae azarae</em> occurs in the southern and western Chaco region of Paraguay (excluding the the extreme west, where no primates occur), west of the Rio Paraguai, and extending across the Río Pilcomayo to south of the Río Bermejo to the Rio Negro in the provinces of Formosa and Chaco in Argentina (Rathbun and Gache 1980; Hershkovitz 1983; Stallings 1985, 1989; Zunino <em>et al</em>. 1986; Stallings <em>et al</em>. 1989). In the west, its range extends to the Cordillera Oriental, but its range in the north is not clearly delimited. Following Hershkovitz (1983), it would seem to extend to the Bañado do Izozog in Bolivia.<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae boliviensis</em> occurs south of the Río Madre de Dios, as far west as the Río Inambari in Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a), extending along the Cordillera Oriental in Bolivia to southern Bolivia where it meets the range of <em>A. azarae azarae</em> in the region of the Bañado de Izozog. To east it occurs as far as the Rio Guaporé and the border with Brazil. It is not known if it occurs in Brazil in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul.<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae infulatus</em> occurs in at least a small section of the southern Amapá (Carmo de Macacoari, municipality of Itaubal) and on the Islands of Marajó and Caviana (Hill 1960; Fernandes 1993; Silva <em>et al.</em> 1995) possibly Gurupá and Mexiana. From there it occurs the south of the Rio Amazonas, west to the Rios Tapajós and Juruena, in the south along the right banks of the Guaporé, to the east of the Rio Corixá Grande, as far as the Rio Itiguira, a tributary of the Rio Paraguai. In the east its range is delimited by the left bank of the Rio Paranaiba to its headwaters and from there to the east of the Rio Manuel Alves Grande (a tributary of the Rio Tocantins) to the Rio Tocantins, and from there restricted to the west (left bank) of the river.
41539		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level (the specifically montane forms are <em>Aotus lemurinus</em> and <em>Aotus miconax</em>) (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). In the Chaco, <em>Aotus a. azarae</em> occurs in dry, semideciduous forest patches and gallery forest, where annual rainfall can be as low as 500 m a year (Wright 1985; Stallings <em>et al</em>. 1989; Brooks 1996; Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em>Aotus a. boliviensis</em> is found in semi-deciduous and evergreen lowland forests in Bolivia and up to at least 1,250 m in some parts of the Andes. <em>Aotus a. infulatus </em>extends through lowland evergeen forests in southern Pará and northern Mato Grosso, through forest patches and gallery in the Cerrado (bush savanna) into the Pantanal of Mato Grosso. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007). <em>Aotus azarae</em> has been observed to include a significant portion of leaves in its diet (Ganzhorn and Wright 1994; Wright 1985; Arditi and Placci 1990; Giménez and Fernandez-Duque 2003), as has <em>Aotus zonalis</em> on Barro Colorado Island in an early study by Hladik and Hladik (1969).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). García and Braza (1987) recorded a home range of 1.3 ha for <em>A. a. boliviensis</em> in Beni, Bolivia. Arditi (1992) estimated a home range 12 ha for <em>A. a. azarae </em>in Guaycolec, Formosa, Argentina. Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/><em>Aotus azarae azarae</em><br/>Adult male weight average 1.254±0.118 kg (n=40, range 0.99-1.58 kg), adult female weight average 1.246±0.114 kg (n=39, range 1.01-1.45 kg) (Fernandez-Duque 2004)<br/><em>Aotus azarae boliviensis</em><br/>Adult male weight average 1.18 kg (n=4), adult female weight 1.23 (n=8) (Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/><em>Aotus azarae infulatus</em><br/>Adult male weight average 1.19 kg (n=1), adult female weight 1.24 (n=1) (Fernandes 1993).
41539		population	eng	Across its range, it is relatively common, but it is usually ignored in primate abundance surveys due to its nocturnal and crepuscular behaviour. Few reliable estimates of population density are available for any of the subspecies. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.<br/><br/><em>A. a. azarae</em>:<br/>In eastern Formosa (Guaycolec), densities can be as high as 60 individuals/km² in gallery forests (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al</em>. 2001). Relatively lower densities have been estimated elsewhere in Formosa: 12.8-29.0 individuals/km² (see Fernandez-Duque 2007).
41539		threats	eng	<em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> and <em>A. a. boliviensis</em>:<br/>Threats to these subspecies include habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in Brazilian cerrado, soy in the Bolivian Chiquitano, and small-scale farms and cattle ranching in Argentina. Minimal subsistence hunting occurs in Bolivia, for consumption and bait for fishing.<br/><br/><em>Aotus  a. infulatus</em>:<br/>Much forest destruction and fragmentation is occurring in its range in southern Pará and northern Mato Grosso.
41540		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha) (in range).<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya-Samiria Natural Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994b)<br/>Manu National park (1,532,806 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994b)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encarnación 1994b).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41540		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus nancymaae </em>occurs south of the Rio Amazonas, west from the Rio Jutaí. Its southern limit is in the headwaters of the Rio Jutai, stretching west in a line to cross the Río Javari at the level of the headwaters of the Río Tapiche, across the Ucayali basin to the upper Río Marañón (Hershkovitz 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a, 1988). The northern boundary in Peru is the right bank of the Amazonas to the Río Marañón, occurring to the north of the Marañón between the ríos Tigre and Pastaza (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a), invading the distribution of <em>A. vociferans</em> north of the Amazonas and Marañón.
41540		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest (Aquino and Encarnación 1986a,b, 1988, 1994a,b; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.946±0.14 kg (n=4, range 0.750-1.08 kg), adult female weight 0.907±0.124 kg (n=6, range 0.706-1.05 kg) (S. Evans, unpubl., in Fernandez-Duque 2007).
41540		population	eng	Aquino and Encarnación (1986a, 1988) have estimated densities of 24.2 to 46.3 individuals/km² in north-eastern Peru. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
41540		threats	eng	No major threats identified. Huiman settlement, deforestation, and hunting are undoubtedly affecting populations, but not to the extent of threatening their continued existence.<br/><br/>Large numbers are used in medical research, sometimes illegally, which should be monitored to understand the effect on populations.
41541		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention where it is misidentified as <em>Gobius fluviatilis</em> (Not valid) and <em>Padogobius</em> (inferior synonym) <em>martensi</em>.
41541		distribution	eng	Restricted to southern Switzerland, northern Italy, southern Slovenia and River Zrmanja in Croatia. It has been introduced to the Tiber and Mignone rivers and a number of other small rivers in central and southern Italy.
41541		habitat	eng	Lives in small rivers in the hill zone where there is fast running water and a stony substrate. Also found in large lakes south of the Alps. Where it has been introduced outside its natural range it is considered to be the principle threat to <em>Padogobius nigricans</em>.
41541		population	eng	Generally stable but locally decreasing. It is considered a major pest species outside its natural range.
41541		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution.
41542		conservation	eng	Confirmed, or may occur, in several protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripe National Reserve (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazonia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha)<br/>Juruena National Park<br/>Pacáas Novos National Park<br/>Abufari Biological Reserve (224,819 ha)<br/>Guaporé Biological Reserve (618,173 ha)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Wright 1978, 1985).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41542		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus nigriceps</em> occurs throughout a large part of the central and upper Amazon, south of the mainstream and along the right bank of the Rio Jutaí in the west. In the east, it extends to the rios Tapajós and Juruena (<em>Aotus azarae infulatus </em>occurs to the east of the rios Tapajós and Juruena). It occurs throughout the state of Rondônia in Brazil, restricted to east of the Rio Guaporé. In Bolivia, it occurs north of the Río Madre de Dios in the Department of Pando (Hershkovitz 1983; Brown and Rumiz 1986; Anderson 1997), extending to the south-eastern and central Peruvian Amazon, west through the Río Ucayali basin to the east (right bank) of the Rio Huallaga (<em>A. miconax</em> coccurs to the west) to about 7ºS (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a).
41542		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest (Aquino and Encarnación 1986a, 1988, 1994a,b; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park, Peru, Wright (1989) recorded home range size for <em>A. nigriceps </em> of 7 to 14 ha. Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 875 kg (n=1), adult female weight 1.04 kg (n=2) (Peres 1993a).
41542		population	eng	Wright (1981, 1985) estimated a density of 36-40 indviduals/km² at Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
41542		threats	eng	A wide ranging species of the upper Amazon, there are currently no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. However, populations have been depleted over large areas in the states of Acre and Rondônoia, and with infrastructure development along major development corridors ((Porto Velho - Cuiabá and Porto Velho- Manausm and the Rio Madeira itself), it is likely that large tracts of forest will be lost in the future.
41543		conservation	eng	In Brazil, the species is confirmed, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Pico da Neblina National Park (2,298,154 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha) (in range)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha) (in range)<br/>Anavilhanas Ecological Station (343,897 ha) (in range)<br/>Caracaraí Ecological Station (85,957 ha) (in range)<br/>Niquiá Ecological Station (282,830 ha) (in range).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41543		distribution	eng	Based on a specimen collected at Maipures, near the mouth of the Río Tomo on the Río Orinoco, Defler and Bueno (2007) indicated that the night monkeys of eastern central Colombia north of the Río Guaviare are probably <em>A. brumbacki</em>.<br/><br/>Hershkovitz (1983) proposed that <strong>A. trivirgatus</strong> was the form in Colombia between the Rios Vaupés and Inirida, but Defler (2003, 2004) indicated that <em>A. vociferans</em> occurred in this region and that <em>A. trivirgatus</em> as such is restricted to the east of the Ríos Negro, lower Guainia, and Atabapo and, below the mouth the Río Atabapo, the Río Orinoco. To the north, in Venezuela, <em>A. trivirgatus</em> occurs south of the Río Orinoco and east as far the middle Rio Caroni. The extension east beyond the Río Caura is based on just one locality on the upper Caroni (Bodini and Pérez-Hernandez 1987; Linares 1998). <em>A. trivrigatus</em> is confined to north (left bank) of the Rio Negro to its mouth, extending east, north of the Rio Amazonas, as far as the Rio Trombetas. North it reaches the Serra da Pacaraima, but does not it seem extend into Guyana. In the state of Roraima, the Rio Mucajaí is indicated (by Hershkovitz (1983) as marking its northern limits.
41543		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, submontane forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 1.2 kg (n=1), adult female weight 1.0 kg (n=1) (Fernandes 1993).
41543		population	eng	In Bolivar, Colombia, Green (1978) estimated a density of 0.5 groups/km² or 1.5 individuals/km². Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
41543		threats	eng	This is a wide-ranging species, and there is no evidence of any particular threat other than habitat loss.
41544		conservation	eng	The species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004) <br/>Cahuinari Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004) <br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004) <br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Yasuní National Park (982,000 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,000 ha) (in range) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Limoncocha Biological Reserve (4,613 ha) (in range) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunistic Reserve (603,380 ha) (in range) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Jaú National Park (2,378,410 ha) (in range)<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha) (in range)<br/>Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha)(in range)<br/>Amanã State Sustainable Development Reserve (2,350,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>None.<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41544		distribution	eng	<em>Aotus vociferans</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazonas-Solomões, west from the Rio Negro. It occurs south of the Rio Solimões in a small incursion either side of the mouth and lowermost reaches of the Rio Purus. West it extends into Peru north of the Río Amazonas and Marañón, not extending it would seem right to the Rio Marañón, with a narrow belt along the north of the river being occupied by <em>A. nancymaae</em> (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). It extends north through the Ecuadorian Amazon into Colombia to the Río Guaviare, probably extending east as far the ríos Negro, Atabapo and Orinoco (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004).
41544		habitat	eng	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, submontane forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2003, 2004; Tirira 2007). In Ecuador, this species occurs in humid tropical forest between 200 and 900 m above sea level, and in the Cordillera del Condor, in subtropical forest up to 1,550 m (Tirira 2007). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flowers, leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.697±.024 kg (n=4, range 0.568-8.0 kg) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985).
41544		population	eng	Aquino and Encarnación (1988) estimated a density of 33.0 individuals/km², and Heltne (1977) 7.9 individuals/km² in north-eastern Peru. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
41544		threats	eng	There are no known major threats at present. The species was reported as common and widespread in Ecuador and Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Large numbers are used in medical research, sometimes illegally, which should be monitored to understand the effect on populations.
41545		conservation	eng	<em>Alouatta caraya</em> occurs in numerous protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Iguazú National Park (55,000 ha) (Brown and Zunino 1994)<br/>Pilcomayo National Park (60,000 ha) (Brown and Zunino 1994)<br/>Chaco National Park (14,000 ha) (Brown and Zunino 1994)<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Kaa-Iya Gran Chaco National Park (3,441,115 ha)<br/>Otuquis Pantanal National Park (903,350 ha)<br/>Otuquis Natural Area of Integrated Management (102,600 ha)<br/>San Matías Natural Area of Integrated Management (2,918,500 ha)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1998)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Araguaia National Park (557,726 ha) (in range)<br/>Brasília National Park (31,891 ha) (Santini 1986)<br/>Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park 965,034 ha) (in range)<br/>Grande Sertão Veredas National Park (241,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Chapada Diamantina National Park (152,105 ha) (in range)<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (136,046 ha)<br/>Taiamá Ecological Station (914,300 ha)<br/>Ibirapuitã State Biological Reserve (351 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Ibirapuitã Environmental Protection Area (318,000 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Ilha Grande National Park (108,166 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/>Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Protection Area (1,003,059 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Cerro Cora National Park (5,500 ha) (probably extinct, Stallings 1985)<br/>Ybicui National Park (5,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Tinfunque National Park (280,000 ha) (the most important protected area in Paraguay for this species; Stallings 1985)<br/>Defensores del Chaco National Park (780,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Caaguazu National Park (6,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Kuri y National Reserve (2,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Yakui Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Nacunday Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41545		distribution	eng	A wide-ranging species occurring thoughout much of the bush savanna (cerrado) and dry forests of central Brazil, south from middle and upper reach of the Amazonian tributaries, the rios Juruena, Xingu and Araguaia. It extends east of the Midde and upper Rio São Francisco in the west of the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia, occupying humid forest (known as <em>brejos</em>, resulting from orographic rainfall), semideciduous and deciduous (<em>floresta de caatinga</em>) and gallery forests. It extends into eastern Paraguay and in parts of the southern and central regions of the Paraguayan chaco, west of the Río Paraguai (Stallings 1985; Stallings <em>et al</em>,1989). Brown and Zunino (1994) descirbed its range in north-eastern Argentina, occurring in eastern Formosa and Chaco, the extreme north-eastern section of Santa Fe, northern Corrientes and the southern part of Misiones. <em>Alouatta guariba</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest remnants of northern Misiones. In Bolivia, this species is found exclusively east of the Rio Beni and is absent from true Amazonian forests of northern Beni and Pando. It is patchily distributed in the rest of lowland tropical Bolivia (R.B. Wallace pers. comm. 2007). Wallace <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded it from Pajaral, east of the Rio Blanco, along with <em>A. sara</em>. <em>A. sara</em> they found in low densities (0.1 groups encountered per 10 km) in floodplain forest, whereas <em>A. caraya</em> was restricted to semideciduous forest patches. <br/><br/>Aguiar <em>et al</em>. (2007) recorded sympatry and probable hybridization with <em>A. guariba</em> in riparian forest along the left margin of the Rio Paraná (between Porto Figueira and Port Camargo) in the Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Protection Area on the state of Paraná. This region is considered to be an ecotone between Cerrado (the typical domain of <em>A. caraya</em>) and the Atlantic forest (<em>A. guariba</em>). In São Paulo, it is restricted to the right (west) bank of the Rio Paraná above the mouth of the Rio Paranaiba.<br/><br/>Villalba <em>et al.</em> (1995) reported on its probable presence in the past, and possible existence still, in the extreme north-west of Uruguay.
41545		habitat	eng	<em>Alouatta caraya</em> is found in semi-deciduous forests. Today, it occupies forest patches throughout a large part of the Cerrado of central Brazil, and the Pantanal of Mato Grosso. It occupies deciduous forest (<em>caatinga alta</em>) in some areas in southern Piaui, western Bahia and north-western Minas Gerais. In Argentina, it specializes in semi-dry deciduous forests and gallery forests as well as the typical island forests of the Chaco (Arditi and Placci 1990; Brown and Zunino 1994). In Bolivia, its found in the Chaco and Chiquitano forests, and gallery forest and forest islands in the Beni. They can be found in secondary forest and can adapt to disturbed and degraded habitats. In Paraguay, Stallings (1995; Stallings <em>et al.</em> 1989) reported that <em>A. caraya</em> occurs throughout the eastern forests and gallery forests of the southern and western Chaco along the ríos Paraguai and Pilcomayo, and the numerous small rivers that drain the chacoan plain. It can also be found in sporadic xeric forests, continuous with gallery forests. In Rio Grande do Sul, <em>A. caraya</em> occurs in mixed evergreen forest (<em>Araucaria</em>), forest patches in savanna, and seasonal deciduous forest (Codenotti <em>et al</em>. 2002; Codenotti and Silva 2004).<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates that regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Behavioural ecological field studies have been carried out by Zunino (1986) and collaborators (Zunino <em>et al.</em> 1996, 2001) in Argentina and Bicca-Marques (1994; 2003; Bicca-Marques and Calegaro-Marques 1994) in Brazil (see also review by Neville <em>et al.</em> 1988). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight mean 6.42 kg (n=58), adult female weight mean 4.33 kg (n=117) (Rumiz 1990)
41545		population	eng	Although widespread, <em>Alouatta caraya</em> is patchily distributed, and densities vary widely. In Argentina, Brown and Zunino (1994) recorded high densities in a number of sites: Chaco forest, Formosa 111 individuals/km²; Chaco forest, Corrientes 90 individuals/km²; gallery forest, 63 individuals/km²; and inundated forest 283 individuals/km². Arditi and Placci (1990) carried out surveys in gallery forests of the Chaco in Argentina (Riacho Pilagá, Estancia Guaycolec) and found lower numbers than those reported by Brown and Zunino (1994) resulting from surveys in 1980s: 11.7 individuals/km². Dvoskin <em>et al.</em> (2004) repeated the surveys there in 2001 and found that numbers had increased to 26 individuals/km². The highest densities occur in flooded forests and there have been numerous surveys of <em>Alouatta caraya</em> in this forest type (Pope 1968; Thorington Jr <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rumiz 1990; Zunino <em>et al</em>. 1996, 2001). Codenotti <em>et al</em>. (2002; see also Codenotti and Silva 2004) conducted a state-wide survey of remnant <em>A. caraya</em> populations in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Populations were found to be small, isolated, mostly single groups, and densities were consistently low. Of 13 localities, only three had densities above 2 individuals/km² (Lageado do Celso 6.5 individuals/km²; a location in the municipality of Santiago 4.0 individuals/km²; and an urban park in the municipality of São Francisco de Assis 2.3 individuals/km²).
41545		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in the Brazilian cerrado, soy in the Bolivian Chiquitano, and small-scale farms and cattle ranching in Argentina. Some subsistence hunting occurs across its range.
41546		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within this species range:<br/><br/>Isiboro Sécure National Park (1,200,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1998)<br/>Manuripi Heath National Reserve (1,884,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Amboró National Park (180,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Pilon Lajas National Park (400,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Carrasco National Park (622,600 ha)<br/>Madidi National Park (1,571,500 ha).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41546		distribution	eng	<em>Alouatta sara</em> is believed to occur only in Bolivia. Anderson (1997) gives a range extending from the Department of Pando south along the Andean Cordillera and east into central Bolivia including the entire basin of the Río Beni and east as far the Mamoré-Guapore. Its sympatry with <em>Alouatta caraya</em> over a large part of its range east of the Río Beni is poorly understood, but the indications are that there may be some subtle, but distinct difference in habitat preferences, with <em>A. sara</em> prevailing in humid forest areas and seasonally flooded forest along major rivers (for example, <em>igapó</em> along the Río Iteñez) and <em>A. caraya</em> being found in drier, semdeciduous forest and gallery forest in areas of savanna and chaco (see for example, Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998)
41546		habitat	eng	This species is found up to 1,000 m in tropical forest including riverine forest and seasonally flooded forests. During their primate surveys in the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park, Bolivia, Wallace <em>et al. </em>(1998) found <em>Alouatta sara</em> only (n=20) in <em>igapó</em> forest (seasonally inundated forest) along the Río Iteñez.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993). The red howlers (<em>A. seniculus</em>, <em>A. macconnelli</em>, <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. puruensis</em>, and <em>A. sara</em>) have the largest voice boxes and the deepest roars, while the Mexican, Central American and northern Colombian mantled howlers, <em>A. palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em>, have the smallest, and their howls are more high pitched as a result.<br/><br/>Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Wallace <em>et al</em>. (1998) recorded an average group size of 3.3±2.0 individuals (range 1-7, n=18) in the Noel Kempff Mercado Nation Park in eastern central Bolivia. In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/> <br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982).
41546		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed in terra firme forest, but is most common in seasonally flooded forest and riverine forest.
41546		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hunting (mainly for subsistence use), which has led to local extirpations in some areas.
41547		conservation	eng	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in numerous protected areas.<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi Heath National Park (1,884,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Amboró National Park (180,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Carrasco National Park (622,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Noel Kempf Mercado National Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998)<br/>Isiboro-Secure National Park (1,200,000 ha (in range)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Beni Biosphere Reserve (Painter <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Beni Biological Station (135 ha) (Garcia and Tarifa 1988)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazônia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra dio Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra da Cutia National Park (284,923 ha) (in range)<br/>Mapinguari National Park (1,572,422 ha) (in range)<br/>Abufari Biological Reserve (224,819 ha) (in range)<br/>Jaru Biological Reserve (353,386 ha) (in range)<br/>Guaporé Biological Reserve (618,173 ha) (in range)<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha) (in range)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha) (in range)<br/>Cuniã Ecological Station (49,886 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Manu National Park (Soini <em>et al</em>. 1989; Terborgh 1983)<br/>Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (1,091,416 ha) (in range)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha)  (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a: Neville <em>et al</em>. (1976) reported one sighting of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in the reserve: Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) reported that it occurs in low numbers there).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
41547		distribution	eng	Found in northern and central lowland Bolivia, western Brazil and north-eastern Peru. It ranges south of the Rio Amazonas-Solimões, west of the Rio Tapajós, to the Río Ucayali in Peru (replaced by <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> on the left bank of the lower Ucayali) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). It crosses the middle Ucayali south of the Río Cushabatay (a left bank tributary of the Ucayali), extending into the interfluvium of the ríos Ucayali and Huallaga. From there, it extends south along the eastern Cordillera into Bolivia, south of the Río Madre de Dios, south to about 17ºS, and from there extending north-east through the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998), into the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, to the left bank of the Rio Teles Pires and Rio Tapajós. It occurs through a large part of the state of Rondônia in Brazil, where there is suitable forest (Iwanaga and Ferrari 2002)
41547		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary lowland rain forest. In Bolivia, in the Noel Kempff Mercado National park, Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) recorded <em>A. chamek</em> most often in tall forest (4.42 encounters per 10 km of trail), followed by so-called <em>saternejal</em> forest (along the forest–savanna border, in the vicinity of small forest streams and suffering periodic flash floods) (2.49 encounters per 10 km). Garcia and Tarifa (1988) found <em>A. chamek</em> to be restricted to high forest in the Beni Biological Station.<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understory. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus</em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) recorded men groups size of 3.34±2.60 (n = 219 sightings) in a number of localities in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia.  <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>MacFarland Symington (1988a,b,c) studied the behaviour, ecology and demography of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in the Manu National Park, Peru (see also White [1985, 1986] who published censuses and preliminary observations on the Majnu population).   <br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.
41547		population	eng	This species may be one of the most common primates. In Bolivia, it is usually found at between 5 and 25 animals/km², up to 80 animals/km² at some non-hunted sites (R. Wallace pers. comm.). Where density is highest, it more or less correlates with local habitat heterogeneity. Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated a density of 32.1 individuals/km² in lowland forest in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in eastern central Bolivia. The highest recorded density for Amazonian spider monkeys is for <em>A. chamek</em> in the Manu National Park in Peru, where Janson and Terborgh (1985) estimated 24 individuals/km², and White (1985, 1986) 31/km². Factors determining different <em>Ateles</em> population densities in various species and study sites are discussed by McFarland Symington (1988a), who concluded that these involve the abundance and productivity of certain key plant resources.<br/><br/>In Brazil, Peres (1997) estimated densities of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in a number of terra firma sites: Barro Vermelho I 3.1 individuals/km²; Vira Volta 6.0 individuals/km²; Vaoi Quem Quer 9.6 individuals/km²; Riozinho 3.9 individuals/km²; Porongaba 3.1 individuals/km²; Condor 6.0 individuals/km²; Altamira 3.2 individuals/km². Densities in <em>várzea</em> (white-water flooded forest) were similar: Boa Esperança 2.6 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho II 3.6 individuals/km².<br/><br/>Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) recorded sighting rates averaging 0.69 individuals/10 km (range 0.11-2.40) at 33 survey sites in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. They found that the sighting rate was slightly lower in areas where <em>A. chamek</em> and <em>Lagothrix cana</em> occurred together (0.58 individuals/10 km) than when <em>L .cana</em> was absent (0.73 individuals/10 km).
41547		threats	eng	The major threat is subsistence and market hunting for food (with guns). An additional threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion in the southern portion (soy) and parts of the Peruvian Amazon (mining), and habitat degradation from selective logging, which may affect key fruiting species and forest structure and also opens up new areas for hunting.
41548		conservation	eng	Present in Beni Biosphere Reserve and Amboro National Park in Bolivia (Wallace and Mercado 2007; Martinez and Wallace in press). More information is required regarding the species' eastern distribution, and limits with <em>C. pallescens</em> in the south.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41548		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution that stretches east from the Manique River in Beni, Bolivia, and north into Brazil where Ferrari <em>et al.</em> (2000) confirmed the presence of titis with a greyish pleage in southern Rondônia. It is possible that its range extends as far north as the Serra dos Pacaás Novos. It is found in Bolivia south to the forests around the city of Santa Cruz.
41548		habitat	eng	Although <em>C. donacophilus</em> is found in tropical humid forests, it seems to be restricted to the slightly drier forests of southern Amazonia and is apparently absent from the more humid forests of northern Beni Department (Wallace and Mercado 2007). It also appears reasonably tolerant of habitat disturbance (R. Wallace pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The diet of titi monkeys comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km). A study on the behavioural ecology and calling behaviour of <em>C. donacophilus</em> is underway at two sites in forest patches in and on the outskirts of Santa Cruz (K. Dingess pers. comm. to R. Wallace, 2007).
41548		population	eng	Unpublished data from San Miguelito ranch in Santa Cruz provides relative abundance indices of between 0.04 and 0.18 groups (0.12-0.54 individuals) encountered per 10 km of line transect (Wallace and Mercado 2007; WCS, unpubl.).
41548		threats	eng	Agricultural activities have resulted in considerable habitat loss around the city of Santa Cruz. Nevertheless, it is one of three primate species that survives within the confines of the city and has been observed on the outskirts of several rural communities (R. Wallace pers. comm. 2007.).
41549		conservation	eng	A large portion of the current hypothesized distribution of this species in Bolivia is found within the Kaa-Iya and San Matias and Otuquis National Parks. In Paraguay, this taxon is protected within three National Parks: Rio Negro, Chovoreca and Defensores del Chaco; it also occurs in the Fortin Patria Private Reserve and Paraguayan Pantanal Reserve, covering a total area of approximately 1,020,604 ha. However, it remains largely unprotected in the south of its range in the Humid Chaco, where there are virtually no Reserves.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41549		distribution	eng	A relatively wide ranging species, found in the Chaco ecosystem of southern Bolivia, the Gran Chaco of Paraguay south from the border with Bolivia to approximately 23ºS and west from the Rio Paraguay to approximately 61º30'W, and in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil (Hershkovitz 1990). However, there are few confirmed localities; for example, in a recent effort to map all known localities for primates in Bolivia only three localities were available for <em>C. pallescens</em> compared with more than 15 points for all other <em>Callicebus</em> species (Wallace and Mercado 2007).
41549		habitat	eng	Within the Chaco, this taxon may be more abundant in more humid forest types, particularly riverine forests (G. Ayala in prep.). Current information suggests <em>C. pallescens</em> is restricted to the Chaco and Pantanal, although field surveys are required to establish whether this taxon stretches into the neighbouring southern portions of the Chiquitano dry forest in Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. Within Paraguay, in the north it is found in continuous xeric forest in the north, and swampland, gallery, and palm savanna with forest patches in the south (Stallings 1985). <br/><br/>Titis are small primates, weighing from 800 to 1,300 g (Norconk 2007). The diet comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km). A field study on the behaviour and ecology of this species is underway in Kaa-Iya National Park (D. Rumiz pers. comm.).
41549		population	eng	Ayala (in prep.) estimated relatively high densities for <em>C. pallescens</em> within different habitat types in the Kaa-Iya National Park in Bolivia (ca. 13.6-30 individuals/km²). Little is known about its population status in Paraguay and Brazil.
41549		threats	eng	There are no known major threats at present, although the species is occasionally hunted by Izoceno indigenous communities in Kaa-Iya (G. Ayala, in prep.).
41550		conservation	eng	A very small part of the range of this species is included within the Beni Biosphere Reserve area (R. Wallace pers. comm.). Conservation programmes in the region include: the Greater Madidi Landscape Conservation Program in northern La Paz and south-western Beni Departments of the Wildlife Conservation Society that has lead research efforts on both Bolivian endemics since 2002; and the Asociación Boliviana para la Conservación and Conservation International who have worked with the Santa Rosa Municipality in the development of a Municipal Reserve in south-western Beni Department.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41550		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bolivia with very restricted range estimated at 1,800 km² (Martinez and Wallace 2007). It occurs in the upper Río Beni basin, a tributary of the upper Rio Madeira, Beni, Bolivia. van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) incorrectly indicated that the species is parapatric with <em>Callicebus dubius</em> along the north bank of the Río Madre de Dios, with <em>Callicebus donacophilus</em> along the east bank of the Río Beni and with <em>Callicebus olallae</em> along the west bank of the upper Río Beni (Hershkovitz 1990). However, Felton <em>et al</em>. (2006) and Martinez and Wallace (in press) demonstrate that the species only occurs to the east of the Río Beni, west to the Manique River in south-western Beni Department. Rowe and Martinez (2003) were unable to confirm its range as proposed by van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2002). The geographical range of <em>Callicebus olallae</em> overlaps with <em>Callicebus modestus</em>, although transitional zones between the two taxa have yet to be confirmed and each seems to specialize on different habitat types (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007).
41550		habitat	eng	This taxon occurs in relatively dry forest patches within a forest-savanna mosaic (Lonnberg 1939; Anderson 1997; Felton <em>et al.</em> 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007). Two relatively large groups with 5 to 7 members were found in Naranjal. Three groups, each with two members (possibly <em>C. olallae</em>), were encountered at Puerto Santa Cruz, to the north of the Rio Yacuma. Martinez and Wallace (2007) and Lopez-Strauss (2007) detail average group sizes of 3 and 2.64 individuals, respectively.
41550		population	eng	In 2002, Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) conducted titi monkey surveys and interviewed local residents at four locations: Puerto Santa Cruz on the Rio Yacuma; La Laguna; Petaca; and Naranjal. Titis were relatively abundant in Naranjal, not encountered at all in Petaca (although local residents claim they occur there), and are no longer present in La Laguna (probably exterminated through hunting). Examination of the holotypes indicates that the Rio Yacuma groups were <em>C. olallae</em>, while two of three groups found in Naranjal were <em>Callicebus modestus</em> (the third appeared to combine characters from both species).<br/><br/>Lopez-Strauss (2007) estimated density for both <em>C. olallae</em> and <em>C. modestus</em> using calling behaviour and an adapted point-count methodology. Conservative density estimates were recorded for C. modestus between 0.9 and 12.4 groups/km² (Lopez-Strauss 2007).
41550		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is forest loss and habitat fragmentation. Groups surveyed by Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) occurred in fragments surrounded by cattle ranches. A farmer in Naranjal reported seeing groups crossing grassland gaps (300–400 m) between patches of forest (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is some limited hunting for pets. The proposed major improvement to a regional road will exacerbate deforestation and is likely to increase hunting pressure (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41551		conservation	eng	The following Amerindian Reserves are within this species’ range: Rio Biá, Kulina do Médio Juruá, Kanamari do Rio Juruá, Deni and the Vale do Javari. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41551		distribution	eng	<em>Callicebus cupreus</em> occurs south of the Río Marañon/Rio Solimões, as far as the east bank of the Río Ucayali, in Loreto and northern Ucayali, Peru. To the south it ranges into Acre as far as the headwaters of the Rios Juruá and Purús in Brazil, and north-east as far as the lower and middle Rio Juruá and extending into the Rios Juruá/Purús interfluve south and maybe also north of the RioTapauá, a left bank tributary of the Rio Purús. East it ranges as far as the left bank of the Rio Purús (Hershkovitz 1990; Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). van Roosmalen and colleagues (2002) suggest that <em>C. cupreus</em> and <em>C. moloch</em> groups are ecologically similar and therefore allopatric, but members of these groups are sympatric with species from the <em>torquatus</em> group.
41551		habitat	eng	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>Callicebus cupreus</em>, in particular, prefers secondary or disturbance-dependent habitats (Peres 1993; Rylands 1987). Also recorded at low densities in terra firme tropical rainforest at Lago Uauaçú, but unlike sympatric <em>C. purinus</em>, was not registered in the flooded forests (Varzeá or Igapó) present in this region (Haugaasen and Peres 2005) at Lago Uauaçú.<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41551		population	eng	Recorded at densities of 0.3 individuals/km² in terra firme forests at Lago Uauaçú.
41551		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote isolated region, and is not considered to be under any immediate threat.
41552		conservation	eng	It may occur in Tamshiyacu Tahuayo communal reserve in Peru. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41552		distribution	eng	Central Amazonia, Amazonas state, Brazil, south of the Rio Solimões in the interfluve delineated by the lower Rios Purús, Solimões and Madeira, south as far as the Rio Ipixuna (or Paranapixuna). Hershkovitz (1990) considered the species sympatric with <em>Callicebus dubius</em>, <em>C. brunneus</em>, and <em>C. cupreus</em>, based on, in his view, mislabeled specimens collected by the Olalla brothers in Boca Río Inuya, Iquitos, Río Orosa, Río Tapiche and Sarayacu, Rio Ucayali, in the department of Loreto, Peru. Voss and Emmons (1996) note that Hershkovitz' report on the sympatry of two members of the <em>moloch</em>/<em>cupreus</em> Group (<em>C. cupreus</em> and <em>C. caligatus</em>) was an error caused by "inadvertently listing both original and revised identifications of the same series from Orosa among the specimens examined". The correct identification for the monkeys is <em>Callicebus</em> (<em>cupreus</em>) <em>cupreus</em>. Specimens collected by Peres (1993) along both banks of the Rio Juruá and deposited in the Muséu Goeldi, Belém, all were identified as <em>Callicebus</em> (<em>cupreus</em>) <em>cupreus</em> (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The geographic distribution for <em>C. caligatus</em> described above contradicts that given by Hershkovitz (1990), who fills in its actual distribution with <em>C. dubius</em>. Four specimens of <em>C. caligatus</em> were caught in July 2001 by locals along the north bank of Lago Jarí at the mouth of Igarapé Bacaba and released at the same place after being measured and photographed, and a complete skeleton with some hair found on the forest floor was collected (private collection no. MGMR55) on the north bank of Rio Ipixuna near its mouth, a few kilometers south of the town of Tapauá.
41552		habitat	eng	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41552		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41552		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote part of the Amazon, and there are currently no known major threats.
41553		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Cuyabeno Reserve in Ecuador (De la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41553		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Amazonian region, in Peru north of the Río Marañon between the Ríos Napo and Santiago; in Ecuador from the Andean foothills east to the Río Napo/Aguarico basin, and north to the Río Putumayo; and in Colombia to the right bank of the Río Guamués (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1990).
41553		habitat	eng	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). de la Torre <em>et al</em>. (1995) suggest that <em>Callicebus discolor</em> exhibits a preference for flooded forest (Várzea) in north-eastern Ecuador. <br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km). A field study on diet and activity budget was undertaken for <em>C. discolor</em> in Yasuni National Park (Carrillo-Bilbao <em>et al</em>. 2005). This group used 3.3 ha, and consumed 30 different plant species principally fruits, seeds and flowers.
41553		population	eng	Where its found it is very abundant (but difficult to see). Estimates of over 70 individuals/km² have been recorded (A. Di Fiori pers. comm.)
41553		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout most of its range in Ecuador and Peru. However, it has a restricted range in Colombia in a region subject to intensive agriculture, human colonization, petroleum exploration, drug activities and guerilla presence (T. Defler pers. comm.).
41554		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status, limits of the distribution range, and habitat preferences of this poorly known species.
41554		distribution	eng	This species is known from five locations in southwest mainland Thailand and two areas in adjacent northeastern Myanmar, between about 14° and 15°30’N and from the Bay of Bengal as far east as 98°30’E in the northern end of the range and 99°E in the southern end (Geissman <em>et al</em>. 2004). The total distribution area is estimated to be between 10,000 and 12,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>T. phayrei</em> occurs to the north, <em>T. obscurus</em> to the south, <em>T. germaini</em> to the south-east (which is sympatric).
41554		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unclear. Available habitat types within its range include mixed deciduous dipterocarp and moist evergreen forest.
41554		population	eng	There is no current information on the population status of this species. It is currently known only from museum specimens (Geismann <em>et al</em>. 2004), and from older observations in the wild during the early 1970s by Ardith Eudey.
41554		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to be a threat to this species, as is habitat loss for agriculture. However, no direct information is available.
41555		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41555		distribution	eng	Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) posited that <em>C. stephennashi</em> should occur along the right bank of the Rio Purús between the distributions of <em>C. caligatus</em> and <em>C. dubius</em> in Brazil. As a possible distribution, they suggested the interfluvium of the Rios Purús/Ipixuna/Madeira/Mucuím.
41555		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41555		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. It is known from only four specimens kept in captivity and has not been seen or studied in the wild.
41555		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
41556		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas, including the Tapirapé Biological Reserve (103,000 ha). However, a significant lacunae in the occurrence of <em>Callicebus moloch</em> in the Xingu-Tocantins interfluvium has been documented, including its absence from the Caxiuanã National Forest (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41556		distribution	eng	<em>Callicebus moloch</em> occurs in Brazilian Amazonia south of the Rio Amazonas in the States of Pará and Mato Grosso. In Pará, it occurs from the west bank of Rio Tocantins/Araguaia west as far as the east bank of Rio Tapajós, south as far as Ilha do Bananal, north of the confluence of Rio das Mortes with the Rio Araguaia; in Mato Grosso, it ranges as far west as Rio Juruena, including the headwaters of the Rio Xingú (M. G. M. van Roosmalen collected a specimen shot by a Waurá Indian hunter along Rio Von den Steinen). In the north-western part of its range, the species is parapatric with <em>C. hoffmannsi</em> along the lower Rio Tapajós, and in the south-western corner of its range it is parapatric with <em>C. cinerascens</em> along the upper Rio Juruena. May have a patchy distribution within its range (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2007).
41556		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). Indeed, Ferrari <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded <em>C. moloch</em> in fragmented forests.<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41556		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
41556		threats	eng	Locally, this species is at risk from habitat loss and degradation. Some parts of the interfluvium suffer from deforestation, the establishment of dams (Tucuruí, and proposed Belo Monte) and mining. The Trans-Amazon Highway (BR-320) bisects part of its range from east to west, and the Santarém-Cuiabá highway (BR-163) means a large part of the Xingu-Tapajós interfluvium is accessible from the south. In recent years, this highway has become the main channel of colonization for soybean farmers migrating northwards from the state of Mato Grosso, although for the time being, this threat is limited to a relatively small proportion of the species’ range.
41557		conservation	eng	Its range includes the following protected reserves in the state of Amazonas: Floresta Nacional Jatuarana (837,100 ha), the Parque Nacional do Juruena (2,002,565 ha), the Floresta Estadual Sucundurí (492,905 ha), and the Parque Estadual do Sucundurí (808,312 ha). Also present in the Floresta Estadual de Apuí (185,946 ha), the Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Bararatí (113,606 ha), the Parque Estadual do Guariba (72,296 ha), the Reserva Extrativista do Guariba (150,465 ha), the Floresta Estadual do Aripuanã (336,040 ha) and the Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Aripuanã (224,291 ha). In Mato Grosso, it is expected to occur in the Reserva Extrativista Guariba Roosevelt (57,630 ha), the Floresta Estadual Rio Roosevelt (27,860 ha) and the Parque Estadual Igarapés do Juruena (227,800 ha) (Noronha <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41557		distribution	eng	Endemic to Brazil. Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) predicted that the species extends as far east as the left bank of the Rio Sucundurí. A recent survey (Noronha <em>et al</em>. 2007) extended the eastern limit of this species range to the left bank of the rivers Abacaxís, Tapajós and Juruena, in the states of Amazonas and Mato Grosso in Brazil. This species’ range should extend to the Rio Paraná do Urariá in the north, east to the left bank of the Rio Abacaxís, and the left bank of the upper Rio Tapajós, west as far as the right bank of the Rio Madeira, and south to the corridor formed between the Rios Aripuanã-Roosevelt and Tapajós-Juruena, in the states of Amazonas and Mato Grosso. The most southerly record is Otoho on the right bank of the Rio Roosevelt in Mato Grosso. In this study, no range overlap was found with other species of <em>Callicebus</em> (Noronha <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been suggested that the ranges of <em>Callicebus bernhardi</em>, <em>Callicebus cinerascens</em> and <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em>, possibly intergrade in some way in the region of the headwaters of the Juruena, Aripuanã and Roosevelt Rivers.
41557		habitat	eng	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). In a recent survey, <em>C. cinerascens</em> was seen in <em>terra firme</em>, campinarana and secondary forests. Individuals were frequently observed in relatively open areas of young secondary growth, which may indicate a degree of flexibility in habitat use by this species (Noronha <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41557		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41557		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote region still relatively isolated from anthropogenic impact, and there are currently no known major threats.
41558		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species occurs in Manu National Park, Megantoni National Sanctuary and Tambopata National Reserve, Los Amigos Conservation Area (private concession). In Bolivia, it is present in Manuripi National Reserve.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41558		distribution	eng	Relatively wide ranging species found in the Pando Department in northern Bolivia (Anderson 1997), north of the Río Madre de dios in the Beni Department (Rowe and Martinez 2003; R. Wallace, pers. obs.), extending into south-eastern Peru and north into Brazil (Hershkovitz 1988, 1990) into the state of Rondônia (between the Mamoré, Madeira and Jiparaná rivers); possibly limited to the south in Brazil by the Serra dos Pacaás (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000). Further surveys are required in Bolivia to establish the number and identity of <em>Callicebus</em> species in this region (R. Wallace, pers. obs.).
41558		habitat	eng	This is the only species from the <em>C. moloch</em> group for which there is data available in the literature on general ecology, with the species having been recorded including a large proportion of leaves in the diet.<br/><br/>Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41558		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41558		threats	eng	In Bolivia, the main threat seems to be hunting (Rowe and Martinez 2003). The state of Rondônia has suffered intense human colonization and deforestation over the past thirty-five years; however, most immigrants come from southern Brazil and they do not normally hunt primates (S. Ferrari pers. comm.).
41559		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional da Amazônia, Floresta Nacional Itaituba, and Andira Marau Amerindian Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41559		distribution	eng	Occurs in Central Amazonia in Brazil, south of the Rio Amazonas in the States of Amazonas and Pará. Ranges from the right bank of the Rio Abacaxís [where it is parapatric with <em>C. cinerascens</em>] (Noronha <em>et al.</em> in press), to the left bank of the rio Tapajós (where parapatric with <em>C. moloch</em>), south to the north bank of Rio Palmares (Noronha <em>et al</em>. in press), north along the south bank of the Paraná do Urariá and Paraná do Ramos, east along the left bank of the Rio Andirá and the right bank of the Rio Uíra-Curapá south of the town of Parintins (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).   The exact range of this genus in the interfluve between the Madeira and Tapajós rivers remains unknown (Silva Jr. and Noronha 2000). In a recent study (Noronha <em>et al</em>. in press), a grey titi monkey with light spots on its throat (possibly <em>C. hoffmannsi</em>) was recorded on the left bank of the Rio Tapajós (06 34'S, 58 28'W) near the Rio Palmares, in Maués Municipality, Amazonas State. The ranges of <em>Callicebus bernhardi, Callicebus cinerascens</em> and <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em> may possibly intergrade in some way in the area of the headwaters of the Rios Juruena, Aripuanã and Roosevelt.
41559		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41559		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
41559		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote region relatively isolated from anthropogenic impact.
41560		conservation	eng	A small part of the species' range is within the Andira Marau Amerindian Reserve.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41560		distribution	eng	According to van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002), <em>Callicebus baptista</em> has a disjunct distribution, occurring in central Brazilian Amazonia, south of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Madeira in the state of Amazonas streching almost as far as the state of Pará, and north of the Paraná do Canumã, Paraná do Urariá, and Paraná do Ramos (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). It was first seen in the wild on the west (left) bank of the Rio Uíra-Curupá, and is believed to have crossed over the Paraná do Ramos west of the town of Parintins forming an enclave population in the lower Rio Uíra-Curupá-Andirá interfluve. Further surveys are rquired in this area to establish the exact range.<br/><br/>M.G.M. van Roosmalen (pers. comm.) has also observed populations of entirely pale yellowish to almost white colour morphs of <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi </em>along the Rio Mamurú, one river further to the east, and classic yellowish-white and gray <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em> on both banks of the middle and upper Rio Andirá.
41560		habitat	eng	There are no data available on the ecology of this species. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41560		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41560		threats	eng	Although this species has a small geographic range, it is relatively well protected by comparative isolation from areas of human colonization, and there are not currently believed to be any major threats.
41561		conservation	eng	Thought to occur in Alta Floresta Reserve in Mato Grosso State in Brazil (Stepp 2003). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41561		distribution	eng	This species is found between the Rios Tapajós and Madeira/Jiparaná. The ranges of <em>Callicebus bernhardi</em>, <em>Callicebus cinerascens</em> and </em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em> may intergrade in some way in the region of the headwaters of the Rios Juruena, Aripuanã and Roosevelt. <em>Callicebus bernhardi</em> occurs in the interfluvium delineated by the Rios Madeira-Jiparaná and Rios Aripuanã-Roosevelt, in the states of Amazonas and Rondônia, Brazil (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is a possible sighting in a 50-ha reserve in Alta Floresta in Mato Grosso State, Brazil (Stepp 2003).
41561		habitat	eng	There are no data available on the ecology of this species. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41561		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41561		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote region still relatively isolated from anthropogenic impact, and there are currently no known major threats.
41562		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Jaú National Park. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41562		distribution	eng	<em>Callicebus torquatus</em> has a relatively wide range, and is the only titi monkey to be found in the Solimões-Negro interfluvium. It occurs in the state of Amazonas, on the left (north) bank of Rio Solimões/Rio Japurá, west as far as Río Apaporis/upper Río Vaupés, north delineated by Rio Negro/Rio Uaupés, east at least as far as the town of Codajás, maybe even as far as the town of Manacapurú (Hershkovitz 1990; van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). A recent study (Casado <em>et al</em>. 2007) suggests that <em>C. lugens</em> may also occur south of the Rio Negro, in the municipality of Barcelos in Brazil and that the two species may be sympatric, but further surveys are needed to confirm this.
41562		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41562		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
41562		threats	eng	Although the species is hunted locally by indigenous people, hunting is not currently considered severe enough to be a major threat at present.
41563		conservation	eng	Occurs in various protected areas including, the following national parks in Colombia: El Tuparro, Chiribiquete, Puinavia and Nukak (Defler 2003, 2004). <br/><br/>In Brazil, the species occurs in Parque Nacional do Rio Branco, Parque Nacional Pico de Neblina, Reserva Florestal Parima, Reserva Biológica Mucajaí and the Estação Ecológica Caracará. <br/><br/>In Venezuela, it is present in the Reserva Florestal La Paragua and the Parque National Canaima.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41563		distribution	eng	This species has the largest range of the <em>Callicebus torquatus</em> group, occurring between the Rios Branco and Negro rivers in Brazil stretching as far north as the Rio Orinoco in Venezuela and the upper Caquetá in Colombia. Occurs in eastern Colombia in the departments of Vichada, Meta east of the Río Ariari, Guainiá, Guaviare, Vaupés, and Caquetá east of the Río Caguán, between the Río Tomo in the north and Río Caguán-Caquetá in the south; in southern Venezuela, in the state of Amazonas south of the Río Ventuari, and state of Bolívar between the Ríos Caura, Caroni, and Orinoco; and bordering parts of north-western Brazil, in Amazonas state north of the Rios Uaupés-Negro, and the state of Roraima west of the Rio Branco, north as far as the foothills of Mount Roraima (personal observations by M.G.M. van Roosmalen) (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). Casado <em>et al</em>. (2007) report that this species occurs south of the Rio Negro, in the municipality of Barcelos and therefore possibly sympatric with <em>C. torquatus</em>.
41563		habitat	eng	<em>Callicebus lugens</em> occurs in terra firme forests, evergreen and montane forests, and a complex of transitional forests between tropical rainforests and caatinga. <br/><br/>A study of <em>C. lugens</em> reported that diet consisted mainly of fruits, immature seeds, leaves, leaf buds, liana tips, and stems, flowers, and insects and spiders (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 1997). A mean group size of 3.5 individuals was recorded in Vichada in eastern Columbia (Defler 2003).
41563		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41563		threats	eng	Occurs in a relatively remote region, and there are currently no known major threats to the species.
41564		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Cuyabeno Reserve in Northeastern Ecuador (De la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41564		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru. Present in the interfluve between the Rio Solimões and Río Napo in the south, and the Rio Japurá and Río Caquetá in the north; in Brazil between the Rios Solimões and Japurá; in Colombia between the Ríos Caquetá below mouth of Río Caguán, and Rios Putumayo and Amazonas in the departments of Caquetá, Putumayo and Amazonas; in Ecuador between the upper Ríos Aguarico and Putumayo, Napo province (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002); and in Peru in northern Loreto, north of the Río Amazonas between the Ríos Putumayo and Napo, but does not occur between the Riós Napo and Nanay as suggested by van Roosmalen and colleagues (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.). The titi monkey found south of the lower Río Nanay (Heymann <em>et al</em>. 2002), between the right bank of the riós Nanay and lef bank of the lower Ríos Tigre and Pucacuro, may represent a new taxon (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>Martinez and Rowe (2003) confirmed that it is <em>Callicebus lucifer</em> that occurs in Ecuador and not <em>C. medemi</em> as suggested by van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2002).
41564		habitat	eng	Studies on habitat preferences and home range undertaken in Ecuador (Campos 1991; Campos <em>et al.</em> 1992; de la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995) suggest that <em>C. lucifer</em> exhibits a preference for non-flooded terra firme forest in north-eastern Ecuador and it has been suggested that in Peru, this species may be restricted to "varillales", forests on white-sand or sandy-clay soils (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Group size in this species varies from 2-5 individuals (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.)
41564		population	eng	This species has been recorded at population densities estimated between 2.5 and 2.8 individuals/km² in Peru (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.)
41564		threats	eng	Occurs in a remote part of the Amazon, and there currently are no known major threats to this species.
41565		conservation	eng	Present in the Maratu and Tatutu Amerindian Reserves. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41565		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the state of Amazonas, Brazil, south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Purús and Juruá, south as far as the Rio Tapauá or even the Rio Pauiní (if the species reported to occur in between the Rios Tapauá and Pauiní does not represent a new form).
41565		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of terra firme rainforest, but also seen in igapó (seasonally flooded forest) in Lago Uauaçú (Haugaasen and Peres 2005). Average group size at Lago Uauaçú was 3.3-3.5 individuals.
41565		population	eng	It has been recorded at population densities of 0.4 individuals/km² in terra firme forests and 1.8/km² in Igapó (Haugaasen and Peres 2005).
41565		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species at present.
41566		conservation	eng	Present in the following Amerindian Reserves: Rio Biá and do Vale do Javari. May also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Jutaí-Solimões.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41566		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil in the state of Amazonas, between the upper Rio Solimões, the lower Rio Javarí, and the left (west) bank of the Rio Juruá from mouth at the Rio Solimões to about 7ºS (Hershkovitz 1990). This species is sympatric with <em>C. cupreus</em> in the Juruá-Solimões interfluve.
41566		habitat	eng	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).
41566		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41566		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species at present.
41567		conservation	eng	May possibly occur in the Abufari Biological Reserve, which is located at the eastern limit of this species' range.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41567		distribution	eng	<em>Pithecia albicans</em> has a restricted range in Brazil, occurring on the south bank of the Solimões, between the Rios Tefé and Purús.
41567		habitat	eng	<em>Pithecia albicans</em> occurs in lowland terra firme tropical rainforest, but has also recorded in flooded forests (várzea and igapó) (Haugaasen and Peres 2005). <br/><br/>Average group sizes at Lago Uauaçú, ranged from 2.7-3.9 individuals (Haugassen and Peres 2005).<br/><br/>The diet includes seeds (46%), fruits (29% - pulp and aril), flowers (7%), leaves (10%) and some insects (<1%) (Peres 1993). Unlike other members of the genus, such as <em>Pithecia pithecia</em>, this species is reported to use the upper canopy level extensively (Johns 1986; Peres 1993) and have a much larger home range (200 ha) (Peres 1993).
41567		population	eng	Recorded population densities range from 0.9 - 3 groups/10 km (Johns 1986). At Lago Uauaçú, recorded densities were 3.3 individuals/km² in terra firme forests, 0.8/km² in varzeá flooded forests, and 4.6/km² in igapó (Haugaasen and Peres 1995).
41567		threats	eng	The major threats include hunting and habitat loss.
41568		conservation	eng	Present in Parque Nacional de Amazônia and the following Amerindian Reserves: Andira Marau, Coatá Laranjal, Ipixuna, 9 de Janeiro and Deni.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41568		distribution	eng	<em>Pithecia irrorata</em> has a wide range, occurring south of the Solimöes, west of the Tapajós Madeira, and north of the Guaporé rivers in Brazil. It occurs narrowly in the north-west of Bolivia and in eastern Peru, north of the Madre de Dios. There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>P. irrorata irrorata</em> is wide ranging in the upper, south-western Amazon of Brazil. It occurs north of the Madre de Dios in the Manú National Park in Peru, and in north-west Bolivia.<br/><br/><em>P. irrorata vanzolinii</em> has a restricted range in Brazil between the upper Rio Juruá and its south bank tributary, the Rios Tarauacá-Embira in the states of Acre and Amazonas (Hershkovitz 1987).
41568		habitat	eng	Sakis occur in a wide variety of habitats from lowland tropical rainforests to montane forests (Mittermeier 1977; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 2003; Defler 2004). They have been recorded in drier forests, palm patches, pina swamp forest, and secondary and fragmented forests.<br/><br/>Sakis are medium-sized primates (1-3 kg). They are specialised morphologically for seed predation. The diet is made up of seeds, fruit pulp, young leaves, insects and flowers. Members of this genus form small, cohesive groups (2-9 individuals), generally comprising a single male-female breeding pair and several young. Day ranges (1.5-2 km) and home ranges are small (10-25 km), and sakis exhibit behaviours associated with territory defence (Norconk 2007).
41568		population	eng	The species has been recorded at a population density of 0.56 individuals/10 km (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41568		threats	eng	There are no obvious major threats to the species at present, although they are subject to localized hunting and habitat loss. They are certainly hunted in Bolivia (Tarifa 1996), where they have a restricted range in the north-west of the country.
41569		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41569		distribution	eng	<em>Pithecia pithecia</em> is distributed throughout the northern Amazon basin (Hershkovitz 1987). In Venezuela, it is restricted to the north-eastern Bolívar State and the southern part of the Delta Amacuro State. This species is located east of the lower Caroní River, south of the lower Orinoco River, and along the Cuyuní river basin. <br/><br/>The exact range limits of the two subspecies remain unclear. According to Hershkovitz (1987), <em>Pithecia p. pithecia</em> occurs in the Guyanas and <em>Pithecia p. chrysocephala</em> in Brazil; however, the former has been confirmed in the state of Amapá and the north of Pará, which means the range of <em>Pithecia p. chrysocephala</em> is reduced to the area between the Rios Negro and Rio Nhamundá (Jose Silva Jr. pers. comm.).
41569		habitat	eng	<em>Pithecia pithecia</em> occurs in moist lowland and submontane rainforest, and swamp forests of the mid-delta.<br/><br/>Sakis are specialized morphologically for seed predation. The diet of a group of <em>Pithecia, p. pithecia</em> comprised seeds (61%), fleshy fruit (28%), young leaves (7%), insects (2%) and flowers (2%) (Kinzey and Norconk 1993; Norconk 1996).
41569		population	eng	Vié <em>et al.</em> (2001) recorded a population density 0.64 individuals/km² for the nominate subspecies.
41569		threats	eng	There are no obvious major threats to the species at present.
41570		conservation	eng	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II, and as Class B under the African Convention. This species is found in many of protected areas across its range, and the recent record from Mbam Djerem by Maisels <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that it has probably been overlooked elsewhere.
41570		distribution	eng	The Northern Talapoin occus in the equatorial coastal forest zone from just south of the Sanaga River in southern Cameroon to Cabinda (Angola), including Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. The principal river and centre of its distribution is the Ogooue River, but its range spills over into the upper reaches of some Congo River tributaries, e.g. the Sangha River, Alima River, and Lefini River. According to Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> (1999) it also occurs on the north bank of the Sanaga River, and indeed a recent survey by Maisels <em>et al</em>. (2006) in the Mbam Djerem National Park, Cameroon, recorded the presence of talapoin monkeys (<em>Miopithecus ogouensis</em>). Mbam Djerem National Park is in the transition zone between the Central African forest block and the Guinea-Congolia/Sudania savannas (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41570		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland equatorial rainforest, swamps and riverine forest. It is typically associated with rivers and uses freshwater as one of its main habitats. It is strictly dependent on dense evergreen cover due to its small size and vulnerability to predation, and prefers the very dense undergrowth typical of riverbanks. It seldom ascends to higher levels, except through foliage-covered liana tangles. It is never found more than 500 m from a watercourse, and can swim and diver under water if disturbed in overhanging vegetation. Terrestrial foraging is known to be common, and its diet is primarily composed of fruits (approximately 80% composition). Favoured species include the fruits of plums (<em>Uapaca</em>), figs, umbrella trees (<em>Musanga</em>), and mokenjo (<em>Pseudospondias</em>), as well as the flesh of oil palm nuts and the fruits of African ginger (<em>Aframomum</em>, which can only be gathered at ground-level). Beetles, caterpillars, and spiders are taken opportunistically. It is attracted out of the forest by riverside gardens containing bananas, paw-paw, maize, and cucurbits. Feeding is concentrated into one early morning bout, with another in late afternoon.
41570		population	eng	Historically, this was a common species in riverine and swamp forests, although hunting has probably slightly reduced their population sizes today. Their troops were larger near villages because they were attracted to manioc and were difficult to hunt because of they inhabited riverine and swamp habitat. It lives in groups of 12-20 animals, which come together with other groups at specific night-roosts (situated in dense vegetation near water). In total, up to 125 animals may congregate. Home ranges cover 100-500 ha at densities of 40-90 animals per sq km.
41570		threats	eng	This species is not threatened, despite its restricted range (perhaps largely due to the presence of a close relative, Allen’s Swamp Monkey, which has very similar habits) and susceptibility to predation. Indeed, densities of this species may double close to human settlements, with horticultural activity offering three main benefits: the deterrence of predators by human disturbance, the generation of secondary growth due to clearance and land rotation, and the availability of new food sources in gardens. It is not a major target of hunters.
41571		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. At present, it is reported from two special reserves (Analamerana and Ankarana), but its presence is also probable in the connecting forests of Andrafiamena and Andavakoera to the south, and possible in the Montagne d’Ambre region to the north. No specimens are reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). Further field surveys and genetic studies of mouse lemur populations are needed within this broader region.
41571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known only from the region of the Ankarana and Analamerana Special Reserves (Rasoloarison <em>et al.</em> 2000). The <em>Microcebus</em> in the Andrafiamena Mountains and the Andavakoera Classified Forest are currently assigned to this species, as is the form in Montagne d’Ambre National Park although this requires further investigation. The species could occur in additional fragments in the north, including for example, Montagne d'Frances. Ranges from 20-250 m.
41571		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry deciduous and gallery forest habitats within the Ankarana Special Reserve, which also includes deep canyons sporting limestone pinnacles and cliffs referred to as tsingy. Possibly also present in tropical lowland/montane forest if records of the species in Montagne d'Ambre are this species. Basic aspects of this species’ ecology and behaviour remain to be studied.
41571		population	eng	Common.
41571		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to illegal mining for sapphires and illegal logging. Uncontrolled bushfires and cutting for charcoal are additional threats to existing habitat.
41572		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in the Manongarivo Special Reserve. There are no specimens reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). The remaining forest on the Ampasindava Peninsula requires protection.
41572		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from Manongarivo Special Reserve in north-western Madagascar, from an isolated population on the Ampasindava Peninsula, and possibly from the forests of Mahilaka-Maromandia (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). 360-1,600 m.
41572		habitat	eng	The Sambirano mouse lemur is named for the region where elements of Madagascar’s humid eastern and dry western forests meet. It can be found in disturbed habitats and in forests bordering agricultural sites. It has been observed in a garden close to secondary forest. No systematic studies of this species’ ecology or behavior have been conducted to date.
41572		population	eng	Unknown.
41572		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, firewood collection, and charcoal production. The species does display some adaptability to disturbed habitats.
41573		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. A 100,000-ha Central Menabe Conservation Site has been proposed, which will include a 30,000-ha strict conservation zone that includes the Kirindy Forest, the Analabe Private Reserve, and the currently unprotected Ambadira forests (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are no animals reported in captivity at present (ISIS, 2007).
41573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is restricted to the Menabe region in the south-west, south of Tsiribihina River, in an area probably no more than 900 km² (Schmid and Kappeler 1994; Schwab and Ganzhorn 2004). It is best known from the Kirindy/CFPF forests and Ambadira, but is believed to occur in the forests of Analabe just a few kilometers to the north-west. It formerly occurred in the Andranomena Special Reserve to the south (Schwab and Ganzhorn 2004), but it is not known whether it still occurs there. Sea-level to 150 m.
41573		habitat	eng	This species inhabits an area of dry deciduous forest; perhaps occasionally in secondary forest. A solitary forager characterized by extensively overlapping home ranges, the ranges of males being substantially larger than those of females and more prone to seasonal fluctuation. <em>Microcebus berthae</em> is the world's smallest primate.
41573		population	eng	Although it appears to be adaptable and abundant where it occurs, its population is believed to be no more than 8,000 potentially breeding individuals (Schwab and Ganzhorn 2004). Densities of 100 individuals/km² have been recorded in patches where it occurs (suggesting high localized densities), but the overall generalized density is about one-third - probably in the order of 30/km².
41573		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to illegal logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.
41574		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It could be present in four national parks (Andohahela, Tsimanampetsotsa, Zombitse and Vohibasia) and the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, but this requires confirmation (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
41574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. Groves (2000) reports examining specimens from three southern Madagascar sites: Tabiky, an un-named location 170 km east of Tuléar, and Tolagnaro. However, the presence of <em>C. adipicaudatus</em> in the region of Tolagnaro is not supported by Hapke <em>et al.</em> (2005), whose findings document instead the presence of three other <em>Cheirogaleus</em> species from that region (<em>crossleyi</em>, <em>medius</em>, and <em>majori</em>). Until more focused field surveys are undertaken, the range of this species is probably best described as south-western Madagascar.
41574		habitat	eng	This species apparently inhabits lowland dry forests and spiny desert from sea level to 800 m, but precise information regarding its ecology and behavior is complicated by taxonomic confusion with <em>C. medius</em>.
41574		population	eng	Unknown, and complicated by taxonomic confusion with <em>C. medius</em>.
41574		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat loss is a likely threat to the species.
41576		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not reported from any protected areas. Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
41576		distribution	eng	At present this species is known only from museum specimens representing three localities in Madagascar’s Central Domain. The type locality, Ankeramadinika, was not found on any map, but is recorded as a day’s journey east of Antananarivo (Groves 2000). Rasolofoson <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported it in the Makira forest; this seems a rather large range extension, and it may be that a closely related, so far undescribed, species is involved (C. Groves pers. comm.).
41576		habitat	eng	Inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but other information on its ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.
41576		population	eng	This species is known only from museum specimens.
41576		threats	eng	Unknown, though habitat loss may be a threat.
41577		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not reported from any protected areas, but may possibly occur in the Betampona Nature Reserve and Mangerivola Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
41577		distribution	eng	At present, this species is known only from museum specimens representing a handful of localities along a short stretch of Madagascar’s central-eastern coast near Toamasina (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its range is situated within that of <em>C. major</em>. It is reported by Rasolofoson <em>et al</em>. (2007) in the Makira forest, in the Maroantsetra region, but this is a long way north of the previously documented localities, and it may be that a further new species is involved (C. Groves pers. comm.).
41577		habitat	eng	Inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but other information on its ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.
41577		population	eng	This species is known only from museum specimens.
41577		threats	eng	Unknown.
41579		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The only protected area in which this species is believed to occur is the Manongarivo Special Reserve, where it is known only from the western slopes. The only protected area in which A. unicolor  occurs is the Manongarivo Special Reserve, where it is known only from the western slopes. Consideration should be given to establishing a protected area on the Ampasindava Peninsula and extending the boundaries of the Manongarivo Special Reserve eastward (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Additional research on population numbers and range and biology and ecology are essential.
41579		distribution	eng	This relatively newly described species is probably restricted to the Sambirano region in north-western Madagascar, including the Ampasindava Peninsula (Thalmann and Geissmann 2000). The northern extent of its distribution is possibly the Sambirano River and the southern limit either the Andranomalaza or Maevarano River. It also has been reported from the western slopes of the Manongarivo Special Reserve (identified by Raxworthy and Rakondroparany, 1988 as A. laniger; reclassified by Thalmann and Geismann 2000). Sea level to 700 m.
41579		population	eng	Unknown. Known only from a few specimens.
41579		threats	eng	Deforestation through slash-and-burn agriculture (even on steep slopes) and for charcoal production, which may be sold in Nosy Be, are likely the main threats. The degree to which the species is hunted is not known.
41580		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas. Research is needed to better understand its geographic range, and to investigate aspects of its demography and life-history.<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix acariensis</span>).
41580		distribution	eng	At the time of its description, <em>Mico acariensis</em> had not been observed in the wild, but according to local settlers it occurred along the right bank of the lower Rio Acarí, and presumably as such through the interfluvium of the Rios Acarí (in the west) and Sucundurí (to the east), south perhaps to a contact zone with <em>M. melanurus</em> between the Rios Aripuanã and Juruena (Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2000). Noronha <em>et al</em>. (2007), reporting on an expedition to the region in 2004, recorded it at three localities along the west (left) bank of the Rio Sucunduri: Vila do Sucunduri (06º48'S, 59º04'W); Igarape’ Surubim (06º54'S, 59º03'W), and Igarapé do Liso (07º17'S, 58º50'W). These localities confirm the range supposed by Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2000).
41580		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Weight 420 g, H&B 24.0 cm, TL 35.0 (holotype) (Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41580		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species in the wild.
41580		threats	eng	This is a poorly known species. Although its range is small, it is rather remote and there is little disturbance by humans. They are probably not hunted, although there may be some use as pets.
41582		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix manicorensis</span>).<br/>Further survey work is needed to better understand the limits of distribution of this recently described species, and to investigate aspects of its biology and ecology.
41582		distribution	eng	The Manicoré Marmoset is known from the west bank of the lower Rio Aripuanã from the mouth, west as far as the Rio Manicoré, south towards its headwaters. Despite the map provided by Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2000), it evidently does not reach the confluence with the Rio Roosevelt—the type locality of <em>M. marcai</em>. The southern limits are probably marked by the headwaters of the Rio Mataurá or Rio Arauá, about 7ºS.
41582		habitat	eng	Described as dense primary <em>terra firma</em> rain forest and seocndary forest surrounding plantations and fields (Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2000). Very high densities were found in an abandoned <em>seringal</em> - an area where the densities of rubber trees and others of interest to humans (Brazil nut trees, cacao and other fruiting trees) were increased artificially. Today, this provides rich habitat for small primates, including marmosets, titis, and night monkeys (Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>There have been no studies of the behaviour and ecology of this species in the wild.
41582		population	eng	Occurs in high densities close to human habitatations, but rare in undisturbed forest.
41582		threats	eng	This species appears to be adaptable in the face of anthropogenic disturbance. It is probably not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.
41583		conservation	eng	Not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix mauesi</span>).
41583		distribution	eng	Central Amazon, south of the Rio Amazonas. In the original description, the Maués Marmoset was known only from the immediate vicinity of the type locality, but local people informed that it occurred along the Rio Maués to the south of the type locality and to the west as far as the Paraná Urariá and Rio Abacaxis. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1995) reported a further locality: Santa Maria, on the right of the lower Rio Abacaxis, municipality of Nova Olinda do Norte, state of Amazonas (3º54'S, 58º46'W). They also obtained reports of <em>M. mauesi</em> occurring in the vicinity of the town of Abacaxis, right bank of the Rio Abacaxis (3º55'S, 58º45'W) a few kilometers downriver from Santa Maria. It was reported not to occur at São João on the left bank of the Rio Marimari, near its confluence with the Rio Abacaxis (3º57'S, 58º48'W), nor at two other localities on the west bank of the Rio Abacaxis. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1995) reported the occurrence of a bare-eared marmoset on the west bank of the Rio Abacaxis, which they later described (1998) as <em>Callithrix saterei</em>.<br/><br/>A recent survey has increased further still the range of <em>M. maues</em>i, at the expense of <em>M. humeralifer</em>.
41583		habitat	eng	Inhabits dense tropical rain forest. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1995) observed <em>M. mauesi</em> in a secondary forest near a guaraná plantation. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Adults weigh 315 to 405 g (n=4), H&B 19.8-22.6 cm, T 34.1-37.6 cm (n=7) (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1992; Ferrari 2008) .<br/><br/>No ecological-behavioural field studies have been carried out on this species.
41583		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
41583		threats	eng	There is no evidence of any current major threats to this species. They are not hunted, but may possibly be seen as pets.
41584		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES ( as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix humilis</span>).
41584		distribution	eng	According to Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (1998) and Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (2003), the Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset has a very restricted range along the west bank of the Rio Aripuanã, from its mouth, just south-west of the town of Novo Aripuanã, south at least to the village of Tucunaré, and west, along the right bank of the Rio Madeira to the mouth of the Rio Mataurá, and the right bank of the Rio Uruá. They speculated that the southern limit is probably marked by the headwaters of the Rios Mariepauá and Arauá. An isolated population was also found along the middle Rio Atininga, about 50 km south-west of the presumed southern limit of the main population, about 10 km east of the Rio Manicoré. The range of <em>Callibella humilis</em> is entirely within that hypothesized for <em>Mico manicorensis</em>.
41584		habitat	eng	This species occurs in <em>terra firma</em> rainforest in the central Amazon. It is an adaptable species, found in edge habitats near villages. Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (2003) indicated that the species shows an extreme commensalism with humans and is "almost totally dependent for survival on multi-species managed forests, fruit orchards and gardens growing on so-called <em>terras pretas</em> (anthropogenic soils, or 'black earth'). Sympatric with <em>Mico manicorensis</em>.<br/><br/>Its diet includes insects, fruits and gums. Tree-gouging and gum-feeding is as important in this species as it is in  the smaller, allopatric <em>Cebuella</em>, and especially important in the dry season when fruits are scarce (Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen 2003).<br/><br/>Average groups are made up of 6-8 individuals, but group aggregations have been observed with over 30 individuals (Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen 2003). Unlike the norm for callitrichids, observations in the wild indicate that more than one female is reproductively active in each group. Only one offspring has been seen in any one group in the wild, indicating that singleton births, not twins are the norm. Only the mother it seems carries the young (cooperative breeding not observed).<br/><br/>Body weight 150 g.<br/>Size: Female H&B 16.7 cm, TL 22.0 cm.<br/>Size: Male H&B 16.1 cm, TL 20.9 cm.
41584		population	eng	Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (2003) estimated a total population of about 10,000 individuals.
41584		threats	eng	There is no evidence of any major threats at present. However, its habitat is potentially vulnerable to destruction for agriculture. They are probably not hunted, though there may be some use as pets.
41585		conservation	eng	Protected areas for dingoes only occur in Australia. See Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004) for a summary of dingo occurrence in Australia's protected areas.<br/><br/>Although protected in Federal National Parks, World Heritage areas, Aboriginal reserves, and the Australian Capital Territory, the dingo is a ‘declared’ pest throughout much of its remaining range, and landholders are obliged to manage populations; the dingo is ‘undeclared’, but not protected, in the Northern Territory (Fleming <em>et al</em>. 2001). The dingo is not protected in any other countries of its range.<br/><br/>No conservation measures have been taken other than that the dingo has been nominated as a threatened species in the State of NSW and the Australian Federal Government has recently published ‘best practice’ guidelines to manage and conserve dingoes (Fleming <em>et al</em>. 2001). The efforts of dingo ‘preservation’ societies in Australia are currently ineffective because most of their stock is untested or known to be hybrid (Corbett 2001). There are no conservation measures for wild dingoes in Asia. However, in New Guinea, the Department of Environment and Conservation has indicated that measures will be initiated to protect New Guinea singing dogs (I.L. Brisbin pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Occurrence in captivity</strong><br/>Dingoes and/or dingo-like hybrids occur in many zoos and private facilities worldwide. Tests using skull measurements of deceased animals or valid DNA tests are required to assess the purity of captive populations. <br/><br/><strong>Gaps in knowledge</strong><br/>1) Morphological and genetic assessment of the taxonomic status of dingo-like dogs in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, China, Myanmar, India, Philippines and, where present, their distribution, abundance, ecology and behaviour.<br/><br/>2) The ecological role of hybrids in Australia. If pure dingoes become extinct, will hybrids alter predation rates on native fauna and livestock? <br/><br/>3) Rabbits are a major prey in Australia but their populations have recently been decimated by rabbit calicivirus disease. What will be the effect on dingo ecology including predation on livestock?<br/><br/>4) What are the ecological effects of dingo control on feral cat and fox populations in Australia (mesopredator release)?
41585		distribution	eng	Based on fossil (Olsen and Olsen 1977), molecular (Vilà <em>et al.</em> 1997, Corbett 2003) and anthropological evidence (Corbett 1995), the early primitive dingoes formerly had a cosmopolitan distribution (Corbett 1995). The primitive dingoes were associated with nomadic, human hunter-gatherer societies and later with sedentary agricultural population centres where the primitive dingoes were tamed and subsequently transported around the world. Austronesian-speaking people transported the dingo from mainland Asia to Australia and other islands in Southeast Asia and the Pacific between 1,000 and 5,000 years ago (Corbett 1985).<br/><br/>Pure dingoes have been demonstrated to occur only as remnant populations in central and northern Australia and throughout Thailand. However, based on external phenotypic characters, they may also occur in  Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Viet Nam.
41585		habitat	eng	Dingoes occupy all habitats, including tropical alpine moorlands above 3,800 m asl. in Papua New Guinea (Troughton 1957, Newsome 1971), forested snow-clad peaks in temperate eastern Australia, arid hot deserts in central Australia, and tropical wetlands and forests of northern Australia (Corbett 1995). The absence of dingoes in many grassland habitats of Australia is due to persecution by humans (Fleming <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41585		population	eng	Estimating dingo abundance is difficult because the external phenotypic characters of many hybrids are indistinguishable from pure dingoes. For example, populations of ‘wild dogs’ in the south-eastern highlands of Australia have been fairly abundant over the past 50 years. However, the proportion of pure dingoes, as based on skull morphometrics, has declined from about 49% in the 1960s (Newsome and Corbett 1985) to about 17% in the 1980s (Jones 1990) and the pure form may now be locally extinct (Corbett 2001). Such quantitative data is not available for countries other than Australia, Thailand and Papua New Guinea so that the following qualitative estimates of abundance refer to pure dingo and/or hybrid populations as based on general body form, pelage colour and breeding pattern. <br/><br/>In Australia, pure dingoes are common in northern, northwestern and central regions, rare in southern and north-eastern regions, and probably extinct in the south-eastern and south-western regions. The density of wild dogs (dingoes and hybrids) varies between 0.03 and 0.3 per km² according to habitat and prey availability (Fleming <em>et al.</em> 2001). Dingoes are rare in New Guinea and possibly extinct as there have been no confirmed sightings for about 30 years (Newsome 1971, Brisbin <em>et al.</em> 1994, Bino 1996, Koler-Matznick <em>et al</em>. 2000). Dingoes are common in Sulawesi but their abundance elsewhere in Indonesia is unknown. They are common throughout the northern and central regions of Thailand, but less so in the southern regions; considered rare in the Philippines and probably extinct on many islands. Present in Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, China, Myanmar and India, but abundance unknown. Dingoes are probably extinct in the wild in Korea, Japan and Oceania, although several local dog breeds share dingo-like characteristics.<br/><br/>Dingoes were formerly widespread throughout the world (Corbett 1995) and although populations of wild dogs remain abundant in Australia and other countries, the proportion of pure dingoes is declining through hybridization with domestic dogs. Estimated populations of pure dingoes and/or hybrid populations can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al</em>. (2004).
41585		threats	eng	Cross-breeding with domestic dogs represents a significant threat to the long-term persistence of dingoes. Hybrids exist in all populations worldwide (including Fraser Island, Australia; Woodall <em>et al.</em> 1996) and the proportion of hybrids is increasing. A related threat to dingoes in Australia concerns the actions and consequences of ‘so-called’ dingo preservation societies, dingo ‘farms’ and legislation allowing legal ownership of dingoes by members of the public because most are based on known hybrids or untested dingo stock and thus effectively increase the hybridization process (Corbett 2001). The increasing interest of private individuals and groups in keeping ‘dingoes’ as pets in Australia and other countries including Switzerland and USA, also poses a threat via human selection of form and behaviour.<br/><br/>Bounties for dingo skin and scalps exist in some regions of Australia. Dingoes are also sold in human food markets in several Asian countries. They are also bred by private individuals and companies in Australia and USA and sold as pets.
41586		conservation	eng	Included on CITES - Appendix II (as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lycalopex fulvipes</span>). Protected by Chilean law since 1929 (Iriarte and Jaksic 1986), but enforcement is not always possible and some poaching occurs. <br/><br/>Nahuelbuta National Park (IX Administrative Region) protects the mainland population in ca. 68 km²; Chiloé National Park (X Admistrative Region) protects the island population in ca. 430 km².<br/><br/>The Temuco Zoo held a male and a female until their release in October 2000 on Chiloé. No known specimens are kept elsewhere.<br/><br/>Gaps in Knowledge<br/>A high priority would be to conduct intensive searches for other populations between Nahuelbuta and Chiloé. There are many remote pockets that are little explored where isolated populations could still be found.<br/><br/>The behavioural ecology of a forest-specialist or forest-dependent species is of utmost interest. Research topics to be explored include: social behaviour (e.g., tolerance to conspecifics), large home range overlaps, presence of helpers, and small litter sizes. In addition, little is known as concerns population dynamics, dispersal behaviour, and metapopulation structure.<br/><br/>Genetic aspects, including levels of inbreeding and inbreeding depression, and past population bottlenecks, are little known and important for future management.<br/><br/>Impacts of and resilience to human-related disturbances, the effects of free-ranging dogs, the foxes ecological naiveté to people, and forest disappearance and fragmentation are all of interest for fox survival. The impact of habitat loss (through forest conversion) on fox populations is also of interest. At least in Chiloé, habitat disturbance per se seems to play little, if any, role in population dynamics. On the mainland, however, fragmentation might increase risk of predation by other native predators.<br/><br/>Considering the potential disease threat posed by domestic dogs, an investigation into diseases and pathogens (and other allied mortality causes) is crucial.<br/><br/>If Darwin's Fox is so closely related to the Sechuran Fox of southern Peru as the circumstantial evidence suggests, then how did the two species diverge and became separated? These two ranges have been separated by the Atacama Desert for a long time. Exploring this question, in connection with other puzzling biogeographical patterns, could provide evidence to better understand canid speciation and species interactions.
41586		distribution	eng	Darwin's Fox is endemic to Chile. It has a disjunct distribution with two populations: one found in the forests of Chiloé Island (42°S, 74°W), and another on the coastal mountains in Nahuelbuta National Park of mainland Chile (37°45'S, 73°00'W).<br/><br/>Vila <em>et al.</em> (2004) found evidence for what may be a third population at Punta Chanchan, north of Valdivia.
41586		habitat	eng	Darwin's Fox is generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests (Jaksic <em>et al.</em> 1990; Medel <em>et al</em>. 1990). Recent research on Chiloé, based on trapping and telemetry data on a disturbance gradient, indicates that, in decreasing order, foxes use old-growth forest followed by secondary forest followed by pastures and openings (Jiménez 2000). Although variable among individuals, about 70% of their home ranges comprised old-growth forest. However, compared with the amount available, foxes preferred secondary forest and avoided old growth. Selection of openings varied among individuals. The forest is of Valdivian type, comprising a few native conifers and several species of broad-leaved evergreen species, and dominated by fruit-bearing trees of the Mirtaceae family. This forest is dense, with different strata and very moist all year round (Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/>On the Pacific coast of Chiloé, Darwin's Fox lives in a fragmented environment of coastal sand dunes mixed with dense evergreen forest. On the northern part of the island, Darwin's Fox uses a relatively flat, but fragmented landscape of broad-leaf forest and dairy cow pastures. Research on the mainland population supports the notion of the species using primarily dense forest (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1990; Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1990). Capture and telemetry data indicate that animals are found in dense Araucaria-Nothofagus forest, open <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and open pasture with decreasing frequency (McMahon <em>et al</em>. 1999). The forest comprises mainly monkey-puzzle trees (<em>Araucaria araucania</em>) and five species of southern beech (<em>Nothofagus</em> spp.), one of which is non-deciduous.
41586		population	eng	There are few records for the species. Charles Darwin collected the first specimen in 1834 from the south-eastern end of Chiloé Island. Osgood (1943) later captured it at the mouth of the Inio River, on the southern shore of the same island. On the Pacific shore of Chiloé, the species has been trapped on Playa Tricolor (in June 1999, J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.) and intensively monitored since November 2001 at Ahuenco; on the Cordillera del Piuché, the fox has been monitored since 1989 (Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 1990). On the northern part of Chiloé Island, one fox was captured in November 1999 and at Tepuhueico, on the central part, two adults were observed in June 2002 (J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.). On the north-western part of the same island, a local recently killed a female and her two cubs; and there have been additional sightings in the same area (C. Muñoz pers. comm.). Thus, Darwin's Fox occurs on most of Chiloé Island (about 200 km long x 62 km wide), especially where forest remains, with the exception of the most populated areas on the eastern and north-eastern parts.<br/><br/>On mainland Chile, Jaime Jiménez has observed a small population since 1975 in Nahuelbuta National Park; this population was first reported to science in the early 1990s (Medel <em>et al.</em> 1990). It appears that Darwin's Foxes are restricted to the park and the native forest surrounding the park (McMahon <em>et al</em>. 1999). This park, only 68.3 km² in size, is a small habitat island of highland forest surrounded by degraded farmlands and plantations of exotic trees (Greer 1966). This population is located about 600 km north of the island population and, to date, no other populations have been found in the remaining forest in between (W.E. Johnson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Darwin's Fox was reported to be scarce and restricted to the southern end of Chiloé Island (Osgood 1943). The comparison of such older accounts (reporting the scarcity of Darwin's fox), with recent repeated observations, conveys the impression that the Darwin's Fox has increased in abundance, although this might simply be a sampling bias.
41586		threats	eng	Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, substantial mortality sources exist when foxes move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter. Some foxes even breed in these areas. This is one of the reasons why it is recommended that this park be expanded to secure buffer areas for the foxes that use these unprotected ranges (McMahon <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>The presence of dogs in the park may be the greatest conservation threat in the form of potential vectors of disease or direct attack. There is a common practice to have unleashed dogs both on Chiloé and in Nahuelbuta; these have been caught within foxes' ranges in the forest. Although dogs are prohibited in the national park, visitors are often allowed in with their dogs that are then let loose in the park. There has been one documented account of a visitor's dog attacking a female fox while she was nursing her two pups (E. McMahon, pers. obs.). In addition, local dogs from the surrounding farms are often brought in by their owners in search of their cattle or while gathering Araucaria seeds in the autumn. Park rangers even maintain dogs within the park, and the park administrator's dog killed a guiña in the park. Being relatively naive towards people and their dogs is seen as non-adaptive behaviour in this species' interactions with humans.<br/><br/>The island population appears to be relatively safe by being protected in Chiloé National Park. This 430 km² protected area encompasses most of the still untouched rainforest of the island. Although the park appears to have a sizable fox population, foxes also live in the surrounding areas, where substantial forest cover remains. These latter areas are vulnerable and continuously subjected to logging, forest fragmentation, and poaching by locals. In addition, being naive towards people places the foxes at risk when in contact with humans. If current relaxed attitudes continue in Nahuelbuta National Park, Chiloé National Park may be the only long-term safe area for the Darwin's Fox.<br/><br/>No commercial use. However, captive animals have been kept illegally as pets on Chiloé Island (Jiménez, pers. obs).
41587		conservation	eng	CITES – not listed (considered a subspecies of <em>V. velox</em>). <br/><br/>The Kit Fox is considered Vulnerable in Mexico (SEDESOL 1994). In the United States, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (<em>V. m. mutica</em>) is federally classified as Endangered, and as Threatened by the state of California (USFWS 1998). In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as Endangered. Harvests are not permitted in Idaho, Oregon, or California, and the Kit Fox is a protected furbearer species (i.e., regulated harvests) in Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In Mexico, the vulnerable status of the Kit Fox grants conservation measures for the species, but these are not enforced. In the United States, state and federal protections for Kit Foxes are being enforced. <br/><br/>In Mexico, Kit Foxes are found in the Biosphere Reserves of El Vizcaino, Mapimi and El Pinacate, in the Area of Special Protection of Cuatro Ciénegas, and are probably found in another eight protected areas throughout their range. In the United States, they occur in numerous protected areas throughout their range. The Endangered subspecies <em>V. m. mutica</em> occurs in the Carrizo Plain National Monument and various other federal, state, and private conservation lands.<br/><br/>Efforts are underway to protect the prairie dog towns of both eastern (Pronatura Noreste) and western Mexico (Institute of Ecology from the National University of Mexico), which are known to be strongholds for the kit fox, but no specific actions focused on the kit fox are being undertaken in Mexico. In the United States, a recovery plan has been completed (USFWS 1998) and is being implemented for the San Joaquin Kit Fox. Recovery actions include protection of essential habitat, and demographic and ecological research in both natural and anthropogenically modified landscapes. <br/><br/>No captive breeding efforts are currently being conducted for kit foxes. Facilities such as the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum in Tucson, Arizona, California Living Museum in Bakersfield, California, and several zoos keep live kit foxes for display and educational purposes. Also, Humboldt State University in Arcata, California maintains a small number of kit foxes for research and education.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>In general, demographic and ecological data are needed throughout the range of the kit fox so that population trends and demographic patterns can be assessed. In Mexico, information available on the Kit Fox is scarce. The most important gaps in our knowledge of the species are the present distribution of the species and population estimates throughout its range. General biological information is needed from more localities in the Mexican range of the kit fox. In the United States, information is required on the San Joaquin Kit Fox including assessing the effects of roads and pesticides on Kit Foxes, investigating dispersal patterns and corridors, determining metapopulation dynamics and conducting viability analyses, developing conservation strategies in anthropogenically altered landscapes, assessing threats from non-native Red Foxes, and range-wide population monitoring.
41587		distribution	eng	The Kit Fox inhabits the deserts and arid lands of western North America. In the United States, it occurs from southern California to western Colorado and western Texas, north into southern Oregon and Idaho. In Mexico, it occurs across the Baja California Peninsula and across northern Sonora and Chihuahua to western Nuevo León, and south into northern Zacatecas (McGrew 1979; Hall 1981).
41587		habitat	eng	The Kit Fox inhabits arid and semi-arid regions encompassing desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities (McGrew 1979; O'Farrell 1987). It is found in elevations ranging from 400–1,900 m a.s.l., although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain with slopes > 5% (Warrick and Cypher 1998). Loose textured soils may be preferred for denning. Kit Foxes will use agricultural lands, particularly orchards, on a limited basis, and also can inhabit urban environments (Morrell 1972).
41587		population	eng	The species is common to rare. Density fluctuates with annual environmental conditions, which are dependent upon precipitation (Cypher <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Utah, density ranged from 0.1–0.8/km² (Egoscue 1956, 1975). In California, density varied from 0.15–0.24/km² over a period of three years on one study site (White <em>et al.</em> 1996) and from 0.2–1.7/km² over 15 years on another study site (Cypher <em>et al</em>. 2000). Kit Fox densities in prairie dog town complexes in Mexico were 0.32–0.8/km² in Chihuahua (List 1997) and 0.1/km² in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon (Côtera 1996).<br/><br/>In Mexico, data on which to base a population estimate for Kit Foxes are only available from two localities with very specific characteristics (presence of prairie dog towns). Therefore, the estimation of a population size for the country or even population trends is not possible with current information. However, because natural habitats occupied by the Kit Fox are being transformed, it is safe to assume that, overall, populations of the Kit Fox in Mexico are declining. In the past 10 years, about 40% of prairie dog towns in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon were converted to agriculture (L. Scott and E. Estrada unpubl.).<br/><br/>In the United States, Kit Fox abundance is unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada where harvests for fur continue. Populations in Idaho, Oregon, and the Mojave Desert in California also may be relatively stable due to a lack of significant threats. Populations are potentially increasing in Colorado where foot-hold trapping was recently banned. Populations of the Endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox in the San Joaquin Valley of California are likely still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation (USFWS 1998).
41587		threats	eng	The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. In both western and eastern Mexico, prairie dog towns, which support important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields, and in eastern Mexico the road network is expanding, producing a concomitant increase in the risk of vehicle mortality. In the San Joaquin Valley of California, habitat conversion for agriculture is slowing, but habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation associated with industrial and urban development are still occurring at a rapid pace.<br/><br/>In Mexico, Kit Foxes are occasionally sold illegally in the pet market. Kit Foxes are harvested for fur in some states in the USA, but otherwise are not used commercially.
41588		conservation	eng	Listed in CITES ? Appendix II. Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Niger and Tunisia.<br/><br/>Legally protected in Morocco (including Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.<br/><br/>Historically, the North American Regional Studbook (Bauman 2002) lists some 839 individuals that have been held in the North American region between 1900 and 2001. At the end of 2001, there were 131 individuals in 51 institutions. The Australian Regional Studbook lists 81 historically, with only 12 in the captive population at present. Although fennecs occur in European zoos, there is no studbook or management plan. Fennecs are also kept as pets and bred privately, but these records are not available.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>While studies of captive animals have gone some way towards improving our knowledge of this little-known species (particularly as regards reproduction), much remains unknown of their basic ecology and behaviour in the wild. Work on captive populations is encouraged, but an in-depth study of the species, with particular emphasis on habitat use and population dynamics in the wild is overdue. Field studies underway in Tunisia are starting to redress this situation but undoubtedly more work is needed.
41588		conservation	eng	Listed in CITES – Appendix II. Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Niger and Tunisia.<br/><br/>Legally protected in Morocco (including Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.<br/><br/>Historically, the North American Regional Studbook (Bauman 2002) lists some 839 individuals that have been held in the North American region between 1900 and 2001. At the end of 2001, there were 131 individuals in 51 institutions. The Australian Regional Studbook lists 81 historically, with only 12 in the captive population at present. Although fennecs occur in European zoos, there is no studbook or management plan. Fennecs are also kept as pets and bred privately, but these records are not available.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>While studies of captive animals have gone some way towards improving our knowledge of this little-known species (particularly as regards reproduction), much remains unknown of their basic ecology and behaviour in the wild. Work on captive populations is encouraged, but an in-depth study of the species, with particular emphasis on habitat use and population dynamics in the wild is overdue. Field studies underway in Tunisia are starting to redress this situation but undoubtedly more work is needed.
41588		distribution	eng	Widespread in the sandy deserts and semi-deserts of northern Africa to northern Sinai (Saleh and Basuony 1998). References to Fennec sightings in the United Arab Emirates were based on an animal in the Al Ain zoo (Al-Robbae 1982), which was, in fact, a Rüppell's Fox (Gasperetti <em>et al.</em> 1985). Thesiger (1949) reported Fennec tracks in the region of Abu Dhabi, but there are no confirmed records of the species in the Arabian Peninsula.
41588		habitat	eng	Fennecs subsist in arid desert environments, preferring this substrate for burrowing. Stable sand dunes are believed to be ideal habitat (Dorst and Dandelot 1969; Coetzee 1977), although they also live in very sparsely vegetated sand dunes near the Atlantic coast (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Annual rainfall is less than 100 mm per year on the northern fringe of the fennec's distribution. On the southern fringe, it may be found up to the Sahelian areas that receive as much as 300 mm rainfall per year. In the Sahara, sparse vegetation is usually dominated by <em>Aristida</em> spp., and <em>Ephedra alata</em> in large sand dunes. In small sand dunes, it is dominated by <em>Panicum turgidum</em>, <em>Zygophyllum</em> spp., and sometimes by trees like <em>Acacia</em> spp. and <em>Capparis deciduas</em> (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).
41588		population	eng	They are common throughout the Sahara (Harrison and Bates 1991) and may occur to north Sahelian areas in the south to 14ºN (Dragesco-Joffé 1993; Granjon <em>et al.</em> 1995). The only documented regression concerns northern Moroccan Sahara, where the fennec disappeared during the 1960s from four localities, which were restricted sandy areas close to permanent human settlements (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Current statistics are not available, but the population is assumed to be adequate based on the observations that the fennec is still commonly trapped and sold commercially in northern Africa. In southern Morocco, fennecs were commonly seen in all sandy areas away from permanent human settlements (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).
41588		threats	eng	The primary threat appears to be trapping for commercial use. In sandy areas commonly visited by tourists, the Fennec is well known, but because it is otherwise difficult to see, it is trapped for exhibition or sale to tourists (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Though restricted to marginal areas, new permanent human settlements such as those in southern Morocco have resulted in the disappearance of fennecs in these areas (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).
41589		conservation	eng	They are present in many protected areas across the range.
41589		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from Gambia to south-west Sudan, southern Uganda and western Kenya, and from northern Angola, and north-western Zambia to DR Congo and western Tanzania. Then discontinuously distributed in eastern and southern Africa in montane and lowland forests of Tanzania, Malawi, parts of Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, south to about 20°5’S (Van Rompaey and Ray in press). Also present on Bioko (Eisentraut 1973) and Zanzibar (Perkin 2005). Up to 2,500 m (Van Rompaey and Ray in press).
41589		habitat	eng	Occurs in deciduous forests, lowland rainforests and mountains, gallery and riverine forests, savanna woodlands, and logged and second-growth forests. Known to visit cultivated fields bordering forest edge (Van Rompaey and Ray in press). Predominantly frugivorous, although forages opportunistically for vertebrates and insects (Van Rompaey and Ray in press).
41589		population	eng	Widespread and locally abundant, and probably the most common African forest small carnivoran (Van Rompaey and Ray in press). In Gabon minimum average density was estimated at ca. 5/km² (Charles-Dominique 1978).
41589		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although they may be undergoing some localized declines due to habitat loss. They are also commonly trapped or hunted for bushmeat and for traditional medicine. They were the most common carnivore recorded  in two markets in Equatorial Guinea (Juste <em>et al</em>. 1995) as well as in Guinea (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). In some regions, the fur is sought after to make ceremonial dresses (Malbrant and Maclatchy 1949) and to make wrist-bracelets, hats, and to cover the bow (Carpaneto and Germi 1989).
41590		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas across its range.
41590		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone eastward to southern Sudan and Ethiopia and south to southern Africa, where absent from most of Namibia, Botswana and large parts of C South Africa, wherever adequate water and cover are unavailable (Baker and Ray in press). Present on Pemba Island, but absent from Zanzibar (Pakenham 1984). Recorded to altitudes of 3,950 m in Bale Mountains N.P., Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996). Wozencraft (2005) lists this species as occurring in Algeria, presumably an error as there are no confirmed records from this country.
41590		habitat	eng	Mainly restricted to riparian habitats (rivers, streams, swamps, marshes and dams), wherever there is suitable vegetation cover and water in close proximity. They may also be found along estuaries and in coastal areas. Sometimes found away from watercourses, though only for limited periods (Baker and Ray in press). Diet comprises mostly aquatic prey with crustaceans usually dominating, which is unusual among herpestids (Baker and Ray in press).
41590		population	eng	Generally common in suitable habitat. It was the second most photographed species in a camera-trapping study in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania (De Luca and Mpunga 2005). In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, the density was recorded at 1.8 / km² (Maddock 1988).
41590		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats known to the species. However, since it is dependent on riverine vegetation for shelter, the loss of this habitat may result in some localized declines where habitat loss is taking place (Baker and Ray in press). The drainage of swamplands for conversion to arable land has been identified as a threat to Marsh Mongooses in eastern Africa (Andama 2000). The Marsh Mongoose is commonly found in bushmeat markets, and was the most common carnivore appearing in bushmeat markets in SE Nigeria (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999) and was also commonly recorded in bushmeat surveys in the Classified Forest of Diecke, Guinea (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41591		conservation	eng	They are present in several protected areas across their range, including Selous N.P., Arusha N.P. and Udzungwa Mtns N.P. (Tanzania).
41591		distribution	eng	Ranges from eastern Zimbabwe and central Mozambique northwards through Malawi, eastern Zambia, south-eastern DR Congo Tanzania, to the Lukenya foothills of Kenya. There are outlying records from Mweru Wantipa in the north of Zambia, and from the Zimbabwean side of the middle Zambezi R. near Lake Kariba (Taylor in press). Present on Zanzibar. Recorded to 1,850 m asl (De Luca and Mpunga 2005).<br/><br/>Reported from Yemen (Nader and Al-Safadi 1991), although Simmons (1995) states that this record requires confirmation.
41591		habitat	eng	Recorded from a variety of habitats, including Acacia woodlands in Mozambique, Brachystegia woodland in Zimbabwe, montane and bamboo forest in the Udzungwa Mountains, and coral-rag thicket and groundwater forest in Zanzibar (Taylor in press). Omnivorous.
41591		population	eng	Most accounts of this species report them as uncommon, but a recent photo-trapping exercise in the Udzungwa Mountains found this to be the most frequently recorded carnivore (De Luca and Mpunga 2005) and it was also the most common animal camera-trapped in other parts of the Eastern Arc Mountains, including the Ulugurus and Ngurus (F. Rovero pers. comm.).
41591		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41592		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas, including Dzangha-Sangha in Central African Republic and Okapi Faunal Reserve in DR Congo.
41592		distribution	eng	Found only in the Central African rainforests from the Cross R. westward to Cameroon and Central African Republic and southward to Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic, and DR Congo, north of the Congo R. eastwards to the Rift Valley in eastern DR Congo (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The presence of this species in Angola was rejected by Crawford-Cabral (1989). Ranges to 1,000 m asl.
41592		habitat	eng	Dense ground-scrub in deep, tall, deciduous forest. Not usually found in disturbed forest (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41592		population	eng	Considered rare or very rare by several authors, but more common in the east and south of its range (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, this species made up one-quarter of all carnivores hunted by Bambuti pygmies with dogs (Hart and Timm 1978).
41592		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although numbers probably are declining as a result of forest fragmentation and forest loss from logging, mining, and slash-and-burn farming, and to a lesser degree from bushmeat hunting (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41593		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas, although the degree of protection varies.
41593		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Africa, where confined to rainforest in DR Congo limited in the north by the Ubangi R. and in the south by the Kasai R.; also present in western Uganda. A disjunct population lives on the slopes (between 1,500 and 2,900 m asl) of Mt. Elgon, Uganda (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). May occur in south-western Central African Republic (Ray 2001).
41593		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland and montane rainforest. Commonly found near villages in the Ituri Forest (Ray, in Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41593		population	eng	Although there is no direct information on abundance, they are common in bushmeat markets in north-eastern DR Congo (Colyn <em>et al.</em> 1987) suggesting that they are widespread and abundant in this region. In the Ituri Forest, Bambuti pygmies captured this species with greater frequency than other carnivores (Hart and Timm 1978).
41593		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but numbers are probably declining due to habitat loss and bushmeat hunting (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The Mt. Elgon population also may be threatened by hunting and habitat degradation (Kingdon 1997).
41594		conservation	eng	Recorded from Salonga N.P. in DR Congo. There is a paucity of information available for this species, making it a priority for research, particularly to determine its current population status and the extent of its range. In particular, a survey for the disjunct population in Angola is urgently needed where it is known only from the holotype (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41594		distribution	eng	Found only in Angola and DR Congo. In Angola, known only from a single specimen collected in 1908 north of the Cuanza R. (Crawford-Cabral 1989). In DR Congo, present in the rainforest south-east of the Congo/Lualaba Rivers (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41594		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of deciduous rainforest; not known to visit cultivated or inhabited land (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41594		population	eng	Up until 1984, known only from two specimens, the type and the specimen from Baringa. However, they have since been found to be quite common in some regions (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). During bushmeat surveys conducted in the eastern Congo basin, this species accounted for only 10% of carnivores compared with 42% for Alexander's Cusimanse (Colyn <em>et al.</em> 1987).
41594		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not clear, but they probably include habitat loss and bushmeat hunting.
41595		conservation	eng	They are present in several protected areas across their range, including Mt. Sangbé, Maraouhé and Comoé National Parks in Côte d’Ivoire and Western Area Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone (Goldman and Dunham in press).
41595		distribution	eng	Restricted to the rainforests of south-west and south-east Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana, and extending just east of R. Volta (Goldman and Dunham in press). Ranges to around 1,500 m asl on Mount Nimba in Guinea (Goldman and Dunham in press).
41595		habitat	eng	Found primarily in dense undergrowth of rainforest, but also in farm bush, logged forest, and plantations. In Côte d’Ivoire, also found in humid savanna zone, and in gallery forests of savanna, and in Ghana found on the Accra Plain (observed foraging in a dry open area of grassland and thicket) (Goldman and Dunham in press).
41595		population	eng	Common. Population density in riparian forest of Taï N.P. was estimated at 13.2 individuals/km² (Goldman and Dunham in press).
41595		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but they may be vulnerable to hunting in some regions (e.g., Guinea, where they were one of the most commonly trapped small carnivores; Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41596		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas, including Monte Alen N.P. in Equatorial Guinea and Dzanga-Sangha Reserve in Central African Republic (Goldman in press).
41596		distribution	eng	Occurs in rainforests of Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo Republic, and Central African Republic (Goldman in press). The specific locality of a specimen collected in Benin is uncertain and given as “Agouagou?”, which is well beyond the rainforest zone (Goldman in press). Not yet recorded from the rainforests of Gabon, but probably occurs. Ranges from sea level to ca. 1,600 m asl.
41596		habitat	eng	Found in undergrowth of rainforest, often near water. In Nigeria, they have been recorded in areas of fragmented forest mixed with farmland (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999) and as widespread in the Niger Delta, including the largely deforested lowland zone east of Orashi R. (Powell 1997).
41596		population	eng	Although relatively widely distributed, they are probably not common anywhere in their range.
41596		threats	eng	No major threats, but, like other species of cusimanses, they are hunted for bushmeat (e.g., Juste <em>et al.</em> 1995).
41597		conservation	eng	The Yellow Mongoose occurs in numerous protected areas across its range in southern Africa.
41597		distribution	eng	Confined to southern Africa, with a marginal intrusion into extreme south-western Angola. Within this range, they occupy the drier western parts, being widespread in Namibia, Botswana and much of C and W South Africa, but absent from the Namib Desert and Caprivi Strip in Namibia, the Okavango in Botswana, Zimbabwe (except for an extreme western record), and the easterly regions of southern Africa (P.J. Taylor in press).
41597		habitat	eng	Predominantly a species of open grassland, scrub and arid savannas in the drier, semi-arid, western parts of southern Africa. Due to their use of burrows, rocky and hard soils are avoided (P.J. Taylor in press). Predominantly insectivorous, but opportunistic and will hunt rodents, birds, other vertebrates, and arachnids (P.J. Taylor in press). The Yellow Mongoose is the primary host for the viverrid strain of rabies endemic to the interior plateau of South Africa, where Yellow Mongoose population densities are highest. The role of the Yellow Mongoose as a maintenance host is promoted by its diurnal and colonial, burrow-living habits (P.J. Taylor in press).
41597		population	eng	Population densities vary, with the highest densities reported for grassland regions of South Africa. A population density of 6.0-7.1 individuals/100 ha was estimated in the West Coast N.P. of South Africa (Cavallini 1993, Cavallini and Nel 1995).
41597		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41598		conservation	eng	The only protected area from which this species has been recorded is the Garamba N.P. in north-eastern DR Congo. Lack of knowledge of this species’ biology and habitat requirements make this a priority species for study (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41598		distribution	eng	The exact range of this mongoose is uncertain, but it occurs in north-eastern DR Congo, Central African Republic, extreme southern Sudan and Uganda (Stuart and Stuart in press). It may occur further west than current records indicate. Old specimens in the Paris Natural History Museum were collected at Sanghe, but it is not clear whether this is the district in the Congo Republic, or that in the Central African Republic (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989).
41598		habitat	eng	Apparently confined to a narrow belt of savanna-forest mosaic north of the Equator. It is known to occupy the thicketed shores of Lake Albert, as well as montane forest grasslands (Stuart and Stuart in press). Kingdon (1977) suggested that this is a mongoose living in the ecotone between high forest and lower rainfall wooded savanna. Insectivorous.
41598		population	eng	This species is known from just 31 museum specimens and a handful of possible sightings; there have been no known positive records for more than two decades (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41598		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are unknown.
41599		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from several protected areas, including the Skeleton Coast and Etosha National Parks (M. Griffin pers. comm.). This species definitely warrants further research, especially its taxonomic status relative to Angolan animals.
41599		distribution	eng	This mongoose is confined to south-western Angola and north-western and north-central Namibia (Taylor in press).
41599		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of arid hills and kopjes away from water. In northern Namibia, the species is restricted to habitats dominated by large granitic boulders (petrophily), and the drainages and woodlands connecting these, which results in a highly fragmented distribution (Shortridge 1934; Rathbun and Cowley in press). There is no information available on the habitat preferences of the animals in Angola.
41599		population	eng	There is little information available on this species as few specimens are available in museums. However, it is assumed to be relatively common in arid regions (Taylor in press). It is sometimes confused with the Dwarf Mongoose <em>Helogale parvula</em>, which overlaps its range, and is also dark in colour in this part of its range.
41599		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
41600		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas in its range, including the West Coast and Mountain Zebra National Parks.
41600		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa, ranging throughout the Northern Cape (with one record from near the Botswana border), Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa, with a marginal intrusion into southern Namibia, west to Lesotho and extreme western KwaZulu-Natal (Cavallini in press). In 1990, an animal was trapped in Wakkerstroom, Mpumalanga, 200 km north of known records in KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho (Bronner 1990). Present from sea level around the Western Cape to 1,900 m in KwaZulu-Natal (Cavallini in press).
41600		habitat	eng	This species has a wide habitat tolerance, and is found in forested areas as well as open country (Cavallini in press). They are often associated with refuge areas, such as dense bushes and rocky outcrops, and avoid open fields with short vegetation (Cavallini and Nel 1990). Often abundant close to human settlements. Catholic diet, though their primary food is generally small mammals or insects (Cavallini in press).
41600		population	eng	Common. Densities of up to 10 individuals/km² have been recorded in suitable habitat (Cavallini and Nel 1990).
41600		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41603		conservation	eng	Protected under Seychelles law. Not present in reserves but in conservation managed areas on Fregate and Silhouette.
41603		distribution	eng	<em>P. c. intergularis</em> is endemic to islands in the Seychelles. It is found on Mahé, Cerf, Praslin, La Digue, Fregate and Silhouette islands. Extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,500 km², but area of occupancy is approximately 0.1 km².
41603		habitat	eng	The taxon is present in lowland rivers and marshes, with a preference for rivers.  It feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians, fruit and plant material.  Low levels of nematode infections have been recorded.  Competition between males is required for successful breeding.  Eggs laid December-January.
41603		population	eng	In 2002, the total population was estimated at less than 100 adults, distributed throughout six isolated populations. The subspecies lost 80% of its range through drainage in 1999. It is inferred that a similar level of population reduction has occurred as a result of this (Rhodin, pers. comm., Gerlach, pers. comm).
41603		threats	eng	Habitat loss and deterioration caused by drainage, pollution (rubbish dumping, sewage and/or pesticide run-off) and marsh invasion by water lettuce. Loss of habitat through drainage resulted in a loss of 80% of the taxon's range in 1999. Further declines are likely. Predation is a possible cause of decline on some islands.
41604		conservation	eng	Protected under Seychelles law. Not present in reserves but in conservation-managed areas on Fregate and Silhouette
41604		distribution	eng	A Seychelles endemic subspecies of a widely distributed African species. Present on Mahé, Cerf, Praslin, La Digue, Fregate and Silhouette islands. Extent of occurrence estimated at 3,500 km², but area of occupancy is approximately 0.05 km².
41604		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is lowland marshes.  The taxon feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians, fruit and plant material.     Eggs laid December-February, hatching after 48 days with genetic sex determination.
41604		population	eng	Population estimated to be les than 250 adults distributed throughout seven isolated populations. The subspecies lost 80% of its range through drainage in 1999. It is inferred that a similar level of population reduction has occurred as a result of this (Rhodin, pers. comm., Gerlach, pers. comm).
41604		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are loss of habitat through drainage (drainage resulted in 80% of range area being lost in 1999). Further declines are probable. Predation is a possible cause of population decline on some islands.
41605		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. This is a very poorly known species, and is in need of further study.
41605		distribution	eng	Confined to north-eastern Africa, in Somalia, adjacent parts of Ethiopia and marginally in north-eastern Kenya (Taylor in press). Occurs to around 600 m asl in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).
41605		habitat	eng	Primarily an arid-adapted species, occurring in hilly areas in northern Somalia (Drake-Brockman 1910). There is a paucity of information on the behaviour and ecology of this species, though it is probably similar in many respects to the Slender Mongoose <em>H. sanguineus</em> (Taylor in press).
41605		population	eng	There is little information available on this species as few specimens are available in museums, and there have been scant observations in the wild. There are 14 specimens of the Somali Slender Mongoose in the British Museum and five in the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence (Taylor in press). It is assumed that it is relatively common in arid regions.
41605		threats	eng	Although the species and its habitat requirements are poorly known, its range in the semi-arid regions of the Horn suggest that there are not likely to be any major threats to this mongoose.
41606		conservation	eng	Present in numerous protected areas across their range.
41606		distribution	eng	One of the most widely distributed African mongooses, ranging from Senegal in the west to the Red Sea coast in Sudan in the east and south to the Northern Cape in South Africa (Hoffmann and Taylor in press). Stuart (1981) mentions a museum record of this species from Mountain Zebra N.P., but this specimen is not mentioned in the studies of Watson and Dippenaar (1987) and Watson (1990), and their most southerly distribution limit is probably the far eastern part of the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Hoffmann and Taylor in press). Also occurs on Zanzibar (Stuart and Stuart 1998, Goldman and Winther-Hansen 2003). Ranges to 2,700 m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996)
41606		habitat	eng	Present in a wide variety of habitats, but absent from true deserts and in sub-desertic parts of the Sahara such as Air, Niger. They occur on forest fringes, and may penetrate into forests along roads and are sometimes found around villages (Hoffmann and Taylor in press). Slender Mongooses are generalist carnivores, their diet primarily comprising small vertebrates and invertebrates (Hoffmann and Taylor in press).
41606		population	eng	Slender Mongooses are among the most common mongooses in Africa. In the Serengeti, population densities between 1975 and 1990 ranged from three to six individuals/km² (Waser <em>et al</em>. 1995).
41606		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. They have been recorded in bushmeat markets (e.g., Colyn <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Cunningham and Zondi (1991) listed this species among those used in traditional medicine in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
41608		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas across its range.
41608		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed in the Horn of Africa region, being present in southern and south-eastern Ethiopia, southern Somalia and northern Kenya (Kingdon and Van Rompaey in press). Laurent and Laurent (2002) recorded this species from Djibouti (though this requires confirmation). A single, uncertain sighting in Mkomazi, Tanzania, might extend the species range into the north-eastern parts of Tanzania (J. Kingdon pers. obs.). They occur up to around 600 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1980, 1996).
41608		habitat	eng	In Ethiopia, this species is restricted to a zone of bush, thicket and shrubby deciduous woodlands dominated by species of the genera <em>Acacia, Commiphora, Grewia, Cordia, Euphorbia</em> and <em>Sterculia</em> (Kingdon and Van Rompaey in press). Like the Dwarf Mongoose, with which they are broadly sympatric, they use termitaria and stony outcrops as dens.
41608		population	eng	Although reliable estimates of their abundance are not available, Somali Dwarf Mongoose are abundant in some localities.
41608		threats	eng	There are not believed to be any major threats to the species.
41609		conservation	eng	Dwarf Mongooses are present in several protected areas across their range, and, since they attain high densities and have small territories, even small protected areas can harbour large populations (Creel in press).
41609		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from southern Somalia and Ethiopia south to north-east KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa and westwards to northern Namibia and south-west and central Angola and south-estern DR Congo (Creel in press). Usually found to elevations of around 2,000 m asl.
41609		habitat	eng	Inhabits open woodlands, thickets and wooded savannas, particularly where there are termitaria, rock outcroppings or crevices, or hollow logs for use as dens (Creel in press). Waser <em>et al</em>. (1995) noted that the most important determinant of Dwarf Mongoose habitat preference is the density of suitable dens. They are not found in highly arid areas. Almost entirely insectivorous, although they will prey on small vertebrates (Creel in press).
41609		population	eng	Reported as the most abundant small carnivore in areas of open woodland or wooded savanna, with densities as high as 8 individuals/km² (though more typically around 5 individuals/km²; Waser <em>et al</em>. 1995).
41609		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41610		conservation	eng	It is protected in all of Malaysia and Indonesia. Field surveys, ecological studies and assessments of any possible threats are urgently needed.
41610		distribution	eng	The species current found in Peninsular Malaysia (Wells, 1989; Malaysia Carnivore Project, 2006), Borneo (Nozaki <em>et al.</em> 1994; Hon, pers comm.), Brunei (Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007) and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippine Islands (Palawan, Busuanga and Calamian islands), (Medway, 1967; Corbet and Hill, 1992; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998; Van Rompaey 2000; Wozencraft, 2005). It is incorrectly listed as occurring in Viet Nam by Wozencraft (2005) (S. Roberton pers. comm.). A specimen in the AMNH from Trang, Thailand needs to be checked (Van Rompaey 2000). Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) lists this species as occurring from sea level up to 1,500 m. Northern limit on the Malay peninsula is 4 to 5 degrees north (Wells 1989). The subspecies <em>H. b. javanensis</em> was described from a zoo specimen on Java, but there are no records from the island (Van Rompaey 2000).
41610		habitat	eng	Little is known on ecology of this species. It is found near rivers, in lowland primary and secondary forest and in plantations (Payne <em>et al.</em>, 1985; Rabor, 1986; Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) list this species as occurring from sea level up to 1,500 m. <br/><br/>It is likely to be found near rivers in the Philippines (Rabor, 1986; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998). On Borneo, it occurs in lowland primary and secondary forest, as well as plantations and in gardens (Payne <em>et al.</em>, 1985). In Sarawak, this species occurs in acacia plantations within mosaic or patchy forest or peat swamp forest. It is widespread in the hills and lowlands, but occuring up to 1,280 m elevation in the Kelabit uplands in Sarawak (Medway 1965, 1977). However, in Penisular Malaysia, all records have been from elevations of less than 100 m in primary or regenerating evergreen forest (Wells 1989). The species is currently being studied in Wildife Krau Reverve in Peninsular Malaysia in order to obtain more information on its ecology (Jennings <em>et al</em>, in prep.; Malaysia Carnivore Project, 2006).
41610		population	eng	The population status is poorly known. In the Philippines, this species is restricted to Palawan where it is quite rare (Widmann pers. comm). This species is widespread, and probably common, though its current status is poorly known (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Medway (1967) found that it was not common.
41610		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown, though it is eaten in some parts of Sarawak and is locally considered a pest in agricultural areas.
41611		conservation	eng	The Indian Grey Mongoose is listed on CITES Appendix III in India (Wozencraft 2005). In 2002 in India, the government upgraded the Mongoose species, <span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-2">to Part II of Schedule II of Wildlife  (Protection) Act 1972. In central India people consider the mongoose to be sacred and thus it is not killed there (Shekhar 2003). This species is found in numerous protected areas. Field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of threats are needed.
41611		distribution	eng	The Indian Grey Mongoose is found from Saudia Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Indonesia, and has been introduced on Japan (Corbet and Hill, 1980; Wells 1989; Wozencraft 2005). This species does not occur on the Ryukyu Islands or Mauritius; the possible records on these islands are only confusion with Herpestes javanicus perpetuated in the literature (S. Roy pers. comm.). The species' elevation range is from 0 to approximately 2500 m (Divya Mudappa pers. comm.).
41611		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of the Indian Grey Mongoose is known from few studies, however, it has been recorded in disturbed areas, in dry secondary forests, and thorn forests (Shekhar 2003), but seems to be a commensal with humans as well. This species was often recorded near human settlements by Shekhar (2003) in a survey in central India during 2002-03, where it was seen near garbage bins, garbage dumps, scavenging on carrion, and on roads. The species seems to be most common in disturbed areas, in dry secondary forests and thorn forests. This species has been found up to 2,100 m (Corbet and Hill 1992) and feeds on insects and snakes (Santiapillai <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41611		population	eng	This species is thought to be common and abundant throughtout its range. One study in central India, where the species is common, found its abundance even decreased moving from human settlement towards undisturbed forests (Shekhar 2003).
41611		threats	eng	This species has no major threats occurring across the whole of its range, however, it does experience some regional threats. Shekhar (2003) notes that the grey mongoose is often captured and sold as a pet. Gypsies from northern India use hook snares to capture individuals for skins, which are then sold in local markets in Nepal (Shekhar 2003). All mongoose species are in demand for the wildlife trade (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003): the meat is eaten by several tribes and the hair is used for making shaving brushes, paint brushes, and good luck charms (Hanfee and Ahmed 1999).
41612		conservation	eng	The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix III.<br/>The Indian brown mongoose has been recorded in a few protected areas in the southern Western Ghats, India (Mudappa 2002). Urgent field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of any threats are needed.
41612		distribution	eng	The current distribution range for the Indian brown mongoose includes southern India (Yoganand and Kumar 1995; Mudappa 2002) and Sri Lanka. In South India it is found from 700 to 1,300 m from Virajpet in south Coorg and Ooty in the Nilgiri hills, Tiger Shola in the Palni hills, High Wavy Mountains in Madurai, Kalakad-Mundanthurai in Agasthyamalai hills, Valparai plateau in the Anamalai hills, and Peeramedu in Kerala (Pocock 1939, Prater 1971, Corbet and Hill 1992, Mudappa 1998, 2001).
41612		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of the Indian brown mongoose. It has been recorded within dense forest and adjacent man-modified areas (Mudappa 2002). This is most likely a crepuscular to nocturnal (Mudappa 1998, 2002). It was observed inside or adjacent to rainforests, as well as near garbage dumps in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in India (Mudappa, 2002). The species occurs in coffee plantations and mid-elevation tropical forests and shola-grasslands in parts of Sri Lanka (Prater 1989), and within rainforest fragments and adjacent to them in tea and coffee plantations in Anamalai hills (Mudappa 2001, Muddapa D. unpublished data).
41612		population	eng	The population status of the Indian brown mongoose is poorly known, but it is apparently naturally rare to uncommon, as it was recorded only four times between 1996 and 1999 in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in India (Mudappa 2002). In the tea and coffee plantation dominated Valparai plateau (900-1,400 m) in the Anamalai hills, it is relatively more common than in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa, D. unpublished data).
41612		threats	eng	Specific threats to the Indian brown mongoose are not well known, but habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation are likely to have major impacts on populations (Mudappa D. personal observation). Further research is necessary to understand the impacts of the various potential threats the species is exposed to.
41613		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Delibes 1999). This species is present in many protected areas across its range.
41613		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas across its range. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Delibes 1999).
41613		distribution	eng	This species is found mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia to East Africa, then southwards in Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. It is absent from much of southern Africa, but present in NE Namibia, N Botswana, N and E Zimbabwe and the extreme eastern parts of South Africa (Palomares in press). In North Africa, ranges in a narrow coastal strip from Western Sahara to Tunisia, and also from N and E Egypt southwards to Ethiopia (Palomares in press). It is also found from the Sinai Peninsula to the south of Turkey, and the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). More specifically, in Europe this species is found in southern and central Portugal (Borralho <em>et al.</em> 1995) and south-western Spain (Delibes 1999). At the beginning of the 20th century, it was also present in the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). An individual was recently recorded near Leon (Castile and Leon, Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe, on a zoogeographical basis (Delibes 1999) and on the grounds that the species is absent from the European fossil record although late Pleistocene and Holocene fossils are known from North Africa (Dobson 1998). It has been speculated that the introduction occurred "perhaps a long time ago" (Delibes 1999). It has been reported to 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).
41613		distribution	eng	This species is found mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia to East Africa, then southwards in Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. It is absent from much of southern Africa, but present in north-east Namibia, northern Botswana, northern and eastern Zimbabwe and all along the South African coastline (Palomares in press). In North Africa, ranges in a narrow coastal strip from Western Sahara to Tunisia, and also from northern and eastern Egypt southwards to Ethiopia (Palomares in press). It has been reported to 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently formerly introduced to Madagascar, but not recorded recently (Haltenorth and Diller 1980).<br/><br/>Extralimitally to the African mainland, this species is also found from the Sinai Peninsula to the south of Turkey (Delibes 1999), and on the Iberian Peninsula in southern and central Portugal (Borralho <em>et al</em>. 1995) and south-western Spain (Delibes 1999). At the beginning of the 20th century, it was also present in the north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). An individual was recently recorded near Leon (Castile and Leon, Spain). It is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe, on a zoogeographical basis (Delibes 1999) and on the grounds that the species is absent from the European fossil record, although late Pleistocene and Holocene fossils are known from North Africa (Dobson 1998).
41613		habitat	eng	Mainly associated with habitats having under-storey vegetation in coastal, lacustrine and riparian (streams, rivers, marsh, swamps) habitats (Palomares in press). This species avoids humid forests and extreme deserts (Delibes 1999; Palomares in press). In tropical Africa, the Egyptian Mongoose occurs where there are termitaries, which Kingdon (1977) suggested could satisfy a need for secure shelter. In Europe, it is found in Mediterranean maquis, with a clear preference for humid and riparian habitats (Delibes 1999). Egyptian Mongooses have home ranges of about three square kilometres, and are diurnal and omnivorous (Delibes 1999).
41613		habitat	eng	Mainly associated with habitats with understorey vegetation in coastal, lacustrine and riparian (streams, rivers, marsh, swamps) habitats (Palomares in press). This species avoids humid forests and extreme deserts (Delibes 1999, Palomares in press). In tropical Africa, the Egyptian mongoose occurs where there are termitaries, which Kingdon (1977) suggested could satisfy a need for secure shelter. In Europe, “it is found in Mediterranean maquis, with a clear preference for humid and riparian habitats (Delibes 1999).”  Egyptian mongooses have home ranges of about 3 square kilometers, and are diurnal and omnivorous (Delibes 1999).
41613		population	eng	In the 19th century it regularly occurred in the north-west of the Iberian peninsula, but it subsequently became restricted to the south-west. In recent years, there have again been records from the north-west (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). “The status of its population in Europe is unknown, but numbers and probably range have increased in the last 20 years, in both Portugal and Spain (Delibes 1999).” Abundance increases from north to the south, reaching densities of 1.2 individual per square kilometer in southern Spain (Delibes 1999).
41613		population	eng	On the African mainland, this species is widespread and locally common (Taylor in press). Densities ranging from 0.1 (East Africa; Hendrichs 1972) to 1.2 individuals/km² (South Africa; Maddock 1988) have been recorded. The status of its population in Europe is unknown, but numbers and range have increased in the last 20 years, in both Portugal and Spain, mainly due to the reduction of its natural predators (Delibes 1999); abundance increases from north to the south, reaching densities of 1.2 individuals per square kilometre in southern Spain (Delibes 1999).
41613		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species across its range, although in parts of its range it may be at risk from more localized threats. On the Iberian Peninsula, incidental and deliberate poisoning by rodenticides is a localized threat, and trapping with boxes is legal in Portugal (F. Palomares pers. comm.). It is considered a pest by hunters, because of its presumed impact on small game species (Delibes 1999). In North Africa, this species is often protected by local people because it is valued as a predator of snakes (F. Cuzin and K. de Smet pers. comm.).
41613		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Incidental poisoning by rodenticides is a localized threat, and trapping with boxes is legal in Portugal (F. Palomares pers. comm. 2007). Deliberate illegal poisoning of carnivores sometimes occurs (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006). “It is considered a pest by hunters, because of its presumed impact on small game species" (Delibes 1999). The range of this species in south-western Europe has experienced reductions due to increased agricultural production, yet increases in range have also occurred due to the reduction of its natural predators (Delibes 1999).
41614		conservation	eng	The Small Asian Mongoose is listed under CITES Appendix III in India (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus</span>) (Wozencraft 2005). It is totally protected in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, and was listed as Vulnerable on the Chinese Red List (A1cd). In central India people consider the mongoose to be sacred, and thus it is not killed there (Shekhar 2003).<br/><br/>It occurs inside and outside of several Protected Areas throughout its range (Su 2005).
41614		distribution	eng	The small Asian mongoose occurs across a wide range from Iran through northern India and into Indochina (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Asia, this species ranges from sea level to 2,100 m (Simberloff <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>Outside of its natural range, this species has many well established populations. Introduced mongoose has been implicated in the devastation of the native fauna, especially on islands (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1952, Seaman and Randall 1962, Nellis and Everard 1983, Coblentz and Coblentz 1985). The IUCN lists the Small Asian Mongoose as one of the world’s 100 worst invasive alien species (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species was introduced to the West Indies, the Hawaiian Islands, Mauritius, the Fijian Islands, and Okinawa (Simberloff <em>et al</em>. 2000), as well as the Comores and Amami-Oshima Island, Japan (Abe 2005). The reasoning behind these introductions was primarily control of rat and snake populations (S. Abe pers. comm. 2006). The Small Asian Mongoose is also often taken aboard ships, indirectly introducing them to new areas (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). The species recently reached Hong Kong (M. Lau pers. comm. 2006), and has also been recorded from the island of Madura, Indonesia (Meiri 2005), but it is not known whether this was due to human introduction or natural dispersal. There are several individuals from northern Sumatra (see van Strien 2001), which were described by Sody (1949) as <em>H. javanicus tjerapa</em>i. Within its introduced range, the Small Asian Mongoose has been recorded from sea level to maximum elevations of 3,000 m on the Hawaiian Islands (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1952).
41614		habitat	eng	The ecology of the Small Asian Mongoose has been studied in introduced parts of its range (Nellis 1989), but its ecology in its native range is known only to the level of coarse habitat correlations. The species is known to occur in a variety of habitats but appears to prefer well-watered naturally open deciduous forests, shrublands and grasslands (Shekar 2003; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). While it tends to avoid closed evergreen forests, it will utilize secondary forest, degraded sites and areas of former evergreen forest opened by logging or similar practices (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Where it has been introduced in the West Indies (Pimentel 1955, Nellis and Everard 1983) and the Hawaiian Islands (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1952) the species is found in grasslands, crops, and forest of various kinds, coastal areas, and even settled suburbs (Simberloff <em>et al.</em> 2000). It tends to prefer edge habitat in most areas.<br/><br/>This species is terrestrial, seldom climbing trees and feeds, during both the day and the night, on a wide diet, which includes rats, birds, reptiles, frogs, crabs, insects, and even scorpions (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It produces litters of two to four at short intervals, with a gestation period of about 7 weeks (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).
41614		population	eng	The Small Asian Mongoose has a relatively large population across its range, and tolerates a wide degree of habitat conversion perhaps preferring degraded habitats in some areas. In mainland Southeast Asia, this species reaches high densities in well-watered naturally open deciduous forests, shrublands and grassy areas as in southern Lao PDR, Viet Nam and much of Cambodia. Given adequate habitat the species is locally common (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al.</em> 1997), and widespread (Robertson <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Snaring and other trapping pressures keep population numbers low in degraded habitats of large parts of Lao PDR - where the species might, if unmolested, be quite common (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). In India, it occurs at low densities and is not as common as Hespestes edwardsii (Shekhar 2003). In Myanmar, where village harvest of small carnivores and other similar-sized mammals seems to be much lower than in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, the species is so common in places that it is trapped by conservation agencies as a pest (Su 2005).
41614		threats	eng	The Small Asian Mongoose faces heavy exploitation in localized parts of its range, such as the Mekong Delta, but on the whole appears to be quite common and adaptable. This species is often captured and sold as pets (Shekhar 2003) and there is some commercial trade in China, India and Nepal. (A. Choudury pers. comm.). In northern Viet Nam it is hunted and sold in wild meat markets in both Viet Nam and China (S. Robertson pers. comm.). None of these threats seem to be contributing to the decline of the species globally.
41615		conservation	eng	They are known to be present in protected areas, such as Dzanga-Sangha in Central African Republic. Nonetheless, given their dependency upon forested habitats, and localized declines due to habitat loss and hunting, there is clearly a need for continued population monitoring of this species.
41615		distribution	eng	Occurs in western and central Africa, ranging from the Cross R. in south-eastern Nigeria east to Cameroon and Central African Republic and southward to Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo Republic and DR Congo (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In 1994, a relic population was discovered in the Niger Delta, Nigeria, approximately 200 km west of the Cross R. (Colyn and Van Rompaey 1994) and a specimen was recovered being sold as bushmeat in Ibeno, just west of the Cross R. (Angelici <em>et a</em>l. 1999). Collected to elevations of around 600-650 m asl (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41615		habitat	eng	Inhabits forested areas near swampy places or near streams and stream-beds (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In the Dzanga-Sangha, Central African Republic, they prefer dense and tangled understorey in forest, avoiding the very open understories of the stands of mono-dominant <em>Gilbertiodendron dewevrei</em> forest (Ray 1995, 1997). Omnivorous.
41615		population	eng	Until recently, they were thought to be very rare, as reflected in the small number of museum specimens and general lack of study. In south-west Central African Republic, this is the most dominant small carnivore (Ray 1997; Ray and Sunquist 2001). However, in other areas, they are not as abundant as other forest carnivores (especially <em>Crossarchus</em> spp.), and they are rare in the Niger Delta (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41615		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats known to the species, numbers probably are declining as a result of forest fragmentation and forest loss by logging, mining, and slash and burn farming. They are also hunted for bushmeat (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41616		conservation	eng	The collared mongoose is protected in all of Malaysia. While previously listed by Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) as not definitely recorded from any protected area and never kept in a zoological garden, this species was recorded from a protected area, Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo, in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). Schreiber <em>et al</em>. (1989) recommends field surveys to define more accurately the current status of the Sumatran collared mongoose, and to assess its conservation requirements. Urgent field surveys, field research and assessments of any possible threats are needed.
41616		distribution	eng	The collared mongoose is found on the islands of Borneo (Malaysia: states of Sarawak and Sabah [Wells <em>et al.</em> 2005; Wong Siew Te pers. comm., J. Hon, pers. obs.]), Indonesia [van Strien 2001] and presumably Brunei, although no records have been traced) and on Sumatra (Indonesia Robinson and Kloss, 1919). The range on Borneo is much more extensive than depicted in Corbet and Hill (1992), with records from the Balikpapan area, Gunung Palung, and Kutai and museum records from Balikpapan, Kendawangan, Pontianak, and Sanggau (see van Strien 2001). In Sumatra, there are only two confirmed historical locality records; two individuals (including the holotype of <em>H. s. uniformis</em>) from Ayer Taman in Ophir District in W. Sumatra (300 m) adjacent to Gunung Paseman (Robinson and Kloss, 1919). The southern record from Jentink (1894) mentions one specimen from Soekadana, South Sumatra. No recent records have been traced from Sumatra.
41616		habitat	eng	The ecology of the collared mongoose remains to be studied. Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) states that this species occurs in a number of different habitats, including primary forest, disturbed habitat, lowlands and hills, and in both disturbed and primary habitat. The species has been recorded from primary lowland rainforest by Wells <em>et al.</em> (2005), and Robinson and Kloss (1919) record this species in Borneo as occurring at 4000 feet Mt. Dulit. Further studies into distribution, suitable habitat types, tolerance to habitat conversion and general life history are required.
41616		population	eng	The population status of the collared mongoose is not known. Wong Siew Te (pers. comm.) suggests that this species is not common. Robinson and Kloss (1919) state that this species was rare in historical collections. Wong Siew Te (in litt. to J. W. Duckworth) only has camera trapped it once in Sabah over the last few years and suggests that this species is not common. Only two confirmed camera trap photos in Upper Baram in Sarawak (Jason Hon pers. comm.), which represents 30% of all mongoose photos both identified and unidentified. However, camera traps may not be a good indicator to show whether this species is common or rare as the chances of it passing the sensor without being detected are high (Azlan pers. comm.).
41616		threats	eng	Forest conversion is taking place at very high rates in lowland Borneo and Sumatra (Shreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). The effects of this on the collared mongoose are unknown because (i) it’s adaptability to secondary habitat is unclear and (ii) its extension into upland zones where forest conversion is currently lower is unclear. A number of people studying mammals in some of the best Bornean and Sumatran forests have not come across the species, suggesting a localised occupancy even of primary habitat. The causes for this are totally unknown.
41617		conservation	eng	The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix III (Wozencraft 2005), and Schedule IV of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In central India people consider the mongoose to be sacred, and thus it is not killed there (Shekhar 2003). The species occurs in numerous protected areas.
41617		distribution	eng	The ruddy mongoose is found in Southern India: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Yoganand and Kumar 1995), central India (Shekhar 2003) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke pers. comm.). There are recent records in northern India from Madhav National Park, Madhya Pradesh, Sariska TR, and Rajasthan.
41617		habitat	eng	The ecology of the ruddy mongoose remains to be studied. Most records of this species are from forested areas including dry forests, dry thorn areas, and disturbed forests, although there are also fewer records from open areas and secluded rice paddy fields (Divya Mudappa pers comm. 2006). In India, this species was found exclusively in dry forests, and was never sighted near human settlements (Shekhar 2003). The elevation range is 50 to 2,200 m in South India (Divya Mudappa pers comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The ruddy mongoose is crepuscular, hunting by day as well as by night, and leads an at least partially arboreal existence, as it hunts, feeds, and rests in trees (Shekhar 2003). In India, it is frequently sighted scavenging road kill (Shekhar 2003).
41617		population	eng	The population status of the ruddy mongoose is unknown, but the species is believed to be common in some forests of central India (Shekhar 2003).
41617		threats	eng	Little is known of direct threats to the ruddy mongoose but there appear to be no major threats to the global population. Local-scale major threats include hunting and snaring by local tribes.
41618		conservation	eng	This species is protected in China (‘Near Threatened’), Thailand, Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia. It is listed in Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972, and in Appendix III.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas throughout its extent of occurrence. It is protected in China (near threatened), Thailand, Myanmar, and Peninsular Malaysia. It is listed in Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972, and in Appendix III of CITES (India) (Van Rompaey, 2001). It is not protected in Viet Nam.
41618		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bangladesh (Ashan, 1989), SE China (Wang and Fuller, 2001, 2003), Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Lim, 2001, Wells and Francis, 1988, Laidlaw pers. comm.), Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press.), Lao PDR, Nepal, North eastern India, Taiwan, Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia (Wilson and Reeder, 2005, Van Rompaey, 2001). It is rarely found on high mountains (Van Rompaey, 2001), but it has been collected at 1650 m (Kurseong, Bengal, India; Pocock, 1941). From 16 records at 10 sites in Lao PDR, 14 are from over 450 m, suggesting that this species occurs, at least in south and central Lao PDR, mostly in hills and mountains (Van Rompaey, 2001). In Cambodia and Viet Nam, its range extends down to the plains (150 m) and to sea level in Hong Kong.
41618		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded mainly near water, in evergreen and deciduous forest, scrubby areas, in plantations and near human settlements (Pham Trong Anh, 1980; Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1997; Van Rompaey, 2001, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). It has been recorded up to 1,650 m (Pocock, 1941; Duckworth, 1997; Van Rompaey, 2001). It is  diurnal in at least Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Myanmar, despite earlier statements it was nocturnal, which were based on very little real evidence (reviewed in Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. (in press) (Pham Trong Anh, 1992; Duckworth, 1997, Long and Minh Hoang 2006, Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep., Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press., J. Walstone pers. comm.). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in southeastern China and found that it ate mammals, reptiles, insects and crustaceans.<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, this species is found in evergreen forest (including degraded areas), mainly near water; the most recent records are from hill and mountainous areas (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999). In Thailand, Cambodia and southern Viet Nam this species is found also in deciduous forest. In India this species is found in lowland wet-evergreen forests, secondary forest and areas around industrial areas (ie oil refineries). There are records from rice fields and other agricultural areas, and even near human settlements (Pham Trong Anh, 1980). However, in Assam, India, it has not been observed near human habitations (Choudhury, 1997). Little is known about its breeding, though the gestation period is thought to be about nine weeks; probably meaning that this species reproduces more slowly than Herpestes javanicus (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It feeds on fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, insects and crayfish (Van Rompaey, 2001). <br/><br/>It is readily approached by humans due to its apparent nearsightedness (Van Rompaey, 2001), and fearlessness (Pocock, 1941). It has lived up to 13 years and 4 months in captivity (Jones, 1982). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the ecology of this species near Taohong Village in northern Jiangxi Province, southeastern China, from April 1993 to November 1994. Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province) by analyzing its scats, the study was conducted between June 1992 and November 1994, and found that this species ate mammals, reptiles, insects, and crustaceans.
41618		population	eng	In watered edge habitats amid largely natural vegetation, this is a common specis in Viet Nam, Lao, Cambodia, Myanmar. However, outside of this preferred habitat and in some prtions of its range the species is uncommon or rare (Gyldenstolpe, 1916; Inglis <em>et al.</em>, 1919; Delacour, 1940; Khan, 1982; Duckworth, 1997; Choudhury, 1997a; 1997b; 1999).  However, it is uncommon in the Jalpaiguiri District, Bengal, India (Inglis <em>et al</em>. 1919), while it is common in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and north Bengal, India (Choudhury, 1997a; 1997b; 1999). It's rare in Bangladesh (Khan, 1982) and relatively common in Viet Nam (Delacour, 1940). Today in Lao it is common in forested areas in north and central (Duckworth 1997, Duckworth and Robichaud 2005). It is widespread in northern Viet Nam north of Thanh Hoa, but in small numbers (Pham Trong Anh, 1980, 1982). It is common in the forests between Thailand and Tenasserim (Peninsular Myanmar) (Gyldenstolpe, 1916). Very common in the Hukaung valley of north Myanmar, widespread and at least frequent in the northern two-thirds of the country (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press.).
41618		threats	eng	The impact of habitat loss and degradation on this species is not fully understood, is can be found in secondary forest and selectively logged areas, however, there is no evidence that it can live in totally converted areas. Hunting and retaliatory killing for raiding poultry on farms may also be threats in areas near human settlement, but the impacts of this killing at population scales are unknown.<br/><br/>On the China Red List it is considered near threatened, nearly meeting vulnerable due to past population declines (A1c). There is no demand for its meat in restaurants in Viet Nam (Roberton, S. pers. comm.). Incidental capture in snares is also a threat. Retaliatory killing for raiding poultry on farms in India might be a threat, but this is not considered a major threat to the population. Hunting is probably the main threat in Lao PDR, but the species persists widely ( and, despite being a ground-dwelling animal, and thus potentially suffering from incidental trapping, there is equivocal evidence for only localized population reduction (Duckworth, W. pers. comm.).
41619		conservation	eng	The stripe-necked mongoose is on Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and has been recorded from many protected areas throughout its range (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix III.
41619		distribution	eng	The stripe-necked mongoose is found in Southwest India (Mudappa 1998) and Sri Lanka (Santiapillai <em>et al</em>. 2000; Ratnayeke pers. comm.). In India, this species is found particularly in the Western Ghats and other hill tracts in the Nilgiris from Coorg (now Kodagu) to Travancore (Pocock 1939; Medway 1978; Prater 1971; Phillips 1984; Corbet and Hill 1992; Mudappa 1998), and Dharwar (Phillips 1929), as well as near Bombay (Blanford 1888-1891) to Cape Comorin (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar, 2003). In Sri Lanka it is found in the across a range of elevations from high hills to lowlands, being most common between 400 and 1,400 m (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003).
41619		habitat	eng	The stripe-necked mongoose has been recorded in deciduous and evergreen forest, swampy clearings, plantations, open scrub and along watercourses (Webb-Peploe 1947, Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). In deciduous forests it is usually found in swampy clearings, along watercourses, and in open scrub (Krishnan 1972) as well as in rice fields. Of 11 sightings in a protected area, seven were in dry deciduous forest, three in moist deciduous forest, and one in a teak plantation (R. Arumugam, in litt 2003). In Valprai in the Anamalai Hills, there were a dozen sightings between April and December of 2002, with animals seen foraging along streams in riverine forests and swamps, and also in tea plantations (Mudappa, D. pers. comm.). In Sri Lanka, its distribution may encompass lowland dry zone forest and it is rarely sighted in disturbed areas or close to human settlements (Ratnayeke pers. comm.), however, the species is adaptable and can tolerate relatively high disturbance.<br/><br/>The stripe-necked mongoose is more common in the hills than in the lowlands (Hill 1939), and has been found up to 2,200 m (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003; Mudappa pers. comm.). It is diurnal and feeds on small mammals, birds, birds' eggs, reptiles, fish, insects, grubs, and roots (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). The typical litter size is two to three and an animal in captivity was recorded as living for nearly 13 years (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003).
41619		population	eng	Population assessments for the stripe-necked mongoose have been made but these are not recent (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003); nevertheless, the species appears to be relatively common in many areas of its range. In India, it is rare in the northern part of its range, and most abundant in Travancore (Jerdon 1874). It is also common on the Nilghiri and Palni plateaus (Anonymous 1935), in the High Wavy Mountains (Hutton 1949), and on the Valparai Plateau in the Anamalai Hills (D. Mudappa pers. comm.). It is not uncommon in Coorg, although less common than Herpestes edwardsii (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). In Sri Lanka, it used to be fairly common in the higher hills of the Central Provinces, but seems to be declining (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). It is relatively common in the Sri Lankan interior (Blyth 1851) and is "moderately plentiful" in the Horton Plains area and around Gamaduwa (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). The species is not uncommon in the low-country Dry Zone along the banks of the Menik Ganga (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003), and is present, but not common, in the Wet Zone in the Kalutara District (Phillips 1984).
41619		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the global population of the stripe-necked mongoose, although major threats are present at the local scale in the form of hunting and trade. This species is hunted for meat that is eaten by several tribes and for its hair that is used for making shaving brushes, paint brushes, and good luck charms (Hanfee and Ahmed 1999). They are also regularly killed by hunting dogs (Adams 1931; Webb-Peploe 1947). All mongoose species are in demand for the wildlife trade (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar, 2003), however, this threat is regional in scale. The loss of habitat is a threat (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003), however, there is likely no significant level of population decline at the species scale.
41620		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas across its range.
41620		distribution	eng	Widespread in sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal and Gambia to the Horn of Africa, and then southwards to south-east South Africa (Taylor in press). Extralimital to the African continent, present along much of the coast of Saudi Arabia to Oman and also recorded from Farasan Kabir Island in the Red Sea, where they may have been introduced (Taylor in press). Ranges to 3,500 m asl in Ethiopia (Admasu <em>et a</em>l. 2004).
41620		habitat	eng	Occurs in grasslands, savanna, and woodland areas, and absent from moist forested areas, high altitudes, desert and semi-desert (Taylor in press). They are adaptable to human-modified habitats, with individuals often found around towns and villages where they feed opportunistically on garbage (Taylor in press). In Oman they have been found associated with gardens and plantations (Harrison and Bates 1991). Primarily insectivorous.
41620		population	eng	Common. Densities as high as 4.3 individuals/km² were reported from the Serengeti (Waser 1980).
41620		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. They may be caught incidentally in predator control programmes principally aimed at Black-backed Jackal <em>Canis mesomelas</em> and Caracal <em>Caracal caracal</em> (Taylor in press).
41621		conservation	eng	Banded Mongooses are present in numerous protected areas across their wide range on the African continent.
41621		distribution	eng	Distributed widely in sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal and Gambia to Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia, and south to about 31° in South Africa. Although fairly widespread in southern Africa, the species appears to be rare in West Africa, and it has not been recorded from several countries including Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Niger (Cant and Gilchrist in press). They apparently were introduced to Zanzibar (Pakenham 1984), although neither Stuart and Stuart (1998) nor Goldman and Winther-Hansen (2003) recorded them during camera-trapping surveys, suggesting they are either rare or absent. Recorded to 1,600 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).
41621		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide range of habitats, but primarily found in savanna and woodland, usually close to water, and absent from desert, semi-desert and montane regions (Cant and Gilchrist in press). Often found in habitats containing termitaria, which are used as den sites. Diet includes a variety of invertebrate material (insects, snails), small reptiles, the eggs and young of ground-nesting birds, and wild fruits (Cant and Gilchrist in press).
41621		population	eng	Recorded densities vary widely between habitats and locations. On the Serengeti plains, Banded Mongooses live at a density of around 3 individuals/km² (Waser <em>et al.</em> 1995). By contrast, a population in Queen Elizabeth N.P., Uganda, lives at higher densities, averaging 18 individuals/km² (Cant 1998, Gilchrist and Otali 2002).
41621		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41622		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in several protected areas.
41622		distribution	eng	Ranges from Angola in the west to Malawi in the east, with its most southward extension in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). They are not yet recorded from Swaziland (Monadjem 1998), but may well occur.
41622		habitat	eng	Inhabits savanna grassland and woodland, but absent from forest and arid areas (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41622		population	eng	Uncommon, although many parts of its known range are not well surveyed (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41622		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41623		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas across its range.
41623		distribution	eng	Ranges from central Tanzania south through Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, to Swaziland and north-eastern South Africa (Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces) (Stuart and Stuart in press). A possible record from Chobe N.P. in Botswana (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007), if substantiated, would be the first record for this country. Recorded to 1,850 m asl in Tanzania (De Luca and Mpunga 2005)
41623		habitat	eng	A savanna species, mainly associated with open woodland and grassland with termitaria (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41623		population	eng	Apparently uncommon to rare, but it may be easily overlooked or confused with other mongoose species.
41623		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Its favoured habitat is extensive, and in some parts with very low human populations. However, in some parts of the range (e.g., Tanzania) there has been considerable expansion of the human population and their dogs, which could represent a significant localized threat (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41624		conservation	eng	They are present in several large and well-managed protected areas, including the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.
41624		distribution	eng	Widespread in the western parts of southern Africa, including western and southern Namibia, south-western Botswana, and north and west South Africa, with a very marginal intrusion into extreme south-western Angola (Macdonald in press).  They may occur in the lowlands of Lesotho (Lynch 1994).
41624		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of arid, open country, characterized by short grasses and sparse woody growth. They are absent from true desert and forested areas, and also from mountainous terrain (Macdonald in press). Carnivorous, feeding mostly on invertebrates.
41624		population	eng	Densities can fluctuate greatly across the range, and are influenced by rainfall and predation. In the Kalahari Gemsbok N.P., South Africa, densities declined from 1 animals/km² in April 1994 to 0.32 animals/km² in May 1995 following a reduction in rainfall (Clutton-Brock <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41624		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
41625		conservation	eng	Throughout its range, this species is found in a number of protected areas. In Thailand this species is protected by law, and in India this species is protected under the highest level of protection. It is not protected in Viet Nam or Cambodia and is the largest-bodied unprotected mammal, except for Euraisan Wild Hog Sus scrofa, in Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). The China Red List has listed the hog badger as Vulnerable under C1 and A2c.
41625		distribution	eng	The hog badger occurs in Central to Southeast Asia. It is found in Mongolia, India (Sikkim, Terai, Assam, Arunacha Pradesh), throughout southern China, Indochina (Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia), Myanmar, in Indonesia (Sumatra), throughout Thailand and possibly in Perak, Malaysia (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Duckworth 1997; Pocock 1941; Holden 2006; Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.; Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). There is one isolated record in eastern Mongolia (Aimak Dornod) (Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 1998). According to Holden (2006) in Sumatra the hog badger appears to occur primarily above 2,000 m with one record at 700 m, and historical records also indicate a montane range (Miller 1942). Corbet and Hill's (1992) map suggest that on Sumatra the species is restricted to the southern part of the island, whereas, in fact, individuals have been found in many mountainous locations in the north as well (van Strien 2001). <br/><br/>In Lao PDR, most recent records are from the central part of the country, with some from the north, although historic records come also from the south (Duckworth 1997, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). There are recent indirect reports (unsubstantiated villager reports) from many survey areas in Lao PDR, but few documented records (R.J. Timmins and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006); in aggregate, these suggest that this species was present in the recent past, but has more or less been hunted out from quite wide areas (J.W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). Deuve (1972) considered that the species occurred in the southern region of Lao PDR, listing several lowland sites; however, Deuve’s Lao range information is often faulty (e.g. Timmins and Duckworth 1999), so this cannot be taken as complete confirmation the animal was formerly widespread in Lao lowlands. All seven records in 1992-1996 were from in and around the Nam Theun catchment at sites above 500 m (Duckworth 1997), while both historical sites listed by Delacour (1940) are in mountainous areas: Phongsali and the Bolaven Plateau. The post-1996 records are also from hills and mountains (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41625		habitat	eng	The hog badger is active by day, terrestrial, and not very wary of humans (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species if <br/>often referred to as nocturnal, however, analysis of numerous camera-trap pictures from Myanmar show no peak at either day or night; it can be active at any time (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). It is usually found in forested areas as high as 3,500 m, and it feeds on “tubers, roots, earthworms, insects, and other small living creatures” (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province), and found that this species ate more mammals and gastropods than other species studied. Little is known about its breeding habits, though litter size seems to be two to three young, and individuals have lived up to seven years in captivity (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, the hog badger is found in forested areas, and mainly now on hills and mountains (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), however, this altitudinal restriction may be a secondary effect of overhunting. In contrast to Lao PDR, this species in Cambodia occurs in level lowlands, in mosaics of deciduous and semi-evergreen forests, which is a further line of supposition that its current Lao distribution reflects anthropogenic restriction. <br/><br/>In India, this species is fairly common within grassland habitats of Terai, as well as in dense, tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and tall grassland -woodland mosaic. In Thailand it is also found in rubber plantations adjacent to forests (B. Kanchanaska pers. comm.). In Myanmar, the hog badger has been recorded in forest including bamboo stands under tree cover (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press), and it is also found in limestone forests in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It mainly occurs in upper montane forest in Sumatra (Holden 2006).
41625		population	eng	opulation trends for the hog badger may vary across its range. In Lao PDR, this species can be locally common, as indicated by its presence during most surveys in and around the Nam Theun catchment (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). The lack of sightings elsewhere indicates that this species is either naturally patchy in abundance or under widespread decline (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). Occurrence in Myanmar is also patchy without obvious natural explantion (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). In Thailand, it is fairly common and found in both the north and the south (B. Kanchanaska pers. comm.). It is also very common in the high montane zone of Sumatra (Holden 2006), and in southwestern and eastern Cambodia (J. L. Walston and R. J. Timmins pers. comm.). In India, this species is fairly common in Terai. The hog badger is historically widespread in Viet Nam, but sightings seem to be declining (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
41625		threats	eng	Major threats to the hog badger are hunting by dogs as well as snaring, primarily for human consumption and as bycatch. In Lao, the palatability of hog badger varies among ethnic groups, with some groups disliking the taste, whereas groups in parts of the Nam Theun basin (and perhaps widely elsewhere) seek the species specifically for food (J. Baker pers. comm. and J. Chamberlain per. comm. in Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species is also eaten by some groups in India, and is hunted as well as farmed for food in China (M.W.N. Lao pers. comm.). Field surveys in China generated very few records of wild animals in Southeastern China (M.W.N. Lao pers. comm.), and the species is also hunted at the local level in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.). In all of Indochina, this species is threatened by the use of hunting dogs (J. Baker pers. comm. 1999). <br/><br/>The snaring intensity in Cambodia is considerably lower than that in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and the relatively larger number of recent records from Cambodia than from Viet Nam and Lao PDR is strong indirect evidence that trapping levels are driving reductions in these latter countries. In Viet Nam and presumably elsewhere, gun-hunting poses another threat to the species (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>While threats similar to those in Lao PDR and Viet Nam are known to exist in Thailand, it is generally thought that the hunting is operating at much lower intensities and are therefore not as serious. In Sumatra as well, the threats are minimal, because the zone of occurrence is above where the majority of hunting takes place (Holden 2006)
41626		conservation	eng	This species is likely to occur  in many protected areas across its range, specifically the northern part of its range; it has not been found in many protected areas in the southern part of its range where it overlaps with <em>Melogale personata,</em> but given survey methodology to date, the lack of records cannot be use to infer absence of the species (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). In India, it is protected in Schuedule 2, Part 1. This species is listed as Near Threatened on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004).
41626		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (central and southeastern, Hainan), northeast India (Naga Hills near Manipur), northern Myanmar, northern Lao, Taiwan, and northern Viet Nam (Pocock 1941, Wilson and Reeder 2005). Southern China constitutes most of the known range (Neal 1986). There are no recent field records in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999); though, it was previously assessed as very common around Xiangkhouang and Phongsali (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940) and it is possible that recent surveys have not used appropriate methodology to find the species. A study on the ecology of this species took place in Taohong Village, northern Jiangxi Province, about 15 km south of the Yangtze River (29º48'N, 116º40'E) (Wang and Fuller 2003). The southern extent of range into central Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Myanmar and potentially Thailand (where mapped by Storz and Wozencraft 1999, apparently predictively) requires further investigation due to confusion with other species, but it appears to go several degrees of latitude further south than is mapped in standard sources, at least in Viet Nam. The species has been found from 700 to 1,524 m in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep). Records in Lao are from high elevations (Osgood 1932). In India it has been found from 50 to 2,000 m (A. Choudhury pers. comm.). In northern Myanmar it is found up to 5,000 ft (Pocock 1941). Thus, in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and India there is continued difficulty of identifying recent records of ferret badgers to species, most of which lack skulls or or did not have the skull characters checked and were not preserved. Hence it is impossible to say anything about this species’s current distribution, status or ecology in these regions.  <br/><br/><em>Melogale moschata</em> and <em>M. personata</em> are very similar in external morphologically, and - and field records, including skin specimens lacking an associated skull, need to be considered as identifiable only as <em>Melogale</em> sp. throughout the parts its range where M. personata is known to occur or might plausibly occur, and only references to skull characteristics should be used for species- level identification. Thus, in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and India there is continued difficulty of identifying recent records of ferret badgers to species, most of which lack skulls or or did not have the skull characters checked and were not preserved. Hence it is impossible to say anything about this species’s current distribution, status or ecology in these regions.
41626		habitat	eng	The habitat use of this species in Lao PDR is unclear (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), as it is in the rest of South-east Asia.  <br/><br/>This species is fossorial and lives in preexisting holes (including rodent dens, firewood stacks, open fields, and rock piles around houses (Wang and Fuller, 2003), rather than digging new ones (Taylor, 1989). It is exclusively nocturnal (Wang and Fuller, 2003) and feeds primarily on small animals such as insects, earthworms (most important part of its diet (Qian <em>et al,</em> 1976; Chuang and Lee, 1997), snails, frogs, and sometimes carcasses of small birds and mammals, eggs, and fruit (Chian and Sheng, 1976; Long and Killingley, 1983; Ewer, 1985; Neal, 1986; Chuang, 1994). Resting home range size was found to be 10.6 ha (Wang and Fuller, 2003).<br/><br/>Almost all pregnant females were found between March and October during a study on the reproduction of this species on Taiwan (Pei and Wang, 1995). Litter size is two, and evidence suggests that they breed once a year (Pein and Wang, 1995). This species is often found near human habitations (Storz and Wozencraft, 1999), taking shelter during the day, and earthworms (the most important part of its diet) are most abundant in the fertile vegetable gardens and farmland soils were this species frequently forages (Wang and Fuller, 2003).  It is also sometimes invited into native huts to exterminate cockroaches and other insects (Storz and Wozencraft, 1999). Storz and Wozencraft (1999) report that it is found in tropical and subtropical forests and wooded hillsides, as well as grasslands and cultivated areas such as rice fields.
41626		population	eng	This species in general seems to be relatively common, although this can only be confirmed in areas where it does not overlap with M. personata; where it does or might overlap, there are too few properly identified records to indicate relative abundance of the two species (J.W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). However, they are seldom caught in live traps due to their wariness (Storz and Wozencraft, 1999). There are no recent field records in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). It was previously very common around Xiangkhouang and Phongsali (Delacour 1940). There were 238 record of this species from Taiwan between 1991 to 1993 (Pei and Wang, 1995). This species is still common on Taiwan (unlike other carnivores on Taiwan, which have decreased due to widespread deterioration of natural habitat and possibly also intensive rodent control programs during the past few decades) (Wang 1986; Pei and Wang 1995). "It is a poorly understood species, despite the fact that it seems quite common (Wang and Fuller 2003)." During a survey on ecology in Taohong Village, southeastern China, 27 records of this species were reported during an 11 month period by Wang and Fuller (2003). Despite the annual average harvest of 40 individuals in an area of about 16 km², which included the study area of Wang and Fuller (2003), this species still seemed rather abundant (Wang and Fuller 2003).<br/><br/><em>Melogale moschata</em> and <em>personata</em> are very similar in external morphologically - and field records, including skin specimens lacking an associated skull, need to be considered as identifiable only as <em>Melogale sp</em>. throughout the parts its range where <em>M. personata</em> is known to occur or might plausibly do so, and only references to skull characteristics should be used for species level identification.
41626		threats	eng	In northeastern India the genus is hunted for food (A. Choudhury pers. comm.). In Lao PDR, parts of all badgers are used in traditional medicine (Baird 1995b), however, there is no evidence that there is a big enough demand to cause declines of ferret badgers (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). In southern China this species has historically been one of the most important furbearers and is subjected to heavy harvest pressure (Shou, 1962; Sheng, 1993; Storz and Wozencraft 1999). Because this species does not prey on poultry or livestock, nor cause to damage to property or farm facilities, it is not threatened by humans, despite its close proximity to them (Wang and Fuller, 2003). In addition, the value of an individual pelt is not high, and the meat is eaten in some areas (Wang and Fuller, 2003).
41627		conservation	eng	A skull of this species was found Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in early 1998 (Robinson and Webber 1998a). This species may be found to occur in many protected areas across its range (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006); until there are surveys known to be using appropriate methodology, it is difficult to speculate on current presence in protected areas. In India, it is protected in Schuedule 2, Part 1. In Thailand it (the Genus) was found in Doi Chieng Doi Wildlife Sanctuary and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS) in Thailand (L. Grassman pers. comm.).
41627		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, and southern Yunnan (China) (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). There is an old record from western Guangdong (China). In India it is found from 30 to 1,950 m (Choudhury pers. comm.) and Datta (1999) confirmed current occurence at about 27°N in India. Records from Nepal are historic and may differ from what is today recognized as "Nepal" (Hodgson 1836- holotype for subspecies) - and there have been no subsequent records since (Pralad Yonzon, verbally; see also Hinton and Fry 1923). Records from northern Viet Nam need to be checked in Museums and further investigated (Roberton pers. comm.), although there is a record confirmed from Yanbai (Thomas 1922); other records may not have ruled out <em>M. moschata</em> from the identification. Distributions of species in Cambodia and Lao PDR are highly speculative and based on few verifiable specimens (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999 pers. comm.): A skull of this species was found Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in early 1998 (Robinson and Webber 1998a), and "the species was previously common on the Bolaven Plateau (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940)." [from Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999]. The distribution in Myanamar north to 22˚N is well supported by validated individuals, but there seem to be no post-1950 records identified to species (Pocock 1941, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). This is the only species of the genus confirmed to occur in Thailand, and hence records of the genus are routinely assumed to relate to this species. In fact, <em>M. moschata</em> might also occur too (and was even mapped, apparently predictively, by Storz and Wozencraft 1999). <em>Melogale moschata</em> and <em>M. personata</em> are very similar in external morphology, and field records, including skin specimens lacking an associated skull, need to be considered as identifiable only as <em>Melogale</em> sp. throughout the parts its range where <em>M. moschata</em> is known to occur or might plausibly do so (effectively, this is all the known range). Only reference to skull characteristics should be used for species-level identification. Thus, in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and India there is continued difficulty of identifying recent records of ferret badgers to species, most of which lack skulls or did not have the skull characters checked and were not preserved. Hence it is impossible to say anything about this species’s current distribution, status or ecology in these regions.
41627		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal and feeds primarily on small animals such as insects, earthworms, snails, frogs, and sometimes carcasses of small birds and mammals, eggs, and fruit (Chian and Sheng, 1976; Long and Killingley, 1983; Ewer, 1985; Neal, 1986; Chuang, 1994). This species sleeps during the day in its burrow, and comes out at night to feed on cockroaches, grasshoppers, and earthworms (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It is found in forest, grassland, and even rice fields (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), but it is unclear in which habitats populations can persist; records from other habitats may involve sink populations or dispersing individuals. Not much is known about the breeding of this species, though it does have an average litter size of about three (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). This species is fossorial and lives in preexisting holes, rather than digging new ones (Taylor, 1989).In Lao PDR, little is known about the habitat use of this species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Thailand, records were found in hill evergreen forests, pine forests and grasslands (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.).
41627		population	eng	The species seems to be patchy in occurrence and generally uncommon but in some localised parts of South-east Asia, ferret badgers (species not known)  seem to be more common. The genus is uncommon in Thailand (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). The species was previously common on the Bolaven Plateau (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940), however, there are very few recent records from Lao PDR – it is unknown if this is due to elusiveness or rarity (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).
41627		threats	eng	In Lao PDR, parts of all badgers are used in traditional medicine (Baird 1995b), however, there is no evidence that there is a big enough demand to cause declines of ferret badgers (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). There are few records recently from Lao PDR of ferret badgrets, but this may well simply be due to inadequate search effort. In northeastern India the genus is hunted for food (A. Choudhury pers. comm.). Because this genus does not prey on poultry or livestock, nor cause to damage to property or farm facilities, it is not threatened by humans, despite its close proximity to them (Wang and Fuller, 2003). In addition, the value of an individual pelt is not high, and the meat is eaten in some areas (Wang and Fuller, 2003).
41628		conservation	eng	This species is most likely found in many protected areas within its range, and has been reported in at least two protected areas, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park on Java and Danau Sentarum National Park on Borneo. It is not protected in Sarawak, but it is protected in Sabah (Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1998, 1997).
41628		distribution	eng	This species is found on Java, Borneo, Sumatra and the Natuna Islands in Indonesia and on Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak) in Malaysia (Wilson and Reeder, 2005); it is inferred to be found in Brunei (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). Reported by van Balen (1914) from the Dieng Plateau, but present status there unknown; Bukit Suharto (Yasuma, 1994) and Sungai Wain (G. Frederiksson pers. comm.) in East Kalimantan, south of the Mahakam River. It is tentatively recorded from Tanjung Putting National Park in Borneo. It has been recorded at a wide range of elevations but may be more common at lower elevations (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). For example, this species has been found higher than 2,000 m, (Jentink 1895; Lawrence 1939; Neal 1986),  at 1,000 m on the Kelabit Plateau in Sarawak, Malaysia,  and as low as 250 m in western Java (Forbes 1879).
41628		habitat	eng	This species is found in secondary forests and open grounds such as gardens adjacent to forests (Payne and Francis 1985) and for similar uses in Sumatra (Holden 2006). There is no real particular evidence that it needs primary forest. It feeds on bird eggs, carrion, insects, worms, and plants (Long and Killingley 1983; Neal and Cheeseman 1996; Payne and Francis 1985). Litter size is usually two to three (Wood 1865). It is nocturnal, sheltering in underground burrows during the day (Hwang and Larivière 2003).
41628		population	eng	It is very difficult to assess the current population status of this species, as people tend to find them incidentally, and so reports often do not reach the public domain (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Its distribution seems to be patchy (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).
41628		threats	eng	On Java, the anal gland secretion is used to make perfume (Long and Killingley 1983), and some rural people eat the flesh of this species (Nowak 1999). It is also used in traditional medicine to cure fever or rheumatism (Nowak 1999).
41629		conservation	eng	The Honey Badger is found in many protected areas throughout its range, and is also legally protected in many countries, including the Middle Asian countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan and the Mediterranean countries of Israel, Morocco and Algeria. Commercial hive damage from Honey Badgers can be simply and effectively reduced (26% to 1%) by securing bee hives a meter or more above the ground on a stand or trestle (Begg and Begg 2002), thereby minimizing conflicts between Honey Badgers and apiculturists.
41629		conservation	eng	The Honey Badger is found in many protected areas throughout its range, and is also legally protected in many countries, including the Middle Asian countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan and the Mediterranean countries of Israel, Morocco and Algeria. Commercial hive damage from Honey Badgers can be simply and effectively reduced (26% to 1%) by securing bee hives a meter or more above the ground on a stand or trestle (Begg and Begg 2002), thereby minimizing conflicts between Honey Badgers and apiculturists.<br/>The population of Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix III.
41629		distribution	eng	The Honey Badger has an extensive historical range which extends through most of sub-Saharan Africa from the Western Cape, South Africa, to southern Morocco and south-western Algeria, and outside of Africa through Arabia, Iran and western Asia to Turkmenistan and the Indian peninsula. Historically, it is thought to be absent from the driest centre of the Sahara Desert, the Mediterranean coast as far as the Nile Valley, and the central (Free State province) part of South Africa.<br><br>In Africa, they are known to range from sea level to as much as 2,600 m asl in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003) and 4,000 m asl in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996).
41629		distribution	eng	The Honey Badger has an extensive historical range which extends through most of sub-Saharan Africa from the Western Cape, South Africa, to southern Morocco and south-western Algeria, and outside of Africa through Arabia, Iran and western Asia to Turkmenistan and the Indian peninsula. Historically, it is thought to be absent from the driest centre of the Sahara Desert, the Mediterranean coast as far as the Nile Valley, and the central (Free State province) part of South Africa.<br/><br/>In Africa, they are known to range from sea level to as much as 2,600 m asl in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003) and 4,000 m asl in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996).
41629		habitat	eng	This species lives in a wide variety of habitat types from the dense rain forests of the Congo Basin to the arid deserts on the outskirts of the Sahara and Namib, Honey Badgers are opportunistic, generalized carnivores, and feed on a range of prey items varying in size from small insect larvae to the young of ungulates. Although they are primarily hunters of their own food, they may pirate food from other carnivores and will also scavenge from the kills of larger animals (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press). They are primarily solitary, with a non-territorial polygynous or promiscuous mating system, and range over areas as much as 500 km² (Begg <em>et al</em>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 266: 23-35). They have small litter sizes and a long birth interval (Begg <em>et al</em>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 265: 17-22).
41629		habitat	eng	This species lives in a wide variety of habitat types from the dense rain forests of the Congo Basin to the arid deserts on the outskirts of the Sahara and Namib, Honey Badgers are opportunistic, generalized carnivores, and feed on a range of prey items varying in size from small insect larvae to the young of ungulates. Although they are primarily hunters of their own food, they may pirate food from other carnivores and will also scavenge from the kills of larger animals (Begg <i>et al.</i> in press). They are primarily solitary, with a non-territorial polygynous or promiscuous mating system, and range over areas as much as 500 km² (Begg <i>et al</i>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 266: 23-35). They have small litter sizes and a long birth interval (Begg <i>et al</i>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 265: 17-22).
41629		population	eng	Honey Badger are considered rare or to exist at low densities across most of their range (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press). Densities based on night counts have been estimated at 0.1 individuals/km² in the Serengeti N.P., Tanzania (Waser 1980) and 0.03 adults/km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa (Begg 2001).
41629		population	eng	Honey Badger are considered rare or to exist at low densities across most of their range (Begg <i>et al.</i> in press). Densities based on night counts have been estimated at 0.1 individuals/km² in the Serengeti N.P., Tanzania (Waser 1980) and 0.03 adults/km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa (Begg 2001).
41629		threats	eng	Ratels are directly persecuted (through the use of, for example, steel-jawed traps and poisons) by apiculturists and small livestock farmers throughout their range, and are also indirectly killed by non-selective control programmes targeting other species, such as jackals <em>Canis</em> spp. and Caracal <em>Caracal caracal</em> (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press).  There is evidence to suggest they have gone locally extinct in many areas due to poisoning (K. Begg and C. Begg pers. comm. 2006). Ratel body parts (particularly paws, skin and organs) are commonly used in traditional medicine because of their reputation for fearlessness and tenacity. In some areas (Zambia, Guinea), Ratels appear on the bushmeat trade due to the decline in other more favoured bushmeat species (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Begg <em>et al</em>. in press). Although there is little apiculture in areas of North Africa where the Ratel occurs (except near the Lower Draa area, in Morocco), they are persecuted (trapping, poisoning) (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).
41629		threats	eng	Ratels are directly persecuted (through the use of, for example, steel-jawed traps and poisons) by apiculturists and small livestock farmers throughout their range, and are also indirectly killed by non-selective control programmes targeting other species, such as jackals <i>Canis</i> spp. and Caracal <i>Caracal caracal</i> (Begg <i>et al.</i> in press).  There is evidence to suggest they have gone locally extinct in many areas due to poisoning (K. Begg and C. Begg pers. comm. 2006). Ratel body parts (particularly paws, skin and organs) are commonly used in traditional medicine because of their reputation for fearlessness and tenacity. In some areas (Zambia, Guinea), Ratels appear on the bushmeat trade due to the decline in other more favoured bushmeat species (Colyn <i>et al</i>. 2004; Begg <i>et al</i>. in press). Although there is little apiculture in areas of North Africa where the Ratel occurs (except near the Lower Draa area, in Morocco), they are persecuted (trapping, poisoning) (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).
41630		conservation	eng	Suggested actions needed to revert the decline of native species living in the Patagonian steppe include: prevent new introductions; create protected areas in the Patagonian steppe where livestock are excluded and the ecological role of native large fauna is restored; study other consequences of the introduction of exotic species and the ecological extinction of native ones (Novaro <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is also considered necessary to include species of <em>Conepatus</em> in CITES Appndix II in order to obtain data on the trade in the different species, to estimate the exploitation level, and to enforce a better control of the exports, and to avoid that one of the species exported under the name of any of the other species (IUCN-SSC, 1992).
41630		distribution	eng	The species is found in mid to southern South America. It occurs from southern Peru through Bolivia south to Uruguay, western Paraguay, and central Chile into Argentina where it is found as far south as Neuquén province (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). The species has been also observed in in different localities in South Brazil: São Paulo (De Vivo and Gregorin, 2001); at south São Paulo and Paraná (Cáceres, 2004); at eastern Paraná and eastern Santa Catarina (Cimardi, 1996).
41630		habitat	eng	Little is known about <em>Conepatus chinga</em> ecology. It seems to forage solitarily during the night in open savannas and in arid and shrubby areas (Cabrera and Yepes, 1960; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1996), capturing arthropods (mainly beetles and arachnids) and occasionally small mammals and preying on eggs and fledling birds (Cabrera and Yepes, 1960; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; Mares <em>et al</em>. 1996). Hog-nosed skunks are morphologically (Howard and Marsh, 1982) and behaviorally (Donadio <em>et al</em>. 2001) adapted to feeding on ground and underground fauna, particularly invertebrates. During rest periods, it perfers the seclusion offered by shrub forests and rocky slope areas (Donadio <em>et al</em>. 2001).
41630		population	eng	This species is locally common. Density value reported for Chile is 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Cofré <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
41630		threats	eng	Skunks were heavily hunted for their fur in Argentina during the 1970s and early 1980s (Gruss and Waller 1988). Additionally extensive areas of skunk habitat, including the Patagonian steppe, have been severely degraded due to overgrazing and soil erosion by livestock (primarily sheep) and feral, exotic species (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995; Novaro <em>et al</em>. 2000).
41631		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Conepatus humboldtii </span>is listed on the CITES Appendix II (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1987).
41631		distribution	eng	The species is found in southern Argentina and adjacent parts of Chile (Redford and Eisenberg, 1989).
41631		habitat	eng	Habitat use for Patagonian hog-nose skunks ranges from grass and shrub land to rocky outcroppings. They may also be found around human dwellings (e.g. houses, sheds, etc.). <em>C. humboldtii</em> is found at elevations from 200 to 700 m above sea level (Fuller <em>et al.</em>, 1987). This species is solitary and active mainly at night. Home ranges of individual skunks may overlap and range from 9.7 ha to 16.4 ha. Patagonian hog-nosed skunks forage exclusively in green grassy areas (Chapman and Feldhamer, 1982; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1987). They primarily eat insects but may also feed on small mammals, shrubs, and fruit in addition to insects. (Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1987)
41631		population	eng	Olrog and Lucero (1980) state that it is locally common in Argentina. Some indication that the numbers of<em>C. humboldtii</em> have decreased (Broad <em>et al.</em>, 1988), but the numbers killed each year in Patagonia are not known and unpublished data show that population levels have been stable from 1989 to 1993. Population density value estimated for Chile is 89 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Cofré <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41631		threats	eng	The pelts of <em>C. humboldtii</em> were exported a great deal between 1960 and 1980 although of lesser value than other <em>Conepatus</em> species. In 1983, <em>C. humboldtii</em> was protected against export in Argentina and Chile. These animals are apparently still used in the pet trade (Chapman and Feldhamer, 1982).
41632		conservation	eng	It is considered necessary to include species of <em>Conepatus</em> in CITES Appndix II in order to obtain data on the trade in the different species, to estimate the exploitation level, and to enforce a better control of the exports, and to avoid that one of the species exported under the name of any of the other species (IUCN-SSC, 1992).
41632		distribution	eng	The species is found in from northern Nicaragua north through, central Guatemala and Honduras, Mexico, and in the southern United States (occuring in the southeastern part of Texas, southern Arizona and southern New Mexico). The species is notably absent from hot deserts and tropical moist evergreen forests - as well as the Baja Peninsula.
41632		habitat	eng	Inhabits a wide variety of habitats within their range, including woodlands, grasslands, deserts, brushy areas, and rocky canyons in mountainous regions (Meaney <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Elevation range is variable and can reach up to higher elevations in mountainous areas. In Arizona, hog-nosed skunks are known up to 9,000 ft. In pine-fir forests in the Graham Mountains (Hoffmeister, 1986), and in Mexico they range up to 10,000 ft. (Cahalane, 1961). <br/>The species is nocturnal and feeds primarily on insects, usually digging in the ground to get larvae, or using their nose to take out beetles, they are also able to find and eat fruits and small vertebrates (Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1999). Dens are in rock crevices, hollow logs, underground burrows, caves, mine shafts, woodrat houses, or under buildings. Feeds mainly on insects, especially larval forms. Also eats other invertebrates, reptiles, small mammals, and some vegetation (fruits, etc.). Digs with long claws, roots in soil with snout, overturns rocks and logs.
41632		population	eng	The species is difficult to census, even through trapping. It appears to have declined drastically in Texas in the past few decades (Davis and Schmidly, 1994; Dragoo <em>et al.</em>, 2003; Meaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species has dissapeared from Colorado, northern New Mexico and Oklahoma. Solitary and secretive, difficult to census, even through trapping. Available evidence indicates extreme rarity. Few recent specimens have been obtained in Mexico. But the species could be more numerous than available evidence indicates.
41632		threats	eng	Primary threats to the continued persistence of American hog-nosed skunks throughout their range include degradation, fragmentation, and loss of habitat, interspecific interactions with feral hogs (<em>Sus scrofa</em>) and striped skunks, roadkill, control of predators and insect pests (pesticide use), and grazing (Honeycutt and Dragoo, 1995; Schmidly, 2002). The range of this species is shrinking, especially in the north. Natural brushland habitat has been lost to agricultural development. Pesticide use could be detrimental, either directly or indirectly through impacts on food resources.
41633		conservation	eng	It is considered necessary to include species of <em>Conepatus</em> in CITES Appndix II in order to obtain data on the trade in the different species, to estimate the exploitation level, and to enforce a better control of the exports, and to avoid that one of the species exported under the name of any of the other species (IUCN-SSC, 1992).
41633		distribution	eng	<em>Conepatus semistriatus</em> is a neotropical species and occurs within a disjunct distribution within Mesoamerica, the northern Andes and eastern Brazil. Its range begins in southern Mexico and continues south into northern Peru along the western Andes and east aacross northern Venezuela and into the llanos of Colombia, with an isolated populations in eastern Brazil (Nowak, 2005).
41633		habitat	eng	In Central America this species occurs along the edges and ion gaps of evergreen forests and seem to be adaptable to some level of human distrurbance (agroforestry, forest edge,grasslands, plantations, etc.). Habitat selection in the llanos by <em>C. semistriatus</em> depends on the season. During the dry season, the habitat selection is most diverse and includes grasslands, deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open areas, with a majority of the time spent in deciduous forests and shrub woodlands. During the wet season, habitat selection becomes more selective and tends to be restricted to areas of higher elevations, mainly in deciduous forests (Sunquist <em>et al.</em>, 1989). The diet is varied, but mainly concentrated on insects, lizards, and birds. Home range varies with the season  probably is a response to greater food availability, and therefore a reduced need to travel to get enough to eat (Medellin <em>et al</em>. 1992).
41633		population	eng	The species is locally common in appropiate habitats.
41633		threats	eng	A minor threat is represented by commercial hunting for hides and skin. Use of pesticides can be a threat in some areas.
41634		conservation	eng	The species does not have any specific protection status in Central America (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000).
41634		distribution	eng	<em>M. macroura</em> occurs from the southern United States (southwestern Texas, southwestern New Mexico, and southeastern Arizona), throughout Mexico, into Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northwest Costa Rica. (Hall, 1981; Janzen and Hallwachs, 1982; Reid, 1997; Rosatte, 1987).
41634		habitat	eng	The hooded skunk is most common in the arid lowlands (Davis and Russell, 1954), but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats (Baker, 1956; Findley <em>et al.</em>, 1975; Janzen and Hallwachs, 1982). In Mexico, hooded skunks occupy home ranges of 2.8–5.0 km<sup>2</sup> (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986). Typically, <em>M. macroura</em> occurs from sea level to 2,440 m (Hubbard, 1972), but it was also found at higher elevations in Mexico (Davis and Russell, 1954) and in Arizona (Hoffmeister, 1986). In Guerrero, Mexico, hooded skunks are widespread but scattered below 1,830 m (Davis and Lukens, 1958). The hooded skunk mainly consumes insects, fruits, small vertebrates, and bird eggs (Patton, 1974; Reid, 1997). This species seems to benefit from human distrurbed areas and can be abundant around human populations.
41634		population	eng	Little is known of the population dynamics of hooded skunks (Rosatte, 1987). The species is common in Costa Rica and not uncommon in Arizona (Reid pers. comm.). The species is very abundant in Mexico (Hwang and Lariviere 2001). The species seems to be more common in human disturbed areas.
41634		threats	eng	Hooded skunks are not threatened. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas (Hwang and Larivière, 2001). However, its meat is desired in some areas (Davis, 1944) while other parts are used for some other uses in Guatemala and Mexico (Reid, 1997; Dalquest, 1953).
41635		conservation	eng	Given the ecological and economic importance of this species, there is a need to better understand microhabitat factors that are associated with occurrence of the taxon (Baldwin <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
41635		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout most of southern Canada from British Columbia, Hudson Bay, and Nova Scotia, throughout the United States and into northern Mexico (Walker, 1964; Godin, 1982; Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982).
41635		habitat	eng	There is no single well-defined land type that can be classed as skunk range. They live in a variety of habitats: woods, plains, and desert areas but prefer open or forest-edge zones (Walker, 1964). Striped skunks are most abundant on agricultural lands where there is an ample supply of food and cover (Hamilton and Whitaker, 1979). They also adapt to life in urban areas under houses and garages (Rue, 1981; Rosatte, 1986; Larivière <em>et al.</em>, 1999). They have been known to inhabit poorly drained marsh areas (Mutch, 1977). Although recorded from 4,200 m skunks usually are found from sea level to 1,800 m (Rue, 1981). Frequently found in suburban areas. Striped skunks are opportunistic omnivorous predatory feeders (Carr, 1974). Their diet varies depending on season and geographic location. In most areas, they feed extensively on insects (usually grasshoppers and beetles) associated with grassland areas (as opposed to forests). However, when insects are not available (early spring, late fall), their diet shifts to small mammals, birds, or vegetation (Verts, 1967).
41635		population	eng	Density estimates for striped skunk populations ranged from 0.7 to 18.5/km<sup>2</sup> but most were 1.8 to 4.8/km<sup>2</sup> (Allen and Shapton, 1942; Bailey, 1971; Bennitt and Nagel, 1937; Burt, 1946; Jones, 1939; Stout and Sonenshine, 1974; Verts, 1967). Density levels reported fluctuated widely between years, possibly in response to outbreaks of diseases (Allen and Shapton, 1942; Brown and Yeager, 1943; Verts, 1967). Skunk populations seemingly have high recruitment and turnover rates because 50 to 71% of striped skunks do not attain an age of 1 year (Bailey, 1971; Casey and Webster, 1975; Verts, 1967). Due to removal of top predators (Crooks and Soulé, 1999; Rogers and Caro, 1998; Soulé <em>et al.</em>, 1988), altered land use (Dijak and Thompson, 2000; Donovan <em>et al</em>. 1997; Oehler and Litvaitis, 1996), reduced harvest of skunks (Hamilton and Vangilder, 1992), and perhaps other factors, populations of <em>M. mephitis</em>, have increased in abundance in many regions during recent years (Andren, 1995; Kuehl and Clark, 2002).
41635		threats	eng	Striped skunks (<em>Mephitis mephitis</em>) are vulnerable to a variety of mortality agents such as predation, disease, environmental conditions (e.g., severe winter or drought), chemicals, and anthropogenic activities (Gehrt, 2005; Hansen <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Rosatte and Larivière, 2003). Another limiting factor in skunk populations are diseases such as rabies and the resultant control programs (Sikes, 1970). Terrestrial rabies apparently was the case for skunks in Illinois, where population fluctuations are closely tied to rabies outbreaks (Verts, 1967). Striped skunk pelts were considered valuable commodities in the fur trade in the first half of the 20th century, but their value and the number of skunks harvested for fur declined dramatically in the 1950's and 1960's as fashions shifted away from long-haired furs (Verts, 1967). Striped skunks may be harvested in most areas of the United States and Canada. In some states, such as Florida, skunks may be taken only in season, but most states allow harvests year-round (Rosatte, 1987).
41636		conservation	eng	The populations status of this species is in question throughout its range (Kaplan and Mead, 1991). It is listed as endangered in Missouri, and threatened in Iowa and Kansas. It has been listed as "special concern" in Minnesota (since 1984) and also similarly listed in Nebraska (Boppel and Long, 1994). It is corsidered "rare" in North Dakota and Oklahoma (Wires and Baker, 1994).<br/><br/>Reed and Kennedy (2000) in a study conducted in eastern Tennessee argued that it is still not clear that conservation measures are necessary to insure long-term perpetuation of the species, because there is no evidence of a decline in eastern spotted skunks over time in that region. Programs to monitor this species in eastern Tennessee would contribute significantly to the long-term perpetuation of the species in the southern Appalachians.
41636		distribution	eng	The eastern spotted skunk (<em>Spilogale putorius</em>) from eastern Canada to northeast Mexico. It occurs throughout south-central Pennsylvania down the Appalachian Mountain chain to Florida, west to the Continental Divide and south to Tamaulipas, Mexico (Hall, 1981; Kinlaw, 1995).<br/><br/>Increases in geographic range of eastern spotted skunks in the Great Plains may be correlated with increases in the amount of land devoted to agriculture, because agricultural practices provide outbuildings as shelter and encourage commensal house-mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>) that serve as a prey base (Choate <em>et al.</em>, 1974). By the 1940s eastern spotted skunks were reported in North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, areas in which they had not previously occurred (Van Gelder, 1959).
41636		habitat	eng	Prefer forested areas or habitats with significant cover (Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1999). Also open and brushy areas, rocky canyons and outcrops in woodlands and prairies. When inactive or bearing young, occupies den in burrow abandoned by other mammal, under brushpile, in hollow log or tree, in rock crevice, under building, or in similar protected site.<br/><br/>Eastern spotted skunks are primarily insectivivorous. When insects are unavailable, this species preys on small mammals, mainly rodents and young rabbits (Boppel and Long, 1994).
41636		population	eng	This species has been known in several areas of the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States since the early 1900s (Howell, 1906). However, the abundance of <em>Spilogale putorius</em> in the southern Appalachians is unclear and Reed and Kennedy (2000) showed that the species occurs in the Appalachian Mountains of Tennessee at low density. Lee <em>et al.</em> (1982) suggested that <em>Spilogale putorius</em> was abundant in North Carolina in the Appalachian Mountains and Howell (1921) reported the species as common in Alabama.<br/><br/>Few reports of population density for <em>Spilogale putorius</em> are available. Crabb (1948) pointed out that estimates in an agricultural area of Iowa could range between one eastern spotted skunk per 11.4 ha to one per 5.0 ha, depending on the method of calculation. Additionally, data collected in 1973–1974 (Ehrhart, 1974) at Canaveral National Seashore, Florida, revealed a density estimate of one <em>S. putorius</em> per 2.5 ha.
41636		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The main cause of current mortality of this species is represented by automobile roadkills (Rosatte, 1987). The pelts of both eastern and western spotted skunks represent an insignificant fraction of the modern fur trade. In the 1983-1984 trapping season, 5,588 pelts described as spotted skunk were harvested in the United States (Novak <em>et al.</em>, 1987). The species is declining in the midwest and portions of the east, but common in southern Florida (Reid 2006). Pesticides present a threat to the species in areas with intensive agriculture.
41637		conservation	eng	The species is considered vulnerable (Ceballos and Navarro, 1991) and listed since 1994 as threatened by the federal governrnent of Mexico. Its presence in protected areas has been confirmed in the recently decreed, Cuixrnala Biosphere  reserve, which is continuous with the Chamela Reserve of the National University of Mexico, located on the coast of Jalisco (Medellín <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
41637		distribution	eng	The Pygmy skunk is a small carnivore endemic to the tropical Pacific Coast of Mexico, from Sinaloa south to Oaxaca (Medellín <em>et al.</em>, 1998). The species is found from 0-1630 meters, but is most common below 350 m.
41637		habitat	eng	<em>Spilogale pygmaea</em> inhabits deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986). One specimen was obtained in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetational cover (López-Forment and Urbano, 1979). Although most individuals have been found in undisturbed habitats, they are capable of penetrating into agricultural zones and pastures (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986). Altitudinal distribution is usually 0-100 m above sea level (Van Gelder, 1959). The mean home range was 20.4 ha with male home ranges larger than those of females (Cantú-Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 1999). <em>Spilogale pygmaea</em>  is a noctumal species that makes dens underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation cover. Food habits consist of insects, spiders, birds, eggs, small mammals, and some fruit and seeds (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986).
41637		population	eng	<em>Spilogale pygmaea</em> is a scarce species, but seems to be able to survive under human-disturbed conditions if enough habitat is preserved (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).
41637		threats	eng	The rapidly expanding tourist developments occurring in the small range of <em>S. pygmaea</em> along the Pacific Coast of Mexico, together with its discontinuous distribution along the coastline, are probably having a negative effect on this species (Ceballos and Navarro, 1991). Some individuals are stuffed and sold as souvenirs in stores at Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico (Medellín pers. comm.). The great pressure to develop the west coast of Mexico for resorts, roads, and tourist cities is currently destroying much of the habitat of this as well as other endemic species of Mexico (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Ramamoorthy <em>et al</em>. 1993). Dogs and cats will prey on this species around human populations.
41639		conservation	eng	The conservation status of <em>Galictis cuja</em> varies by country (Yensen and Tarifa, 2003).
41639		distribution	eng	<em>Galictis cuja</em> occurs in southeastern Peru, western and southern Bolivia, central Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, and east to southeastern Brazil.
41639		habitat	eng	Lesser grison frequently occurs near water (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1989; Pine <em>et al</em>. 1979), may be also abundant in open habitats (Mares <em>et al</em>. 1989), in the extremes of the arid Chaco, in environments with extensive vegetation cover in conjuction with open water, deciduous and evergreen forests, savananas and mountainous regions up to 4,200 m (Yensen and Tarifa, 2003). The species could also be found in the agricultural areas of the pampas (Parera, 2002).<br/>The diet consists primarily on small and medium-sized vertebrates, including rodents, lagomorphs, birds, frogs, lizards snakes and eggs (Jimenez, 1996; Mann, 1945; Quintana <em>et al</em>. 2000).
41639		population	eng	Population numbers of this species are unknown.
41639		threats	eng	Blamed for eating poultry and persecuted for this (Brooks, 1991). Hunted for sport in Paraguay (Brooks, 1991) and high dead rates at highways in Brazil (Vieira, 1996). In some parts of their range they are also sold as pets (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000).
41640		conservation	eng	In Costa Rica, it is considered endangered (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989) and is listed on CITES Appendix III (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1987). In Belize it is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act, and in Nicaragua it is protected from hunting (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1987).
41640		distribution	eng	<em>Galictis vittata</em> occurs at lower elevations from eastern Mexico south throughout Central America into South America as far south as Bolivia, northern Argentina, and Santa Catarina, Brazil. The geographic range of <em>G. vittata</em> was estimated at 13,083,600 km<sup>2</sup> (Arita <em>et al.</em>, 1990).
41640		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range from tropical forests, from sea level to 1,200 meters (Nowak, 2005), to grasslands and even cultivated areas, although not in great numbers (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000). This is a very opportunistic species, eating whatever is available. The diet includes small mammals, birds and their eggs, lizards, amphibians and fruits (Nowak, 2005).
41640		population	eng	<em>Galictis vittata</em> has a low density throughout its range (Arita <em>et al.</em>, 1990). Some subspecies are considered uncommon or rare (Timm <em>et al</em>. 1989). The densities estimated for the species were 1- 2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Eisenberg <em>et al</em>. 1979).
41640		threats	eng	The species is tolerant to some disturbance, but hunting has shown negative effects (Bisbal, 1993). In some parts of their range the males are trapped for their body parts and they are also sold as pets (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000).
41642		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and in annex IB of the Decree No. 32/2006  ND-CP in Viet Nam. In China, all gibbons are protected as National First-Class Protected Animals. For the conservation of <em>N. nasutus</em> in Viet Nam, the Cao Bang Forest Protection Department established a Species and Habitat Conservation Area, with a joint forest protection system that involves communities, a ranger force, and border patrol. Fauna and Flora International is also partnering with the Cao Bang Rural Development Project to encourage sustainability and conservation education and research in the local communities (La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004). Also, there are rural energy projects underway to reduce the use of charcoal, as well as community patrols. In China, a proposition has been made recently for the establishment of strict conservation areas for all remaining forests near known gibbon groups.
41642		distribution	eng	This species is found in a small area of northeastern Viet Nam and southeastern China, northeast of the Red River, where it is restricted to the Phong Nam-Ngoc Khe Mountains, Trung Khanh District, northern Cao Bang province, and adjacent forest in Jingxi County, Guangxi (Geissmann <em>et a</em>l. 2002, 2003b; W. Bleisch pers. comm.). It is possibly still extant in neighbouring Hoa Binh province, Viet Nam, as well, and in 2002 it was additionally reported from Kim Hy forest in Bac Kan province (which has since been proposed as a nature reserve). The range seems to have formerly extended from Ha Long Bay south to the Red River delta; gibbons of some species formerly lived in adjacent areas of southeastern China (Guangdong and Guangxi provinces), but are thought to have almost completely disappeared from there during the 1950s (Geissman <em>et al. </em>2000; Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is possible that some individuals still remain in isolated pockets of inaccessible karst forest.
41642		habitat	eng	This species historically inhabited lower montane and limestone forests, in a wet tropical monsoon climate, at an altitude range of 50?900 m (Dao Van Tien 1983). The known population is now entirely restricted to limestone forests on inaccessible karst outcrops ranging 640?800 m in elevation (Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2002). Preliminary behavioral observations revealed that most of the feeding time was spent eating fruit (86.6%), whereas other food categories appeared to play a minor role: leaves (4.7%), animal matter (0.5%), undetermined food class (8.2%) (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41642		population	eng	This species was thought to be possibly extinct (Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2000, 2003a), but a surviving population was found in 2002 (Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2002, 2003b; La Quang Trung <em>et al.</em> 2002; La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004). The latter has since been extensively surveyed, revealing as of August 2002 some 26-28 individuals living in five separate groups in the Phong Nam-Ngoc Khe forests (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003; La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004). In 2005, a survey team estimated a population of 35-37 individuals (Vu Ngoc Thanh <em>et al</em>. 2006). An even more recent survey found at least two groups with an estimated 10 individuals total in China on the other side of the border from the known Viet Nam population (Tan Weifu pers. comm. 2006). There have been additional surveys in other forest patches in the surrounding area, but no other extent populations have been found (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2003a; Geissmann and Vu Ngoc Thanh 2001; La Quang Trung<em>et al.</em> 2002; Fellowes <em>et al.</em> 2003).
41642		threats	eng	The main threat to this species, given its restricted range, is habitat loss and disturbance. What little remains of the habitat is in danger of being cleared for cultivation, livestock grazing, and firewood collection by local Viet Namese and Chinese minority people, as well as by the charcoal-making of local Chinese people (T. Geissmann and W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). There is also a continued threat from hunting, and the species is endangered as well from problems intrinsic to small population size and single populations, such as inbreeding effects, poor mate-choice, and risks from man-made or natural disaster (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003b; La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004).
41643		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. As far as known it is entirely confined to Bawangling Nature Reserve in Hainan Island (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000) and is the most critically endangered primate in the world (Geissmann 2005a). There is suitable gibbon habitat outside of the known Nature Reserve, and there is a need to survey for any surviving individuals or groups not yet accounted for, especially in Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve, Yinggelin Nature Reserve, and Jianfenglin Nature Reserve (B. Chan and T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>In terms of the Bawangling population, there should be intensive monitoring of the remaining two groups, and survey of the remaining subadults (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2008). There is a need for continued gun confiscation in the area, which has already been done once in the area (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). The most important thing is to protect all of the remaining habitat and individuals. Captive breeding does not appear to be a wise strategy for this species because (1) there are no captive individuals, (2) earlier attempts to capture wild gibbons alive has not been very successful and may reduce the viability of the few remaining individuals, and (3) captive breeding of crested gibbons has not been highly successful.
41643		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hainan Island, China (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is currently confined to the Bawangling Nature Reserve on the western side of the island of Hainan (Chan <em>et al. </em>2005). Before the 1960s it was widely distributed across the island.
41643		habitat	eng	This species inhabits remnant forest. It is diurnal, arboreal, and mostly frugivorous (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). The most difficult time for the gibbons to find food in Bawangling Nature Reserve is between February and April, when only seven of 40 known food-plant species are available for the gibbons (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species occurs at altitudes ranging from 650 to 1,200 meters (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000) but in the past probably preferred lowland forest.<br/><br/>Group size has been reported to range from 4-8 individuals, with an average of 5.3-5.5 individuals, depending on the year of the study (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). Home range size ranges from 100 to 500 ha (Liu and Tan 1990; Liu <em>et al</em>. 1989; Zhou pers. comm. 2006), with an average of about 360 ha (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1989).
41643		population	eng	In the late 1950s, the population was estimated to be over two thousand individuals (Liu <em>et al.</em> 1984). In 1993 there were three groups with less than 20 individuals (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). During a comprehensive survey in 2003, only 13 individuals were recorded, consisting of two groups, in addition to two solitary individuals (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005; Geissmann 2005b). Since 2003 an intensive monitoring work showed that the population of Hainan Gibbon has increased in the past five years. The two groups have produced newborn infants every two years, as previously noted (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1989), while a single individual departed from each group during the same period. These changes brought the composition of the two groups to nine and six individuals respectively. At present the there could be also up to five solitary individuals, reaching so a total of 20 individuals (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2008).
41643		threats	eng	There is still pressure from hunting. In recent years the core remaining habitat has been protected, although the currently occupied habitat may be in suboptimal (Geissmann 2005a; T. Geissmann pers. comm.). This species is threatened from problems intrinsic to extremely small population size such as inbreeding effects, poor mate-choice, and human or natural disaster (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are some reports of a sex bias in births, but it is not possible to identify the sex of young crested gibbons in the field, because immature individuals do not differ in fur coloration or calls, and sexual organs of males and females resemble each other (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006).
41644		conservation	eng	Tayras occur in numerous protected areas. Honduras lists this species under CITES Appendix III.
41644		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Veracruz, Mexico, throughout Mesoamerica and south across South American to northern Argentina, occurring throughout except for the high Andes and Caatinga (eastern Brazil).
41644		habitat	eng	<em>Eira barbara</em> is a diurnal, sometimes crepuscular species (Reid, 1997), solitary that travels within a big home range (Sunquist <em>et al.</em>, 1989). It seems to be a forest species, using both floor and tree habitats. Emmons and Freer (1990) affirms that Tayra inhabits tropical and subtropical forests, secondary rain forests, gallery forests, gardens, plantations, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. Hall and Dalquest (1963) affirms that it can live near human habitations, crops and other human disturbed habitats. Usually occupies below the 1,200 m, but there are reports up to 2,400 m (Emmons and Freer, 1990; Eisenberg, 1989) and is common at 2,000 m (Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).<br/>Diet of Tayras is omnivorouse, including fruits, carrion, small vertebrates, insects, and honey and small vertebrates as marsupials, rodents, iguanids among others (Cabrera and Yepes, 1960; Emmons and Freer, 1990; Galef <em>et al</em>. 1976; Hall and Dalquest, 1963). This species does well in agricultural areas and along the edge of human settlements.
41644		population	eng	<em>Eira barbara</em> is one of the most common medium-size predators throughout its range (Emmons and Freer, 1990). Common in Central America (Janzen, 1983; Alston, 1882; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, 1965; Emmons and Freer, 1990; Reid, 1997), Colombia, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana (Eisenberg, 1989), Venezuela (Handley, 1976), Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), Brazil (except in the caatingas and cerrado; Emmons and Freer, 1990), Paraguay, and northern Argentina (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 1991; Mares <em>et al</em>. 1989; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). However, was not recorded in the Paraguayan Chaco during a year (1989-1990) of large mammal censuses (Brooks, 1998), despite a taxidermied specimen in the local museum (Brooks, 1991).
41644		threats	eng	There is not evidence about trapping or hunting of the species (Emmons and Freer 1990). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) reported that the range of the tayra has been reduced in portions of Mexico because of the destruction of tropical forests and spread of agriculture.
41645		conservation	eng	Protected by law in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (K. de Smet pers. comm.). Presumably present in several protected areas across their range.
41645		distribution	eng	Present in northern Africa from Morocco and Senegal to Egypt and Eritrea. Their distribution is poorly known (Cuzin in press). Their range apparently overlaps with that of the Zorilla <em>Ictonyx striatus</em> in some regions, such as in northern Nigeria and in central and eastern Sudan (Niethammer 1987).
41645		distribution	eng	Present in northern Africa from Morocco and Senegal to Egypt and Eritrea. Their distribution is poorly known (Cuzin in press). Their range apparently overlaps with that of the Zorilla <i>Ictonyx striatus</i> in some regions, such as in northern Nigeria and in central and eastern Sudan (Niethammer 1987).
41645		habitat	eng	Found only in desert fringes, mountains and oases, and sub-deserts. They favour sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small bushes, except where they occur in cultivated areas (Cuzin in press).
41645		population	eng	There is limited reliable information on the population status of this species. They are not uncommon, and are reportedly abundant in coastal dunes, but numbers are probably subject to periodic fluctuations (Cuzin in press).
41645		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but they may be subject to competition with Least Weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> in the most productive habitats (e.g., in Morocco: F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). Although their meat is not eaten, they are exploited in Tunisia in the belief that they are capable of increasing human male fertility, and there is even some international trade (e.g. from Tunisia into Libya: K. de Smet pers. comm.).
41645		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but they may be subject to competition with Least Weasel <i>Mustela nivalis</i> in the most productive habitats (e.g., in Morocco: F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). Although their meat is not eaten, they are exploited in Tunisia in the belief that they are capable of increasing human male fertility, and there is even some international trade (e.g. from Tunisia into Libya: K. de Smet pers. comm.).
41646		conservation	eng	They are present in numerous protected areas.
41646		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution, ranging south of the Sahara from Mauritania and Senegal in the west to Sudan, Ethiopia and Djibouti in the east and south to South Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). They occur from sea level to more than 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993).
41646		habitat	eng	This species exhibits a wide habitat tolerance, being found in open grassland, savanna woodland, thornbush, rocky areas, forest and even desert (provided there is some scrub cover), but absent from the forests of the Congo basin and West Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). They occur in agricultural areas, including, for example, exotic plantations in KwaZulu-Natal and pastoral areas of the Kenyan highlands (Stuart and Stuart in press). Carnivorous, with insects predominating in their diet.
41646		population	eng	Common, and easily overlooked as they are difficult to trap. Hendrichs (1972) estimated density at one individual per  5-10 km² in East Africa.
41646		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. They are sometimes killed for preying on poultry, and in some areas may be undergoing local declines due to increasing rural human populations and predation by domestic dogs (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41647		conservation	eng	This species is not often seen in the wild or collected. It is possible – even likely – that this species occurs in several protected areas in western Argentina (Nahuel Huapi, Lanin, Lago Puelo, Los Alerces ) or in southern Patagonia (Perito Moreno, Los Glaciares), although most of these emphasize forested habitats rather than open terrain. Further survey efforts are necessary usign appropiate techniques for the species.
41647		distribution	eng	The species is found in temperate arid and semiarid portions of Argentina and southern Chile (Prevosti and Pardiñas, 2001). It is known to occur from Salta Province south along the western part of the country to Santa Cruz Province, and then into Chile along the southern Argentine border (Tell <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41647		habitat	eng	<em>Lyncodon patagonicus</em> is found in herbaceous and shrub steppes and xerophytic woodlands (Osgood, 1943; Prevosti and Pardiñas, 2001). Its habits are little known; available data indicate that <em>L. patagonicus</em> is nocturnal-crepuscular and that it preys on fossorial rodents and birds (Cabrera and Yepes, 1940; Koslowsky, 1904; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). May be assopciated with tuc-tuc (<em>Ctenomys spp</em>.) communities (Tell <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41647		population	eng	This species is suspected to be rare and occur at low densities across its range, however, it is inferred to be locally common around appropriate resources. Miller <em>et al.</em> (1983) considered this species to be rare in Chile. New locality records were reported for northern Patagonia, Argentina (Teta <em>et al.</em>, 2007).
41647		threats	eng	There are likely few direct threats to this species, although habitat degradation (due to sheep grazing) and occasional killing by ranchers are local threats.
41648		conservation	eng	In most state and provincial jurisdictions in western North America where it occurs, the American marten is managed as a furbearer. Protective regulations allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas, but in the eastern United States the marten survives only in small parts of Minnesota, New york and Maine (Blanchard, 1974; Mech, 1961; Mech and Rogers, 1977; Yocom, 1974). In the Pacific states, conservation measures should include a reevaluation of timber harvest plans that affect habitat in coastal forests, interagency cooperation on a coastal marten conservation assessment, and the collection of new survey information, especially on private lands in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon (Zielinski <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
41648		distribution	eng	American martens occur accross most of North America from Alaska through much of forested Canada, into the northeastern United States, and south along northern California, south in the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains.
41648		habitat	eng	The species is typically associated with late-seral coniferous forests characterized by closed canopies, large trees, and<br/>abundant standing and down woody material (Buskirk and Powell, 1994; Thompson and Harestad, 1994). It dens in hollow trees or logs, in rocky crevices, or in burrows. The marten is primarly nocturnal and partly arboreal but spends considerable time on the ground. The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals and also includes birds, insects, fruit and carrion (Nowak, 2005). Average home size throughout North America is 8.1 km<sup>2</sup> for males and 2.3 km<sup>2</sup> for females, and degree of overlap varies (Powell, 1994).
41648		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but probably is at least several hundred thousand; for example, the harvest in North America in the 1983-1984 trapping season was nearly 190,000 (Novak <em>et al.</em> 1987). Newfoundland population was estimated at less than 500 in early the 1990s, down from 630-875 in the early 1980s (Snyder, 1986 COSEWIC report). <br/><br/>Although their continental range may have declined (Gibilisco, 1994), populations of martens have not suffered the magnitude of the decrease and the species is well distributed within its geographic ranges (Zielinski <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Adequate population data are unavailable for much of the range. Population density was found to vary from about 0.5/km<sup>2</sup> to 1.7/km<sup>2</sup> of good habitats (Banfield, 1974). Reintroduction projects have been carried out in northern Michigan and Wisconsin and it appears that a self-sustaining population has been restored in that region (Slough, 1994). Reintroduction also has been attempted in New Hampshire and in various other parts of the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada (Nowak, 2005).
41648		threats	eng	The species still occurs throughout most of this range, but because of loss of habitat, it has been extirpated from many southeastern areas (Godin, 1977; Peterson, 1966). Marten distribution and demographic rates are affected by the loss of closed-canopy forest due to logging (Bissonette <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Chapin <em>et al</em>. 1998; Payer and Harrison, 2003; Thompson, 1991). Martens are still legally trapped for their fur in most of the western states (Zielinski <em>et al</em>. 2001). By the early twentieth century excessive trapping had severely depleted <em>M. americana</em> in Alaska, Canada and the western conterminous United States. The range of this species has declined (Reid 2006).
41649		conservation	eng	The yellow-throated marten is protected in many parts of its range. In Myanmar, this species is protected all year under the Wildlife Act of 1994 (Su Su 2005) and in Peninsular Malaysia it is protected under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972; Azlan, 2003). This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (India) and Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is listed as Near Threatened on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). This species is known from many protected areas across its range. Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) studied it in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary in north central Thailand. It was recorded by Azlan (2003) in Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01.
41649		distribution	eng	The yellow-throated marten has an Asian and Sundaic distribution, and countries where this species is found include China, India, Indonesia (Islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo), DPR Korea, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Taiwan, Viet Nam (Wozencraft 2005; Le Xuan Canh <em>et al.</em> 1997; Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep), Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997), Thailand (Grassman <em>et al</em>. 2005), Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press), Malaysia (Azlan 2003), Cambodia (J. L. Walston pers. comm.), and possibly Singapore (Meiri 2005). The species elevational range extends from sea-level to 3,000 m (Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Duckworth 1995, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press).
41649		habitat	eng	In the Russian Far East the yellow-throated marten prefers mixed (spruce and broad-leaved) forests of the Manchurian type, while it occurs rarely in the dark coniferous taiga of the upper mountain zone and in the oak forests zone (Matyushkin, 1993). In Lao PDR, Myanmar and Thailand this species is found in forests and various other adjacent habitats across a wide altitudinal range (Duckworth et al.1999, Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), but it clearly favors forests. It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003) and there are many records from other areas of secondary forest, even areas well isolated from old-growth stands.<br/><br/>Although sometimes said to be largely or entirely nocturnal, the species is primarily diurnal, but also hunts at night increasing nocturnal activity during lunar nights (plus or minus 7 days from full moon) (Duckworth 1997, Grassman <em>et al</em>. 2005, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press, Parr and Duckworth 2007, J. L. Walston pers. comm. (for Cambodia)). Common food items include squirrels, birds, snakes, and lizards, though insects, eggs, frogs, fruit, nectar, and berries are also taken, as well as honey and bees (Lekagul and McNeely 1977) and in fact it probably has a very wide diet (Parr and Duckworth 2007). In nature, groups of two to three or more rarely, five to seven individuals can be seen; in the Russian Far East the species hunts in groups for musk deer (Matyushkin 1993). It is also usually found in small groups, rather than as single individuals, at least in tropical parts of its range (Parr and Duckworth, 2007).<br/><br/>Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that this species has a mean annual range size of 7.2 km² with a mean overlap of 34% in a study on this species conducted in Phu Kieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand. The litter size is up to five, and the gestation period is 220-290 days, and it has life span of up to 14 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).
41649		population	eng	Few population assessments of the yellow-throated marten exist. Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded 40 individuals in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand between 1998 and 2002. In Sikhote-Alinsky Nature Reserve (Russian Far East) the population density was estimated to be 1-5 per 100 square kilometers (Matyushkin 1993). The total amount in Russia is estimated as 2500-3500 specimens (Alexei Abramov pers. comm. 2006). It is evidently common across Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997) and Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press) and probably widely in at least South-east Asia (Parr and Duckworth 2007).
41649		threats	eng	As the yellow-throated marten is tied to forest areas, at least in the Southeast Asian parts of its range, forest conversion there over the last few decades will have resulted in some overall population reduction. Nevertheless, the species is surviving well within remaining forests (including secondary stands), perhaps because it is less preferred as food by most residents and its scansorial nature reduces its exposure to snares and other traps, as well as allows easy escape from dogs. Therefore, no significant threats at the population level are known to the species in Southeast Asia, although it is no doubt below carrying capacity in heavily hunted areas such as Lao PDR. It is occasionally hunted in Siberia (Russia) and DPR Korea for its fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006, J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006) but this does not constitute a global threat, rather it affects local populations at most. It can habituate to close approach of many people and take food from human waste (Parr and Duckworth 2007).
41650		conservation	eng	Commercial forestry should consider reducing habitat loss for this species (Tatara, 1994). Conservation of deciduous forest is especially important (Nakamura <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is present in protected areas.
41650		distribution	eng	This species is known from Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Awaji, and introduced on Sado Island and Hokkaido (Abe, 2005), as well as Tsushima Island (S. Roy pers. comm.). Distribution in southern Korean Peninsula is reported but not confirmed (Abe, 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,000 m.
41650		habitat	eng	This species is found in forests, and can occur in suburban areas with sufficient trees. It "plays a key role as a relatively long-distance seed disperser for major component species with large and flesh-rich fruits in the subalpine shrubland (Otani, 2002)." It forages on a wide variety of fruits (Otani, 2002).
41650		population	eng	This species is common throughout its known range, and increasing on Tsushima Island.
41650		threats	eng	Habitat of this species in Tushima was deteriorated by timber cutting (Tatara, 1994).
41651		conservation	eng	There are currently efforts underway to implement a conservation strategy to reintroduce the fisher into its former range along the Pacific Coast. Genetic data indicate that British Columbia would be the most appropriate source population for future translocations that may be necessary to recover populations in Washington and portions of Oregon and California (Drew <em>et al.</em>, 2003). The species is protect in large tracts of habitat in areas well distributed throughout the range. The primary conservation measure necessary is to prevent excessive harvest.
41651		distribution	eng	Fishers range from Quebec, the Maritime Provinces, and New England west across boreal Canada to southeastern Alaska, south in the western mountains to Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and California, and formerly south to Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Large range in northern North America; extirpation from southern portion of range, due mainly to habitat loss, has been counteracted by recent natural and human-aided range expansions in the eastern U.S.; adequate population data are unavailable for much of the range, but the species currently is regarded as secure.
41651		habitat	eng	Fishers inhabit upland and lowland forests, including coniferous, mixed, and deciduous forests. They occur primarily in dense coniferous or mixed forests, including early successional forest with dense overhead cover (Thomas, 1993). They generally avoid areas with little forest cover or significant human disturbance. The fisher is adapted for climbing but is primarily terrestrial. It is a generalized predator whose major prey are small to medium-sized mammals and birds, and carrion (Powell, 1981).
41651		population	eng	Densities in preferred habitat are about one fisher per 2.6 to 7.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Coulter, 1966; Kelly, 1977). Total population size is unknown but probably is at least in the low hundreds of thousands; for example, the harvest in North America during the 1983-1984 trapping season was about 20,000 (Novak <em>et al.</em> 1987), and the average in the 1960s and 1970s was about 13,000 (Strickland <em>et al.</em> 1982).
41651		threats	eng	During the 19th and early 20th centuries the fisher declined over most of its range because of excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging. Aubry and Lewis (2003) state that over trapping appears to have been the primary initial cause of fisher population losses in southwestern Oregon. The high value of the skins, the ease of trapping fishers (Powell, 1993), year-round accessibility in the low to mid-elevation coniferous forests, and the lack of trapping regulations resulted in heavy trapping pressure on fishers in the late 1800s and early 1900s (Aubry and Lewis, 2003). Timber harvest can fragment fisher habitat, reduce it in size, or change the forest structure to be unsuitable for fishers. Habitat loss and fragmentation appear to be significant threats to the fisher.
41652		conservation	eng	In China, the species was listed as endangered in Key List 1 as e A2acd. Studies are needed on the effects of hunting on this species, in order to develop methods to control its populations and use them commercially without decreasing annual population growth, and territorial regulation is one approach to its solution (Monakhov, 2001). Monakhov (2001) drew the following conclusion: "In the Ob region, hunting should be allowed in all lowland areas, whereas reserves should be created in the upper reaches of rivers and in interfluves, covering 30-40% of these areas. However, with a low sable population density (less than 0.5 ind. per 1000 ha), reserves should cover 40-50% of the habitats occupied by this species." In Japan, selective trapping of introduced Japanese marten is needed to protect native subspecies (T. Murakami pers. comm.).
41652		conservation	eng	Studies are needed on the effects of hunting on this species, in order to develop methods to control its populations and use them commercially without decreasing annual population growth (Monakhov 2001).
41652		distribution	eng	This species is found in "China (Xinjiang to then northeast), Japan (Hokkaido); Mongolia, DPR Korea, Russia (Ural Mountains to Siberia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Kunashiri, and Etorofu)" (Abe 2005, Wilson and Reeder 2005). This species is of marginal occurrence in Europe, where it is found only in the Ural mountains.
41652		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (Xinjiang to then northeast), Japan (Hokkaido); Mongolia, DPR Korea, Russia (Ural Mountains to Siberia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Kunashiri, and Etorofu) (Wozencraft, 2005; Abe 2005); historically west to northern Scandanavia and western Poland.
41652		habitat	eng	The species is primarily found in dense coniferous forests, but can tolerate other types of forests. It feeds on small rodents, voles, squirrels, pikas, doves and berries. For this species in the Ob region of Russia, Monakhov (2001) found that young animals tended to live near floodplains (lowland forest), while adult animals lived on watersheds (upland forest).
41652		habitat	eng	The species is primarily found in dense coniferous forests, but can tolerate other types of forests. It feeds on small rodents, voles, squirrels, pikas, doves and berries. On Hokkaido in Japan, the subspecies Martes zibellina brachyura chiefly inhabits cool-temperate mixed forest, preferring resting sites in "dense-tree forests with many tree species and debris probably in order to avoid predators, and strong wind and foraging in forests of climax succession which are usually rich in their prey such as voles and mice (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005)." Analysis of scat by Murakami (2003) revealed that this subspecies feeds on small mammals such as voles, with occasional ingestion of insects and fruit in summer and autumn (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005). In northeastern China, Buskirk <em>et al.</em> (1996) found that this species preferred foraging habitats with larger values of coarse woody debris (CWD) and DBH, basal area of coniferous trees and canopy trees, as also found by Miyoshi and Higashi (2005), which, according to Hale (1999), are vegetational factors that characterize old-growth forest (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005). This species is found in habitats with well-covered canopies, presumably to avoid attacks by raptors (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005). Similarily, "the debris-rich and dense-tree forests with a large number of tree species may be effective for the sables to avoid strong wind and predators (red foxes) which usually forage in open lands or sparse-tree forests (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005)." The sable reaches sexual maturity at 1.5years. The gestation with delayed implantation, takes 245-298 days. Litter size can be 1-7 (usually 3) pups.<br/><br/>For this species in the Ob region of Russia, Monakhov (2001) found that young animals tended to live near floodplains (lowland forest), while adult animals lived on watersheds (upland forest). "The floodplain group of habitats was represented by haircap moss-sphagnum and dwarf shrub-sphagnum pine and birch-pine forests and dwarf shrub-sphagnum oligotrophic bogs; the watershed habitats included spruce-Siberian stone pine stands with fir, spruce-birch stands with fir and Siberian stone pine, and herbaceous-dwarf shrub-green moss pine forests specked with haircap moss-sphagnum high bogs (Monakhov, 2001)."
41652		population	eng	It is estimated that 6,000 individuals of this species remain in China. Globally the species' population was historically fragmented due to hunting, and it has since recovered and is now fairly abundant in Siberia and the Far East (Monakhov 2001).
41652		population	eng	The species' population was fragmented due to hunting and has since recovered and is now such that the species is now fairly abundant in Siberia and the Far East (Monakhov 2001). In 1990-1999 the numbers of sable in Russia were estimated as 800-1,100 (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
41652		threats	eng	This species is still commercially hunted, and logging of primary dense coniferous habitat in Siberia and the Far East is a threat. The species is heavily farmed for fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In Japan, introduced Japanese marten <em>Martes melampus</em> can be a competitor of the endemic subspecies <em>Martes zibellina brachyura</em> (T. Murakami pers. comm. 2006).
41652		threats	eng	This species is still commercially hunted, logging of primary dense coniferous habitat in Siberia and the Far East (Bakeev and Sinitsyn, 1998). The species is heavily farmed for fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In Japan, introduced Japanese marten <span style="font-style: italic;">Martes melampus</span> can be a competitor of endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Martes zibellina brachyuran</span> (T. Murakami pers. comm. 2006).
41653		conservation	eng	The population in the Russian Far East is listed in the Russian Red Data Book (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). In China, the species is listed as Near Threatened (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). This species is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Appendix III of CITES (India) (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/envisdec99/paleweasel.htm). It is protected by law in Sichuan, China (Yi-ming <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41653		distribution	eng	This species is found in China, Kashmir (found across the Himalayan range of Nepal, Bhutan and India, eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan ,Mongolia, DPR Korea,  Russia (southern and southeastern Siberia, Primorski Krai), and Sikkim (Wozencraft, 2005). The listing from DPR Korea is in need of confirmation (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). This species is found in the Himalayas up to 5000 m. In Bhutan, it is found from 1500-5,200 m (Thinley <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41653		habitat	eng	This species prefers alpine meadow and lives among rocky slopes. It is also found in sparse forest vegetation and predominately open landscape (Kruska 1990). The species is exclusively carnivorous, preying mainly upon voles, mice, pikas, hamsters, small birds, lizards and insects (Pocock 1941), and is particularly dependent upon pikas Ochotona across much of its range (Smith and Foggin 1999). The gestation period is 38-40 days, without delayed implantation. The litter size is 2-6, sometimes up to 13 pups (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
41653		population	eng	The species is common but not abundant throughout its range. Population density fluctuates depending on prey abundance by 4 or 5 times.
41653		threats	eng	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat conversion due to over-grazing by livestock through most of its range and these effects seem to be worsening with habitat change. Most seriously there are agriculturally-driven pika-control campaigns across much of the weasel?s range, which have eradicated the weasel?s main food from large areas (Hornskov and Foggin 2007). It is occasionally hunted and is also susceptible to "mountain meadow" degradation, of the habitats to which it is wholly adapted. This species does not tolerate a high degree of alteration and it avoids agricultural lands.
41654		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas across its range.
41654		distribution	eng	Long-tailed weasels have the largest distribution of any mustelid in the Western Hemisphere. The range of the long-tail weasel includes most of North America, extending from just north of the United States-Canadian border and south to Central America to northern South America (Sheffield and Thomas, 1997). In South America it is known from Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1990; King, 1989).
41654		habitat	eng	Found in a wide variety of habitats, usually near water. Favored habitats include brushland and open woodlands, field edges, riparian grasslands, swamps, and marshes (Sheffield, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Dens are in abandoned burrow made by other mammal, rock crevice, brushpile, stump hollow, or space among tree roots; one individual may use multiple dens. Tolerant of close proximity to humans. <br/><br/><em>M. frenata</em> is usually most abundant in late seral stages or ecotones where prey diversity is greatest (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents and other small mammals. It is primarily nocturnal but is frequently active by day. It can climb and swim, but apparently not as well as <em>M. erminea</em>. Waterways provide access to suitable habitat and are a natural avenue far dispersal, particularly in areas that otherwise are unsuitable (Fagerstone, 1987). Home ranges vary from 4 to 120 ha and may overlap. Basically solitary, though more social where prey is abundant and habitat optimal.
41654		population	eng	Long-tailed weasels are widespread and fairly common throughout their range (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). <em>M. frenata</em> is difficult to census. Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability (King, 1989). Population density was found to vary from about 1/2.6 ha to 1/260 ha (Nowak, 2005). Jackson (1961) found population density averages 1 per 7-40 acres, depending upon habitat and environmental conditions (Baker 1983). <em>M. frenata</em> populations are more stable than those of <em>M. erminea</em> or <em>M. nivalis</em>.  However, <em>M. frenata</em> populations generally fluctuate, and they frequently become locally extinct in response to changes in prey numbers (King, 1989).
41654		threats	eng	Movements of radio-tagged weasels in Indiana were consistent with the notion that long-tailed weasels may be sensitive to agriculturally induced fragmentation of habitat and the importance of maintaining landscape connectivity for species conservation (Gehring and Swihart, 2004). Additional threats include monoculture and drainage of wetlands. Perhaps affected directly and indirectly by pesticide use (effects on reproduction, habitat, and/or food supply).
41655		conservation	eng	This species was sighted in Nam Xam National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1998 (Showler <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Appendix III of CITES (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/envisdec99/yellowweasel.htm). More information is needed on this species in Lao PDR before a conservation status can be certainly determined (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005). In Viet Nam, this species is protected in group 2b, because it is an enemy of rats (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). This species is listed as Near Threatened on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004).
41655		distribution	eng	This species is found in "Myanmar, southern and eastern China, the Indochinese peninsula, and Nepal" (Wozencraft, 2005) and in addition northern Thailand, India and Bhutan (Pocock 1941, Duckworth and Robichaud 2005, P. Yonzon pers. comm.). Corbet and Hill (1992) report a lower altitudinal limit of 1,000 m. In the Himalayas, this species is found between the altitude of 1,800 and 4,000 m (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/envisdec99/yellowweasel.htm). In Bhutan to 3,800 m (Yonzon pers. comm.). In India found as low as 1,000 m (Choudhury pers. comm.). In Hong Kong, it is found from close to sea-level to over 200 m (Lau pers. comm. 2006). In Western Himalaya from 3,000-5,200 m in the cold deserts (Muddapa pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species is little known in Lao PDR, where one recent sighting was in Fokienia forest at about 1,500 m in Nam Xam National Biodiversity Conservation Area (within 20°02' to 14' N and 104° 18' to 53' E) in January 1998 (Showler <em>et al</em>. 1998), though historical records came from Xiangkhouang town (19° 20' N and 103° 22' E) in 1926, Phongsaly town in 1929 (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940), and the Bolaven Plateau (within 14° 42' to 15° 30' N and 106° 15' to 50' E) at about 1,200 to 1,400 m in 1932 (Tizard 2002, Legendre 1932). In 2004 and 2005 it was recorded in Phongsaly, the northernmost province in Lao, on Phou Fa (=Fa mountain, 21° 41' N and 102° 06' E, 1,550 m) and close to Ban Bakong (=Bakong village, 21° 37' N 102° 05' E, 1,200 m) (Duckworth and Robichaud 2005). <br/><br/>Historically, most of the records of this species in Southeast Asia come from the northern highlands of Viet Nam, though there are two recent records to the south, in the Annamite mountains of central Viet Nam (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005), one was recorded in primary evergreen forest at 1,000 m in A Vuong proposed Nature Reserve, Tay Giang district, Quang Nam Province (16° 00' N and 107° 30' E) in 2003 (Long <em>et al</em>, 2004) and another in the Ngoc Linh highlands at about 15 degree N latitude in the late 1990s (J. C. Eames in litt. 1999). It may yet be found to extend even farther south in Indochina (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005). In Thailand, there are no historical records, though it apparently occurs in the northern highlands (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005), as Vikorn (2001) reported a roadkill specimen of <em>Mustela nivalis</em> from Doi Pha Luang station, which Duckworth later determined was <em>Mustela katiah</em>. (and not <em>M. nivalis</em> as it was previously identified). There are multiple skins of this species from Myanmar, all collected in the north (Pocock, 1941: 359, Than Zaw <em>et al. </em>in press.).
41655		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with large extents of high elevation (1,000 m+) terrain. It may occur well below 1,000 m in such areas, but unlikely that the species occurs at lower elevations in areas away from high altitude terrain (except in parts of China and Viet Nam).  In Lao PDR, this little known species was sighted in Fokienia forest at about 1,500 m (Showler <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Lao PDR, this species was recorded from "relict and degraded montane evergreen forest, linked through extensive scrub and grassland to various other small and degraded forest patches (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005)." It seems likely that this species is tolerant of quite severe habitat degradation, and it appears to persist in the face of heavy hunting (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005), supporting findings in heeavily disturbed areas of southern China (M. W. N. Lau pers. comm. 2006). It was recorded in primary evergreen forest in Viet Nam in 2003 (Long <em>et al</em>. 2004). It probably occurs at lower elevations in the northeast the country (Timmins pers. comm.) and there is one record from the Ke Go lowlands (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep). In India, it is found from 1,800 to 2,200 m in temperate forests and cold deserts (Choudhury pers com).
41655		population	eng	It is possible that the low number of records from Lao PDR may reflect generally low encounter rates of tropical weasels (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005). There is no reason to assume that this species is rare, and the low number of species in collection may be a relict of collection and trapping techniques (Duckworth per comm.). Recent camera trap records suggest that this species is fairly common in forested areas in southern China (Lau pers. comm. 2006), where few other small carnivores survive in meaningful numbers.
41655		threats	eng	As with most other weasels, there are no major threats known or suspected to this species. In particular, the effects of the current high levels of forest degradation within much of its range cannot be assumed to be strongly negative, given the number of records from degraded and fragmented areas.
41656		conservation	eng	Females of this species are protected from hunting by law (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). It is ranked as a near threatened species in the Red List of nine prefectures in the western Japan (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006).
41656		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Sado, Oki Islands, Izu-Oshima, Awaji, Shoudo, Iki, Goto Islands, Yaku and Tane, and introduced to Hokkaido in the 1880s (Inukai 1934). It was introduced for control of rats on about 50 islands, including Sakhlain, Rishiri, Rebun, Izu Islands (Miyake, Hachijo, Aogashima), Aoshima (Nagasaki Prefecture), Kuchino, Nakano, Suwanose, Hira, Akuseki, Kikai, Okinoerabu, Yoron (Kagoshima Prefecture), Zamami, Aka, Minami-Daito, Kita-Daito, Irabu, Iriomote, Hateruma (Okinawa Prefecture) (Shiraishi 1982). It is naturalized on some islands (Abe, 2005). It is found in most elevation zones, but mainly at lower elevations (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006).
41656		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grasslands, forests, villages, and suburbs, but not in big cities (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). Rodents, insects, amphibians and reptiles make up the main part of its diet (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). It shows extreme sexual dimorphism (male:450 g, female:150 g ) (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). It is found in most habitats across Japan.
41656		population	eng	This species is common.
41656		threats	eng	It does not tolerate urbanization (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). In western Japan, the Japanese Weasel is being driven to marginal montane habitats by competition with the introduced Siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica) (Abe, 2005).
41657		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah, but not in Sarawak nor in Indonesia (based ARCBC database). This species has been reported from many protected areas within its range (Duckworth <em>et al. </em>(2006).
41657		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo) and Brunei  (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006). Confusion about the existence of this species on Java is due to an error in the original description, which is occasionally still repeated today, e.g. by Wilson and Reeder (2005), where the holotype was said to come from Java (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006). An individual from southern Thailand was collected at Khao Chong, Trang Province (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), also recently recorded records (about 5) extend the known range farther north (Specimen in Thailand Institute of Science and Technical Research), up to 10 degrees North Latitude (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species was recorded from Kerinci Seblat National Park in Sumatra in 1994, at altitudes of 400 m and 800 m (Franklin and Wells, 2005). Attitudinally wide-ranging, with records up to 1,700 m (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006),  with many records up to 1,400 m (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are wide-spread records of this species on Borneo, across the island both historically and recently, as well as on Sumatra (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006).
41657		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species, though it is probably similar to other weasels in that it is ground-dwelling and so potentially exposed to generalised snaring and other forms of trapping. However, the distribution of recent records in deforested areas, even urban sites, indicate a high tolerance to human activities (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006). Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species, though it is probably similar to other weasels in that it is ground-dwelling and so potentially exposed to generalised snaring and other forms of trapping. However, the distribution of recent records in deforested areas, even urban sites, indicate a high tolerance to human activities (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41657		population	eng	There are no studies on this species, however, it appears to be widespread but difficult to see, at low density, and/or patchily distributed. This species has not been camera trapped regularly, as there is currently only one known record of camera trapping within the range, and the aggregate camera-trapping at known sites suggests that as currently used camera-traps are not an efficient way to find the species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41657		threats	eng	Currently no major threats to this species have been traced. It is eaten in parts of Sarawak and there is some evidence of medicinal use, but no evidence that these activities are major threats (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006)..
41658		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats Directive. It is listed on Schedule 6 of the WildLife Countryside Act (UK). It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Better monitoring of the species is needed, and measures should be taken to reduce hunting pressure where this is excessive. There is also a need to control release of ferrets into the wild.
41658		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats Directive. It is listed on Schedule 6 of the WildLife Countryside Act (UK). It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Better monitoring of the species is needed to reduce hunting pressures. Also, there is a need to control release of ferrets into the wild.
41658		distribution	eng	<em>Mustela putorius</em> is widespread in the western Palaearctic up to the Ural Mountains in the Russian Federation (absent from Ireland, northern Scandinavia, and much of the Balkans and eastern Adriatic coast). The species occurs only marginally in northern Greece. It is found in Morocco in the Rif Mountains from sea level to 2,400 m (Griffiths and Cuzin in press). Feral populations of the domesticated form <em>M. putorius</em> 'furo' (ferret) have become established in a number of areas including northern Britain, the Isle of Man (United Kingdom), Texel (Netherlands), some Mediterranean islands, the Azores, and New Zealand (Birks 1999, Clapperton 2001, W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2006).
41658		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the western Palaearctic up to the Ural Mountains in the Russian Federation (absent from Ireland, northern Scandinavia, and much of the Balkans and eastern Adriatic coast). The species occurs only marginally in northern Greece. It is found in Morocco in the Rif Mountains from sea level to 2400 m (Griffiths and Cuzin, in press). The ferret is introduced in the British Isles, and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand (Clapperton, 2001).
41658		habitat	eng	A generalist, it is found in almost every type of lowland habitat. It is often found in lowland woods in riparian zones, and in areas close to farms and villages in the winter; but it also uses wooded steppe, sand dunes, marshes and river valleys, agricultural land, forest edge and mosaic habitats (Birks 1999, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mountainous areas are avoided. <br/><br/>It feeds on live rodents (voles, mice, hamsters) and other vertebrates, also sometimes on invertebrates and carrion. In wetland areas it often feeds on amphibians (Birks 1999).
41658		habitat	eng	A generalist, it is found in almost every type of lowland habitat. It is often found in lowland woods in riparian zones, and in areas close to farms and villages in the winter; but it also uses wooded steppe, sand dunes, marshes and river valleys, agricultural land, forest edge and mosaic habitats (Birks 1999, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mountainous areas are avoided. It feeds on live rodents (voles, mice, hamsters) and other vertebrates, also sometimes on invertebrates and carrion. In wetland areas it often feeds on amphibians (Birks 1999).
41658		population	eng	The species is common in forested areas of European Russia. In western Europe, the species is scarce, typically occurring at densities of about 1 individual per 1000 hectares, and rarely exceeding 5-10 individuals per 1,000 hectares even in optimal habitat (Birks 1999). The population appears to be stable in the eastern parts of its range, but there are reports of recent declines from a number of countries in western Europe (e.g. Switzerland, Germany and Denmark: Birks 1999). In Portugal population numbers and trend have not been quantified, but a declining trend is possible related to the decrease in rabbit numbers (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Morocco, Griffiths and Cuzin (in press) suggests that populations may be decreasing. In central Europe, a main prey item (the common hamster <em>Cricetus cricetus</em>) has declined and thus polecat numbers may also be decreasing (EMA Workshop 2006). Populations in the United Kingdom and Estonia are now increasing (Battersby 2005, Tiit Maran pers. comm. 2006). This increase in the United Kingdom follows a major persecution driven decline from the 1800s to 1920s, which nearly led to the extinction of the species there (Birks 1999, Battersby 2005).
41658		population	eng	The species is common in forested areas of European Russia. In Western Europe, the species is scarce, typically occurring at densities of about 1 individual per 1000 hectares, and rarely exceeding 5-10 individuals per 1,000 hectares even in optimal habitat. The population appears to be stable in the eastern parts of its range. In Morrocco, Cuzin (in press) suggests that populations may be decreasing. In central Europe the main prey item has decreased and hence the polecat numbers are also decreasing. In The United Kingdom and Estonia numbers are now increasing (Jim Conroy and Tiit Maran pers. comms. 2006), following a major persecution driven decline from the 1800s to 1920s in the United Kingdom (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). In Portugal population numbers and trend are unknown, but may be related to the declining trends in the rabbit population.
41658		threats	eng	In western and central Europe, it was formerly widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest, although this threat has become less serious as the species is now protected in a number of range states and rates of hunting have greatly reduced (Birks 1999). Accidental mortality in car collisions and via secondary rodenticide poisoning is a problem (Birks 1999, Battersby 2005). Declines in prey species, e.g. hamsters (Nechay 2000) and rabbits in southern Iberia (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005) may contributing to declines in parts of the range. In European Russia, the species is commonly hunted (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with the ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom (Battersby 2005). Possible competition with the American mink may also be a problem. In Morocco, the species may be captured in some areas for hunting.
41658		threats	eng	In Western Europe, it was formerly widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest, however, this threat has become less serious as the species is now protected in a number of range states and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality in car collisions and via secondary rodenticide poisoning is a problem. Declines in the prey species, e.g., hamsters and rabbits appear to be resulting in declines in parts of the range.In European Russia, the species is commonly hunted (Abramov pers. comm.). Hybridization with the ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the American mink may also be a problem. In Morocco, the species may be captured in some areas for hunting.
41659		conservation	eng	In Lao PDR, this species was observed in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1996 (Duckworth 1997a), and provisionally sighted in Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1998 (Robinson and Webber, 1998a; M. F. Robinson, 1998). Gao and Sun (2005) conducted a study of the effects of this species on Liadong oak (Quercus wutaishanica) in Beijing Forest Ecosystem Research Station (BFERS, 40 00 N, 115 26 E), one of the research stations affiliated to the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network (CERN) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (India) and is on the Tibet wildlife protection list (Li <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is on the China Red List as Near Threatened, and it nearly met the criteria for Vulnerable A2cd. There is a conservation need to establish a sustainable harvest level through population monitoring.
41659		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (Tibet) (Yi-ming <em>et al.</em> 2000). There is a large, legal harvest of pelts of this species, which is apparently sustainable (W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).
41659		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Myanmar, China, Japan (Tushima, introduced to western Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku), North Korea, South Korea, Pakistan, Russia (from Kirov Province, Tataria and western Ural Mountains throughout Siberia to Far East), Taiwan, and northern Thailand (Wilson and Reeder 2005). There is also a historical record from Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Japan, it has been introduced to Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands (Abe 2005). It is native on the islands of Sakhalin, Kamishima, and Quelpart (Abe 2005). The distribution in southeast Asia is poorly known (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).  The species was recorded in two locations in national parks in Thailand (Kanchanasaka, pers. comm.) and in one location in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1996 in Laos (Duckworth 1997). It occurs from sea level to over 3,000 m in Nepal and to 5,000 m in China (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). This species is of marginal occurrence in Europe, where it is found only in the Ural mountains.
41659		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Myanmar, Lao PDR, China, Japan, DPR Korea, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Nepal, India (Himalayas), Bhutan, Russia (from Kirov Province, Tataria and western Ural Mountains throughout Siberia to Far East), Taiwan, and northern Thailand (Pocock 1941, Duckworth 1997, Wozencraft, 2005). In Japan, it has been introduced to Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands (Abe, 2005). It is native on the islands of Sakhalin, Kamishima, and Jeju (Abe, 2005). The distribution in southeast Asia is poorly known (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).  The species was recorded recently in two locations in national parks in Thailand (Kanchanasaka pers. comm) and in one location in Lao PDR, Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1996 (Duckworth, 1997; sight record only). Gao and Sun (2005) conducted a study of the effects of this species on Liadong oak (Quercus wutaishanica) in Beijing Forest Ecosystem Research Station (BFERS, 40 00 N, 115 26 E), one of the research stations affiliated to the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network (CERN) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). This species seems to prefer mountains from 1500 to 5000 m in the southern part of its range (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988) but there is one provisional sighting in Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in valley semi-evergreen forest amid karst at about 500 m in 1998 (Robinson and Webber, 1998).
41659		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, as well as open areas with small patches of forest enclaves and forest steppe. It is also found along river valleys. It feeds on small mammals, such as voles, squirrels, mice and pikas, amphibians, fish, and carrion, and occasionally on vegetative matter (e.g. pine nuts) (Global Mammal Assessment Small Carnivore Workshop 2006).
41659		habitat	eng	This species is found in "a wide variety of habitats, including dense forest, dry areas, and human villages and towns, where it dens in any convenient shelter, including burrows of other animals (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988)." It occurs in primary and secondary deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, as well as open areas with small patches of forest enclaves and forest steppe. It is also found along river valleys. It is found from to over 3000 m in Nepal. In Bhutan, it is found as low as 1500 m and up to 4800 m (Thinley, 2004). In China, its altitude can reach up to 5000 m. It feeds on small mammals, such as voles, squirrels, mice and pikas, amphibians, fish, and carrion.  During the summer time, it feeds on pine nuts. In Lao PDR this little known species has been observed in primary evergreen forest at 1000 m (Duckworth 1997a), and possibly in valley semi-evergreen forest amid karst at about 500 m (Robinson and Webber 1998a; M. F. Robinson, 1998). It occurs commonly down to sea-level in the north of its range, e.g. Korea (J. W. Duckworth pers. comm.).
41659		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant in Siberia and China (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). It is also common in northern central Korea as well, where few other mammals other than rats and squirrels are easily seen (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).
41659		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant in Siberia and China (Abramov pers. comm). It is also common in northern central Korea as well, where few other mammals other than rats and squirrels are currently easily seen (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).
41659		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species (Global Mammal Assessment Small Carnivore Workshop 2006).  It is legally hunted in Russia for its fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).
41659		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.  It is legally hunted in Russia for its fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006)."Unfortunately, the small forest carnivores are not well protected by either the local forest managers or the residents living in the forest areas in China, though most of them are listed as protected animals by the national or local governments. Weasels and badgers are largely hunted for their hides and meat. (Gao and Sun, 2005)". Unsustainable hunting for skins, for international trade. However, hunting levels are low at present, reflecting the low commercial value of skins. Competition for resources with sable (Martes zibellina) and natural wildfires also constitute minor threats.
41660		conservation	eng	This species is a human commensal, and no conservation measures apparently are currently needed.
41660		distribution	eng	Confined to the lower Nile Valley of Egypt, between Beni Suef in the south and Alexandria and the Delta in the north (Handwerk 1993, McDonald in press).
41660		habitat	eng	Commensal with humans, and often trapped in human habitations, including underground larders and even in cars (McDonald in press).
41660		population	eng	Common to abundant; densities of 0.5–1.0/ha have been estimated from trapping (Handwerk 1993). Opportunistic feeders.
41660		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
41661		conservation	eng	American mink is currently the most important species in fur-fanning operations (Peterson, 1966; Thompson, 1968). The American mink is among the most valuable fur animals, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms (Nowak, 2005).
41661		distribution	eng	The species occurs in North America from Alaska and Canada through the United States except Arizona and the dry<br/>parts of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and western Texas. The American mink was deliberately introduced as a fur animal in Russia, and in other parts of Europe and, as a result of escapes and their intentional release in Russia and other countries, the species is now naturalised in many parts of Europe (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1999). The european range area increased rapidly and now it includes: Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan (Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden. Feral populations of American mink have been reported also in South America (Previtali, 1998).
41661		habitat	eng	This species is found along streams and lakes as well as in swamps and marshes. It prefers densely vegetated areas. It dens under stones or the roots of trees, in espropriated beaver or muskrat houses, or in self-excavated burrows (Nowak, 2005). The species can be found in xeric habitats if food is abundant (Arnold and Fritzell, 1990). <br/>Strictly carnivorous, and its diet reflects the local prey base (Ben-David <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Typical prey are fish, amphibians, crustaceans, muskrats, and small mammals (Birks and Dunstone, 1985; Bueno, 1994; Chanin and Linn, 1980; Cuthbert, 1979; Day and Linn, 1972). But other prey can be found occasionally (Larievière, 1999). Males have large home ranges that extend for a half mile or more along waterways and overlap with the smaller home ranges of several females (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).
41661		population	eng	Generally abundant throughout its distribution (Larivière, 1999). Population density of about 1-8/km<sup>2</sup> have been  recorded (Nowak, 2005). In good habitat, density may be 9-22 per sq mile (Banfield 1974).
41661		threats	eng	Wild populations of American mink are still hunted for fur. Alteration of its habitat, namely densely vegetated river courses and other wetlands represents another threat for this species. The American mink is known to suffer from environmental pollution caused by chlorinated hydrocarbons (PCBs) which may even cause infertility (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).
41662		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas across its range.
41662		distribution	eng	Ranges from south-western Uganda and Kenya to the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). Because of its secretive nature it has probably been overlooked in many areas, especially in light of records from locations that were previously considered unsuitable (Stuart and Stuart in press). Recorded to 2,300 m asl in Malawi (Medland and Dudley 1995).
41662		habitat	eng	Mainly found in savanna associations, although they probably have a wide habitat tolerance and have been recorded from lowland rainforest, semi-desert grassland, and fynbos (Stuart and Stuart in press). Road kills have been collected from areas of cultivated fields.
41662		population	eng	Rare to uncommon, with highest densities reached in moist higher rainfall grasslands (Stuart and Stuart in press).
41662		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, Cunningham and Zondi (1991) regarded this species as one of the most-used animals in traditional medicine, and in parts of its range the skins are commonly used by traditional healers and sangomas as a good luck charm.
41663		conservation	eng	In Canada, the species was designated as “Not At Risk”, while the two subspecies <em>T. t. jeffersonii</em> (British Columbia) and <em>T. t. jacksoni</em> (Ontario) were designated as “Endangered”(COSEWIC, 2002) with as few as 600 and 200 animals remaining, respectively (Kyle <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
41663		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from southern Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and southern Ontario), over a majority of the northern, western and central United States, and south to Puebla and Baja California, Mexico (Wozencraft, in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Long, in Wilson and Ruff 1999).
41663		habitat	eng	Prefers open areas and may also frequent brushlands with little groundcover. When inactive, occupies underground burrow. Badgers are known to inhabit regions ranging from below sea level to elevations 3,600 m (Kyle <em>et al.</em>, 2004). They are usually found in relative dry, grasslands and open forests (Rahme <em>et al</em>. 1995). <em>Taxidea</em> may be active at any hour but is mainly nocturnal. <br/><br/>Feeds primarily on small rodents usually captured by digging out burrow. Ground squirrels often major item in diet, as are pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, priairie dogs, and mice; also eats scorpions, insects, snakes, lizards, and birds, especially when ground squirrel population is low (Messick and Hornocker 1981). <br/><br/>Its movements are restricted, especially in winter, and it shows a strong attachment to a home area. Estimated home ranges vary from 2 to 725 ha changing seasonally (Sargeant and Warne, 1972). The badger is active all year, but it may sleep in its den for several days or weeks during severe winter weather (Nowak, 2005). Most food is obtained by excavating the burrows of fossorial rodents. Also eaten are other small mammals, birds, reptiles and arthropods.
41663		population	eng	Large range in the western and central U.S., southern Canada, and northern and central Mexico; relatively common over much of range, but probably has declined substantially in areas converted from grassland to intensive agriculture and where colonial rodents such as prairie dogs and groundsquirrels have been reduced or eliminated. Also threatened by collisions with vehicles and by direct persecution.<br/><br/>U.S. population roughly estimated to be on the order of several hundred thousand; Canadian population less than 50,000 (Newhouse and Kinley 1999). No estimates for Mexican population. In areas of abundance, can reach densities of 3-5/square kilometer (Long, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Canada, both <em>T. t. jackson</em>i in Ontario and <em>T. t. jeffersonii</em> in British Columbia are recognized as endangered, with as few as 200 and 600 animals remaining, respectively (Kyle <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Badgers have experienced negative demographic trends throughout their northern range as a result in declining habitat suitability (Newhouse and Kinley, 2000). Population sizes for the United States are not well known, but the total American population is probably several hundred thousand animals (Newhouse and Kinley, 2000). Badgers can occur at densities up to 6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Messick and Hornocker, 1981). In Canada, the <em>T. taxus</em> population, according to a 1998 questionnaire, is estimated to be between 13,700 and 28,900 in Saskatchewan province and 3,000 and 5,000 in Manitoba province, providing an estimated Prairie population to between 17,700 and 43,900 animals (Scobie, 2002).<br/><br/>Density averages 1 per sq mile in prime open country (Long 1973). In southeastern Wyoming, density was 0.8-1.1 per sq km (Goodrich and Buskirk 1998).
41663		threats	eng	Changing land uses, resulting from agriculture, urban development, and forest ingrowth and loss of prey appears to be the major factors negatively affecting badgers. The loss of prey is considered to be one of the primary factors limiting badger populations in British Columbia (Newhouse and Kinley, 2000). Trapping for pelts has affected badger populations, mainly in response to rising fur prices, but has not had a significant influence on badger populations in recent years. Badgers are also trapped, shot and poisoned because their diggings are thought to cause broken legs in livestock, lead to water loss from irrigation canals, and cause damage to vehicles encountering their burrows (Scobie, 2002).<br/><br/>Although clearing of forests for agricultural land has probably resulted in some range expansion, cultivation of grassland has undoubtedly caused declines (Soper 1964, Stardom 1979, Lindzey 1982, Messick 1987, Smith 1992, Newhouse and Kinley 1999). Likewise, intensification of agriculture is likely to cause declines in the future. <br/><br/>In the west, infill of formerly open woodlands and encroachment of forests into grassland as a result of effective fire suppression has eliminated or degraded much badger habitat (Newhouse and Kinley 1999).<br/><br/>Most mortality is caused by vehicles or deliberate killing by humans (Stardom 1979, Messick <em>et al.</em> 1981, Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 1994, Newhouse and Kinley 2000, Apps <em>et al</em>. 2002). Badgers may actually be attracted to roads, both because ground squirrels often burrow alongside them (Ketcheson and Bauer 1995), and because they are good travel routes (Warner and Ver Steeg 1995). <br/><br/>Badgers are trapped, shot and poisoned because their diggings are thought to cause broken legs in livestock, lead to water loss from irrigation canals, and cause damage to vehicles encountering their burrows (Scobie 2002). Declines may also be related to the persecution of their primary prey, prairie dogs and ground squirrels (Apps <em>et al</em>. 2002). Finley <em>et al</em>. (1976) speculated that some Colorado populations may have declined because of the elimination of prairie dogs.
41664		conservation	eng	This species is protected throughout its range by the laws of Australia and New Zealand, respectively.  In New Zealand all marine mammals are protected by the Marine Mammals Protection Act of 1978.  Management is driven by Conservation Plans developed by the Department of Conservation. The current plan, written in 2004, is an action plan for conservation of all marine mammals from 2005-2010 (Suisted and Neale 2004).  In Australia, State Governments have jurisdiction over marine mammals within three miles of the coast and each state has its own conservation legislation.  The Australian Commonwealth Government has jurisdiction from three miles offshore throughout the rest of the countries’ 200 mile EEZ. An action plan for conservation of Australian seals was published in 1999 (Shaughnessy 1999).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
41664		distribution	eng	In New Zealand, this species occurs around both the North and South Islands, with small breeding colonies on the north and larger colonies on the west and southern coast and islands around the South Island, as well as on all of New Zealand's sub-Antarctic islands. They are less common off the North Island, with no colonies, but they do occur as far north as the Three Kings Islands. Their range extends to Macquarie Island, where males mate with Antarctic and Subantarctic fur seals and produced hybrid pups. Vagrants have been recorded in New Caledonia and from a bone in a 14th century archaeological site in the Cook Islands.<br/><br/>New Zealand Fur Seals also occur in the coastal waters and on the offshore islands of South and Western Australia, from just east of Kangaroo Island west to the southwest corner of the continent in Western Australia. Small populations are also establishing in Tasmania and Victorian coastal waters.
41664		habitat	eng	New Zealand Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic, with adult males reaching 1.3 times the length and more than 3 times the weight of adult females. There is some variation in the weights of adult males in the literature.  Some ranges are up to a maximum of 250 kg, others to 200 kg.  The largest male weighed at the Open Bay Islands of New Zealand was 154 kg. Adult males 8-12 years old had a maximum weight of 124 kg.  Adult males are up to 2 m long. Adult females are 1.5 m and 30-50 kg. Pups average 3.3-3.9 kg and 40-55 cm at birth and male pups average 14.1 kg and females 12.6 kg around weaning when they are approximately 290 days old. Pups moult into adult pelage at 2-3 months.  Females become mature at 4-6 years of age, males at 8-10 years (Dickie and Dawson 2003, McKenzie <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2007).<br/><br/>New Zealand Fur Seals are polygynous.  Males arrive at colonies in late October before females and acquire and defend territories with vocalizations, ritualized displays and fighting.  Male territories include an average of 5-8 females with the ratio of females to males varying between different colonies. The number of animals ashore at rookeries declines rapidly in January. Male vocalizations include a bark or whimper, a guttural threat, a low-intensity threat, a full threat, and a submissive call.  Females growl and have a pup-attraction call that is a high-pitched wail. <br/><br/>Pups are born from mid-November to January, with most pups are born in December.  Oestrous occurs 7-8 days after a female gives birth, and they usually spend another 1-2 days ashore with their pup before departing and beginning a cycle of foraging trips and periods of pup attendance ashore (Goldsworthy and Shaughnessy 1994, Goldsworthy 2006). Pups are weaned when they are about 10 months old. Adult female foraging trips are shorter when the pup is young and become longer as the pup gets older. In general, on-shore attendance bouts last under 2 days.<br/><br/>New Zealand Fur Seals are considered non-migratory. At sea they actively groom and raft in a variety of postures typical of southern fur seals including the “jug handle” position while sleeping at the surface. They often “porpoise” out of the water when travelling rapidly at sea. Rocky shoreline habitat with shelter, and locations more exposed to wind and weather are preferred for haul-outs and rookeries. When hauled out in New Zealand, New Zealand fur seals readily enter areas of coastal vegetation behind the shoreline.<br/> <br/>New Zealand Fur Seals prey on a large variety of cephalopods, fish, and birds (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 2003). In South Australia, key cephalopods prey include, Southern Ocean arrow squid and Gould’s squid; key fish species include redbait, ocean jackets, swallowtail and myctophids; and the most frequently taken bird species are little penguins and short-tailed shearwaters. Satellite tracking studies in South Australia indicate marked spatial separation in foraging regions used by juvenile, adult female and males seals. Lactating females forage predominantly in mid- to outer-continental shelf waters during summer months and then switch to deeper oceanic waters over winter months. In contrast, adult males focus their foraging over the continental slope. Juvenile seals forage in oceanic waters where they target nocturnal surface-migrating myctophid fish (Baylis <em>et al</em>. 2005). Adult female and male seals both forage in the water column in relative shallow depths (0-20 m) and near or on the bottom in deeper water. In females, benthic dives on the continental shelf in South Australia are typically at 60-80 m, while those of males on the continental slope are between 100-200 m. The maximum dive durations and depths recorded for adult females are 9.3 min and 312 m, and 14.8 min and 380 m for males.<br/> <br/>Predators include Killer Whales, sharks, male New Zealand Sea Lions and possibly Leopard Seals at sub-Antarctic islands (Shaughnessy 2006).
41664		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be approximately 200,000 with about half of these in Australia. Populations are increasing in both Australia and New Zealand (e.g. Brothers and Pemberton 1990).
41664		threats	eng	Humans have probably harvested New Zealand Fur Seals for subsistence since first contact in both Australia and New Zealand. There is evidence that Polynesian colonization of New Zealand and harvest of seals led to declines and loss of colonies on the coast of the North Island. European sealers nearly exterminated the species in the 19th century, but due to protection, the species has rebounded to occupy most of its former range.<br/> <br/>Trawl and other fisheries are a source of entanglement and drowning (Page <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Tourism and disturbance at colonies can lead to disruption of breeding behaviour and site abandonment, although most colonies are on offshore islands and are relatively inaccessible.<br/><br/>Like all fur seals, New Zealand Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation (Gales 1991).  New Zealand fur seals share most of their range with several other regularly occurring pinnipeds that show up irregularly as vagrants.  They also come in close contact with domestic and feral animals and in some areas wild carnivores.  Thus, they are at risk of transmission of infectious diseases like morbilliviruses.
41665		conservation	eng	South American Sea Lions are protected and managed by laws in most of the countries where they occur. Sea lions have also been afforded protection by the establishment of numerous reserves and protected areas at rookeries and haul out sites, especially in Argentina. However, enforcement of protection regulations is weak in most of the distribution range, particularly in the most isolated areas and at sea. In Chile the species is subject to exploitation. Since 2004 and for five years there has been a moratorium that could be lifted if the interaction with fisheries is shown to be detrimental to the fisheries.
41665		distribution	eng	South American Sea Lions are widely-distributed, occurring more or less continuously from northern Peru south to Cape Horn, and north up the east coast of the continent to southern Brazil. They also occur in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The northernmost breeding distribution on the Pacific side is Isla Lobos de Tierra (6º26’S; Peru). No breeding colonies occur in Brazil. The northernmost breeding rookery in the Atlantic is Isla de Lobos, on the Uruguayan coast.<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are primarily a coastal species, found in waters over the continental shelf and slope; they occur only infrequently in deeper waters. This species ventures into fresh water and can be found around tidewater glaciers and up rivers. Vagrants have been found as far north as 13°S, near Bahia Brazil and in the Galápagos Archipelago (Ecuador).
41665		habitat	eng	South American Sea Lions are stocky, heavy-bodied otariids that are strongly sexually dimorphic. Adult males reach 2.6 m in length and weights of 300 to 350 kg; females reach 2 m and 144 kg. At birth, pups are 11-15 kg and 75-85 cm long. Pups are born black above and paler below, often with grayish orange tones on the undersides. Pups undergo their first moult approximately 1-2 months after birth, becoming dark brown. This colour fades during the rest of the first year to a pale tan to light brown, with paler areas on the face.<br/><br/>The age of attainment of sexual maturity is 4 years for females and 5-6 years for males. Gestation lasts about one year. Longevity is considered to be about 20 years. Mortality rates for adults are unknown (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Pup mortality estimated for some Peruvian colonies ranged from 13% before El Niño to 100% during El Niño and was negatively correlated with prey availability (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The start of the breeding season varies somewhat by location and latitude, with pups being born slightly earlier at more southern rookeries. At most sites, both sexes arrive in mid-December with peak numbers of males ashore just after mid-January and peak numbers of females ashore from mid to late January. Females give birth 2-3 days after their arrival at the rookeries; pups are born from mid-December to early February with a peak in mid-January, coinciding with the timing of peak numbers of females ashore. Estrous occurs 6 days after parturition, and females make their first foraging trip 2-3 days after estrous. From this point on, a cycle of foraging and pup attendance starts and lasts until pups are weaned at 8-10 months old. As is the case for many sea lions, it is not unusual for females to continue to care for a yearling while they are nursing a new pup. Pups gather in large pods on the rookeries while waiting for their mothers to return from 1-4 day long foraging trips. Females usually stay ashore for 2 days between trips.<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are a highly polygynous species with various strategies employed by males and females during the breeding season that are driven by substrate and terrain at the rookery and thermoregulatory requirements imposed by weather conditions at the site. Adult males tend to establish territories through vocalizing, posturing, and fighting, when rookeries provide shade, have tidal pools that can be used for cooling, or funnel interior areas through narrow beaches between rocks or ledges to the sea. At more homogeneous locations with long shorelines, the male strategy focuses on identifying, defending and controlling individual cows in estrous, wherever they are found. Bulls actively and aggressively work to keep estrous cows close to them by grabbing, dragging, and throwing them back inland, away from the shoreline.<br/><br/>At sea, South American Sea Lions frequently raft alone or in small to large groups. They have been reported in association with feeding cetaceans and seabirds. The mean depth of lactating female foraging dives is about 61 m and the mean duration is just over 3 minutes. The maximum depth recorded for a dive is 175 m and duration 7.7 minutes. Two tagged adult males foraged on the continental shelf prior to the onset of breeding, making 5-6 day trips that covered an average of 600 km before they returned to land to haul-out. Dive depth and length are unknown for males, but these two animals spent about 90% of their time in water depths of 50-100 m.<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are considered non-migratory, although some may wander long distances away from rookeries during the non-breeding season, and some southerly locations such as the Falkland/Malvinas Islands are largely abandoned during the winter. However, most rookeries are continuously occupied by at least some animals, and the species has been described as sedentary. Animals that reproduce at Península Valdés (northern Argentine Patagonia) move to Uruguay and vice versa (Szapkievich <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are opportunistic feeders that take a wide variety of prey that varies by location. Their diet includes many species of benthic and pelagic fishes and invertebrates, some of them of commercial value. Forty-one prey species (including fishes, cephalopods, crustaceans, gastropods, polychetes, sponges, and tunicates) were identified in stomach contents of individuals found dead on beaches and from animals recovered in incidental catches of the fisheries of the Patagonian continental shelf (Koen Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2000). Most important items were Argentine Hake (<em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>), Red Octopus (<em>Enteroctopus megalocyathus</em>), Argentine Shortfin Squid (<em>Illex argentinus</em>), "raneya" (<em>Raneya brasiliensis</em>), Patagonian Squid (<em>Loligo gahi</em>) and Argentine Anchovy (<em>Engraulis anchoita</em>). Differences in diet were found between sexes. Females fed mostly on benthic species, whereas males fed mostly on demersal-pelagic species.<br/><br/>Diet and maternal care patterns reflect inter-annual fluctuations in food availability. In the unpredictable Peruvian upwelling ecosystem, females appeared to adjust their diets and maternal attendance patterns in response to annual changes in the abundance and distribution of prey (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2006). Short times onshore nursing and long times at sea foraging are observed during El Niño in Peru, when prey is not abundant near the rookeries. A larger diversity of prey species (particularly of demersal fishes) are consumed during El Niño, when anchovy and lobster are less available. These observations suggest that South American Sea Lions may be good indicators of relative changes in the distribution and abundance of marine resources.<br/><br/>A small percentage of adult male South American Sea Lions regularly prey on South American Fur Seals, although many that pass by colonies investigate the nearby waters and may attempt to capture a fur seal. Adult male sea lions hunt alone and focus their attacks on fur seal pups and juveniles, which are consumed when caught. This has been observed in almost the entire distribution range. About 17% of attacks are successful, but success varies widely between individual males. Subadult males also attack fur seals, but tend to abduct fur seals to serve as female sea lion substitutes, herding them and attempting to mate with them, usually killing them in the process. Female and juvenile sea lions have not been recorded to hunt fur seals. Sea lions have been observed killing young Southern Elephant Seals in the Falkland Islands. They are also known to take several species of penguins, but the importance of penguins in the diet is unknown.<br/><br/>Predators include Killer Whales, sharks and Leopard Seals, and possibly the Puma. At one now-famous rookery (Punta Norte at Península Valdés), Killer Whales are known to surf in on waves, partially beaching themselves while grabbing predominantly young sea lions off the shoreline. Puma tracks have been observed on a rookery in Patagonia and remains of sea lions have been found in a cave used by a Puma in the area.
41665		population	eng	The total global population is estimated to be over 250,000. In the Atlantic: about 12,000 in Uruguay (1,200 pups per year), no less than 100,000 in continental Argentina, 6,000 in the Falklands-Malvinas. In the Pacific: 90,000-100,000 in Chile, 60,000 in Peru.<br/><br/>Trends are increasing in northern Argentine Patagonia at 5.7% (Dans <em>et al</em>. 2004) and decreasing in Uruguay (4%; Paez 2005) and Chile (16%). Estimates for southern Patagonia (Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego Provinces) show a decrease to only 14.5% of the population size reported in the late 1940s. Sealing activities, performed mainly at northern Patagonia and at Tierra del Fuego, are likely responsible for the depletion (Schiavini <em>et al</em>. 2004). Present population in the Falklands-Malvinas represents about 10% of historical numbers at this locale.<br/><br/>The Peruvian population was decimated by the 97/98 El Niño, from ca. 144 000 animals in 1997 to 28 000 during 97/98 (Arias-Schreiber and Rivas 1998, Arias-Schreiber 1998). The population in 2004 was 60 000, a decrease of 25% from the 2003 numbers. Pup production in Peru declined 48% from 2003 to 2004. This population is apparently recovering. However, the stronger and more frequent El Niños that appear to be occurring along the Peruvian coast may put the vulnerable South American Sea Lion population in Peru at greater risk (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Genetic studies suggest one population of South American Sea Lions extends through Uruguay, continental Argentina and the Falklands/Malvinas Islands (Szapkievich <em>et al</em>.1999, Freilich 2004).
41665		threats	eng	South American Sea Lions were hunted by native people of South America for thousands of years and have been taken by Europeans as early as the 16th century for food, oil and hides (Rodriguez and Bastida 1998). During the second half of the 19th century coastal zones were rapidly colonized by man and by the turn of the century, sea lion rookeries disappeared from part of their range. Dramatic declines were not only due to spatial competition with man, but also to the indirect effect of pinniped over-exploitation in other areas of the south-western Atlantic. Significant commercial harvests occurred in several countries and sea lion numbers were drastically reduced in the last several hundred years.<br/><br/>The species interacts regularly with fisheries that use a variety of fishing gear and target coastal and pelagic species (Corcuera <em>et al</em>. 1994, Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1994, Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. 2007). During the 1990s, mortality in the fisheries of the Patagonian shelf varied from 150-600 sea lions per year (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997, Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is competition with some fisheries (Koen Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2000) and in the case of the Argentine Hake, <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>, and Argentine Squid, <em>Illex argentinus</em>, interactions may be detrimental at a high level of harvest of the target populations (Koen Alonso y Yodzis 2005).<br/><br/>A longstanding competition for fish has existed in Chile between the South American sea lion and small-scale fisheries. Sea lions, according to fishermen, prey on fish caught in their fishing gear, often causing damage. However, a study of the operational interactions suggests that sea lions do not produce a significant effect on variations in the CPUE obtained by artisanal fishermen (Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sea lions were taken in Chile decades ago for use as bait in crab fisheries. The species is poached in fishing farming operations. Interactions between sea lions and salmon farms in southern Chile are common. No relation was demonstrated between the intensity of attacks and the distance to the nearest colony. Anti-predator nets result in permanent reductions in sea lion attacks (Sepulveda and Oliva 2005).<br/><br/>Intensive trawl fishing for several species in the coastal waters of the southwestern South Atlantic has been implicated in a severe decline of sea lions in the Falkland-Malvinas Islands, where the population has fallen from 30,000 in the 1960s to approximately 15,000 in the 1980s, and possibly to as low as 3,000 in the 1990s.
41666		conservation	eng	Protection that began in the mid-20th century in the United States was solidified with the passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 in the United States and similar laws in Mexico. These protective measures provided the impetus for recovery of the population. Tourism at coastal sites and most offshore islands is highly regulated and controlled.
41666		distribution	eng	The California Sea Lion occurs in the eastern North Pacific from Islas Tres Marias north of Puerto Vallarta, north throughout the Gulf of California and around the end of the Baja California Peninsula north to the Gulf of Alaska. Sightings of vagrants have been reported from the southern Bering Sea in the north (Maniscalco <em>et al</em>., 2004) to Chiapas Mexico in the south. Females, which were only very rarely found north of Point Conception in the early 1980s, are now routinely found in northern California, where former breeding sites have been reoccupied.<br/><br/>Large numbers of adult and subadult males and juveniles undertake a post-breeding season migration north from the major rookeries in southern California and Baja California and winter from central California to Washington State. Smaller numbers of animals migrate to British Columbia and southeast Alaska, making it to the northern Gulf of Alaska, Alaska Peninsula, and eastern Aleutian Islands. Other animals appear to remain in the Gulf of California year round and do not undertake long migrations.
41666		habitat	eng	The California Sea Lion is the well-known “performing seal” of zoos, circuses and marine theme parks. It is a sexually dimorphic species, with males reaching three to four times the weight of adult females and 1.2 times their length. Pups are born with a thick brownish-black lanugo that is generally moulted by the end of the first month. The succeeding light brown juvenile coat is shed 4-5 months later and is replaced by adult coloration. Male California Sea Lions reach lengths of 2.4 m, and weights of more than 390 kg. Females only reach 2 m, and weigh an average of 110 kg. Newborn pups are about 80 cm long and weigh 6-9 kg (Peterson and Bartholomew 1967).<br/><br/>Age of maturity for both sexes is about 4-5 years. Females produce one pup each year after a gestation of about 11 months. A long term mark-resighting study (1980-2006) recorded a maximum observed longevity of 19 years for males and 25 years for females (Hernandez-Camacho <em>et al</em>. in press). Age-specific birth rates vary among age classes; 5 yr-old females show 0.59, females between 6 and 15 year-old exhibit 0.79 (Melin 2002; Hernandez-Camacho <em>et al</em>. in press), and between 16-25 year-old show decreased birth rate between 0.35 and 0.11 (Hernandez-Camacho <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>Pupping and breeding take place from May through July. Pupping starts earlier in the Gulf of California (May 8) than in California (May 20) and the duration of the breeding season is longer in the Gulf (13 weeks) than in California (9.5 weeks) (Garcia-Aguilar and Aurioles-Gamboa 2003). Males are highly polygynous and hold territories both on land and in shallow water near shore for periods up to 45 days. Females stay ashore with their newborn pups for about seven days before they depart for the first of many foraging trips that usually last 2-3 days and are followed by attendance with the pup at the rookery for 1-2 days. Most pups are weaned at 12 months of age. However, some pups continue to receive maternal care as yearlings and 2-3year olds (Newsome <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The diving pattern of lactating adult females is consistent with that of a number of other otariid species. The deepest dive recorded was to approximately 274 m and the longest dive lasted just under ten minutes. Typical feeding dives are shallower than 80 m, and last less than three minutes (Feldkamp <em>et al</em>. 1989; Antonelis <em>et al</em>. 1990). Lactating adult females are active for most of the time they are at sea and feeding bouts occur during the day and at night, with peaks of activity at dawn and dusk. The fact that feeding dives occur in bouts suggests that California sea lions are frequently exploiting patches of prey (Weise and Costa 2007).<br/><br/>California Sea Lions are generally found in waters over continental shelf and slope zones; however, they occupy several islands far offshore in deep oceanic areas, such as Guadalupe Island. They frequent coastal areas including bays, harbours, and river mouths.<br/><br/>California Sea Lions feed on a wide variety of prey, but usually maintain a preference for 4-5 species at each location, often taking what is abundant locally or seasonally in the areas they occupy (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1990; Garcia-Rodriguez and Aurioles-Gamboa 2004). A lower diversity of prey is taken outside the breeding season, when many animals disperse over large areas, as opposed to during the breeding season, when preferred prey can be reduced by intense foraging activity in small areas within travelling range of the rookeries (Lowry 1991). Principle prey taken by California Sea Lions in the Pacific includes: Pacific whiting, market squid, red octopus, jack and Pacific mackerel, blacksmith, juveniles of various species of rockfish, herring, northern anchovy, and salmon (Antonelis <em>et al</em>. 1984; Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1990; Lowry 1991). Sea lions in the Gulf of California have northern anchovy, Pacific whiting, and rockfish as prey in common with animals in the Pacific and also take various species of midshipmen, myctophids and bass, as well as sardines, largehead hairtail and Eastern Pacific flagfin (Aurioles-Gamboa <em>et al</em>. 1984; Garcia-Rodriguez and Aurioles-Gamboa 2004). Because of their boldness and taste for commercially-important fish species, such as salmon and rockfish that are easily taken from fishing lines (DeMaster <em>et al</em>., 1985) California sea lions are considered a nuisance by many sport and commercial fishermen. They will also ascend rivers following spawning runs of anadromous fish and take advantage of man-made structures such as canal locks and fish ladders that concentrate prey.<br/><br/>Predators of California Sea Lions include Killer Whales, sharks, Coyotes and feral dogs, and until they were recently extirpated from the California Channel Islands, bald eagles were known to take young pups.
41666		population	eng	The California Sea Lion is abundant and increasing in some parts of its distribution. The total global population (US and Mexico) is probably around 355,000 individuals. Some colonies in the Gulf of California have decreased in the last two decades.<br/><br/>Exploitation during the 19th and 20th centuries caused population reductions. The distribution range has changed little since exploitation era but population numbers have increased mainly in California, where the estimate is around 238,000 individuals (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2007). The population in Mexico occupies both side of the Baja California Peninsula: the west coast has an estimated population of 75,000 – 87,000 (Lowry and Maravilla 2005), whereas the Gulf of California populations is near 30,000 (Szteren <em>et al</em>. 2006). Total population of California sea lions is therefore around 355,000 individuals.<br/><br/>The California Sea Lion population is apparently reaching carrying capacity in the USA (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2007) whereas in the Gulf of California the population has decreased by ~20% in the last 15 years (Szteren <em>et al</em>. 2006). The California Sea Lion has 13 rookeries from the Channel Islands to the south of Baja California and 13 rookeries inside the Gulf of California. The population in California and Baja California show declines during severe El Niño events that usually return to previous levels within 4-5 years. The Gulf of California does not show this sort of marked fluctuations but it is genetically isolated from the remaining geographic distribution (Maldonado <em>et al</em>. 1985; Schramm 2003, Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41666		threats	eng	California Sea Lions are abundant, widely distributed and experiencing population increase through most of their range. They were historically important to native people living in coastal areas and on islands used by sea lions for rookeries. Huge middens in southern California and on the Channel Islands, with large numbers of California Sea Lion and other pinniped bones, attest to the past importance of marine mammals in subsistence cultures prior to the changes that followed the arrival of Europeans on the west coast of North America (Porcasi and Fujita 2000). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, California Sea Lions were harvested intensively for a variety of products, and hunted for bounties to reduce their impact on fisheries (Cass 1985).<br/><br/>California Sea Lion mortality occurs in conflicts with fisheries, by poaching, and through entanglement in marine debris (Stewart and Yochem 1987; Aurioles-Gamboa <em>et al</em>. 2003). Prey availability is greatly reduced during El Niño events and large numbers of pups born during these periods die of starvation, as do weaker animals from all age classes (Francis and Heath 1991). The sea lion rookeries inside the Gulf of California do not appear to be greatly effected by El Niño events (Aurioles and Le Boeuf 1991; Wielgus <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>California Sea Lions accumulate pollutants through the food chain, and large amounts of DDT, and PCBs discharged in the past, continue to accumulate in coastal marine food chains that include this species. Additionally, large amounts of agricultural and urban runoff and waste continue to be discharged into coastal marine habitats annually from numerous sources; this may have effects on sea lion immune systems and overall health. California Sea Lions do sometimes die of paralytic shellfish poisoning caused by domoic acid, a biotoxin produced by diatom blooms that enter the food web through planktivorous fish such as herring and sardine (Silvagni <em>et al</em>. 2005). California Sea Lions experience mortality from a number of diseases, including some such as leptospirosis contracted from terrestrial animals. They are at risk of exposure to additional diseases from contact with feral and domestic dogs and other terrestrial animals.
41667		conservation	eng	This species is almost certainly extinct. However, a comprehensive survey throughout the range of the species has not been undertaken to determine the status of the species. Additional work to uncover all available information on specimens, distribution, observations and data, and photographs from countries where the species occurred should also be started while people who observed and interacted with this species are still alive.
41667		distribution	eng	This species was formerly known from the northwest Pacific where it probably occurred along the coasts of Japan, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and Russia at Sakhalin Island.
41667		habitat	eng	Very little information exists on the appearance of this animal. In an account from otter and seal hunters working in this area in the early 20th century, the “black sea lion” was said to have been present in addition to animals that were likely to be Steller Sea Lions. The common name “black sea lion” may usefully point-out that some animals, presumably adult males, were very dark brown or black, as is the case for many adult male California sea lions. A colour plate showed, and an accompanying account from the text of a mid-19th century work gave, a description of the animal as “straw coloured with a darker throat and chest in the female.”<br/><br/>A Japanese zoologist interviewed in the 1950s gave the lengths of adult males as 2.5 m and adult females as 1.4 m, and reported a four-month-old pup as being 65 cm long and 9 kg. A review in the late 1950s listed eight specimens as existing in museums, with none of these in Japan.<br/><br/>Very little information is available on these animals, although they are assumed to be similar to the California Sea Lion. Anecdotal information suggests that the species was known to occupy coastal areas, was rarely found more than 16 km out to sea, frequently hauled out throughout the year, bred mainly on flat, open, sandy beaches, and sometimes in rocky areas, and they were said to be good divers that fed on fish. However, no detailed information or results of studies are available to support these observations.
41667		population	eng	Estimates are that 30,000 to 50,000 animals may have been present in the mid-19th century. The last available abundance estimate suggested the presence of 100 animals on Takeshima Island, and a total population of up to 300 in the late 1950s. There have been no documented reports of the species since the late 1950s, and most authors now consider this species to be extinct.
41667		threats	eng	The species probably became extinct shortly after the last reports of sightings in the late 1950s, although the very remote possibility of a remnant colony in Korean waters still exists. Japanese Sea Lions were taken for their skin and oil. Certain internal organs were also valuable in traditional medicinal practices and whiskers were reportedly used as pipe cleaners. However, the main reason for the extinction of the Japanese Sea Lion is thought to have been persecution by fishermen.
41668		conservation	eng	The Galápagos Sea Lion population lives in the Galápagos Archipelago, which is an Ecuadorian National Park surrounded by a marine resources reserve. Tourism occurs on a large scale but is controlled to protect wildlife from disturbance.
41668		distribution	eng	Galápagos Sea Lions are found throughout the Galápagos Archipelago on all the major islands and on many smaller islands and rocks. A colony was established in 1986 at Isla de la Plata, just offshore from mainland Ecuador, but this site is not regularly used. Vagrants can be seen from the Ecuadorian coast north to Isla Gorgona in Columbia. There is also a record from Isla del Coco approximately 500 km southwest of Costa Rica, presumably a vagrant.
41668		habitat	eng	Galápagos Sea Lions are similar in appearance to California Sea Lions, but differ in size, behavior, and skull morphology. Galápagos Sea Lions are sexually dimorphic, with males growing larger than females and having a suite of several secondary sexual characteristics. The degree of sexual dimorphism appears to be less than in California Sea Lions, although few weights and measurements are available for adults to confirm this suggestion.<br/><br/>There is little information on the lengths and weights attained by Galápagos Sea Lions, but they are said to be somewhat smaller than California Sea Lions. Adult males are estimated to weigh up to 250 kg, but this has not been confirmed through direct study. Adult females caring for pups weigh between 50 and 100 kg. Pups of both sexes are born at approximately six kilograms and weaned at approximately 25-40 kg. Pups are born with a brownish-black lanugo coat that fades to pale brown by three to five months. Pups go through their first moult at around five months of age and emerge with the pelage of adult females and juveniles.<br/><br/>Age of maturity for both sexes is estimated to be about 4-5 years. Females produce one pup each year after a gestation of about 11 months, but may abort (or not produce a pup) while still caring for an older offspring (Trillmich and Wolf 2008). Longevity is estimated to be around 15-24 years but the higher ages are not confirmed (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Galápagos Sea Lions are polygynous and males hold territories both on land and in shallow water near shore that they vociferously and aggressively defend. Male tenure on territories usually lasts from ten days to three months. Males may repeatedly be on territory during the drawn out reproductive period. Most copulations occur in the water.<br/><br/>Pupping and breeding take place across an extended period from May through January. Because of the protracted breeding season and extended care provided to the pups (up to 3 years) by females, there are dependent pups on the rookeries year-round. Females may wean pups in 11-12 months in productive years, but most continue to suckle yearlings for a second year. Some females care for a yearling along with a newborn pup. Pups are attended continuously for the first 4-7 days after birth, after which the female goes to sea to feed. With the departure, the female begins a cycle of foraging trips that last 0.5-3 days during the cold season but may last much longer in the warm season. Pups will enter the water and begin to develop swimming skills 1-2 weeks after birth. In some colonies, females return at night to nurse their pup, departing again the next morning (Trillmich 1986). Females and pups recognize each other and reunite based on calls and scent (Trillmich 1981). Galápagos Sea Lion females feed during day and night, in contrast to Galápagos Fur Seals, which primarily feed at night.<br/><br/>Galápagos Sea Lions are non-migratory. They are unafraid of humans when ashore. Haul-out sites can be on rugged shoreline types, including steep rocky shorelines, ledges and offshore stacks, but colonies are mostly on gently sloping sandy and rocky beaches. Sea lions will use shade from vegetation, rocks, and cliffs, and wade into tidal and drainage pools or move into the ocean, as needed during the heat of the day to avoid overheating.<br/><br/>Diving has been studied in four females on Fernandina and about 20 in the centre of the archipelago. The maximum depth of dive recorded was 338 m and maximum duration was 9.8 minutes. Average depth of dives varied between 45 and 150 m and lasted for 3-5 minutes (Villegas-Amtmann <em>et al</em>. in press). At sea they will raft at the surface and rest on their sides with one or more flippers held vertically in the air.<br/><br/>Galápagos Sea Lions prey on sardines in the west and on sardines as well as myctophids and bathylagids together with small squid in the central parts of the archipelago. Galápagos Sea Lions have been seen smashing octopus on the surface of the water, presumably to stun or break them up to facilitate swallowing. During El Niño events even in the west prey includes green-eyes and myctophids, suggesting a change in foraging strategy.<br/><br/>Feral and uncontrolled dogs have been reported to kill sea lion pups. Shark predation is evident from animals seen with injuries and scars from attacks, and killer whales are presumed to be another predator on Galápagos Sea Lions. Interestingly, juvenile and adult Galápagos Sea Lions have been observed to mob Galápagos sharks that approach rookeries.
41668		population	eng	The population fluctuates between 20,000 and 40,000 animals. A census in 1978 suggested a population size of about 40,000, but a recent survey in 2001 ? found a 50% decline from this earlier estimate (Alava and Salazar 2006). Methodological differences might exist between counts over this period, but the marked decline suggested is cause for serious concern.
41668		threats	eng	The population fluctuates widely due to die-offs and cessation of reproduction during El Niño events, when marine productivity collapses. Irruptions of a sea lion epidemic of unknown causation have occurred during El Niño events, adding to the stress on individuals from starvation. Feral dogs which occasionally prey on sea lions could transmit various diseases to the population, but frequent direct contact between sea lions and domestic dogs in the settlements on San Cristobal, Santa Cruz and Isabela present the greatest danger of disease transmission. The population seems to have declined from a 1978 census until today by an estimated 50% or more (Alava and Salazar 2006) and the reasons for this may partly lie in repeated strong El Niño events but are not clearly understood.
41669		conservation	eng	Various prohibitions, quotas and protective measures have been taken to conserve the Caspian seal beginning in 1940 when seal nets were prohibited. The harvest of moulting seals in the spring was ended in 1946, and in 1952 the Apsheron Archipelago off Azerbaijan was closed to sealing. Female harvesting on the breeding grounds was stopped in 1966 and all take was prohibited on the “eastern islands of the northern Caspian in 1967.” These last two changes led to a complete change in the commercial harvest in 1966 resulting in a switch to newborn and moulted pups. Quotas on harvest of pups, supposedly based on biological data, began in 1970 (Krylov 1990), although clearly these quotas were unsustainable. The Russian Federation continues to consider the Caspian seal to be a ‘harvested’ species and unsustainable quotas are continuing to be set through the Caspian Bioresources Commission (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008), e.g. 18,000 pups in 2007.<br/><br/>A Seal Conservation Action and Management plan has been approved by the nations bordering the Caspian Sea, pursuant to the 2003 Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea (see Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2005; Caspian Environment Programme 2007), but this has as yet no legally binding action points. The cessation of all types of hunting, measures to reduce by-catch in legal and illegal fisheries, and the strategic creation of protected areas of sea, ice and shore would appear to be the only way forward in the conservation of this species.
41669		distribution	eng	Caspian seals are confined to the Caspian Sea. They range throughout the sea with seasonal migration between the southern, middle and northern basins. Almost all breeding takes place on ice, which covers the shallow northern parts of the Caspian Sea in winter. Occasional observations of low numbers (tens) have been made at islets off Turkmenistan.
41669		habitat	eng	During late spring, summer, and early autumn, Caspian seals are distributed throughout the Caspian Sea. They feed throughout the sea, exploiting both the shallow basin in the north and the deep middle and southern basins. After the ice melts, the seals use sandy islands and reefs as haulout sites, preferring the tips of peninsulas and sand bars in many areas, although large concentrations of seals in reed-bed areas of islands also occur. In late autumn the breeding adults gather in the northeast, hauling out on sandy islands and reefs in increasing numbers until sea ice begins to form (Krylov 1990). When the surface freezes over, females form aggregations on the ice to give birth to their pups, tending to gather along cracks in the ice giving them ready access to the water, although they also construct and maintain holes in the ice for water access (Heptner 1996, Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Pups are generally born from mid-January to late February on the ice and nursed for 4-5 weeks. Females do not usually construct lairs (Frost and Lowry 1981), possibly because sufficient amounts of snow overlying the ice is normally lacking. Pupping on the ice has allowed direct counts of pups to be made in the recent aerial surveys (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). Pups do not enter the water until the ice melts in mid to late March.<br/><br/>The first documented observations of small numbers of seals breeding in other parts of the Caspian were made in 1982, with females reported pupping on small sand islands in the southern part of the Caspian Sea, although it is likely this behaviour was not new (Krylov 1990).<br/><br/>Large numbers of mostly nonbreeding seals spend the winter in the middle and southern Caspian, with one estimate of 15,000 seals along the Turkmenistan coast (Krylov 1990). A post-breeding moult occurs from April to May, during which the seals first use the ice and then islands and reefs for hauling out (Krylov 1990).<br/><br/>Both sexes become sexually mature at around 6 years of age, with most breeding females (74% in a 1974 sample) aged between 8 and 17 years (Popov 1982). The pregnancy rate for females older than 9 is reported to be as low as 0.2-0.33 (Watanabe <em>et al</em>. 1999, Miyazaki 2002), and Krylov (1990) reports a similar low rate of 0.34 for females aged 10-14 years. Härkönen <em>et al</em>. (2005), acknowledge that the reproductive rate is low in females >20 years old, but suggest that the reproductive rate is >0.5 for females <20 years old taken together as a group. Since females <20 make up approximately two thirds of the population of adult females, they probably drive the overall reproductive rate for the population up to about 0.5. Both Watanabe <em>et al</em>. (1999) and Härkönen <em>et al</em>. (2005) attribute the lower reproductive rates of older females to the effect of long term exposure to organochlorine contaminants in the older animals.<br/><br/>Caspian seals feed on a variety of fish species. During the summer and autumn, seals move to and congregate where prey are abundant, particularly Caspian kilka (<em>Clupeonella sp</em>.), Caspian silverside (<em>Atherina mochon</em>), and Caspian gobies (<em>Gobidae</em>) (Krylov 1990), with <em>Clupeonella</em> species historically making up a major proportion of their total annual diet (Kosarev and Yablonskaya 1994). A report on fish found in the stomachs of seals in the northern Caspian in 1986-1987 (Piletskii and Krylov 1990) suggested that fish eaten in order of frequency were roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>), zander (<em>Lucioperca lucioperca</em>), gobies (<em>Knipowitschia</em> sp., <em>Neogobius kessleri</em> and <em>Benthophilus</em> sp.), and bream <em>Blicca bjoerkna</em> and <em>Abramis brama</em>), followed by <em>Clupeonella deliculata</em> and other species. A preliminary study from faecal samples on the Apsheron Peninsula in June 2001 and March 2002 suggested that gobies, silverside and shrimp were important constituents of the diet of seals hauled out at that time (Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002). New studies of diet in Caspian seals are urgently required in order to get an accurate picture of current prey in different areas of the Caspian in light of potential changes to the abundance of fish species due to recent ecological changes occurring in the Caspian Sea.
41669		population	eng	Historically, the population of Caspian seals was estimated to have exceeded one million (Krylov 1990, Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the most recent abundance estimate of the total population is in the region of 111,000 in 2005. This estimate was based on an estimate of pup production that year of about 21,000 pups (95% confidence intervals 19 329 to 22 797), derived from counts made during aerial transects across the winter ice conducted in late February 2005 (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008).<br/><br/>The population decline throughout the 20th century has been reconstructed by a demographic model using hunting statistics (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). By the 1950s–1960s, the population was estimated from this model to have been reduced to between 400,000-500,000 seals (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005), while an estimate based on a harvest of 86,000 pups in 1966, believed to be most pups born that year, also produced an estimate of 500,000 seals for that year (Badamsin 1969, cited by Krylov 1990). Aerial surveys conducted in 1976 and 1980 suggested an estimate of 450 000 animals (Krylov 1984, cited by Krylov 1990), although the hind-casting analysis suggests a population of only about 200,000 seals remaining at that time (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys in 1987 and 1989 resulted in an estimate of approximately 360,000-400,000 (Krylov 1990), but again the hind-casting analysis suggests this might again have been an over-estimate, with perhaps only about 148,000 seals remaining by the late 1980s. The hind-casting analysis suggests an ongoing population reduction averaging about 3-4% per year since 1960 and an 83% reduction in the size of the breeding female population since 1955 (approximately 3 generations, with one generation being 16.5-20 years , Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41669		threats	eng	Caspian seals have been commercially exploited on an intensive basis since the early 1800s. Harvests averaged 119,000-174,000 per year throughout the 19th century, with peaks of 300,000 having been recorded. In the 20th century, harvest levels peaked in the 1930s with an average annual harvest of 164,000 and a maximum single year take of 227,600. The numbers of seals taken fell during World War II to an average of 60,800 per year, and subsequently ranged between a low of 41,400 and a high of 108,300 for the period 1951-1975 (Krylov 1990). Commercial harvesting was temporarily halted in 1996 after a much-reduced estimated take of 14,000 seals. Commercial and scientific hunting in the region of 3,000-4,000 seals a year – mainly pups - has continued at least since 2004, and is currently ongoing. The hunting quota, set by the Caspian Bioresources Commission for 2007, was 18,000 seals which exceeded the estimated annual pup production for that year (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Significant population declines have been attributed to the high harvest levels (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Another contributory cause to high pup mortality is natural predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and sea eagles (<em>Haliaeetus</em> spp.). Krylov (1990) estimated that wolves killed 17-40% of Caspian seal pups on “some breeding grounds from 1974 to 1976”, while eagles took less than 1% of pups. The reverse was found during a systematic survey by Harkonen <em>et al</em>. (2008). Few wolves were observed during this survey, but about 2,000 eagles were seen on the ice preying on pups in 2005-2006; they likely took approximately 10% of the annual estimated births of 20 000 pups.<br/><br/>By-catch of seals in fisheries and killing of seals by fishermen are threats that have not been adequately investigated, but are thought to be a significant source of mortality, particularly for juvenile seals (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Iranian commercial fishery is of conservation concern; it is likely responsible for the deaths of an estimated 500 seals annually (Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002). But, by-catch in legal and illegal fishing activity in the northern Caspian is likely to exceed this number substantially. This by-catch may amount to several thousand animals per year, with local fishermen in the Mangistau region of Kazakhstan citing catches exceeding 200 seals per 5 km of nets set (Goodman, Wilson and Dmitrieva unpublished data based on interviews November 2007).<br/><br/>Mass mortality events in 1997 and 2000-01, killing several thousand seals each time, have been attributed to a morbillivirus, canine distemper virus (CDV). Presence of a hitherto unknown strain of this virus was confirmed in one dead seal in 1997 (Forsyth <em>et al</em>. 1998), and the same strain was confirmed as the primary cause of death in seals dying in 2000 in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan (Kennedy 2000, Kuiken 2006). The cause of a further mass mortality in 2001 was less clear (Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002). Examination of archive stranding records in Azerbaijan since 1971, show an increased mortality every few years, suggesting the possibility of previous outbreaks of CDV. A serology study of archived samples indicated that CDV was present in Caspian seals in 1993, 1997 and 1998 (Ohashi <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Degradation of the Caspian Sea ecosystem and overexploitation of primary food resources are also threats to Caspian seals (Reijnders 1993). An invasive of comb jellyfish, <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>, arrived in the Caspian Sea via ship ballast water in the Volga-Don Canal in1999 (Ivanov <em>et al</em>. 1999). <em>Mnemiopsis</em> consumes zooplankton rapidly, leading indirectly to a reduction in fish stocks and a substantial impact on local fisheries. A 70% reduction in commercial landings of three species of Kilka (<em>Clupeonella</em> spp.) was recorded within 3 years of the comb jellyfish invasion (Kideys <em>et al</em>. 2005). Kilka are thought to be important prey for Caspian seals in the central and southern parts of the sea, and the invasion of <em>Mnemiopsis</em> is considered a threat to the seals (Ivanov 1999, Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Caspian Sea has no outlet and receives most of its input from the Volga, Ural and other rivers. Contamination of the Volga with lead, copper, zinc, and cadmium has increased dramatically since the mid-1980s, but levels in seals appear not be elevated, with the exception of zinc in some diseased animals, which may have suffered homeostatic disturbance of trace metal levels (Anan <em>et al</em>. 2002). Organochlorine levels in Caspian seals dying in the 2000-01 epizootic were high when compared to other marine mammal species suffering from epizootic disease outbreaks. The most significant organochlorine contaminant in Caspian seals was found to be DDT (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998, Kajiwara <em>et al</em>. 2002). Environmental contaminants, particularly organochlorines, may affect the overall Caspian seal population health by causing decreased reproductive rates, particularly in older females (Krylov 1990, Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002, Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Decreased immune function has also been suggested as a contributory cause of the CDV epizootic in 2000 (Kajiwara <em>et al</em>. 2002), and the deaths in 2001, although scrutiny of organochlorine levels in seals dying in this outbreak did not provide supporting evidence for this (Kuiken <em>et al</em>. 2006, Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Total juvenile mortality from continued hunting, natural predation and fisheries by-catch is believed to be unsustainable. Overall mortality in the first year of life from all sources is likely to be in the region of 50% (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). The high rate of juvenile mortality has been singled out as the primary reason for the continuing decline in the Caspian seal, with lowered fertility due to organochlorine contamination being a relatively minor factor (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>It seems likely that warmer winters occurring in the near future may contribute to the further decline of Caspian seals if there is reduced ice cover in the northern Caspian. In 2007 the ice cover was limited to a narrow strip along the coastline of the north-east Caspian, and breeding was therefore concentrated along this strip of ice. The number of pups alive at the end of February, estimated from the aerial survey, was fewer than 7,000, i.e. fewer by half compared to the number counted in the previous two years (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has also been suggested that poor ice conditions may play a role in the epidemiology of CDV outbreaks due to seal crowding on limited haulout space and poor condition of weaned pups (Kuiken <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, there is no evidence for this at present.<br/><br/>Further threats to the seals on shore and on ice now come from increasing disturbance due to offshore and shoreline developments. One of the largest oil fields in the world is currently being developed in the Caspian, with the construction of numerous offshore oil drilling islands, pipelines, shipping access to these, and onshore logistics facilities. A recent study found that breeding seals are using shipping channels as artificial leads into the ice and are giving birth close to the edge of these channels. A significant proportion of the breeding population and pups may therefore experience disturbance by shipping traffic depending on the ice conditions (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). More research is required to quantify the likely impacts of this intensive oil development. The coasts of Azerbaijan and Iran have also seen increased development for domestic and leisure use in recent years, with many previously undisturbed stretches of coast now being developed.<br/><br/>Disturbance of island and reef haulout sites by illegal fishing activities and opportunistic seal hunting are another ongoing problem. Recent surveys have found that the Caspian seal has effectively disappeared from Azerbaijan, with the once important haulout sites of the Apsheron Peninsula and Archipelago abandoned. These sites were used by many thousands of seals until the 1930s, when they were heavily hunted (Krylov 1990). However, between 1997 and 2002 a few hundred seals were still counted regularly at these sites (e.g. Allchin <em>et al</em>.1997, S. Wilson, unpublished observations). Few live seals have been seen in this area since 2004 (T. Eybatov, S. Goodman, S. Wilson, unpublished observations). The overall Caspian seal population decline between 2002 and 2004 is unlikely to account for this total disappearance, which is most probably due in part to severe disturbance by illegal fishing and other coastal activities (T. Eybatov unpublished data). Similar declines in the regularity of seal occupancy have also been noted recently at other sites, such as South West Island near the Ural Delta and Osushnoy Island (Kazakhstan) and in Turkmenbashi Bay (Turkmenistan). The number of seals at Ogurchinsky Island (Turkmenistan) has also declined from several thousand in the 1980s to a few hundred (P. Erokhin, unpublished observations). The only previously recorded haulout site in Iran, at Ashoora Island, is no longer used by seals (H. Asadi, pers. com.). There is an urgent need to develop an inventory of all haulout sites throughout the Caspian together with archived and current records of seal occupancy.
41670		conservation	eng	Russia stopped large scale commercial harvesting of ribbon seals in 1994. Current shore-based harvests in the Russian Far East are at very low levels and not likely to be a threat to the population. No other specific conservation measures are in effect in Russia. In the United States, ribbon seals are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. As of March 2008, a petition for listing ribbon seals under the Endangered Species Act is under consideration by the U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Marine Fisheries Service.
41670		distribution	eng	Ribbon seals inhabit the Bering, Chukchi, and Okhotsk seas and high latitudes of the western and central North Pacific Ocean (Stewart 1983), from Hokkaido and the northern Sea of Japan (Mizuno <em>et al</em>. 2002) north and offshore to the East Siberian Sea in the Russian Federation to the western Beaufort Sea (Moore and Barrowclough 1984) and south to the Alaska Peninsula in the United States (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). A sub-adult was killed near Cordova Alaska (Burns 1981), a debilitated vagrant was found beached in Morro Bay California (Roest 1964) and an adult has been observed in the Tsushima Strait (Heptner 1996).
41670		habitat	eng	Ribbon seals occupy the pack ice that overlies deeper water near the continental shelf break out, from late winter until summer. They prefer areas of 60-80% ice coverage, rarely use shore fast ice, and do not haul-out on land unless moribund (Kelly 1988, Burns 1981). They typically lie away from the edge of floes and show little concern for the approach of people or vessels. Broken pack ice is preferred over solid ice sheets and highly concentrated pack ice, as ribbon seals can only open and maintain access holes in ice up to approximately 15 cm thick. Their whereabouts when pack ice breaks up or disappears from the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk is not well known and is the subject of conflicting opinions. Kelly (1988) suggests that animals from the Bering Sea population summer in the Chukchi Sea and those from the Sea of Okhotsk, which has no ribbon seals by mid-July, might move into the southern Bering Sea. Burns (1981) says that few ribbon seals are seen on ice or harvested by Alaska Natives in the Bering Strait and Chukchi Sea after mid-June. Many ribbon seals are probably pelagic during the fall, not hauling out on land or ice, until the next winter (Burns 1981).<br/><br/>Ribbon seals are solitary for much of their lives. Pups are born on ice floes from early April to early May. Clean, white, broken pack ice is preferred over solid ice sheets and ice with sediment or algae. Ribbon seals maintain access holes in ice up to approximately 15 cm thick, and can often be seen in the middle of large floes. Ribbon seals are able to move rapidly on ice, using slashing side-to-side motions. They also extend their necks to peer at sources of disturbance, but are fairly approachable by boat. They are rarely encountered, because of the remote and inhospitable nature of their habitat.<br/><br/>Diet varies by area and age of the seal. Ribbon seals in the Okhotsk and Bering seas are known to take 35 different species of fish and invertebrates (Frost and Lowry 1980, Bukhtiyarov 1986). Young ribbon seals feed on euphausiids after weaning and until about age one when they switch to feed predominantly on shrimp for a year. As two-year-olds they take up the adult diet, which includes a variety of fishes, squids, and octopuses. Bukhtiyarov (1986) has determined that diet biomass of ribbon seals in the Sea of Okhotsk contains 69% of pollock, while in the Bering Sea 67% was squid and octopuses.<br/><br/>Females are mature when they are 2-4 years old and males when they are 3-5 years (Burns 1981). The annual pregnancy rate of adult females is 85%. Gestation lasts 9 months after 2-2.5 months of delayed implantation. Ribbon seals may live up to 26-27 yrs. First year mortality is 44% and the annual mortality rate for older age classes averages 11%.
41670		population	eng	Three separate populations of ribbon seals have been proposed associated with aggregations of breeding animals - the Bering Sea, the southern Sea of Okhotsk and the northern Sea of Okhotsk (Fedoseev 2002). However, the species has a continuous distribution and no morphological differences are known. Burns (1981) reported a population estimate of 90,000-100,000 animals in the Bering Sea, and 140,000 animals in the Sea of Okhotsk. Fedoseev (2002) gives an estimate of 120,000 to 140,000 animals for the Bering Sea in 1987 and estimates between 200,000 (1968-1974) and 630,000 (1988-1990) for the Sea of Okhotsk. The Sea of Okhotsk population averaged 370,000 animals with 320,000 in the central northwestern population and 50,000 in the southern population, in the period between 1968 and 1990 (Fedoseev 2002). The most recent reliable aerial survey of ribbon seal was conducted in 1990 (Fedoseev 2005). The population appeared to be increasing at that time. The current abundance and trend are unknown.
41670		threats	eng	Russian commercial hunting began in the Sea of Okhotsk in the 1930s and expanded to an annual harvest of 20,000 in the 1950s (Heptner 1996). The annual harvest averaged 11,000 from the 1950s to 1969 (Fedoseev 2002). The average annual harvest in the Sea of Okhotsk from 1969-1992 was 5,000-6,000 (Fedoseev 2002). Commercial hunting began in the Bering Sea in 1961 with an average annual harvest of 9,000 up to 1969, declining to 3,000 to 4,000 per year from 1969 to 1992 (Heptner 1996). Commercial hunting from sealing vessels stopped in the Bering Sea in 1991 and in the Sea of Okhotsk in 1994.<br/><br/>The Bering Sea population appears to have declined shortly after the beginning of commercial hunting in 1961. The average age of harvested animals declined from 9.8 years in 1961, to 6.9 in 1962, and 4.9 in 1963. During the same period, the number of ribbon seals killed per day dropped regardless of hunting conditions (Heptner 1976). After the harvest was limited, abundance of the species quickly recovered.<br/><br/>Interactions between ribbon seals and fisheries are not well documented. There were no mortalities recorded in required logbooks or by voluntary reports from 1990 to 1995 in fisheries monitored by the United States. Estimated mortality from 1999 to 2003 was 1 ribbon seal in the Bering Sea pollock trawl fishery, and 1 observed and 3 estimated mortalities in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Pacific cod longline (Anglis and Outlaw, 2005). During seven years (1993-1999) of monitoring the offshore salmon gill net fishery in Russian Far East, accidental mortality of ribbon seal was estimated to be 1,079 individuals (154 per year), mostly juveniles (Burkanov and Nikulin 2001). Some mature animals die in a bottom gill net halibut fishery in the Sea of Okhotsk, but information is very limited.<br/><br/>Reduction in late winter and spring sea ice cover in the Sea of Okhotsk, or the central and southern Bering Sea could be problematic for ribbon seal reproduction as this species depends on the availability of offshore pack ice. Disruption or alteration of the patterns of Arctic primary productivity and abundance of key marine mammal prey species such as Arctic cod could also have detrimental effects on ice dependent seals (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Pollock are an important spring ribbon seal food in the central and south central Bering Sea (Frost and Lowry 1980) and in the Sea of Okhotsk (Bukhtiyarov 1986). The effect of pollock harvesting on ribbon seals in the Bering Sea has not been examined, but competition with fisheries has been suggested as a possible limiting factor on population growth, or a threat that could result in declines (Reijnders 1993).
41671		conservation	eng	Canada has in place sealing regulations pursuant to the 1993 Marine Mammal Regulations that require annual quotas, referred to as “Total Allowable Catches,” hunting licenses, and official observers of the commercial hunt (Anon. 2005).  In the northeast Atlantic, quotas for sealing are based on recommendations made by the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO). Russia is responsible for managing seals in the southeast part of the Barents Sea, while Norway is responsible for managing stocks in the Greenland Sea by Jan Mayen (Anon. 2006b).
41671		conservation	eng	Canada has in place sealing regulations pursuant to the 1993 Marine Mammal Regulations that require annual quotas, referred to as “Total Allowable Catches,” hunting licenses, and official observers of the commercial hunt (DFO 2005). In the northeast Atlantic, quotas for sealing are based on recommendations made by the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO). Russia is responsible for managing seals in the southeast part of the Barents Sea, while Norway is responsible for managing stocks in the Greenland Sea by Jan Mayen (NMFCA 2006, N-RFC 2006).
41671		distribution	eng	Harp seals are widespread in the North Atlantic and the adjacent Arctic Ocean and shelf seas. Their range extends from northern Hudson Bay and the Foxe Basin, Baffin Island, and the Davis Strait, Gulf of St Lawrence and Newfoundland in the western North Atlantic, east to somewhat south of Greenland, continuing east to Iceland and from there to Northern Norway, the White Sea and the Barents and Kara Seas. The northern limit in the eastern North Atlantic is at least to Franz Joseph Land and Svalbard and may continue to between 82-85 degrees north depending on ice conditions (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988, Rice 1998, Lavigne 2002).<br/><br/>The southern limit of the distribution off North America shifts southeast in some years, such as occurred in the early 1990s (Lacoste and Stenson 2000), leading to increased occurrences of harp seals south of their usual limits, reaching the Gulf of Maine and Sable Island where large numbers have been record since the mid-1990s (Harris <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lucas and Daoust 2002). Harp seals often occur as vagrants outside this range, south to Virginia in the United States (Scheffer 1958, Rice 1998). Similarly in Europe, harp seals reach the United Kingdom (Ronald and Healy 1981), the Faroe Islands, Denmark, Germany, France, and even Spain (Bree 1997, Bloch <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Prehistorically, harps seals bred in the Baltic Sea. Genetic drift, interspecific completion and over-hunting by humans are all factors likely to have contributed to their extinction in this region (Stora and Ericson 2004).
41671		distribution	eng	Harp seals are widespread in the North Atlantic and the adjacent Arctic Ocean. Their range extends from northern Hudson Bay and the Foxe Basin, Baffin Island, and the Davis Strait, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Newfoundland in the western north Atlantic, east to somewhat south of Greenland, continuing east to Iceland and from there to Northern Norway, the White Sea and all of the Barents and Kara Seas. The northern limit in the eastern North Atlantic is at least to Franz Joseph Land and Svalbard and may continue to between 82-85 degrees north depending on ice conditions (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988, Rice 1998, Lavigne 2002). Harp seals often wander south outside this range and vagrants have reached the United Kingdom (Ronald and Healy 1981), the Faroe Islands, Denmark, Germany, France, and Spain (Heptner 1976, Van Bree 1997, Bloch <em>et al.</em> 2000).
41671		habitat	eng	Harp seals are medium-sized, monomorphic phocids. Adult males and females are approximately 1.8 m long and weight about 130 kg. Age at sexual maturity has varied quite dramatically over the last century, in part as a consequence of population size which has been largely determined by harvest levels and food availability. Females reach sexual maturity between 4-8 years of age (Frie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Males probably do not participate in breeding before they are somewhat older, though they reach sexual maturity around the same time as females.<br/><br/>Birthing takes place in vast herds, which are quite highly synchronized. Birthing occurs from late February to April, with some variation across the range in the precise timing (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Pups are born on the open free-floating pack ice and nursed for 12 days, during which time they gain weight at about 2.2. kg per day (Kovacs and Lavigne 1985, Kovacs 1987, Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1991, Lydersen and Kovacs 1996). To minimize energy expenditure, most pups are sedentary for the first month; some so immobile that they melt into the ice beneath them, forming ice “cradles” (Kovacs 1987). Pups are referred to as “whitecoats” because they are born with an insulating coat of white lanugo. Lactating females spend up to 85% of their time in the water, depending on the weather (Lydersen and Kovacs 1993). Towards the end of lactation, females come into estrus and mate (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Weaned pups remain on the ice for up to 6 weeks, losing up to 50% of their weight before entering the water to feed. During this post-weaning fast they complete moulting of the lanugo. After this coat is shed the black and silver-gray pelage is exposed and the juveniles are known as “beaters” until they are about a year old.<br/><br/>Gestation lasts about 11.5 months, including a 3-4 month period of delayed implantation (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1989). The maximum life span of a harp seal is approximately 30 years; most animals that reach sexual maturity live to over 20 years. Both males and females are sexually active until the ends of their lives, showing no reproductive senescence (Ronald and Healey 1981).<br/><br/>Harp seals (1+ years of age) undergo a moult in the post-breeding months, from early April to early May (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Harp seals are highly migratory and after breeding, Canadian seals follow the pack ice up the coast of Labrador, with small numbers going into Hudson Bay, around Baffin Island, and the rest travelling up both sides of the Davis Strait. The Jan Mayen and White Sea groups migrate northward and mix in the Barents Sea (ref). The Jan Mayen group reaches the High Arctic, up to 85ºN. The Canadian seals have a round-trip migration that is over 5,000 km long (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). The Northwest Atlantic group begins the return trip to their breeding grounds in late autumn.<br/><br/>Harp seals consume a wide range of prey that varies along the migration route. Throughout their range, the harp seal diet includes 67 species of fish and 70 species of invertebrates (Lavigne 2002). The pups and juveniles take a lot of invertebrate prey, especially euphausiids (<em>Thyanoessa</em> spp.) and amphipods (<em>Parathemisto</em> spp.) (Haug <em>et al</em>. 2000, Nilssen <em>et al</em>. 2001). Adults in Greenland eat pelagic crustaceans, and fish such as capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>), sandeel (<em>Ammodytes</em> sp.), polar cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) and Arctic cod (<em>Arctogadus glacialis</em>). Commercial species such as Atlantic cod (<em>Gaddus morhua</em>) appear to be of minor importance in the diet (Kapel 2000). In the Barents Sea, harp seals eat amphipods, prawns, and small fish including polar cod, sculpin (<em>Cottidae</em>), snail fish (<em>Liparidae</em>), capelin (Nilssen 1995); but show a clear preference for large polar cod (Wathne <em>et al</em>. 2000). The seals off Newfoundland eat capelin and Arctic cod, and off Labrador they eat Arctic cod and Atlantic herring (<em>Clupea herringus</em>). In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the seals have been known to consume capelin, herring, Atlantic cod, Arctic cod and redfish (<em>Sebastes</em>) (Lawson <em>et al</em>. 1995). Harp seals feed heavily in winter and summer and less in spring and autumn. They are a highly social species that travels and forages in groups, yet maintain a stratification of diet according to age class and depth of the feeding dives. <br/><br/>Harp seals are relatively shallow divers. Jan Mayen animals stay close to the edge of the pack ice during the spring moult, usually dive to less than 100 m, but by July, satellite-tagged seals in the Barents Sea dove to 400 m. Overall, the deepest dives occur during the day in winter (Folkow <em>et al</em>. 2004).
41671		habitat	eng	Harp seals are medium-sized phocids, with adult males averaging lengths of 1.83 m and weights of 135 kg.  Females are slightly smaller at 1.79 m, weighing 120 kg. Females in the northwest Atlantic mature at about 4-5 years, compared to males at 5-8 years. The Jan Mayen and White Sea breeding groups reach maturity about a year earlier (Ronald and Healey 1981). The maximum life span of a harp seal is approximately 30 years, and it is not unusual for them to reach over 20 years of age. Both males and females are sexually active until their 20s, and females may give birth every year until they are at least 16 years old (Ronald and Healey 1981).<br/><br/>Harp seals are migratory, and after breeding, Canadian seals follow the pack ice up the coast of Labrador, with small numbers into Hudson Bay, to Baffin Island, and both sides of the Davis Strait, to Greenland. The Jan Mayen and White Sea groups migrate and mix in the Barents Sea. The Jan Mayen group reaches the high Arctic, up to 85 degrees north.<br/><br/>Harp seals consume a wide range of prey that varies along the migration route. Their diet, according to Lavigne (2002), consists of 67 species of fish and 70 species of invertebrates. Pups and juveniles take euphausiids (<em>Thyanoessa</em> spp.) and amphipods (<em>Parathemisto</em> spp.) (Nilssen <em>et al.</em> 2001), whereas adults take pelagic crustaceans and a variety of fish (Kapel 2000).
41671		population	eng	The harp seal is the most abundant pinniped species in the Northern Hemisphere. Globally this species numbers close to 8 million animals. Pup production at all breeding sites combined is at least 1.4 million pups per year currently (Stenson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Potelov <em>et al</em>. 2003, Haug <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Northwest Atlantic stock of harp seal is estimated to number 5.9 million animals (DFO 2005). This latest estimate for Canadian waters is significantly higher than the previous estimate produced in 2000, when the Gulf and Front herds combined were estimated to number 5.5 million. This is a marked recovery from an estimated low of around 1.8 million in the early 1970s (Sergeant 1976). Catch levels have been increased repeatedly for this population during the last decade and likely now exceed potential biological removal levels by 1.5 – 5.9 times. Given this level of removal the population is likely to now be in decline (Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2000). The breeding group in the West Ice near Jan Mayen was estimated at 296,000 in 1994; this population increased to approximately 348 000 by 2003. The White Sea breeding group was estimated to be 1.8 million animals when last surveyed in 2000 (Potelov <em>et al</em>. 2003).
41671		population	eng	The population level in 2000 for the animals breeding in Canadian waters of the western North Atlantic, on “the Front” off Newfoundland and Labrador and in Gulf of St. Lawrence, was estimated to be 5.2 million animals (95% CI  4.0-6.5 million). Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans claims the population has recovered in the past from an estimated low of around 1.8 million in the early 1970s to more than 5 million today (Anon. 2005). The breeding group on the West Ice near Jan Mayen was estimated at 296,000 in 1994. The White Sea breeding group is made up of approximately 1.5-2.0 million animals as of 1999 (Lavigne 2002). Totaling the figures from Lavigne and each area estimate gives a world population of 5.8-8.8 million, making harp seals the most abundant pinniped in the Northern Hemisphere.
41671		threats	eng	Harp seals have been harvested for thousands of years by native peoples of the Atlantic Arctic, including coastal Northern Europeans (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Basque whalers began taking harp seals in the 1500s. By the mid-1600s, French settlers developed land-based netting techniques on the St. Lawrence River in the 1700s. French-Canadians exported 500 tons of oil per year by the mid-1700s, based on an estimated take of 6,000 seals per year. In Newfoundland, English settlers hunted harp seals on a larger scale that accounted for an estimated average take of 7,000-12,800 seals per year for most of the 1700s. By the 1800s, schooner-based sealing developed and the number of seals harvested rose dramatically; from 1803-1816 the average annual take was 117,000. The peak of sealing in the Northwest Atlantic occurred between 1818 and 1862, when 500,000 seals were harvested in many years, with maxima between 640 000-740 000 in individual years. During that time, it is estimated that 18.3 million harp seals, mostly whitecoats, were killed for oil. The records show somewhat lower figures for the Northeast Atlantic. At Jan Mayen, the catch began falling in the late 1850s; the drop in catch is likely attributable to over-harvesting. From 1860 to 1900, an estimated 12.8 million seals were harvested from the West Ice.<br/><br/>During the 20th century harp seals became more valued for their pelts than their oil. In 1917 143,000 seals were taken. The catch dropped for a time, then escalated in the 1950s, when it averaged 312,000 seals per year. In 1960, Canada became concerned about the large numbers of adults being killed, so it placed limits on the length of the hunting season. During the 1960s, an average of 284,000 seals were taken per year in the Northwest Atlantic stock. In the mid 1960s adult females became protected on the breeding grounds, and Norway was excluded from sealing in Canadian waters. In 1971 a quota management program was established; from 1970 to 1987 quotas varied from 127,000 per year to 245,000 per year, but the actual harvest was often much lower than the quota (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).<br/><br/>In 1983, the European Economic Community imposed an import ban on all whitecoat products and the average annual harvest in Canadian waters fell to 52,000 seals from 1983-1995. By 1987, Canada banned the killing of whitecoats and the focus of the hunt switched to beaters (post-weaning to 13 months of age) (DFO 2006a). From 1999-2003, the estimated annual mortality of harp seals in the Northwest Atlantic was 453,962, broken down into an average of 232,915 taken in the commercial harvest by Canada, 83,000 taken from 1999-2002 in Greenland and approximately 5,000 taken in the Canadian High Arctic, plus a by-catch of close to 20,000 in the Newfoundland lumpfish fishery, with an average annual struck and loss rate of 119,430 from all harvests (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The Canadian harvest has recently increased with the combined three-year 2003-2005 quota (“Total Allowable Catch”) set at 975,000 (DFO 2005a). Given the age structure of the current hunt, this quota is not sustainable (see Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2000). In addition to Canada’s commercial harvest, some harp seals are still taken in subsistence hunts in Labrador, Newfoundland, northern Quebec and in Nunavut. Aboriginal peoples and non-Aboriginal coastal residents who reside north of latitude 53 degrees can hunt seals for subsistence purposes without a permit (DFO 2006b).<br/><br/>In the Northeast Atlantic, Norway established a commercial hunt in 1846, which peaked in the 1870s-1880s when annual catches ranged between 50,000-120,000 animals. In the 20th century, annual harvests increased to an average above 100,000 per year, with the maximum in the 1920s and 1930s, when the catches were 200,000-300,000 seals per year. In 1989, Norway banned the killing of whitecoats (N-RFC 2006). For 2005, the harvest of the West Ice stock was approximately 20,000. In the White Sea, Russia hunters took 14,277 harp seals in 2005 (DFO 2005). The numbers of harp seals struck-and-lost in the both the current commercial hunts (which is focused largely on 1+ animals) and in subsistent hunting is high, and most harvest estimates do not account for this additional mortality (Lavigne 1999). The struck and loss rate for harp seals in Greenland could be as high as 50% (Sjare and Stenson 2002).<br/><br/>Another threat to harp seals is over-harvesting of their prey, including capelin and herring. Several harp seal “invasions” have taken place in recent decades along the north coast of Norway. By-catch mortality in nets during these events was estimated to be as high as 100,000 animals in 1987 and 21,474 in 1988 (Haug <em>et al</em>. 1991). These reasons for these emigrations out of their normal range within the Barents and Greenland Seas seems to have been a collapse of the herring and capelin stocks due to a combination of over-fishing and shifting oceanographic conditions (low temperatures and salinity, and extensive ice cover) (Haug <em>et al</em>. 1991, Woodley and Lavigne 1991).<br/><br/>A small tourist industry that visits the whelping patches in the Gulf of St Lawrence is not thought to pose any risk to the seals under its current rotational mode of operation (Kovacs and Innes 1990). <br/><br/>Global climate warming is currently already causing major reductions in the extent and seasonal duration of sea ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere, creating a threat to many species of ice-associated marine mammals (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). Pinnipeds, such as the harp seal that are dependant on sea ice for pupping, moulting and resting are likely to be heavily impacted by such changes in the future (Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2005, Friedlaender <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Oil spills in the Northwest Atlantic off the east coast of Canada remain a threat to seals. There is a concern about the impacts of tanker traffic, particularly in places like Lancaster Sound in the eastern Canadian Arctic, which is an important harp seal summering area (Reijinders <em>et al</em>. 1993). The discharge from a ruptured tank on the shore of New Brunswick, Canada in March–April 1969 led to 10,000 to 15,000 seals being heavily coated with oil. The high number of dead seal pups washing ashore after this event was evidence of the lethal effects of the oil (St Aubin, 1990). Oil development in the Barents Sea is on-going and poses a future threat to harp seals in the White Sea and West Ice stocks.<br/><br/>Harp seals have been found to carry significant loads of contaminants including metals, DDT and PCBs (Ronald <em>et al</em>. 1984a,b). Organochlorines are still present in their blood, despite DDT levels (and PCBs to a lesser extent) declining from the early 1970s to the 1980s (Addison <em>et al</em>. 1984) and further in the 1990s.<br/><br/>Phocine distemper virus (PDV) was first found in harp seals from the West Ice off Jan Mayen in 1987 and 1989. It is widespread in harp seals, but only shows up in terms of antibodies; it is not known if there are significant health effects or mortality from PDV infection in this species (Daoust <em>et al</em>. 1993, Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1997). Harp seals might have been the carriers responsible for the harbour seals PDV epidemic in Europe in 1988 (Markussen and Have 1992). PDV also appeared in the Gulf of St Lawrence in 1991, but not in epidemic proportions (Daoust <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Natural predators of harp seals include polar bears, killer whales, and Greenland shark (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). In Svalbard, 13% of polar bears prey is comprised of harp seals (Derocher <em>et al</em>. 2002).
41671		threats	eng	Harp seals have been harvested for thousands of years by native peoples of the Atlantic Arctic, including coastal Northern Europeans (Stora and Ericson 2004).  Basque whalers began taking harp seals in the 1500s.  By the mid-1600s, French settlers began the hunt in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, developing land-based netting techniques on the St. Lawrence River in the 1700s.  The French Canadians exported 500 tons of oil per year by the mid-1700s, based on an estimated take of 6,000 seals per year. In Newfoundland, English settlers hunted harp seals on a larger scale that accounted for an estimated 7,000-12,800 seals per year for most of the 1700s, including 50,000 whitecoats (juvenile harp seals) killed in 1773.  By the 1800s, schooner-based sealing developed, and the number of seals harvested rose dramatically; from 1803-1816 the average annual was 117,000.  The peak of sealing in the northwest Atlantic occurred between 1818 and 1862, when 500,000 seals were harvested in many years, reaching a maximum of 640,000-740,000 in single years.  During that time, it is estimated that 18.3 million harp seals, mostly whitecoats, were killed for oil.  The records show somewhat lower figures for the northeast Atlantic. At Jan Mayen, the catch began falling in the late 1850s, attributed to overhavesting.  From 1860 to 1900, an estimated 12.8 million seals were harvested there (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).  <br/> <br/>The 20th century saw the advent of steel-hulled ships, and the hunt continued, though harp seals became more valued for their pelts than their oil.  143,000 seals were taken in 1917. This number fell during the war years, then rose again in the 1950s, when it averaged 312,000 seals per year. In 1960, Canada became concerned about the large numbers of adults being killed, so it placed limits on the length of the hunting season.  During the 1960s, an average of 284,000 seals were taken per year.  In 1964 observers sent by humane organizations described the clubbing of whitecoats, and the subsequent public outcry led to seal protection regulations controlling the methods of the kill, and the types of vessels used. Adult females were protected on the breeding grounds, and Norway was excluded from sealing in Canadian waters. In 1971 a quota management program was set up, and from 1970 to 1987 the quotas varied, from 127,000 per year to 245,000 per year, but the actual harvest was often much lower (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).<br/><br/>In 1983, the European Economic Community imposed an import ban on all whitecoat (juvenile harp seal) products, and the average annual harvest in Canadian waters fell to 52,000 seals from 1983-1995. By 1987, Canada outlawed the killing of whitecoats, and the focus of the hunted switched to beaters (post-weaning to 13 months of age) (Anon. 2006a). From 1999-2003, the estimated annual mortality of harp seals in the northwest Atlantic was 453,962, broken down into an average of 232,915 taken in the commercial harvest by Canada, 83,010 taken from 1999-2002 in Greenland, and 4,881 taken in the Canadian high Arctic, plus a bycatch of 18,566 in the Newfoundland lumpfish fishery, with an average annual struck and loss rate of 119,430 from all harvests  (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Since the late 1970s large numbers of harp seals have been leaving the Barents Sea, and possibly the Greenland Sea, to forage along the coast of Norway, resulting in the deaths of thousands of seals in shore-based net fisheries.  Bycatch mortality from nets was estimated to be 56,647 (perhaps up to 100,000) in 1987, and 21,474 in 1988 (Haug <em>et al.</em> 1991, Woodley and Lavigne 1991). <br/><br/>Another threat to harp seals is the overharvesting of their prey, including herring and capelin. There have also been calls for an increased cull of harp seals to protect the  Atlantic cod fishery, for some years in a steep decline  (Lavigne 2002).<br/>  <br/>Oil spills in the northwest Atlantic off the east coast of Canada remain a threat to seals. There is a concern about the impacts of tanker traffic, particularly in places like Lancaster Sound in the eastern Canadian Arctic, which is an important harp seal summering area (Reijinders <em>et al.</em> 1993). Additionally, harp seals have been found to carry significant loads of contaminants including heavy metals, organochlorines and PCBs (Ronald <em>et al.</em> 1984a,b).  <br/><br/>Phocine distemper virus (PDV) was first found in harp seals from the West Ice off Jan Mayen in 1987 and 1989.  It is widespread in harp seals, but it is not known if there are significant health effects or mortality from the infection. The harp seals may have been carriers infecting harbor seals, which did experience a mass mortality in Europe in 1988 (Markussen and Have 1992).
41672		conservation	eng	Ringed seals are protected by a variety of laws and quotas in different parts of their range, but even within Europe the legal provisions are not always being fully implemented in domestic law (Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The population in Lake Saimaa has been protected since 1955, and additional protection has been afforded via the establishment of two national parks within the lake, and regulation of shoreline development. Similarly, the hunting of seals in Lake Ladoga was prohibited in 1980 (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998). In the United States the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 allows ringed seals to be harvested only by Alaskan Native hunters for subsistence purposes, and that Act generally prohibits all other forms of taking except where specifically permitted (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). State Nature Reserves at Franz Josef Land and in the White and Kara seas protect large areas of ringed seal habitat in the western Russian Arctic (Belikov and Boltunov 1998). Quotas and licensing of hunting have been in place in various parts of the Russian Federation for decades (Belikov and Boltunov 1998), though this has done little to stop the decline of ringed seals in Lake Ladoga. Baltic ringed seals were protected from all killing by the Soviet Union in 1980, by Sweden in 1986, and by Finland in 1988 (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 1998).
41672		conservation	eng	Ringed seals are protected by numerous laws and quotas in different parts of their range. The population in Lake Saimaa has been protected since 1955, and additional protection has resulted from establishment of two national parks at the lake, and regulation of shoreline development. Similarly, the hunting of seals in Lake Ladoga was prohibited in 1980 (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998). In the United States ringed seals can only be harvested for subsistence purposes by Alaskan Native Subsistence Hunters, and they have been protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, the implementation of which reduced annual mortality by eliminating all hunting by non-native people (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Quotas and licensing of hunting have been in place in various parts of the Russian Federation/former Soviet Union for decades and have led to protection of Sea of Okhotsk, Barents and White seas, and Lake Ladoga ringed seals (Belikov and Boltunov 1998, Reeves 1998). Baltic ringed seals were protected from all killing by the Soviet Union in 1980, by Sweden in 1986, and by Finland in 1988 (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 1998). State Nature Reserves at Franz Josef Land and in the White and Kara seas protect large areas of ringed seal habitat in the western Russian Arctic (Belikov and Boltunov 1998).
41672		distribution	eng	Ringed seals have a circumpolar distribution throughout the Arctic basin including near the North Pole (Rice 1998), and range widely into adjacent seas. They are found in the Bering Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Hudson Bay and Straits, Davis Strait, and Greenland, Barents, Kara, Laptev and East Siberian seas. Separate populations occur in the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga in the Russian Federation, Lake Saimaa in Finland, and the Sea of Okhotsk south to northern Japan (Frost and Lowry 1981, Reeves 1998). Vagrants have been recorded south to Portugal and the Azores in Europe, southern California and New Jersey in the United States, and Zhejiang in China (Rice 1998). Ringed seals are distributed in waters of nearly any depth, and their distribution is strongly correlated with seasonally and permanently ice-covered waters, and food availability (Frost and Lowry 1981, Reeves 1998). Shore-fast ice is considered to be the most important habitat for pupping, although the importance of pack ice is not well known (Reeves 1998).
41672		distribution	eng	Ringed seals have a circumpolar distribution throughout the Arctic Basin including records of individuals near the North Pole (Rice 1998); arctic ringed seals also range widely into adjacent seas being found in the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Davis Strait, and Greenland, Barents, White, Kara, Laptev and East Siberian Seas, and they extend into some lake and river systems in Northern Canada (Heide-Jørgensen and Lydersen 1989). Separate populations occur in the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga in the Russian Federation, Lake Saimaa in Finland, and the Sea of Okhotsk south to northern Japan (Frost and Lowry 1981, Reeves 1998). Extralimital records for ringed seals extend far south on both sides of the Atlantic, to New Jersey in the west and Portugal in the east. In the Pacific vagrants have been recorded south to the Zhejiang in China and southern California (Rice 1998).
41672		habitat	eng	Arctic ringed seals are in many respects the “classic” ice-seal. The subspecies <em>P. h. hispida</em> and <em>P. h. ochotensis</em> use sea ice exclusively as their breeding, moulting and resting (haulout) habitat, rarely if ever coming onto land (Smith and Stirling 1975, Frost and Lowry 1981, Kelly 1988). Their ability to create and maintain breathing holes in sea ice using the well-developed claws on their fore-flippers allows them to thrive in areas where even other ice-associated seals cannot reside. Although ringed seals are quite small they deal with the thermal challenges posed by the arctic winter by having a very thick blubber layer, and by building lairs (small caves) in the snow on top of sea ice during the winter. The lairs are particularly important for neonatal survival (e.g., Lydersen and Smith 1989). Each seal builds several lairs so that they can escape if a predator attacks one of their structures; ringed seals have co-evolved with their principal predator, the polar bear (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) over the last tens of thousands of years (Stirling and Øritsland 1995). Arctic foxes (<em>Alopex lagopus</em>) are also an important predator in some coastal areas (Smith 1976, Lydersen 1998). In addition to the constructed holes and lairs, ringed seals also use natural cracks along pressure ridges and leads in the sea ice for breathing. <br/><br/>Reported mean age at sexual maturity (MAM) for ringed seals females varies in the literature from 3.5 – 7.1 years (Holst and Stirling 2002, Krafft <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males likely do not participate in breeding before they are 8 and 10 years old. The average size of adults 10 years and older varies between locations and different age cohorts, but averages of 115-136 cm in length and 40-65 kg in weight have been reported, with males being slightly larger than females (Smith 1973, Frost and Lowry 1981, Smith 1987, Lydersen and Gjertz 1987). Ringed seals are long lived, with ages close to 50 reported (e.g. Lydersen and Gjertz 1987). Reproductive rates of adult female ringed seals vary between 0.45-0.86 (see Reeves 1998), with a maximum of 0.91 (Lydersen and Gjertz 1987). Regional production rates are variable; reproductive success depends on many factors including prey availability, the relative stability of the ice, sufficient snow accumulation prior to the commencement of breeding, etc. (e.g., Lukin 1980, Kelly 1988, Smith 1987, Lydersen 1995).<br/><br/>A single pup, weighing 4.0-4.5 kg, is born in the spring (March to May), with most pups being born in early April (Frost and Lowry 1981). In Lake Saimaa and in the southern part of Baltic Sea pups are born somewhat earlier, in late February or early March (Pälsi 1924, Sipilä 2003). Births occur in subnivean lairs excavated in snow that accumulates upwind and downwind of ice ridges (Smith and Stirling 1975, Furgal <em>et al</em>. 1996), or in cavities occurring between blocks of ice in pressure ridges (McLaren 1958, Kelly 1988). Lairs provide thermal protection against cold air temperatures and high wind chill and afford at least some protection from foxes and polar bears (Smith 1976, 1980, Smith and Stirling 1975, Gjertz and Lydersen 1986). A female will move a young pup between lairs within her complex of lairs (usually 4-6 per female) if one lair is attacked by a predator; older pups are able to shift between structures independently as they develop swimming skills in the first weeks of life (Lydersen and Hammill 1993a,b). Lactation lasts an average of 39 days and pups are weaned at approximately 20 kg (Lydersen and Kovacs 1999). Females mate towards the end of the lactation period, similar to other phocid seals. Shore-fast ice is considered to be the most important habitat for pupping, although the importance of pack ice is not well known; this habitat is used at least in the Davis Strait and in the Barents Sea (e.g. Wiig <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Ringed seals moult from around mid-May to mid-July when they spend quite a bit of time hauled out on ice at the edge of the permanent pack ice, or on remnant land-fast ice along coastlines (Reeves 1998). Feeding intensity is at a minimum at this time (Ryg <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>Outside the breeding and moulting seasons, arctic ringed seals are distributed in waters of nearly any depth; their distribution is strongly correlated with seasonally and permanently ice-covered waters and food availability (e.g. Simpkins <em>et al</em>. 2003, Freitas <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Many studies of the diet of arctic ringed seal diet have been conducted and although there is considerable variation in the diet regionally, several patterns emerge. Most ringed seal prey is small, and preferred prey tends to be schooling species that form dense aggregations. Fishes are usually in the 5-10 cm range and crustacean prey in the 2-6 cm range. Typically, a variety of 10-15 prey species are found with no more than 2-4 dominant prey species for any given area. Fishes are generally more commonly eaten than invertebrate prey, but diet is determined to some extent by availability of various types of prey during particular seasons as well as preference, which in part is guided by energy content of various available prey (Reeves 1998, Wathne <em>et al</em>. 2000). Polar cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) is often reported to be the most important prey species for ringed seals (see Labansen <em>et al</em>. 2007 for review). Young polar cod (≤2 yrs) are often found closely associated with sea ice, living under and even in spaces within sea ice (Falk-Petersen <em>et al</em>. 1986). Ringed seals also eat a variety of other members of the cod family, including arctic cod (<em>Arctogadus glacialis</em>; Holst <em>et al</em>. 2001), and saffron cod (<em>Eleginus gracilis</em>) with the latter being particularly important during the summer months in Alaskan waters (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1980). Redfish (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.), capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>) and herring (<em>Clupea harengu</em>) are also important in the diet of arctic ringed seals in some regions. Invertebrate prey seems to become more important to ringed seals in the open-water season and often dominates the diet of young animals (e.g. Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1980, Holst <em>et al</em>. 2001). Large amphipods (e.g. <em>Themisto libellula</em>), krill (e.g. <em>Thysanoessa inermis</em>) mysids (e.g. <em>Mysis oculata</em>), shrimps (e.g. <em>Pandalus</em> spp., <em>Eualus</em> spp., <em>Lebbeus polaris</em>, <em>Crangon septemspinosa</em>) and cephalopods (e.g. <em>Gonatus</em> spp.) are all eaten by ringed seals and can be very important in some regions at least seasonally. <br/><br/>Ringed seals in the Baltic sea as well as in Lakes Saimaa and Ladoga use ice for breeding and moulting, but are forced to haul out on islands and shorelines during the summer season when ice is not available. Their general season patterns are similar to those of arctic dwelling ringed seals. One notable difference in social structure is that Ladoga ringed seals form large herds during the open water period; this behaviour of mass haulouts is concentrated in the Valamm Nature Park (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Saimaa and Ladoga ringed seals are confined to freshwater lakes where they prey on a wide variety of fish and some invertebrates, especially smelt (<em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>), vendace (<em>Coregonus albula</em>), burbot (<em>Lota lota</em>), perch (<em>Perca fluviatalis</em>), roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>), whitefish (<em>Coreogonus lavaretus</em>) and other fishes in small quantities (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).
41672		habitat	eng	Ringed seals are usually found singly or in small groups, and when inhabiting sea ice, can be difficult to find.  They swim in leads among floes, and maintain breathing holes with their claws, excavate snow lairs, and utilize naturally occurring cracks and cavities within pressure ridges when seas freeze (Smith and Stirling 1975, Frost and Lowry 1981, Kelly 1988).<br/><br/>Sexual maturity is usually attained between 4-7 years for females and 5-7 years for males.  Physical maturity is reached between 8 and 10 years old. Maximum ages of 43 years (McLaren 1958), and 46 years (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993) have been reported.<br/><br/>A single pup, rarely twins, is born from March to May, with most pups born in early April (Frost and Lowry 1981). Most births occur in lairs excavated under snow that accumulates upwind and downwind of ice ridges (Smith and Stirling 1975), or in cavities occurring between blocks of ice in pressure ridges (Mclaren 1958, Kelly 1988). Lairs are believed to provide protection from a variety of predators and periods of very cold air temperatures and high wind chill (Smith and Stirling 1975, Kelly 1988).  <br/><br/>Ringed seals take a wide variety of fish and invertebrate prey and show variation in diet between seasons and in different geographic areas. The most important species and groups include Arctic cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) and saffron cod (<em>Eleginus navaga</em>), and a variety of crustaceans including amphipods, euphausiids, mysids, and shrimps (Lowry <em>et al.</em> 1980, Kelly 1988). Saimaa and Ladoga ringed seals are confined to freshwater lakes where they prey on a wide variety of fish and some invertebrates, especially smelt (<em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>), vendace (<em>Coregonus albula</em>), burbot (<em>Lota lota</em>), perch (<em>Perca fluviatalis</em>), roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>), and whitefish (<em>Coreogonus lavaretus</em>) (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998).
41672		population	eng	<em>P. h. hispida</em><br/>The world-wide population size of arctic ringed seals is not accurately known. Citing many factors such as the vast geographic area occupied by the species, its highly variable distribution within areas that have been surveyed, the unknown relationship between the numbers of seals observed versus those not seen, and other factors, Frost and Lowry (1981) state that it is “unwise to attempt an estimate of the world population of this subspecies” (<em>P. h. hispida</em>). Despite numerous surveys at specific locales conducted since, Reeves (1998) believes that “this conclusion remains appropriate.” <br/><br/>Nevertheless, published world-wide population estimates exist including 6-7 million (Stirling and Calvert 1979) and 2.5 million (Miyazaki 2002). Some recent survey and pup production data are available from parts of the arctic ringed seal’s range (e.g. Frost and Lowry 2004, Bengtson <em>et al</em>. 2005, Moulton <em>et al</em>. 2005, Krafft <em>et al</em>. 2006), but these data are limited in spatial scope. Little information is available from large parts of the ringed seal’s arctic range, such as the eastern parts of the Russian Federation (but see Ognetov 1993). Decreased pup production and survival have recently been documented in some areas that have been attributed to climate change (e.g. Ferguson <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stirling 2005).<br/><br/><em>P. h. botnica</em><br/>During the past century Baltic ringed seals declined precipitously from 190,000-220,000 to approximately 5,000 by the late 1970s (Harding and Härkönen 1999). The principle reason for the decline was over-harvesting, but low fertility caused by organochlorines and other contaminants may also have inhibited natural population growth during the decades following protection. The population of <em>P. h. botnica</em> was estimated to be between 5,000 and 8,000 individuals in the late 1990s; during 1998-2006 the number of ringed seals in Bothnia Bay, where about 75% of the population resides, has increased at a rate of 4.3 % per year (Karlsson <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, in the Gulf of Riga it is thought that the 1,400 seals counted in 1996 have been experiencing a steady decline since that time. The small subpopulation in the Gulf of Finland (~300 animals) has showed no increase since 1994. Current sea ice trends in the Baltic and future projections for the next 30 years pose a major threat to all southern populations in the Baltic; only the Bay of Bothnia is likely to retain fairly good winter sea-ice habitat for ringed seals (Meier <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>P. h. ladogensis</em><br/>The size of the <em>P. h. ladogensis</em> population was thought to be about 20,000 at the start of the 20th century, but bounties were paid to reduce the population and by the 1970s there were approximately 10,000 animals remaining (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007). In 2001, the aerial survey of the basking population counted 2,000 (+-70) individuals on the ice (Verevkin 2002), which suggests a total population size of  3,000 to 5,000 seals (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>By-catch in fishing gear is the major source of mortality in this population. Deaths due to this source alone account for 10-16% of the population annually (Verevkin <em>et al</em>. 2006), which is clearly unsustainable. The Ladoga ringed seal is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation.<br/><br/><em>P. h. saimensis</em><br/>The number of <em>P. h. saimensis</em> in Lake Saimaa fell below 200 individuals in the early 1980s (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998). Thereafter, for a short period the population was increasing (to 240 in 2000, Sipilä 2003, Auvinen <em>et al</em>. 2005), reaching a maximum estimate of 280 in 2005 individuals for a brief time (Sipilä and Kokkonen 2008). A population viability analysis conducted by Ranta and Lundberg (2006, unpublished) suggested a potential for optimism regarding the survival of this population, as did projections in Sipilä (2006). But climate change impacts on Saimaa seal habitat were not incorporated into these predictions (Sipilä and Kokkonen 2008), nor was much attention paid to the fact that the population within the lake system is geographically subdivided (Sipilä <em>at al</em>. 2005), and the subdivision could markedly increase the future rate of inbreeding (Palo <em>et al</em>. 2003). Currently, mortality induced by fisheries by-catch is significant (Kokko <em>et al</em>. 1998, Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Sipilä 2003). This mortality source, in addition to very high pup mortality during 2005-2007, is expected to cause this population to once again decline (Sipilä and Kokkonen 2008). <br/><br/><em>P. h. ochotensis</em><br/>In the Sea of Okhotsk estimates for ringed seal abundance in 1968 and 1969 were 818,000 and 865,000 respectively (Reeves 1998). The population of <em>P. h. ochotensis</em> was estimated to be 800,000-1,000,000 by Miyazaki (2002). However, in reality no recent data are available and current population trends are unknown.
41672		population	eng	The world-wide population of ringed seals is not known. Citing many factors such as vast geographic area occupied by the species, highly variable densities found within areas that have been surveyed, the unknown relationship between the numbers of seals observed versus those not seen, and other factors, Frost and Lowry (1981) state that it is “unwise to attempt an estimate of the world population of this subspecies” (<em>P. h. hispida</em>). Despite numerous surveys conducted since, Reeves (1998) believes that “this conclusion remains appropriate.” <br/><br/>Nevertheless, published world-wide population estimates exist including 6-7 million (Stirling and Calvert 1979), and 2.5 million for the most widespread subspecies, <em>P. h. hispida</em> (Miyazaki 2002). The population of <em>P. h. botnica</em> is estimated at 5,000 to 8,000 (Reeves 1998), and in excess of 6,000 (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 1998).  <em>P. h. ladogensis</em> and <em>P. h. saimensis</em> have been estimated to number 10,500-12,500 (Reeves 1998) and about 5,000 (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998) for the former, and <200 (Reeves 1998) or about 200 (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998) for the latter.
41672		threats	eng	Humans have hunted ringed seals in the Arctic since the arrival of people to the region millennia ago (e.g. Murdoch 1893, Riewe and Amsden 1979). They are a fundamental subsistence food item for most coastally dwelling northern peoples. Reeves (1998) reported an annual quota for shore-based hunters in the Sea of Okhotsk of 7,500 and a combined estimate of 10,000 taken per year from the Bering, Chukchi, and Western Beaufort Sea by Russians and Native Alaskans. Further, Reeves (1998) estimates that the annual removal of ringed seals in the Canadian Arctic is in the “high tens of thousands” at present, and that in 1980s, including animals killed and lost, the harvest was between 60,000 and 80,000, and may have exceeded 100,000 in some years. Another substantial annual harvest occurs in Greenland with nearly 100,000 taken per year in the 1970s and approximately 70,000 taken annually in the early 1990s (Teilmann and Kapel 1998).<br/><br/>Commercial harvests of ringed seals in the early to mid-20th century at southern latitudes were sometimes large and probably had significant local impacts on the respective populations. Annual harvests of 72,000 from 1955 to 1965 in the Sea of Okhotsk, 20,000 in the Baltic Sea, as well as commercial harvests in Lakes Ladoga and Saimaa (Reeves 1998, Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998) all provide examples of the negative effect of localized over-harvesting on ringed seal populations. Kokko <em>et al</em>. (1997) have suggested that the sustainable harvest level for Baltic ringed seals at the end of the 1990s was close to zero (Kokko <em>et al</em>. 1997). Harvest statistics reported for Western Russia by Belikov and Boltunov (1998) suggest that maximum catches earlier in this century exceeded the total allowable catches (TACs) significantly, with harvests of up to 8,900 in the White Sea (1912), 13,200 in the Russian Barents Sea (1962), and 13,200 in the Kara Sea (1933). These harvests are thought to have dropped considerably in recent decades, though there are no available data. Reporting of harvest statistics and enforcement of TACs is difficult to manage in outlying areas, and the harvest of ringed seals in eastern Russia is largely unknown.<br/><br/>Ringed seals carry loads of organochlorine and heavy metal contaminants from human industry and agriculture which have been implicated in uterine pathology in Baltic seals (Bergman and Olsson 1986), and high concentrations of mercury in Saimaa seals is thought to have reduced pup production in the 1960s and 1970s (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Kostamo <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, following restrictions on the use and release of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment, levels are dropping rapidly in the Baltic (e.g. Kostamo <em>et al</em>. 2002). The same is true with regards to POPs in Arctic populations (e.g. Wolkers <em>et al</em>. 2008). Oil contamination poses poorly known risks to ringed seal populations. The greatest impacts would likely result if spills occurred during the pupping season or if food resources were negatively effected (Smith 1987, Reeves 1998).<br/><br/>Manipulation of water levels, recreational snow machine operation, net-fishing, boating, tourism and development of cottages on the shoreline at Lake Saimaa have been noted as threats to the ringed seals in Lake Saimaa, and industrial pollution, net fishing and poaching, as well as disturbance of on-shore summer haulout groups have been highlighted as threats for the Lake Ladoga ringed seals (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007). Predation by red fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>), wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>), feral and domestic dogs and even birds of prey are also risks for these lake seals (e.g. Kunnasranta <em>et al</em>. 2001). By-catch in fisheries and other negative impacts associated with fisheries conflicts seem at present to be the major threat to the two subspecies of ringed seals occupying Lakes Saimaa and Ladoga (Kokko <em>et al</em>. 1998, Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Verevkin 2002, Sipilä 2003, Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Global warming may pose the greatest threat to ringed seals in all subspecies if it leads to large losses of the stable ice habitat required by ringed seals for pupping and rearing their young (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, also see Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). Early break-up of the ice results in poor condition of pups and higher mortality rates (e.g. Smith and Harwood 2001). Associated changes in precipitation and weather patterns could also negatively effect ringed seal populations if there is insufficient snow cover to protect pups in lairs in the spring (Stirling and Derocher 1993; Ferguson <em>et al</em>. 2005). Pups born outside lairs have a very low chance of survival; the pups are so small that even large gulls can be predators if they are exposed (e.g. Lydersen and Smith 1989). Declining trends in reproduction and survival of pups have already been noted in some regions that have been attributed to earlier break-up of the sea ice over recent decades and concomitant changes in the marine ecosystem (Ferguson <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stirling 2005).<br/><br/>Ice is also needed by ringed seals for moulting, resting, and in some populations foraging, but the type of ice and its stability is more flexible outside the breeding season, though northern ringed seals still exhibit a clear preference for areas with considerable ice coverage (Simpkins <em>et al</em>. 2003, Freitas <em>et al</em>. 2008). Reductions in arctic sea ice could have quite dramatic effects via prey availability if polar and arctic cod populations are negatively impacted. Climate change impacts could be particularly acute for ringed seals living in restricted habitats such as the Ladoga and Saimaa Lake populations (Learmonth <em>et al</em>., 2006), and possibly also for ringed seals in the Okhotsk and Baltic Seas (see Meier <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Lake Saimaa there was an abnormally high lair mortality of pups in 2006 and 2007 because of poor ice and snow conditions (Sipilä <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Reductions in sea ice cover will likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and resource extraction industries, with associated increased threat of marine accidents and pollution discharge (Pagnan 2000). An increase in human created noise in the arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including ringed seals, to abandon areas (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Disturbance seems to be disruptive to haulout groups in Lake Ladoga during summer and routine day-tourism seems to have caused the desertion of at least two previously used sites (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007, Verevkin <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, it must be noted that Moulton <em>et al</em>. (2002, 2003, 2005) found no more than slight effects on ringed seals from construction, drilling and operation of the Northstar offshore island oil production facility in the Beaufort Sea, and other assessments of industrial activities in the Arctic suggest relatively minor impacts on ringed seals (Kelly <em>et al</em>. 1988, Davis <em>et al</em>. 1991, Blackwell <em>et al</em>. 2004), though over-flights by aircraft certainly cause disturbance to ringed seals if flights occur by helicopter at less than 1,500 m and by fixed-winged aircraft at closer than 500 m (Born <em>et al</em>. 1999).
41672		threats	eng	Ringed seals are very important to northern communities, and many thousands are taken annually in subsistence harvests. Reeves (1998) reports an annual quota for shore-based hunters in the Sea of Okhotsk of 7,500, and a combined estimate of 10,000 taken per year from the Bering, Chukchi, and Western Beaufort Sea by Russians and native Americans. Reeves <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimate that the annual removal of ringed seals in the Canadian Arctic is in the “high tens of  thousands” at present, and that in 1980s, including animals killed and lost, the harvest was between 60,000 and 80,000, and may have exceeded 100,000 in some years. Another substantial annual harvest occurs in Greenland with nearly 100,000 taken per year in the 1970s, and approximately 70,000 taken annually in the early 1990s (Teilmann and Kapel 1998). The species is not currently harvested in the marine region covered by the European Mammal Assessment.<br/><br/>Commercial harvests of ringed seals in the early to mid 20th century were sometimes large, and probably had significant local impacts on certain populations. Annual harvests of 72,000 from 1955 to 1965 in the Sea of Okhotsk, 20,000 in the Baltic Sea (Reeves 1998), and commercial and reduction harvests in Lakes Ladoga and Saimaa (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998) are examples of the negative effect of localized overharvesting on ringed seal populations.<br/><br/>Ringed seals carry loads of organochlorine and heavy metal contaminants from human industry and agriculture.  Chlorinated hydrocarbons have been implicated in uterine pathology in Baltic ringed seals (Bergman and Olsson 1986), and high concentrations of mercury in Saimaa ringed seals is thought to have reduced pup production in the 1960s and 1970s (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998).<br/><br/>Vessel traffic and noise, and the effect of noise from offshore oil and gas exploration or construction can affect ringed seals and cause mortality, abandonment of breathing holes and lairs, and a decrease in abundance near the activity (Smith 1987, Reeves 1998). Manipulation of water levels, recreational snow machine operation, net fishing, boating, tourism, and development of cottages on the shoreline at Lake Saimaa, and industrial pollution, net fishing and poaching on Lake Ladoga have been implicated in past or present mortalities, population impacts, or disturbance to their respective ringed seal populations (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993, Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998).  <br/><br/>Global warming may pose the greatest threat to ringed seals if it leads to large losses of stable shore-fast ice habitat used for pupping and foraging (Tynan and DeMaster 1997).  Also, changes in precipitation and weather patterns could negatively effect ringed seal populations if there is insufficient snow cover to protect pups in lairs in the spring (Stirling and Derocher 1993, Ferguson <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Climate change could be particularly acute for ringed seals living in restricted habitats such as the Ladoga and Saimaa Lake populations (Learmonth <em>et al.</em> 2006), and possibly in the Okhotsk and Baltic seas.  An increase in human created noise in the Arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including ringed seals, to abandon areas of habitat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Reductions in sea ice cover would likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and extractive industries, and an associated greater threat of marine accidents and pollution discharge (Pagnan 2000). However, Moulton <em>et al.</em> (2005) found no more than slight effect on ringed seals from construction, drilling, and operation of the Northstar offshore island oil production facility in the Beaufort Sea.
41676		conservation	eng	Numerous measures, such as establishing commercial harvest quotas, changing methods and equipment used for harvesting seals and changing the timing of the hunt and the age class of seal that can be taken, have all been used during the history of the commercial harvest to regulate the catch (Svatosh 1923, 1925, Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993, Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent recommendations for the protection and conservation of the Baikal seal include several measures to reduce the impact of poaching by local residents (including increased penalties for illegal hunting) and mandatory reporting of incidental catch in fishing gear (Pastukhov 1993).
41676		distribution	eng	Baikal Seals are basically confined to Lake Baikal (31,570 sq. km), though they do travel short distances into rivers that flow into and out of the lake. An exception is one animal that was found 400 km downstream in the Angara River, the only river that flows out of the lake (Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993, Rice 1998). Lake Baikal is located in southern Siberia, Russia, near the Mongolian border. The lake is 636 km long and at its maximum 79.5 km wide (Kutyrev <em>et al.</em> 2006).
41676		habitat	eng	This species arrived in Lake Baikal approximately 400,000 years ago and is probably more closely related to the ringed seal than the Caspian seal (Pastukhov 1969a, Koyama <em>et al</em>. 1997, Sasaki <em>et al</em>. 2003). Baikal Seals are among the smallest of the pinnipeds, with adults reaching 1.1-1.4 m and weights of 50-130 kg. Pups are born at 3-3.5 kg and approximately 70 cm (Pastukhov 1971, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982). Adult males are slightly larger than adult females of the same age at physical maturity, when growth stops. Final body size is reached at approximately 15 years of age(Amano <em>et al</em>. 2000). Males reach sexual maturity at 7-10 years of age (Pastukhov 1993). Female Baikal seals become sexually mature between 3-7 years of age and some have their first pup by age 4, most by 5-6 years, with some not pupping until they are 9 years old (Pastukhov 1969b, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982). Baikal Seals continue to produce pups until they are 43-45 years old and may have the greatest longevity of any pinniped species. Approximately 10% of the population is older than 20 years of age, with records of adult females reaching 56 years of age and adult males 52 years of age (Pastukhov 1993, 1990).<br/><br/>The annual cycle of the Baikal Seal is driven more by ice than food (Ivanov 1938). In mid-October, the seals begin to move towards bays, lagoons and river deltas, mostly along the eastern shore where ice forms and expands out into the lake. They spend January to May spread throughout the lake, usually singly, in deep water in the central basins. Adults stay primarily in the north while immature seals are more often found in the southern part of Lake Baikal. Pups are born from late February to early April, with peak numbers born in mid March (Pastukhov 1990). Pups are born on the ice in dens which females actively build and maintain. During the pupping season, females are widely spread out on the ice. Their surface home ranges, including the den and breathing holes, are a minimum of 0.26 km² and do not overlap with other females (Ivanov 1938, Elagin <em>et al</em>. 1990, Pastukhov 1993, Martinkova <em>et al</em>. 2001). Pups do not usually enter the water for their first 2 -3 weeks.<br/><br/>Most pups are weaned in 2-2.5 months, although some are believed to be nursed for 3-3.5 months (Pastukhov 1971). Females move pups and construct new dens if the dens become damaged; this may be necessary to protect small pups from predators. Mating is believed to take place in April, approximately one month after the female gives birth (Pastukhov 1993). Although births take place throughout the lake, more pups (51%) are born in the northern one third of the lake, as compared to the central third (31%) or the southern third (17%) (Pastukhov 1971, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982, Petrov 1997).<br/><br/>The ice breaks up in May and June, a time when Baikal Seals undergo their annual moult. More than half of the population moves to the remaining ice in the northern and northeastern parts of Lake Baikal, forming aggregations that can be as large as 1,000-3,000 animals. Moulting takes approximately during a month-long period, during which Baikal Seals feed very little (Pastukhov 1993). Many Baikal Seals congregate in the southeastern part of the lake in the ice-free season to haul-out on rocky islands and shorelines between feeding excursions (Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993, Petrov 1997). The eastern side of the lake is preferred because it has less human disturbance and greater biological productivity (Pastukhov 1993). It is not known whether Baikal Seals have a regular annual migration pattern. Satellite-tagging of four juvenile seals revealed that they moved throughout the lake in the course of a year, traveling from 400 to 1,600 km between September through May. Although it may not be typical of adult seals, the pattern of frequent diving and movement demonstrates that juveniles move considerable distances and spend little time hauled-out during the fall and winter months. Two of the four seals tagged in autumn returned to their tagging sites the following spring after wandering widely throughout the lake (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1996). Diving patterns are not well documented; tagged juvenile Baikal Seals dove mostly to between 10-50 m, with some dives exceeding 300 m. the mean depth in Lake Baikal is 758 m (Kutyrev <em>et al</em>. 2006). Dive depths were shallower at night, consistent with the vertical movements of their preferred prey fish, the two species of golomyankas (<em>Comeophorus</em> spp.) which ascend from depths of 100 m or more during the day to forage at 10-25 m at night. Dive durations were generally 2-4 minutes, with 14-30% of dives lasting 6-10 minutes. The longest recorded dives exceeded 40 minutes and occurred during the winter in areas of heavy ice cover (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1996). Baikal Seals feed on fish and 29 species have been recorded in their diet. Along with the two species of golomyankas mentioned above, they also consume two species of sculpin (<em>Cottocomephorus</em> spp.) as primary prey. Diversity of fish species consumed is highest in the summer with 17 species eaten, declining to eight species in fall, and only four principle species eaten in winter. Juveniles may also consume amphipods during winter (Ivanov 1938, Pastikhov 1967, Gurova and Pastukhov 1974, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982).
41676		population	eng	The population increased from the 1970s through to the early 1990s to over 100,000 individuals (Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997, Petrov 2002, 2003). Subsequently, population abundance declined slightly, probably due to commercial harvesting and the occurrence of canine distemper virus. The current abundance is estimated to be between 80,000 and 100,000 individuals (Petrov 2002, 2003) but this estimate may be biased based on survey errors of about 30% (Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997) and short term abundance trends based on count data may merely reflect survey error variations. Baikal Seals are considered to be at the carrying capacity level of the Baikal Lake ecosystem.
41676		threats	eng	Subsistence hunting of Baikal Seal extends back to at least the Neolithic period (Khlobystin 1963, Weber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Commercial hunting began in the second half of the 18th century (Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993), becoming a regular industry in the early in the 20th century. Annual harvests fluctuated between 2,000 and 9,000 seals in the early 20th century, then from under 1,000 to nearly 6,500 in the 1930s (Ivanov 1938). Harvests from 1977 to 1983 were consistently high. The official harvest quotas and catch level was about 6,000 plus an estimated “unofficial hunting” level of up to 3,600 seals (1984, Pastukhov 1993). In the late 1980s and early 1990s the official statistics were not reliable and did not reflect the actual harvest level. Estimates vary between 4,000 and 8,000 animals (Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997) killed annually. Harvesting continues today. During 2004-2006 about 2,000 seals were reported killed in annual official statistics with estimations of an additional “uncounted” harvest of between 1,500 and 4,000 animals annually (Petrov 2007). The “uncounted” harvest includes wounded or drowned animals, incidental catch in fishing gear and poaching. <br/><br/>Baikal Seals are considered to be heavily contaminated with pollutants. Heavy organochlorine loads may make them vulnerable to its toxic effects (Nakata <em>et al</em>. 1997), such as possible suppression of the immune system (Tsydenova <em>et al</em>. 2003). Recent work shows that levels of some key organochlorines in Baikal Seals fell from 1992-2002. However, Baikal seal pups continue to carry higher DDT and PCB contaminant burdens than pups of other European and Arctic phocid species (Tsydenova <em>et al</em>. 2004). Adult Baikal seals are also known to carry high burdens of toxic PCB congeners. Chronic high levels of toxic PCB congeners at concentrations similar to those found in Baikal Seals have been linked to immunosuppression in harbor seals and may have contributed to the outbreak of morbillivirus epidemic that led to the mass mortality event in Europe in 1988. Extensive use and disposal of PCBs in the Baikal watershed is thought to be responsible for the current high levels of PCBs in Baikal seals (Nakata <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent opening of Siberian oil fields and the completion of the Baikal-Amur railroad have spurred additional industrial development near Lake Baikal, posing unknown risks to the Baikal seal (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Grachev 2002). An outbreak of a phocine distemper virus, a type of morbillivirus closely related to canine distemper virus (de Swart <em>et al</em>. 1995), killed approximately 6,500 Baikal Seals in 1987-1988 (Pronin and Kabanov 1992, Belykov <em>et al</em>. 1997). The virus in Baikal Seals differs from the strain of phocine distemper virus that killed Harbour Seals in European waters in 1988 and is believed to have been transmitted to seals from a terrestrial source, probably feral or domestic dogs (Barrett <em>et al</em>. 1992). Recent examination of Baikal Seals shows that the virus is still circulating in the population, although not as a highly infectious agent at this time (Mamaev <em>et al</em>. 1996). Natural predation does not appear to be a significant source of mortality for Baikal Seals, with only Brown Bears (<em>Ursus arctos</em>) mentioned as predators (Pastukhov 1993).
41678		conservation	eng	This species is suspected to occur in a several protected areas.
41678		distribution	eng	This speciesis distributed in Bolivia, Ecuador (east of the Andes), and Peru (to Cuzco Prov.).
41678		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Members of this genus are nocturnal, arboreal and solitary - feeding on fruits and insects and are restricted to humid forests (Emmons 1990).
41678		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).
41678		threats	eng	Members of this genus are arboreal and are suspected to be threatened by expanding settlements and habitat fragmentation. Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted (Glatston, 1994).
41679		conservation	eng	Kinkajous are found in numerous protected areas throughout their range and it is protected under CITES Appendix III in Honduras.
41679		distribution	eng	The kinkajou is found throughout the neotropics, from Mexico to Bolivia. Its range extends from Mexico to the east and south of the Sierra Madres, along the central and southern Mexican coasts, southward through Beni, Bolivia (east of the Andes), and deep into Brazil (into the Mato Grosso).
41679		habitat	eng	The kinkajou (<em>Potos flavus</em>) is a medium-sized procyonid common throughout most neotropical forests (Ford and Hoffmann, 1988). It has nocturnal and arboreal habits and requires closed-canopy forest such as that found in Central America and the Amazon basin. Kinkajous are found in rain forests in Surinam, Mexico, and Peru (Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 1985; Husson, 1978; Janson <em>et al.</em>, 1981), tropical evergreen forests in Mexico and Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Leopold, 1959), tropical dry forest in Guatemala (Walker and Cant, 1977), forests of the savanna region in Surinam (Husson, 1978), secondary forest in French Guiana (Charles-Dominique <em>et al</em>. 1981), and the Amazonian rain forest, Atlantic coastal forest, and evergreen gallery forests of the Cerrado in Brazil (Redford and Fonseca, 1986). Further to the south and east of its range the habitat becomes much drier and more open. Kinkajous are not found in these regions. <br/><br/>The species is found at altitudes from sea level to as high as 2500 m (Grzimek, 1975). Many studies (Bisbal, 1986; Charles-Dominique <em>et al</em>. 1981; Julien-Laferrière, 1999; Kays, 1999) on kinkajou's diet reveal that kinkajous eat primarily fruit, and supplement their diet with flowers and leaves. Charles-Dominique and colleagues (1981) state that kinkajous play an important role in dispersing the seeds of some plant species. Their social behavior has been little studied. Kinkajou social organization has been defined as 'solitary group-life' (Kays and Gittleman, 2001). Although kinkajous spent most of their active time alone, individuals regularly associated in groups of up to five individuals (Kays and Gittleman, 2001) while feeding fruit trees. Camera-trap avoidance behaviour has been documented for kinkajou in Costa Rica (Schipper, 2007).
41679		population	eng	The population density for kinkajous has been estimated at 12.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Veracruz, Mexico (Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 1985), and 20 to 30/km<sup>2</sup> in French Guiana (Charles-Dominique <em>et al.</em>, 1981).
41679		threats	eng	As this is a highly arboreal species, even though we have no evidence that it is becoming threatened, it must be presumed that its numbers decrease with extensive human disturbance. Threats include extensive human disturbance, deforestation, pet trade and hunting for its meat and pelt (Glatston, 1994; Husson, 1978).
41680		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
41680		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Mexico and across southern North America In the United States it ranges from southern Oregon and California through the southwestern states to Texas (Hall, 1981; Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988). In Mexico, its distribution is from the desert region of the Baja California peninsula to Oaxaca. Three islands in the Gulf of California are included in its distribution: Tiburón, Espíritu Santo, and San José (Lawlor, 1983). The species is usually distributed from sea level to 1400 m with records at 2000 and 2900 m (Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988).
41680		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a variety of habitats as semi-arid oak forests (<em>Quercus</em>), pinyon pine (<em>Pinus edulis</em>), or juniper (<em>Juniperus</em>) woodland, and also inhabit montane conifer forests, chaparral, desert, dry tropical habitats and rocky or cliff areas (Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988). The species adapts well to disturbed areas and is frequently found in human habitation (Barja and List, 2006). Reports on home range include 5.0 to 13.8 ha for four individuals (Lacy, 1983), 43.4 ha (35 and 51.7 ha) for two males and 20.3 ha (15.7 to 27.7 ha) for three females (Toweill and Teer, 1980) and 136 ha (49 to 233) for nine individuals. Ringtails are nocturnal carnivores with some crepuscular activity and are solitary, except for the breeding season (Toweill and Toweill, 1978; Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988). They breed at the end of February and give birth in May (Poglayen-Neuwall and Poglayen-Neuwall, 1980). They eat rodents, insects, birds and a good amount of fruit (Trapp, 1978; Aranda, 2000).
41680		population	eng	Found always in low densities and considered not abundant. Densities reported for ringtails vary from 10.5 to 20.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Belluomini, 1983; Belluomini and Trapp, 1984), 7 to 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Lacy 1983) and 2.2 to 4.2/km<sup>2</sup> (Toweill and Teer, 1980) to  0.08 to 2.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Grinnell <em>et al.</em>, 1937) and 1.5 to 2.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Trapp, 1973; Trapp, 1978).
41680		threats	eng	The ringtail is legally trapped for fur in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Texas, where it is also caught incidentally in traps set for valuable fur-bearers such as foxes and raccoons. In recent years about 4,000 have been taken annually in Arizona, and about 1,000 in New Mexico. In Texas 45,000~50,000 ringtails were trapped each year from 1979-1985. As in the case with raccoons, the number of ringtails trapped for fur has declined since a peak in 1979, when approximately 135,000 pelts were sold. Ringtail fur is of poor quality (thin, non-durable, and subject to fading), and pelts have usually sold for less than $5 each although they have brought as much as $12. The justification for trapping ringtails for fur is weak, especially since in none of the states where trapping is legal is there sufficient knowledge of population levels and trends on which to base valid harvest regulations (Glatston, 1994). Threats to the ringtail include also automobiles (Glatston, 1994).
41683		conservation	eng	White-nosed coatis are classified as an endangered species in New Mexico and they are given total legal protection there. However, in Arizona, where most of the coatis in the United States live, they are subject to year round hunting. Coatis are listed in Appendix III of CITES by Honduras. Elsewhere in their range they do not appear to be afforded any official protection.
41683		distribution	eng	The range of the white-nosed coati extends from Arizona and parts of southern New Mexico in the United States through Mexico (except the Baja peninsula and central Sierra Madres) and Central America to Panama and marginally into South America in areas west of the Andes (Glatston, 1994).
41683		habitat	eng	White-nosed coatis inhabit woodland and open forests. Coatis are rarely seen in open grassland or desert. Their distribution in Arizona and New Mexico corresponds to that of Encinal and Mexican pine-oak woodland. In the southwestern U.S.A., they are found in oak woodlands or hardwood riparian canyons from 1,400-2,300 m. They are also occasionally seen in chaparral conifers. Many sightings have occurred in small isolated mountain ranges such as the Sierra Madre in Mexico and the Chiricahuas and Huachucas in the United States. Coatis are more active by day than by night. They run in bands of up to 30 individuals, although 12 is more typical. Adult males are typically solitary. They are highly adaptable but are basically tropical woodland and forest animals. They frequently climb to obtain fruits, although they are more typically seen on the ground. Their diet is omnivorous, typically consists of fruit and invertebrates (Gompper, 1995; Kaufmann, 1962; Valenzuela, 1998). They search for food both on the ground and in the forest canopy.
41683		population	eng	The numbers of this species are unknown and population estimates range from rare to common. It is rare in the United States and can be anything from common to scarce in Central America where its status is less well known, but indications are that its numbers have been greatly reduced (Janson, 1981). The Mexican population has probably been severely reduced and it may even be extirpated in certain areas. Population density is greater in the tropics than in southwestern United States. Both regions show year-to-year fluctuations in population sizes as a result of disease or food availability.
41683		threats	eng	Coati are threatened by large scale habitat loss and in some areas hunting. In addition, the coati population in the United States is suspected to be gradually becoming genetically isolated from populations further south as a result of the situation in Mexico. This could lead to local extirpation of the coati in the United States. Coatis are hunted throughout their range either for their skin or for food. In the United States they are occasionally caught in traps set for other species, killed by hunters ostensibly looking for other species, or they fall victim to “predator” control campaigns. They apparently disappeared from the Burro Mountains in New Mexico at about the same time as a coyote poisoning campaign (Kaufmann <em>et al.</em>, 1976). In addition, coatis are susceptible to canine distemper and rabies (Kaufmann <em>et al</em>. 1976).
41684		conservation	eng	This species is protected under CITES Appendix III as <em>N. n. solitaria</em> in Uruguay. The species occurs in numerous protected areas.
41684		distribution	eng	<em>Nasua nasua</em> is broadly distributed in South America, ranging from Colombia and Venezuela in the north to Uruguay and northern Argentina in the south (Gompper and Decker, 1998). The species is absent from the Llano grasslands of Venezuela (Eisenberg, 1989) and has also been introduced to Robinson Crusoe, one of the Juan Fernández Islands of Chile (Colwell, 1989; Miller and Rottmann, 1976; Pine <em>et al.</em>, 1979).
41684		habitat	eng	The species is an occupant of forested habitat. It has been reported from multistratal deciduous and evergreen rainforest, riverine gallery forest, xeric chaco, cerrado and dry scrub forest (Brooks, 1993; Emmons, 1990; Handley, 1976; Mondolfi, 1976; Schaller, 1983). It is found over a wide altitudinal range, with Andean individuals found at elevations up to 2,500 m (Lönnberg, 1921). <em>Nasua nasua</em> is omnivorous, eating predominantly invertebrates and fruit (Gompper and Decker, 1998). The consumption of vertebrates has been noted, but is never common (Beisiegel, 2001; Bisbal, 1986; Gompper, 1996; Kaufmann, 1962; Russell, 1982; Schaller, 1983). It is essentially diurnal in its activities. Adult males are solitary, while females and immature males travel in groups up to 30 individuals (Crespo, 1982; Emmons, 1990; Schaller, 1983).
41684		population	eng	Population density of <em>Nasua nasua</em> varies greatly from region to region. Densities reported ranges from 6.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in a region of low-lying deciduous forest, to 13 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in taller gallery forests (Gompper and Decker, 1998).
41684		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and hunting for their meat by natives are major threats for the species.
41685		conservation	eng	No protection is given to raccoons thorughout much of their range (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000), however, their range does overlap with a number of protected areas.
41685		distribution	eng	The crab-eating raccoon, <em>P. cancrivorus</em>, is distributed from southern Costa Rica to northern Argentina (east border of the Andes), on Trinidad, and possibly on a number of other Caribbean islands. Within Costa Rica and immediately east of the border (i.e. Panama), it is sympatric with the common raccoon, <em>P. lotor</em> (De La Rosa and Nocke, 2000; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
41685		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. Its diet consists of mollusks, fish, crabs, insects, and amphibians (Emmons, 1990). Very little is known about its ecology or behavior, although limited information is available from captive studies (Eisenberg, 1989). It is often believed to be limited to coastline and riverbank habitats, but it has also been recorded in non-aquatic habitats at certain times of the year. It is a species rarely seen deep in the rain forest, but it is found in llanos and evergreen forest. In the zone of geographic overlap with the common raccoon, the common raccoon is found in mangrove swamps while the crab-eating racoon is found on inland rivers (Emmons, 1990).
41685		population	eng	The crab-eating raccoon is naturally rare in some areas of its range and it does not seem as adaptable to human activity as the common raccoon, although it is probably stable throughout South America where viable areas exist. In the Paraguayan chaco, its density in secondary growth cattle land is estimated not to exceed 6.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Glatston, 1994).
41685		threats	eng	Threats to this species have included overhunting for pelts, use for target practice, the pet trade, and, in some areas, habitat destruction (being a rain forest species). Coastal development projects and mangrove destruction also contribute regionally to population declines.
41686		conservation	eng	The species occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range.
41686		distribution	eng	Originally a North and Central American species, occurring from the Canadian prairies southwards across the United States (except for parts of the Rocky Mountains and the deserts) to Panama. Introductions since the 1930s of animals into Germany the Russian Federation, and many subsequent escapes by farmed animals across Europe, have resulted in expanding European and Central Asian populations of this species (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Individuals have also been recorded from Denmark, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia.
41686		habitat	eng	This species is very adaptable and is found almost anywhere water is available, along streams and shorelines. Dens under logs or rock, in tree hole, ground burrow, or in bank den (Armstrong, 1975). In some areas it has adapted to city life and is commensal with the human population. However, raccoons are most abundant in hardwood swamps, mangroves, flood forests, and marshes. Average home range is 90-150 acres (Baker, 1983). Population density was reported as one individual per 10-16 acres by Baker (1983). Typically solitary except female with young. The raccoon is a nocturnal omnivore which forages either singly or in groups. It is an opportunistic omnivore; eats fruits, nuts, insects, small mammals, bird eggs and nestlings, reptile eggs, frogs, fishes, aquatic invertebrates, worms, garbage. Obtains most food on or near ground near water.
41686		population	eng	The raccoon is generally quite common and very adaptable to the human environment and populations are likely increasing in size in suburban areas.
41686		threats	eng	Few major threats exist to the species as a whole. Region threats do exist, however, and include hunting, trapping and poisoning. Commonly hunted for sport and trapped for pelt (made into coats, collars, muffs, and trimmings). It is also one of the more common victims of road kill, especially about suburban areas and water bodies.
41687		conservation	eng	From the time of European settlement until well into the 20th century, American black bears were extensively and purposefully over-hunted with the goal of eliminating or severely reducing their numbers to limit damage to crops and livestock.  Many state and provincial governments paid a bounty for killing black bears.  Population recovery occurred only after those jurisdictions recognized a need to protect black bears as a big game species.  Protection and recovery occurred state-by-state and province-by-province during 1902–1983 (Miller 1990).  Afterwards, the number of bears killed was more closely regulated and, moreover, an infrastructure of agency personnel and hunters policed illegal take.  <br/><br/>In Mexico all hunting seasons for American black bears have been closed since 1985, and the species is considered nationally endangered.  Numerous conservation initiatives established by large private ranches and land cooperatives in northern Mexico have created large blocks of suitable habitat (e.g., oak-dominated forests) with protection from poaching (Doan-Crider 2003).  Changing public attitudes toward bears in Mexico have also contributed to the recuperation and expansion of the species into historic range, including recolonization of areas of Texas that have long been devoid of bears (SEMARNAP 1999, Onorato <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In the southeastern U.S., where black bears occupy only about 20% of their historic range, population recovery was aided by the establishment of national parks and other protected areas in the Appalachian Mountains and the Coastal Plain (Pelton and van Manen 1997).  These large areas protect the habitat (especially mast-producing trees) and restrict hunter access.  Beginning in the early 1970s, additional areas were established where bear hunting was prohibited, linking protected areas to other forested lands, including many private lands.  The resulting conglomerates serve as dedicated or defacto sanctuaries, especially for adult females, that are a source for bears expanding into other areas (Beringer <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>In a few areas, populations of American black bears have either been augmented or reintroduced after former extirpation by transplanting bears from elsewhere.  Reintroductions into Arkansas during the 1960s were highly successful: licensed hunters in this state now harvest several hundred bears annually, and Arkansas bears have expanded into neighbouring states. Augmentation of several populations in Louisiana during the 1960s likely contributed to population recovery there.  The success of recent reintroduction efforts in southeastern Kentucky–north-central Tennessee (mid-1990s) and southeastern Arkansas (2000-2007) may not be known for some time (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Louisiana black bear (<em>U. a. luteolus</em>), a subspecies of American black bear, was listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1992 because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality (Bowker and Jacobson 1995).  Some evidence exists that this native subspecies may have interbred with black bears introduced from Minnesota, and the two subspecies can no longer be distinguished.  Therefore, all bears within the historic range of the Louisiana black bear, from east Texas to southern Mississippi, are protected due to their similarity of appearance to a threatened taxon.  Much of the bottomland hardwood forest that the Louisiana black bear historically inhabited was converted to agriculture.  Remnant bottomland hardwoods are now protected, some marginal farmland is being replanted with hardwood trees, and the bear range is being expanded by capturing individuals from within their present range and moving them to uninhabited areas of their former range.  These efforts are further enhanced through public information and education.  This management program is organized by a broad coalition of state and federal agencies, conservation groups, forestry and agricultural industries, and private landowners.  As a result, this subspecies has been noticeably increasing in numbers and distribution in all three range states.<br/><br/>Another subspecies of black bear (<em>U. a. floridanus</em>) is listed as threatened by the state of Florida.  A previous petition for listing this subspecies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act was denied because it was deemed that extant populations were sufficiently large and state regulations adequate to protect it from extirpation in most areas.  Corridors, either existing or proposed, are important for linking some small, isolated populations with larger populations (Larkin <em>et al</em>. 2004, Dixon <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In British Columbia much conservation attention has been directed toward the Kermode subspecies (<em>U. a. kermodei</em>).  This animal is commonly referred to as the “spirit bear” because it possesses a gene that when homozygous is manifested as white pelage (Ritland <em>et al</em>. 2001).  White-phased animals have long been protected from hunting.  A large system of protected areas was established in 2006 (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) to ban or severely restrict logging within >200,000 ha of coastal temperate rainforest inhabited by this subspecies of black bear, as well as by brown bears.  Additionally, the spirit bear was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia.<br/><br/>Since 1992 all American black bears have been listed in Appendix II of CITES, under the similarity of appearance provision (Article II, para 2b).  This listing stipulates that documentation of legal harvest is necessary for the import and export of body parts in order to prevent these from being confused as parts from illegally obtained bears.  This listing was not designed to protect American black bears, but rather other species of threatened bears, particularly the Asiatic black bear (<em>U. thibetanus</em>), whose parts might otherwise be sold under the guise of being from American black bear.
41687		distribution	eng	American black bears are found through much of Canada, the United States, and the northern half of Mexico.  Although they were extirpated from large portions of their historic range because of habitat loss and (mainly intentional) overexploitation, their occupied range has been expanding in recent years (Pelton <em>et al</em>. 1999, Williamson 2002). The species has, nevertheless been extirpated from large parts of its former range, especially in the Midwest of the United States, and in Mexico. American black bears presently occupy all provinces and territories of Canada, except Prince Edward Island (where they were extirpated in 1937), 41 U.S. states (with occasional sightings in at least 3 others), and 8 states of northern Mexico.  The species never existed outside of these three countries.
41687		habitat	eng	American black bears are primarily a species of temperate and boreal forests, but they also range into subtropical areas of Florida and Mexico as well as into the subarctic.  They live at elevations ranging from sea level to 3,500 m, and inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the brown/grizzly bear [<em>U. arctos</em>]; Veitch and Harrington 1996).  Between these extremes they occupy assorted deciduous and coniferous forest types, each providing a different array of foods.  <br/><br/>The American black bear is a generalist, opportunist, omnivore.  Depending on location and season, they consume herbaceous vegetation, roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion.  Moreover, they readily consume various human-related foods, from garbage and birdseed to a variety of agricultural products, including standing corn and oats just before harvest, apples, and honey and brood in apiaries.  The ability of black bears to vary their diet with the circumstances has enabled them to persist not only in a diversity of habitat types, but also in highly fragmented forested areas in proximity to humans (Pelton 2003).<br/><br/>A key habitat feature in many areas is a source of fall mast that enables black bears to increase their fat reserves in preparation for winter.  Historically, American chestnuts (<em>Castanea dentata</em>) likely were a key fall food in eastern North America, but since a blight eliminated this food source in the early and mid 1900s, oak (<em>Quercus</em> spp.) acorns and beechnuts (<em>Fagus grandifolia</em>) have become the principal fall foods for bears throughout this region (Vaughan 2002).  In areas where oaks and beech are absent or uncommon, hazelnuts (<em>Corylus</em> spp.), whitebark pine nuts (<em>Pinus albicaulis</em>), madrone (<em>Arbutus xalapensis</em>), mansanita (<em>Arctostaphylos</em> spp.), huckleberries (<em>Vaccinium</em> spp.), buffalo berries (<em>Shepherdia canadensis</em>) or other fruits, or sometimes meat, are the fall dietary mainstays.  In the southwestern U.S. and in Mexico, succulents such as yucca (<em>Yucca</em> spp.) and cacti also play important roles in providing food, especially during drought (Doan-Crider 2003).<br/><br/>American black bears hibernate for up to 7 months in the northern portions of their range, but considerably shorter in more southern areas.  In some southern areas, where food is available year-round, they may remain active during winter.  However, all parturient females den and give birth to cubs, typically in January–February.  Although mating occurs in May–July, implantation is delayed and active gestation is only 2 months.  Females give birth beginning at age 3–8 years, depending on food availability and hence their body weight, and can produce cubs every other year (in places with less food, this interval is often extended to 3 years).  Average litter size is approximately 2.5 cubs in eastern and 2.0 cubs in western North America (Alt 1989).
41687		population	eng	During the past two decades, most American black bear populations have grown both numerically and geographically (Williamson 2002).  Sixty percent of U.S. and Canadian states and provinces report increasing populations, and all other populations appear to be either stable or fluctuating with no clear trend (Garshelis and Hristienko 2006).  Based on sums of estimates for individual states, the total U.S. population, excluding Alaska, is estimated at somewhat greater than 300,000.  No reliable estimate exists for numbers of black bears in Alaska, although most authorities presume there to be 100,000–200,000 animals.  Similarly, large populations in some parts of Canada are not reliably known, but countrywide estimates centre around 450,000 (principally in British Columbia, Ontario, and Québec).    Thus, the total number of black bears in North America is likely within the range 850,000–950,000.  No population estimates exist for the country of Mexico, although some areas within Mexico have high and increasing black bear densities (SEMARNAP 1999, Doan-Crider 2003).
41687		threats	eng	Through most of its range, this species is not threatened.  Legal hunting is well controlled by state and provincial agencies.  American black bears are harvested as a game species in all 12 Canadian provinces and territories where they exist and in 28 or 29 (depending on whether New Jersey allows a season) U.S. states.  The sport harvest for this species in Canada and the U.S. totals 40,000–50,000 annually.  Currently, the black bear is not hunted in Mexico, but some conditional permits are allowed for depredation cases.<br/><br/>A few small, isolated populations of American black bears may be threatened with extirpation, simply due to small population size and the effects of fluctuating food (and in some cases water) resources.  In one unusual case, a black bear population on a large island in Québec was extirpated apparently from introduced deer excessively browsing berry-producing shrubs, and thus eliminating an essential food supply for the resident bears (Côté 2005).  However, most small, isolated populations are in southern U.S. and northern Mexico. In a recent dramatic case, bears from Big Bend National Park, an isolated population in southwestern Texas, made long-range movements to Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico, apparently in search of better fall mast.  Such movements, especially in fall, are not unusual for black bears, but in this case most of the bears never returned; they either stayed in Mexico, died naturally when crossing the desert, or were poached.  As a result, the entire population was reduced to 5–7 bears, including only 2 adult females (Hellgren <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Since then, the population has rebounded, possibly by bears immigrating back.  Other examples exist where small, seemingly isolated populations have persisted and even grown, from a combination of reproduction and occasional immigration events (Doan-Crider and Hellgren 1996, Onorato <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Conflicts with humans constitute another potential threat to bears in some areas. In years when natural food supplies are scarce, people may encounter, and frequently kill, large numbers of bears seeking substitute foods such as agricultural crops or garbage.  As more people encroach upon bear habitat, and as bear numbers grow, the frequency of interactions between humans and bears likely will increase.  Indeed, the number of black bear attacks on humans (including fatalities) seems to be increasing across North America (S. Herrero pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Increasing density of roads is another growing threat to American black bears.  Not only do roads lead directly to mortalities from vehicular collisions, but they also provide greater access to hunters and potential poachers and may be barriers to bear movements (Wooding and Maddrey 1994).  <br/><br/>A looming concern, but not a widespread problem in North America, is the poaching of bears for their paws and gall bladders, which can be sold commercially.  Those products, particularly bile from gall bladders, are highly valued by practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine.  Several U.S. states and Canadian provinces allow the sale of bear parts, taken legally by hunters either in that jurisdiction or transported into that jurisdiction from elsewhere (Williamson 2002).  An argument can be made that this creates opportunities for an illicit commercial trade for poachers.
41688		conservation	eng	Conservation actions for brown bears vary greatly among nations and regions within nations.  Large populations of this species (in Russia, Japan, Canada, Alaska, and parts of eastern and northern Europe) are legally hunted, and thus managed as a game animal.  Hunting regulations designed to ensure a sustainable harvest of bears vary among areas but often involve a lottery for a limited number of permits, a quota system, and restricted season length.  <br/><br/>Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, with varying degrees of enforcement.  All international trade in brown bears is restricted by either CITES I (in parts of central Asia) or CITES II.  In parts of the U.S., small populations of grizzly bears have successfully rebounded under protection of the Endangered Species Act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005). Reintroductions and population augmentations also have helped to restore numbers and geographic range in several locations in the U.S. and Western Europe (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2002).  <br/><br/>There are numerous protected areas around the world with brown bears, but few are large enough to support a viable population; therefore, brown bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses (Herrero 1994, Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Some countries have rules or management guidelines designed to reduce human impacts on brown bears and their habitat, whereas in other countries bear management protocols and regulations are limited or nonexistent (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Zedrosser <em>et al</em>. 2001).
41688		conservation	eng	Conservation actions for brown bears vary greatly among nations and regions within nations.  Large populations of this species (in Russia, Japan, Canada, Alaska, and parts of eastern and northern Europe) are legally hunted, and thus managed as a game animal.  Hunting regulations designed to ensure a sustainable harvest of bears vary among areas but often involve a lottery for a limited number of permits, a quota system, and restricted season length.  <br/><br/>Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, with varying degrees of enforcement.  All international trade in brown bears is restricted by either CITES I (in parts of central Asia) or CITES II.  In parts of the U.S., small populations of grizzly bears have successfully rebounded under protection of the Endangered Species Act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005). Reintroductions and population augmentations also have helped to restore numbers and geographic range in several locations in the U.S. and Western Europe (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>  This species is considered a priority for survey work in Afghanistan with so little current data and information available on its status in the region. It has also been placed on Afghanistan’s Protected Species List, prohibiting all hunting and trade of this species within Afghanistan.&#160;<br/><br/>There are numerous protected areas around the world with brown bears, but few are large enough to support a viable population; therefore, brown bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses (Herrero 1994, Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Some countries have rules or management guidelines designed to reduce human impacts on brown bears and their habitat, whereas in other countries bear management protocols and regulations are limited or nonexistent (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Zedrosser <em>et al</em>. 2001).
41688		conservation	eng	Since 1992, all brown bear populations have been listed on either Appendix I or Appendix II of CITES. In the EU, all populations are listed in Annex A of the European Union Council Regulation (EC) No. 338/97, that implements CITES in the member states (Knapp 2006). The brown bear is included on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II* (except Finnish and Swedish populations) and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. Most European range states have national brown bear management plans. <br/><br/>General conservation recommendations include the following: Key bear areas and corridors need to be sufficiently managed and protected. Farmers need to be encouraged to use traditional livestock guarding techniques to reduce conflict arising from livestock depredation. Public awareness and education is also needed to inform people in bear areas about bear behaviour and ecology. International and national legislation protecting bears from poaching should be enforced. More research into population dynamics, genetics and bear habitat is also required to carry out work in bear action plans.<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>The Cantabrian population is strictly protected but occasional losses due to poaching or other human related accidents do occur (snares set by poachers for wild boars). <br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>It is strictly protected but occasional losses due to poaching or other human related accidents do occur.<br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>The Italian and Austrian bear nuclei are under strict protection; in Slovenia a regulated harvest policy is in place. The removal of the bear in Germany caused a great public outcry and quite a controversy between different national and international GOs and NGOs. Fortunately the case also raised awareness for the need of a bear management on the population level. Initiatives to coordinate and harmonize bear management between Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Germany are underway.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>It is strictly protected but occasional losses due to poaching or other human related accidents do occur.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>In the largest part of this population's range (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Macedonia) the bear is a game species. In Slovenia the brown bear is hunted under protected status. In Albania and Greece it is strictly protected. Additionally in Greece it is considered as a priority species under the EU Habitat Directive 92/43.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>Whereas in Romania and Slovakia bears are a hunted species, in other countries they are harvested under various regimes, mostly related to the damage control system. Annually, in Romania up to 250 bears are hunted (about 4% of the estimated population). In 2005 a national bear management plan was approved by the authorities, its implementation being started by the Ministry of Environment and Water Management together with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests and Rural Development. One of the first initiated actions was related to population surveys of larger areas (geographical criteria) and setting up hunting quotas based on the analysis at the national  level. Compensation for damages caused by bears is paid by the game administrators, and it is foreseen that in areas where bears are not hunted these compensations will be paid by the Ministry of Environment and Water Management (the authority for protected species).<br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>Bears in Bulgaria are under protected status that allows the removal of problem individuals. The Greek portion is strictly protected, as well as are the few specimens in Serbia.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>There is a quota hunting regime in Sweden. The harvest rate allows the further and steady population growth. In Norway only damage causing bears are removed, but such a reduction is technically sustainable only due to influx of individuals from Sweden.<br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>Bears are game animals in most of this population range under various quota systems.
41688		distribution	eng	The brown bear is the most widely distributed ursid. It once ranged across a large portion of North America, including Mexico, throughout Europe, Asia, and even into several countries in north Africa.  It presently ranges across parts of North America, Europe, and Asia, with the largest numbers in Russia, Alaska, and Canada.  Populations in Europe are highly fragmented, and some are extremely small and isolated. Details of the European populations are given below (following LCIE 2007):<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>Presently there are two bear nuclei in the Cantabrian Mountains in Spain. They are defined as the western and eastern portions.<br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>Western Pyrenees (9 bears): The Western Pyrenean brown bear subpopulation is found in a 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> area located on both sides of the national border between France and Spain in the western portion of the Pyrenees Mountain Range. However, only about one half of this area is used regularly.<br/>Central Pyrenees (8 bears): The Central Pyrenean brown bear subpopulation is on both sides of the national border between France and Spain in the central portion of the Pyrenees Mountain Range including Andorra.<br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>Presently there are three bear nuclei in the Alps. In Central Austria there is a small nucleus originated from three bears released in 1989-1993, into an area with a naturally occurring male bear. Another nucleus is located in the Central Italian Alps, centered in the province of Trento. This nucleus (20-25 individuals, all originated from the animals translocated in the 1999-2003 period) occupies an area of about 1,500 km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 240 km<sup>2</sup> is used regularly. A third nucleus of bears is present in the Eastern Alps, and originated from individuals that arrived naturally from the Slovenian population. Vagrants from the Dinara-Pindos population are frequently present in the Alps of Slovenia along the border with Austria.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>The population is located in Abruzzo National Park and the surrounding area in the Apennine Mountains in Italy.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>This population consists of brown bears in the forested areas extending from the Dinara range in Slovenia in the north through Pindos Mountains in Greece in the south. The countries involved are Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, and Greece. The forested areas in these countries are less contiguous than in the Carpathian area, separating to some degree the functional habitat into more or less isolated sub areas, although there are corridors.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The Carpathian population includes the brown bears in Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Serbia and Romania. The Carpathian Mountains population is the second largest in Europe. The bears are widely distributed within the entire Romanian Carpathian Mountains range, starting from hilly areas and extending to sub-alpine habitats. Bears in Romania occur permanently or sporadically across a total area of 62,000 square kilometers, of which about 44,000 square kilometers  are forested.<br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>The Rila-Rhodope area is located in south-western Bulgaria and north-eastern Greece. It includes the three connected <br/>populations in the Bulgarian Rila Mountains and Pirin Mountains and the population in the western Rhodope Mountains on both sides of the national border. Of the total population of about 520 bears, only 25-30 are found in Greece. The connection between the bears in Greece and Bulgaria is likely to consist of dispersing males from Bulgaria, as well as of family groups seasonally dispersing from Greece into Bulgaria. <br/><br/>The Stara Planina population is located from Kotlenska mountain in the east to Zlatitsa-Teteven in the west, along a 120 km stretch of the Stara Planina Mountains (Balkan Range). The western end extends into Serbia and a few bears are shared over the border. The Stara Planina population was believed to be isolated from the populations to the south and west but there is recent evidence of bears in the corridors to the south towards Rila-Rhodopean Mountains, including family groups.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The population is shared between Sweden and Norway, but much more than 95% of the individuals are in Sweden. In Norway the bears are found mostly along the Swedish border and most individuals are dispersing young males from Sweden. The delineation is along the Swedish-Finnish border, and further north through Norway. Bears in Norway east of this line are in Northeastern Europe population. The area between the Scandinavian and Northeastern Europe populations is very sparsely inhabited by bears.<br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>The North-eastern European population is the largest continuous brown bear population in Europe. Its range stretches from the Ural Mountains in the east (continuous with the bears on the east side of the mountains making it the largest brown bear population in the world) to the west coast of Finland and the Baltic. It ranges from 53° N in the south to 69° N in the north. This population includes bears in north-easternmost Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Belarus.
41688		distribution	eng	The brown bear is the most widely distributed ursid.  It once ranged across a large portion of North America, including northern Mexico (plus, at one time, much of the eastern half of the continent), throughout Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and even across North Africa.  It presently occupies approximately 5,000,000 km² of the northwestern portion of North America, 800,000 km² of Europe (excluding Russia), and much of northern Asia.  The largest numbers exist in Russia, U.S. (Alaska), and Canada.  Many populations in Europe, and the more southerly portions of Asia and North America are small and isolated (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000).  A history of prolonged over-exploitation in Europe stretching back centuries resulted in the elimination of brown bears from many countries.  The date of their extirpation from North Africa is uncertain, but they may have existed as late as the 1500s in the Sinai of Egypt (Manlius 1998) and mid-1800s in Algeria and Morocco (Hamdine <em>et al</em>. 1998).  During the 20th Century, brown bears (called grizzly bears in interior North America) were extirpated in Mexico and a large portion of southwestern U.S. (Brown 1985, Mattson and Merrill 2002), while in Asia and the Middle East they have apparently been eliminated from Syria, and possibly Bhutan.  Very small numbers of brown bears still remain in Iraq and Nepal (Gurung 2004, Ridings 2006).  Andorra was reoccupied in 2003 from bears reintroduced into the French Pyrenees.  A few wandering individuals recently crossed into Switzerland from Italy and into Lithuania from Latvia and Belarus, but not enough as yet to be considered extant populations.<br/><br/>The brown bear currently occurs in Afghanistan, Albania, Andorra (recently reoccupied), Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bhutan (possibly extinct), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Czech Republic (possibly only vagrants), Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, India, Iraq, Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Mongolia, Montenegro, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United States, and Uzbekistan. The species has become Extinct during past 500 years in Algeria, Egypt, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova, Morocco, Palestinian Territory (Occupied), Portugal, San Marino, Switzerland, and Syrian Arab Republic. Extinctions due to human agency have taken place more than 500 years ago in Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Jordan, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, Tunisia, United Kingdom, and the Vatican.
41688		habitat	eng	Brown bears occupy a great variety of habitats from dry Asian steppes to Arctic shrublands to temperate rain forests.  Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic black bear (<em>U. americanus</em>, <em>U. thibetanus</em>), and also slightly that of the polar bear (<em>U. maritimus</em>).  Elevationally they range from sea level to 5,000 m asl (Sathyakumar 2006). They occupy a greater diversity of habitats than any other species of bear and also exploit a large variety of food items.  In terms of diet, they fall between the mainly plant-dependent ursids and the carnivorous polar bear (Mattson 1998, Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004).  In North America, brown (grizzly) bears are more carnivorous where ungulates (especially in Arctic areas) or spawning salmon (coastal areas) are abundant (Mowat and Heard 2006).<br/><br/>The productivity and density of brown bears varies enormously, corresponding with the productivity of their habitats.  Coastal areas of North America and Eastern Russia, with concentrations of spawning salmon, have high densities (>10 bears per 100 km²) of brown bears (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1997, Seryodkin 2006) with high reproductive rates (Hilderbrand <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Deciduous and mixed forests of the Dinaric and Carpathian mountain ranges of Eastern Europe also host high bear densities with high reproductive rates (Kusak and Huber 1998, Frković <em>et al</em>. 2001).  More moderate densities of bears occur across the interior mountain ranges of North America (McLellan 1994, Schwartz <em>et al</em>. 2003), Europe, and Asia where they forage on a great variety of grasses, herbs, roots, berries, nuts, as well as animal matter such as insects, mammals, and fish if available.  Moderate densities of bears are also found across portions of the boreal forests of North American, Asia and Scandinavia (Bellemain <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Lower densities are found in dry, desert-like areas, alpine and sub-alpine areas, as well as areas where habitat availability and numbers of bears have been reduced by high human and domestic livestock densities (Nawaz 2007); however, in most such areas (e.g., northern India, western China, Mongolia) density estimates are not available.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs during May to July but implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until late autumn.  Cubs, usually in litters of 1 to 3 (rarely 4 or more), are born in January or early February when the mother is hibernating.  In North America, female bears generally have their first litters at 5 to 8 years of age and have litters every 3 or 4 years thereafter (Schwartz <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In some areas of Europe, however, females generally have their first litter at least one year earlier, and produce litters every two years (Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Frković <em>et al</em>. 2001).
41688		habitat	eng	The original distribution of the brown bear in Europe illustrates its adaptability to different environmental conditions. With little or no human interference, brown bears occupied not only forests, but also steppes and tundra. Today, most of the bear' s former range is no longer suitable habitat due to human habitat alteration and human presence. Components of habitat can be grouped into three main categories: food, escape cover, and den sites. Bear movements and habitat use are strongly affected by availability of food. Furthermore, population density is positively associated with food availability. Areas with a high availability of preferred foods, such as berries, fruits, hard mast, colonial Hymenoptera, and ungulates, are of special importance to brown bears.<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>The Cantabrian population inhabits the Cantabrian Mountains, which are partly covered with mixed deciduous forest.<br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>Mixed forests and pastures, depending on slope and elevation. <br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>Habitat is predominately Alpine with steep slopes covered mostly by conifers. Human settlements and infrastructure in the valleys contribute to habitat fragmentation. <br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>Mountain habitat in the central Appenines; partly covered by deciduous forest (dominated by beech).  <br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>The landscape is mountainous, dominated by mixed beech and spruce forest.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The habitat is mainly the mixed forests in the Carpathian Mountain range. <br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>Mostly mountains with deciduous secondary forests.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The habitat is dominated by intensively exploited boreal forest. <br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>The habitat is dominated by intensively exploited boreal forest.
41688		population	eng	Brown bears originally occurred throughout Europe (except from the largest islands such as Ireland, Iceland, Gotland, Corsica and Sardinia), but later disappeared from most areas as the human population grew, suitable habitat was lost due to deforestation and agriculture, and the species was persecuted by humans. Today the total number of brown bears in Europe is about 55,000 bears (c. 15,000-20,000 outside Russia) which occur within an area of more than 2.5 million km² (800,000 km² outside Russia). These bears are found in two large (>5,000), three medium (500-2,500), one small (100-500), and six very small (<100) populations. <br/><br/>1. Cantabrian. <br/>The two Cantabrian populations apparently have been separated since the beginning of the century and now show genetic differences. Today, they are separated by 30-50 km of mountainous terrain and interchange between the populations is thought to be unlikely, mainly due to unsuitable habitat and a high speed railway and motorway. In the Western Cantabrian Mountains the population seems to be stable or increasing in the last decade and is distributed over an area of 2,600 km<sup>2</sup>. The most recent estimate using genetic methods (García-Garitagoitia <em>et al</em>. 2004) calculated 85-143 bears for the western nucleus, with an average number of 107. In the Eastern Cantabrian Mountains (20 bears) the population shows less potential for recovery, unless the corridor with the western portion is reestablished. The total population for both Cantabrian nuclei may be approximately 100-150 bears; not all of these are mature individuals. <br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>The autochthonous western population was estimated to be 3 individuals. The last documented reproductions occurred in 1995 and 1998. In 2006 the reintroduction action provided 5 (4F, 1M) bears from Slovenia mostly to central area. The autochthonous central population was gone before the last decade of 20th century. In 1996-1997 three bears were reintroduced from Slovenia. There was subsequent reproduction, including one male dispersal to Western Pyrenees. Until recently the Western and Central Pyrenees were treated as separate units. With the dispersal of one male bear from the central to the west portion the connectivity is now reastablished. The local bears have been totally isolated for over one century and had low genetic diversity. The recent reintroductions have resulted in the influx of new genes.<br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>The Central Austrian subpopulation now consists of about <10 bears. After increases following reintroductions and local reproductions, in recent years numbers have declined again. No more than 4 autochthonous bears survived in north-eastern Italy until 10 were reintroduced from Slovenia in 1999-2003. With subsequent reproduction the population has exceeded 20 bears, and continues to grow; in 2006 a population of about 6-7 adults and 16-17 sub-adults and cubs was recorded.  <br/><br/>At least three individuals from the Trentino nuclei dispersed into Austria, Switzerland and  Germany. None of them became established, but this demonstrated the connectivity of the habitat within the Alps and the potential for recolonization. One bear was legally shot in Germany in July 2006 because of the potential threat it posed to human safety (the bear repeatedly entered villages and broke into barns), whereas the other two bears disappeared without leaving any tracks. Occasionally individuals dispersing from the Eastern Alpine nucleus have reached the Central Italian Alps, confirming a potential connectivity among all the alpine nuclei.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>An estimate yielded a figure of 70-80 bears in 1985. However, since then there has probably been a population decrease and 40-50 bears may be a more realistic estimate. Some expect this population to increase as poaching has been reduced in recent years, and areas surrounding Abruzzo National Park have been protected to secure suitable habitats. However, this population exists within a densely human populated area and there are potential conflicts between bear conservation and development and recreation activities.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>The population seems to be genetically very close to the remnant bears in the Alps. The population overall has been more or less stable in recent years. However, trends vary in different areas, with steady growth in Slovenia and Croatia, a marked drop in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s due to the war, and probably stable or slightly decreasing trends in the south of the Dinarids, whereas in Pindos range it is characterized as stable (150-200) with locally positive trends and recolonization of former range. The population size estimate of 2,800 is based on weak supporting evidence. Approximately half (1,400) of these individuals are mature. The population trend data is likewise based on little quantitative data and it is possible that the trend is declining rather than stable. In countries with bear hunting there might be a political tendency for overestimation to justify higher quotas. In Slovenia in the north this population is close to that of the Alps. There is not a continuous distribution of female bears in the Alps, but there is movement of male bears. In Greece in the south the nearest bears are those of the Rila-Rhodope portion of the Balkan population along the border of Greece and Bulgaria, but there is no evidence of connection.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The Carpathian Mountains population is estimated at about 8,100 bears and is the second largest in Europe. The Slovakian and Polish bear population was recently reconnected with that of Ukraine. This range expansion occurred rapidly, about 200 km in less than 20 years. Recent estimates of the Romanian population indicate that in Romania about 6,000 bears occur, the population trend being stable. The highest bear densities are found in the areas of Brasov, Harghita, Covasna, Mures, Bistrita, Arges, Vrancea and Sibiu counties (central part of the Romanian Carpathians). During the last 50 years, the Romanian bear population recovered from less than 1,000 individuals to about 6,000 individuals. This recovery process was influenced by both habitat conditions and wildlife management. However, recent developments (e.g. infrastructure developments) have had negative impacts on bears. Problems include behavioral changes (habituated bears), habitat fragmentation and reproductive isolation. Several areas (corridor between Apuseni Mountains and the main ridge of Carpathians, Prahova Valley, southern part of Carpathians - close to Danube) have started to be affected by isolation processes, but there is still connectivity within the entire Romanian Carpathian population. Some dispersers from this population have entered the Czech Republic and Hungary. The next closest population is in northern Bulgaria and north-eastern Serbia, but the migration of individual bears may be very restricted, as the Danube is a major physical barrier.<br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>It consists of two segments: Rila-Rhodope Mountains (520 bears) and Stara Planina Mountains (200 bears). Little is known about genetic structure. The connections between subpopulations were recently proven, and there may be signs of recolonisation. In the early eighties Carpathian bears were released in Rhodope and Stara Planina Mountains. The numbers are not known since there is restricted access to this data.  <br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>After heavy persecution in both countries, the once numerous brown bear population in Scandinavia was reduced to about 130 individuals in four areas where they have survived since 1930. The population has increased to about 2,550 in Sweden, with approximately 50 bears in Norway. Male bears may disperse between neighbouring female core areas, but when considering demographic viability they should be considered separated. This population consists of three subpopulations. In Sweden, the distribution of bears now resembles that of 1800, with bears occurring in 67% or more of the country. The population is one of the most productive in the world and is increasing at a rate of about 5.5% annually.  This population is viable, both genetically and demographically, but low gene flow has been identified between the southernmost subpopulation and the other subpopulations. The population is connected with the North-eastern European population through dispersing males, but probably not by dispersing females. <br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>Densities are generally low, with the highest densities in the south-eastern part of the range and the lowest densities in the north and southwest. The total population size occurring west of 35 degrees east is estimated at c. 38,000 individuals. This population is connected with the Scandinavian one.
41688		population	eng	The total world population of brown bears is estimated to exceed 200,000.  Reliable population estimates (derived mainly from mark-recapture or resight, and modifications thereof) exist for several areas in North America and Europe (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1997, Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Bellemain <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mowat <em>et al</em>. 2005), but few areas in Asia.  Russia has the largest number of brown bears, believed to exceed 100,000, while estimates in the U.S. are around 33,000, Canada 25,000, and Europe (excluding Russia) 14,000.  <br/><br/>Whereas the species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, the southern portions of the range are highly fragmented, with many small populations.  In North America, the southern fringe has isolated populations ranging in size from over 500 in and around Yellowstone National Park (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005) to approximately 15 individuals in the Cabinet Mountains of Montana (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <br/><br/>In southern Europe there are several extremely small, isolated populations: two populations in the Pyrenees (France and Spain) each have <10 bears, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) contain 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) has 40-50 bears, and the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) has 35-40 bears (Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000; http://www.largecarnivores.maverik.ch/bear-ois/index.htm).  <br/><br/>Small populations of brown bears are also scattered across many portions of Asia, but little is known of numbers or connectivity.  In Pakistan there are an estimated 150–200 bears in seven separate populations in the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush Ranges, only one of which has more than 20 individuals (Nawaz 2007).  In India, brown bears exist in 23 protected areas in the northern states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal, but they are regarded as fairly common in only two of these; country-wide there are likely <1,000 individuals, and possibly half that (Sathyakumar 2006).  In China, brown bears exist is sparse, poorly defined populations in the west and also in the northeast, with guesstimates of ~6,000 and ~1,000 in each of these regions, respectively (Gong and Harris 2006).  A more dense population on Hokkaido, Japan may have 2,000+ brown bears, although even there, where significant information has been collected through research and sport harvest returns, reliable population estimates are not available (Mano 2006).
41688		threats	eng	Although, as a whole, this species is secure, with relatively large numbers and an expansive range, several small, isolated populations are threatened due to their low numbers and frequent contact with humans.  These small populations tend to be found in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development.  As wide-ranging omnivores, brown bears are attracted to areas with available human-related foods; being large and somewhat aggressive, these bears may threaten life and property (often agricultural products) and may be killed as a consequence.  Areas of high human use that attract bears may serve as significant mortality sinks (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006).  Additionally, bears living near humans may be killed inadvertently (e.g., vehicle or train collisions) or poached for parts or products: even small numbers of bears removed from small populations can have adverse effects on population growth (Wakkinen and Kasworm 2004); conversely, preventing just a few deaths may avert a population decline (Wiegand <em>et al</em>. 1998, Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Even where brown bears exist in a large, contiguous population, they are sometimes hunted for sport or killed for control purposes at unsustainable rates.  Estimates of sustainable exploitation rates are hampered by the difficulty and expense of obtaining reliable estimates of population size.  Many countries do not have the resources to develop, implement, or enforce adequate monitoring programs and sustainable management plans for brown bears.  Moreover, even with such plans in place, illegal take may equal or exceed the legal take.  This is apparently occurring in the Russian Far East, where brown bears are poached for the commercial trade in gall bladders and paws (Seryodkin 2006).<br/><br/>In addition to direct removal of brown bears, many human activities such as agriculture, plantation forestry, highways, hydroelectric developments, and human settlements eliminate, fragment, or erode the value of bear habitat (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2005, Waller and Servheen 2005).  Habitat fragmentation is a serious threat that isolates population units with deleterious demographic and genetic impacts (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2004).  With increasing human populations, the value of brown bear habitat is being degraded in many areas (e.g., Can and Togan 2004, Nawaz 2007).
41688		threats	eng	Bears have a low reproductive rate and are vulnerable to human-related mortality. They require large habitats that make them vulnerable to changes in land use. In Eastern Europe, land use once under centralised state administration has reverted to private ownership, often with no knowledge of wildlife management. Land use developments have tended to follow western examples with more intensive use of productive areas. The best bear habitat has already disappeared in Europe through logging and forest clearance. The planting of exotic conifers has seriously altered local ecosystems in some places. Habitat fragmentation, particularly as a result of road construction, presents serious problems for a species requiring such large areas. Mortality caused by high-speed road and rail networks through bear habitat is a major threat in some areas including Greece and Croatia. Poaching remains a threat to many, but not all populations, and takes place irrespective of population size. Females with cubs, as well as males, are liable to be killed. Poaching has probably worsened in countries such as Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav Federation, and FYR Macedonia as a result of declining economic and social conditions. Poaching in Russia, to supply the lucrative market for bear parts in Asian countries, is a particular problem. Five very small, isolated bear populations in southern and western Europe (located in France, Spain and Italy), are highly threatened by their small population size. They could easily become extinct as a result of random fluctuations.<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>The main pressure is the loss of adult individuals due to human induced mortality. <br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>The main pressure is the loss of adult individuals due to killing by humans. <br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>Damages done by bears have the potential to reduce the public acceptance of this species, and of trouble-making individuals in particular. Intensive management of all bear related problems is under way. Despite the constant increase of the Central Italian nucleus, the limited numbers of individuals characterizing all the alpine nuclei show that all these are Critically Endangered. The loss of more than 15 bears from the central Austrian bear population and 2 dispersers from Italy suggest an unnatural high mortality rate of bears in the Alps. Unfortunately, illegal removals seems to be the most likely explanation.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>The main pressure is the loss of adult individuals due to human induced mortality. The population is critically endangered. The bear population has been totally isolated for over a century, thus there may be genetic problems.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>Political instability and the lack of financial instruments represent a pressure in the central part of the range. <br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The socio-economic developments in Romania have an influence on bear population on medium and long term and it is considered that the Romanian bear population is vulnerable. <br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>Presently in Bulgaria there is liberal (poorly functioning) system of declaring the problem individuals assigned for removal, as well as poorly controlled poaching. <br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The major pressure in Norway is related to damages on unguarded free-ranging sheep. <br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>Due to a large total size and large area the population is in favorable conservation status.
41689		conservation	eng	The banded palm civet is listed on CITES Appendix II. The Mentawai subspecies was listed as ?Threatened? in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). This species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan pers. comm.), as well as in Thailand, Brunei, Indonesia and in Myanmar.<br/><br/>This species was recorded from Mount Kinabalu National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005), Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995), Similajau National Park in Sarawak (Duckworth 1997), and many other protected areas throughout its range (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).
41689		distribution	eng	The banded palm civet occurs in the Sundaic region and is found in Peninsular Myanmar, Indonesia (Sipora Island, South Pagi Island, Kalimantan, Sumatra; Holden 2006), Borneo (Azlan 2004; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005), Peninsular Malaysia (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), and peninsular Thailand (Wozencraft 2005, A.J. Lynam pers. comm). The distribution implies that Brunei may be included in this range but a specific record has not been traced.<br/><br/>The type locality of one race has been reported in Bankachon, Myanmar, but there are no known current records in Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press.). According to Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) this species has been recorded in many localities in Borneo, and there are many subsequent records from the island including Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo, near Poring Hot Spring (600 m asl) by Wells <em>et al</em>. (2005) and Similajau National Park (Duckworth 1997). It is found at elevations up to 1,200 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). <br/><br/>In Sumatra, Holden (2006) had only a few records, all from lowland primary forest (sea level to a few hundred meters, with a maximum of 800 m) in the region of Kerinci Salbat. Other records may exist from the island and need to be collated. However, these data suggest the species may perhaps be confined to lowlands in Sumatra, and does not occur in hills or mountains.
41689		habitat	eng	Little is known on the ecology of the banded palm civet and further studies are required. This species has been recorded from primary lowland rainforest, but also in disturbed habitat, peat swamp forest and acacia plantations (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995; Azlan, 2004; Wells <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Kanchanasaka pers. comm.; B. Giman pers. comm.). In Borneo, it was found at elevations up to 1,200 m (Payne <em>et al</em>., 1985).<br/><br/>It is nocturnal (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Medway (1969) suggests that it is confined to the ground under tall forest. Davis (1962) found in Borneo that over 90% of its diet was insects, and no stomachs contained fruit or vegetables. All Bornean civets (except <em>Diplogale hosei</em>) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh 1996; Colon pers. comm. 2002).
41689		population	eng	The population status of the banded palm civet is poorly known. Holden (in press) has speculated that this species may be rare where it is found. However, Payne <em>et a</em>l (1985) states that it was the second most common viverid in the forests of Sabah, and it occurs in tall and secondary forests. In the 25 years since the data were gathered to make the assessment of Payne <em>et al.</em> was made, habitat landscape in Sabah has changed greatly, and the banded palm civet?s current status in Sabah might therefore differ greatly from prior estimations. In peninsular Maylasia, this species has not been found in secondary forests, but was found in Taman Negara National Park (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004), indicating populations may also be reduced across the species?s range in mainland South-east Asia, where forest conversion has been extensive.
41689		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation have been assumed to be major threats to the banded palm civet (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Reduction in primary forest habitat has proceeded very fast throughout the lowland Sundaic region in the last 20 years, particularly in the lower altitudes which evidently support the bulk of this species' population (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al.</em>, 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003). This has surely lead to steep population declines. In Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the banded palm civet) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh 1996). From observation in Thailand there is clear no evidence that the banded palm civet can survive in plantations or other areas outside of evergreen forests (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). Additionally the Mentawi populations are thought to be impacted by economic development as human settlements expand into civet habitat, resulting in conflicts since this species will prey on domestic livestock such as chickens (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). Hunting and trade are also threats for this species. Because Banded Civet spends a lot of time on the ground, it is more exposed to snares and other traps than are the partly and largely arboreal palm civets. It is hunted in Sarawak for food. In Thailand, this civet is hunted, and in the last five years, there have been less than five live individuals brought to a zoo (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.).
41690		conservation	eng	India included the binturong in CITES Appendix III in 1989 (UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species 2006). In the Philippines, the Environmental Legal Assistance Center has been involved in controlling and enforcing wildlife laws (applicable for all Palawan species). The species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan 2003), and is listed as Critically Endangered on the China Red List (Wang and Xie 2004). The species would benefit from effective controls on the trade.<br/><br/>The binturong occurs in protected areas across its current range, however, the effectiveness of these reserves at protecting the species is variable. Stricter enforcement of legislation against hunting, poaching, encroachment, habitat degradation, and deforestation is required to achieve the necessary protective status for this species. <br/><br/>This species has been recorded from several studies in protected areas, such as the following examples. A study of the range, habitat use, and activity patterns of this species was conducted by Grassman <em>et al</em> (2005) in Phu Kieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand (16° 05? to 16° 35? N, 101° 20? to 101° 55 E). It has also been studied in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand by Nettelbeck (1997) and Austin (2002). This species has been recorded recently in Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999. This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (04° 55.5? N, 103° 05.7? E; Azlan 2003), and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Laidlaw 2001).
41690		distribution	eng	The binturong is widespread in south and southeast Asia occurring in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, China (Yunnan), India (including Sikkim), Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java, Sumatra), Lao PDR, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines (Palawan), Thailand, and Viet Nam (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Wozencraft 2005). Records from outside this range include a 1928 record from Guangxi, China (Zhang 1997) and record from Calauit Island, Philippines (Corbet and Hill 1992) and several from Cambodia (Walston 2001).
41690		habitat	eng	Binturongs are primarily arboreal, but do descend to the ground and some are captured (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999); in <br/>fact the number of pictures coming up on camera-traps across its mainland range reveals an unexpectedly high level of ground activity. This is no doubt because it is heavy and ponderous, and where other animals would leap between trees, it must descend to the ground to go from one tree to another, i.e. quite often when commuting (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>The ecology of this species is poorly clarified and may vary between areas, as publications about activity are conflicting. Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) noted the binturong to be crepuscular and nocturnal and Nowak (1991) reported them to be predominantly nocturnal, whereas Nettelbeck (1997) reports them to often be active during the day, and there are many other day-time field sightings made incidentally during forest research (e.g. Lambert 1990; Datta 1999). Activity patterns have also been described as cathemeral or arrhythmic (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>In Thailand, Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that this species has a mean annual range size of 6.2 km² with a mean overlap of 35% in a study on this species conducted in Phu Kieo Wildlife Sanctuary. Within this range, the binturong is confined to tall forest, where it feeds on fruits and small animals like insects, birds, and rodents, as well as fish (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Lao PDR, recent records are from extensive evergreen forest, while in other countries a variety of tall forests are used (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Philippines, the species is found in primary and secondary lowland forest, including grassland/forest mosaic from sea level to 400 m (Rabor 1986; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003).The litter size is about one to three, with a gestation of 92 days, reaching adult size in one year, and they may live as long as 18 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).
41690		population	eng	Historically, the binturong was often thought to be abundant within its distribution range, but is now uncommon or rare over much of the range. Lekagul and McNeely (1977) reported this species as rare in Thailand. In Lao PDR, there were only three sightings in extensive wildlife surveys into some of the remotest parts of the country between 1992 and 1999, two from Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999), and one from Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area in early 1998 (Walston and Vinton 1999, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). While Deuve (1972) reported this species to be common in Lao PDR, it is thought that this might be due to its striking appearance, rather than natural abundance (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Work in Thailand by Nettelbeck (1997) suggested that binturongs can be seen frequently when the threat of hunting is removed; however, as hunting is common in most areas, it is unclear whether the observed is only applicable to the site where this observation was noted (near Khao Yai National Park headquarters in Thailand). Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded 31 individuals in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand between 1998 and 2002. In the Philippines, the populations are restricted and uncommon (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations are thought to be decreasing as a result of collection for the pet trade. In Assam, India, the binturong has been noted as not uncommon in forested areas, and is most common in regions with good tree cover (Choudhury 1997).
41690		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are a major threat to the binturong (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Throughout this species' range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses.  Forest conversion has been extremely high in the lower altitude parts of its Sundaic range in the last 20 years (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al.</em>, 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003). Choudhury (1997) notes that large-scale deforestation in Indian portions of the species range could be contributing to its increased rarity, since many records come from areas where forests are now being degraded. In China, rampant deforestation and opportunistic logging practices have fragmented suitable habitat or eliminated sites altogether (Pu <em>et al. </em>2007). In Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the binturong) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996). <br/><br/>In the Philippines this species is harvested for the pet trade, and in the south of its range it is also taken for human consumption (GMA Philippines 2006). In Lao PDR, this species is one of most frequently displayed caged live carnivores and skins are traded frequently in at least Vientiane (R. Tizard pers. comm.). Since many of the animals being traded are young, there is the possibility that trees are deliberately felled to allow individuals to be caught (I. Johnson pers. comm.. 1996). Considered a delicacy in parts of Lao PDR, the binturong is taken for food and is also traded as a food item to Viet Nam (I. Johnson pers. comm. 1999).<br/><br/>Given recent camara ?trapping evidence in mainland Asia, it has become clear that the binturong descends to the ground more frequently than previously thought (Duckworth pers. comm. 2007); therefore the threat of snaring when this species descends to the ground may be more serious than previously considered (Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1999). Non-specific hunting of large mammals is very high across most of the species' mainland range. Duckworth (1997) speculated that hunting was unlikely to be the cause of the few recent sightings of binturong in Lao PDR, citing the many Black Giant Squirrels and gibbons in several areas lacking Binturong records. However, given the possibility of interspecific differences in population dynamics, these species may likewise have differing resilience to hunting pressure (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). Given that the binturong is relatively unafraid of humans and is sometimes active during the day, the species is often conspicuous both to surveyors (suggesting that the few encounters reflect a low population) and to hunters (thus exposing it to elevated risk) (Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1999).
41691		conservation	eng	This small-toothed palm civet is Totally Protected in Peninsular Malaysia, but only Protected in Sabah and Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972). In Thailand this species is protected, while it is not in Viet Nam or Cambodia (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). The subspecies <em>A. t. trilineata</em> from Java has been classified as ‘Endangered’ by the IUCN (IUCN Red List, 1994) and as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). <br/><br/>Given the patchiness of suitable surveys for this species, it is important to note that many large protected areas have been established in northern Southeast Asian evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and presumably support the species. Some protected areas where the species occurs are listed as follows. Extensive conservation measures with reasonably effective law enforcement in Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam have ensured that there has been no logging for the past two decades and little or no hunting pressure (Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2004). The small-toothed palm civet has been confirmed in a total of six protected areas in Viet Nam (Roberton in prep), and many protected areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997b). This species was recorded from Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2005), from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995), and from Keo Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia in 2003 (Walston and Duckworth, 2003).<br/><br/>Further studies would allow a better understanding of habitat requirements and ecology.
41691		distribution	eng	The small-toothed palm civet range covers parts of the Sundaic region and northern Southeast Asia. It is currently known to occur in Cambodia (Walston and Duckworth 2003), Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997b; Johnson pers. comm.), Borneo (Malaysia) (Duckworth 1997a, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2005, Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007), Thailand (Rabinowitz 1991, Conforti 1996, Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press), Viet Nam (Borissenko <em>et al</em>. 2004, Long and Minh Hoang 2006), Indonesia (Java: Suyanto 2003; Sumatra: Holden 2006; Kalimantan), and Peninsular Malaysia (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>This species was recorded from Kadan Kyun Island off the coast of Myanmar in the early part of the twentieth century (Meiri 2005), no surveys using methodology suitable for this species have been conducted in other areas in Myanmar, where it was historically recorded quite widely (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press); a record of a released animal in the outskirts of Yangon (Su 2005) suggests populations are still extant in the country. Given the extent of remaining suitable habitat, it is likely that Myanmar supports large populations.<br/><br/>It was first recorded in Cambodia from Keo Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (150 masl) in 2003, confirming previously inferred extension of the species range into this country. Duckworth (1997b) reports that this species is widespread in south and central Lao PDR; there has been no suitable survey carried out in the country north of approximately 19°N. In Thailand there are many records in protected areas (Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). The current status of this species in China is unclear, as no proper spotlighting surveys have been conducted and nothing can be inferred on its status (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>There is a record of a skin collected from Darjeeling, India by Dr. Steward in 1856, although there seem to have been no recent confirmed records from this region. Pocock (1939) gave several records for India. The type locality of A. t. millsi is Mokokchung in the Naga hills (26°20′N, 94°32′E). This species has been reported by Suyanto (2003) from Gunung Halimun, West Java, and there are records from the 1930s from Gunung Gede National Park and Ujung Kulon National Park in Java (see Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). However, it is unknown whether these populations are still extant (Meijaard pers. comm.). It is also presumed to occur still in Indonesian Borneo and Brunei. Current status in Bangladesh is unclear but suitable habitat remains in the northern and eastern hill tracts. Reliance on recent records to define its current distribution will produce an underestimate because the species is readily overlooked by conventional survey techniques (Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press).
41691		habitat	eng	The small-toothed palm civet is nocturnal and strongly arboreal (Pocock 1939; van Bemmel 1952; Duckworth 1997a; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). Although consumption of a wide range of animals has been recorded, this species is primarily frugivorous (Harrison 1962; Payne 1995; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). It likely breeds throughout the year, and there may be two litters per year, with two to three young in each litter (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). The lifespan of this species is 10 to 12 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). <br/><br/>In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand, the small-toothed palm civet is found in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, including degraded areas provided some contiguity of canopy remains; elevation range extends up to at least 1200 m (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). In the Sundaic part of its range, it inhabits evergreen rainforest and possibly others forest types (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985; Duckworth 1995; Payne 1995; Wells <em>et al. </em>2005; Holden 2006; Belden <em>et al.</em> in 2007). It was recorded from lowland, mature semi-evergreen forest surrounded by disturbed secondary growth in Viet Nam in 2003 (Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2004). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh 1996).
41691		population	eng	Very few surveys using appropriate methdology have been carried out through much of its range, thus the small-toothed palm civet population trend is unclear. Past authors have noted this as a rare species, however, as pointed out by several authors, the paucity of record reflects the arboreal, nocturnal habits of this species (Pocock 1939; van Bemmel 1952; Duckworth 1997a; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). Therefore, the species is not found by any conventional survey method other than spot-lighting, and the latter is rarely carried out in most places. In one exception with extensive spotlighting in Lao PDR, the species was found, often commonly, in most semi-evergreen and evergreen forests surveyed in the southern two–thirds of the country in the 1990s (Duckworth 1997b).<br/><br/>The great paucity of camera-trap photographs reflects the rarity of the species coming to ground, as has been shown by its Neotropical ecological analogue, the Kinkajou (Schipper 2007). Hence, several well camera-trapped areas have failed to record the species (Seima Biodviersity Conservation Area, Cambodia, Walston and Duckworth 2003; Cat Tien, Viet Nam, Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2004; Khao Yai NP, Thailand, Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press; Sarawak Planted Forests Concession, Borneo, Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007); yet when even quite modest levels of spot-lighting have taken place in these areas, the species has been found, sometimes even exceptionally commonly (e.g. ten animals in the first three hours at Sarawak Planted Forests Concession; Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is a reasonable inference, therefore, that the species is not just locally common, but widely numerous.
41691		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are a major threat to the small-toothed palm civet (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Deforestation has led to the decline of this species in Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), and in Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the small-tooth palm civet) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh 1996). Nevertheless, forest loss in northern Southeast Asia is not enough to drive declines even at rates sufficient for NT status, and its wide altitudinal range in the Sundaic region (to 1500 m; Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985) means that while lowland populations have been and are continuing to decline, those occupying the higher altitudinal range are not declining as rapidly. This species is hunted (Walston and Duckworth 2003) and there has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al</em>. 2004; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Given that this species is arboreal and nocturnal in nature, it is one of the least affected by current high levels of hunting in Southeast Asia. In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, government gun confiscation programs enacted during the 1990s were thought to result in a decrease in hunting by locals; however, the removal of guns has resulted in an upsurge in snaring and other trapping practices. As a result, there has been increased trapping of small carnivores overall, particularly nocturnal species and those that reside on the ground. As the small-toothed palm civet is arboreal, snares and other ground-level traps do not pose a major threat in this region (Walston and Duckworth 2003). Active night hunting appears to be the only effective means of hunting this civet and, as this is labour-intensive, is rarely undertaken for arboreal mammals in most of this species' range (Walston and Duckworth 2003). In Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Myanmar, spotlight hunting does occur, but again the impact on this species is minimal as hunters focus on taking higher market value ungulates and concentrate for these almost exclusively at ground level (Walston and Duckworth 2003).
41692		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003).  It was also recorded from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al</em>. (1995). This species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan pers. comm.). It is protected by law in Gansu, China (Li <em>et al</em>, 2000). In China, it is listed as Near Threatened (A2cd). It is protected in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. The population of India is listed on CITES Appendix III.
41692		distribution	eng	Recent records include China (Hubei province, Zhang pers. comm.), Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), Borneo (Simons, 1987; Blundell, 1996; Gonner, 1997; van Strien, 2001), Sumatra (Berghaeir, 1995), Thailand (Rabinowitz, 1991; Grassman, 1998) and Viet Nam (Long and Minh Hoang 2006, Veron, pers. obs.), Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), Cambodia (J. L. Walmart pers. comm.), India (Choudhury 1997). In India it extends west to Kashmir (Pocock 1939); recent records for the western portion of its range (including Nepal) have not been checked for. Brooks and Dutson (1994) saw the species in the Gede/Pangrango National Park in Java, however, the species had not otherwise been recorded for the island and the authors suggested that it was probably introduced.<br/><br/>Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) underestimated the range in southern Borneo. A specimen from Barito River (van Strien, 2001) suggest that this is part of the range. Also records from S. Wain and Belayan River (G. Frederiksson in litt to E. Meijaard), and Mahakam Lages (Gonner 1997); probably also in Danau Sentarum NP (Jeanes and Meijaard, 2000); and reported from G. Niut (Simons, 1987) and G. Palung (Blundell, 1996). <br/><br/>This species is found in China from Szechuan to Fukien and the southeast coast of Yunnan, west along the Himalayas to Kashmir, in Indochina, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Andaman Islands, it was also reported from Japan in the 1980s (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988). It has also been recorded from Koh yao (9 00 N, 98 00 E) off Thailand and Rutland (11 25 N, 92 40 E) of India (Meiri, 2005).
41692		habitat	eng	Masked palm civets have been recorded in both evergreen and deciduous forest, and in disturbed habitat (Rabinowitz, 1991, Ratnam <em>et al.</em> 1995; Heydon and Bullon, 1996; Grassman, 1998; Duckworth 1997; Azlan, 2003; Roberton pers. comm.). There seems to be some difference in habitat usage across its range. It has been found up to 2500 m (Thinley <em>et al</em>. 1994). There are two published radio-telemetry studies on this species (Rabinowitz, 1991; Grassman, 1998). In Thailand, the home-range was 5.9 km² for an adult male (Grassman, 1998) and 3.7 km² for an adult female (Rabinowitz, 1991). Both studies showed that masked palm civets are nocturnal with occasional diurnal activity; this finding based on only two individuals is probably generalisable to the species as a whole, based on field observations of many individuals (e.g. Duckworth 1997) and camera-trapping (e.g. Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>The species is often very common  in appropriate habitats. In Lao PDR, "recent records of this species come only from large blocks of evergreen forest above 500 m, and the three historical sites listed in Osgood (1932) are all also above this altitude (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999)" - however, the species can be found at lower elevations in Cambodia and Viet Nam (sea level) (Roberton S., pers comm.). This species is nocturnal, partly arboreal, and omnivorous (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It is often found near secondary growth, where it may hunt for rats, and chickens, as well as forage through ricefield dumps, and it eats figs, mangoes, bananas, and leaves (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Many records are known from evergreen forests and deciduous forest and it is common in degraded forest. In China it is a generalist. It is known from peat swamp forests in Malaysia, and a wide variety of natural and human modified habitats, including rural agricultural areas (e.g. Wang and Fuller 2003). In Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Thailand, all records are from evergreen forests.<br/><br/>Up to four young can be born per litter, with two breeding seasons per year (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Lifespan in captivity is up to 15 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Colon, 2002; pers. comm.). It was recorded in disturbed habitat in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995).  It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the ecology of this species near Taohong Village in northern Jiangxi Province, southeastern China, from April 1993 to November 1994. Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in and around a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province) by analyzing its scats, the study was conducted between June 1992 and November 1994, and found that this species ate some mammals and insects, but mostly fruit.
41692		population	eng	The species seems to be common across its range, except in southern China where it has been hunted/trapped for the commercial food trade (M. Lau pers. comm. 2006). In Indochina it is associated with evergreen forests and in Lao it is common in hill evergreen forests (Duckworth 1997), and in India with deciduous forests and in open areas near towns (Muddapa pers. comm.). There are few records from Cambodia (Olsson pers. comm.). In Thailand, it is common in evergreen forests (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Populations are difficult to assess by camera-trapping, as shown in Myanmar where comparing results of this method at several sites where there were also serious searches for hunted remains in villages reveals that even high levels of camera-trapping may fail to detect the species. This presumably reflects its semi-arboreal lifestyle (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press.). The rather few camera-trapping records for Cambodia (J. L. Walstone pers. comm.) and Myanmar should not therefore be seen as evidence that the species lives at low population densities.
41692		threats	eng	The impact of habitat loss and degradation on masked palm civet populations is unknown. Heydon and Bulloh (1996) found that the overall density of civet species (including the masked palm civet) in logged forest was significantly lower than in primary forest. It is likely that the species cannot survive total deforestation, but that it persists in degraded and fragmented areas.<br/><br/>In a study on the dynamics of trade in live wildlife across the Guangxi border between China and Viet Nam during 1993 to 1996, Li and Li (1998) "noted that the volume of trade in Paguma lavata was small, but the percentage of [it] in the restaurants was very large. This suggested that the supply of [this] species in the restaurants was partly from the domestic wildlife trade in China." It is farmed in China and elsewhere, and used for food throughout its range. SARS is a major issue for this species, causing the trade and sale of it to be banned in order to control the disease, as well as many breeding farms being closed. It is hunted in Viet Nam for local consumption. It is also hunted in Lao PDR, for local consumption and in trade to Viet Nam (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006), but there is no evidence from either of these countries that these activities are threatening populations. Because it is quite arboreal, it spends that proportion of its time outside the range of snares and most traps, and so is less exposed to them than are the more ground-dwelling small carnivores.
41693		conservation	eng	It is found within protected areas throughout its range (e.g. Lao PDR - Duckworth 1997, Viet Nam – Roberton et al. in prep.; Cambodia–J. L. Walmart pers. comm.; Myanmar – Than Zaw et al. in press). It was recorded from Hlawga Wildlife Park in Myanmar between 2000 and 2003 (Su Su, 2005). This species was recorded from Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells et al, 2005). This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003).  It was also recorded from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam et al. (1995). It has been found in Bawangling, Wuzhishan and Yinggeling Nature Reserves in Hainan in the last few years (Lau pers. comm. 2006). This species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan pers. comm.). It is protected by law in Sichuan, China (Li et al, 2000), and it is listed as Vulnerable on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). It is listed on CITES Appendix III (India). Field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of threats are needed, especially in areas where it may be reduced due to human depredation (ie China).
41693		distribution	eng	The species has a widespread distribution in central, south and southeastern Asia occurring in Borneo (Wells et al. 2005), India (Krishnakumar and Balakrishnan 2003); Lao (Duckworth 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), Myanmar (Su Su 2005), Siberut Island (Mentawai, Indonesia; Abegg 2003), Philippines (Heaney et al. 1991), Thailand (Austin and Tewes 1999), Bhutan, Cambodia (J.L. Walstone pers. comm.), southern China (including Hainan), Nepal,  Singapore (B.P.Y.H. Lee pers. comm.), Sri Lanka , Viet Nam (Roberton 2007); and with scattered records in Sulawesi, Moluccas, and the Aru Islands (New Guinea), probably resulting from introductions (Wozencraft 2005). <br/><br/>It was also introduced to Japan in the late 1800s, and still persists there today (S. Roy in litt. 2006). It has also been recorded from the islands of Bawean (Indonesia), Con Son (Viet Nam), Koh Samui (Thailand), Koh yao (Thailand), Samar (Philippines), and Telebon (Thailand) (Meiri, 2005), in addition to many others (Pocock 1939). Paradoxurus lignicolor (included in Paradoxurus hermaphroditus by Wilson and Reeder 2005) was recorded by Abegg (2003) on Siberut of the Mentawai Islands of Indonesia. <br/><br/>In addition it has been found on the Philippine islands of Biliran, Maripipi (Rickart et al. 1993) Mindoro, Catanduanes (Heaney et al. 1991), Cebu, Masbate, Polillo, Ilin, Samar, Dumaran and Panay (Timm and Birney 1980; Lastimosa pers. comm.).
41693		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a wide range of habitats including evergreen and deciduous forest (primary and secondary), plantations and near humans, in habitats up to 2,400 m (Ratnam <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Duckworth 1997; Azlan, 2003; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004; Su Su, 2005; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005; Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). Radio-tracking studies have revealed home-ranges of up to 17 km² for males and 1.6 km² for females (Dhungle and Edge, 1985; Rabinowitz, 1991; Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1995; Grassman, 1998). <br/><br/>In the Philippines the species has been recorded in agricultural (including coffee plantations) and forested areas from sea level up to at least 2,400 m asl (Balete and  Heaney in press, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991 in press, Hoogstraal 1951, Rabor 1986, Thomas 1898) and in montane and mossy forest from 925-2150 m asl in Balbalasang, Kalinga Province (Heaney  <em>et al</em>.<br/>2004).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, this species has been found in all habitats surveyed, from Mekong lowlands to montane areas, evergreen to deciduous forest to scrub (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species is adapted for forest living, yet it tolerates living in areas near humans; sleeping in barns, drains, or roofs during the day, and coming out at night to catch rats or forage for mango, coffee, pineapples, melons, and bananas, it also eats insects and mollusks (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Myanmar, it was recorded in mixed deciduous forest and a wide range of evergreen forest-dominated sites (Su Su, 2005, than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). This species was recorded in primary lowland rainforest in Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo by Wells <em>et al.</em> (2005). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Colon, 2002; pers. comm.). It was recorded in disturbed habitat in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995). It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003). This species is largely arboreal (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), crepuscular (Azlan, 2005) and nocturnal (e.g. Duckworth 1997). There is interesting variation across its mainland range in habitat use. In Lao PDR it occurs commonly deep within old-growth evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (Duckworth 1997) but it seems to avoid such habitat in the Western Ghats (Mudappa in press).
41693		population	eng	The population status is poorly known. However, there is sufficient evidence to indicate that across its wide range this is generally one of the most common species of civets, except in southern China were it is extensively hunted/trapped (M. Lau pers. comm. 2006) . It is probably the most common mammalian carnivore on Palawan Island, the Phillipines (Esselstyn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and Su Su (2005) found that it was the most common species of small carnivore recorded in Hlawga Wildlife Park in Myanmar, a high degraded and heavily hunted small fragment of forest from which most wild carnivores have been eradicated. In mainland (non-Sundaic) Southeast Asia it occurs commonly at almost any site that is surveyed using suitable methodology, including the most degraded, isolated among human environments, and hunted small sites such as Houay Nhang in Lao PDR and Hlawga in Myanmar (Duckworth 2007, Su Su 2005, Than Zaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep., Roberton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep., R. J. Timmins pers. comm., J. L.Walston pers. comm.).
41693		threats	eng	In some parts of its range this species is hunted for bush meat and the pet trade. In South China it is extensively hunted and trapped (Lau pers. comm.). It is also persecuted as a pest (Gupta, 2004, Su Su 2005, GMA Philippines, 2006) though it seems able to tolerate very high levels of persecution (e.g., Duckworth 1997). Dead individuals of this species were found with local tribes during a visit to Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu and Agra, Uttar Pradesh in India between 1998 and 2003, where it is killed for its meat (Gupta, 2004). While these pressures are certainly having localized effects on populations in highly fragmented and ‘humanized’ areas, e.g. Houay Nhang (Lao PDR), there is no evidence in mainland Southeast Asia of them significantly reducing the population levels in large tracts of natural and semi-natural habitat, even in the heavily hunted countries of Lao PDR and Vietnam; while in India it is a common urban commensal (e.g., Gupta 2004).
41694		conservation	eng	It is reported inside and outside of protected areas (Muddappa pers. comm.). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) lists the following recommended conservation actions: "Investigations in Wilpattu and Gal Oya National Parks and Sinharaja Forest to obtain an estimate of the population size there, as well as surveys in other established reserves in Sri Lanka, particularly in the new parks in the Mahaweli basin; Support for the current moves to consolidate the protection status of Sinharaja Forest Man and the Biosphere Reserve, the country’s last sizeable area of lowland rain forest; Research into the species’s ecological and conservation requirements to ascertain why it seems to be less successful in adapting to changes of its habitat than its congener <em>P. hermaphroditus</em>; Continued efforts to establish a breeding colony in captivity."
41694		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka (Wilson and Reeder 2005) and has been recorded in Uda Walawe National Park (Hoffman 1990), the Sinharaja Forest area, Wasgomuwa and Yala National Parks (Ratnayeke pers. comm.). It is currently confined to a small range defined by where natural habitats remain (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). The species occurs in three distributional isolates.
41694		habitat	eng	This species is forest-dependent, yet tolerant of minor habitat modification where some continuous forest remains. It is arboreal, nocturnal, and solitary; its diet consists of fruits, berries, invertebrates, and a wide range of small vertebrates (Pocock 1939). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) report that "this species is much less a follower of man or an inhabitant of agricultural areas than the common palm civet (<em>P. hermaphroditus</em>), and that very little is known of the natural history of this species." It is found in lowland rain forest, evergreen mountain forests, and also dense monsoon forest (at Wilpattu) (Schreiber <em>et al</em>, 1989). No elevation range information is known, though the species occurs mainly in highlands.
41694		population	eng	According to Phillips (1984) it is not uncommon but is distributed locally, both in the highlands and in the low country, particularly in the highlands around Kandy and in the Dimbulla and Dickoya districts of the Central Province. According to Wijesinghe (1987), it is still widely distributed on the island but is more common in the wetter zone than in the dry zone. It is thought to be quite common, especially in the Sinharaja Forest area. Additional records from this forest come from Karunaratne <em>et al.</em> (1981) and from Baker (1971) who caught a live specimen there which was held in captivity (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989).
41694		threats	eng	As the species is dependant on forest cover, deforestation is a significant threat to this species – and its tolerance to fragmentation is unknown. Lowland forest (that is found in the wet zone) has almost totally disappeared from Sri Lanka with the main exception being the Sinharaja Forest (Schreiber <em>et al</em>, 1989). It is trapped for its meat in some areas (Schreiber <em>et al</em>., 1989).
41695		conservation	eng	They are present in numerous protected areas across their range. The population of Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix III.
41695		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and southern Somalia southwards in all countries to north-eastern Namibia, north and east Botswana, and north-eastern South Africa (Ray in press). Present on Zanzibar I. (Pakenham 1984). Recorded to altitudes of 5,000 m asl on Mt Kilimanjaro (Moreau 1944).Widely distributed in Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and southern Somalia southwards in all countries to north-eastern Namibia, north and east Botswana, and north-eastern South Africa (Ray in press). Present on Zanzibar I. (Pakenham 1984). Recorded to altitudes of 5,000 m asl on Mt Kilimanjaro (Moreau 1944).
41695		habitat	eng	Occupy a wide variety of habitats including secondary forest, woodland, and bush habitats, as well as aquatic environments. They are generally absent from arid regions, with the exception of riverine systems therein. They are apparently uncommon in mature interior forest habitats, but will infiltrate deep forest via logging roads, and in the forests of West and Central Africa, they thrive in degraded and deforested areas, and are regularly encountered near villages (Ray in press). Omnivorous and opportunistic foragers.
41695		population	eng	Generally common. Based on track counts recorded along transects in a lowland forest in SW Gabon, density estimated at 1/km² (Prins and Reitsma 1989).
41695		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, they are commonly found for sale as bushmeat, and are one of the most abundant mammals found in bushmeat markets in SE Nigeria, where they are utilized for both food and skin (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999). They are frequently found trapped for meat in other countries, including Sierra Leone, DR Congo, Central African Republic, Congo Republic, and Cameroon (Ray in press). African Civets are economically important due to their perennial secretion, which was exploited for many centuries as a fixing agent for perfumes. Even though synthetic alternatives have been available for more than 60 years, civetone remains an important export commodity in several countries, such as Ethiopia, and to a lesser extant, Niger and Senegal (Ray 1995, in press, Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).
41696		conservation	eng	Known to be present in several protected areas. There is a need for further study of this poorly known species.
41696		distribution	eng	Recorded from Angola, DR Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia (Crawford-Cabral in press). The northernmost record is from “Turu” (Singida area, central Tanzania), which although regarded as questionable by Schlawe (1980), has since been confirmed by P. Gaubert (pers. comm.).
41696		habitat	eng	Inhabits open miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em>) woodland interspersed with savannas, mainly from areas with ferralitic soils and relatively high, but seasonal rainfall (Crawford-Cabral in press).
41696		population	eng	Although poorly known, the species is probably locally common through its range, as it was found to be on an open plain in the Luando Strict N.R. (central Angola), with rhizomatous <em>Cryptosepalum curtisiorum</em> and termitaria (Crawford-Cabral in press).
41696		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. Its habitat has only seen minor change and there is little hunting (Crawford-Cabral in press).
41697		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is virtually unknown (Riffel, 1991). This species is known from the following protected areas G. Gede-Pangrango National Park where three individuals were collected in 1970, and there are several recent sight-records (Brickle 2007), Meru Betiri National Park (Seidensticker <em>et al</em>., 1980) where the Javan ferretbadger was reported to occur near Sukamade in the centre of the reserve, and Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, where a survey conducted by the Biological Science Club revealed the species continuing occurrence in that area (Yossa <em>et al.</em>, 1991).
41697		distribution	eng	Riffel (1991) presents a distribution map for the species. The species certainly occurs in hills and mountains of Java and Bali, but there is insufficient evidence to say that it is not present on the adjacent plains (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). There are only two records for Bali, which was omitted from the range in most of the standard sources before 1991. An individual was found on a forest trail approximately 300 m south of Lake Buyan in Central Bali at an elevation of 1,180 m, and the other record is a 1979 specimen with no precise locality information, held in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (Riffel, 1991). There are two subspecies: M. o. orientalis in eastern Java, and M. o. sundaicus in western Java (Long 1992). The Small Carnivore conservation Action Plan 1989 has a record for a point without a name (perhaps Dieng Plateau) in Central Java. It was recorded, with no detail, in a survey in Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve in 1990-1991 (Yossa <em>et al.</em> 1991). There are several recent records for Gunung Gede, a known historical site (Brickle 2007). There are several other recent unpublished records but no-one has attempted to collate them and evaluate current distribution and status.
41697		habitat	eng	The ecology of this species is largely unknown, and there are few data on habitat requirements, as most museum material outside Indonesia is labelled "Java" only (Riffel, 1991). The specimen from Bali was found in habitat described as "secondary forest and rubber plantation", with nearby human settlements, 2 to 3 km east of the site where it was recorded, thus giving some indication that this species is not reliant on primary forest (Riffel, 1991). There are also records from deep within primary forest (Brickle, 2007), suggesting a wide tolerance of habitat.
41697		population	eng	Riffel (1991) traced a few recent records; it does not seem to be very rare, but may not be very common either.
41697		threats	eng	Nothing is currently known about potential threats as little is known about habitat requirements, population status, or current exploitation activities. Much of the forest habitat of Java has been converted to other uses, particularly agriculture, but it is unclear to what level, if any, this species depends upon extensive, old-growth, or any sort of forest; some other Melogale spp. are very adaptable to forest fragmentation and degradation (see account for M. moschata), but the same cannot be assumed for this species. Although there are a few records to date from non-forest areas, they could simply have been dispersing individuals. There is no information on its susceptibility to whatever hunting levels occur in its range. It is not significantly traded, but it is no doubt caught in non-selective traps. In sum, several plausible threats operate but it is unclear if any are threats at the population level.
41698		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas across its range. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, as well as EU Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Delibes 1999). In Ibiza, it is recommended that semi-natural habitats are protected, and that development takes place in such a way that fragmentation of remaining habitat is minimized.
41698		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas across its range. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, as well as EU Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Delibes 1999). Protected by national law in some range states (e.g. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia).
41698		distribution	eng	A widespread species, occurring on the northern Saharan fringe (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya), and then in open and dry savannah zones throughout Sub-Saharan Africa in three large blocks, corresponding roughly to West Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). For Europe, Delibes (1999) lists this species as occurring in all of continental Portugal and Spain, and much of France (mainly south of Loire River and west of the Rhone River). It is also found on the Mediterranean islands of Majora, Ibiza, and Cabrera (Balearic Islands) (Delibes 1999). There are also scattered records from Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and northwest Italy (Delibes 1999). This species is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe; the date of introduction is unknown, but remains have been found dating from the Middle Ages (Dobson 1998, Delibes 1999). It has been recorded to at least 3,000m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41698		distribution	eng	Widespread species, occurring on the northern Saharan fringe (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Lybia), and then in open and dry savanna zones throughout sub-Saharan Africa in three large blocks, corresponding roughly to West Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). Also occurs in coastal regions of Arabia, Yemen and Oman (Harrison and Bates 1991); records from Palestine are in error (Kock 1983).<br/><br/>For Europe, Delibes (1999) lists this species as occurring in all of continental Portugal and Spain, and most of France (mainly south of Loire River and west of the Rhone River). It is also found on the Mediterranean islands of Majora, Ibiza, and Cabrera (Balearic Islands) (Delibes 1999). There are also scattered records from Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and north-west Italy (Delibes 1999). This species is generally considered to have been  introduced to Europe and the Balearic islands (Delibes 1999). It has been recorded to 2,600 m in the High Atlas mountains of Morocco (Cuzin 2003) and at least 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Admasu <em>et a</em>l. 2004)
41698		habitat	eng	The Common Genet tends to prefer all types of wooded habitats (deciduous and evergreen), where it is often associated with rivers and brooks, but it is a generalist and can be found in other habitats where there is suitable prey. It avoids open habitats, but may occur even in small fragments of woodland in farmland or near villages, and usually is absent from rainforests, dense woodlands and woodland-moist savanna mosaics (e.g., miombo woodland in Angola) (Delibes and Gaubert in press). The Common Genet is not uncommonly found in proximity to people and human buildings (e.g., Admasu <em>et al</em>. 2004). It feeds mainly on small mammals, but will also take birds, other small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Delibes and Gaubert in press).
41698		habitat	eng	The Common Genet tends to prefer all types of wooded habitats (deciduous and evergreen), where it is often associated with rivers and brooks, but it is a generalist and can be found in other habitats where there is suitable prey. It avoids open habitats, but may occur even in small fragments of woodland in farmland or near villages, and usually is absent from rainforests, dense woodlands and woodland-moist savanna mosaics (e.g., miombo woodland in Angola) (Delibes and Gaubert in press). The Common Genet is not uncommonly found in proximity to people and human buildings (e.g., Admasu <i>et al</i>. 2004). It feeds mainly on small mammals, but will also take birds, other small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Delibes and Gaubert in press).
41698		habitat	eng	The genet tends to prefer all types of wooded habitats (deciduous and evergreen), where it is often associated with rivers and brooks, but it is a generalist and can be found in other habitats where there is suitable prey. It avoids open habitats, but may occur even in small fragments of woodland in farmland or near villages, and usually is absent from rainforests, dense woodlands and woodland-moist savannah mosaics (e.g. miombo woodland in Angola) (Delibes and Gaubert in press). The common genet is not uncommonly found in proximity to people and human buildings (e.g. Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds mainly on small mammals, but will also take birds, other small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Delibes and Gaubert in press).
41698		population	eng	One of the most common small carnivores in its native range, though detailed data on density in Africa are scarce; in Serengeti, Waser (1980) estimated a density of 1.5 + 0.37 individuals per km². In Europe, this species is moderately abundant, with increasing populations in France, and densities of 0.3 to 0.7 individuals per square kilometer in Spain (Delibes 1999). The genet is common in suitable habitat throughout the Iberian peninsula (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), where populations are either stable or slowly increasing (J. Herrero pers. comm.). On Ibiza, habitat is declining and becoming more fragmented, thus this species is suspected to be declining.
41698		population	eng	One of the most common small carnivores in its native range, though detailed data on density in Africa are scarce; in Serengeti, Waser (1980) estimated a density of 1.5 + 0.37 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. In Europe, this species is moderately abundant, with increasing populations in France, and densities of 0.3 to 0.7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> in Spain (Delibes 1999). The genet is common in suitable habitat throughout the Iberian peninsula (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Populations are either stable or slowly increasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). On Ibiza, habitat is declining and becoming more fragmented, thus this species is suspected to be declining.
41698		threats	eng	There are no major threats. They are occasionally eaten by people in some localities, and body parts are used for medicinal purposes while skins may be used for the manufacture of karosses in southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). In Europe, the genet used to be trapped for its fur (Delibes 1999). In Portugal genets are illegally killed in predator trapping for hunting management. On Ibiza, the genet is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by urbanization and infrastructure and tourism development. The ability of genets to live close to humans and their domestic animals could have implications for disease transmission (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41698		threats	eng	There are no major threats. They are occasionally eaten by people in some localities, and body parts are used for medicinal purposes while skins may be used for the manufacture of karosses in southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press); in North Africa too the species is hunted for its fur for decorative purposes (Cuzin 2003). In Europe, the genet used to be trapped for its fur (Delibes 1999). In Portugal genets are illegally killed in predator trapping for hunting management. On Ibiza, the genet is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by urbanization and infrastructure and tourism development. The ability of genets to live close to humans and their domestic animals could have implications for disease transmission (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).
41699		conservation	eng	They are present in several protected areas across the range.
41699		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from north and east of the Volta R. east to Eritrea and Somalia (their presence in Djibouti is uncertain) and  southwards to central Namibia and KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa (Angelici and Gaubert in press). Possibly present on Bioko I. Occurs to high elevations, up to 3,400 m in the Simien Mountains of Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).
41699		habitat	eng	Present in a variety of habitats, including rainforest, swampy areas, riverine vegetation, open and closed woodlands, moist forests, savanna-forest mosaics, thickets and even grassy savanna, but avoiding extremely dry savanna and truly arid regions (Angelici and Gaubert in press). Also occurs in cultivated areas, farmlands and suburban areas. A recent ecological study found that the presence of this species in Nigeria is positively correlated with ‘derived savanna’, ‘oil palm plantations’ and other altered habitats, but negatively correlated with various types of forests (Angelici and Luiselli 2005).
41699		population	eng	Relatively common, though its nocturnal and elusive habits mean that it may be infrequently recorded. In south-eastern Nigeria, sightings are not common, although it is rather common in bushmeat markets and frequently trapped by local hunters (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999a,b).
41699		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, they are recorded in bushmeat markets, and since they do have a bad reputation as poultry thieves, farmers sometimes poison or trap them; they are also occasionally killed by domestic cats and dogs (Angelici and Gaubert in press).
41700		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas across the range. Lowe’s Servaline Genet was rediscovered in the Udzungwa Mtns N.P. in south-central Tanzania after a gap of nearly 70 years (Brink <em>et al.</em> 2002, De Luca and Mpunga 2002). Subsequent recent records from other mountain blocks in the Eastern Arc Mountains (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2006), and ecological niche modelling for the species (Gaubert <em>et al.</em> 2006), suggest that further survey work will show they are more widely distributed in the Eastern Arc Mountains.
41700		distribution	eng	Ranges from southern Cameroon, south of the Sanaga R., and Central African Republic and southwards in Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic to southern Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, and possibly also Burundi. There are discontinuous populations in Tanzania, including the Udzungwa Mtns, the Uluguru Mtns, and the South Nguru Mtns (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2006; Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Gaubert <em>et al</em>. (2006) also give museum records from north of the Sanaga R., from several additional localities in Tanzania, as well as from two localities in south-eastern DR Congo (these are not mapped). Present on Zanzibar (Van Rompaey and Colyn 1998, Goldman and Winther-Hansen 2003). Recorded to 3,500 m on Mt. Elgon, Kenya (Kingdon 1977) and perhaps to elevations above 4,400 m in eastern DR Congo (Verschuren 1972).
41700		habitat	eng	Present in primary and secondary lowland, submontane and montane forests and gallery forests. Van Rompaey and Colyn (in press) give a summary of several of the habitats from which they have been recorded including wet forests in Kenya, high-altitude bamboo forest in the Udzungwa Mtns, and groundwater forest and coral rag thicket on Zanzibar.
41700		population	eng	Common. Charles-Dominique (1978) estimated the average density at 1/km². Kingdon (1977) noted that the species appeared to be particularly common at an altitude between 2,100 and 3,000 m asl on Mt Elgon, and it is also common in moist forests of the Udzungwa Mountains at altitudes of 300-1,800 m asl (De Luca and Mpunga 2002; F. Rovero pers. comm.).
41700		threats	eng	There are no major threats. However, they are common in bushmeat markets and the skins are used for wrist-bracelets and dancing hats, and for loin-cloths among both Mbuti and Ba’aka pygmies (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41701		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas across its range.
41701		distribution	eng	Endemic to Africa, sparsely distributed from Gambia and Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon; the easterly limit of distribution requires clarification (Gaubert and Dunham in press).
41701		habitat	eng	Inhabits moist and dry savannas with open woodlands. However, specimens also have been collected and sighted in moist woodlands (Guinea-Bissau), rainforest (Sierra Leone, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire) and dry wooded steppes (Senegal)(Gaubert and Dunham in press).
41701		population	eng	Rare, but possibly common in some areas (Gaubert and Dunham in press). Hoppe-Dominik (1990) stated that the species was widespread throughout its range, but provided no evidence.
41701		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. However, the species has been reported from bushmeat markets throughout its range. In the past, there has also been some international traffic for their skins or as pets, although there is no record of this species (or any other genet for that matter) in commercial trade reported to CITES for the period 1995-2005 (Gaubert and Dunham in press).
41702		conservation	eng	They are present in several protected areas throughout its range, such as West Coast N.P. and Kammanassie Mountain State F.R. (Gaubert in press).
41702		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa, in higher rainfall areas from the Western Cape to southern KwaZulu-Natal, south of 32ºS, and to the neighbouring Lesotho border (Gaubert in press).
41702		habitat	eng	Mostly in well-watered zones in wooded or dense habitats such as fynbos and forests in the Western and Eastern Cape; sometimes found in exotic scrub as well as open grasslands during foraging activities (Stuart 1981).
41702		population	eng	There is no information on their abundance, but they are not uncommon.
41702		threats	eng	There are no major threats. They are sometimes killed by farmers in retaliation for predation on small domestic stock and poultry, which could have an affect on numbers in some areas (Stuart 1990).
41703		conservation	eng	There are records from the Ituri Forest and Okapi Faunal Reserve, and it probably occurs in several other protected areas in its range (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41703		distribution	eng	Nearly endemic to DR Congo, where confined to an area between the Congo, Lualaba and Oubangui Rivers (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The status of this species is Uganda is unclear: Bere (1962) mentions its presence from the Semliki Forest, and skins of genet kittens from the Bwamba Forest in the Toro District of Uganda, an eastern extension of the Semliki Forest, seemed to be this species (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Kingdon (1977) observed a specimen along a forest road in western Uganda. Gaubert <em>et al</em>. (2006) provide museum records that expand the range 500 km south, on the left bank of the Congo R. (but these are not mapped here). Recorded to 1,800 m asl.
41703		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and medium-altitude rainforests (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Two specimens identified as this species by Gaubert <em>et al.</em> (2006) from Kakanga and Mukulu, in southern DR Congo, apparently were collected in deciduous forest.
41703		population	eng	Patchily distributed, being quite abundant in some areas but absent in other areas where suitable habitat exists; for example, they are rare in the area between the Uma and Enano Rivers, east of Kisangani, and fairly common between Kisangani and Buta, and between the Aruwimi and Lindi Rivers (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989).
41703		threats	eng	There are no major threats. They are hunted as bushmeat (Colyn <em>et al.</em> 1987) and skins are used to make hats and other ceremonial objects (Carpaneto and Germi 1989).
41704		conservation	eng	They presumably occur in several protected areas across their range.
41704		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic, and DR Congo east to the Rift Valley. Also present on Bioko Island (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41704		habitat	eng	Occurs in the canopy of lowland and montane forests (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41704		population	eng	This species was reported as quite common in north-eastern DR Congo (Rahm and Christiaensen 1963). Charles-Dominique (1978) recorded a density of 1/km² in primary forest in Gabon.
41704		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but they may be undergoing localized declines due to forest loss and bushmeat hunting (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
41705		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II. In Thailand, the Wild Animals Preservation Protection Act (WAPPA, 1992) protects this species from hunting and regulates trade (Van Rompaey, 1993). In Peninsular Malaysia and in Sabah it receives full protection, but in Sarawak it is only partially protected (Aslan pers. comm.). It is a totally protected species in Myanmar (WPA 1994). This species has been recorded in some protected areas (Ratnam <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Azlan, 2003; Wells <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Azlan and Engkamat, 2006). Field surveys, ecological studies and monitoring of threats are needed. This species was recorded from Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). It was also recorded from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995). This species has also been recorded in Lambir Hill National Park in Sarawak (Azlan and Engkaamat, 2006). It was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003).
41705		distribution	eng	The species is found in Peninsular Malaysia (Ratnam <em>et al</em>., 1995; Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), southern Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>, in press), Borneo (Wells <em>et al</em>., 2005) and Sumatra (Holden, 2006), southern Thailand, peninsular Malayasia, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, as well as on Bangka and Belitung Islands (Van Rompaey 1993). On Java, it has been suggested to be probably restricted to the mountains in the west (e.g. Mt. Halimun, see Suyanto, 2003), but there are two historical specimens from the Ijang plateau in East Java (held in Museum für Naturkunde, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin), and, given very low levels in recent decades of small carnivore survey in Java (see, e.g., Riffel 1991), the species could still occur on other mountains in Java. On Borneo and Sumatra, it is probably widespread, although it is unclear whether the species occurs in Central Kalimantan swamps (not reported from Sebangau or Tanjung Puting). It was found up to 1100 m on Java by Bartels (1941) . This species was recorded  up to 1800 m in Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo Payne <em>et al.</em> (1998). It was recorded by Azlan (2003) in Jerangau Forest Reserve (04 55.5 N, 103 05.7 E) in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01. In Sumatra, it has been found up to 2,400 m (Holden 2006) in Kerinci Seblat NP.<br/><br/>The most northerly record is at 15° 20'N (Steinmetz and Simcharoen 2006). The record at 17° 54'N (Humphrey and Bain 1990) in northern-central Thailand is probably erroneous (Steinmetz and Simcharoen 2006). On the basis of portrayal in picture-guides alone, this species can be readily confused with spotted linsang.
41705		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species. It has been recorded in primary and secondary forest and occasionally in human inhabited areas (Van Rompaey, 1993; Ratnam <em>et al</em>., 1995; Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Wells <em>et al</em>., 2005). It has been found up to 2,400 m (Bartels, 1941; Payne <em>et al</em>., 1998;. Holden, 2006).<br/><br/>It is nocturnal and generally arboreal, though it does come to the ground in search of food; its diet consists of birds, tree rats, snakes, and any other small animal it can catch (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Van Rompaey pers. comm.). An analysis of stomach contents by Lim (1973) indicates that this species hunts mostly in disturbed forests and forest edge habitats (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). According to Lim (1973) it may respond favorably to secondary growth and ecotonal habitats. It is found in primary and secondary forest, plus fringe and occasionally human inhabitated areas (Van Rompaey pers. comm.). It breeds in February and August, with litters of two young (Nowak, 1999). It has lived up to ten years and eight months in captivity (Jones, 1982). This species was recorded from primary lowland rainforest in Mount Kinabulu National Park by Wells <em>et al </em>(2005). It was recorded in disturbed habitat in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al </em>(1995).<br/><br/>In northeastern Peninsular Malaysia and in Sarawak, it is found in secondary forest, including forest adjacent to palm plantations (Azlan pers. comm.).
41705		population	eng	The population status is poorly known, but various authors have considered this species uncommon or rare (Chasen, 1940; Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1961; Davis, 1962; Lim, 1973; Lekagul and McNeely, 1977; Van Rompaey 1993).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, it is known from only two individuals recorded in 1878 by Blanford (Van Rompaey pers. comm.), also from 5 recent records in southern Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press); the records included presence at all surveyd sites within its historical range. It is considered rare and localized in Thailand (Chasen, 1940; Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1961; Davis, 1962; Lim, 1973; Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Steinmetz and Simcharoen 2006). In Peninsular Malaysia it is widespread at all elevations but is nowhere common (Medway, 1969), two years of camera trapping revealed only a single photo in Taman Negara National Park (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004), partly because it is small and semi-arboreal, making it difficult to capture on camera. Morphs may be confused with other species (Azlan 2006). On Java, this species is considered rare (or difficult to observe) by Bartels (1941). On Borneo, it is also infrequently recorded  (Medway, 1965; Payne <em>et al</em>, 1985). In Sumatra (Holden 2006), it was photo trapped infrequently, but this is not indicative of rarity. In summary, throughout its range, it is widespread, but due to its small size and semi arboreal nature, it has been infrequently recorded, and thus its population status is difficult to assess.
41705		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation were assessed as a threat to this species (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989), and deforestation has been said to be a threat to this species in Thailand (Van Rompaey 1993), however, little is known on its tolerance to disturbance. In Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the banded linsang) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996). Various observers have found the species in edge and degraded habitats, both historically and recently, with Lim (1973) even speculating that it benefits from secondary growth and ecotonal areas. This makes it difficult to infer a population trend based around the recent and ongoing rapid forest degradation over much of its range. Old-growth forest has been cleared very rapidly throughout the lowland Sundaic region in the last 20 years (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003) but this has primarily been in the lower altitudes; this species' wide altitudinal range means that significant proportion of the population is outside these areas of very rapid clearance. Also in Thailand, live animals have been traded in the past, as seven were reported by CITES in 1980 (from Thailand to USA) (Van Rompaey 1993), in the last decade, however, there has been no commercial trade reported through CITES.
41706		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I<em></em>. It has been sighted in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1994, Duckworth 1997a). In recent years, it has been recorded from Mouling National Park (Singh <em>et al</em>. 1996), Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary (Chakraborty and Sen 1991) and the border of Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and Nameri National Park in 1999 (P. Saikia pers. comm.). It was also recorded from Khonoma Nature Conservation and Tragopan Sanctuary (a local protected area not covered by the national government) by Choudhury (2002). It was recorded from Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand in 1995 (Tizard 2002). Tizard (2002) reports a record of this species from Xishuanbanna Biosphere Reserve and recently it has also been camera trapped from several nature reserves in Guangdong and Guangxi (Lau, pers  comm) in China. Many other recent records from South-east Asia are listed in Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species is totally protected in Myanmar, on the list of protected species in Nepal, and protected in Thailand, Viet Nam and India. In Thailand is protected by the Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA) of 1980 (Van Rompaey, 1995). This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>. 2000), is totally protected in Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam and India, and is on the list of protected species in Nepal (Van Rompaey, 1995). It is recorded from many protected areas across its range (Chakraborty and Sen, 1991; Evans <em>et al.</em>, 1994, Singh <em>et al.</em>, 1996, Duckworth, 1997; Walston 2001, Tizard, 2002, Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep., Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
41706		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of southeast Asia, including eastern Nepal, India (Sikkim, Assam, Bengal and other states of north-east India), Bhutan (although no records have been traced), northern and centralMyanmar, northern and central Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, northern, central and probably southern Viet Nam, and central to southern China (western Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Xizang, Hunan, Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Guangxi) (Van Rompaey, 1995; Walston 2001, Zhang, 1997, Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep., Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Two stuffed individuals were recorded by Choudhury (2002), one in Dzulake (25°3'8 N, 93°55'E) and one in Chizami (25°36'N, 94°24'E). It was recorded from Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand in 1995 (Tizard, 2002). It was also sighted for sale on the side of a road between Mengla and Shangyong in Xishuanbanna Autonomous Region, Yunnan China in 1997 (Tizard, 2002). It was photographed by camera-traps in Nonggang, Jiuwanshan and Cenwanglaoshan Nature Reserves in Guangxi from 2002 to 2004, and also at Chebaling and North Guangdong Tiger Nature Reserve in Guangdong in 2003 (Lau <em>et al.</em>, in prep.). Another recent record from China was reported by Yangsheng (1998) for Jiangxi province. F. Debruyne and A. Schoofs (in litt. 2001 to Tizard 2002) report it from Oudomxay Market, in Lao PDR. Walston (2001) reports it from the hills of southwestern Cambodia. Van Rompaey (1995) gave an elevational range from 150 m to 2700 m, there are records from up to nearly 4000 m (Pocock 1939), although it is not confirmed that these animals were truly caught at such altitudes (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It has been sighted in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1994, Duckworth 1997a). Dead animals have been seen in Xekong and Xaignabouli Provinces (Bergmans 1995).
41706		habitat	eng	Little is known on the ecology of this species. It has been recorded in lowland, hill and mountain forest, bamboo forest, secondary growth, dense grassland and along rivers (Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980; Sunquist, 1982; Van Rompaey, 1995; Tizard, 2002; Wozencraft, 2005). It is partly arboreal and preys mostly on small vertebrates (Lekagul and McNeely, 1977; Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980; Van Rompaey, 1995). <br/><br/>This species is most often recorded in both primary and secondary forests, mainly in mountain and hill areas, up to at least 2,700 m, probably to 4,000 m (Van Rompaey 1995, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> in prep). It is found in primary and secondary forests at elevations between 150 and at least 2,700 m (Van Rompaey, 1995). In Chitawan National Park in Nepal, it was observed in a mosaic of lowland riverine forest and tall, dense grassland, as well as in an area of sal (Shorea robusta) forest interspersed with dense grasses (Sunquist, 1982). In Viet Nam it is found in moist, mixed, and bamboo forest, and along mountain rivers (Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980). It is quite arboreal, though it is equally at home in trees and on the ground (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It has been suggested that it mainly inhabits the lower shrub layer (Kuznetzov and Baranauskas, 1993). It preys mostly on small birds (Hodgson, 1847), remains of rodents, frogs, and snakes have also been found in the stomachs of some specimens (Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980). It has also been spotted feeding on the carcass of a tiger, indicating that it is an opportunistic scavenger (Sunquist, 1982).<br/><br/>Each litter consists of two young (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), twice a year, breeding in February and August (Hodgson, 1847). They are seldom maintained in captivity, and no lifespan has been recorded (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Two stuffed individuals were recorded by Choudhury (2002), one in Dzulake (25 38 N, 93 55 E, 1750 m) in excellent primary subtropical broadleaf forest and one in Chizami (25 36 N, 94 24 E, 1400 to 1700 m), with degraded secondary forest in the lower areas and some primary forest in the upper areas (all subtropical broadleaf). It was recorded in moist secondary growth along water courses through a mosaic of cultivation, scrub, and pine plantations at about 1400 m in Thailand (Tizard, 2002). It is found in limestone forests in China and preys on rats (Lau pers. comm.).
41706		population	eng	This species is rather rarely recorded; which is likely an artifact of sampling techniques. For example, one of the most intensivedirect observation surveys of carnivores in its range, that of Duckworth (1998) did not record it during the main survey, although it was found incidentally during bat survey at the same site. This survey gave no evidence of high numbers/high encounter rates in pristine habitat far from human habitation in the heart of its range, implying that this is the natural state of affairs for this species; at this site, various key quarry species (e.g. diurnal primates) showed little fear of people and even heavily decreased species such as Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> and Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em> were observed directly, making it inconceivable that the linsang populations had been artificially reduced there.With the advent of camera-trapping, records have increased in many areas. The relatively low numbers of records of the species in most of its range may be a result of its lurking and rather arboreal nature (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> in prep.). <br/><br/>It was formerly thought to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (Van Rompae, 1995), but even historically there were indications that the rarity of specimens belied the species’s real status. Hodgson (1841) states that it is “sufficiently common in the mountains of Nepal”, and in 1847 he found “the species very numerous in the eastern half of Nepal and Sikkim.” In the 1970s four observations were made in Chitwan National Park (Sunquist 1982). In the 1880s it was not considered rare in Sikkim (Blanford 1888-1891). The species is near its southern distributional limit in Thailand, and has been considered to be very rare and localized there (Lekagul and McNeely 1977) but there is no evidence it is not simply overlooked. Pham-chong-Ahn (1980) found the species to be uncommon in northern Viet Nam, but, judging from sale in markets, it seems to have been common in 1988 (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989), and a more comprehensive collation of small carnivore records from the country confirms this impression (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Bergmans (1995) speculated that it would be found to be common in Lao PDR and subsequent camera-trapping in the country, while rather limited, has found the species in most survey blocks of both main areas so far surveyed (Johson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Johnson and Johnson 2007).<br/><br/>This species is the relatively rarely recorded in northeastern India (Choudhury, 1999) but there has been little camera-trapping or spotlighting. There are very few records in Cambodia (Olsson pers. comm.). It is relatively common in Yunnan (China). In sum recent records show it is not as rare as was often previously thought, although it probably lives at low density (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
41706		threats	eng	The species was previously considered to be threatened by habitat loss and degradation, hunting and trade across much of its range (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Although the impacts of these threats on populations are unknown they may be causing declines (Choudhury, 2002; Tizard, 2002) and further research is needed. Across its range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to agriculture. There has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al</em>. 2004), but this species does not seem to be a specifically sought one in the trade: extensive examination of trade seizures through Viet Nam (the main route to China hardly ever found the species (U. Streicher in Duckworth <em>et al.</em> in prep.), nor is it sought in trade within China (M. W. N. Lau pers. comm.). Nor is it preferentially sought at the local, subsistence level, although throughout its range when it is caught it is eaten. Generalised mammal hunting is extremely heavy in much of its range. As a semi-arboreal species which is almost exclusively nocturnal, it is less exposed to risks of incidental killing and bycatch in snares and traps.  The concern expressed in the IUCN Action Plan for Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989), was made at a time when most of its geographic range was out of access to western biologists, through political factors (Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, the relevant parts of China, most of north-east India, Bhutan), and capacity-building programmes for national conservation personnel were only just beginning in some areas. Hence, there was a very weak information base upon which to make this listing: indirect information from most range states and direct information from Nepal and Thailand, both at the margins of the species' range. In the intervening two decades, most of this area has opened up, and there have been many records of this species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.), indicating that this 1989 assessment was unduly pessimistic.
41707		conservation	eng	The species is found in some protected areas in its range, including two in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>, In prep), as well as Phou Xang He and Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al,</em> 1999). It was recorded by Lyman <em>et al</em> (2005) in Htuang Pru Reserve Forest and Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, and Taphyra National Park in Thailand. In Viet Nam, the trade in the species is nominally regulated, and it is protected in Group 2b (Roberton <em>et al,</em> in prep). This species is protected in Myanmar under the Wildlife Act of 1994. The species is protected in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, but there is no protection in China. Though there have presumably been recent advances in reduction of gun usage by civilians for hunting, there have been increased snaring efforts (in compensation), and there is now a need to reduce, and preferably eradicate, this form of hunting (Lyman <em>et al</em>, 2005).
41707		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China (last record in 1998; Ying-xiang pers. comm.), Cambodia (Walston 2001; Olson pers. obs.), Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997; Khounboline 2005), Peninsular Malaysia (last record in 1985; Asakawa <em>et al.</em> 1986), Myanmar (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005), Thailand (Lynam <em>et al</em> 2005) and Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Only one record from Cambodia was reported by Walston (2001), but the advent of camera-trapping led to many more recent records (CI, WCS, WWF, unpublished per J. Walston pers. comm., Olson pers. comm. 2006). There is some confusion as to whether this species has been found on Singapore, and some authors are explicit that it does not occur there (Harrison 1966), and the only specimen checked has not turned out to represent this species (Lyman <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are historical records from Peninsular Malaysia (including one from Penang Island) (Veron 2004). However, the only recent record from Peninsular Malaysia appears to be a road-kill from Sungai Petani in 1985 (Asakawa <em>et al</em>. 1986). There are also several records from southern China (southern Yunnan and southwestern Guangxi; Wang Ying-xiang 1987, 2003; Zhang Yong-zu 1997; Wang Sung 1998; Sheng Helin <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>It was recorded by Lynam <em>et al.</em> (2005) in Htuang Pru Reserve Forest and Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, and Taphyra National Park in Thailand. In Thailand, the species has been found in several protected areas, and there is a southern record from Bam Nang Nom (Ra Nong Province). This species is a lowland species, with almost all field records from below 300 m (Lyman <em>et al</em>. 2005). In fact, Lyman <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that they "are not aware of any site in non-Sundaic Southeast Asia lying predominantly under 300 m, supporting 500+ sq. km of (semi-) evergree forest, and having received heavy camera trapping or spotlighting effort, that has not recorded the species." A freshly-killed (by hunters) specimen was reported from Ban Thalang (Thalang village; formerly Ban Namtheun; 17º51'N, 105º03'E, ca. 520 m) on the Nakai Plateau of central Lao PDR PDR, significantly higher in altitude than other recent records of this species, and this level area also hold population of plains birds at anomalously high altitude (Khounboline 2005). The species is potentially more widespread in Myanmar, as there have been few surveys below 300 m using appropriate techniques (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). There are only five confirmed records from Viet Nam, with the furthest north being Phong Nha NP (Roberton <em>et al</em>. In prep). If the species was once present further north in Viet Nam, it is doubtful that any significant populations could still survive (Timmins and Roberton pers. comm.2006). The lack of records in Viet Nam seems to reflect a genuine scarcity in the species and not a lack of appropriate surveys. There are no recent records from China, with the last record from 1998 (Wang Ying-xiang pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>The species is potentially more widespread in Lao PDR, as there have been few surveys below 300 m using appropriate techniques (Duckworth pers comm. 2006). The records from Xe Pian National Protected area suggest that its reasonably common in level lowland forest (Austin 1999). It is probably rare on the Nakai Plateau of central Lao PDR PDR (Khounboline 2005).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, there are three records from camera traps in the southwest. The species has been commonly photo-trapped in several sites in northern and eastern Cambodia (CI, WCS, WWF, unpublished per J. Walstone pers. comm.). Albeit considered widely distributed geographically in Peninsular Malaysia, it was considered rare (Medway 1977). There are no recent records from the area. The species is likely to be very localized on Peninsular Malaysia, as there has been appropriate surveys at low altitudes without results (Azlan pers comm. 2006).
41707		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in evergreen and deciduous forest, and dry dipterocarp forest, all below 300 m of altitude (Duckworth, 1994, Austin, 1999; Duckworth <em>et al</em>., 1999; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In China, the species is found below 800 m, although the exact habitat is unknown. In Myanmar, there are records from evergreen forest, including forest-grassland edges at 300 m, and there is no information on whether the species is found in some of the dry lowland forests in Myanmar which are the more prevelant habitat within the species' known elevational range (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). In Lao PDR, the species occurs in lowland evergreen/semi-evergreen forest (including degraded areas) with one in open dry dipterocarp forest, all below 300 m altitude (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999), with one outlier at 520 m (Khounboline 2005). In Thailand, it is found in deciduous forest and dry evergreen forest (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.2006). Within northern and eastern Cambodia, the species is found in mosaic deciduous forest, along with semi-evergreen patches and riverine gallery forest (WCS, WWF, CI pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>Lyman <em>et al</em> (2005) report three records of this species from evergreen forest, the predominant habitat of other recent records, though some have come from deciduous dipterocarp forest (Duckworth, 1994; Austin, 1999). The species is not dependent on primary forest, and can probably persist in degraded forest that has forest structure (Duckworth, 1994). New information from Cambodia and elsewhere suggests that it can live in fragmented areas, but that it might only persist in large forest blocks (Timmins and Duckworth pers. comm.), as was previously suggested by Lynam <em>et al</em> (2005).<br/><br/>This species can potentially be misidentified as either Viverra zibetha or Viverra tangalunga and it is important that wherever possible records are verified through photographs (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.2006).
41707		population	eng	The population status is poorly known. What is know are from relatively few recent records anywhere in its range (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Lao PDR, from 1997-1999 there were four singles camera trapped in Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (main block and Dong Kalo) in early 1997 (Astain 1999). Recent records of this species in Lao come only from Phou Xang He and Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999) and the Nakai Plateau in 2002 (Khounboline 2005). There are no Lao records from hill and montane forest, but the species has been found in forest below 300 m which suggests that it is genuinely patchy in occurrence (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Thailand, it used to be found all over the country and was rather common (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).<br/><br/>Little over a decade later, a global review of all species of Viverridae found that there was very little known about this species, and traced no records from protected areas, and urged for surveys to assess its current status (Schreiber <em>et al</em> 1989). This disparity is probably due to heavy logging of lowland forest in the interim, and indicates an actual decline and fragmentation in population (Lynam <em>et al,</em> 2005). There are few recent records from Viet Nam (R. J. Timmins in litt, 2004). It has been found at several sites in Cambodia (J. L. Walston in litt, 2004).
41707		threats	eng	Throughout much of this species range, terrestrial small carnivores are exposed to heavy hunting, particularly with snares and dogs. This is occurring in much of its range, including Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999) and Thailand, with snaring found even in some protected areas such as Ta Pra Ya National Park. There has been an increased demand for food of civets in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Lyman <em>et al</em>. 2005). From the 1970s and the 1990s, large areas of lowland forest were logged across parts the species' range, particularly in China, Thailand and Viet Nam, including conversion to non-forest land-uses (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005; Wang Ying-xiang pers. comm. 2006). This increased fragmentation of habitat increases the threat of hunting as well as the direct loss in area able to support the species (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Cambodia, at present there is a massive trend in deforestation of lowlands, particularly for local agriculture (Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In Myanmar, there is a major trend in conversion of forest to plant oil agriculture, particularly in lowlands (Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). As a ground-dwelling species, and by analogy with <span style="font-style: italic;">V. zibetha</span>, this species should be readily snared. Despite the massive levels of civet hunting, and the often-taken opportunities to check large numbers of civets in trade, this species is not recorded in the widespread trade in China (Lau et al.,1997; Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden, 2004) and Viet Nam, which suggests that the populations are already reduced to overall extremely low levels (Scott Roberton and Wang Ying-xiang, Nguyen Xuan Dang, Michael Lau pers. comm.).
41708		conservation	eng	Malay civets are found in a number of protected areas throughout its range. This species is protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA, 1972). Field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of threats are needed.<br/><br/>The species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range. This species was recorded from Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003). This species is partially protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972), meaning that anyone found killing this species will be liable to a fine not exceeding three thousand ringgit (Approx. USD 790) or a term of imprisonment not exceeding three years, or both (Azlan, 2003). However, Section 55 of this Act allows farmer to shoot any wild animal that causes damage to their property, as long as reasonable efforts have  been made to frighten the animal away, and many civets are conisdered a pest in Peninsular Malaysia, as the prey on small livestock and raid fruit orchards (Azlan, 2003).
41708		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Malaysia Carnivore Project, 2006; Laidlaw pers. comm.), Indonesia, Philippine islands (Heaney and Tabaranza 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991) and Sulawesi (Buton island) (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Indonesia, it is found in Borneo (Colon 2002), Sumatra, Rhio-Lingga Archipelago, Bawal Island, Bangka Island, Karimata Island, Sulawesi, Telok Pai, Amboina and the Moluccas (Meiri, 2005; Wozencraft, 2005). Two specimens have been recorded from Java (Meiri, 2005) but there is no evidence of a native population. In the Philippines: Bohol, Busuanga, Culion, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Samar and Sibuyan. It is also reported from Camiguin (Heaney and Tabaranza. 1991), Catanduanes (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1991), Panay (Timm and Birney, 1980, Lastimosa pers. comm.) and Siguijor (Timm and Birney, 1980). In Malaysia, it is found in Borneo, Banggi Island, Langkawi Island, Penang Island and in Peninsular Malaysia (Corbet and Hill, 1992; Nor, 1996; Meiri, 2005). It was introduced to several islands in Southeast Asia (Jennings <em>et al</em>., 2006). The historical range of the species includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines and Singapore (Corbet and Hill, 1992; Nowak, 1999; Wozencraft, 2005). Although it is also listed from Cambodia, China and Thailand in Wozencraft (1993), there is no evidence it occurs in these countries.
41708		habitat	eng	The Malay civet occurs in a variety of habitats including primary and secondary forests, cultivated land and the outskirts of villages (Nowak, 1999; Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em>, 2006). It is found from sea level to at least 1,200 m (Rabor, 1955; Payne <em>et al</em>., 1985; Rickart <em>et al</em>., 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>., in press). Malay civets are solitary, omnivorous and primarily terrestrial (Kanchanasakha <em>et al</em>., 1998). A wide range of home-ranges for Malay civets has now been documented on Sulawesi (24 – 189 ha) and Borneo (27 – 283 ha) (MacDonald and Wise, 1979; Nozaki <em>et al</em>., 1994; Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Mean home-range size for adults of both sexes was 110 ha in Sabah and 70 ha on Sulawesi (Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Colon (2002) considered that the Malay civet was not territorial in Sabah but Jennings <em>et al</em>. (2006) found low intra-sexual overlap on Buton Island. Malay civets are mainly nocturnal (Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>., 2006). Day rest sites are situated at ground level and associated with some form of cover (Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al., </em>2006).<br/><br/>Malay civets are solitary, omnivorous, and primarily terrestrial (Kanchanasakha <em>et al.</em> 1998). A wide range of home-ranges for Malay civets have now been documented on Buton Island, Sulawesi (24– 89 ha) and Borneo (27–283 ha) (MacDonald and Wise 1979; Nozaki <em>et al</em>. 1994; Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). Mean home-range size for adults of both sexes was 110 ha in Sabah, East Malaysia and 70 ha on Buton Island, Sulawesi (Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). Colon (2002) considered that the Malay civet was not territorial in East Malaysia but Jennings <em>et al</em>.(2006) found low intra-sexual overlap on Buton Island. Malay civets are most active at night from 18h00 to 07h00, although Malay civets were more active during the day on Buton Island, Sulawesi than in Sabah, East Malaysia (Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). Day rest sites are situated at ground level and associated with some form of cover such as logs, dense brush pile, or thick herbaceous vegetation (Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>The species’ habitat is primary and secondary lowland, montane, and mossy forest from sea level to at least 1,200 m asl (Rabor 1955, Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993, Heaney <em>et al</em>. in press). It is also found also in agricultural areas and near human settlements in the proximity of forest (Wemmer and Watling, 1986; Nowak, 1999). In a study on home range behaviour of this species on Buton Island, Jennings <em>et al.</em> (2006) found a home range size of 70 ha, with smaller home ranges for females as compared to those found in logged forest on Borneo. It is an adaptable species that seems to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions, including disturbed areas (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species was recorded in primary lowland rainforest in Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo by Wells <em>et al.</em> (2005). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Colon, 2002; pers. comm.). It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003). This species is ground-living (Medway, 1978) and predominantly crepuscular (Azlan and Gulan Azad, 2005).
41708		population	eng	Although the Malay civet is a widespread species, little is still known about its population levels in countries where it is native or has been introduced. Colon (2002) found lower population densities in logged forest than in unlogged forest, and suggested that this may be because of lower fruit availability in logged forest. The species is widespread in Asia and is moderately common in forest and rare in other habitats.
41708		threats	eng	As a ground-living species it is exposed to snaring and other forms of ground-level trapping, and hunting with dogs, however, the limited survey in areas heavily used by people suggests it is rather well able to persist at general levels of threat. The species is occasionally hunted for food and treated as a pest as it raids poultry.
41709		conservation	eng	This species is totally protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972) (Azlan, 2003). This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>, 2000). China listed it as ‘Endangered’ under criteria A2acd, and it is a class II protected State species (due to trapping for food and scent glands). It is protected in Thailand, Viet Nam and Myanmar (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop, 2006). It is found in several protected areas throughout its range (Duckworth, 1997; Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004). The population of India is listed on CITES Appendix III.
41709		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004), Thailand (Rabinowitz, 1991; Austin and Tewes, 1999), Viet Nam (Boonratana , 2004; Long, and Minh Hoang 2006), Cambodia (J.L. Walston pers. comm.), China (Anhui, Shaanxi, Ganus, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Xisang, Guangxi, Gunagdong, Hainan, Fujian Zhejiang and Jiangsu), northeast India, Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), Nepal, Bhutan, Singapore, (Pocock 1939, Corbet and Hill, 1992; Wozencraft, 2005). Introduced to the Andaman Islands (Lever, 1985).
41709		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in primary forest (both evergreen and deciduous), secondary forest and plantations (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1997; Azlan, 2003) and is often said to have even wider habitat use (e.g. Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It has been recorded up to 1,600 m (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). It is solitary, nocturnal although there are occasinal day-time records of active animals (e.g. Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press) and it is usually active on the ground (Lekagul and McNeely, 1977, Duckworth 1997). An adult male was radio-tracked in Thailand and had a home-range of 12 km² (Rabinowitz, 1991). Occupancy of suitable habitats varies within Indochina. <br/><br/>Its diet consists of a wide range of animals, including fish, birds, lizards, frogs, insects, scorpions (and other arthropods) and crabs, as well as poultry and garbage (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). <br/><br/>In Lao PDR, this species is found in tall forest, both evergreen and deciduous, and adjacent degraded areas, over at least 200 to 1000 m, with few recent records from below 400 m (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999); however, there are many records from other countries, e.g. Myanmar, below this altitude (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). They are believed to breed throughout the year, with two litters per year, and two to four young per litter (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Breeding and resting dens are usually holes in the ground which were originally dug by other species. It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003).<br/><br/>Like Viverricula and Civettictis, but to a generally much lesser extent, this civet has been used as a source of civetone, an oil-like substance secreted by the perineal gland used by the animal for territorial marking.
41709		population	eng	This species lives at a naturally fairly high density for a carnivorous animal and was almost universally considered common by historical collectors (Pocock 1939). It remains common in much of its range: it is possible to see several in a single night of spotlighting on foot even in heavily-hunted Lao PDR ( Duckworth 1997), it is among the most common mammals camera-trapped across Cambodia (J. L. Walmart pers. comm.) and Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), and is one of the most commonly recorded civets in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.). However, in some areas (such as Southeastern China) it has become effectively extinct over large areas (M. W. N. Lau pers. comm.). Few other parts of the range are as severely impacted by habitat fragmentation and degradation coupled with hunting. It is likely that populations are widely reduced in the most heavily hunted parts of its range where habitat has been heavily fragmented, e.g. much of northern Viet Nam and lowland Lao PDR. Recent camera-trapping in the Nakai–Nam Theun national protected areas, Central Lao PDR, found rather few animals (Johnson and Johnston 2007), suggesting the possibility for very heavy ground-level trapping (as occurs in much of this area) to reduce populations greatly even in large tracts of little-encroached forest.
41709		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are a threat to this species (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Across its range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses. It is hunted for food, probably throughout its range, and certainly in Viet Nam, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, NE India and Thailand, and for scent glands in Viet Nam and China. Ground-living small carnivores are exposed to high levels of non-specific hunting, particularly with snares, throughout most of South-east Asia. Dogs are widely likely to be a problem for this ground-dwelling species, even though it is largely within burrows by day. Snaring and other forms of ground-level trapping occur in much of its range, including Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1997), Viet Nam, and Thailand, with trapping found both inside and outside protected areas (Kanchanasaka,  pers. comm.). There has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al</em>. 2004; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41710		conservation	eng	In Myanmar, this species is totally protected under the Wildlife Act of 1994 (Su, 2005). This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>, 2000) and as ‘Vulnerable’ in the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). It is listed on CITES Appendix III (India). It has been recorded in many protected areas (Duckworth, 1997; Mudappa, 2002; Su Su, 2005).
41710		distribution	eng	This species is currently known to occur in south and central China (Wang and Fuller, 2001, 2003), Hong Kong (Suen, 2002), most of India (Mudappa, 2002), Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Myanmar (Su Su, 2005), Thailand (Rabinowitz, 1991; Austin and Tewes, 1999), Viet Nam (Roberton 2007), Cambodia (J. L. Walston pers. comm.) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke pers. comm.). No search has been made for recent records from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Peninsular Malaysia, Java or Bali (Indonesia), areas where it was historically recorded, mostly commonly. It was formerly known from Singapore but its current status there is unclear (B. P. Y.H. Lee pers. comm.). Corbet and Hill (1992) include all of Sumatra for the species' distribution range, but only four individuals are known, all from one locality in the far north. Sody (1931) described these as a distinct subspecies, Viverricula malaccensis atchinensis. Other records from Sumatra have not been seen, and it is suggested to restrict its range to the north (Meijaard pers. comm.), and the lack of recent records from Sumatra is puzzling (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). It has been introduced to Madagascar (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Zhang 1997), Socotra (Yemen; Pocock 1939) and Zanzibar (Tanzania; W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). The current status of these introduced populations is poorly known.
41710		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in semi-evergreen and deciduous forest, mixed deciduous forest, bamboo forest, scrubby areas, grasslands and riverine habitat (Duckworth 1997, Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Mudappa, 2002; Su Su, 2005). This species is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial (Mudappa, 2002). An adult male was radio-tracked in Thailand and had a home range of 3.1 km² (Rabinowitz, 1991). In Lao PDR, this species is found in Semi-evergreen (rarely) and deciduous forest, including adjacent degraded areas (Duckowrth <em>et al</em>. 1999). In other countries it is tolerant of habitat degradation and lives in proximity to human communities (Lekagul and McNeely 1988) and an active avoidance of closed evergreen forest was shown in Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press; see ‘population’). In Thailand, it is mostly found in long grass or scrub, particularly in areas near villages, where it may live in drains, outhouses, and roofs, eating domestic poultry (Su Su, 2005) as well as rats, mice, birds, snakes, fruit, and roots, as well as carrion (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). It has litters of three to five, and the life span is eight to nine years (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). In Myanmar this species was recorded from both mixed deciduous forest and bamboo forest (Su Su, 2005). This species was rarely seen in the undisturbed rainforests of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in India, and was mostly seen near garbage dumps (Mudappa, 2002). In KMTR they were not camera-trapped frequently in rainforest, but were the most camera-trapped species in grasslands and in a riverine habitat (Mudappa, 2002). This species is nocturnal, and mostly terrestrial and insectivorous (Mudappa, 2002). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the ecology of this species near Taohong Village in northern Jiangxi Province, southeastern China, from April 1993 to November 1994. Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province) by analyzing its scats, the study was conducted between June 1992 and November 1994, and found that this species ate mostly mammals, with moderate insects and plants.
41710		population	eng	The population status of this species is less well known that that of some other Southeast Asian small carnivores, because recent survey efforts have mostly not been appropriate for assessing the species. This is best shown by records from Myanmar. Su Su (2005) found that it was the second most common species of small carnivore recorded in Hlawga Wildlife Park in Myanmar, a secondary small isolate of semi-natural habitat in the outskirts of Yangon, a former capital city, subject to barely controlled snaring and other forms of encroachment, where only one other species of small carnivore persists in significant numbers. Recent camera-trapping showed that it is also abundant (by far the most frequently photographed nocturnal small carnivore) in Alungdaw Kathapa national park (Thaint Thaint Myo pers. comm. 2007), although intensive camera-trapping for Tigers a few years earlier at this site had recorded the species only twice. This reflected the focus of the Tiger survey on little-disturbed evergreen forest, a habitat little-used by the species in South-east Asia, rather than the edge, disturbed and secondary areas the focus of the latter survey (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). The habitat degradation and hunting patterns of these two sites in Myanmar where the species is common are representative of much of non-Sundaic Southeast Asia, and incidental records from various other sites (e.g. Duckworth and Robichaud 2005) imply large populations in total, although it is likely that in Viet Nam and Lao at least populations will have been somewhat depleted by snaring. This factor (the tendency for camera-trap surveys to go to the least encroached habitat blocks) has certainly much reduced the number of recent records of the species from South-east Asia. In Cambodia, where more camera-trapping has taken place in deciduous forest areas, it is commonly camera trapped (J. L. Walston pers. comm.). The same factor was suspected to be responsible for the relatively few recent records from Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), and may also have generated earlier remarks such as in Thailand, this species is rather rare (Lekagul and McNeely 1977); in fact, it is common in the degraded parts of Khao Yai national park but difficult to fin within the forest itself (J. W. Duckworth and A. Nettelbeck pers. comm.). It is also abundant over large areas of India. It is common in deciduous forests of Dak Lak, Viet Nam (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al.</em> 1997) and more widely in the country (Roberton 2007). No information has been sought for the Sundaic populations except for Sumatra, where the species status has always been unclear; no recent records were traced.
41710		threats	eng	The extent to which extensive habitat loss and degradation are a threat to this species remains unclear as in most or all of its range areas it is more common in altered landscapes than in closed-canopy old-growth evergreen forest. This species is hunted for its meat and scent (Gupta 2004) in some portions of its range which potentially might reduce populations. Ground-dwelling small carnivores are exposed to hunting, particularly with snares. This is occurring in much of its range, including Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1997) and Thailand, with snaring found even in some protected areas (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). There has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). In India animals are caught for captivity for collection of ‘civet’, a fixative used internationally in the perfume industry and domestically for various purposes; even in areas of heavy collection, the animals remain common in the degraded forest, scrub and agricultural landscapes covering most of peninsular India. There is no evidence (at least from the non-Sundaic parts of its range) that it is not well able to survive high combined pressures of forest conversion and harvesting. The converse seems to be true: it remains more common than most other species of small carnivore in heavily encroached areas of southern China (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.), as it does in heavily encroached Myanmar (Su Su 2005).
41711		conservation	eng	North Pacific right whales have been legally protected from commercial whaling since 1935 by the IWC, but this has been fully respected in practice only since the 1970s.<br/><br/>The species is in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.
41711		distribution	eng	In the North Pacific, right whales occur during the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, the southeastern Bering Sea, the Aleutian Islands, and the northern Gulf of Alaska. During the winter, they occur (or at least occurred historically) southward to the Sea of Japan [=East Sea], Taiwan Strait and the Ogasawara Gunto (Bonin Islands, Japan) in the west and to Baja California Sur (Mexico) in the east. Populations on the Asian and American sides of the Pacific are regarded as discrete (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). Vagrants have been recorded in the Hawaiian islands (Rowntree <em>et al.</em> 1980, Herman <em>et al.</em> 1980). <br/><br/>Formerly abundant across much of the North Pacific in summer, mainly north of 40°N, the right whale is now regularly seen only in the Okhotsk Sea and the southeastern Bering Sea, with occasional sightings along the east coast of Japan, off the Bonin Islands, and in the Gulf of Alaska. In the 1970s there were two sightings off Hawaii (Salden and Mickelson 1999) in spring and three right whales were taken in the Yellow Sea in winter (Wang 1978, 1988). Sightings off California and Mexico are rare and there is no evidence that the western coasts of the United States and Mexico were ever highly frequented habitat for this species (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41711		habitat	eng	Little is known about habitat use by North Pacific right whales. The rarity of coastal records in winter in either historical or recent times suggest that their breeding grounds may have been offshore (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is in contrast to southern right whales which form inshore breeding concentrations. There is clearly some migration northward in summer and southward in winter (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004), but the location of the wintering grounds is unknown. The historical catches show that in summer the species mainly occurred in the Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Okhotsk and northern North Pacific.
41711		population	eng	The right whale population in the North Pacific is only a small fraction of what it was prior to 19th century whaling. A preliminary estimate of 26,500-37,000 animals taken (including struck and lost) during the period 1839-1909 was given by Scarff (2001), of which 21,000-30,000 were taken during 1840-49 alone.<br/><br/>Since the start of modern whaling in the North Pacific (1911), 742 right whales are recorded taken (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001) of which about 500 were illegal catches by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s, that were concealed at the time (Doroshenko 2000).<br/><br/>Brownell <em>et al.</em> (2001) listed a total of 1,965 right whale sighting records in the 20th century. Today, the main remnant population summers in the Sea of Okhotsk between Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka (Russian Federation). Based on sightings of 28 right whales in 2,688 nautical miles of Japanese-Russian cetacean surveys in the Okhotsk Sea in August and September in 1989, 1990 and 1992, Miyashita and Kato (1998) derived a preliminary population estimate of 922 whales (95% CI 404-2,108) using line-transect analysis. Additional Japanese surveys were conducted in 1999, 2000 and 2003 (Miyashita <em>et al. </em>2000, 2001; Miyashita 2004). These yielded sightings of 23 right whales in 6,966 nautical miles of survey, but the data have not yet been analyzed to provide a population estimate. Given the low precision of the estimate from 1989-92, and the fact that the more recent surveys encountered relatively fewer right whales (3.3 whales per 1,000 miles in 1999-2003 compared with 10.4 whales per 1,000 miles in 1989-92), a new population estimate should be derived, using data from all the surveys to date. Sightings off Japan at other times of year may be whales migrating to or from the Okhotsk Sea.<br/><br/>In the eastern North Pacific, the few animals observed are usually alone and in scattered locations. The only exception is an area of the south-eastern Bering Sea where small groups of right whales have been seen in several successive years (LeDuc <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wade <em>et al.</em> 2006). No quantitative estimates of abundance outside the Okhotsk Sea are available, but the paucity of sightings suggests that right whales in the eastern North Pacific number only in the tens (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). No confirmed sightings of calves were made in this region in the 20th century, and there have been only three thus far in the 21st (Waite <em>et al.</em> 2003, Wade <em>et al.</em> 2006).
41711		threats	eng	Hunting by the Japanese began as early as the late 1500s, and by Europeans and Americans in the 1830s; by 1900, the population had been reduced to a tiny fraction of its original abundance. Although legally protected by the IWC since 1946 (and by earlier agreements since 1935) illegal hunting continued into the 1960s, when Soviet whaling fleets killed 372 right whales in the eastern North Pacific, which may have been the bulk of the remaining population there (Doroshenko 2000, Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). The eastern North Pacific population is distinct and of extremely small size (fewer than 50 mature individuals); it is the subject of a separate assessment, as CR.<br/><br/>There is currently no direct hunting but there have been cases of known and suspected entanglements (Burdin <em>et al.</em> 2004) in the Okhotsk Sea and Kuril Islands, involving at least four whales including one dead. Effort is needed to ascertain the frequency of such occurrences, since the very low observer effort probably means that most deaths pass unrecorded.<br/><br/>As compared with the intensively studied North Atlantic right whale, the more offshore and remote distribution of the North Pacific right whale may be an advantage in terms of less intensive exposure to human impacts, but the disadvantage is that impacts that do occur are less likely to be detected and their consequences are harder to ascertain and evaluate.
41712		conservation	eng	The right whale has been protected from hunting by the IWC and its predecessor since 1935, and is also protected in Canada, a non-member of the IWC.<br/><br/>Efforts are underway in both the US and Canada aimed at limiting deaths and injuries due to ship strikes and entanglements. In both countries, recovery plans have been developed involving collaboration among the various stakeholders.<br/><br/>Regulations are in place in the US requiring modifications to fishing gear and restrictions on certain types of gear in areas and times where right whales are common (Clapham 2005). A Mandatory Ship Reporting Scheme has been in place since 1999 in two areas in the right whale calving and summering grounds to enable vessels to be warned of right whales in the area. Regulations specify minimum approach distances for whale-watching and other vessels. <br/><br/>Shipping lanes in the Bay of Fundy have been moved, with the approval of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), to take them away from the major summer concentrations of right whales. A regulatory proposal to enforce maximum transit speeds on vessels passing through right whale habitats off the US east coast was still under review in 2007.<br/><br/>There is as yet no indication of a decrease in the rate of anthropogenic mortality, hence it is unclear whether the measures taken to date are sufficient.<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.
41712		conservation	eng	The right whale has been protected from hunting by the IWC and its predecessor since 1935, and is also protected in Canada, a non-member of the IWC. Efforts are underway in both the US and Canada aimed at limiting deaths and injuries due to ship strikes and entanglements.  In both countries, recovery plans have been developed involving collaboration between the various stakeholders. Regulations are in place in the US requiring modifications to fishing gear and restrictions on certain types of such gear in areas and times where right whales are common (Clapham 2005).  A Mandatory Ship Reporting Scheme has been in place since 1999 in two areas in the right whale calving and summering grounds to enable vessels to be warned of right whales in the area. Regulations specify minimum approach distances for whale-watching and other vessels. Shipping lanes in the Bay of Fundy have been moved, with the approval of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), to take them away from the major summer concentrations of right whales. A regulatory proposal to enforce maximum transit speeds on vessels passing through right whale habitats off the US east coast was still under review in 2007.<br/><br/>There is as yet no indication of a decrease in the rate of anthropogenic mortalities, hence it is unclear whether the measures taken to date are sufficient.
41712		distribution	eng	The right whale in the past was common on both sides of the North Atlantic. It appears to be effectively extinct in the eastern North Atlantic, but in the past probably ranged from a calving ground in the Golfo de Cintra (23°N) off the western Sahara, through the Azores, Bay of Biscay, western British Isles, and the Norwegian Sea to the North Cape (hence the Dutch name Noordkaper). In the western North Atlantic the species migrates from a calving ground off Florida and Georgia along the eastern seaboard of North America, to summering grounds in the Gulf of Maine, Bay of Fundy, and Scotian Shelf, with some individuals reaching the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Davis and Denmark Straits and occasionally Iceland and Norway. It is unclear whether in the past the animals in the northern part of the range (off Iceland and Norway) belonged mainly to the western or eastern breeding stocks.
41712		distribution	eng	The right whale was formerly common on both sides of the North Atlantic. It appears to be effectively extinct in the eastern North Atlantic but in the past probably ranged from a calving ground in the Golfo de Cintra (23°N) off Western Sahara, through the Azores, Bay of Biscay, western British Isles, and the Norwegian Sea to the North Cape (hence the Dutch name Noordkaper). In the western North Atlantic the species migrates from a calving ground off Florida and Georgia along the eastern seaboard of North America, to summering grounds in the Gulf of Maine, Bay of Fundy, and Scotian Shelf, with some individuals reaching the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Davis and Denmark Straits and occasionally Iceland and Norway. It is unclear whether in the past the animals in the northern part of the range (off Iceland and Norway) belonged mainly to the western or eastern breeding stocks.
41712		habitat	eng	Right whales are often encountered as singles or pairs, with larger groups or aggregations observed socializing, mating or feeding. They can be aerially active and generally raise their flukes before a deep dive.  Right whales can be individually identified by the patterns of callosities on the head, as well as by scars (Kraus <em>et al.</em> 1986). <br/><br/>The mating system appears to involve sperm competition (males competing to inseminate females, not so much by physical aggression, as by delivering large loads of sperm, thereby displacing that of other males). Young are born in winter and spring in calving areas in low temperate or subtropical latitudes.<br/><br/>Right whales feed on calanoid copepods and other small invertebrates (smaller copepods, krill, pteropods, and larval barnacles), generally by slowly skimming through patches of concentrated prey at or below the surface. The most common prey species is the copepod <em>Calanus finmarchicus</em>.
41712		habitat	eng	Right whales feed on calanoid copepods and other small invertebrates (smaller copepods, krill, pteropods, and larval barnacles), generally by slowly skimming through patches of concentrated prey at or below the surface. The most common prey species is the copepod <em>Calanus finmarchicus</em> (Perry <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41712		population	eng	<strong><em>Northwest Atlantic</em></strong><br/><br/><em>Historic</em><br/>It is not clear when Basque whaling began in the northwestern North Atlantic, but it had been established no later than 1530. It has long been thought that large numbers (tens of thousands) of right whales were taken off Labrador and Newfoundland by the Basques between 1530 and 1610 (Aguilar 1986, Reeves 2001) but recent genetic evidence suggest that many if not most of these were bowheads (Rastogi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shore-based whaling along the US east coast began in the mid 17th century and continued at least sporadically over the next two and a half centuries (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999, IWC 2001a). Reeves <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated as a lower bound that some 5,500 right whales (and “possibly twice that number”) were removed by whaling in the western North Atlantic between 1634-1951.<br/><br/><em>Current</em><br/>The current population is of about 300–350 individuals off the east coast of North America. IWC (2001a) obtained a minimum estimate of 263 in 1996 from identified animals known to be alive at that time, and indicated that the true population was probably not much higher. Kraus <em>et al.</em> (2001) provided a minimum estimate of 299 in 1998 based on animals presumed to be alive at that time (and not missing for more than 5 years). Preliminary analysis of more recent data have yielded estimates similar to those above. The whales are regularly surveyed in the winter calving ground off Florida and Georgia, and in spring/summer feeding grounds in Cape Cod Bay, the Great South Channel off Massachusetts, the Gulf of Maine, the Scotian Shelf, and the Bay of Fundy, but not all the whales using the wintering ground are seen in these major summering areas (IWC 2001b). There have been a few sightings in recent years in the Gulf of St Lawrence, two off Iceland in 2003, and one in the former whaling ground off Cape Farewell in 2004 (IWC 2005). A sighting off Norway in 1999 was identified as a well-known animal from the western North Atlantic population (Jacobsen <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Calf counts have been collected since 1980 but counts in the 1980s were probably underestimates, due to non-coverage of the winter calving grounds. Calf production has fluctuated, possibly linked to environmental conditions (Greene <em>et al.</em> 2003). It was low during 1998-2000 (av. 3 per year, with an associated calving interval of 5.7 years, Kraus <em>et al.</em> 2001) but high during 2001-2005 (av. 23 per year) (Clapham 2005). Nineteen calves were recorded in 2006, and the average interbirth interval of the mothers concerned was 3.2 years (Anon. 2006). <br/><br/>An analysis of survival and reproductive rates (Caswell <em>et al.</em> 1999) concluded that survival rates had declined and that, as of 1995, the population was in decline. However, the finding of population decline was based on the assumption that only 38% of mature females were reproductively active, whereas the true figure appears to be over 70% (IWC 2001b). A subsequent review of survival rates concluded that survival rates probably were lower in the 1990s than in the 1980s (Clapham 2003). No more recent data on survival rates have been published to date; while reproduction has noticeably increased in this population, mortality has remained high and is a source of serious concern (IWC 2006).<br/><br/>Increase, if any, in this population is at a much lower rate than in the southern right whale. Per capita calf production and calving intervals have been highly variable over the last decade. The occurrence of skin lesions, of a kind not seen in Southern Hemisphere right whales, was recorded during the period 1995 to 2002, and appeared to be correlated with the failure to reproduce of females that would normally be ready to calve (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2001; Rolland <em>et al.</em> 2007). Over the same period, body condition as measured by blubber thickness was poorer in the North Atlantic than in Southern Hemisphere right whales (IWC 2001c). Mortality rates are higher than in Southern Hemisphere right whales, due largely to human-caused deaths (IWC 2001b) (see Threats below). <br/><br/><strong><em>Northeast Atlantic</em></strong><br/><br/><em>Historic</em><br/>The first records of Basque whaling in the Bay of Biscay are from the 11th century. At least dozens of whales were taken each year in the Bay of Biscay until a marked decline was evident by 1650, and whaling declined during the 18th century. Basque whalers arrived in Iceland as early as 1412, and participated in the right whale fishery around the British Isles and Norway from the 14th to the 18th century, but probably many more whales were taken by Dutch, Danish, British and Norwegian whalers. Quantitative estimates of catches are not available. Historic right whale catches as far north as Iceland and Norway appear to have been mainly <em>E. glacialis</em>, with <em>Balaena mysticetus</em> (bowhead) being the main species only in the far north (Greenland and Svalbard) (Aguilar 1986). Smith <em>et al.</em> (2006) documented extensive whaling for <em>E. glacialis</em> in the North Cape area (northern Norway) in the 17th century. Right whaling in the northeastern Atlantic seems to have declined from the mid-17th century and all but disappeared by the mid-18th century, but there was a brief period of right whale catches by modern whalers operating from shore stations in the British Isles and off Iceland, with at least 120 right whales were taken during 1881-1924 (Collett 1909, Brown 1986). The last recorded catch was a cow-calf pair off Madeira in 1967, accompanied by a third individual that escaped.<br/><br/><em>Current</em><br/>It is not clear whether there is a remnant Northeast Atlantic population or whether the animals seen there in modern times are strays from the west. There have been only eight confirmed sightings from 1960 to 1999, including the animal sighted in Norway in 1999, which was matched with the western north Atlantic population (IWC 2001b). A possible right whale was sighted in the Bay of Biscay in 1977 (Aguilar 1981) and a cow-calf pair was sighted off Cape Vincent, Portugal in 1995 (Martin and Walker 1997). A recent survey of the former Cintra Bay calving ground off Western Sahara failed to locate any right whales (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 1998), although survey conditions were often poor.
41712		population	eng	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>Historic<br/>It is not clear when Basque whaling began in the northwestern North Atlantic, but it had been established by no later than 1530. An estimated 25,000-40,000 right whales were taken off Labrador and Newfoundland between 1530 and 1610 (Aguilar 1986) although recent genetic data have suggested that many of these were bowheads (Reeves 2001, Rastogi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shore-based whaling along the US east coast began in the mid 17th century, with an estimated 2,000-3,800 taken during 1696-1734.  Whaling continued sporadically over the next two centuries, with a few hundred taken in total until the last catch in 1935 (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Current<br/>The current population is of about 300–350 individuals off the east coast of North America. IWC (2001a) obtained a minimum estimate of 263 in 1996 from identified animals known to be alive at that time, and indicated that the true population is probably not much higher.  Kraus <em>et al.</em> (2001) provided a minimum estimate of 299 in 1998 based on animals presumed to be alive at that time (and not missing for more than 5 years).  Preliminary analysis of more recent data have yielded estimates similar to those above. The whales are regularly surveyed in the winter calving ground off Florida and Georgia, and in spring/summer feeding grounds in Cape Cod Bay, the Great South Channel off Massachusetts, the Gulf of Maine, the Scotian Shelf, and the Bay of Fundy, but not all the whales using the wintering ground are seen in these major summering areas (IWC 2001a).  There have been a few sightings in recent years in the Gulf of St Lawrence, two off Iceland in 2003, and one in the former whaling ground off Cape Farewell in 2004 (IWC 2005).   A sighting off Norway in 1999 was identified as a well-known animal from the western North Atlantic population (IWC 2001a). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic </strong><br/>Historic<br/>The first records of Basque whaling in the Bay of Biscay are from the 11th century. At least dozens of whales were taken each year in the Bay of Biscay until a marked decline was evident by 1650; whaling continued there until the 18th century. Basque whalers arrived in Iceland as early as 1412, and participated in the right whale fishery around the British Isles and Norway from the 14th to the 18th century, but probably many more whales were taken by Dutch, Danish, British and Norwegian whalers. Quantitative estimates of catches are not available. Historic right whale catches as far north as Iceland and Norway appear to have been mainly <em>E. glacialis</em>, with <em>Balaena mysticetus</em> (bowhead) being the main species only in the far north (Greenland and Svalbard) (Aguilar 1986). Smith <em>et al.</em> (2006) document extensive whaling for <em>E. glacialis</em> in the North Cape area (northern Norway) in the 17th century. Right whaling seems to have declined from the mid-17th century and disappeared by the mid-18th century, but there was a brief period of right whale catches by modern whalers operating from shore stations in the British Isles and off Iceland, where at least 120 right whales were taken during 1881-1924 (Collett 1909, Brown 1986). The last recorded catch was a cow-calf pair off Madeira in 1967, accompanied by a third individual which escaped.<br/><br/>Current<br/>It is not clear whether there is a remnant Northeast Atlantic population or whether the animals seen here in modern times are strays from the west.  There have been only eight confirmed sightings from 1960 to 1999, including the animal sighted in Norway in 1999 which was matched with the western north Atlantic population (IWC 2001a). A possible right whale was sighted in the Bay of Biscay in 1977 (Aguilar 1981) and a cow-calf pair was sighted off Cape Vincent, Portugal in 1995 (Martin and Walker 1997). A recent survey of the former Cintra Bay calving ground off the Western Sahara failed to locate any right whales (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 1998), although survey conditions were often poor.
41712		threats	eng	Right whales in the North Atlantic are no longer hunted, and the most serious current threat is death or injury from entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships off the eastern coast of North America (Knowlton and Kraus 2001; Kraus and Rolland 2007). <br/><br/>During 1999-2003, the recorded human-caused mortality and serious injury averaged 2.6 animals per year, of which 1.6 per year were fishery entanglements and 1.0 vessel collisions. A further 11 deaths (8 ship strikes, 1 entanglement and two of unknown cause) were reported between 2004 and the end of 2006. Based on scarring from fishing gear it is estimated that at least 72% of the right whale population had been involved in an entanglement event at some point in their lives, and that 10-30% of the population is entangled each year (Clapham 2005). Because some anthropogenic deaths probably pass undetected, reported rates are considered minimal.<br/><br/>Hypotheses that have been advanced to explain the low reproductive rates observed for several years include: genetic factors, poor nutrition, chemical contaminants, biotoxins, disease. (IWC 2001c, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, reproduction has increased in recent years.
41712		threats	eng	Right whales in the North Atlantic are no longer hunted, and the most serious current threats are deaths and injuries from entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships off the eastern coast of North America (Knowlton and Kraus 2001).  <br/><br/>During 1999-2003, the recorded human-caused mortality and serious injury averaged 2.6 animals per year, of which 1.6 per year were fishery entanglements and 1.0 vessel collisions. A further 11 deaths (8 ship strikes, 1 entanglement and two of unknown cause) were reported between 2004 and the end of 2006. Based on scarring from fishing gear it is estimated that at least 72% of the right whale population had been involved in an entanglement event at some point in their lives, and that 10-30% of the population are entangled each year (Clapham 2005).  Because some anthropogenic mortalities probably pass undetected, reported rates are likely minima.<br/><br/>Hypotheses that have been advanced to explain the low reproductive rates observed for several years include: genetic factors, poor nutrition, chemical contaminants, biotoxins, disease (IWC 2001b, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, reproduction in recent years has increased; whether this rate will continue is unknown.
41713		conservation	eng	<p>Blue whales are protected worldwide, including the Antarctic, by the International Whaling Commission, and no hunting currently occurs.&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The species is on Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.</span>
41713		distribution	eng	<p>The Antarctic blue whale occurs in summer between the Antarctic Polar Front and into the pack ice zone, being most abundant near the ice edge (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2007).&#160; Modern sightings are aggregated close to the edge of the pack ice, while past catches extended further north. Whether this is due to retreat of the pack ice since the time of catching (de la Mare 1997), or because the distribution of the species has contracted following exploitation, is unclear. Over 40,000 blue whales were caught in the waters around <st1:place w:st="on">South Georgia</st1:place>, but the species is rare there now (Moore <em>et al.</em> 1999).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The winter distribution is poorly known, except that Antarctic blue whales occur in winter around southern Africa (including <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Namibia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>) where they were formerly caught in large numbers (IWC 2006; Best 1998). Elsewhere there are scattered records, but the sub-specific identity is often in doubt. The assumption has been that animals migrate to lower latitudes in winter, but a portion of the population may remain in Antarctic all the year round.</p>
41713		habitat	eng	<p>Antarctic blue whales are the largest living animal, with lengths up to 33.6m. They feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (krill), especially <em>Euphausia superba</em> (Mackintosh and Wheeler 1929). In summer they feed predominantly near the edge of the pack ice zone. </p>
41713		population	eng	The Antarctic blue whale was extremely abundant in the past; about 341,830 blue whales were recorded caught in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic (IWC 2006) in the 20<sup>th</sup> century, of which 12,618 were identified as pygmy blue whales or are assumed to have been so from their location (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; About 40,000 of these were taken around <st1:place w:st="on">South Georgia</st1:place>. In addition, the majority of the over 17,000 blue whales caught off southern <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> were probably Antarctic blue whales (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2007). Ignoring these and other catches north of 40°S, Branch <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated the pre-exploitation (1905) abundance to be 239,000 (202,000-311,000). The<span class="msoIns"> </span>estimated population size in 1996, based primarily on data from the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) —later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research</span> (SOWER) programme - whale sightings cruises, was 1,700 (860-2,900) with an estimated annual rate of increase of 7.3% (1.4-11.6%). The default value of 31 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species. That implies that the time window for applying the A (reduction) criterion is 1914-2007. Branch <em>et al</em>.'s initial (1905) population estimate can be taken as a conservative (i.e., negatively biased) proxy for the 1914 population size, because few (< 1,000) catches were taken during 1904-11and those authors excluded the 17,000 catches off <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Africa</st1:place>. Their estimate for the ratio of the 1996 population size to the initial is 0.7% (0.3-1.3%). Even allowing for a doubling of the population size since 1996, the Antarctic blue whale population remains below 3% of the 1914 level.</span>
41713		threats	eng	The main threat in the past was direct exploitation, which only became possible (on more than an occasional basis) in the modern era using deck-mounted harpoon cannons. Whaling on Antarctic blue whales began in 1904 based in <st1:place w:st="on">South  Georgia</st1:place>. With the advent of factory-ship whaling in the 1920s, catching spread around the Antarctic, reaching a peak in 1930-31 when more than 30,000 were taken.&#160; Southern Hemisphere blue whales have been protected under the International Whaling Convention since 1966. Continued illegal catches of blue whales by factory ships from the former <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USSR</st1:place></st1:country-region> until 1972 were primarily pygmy blue whales. The Antarctic blue whale population was reduced to a dangerously small size (low hundreds) by the end of whaling but is now increasing (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2004). Antarctic blue whales are not known to be subject to any current direct anthropogenic threats.</span>
41714		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>More research is needed to establish the range and clarify the taxonomy of the genus <em>Tursiops</em>. More information is also needed on population size and the extent and magnitude of direct and indirect takes so that their impact on this species can be assessed.
41714		distribution	eng	The Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin has a discontinuous distribution in the warm temperate to tropical Indo-Pacific, from South Africa in the west, along the rim of the Indian Ocean (including the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and Indo-Malay Archipelago as far east as the Solomon Islands and possibly New Caledonia) to the southern half of Japan and southeast Australia in the east (Wells and Scott 2002; Möller and Beheregaray 2001). It is also found around oceanic islands distant from major land masses within this range.
41714		habitat	eng	Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins generally occur over shallow coastal waters on the continental shelf or around oceanic islands. They sometimes occur in mixed groups with common bottlenose dolphins and other delphinid species. They feed on a wide variety of schooling, demersal and reef fishes, as well as cephalopods (Ross 1984; J.Y. Wang, unpubl. data).
41714		population	eng	Few estimates of abundance have been made. There are estimated to be 520-530 bottlenose dolphins off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, most of which are probably <em>T. aduncus</em> (the rest <em>T. truncatus</em> – Cockcroft <em>et al</em>. 1992). Between 136 and 179 (95% Cis = 124-212) are known off Zanzibar, Tanzania (Stensland <em>et al</em>. 2006); at least 1,200 in the Persian Gulf (Preen 2004); at least 400 photo-identified along the rim of the Swatch-of-No-Ground, Bangladesh (Rubaiyat Mansur Mowgli and Brian D. Smith pers. comm.); about 218 off western Kyushu, Japan (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 2002); 169 off Mikura Island, Japan (Kogi <em>et al</em>. 2004); low tens at the southern tip of Taiwan and about 50 from the northeastern Philippines (J. Y. Wang pers. comm.); 1,099 off Queensland, eastern Australia (Chilvers and Corkeron 2003) and at least 2,000-3,000 in Shark Bay western Australia (Preen <em>et al</em>. 1997).
41714		threats	eng	The species’ near-shore distribution makes it vulnerable to environmental degradation, direct exploitation, and fishery conflicts (Curry and Smith 1997, Wells and Scott 1999; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Until hunting was outlawed in 1990, this species was hunted in a large-scale drive fishery in Taiwan’s Penghu Islands. Some Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins are taken in the small cetacean fisheries of Sri Lanka. <br/><br/>Incidental catches occur in a number of fisheries throughout the range, including gillnets and purse seines. A Taiwanese shark gillnet fishery operated in northern Australian waters during the early 1980s and took up to 2,000 per year (Harwood and Hembree 1987). Incidental catch in Taiwan continues to be a serious problem. For example, multiple individuals have been seen observed in single catches there and throughout most of the species’ range (J.Y. Wang pers. comm.). A large proportion of dolphins (~40%) off Bangladesh exhibit scars and mutilations consistent with rope and net entanglement in trawl and gill-net fisheries (Rubaiyat Mansur Mowgli and Brian D. Smith pers. comm.). In South Africa and Australia, Indo-Pacific Bottlenose dolphins also suffer considerable mortality in the large-mesh nets set to protect bathers from sharks (Peddemors 1999; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Live-captures for oceanarium display have taken place in Taiwan, Indonesia and the Solomon Islands in recent years from unassessed populations; their preference as a captive display species makes them vulnerable to depletion from such catches (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1999, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kahn ).<br/><br/>Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins in coastal areas are exposed to a wide variety of threats in addition to direct and indirect takes. Threats that are cause for concern include: 1) the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals; 2) reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing (Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001); 3) direct and indirect disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic and commercial dolphin watching and interactive programs); 4) marine construction and demolition and 5) other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (including anthropogenic noise). Although these and other threats are technically challenging to quantify by comparison with takes, their cumulative impact is likely to result in longitudinal population declines. Lack of historical data in many cases hampers understanding of long-term trends, possibly resulting in shifting baselines.
41715		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Estimates of abundance are needed as well as information on direct and incidental takes.
41715		distribution	eng	Previously known primarily from the southern coast of eastern South America, from Uruguay and southern Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, this species is now known from offshore in the southern Hemisphere (Brownell and Clapham 1999). There are records from the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, Macquarie Island, and the Auckland Islands. Although rarely seen at sea (there are only a few dozen live sightings), this information suggests that the spectacled porpoise’s range may be circumpolar in the sub-Antarctic zone (with water temperatures of at least 1-10°C) (Goodall 2002). The southernmost sighting is from 64°34'S.
41715		habitat	eng	Spectacled porpoises seem to occur only in cold temperate waters. Although they have been observed or incidentally caught in coastal waters and reported from rivers and channels, their habitat is thought to be primarily oceanic. Where recorded, water temperatures associated with sightings ranged from 5.5°C to 9.5°C (Brownell and Clapham, 1999).<br/><br/>Only four stomachs have been examined; the contents included anchovies and stomatopods (mantis shrimp).
41715		population	eng	There are no estimates of abundance.
41715		threats	eng	Spectacled porpoises may be taken deliberately for crab bait off southern Chile. The effects of these catches on spectacled porpoise subpopulations are not known (Jefferson <em>et al</em>.1993).<br/><br/>Like all phocoenoids, spectacled porpoises are caught in gillnets. At least 34 animals were killed incidentally between 1975 and 1990 in coastal gill nets set in Tierra del Fuego, and there was a co-occurrence of strandings and fishing activity in southeastern Chile, suggesting additional undocumented mortality from this source. Some mortality of spectacled porpoises was also reported from bottom and mid-water trawls off the coast of Chubut, Argentina (Brownell and Clapham, 1999).
41716		conservation	eng	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance, and distribution is needed.
41716		distribution	eng	This species may be widespread in the western Pacific Ocean (Lourie and Randall 2003).
41716		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the ecology of this species.  It is one of the smallest seahorse species, measuring less than 2 cm in height (Lourie and Randall 2003).  It has a specific habitat, being found only on gorgonian corals <em>Annella reticulata, Muricella</em> and <em>Echinogorgia</em>, at depths ranging from 13–90 m (Lourie and Randall 2003).
41716		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are currently unknown, however their small size and attractive colouration makes it possible they could be collected for the aquaria trade.
41717		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures in place for <em>A. nichofii</em>. The species may be protected in small areas of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia, although commercial fishing is still permitted in the majority of the park.
41717		distribution	eng	<em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species, ranging from Japan to Australia and west to Pakistan. There are single records from the Maldives and from southern Mozambique, indicating that the species may have a wider distribution in the Indian Ocean than currently thought. In Australia, the species is recorded in tropical waters from Bonaparte Archipelago, Western Australia to Hervey Bay, Queensland, including waters of the Northern Territory (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999, Kyne <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
41717		habitat	eng	A demersal species on the continental shelf inshore to at least 70 m. Born at about 17 cm disc width (DW) and reaches at least 64 cm DW. Viviparous with litters of up to four young (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). Nothing else is known of this species' biology.
41717		population	eng	Currently there are no available data on populations.
41717		threats	eng	The species is a major commercial eagle ray that is marketed throughout the region, except in northern Australia. It is naturally rare and has declined due to heavy trawling in southeast Asia since the 1960s. The species is rarely seen in both Thai and Indonesian market catches, where the Gulf of Thailand and Indonesian waters are subject to increasing trawling. It was previously more common in Thai markets. In Australian waters the species is rare with few museum records and ranges over moderately trawled areas (east coast of Queensland, Gulf of Carpentaria). The species may also be associated with coral reefs, which are under increasing pressure throughout most of its tropical range.
41718		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
41718		distribution	eng	<em>Apristurus albisoma</em> has a limited geographic range. It is endemic to the Western South Pacific, occurring on the island slopes of New Caledonia and adjacent sea mounts (Norfolk and Lord Howe ridges), at depths of 935 to 1,564 m.
41718		habitat	eng	A deepwater catshark (occurs in insular areas and seamount slopes 935 to 1,564 m) that matures at 40 to 50 cm length, reaches a maximum of 60 cm and is likely to be very susceptible to depletion to bycatch because of low intrinsic rates of population increase. The species eats penaeid shrimp and squid. It has a stocky, soft body and fragile skin, and is probably a poor swimmer with limited ability to recolonise depleted areas.
41718		population	eng	There is no information on population size.
41718		threats	eng	Possibly a bycatch of deepwater fisheries, but of no value and would be discarded.
41719		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures in place.
41719		distribution	eng	<em>Apristurus exsanguis</em> is endemic to New Zealand. It has been recorded from off Three Kings Islands, North and South Islands, southern Lord Howe Rise, Challenger Plateau, Hikurangi Trough, Chatham Rise and Campbell Plateau to about 54°S. Depth 573 to 1,200 m.
41719		habitat	eng	The biology of all <em>Apristurus</em> species within the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is very poorly known due to the uncertain taxonomy of the group. They appear to be most abundant below 1,000 m, and are the only sharks regularly taken in research trawls below 1,200 m on the Chatham Rise. <em>A. exsanguis</em> is a widespread mid to lower slope species. Probably bottom-living. Although its maximum recorded depth is 1,200 m there have been relatively few research trawls below this depth and it is possible that they occur deeper than this (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Males and females mature between 650–700 mm total length. Reproduction is oviparous. The dark brown egg case is about 68 mm long and 29 mm wide. There is a slight constriction in the anterior third of the case, and its surface is entirely covered by fine fibers and fine longitudinal grooves. The edges of the egg case are flanged and end in horn-like processes with long coiled tendrils. Fecundity is unknown. Diet is probably similar to other Apristurus species (i.e., small bony fishes and caridean shrimps).
41719		population	eng	There is no information on population size.
41719		threats	eng	Deepwater bottom trawling. As relatively little fishing occurs below 1,200 m and the species may occur in deeper water than this, a part of its population may be beyond current fishing depth (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998, Wetherbee 2000). There is also relatively little deepwater trawling effort in the northern part of the species distribution. This situation may change as deepwater fisheries expand.
41720		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. The level of bycatch in fisheries needs to be assessed, as does the level of retention in the SETF.
41720		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus analis</em> is endemic to the western Pacific in temperate to subtropical waters off eastern Australia, ranging from southeastern Queensland to Lakes Entrance, Victoria, including waters of New South Wales (Kyne <em>et al.</em> in prep, Alastair Graham, pers. comm).
41720		habitat	eng	<em>Asymbolus analis</em> is demersal on the continental shelf and is reported in depths of 40 to 159 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Kyne <em>et al.</em> in prep). It reaches at least 60 cm total length (TL) with the smallest mature male reported at 45.8 cm TL, and the smallest mature female 45.5 cm TL (Kyne <em>et al.</em> in prep). Little is known of the biology of the species. Observed stomach contents include fish, cephalopods and crustaceans (pers. obs). The species is oviparous with one functional ovary. Mature females with large ripe ovarian ova have been observed during the months of March, September and October (Kyne <em>et al</em>. in prep.), suggesting that the species may not have a well-defined reproductive season, similar to the situation with other scyliorhinid sharks. There is no available information on age and growth, natural mortality or behavioural ecology.
41720		population	eng	There is no available information on subpopulations, however, a number are likely to exist.
41720		threats	eng	<em>Asymbolus analis</em> is considered to be less common than other closely related <em>Asymbolus</em> species (Last and Stevens 1994). The species is not targeted commercially, however it is captured as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Stevens 1994). It is reported to be retained in the South East Trawl Fishery (SETF), which operates in southern Australian waters from New South Wales to South Australia, although the quantity is unknown (Rose and SAG 2001). It is an uncommon component of the bycatch of the deepwater component of the eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Kyne, unpublished data). It is also likely to occur as bycatch in the New South Wales Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery.
41721		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41721		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus funebris</em> is restricted to a confined region in southern Australia near Recherche Archipelago off the coast of Western Australia.
41721		habitat	eng	<em>A. funebris</em> is found in depths of approximately 195 m. This species grows to at least 44 cm total length (TL). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41721		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning this species. Current data are based on a single specimen.
41721		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries in this area due to its small size.
41722		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.
41722		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus occiduus</em> is distributed along the southern and western coasts of Australia from Fowlers Bay (South Australia) to Perth (Western Australia).
41722		habitat	eng	<em>A. occiduus</em> is found in depths from 98 to 250 m and is most abundant on the outer continental shelf. This species that reaches at least 60 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 58 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41722		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
41722		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries in this area due to its small size and limited fisheries in the region.
41723		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.
41723		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus pallidus</em> is restricted to a confined region in northeastern Australia from Swain Reefs to Cairns off the coast of Queensland.
41723		habitat	eng	<em>A. pallidus</em> is found in depths from 270 to 400 m.  This is a small tropical species that reaches at least 46 cm total length (TL) with young hatching at 19 cm and males mature at 32 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41723		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
41723		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries.
41724		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41724		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus parvus</em> is restricted to a confined region in northwestern Australia between Dampier and the Buccaneer Archipelago off the coast of Western Australia.
41724		habitat	eng	<em>A. parvus</em> is found in depths ranging from 59 to 252 m. This species grows to approximately 33 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 28 cm TL. This is a tropical species that is most commonly found on the outer continental shelf. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41724		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
41724		threats	eng	This species may be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries, e.g., the Pilbara Trawl Fishery, but is believed to have high survival rates and is thought to be discarded when caught.
41725		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Due to its bathymetric distribution it is unlikely to occur inside any marine protected areas. Research needs to assess the level of bycatch in trawl fisheries and the life history of the species.
41725		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus rubiginosus</em> is endemic to the western Pacific in temperate to subtropical waters off eastern Australia, ranging from Moreton Island, southeastern Queensland to Port Arthur, Tasmania, including waters of New South Wales and Victoria (Last and Stevens 1994, Last 1999).
41725		habitat	eng	<em>Asymbolus rubiginosus</em> is demersal on the continental shelf and upper slope and is reported in depths of 25 to 540 m (Last 1999), although it is uncommon in shallower waters. It reaches at least 549 mm total length (TL) with males maturing at about 344 mm TL (Last 1999). Little is known of the biology of this species. Observed stomach contents include fish, cephalopods and the egg cases of other scyliorhinid sharks (personal observation). The species is oviparous with one functional ovary in females. Ovulated females generally contain two egg cases, one in each oviduct. Ovulated females have been observed during the months of July, August and October (personal observation). The species may not have a well-defined reproductive season, similar to the situation with other scyliorhinid sharks and evidence suggests it may be a productive species. There is no available information on age and growth, natural mortality or behavioural ecology.
41725		population	eng	There is no available information on subpopulations, however, a number are likely to exist.
41725		threats	eng	<em>Asymbolus rubiginosus</em> is presently of no commercial value (Last and Stevens 1994). It is recorded as discarded bycatch in the South East Trawl Fishery, which operates in southern Australian waters from New South Wales to South Australia (Anonymous 2001). In bycatch surveys of the eastern king prawn sector, deepwater component of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, <em>A. rubiginosus</em> was the second most common elasmobranch caught, although numbers captured were still relatively low (Kyne, unpubl. data). It is probable that the species is also a component of the bycatch of other demersal trawl fisheries operating in its distribution.
41726		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.
41726		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus submaculatus</em> is restricted to a confined region in southwestern Australia from Recherche Archipelago to Cape Naturalist off the coast of southern Western Australia.
41726		habitat	eng	<em>A. submaculatus</em> is found in depths of up to 150 m. It is reported to be nocturnal inhabiting caves and ledges. This species grows to at least 43 cm total length (TL). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41726		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
41726		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries in this area due to its small size and habitat use.
41727		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.
41727		distribution	eng	<em>Asymbolus vincenti</em> is distributed along the southern coast of Australia from Bass Straight (Victoria) to Cape Leeuwin (Western Australia) including Tasmania.
41727		habitat	eng	<em>A. vincenti</em> has been reported from depths of 130 to 220 m in the Great Australian Bight. In the east, off western Tasmania and Bass Strait, it is found mostly at depths less than 100 m and is frequently found in seagrass beds near the coast in this area. This species reaches at least 56 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 38 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41727		population	eng	Appears to be most common in the Great Australian Bight.  No scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
41727		threats	eng	This species is caught in trawl fisheries in southern Australia.  There is no available detailed information on bycatch of this species, but it is likely to be caught only irregularly.
41728		conservation	eng	Further investigation into the population structure, range and biology of this species is required to be able to more accurately assess the threats to this species. Species composition data from the fisheries operating within the known range of this species is necessary.
41728		distribution	eng	<em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em> is a common offshore benthic species on the continental shelf of Western Australia between Exmouth (22°S 114°15'E) and off the southern end of Eighty Mile Beach (20°S 120°E), and known from a few specimens from the Arafura Sea (10°37'S  133°47'E), Northern Territory, and from the Gulf of Carpentaria (16°38'S 140°02'E) and Torres Strait (10°31'S 140°48'E) Queensland (Compagno and Stevens 1993). Further information on the extent of this species off the Northern Territory and Queensland are required to ascertain the full distribution of this species.
41728		habitat	eng	<em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em> is reported from sand and shelly sand bottoms in depths between 27 and 122 m with the vast majority recorded in depths shallower than 60 m. Females and males of this species are reported to attain a maximum length of 45.1 and 40.2 cm, respectively, with the smallest mature individuals being 35.3 and 32.9 cm in length, respectively. The maximum weight recorded is 258 g for a 45.1 cm mature female (Compagno and Stevens 1993). This species is oviparous, with several mature specimens possessing bright yellow, thick-walled egg cases in each oviduct, approximately 6.7 cm in length (Compagno and Stevens 1993).
41728		threats	eng	Although very little is known about this species, it is of little or no commercial value and it is unlikely that populations of this species are under any direct threat. The only fishery in its distribution and depth range is a small scampi trawl fishery (only very few boats) and if it is caught as bycatch the amount is expected to be very small (if any).
41729		conservation	eng	Further investigation into the population structure, range and biology of this species is required. Although it is unlikely that this species is caught in any fisheries within its range, species composition data from the fisheries operating near the range of this species is still favourable.
41729		distribution	eng	<em>Atelomycterus macleayi</em> is confined to tropical Australia between Port Hedland in Western Australia to Melville Island in Northern Territory and possibly into Queensland (Whitley 1940, Springer 1979, Compagno 1988, Paxton <em>et al.</em> 1989, Last and Stevens 1994). Further investigation of the distribution of this species in Queensland is required.
41729		habitat	eng	<em>Atelomycterus macleayi</em> is reported from shallow, inshore regions on both sandy and rocky bottoms 0.5 to 3.5 m in depth (Springer 1979, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). This species is reported to attain a maximum length of 60 cm, with males maturing at 48 cm and females at 51 cm and hatching at approximately 10 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). This species is oviparous, with one mature female recorded as containing one egg capsule about 66 by 21 mm (Springer 1979).
41729		threats	eng	Although very little is known about this species, it is of little or no commercial value and is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries due to its apparent habitat range.
41730		conservation	eng	Protection of the natural habitat of this species and education should be considered in the future for such coral dwelling species in this region. The collection of species composition data from fisheries within the range of this species is necessary.
41730		distribution	eng	<em>Atelomycterus marmoratus</em> has a wide range in the tropical regions of the Indo-West Pacific  (Fowler 1941, Springer 1979, Compagno 1984, Yamakawa <em>et al.</em> 1995, Compagno and Niem 1998). <br/> <br/>Although McKay (1966) recorded three specimens of <em>A. marmoratus</em> from Western Australia, further examination revealed these as in fact being one <em>Atelomycterus macleayi</em> and two <em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em> (Compagno and Stevens 1993). Thus, this species is apparently absent from Australian waters but has been recorded from New Guinea (Springer 1979, Compagno 1988).
41730		habitat	eng	Little is known about this common inshore species. Found on coral reefs and thought to inhabit crevices and holes on reefs (Compagno 1984). <em>Atelomycterus marmoratus</em> is reported to attain a length of 70 cm, adult males between 47 and 62 cm; adult females 49 to 57 cm (Compagno 1984). There is no available information on the reproductive biology, age and growth or diets of this species.
41730		threats	eng	Although <em>A. marmoratus</em> is widespread through the Indo-West Pacific, habitat destruction within its range, and increasing fishing pressure are likely to represent significant threats. This species may be under threat from habitat destruction by dynamite fishing, especially in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Tanjung Luar in Lombok (W. White, personal observation), and also maybe by coral removal in some parts of the region for use as building materials, e.g., Candi Dasa in Bali. Fisheries catches appear to be only minor throughout this species distribution, for example, it represents a minor catch in artisanal fisheries in several eastern Indonesian localities (W. White pers. obs.), and although it is probably caught in fisheries in West Papua and other parts of its range,  information is very sparse. This species is close to the criteria of Vulnerable A2d+3d+4d due to the high level of exploitation within its range, but is assessed as Near Threatened due to the lack of detailed species composition data for fisheries and extent of habitat destruction in this region.
41731		conservation	eng	Species composition data from fisheries and from collectors for the aquarium trade in southwestern Australia are required.
41731		distribution	eng	<em>Aulohalaelurus labiosus</em> is an endemic to Western Australia, from the Recherche Archipelago to the Houtman Abrolhos (Last and Stevens 1994).
41731		habitat	eng	<em>Aulohalaelurus labiosus</em> common endemic inshore catshark on the temperate Western Australian continental shelf, found in shallow coastal habitats and on offshore reefs at a depth of least 4 m (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>The biology of <em>A. labiosus</em> is virtually unknown. Oviparous, and attains at least 67 cm total length (TL), with adult males mature at approximately 54 cm and attaining at least 61 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White, unpubl. data). There is no published information on the age and growth or diets of this species.
41731		population	eng	There is no information on population size, but the species is apparently common.
41731		threats	eng	There is very little fishing pressure within the habitat range of this species in southwestern Australia and is also of little or no commercial value. There is evidence that this small, attractively spotted catshark enters the marine aquarium trade with several having been observed in aquarium retailers in Western Australia and it is possible that this may extend to elsewhere (Compagno, in prep., W. White, personal observation).
41732		conservation	eng	A number of Marine Protected Areas occur within the known range of <em>B. waddi</em>, however the zoning plans for these parks are complex and fishing activities are permitted in many of them, resulting in only a small area of fully protected sanctuaries. Marine Protected Areas in NSW waters where <em>B. waddi</em> is likely to occur and where commercial and recreational fishing activities are completely banned in at least some sections of the park are: Solitary Islands Marine Park (total area 71,000 hectares), Jervis Bay Marine Park (21,450 hectares), Cabbage Tree Bay Aquatic Reserve (Sydney, 17 hectares), Bushrangers Bay Aquatic Reserve (Shell Harbour, 3 hectares) and Shiprock Aquatic Reserve (Port Hacking, two hectares). There is currently also a proposal for a Marine Park in the Bryon Bay region of northern NSW. In Queensland, <em>B. waddi</em> occurs in Moreton Bay Marine Park (306,000 hectares). Only small areas of this park with habitat suitable for <em>B. waddi</em> (Flinders Reef, north of Cape Moreton and Peel Island) are protected from fishing activities. Additionally, the species is likely to occur in the Commonwealth managed Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (17,000 hectares), adjacent to NSW?s Solitary Islands Marine Park. <br/> <br/>Although currently not at risk of extinction, research into this species is needed to provide data on life history and ecology, to identify the level of interaction with fisheries as bycatch, and to provide more information on the status of the species.
41732		distribution	eng	<em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> is endemic to the western South Pacific Ocean in warm temperate to subtropical waters along the east coast of Australia ranging from Mooloolaba in southern Queensland south to Jervis Bay in New South Wales (NSW) (Last and Stevens 1994, Johnson 1999). Last and Stevens (1994) state that "reports from Western Australia and the Northern Territory require confirmation". However, there are no confirmed reports of the species from either Western Australia (Barry Hutchins, personal communication) or from the Northern Territory (Helen Larson, personal communication) and it is probable that the grey carpetshark, <em>Chiloscyllium punctatum</em> (family Hemiscylliidae), may have been mistaken for <em>B. waddi</em> in these areas (Last and Stevens 1994, Barry Hutchins, personal communication).
41732		habitat	eng	<em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> is a secretive nocturnal benthic shark inhabiting rocky shorelines and reefs, and also nearby seagrass beds. It remains in rocky caves and under ledges during the day moving out to feed at night. Juveniles often occupy ledges, crevices and seagrass beds in high-energy surge zones (Kuiter 1993, Michael 1993). The species is reported over the continental shelf from the intertidal zone to 140 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Detailed dietary assessments are unavailable, however, the species is reported to feed on a variety of reef invertebrates, including sea anemones, squid and crustaceans, as well as small fishes (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994). Last and Stevens (1994) report a maximum size of 120 cm total length (TL), but note that individuals are normally much smaller than this maximum. A male of 60 cm TL and a female of 66 cm TL were both reported to be sexually mature (Last and Stevens 1994). This appears to be the only available information on sexual maturity in the species, and a smaller size at maturity is possible. <br/> <br/><em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> displays aplacental yolksac viviparity with litters of 7 to 8 young (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994). Parturition occurs around November, based on observations off Sydney, New South Wales (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994). Young are born at 17 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Reproductive periodicity is assumed to be annual. There are no estimates available on gestation periods. Similarly, information on age and growth, natural mortality and behavioural ecology is lacking.
41732		population	eng	<em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> is relatively common throughout its range. There is no available information on subpopulations.
41732		threats	eng	This species is not targeted or marketed commercially (Last and Stevens 1994). The flesh is reported to be unpalatable (Grant 1978) and recreational fishing is thought to have little impact on the species. Rock fishers often encounter blind sharks (Last and Stevens 1994), and while recreational fishers in NSW  have been reported to retain very small amounts of the species (Rose and SAG 2001), it is thought that the shark is generally not retained and is probably mostly returned to the water (Dave Pollard, personal communication). Spearfishers are unlikely to encounter <em>B. waddi</em> because of its cryptic nocturnal nature. The species is likely to be taken as bycatch in demersal prawn trawl fisheries in NSW (ocean prawn trawl fishery) and in Queensland (East Coast Trawl Fishery). The NSW Ocean Trap and Line Fishery is also likely to occasionally capture this species, however numbers taken as bycatch are not known as there are no statistics available (Nick Otway, personal communication). Blind sharks are reported to be able to remain out of water for extended periods of time (up to 18 hours) (Michael 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). This apparent hardiness implies that the species could survive trawl capture more readily than other species if successfully returned to the water. <br/> <br/>Shark control programs (SCP) operate in NSW and Queensland waters within the range of <em>B. waddi</em>. Dudley and Gribble (1999) report the species from the Queensland SCP but no details were provided. The shark has never been recorded in the NSW Protective Beach Meshing Program (Dennis Reid, personal communication). The mesh size used in the NSW program is 50-60 cm and in the Queensland program 50 cm, therefore blind sharks are likely to readily pass through the nets if encountered. Its capture in the Queensland SCP is likely to be extremely rare. <br/> <br/>Blindsharks are exploited at low levels for the marine aquarium trade and are reported to be hardy and well suited to aquarium display (Michael 2001). The exact level of pressure placed on their populations by capture for this trade is unknown. The above interactions with the species are assumed to be having minimal impact on the viability of its populations. Furthermore, despite its cryptic nature, it appears to be relatively common, particularly in NSW waters (Jeff Johnson, personal communication).
41733		conservation	eng	The broad distribution and common occurrence of <em>C. cautus</em> is offset by the susceptibility of the species to inshore gill-net fisheries. Future research should examine the level of bycatch in these fisheries, together with their attendant mortalities. An education program aimed at encouraging release of sharks would have a limited effect, as individual sharks caught in nets die quickly of hypoxia. Practical action in the form of net restrictions will be the only effective measure. Research into population sizes and movements of individuals, via tag-release-recapture studies, is required to better understand this species.
41733		distribution	eng	Occurs on continental and insular shelves in shallow water in sub-tropical and tropical waters of northern Australia, Papua New Guinea (P.N.G.) and the Solomon Islands. It seems likely that this species may also be found in the intervening waters around east P.N.G. The southern extent of its range on the east coast of Australia has been recently extended following the capture of mature adults and young sharks in Moreton Bay, Queensland (Kyne <em>et al</em>., in prep.). It is the most common carcharhinid in Darwin Harbour (Northern Territory), which lies at the centre of this species? range. It is one of the six most common near-shore species on the eastern side of the Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland) and is also common in Shark Bay (Western Australia).
41733		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow warm, coastal waters including large embayments. They may be more common in areas that are fringed by mangroves, possibly preferring a sand/mud substrate, although they are also found in areas away from mangroves (Lyle 1987, White <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is often found in association with <em>C. melanopterus, C. dussumieri, C. amblyrhynchos, C. sorrah, C. tilsoni, C. fitzroyensis</em> and <em>Rhizoprionodon acutus</em>. Very similar to <em>C. melanopterus</em> (but lacks conspicuous black tips to the first dorsal and anal fins) and may have been confused in parts of its range. It is reported to reach 150 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994) although other data suggest males reach about 120 cm and females 140 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). Males are thought to mature at about 79 to 84 cm TL and females at about 91 cm TL from Darwin, Northern Territory (Lyle 1987), but at 91 cm TL and 101 cm TL respectively from Shark Bay, Western Australia (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). Testes mass peaks in January, with sperm present in seminal vesicles in February/March (Lyle 1987). White <em>et al.</em> (2002) report ovulation and conception occurring in December. It seems likely that copulation occurs over a period of two or three months in mid/late-summer (December to March). Gestation lasts 10 months with a litter size of 2 to 6, produced every other year. Young are born at 33?39 cm TL. Males mature at 4 to 5 years of age and reach maximum body size by about 12 years. Females mature at 6 to 7 years, reaching a maximum size at about 16 years. <em>Carcharhinus cautus</em> has a varied diet, primarily consisting of teleost fishes, followed in importance by crustaceans (prawns, crabs, mantid shrimps) and molluscs (Lyle 1987, Salini <em>et al.</em> 1992). There are records of this species taking terrestrial snakes, indicating an opportunistic feeding behaviour (Lyle and Timms 1987).
41733		population	eng	There are no data on the populations of this species.
41733		threats	eng	This species is threatened primarily by inshore gill-net fisheries throughout its range. In Australia it is the barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>) fishery that poses the greatest threat. Smaller individuals may also be taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fisheries to the north of Australia. It will also be taken in shallow coastal gill net and line fisheries elsewhere in its range, where no data are available.
41734		conservation	eng	The life history characteristics of this species, together with its small size, make local populations particularly sensitive to fishing-induced declines. It is caught by all commonly used fishing techniques (mainly as bycatch), making it difficult to conserve without recourse to ?no-fishing zones?. The size of closed areas that would be needed to conserve this species is not known. Data need be collected on movement patterns of individuals (e.g., seasonal, reproductive migrations, diurnal movements) to assess the viability of such an approach.
41734		distribution	eng	Widespread in coastal waters down to about 170 m depth eastwards from the Arabian Gulf to Taiwan and Japan. Possibly occurs throughout much of Indonesia, but only documented from around Java, Bali, Borneo and eastern Sumatra at this time (Last and Stevens 1994).
41734		habitat	eng	This species is sometime confused with <em>Carcharhinus sealei</em>. It is a small species with a maximum reported length of 100 cm total length (TL), although specimens of up to about 90 cm TL are more common (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991).  Males mature at about 64 to 74 cm TL; females at about 67 to 71 cm TL (Garrick 1982, Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). There are no data on the age at maturity or longevity of this species. The usual litter size is two, rarely four, with young born at about 40 cm TL. There does not appear to be a distinct seasonal reproductive cycle, with pregnant females recorded at all times of year. As almost all mature females are reported to be pregnant or spent at any one time, there appears to be a continuous reproductive cycle. There are no data on the gestation period, and it seems likely that, on average, only two offspring will be produced annually. <em>Carcharhinus dussumieri</em> feeds primarily on teleost fishes, with crustaceans and cephalopods of slightly lesser importance (Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993, Salini <em>et al.</em>r 1994). Other minor prey groups include molluscs, annelids and brachyurans (Salini <em>et al.</em> 1994).
41734		population	eng	Inshore populations in much of the species? range have declined dramatically, with localised extirpations (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm). There is a relatively large population in northern Australia at this time, based on its continued appearance in trawl fisheries and gill-net fisheries as a major component of the bycatch.
41734		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is from fisheries in relatively shallow shelf and inshore waters throughout the whole of its range.  As a small shark (40-90 cm TL) it is caught by gillnetting, hook-and-line fishing and trawling.  In northern Australia it commonly comprises about 2-3% of trawl catch by biomass (Russell and Houston 1989).  While the population in Northern Australia appears fairly robust, there is evidence of severe depletions, including local extirpations, of this species in coastal waters throughout parts of its range in Asia (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.).
41735		conservation	eng	No conservation measures required at present.
41735		distribution	eng	<em>Carcharhinus fitzroyensis</em> occurs in tropical seas across the north of Australia and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. It ranges from the intertidal zone to a depth of at least 40 m (Last and Stevens 1994).
41735		habitat	eng	This species attains a maximum length of about 135 cm total length (TL) (Lyle 1987), with no sexual dimorphism apparent. There is no information about age at maturity for either sex, but males mature at about 83 to 88 cm TL and females at about 90 to 100 cm TL (Lyle 1987). There is an annual reproductive cycle. Litter size ranges from 1–7 with pups born at about 45 to 55 cm TL (Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). Mating apparently takes place between May and July (Darwin Harbour, Northern Territory) with birth occurring the following year after a gestation period of 7 to 9 months (Lyle 1987). Simpfendorfer and Milward (1993) report juvenile sharks occupying a nursery area (Cleveland Bay, Queensland) primarily during February, which is consistent with the observations from further north. <em>Carcharhinus fitzroyensis</em> feeds almost exclusively on teleost fishes and crustaceans, with cephalopods representing a small component of the diet (Lyle 1987, Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993).
41735		population	eng	There are no data on the population sizes or important sites for this species.
41735		threats	eng	Small numbers of this species are caught in northern inshore gill-net fisheries. Juveniles that use embayments as nursery areas are at potential risk of gill-netting, which could depress populations locally. However, the species is relatively fecund and populations should prove resilient.
41736		conservation	eng	The Data Deficient listing for Australia and Oceania waters reflects the lack of information about this species in this region where it is the species is known from only a very few sites, and the number of individuals, their movements on a daily and seasonal basis and the levels of immigration/emigration are unknown. At these sites, a program that would encourage anglers to tag and release Galapagos sharks should help safeguard the populations and expand on our limited knowledge base. Involvement of tourist diving companies would assist in conservation efforts by raising public awareness and providing useful data on shark behaviour, numbers and preferred habitats.  <br/> <br/>The population at the Kermadec Islands is protected by a 12 nm marine reserve which extends in places to cover depths of over 3,000 m. The species also occurs within other marine reserves such as the Galápagos Marine Resources Reserve, (unfortunately illegal fishing is known to occur here).
41736		distribution	eng	Circumglobal distribution in warm and temperate waters.  Essentially limited to oceanic islands (e.g. Galapagos Is.; Clipperton Is.; Virgin Is.; St. Paul?s Rocks; Azores; St. Helena; Ascension Is.; Ogasawara Is.; Lord Howe Is., Norfolk Is.; Kermadec Is., Rapa Is., Hawaiian Is.).  Also from high seas and adjacent to continental shelves (e.g. California & N. Carolina, U.S.A.).  Regionally, known from Lord Howe Island (Aust), American Samoa, Western Samoa, Cook Is., French Polynesia, and the Kermadec Islands (NZ). Records suggest that it may also occur along the continental shelves of adjacent landmasses (Last and Stevens 1994, Schwartz 1998).
41736		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharhinus galapagensis</em> is most commonly found over rugged, rocky terrain in clear water. There is a suggestion that this species prefers areas with strong water currents. In Hawaii the majority of sharks were found near points of land characterised by having currents that converge and move offshore at those points (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). Isolated rocky islets serve as congregation sites (Edwards and Lubbock 1982, Brum and Azevedo 1995), suggesting that underwater pinnacles may also be suitable habitat, giving this species a more extensive range of sites than currently understood. Occurs from surface waters to depths of over 280 m, with some suggestion of segregation on the basis of size. Vertical distribution patterns appear to be site specific and vary considerably between geographical areas/habitat types. In some regions juveniles are found in shallow water (less than 1 m) whereas in others they prefer deeper water (around 40 m) (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species is reputed to reach a maximum body size of about 350 cm total length (TL), although specific records suggest that 300 cm TL appears more likely. Females mature at about 215 to 250 cm TL, males at about 205 to 250 cm TL (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973, Last and Stevens 1994, Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). Estimated age at maturity is 6 to 8 years for males and 6.5 to 9 years for females (De Crosta <em>et al.</em> 1984). Litter size ranges from 4 to 16, with young born at 60 to 81 cm TL. Reproductive life histories are not well known. Females probably breed every two (or three) years with mating likely to occur in winter/spring. The species has a limited intrinsic rebound potential (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/> <br/><em>Carcharhinus galapagensis</em> feeds primarily on demersal prey with fishes and cephalopods important to all size classes. Ontogenetic dietary shifts occur, with sharks and rays taken by larger (>200 cm TL) individuals. Ascribed a relatively high trophic level of 4.2 (Cortés 1999). An aggressive shark considered potentially dangerous to humans.
41736		population	eng	Reported as a very common inshore species at oceanic islands off Central and South America (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941), but may have undergone severe population reductions at many of these islands. Very common species at Saint Paul?s Rocks, a group of barren islets on the mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the shark population is reported to be "one of the densest shark populations of the Atlantic Ocean" (Edwards and Lubbock 1982). This species is reported to be one of the more common sharks in the main Hawaiian Islands and is very abundant at the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). This single study on the Hawaiian population suggests that the species is locally numerous and there is no immediate negative impact on the population by moderate fishing pressure (no measurable effect on CPUE over two seasons of long-lining). There are no data on the populations at other sites.
41736		threats	eng	The life history parameters of this species make it susceptible to population declines from which it may not recover. The major threat comes from long-lining and other bait-fishing activities around islands and sub-sea mounts throughout its range. The aggressive nature of this common species together with the occupation of inshore habitats may result in pressures to extirpate local populations. Evidence of such reductions/extirpations exists for this species around Central America (Pacific and Atlantic Oceans) (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.). The interrupted geographical distribution and unknown level of immigration to these isolated populations could place subpopulations at significant risk from over fishing. It should also be noted that uncontrolled legal and illegal shark fin fishing takes place at sites in the Pacific, including the Galápagos Marine Resources Reserve where a significant population of this species is known to occur (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> in press)
41737		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
41737		distribution	eng	This species occurs in continental shelf waters of the Indo-West Pacific from Kenya through southern Asia to southern Japan and northern Australia.
41737		habitat	eng	A small species of carcharhinid sharks that is born at a relatively large size (45 cm), matures at 70 to 75 cm, and reaches a maximum of 110 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Mature females probably have a two-year reproductive cycle, with only two pups produced per litter (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). Limited age and growth data are available, but a single tag return from an animal (that was mature when tagged) was made after 10 years, indicating that they may live at least 15 to 20 years. Based on these life history parameters it is likely to have a much lower level of productivity than other small species of carcharhinid sharks (e.g., <em>Rhizoprionodon</em> spp.) and so is more susceptible to fishing pressure. The diet consists mostly of teleost fishes.
41737		population	eng	There are no data on population numbers in any parts of its range
41737		threats	eng	This species is caught in inshore subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range. Highest catches appear to have been taken in southern Asian countries (Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and southern China) (Compagon 1984). Catches in Indonesia during 2002 were rare (William White, Murdoch University, pers. comm.) and may indicate the population in this area has been over-fished.  Further data needs to be collected in this area to investigate this possibility. In northern Australia this species is an important component of the gillnet (13.6%) and longline (4.0%) fisheries, but this does not appear to be having a significant impact on the population.
41738		conservation	eng	Detailed species composition data from fisheries throughout its range are required in order to assess the actual level of exploitation.
41738		distribution	eng	<em>Carcharhinus sealei</em> occurs off South Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, the Seychelles, Mauritius, southwest coast of India, Indonesia, Philippines, northern Australia and New Guinea (Compagno and Niem 1998).
41738		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharhinus sealei</em> is a coastal shark on the continental and insular shelves from the surf line to depths of 40 m, but usually in shallow water, not adjacent to river mouths (Compagno and Niem 1998).  <br/> <br/><em>C. sealei</em> attains at least 95 cm total length (TL) and maturing at 70 to 80 cm TL. Viviparous with one or two young, born at 33 to 45 cm after a gestation of around nine months (Compagno and Niem 1998). The species feeds on small fish, prawns and squid. Van der Elst (1981) recorded age and growth data for this species, with age at maturity at approximately one year and maximum age of around five years.
41738		threats	eng	<em>Carcharhinus sealei</em> is a common catch in artisanal fisheries and smallscale commercial fisheries, as well as by recreational anglers (Compagno and Niem 1998). This species occurs in shallow waters where fishing activities such as longlines and gill nets are often very intensive, e.g., in Indonesia, and therefore would be highly susceptible to overfishing. Although recorded in Indonesia previously, this species was not recorded in a recent survey of markets within this region (W. White, unpubl. data). The flesh is utilized for human consumption.
41739		distribution	eng	Together with <em>C. sorrah</em>, this species is an important component of the Northern Australian commercial shark fishery. Data from Taiwanese gill netting between 1975 and 1978 showed highest catches in North Queensland, Torres Staight, Gulf of Papua, Gulf of Carpentaria and Inshore Arafura Sea. Average size of <em>C. tilstoni</em> captured in the Timor Sea were much smaller than the areas above, suggesting that <em>C. tilstoni</em> utilizes the inshore areas of the Timor sea as a nursery area. Often occurs in large aggregations. Size showed a sharp increase with increasing depth (Lyle 1987).
41739		habitat	eng	A viviparous species with a gestation period of 10 months. <em>C. tilstoni</em> reproduces annually, producing an average litter size of three (1-6). Size at birth is 60 cm total length (TL). Age at maturity is 3 to 4 years: males reach maturity at 110 cm TL, females at 115 cm TL. Maximum size is 200 m TL. Growth rates, Juveniles: 17 cm.y-¹ for the first year, declining to 8 to 10 cm per year when the sharks are about five years old (Davenport and Stevens 1988, Last and Stevens 1994, Stevens and Wiley 1986).
41739		population	eng	Genetic evidence suggested that this species forms one population in Australian waters (Lavery and Shacklee 1989. Tagging studies off Northern Australia have shown that 60% of sharks were recaptured within 50 km of the tagging site, however one shark was captured 1,113 km away (Stevens <em>et al.</em> 2000). These authors also showed that most animals moved along the coast line. Data from this study suggested that although there was sufficient movement to prevent stock differentiation, the degree of movement was not great enough to prevent a reduction in local population as a result of heavy fishing pressure. This conclusion contradicted those of Lavery and Shacklee (1989) who concluded that local populations would be well buffered by immigration of sharks from other areas and that under high fishing pressure, total population size rather than local population size was likely to be the limiting factor affecting production.
41739		threats	eng	Historically, <em>C. tilstoni</em> contributed to the Taiwanese gill net fishery that operated in Australian waters between 1979 ? 1986 (Stevens and Davenport 1991). This fisheries annual catch was about 7,000 tonnes processed weight of shark, tuna and mackerel. Sharks comprised about 80% of the total catch with <em>C. sorrah</em> and <em>C. tilstoni</em> accounting for about 60% (20% and 40% respectively). CPUE of sharks declined from 11 kg/km in 1979 to 3 kg/km in 1984 then increased to about 6 kg/km in 1986 (the year this fishery ceased), (Stevens and Davenport 1991) suggesting a roughly 50% population depletion. There was an apparent decrease in the number of mature male and female <em>C. tilstoni</em> from 1981 to 1986 (Stevens and Davenport 1991). Data from this fishery between 1975-1978 showed the highest catches were in North Queensland, Torres Straight, Gulf of Papua, Gulf of Carpentaria and Inshore Arafura Sea. <br/> <br/>Together with <em>C. sorrah</em>, this species is an important component of the Northern Australian commercial shark fishery. <em>C. tilstoni</em> is captured as both a target species and as bycatch in Northern Australian shark, finfish and prawn trawl fisheries. Annual landings of sharks in Northern Australia (mainly <em>C. tilstoni</em> and <em>C. sorrah</em>) are estimated at between 100 and 900 tonnes live weight and these catch rates are highly unlikely to threaten the population.
41740		conservation	eng	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the catch of <em>C. harrissoni</em> to a maximum of 30 kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus harrissoni</em> has also been nominated for listing as an Endangered species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Endangered, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a three year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).
41740		distribution	eng	Sporadic in the Western Central and  Southwest Pacific: off eastern Australia from the Clarence River, New  South Wales, to South East Cape, Tasmania, and the Fraser Seamount,  Queensland. Also on seamounts and ridges to the north of New Zealand
41740		habitat	eng	Demersal on the upper to middle continental slope, mainly in depths of 220 to 790 m (Last and Stevens 1994), although catches have been made as deep as 1,050 m (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).The diet of this species consists of teleost fishes (particularly myctophids), cephalopods and crustaceans (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). The low fecundity (1 to 2 pups maximum every 1 to 2 years), high longevity (closely related species live for at least 46 years according to preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41740		population	eng	The population size (although suspected to be small) and number and size of subpopulations is unknown.
41740		threats	eng	Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery, SETF) and droplining (New South Wales Fisheries) along the continental slope within its range. Documented declines of over 99% between 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales) and the Eden-Gabo Island Area (southern New South Wales/northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al.</em> 1997). Catches in the above mentioned areas in 220 to 605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 28.8 kg/h  in 1976 to 1977 to a mean of 0.1 kg/h (a total of only eight specimens) in 1996 to 1997. <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41741		conservation	eng	<strong>Australia:</strong> <br/>A prohibition on taking school and gummy sharks in shark nursery areas in Tasmania, and bans on gillnetting in some of these, may indirectly benefit some <em>C. brachyurus</em> but most of these areas are outside the main part of the species range (Williams and Schaap 1992, Last and Stevens 1994). Victorian coastal waters out to three nautical miles are almost completely closed to commercial shark fishing (Stevens 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand:</strong> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> may not be target fished in Quota Management Areas 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9. Management measures that are likely to indirectly benefit this species include closure of most harbours and semi-enclosed bays in northern New Zealand to trawling and Danish seining, and a permanent ban on gill netting out to five nautical miles from shore off the northwest North Island (Fisheries statistical areas 41 and 42) to protect endangered North Island Hector?s dolphin.
41741		distribution	eng	The range and biology of <em>C. brachyurus</em> is poorly known due to confusion with other large <em>Carcharhinus</em> species, particularly <em>C. obscurus</em> which often replaces it in subtropical waters (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Although widely distributed in warm temperate and subtropical waters, populations of <em>C. brachyurus</em> are disjoint and there is probably little interchange between them. Verified records from tropical regions are infrequent and very patchy but include Equatorial Guinea and possibly the Gulf of Thailand (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Vidthayanon 2002). <em>C. brachyurus</em> was also reported to be common in the Seychelles by Marshall (in Rose 1996), however, this requires confirmation given this species preference for temperate shelf habitats. No estimates of population size or biomass are available. Global population structure is unknown. Stock structure is not known for any fished population.  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is widespread in the Mediterranean but only sporadically reported possibly due to misidentification and lower abundance relative to other large sharks (Fergusson and Compagno 1995). <em>C. brachyurus</em> was the least abundant of the five pelagic sharks sampled in the northeast Atlantic and western Mediterranean by Muñoz-Chápuli (1984). The relationship between the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic populations is unknown but it seems likely that pregnant females migrate from the Atlantic to breeding grounds off Morocco (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984). Stock structure in the Mediterranean is unknown. Despite being listed as common in US Atlantic shark landings by Rose (1996, pg. 26) <em>C. brachyurus</em> is absent from the western North Atlantic (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Russell 1993, Castillo-Génez <em>et al.</em> 1998, J. Castro, pers. comm., L. Natanson, pers. comm., M. Grace, pers. comm.). In the southwest Atlantic <em>C. brachyurus</em> is relatively common off northern Argentina during summer, and is the most abundant species of <em>Carcharhinus</em> in Agentina (Chiaramonte 1998a, b). It is also common off Namibia and the west coast of South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989). In the Indian Ocean it is common off Eastern Cape, South Africa ranging north to Richard?s Bay, Natal although it is rare north of Durban (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992). <br/> <br/>Range and population size is poorly known in the eastern Pacific. Although Compagno (1984) speculated that it may occur in Chile there are no documented records or specimens of <em>C. brachyurus</em> in Museum collections there (I. Kong, pers. comm). Philippi (1887) described two species, <em>Hypoprion isodus</em> and <em>H. heterodus</em> from Chile on the basis of two dried jaws (Garrick 1982). Garrick (1982) considered both to be species dubia placing them in <em>Carcharhinus</em>. The upper teeth in both jaws are too broad and the tooth counts are too low for either to be <em>brachyurus</em> (Garrick 1982). Garrick (1982) considered <em>H. heterodus</em> was likely to be <em>C. obscurus</em> or <em>galapagensis</em>. Pequeño (1989) also considered it likely <em>H. heterodus</em> corresponds to <em>C. obscurus</em> (I. Kong, pers. comm). Despite the lack of records and specimens it seems likely that <em>C. brachyurus</em> at least occasionally reaches northern Chilean waters from Peru. Little is known of its occurrence in Peru other than the juvenile specimens reported by Garrick (1982).  <em>C. brachyurus</em> appears to be uncommon or rare in Mexico (Gulf of California and Baja California) but confusion with other <em>Carcharhinus</em> species could be a problem (O. Sosa, pers. com., L. Castillo, pers. comm.). Although very small juveniles have been collected from a number of locations in southern California suggesting it may breed there, <em>C. brachyurus</em> is considered to be a rare visitor to the west coast of the US (Garrick 1982, R. Lea, pers. comm., D. Ebert, pers. comm., G. Cailliet, pers. comm.). There are no records of <em>C. brachyurus</em> north of Point Conception (R. Lea, pers. comm), although based on what is known of its ecology in the Southern Hemisphere it could be expected to be common as far north as Monterey Bay (D. Ebert, pers. comm). This apparent rarity does not appear to be due to confusion with other species of <em>Carcharhinus</em> as the genus itself is rare in California (R. Lea, pers. comm). It is worth noting here that although Garrick (1982) synonymised C. lamiella with brachyurus the characters referred to in the description of lamiella were those diagnostic of <em>C. obscurus</em>. Consequently most records of lamiella from California are not referable to <em>C. brachyurus</em> (Garrick 1982). The populations in the northeast and southeast Pacific appear to be disjunct (Compagno 1984).   <br/> <br/>In Australian waters <em>C. brachyurus</em> is infrequently recorded north of Sydney or Perth, being most abundant between Albany (Western Australia) and Bass Strait (Last and Stevens 1994, R. McAuley, pers. comm., C. Simpfendorfer, pers. comm., J. Stevens, pers. comm.). It is the commonest <em>Carcharhinus</em> species in South Australia and Victoria (Cappo 1992).  <em>C. brachyurus</em> has not been recorded from Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands (Last and Stevens 1994).  In New Zealand waters <em>C. brachyurus</em> is common around the northern half of North Island, including Three Kings Islands, Middlesex Bank and Three Kings Rise, ranging south to Cook Strait in summer (Illingworth 1961, Garrick 1982, Francis 2001). Pregnant females and pups have been recorded as far south as Waimea Inlet, Nelson (about 41°S, C.D. unpublished data). <em>C. brachyurus</em> has not been recorded from the Kermadec Islands or the islands of the tropical southwest Pacific (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994, Cox and Francis 1997).
41741		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharhinus brachyurus</em> is an essentially warm temperate and subtropical species (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998). It is a widespread but patchily distributed coastal and shelf species, occasionally reported from oceanic areas close to the continental shelf (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000). It readily enters shallow water, and individuals and aggregations are often sighted in shallow bays, the surf zone and in harbour channels during summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994). It also occurs in brackish or freshwater in the lower reaches of large rivers and estuarine bays (Last 2002). Maximum reported depth is 100 m but it is likely to range deeper (Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). Diet includes a wide variety of bottom-living and pelagic cephalopods and fishes including squid (<em>Loligo</em> spp.), cuttlefish, octopus, spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus</em> spp.), stingrays, electric rays, sawfish, gurnard, flatfish, hake, catfish, ling, jacks, kahawai/Australian salmon, mullet, sea bream, sardines and anchovy (Illingworth 1961, Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Francis 2001). Juveniles also feed on jellyfishes (<em>Scyphozoa</em>) and benthic crustacea (<em>Callianasa</em> spp. and Penaeid shrimps) (Smale 1991). Other elasmobranchs are taken with greatest frequency by sharks over 2 m total length (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). <br/> <br/>Juvenile and adult <em>C. brachyurus</em> segregate by size and sex (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998). Juveniles occur in shallow water (less than 30 m depth) year round, whereas adults are most abundant inshore during spring and summer. Adults and sub-adults are found over the shelf and around offshore islands and banks throughout the year. The movement of adult females inshore in spring is related to breeding. Nursery areas tend to be large and ill defined but include shallow banks, large shallow bays, inlets and harbours as well as the open coast (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b, Fergusson and Compagno 1995). These areas also tend to be nurseries for other common coastal sharks such as Smoothhound (<em>Mustelus</em> spp.), School Shark (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>) and Smooth Hammerhead (<em>Sphyrna zygaena</em>). In New Zealand pregnant females and neonates have been reported as far south as Waimea Inlet (41°20'S) on the west coast and Hawke Bay (40°S) on the east coast (Garrick 1982, C.D. unpublished data). In Australia neonates and small juveniles (less than 1 m total length) have been reported from Albany (Western Australia), Port Lincoln, the upper Gulf St. Vincent and Robe (South Australia), and Port Phillip Bay (Victoria) (Cappo 1992, R. McAuley pers. comm., T. Walker pers. comm., I.G. pers. obs). In South Africa the waters of the Eastern Cape are considered to be the main nursery area for this species (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Elsewhere neonates and small juveniles have been recorded from: Rhodes, Nice and the banks off Al Hoceima (West Alboran Basin) in the Mediterranean (Garrick 1982, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Fergusson and Compagno 1995); Rio de Oro, Pulpito Bay, northwest Africa (Garrick 1982); Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Garrick 1982); Bahia Blanca and Bahia San Blas, Distrito Bonaerense, Argentina (Chiaramonte 1998b); Paita and Guanape Cove, Peru (Garrick 1982); Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino, Baja California (Garrick 1982); San Diego Bay and Oceanside, California (Garrick 1982); near Niigata, Sea of Japan (Garrick 1982).  <br/> <br/>Segregation also occurs along latitudinal gradients (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Adult males are present in subtropical regions throughout the year, whereas females and immature <em>C. brachyurus</em> migrate into these regions during winter. Most adult females return to temperate regions to breed in the spring. The males also appear to migrate to higher latitudes in late winter-spring presumably to mate (Cliff and Dudley 1992).  Mating probably occurs offshore as the females disperse from the nursery areas. Post-partum females bearing unhealed mating scars have been caught over the shelf (about 100 m depth) in early February off Hawke Bay, New Zealand (C.D. pers. obs). <em>C. brachyurus</em> inhabiting temperate areas also range into higher latitudes during the summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Chiaramonte 1998b). These latitudinal movements may be in response to changes in water temperature or prey migrations (Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). In South Africa female <em>C. brachyurus</em> appear to follow the sardine run from the Eastern Cape to Natal during winter (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992). The mean distance travelled by tagged <em>C. brachyurus</em> in South Africa is 163 km during 162 days at liberty, the maximum distance travelled was 1,320 km (Cliff and Dudley 1992). In South Australia tagged adults have been resighted at their tagging location after a year at liberty suggesting this species, like other Carcharhinids, is philopatric (I.G. pers. obs). Movement between New Zealand and Australia, or other regional populations has not been documented. <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> occur singly and in loose schools sometimes numbering hundreds of individuals (Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, C.D. unpublished data). In New Zealand and Australia these aggregations are most conspicuous in shallow water near shore during spring and summer, and in South Africa during the winter sardine run. Divers and sport fishers also report aggregations of <em>C. brachyurus</em> around offshore islands and banks off northern New Zealand during winter. Aggregations of large sharks reported in the surf zone near the entrances to harbours in northern New Zealand during spring may be related to breeding however at other times schooling may be a response to a local abundance of prey (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992).  <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity is probably biennial like most other large Carcharhinids (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Southern Hemisphere parturition probably occurs from June to January, with a peak in October and November (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk sac placenta. Litters range from 7 to 24, with an average of 15 reported from South Africa (Garrick 1982, Smale 199, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Size at birth is about 60 cm total length (range 55-67 cm total length) (Garrick 1982, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Cliff and Dudley (1992) estimated gestation lasts about 12 months. However their data show two embryonic size classes are present in the January and June-July samples, and a better description of embryonic growth is obtained if a 15 to 21 month gestation period is assumed (r² = 0.798 cf. 0.628). Males mature between 206 and 235 cm total length, and females from 227 to 244 cm total length. Age at maturity in South Africa is estimated to be 13 to 19 years for males, and 19-20 years for females (Walter and Ebert 1991). Maximum size of <em>C. brachyurus</em> is at least 295 cm total length and it is reported to reach 350 cm total length (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Maximum age is unknown. Productivity is estimated to be low to very low, with a minimum population doubling time of more than 14 yrs (K=0.04) (Froese and Pauly 2002, Fish Base).
41741		threats	eng	The life-history of this large Carcharhinid makes it vulnerable to over fishing by directed fisheries and as bycatch in fisheries targeted at more productive species (Walker 1998, Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Vidthayanon 2002). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is mainly taken as bycatch in gill net and bottom longline fisheries for bony fishes and other sharks, particularly <em>Mustelus</em> spp. and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Bentley in Rose 1996, Chiaramonte 1998a, b). It is also taken by bottom trawl and pelagic longline but only forms a minor component of the catch in these fisheries (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Parry-Jones 1996, Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is fished commercially in New Zealand (Francis 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ministry of Fisheries catch effort data), Australia (Cappo 1992), South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em>1989), Brazil (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998), Uruguay (Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998), Argentina (Chiaramonte 1998a, b), Mexico (Appelgate <em>et al.</em> 1993) and China (Parry-Jones 1996). <em>C. brachyurus</em> was not reported in trade from any of its Mediterranean range states by Rose (1996) but it is taken in net fisheries here and is usually lumped with other Carcharhinids (e.g., <em>C. plumbeus</em>) when landed (Fergusson and Compagno 1995). Little data is available for these fisheries. In Western Australia the "bronze whaler fishery" actually targets juvenile dusky shark (<em>C. obscurus</em>) (Heald 1987, Simpfendorfer 2001). <em>C. brachyurus</em> only constitutes about 3% of total reported landings in this fishery (R. McAuley pers. comm.). <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. are also taken as bycatch in the Southern Shark Fishery (Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia). Between 1996-2001 mean annual landed catch of <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. in this fishery was 71.5 tonnes (range 44-106 tonnes) (T. Walker pers. comm). The bulk of this (97-100%) was landed in South Australia, where  landings increased from less than 20 tonnes a year in the early 1980s to 60-70 tonnes a year between 1988 and 1990 (Stevens in Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999). During the 1990s the landed catch has remained stable at around 70 tonnes a year, although a maximum of 105 tonnes was landed in 1999 (T. Walker pers. com.). The species composition of the bronze whaler catch in South Australia is unknown but is likely to be predominately <em>C. brachyurus</em> (Cappo 1992). In New Zealand reported commercial landings increased from 10 tonnes in 1989/90 to about 48 tonnes in 1995/96. Since then landings have declined steadily to about 20 tonnes in the 2001/02 fishing year (Ministry of Fisheries catch effort data). Most of the catch is taken by set net in the Hauraki Gulf and Firth of Thames. Reported landings from this area have been declining since 1992/93. No CPUE analysis of this fishery has been performed so it is uncertain if the decline in landings represents a decline in abundance or a change in fishing practice.   <br/> <br/>Although no fishery data is available for <em>C. brachyurus</em> in East Asia (i.e., Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea) directed shark fisheries have operated in the region since at least the 1950s, and sharks are a component of multi-species fisheries for more highly valued species such as tuna and swordfish (Parry-Jones and others in Phipps 1996). All directed fisheries for large coastal sharks in this region appear to have ceased during the 1970s due to declining catches and a shift in effort into offshore fisheries for tuna and salmon (Parry-Jones, and Kiyono in Phipps 1996). Parry-Jones (1996) observed that shark landings from coastal fisheries in China consisted mainly of small immature sharks (i.e., 90% <100 cm total length and 1 kg weight). The only <em>C. brachyurus</em> observed in markets during that survey was a juvenile weighing 5.5 kg in Fujian Province. Fishers from Fujian Province reported that large sharks were relatively common during the 1960s but are seldom caught now (Parry-Jones 1996). Fishing vessels from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines and Viet Nam all operate in the South China Sea, East China Sea and Yellow Sea (Parry-Jones 1996). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is not reported to be an important component of Taiwan?s shark fishery, either within Taiwanese waters, its distant-water shark fishing areas in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Mozambique, or its tuna longline and trawler fleets. The latter fishes waters of the South China Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, India and northwest Africa (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>In Argentina the main commercial fishery is located at Necochea. Reported annual landings range from 0 to 336 sharks (Chiaramonte 1998a). Chiaramonte (1998a) reported only two vessels targeted <em>C. brachyurus</em>, and observed that catches indicated this species was not sufficiently abundant to support a directed fishery should the school shark (<em>G. galeus</em>) stock collapse. In Chile directed shark fisheries are confined to the northern part of the country where artisanal fishers target shortfin mako (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>) and blue shark (<em>Prionace glauca</em>) and may occasionally take <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. (I. Kong pers. com.). Little information is available on the elasmobranch fisheries in Peru other than landings are dominated by smoothhounds (<em>Mustelus</em> spp) and batoids (Bonfil 1994). In 1990/91 landings crashed from over 25,000 tonnes to about 5,000 tonnes p.a. The reason for this crash is unknown and may not reflect a collapse of the fishery (Bonfil 1994). Mexican shark fisheries are the largest in America and the Pacific coast contributes about 60% of total landings (Bonfil 1994). There is also a significant bycatch of elasmobranchs in large scale trawl fisheries in the Mexican Pacific (Bonfil 1994). The Gulf of California represents one of the major fishing grounds in the Pacific and supports directed fisheries for <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. (<em>C. altimus, C. brachyurus, C. falciformis, C. leucus, C. limbatus, C. obscurus, C. porosus</em>) (Appelgate <em>et al.</em> 1993, Bonfil 1994). Although information on stock size and species specific fishing mortality was limited or non-existent Bonfil (1994) considered it likely, given the level of exploitation that many shark stocks in the Gulf of California were close to their maximum sustainable yield or overfished. Neither Applegate <em>et al.</em> (1993) or Bonfil (1994) listed <em>C. brachyurus</em> as being heavily fished. However, as it is vulnerable to the same types of gear and may be naturally less abundant than those <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. that dominate the landings, the effects of fishing on <em>C. brachyurus</em> may be more serious than its representation in the catch suggests. <em>C. brachyurus</em> and other <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. are rare in California and do not support any directed fisheries (Bonfil 1994, Hanson 1999, R. Lea pers. comm., D. Ebert pers. comm., G. Cailliet pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Sport fisheries taking <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. occur in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Argentina, Mexico and California (Stevens 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Pepperell 1992, Appelgate <em>et al.</em> 1993, Francis 1998, Chiaramonte 1998a, b). In New Zealand <em>C. brachyurus</em> is the most commonly landed <em>Carcharhinus</em> species. It is only infrequently taken by anglers targeting marlin and swordfish off the northeast North Island. Most of these fish are unwanted and are released. However there is a small summer boat and shore-based sport fishery for <em>C. brachyurus</em> centered on the large harbours in the northern North Island. Most of the sharks taken in this fishery are pregnant and post-partum females and are tagged and released. A small number are retained and landed during fishing competitions. <em>C. brachyurus</em> are also occasionally taken by bow-hunters in some North Island harbours, and there are incidental catches of juveniles and adults in recreational gill net fisheries for rig (<em>Mustelus lenticulatus</em>), mullet, snapper and flatfish. The size of this bycatch is unknown but is probably minor. <em>C. brachyurus</em> is a minor component of sport fishing catches in southern New South Wales between Port Stephens and Narooma but is likely to dominate "bronze whaler" catches in Victoria and South Australia (Stevens 1984, Cappo 1992).  No information on these fisheries was available at the time of writing. In South Africa this species is regularly taken by shore-based fishers in the Eastern Cape. These fishers take mainly neonates and juveniles less than 2 m total length (Smale 1991).  There is also a land-based tag and release fishery for adult <em>C. brachyurus</em> in Nambia (S. Fowler pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is commonly taken in protective shark control programs off Natal, South Africa and presumably Australia (New South Wales), although catches of <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. are not identified to species in Australia (Cliff and Dudley 1992, Reid and Krogh 1992, Dudley 1997, Dudley <em>et al.</em> 1998). The mean annual catch in the Natal shark nets between 1978 and 1990 was 138 (range 9 to 421). Large annual fluctuations in catch meant no trend was evident over that period (Cliff and Dudley 1992). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is also killed as a pest species in and around fish farms, notably southern bluefin tuna pens in South Australia (I.G. pers. obs). The shallow coastal nursery areas of <em>C. brachyurus</em> are also potentially vulnerable to habitat loss and pollution arising from coastal development. The effects of this are likely to be greatest in parts of the Mediterranean Sea and East Asia. Expansion of marine aquaculture in New Zealand also potentially threatens nursery areas of <em>C. brachyurus</em>. <br/> <br/>Castro <em>et al.</em> (1999) listed this species as Category 3 (i.e., a species that is exploited by directed fisheries or bycatch, and has a limited reproductive potential, and/or life history characteristics that makes it especially vulnerable to over fishing). Vidthayanon (2002) listed it as vulnerable in Thailand.
41742		distribution	eng	The range and biology of <em>C. brachyurus</em> is poorly known due to confusion with other large <em>Carcharhinus</em> species, particularly <em>C. obscurus</em> which often replaces it in subtropical waters (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Although widely distributed in warm temperate and subtropical waters populations of <em>C. brachyurus</em> are disjoint and there is probably little interchange between them.  The East Asia subpopulation has been recorded from coastal waters of Japan (Tokyo and Niigata south), China (Yellow Sea, East China Sea), North and South Korea, and southern Siberia (Sea of Japan).
41742		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharhinus brachyurus</em> is an essentially warm temperate and subtropical species (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). It is a widespread but patchily distributed coastal and shelf species, occasionally reported from oceanic areas close to the continental shelf (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000). It readily enters shallow water, and individuals and aggregations are often sighted in shallow bays, the surf zone and in harbour channels during summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994). It also occurs in brackish or freshwater in the lower reaches of large rivers and estuarine bays (Last 2002). Maximum reported depth is 100 m but it is likely to range deeper (Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). Diet includes a wide variety of bottom-living and pelagic cephalopods and fishes including squid (<em>Loligo</em> spp.), cuttlefish, octopus, spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus</em> spp.), stingrays, electric rays, sawfish, gurnard, flatfish, hake, catfish, ling, jacks, kahawai/Australian salmon, mullet, sea bream, sardines and anchovy (Illingworth 1961, Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Francis 2001). Juveniles also feed on jellyfishes (Scyphozoa) and benthic crustacea (<em>Callianasa</em> spp. and Penaeid shrimps) (Smale 1991). Other elasmobranchs are taken with greatest frequency by sharks over 2 m total length (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). <br/> <br/>Juvenile and adult <em>C. brachyurus</em> segregate by size and sex (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Juveniles occur in shallow water (<30 m depth) year round, whereas adults are most abundant inshore during spring and summer. Adults and sub-adults are found over the shelf and around offshore islands and banks throughout the year. The movement of adult females inshore in spring is related to breeding. Nursery areas tend to be large and ill defined but include shallow banks, large shallow bays, inlets and harbours as well as the open coast (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b, Fergusson and Compagno 1995). These areas also tend to be nurseries for other common coastal sharks such as smoothhound (<em>Mustelus</em> spp.), school shark (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>) and smooth hammerhead (<em>Sphyrna zygaena</em>). Neonates and small juveniles have been recorded from near Niigata, Sea of Japan (Garrick 1982).  <br/> <br/>Segregation also occurs along latitudinal gradients (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Adult males are present in subtropical regions throughout the year, whereas females and immature <em>C. brachyurus</em> migrate into these regions during winter. Most adult females return to temperate regions to breed in the spring. The males also appear to migrate to higher latitudes in late winter-spring presumably to mate (Cliff and Dudley 1992).  Mating probably occurs offshore as the females disperse from the nursery areas. <em>C. brachyurus</em> inhabiting temperate areas also range into higher latitudes during the summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Chiaramonte 1998b). These latitudinal movements may be in response to changes in water temperature or prey migrations (Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b).  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> occur singly and in loose schools sometimes numbering hundreds of individuals (Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, C.D. unpublished data).  <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity is probably biennial like most other large Carcharhinids (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41742		population	eng	No estimates of population size or biomass are available. Global population structure is unknown. Stock structure is not known for any fished population.
41742		threats	eng	The life-history of this large Carcharhinid makes it vulnerable to over fishing by directed fisheries and as bycatch in fisheries targeted at more productive species (Walker 1998, Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Vidthayanon 2002). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is mainly taken as bycatch in gill net and bottom longline fisheries for bony fishes and other sharks, particularly <em>Mustelus</em> spp. and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Bentley in Rose 1996, Chiaramonte 1998a, b). It is also taken by bottom trawl and pelagic longline but only forms a minor component of the catch in these fisheries (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Parry-Jones 1996, Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is fished commercially in China (Parry-Jones 1996). Although no fishery data is available for <em>C. brachyurus</em> in East Asia (i.e., Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea) directed shark fisheries have operated in the region since at least the 1950s, and sharks are a component of multi-species fisheries for more highly valued species such as tuna and swordfish (Parry-Jones and others in Phipps 1996). All directed fisheries for large coastal sharks in this region appear to have ceased during the 1970s due to declining catches and a shift in effort into offshore fisheries for tuna and salmon (Parry-Jones, and Kiyono in Phipps 1996). Parry-Jones (1996) observed that shark landings from coastal fisheries in China consisted mainly of small immature sharks (i.e.,90% <100 cm total length and 1 kg weight). The only <em>C. brachyurus</em> observed in markets during that survey was a juvenile weighing 5.5 kg in Fujian Province. Fishers from Fujian Province reported that large sharks were relatively common during the 1960s but are seldom caught now (Parry-Jones 1996). Fishing vessels from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines and Viet Nam all operate in the South China Sea, East China Sea and Yellow Sea (Parry-Jones 1996). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is not reported to be an important component of Taiwan’s shark fishery, either within Taiwanese waters, its distant-water shark fishing areas in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Mozambique, or its tuna longline and trawler fleets. The latter fishes waters of the South China Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, India and northwest Africa (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>Castro <em>et al.</em> (1999) listed this species as Category 3 (i.e., a species that is exploited by directed fisheries or bycatch, and has a limited reproductive potential, and/or life history characteristics that makes it especially vulnerable to over fishing).
41743		conservation	eng	Australia and New Zealand both have TAC limits in place for the elephant fish. In New Zealand, there is a recreation bag limit of 20 fish per day. Part of its range incorporates areas closed to shark fishing and marine protected areas. A three-mile closure of all Victorian waters to shark fishing provides a large refuge for the species in southern Australia.
41743		distribution	eng	The assessment assumes a single genetic stock in southern Australia and a separate single genetic stock in New Zealand.
41743		habitat	eng	<em>C. milii</em> is oviparous laying leathery egg cases in pairs in shallow water that may take up to 10 months to hatch (Last and Stevens 1994, Smith 2001). It is a seasonal breeder with females moving to shallower habitats to lay eggs (Francis 1997, Last and Stevens 1994, Reardon 2001, Smith 2000). Eggs are laid over several weeks each year. Juveniles remain in the shallow habitats for up to three years, which may make them vulnerable to trawl capture in New Zealand (Francis 1997). <em>C. milii</em> appears to be sexually segregated as males and females are often caught separately by commercial fishermen (T. I. Walker, unpublished data). <em>C. milii</em> has relatively high biological productivity. Maturity occurs relatively early at 70 cm fork length (FL) for females, and 50 cm FL for males.  Maximum age has been estimated as nine years from ageing using growth increments in dorsal fin spines (T. I. Walker, unpublished data) and 15 years from a tag return (Francis 1997, Annala <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41743		population	eng	In southern Australia, <em>C. milii</em> is most abundant in Bass Strait and during the egg-laying period enters large estuaries and bays (e.g., American River Kangaroo Island and parts of the West Coast in South Australia, and Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Bay in Victoria) (Last and Stevens 1994). In New Zealand it is most abundant on the east coast of the South Island. No contraction of range or fragmentation of the population has occurred.
41743		threats	eng	<em>C. milii</em> is caught both commercially and recreationally in southern Australia and New Zealand. The sports fishery in New Zealand is currently recovering. The flesh is of good quality and is sold in seafood markets as whitefish fillets (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/><em>C. milii</em> is captured as byproduct from targeting <em>M. antarcticus</em> with gillnets of 6?6½" mesh-size off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. During 1970?2001 the catch of <em>C. milii</em> from the Southern Shark Fishery varied 4?118 tonnes (carcass weight), 2% of the total catch of all shark species (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is some targeting of females inshore by recreational fishers during the egg-laying period. <br/> <br/>Small quantities are taken as byproduct in the South East Trawl Fishery, which targets a range of quota teleost species with demersal trawl nets off New South Wales, eastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania. The catch from this sector was 22 tonnes during 2002.  <br/> <br/>In southern Australia, commercial catch rates have been stable for the past 20 years, while fishing effort is reducing (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002). On-board monitoring over the past 25-year period indicates the number of animals caught per unit of fishing effort declined to 67%; the change is not statistically significant (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press).  <br/> <br/>In New Zealand, the species is most abundant off the east coast of the South Island. The fishery appears to be stable with populations likely to be above the biomass required to provide the maximum sustainable yield (Annala <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41744		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41744		distribution	eng	Wide, if sporadic, range in the Atlantic and Indo-West Pacific, on outer continental shelves and upper slopes.
41744		habitat	eng	Occurs on or near the seabed on outer continental shelves and upper slopes at 98 to 1,000 m. Eats bony fishes, small dogfish sharks, skates, squid and crustaceans. Ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparous) with one to six (mostly four to six) pups per litter, born at 30 to 45 cm total length (TL). Matures at around 110 cm (males) to 140 cm (females) with maximum length approximately 170 cm. Although there is limited information on the biology of this species, gulper sharks are considered to have very low rates of population increase and to be very vulnerable to over-exploitation by fisheries. For example, Graham <em>et al.</em> (1997) report documented declines of 99.5% in abundance of <em>Centrophorus</em> species off southern New South Wales, Australia, where this species is known to occur in small numbers.
41744		population	eng	Population and subpopulation size unknown; common in some areas, not in others.
41744		threats	eng	Targeted widely (Northeast Atlantic, southern Africa, the Maldives, Australia, China, Taiwan and probably elsewhere) by line and trawl fisheries for its liver oil, which is rich in squalene, and meat for human consumption. Also a bycatch of mixed species deepwater trawl fisheries. Identification problems compounded by an absence of routine data collection at species level in most of these fisheries means that there are no available data on trends in catch per unit effort in most of these fisheries, but where such data are available significant declines have been recorded.
41746		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
41746		distribution	eng	Fairly broadly distributed in deep water in western Pacific. Restricted to a depth range of 500 to 1,200 m with possibly only limited exchange between subpopulations.
41746		habitat	eng	Habitat: on or near bottom on continental and insular slopes and seamounts, depth range 500 to 1,200 m. A little-known deepwater dogfish. Matures at 40 to 45 cm, maximum length 60 cm, litters of 3 to 22 pups, average 12. No seasonal reproductive cycle, no information on annual fecundity, gestation period, age at maturity or longevity. Like other deepwater dogfishes, this species likely has a very low resilience to depletion and a low intrinsic rate of population increase, hence highly vulnerable to bycatch in deepwater fisheries.
41746		population	eng	No information on population or subpopulation size, but apparently not abundant (records are infrequent).
41746		threats	eng	Bycatch in deep trawl fisheries, but no data on catches and trends.
41747		conservation	eng	2002 regulations in the South East Trawl fishery in Australia prohibits the landings of livers unless the accompanying carcass is also landed.
41747		distribution	eng	A wide but patchy distribution in the Atlantic (Iceland to South Africa, and including the western Mediterranean; Grand Banks to Delaware Bay) and western Pacific (off Japan, New Zealand and Australia (from Cape Hawke, New South Wales to Beachport (South Australia), including Tasmania).
41747		habitat	eng	On or near the bottom of  the continental slope and abyssal plain in depths from 270 to 3,700 m. In Australia, catch rates are generally highest in depths greater than 1,000 m (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Surveys conducted in Portugal never found this species in depths shallower than 800 m. There appears to be sex and size segregation by depth. The diet consists mainly of fish (including sharks) and cephalopods along with benthic invertebrates and cetacean species. Off southern Australia, teleost prey included relatively large demersal species such as alepocephalids and orange roughy, as well as small lantern fishes. <br/> <br/>Population parameters in Australia are as follows (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002): <br/> <br/>Size at birth: 30 cm total length (TL) <br/>Max size: 120 cm TL <br/>Male maturity: 75 cm TL <br/>Female maturity: 95 cm  <br/>Age at maturity: ? <br/>Longevity: ? <br/>Litter size: 12 (8-19) <br/>Gestation:? (non-seasonal) <br/>Breeding cycle: non-continuous <br/> <br/>Maturity in Japan and in the north east Atlantic is reported at between 70 and 86 cm in males and at about 100 cm in females (Yano and Tanaka 1988, Girard and Du Buit 1999), with maximum size attained at 158 cm TL. There is evidence of size segregation by depth with smaller specimens at greater depths and pregnant females at shallower depths (Yano and Tanaka 1988, Girard and Du Buit 1999).
41747		population	eng	Relatively common in the eastern North Atlantic where it is targeted off Portugal. Also relatively common off Japan, south eastern Australia and New Zealand. No data are available on population sizes or on long term trends in abundance.
41747		threats	eng	This shark has been exploited commercially for a long time. In Japan exploitation peaked during World War II, (because the livers are rich in squalene: 22 to 49% by weight), but quickly declined due to decreasing numbers caught. Taken by trawl, hook and gillnet both as a target and bycatch species for its liver oil and flesh. Important fisheries for this species exist in Suruga Bay, Japan and Portugal where it is targeted by a deepwater longline fishery. Between 1986 and 1999 catches in Portugal varied between about 300-900 tonnes with an increasing trend. The price of landed wet weight in Portugal has also been increasing since 1986 (US$1.5/kg in 1986 to US$3.5/kg in 1999), which suggests that demand is driving the fishing industry to continue exploitation. However, CPUE data were lacking and it is not currently possible to assess changes in abundance and biomass from any areas.
41749		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41749		distribution	eng	Southern Japan, southern Australia, and New Zealand; reported from the northern Gulf of Mexico.
41749		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 250 to 1,500 m, usually 500 to 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Life history is not well known, but a typical deepwater shark, sometimes occurring in schools segregated by size and sex. Feed on fishes and squids. <br/> <br/>Born 25 to 30 cm. Mature 70 to 79 cm (males), 82 to 105 (females). Maximum 120 cm. Some incomplete information on reproduction is presented by Yano and Tanaka (1987, 1988) and Daley <em>et al.</em> (2002), but the gestation period and reproductive cycle are not well known.
41749		population	eng	There is no information on whether the population off southern Australia (including seamounts to the south) is linked to the New Zealand population via seamounts and submarine ridges in the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea. It is improbable that there is any physical connection with the populations of <em>C. owstoni</em> off southern Japan, and in the northern Gulf of Mexico.No information is available on the size of any population.
41749		threats	eng	A moderate bycatch in some deepwater trawl and line fisheries. Its depth range coincides (in part) with that of some commercially important teleosts (especially orange roughy, oreos), although it extends somewhat deeper.
41752		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41752		distribution	eng	Throughout mainland New Zealand, and the Stewart Is ? Snares Is Shelf; Chatham Rise and Chatham Islands. Depth ranges from the shore to 673 m, but most are shallower than 400 m.
41752		habitat	eng	Trawled over open, soft substrates, and also found on rocky reefs. Nocturnally active; usually resting during the day. Feeds on fish, crustaceans, octopus and squid. Egg cases are laid in pairs and attached to objects by long spiral tendrils. Young hatch at about 16 cm total length (TL). Males mature at about 60 cm and females at 80 cm TL. Maximum length is reported to be larger than 150 cm, but individuals over 100 cm TL are rare. Females grow larger than males.
41752		threats	eng	Frequently caught as bycatch in trawl and rock lobster fisheries. However there is no indication that these fisheries are impacting the population, though abundance data are lacking.
41753		conservation	eng	Continued catch data for this species is required for future assessments.
41753		distribution	eng	<em>Cephaloscyllium laticeps</em> is an endemic to southern Australia, found from the Recherche Archipelago in Western Australia to Jervis Bay in New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994).
41753		habitat	eng	<em>Cephaloscyllium laticeps</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 60 m in depth and is probably the most common catshark in this region (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/>This species reaches at least 100 cm total length (TL) (possibly 150 cm) with males maturing at about 82 cm and females laying egg cases approximately 13 cm by 5 cm which are attached to seaweed and bottom-dwelling invertebrates and the young hatching at about 14 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/><em>C. laticeps</em> feeds on small reef fish, crustaceans and squid (Last and Stevens 1994).
41753		threats	eng	<em>Cephaloscyllium laticeps</em> forms a significant component of the southeastern Australia shark gill net fishery (Walker <em>et al.</em>, in press) but there is little fishing pressure further to the west. This species is usually returned to the water and fishing mortality appears to be low due to its resilience: it can survive for a considerable length of time out of the water (T. Walker, pers. comm.). Although this species is of little commercial value, it has recently been marketed in some areas (J.D. Stevens, pers. comm.).
41754		conservation	eng	<em>Neophocaena phocaenoides</em> (meant at the time of listing to include <em>N. asiaeorientalis</em>) is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). Management measures are needed to reduce the threats, particularly incidental mortality in fisheries and vessel strikes, but also to protect (or if possible restore) the environmental conditions needed for these animals to survive and reproduce.
41754		distribution	eng	The type specimen was from the Yangtze River, Kiangsu [=Jiangsu] Province, China, ~129 km (=80 miles) northwest of Shanghai (Pilleri and Gihr 1972).<br/> <br/> In general, the species occurs in a narrow strip of shallow (usually <50 m deep) coastal water around the western Pacific Ocean from the Taiwan Strait to the waters of northern China, Korea and northern Honshu, Japan. (Note that a Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoise was discovered recently in the waters of Okinawa Island, Japan (Yoshida <em>et al</em>. 2010), but it probably represents an extralimital stray rather than an extension of the species’ range.) The distribution also includes a few estuaries and rivers (e.g., the <em>N. a. asiaeorientalis</em> subspecies appears to be found exclusively in the Yangtze River system; Gao 1991; Gao and Zhou 1995).&#160; Human coastal development and other activities already may have substantially reduced and fragmented the distribution of finless porpoises (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/> <br/> <em>N. a. sunameri</em> – Coastal waters from the Taiwan Strait, including the western coast of Taiwan (mainly the Matsu and Chinmen Islands), through the East China Sea north to the Bohai/Yellow Sea in China and the waters of Korea and Japan (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). Korean and Japanese populations are geographically separate (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 1992,Yoshida <em>et al</em>. 2001, Yoshida 2002).<br/> <br/> <em>N. a. asiaeorientalis</em> – Middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (= Chang Jiang), where it ranges (or did until recently) to 1,600 km upstream, i.e. to the gorges above Yichang (200 m above sea level). The range includes Poyang and Dongting lakes and their tributaries, the Gan Jiang and the Xiang Jiang (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). The subspecies is thought to be restricted to fresh water.
41754		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises are found mainly in coastal waters, including shallow bays, possibly mangrove swamps, estuaries, and some large rivers. However, they can also occur in shallow waters (<200 m deep) quite far from shore (up to 240 km). They appear to have a strong preference for waters with a sandy or soft bottom (Jefferson and Hung 2004).<br/> <br/> In Japanese waters, finless porpoises prefer shallow depths (<50 m) and close proximity to the shore (<5 km). In the shallow East China Sea, proximity to the shore does not appear to be as important (Amano 2002). <br/></p><p>Small fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans (mainly demersal species) form the diet of finless porpoises (see Jefferson and Hung 2004). </p>
41754		population	eng	These porpoises are small and cryptic and therefore difficult to survey. Estimates of abundance have been made for only a few areas (IWC 2006). Estimates from the early 2000s are available for five subpopulations in Japanese waters, distinguished on the basis of skull morphology and mtDNA variability (Yoshida <em>et al.</em> 1995, Yoshida 2002), as follows: 3,807 (CV=16%) in Ariake Sound/Tachibana Bay (Shirakihara and Shirakihara 2002); 289 (CV=19%) in Omura Bay (Shirakihara and Shirakihara 2002); 3,743 (CV=24%) in Ise/Mikawa Bay (Yoshida 2002); 3,387 (CV=33%) in Chiba/Sendai Bay (Amano <em>et al</em>. 2003); and 7,572 (CV=17%) in the Inland Sea (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 2007). Most of the estimates were summarized in IWC (2006). For the Inland Sea subpopulation, Kasuya <em>et al</em>. (2002) recorded a decline in sighting rate of 18–100% for 18 tracklines surveyed in 1976–78 and again in 1999–2000. The declines for 11 of these tracklines were statistically significant. Using abundance indices calculated by multiplying the density indices (no. individuals/cruise distance) and area size of each stratum, an overall decline of 69% is inferred over the 22 years between the two sets of surveys (T. Kasuya pers. comm. 2007, data from Kasuya <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/> <br/> Surveys in western Korean waters (Yellow Sea) in the early 2000s estimated 21,532 (CV=39%) finless porpoises in offshore waters and 5,464 (CV=20%) in inshore waters (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) considered these estimates to be negatively biased (IWC 2006, p. 223).<br/> <br/> Based on surveys from 1984 to 1991, Zhang <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated that there were about 2,700 porpoises in the Yangtze River, while Zhou <em>et al</em>. (2000) estimated that only 700 remained in the lower reaches between Nanjing and Hukou between 1989 and 1992. Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000) concluded that finless porpoise abundance in the Yangtze River had declined considerably and that there could be fewer than 2,000 animals (although this was not based on a rigorous assessment). A two-vessel survey of the Yangtze mainstem in 2006 yielded an estimate of 1,225 (CV 0.13) which, when combined with earlier estimates for Poyang and Dongting Lakes, was interpreted as implying an overall number of about 1,800 in the Yangtze system (Zhao <em>et al. </em>2008). In some portions of the river where porpoises had been reported to be present in the past, none were seen during the 2006 survey. Estimates of the annual rate of decline of Yangtze finless porpoises have varied from 5 to 7.3% (see Wang 2009 for a review).<br/> <br/> There are no abundance estimates for finless porpoises in Chinese marine waters other than Hong Kong (IWC 2006), which would be for <em>N. phocaenoides</em> and not <em>N. asiaeorientalis</em>.
41754		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Finless porpoises, like other phocoenids (Jefferson and Curry 1994), are extremely susceptible to entanglement in gillnets, and large numbers have been, and continue to be, killed in many parts of their range. In Japan Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises become entangled in a variety of types of fishing gear. Changes in fishing methods may have reduced the incidental catch in some areas such as western Kyushu (Kasuya 1999), but substantial numbers are still being taken in gill nets and other fishing gear. A total of 114 specimens were collected in Japan during 1985–1992 from western and north-eastern Kyushu including parts of the western Inland Sea (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 1993): 84 of them had been killed incidentally in fisheries, 25 had been found dead on the beach or in the sea, and there was no information on the other five. Fishing gears that killed the 84 porpoises were bottom-set gill nets (58), surface gill nets (17), trap nets (7), trawl nets (1) and drifting (ghost) nets (1). Such fishing gears aree common in Japan and probably kill finless porpoises off other coasts, although usually such catches go unreported. Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that finless porpoises were the most frequently captured cetaceans in fishing gear along the Chinese coast and estimated that more than 2,000 were taken in 1994, mainly in trawl, gill, and stow nets. In the waters of western Taiwan, including the Matsu and Chinmen Islands (western Taiwan Strait), a considerable number of finless porpoises are taken in trammel nets, trawl nets, stow nets, and other gear (J.Y. Wang unpublished). Given the numbers and types of net fisheries in Chinese coastal waters (<em>e.g.</em> Zhou and Wang 1994, Yang <em>et al</em>. 1999), there are serious concerns about the level of bycatch of both finless porpoise species. Although illegal, electric fishing became widespread in the Yangtze River during the 1990s, and it probably kills porpoises outright and contributes to the depletion of their prey (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2000).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In some parts of their range, there is an aversion to eating finless porpoises (Kasuya 1999, J.Y. Wang unpublished). However, there is a long history of porpoises taken incidentally being sold for human consumption in at least parts of Japan (e.g., Mizue <em>et al.</em> 1965) and on the Korean peninsula (IWC 2000). From an analysis of the species composition of odontocete products in Korean markets during 2003–2004, it was estimated that the true catch of finless porpoises in Korean waters during this period was probably about four times the officially reported catch of 142 animals (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/> <br/> As coastal and riverine animals, Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises are also affected by habitat loss and degradation, boat traffic, and pollution. The extensive modification of coastlines for shrimp farming and rampant harbor (and other) development throughout East Asia means that there is less habitat for finless porpoises (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Porpoise habitat in the Yangtze River system has been degraded by water development, including the Gezhouba and Three Gorges dams and about 1300 smaller dams in tributaries (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2000, Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). Sand mining is intensive in Poyang Lake, until recently a stronghold for Yangtze finless porpoises (Zhao <em>et al. </em>2008). Although pathology related to contaminant exposure has not been reported in Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises, pollution is considered a potentially serious threat (Kasuya 1999; see Kannan <em>et al</em>. 1989; Iwata <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1995; Le <em>et al</em>. 1999; Zhao <em>et al. </em>2008).</span></p>  <p>A recent survey of levels and drivers of human-caused mortality carried out in 27 fishing settlements along the middle-lower Yangtze channel <span lang="EN-US">identified three main categories of observed porpoise deaths: (1) interaction with fishing gear, (2) vessel strikes, and (3) unknown cause (S.T. Turvey pers. comm. 2011). A total of 344 dated porpoise mortality events <span lang="EN-US">directly observed by informants between 1950 and 2008 were reported, including 75 porpoise deaths from 1989–1998 and 147 from 1999–2008. This change was driven by the greater number of deaths attributed to vessel strikes (19 to 35) and unknown causes (31 to 94) in the more recent decade. Comparison of the reported mortality with the estimated abundance suggests that the fraction of individuals removed from the declining porpoise population in the Yangtze has quadrupled over the course of two decades. Turvey concluded that entanglement in rolling hook long-lines is probably responsible for the greatest number of porpoise deaths in fishing gear and that vessel strikes and other anthropogenic factors, such as electrofishing, are likely now the dominant and increasing causes of mortality in the Yangtze.</span></p>  <p>The causes of an apparent decline in porpoise numbers in the Inland Sea of Japan are not fully understood but include incidental mortality in fisheries as well as various forms of habitat degradation (IWC 2000, 2006). Parts of the coastal regions of the Inland Sea are highly developed and industrialized so the associated threats of habitat loss and pollution are suspected to have had some (undetermined) level of impact </p>
41755		conservation	eng	Management plans need both development and implementation. The International Whaling Commission manages sperm whale populations under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and lists sperm whale seasons, sperm whale size limits and sperm whale catch limits (0 at present), as well as sanctuaries for all species in the Indian and Southern Oceans. However, no scheme for managing sperm whale populations is in place. Moreover, many range states are not members of the International Whaling Commission.
41755		conservation	eng	<p>An international sanctuary for the conservation of Mediterranean cetaceans, where driftnet fishing was progressively phased out, was established in 1999, encompassing key cetacean habitat in portions of the Provençal, Corsican, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian and northern Sardinian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, large portions of what is likely critical habitat for Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean region fall outside any type of protective regime. Sperm Whales are listed by the Bonn Convention - CMS (Appendix I), the Bern Convention (Appendix II), CITES (Appendix I), the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic Area (a priority species for conservation action) and the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and the Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean of the Barcelona Convention (Annex II). The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling confers full protection from commercial whaling on sperm whales under the moratorium on commercial whaling that took effect from 1986. <br/></p>  For the specific purpose of reducing the risk of collisions between Sperm Whales and vessels, the only management measure currently taken in the Mediterranean Sea is the “Notice to Mariners to protect cetaceans from the risk of ship collisions in the Strait of Gibraltar”, published in January 2007 by the “Instituto Hidrográfico de la Marina” (Ministry of Defense, Spain). This Notice establishes a security area characterized by high densities of Sperm Whales, where crossing ships are urged to limit their speed to 13 knots or slower (following the suggestions by Laist <em>et al</em>. 2001) and to navigate with particular caution. The same notice is broadcast regularly by VHF radio from April to August and it is included in the Nautical Charts (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2008).
41755		conservation	eng	The species is on Appendix I of CITES and Appendices I and II of CMS.<br/><br/>Management plans need both development and implementation. The International Whaling Commission manages sperm whale populations under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and Schedule of the Convention lists Sperm Whale seasons, Sperm Whale size limits and Sperm Whale catch limits (0 at present), as well as sanctuaries for all species in the Indian and Southern Oceans. However, no scheme for managing Sperm Whale populations is in place. Moreover, many range states are not members of the International Whaling Commission.<br/><br/>Regional subpopulations of Sperm Whales exist, and there has been an apparent lack of recovery in some areas or even continued decline (e.g., the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Therefore, further assessments of the status of Sperm Whales should be conducted at the subpopulation level.
41755		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, Sperm Whales are widely distributed from the Gibraltar Strait area in the west to the Levant Basin in the east. The species was known in the past to have been predictably present in parts of the Gibraltar Strait area, around the Balearic Islands, in the Algerian-Ligurian Basin, in the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the deep waters to the north, east and southeast of Sicily, in the Ionian Sea and in parts of the Aegean Sea. It is still fairly predictable in the Gibraltar Strait, near the Balearic Islands and along the Hellenic Trench from the NE Ionian Sea to the NW Levant Basin. The species is rare in the Strait of Sicily, and vagrant in the northern and central Adriatic Sea. It is absent from the Black and Marmara seas.
41755		distribution	eng	The Sperm Whale has a large geographic range (Rice 1989). It can be seen in nearly all marine regions, from the equator to high latitudes, but is generally found in continental slope or deeper water. The distribution extends to many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, and Gulf of Mexico.
41755		distribution	eng	The sperm whale has a large geographic range (Rice 1989). Sperm whales can be seen in nearly all marine regions, from the equator to high latitudes, but they are generally found in continental slopes or deeper water. The distribution extends through many enclosed or partially enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, and Gulf of Mexico.
41755		habitat	eng	Preferred Sperm Whale habitat in the Mediterranean consists mostly of deep continental slope waters where mesopelagic cephalopods, the species’ preferred prey, are most abundant (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Praca and Gannier 2008).&#160; Deeper offshore waters are also inhabited, but perhaps to a lesser degree (Praca and Gannier 2008).<br/><br/>Adult males of oceanic populations are known to segregate from social units of females and immatures as they reach sexual maturity. Males live separately from the social units in higher latitudes, some reaching as far as the ice edge. Some of the larger adult males migrate latitudinally to join social units, which remain in warmer waters year-round. These males rove between social groups, associating with a given social group for only a few hours at a time, presumably just long enough to breed (Whitehead 2003). A generally similar social system may occur in parts of the western and central Mediterranean, with males segregating during summer in the northern part (roughly north of 41°N), while social units remain in the south (Drouot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004b), although the latter may be found occasionally in the north as well (Moulins and Würtz 2005, Di Meglio and David 2008, Pierantonio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In some parts of the eastern basin, social groups of females with immatures and solitary mature males are both found in the same area year-round (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2003), although in the northern part of the Hellenic Trench only social groups are present and large males are rarely seen. When large males are present, it is almost always in a reproductive context. Social groups typically consist of 10–12 individuals including at least 1–2 calves (Gannier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/>Based on a combination of photo-identification and acoustic data, Drouot-Dulau and Gannier (2007) observed north–south movements of sexually mature males between the northern Mediterranean and social groups off the Balearic Islands, ranging in excess of 500 km and lasting seven days or less. Laran and Drouot-Dulau (2007) observed the highest abundance of sperm whales in the Ligurian Sea between August and October, which is indicative of the species’ movement within a wider area. In the eastern Mediterranean, both solitary males and social groups may remain in a limited area for more than a month, or may visit that area repeatedly during the same summer season, indicating that they stay in neighbouring waters (A. Frantzis, unpublished data). Some solitary males and several social units have been re-sighted in the same area for up to three and six consecutive years, respectively, during ongoing long-term studies (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; A. Frantzis, unpublished data). Information on the reproductive behaviour and ecology of sperm whales in the Mediterranean remains sparse. Both solitary males and social groups of sperm whales are thought to feed throughout their range; short, apparently reproductive associations of mature males with social units have been observed in the Ionian Sea, as well as very young newborns and a birth (A. Frantzis, unpublished data).
41755		habitat	eng	The habitat of the sperm whale is the open sea.  More specifically, sperm whales can be found in almost all marine waters deeper than 1,000m that are not covered by ice, except in the Black Sea and possibly the Red Sea (Rice 1989, Whitehead 2003). In some areas, particularly in the western North Atlantic, sperm whales, and especially males, can occur in shallower waters (e.g. Scott and Sadove 1997). Sperm whales are generally more numerous in areas of relatively high primary productivity (Jaquet <em>et al.</em> 1996), although there are some exceptions, such as the Sargasso Sea.<br/><br/>The sperm whale is an animal of extremes, in size (up to 18m), sexual dimorphism (mature males have three times the mass of mature females), ecological imprint (sperm whales take roughly the same amount of biomass from the oceans as humans), and many other attributes (Whitehead 2003).  The commercial value of the animal (a function of its size and the quality of sperm whale oil) drove two massive worldwide hunts: the technologically primitive “open-boat” hunt from 1712-c.1920 (Starbuck 1878, Best 1983), and modern whaling using engine-driven whaling ships and harpoon guns from c.1910-1988 (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The complex social structure of sperm whales may have been affected by whaling, lowering potential population growth rates, which are very low anyway (Whitehead 2003).  On the positive side, sperm whales are very widely distributed (see above), and their primary food, deep-water squid, are not yet major targets of fisheries. <br/><br/>The generation time (mean age of mothers) for sperm whales can be calculated if one assumes a set of population parameters, specifically age at first birth, mortality rate of mature females, and reproductive rate of mature females.  There is uncertainty about these parameters, so two calculations were made using different assumptions:<br/>a) Applying the population parameters most recently used for sperm whales by the International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee (International Whaling Commission 1982: age at first birth = 10 years; female reproductive rate in unexploited population = 0.20/year; female adult mortality = 0.055/yr): generation time = 27.3 years.<br/>b) The estimates of mortality used by the International Whaling Commission are particularly problematic, and sperm whales likely have age-specific survival and reproductive rates.  Thus it may be more realistic (Whitehead 2002) to use the well-established mortality schedule of killer whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>; Olesiuk <em>et al.</em> 1990) and an age-specific pregnancy rate taken from the sperm whale data presented by Best <em>et al.</em> (1984; pregnancy rate for mature females = 0.257-0.0038xAge in years): generation time = 27.5<br/>These estimates are consistent and suggest a generation time of 27.4yr for sperm whales.
41755		habitat	eng	The habitat of the Sperm Whale is the open sea. More specifically, Sperm Whales can be found in almost all marine waters deeper than 1,000 m that are not covered by ice, except in the Black Sea and possibly the Red Sea (Rice 1989; Whitehead 2003). In some areas, particularly in the western North Atlantic, sperm whales, especially males, can occur in shallower waters (e.g., Scott and Sadove 1997). Females and young are usually restricted to waters at latitudes lower than about 40-50º and to areas where sea surface temperatures are greater than about 15ºC (Rice 1989). Sperm Whales are generally more numerous in areas of relatively high primary productivity (Jaquet <em>et al</em>. 1996), although there are some exceptions, such as the Sargasso Sea and the central North Pacific gyre (Barlow and Taylor 2005).<br/><br/>The Sperm Whale is an animal of extremes in size (up to 18 m), sexual dimorphism (mature males have three times the mass of mature females), ecological imprint (sperm whales take roughly the same amount of biomass from the oceans as humans), and many other attributes (Whitehead 2003). The commercial value of the animal (a function of its size and the quality of Sperm Whale oil) drove two massive worldwide hunts: the technologically primitive “open-boat” hunt from 1712-~1920 (Starbuck 1878; Best 1983), and modern whaling using engine-driven whaling ships and harpoon guns from ~1910-1988 (Tonnessen and Johnsen 1982). The complex social structure of sperm whales may have been affected by whaling, lowering potential population growth rates, which are very low anyway (Whitehead 2003). On the positive side, Sperm Whales are very widely distributed (see above), and their primary prey, deep-water squid, are not yet major targets of fisheries.<br/><br/>The generation time (mean age of mothers) for Sperm Whales can be calculated if one assumes a set of population parameters, specifically age at first birth, mortality rate of mature females, and reproductive rate of mature females. There is uncertainty about these parameters, so two calculations were made using different assumptions:<br/><br/>a) Applying the population parameters most recently used for Sperm Whales by the International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee (International Whaling Commission 1982): age at first birth = 10 years; female reproductive rate in unexploited population = 0.20/year; female adult mortality = 0.055/yr): generation time = 27.3 years.<br/><br/>b) The estimates of mortality used by the International Whaling Commission are particularly problematic, and Sperm Whales likely have age-specific survival and reproductive rates. Thus it may be more realistic (Whitehead 2002) to use the well-established mortality schedule of Killer Whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>; Olesiuk <em>et al</em>. 1990) and an age-specific pregnancy rate taken from the sperm whale data presented by Best <em>et al</em>. (1984; pregnancy rate for mature females = 0.257-0.0038xAge in years): generation time = 27.5
41755		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Population size</span><br/>Genetic data suggest that Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean constitute a separate subpopulation. Drouot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), comparing eastern North Atlantic specimens with 13 individuals sampled in the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ionian Sea, northwestern Mediterranean basin and Balearic Sea, found significant differences in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype frequencies, suggesting that the Sperm Whales in the Atlantic and Mediterranean belong to separate matrilineal complexes. Engelhaupt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) compared a sample of 44 male Sperm Whales from the Mediterranean with a much larger sample from the North Atlantic using the mtDNA control region and 16 microsatellite DNA loci. The Mediterranean sample had only one mtDNA haplotype, compared to haplotypic diversity of 0.65 in the North Atlantic, and the Mediterranean sample also exhibited lower microsatellite diversity. The Mediterranean animals were significantly differentiated from the North Atlantic animals at both the mtDNA control region and the microsatellite DNA loci, although the effect was much stronger for mtDNA, suggesting that the Mediterranean is home to a philopatric population of matrifocal social groups, from which males disperse (Engelhaupt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This is consistent with the frequent observations of the same groups of Sperm Whales in the Gibraltar Strait (Fernandez-Casado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, de Stephanis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), which could be primarily mature males. Other types of observations are suggestive of geographic isolation. All age classes of Sperm Whales are found within the Mediterranean, and the occurrence of neonates (Gannier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Moulins and Würtz 2005) confirms that calving takes place there. In the eastern Mediterranean, both social groups and solitary adult males are present year-round. In other parts of the basin social groups with calves seem to be rather infrequent, with the exception of the Balearic Islands (Rendell and Cañadas 2005), and the Strait of Messina historically. Moreover, Mediterranean Sperm Whales seem to have a particular repertoire of codas, the stereotyped patterns of clicks that Sperm Whales use for communication. Repertoire differences among populations have been interpreted as indicative of cultural differences (Whitehead 2003).&#160; Although more than 25 coda types have been recorded in the Mediterranean (Drouot and Gannier 1999), the coda repertoire is dominated by a pattern (the “3+1” coda) that is not common in adjacent waters of the Atlantic (Borsani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). More than 50% of codas produced by Mediterranean solitary males are “3+1” codas (Frantzis and Alexiadou 2008).<br/><br/>No estimate of population size exists for the region. Gannier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) provided Sperm Whale visual and acoustic encounter rates for a large portion of the Mediterranean Sea, however no absolute abundance estimates can be derived from their data. Estimated abundance for the Ionian Sea in 2003, based on surveys combining visual and acoustic techniques, was 62 individuals (95% CI = 24–165; Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). These results are consistent with the number of Sperm Whales photo-identified along the Hellenic Trench (see below), which lies in part within the area surveyed by Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007), and in part further to the east. Ssperm Whales were detected on-transect during a survey of the Strait of Sicily (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Results from a survey of a large portion of the western basin (from Gibraltar to Sicily and bounded on the north by a line from the Balearics east to Sardinia) in summer 2003 indicate a Sperm Whale detection rate roughly eight times that in the Ionian Sea (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This suggests that Sperm Whale numbers are higher in the western basin than in the Ionian Sea; however, considering that the overall surveyed area by Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) is a large portion of the Sperm Whale habitat in the Mediterranean, and that recent surveys made in the remaining portion have not revealed the existence of very high concentrations of Sperm Whales there (Song of the Whale Team – IFAW 2007), it is suggested that overall Sperm Whale numbers in the Mediterranean are likely to be only in the low to mid hundreds. About 50 individuals have been photo-identified in the western Mediterranean Sea up to 2004 (NAMSC 2004). About 170 individuals (28 solitary males and 15 social units) have been photo-identified along the Hellenic Trench during 12 years of intense research effort (1998–2009). In this particular area the first estimates by capture-recapture models indicate about 200 Sperm Whales (A. Frantzis, unpublished data). This number refers to the population that uses the Hellenic Trench, including animals that are regularly observed there and animals that are occasional visitors (especially males). In the Ligurian Sea, known to contain one of the most productive pelagic areas in the Mediterranean, 70 Sperm Whales have been photo-identified across 14 years (1995–2008) of intensive research, suggesting that density there is low. In the Strait of Gibraltar 21 individuals were identified (de Stephanis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Based on all of the above information, the total number of Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean region is more likely in the hundreds than the thousands. No evidence exists of population fragmentation across the region (D. Engelhaupt, pers. comm. to GNS).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population trend</span><br/>There is evidence that Sperm Whales were formerly common in portions of the Mediterranean, such as in the Strait of Messina and the waters adjacent to the Eolian Islands (e.g., Bolognari 1949, 1950, 1951, 1957), at least until the 1950s. Bolognari (1949, 1950, 1951, 1957) reported the frequent occurrence of large “aggregations” or “clusters” (<span style="font-style: italic;">sensu</span> Whitehead 2003), consisting of as many as 30 individuals, in the area of the Strait of Messina during winter in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Such large groups have not been recorded in more recent times in that area or anywhere else in the Mediterranean. When data on Sperm Whale encounter rates started to become available in the mid-1990s (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), they were inconsistent with the impression given by historical records (Bolognari 1949, 1950, 1951, 1957). For example, in the waters adjacent to the northern and eastern coasts of Sicily, an intensive year-long programme of dedicated surveys in the Strait of Messina and surrounding waters, based on a combination of visual and acoustic techniques (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), produced 11 Sperm Whale sightings (totalling 15 individuals), all of them in winter, during 125 survey days spanning 12 months. <br/><br/>Sperm Whales have declined considerably in the stranding records of Italy in the last decade, in stark contrast with the large numbers of individuals in the records in the 1987–1998 period (see also the “Threats” section), and in spite of the fact that efficiency of discovery and reporting of strandings has greatly improved over time in Italy (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In those years Italy had the largest driftnet fleet in the Mediterranean (in excess of 700 vessels) operating throughout a significant portion of the central basin (Scovazzi 1998). An organised nation-wide effort to document stranded, floating dead and entangled cetaceans began in Italy in mid-1986 (for a complete list of the annual stranding reports, see Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The first full year in which such data were collected (1987) coincides with the highest value of sperm whale findings, 19 (Fig. 1), at least 13 of which involved capture in driftnets. Findings sharply decreased in the following years, stabilising at a mean of 4.6 animals/year between 1990 and 2003 (range: 1–9). This decrease did not coincide with a decrease in fishing effort, which started declining appreciably only after 1996 (Scovazzi 1998). Although a number of alternative explanations can be offered to account for the observed trend (such as movement of sperm whales out of the area, fluctuations in fishing effort, changes in area of fishing operations, etc.), the abrupt decline in the number of records, which corresponds with increased stranding detection and reporting, can also be interpreted as a possible sign of decreased availability of animals to become entangled in that area.<br/><br/>Mass strandings (i.e., ≥2 individuals) of Sperm Whales are known in the Mediterranean, but infrequent. These include a stranding of 12 individuals near Mazara del Vallo, Sicily, in 1734, reported by Antonino Mongitore in 1743 (Parona, 1897); a group of three in the harbour of Sant’Elpidio, northern Adriatic Sea, in 1805 (Parona, 1897); five juveniles stranded near Pozzallo, south-eastern Sicily, in 1873 (Parona, 1897); six near Novigrad, northern Adriatic Sea, in 1853 (Heckel, 1853); seven near Ugento, Ionian Sea, in 1887 (Parona, 1897); seven reported from Marsala, Sicily, by Giuseppe Riggio in 1892 (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bearzi 2004); seven near Marzocca di Senigallia, northern Adriatic Sea, in 1938 (unpublished); and seven near Foce Varano, southern Adriatic Sea, in 2009 (unpublished data).
41755		population	eng	The only recent quantitative analysis of sperm whale population trends (Whitehead 2002; Fig. 1 in linked PDF document, which constitutes an integral part of this assessment) suggests that a pre-whaling global population of about 1,100,000 had been reduced by about 29% by 1880 through “open-boat” whaling, and then to approximately 360,000 (67% reduction from initial) by the 1990s through modern whaling, although much uncertainty is associated with all these estimates (Fig. 1 in linked PDF document). There is no direct evidence that any part of the population has increased since the end of large-scale whaling in about 1980, although for most areas there is also no direct evidence that they have not. In some areas there is concern that populations are continuing to decline (see below).<br/><br/>The species has a huge geographic range (Rice 1989) and a global population size in the 100,000's (Whitehead 2002; Fig 1). Although there is considerable uncertainty about sperm whale population parameters and levels of exploitation, Whitehead (2002) estimated historical trajectories of sperm whale abundance incorporating many, but not all, sources of uncertainty (Fig. 1 in linked PDF document). That model was modified slightly (to produce an endpoint in 2003) and run to estimate the decline in global sperm whale population size between 1921 and 2003 (i.e. over approximately 3 generations; 82yr; see below for estimation of generation time) (H. Whitehead pers. comm.). As sperm whale population size seems to have changed rather little between about 1910-1930 (Whitehead 2002; Fig. 1 in linked PDF document), the calculations are probably quite robust with reference to the estimated generation time. Using the “best” estimates of the model parameters (as in Whitehead 2002), the population in 2003 would have been 44% of that in 1921. Of 1,000 runs using model parameters randomly selected from within reasonable ranges (as in Whitehead 2002), 6% gave populations in 2003 of &lt;30% of that in 1922, 54% gave a 2003 population between 30-50% of that in 1992, and 40% suggested depletion levels of less than 50% over this time.<br/><br/> Arguments can be made that the model results are overly optimistic or overly pessimistic. Factors that would contribute to making the results overly optimistic that are not accounted for in the model include not accounting for under-reporting of illegal Soviet catches in the North Pacific and Antarctica and under-reporting of Japanese catches in the North Pacific (Kasuya and Brownell 2001), other continuing threats (described below), and factors such as continuing effects of social disruption from whaling that might inhibit recovery (consistent with an apparent lack of recovery in many areas). Factors that would contribute to making the results overly pessimistic include the assumption of a relatively low rate of increase in the model and the extrapolation of a relatively high estimate of g(0) (the proportion of whales detected on the trackline) from a single study to the global population. The direction of the effect of other uncertainties in model inputs, including the effects of sex-biased catches, is not certain. Despite these uncertainties, the Whitehead model provides the best available scientific evidence upon which to base this assessment. To reduce these uncertainties, future analyses would need to address the concerns identified above. <br/><br/>Efforts to assess the conservation status of sperm whales and the impact of historical whaling on contemporary structure are compromised by the absence of a good model of sperm whale population structure; pooling data may obscure distinct geographic patterns. While Sperm Whales are known to show long distance movements (Ivashin and Rovnin 1967; Mitchell 1975) and low genetic differentiation among ocean basins, several lines of evidence suggest that sperm whales past and present, have significant geographic structure. Analyses based on historical and contemporary data from tagging records (Rice 1974; Kasuya and Miyashita 1988), blood types (Fujino 1963), catch distributions, sighting patterns, size composition, lack of recovery from exploitation (Japan), timing of pregnancy (Best <em>et al</em>.1984), photo-identification (Whitehead 2003), genetics (Drouot 2004; Mesnick <em>et al</em>. 1999), cultural markers (Rendell and Whitehead 2003) and combinations thereof (Bannister and Mitchell 1980; Kasuya and Miyashita 1988) suggest evidence for structure in many regions. Over the past decade, several authors have investigated population structure in female Sperm Whales using sequence variation within the mitochondrial control region DNA (mtDNA) and/or polymorphic nuclear loci (microsatellites). In general, results tend to find low genetic differentiation among ocean basins and little evidence of subdivision within ocean basins, with the exception of some isolated basins such as the Mediterranean and Gulf of Mexico (Lyrholm <em>et al</em>. 1999; Mesnick <em>et al</em>. 1999; Drouot <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, factors such as low sample sizes, low mtDNA haplotypic diversity and social structure alone and together reduce the power to detect population structure. In addition, it is clear that biologically discrete populations of odontocetes can occur independently of strong geographic or oceanographic features. Alternative, non-geographic based hypotheses of population structure, such as dialect and differences in diet such as are found in Killer Whales, have not been thoroughly examined. For example, Rendell and Whitehead (2003) suggest that female populations seem to be culturally structured within oceans by “coda” vocalizations and may be genetically distinct (Rendell and Whitehead 2005, Rendell <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41755		population	eng	The only recent quantitative analysis of sperm whale population trends (Whitehead 2002) suggests that a pre-whaling global population of about 1,100,000 had been reduced by about 29% by 1880 through “open-boat” whaling, and then to approximately 360,000 by the 1990s through modern whaling, although much uncertainty is associated with all these estimates. There is no direct evidence that any part of the population has increased since the end of large-scale whaling in about 1980 although, for most areas, there is also no direct evidence that they have not. In some areas there is concern that populations are continuing to decline (e.g. the Mediterranean).
41755		threats	eng	<p>The most likely threat to Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean is entanglement in high-seas swordfish and tuna driftnets, which has caused considerable and likely unsustainable mortality since the mid-1980s, when this type of fishery started to be used on a large scale (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1990; International Whaling Commission 1994). Such mortality is ongoing (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2003, ACCOBAMS 2003, Pace <em>et al.</em> 2005, Italian Cetacean Stranding Database). The recorded number of Sperm Whales found dead or entangled between 1971 and 2004 in Spain, France and Italy (combined) was 229, only 22 of which (10%) occurred between 1971 and 1986, when the Italian stranding program started, and there is no reason to believe that documentation was anywhere near complete. Most of the strandings in Italy and Mediterranean Spain were caused by entanglement in driftnets, as evident from the reported presence of net fragments or characteristic marks on the whales’ bodies (Podestà and Magnaghi 1989, Lazaro and Martin 1999). Cagnolaro and Notarbartolo di Sciara (1992) reported that for 83% of 347 cetaceans stranded in Italy from 1986 to 1990 (inclusive), which included 56 Sperm Whales, the likely cause of death was related to entanglement. Despite international and national regulations banning driftnets from the Mediterranean, illegal or quasi-legal driftnetting has been continuing in Sperm Whale habitat, not only in the western Mediterranean (e.g., in France, Italy, and Morocco; Oceana 2007) but recently also in the eastern basin (e.g., Greece and Turkey; Akyol <em>et al</em>. 2005), thereby continuing to threaten the species’ survival in the region.<br/></p>  Although the continuation of driftnet fishing by non-EU Mediterranean fleets and illegal EU operations represent the most important ongoing threat to Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean Sea, disturbance from intense marine traffic (e.g., the development of ‘highways of the sea’) and collisions with large vessels (e.g. cargo ships, tankers, hydrofoils and high-speed ferries; de Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2005), may be a significant source of mortality. More than 6% of 111 Sperm Whales stranded in Italy (1986–1999) and Greece (1982–2001) have died after being struck by a vessel, and 6% of 61 photo-identified individuals (39 in Greece and 22 in Italy) bore wounds or scars caused by a vessel strike (Pesante <em>et al.</em> 2002). Underwater noise from oil and gas prospecting (seismic airguns), military operations, and illegal dynamite fishing are other sources of concern (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Gordon 1997). At least in summer, seismic surveys have occurred along the Hellenic Trench since 2004 and on a daily basis since 2007 (A. Frantzis, unpublished data). Dynamite fishing is still a common activity in large portions of the eastern and southern Mediterranean, where feeding and socialising Sperm Whales are present year-round (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003).
41755		threats	eng	Sperm whales have had a long history of local whaling going back at least to the 1500s (Mesnick pers. comm.), and intense whaling, beginning around 1712, and continuing to 1988. The “modern” highly mechanised phase was particularly intense around 1950, and at its peak killed around 25,000 whales per year, dramatically depleting the global population. Currently, some tens of whales are taken each year from small boats in Indonesia, and 10 are taken annually by Japan under IWC Special Permit (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Entanglement in fishing gear, particularly gillnets, has been a particular problem in the Mediterranean Sea (see Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) but sperm whales die from entanglement in nets and lines in many other areas and in a variety of fisheries as well (e.g. Haase and Félix 1994, Barlow and Cameron 2003, Caretta <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Sperm whales sometimes take fish off fishing gear (most often demersal long-line gear), an activity known as depredation. Depredation of long-line catches appears to be a recent and increasing phenomenon, and now occurs in many regions (e.g. South East Alaska, Chile, South Georgia and several other southern ocean island areas, North Atlantic). This interaction has resulted in a few reported entanglements and deaths (e.g. Salas 1987, Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2004), and has incurred hostility from some fishermen (National Marine Fisheries Service 1998, Donoghue <em>et al.</em> 2003), including shooting of whales (González and Olivarría 2002).<br/><br/>Sperm whale tissues have high levels of some contaminants (O'Shea 1999, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 2000), though any population-level effects on health are unknown.  The effects of noise on sperm whales are also uncertain. Some evidence suggests that they are highly sensitive to noise (e.g. Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1985, Bowles <em>et al.</em> 1994) while other studies have found little or no effect (e.g. Madsen and Møhl 2000, Madsen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  To date, all published studies of sperm whales and noise focus on short-term behavioural effects. Avoidance of sonar (Dawson pers. comm.) and seismic surveys (Mate <em>et al.</em> 1994; but see Madsen <em>et al.</em> 2002) has been observed but no mortality has been documented.<br/><br/>Whaling on sperm whales has at various times focussed almost exclusively on one sex or the other. Removals of large numbers of males may have had lingering effects on pregnancy rates in some subpopulations (Best 1979, Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1980, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1997) and large males are noticeably uncommon on some breeding grounds (see Whitehead 2003). The removal of large numbers of females from social groups, and of older females in particular, may have lingering, socially disruptive effects. Further, recovery might be inhibited via temporary or permanent loss of social cohesion and of socio-ecological knowledge such as is known to occur in other large-brained, long-lived social mammals (e.g. elephants, Poole and Thomsen 1989).  <br/><br/>Maximum rates of increase for sperm whale populations are very low, possibly on the order of 1% per year (Whitehead 2002). Population recovery will be slow.<br/><br/>The extraordinarily wide distribution of sperm whales buffers the species to some extent from competition with fisheries. However, it should be noted that in some areas, stocks of squid and fish species known to be used by sperm whales are heavily exploited.<br/><br/>Sperm whales face other threats at a more regional level. These include collisions with ships (Laist <em>et al.</em> 2001), for instance off the Canary Islands (André and Potter 2000) and in the Mediterranean (Pesante <em>et al.</em> 2002), and ingestion of marine debris in the Mediterranean (e.g. Viale <em>et al.</em> 1992).
41755		threats	eng	The greatest threat to Sperm Whales, extensive commercial whaling, has ceased. However, a number of other threats of various dimensions remain.<br/><br/>Sperm Whales have had a long history of local whaling going back at least to the 1500s and intense commercial whaling beginning around 1712 and continuing to 1988. The “modern” highly mechanised phase was particularly intense around 1950, and at its peak killed around 25,000 whales per year, dramatically depleting the global population. In recent decades, some tens of whales were taken each year from small boats in Indonesia (Reeves 2002), although none have been taken in the last two years (H. Whitehead pers. comm.), and 10 are taken annually by Japan under IWC Special Permit (Clapham <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Entanglement in fishing gear, particularly gillnets, has been a particular problem in the Mediterranean Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara, 2006), but Sperm Whales die from entanglement in nets and lines in many other areas and in a variety of fisheries as well (e.g., Haase and Félix 1994; Barlow and Cameron 2003). Considering the widespread distribution of Sperm Whales, observations of occasional takes in relatively small scale gillnet fisheries (e.g. Barlow and Cameron 2003) suggest much larger takes in unobserved, unregulated high seas driftnet fisheries such as were common before the 1989 adoption of resolution 44/225 of the UN General Assembly. <br/><br/>Sperm Whales sometimes take fish off fishing gear (most often demersal long-line gear), an activity known as “depredation.” Depredation of long-line catches appears to be a recent and increasing phenomenon, and now occurs in many regions (e.g., South East Alaska, Chile, South Georgia and several other southern ocean island areas, North Atlantic). This interaction has resulted in a few reported entanglements and deaths (e.g. Salas 1987; Hucke-Gaete <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has incurred hostility from some fishermen (National Marine Fisheries Service 1998; Donoghue <em>et al</em>. 2003), including shooting of whales (González and Olivarría 2002).<br/><br/>Sperm Whale tissues have high levels of some contaminants (O'Shea 1999; Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2000); however, any population-level effects on health are unknown. The effects of noise on Sperm Whales are also uncertain. Some evidence suggests that they are highly sensitive to noise (e.g., Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1985; Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1994) while other studies have found little or no effect (e.g., Madsen and Møhl 2000; Madsen <em>et al</em>. 2002). To date, all published studies of Sperm Whales and noise focus on short-term behavioural effects. Avoidance of sonar (Dawson pers. comm.) and seismic surveys (Mate <em>et al</em>. 1994; but see Madsen <em>et al</em>. 2002) has been observed but no mortality has been documented.<br/><br/>Whaling on Sperm Whales has at various times focussed almost exclusively on one sex or the other. Removals of large numbers of males may have had lingering effects on pregnancy rates in some subpopulations (Best 1979; Clarke <em>et al</em>. 1980; Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997) and large males are noticeably uncommon on some breeding grounds (Whitehead 2003). The removal of large numbers of females from social groups, and of older females in particular, may have lingering, socially disruptive effects. Furthermore, recovery might be inhibited via temporary or permanent loss of social cohesion and of socio-ecological knowledge such as is known to occur in other large-brained, long-lived social mammals (e.g., elephants, Poole and Thomsen 1989). <br/><br/>Maximum rates of increase for Sperm Whale populations are very low, possibly on the order of 1% per year (Whitehead 2002). Population growth/recovery can be expected to be low in the species.<br/><br/>Sperm Whales face other threats at a more regional level. These include collisions with ships (Laist <em>et al</em>. 2001), for instance off the Canary Islands (André and Potter 2000) and in the Mediterranean (Pesante <em>et al</em>. 2002), and ingestion of marine debris in the Mediterranean (e.g., Viale <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/><br/>Causes for optimism: On the one hand, the Sperm Whale is not being heavily whaled at present and seems relatively secure from this threat in the short and medium term. When not being actively hunted, the Sperm Whale has rather little interaction with humans: most of its habitat is far from land, and few of its food sources (principally deep-water squid) are of currently harvested (Clarke 1977). Some populations, for instance the animals in the western North Atlantic that were little affected by modern whaling, seem healthy with reasonably high population densities and evidence of satisfactory reproduction (Gordon <em>et al</em>. 1998; National Marine Fisheries Service 2000).<br/><br/>Causes for concern: on the other hand, the Sperm Whale, with a maximum rate of increase of around 1% per year (Whitehead 2002), is not well adapted to recover from population depletion. Furthermore, the population model considers only one anthropogenic threat, whaling, and thus posits that the Sperm Whale population has recovered since about 1980 (Fig. 1 in linked PDF document), when large-scale commercial whaling was rapidly coming to an end. This recovery is purely theoretical, and may not be occurring as sperm whales carry high levels of some chemical contaminants (O'Shea 1999; Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2000), ocean noise is increasing (Gordon and Moscrop 1996), interactions with fisheries continue to result in sperm whale deaths (International Whaling Commission 1994), and the lingering, socially disruptive effects of whaling may be inhibiting recovery of this highly social species (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997). Some regional populations of sperm whales are declining or are apparently not recovering from depletion. Even in the absence of whaling, the Mediterranean population appears to have declined over the past 20 years, with bycatch in driftnets a likely principal cause (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). The southeastern Pacific Sperm Whale population, very heavily whaled during the period 1950-1980, has an extremely low recruitment rate (probably below replacement), perhaps because of the social disruption caused by intense whaling (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997). The population of mature and maturing males in the Antarctic was also heavily whaled over the same period, but should have repopulated from less heavily exploited breeding populations at lower latitudes following the end of large-scale commercial whaling. However, systematic surveys of Sperm Whales in the Antarctic showed no substantial or statistically significant increase between 1978 and 1992 (Branch and Butterworth 2001).
41756		conservation	eng	Ganges River dolphins are legally protected from hunting in all range states. The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bihar, India, between Sultanganj and Kahalgaon in the mainstem of the Ganges River was designated as a protected area for dolphins in August 1991 but there is little government support to enforce protective measures. The legal protection in India has been described as "completely ineffective" (Sinha 2002), however a small measure of progress was the convening of the Regional Seminar on Environmental Laws in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, India in November 2003 (Anon 2002). Also, recent proceedings of the Patna High Court (C.J.W.C. No. 5628 of 2001) directed the state and federals governments to allocate funds for supporting efforts to conserve and monitor dolphins in the Ganges. In a few smaller tributaries, dolphins receive nominal protection by virtue of the fact that small portions of their habitat are within or adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries (e.g., Kaziranga National Park in Assam, India, National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India, and Royal Bardia National Park and Katerniya Ghat Gharial Sanctuary, respectively north and south of the Nepal-India border. Although field trials have shown that shark or fish oils would be efficient substitutes for dolphin oil as a fish attractant and some fishermen in the middle Ganges are now using oil made from fish scraps as an alternative, most apparently continue to use dolphin oil by preference or because suitable alternatives are not widely available in either the Ganges or Brahmaputra systems (Mohan and Kunhi 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998, Bairagi 1999, Sinha 2002).
41756		distribution	eng	Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna (GBM) and Karnaphuli-Sangu (KS) river systems, from the deltas upstream to where rocky barriers, shallow water, fast currents, dams, or barrages (low, gated, diversion dams) prevent upstream movement. The GBM and KS systems are disjunct and therefore so are their respective dolphin populations, although there may be occasional demographic interaction during the high water season if the freshwater plumes of the two river systems meet. There is likely further population separation within the two systems, some of it "natural" but much more of it secondary caused by the presence of physical barriers constructed within the last 100 years. (Follow link below to see a distribution map). <br/> <br/>The Ganges River Dolphin was considered by some researchers to be a distinct species for several decades (1970s–1990s) and was listed as such in the 1996 Red List. Its range is disjunct with that of the other subspecies, the Indus River Dolphin, <em>Platanista gangetica minor</em>, and therefore the two have been assessed and listed, and should be managed, separately.
41756		habitat	eng	Ganges River dolphins are generally concentrated in counter-current pools below channel convergences and sharp meanders (Kasuya and Haque 1972, Smith 1993, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and above and below mid-channel islands, bridge pilings, and other engineering structures that cause scouring (Smith, unpublished data). Their fidelity to counter-current pools is probably greatest in fast-flowing channels (Smith<em>et al</em>. 1998). Annual monsoon-driven floods cause great variability in the dolphins’ access to large parts of their range. Isolation in seasonal lakes sometimes occurs (especially in the Brahmaputra basin), as does "escapement" from the river channels into artificial water bodies such as canals and reservoirs. Deltaic (brackish) waters are a major component of the total range, but Ganges River dolphins are not generally known to occur in salinities greater than 10ppt, although they have been recorded in waters as saline as 23ppt (Smith and Braulik, unpublished data).
41756		population	eng	Although the aggregate range-wide abundance of Ganges River dolphins was estimated by Jones (1982) as 4,000–5,000 individuals and more recently by Mohan <em>et al</em>. (1997) as fewer than 2,000, these were only guesses. Population assessments have been based on counts conducted within discrete portions of the vast network of riverine and deltaic habitat occupied by these dolphins. Few rigorous estimates of absolute abundance, with estimates of precision, are available.  Available counts and estimates are summarized in Table 1 (follow link below). <br/> <br/>Highest "densities" of Ganges River dolphins (defined as animals per linear river kilometer) have been observed in the Ganges mainstem between Maniharighat and Buxar (1.5/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and within this segment particularly in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (2.8/km) (Smith, unpublished) and just downstream between Kahalgaon and Manihari Ghat (near Katihar) (3.4/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and the lower Sangu River, Bangladesh (1.4/km) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). A few Ganges River dolphins were still present during the mid 1990s as far downstream in the Hoogly River as Kakdwip (Sinha 1997). In the Sundarbans of Bangladesh a minimum of 134 Ganges River dolphins were counted resulting in a "density" estimate of 0.09 individuals/km, with Irrawaddy dolphins <em>Orcaella brevirostris</em> replacing <em>Platanista</em> in higher salinity waters of the southern and western portions (Smith, unpublished). No information is available on the status of Ganges River dolphins in the Indian Sundarbans, except for historical reports of occurrence (Anderson 1879, Jones 1982).   <br/> <br/>Roughly accounting for duplicate counts or estimates in Table 1 (follow link below), the total of about 1,200–1,800 animals provides a reasonable lower range for the total metapopulation abundance. However, considering that areas with potentially large numbers of animals have not been accounted for at all (e.g., Indian portion of the Sundarbans Delta) and that at least some of the counts and estimates are known to be negatively biased (e.g., see Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001), the true number could be several times as high. <br/> <br/><strong>Numerical Declines</strong>: Although no credible time series of abundance estimates are available for most of the subspecies' range, the numbers shown in Table 1 (follow link below) imply downward trends in a number of upstream tributaries (see also Range Declines below). <br/> <br/><strong>Range Declines</strong>: The range of the subspecies has declined progressively since the nineteenth century when it was mapped by Anderson (1879). No dolphins have been reported in recent years between the Madhya Ganga Barrage at Bijnor and the Bhimgoda Barrage near Haridwar, at the upstream limit of their historical range in the Ganges (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). This suggests a roughly 100 km decline in their range in the Ganges River since the late 1800s. In recent years, dolphins have not been reported in the Yamuna River above the Chambal River confluence during the dry season because upstream channels have become too shallow and polluted to support dolphins, but the segment may still be occupied during the monsoon (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Historically, they were found year-round in the Yamuna River approximately 400 km upstream to Delhi (Anderson 1879).  <br/> <br/>Elsewhere in the Ganges mainstem, four extant subpopulations are isolated by barrages, including Farakka Barrage located approximately at the center of the subspecies' overall range. In the northern Ganges tributaries, of the six subpopulations that were isolated above or between barrages, three have been extirpated (in the Gandak River above the Gandak Barrage and in the Sarda River above the upper and lower Sarda barrages) (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000) and one reduced to insignificant numbers (in the Kosi River above the Kosi Barrage) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994). Ganges River dolphins have apparently been extirpated from the Son River (at least during the dry season) based on a survey covering ca. 300 km upstream of the Ganges confluence, above and below the Indrapuri Barrage (Sinha and Sharma 2003). <br/>  <br/>Occasional reports of dolphins in the reservoir behind Kaptai Dam (built in 1961) of the KS system occurred until the mid-1990s (Ahmed 2000), but recent surveys have found no evidence that the subspecies survives there (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). Thus, the dam's construction is likely to have caused a substantial reduction in the subspecies’ range in southeastern Bangladesh, but in the absence of any historical information on occurrence in the upper Karnaphuli no quantitative estimate of range reduction is possible. <br/> <br/>No surveys have been conducted in the Damodar River system but a single dolphin was rescued after becoming stranded in a deep pool after flow was diverted during the dry season by an upstream barrage. The downstream effects of at least ten dams and barrages constructed in its mainstem and tributaries has probably severely reduced and fragmented dolphin habitat (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).
41756		threats	eng	<strong>Water Development Projects</strong> <br/> <br/>Construction of at least 50 dams and dams within the known or suspected historical range of the subspecies (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000) has dramatically affected its habitat, abundance, and population structure. The subspecies exists as a metapopulation, with numerous subpopulations isolated to varying degrees by mostly manmade but also natural barriers, as outlined in the preceding section. <br/> <br/>In addition to fragmenting dolphin populations, dams and barrages degrade downstream habitat and create reservoirs (known as head ponds (or pondage in India) in the case of barrages) with high sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. For example, luxuriant growth of macrophytes and excessive siltation have eliminated suitable habitat immediately above Farakka Barrage (Sinha 2000). Moreover, the insufficiency of water released downstream of this barrage has eliminated dry-season habitat for more than 300 km, or until the Ganges (Padma)-Brahmaputra confluence (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has also allowed salt water to intrude an additional 160 km into the Sundarbans Delta (Rahman 1986), further decreasing the amount of suitable habitat for this obligate freshwater dolphin (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/> <br/>A high dam has been planned for some time just upstream of the dolphins' current (or at least recent) range in the Karnali River, Nepal. If built, this structure would almost certainly eliminate the small amount of dolphin habitat in Nepal’s last river with a potentially viable dolphin population (Smith and Reeves 2000). Disturbance and environmental degradation associated with geotechnical feasibility studies and bridge and road construction for the dam already may have contributed to a decline in the number and range of dolphins above the Nepal-India border (Smith 1993, Smith<em>et al</em>. 1994). Another high dam has been proposed for the Surma River in Cachar, India, which would certainly affect dolphins downstream in the Kalni-Kushiyara distributary (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Since the 1980s, momentum has been growing within India to proceed with large-scale inter-basin water transfer projects, which will involve additional dam construction and diversion of water from rivers inhabited by dolphins. Although no final decision has been taken to proceed with construction, feasibility studies are to be completed in December 2005 and detailed project reports in 2006. It was anticipated in 2004 that, if built, the entire project would be finished by 2016. During the May 2004 national elections in India all political parties supported the construction of inter-basin water transfer projects and promised to accelerate the construction process. Several key categories of potential threat are: (a) further fragmentation of the dolphin metapopulation, (b) reduction or elimination of habitat simply in terms of dry-season flow, (c) "escapement" of dolphins into canals where they are unlikely to be able to get back into rivers and are therefore doomed, (d) cascading effects from interrupted migrations of prey organisms, degradation of prey spawning habitat etc., (e) contaminant flux leading to significant changes in chronic and/or acute exposure to toxins, (f) loss of complexity (channelization, sediment entrapment upstream of dams, etc.) making the rivers less habitable for dolphins, etc, and  (g) downstream effects on the ecology of the delta (e.g., saline encroachment, loss of sediment).  <br/> <br/>Embankments cause sediments to be deposited in the riverbed instead of on the floodplain, thereby eliminating or reducing the extent of the eddy-counter currents where dolphins are generally found. (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). They also restrict access to floodplain habitat critical to the reproduction and growth of riverine fish species (Boyce 1990). Approximately 3,500 km of embankments have been constructed in the Ganges mainstem and Gandak, Buri Gandak, Bagmati, Kamala, Yamuna, and Son tributaries (Mishra 1999). Dolphins were apparently extirpated from at least 35 km of the Punpun tributary of the Ganges after embankments were constructed in 1975 (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although plans for constructing an extensive system of embankments in the rivers of Bangladesh under the Flood Action Plan (FAP) coordinated by the World Bank (see World Bank 1990) have been drastically scaled-down, several projects are currently planned or being constructed that will have adverse effects on dolphin habitat. These include the Bank Protection and River Training Project (FAP 21/22), Brahmaputra River Bank Priority Works, and Jamalpur Priority Project (FAP 3.1) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). Environmental assessments of these projects have not considered river dolphins, nor have they acknowledged the cumulative impacts of planned embankments, and others built before the FAP, on the fish and crustacean species eaten by river dolphins. <br/> <br/>Other sources of habitat degradation in the GBM system include dredging (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and the removal of stones (Shrestha 1989), sand (Mohan<em>et al</em>. 1998), and woody debris (Smith 1993). These activities compromise the ecological integrity of the riverine environments, especially small tributaries where suitable habitat is limited and disproportionately vulnerable to local disturbance. Dolphin habitat is also threatened by water abstraction from surface pumps and tube wells, especially in the Ganges where the mean dry-season water depth has declined dramatically in recent years (Sinha, unpublished). Although the long-term implications of reduced dry-season flows in the Ganges are catastrophic, both for the survival of river dolphins and a major portion of the world’s human population that inhabits the Ganges basin, the cumulative effects of reduced water supplies have received little attention. Meanwhile, new projects to divert dry-season flow, such as Kanpur Barrage in the upper Ganges, continue to be constructed (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/><strong>Toxic Contaminants</strong> <br/> <br/>Organochlorine and butyltin concentrations in samples from the tissues of Ganges dolphins were high enough to cause concern about effects (Kannan <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1994, 1997; Senthilkumar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pollutant loads can be expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices facilitated by water diversion. River dolphins may be particularly vulnerable to industrial pollution because their habitat in counter-current pools downstream of confluences and sharp meanders often places them in close proximity to point sources in major urban areas (e.g., Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Calcutta, and Dhaka). Furthermore, the capacity of rivers to dilute pollutants (e.g., arsenic, DDT) and salts has been drastically reduced in many areas because of upstream water abstraction, diversion, and impoundment. Again, this problem is bound to worsen as more development takes place.  <br/> <br/><strong>Hunting</strong> <br/> <br/>Deliberate killing of river dolphins is believed to have declined in most areas but still occurs at least occasionally in the middle Ganges near Patna, India (Smith and Reeves 2000, Sinha 2002), in the Kalni-Kushiyara River of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998), and in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India (Mohan <em>et al</em>. 1997). Dolphins are killed by tribal people in the upper Brahmaputra for their meat and by fishermen in the middle reaches of the Ganges for their oil, which is used as a fish attractant.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mortality in Fishing Gear</strong> <br/> <br/>Mortality in fishing gear, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges River dolphins throughout most of their range (Mohan 1995, Smith and Reeves 2000). They are particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the fishing grounds. In the middle Ganges, although harpooning is now "rare", mortality in fishing nets remains "widespread" (Sinha 2002). A specific problem is that, because dolphin oil is highly valued as a fish attractant, fishermen have a strong incentive to kill any animals found alive in their nets and even to set their nets strategically in the hope of capturing dolphins (described by Sinha 2002 as "assisted incidental capture"). <br/> <br/>Meaningful quantitative data on the magnitude of catches, either deliberate or incidental, are unavailable and unlikely to become available in the absence of a well-organized, adequately funded, and incorruptible fishery/wildlife management system.
41757		conservation	eng	In 1972, dolphins were protected under the Wildlife Act of Sindh and in 1974 the government of Sindh declared the Indus River between the Sukkur and Guddu Barrages a dolphin reserve. The government of Punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the Punjab Wildlife Protection Act in 1974 and established the Taunsa Wildlife Sanctuary and Chashma Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983 and 1984, respectively (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Chaudhry and Khalid 1989). Enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by Pilleri and Zbinden (1973–74) for these river segments.  A programme sponsored by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the Indus mainstem has had some success in reducing mortality (Braulik 2002, Bhaagat 2002).
41757		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the rivers of the lower Indus basin in Pakistan.  Historically it occurred in the Indus mainstem and the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum tributaries. It ranged from the Indus delta upstream to the Himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement. Development of the vast Indus Basin Irrigation System has severely fragmented the dolphin population within a network of barrages (low, gated, diversion dams) and water diversion has dramatically reduced the extent of dolphin habitat. Current occupancy is effectively limited to three subpopulations in the Indus mainstem located between the Chashma and Taunsa, Taunsa and Guddu, and Guddu and Sukkur Barrages. A few individuals still remain above Chashma Barrage and below Sukkur Barrage (Braulik 2003, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Reeves 1998) (see Figure 1; follow link below).   <br/> <br/>The Indus River Dolphin was considered by some researchers as a distinct species for several decades (1970s–1990s) and was listed as such in the 1996 Red List. Its range is disjunct with that of the other subspecies, Ganges River Dolphin, <em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em>, and therefore the two have been assessed and listed, and should be managed, separately.
41757		habitat	eng	Indus River dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids (Bhatti and Pilleri 1982, Braulik 2003). Reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions, confluences, and deep, low-velocity water (Kasuya and Nishiwaki 1975, Khan and Niazi 1989, Braulik 2004).  During the low-water season (October to April), barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of Sukkur Barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated. As water levels drop in the winter, dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas, including the head ponds upstream of barrages.
41757		population	eng	Direct-count surveys of the largest subpopulations have been conducted regularly by the Sindh and Punjab Wildlife Departments since the early 1980's, but described methods do not provide a basis for evaluating bias, estimating precision, or detecting trends in abundance (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). Dolphin counts between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages show an apparent increase from 139 dolphins recorded in 1974 (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74), to 290 in 1979 (Pilleri and Bhatti 1980), and 458 dolphins in 1996 (Mirza and Khurshid 1996). If this increase was real and not an artifact of variable sighting biases, it could be explained by recovery of the subpopulation after implementation of a hunting ban in 1974 (see Conservation Actions below) or by permanent immigration from upstream subpopulations (see Major Threats below). A comprehensive review of previous survey data is presented in Reeves and Chaudhry (1998) and Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991).  <br/> <br/>The most recent and comprehensive assessment of the Indus Dolphin population was a survey of their entire range conducted in March and April 2001 that resulted in a minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins (based on the sum of best estimates of group size of all sightings).  High and low estimates of group size were also recorded. The sum of high estimates was 1,171 and the sum of the low estimates 843. This survey also documented a pronounced increase in the abundance and encounter rate of dolphins as the survey vessel proceeded downstream. The largest subpopulation is located in the Sindh Dolphin Reserve between the Guddu and Sukkur Barrages, at the downstream end of the range.  Best estimates of 602 total dolphins and 3.6 dolphins/linear km were recorded for this section, 259 dolphins and 0.74 dolphins/linear km for the section between Guddu and Taunsa, and 84 dolphins and 0.28 dolphins/linear km for the furthest upstream section between Taunsa and Chashma. Two dolphins were seen upstream of Chashma Barrage and 18 downstream of Sukkur Barrage.   <br/> <br/>The minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins for the subspecies is likely to be close to the actual population size due to measures taken in the field to increase sighting efficiency. Essentially all potential dolphin habitat was surveyed in the Indus mainstem, including secondary channels and braids off the main channel, from a non-motorized vessel (mean survey speed = 5 km/hr), which maximized detection opportunities. Double-concurrent counts were also conducted from a second vessel traveling behind the primary survey vessel. Sightings were considered unique if they were greater than 750 m distant from another group according to the GPS positions. Preliminary analyses indicate that the primary survey vessel missed less than 10% of dolphin groups, and no groups of more than 3 individuals (mean group size recorded was 2.0; SD = 1.6; range 1–11) (Braulik 2004).  The probability of double counting dolphins due to their movement from surveyed to unsurveyed areas overnight was considered to be balanced by the probability that an equal number of dolphins were missed altogether due to their movements in the opposite direction.    <br/> <br/>The linear extent of occurrence of the subspecies has declined from approximately 3,400 km of Indus mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870s (see Anderson 1879) to approximately 1,000 linear km of the mainstem today (Braulik 2004).  An estimated 99% of the dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km, which corresponds to an 80% reduction in the area of occupancy (Anderson 1879, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Braulik 2003, Braulik 2004).  During the 1970s and 1980s there were occasional reports of dolphin occurrence between barrages in the lower reaches of the Indus tributaries (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991). No recent surveys have been conducted in those areas. However, due to an increase in upstream water abstraction and a decline in dry season flows, it is unlikely that any dolphins remain in these reaches.
41757		threats	eng	The most significant threat to dolphins in the Indus has been the construction of at least 25 dams and barrages that have severely fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat (Smith and Reeves 2000). Upstream subpopulations may lose individuals downstream if dolphins move through barrage gates when they are open in the wet season.  Individuals are unlikely to move upstream through a barrage because of strong downstream hydraulic forces at the gates. While there have been no direct observations of dolphins moving through a barrage, they often swim through regulator gates into irrigation canals, which, although smaller, present a similar obstacle (Braulik 2002). Evidence for permanent downstream emigration includes that each subsequent downstream subpopulation is larger than the one above (see Range and Population above), despite the reduced linear extent and availability of water in downstream segments. Encounter rates in the farthest downstream subpopulation (between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages) are very high (3.60 dolphins/linear km), approaching three times those recorded in similar surveys elsewhere for <em>Platanista</em> dolphins (Braulik 2003). The possible large increase in the dolphin subpopulation between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages (described above) may be due to reproduction and reduced mortality alone, or may be augmented by downstream emigration.  Even a low emigration rate could dramatically affect the persistence of upstream subpopulations (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Smith 1999). <br/> <br/>Since the mid 1990s, there have been increasing reports of dolphins trapped in irrigation canals near Sukkur Barrage. Dolphins have survived for several months in the canals until they are drained in January for annual de-silting and maintenance. Between January 2000 and December 2002, 34 dolphins were reported trapped in these canals. Twenty-four were successfully rescued and returned to the Indus River, while the remainder died (Bhaagat 1999, Braulik 2002, WWF-Pakistan unpublished data). <br/> <br/>One of the direst threats to the survival of the Indus River Dolphin is probably the escalating demand for water. Pakistan is a largely desert nation, with a rapidly growing human population and fast developing industrial and agricultural sectors that demand increasing amounts of water. Several years of extreme drought have depleted aquifers that would normally be expected to augment river flows in the dry season.   <br/> <br/>Pollution may be affecting the viability of the subspecies, especially considering the decline in flushing and dilution due to reduced flows.  The Indus River corridor is not highly developed and above the Panjnad River confluence, the habitat is likely to be relatively unpolluted. However, more than 75% of the dolphin population occurs downstream of the confluence with the Panjnad River, which receives a large pollution load from the industrialized cities of the Punjab. There are almost no facilities for treatment of municipal waste in Pakistan and few controls on industrial effluent. Massive fish kills have reportedly become common from industrial pollution in urban areas and from pesticides used on irrigated crops grown along the riverbanks (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). The pressures on river water supply and continued untreated discharge of pollutants imply that there will be a continuing decline in the amount and quality of dolphin habitat. <br/> <br/>Deliberate killing for meat and oil was a traditional and widespread practice until at least the early 1970s (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74). Hunting is now banned although poaching occasionally occurs. Similar to all cetaceans, this subspecies is vulnerable to entanglement in fishing gear and vessel collisions. However, the areas of the Indus River where dolphins are extant are not heavily fished or utilized by vessels and these factors may not be major threats at present.  Incidents of accidental killing and observations of dolphin carcasses and products are documented in Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991) and Reeves and Chaudhry (1998).
41758		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in all range states and occurs in a number of national parks and other designated areas, including dolphin reserves or sanctuaries, where at least nominal enforcement takes place. In Pakistan, the enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested a rapid population decline in the Indus during the early 1970s. Also in Pakistan, a program exists to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the Indus main channel. Field trials in India to determine the effectiveness of shark and scrap fish oils as catfish attractant have been judged successful, but it is unclear to what extent fishermen have converted to using them instead of dolphin oil.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><em><strong>Platanista gangetica gangetica</strong></em><br/>Ganges River dolphins are legally protected from hunting in all range states. The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bihar, India, between Sultanganj and Kahalgaon in the mainstem of the Ganges River was designated as a protected area for dolphins in August 1991 but there is little government support to enforce protective measures. The legal protection in India has been described as "completely ineffective" (Sinha 2002), however, a small measure of progress was the convening of the Regional Seminar on Environmental Laws in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, India in November 2003 (Anon 2002). Also, recent proceedings of the Patna High Court (C.J.W.C. No. 5628 of 2001) directed the state and federals governments to allocate funds for supporting efforts to conserve and monitor dolphins in the Ganges. In a few smaller tributaries, dolphins receive nominal protection by virtue of the fact that small portions of their habitat are within or adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries (e.g., Kaziranga National Park in Assam, India, National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India, and Royal Bardia National Park and Katerniya Ghat Gharial Sanctuary, respectively north and south of the Nepal-India border. Although field trials have shown that shark or fish oils would be efficient substitutes for dolphin oil as a fish attractant and some fishermen in the middle Ganges are now using oil made from fish scraps as an alternative, most apparently continue to use dolphin oil by preference or because suitable alternatives are not widely available in either the Ganges or Brahmaputra systems (Mohan and Kunhi 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998, Bairagi 1999, Sinha 2002).<br/><br/><em><strong>Platanista gangetica minor</strong></em><br/>In 1972, dolphins were protected under the Wildlife Act of Sindh and in 1974 the government of Sindh declared the Indus River between the Sukkur and Guddu Barrages a dolphin reserve. The government of Punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the Punjab Wildlife Protection Act in 1974 and established the Taunsa Wildlife Sanctuary and Chashma Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983 and 1984, respectively (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Chaudhry and Khalid 1989). Enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by Pilleri and Zbinden (1973–74) for these river segments. A programme sponsored by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the Indus mainstem has had some success in reducing mortality (Braulik 2002, Bhaagat 2002).
41758		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indus, Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna, and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of the South Asian subcontinent, from the deltas upstream to where they are blocked by rocky barriers, shallow water, fast currents, dams, or barrages (low, gated diversion dams). The three river systems are disjunct and therefore so are their respective dolphin subpopulations, although there may be occasional demographic interaction between the latter two during the high-water season if the freshwater plumes of the two systems meet. There is further subpopulation separation within all three systems, some of it natural but much of it caused by physical barriers constructed within the last 100 years.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>P. g. minor</em> is endemic to the rivers of the lower Indus basin in Pakistan. Historically it occurred in the Indus mainstem and the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum tributaries. It ranged from the Indus delta upstream to the Himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement. Development of the vast Indus Basin Irrigation System has severely fragmented the dolphin population within a network of barrages (low, gated, diversion dams) and water diversion has dramatically reduced the extent of dolphin habitat. Current occupancy is effectively limited to three subpopulations in the Indus mainstem located between the Chashma and Taunsa, Taunsa and Guddu, and Guddu and Sukkur Barrages. A few individuals still remain above Chashma Barrage and below Sukkur Barrage (Braulik 2003, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Reeves 1998) (see Figure 1; follow link below).
41758		habitat	eng	South Asian river dolphins are generally concentrated in counter-current pools below channel convergences and sharp meanders and above and below mid-channel islands. Annual monsoon-driven floods cause great variability in the dolphins’ access to large parts of their range. Isolation in seasonal lakes or deep river channels sometimes occurs, as does "escapement" from the rivers into canals and reservoirs. Deltaic (brackish) waters are a component of the total range, but Ganges dolphins are not generally known to occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><em><strong>Platanista gangetica gangetica</strong></em><br/>Ganges River dolphins are generally concentrated in counter-current pools below channel convergences and sharp meanders (Kasuya and Haque 1972, Smith 1993, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and above and below mid-channel islands, bridge pilings, and other engineering structures that cause scouring (Smith, unpublished data). Their fidelity to counter-current pools is probably greatest in fast-flowing channels (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). Annual monsoon-driven floods cause great variability in the dolphins’ access to large parts of their range. Isolation in seasonal lakes sometimes occurs (especially in the Brahmaputra basin), as does "escapement" from the river channels into artificial water bodies such as canals and reservoirs. Deltaic (brackish) waters are a major component of the total range, but Ganges River dolphins are not generally known to occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt, although they have been recorded in waters as saline as 23 ppt (Smith and Braulik, unpublished data).<br/><br/><em><strong>Platanista gangetica minor</strong></em><br/>Indus River dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids (Bhatti and Pilleri 1982, Braulik 2003). Reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions, confluences, and deep, low-velocity water (Kasuya and Nishiwaki 1975, Khan and Niazi 1989, Braulik 2004). During the low-water season (October to April), barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of Sukkur Barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated. As water levels drop in the winter, dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas, including the head ponds upstream of barrages.
41758		population	eng	Published data on abundance consist primarily of counts conducted within discrete portions of the vast network of riverine and deltaic habitat occupied by these dolphins. Few rigorous estimates of absolute abundance, with estimates of precision, are available.<br/><br/>The entire current range of the Indus subspecies was surveyed in 2001 and resulted in an estimate of 843–1,171 individuals, with a best estimate of about 965. The largest subpopulation, containing more than 60% of the total, is located in the Sindh Dolphin Reserve between the Guddu and Sukkur Barrages, at the downstream end of the subspecies’ range. The next largest, with about 27% of the total for the subspecies, is immediately upstream in the Guddu-Taunsa segment of the Indus. <br/><br/>Surveys of portions of the range of the Ganges subspecies have collectively accounted for 1,200–1,800 animals, but the true population is believed to be larger because some potentially important areas have yet to be surveyed (e.g., the Indian Sundarbans) and at least some of the counts and estimates were considered negatively biased. The greatest densities of Ganges dolphins have been observed in the Ganges mainstem in India between Maniharighat and Buxar (particularly the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary) and just downstream of there between Kahalgaon and Manihari Ghat, and in the lower Sangu River of Bangladesh.<br/><br/>Dolphin counts in the Guddu-Sukkur segment of the Indus showed an apparently increasing trend from 1974 to 1996. If this increase was real and not an artifact of variable sighting biases, it could be explained by recovery after implementation of a hunting ban in 1974 or by permanent immigration from upstream subpopulations. No credible time series of estimates is available for the Ganges subspecies, but downward trends are plainly evident for a number of upstream tributaries.<br/><br/>Marked declines have occurred in the extent of occurrence for both subspecies – in the case of Indus dolphins, from approximately 3,400 km of the main channel and its tributaries in the 1870s to approximately 1,000 linear km of the main channel today. An estimated 99% of the Indus dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km, corresponding to an 80% reduction in the area of occupancy for that subspecies. In the case of Ganges dolphins, the picture is less clearcut, but substantial portions of the range, particularly in upstream areas, have been lost. For example, in the northern Ganges tributaries, at least three of six subpopulations that were isolated by barrages have disappeared, and in a recent dry-season survey of the Son River, no dolphins were found. Kaptai Dam in southeastern Bangladesh (built in 1961) resulted in the elimination of extensive habitat in the upper Karnaphuli River.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><em><strong>Platanista gangetica gangetica</strong></em><br/>Although the aggregate range-wide abundance of Ganges River dolphins was estimated by Jones (1982) as 4,000–5,000 individuals and more recently by Mohan <em>et al</em>. (1997) as fewer than 2,000, these were only guesses. Population assessments have been based on counts conducted within discrete portions of the vast network of riverine and deltaic habitat occupied by these dolphins. Few rigorous estimates of absolute abundance, with estimates of precision, are available. Available counts and estimates are summarized in Table 1 (follow link below).<br/><br/>Highest "densities" of Ganges River dolphins (defined as animals per linear river kilometer) have been observed in the Ganges mainstem between Maniharighat and Buxar (1.5/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and within this segment particularly in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (2.8/km) (Smith, unpublished) and just downstream between Kahalgaon and Manihari Ghat (near Katihar) (3.4/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and the lower Sangu River, Bangladesh (1.4/km) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). A few Ganges River dolphins were still present during the mid 1990s as far downstream in the Hoogly River as Kakdwip (Sinha 1997). In the Sundarbans of Bangladesh a minimum of 134 Ganges River dolphins were counted resulting in a "density" estimate of 0.09 individuals/km, with Irrawaddy dolphins <em>Orcaella brevirostris</em> replacing <em>Platanista</em> in higher salinity waters of the southern and western portions (Smith, unpublished). No information is available on the status of Ganges River dolphins in the Indian Sundarbans, except for historical reports of occurrence (Anderson 1879, Jones 1982). <br/><br/>Roughly accounting for duplicate counts or estimates in Table 1 (follow link below), the total of about 1,200–1,800 animals provides a reasonable lower range for the total metapopulation abundance. However, considering that areas with potentially large numbers of animals have not been accounted for at all (e.g., Indian portion of the Sundarbans Delta) and that at least some of the counts and estimates are known to be negatively biased (e.g., see Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001), the true number could be several times as high.<br/><br/><strong>Numerical Declines</strong>: Although no credible time series of abundance estimates are available for most of the subspecies' range, the numbers shown in Table 1 (follow link below) imply downward trends in a number of upstream tributaries (see also Range Declines below).<br/><br/><strong>Range Declines</strong>: The range of the subspecies has declined progressively since the nineteenth century when it was mapped by Anderson (1879). No dolphins have been reported in recent years between the Madhya Ganga Barrage at Bijnor and the Bhimgoda Barrage near Haridwar, at the upstream limit of their historical range in the Ganges (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). This suggests a roughly 100 km decline in their range in the Ganges River since the late 1800s. In recent years, dolphins have not been reported in the Yamuna River above the Chambal River confluence during the dry season because upstream channels have become too shallow and polluted to support dolphins, but the segment may still be occupied during the monsoon (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Historically, they were found year-round in the Yamuna River approximately 400 km upstream to Delhi (Anderson 1879). <br/><br/>Elsewhere in the Ganges mainstem, four extant subpopulations are isolated by barrages, including Farakka Barrage located approximately at the center of the subspecies' overall range. In the northern Ganges tributaries, of the six subpopulations that were isolated above or between barrages, three have been extirpated (in the Gandak River above the Gandak Barrage and in the Sarda River above the upper and lower Sarda barrages) (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000) and one reduced to insignificant numbers (in the Kosi River above the Kosi Barrage) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994). Ganges River dolphins have apparently been extirpated from the Son River (at least during the dry season) based on a survey covering ca. 300 km upstream of the Ganges confluence, above and below the Indrapuri Barrage (Sinha and Sharma 2003).<br/> <br/>Occasional reports of dolphins in the reservoir behind Kaptai Dam (built in 1961) of the KS system occurred until the mid-1990s (Ahmed 2000), but recent surveys have found no evidence that the subspecies survives there (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). Thus, the dam's construction is likely to have caused a substantial reduction in the subspecies’ range in southeastern Bangladesh, but in the absence of any historical information on occurrence in the upper Karnaphuli no quantitative estimate of range reduction is possible.<br/><br/>No surveys have been conducted in the Damodar River system but a single dolphin was rescued after becoming stranded in a deep pool after flow was diverted during the dry season by an upstream barrage. The downstream effects of at least ten dams and barrages constructed in its mainstem and tributaries has probably severely reduced and fragmented dolphin habitat (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/><em><strong>Platanista gangetica minor</strong></em><br/>Direct-count surveys of the largest subpopulations have been conducted regularly by the Sindh and Punjab Wildlife Departments since the early 1980's, but described methods do not provide a basis for evaluating bias, estimating precision, or detecting trends in abundance (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). Dolphin counts between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages show an apparent increase from 139 dolphins recorded in 1974 (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74), to 290 in 1979 (Pilleri and Bhatti 1980), and 458 dolphins in 1996 (Mirza and Khurshid 1996). If this increase was real and not an artifact of variable sighting biases, it could be explained by recovery of the subpopulation after implementation of a hunting ban in 1974 (see Conservation Actions below) or by permanent immigration from upstream subpopulations (see Major Threats below). A comprehensive review of previous survey data is presented in Reeves and Chaudhry (1998) and Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991). <br/><br/>The most recent and comprehensive assessment of the Indus Dolphin population was a survey of their entire range conducted in March and April 2001 that resulted in a minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins (based on the sum of best estimates of group size of all sightings). High and low estimates of group size were also recorded. The sum of high estimates was 1,171 and the sum of the low estimates 843. This survey also documented a pronounced increase in the abundance and encounter rate of dolphins as the survey vessel proceeded downstream. The largest subpopulation is located in the Sindh Dolphin Reserve between the Guddu and Sukkur Barrages, at the downstream end of the range. Best estimates of 602 total dolphins and 3.6 dolphins/linear km were recorded for this section, 259 dolphins and 0.74 dolphins/linear km for the section between Guddu and Taunsa, and 84 dolphins and 0.28 dolphins/linear km for the furthest upstream section between Taunsa and Chashma. Two dolphins were seen upstream of Chashma Barrage and 18 downstream of Sukkur Barrage. <br/><br/>The minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins for the subspecies is likely to be close to the actual population size due to measures taken in the field to increase sighting efficiency. Essentially all potential dolphin habitat was surveyed in the Indus mainstem, including secondary channels and braids off the main channel, from a non-motorized vessel (mean survey speed = 5 km/hr), which maximized detection opportunities. Double-concurrent counts were also conducted from a second vessel traveling behind the primary survey vessel. Sightings were considered unique if they were greater than 750 m distant from another group according to the GPS positions. Preliminary analyses indicate that the primary survey vessel missed less than 10% of dolphin groups, and no groups of more than three individuals (mean group size recorded was 2.0; SD = 1.6; range 1–11) (Braulik 2004). The probability of double counting dolphins due to their movement from surveyed to unsurveyed areas overnight was considered to be balanced by the probability that an equal number of dolphins were missed altogether due to their movements in the opposite direction. <br/><br/>The linear extent of occurrence of the subspecies has declined from approximately 3,400 km of Indus mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870s (see Anderson 1879) to approximately 1,000 linear km of the mainstem today (Braulik 2004). An estimated 99% of the dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km, which corresponds to an 80% reduction in the area of occupancy (Anderson 1879, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Braulik 2003, Braulik 2004). During the 1970s and 1980s there were occasional reports of dolphin occurrence between barrages in the lower reaches of the Indus tributaries (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991). No recent surveys have been conducted in those areas. However, due to an increase in upstream water abstraction and a decline in dry season flows, it is unlikely that any dolphins remain in these reaches.
41758		threats	eng	<strong>Water development projects</strong> have dramatically affected the habitat, abundance, and population structure of this species throughout its range. In addition to fragmenting populations, dams and barrages have degraded downstream habitat and created impoundments with high sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. Canals branching from the river channels upstream of barrages represent population "sinks", as dolphins enter them with little or no prospect of safe return; this problem has been especially well documented in Pakistan. More dams and barrages are either under construction or in advanced planning stages. Water diversion and use in the South Asian subcontinent, including interbasin transfers, will continue to be driven principally by the escalating demands from agriculture, industry, and municipalities; by strategic considerations; and by the need to control flooding.<br/><br/><strong>Pollutant loads</strong> in South Asian rivers can be expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices facilitated by water diversion. The capacity of these rivers to dilute pollutants (e.g., arsenic, DDT) and salts has already been drastically reduced because of upstream water abstraction, diversion, and impoundment. Again, this problem is bound to worsen as more development takes place. <br/><br/><strong>Deliberate killing</strong> of river dolphins has declined in many areas but still occurs at least occasionally. Dolphins are hunted by tribal people in the upper Brahmaputra for their meat and by fishermen in the middle reaches of the Ganges for their oil, which is used as a fish attractant.<br/><br/><strong>Mortality in fishing gear</strong>, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges dolphins throughout most of their range. They are particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the fishing grounds. A specific problem in parts of India and Bangladesh is that, because dolphin oil is highly valued as a fish attractant, fishermen have a strong incentive to kill any animals found alive in their nets and even to set their nets strategically in the hope of capturing dolphins.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><strong><em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em></strong><br/><br/><strong>Water Development Projects</strong><br/>Construction of at least 50 dams and dams within the known or suspected historical range of the subspecies (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000) has dramatically affected its habitat, abundance, and population structure. The subspecies exists as a metapopulation, with numerous subpopulations isolated to varying degrees by mostly manmade but also natural barriers, as outlined in the preceding section.<br/><br/>In addition to fragmenting dolphin populations, dams and barrages degrade downstream habitat and create reservoirs (known as head ponds (or pondage in India) in the case of barrages) with high sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. For example, luxuriant growth of macrophytes and excessive siltation have eliminated suitable habitat immediately above Farakka Barrage (Sinha 2000). Moreover, the insufficiency of water released downstream of this barrage has eliminated dry-season habitat for more than 300 km, or until the Ganges (Padma)-Brahmaputra confluence (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has also allowed salt water to intrude an additional 160 km into the Sundarbans Delta (Rahman 1986), further decreasing the amount of suitable habitat for this obligate freshwater dolphin (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>A high dam has been planned for some time just upstream of the dolphins' current (or at least recent) range in the Karnali River, Nepal. If built, this structure would almost certainly eliminate the small amount of dolphin habitat in Nepal’s last river with a potentially viable dolphin population (Smith and Reeves 2000). Disturbance and environmental degradation associated with geotechnical feasibility studies and bridge and road construction for the dam already may have contributed to a decline in the number and range of dolphins above the Nepal-India border (Smith 1993, Smith<em> et al</em>. 1994). Another high dam has been proposed for the Surma River in Cachar, India, which would certainly affect dolphins downstream in the Kalni-Kushiyara distributary (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Since the 1980s, momentum has been growing within India to proceed with large-scale inter-basin water transfer projects, which will involve additional dam construction and diversion of water from rivers inhabited by dolphins. Although no final decision has been taken to proceed with construction, feasibility studies are to be completed in December 2005 and detailed project reports in 2006. It was anticipated in 2004 that, if built, the entire project would be finished by 2016. During the May 2004 national elections in India all political parties supported the construction of inter-basin water transfer projects and promised to accelerate the construction process. Several key categories of potential threat are: (a) further fragmentation of the dolphin metapopulation, (b) reduction or elimination of habitat simply in terms of dry-season flow, (c) "escapement" of dolphins into canals where they are unlikely to be able to get back into rivers and are therefore doomed, (d) cascading effects from interrupted migrations of prey organisms, degradation of prey spawning habitat etc., (e) contaminant flux leading to significant changes in chronic and/or acute exposure to toxins, (f) loss of complexity (channelization, sediment entrapment upstream of dams, etc.) making the rivers less habitable for dolphins, etc, and (g) downstream effects on the ecology of the delta (e.g., saline encroachment, loss of sediment). <br/><br/>Embankments cause sediments to be deposited in the riverbed instead of on the floodplain, thereby eliminating or reducing the extent of the eddy-counter currents where dolphins are generally found. (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). They also restrict access to floodplain habitat critical to the reproduction and growth of riverine fish species (Boyce 1990). Approximately 3,500 km of embankments have been constructed in the Ganges mainstem and Gandak, Buri Gandak, Bagmati, Kamala, Yamuna, and Son tributaries (Mishra 1999). Dolphins were apparently extirpated from at least 35 km of the Punpun tributary of the Ganges after embankments were constructed in 1975 (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although plans for constructing an extensive system of embankments in the rivers of Bangladesh under the Flood Action Plan (FAP) coordinated by the World Bank (see World Bank 1990) have been drastically scaled-down, several projects are currently planned or being constructed that will have adverse effects on dolphin habitat. These include the Bank Protection and River Training Project (FAP 21/22), Brahmaputra River Bank Priority Works, and Jamalpur Priority Project (FAP 3.1) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). Environmental assessments of these projects have not considered river dolphins, nor have they acknowledged the cumulative impacts of planned embankments, and others built before the FAP, on the fish and crustacean species eaten by river dolphins.<br/><br/>Other sources of habitat degradation in the GBM system include dredging (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and the removal of stones (Shrestha 1989), sand (Mohan<em>et al</em>. 1998), and woody debris (Smith 1993). These activities compromise the ecological integrity of the riverine environments, especially small tributaries where suitable habitat is limited and disproportionately vulnerable to local disturbance. Dolphin habitat is also threatened by water abstraction from surface pumps and tube wells, especially in the Ganges where the mean dry-season water depth has declined dramatically in recent years (Sinha, unpublished). Although the long-term implications of reduced dry-season flows in the Ganges are catastrophic, both for the survival of river dolphins and a major portion of the world’s human population that inhabits the Ganges basin, the cumulative effects of reduced water supplies have received little attention. Meanwhile, new projects to divert dry-season flow, such as Kanpur Barrage in the upper Ganges, continue to be constructed (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Toxic Contaminants</strong><br/>Organochlorine and butyltin concentrations in samples from the tissues of Ganges dolphins were high enough to cause concern about effects (Kannan <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1994, 1997; Senthilkumar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pollutant loads can be expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices facilitated by water diversion. River dolphins may be particularly vulnerable to industrial pollution because their habitat in counter-current pools downstream of confluences and sharp meanders often places them in close proximity to point sources in major urban areas (e.g., Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Calcutta, and Dhaka). Furthermore, the capacity of rivers to dilute pollutants (e.g., arsenic, DDT) and salts has been drastically reduced in many areas because of upstream water abstraction, diversion, and impoundment. Again, this problem is bound to worsen as more development takes place. <br/><br/><strong>Hunting</strong><br/>Deliberate killing of river dolphins is believed to have declined in most areas but still occurs at least occasionally in the middle Ganges near Patna, India (Smith and Reeves 2000, Sinha 2002), in the Kalni-Kushiyara River of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998), and in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India (Mohan <em>et al</em>. 1997). Dolphins are killed by tribal people in the upper Brahmaputra for their meat and by fishermen in the middle reaches of the Ganges for their oil, which is used as a fish attractant. <br/><br/><strong>Mortality in Fishing Gear</strong><br/>Mortality in fishing gear, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges River dolphins throughout most of their range (Mohan 1995, Smith and Reeves 2000). They are particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the fishing grounds. In the middle Ganges, although harpooning is now "rare", mortality in fishing nets remains "widespread" (Sinha 2002). A specific problem is that, because dolphin oil is highly valued as a fish attractant, fishermen have a strong incentive to kill any animals found alive in their nets and even to set their nets strategically in the hope of capturing dolphins (described by Sinha 2002 as "assisted incidental capture").<br/><br/>Meaningful quantitative data on the magnitude of catches, either deliberate or incidental, are unavailable and unlikely to become available in the absence of a well-organized, adequately funded, and incorruptible fishery/wildlife management system.<br/><br/><strong><em>Platanista gangetica minor</em><strong><br/><br/></strong></strong>The most significant threat to dolphins in the Indus has been the construction of at least 25 dams and barrages that have severely fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat (Smith and Reeves 2000). Upstream subpopulations may lose individuals downstream if dolphins move through barrage gates when they are open in the wet season. Individuals are unlikely to move upstream through a barrage because of strong downstream hydraulic forces at the gates. While there have been no direct observations of dolphins moving through a barrage, they often swim through regulator gates into irrigation canals, which, although smaller, present a similar obstacle (Braulik 2002). Evidence for permanent downstream emigration includes that each subsequent downstream subpopulation is larger than the one above (see Range and Population above), despite the reduced linear extent and availability of water in downstream segments. Encounter rates in the farthest downstream subpopulation (between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages) are very high (3.60 dolphins/linear km), approaching three times those recorded in similar surveys elsewhere for <em>Platanista</em> dolphins (Braulik 2003). The possible large increase in the dolphin subpopulation between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages (described above) may be due to reproduction and reduced mortality alone, or may be augmented by downstream emigration. Even a low emigration rate could dramatically affect the persistence of upstream subpopulations (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Smith 1999).<strong><strong><br/><br/></strong></strong>Since the mid 1990s, there have been increasing reports of dolphins trapped in irrigation canals near Sukkur Barrage. Dolphins have survived for several months in the canals until they are drained in January for annual de-silting and maintenance. Between January 2000 and December 2002, 34 dolphins were reported trapped in these canals. Twenty-four were successfully rescued and returned to the Indus River, while the remainder died (Bhaagat 1999, Braulik 2002, WWF-Pakistan unpublished data).<br/><br/>One of the direst threats to the survival of the Indus River Dolphin is probably the escalating demand for water. Pakistan is a largely desert nation, with a rapidly growing human population and fast developing industrial and agricultural sectors that demand increasing amounts of water. Several years of extreme drought have depleted aquifers that would normally be expected to augment river flows in the dry season. <br/><br/>Pollution may be affecting the viability of the subspecies, especially considering the decline in flushing and dilution due to reduced flows. The Indus River corridor is not highly developed and above the Panjnad River confluence, the habitat is likely to be relatively unpolluted. However, more than 75% of the dolphin population occurs downstream of the confluence with the Panjnad River, which receives a large pollution load from the industrialized cities of the Punjab. There are almost no facilities for treatment of municipal waste in Pakistan and few controls on industrial effluent. Massive fish kills have reportedly become common from industrial pollution in urban areas and from pesticides used on irrigated crops grown along the riverbanks (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). The pressures on river water supply and continued untreated discharge of pollutants imply that there will be a continuing decline in the amount and quality of dolphin habitat.<br/><br/>Deliberate killing for meat and oil was a traditional and widespread practice until at least the early 1970s (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74). Hunting is now banned although poaching occasionally occurs. Similar to all cetaceans, this subspecies is vulnerable to entanglement in fishing gear and vessel collisions. However, the areas of the Indus River where dolphins are extant are not heavily fished or utilized by vessels and these factors may not be major threats at present. Incidents of accidental killing and observations of dolphin carcasses and products are documented in Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991) and Reeves and Chaudhry (1998).
41759		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
41759		distribution	eng	All five specimens so far examined have been from southern and central California (between 32° and 37°N), and it is likely that this species is endemic to the North Pacific Ocean (possibly even the eastern North Pacific) (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2002).
41759		habitat	eng	Like other members of the genus, these species presumably prefers oceanic habitats with waters greater than 1,000 m deep, and the sightings thought to be of this species have occurred in deep waters. <br/><br/>Based on a limited sample of stomach contents, Perrin's beaked whale probably feeds mainly on squids (including <em>Octopoteuthis</em> sp.). The remains of an unidentified invertebrate have been found in the stomach of an animal stranded in California.
41759		population	eng	No estimates of abundance exist, but the species does not appear to be common. There are only two possible sightings of live individuals.
41759		threats	eng	All confirmed records have been of strandings (plus two possible sightings), so nothing is known of potential threats. Beaked whales of this genus have been taken occasionally by whalers but are not presently the main targets of any hunt. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g., for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. <br/> <br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a species with an apparently restricted distribution, Perrin’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.
41760		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.
41760		distribution	eng	The three specimens so far examined have come from New Zealand (White Island and the Chatham Islands [Pitt Island]), and Chile (Robinson Crusoe Island in the Juan Fernandez Archipelago). Therefore, this is probably a southern Hemisphere (possibly circum-Antarctic) species. However, it may be much more widely-distributed, and until more records are available, this will remain unknown (van Helden <em>et al</em>. 2002).
41760		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat of this species. Nothing is known of the diet, but it is assumed that squid are the main prey.
41760		population	eng	There is no information on abundance of this species. However, it is probable that it is relatively rare, given the small number of records of its occurrence so far discovered.
41760		threats	eng	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets is probably the most significant threat. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a species potentially limited to temperate waters, the spade-toothed whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.
41761		conservation	eng	In Brazil, Federal Laws 5,197 (of 3 Jan. 1967) and 7,643 (of 18 Dec. 1987) afford protection to fauna and prohibit the capture and disturbance of cetaceans in its jurisdictional waters. The Franciscana also appears in the Official List of Brazilian Fauna Species Threatened with Extinction (IBAMA 1989). Regionally, the species was added recently to the list of species threatened with extinction in Rio de Janeiro State (Bergallo <em>et al</em>. 2000) and listed as "vulnerable" in the Red Data Book of threatened species in Rio Grande do Sul State (D. Danilewicz, pers. comm.). In Uruguay, Law No. 16.211 states that the National Fisheries Institute is responsible for the conservation and preservation of marine mammals under Uruguayan jurisdiction. Also, Decree No. 238/1998 adopts measures for the protection and conservation of marine mammals in Uruguayan waters. In Argentina, Law No. 22.421/1981 is the national wildlife conservation legislation and Resolution No. 351/1995 prohibits hunting, capture or appropriation and transit, in federal jurisdiction, of all cetaceans and pinnipeds, which appear in Appendix I of the Law. Regional legislation in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and Chubut also provides indirect protection to the Franciscana (see details on Federal and Regional Legislation in Arias <em>et al</em>. 2002). Because the legislation could negatively affect fishermen?s income and welfare (i.e., fishing offshore increases risk), cooperation may be minimal. Also, better knowledge of the spatial and temporal patterns of the Franciscana bycatch problem is still needed before regulations on fishing practices can be proposed. Other potential alternatives may be found in modifying fishing practices (e.g., Corcuera, 1994 suggested replacing gillnets with longlines as a means to reduce bycatch in Argentine waters). Because fish stocks are also depleted, a wider management strategy that includes other marine species is needed. However, cultural and social needs of the fishing communities must also be considered to avoid further burdening the already difficult socio-economic situation of Latin American countries. <br/> <br/>Acoustic pingers were demonstrated to have reduced the bycatch of franciscanas in nets set off Cabo San Antonio, Argentina, during a short-term study (Bordino <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this modification to the fishing gear also resulted in an undesirable increased rate of depredation on the nets by Southern Sea Lions (<em>Otaria flavescens</em>). Although the use of such acoustic devices may seem inappropriate for this region, it may be a promising alternative to reduce bycatch until other mitigating actions can be developed and implemented, especially in areas where sea lions do not occur (e.g., many small fishing villages along FMA I and II).
41761		distribution	eng	<strong>Overall Distribution:</strong> <br/>The Franciscana dolphin inhabits shallow coastal and estuarine waters of tropical and temperate regions of the western South Atlantic Ocean. Its distribution extends from Itaúnas (18°25?S), Espírito Santo State in southeastern Brazil (Siciliano, 1994), to Golfo Nuevo (42°35?S), Chubut Province, Argentina (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, the species is not distributed continuously throughout its range. Surveys (including beach surveys, visits to museum collections, interviews with local people) indicate that franciscanas are extremely rare or absent in two areas of the northern parts of their range between Macaé (southern Rio de Janeiro State) and Ubatuba (northern São Paulo State) and in southern Espírito Santo State (Azevedo <em>et al</em>. 2002, Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003). The reasons for these gaps are unclear, but because the species prefers shallow, turbid waters (Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989, Brownell 1989), water transparency and depth may be among the factors responsible (Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Distribution and Population Structure</strong> <br/>This listing hinges in large part on the evidence for a separate Franciscana subpopulation or stock centered in Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) and Uruguay. Therefore, much of the discussion here focuses on that evidence. <br/> <br/>Morphological and molecular data strongly support the existence of two main subpopulations. Multivariate analyses of morphometric data revealed two geographical forms: a smaller form in the northern part of the species? range (north of 27°S) and a larger form in the coastal waters of southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina (south of 32°S) (Pinedo 1991). Analyses of a highly variable region (d-loop) of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) also supported these two geographical forms (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998). Furthermore, Lázaro (2000, 2001) and Hamilton <em>et al</em>. (2000) compared the mtDNA of franciscanas from Uruguay and Argentina with those published by Secchi <em>et al</em>. (1998) and found support for the existence of a large southern subpopulation (composed of animals from Rio Grande do Sul, Uruguay, and Argentina) that is clearly differentiated from animals in the waters of Rio de Janeiro (northern subpopulation). These studies revealed fixed genetic differences between the subpopulations that suggest essentially no effective genetic exchange (see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998, Hamilton <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lázaro 2001). Although the genetic evidence is not very strong for splitting the southern subpopulation further, a pairwise analysis of haplotype distances between different geographical locations showed increasing differentiation in haplotype frequencies with increasing geographical distance, following an isolation-by-distance pattern (Lázaro 2001). Moreover, a recent analysis showed that haplotype frequencies of samples from Claromecó (Argentina) were significantly different from frequencies for the rest of the southern subpopulation (Lázaro 2001). This finding, when considered together with other biological differences between animals from Argentina and Rio Grande do Sul/Uruguay (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003a), is consistent with the idea that the southern subpopulation should be divided into different stocks for management. <br/> <br/>Danilewicz <em>et al.</em> (2000) compared estimates of age at sexual maturity (ASM) of females incidentally caught in gillnets in Rio Grande do Sul with estimates from Uruguay (adapting data from Kasuya and Brownell 1979) and northern Argentina (Corcuera 1996). Using the method of DeMaster (1984), the resulting ASM was 3.7 years (95% CI = 3.0 4.4) in Rio Grande do Sul, 2.8 years (95% CI = 2.5 3.1) in Uruguay, and 4.5 years in Argentina. The ASM of females from Rio Grande do Sul was significantly higher than that of females from Uruguay (t = 2.3; P<0.01) but lower than that of females from Argentina. <br/> <br/>The distribution pattern of gastrointestinal helminths was similar for franciscanas sampled in Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay (Andrade <em>et al</em>. 1997). The animals were infected lightly by the acanthocephalan worm <em>Polymorphus cetaceum</em>, while all franciscanas sampled in Argentina exhibited high levels of infection. The dominant parasites were also different between animals from Rio Grande do Sul and Argentina. The trematode <em>Hadwenius pontoporiae</em> was present in 83% of the dolphins sampled in Rio Grande do Sul and <em>P. cetaceum</em> was found in 63% of the franciscanas from Argentina. Aznar <em>et al</em>. (1995) compared the helminthofauna of franciscanas in Uruguay and Argentina and suggested some differences in dominance and infection levels by <em>P. cetaceum</em>, <em>Anisakis simplex</em>, and <em>H. pontoporiae</em>. The studies of Aznar <em>et al</em>. (1994, 1995) and Andrade <em>et al</em>. (1997) showed that the parasite infection levels in franciscanas from Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay were similar to each other but considerably different from those sampled in Argentina. These findings suggest the existence of two ecologically distinct stocks: one in Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay and the other in Argentine waters. <br/> <br/>By applying the hierarchical classification scheme of Dizon <em>et al</em>. (1992) for determining the likelihood of stocks being evolutionarily significant units, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003a) proposed (based on the above data as well as other information on distribution, morphometrics, and life history parameters) that the southern and northern subpopulations of the Franciscana each be divided into two management stocks. The range limits for each stock were defined as provisional Franciscana Management Areas (FMAs), as follows: FMA I coastal waters of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil (note that with increased survey effort, confirmation of the hiatus in the Espírito Santo State will require further division of this FMA); FMA II São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina states, Brazil; FMA III coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil and Uruguay; and FMA IV coastal waters of Argentina, including the provinces of Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and Chubut.
41761		habitat	eng	The species is endemic to coastal waters of eastern South America. Although it is found mainly in marine waters and only occasionally in estuaries, it is relatively common in the Uruguayan part of the La Plata River estuary (Praderi 1986). The Franciscana is generally found in turbid waters less than 30 m deep (Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989, Secchi and Ott 2000) where it feeds mainly on demersal fish species (e.g., Brownell 1989, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2001, Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2002, see Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002 for a comprehensive review). It does not appear to undergo large seasonal migrations and little is known about daily movements (Bordino <em>et al</em>. 1999, Bordino 2002).
41761		population	eng	There is no current abundance estimate for the species as a whole, but there is an estimate for the management stock inhabiting FMA III (hereafter referred as the RS/URU population). Thirty-four franciscanas (in 29 groups) were recorded during aerial surveys of coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State in 1996, giving a mean density of 0.657 individuals/sq. km (95% CI 0.516?0.836) for the 435 sq. km study area after correcting for the probability of missing submerged dolphins (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2001). Extrapolating this density to the entire stock?s range resulted in an estimate of 42,078 franciscanas (95% CI 33,047?53,542). This extrapolated result must be used very cautiously, however, because it is based on a density estimate for only a small fraction of the coastline, representing approximately 0.7% of the possible range of the population (ca. 64,045 sq. km), and there is limited information on the distribution pattern of franciscanas within their total range. <br/> <br/>During the Cetacean Specialist Group's technical review of this proposal, it was noted that the abundance estimate was likely negatively biased because, as the authors acknowledged, it was not corrected for perception bias. It was also noted during the review, however, that the survey was conducted in an area considered to have a relatively high density of franciscanas, and therefore extrapolation of the observed survey density to the entire range of the population likely would positively bias the estimate. Moreover, for financial and logistical reasons, it may be unrealistic to expect more precise or accurate abundance estimates for this population in the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>With those cautions and reservations, it is reasonable to consider the figure of 42,000 as a useful approximation of abundance.
41761		threats	eng	<strong>Important Anthropogenic Threats:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Incidental mortality in gillnet fisheries</u> <br/>Mortality from incidental entanglement in gillnets is by far the greatest threat to the RS/URU subpopulation (there is no indication of direct exploitation of franciscanas). Incidental mortality ("bycatch") in the shark gillnet fisheries of Punta del Diablo, Uruguay, dates to the early 1940s (Van Erp 1969) and although gillnetting in southern Brazil also began around that time (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1997), gillnet fisheries for bottom-dwelling fish were only documented as a major threat to franciscanas in the 1980s. Bycatch has since been reported from the main fishing villages along most of the population's distribution (e.g., Moreno <em>et al</em>. 1997, Praderi 1997, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ott <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002). In Uruguay, Praderi (1997) estimated that at least 3,683 dolphins were killed between 1974 and 1994. The highest and lowest annual estimates were 418 and 66 dolphins caught in 1974 and 1994, respectively. The bycatch was even higher prior to this period. In the late 1960s, the annual bycatch was estimated to be as high as 1,500-2,000 animals (Brownell and Ness 1970, Pilleri 1971). Large-mesh nets targeting sharks were responsible for about 70-90% of the kills (e.g., Praderi 1997, 2000). Depletion of the target shark species led to a drop in the fishing effort using these nets from almost 100% of the total gillnet effort in the 1960s and 1970s to 75% in the early 1980s and only 20% in the mid 1990s. These changes in the Uruguayan coastal fishery may have had a beneficial effect on the recovery of the Franciscana (Praderi 1997) although small-mesh gillnets, which are known to be responsible for a large bycatch of franciscanas in southern Brazil, are currently known to be used in Uruguay to catch sciaenids in nearshore waters where franciscanas occur. Recent and current data on bycatch from Uruguay are unreliable for a number of reasons (e.g., inadequate monitoring of the gillnet fisheries). According to Praderi (2000), the records of mortality are less reliable than they were in the past because Uruguayan fishermen now have a legal disincentive for bringing bycaught franciscanas to land. Specifically, he notes: ".. the number of bycatch is currently limited to information provided by fishermen, who tend to lower the number of franciscanas killed in their reports, fearing sanctions promoted by conservation groups." <br/> <br/>An uncontrolled increase in fishing effort using small-mesh nets to catch bony fishes, with an associated high rate of Franciscana bycatch, in adjacent areas of southern Brazil is likely to have offset or nullified any reduction in the bycatch in Uruguay consequent to the decline of the large-mesh shark fishery. Estimates of bycatch levels from monitoring gillnet fleets in Rio Grande do Sul State imply a catch of several hundred dolphins per year (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ott 1998). Estimates of the Franciscana bycatch by the artisanal gillnet fishery in southern Rio Grande do Sul in 1999 and 2000 were around 1,350 and 1,530, respectively, and these figures do not account for mortality in trawl nets in the northern part of the province, in gillnets deployed near shore by the industrial fleet, or in "active gillnetting" of Bluefish (<em>Pomatumus saltatrix</em>) (Secchi unpublished data, and see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997). Combining all information on bycatch from fleet monitoring programs and interviews results in an annual bycatch estimate of about 1,778 franciscanas for the RS/URU subpopulation (Secchi 1999, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b). This may be an underestimate for at least three reasons: (1) other fishing vessels in addition to coastal gillnetting vessels potentially catch franciscanas but were not monitored (see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997); (2) fishermen tend to under-report bycatch (Lien <em>et al</em>. 1994); and (3) bycaught dolphins sometimes fall from the net before it has been hauled or while it is being hauled. <br/> <br/>Between 1976 and 1987, 1,085 dead franciscanas were found along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul (Pinedo 1994). Data from beach surveys should be considered cautiously when evaluating the impact of fishery bycatch because they substantially under-represent true bycatch rates (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/><u>Depletion of fish stocks and temporal changes in diet</u> <br/>Two important prey species of franciscanas (the sciaenids <em>Micropogonias furnieri</em> and <em>Macrodon ancylodon</em>) have been exploited heavily and are currently at very low levels in southern Brazil (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1997, Haimovici 1998). This depletion coincided with a large reduction in the frequency of occurrence of these two species in the diet of franciscanas from this region. <em>M. ancylodon</em> and <em>M. furnieri</em> decreased drastically from 41% to 7% and 27.5% to 4%, respectively (Bassoi and Secchi 2000). In contrast, the frequency of occurrence of the Cutlassfish, <em>Trichiurus lepturus</em>, and another sciaenid, <em>Umbrina canosai</em>, in the diet of franciscanas increased from about 5% to 39% and from about 3% to 20%, respectively, between the late 1970s and the mid 1990s. <em>T. lepturus</em> and <em>Cynoscion guatucupa</em> represent 47% of the total estimated bony fish biomass in this region (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1996), but these species have only experienced moderate fishing pressure (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1997, Haimovici 1998). The latter species has always been the most important prey for franciscanas, but T. lepturus was of only minor importance in the past. Now, T. lepturus is the second most important prey species for franciscanas in this region. Although the effects of this major dietary change are unknown, the energetic implications could be significant. <br/> <br/><strong>Potential Additional Threats:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Ingestion of debris </u> <br/>Stomach contents of franciscanas from Rio Grande do Sul have included many kinds of debris: discarded fishing gear (17% of 36 stomachs), cellophane, and plastic fragments (6%) (Bassoi 1997). This problem has also been reported in northern Argentina where cellophane, fishing debris, and plastic were found in 45%, 32% and 16% of the stomachs (Bastida <em>et al</em>. 2000, see also Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002 for a review). The effects of such debris ingestion on health status of individual franciscanas have not been determined, and the subpopulation-level implications are uncertain. However, it is possible that debris is having a negative effect in at least some areas. <br/> <br/><u>Chemical pollution </u> <br/>Coastal oil spills have affected other marine species (e.g., penguins and pinnipeds) but their effects on franciscanas seem to be minimal. Trace metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and Cd) and chlorinated hydrocarbons have been found in the tissues of franciscanas (O'Shea <em>et al</em>. 1980, Castello <em>et al</em>. 2000, Gerpe <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lailson-Brito, <em>et al</em>. 2002) but the levels of these contaminants are relatively low, possibly because the species' diet is composed largely of juvenile fish (UNEP/CMS 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Population Trends:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Potential rate of population increase versus bycatch rates </u> <br/>The effects of incidental mortality were simulated using available data on abundance and bycatch for the RS/URU Franciscana subpopulation and population rates of increase (ROI) of 2%, 3%, and 4%. These ROI values were selected based on that of the Killer Whale (<em>Orcinus orca</em>), the only odontocete species for which estimates of population growth rate from observed trends in abundance are available (3% according to Brault and Caswell 1993). The simple simulation was used to evaluate whether the Franciscana population's ROI could compensate for removals due to bycatch. To estimate the removal rate for the stock, the mean abundance estimate (i.e., 42,078 franciscanas) was combined with the annual bycatch estimate of 1,778. The removal rate used in the simulation was 4.2%. Population size was projected for 24 years, or three 8-year generations. Generation time was calculated using Caswell's equation that matches the IUCN definition of the average-aged adult of the current cohort (Caswell 1989). The projection predicted the stock to have declined by 58%, 55%, or 52% over the 24-year period, depending on the assumed ROI (2%, 3%, or 4%, respectively). <br/> <br/>This analysis was subject to considerable discussion within the Cetacean Specialist Group, primarily centered on the issue of whether it was appropriate to use 1,778 as the estimate of annual bycatch, and whether the abundance estimate could be negatively biased to an appreciable degree. It was acknowledged that all of the values used in the simulation had substantial associated uncertainty. An analysis that better incorporates this uncertainty would be preferred. Nevertheless, there was general agreement that the population trend has been negative and that the population is very near the decline threshold between EN and VU (see Justification above). <br/> <br/><u>Trends in CPUE of franciscanas in Uruguay</u> <br/>An alternative index of population decline was devised, based on the bycatch of franciscanas per unit of fishing effort (CPUE). Praderi's (1997) review of bycatch data from Uruguay between 1974 and 1994 showed high inter-annual fluctuations. However, when the data were corrected for fishing effort, the resulting CPUE of franciscanas generally decreased over the 20-year period. This trend becomes more evident if annual bycatch estimates from the late 1960s and early 1970s are used. In the absence of fishing effort data for the late 1960s and 1970s, information on effort from 1981 to 1984/85 (in Praderi 1997) was used to estimate a rate of effort decline of 25%. A constant rate of decline was assumed for back-calculating to the late 1960s. Bycatch data from Praderi (1997; for the early 1970s to mid 1980s) and Brownell and Ness (1970) and Pilleri (1971) (for the late 1960s) were then used to calculate the CPUE and the trend. This procedure resulted in an estimated decline in CPUE of 71% from the late 1960s to mid 1980s. Using the maximum estimated annual bycatch for the 1960s (2,000 animals) would have resulted in a decline of 75%. No data from later than the mid 1980s were used because the decline in the shark fishery began at that time and led to major changes in fishery dynamics. For instance, fishing effort using gillnets with large mesh sizes decreased markedly and moved inshore. Such changes would affect interpretation of CPUE data. The suggested 71% decline in Franciscana CPUE from the 1960s to mid 1980s might be explained by invoking either temporal changes in the fishing grounds or increased fishing effort (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b). However, no major changes in fishing grounds are known to have occurred prior to the decline of the shark fishery beginning in the mid 1980s, and fishing effort actually decreased from the 1960s to mid 1980s (Praderi 1997). The slight increase in the estimated CPUE during the mid to late 1980s is likely due to the decline of the shark fishery, which forced fishermen to move closer to shore to catch bony fish (Praderi 1997). Such a spatial trend likely would have increased fishing effort in waters with relatively high densities of franciscanas. <br/> <br/><u>Trends in stranding rates in southern Brazil</u> <br/>Long-term trends in fishing effort in the coastal bottom-set gillnet fishery were compared to long-term stranding rates of franciscanas in southern Brazil (Pinedo and Polacheck 1999). Stranding rates prior to 1990 were, on average, more than three times higher and significantly different from those after 1990 (two-way ANOVA; p = 0.001). The results presented by Pinedo and Polacheck (1999) also suggested that stranding rates declined markedly from the late 1970s and early 1980s to the 1990s, after which they have remained low and relatively stable. A decline of nearly 70% in stranding rates was observed in about 20 years. Despite the difficulties of interpreting stranding data, including the fact that the chances of a discarded carcass being washed ashore are affected by many factors, stranding rates can be considered to provide one possible additional index of general trends. Thus, a decline in Franciscana abundance is one plausible explanation for the declining or stable stranding rates observed during a period of increased coastal gillnet fishing effort (Pinedo and Polacheck 1999).
41762		conservation	eng	A large Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin has been declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Other smaller marine protected areas exist or have been proposed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). In 1999, the Spanish Ministry for the Environment included the Common Dolphin in its National Endangered Species Act as "vulnerable". The following year, a program was initiated to identify important areas for the conservation of cetaceans in the Spanish Mediterranean with the aim of implementing the European Union?s "Habitats" Directive, the Barcelona Convention and the Bonn Convention (Convention on Migratory Species, or CMS) through the creation of marine protected areas. Based on the presence of a relict group of Common Dolphins, the eastern Ionian area around the island of Kalamos has been included by the Greek Ministry of the Environment in the Natura 2000 network ("Site of Community Importance") under the 9243 EEC "Habitats" Directive. While these types of designations may benefit Common Dolphins at least indirectly, measures to provide direct benefits, e.g., area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, curtailment of inputs of particular pollutants, etc., remain to be identified and implemented. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS 2002) considers the Mediterranean Common Dolphin as an endangered population. It is expected that efforts to increase understanding of ongoing threats, monitor status, and provide needed protective measures on behalf of the dolphins and their habitat will be organized and implemented through ACCOBAMS.
41762		distribution	eng	The Short-beaked Common Dolphin (hereafter referred to as the Common Dolphin) is a small cetacean species with a wide distribution. Like most other cetaceans, however, it is not panmictic and occurs as a series of geographically separate subpopulations (e.g., Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002). Once one of the commonest species in the Mediterranean Sea, the Common Dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decrease in this region during the last 30–40 years (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Coastal groups in western Greece seem to exhibit relatively high levels of site fidelity (Politi 1998), but little is known about the movements and ranging patterns of animals living offshore. <br/> <br/>The case for regarding Mediterranean Common Dolphins as a distinct subpopulation is not perfect, and admittedly rests upon a somewhat complicated chain of inference. Genetic studies indicate a significant level of divergence between Mediterranean and Atlantic populations (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press). Differences in contaminant levels between dolphins from the Alboràn Sea (northwestern Mediterranean) and Atlantic Ocean also suggest a certain degree of isolation. Organochlorine concentrations in Alboràn Sea dolphins were about double those typical of dolphins in neighboring North Atlantic waters and showed a completely different profile (proportions between PCB congeners, the DDE/tDDT ratio, etc.) (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2001). Genetic exchange between Common Dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve only animals from the Alboràn Sea (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press), possibly due to oceanographic features such as the Almería-Orán thermohaline front. <br/> <br/>At the eastern end of the Mediterranean, there is little indication of movement by Common Dolphins through the narrow Dardanelles Strait between the Aegean and the Marmara and Black Seas, where Common Dolphins are known to occur (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). A preliminary study of skull morphometrics (Amaha 1994) suggested differences between Black Sea and Mediterranean Common Dolphins. In contrast, a genetic comparison of relatively small samples (8 Black Sea, 20 central Mediterranean) revealed no significant differences (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press). Clearly, further work based on larger samples is needed to assess and characterize the relationship between Black Sea and Mediterranean Common Dolphins. It is acknowledged that some genetic exchange might occur in portions of the Aegean Sea where favorable habitat still exists (e.g., in the Thracian Sea; Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). However, what remains between the Aegean and Alboràn sectors of the Mediterranean seems to be only isolated, remnant groups (possibly indicative of further population substructure). The once-large aggregate Mediterranean subpopulation is now a small fraction of what it was as recently as the middle of the twentieth century (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). One note of caution is that there has been relatively little survey coverage of waters along the North African coast.
41762		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean, Common Dolphins are found in both pelagic and neritic environments, occasionally sharing the former with Striped Dolphins (<em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>) and the latter with Common Bottlenose Dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncates</em>) (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mixed-species groups of Common, Striped and Risso's Dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been consistently observed in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Mediterranean Common Dolphins are typically found in groups of 50–70 animals, with larger aggregations occasionally recorded. In the eastern Ionian Sea coastal waters, however, groups rarely include more than 15 individuals, and groups greater than 40 have not been observed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).
41762		population	eng	Literature and osteological collections unambiguously confirm that Common Dolphins were widespread and abundant in much of the Mediterranean Sea until the late 1960s, and that their decline occurred relatively quickly (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003; and see references contained therein). Today, Common Dolphins remain relatively abundant in the westernmost portion of the basin, the Alboràn Sea. There are sparse records off the coast of Algeria where, however, survey coverage has been limited. Possibly isolated groups are present around Sardinia and Corsica, particularly off their western coasts (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Common Dolphins are seen in the early summer in the south-eastern Tyrrhenian Sea off the island of Ischia (Mussi <em>et al</em>. in press). The species is also present in the Sicily Channel, with larger groups being observed around Malta (Vella in press). Common Dolphins can be found in portions of the eastern Ionian Sea, particularly around the island of Kalamos (Politi and Bearzi in press), and in the Gulf of Corinth (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Sighting and stranding data indicate a regular presence of Common Dolphins in the Aegean Sea, particularly in the Thracian Sea, Northern Sporades, the southern Evvoikos Gulf, the Saronic Gulf, and the Dodekanese (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). Otherwise, these dolphins are rare in, or completely absent from, Mediterranean areas where information is available (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mediterranean regions where Common Dolphins have apparently vanished include the Adriatic Sea, Balearic Sea, Provençal basin, and Ligurian Sea. <br/> <br/>There is no basin-wide estimate of abundance for Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea. Line-transect ship surveys of the Alboràn Sea in 1991?1992 produced an estimate of 14,736 (CV=0.38; 95% CI=6,923?31,366), with a density of 0.16 dolphins per km², but no estimates were made for this species elsewhere in the western Mediterranean due to the low number of sightings (Forcada and Hammond 1998). Vella (in press) combined data from ship and aerial surveys conducted between 1997?2002, and obtained a density estimate of 0.135 dolphins per km² (CV=0.28; 95% CI=0.066?0.290) in the area around the Maltese islands. Around the island of Kalamos in the eastern Ionian Sea, the mean sighting frequency was 0.016 groups per km (or 0.11 dolphins per km) in the years 1993?2000, but in 2001?2002 there was a significant decrease to 0.007 groups per km (or 0.04 dolphins per km) (Student?s t=4.88, p<0.001). The number of individuals encountered in this area has decreased continually, and many individuals that used to be seen regularly until 1996 have disappeared (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).
41762		threats	eng	A number of factors may have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mediterranean biodiversity is undergoing rapid alteration under the combined pressure of human impact and climate change (Bianchi and Morri 2000), and it is difficult to discriminate between the effects of environmental shifts due to climate change, whether "natural" or a result of the greenhouse effect, and other factors that may be affecting the availability of dolphin prey, such as overfishing and habitat degradation. In all Mediterranean areas where Common Dolphins have been studied consistently, namely the Alboràn Sea, southeastern Tyrrhenian Sea, and eastern Ionian Sea, competition with fisheries is a source of concern (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003) although cause-effect relationships and ecosystem dynamics remain poorly characterized. The role of xenobiotic contamination is controversial but likely significant. High levels of PCBs in Mediterranean dolphins, compared to levels in dolphins from other areas (Fossi <em>et al</em>. 2000, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2002), represent a major concern because of the possibilities of immune suppression and reproductive impairment. The high PCB levels in Common Dolphins from the Alboràn Sea are close to the range at which adverse effects could be expected, based on extrapolation from other species (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2000, in press) found a significant correlation between mixed-function oxidase activity and organochlorine levels in Common Dolphin skin biopsies, suggestive of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and potential for transgenerational effects. The cumulative importance of these threats and other factors, including incidental mortality in fishing gear (below), is poorly understood.  <br/> <br/>Fishery bycatch is a major threat to many cetacean populations, and it could well have played a role in the decline of Common Dolphins in at least some Mediterranean areas (IWC 1994). In the Alboràn Sea, for example, drift gillnets are known to have caught a few hundred Common Dolphins per year (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999). This fishery has stopped, but it operated for many years and undoubtedly had some impact on the population. If drift nets were taking Common Dolphins in the Alboràn Sea, it is reasonable to assume that they were (and are) doing so in other parts of the Mediterranean where drift net fishing and Common Dolphin occurrence overlap. Bearzi <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggest that bycatch alone is unlikely to be the factor most responsible for the decline of Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean, but it may have played a significant role at certain times and in certain areas. <br/> <br/>The possibility that the Striped Dolphin has been increasing in the Mediterranean and has begun to occupy the ecological niche of the Common Dolphin has been discussed in the literature (Viale 1985, Aguilar 2000, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Such a hypothesis is extremely difficult to prove or disprove, particularly if invoked as a causal factor in the Common Dolphin's decline. Even if it were true that Striped Dolphins have been extending their range to inshore waters traditionally inhabited by Common Dolphins, it would be unclear whether this process was being driven by competitive exclusion, or was instead a secondary outcome of the Common Dolphin's disappearance for some other reason. In any event, competition would not be an issue in areas such as the northern Adriatic Sea, where the Common Dolphin has disappeared while the Striped Dolphin rarely occurs.
41763		conservation	eng	<p>Przewalski's Horse is legally protected in Mongolia. It is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000). Hunting has been prohibited since 1930, and the species is listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Critically Endangered in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987, MNE 1997), and in the Regional Red List for Mongolia (Clark <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The taxon's entire reintroduced range in Mongolia is within protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus przewalskii</span>).<br/> <br/> The following conservation measures are in place:</p>  <ul><li>An International Studbook was produced in 1959, followed in the 1970s by establishment of the North American Breeders Group, which developed into the Species Survival Plan for the Przewalski’s horse. The European Endangered Species Program for this species was accepted in 1986. Many countries now cooperate in these programs to minimize inbreeding and retain genetic diversity in their horse populations.</li><li>There are three ongoing reintroduction sites in Mongolia.</li><li>The Status and Action Plan for the Przewalski's Horse (<span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus przewalskii</span>) was produced in 2002 (see Wakefield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), and provides a more detailed account of the history and ongoing conservation efforts surrounding the species.</li><li>All three reintroduction sites are fully monitoring their populations and are integrating community livelihood support into their projects.</li><li>There have been several workshops of stakeholders involved in the reintroduction of Przewalski's Horse to Mongolia (Boyd 2009). At the ‘Endangered Wild Equid Workshop’ held in Ulaanbataar in 2010 the following threats were identified: loss of population due to stochastic events (i.e., severe winter); limited habitat and resources (pasture and water); domestic horses (hybridization, disease, social stress); lack of information, appreciation / awareness, lack of knowledge; and exploitation of resources (i.e., mining). Specific actions needed for each threat category were identified and described.</li></ul>  <p>&#160;Conservation measures required:<br/></p><ul><li>The health of wild and domestic horses should be monitored for disease (Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Standardized techniques should be used to monitor health, fecundity, mortality, habitat utilization and social organization of all populations (Wakefield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), and contact between Przewalski's Horses and domestic horses should be kept to a minimum.</li><li>A single population management approach should be developed.</li><li>Mongolia currently has the only wild population and an action plan is needed for the country.</li><li>The genealogy of all horses in Mongolia should be established based on individual micro-satellite data to monitor inbreeding levels, identify hybrids and plan for necessary movements of horses between reintroduction centres to maximize genetic diversity.</li><li>An authoritative government protocol for hybrids should be developed, to be established before hybridization occurs, and to be made available in each re-introduction centre and to local people (King and Gurnell 2005).</li><li>Further communication and cooperation between all re-introduction centres would be beneficial.</li><li>Further training and post-graduate education of staff and biologists involved with this conservation work.</li></ul>
41763		distribution	eng	Until the late 18th century, this species ranged from Germany and Russian Steppes east to Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China. After this time, the species went into catastrophic decline. Wild animals survived in eastern Europe (Poland, Belarus, Lithuania and Germany) through the eighteenth century, with the last wild individuals possibly killed in 1814 (Novak 1999). The Plains Tarpan (<span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus ferus</span>), lived on the steppes of southern Russia and the Ukraine. The last wild population of Przewalski’s Horse survived until recently in southwestern Mongolia and adjacent Gansu, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia (China). Wild horses were last seen in 1969, north of the Tachiin Shaar Nuruu in Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989).<br/> <br/> Since the 1990s, reintroduction efforts have started in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan and Ukraine; Mongolia is the only country where truly wild reintroduced populations exist within its historic range. Reintroductions in Mongolia began in Takhin Tal Nature Reserve in the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (9,000 km²) and Hustai  National Park in Mongol Daguur Steppe (570 km²<sup></sup>) in 1994 (King and Gurnell 2005). A third reintroduction site, Khomiin Tal, (2,500 km²), in the Great Lakes Depression, was established in 2004, as a buffer zone to the Khar Us Nuur National Park in Valley of the Lakes (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/> <br/> All living wild horses belong to the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus przewalskii</span>. The first visual account of Przewalski’s-type wild horses date from more than 20,000 years ago. Rock engravings, paintings, and decorated tools dating from the late Gravetian to the late Magdalenian (20,000–9,000 BC), were discovered in caves in Italy, southern France, and northern Spain; 610 of these were horse figures (Leroi-Gourhan 1971). Many cave drawings in France show horses that look like Przewalski’s Horse (Mohr 1971). In prehistoric times, the species probably roamed widely over the steppes of central Asia, China, and Europe (Ryder 1990). The first written accounts originate from Tibet, recorded by the monk Bodowa, who lived around 900 AD. In the “Secret History of the Mongols”, there is also a reference to wild horses that crossed the path of Chinggis Khaan during his campaign against Tangut in 1226, causing his horse to rear and throw him to the ground (Bokonyi 1974). That the wild horse was a prestigious gift, denoting its rarity or that it was difficult to catch, is shown by the presentation of a Przewalski’s horse to the emperor of Manchuria by Chechen-Khansoloj-Chalkaskyden, an important Mongolian, <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span> 1630 (Zevegmid and Dawaa 1973). In a Manchurian dictionary of 1771, Przewalski’s Horse is mentioned as “a wild horse from the steppe” (Dovchin 1961).<br/> <br/> Przewalski’s Horse was not described in Linnaeus’s “<span style="font-style: italic;">Systema Naturae</span>” (1758) and remained largely unknown in the West until first mentioned by John Bell, a Scottish doctor who travelled in the service of Tsar Peter the Great in 1719–1722 (Mohr 1971). His account of the expedition, “<span style="font-style: italic;">A Journey from St  Petersburg to Peking</span>”, was published in 1763. Bell and subsequent observers all located horses known at that time within the area of 85–97°E and 43–50°N (Chinese-Mongolian border). Wild horses were reported again from what is now China by Colonel Nikolai Mikailovich Przewalski, an eminent explorer, at the end of the nineteenth century. He made several expeditions by order of Tsar Alexander the Second of Russia to central Asia, aiming to reach Tibet. While returning from his second expedition in central Asia, he was presented with the skull and hide of a horse shot about 80 km north of Gutschen on the Chinese-Russian border. The remains were examined at the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Science in St   Petersburg by I.S. Poliakov, who concluded that they were a wild horse, which he gave the official name <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus przewalskii </span>(Poliakov 1881). Further reports came from the brothers Grigory and Michael Grum-Grzhimailo, who travelled through western China from 1889-1890. In 1889, they discovered a group in the Gashun area and shot four horses: three stallions, and a mare. The four hides and the skulls of the three stallions, together with an incomplete skeleton, were sent back to the Zoological Museum in St. Petersburg. They were able to observe the horses from a short distance and gave the following account: “Wild horses keep in bands of no more than ten, each herd having a dominant stallion. There are other males, too, but they are young and, judging by the hide of the two-year old colt that we killed, the dominant male treats them very cruelly. In fact, the hide showed traces of numerous bites” (Grum-Grzhimailo 1982). Current scientific review of the taxonomy of wild equids (Groves 1986) places Przewalski’s Horse as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus ferus</span>.
41763		habitat	eng	<p>Przewalski’s Horse formerly inhabited steppe and semi-desert habitats, as most of this range became degraded or was occupied by livestock, the species became restricted to semi-desert habitats with limited water resources (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). Lowland steppe vegetation was preferentially selected by horses at Hustai National Park and seasonal movements are affected by the availability of the most nutritious vegetation (King and Gurnell 2005).<br/> <br/> Because the historic range is not precisely known, there has been much debate about the areas in which Przewalski’s Horses were last seen: was it merely a last refuge or was it representative of the typical/preferred habitat? The Mongolia Takhi Strategy and Plan Work Group (MTSPWG 1993) concluded that the historic range may have been wider but that the Dzungarian Gobi, where they were last seen, was not a marginal site to which the species retreated. Although grass and water are more available in other parts of Mongolia, these areas often have much harsher winters </p>  An alternative viewpoint of the desert-steppe controversy is that the Eurasian steppe should be considered the wild horse's optimal habitat (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). This would suggest that Przewalski’s Horses were forced into sub-optimal ranges such as the arid Gobi, as the more favourable steppe region was colonized by nomadic pastoralist people over several millennia. Studies of feral horses have shown that they are able to live and reproduce in semi-desert habitats but their survival and reproductive success is clearly sub-optimal compared to feral horses on more mesic grassland (Berger 1986). Van Dierendonck and de Vries (1996) suggest that the wild horse is primarily a steppe herbivore that can survive under arid conditions when there is access to waterholes.
41763		population	eng	<p>There are now approximately 306 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia (Zimmerman 2011). All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding program (Bowling and Ryder 1987). Introgression of domestic horse blood happened not only in Halle (#229 dom.Mongol), but also in Askania Nova (#175 Domina; Bowling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). </p>  <p>Between 1992 and 2004, 90 captive-born horses were transported to the Takhin Tal/Gobi B reintroduction site in Mongolia (ITG International Takhi Group, Zimmermann 2008). A further three males were translocated from Hustai  National Park to Takhin Tal in 2007 (Zimmermann 2008). In 2008 there were approximately 111 free-ranging horses in this population (Zimmerman 2008, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007). In December of 2009 there were 137 individuals in the population, but due to an extremely harsh winter (dzud) the population suffered extreme mortality and by August 2010 only 49 individuals remained (Kaczensky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010, Zimmerman 2011). From 1992 to 2000, 84 horses were brought to Hustai National Park by the Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse and Mongolian Association for Conservation of Nature and the Environment (MACNE) from reserves in Europe (King and Gurnell 2005). As of the end of 2010 this population was approximately 233 individuals (Zimmerman 2011). A third reintroduction site was started in 2004 at Seriin Nuruu in the Khomiin Tal buffer zone of the Khar Us Nuur National Park in western Mongolia (Association pour le cheval de Przewalski: TAKH). Twenty-two individuals consisting of four pre-established families and one male bachelor group were brought from Le   Villaret, France between 2004 and 2005 (C. Feh pers. comm., Zimmermann 2008). In 2010, this population had 24 individuals (Zimmermann 2011).</p>  <p>For the reintroduced population in Mongolia, mature individuals are those that are born in the wild and five years of age. However, individuals born in captivity do not count as mature until they have reproduced in the wild and that offspring is at least five years old. As of 2006 there were 55 mature individuals in the wild (52 (M.F., 26.26) in Hustai, 3 (1.2) in Takhin Tal). In 2007 Hustai had 68 (33.35) mature individuals and Takhin Tal had 11 (3.8) for a total of 79. The reintroduced populations continued to grow and in 2008, Hustai had 90 (39.51) and Takin Tal had 14 (7.7) mature individuals for a total of 104. In 2009, Hustai had a population of 118 mature individuals (52.66) and Takin Tal had 33 (15.18) for a total of 151. The winter of 2009/2010 was very severe and there was high mortality of Przewalski’s Horses, particularly in Takin Tal. In 2010, Hustai’s mature population was 117 (53.64) and Takin Tal’s number of mature individuals was reduced to 17 (8.9). However, the total population of mature individuals was 134. Hence for a period of five years, the mature population of Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia has been more than 50 individuals. Although this means that the Przewalski’s Horse qualifies as Endangered it should be borne in mind that most of these individuals are from one reintroduction site and climatic perturbations like the extremely harsh winter in 2009/2010 can have very negative effects on small populations.<br/></p> In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) of the Department of Forestry at Kalameili Nature Reserve (KNR) in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region has established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses (January 2008, Pantel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Zimmermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Since 2007 one harem group is roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi (Xinjiang); another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but are returned to the acclimatization pen during the winter (Zimmermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/> <br/> The history of population estimates and trends in Przewalski’s Horse has been described by Wakefield<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2002). Since the ‘rediscovery’ of the Przewalski’s Horse for western science, western zoos and wild animal parks became interested in this species for their collections. Several long expeditions were mounted to catch animals. Some expeditions came back empty-handed and some had only seen a glimpse of wild Przewalski’s Horses. It proved difficult to catch adult horses, because they were too shy and fast. Capture of foals, with possible killing of the adult harem members, was considered the only option (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Four expeditions that managed to catch live foals took place between 1897 and 1902. Fifty-three of these foals reached the west alive. Between the 1930s and the 1940s only a few Przewalski’s Horses were caught and most died. At least one mare was crossbred with domestic horses by the Mongolian War Ministry (Bouman and Bouman 1994).<br/> <br/> Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in an area between the Baitag-Bogdo ridge and the ridge of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu (which, translated from Mongolian, means ‘the Yellow Mountain of the Wild Horse’), but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 by the Mongolian scientist N. Dovchin. He saw a stallion near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989). Annual investigations by the Joint Mongolian-Soviet Expedition have since failed to find conclusive evidence for their survival in the wild (Ryder 1990). Chinese biologists conducted a survey in northeastern Xinjiang from 1980 to 1982 (covering the area of 88–90°E and 41°31'–47°10'N) without finding any horses (Gao and Gu 1989). The last native wild populations had disappeared.<br/> <br/> The number of living animals in the International Studbook was 1,872 in early 2008. Of the 53 animals recorded in the Studbook as having been brought into zoological collections in the west, only 12 contributed any genes to the current living population. Of these, 11 were brought into captivity between 1899 and 1902 and the last of them died in 1939. The twelfth founder was captured as a foal in 1947. The thirteenth founder was born in 1906 in Halle (Germany) to a wild-caught stallion and a domestic Mongolian mare, and the fourteenth founder is a female born in Askania Nova (Ukraine) to a Przewalski’s Horse stallion and a domestic female of a Tarpan type. Nevertheless, the current population is genetically very close to the original wild horses (Bowling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In addition to animals held in captivity and those already re-introduced, there have been a number of animals released into very large enclosures (reserves). The four largest are in Le Villaret (18.13; Massif Central, France), Buchara (19.17.1; Uzbekistan), the Hortobágy-National Park (77.81; Hungary), and the Chernobyl exclusion zone (32.37; Ukraine) (information as of January 2010, W. Zimmermann pers. comm.).
41763		threats	eng	A number of causes have been cited for the final extinction of Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia and China. Among these are significant cultural and political changes (Bouman and Bouman 1994), hunting (Zhao and Liang 1992, Bouman and Bouman 1994), military activities (Ryder 1993), climatic change (Sokolov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992), and competition with livestock and increasing land use pressure (Sokolov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Ryder 1993, Bouman and Bouman 1994). Capture expeditions probably diminished the remaining Przewalski’s Horse populations by killing and dispersing the adults (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). The harsh winters of 1945, 1948, and 1956 probably had an additional impact on the small population (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Increased pressure on, and rarity of waterholes in their last refuge should also be considered as a significant factor contributing to their extinction (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996).<br/> <br/> For the reintroduced populations, hybridization with domestic horses is the primary threat, accompanied by competition for resources with domestic horses and possibly other livestock. Wherever Przewalski's Horses come into contact with domestic horses, there is a strong risk of hybridization and transmission of diseases. Recently, illegal mining in the protected areas is an additional threat to the viability of these areas. In Hustai National Park, it has been noted that overgrazing of the buffer-zone and continued pressure on the reserve are possible consequences of the enhanced economic activity in this area (Bouman 1998); however, the second phase of the project (1998-2003) paid much more attention to sustainable development of the buffer-zone. In the western section of the Gobi  National Park (Gobi B), habitat degradation by nomads and military personnel and their livestock continues; there is no core zone here that is free from human influence all year round. Infectious diseases transmitted from domestic horses, notably <span style="font-style: italic;">Babesia equi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. caballi</span> and strangles (infection by <span style="font-style: italic;">Streptococcus equi</span>), are a major threat to small reintroduced populations originating from zoos (Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, King and Gurnell 2005). Predation on foals by wolves may account for a significant number of mortalities and constitutes a threat to the population growth and continued survival of this taxon (Wit and Bouman 2006, Kaczensky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007). As was observed during 2009/2010, severe winters can result in significant mortality.<br/> <br/> There is concern over loss of genetic diversity after being reduced to a very small population and maintained in captivity for several generations. Sixty per cent of the unique genes of the studbook population have been lost (Ryder 1994). Loss of founder genes is irretrievable and further losses must be minimized through close genetic management. Furthermore, inbreeding depression could become a population-wide concern as the population inevitably becomes increasingly inbred (Ballou 1994). However, correct management of the population can slow these losses significantly, as has been achieved since the organization of the regional captive-breeding programs.
41764		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41764		distribution	eng	This species used to occur in a restricted area on the Lebombo mountains in Swaziland at an elevation of 400 to 600 m asl.
41764		habitat	eng	Grew in dry grassy savanna on hill slopes.
41764		population	eng	Extinct in the wild.
41764		threats	eng	Extinct in the wild due to the impacts of poaching by collectors.
41765		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. A large part of the population occurs within a private nature reserve. However the reserve is not secure against poachers and the owner believes that plants are still disappearing.
41765		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to South Africa and occurs in the KwaZulu-Natal province.  It is known from one viable population in the Vryheid district. The plants grow on a hill at an altitude of 1,000 to 1,100 m. Two old male plants were found approximately 10 km away at an altitude of 600 m.
41765		habitat	eng	The plants prefer south facing sandstone cliffs in short grassland.  Plants also occur below the cliffs in humus-rich scree where especially small plants were found in more shady conditions.  Mature coning plants are fully exposed.  The north and north-east slopes only had a few very old plants and conditions do not seem to favour seedling regeneration.  The climate is hot in summer and cold in winter with possible light frost.  Rainfall is 600-800 mm per annum with a summer maximum.
41765		population	eng	According to Scott-Shaw (1999), there were 150 plants surviving in the wild.  Donaldson and co-workers counted <100 (in part of the population) in 1997, but unverified reports put the total at about 250 individuals. Active seedling regeneration is taking place.
41765		threats	eng	This species' occurrence at a single site means the plants are vulnerable to environmental perturbations. Collecting has been a problem in the past although the bulk of the plants now occur within a private nature reserve. Collecting, however, still remains an issue.
41766		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas across its range.
41766		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and north-east Africa, being discontunously distributed from Senegal through southern Algeria (isolated population), Libya and Egypt (east of the Nile R.) to central and southern Africa (excluding the Congo Basin forests) (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They also extend to the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in the west, and to Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Harrison and Bates 1991; Shoshani 2005). Reports of the occurrence of this species in Turkey are in error, and there is no evidence for its current or historical occurrence in this country (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001). Its occurrence in Syria also has not been confirmed (D. Kock pers. comm.).
41766		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and north-east Africa, being discontunously distributed from Senegal through southern Algeria (isolated population), Libya and Egypt (east of the Nile R.) to central and southern Africa (excluding the Congo Basin forests) (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They also extend to the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in the west, and to Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Harrison and Bates 1991; Shoshani 2005). Reports of the occurrence of this species in Turkey are in error, and there is no evidence for its current or historical occurrence in this country (Kry?tufek and Vohralík 2001). Its occurrence in Syria also has not been confirmed (D. Kock pers. comm.).
41766		habitat	eng	Rock Hyraxes occupy a wide range of habitats, from arid deserts to rainforest, occurring from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya; they are typically associated with rocky outcrops, cliffs or boulders (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They often occur in association with Bush Hyrax <em>Heterohyrax bruce</em>i (Hoeck 1975; Barry and Mundy 1988). The diet comprises a variety of grasses, forbs and shrubs, with a predilection for new shoots, buds, fruits and berries (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). A comprehensive review of biology and literature is found in Olds and Shoshani (1982) and Hoeck and Bloomer (in press).
41766		population	eng	Widespread and abundant in drier rocky areas of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. In some areas, such as in Matopos in Zimbabwe and the Serengeti of Tanzania (where they have been well studied) they are characterised by extreme local population fluctuations (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). On Mount Kenya, where they are considered among the most conspicuous of mammals, average density has been estimated at between 20 and 100 animals per km² (Young and Evans 1993).
41766		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is hunted locally, and may have been extirpated in some smaller localities. In Israel, where the species is protected by law and has few natural enemies, their numbers have grown in cultivated areas resulting in damage to crops and necessitating effective control measures being put in <br/>place (e.g., electric fences) (Mendelssogn and Yom-Tov 1999).
41767		conservation	eng	The Desert Warthog occurs in a number of protected areas, including Tsavo West and Tsavo East National Parks (Kenya), Samburu, Buffalo Springs, Shaba, and Dodori National Reserves (Kenya), and likely in the Babile and Yabelo Wildlife Sanctuaries and associated Controlled Hunting Areas in Ethiopia and Meru and Kora National Parks in Kenya (d'Huart and Grubb 2001; Grubb and d'Huart 2010; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This is a largely unstudied species for which further field surveys are needed to better determine geographic limits, area of occupancy, abundance and the impacts of various human/livestock-raising activities on distribution and abundance. Information on habitat preference and habitat limits are also needed, as is a good study of the basic ecology and behaviour of this species.
41767		distribution	eng	Presently known only from south-eastern Ethiopia, western Somalia, and in central and eastern Kenya (d'Huart and Grubb 2001). More recently, the range has been found to extend southwards to Tsavo West National Park, west of Athi River and south of the Galana River (Culverwell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, de Jong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and northwards, towards Melka Mari National Park (Obanda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). Formerly occurred in South Africa, in the south-eastern parts of the former Cape Province and apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but long since extinct there (d'Huart and Grubb 2001, Grubb and d'Huart 2010). Most records are from near sea level to ca 1,400 m asl (Central Kenya).
41767		habitat	eng	The Desert Warthog inhabits open arid regions, in vegetation types ranging from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. They prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Desert Warthogs are dependent on occurrence of water and shade (Grubb and d'Huart 2010; T. Butynski, Y. de Jong and J. Culverwell pers. comm.).
41767		population	eng	The Desert Warthog is generally reported as being locally abundant (Grubb and d'Huart 2010), mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water (T. Butynski, Y. de Jong, J. Culverwell, and J. King pers. comm.). In Ethiopia, they are common in the whole Ogaden region and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Nevertheless, there are large areas within the geographic range from which the species is absent.
41767		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, they may be subject to localized incidences of hunting for bushmeat trade (e.g. Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Habitat degradation due to over-grazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs investigation (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.)
41768		conservation	eng	The Common Warthog is present in numerous protected areas across its extensive range.
41768		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in scattered populations in West Africa eastwards to Ethiopia and then southwards in protected areas and unsettled, or very lightly settled, areas in East and southern Africa. Historically, <em>P. africanus</em> did not occur in the arid Karoo of South Africa where it was replaced by the extinct Cape Warthog <em>P. aethiopicus aethiopicus</em> (Cumming in press). The continuous expansion of the Sahel-zone has resulted in a marked contraction in the species’ former range in the north since the early 1980s, and accounts for its probable extinction in Niger (J. Newby, in Vercammen and Mason 1993).
41768		habitat	eng	Confined to moist and dry African savanna grasslands, open bushlands and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water (Cumming in press). Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, and deserts and succulent steppes, the population in the Goda Mtns in Djibouti mainly occupies forested areas (Künzel <em>et al.</em> 2000; Cumming in press). Recorded to elevations of 3,500 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).
41768		population	eng	The overall number of warthog in southern Africa (Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and southwards) has been estimated at about 250,000 (Cumming 1999). Typical densities range between 1 and 10 per km² in protected areas (Cumming in press), but local densities of 77 per km² were found on short grass in Nakuru National Park (Radke 1991).
41768		threats	eng	There are no current major threats. However, the species is very susceptible to drought and hunting, which may result in localized extinctions.
41769		conservation	eng	Forest Hogs occur in a number of protected areas, including: Sapo N.P. (Liberia); Taï N.P. (Côte d’Ivoire); Bia N.P. (Ghana); Minkebe N.P. (Gabon); Odzala N.P. (Congo Republic); the Sangha Tri-National complex (CAR, Congo, Cameroon); Maiko N.P., Virunga N.P. and Kahuzi-Biega N.P. (DR Congo); Ruwenzori N.P. and Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda); Aberdares N.P. and Mt Kenya N.P. (Kenya); and Bale Mountains N.P. (Ethiopia).
41769		distribution	eng	The Forest Hog has a range similar in many respects to the Bongo <em>Tragelaphus eurycerus</em>, being distributed in scattered populations throughout undisturbed tracts of lowland rainforest in West Africa and on the right bank of the Congo River, and also present in highland mixed forests of the Albertine Rift, and in isolated montane forests in Kenya and Ethiopia (d'Huart and Kingdon in press). The species is believed to be extinct in Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and there have been no records of Forest Hog from Rwanda since the late 1980s (B. Dowsett pers. comm.), though they may possibly survive in Nyungwe Forest (d'Huart and Kingdon in press).
41769		habitat	eng	Throughout its range, the Forest Hog inhabits a wide variety of forest types, ranging from subalpine areas and bamboo groves through montane to lowland and swamp forests, galleries, wooded savannas and post-cultivation thickets. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understorey cover in some parts of the home range, and a diversity of vegetation types (d'Huart and Kingdon in press).<br/><br/>Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months; life tables suggest an average life expectancy of 3.5 years and an average life span of five years, with a maximum of 18 years (d’Huart 1978).
41769		population	eng	Generally occurs at low density over most of its range, but may be locally abundant and sometimes occurs at high densities. d'Huart (1978) recorded densities of 0.4/km² in Garamba National Park to 2.6 /km² in the central plain of Virunga National Park. On the Mweya Peninsula, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, density was reported as >10 km² in 1999. However, Klingel and Klingel (2004) subsequently recorded a 30% fall in the density mainly as a result of predation; this population had subsequently declined further and is now close to extinction (H. Klingel pers. comm. 2007).
41769		threats	eng	Forest Hogs are very vulnerable to deforestation and, to a lesser extent, to hunting for food. In some areas of the Congo Basin, Forest Hogs are avoided by shotgun hunters because their flesh is considered to have an unpleasant taste, but this is by no means a widespread aversion (d'Huart and Kingdon in press). Hogs are sometimes caught in snares and the meat is smoked to conceal its origin and sent to urban markets (R. Ruggiero, in d'Huart and Kingdon in press).
41770		conservation	eng	Bushpig are present in several well-managed protected areas across their range.
41770		distribution	eng	The Bushpig ranges from southern Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea southwards through East Africa and eastern and southern DR Congo to Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. There are isolated populations in Angola (and nearby from the lower Zaire R. in DR Congo). In southern Africa, they are absent from Namibia, though they may occur in the Caprivi Strip. In South Africa, they are found in the northern and eastern parts of the country (and neighbouring Swaziland) to southern KwaZulu-Natal. There is then a break in their distribution and they reappear as an isolated population in the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces (Seydack in press). Introduced on Madagascar and the Comoro Islands (Mayotte) off the east coast of Africa (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993).
41770		habitat	eng	Bushpig are associated with relatively dense vegetation types with available food, cover and water, in forests and riverine or xeric scrub forests and thicket formations. In East and North-east Africa, they are recorded from the Ethiopian Highlands (Harenna Forest), the highlands of the Albertine Rift (where Red River Hogs have never been recorded), and Mt Kilimanjaro (to 4,000 m). They also occur in areas given over to subsistence farming or to agricultural crops such as sugar cane, maize, peanuts and beans, and may become a serious problem in such areas (Seydack in press).
41770		population	eng	Population density in the southern Cape forests, South Africa, range between 0.3 and 0.5/km² (Seydack in press).
41770		threats	eng	There are no major known threats. They may be subject to localized declines and range contractions in some areas due to large-scale habitat destruction or as a result of hunting for crop protection and local consumption (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993). In southern Africa, they are sporadically subject to official population control measures when they feed on crops. However, their preferred habitat, nocturnal habits and relatively high reproductive potential are such that it has proved generally difficult to eliminate Bushpig from larger tracts of relatively densely vegetated habitat (Seydack in press).
41771		conservation	eng	Red River hogs are present in many protected areas across their range.
41771		distribution	eng	The Red River Hog is widely, but patchily, distributed through the West and Central African rainforest belt, from Senegal in the west, throughout the Guinea-Congo forest to at least west of the Albertine Rift. Further east and south-east, replaced by the Bushpig, although the precise borders between the ranges of the two species remain unclear. There are no confirmed records from Sudan or Chad, though they may occur in extreme south-western Sudan (Leus and Vercammen in press). There are also as yet no reliable records from The Gambia, which is just outside their natural range (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). There is no confirmation of their presence on Bioko Island.
41771		habitat	eng	Typically associated with rainforest and gallery forest, but also found in dry forest, savanna woodland and cultivated areas, although usually in close proximity to the rainforest (Leus and Vercammen in press). Like the Bushpig, Red River Hogs are highly adaptable and may even benefit from the opening up of former forested areas by the creation of secondary habitats, the provision of cultivated foods, and reductions in the numbers of their natural predators (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993).
41771		population	eng	Recorded densities for Red River Hogs vary greatly but typically range between 1-6 individuals / km² (Leus and Vercammen in press), although a density of 18.4/km² was recorded from galleries and bosquets in the savanna ecotone of Lopé Reserve, Gabon (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1997). Periodic aggregations on ephemeral resources (such as masting fruit trees) might explain these higher estimates.
41771		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hunting for subsistence purposes, as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases, and for the commercial bushmeat trade (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993). Together with the duikers, it is one of the most hunted species in the Congo Basin (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999). A significant effect of hunting on Red River Hog densities was observed in southern Gabon (Laurance <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41772		conservation	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia, the Taman Negara National Park , 4,343 km², may be the only protected area large enough to support a viable population, if the species is still present. Bearded pigs are found in Endau-Rompin National Park in southern Peninsular Malaysia. Although the park is only 891 km², there are plans for intensive field conservation in the protected area and surrounding logged-over  forests, thus increasing the potential of long-term prevalence of this species here. In Sumatra, Bearded pigs are known to occur in the large Kerinci-Seblat National Park (Linkie and Sadikin 2003), 13,300 km², and they are likely to survive in some other protected areas, though surveys are needed to confirm this. In Borneo, the species is widely distributed and it occurs in numerous protected areas in Kalimantan, Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei.<br/><br/>The Bearded pig is a protected game species under the Protection of Wildlife Act (1972) in Peninsular Malaysia and can be hunted with license with no bag limit for meat or as a measure of pest control. If, as it appears, the Bearded pig distribution is limited to southern Peninsular Malaysia, special management interventions are necessary to protect the species from extinction in Peninsular Malaysia. Regulating hunting of Bearded pigs alone will be difficult as hunters do not differentiate Bearded pigs from sympatric wild pigs. A study to determine the status and distribution of the species is necessary first to clearly identify what further actions may be required. Its marginal occurrence in the Philippines, where it is undoubtedly seriously threatened by virtue of its extremely limited distribution and active persecution, is unquestioned, but not yet reflected in local legislature.<br/><br/>The Bearded pig is protected under the Sarawak Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1998 (Part IV of the Ordinance ? Protection of Wildlife) specifically the Trade Ban (Section 33) that prohibits the hunting or selling of wildlife species or wild meat. However, hunting for subsistence in rural areas is still allowed (Chin 2001, Junau <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The only apparent captive population of Peninsular Malaysian Bearded pigs seems to be the herd of 7 males and 10 females at Singapore?s Night Safari. There are two captive herds of Bearded pig in Peninsular Malaysia, 8 individuals at Zoo Taiping and 14 at Zoo Negara in Kuala Lumpur (Lazarus and Ngah pers. comm.) but these two herds are all of Bornean origin. The Singapore animals stem from three wild importations totaling 2 males and 2 females in 1991 from Johor. Should further research indicate that a limited reintroduction of captive-bred animals was deemed appropriate as part of a broader conservation plan, the Singapore stock could provide animals for release (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41772		distribution	eng	The Bearded Pig is found in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Bangka (where its continued presence is uncertain), and Borneo (Brunei, Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan), extending to Siibuto and Tawitawi Islands in the Sulu Archipelago, in the extreme southwestern Philippines (Oliver, 1995, 2001). There are also records from Bintan (Riau) Islands (southeast of Singapore), where it might be extirpated, and from Karimata and Laut Islands off Kalimantan. The species has probably been extirpated from northern Peninsular Malaysia and northern Sumatra, but it is still present in parts of its historical range, such as the western Sumatran mountain areas (Linkie and Sadikin 2003, Sugardjito pers. comm.) and southern Peninsular Malaysia. The species is apparently most widespread on Borneo, which might hold the bulk of the population.<br/><br/>The Bearded pig was fairly abundant and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula until relatively recently (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993). As late as 1990, herds of bearded pigs were reported in central Peninsular Malaysia at Taman Negara National Park (Khadijah 1990) and in a forest reserve south of Taman Negara (Johns 1983). But between 1999 and 2001 an intensive camera-trapping study of three sites covering 600 km² of the park did not record the presence of the species (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Elsewhere in 1996, a herd consisting of about 18 Bearded pigs, was seen in a forest reserve in Negri Sembilan in the southwestern peninsula (Kalan Ickes pers. comm., Ickes and Thomas 2003). In a peat swamp forest of southeastern Peninsular Malaysia, the species was reported present by local indigenous people (Sebastian 1998, Wetland International 2003) but a subsequent field survey (Traeholt and Lim 1999) and a camera-trapping study (Sharma and Ahmad Zafir 2005) did not to confirm the presence. At the turn of the 21st Century there were reports of bearded pigs still existing in southern Peninsular Malaysia (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006), including sightings in 2007 and 2008.  Photographs as well as video recordings also exist of the species in Endau Rompin National Park (Song Horng pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Sumatra, the Bearded Pig has been recorded in west Sumatra (Linkie and Sadikin 2003) in central Sumatra (Maddox 2007a) and in south Sumatra (Maddox <em>et al</em>. 2007b).
41772		habitat	eng	The natural vegetation in all areas where bearded pigs are found is dominated by tropical evergreen rainforest, but within this broad category the animals utilize a wide variety of habitat types, ranging from beaches to upper montane cloud forests (Caldecott <em>et al</em>., 1993). The carrying capacity for bearded pigs no doubt varies greatly from habitat to habitat within the rainforest, depending on soil, drainage, elevation and floristic and phytochemical composition of the vegetation. Population density is also radically variable over time, so it is hard to determine consistent differences between habitats in this respect (Caldecott <em>et al</em>., 1993).<br/><br/>Bearded pigs consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, carrion, and items from at least 50 genera and 29 families of plants. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition and reproduction, with the oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceae (oaks and chestnuts) and Dipterocarpaceae (dipterocarps) being especially important in this regard. Of these, the oaks are significant because of their relatively continuous or regular fruiting behaviour, and also because they can come to dominate submontane habitats. The dipterocarps are often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and strongly influence food availability for terrestrial seed-eaters by characteristically synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting behaviour (Caldecott, 1988; Pfeffer, 1959; Pfeffer and Caldecott, 1986; Davies and Payne, 1982; Janzen, 1974; Jessup <em>et al</em>., 1982; Leighton and Leighton, 1983).<br/><br/>Large-scale population movements by bearded pigs have often been reported in Malaysia (Allen, 1948; Kempe, 1948; Hislop, 1949, 1952, 1955) and Borneo (Shelford, 1916; Banks, 1931, 1949; Banks in Hislop, 1955; Pfeffer, 1959; Davies and Payne, 1982; Caldecott and Caldecott, 1985; Caldecott, 1988a, 1991). Pigs are described as moving consistently in one direction, in scattered or condensed herds, over a broad or narrow front, and over a period of several days, weeks or months. The animals are variously described as being in good, poor or very poor physical condition, sometimes accompanied by piglets and sometimes not, and regularly swimming across rivers, sometimes coastal bays and even out to sea. In some cases, the population is said to retrace its route later, or to follow a circular course to return whence it originally came. The distances traveled appear to vary greatly. Pfeffer (1959) described annual, apparently unidirectional, population movements in Kalimantan involving distances of 250-650 km, while Davies and Payne (1982) refer to annual reversible movements over tens of kilometers in Sabah. The approximate population tracks given by Caldecott (1988a) suggest rates of travel of 8-22 km/month sustained over at least 4-8 months as part of larger cyclical movements in interior Sarawak. Some reports indicate that such population migrations begin or end in particular locations where abundant food may be found. Thus, Davies and Payne (1982) linked movements to seasonally-fruiting <em>Dinochloa</em> bamboo groves, while Caldecott (unpubl.) reinterpreted historical accounts so as to link Malaysian bearded pig movements with predictable fruiting in camphor wood (<em>Dryobalanops aromatica</em>) forests. Caldecott (1988a) also described what appeared to be regular use of fruiting montane oak (<em>Lithocarpus</em>) forests in the upper Baram area of Sarawak.<br/><br/>In Sumatra bearded pigs also exhibit large scale population movements, but reports are anecdotal and often contradictory. Groups of up to 300 individuals are said to embark on long migrations, arriving at a given location at irregular intervals, sometimes as often as once a year but more frequently once every two to four years. In the highlands these movements do not seem to have any relation to the seasons, but in the lowlands the pigs tend to move out of the inundated forests to higher ground in the rainy season and back again in the dry season (Blouch, 1984). The relationship between these movements and the cycles of mast production has not been investigated. <br/><br/>Bearded pig populations exhibit a range of different states, which can be summarized as follows:<br/><br/>1. Dispersed, static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous 'background' food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only (e.g., typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes).<br/><br/>2. Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous 'target' food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only (e.g.. <em>Koompassia-Burseraceae</em> forest in Malaya).<br/><br/>3. Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic phenological mosaic. Short to medium-range movements (e.g., typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes.<br/><br/>4. Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply (e.g., <em>Dinochloa association</em> in Sabah, or <em>Dryobalanops aromatica</em> association in Peninsular Malaysia).<br/><br/>5. Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for several litters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements (e.g., interior of Sarawak in 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987).<br/><br/>6. Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements (e.g., starving herds reported from Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo).<br/><br/>The basic social structure is that of the major social unit being the mother family, a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. Age at first pregnancy presumably varies in the wild from about 10-20 months. In any one area, the rut coincides with synchronized flowering in the forest, with the timing being centered on the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer a potential visual cue. A certain nutritional status may have to have been attained by females before they become responsive to whatever stimulus acts to trigger mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1.5, while rutting males scored zero by this measure (n = 19, 32).<br/><br/>Gestation length is not known but is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Birth occurs within a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female (n = 53) was 7, which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Abbot in Davies (1962) reported a slightly higher median of 9 fetuses per female (n = 5). Litter size is very variable in part because of the influence of female size: small mothers typically have 3-4 piglets in a litter, while large ones have 10-12. Elsewhere, the range in litter size has been given as 3-11 piglets (National Research Council, 1983).<br/><br/>Fat reserves in the mother are used up quickly during lactation, and females accompanied by small piglets are almost invariably thin or very thin. Those with large piglets are fatter, and have presumably gained weight after weaning. This fattening process seems to depend on what fruit is available, with dipterocarp seeds and acorns having most impact. If these are abundant, it seems likely that two litters can be raised by a female within a year.
41772		population	eng	This species has usually been considered to be locally common wthin its range, though it is heavily hunted and declining (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993, Oliver 1992). However, of all the populations of Bearded Pig, only the Bornean one seems still to be relatively healthy (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species has declined seriously in Peninsular Malaysia over the last fifteen years, having diappeared from many former sights, and it is certainly no longer common there. Declines are also evident in Sumatra, though the timing of these is less clear. Overall, the species is clearly decreasing.
41772		threats	eng	Bearded pigs are culturally and economically important wildlife to the rural communities in Borneo (Caldecott 1988). Its meat is preferred by the local people and therefore it is the most frequently hunted wildlife species (Caldecott 1988, Chin 2001). Improved access into the forests and destruction of their natural habitats by logging and agricultural activities have increased hunting pressure on the Bearded pigs. Moreover, habitat degradation through logging of dipterocarps is believed to reduce the availability of food and the loss of habitat for foraging and breeding, although little is known about the pig?s diet and habitat use in response to logging (Setyawati <em>et al</em>. 2005). Evidence is mounting that the bearded pig is dependent on the survival of extensive areas of tropical forest, but these are in serious decline, especially due to expanding plantations (notably oil palm), fires and logging.<br/><br/>The unsustainable logging of dipterocarps in Bornean forests is changing the underlying ecology of the island, probably in such a way as to prevent bearded pigs from exhibiting in future the mass population eruptions and movements of the kind observed during the 1950's and 1980's. These phenomena are no longer seen in areas where extensive logging has already occurred. The bearded pig may be said to be consummately adapted to life in almost limitless dipterocarp forests. It is possible that the demise and fragmentation of Borneo's forests will allow wholesale invasion of the island by <em>S. scrofa</em>, which could then displace <em>S. b. barbatus</em> from much of its former range. The same may be said for Peninsular Malaysia, where several thousands of square kilometres of camphor wood forest have now been virtually destroyed, and the integrity of forest cover throughout the Peninsula is so disrupted that long-distance movement by forest-dwelling mammals is no longer possible in many areas. ?Classic? bearded pig eruptions with maximum reproduction and population growth appear to be linked to consecutive and large mass fruit crops over an extended time period (Hancock <em>et al</em>. 2005). These consecutive mass fruit crops are thought to be compromised in the future not only by the loss of extensive and contiguous forest cover, but also by climate change  (Hancock <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Meanwhile, a more sedentary population of bearded pigs, apparently associated with continuously-fruiting, <em>Koompassia-Burseraceae</em> forests in western Malaya, is probably endangered by hunting and habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced by the Peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favoured <em>S. scrofa</em> over <em>S. barbatus</em>, and the latter species is believed to be in serious jeopardy as a result. Although habitat loss and disruption have almost certainly contributed to the bearded pig's rarity in Peninsular Malaysia, competition with Eurasian wild pigs might also be a significant factor (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Available data indicate that wherever they are sympatric (not necessarily syntopic), the number of Eurasian wild pigs is greater than bearded pigs (Ickes 2001, Ickes and Thomas 2003, Maddox 2007). Both in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, the Eurasian wild pig has a much greater distribution range than the bearded pig.<br/><br/>In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya and where a comparison between the current distribution of bearded pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear.<br/><br/>As bearded pig populations decline, the impact of hunting for meat, once probably sustainable in many areas, is becoming much more serious, and hunting is probably now a serious threat in many places.<br/><br/>Repeated complaints about crop depredations by Moslem communities in communities in Sibutu and Tawitawi Islands in southwestern Philippines have not only led to appeals to the relevant authorities to try to eradicate these animals, but also to the discovery of a new (if as yet unpublished) description of a wild pig species endemic to Tawitawi and offshore islands (Oliver 2001; Rose and Grubb, unpublished), though it remains unclear whether <em>S. barbatus</em> occurs sympatrically or is replaced by these animals on these islands.
41773		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas. Those where significant populations of warty pigs are found include Lore Lindu (2,310 km<sup>2</sup>), Bogani Nani-Wartabone (2,871 km<sup>2</sup>), Morowali (2,250 km<sup>2)</sup> and many other smaller sites. Within all of these areas the species is technically fully protected  by law. A Wildlife Crimes Unit Program was developed for wildlife trade monitoring and law enforcement in North Sulawesi. This has been active since 2001, however, overall trade in wild mammals has increased by 30% during this time, mainly from unprotected species (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005). This Unit cannot control the levels of trade in the warty pig because hunting of this species is not prohibited outside of protected areas. The species has only very rarely been kept in captivity outside its country of origin; and, as far as is known, pure-bred animals have never been produced in captivity (Burton and Macdonald 2006).
41773		distribution	eng	<em>S. celebensis</em> is a medium sized pig which is still found in abundance in central, east and south-east Sulawesi. It is now scarce in south and north-east Sulawesi and may be extinct on nearby Selayar Island. It also occurs as a native form on the adjacent islands of Buton, Muna, Kabeana, Peleng, Lembeh and on some of the Togian Islands (Burton and Macdonald 2006). As originally shown by Groves (1981), this species has also been truly domesticated and widely transported to other islands, where it has also often hybridized with <em>S. scrofa</em>, thus giving rise to a variety of introduced domestic and feral pig populations amongst the Indonesian the islands of Flores, Timor, Simeuleu, Seram, Buru and Nias Islands. Domesticated forms of <em>S. celebensis</em> can be seen on the islands of Roti and Sawu (Groves 1983, Bell 1987). Wild pigs from Halmahera, previously referred to as feral <em>S. celebensis</em>, have been shown to have greater genetic affinity to the New Guinea pigs (Larson <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41773		habitat	eng	Sulawesi Warty Pigs are reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, ranging from rainforest and swamp, to open grasslands and agricultural areas, and at all altitudes up to moss forest (>2,500 m) (MacKinnon 1981), though they are less common at altitudes above 1,500 m asl (Burton in press). They usually live in groups of from one to six animals, but the social composition of these groups is incompletely known (Macdonald 1991; Macdonald <em>et al</em>, 1996). In one population (Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve) the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1.25 (n=25) and group size varies between 2 and 9, with an average of 5 individuals (n=16) (Jamalundin in prep). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults and 1-3 adults. They forage during the day, this activity being concentrated in the early morning and evening. Although roots, fallen fruit, leaves and young shoots constitute the bulk of their diet, invertebrates, small vertebrates and carrion are also eaten.
41773		population	eng	A recent island wide survey (Riley 2002) found no records of pigs in three areas in the north east peninsula of Sulawesi, and low densities in the central region of the island. Populations in both these regions appear to have been affected by demand for pig meat in Minahasa and Palu areas, respectively. While the south-east area had the highest population densities, the demand for pig meat locally was lowest. Densities ranged from 0.4-2.0 animals/km² (Panua Nature Reserve) in the north peninsula to 5.1-14.5 animals/km² (Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve) in the south-east peninsula. A recent study in the latter site found densities in lowland forest to be 23.5 animals/km² (Jamaludin <em>et al</em>. in prep). This data highlights the increasing pressure from hunting on the pigs of Sulawesi, as reported elsewhere (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2000; Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41773		threats	eng	<em>S. celebensis</em> does not have any important natural predators on Sulawesi and its offshore islands other than the reticulated python (<em>Python reticulates</em>). Changing land-use and hunting pressure have caused a reduction in its former range. This pig species is not considered threatened over much of its range at the present time (Burton and Macdonald 2006). However, wide scale deforestation for timber and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration have resulted in a marked contraction of its range in some places. In addition, resources are insufficient to enforce controls on hunting, and there are reports that subsistence and/or organized commercial hunting is continuing even within designated reserves and national parks (Smiet 1982, Blouch 1990). The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of this current harvesting rate. Completion of the Trans-Sulawesi Highway (1980) probably increased importation of wildlife within and into North Sulawesi from the rest of the island. Data was recently collected from market surveys from northeast Sulawesi and road blocks on the Trans-Sulawesi Highway (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the study it was noted that "trade in the Sulawesi pig is alarmingly high for such a large-bodied animal". The expansion of human settlements also brings an increased threat of genetic contamination and/or disease to the wild pig populations. Future threats will include the loss of this species high genetic diversity through the decline into small isolated populations (Burton and Macdonald 2006).
41775		conservation	eng	Generally, few, if any, practical measures have been taken in any country for the specific purpose of conserving wild populations of any subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em>, except in the sense of maintaining stock levels for hunting, particularly for sport hunting. Thus Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported a gradual increase of the wild boar population in Bulgaria in the late 1950s following legal measures to regulate hunting, and because of the reintroduction of animals from breeding farms in the north-east of the country, in the Balkan Range and Sredna Gora. Even in this instance, however, other factors may also be operating, since similar increases in the local wild pig populations in Spain, France, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and eastern Russia have been described by Sáez-Royuela and Tellería (1986), who simply attributed this trend to a progression to a more temperate climate and, hence, progressively milder winters of benefit to these animals. <br/><br/>Local wild pig populations are also reported to be increasing in numbers in several countries as a consequence of the spread of Islam. For example, the north-west African race, <em>S. s. algira</em>, although extinct in Libya, is thought to be expanding in neighboring Algeria where it is designated a game animal but, as the meat is now seldom eaten in this country, hunting pressure has been greatly reduced since colonial times (Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalski, 1991). These authors also cite earlier reports of wild boars hybridizing with domestic pigs, but the latter are no longer kept in Algeria.<br/><br/><em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> has been included in the IUCN Red List since 1982, where its 'Vulnerable' status reflected a widespread concern about the environmentally destructive development of the Ryukyu Islands and the growing number of threats to the ecosystems and endemic species of Iriomote and other islands in this region. In 1978, these concerns led to the passing of a resolution at the 14th IUCN General Assembly in Ashkhabad, which called upon the Government of Japan to take immediate steps to ensure the conservation of Iriomote Island and its endemic taxa, and for the subsequent designation of the whole of the Nansei Shoto Region (often referred to as the 'Galápagos of the East' on account of the high percent endemicity of its fauna and flora) as a bio-geographical priority region in the World Conservation Strategy. In 1982, the 'Nansei Shoto Conservation Project' was launched by WWF-Japan, with initial emphasis being placed on the conduct of wildlife and socio-economic surveys on Iriomote and Amami Oshima (Obara, 1984a,b). In the interim, however, the desired increased protection of the Nansei Shoto Region was clearly at odds with the Japanese Government's regional policies, and the development of the islands continued - a circumstance which led to the passage of a another resolution, highlighting Japan's treatment of the region, at the 16th General Assembly of IUCN in Costa Rica in 1986. This also appears to have had little affect, as evinced by further major development plans, including the controversial Ishigaki Airport extension, and recent plans to construct a new dam and road on Iriomote Island. Although one third of Iriomote has been designated as a national park, the proposed road will cut through the park and will also increase access by poachers who have already reduced the wild pig to less than half of its numbers before the park was created (Brazil, 1988). <br/><br/>Of all wild pigs species, <em>S. scrofa</em> is by far the most widely maintained and bred in captivity, though general perceptions about the relative abundance of this species has resulted in diminished interest in its propagation. Many zoos, particularly in western Europe, have therefore disposed of their stocks of these animals, mostly to 'wild boar breeding farms', which have escalated in number to meet growing demands in the gourmet meat markets and for commercial diversification. In addition, increasingly restrictive quarantine and other veterinary regulations appertaining to the international movements of all live suids, has made it extremely difficult to establish new breeding programs.<br/><br/>Contrarily, since these animals are most easily acquired in their countries of origin, local stocks are most likely to be pure-bred and, hence, most valuable for research and conservation purposes. In this situation, priority should be given to the establishment of national or regional breeding programmes for each of the rarest subspecies, especially <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>.<br/><br/>As a general rule, <em>S. scrofa</em> is both highly adaptable and highly resistant to a variety of degradative processes, and may thrive under conditions of habitat modification and hunting pressure which have devastated other forms of wildlife. In addition, most subspecies are well represented in protected areas in their relatively extensive ranges. Nonetheless, there are reasons for concern about a number of distinct populations of <em>S. scrofa</em>, of which the Ryukyu pigs are undoubtedly the most seriously threatened. Indeed, <em>riukiuanus</em> is the only subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em> to be included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1990), where it has been accorded the status of 'Vulnerable' since 1982, but is already thought to be 'Endangered' on at least four of the six islands in the Ryukyu Chain which constitute its entire, and therefore extremely restricted, range. This particular form is also the most distinct, and (with an average adult male body weight of only about 45 kg; Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984) by far the smallest, subspecies. It is therefore of some interest as a potential genetic resource, as well as being one of the principal 'flagship' animals for increased conservation activity in the crucially important Nansei Shoto Region. For all of these reasons, the following recommendations (taken from Oliver <em>et al</em> 1993) are mostly confined to the immediate and longer-term management requirements of this taxon.<br/><br/><strong>Objectives<br/>1. To promote local interest in, and the enhanced future protection and management of, the Ryukyu Islands' dwarf wild pig, <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>, and any other threatened native subspecies may be identified in the future;<br/><br/>2. To promote further applied research on the taxonomy, distribution, conservation status and biology of the species, particularly the least known forms; <br/><br/>3. To discourage any future releases of any specimens of any subspecies of this species, or its domestic and feral derivatives, outside their known former ranges, and encourage the eradication or control of such introduced populations as may exist at present; and<br/><br/>4. To investigate the cultural and economic significance of these animals to local people, particularly in Southeast Asia, and their potential genetic importance in terms of: a) possibilities for their further domestication and/or b) an enhanced understanding of the origins and relationships of present day domestic and wild populations.<br/><br/><strong>Priority Projects:</strong><br/>1. Provide all appropriate support to any existing or proposed future conservation initiatives in the Nansei Shoto Region, relevant to the enhanced future management and protection of the Ryukyu Island's dwarf wild pig, <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>. <br/><br/>2. Conduct (preliminary or repeat) status surveys on all (six) islands in the Ryukyu Group known to support remnant populations of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> (i.e. Iriomote, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Tokunoshima, Amamioshima and Kakerome), and implement emergent recommendations. <br/><br/>3. Promote development of a coordinated breeding programmed for <em>S. s. riukiuanus,/i>, both nationally and internationally.<br/><br/>4. Collect, evaluate and disseminate data on the taxonomic relationships, distribution and conservation status of other, less-known forms, with a view to the resolution of certain outstanding taxonomic problems and the development of recommendations for their enhanced future protection, if so required. Additional data is needed on the distribution and status of some, poorly-known subspecies and populations, including a tentatively assigned form (subsp. nov.) from the central highlands of Sri Lanka and the insular <em>taivanus</em> (Taiwan). Efforts should also be made to resolve outstanding questions relating to the genetic distinctness and range limitations of many of the continental races, which are poorly understood at present.<br/><br/>5. Promote further research on the biology and ecology of all less-studied populations, particularly those in extreme habitats, or in areas of sympatry with other species of <em>Sus,/i>. Most of the information on this species has originated from studies conducted in Europe or on the feral populations in the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand. Priority should therefore be given to studies of other populations elsewhere, particularly those in semi-desert regions or other extreme habitats, and/or studies focused on the ecological and genetic relationships between this and other species of Sus in those areas where sympatry occurs (e.g. with <em>S. barbatus</em> in the Malaysian Peninsular and Sumatra, and with <em>S. verrucosus</em> on Java).</em></em></strong>
41775		conservation	eng	Generally, few, if any, practical measures have been taken in any country for the specific purpose of conserving wild populations of any subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em>, except in the sense of maintaining stock levels for hunting, particularly for sport hunting. Thus Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported a gradual increase of the wild boar population in Bulgaria in the late 1950s following legal measures to regulate hunting, and because of the reintroduction of animals from breeding farms in the north-east of the country, in the Balkan Range and Sredna Gora. Even in this instance, however, other factors may also be operating, since similar increases in the local wild pig populations in Spain, France, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and eastern Russia have been described by Sáez-Royuela and Tellería (1986), who simply attributed this trend to a progression to a more temperate climate and, hence, progressively milder winters of benefit to these animals. <br/><br/>Local wild pig populations are also reported to be increasing in numbers in several countries as a consequence of the spread of Islam. For example, the north-west African race, <em>S. s. algira</em>, although extinct in Libya, is thought to be expanding in neighboring Algeria where it is designated a game animal but, as the meat is now seldom eaten in this country, hunting pressure has been greatly reduced since colonial times (Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalski, 1991). These authors also cite earlier reports of wild boars hybridizing with domestic pigs, but the latter are no longer kept in Algeria.<br/><br/><em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> has been included in the IUCN Red List since 1982, where its 'Vulnerable' status reflected a widespread concern about the environmentally destructive development of the Ryukyu Islands and the growing number of threats to the ecosystems and endemic species of Iriomote and other islands in this region. In 1978, these concerns led to the passing of a resolution at the 14th IUCN General Assembly in Ashkhabad, which called upon the Government of Japan to take immediate steps to ensure the conservation of Iriomote Island and its endemic taxa, and for the subsequent designation of the whole of the Nansei Shoto Region (often referred to as the 'Galápagos of the East' on account of the high percent endemicity of its fauna and flora) as a bio-geographical priority region in the World Conservation Strategy. In 1982, the 'Nansei Shoto Conservation Project' was launched by WWF-Japan, with initial emphasis being placed on the conduct of wildlife and socio-economic surveys on Iriomote and Amami Oshima (Obara, 1984a,b). In the interim, however, the desired increased protection of the Nansei Shoto Region was clearly at odds with the Japanese Government's regional policies, and the development of the islands continued - a circumstance which led to the passage of a another resolution, highlighting Japan's treatment of the region, at the 16th General Assembly of IUCN in Costa Rica in 1986. This also appears to have had little affect, as evinced by further major development plans, including the controversial Ishigaki Airport extension, and recent plans to construct a new dam and road on Iriomote Island. Although one third of Iriomote has been designated as a national park, the proposed road will cut through the park and will also increase access by poachers who have already reduced the wild pig to less than half of its numbers before the park was created (Brazil, 1988). <br/><br/>Of all wild pigs species, <em>S. scrofa</em> is by far the most widely maintained and bred in captivity, though general perceptions about the relative abundance of this species has resulted in diminished interest in its propagation. Many zoos, particularly in western Europe, have therefore disposed of their stocks of these animals, mostly to 'wild boar breeding farms', which have escalated in number to meet growing demands in the gourmet meat markets and for commercial diversification. In addition, increasingly restrictive quarantine and other veterinary regulations appertaining to the international movements of all live suids, has made it extremely difficult to establish new breeding programs.<br/><br/>Contrarily, since these animals are most easily acquired in their countries of origin, local stocks are most likely to be pure-bred and, hence, most valuable for research and conservation purposes. In this situation, priority should be given to the establishment of national or regional breeding programmes for each of the rarest subspecies, especially <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>.<br/><br/>As a general rule, <em>S. scrofa</em> is both highly adaptable and highly resistant to a variety of degradative processes, and may thrive under conditions of habitat modification and hunting pressure which have devastated other forms of wildlife. In addition, most subspecies are well represented in protected areas in their relatively extensive ranges. Nonetheless, there are reasons for concern about a number of distinct populations of <em>S. scrofa</em>, of which the Ryukyu pigs are undoubtedly the most seriously threatened. Indeed, <em>riukiuanus</em> is the only subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em> to be included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1990), where it has been accorded the status of 'Vulnerable' since 1982, but is already thought to be 'Endangered' on at least four of the six islands in the Ryukyu Chain which constitute its entire, and therefore extremely restricted, range. This particular form is also the most distinct, and (with an average adult male body weight of only about 45 kg; Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984) by far the smallest, subspecies. It is therefore of some interest as a potential genetic resource, as well as being one of the principal 'flagship' animals for increased conservation activity in the crucially important Nansei Shoto Region. For all of these reasons, the following recommendations (taken from Oliver <em>et al</em> 1993) are mostly confined to the immediate and longer-term management requirements of this taxon.<br/><br/><strong>Objectives<br/></strong>1. To promote local interest in, and the enhanced future protection and management of, the Ryukyu Islands' dwarf wild pig, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span>, and any other threatened native subspecies may be identified in the future;<br/><br/>2. To promote further applied research on the taxonomy, distribution, conservation status and biology of the species, particularly the least known forms; <br/><br/>3. To discourage any future releases of any specimens of any subspecies of this species, or its domestic and feral derivatives, outside their known former ranges, and encourage the eradication or control of such introduced populations as may exist at present; and<br/><br/>4. To investigate the cultural and economic significance of these animals to local people, particularly in southeast Asia, and their potential genetic importance in terms of: a) possibilities for their further domestication and/or b) an enhanced understanding of the origins and relationships of present day domestic and wild populations.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Priority Projects:</span><br/>1. Provide all appropriate support to any existing or proposed future conservation initiatives in the Nansei Shoto Region, relevant to the enhanced future management and protection of the Ryukyu Island's dwarf wild pig, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span>. <br/><br/>2. Conduct (preliminary or repeat) status surveys on all (six) islands in the Ryukyu Group known to support remnant populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span> (i.e. Iriomote, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Tokunoshima, Amamioshima and Kakerome), and implement emergent recommendations. <strong><br/><br/></strong>3. Promote development of a coordinated breeding programmed for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span><strong><em>,</em></strong> both nationally and internationally<strong><em>.<br/><br/></em></strong>4. Collect, evaluate and disseminate data on the taxonomic relationships, distribution and conservation status of other, less-known forms, with a view to the resolution of certain outstanding taxonomic problems and the development of recommendations for their enhanced future protection, if so required. Additional data is needed on the distribution and status of some, poorly-known subspecies and populations, including a tentatively assigned form (subsp. nov.) from the central highlands of Sri Lanka and the insular taivanus (Taiwan). Efforts should also be made to resolve outstanding questions relating to the genetic distinctness and range limitations of many of the continental races, which are poorly understood at present.<strong><em><br/><br/></em></strong>5. Promote further research on the biology and ecology of all less-studied populations, particularly those in extreme habitats, or in areas of sympatry with other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus</span>. Most of the information on this species has originated from studies conducted in Europe or on the feral populations in the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand. Priority should therefore be given to studies of other populations elsewhere, particularly those in semi-desert regions or other extreme habitats, and/or studies focused on the ecological and genetic relationships between this and other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus</span> in those areas where sympatry occurs (e.g. with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. barbatus</span> in the Malaysian Peninsular and Sumatra, and with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. verrucosus</span> on Java).
41775		conservation	eng	It occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended in Europe, except perhaps measures to control the population in certain places (EMA Workshop 2006).
41775		distribution	eng	The Eurasian wild pig has one of the widest geographic distributions of all terrestrial mammals, and this range has been greatly expanded by human agency. The species now occurs in pure wild or barely modified feral form on all continents excepting Antarctica, and on many oceanic islands. It is the ancestor of most (but not all) ancient and modern domestic pig breeds, and there is evidence to suggest that it was independently domesticated in several different parts of its range, including Southeast Asia, the Far East and Asia Minor. As a wild form, it has constituted a primary resource of subsistence hunters since the earliest times, and it is one of the most important targets for recreational hunting wherever it remains sufficiently abundant. Over-hunting and changes in land use have resulted in the fragmentation of its range and its extermination throughout the British Isles, Scandinavia, parts of North Africa, and relatively extensive parts of its range in the former Soviet Union. and northern Japan. Nevertheless, the species remains widely distributed and is often locally abundant. As a result of its depredations on crops it is regarded as a pest in many countries, where it remains unprotected outside designated wildlife reserves or is managed as a game animal.<br/><br/><em>S. scrofa</em> has by far the largest range of all pigs. It occurs throughout the steppe and broadleaved forest regions of the Palaearctic, from western Europe to the Russian Far East, extending southwards as far North Africa, the Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East, through India, Indo-China, Japan (including the Ryukyu Chain), Taiwan and the Greater Sunda Islands of South-east Asia. Populations east of Bali are probably all introduced. It has been extinct in the British Isles since sometime in the 17th century, despite attempted introductions of new stock from Europe (Harting, 1880) (though see below for more recent information). It is also extinct in southern Scandinavia (but see below), over extensive portions of its recent range in west-central and eastern parts of the former Soviet Union (Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961), and in northern Japan (Chiba, 1964, 1975). The species was last reported in Libya in the 1880s, and it became extinct in Egypt in about 1902 (Hufnagl, 1972). <br/><br/>Groves and Grubb (1993) distinguished four 'subspecies groupings', based on both geographic and morphological criteria, as follows:<br/><br/>1.  'Western races' of Europe (<em>scrofa</em> and <em>meridionalis</em>), North Africa (<em>algira</em>) and the Middle East (<em>lybicus</em>), extending at least as far east as Soviet Central Asia (<em>attila and nigripes</em>);  <br/><br/>2.  'Indian races' of the sub-Himalayan region from Iran in the west (<em>davidi</em>) to north India and adjacent countries as far east as Myanmar and west Thailand (<em>cristatus</em>), and south India and Sri Lanka (<em>affinis</em> and subsp. nov.); <br/><br/>3.  'Eastern races' of Mongolia and the Soviet Far East (<em>sibiricus</em> and <em>ussuricus</em>), Japan (<em>leucomystax</em> and <em>riukiuanus</em>), Taiwan (<em>taivanus</em>), to south-east China and Viet Nam (<em>moupinensis</em>); and <br/><br/>4.  'Indonesian race' (or banded pig) from the Malay Peninsular, Sumatra, Java, Bali and certain offshore islands (<em>vittatus</em>).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is widespread in most continental areas, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. As mentioined above, it disappeared from the British Isles and Scandinavia in the 17th century, although it has now been reintroduced to Sweden and escaped animals have established themselves in the wild in Britain (Spitz 1999). Animals have escaped from captivity in the UK and have established themselves in the wild. There are at least three small wild populations in England, on the Kent/East Sussex border, in Dorset, and in Hereford (Battersby 2005). It is native to Corsica and Sardinia, but the population in Sicily was introduced (Spitz 1999).<br/><br/>Introduced populations are not included in the distribution map.
41775		distribution	eng	The wild boar has a large global distribution extending from western Europe and North Africa eastwards through the Middle East and central and south-east Asia, reaching its south-eastern limit at the Greater Sunda Islands. In Europe, it is widespread in most continental areas, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It disappeared from the British Isles and Scandinavia in the 17th century, although it has now been reintroduced to Sweden and escaped animals have established themselves in the wild in Britain (Spitz 1999). It is native to Corsica and Sardinia, but the population in Sicily was introduced (Spitz 1999). Animals have escaped from captivity in the UK and have established themselves in the wild. There are at least three small wild populations in England, on the Kent/East Sussex border, in Dorset, and in Hereford (Battersby 2005). In Europe it is found from sea level to 2,400 in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
41775		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It prefers broadleaved forests and especially evergreen oak forests, but may also be found in more open habitats such as steppe, mediterranean shrubland, and farmland, so long as there is water and tree cover nearby (Spitz 1999). It has an omnivorous diet, consuming vegetable matter (e.g. beech mast, acorns, green plants, tubers), carrion, and live animal prey (earthworms, insect larvae, small vertebrates) (Herre 1986, Oliver 1993).
41775		habitat	eng	The Eurasian wild pig occupies a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats, from semi-desert to tropical rain forests, temperate woodlands, grasslands and reed jungles; often venturing onto agricultural land to forage. It is found in a variety of habitats. In Europe, it prefers broadleaved forests and especially evergreen oak forests, but may also be found in more open habitats such as steppe, Mediterranean shrubland, and farmland, so long as there is water and tree cover nearby (Spitz 1999). In Europe it is found from sea level to 2,400 in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), but it can be found at higher elevations in Asia.<br/><br/>The species is omnivorous, though stomach and fecal contents analyses indicate that vegetable matter, principally fruits, seeds, roots and tubers, constitutes about 90% of the diet (Spitz, 1986). A field study of the Indonesian wild pig, <em>S. s. vittatus, </em>in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java, indicated that these animals are predominately frugivorous, feeding on about 50 species of fruits, especially those of strangling figs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> spp.), and that they are important seed dispersal agents (Pauwels, 1980). By comparison, analyses of the stomach contents of wild pigs (also <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. vittatus</span>) in agricultural areas of West Malaysia by Diong (1973), revealed that sugar cane, tapioca and rice were the commonest food items, but that usually more than one type of food had been eaten, even where a single cultivated crop was abundant. Other items commonly consumed by these pigs included soil, earthworms, roots and other vegetable matter and, in mangrove areas, molluscs, crabs and other arthropods and even fishes. The consumption of invertebrate and small vertebrate prey may be a necessary component of the diet, since a study of free-ranging domestic pigs in Papua New Guinea revealed that animals fed ad libitum lost weight when denied earthworms (Rose and Williams, 1983). In common with its feral derivatives (Oliver and Brisbin, 1993), <span style="font-style: italic;">S. scrofa</span> has also occasionally been reported to predate larger vertebrates, such as deer fawns and (tethered) goats (Hoogerwerf, 1970), though it is possible that such incidents involve only a few individuals in the population; an aspect also noted by Pauwels (1980) when referring to the predation of sea turtle nests by wild pigs in Ujung Kulon. Similarly, a large boar (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. cristatus</span>) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal, which was seen to displace an adult leopard from its kill, a domestic buffalo calf, which it then partly consumed (W. Oliver, pers. obs.), was reported by Park staff to regularly commandeer such kills, but that no other individual pigs had been seen to do this.<br/><br/>Wild pigs are normally most active in the early morning and late afternoon, though they become nocturnal in disturbed areas, where activity usually commences shortly before sunset and continues throughout the night. A total of 4 to 8 hours are spent foraging or traveling to feeding areas. Feeding is generally a social activity (even solitary males may join feeding groups) which also provides an opportunity for display and other agonistic behaviours (Beuerle, 1975). Radio telemetry studies in southern France indicate that they generally travel between 2 and 15 km per night, though this is often within an area of only 20 to 150 ha. However, the home range estimates for adult females and adult males over a 2-3 month period varied from 500-1,000 ha and 1,000-2,000 ha, respectively. During this same period, subadults covered an area of 500- 5,000 ha, and after 6 to 12 months they may have covered more than 10,000 ha; the larger home ranges of these animals being related to their expulsion from their natal groups and then undergoing a wandering phase. Movements over long distances (50 to 250 km) have also been recorded in Europe, but the extent and purpose of these movements has yet to be studied (Spitz, 1986). Experiments in which tagged animals are released and subsequently recovered provide evidence that they disperse freely over even larger areas (500 to 750 km²), which may also indicate the area occupied by large population units. The density of free-ranging <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. scrofa</span> in Europe rarely exceeds 5 individuals/km² (Spitz, 1986), though much higher concentrations have been reported elsewhere, e.g. 27-32/km² on Peucang Island in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java (Pauwels, 1980) and 32.2-72.1/km² in sugarcane areas in the Punjab, Pakistan (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are gregarious, forming herds or 'sounders' of varying size depending on locality and season, but usually of between 6-20 individuals, though aggregations of over 100 have been reported (Prater, 1971; Legakul and McNeely, 1977; Briedermann, 1990)). The basic social unit is a nucleus of one or more females and their last litters. Animals peripheral to this comprise subadults from previous litters, and adult males during the mating season. However, the latter tend to stay in relatively close contact with 1 or 2 female groups at other times of the year, and subadult males or mixed sex groups of subadults may also form longer-term associations (Spitz and Janeau, 1990). The dynamics of the basic group include the isolation of the preparturient female, her re-entry with young, entry of nulliparous females, the arrival of adult males with the simultaneous departure of subadult animals (Spitz, 1986). In contrast to its domestic derivatives, reproductive activity in S. scrofa tends to be seasonal and positively correlated with the relative availability of principal foodstuffs or related climatic factors. In tropical countries, such as Sri Lanka, peak estrus activity has been recorded during the wettest months of November and December (Santiapillai and Chambers, 1980). However, social organization may also play a role in modulating the timing of reproductive events, since farrowing is often synchronized amongst females in the same social groups, which suggests a mechanism for synchronizing the onset of estrus (Spitz, 1986).<br/><br/>Wide fluctuations in the numbers of animals killed by hunters, particularly in the (former) U.S.S.R. and in France, suggest cyclic changes in the numbers of wild pigs available for hunting. Annual recruitment into the total population depends on reproductive rate (i.e. the number and prolificacy of females) and juvenile mortality, both of which factors may be influenced by the availability of foodstuffs and other external factors (Spitz, 1986). In western Europe, litter size is usually between 4 and 7 piglets (Briedermann, 199), though Harrison and Bates (1991) cite reports of 5 and 7-10 piglets per litter as being usual in Iraq and Armenia, respectively. Pauwels (1980) recorded an average litter size of 6-10 piglets at the beginning of the breeding season in Java, but this number dropped to only 2-4 piglets per litter towards the end of the breeding season. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, there is evidence that the wild pigs (S. s. riukiuanus) have two breeding seasons per year, though it remains uncertain whether individual sows normally produce litters twice a year (Yasuma, 1984). Juvenile mortality averages 15% in the first three months in western Europe, though between 50% and 75% mortality have been reported by the end of the first year of life (Jezierski, 1977; Briedermann, 1990). These mortality rates are thought to be highly dependant on such external factors as predation and climatic hazards, at least in wilderness areas (Spitz, 1986). Similarly, Pauwel (1982) suggested that the principal causes of juvenile mortality in wild pigs in Ujung Kulon were predation (particularly as a consequence of the accidental separation of infants from their mothers), along with differences in the relative rate of development of litter-mates and various parasite-related causes. These factors resulted in only about 15% of all progeny surviving to independence.
41775		habitat	eng	The Eurasian wild pig occupies a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats, from semi-desert to tropical rain forests, temperate woodlands, grasslands and reed jungles; often venturing onto agricultural land to forage. It is found in a variety of habitats. In Europe, it prefers broadleaved forests and especially evergreen oak forests, but may also be found in more open habitats such as steppe, mediterranean shrubland, and farmland, so long as there is water and tree cover nearby (Spitz 1999). In Europe it is found from sea level to 2,400 in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), but it can be found at higher elevations in Asia.<br/><br/>The species is omnivorous, though stomach and fecal contents analyses indicate that vegetable matter, principally fruits, seeds, roots and tubers, constitutes about 90% of the diet (Spitz, 1986). A field study of the Indonesian wild pig, <em>S. s. vittatus,/i>, in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java, indicated that these animals are predominately frugivorous, feeding on about 50 species of fruits, especially those of strangling figs (<em>Ficus</em> spp.), and that they are important seed dispersal agents (Pauwels, 1980). By comparison, analyses of the stomach contents of wild pigs (also <em>S. s. vittatus</em>) in agricultural areas of West Malaysia by Diong (1973), revealed that sugar cane, tapioca and rice were the commonest food items, but that usually more than one type of food had been eaten, even where a single cultivated crop was abundant. Other items commonly consumed by these pigs included soil, earthworms, roots and other vegetable matter and, in mangrove areas, molluscs, crabs and other arthropods and even fishes. The consumption of invertebrate and small vertebrate prey may be a necessary component of the diet, since a study of free-ranging domestic pigs in Papua New Guinea revealed that animals fed <em>ad libitum</em> lost weight when denied earthworms (Rose and Williams, 1983). In common with its feral derivatives (Oliver and Brisbin, 1993), <em>S. scrofa</em> has also occasionally been reported to predate larger vertebrates, such as deer fawns and (tethered) goats (Hoogerwerf, 1970), though it is possible that such incidents involve only a few individuals in the population; an aspect also noted by Pauwels (1980) when referring to the predation of sea turtle nests by wild pigs in Ujung Kulon. Similarly, a large boar (<em>S. s. cristatus</em>) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal, which was seen to displace an adult leopard from its kill, a domestic buffalo calf, which it then partly consumed (W. Oliver, pers. obs.), was reported by Park staff to regularly commandeer such kills, but that no other individual pigs had been seen to do this.<br/><br/>Wild pigs are normally most active in the early morning and late afternoon, though they become nocturnal in disturbed areas, where activity usually commences shortly before sunset and continues throughout the night. A total of 4 to 8 hours are spent foraging or traveling to feeding areas. Feeding is generally a social activity (even solitary males may join feeding groups) which also provides an opportunity for display and other agonistic behaviours (Beuerle, 1975). Radio telemetry studies in southern France indicate that they generally travel between 2 and 15 km per night, though this is often within an area of only 20 to 150 ha. However, the home range estimates for adult females and adult males over a 2-3 month period varied from 500-1,000 ha and 1,000-2,000 ha, respectively. During this same period, subadults covered an area of 500- 5,000 ha, and after 6 to 12 months they may have covered more than 10,000 ha; the larger home ranges of these animals being related to their expulsion from their natal groups and then undergoing a wandering phase. Movements over long distances (50 to 250 km) have also been recorded in Europe, but the extent and purpose of these movements has yet to be studied (Spitz, 1986). Experiments in which tagged animals are released and subsequently recovered provide evidence that they disperse freely over even larger areas (500 to 750 km²), which may also indicate the area occupied by large population units. The density of free-ranging <em>S. s. scrofa</em> in Europe rarely exceeds 5 individuals/km² (Spitz, 1986), though much higher concentrations have been reported elsewhere, e.g. 27-32/km² on Peucang Island in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java (Pauwels, 1980) and 32.2-72.1/km² in sugarcane areas in the Punjab, Pakistan (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are gregarious, forming herds or 'sounders' of varying size depending on locality and season, but usually of between 6-20 individuals, though aggregations of over 100 have been reported (Prater, 1971; Legakul and McNeely, 1977; Briedermann, 1990)). The basic social unit is a nucleus of one or more females and their last litters. Animals peripheral to this comprise subadults from previous litters, and adult males during the mating season. However, the latter tend to stay in relatively close contact with 1 or 2 female groups at other times of the year, and subadult males or mixed sex groups of subadults may also form longer-term associations (Spitz and Janeau, 1990). The dynamics of the basic group include the isolation of the preparturient female, her re-entry with young, entry of nulliparous females, the arrival of adult males with the simultaneous departure of subadult animals (Spitz, 1986). In contrast to its domestic derivatives, reproductive activity in <em>S. scrofa</em> tends to be seasonal and positively correlated with the relative availability of principal foodstuffs or related climatic factors. In tropical countries, such as Sri Lanka, peak estrus activity has been recorded during the wettest months of November and December (Santiapillai and Chambers, 1980). However, social organization may also play a role in modulating the timing of reproductive events, since farrowing is often synchronized amongst females in the same social groups, which suggests a mechanism for synchronizing the onset of estrus (Spitz, 1986).<br/><br/>Wide fluctuations in the numbers of animals killed by hunters, particularly in the (former) U.S.S.R. and in France, suggest cyclic changes in the numbers of wild pigs available for hunting. Annual recruitment into the total population depends on reproductive rate (i.e. the number and prolificacy of females) and juvenile mortality, both of which factors may be influenced by the availability of foodstuffs and other external factors (Spitz, 1986). In western Europe, litter size is usually between 4 and 7 piglets (Briedermann, 199), though Harrison and Bates (1991) cite reports of 5 and 7-10 piglets per litter as being usual in Iraq and Armenia, respectively. Pauwels (1980) recorded an average litter size of 6-10 piglets at the beginning of the breeding season in Java, but this number dropped to only 2-4 piglets per litter towards the end of the breeding season. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, there is evidence that the wild pigs (<em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>) have two breeding seasons per year, though it remains uncertain whether individual sows normally produce litters twice a year (Yasuma, 1984). Juvenile mortality averages 15% in the first three months in western Europe, though between 50% and 75% mortality have been reported by the end of the first year of life (Jezierski, 1977; Briedermann, 1990). These mortality rates are thought to be highly dependant on such external factors as predation and climatic hazards, at least in wilderness areas (Spitz, 1986). Similarly, Pauwel (1982) suggested that the principal causes of juvenile mortality in wild pigs in Ujung Kulon were predation (particularly as a consequence of the accidental separation of infants from their mothers), along with differences in the relative rate of development of litter-mates and various parasite-related causes. These factors resulted in only about 15% of all progeny surviving to independence.</em>
41775		population	eng	This species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations can be depressed in places where hunting intensity is high (for example in eastern and southeastern Asia). Eurasian wild pig populations in Europe increased markedly during the latter part of the 20th century (Spitz 1999), but are now thought to be stable in most areas. Populations in England, southern Sweden and Finland may still be increasing (Battersby 2005). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. For example, in 1982 in Mongolia, there was a population density of 0.9 per 1,000 ha in the Khovsgol area. By 1989, it was estimated that 34,000 individuals were living in the Khentii and Khangai Mountain regions of Mongolia, with an average density of 1 - 2 per 1,000 ha.
41775		population	eng	Wild boar populations in Europe increased markedly during the latter part of the 20th century (Spitz 1999), but are now thought to be stable in most areas (EMA Workshop 2006). Populations in England, southern Sweden and Finland may still be increasing (Battersby 2005, EMA Workshop 2006).
41775		threats	eng	At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport or in reprisal for crop damage, particularly in areas near human habitation. In Afghanistan, Hassinger (1973) cited reports of the decrease in the numbers of wild pigs in the Pul-i-Khumri District in the 1950s as a result of the draining of marshlands for agricultural purposes, and hunting by Europeans; but noted that they were still numerous in other districts where: "they invade the fields and cause serious damage during the harvest". In parts of Perak and Johore in West Malaysia, Diong (1973) reported that the numbers of wild pigs (<em>S. s. vittatus</em>) had diminished drastically as a result of increased hunting pressure, particularly for commercial purposes, and that most hunting methods, whether with guns, dogs or snares, was entirely non-selective. Nonetheless, wild pigs are still included in Malaysia's 'Agricultural Pest Ordinance, 1977', on account of their damage to a variety of crops, including sugar cane, tapioca, rice and even coconuts. Lay (1967) also remarked upon the damage to crops by wild pigs in Iran which: "...brings great wrath upon them, usually ineffectual, from the local farmers". In Pakistan, the expansion of the sugar cane industry in the 1960s and early 1970s brought about local increases in the numbers of wild pigs (<em>S. s. davidi</em>), whose depredations in the cane fields (estimated at an annual loss rate of Rs.5 million in 1978) led to the development of control measures, including the use of poison baits (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Although actually referring to wild pigs in India, it is clear that Prater's (1971) opinion that: "No animal is more destructive to crops and, in cultivated areas, it is impossible to make a plea for its protection", would find popular support in many other countries. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, the endemic <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> is actively regarded as an environmental pest, and bounties are paid to farmers for killing them by the Japanese Government, despite the fact that this taxon is recognized internationally as being seriously threatened throughout it extremely restricted range (see later text). In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, deliberate attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way, it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals which, according to Hoogerwerf (1970), have: "remained further removed from extinction than any other species of game in Java". This situation evidently obtains in a number of other countries, including Viet Nam (R. Ratajszsak pers. comm.) and Taiwan (K. Nowell pers. comm.), where wild pigs are reported to survive in a number of nominally protected areas where all or most of the other principal 'game' species have been eradicated by sustained hunting pressure. <br/><br/>In these and many other (non-Islamic) countries or local communities, wild pigs often constitute the single most important game animal to subsistence and/or recreational hunters. Sport hunting accounts for about 30 to 50% of animals heavier than 20 kg in southern France, though this figure may be as high as 50 to 75% in some heavily populated countries, where hunting remains largely or wholly uncontrolled (Spitz, 1986). For example, the wild pig population inhabiting the 25,000 ha of broadleaved woodlands around Monticiano in Italy, has apparently been able to sustain its numbers despite an annual hunter-kill rate of about 50% (c. 500 animals) of the population (Devitt, 1984). <br/><br/>According to figures produced by the Japanese Environment Agency a total of 1,279,453 (an average of 63,973 per annum) wild pigs were harvested in Japan between 1970 and 1989 (incl.), of which 1,083,858 (85%) were taken by hunters, and the remaining 195,596 were destroyed as crop pests during the closed season. The great majority of these animals are <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> from the main islands of Honshu, Shikoko and Kyushu, and this subspecies is evidently able to withstand high levels of harvesting to judge from contemporary reports of marginal expansions in the overall range of this subspecies (Hanai, 1982; Takahashi, 1980). Unfortunately, however, these totals do not differentiate between the numbers of <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> and those of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> from the three small islands of Amami Oshima, Tokuno Shima and Kakeroma Jima, which are also included in these figures. As previously indicated, the latter subspecies is declining rapidly in numbers on these islands, and on the neighbouring island of Okinawa, largely as a result of over-hunting (Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984; H. Obara pers. comm.). This conclusion is also borne out by official figures on the annual harvest of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> from two other islands, Iriomote and Ishigaki, in the Ryukyu chain between 1965 and 1981, which indicate a downward trend in the numbers of these animals (Yasuma, 1984) and a marked increase in the amount of effort required by local hunters to obtain smaller catches (Hanai, 1982). Nonetheless, according to these figures an average of 530 and 190 wild pigs were still being taken annually on Iriomote and Ishigaki, respectively; of which slightly more than 50% were killed as 'agricultural pests', i.e. mostly out of season, often with a Government bounty being paid. Moreover, it is certain that these totals are a serious underestimate - perhaps by as much as 50-100% - of the actual numbers killed, since many hunters operate without licenses and do not declare their catches (Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984; Yasuma, 1984). Formerly, virtually all of these pigs were consumed locally but, following the restoration of electricity (and, hence, refrigeration) in 1972, commercial traders began operating on the islands, and the majority of carcasses are now exported to gourmet markets in Osaka, where they realize relatively high prices and ensure a continued demand for wild-caught meat (Yasuma, 1984). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases which can decimate their populations. Santiapillai <em>et al</em>. (1991) referred to a catastrophic crash in the wild pig population of Ruhuna National Park in Sri Lanka in 1989 owing to an outbreak of swine fever, but that population numbers had apparently recovered by June 1991. Many wild pigs are also reported to have died during an outbreak of disease in the Kanto Region on Honshu Island, Japan in 1877 (Yanagida, 1913). It is possible that this was hog cholera, contracted from domestic pigs which were imported to the region at that time (Chiba, 1975), and this may have been one of the factors contributing to the extirpation of <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> throughout the north of their range on this island. An outbreak of severe skin disease (tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange) on Iriomote, which was first noted in 1976, had spread throughout the Island by 1980, and infected up to 83% of the <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> population according to data based on hunter-killed samples (Yasuma, 1984).<br/><br/>The Ryukyu pigs are also threatened by genetic contamination through contact with free-ranging domesticates. On Ishigaki Island, interbreeding with domestic pigs has been so prevalent that it is doubtful if the remaining wild stock can be considered genetically pure (Obara, 1982). Moreover, it is unlikely that this problem will be confined to Ishigaki, given that the meat from wild x domestic hybrids or 'ino-buta' is popular and local farmers will continue to produce it. Indeed, ino-buta have been farmed commercially on Iriomote for many years, often in poorly controlled conditions. As a result, feral ino-buta have become established on the adjacent, smaller islands of Sotobanare and Uchibanare, and it is claimed that a number of these animals have crossed onto Iriomote at low tide; thereby posing a further, serious threat to the remaining wild stock there (Yasuma, 1984; Takahashi and Tisdell, 1992). <br/><br/>Similarly, Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported that the traditional practice of rearing 'domestic' pigs in semi-wild conditions in Bulgaria has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild boar populations in the eastern and north-eastern parts of that country, and that genetically pure wild boars now occur only in the Rila-Pirin-Rhodopes Mountains in the south of this country, where domestic pigs are not reared in the wild. The principal threat to the survival of the Monticiano population in Italy, lies not so much with the high annual hunter-kill rate but with the fact that the genetic integrity of the native population has been seriously compromised by the introduction of Central European boars after World War II, which have interbred with these animals. Indeed, the introduction of non-native wild pigs, by hunting interest groups in the belief that these were more desirable because of their larger size and reputed greater fecundity, has been so widespread in Italy that the only surviving pure-bred native stock is thought to be in the presidential reserve in Castel Porziano, near Rome (Devitt, 1984).
41775		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. It is considered a pest in parts of its range (Oliver 1993, Battersby 2005). Tuberculosis may be an issue in some areas, especially in managed populations. The disease does not kill the animals, but it is becoming increasingly prevalent (EMA Workshop 2006). Occasionally there are outbreaks of swine fever and African swine fever which cause local mortality, but populations recover rapidly (Oliver 1993). Habitat destruction, hunting (for food and sport), and persecution (often in reprisal for crop damage) may cause local declines in parts of the range (Oliver 1993).
41777		conservation	eng	Collared Peccaries occur in a large number of national parks and other reserves throughout their extensive range in the Americas. In many of these areas populations are relatively secure, although poaching and inefficient protection are common and may nullify the nominal protection afforded by the designation of protected sites (Bodmer and Sowls 1993). Conservation measures specific to Collared Peccaries include national wildlife protection legislatures, which vary from country to country, and the inclusion in 1986 of this and other peccary species on the Appendices of CITES. The Collared Peccary was originally placed on Appendix III of CITES and in 1986 it was elevated to Appendix II (except the populations of Mexico and the United States of America, which are not included in the Appendices). Specific management regulations appertaining to hunting and movement of peccary products exist for all countries within the geographical range of <em>P. tajacu</em>. In the USA, for example, the species is managed as a game animal outside national parks and reserves, and may be hunted with permits under a quota system operated by state authorities. In Brazil there is a total ban on all hunting of peccaries by non-indigenous people, though this is largely unenforced in many states. Subsistence hunting is permitted in Colombia and Venezuela, but these countries prohibit the movement of peccary products, whilst in other countries, such as Peru, subsistence hunters are allowed to trade peccary products under management laws. However, in these and many Central and South American countries, rural people are often unaware of wildlife management regulations or these are flouted, sometimes quite openly, owing to the common lack of resources and trained personnel for the enforcement of protective legislation.
41777		distribution	eng	The Collared Peccary is widely distributed. It occurs in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the USA, a large part of Mexico and Central America, the entire Amazon basin, the Pacific coastal forest of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, the llanos and lowland forest of Venezuela, the Guianas and Suriname, all of Brazil where it is increasingly fragmented in the south and east, and the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, Bolivia and northern Argentina where it also occurs in the upper Parana and Paraguay river basins. In Argentina, the species is extinct in the eastern and southern portions of its original distribution. The Argentine population/s of Collared Peccaries in Misiones is isolated from the rest of the country. Some of the larger islands near the mainland in the Caribbean, such as Trinidad and Tobago, also have populations of <em>P. tajacu</em>. However, islands further from the mainland do not currently have peccaries. Their range has recently expanded northward in the southwestern United States (Albert <em>et al</em>. 2004) including into Oklahoma adjacent to Texas (Stangl and Dalquest 1990).
41777		habitat	eng	<em>P. tajacu</em> is a highly adaptable species inhabiting a wide variety of habitats from tropical forests to deserts. At the northern fringe of its range, Collared Peccary maintain viable populations in areas where winter night-time temperatures fall below 0° C and light snow cover is occasionally present. The species' tolerance of low seasonal temperatures is exceptional for an animal also living in the tropics (Bodmer and Sowls 1993). The upper limit of its range along the Andean foothills is between 1,000-1,500 m (Grimwood 1969), though they have been found up to 2,000 m asl in Ecudaor (G. Zapata-Rios pers. comm.) and up to 3,000 m asl in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve in central-eastern Guatemala (J. Moreira pers. comm.). <br/>Like all peccaries, <em>P. tajacu</em> is a highly social animal, living in herds, which vary from fewer than six to over 30 individuals. Home ranges of groups average approximately 150 ha, but can range from 24 to 800 ha (Sowls 1984). Variation of home range size among different herds in various regions is not unusual. In the Neotropics mean home range estimates of radio-tracked Collared Peccary herds were 102 - 287 ha in the semideciduous Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil (Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004); 64 – 109 ha in Northwestern Costa Rica (McCoy <em>et al</em> 1990); 460 – 543 ha on the Maraca Island of Brazil (Fragoso 1994); 685 ha in the Chaco of Paraguay (Taber <em>et al</em> 1994); and 157 - 243 ha in the French Guyana (Judas and Henry 1999). <br/>The species' diet varies in accordance with this range of habitats (Beck 2005, 2006). Foods of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tajacu</span> can include roots, tubers, fruits, seeds, and edible parts of green growing plants, insects, and small animals (Beck 2005, 2005; Desbiez 2007; Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). Throughout their neotropical range <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tajacu </span>consume fruits from over 128 plant species, and destroy seeds form 79 species (Beck 2006). In tropical forests, diets are dominated by palm fruits (over 25 species, Beck 2005), supplemented with small vertebrates and invertebrates (Bodmer 1989, Beck 2005), whereas in deserts environments their diet is dominated by the cladophylls of prickly pear cactus (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp.) (Corn and Warren 1985, Beck 2005). In a heterogeneous environment, the distribution and abundance of resources would be expected to vary among the small, spatially-stable home ranges of Collared Peccary herds. Because each herd uses a unique subset of the available habitat types (McCoy <em>et al</em> 1990, Judas and Henry, 1999, Fragoso,1999; Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004, Neri 2004). The level of frugivory will vary according to local vegetation types or frugivore guild composition (Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). Frugivory in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil for Collared Peccaries was 78% for both the dry and wet seasons. In the Peruvian Amazon 59 - 66% was composed of fruits (Kiltie 1981, Bodmer 1989); and in the Brazilian Pantanal, frugivory dramatically differed between dry and wet seasons, 17% to 49% respectively (Desbiez 2007). <br/>Habitat and riparian zone use were herd specific for Collared Peccaries in the Atlantic Forest fragment of Brazil, and related to habitat quality and composition where stable home ranges had been established (Neri 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton in press). Herds are kept together by vocalizations and a strong musk released from the dorsal gland. They deposit scent on tree trunks, rocks and other individuals (Byers 1980). The Collared Peccary has a diurnal/crepuscular activity pattern, typically feeding in early hours of the night but varying seasonally. They commonly rest in small groups of three to four individuals and often seek shelter in burrows, caves and under logs. Collared Peccaries frequently wallow in mud or dust and rarely spend time auto-grooming (Sowls 1984). Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004 observed that subgrouping of herds occurred on a different spatial and temporal scale than the subherding of White-lipped Peccaries. Usually, a herd would be united early in the morning and again in late afternoon, but would split into groups of 1 to 3 individuals during the day. These subgroups appeared to forage separately and were from 30 to 250 m apart. Sightings of lone Collared Peccaries or groups of 2 to 3 individuals have frequently been reported from sites in both the Neotropics and the southwestern United States (Kiltie and Terborgh, 1983; Robinson and Eisenberg, 1985; Sowls, 1997; Castellanos, 1983; Oldenburg <em>et al</em>. 1985; Bissonette, 1976; Green <em>et al</em>. 1984). Collared Peccaries appeared to travel more in the early morning and late afternoon, when the full herd was together. During midday, subherds would usually remain in a relatively restricted area foraging. They also spent a good part of late morning and early afternoon resting in cavities excavated at the bases of large trees, next to fallen trunks, or in other cool locations (Taber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>Births have been recorded year-round, though in the southern USA there is a birth peak during the summer rainy season. In the Amazon, the Collared Peccary female is considered to be aseasonally polyoestrous (Mayor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), with an oestrous cycle length of 27.8 ± 1.5 days (Mauget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), a mean gestation period of 138 days (Mayor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), a pregnancy rate of 42.5% (Mayor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and a litter size of 1.7 – 1.9 foetuses or newborns (Gottdenker and Bodmer 1998, Mayor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Reproductive production of the species in the wild was estimated at 1.12 births/year and 1.98 piglets per pregnant female (Mayor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). Collared Peccary females presented a mean ovulation rate of 2.25 ± 0.58 CLs, a litter size of 1.77 ± 0.48 embryos or foetuses and a reproductive wastage of 0.45 ± 0.65 (21.3%) oocytes or embryos per pregnant female female (Mayor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Among 163 piglets, 78 were females and 85 were males. The young are highly precocial at birth, following their mothers within an hour of parturition and stopping to suckle at frequent intervals. In one case infants were observed to spend up to 24% of their time suckling (Sowls 1966). Weaning occurs at approximately 6 weeks (Sowls 1984).
41777		population	eng	<p>Densities of Collared Peccary differ among habitats. In the south-eastern USA, older reports of densities ranged from 10.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in the Tucson mountains (Schweinsburg 1969), 7.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> at the King Ranch, Texas and 3.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> at the Welder Wildlife Refuge, Texas, to only 1.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in a Texas desert. In Venezuela, Collared Peccary density in the llanos was found to be 8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, whereas, in gallery forests was 2 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>(Eisenberg 1980). In the Pantanal of Brazil densities range from 6.6 (forested) to 5.5 (cerrado) &#160;individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Desbiez 2007). Densities in tropical forest range from 9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> on Barro Colorado Island, Panama (Glanz 1982), to 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Manu National Park, Peru (Terborgh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1986). In the Peruvian Amazon, densities range from 3,7 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>in non-flooded terra firme forest to 1.0 in flooded forest (Fang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In a forest fragment of Atlantic Forest of Brazil, the density found was 5.9 and 6.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Cullen 1997, Keuroghlian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In a recent study conducted in the Argentine Chaco, Altrichter and Boaglio (2004) found the Collared Peccary to be more common, widely distributed and present under a wider range of conditions than the other two species of peccaries. Previous studies have shown that Collared Peccaries are less vulnerable than White-lipped Peccaries to habitat fragmentation and hunting pressure, and can maintain healthy populations even in highly degraded areas (Peres 1996, Cullen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). The Collared Peccary's smaller herd size and range requirements facilitate its survival in small, disturbed forest remnants (i.e. Atlantic Forest of Brazil), and they have frequently been observed using matrix habitat adjacent to larger forest fragments, e.g. satellite forests and secondary growth (Keuroghlian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</p>
41777		threats	eng	The two major threats to the survival of Collared Peccary are over-hunting for their meat and hides and excessive destruction of its natural habitats. These factors have already resulted in the extensive fragmentation of peccary populations and its extirpation over large parts of its former range (Bodmer and Sowls 1993). The Collared Peccary (<em>Pecari tajacu</em>) and White-lipped Peccary (<em>Tayassu pecari</em>) are important resources for subsistence hunters of the Peruvian Amazon (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004a). In Peru, subsistence hunting of peccaries is legally defined as the use of peccary meat for household consumption or the sale of peccary meat in settlements of fewer than 3,000 inhabitants. Rural inhabitants hunt peccaries mainly for their meat, which have an economic value of approximately $23 for a Collared Peccary and $30 for a white-lipped peccary either as subsistence food or through local sale (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004b). Peccary pelts are sold as a by-product and have an economic value to hunters of approximately $5 for a Collared Peccary pelt and $3 for a White-lipped Peccary pelt (Bodmer and Pezo 2001, Fang 2003). Approximately 51,419 Collared Peccary pelts and 20,522 White-lipped Peccary pelts are legally exported with CITES permits every year from Peru under a quota system imposed by the Peruvian government (INRENA 2004). The pelts are tanned in Peru and primarily sold to the European leather industry for the manufacture of high quality gloves and shoes. However, it is unclear if this trade increases the hunting pressure to meet the quotas. Furthermore, how many individuals have to be killed to obtain pelts that meet the quality standards of international trade (assuming that a given number of pelt are rejected because of scars, parasite marks i.e. bot flies, and bullet holes). In addition, considering that peccary glove can sell for as much as $285, a $5 reward for a Collared Peccary pelt does not qualify as a fare trade. On the other hand, increasing the dollar value would certainly further increase the hunting pressure.
41778		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its extensive range, though it is uncertain whether the existing network of reserves is adequate to ensure the survival of representative populations of sufficient size to maintain viable populations in all major habitat types in its distribution (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep). It is also doubtful if most reserves are large enough to allow the formation of large herds of this species, or that there is sufficient connectivity between reserves to permit recovery when epizootic events or population crashes for other reasons occur. This is of particular concern in Central America (March 1993).<br/><br/>Peccary pelts were exported from many central and South American countries during the first half of the 20th century prior to the implementation of CITES in 1973. During the 1960's and 70's many countries began to prohibit the export of peccary pelts and in 1986 Collared and White-lipped peccaries were placed on Appendix II of CITES. Peru is currently the only range state that permits legal export of peccary pelts, and hides can only be exported if they originate from subsistence hunters living in the Amazonian region. Other countries, including Bolivia and Argentina, are exploring prospects for developing a managed commercial harvest of peccary hides for export. Such an expanded ?legal? harvest will need to be carefully monitored since it risks inadvertently promoting illegal commercial use of the species through expanding the market and hence demands for skins and other peccary products.<br/><br/>White-lipped peccaries are widely maintained in captivity in their countries of origin, but very rarely elsewhere, mainly because of the stringent veterinary restrictions placed on the movement of live animals into countries with significant domestic pork industry. <br/><br/>Research on the management, conservation, ecology, and biology has expanded in recent years (e.g., see bibliography below). A range wide status assessment on this species has been completed, based on a workshop held in 2005, where historical and current status and distribution data were compared and main threats and population status was determined (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.). However, research, management and monitoring capacity is lacking in many of the range countries. Capacity building of conservation biologists, local and national government technicians, and community para-technicians is a high priority for the species. There is also a need for a review of national and local government policy and regulations for this species across its range.
41778		distribution	eng	White-lipped peccaries are confined to the Neotropical Region, from south-eastern Mexico in the north, through Central America and northern and central South America, as far south as Entre Rios in northern Argentina and Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil (Sowls 1997). <em>Tayassu pecari</em> was introduced to Cuba in 1930 (Mayer and Wetzel 1987), but is no longer found in the wild there. It is presumed to be extirpated from El Salvador and its range has been reduced significantly in Mexico and Central America in the last 20 years (Leopold 1959, Reyna-Hurtado 2007, Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
41778		habitat	eng	Some 60% of this species? distribution is in humid tropical forests. However, they are found in a wide diversity of habitats including wet and dry grasslands and woodlands, xerophitic areas like the Gran Chaco, tropical dry forests, and coastal mangroves (Wetzel and Lovett 1974, Mayer and Brandt 1982, Vaughan 1983, Sowls 1984, Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Taber <em>et al</em>. 2008). They range altitudinally from sea level to over 1,900 m on the eastern slopes of the Andes. White-lipped peccaries tend to frequent areas close to water and may even visit coastal beaches to forage. While being omnivores, they tend to be strongly frugivorous (Husson 1978, Kiltie 1981, Beck 2005, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). Their diet is comprised mostly of fruits, seeds and roots, but they also take invertebrates, small vertebrates, fungi and carrion. Beck (2006) determined that White-lipped peccaries fed on 144 plant species belonging to 36 families. This species plays an important role in the ecology of Neotropical forests as a major predator and disperser of seeds (Altrichter <em>et al</em> 1999, Beck 2005, Desbiez 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). <br/><br/>A number of radio-telemetry based range size estimates are now available from a diversity of habitats across this species? distribution. In Costa Rica, herds in tropical moist forest were found to have a mean home range size of 2,145 ha (Sáenz and Carrillo, 1999), while another study reported annual ranges of 3,200?3,780 ha (100 % MCP) (Carrillo <em>et al</em>., 2002). Fragoso (2004) estimated home ranges of from 2,180 ha to 20,000 ha (100%MCP) for groups monitored over several years in moist forest in Maraca Island in Roraima state Brazil. Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated average home ranges of 1879 ha (95 % MCP) in fragmented semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil. Reyna-Hurtado (2007) found annual herd home ranges from 4,360 ha to 12,100 ha (100 %) in tropical semi-dry forest in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Southern Mexico. All home range estimates are based on 100 % or 95% minimum convex polygons. In some studies ranges of adjoining groups overlapped minimally, while in other cases there were large range overlaps. Older studies, not based on radio-tracking, which suggested that their movements were migratory or even nomadic (Bodmer 1990; Mendez 1970; Kiltie and Terborgh 1983; Barreto and Hernández 1988) are not backed by the recent work described above except for in areas undergoing rapid habitat fragmentation and destruction (e.g., Altrichter 2005). The consensus is that White-lipped peccaries are clearly wide-ranging and require large areas for survival (Altrichter and Almeida 2002, Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. 2004, Reyna-Hurtado 2007). Their movements respond in part to changes in the availability of fruit patches and water sources (Kiltie and Terborgh 1983; Mendez 1970; Sowls 1984, Bodmer 1990; Altrichter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Beck 2005, Reyna-Hurtado 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008, Keuroghlian and Eaton, in press). <br/><br/>White-lipped peccary herds often exceed 100 individuals, though groups of as few as 5 to more than 200 individuals have also been observed (Kiltie and Terborgh 1983; Donkin 1985; Mayer and Brandt 1987; Fragoso 2004; Reyna-Hurtado 2007). In certain seasons in some areas, large herds divide into smaller groups according to the distribution and abundance of food, although the more frequent reporting of smaller groups in some areas is probably correlated with increased hunting pressure. Group sizes in hunted areas adjacent to the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico were smaller (Median=16, SE=1.84, n=15) than these living inside the reserve where no hunting is allowed (Median=25, SE=1.84 n=9, Reyna-Hurtado 2007). Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. 2004 observed that a population of 150 White-lipped peccaries in fragmented area of Atlantic Forest periodically divided into 3?4 sub-herds with an average of 42 individuals each. They also observed a high frequency of switching of individuals among sub-herds and documented periodic sub-herd fusion. Switching of individuals has also been observed in a current long term radio telemetry study in the Pantanal of Brazil (A. Keuroghlian pers. comm.). However, Reyna-Hurtado (2007) observed high fidelity of individuals to their respective groups during an 18 months study in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Southern Mexico.
41778		population	eng	White-lipped peccary densities vary across their distribution in different habitats. Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. (2004) and Cullen (1997), both working in southern Brazil, found density estimates between 3.9 and 10.2 individuals/km² in tropical forest fragments. Fragoso (1998a, 1998b, 1999), studying a WLP population in the northern Brazilian Amazon, in Roraima State, reported densities declining from 139-542 individuals/km² in 1988 to 1.4-8.3 individuals/km² in 1992 after a population crash probably due to an epizootic (Fragoso 2004). Desbiez (2007) in the Brazilian Pantanal found peccary density estimates in forested and open cerrado habitats of 13.7 and 3.0 individuals/km², respectively. Lower densities have been found in dry forests. Altrichter (2005) found White-lipped peccary densities in the Argentine Gran Chaco dry forest to be 0.33 individuals/km² in hunted sites and 1.04 individuals/km² in non-hunted sites; while Reyna-Hurtado (2007) found similar densities of 0.43 individuals/km² in the semi-dry forest of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. White-lipped peccary densities decline rapidly under hunting pressure, and can be completely absent from heavily hunted areas (Peres 1996, Peres and Lake 2003).
41778		threats	eng	Widespread and increasing deforestation and intense hunting pressure are the main causes for the increasing diminution and extinction of many populations of this species. Owing to their habit of forming large herds, White-lipped peccaries require extensive and contiguous areas of habitat to obtain sufficient resources throughout the year. Hunting pressure by landless squatters and poachers has also contributed to local extinctions of the most conspicuous White-lipped peccary herds in many Neotropical forest fragments (Cullen, Bodmer and Valladares-Padua, 2001). The loss and fragmentation of their habitat also exposes them to increased hunting pressure by facilitating their location by human hunters, who can kill many individuals in a large herd during a single encounter (Peres 1996; Reyna-Hurtado 2007). In most range countries, the progressive destruction of habitat for agriculture and cattle ranching, as well as timber extraction, has already accounted for much of the species' former habitat (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.). As of 2005, large populations of White-lipped peccaries persisted only in 21 % of its historic range (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.). One example is the seasonal Planalto region of the Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil that historically covered the inland plateau west of the coastal mountains (Cullen, Bodmer, and Valladares-Padua, 2000; Ditt 2002). Today, only 2% (approximately 2,800 km²) of the Planalto forest remains in small forest fragments (mostly <10 km²) in an agriculturally dominated landscape (Ditt, 2002). <br/><br/>The Collared peccary (<em>Pecari tajacu</em>) and White-lipped peccary (<em>Tayassu pecari</em>) are important resources for subsistence hunters in the Peruvian Amazon, as elsewhere in the Amazon basin (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004a). In Peru, subsistence hunting of peccaries is permitted and is legally defined as the use of peccary meat for household consumption or the sale of peccary meat in settlements of fewer than 3,000 inhabitants. Rural inhabitants hunt peccaries mainly for their meat, which has an economic value of approximately $23 for a Collared peccary and $30 for a White-lipped peccary either for subsistence food or sale (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004b). Peccary pelts are sold as a by-product and have an economic value to hunters of approximately $5 for a Collared peccary pelt and $3 for a White-lipped peccary pelt (Bodmer and Pezo 2001, Fang 2003). The only country with CITES permit to export White-lipped peccary pelts for the hide trade is Peru where from 1997 to 2008 a quota of between 35,500 and 44,300 skins and leather products has been granted annually (CITES, Database-2008; www.cites.org). The pelts are tanned in Peru and sold to the European leather industry for the manufacture of high quality shoes and gloves, with the latter retailing for as much as $200 a pair. However, this activity should be careful controlled because of potential risks to White-lipped peccaries given that population monitoring methods are problematic. Also, since some pelts are rejected because of scars, parasite marks (e.g., bot flies), or bullet holes, this raises the question as to how many individuals are killed in total to obtain pelts that meet the required quality standards for international trading? Other South American countries such as Argentina and Bolivia are exploring plans for the international commercialization of peccary pelts under CITES. Detailed surveys of the subsistence and commercial use of this species on national scales have not been undertaken in other South American range countries except Argentina (Altrichter, 2005).<br/><br/>At the southern and northern extremes of this species? distribution its status is of particular concern. In the Argentine Chaco, Altrichter (2005) found that hunting of White-lipped peccary was not sustainable because density of this species was three times lower in areas closer to villages than in protected areas, hunters did not discriminate between age and sex, and more than 40 % of the population?s production is being harvested. Here the population size was estimated to be at 60 % of the carrying capacity (Altrichter 2005). Threats to the species in Mesoamerica (tropical Mexico and Central America) include hunting and habitat reduction as well as un-managed legal sport hunting in a couple of Mexican States (Campeche and Quintana Roo; Reyna-Hurtado 2007). Overall in Mesoamerica this species? situation is alarming due to rapid population decline over the last 20 years. In Mexico this species has been extirpated from Veracruz, Tabasco, Yucatan and survive only in a few populations on the largest reserves and a few large communal forests where the species is under strong hunting pressure (Reyna-Hurtado 2007). A similar pattern has occurred for almost all the Central America countries where the species is now confined to the few large tropical forest reserves (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep). Even in the Amazon, hunting can either deplete or completely remove this species from suitable, undisturbed habitat within the hunting range of even small human communities (Peres 1996). Peres and Lake (2003) estimate that only 57.2% of the Brazilian Amazon is both forested and more than 9 km from access points. It can therefore be assumed that hunting must have a significant impact on the numbers, though it is not be easy to determine what this is numerically.<br/><br/>Another issue of concern for the species is strong evidence of periodic population crashes in white-lipped peccaries which seem density dependent and are most likely due to an epizootic event (Fragoso 2004). This is a particular cause of concern due to this species increasingly fragmented distribution. One risk is that isolated populations that crash may have difficulties recovering since they would be cut off from dispersal from potential source population areas.<br/><br/>Across the range of the species as a whole, an estimate of habitat loss of roughly 1% per year seems reasonable. This is the approximate rate of forest loss in the Brazilian Amazon. It will be lower in some places (i.e., Guyanas, western Amazon) and higher in others (e.g., Pantanal, Chaco, Cerrado), so 1% per year is in the middle of the range. It is assumed that remaining populations in Mesoamerica and the Atlantic forest are now too small to have much impact on the global listing. To estimate the global rate of decline needed for its Red List assessment, the effects of hunting need to be factored in on top of the decline due to habitat loss. Using the Peres and Lake's (2003) estimate that only 57.2% of the Brazilian Amazon is both forested and more than 9 km from access points, it is assumed that hunting must have a significant impact on the numbers, though it is not easy to determine what this is numerically. In this assessment, an assumption is made, to be tested with future data over the coming years, that the aggregate rate of decline over three generations (18 years) is >18% (due to habitat loss alone) and <30% (which would put the species in Vulnerable and require some stronger evidence than is currently available).
41779		conservation	eng	Many protected areas exist within the species’s range, some of which are very well secured. In the wider landscape, it is important to understand the effects of current habitat degradation trends and hunting levels upon the species.
41779		distribution	eng	<em>Moschiola meminna</em>, as used here, is endemic to the dry zone of Sri Lanka: localities listed in Groves and Meijaard (2005: 421) suggest that it may well occur throughout this zone. This covers most of the island, except for the southwestern quarter and the central mountain range (Pocock 1939). Previous to the taxonomic revision of Groves and Meijaard (2005), no effort was made to distinguish Sri Lankan chevrotains into different forms, and so past records other than the specimens Groves and Meijaard (2005) analysed cannot be retrospectively, objectively, assigned to this species in its current taxonomic sense. No published records additional to Groves and Meijaard (2005) and following their suggested taxonomy were traced. Objective identification (i.e. not solely on the basis of habitat and location) of further animals at various localities within the island is required to test the hypothesis of Groves and Meijaard (2005) of a strict segregation of habitat between this species and <em>M. kathygre</em>; these authors stressed their “admittedly small sample sizes”. Currently it would therefore be rash for species-level identification to be assigned to individuals under the Groves and Meijaard (2005) taxonomic hypothesis solely on the basis of habitat.
41779		habitat	eng	Other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations, little information has been traced specific to the species as here defined. Information for the genus is reviewed under <em>M. indica</em>. It is seldom far from water (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, and also in coconut plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008).
41779		population	eng	This species appears to be widespread, based on localities of confirmed specimens in Groves and Meijaard (2005). White-spotted Chevrotain is “fairly common in forests throughout the dry zone both inside and outside protected areas” (P. Fernando pers. comm. 2008). It is commonly found not only in all forest types within the dry zone but also in coconut plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). K.A.I. Nekaris (pers. comm. 2008) saw many chevrotains in the dry zone during spot-light surveys in 2001. Sri Lanka chevrotain densities of around 0.58 animals/km² reported by Dubost (2001) are likely to concern the dry zone species, but the original source has not been traced and so, without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate, their reliability is unknown.
41779		threats	eng	In past centuries, there has been a major loss of habitat available to this chevrotain and thus in its population, reflecting a rise in the human population of Sri Lanka from one million in the 19th century to twenty million now (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). A number of well secured protected areas within the dry zone support chevrotains. The effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens, coconut plantations, etc. (see Habitat and ecology). Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, with firearms, for their meat (Santiapillai and Wijeyamotan 2003), but it seems unlikely that this is at sufficient levels to restrain population levels within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the dry zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting (P. Fernando pers. comm. 2008). Hunting techniques which could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest (set usually for pigs) as well as live electric wires, taken off the post, dragged through the forest and set in rice paddies (K.A.I. Nekaris pers. comm. 2008).
41780		conservation	eng	Chevrotains on Java occur in some protected areas, e.g. Ujung Kulon (Hoogerwerf 1970; van Schaik and Griffiths 1996) and were earlier said to “occur in all game sanctuaries in Java and in most of the nature reserves established on that island...." (Hoogerwerf 1970). The species has been officially protected since 1931, yet it is still hunted.<br/><br/>The taxonomic revision of Meijaard and Groves (2004) means that <em>T. javanicus</em> is endemic to Java, and, if it occurs, Bali. There are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and thus this newly-revealed endemic species should be swiftly removed from the anonymity in which it has lain for decades. An urgent first step is a collation of existing information, because it is possible that many more records exist than were traced during the preparation of this assessment. This should include trawling likely observers and examination of collections not covered by Meijaard and Groves (2004). If insufficient number of specimens are found to clarify the number of taxa on Java, more should be obtained. Some may come from markets but, because of the pre-eminence of locality in determining systematics among very similar taxa (e.g. Groves in press: discussion under Wapiti group), specimens of known locality origin must form the basis of analysis. Whatever the number of species on Java, the difference in sighting rate between Hoogerwerf (1970) and observers from the 1990s onwards is suggestive of a major decline, although other explanations are possible (see Population and Threats). Current status needs to be clarified through specific surveys for the genus (camera-trapping, but undertaken in a way more suitable for smaller species than is usual, spotlighting, and hunting surveys may all play a role). Surveys must take care to investigate secondary and edge areas which are often eschewed by general wildlife surveys in favour of the less encroached areas.
41780		distribution	eng	<em>Tragulus javanicus</em> as here defined is endemic to the island of Java, Indonesia, according to Meijaard and Groves (2004). The latter authors did not mention the island of Bali, but a sighting was reported from Bali Barat National Park, Bali, in a bird watching trip report (Birdquest 2006). The genus was not listed for Bali in the exhaustive reviews of Chasen (1940; of the genus) or Meijaard (2003; mammals of Indonesian islands), nor by Grubb (2005). Given the live-animal trade in the genus on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific.<br/><br/>Hoogerwerf (1970) wrote that "in Java <em>T. javanicus</em> was encountered in all provinces, fairly intensively distributed from sea-level to high in the mountains". Present-day occurrence in East Java is questionable: S. Hedges, M. Tyson and E. Meijaard (pers. comm. 2008) know of no certain records (as distinct from listings in collation documents which do not cite information to primary source) from areas like Baluran or Alas Purwo national parks, despite high survey effort during 1991–2000.<br/><br/>Meijaard and Groves (2004) gave only one specific locality for the species: Cheribon (= Cirebon) on the north coast of West Java Province, which is the type locality of <em>T. j. pelandoc</em> Dobroruka, 1967. Dobroruka (1967) also mentioned the western part of Java, to the southern coast, for what he called <em>T. j. focalinus</em> (which is <em>T. javanicus s .s.</em>). Meijaard and Groves (2004) did not list the localities for the many specimens they examined. Dobroruka (1967) and Van Dort (1986) both discuss variation within Javan chevrotains; neither has yet been checked for specific localities. More recent localities, although not of specimen records, include: Gunung Halimun (reportedly camera-trapped some time before 2003 [Suyanto 2003], but the photograph is not reproduced in the appendix and a painting is used for the species instead); Ujung Kulon (1991–1993; van Schaik and Griffiths 1996; C.P. Groves pers. comm. 2008), and the Dieng Plateau (during 1999–2000; V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). There has been no collation of records from the various surveys over the last 20 years or so, and some observers no doubt are aware of other localities.
41780		habitat	eng	Hoogerwerf (1970) wrote of chevrotains on Java occurring "from sea-level to high in the mountains". In the Dieng plateau area, V. Nijman (pers. comm. 2008) found them only a few times in the lowlands (400–700 m asl), where most survey took place, and had no records from above about 1,500 m asl. They have been found on Gunung Gede–Pangangro up to about 1,600 m asl (V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). Hoogerwerf’s (1970) description of favoured habitats on Java suggests that chevrotains there might be an 'edge' species, certainly seeming to prefer areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other <em>Tragulus</em> accounts).
41780		population	eng	There appears to have been no field study specifically of chevrotains on Java but current wildlife surveyors agree that they are rarely seen compared with results from similar styles of observation in Kalimantan (S. van Balen, V. Nijman, E. Meijaard, M. Tyson and S. Hedges, all pers. comm. 2008). Even Hoogerwerf (1970), who clearly found the species with some regularity (explicitly not daily, but enough for him to learn its calls and thereby establish dates of a probable mating season), complained that “it is particularly difficult to obtain any insight into the situation of this species in Java”, but concluded that “it is improbable that the species is in danger of extinction”. The basis for an unattributed statement in Whitten <em>et al</em>. (1996), that “it is still numerous and can be seen easily in many areas such as the tourist park part of Pangarandaran Nature Reserve” is unclear. The genus was recorded at five of ten sites on the Dieng Plateau surveyed in 1999–2000, but mostly only through single observations (V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). S. van Balen (pers. comm. 2008) points out that in Java the genus seems very shy (compared with animals in Malaysia and Kalimantan), so most records come as footprints. This contrasts with the assignment by Hoogerwerf (1970) that the genus was common and widespread. It is therefore quite plausible that a major decline has taken place, although other explanations remain to be explored which could have bolstered Hoogerwerf’s sighting rates, such as his having a dog with him which flushed the chevrotains, or his spending a lot of time in the species' favoured microhabitats. Specifically, neither M. Tyson nor S. Hedges (pers. comm. 2008) saw chevrotains during a rhinoceros survey in Ujung Kulon in 1992, whereas this was Hoogerwerf’s (1970) main site in assessing the species as relatively common and readily found. It was camera-trapped there five times during 1991–1993 (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996), a rate comparable with that of many other species in the study and certainly not suggesting out-and-out rarity. Very recently, numbers in trade in Java have dropped sharply in most cities, and it is plausible that this reflects increasing difficulty in procuring the animal (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008).
41780		threats	eng	Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of national parks and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' national parks and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "nature reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. During the 1980s to the mid 1990s, guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. However, the strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some small game, through various forms of trapping, including snaring; this latter could well have included chevrotains. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other offtake, but the national parks of Java remained remarkably intact for much of this period. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the peoples' resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (S. Hedges and M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ‘tragedy of the commons’, has indeed led to increased destruction and poaching in the past decade. There is some evidence that species readily uses edge and secondary vegetation, meaning that effects of forest encroachment will be less serious than for old-growth forest obligates. Moreover, chevrotains already seemed rare for surveyors operating in the early–mid 1990s, when habitats had been relatively stable since 1970s or early 1980s. For any decline which may have occurred in the 1980s and early–mid 1990s, therefore, habitat factors are an unlikely driver.<br/><br/>Chevrotains occur regularly in markets in towns such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, and Malang, but often they are cramped in small cages, and can therefore be overlooked, and may even be more common than observations suggest; numbers in trade are surprisingly high given the small numbers to be seen in the field nowadays (V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). They have been traded at high levels for many decades: Hoogerwerf (1970) wrote of “numerous reports of mouse deer being regularly trapped and offered for sale alive” in Java. They are hunted and traded both for pets and as wild meat (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Numbers passing through markets in Jakarta, Bogor, and Sukabumi have recently declined sharply, perhaps because of tightened control by the forest police in those markets; but there is the possibility that falling trade might indicate, at least in part, increasing difficulty to catch the animal and thus a decline in populations. In the Malang area, it is still “relatively easy” to procure one, although it is “getting time consuming” (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is probably largely with snares; dogs are also likely to be a serious threat (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). They are vulnerable to active hunting at night through a propensity to freeze when spotlit. However, the effects of these comparably high hunting levels on the genus in Java have not been studied empirically.<br/><br/>The continued presence of many animals in markets suggests that significant populations remain somewhere on Java (assuming that the animals are not now imports from elsewhere in Indonesia), and thus that a major decline may not have occurred, despite current indications. A comparable situation was found with inornate squirrel <em>Callosciurus inornatus</em> in Lao PDR, when extensive 1990s surveys found few animals in the field, in contrast with historic statements of abundance and ongoing substantial numbers being traded in fresh meat markets. This led to conservation concern for the species (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999); but later field survey of degraded and edge areas found out that the species was indeed common and evidently a species associated with degraded areas, and had hence been severely under-recorded by the 1990s surveys (Timmins and Duckworth in press).
41781		conservation	eng	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout this species’s range. Adequate legal basis exists in all range states to control both threats (through protected areas and regulations governing wildlife trade and hunting). The chief need is for effective translation of these laws into action. There are no obvious species-specific needs additional to general consolidation of protected areas and enforcement of hunting and wildlife trading laws.<br/><br/>The paucity of Sundaic studies determining chevrotains to species shows admirable caution but hinders assessments of this species’s status. Better data would be useful to confirm the opinion-based conclusion here that this is a resilient species, and to investigate further habitat use, in areas where it overlaps with <em>T. kanchil</em> and in those (probably, primarily at higher altitude) where it does not.
41781		distribution	eng	<em>Tragulus napu</em>, as constituted here (that is, excluding <em>T. versicolor</em> of Indochina and <em>T. nigricans</em> of the Philippines) occurs in the Sundaic subregion, extending some way up the Thai–Malay peninsula, in the following countries: Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, and many small islands), Malaysia (West Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, and many small islands), Myanmar (far south only), Singapore (Pulau Ubin only), and Thailand (south only) (Meijaard and Groves 2004, Chua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Grubb (2005) also included Cambodia, Lao PDR, and ‘Indochina’ in the range of <em>T. napu</em>; but this was founded on the assumption that because <em>T. versicolor</em>, formerly considered a subspecies of <em>T. napu</em>, occurred in Viet Nam, <em>T. napu</em> must presumably occur in intervening Lao PDR and Cambodia. There is, for example, a map of such a conterminous range for <em>T. napu</em> in Corbet and Hill (1992). There is no evidence of such a distribution and, given the distribution patterns of other species, absolutely no reason to expect that it would have such a range, even if <em>T. napu</em> and <em>T. versicolor</em> are closely allied. Recent surveys in both countries have not suspected the species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The northern limit on the Thai–Malay peninsula is not well clarified. Despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kuiburi National Park, Thailand (12°N and thus within the generally-assumed range for <em>T. napu</em>), Greater Chevrotain has not been photographed there. It must be scarce in this park if it occurs at all (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007, R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Caution is needed in interpreting modern records of <em>T. napu</em> from anywhere outside the specimen- and photograph-validated range (as presented in Meijaard and Groves 2004); some camera-trap studies seem to have taken an essentially arbitrary attitude on naming their photographs of chevrotains, resulting in published listings of <em>T. napu</em> from, for example, northern Thailand. Because such listings never highlight the significance of such records, let alone discuss them, all are assumed to be in error, and are not discussed further, here.
41781		habitat	eng	The Greater Oriental Chevrotain is almost completely sympatric with <em>T. kanchil</em>, but the degree of syntopy is less clear. In the lowlands of Borneo both occur but <em>T. napu</em> apparently ranges to higher altitudes (up to at least 1,000 m asl) than does the latter (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). Relevant comparisons have not been traced for the other main occupied landmasses. Duckworth (1995) considered that the chevrotains demonstrably common at Similajau National Park were largely or entirely Greater, but on altitude use as given in Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) it would seem surprising if Lesser did not occur. However, Matsubayashi and Sukor (2005) found at Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Sabah, that <em>T. kanchil</em> was almost absent from mature forest, all animals in such habitats being <em>T. napu</em>. Almost all observations from Similajau were from climax forest. Much more information of chevrotain habitat use in areas of sympatry is desirable before firm species-level conclusions can be drawn. <em>T. napu</em> was found typically to range 19 ha in old logged forest and 7 ha in primary forest, this difference again suggesting an association with primary forest (Heydon 1994). Heydon and Bulloh (1997) suggested the obligate frugivory of chevrotains limited their ability to compensate for logging-led loss of fruit trees by browsing the abundant regrowth of logging areas. The abundance of <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (<em>T. napu</em> and <em>T. kanchil</em> combined, with no information on the proportions or even confirmation that both species were present) was higher (strongly statistically significantly so) in areas within 1 km inside the boundary of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra than in the interior of the park, suggesting higher numbers in somewhat encroached habitat. Also at this site, <em>Tragulus</em> was more then nine times as abundant in areas of the park with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the park boundary, suggesting limited resilience to human presence, presumably the effects of hunting (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003); note that it is not confirmed that this information refers, even in part, to <em>T. napu</em>. The genus (presumably including this species) was ubiquitous in a study of virgin jungle reserves (VJRs) of West Malaysia which paired each of seven VJRs with a nearby unprotected area with seriously encroached habitat (Laidlaw 2000). The ability of <em>T. napu</em> to use plantations is probably low, because all (the admittedly relatively few) sources agree that it does not persist well in secondary or logged forest. Moreover, Belden Giman (pers. comm. 2008), in extensive observations at Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu, Sarawak, has never recorded <em>T. napu</em> in any of the blocks of monoculture plantations there, despite many records of <em>T. kanchil</em>. Given the pace of conversion of forests to plantations across the rane of <em>T. napu</em>, clarification of its degree of plantation use is urgent.<br/><br/>Competition with <em>T. kanchil</em> is not pronounced. In Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Sabah, <em>T. napu</em> was largely confined to mature forest with <em>T. kanchil</em> only in immature forest (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). In unlogged forest at Danum Valley, Sabah, <em>T. napu</em> was significantly more common than <em>T. kanchil</em>, but following logging, the numerical dominance of <em>T. napu</em> declined, and in 2–5-year-old regrowth <em>T. kanchil</em> was the commoner species. By 12 years post-logging, <em>T. napu</em> had reasserted its numerical predominance (Heydon 1994).<br/><br/><em>Tragulus</em> spp. are generally thought to be nocturnal, and at two sites in Borneo, they comprised over half the contacts of spot-lighting surveys (Duckworth 1997), but Matsubayashi and Sukor (2005) found substantial amount of both day- and night-time activity in this species. Duckworth (1997: 186–187) pointed out that most chevrotains spotlit in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, (identified as <em>T. napu</em>) were sitting around resting. The related <em>T. kanchil</em> was considered highly solitary by Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006) and this may also be somewhat true for <em>T. napu</em>; Duckworth (1995: 177) observed chevrotains identified as <em>T. napu</em> 14 times, of which 12 records involved singles and two involved duos in apparent association.<br/><br/>Collation of information from general sources suggests the following, but the contribution of information from <em>T. nigricans</em> to these conclusions is unknown, so their reliability for <em>T. napu s.s.</em> should be considered preliminary. Females gestate for 152–155 days and give birth to one or, rarely, two young. Young wean at 2–3 months, and reach sexual maturity at 4.5 months. Animals live up to 14 years. The female can be pregnant throughout her adult life, often having just an 85–155 minute 'breather' between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and can stand within 30 minutes of birth. Mothers nurse their young standing on three legs. They are generally solitary.
41781		population	eng	Greater Oriental Chevrotain populations are not well studied, in part reflecting a general lack of research interest in the genus and in part its almost complete sympatry with the Lesser Oriental Chevrotain, from which separation requires care under field conditions (Duckworth 1997; Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). It seems to be relatively common on at least Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). In Thailand, at the northern margin of its range, it is generally rare (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2008); for example, during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani province; about 9°00′N, 98°45′E; 20–130 m asl), only six Greater Chevrotains were ‘rescued’ compared with 172 Lesser Chevrotains (Nakasathien 1989). The genus is commonly camera-trapped and recorded by signs on Sumatra and in West Malaysia (Laidlaw 2000; O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Azlan 2006) and in far southern Myanmar (Lynam 2003; the identifications to species should be disregarded). At the Danum Valley, Sabah (East Malaysia), densities were recorded as 32–72 animals per km² in primary habitat; they were more scarce in selectively logged areas, with densities of 6–16 animals per km², indicating a marked decrease in <em>T. napu</em> in selectively logged forest vs unlogged (Heydon and Bulloh 1997, Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). Because population densities of Southern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus muntjak</em> and Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> rose in the logged areas in this same study, the decline in chevrotains presumably reflects habitat factors rather than the secondary complication of logging-induced hunting. Population densities for <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (presumably including this species) in Taman Negara, Malaysia, were taken to be 0.37–0.83 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Duckworth (1995) considered that the chevrotains demonstrably common at Similajau National Park in 1986 and 1995 were largely or entirely Greater (see Habitat and Ecology).
41781		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout Greater Chevrotain’s range, but the species is said to be relatively resilient. However, few data to support this assessment have been traced, particularly because most key studies have not within the Sundaic region identified chevrotains to species. Thus, while clear that the genus remains widespread and common in the face of these threats, there seems to be little publicly available evidence that <em>T. napu</em> specifically does so, and reasonable evidence that it is not very adaptable to forest degradation (see Habitat and ecology). However, on the assumption that most chevrotains above 100 m asl on Borneo are this species rather than <em>T. kanchil</em>, Borneo at least retains large populations. Greater Oriental Chevrotain is extinct on Singapore (K. Lim pers. comm. 2008), although the relative contributions of hunting versus habitat perturbation are not known.<br/><br/>Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Sumatra, among snared ungulates was greatest for muntjacs and lowest for chevrotains, as assessed by diameter of the cable (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Chevrotains were scarcer in areas of higher human use (and thus hunting) of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; see Habitat and ecology). Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) profiled the effects of hunting in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas, upon chevrotains (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995. They constituted 8–9% of animals killed. No direct or index measure of chevrotain densities was possible at these sites to determine what effects, if any, such heavy hunting was having on chevrotains. Chevrotains are among the most favoured wild meat by inhabitants of the Sarawak Planted Forests area, Bintulu, Sarawak, after Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> and wild pigs <em>Sus</em> (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008).
41782		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range (Wemmer 1998, EMA Workshop 2006). The species is subject to intense management in some countries through hunting quotas (e.g. in Finland: Ruusila and Kojola in press). It is protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Germany).
41782		distribution	eng	<em>Alces alces</em> has a large range extending from Norway through northern and central Europe, northern Russia, Alaska, and Canada to Newfoundland (Canada) and Maine (USA) (Corbet 1978, Bauer and Nygrén 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Europe, it has a continuous distribution extending through Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the Baltic states, Belarus, Poland and northern Ukraine. There was a small population in northern Austria which is now extinct (although there may still be occasional migrants). There are three isolated subpopulations in southern Czech Republic, and the species is occasionally recorded in Germany, Croatia, Hungary and Romania. It has been extending its range southwards along the rivers into the northern Caucasus lowlands. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,500 m in Europe (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006), and up to 2,500m in the Altai mountains of Central Asia (Nygrén 1986).
41782		distribution	eng	The Eurasian elk has a range in north Eurasia from Scandinavia, Poland, N Austria, and S Czech Republic (vagrant in Croatia, Hungary, and Romania), east to the Yenisei River (Siberia) and south to Ukraine, N Kazakhstan, N China (N Sinkiang), and possibly adjacent parts of Mongolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It has been extinct in Caucasus region since 19th century (Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>In Europe, it has a continuous distribution extending through Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the Baltic states, Belarus, Poland and northern Ukraine. There was a small population in northern Austria which is now extinct (although there may still be occasional migrants). There are three isolated subpopulations in southern Czech Republic, and the species is occasionally recorded in Germany, Croatia, Hungary and Romania. It has been extending its range southwards along the rivers into the northern Caucasus lowlands. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,500 m in Europe (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006), and up to 2,500 m in the Altai mountains of Central Asia (Nygrén 1986). The species occurs east to the Yenisei River (Siberia) and south to Ukraine, N Kazakhstan, N China (N Sinkiang and the Altai region of Xinjiang,and possibly adjacent parts of Mongolia; it is extinct in Caucasus region since 19th century.
41782		habitat	eng	<em>Alces alces</em> is found in a range of woodland habitats, both coniferous and broadleaved, from the tundra and taiga southwards through boreal to temperate zones. It tends to prefer damp, marshy habitats and areas in close proximity to water. It is also found in open country in the lowlands and mountains, including farmland, if there is forest nearby. It thrives in secondary growth, and its population expansion in Scandinavia has been linked to the replacement of natural taiga forest by secondary woodland after logging (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). It feeds on vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, and is a pest of agriculture and forestry in at least parts of its range (Ruusila and Kojola in press). The species has seasonal movements in parts of its range, particularly in northern Europe.
41782		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species. Numbers have increased markedy in Scandinavia in recent decades, and the range is expanding in the Caucasus (EMA Workshop 2006). The global population is in the region of 1.5 million individuals, and the European population is in the order of 0.5 million. European populations show fluctuations over a multi-year cycle (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). Population estimates for European countries include the following: Czech Republic - maximum of 50 animals, Estonia - 10,000 individuals, Finland - at least 110,000 individuals (60-80,000 shot annually), Poland - 2,800 individuals, Sweden - 340,000 individuals (EMA workshop 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press).
41782		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species. Numbers have increased markedy in Scandinavia in recent decades, and the range is expanding in the Caucasus. The global population is in the region of 1.5 million individuals, and the European population is in the order of 0.5 million. European populations show fluctuations over a multi-year cycle (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). Population estimates for European countries include the following: Czech Republic - maximum of 50 animals, Estonia - 10,000 individuals, Finland - at least 110,000 individuals (60-80,000 shot annually), Poland - 2,800 individuals, Sweden - 340,000 individuals (Pielowski and Jaworski 2005, Ruusila and Kojola in press).
41782		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. A wasting disease has been reported, and its causes remain poorly understood (Frank 2004), but it is not considered to be a serious problem for the species. Overexploitation caused significant population declines and range contractions in the 18th and 19th centuries, but since then populations have recovered (Ruusila and Kojola in press, Bauer and Nygrén 1999). In most European range states, elk populations are controlled to prevent damage to forestry and arable crops (Bauer and Nygrén 1999).
41782		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. A wasting disease has been reported, and its causes remain poorly understood (Frank 2004), but it is not considered to be a serious problem for the species. Overexploitation caused significant population declines and range contractions in the 18th and 19th centuries, but since then populations have recovered (Ruusila and Kojola in press, Bauer and Nygrén 1999). In most European range states, populations are controlled to prevent damage to forestry and arable crops (Bauer and Nygrén 1999).
41783		conservation	eng	The Chital is protected under Schedule III of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (Sankar and Acharya 2004) and under the Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 of Bangladesh (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). It occurs in many protected areas. Legal protection as a species and a network of functioning protected areas are the two cornerstones of its current healthy conservation status. Populations exceeding 20,000 Chitals probably occur in and around a handful of conservation areas within India: the belt of about 3,000 km² between Koh river and Haldwani including the Corbett Tiger Reserve; the Gir Protected Area (about 1,400 km²); Kanha Tiger Reserve (about 2,000 km²); and the Nilgiris–Western Ghats sector including Nagarahole, Bandipur, and Mudumalai (about 5,000 km²) (Raman in press). Protected areas support more Chitals than do non-protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape of India, although there is not currently such a great difference in densities as with the grassland species (Barasingha <em>Rucervus duvaucelii</em> and Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em>) (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ongoing habitat conversion trends outside protected areas will continue to increase the relative proportion of the total Chital population that they hold, and the maintenance of an extensive network of functional protected areas will remain the foundation of this species’s healthy conservation status. Part of this responsibility is vigilance by staff and partners of illegal poaching, which takes place at varying levels in most of the species range. Some recent cases have involved high-profile public role models such as actors poaching Chital and these warrant heavy court penalties. There is a strong case for prevention of livestock grazing in protected areas which hold Chital, partly to reduce risks of disease transmission, but mostly to prevent artificially low densities of Chital being forced through competition (see Major Threats).<br/><br/>Chital populations have been studied in: Corbett (De and Spillit 1966), Kanha (Schaller 1967), Bandipur (Johnsingh 1983), Nagarahole (Karanth and Sunquist 1992), Sariska (Sankar 1994), Gir (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1996), Guindy (Raman 1996, Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996), Pench (Biswas and Sankar 2002), Ranthambore (Bagchi <em>et al</em>. 2003) in India, Chitwan (Seidensticker 1976; Mishra 1982) and Karnali-Bardia (Dinerstein 1980; Moe and Wegge 1994, 1997) in Nepal, and Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972) in Sri Lanka.
41783		distribution	eng	The Chital occurs over 8–30ºN in India (including Sikkim), Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (Grubb 2005; Raman in press). The western distribution boundary is formed by eastern Rajasthan (e.g. Sariska, Ranthambore, and Keoladeo Ghana) and Gujarat (e.g. Sasan Gir). The northern boundary runs along the bhabar-terai belt of the foothills of the Himalaya from Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal through Nepal, northern West Bengal and Sikkim to western Assam and the forested valleys of Bhutan below 1,100 m asl. The eastern boundary runs through western Assam (Golapara and Kamrup district as far east as the Dhunsiri River in Darrang district) to the Sunderbans of West Bengal (India) and Bangladesh. Sri Lanka is the southern limit (Gee 1964; Schaller 1967; Raman in press). Chital occur throughout the rest of peninsular India sporadically in the forested areas (Sankar and Acharya 2004), but in Bangladesh, it now occurs only in the Sundarbans, having vanished from the central, north-east and south-east regions (Md Anwarul Islam in litt. 2008).<br/><br/>Chital have been introduced to the Andaman Islands (India, during 1925–1930; Banerji 1955), Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Brazil, Croatia (islands of Brijuni; Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999), Moldova, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Ukraine, Uruguay, and the USA (California, Florida, Hawaiian Islands, and Texas) (Grubb 2005; Raman in press). These introduced populations have not been mapped. Not all introductions have succeeded: for example, some were introduced to west-central Slovenia (from the Brijuni islands) in the late 1940s or in 1950, but this introduction failed and is now therefore frequently reported as having been of Fallow Deer <em>Dama dama</em>. One male, shot on 12 October 1950 and now in the Natural History Museum of Slovenia, proves the identification (Krystufek 1999). Managed herds occur in parks throughout the native and introduced range and in many other areas.
41783		habitat	eng	Chital thrive in a variety of habitats, but avoids extremes such as dense moist forests and open semi-desert or desert. Moist and dry deciduous forest areas, especially adjoining dry thorn scrub or grasslands appear to be optimal, and highest densities of Chital are reported from these habitats. Short grasslands of the terai, swampy meadows and glades adjoining forest areas, coastal dry evergreen forests, mixed forests or plantations with Teak Tectona grandis and Sal Shorea robusta are also used, and indeed over much of northern and southern India, its distribution closely matches that of Sal and Teak, respectively (Raman in press). Chital is particularly frequent in grassland–forest interface, edge, and other ecotones (Krishnan 1972). Eisenberg and Seidensticker (1976) opined that dry deciduous habitats with scrub is the favoured habitat, while Karanth and Sunquist (1992) found mixed forests with teak plantations, moist deciduous patches and swampy grasslands to support high abundance of Chital. Short grasslands are important because they provide little cover for predators such as Tiger Panthera tigris (Moe and Wegge 1994). The introduced population in Andaman Islands inhabits evergreen forests (Sankar and Acharya 2004) but native populations are absent from the rainforest areas of the mainland. They tend to be only visitors to dense forests, to those adjoining more open habitats. Riverine forests within the Bardia National Park in lowland Nepal are highly used by the deer for shade and cover during the dry season. The forest also provides good foraging with regard to fallen fruit and leaves that are high in nutrients needed by the deer. Four factors were identified by Schaller (1967) as delineating Chital’s distribution: (1) the need for water; (2) the need for shade; (3) an avoidance of high, rugged terrain; and (4) a preference for grass as forage. Although several observers have noted that Chital occurs mostly in flat areas and avoids hills and slopes (Schaller 1967; Khan 1996), this may not hold in areas where preferred habitats or forage is also available on slopes (Raman in press; N.S. Kumar unpublished data). It occurs in both hilly and flatter terrain, mainly the latter, in the Terai Arc Landscape of India (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Siwalik hills, Bhat and Rawat (1995) found that Chital preferred slopes of 11–30°, while slopes exceeding 30° were used less. Also, use of south, south-east, and east aspects was higher than of north, north-east, north-west, and west aspects, reflecting the warmer environment of the former aspects. There was no difference in average Chital density in the hills and plains (Bhat and Rawat 1995). A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Chital widely, including in coffee areas up to 14 km of the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat use varies seasonally, reflecting food availability. Chital uses more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November to May), where fallen fruit, leaf litter, and browse are available. In open grassland and tropical dry thorn forest, Chital density increases with the onset of monsoon rains and flush of plant growth (Mishra 1982; Moe and Wegge 1994; Khan 1996; Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). In areas of their distribution with a mosaic of forest and grassland habitats, seasonal patterns in habitat use may be complex. In the Himalayan terai, Chital use of habitats with high grass availability increased substantially in the weeks following cutting and burning of grasses in January–February, attributed to fresh flush of grass growth after the burns and with the onset pre-monsoon and monsoon rains nearly two months later (Mishra 1982; Moe and Wegge 1994, 1997). Similar behaviour has been reported from the grasslands of Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Johnsingh 1983).<br/><br/>Chital easily habituates to human presence, and herds often congregate in open areas near habitation or forest camps to spend the night, possibly due to greater safety from predators that shy away from these areas (Raman in press).<br/>Chital eats a wide variety of plants: about 160–190 have been recorded from across the species' range. It is predominantly a grazer but consumes more fallen leaves, flowers and fruits in winter/dry season (Sankar 1994; Sankar and Acharya 2004; Raman in press). In addition to plant soft matter, crabs (in the Sunderbans; Stanford 1951), mushrooms (in Nepal; Moe and Wegge 1994), and rarely, bark (Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996) are eaten. Close to human habitation, rubbish and even human faeces are occasionally taken (Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Antler and bone chewing is also common. In Wilpattu, Sri Lanka, all age and sex classes are osteophagous, but such feeding was more common in velvet-antlered males, doubtless reflecting mineral needs during antler growth and mineralisation (Barrette 1985). Chital usually drinks water once a day, more frequently in summer. This restricts them to forest tracts with assured presence of water, even if only widely scattered.<br/><br/>In lowland Nepal, an individual’s total range incorporates a core area of about 32 hectares surrounded by foraging and cover areas of about 140 ha for females and 195 ha for males (Moe and Wegge 1994). Variation in range size occurs with site, season, sex and age of the animal. The basic social unit is a matriarchal family group, normally consisting of an adult female, her offspring from the previous year, and a fawn (Ables 1974). The usual herd is composed of two or more such family units and is often accompanied by individual deer of mixed sex and age-classes. Chital exhibits a fission-fusion system, or fluid group formation and dissolution (Schaller 1967; Mishra 1982; Barette 1991). Group composition changes frequently during feeding periods, during the rut when males frequently join groups of females (Schaller 1967), and while fleeing from predators (Dinerstein 1980). These social groupings of Chital do not remain permanent (Schaller 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). Groups may number up to 150 or more individuals (De and Spillit 1966; Schaller 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Krishnan 1972; Fuchs 1977; Karanth and Sunquist 1992), sometimes even more: N.S. Kumar (pers. comm. 2008) counted 211 in one group during rainy season in Nagarahole and 203 in one group at Pench-Maharashtra near a water reservoir in summer. Measured sex ratios have all been biased towards females (Sankar and Acharya 2004 and references therein). Pariwakam (2006) observed nearly 10,500 Chital in Bandipur and estimated the proportion of Chital in different age and sex classes as stags 27%, does 57% and fawns 16%. In neighbouring Nagarahole, age-sex categories of Chital were adult stags 26%, adult does 36%, yearling males 8%, yearling females 9% and young 21% (Karanth and Sunquist 1992). Breeding can occur at any time of year but there is some peaking at any given locality (Sankar and Acharya 2004 and references therein). Heavy mortality of fawns in early weeks has been observed by several workers and fawn survival appears to be a key determinant of Chital population growth (Schaller 1967). Schaller (1967) estimated an annual fawn mortality of 48% in Kanha, Sharathchandra and Gadgil (1975) estimated a constant monthly mortality of 26% over first nine months in Bandipur, Raman (1996) estimated a mean monthly mortality of 9.7% in Guindy. Pariwakam (2006) for the first time used a rigorous photographic capture-recapture approach to estimate the fawn mortality rate, and found it to be 66% over a 6-week study period in Bandipur. Further information on sociality and breeding is synthesised by Sankar and Acharya (2004) and by Raman (in press).<br/><br/>Chital is a prolific breeder, as documented by several empirical studies of the speed of increase by newly introduced populations or in those where a factor restraining populations was removed (Raman in press and references therein). In Bhadra, following the departure from the park of human settlements and consequent removal of anthropogenic pressures on Chital and habitats, Chital populations bounced back by nearly seven times in fewer than four years (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). Karanth <em>et al</em>. (1999) earlier documented their empirical observations of the recovery of Chital populations in Nagarahole. This and its diverse diet and habitats allow high density where threats are controlled. It is even considered to be a pest in the Andamans (Banerji 1955).<br/>The main causes of death are predation, diseases, and accidents. Occasionally, stags kill each other when fighting (Sankar and Acharya 2004 and references therein). Predation is by far the major cause of Chital mortality. Older Chital stags are more susceptible to it than are younger stags (Johnsingh 1983; Patel 1992; Karanth and Sunquist 1995). This may be due to their being less vigilant during rut, to their separation from the group after the rut, or to weakening from injuries from conflicts. In Kanha, Chital remains were found in about 52% of Tiger faeces and 59% of Leopard Panthera pardus faeces analysed (Schaller 1967). In Bandipur, Chital is the most important prey in terms of the biomass taken by Dhole (78%), Leopard (55%) and Tiger (19%) (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). Even in terms of the relative number of individuals taken, Chital is the predominant prey among the three large sympatric predators (Tigers about 33%, Leopards about 39% and Dholes about 73% in Bandipur; Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In adjoining Nagarahole remains were found in about 31% of Tiger faeces, 44% of Leopard faeces, and 50% of Dhole faeces (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In Sariska, around 54% of the faeces of Tiger and 21% of Leopard faeces contained Chital remains (Sankar 1994). Chital remains were found in about 53% of Tiger faeces in Pench (Biswas and Sankar 2002) and 61% of Tiger faeces in Ranthambore (Bagchi <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Each Chital spends a major portion of its life in foraging, resting, and wandering within its range, with the relative extent of these activities determined by season (Schaller 1967). In a day, peak feeding times are around dawn and dusk. There are usually two major resting periods, before dawn and mid-day (Sankar and Acharya 2004).<br/>Considerable further detail on ecology, drawn from the relative wealth of studies on the species, with each item precisely referenced to source, is provided by Raman (in press).
41783		population	eng	Chital declined drastically throughout its range up until the first two-thirds of the 20th century (see under Major Threats). It is now locally abundant in appropriate habitat throughout its range. In India it occurs in 123 Protected Areas and forest tracts (National Wildlife Database, Wildlife Institute of India in Sankar and Acharya 2004). There are some large populations in Nepal (e.g. Moe and Wegge 1994) where the population is probably currently stable and is anticipated to remain so in the immediate future (Hem Sagar Baral <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Thousands survive in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh, and there are a few introduced populations on coastal islands in the south (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>The reported ecological densities of Chital mostly fall within 3–50 animals per km² in India: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 4.51 +/- 1.05 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Madhya Pradesh Pench National Park dry deciduous forest, 51.3 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Kanha moist deciduous forest, 49.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 50.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Sunquist 1992); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 20.1 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 3.2 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Maharashtra Pench dry deciduous forest, 5.8 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Ranthambore semi-arid dry deciduous forest, 38.4 animals per km² (Kumar 2000); and Gir semi-arid dry deciduous forest, 50.8 animals per km² (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1996). Some parts of the well-protected areas in Nagarahole and Bandipur are known to harbour densities as high as 80–100 Chital per km² (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). The highest population densities, of around 200 Chitals per km², are reported for the Bardia National Park, Nepal (Naess and Andersen 1993; Moe and Wegge 1994) and for the reintroduced population in Guindy National Park, southern India (Menon 1982; Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). These high densities reflect habitat and food availability in the former area (Moe and Wegge 1994), and supplementary feeding and low predation in the latter (Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Population densities in marginal habitats tend to be lower (Raman in press; K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). Chital is the most abundant ungulate in Nagarahole, and reaches higher densities in moist than in dry deciduous forests (Karanth and Sunquist 1992). The recorded Bhadra density is low, reflecting poaching and livestock grazing (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the population density is steadily increasing following removal of these pressures in 2003 (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). A study at Nagarahole National Park compared an area which was only moderately hunted with a heavily hunted site. This found respective densities of 65 and 10 Chitals per km² (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002).<br/><br/>The only population in Europe is on the islands of Brijuni (off Istria, Croatia), but B. Krystufek (pers. comm. 2008) has traced no information on its current status. Information has not been sought for this account on introduced populations elsewhere, because they do not contribute to assessing the species’ Red List status.
41783		threats	eng	There are presently no major global-level threats to Chital, although densities are widely below ecological carrying capacity, through hunting and competition with domestic livestock. There were substantial declines and local extinctions, driven by hunting for meat, extermination as an agricultural pest, and habitat conversion, particularly during British rule of India and adjacent countries, and immediately after independence (Raman in press). Fewer than 20 years after independence, Schaller (1967) wrote that "...the species has declined drastically throughout its range in India, and is now only locally abundant in some sanctuaries and forest tracts. The remaining populations are highly vulnerable to poaching, habitat destruction, and other forms of decimation". The habitat loss of the past few centuries means that populations are now rather fragmented. Now, in India, most populations appear secure within the modern protected area network (Raman in press), but those outside (now highly localised) are under rapid decline due to habitat conversion and extensive hunting (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). A relaxation of protection can lead to rapid decreases. For example, Chital used to be numerically the most abundant large herbivore in the Wilpattu National Park (Sri Lanka), but numbers declined significantly due to poaching which increased during management breakdown during the civil war, when its meat was even being sold next to the park. Poaching has also risen, for the same reason, in several other national parks in Sri Lanka (Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003). Where not prevented by effective conservation measures (active protection through patrolling and law enforcement, backed up by adequate awareness), people avidly hunt and poach Chital throughout their Indian range (Madhusudan and Karanth 2000, 2002; Sankar and Acharya 2004; Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007) and there are occasional cases in even the best secured protected areas such as Corbett Tiger Reserve (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Many protected areas are well enough secured that the species has thrived well and, is now locally abundant (Sankar and Acharya 2004) and in such areas poaching of Chital is a more serious conservation problem for the large predators (every deer poached reduces predators’ food base; Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2004) than it is for Chital itself. In many other protected areas (especially those with a lower public profile) and for areas outside the conservation system, populations are severely restrained by hunting. For example, densities in Bhadra Tiger Reserve are very low by comparison with what the habitat should support because of poaching with snares, dogs, and shotguns, and also grazing competition with domestic stock (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the density was 87 percent lower in a heavily hunted area of Nagarahole National Park than in a well secured area (Madhusudan and Karanth 2000, 2002). Even though all hunting is illegal in this protected area, protection efficacy is uneven across the area. The Chital is one of the two most commonly hunted mammal species in the national park, partly because various facets of its behaviour and ecology such as herding behaviour and attachment to open habitat allow its ready detection and killing, and quick entry and exit by poachers. It is therefore exposed to far higher hunting pressure than are the ungulates which are solitary and spend much time in dense cover (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). Poaching is probably operative to a greater or lesser extent in most populations, but at low enough levels that recent decades have not seen, with Chital, the frequent local extirpations from areas of prime habitat of earlier decades.<br/><br/>The most serious threat, in areas where poaching and habitat conversion are well controlled, is the reduction in carrying capacity through competition with livestock, especially during the pinch season as observed in Sariska (Sankar 1994); Chital and livestock are known to have dietary overlap (Raman in press). The problem has been documented almost throughout Chital’s range but awareness that it is a problem at all remains so low that it is not even recognised as a key conservation issue in many protected areas (e.g. Mathai 1999). In Gir Lion Sanctuary and National Park, Chital population density increased 14-fold from 3.57 animals per km² in 1970–1971 (Berwick 1974) to 50.8 animals per km² in 1989 (Khan 1996; Khan <em>et al</em>. 1996). This was attributed to the rapid and complete removal of pastoral settlements, their livestock, and a total ban on several thousand migratory livestock. Dung densities of Chital and livestock were also negatively correlated in Gir, indicating avoidance and possible competitive interaction between the species. With removal of human impact and increase in forage availability, Chital population increased, as testified by higher Chital densities in the vicinity of abandoned settlements (nesses; Sharma and Johnsingh 1995). Similarly, in Bardia National Park (Nepal), protection from livestock grazing (and logging) in 1975 increased measured Chital populations from 30–34 per km² in 1977 (Dinerstein 1980) to over 200 per km² in the early 1990s (Naess and Andersen 1993; Moe and Wegge 1994). In Bandipur Tiger Reserve, mean densities of Chital were 11 times higher in livestock-free areas than in adjacent livestock-grazed areas. In shared grazing areas, these Chital densities declined sharply with increasing livestock densities. In the studied grazed area, halving the livestock density allowed an increase in Chital density by a factor of five (Madhusudan 2004). Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). All these pressures interact to have, overall, a major depression of Chital densities. In Bhadra, following the departure from the park of human settlements and consequent removal of anthropogenic pressures on Chital and habitats, Chital populations bounced back by nearly seven times in fewer than four years (Karanth and Kumar unpublished data). Karanth <em>et al</em>. (1999) earlier documented their empirical observations of the recovery of Chital populations in Nagarahole.<br/><br/>Chital are susceptible to livestock-borne diseases such as rinderpest (Schaller 1967) and foot-and-mouth disease (Sankar 1994) but the current population is too widespread for these to rank as potential global-level threats. Accidents, especially from speeding vehicles, are a cause of Chital mortality but occur rarely within protected areas and cannot be significant at the global level. Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Parthenium</em> spp. and <em>Chromolaena odorata</em> (= <em>Eupatorium odoratum</em>), and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but their effects on Chital populations warrant further study. Wild-ranging domestic dogs are also likely to be a problem (Raman in press), but no study quantifying their effects has been traced. There are no predictable threats to the Sundarbans population of Bangladesh, but as a low-lying area extreme weather events might cause episodic major population removal, as happened with hurricane Sidr in November 2007 (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).
41784		conservation	eng	The Hog Deer is fully protected in Bangladesh, India, and probably most or all other range states. One subspecies is listed on CITES Appendix I as<em> Axis porcinus annamiticus</em><em></em>.<br/><br/>Wetlands, especially floodplain grasslands, have traditionally been ignored by the protected area systems and other conservation initiatives of Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Most of the area supporting the single known population in Cambodia has been proposed for protected area status, but the situation is complicated by the inclusion of agricultural lands and traditional use areas of local people, and the high human population immediately nearby (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.). As soon as the population was found, a small conservation programme with external funding from WWF was started to support a small number of forestry rangers and local guardians to carry out patrolling and community outreach activities, in addition to basic research. To ensure protection and survival of animals however, consideration should be given as to whether it would be useful for part of the area to be strategically fenced to help deter poaching, agricultural encroachment and predation by dogs; but this would need to consider seasonal movements. There are few areas in Viet Nam where suitable habitat is thought to remain, but if reasonable extents of alluvial grassland survive in the following areas surveys for Hog Deer may be warranted: Cat Tien National Park, the Kon river in the Kon Cha Rang Nature Reserve area, and the Sa Tay area of Kon Tum and Gia Lai Provinces.<br/><br/>It is not certain what conservation measures are in place (if any) for the rediscovered population in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>Hog Deer in Myanmar has not been surveyed recently, but probably exists mostly in unprotected plains grassland areas which, as in the Mekong countries, are conventionally seen as of low conservation value (Peacock 1933, J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). The Hukaung valley riverine grasslands had been considered, therefore, suitable as areas for agricultural conversion, but there are proposals for some of them to be included in a forthcoming expansion to the Hukaung Wildlife Sanctuary (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). A clarification of the status of Hog Deer in Myanmar is urgent: there may yet remain areas supporting animals which have high conservation potential if they do not disappear before being known to conservation. This lack of conservation profile is the chief challenge to Hog Deer in Myanmar at the moment, as it was in Peacock’s (1933) day: “the butchery of these little deer and the failure to provide more than one small sanctuary for their preservation is certainly one of the weak spots in Myanmar game legislation...the existing legislation is singularly ineffective in preventing their wholesale destruction. Moreover, there are few forest reserves which are suitable for the Hog Deer, and the legislation concerned with such forests is little more than a gesture”. If not met head-on, there are no grounds to assume that Hog Deer national conservation status will not replicate that shown by all range states to the east (major population collapse), if indeed it has not already done so.<br/><br/>Most Hog Deer populations remaining in India, Nepal, and Bhutan are in protected areas where animals are at least somewhat, and in some cases well, protected from poaching (Biswas <em>et al</em>. 2002; Biswas 2004; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; Pralad Yonzon pers. comm. 2006; Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008; A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Wildlife protection laws in India have also helped in retaining the specialized habitat of Hog Deer, arresting habitat loss and habitat conversion in some protected areas. Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) found a strong correlation with Hog Deer populations and protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape of India (similar to that for Barasingha <em>Rucervus duvaucelii</em>), in contrast to other deer which occur relatively widely outside protected areas. Some protected areas are not big enough to allow adequate ranging during heavy flood periods, and thus prevent heavy mortality during such periods, and all suffer from being too small to be allowed unfettered habitat succession, because new grasslands are not now being created by natural processes elsewhere (see Habitat and ecology). In India and Nepal, Hog Deer has benefited from conservation measures taken for Great Indian Rhinoceros and Barasingha in the same wet grassland habitats (Q. Qureshi pers. comm. 1995; Biswas 2004). However, grassland management for rhinoceros may in some cases be deleterious to Hog Deer (Biswas 2004). Investigation of Kaziranga National Park during 2008 will clarify the conservation status of Hog Deer there (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In South Asia there is an urgent need to update the status review of Biswas and Mathur (2000), even though some large Hog Deer populations inhabit some of the best-secured protected areas in the world. Even assuming that these protected areas continue to receive sufficient material and political support, such a review is necessary because all populations face uncertain futures from a multitude of factors, some of which originate outside protected areas and beyond the zone of influence of protected area managers. The review needs to determine roughly the numbers remaining and the locations of all sizeable or potentially sizeable populations, and especially for each make assessments of current and likely future conservation status and population trends, bearing in mind threats from poaching, agricultural encroachment, livestock grazing, natural habitat succession, perverse habitat management, invasive plant species, the risk of disease epidemics from domestic livestock, changes to water levels and flows (e.g. from upstream dams), further fragmentation of populations and habitats, episodic mortality through flooding and abiotic risks such as insurgency (which can collapse protected area management, although it does not always do so). Confinement of populations to small habitat patches isolated from other such patches raises the intrinsic threat of subpopulation loss significantly when considering the wide gamut of threats facing such populations (Biswas and Singh 2002; Biswas 2004), and in some sites challenges may be so pervasive that long-term retention of Hog Deer populations may be so difficult as to be an inefficient use of resources. An integrated South Asia-wide conservation plan may be the best route to direct resources to a representative set of areas where long-term persistence of large Hog Deer populations can be assured provided sufficient resources are mobilised and deployed in the appropriate way. <br/><br/>By contrast, in Southeast Asia, any population found east of central Thailand (i.e. within the historical range of <em>A. p. annamiticus</em>, the western limit of which is not clear) warrants immediate attention. It is plausible that the recently found small and fragile population in Cambodia is the last stock of this taxon.The isolated small populations in Bangladesh, although presumably of the nominate race, warrant priority protection in maintaining the ancestral geographic and habitat range of Hog Deer.  Species-specific intervention in Myanmar should probably, given the great challenges in the country (and, specifically, the uneven success to date with Eld’s Deer <em>Rucervus eldii</em> conservation), be fitted within larger initiatives such as conservation of the Hukaung Valley, probably the largest floodplain in tropical Asia retaining largely natural ecological processes of stream geography and habitat dynamics.<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, where the species is restricted to privately-owned gardens, its survival depends on the goodwill of the landowners. The conservation value of this introduced population needs re-evaluation, considering approximate population size, recent population trend, ecological integrity of the population and any genetic uniqueness, balanced against the likely cost of conservation interventions to secure the population’s future. Needs of other introduced populations are not considered here.<br/><br/>There is a large total of animals in zoos of tropical Asia. Although at least one Mekong animal appeared in a zoo recently (in Cambodia in the mid 1990s; C.M. Poole pers. comm. 1998), so far as is known, all captive herds are derived from populations from Myanmar and further west. Reintroduction of animals in the range of the nominate, should it be needed, thus has many options. There is no captive buffer for <em>A. p. annamiticus</em>.
41784		distribution	eng	The Hog Deer historically occurred from Pakistan, throughout northern and northeastern India, including the Himalayan foothill zone, east across non-Sundaic Southeast Asia and, marginally, southern China (southern Yunnan province), but is now reduced to isolated populations within this range. It is almost extirpated from east of Myanmar. It is extinct in Thailand (where it has, however, been introduced) and almost certainly in Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Humphrey and Bain 1990, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Very small numbers have been found recently in Bangladesh and in one small region of Cambodia (Khan 2004, Maxwell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). A report on the internet in 2007 from China turned out to refer to a young Sambar (per B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2012).  Hog Deer still probably occur in at least several areas of Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008, from various sources), and localised populations survive in northern and northeastern India, Nepal, Bhutan (few recent data) and Pakistan (status uncertain) (Biswas and Mathur 2000; Biswas 2004). Hog Deer has been introduced into Sri Lanka, Australia (specifically the coastal regions of south and east Gippsland; Moore and Mayze 1990), and the United States (Texas, Florida, and Hawaii) (Grubb 2005) (but is not mapped in these last two).
41784		habitat	eng	Hog Deer have usually been reported from habitat consisting of wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with medium- to large-sized rivers (Bhowmik <em>et al</em>. 1999, Biswas and Mathur 2000, Biswas 2004), and appears to reach its highest densities in floodplain grasslands (Seidensticker 1976, Dhungel and O’Gara 1991, Karanth and Nichols 2000, Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). It avoids closed-canopy forest, but will use coastal grasslands (e.g., Peacock 1933). Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) considered Hog Deer to be an obligate grassland species in the Terai Arc Landscape of India, and studies in India and Nepal have show a preference for grasslands dominated by <em>Imperata cylindrical</em> (Biswas 2004 and references therein). Similar alluvial floodplain grassland seems to be used in Thailand and Indochina (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007,; Clark undated, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In Bardia National Park, measured densities were much higher in the floodplain association than in the riverine association, and no Hog Deer were found in adjacent Sal <em>Shorea robusta</em> forest at all (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). The remnant population in Bangladesh is located in grassy, lightly wooded, hill country (Khan 2004). Similar habitats are used by Hog Deer in India, where they are seem to be marginal habitats supporting only low-density populations (Anwaruddin Choudhury pers. comm. 2006): they may historically have been primarily ‘sink’ populations. The reintroduced semi-wild populations in Thailand occupy a variety of habitats for which there is no evidence of use by wild populations in Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam or Cambodia. One of the few detailed historical accounts of an abundant population in South-east Asia was from extensive tall floodplain grasslands in the Dong Nai catchment, Viet Nam (Clark undated). Hog Deer is a primarily a grazer of young grasses, particularly <em>Imperata cylindrica</em> and <em>Saccharum</em> spp.; it also takes herbs, flowers, fruits, and browse (young leaves and shoots of shrubs) (Bhowmik <em>et al</em>. 1999, Dhungel and O’Gara 1991, Bisawas 2004, Wegge <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is much more a grazer and less a browser than is the Sambar Rusa unicolor. Introduced animals occur in scrub and cinnamon gardens in Sri Lanka, where they cause considerable damage to home crops (McCarthy and Dissanayake 1992).<br/><br/>Where undisturbed, Hog Deer tend to be crepuscular, with significant day-time activity and some at night, especially in the hot and wet seasons (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991). In some areas it seems to have become more nocturnal and solitary (e.g., Cambodia; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), presumably through hunting pressure. The main social group is a female and fawn. When more Hog Deer are together, they do not form a strong "unit", fleeing when flushed in different directions rather than as one. In Chitwan, aggregations of up to 20 animals have been observed feeding on new shoots following fire (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991). In Kaziranga, aggregations of 40–80 animals are frequently seen on grazing grounds created by Great Indian Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and/or short grasslands near large water bodies (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008, based on observations in 1996). Home ranges vary widely in size, but average about 5–70 ha, depending on how the range is defined (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991, Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Chitwan, Hog Deer are essentially sedentary (Dhungel and O’Gara (1991), but in cultivated landscapes (Sri Lanka) movements are reported to be influenced by agricultural seasons (McCarthy and Dissanayake 1992). They move into higher-lying grasslands in response to monsoon flooding in India, Myanmar and presumably throughout their range (Peacock 1933, Q. Qureshi pers. comm. 1995). The rut is during September–October in Nepal and India and (presumably based on captives) during September–February in China. 1–2 fawns are born during April–May in Nepal and during April–October in China. Gestation period is 220–230 days (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991, Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993). Fawns wean at six months, reaching sexual maturity at 8–12 months. The maximum recorded life span is 20 years.
41784		population	eng	<em style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</em><br/>Hog Deer are confined to isolated riverine grasslands along the Indus valley and its upper tributaries, mostly in the Indus River forest reserves of Sind Province, with small populations around the Indus mouth and to the north of Sukkur (Roberts 1977). The species was listed for the protected areas of Chashma Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, Head Islam/Chak Kotora Game Reserve (greatly reduced in number), Lal Suhanra National Park (reintroduced), Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary, and possibly Rasool Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary (WCMC 1992), but no information more recent than Whale (1996) has been traced.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">India</em><br/>Hog Deer are found mainly in the terai grasslands along the Himalayan foothills and the flood-plains of the Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra, from Punjab in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east (Tandon 1989, Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004, Biswas 2004). Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004), who made extensive surveys of the Terai Arc Landscape of India (for Tiger (<span style="font-style: italic;">Panthera tigris</span>) and various prey species), considered that Dudhwa Tiger Reserve is excellent habitat for Hog Deer; that there was a reasonable population in Pilhibit Forest Division, particularly the Lagga Bagga forest block (now within a Ttiger reserve; B. Long pers. comm. 2008); that Kishanpur Wildife Sanctuary (203 km²), with one of the few remnants of terai habitat in India, supported considerable numbers, and that Katarniaghat Wildife Division also held Hog Deer. Assessments conducted specifically for Hog Deer by Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002) (see also Biswas 2004) for India surmised that populations remained in 29–34 areas, with significant numbers only in the following: Arunachal Pradesh: 100–200 in D’ering, and 20–50 in Namdapha; Assam: 20–50 in Dibrusaikhowa, over 1,000 in Kaziranga (but see below), over 1,000 in Manas, 20–50 in Nameiri, 200–500 in Orang, 20–50 in Kobuchapori, 20–50 in Burachapori, and 20–50 in Sunai Rupa; Bihar: 100–200 in Valmiki; Uttrakand (= Uttaranchal): 200–500 in Corbett Tiger Reserve (but see below); Uttar Pradesh: 1,000–2,000 in Dudhwa, 20–50 in Katarniaghat, 100–200 in Kishanpur, and 20–50 in North Kheri Forest Division; and West Bengal: 100–200 in Gorumara and a population at Jaldapara. Their estimate for Pilhibit Forest Division was zero, <em>contra</em> Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004). Biswas’s study also considered that Hog Deer had been lost from 35 historically known localities, and suggested it was ‘endangered’, with citations given for alarming decline even prior to the mid 1970s (Biswas 2004). The figures were not derived from rigorous sampling and some will surely need revision. Particularly, it is certain that there are over 10,000 Hog Deer in Kaziranga, with a best estimate of 14,000–16,000, at ecological densities of 38.6 (with SE 3.45) animals per km² (Karanth and Nicholls 2000; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008); and in Corbett Tiger Reserve, only about 100 were reported in 2008 by Bivash Pandav (pers. comm. 2008) and while the actual number is unclear, densities are now very low, even in prime habitat (K.M. Chinnappa and Praveen per N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), and a rapid decline is in place (Ajith Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Dudhwa Tiger Reserve also faces a suite of conservation problems meaning that population status of Hog Deer there is unlikely to be as healthy as in Kaziranga: poaching is rampant, and the creeper <em>Tiliacora acuminate</em> is proliferating across Hog Deer habitat (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2002; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). At Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, where Biswas (1999) studied ecology of Hog Deer in the 1990s, sightings, and presumably populations, have now drastically declined (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers. comm. 2008). Hog Deer are now primarily restricted to protected areas (Anwaruddin Choudhury pers. comm. 2006), but south of Rajaji National Park there are a few isolated groups along the river (perhaps totalling about 100 animals); these are outside protected areas (Bivash Pandav pers. comm. 2008). All such populations outside protected areas are in very rapid decline (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). The presence of this species in Manipur and southern Assam (close to Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura) is based on records in Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002); its current status there is unknown. All groups in these areas were estimated to be very small, and should not be assumed to persist.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh</em><br/>The Hog Deer have disappeared from the Sundarbans (Salter 1984) and has not been reported from the Sylhet District, in the northeast, since the 1970s (Khan 2004). After a long period with no records, an animal was trapped by local people in 2002 (Khan 2004). Further surveys suggested that a few Hog Deer remained in the Chitagong Hill Tracts of the southeast (Khan 2004, Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008). There is a small captive population derived from native animals (Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008). Within historic times, Hog Deer was never widespread in the country and pressure was on it from at least the 1970s (Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</em><br/>Hog Deer are locally abundant in the terai, but is now restricted largely, if not entirely, to protected areas (Pralad Yonzon pers. comm. 2006, Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Although populations may currently be relatively stable, declines in the past 20–30 years are likely to have exceeded 30% (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Measured densities range from 0.1 per km² in riverine forest, to 16.5 per km² in savanna, and 35 per km² in grassland flood-plains (Seidensticker 1976, Dhungel and O’Gara 1991). In Bardia National Park, densities of 77.3 animals per km² in the floodplain association and 5.8 animals per km² in the riverine association (and 0 in Sal forest) were measured (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species occurs in the following protected areas: Parsa Wildlife Reserve (with a very small population), Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Bardia National Park, Chitwan National Park, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Each of Suklaphanta, Bardia, and Chitwan supports hundreds of Hog Deer.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan</em><br/>Hog Deer occur in the lowlands of southern Bhutan, but no information on current status has been traced. It occurs in at least two protected areas, Mochu Wildlife Reserve and Royal Manas National Park.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">China</em><br/>Hog Deer historically were recorded in China from the lowest valleys of Xishuangbanna in southern Yunnan, and has recently been stated to be extinct in the country (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990,; Smith and Xie Yan 2008).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar</em><br/>Hog Deer have long been known in Myanmar (e.g., Evans 1902) and occurred throughout the country wherever there were grassy plains (Peacock 1933). Detailed information on Hog Deer’s current range or population status in Myanmar has not been traced. It was already in major decline by the time Peacock (1933) wrote. It was listed only for three protected areas by WCMC (1992): Pidaung, Kahilu, and Hlawga Wildlife Reserves. Of these, the Hlawga population of many dozen (in 2007) is a semi-captive, managed herd: the entire area, of several square kilometers, is fenced; however, it may be ‘native’ in that the founders were reputedly from animals captured locally during the 1980s (Saw Htoo Tha Po verbally 2007 to J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). The Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuary was set aside in 1918 to protect an unusual mix of evergreen forest and savanna-like ecosystems (Milton <em>et al</em>. 1964), and Hog Deer used to be very numerous within it (Peacock 1933); at this time it was the only site in the country where Hog Deer received a measure of protection. Today, the presence of permanent human settlements, roads and railway lines, plantations of sugar cane, military camps, and permanent cultivation have completely altered large portions of the sanctuary, and an insignificant area of the original ecosystem remains (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2002). These land-uses are concentrated in the plains parts of the sanctuary, where Hog Deer used to live, and have converted so absolutely these areas that it is not obvious to someone driving along the road when the protected area is entered or exited. People and dogs are ubiquitous and it seems implausible that any Hog Deer could survive here (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, based on visits in 2005–2006). There are, however, plausible hunters’ and conservation staff reports from Hukaung Valley in Kachin state, and several government staff indicated in 2005–2007 that the species is still locally common in lowland Myanmar. However, firm evidence for widespread continued presence, rather than reporting of a status of some decades previously could not be found (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Pidaung was seen as a flagship protected area (it was one of the country’s first), and its current status does not augur well for the few other protected areas which contain suitable Hog Deer habitat. Extensive camera-trapping for a Tiger survey found no evidence of the species (Lynam 2003), but this may simply have reflected the focus of the survey on closed evergreen forests (habitats unsuitable for Hog Deer), as various other species known to be common but not using closed evergreen forest were also camera-trapped rarely if at all (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</em><br/>The species was formerly abundant in the Chao Phraya Basin during the early 20th century, but had become extinct there by the mid-1960s (Humphrey and Bain 1990). There was formerly a huge export trade, for example 20,000 skins went out of the Gulf of Siam (it is not stated whether this was from Thailand, Cambodia, or both) in 1930–1931 (Dumas 1944). There was a plea for conservation attention to the species in Thailand in Lekagul and McNeely (1977), but this seems to have come too late. Animals reportedly from Myanmar have been used to build up numerous managed herds in captive and semi-wild conditions across the country. Such animals were introduced into Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Propagation Station in northern Thailand in the early 1990s, at a higher elevation than is typical for the natural range of the species; this herd lives in open grassland around the edge of a reservoir (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). There is also an apparently large introduced population on the island of Ko Chang in the Gulf of Siam.<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Lao PDR</em><br/>Hog Deer are probably extinct in Lao PDR and its past status is difficult to assess: there are few, if any, specimens held in international collections from the country, and there were no records (except of old trophies) during extensive surveys across the country in the 1990s (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, Osgood (1932) specifically cautioned that it was much under-represented in zoological collections, despite it being locally common in Indochina. The extent to which this statement includes Lao PDR is unknown. All potentially suitable habitat patches are now small in size and are heavily used by local people, hunting pressure in Lao is high, and it is inconceivable in the great majority of areas that any Hog Deer could still persist (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Viet Nam</em><br/>Hog Deer are thought to be extinct in Viet Nam, having previously occurred in some large populations in suitable habitat (e.g. Clark undated) and apparently having been widespread in the south according to reports in Ratajszczak (1991). This reflects the rapidity with which suitable habitat has been lost and the heavy hunting pressure on large mammals throughout much of Viet Nam (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, Timmins and Duckworth 2000). If the species still occurs in Viet Nam, it is most likely to be along the Kon river in Kon Cha Rang Nature Reserve, the western Srepok river lowlands of Dak Lak Province, the Sa Tay area of Kon Tum and Gia Lai Provinces, the Dong Nai river lowlands and Lam Dong Province (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, there is no recent evidence other than anecdotal reports, and a trophy which may be of Hog Deer from the Kon Cha Rang NR area. Other evidence, notably high hunting rates of ungulates in general, suggest that even very small numbers are unlikely to survive (Dang Huy Huynh 1986, Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia</em><br/>Hog Deer used to be abundant on the vast marshy plains of Cambodia, such as around Sre Ambel, in the province of Kratie, around Kompong Som, and around Kampot; in the drier regions of much of the north it was not common (Dumas 1944). Increased wildlife surveys from 1994 onwards failed to find Hog Deer anywhere in Cambodia until it was re-found in Kratie in 2006, following concerns it might already be extinct (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007). A few animals, probably in the low dozens, remain scattered in small groups in remnant areas of floodplain grasslands and other vegetation in Kratie Province (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007, Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Other such populations might remain, but this becomes progressively less likely as surveys cover more potential areas without finding the species, and as the country rapidly converts remaining semi-natural lowland river plains to agriculture (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em style="font-weight: bold;">Sri Lanka</em> (introduced)<br/>Hog Deer are restricted to largely cultivated landscapes within a 35 km² area, between Ambalangoda and Indurawa on the southwest coast, and inland as far as Elpitiya (McCarthy and Dissanayake 1992, 1994). It does not occur in any protected area. Hog Deer was probably introduced to Sri Lanka by the Dutch or the Portugese in the 16th century, or possibly by a Sinhalese ruler in the pre-colonial period or the British later on; suggestions that it is native lack credibility because of the absence of records across central and southern India (Biswas and Mathur 2000).
41784		threats	eng	Hog Deer is threatened by hunting and by habitat loss and degradation; much prime Hog Deer habitat had probably been converted well before the twentieth century (e.g., Peacock 1933). The balance between these threats and their current severity varies somewhat between ‘South Asia’ (here comprising India, Nepal, presumably Bhutan, and perhaps Pakistan) and ‘South-east Asia’ (here comprising China, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, and Bangladesh). There is insufficient information to judge for Myanmar into which group it would fit, reflecting current threats and resultant Hog Deer status. Sri Lanka is outside the native range so not considered in detail here.<br/><br/>In the Mekong countries of Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, and also probably China and Bangladesh, hunting has been, and remains, the primary direct threat to the species. In addition to local consumption of meat, the main factor presently driving such hunting is the thriving and probably increasing national, regional and East Asian markets trade in bushmeat, abetted by markets for traditional medicinal products derived from deer species and for trophy antlers (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is also possible that hunting could be stimulated by demand for captive animals, especially from zoos and menageries in Thailand and Cambodia (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species is apparently easy to hunt compared with other sympatric deer (e.g. Peacock 1933, Dumas 1944), and fawns are likely to be very vulnerable to dogs which almost always accompany human parties during excursions, however, brief, outside farm and residential land, even if these are not for hunting (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Hunting itself has been greatly augmented by habitat loss: the vast majority of tall floodplain grasslands have been lost in the region due to the suitability of such habitat for human settlement and agriculture, and only very small patches remain. This huge extent of habitat loss probably occurred largely after Hog Deer had been hunted down to negligible numbers (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Given these threats, which are ongoing, Hog Deer is one of the most threatened large mammals in Indochina (Timmins and Duckworth 2000, Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The most significant challenge to conserving the species there is the uncertainty involved with long term protected area-based conservation management. The area in Cambodia from which deer are known has been proposed as a protected area, but it remains to be seen if deer could be protected within the area.<br/><br/>Even in South Asia, where many protected areas are effective in conserving populations of large ungulates, Hog Deer declined precipitously in the twentieth century through habitat loss and hunting. It is still in decline even within some protected areas (e.g. Bhowmik 2002; see below). In India, habitat loss to cultivation has greatly reduced the area available to Hog Deer, and has continued to do so outside protected areas even in recent decades (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) stated that high levels of malaria had previously discouraged settlement, agriculture, and thus habitat conversion in the Terai Arc Landscape, and that the conquering of malaria has made the Indian side of the Terai Arc Landscape "one of the most densely populated regions of [India, with a] population growing at a much higher rate than the rest of [India]. Most of the fertile terai plains have been taken over by agriculture". Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) stated that controlling disturbance to Lagga Bagga forest block in Pilibhit Forest Division (now within a tiger reserve; B. Long pers. comm. 2008) is a huge challenge: many people rely on it for firewood, thatch grass and fodder, and that intensive protection and participatory management with these people are required to restore the area. Such a threat profile is typical of areas supporting Hog Deer. Outside protected areas, some Hog Deer remain in woodland areas where densities are very low, and although animals do appear to breed in such situations, it is unclear in the absence of adjacent high-density river plains populations how viable such woodland populations will be in the long term (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006). Protected areas are encroached for cultivation and even more so for livestock grazing, which is surely increasing pressure on Hog Deer along with many other species. As a grazing species, Hog Deer numbers are likely to be severely depressed by competition with domestic livestock (by analogy with other wild ruminants, as detailed by Madhusudan 2004), although no data were traced on this. Domestic stock are ubiquitous in all areas outside the protected area network and even occur in many within it, specifically at least: Chitwan; Orang; Jaldapara; and Gorumara (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; R.H. Emslie pers. comm.; B.N. Talukdar pers. comm. S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Most populations in India are under severe threat from hunting (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), although the largest population of the species, in Kaziranga, has been secured from this threat for many years. Poaching occurs in protected areas throughout the Indian range, especially in north Bengal, and can be associated with other human uses of protected areas perceived to be more legitimate, such as grazing camps (Biswas 2004). Many old skulls of Hog Deer were found across Arunachal Pradesh and Assam during the survey of Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002). On average 2–3 skulls were recorded from most houses in villages randomly visited during the survey in Arunachal Pradesh. Regularly, shots were heard and machans (tree-houses made for poaching) were found during the surveys in Nameri National Park, Sonai-Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary and Namdapha Tiger Reserve. According to questionnaire, 52% of responses reported high incidence of Hog Deer hunting in neighbouring areas. Hunting was reported as the primary reason for the sudden decline of the Hog Deer population from north Bengal since 1877. Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002) detailed evidence of Hog Deer hunting during the survey and past records from the district of Cooch Behar (West Bengal) back to the 18th century. Even today, even in high-profile areas such a Corbett Tiger Reserve and Rajaji National Park, there are still instances of deer poaching, and poaching has seriously depleted abundance of large mammals in most of the Terai Arc Landscape. Some poaching is driven by a desire to seek adventure, the thrill of shikar and wild meat, some by crushing poverty of daily wage labourers and others, some to take advantage of the business opportunity of supplying a lucrative trade. Poaching is done with dogs, snares, spears and guns (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Outside protected areas in India, enforcement of anti-hunting regulations is patchy and, unless there is effective specific intervention, all Hog Deer populations in such areas will become extirpated in the near future from hunting (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Hog Deer avidly eats rice and so in the past was “destroyed ruthlessly on such grounds” (Peacock 1933). It seems unlikely that killing Hog Deer solely for reduction of crop damage is nowadays a reason for population decline, although it may be a convenient excuse to kill deer. Most serious is that the predilection of Hog Deer to eat rice is likely to being them into closer contact with people and therefore increase easy opportunities for hunting. In Kratie, Cambodia, Hog Deer occur near, and seasonally forage in, rice fields, especially in the early rainy season; people set traps for wild pigs <em>Sus</em> sp(p). (which are more abundant than Hog Deer), and the traps sometimes kill Hog Deer. The local people now are reportedly refraining from using indiscriminate traps in the Hog Deer area, but such cooperation is unlikely to continue forever, because crop predation by pigs is really a problem (A. Maxwell pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In today’s highly fragmented populations which have limited dispersal possibility, flooding may take heavy tolls, especially in the Brahmaputra flood plain (Q. Qureshi pers. comm. 1995). In Kaziranga National Park, where the largest population of this species is found, flooding is likely to be a major threat: in 1998 the flood reduced the population to less than half its pre-flood number (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006). The situation is similar in Nepal where Hog Deer appears to be especially vulnerable because of the short-grass habitats it usually uses during flood season, and in protected area like Koshi Tappu, flooding probably causes wide fluctuations in population numbers (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Hog Deer populations appear to rebound quickly even from heavy losses, but the fragmentation and increasing isolation of populations into small areas, sometimes with no linkage to suitable higher ground, makes periodic losses from flooding a high risk for future site-level extinctions. Flooding is also a danger because, except in areas of effective anti-poaching activity, by marooning Hog Deer on little patches of high ground it makes them more easy to hunt (Peacock 1933).<br/><br/>A further threat also reflects the colossal habitat fragmentation in recent centuries. Prime Hog Deer habitats are naturally dynamic, and on a living floodplain new areas of grasslands are constantly created through natural processes to replace those changing through natural succession to woody vegetation; creation occurs through traumatic change of floodplain stream and land layout during spates (Dinerstein 1979; Lehmkuhl 1994; Peet <em>et al</em>. 1999). This is incompatible with farming and other human land-uses, which seek a predictable landscape. Hence, within Hog Deer range, there are very few active natural floodplains in which pre-exploitation processes shape the landscape in this way. Thus, the grasslands which are the prime habitat of Hog Deer generally require active management. In some protected areas grasslands are being lost by succession of wooded habitats, for example Chitwan (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006) and Bardia (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). By contrast, annual burning in Kaziranga, while maintaining a grass habitat, has rapidly changed the grassland structure and composition and how this change affects Hog Deer populations is not known (S. Deb Roy pers. comm. 1996). In Nepal there is also succession of different grassland types and in particular <em>Imperata cylindrica</em> grasslands, which Hog Deer appears to favour at certain times of the year (Biswas 2004), are being replaced by larger cane grasses (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Locally, conservation management of grasslands to benefit rhinoceroses, for instance in Jaldapara, might negatively affect Hog Deer (Biswas 2004 and references within).<br/><br/>The invasive creeper <em>Mikania</em> sp. threatens Hog Deer’s favoured grasslands both within and outside protected areas, and after flooding and poaching is possibly the next most serious threat to the species in Nepal (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). In combination with invasion by <em>Chromolaena odorata</em> (=<em>Eupatorium odoratum</em>), heavy livestock grazing pressure and invasion of some grasslands by <em>Acacia catechu</em> and <em>Dalbergia sissou</em>, the grassland area in Chitwan has been reduced from 20% to 4.7% of the national park (R.H. Emslie pers. comm.). <em>Mikania</em> sp. Is also carpeting large areas of non-forest habitats in the Hukaung Valley, Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). <em>Lantana camara</em> is also displacing native plants widely, and in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, the creeper <em>Tiliacora acuminata</em> is proliferating across Hog Deer habitat (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2002; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). In Assam an invasive <em>Mimosa</em> sp. threatens the habitat in sites like Kaziranga and Orang National Parks, whereas in Manas National Park an invasive <em>Lea</em> sp. has become a major threat to the grassland habitat of the hog deer (B. Talukdar pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Floodplain grasslands are strongly affected in their pace of natural succession by water flows and levels, and seasonal patterns in them. Hydropower development changes these parameters and thus threatens habitat, including a project under consideration across the Mekong which would affect the sole known population of <em>A. p. annamiticus</em> (that in Cambodia), and another across the Karnali river which would modify habitats in Bardia, Nepal (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). There have been proposals to dam the Brahmaputra River in Arunachal Pradesh, and should this happen, this could very negatively affect the habitat quality and Hog Deer carrying capacity of major parks like Kaziranga in future (by preventing or reducing the pulse of nutrients brought in by regular large floods, as well as changes in water levels and flows). In Jaldapara Sanctuary, the River Torsa no longer overflows as a result of massive flood-control structures. As a result the water table in the sanctuary is receding and the natural water-bodies and wallow-pools are slowly drying up (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Disease epidemics spreading from domestic livestock presumably pose a threat, especially given the close overlap of Hog Deer and domestic livestock in South Asia, the high densities especially of the latter, and the small and localised nature of Hog Deer populations.<br/><br/>In the introduced range, in Sri Lanka the continued survival of the introduced populations depends on controlling hunting and maintaining traditional agricultural land use practices. The land is too intensively cultivated for the establishment of protected areas within the range of the species. Threats in the rest of the introduced range are not reviewed here.
41785		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies <em>C. e. corsicanus </em>is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).<br/><br/>Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extend by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation.
41785		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies <em>C. e. corsicanus </em>is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).<br/><br/>Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extend by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus hanglu</span>), Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus bactrianus</span>) and Appendix III (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus barbarus</span> [Algeria and Tunisia]).
41785		conservation	eng	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies <em>C. e. corsicanus </em>is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).<br/><br/>Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extent by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation. In this respect the following populations are important and should be given a high priority for conservation and research:<br/><br/><strong>Swedish Red Deer (<em>C. e. elaphus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>Red deer population of Skåne, Southern Sweden<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>C. e. elaphus</em> with original distribution in central Europe and southern Scandinavia has its only remaining free-living population that is free from hybridization in Skåne, Sweden (Ahlén 1965, I. Ahlén pers. comm. 2007). Genetic studies have confirmed that there is no mixing with eastern European or wapiti genes that has affected all other populations in central Europe, Denmark and other parts of Sweden. In the official Swedish Red List produced in 2005 this subspecies was classified as VU (D1) (Gärdenfors 2005). <br/><br/><strong>Norwegian Red Deer (<em>C. e. atlanticus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>All red deer occurring in Norway still represent pure <em>C.e. atlanticus</em>, with the only exception being the isolated population on the Island of Otteroy, which has experienced an inflow of genes from introduced red deer from Germany (Ahlén 1965, Trense CIC pers. comm. to W. Frey).<br/><br/><strong>Scottish Red Deer (<em>C. e. scoticus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>Otago Mountains Red deer population, New Zealand<br/><br/>The red deer population of the Otago Mountains was established in 1871 with animals from Invermark Forest, Scotland, long before these could have been polluted through introductions from other sources. Unfortunately there are deer farms now all around the periphery of the Otago Mountains, from which animals escape from time to time. Red deer from the central sections of the range land however are still pure <em>C.e. scoticus</em>. This has been supported by the results of genetic investigations (Banwell pers. comm. to W. Frey). Banwell recommends that some of these animals pure bred animals should be removed before it is too late, and Frey suggested that an isolated population should be established in Great Britain with animals from this source, as according to Carne (2000) there is no red deer population left in Great Britain and Ireland that reliably represents pure <em>C.e. scoticus</em> (W. Frey pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/><strong>Central European Red Deer (<em>C. e. hippelaphus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>Western populations<br/><br/>Vosges Red deer population<br/><br/>The population of the Vosges, presently numbering c.15,000 individuals, derives from an autochthonous relict population of some 200 head. Recent contacts to the neighbouring non-autochthonous population in Germany cannot be excluded. However if gene flow between both populations has already occurred, it is believed that this should have been in one direction only: from the Vosges population to the German population (Riffel pers. comm. to W. Frey). This assumption was strongly supported by extensive genetic investigations of the Vosges population (Hartl <em>et al.</em> 1991, Hartl pers. comm. to W. Frey). The genetic integrity of the Vosges population however is threatened in the longer term, if  a pure transplant population is not established.<br/><br/><br/>Eastern populations<br/><br/>Red deer populations of Greece, Bulgaria and the European part of Turkey<br/><br/>The red deer populations of Greece and Bulgaria have remained free from admixtures of foreign genes (Trense CIC pers. comm. to W. Frey), as has the population of the Belgrad Forest in Turkey (Can pers. comm. to W. Frey)  Whilst there are about 29,000 red deer in Bulgaria (Chassovnikarova <em>et al.</em> 2003) very little is known about the status of the species in Greece, with the exception that the total number of individuals cannot be high and is concentrated in a few isolated populations. Clutton-Brock and Gill (1989) mentioned with reference to Papageorgiou that the red deer occurring on the Sithonia peninsula is in need of better protection and may deserve examination for possible sub-specific status.<br/><br/><br/>Red deer of the Italian peninsula<br/><br/>Mesola Red Deer <br/><br/>The Gran Bosco della Mesola Natural Reserve harbours the only autochthonous unmixed population of red deer in the Italian peninsula. The population size dropped to the historically lowest level of 10 animals in 1945-1947. In spring 1998 there were 59 individuals. Considering zoogeographical factors, this indigenous red deer may represent a separate subspecies (Mattioli 1990, Hmwe <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><br/><strong>Sardinian Red Deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)</strong><br/><br/>It is possible that the red deer of Sardinia and Corsica is descended from deer from mainland Italy that reached the island naturally during the Pleistocene. It is also possible that it was introduced by man in Holocene times (Hmwe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Genetic studies suggest that populations on Sardinia and Corsica are closely related to the north African subspecies <em>C. e. barbarus</em> (Ludt <em>et al.</em> 2004, Pitra <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><br/><strong>Iberian Red Deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus)</strong><br/><br/>Iberian subspecies <em>C.e. hispanicus</em> might represent a relict of the red deer populations before the last Ice Age. The Coto Doñana red deer population represents pure <em>C.e. hispanicus</em> (Riffel pers. comm. to W. Frey), and there are probably more unmixed populations left of this subspecies (W. Frey pers. comm. 2006). Nevertheless, it is considered to be threatened by genetic introgression from introduced animals from other parts of Europe. There have been many introductions of allochthonous red deer by private landowners seeking to "improve" the antlers, only some of which have been documented. (Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2003).
41785		distribution	eng	The red deer has a large global distribution extending from Europe and North Africa through central Asia, Siberia, the Far East and North America (Corbet 1978, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). Formerly widespread in Canada and the United States, it is now mostly restricted to western North America, with small reintroduced populations elsewhere (Grubb, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is widely but somewhat patchily distributed throughout most of continental Europe, although it is absent from northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It is present on a number of islands, including the British Isles and Sardinia. It is extinct in Albania. There are several small introduced subpopulations in Russia (all introduced into nature reserves for hunting) of unknown origin. There may be a small natural subpopulation at Kaliningrad in Russia just across the Polish border (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, the small isolated subpopulations are the result of reintroductions into areas where it previously occurred. Likewise in Portugal all populations result from reintroduction or natural expansion from transborder Spanish populations which in turn were reintroduced. It occurs from sea level to above the tree line (c.2,500 m) in the Alps. The distribution is much more patchy and fragmented than the apparent continuity suggested by the distribution map. <br/><br/>In Africa it is found in NE Algeria and Tunisia. It is in the near and Middle East in Turkey, N Iran, and Iraq, but extinct in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. In central Asia, it is found in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (extinct), Uzbekistan, N Afghanistan, N India (Kashmir Valley), N Pakistan (vagrant), east to Siberia, Mongolia, and W and N China.  It is found regionally in Mongolia in Hövsgöl, Hangai, Hentii, Ikh Hyangan, Mongol-Altai and Govi Altai mountain ranges; it was reintroduced into open hills in south-eastern parts of its range (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1982; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989). In China, specifically, it is found in Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, Manchuria, Ninxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan, and E Tibet including Qinghai.  It also inhabits Korea and the Ussuri region of Russia.
41785		distribution	eng	The red deer has a large global distribution extending from Europe and North Africa through central Asia, Siberia, the Far East and North America (Corbet 1978, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is widely but somewhat patchily distributed throughout most of continental Europe, although it is absent from northern Fennoscandia and most of European Russia. It is present on a number of islands, including the British Isles and Sardinia. It is extinct in Albania. There are several small introduced subpopulations in Russia (all introduced into nature reserves for hunting) of unknown origin. There may be a small natural subpopulation at Kaliningrad in Russia just across the Polish border (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, the small isolated subpopulations are the result of reintroductions into areas where it previously occurred. Likewise in Portugal all populations result from reintroduction or natural expansion from transborder Spanish populations which in turn were reintroduced. It occurs from sea level to above the tree line (c.2,500 m) in the Alps. The distribution is much more patchy and fragmented than the apparent continuity suggested by the distribution map.
41785		habitat	eng	It inhabits open deciduous woodland, upland moors and open mountainous areas (sometimes above the treeline), natural grasslands, pastures and meadows (Koubek and Zima 1999). In woodland, its diet consists mainly of shrub and tree shoots, but in other habitats it also consumes grasses, sedges and shrubs.
41785		habitat	eng	It inhabits open deciduous woodland, upland moors and open mountainous areas (sometimes above the treeline), natural grasslands, pastures and meadows (Koubek and Zima 1999). In woodland, its diet consists mainly of shrub and tree shoots, but in other habitats it also consumes grasses, sedges and shrubs.<br/><br/>Generally found in mountainous regions, where it spends summers in alpine meadows and winters in valleys. On more level terrain, seeks wooded hillsides in summer, open grasslands in winter. In the USA, Pacific coast populations are more sedentary than are those elsewhere. Migrates from areas with deep snow. Some individuals in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, migrate up to 97 kilometers annually (Adams 1982).<br/><br/>Bushes and trees are critical for protection from predators such as wolves, and as an important source of food during the winter in the form of browse (Chen <em>et al.</em>, 1998). During the September-October rut, Mongolian populations of red deer congregate in large groups and are more often found in open lowland areas (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Found in China up to 5,000 m, animals come lower into valleys in winter.  They live in small herds of females and young, gathering into larger herds in winter.  Stags live singly or form all male herds in summer, but gather harems in rut season in late summer, without obvious territories.  Natural lifespan is about 15 years, but a captive animal lived up to almost 27 years.  Calving occurs in June-July following a gestation of 235 days.  Females drop single calves in late spring. Young are mature at 1.5-2.5 years.
41785		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species across much of its current range, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in northern Africa, central Europe and in the western USA and Canada, and the species has been lost from some areas. In portions of North America where predators have been removed the species is common  and populations are managed by recreational hunting. Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (up to c.25 per km<sup>2</sup>, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations: S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations. In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). The species has been extirpated in historical times from Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Jordan.<br/><br/>Populations in Northern Africa, however, have been increasingly declining. In Algeria, <em>C. e. barbarus</em> persists in the Annaba, Bouchegouf, and El-Kala regions, where it is restricted to the Beni-Salah, Ben Abed, and El-Kala forests (DSG 1988). The total number of animals in the mid-1970s was reported to be 400?600 (Halisse 1975), and by the late 1980s reached around 2,000 animals (Dolan 1988; de Smet 1989). However, the population has been in a sharp decline since (K. de Smet pers. comm.. 2007). In Tunisia, the population was reported to have expanded considerably during the 1970s, with populations known in El Feidja, Ain Draham, and Tabarka regions (DSG 1988). The total population of ten animals in 1961 had increased to around 2,000 by the late 1980s. Much of this increase is attributed to the success of the 1966 reintroduction protection program at El Feidja, which has resulted in colonization of an approx. 100 km length of coastal Tunisia (Dolan 1988). A survey in 2006 showed that population levels were significantly lower than estimated before. In Morocco it went extinct in the early 20th century (by 1932). There have more recently been reintroductions into two enclosures but wild populations have not yet become established (F. Cuzin pers. comm.. 2007).<br/><br/>A regional assessment has been completed for this species as part of the European Mammal Assessment (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/ema/), which offers more details on European occuances, populations and threats.<br/><br/>In China, some eight subspecies of red deer are present in China, of which five have threatened status: <em>C. e. yarkandensis</em> had a declining population of about 4,000?5,000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakax rivers, central Xinjiang Province (Gu Jinghe 1991); <em>C. e. wallichi</em> was thought to be present in southeastern Tibet; <em>C. e. macneilli</em> occurs in western Sichuan Province and eastern Tibet, where its status is unknown; <em>C. e. alashanicus</em> occurs in the Alashan Mountains of southeastern Inner Mongolia (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). A recent survey by Schaller <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggests that <em>C. e. affinis</em> is confined to just a few localities in southeastern Tibet along the headwaters of the Subansiri River and Yarlung Tsangpo, which holds the largest known population of at least 110?125 (near Zhengi Village).
41785		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species across much of its current range, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in northern Africa, central Europe and in the western USA and Canada, and the species has been lost from some areas. In portions of North America where predators have been removed the species is common  and populations are managed by recreational hunting. Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (up to c.25 per km<sup>2</sup>, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations: S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations. In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). The species has been extirpated in historical times from Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Jordan.<br/><br/>Populations in Northern Africa, however, have been increasingly declining. In Algeria, <em>C. e. barbarus</em> persists in the Annaba, Bouchegouf, and El-Kala regions, where it is restricted to the Beni-Salah, Ben Abed, and El-Kala forests (DSG 1988). The total number of animals in the mid-1970s was reported to be 400–600 (Halisse 1975), and by the late 1980s reached around 2,000 animals (Dolan 1988; de Smet 1989). However, the population has been in a sharp decline since (K. de Smet pers. comm.. 2007). In Tunisia, the population was reported to have expanded considerably during the 1970s, with populations known in El Feidja, Ain Draham, and Tabarka regions (DSG 1988). The total population of ten animals in 1961 had increased to around 2,000 by the late 1980s. Much of this increase is attributed to the success of the 1966 reintroduction protection program at El Feidja, which has resulted in colonization of an approx. 100 km length of coastal Tunisia (Dolan 1988). A survey in 2006 showed that population levels were significantly lower than estimated before. In Morocco it went extinct in the early 20th century (by 1932). There have more recently been reintroductions into two enclosures but wild populations have not yet become established (F. Cuzin pers. comm.. 2007).<br/><br/>A regional assessment has been completed for this species as part of the European Mammal Assessment (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/ema/), which offers more details on European occuances, populations and threats.<br/><br/>In China, some eight subspecies of red deer are present in China, of which five have threatened status: <em>C. e. yarkandensis</em> had a declining population of about 4,000–5,000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakax rivers, central Xinjiang Province (Gu Jinghe 1991); <em>C. e. wallichi</em> was thought to be present in southeastern Tibet; <em>C. e. macneilli</em> occurs in western Sichuan Province and eastern Tibet, where its status is unknown; <em>C. e. alashanicus</em> occurs in the Alashan Mountains of southeastern Inner Mongolia (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). A recent survey by Schaller <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggests that <em>C. e. affinis</em> is confined to just a few localities in southeastern Tibet along the headwaters of the Subansiri River and Yarlung Tsangpo, which holds the largest known population of at least 110–125 (near Zhengi Village).
41785		population	eng	It is a widespread and abundant species, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in central Europe, and the species has been lost from some areas (EMA Workshop 2006). Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (up to c.25 per km<sup>2</sup>, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations: S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations. In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). Subspecies <em>C. e corsicanus</em>, endemic to the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, is relatively rare but its numbers are increasing. It was reintroduced to Corsica in the 1970s and is found in three small subpopulations, estimated in 2005 to number no fewer than 5,000 individuals (S. Lovari <em>in litt. </em>2006).
41785		threats	eng	The main threat is the intermixing of the various subspecies, including subspecies from North America (wapiti) and Asia, as well as hybridisation with sika deer <em>Cervus nippon</em> (Koubek and Zima 1999, EMA Workshop 2006). The introduction of animals from North America has also resulted in the spread of parasites and diseases to previously unaffected subpopulations (e.g. liver worms). Overhunting and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation are other pressures (Wemmer 1998), but they are not thought to pose a major threat to the species at present (EMA Workshop 2006).
41785		threats	eng	The main threat is the intermixing of the various subspecies, including subspecies from North America (wapiti) and Asia to Europe and vice versa, as well as hybridisation with sika deer <em>Cervus nippon</em> (Koubek and Zima 1999). The introduction of animals from North America to Europe has also resulted in the spread of parasites and diseases to previously unaffected subpopulations (e.g. liver worms). In many areas hunting is strictly regulated on this species and harvests are used to control population growth as large predators have been removed or "controlled" over much of the range. Overhunting and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation are other pressures (Wemmer 1998) in some areas and for some subspecies, but they are not thought to pose a major threat to the species at present.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, this species is primarily targeted for its antler velvet, which is highly valued in traditional medicines, with a market value of $60-100 USD per kg of antlers. Other body parts, including male genital organs, foetuses and female tails, are also valued for traditional medicines and have similar market values (Zahler <em>et al.</em>, 2004). The resulting illegal and unsustainable hunting has caused a 92% population decline over the past 18 years (Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004). Habitat loss and fragmentation, and human disturbance resulting from mining activities and infrastructure development, also constitute threats to some extent.  Trophy hunters can purchase hunting licenses from which $1,170 USD is allocated to the government (MNE, 2005).<br/><br/>In China the species is subject to heavy poaching (Gu Jinghe pers. comm.).  Antlers, tendons, unborn fawns, male reproductive organs, and tails from C. e. yarkandensis fetch a high price on local markets for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Current market prices for these products are increasing rapidly. Young deer are sold as stud for deer farming projects. (Gu Jinghe 1991). In India, the species historically declined due to intensive hunting, until implementation of conservation measures in the late 1970s.  High densities of domestic stock (primarily sheep) and human disturbance have also been contributing factors (Kurt 1978). In Afghanistan and the former USSR, the species is heavily poached for food, and settlement, stock grazing, and reed burning have reduced available habitat (Petocz 1973).  In Russia, it has declined as a result of development of the Amu-Darya river valley (Bannikov 1978). In Algeria and Tunisia, the species has declined due to overhunting, particularly during the Algerian War,  and habitat degradation destruction and direct mortality from anthropogenic forest fires (DSG 1988). In Corsica and Sardinia, C. e. corsicanus declined as a result of hunting (Dolan 1988).C. e. wallichi has declined predominantly as a result of hunting, but also due to pressure from pastoralism (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 1996).
41786		conservation	eng	This is found in Nouragues Nature Reserve, French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).
41786		distribution	eng	This rodent was known initially from only two specimens collected in the tropical forest of French Guiana on the right bank of the Sinnamary River. There is also a collection from Guyana (Lim, in press) which extends the known distribution considerably westward. It may also occur in Suriname and Brazil. There is one additional record in Nouragues Nature Reserve, French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).
41786		habitat	eng	This rodent is found in tropical rain forest (Terra Firme) (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).
41786		population	eng	Known only from five specimens, information is absent on the population status of this species.
41786		threats	eng	The type locality disappeared as the result of the flooding of the forest during the filling of the Petit Saut Dam. 350 km² of its potential range has been flooded; access to the dam (road and electricity lines) plus fragmentation of the habitat as a result of the flooding (many islands were created) has destroyed a few more hundred square kilometres of potential habitat (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).
41787		conservation	eng	<em>Spermophilus franklinii</em> is listed as S2 (Imperiled) in Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ontario, and Wisconsin; and as S3 (Rare) in Iowa. Thus <em>S. franklinii</em> has listed status in 6 out of 14 states and provinces of its historical range. However, many of the S4 (Apparently Secure) and S5 (Secure) rankings seem to be based on insubstantial data. Some exceptions are Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, where populations still seem to be relatively common. <em>Spermophilus franklinii</em> is unranked in Minnesota and North Dakota. There are no individuals of <em>S. franklinii</em> in captivity listed in the International Species Information System database (ISIS 2003).<br/><br/>There have been at least two introductions of <em>S. franklinii</em>, both in Illinois and both were failures. The first attempt (van Petten and Schramm 1972) succeeded for a number of years and was reportedly doing well in the late 1980s (Hoffmeister 1989: 163-164), but when the site was surveyed in 2001 by Martin <em>et al</em>. (2002), no squirrels were caught. The second attempt (Panzer and Schipp 1986) may have failed because of lack of dispersal possibilities from a small, urban site (Martin <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Recent literature and conversations indicate populations of <em>S. franklinii</em> exist in the following protected areas. Alberta: Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Lakeland Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Long Lake Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Sir Winston Churchill Provincial Park (Alberta ERM); Illinois: Barnhart Grove Prairie Restoration (Champaign County Soil and Water Conservation District); Indiana: Clark and Pine Nature Preserve (Indiana DNR), Gibson Woods/Shell Oil Nature Preserve (Lake County Parks Dept.); Manitoba: Belair Provincial Forest (Manitoba ERM), Grand Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Riding Mountain National Park (Canadian Wildlife Service), St. Ambroise Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Spruce Woods Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Winnipeg Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM); Saskatchewan: Douglas Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Duck Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Good Spirit Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Moose Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), St. Denis National Wildlife Area (Canadian Wildlife Service); Wisconsin: Chiwaukee Prairie (Wisconsin DNR/The Nature Conservancy).<br/><br/><strong>Recommended Action:</strong><br/>1. Initiate metapopulation study to determine rates and distances of <em>S. franklinii</em> colonization events. Study factors that influence colonization and extinction rates.<br/>2. Initiate genetic studies to determine genetic diversity and structure of <em>S. franklinii</em> metapopulations.<br/>3. Initiate studies of stable populations to help understand basis for population size change.<br/>4. Acquire and preserve other lands inhabited by <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>5. Improve census information in all 14 states and provinces.<br/>6. Improve knowledge of vegetation and soil required by this species.<br/>7. Initiate cooperative agreements with railroads for management of rights-of-way inhabited by <em>S. franklinii</em> populations (e.g., stop frequent mowing and treating with herbicide).<br/>8. Acquire for preservation abandoned railroad rights-of-way inhabited by <em>S. franklinii</em> populations, especially those connecting larger preserves.<br/>9. Identify extent to which <em>S. franklinii</em> is controlled by farmers and ranchers. Design a program compatible with conservation of <em>S. franklinii</em> and economic needs of farmers and ranchers.<br/>10. Assess effect of "poison peanuts" on <em>S. franklinii</em>. If <em>S. franklinii</em> is impacted, modify control program to mitigate effect on <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>11. Assess effect of pesticides on <em>S. franklinii</em>. If <em>S. franklinii</em> is impacted, modify pesticide program to mitigate effect on <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>12. Initiate a public education program about <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>13. Initiate captive breeding and translocation program reintroducing animals to suitable habitats.
41787		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the United States and Canada: from Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois northward to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. This includes parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Ontario; and all of Iowa. Eastern (Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Ontario) and southern (Kansas, Missouri) parts of its range seem to be shrinking rapidly with few populations (often estimated to be less than 10 per state or province) known to remain extant. Populations in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan still seem to be relatively common.
41787		habitat	eng	This species has a strong affinity for tall grass and mid-grass prairies. It also uses riparian areas (marsh edges), forest-field edges, fields, hedgerows, and unmowed strips along railroad rights-of-way and roadsides. It generally avoids short grass habitats. Nests are in underground burrows. It is primarily diurnal, but less conspicuous than other ground squirrels. Less than 10% of its time is spent above ground (Sowls 1948). It begins hibernation by late September.<br/><br/>It is not colonial, but lives in loose colonies. Densities of 10-20/ha have been recorded (Banfield 1974). Populations appear cyclic and peak every 4-6 years. During peak years it may occur in densities of 30/acre (74/ha) (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). In central South Dakota, the annual home range was 25 ha for males, 9 ha for females (Choromanski-Norris <em>et al.</em> 1989). <br/><br/>The breeding period is immediately after hibernation in early spring. Gestation lasts 28 days, with young being born in May or June. Litter size is 5-11 (average 7); with one litter per year. Young are weaned in 40 days.<br/><br/>Although prairie habitats may be stable or increasing, other Franklin’s Ground Squirrel habitats may be declining. The availability of suitable cover and soil structure for burrows contribute to limiting their distribution. Burrows must be deep to be insulated from heat and cold, and must be well drained. This species seems to prefer to burrow in embankments (river and ditch banks; Kennicott 1855) or berms (highway and railroad rights-of-way; Ellis 1982). This may be because: <br/><br/>1) there is better drainage; <br/>2) embankments and berms often consist of less tightly packed soil, allowing easier digging; or <br/>3) tunnels need to be shorter. <br/><br/>Elevated railroad right-of-way beds seem to provide acceptable habitats, as well as dispersal corridors. In fact, in states for which data exist, populations of <em>S. franklinii</em> have become largely restricted to railroad rights-of-way, and to some lesser extent prairie fragments. Ellis (1982) points out that such rights-of-way usually have a diversity of dicotyledonous plants and a mixture of weedy and native species. Occasionally populations are also found in road rights-of-way, prairie cemeteries, forest/grassland edges, fencerows, and fallow fields and pastures. While prairies are no longer declining dramatically in acreage, railroad right-of-way habitats are being lost to changing management techniques and abandonment. Encroachment by woody vegetation on abandoned rights-of-way may provide less suitable conditions for <em>S. franklinii</em>. It requires adequate vegetative cover, and are not found in areas with short grasses resulting from frequent mowing (more than once a year) or herbicide treatments (Benjamin 1991, Lewis and Rongstad 1992, Hofmann 1999). It is possible that right-of-ways are more often mowed or treated with herbicide by railroad maintenance crews than in the past.
41787		population	eng	It is thought to be very rare in Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Ontario, Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri; scarce in Nebraska, Minnesota, South Dakota, and North Dakota; and relatively common in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. In most of the United States the <em>S. franklinii</em> population is highly fragmented into small, often linear habitats. In much of Canada, even though fire suppression has resulted in the succession of prairie to aspen parkland, large contiguous tracts have been preserved, and <em>S. franklinii</em> seems to be faring better.<br/><br/>However, in view of extensive loss of prairie habitats, together with available data that document declines in both area of occupancy and extent of occurrence, it is likely that <em>S. franklinii</em> has declined to the level of rarity in the USA. On the other hand, while there has been some additional loss of prairies in the last 10 years, it is probable that in recent years more acres of prairie have been restored than have been lost. In addition, <em>S. franklinii</em> is not exclusively associated with prairie vegetation. Under these circumstances, it is unclear why populations of <em>S. franklinii</em> are still declining.
41787		threats	eng	Threats in decreasing order of severity are: 1). Loss and fragmentation of primary habitat: tall- and midgrass prairie; 2). Extermination by man as a supposed agricultural pest and acknowledged predator of duck eggs; 3). Frequent mowing and herbicide of railroad rights-of-way; and 4). Loss of railroad rights-of-way to other uses.<br/><br/>The historical distribution of <em>S. franklinii</em> is from Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois northward to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, coinciding with former mid- and tallgrass prairie habitats. Such habitats have been greatly reduced, with 82.6–99.9% declines in the extent of tallgrass prairies in 12 states and one Canadian province since European settlement (Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1998). Prairie mammals, such as the Prairie Deer Mouse (<em>Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii</em>), Prairie Vole (<em>Microtus ochrogaster</em>), and Franklin’s Ground Squirrel have suffered as a result (Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1998, Pergams and Nyberg 2001).<br/><br/>In the eastern part of its range, <em>S. franklinii</em> is found primarily in small linear habitats. The continuing decline could be the result of the difficulty of dispersing individuals finding a suitable unoccupied habitat.  It is known that male juveniles disperse (Ellis 1982, Benjamin 1991), but it is unknown for what distance. Perhaps juvenile mortality has increased so much (automobiles and trains are obvious potential sources) that they rarely find suitable habitats during dispersal.<br/><br/>Population fragmentation and isolation may also have longer-term effects through declines in vigour due to loss of genetic variability. Occupation of small, isolated habitat patches, as is the case in the USA, may hamper successful dispersal and promote inbreeding. It seems to be faring appreciably better in Canada (perhaps suitable habitat patches are larger and less isolated), although Canadian populations are also apparently declining. Habitat changes in Canada may be less detrimental. For example, in Canada, fire suppression has resulted in the succession of prairie to aspen parkland, where <em>S. franklinii</em> continues to be found. Although the habitat has changed, large contiguous tracts have been preserved, whereas in the USA only smaller prairie fragments and rights-of-way continue to provide habitat for <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/><br/>It opportunistically eats the seeds, fruits, and foliage of a great variety of plants, but vegetation probably does not comprise the majority of its diet. It has been thought to be an agricultural pest, and has at times been systematically exterminated. Millions of <em>S. franklinii</em> were killed for bounties ranging 1–10¢ per skin in the late 1800s (Bailey 1893). However, there is little evidence that they cause much crop damage. <em>Spermophilus franklinii</em> may be the least herbivorous of the ground squirrels, eating as much or more insect and other animal matter as vegetation (Bailey 1893, Ellis 1982, Hofmann 1999). There is, in fact, some evidence that they avoid row crops, and are only occasionally found in cover crops (Benjamin 1991). On the other hand, there is good evidence that <em>S. franklinii</em> opportunistically preys on waterfowl eggs, and there has been some extermination of the species for that reason (Sowls 1948, Balser <em>et al</em>.1968, Lynch 1972).<br/><br/>"Poison peanuts" (pelleted peanuts and zinc phosphide) are often ploughed into the ground by highway departments to control plains pocket gophers (<em>Geomys bursarius</em>); this probably affects <em>S. franklinii</em> in areas with both species. Pesticide use has played, and may still play, a role in the decline of this species. Scott <em>et al</em>. (1959) describe "virtually annihilative losses" of <em>S. franklinii</em> in areas treated with dieldrin, a pesticide banned in 1974. Deleterious effects from other pesticides still in use are possible.<br/><br/>Internal parasites known to infest <em>S. franklinii</em> are the protozoans <em>Eimeria franklinii</em> and <em>Trypanosoma hixsoni</em>, the cestode <em>Hymenolepsis diminuta</em>, and the nematodes <em>Capillaria chandleri</em>, <em>Citellinema bifurcatum</em>, <em>Physaloptera masino</em>, <em>Rictularia citelli</em>, and <em>Weinlandia citelli</em> (Jackson 1961, p. 142).
41788		conservation	eng	The species is heavily depleted in the wild in China, and two of the Chinese subspecies may be extinct (<em>mandarinus</em>, <em>grassianus</em>), and others are threatened. However, large herds exist in captivity in China to meet the demand for velvet antlers used in traditional Asian medicine.<br/><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas, including: <em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> in China's Tiebu Nature Reserve (Guo 2000; Guo and Zheng 2005), and Baihe Nature Reserve (Hu 1998); <em>C. n. kopschi</em> in China's Taohonglin Nature Reserve (Hu 1998); <em>C. n. hortulorum</em> in Russia's Dalnevostochny Morskoy, Kedrovaya Pad, Khankaisky, Lazovsky, and Sikhote-Alinsky Nature Reserves; and <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> in Taiwan's Kenting National Park, as a result of The Formosan Deer Restoration Project was initiated in 1984 to re-establish subspecies (Green 1989. Management activities for <em>C. n. keramae</em> have included filling of mine shafts, which posed threats to the deer, as well as the construction of drinking water facilities (IUCN 1972).<br/><br/><em>C. n. pseudaxis</em><br/>The Viet Namese Sika Breeding and Conservation Program was initiated in 1991 with a shipment of ten animals to Europe on breeding loan (Ratajszczak and Smielowski, undated). <br/>1. Improve protection of Cuc Phuong National Park, with particular emphasis on control of poaching and development of a conservation education program.<br/><br/><em>C. n. taiouanus</em><br/>1. Establish a peripheral hunting zone around Kenting National Park to benefit local people, and to minimize impact of deer encroaching into adjacent agricultural land.<br/>2. Expand the area available to the existing free ranging population.<br/>3. Plan, implement, and develop a fully integrated research program focused on the ecology of the free ranging population. Studies should include impact on vegetation and carrying capacity.<br/>4. Develop a long-term strategy for management of Kenting National Park.<br/>5. Plan the establishment of additional free-ranging populations elsewhere in Taiwan.<br/><br/><em>C. n. keramae</em><br/>1. Survey status of present populations and undertake studies of existing habitat to determine extent of habitat degradation. Remove feral goats as an urgent priority.<br/>2. Develop a management plan for habitat restoration.<br/>3. Develop a captive breeding program using animals from surviving populations. Assess possible genetic differences between island populations.<br/>4. Assess attitudes of local people toward conservation, initiate regional conservation education program, and increase law enforcement if necessary.<br/><br/><em>C. n. mandarinus and C. n. grassianus</em><br/>1. Carry out surveys to determine whether or not these two subspecies survive. If populations can be found, activities should include field reconnaissance, population censuses, demographic surveys, ecological studies, and investigations into human use of the deer.<br/><br/><em>C. n. kopschi</em><br/>1. Secure protected habitat, and encourage community development options to mitigate threats, especially poaching.<br/><br/><em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> implement management plans in Tiebu and Baihe Nature Reserves, with a particular focus on combatting poaching. In 1990, the management plan for Tiebu was being implemented and protection was adequate (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm.).
41788		distribution	eng	The sika was distributed across east Asia, from central China in the west to Japan and Korea in the east, and from the extreme eastern tip of Russia in the north to southern China and Viet Nam. Specifically, it was originally found in China (formerly from Manchuria south to Guangxi, and Sichuan to Anhui), North and South Korea (including Cheju Island) (but now probably extinct in both countries), Japan, Russia (a few places in Primorsky in the Far East), Taiwan (extinct in 1969, but subsequently re-introduced), and Viet Nam (probably now extinct). Wild populations are now very localized in China. In Japan, the species ranges widely from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, islands in the Seto Inland Sea (Awaji, Shodo, and others), Goto Islands, Ika, Yakushima, Mageshima, Kuchinoerabu-shima, Tsushima, and the Kerama Islands (introduced) (Okinawa Prefecture) (Abe, 2005).<br/><br/>In China, <em>C. n. mandarinus</em> probably ranged across much of northeastern China, but by the mid-1930s its range had contracted to northeastern Jilin (IUCN 1972, Guo 1992), and is now believed to be extinct (Hu 1998, Smith and Xie 2008). <em>C. n. grassianus</em> ranged throughout western Shanxi Province, China (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990, Guo 1992), and is now believed to be extinct (Hu 1998, Smith and Xie 2008).<em>C. n. kopschi</em> ranged from the Yangtze River Basin eastward to the coast, and south as far as northern Guangdong Province (IUCN 1972); it remains in small numbers in southern China. <em>C. e. taiouanus</em> was widely distributed throughout Taiwan (Green 1989). Free ranging populations were extirpated in 1969, but captive individuals were re-introduced in 1989 (Smith and Xie 2008). <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> was recorded from Cao Bang, Quang Ninh, Thanh Hoa, Hanoi, and Nghe Tinh provinces in Viet Nam (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990), but is probably now extinct in the wild (captive animals remain). <br/><br/>The species has been widely introduced. In the Philippines it was anciently introduced to Solo Island, with questions remaining as to its continued existence there. It was introduced in 17th century to Kerama Islands (Ryukyu Islands, Japan); and introduced in 19th-20th centuries to British Isles, mainland Europe (Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), New Zealand, USA, and small islands off Japan (Whitehead 1993; Wemmer 1998; Grubb, 2005). It is also widely farmed in Asia, particularly in China (Green <em>et al</em>, 2007; Smith and Xie 2008). Ony the native, extant range is included in the distribution map.
41788		habitat	eng	This species prefers woodlands and forest with dense understory, but forages in open grassy areas (Smith and Xie 2008). The main diet includes grass, some browse, and even fruit. The species is crepuscular, but sometimes active by day and night, and forages singly or in small herds, with dominant males with harems. Herds migrate to lower valleys in winter. Adults can live up to 25 years. Typically, mating occurs in autumn and gestation is about 210-223 days with young being born in April and May.<br/><br/>In Tiebu Nature Reserve, Sichuan, sika were reported to forage preferentially in small patches of subalpine shrub and subalpine brush mixed with forest (Guo 2002). Sika fed on a wide variety of plant species in Teibu. In Viet Nam, diet of <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> was reported to included browse and fruits (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). In Taiwan, <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> inhabited open forests and grasslands of valley bottoms and foothills below 300 m (McCullough 1974; Horng-jye Su, undated). <em>C. n. mandarinus</em> and <em>C. n. grassianus</em> probably occurred in upland forests  (IUCN 1972). <em>C. n. keramae</em> favours lowland forests and plains (WWF 1984). In Viet Nam, <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> group size was 5?30 animals (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). In China, <em>C. e. sichuanicus</em> forms large aggregations during May?August (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm.). In Viet Nam, <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> was thought to be primarily sedentary, although some seasonal movement took place depending on water availability (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). In China, rut occurs during September?November. Fawning occurs in May-July following a 210?213 day gestation. Single fawns are the rule, but twins are sometimes observed among prime-aged females (Guo and Zheng 2005). Sexual maturity is reached at 1.5 years (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993).
41788		population	eng	There are no global population estimates. However, in summary, there is a large and growing population in Japan, and a stable population of 8,500-9,000 in Russia, but the species is in serious trouble in the rest of its range. There are probably fewer than 1,000 left in China, scattered in a few populations across a once vast range. It is extinct in South Korea, and probably extinct in North Korea and Viet Nam. It also became extinct on Taiwan, but has been re-introduced there. More detailed information is provided below:<br/><br/><em>China</em>: Four subspecies of sika are present in mainland China of which three are threatened and one, <em>C. n. mandarinus</em>, is probably extinct. There are 400?500 <em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> in the extreme north of Sichuan and in southern Gansu Province (Hu 1998), as well in two other areas (Baxi and Beihe) of Sichuan (Guo 2000). <em>C. n. kopschi</em> occurs as five isolated small populations: in the Tianmu Mountains region of northern Zhejiang (less than 30 animals); in southern Anhui (70?100); near the border with Jiangsu, in Pengze, Jiangxi (150 animals); in southern Guangxi; and possibly in northern Guangdong. <em>C. n. grassianus</em> occurred in two separate and declining populations in western Shanxi but has not been reported for some years and may now be extinct (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm., 1990). The total number in China was estimated to be no more than 1,000 animals, with populations fragments (Hu 1998). Sika are believed to be declining in all of their remaining range within China (Hu 1998, Guo 2000), although  analyses of survival of <em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> in Tiebu Nature Reserve during the late 1980s suggest a possible reversal of that trend (Guo and Zheng 2005).<br/><br/><em>Korea</em>: Sika was reportedly common and widespread in north and central Korea but declined severely during the Japanese occupation of the country. After liberation it proved impossible to rebuild populations naturally from the surviving dispersed animals in Hamgyong North province, so the DPRK government initiated a captive breeding programme (Won Hong Koo 1968). The genetic purity of these animals is unclear as is their relationship to the sika held captive in DPRK nowadays. Sika is either very rare or extinct as a wild animal in DPR Korea (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). If it survives in DPR Korea, it will be in the extreme northeastern part of the country (Won and Smith, 1999). It no longer survives in the wild in South Korea (Won and Smith, 1999), including on Cheju Island.<br/><br/><em>Japan</em>: The species surviives near heavily populated areas of Honshu, and their populations had been severely fragmented and reduced due to human activities (Yuasa <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the sika deer population has been conspicuously increasing throughout Japan in recent years as hunting has been brought under control. On Hokkaido, for example, sika have increased greatly during the last decades of the 20th century and the early 21st century (Agetsuma <em>et al</em>. 2007), and are now considered an agricultural and forest-plantation pest (Uno and Kaji 2006). Experimental hunting of males began in the 1950s, culling of females in the 1980s and hunting of females in the 1990s (Halley <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>C. n. keramae</em> was introduced to the Kerama Islands from the Japanese mainland during the 17th century, and is reported to have subsequently developed as an insular form (IUCN 1972).<br/><br/><em>Russia</em>: According to Kuzyakin (n.d.), there are 8,500-9,000 sika deer in Russia, and the population is stable.<br/><br/><em>Taiwan</em>: <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> is endemic to Taiwan. It was extirpated by 1969 and re-introduced to Kenting National Park in 1988 (Green 1989).  <br/><br/><em>Viet Nam</em>: The species may now be extinct in the wild in this country. In 1990, two to four animals were reported from the western Nghe Tinh Mountains (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990), but it is highly doubtful that they survive there. Captive populations are present in Cuc Phuong National Park and Cat Ba National Park (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41788		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and hunting, particularly in Viet Nam, China, and the Koreas. The species is increasing in Japan (where it is hunted and culled to reduce crop and forest depredation), and stable in Russia and probably Taiwan. The subspecies in Viet Nam (<em>C. n. pseudaxi</em>) and Taiwan (<em>C. n. taiouanus</em>) were hunted for meat and antler velvet for use in traditional medicine (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990; McCullough 1974). In Viet Nam, velvet from <em>Cervus nippon</em> is traded in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). All subspecies of sika have been hunted widely in China during the past 100 years (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990) and in Korea. In Japan, red deer farming used to be very popular, but now animals are being released into the wild raising the risk of hybridisation in the wild with <em>Cervus nippon</em>. Native and introduced populations are threatened by hybridization, with numerous populations are of uncertain provenance or have mixed ancestry (Grubb, 2005). In China, in addition to continued loss of habitat, loss of genetic diversity through anthropogenic population subdivision is also a conservation concern (Lu <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> in Viet Nam, and <em>C. n. mandarinus</em> and <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> in China, were probably extirpated in the wild as a result of hunting and habitat conversion for agriculture (Ratajszczak 1990; Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.; IUCN 1972). The small captive population of <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> in Cuc Phuong National Park is presently threatened by poaching. In China, <em>C. e. sichuanicus</em> is threatened by poaching outside Tiebu Nature Reserve (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm. 1990), and by encroachment on their habitats (including by deer farms; Hu, 1998). In Japan, <em>C. n. keramae</em> has been almost extirpated by hunting, and remains only on unoccupied islets where competition with feral goats and habitat change constitute serious threats (Anon 1990). Water pollution is a serious problem for the deer (WWF 1984).
41789		conservation	eng	Javan Rusa occurs in several high-profile protected areas in Java. It is fully protected by Indonesian law. However, urgent measures are now required within its native range to end poaching and to secure the protected areas in which it occurs. This will require the development of cooperative programmes and new partnerships with the local human communities.
41789		distribution	eng	The Javan Rusa is believed to be native only to Java and Bali in Indonesia (Corbet and Hill 1992; Heinsohn 2003; Grubb 2005). It has been introduced to many other islands of the Indo-Pacific region (Corbet and Hill 1992; Heinsohn 2003; Grubb 2005). Some introductions apparently took place in antiquity within present-day Indonesia, to the Lesser Sunda islands, Maluku (= Molucca) islands (including Buru and Seram), Sulawesi, and Timor. On Timor, the species inhabits both West Timor (part of Indonesia) and Timor Leste (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008, based on 1998 data). Those to Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia), New Guinea (where the species occurs in both West Papua, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea), New Britain, the Aru Islands, Mauritius and Réunion, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and small islands in Indonesia and off the coast of Australia occurred from the 17th century onwards (Heinsohn 2003; Grubb 2005). Indonesian islands with introduced populations include: Alor, Ambon, Banda, Batjan, Buru, Butung, Flores, Halmahera, Komodo, Lembeh, Lombok, Mangole, Muna, Papua, Sanana, Saparua, Seram, Sulawesi, Sumba, Sumbawa, Taliabu, Ternate, Timor, and Wetar (Wiradteti pers. comm.). Like many large deer, the Javan Rusa is an able swimmer (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990), hindering determination of its native range. The originally introduced population in Borneo is now probably extinct (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008), but in the 1990s soldiers returning from Timor brought some Javan Rusas to at least the Tanah Grgot and Penajam Paser Utara districts in East Kalimantan. Hybridization of Sambar <em>R. unicolor</em> (which occurs naturally in Borneo) with the introduced Javan Rusas has been confirmed from molecular and morphology in one captive herd (221 heads) belonging to the East Kalimantan Province's Animal Husbandry Office at Penajam Paser Utara district (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Details of the introduced range and status are highly dispersed. R.J. Safford (pers. comm.) has provided the following for the Indian Ocean islands:<br/><br/>On Mauritius, Javan Rusa is abundant and is a major pest of native forest. Réunion received several introductions from Mauritius; the current population is derived mainly from five batches introduced in 1954. Also seven (individual) red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em> were introduced from France; the final outcome with the latter (including any hybridization with Javan Rusa which may or may not have occurred) is unknown but nowadays 'deer' are not common on Réunion, although they are still present in a few areas, and are a pest where they occur. Rodrigues holds no Javan Rusa, although there was a failed attempt to introduce them (Cheke and Hume 2008).<br/><br/>An introduction was probably attempted onto Anjouan, in the Comoros, in the 19th century, but Javan Rusa is long extinct there (Louette 2004).<br/><br/>On Madagascar, Javan Rusa was introduced near Périnet (Andasibe) around 1930, survived until at least 1955 but is now extinct, probably having disappeared in the 1960s (Goodman and Benstead 2003: 1172-1173).<br/><br/>The distribution map shows only native populations on Java and Bali, not introduced populations. Introduced populations are not counted as part of this assessment.
41789		habitat	eng	This is essentially a tropical and subtropical grassland species (Medway 1977; Oka 1998) but is highly flexible, with successful populations in forests, mountains, shrublands and marshes (Whitehead 1993; Oka 1998; Rouys and Theuerkauf 2003; Keith and Pellow 2005). It is found from sea-level to 900 m asl (G. Semiadi pers. comm.; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Some populations make seasonal movements; for example, on New Guinea numbers in the border area between West Papua and Papua New Guinea peak during the wet season, whereas in the dry season many move to the interior of Papua New Guinea (Semiadi 2006).<br/><br/>Where hunting or other disturbance is not a big problem, Javan Rusas are primarily diurnal, gathering in large groups in open areas at night. The rut tends to involve a lot of nocturnal activity, even in undisturbed/low hunting areas (Oka 1998; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008, based on observations in East Java). In diet it is adaptable and will eat herbs, the leaves and bark of shrubs, and even seaweed (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Oka 1998; Keith and Pellow 2005), although it seems to prefer certain types of grass (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990, Oka 1998), including in its native range (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). In New Caledonia and Australia, it is a threat to native trees (de Garine-Wichatitsky <em>et al</em>. 2005; Keith and Pellow 2005). In the Torres Strait Islands, mating occurs during spring (September?October) and calves are born in autumn (April?May). In other parts of Australia, Javan Rusa seems to breed at any time of the year, with a mating peak from late June to August, and a calving peak from March to April (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990). In Indonesia it is said to breed all year around (Whitehead 1993), although a June?September increase in mating activity was found in Bali (Oka 1998), and in Java there is a peak of mating behaviour between July and September (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Javan Rusa is more social than its congeners (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990). Herds are segregated by sex, except during the mating season, and may comprise up to 25 individuals (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990).
41789		population	eng	The Javan Rusa is common in much of its current range (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Corbet and Hill 1992; Whitehead 1993; Heinsohn 2003; Moriarty 2004). Most populations are outside the native range (Corbet and Hill 1992; Whitehead 1993; Heinsohn 2003; Moriarty 2004), including some of the most buoyant: New Caledonia (de Garine-Wichatitsky <em>et al</em>. 2004), Mauritius (where numerous, and an ecological problem; R.J. Safford <em>in litt</em>. 2008), Sulawesi and the Maluku islands (Indonesia; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008), Pulau Moyo (= Moyo island, a small island in the eastern part of Nusa Tenggara Timur, where deer are protected by local people; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008) and West Papua, Indonesia (over 8,000 estimated in Wasur National Park alone, in 1992; Anon. 1994). Conversely, populations have decreased substantially in some areas on Java, where it is a native (Semiadi 2006), including Baluran National Park which (at least in the 1990s) held the largest Javan Rusa population within its natural range. In 1996, 2,500?3,000 Javan Rusas were counted during a census when multiple teams of observers deployed simultaneously throughout deer habitat (Anon. 1996; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Between 12 September 1998 and 18 January 1999, the population was thought to be greater than 1,000 head and it is very likely to have declined still further. Major declines have also occurred in Alas Purwo National Pak (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Even in the 1980s?mid 1990s, Bali had very few populations, probably only one of significance: in Bali Barat National Park (S. Hedges pers. comm.. 2008). Its current status is unknown. There are probably no more than ten populations in the native range (= Java and Bali) and given the size of the Baluran population, it is implausible that there could be more than 10,000 mature individuals within the native range (which would imply a census population of about 13,000?20,000) even in the mid-1990s (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). There are many more animals in the introduced range, but they are not counted for the purposes of categorising the species through population size and trend on the Red List.
41789		threats	eng	Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of national parks and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' national parks and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "nature reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other offtake, but the national parks of Java (several of which contain ideal habitat for Javan Rusa and, at least into the mid 1990s, very large populations) remained remarkably intact for much of the period. During the 1980s and early to mid 1990s guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. The strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some small game, through various forms of trapping, including snaring. Thus there was relatively little hunting of Javan Rusa and populations were stable or even increasing. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the peoples' resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ?tragedy of the commons?, has indeed led to increased habitat destruction and poaching in the past decade. The Javan Rusa, as a large deer, is particularly threatened by this rapid rise in illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) and also by expansion of agriculture on Java and other forms of encroachment (G. Semiadi pers. comm.; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008.). In Java, this deer is poached with snares and dogs, but mostly with guns in the late 1990s and 2000s (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). The Javan Rusa is now seen as a source of extra income and of animal protein by many local communities despite being legally protected (Semiadi 2006) and coupled with the decentralisation of conservation management decisions and actions, macro-economic fluctuations and reduced authority of The Law, this impedes control of illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Poaching has reportedly reduced numbers at Baluran National Park, formerly the largest population within the native range, and more widely across Java, but data are insufficient to determine rate of decline (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008). Similar trends are likely on Bali. In the rest of its Indonesian range, e.g. Sulawesi, where it is introduced and thus populations are not used in assessing the Red List category, it is also heavily hunted and there were major population declines in the late 1990s, although at least on Sulawesi the population is now in slow recovery (G. Semiadi 2006 pers. comm. 2008). Poaching of this species in its native range is for meat, medicinal products (some traded internationally), handicrafts products, and, locally, pets.<br/><br/>During the 1980s?1990s, when poaching and land conversion were relatively well under control in Javan national parks, the chief threat to the large population of Javan Rusa in Baluran National Park was loss of grazing area to invasion by the introduced tree <em>Acacia nilotica</em> (Leguminosae) that converts open grassland to dense thorny scrub-forest. This plant was introduced (without adequate risk assessment) as part of an attempt  to create a living fire-break around the park's grasslands, wild fire then being adjudged the major threat to the park?s monsoon forests. Since that introduction, repeated cutting of the acacia has led to coppicing into very dense thickets that conta<em>in litt</em>le or no grass or other herbs and are difficult for the deer to penetrate. Thus habitat loss and poaching are now serious limiting factors in Baluran National Park, and habitat loss/degradation remains a severe long-term threat to be addressed (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). <em>Lantana camara</em> (Verbenaceae) is also a problem in Javan Rusa habitat in Baluran National Park and elsewhere on Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).
41790		conservation	eng	The Sambar is found in many protected areas throughout its range, although in most of these areas this legal status has not stemmed declines and local extinctions from hunting. Similarly, although it is protected from hunting by legislation, even outside protected areas, in most or all range states, these laws are challenging to enforce, given the trade demand for meat and antlers (GMA Indonesia Workshop). Currently the law has a strong protective effect in Taiwan (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008) and in various protected areas of India (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In South-east Asia, Sambar declines have lagged behind those of other sympatric deer (excepting muntjacs). There is no doubt that within a decade or two Sambar will be, like Hog Deer and Eld’s Deer are already, almost absent from South-east Asia unless effective protection from trade-driven hunting is instituted. In India the species’s status is less grim, and this is dependent upon continuation of the current protected areas system, and the expansion of effective threat reduction into a greater proportion of protected areas: in many Indian protected areas, poaching is rampant and in such vulnerable areas Sambar numbers are still declining. Given the major challenges combatting hunting of such a desired animal, long-term survival is most realistic in large protected areas (exceeding 1,000 km² where possible), lacking people living within them, with an adequate number of motivated and capable staff (Anak Patannavibool pers. comm. 2008; A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). The precise ways for protected areas to function effectively in the conservation of large mammals depend upon their own specific circumstances, but field presence of staff, dispersed across the area, is likely to be important in almost every area. For example, Lynam <em>et al</em>. (2006) found in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, that encounter rates of tracks and signs of Sambar (and other large mammals) decreased with distance from ranger substations. Deep inside the forest to the south and east, far away from ranger substations, Sambars were locally extinct. Similar patterns are shown by current Sambar distributions in other Thai protected areas such as Khao Sok, Phu Khieo and Kaeng Krachan (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). In some protected areas (recent examples being Bhadra and Kudremukh in Karnataka), formerly forest-dwelling human communities have resettled closer to markets, clinics, school and other services (Karanth and Karanth 2007). This expands habitat available to Sambar (that which was formerly fields and houses) but more significant is the removal of a source of hunters and the cessation of grazing competition with domestic stock (see Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2006). Such conservation interventions have helped recovery of Sambar populations in this region. Increasing development aspirations mean that outmigration is likely from further areas, e.g. Mudumalai. Most of the remaining forest within its Chinese range are already established as nature reserves (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>As the majority of the Sambar population is in South Asia, conservation activities are important there. It is also important that populations are maintained at least in several areas in Southeast Asia, to maintain Sambar presence through its historical range, to preserve Sambar genetic diversity and through its importance to the ecosystems within which it lives. Given the regional pattern of threats and current successes to date, implementing effective conservation interventions is considerably more challenging, and therefore a higher priority in the Southeast Asian region.<br/><br/>The most important conservation measure for Sambar in Cambodia is the continued strengthening and support of conservation efforts in Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area and the Srepok Wilderness Area, and to a lesser extent support of protected area conservation management in the northern plains and central Cardamoms. Likewise in Viet Nam, the most important conservation measure is the continued support of protection efforts within Cat Tien National Park, and in Thailand it is to continue the consolidation of the ‘Western Forest Complex’. In Myanmar the Hukaung Valley is an exceptional area of lowland plains forest, grassland, and wetlands. Part lies within the Wildlife Sanctuary and some of the rest of the outstanding plains habitat is within an enormous proposed extension. Through its size and mostly little-encroached condition, this is the most outstanding remaining landscape-level floodplains habitat for very large mammals remaining in tropical Asia, and although wildlife populations are highly depleted, warrants the strongest effort to conserve it. It faces a number of daunting challenges (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). In Lao PDR, any of a large number of areas could become key Sambar conservation sites, but there is as yet no precedent in the country for effective conservation of high-trade-value large mammals. Xe Pian, Nam Et–Phou Louey, and Nakai–Nam Theun NPAs could all be highly significant areas for the species, but so could almost any other NPA; the reality is that the most success with Sambar conservation is likely to come through identifying areas with positive underlying situations to achieve conservation, rather than identifying the area with the most intrinsic importance for Sambar as the focus for efforts.<br/><br/>Captive breeding as it is being developed in East Kalimantan. A captive herd of  223 heads in 10 ha enclosure was established in 1998 in Penajam District, as a pilot project. Several private herds exist in the province, such as at Bearau and at Nunukan, both with more than 20 heads (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Captive Sambar herds are also widespread in mainland Asia.
41790		distribution	eng	The Sambar extends from India and Sri Lanka east along the southern Himalayas (including Nepal and Bhutan) through much of south China (including Hainan Island) to Taiwan (where it occurs in the central and eastern parts; Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). Further south it occurs in Bangladesh, throughout mainland South-east Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, West Malaysia) and many of the main islands of the Greater Sundas (excepting Java): Sumatra, Siberut, Sipora, Pagi and Nias islands (all Indonesia), and Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei) (Grubb 2005). The current distribution is now highly fragmented in much of this range (see Population). Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) also listed the Philippines, but the Sambar does not occur there. A record from Ujung Kulon, Java, in van Schaik and Griffiths (1996: 107) is presumably an error for Javan Rusa <em>R. timorensis</em>. The Sambar has been introduced widely outside its native range, e.g.: San Luis Obispo Country, California; the Gulf Prairies and Edwards Plateau regions of Texas (Ables and Ramsey 1974); the St. Vincent Islands, Franklin Country, Florida (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 1990); Australia (Slee 1984; Freeland 1990); New Zealand (Kelton and Skipworth 1987); and Western Cape Province, South Africa (Lever 1985). These introduced populations are not included in the distribution map.
41790		habitat	eng	No large Indian ungulate has adapted itself to a wider variety of forest types and environmental conditions than has Sambar (Schaller 1967). Within India, Sambar occurs in the thorn and arid forests of Gujarat and Rajasthan, in the moist and dry deciduous forests throughout peninsular India, in the pine and oak forests at the Himalayan foothills, and in the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of northeastern India and the Western Ghats (Sankar and Acharya 2004; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Outside India it extends into temperate-latitude and alpine-zone woodlands of Taiwan (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). This habitat flexibility is permitted by its broad diet: Sambar has been documented to eat 130–180 species of plants in India alone (Schaller 1967; Johnsingh and Sankar 1991; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), with food requirements less specialised than those of other deer (Schaller 1967). Sambar grazes or browses depending upon the forage available at that time (Schaller 1967; Richardson 1972; Martin 1977; Bentley 1978; Dinerstein 1979; Kelton and Skipworth 1987; Ngampongsai 1987; Sankar 1994; Semiadi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Across the very wide altitudinal range occupied in Taiwan, the diet varies reflecting major changes in plant communities (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). Sambar was found to live in much higher densities in moist than in dry deciduous forests of Nagarahole National Park (Karanth and Sunquist 1992) and there are no doubt also patterns of habitat selection across the rest of its range. Although the highest densities of Sambar so far recorded were in the semi-arid forests of Ranthambore (Kumar 2000), across most of its Indian range Sambar seems to thrive best in well-watered, moist deciduous hilly terrain (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Sambar occurs up to at least 3,825 m asl on Siouguluan Mountain, the highest peak of the Central Mountains in Taiwan; elsewhere on the island it ranges down to 150 m asl, mostly living at 2,000–3,500 m (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). It occurs up to 3,000 m asl on Gunung Kinabalu, Sabah, Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Myanmar, recent camera-trap photographs spanned the range of 0–2,150 m asl (Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008). Sambar is largely restricted to hilly terrain in the Terai Arc Landscape (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004), although how much this reflects real habitat selection and how much it is an artificial pattern produced by human effects (habitat conversion and hunting) is unclear. More widely in India, there does seem to be a marked preference for undulating terrain (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Kushwaha <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Kumaon Himalaya (India), Sambar usage was greater of the higher than the lower altitude area. However, it makes wide use of plains areas elsewhere, where these have not been destroyed, e.g. the Hukaung Valley in Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008).In Borneo, while Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) considered Sambar “most common in secondary forests of gently-sloping terrain” they also knew of occurrence in “tall dipterocarp forests on steep terrain and in swamp forests”. In Thung Yai, Thailand, Sambar signs were twice as abundant in lowland forest as in montane forest, although this difference was not statistically significant (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>In Southeast Asian regions of dense evergreen closed-canopy forest, Sambar is highly tolerant of forest degradation: indeed, much higher numbers are found in encroached stands than in pristine forests, if hunting is under control (Rijksen 1978; Heydon 1994; Stuebing 1995; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). In Sabah, Sambar was camera-trapped in both mature and young forest stands (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). All the remaining Lao populations are centred around areas with extensive open, or at least broken, habitat amid forest (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), and the general paucity of records from the interiors of large blocks of closed-canopy evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, which generally support the least depleted large mammal populations, probably reflects natural patterns of habitat occupation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Similarly, in extensive tracts of deciduous dipterocarp forest the species occurs primarily around patches of denser habitats, and this seems to be a natural rather than hunting-led pattern (Timmins and Ou 2001). In this sense, in Indochina Northern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus vaginalis</em> is much more tolerant and versatile than is Sambar. In southern and central India where much of the forest is deciduous, Sambar is a true forest ungulate and conspicuously avoids disturbed and open forests, and is highly sensitive to any sort of forest resource extractive activities (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Kushwaha <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Kumaon Himalaya (India), Sambar was primarily in areas of high tree and herb density with low shrub density. O'Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003) found no statistically significant difference in Sambar abundance between areas within 1 km inside the boundary of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, and those deep in the interior of the park. Caution is needed in inferring that there is truly no association of Sumatran Sambar with forest edges (which would be astonishing by comparison with its habitat use elsewhere) because the study does not specify whether this ‘non-significant’ result might simply reflect methodological factors rather than a genuine lack of biological effect (see, e.g., Johnson 1999). Despite the population rises that occur in post-logging forest, there is no evidence that Sambar can survive landscape-level conversion to exotic plantations or other non-forest land-uses, although many live in coconut plantations (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008) and it is relatively common in immature <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantations within the matrix of plantation and natural forest of the Sarawak Planted Forests area, Bintulu (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Sambar only in those coffee areas within 1 km of the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007). In forest protected areas of Thailand such as Khao Yai National Park and Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Sambar populations are often concentrated around anthropogenic grass and scrub (e.g. sites of former villages) rather than in the forest itself (Trisurat <em>et al</em>. 1996; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001) and this also seems to be true on remote parts of the Bolaven Plateau of south Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Annamite mountains of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, Sambar seems often to be associated with degraded valley bottom areas, largely the result of long human influence: although the effects of a permanent water source and differences in terrain in determining distribution are difficult to disentangle (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Sambar regularly visits salt licks (e.g. Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2007), perhaps especially when growing new antlers. This predictability exposes it to high levels of hunting, where this is not effectively controlled. It seems that within an area, not all sort of licks are visited. At the Seima Biodivesity Conservation Area, Cambodia, Sambar photographs were initially very few at mineral lick camera-traps. But in 2007, cameras placed on trails and at some permanent water sources (especially in semi-evergreen forest) recorded Sambar much more often. Checking tracks at more than 40 licks indicated that some were used by Sambar and Red Muntjac, but not Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em> or Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em>, while the big ones with many cattle and elephant prints had few Sambar prints (E. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Sambar was considered to be mostly nocturnal by Kawanishi and Sunquist (2004), to show ‘no pattern’ (meaning unclear; perhaps intended to imply no significant variation through the 24-hour cycle, although this is itself a pattern) by O’Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003), and to be cathemeral by van Schaik and Griffiths (1996). In fact, its activity pattern may vary across sites, but in general it is mostly crepuscular, with significant nocturnal activity as well (Schaller 1967; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Sambar is essentially non-social, stable groups being at most family associations (Schaller 1967; Karanth and Sunquist 1992). However, it is often in groups, presumably temporary, of 12–30 in dry deciduous and semi-arid forests of India (e.g. Bandipur, Pench, Melghat and Ranthambore) (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), and the same is true around the secondary grasslands within Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). During peak summer, such associations of up to 80–100 near large waterbodies are not uncommon in Pench in central India (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). A detailed review of information on grouping in Sambar is in Sankar and Acharya (2004). Results from many areas show a strong bias in sex ratio to females, perhaps reflecting selective predation; alternatively, stags may be more vulnerable to stress (Sankar and Acharya 2004).<br/><br/>Breeding is rather seasonal in most areas where studied, for example Schaller (1967) reported that in Kanha the rut spreads over a period of at least seven months with a peak in November–December. Stags during the rut sometimes can cover large distances, up to 10–20 km in one night. Further information for India is reviewed in Sankar and Acharya (2004). The bucks of Formosan Sambar have a seasonal antler cycle, and the mating season is from June to January with a peak in September–October. Males wallow and mark with scent glands in this season. Fawns are born (usually singly) from March to August, with a peak in May and June (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Predation appears to be the major cause of Sambar mortality. In Bandipur, Sambar is one of the most important prey in terms of the biomass taken by Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> (31%), Leopard <em>P. pardus</em> (8%) and Dhole <em>C. alpinus</em> (13%) (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Bandipur Sambar remains were found in about 22.3% of Tiger faeces, 6.1% of Leopard faeces and 7.3% of Dhole faeces (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In adjoining Nagarahole, proportion of Sambar in Tiger’s diet was about 25–29%, derived from faeces and kill data respectively (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In Tadoba-Andhari, Sambar together with Gaur contributed to nearly 70% of the prey biomass consumed by Tiger, whereas in Pench-Maharashtra it was 80% (Karanth and Kumar 2005). Sambar occurred in 50% of Tiger scats in Pench-Maharashtra (Karanth and Kumar 2005). In well protected forest reserves where different body-sized ungulates are abundantly available, Sambar together with Gaur are selectively predated by Tiger.
41790		population	eng	Almost everywhere outside Taiwan, the Sambar is in rapid decline leading to a widespread distribution of very low numbers and many local-level extinctions, with occasional healthy populations reflecting special circumstances. Few surveys specifically target Sambar, but a reasonable picture of its current status is emerging through surveys for Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> and through general wildlife surveys. Tiger-oriented camera-trapping predictably yields photographs of Sambar when they are present, and most Tiger surveys afford priority to elucidating Sambar status as a key prey, and therefore population determinant, of Tiger. Understanding Sambar status through surveys of Tigers or, sometimes, of Leopard <em>P. pardus</em> (e.g. Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007) needs care, because such surveys have generally selected the best remaining areas for very large mammals within the country or region in question, so as to maximize chances of picking up Tigers. They therefore cannot be seen as indicative of Sambar status in the wider landscape. Most importantly, in the several cases (identified below) where such surveys have found few Sambar, these indicate cause for alarm, because there is little reason to believe that there ought to be larger populations in many other areas in the country or region in question, even though large parts of it may remain unsurveyed. Occasional herds can survive in unexpected places through atypical site-specific circumstances in some countries (e.g. Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). Populations outside the native range are not treated here, as they are irrelevant to assigning the Red List category and criteria.<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, numbers have probably declined substantially through poaching which increased during the civil war. Poaching occurred widely across the country, including within protected areas, particularly where there are concentrations of resettled refugees (Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003).<br/><br/>In India, although the Sambar occurs widely and in many habitat types, and large populations occur in well-secured protected areas, nowhere is it now regionally abundant (Sankar and Acharya 2004). It has been recorded in 208 protected areas (National Wildlife Database, Wildlife Institute of India, cited in Sankar and Acharya 2004); its distribution outside protected areas is now highly scattered. The reported ecological densities of Sambar in India mostly fall within 1–10 animals per km² within the protected area network, and depending on the varying levels of protection efficacy: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 0.89 +/- 0.23 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Madhya Pradesh Pench National Park dry deciduous forest, 9.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Kanha moist deciduous forest, 1.5 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 5.5 animals per km² (Karanth and Sunquist 1992); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 5.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 3.3 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Melghat dry deciduous forest, 2.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Maharashtra Pench dry deciduous forest, 5.9 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Ranthambore semi-arid dry deciduous forest, 10.7 animals per km² (Kumar  2000); and Gir semi-arid dry deciduous forest, two animals per km² (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1996). Similar surveys at Kaziranga found too few Sambar to estimate populations there (Karanth and Nichols 2000), this presumably representing habitat characters rather than defective protection, given the buoyant populations of other deer at that site (Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> and Barasingha <em>Rucervus duvaucelii</em>). Outside protected areas, Sambar is present mostly in very low numbers, although larger numbers can still be found where its habitat is almost inaccessible to people. The recorded Bhadra density is low, reflecting poaching and forest-resource extraction (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the population density is steadily increasing following removal of these pressures in 2003 (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data).<br/><br/>Nepal supports an important population in Bardia National Park (Dinerstein 1979). This remains healthy and there are also good populations in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Chitwan National Park, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve. Across the country Sambar has declined so rapidly and so widely that it is now very rare outside protected areas, mostly recorded as isolated reports from forests adjoining these protected areas, and from south-east Nepal. Sambar has been victim of poachers, probably because of its large size (thus, more meat per animal and, for males, a more impressive trophy), perhaps compounded by nocturnal and relatively docile nature; recent declines are of the magnitude to meet IUCN criteria for Vulnerable on a national assessment (all information: Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). It is unclear whether the demand for antler in velvet in eastern Asia is stimulating poaching in Nepal.<br/><br/>No information concerning current status was traced from Bhutan but (simply on an area basis) numbers are unlikely to be large enough to influence the overall global population trend.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, Sambar was common in north-east, south-east and hill-tract forests in the 1960s (Khan 1985) but now only a very few persist in the south-east: “habitat loss and hunting pressure made them critically endangered in the country. The pressure became severe in the 1970s. I see little hope for this species in the next 30 years” (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>In China there were major declines in Sambar over much of the twentieth century, and populations probably decreased by more than 50% in the 30 years from 1978; records from Guangxi suggest that, there at least, the 1970s–1980s was the era of fastest decline (J. Fellowes pers. comm. 2008; B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2008). In some provinces populations seem now to have stabilized, and in some areas, particularly in Hainan (where several apparently stabilised populations are present, but all are small, reflecting habitat patch size: the largest may be of only a few hundred animals) and north Guangdong province (perhaps also the east of that province, where there is a nature reserve specifically for the species), populations may even have been increasing once again in the last few years. This is not so for Guizhou and the provinces between Guangdong and Yunnan (B.P.L. Chan and M.W.N. Lau pers. comm. 2008). Further north, in the provinces of Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hunan and Hubei, a multi-method Tiger survey in 2001 found that Sambar is very rare overall and scattered in present-day distribution (Tilson <em>et al</em>. 2004). For elsewhere in China, Smith and Xie Yan (2008) mapped wide presence in Sichuan, plus isolated populations in the provinces of Qinghai, Tibet, Chongqing, and Fujian. The original sources are not clear, and R. Harris (pers. comm.) doubts that Sambar has lived anywhere in Qinghai in recent times. <br/><br/>In Taiwan, numbers and geographic distribution reduced rapidly through hunting before 1987, then expanded somewhat since the mid 1990s reflecting reductions in hunting. The average population density in the Yu-Li Wildlife Refuge was 10.6 animals per km² in 2005. In some areas at high altitude, densities exceed 40 animals per km², and the animals have a large impact on the coniferous saplings in this area. But at low to mid altitude, hunting pressure remains high enough to restrain their distribution and density. Based on the known geographical distribution, there are five populations: A-Yu Mountain, Nanhu, Shei-Pa, Jade Mountains–Central Mountains, and Tawu. The A-Yu population was re-introduced (about 70 animals) by local deer farmers in 1988–1991, when the velvet price was very low through the impact of deer TB in 1985. This population has not expanded reflecting continuous poaching; it may be genetically polluted. The other four populations are all natural, assumed to be isolated by cross-island roads, and may have very low gene flows with each other. Sambar are largely restricted to protected areas, only occurring outside them in a few nearby areas. The population sizes and distributions in these areas are smaller than in the protected areas. The poaching pressure is an important limitation to Sambar in these unprotected areas (all information: Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, Sambar was detected at 12 of 15 camera-trapped Tiger sites during 1999–2002, indicating that it is still widespread (Lynam 2003). The Myanmar Forest Department and Wildlife Conservation Society have jointly now (as of May 2008) camera-trapped 21 survey areas (including the earlier 15) and found Sambar in 13 (Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008). This lower ratio of proven presence indicates how the areas selected for Tiger survey were above average for prey and may indicate increasing local-level extinctions. For example, in a multi-method study of one area not expected to hold Tiger, hunted animals showed that Sambar still occurred in Naungmung and Machanbaw (south of Hkakaborazi National Park, Kachin state), but it was so scarce that it was not detected by substantial amounts of either camera trapping or sign surveys (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2005). Even within these best areas, large declines are suspected and overall national population losses of about 50% over the last 25–30 years and in the following such period are likely (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Thailand, several protected areas maintain big Sambar populations; these are mostly large with very few or no people living within them. Over much of the country Sambar is extinct or very nearly so, including in many protected areas, particularly in the north where most parks are small and heavily poached (Anak Patannavibool pers. comm. 2008). Sambar is rare in most areas of Thung Yai Naresuan, where commercial hunting has targeted large ungulates (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008). Sambar was recorded at over 40% of camera-trap locations during a Leopard survey in Kaeng Krachan National Park, and clearly remains widespread there. Abundance did not vary with proximity to villages, even though a variety of hunting methods occurs on site (Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sambar is also locally abundant in Khao Yai National Park, Thap Lan National Park and Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary current Sambar density is about 2–3 animals per km² and it seems to be increasing (Anak Patannavibool pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, Sambar was described as very common throughout the wooded parts by Delacour (1940). Some decades later, the species was reported during 86% of 1988–1993 village interviews (n = 328) and was then still widespread throughout, except in the most heavily settled areas (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: Annex 5). However, sightings on surveys during 1992–1998 were very rare, and while calls heard by night and signs indicate a wide distribution, numbers are heavily depressed (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001). Only in Nam Et–Phou Louey NPA did Sambar seem at least locally abundant (Davidson 1998), and reasonable populations were confirmed still to persist in 2003–2004 (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004); an exceptional area in an Indochinese context, that still even supports significant Tiger numbers. The Nakai Plateau and the mountainous interior of Nakai-Nam Theun NPA and a few other, localized, areas of Lao PDR, including the Dong Kalo tract of Xe Pian NPA, the Nam Hiang area of the Bolaven Plateau, and parts of Nam Kading NPA also seemed to support relatively high densities during the mid 1990s. The few sites resurveyed during 2004–2007 have in general shown major declines (e.g. Timmins and Robichaud 2005). There was not a single camera-trap photograph during fairly intensive camera-trapping in Nakai–Nam Theun NPA during 2006–2007, although the species has subsequently been found to persist in a few parts of the protected area (Johnson and Johnston 2007; W.G. Robichaud and Nam Theun Watershed Management Protection Authority pers. comm. 2008) and it is not clear whether quirks of camera-trap placement (e.g., hypothetically, a focus on slopes rather than valley bottoms) may have been a major contributor to the lack of photographs. The Nakai Plateau still supports noteworthy numbers in a Lao context, but even here there were signs of decline (Dersu 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Surprisingly, given the proximity to China and Viet Nam, a good population was found to persist in Phou Dendin NPA in the far north-east of Lao PDR in 2004–2005 (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, in most of the northern highlands, in particular, and the northern and central Annamites to an increasing extent, Sambar is very rare or has been hunted out from many areas of otherwise suitable habitat (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Grieser Johns 2000; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; B. Long pers. comm. 2008). Camera-trapping studies in Pu Mat National Park, Thua Thien Hue province and Quang Nam province between 1998 and 2007 recorded only a handful of records and local communities in all these areas report a major decline in numbers (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). With so many higher-profile species long listed as threatened on the Red List, many of them with restricted ranges, the status of Sambar in Viet Nam has largely been ignored, and the paucity of evidence during many surveys has rarely been highlighted in reviews. As with many large mammals, populations are thought to be best in southern parts of the country. It remains common in Cat Tien National Park (Polet and Ling 2004), but this is very much the exception, and it was not considered at all common in surveys of several areas of prime habitat in Dak Lak Province in 1997 (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, Sambars “appear to be at least relatively common in some areas, though entirely absent from others, a feature which appears to have a strong correlation to local hunting pressure...At the current rate of persecution, this species is likely to decline sharply over the next few years” (Walston 2001). Sambar is still widespread, although heavily targeted by hunters and most populations are now very depressed (Timmins and Men 1999; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005: 171; Timmins 2006). In the eastern plain of Cambodia, where populations of many other ungulates are magnitudes more numerous than in other areas of Indochina, Sambar numbers are clearly low, almost certainly as a result of targeted hunting: numbers in some areas seem depressed even well below those of wild cattle (Timmins and Ou 2001). Protection activities in a few localised areas appear to have stabilised declines, but this is an exception to a general scenario of rapid decline. These declines are evidently faster and recent than in either Lao PDR or Viet Nam, reflecting the rapid pace of change of economic and logistical factors in Cambodia since the mid 1990s.<br/><br/>In West Malaysia, Sambar was regularly camera-trapped in Taman Negara (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004); population densities were taken to be 0.01–0.20 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). It is unclear how close this estimate is to a pre-exploitation density, because although these authors adjudged large mammal poaching to be negligible in Taman Negara, high levels were confirmed there by Wan Shahruddin (1998); whether Sambar was being targeted is unclear. Moreover, camera-trapping (suitable in methodology and intensity to find Sambar if any significant numbers were present) did not record Sambar in a fourth sector of Taman Negara in 1999 (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). The great current rarity of Sambar in Peninsular Malaysia was evinced by a camera-trap survey for Tiger: it was photographed at only one of the nine areas surveyed during 1997–1999, Temenggor, where it was the most commonly photographed mammal (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sambar was found in only one of 14 sites (seven virgin jungle reserves and seven adjacent logged areas) in a study assessing the importance of virgin jungle reserves, making it the most localized mammal species detected. The occupied site was a logged area (Laidlaw 2000). None was found in the Jerangau Forest Reserve, from which it was suspected to have been eradicated by hunting (Azlan 2006). Sambar is still regularly camera-trapped in Johor (M. Gumal pers. comm. 2008) but seems to be generally rare throughout other areas.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, there are various recent records from Sumatra, e.g. Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003), Gunung Leuser (van Schaik and Griffiths (1996), and Way Kambas National Park (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008), but in these areas it was recorded rather rarely by comparison with other ungulates. Sambar was nearly six times as abundant in areas of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the park boundary, suggesting low resilience to human presence, presumably the effects of hunting, and reduced populations overall (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Way Kambas National Park the population is reportedly stable (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Overall in Indonesia (Sumatra and Borneo), Sambar is not under major threat except where forest is being converted (i.e. most of the lowlands). Reflecting this, E. Pollard (pers. comm. 2008) considered the status of Sambar, in suitable habitat, to be much more healthy there than in Cambodia and Viet Nam, although there is a significant market for Sambar antlers in Sumatra (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On Borneo, Sambar has been extirpated or persists only at extremely low densities in Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Azlan and Engkamat Lading 2006). An intensive survey of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, found Sambar only once; this was stated to be a genuine reflection of actual rarity, and to result from intensive hunting at salt-licks (Meredith 1995). Across Sarawak it is seriously reduced by hunting (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000, see Threats; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008). Some better populations survive in Sabah, Malaysia, e.g. Danum Valley (Heydon 1994), Tabin Wildlife Reserve (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005), and Deramakot Forest Reserve (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2007) but populations are in general also much reduced there (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Indonesian part of Borneo populations seem to be less depleted, particularly in East Kalimantan, which is believed to hold the largest Sambar populations among all Kalimantan provinces; in the Penajam Paser Utara district of East Kalimantan, approximately 60 hunted animals are sold monthly in several traditional markets (Semiadi <em>et al</em>. 2004; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008).
41790		threats	eng	Habitat encroachment and hunting are both widespread in the Sundaic region and in much of the rest of Sambar’s range. Indeed, these two threats are often associated and all Borneo’s ungulates suffer from the increased hunting that often accompanies logging (Bennett and Dahaban 1995; Bennett and Gumal 2001), such that hunting to local extinction is the chief detrimental effect of logging on ungulates in Sarawak (Bennett and Gumal 2001). This conclusion probably is applicable across the range of Sambar, within which it is heavily hunted (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Walston 2001; Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002; Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003; Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003; Tilson <em>et al</em>. 2004; Rao <em>et al</em>. 2005; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008). It is among the most sought-after wild meats in Indonesia (Semiadi 2005), Sarawak (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), and Viet Nam (B. Long pers. comm. 2008), and during 1988–1993 it was a common and preferred food in rural Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Table 1), and is probably near the top of chosen wild meats throughout most of its range (GMA Indonesia workshop); however, it is less favoured in Taiwan compared with Formosan Serow <em>Capricornis crispus</em> and Reeves’s Muntjac <em>Muntiacus reevesi</em> (Chang Shih-Wei pers. comm. 2008). However, it is now so rare in Nam Ha National Protected Area, Lao PDR, that a more recent hunting study found it to be eaten only rarely (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Viet Nam, muntjac meat is now often served in wildlife restaurants as Sambar, because real Sambar meat is now so difficult to procure (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). These declines in consumption are probably representative of all Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and of increasing proportions of the rest its range, reflecting population losses (see Populations).<br/><br/>There are major, ongoing, declines in at least Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Nepal, and probably Sri Lanka and Indonesia (see Populations) which can plausibly only be driven by hunting, because suitable habitat for Sambar is abundant in these countries but is almost or actually bereft of the species. Even in India, poaching has seriously depleted the abundance of large mammals in most areas; even in high-profile areas such a Corbett Tiger Reserve and Rajaji National Park there are still some instances of poaching (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). An intensive study of hunting on mammals in two Hmong villages of northern Thailand classified quarry species into tiers representing the sequence of loss through overhunting; Sambar fell in the second tier (aside, e.g., big cats <em>Panthera</em>) in the extinction sequence (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). This study found that Sambar persisted anomolously long in one place under an “exceptional village wildlife hunting regulation promulgated by the village headman until 1994”, but was generally extinct in the landscape. A study at Nagarahole National Park compared an area which was only moderately hunted with a heavily hunted site, but found no significant difference in Sambar densities between the two areas (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). This was speculated to reflect the greater difficulty of hunting Sambar (highly dispersed and usually in rather thick vegetation), despite it being a prized species, than, particularly, Chital <em>Axis axis</em>, a herding species often out in the open, and the benefit to poachers of getting in, making a kill, and getting back out again as fast as possible to reduce detection chances; therefore, this pattern seems to have arisen through hunter choice. In the context of Indochina, even the heavily-hunted site would, however, rank as lightly hunted (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, based on visit and discussion). For these two reasons, their finding, of an apparent high resilience of Sambar to hunting, is not applicable to the rest of the species' range (particularly outside well-secured protected areas). However, somewhat reflecting this, Sambar’s status in non-Sundaic South-east Asia (still widespread but in ongoing steep decline) relative to other large deer ecologically more similar to Chital (herding; often outside dense forest), Eld’s Deer <em>Rucervus eldii</em> and Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> (extinct across most of their former range through former steep declines) does indeed suggest a broad applicability of a conclusion that Sambar is somewhat less rapidly reduced by hunting than are other sympatric deer, excepting muntjacs <em>Munitacus</em> spp.<br/><br/>Deer are hunted in India using snares, dogs, and guns (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kumara and Singh 2004) and these methods are general across their range. Some hunting is for village consumption of meat, but most (at least in South-east Asia) is probably sold commercially, to the affluent urban classes (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Walston 2001; Kumara and Singh 2004), and to itinerant labourers, such as logging crews in at least Sarawak (Bennett and Gunal 2001) and gold-diggers and rattan-cutters in Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Such commercially-driven hunting causes major declines (e.g. Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008) because the market is limitless. Adult males suffer additionally because antlers are widely displayed as trophies and are used in traditional medicine (e.g. Martin 1992, Baird 1995). At least in Lao PDR, their market value means that, compared with muntjacs, a high proportion is sent to towns and traded internationally, and many are sold openly in tourist centres such as Louangphabang (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Taiwan, in the past live males were sought for farming velvet; this was far more valuable than the meat. Presently, velvet can be bought legally and cheaply from farms and hunting for velvet is now insignificant, as is, here, hunting for internal organs (Chang Shih-Wei pers. comm. 2008). Hunting pressures and patterns vary across Sambar’s range: three areas (Indochina; Malaysian Borneo; Taiwan) are profiled below, and all are very different not just from each other, but from southern and central India, where (excepting Taiwan) the species has by far the healthiest conservation status. But even across India, hunting for Sambar meat is almost ubiquitous, even occurring within well-secured protected areas, and to greater extents in other protected areas and outside the protected area system (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Viet Nam, Lao PDR and to a lesser extent Cambodia and northern Thailand are apparently the areas of Sambar’s range where generalised mammal hunting is heaviest. Sambar is hunted within a thriving hunting and wildlife trading culture in this area and in adjacent countries such as China and Thailand, involving many land vertebrate species, along with other forest products such as orchids and Aquilaria resin (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001; Smith and Xie Yan in press). Such hunting reaches all areas, although in large rugged mountain forest blocks trade-driven hunting of species valued only for their meat (rather than high-value, low-weight, generally medicinal products that can be carried out efficiently from even the remotest areas) is still limited by economics of accessibility. However, the ability of these areas to protect Sambar at the regional scale is questionable, because no areas of rugged evergreen forest are known with high Sambar densities: such habitat is rather marginal. The regional wild meat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are any of the most resilient species (pigs, muntjacs, and civets) to be hunted. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 84 million, that of China more than 1,000 million. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000 and papers therein). There has been no comparable study of ungulate trade levels. Within the Northern and Central Annamites, every square kilometre of Viet Namese forest and of Lao forest that is within 5 km of the Viet Namese border probably has snares capable of capturing Sambar set in it every year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per km² per year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR at least away from the Viet Namese border, but is increasing dramatically (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Hunting intensity has in recent decades been generally lower in southern Viet Nam than in Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, leaving many wildlife populations less depleted (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Polet and Ling 2004 ), but the general increase in regional hunting intensity and economic wealth indicate that hunting intensity in this region must also be increasing. Rapid economic development and expanding wealth, particularly South-east Asia and China, are increasing the demand for wildlife meat and ‘medicines’ (e.g. Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007) highlighted a common misconception, especially in documentation of development projects in the region, that poverty is a principal cause of biodiversity loss: as they pointed out for Saola <em>Pseudoryx nghetinhensis</em>, the main driver of threats to wild ungulates in Indochina, at least for the mid-term, is not rural poverty but increasing urban wealth in Indochina and China. In Viet Nam “the free market economy has resulted in feverish periods of trade in wild species nationwide, with negative impacts on biodiversity” (Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2004). In Cambodia, the same factor has fostered a thriving bushmeat market and hunting of species for international wildlife trade (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins 2006; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007), and the intensity of hunting there for some species (Sambar included) is likely to exceed even that in Viet Nam. This reflects the logistical ease of hunting and trading with few controls and the relative abundance of high-value quarry species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There is a rapid, ongoing, expansion of wealthy social strata in Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam, directly accelerated by illegal trade in timber, wild meat, and other forest resources, and by the economics of large infrastructure projects (e.g. Nan Theun 2 hydro-electric power project), creating a significantly greater in-country demand for luxury meats such as venison (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Markets along major roads such as route 13 through Lao PDR (e.g. at Ban Namthon) have expanded, not contracted, in the last 15 years and have a huge (albeit unquantified) turnover of wild meat; at this specific market, multiple stalls are selling dried deer meat daily. The effects of hunting in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand have been exacerbated during the last two decades by habitat loss and various socio-economic factors, of which the most biologically significant are discussed in the Red List account for Large-antlered Muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em>. The most significant constraint to Indochina’s Sambar populations is the long-term uncertainty of success in protected areas, even in those currently effective in conservation management. Even the most successful protected areas face an uncertain future with the possibility of degazettement of conservation status of parts of them, the lack of, or possible future loss of, adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the lack of, or possible future loss of, political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff.<br/><br/>On Borneo, Sambar are also widely and heavily hunted, largely for meat consumed in-country (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008; G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Traditionally, hunters used traps, dogs and spears, and blowpipes. Hunters in remote parts of the interior still use these methods, but most animals now die by gunfire. Sarawak held 60,000 legally registered shotguns while Sabah held almost 13,000 in the mid 1990s (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Methods used in Indonesia include guns and spotlights along logging roads, snaring, and dogs (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Snaring is still very heavy outside well-secured areas, but shotguns remain the even bigger problem (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Over most of (at least) Malaysian Borneo, “in general, everyone will hunt and eat anything” (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Much hunting is for the market rather than local use, so there is a limitless demand. Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) and Bennett and Gumal (2001) profiled the hunting of ungulates in Sarawak in the mid 1990s thus: Sambar (along with Bearded Hog <em>Sus barbatus</em> and muntjacs <em>Muntiacus</em>) is heavily shot for wild meat trade across Sarawak, and these ungulates are the species most sought by the restaurants; Sambar in particular is an important source of meat for logging company employees in Sarawak. Wild meat is widely sold in towns, villages, restaurants and logging camps throughout Sarawak; 250 sales outlets were estimated across the state in 1996, with an annual trade worth 3.75 million USD. Along the Rejang river alone, in the mid 1980s, 1,500 Sambars were sold per year (Caldecott 1988). The market for meat is great and probably expanding. Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the effects of this onslaught upon Sambar through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995, in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas. Sambar constituted only 6.7% of animals killed in Sabah, but 35% by weight of wild meat; negligible numbers were taken in Sarawak, reflecting the major declines that had already reduced the species to rarity. Index counts of signs show an inverse relationship between sign index and hunting pressure so strong that the latter over-rode the effects of habitat variables in determining their densities. Hunting was so ubiquitous, even in protected areas, that in the two states, only one site (part of Danum Valley, Sabah) could be found as a control, where there was primary forest but negligible hunting levels. They concluded that “the only single factor offering any effective protection for [quarry species of] wildlife is difficulty of access”; whether animals are protected or non-protected species, inside or outside protected areas, had no significant restraint on hunting levels. There were, then, no official controls on commercial hunting of non-protected species. The Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996) introduced a strict ban on all wildlife trade, shotgun ownership and cartridge sales in the late 1990s (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Substantial numbers of Sambars are, nevertheless, still killed in the state, as they are elsewhere in Borneo. Moreover, in the interim, much forest has been lost and Sambar populations in the smaller and more isolated areas that remain must now be even more vulnerable to local extinctions.<br/><br/>Taiwan contrasts with the rest of Sambar range in that hunting has been so successfully reduced that populations are now increasing in large parts of the island. It was formerly a big problem, for venison and, for medicinal purposes, velvet and penis. The reduction during and since the 1990s reflects five factors. Hunting of Sambar was banned in 1989 through the Wildlife Conservation Act. Velvet prices fell steeply during 1985–1990 with deer TB in 1985, reducing returns from poaching absolutely an effect exacerbated by rapid economic development in 1980s leading to higher daily wages. Former logging road systems are deteriorating within protected areas, making removal of deer meat less attractive. The general awareness of ecological conservation has much enhanced. And eco-tourism through community forestry plans has given alternative employment to former hunters (all information: Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Other sympatric ungulates are hunted broadly as avidly as Sambar, but there is suggestive evidence from two areas of Thailand (Kuiburi National Park and a 20 km² sector of Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary) that when Sambar densities are very much reduced, recovery may be more difficult than with Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em> and muntjacs. In both these areas the institution of effective protection fuelled a rise in sign density, and presumably animal populations, for Gaur and muntjacs, but not for Sambar (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007, in prep.; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). If this finding is widely applicable (and B. Long pers. comm. 2008 suspects a similar contrast between Sambar and other ungulates in a protected part of Cambodia), the implications for Sambar populations in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, northern Thailand, Sarawak and other areas where populations are mostly down to scattered tiny numbers, may be profound.<br/><br/>Over many centuries, the loss of wilderness to human settlement, cultivation and industry has resulted in massive loss of potential Sambar range, particularly in the densely-settled countries of India, China, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Throughout the range of Sambar, natural and semi-natural habitats (forest, shrubland and grassland) continue to be converted to anthropogenic habitats, degraded (e.g. stands are being changed in character through logging) and fragmented (broken into smaller blocks). The relative proportions of these activities vary across the range as does the percentage of former forest land so affected. The role of these habitat changes as a direct stimulant of the major declines in progress is unclear. Sambar is highly tolerant of forest degradation: indeed, much higher numbers are found in encroached stands than in pristine forests, if hunting is under control (Rijksen 1978; Heydon 1994; Stuebing 1995; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). Degradation <em>per se</em> is unlikely to be a significant threat. Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Parthenium</em> spp. and <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>, and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but their effects on Sambar populations warrant further study. There is no evidence that Sambar can survive complete conversion of landscapes to non-forest uses such as rice paddies, and its ability to use tree plantations in the absence of natural forest is unclear. Probably, like most deer, provided strips of semi-natural vegetation survive (e.g. along streams and on steep slopes) are present, it can use them to some degree. In most of its range (parts of India excepted) it is unlikely that habitat extent is the determining factor of current Sambar numbers, because large tracts of apparently suitable habitat now support no or only tiny numbers of Sambar. By far the most serious effect of current habitat trends is that fragmentation opens up wilderness areas to people, making it easier to hunt throughout them and cheaper to remove bulk wildlife products such as Sambar meat. In both Malaysian Borneo and Lao PDR the ‘natural protection’ afforded to an area through difficulty of access has been considered to be the chief factor allowing populations of large, hunted, mammals to survive (Timmins and Duckworth 1999; Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000), and this is probably widely true for Sambar outside India, Nepal and the few other areas where active protective measures are effective. In sum, the proximate cause of the major ongoing Sambar declines in most of its range is hunting, for which habitat conversion and fragmentation exacerbate the effects; and these processes are resulting in an ever-smaller maximum possible population, were the hunting issues to be successfully addressed.<br/><br/>Threats other than hunting and, locally, habitat loss, seem to be insignificant at the species level. Hybridization with Javan Rusa <em>Rusa timorensis</em> has been documented (Van Mourik and Schurig 1985), and is apparently a localized threat, where the latter has been introduced into Sambar range, in Pewajam District, East Kalimantan (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). Hybridization has also been suspected in Sumatra, with the introduced Chital <em>Axis axis</em> (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). However, Sambar and Chital co-occur extensively in India without hybridizing. Sambar is an occasional crop pest in mainland China, notably around the Ailoshan range (J. Fellowes pers. comm. 2008), India (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008), Sumatra (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008), and probably throughout its range. There is no evidence that Sambar is a serious crop pest away from the fields directly abutting forests. Nonetheless, crop damage is often stated by affected farmers to lead to a requirement for lethal control. However, the ready market for meat means that this is most probably an excuse for killing that would enthusiastically be undertaken anyway (N.S. Kumar and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008): it is therefore unlikely that control of crop-degrading animals is a significant cause of the species' decline anywhere in Sambar’s range. Grazing competition with domestic stock seems to be much less of a threat to Sambar than to sympatric Gaur and Chital: in fact the key study quantifying just how serious a threat such competition is in Indian protected areas (Madhusudan 2004) found that it had negligible effects on Sambar densities, presumably because Sambar is an efficient browser. Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). In the Indian Terai Arc Landscape, lopping of tree branches for cattle fodder is a threat to Sambar as it effectively removes most browsable vegetation from the landscape (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). These are probably more serious concerns for Sambar than is grazing by domestic stock.
41791		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41791		distribution	eng	Country distribution range is uncertain.
41791		habitat	eng	A common but little-known inshore sluggish bottom shark. It may possibly occur in fresh water in the lower reaches of the Perak River in peninsular Malaysia. Maximum total length (TL) is about 65 cm, with males maturing between 39 and 42 cm TL, and females at 43 cm TL. <em>Chiloscyllium indicum</em> is oviparous, and is inferred to feed mainly on invertebrates. Virtually nothing is known of the biology of this species.
41791		population	eng	No data are available on population size or subpopulations, though it is known to be common within parts of its range.
41791		threats	eng	<em>Chiloscyllium indicum</em> is of considerable interest to fisheries in some areas and is regularly taken in inshore fisheries in India, Sri Lanka and Thailand and utilized fresh for food. It is caught in demersal trawls, demersal gill nets and occasionally pelagic gill nets and is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs throughout much of its range.
41792		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41792		distribution	eng	An Indo-West Pacific species. Occurs at depths of 5 to 80 m in inshore areas.
41792		habitat	eng	A common, sluggish inshore bottom dweller, found on sandy and muddy bottoms, on rocks and in coral lagoons at depths from 5 to 80 m. Oviparous, deposits eggs in small oval egg cases on the bottom. Feeds mainly on small fish, shrimps, worms, molluscs and crabs. Maximum total length at least 77 cm. Free-living individuals have been found at sizes of at least 12.2 cm, size at hatching uncertain; males maturing between 45 and 55 cm.
41792		population	eng	There is no information on population size.
41792		threats	eng	Regularly taken in inshore fisheries off Pakistan, India and Thailand, and utilized for human food, and is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs throughout much of its range. This species is kept in public aquaria in the United States (Compagno 2001) but apparently rare in the aquarium trade (Michael 2001).
41793		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41793		distribution	eng	New Zealand endemic recorded from only three locations off northern New Zealand (Lord Howe Rise, Kermadec Ridge, Three Kings Ridge) (Didier 1998). This species may have a wider distribution than is presently known, particularly in waters deeper than 1,000 m (Didier 1998).
41793		habitat	eng	A large, very poorly known species. Males and females above 100 cm total length (TL) have been mature. Maximum size at least 129 cm TL. Depth of occurrence 327 to 1,020 m.
41793		threats	eng	Vulnerable to bottom longlining and possibly bottom trawling in the upper part of its depth range but there is little fishing effort throughout most of its known distribution.
41794		conservation	eng	None known for this species. A very few states are developing or have developed shark management plans within the context of the FAO IPOA-Sharks, but few if any of these include measures for the management of deepwater fisheries bycatch.
41794		distribution	eng	Generally rare, only a few localities where it is more common. Range almost worldwide.
41794		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal or benthopelagic, reported as occasionally pelagic on the upper and middle continental slope, 100 to 1,500 m, usually 500 to 1,000 m. An active predator on deepwater squid and a variety of fish (including other sharks). Large mouth with sharp inwards-pointing teeth can take large prey, but this shark is not considered dangerous to man. Born 40 to 60 cm total length (TL). Mature 97 to 117 cm TL (males), 135 to 150 cm TL  (females). Maximum approximately 196 cm TL (females). Ovoviviparous with 6 to 12 pups per litter, possibly a long gestation period but life cycle basically unknown.
41794		population	eng	No information on population size anywhere.
41794		threats	eng	Not a targeted fisheries species, but taken as bycatch in bottom and midwater trawls, deep-set longlines, and in deep-set gill nets. No population baseline or trends available. Some concern that increased deepwater fisheries effort (geographically and in depth range) may increase levels of bycatch. The bycatch is sometimes utilized for fishmeal and for meat. Occasionally kept in aquaria (Japan).
41795		conservation	eng	Further investigation is required to make a more detailed assessment of this species. Monitoring of fishing activities within the known range and habitat of this species may need to be increased to gain more detailed information on its susceptibility and population trends.
41795		distribution	eng	The Mandarin Shark (<em>Cirrhigaleus barbifer</em>) is documented from the western Pacific around Japan (southeastern Honshu) and Taiwan (Compagno 1984, Compagno and Niem 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2007). Possibly from Torres Islands in Vanuatu and Fiji Islands but needs to be compared to Cirrhigaleus australis from Australia and New Zealand. More recently this species has been recorded from landing sites in Bali and Lombok in eastern Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
41795		habitat	eng	The species is reported demersally on the uppermost continental and insular slopes, and probably the outer continental-insular shelves at depths of 146?640 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). This stout-bodied species is reported to attain 126 cm total length (TL) (Compagno and Niem 1998). The Mandarin Shark is viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males mature at ~86 cm TL and females at ~92 cm TL (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Size at birth is probably >15 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The long barbels are thought to help in prey detection, and the diet probably consists of mostly bottom fishes and invertebrates (Compagno and Niem 1998). There is no available information on reproductive biology, age and growth or natural mortality of this species.
41795		population	eng	The Mandarin Shark appears to be locally rare which may be a natural characteristic of this species.
41795		threats	eng	The two long dorsal-fin spines make this species particular vulnerable to nets and trawls. The very stout body of this species also most likely reflects a slow moving lifestyle thus making net and trawl evasion more difficult. This would make this species particularly vulnerable in areas where such fishing activities are common, e.g., in eastern Indonesia. Although not utilised commercially at present, the liver is high in squalene oil and is often of high value particularly to artisanal fisherman.<br/><br/>The apparent low numbers of this species within its known range may be a result of the above factors, however, this species may have naturally low populations and more data is necessary.
41796		conservation	eng	In New Zealand prohibited as a commercial target species in quota management areas (QMA) 1, 4 and 9. QMAs 1 and 9 represent the core of the species distribution in New Zealand.
41796		distribution	eng	New Zealand (including Kermadec and Chatham Islands), southern Australia (southern Queensland to Shark Bay, Western Australia, including the waters of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia), and southern Africa (South Africa and Mozambique) (Zambezi River to Cape Town). In New Zealand rare at the Kermadec Islands and uncommon south of Cook Strait.
41796		habitat	eng	Poorly known despite its abundance due to confusion with other large <em>Dasyatis</em> spp. and lack of research. Occurs in a wide variety of habitats including shallow coastal bays, estuaries, large inlets, coastal rocky reefs, offshore islands, open sea floor and occasionally near the surface over the outer shelf. Common in 180 to 480 m off South Africa where the species is mainly reported from deep offshore banks. Not recorded below 156 m in New Zealand and Australia. During summer large mid water aggregations are found at several locations around the Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand. The purpose of these aggregations is unknown but they may be related to mating. Other ray species are known to aggregate to breed and at least one observation of mating has been made at Northern Arch.  <br/> <br/>Size and age at maturity is unknown. Reproduction is viviparous. Size at birth is about 36 cm disc width. Litter size and gestation period are unknown. Pupping and nursery areas are also unknown. Diet includes crabs, bivalve shellfish and bony fishes.  <br/> <br/>Stingrays form a regular, and possibly important part of the diet of killer whales in New Zealand waters. Other known predators include the white shark and smooth hammerhead. This is the largest stingray in the world, reaching at least 210 cm disc width, 430 cm total length and 350 kg. Individuals exceeding 150 cm disc width are common in New Zealand waters, and there are reliable but unconfirmed reports of individuals approaching 300 cm disc width.
41796		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in inshore trawl, Danish seine, snapper longline and purse seine fisheries. Usually discarded. Commonly taken by recreational line fishers, either by surfcasting or line fishing from boats. Also taken on set lines, and in drag and set nets. Sometimes speared, or harpooned for sport. Usually released but sometimes retained for their flesh, or for angling competitions. Commercial and recreational fishers regularly amputate stingrays? tails before releasing them to reduce the risk of injury. The relatively large number of shorttail rays seen by divers without tails suggests they survive capture and release well. A small number of rays are caught for exhibition in public aquaria.
41797		conservation	eng	<em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> is listed as Near Threatened, using the previous IUCN Red List system in the <em>Conservation Overview and Action Plan for Australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes</em> published by Environment Australia (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). This report emphasises, however, that there is significant concern for this species and that it needs to be closely monitored to ensure that its conservation status is not raised into the Vulnerable category in the near future (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Here, however, the species meets the criteria for a Vulnerable listing. <br/> <br/>Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) recognise critical habitat for <em>D. fluviorum</em> as relatively shallow mangrove and estuarine areas and suggest that habitat protection is required as a recovery objective. While <em>D. fluviorum</em> is likely to occur in a number of Marine Protected Areas in NSW and Queensland waters, the zoning plans for these parks and reserves restrict fishing activities in only small areas and do not generally protect sufficient areas of the habitat of this species. <br/> <br/>The species is still relatively common in some southern Queensland estuaries and bays (Hervey Bay, parts of Moreton Bay), and these areas may be important for habitat protection (they are however, also heavily fished both commercially and recreationally and face development pressure).  <br/> <br/>Education of commercial fishers, aquaculturists and recreational fishers is a priority to halt the destruction of incidental catches of the species.
41797		distribution	eng	<em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> has a subtropical to tropical distribution in Australian waters from New South Wales (NSW) north to at least the central Queensland coast, and west from Cape York in Queensland to Darwin in the Northern Territory. Its occurrence north of Proserpine (around 20°30'S) to Cape York, Queensland, requires verification (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Jeff Johnson, pers. comm.). It is also recorded from southern New Guinea, off both Papua New Guinea and Indonesian Irian Jaya. Its occurrence off the northern coast of New Guinea has not been verified (Last and Stevens 1994). This species is reported from FAO Fisheries Areas 71 (Western Central Pacific) and 81 (Southwest Pacific). As well as being reported from marine and estuarine waters, it is known to ascend rivers to beyond the tidal limit (Whitley 1940). Historically, the southern extent of its range in NSW was Botany Bay and Port Jackson (33°51'S), however it has not been reported there since the 1880s  (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its southern range extent is uncertain, but may now be Forster  (32°10'S) (Last and Stevens 1994). Although Gray <em>et al.</em> (1990) report the species from the Hawkesbury River (33º34'S), this report can not be verified (J. Pogonoski, pers. comm.).
41797		habitat	eng	This species is reported from mangrove-fringed rivers and estuaries, and offshore to at least 28 m depth, but more commonly in shallow inshore waters (Last and Stevens 1994, Pogonsoki <em>et al.</em> 2002). As well as being reported from marine and estuarine waters, it is known to ascend rivers to beyond the tidal limit (Whitley 1940). However, the species appears to be rather habitat specific, and appears to be common only at a number of suitable locations. <em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> is reported to reach a disc width (DW) of 120 cm. Young are born at 11 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). The species is reported to be a major predator of shellfish, including farmed oysters (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994) however, detailed dietary assessments are unavailable. Individuals move over mudflats with the incoming tide to feed, and in Moreton Bay, southern Queensland, have been found to consume numerous soldier crabs (<em>Mictyris longicarpus</em>) (P. Kyne, pers. obs). <br/> <br/>While published estimates of size at sexual maturity are lacking, of 12 males examined from Moreton Bay, the smallest mature individual was 45 cm DW. All individuals of greater size than this were mature. The smallest mature female from seven individuals examined was 43 cm DW (unpublished data). Sexual maturity was determined by methods outlined in Bass <em>et al.</em> (1973). There is no available information on the reproductive biology (including fecundity or gestational period), age and growth, natural mortality or detailed behavioural ecology of this species.
41797		threats	eng	Once common, there is considerable anecdotal evidence of a significant contraction and decline in abundance for this species in the waters of NSW and southern Queensland. A number of threatening processes can be identified as acting on the species, which have, and still are, probably combining to cause the current population trend. While <em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> is not utilized commercially (Last and Compagno 1999), it is taken as bycatch in inshore commercial fisheries, including demersal prawn trawl fisheries in NSW and Queensland (P. Kyne, pers. obs.). The species readily takes cut fish baits and is therefore prone to capture by inshore line fishing (recreational and commercial). Incidental capture by recreational fishers is also likely to be a significant threat to the species as fishers often destroy any stingray catches (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, P. Kyne, pers. obs.). Decline in southern Queensland waters is also thought to be a result of the reclamation of large areas of shallow muddy tidal bays and mangroves for the development of urban areas, canal estates and marinas. For example, over 20% of the original mangrove habitat of Moreton Bay in southern Queensland has been lost to such development since European settlement (Greenwood 1993).  <br/> <br/>This stingray has been reported to feed voraciously on farmed oysters (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994), and subsequent persecution by commercial shellfish farmers in NSW and southern Queensland estuaries has probably been another factor contributing to the species? apparent decline. Furthermore, the practice of "spiking" incidentally caught stingrays (using a metal bar or stick with a sharpened point attached to pierce the animal?s chondrocranium and remove it from nets, sorting trays, etc.) continues in many commercial fishing situations and may be a potentially significant source of mortality.  <br/> <br/>No information is available on the species? current status in New Guinean waters, although in that locality it is likely to face pressure from subsistence fishing activities and the effects of pollution from mining and other land-based activities.
41798		conservation	eng	2002 regulations in the South East Trawl fishery in Australia prohibit the landings of livers unless the accompanying carcass is also landed.
41798		distribution	eng	A wide but patchy distribution in the eastern Atlantic (Iceland to Southern Africa, excluding the Mediterranean) and Pacific (Chile, Peru, Japan, southern Australia and New Zealand). In Australia, between Coffs Harbour (New South Wales) and Green Head (southern Westerna Australia), including Tasmania. Continental and insular slopes and outer shelves, usually in depths between 400 and 900 m but recorded from 70 to 1,450 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Long 1997).
41798		habitat	eng	On or near the bottom of  the continental slope and abyssal plain in depths from 70 to 1,450 m. In Australia, catch rates are highest in the 600 to 1,100 m zone (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). There appears to be some size and sex segregation by depth. Pregnant females are rare in catches from most areas (0.8% of mature females in New South Wales (NSW) and Tasmania). The diet consists of fish, cephalopds and crustaceans; myctophids were common prey in Australia, South Africa, Namibia and in the north east Atlantic which suggests feeding at some height above the bottom (Mauchline and Gordon 1983, Yano 1991,  Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1992, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). This may reduce their vulnerability to trawl gear. <br/> <br/>Population parameters in Australia are as follows (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002): <br/> <br/>Size at birth: 30 cm total length (TL) <br/>Max size: 120 cm TL <br/>Male maturity: 80 cm TL <br/>Female maturity: 90 cm TL <br/>Litter size: 7 (1 to 17) <br/>Gestation: ? (non-seasonal) <br/>Breeding cycle: non-continuous <br/> <br/>Length at 50% maturity in the north east Atlantic was 85 cm for males and 106 cm for females (Clarke<em>et al.</em> 2002). Ageing work from the North Atlantic suggests maturity at 17 years for males and 25 years for females and a longevity of 35 years (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
41798		population	eng	Some biomass estimates are available from New Zealand (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2000) and these show no evidence of a declining trend. One of the more abundant mid slope species of deep water dogfish.
41798		threats	eng	Taken by trawl, hook and gillnet both as a target and bycatch species for its liver oil and flesh.  The livers are high in squalene comprising about 70% by weight (Bakes <em>et al.</em> 1995). Catch rates of up to 500 kg/h have been reported from Australia. Catches in Australia have been increasing in the last few years with relaxation of mercury laws and fishers looking for non-quota species in the South East Trawl Fishery. Research surveys on the NSW slope over a 20 year period have shown a decline from 15.7 kg/h to 1.4 kg/h for the related longsnout dogfish <em>Deania quadrispinosa</em> (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997).
41799		conservation	eng	A total competitive quota of 900 tonnes for all skates and rays was introduced in 1991-92 for the east coast of South Island, but landings have exceeded the quota every year since it was introduced. The Ministry of Fisheries proposes to introduce smooth skate into the Quota Management System in October 2003.
41799		distribution	eng	Ranges throughout coastal waters of North and South islands, Stewart Is ? Snares Islands Shelf, and Chatham Rise, plus scattered records from the Campbell Plateau. Depth range from the shore to about 1,200 m but rare deeper than 800 m.
41799		habitat	eng	Soft bottom habitats on the continental shelf and upper slope; most abundant on the mid-outer continental shelf. They feed on benthic invertebrates and small fish. Females lay pairs of eggs in leathery cases on the seabed. Embryos hatch at about 10-15 cm pelvic length (PL) (snout tip to posterior margin of pelvic fins). Males mature at 93 cm PL and 8 years of age, and females at 112 cm PL and 13 years. Females grow larger and probably older than males, and reach at least 158 cm PL and 24 years of age.
41799		population	eng	Trawl survey biomass indices in the main abundance area of east coast South Island show no trends, though there is evidence of inter-annual variation in catchability that may invalidate the time series.
41799		threats	eng	Commercial catch of around 1,000 tonnes per year in bottom trawl and bottom longline fisheries (exact quantities are unknown because rough [<em>Dipturus nasutus</em>] and smooth skates are frequently lumped in landings statistics). Skates are not targeted, but are retained when caught.
41800		conservation	eng	A total competitive quota of 900 tonnes for all skates and rays was introduced in 1991-92 for the east coast of South Island, but landings have exceeded the quota every year since it was introduced. The Ministry of Fisheries proposes to introduce rough skate into the Quota Management System in October 2003.
41800		distribution	eng	Ranges throughout coastal waters of North and South islands, and Stewart Is ? Snares Islands Shelf, plus scattered records from the Chatham Rise and Campbell Plateau. Depth range from the shore to about 1,000 m but rare deeper than 600 m.
41800		habitat	eng	Soft bottom habitats on the continental shelf; most abundant on the inner continental shelf. They feed on benthic invertebrates and small fish. Females lay pairs of eggs in leathery cases on the seabed. Embryos hatch at about 10 to 15 cm pelvic length (PL) (snout tip to posterior margin of pelvic fins). Males mature at 52 cm PL and four years of age, and females at 59 cm PL and six years. Females grow larger and probably older than males, and reach at least 79 cm PL and nine years of age.
41800		population	eng	Trawl survey biomass indices in the main abundance area of east coast South Island show no trends, though there is evidence of inter-annual variation in catchability that may invalidate the time series.
41800		threats	eng	Large commercial catch of around 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes per year in bottom trawl fishery (exact quantities are unknown because rough and smooth skates [<em>Dipturus innominatus</em>] are frequently lumped in landings statistics). Skates are not targeted, but are retained when caught.
41801		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41801		distribution	eng	Range almost worldwide.
41801		habitat	eng	Marine, living on or near the seafloor (as far as is known), on the upper and middle continental slope, mainly in 400 to 900 m (based on relatively few captures) but has also been taken in shallower water. Considered a sluggish shark, but may be capable of short rushes to capture prey (fishes, crustaceans). <br/> <br/>Born 30 to 90 cm. Mature ~160 cm M, ~200 cm F. (these sizes are poorly known.) Maximum size ~310 cm. Ovoviviparous with 15 to 25 pups per litter, gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown. <br/> <br/>Otherwise, almost nothing is known of the species? biology.
41801		population	eng	Rare. There is no information on the existence, or likely existence of local populations, or on population size in any locality.
41801		threats	eng	Although rarely encountered, almost certainly an unreported bycatch in several deepwater trawl and line fisheries. Reportedly only used for fishmeal, but the liver oil has been used medicinally in at least South Africa. No population baseline or trends available, apart from a reported reduction in numbers in the north-east Atlantic (Quero and Emmonnet 1993, Quero and Cendrero 1996, Quero 1998).
41802		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41802		distribution	eng	Tropical and temperate waters of the Pacific Ocean, in depths from 10 m to over 400 m (possibly to over 1,500 m). Apparently absent from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In Australia, known only from VIC (Last and Stevens 1994) together with a recent record off North Queensland (Mike Cappo, AIMS, pers. comm. May 2003).
41802		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 10 to 400 m, possibly to 1,500 m. The shallow records are from submarine canyons, in particular Monterey Canyon (California), where there is a notable ? and possibly unique ? localised abundance. Considered a sluggish shark, but probably capable of swift rushes to capture prey (fishes, crustaceans). Born 40 to 45 cm. Mature 180 to 200 cm (males), 250 to 300 cm (females). Maximum ~400 cm. Ovoviviparous, up to 114 pups per litter have been recorded. Gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown. Life history generally very poorly known.
41802		population	eng	There is no information on subpopulations, or on the size of any population.
41802		threats	eng	A bycatch in some deepwater line and trawl fisheries, which will continue as these expand in geographic area and depth range.
41803		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.
41803		distribution	eng	There is no information on whether the population off southeastern Australia (southern New South Wales (NSW), Victoria, Tasmania, and seamounts to the south) is linked to the New Zealand population via seamounts and submarine ridges in the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea. It is unlikely that there is any physical connection with the population of <em>baxteri</em> recently recognised off southern Africa (Compagno, unpublished).
41803		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 250 to 1,500 m, usually 700 to 1,400 m. One of the most common deepwater sharks in this depth range. An active predator on fishes, squids, and crustaceans. Born approximately 20 cm. Mature 55 to 60 cm (males), 64 to 69 cm (females). Maximum 88 cm. <br/> <br/>Ovoviparous with 6 to 16 pups per litter. Gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown, see Wetherbee (1996).
41803		population	eng	No information is available on the size of any population.
41803		threats	eng	A moderate bycatch in some deepwater fisheries. Its depth range coincides (in part) with that of some commercially important teleosts (especially orange roughy, oreos), although it extends deeper.
41804		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41804		distribution	eng	All three known specimens were collected off North-west Lifou, on the insular slopes of New Caledonia. Probably endemic.
41804		habitat	eng	Known from three specimens, caught on longline at a depth of 638 to 793 m, North-west Lifou, on the insular slopes of New Caledonia. A male was mature at 31 cm. The largest was a 34 cm female. No information available on biology, but the capture of three at one location suggests that this may, like some other lantern sharks, be a social species and hunt in packs.
41804		population	eng	No information on population size.
41804		threats	eng	Deepwater fisheries are very uncommon around New Caledonia. This species is not targeted, discarded if caught, and unlikely to be caught frequently on large commercial fishing hooks.
41805		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41805		distribution	eng	Recorded from the continental slope of the central Queensland Plateau (northeastern Australia) and from off New Caledonia.
41805		habitat	eng	Recorded from near the bottom on the continental slope in depths of 708 to 880 m. Maximum size at least 41 cm total length (TL). Male of 338 mm TL was adolescent. Embryo of 95 mm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.
41805		population	eng	No available information on populations.
41805		threats	eng	Presently no major fishing activity in its area of occurrence. The species is not targeted in any commercial fisheries. It is unlikely to be captured frequently on longline gear due to its small size. If captured, it is likely discarded (survival rates are unknown but are likely to be moderate from longline capture and low from trawl capture). However given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries pressure may be placed upon small and medium-sized etmopterid species in the future and this situation should be monitored closely.
41806		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41806		distribution	eng	Currently known only from the central Coral Sea, off the Saumarez and Queensland Plateaus (northeastern Australia).
41806		habitat	eng	Found on or near the bottom of the continental slope in depths of 590 to 700 m. Maximum size at least 45 cm total length (TL). Smallest observed mature male 33.5 cm TL; male adolescent at 33 cm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.
41806		population	eng	No available information on populations.
41806		threats	eng	Presently no major fishing activity in its area of occurrence. The species is not targeted in any commercial fisheries. It is unlikely to be captured frequently on any longline gear due to its small size. If captured, it is likely discarded survival rates are unknown (but are likely to be moderate from longline capture and low from trawl capture). However given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries pressure may be placed upon small and medium-sized etmopterid species in the future and this situation should be monitored closely.
41807		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41807		distribution	eng	Recorded from localised records off northwestern Western Australia and from the Arafura Sea, Indonesia.
41807		habitat	eng	Recorded from the continental slope in 430 to 550 m. Maximum size at least 30 cm total length (TL). A male of 26.2 cm TL was mature. Nothing else known of its biology.
41807		population	eng	No available information on populations.
41807		threats	eng	Presently only minor fishing activity in area of occurrence off Western Australia (Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery). The Arafura Sea and Indonesian waters may be subject to some trawling effort by Indonesian vessels (although at present this is mostly in less than 200 m depth). Given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries pressure may be placed upon this species in the future, especially if Indonesian fleets expand into deeper water. Survival rates when discarded from trawl catches will be low.
41808		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions in place for this species.
41808		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Eastern Indian Ocean off northern Western Australia, with the possibility of occurrence off Java, Indonesia.
41808		habitat	eng	Recorded from the continental slope in 430 to 550 m off Australia and possibly in 120 to 200 m off Indonesia (if it occurs off Java). Maximum size at least 30 cm total length (TL). Observed males of 25.1 to 25.8 cm TL are mature. Nothing else known of its biology.
41808		population	eng	No available information on populations.
41808		threats	eng	Presently only minor fishing activity in area of occurrence off Western Australia (Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery). The species is not targeted off Western Australia, and if captured is likely discarded (although survival rates are unknown and likely to be low from trawl captures). If the species occurs off Java, Indonesia, that area is likely to be subject to heavy trawling effort by Indonesian vessels (generally operating in less than 200 m depth which overlaps with the suspected depth range of the species off Java of 120 to 200 m). Quantitative data on Indonesian fisheries is required to assess its status in these waters if it is confirmed to be present there. Furthermore, given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries additional pressure may be placed upon small and medium-sized etmopterid species in the future.
41809		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41809		distribution	eng	Currently known only from oceanic ridges near New Caledonia (Norfolk and Lord Howe Ridges), but could be wider-ranging and possibly semi-oceanic.
41809		habitat	eng	Known from only a few specimens, caught on the bottom at 1,043 to 1,102 m on oceanic ridges. Morphology suggests that it may be wider ranging. Biology is unknown. All specimens taken were 40 to 45 cm in length, all males mature.
41809		population	eng	Population size unknown.
41809		threats	eng	Deepwater fisheries are very uncommon around New Caledonia. This species is not targeted, discarded if caught, and unlikely to be caught frequently on large commercial fishing hooks.
41810		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
41810		distribution	eng	This species occurs on and near continental shelf waters of the Indo-West Pacific from the Arabian Gulf though south Asian, Indonesia and northern Australia.
41810		habitat	eng	A unique species of hammerhead with an extremely large hammer. The young are born at approximately 45 cm, maturity occurs at around 110 cm, and they reach a maximum size of 186 cm (Stevens and Lyle 1989).  Mature females produce litters of 6-11 every year after a gestation period of 8 to 11 months (Compagno 1984).  There are no age and growth data available for this species. As a consequence it is difficult to predict the productivity of its life history. The diet is composed of teleost fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods.
41810		population	eng	There are no data available on population numbers for any part of the range.
41810		threats	eng	This species is heavily exploited in some parts of its range, especially in the Gulf of Thailand, India and Indonesia (L. Compagno, pers. comm., William White, Murdoch University, pers. comm). Anecdotal reports indicate that in these areas the populations have been impacted by fishing and in the near future may require a listing as Vulnerable based on population decline.  Within Australian waters it is only lightly exploited by gillnet and longline fishing
41811		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Due to its bathymetric distribution it is unlikely to occur inside any marine protected areas, with the exception of the Commonwealth managed Great Australian Bight Marine Park.
41811		distribution	eng	<em>Figaro boardmani</em> is endemic to the Indo-West Pacific in temperate to subtropical waters of southern Australia, ranging from Noosa, southeastern Queensland to Carnarvon, Western Australia, and including the waters of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). This species occurs primarily in the Eastern Indian and Southwest Pacific Oceans but also extends into the Western Central Pacific.
41811		habitat	eng	<em>Figaro</em><em> boardmani</em> is demersal on the outer continental shelf and upper slope and is reported in depths of 128 to 823 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998), however, it has been trawled from shallower waters (85 m) off southeastern Queensland (personal observation). It reaches 61 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 40 cm TL and females at about 40 to 43 cm TL and is reported to feed mainly on fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Last and Stevens 1994, personal observation). The species is oviparous with one functional ovary in females. Of four mature females dissected from southeastern Queensland from the month of July three contained a single egg case in the left oviduct while the fourth contained an egg case in each oviduct. All possessed numerous large ovarian ova. Egg cases measured 68 to 74 x 19 to 21 x 8 to 9 mm (length x width x depth) (personal observation). Little else is known about its biology, with no other available information on reproductive biology, age and growth, natural mortality or behavioural ecology, except that it appears to sometimes aggregate by sex (Last and Stevens 1994). The species may not have a well-defined reproductive season, similar to the situation with other scyliorhinid sharks.
41811		population	eng	There is no available information on subpopulations, however, a number are likely to exist.
41811		threats	eng	<em>Figaro</em><em> boardmani</em> appears to be widespread and common, is not targeted by commercial fisheries and is only of minor importance to fisheries at present through retention as bycatch (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). The species is reported to be retained in the Western Australian Deep Water Trawl Fishery, although the quantity is unknown (Rose and SAG 2001). However, it is a frequent component of bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Stevens 1994). It is discarded in the South East Trawl Fishery (SETF), which operates in southern Australian waters from New South Wales to South Australia (Rose and SAG 2001). In the SETF catch rates from an observer program have been stable over the last 10 years (Terry Walker, personal communication). In bycatch surveys of the eastern king prawn sector, deepwater component of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, <em>F. boardmani</em> was the third most commonly caught elasmobranch, although numbers were low and survivorship from trawling was high (Kyne, unpublished data). Post-release survivorship is unknown. It is probable that the species is also a component of bycatch of other demersal trawl fisheries operating in its distribution.
41812		conservation	eng	None. The species is rare and research is required to obtain information on distribution, biology and fisheries interactions.
41812		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia. Known from isolated records across northern Australia which may represent different populations or may be part of a continuous range (Compagno and Stevens 1993, Last and Stevens 1994).
41812		habitat	eng	Demersal on the continental slope in depths of 290 to 470 m. Maximum size at least 34 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology.
41812		threats	eng	Area of occurrence off northwestern Australia subject to minor trawl effort from the Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fishery. While it is appears to be a rare species, it is of no commercial value and therefore unlikely be to subjected to any directed fishing pressure. Bycatch levels are unknown.
41813		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41813		distribution	eng	Unknown (only one specimen recorded). Probably an uncommon endemic; it is very distinctive in appearance and should have been recorded more frequently if common, but the area is not well-surveyed.
41813		habitat	eng	Continental shelf, off a river mouth, probably on or close to bottom. Taken on a hand line. Probably feeds on bottom-dwelling species. The type specimen was a pregnant female (74 cm) with a 24 cm near-term foetus. This is an ovoviviparous species with normal litters numbering two pups, indicating low intrinsic rate of population increase.
41813		population	eng	Only one specimen recorded.
41813		threats	eng	Bycatch in shallow continental shelf fisheries.
41814		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41814		distribution	eng	New Zealand and ridges to the north (Norfolk Ridge, Three Kings Ridge). Depth range 129 to 724 m, with greatest abundance in 300 to 600 m.
41814		habitat	eng	Found on flat plateaux to steep slopes on the upper to mid continental slope. Trawled over open, soft seabed, but may also occur over rocky habitats. Food is varied including sharks, teleosts, gastropods, squid, crustaceans and brittle stars. Length at maturity of both sexes is 70 cm total length (TL), and maximum length of 110 cm TL. Litter size is usually two embryos, which are born at about 40 cm TL.
41814		threats	eng	Caught as bycatch by bottom trawlers and bottom longliners in New Zealand waters. Fishing effort on the ridges north of New Zealand is probably low, and catches therefore minimal.
41816		conservation	eng	None in place.
41816		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean, northwest and western central Pacific: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, China, Taiwan and possibly the Red Sea.
41816		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemigaleus microstoma </span>is known from the insular and continental shelves, in shallow waters to depths of at least 170 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Attains 114 cm TL. Males reach maturity at about 75 cm TL and females from 75?78 cm TL (White et al. 2007). Young are born at about 47 cm TL (White <em>et al</em>. 2007). Litter size is 2?4 (mean 3.3) with possibly two pregnancies per year thus a gestation of less than six months (White <em>et al</em>. 2007). A specialist feeder which feeds almost exclusively on cephalopods.
41816		population	eng	Not particularly common throughout its range. Appears to be naturally not abundant as with many other hemigaleids.
41816		threats	eng	Known to be caught in inshore and offshore artisanal fisheries throughout its range and retained. Caught in drifting and bottom gillnets and on longlines. Meat is utilized for human consumption and offal is processed into fishmeal (Compagno in prep). Fins are utilized but of lower value due to their small size (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).
41818		conservation	eng	None needed at present. The species is protected in parts of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Queensland.
41818		distribution	eng	This species is commonly found in shallow coastal waters of Queensland, the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia. On the east Australian coast the southern extent of its range has been recorded as Sydney, New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994).
41818		habitat	eng	A small, slender shark of up to about 1 m total length (TL). At Heron Island Reef, Queensland, individuals did not exceed 76 cm TL and a mass of 900 g (n = 497). A species that is commonly encountered in shallow coral reef waters. It is well camouflaged and can been observed foraging over reef flats. Its activity pattern is affected by a combination of suitable tidal and light conditions: it is more active at low water and, although epaulette sharks can be found actively hunting during daylight hours, it is more active after dark and particularly around dawn or dusk. The diet comprises a variety of benthic organisms that it takes from the surface of the substrate or, by burying its head into the substrate, from a few centimetres below the surface (Heupel and Bennett 1998). Annelids and crabs account for the majority of the diet in this species, although there is a degree of ontogenetic shift in dietary preference, with shrimps becoming a more important part of the adult diet (Heupel and Bennett 1998). At rest sharks commonly hide in or beneath coral heads. If in the open, they orient themselves with their head into the oncoming water stream, presumably for station-holding and possibly for prey/threat detection (Peach 2002). <br/> <br/>An oviparous species with males and females maturing at 54 to 62 cm TL. Mating probably occur between July and November, with females carrying eggcases found between August and December, although in captivity they have been noted to breed continuously (West and Carter 1990). Two egg capsules are produced and deposited among coral at night. A pair of egg capsules may be produced every 14 days, resulting in up to about 20 potential offspring per female per annum. Eggs hatch after about 120 days with young at 14 to 16 cm TL. Subsequent growth is initially slow, but reaches about five cm year<sup>-1</sup> after about three months (West and Carter 1990). Epaulette sharks descend into deeper water between coral reefs and have been found at depths of at least 40 m. The species is hypoxia tolerant and is able to survive in anoxic waters. This trait is important as this shark is often found in shallow (<em>ca</em> 15 cm deep), warm (<em>ca</em> 30°C) waters that become severely hypoxic during the night. This trait may enable this species to survive in areas of poor water quality, such as mining run-off in New Guinea.
41818		population	eng	Significant populations appear to only occur northwards of about latitude 23°S. The Capricorn-Bunker group, Great Barrier Reef has a large population of epaulette sharks, with a population on a small portion of Heron Island Reef estimated to number in the low thousands (Heupel and Bennett, unpublished obs). The degree of interchange of individuals between reefs is unknown and subpopulations may exist if emigration/immigration is minimal. The population sizes and details of the range of this species in Western Australia, the Northern Territory and New Guinea are unknown.
41818		threats	eng	Collection for aquarium trade and bycatch from fishing activities in Australian waters place only minimal pressure on this species. However, around New Guinea the species is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs from dynamite fishing and pollution. These processes are likely causing declines in all hemiscyllid species occurring around New Guinea, however quantitative data are not available. The wider distribution of <em>H. ocellatum</em> compared with other endemic <em>Hemiscyllium</em> spp. and the fact that the species is abundant in Australian waters means the species is not threatened with extinction on a global basis. However, given the pressures facing all hemiscyllid sharks around New Guinea, the status of the species requires close monitoring.
41819		conservation	eng	None. Based on the restricted distribution of this species and high risk of habitat destruction this species requires scientific examination to assess its conservation status.
41819		distribution	eng	<em>Hemiscyllium strahani</em> is restricted to a small region off the northern and southern coasts along the eastern extent of New Guinea (extent of occurrence less than 20,000 km²).
41819		habitat	eng	This species resides in tropical waters on coral reefs typically observed in 3 to 18 m depth. <em>H. strahani</em> reaches a maximum size of 80 cm TL. This species is nocturnal and individuals are commonly found in crevices and under coral heads during the day. Known to prefer areas of abundant high coral. Males mature at approximately 60 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41819		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.
41819		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is utilized by the aquarium industry. However, this is a very attractive and hardy species that may be sought after for public and private aquaria. This small population is very susceptible to habitat destruction via high pollutant levels and dynamite fishing practices.
41820		conservation	eng	None. However, this species is protected in part of its range via closed fishing areas and protected reserves in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
41820		distribution	eng	<em>Hemiscyllium trispeculare</em> is restricted to the northern coast of Australia from northern Queensland (Rockhampton) to northern Western Australia (Ningaloo).
41820		habitat	eng	This species resides in shallow tropical waters along the coast and on coral reefs. <em>H. trispeculare</em> reaches a maximum size of 79 cm total length (TL) and is oviparous. Individuals are commonly observed under coral structures. Adults and juveniles probably feed on benthic invertebrates and small fishes similar to <em>H. ocellatum</em>. Little else is known about the biology of this species.
41820		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.
41820		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch by commercial vessels and may be used in the aquarium trade.
41821		conservation	eng	Further information on the biology and distribution of this species is necessary.
41821		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriakis abdita</em> is known from the Coral Sea in Queensland and New Caledonia (Compagno and Niem 1998). Several specimens of a similar <em>Hemitriakis</em> species have been recorded from Bali and Lombok in eastern Indonesia but this is probably a distinct species (W. White, unpubl. data).
41821		habitat	eng	<em>Hemitriakis abdita</em> occurs on the upper continental slope at depths of 225 to 400 m. Attains at least 80 cm total length (TL) and matures at 65 cm TL, birth size is 20 to 25 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Very little is known about the biology of this species and only a limited number are in collections.
41821		threats	eng	Unlikely to be caught in fisheries off Queensland due lack of fisheries in the depths it is found.
41822		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41822		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australian waters in a small area of the Eastern Indian Ocean off northwestern Western Australia from north-west of Dampier to north-west of Broome.
41822		habitat	eng	Recorded from the outer continental shelf at depths of 146 to 197 m. Maximum size at least 80 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994) (largest reported by Compagno and Stevens (1993) was 77.3 cm TL). Born at about 20 to 25 cm TL. Males 69.5 cm TL and larger are mature, however, no males have been observed from 38 to 69.5 cm TL and therefore maturity may occur at a smaller size. Nothing else is known of its biology.
41822		population	eng	No available information on populations. Species may be more widespread than presently known.
41822		threats	eng	<em>Hemitriakis falcata</em> is recorded only from a small distributional and bathymetrical range off northwestern Australia. There is likely to be only minor fishing effort in its known area of occurrence. The Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF) is a small fishery operating >200 m depth while Western Australian state fisheries operating off northwestern Western Australia (north coast shark fishery, Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery) generally fish at depths of <100 m. Therefore, current fishing pressure on the species may be low. However, given the occurrence of the species only within a narrow range any future expansion of fishing in the area could impact upon the viability of the species (at present this looks unlikely as interest in the NWSTF is declining).
41823		conservation	eng	None in effect or proposed.
41823		distribution	eng	Wide-ranging in all tropical and temperate seas except Eastern North Pacific. Usually regarded as dispersed, reported as aggregated or common in a few areas. Usually captured in 300 to 600 m, but occasionally taken in shallow water, and at depths to 1,000 m.
41823		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal to semi-pelagic, probably ranging well into midwater, on the upper continental slope, most commonly taken in 300 to 600 m, sometimes deeper, recorded to 1,000 m. Possibly aggregated near seamounts. Occasionally reports from shallow water are possible misidentifications. Undoubtedly an agile, voracious predator on pelagic fishes, squids, and crustaceans. Maximum size approximately 140 cm. Matures 75 to 85 cm (males), 90 to 105 (Females). Ovoviviparous, number of young 6 to 20 in a litter, size at birth 25 cm. May breed year-round, but gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown. Otherwise virtually no information on biology, intrinsic rate of increase etc.
41823		population	eng	No population/subpopulation information anywhere.
41823		threats	eng	A bycatch in some deepwater fisheries. Caught in small to moderate numbers as a bycatch of fisheries utilizing bottom or midwater trawls or as part of deepwater fisheries using bottom longlines to catch sharks or tilefish (Gulf of Mexico), but of minor commercial importance. Used for human consumption and presumably for fishmeal. Said to be good eating. Occasionally kept in captivity in Japan. Aggressive when captured, and even if not retained is likely to be killed. <br/> <br/>Population status uncertain, but it is suspected that declines may have occurred in places where deepwater demersal trawl fisheries for shrimp and bony fishes have been operational over the past few decades (such as southern Mozambique). This shark is wide-ranging but relatively uncommon in most places where it occurs, and is taken by a wide variety of demersal fisheries. There are no data available on current and past catches, and species-specific catch data are needed.
41824		conservation	eng	<em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> is listed as a Declared Animal in Schedule 3 of the Queensland Marine Parks (Moreton Bay) Zoning Plan 1997. This schedule declares species that could be affected by over-exploitation. This declaration limits the collecting of <em>H. galeatus</em> in the Moreton Bay Marine Park, a Marine Protected Area (MPA) of approximately 306,000 hectares. However, records of the species inside Moreton Bay, and therefore in the majority of the area of the MPA, are rare (Johnson 1999), the species usually occurring in offshore regions. Under Schedule 3, collection of <em>H. galeatus</em> requires a permit. <br/> <br/>The species is also likely to occur in a number of MPAs in NSW waters, however recreational line and spear fishing are permitted in many of these. Marine Protected Areas in NSW waters where <em>H. galeatus</em> is likely to occur and where commercial and recreational fishing activities are completely banned in at least some sections of the park are: Solitary Islands Marine Park (71,000 hectares), Jervis Bay Marine Park (21,450 hectares), Cabbage Tree Bay Aquatic Reserve (Sydney, 17 hectares), Bushrangers Bay Aquatic Reserve (Shell Harbour, three hectares) and Shiprock Aquatic Reserve (Port Hacking, two hectares). Zoning plans for these parks are complex and ‘no-take’ zones only exist in small areas. There is also a proposal for a Marine Park in the Byron Bay region, northern NSW. Additionally, <em>H. galeatus</em> is likely to occur in the Commonwealth managed Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (17,000 hectares) adjacent to NSW’s Solitary Islands Marine Park.
41824		distribution	eng	<em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> is endemic to the western Pacific Ocean in warm temperate waters along the east coast of Australia ranging from Cape Moreton in southern Queensland south to Batemans Bay in New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994, Johnson 1999). Whitley (1940) reports an egg case from Moa Island in the Torres Strait, but this northern Queensland record may be doubtful (J. Johnson pers. comm).
41824		habitat	eng	<em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> is considered to be less common than the sympatric Port Jackson shark, <em>Heterodontus portusjacksoni</em>, which is found throughout most of the range of <em>H. galeatus</em>. However, <em>H. galeatus</em> tends to replace <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> in northern New South Wales (NSW) and southern Queensland with the centre of its distribution in warmer waters than <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> (Whitley 1940, McLaughlin 1969). McLaughlin (1969) when assessing the heterodontid sharks of the central NSW coast wrote that <em>H. galeatus</em> is "difficult to find underwater and was rarely encountered by fishermen, indicting that its local density was probably much lower than that of <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>" (McLaughlin 1969, page 9). This species is recorded from the intertidal zone to 93 m on the continental shelf (Whitley 1940, Michael 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). Its bathymetric distribution is largely unknown but some speculate that it may be more common in deeper waters than close inshore (Kuiter 1993, Jeff Johnson, personal communication). The species is found around rocky reefs, among large macroalgae and on seagrass beds (Michael 1993). <em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> does not appear to form large aggregations as displayed by <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>. Individuals of both <em>H. galeatus</em> and <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> can be observed together occupying the same habitat (David Powter, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>This species is nocturnal and feeds on a variety of benthic and epibenthic prey including echinoids (largest component of diet), crustaceans, molluscs and small fish (Last and Stevens 1994). McLaughlin (1969) examined the gut contents of four mature animals of which the bulk of contents consisted of the echinoids, <em>Centrostephanus rodgersii</em> and <em>Heliocardis erythrogramma</em>. This diet appears similar to that of <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>, however, McLaughlin (1969) suggests that <em>H. galeatus</em> may display greater specialisation on the two echinoid species. These sharks are known to extend their heads between rocks in search of prey items (Michael 1993). <em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> has been observed feeding on a <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> egg case (David Powter, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Various maximum sizes of <em>H. galeatus</em> have been reported. Stead (1963, page 19) states that "as a general rule it [<em>H. galeatus</em>] is found of a somewhat smaller size than the common Port Jackson shark [<em>H. portusjacksoni</em>] of similar age". <em>Heterodontus portusjacksoni</em> is reported to grow to a maximum of 165 cm total length (TL) but is "normally much smaller" (Last and Stevens 1994, page 113). Whitley (1940) reported a total length (TL) of 120 cm for <em>H. galeatus</em>. Last and Stevens (1994) report the species attaining 130 cm TL. The Fishbase database provides a larger maximum size of 152 cm TL (Froese and Pauly 2002), Michael (1993) reports 150 cm TL and observations on the NSW central coast suggest a maximum size of at least 150 cm TL (David Powter, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Last and Stevens (1994) report that females mature at 70 cm TL and males at 60 cm TL. However, there have been recent observations of two males from southern Queensland of 53.5 and 56 cm TL, which were sexually mature, based on the state of their secondary sexual organs following the assessment of maturity as outlined by Bass <em>et al.</em> (1974) (unpublished data). The reported size of maturity for females may be based on a single captive individual hatched and held at the Taronga Park Aquarium, Sydney, Australia (Whitley 1950). This individual is reported to have matured in its eleventh year of age, based on the first time it laid eggs in captivity (Whitley 1950). Females lay spiral-shaped egg cases (about 11 cm long) that have long tendrils at their apices (tendrils reported up to 2 m in length), providing attachment to seaweed or sponges (Waite 1896, Michael 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). Oviposition is reported to take place during July and August in depths of 20 to 30 m (McLaughlin 1969, Last and Stevens 1994). Michael (1993) reports egg-laying in depths of 15 m or more, also during late winter, but states that oviposition can occur all year around. There are also reports of egg cases attached to sponges in waters as shallow as 8.6 m (David Powter, pers. comm.). <em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> generally lays in deeper water than <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>, which mostly lays in less than 5 m (McLaughlin and O’Gower 1971). Young are reported to hatch at about 22 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). The individual hatched in captivity at the Taronga Park Aquarium was reported at a smaller size of about 17 cm TL (Jacups 1943, Whitley 1950). <br/> <br/>There are minimal reports on the egg-laying rate and hence annual fecundity of the species. McLaughlin (1969) examined one mature female (77.5 cm TL) in June, and found it to be consistent with an estimated fecundity for <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> of 10-16 eggs per year. Reproductive periodicity has not been documented, however, given that concentrations of eggs are reported seasonally during late winter, it is suggested that the species breeds annually. Furthermore,<em> H. portusjacksoni</em> displays an annual reproductive cycle (McLaughlin and O’Gower 1971) implying that <em>H. galeatus</em> may be similar. Whitley (1940) suggested a gestation period of at least five months while others (Jacups 1943; Whitley 1950; Last and Stevens 1994) report a longer period of 8-9 months. This latter figure may be based on the one captive individual held at the Taronga Park Aquarium. There is no information available on age and growth in wild <em>H. galeatus</em>; however, limited information is available from captivity. Jacups (1943) and Whitley (1950) report a growth rate of 5 cm per year for the captive Taronga Park female. It is thought that the species is relatively long-lived given its apparent protracted immaturity (Whitley 1950).
41824		population	eng	No information available on populations.
41824		threats	eng	This species is not targeted or marketed commercially (Last and Stevens 1994, Nick Otway, personal communication). Recreational fishing is thought to have little impact on the species because of its apparent rarity in inshore waters. Spearfishers are more likely to encounter <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> on inshore reefs, and they are known to take this species for sport. Line fishers may encounter <em>H. galeatus</em> on rare occasions. The species is caught as bycatch in various commercial fisheries operating in NSW and southern Queensland waters. The species is taken as bycatch in demersal prawn trawl fisheries in NSW (Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery) and in Queensland (eastern king prawn sector of the East Coast Trawl Fishery). The NSW ocean trap and line fishery is also likely to capture this species, however numbers taken as bycatch are not known as there is no distinction in the recording of the two species of heterodontid in fisheries statistics (<em>H. galeatus</em> and <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>) (Nick Otway, pers. comm). <em>Heterodontus</em> spp. captured as bycatch in this fishery are normally released alive (Nick Otway, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Protective beach meshing programs operate in NSW and Queensland waters and are likely to capture <em>H. galeatus</em>. Numbers caught in Queensland are not available while catches in the NSW Protective Beach Meshing Program are not divisional between the two heterodontid species (Nick Otway, pers. comm). Between October 1972 and December 1990, 435 Port Jackson sharks were caught in this program, equating to a catch rate of 0.394 sharks/km of net/year (Krogh 1994) (these figures are considered as underestimates). Krogh (1994) notes that <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>, being the more common species, is more likely to constitute the larger portion of the catch. Reid and Krogh (1992) provide information on net mortality for <em>Heterodontus</em> spp. caught in the program. Of 60 individuals sampled, 96.7% were alive in the net, the highest survival rate of the 11 species or species groups sampled. Non-dangerous sharks are released by contractors servicing the protective nets whenever practical (Reid and Krogh 1992). Given this survivorship, and if animals are successfully released alive, then beach meshing may not be having a significant impact on <em>Heterodontus</em> spp. Similarly, if animals are successfully released alive from prawn trawlers, then these activities may also be having minimal impact. However, information on post-release mortality is unavailable and therefore catches need to be classified to species level and catch rates monitored.
41825		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41825		distribution	eng	Western Pacific from Japan, Korea, China, Viet Nam and Indonesia. Also known from northern Western Australia.
41825		habitat	eng	A common but little-known bottom shark of continental and insular shelves. It is mostly found in depths shallower than 50 m, although recorded recently from the continental shelf of northern Western Australia in 150 to 200 m. Maximum total length (TL) about 122 cm and males mature at 64 to 84 cm. Hatchlings at least 15 cm. <em>Heterodontus zebra</em> is oviparous but details of spawning are not known. It probably feeds on invertebrates and small fishes, as with other members of the family.
41825		population	eng	No data are available on population size or subpopulations though it is known to be common within its range.
41825		threats	eng	<em>H. zebra</em> is of little interest to commercial fisheries, but is caught as bycatch by commercial trawlers and possibly other fisheries in its range. It may also be under threat from destructive fishing practices within its range in Indonesia such as cyanide and dynamite fishing, and habitat destruction. <br/> <br/>Utilization in aquarium trade is not recorded, but the species is an obvious candidate because of its attractive colour pattern.
41826		conservation	eng	Managed under ITQs since 1998.
41826		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout New Zealand.
41826		habitat	eng	Inhabits upper and mid continental slope over soft sediments. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Pale ghost sharks lay eggs in hard cases, depositing them in pairs on the seabed. Males mature at 60 cm caudal length (CL) (snout to posterior end of upper caudal fin) and females at 70 cm CL. Maximum length is about 90 cm CL.
41826		population	eng	Depth range 86 to 1,410 m; most abundant in 500 to 900 m. Trawl survey indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range show no change, but indices (1984 to 1994) from the Chatham Rise in 750 to 1,500 m show a decline.
41826		threats	eng	Large commercial catch of around 1,700 tonnes per year in bottom trawl fishery. Trawl survey indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range (the main habitat depth range of this species) show no change, but indices (1984 to 1994) from the Chatham Rise in 750 to 1,500 m show a decline.
41827		conservation	eng	Managed under ITQs since 1998.
41827		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout New Zealand, though uncommon around North Island, Challenger Plateau and Campbell Plateau. Depth range 32 to approximately 800 m; most abundant in 150 to 500 m.
41827		habitat	eng	Inhabits outer continental shelf and upper continental slope over soft sediments. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Dark ghost sharks lay eggs in hard cases, depositing them in pairs on the seabed. Males mature at 52 cm caudal length (CL) (snout to posterior end of upper caudal fin) and females at 62 cm CL. Maximum length is about 80 cm CL.
41827		population	eng	Trawl survey biomass indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range are variable, but possibly increasing
41827		threats	eng	Large commercial catch of around 2,000 tonnes per year in bottom trawl fishery. Trawl survey biomass indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range are variable, but possibly increasing.
41828		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41828		distribution	eng	Tropical and warm temperate Australia from St Vincents Gulf (South Australia) to Broome (Western Australia), and from Eden (New South Wales) to at least Caloundra (Queensland). A gap exists in the species? range from St Vincents Gulf (SA) to Eden (NSW). The species is not recorded from the waters of Victoria or Tasmania.
41828		habitat	eng	Small, highly distinctive electric ray. This slow-moving species is commonly found inshore, buried on sandy and muddy bottoms, but also to depths of 240 m. The coffin ray uses its electric organs to stun its prey (crabs, worms and small fishes). Viviparous, with young born at about 8 to 11 cm. Reported to reach 60 cm, by rarely exceeds 40 cm. Males mature at 24 cm. A very hardy animal, it can survive out of water for hours.
41828		threats	eng	Trawl fishery bycatch, although its hardiness means this species is usually returned alive.
41829		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41829		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Eastern Indian in northwestern Australia from off Shark Bay (Western Australia) to off Darwin (Northern Territory) and the West Pacific from off tropical Queensland (between Townsville and Cairns) and Vanuatu.
41829		habitat	eng	Recorded in tropical waters on the continental slope at depths of 250 to 475 m. Maximum size at least 75 cm total length (TL). Born at about 25 cm TL and males mature at about 45 cm TL. The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta with litters of 4 to 5 young. Diet consists mainly of cephalopods. Nothing else known of its biology.
41829		population	eng	No information available on populations.
41829		threats	eng	<em>Iago garricki</em> is of minor interest to fisheries (Compagno and Niem 1999). It is likely to be taken as bycatch in the Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery which operates at depths of >200 m off northwestern Western Australia. This fishery is small and no actual data on bycatch levels are available (Harris and Ward 1999).
41830		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41830		distribution	eng	Widespread oceanic in temperate and tropical regions. In Australia, from isolated localities off Queensland, New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, New Zealand and various localities throughout the South Pacific (including Fiji and the Cook Islands). Makes diurnal vertical migrations from below 1,000 m in the day to near the surface at night.
41830		habitat	eng	Oceanic waters. This species makes diurnal vertical migrations from below 1,000 m in the day, to near the surface at night. The cookie-cutter’s trademark bites are relatively common on large pelagic fish and cetaceans. Little is known of its biology.
41830		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size.
41830		threats	eng	Because of its small size it is only occasionally taken by fisheries.
41831		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
41831		distribution	eng	This species occurs almost continuously from eastern South Africa to southern Japan and northern Australia. Areas in South East Asia where it has not been recorded are probably the result of a lack of information rather than a break in the distribution. For example, global and regional guides (Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994) do not record this species as occurring around Borneo, but recent surveys have recorded it in the Sabah fish markets (Manjaji 2002).
41831		habitat	eng	<em>Loxodon macrorhinus</em> is a small species of shark. The young are born at 40 to 45 cm, they mature around 60 cm, and grow to a maximum of 90 cm. They reproduce annually and usually have a litter size of two. There are no data available on age and growth, but like other closely related small tropical carcharhinid species, they presumably are fast growing and early maturing making them capable of sustaining reasonable levels of fishing pressure. <br/> <br/>They feed on teleost fish, crustaceans and occasionally cephalopods.
41831		population	eng	There are no data available on the population size of this species at any point through its range, however, it does appear to be common in inshore waters through most of its range.
41831		threats	eng	This species is commonly caught in artisinal, subsistence and commercial fisheries throughout their range, but are rarely targeted. In particular they are heavily fished in southern India where their flesh is used for human consumption (Compagno 1984). Manjaji (2002) reported them in the fish markets of Sabah, Malaysia. In Australian waters this species is most commonly caught in fish trawls in northern areas, where it is one of the most common shark species caught (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>Their small size and productive life history make them capable of sustaining reasonable levels of fishing pressure, and so throughout most of their range they are likely to be unaffected by fishing.
41832		conservation	eng	None to date. Although the target fishery for <em>Manta birostris</em> was banned in the Philippines in 1998, fisheries continue for other species of mobulid, which are just as vulnerable to over-exploitation (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> in press).
41832		distribution	eng	<em>Mobula eregoodootenkee</em> is widely distributed through the coastal continental waters of the tropical Indo-West Pacific. This species has been reported from the Western Indian Ocean, Eastern Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific. It occurs in the Red Sea, Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf to South Africa and the Philippines, north to Viet Nam, and south to southeast Queensland and northern Western Australia in Australia. It has not been recorded from oceanic islands.
41832		habitat	eng	<em>Mobula eregoodootenkee</em> reaches a maximum size of approximately 100 cm disc width (DW). The neotype for this species, a male of 96.9 cm DW, was sexually mature (Notarbartolo-Di-Sciara 1987). These rays are ovoviviparous (uterine viviparity), usually producing one offspring per litter. This ray is not known to penetrate the epipelagic zone. Mating and birthing occur in shallow water, and juveniles remain in these areas. This species feeds on planktonic organisms and small fish (Michael 1993).
41832		population	eng	The Northern Territory Government in Australia classed the conservation status of this species as Data Deficient within territorial waters in March 2002. No direct or indirect indices of abundance were available for this assessment. No subpopulations are known. <em>Mobula eregoodootenkee</em> is regarded as locally common over its range and fairly common within Queensland, Australia waters (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999).
41832		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch in several fisheries through entanglement in nets. Fishing pressure could potentially impact this species due to its presumed low reproductive rate. It is marketed in Thailand and probably elsewhere in southeast Asia.
41833		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Because of its large size, migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is likely highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula japanica</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in most parts of the world generally lack species-specific details (for example in México, batoids are broadly grouped as ?manta raya?). Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>In the Philippines, fishing for mobulids was banned in 1998, however it was lifted in 1999 to study the fishery. The ban was put back in place in 2002, and currently it is illegal to fish for any <em>Manta</em> or <em>Mobula</em> in Philippine waters. However, enforcement is insufficient and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America and Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. japanica</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.
41833		distribution	eng	Possibly circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters. Apart from confirmed occurrences (see Distribution) the species possibly occurs in the North Atlantic (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987) and given its documented occurrence from places such as Fiji and Tuvalu, it is most certainly present in the waters of many countries in the South Pacific. It was only recently confirmed from Australian waters (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>The southern Gulf of California is believed to serve as an important spring and summer mating and feeding ground for adults (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Pupping appears to take place offshore, Ebert (2003) suggesting around offshore islands or seamounts.
41833		habitat	eng	Information on the biology of <em>Mobula japanica</em> is extremely limited. The species is found inshore, offshore and possibly in oceanic environments, but the movement patterns within its range are little known. Most observations and landings are coastal (Compagno and Last 1999).  Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988) suggested that this species may be able to tolerate lower water temperatures than other mobulids. Although it is observed in small aggregations, it is not believed to be a schooling species. Size, but not sexual, segregation has been observed within the Gulf of California, México (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japanica</em> attains at least 310 cm DW but is usually smaller than 250 cm DW. The reproductive mode within this family is aplacental viviparity and the species possesses only a single functional ovary. Embryos obtain nutrients initially by yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Size at birth ranges between 70 and 85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Compagno and Last 1999). In Indonesia, males mature between 205 and 210 cm DW, and one pregnant female contained a single embryo 50 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). In the Gulf of California, males appeared to reach sexual maturity at ~210 cm DW and females by ~207 cm DW based on follicle size. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age and growth of this species. <br/> <br/>The species is planktivorous with stomach contents containing 99.6% euphausiids (<em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em>) from April through July (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>In the area around Bahia de la Ventana (southern Gulf of California, México) individuals are found from April through late summer, with a peak of abundance in late summer (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Seasonally later occurrence than <em>M. thurstoni</em> in the Bahia la Ventana region suggests resource competition avoidance (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Movement patterns and migrations of mobulids are not well understood. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: Gulf of California: ~207 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988); Male: 205 to 210 cm DW (Indonesia) (W. White unpublished data), ~210 cm DW (Gulf of California) (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  310 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  70 to 85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
41833		population	eng	No information available. Reported as locally common by Compagno and Last (1999), but probably rare in some parts of its range, for example Australia where it has been documented only from two records (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005).
41833		threats	eng	<em>Mobula japanica</em> is highly susceptible to gillnets and is taken, either as bycatch or as a target species in Indonesia, México and the Philippines. Juveniles could also be incidentally captured in trawl fisheries. While information is available on these areas it is likely to be landed in other countries also, such as West Africa and particularly in Southeast Asia where pressure on the marine environment is considerable and where mobulid gill rakers are a high value product. It is reported to be taken as longline bycatch in the Gulf of Aden (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japanica</em> is a common catch in the inshore pelagic tuna gillnet fisheries of Indonesia and is also taken by purse seine in that country. The high value of gill rakers in some areas, e.g., Pelabuhanratu in West Java (W. White unpublished data), is driving a dramatic increase in the catch of mobulids in Indonesia where some fishers are now targeting devil rays. When shark catches are lower (off-season, December to March) fishers are landing more mobulids as an alternative (W. White pers. obs.). The flesh is also utilized both for human consumption and as bait and chum for longlines. <br/> <br/>The species is caught in artisanal drift and demersal gillnet fisheries and directly targeted using harpoons in the Gulf of California. <em>Mobula japanica</em> represented 30% of the catch of mobulids observed during a survey of artisanal landings in Bahia de la Ventana, southwestern Gulf of California (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). This was second to <em>M. thurstoni</em>, which represented 58% of the catch. Mean daily capture of M. japanica in Bahia de la Ventana from March to July 1983 was: March: 0.0, April: 0.4, May: 0.4, June: 1.7, July: 4.3 (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Seventeen individuals were noted among landings of 12 pangas at Punta Arena de la Ventana in June 2001 (J. Bizzarro pers. obs.). There is still an active mobulid fishery in the southwest Gulf of California, south of La Paz and devil rays are also landed in nearshore artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japonica</em> comprised 37% of the Philippine mobulid fishery during 2002 (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, unpublished study), which may reflect its relative importance in other target fisheries in the Southeast Asia region. There is currently a ban on fishing for manta rays in the Philippines, but the effectiveness of this ban is questionable due to limited enforcement ability and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japanica</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing catches of mobulids in Indonesia, which may mirror increases elsewhere, is of great concern.
41834		conservation	eng	Prohibited as a commercial target species in quota management areas (QMA) 1, 4 and 9. QMAs 1 and 9 represent the core of the species distribution.
41834		distribution	eng	Kermadec Islands; Three Kings Islands; North and South Island to Foveaux Strait (including Fiordland); Chatham Rise (not recorded from Chatham Islands).
41834		habitat	eng	A common coastal species. Found mainly over soft bottoms, including tidal flats in estuaries and harbours, also commonly encountered on shallow rocky reefs. They are present in shallow water all year round but tend to concentrate in water less than about 10 m deep during summer and autumn, and move offshore into water deeper than 20 m during winter. Only adults and large juveniles are found in shallow water. Occur from low water to 422 m but is rare below about 50 m. Usually encountered on or near the bottom, eagle rays are occasionally seen swimming at the surface in open water. They are predators of hard-shelled benthic invertebrates. Those found on reefs feed mainly on gastropods, particularly Cook?s turban (<em>Cookia sulcata</em>) and hermit crabs. Those inhabiting soft bottoms feed on a variety of bivalves, small crustaceans (including crabs and shrimps) and polychaete worms. Eagle ray feeding pits are a common feature of tidal flats in many North Island harbours and they may play an important role in structuring intertidal sand flat communities. Reproduction is viviparous. Litter size and size at birth is poorly known. A captive female gave birth to a litter of 20 pups after six months in captivity. Disc length at birth was reported to be about eight centimeters. After 16 months two surviving juveniles were about 15 cm disc length (pers. obs). Size at maturity is unknown. Maximum total length is about 200 cm. Predators include killer whales and white shark (<em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>).
41834		population	eng	Rare at the Kermadec Islands. Uncommon south of Cook Strait and the Marlborough Sounds. Rare on the Chatham Rise.
41834		threats	eng	Mainly taken as bycatch in inshore trawl fisheries around the upper North Island. Usually discarded.  Also taken in Danish seine. Commonly taken by recreational line fishers, either by surfcasting or line fishing from boats. Also taken on set lines, and in drag and set nets. Sometimes speared, or harpooned for sport. Usually released but sometimes retained for their flesh, or for angling competitions. They probably survive capture and release well. A small number of eagle rays are caught for exhibition in public aquaria.
41835		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41835		distribution	eng	Found on continental and insular shelves of the Indo-Pacific, often in the intertidal zone and from the surf line down to a depth of 70 m but more commonly between 5 and 30 m.
41835		habitat	eng	It occurs on or near the bottom in lagoons, in channels or along outer edges of coral and rocky reefs, in areas with seagrass and sand on reefs, sandy areas near reef and off sandy beaches. It prefers areas in crevices and caves. Young prefer crevices in shallow lagoons but adults are more wide ranging. <br/> <br/><strong>Life History:</strong> <br/>Ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparity) with uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy. Pregnant females from Okinawa had one or two foetuses per uterus (297 to 595 mm) with the yolk sac reabsorbed and a greatly expanded stomach filled with yolky material in the larger fetuses and also had egg cases in the uterus (Teshima <em>et al.</em> 1995). It appears as though this species practices oophagy on relatively large, cased nutritive eggs (unlike lamnoids which have very small nutritive eggs) and is the first orectoloboid known to have uterine cannibalism. It is not known if the foetuses eat each other (adelphophagy) as with the grey nurse shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>).  <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity:  Unknown <br/>Size at birth: 40 to 80 cm total length (TL) <br/>Average litter size: At least four per uterus suggested from egg cases, but the large size differences between foetuses in a litter suggests the litters are smaller, possible only one per female (Compagno 2001).  <br/>Size male maturity: 250 cm TL <br/>Size female maturity: 230 to 290 cm TL <br/>Max size: to at least 320 cm TL <br/>Growth rates: Unknown
41835		threats	eng	Threats within Australia are likely to be minimal, there are no target fisheries, although it is taken in inshore fisheries throughout much of the rest of its range. <br/> <br/>In the Gulf of Thailand, it was historically more abundant and it may have been adversely affected by the use of explosives and poisons on reefs in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific, particularly Indonesia and the Philippines (Compagno 2001). <em>Nebrius ferrugineus</em> often form small aggregations during the day and have a limited home range, with individuals returning to the same area every day after foraging. This behaviour together with small litter size, large size at maturity and inshore habitat suggest that it is vulnerable to local population depletion in areas of heavy fishing pressure. Furthermore, its docility and habit of resting in caves and crevices during the day make it susceptible to capture and harassment by divers, and reef destruction.
41836		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41836		distribution	eng	Wide ranging in the Indian Ocean and western Central Pacific, extending from South Africa to the Australian region and Oceania (Compagno and Niem 1998). Within Australia, from Moreton Bay (Queensland) to the Abrolhos Islands (Western Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994).
41836		habitat	eng	Gestation period: 10 to 11 months <br/>Reproductive periodicity: two years <br/>Size at birth: 60 cm total length (TL) <br/>Average litter size: 9.3 (6 to 12) <br/>Size male maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Size female maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Max size: 300 cm TL <br/>Growth rates, Juveniles: 12.5 to 15.5 cm/yr  <br/> <br/>Occurs in tropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters near the bottom; often found on and around coral reefs and on sandy plateaus near coral, at depths down to at least 30 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). Often found inside coral lagoons but also on reef flats and reef edges (Stevens 1984). It is also known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries (W. White pers.comm.).  <br/> <br/>Out of 143 animals tagged at 43 sites by Stevens (1984), 19 individuals were recaptured (14.5%) of which five were caught more than once. These data showed that 52% of recoveries were made at the tagging site, 83% within 1 km of tagging site and 91% within 2 km. The average distance moved by individuals was 1.3 km (excluding those animals that did not move from tagging site) and the maximum distance traveled was 5 km.
41836		threats	eng	Within Australia, data from the Northern Territory (Lyle <em>et.al</em>. 1984) indicated that catch rates of <em>N. acutidens</em> in gill net and long line fishing trials were very low. <em>N. acutidens</em> is taken in small quantities (approximately 15 tonnes/yr) in the Western Australia northern shark fisheries. These fisheries comprise a very small number of boats (13 licenses, seven active and only three fishing for six months or more) operating over a very large length of coast. A smaller quantity of <em>N. acutidens</em> are also taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries in northern Western Australia waters. There are likely to be significant areas of unfished habitat outside the operational ranges of these  fisheries (R. McAuley, pers.comm). <br/> <br/>Threats from inshore fisheries are high outside Australian waters, particularly Southeast Asia, where these sharks are captured by gillnets and longlines. They are particularly susceptible to local depletion due their very small habitat range and limited movement patterns (Stevens 1984).  This species is also likely to be affected by habitat destruction, particularly in South East Asia. For example, extensive coral reef habitat destruction (pollution and dynamite fishing), in addition, this species is known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries, many of which have been deforested or are heavily populated by humans throughout its range (William White, pers.comm.).  <br/> <br/>Although they are still recorded, albeit very infrequently within Indonesia (W. White, pers. comm.), evidence suggests <em>N. acutidens</em> was historically more abundant, and have not been seen for several years in some areas. For example, in a preliminary survey of market catches around Bali, no <em>N. acutidens</em> were recorded, and jaws held in the fisheries centre in Jakarta that were several years old were the only evidence that this species was once caught in the region (W. White, pers. comm.). Furthermore, evidence of local extinctions in India and Thailand (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.) indicates that this species is extremely susceptible to local inshore fisheries.
41837		conservation	eng	As a result of the observed decline in NSW wobbegong catches, a discussion paper on wobbegong sharks was produced, seeking the views of various stakeholders on the future management of commercial and recreational fishing of wobbegong sharks (NSW Fisheries 2001). However, the management plan has not been finalised and management measures have not been implemented. NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) also requested commercial fishers to report catches for <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em> individually. Most recently, a review of NSW Recreational Freshwater & Saltwater Fishing Rules and the Fishery Management Strategy (FMS) for NSW Trap and Line Fishery have proposed a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL for wobbegong sharks and a trip limit of 12 wobbegongs caught in fish traps (NSW DPI 2006). The FMS has also recommended that commercial fishers report their catches of each species separately and to collect additional biological data through the observer program.<br/><br/>Until late 2006, there were no management strategies specifically regulating the wobbegong commercial fishery in NSW. The only regulation in place was a recreational bag limit of two wobbegongs per day (later reduced to zero in September 2007) and a commercial gear limit of no more than ten lines each with a maximum of six hooks when setlining within three nautical miles of the coast. There were no gear limits outside three nautical miles, but as of 2008, amendments to the share management plans will instate a maximum of 1,200 hooks and 30 traps per endorsement holder.<br/><br/>Since September 2006, wobbegongs have been included in the daily trip limit for a specific list of shark species to one tonne for a 24 hour period and two tonnes for 48 hours or greater. NSW DPI also recommended that fishers in the Ocean Trap and Line and Lobster fisheries have in their codes of practice to release wobbegongs less than 130 cm TL caught in fish traps. Since July 2007, the use of wire trace, or other trace made of metal type materials, is prohibited to decrease instances of gut-hooking. Furthermore, a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL and a maximum trip limit of either 6 or 12 wobbegongs (including <em>O. halei </em>and <em>O. ornatus</em>) will also be implemented and is pending approval by the NSW Fisheries minister.<br/><br/>Site attached species may also benefit from habitat protection and suitably designed and implemented "No-take" MPAs, where all forms of harvesting or fishing are excluded. Some protection may be offered by those protected areas already being implemented for grey nurse sharks <em>Carcharias taurus</em> in NSW.<br/><br/>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs:<br/>Great Sandy Marine Park, Qld <br/>Moreton Bay Marine Park, Qld<br/>Cape Byron Marine Park, Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, off Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park, north of Coffs Harbour, NSW<br/>Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, north of Sydney, central NSW<br/>Jervis Bay Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Batemans Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Ningaloo Marine Park, WA<br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>All Victorian marine parks<br/>All South Australian marine parks<br/><br/>Possibly also occurs in the following areas:<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA<br/>Muiron Islands Marine Management Area, WA<br/>Rowley Shoals Marine Park , WA<br/><br/>Further protected areas might be necessary to ensure stable populations and are likely to be efficient due to the high site fidelity of wobbegong (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers may also have had an impact on this species in the past. An in-possession limit of two wobbegong sharks per person was introduced for recreational fishers in NSW and reduced to zero in September 2007. This new regulation may help to alleviate any adverse affects caused by recreational fishing practices.<br/><br/>Although a PhD project investigated the biology and ecology of wobbegong sharks, as suggested by the previous Red List assessment, catch and effort is still poorly recorded preventing adequate stock assessments. Species-specific catches in addition to accurate effort data is required to correctly determine population status of wobbegong.<br/><br/>The improvement of species identification in catch records and a better understanding of biological parameters, including validation of age and growth are crucial in providing accurate data upon which to base stock assessments and demographic analyses. Outcomes from which can then be used to estimate wobbegong resilience to fishing pressure and recommend future conservation and management decisions.
41837		distribution	eng	<em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> is most likely an Australian endemic wobbegong.<br/><br/><em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> has been recorded from tropical eastern Australia with confirmed reports from Gladstone (22°S), Queensland (Kyne <em>et al.</em> 2005) southwards to Hobsons Bay (37°52'S), Victoria, westwards to St. Vincents Gulf (35°10'S, 137°55'E), South Australia, and north-westwards to Bessieres Island (21°23?S, 114°41?E), Western Australia (J. Chidlow unpub. data). Tasmanian records are probably invalid (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Previous sources (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001) show that the global distribution of <em>O. maculatus</em> includes Japan and the South China Sea. However, wobbegongs from these areas could be different undescribed species of wobbegongs.
41837		habitat	eng	Compagno (2001) describes this species as ?an abundant, temperate to tropical, inshore to offshore bottom shark of the continental shelves of the western Pacific, commonly on coral and rocky reefs, in coastal bays, in estuaries, in seagrass beds, under piers, and on sandy bottoms.? Juveniles occur in estuaries and are occasionally found over seagrass beds. It can occur in water barely deep enough to cover it, and has been observed climbing ridges between tide pools with its back out of water (Compagno 2001). In a study in Port Stephens, NSW, a sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. ornatus</em>) was shown to prefer sponge gardens, artificial structures and barren boulders habitats with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). However, <em>O. ornatus</em> did not seem to select habitat on the basis of prey availability and habitat selection may therefore be related to predator avoidance (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). <em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 218 m depth (Kyne <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is often found in murkier water than the closely related <em>O. Halei</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A survey on wobbegongs shows evidence of site-attachment with divers observing individual sharks in exactly the same positions over consecutive dives (The Ecology Lab 1991). Furthermore, a sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. halei</em>) has been recorded within the same area for over 2.5 years (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006, Huveneers unpub. Data), and another sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. ornatus</em>) has been re-sighted within a 75 hectares area for a period of over 211 days suggesting site fidelity (Carraro and Gladstone 2006).<br/><br/>Compagno (2001) describes this shark as a nocturnal species that rests on the bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches and that undertakes nocturnal excursions away from resting areas. As a primarily nocturnal feeder, it preys on bottom invertebrates and fishes (Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (2001) cites the prey of <em>O. maculatus</em> as bony fishes, sharks, rays, cephalopods and crustaceans. A NSW study found elasmobranchs, osteichthyes (reef, benthic and a few pelagic fishes, and moray eels) and cephalopods as prey items (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007a). No crustaceans were found in the stomachs of <em>O. maculatus</em> caught in the NSW. Sampled sharks were, however, mostly large juveniles and adults (>100 cm TL), and it is possible that crustaceans are part of neonates or small juveniles diet.<br/><br/>Although <em>O. maculatus</em> was reported to mature at about 60 cm (Compagno, 2001), this size-at-maturity is likely to be related to the dwarf morph from WA, whereas <em>O. maculatus</em> matures at about 120 cm (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Similar to <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>, <em>O. maculatus</em> has a triennial reproductive cycle with follicles taking two years to enlarge before ovulation. During the first year, follicles remain small, then grow rapidly during the second year prior to ovulation during November. Gestation lasts about 10?11 months with parturition occurring during September?October (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). <em>O. maculatus</em> is lecithotrophic viviparous with a litter size of about 21 with up to 37 young recorded (Grant 1978) and a size-at-birth of about 23 cm TL (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Maximum length is about 320cm, but with most individuals caught being smaller, up to 150?180 cm (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Age and growth of <em>O. maculatus</em> was attempted but could not be verified or validated (Chidlow, 2003, Huveneers 2007). Furthermore, different age estimations for wobbegongs were obtained if using whole vertebrae or thin cut sections (Huveneers 2007). Newborn captive <em>O. Maculatus </em>grew about 22 cm year<sup>-1</sup>, whereas small juveniles of about 45 cm TL grew about 18 cm year<sup>-1</sup> (Huveneers 2007).
41837		population	eng	No evidence of subpopulations. However, as stated above, a potential dwarf population of <em>O. maculatus</em> occurs in WA. A genetic study looking at orectolobid phylogeny and phylogeorgaphy and assessing potential stock structure is currently being undertaken (S. Corrigan pers. comm.).
41837		threats	eng	Commercial fishing is probably the main cause of the decline of this species in eastern Australia. Furthermore, observed site fidelity is likely to increase wobbegong?s susceptibility to fishing pressure. On an Australia-wide basis, wobbegong sharks are commonly caught in trawls, beach seines, gillnets, lobster pots and traps, by hook-and-line, and also by spearfishing. The flesh is now highly regarded as food, but in the past has generally been of only limited commercial value. Historically, the attractive skin has been used as decorative leather (Last and Stevens 1994). However, it is unknown if this practice is still occurring.<br/><br/>In NSW, three <em>Orectolobus</em> species (<em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>) are taken in the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (OTL), in the fish and prawn sectors of the Ocean Trawl Fishery, and very few in the Estuary General Fishery. The majority of commercial wobbegong catches occur in the OTL Fisheries, where they have historically been taken as both a target species by setline methods and as by-product by other methods (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data). Serious declines have been observed in NSW, demonstrating the vulnerability of this species to exploitation. The NSW total catch of wobbegongs (genus <em>Orectolobus</em>), combining all fishing methods and fisheries, has declined from about 120 tonnes in 1990/1991 to about 55 tonnes in 1999/2000, representing a decrease of about 55% in less than a decade (Pease and Grinberg 1995, NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. Data). However, catches have since stabilised, and range 55?73 tonnes during 1998/1999?2003/2004. Fishing effort is mostly unknown and inaccurate because it has only been reported as the number of days fished. Additionally, the historical aggregation of the wobbegong species in catch data is a further complicating factor. Species-specific catch-per-unit-effort, required to obtain a more accurate estimation of wobbegong catches, is therefore unavailable. Although the strong decline in catches should be of concern for the resilience of wobbegongs to strong fishing pressure, the number of fishers landing wobbegongs has also decreased from about 520 in 1990/1991 to about 250 in 2003/2004 (NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. data).<br/><br/>Commercial fishing by a variety of methods is potentially threatening wobbegong species in southern Australian waters. In southern Australia, wobbegongs are taken within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) (AFMA logbook data, unpub. Data). Most of the above fisheries take these species as bycatch, and like many bycatch species they are often utilised. Retained wobbegong from the Commonwealth Fisheries ranged 2.3?5.1 tonnes between 1994 and 1999.<br/><br/><em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em> are a component of the bycatch of a commercial shark fishery utilising demersal gill-nets that target carcharhinid whalers and other sharks along the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia with an average total wobbegong catch between 1999 and 2006 of about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35?68 tonnes) (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998, Penn 2001, McAuley and Lenanton 2003, McAuley and Gaughan 2004, Gaughan and Chidlow 2005, McAuley 2006, McAuley 2007). Smaller catches of orectolobids also occur in commercial and recreational rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (J. Chidlow, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Commercial catches of wobbegong are small in most parts of South Australia (about 0.5?2.5 tonnes) with the highest yearly catch being 3.1 tonnes in 1987/88.<br/><br/>Wobbegongs are not targeted in Queensland. <em>O. halei </em>has been recorded in low numbers in the bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries (Kyne <em>et al.</em> 2002), whereas small wobbegongs are sometimes caught by crab pots in Southeast Queensland and Moreton Bay, but are usually discarded (J. Stead pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Henry and Lyle 2003) reported that 5,174 wobbegongs (all species combined) were caught and kept by recreational fishers in southern Australian states during the survey time period (May 2000?April 2001), comprising 1,944 from NSW, 999 from Queensland, 252 from SA, and 1,978 from WA. In Western Australia, a WA Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996?1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri, reported that up to 1,000 wobbegongs were caught and kept by recreational fishers during that period (Sumner and Williamson 1999).
41838		conservation	eng	As a result of the observed decline in NSW wobbegong catches, a discussion paper on wobbegong sharks was produced, seeking the views of various stakeholders on the future management of commercial and recreational fishing of wobbegong sharks (NSW Fisheries 2001). However, the management plan has not been finalised and management measures have not been implemented. NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) also requested commercial fishers to report catches for <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus </em>individually. Most recently, a review of NSW Recreational Freshwater & Saltwater Fishing Rules and the Fishery Management Strategy (FMS) for NSW Trap and Line Fishery have proposed a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL for wobbegong sharks and a trip limit of 12 wobbegongs caught in fish traps (NSW DPI, 2006). The FMS has also recommended that commercial fishers report their catches of each species separately and to collect additional biological data through the observer program.<br/><br/>Until late 2006, there were no management strategies specifically regulating the wobbegong commercial fishery in NSW. The only regulation in place was a recreational bag limit of two wobbegongs per day (later reduced to zero in September 2007) and a commercial gear limit of no more than ten lines each with a maximum of six hooks when setlining within three nautical miles of the coast. There were no gear limits outside three nautical miles, but as of 2008, amendments to the share management plans will instate a maximum of 1,200 hooks and 30 traps per endorsement holder.<br/><br/>Since September 2006, wobbegongs have been included in the daily trip limit for a specific list of shark species to one tonne for a 24 hour period and two tonnes for 48 hours or greater. NSW DPI also recommended that fishers in the Ocean Trap and Line and Lobster fisheries have in their codes of practice to release wobbegongs less than 130 cm TL caught in fish traps. Since July 2007, the use of wire trace, or other trace made of metal type materials, is prohibited to decrease instances of gut-hooking. Furthermore, a minimum size limit of 180 cm TL (effectively protecting <em>O. ornatus </em>since its maximum size is about 120 cm TL) and a maximum trip limit of either six or 12 wobbegongs (including <em>O. halei</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em>) will also be implemented and is pending approval by the NSW Fisheries minister.<br/><br/>Site attached species may also benefit from habitat protection and suitably designed and implemented "No-take" MPAs, where all forms of harvesting or fishing are excluded. Some protection may be offered by those protected areas already being implemented for grey nurse sharks <em>Carcharias taurus</em> in NSW.<br/><br/>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs:<br/>Moreton Bay Marine Park, Qld <br/>Great Sandy Marine Park, Qld <br/>Cape Byron Marine Park, Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, off Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park, north of Coffs Harbour, NSW<br/>Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, north of Sydney, central NSW<br/><br/>Further protected areas might be necessary to ensure stable populations and are likely to be efficient due to the high site fidelity of wobbegong (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers may also have had an impact on this species in the past. An in-possession limit of two wobbegong sharks per person was introduced for recreational fishers in NSW and reduced to zero in September 2007. This new regulation may help to alleviate any adverse affects caused by recreational fishing practices.<br/><br/>Although a PhD project investigated the biology and ecology of wobbegong sharks as suggested by the previous Red List assessment, catch and effort is still poorly recorded preventing adequate stock assessments. Species-specific catches in addition to accurate effort data is required to correctly determine population status of wobbegong. <br/><br/>The improvement of species identification in catch records and a better understanding of biological parameters, including validation of age and growth are crucial in providing accurate data upon which to base stock assessments and demographic analyses. Outcomes from which can then be used to estimate wobbegong resilience to fishing pressure and recommend future conservation and management decisions.
41838		distribution	eng	<em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> is an Australian endemic wobbegong.<br/><br/><em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> has been recorded from the Whitsunday Islands (20°20?S 148°54?E, Australian Museum specimen IA 3831) tropical eastern Australia southwards with confirmed reports from Port Stephens (32°43?S, 152°11?E, Australian Museum specimen I 43621-001?5 (Huveneers 2006) and likely reports in Sydney (Huveneers 2007).<br/><br/>Previous sources (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001) show that the global distribution of <em>O. ornatus</em> includes Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Japan. However, wobbegongs from these areas are could be different undescribed species of wobbegongs.
41838		habitat	eng	<em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> is a common inshore bottom-dwelling shark of continental waters that is found in bays, on macroalgae-covered rocky reef areas, coral reefs (including lagoons and reef flats, reef faces, and reef channels), and around offshore islands (Compagno 2001). In a study in Port Stephens, NSW, <em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> was shown to prefer sponge gardens, artificial structures and barren boulders habitats with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). However, <em>O. ornatus</em> did not seem to select habitat on the basis of prey availability and habitat selection may therefore be related to predator avoidance (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). <em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 100 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001) and is also known from around offshore islands such as Heron Island (P. Hallam pers. comm.). It is often found in clearer water than the closely related <em>O. maculatus</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A survey on wobbegongs shows evidence of site-attachment with divers observing individual sharks in exactly the same positions over consecutive dives (The Ecology Lab 1991). Furthermore, <em>O. ornatus</em> has been re-sighted within a 75 hectares area for a period of over 211 days (Carraro and Gladstone 2006), whereas a sympatric species of <em>Orectolobus</em> (<em>O. halei</em>), has been recorded within the same area for over 2.5 years suggesting site fidelity (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006, Huveneers unpub. data).<br/><br/>Compagno (2001) describes this shark as a nocturnal species that rests on the bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches and that undertakes nocturnal excursions away from resting areas. As a primarily nocturnal feeder, it preys on bottom invertebrates and fishes (Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (2001) cites the prey of <em>O. ornatus </em>and <em>O. halei</em> as bony fishes, sharks, rays, cephalopods and crustaceans. A NSW study found osteichthyes (reef, benthic and a few pelagic fishes, and moray eels) and cephalopods as prey items (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007a). No crustaceans were found in the stomachs of <em>O. ornatus</em> caught in NSW. Sampled sharks were, however, mostly large juveniles and adults (>70 cm TL), and it is possible that crustaceans are part of neonates or small juveniles diet.<br/><br/>Although <em>O. ornatus</em> was previously believed to mature at about 175 cm TL, further studies revealed that <em>O. halei</em> actually matures at about 175 cm TL, whereas <em>O. ornatus</em> matures at about 80 cm TL (Huveneers 2007, Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Similar to <em>O. halei </em>and <em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> has a triennial reproductive cycle with follicles taking two years to enlarge before ovulation. During the first year, follicles remained small, then grow rapidly during the second year prior to ovulation during November. Gestation lasts about 10?11 months with parturition occurring during September?October (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). <em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> is lecithotrophic viviparous with a litter size ranging from 4?18 (mean nine) and a size-at-birth of about 20 cm TL (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Maximum length is about 120 cm TL (Huveneers 2006).<br/><br/>Age and growth of <em>O. ornatus</em> was attempted but could not be verified or validated (Huveneers 2007). Furthermore, different age estimations for wobbegongs were obtained if using whole vertebrae or thin cut sections (Huveneers 2007). Newborn captive <em>O. ornatus</em> grew about 20 cm TL year<sup>-1</sup> (Huveneers 2007).
41838		population	eng	No evidence of subpopulations. However, as stated above, <em>O. ornatus</em> population was previously considered the juvenile of <em>O. halei</em>. A genetic study looking at orectolobid phylogeny and phylogeorgaphy and assessing potential stock structure is currently being undertaken (S. Corrigan, pers. comm.).
41838		threats	eng	Commercial fishing is probably the main cause of the decline of this species in eastern Australia. Furthermore, observed site fidelity is likely to increase wobbegong?s susceptibility to fishing pressure. On an Australia-wide basis, wobbegong sharks are commonly caught in trawls, beach seines, gillnets, lobster pots and traps, by hook-and-line, and also by spearfishing. The flesh is now highly regarded as food, but in the past has generally been of only limited commercial value. Historically, the attractive skin has been used as decorative leather (Last and Stevens 1994). However, it is unknown if this practice is still occurring.<br/><br/>In NSW, three <em>Orectolobus</em> species (<em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>) are taken in the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (OTL), in the fish and prawn sectors of the Ocean Trawl Fishery, and very few in the Estuary General Fishery. The majority of commercial wobbegong catches occur in the OTL Fisheries, where they have historically been taken as both a target species by setline methods and as by-product by other methods (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. Data). Serious declines have been observed in NSW, demonstrating the vulnerability of this species to exploitation. The NSW total catch of wobbegongs (genus <em>Orectolobus</em>), combining all fishing methods and Fisheries, has declined from about 120 tonnes in 1990/1991 to about 55 tonnes in 1999/2000, representing a decrease of about 55% in less than a decade (Pease and Grinberg 1995, NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. Data). However, catches have since stabilised, and range 55?73 tonnes during 1998/1999?2003/2004. Fishing effort is mostly unknown and inaccurate because it has only been reported as the number of days fished. Additionally, the historical aggregation of the wobbegong species in catch data is a further complicating factor. Species-specific catch-per-unit-effort, required to obtain a more accurate estimation of wobbegong catches, is therefore unavailable. Although the strong decline in catches should be of concern for the resilience of wobbegongs to strong fishing pressure, the number of fishers landing wobbegongs has also decreased from about 520 in 1990/1991 to about 250 in 2003/2004 (NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. data).<br/><br/>Wobbegongs are not targeted in Queensland. <em>Orectolobus halei </em>has been recorded in low numbers in the bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2002), whereas small wobbegongs are sometimes caught by crab pots in Southeast Queensland and Moreton Bay, but are usually discarded (J. Stead, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Henry and Lyle, 2003) reported that 5,174 wobbegongs (all species combined) were caught and kept by recreational fishers in southern Australian states during the survey time period (May 2000 to April 2001), comprising 1,944 from NSW, 999 from Queensland, 252 from S.A., and 1,978 from W.A. In Western Australia, a WA Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996?1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri, reported that up to 1000 wobbegongs were caught and kept by recreational fishers during that period (Sumner and Williamson 1999).
41839		distribution	eng	A little known but possibly common tropical inshore demersal shark of the Northern Australian continental shelf. Occurs in shallow water, often found in turbid areas. Thought to be reef associated.
41839		habitat	eng	Little is known about the biology of this species thought to be ovoviviparous. <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity:  Unknown <br/>Size at birth:  Unknown  <br/>Average litter size:  Unknown <br/>Size male maturity:  a 45 cm total length (TL) animal was mature <br/>Size female maturity:  Unknown  <br/>Max size:  to at least 63 cm TL and possibly to 100 cm TL <br/>Growth rates:  Unknown  <br/> <br/>(Ref: Last and Stevens (1994))
41839		threats	eng	Threats within its range are likely to be minimal. There are no target fisheries and it is not reported in bycatch.
41840		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41840		distribution	eng	Australia (from Newcastle in New South Wales to the western Great Australian Bight) and New Zealand (throughout mainland New Zealand and Stewart Is?Snares Island Shelf; Chatham Rise and Chatham Islands; scattered records from Challenger Plateau and Campbell Plateau). Most New Zealand records from Chatham Rise. Depth range 45 to 650 m in Australia and 126 to 1,067 m in New Zealand. Most common at 300 to 600 m in New Zealand.
41840		habitat	eng	Habitat poorly known, but occasionally caught by bottom trawlers. Possibly also occurs over foul ground. <br/> <br/>Little is known of the biology of prickly dogfish. They are ovoviviparous, and fecundity is low: one female contained seven embryos and 7 to 8 large ovarian eggs have been recorded in two New Zealand females. Young are born at about 24 cm. Males mature at about 55 to 60 cm and females at or before 67 cm. Maximum size is about 72 cm total length.
41840		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries, but extent of mortality unknown.
41841		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41841		distribution	eng	This population is restricted to the eastern coast of Australia.
41841		habitat	eng	This species resides on hard bottom areas in temperate waters along the continental shelf in depths of 20 to 160 m. <em>P. collare</em> reaches a maximum size of 87 cm total length (TL) and is oviparous. Little else is known about the biology of this species.
41841		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.
41841		threats	eng	This species is not commercially targeted, is typically discarded and is believed to have high survival rates.  Further information should be collected on its bycatch in trawl fisheries.
41842		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41842		distribution	eng	This population is restricted to the southern coast of Australia.
41842		habitat	eng	This species resides in temperate waters along the continental shelf in depths of 5 to 150 m. <em>P. ferrugineum</em> reaches a maximum size of 80 cm and is oviparous. Diet includes benthic crustaceans and mollusks. Little else is known about the biology of this species.
41842		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.
41842		threats	eng	Due to the size and depth range of this species it is not commonly collected as bycatch in the trawl and gillnet fisheries.
41843		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41843		distribution	eng	<em>P. sparsimaculatum</em> is only known to occur in the southeastern Indian Ocean off the coast of Western Australia (between Bunbury and Lancelin).
41843		habitat	eng	This species is small (up to 79 cm total length (TL)), but its biology is unknown. It has been found on the upper continental slope (245 to 435 m) in only one location off the coast of Western Australia. Beyond the initial description, no scientific data are available for this species.
41843		population	eng	This population is known only from three specimens and is found on the coastal shelf.
41843		threats	eng	Currently unlikely to be under threat due to the lack of fishing effort in the region.  Potential threat from deepwater trawl fishing on the upper continental shelf if fishing effort increases.
41844		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41844		distribution	eng	This population is restricted to the southern coast of Australia.
41844		habitat	eng	This species resides in temperate waters along the continental shelf in depths to 180 m. <em>P. variolatum</em> reaches a maximum size of 90 cm and is oviparous. It has been collected in a variety of benthic habitats including sandy, rocky and grassy regions. <em>P. variolatum</em> is nocturnal and is commonly found under rocks during daylight hours. Little else is known about the biology of this species.
41844		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.
41844		threats	eng	Due to the size and depth range of this species it is not commonly collected as bycatch in the trawl and gillnet fisheries.
41845		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41845		distribution	eng	Known only from a few specimens from two isolated Indo-Pacific localities.
41845		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal, on the middle continental slope, 1,000 m and probably deeper. There is no available life history information.
41845		threats	eng	A potential bycatch in some deepwater trawl fisheries for teleosts such as orange roughy as these continue to expand their geographic range and depth.
41846		conservation	eng	In the Australian Southern Shark Fishery, <em>P. nudipinnis</em> has been harvested as byproduct or bycatch to the targeting of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> and <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> in oceanic waters since the mid-1920s and possibly earlier in inshore areas. Baited hooks attached to bottom-set longlines was the principal fishing method until the early 1970s when the method was replaced by bottom-set gillnets. Management measures in this fishery include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, Total Allowable Catches (TAC) (for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> combined) (since 2002). Input controls include limits on length of net (since 1988), various 4 to 6 week closed seasons to protect pregnant animals of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994), and a legal minimum mesh-size of six inches for gillnets (since 1975) for most of the fished area. During 2002, the TAC for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> combined was 191 tonnes for the Southern Shark Fishery, 124 tonnes for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 31 tonnes for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery.  The three-mile closure of all Victorian waters to shark fishing provides a large refuge for the species.
41846		distribution	eng	<em>P. nudipinnis</em> is endemic to the waters of southern Australia?s inner continental shelf off Victoria and Tasmania and across to the western region of the Great Australian Bight. The recorded depth distribution is up to 70 m (Last and Stevens 1994).
41846		habitat	eng	<em>P. nudipinnis</em> is a small, slightly dorso-ventrally compressed, shark with a rostrum (snout), narrow and narrowly tapering with numerous lateral rostral teeth. The second dorsal fin is nearly as large as the first. The upper body is uniformly slate grey without spots or markings (Last and Stevens 1994). Sawsharks can be distinguished from the morphologically similar sawfishes by lateral (as opposed to ventral) gill-slits and the presence of barbels originating from the rostrum. <br/> <br/>Maximum total length and maximum total body mass are higher for females (124 cm, 4.3 kg) than for males (110 cm, 2.2 kg). Ageing studies indicate that the species has a maximum life span of nine years. This suggests the species has relatively high biological productivity. The species exhibits aplacental viviparity and produces 7 to 14 offspring biennially, and the young are born at approximately 35 cm total length. The diet consists of mainly small teleosts (T.I. Walker, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Victoria, Australia, unpublished data).
41846		threats	eng	One threat to the population of <em>P. nudipinnis</em> is their capture as byproduct from targeting <em>M. antarcticus</em> with gillnets of 6 to 6½-inch mesh-size off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. Most of the catch is taken from Bass Strait (Walker 1999). During 1970 to 2001 the catch of <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>Pristiophorus nudipinnis</em> combined from the Southern Shark Fishery varied 43 to 301 tonnes (carcass weight), 7% of the total catch of all shark species (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>Another threat is their capture as byproduct in the South East Trawl Fishery, which targets a range of quota teleost species with demersal trawl nets off eastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania. The sawshark catch from this sector was 106 tonnes during 2002. <br/> <br/>Minor threats include fishing with long-lines, trawls, and other methods. <br/> <br/>In Bass Strait, observed catch rates from research vessels during 1973 to 1976 and from scientific observations on board commercial vessels during 1998?01 indicate that the number of animals per thousand km-hours in bottom-set gillnets of six-inch mesh-size declined from 151 to 68. This is a decline to 45% of former levels over a 25-year period, however, the change is not statistically significant (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press). Catch per unit effort reported by commercial fishers over this same period declined from 15.32 to 7.71 kg per km-lift for <em>P. nudipinnis</em> and <em>P. cirratus</em> combined; i.e., a decline to 50% of former levels.  The decline in the commercial catch rate for these species occurred during 1974 to 1982 and catch rates subsequently stabilised during 1983 to 2001. A steady decline in fishing effort since the mid 1980s and adoption of a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) during 2002 for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> jointly are expected to help secure the stocks of these species. There is negligible targeting of <em>P. nudipinnis</em> and most of the catch of these species is taken as byproduct to targeting <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em>.
41848		conservation	eng	The introduction of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) in trawl nets of some Australian fisheries, has significantly reduced their capture of large elasmobranchs (Brewer <em>et al</em>. 1998), however TEDs are not mandatory in several trawl fisheries in northern Australian and are probably not widely used in other parts of this species? range.  The introduction of TEDs in other Australian trawl fisheries is highly recommended for mitigating bycatch of this and other at risk elasmobranchs. <br/> <br/>Finning of Rhynchobatids is also prohibited in some parts of Australia but there is thought be a continuing black market trade in their fins (Rose and McLoughlin 2000, McAuley unpublished data).
41848		distribution	eng	Indo-west Pacific: East Africa (Red Sea to South Africa) to Papua New Guinea, north to Japan, across northern Australia from Exmouth Gulf in Western Australia to New South Wales.
41848		habitat	eng	Coastal distribution throughout the range, generally occurring close inshore and around coral reefs to about 90 m (Anonymous 2003). <em>R. ancylostoma</em> occurs on or close to the seabed, mainly over sandy or muddy substrates. Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 270 cm (Compagno and Last 1999), reproduce ovoviviparously and feed primarily on benthic crustaceans (Compagno and Last 1999). Further research on the biology and exploitation of this species is required.
41848		population	eng	The <em>R. ancylostoma</em> population is thought to have decreased in parts of Indonesia (Chen 1996) but its population status elsewhere is unclear.
41848		threats	eng	<em>Rhina anclyostoma</em> is one of the target species of South East Asian rhinid and rhynchobatid gillnet fisheries (W. White, pers. comm.), which are generally unregulated and catches are thought to be poorly recorded (Chen 1996). The target gillnet fishery fleet in Indonesia declined from 500 boats in 1987 to 100 boats in 1996, reportedly due to declining catch rates (Chen 1996). There are no target fisheries for this species in Australia. It is also taken as bycatch in numerous non-target fisheries due to its vulnerability to multiple gear types, including trawl-nets, gillnets and hooks (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, Stephenson and Chidlow in prep., McAuley unpublished data). Flesh is sold for human consumption in Asia and the fins from large animals fetch particularly high prices. Habitat degradation is also likely to be a threat to this species, particularly in Southern and South East Asia.  <br/> <br/>Habitat destruction and pollution are thought to pose a significant threat. Specifically, dynamite fishing, coral bleaching and siltation caused by deforestation may be reducing available habitat.
41849		conservation	eng	Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of <em>Rhinobatos typu</em> is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, particularly in relation to finning, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary.
41849		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinobatos typus</em> is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). Another species, <em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em>, co-occurs with this species at the western extremity of its range but has not been positively identified from the Australia and Oceania Region (Last and Stevens 1994).
41849		habitat	eng	Juveniles of <em>Rhinobatos typus</em> occur inshore, e.g., mangrove systems and estuaries, and around atolls, whilst adults are found in the deeper waters of the continental shelf to about 100 m (Last and Stevens 1994). This species has also been reported to be able to live and breed permanently in freshwater. <br/> <br/><em>Rhinobatos typus</em> is reported to attain at least 270 cm in length (Last and Stevens 1994). Although no published information is available on size at maturity and reproductive biology of this species, specimens examined from Shark Bay (Western Australia) showed that females and males appear to mature at between 155 and 175 cm total length (TL), and young are born at approximately 38 to 43 cm TL (W. White, unpublished data). There does not appear to be a distinct seasonal reproductive cycle with newborn young found in most months of the year (W. White, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>This species is a major predator of crustaceans, with an examination of the diets showing that more than 90% of food ingested belongs to juveniles of either the blue swimmer crab (<em>Portunus pelagicus</em>) or the western king prawn (<em>Melicertus latisulcatus</em>) (W. White, unpublished data). Juveniles also utilize shallow sand flats as nursery areas and move into mangrove areas and sand flats at high tide to feed. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age at maturity, longevity and natural mortality of this species.
41849		threats	eng	The fins from <em>Rhinobatos typus</em> are widely considered as being amongst the most valuable of elasmobranchs (i.e., white-fin) and there is a significant incentive for fishers to remove the fins from large individuals when they are taken as either target catch or bycatch. <em>R. typus</em> is commonly landed as bycatch in fisheries in Indonesia (Bentley 1996, Chen 1996, W. White personal observation). Fisheries targeting the rhynchobatids in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Aru Islands and Merauke (Papua), often catch this species but generally in low numbers.  <br/> <br/>Since juveniles of this species inhabit shallow sand flats and mangrove estuaries (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White unpubl. data), intensive fishing pressures, e.g., gill, trap and seine nets, in such inshore areas throughout Indonesia, e.g., Merauke (Papua), are most likely having a high level of impact on this species. <br/> <br/>Such threats to this species in the Australia and Oceania region appear to be more confined to eastern Indonesia (e.g., Papua). There are no target fisheries for <em>R. typus</em> in Australia but it is a known bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries in the region (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stephenson and Chidlow in prep.). In northern Australia, this species constitutes a minor component of the catch in the northern prawn trawl fishery and since the introduction of compulsory turtle excluder devices (TEDs) in this fishery in the year 2000, the number of large individuals of such elasmobranchs retained have been further reduced (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is also likely to be only limited fishing pressure on juvenile <em>R. typus</em> in inshore regions in northern Australia.
41850		conservation	eng	Australian fisheries are managed, but there is no assessment of population status and no species-specific regulations.
41850		distribution	eng	This is the most widely distributed species of the genus <em>Rhizoprionodon</em>, occurring from western Africa to southern Japan and northern Australia.
41850		habitat	eng	A common continental shelf species. They are born at 35 to 40 cm in Australia and 25 cm in Africa, and mature at approximately 75 cm. Australian animals reach a maximum of around 100 cm, while African animals reach a larger size possibly as high as 178 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). They are viviparous, with litter sizes from one to eight (Compagno 1984). The gestation period is about 12 months, and mature females produce young every year. In Australian waters reproduction is asynchronous (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991), but in African and Asian waters reproduction is seasonal (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Devadoss 1988). <em>R. acutus</em> reaches maturity after two or three years and probably lives to a maximum of at least eight years (Compagno 1984). These life history parameters suggest a relatively high productivity that would sustain a reasonable level of fishing pressure, although not as high as that sustained by <em>R. oligolinx</em> or <em>R. taylori</em>.
41850		population	eng	The section of the population in western Africa is geographically isolated from the remainder of the population. There are no data on the population numbers in any part of the range.
41850		threats	eng	<em>Rhizoprionodon acutus</em> is an abundant inshore shark that is commonly caught in subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range. Catches in fisheries are best documented in Australia and India. In northern Australia it is one of the most commonly taken shark species in fish and prawn trawls (Last and Stevens 1994). It also represents 2% of the catch in gillnets and 6% of the catch on longlines (Stevens 1999).  Despite these catches the Australian population does not appear to have been adversely affected.   <br/> <br/>In Indian waters it is commonly taken gillnet and trawl fisheries (Devedoss <em>et al.</em> 1989).  There are a number of studies in Indian waters that have assessed the status of the population based on demographic approaches. Krishnamoorthi and Jagadis (1986) estimated that in Madras waters <em>R. acutus</em> was being under-exploited. Kasim (1991) estimated that along the Verval coast that the species was being fished below its maximum sustainable level, with males fished more heavily than females. The results of these assessments are questionable as they applied simplistic teleost based methods. As such the results are treated with caution.  Since these assessments were undertaken the Indian elasmobranch catch has increased dramatically (Anderson and Simpfendorfer, in press) and this species is likely to have become more heavily exploited.   <br/> <br/>Data from other areas is limited. It is known to be landed in other countries, but there is no other data available on the status of populations or fisheries.
41851		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41851		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Arabian Gulf to the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia and possibly southern Japan in inshore continental shelf waters.
41851		habitat	eng	The biology of this species is poorly known. However, it is likely to have a life history very similar to the Australian sharpnose shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon taylori</em>) which grows to a similar size and has a similar appearance. It is a small shark born at 21 to 26 cm, mature at 35 to 40 cm, and grows to around 70 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Mature females produce litters of 3 to 5 young, presumably every year (Compagno 1984). Assuming that the life history is similar to that of <em>R. taylori</em> it is assumed to be productive and able to sustain relatively high levels of fishing pressure.
41851		population	eng	There are little or no data available on population size anywhere within its range, and there are no indices of trends in population abundance.  It is known only from a limited number of specimens from northern Australia, where it is probably rare, and may be a stray from Indonesian waters.
41851		threats	eng	This species is probably exploited by inshore artisanal, subsistence and commercial fisheries through most of its range. Manjaji (2002) reported it from fish markets in Sabah. No data are available on the magnitude of catches or the impact of fishing on the populations.
41852		conservation	eng	The fisheries in which <em>R. taylori</em> is caught in northern Australia are regulated by either the relevant state government, or the federal government.  However, there are no specific regulations that apply to this species.
41852		distribution	eng	This is an abundant inshore species that occurs across in northern Australia and in southern Papua New Guinea (Last and Stevens 1994).
41852		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in inshore waters, especially over soft-bottomed habitats. The diet includes mostly teleost fishes, but also crustaceans and cephalopods (Simpfendorfer 1998). The young are born at 25 cm, males and females mature at approximately 55 cm, and they reach a maximum size of 67 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). This species has one of the most r-selected life histories of any shark species. Simpfendorfer (1992) reported that mature females produce litters of 1 to 10 young every year after a gestation period of 11.5 months. Interestingly, this is the only species of shark in which a period of embryonic diapause occurs (7.5 months) during which embryonic development is arrested. <em>R. taylori</em> is a rapidly growing species, reaching maturity after only one year, and living to a maximum of seven years (Simpfendorfer 1993). Estimates of natural mortality rates using catch curve analysis are 0.56 per year for females and 0.70 per year for males (Simpfendorfer 1999). Estimates of the intrinsic rate of population increase are 0.27 which give a population doubling time of 2.55 years. This rate of population increase is amongst the highest for any species of elasmobranch, and means that they are able to sustain relatively high levels of fishing pressure. If all age classes are fished equally the population can withstand an instantaneous fishing mortality rate of 0.18, and if the immature animals are not fished then this increases to 0.67.
41852		population	eng	There are no data available on the population size, but the demographics of the population has been investigated by Simpfendorfer (1999).
41852		threats	eng	This species of taken as bycatch in inshore gillnet fisheries for mackerel and barramundi along the Queensland coast. At times large catches are made, but these events are sporadic and the overall catch is relatively small. In the waters off the Northern Territory this species makes up about 0.5% of the catch in gillnet and longline fisheries (Stevens 1999), but its size is considered to be too small for retention (Last and Stevens 1994). Many of the animals discarded in these fisheries are already dead. <br/> <br/>Despite the level of fishing on this species its life history makes it relatively resilient to the moderate levels of fishing pressure to which it is subjected.
41853		conservation	eng	The introduction of TEDs in other Australian trawl fisheries is highly recommended for mitigating bycatch of this and similar species. Finning of rhynchobatids is also prohibited in some parts of Australia but there is thought be a continuing black market trade in their fins (Rose and McLoughlin 2000, McAuley unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Further investigation into the taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology of <em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> is required. Recent catch data for this species in eastern Indonesia and northern Australia, as well as elsewhere in its range, are required to assess to what extent the population decline is occurring. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary.
41853		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> is a locally common species found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Gulf of Thailand in Thailand, Macassar, East Indies, Java, Bali, Lombok and Papau in Indonesia, Philippines and Queensland in Australia (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White, pers. obs.). However, records of <em>R. djiddensis</em> from this region cannot be identified to species and may actually be <em>R. australiae</em>, thus the range cannot be accurately determined.
41853		habitat	eng	<em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> inhabits inshore waters on the continental shelves (Compagno and Last 1999). This species has a maximum total length (TL) of 223 cm (female), and probably up to 300 cm TL (from Thailand), with males mature at 131 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White, unpubl. data). Very little is known about the biology and ecology of this species. Grant (1978) reports that in Queensland, this species feeds predominantly on crabs and other shellfish. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age and growth and natural mortality of <em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em>.
41853		threats	eng	<em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> is one of the most sought after elasmobranchs in southeast Asia (particularly Indonesia), with the dorsal fins and upper caudal fin considered to be of premium quality and fetch the highest prices (Chen 1996). A set of fins from a single individual have been reported to have fetched up to Rp 900 000 or US$396/kg (Chen 1996). The skins and flesh are also of good quality.         <br/> <br/>The Aru Islands rhinid and rhynchobatid gill net fishery first began in the mid 1970?s and rapidly expanded to reach its peak in 1987 with more than 500 boats involved. In future years the catches declined very rapidly with only 100 boats fishing in this area in 1996 (Chen 1996). The demersal gill net fishery for batoids in Merauke still land large quantities of rhynchobatids. A similar fishery also exists in Merauke (south Papua) with gillnet boats operating in the Arafura Sea, close to Australian waters, and the frozen catch sent by boat to processing areas in Jakarta. One observed catch weighed close to eight tonnes with <em>Rhynchobatus</em> spp. constituting more than 30% of the total mass (W. White, unpubl. data). Catches from these boats include a variety of large dasyatids, but the rhynchobatids constitute the largest proportion of the catch (W. White, unpubl. data). There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions occasionally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996; W. White, unpubl. data).        <br/> <br/><em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> (probably <em>R. australiae</em>) was found to be one of the four most commonly caught elasmobranchs in the bycatch of the trawl fisheries (prawn and fish) in northern Australia, with approximately 10% of these dying in the trawl net (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, Stephenson and Chidlow in prep). However, since the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDS) in some northern Australian trawl fisheries, catches of large elasmobranchs have been reduced (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 1998) and thus <em>R. australiae</em> are probably caught in lower numbers. Rhynchobatids are also a common target of recreational anglers in some parts of their range, including northern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). There is also evidence of such finning of large shovelnose rays and guitarfish in northern Australia (R. McAuley, unpubl. data).
41854		conservation	eng	The introduction of TEDs in trawl nets of some Australian fisheries, has significantly reduced the capture of large elasmobranchs (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 1998), however TEDs are not mandatory in several trawl fisheries in northern Australian and are probably not widely used in other parts of this species? range. The introduction of TEDs in other Australian trawl fisheries is highly recommended for mitigating bycatch of this and other at risk elasmobranchs. <br/> <br/>Finning of Rhynchobatids is prohibited in some parts of Australia but there is thought be a continuing black market trade in their fins (Rose and McLoughlin 2001, McAuley unpublished data).
41854		distribution	eng	A wide-ranging species first described from India that was widely mistaken for the Western Indian Ocean and Red Sea <em>R. djiddensis</em> across its range from Zanzibar and the Arabian Sea to the Western Pacific. The species needs to be taxonomically assessed from adequate samples from various parts of its range.
41854		habitat	eng	<em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> has a coastal distribution throughout its range, generally occurring on or close to the seabed, inshore off river mouths and in shallow bays. Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 147 cm total length (TL) and possibly to 200 cm TL, reproduce ovoviviparously and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates (Compagno and Last 1999). Further research on the biology and exploitation of this species is urgently required.
41854		population	eng	Due to heavy inshore gillnet fishing, the <em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> population has probably decreased in parts of India and but it?s population status elsewhere is unclear.
41854		threats	eng	<em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> is subject to capture in a variety of fisheries throughout its range (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White pers. comm.). <em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> is fished heavily by gillnet fisheries, for example, in India. Due to its similarity in both habitat and habits with <em>R. australiae</em>, it is probably also vulnerable to other gear types, including trawlnets and hooks. Outside of Australia, elasmobranch fisheries throughout this species? range are generally unregulated (Chen 1996), catches are poorly recorded (Bonfil 1994) and finning is widespread. Flesh is sold for human consumption in Asia and the fins from large animals fetch exceptionally high prices. Given this species? use of semi-enclosed and near-shore habitats, habitat destruction and pollution are thought to pose a significant threat, particularly in Southern and South East Asia.
41855		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41855		distribution	eng	Apparently circumglobal in the Southern Ocean.
41855		habitat	eng	Depth range: 150 to 500 m. Upper slope (Pukaki Rise, New Zealand), possibly mesopelagic. Reaches at least 111 cm total length (TL). Size at maturity is unknown. The smallest mature female reported was 74 cm TL. This species appears to be highly fecund (litter size more than 59) however, the gestation period and pupping interval is unknown. Size at birth, age and growth, and diet are unknown.
41855		threats	eng	Infrequently taken in deepwater trawl and tuna longline fisheries.
41856		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41856		distribution	eng	New Zealand endemic. Recorded off the east coast of South Island, from Bank?s Peninsula to Pukaki Rise.
41856		habitat	eng	Reaches at least 80 cm total length (TL). Depth range: 400 to 500 m. An 80 cm TL male was mature.
41856		threats	eng	Infrequently taken in deepwater trawl fisheries.
41857		conservation	eng	Specimens caught in the Australian toothfish fishery are released, however, survival rates are unknown.
41857		distribution	eng	This species may be more widely distributed in the Southern Ocean than current records suggest.
41857		habitat	eng	On or near the bottom with current records from 400 to 1,100 m. Stomach contents are mainly fish, cephalopods (particularly <em>Mesonychoteuthis</em>) and marine  mammal remains. In the Tasman Sea and around Macquarie Island, cephalopods occurred in 80% of stomachs, fish in 47%, marine mammals in 33%, birds in 7% and other items in 13% (Yano <em>et al.</em> in prep, van Wijk <em>et al.</em> 2001). The relatively frequent presence of fast active prey suggests that this sluggish species may employ some kind of ambush strategy. <br/> <br/>Ovoviviparous with size at birth around 40 cm; litter size, gestation, reproductive periodicity, age and growth are unknown.
41857		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size.
41857		threats	eng	The spread of deep water fisheries in cool temperate and sub-antarctic waters will increasingly impact on this species which is taken as bycatch in trawl and hook fisheries, such as those currently exploiting orange roughy and Patagonian toothfish. About 44 specimens were captured in the Macquarie Island toothfish fishery between 1996 and 2000 (van Wijk <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41858		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41858		distribution	eng	This population is restricted to separate regions in Australia, the Philippines and Japan.
41858		habitat	eng	<em>S. aliae</em> is epi- or mesopelagic near land masses. It is thought to use a depth range from 200 to 2,000 m. Individuals are thought to make daily migrations from shallow depths (200 m) at night to deeper waters (2,000 m) during the day. This is possibly the smallest living shark attaining a size of approximately 22 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at 15 cm TL. Females are ovoviviparous but litter sizes are unknown. Diet includes cephalopods and bony fishes. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41858		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
41858		threats	eng	There are currently no fisheries threats identified for this species.
41859		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41859		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean (Alboran Sea and western Mediterranean), western Indian Ocean, western Pacific (Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea south to Gulf of Tonkin), southern Australia, New Caledonia and New Hebrides.
41859		habitat	eng	A common to abundant small dogfish of temperate and tropical seas, found on the inner and outer continental shelves and upper slopes generally on or near the bottom at depths from close inshore down to 732 m. Much of the biological information is from South African specimens. Off South Africa newborn young were found to be pelagic on pupping grounds on the outer continental shelves on the Agulhas Bank at about 157 to 158 m through sampling with an Engels pelagic trawl hauled by the RV Africana, and were abundantly collected along with a few adults (mostly males) from near the bottom to the surface. This is a social shark that often forms large, dense schools where it occurs. On the east coast of South Africa some sexual  segregation may occur, with breeding females  more southerly in distribution. Ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparous), with number of young per litter 1-6 and generally two or three. There may be a lack of birth seasonality with no obvious peaks in fetal size during the year. The gestation period is uncertain although it has been estimated as two years.  Adult females are apparently continuously reproductive, without a gap between pregnancies. This  shark eats a variety of bony fishes, and more rarely elasmobranchs. Invertebrate prey includes a variety of crustaceans, mollusks, cephalopods, brittle stars and especially bristleworms  (Polychaeta).  which are common prey items. Maximum total length is about 77 cm, with most smaller than 65 cm. Term fetuses about 20 to 25 cm long, size at birth about 23 to 25 cm, freeliving young with yolk scars 23 to 28 cm; males maturing at  about 34 to 51 cm, females mature at 37 to 62 cm. Age at maturity has been estimated at 22 years for females and 15 years for males in the South Africa population (Watson and Smale 1999).
41859		threats	eng	This species is of considerable interest to fisheries and is taken in considerable quantities in demersal trawls but also on lines and nets. It is commonly caught as bycatch of the trawl fishery off southern Africa but is largely discarded.  <br/> <br/>In Australia <em>S. megalops</em> was shown to be a major component of the catch by a fishery independent trawl survey (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) between the years 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales (NSW)) and the Eden-Gabo I. area (southern NSW/northern Victoria). However, this species did not follow the general pattern of decline shown by other species of deepwater dogfish, and it appears that the present level of trawling is not adversely affecting <em>S. megalops</em>. This could be due to recruitment from the lightly fished outer shelf areas helping to maintain their overall biomass. Despite this, the situation needs to be monitored as there are indications that the relatively heavy fishing pressure off Ulladulla (NSW) is in fact beginning to affect local abundance of this species (although this is unlikely to markedly affect the entire population). Because of its relatively small size, <em>S. megalops</em> has historically not been targeted by trawlers off south-eastern Australia; but as catch rates of more traditional species decline, greater exploitation of this species is likely to occur. Along the south coast of Australia, trawl grounds are mainly away from the areas inhabited by this species, and selectivity data indicates that comparatively low numbers are captured in the commercial shark gillnets of 6-6.5-inch mesh-size.  There is no detectable change in catch rates with 6-inch mesh-size between 1973 to 1976 and 1998 to 2001 in Bass Strait (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press).  <br/> <br/><em>S. megalops</em> is a very minor component of the temperate Western Australia demersal gillnet fishery (probably less than one tonne/year) and possibly the Commonwealth managed trawl fisheries. The gillnet fishery only operates to the inshore limit of the species' range (i.e., to around 100 m depth) and there is a large area off the northern west coast that is closed to shark fishing. Catches are hard to ascertain as dogfish are generally not retained and not identified to species level in either fishery. There is no evidence to suggest a population decline (R. McAuley, WA Fisheries. pers.comm. April 2003). <br/> <br/>It is utilized for human consumption in Australia being sold as fresh fillets.  Significant quantities of ?greeneye? dogfish, comprising about 80% <em>S. megalops</em>, are sold annually through the Sydney Fish Market but sales have declined in recent years (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Sales of greeneye dogfish declined from about 150 tonnes in 1992 to about 50 tonnes in 1999. Quantities sold in other Australian markets are small.
41860		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41860		distribution	eng	Common all around New Caledonia, also found off the Loyalty Islands, the Chesterfield archipelago, on the Norfolk Ridge and off Vanuatu.
41860		habitat	eng	Occurs on upper insular slopes from 34 to 480 m, where it feeds on a variety of deepwater fishes, also on shrimps and molluscs. A small shark (maximum size approximately 80 cm) that bears live young (at least three pups per litter). Biology poorly known. It is probably, like better-known members of the genus, slow to reach maturity and having a low intrinsic rate of population increase and resilience to fisheries (this is particularly the case for deepwater species).
41860		population	eng	No information on population size.
41860		threats	eng	Not targeted by deepwater fisheries, but may be taken as bycatch, although deep-sea fisheries are very limited in New Caledonia.
41861		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41861		distribution	eng	Known only from the area of Éfate, Vanuatu at depths of 320 to 400 m; range apparently very limited.
41861		habitat	eng	Insular slopes, 320 to 400 m depth. Young born at approximately 24 cm, three young/litter. Females mature at about 65 cm and reach a maximum recorded total length of 77 cm.
41861		population	eng	Several specimens collected, but population size is unknown.
41861		threats	eng	Currently of no interest to fisheries. May be taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.
41862		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, there are large areas that are not trawled within its range.
41862		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from central New South Wales (NSW) (around Newcastle) to southern Western Australia (Rottnest Island). It is common in Bass Strait and off surf beaches along the eastern seaboard (Last and Stevens 1994).
41862		habitat	eng	Last and Stevens (1994) reported the habitat as continental shelf waters down to 130 m. This species is a demersal carnivore feeding on fish and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994). It inhabits sand and mud bottoms, often in seagrass beds or adjacent to rocky reefs (Michael 2001). Males attain approximately 105 cm total length (TL) and are mature by 90 cm TL; females attain at least 115 cm and are mature by 97 cm (Graham 2001). Maximum size is reported to be 152 cm (Compagno 1984) and approximately 15 kg (Graham 1999), but specimens over 115 cm were rare off NSW between 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 (Graham 1999). Ovoviviparous (Compagno 1984), with litters up to 20 young (Michael 2001), although there is little data on litter sizes. Gestation period unknown but a similar species (<em>S. californica</em>) overseas has a gestation period of 10 months (Michael 2002). Gives birth in the autumn months (Michael 2001). This shark spends its day buried, ingesting anything that moves too close, but it emerges from the sand or mud at night and actively searches for food (Michael 2001).
41862		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be relatively large (thousands of mature individuals), but the number and size of subpopulations is unknown.
41862		threats	eng	Angel sharks are not very susceptible to line or mesh netting techniques, but are susceptible to trawling as they lay on the bottom (Terry Walker, pers. comm. March 2003). The main threat to this species is demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery (SETF)) in south-eastern Australia between 136 and 153° longitude. In the observer program of the SETF (between 1992 and 2001), most catches were in late autumn to winter months and catch per unit effort was highest between eastern Tasmania and central NSW (Terry Walker, pers. comm. March 2003). Gillnetting in the Southern Shark Fishery in waters less than 75 m depth total catches of 12 tonnes (carcass weight) in Victoria and Tasmania between 1994/95 and 2000/01 (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>The flesh of angel sharks is excellent eating and is marketed as angel shark, boneless fillets and monkfish (Last and Stevens 1994).
41863		conservation	eng	There are currently no quotas in place for catches of the species in the GABTF. The species is likely to occur in the Commonwealth managed Great Australian Bight Marine Park Benthic Protection Area, a 20 nm strip extending out from the coast to 200 nm offshore where demersal trawling is prohibited.
41863		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Australia from off Geraldton, Western Australia to off Port Lincoln, South Australia.
41863		habitat	eng	<em>Squatina tergocellata</em> is demersal on the continental shelf and upper slope in 130 to 400 m, but most common in about 300 m (Last and Stevens 1994). The species may display spatial segregation of age classes, with older age classes more common in deeper waters (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Maximum size of females 140 cm total length (TL); of males 103 cm TL (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Male reach sexual maturity at 81 to 91 cm TL and females at 115 to 125 cm TL. Gravid females with near-term embryos were observed during January and February. Fecundity ranges from 2 to 9 (mean = 4.5). Minimum gestation period of 6 to 12 months with parturition probably occurring biennially. Diet is dominated by squid (<em>Notodarus gouldi</em>) and fish (monacanthids) (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Information on age and growth is not available.
41863		population	eng	No available information on subpopulations or population sizes.
41863		threats	eng	<em>Squatina tergocellata</em> is commonly taken and marketed in the Australian Commonwealth managed Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery (GABTF). The species is taken in the shelf/upper slope component of the fishery which fishes mostly in 120 to 180 m and therefore, only a portion of the species bathymetric range is fished (furthermore, as the species is most common in about 300 m most of the population would not be impacted by fishing). Additionally, the fishery receives relatively low effort (the fishery is managed by limited entry with only 10 Statuary Fishing Rights) and a large portion of the species range, particularly in the west, receives minimal fishing effort (Caton 2002).  The fishery mostly takes immature individuals (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Reported landings from this fishery are as follows: 1988-1992 (five year period), 234 tonnes; 1995, 97 tonnes; 1996, 95 tonnes; 1997, 140 tonnes; 1999, 109 tonnes; 2000, 69 tonnes; 2001, 88 tonnes; and, 2002, 84 tonnes (McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1994, McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1995, McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1997, Caton <em>et al.</em> 1997, Caton <em>et al.</em> 1999, Caton 2002, Phil Sahlqvist pers. comm.). The decline in catch in 2000 corresponds with a decrease in fishing effort. Overall, the stock appears stable in the Great Australian Bight. Furthermore, while catches were variable, no trend has been observed in catch rates of <em>S. tergocellata</em> in the South East Trawl Fishery Observer Program (sampling at the eastern extent of the species range) over the ten-year period, 1992 to 2002 (T. Walker, pers. comm).  <br/> <br/>Given the apparent ?slow? life history of angel sharks together with documented declines of other species (Holts 1988, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) any future increase in fishing effort in the area of occurrence of <em>Squatina tergocellata</em> should be monitored to ensure the species is not adversely affected.
41864		conservation	eng	The gillnet fisheries in which it is caught are managed, but there are no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species.
41864		distribution	eng	Occurs from the Abrolhos Islands in Western Australia to Adelaide in South Australia.
41864		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky reef and weedy areas on the continental shelf. Little is known of its ecology, but like other wobbegong sharks it is unlikely to move large distances, spending most of its time lying on the bottom. It is an ambush predator, and Chidlow (2003) reported that the stomach contents of 11 specimens all contained teleost prey. <br/> <br/>A small species growing to less than a meter in length (92 cm), with males maturing about 65 cm. Ovoviviparous development, with young born at about 22 cm. Chidlow (2003) reported only one pregnant female which contained 12 developing embryos with a sex ratio strongly biased towards males.
41864		population	eng	No information is available on subpopulations, but it appears to be most common in southwestern Western Australia.
41864		threats	eng	Occasionally caught in demersal gillnets throughout its range in Western Australia. However, its small size makes it of limited commercial value and it is normally discarded alive. It is not been recorded in the catches from demersal gillnets or trawls in South Australia (T. Walker, MAFRI, pers. comm). Recreational anglers in south-western Western Australia occasionally catch this species when fishing for teleosts around rocky reefs.
41865		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41865		distribution	eng	<em>T. fairchildi</em> is a common inhabitant of the continental shelf and upper slope around New Zealand?s North, South and Stewart Islands and Chatham Rise. There are also isolated records from Challenger Plateau. It occurs from 5 to 1,135 m depth, but is most frequently recorded in research trawls between 100 to 300 m (Cox and Francis 1997, Paul and Heath 1997, Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998).
41865		habitat	eng	<em>T. fairchildi</em> inhabits usually sandy or muddy bottoms on the outer continental shelf but is occasionally encountered inshore, including on shallow rocky reefs (pers. obs.). To 200 cm total length (TL), commonly to 100 to 150 cm TL (Paul and Heath 1997). Diet includes demersal fishes, such as red cod (<em>Pseudophycis bacchus</em>), crustaceans (crabs, shrimps, mantis shrimps) and shellfish. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. There are only two reports of pregnant females, both reported litter size as eight (four embryos in each uterus) (Hamilton 1883, Graham 1956). Nursery areas are not known. Size at birth and maturity is unknown. The smallest pregnant female reported was 91 cm TL.
41865		population	eng	There are no population or biomass estimates available for New Zealand electric rays.
41865		threats	eng	<em>T. fairchildi</em> is commonly taken as bycatch in commercial bottom-trawls and occasionally on bottom-set longlines. It has no commercial value and is usually discarded. Survival of discards is unknown but could be high in line fisheries. <em>T. fairchildi</em> is infrequently taken by recreational line fishers and is usually cut, or struck off the line (Paul and Heath 1997). <em>T. fairchildi</em> is not exhibited in public aquaria or collected for the aquarium trade. Old reports suggest that it was formerly common on inshore trawl grounds, whereas these days it appears to be most abundant below 100 m, suggesting possible declines in shallow waters.
41866		conservation	eng	There are currently no management or conservation measures in place for this species although it does occur in some protected marine parks, reserves and sanctuaries in Victorian and South Australian waters.
41866		distribution	eng	This species is found in shallow water in southern Australia from eastern Bass Strait to Lancelin in Western Australia, including the waters of Victoria, northern Tasmania and South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Hutchins and Swainston 1996).
41866		habitat	eng	Little is known of the life history of the southern fiddler ray except that it is aplacental yolk sac viviparous (Reardon, M. pers. obs.) and produces 4 to 6 young per breeding cycle (Haacke 1885). Like all Australian shovelnose rays it inhabits shallow soft substrate habitats and seagrass meadows and preys primarily on shellfish and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates (Last and Stevens 1994).
41866		population	eng	No definitive population data exists on this species although it appears to be relatively common throughout its range (MAFRI unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Abundance data for 1992 to 2002 from the South East Trawl Fishery operating from New South Wales to South Australia including Tasmania shows no appreciable decline in catch rates (MAFRI unpublished data).   <br/> <br/>Southern fiddler rays in an abundance measure from a trawl survey in Western Australia comprised 0.1% (n=84.6/hectare) of the total catch number of 172 teleost and chondrichthyan species caught, and 1.7% of the total catch weight (Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 1999) indicating a relatively healthy population in this region.
41866		threats	eng	The flesh is of good quality and is sold in small quantity in seafood outlets.  It is caught as a bycatch in commercial fisheries and also by recreational fishers (Last and Stevens 1994, MAFRI unpublished data, Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 1999).
41867		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41867		distribution	eng	Uncertain due to confusion with <em>T. tarakea</em>. Blind electric rays have been recorded off east coast North Island south of East Cape, South Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Rise (Mernoo Bank and Chatham Islands) and Snares Shelf to 49°S.
41867		habitat	eng	Largely unknown. Blind electric rays of both species (<em>T. aysoni</em> and <em>T. tarakea</em>) have been trawled from 46 to 800 m, but are most common between 300-400 m. The flabby disc and rudimentary tail suggest blind electric rays are very poor swimmers and they probably push themselves along the bottom with their well- developed pelvic appendages. Diet includes polychaete worms. Reproduction is probably ovoviviparous. Litter size is up to 11. Size at birth is 9 to 10 cm. Maximum size 38 cm total length.
41867		threats	eng	Bottom trawling.
41868		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41868		distribution	eng	Uncertain due to confusion with <em>T. aysoni</em>. Blind electric rays have been recorded off east coast North Island south of East Cape, South Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Rise (Mernoo Bank and Chatham Islands) and Snares Shelf to 49°S.
41868		habitat	eng	Largely unknown. Blind electric rays of both species have been trawled from 46 to 800 m, but are most common between 300 to 400 m. The flabby disc and rudimentary tail suggest blind electric rays are very poor swimmers and they probably push themselves along the bottom with their well developed pelvic appendages. Diet includes polychaete worms. Reproduction is probably ovoviviparous. Litter size is up to 11. Size at birth is 9 to 10 cm. Maximum size 35 cm total length.
41868		threats	eng	Bottom trawling.
41870		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41870		distribution	eng	The holotype (and only known specimen) was collected from the coral bottom in the pass of an islet on the external coral reef of a south-western New Caledonian lagoon. There are also underwater photographs of two specimens. The fish fauna of New Caledonia has been well surveyed, suggesting that this species is rare. It is, however, presumably present at similar depths and in similar habitat elsewhere around the island.  <br/> <br/>New Caledonia has approximately 8,000 km² of coral reef habitat surrounding a lagoon of 24,000 km². Much of this habitat is significantly shallower than the type locality, implying that the total extent of occurrence of this species around the island will be less than 20,000 km², even if the species is very widespread (which appears not to be the case).
41870		habitat	eng	Inshore on an external coral reef at a depth of 49 m. Catsharks are generally weak swimmers and do not migrate large distances. They mostly feed on invertebrates and small fishes.
41870		threats	eng	This small (79 cm), attractively patterned catshark is likely to be taken as bycatch in mixed-species, artisanal fisheries and to be susceptible to habitat deterioration and loss. New Caledonian coral reefs are in generally good condition, but large areas (particularly in the east) are affected by run-off arising from nickel mining operations and resultant deforestation, erosion and water pollution. The problem is exacerbated by destruction of mangroves. The incidence of coral reef bleaching is also rising in the region (<a href="http://www.reefbase.org">ReefBase</a>).
41871		conservation	eng	Detailed quantitative information on catch per unit effort for Centrophorus squamosus throughout its range is required to assess whether CPUE is declining. The only information available on catch rates records tonnage landed annually on Rockall Trough and Porcupine Bank in the eastern Atlantic, but this cannot be related to effort and, thus, cannot be used to determine whether population sizes are decreasing. A stock analysis will be available shortly from the DELASS project in the North East Atlantic. It should also be noted that due to the apparently long lifespan of this species, the recovery of a heavily fished population would probably require a long period of time.
41871		distribution	eng	<em>Centrophorus squamosus</em> has a wide distribution: in the eastern Atlantic from Iceland and the Atlantic slope to the Canary Islands, Senegal, Faeroes, Madeira, Azores, Gabon to Dem. Rep. Congo, Namibia, and western Cape of Good Hope (South Africa); western Indian Ocean (Natal off South Africa and the Aldabra Islands); eastern Indian Ocean (Tasmania and Victoria in Australia); the northwest Pacific, i.e., Japan, the western central Pacific (Philippines and Indonesia) and the southwestern Pacific, i.e. New Zealand and Australia (New South Wales) (Brito 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998, Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2002, W. White, pers. obs.). The distribution for this species is considered to be more widespread in Australia than the records suggest (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/>The level of fishing pressure needs to be examined in the various populations within its range to establish whether separate regional assessments are more suitable. For example, this species is caught in large numbers in the eastern Atlantic whereas they are not targeted or commonly caught as bycatch in Australian waters.
41871		habitat	eng	Centrophorus squamosus is found demersally on the continental slopes at depths between 230 and 2,400 m, also pelagically in the upper 1,250 m of oceanic water in depths to 4,000 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). <br/> <br/>This species attains a maximum length of 1.6 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). Maturity is attained at approximately 100 cm total length (TL) in males and at approximately 125 cm in females (Girard and Du Buit 1999, Clarke et al. 2001). Centrophorus squamosus is ovoviviparous with 5 to 8 young born at a length between 35 and 43 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Cox and Francis 1997). There is no apparent seasonal reproductive cycle in males (Girard et al. 2000). <br/> <br/>A study of the age and growth of this species off the Atlantic Slope (off Ireland) provided age estimates of 21 to 70 years (Clarke et al. 2002), however, the validation of whether the rings were formed annually was not undertaken. This species presumably attains maturity at a relatively late age. <br/> <br/>There is some preliminary data on the dietary compositions of this species (see Ebert et al. 1992).
41871		threats	eng	Centrophorus squamosus is an important component of deep-water fisheries in certain areas within its range. This shark has been exploited commercially for many years. In Japan exploitation peaked during World War II, because of the high percentage of squalene in its liver, but quickly declined due to decreasing numbers caught. Deep-water fisheries (longlining and trawling) which catch large quantities of this species are found in the eastern Atlantic, e.g., off Ireland, Spain, Portugal and France (Iglesias and Paz 1995, Clarke et al. 2001, Girard and De Buit 1999). For example, this species is targeted heavily by the Portuguese deep-water longline fishery for which exploitation peaked in 1986 (600 tonnes) and has been steadily declining since then (Correia and Smith, in prep). The catches of the mixed trawl fishery off Rockall Trough and Porcupine Bank in the eastern Atlantic, which consist predominantly of this species and Centroscymnus coelolepis, increased from 302 tonnes in 1991 to 3,284 tonnes in 1996, and then declined to 1,939 tonnes in 1999 (ICES 2000). Although this suggests that the population is declining, this data cannot be directly related to fishing effort and it is therefore possible that fishing effort declined between 1996 and 1999. The French bottom trawl fishery has shown rapidly increasing landings of these species, i.e., 322 tonnes in 1990 and 2,939 tonnes in 1996 (Girard and De Buit 1999). Quantitative catch per unit effort are available for autoline catches in ICES Area VI: 218 (1997) to 24 (2000); 219 (1998) to 42 (2000) = 80 to 90% decline in three years. Area VII: 221(96), 56 (97), 51 (99), 73 (00) = 67 to 77% decline in four years. Area XII: 100 (1999), 78 and 31 (2000) = 20 to 69% decline in one year (SGRST 2002). Although this data is for C. squamosus and Centroscymnus coelolepis combined, the acute vulnerability to exploitation of Centrophorus spp has been shown from the New South Wales (NSW) fishery independent surveys (Graham et al. 2001), and C. squamosus is the more vulnerable of these two species in terms of life history. <br/> <br/>Artisanal deep-water longline fisheries in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Java and Bali, also commonly land this species but often in low numbers (W. White, unpubl. data). The catches of this species in Australia and Oceania are relatively low and do not represent a significant component of the squaloid catch in both southeastern Australia and New Zealand, however more data is required. <br/> <br/>The flesh and liver are marketed from this species in many areas throughout its range.
41872		conservation	eng	The species is protected in a significant proportion of its range on the east coast of Australia in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Moreton Bay Marine Park. While fishing is still allowed in most areas of the parks, the species is not targeted and is likely to survive capture as bycatch.
41872		distribution	eng	Little is know about the populations of this species. Compagno (2001) reports that it was seen in large numbers at a fish market at Samut, near Bangkok, Thailand.  Blaber, Brewer and Harris (1994) report the occurrence of the species in a trawl survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia, but it was recorded as one of the least abundant species of fish caught. It is encountered reasonably often on the reef flats in the Capricorn-Bunker group, Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia, and in Moreton Bay, Queensland. It has been seen in groups of up to a dozen individuals at specific locations in Moreton Bay that provide protection/cover in otherwise open environments (M.B. Bennet, pers. obs.). It is not uncommon to catch this species when bottom bait-fishing in Moreton Bay, suggesting that it is present in reasonable numbers.
41872		habitat	eng	Found on coral reefs, on sand and sand/mud substrates throughout its range. Probably occurs on soft substrates in deeper water, to at least 85 m. The species is extremely hardy and can tolerate severe environmental hypoxia, a trait that allows it to occupy and survive in environments that undergo cyclical hypoxic conditions (e.g., coral reef flats). Oviparous species. Hatches at 13 to 17 cm total length (TL) and attains a maximum adult size of about 118 cm TL (M. B. Bennet pers. obs.). Males mature at 68 to 76 cm TL, females at about 63 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Small individuals hide in crevices and among coral and are well camouflaged with their broad banding pattern. Feeds on benthic organisms and small fishes. In Moreton Bay the diet comprises crabs, polychaete worms, shrimps and small teleost fishes (M.B. Bennet pers. obs).
41872		threats	eng	Widespread collection for human consumption in artisanal and commercial fisheries and habitat damage over much of its range (not Australia) are the major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is a minor threat, especially as the species is hardy and will breed prolifically in captivity. Inshore seine-netting, trap fishing and bait fishing are probably the primary modes of collection. Damage and destruction of coral reef habitat from dynamite fishing, other destructive fishing practices and pollution are known to be widespread in large parts of its range.
41873		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41873		distribution	eng	Is found inshore and on coral reefs, where it is commonly seen on coral heads and in reef channels and faces (Compagno 2001). Commonly seen on the Great Barrier Reef. This primarily nocturnal shark is thought to have a small home range with several retreats within the area (Compagno 2001).
41873		habitat	eng	Little is known about the biology of this species, thought to be ovoviviparous. <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity:  Unknown <br/>Size at birth: 20 cm total length (TL) <br/>Average litter size: Unknown <br/>Size male maturity: a 117 cm TL animal was mature <br/>Size female maturity: Unknown cm TL <br/>Max size: to at least 125 cm TL  <br/>Growth rates: Unknown cm.y<sup>-1</sup>  <br/> <br/>(Last and Stevens 1994)
41873		population	eng	A little known but possibly common tropical inshore and offshore bottom dwelling shark.
41873		threats	eng	Threats within Australia are likely to be minimal, no target fisheries and this species is not reported in bycatch. Outside of Australian waters it will be threatened by habitat destruction as well as overfishing. For example, the threats in Papua will include extensive dynamite fishing (especially in Biak) and heavy fishing pressures. There is also a possibility that coral removal for building material may impact on available habitat for this species (W. White, pers.comm.).
41874		conservation	eng	Recent species composition and catch data for fisheries within its range are required to assess the population trends, especially in areas where there is a very high level of fishing pressure.
41874		distribution	eng	<em>Hemipristis elongatus</em> is found in the Indo-West Pacific: South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Aden, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Pakistan, India, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Indonesia (Java), the Philippines and Australia (Bunbury in Western Australia to Lizard Island in Queensland) (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 1998, W. White unpubl. data).
41874		habitat	eng	<em>Hemipristis elongatus</em> is a rare to common tropical coastal species at depths down to 130 m (Compagno 1998). <br/> <br/>This species attains 240 cm total length (TL), with females and males maturing at approximately 120 and 110 cm TL, respectively. They are viviparous and have a seasonal reproductive cycle with 2 to 11 (mean = 6) young per litter and born at 45 to 52 cm TL (Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Mating appears to take place around June, ovulation in September and birth in about April, with a gestation period of about 7 to 8 months. The pregnancy rate among mature females off Australia is about 30%, which suggests that individual females may breed on every other year (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). <br/> <br/>Australian populations were found to feed on cephalopods and teleost fish (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991), whereas in India they are reported to feed on a variety of prey including  many teleost species, grey sharks and butterfly rays, as well as prawns (Compagno 1984, Setna and Sarangdhar 1949). <br/> <br/>A length-weight curve and fork length-total length conversion (sexes combined) for this species were provided by Stevens and McLoughlin (1991):  <br/> <br/>Weight (gm) = 1.62 x 10-3 TL 3.21 <br/>Fork length (cm) = 0.79TL + 1.43 <br/> <br/>There is no information on the age at maturity and growth of this species.
41874		threats	eng	<em>Hemipristis elongatus</em> forms a minor component of the northern Australian gillnet and trawl (prawn and fish) fisheries (Last and Stevens 1994, Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, R. McAuley pers. comm.) and is also landed in the gillnet and trawl fisheries in Indonesia (W. White unpubl. data) and presumably in other countries within its range.  <br/> <br/>The gill net and trawl fisheries in Indonesia (especially the Java Sea) are very extensive and as a result, many shark species are highly exploited. Catches of sharks in south-east Asia are very high but are declining and fishers are travelling much further from the ports in order to increase catches (Chen 1996). Trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further away, e.g., in Jakarta the gill net fishery at Muara Baru travels to waters around Kalimantan due to the decline in local shark populations (W. White unpubl. data). In the Gulf of Thailand this species was once considered common, however, surveys in recent years have observed very few specimens (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). The numbers observed in the market surveys in this region, e.g., Indonesia, are likely to provide a relatively good representation of the population of this species. <br/> <br/>In India, the fins and oil are utilized and the flesh is considered of extremely high quality (Last and Stevens 1994).
41875		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.  Based on the restricted distribution of this species and high risk of habitat destruction this species requires scientific examination to assess its conservation status.
41875		distribution	eng	<em>H. hallstromi</em> is known to occur in the Western South Pacific, exclusively in Papua New Guinea (Gulf of Papua).
41875		habitat	eng	This species resides in coastal tropical waters possibly on coral reefs. <em> H. hallstromi</em> reaches a maximum size of 77 cm total length (TL). Males mature between 48 to 64 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
41875		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.
41875		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is utilized by the aquarium industry.  However, this is a very attractive and hardy species that may be sought after for public and private aquaria.  This small population is very susceptible to habitat destruction via high pollutant levels and dynamite fishing practices.
41876		conservation	eng	<strong>In place</strong><br/>Because the numbers of <em>C. taurus</em> along the NSW coast had been seriously depleted by indiscriminate spear fishing, and by some commercial harvesting, that species was protected in 1984 (Pollard <em>et al.</em> 1996). To avoid any misidentification or claims of confusion with <em>O. ferox</em>, both species were included on the NSW protected species list. <br/><br/>Despite this legal protection, compliance is difficult to enforce and carcasses of juvenile <em>O. ferox</em> are sometimes marketed simply as ?shark?. However, even if they or larger adults were returned to the sea intact, these sharks are unlikely to survive the trauma of trawl capture from deepwater. In a wider context, as exploitation of deepwater fishery resources increases worldwide, fishing mortality of such species such as <em>O. ferox</em> will increase and may put the survival of the species at risk.<br/><br/><strong>Recommended</strong><br/>The species is presently (2006) being considered for protection in New Zealand (C. Duffy, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although the distribution and status of the population in subequatorial Africa is unknown, the apparent rarity and vulnerability of <em>O. ferox</em> means that should any aggregation sites be found, stringent protection would be wise.<br/><br/>At present this species has not been protected from commercial fishing in any subequatorial African country, due to the fact that it has been observed so rarely and no records have been recorded from any commercial vessel.<br/><br/>There are no specific protection measures in place for the Mediterranean, despite its status there. The protection of favoured coastal habitats and more detailed monitoring of catches within Mediterranean fisheries should be priorities. Conservation of frequented sites as a dive tourism attraction could provide an incentive for local protection, as for well-known <em>C. taurus</em> habitats in Australia and South Africa.<br/><br/>This species has been reported by divers at the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australia) and also other areas such as the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand), the Mediterranean, and Malpelo Island off Columbia. Such community-based dive observations or monitoring may be of use in obtaining information on its biology and knowledge of important habitats in shallow waters.<br/><br/>Further study is needed to accurately determine the distributional range, abundance and biology (including possible migrations, sex ratios, fecundity, etc.) of this species. <br/><br/>Any dead specimens landed by commercial fishing (especially trawling) operations should be retained and delivered to the nearest relevant research organisation, so that more biological information can be obtained.<br/><br/>There is now more evidence that coastal locations are frequented by mature <em>O. ferox</em> on a repetitive seasonal basis, possibly for reproduction. Where identified, these sites deserve stringent protection. <br/><br/>Development of by-catch mitigation measures such as trawl exclusion devices should be undertaken in relevant fisheries.
41876		distribution	eng	Records show a very disjunct distribution throughout most of the world's oceans. Overall, the latitudinal range of <em>O. ferox</em> is between 46oN in the Bay of Biscay (Debrosses 1930) to around 38-39oS in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Recorded in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean (including the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australian Territory)), and the Western Pacific, Central Pacific and Northeast Pacific Oceans.<br/><br/>The first record for the Northwest Atlantic Ocean was in 1989 (Bonfil 1995) and voucher specimens have also been recorded off North Carolina (USA) and Mexico (in the North West and West Central Atlantic). The species has also been reported from Brazil in the South West Atlantic; the first record was based on jaws collected by fishers off Natal, Rio Grande do Norte (Menni <em>et al.</em> 1995, Soto 2001) and there are subsequent records from the Archipelago of Fernando de Noronha (03°52?S, 32°25?W) off north-eastern Brazil (Garla and Garcia Jr. 2006). In the Northeast and East Central Atlantic, <em>O. ferox</em> has been recorded from the Bay of Biscay, Madeira, Azores, Canary Islands, Morocco, Western Sahara and widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Indian Ocean, from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), northeast and southeast of Madagascar in open ocean, Tanzania, El Dabra in the Mozambique Channel, Madagascar, Maldives, open ocean southeast of Sri Lanka, southwest of Sumatra and Cocos-Keeling Islands (Compagno 2001). In the Western Pacific, from Japan, Australia (New South Wales, eastern Victoria), New Zealand (North Island) and the Kermadec Islands (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008), although it is probably more widespread in north-eastern Australian waters than voucher specimens would indicate (P. Last, pers. comm.). In 2004, a large female was caught by an orange roughy trawler in 880m on the Louisville Ridge over 600 nm east of New Zealand (M. Francis, pers. comm.). In the Central and Eastern Pacific, from the Hawaiian Islands, southern California (USA), Mexico and Colombia (Compagno 2001). Photographs taken by divers at Malpelo Island off Columbia have also confirmed the presence of <em>O. ferox</em> in the Gulf of Panama. Diver sightings have also been reported on isolated deep reefs in various other locations.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean there are published records from Spain and the Balearic Islands (Lozano Rey 1928), Algeria (Moreau 1881, Dieuzeide et al. 1953), northern Tunisia (Capapé et al. 1975), Italy (Giglioli 1880, Tortonese 1956, Vacchi and Serena 1997), Pelagic Islands (Zava and Montagna 1992), the Adriatic Sea (Soljan 1975, Morovic 1976, Soldo and Jardas 2002), Greece and the Aegean Sea (Economidis 1973, Papaconstantinou 1988), and Lebanon (George et al. 1964, Ben-Tuvia 1971, Mouneimne 1977). Mediterranean sites apparently favoured by <em>O. ferox</em> are typically located either along the coasts of islands lying contiguous to deepwater, near offshore seamounts or at mainland localities where continental shelves are narrow, e.g., within the Tyrrhenian Sea, around Sicily, off south-western Malta, off Lebanon, off the southern coast of Cyprus, and around the Dodecanese and Cyclades island groups of the Aegean Sea. Originally recorded off Lebanon by George <em>et al.</em> (1964), <em>O. ferox</em> is now repeatedly observed by divers near Beirut, where it had previously been misidentified as Carcharias taurus. The status of this shark in North African waters of the Mediterranean is patchily known. A small number of specimens are reported and confirmed by preserved dentition from Algerian fisheries (F. Hemida, USTHB/ISN, Algiers, pers. comm.), and literature and contemporary records for Tunisia are equally scant (Capapé <em>et al.</em> 1976). However, specimens are likely still landed at Tunisian ports, from fisheries operating throughout the Sicilian Channel. There is no contemporary data for this species in Libyan or Egyptian waters but it may occur in the slope waters of the southern Levantine Basin.<br/><br/>In South Africa this species is known from a few juvenile specimens recorded from trawls on the outer edges of the continental shelf, off the east coast (Natal) (Bass 1978). Small numbers were observed caught on longline gear at about ~300 m along the south KwaZulu Natal coast, South Africa, in the late 1980's, and further anecdotal information indicates relatively frequent capture of these sharks (of approx 2 m TL) during target fishing for deep-sea sharks and rays (D. Ebert, pers. comm. 2004). Forster et al. (1970) caught what appears to be a large female of <em>O. ferox</em> in deep water off the northeast of Madagascar. There have been unconfirmed, but reliable, reports of sightings of small aggregations of <em>O. ferox</em> around deepwater drop-offs off the Transkei coast in South Africa by divers.
41876		habitat	eng	<em>Odontaspis ferox</em> is a rarely encountered species that is morphologically very similar to <em>Carcharias taurus</em>, but larger and bulkier and mostly found in deeper water. It is an active-swimming offshore shark, caught and seen as individuals and in small groups (Compagno 2001). <em>Odontaspis ferox</em> lives on or closely associated with the bottom in or adjacent to deep waters along continental and insular shelves and upper slopes to depths to about 850 m (Fergusson <em>et al. </em>2008). However, it is occasionally observed in very shallow water. For example, divers filmed underwater video of an individual in 20 m of water at the Cocos-Keeling Islands (B. Hutchins, pers. comm., cited in Fergusson <em>et al</em>. 2008). More recently, one capture and several diver observations and photographs of <em>O. ferox</em> in 12?30 m depth at Fernando de Noronha Archipeligo off eastern Brazil were reported by Garla and Garcia Jr. (2006). There are at least 15 records from pelagic zones in open waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, typically in areas proximal to deep-sea ridges and seamounts. Sightings have also recently been made in depths of about 30 m, on reefs adjacent to deep drop-offs in Lebanon and possibly off the Transkei coast in South Africa (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Little is known of the biology of this shark. Its reproduction may be similar to that of the sand tiger shark (<em>C. taurus</em>). Compagno (2001) cites an observation which suggests the species practices uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy, resulting in the birth of single embryos from each uterus. The smallest recorded <em>O. ferox</em> is 107 cm total length (TL) which suggests a birth size between 100 and 110 cm TL (Fergusson <em>et al</em>. 2008), a size proportionally consistent with the size at birth for the smaller <em>C. taurus</em> (95-105 cm TL, Compagno 2001). <em>O. ferox</em> probably has a non-continuous breeding cycle similar to, or possibly more extended than, <em>C. taurus</em>. The gestation period for <em>C. taurus</em> is 9-12 months with a probable rest year between pregnancies (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>There are insufficient data to precisely define the size at maturity for <em>O. ferox</em>. Males were estimated to mature between 200 and 250 cm and females between 300 and 350 cm total length (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008) The maximum recorded size for females is 450 cm TL and 344 cm TL for males (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008). An analysis of 64 <em>O. ferox</em> captures worldwide suggests an inverse relationship between shark size and depth, with small juveniles almost exclusively occurring in deepwater (>200m), although the relationship is not strongly defined (R2 = 0.129; p < 0.05; Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008). Mature sized <em>O. ferox</em> were caught across their whole depth range (15-850 m) but all small juveniles (<150 cm TL) came from depths greater than 200 m suggesting that parturition occurs in relatively deep water.<br/><br/>The large oily liver probably has a hydrostatic function (Last and Stevens 1994), and may help the shark to maintain neutral buoyancy while swimming. Stomachs examined have contained small bony fish, cephalopods, crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975), and small squalid dogfish. A 188 cm female from near New Plymouth, New Zealand, had ?the tip of the spine of a small ghost shark (Chimaeridae) impaled in its lower jaw cartilage? (Stewart 1997). A very large <em>O. ferox</em> trawled on the Norfolk Ridge north of New Zealand in 1997 was found to contain a 200 cm seal shark in its stomach. The above information suggests that this species is an opportunistic carnivore (Stewart 1997, cited in Pogonoski <em>et al. </em>2002). Dentition suggests a more uniform diet of softer prey than in C. taurus (Compagno 2001). Stomachs were empty in specimens examined from the Gulf of Mexico (Bonfil 1995), Malta (A. Buttigieg, pers. comm.), the Azores (P.N. Duarte, pers. comm.), Canary Islands (A. Hernández, pers. comm.), and NSW (K. Graham data, N. Otway, pers. comm.). The only confirmed predator on adult <em>O. ferox</em> is the Cookie-cutter Shark (<em>Isistius brasiliensis</em>), based upon a relatively recent (March 2000) record of a female in the Canary Islands bearing a single fresh cookie-cutter bite to the gills (A. Hernández, pers. comm.).
41876		population	eng	A fragmented population and relatively few occurrences suggest that this species may be naturally rare. Regional interrelationships between Mediterranean <em>O. ferox</em> and those from other parts of the open Atlantic Ocean (e.g. Azores, Canary Islands) are unknown. Given the cosmopolitan distribution of this species and its occurrence on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean population cannot be considered disjunct based solely on analysis of records of capture. Genetic work is urgently required to assess this further. There have been unconfirmed, but reliable, reports by divers of small aggregations of <em>O. ferox</em> off the Transkei coast in South Africa. These sightings have been in depths of 20-30 m in areas of deepwater drop-offs (similar to those encountered off Lebanon), suggesting that this species may be more vulnerable to fishing pressure than previously assumed. Further investigation and monitoring of commercially caught small <em>O. ferox</em> in this region is required to assess if this is a nursery area. Large females observed off Beirut, apparently in the absence of any males, sometimes exhibit scars that might have been caused during courtship or mating.
41876		threats	eng	Recent evidence of shallow water aggregations in a number of areas (Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Pacific Ocean) suggests that the species may be more vulnerable to fishing pressure than previously assumed, and potentially susceptible to coastal habitat impacts as well as to over-exploitation because of its presumed very low reproductive capacity. Although this species is not specifically targeted by commercial fishing activities, it likely has very low fecundity making it susceptible to local extirpation, even at seemingly small capture rates (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Since the 1970s there has been a substantial increase in deepwater fishing effort worldwide. In particular, significant trawl fisheries have developed on the continental slopes and ocean ridges off Australia, New Zealand and southern Africa, and the now-known depths at which <em>O. ferox</em> commonly lives (300-700 m) are regularly trawled. Similarly, as shallow water fisheries become depleted, fishing gear such as mesh-nets, droplines and longlines are being deployed at increasingly greater depths.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>In the Mediterranean, dedicated efforts to detail captures and other indices of its abundance only began in the past ten years or so, and in particular since 1995. Regional literature and fisheries data concerning historical captures is essentially patchy and lacking in detail, so longer-term trends in its abundance are unknown. Moreover, fisheries records are sometimes confused by the widespread use of similar common names for different Mediterranean species; e.g., 'tiger' shark in Malta may refer to this species or indeed to the Shortfin Mako (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>) or the Sandtiger Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>). Occasionally <em>O. ferox</em> is caught by artisanal fisheries in the Tyrrhenian Sea off Calabria, Italy (M. Vacchi, pers. comm.). The species is uncommon in the Adriatic Sea but its current status there is difficult to assess, because of fishery misidentification with other sharks.  Until the mid 1990s, occurrences off Croatia included relatively small (<200 cm TL) specimens caught by trawls and deepwater bottom longlines, which were locally confused with, and marketed as, smoothhound Mustelus spp. (Soldo and Jardas 2002). Since then there have been no more records of the species in the Adriatic (A. Soldo, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Concern for the status of this shark in the Mediterranean is supported by records from New South Wales (NSW), Australia, where specimens of all sizes were caught by trawling on the upper slope. Survey and commercial catch data suggest that numbers of <em>O. ferox</em> on the NSW trawl grounds have markedly declined (by as much as 50%) since the advent of deepwater commercial trawling in the 1970s. In areas of steep un-trawlable terrain, characteristic of many locations in the Mediterranean Sea, gill-netting and longlining are likely to impact on local populations, with mature individuals being particularly vulnerable. Although <em>O. ferox</em> is not specifically targeted by commercial fishing activities in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, its likely very low fecundity make it susceptible to local extirpation, even at seemingly small capture rates.<br/><br/>Specimens are most often taken nocturnally by bottom gillnets, bottom longlines and vertical setlines operating over, or closely adjacent to, rocky or boulder-strewn seafloors. Trawler captures are likely in various areas (e.g., Sicilian Channel and Adriatic Sea). Anecdotal data from SCUBA divers in Beirut, who have encountered <em>O. ferox</em> at a nearshore reef over more than a decade, suggest an erratic decline in the number of sharks being encountered there despite regular diving at the same site each year.  It is unclear if wars in Lebanon, which have some limited local impact on the marine environment (ships wrecked, etc.) are a factor. There has been no evidence of sharks being deliberately harassed or killed locally, other than a small number of incidental captures to artisanal fishermen in neighbouring waters.<br/><br/>In recent years, the discovery of at least one apparent aggregation ground for these sharks in the Mediterranean, off Lebanon (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008) clearly indicates the vulnerability of these large, apparently harmless and rather sluggish sharks to human interference or directed fisheries. A particular concern must be degradation of favoured inshore habitats which may be used for reproduction during the summer months, as suspected with the Lebanese site.<br/><br/>Coastal development for tourism, coupled to uncontrolled spearfishing, unregulated coastal fisheries, pollution and increased human aquatic leisure activities may all seriously impact these sharks whilst inhabiting areas outside their deepwater environment, much as they may account for the contemporary acute decline or even disappearance of the (routinely coastal) sandtiger <em>Carcharias taurus</em> from its previous Mediterranean range (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>Commercial fishing, whereby this species is taken incidentally, on the outer continental shelf and continental slope is a potential threat to its survival in south-eastern Australian waters.<br/><br/>From the available information, <em>O. ferox</em> was never abundant off New South Wales (NSW), but there is strong evidence that numbers seriously declined between 1972 and 1997. Of the 36 specimens caught by the NSW Fisheries Research Vessel Kapala, 33 were caught between 1975 and 1981 (from 500 slope trawl tows), but only three were taken from about 300 trawl tows made between 1982 and 1997 (Fergusson <em>et al. </em>2008).  <br/><br/>Comparable data are available for NSW upper slope trawl surveys in 1976-77 and 1996-97 where gear and sampling protocols were similar (see  Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997). Twelve captures (14 sharks) were made during 246 tows in 1976-77, but only a single juvenile was caught during 165 tows made in 1996-97. Although considered in Pogonoski <em>et al. </em>(2002) as Near Threatened, based on available NSW catch data, reassessment to Vulnerable is warranted for Australia.<br/><br/><strong>New Zealand</strong><br/>There has been limited take for aquarium display (e.g. Kelly Tarlton?s Aquarium at Auckland NZ), but the maximum survival in captivity has been 11 months. <br/><br/><strong>South Africa</strong><br/>Small numbers were observed caught on longline gear at about ~300 m along the south KZN coast, South Africa, in the late 1980s, and further anecdotal information indicates relatively frequent capture of these sharks (of approx. 2 m TL) during target fishing for deep-sea sharks and rays  (D. Ebert, pers. comm. 2004). Recent evidence of possible sightings of shallow water aggregations off the Transkei coast, South Africa, at depths of 20-30 m suggests that this species may be more vulnerable to fishing pressure than previously assumed.
41877		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Taxonomic revision of <em>Squalus mitsukurii </em>is required and further research into threats and population trends of these sharks from around the world is needed to develop separate assessments for the different populations, which may prove to be taxonomically distinct from one another.
41877		distribution	eng	Distribution of this species is only approximately known because of widespread nominal records of <em>Squalus fernandinus</em> and <em>S. blainville</em> that may be based on this species or a species complex, erroneous identifications of this species as <em>S. acanthias</em> in the Western North Pacific and <em>S. cubensis</em> in the Western North Atlantic, as well as sporadic sampling in deep-water localities where <em>S. mitsukurii</em>-like sharks are common (Compagno in prep.). Taxonomic revision of the genus in the Indo-Australian region has resulted in the resurrection and description of new species, previously considered con-specific with <em>S. mitsukurii </em>and further investigation from around the world will likely result in more taxa being recognized.
41877		habitat	eng	Found in cold-temperate to tropical seas, near or on the bottom on the continental and insular shelves and upper slopes and on submarine ridges and seamounts at depths of 4 to 954 m, mostly between 100 and 700 m.  The wide ranges for the data on biological characteristics available for <em>S. mitsukurii </em>strongly suggests a mix of data from a number of species or at least isolated breeding populations. There are considerable differences in size at maturity and in size differences between adult males and females in populations of nominal <em>S. mitsukurii</em> in different localities, as well as considerable variation within presumed populations. Those off Choshi, Japan are large, with males maturing at 68?80 cm total length (TL) and females at 96?100 cm TL (Taniuchi and Tachikawa 1999, Compagno in prep). Across all populations, the gestation period may be up to two years. Maximum ages recorded from counting bands on dorsal fin spines (assuming annual bands) were 18 years (males) and 27 years (females) (Wilson and Seki 1984, Compagno in prep). It reaches a maximum TL of about 125 cm (females) and at least 96cm (males) and size at birth is about 21-30 cm TL (Compagno in prep).
41877		population	eng	Population size is unknown. The species is common to abundant where it occurs, often in large aggregations or schools.
41877		threats	eng	This species is apparently commonly caught in demersal fisheries throughout much of its range.<br/><br/>Catches of this dogfish on Hancock Seamount in the Western North Pacific declined dramatically between 1985 and 1988 to 20% of the initial catch during research sampling conducted by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, suggesting extreme vulnerability of small seamount populations of this dogfish to overfishing, compounding their biological vulnerability (Wilson and Seki 1994).<br/><br/>Further research into threats and population trends around the world is required.
41878		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
41878		distribution	eng	Inshore waters of the continental and insular shelves. Occurs in tropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters near the bottom; often found on and around coral reefs and on sandy plateaus near coral, at depths down to at least 62 m (Compagno and Niem 1998).
41878		habitat	eng	Oviparous species. Reproductive periodicity unknown. Size at birth: 20 to 36 cm total length (TL). Average litter size unknown. Size maturity: 147 to 183 cm TL (male), 169 to 171 cm TL (female). Maximum size at least 235 cm TL. Growth rates unknown.
41878		population	eng	Often found in large aggregations (20 to 50) over sand near broken or continuous reef.
41878		threats	eng	Threats within Australia are likely to be minimal, no target fisheries. Potentially susceptible to capture by prawn trawls, however very few are reported in the Northern Prawn Fishery (Mark Tonks, CSIRO Marine Research, pers. comm. 2003).  <br/> <br/>Although there is no direct evidence of population decline in the Indo-West Pacific, market surveys suggest this species is much less common than it used to be (L.J.V  Compagno and William White, pers. comms. 2003). In the Gulf of Thailand, it was historically more abundant and it may have been adversely affected by the use of explosives  and poisons on reefs in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific (Compagno 2001). Apart from baited hooks, <em>S. fasciatum</em> is susceptible to capture in a wide range of inshore fisheries. This, in combination with a narrow habitat range and limited dispersal makes this species vulnerable to population decline.
41879		conservation	eng	Available data on the ecology for <em>Lepus microtis</em> are included in many treatments, but are restricted to select areas of its distribution (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Research specific to this species' ecology should be conducted.  Research regarding the isolated population in western Algeria should be conducted (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41879		distribution	eng	<em>Lepus microtis</em> occupies a large geographic distribution within Africa including the sub-Saharan region, Atlantic coast (Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea), the Sahel to the western-most regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, and south to the northeast regions of South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  In western Algeria, a small isolated population has been identified (Flux and Angermann 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species is sympatric with <em>L. capensis</em>, allo- to parapatric with <em>L. saxatilis</em> and <em>L. habessinicus</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).
41879		habitat	eng	There are few data regarding the ecology of <em>Lepus microtis</em> (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Where <em>L. microtis</em> and <em>L. capensis</em> are sympatric, <em>L. microtis</em> occupies scrubbier and more montane habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).   Diet for this species varies according to habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This is a nocturnal species (Happold pers. comm.).  Female hares were found to be breeding during all months of the year, with an average litter size of 1.6 (Flux and Angermann 1990).
41879		population	eng	There are no known data regarding the population status of Lepus microtis.  However, <em>L. microtis</em> is characterized as a "successful species over much of Africa" (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There is a small, isolated population in western Algeria (Flux and Angermann 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).
41879		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
41880		conservation	eng	All abalone fisheries in California are managed by the California Department of Fish and Game. The restrictions employed can range from minimum legal size limits and bag limits  to harvest seasons and closures (Breen 1989, P. Haaker pers. comm.). The harvest of black abalone is currently illegal in California. <br/> <br/>In Mexico, green abalone, <em>H. fulgens</em> and pink abalone <em>H. corugata</em> are the main focus of commercial fishery. Black abalone do not form a large proportion of total abalone landings. Exclusive rights to abalone exploitation were granted to cooperative fishers' organizations. Although new legislation in 1992 allowed for the entry of the private sector into the fishery, all abalone harvesting is still done by cooperatives (Ramande-Villanueva <em>et al.</em> 1998). Total allowable catches per cooperative (TACCs) were introduced in 1973, but their criteria have changed appreciably over the years (Ramande-Villanueva <em>et al.</em> 1998). Since black abalone make up such a small proportion of the commercial catch in Mexico, it is difficult to assess the impact of these regulations on the species. <br/> <br/>In January 1999 the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) published its updated list of candidate species under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Black abalone was one of 14 new species added to the list (NMFS 1999). The NMFS intends to conduct a review to determine whether black abalone deserves a national listing of endangered or threatened (P. Haaker, pers. comm.).  Listing as a candidate species does not, however, provide substantive or procedural protection for the species under the ESA (NMFS 1999). <br/> <br/>Stock restoration by transplantation from distant populations has been proposed to restore depleted populations (Tissot 1997). Smith <em>et al.</em> (2001) propose that both American and Mexican fishery authorities work together to develop a re-stocking program to help restore black abalone populations all along the coast, especially in key locations such as the Channel Islands. Since the greatest threat facing the black abalone is disease, special precaution must be taken to ensure that the transplantation of adult abalone does not create a new path for the spread of WS.  <br/> <br/>While not an especially charismatic species, many living in coastal California and Baja California recognize that the black abalone is important to local economies. A well designed public education campaign may result in a successful appeal for public funding (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/> <br/>There is a need to survey areas where the  status of black abalone populations are currently unknown, namely the coastline between Los Angeles and central Baja California, in addition to new surveys being carried out at sites previously examined. A study of withered black abalone at the northern fringe of WS's current range (Monterey and San Francisco) (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/> <br/>Perhaps most importantly, further investigation of WS itself is also needed (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001), including investigation into whether WS is caused by an introduced pathogen, identification of other species that may serve as reservoir hosts, and identification of resistant individuals for potential brood stock and development of husbandry.
41880		distribution	eng	The black abalone, <em>Haliotis cracherodii</em>, is found in intertidal waters off California, USA, and Baja California, Mexico.
41880		habitat	eng	<em>H. cracherodii</em> is a sessile marine gastropod. It clamps tightly to rocky substrates and feeds on algal matter scraped from the rock surface. Gametes are released into the water where fertilization occurs to produce free-swimming larvae. Successful fertilization requires aggregated adults and synchronized gonad development and release (McShane 1996). After approximately 15 days as non-feeding zooplankton, the larvae metamorphose into their adult form, develop a shell, and settle onto a hard substrate (Douros 1985). Juveniles mainly reside in rocky crevices and feed primarily on benthic diatoms, bacterial films and algae found on coralline algal substrate (NMFS 2000). As juveniles, abalone are vulnerable to predators which graze the surfaces of coralline algae and associated species (McShane 1989). As they increase in size they become less vulnerable to predation and are able to emerge from their sheltered habitat and search out more desirable food sources (NMFS 2000). Adult abalone depend primarily on drift algae (Tegner and Dayton 1987). Main predators of adult abalone are fishes, otters and humans. <br/> <br/>Most black abalone are found in the intertidal zone, ranging from the high tide line to a depth of up to five meters (Lindberg 1989). <br/> <br/>Generation time is not easy to determine. Individuals do not display the same growth rate and older individuals may cease to grow altogether (B. Tissot, Washington University, pers comm.). Reproductive maturity is reached between three and seven years (when They are re approximately 130-150 mm in length), but life expectancy ranges from 25 to 75 years. Taking an average of these provides only a very rough estimate for the average age of parents, especially since the relationship between age and fecundity is unknown. Nonetheless, generation time is estimated to be between 14 and 41 years, thus a minimum three generation period would be 42 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001).
41880		population	eng	Large-scale commercial fishery of black abalone began in California in 1968 (Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1995). Like most other abalone fisheries, black abalone landings underwent a rapid rise, peaking in 1973 at a maximum catch of over 800 metric tonnes, followed by a decline (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992). In 1992, commercial landings had diminished to 17.4 metric tonnes, as a wasting disease, Withering Syndrome (WS) spread throughout southern California (Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1992, Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1995).
41880		threats	eng	Withering Syndrome (WS) is the main threat to black abalone. It is manifested by epipodial discoloration, loss of appetite, severe weight loss and atrophy of the foot muscle. As a consequence, abalone lose their ability to adhere to the substratum and eventually die (Tissot 1991, Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1992). The first reports of WS were in black abalone were made by fishers on the southern shore of Santa Cruz Island (Lafferty and Kuris 1993). The disease then spread throughout all the Californian Channel Islands from 1985 to 1992, except Santa Catalina Island, where no studies have been conducted (Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1992, Lafferty and Kuris 1993, Van Blaricom <em>et al.</em> 1993). At most surveyed locations black abalone were initially reduced to less than 20% of their initial densities (Tissot 1990, Davis <em>et al.</em> 1992, Richards and Davis 1993, Altstatt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Some have completely lost their black abalone populations (P. Hakker pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Black abalone are also affected by the large human population inhabiting southern California, the majority of which reside within 50 km of the coast (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992). Coastal development, such as residential areas, harbours and coastal access points and large ocean discharges of municipal and industrial wastes contribute to the degradation  and loss of near shore habitat (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992).  Commercial and recreational fishing have also placed black abalone populations under intense pressure. The large decline in fisheries landings may have been a consequence of over harvesting (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992), however the mass mortality of populations in the Channel Islands that began in 1985 has been attributed to WS and continued fishing (Haaker <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Other possible threats to the species include storm, competition with other marine organisms and predation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001).
41881		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The species is grown in a number of botanical gardens. The area it came from is now a protected area.
41881		distribution	eng	The species is only known from male plants collected in Ngoye Forest, in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
41881		habitat	eng	Extinct in the wild.
41881		population	eng	Extinct in the wild.
41881		threats	eng	The last remaining stems were all deliberately removed from the wild in 1916.
41882		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices and plants are in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation.
41882		distribution	eng	This species is extinct in the wild. They used to be restricted to an area adjacent to the northwestern boundary of the Blyderivierspoort Nature Reserve. The recorded extent of occurrence of 140 km² is for the area in which this species used to occur. It occurred at 1,300 to 1,500 m asl.
41882		habitat	eng	Plants used to occur in short grassland in very open <em>Protea</em> savanna. The soil is quartzite derived sandstone. Plants also used to occur on cliffs.
41882		population	eng	This species is extinct in the wild.
41882		threats	eng	Removal of plants from the wild by collectors was the main threat.
41883		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41883		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Buffelsrivier Valley of central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Recorded from 500 to 900 m asl.
41883		habitat	eng	Plants grow mostly on east-facing sheer cliffs. Plants occur in rocky grassy areas with a few shrubs.  The locality is hot and dry.
41883		population	eng	There have been varying reports of the number of plants remaining in the wild. The type population has apparently been completely extirpated (D. Goode pers. comm.) and relatively few plants remain among rocks in a second locality.
41883		threats	eng	This species has been severely affected due to over-collection of plants from the wild for ornamental purposes. As a result, reproductive failure has become the most serious threat that this species is facing.
41884		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Most of the remaining plants are found within the Blyderivierspoort Nature Reserve.
41884		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Blyderivierspoort Nature Reserve, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Recorded to occur from 700 up to 1,500 m asl.
41884		habitat	eng	<em>E. cupidus</em> grows in open grassy situations on steep to precipitous rocky slopes or cliffs. Plants are also sometimes found along seepage areas bordering gallery forest as well as in dry forest.
41884		population	eng	The species has been extirpated in two localities and the remaining population size is estimated to number 300-500 mature individuals. The population is severely fragmented.
41884		threats	eng	This species has suffered greatly as a result of over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Due to the few number of plants in the wild, reproductive failure is quite possible in the future. Droughts and fires also cause high mortality amongst the seedlings.
41885		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This species possibly occurs in the Legalameetse Nature Reserve.
41885		distribution	eng	This species occurs near Penge in the Drakensberg in southeastern Limpopo Province, South Africa. Recorded from 1,100 to 1,500 m asl.
41885		habitat	eng	This species occurs on grassland on shallow soils over dolomite ridges.
41885		population	eng	158 plants were counted in helicopter surveys in 1993 and 151 plants in 2004. The latter included 17 newly discovered  plants and implies a decline from 158 to 134 plants for the remainder (9% decline over 10 years).
41885		threats	eng	Illegal collection from wild populations has had a drastic effect on the number of plants in the wild. This may prevent reproduction from taking place.
41886		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The low granite hill falls within the Lillie Flora Reserve. This reserve in turn falls within the boundaries of the privately owned Selati Game Reserve.
41886		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single granite mountain in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Occurs at an altitude of 700 m.
41886		habitat	eng	The plants grow in open shrubland and grassland on slopes of a single low  granite hill. The surrounding area consists of  plains covered with mopane trees (<em>Colophospermum mopane</em>).
41886		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. dyerianus</em> was originally estimated as approximately 600 mature individuals but 107 plants were illegally removed in January 2008.
41886		threats	eng	Reproductive failure may occur if more mature individuals are removed from the population.
41887		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41887		distribution	eng	This species is known from one or two granite hills on the eastern shore of Thurston Bay, Lake Victoria, Uganda. Occurs at an elevation of about 1,000 m.
41887		habitat	eng	<em>E. equatorialis</em> is found on two adjacent low exposed granite hilltops. Plants grow on the western aspect of the hills. Plants grow wedged in crevices in a severely degraded rainforest.
41887		population	eng	Exact population figures are not available. Heibloem (1999) recorded  less than 100 plants, but Goode (2001) mentions that there are up to 300 plants. The population is dominated by male plants.
41887		threats	eng	No young plants or seedlings were seen and this could indicate that the pollinator could be extinct or that fires occur too frequently. There is also evidence of collector activity.
41888		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Somgimvelo Nature Reserve and in the Malolotja Nature Reserve.
41888		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northeastern mountainous areas of Swaziland and in the adjacent areas of the Mpumalanga province in South Africa. Recorded from 750 to 1,750 m asl.
41888		habitat	eng	This species occurs on very steep slopes in short grassland in deep valleys between indigenous forests. The vegetation type is Montane Grassland.
41888		population	eng	In Swaziland it is estimated that 20 plants remain in the wild. The estimates for plants in the wild in South African are about 400.
41888		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and the few remaining plants could suffer from reproductive failure. Furthermore, habitat destruction as a result of the planting of pine plantations has also affected these plants because fire is prevented in this area and the plants are possibly adapted to a fire cycle.
41889		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur (or occurred) in the Makuya National Park which forms part of the Kruger National Park.
41889		distribution	eng	<em>E. hirsutus</em> is known from three separate localities in the Soutpansberg region of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Recorded from 800 to 1,000 m asl.
41889		habitat	eng	Plants grow exposed on south-east-facing quartzite cliffs, in moist semi-deciduous mixed scrub. The rainfall is between 350-650 mm per annum. The vegetation type is mainly Mountain Bushveld.
41889		population	eng	If still extant, the population is very small, see under rationale.
41889		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
41890		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41890		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Steelpoort and Olifant rivers and adjacent catchment areas in the Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Recorded between 600 to 800 m asl.
41890		habitat	eng	This species occurs sparsely, mainly in thick bush on north-facing steep slopes or rocky outcrops. They grow in skeletal soil or no soil, on steep to precipitous slopes in gorges on dolomite. The rainfall ranges from a meagre 375 mm to 750 mm annually.  Some plants hang from inaccessible narrow ledges high up in gorges. The vegetation type is referred to as Dolomite Mountain Bushveld.
41890		population	eng	There may be no plants left in the wild, see rationale.
41890		threats	eng	This species has suffered much from the activities of collectors and in addition, large troops of baboons damage immature cones and this could explain the absence of seedlings.
41891		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Lekgalameetse Nature Reserve, the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, the Starvation Creek Nature Reserve in South Africa and in Malolotja Nature Reserve in Swaziland.
41891		distribution	eng	The main subpopulations of <em>E. laevifolius</em> are found within the catchment of the Crocodile River, near the Kaapsehoop Range west of Nelspruit.  Isolated groups are present on the Amajuba high points above Sudwala Caves.   About 130 km further to the north, the Mariepskop mountains host a disjunct subpopulation of about four groups of the same species.  Isolated smaller colonies are found to the west of this locality in the Trichardtsdal area.  It is also present near Pigg's Peak in Swaziland. Further to the south it occurs/used to occur east of Helpmekaar and on the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape border in the Umtamvuna river valley. Recorded to occur from 950 up to 1,800 m asl.
41891		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland or low shrubs on steep rocky slopes. Most localities are high altitude sites (1,300 to 1,500 m), with frequent mists.  Like many other <em>Encephalartos</em> species, <em>E. laevifolius</em> appears to be adapted to a three to five year burning cycle. Plants grow in full sunlight in grassland or scrub.
41891		population	eng	The population has undergone significant declines, and despite its wide range is thought to only number between 700 and 820 mature individuals.
41891		threats	eng	Signs of stem harvesting for traditional medicine have been observed. Some evidence of plant pathogens have been reported. In addition, <em>E. laevifolius</em> is threatened due to habitat loss caused by alien invasive plants and timber plantations. This species has also been drastically affected by over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
41892		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices and is listed in the national Threatened or Protected Species regulations, which prohibit trade in wild plants.  None of the plants occur naturally within any reserves but plants have been introduced to two small nature reserves within the original distribution range. At one site, mature plants were replanted in the reserve after they were illegally removed from the wild. In the second case, a trial planting of seedlings was also undertaken to establish a new population. <br/><br/>A Population and Habitat Viability Assessment was developed in July 2006 and this was followed by the development of a species management plan in 2009. The plan will be implemented in 2010.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation collections have also been established at several botanic gardens. One of the largest, is at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, which has 19 mature plants. Genetic studies showed that the Kirstenbosch collection has similar levels of genetic diversity to wild stocks and represents all wild genotype groups.
41892		distribution	eng	<em>Encephalartos latifrons</em> occurs in South Africa in the biodiversity hotspot region known as the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot, which is an important centre of plant endemism. It is uncertain how widespread or abundant <em>E. latifrons</em> was prior to human settlement, but there are historic records of populations being scattered through the Albany and Bathurst districts of the Eastern Cape Province. This scattered distribution could be because these plants often grow on rocky outcrops, habitats that are naturally widely spaced within the landscape (Kemp 1986, Norstog and Nicholls 1997, Whitelock 2002) or it could be an artefact of habitat transformation, i.e. the cycads have persisted in areas least affected by land use. The altitude at which the plants are found varies between 200 and 600 m asl.
41892		habitat	eng	The plants grow on rocky outcrops and hill slopes, usually amongst scrub bush vegetation, but also in open grassland. They also occur along dry river courses. The distribution area of <em>E. latifrons</em> occurs in the following vegetation units: Kowie Thicket, Suurberg Quartzite Fynbos and Suurberg Shale Fynbos<br/><br/>The soils in this region are mainly Glenrosa and Mispah forms. Other soils may occur. Lime soils are rare or absent. The underlying geology of this area is quartzitic sandstone, shale and micaceous siltstone.<br/><br/>The annual rainfall varies between 600-1,250mm and is fairly evenly distributed during the year, however, a summer peak usually occurs. Frost does not normally occur. The summers may be hot and fairly dry.
41892		population	eng	The current wild population is estimated to number between 60 and 100 mature individuals. The actual number is uncertain because the last official count was done more than 10 years ago, when microchips were inserted into all remaining plants. Since then, not all plants have been monitored and, in a recent survey of plants to gather DNA material, there seemed to be less than 60 plants in the wild (da Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. MS). The plants are widely scattered, often >1 km apart.<br/><br/>A recent study of the conservation genetics of both <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> populations of <em>E. latifrons</em> (da Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. MS) showed that there is relatively little variation between subpopulations suggesting that all the remaining plants belong to what was once a single large population with relatively high levels of geneflow between subpopulations. The study also showed that there is a high level of genetic variation within the remaining population (high proportions of polymorphic loci, moderate to high Nei’s and Shannon’s diversity indices, as well as moderate levels of heterozygosity). This is greater than in many other cycad species where there tends to be low genetic variation within populations.<br/><br/>Six distinct genotypic groups were detected in the wild, with two confined to a single site. Several other genotypes were also represented at these sites, meaning that they represent the majority of the genetic variation remaining in the wild. Their importance to the survival of the species is indisputable and they should be considered areas of high conservation priority.
41892		threats	eng	<em>E. latifrons</em> now occurs in areas where the predominant land uses are cultivation (pineapples and chicory) as well as stock farming. The impact of land use on <em>E. latifrons</em> is difficult to assess, but the early reports of Pearson (unpublished letters) and Chamberlain (1919) imply that at least some habitat was lost as a result of agricultural activity. Repeat photography, using photographs first taken between 1906 and 1945, indicated that all the plants occurring at seven different sites had disappeared by 1996 (Donaldson and Bösenberg 1999). However, this cannot be attributed directly to land use as, in most cases, the areas in which the plants occurred were neither ploughed nor cleared.<br/><br/>Trade in cycads is currently the greatest threat and probably explains the decline observed in the repeat photography study. The removal of relatively large numbers of plants by collectors has been recorded with some plants recovered by law enforcement and conservation agencies. The demand for wild collected plants remains high because <em>E. latifrons</em> is regarded as scarce and it is one of the most highly valued species in the cycad trade.<br/><br/>Population modelling of other species of <em>Encephalartos </em>(Raimondo and Donaldson 2003) showed that species such as <em>E. latifrons</em> are extremely sensitive to the removal of adult plants because population persistence over long periods relies on adult survival and not seedling recruitment. As a result, the species is very vulnerable to trade in mature plants.<br/><br/>It also seems likely that the natural pollinators are extinct. No natural seed set has been recorded in recent years and the current cohort of adult plants indicates that the last recruitment event was more than 50 years ago.
41893		conservation	eng	The taxon is listed as Specially Protected in the provincial conservation Ordinances and is included on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Within Gauteng, individuals of the taxon occur within private nature reserves. The distribution range of the taxon falls within the boundaries of NEGI (North Eastern Gauteng Initiative) - a conservancy initiative.  <br/><br/>Plants occur in the Loskopdam Nature Reserve, the Ezemvelo Nature Reserve (D. MacFadyen pers. comm.) and the Rhenosterpoort Private Nature Reserve.
41893		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Witbank and Middelburg districts in the upper catchment areas of the Olifants River, which include the Wilge and Klein Olifants Rivers, in the provinces of Gauteng and Mpumalanga of South Africa. Occurs at 1,100 to 1,400 m asl.
41893		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open grassland and sheltered valleys.
41893		population	eng	The population is small and thought to number only 120 mature individuals.
41893		threats	eng	The discovery of the taxon in the Middelburg district triggered off a serious collector threat during the 1960s.  The general accessibility of sites and the proximity of the distribution region to the Pretoria/Witwatersrand urban complex resulted in an extremely heavy exploitation during those years when cycad-collecting became a fashion (Fourie 1984).  Although legislation has curbed the activities of collectors, the exploitation by individuals of the taxon is still ongoing today.<br/><br/>The development of semi-intensive agricultural areas within and around the distribution range of the taxon must have had a tremendous effect on the stability of the taxon, especially with the increased burning of the habitat and grazing practices (Fourie 1984).  The taxon is extremely vulnerable to fire and not stimulated as is the case with <em>Encephalartos lanatus</em> (Fourie 1984).<br/><br/>Individual plants have become isolated and there is consequent reproductive failure (Fourie 1984).
41894		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. It does not occur in any protected areas. There are numerous plants in cultivation so there is good  potential for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> propagation.
41894		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a small area in the Msinga district, in the drainage area of the Buffels River, which runs into the Tugela, east of Tugela Ferry, KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Occurs at an elevation of 900 to 1,200 m asl.
41894		habitat	eng	This species grows in short grassland on steep north-facing slopes, usually amongst boulders in scrub clumps. Plants are less commonly found on sandstone cliff faces, more or less in direct sunlight. Unconfirmed reports suggest that plants growing on different aspects had slight differences in leaf morphology.
41894		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. msinganus</em> was estimated as 100-200 mature individuals. Recent reports (Hurter 2008) suggest that only scattered individuals survive in nature.
41894		threats	eng	<em>E. msinganus</em> is severely threatened due to poaching for ornamental purposes. Small cycad populations often experience reproductive failure and it is expected to occur in <em> E. msinganus</em>. Habitat destruction is also a general problem in the area.
41895		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41895		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central western area of  Mozambique, where it is found on Mount Zembe, about 20 km to the southwest of Chimoio. Recorded to occur at 1,000 to 1,100 m asl.
41895		habitat	eng	This species occurs on a granite dome called Mount Zembe. The dome is covered with tall grass, evergreen bush and large forest trees. Plants occur higher up and are found near streams in bush or among rocks and boulders.
41895		population	eng	Population size was reported as 17 mature individuals at the time of the last assessment in 2003, and later reported to be possibly extinct in the wild by Goode (pers. comm.). Several collectors in South Africa claim to have tried to find plants without success. However, Capela (2006) reported that there were 296 adult or near-adult plants on the southeastern aspect of the mountain. In addition, 1,000 to 1,300 seedlings have been re-introduced to the habitat.
41895		threats	eng	This species has been affected by over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Reproductive failure may also be a problem as there are not many plants left in the wild.
41896		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This original distribution area of this species fell within part of the Legalameetse Nature Reserve.
41896		distribution	eng	This species used to occur in the Drakensberg in the Limpopo province, South Africa. Plants were found along the mountain range to the north and east  of Penge. Occurred at an altitude of 1,000 m.
41896		habitat	eng	Plants used to occur in low open deciduous woodland on cliff faces and in direct sunlight.
41896		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. nubimontanus</em> was originally estimated to be 50-100 mature individuals, but the known subpopulations were extirpated by collectors.
41897		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41897		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Mount Mruwere (Monte Urueri) in the Manica province of Mozambique. It has also been reported from the adjacent Mount Dengalenga (Montes Dengarenga) and possibly from other adjacent hills. Recorded to occur from 700 up to 1,000 m asl.
41897		habitat	eng	This species grows on mountains with granite outcrops and plants are found in or near forested areas.
41897		population	eng	Population size was originally estimated to be ten mature individuals based on information from collectors. Although several collectors in South Africa claim that the species is extinct in the wild, Capela (2006) states that there are at least 246 mature plants, 112 smaller plants and  300-400 seedlings that survived out of the initial 1,000 seedlings that were re-introduced. Another population on a nearby inselberg may also belong to <em>E. pterogonus</em>.
41897		threats	eng	This species has been severely affected by over-collecting for ornamental purposes. The small range and low numbers of this species means it could be affected by reproductive failure.
41899		conservation	eng	This sub-species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The known populations occur in a forest reserve,  however, neighbouring communities use the forest as a source of fuelwood and construction materials and as a place for hunting.
41899		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs only on Kajegie (Kijegge) hill which is to the north east of Embu in the Eastern province of Kenya. Occurs at an altitude of about 1,600 to 1,800 m asl.
41899		habitat	eng	The subspecies occurs in rocky sites in dense bushland/thicket. It is less common in dry forest.
41899		population	eng	<em>E. tegulaneus</em> ssp. <em>powysii</em> occurs in a single area with a few hundred plants. A preliminary count done on one of the subpopulations showed a sex ratio of two males to every female. The whole population is estimated to be 500-600 mature individuals.
41899		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by over-collection for ornamental purposes and due to habitat destruction as the neighbouring communities use the forest as a source of fuelwood and construction materials.
41900		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur within the boundaries of the Addo National Park (formerly the Woody Cape Nature Reserve).
41900		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in a small area of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. Populations are found from Nanaga in the west to Canon Rocks in the east. The main subpopulations occur near the town of Alexandria. Recorded from 100 to 200 m asl.
41900		habitat	eng	Plants occur in densely wooded coastal dune forest and scrub bush. Most of the plants occur on moderate to steep slopes in sandy soil on stabilized dunes.
41900		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. arenarius</em> is estimated to be 850-1,500 mature individuals. Most plants occur in the dense dune vegetation that is difficult to survey. Scattered individuals occur in agricultural lands and cleared dunes.
41900		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is removal by collectors. This has been the main cause of decline over the past 50 years. Some have also been destroyed by habitat destruction (bush clearing to make way for pastures).
41901		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41901		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs near the town of Tokkos on the Jos Plateau, which is in the Plateau State of central Nigeria. Occurs from 1,200 to 1,400 m asl.
41901		habitat	eng	Plants grow on rocky slopes, in woodland savanna vegetation consisting of scattered trees and a ground flora dominated by grass. These plants are on granite.
41901		population	eng	The population is though to number between 300 and 1,000 mature individuals.
41901		threats	eng	The main threat is loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture (crops and livestock farming). Removal from the wild by collectors is also threat.
41902		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41902		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Chimanimani Mountains on the border between Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The populations from which the species was first described appear to be extinct, but new populations have been discovered over the past few years in the mountainous terrain between Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Occurs at altitudes of about 1,000 m.
41902		habitat	eng	<em>E. chimanimaniensis</em> grows in high rainfall (can be in excess of 1,800 mm annually) montane grassland on granite mountains. Plants are associated with schist and quartzite.
41902		population	eng	It was originally thought to be possibly be extinct in the wild due to the disappearance of populations in Zimbabwe, but additional populations were found along the Zimbabwe - Mozambique border. At the time of the 2003 assessment, these were estimated as between 500 and 1,000 plants. Capela (2006) estimates that there are 1,200 mature plants in a subpopulation at Makurupini and a further 300 at Morambo as well as several other small subpopulations.
41902		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
41903		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Some of these plants were protected in a private conservation concession near West Nicolson but there has been substantial redistribution of land in Zimbabwe and the status of the reserve is unknown.
41903		distribution	eng	This species is found in three localities in southern Zimbabwe in the provinces of Matabeleland South, Midlands and Masvingo. They are referred to as the Gwanda, the  Mberengwa and the Runde subpopulations. Unconfirmed reports indicate that the Runde subpopulation no longer exists. Recorded to occur between 800 and 900 m asl.
41903		habitat	eng	<em>E. concinnus</em> occurs on dry steep-sided rocky valleys with scattered trees. They are also found among granite boulders or on steep cliffs, where they grow among grass or under small trees. The habitat is subject to frequent night and morning mists. These plants do not tolerate frost.  <em>E. concinnus</em> occurs in Bushveld and Miombo woodlands.
41903		population	eng	Surveys of the known populations indicate that there are ca. 50 mature plants in the location at Gwanda (West Nicolson) and at least 160 mature plants at Mberengwa (only plants in accessible areas were counted).
41903		threats	eng	This species has been adversely affected due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Recent reports indicate the the subpopulation at Mberengwa has been targeted by cycad collectors (Kimberly <em>et al</em>. 2008). In addition, the leaves of this species have been used by local people to make sleeping mats. This has caused the death of some old established plants.
41904		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected within the boundaries of the Marakele National Park and the Entabeni Private Game Reserve and also in the Sterkrivier Training Area of the South African National Defence Force. The latter is a Natural Heritage Site.
41904		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Waterberg range in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Occurs from 1,400 to 1,500 m asl.
41904		habitat	eng	The cycads grow on sandstone hills and rocky ridges of the Waterberg range. They grow in open grassland and savanna.
41904		population	eng	There are small scattered subpopulations. Poaching of plants has resulted in individuals being far from one another in certain cases. Nature conservation officials undertook helicopter surveys in 2004 and counted 982 plants in 12  localities. This is regarded as a slight underestimate due to poor visibility at the time of surveying.
41904		threats	eng	<em>E. eugene-maraisii</em> is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and this could lead to reproductive failure.
41905		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Springs Local Authority Nature Reserve near Uitenhage and on several private game reserves.
41905		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in xeric thicket vegetation between Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage and north of Uitenhage in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Occurs from 100 to 400 m asl.
41905		habitat	eng	<em>E. horridus</em> usually occurs in xeric thicket vegetation, often on rocky quartzite outcrops. The now extinct subpopulations north and west of Port Elizabeth probably occurred in Sandstone Fynbos.
41905		population	eng	The exact number of plants is unknown. Although several subpopulations have been visited regularly, there may be many unknown plants in the dense bush where <em>E. horridus</em> occurs.
41905		threats	eng	<em>E. horridus</em> is now extinct in several parts of its former range where it has been totally eliminated by urban development. Substantial numbers have also been removed by collectors in the past 50 years. It is difficult to estimate what proportion of plants have disappeared but it could be as high as 50%.
41906		conservation	eng	Although Kasigau is theoretically protected as a Forest Reserve above 1,000 m, the species is not known to occur above this altitude on Kasigau. In Mkomazi Game Reserve, although it sometimes suffers from stock invasion, the hills should be secure but the subpopulation reported from there is small.<br/><br/>Is listed in CITES Appendix I.
41906		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Kenya on the slopes of Maungu (Marungu) Hills near Voi and from the Mulilonyi, Nyangala, Sagala, Rukinga and Kasigau hills (the type of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. voiensis</span> was from Mount Kasigau). Also recorded from northern Tanzania on Kisima Hill in the Mkomazi Game Reserve. Recorded from 800 to 1.800 m.
41906		habitat	eng	This species occurs in closed to open evergreen cloud forest on steep mountain slopes. They occur as infrequent populations or individuals on steep, moist, well-wooded slopes of inselberg and hills surrounded by dry savana. Although most plants occur in moist forest situations, some are found hugging cliffs and drier rocky promontories in the open. Frequent mist occurs.
41906		population	eng	Was locally common. The population is estimated to number about 5,000 mature individuals. Some reports indicate the number may now be much lower but this has yet to be confirmed.
41906		threats	eng	The habitat in two locations (Maungu and Rukinga) is under threat by forest clearance for charcoal production and the areas were being inhabited by squatters as they are close to road access. There is ongoing illegal targeting of plants and seeds by cycad collectors.Forest and bush is also being cleared for expanding agriculture. Kasigau and Mkomazi are reasonably secure at present.<br/><br/>Plants are reportedly used as a food source during famine (presumably the seeds and possibly the stems) and foliage is sometimes used as decorations by the local people.
41907		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the Mlawula Nature Reserve and the Itala Game Reserve.
41907		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper reaches of the Pongola and Bivane rivers in northern KwaZulu-Natal province and in the Mananga area of eastern Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Plants are also found in the adjacent area of Mozambique and along the northern parts of the Lebombo mountains of Swaziland. There is some debate about the actual range of <em>E. lebomboensis</em>: the original description includes the plants in the Bivane area of KwaZulu-Natal, but P.J.H. Hurter argues that only the plants in northern Swaziland and the Mananga region of Mpumalanga are true <em>E. lebomboensis</em>. Recorded to occur at altitudes ranging from 500 to 1,000 m asl.
41907		habitat	eng	This species grows in savanna type vegetation. Plants are found on cliffs in rocky ravines, growing in scrub and grassland.
41907		population	eng	There are approximately 2,000 plants in the KwaZulu-Natal. In total there are about 5,000 plants remaining in the wild.
41907		threats	eng	<em>E. lebomboensis</em> is threatened due to over-collecting as a result of poaching and as a result of expanding agricultural activities. Plants are also used in traditional medicine.
41908		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The species is conserved in several protected areas, including the Waters Meeting, Kap River, and Dwesa nature reserves, and the Umtiza State Forest.
41908		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species of the coastal regions of the Eastern Cape, extending to the border with KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Populations occur inland in the Amatola mountain range and in the foothills around King Williams Town. Subpopulations occur in at least 10 river valleys extending from the Bushmans river in the south, through the Kariega, Kowie, Riet, Fish, Kap, Biga, Buffalo, Mpetu, Kei, Keiskamma, and Mbashe rivers. Occurs from near sea level up to 600 m.
41908		habitat	eng	This species occurs in near-coastal sites ranging from open shrubland or grassland and steep rocky slopes to closed evergreen forests in valleys. Plants often occur along river banks and also occur inland at a few sites at higher altitude along the Amatola mountain range.
41908		population	eng	The total population of <em>E. altensteinii</em> is estimated to be near 10,000 individuals. Subpopulations that have been surveyed for assessing the impacts of collecting, typically number about 500 plants.
41908		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has been a significant problem in coastal habitats where resort developments in the main estuaries have displaced cycad habitat. Removal by collectors has also been a significant problem, especially in rural areas near King Williams Town. Bark harvesting for traditional medicinal use is endemic in the region, but has increased in recent years so that it is not uncommon to find up to 10% mortality at any one time.
41909		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41909		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a small area of northeast Swaziland. Populations are found in the Groenpan area which is to the north of Siteki and also in an area to the south of Siteki. It has also been recorded from adjacent areas in Mozambique. Occurs from 100 to 600 m asl.
41909		habitat	eng	<em>E. aplanatus</em> occurs in deciduous and fairly dry ravine forests.
41909		population	eng	Initial estimates were of very small and rapidly declining populations in Swaziland, but J. Hurter (pers. comm.) reported larger subpopulations of at least 2,000 plants in Mozambique.
41909		threats	eng	<em>E. aplanatus</em> is threatened due to the over-collecting of wild specimens, especially in the type locality in Swaziland. Concerns have been expressed about the loss of pollinators from remaining populations but this has not been verified. <em>E. aplanatus</em> shares pollinator species with the nearby populations of <em>E. villosus</em>.
41910		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41910		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs between Jebba and Ilorin in Nigeria, in the Borgou province and near Savalou in Benin and in the Volta river catchment area in Ghana.This cycad almost certainly occurs in Togo. C. Dalzell (pers. comm.) reported that populations in Ghana were large and healthy. Occurs at about 400 m asl.
41910		habitat	eng	This subspecies grows on sandstone or granite outcrops on steep slopes in tropical woodland.
41910		population	eng	Relatively little information is available on populations of <em>E. barteri</em> ssp. <em>barteri</em> across its full range, but it seems to number at least 10,000 plants.
41910		threats	eng	This subspecies could be threatened by too frequent fires that could prevent seedlings from establishing. Plants are also removed from the wild by collectors.
41911		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Specimens occur in the Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust, which is a Rural Community Development Project.
41911		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kenya. Plants occur in the Eastern province near Embu and on the Matthews Range in the Rift Valley province. Occurs from 1,400 up to 2,300 m asl.
41911		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky sites and on steep mountain slopes in dense thicket and in thick dry forest.
41911		population	eng	Considered to be abundant and conservatively estimated to number between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals.
41911		threats	eng	This species is secure in most of its range. One location is threatened by over-collection for ornamental purposes and traditionally hollowed-out stems have been used as cattle drinking troughs.
41912		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41912		distribution	eng	This species occurs near the town of Tokkos on the Jos Plateau, which is in the Plateau State of central Nigeria and between Jebba and Ilorin in Nigeria, in the Borgou province and near Savalou in Benin and in the Volta river catchment area in Ghana. This cycad almost certainly occurs in Togo. Occurs between 400 and 1,400 m asl.
41912		habitat	eng	Plants grow on rocky slopes, in woodland savanna vegetation consisting of scattered trees and a ground flora dominated by grass. They are also found on sandstone or granite outcrops on steep slopes in tropical woodland.
41912		population	eng	Not much is known about the populations in Nigeria and Benin. C. Dalzell (pers. comm.) reported that populations in Ghana were large and healthy.
41912		threats	eng	This species may be affected by too frequent fires which could prevent seedling growth. Plants are also removed from the wild by collectors. Part of the population was lost due to flooding when the Volga dam was built.
41913		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust, which is a Rural Community Development Project.
41913		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs on the Matthews Range in the Rift Valley Province in central Kenya.The main areas are on the Ndoto, Warges and Lololokwi hills and near Barsaloi. Recorded to occur from 1,400 up to 2,300 m asl.
41913		habitat	eng	This subspecies grows on steep mountain slopes and on exposed rock outcrops in bushland (savanna) or in thick forest.
41913		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the total population size of this subspecies due to the inaccessible terrain but it is considered that there are at least 5,000 to 10,000 mature individuals in the wild.
41913		threats	eng	In some cases this subspecies has been used traditionally where stems have been hollowed out to serve as cattle drinking troughs.
41914		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This species possibly occurs in the Ugalla River Game Reserve.
41914		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Rukwa region of western Tanzania.  Populations are found in the vicinity of Mpanda, near Mount Kasima, Mount Sitebi and on the Lugala Hills. They are also found south of the Ugalla river. Recorded from 1,200 to 1,950 m asl.
41914		habitat	eng	This species grows in open Miombo (savanna) woodlands and on grassland ridges and mountain slopes.
41914		population	eng	<em>E. delucanus</em> seems to be very dispersed and difficult to find. Heibloem (1999) reports combing known localities for several days and only finding a few individuals. The population on Mount Sitebi consists of two groups of about 20 individuals in each and the total population is estimated as less than 500 plants.
41914		threats	eng	This species is affected by too frequent fires, which may affect regeneration. Changes in habitat management may also threaten the security of this species. Removal by collectors is also an issue.
41915		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and in the Mpendle Nature Reserve.
41915		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. They occur in mountainous regions and in grasslands on rocky ridges and slopes.   In the south, populations are found at Flagstaff and Tabankulu. Further north the distribution extends to the Izingolweni area (near Port Shepstone) in KwaZulu-Natal. Populations are also found west of Umzinto and still further north to the north of the Mkomazi river.  Plants are also found in the Mount Currie area and in the Drakensberg it is found from Giant's Castle in the south to Mont-aux-Sources in the north.  The largest stands are found in the  Mlambonja Valley. Has a wide elevational range being recorded from 700 up to 2,400 m asl.
41915		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>E. ghellinckii</em> varies from montane grassland and rocky outcrops to sandstone cliffs in the Drakensberg where plants are associated with montane fynbos vegetation.  As with many grassland species <em>E. ghellinkii</em> is also associated with a fire cycle.  This seems to stimulate new leaf flushes and is possibly necessary for coning.  The climate is mild to hot in summer.  Winters are very cold with snow at the higher altitudes.  Coastal areas have a mild winter climate.
41915		population	eng	The subpopulations are isolated, small (some with only a few plants) and widely scattered. This is especially true of the lowland subpopulations (i.e. not in the Drakensberg).
41915		threats	eng	The major threat for this species is over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Too frequent fires may have an effect in certain subpopulations.
41916		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41916		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in the Mulanje district of southern Malawi in the region between the Tuchila (Puchila) and the Ruo rivers. Subsequently plants were also found in Mozambique in Zambesia province. Subpopulations are found in the vicinity of the Chiraba and Navene rivers and also on Mount Namuli, near Derre, Morrumbala and Namarroi. Recorded from 650 to 900 m asl.
41916		habitat	eng	This species occurs on steep to precipitous slopes in gorges near streams. Plants grow in savanna but not in densely wooded sites.  The plants seem to be adapted to a periodic burn cycle.
41916		population	eng	The true size of the population is not known, but it is probable that it is reasonably common and exceeds 20,000 mature individuals.
41916		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to habitat destruction to make place for tea plantations.
41917		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Mondi Cycad Reserve, Makobulaan Nature Reserve, Wonderkloof Nature Reserve, Buffelskloof Private Nature Reserve, Mbesan Natural Heritage Site and the Coetzeestroom Conservation area.
41917		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mpumalanga province of South Africa.  Subpopulations are found in the catchment area of the Crocodile River, in the vicinity of Nelspruit, Waterval Boven and Lydenburg.
41917		habitat	eng	This species grows in subalpine grassland, on slopes on sandy soils over sandstones and are often wedged between sandstone rocks. Populations are mostly found on east and northeast facing slopes. Heavy rains and dense mists favour coning.
41917		population	eng	The estimated population size of <em>E. humilis</em> is 4,500-10,000 mature individuals. The habitat of this species has been transformed through pine and eucalypt plantations that now occupy approximately 30% of its original habitat.
41917		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the lack of natural fires in vast managed plantations and this possibly suppresses coning frequency. Many plants have also been removed for ornamental purposes.
41918		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41918		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Uganda in the Madi area. Populations are found near the town of Moyo. Occurs at 900 to 1,400 m asl.
41918		habitat	eng	<em>E. macrostrobilus</em> occurs in degraded savanna on sandy lithosols with rock slopes along seasonal watercourses. Plants grow in partial shade.
41918		population	eng	The population is thought to be fairly small comprising only 200 to 300 mature individuals.
41918		threats	eng	The area where <em>E. macrostrobilus</em> occurs is heavily grazed and fuel wood and timber are collected from the habitat. Regular fires to produce new grazing may adversely affect recruitment. There is also the usual problem of poaching of plants from the wild by collectors.
41919		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>E. manikensis</em> occur in the Nyanga National Park in Zimbabwe.
41919		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, where most of the plants are found in the highlands of the Mapande Range. In the south from Mount Selinda in Zimbabwe northwards through the Chipinge area , near Mount Nyanyadzi, along the Odzi  and Garezi rivers and on to Mount Gorongo (incorrectly named Mount Gorongowe in the literature) and further north to Mount Darwin (Pfura/Fura). The type locality is the Numkwarara (Nyamkwarara) Valley near Mount Gorongo. In Mozambique plants are found near Garuso, Mount Bandula, Mount Chicamba, near Vanduzi and Mount Chinhazanza (Chinyayadze/Chinyazange) near the Pungwe (Pungoe/Pungue) river. Recorded from 600 to 1,400 m asl.<br/><br/>There is considerable variation between populations from different sites and this has raised questions about the taxonomy of these populations. Capela (2006) argues that there could be as many as five species but taxonomists have not been able to discern consistent characters to define these possible species.
41919		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on grassy slopes on large granite inselbergs and also in river valleys in places associated with forests.
41919		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. manikensis</em> is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals. Some subpopulations are still quite large, especially in Mozambique. However, other subpopulations have declined substantially.
41919		threats	eng	<em>E. manikensis</em> is primarily threatened by the poaching of wild plants for ornamental purposes.
41920		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the following reserves: Hlatikulu Forest Reserve, Ngoye Forest Reserve, Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, Pongolapoort Nature Reserve and the Lebombo Cliffs (Natural heritage Site).
41920		distribution	eng	This species has two distribution areas separated by a distance of about 125 km. It occurs mainly in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa and also in Swaziland and Mozambique. In the south it starts at the Ngoye Forest of central KwaZulu-Natal. Further north the distribution follows the Ubombo mountains from about Mkuze river and then northwards along the Lebombo mountains to where the Usutu river cuts through the mountain range. Occurs from 200 to 600 m asl.
41920		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open grassland and on forest margins, often among boulders. Plants are often exposed to veld fires.
41920		population	eng	The population size is declining and though to number between 4.300 and 5,000 mature individuals.
41920		threats	eng	Overgrazing and veld fires have taken their toll on wild populations and in addition, over zealous collectors have removed thousands of plants.
41921		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Songimvelo, Malolotja and Ida Doyer Nature Reserves. Nurseries that were closely linked to rural communities were established for <em>E. paucidentatus</em>.
41921		distribution	eng	This species is present in a restricted area in the mountains near Barberton, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa and near Piggs Peak in the northwestern part of Swaziland. Recorded to occur from 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.
41921		habitat	eng	This species occurs sparsely on steep, often rocky, slopes in low forest and mountain bush. Plants grow mainly between trees alongside streams in deep gorges.
41921		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. paucidentatus</em> was originally estimated to be 8,000-12,000 mature individuals but recent estimates suggest that it is probably less (3,000-5,000).
41921		threats	eng	The wild populations of <em>E. paucidentatus</em> have suffered both from the activities of illegal collectors and due the afforestation programs in the area.
41922		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41922		distribution	eng	<em>E. princeps</em> occurs in the catchment area of the Black Kei, the Great Kei and the Kubusi rivers in the Cathcart, Stutterheim and Komga areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Occurs from 200 to 800 m asl.
41922		habitat	eng	<em>E. princeps</em> occurs mainly on dolerite cliffs and rocky outcrops along river valleys. Plants grow in arid areas in vegetation characterized by thick low succulent shrubland and grass.
41922		population	eng	The population is thought to number between 3,500 and 5,000 mature individuals and declining.
41922		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to the illegal collecting of plants in the wild and as a result of habitat destruction due to expanding agricultural activities. In some populations, alien invasive plants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span>) are invading the habitat.
41923		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41923		distribution	eng	This species is found only near the village of Kolwezi in the Shaba province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Occurs at 1,450 to 1,500 m asl.
41923		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Miombo woodlands, where they grow in grassy shrublands on ridges and mountain slopes.
41923		population	eng	This species is reported to grow in small widely spread clumps. The population size is difficult to estimate but may be  1,000-5,000 mature individuals.
41923		threats	eng	Frequent fires may be a threat to these plants and there may be reproductive failure as the plants occur far apart.
41924		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Shume Magamba Forest Reserve.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix I.
41924		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality ("Gologolo") within Shume Magamba Forest Reserve in the western Usambara Mountains, Tanga district of northeastern Tanzania. Occurs at 1,800 to 2,100 m.
41924		habitat	eng	&#160;Grows on steep, relatively dry, south facing rocky slopes in grassland and on rocky outcrops surrounded by montane forest. Occurs between rocks on sheer precipitous granite and gneiss promontories.
41924		population	eng	The population size was originally estimated as 5,000-6,000 mature individuals. Recent reports (e.g. S. Trollip pers. comm. 2008) indicate that populations are declining and plants are difficult to find. It is now estimated that the population is very small, probably less than 50 mature individuals. Although there are apparently five or six subpopulations&#160; occurring along a mountain ridge, the area is more or less contiguous and cannot be regarded as six locations, but is regarded as a single location because of the nature of the threats.
41924		threats	eng	The seeds are harvested for medicinal purposes by traditional healers and there is also collecting by cycad poachers. The area is in a prime forestry and agricultural area, so the habitat is already and is likely to continue being impacted. The area, because of its elevation has a mild climate and is considered an ideal place to live. So increases in human settlement and further changes in land use are likely. Natural and man made fires destroy seed and seedlings.
41925		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the Mkuzi Game Reserve and the Pongolapoort Nature Reserve.
41925		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south of the Jozini dam in Northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa northwards along the Lebombo mountains to just north of Siteki in Swaziland. Plants are also found on the Mozambique side of the border. Recorded from 300 to 800 m asl.
41925		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky slopes and forest ravines or on dry exposed cliffs in dry shrubby savanna along the Lebombo range.
41925		population	eng	The population is thought to number between 5,000 and 10,000 mature individuals and declining.
41925		threats	eng	This species is primarily threatened due to poaching of plants from the wild.
41926		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Great Fish River Reserve Complex, the Kap River Nature Reserve and the Water's Meeting Nature Reserve.
41926		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Subpopulations are found in the Great Fish, the Bushman's and the Kowie River valleys in the Albany, Bathurst, Fort Beaufort and Peddie districts. Occurs from 100 up to 600 m asl.
41926		habitat	eng	<em>E. trispinosus</em>  grows in arid low succulent shrubland on rocky ridges and slopes. They are found in the shade or in full sun on rocky outcrops.
41926		population	eng	A very difficult species to assess as it is low growing and often occurs in dense thickets of spiny vegetation.
41926		threats	eng	<em>E. trispinosus</em> is threatened by illegal collection of wild specimens from their habitat.
41927		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Mlawula Nature Reserve in Swaziland.
41927		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a number of localities in Mozambique and Swaziland. The population is restricted to the valley of the Umbeluzi River. Occurs from 50 to 120 m asl.
41927		habitat	eng	This species is found in the shade of low scrub woodland or in relatively dry savanna and bushveld. To the west the plants are found in valleys and further eastwards towards Mozambique they occur on the floodplains of rivers.
41927		population	eng	The population is thought to number between 1,000 and 1,500 mature individuals.
41927		threats	eng	Illegal removal of plants from the wild has been recorded, even within reserves.
41928		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Although the gorge falls within the Queen Elizabeth National Park, 90% of the population occurs outside the park.
41928		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Kabarole district of the southwestern part of Uganda. Populations occur along the Mpanga river, above and below the Mpanga River Falls, just before it runs into Lake George. Recorded from an altitude of 1,000 to 1,300 m asl.
41928		habitat	eng	This species grows on almost sheer granite faces and on rocky slopes, amongst tall grass in savanna. Also occurs in dense evergreen montane forests.
41928		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. whitelockii</em> is estimated to be 8,000 mature individuals. Seedlings and small plants are absent from open habitats which may be as a result of too frequent fires, but under forest canopy, prolific regeneration occurs. The recorded sex ratio is 43% female to 57% male.
41928		threats	eng	Threats to the species include:<br/>a) Construction of a small hydro electric power plant on the Mpanga River Falls:<br/>i-Construction of roads and camps in the cycad belt, causing soil erosion and deep gulleys, reducing habitat quality <br/>ii-reduction in population of mature and young individuals as they are knocked down by heavy machinery <br/>iii-reduction in area of occupancy owing to parts being occupied by weir (reservoir), water canal, and power house <br/><br/>b) Local community activities:<br/>i-reports of collection of seed and seedlings for commercial trade may impair the regeneration capacity of the cycad and thus lead to further reduction of its population <br/>ii-cultivation on the slopes of the gorge, clearing the cycads located on the gardens <br/>iii-harvesting of the cycad leaves for building materials <br/>iv-burning of some areas occupied by the cycad for stimulation of grazing pasture.
41929		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. <em>E. caffer</em> occurs in the Brooklands Cycad Reserve and in the Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve.
41929		distribution	eng	This species is found mainly in the Eastern Cape province and in an isolated subpopulation in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. In the Eastern Cape it has been recorded from Humansdorp in the south, then northwards to areas in the Albany district and continuing northwards to an area near Kentani, just across the Great Kei river. Still further to the north, it is found in the Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve in Kwa-Zulu Natal province. The species seems to consist of numerous isolated subpopulations in this area. Recorded from 300 to 700 m asl.
41929		habitat	eng	This species typically grows in grassland but can also occur in thicket when grasslands are not burnt frequently. It is often found growing among rocks.
41929		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>E. caffer</em> is somewhat threatened as a result of clearing for agricultural purposes. This species has also been affected due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
41930		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Longhill Nature Reserve and the Lawrence De Lange Nature Reserve near Queenstown.
41930		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern Cape province and KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The main distribution area is in the Cathcart and Queenstown districts. Smaller subpopulations occur to the north of Umtata and in the vicinity of Kokstad on the border between the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Occurs from 700 up to 1,400 m.
41930		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane grassland and open shrubland on rocky ridges.
41930		population	eng	A relatively abundant species.
41930		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and as a result of traditional muthi (medicine) harvesting.
41931		conservation	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">Recorded from a number of protected </span>areas including: Jozani Forest Reserve on Zanzibar, Saadani National Park, one locality within Gendagenda South Forest Reserve, and one locality within Amani Nature Forest Reserve (all Tanzania); and two localities within Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve (Kenya). <br/></p><p>The species is well represented in botanical gardens and private collections worldwide.</p><p>Is listed in CITES Appendix I.</p>
41931		distribution	eng	Occurs in the coastal and near-coastal districts of Kenya and Tanzania including Zanzibar island (Tanzania). Reports of cycads from northern Mozambique may also turn out to be <span style="font-style: italic;">E. hildebrandtii</span>. Occurs from sea level up to 600 m.
41931		habitat	eng	Mainly found in coastal evergreen bushland and dry lowland forest, in red loams and sandy soils among grass and coral rocks.<br/><br/>Appears to need shade for successful germination.
41931		population	eng	Occurs in many locations, and is locally abundant in places. Population size is estimated to be about 20,000 mature individuals.
41931		threats	eng	Habitat destruction as a result of urban expansion, coastal resort development, and agricultural expansion is having a direct impact on the species. Former large subpopulations of the species have been lost as result.<br/><br/>In times of famine, the stems have reportedly been used for food in Zanzibar, although it is more likely the seeds that are used, as is the case in northern Kenya (the central pith of the stem and the endosperm from the seeds is used to prepare a starchy form of bread).
41932		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. <em>E. ituriensis</em> occurs in the Okapi Faunal Reserve.
41932		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Ituri forest area of the Haut-Zaire province in the northern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to P. Heibloem (pers. comm.), it was found on  two large granite inselbergs near the town of Nduye. Occurs at 1,100 to 1,200 m asl.
41932		habitat	eng	This species grows in grassland or among shrubs (savanna) on exposed slopes on granite domes which emerge from rainforests.
41932		population	eng	There is a small but localized population of about 1,000 mature individuals.
41932		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, but if collectors were to target the species, it would be impacted fairly quickly.
41933		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. In Gauteng province, this species is conserved in two private nature reserves and in a natural heritage site. Plants also occur in the Loskop Dam Nature Reserve and in the Botshabelo Nature Reserve.
41933		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper catchment area of the Olifants River in the Middelburg, Witbank and Bronkhorstspruit districts of the Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces in South Africa. It also occurs along the Little Olifants and Wilge rivers in this area. Occurs from 1,200 to 1,500 m.
41933		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on the slopes of sheltered wooded kloofs and sandstone ridges where it occurs as an element of open to sometimes rather closed woodland communities.  Sites are usually gentle to steep sloping, associated with scattered sandstone boulders and well drained soils.  The species shows a definite preference for semi-exposed, steep sloping sites with a southern aspect.
41933		population	eng	This is a locally abundant and stable species.
41933		threats	eng	The species occurs in rural areas.  The agricultural development of the distribution area of the taxon would have had a minimal effect on the species due to the types of farming practices employed (Fourie 1984). The species is also reportedly not popular with cycad collectors as they are sensitive to disturbance and any transplanting ends in the death of plants (Goode 1993). Two localities, however, are threatened: one by intensive destruction on a military training area, and another by building and road construction for a pleasure resort (Fourie 1993).
41934		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Greater Addo Elephant National Park and the Kuzuko Game Reserve.
41934		distribution	eng	This cycad species is  most closely associated with the drier regions, particularly the Karoo area, of South africa.  It occurs on cliffs and mountain sides in the Eastern Cape Province in the districts of Willowmore, Jansenville, Pearston, Somerset East, Kirkwood, Uitenhage and Steytlerville.  It grows on the Grootrivier Mountains, the Klein Winterhoek Mountains, the Groot Bruintjieshoogte Mountains and the foothills of the Groot Winterhoek Mountains in the drainage areas of the Groot and Sundays Rivers. Occurs at altitudes ranging from 400 up to 1,000 m.
41934		habitat	eng	This species usually grows on sandstone hills and mountainsides amongst arid Karoo scrub vegetation. The climate in its distribution area is dry, with very hot summers. The rain falls mainly in summer and the annual rainfall is seldom higher than 350 mm.
41934		population	eng	It is difficult to quantify, but <em>E. lehmannii</em> tends to occur in subpopulations of several hundred plants across its range.
41934		threats	eng	Drought has had an affect in the past. There have been fewer coning episodes and porcupines have damaged stems in search of food. Continuous defoliation by goats results in mortality of adult plants. To a lesser degree, plants have been lost due to over-collecting by poachers.
41935		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Baviaanskloof Conservation Area, the Groendal Wilderness Area, the Longmore State Forest and in the Addo Elephant Park (Zuurberg area).
41935		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Eastern Cape from West of Joubertina in the Kouga mountains, along the Suuranys mountains, in the Baviaans Kloof, the Elandsberge, the Zuurberge and then on to near Grahamstown. Large subpopulations occur in the Kouga Mountains, Baviaanskloof, Groot Winterhoek mountains, and the Zuurberg. Recorded from 200 up to 700 m asl.
41935		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitats with large differences in soil and climate. In some areas west of Port Elizabeth plants grow in acid sands with fynbos vegetation whereas in the Zuurberg they occur in grasslands. Near Kirkwood and in the Paardepoort plants grow amongst succulent thicket. Thety are also found in dense scleromorphic shrubland on steep rocky slopes
41935		population	eng	Occurs in large numbers in some areas.
41935		threats	eng	The only real threat to <em>E. longifolius</em> is over-collection due to poaching of plants from the wild.
41936		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41936		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Populations occur in the Marungu Mountains and on the Muhila plateau in the southeast of the country. Plants are also known from Tanzania, where they occur approximately 100 km to the west of the Marungu locality. Recorded as occurring from 1,400 to 1,700 m.
41936		habitat	eng	This species grows in savanna (Miombo woodland) and also in lightly wooded montane forests among granite outcrops.
41936		population	eng	Although poorly known, the population is though to be fairly small with between a 1,000 and 1,200 mature plants.
41936		threats	eng	<em>E. marunguensis</em> may be threatened by too frequent fires. Poaching from the wild by collectors is also a threat.
41937		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the following reserves: Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, Krantzkloof Nature Reserve, Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park, iGwala-Gwala (Natural Heritage Site), Rendsburg Cycad Colony (Natural Heritage Site), Mgwahumbe (Natural Heritage Site) and Hope Valley (Natural Heritage Site).
41937		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Qumbu and Tabankulu areas of the northern part of the Eastern Cape, through most of KwaZulu-Natal up to the upper catchment areas of the Mkuze and Umfolozi rivers near Vryheid in South Africa. Has a wide altitudinal range being recorded from 200 up to 1,200 m asl.
41937		habitat	eng	This species occurs on cliffs and steep, hot and dry slopes in scarp forests. Plants grow on cool south-facing cliff faces, in forest or are exposed. <em>E. natalensis</em> occurs close to the coast in certain areas, but more commonly further inland.
41937		population	eng	There are numerous subpopulations scattered throughout its range, with numbers of mature individuals though to be between 8,300 and 12,000.
41937		threats	eng	Some subpopulations have been impacted by collecting and bark harvesting for medicinal purposes. For example, the plants at  the type locality at Monteseel have been debarked resulting in mortality.
41938		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the buffer area of the North Luangwa Reserve.
41938		distribution	eng	<em>E. schmitzii</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the extreme south of the Kundelungu plateau in the Shaba province and in Zambia along the Muchinga escarpment in the Luapula and Northern provinces. The distribution broadly follows the catchment of the Luapula River. Occurs at elevations from 1.000 to 1,400 m.<br/><br/>Plants described by Ian Turner, Jean-Pierre Sclavo and Francios Malaisse in 2006 as <em>E. flavistrobilus</em> are know considered a synonym of <em>E. schmitzii</em>. These plants occur at a single locality in the North Western province of Zambia, to the east of Solwezi. Approximate elevation is 1,300 m. The extent of occurrence of that subpopulation is about 30 km².
41938		habitat	eng	This species grows in sandy quartzitic soils in Miombo woodlands. The plants form numerous basal suckers.
41938		population	eng	It was originally thought to be a very restricted species in Zambia, where there were several reports of only one plant, but since they have been found in larger numbers across quite a wide range.
41938		threats	eng	<em>E. schmitzii</em> is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and as a result of habitat loss caused by bush clearing for agricultural purposes. Too frequent fires may have also driven this cycad's pollinator to extinction.
41939		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This species occurs in at least five protected areas, including the Ubombo (Lebombo) Mountain Nature Reserve and the Dwesa and Cwebe Nature Reserves.
41939		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the east coast of South Africa and southern Mozambique, usually occurring within a few kilometres of the ocean. They are found as scattered subpopulations from Bathurst in the Eastern Cape to Kosi Bay in northern KwaZulu-Natal and just over the South Africa border into southern Mozambique. Recorded from 10 to 750 m asl.
41939		habitat	eng	Grows in open, dry grassland, in light shade under trees in the coastal parkland, or in dense, damp lowland forest. Found in sandy soils (derived from sandstone) or sometimes in  granitic or heavy black clays, all of which are slightly acidic, usually within a few kilometers of the ocean. They are found in scarp and coastal forests, Ngongoni and Coastal Grassland (Scott-Shaw 1999).
41939		population	eng	There are numerous subpopulations spread across its range. It is estimated that there are more than 100,000 plants in the wild.<br/><br/>Abundance at known localities:<br/><br/>a) Past and current:<br/>Since at least 1965, there have been reports of <em>S. eriopus</em> becoming scarce, rare and extirpated in many areas of its range. Vast numbers of plants were eradicated along the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape coast as sugar cane fields and the pineapple industry respectively replaced the natural vegetation. <em>S. eriopus</em> was once a usual sight in coastal and scarp forests and coastal grassland from Bathurst to Kosi Bay, but today it is far less common. Furthermore, plants within the borders of designated nature reserves are not altogether safe. Regular visitors to Ngoye have also reported drastic reductions in population numbers, and a recent half-day survey in the Gwaliweni forest north of Jozini in KwaZulu-Natal failed to locate any specimens. Between Durban and Hluhluwe,&#160; <em>S. eriopus</em> was lost at many localities due to habitat transformation for sugar cane and gum plantations. Very little natural vegetation exists in these areas today, and <em>S. eriopus</em> tends to be found in isolated pockets.  <em>Stangeria</em> is therefore currently rare and of low abundance in this specific area.<br/><br/>b) Future<br/>The possible future construction of a coastal highway through the Eastern Cape would threaten many the subpopulations. Parts of the former Transkei are currently a refuge for <em>Stangeria</em>, but coastal urban development will threaten the habitat and the range as forest refugia become more accessible to collectors.<br/><br/>In summary: <br/><br/>There are 34 known Quarter Degree Squares (QDS) records from PRECIS (the Pretoria Herbarium Specimen Database), the literature and personal observations. The following threats were noted:<br/>a) In 14 known QDS (41%), habitat transformation and degradation has occurred from the Eastern Cape to KwaZulu-Natal for plantations (pineapple, sugar cane and pine trees). <em>S. eriopus</em> tends to occupy vegetation pockets within these areas or has been permanently extirpated (past decline).<br/>b) 14 QDSs (41%) stand to be affected by the proposed new N2 highway through the Eastern Cape, hence destroying habitats and making previous <em>S. eriopus</em> refugia potentially accessible to collectors (future decline).<br/>c) In at least 9 QDSs (26%), <em>S. eriopus</em> has been observed to be scarce, declining and actively targeted by collectors (current decline)<br/><br/>Therefore, in total, in at least 27 QDS (79%) that we know of (through personal observations and the literature), the <em>S. eriopus</em> population has experienced past declines OR is currently declining OR is facing potential decline due to past, current and future threats from habitat transformation and traditional medicine harvesting.<br/><br/>The tuber is sometimes branched into several growing points and because of this, it is usually not possible to uproot all of the plant without damaging and leaving behind some of the caudex. It is sometimes possible for regeneration to occur from the damaged caudex. It is therefore also possible that a portion of the caudex may be left behind during incomplete excavations for the traditional medicine (muti) trade, and that some regeneration may occur in areas that have been targeted by harvesters. Growth from seed is slow.
41939		threats	eng	This species has been affected by over collecting (for medicinal and ornamental use). Habitat destruction has also had an effect on the plants in the wild (pineapple and sugar cane farming). Vast numbers of plants were eradicated along the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape coast as sugar cane fields and the pineapple industry respectively replaced the natural vegetation. Between Durban and Hluhluwe, <em>S. eriopus</em> was lost at many localities due to habitat transformation for sugar cane and gum plantations. Very little natural vegetation exists in these areas today, and <em>S. eriopus</em> tends to be found in isolated pockets.<br/><br/>The possible future construction of the highway through the Eastern Cape will threaten many of the subpopulations. Parts of the former Transkei are currently a refuge for <em>S. eriopus</em>, but coastal urban development will threaten the habitat and the range as forest refugia become more accessible to collectors.<br/><br/>At least 20% of the habitat has been lost over the last three generations (150 years) (generation length is about 50 years) and harvesting for the traditional medicine trade has caused at least a further 10-20% decline in population size. The habitat is further threatened with future transformation and increased harvesting as a result of the N2 highway being extended through the Eastern Cape.<br/><br/><em>S. eriopus</em> is a sought after medicinal plant which has been severely over-exploited over much of its distribution range. The habitat is rapidly being degraded because of woodcutting and the expansion of crop farming. The lignotuber is used for traditional medicine, hence harvesting is destructive and whole plants are usually killed. Estimates of an annual sale of 233 bags (50 kg-size) by 54 traders in the Durban markets have been made - possibly accounting for ¼ of the total sales in the province. In a survey conducted in July 1992, 28 out of 170 gatherers (16.5%) in two Durban muti markets sold the tubers. The mean mass of caudices on sale = 0.7 kg; mean mass sold/month/trader = 85 kg; mean number of plants sold/month/trader = 122; total mass sold/month = 2380 kg; total number of plants sold/month = 3410 individual caudices (or, 40,920 plants per year). The unknown quantity of tubers sold by the muti shops in the city would have added considerably to the annual volume sold in the region. The plants were said to have been harvested from areas in the Transkei, southern and northern KwaZulu-Natal, and concerns were raised that the rate of exploitation would lead to a rapid demise of <em>S. eriopus</em> in the wild, especially if the herbal medicine trade continued to expand (as it has).<br/><br/>The popularity of <em>S. eriopus</em> is such that it is traded outside of its range in Mpumalanga and Gauteng. Trade figures for Johannesburg showed that 58% of muti shops stocked the species in 1994, 18% of which said it was scarce. The annual volume estimated to have been sold was 243 bags (50 kg-size). In the Faraday market in 2001, 9% of traders sold it with a combined volume of 38 bags.<br/><br/>More recently, evidence has been found of <em>S. eriopus</em> tubers having been excavated in the Manguzi, presumably for the traditional medicine trade. Possibly more than 50 plants had been removed from the site, and that conservatively hundreds had been excavated in the last few months. On a recent visit to the Faraday market,  20 traders with <em>S. eriopus</em>, each with about 20 plants per trader were found.<br/><br/>In terms of habitat destruction, vast numbers of plants have been eradicated along the KwaZulu-Natal coast as sugar cane fields replaced the natural vegetation, and the expansion of the pineapple industry in the Eastern Cape had caused similar diminution in the distribution of <em>S. eriopus</em> in that area. <br/><br/>Cycad collectors have also threatened the <span style="font-style: italic;">Stangeria </span>population. A post-war anecdote has been cited in which a field botanist active along the Natal south coast was offered one pound per plant to send as many living <span style="font-style: italic;">Stangeria </span>plants as could be collected to a Chicago museum. The botanist refused, and the field full of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stangeria</span> that was mentioned in the anecdote was subsequently visited 30 years later to find that it had been over-grazed and not a single plant remained.
41940		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants possibly occur in the Saadani National Park in Tanzania.
41940		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern coast of Africa (Madagascar north to Kenya) and on the Comores, Mayotte and Seychelles. Subpopulations occur along the coast of Mozambique, from the Zambezi delta, northwards along the coast of Tanzania and Kenya, as far as the town of Lamu. Occurs from sea level up to 200 m.
41940		habitat	eng	Plants grow in open woodland or forest margins, usually near the coast. They occur sparsely as individuals or in small groups. Rainfall ranges between 1,000 to 3,000 mm per annum. It usually grows on sand or on coral formations.
41940		population	eng	A locally abundant species with the population estimated to number more than 10,000 mature individuals.
41940		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although plants would have been impacted in places by collectors, coastal developments (tourist resorts, urban expansion) and agricultural expansion (small-holder crops).
41941		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41941		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Tanzanian province of Arusha. Populations are found to the West of Lake Natron and south of the town of Loliondo. Recorded from 1,300 to 2,150 m asl.
41941		habitat	eng	Populations occur in open bushland on quartzite ridges or montane forest with a few scattered trees. The Nguruman hills consist of a series of quartzite hills.
41941		population	eng	It is very difficult to estimate numbers of plants in the wild due to the inaccessible terrain, but it is estimated that there are in excess of 10,000 plants.
41941		threats	eng	The seeds of this species are eaten during times of famine.
41942		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41942		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Winterberg mountains to the north of Bedford in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Recorded from 1,200 to 1,800 m asl.
41942		habitat	eng	This species grows in semi-dry grassland areas in shallow shale soils on the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. <em>E. cycadifolius</em> is adapted to fire.
41942		population	eng	There are at least six subpopulations and all of these are healthy and viable. Donaldson and co-workers counted/estimated a population size of more than 20,000 plants based on sub-sampling.
41942		threats	eng	Baboons and porcupines can sometimes damage cones and newly emerged leaves of this species. Too frequent fires may have an effect on seedlings and juveniles.
41943		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>E. ferox</em> are present in the Maputaland Coastal Forest Reserve, the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park and the Tembe Elephant Park.
41943		distribution	eng	<em>E. ferox</em> is a widespread species occurring in northern Kwa-Zulu Natal province of South Africa and southern Mozambique, where it is found in the Maputo, Gaza, Inhambane and Sofala provinces. Occurs at low elevations between 20 and 100 m asl.
41943		habitat	eng	The habitats of this species range from closed evergreen coastal forest to dense shrubland, on deep sands of old beach dune systems. They also occur in grassland areas.
41943		population	eng	A relatively abundant species where it occurs.
41943		threats	eng	The major threats affecting this species include over-collecting for ornamental purposes and habitat destruction due to current and future coastal developments and for agricultural purposes.
41944		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41944		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Shaba province near to Kasidiji, Kanda-Kanda and Gonzo and also in the Kasa-Occidental province near to Luluaborg in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Across the border in Angola, it is found in the Lunda Sul province near to Sombo. Occurs from 500 to 1,00 m asl.
41944		habitat	eng	This species grows in dry savanna with tall grass. The general vegetation types in this area is Central Zambezian Miombo woodland and Southern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic. Plants often grow as solitary individuals but may form extensive colonies.
41944		population	eng	Reported as being abundant throughout its range by several authors (Heibloem 1999, Goode 2001).
41944		threats	eng	This species may be utilized as a food source during times of famine.
41945		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the following nature reserves: Lekgalameetse Nature Reserve, Mphaphuli Cycad Reserve, Modjadji Nature Reserve, The Wolkberg Wilderness Area, Happy Rest Nature Reserve and also in the following Natural Hertage Sites: Ottoshoek, Lesheba Wilderness, Buffelspoort and Buzzard Mountain Retreat. A Cycad nursery based on wild-collected seeds has been set up in collaboration with a rural community near to the Modjadji Nature Reserve.
41945		distribution	eng	This species occurs intermittently over a large area in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. In the south the distribution starts in the northern parts of the Drakensberg mountain range. Further northwards a large isolated subpopulation is found in the Modjadji Nature Reserve. The distribution is then taken up in the Soutpansberg mountains. It extends over most of this mountain range and continues further east to the middle of the Thohoyandou area. Recorded from elevations ranging from 600 to 1,500 m asl.
41945		habitat	eng	All localities of <em>E. transvenosus</em> are on mountain mistbelt zones. Plants grow in tall grassveld and mixed bushveld, mainly on steep rocky slopes facing southeast.
41945		population	eng	The population at Modjadji is estimated to be 15,000 individuals and there are some other very large subpopulations.
41945		threats	eng	Plants are removed from the wild by collectors and there is loss of habitat in some places.
41946		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41946		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in the Nampula province, but also in the Niassa province of Mozambique. Plants are found from Malema eastwards to the vicinity of Nampula and then southwards towards Angoche. Recorded from 600 up to 1,200 m asl.
41946		habitat	eng	<em>E. turneri</em> occurs on low granite hills in full sun or semi-shade, usually among boulders. Summer rainfall of about 800-1,000 mm per annum. The vegetation type in this area is Eastern Miombo woodlands.
41946		population	eng	Latest estimates state that about 30,000 individuals exist in the wild.
41946		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
41947		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur and are protected in the following reserves and natural heritage sites: Umtiza Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, Kranskloof Nature Reserve, Ngoye Forest Reserve, Hope Valley Natural Heritage Site and the Shongweni Dam Natural Heritage Site.
41947		distribution	eng	This species occurs from near East London in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, continuing through KwaZulu-Natal province and then on into parts of Swaziland. Occurs from 100 to 600 m asl.
41947		habitat	eng	This species typically occurs as an understorey plant in sub-tropical coastal forest and in scrub, but populations also occur in more temperate areas.
41947		population	eng	<em>E. villosus</em> is a common and widespread species. There are several substantial subpopulations throughout its range with a total population probably in excess of 100,000 plants.
41947		threats	eng	There is some evidence of collecting for ornamental purposes but this is fast growing species that is easy to cultivate. There is also some degree of habitat loss as a result of land clearing for agricultural purposes.
41948		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Kanga Forest Reserve.<br/><br/>Although listed in CITES Appendix I, a concerted effort is needed to give this species strong protection.
41948		distribution	eng	Known only from Mount Kanga, an isolated hill of the Nguru Mountains, in the Mvomero district, Morogoro province of Tanzania. Occurs on the southern ridge and south eastern slopes of Mt. Kanga above Kibwende settlement. Occurs at 1,000 to 1.300 m.
41948		habitat	eng	This species grows on very steep granitic southern rock faces. The habitat is sub-montane dry evergreen and mesic evergreen forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerophyta - Erica</span> heath on steep slopes of Precambrian crystalline (mostly gneissic) bedrock with shallow soil. The vegetation type of this area is Eastern Arc Montane Forests.
41948		population	eng	Occurs in a few very small and scattered subpopulations, with less than 50 mature individuals in total.
41948		threats	eng	Illegal collection of seedlings poses the main threat. Further fires could also impact the habitat and thus the population, although fire does not appear to affect the regeneration of the species. The mountain is considered to be sacred by the local people, and given the remoteness of the area, deforestation is not a problem at present.
41949		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
41949		distribution	eng	This species is found in an area along the border between Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Populations are restricted to the Kwango (Cuango) River valley in the vicinity of Kasongo-Lunda in the Bandundu province of the DRC and in the Uige province in Angola. Plants are also found between the Fufu and Kikasu tributaries of the Kwango. Occus between 450 and 550 m asl.
41949		habitat	eng	<em>E. laurentianus</em> is found in closed, humid gallery forest along the river Kwango and on open red sandstone slopes above.  The vegetation type in this area is Congolian forest-savanna mosaic.
41949		population	eng	It has been reported that 'large numbers' occur in the Kasongo-Linda districts of eastern DRC.
41949		threats	eng	The species is targeted by collectors.
41950		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. <em>E. septentrionalis</em> occurs in the Okapi Faunal Reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
41950		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Sudan, northern Uganda, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the interior of the Central African Republic. Recorded from elevations ranging from 500 to 2,500 m asl.
41950		habitat	eng	<em>E. septentrionalis</em> grows in rocky areas in sparse forests and in grassland and open bushland.
41950		population	eng	Despite the fairly wide range, the population size is only estimated to be about 2,000 mature individuals.
41950		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but agricultural activities, increased droughts and poaching by collectors are all potential threats.
41951		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41951		distribution	eng	This species ranges from near Mount Morgan south to near Goomeri in Queensland, Australia.  Occurring in locally more mesic microhabitats, becoming quite sporadic and occurring further inland in the south of the range. Recorded from 150 to 300 m asl.
41951		habitat	eng	Scattered and localized on clay-loam soils over various substrates, usually on sloping country in wet eucalypt forests or rainforests.
41951		population	eng	The most recent survey indicates a presence of 46 subpopulations and an estimated 372,964 mature plants.
41951		threats	eng	There is considerable risk of habitat removal for forestry and pastoral activity.
41952		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41952		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Petford district on the northwestern Atherton Tableland, and a disjunct population about 250 km to the south on Wandovale station, Queensland, Australia. Occurs at 400 to 750 m asl.
41952		habitat	eng	This species grows in open grassy ironbark-dominated woodland on shallow loamy soils on stony slopes over acid to intermediate volcanic substrates.
41952		population	eng	The population size is estimated to number between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals.
41952		threats	eng	Over-collection of <em>C. platyphylla</em> from the wild may be a problem in the future.
41953		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It occurs in various protected areas.
41953		distribution	eng	This species occurs near the town of Warwick and in the Herries range in the Darling Downs district of Queensland, Australia. Occurs between 600 to 750 m asl.
41953		habitat	eng	Plants are found sporadically, occurring in eucalypt woodland on shallow podsolic soils on drier rises.
41953		population	eng	This species is found in six or seven subpopulations and the same number of locations.
41953		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to poaching.
41954		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Blue Mountains National Park.
41954		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a limited area around Mountain Lagoon in the Blue Mountains north and west of Richmond, New South Wales, Australia. Recorded to occur at elevations of 120 to 150 m asl.
41954		habitat	eng	Plants grow in open areas and among dense shrubs on gentle to steep slopes in eucalypt woodland. The undulating countryside is dominated by sandstone boulders.
41954		population	eng	The population size is estimated to number between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals.
41954		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not specified.
41955		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Wallaroo and Karua Nature reserves and also in the Lake Macquarie State Conservation Area and in the Werakata National Park.
41955		distribution	eng	This species occur in New South Wales, Australia. Subpopulations are found on the southern part of the North Coast and extreme northern Central Coast, from Buladelah to Lake Macquarie.
41955		habitat	eng	This species grows in a range of habitats, including coastal cliffs, open sclerophyll forest and gullies, sometimes in quite shady situations. Soils are mainly shallow clay loams.
41955		population	eng	The population is estimated to number between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals and declining.
41955		threats	eng	This species is affected by over-collecting and land clearance, which may be a cause for concern in the future.
41956		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Great Sandy National Park.
41956		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Queensland, Australia. Populations occur from the Wide Bay area, east of Gympie to south of Childers and on Fraser Island. Occurs at low elevations being recorded from 5 to 25 m asl.
41956		habitat	eng	Plants are found scattered in open woodland, almost always on siliceous sand deposits from old beach dunes.
41956		population	eng	The population is fairly small and estimated to number about 2,500 mature individuals.
41956		threats	eng	This species has been affected by the destruction of habitat for pastures and other agriculture e.g. pineapples. Many plants have been removed from habitat for collectors and for general garden use.
41957		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Werakata National Park and in the Windsor Downs Nature Reserve, Castlereagh Nature Reserve and the Agnes Banks Nature Reserve.
41957		distribution	eng	This species occurs New South Wales, Australia. Plants are found from Dunedoo and the Goulburn River valley to the lower eastern Blue Mountains and Sydney-Waterfall districts.
41957		habitat	eng	This species is found scattered in sclerophyll forests on sandy or gravelly soils of low fertility.
41957		population	eng	Plants are found in scattered colonies within its range, but never in great numbers.
41958		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some stands are conserved within Kakadu National Park.
41958		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Northern Territory of Australia. Populations are found from between Jim Jim Falls and Graveside Gorge in the Kakadu National Park, southwest through Goodparla and Mary River Station to Foelsche Headland, and north to Burrell Creek near Adelaide River. A large population of <em>C. conferta</em> has been reported near the headwaters of the Fergusson River, but as yet has not been confirmed.
41958		habitat	eng	<em>C. conferta</em> occurs on sandy soils over granites or coarse sandstones. In association with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and grasses. Populations are found mainly on rocky outcrops and stunted woodland overlying Cullen granite and sandstone and quartz of the Brocks Creek Group. The soils are grey gravelly loams. <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em> is the dominant tree species in the woodland whereas the cycads are dominant on the outcrops.
41958		population	eng	The distribution of this species is considered to be sporadic and local in occurrence, with plants forming isolated, usually small but dense, stands. The population estimates exceed 30,000 plants with a major concentration at Harriet Creek.
41958		threats	eng	In the past, the large population at Harriet Creek has been extensively harvested for seed. Some of the smaller populations along the Kakadu Highway have been severely impacted by past removal of plants. However, because of the large numbers over a substantial area, the species is not presently at risk.
41959		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41959		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two subpopulations to the northwest of Charters Towers, Queensland, Australia. Recorded from 450 to 550 m asl.
41959		habitat	eng	Populations occur in Eucalypt woodland on shallow skeletal soils or low rocky outcrops and is a relatively common plant in its habitat.
41959		population	eng	Relatively common, but only found in two subpopulations
41959		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
41960		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41960		distribution	eng	This species is known only from sub-coastal forests near the northeastern tip of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia. Populations are found near Temple Bay and to the north and south of the Olive River estuary.
41960		habitat	eng	Populations of <em>C. silvestris</em> occur on white siliceous sands from old beach-dunes, and this cycad appears to be endemic to that substrate. Grows in dry woodland.
41960		population	eng	The species is locally common with between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals.
41960		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
41961		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41961		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern part of Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to a small area near Texas in the Darling Downs strict. Recorded to occur between 400 and 600 m asl.
41961		habitat	eng	<em>M. cranei</em> grows on steep slopes and ridges in shallow skeletal soil on limestone in dry sclerophyll scrub or eucalypt woodlands.
41961		population	eng	This species is found in seven subpopulations with a projected minimum number of 2,139 adult plants.
41961		threats	eng	This species is threatened by land clearing for agricultural development.
41962		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41962		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two small disjunct areas in the vicinity of Eidsvold and Mundubbera in Queensland, Australia. Found at 340 to 420 m asl.
41962		habitat	eng	This species grows among granite boulders on rugged slopes with open eucalypt forest which has a sparse under-storey.
41962		population	eng	This species is locally common, with strong seedling recruitment. There are at least ten subpopulations.
41962		threats	eng	All plants are on private land and occur within two restricted areas. The reasons for the decline are not known.
41963		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Goonoowigal State Conservation Area.
41963		distribution	eng	This is a rare species with a restricted natural distribution, being only known from the vicinity of Inverell in northern New South Wales, Australia. Recorded to occur at an elevation of 600 m asl.
41963		habitat	eng	This species grows on low rises and gentle slopes near large granite boulders in stunted eucalypt woodland.
41963		population	eng	This species is known to occupy an area of occupancy of less than five square kilometres and that the population size is fairly small with about 1,000 to 2,500 mature individuals.
41963		threats	eng	This species occurs within a restricted range and thus would be vulnerable to any threats (none are known at present).
41964		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Burrum Coast National Park.
41964		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the vicinity of Childers and Bundaberg, in central eastern Queensland, Australia.
41964		habitat	eng	This species grows among grass in grey, silty loam on flat sites under tall open forest.
41964		population	eng	This species occurs in a minimum area of occupancy of  approximately ten hectares, which includes 22 subpopulations consisting of about 28,000 adult plants.
41964		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction due to expansion of agricultural activities. This has led to habitat decline that is estimated at 50-80% over the past 50 years. Over-collection of plants for horticultural purposes has also had an effect on the populations.
41965		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Most of the plants are protected in the Sundown National Park.
41965		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Queensland, Australia,  where it is known from only three subpopulations in Sundown National Park and nearby. Recorded from 800 up to 1,000 m asl.
41965		habitat	eng	This species grows in open eucalypt forest in sandy soil derived from acid-intermediate volcanics of greywacke and mudstone.
41965		population	eng	This species is known from only two to three subpopulations, comprising in total between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals.
41965		threats	eng	Poaching of plants has occurred.
41966		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.  Plants occur in the Mount Walsh National Park and in State Forests.
41966		distribution	eng	This species occurs in scattered stands near Biggenden and Seaview Range in the Wild Bay district of Queensland, Australia. Recorded from elevations between 60 and 220 m.
41966		habitat	eng	<em>M. parcifolia</em> is an uncommon species occurring in scattered stands on shallow clay-loams derived from basalt. They occur in the under-storey on ridges and in tall open forest dominated by eucalypts.
41966		population	eng	This species is known from only two locations and has a small population of between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals.
41966		threats	eng	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. parcifolia</span> are loss and damage through forestry operations; inappropriate fire regimes, which kill surface seed and young seedlings; failure of the insect pollination mutualism; and vulnerability to poaching (Hill and Osborne 2001). Regeneration of the species is limited as plants are slow-growing, seed is set intermittently, plants produce low amounts of seed, and seed have limited dispersal (Jones 2002).
41967		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Nangar National Park.
41967		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia where it is found on the central western slopes to the lower elevations of the Central Tablelands, stretching from Gilgandra to Grenfell and further east to the main divide from Mudgee and Capertee.
41967		habitat	eng	Plants occur in low, open, dry sclerophyll woodlands on well drained sites, often on stoney rises.
41967		population	eng	The population size of <em>M. secunda</em> is in excess of 10,000 plants with subpopulations found at probably less than 10 locations.
41968		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are known from only a few stands, some of which are conserved in Girraween National Park.
41968		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Wyberba and Girraween area in the south of the Darling Downs district of Queensland, Australia.
41968		habitat	eng	Plants grow on sandy soils over granite in moderately wet eucalypt woodlands.
41968		population	eng	This species is restricted in its distribution and is known from only two populations at one locality. They are highly localized and probably rare.
41969		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41969		distribution	eng	<em>C. arenicola</em> occurs on sandy soils on screes derived from siliceous sandstone in rugged and broken country of the upper reaches of the East Alligator and Liverpool Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia.
41969		habitat	eng	Grows in Eucalyptus woodlands on soils derived from siliceous sandstone, on screes in rugged country.
41969		population	eng	This species occurs in an exremely remote area and has rarely been collected, and is likely to be more widely distributed in that area.
41970		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41970		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme northern Queensland, Australia, where it is restricted to Badu and Moa Islands in the Torres Strait.
41970		habitat	eng	Plants occur in tropical grassland under <em>Eucalyptus</em> on sandy soils.
41970		population	eng	The species is locally common. Although there are no accurate estimates of population size, it is estimated to consist of more than 10,000 plants. At present, populations appear to be stable with no evidence of decline
41970		threats	eng	Threats are unknown, but are likely to be human activities.
41971		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some plants occur within the boundaries of the Lawn Hill National Park.
41971		distribution	eng	<em>C. brunnea</em> occurs in Queensland and Northern Territory, Australia. Populations are found near the headwaters of Lawn Hill Creek, near Burketown and near Wollogorang.
41971		habitat	eng	This species grows in exposed situations along open creek valleys or in wooded savanna. Plants are found in sandy soil derived from limestone or decomposed sandstone.
41971		population	eng	Populations of <em>C. brunnea</em> are large and stable.
41971		threats	eng	Removal from the wild by collectors is the main threat.
41972		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41972		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Newcastle Range to the northeast of Einasleigh in northeastern Queensland, Australia. Occurs at 450-500 m.
41972		habitat	eng	<em>C. cairnsiana</em> grows in thin, gravelly soil on low hills among large granite boulders, with plants occurring in exposed situations among grass and sparse low shrubs.
41972		population	eng	This species is known from two subpopulations, which appears to be stable at present.
41972		threats	eng	This species may be subject to over-collecting due to the demand for cycads with blue green foliage.
41973		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41973		distribution	eng	This species is known from several populations in the southern Gregory Range of Queensland. Populations occur to the north of Hughenden. Occurs as high as 700 m asl.
41973		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open grassy woodlands on red sandy loams derived from basalt or dolerite, on flat to steeply sloping country. In some areas <em>C. couttsiana</em> is the dominant plant.
41973		population	eng	The population is estimated to number between 8,000 and 10,000 mature individuals.
41973		threats	eng	Populations seem quite secure with little evidence of decline.
41974		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41974		distribution	eng	This species is found in the region between Marlborough and Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia. Substantial intergradation occurs with <em>C. media</em> and <em>C. megacarpa</em> respectively north and south of this region, and plants from throughout the range may show characters of these taxa. Occurs at 150 to 230 m asl.
41974		habitat	eng	Grows on hills and slopes in sparse, grassy open forest. This species reaches its best development on red clays over serpentines.
41974		population	eng	There are 16 subpopulations of <em>C. ophiolitica</em> in the wild with an estimated 364,988 mature plants.
41974		threats	eng	Many smaller subpopulations are poorly conserved, including the northern ‘bluish'  forms which are under significant risk from illegal collecting. Many populations of <em>C. ophiolitica</em> have been cleared on cattle ranches.
41975		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41975		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Bamaga district in far northern Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia.
41975		habitat	eng	The known habitat of <em>C. semota</em> is grassy understorey of eucalypt forest with <em>Corymbia novoguinensis</em>, <em>C. tessellaris</em> and <em>Erythrophleum chlorostachys</em>. This forest is relatively moist, and often forms a mosaic with mesophyllous forest, on shallow sandy soils over massive laterite.
41975		population	eng	This species is locally abundant but very localized. All known plants are from a single subpopulation.
41975		threats	eng	Collection could be a future threat.
41976		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41976		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia, where it is restricted to a single locality near Coen on Cape York Peninsula.
41976		habitat	eng	<em>C. tuckeri</em> grows among granite boulders on slopes covered with grassy eucalypt woodland in well-drained gravelly soils.
41976		population	eng	The population numbers 2,500 to 10,000 mature individuals.
41976		threats	eng	<em>C. tuckeri</em> is threatened as a result of habitat destruction due to fire.
41977		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Cape Melville National Park.
41977		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia, where it is restricted to the northern parts of Cape York Peninsula, north of the Wenlock River. A small disjunct subpopulation of somewhat more robust plants occurs on quartzite hills near Cape Melville.
41977		habitat	eng	<em>C. yorkiana</em> usually occurs as an understorey plant in open <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em> - <em>E. tetrodonta</em> forest on flat country, on sandy soils over laterite. The Cape Melville population is on stony quartzite hills.
41977		population	eng	A locally abundant species.
41977		threats	eng	<em>C. yorkiana</em> is threatened due to habitat destruction resulting from frequent fires.
41978		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41978		distribution	eng	This species is found in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are found in an area roughly between Inverell and Tenterfield.
41978		habitat	eng	Plants are found scattered in dry sclerophyll woodland on sandy soils over granite.
41978		population	eng	This species is known from five subpopulations.
41979		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It also occurs in the protected areas of the Byfield State Forest and the Byfield National Park within it's distribution range.
41979		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central eastern part of the State of Queensland, Australia. It is found in the vicinity of Byfield, northeast of Rockhampton. Occurs from 30 to 150 m asl.
41979		habitat	eng	Scattered and locally abundant in dry sclerophyll eucalypt forest. Also found in dense, wet, coastal sclerophyll forest only slightly above sea level.
41979		population	eng	The population size of this species is considered to be more than 10,000 plants.
41979		threats	eng	There has been an estimated reduction in habitat of between 10% and 20% over the past 30 years.
41980		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. In Queensland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bowenia spectabilis</span> is protected under Nature Conservation legislation where it is listed as common. The species is generally well represented in national parks and the Wet Tropics World Heritage area.
41980		distribution	eng	This species is found scattered in open situations in and around rainforests in northeastern Queensland, Australia. It also occurs in the coastal and near-coastal areas, ranging from Cardwell to Cooktown, with an outlying occurrence in the McIlraith Range and near Starcke on the Cape York Peninsula. Recorded from sea level up to 750 m.
41980		habitat	eng	This species favours a wet/dry seasonal climate. The species does not occur above 800 m and appears to be limited by a mean minimum temperature rather than other climatic or environmental conditions. Plants grow in rainforest and in adjoining tall wet eucalypt forest ecotones.
41980		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be in excess of 10,000 plants. At present the the population trend is considered to be stable.
41980		threats	eng	The habitat reduction for this species has been estimated at between 10% and 20%.
41981		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41981		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia. It is a distinctive, localized species, known from the lower reaches of the Wearyan, Foelsche and Robinson Rivers near Borroloola, and from the Bountiful Island group further east in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Occurs from sea level to 30 m.
41981		habitat	eng	Populations occur in open grassy woodland or grassland on flat country and on sandy alluvium and deep sands, usually near streams. The cycads are the dominant component of the vegetation in this area.
41981		population	eng	This species ocurs in large populations and the total population size is estimated to exceed 50,000 plants in the wild.
41981		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
41986		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed as Vulnerable D2 under the regional assessment in China (Wang and Xie 2004).  Due to its highly restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, it is recommended that efforts be made to conserve remaining habitat for this species.  Additionally, research efforts should be made to remedy the lack of data regarding biology, ecology, current habitat and population statuses.
41986		distribution	eng	<em>O. argentata</em> is endemic to Ningxia province in China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies a highly restricted geographic range within the Helan Shan range of Ningxia, China (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It occurs along a mountain top ridge, with a total area three sq. km (Smith and Xie 2008).
41986		habitat	eng	<em>O. argentata</em> is restricted to rocky outcrops in a small forest located on a ridge of the Helan Shan mountain range (Formozov <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It is a rock-dwelling species that will also occupy mine shaft entrances (up to 20&#160;m deep) (Smith and Xie 2008).  It constructs haypiles out of available vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length of this species is 20.8-23.5&#160;cm (Smith and Xie 2008).
41986		population	eng	There are no known data on current population status of <em>O. argentata</em>; however, it is inferred that deforestation is likely to cause declines as a result of habitat loss.
41986		threats	eng	Deforestation within the range of <em>O. argentata</em> has resulted in loss of habitat (Formozov <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Logging is suspected to be ongoing with in the mountain range.  Ochotonids are sensitive to thermal changes within their habitat and rock-dwelling pikas can be likened to insular populations that are unable to disperse to more suitable habitat, because connecting terrain cannot be easily traversed due to intolerable ambient temperatures.  It is therefore inferred, that future climate change will negatively impact the survival of <em>O. argentata</em>.
41987		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>C. armstrongii</em> is found in multiple land tenures including private, government and leasehold. It is found in the following parks and reserves: Berry Springs Nature Park, Black Jungle Conservation Area, Blackmore River Conservation Reserve, Casuarina Coastal Reserve, Djukbinj National Park, Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, Holmes Jungle Nature Park, Howard Springs Hunting Reserve, Howard Springs Nature Park, Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park and Manton Dam Recreation Area.
41987		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Northern Territory, Australia. It extends from the Adelaide River west to the Finniss River and south to the township of Adelaide River, with sporadic occurrences farther south almost to Hayes Creek and Emerald Springs, and in a limited area on Melville Island.
41987		habitat	eng	<em>C. armstrongii</em> is an abundant species, in dense and extensive populations on sand over tertiary laterites in <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>/<em>E. tetrodonta</em> forests around Darwin. Plants are found under open tropical deciduous woodlands, rarely in rocky situations.
41987		population	eng	This species occurs in large populations comprising more than 100,000 plants in total.
41987		threats	eng	Land clearing and inappropriate fire regimes are the main threats. Increased fire intensity, particularly arising from increased fuel load due to invasion of exotic grasses, is expected to result in higher mortality. It is estimated that the rate of clearing and loss due to fires will result in a loss of at least 30% over three generations.
41988		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices, it also occurs in protected areas.
41988		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in the northern Kimberley region of Western Australia, Australia. Populations occur from offshore islands west of Port Warrender to around Kalumburu at 230 to 260 m.
41988		habitat	eng	<em>C. basaltica</em> grows in sparse woodland and among grass and boulders on low, rocky hills. All known occurrences are on skeletal red or grey clays on stony basalt slopes.
41988		population	eng	The overall population size is unknown but known populations are extensive and there is adequate regeneration.
41988		threats	eng	The main threat appears to be collectors.
41989		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Large numbers of <em>C. calcicola</em> are found in Litchfield National Park and a smaller population is at Kintore Caves Nature Park near Katherine.
41989		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern part of the Northern Territory of Australia. Plants are abundant around the Daly River basin and north along the Finniss Range, from Katherine in the southeast to the north of Litchfield Park and near the Daly River Police station, with a somewhat disjunct population in the Spirit Hills on Bullo River station near the Western Australian border. Occurs at low elevations from 123 to 155 m asl.
41989		habitat	eng	<em>C. calcicola</em> grows in sparse, stunted woodland either on or close to limestone. Although originally described from limestone and named accordingly, this species occurs on various often non-calcareous substrates such as sandstones, sandy alluvium and aluminous schists.
41989		population	eng	The populations around Katherine are in poor condition due to fire and past uncontrolled collection. However, the larger populations in the Daly River and Litchfield areas appear to be in good condition, though fire effects need to be monitored. Population estimates are: >7,000 for the Daly River; >5,000 for Litchfield Park; >1,500 for Katherine; and >5,000 individuals for Bullo River and Spirit Hills (Parks and Wildlife Commission unpublished data 1994, 1995 and 1996).
41989		threats	eng	There has been some collecting of specimens from the wild and altered fire frequencies and intensity due to invasive grasses which may impact this species.
41990		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Has been recorded from protected areas.
41990		distribution	eng	<em>C. furfuracea</em> is a  sporadic species in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Subpopulations are known mainly from elevated parts of the King Leopold Range, with another occurrence on Kimbolton and on islands to the north of there, such as Heywood Island. Occurs at 250 to 300 m.
41990		habitat	eng	<em>C. furfuracea</em> is usually found on skeletal sandy soils on hard siliceous metasandstone, on steep slopes. The occurrences at Kimbolton are unusual in being both on similar substrates to the above, and also on red clay on rocky basalt outcrops. Occurs in dry woodlands.
41990		population	eng	The population is relatively large and stable.
41990		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
41991		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41991		distribution	eng	This species is known from several scattered populations in the northwest of the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Plants are found northeast of Mount Hann and near the source of the Moran River. Further, they are also found on the Mitchells Plateau and on Mount Elizabeth Station. Recorded from 300 to 370 m asl.
41991		habitat	eng	This species occurs mostly on sandy soils in savanna forest with <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>, <em>E. tetrodonta</em> or <em>Corymbia latifolia</em>. Intergradational populations with <em>Cycas basaltica</em> are known.
41991		population	eng	The population is relatively large and stable.
41991		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
41992		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Almost all populations are on aboriginal land, and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed. The inhibition of reproduction by too-frequent fire is one such issue.
41992		distribution	eng	<em>C. orientis</em> is widespread in eastern Arnhem Land to Lake Evella,  Northern Territory, Australia.
41992		habitat	eng	This species is locally abundant on deep white to yellow sands over laterites, mainly in <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta</em> - <em>E. miniata</em> dominated savanna forests, but occurring in most non-swampy habitats.
41992		population	eng	A relatively abundant and stable species.
41992		threats	eng	Increasing fire frequency may be a problem, but this is not considered a major threat at present.
41993		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41993		distribution	eng	A widespread but sporadic species in the eastern and southern Kimberley region of Western Australia. Found near Kununurra, Ord River, Bedford Downs and on the Napier Range. Also occurs in the Spirit Hills on Bullo River station in the Northern Territory, Australia.
41993		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry woodlands on mainly skeletal sandy soils on siliceous substrates, from meta-sandstones to granites.
41993		population	eng	A locally abundant species.
41993		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
41994		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
41994		distribution	eng	<em>C. xipholepis</em> is a widespread species in central Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia. Subpopulations are found from south of Coen to Batavia Downs and west to Merapah.
41994		habitat	eng	This species occurs on flat sites on deep white to yellow sands over laterites or sometimes on low, stony laterite hills, mainly in savanna forests dominated by <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta.</em>
41994		population	eng	<em>C. xipholepis</em> is a locally abundant species.
41995		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in National Parks and are found in Australia's Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area.
41995		distribution	eng	This species is found northeastern Queensland, Australia. From Rockingham Bay in the south to the Bloomfield River in the north. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m.
41995		habitat	eng	The plants are found to be scattered in rugged country, often in or near rainforest and sometimes in wet eucalypt forest. Plants are found on level sites near streams and also on steep drier slopes. The climate is distinctly tropical.
41995		population	eng	The estimated population size is more than 10,000 plants in the wild and the decline in the populations at present, is considered to be stable.
41995		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
41996		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Tamborine National Park.
41996		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales, Australia. The distribution ranges from Gympie to the north of Brisbane and in a southerly direction to the Manning River near Forster. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m.
41996		habitat	eng	The plants are found scattered in small colonies in wet sclerophyll forests or on rainforest margins, usually in steep country.
41996		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be more than 20,000 plants in the wild and the present decline is rated as being low.
41996		threats	eng	There is some loss of habitat.
41997		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.  All known plants occur within the Mount Walsh National Park.
41997		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Queensland, Australia where they occur in the Mount Walsh National Park. Recorded between 500 and 640 m asl.
41997		habitat	eng	Plants form extensive colonies on precipitous slopes in open forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus acmenoides</em> and <em>E. major</em>.
41997		population	eng	This species is known from two subpopulations, forming one large metapopulation, with overall numbers less than 50,000.
41997		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
41998		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Wingen Maid Nature Reserve and in the Towarri National Park. There are also occurrences in several State Forests.
41998		distribution	eng	This species is widespread but sporadic, occurring through the New South Wales upper Hunter Valley and extending north to the hills around the Liverpool Plains of Australia. The type locality is in the valley below the Hanging Rock lookout, about 6km from Nundle. Other subpopulations are known from the Bushy Hill range, east of Scone; at Omaleah Cliffs in the Warunga Flora Reserve; on a farm south of Blackwell and on Mount Terrible near Currabubula. Recorded from 800 up to 1,100 m asl.
41998		habitat	eng	This species forms colonies on ridges, slopes and escarpments in short to tall forest with sparse to relatively dense under-storey. Plants are usually found on steeply sloping terrain in dry sclerophyll woodland on gravelly to stony loam substrates.
41998		population	eng	The species is locally abundant.
41998		threats	eng	The sclerophyll forests are subject to occasional fires.
41999		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Warrumbungle National Park, the Weetalibah Nature Reserve and the Binnaway Nature Reserve.
41999		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are from the eastern Warrumbungle Mountains east to the Mooki River. Recorded at about 500 m asl.
41999		habitat	eng	Plants grow in dry sclerophyll forest (dominated by eucalypts) on infertile siliceous soils.
41999		population	eng	An abundant species.
41999		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
42000		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Some subpopulations occur in National Parks, State Forests or on vacant Crown Land.
42000		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern New South Wales, Australia from just south of Taree on the north coast, continuing in a southerly direction to Bega on the south coast. Occurs from near sea level up to 300 m.
42000		habitat	eng	Plants are locally abundant in wet to dry sclerophyll forests, mostly on old beach sands but also on shallow sandy or stony soils on ridges. Strictly near-coastal in the north of the range but extending to the foothills of coastal ranges in the south.
42000		population	eng	This species occurs in numerous subpopulations along the east coast of New South Wales. Several of these subpopulations comprise thousands of plants.
42000		threats	eng	Urban and rural land development has had an affect on certain subpopulations.
42001		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Great Sandy National Park.
42001		distribution	eng	This species is found on Fraser Island and adjacent coastal districts near Cooloola, north of Noosa in eastern Queensland, Australia. Occurs at low elevations from near sea level up to 150 m.
42001		habitat	eng	This species grows in tall open forests on old coastal dunes, along streams and on the fringes of rainforest.
42001		population	eng	Although it has a restricted range, the species is abundant.
42001		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42002		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Cape Le Grand National Park.
42002		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the southern part of Western Australia, where it is found from Munglinup River east to Israelite Bay.
42002		habitat	eng	This species grows in sparse woodland, low scrub and in heathland. It occurs on soil ranging from infertile sandy clays to deep sands and laterites.
42002		population	eng	Considered to be abundant throughout its range. The population size is conservatively estimated to number be between 10,000 and 20,000 mature individuals.
42002		threats	eng	Frequent annual fires may pose a threat.
42003		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of this species occur in the Yuraygir National Park and in the Burnt Down Scrub Nature Reserve.
42003		distribution	eng	This species occurs  in New South Wales, Australia. Subpopulations are found along the far North Coast and coastal ranges, from the Richmond River to Coffs Harbour, which includes subpopulations in the vicinity of Grafton and Casino district and the upper reaches of the Richmond river. Recorded at elevations ranging from 5 to 550 m asl.
42003		habitat	eng	This species grows on sheltered slopes and gullies in dry sclerophyll forest and in flat areas close to streams in wet sclerophyll forest.
42003		population	eng	This species is recorded from at least nine localities (based on specimens in the BRI - Queensland Herbarium). Appears to be reasonably abundant.
42003		threats	eng	This species has been affected by over-collecting of plants for cultivation and ornamental purposes.
42004		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42004		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Expedition Range and other ranges north of Injune and Taroom in central-western Queensland, Australia. Recorded from 300 to 600 m asl.
42004		habitat	eng	This species grows in tall open forest, either in gullies close to ephemeral  streams or on rocky slopes and escarpments.
42004		population	eng	The population is estimated to number between 10,000 and 20,000 mature individuals.
42004		threats	eng	Declining in places due to habitat destruction.
42005		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42005		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Western Australia between Fremantle and Eneabba.
42005		habitat	eng	Plants grow in sparse shrubby woodland and low scrub in sand.
42005		population	eng	This species is locally abundant but somewhat sporadic in its distribution.
42005		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42006		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42006		distribution	eng	This species occur in the  northern areas of the Pilliga Scrub to the south of Narrabri, towards Gunnedah in northern New South Wales, Australia.
42006		habitat	eng	This species grows in stunted eucalypt and native pine forest which has a well-developed shrub layer. Plants are also found in dry sclerophyll woodlands on deep sandy soils.
42006		population	eng	Locally fairly common and stable.
42006		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
42007		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42007		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the drier areas of northern and northwestern New South Wales, Australia, particularly in and around  the Warrumbungle Ranges. Recorded to occur at about 200 m asl.
42007		habitat	eng	This species grows in a range of situations, including protected gullies close to ephemeral streams, among rocks on slopes in shallow gravelly soils and in flat areas of open forest dominated by eucalypts (dry sclerophyll forest).
42007		population	eng	Locally abundant and stable.
42007		threats	eng	This species has been affected by over-collecting for the ornamental trade.
42008		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of  CITES. Up to 59% of the area where <em>M. johnsonii </em>occurs falls within state forest where timber harvest (the main threat) is not allowed.
42008		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the vicinity of Dalmorton on the ranges inland from Grafton on the north coast of New South Wales, Australia. According to Binns and Meek (2008), the minimum convex polygon enclosing all records (extent of occurrence) covers 22,200 ha. On the basis of the number of plots occupied within this area, the area of occupancy is estimated to be 10,100 ha (Bins and Meek 2008).
42008		habitat	eng	The area in which <em>M. johnsonii</em> occurs comprises an intergrading mosaic of grassy open eucalypt forest and shrubby wet sclerophyll forest, with patches of rainforest in the most sheltered sites (Binns and Meek 2008). Common canopy dominants include <em>Corymbia variegata, Eucalyptus microcorys, Eucalyptus biturbinata, Eucalyptus carnea, Eucalyptus siderophloia</em> and <em>Lophostemon confertus</em>.<br/><br/>Based on a GLM model, Binns and Meek (2008) concluded that the factors that most strongly influenced the occurrence of <em>M. johnsonii</em> were moisture index and slope. Plants are much more likely to be found on sites with high moisture index and steep slopes.
42008		population	eng	Bins and Meek (2008) sampled plots throughout the range of <em>M. johnsonii.</em> Based on these data, the population was estimated to be ca. 3.5 million mature plants.
42008		threats	eng	The only real threat at present appears to be timber harvesting. However, the timber harvesting only affects a small proportion of the area in which <em>M. johnsonii</em> occurs.
42009		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Wrattens State Forest.
42009		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Queensland, Australia. Populations are restricted to the vicinity of Widgee, which lies to the west of Gympie. Recorded at elevations ranging from 200 to 700 m asl.
42009		habitat	eng	This species grows on slopes and ridges in tall moist eucalypt forest in shallow skeletal soils derived from serpentinite.
42009		population	eng	There are three known subpopulations with numbers probably not greater than 10,000 mature adult plants.
42009		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
42010		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Pottsville Nature Reserve.
42010		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Queensland, Australia, where it is found from around Brisbane north to Nambour. Old records from New South Wales are now known to represent juvenile plants of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. johnsonii,</span> although a single recent collection from the Border Ranges extends the range into far northern New South Wales. Recorded at elevations ranging from 30 up to 600 m asl.
42010		habitat	eng	Populations are found growing in coastal and near-coastal mountain ranges, and in Queensland it extends to some mountain ranges well inland from the coast. Plants are found scattered and sporadic in coastal wet sclerophyll forest.
42010		population	eng	This species is found in more than 30 subpopulations and there are many plants.
42010		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
42011		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Alice Springs Telegraph Station Historic Reserve, Arltunga Historic Reserve, Finke Gorge National Park, Ruby Gap Nature Park, Watarrka National Park and the West MacDonnell National Park.
42011		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Northern Territory, Australia, where it is found on the MacDonnell Range and associated range systems (including the Krichauff, George Gill, and Harts ranges).
42011		habitat	eng	This species is found widely scattered on thin soils on rocky slopes, in <em>Triodia</em> grassland or open woodland. They usually occur in shaded gullies or sheltered gorges and also grow on hills of both metamorphic and sedimentary rock.
42011		population	eng	A locally abundant and stable species.
42011		threats	eng	There is concern about an apparent decline in the Black-Footed Rock-wallaby, <em>Petrogale lateralis</em>, populations (see http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/16751/0). If Rock-wallabies undergo a decline this may have an adverse effect on seed dispersal. Plants are also poached by collectors.
42012		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Subpopulations of this species occur in Byfield National Park.
42012		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Queensland, Australia. Subpopulations are found from Rockhampton to the surrounds of Brisbane. Recorded to occur from sea level up to 500 m.
42012		habitat	eng	<em>M. miquelii</em> grows on ridges and slopes in open forest, along the margins of streams and in and around the fringes of rainforest.
42012		population	eng	A locally abundant species.
42012		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42013		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42013		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern New South Wales, Australia where it is found in the Macleay and Manning catchment areas.
42013		habitat	eng	Plants are found growing on ridges and slopes covered with tall, moist forest.
42013		population	eng	A locally abundant species.
42013		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42014		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Springsure National Park and in the Carnarvon and Expedition National Parks.
42014		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Queensland, Australia, where it is found in the Carnarvon Range and the Emerald, Taroom, Springsure and Rolleston districts. Occurs from 300 to 500 m asl.
42014		habitat	eng	Plants grow on low hills in dry sclerophyll forests, woodland and also in the valleys and escarpments of rocky gorges in shallow skeletal soil.
42014		population	eng	This species is found in at least 18 subpopulations and there are many plants.
42014		threats	eng	Plants have been affected by loss of habitat which has led to many plants being destroyed. Some have been removed as part of salvage operations.
42015		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42015		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south central Queensland, Australia,  where it is distributed from the Mount Perry region west of Bundaberg and scattered colonies as far south as Biggenden and as far east as Aramara. Recorded to occur between 50 and 400 m asl.
42015		habitat	eng	This species grows on sheltered slopes, ridges and gullies under sparse, tall, dry sclerophyll forest.
42015		population	eng	<em>M. mountperriensis</em> is a very common plant across its range.
42015		threats	eng	Land clearance has resulted in the loss of habitat.
42016		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is well conserved in the Blackdown Tableland National Park.
42016		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Queensland, Australia, where it grows in the Blackdown Tableland and Expedition Range (Planet Downs) area.
42016		habitat	eng	This species is scattered and locally abundant in dry sclerophyll forest on flat plateau country on sandstone.
42016		population	eng	This species occurs in at least 12 populations with a projected population size of 611,315 adult plants.
42016		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat loss, with estimates for decline of 10-20% in the past 50 years. However, there appears to be no recruitment and pollination does not seem to be taking place. The future decline is therefore estimated to >30% over three generations.
42017		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42017		distribution	eng	This species is locally abundant around Coonabarabran and further towards Gunnedah,  and north to the southern Pilliga Scrub.
42017		habitat	eng	This species grows in dry sclerophyll woodlands on sandy soils over sandstone.
42018		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Werakata National Park.
42018		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are found from the western suburbs of Newcastle westwards almost to Mudgee and south to Glen Davis.
42018		habitat	eng	Plants are locally abundant in dry sclerophyll woodlands on sandy soils over sandstone on ridges.
42018		population	eng	This species is abundant in nature.
42019		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the D'Entrecasteaux National Park.
42019		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwestern part of Western Australia, Australia. Populations occur from Dwellingup to Albany and further west to the coast.
42019		habitat	eng	This species occurs as an understorey plant in jarrah forests and woodlands and also occurs in low heathy scrub.
42019		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
42020		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. A considerable portion of the population of this cycad occurs in the Mount Kaputar National Park.
42020		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are found from the northwestern slopes and western northern tablelands, in and around the Nandewar and Moonbi Ranges. Plants are also found on Mount Kaputar and on the Warrumbungle Range.
42020		habitat	eng	This species is scattered in dry sclerophyll woodland on stony soils.
42020		population	eng	This species is quite common in the wild.
42020		threats	eng	This species has been affected by over-collection from the natural habitat by collectors.
42023		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Small populations occur on Tjuwaliyn (Douglas) Hot Springs Park and Flora River Nature Park.
42023		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Northern Territory, Australia. Populations are found in near-coastal sites at Channel Point to the mouth of the Daly River and this is apparently disjunct from inland occurrences that extend from west of Dorisvale to around Douglas Daly reserve.
42023		habitat	eng	<em>C. canalis</em> grows on a variety of well-drained soil types, usually on lateritic soil profiles in open forest or woodland with <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>. Plants near the coast grow in <em>Eucalyptus </em>woodland.
42023		population	eng	The overall population size is estimated to be at least 20,000 individuals and these appear to be stable.
42023		threats	eng	Overall decline for <em>C. canalis</em> due to habitat destruction is estimated as being less than 10%, although large areas of the Channel Point population have been cleared for agriculture and there is a potential that additional areas will be cleared for agriculture and tourist development. Frequent fire appears to be a threat to reproduction in the Channel Point population. In the remaining subpopulations fire and land clearing are possible threats, with extensive clearing for agricultural proposed for the Daly Basin.
42024		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>C. maconochiei</em> subsp. <em>maconochiei</em> is found in parks and reserves in the Northern Territory.
42024		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the Northern Territory, Australia. Plants occur in the northwest of this state and are restricted to a small area between Fog Bay and Port Darwin, to the southwest of Darwin. Occurs from sea level up to 40 m.
42024		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sparse woodland usually dominated by<em> Eucalyptus miniata</em> and on a variety of well-drained soils. Also found in swampy areas and coastal dunes.
42024		population	eng	The size of the population is not known, but it is thought to be decreasing.
42024		threats	eng	The invasion of alien grasses into areas of native vegetation and an increase in fire intensity due to increases in fuel load is likely to have a negative impact on this species. With the expansion of rural development and agriculture, especially in the Darwin and Katherine regions, cycads such as <em>C. maconochiei</em> subsp. <em>maconochiei</em>, <em>C. armstrongii</em> and <em>C. canalis</em> subsp. <em>canalis</em> are especially vulnerable to clearing.
42025		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. All subpopulations are on aboriginal land, and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed. The inhibition of reproduction by too-frequent fire is one such issue.
42025		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around Fossil Head, Northern Territory, Australia.
42025		habitat	eng	This taxon usually occurs on sandy soils or on old beach sands.
42025		population	eng	Plants are scattered but locally abundant.
42025		threats	eng	Too frequent fires may be a possible threat.
42026		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Almost all subpopulations are on aboriginal land, and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed.
42026		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the Northern Territory, Australia. Plants occur from the northern Wingate Mountains and adjacent plains country to the north and west, extending to the coast north of Peppimenarti, and west almost to Port Keats.
42026		habitat	eng	This species is widespread and in parts extremely abundant, usually on sandy soils in savanna woodland.
42026		population	eng	Initial estimates suggest that the total population of this subspecies would number into the tens of millions.
42026		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this taxon.
42027		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Many of the populations are on aboriginal land and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed. Populations are found in parks and reserves in the Northern Territory.
42027		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the far northwestern parts of the Northern Territory of Australia. Occurs from sea level to 40 m.
42027		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on sandy soils in savanna woodland. Plants are also found in swampy areas and on coastal dunes.
42027		population	eng	Estimates for this species suggest that the total population would number in the tens of millions.
42027		threats	eng	The invasion of alien grasses and an increase in fire intensity due to increases in fuel load is likely to have a negative impact on this species in the future.
42028		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42028		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Northen Territory of Australia. Populations are found around the Goyder river in central to eastern Arnhem Land.
42028		habitat	eng	This species is abundant on deep white to yellow sands over laterites, in <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta</em> - <em>E. miniata</em> dominated savanna forests.
42028		population	eng	A locally abundant species with population size of at least 10,000 plants and there seems to be little or no decline.
42028		threats	eng	Annual grass fires kills seed and seedlings, but it is not yet seen as a threat.
42029		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42029		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory, Australia.
42029		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly on old, stabilized beach dunes in near-coastal sites.
42029		population	eng	Locally common.
42029		threats	eng	There are no threats to this taxon.
42030		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42030		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area in the Northern Territory of Australia. Populations are found along the north coast of Arnhem Land, apparently only on the lower Blyth River on the mainland, extending to Elcho Island.
42030		habitat	eng	Populations are found growing in tall forest with a grassy understorey. Along the coastal areas, they are found in deep sands.
42030		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant within its narrow range. Populations seem to be stable at present.
42030		threats	eng	This species may be affected by increased fire frequencies.
42031		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42031		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Northern Territory of Australia. Populations are found in central to eastern Arnhem land, along the north coast of Arnhem Land and on Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
42031		habitat	eng	This species occurs on deep sands in savanna forests, in tall forest with a grassy understorey and on old stabilized beach dunes.
42031		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
42031		threats	eng	Increasing annual grass fires may be a threat.
42032		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42032		distribution	eng	This species occurs from north of Cooktown to south of Cairns in Queensland, Australia.
42032		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in near-coastal sites, usually in tall eucalypt forests or among shrubs on slopes and ridges. Soils vary from sands and gravels to stony loams and well structured clay loams.
42032		population	eng	This is a reasonably abundant taxon.
42032		threats	eng	There has been some decline due to bush clearance on cattle stations.
42033		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42033		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the coastal plain, north of Silver Plains homestead, apparently extending as far north as Lockhart River in Queensland, Australia.
42033		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in tall eucalypt forest/rainforest ecotonal areas with <em>Livistona muelleri</em> on flat country and in deep alluvial sandy soil.
42033		population	eng	A locally abundant taxon.
42033		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this taxon.
42034		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42034		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs from around Cardwell and then southwards to around St Lawrence in Queensland, Australia. Recorded from sea level up to 860 m.
42034		habitat	eng	This subspecies is usually found in coastal eucalypt forests on sites that offer good soil drainage, often on sandy soils and on sloping sites.
42034		population	eng	A locally abundant taxon.
42034		threats	eng	The habitat of this subspecies has been affected due to clearing for pastures for cattle.
42035		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.&#160; The species is also recorded from protected areas in the region.
42035		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the coastal areas of northwestern Queensland, Australia. Occurs from sea level up to 860 m.
42035		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tall eucalypt forest or among shrubs. Soils vary from sands to gravels and loams.
42035		population	eng	An abundant and stable species.
42035		threats	eng	In some areas, clearing to make way for cattle pastures, has had a negative impact on the habitat.
42036		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <em>C. beddomei</em> occurs in the Sri Venkateswara National Park.
42036		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Tirupati-Kadapa Hills in Andhra Pradesh State, northwest of Madras in eastern Peninsular India. The hills are also known as the Seshachalam hills. Occurs from 300 to 900 m.<br/><br/>The entire area of distribution should probably be considered as a single locality since the blocks where the species occurs are contiguous and a single event such as a large fire, disease or pest outbreak could impact the entire population.
42036		habitat	eng	This is characteristically a species of dry, open hill slopes. It grows in an area with annual rainfall of 570-1,230 mm. Plants grow on skeletal soils, mainly in dry deciduous mixed type forest with patches of moist deciduous forest.
42036		population	eng	The population was originally regarded as having less than 1,000 mature individuals. However, detailed population studies across the entire range (from 2006-2008) indicate that the population is much larger than originally thought, with an estimated number of 20,000 - 30,000 mature individuals (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2009).
42036		threats	eng	This species is threatened by frequent grassfires that effectively block reproduction. The male cones are used in ayurvedic medicine, although the impact on populations is not known. The stems are also harvested for the extraction of the pith, which is used as treatment in the case of debility.  Land clearing may also have a negative effect on populations.
42037		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur within the Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park.
42037		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single locality on granite outcrops of the Khao Chamao mountain, northeast of Klaeng in Rayong, Thailand.
42037		habitat	eng	This species grows in full sun in crevices on bare rock (granite) slopes.
42037		population	eng	The population size of <em>C. chamaoensis</em> is not well known but is estimated to be in the range of 2,500 to 10,000 individuals.
42037		threats	eng	Local inhabitants treasure the plant for gardening purposes and large numbers have been removed from the wild.
42038		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. There are plans to establish a Debao Cycad Reserve. A cottage industry to save <em>Cycas debaoensis</em> in China has been started.
42038		distribution	eng	<em>C. debaoensis</em> is found near Fuping Village in Deabao County, near Dingye in Napo county and near Banshui in Baise City county in the Guangxi Province of China. In neighbouring Yunnan province, plants are found near Gula in the Funing county. Recorded from 300 to 1,300 m.
42038		habitat	eng	This species grows in secondary subtropical evergreen broad-leafed forest. Plants are found scattered on open slopes of limestone hills sparsely covered by shrubs and small trees. Almost all cycads grow in cracks or in thin soil near the edges of limestone and the red soil is derived from sandstone and limestone with a pH 5.0-6.5.
42038		population	eng	From a study done in 2005, the total population surveyed comprised 1,125 plants in the wild.
42038		threats	eng	Human disturbance within the habitat of<em> C. debaoensis</em> is evident. The population near Fuping Village is seriously depleted due to commercial harvesting. From 1997 to 2002, about 1,000 plants, mostly female trees, were harvested. At the Gula population, about 200 mature cycads were found in the gardens of two villagers. These plants had trunks of  more than 15 cm in diameter and had been harvested from the neighbouring wild population. Near the Dingye subpopulation, some slopes have been planted with maize, which has a strong impact on the cycad population.
42039		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is urgently in  need of both close study to evaluate its status, and  protective measures to save it from extinction.
42039		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Phu Tho province in the north of Viet Nam. Occurs at 200 m asl.
42039		habitat	eng	This species originally grew in closed evergreen forests on low hills of orange-brown alluvial loam. Almost all of this forest on this substrate has been cleared for tea, eucalypt, and <em>Acacia</em> plantations.
42039		population	eng	This species is apparently a very rare and restricted species and is known only from a severely threatened habitat. It is not known if any plants are still extant in the wild.
42039		threats	eng	Almost all of the forest habitat on this particular substrate has been cleared for tea, eucalypt and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>plantations. The species has also been impacted by urban expansion.
42040		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some of the remianing plants are protected in the Honghe Nature Cycad Reserve.
42040		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few populations in the Hong He river valley in Gejiu and Shiping  counties of the Yunnan  province, China. Occurs at 400-600 m.
42040		habitat	eng	Plants are found in low open vine thickets, often with succulent <em>Euphorbia</em> species, and most often rooted in clefts and crevices, often with little or no soil at the roots. This species is apparently endemic to these seasonally dry limestone outcrops. In general it is dry and hot in sunny forests with sparse trees on sharp limestone slopes.
42040		population	eng	The population is very small, possibly less than 100 plants and declining.
42040		threats	eng	Known populations have been very heavily cut for sale as ornamentals, killing many plants and blocking reproduction in survivors.
42041		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the Ruiyunshan Nature Reserve in Fujian.
42041		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Guangdong and eastern Fujian provinces, China.
42041		habitat	eng	This species  grows in moist closed forest or woodlands.
42041		population	eng	Detailed population data for this species is not available.
42041		threats	eng	The habitat is severely degraded in some areas and there is also exploitation for the ornamental trade
42042		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42042		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south central Thailand, occurring to the north east of Khong Khi Sua in Sariburi Province. Occurs at an elevation of 400 m.
42042		habitat	eng	This species grows on limestone outcrops growing in full sun or partial shade in crevices on bare rock. The limestone outcrops are covered with sparse, seasonally deciduous forest.
42042		population	eng	Plants are locally abundant (2,500 to 10,000 mature individuals) but very restricted in their distribution.
42042		threats	eng	This species is apparently quite restricted in occurrence and under severe pressure from plant collectors and limestone mining operations.
42043		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42043		distribution	eng	This species known from a single site on the southern slopes of the mountain range at Hai Van pass, Phu Loc area, Thua Thien-Hue province, Viet Nam.
42043		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dense bamboo, shrub and grass regrowth after forest clearing.  It is locally frequent on loamy soils over granite on steep slopes, but the extent of the occurrence is unknown.
42043		population	eng	The population is thought to number less than 2,500 mature individuals but the population trend is not known.
42043		threats	eng	Forests in the vicinity were severely affected by herbicide spraying during the north-south war in the early 1970s.
42045		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Bawangling Nature Reserve.
42045		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area near Bawanling, Changjiang County, Western Hainan Island, China. Occurs at 600 to 800 m.
42045		habitat	eng	This species grows on hills and rocky slopes and on deeper sandy soils among grass and low shrubs, or in open broad-leaved forests, with tropical climate of hot, wet summers and hot, dry winters.
42045		population	eng	It is estimated that approximately 2,000 plants exist in the wild in a few subpopulations. The natural habitat is not good agricultural land.
42045		threats	eng	Some subpopulations of <em>C. changjiangensis</em> are severely degraded and numbers have dwindled. Populations have been affected by habitat destruction that is due mainly to construction. Plants are also still being removed from the wild.
42046		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in some forest reserves and in the Tongguling National Nature Reserve, Wenchang county.
42046		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the wetter eastern parts of Hainan Island. Occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m.
42046		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical jungles and thickets with sparse trees. Plants grow on limestone and volcanic substrate in rainforest. The island is struck by typhoons virtually every year.
42046		population	eng	Wild populations are now very restricted, and this species survives mainly in cultivation.
42046		threats	eng	Several populations are threatened or have been destroyed by agricultural development and road construction. Logging could also be a threat.
42047		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Cuc Phuong National Park in Ninh Binh province, the Chua Huong Tich Nature Reserve in Ha Tay province and the Thuong Tien Nature Reserve in Hoa Binh province.
42047		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Hoa Binh, Ha Nam, Ha Tay and Ninh Binh provinces of northern Viet Nam, approximately 50-80 km south of the city of Hanoi. It occurs at 50 to 150 m asl.
42047		habitat	eng	Plants are found in sheltered sites on steep limestone outcrops under closed evergreen forest canopies. Some specimens are found in clefts and crevices in bare rock with little or no soil.
42047		population	eng	Plants are locally abundant.
42047		threats	eng	Over-collection of plants from the wild has placed this plant at risk. It is a small species that is very popular as a 'bonsai' plant and a large number of plants are being removed from the wild.
42048		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>C. multipinnata</em> is protected in the Honghe Nature Cycad Reserve and in the Xilong Mountain Natural Reserve in Yunnan province, China. If conservation measures are not taken immediately, the species will most likely become Critically Endangered.
42048		distribution	eng	This species is known from several quite widely disjunct locations. Subpopulations are found in a limited area in the Red River gorge in eastern Yunnan, with a disjunct occurrence in Yen Bai Province, northern Viet Nam and another in western Guangxi in China. Recorded from 200 to 1.300 m asl.
42048		habitat	eng	This species grows in closed evergreen forest (semi-shaded monsoon forests) on limestone on very steep slopes.
42048		population	eng	The known subpopulations are small and the species is regarded as rare. Overall population size has been estimated as between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals.
42048		threats	eng	Much of the forest habitat of <em>C. multipinnata</em> has been cleared or severely degraded. Over-collection by commercial dealers has also had a negative impact on wild populations.
42049		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42049		distribution	eng	This species is widespread but sporadic, in the northwestern region of Guangdong and eastern region of Guangxi provinces of China.  Subpopulations are also found in the southwestern region of the Hunan and southeastern region of the Yunnan provinces. Despite its name, this species is not known to occur in Taiwan. Has been recorded from 400 up to 1,100 m asl.
42049		habitat	eng	Grows on steep slopes on shallow skeletal soils. Plants are found in sunny, grassy places or sparse, mixed forests, often disturbed places. The climate is warm to hot and humid all year.
42049		population	eng	The population size is estimated to number between 1,00 and 5,000 mature individuals.
42049		threats	eng	This species has been severely depleted by collection from the wild. Habitat destruction over the centuries has also had a major effect on the populations.
42050		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants most likely to occur in the Con Dao National Park.
42050		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Con Dao group of islands, east of the southern tip of Viet Nam.
42050		habitat	eng	This species occurs mostly in drier sites on sand accumulations, either beach dunes or wind-blown beach sand deposits. Habitat ranges from low open shrubland to dense tall shrubland or woodland.
42050		population	eng	Several subpopulations of <em>C. condaoensis</em> are known.
42050		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
42051		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42051		distribution	eng	<em>C. collina</em> occurs in mountainous regions mostly in Son La province (Mai Son area) in the north of Viet Nam. Across the border, populations are mainly found in the Sichuangbanna region of southern Yunnan province, China. This species would also be expected to occur in Lao PDR, although adjacent terrain in Lao PDR is generally of lower elevation. There is also a possibility that it may occur in Myanmar. Recorded from 400 to 900 m asl.
42051		habitat	eng	Occurs in evergreen or partly deciduous forests or woodlands or bamboo thickets on steep slopes of mountain ridges. Some plants occur in more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall closed evergreen forests. The substrate varies from red clay soils on limestone to loamy soils on meta-sediments.
42051		population	eng	Locally frequent, although not occurring in large or dense populations.
42051		threats	eng	Although its habitat is continually being reduced, many populations remain. Land clearing in its habitat for agricultural purposes has affected some populations. This species is not popular with collectors, but numbers are nevertheless still declining.
42052		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42052		distribution	eng	<em>C. diannanensis</em> is a widespread species through central and eastern Yunnan province of China. Plants are found along the Hong He valley between Hekou and Shuangbai. Recorded from 600 up to 1,800 m asl.
42052		habitat	eng	This species occurs on a range of substrates from limestone to shale and schist, usually on steep slopes high on ridges. The original vegetation was closed evergreen forest in the cloud zone, but today it is often severely degraded to grassland or scrubby secondary regrowth.
42052		population	eng	There is very little information on population numbers, but the population is thought to be less than 5,000 mature individuals and declining.
42052		threats	eng	This species is moderately abundant over a considerable area in central and eastern Yunnan province, but many populations are now depleted.
42053		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Ben En National Park, Vietnam.
42053		distribution	eng	This species is predominantly found in Viet Nam; its range extends from near the Chinese border in the north and northwest to Ben En National Park in Thanh Hoa Province in the south, it also extends north-westwards a very short way into eastern Yunnan Province, China.
42053		habitat	eng	<em>C. dolichophylla</em> occurs in more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall closed evergreen forests. Plants occur on loamy soils over limestone, shale, schist or granite, in closed evergreen forests, although today these are often reduced to scrubby regrowth.
42053		population	eng	This species is locally frequent across its distribution range. A subpopulation occurring west of the city of Moc Chau has narrow leaflets with slender bases, short to medium petioles and small seeds, and is interpreted as a zone of intergradation with <em>C. collina</em>, which is abundant in higher country to the west. Plants observed in cultivation around Vo Nhai and Yen Son districts, Thai Nguyen Province, were intermediate in form between <em>C. dolichophylla</em> and <em>C. ferruginea</em>, and have been interpreted as hybrid individuals. In this region, <em>C. ferruginea</em> is abundant on steep exposed limestone faces, and <em>C. dolichophylla</em> is abundant in adjacent closed forests on deep heavy soils. Plants observed in cultivation in villages west of Thai Nguyen and said to have been collected locally were morphologically intermediate between <em>C. dolichophylla</em> and <em>C. multifrondis</em>.
42053		threats	eng	There is no immediate threat of extinction, although some subpopulations have been severely depleted over past decades. Mostly the consensus is that there are still large populations with little threat.
42054		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42054		distribution	eng	Recorded from the coastal hills of southern Viet Nam, from Nha Trang north to Quang Ngai, Khanh Hoa, Phu Yen and Binh Dinh Provinces. Occurs at low elevations between 50 and 200 m.
42054		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forests to open shrublands on slopes, on dry gritty soil derived from coarse siliceous granite.
42054		population	eng	This species is locally common forming colonies. The four main subpopulations are found at: northern Ninh Thuan Province, west of Cam Ranh in Khan Hoa Province, Song Cau district of Phu Yen Province and in the area of the Cu Mong Pass on the boundary between the Phu Yen and Binh Dinh Provinces.
42054		threats	eng	Most of the woodland habitat has been cut for fuel and cleared for agriculture. The coastal areas have been targetted for future development. The species is also extremely popular in both Viet Nam and China and large numbers of plants are being removed from the wild.
42055		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Nam Cat Thien National Park.
42055		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed on the near-coastal ranges in central and southern Viet Nam, from near Da Nang, to Khanh Hoa province and south to Nam Cat Tien National Park.
42055		habitat	eng	Locally common in closed evergreen or semideciduous forests on flat or elevated sites on granite, metamorphic or basaltic volcanic substrates. <em>C. inermis</em> often grows on steep slopes or local slight stony rises where the drainage would be greater.
42055		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
42055		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction and also by removal from the wild because it is a popular landscaping plant .
42056		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42056		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Binh Thuan, Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan provinces, Viet Nam. There is an old collection from 1911 from the Khan Hoa (Nha Trang vicinity) province. This has not been included in the distribution map, as no recent reports have been received from that locality. It occurs from sea level up to 30 m.
42056		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland and mixed dry open dipterocarp forest or woodland on flat sites at low elevations and near the coast. Soil is deep and sandy, a combination of outwash from siliceous granite hills and beach dune sands.
42056		population	eng	The population size of <em>C. lindstromii</em> is estimated to be more than 10,000 plants in at least five localities in the wild.
42056		threats	eng	Local residents in this area have been extensively collecting wild plants of this species for sale as garden and landscape subjects. Furthermore, habitat destruction due to land clearance for agricultural purposes has had an impact on the plants.
42057		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42057		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Thailand, as well as in northern and central peninsular Malaysia. In Thailand plants occur near the Malaysian border, with disjunct occurrences in Prachuap Khiri Khan province in the northern peninsula. This species is more common in Malaysia.
42057		habitat	eng	These cycads originally occurred in primary low elevation closed forest (rainforest), on well-drained, often sloping, deep sandy clay-loam soils, and are said to still occur on the less disturbed ridges.
42057		population	eng	A widely scattered species, not forming dense stands.
42057		threats	eng	This species has suffered extensive habitat destruction for agriculture and it is still ongoing.
42058		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42058		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Annam Highlands region of central Viet Nam and eastern Lao PDR. It has been recorded from 130 to 600 m asl.
42058		habitat	eng	This species grows in low, scrubby but fairly dense woodland with substantial seasonal (monsoon) rainfall and additional year-round montane rainfall. The vegetation can also be decribed as semi-shaded thickets and broad-leaved monsoon forests.
42058		population	eng	The species is relatively common.
42058		threats	eng	A large portion of the habitat of <em>C. micholitzii</em> has been cleared in Viet Nam.
42059		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Longgang Nature Reserve in Longzhou, Guangxi province, China.
42059		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Guangxi and eastern Yunnan provinces in China and Cao Bang, Lang Son and Tuyen Quang provinces in northern Viet Nam. Occurs at 100 to 300 m asl.
42059		habitat	eng	This species occurs in low, scrubby but fairly dense mixed evergreen and deciduous woodland or bamboo woodland, often on red terra rosa soils on and around steep karst limestone outcrops, but also on sandy or loamy soils over shales, granites and meta-sandstones.
42059		population	eng	This species is locally abundant but many subpopulations are now seriously depleted.
42059		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction due to forestry and agricultural activities. This species has also been severely reduced in numbers as a result of over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
42060		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42060		distribution	eng	This species is known at present only from limestone outcrops near Tak Fa, Nakhon Sawan province, Thailand. Occurs at 50 to 100 m asl.
42060		habitat	eng	This species occurs in full sun in low scrub on steep limestone bluffs, often growing in crevices in bare limestone in seasonally dry forest. Generally subjected to fire in the dry season.
42060		population	eng	This species is regarded as being locally abundant.
42060		threats	eng	This species has come under pressure from plant collectors and increasing frequency of fires may pose a problem.
42061		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42061		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a limited range of coastal hills in the Bin Thuan, Ninh Thuan and possibly Dong Nai provinces, southern Viet Nam.
42061		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry open thorn shrublands on rocky slopes, on dry gritty soil derived from coarse siliceous granite. Original vegetation in much of this region was low monsoon woodland and thorn scrub, although much of the original woodland has been cut for fuel.
42061		population	eng	This species is locally abundant with populations estimated to range from 2,500 - 10,000 mature individuals.
42061		threats	eng	Much of the original woodland habitat has been cut for fuel and there has been large scale removal of plants for horticultural purposes.
42062		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42062		distribution	eng	<em>C. pectinata</em> is abundant in the hill forests of northeastern India, and has also been collected from Nepal,  Bhutan and Bangladesh. It extends into northern Burma (Myanmar) and Yunnan Province in southern China, and south and east into northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northeastern Cambodia. Recorded from 600 to 1,300 m asl.
42062		habitat	eng	This species occurs in medium to tall closed forest on deep, often clay-rich and more fertile soils, usually as part of the general shrub understorey in moderate to deep shade. <em>C. pectinata</em> is a plant of medium to higher elevations and moist conditions. It is recorded from a variety of substrates, but most frequently occurs on clay soils over limestone. Climate is tropical with wet, humid summers and milder, drier winters. Although often found on limestone substrates, it is by no means restricted to these, and it also occurs on granites and meta-sediments.
42062		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
42062		threats	eng	Hill tribes in Assam, India eat the seeds and emergent leaves are used as a vegetable. The fleshy stem is pounded and used as a hair wash. Although its habitat is continually being reduced, large populations remain, and it is not under any immediate threat of extinction.
42063		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>C. pranburiensis</em> occur in the Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park.
42063		distribution	eng	This species is known only from limestone outcrops of Khao Sam Roi Yot near to the town of Pranburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Restricted to the general area of the Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park between Pran Buri and Kui Buri. Occurs at low elevations from 5 to 30 m asl.
42063		habitat	eng	This species grows in dense thickets in creviced jagged limestone outcrops with scant or no soil rising above mangrove estuaries. Plants grow on steep limestone slopes and cliffs where plants are surrounded by low scrub vegetation adapted to drought (<em>Ficus,  Euphorbia</em> and <em>Dracaena</em> spp.) Plants grow in full sun or in partial shade. The outcrops seem to consist of two different kinds of limestone with the plants avoiding the hills with a reddish coloured rock. This may suggest that the plants have specific substrate preferences.
42063		population	eng	Seems to be locally common with population estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000 mature plants.
42063		threats	eng	This plant is threatened by local plant collectors.
42064		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42064		distribution	eng	This species occurs on several of the Fijian Islands, on Vanuatu, the Tonga Island group and New Caledonia. Recorded from sea level up to 600 m asl.
42064		habitat	eng	This species is common on stabilized coastal dunes developed on coral sand or coral limestone, less commonly on basaltic loams and other heavier soil types. Drier areas on rocky open slopes and ridges.
42064		threats	eng	A great deal of its habitat has been replaced by agriculture, yet, many plants are still encountered in patches of undisturbed forest.
42065		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42065		distribution	eng	<em>C. segmentifida</em> is an extremely widespread although severely depleted species occurring in China. Plants are found through western Guangxi, extending into southern Guizhou and eastern Yunnan, in both cases to a limited extent. Occurs from 600 to 900 m asl.
42065		habitat	eng	This species occurs on a range of substrates from limestone to shale and schist, usually on steep slopes lower in valleys with some skeletal soil cover. Vegetation ranges from closed evergreen forest to mixed deciduous and evergreen woodland, although today it is mostly severely degraded to grassland or scrubby secondary regrowth.
42065		population	eng	The population is estimated to number about 10,000 mature individuals.
42065		threats	eng	Deforestation is a trhreat to the existence of this species.
42066		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of this species are protected in the Yok Don National Park in Viet Nam.
42066		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Thailand, and in Viet Nam in the central plateau region from Buon Ma Thuot to Pleiku (Dac Lac and Kon Tum), with a disjunct occurrence in Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces in the north. Also recorded from Cambodia and Myanmar and probably also occurs in Lao PDR. Has been recorded up to 300 m asl.
42066		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seasonally dry monsoon forests with a warm, humid and rainy season, followed by a hot season of drought. This vegetation is fire prone. In Thailand plants grow on limestone derived soils and in crevices of limestone boulders. In Viet Nam plants grow on sandy, rocky soil in disturbed grassland or in the understorey of dry, rocky, open forest.
42066		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally extremely abundant.
42066		threats	eng	<em>C. siamensis</em> is threatended due to forest clearing for agricultural purposes and this has drastically reduced available habitat. Furthermore, too frequent fires are also having an effect on the habitat. This species has also been over-collected to be sold as ornamentals. Although its habitat is continually being reduced, large populations remain, and it is not under any immediate threat of extinction.
42067		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Taitung Hongyeh Village Cycas Nature Reserve.
42067		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the mountainous southern parts of Taitung (Taidong) province of Taiwan. Populations are in the Lu-Yeh Valley near Yenping Hsiang and to the west of the Taitung Coastal Range in Tunghe Hsiang. Occurs from 400 to 900 m asl.
42067		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mixed, sparse forests in exposed sites on rocky and steep slopes or in well-drained gravel. The habitat is subjected to periodic fires.
42067		population	eng	<em>C. taitungensis</em> occurs at two locations. Genetic studies show low levels of differentiation between these subpopulations. At least 1,700 plants occur in the Taitung Hongyeh Village Cycas Nature Reserve.
42067		threats	eng	The invasive <em>Cycas Aulacaspis</em> scale is present in the Taitung Hungyeh Village Cycas Nature Reserve. Poaching of plants and seed from habitat plants also poses a threat to this species.
42068		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42068		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Papua New Guinea, from the Huon Peninsula westwards to Indonesia, where it occurs in Papua, West Irian Jaya, Vogelkop and Halmahera Island.
42068		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a sporadic and scattered manner, in more or less closed mesophyll forest in wet lowland areas and sometimes in seasonally inundated sites but more often on low ridges.
42068		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, but the species is probably reasonably common with more than 10,000 mature individuals.
42068		threats	eng	The areas where it occurs are being impacted by expanding agriculture.
42069		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Muong Nhe Nature Reserve, Lai Chau Province, Vietnam.
42069		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the region to the northwest and northeast of Hanoi, Viet Nam. Populations are found in the Lang Son, Vinh Phuc, Thai Nguyen, and Quang Ninh provinces. The distribution extends into the Shiwan Dashan (mountains) in coastal southeastern Guangxi Province of China. Recorded from 100 to 800 m.
42069		habitat	eng	Plants are found in more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall, closed evergreen dense rainforests in mountainous regions. The climate is subtropical to tropical with hot humid summers and milder drier winters. Plants grow in loamy soils over schists or granites.
42069		population	eng	This species is locally frequent but not occuring in dense stands. It is estimated that there are in excess of 10,000 plants in the wild.
42069		threats	eng	Unknown.
42070		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42070		distribution	eng	<em>C. bougainvilleana</em> is confined to near-coastal sites on Bougainville and New Britain islands of Papua New Guinea and also on other Solomon islands.<br/><br/>.
42070		habitat	eng	This species is confined to coastal and near coastal sites. Plants occur in low elevation moist littoral forest on stabilized calcareous coral sand dunes and headlands.
42070		population	eng	This species occurs sporadically, but is locally abundant.
42070		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
42071		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is well represented within Ba Be National Park, Vietnam.
42071		distribution	eng	This species is known at present from a limited region in the Bac Can province of Viet Nam.
42071		habitat	eng	<em>C. brachycantha</em> occurs on the crests of outcropping limestone ridges within closed subtropical evergreen forest canopies, growing in clefts and crevices in bare rock with no soil.
42071		population	eng	This species is locally frequent although not in dense stands.
42071		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42072		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42072		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it occurs in the Central Province, particularly around Port Moresby, extending from Kairuku to Abau.
42072		habitat	eng	This species is locally abundant but sporadic and it occurs in savanna woodland country. Plants are often in more open and grassy areas prone to frequent fire. Occurs only at low altitudes on the coastal plain.
42072		population	eng	The population size is not well known but is estimated to exceed 10,000 plants in the wild.
42072		threats	eng	This species may be subject to over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Fire may also be a problem as in other <em>Cycas</em> species, frequent fires have led to decline.
42073		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42073		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a region inland from Vinh and Ha Tinh and south to Dong Ha, in mountain foothills in Nghe An, Ha Tinh and Dong Ha provinces in Viet Nam. It may also occur in Lao PDR.
42073		habitat	eng	This species is locally abundant in tall closed evergreen forest on sandy loams over schists and granites. This species often grows in boulder beds along riverbanks, where it may form large, multi-headed clusters.
42073		population	eng	The population size of <em>C. chevalieri</em> is estimated to be more than 10,000 plants in the wild.
42073		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to over-collection for the ornamental plant trade.
42074		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Perlis State Park in Malaysia.
42074		distribution	eng	This species occurs on limestone outcrops in Thailand, both on the mainland and on the islands. It is also found in the Perlis state of Malaysia and in Cambodia and Viet Nam. Occurs from sea level up to 60 m.
42074		habitat	eng	This species occurs on limestone outcrops. Plants are found on near-vertical cliffs in full sun.
42074		population	eng	This is an abundant and widespread species. The actual population numbers have not been estimated.
42074		threats	eng	The species is collected for ornamental purposes.
42075		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is evidently protected in a reserve.
42075		distribution	eng	<em>C. ferruginea</em> is a restricted species, known from a belt of limestone bluffs in Lang Son and Thai Nguyen Provinces in Thailand and in western Guangxi Province of China.
42075		habitat	eng	This species is known from a belt of limestone bluffs, growing on bare limestone faces with no visible soil at the roots. Plants grow in semi-shaded, rocky crevices in broad-leaved forests on limestone mountains.
42075		population	eng	There are still large subpopulations in remote areas.
42075		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
42076		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42076		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nanpan and Qingshui valleys in southwestern Guizhou province and also in eastern Yunnan and northwestern Guangxi provinces of China. It is recorded from 400 to 1,300 m asl.
42076		habitat	eng	This species is typical of low, scrubby forests on steep slopes on limestone bluffs or screes and is also widespread on steep and almost inaccessable limestone mountains. Plants are also found in steep river valleys.
42076		population	eng	Recent studies indicate that this species is moderately abundant over a considerable area.
42076		threats	eng	Habitat destruction within the distribution range of this species has been extensive. The species is also threatened by over-collection for food, medicine and use as an ornamental<sup> </sup>plant. During China's Cultural Revolution this cycad was eaten as a famine food by the local minorities.
42078		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Two nature reserves have been designated for the protection of this species. One of these is known as the Panzhihua Cycad Nature Reserve.
42078		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Sichuan and northern Yunnan Provinces of China. Occurs from 1,100 to 2,000 m asl.
42078		habitat	eng	Occurs typically in fairly dry, closed low woodland or shrubland thickets on moderately to steeply sloping sites. Soil is usually derived from limestone, although occurrences on shale and sandstone are known. As with all mainland Asian cycads, human population pressure has had considerable impact, and present distributions may represent a small fraction of the distribution of only a century ago.
42078		population	eng	This species is very abundant.
42078		threats	eng	Much of the habitat is under threat of clear cutting, and plants are being collected for sale as food, medicine and ornamentals, even within the reserves. There is a large mining operation in the distribution area.
42079		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42079		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is found in the western district, including the floodplains of the Fly river and near Daru to the west and still further to the Bensbach river.
42079		habitat	eng	It forms sparse colonies in open grassy woodland and savanna, frequently growing with Kunai grass.
42079		population	eng	This species is sporadic but widespread and in places it is sometimes locally abundant.
42079		threats	eng	This species may be threatened as a result of being subjected to almost annual fires.
42080		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42080		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed through the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan and also on the southern parts of Kyushu Island. There are reports of natural occurrences in the coastal Fujian Province of China. These have not been substantiated, although circumstantial support for these claims are strong. Recorded from sea level up to 300 m.
42080		habitat	eng	Today plants occur primarily on steep to precipitous stony sites, but previously they occurred on flatter land which has since been cleared. Usually grow in exposed locations on steep limestone cliffs and rocks overhanging the shoreline, sometimes in low dense forest in heavy shade.
42080		population	eng	The population is large and estimations of several hundred thousand plants have been made.
42080		threats	eng	There has been massive seed collecting from natural habitats and leaves are exported in large numbers for decorative purposes. Habitat has also been cleared.
42081		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42081		distribution	eng	<em>C. rumphii</em> has a distribution centred on the Moluccan island group (Maluku, or the Spice Islands) extending east into Indonesian Papua and a short way along the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and north to Sulawesi. In the west, it appears to extend to southern Borneo and northeastern Java. Occurs from 10 to 200 m.
42081		habitat	eng	This species grows in coastal and near coastal communities in littoral forest and rainforest. Often on stabilized dunes composed of coral sands and coral limestone.
42081		population	eng	The species is locally abundant.
42081		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown although there has been loss of habitat across its range.
42082		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42082		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it occurs on the northern side of the island along the foothills of the Bismarck range, predominantly in the valleys of the Markham and Ramu rivers extending south from Lae along the Bulolo river as far as Wau and Madang. Recorded from low to high elevations, up to 1,600 m asl.
42082		habitat	eng	<em>C. schumanniana</em> occurs in savanna grasslands, less frequently in woodlands and forests with a dense grassy understorey.
42082		population	eng	This species is considered to be locally abundant.
42082		threats	eng	All habitats are generally burned annually.
42083		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42083		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Papua New Guinea, where it is widespread in the east, extending from near coastal sites to the foothills (5 to 900 m asl). Plants occur in the Central, Gulf, Milne Bay, and Western provinces. Further west it occurs in Indonesia, where it occurs in the southeastern part of the West Papua province. <em>C. scratchleyana</em> also occurs in Australia, where it is found on Mer (Murray Island) in the Torres Strait. This falls within the Cook district of Queensland.
42083		habitat	eng	This species occurs in more or less closed mesophyll forest in wet lowland areas, on ridges. Often extending to higher elevations (to over 900 m), usually on slopes or ridges in more or less closed, moist forests, but also extending to similar forests on stabilized calcareous coral-sand dune country and nearby headlands, particularly in the east of the range.
42083		population	eng	This species is common over a large range.
42083		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
42084		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42084		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern and central Guangxi province of China, and in Cao Bang province in central northern Viet Nam in the border region with Guangxi, with a disjunct occurrence in Thanh Hoa province south of Hanoi.
42084		habitat	eng	This species grows in subtropical forests in crevices on bare outcrops in rugged karst limestone country, often on vertical faces with no visible soil.
42084		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
42084		threats	eng	<em>C. sexseminifera</em> is threatened due to over-collection for ornamental and horticultural purposes.
42085		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Lthough its habitat is continually being reduced, many populations remain across this range, with a number in conservation areas, and it is not under any immediate threat of extinction.
42085		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Quang Tri Province in Viet Nam. Further, it is widely distributed in the mountains of northern Thailand. This species also occurs in northern Myanmar and Lao PDR. Is recorded from 600 to 1,300 m asl.
42085		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wetter and more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall closed evergreen forests. Individuals are usually scattered and sporadic in occurrence, and dense stands are uncommon. Often occuring near streams.
42085		population	eng	Appears to be an abundant species with population size estimated to be larger than 10,000 mature individuals.
42085		threats	eng	Continued land clearing may become a problem across the vast distributional range of this plant.
42086		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42086		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Luchun area of southeastern Yunnan Province, China. Populations have also been reported from across the border in the Lai Chau area in Viet Nam. Has been recorded up to 800 m asl.
42086		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the understorey of rainforests in remote and mountainous country in China. Plants also possibly occur in closed evergreen forest in Viet Nam.
42086		population	eng	Good populations of this species still occur with estimates of more than 100,000 plants being made.
42086		threats	eng	Much of the forest has been cleared for agriculture in recent decades, and, in general, the only forest remaining is on precipitously steep sites that are unsuitable for any kind of cultivation.
42087		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Cat Ba National Park within the Cat Ba Biosphere Reserve, an archipelago in northern Viet Nam, which is adjacent to the Ha Long Bay World Heritage site.
42087		distribution	eng	<em>C. tropophylla</em> is a restricted species endemic to Viet Nam. Subpopulations are known from Cat Ba and other islands in Haiphong Harbour, and on similar limestone bluffs on the adjacent mainland. Cat Ba National Park is located in Cat Hai District, Hai Phong Province, Viet Nam. Cat Ba is an archipelago encompassing a mosaic of land cover types derived from human uses.
42087		habitat	eng	Plants are found growing on bare limestone faces on steep limestone bluffs, with no soil accumulation at the roots.
42087		population	eng	<em>C. tropophylla</em> is an abundant species found in inaccessible habitats.
42089		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Melkote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka and the Niligri Biosphere Reserve located in the Western Ghats. The Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) near Palode in Kerala was identified as an alternate centre for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation of cycads.
42089		distribution	eng	<em>C. circinalis</em> is now known to be an Indian endemic, restricted to the Western Ghats, in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and may also occur south of Maharashtra.
42089		habitat	eng	This species typically occurs in fairly dense, seasonally dry scrubby woodlands in hilly areas. Plants are also found in rocky areas (dried stream beds).  Many trees in this habitat lose their leaves in the dry season, and <em>C. circinalis</em> is also facultatively deciduous in extremely dry times. Populations may also occur in taller moist forests. It appears to be an adaptable species with colonies extending from rocky hill outcrops down to coastal habitats at sea level.
42089		population	eng	This species occurs at at least 12 sites.<br/><br/>1. Coonoor, Kotagiri, NE slopes of Niligriis (1,000 m), Tamil Nadu - > 500 individuals (dry deciduous forest, savanna woodland)<br/><br/>2. Mettupalyam hills (500-300 m), Tamil Nadu. <500 individuals (Riparian zone)<br/><br/>3. Pillur Slopes (800-500 m), Tamil Nadu, <500 individuals (Semi evergreen, Savanna woodlands and dry deciduous forests)<br/><br/>4. Annamalais, South Tamil Nadu, >300 (Teak plantations, Moist Deciduous forests)<br/><br/>5. Kalakad Mundanthurai Wild life Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. >300 (Savanna woodlands, Teak plantations, Semi Evergreen forests)<br/><br/>6. Nilambur North, Malppuram district, Kerala (500-300 m). >1,000 (Semi evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Teak Plantations)<br/><br/>7. Silent Valley National PArk, Palghat, Kerala (500-300 m). >200 (Teak plantations, Moist Deciduous and Riparian)<br/><br/>8. Idukki district, Kerala.<br/><br/>9. Achenkovil forests, South Kerala (300 m), >500 (Teak plantations, Moist deciduous, Semi evergreen and Riparian)<br/><br/>10. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. >200 (Semi evergreen, moist deciduous and <em>Areca</em> plantations)<br/><br/>11. Melkote Wolf Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka. (500-300 m). <1,500 individuals (Scrub forests)<br/><br/>12 Chamundi hills, Karnataka. >100 individuals. (Scrub forests)<br/><br/><br/>The total population size is unknown.
42089		threats	eng	Land clearing is thought to have destroyed more than 50% of the original habitat of <em>C. circinalis</em>. Harvesting of cycad leaves for the urban floricultural market may also have an impact on this species. There is evidently medicinal properties in the leaves and pith of stem. Large and old specimens are ruthlessly hacked down for the extraction of pith. Seeds are harvested and used for food as a regular part of the diet.
42090		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42090		distribution	eng	Occurs on the islands of Palawan and Mindoro, Philippines. On Palawan Island the plants are found on Mount Beaufort in the catchment of the Malinao river. On Mindoro Island the plants are found in the Mindoro Oriental province in the area of Bongabon and Mansalay. The subpopulation on Mindoro Island was erroneously reported as <em>Cycas wadei </em>, which are very similar based on the sclerotesta which is ribbed. <em>C. curranii</em> is however distinguished from <em>C. wadei</em> with its larger seeds and broader sterile part of the megasporophylls.
42090		habitat	eng	It grows in habitats ranging from deposits of sandy alluvium to precipitous cliffs of limestone karst and serpentinite bluffs. In rainforests at low elevations and in open grassland areas.
42090		population	eng	The species occurs as small subpopulations at two disjunct localities.
42090		threats	eng	<em>C. curranii</em> is threatened due to the conversion of forest and grasslands into settlement areas and slash-and-burn agricultural practices, amongst others, to promote regrowth of grass. Logging has also had an effect on the habitat.
42091		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42091		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and locally common in much of southeast Asia. Subpopulations are found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
42091		habitat	eng	This species occurs only along shorelines, in full sun to moderate shade often in dry littoral scrub on beach sand, stabilized coastal sand dunes or rocky headlands, often in very shallow soil and apparently over both granite and limestone substrates.
42091		population	eng	The population size is thought to&#160; number about 10,000 mature individuals and is declining.
42091		threats	eng	This species occurs in coastal sites that have experienced severe pressures from population increase and development. This habitat is also coming under increasing pressure for aquaculture sites. Although probably not immediately threatened, it is potentially vulnerable in the longer term.
42092		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42092		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi and the nearby Kabaena Island.
42092		habitat	eng	This species occurs in habitats ranging from closed forest to open short tree savanna with grasses dominant, in full sun to heavy shade, over limestone or serpentinite substrates.
42092		population	eng	<em>C. falcata</em> is known from two localities on the main island of Sulawesi and from Kabaena Island off the southeastern coast of Sulawesi. The species is poorly known and hence the population size and trend is unknown.
42092		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42093		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42093		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia. It is primarily a Javan species, but it also extends to southern Sumatra and possibly the western Sunda Islands.
42093		habitat	eng	This species grows in lowland areas in or close to rainforest. Plants also occur in closed forest on slopes and ridges from low to middle elevations, mostly on volcanic soils.
42093		population	eng	The overall population size is unknown.
42093		threats	eng	Much of the primary forest habitat has been cleared or degraded in recent decades, and the habitat loss continues today.
42094		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. The species is still locally frequent in Sri Lanka although it is never found in great numbers. It is known to be present in reserves, but political instability made assessment difficult and future status uncertain. However, the recent end of conflict in this region now provides now opportunities for surveys and conservation work.
42094		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sri Lanka and India. In Sri Lanka, it occurs in inland and upland forests in the north of the island, usually in somewhat drier sites. In the Tamil Nadu area in India it usually occurs in flatter areas, but also usually in somewhat drier sites. Recorded from 30 to 300 m asl.
42094		habitat	eng	This species occurs in inland and upland forests, usually in somewhat drier sites.
42094		population	eng	Locally frequent, although not in great numbers.
42094		threats	eng	Like all cycads in Tamil Nadu of India, this species has suffered greatly from stem cutting for local medicine. Several populations have been depleted to only a very few scattered individuals. As the lowland is very attractive agricultural land, populations have been destroyed to make way for human populations. It is regarded as Endangered in India.
42095		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. The largest population is found within the Mount Arayat National Park.  Recently, the various stakeholders developed a conservation and management plan for the species.  It is also found in another protected area, Sierra Madre Wilderness Area.  The other known localities are not protected.
42095		distribution	eng	This species grows on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. Populations are found in the Pampanga province near Mount Arayat, in the Bataan province near Morong and Bagac, in the Batangas province near Lobo, in the Isabela province near Mount Dipalayag and in the Aurora province near Baler. Occurs at 615 to 800 m.
42095		habitat	eng	This species is found in closed lowland evergreen forests at low to medium altitudes. Populations grow well inland from the coast on steep rocky ridges. The associated species belong to the families <em>Annonaceae, Sterculiaceae, Myrtaceae, Sapindanceae, Rubiaceae, Moraceae, and Euphorbiaceae</em>. The forest is dominated by <em>Cycas riuminiana, Heritiera sylvatica, Syzygium</em> sp.<em>, Ficus</em> sp., and <em>Pterospermum diversifolium</em>.  Plants are found on loam type soils.  The soil has a very high nitrogen content, but is low in phosphorus.  It has a sufficient amount of potassium.
42095		population	eng	This species is found in five separate localities.  The largest subpopulation is found on Mount Arayat, with smaller subpopulations in the other known localities.  Based on molecular evidence, there is insignificant genetic diversity among the individuals in Pampanga, Bataan, and Batangas, thus suggesting that despite the geographical separation, these individuals belong to only one subpopulation. The population is estimated to number between 1,000 and 1,500 mature individuals.
42095		threats	eng	The type locality of <em>C. riuminiana</em> is highly threatened by the development of an exclusive residential resort area. A telecommunications tower was also built at the peak of the mountain. Expansion of agricultural lands is also a threat. In the horticultural trade, the species is popular because of its slender trunk. There are also some bluish-grey leaf forms within the population. Most of the mature plants on Mount Arayat have been removed.
42096		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42096		distribution	eng	<em>C. sphaerica</em> is from the Eastern Ghats in eastern peninsular India.  It ranges from the northern part of Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh northwards into Orissa at least as far as Bhubaneshwar. Also occurs in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The elevation values of 300 to 1,00 m are a rough estimate.
42096		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry forests and woodlands on hills and ridges.
42096		population	eng	The overall population size is not well known
42096		threats	eng	Pieces of pith from the stem of <em>C. sphaerica</em> are used to make ‘sago'  flour.
42097		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42097		distribution	eng	<em>C. wadei</em> is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found on Culion island, part of the Calamanian group. Plants occur to the east of Halsey Harbour. Occurs at an estimated altitude of 20 to 50 m.
42097		habitat	eng	This species grows on low hills in lowland regions amid large open expanses of coarse grass dominated by<em> Imperata</em> species. Plants are found under low bushes or trees bordering large open grassy areas.
42097		population	eng	The species is found as one subpopulation of about 5,000 mature individuals. Plants are fairly dispersed.
42097		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to the conversion of grasslands into settlement areas and burning of grasslands to promote growth of young grass for cattle. Based on satellite images, at least 30% of the general habitat has been cleared. The seeds and seedlings of the species are collected and sold as ornamentals in local fairs.
42098		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. In the Andaman and Nicobar islands, subpopulations occur within protected areas as well as in off-limit, military areas.
42098		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sri Lanka, where it is now apparently a rare species in the southwestern coastal regions.  In India it occurs on the Andaman and Nicobar island groups, where it is more abundant. Recorded from low elevations ranging from 5 to 50 m.
42098		habitat	eng	This species grows in littoral forest near the sea in sandy soil. Plants are often found on stabilized dunes.
42098		population	eng	<strong>Sri Lanka.</strong> Populations have been totally destroyed and a survey failed to find any viable regenerating populations. Only widely scattered, large, old specimens remained. No plants were found within any protected areas. The 2005 tsunami hit the coast of Sri Lanka and seriously damaged the only known narrow strip of land where the last scattered individuals existed. Although no recent post tsunami survey has been conducted it is very likely that most if not all remaining plants are now dead, either by direct hit of the wave and debris or bulldozed by the cleaning crew.<br/><br/><strong>India.</strong> The species is widespread and common on the Andaman and Nicobar islands. But although still growing in large populations at several locations, severe damage has been done by repeated strong cyclones. The recent development of seaside resorts on the islands has also had an impact on some populations and several previously large populations have been eradicated to make space for tourist accommodation. There are populations within protected areas as well as in off-limit, military areas.
42098		threats	eng	<strong>Sri Lanka:</strong><br/>Many of the populations have been totally decimated.&#160; There are no viable regenerating populations. There are no plants within reserves.<br/><br/><strong>India:</strong><br/>This species is widespread and common, however, severe damage has been done by cyclones. Some of the habitat has been destroyed to make way for tourist accommodation.
42099		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. No subpopulations occur within protected areas. The species is poorly represented in ex situ collections and the only collection seems to be a small colony at the Jardin Botanico Clavijiero in Xalapa, Mexico.
42099		distribution	eng	This species is found on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, where it is sporadic and localised in Veracruz state and across the border in to Oaxaca state, Mexico.
42099		habitat	eng	Plants occur as an understorey shrub growing naturally in heavy shade in tropical wet evergreen forest. They occur at relatively low altitudes in Veracruz (120 m) but are usually found at slightly higher elevations on limestone pinnacles, ridges or hilltops (up to 500 m) in Oaxaca.
42099		population	eng	The type population of this species in Veracruz has been extirpated. In Oaxaca state, there is a population of 40 plants as well as another recently discovered population with an estimated 300 plants.
42099		threats	eng	This species has been severly impacted by habitat destruction, mainly the degradation of forest habitats through human resettlement in the Uxpanapa region (Osborne and Vasquaz-Torres 2009).
42100		conservation	eng	Listed on <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.
42101		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.
42101		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Tamaulipas state of Mexico, where it occurs along the Sierra Madre Oriental between Gomez Farias and Tula.
42101		habitat	eng	Plants Occur in pine-oak dominated cloud forests on steep slopes in deep soil mixed with limestone rocks.
42101		population	eng	The population at Ocampo in Tamaulipas consists of 300 plants. This population was growing on limestone boulders dislodged by road work along a cliff and thus it may be a newly recruited site. A 10% reduction is predicted in the next 30 years. One other population is known.
42101		threats	eng	This species has been severly affected by habitat destruction as a result of land clearing for agriculture. Furthermore , the populations have been drastically reduced as a result of prolonged collecting.
42102		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and /or the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.
42102		distribution	eng	This species is a narrow endemic in Chiapas and Oaxaca states in Mexico. Plants are found on the Sierra Madre de Chiapas.
42102		habitat	eng	Plants occur in seasonally dry pine-oak forests in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas (Sierra de Soconusco)
42102		population	eng	Current population data suggest that there are in excess of 2,000 plants at the one population. There are a further two populations.
42102		threats	eng	The species was heavily impacted by collectors for the ornamental trade, but this has slowed in recent years.
42103		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42103		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to San Luis Potosí state, Mexico. Plants are found SW of Rio Verde, in the Capulin district.
42103		habitat	eng	Plants grow in the Sierra de la Equiteria, in dry pine-oak forests on volcanic outcrops and in rhyolitic soils.
42103		population	eng	Plants are only known from the type locality, at which there are less than 50 plants.
42103		threats	eng	Plants have been severely affected by over-collection, to the point of being almost eradicated in certain areas.
42106		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected by local communities and all known specimens are found in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.
42106		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Puebla state, Mexico. It is found near Loma de la Grana, 6 km SW from San Luis Atolotitlan<br/>(formerly San Luis Tultitlanapa), district of Caltepec. The actual range of all populations has not been mapped (need locality data). The known populations therefore represent the area of occupancy rather than the extent of occurrence.
42106		habitat	eng	The plants are found on steep slopes in stunted forest (thorn forest) and they grow in poor, shallow calcareous soil.
42106		population	eng	This species is known from at five locations. Data for two subpopulations indicate decline of ca. 50% over the past two generations. There are a total of 310 plants in these two subpopulations.
42106		threats	eng	These plants also have little horticultural (therefore collection) potential. The local people are protecting them and the land they are on has limited agricultural potential.
42107		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Vinales Nationl Park and are also found in the "Mil Cumbres" protected area. The National Botanical Garden of Cuba has 156 live specimens in their collection.
42107		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Cuba. From the area of San Diego de los Banos through the Santa Catalina area to the vicinity of San Andreas.
42107		habitat	eng	Populations are scattered in both lowland and montane sites, the latter being in very rough terrain. The plants grow in three types of soils, Jurassic alkaline limestone, more-or-less sandy acidic soils underlaid with slate, and siliceous clays with a pH between 5.4 and 6.9. The habitats vary from grasslands to, more commonly, pine or semi-deciduous forests and conditions range from full sun to deep shade.
42107		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Del Risco </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(1984) <span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>tudied plants at five localities and they estimated that there were 10-25 plants per locality. In 1996/7, Pena <em>et al</em>, studied plants at 17 sites and their study included 540 plants. Julio Lazcano undertook a Masters research project at Vinales National Park and counted 1,200 individuals in his study. Lazcano estimated that there were 1,540 documented plants in Cuba and that the figure could be as high as 4,000. The population at Corcho is well known and has 13 plants and has shown a 90% decline in the last 50 years. A 90% reduction is also predicted for the next 30 years.
42107		threats	eng	The plants are affected by habitat destruction (moderate) and over collecting of plants from the wild. Reproductive failure (pollinator extinction) is a concern, although this still needs to be verified.
42108		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42108		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Valle de Cauca province of Colombia and is known from only four collections over the past 125 years, all near the neotype locality. The distribution area falls within the catchment area of the Rio Calima.
42108		habitat	eng	This species grows in the lowlands and mountains in the shady understorey of rainforests.
42108		population	eng	This species is known from one locality in Colombia with an estimated 1,000 plants in the wild.
42108		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing to make way for coffee plantations.
42109		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42109		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two collections, nl. the type locality and one other nearby population in Northern Colombia. This species is expected to be in the southern Darien of Panama, but this has not been confirmed.<em> Z. disodon</em> is also known from a disjunct single locality in Huanuco province, Peru (Near Pachitea and Puerto Inca). However. this may be a misidentified population (A. Lindstrom pers. comm.)
42109		habitat	eng	This species is found in clay soils of secondary and primary rainforest at 400-800 meters altitude.
42109		population	eng	The total population size of <em>Z. disodon</em> is estimated to be less than 400 plants in the wild.
42109		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing to make way for banana plantations.
42110		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Little is known about its biology and distribution but the paucity of collections indicates that it is rare.
42110		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia where it is found in the Amazonas province and also in Peru where the distribution range falls within the Loreto province where plants are found near Maynas, Pebas and Brilla Nueva.
42110		habitat	eng	This species grows as an understory plant in lowland primary rainforest.
42110		population	eng	In Colombia there is one locality which consists of three small subpopulations and in Peru there is one locality.
42111		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. inermis</em> is known from only a single extant population that is severely threatened by fire, over collection, and apparently eradication of its pollinator as evidenced by its very low fertility in habitat as opposed to its high fertility in cultivation in botanical gardens.
42111		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Veracruz, Mexico where it grows in the district of Actopan. Plants exist as two subpopulations in a small range of hills in the Rio Actopan drainage area, which is on the coastal side of Xalapa in central Veracruz.
42111		habitat	eng	This species grows in deciduous tropical dry forest on steep slopes in low mountains at 200-300 m in thin dry volcanic soils with very little organic matter. Plants also occur on steep slopes.
42111		population	eng	Estimations from 2003 put the total number of plants in both populations at 300 - 500.
42111		threats	eng	This species may be affected by habitat destruction for agricultural purposes, too frequent fires, possible pollinator extinction, crop spraying, soil erosion and over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
42112		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.  The species appears to have populations of ants that live in special tunnel-like flaps at the leaflet bases, highlighting the need for <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation to protect such specific interactions.
42112		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peru. Plants are found in the vicinity of the towns of Pebas and Pucaurquillo in the Maynas province of the Loreto region. The localities are near the Rio Amiyacu and Rio Napo.
42112		habitat	eng	Plants occur in the understorey of primary and secondary rain forest.
42112		threats	eng	This habitat of this species has been disturbed and the type locality was in the process of being converted from secondary forest to a communal garden.
42113		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42113		distribution	eng	<em>Zamia montana</em> is endemic to the submontane and montane areas of Antioquia, Colombia
42113		habitat	eng	<em>Z. montana</em> grows at the  highest elevation known for any neotropical cycad and is known only from collections at and near the neotype locality, in wet montane forest.
42113		population	eng	This species is known from one confirmed locality in Colombia.
42113		threats	eng	This species is extremely threatened by logging activities, maize farming, and lulo (<em>Solanum</em> sp.) cultivation. In fact, it may well be extinct in the wild because the only known population occurs in an area that was recently logged.
42114		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42114		distribution	eng	<em>Z. monticola</em> is endemic to rocky lowland slopes in primary and secondary rain forests of Guatemala. No data available to create distribution maps and to calculate at least extent of occurrence.
42114		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky lowland slopes in primary and secondary rain forests.
42114		threats	eng	This species is threatened by severe deforestation.
42116		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Columbia River Forest Reserve.
42116		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Belize.
42116		habitat	eng	This species grows in wet cloud forest on steep slopes. Plants are sometimes found growing in limestone sinkholes.
42116		population	eng	Little is known about population numbers but the reported numbers are very low, with a maximum estimate of 100 plants.
42116		threats	eng	Habitat loss in the area in which the species occurs is regarded as the main threat.
42117		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. portoricensis</em> has become very rare in Puerto Rico in part due to development but also as a result over collection for nursery plants. Although found in protected parks and a National Forest, this has done little to protect the species from collecting and plants can be found in plant stores in New York City labeled as <em>Z. pumila</em> and <em>Z. floridana</em>. However, the species is easily raised from seed and young plants have begun to appear on the market and artificial propagation appears to be in place. Of more concern is the lack of seed set in one of the larger populations.
42117		distribution	eng	One of the Caribbean species of <em>Zamia</em> that is found only in Western Puerto Rico in the region of the Susua State Forest.
42117		habitat	eng	Zamia portoricensis grows on very dry limestone soils that often contain an element of serpentine. The vegetaion is subtropical moist forest.
42117		population	eng	Population size is estimated to be <500.
42117		threats	eng	In visits to this population every year for the past seven years, neither seeds nor potential pollinating insect have been seen. Older pollen cones do not have the indicator weevil exit holes. Thus, it appears that the pollinator(s) may have been eradicated as a result of the aerial application of pesticides for local agriculture.
42118		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42118		distribution	eng	<em>Z. spartea</em> is known only from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec region of Chiapas and perhaps neighbouring Oaxaca, Mexico.
42118		habitat	eng	This species grows in generally well drained soils and under arid conditions. Dry oak forests at low elevations. Occasionally in hilly grasslands. Does seem to persist somewhat in highly disturbed areas.
42118		population	eng	The population at Matias Romero in Oaxaca consists of 2,000 plants.
42118		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is fortunately not as severe as in areas with more fertile soils. Most of the habitat is used for grazing cattle and this causes little damage to the cycads.
42119		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42119		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Peru (Huanuco Province, District of Pachitea, Llullapichis/Yuyapichis). Only known fom the vicinity of the type locality.
42119		habitat	eng	This species grows on stoney hillsides with thin soils.
42119		population	eng	There is only one locality with an estimated 250 plants.
42119		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42120		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Wild populations are somewhat protected from over-collection because the species is very common in cultivation, where it also produces copious quantities of cones and grows quite rapidly from seed.
42120		distribution	eng	<em>Z. vazquezii</em> is known from Mexico, where it occurs in Veracruz state.
42120		habitat	eng	This species grows in semi-evergreen forests to pine-oak forests.
42120		population	eng	<em>Z. vazquezii</em> is known from two subpopulations, but there are no more than 50 plants in the wild and deforestation in northern Veracruz is still rampant.  The population is definitely severely fragmented? The last survey was more than a decade ago so the situation may have detiorated.
42120		threats	eng	Deforestation poses the biggest threat to the survival of this species in the wild.
42121		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. wallisi</em>i should be considered, along with <em>Z. montana</em>, as the most endangered species of<em> Zamia</em> in Columbia. Plants occur in the Las Orquideas National Park, Antioquia Providence, Colombia.
42121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Colombia. The type locality is near the town of Frontino in the Antioguia province and there are also plants found near Urrao.
42121		habitat	eng	<em>Z. wallisii</em> grows in primary and secondary rain forest to cloud forest at 1,000-1,200 m as an understorey plant on poor clay soils. The plants occur on steep hillsides and hilltops.
42121		population	eng	The only known population, comprising <50 plants, was last visited in 1997 and was in a zone that was being deforested.
42121		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation as a result of clearing/deforestation for agriculture (bananas and pineapples). It has also been reported that seed production is infrequent.
42122		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.
42122		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chiapas state of Mexico. Plants are found in a small area near Rizo de Oro in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas.
42122		habitat	eng	This species grows in moist pine-oak forest with a fern rich ground layer.
42122		population	eng	Plants are known from only two subpopulations. One of the subpopulations comprises 300 plants.
42122		threats	eng	This species is considered to be endangered because of habitat loss as the forests are being cleared for agriculture. Poaching of plants is also a threat.
42123		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42123		distribution	eng	This species is native to the mountains of northern Chiapas and the southern Sierras of Tabasco (near Tapijulapa), Mexico.
42123		habitat	eng	Plants grow on karstic rocks in evergreen tropical rainforest.
42123		population	eng	At present (2001 data), this species is known from 2 populations. One of the populations has only about 100 plants.
42123		threats	eng	Expanding agricultural activities and coffee plantations, as well as forest fires and poaching have had a significant effect on the populations in the wild.
42124		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42124		distribution	eng	This species has a  sporadic distribution in the bordering  ranges of Querétaro and San Luis Potosí states, Mexico where it is found in the region of the Huasteca Potosina near the Santa Maria river.
42124		habitat	eng	This species occurs at approximately 850-1,300 m altitude in the cloud zone in deciduous oak woodlands. Plants grow in heavy black clay and among limestone rocks.
42124		population	eng	The population at Aquismon in San Luis Potosi consists of 150 plants. Cavers have reported new population(s) above Aquismon.
42124		threats	eng	This species has been severly affected by habitat destruction and over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
42125		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and are also evidently protected by local communities.
42125		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chiapas and Oaxaca states in southern Mexico and also extends a short way into western Guatemala.
42125		habitat	eng	Plants are sporadically distributed in evergreen cloud forest at about 1,000 m altitude.
42125		population	eng	The population at El Triunfo in Chiapas consists of 500 plants. There is another population known at Mt Ovando. Both of these sites occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.
42125		threats	eng	Plants are adversely affected due to habitat destruction as a result of land clearing for corn and coffee plantations. Lumbering has also had an effect on plants in the wild.
42126		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42126		distribution	eng	This species is found as a narrow endemic in Veracruz state on the Sierra Madre Oriental, north of Jalapa, Mexico.
42126		habitat	eng	Growing lithophytically on sheltered cliffs in mixed evergreen and deciduous cloud forests in the Sierra Madre. Plants grow on humus-rich, greyish yellow clays or on vertical rocky walls composed of loose, weathered basalt.
42126		population	eng	Plants occur in a more or less inaccesible area. The one location visited in 2002 had a population of about 1,000 plants, mostly on vertical cliffs.
42126		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42127		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42127		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Hidalgo and Querétaro states, Mexico.
42127		habitat	eng	Plants grow among shrubs in relatively dry mixed forest of pines and broad-leaved trees, particularly oaks. Plants are found on steep slopes in humus rich clay soils usually over limestone.
42127		population	eng	This species is known from three subpopopulations at two localities. There is also another known population in Querétaro.
42127		threats	eng	<em>C. sabatoi</em> is only known from two localities. The status of the high elevation locality in Hidalgo appears to be critical. It was transformed years ago for agriculture and although new habitat loss appears to have slowed, surveys indicate an ongoing decline in the number of plants, possibly due to grazing.
42128		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42128		distribution	eng	This species is a narrow endemic in Oaxaca state, Mexico. The distribution is restricted to the catchment of the Rio Valle Nacional in the vicinity of  Metates. Plants are also found in the Chiapan district.
42128		habitat	eng	Plants occurs on steep slopes in evergreen cloud forests in the Rio Valle Nacional.
42128		population	eng	Plants are known from two localities. The one population has approximately 2,000 plants and the other has 200 plants.
42128		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction due to slash and burn activities. The habitat is being replaced by coffee and banana plantations.
42129		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected by local communities.
42129		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to state of Oaxaca,  Mexico. Plants occurs to the south west of San Gabriel Mixtepec.
42129		habitat	eng	This species grows mainly in humid forest dominated by species of <em>Pinus </em>and <em>Quercus</em>. They are found on slopes with a north eastern exposure. Plants often grow in ravines in humus-rich soil.
42129		population	eng	Plants are known only from two (500 and 10,000 plants) colonies.
42129		threats	eng	These plants are affected by habitat destruction due to agriculture (corn, pastures) and also as a result of over-collecting.
42130		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42130		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Sierra Madre Occidental in the Sonora and Sinaloa states of Mexico.
42130		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high desert to oak woodland, usually on steep canyon walls or hillsides in extremely dry conditions. Plants also occur in the transition zone between oak-pine forest and tropical deciduous thorn forest.
42130		population	eng	There are seven known subpopulations from five localities in the Sonora and Sinalao states. It is likely that more populations exist in southern Sonora and northern Sinalao states.
42130		threats	eng	Plants have been collected for the production of an alcoholic beverage. A subpopulation has also been wiped out due to poaching. Climate change also seems to be affecting these plants. Large specimens have been found with dead stems due to water stress, but they are budding again at the base.
42131		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42131		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán and Nayarit states of Mexico. Plants are found along the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Sierra Madre Occidental. Recorded from 600 up to 1,850 m.
42131		habitat	eng	Plants are found in oak and pine-oak forests in steep-sided canyons and woodlands.
42131		population	eng	Surveys done at the six locations where the plants are found, indicated a total of 6,000 plants in the wild.
42131		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and over-collection for the ornamental trade.
42132		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42132		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small area of the Tabasco state in Mexico. Plants occur between Teapa and Tapijulapa.
42132		habitat	eng	<em>Z. cremnophila</em> grows on the sides of steep to precipituous rocky cliffs in rainforest. The cliffs are of calcareous formation.
42132		population	eng	Plants occur at several localities. The one near Tapijulapa has approximately 20 plants.
42133		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42133		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Panama, where it is found in three isolated populations in the provinces of Colon and Comarca de San Blas.
42133		habitat	eng	This species occurs on well-drained soils in the understorey of primary rainforest.
42133		population	eng	<em>Z. dressleri</em> occurs at low densities in the understorey of rainforest, so they can be difficult to survey properly. Population size is estimated to be <1,000. Attempts to locate plants in one of the three known populations were unsuccessful.
42133		threats	eng	<em>Z. dressleri</em> has been affected by habitat destruction due to land clearing for housing and logging. A major road is planned to go through one of the sites.
42134		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. fischer</em>i has been collected only a few times in the past 150 years. On this basis it is presumed to have a limited distribution and to be uncommon in the wild. In fact this species is not commonly found in cultivation. Given the level of habitat destruction it must be considered highly threatened in the wild. Plants are protected in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve and in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.
42134		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the state of San Luis Potosí (near Cuidad Valles) and also in neighboring Querétaro state, Mexico. Plants have also been found near Ocampo in Tamaulipas state.
42134		habitat	eng	Plants are found in well-drained rocky sites in evergreen pine-oak forest and cloud forest, in areas of deep shade.
42134		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has had a devastating effect on the populations in the wild.
42135		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Apparently this species seems to be not threatened by local habitat destruction. However, if this destruction continues it will have a negative effect in the future. Plants occur in the Palenque National Park and in the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve.<br/><br/><br/>.
42135		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Chiapas state of Mexico. Populations occur near or within the Lacandona Rainforest, close to Palenque and Agua Azul.
42135		habitat	eng	This species grows in primary tropical evergreen forest and also in disturbed areas of slash and burn agriculture. It regenerates after clearing and burning along roadsides and garden margins.
42135		population	eng	This species is known from two localities with an estimated population of less than 500 plants in the wild.
42135		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction as a result of slash and burn agriculture. However, plants seem to regenerate in abandoned cornfields, in areas cleared by logging operations and along roadsides.
42136		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42136		distribution	eng	This species ranges from north-central Colombia to Amazonian Colombia. Populations are found in the Amazonas, Cordoba, Meta and Santander provinces.
42136		habitat	eng	This species grows in wet to semidry lowland forest. Forest fragments have a transitional vegetation type, containing species typical from wet- and dry-tropical forests. Plants in the Atlantic Plains regions grow at an elevation of 50 m asl, a mean annual temperature of 27°C, and a mean annual rainfall of 2,300 mm, with two dry seasons (i.e., periods with rainfall lower than 100 mm/month) that run from December to February and from July to August.<em>Zamia melanorrhachis</em> populations inhabit both remnant forests (i.e., forest fragments never converted to pasture) with low levels of current human disturbance, and forest fragments resulting from forest regeneration characterized by secondary-forest vegetation. Secondary-forest fragments exhibit a higher level of disturbance than remnant-forest fragments (e.g., cattle trample, log extraction, soil perturbation—but not cultivation-prior to regeneration) (Lopez Gallego 2008).
42136		population	eng	This species is present in four localities in Colombia. One population in the Cerromatoso Region near Montelibano had approximately 1,000 individuals. It has been reported that the subpopulation at locality in Antioquia province is extinct.<br/><br/><em>Zamia melanorrhachis</em> is a small cycad with a subterrannean stem (5–8 cm in diameter) that bears 1–5 leaves (0.1–1.5 m in length), with 4–12 (rarely to 24) leaflets/leaf. Little is known about the vegetative or reproductive phenology of this species but the time required to reach maturity is estimated to be in the order of 5–10 years (Lopez-Gallego 2008).  Male and female cones are relatively small compared to other <em>Zamia </em>species, and female cones produce ca. 50 seeds (1 cm in diam.), that are red in color. Seeds have no dormancy and are probably dispersed by small animals, although dispersal is usually very limited in forest cycads (Norstog and Nicholls 1997). Plants are distributed in groups of a few dozens in the understory of the forest, and very few isolated plants are observed in between groups of plants.
42136		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation. The population in the Cerromatoso locality, occurs only in forest fragments. No continuous forest is left at this locality.
42137		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42137		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a very few localities in Oaxaca and Veracruz (Uxpanapa district), Mexico.
42137		habitat	eng	This species grows in mainly evergreen or nearly evergreen rainforest as an understorey plant, generally in limestone outcrops and on rainforest floor.
42137		population	eng	The population at Once in Veracruz consists of 100 plants.
42137		threats	eng	Habitat destruction as a result of clear cutting for crops and grazing has had an effect on the plants in the wild.
42138		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42138		distribution	eng	This species ioccurs in a relatively small area in coastal reaches of mainland Bocas del Toro Province in Panama.
42138		habitat	eng	It is primarily a lowland species and often grows on steep slopes in primary and secondary wet tropical forest.
42138		population	eng	The population status of <em>Z. skinneri</em> is affected by some confusion regarding the circumscription of this taxon. Currently several populations from the region of the Panama canal to the Costa Rican border could be regarded as <em>Z. skinneri</em>. At present, populations with green emergent leaves from the Bocas del Toro province in NW Panama region appear to be true <em>Z. skinneri</em> and that plants with red emergent leaves in other parts of Panama are an undescribed species. The population size of <em>Z. skinneri,</em> given this circumsciption is estimated to be less than 500. The new species are <em>Z. hamannii, Z. mesophila, Z. imperialis</em>
42138		threats	eng	Although this species is widespread, many of the subpopulations are impacted in various ways, with habitat destruction being the most prevalent.
42139		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Columbia River Forest Reserve and in the Sarstoon Temash National Park in Belize.
42139		distribution	eng	The main distribution area for <em>Z. variegata</em> is in  Guatemala, where it is found in the catchment of the Rio Motagua. Plants are also found in Chiapas state (Lacandona area) of Mexico and the coastal areas of Belize and Honduras.
42139		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet lowland forest to higher elevation pine-oak forest.
42139		population	eng	Expeditions in 1996 recorded the species as being locally common. This would usually indicate that there were several thousand individuals
42139		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is thought to have reduced occurrence by ca. 50% in the past few decades.
42140		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42140		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Querataro, Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí states (near Xilitla and Tamazunchale), Mexico.
42140		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to oak forests in the cloud zone of the Sierra Madre Oriental, on steep limestone hillsides and canyons. It is often associated with limestone karst formations and densities may increase near cave entrances (possibly due to concentrations of seed dispersers)
42140		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearance for banana and coffee plantations. Many hundreds of specimens have been collected in the past for ornamental purposes.
42141		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are conserved in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve in Queretaro state.
42141		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Hidalgo, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro and Veracruz states of Mexico and are found widely distributed from low to moderate elevations.
42141		habitat	eng	Plants are widely distributed from low to moderate elevations and are found in areas ranging from evergreen tropical forests to cloud forests and mixed deciduous woodlands and a range of geological substrates. Typically found in rocky hills.
42141		population	eng	This species is known from six localities. Demographic studies at one of the localities in Coacoazintla (Veracruz state) indicate that the local population may exceed 500,000 individuals.
42141		threats	eng	The mountain cloud forest habitat is threatened by habitat destruction. Forest is cleared for agriculture and cattle farming and is also impacted by the removal of wood for charcoal production. Strip mining to remove basaltic rock (e.g. in CoaCoatzincla) is also a threat, resulting in the removal of forest.
42142		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
42142		distribution	eng	This species is found along two parallel highways separated by approximately 80 km within the state of San Luis Potosí (on Ejido las Abridas mountain which is part of the Sierra Madré Oriental) and the very southern portion of Tamaulipas. Because the hills in which this taxon occurs run nearly uninterrupted between these two highways, the range is estimated to be sufficiently large and consisting of many thousands of individuals. The minimum range is probably ca. 300 km² but it could be as high as 1,000 km².
42142		habitat	eng	Plants occur at an altitude of about 850 m in a transitional woodland between mixed deciduous cloud forest and oak woods on limestone.
42142		population	eng	This species is known from at least six localities. Plants are exceedingly abundant in at least three of these localities with several populations consisting of many thousands of individuals.
42142		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction due to clearing for agricultural purposes..
42143		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Some plants occur in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and the La Cangrejera population is within a PEMEX (Mexico's national petroleum company) reserve.
42143		distribution	eng	Occurs in the states of Chiapas and Veracruz, Mexico. It has also been reported from Tabasco state, but this locality has probably been extirpated.
42143		habitat	eng	Plants are found in scattered populations ranging from an altitude near sea level to 600 m. They occur in mixed wet evergreen and deciduous forest. Overall, more than 95% of its original natural habitat has gone.
42143		population	eng	This species is known from three localities of which one has been destroyed in Chiapas in the past year, and the other two (Coatzacoalcos, and Las Tuxtlas) are small islands of habitat surrounded by agriculture or oil refineries. There are probably other small populations still extant and maybe a larger population on one of the other volcanoes near Las Tuxtlas, but the genetics of each pocket are Critically Endangered.<br/><br/>The known populations have been reduced dramatically in recent years. Miguel Angel Perez Farrera reports that the population above Mal Paso lake is now completely extirpated due to habitat destruction. The populations near Santiago Tuxtla and Coatzacoalcos are very much reduced and similarly threatened though the remaining plants at Coatzacoalcos are afforded some protection because they are located in a tiny remnant patch of forest under protection by Pemex (the national petroleum company) but literally right across the street from a large oil refinery. Ceratozamia miqueliana must be considered one of the most critically endangered of all Mexican cycads.
42143		threats	eng	This species has been severely affected as a result of habitat destruction (over 95% of original habitat is gone). Over-collecting for ornamental purposes has also had a negative effect on the natural populations.
42144		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Sierra de Santa Martha Biosphere Reserve.
42144		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico (Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco states). However, local experts believe that there are at least six to seven  taxa currently identified as <em>Ceratozamia robusta</em>.
42144		habitat	eng	Plants occur as an understorey plant in evergreen wet, humid tropical forests. Usually in limestone areas on steep slopes and cliffs.
42144		population	eng	Widely distributed. However, the taxonomy of this taxon is uncertain and many subpopulations may in future be classified as separate species. In this case, some of the 'new' species would be highly threatened. Most of the populations are small with less than 30 plants.
42144		threats	eng	Habitat destruction  due to clearing and burning, with some evidence of  collecting. The populations of this taxon have declined at least 50% within the last 20 years. Though it is distributed (at least <span style="font-style: italic;">C. robusta</span> <em>sensu latu</em>) in various localities within the Mexican states of Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas as well as Guatemala and Belize, nearly all of the populations visited over the last 10 years have shown continued declines, almost entirely due to habitat destruction (clearing) and fires. Further segregation of this species complex would result in a Critically Endangered status for some of the Mexican populations of what are now all lumped into <em>C. robusta</em> (Chemnick 2007).
42145		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42145		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico (Oaxaca and Puebla states). They are found near Teotitlan del Camino and Huautla de Jimenez.
42145		habitat	eng	The plants grow on steep shady slopes in tropical, deciduous forest. They are found in the transition zone between oak/pine forest and deciduous tropical thorn forest. The soil is generally rocky and poor.
42145		population	eng	The species is known from two localities (2,500 and 500 plants), with both subpopulations experiencing ongoing decline.
42145		threats	eng	The plants are threatened by habitat destruction as a result of cattle grazing and road-building and also due to over-collecting.
42146		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are known to be protected by local communities.
42146		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Chiapas and Oaxaca provinces in Mexico. Plants are known from the districts of Cintaalpa and Villa Flores and also in the Sierra de Juarez.
42146		habitat	eng	Plants occur in a forest dominated by <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Quercus</em> and also in tropical semi decidious forest with soils developed on sedimentary rocks and karst limestone. Specimens are found growing on steep sandstone cliffs, along thickly vegetated watercourses.
42146		population	eng	Plants are known from a number of locations and the decline in these different locations varies between 10% and 70% over the past two generations. Possible future decline is estimated between 10% and 50%.
42146		threats	eng	Populations are affected by over collection. In some cases the top portion of plants are cut off and sold as a table decoration.
42147		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.
42147		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Oaxaca state in Mexico. Plants are found in the Tomellin Canyon near Santa Catarina and Tomellin. Occurs at 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.
42147		habitat	eng	Plants grow in tropical deciduous forest on the sides of steep canyons.
42147		population	eng	Visits to five localities during 2000-2006 indicated a total of 3,130 plants.
42147		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown
42148		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42148		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Oaxaca, Mexico. Plants occur in the valley of the Rio Santa Domingo, near the villages of San Bartolome Ayautla and San Pedro Teutila. The type locality is on one side of the Rio Santo Domingo and there are reports of a population on the other side of the river.
42148		habitat	eng	It occurs in small groups with individual plants growing in the crevices of limestone cliffs where humus collects. In open tropical deciduous forest.
42148		population	eng	Plants are known from one or maybe two subpopulations. Though many hundreds if not thousands of plants apparently comprise this taxon, the population occurs in an area of very restricted distribution along the river. Records from 2005 indicate that 3000 plants were recorded.
42148		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (corn fields) in the area proceeds at an alarming rate and even the cliff habitat of <em>Dioon rzedowskii</em> does not appear to safe. Significant declines in the numbers of individuals at the type locality below San Bartolome Ayautla have been observed within the last five years.
42149		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected by local communities.
42149		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Oaxaca and Veracruz states of Mexico. They are found near the towns of Ciudad Aleman, Tuxtepec and Ojitlan, on the lowlands and hills at the foot of the Sierra de Oaxaca.
42149		habitat	eng	This species is found growing in lowland tropical evergreen rainforest on limestone hills and cliffs.
42149		population	eng	This species occurs in at least three locations
42149		threats	eng	This species is affected by severe habitat destruction as a result of farming, ranching and creation of reservoirs. There has been severe over-collection in the past.
42151		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42151		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Colombia, where it is present in the province of Santander. Plants are found near Rio Chicamocha and Rio Umpala.
42151		habitat	eng	<em>Z. encephalartoides</em> grows in open situations in scrubby forest on slopes of steep canyons and ridges.
42151		population	eng	This species is known from 2  localities with only scattered plants in one locality. One of the largest subpopulations near Umpala comprises about 1,000 large plants. Overall population size is estimated to be about 5,000.
42151		threats	eng	The main threat appears to be encroaching farming. Some sites are severely eroded.
42152		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are being cultivated in campesino cycad nurseries.
42152		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern part of Veracruz state, Mexico. Populations occur from south of Alvarado to just south of Playa de Montepio.
42152		habitat	eng	This species grows in areas varying from generally arid thorn scrub to sandy soils and in limestone sea cliffs.
42152		population	eng	This species is known from four widespread localities (<em>Z.furfuracea sensu latu</em>) and each consists of hundreds/thousands of individuals and some active recruitment. However, it is very much a range-restricted species whose coastal habitat is under threat.
42152		threats	eng	The huge declines in numbers of this species occurred over twenty years ago. Many plants were removed from the habitat for ornamental purposes.  It is now exceedingly common in cultivation and rarely collected in the field, though reports of wild seed collecting exist.
42153		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is known from an area that is botanically very poorly known and is presumed to have a wider distribution. For now it is considered very rare pending further data.
42153		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ecuador, where it is found in the Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces. Populations occur in two localities, one near Alto Tambo and the other between Lita and San Lorenzo. <em>Z. gentri</em> is thought to occur in adjoining Colombia.
42153		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to extremely wet, premontane rain (cloud) forest on compact clay soils. The plants grow on the soils with the roots spreading under a thin layer of leaf mould. Soils are almost pure kaolin. Some plants grow as epiphytes.
42153		population	eng	The population size of <em>Z. gentryi</em> was originally estimated as 500 (2003 assessment), and Dodson reported a population density of about 24 plants per hectare. In 2006,  Fernando Orjeda visted the type locality and no more than 10 plants were found in about five sq. km.  This area known as the Alto Chocó is the least botanically explored and the most deforested in Ecuador.
42153		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of agricultural activities.
42154		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42154		distribution	eng	This species is known from El Salvador and more recently from Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and neighboring Chiapas state in Mexico.
42154		habitat	eng	This species grows in primary and secondary forest from 200-800 m and does best as an understory plant in pine-oak forest and well drained sites in cloud forest and mesic situations.
42154		population	eng	The population size of <em>Z. herrerae</em> has been estimated as at least 1,000, but this is probably underestimated as it has a widespread distribution in areas that have been poorly surveyed.
42155		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42155		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small area in Panama. Plants are found near the town of Ipeti in Panama province. Some authories regard this species and <em>Z. cunaria</em> as one taxon. In this case the range is substantially larger.
42155		habitat	eng	This species grows in primary and secondary rain forest and grows in clay soils.
42155		population	eng	<em>Z. ipetiensis</em> occurs across two locations with an estimated population size of 2,000 plants.
42155		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing for agriculture.
42156		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Nurseries for propagation of endemic plants, including cycads are proceeding successfully. Wild collecting is minimized as propagated material is entering the horticultural market.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Z. soconuscensis</span> occurs in the El Triunfo and La Sepultura Biosphere Reserves of Chiapas and the species is being sustainably managed in campesino cycad nurseries.
42156		distribution	eng	This species is narrowly endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in the Chiapas state. Plants are found as scattered localised populations in the Soconusco mountain range.
42156		habitat	eng	Plants are found in the understorey, growing on organic clay soils from evergreen forest to cloud forest.
42156		population	eng	The total population size of <em>Z. soconuscensis</em> is approximately 5,000 plants. They are relatively abundant at four localities.
42156		threats	eng	This species appears to be threatened in habitat as a result of clearing for agricultural purposes. Corn and coffee production, as well as lumbering are the main threats.
42157		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42157		distribution	eng	<em>Z. standleyi</em> is found in the northern river valleys of Honduras (Colon, Atlantida, Yoro and Cortez provinces), from San Pedro Sula eastward toward the Caribbean coast, reported as far east as the Rio Platano. Further fieldwork is necessary to determine the full extent of the range of the species and whether it extends into contiguous areas in Guatemala.
42157		habitat	eng	This species is found along the valleys of the northern rivers from moist hillsides, semixeric woodlands, disturbed secondary scrub (matorral), areas of regrowth and in cultivated fields.
42157		population	eng	This species is estimated to comprise approximately 5,000 plants in the wild.
42158		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It is also protected by local communities.
42158		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico where it is widely distributed in the Sierra Madre Oriental. Plants are centered in two areas nl. central Veracruz in an area near to Xalapa and then in an area spanning northern Hidalgo, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, and southern Tamaulipas states.
42158		habitat	eng	This species grows in areas transitional between tropical deciduous forest and oak woodland, in rocky areas and on steep cliffs.
42158		population	eng	This species is known from many localities, with many thousands of adult plants. Some populations have declined substantially, but overall decline is relatively low. A few of the populations were visited between 1998 and 2005 and a total of 141,500 plants were recorded.
42158		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction and over-collecting for ornamental purposes.
42159		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is considered to be rare in Panama and vulnerable in Costa Rica. Plants occur in the San Lorenzo Protected Area.
42159		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, along the San Juan River and in Panama in Cocle province near El Valle de Anton. Further taxonomic work is needed as populations in Panama seem different to the plants described from northern Costa Rica.
42159		habitat	eng	<em>Z. acuminata</em> generally prefers understory situations in cloud forest. Plants are also found in low-elevation rain forest and seasonally dry tropical deciduous forest.
42159		population	eng	<em>Z. acuminata</em> populations in the wild consist of least 5,000 plants. The population at El Valle comprises approximately 1,000 plants concentrated in a fairly small area. The status of other subpopulations is not well known.
42159		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction, which is a common problem within the distribution range. Habitat destruction has been estimated to be less than 30%
42160		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42160		distribution	eng	Thius species occurs in the Amazonian areas of Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela and also in Ecuador.
42160		habitat	eng	This species is widely distributed in lowland rainforest of the upper Amazon in Brazil. Plants are often found near black-water drainage and white sand "campina" forest  - areas with soils of very low fertility.
42160		population	eng	<em>Z. amazonum</em> is fairly common locally throughout its range. Plants are known from two locations in Peru, two in Ecuador, and three locations in Colombia. It is also expected to be found in the Amazonian area of Bolivia.
42161		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42161		distribution	eng	This species is known from Beni (El Porvenir, Trinidad and Lake Rogoaguado), Cochabamba (Campero) and Santa Cruz (Huanchaca, San Matias, Porongo, Nuflo de Chavez, Velasco and San Ignacio) provinces in Bolivia and also in Mato Grosso in Brazil.
42161		habitat	eng	<em>Z. boliviana</em> grows in relatively dry habitats in open grassland and sandy well drained soils.
42162		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42162		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Columbia where it is found in the Choco and Valle de Cauca provinces. A disjunct distribution is found in the Chiriqui province of Panama.
42162		habitat	eng	In Columbia, <em>Z. chigua</em> is found in lowland rainforest along river margins(10m -150 m altitude), whereas in Panama it grows at altitudes of 600-1,200 meters in rainforests.
42162		population	eng	This species is known from four localities in Colombia and across its range it is relatively common.
42163		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. There are several large reproducing populations some of which are now in protected forests. There are populations within the Corcovado National Park and in the  La Amistad National Park.
42163		distribution	eng	This species occurs primarily in southeastern Costa Rica in the province of Puntarenas. Populations are found in the area of the Sierpe and Claro rivers and on the Burica peninsula. Plants have also been recorded from adjacent areas in Panama.
42163		habitat	eng	The largest populations of <em>Z. fairchildiana</em> occur on slopes of varying soil types, ranging from rocky to clay soils and they grow in primary and secondary tropical rainforest. Most plants are found at elevations between 0-800m, but some plants occur up to 1,500 m altitude.
42163		population	eng	<em>Z. fairchildiana</em> is very common in local populations, with at least 10,000 plants estimated to be in the wild.
42164		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. In Cuba, populations are present in National Park Guanahacabibes in the Pinar del Rio province and the Ecological Reserve Varahicacos in the Matanza province. In Puerto Rico, plants are found in the Punta Guaniquilla Natural Reserve near Cabo Rojo. In the Bahamas, plants are found in the Abaco National Park of Great Abaco Island. Plants also occurs in about 80 conservation areas in Florida, U.S.A., including the Everglades National Park.
42164		distribution	eng	This species is known from the extreme southeastern Georgia state of the United States of America, southward through peninsular Florida (including the Florida Keys) and sporadically in the Bahamas where it occurs on Andros, Grand Bahama, Great Abaco, Long, and New Providence Islands. It has been collected in western Cuba, the Cayman Islands, and south-central Puerto Rico where one small population persists.
42164		habitat	eng	Habitats of <em>Z. integrifolia</em> vary from open coastal areas and sand dunes to pinelands and closed canopy oak hammocks to tropical forest. This cycad is most commonly found in soil over limestone and in sand near sea level or in dry pinelands subjected to periodic wildfires.
42164		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population size of <em>Z. integrifolia</em> is in excess of 30,000 plants in the wild. The one population in western Cuba consists of 133 individuals.
42164		threats	eng	<em>Z. integrifolia</em> has declined mainly due to habitat destruction for housing developments and agriculture. In the early 20th century, a large number were collected as part of a commercial starch industry.
42165		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. lecointei</em> is most common in Bolivar, Venezuela where it is found in both pristine and disturbed habitats.
42165		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazonas and Bolivar provinces of Venezuela. Plants are also found in Para province in Brazil, north of the Amazon River. In Peru plants are found in Loreto province and in Colombia populations occur in the Antioquia and Amazonas provinces.
42165		habitat	eng	Plants are found generally growing in very sandy well drained soils. Plants often grow in the open in direct sun or as an understory in secondary vegetation. The habitat is considered to be moderate to open low-elevation, dry, seasonal forest to tropical lowland wet primary forest.
42165		population	eng	This species is known from several locations across its range. In Colombia there are two localities where it is locally common.
42166		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some populations are protected in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
42166		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico where it found on the Atlantic side of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Hidalgo, Chiapas and Tamaulipas states.
42166		habitat	eng	This species occurs from sea level to 1000 m in low dry deciduous forest or semi-deciduous forests at mid elevations to cloud forest at higher elevations. Usually with oaks dominant. Plants also survive in disturbed sites. Plants generally prefers dry often sandy soils.
42166		population	eng	This species is known from hundreds of localities.
42166		threats	eng	This species has been affected as a result of habitat destruction due to agriculture and cattle ranching.
42167		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42167		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southeastern portion of Long Island in the Bahamas. Populations are found near Clarence Town and Turtle Cove.
42167		habitat	eng	This species grows in sandy coastal thicket. Populations generally occur in areas of pure sand, in association with sea grape (<em>Coccoloba</em> sp.) Plants are found in limestone and sand about 91 metres from the sea. Two of the three populations are located in shallow depressions that are kept continually moist by seepage from the island's freshwater lens. There is usually no standing groundwater for at least half the year. One population is marginal around a deeper freshwater pond. This is a permanent pond.  All populations receive direct sunlight. Plants have not been seen growing in semi- or full-shade situations.
42167		population	eng	This species consists of an extensive colony with many old plants, as well as a thriving understorey of seedlings. However, although at least five subpopulations were recorded 10 years ago, two of those groups have now disappeared as a result of forest clearing. Some of the others have declined due to trash dumping.  There are probably other subpopulations in more remote locations.
42167		threats	eng	Two out of the three photographed subpopulations are roadside subpopulations with easy public access; they are in danger of being eliminated through road expansion, shifting cultivation, and indiscriminate garbage dumping. Forest clearing also poses a threat.
42168		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42168		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia where it is found in the Choco and Antioquia provinces. In neighbouring Panama, plants occur in the Darien province.
42168		habitat	eng	<em>Z. manicata</em> occurs in primary rainforest and secondary forest.
42168		population	eng	Within its distribution range, four of the localities are found in Colombia and here the species is considered to be locally abundant.
42168		threats	eng	Land use is likely to be the main threat but this is not a major threat at present.
42169		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42169		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern and coastal Colombia and further towards the central and coastal area of Venezuela.
42169		habitat	eng	<em>Z. muricata</em> grows as an understory plant mainly from sea level to 300 m in primary forest to well-established secondary forest on rocky to clay soils.
42169		population	eng	There are three known localities in Colombia. Not much is known about the population in Venezuela.
42170		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42170		distribution	eng	Little is known of the true extent of the geographic distribution of this species, but the populations that have been surveyed to date occur on steep hills of primary tropical deciduous forest along the Río Changuinola and its tributaries. This falls in the Bocas del Toro region of Panama.
42170		habitat	eng	This species grows as an understorey plant on steep hills in primary tropical deciduous forest along rivers. The understorey in the areas of the forest with the largest trees (in what could be referred to as protected primary forest) is dominated by plants with trunks well in excess of one metre and often measuring 1.5–2 m tall.
42170		population	eng	Little is known about population numbers
42170		threats	eng	A hydro-electric dam project that is being planned for the region may have significant negative impacts on several subpopulations.
42171		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. One subpopulation is found in the Las Orquideas National Park in Colombia.
42171		distribution	eng	This species occurs fron southern Panama in the Darien province in the vicinity of Yaviza to the southern Choco in Colombia in the vicinity of Cabo Corrientes and Bahia Solano.
42171		habitat	eng	This species prefers understorey situations in primary and secondary rainforest, in dense shade. It does not do well in heavily disturbed areas probably because of its growth habit.
42171		population	eng	In Colombia, there are numerous populations over a large area, while in Panama it is also common and found over a large area.
42172		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42172		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is widely distributed in the west, along the Pacific coast and also on Maria Cleofas island. Plants occur in the following states, Chiapas, Colima, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit and Oaxaca.
42172		habitat	eng	This species grows in forest dominated by species of <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Quercus</em> in dry climates which have a strong seasonal rainfall. The general vegetation type is called low elevation coastal thornbush.
42173		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42173		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal plains and foothills of the Cordillera Occidental in Ecuador, Acre, Brazil and Southwestern Colombia. Also occurs in Peru (Loreto province) and in southwestern Colombia.
42173		habitat	eng	This species grows in humus rich soils and they occur in shady, moist woods, often on fallen and decaying tree trunks.
42174		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be one of the best protected cycads in Mexico (Osborne and Tang 2009) in terms of demarcated reserves. Populations occur within the Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve, Río Celestún Biosphere Reserve, the Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, the Arrecife Alacranes National Park and the Río Lagartos Biosphere Reserve. As with all <span style="font-style: italic;">Zamia </span>spp., it is listed on CITES Appendix II.
42174		distribution	eng	<em>Zamia polymorpha</em> occurs along the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and along the eastern coast of Belize extending westward up to 500 m on the eastern slope of the Maya mountains and with a further range extension into the Peten province of Guatamala.
42174		habitat	eng	This species occurs in generally flat to slightly hilly areas, in full sun or shade. The vegetation throughout the range varies from sub-tropical moist forest to deciduous tropical forest, thorn forest and their successional stages (Osborne and Tang 2009). The soils is a sparse loam cover over limestone.
42174		population	eng	Populations are known to occur at numerous localities. Not much information is available on overall population size, but the population is estimated to exceed 10.000 plants.
42174		threats	eng	There is moderate habitat destruction within the range of <em>Z. polymorpha</em> but the soils are generally poor and not suitable for agriculture.
42175		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42175		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Panama where it occurs in the provinces of Bocas del Toro, Coclé, Colon and Veraguas.
42175		habitat	eng	<em>Z. pseudoparasitica</em> occurs from 50 to 1,000 m in trees on steep slopes in rainforest and cloudforest. It appears to be limited to primary forest, perhaps because it cannot become established in secondary forest. It is the only truly epiphytic cycad and is not found as a terrestrially growing plant. It hangs from branches by the tap and lateral roots and generally is found from 7 to 20 meters above the ground on large trunks and in lower crotches of large canopy trees.
42175		population	eng	This species is known from numerous locations in its distribution range.
42175		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction as a result or road building, building of habitations and as a result of logging.
42176		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Fairly common in cultivation at botanical gardens as a result of introduction of plants in the early 1980s.
42176		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Costa Rica where it it occurs in the Puntarenas province. It also oocurs across the border in the Chiriqui province of Panama.
42176		habitat	eng	This species grows in mixed evergreen forests of the highlands. It occurs on somewhat acidic soils in the understorey of cloud forests.
42177		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Turquino National Park  in the Santiago de Cuba province of Cuba.
42177		distribution	eng	Historically the range of <em>Z. pumila</em> was Central Cuba, Southern Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola (Hispaniola and Dominican Republic). The species is now limited to Central Cuba and the Dominican Republic and appears to have been eradicated in parts of its range due to intensive land use in Southern Puerto Rico and Haiti.
42177		habitat	eng	Plants do particularly well in very well drained soils. This includes limestone soils and even sandy beach strand soils. Generally speaking the plants that are in a situation under shrubs are more vigorous.
42177		population	eng	Population numbers estimated to be several thousand, probably 5.000-10.000. The number of subpopulations is uncertain.
42178		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42178		distribution	eng	This species occurs along coastal areas of the Choco, Narino and Valle del Cauca provinces and more inland in the Amazonas province of Colombia and contiguous coastal Ecuador at or near sea level.
42178		habitat	eng	This species grows in equatorial forests and swampy mangrove  of the Pacific coastal lowlands. Plants are usually not far above sea level. Some plants may be flooded by high tides. The soils have been described as brackish mud.
42178		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in Colombia where it occurs at four localities.
42179		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42179		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Guatemala where it occurs in the Alta Verapaz province.
42179		habitat	eng	This species grows on wet forested slopes and ridges developed on limestone. Most commonly found as understorey plants on steep slopes or rocky well-drained areas.
42179		population	eng	This species is regarded as fairly abundant throughout its range
42179		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
42180		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42180		distribution	eng	This species occurs north of the Amazon River in the Amazonas province of Brazil and disjunct to the bordering regions of western Brazil and eastern Colombia, Ecuador (Napo and Pastaza provinces) and Peru.
42180		habitat	eng	This species grows on protected slopes in rainforest and in open tropical forests in very sandy soil. Also occurs near the summits of low quartzite hills.
42180		population	eng	<em>Z. ulei</em> is fairly common in sporadic populations throughout its range.
42180		threats	eng	Continued logging will pose a problem in the future.
42182		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42182		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Panama. Populations occur in the Cuna Yale area of the Comarca de San Blas province.
42182		habitat	eng	<em>Z. cunaria</em> is usually found in clay soils on slopes and ridge tops in secondary vegetation within rainforest.
42182		population	eng	This species is locally common around areas such as Llan Cartis road and Kuna Llala.  Population size is estimated to be at least 10,000 plants.
42182		threats	eng	<em>Z. cunaria</em> is mainly affected by habitat loss due to logging and clearing of the rainforest. Habitat loss is occurring generally within its range, but decline is estimated to be <30% over the past 60 years.
42183		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Local prohibition of further deforestation to protect the watershed is a likely benefit for this species.
42183		distribution	eng	This species is a narrow endemic in Oaxaca state, Mexico. The known localities are on the Sierra Norte de Oaxaca (Sierra Mixes).
42183		habitat	eng	Plants are found in mixed evergreen and deciduous cloud forests in the Sierra Mixes. Grows on heavily shaded east- and west-facing slopes.
42183		population	eng	This species is found on two adjacent mountain peaks and surveys done in 1996-1997 indicate a population count in excess of 8,500 plants.
42183		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction as a result of deforestation to make way for coffee plantations. The entire locality is rapidly being cleared and planted almost to the tops of the peaks.
42184		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species has important cultural value and is hence protected by local inhabitants.
42184		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the states of Colon, Olancho and Yoro of Honduras.
42184		habitat	eng	This species is typically an understorey component of semi-deciduous tropical rain forest and is found on steep slopes and in canyons, but also grows on flat terrain. Some populations thrive in sandy soil or sandy to clayey alluvial deposits, while others grow in loamy, limestone-derived soils; in soils weathered from metamorphics (schists, gneisses); etc.
42184		population	eng	The populations of <em>Dioon mejiae</em> have been conservatively estimated to total more than 600,000 wild plants. This includes two “super-populations”, each containing more than 100,000 plants.
42184		threats	eng	This species' biggest threat comes from habitat destruction as a result of the conversion of habitat to farmland and to a lesser extent the effects of logging and road-building on the habitat.
42185		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
42185		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the  Bahamas (on the islands of New Providence and Eleuthera) and in the eastern parts of Cuba.
42185		habitat	eng	<em>Z. angustifolia</em> grows on dry limestone soils. They occur only on the red soils and not on the white soils. It grows in open habitats such as grassland and also in pine forests.
42185		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing for pineapple plantations.
42187		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the San Ubaldo-Sabanalamar Ecological Reserve in the Pinar del Rio province and in the Los Indios Ecological Reserve on the Isla de la Juventud.
42187		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Cuba and the  Isla de la Juventud (previously Isla de Pinos.)
42187		habitat	eng	Plants of <em>Z. pygmaea</em> generally grow in open dry habitats. These vary from serpentine to limestone outcrops to almost pure sand. <em>-Zamia pygmaea</em>, along with <em>Z. angustifolia</em>, is one of the most xerophytic species in the genus. Plants occur in dry brush covered hills, pine forests and areas of white sand.
42187		population	eng	Population data from western Cuba: 2 subpopulations <em>Zamia pygmaea </em> (187 individuals) and 2 populations of <em>Zamia ottonis - </em>synonym of <em>Z. pygmaea</em> (78 individuals). Depending on the accepted taxonomy, the species comprises either 2 subpopulations with a total of 187 plants or 4 subpopulations with a total of 265 individuals. These are total populations counts, so the number of mature individuals is estimated to be <250.
42188		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>mesopotamica</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <em>D. mesopotamica</em>). Occurs in a number of protected areas.
42188		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a large number of protected areas. The main conservation priority for this species is to protect the surviving native population in the Düzlerçami Game Reserve in the Termessos National Park in southern Turkey. This will require strong anti-poaching measures, recovery management, captive breeding and re-introductions. <br/><br/>The population on Rhodes is also very important genetically and should also be the focus of conservation programmes. The free-ranging animals on Rhodes are protected by Greek law. Although poaching is still taking place, this is to a much lesser extent than was the case in the past. Thanks to more effective control of poaching, as well as the reduced number of large fires on the island, the fallow deer population seems to have recovered and regained much of its former range (up until 1960 it occurred in almost all of the rural and natural areas on the island). A fallow deer conservation plan for Greece is now needed, which should include: a) the establishment of a population and habitat monitoring program; b) the creation of a compensation system as well as a monitoring programme for agricultural damage caused by deer; c) the introduction of fallow deer of Rhodian origin to other places in Greece; and d) the implementation of public awareness and participatory programmes for the conservation of the species (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
42188		distribution	eng	A western Palaearctic species. Its original range includes the Near and Middle East and possibly parts of south-eastern Europe. It was introduced to the western Mediterranean by the Phoenicians, and to central and northern Europe by the Romans and Normans. More recently, it has been introduced to many countries worldwide (e.g. New Zealand, where it is considered a pest) (Apollonio 1999). In Portugal most of the specimens occur within confined areas, such as parks and private hunting areas, and apart from a few scattered individuals there is no wild population (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).
42188		distribution	eng	This is a western Palaearctic species. Its original range is unclear, but current knowledge suggests that Turkey and southern Europe (southern Italy, Sicily and the southern Balkan peninsula) were the post-glacial refuges of the species (Heidemann, 1976 and 1986; Chapman and Chapman, 1980; Bökönyi, 1986; Masseti and Rustioni, 1988; Masseti, 1996, 1999 and 2002; Burgio <em>et al</em>., 1998), though the palaeontological and archaeozoological evidence of the species’ diffusion in all these areas is very fragmentary. Records from Iran and the Middle East refer to <em>Dama mesopotamica</em>. Only one undoubtedly natural wild population survives, in the Düzlerçami Game Reserve in the Termessos National Park in southern Turkey, though this is now largely fenced. Other populations in Turkey, at Ayvalik Adalar, Gokova, Adakoy and Stavros-tis-Psokas appear to have died out in recent years (M. Masseti pers. comm.). The population on the island of Rhodes (Greece) is said to have been introduced in Neolithic times (Masseti 2007; Masseti <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008). Certainly, fossils of fallow deer on Rhodes go back to Neolithic times, and there are no signs of prolonged periods of domestication, and so it could be considered a native population (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). The population on Cyprus was introduced in the 20th century (Masseti 1999). The animals on Rhodes are genetically very distinct from all others, as are those in Termessos National Park (Masseti 2007; Masseti <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008).<br/><br/>The species was introduced to the western Mediterranean by the Phoenicians, and to central and northern Europe by the Romans and Normans. However, most of the currently existing populations in Europe result from much more recent introductions (with the exception of some older ones in, for example, the United Kingdom, and at Castel Porziano in Italy). The distribution in Europe is much more scattered and patchy than indicated on the map (which shows its general extent of occurrence). Furthermore, most European populations are fenced and closely managed, and there are rather few truly free-ranging populations (though some are in the United Kingdom). The population on Rhodes is, however, free-ranging. In most places the fallow deer is managed as a park animal, as almost the whole of its present geographic range is attributable to humans. In Portugal, for example, most of the specimens occur within confined areas, such as parks and private hunting areas, and apart from a few scattered individuals there is no wild population (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also in other areas such as Sicily and Calabria (Italy) there are only fenced and managed populations (M. Masseti pers. comm.). Most European animals (with the excepton those in Termessos National Park and on Rhodes) are essentially descended from domestic stock, and there are colour varieties that are considered to be a result of domestication.  <br/><br/>More recently, the species has been introduced to many countries worldwide (not included in the distribution map), including South Africa, Australia, New Zealand (considered a pest there), the United States, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, as well as islands in Fijian group, the Lesser Antilles, and off the Pacific coast of Canada (Apollonio 1999). (Apollonio 1999).
42188		habitat	eng	A highly adaptable species that can survive in a wide range of habitats.
42188		habitat	eng	This is a a highly adaptable species that can survive in a wide range of habitats, including forest, shrubland, grassland, pastureland and plantations.
42188		population	eng	Most introduced populations in Europe are stable (Apollonio 1999). However, in its native range in Turkey, this species has suffered severe declines and has disappeared most of its former distribution (M. Masseti pers. comm.). There is only one surviving population of <em>D. dama</em> that is considered to be an original native population. This population is restricted to Telmessos National Park in Turkey and numbers fewer than 30 individuals (Masseti 2007), with apparently fewer than ten animals remaining outside the fended area. It has declined by over 50% in the last ten years and is genetically distinct from <em>D. dama</em> occurring elsewhere (Masseti 2002, 2007). The population of <em>D. dama</em> on Rhodes has not been subject to any systematic research on population size (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). The distribution range of fallow deer on Rhodes is about 550 km², and a subjective estimate of the population size ranges between 400 – 800 individuals (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). Masseti (2002, 2007) estimated that there were 400-500 animals on Rhodes. There are recent signs of population recovery on Rhodes (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.).
42188		population	eng	Most introduced populations in Europe are stable (Apollonio 1999). However, in its native range outside Europe, this species has suffered severe declines and has disappeared from a number of countries where it was formerly found (Wemmer 1998).
42188		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Europe. In the species' native range, hunting and habitat conversion for agriculture caused massive declines in the past (Wemmer 1998). The tiny remaining population in the native range in Turkey is at risk from inbreeding and hunting. The Rhodian population is also at risk form poaching and from the incidence of large fires (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). In the future there might be the threat of outbreeding depression, as there is a tendency people on Rhodes to keep fallow deer of European origin in fenced areas, which, if they escape, could breed with the wild animals (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). Furthermore, damage to summer crops on Rhodes, attributable to fallow deer, has been recorded, and as there is no compensation system for damage caused by deer damages, persecution of animals could take place (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). Also, there is a reduction in water resources on the island due to climatic change, and this could affect the animals (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.).
42188		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Europe. In the species' native range outside Europe, hunting and habitat conversion for agriculture caused massive declines in the past, and habitat degradation continues to be a serious threat (Wemmer 1998).
42189		conservation	eng	Yello Muntjac are known from many protected areas in Malaysia and Indonesia. Protected area coverage in the lowland plains is still relatively limited in Borneo, and many areas are, in terms of forest ungulate protection, sufficiently small (under 100 sq. km) that long-term persistence cannot be assumed; most places will require continuous hands-on activities against poaching. Even protected areas are not securing lowland forest on current trends, at least in some parts of Borneo: Curran <em>et al</em>. (2004) demonstrated substantial loss of lowland forest within protected areas of Indonesian Borneo. Indonesian forestry law protects all species of muntjac (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Heavy hunting with shotguns was found to be a severe problem for larger mammals and birds across Sarawak and the need for its control (of guns and of sale of ammunition, with firm legal underpinnings) was recognised in the Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996). As everywhere, people devise ways for circumventing the controls (illegal trade in bullets and locally made shot-guns, called bekakok, which have no administrative or legal paper-trail) and strong enforcement is required for the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>The long-term persistence of large populations of Bornean Yellow Muntjac, as distinct from isolated populations in well-secured protected areas, will depend upon their ability to use plantation landscapes of oil palm, rubber, acacia and others. Clarification of this is needed to assess the species’s conservation priorities. Of particular concern is the finding from Sabah suggesting that <em>M. atherodes</em> may be more a species of old-growth forest and <em>M. muntjak</em> the predominant species of logged areas (Heydon 1994). It is urgent to determine whether this is a generally applicable pattern across Borneo.<br/><br/>Close liaison with plantation estates and other employers of large numbers of labourers is essential as this offers the best medium to control hunting by employees. As the proportion of plantation rises this will become ever more important. Similar arrangements are needed with logging concession-holders, even more importantly because of the high hunting levels by loggers. <br/><br/>In future studies, ways of enhancing information specific to muntjac species need to be sought and implemented. Many of the studies reviewed here would not, for example, have detected wild changes in the relative proportions of the two muntjac species within their results concerning muntjac spp. This is a major concern, given that <em>M. atherodes</em> is everywhere sympatric with <em>M. muntjak</em>. With cheap digital cameras now available, some form of photography, by the hunter, of each animal killed should be considered (and this would be beneficial for other Bornean genera with closely similar species, e.g. chevrotains <em>Tragulus</em>). Most of the grey literature was not available to the present review and much could be learnt from a more comprehensive trawl of it and of active surveyors.
42189		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on Borneo, and lives throughout the island (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985); many specific localities are given in Groves and Grubb (1982). No information was traced concerning presence in Brunei but it presumably lives there. It is present in both Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). The Bornean Yellow Muntjac is known from most of the forest protected areas in Sarawak, including Bako National Park, Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Similajau National Park, Lambir Hills National Park, Samunsam National Park, Gunung Gading National Park (in the lowland part), Mulu and Niah National Park, and has also been recorded in logged forest in the Bintulu area and in oil palm adjacent to recently logged forest in north-east of Bintulu (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008).
42189		habitat	eng	Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) stated that “available data suggests that this species predominates over the Red Muntjac in low hill ranges and coastal regions”, but Meijaard and Sheil (2008) pointed out that still “no robust quantitative data exist to support this [pattern]”. A partial review of altitudes associated with museum specimens by R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) suggests no readily apparent difference between <em>M. atherodes</em> and <em>M. muntjak</em> in the altitudes of historically collected animals, in fact there appear to have been very few muntjac collected at altitudes over 900 m asl, presumably partly reflecting the relatively small area of Borneo above such altitudes. There is, however, an opinion by many field observers that Bornean Yellow Muntjac is genuinely absent from mountains. It is common in Sungai Wain forest, Kalimantan, which spans 30–150 m asl, and clearly outnumbers <em>M. muntjak</em> there (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008). It also seems to be the predominant species in Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, a mix of <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantation and natural forest, where it uses mature and immature plantation, freshly logged forest and relict tall forest; nearby it has also been found in oil palm (Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). In the Ulu Segama area of Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, mostly at about 300 m asl, <em>M. atherodes</em> is slightly more common than <em>M. muntjak</em> (Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Muntjacs were frequently seen, suspected to comprise roughly equal numbers of the two species, in the Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, which lies mostly at 100–760 m asl (Meredith 1995). <em>M. atherodes</em> occurs down to sea-level (in e.g. Similajau National Park, Sarawak; Duckworth 1997) and up to at least 3,000 feet (approximately 900 m asl), based on specimens in the Field Museum (Chicago, USA). Mohd Azlan J. (pers. comm. 2008) has recorded muntjacs provisionally recorded as this species in hill dipterocarp forest at both Lambir Hills National Park and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. Field observation suggests that it occurs naturally only below 1,000 m asl, although semi-captive individuals live as high as 3,000 m asl (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2006). It uses both primary and secondary forest (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), although no specific information is available on its tolerance to severe degradation and fragmentation. It presumably cannot survive complete forest conversion, but this has not been demonstrated or even, it seems, investigated.<br/><br/>Its diet includes herbs, seeds, grass and fruits (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).  It is mostly active during the daytime (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1995, Yasuma and Abdullah 1997) but at least sometimes at night (Duckworth 1997). It lives in small territories and moves either in pairs or alone (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1995). Breeding seasonality is unknown.
42189		population	eng	This species appears to be widespread and common throughout its range, wherever appropriate habitat occurs (Yasuma and Abdullah 1997, Belden Giman pers. comm. 2006; see further discussion in Habitat and ecology). Numbers seem to be in some decline in the Indonesian part of Borneo (Semiadi 2005). They may also be in decline in Malaysian Borneo (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000), although this study did not distinguish the two species of muntjac. However, around the Bintulu lowlands the species remains common despite major habitat disruption and high levels of hunting (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008).
42189		threats	eng	Habitat encroachment and hunting are both widespread on Borneo. Indeed, they are often associated and all the island’s ungulates suffer from the increased hunting that often accompanies logging (Bennett and Dahaban 1995, Bennett and Gumal 2001), such that hunting to local extinction is the chief detrimental effect of logging on ungulates in Sarawak (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Hunting is for meat, medicine and hides.<br/><br/>The extent to which habitat encroachment and hunting constitute threats specifically to <em>M. atherodes</em> is unclear, reflecting a paucity of studies to determine its resilience. Logging has been reported to lead to slight decreases in densities of the species, and this seems to be due to habitat change per se rather than elevated hunting (which usually accompanies logging; Bennett and Gumal 2001) because <em>M. muntjak</em> in the same study was found to increase strongly after logging (Heydon 1994). In the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, Sarawak, muntjacs (probably mostly this species) are among the commonest species camera-trapped in young <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantations (under four years old) and have been seen browsing on young acacia shoots. Footprints are common in the adjacent newly planted areas and forest fragments (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). However, this area contains a substantial proportion of natural, if somewhat degraded, forest, which in theory might be found to be necessary for populations in the highly altered habitats. Information on the species in landscape-scale plantations has not been traced. In terms of coping with fragmentation, <em>M. atherodes</em> has survived at least for several years in several forest isolates of 100 km² or less, Similajau National Park (Sarawak; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. based on observations in 2005), Sepilok Forest Reserve (only 42 km²; muntjacs not confirmed as this species; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008), and Sungai Wain (Kalimantan; G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008); in the latter, where there is little hunting except around the margins, it is common. But the current carving up of the formerly extensive forest of lowland Borneo is so recent that determining long-term persistence in such fragments is impossible; doomed populations in slow but fixed decline may account for records in fragmented and degraded areas. There is no good evidence that any muntjac is tied to old-growth forest, however, even in areas where two or more species are sympatric (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Muntjacs are widely and heavily hunted on Borneo for meat, skins, and as a source of traditional remedies (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008; G. M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; A. C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Traditionally, hunting used traps, dogs and spears, and blowpipes. Hunters in remote parts of the interior still use these methods, but most animals now die by gunfire. Sarawak held 60,000 legally registered shotguns while Sabah held almost 13,000 in the mid 1990s (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Methods used in Indonesia include guns and spotlights along logging roads, snaring, and dogs (G. M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008). The combination of dogs and guns may be particularly efficient (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). Snaring is still very heavy outside well-secured areas, but at least in some areas seems not to catch many of this species: Belden Giman (pers. comm. 2008) found during interviews with 75 longhouses inside the Sarawak Planted Forests (Bintulu) that the highest percentage (73% and 12%) of game species caught by snares were pigs and porcupines respectively; muntjacs (both species) totalled less than 2% of animals, even though in this area they are common. Shotguns remain the even bigger problem (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Unaccompanied packs of stray or even perhaps feral dogs are also likely to be a threat, particularly in forest isolates close to urban areas (e.g. Similajau National Park; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). It is unlikely that hunters make any distinction between the two Bornean muntjac species directly, although it is plausible that <em>M. atherodes</em> is under higher hunting pressure than is <em>M. muntjak</em> reflecting its purported predominance in the lowlands, where most of the logging concessions currently lie. Plantation estates are also concentrated in the lowlands, but Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) found that hunting levels in them were low, not least because they supported so few animals would-be hunters had to journey to forest areas. Even when these were nearby, few labourers were hunting, because of the demands of their job, and, crucially, the disincentives by plantations companies for them to own shotguns. As non-locals with limited financial security, most followed employer rules preventing ownership of guns. Experience elsewhere shows that in such situations, local hunters may see such concentrations as potential markets, therefore leading to an increase in hunting even though it is not undertaken directly by the labourers. As plantations cover ever more Bornean lowlands, this may become a more significant stimulant of hunting. Also, although some ethnic groups, at least the Punan, have traditional beliefs against eating muntjac meat (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), over most of (at least) Malaysian Borneo, “in general, everyone will hunt and eat anything” (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Much hunting is for the market rather than local use, so there is a limitless demand. Bennett and Gumal (2001) profiled the hunting of ungulates in Sarawak in the mid 1990s thus: muntjacs (along with Bearded Pig <em>Sus barbatus</em> and Sambar Rusa unicolor) are heavily shot for wild meat trade across Sarawak, and these ungulates are the species most sought be the restaurants. Wild meat is widely sold in towns, villages, restaurants and logging camps throughout Sarawak; 250 sales outlets were estimated across the state in 1996, with an annual trade worth 3.75 million USD. Along the Rejang river alone, in the mid 1980s, 250 muntjacs were sold per year (Caldecott 1988). The market for meat is great and in the 1990s was probably expanding. There were, then, no controls on commercial hunting of non-protected species (including muntjacs). The implementation of the Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996) introduced a strict ban on all wildlife trade, shotgun ownership and cartridge sales in the late 1990s (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Substantial numbers of muntjacs are, nevertheless, still killed in the state, as they are elsewhere in Borneo.<br/><br/>Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the effects of this onslaught upon muntjacs (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995, in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas. Muntjacs constituted only 4–11% of animals killed, but index counts of signs show an inverse relationship between sign index and hunting pressure so strong that the latter over-rode the effects of habitat variables in determining their densities. Hunting was so ubiquitous, even in protected areas, that in the two states, only one site (part of Danum Valley, Sabah) could be found as a control, where there was primary forest but negligible hunting levels. They concluded that “the only single factor offering any effective protection for [quarry species of] wildlife is difficulty of access”; whether animals are protected or non-protected species, inside or outside protected areas, had no significant restraint on hunting levels. Since that study, much forest has been converted and muntjac populations in the smaller and more isolated areas that remain must now be more vulnerable to local extinctions.
42190		conservation	eng	Southern Red Muntjac is found in many protected areas throughout its range (GMA Indonesia Workshop). It is a protected game species in West Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, meaning that it can be hunted only with a license and only outside protected areas (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Indonesian forestry law protects all species of muntjac. Species protection laws relating to ungulates in many areas of Sumatra have not been widely publicized. A significant percentage of Sumatra’s forests are protected, but protected areas and the authorities responsible for conservation of catchment forests are often under-funded and almost all are grossly understaffed so that there is little ranger presence in the field. Where there are field ranger teams, these focus generally on flagship species such as Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em>, Sumatran Rhinoceros <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em> or Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, although Tiger protection rangers do also conduct ungulate protection activities and in 2007 three hunters arrested in the national park with two muntjacs carcasses received custodial sentences at Kerinci district court (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Much of Java’s remaining forest is officially protected. Heavy hunting with shotguns was found to be a severe problem for larger mammals and birds across Sarawak and the need for its control (of guns and of sale of ammunition, with firm legal underpinnings) was recognised in the Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996). As everywhere, people devise ways for circumventing the controls (illegal trade in bullets and locally made shot-guns, called bekakok, which have no administrative or legal paper-trail) and strong enforcement is required for the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>There seem to be no species-specific conservation measures in need of implementation, above turning existing laws on protected areas and protected wildlife into reality, with a particular focus on eradicating wildlife trade.
42190		distribution	eng	Southern Red Muntjac, as defined here, occupy part of the Thai–Malay peninsula and occurs on the main islands of the Greater Sundas (Borneo, Java, Bali and Sumatra) and on various small islands (Chasen 1940; Groves 2003; Meijaard 2003). On Sumatra, it is not geographically limited to southern and eastern parts of the island despite various statements that it is (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Taking the northern limit on the peninsula as the Isthmus of Kra (see Taxonomy), <em>M. muntjak</em> (as here defined) is assumed to inhabit southern Thailand and might be found to occur in southernmost Myanmar. It is now extinct in Singapore (Baker and Lim 2008).
42190		habitat	eng	Southern Red Muntjac are associated with forest, but occur widely even in heavily degraded forest and, in areas adjacent to forest, in plantations of coffee, rubber, sugarcane, cassava, coconut, and teak (Oka 1998; Laidlaw 2000; Azlan 2006; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). However, its ability to survive in landscape-level stands of teak is probably dependent upon the retention of fringes of secondary growth along streams, gullies and other such features (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008) and this may be so for the other plantation species, too. Peak densities are probably not in pristine forest: in east Java, secondary forest with gallery forest mosaic seems to hold higher densities, and this muntjac may also benefit even from agricultural conversion at forest edges (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). Muntjac (presumed to be largely or entirely <em>M. muntjak</em>) abundance was higher in areas within 1 km of the protected area boundary than in the interior of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra (although this pattern was only weakly statistically significant), suggesting an association with edge, broken and secondary habitats (O’Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). In contrast, an avoidance of the edge of the Taman Negara protected area in Malaysia was suspected by Kawanishi and Sunquist (2004). In Danum Valley (Sabah, Borneo), an area with negligible hunting, <em>M. muntjak</em> strongly increased in densities after logging (Heydon 1994; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001); a weaker increase was found by Duff <em>et al</em>. (1984). In the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, Sarawak, muntjacs (partly this species) are among the commonest species camera-trapped in young acacia plantations (under four years old) and have been seen browsing on young acacia shoots. Footprints are common in the adjacent newly planted areas and forest fragments (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). However, this area contains a substantial proportion of natural, if somewhat degraded, forest, which in theory might be found to be necessary for populations in the highly altered habitats. Information on the species in landscape-scale plantations, remote from even secondary forest, has not been traced. Most of its range is dominated by evergreen vegetation, but it readily uses deciduous forests and mosaics of grassland, scrub, and forest (e.g. on Java; Tyson 2007); on Bali and Java, <em>M. muntjak</em> routinely uses woodland savanna as a feeding ground (Oka 1998; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>This muntjac has a wide altitudinal range. In Java, S. Hedges (pers. comm. 2008) has seen them over 0–800 m. In Sumatra, it occurs widely in the lowlands and the second species there, <em>M. montanus</em>, seems to be montane; whether <em>M. muntjak</em> ascends to the highest forests is yet unclear (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on examination of specimens). On Borneo, Red Muntjac lives up to at least 1,000 m asl on the Usun Apau plateau (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), who stated that “available data suggests that [<em>M. atherodes</em>] predominates over the Red Muntjac in low hill ranges and coastal regions”, but Meijaard and Sheil (2008) pointed out that still “no robust quantitative data exist to support this [pattern]”. Red Muntjac is scarcer than <em>M. atherodes</em> in Sungai Wain forest, Kalimantan, which spans 30–150 m asl (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008), in the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, a mix of acacia plantation and natural forest (Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), and (slightly so) in the Ulu Segama area of Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, which lies mostly at about 300 m asl (Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). In Borneo, muntjacs were frequently seen, suspected to comprise roughly equal numbers of Red and Yellow, in the Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, which lies mostly at 100–760 m asl (Meredith 1995).<br/><br/>The diet is mostly fruits, buds, tender leaves, flowers, herbs and young grass (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Oka 1998). In Taman Negara, Malaysia, camera-trapping showed Red Muntjac to be mostly diurnal (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004) whereas in Gunung Leuser, Sumatra, it was classed as cathemeral (i.e., sporadic and random intervals of activity during the day or night) (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996) and this is true for East Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008); there may be some variation between localities in balance of day and night activity. It is a mostly solitary species that is capable of breeding through the year, and has been stated to be territorial (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Oka 1998). However, Tyson (2007) found no evidence of territoriality in radio-collared female muntjacs of Baluran National Park, Java, although range overlap declined in the rainy season compared with the dry season. Nor was there evidence of males using exclusive ranges in any season, or any clear evidence of territorial defence. As in the case of <em>M. vaginalis</em>, occasional sightings of small groups probably refer to mating pairs, or to females with offspring (Oka 1998), or to loose aggregations at abundant food resources (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008).
42190		population	eng	Recent camera-trap studies on all main occupied landmasses show this to be a common species. The following is only a part collation of existing studies. In Sumatra, muntjacs (not identified to species but presumed, given the habitats and altitudes, to be largely or entirely <em>M. muntjak</em>) were camera-trapped very commonly in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park and around Gunung Leuser (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996; O’Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Thailand, Red Muntjacs were recorded at over 40% of camera-trap locations in Kaeng Krachan National Park, a site that may contain either <em>M. vaginalis</em> or <em>M. muntjak</em> or both. Abundance did not vary with proximity to villages, even though a variety of hunting methods occurs on site (Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007). In West Malaysia, Red Muntjacs were commonly camera-trapped, at a high proportion of camera-sites, in Taman Negara, where densities were estimated at 3.2–4.05 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004), were found to be ubiquitous and common at all nine potential Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> areas surveyed by Lynam <em>et al</em>. (2007), and were common in the Jerangau Forest Reserve, an area of secondary forest some of which was being logged at the time of study and where hunting was heavy enough to have eradicated (or reduced to very low densities) species such as Sambar <em>Cervus unicolor</em> (Azlan 2006). During a study of the mammals of West Malaysia’s virgin jungle reserves, they were found in 13 of 14 sites (seven virgin jungle reserves and seven adjacent logged areas), a much greater spread of occurrence than for most other mammals (Laidlaw 2000). In Java muntjacs have “persisted in many areas where there is some forest cover” (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1996), were camera-trapped commonly in Ujung Kulon National Park (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996) and Gunung Halimun National Park (Suyanto 2003), and were studied in Baluran National Park (East Java) in the 1990s by Tyson (2007); the latter study found densities of 23–25 animals per km² in the park’s mosaic of open woodland, grassland, scrub at under 300 m asl during the dry season. These densities (considerably above those from Taman Negara) may be inflated by daily or seasonal movements of animals coming down to the coastal waterholes. The Baluran population may have benefited from a particular combination of seral processes including the growth of the exotic <em>Acacia nilotica</em>. Muntajcs remain locally very common on Bali (Oka 1998). Determining population status in Borneo is more difficult because of the difficulties of separation from <em>M. atherodes</em>, but it is clearly at least fairly common (Heydon 1994; for further discussion see Habitat and Ecology).
42190		threats	eng	Habitat encroachment and hunting are both widespread in the Sundaic region. Indeed, they are often associated and all Borneo’s ungulates suffer from the increased hunting that often accompanies logging (Bennett and Dahaban 1995, Bennett and Gumal 2001), such that hunting to local extinction is the chief detrimental effect of logging on ungulates in Sarawak (Bennett and Gumal 2001). This conclusion probably is applicable across the Sundaic region. Southern Red Muntjac are widely hunted across its range (e.g. Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008, based on unpubl. data, East Java, 1991–2002); it is the most sought-after wild meat in Peninsular Malaysia (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004) and is among the most preferred in Indonesia, although Sambar is the preferred species at least in East Kalimantan (Semiadi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Semiadi 2005).<br/><br/>However, there is no strong evidence that either hunting or habitat disruption are actually threats to the survival of populations except in the case of islands such as Singapore, where it is now extinct (Baker and Lim 2008). Peak densities are not in pristine forest (see Habitat and Ecology), and in Danum Valley (Sabah, Borneo), an area with negligible hunting, <em>M. muntjak</em> strongly increased in densities after logging (Heydon 1994; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001); a weaker increase was found by Duff <em>et al</em>. (1984). Hence, even quite severe habitat disruption can increase ecological carrying capacity for this muntjac, at least temporarily.<br/><br/>In an area with heavy hunting, recorded densities of muntjacs (presumed <em>M. muntjak</em>) were twice as high in areas with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, but this difference was not statistically significant (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Sumatra, among snared ungulates was greatest for muntjac as assessed by the diameter of the cable. Snaring is locally very high in the protected area, e.g. 51 snares (mostly of size suitable for muntjac) were found in 1 km² (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003), although it is much less intense than in areas of Indochina supporting the related <em>M. vaginalis</em> (J. Holden pers. comm. 2008). Data are too sparse to determine whether this hunting is driving declines. Habitat loss is also severe including within parts of the park (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003), and is an increasing phenomenon in Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Muntjacs are widely and heavily hunted on Borneo for meat, skins, and as a source of traditional remedies (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008; G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Traditionally, hunting used traps, dogs and spears, and blowpipes. Hunters in remote parts of the interior still use these methods, but most animals now die by gunfire. Sarawak held 60,000 legally registered shotguns while Sabah held almost 13,000 in the mid 1990s (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Methods used in Indonesia include guns and spotlights along logging roads, snaring, and dogs (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). The combination of dogs and guns may be particularly efficient (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). Snaring is still very heavy outside well-secured areas, but shotguns remain the even bigger problem (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; J. Mohd Azlan pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Unaccompanied packs of stray or even perhaps feral dogs are also likely to be a threat, particularly in forest isolates close to urban areas (e.g. Similajau National Park; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). It is unlikely that hunters make any distinction between the two Bornean muntjac species directly, although it is plausible that <em>M. muntjak</em> is under lower hunting pressure than is <em>M. atherodes</em> reflecting its purported predominance in the hills and mountains (although there is little empirical evidence to support this), whereas most of the logging concessions currently lie in the lowlands. Some ethnic groups, at least the Punan, have traditional beliefs against eating muntjac meat (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), but over most of (at least) Malaysian Borneo, “in general, everyone will hunt and eat anything” (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Much hunting is for the market rather than local use, so there is a limitless demand. Bennett and Gumal (2001) profiled the hunting of ungulates in Sarawak in the mid 1990s thus: muntjacs (along with Bearded Hog <em>Sus barbatus</em> and Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em>) are heavily shot for wild meat trade across Sarawak, and these ungulates are the species most sought by the restaurants. Wild meat is widely sold in towns, villages, restaurants and logging camps throughout Sarawak; 250 sales outlets were estimated across the state in 1996, with an annual trade worth 3.75 million USD. Along the Rejang river alone, in the mid 1980s, 250 muntjacs were sold per year (Caldecott 1988). The market for meat is great and probably expanding. There were, then, no controls on commercial hunting of non-protected species (including muntjacs). The Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996) introduced a strict ban on all wildlife trade, shotgun ownership and cartridge sales in the late 1990s (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Substantial numbers of muntjacs are, nevertheless, still killed in the state, as they are elsewhere in Borneo.<br/><br/>Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the effects of this onslaught upon muntjacs (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995, in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas. Muntjacs constituted only 3–10% of animals killed, but index counts of signs show an inverse relationship between sign index and hunting pressure so strong that the latter over-rode the effects of habitat variables in determining their densities. Hunting was so ubiquitous, even in protected areas, that in the two states, only one site (part of Danum Valley, Sabah) could be found as a control, where there was primary forest but negligible hunting levels. They concluded that “the only single factor offering any effective protection for [quarry species of] wildlife is difficulty of access”; whether animals are protected or non-protected species, inside or outside protected areas, had no significant restraint on hunting levels. In the interim, much forest has been lost and muntjac populations in the smaller and more isolated areas that remain must now be more vulnerable to local extinctions.
42191		conservation	eng	The species seems to be relatively secure in appropriate habitat, but its range is in an area where there is a high human population density and very heavy exploitation of wildlife. There is a need to monitor this species' habitat and population levels. In China, the species is not protected by national laws, but is protected under provincial regulations in Anhui, Henan, and Gansu. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
42191		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in central and southern China and, and also on Taiwan. In China, this species ranges from coastal and south China to Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan, Shaanxi and Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). Additionally, it occurs in eastern and central Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Zheijiang, Jiangxi, Hunan and Hubei. The species has been introduced to England (where it is still present) and France (where it is no longer present) (Grubb, 2005).
42191		habitat	eng	The species occurs in temperate forests and in dense forests in the tropical and semi-tropical zone. In Taiwan, it occurs in mountains between 50-3,500 m asl in habitats ranging from tropical/subtropical lowlands to coniferous forests/alpine grassland at the highest altitudes. However, there is a decreasing trend in abundance with increasing altitude (Chiang 2007). In China, Reeve’s muntjacs occupy rocky places and open woodlands of pine and oak. They seek cover in steep ravines, and usually have well defined areas to which they retreat (Smith and Xie 2008). But in Taiwan, they were found mostly in forested areas (Pei and Chiang 2004), preferably in primary forest with dense canopy cover and tended to avoid steep terrain (Chiang 2007). They are basically solitary, although sometimes found in pairs or small family groups. Home ranges average about 100 ha, overlap considerably, and do not vary in size by gender. Females mature within first year. They appear to lack strong seasonality in reproduction (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993, Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation is 209-220 days. In Taiwan, the species grow new antlers mostly in summer (peaking in June and July) (Pei and Liu 1994) (Pei and Chiang 2004) although velvet antlers were sporadically found throughout the year (Pei and Chiang 2004). In Taiwan, camera trapping data in remote areas with least human activities showed that Reeve’s muntjacs in Taiwan is crepuscular with significantly more diurnal than nocturnal activities (68% vs. 32%, Pei and Chiang 2004), which agreed with radio-telemetry results (McCullough <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is most active during the 2 hours after sunrise and before sunset and seasonal variations of activity levels were more pronounced in the afternoon (Pei and Chiang 2004).
42191		population	eng	In China, no population estimates or estimates of population trend are available. It is generally not considered to be highly threatened, although a recent China red listing categorizes the species as Vulnerable (Smith and Xie 2008). There is very little published information on the species in China. In Taiwan, where it is heavily exploited, the density was estimated at 9.3 animals/km² at elevations around, 2,000 m asl (McCullough <em>et al</em>. 2000); however, in areas without hunting and at lower elevations, the population density could be much higher (Chiang 2007).
42191		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include habitat destruction and hunting. It is hunted for food and for hides which are used in the chamois market. Forest habitat is being lost in many parts of its range, in particular because of agriculture, logging and urbanisation. However, there is no information on the overall rate of decline of this very widespread species.
42195		conservation	eng	The majority of the remaining subpopulations and locations are within protected areas. One of these, the Bunya Mountains National Park, was the second national park to be established in Queensland, in 1908.
42195		distribution	eng	Restricted to two areas in Queensland, Australia that are separated by over 1,000 km. The EOO is approximately 11,000 km<sup>2</sup>; 99% of this is in southeastern Queensland as the two northern localities (Mt Lewis and Cannabullen Falls) are very limited in their extent. The EOO, based on recent fieldwork (I. Smith unpubl. data) and reliable literature records (e.g. Pye and Gadek 2004), excludes the intervening area between the most northern locality in southern Queensland and Cannabullen Falls in northern Queensland.
42195		habitat	eng	<em>Araucaria bidwillii</em> is a large, emergent tree in subtropical rainforest on basaltic or other igneous substrates that is sometimes associated with <em>A. cunninghamii</em>. It occupies the ecotone between moist angiosperm-dominated forest and drier vine thickets with partly deciduous trees, particularly in the southern part of its disjunct range.&#160;<em></em>The forest is divided into larger and smaller woods by ‘balds’, coarse grasslands or open savannas which form sharp boundaries with the forest patches. Annual precipitation is 1,100-1,400 mm in the southern area, with heavy rains in summer but with a dry season from April/May to September. In contrast to this, the northern populations lie close to the wettest part of the Australian continent, causing a more evenly distributed annual precipitation of 1,500-2,000 mm (Mill and Farjon<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">)</span>.<br/><br/>Abundant seed is produced in ‘mast years’ at approximately three-year intervals. Seeds remain in the cone until after it falls off the tree; they may be dispersed by water flowing in creeks and gullies, rolling down a slope or by animal vectors such as the Mountain Brush-tail Possum, <em>Trichosurus caninus </em>(Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)
42195		population	eng	The isolated northern subpopulation has less than 100 mature individuals. Genetic investigations indicate that this population differs significantly from those in the south and that its conservation should be a priority. Southern subpopulations range in size from a few tens of trees to over 1,000. They are likely to be the remnants of an almost continuous larger population that stretched from the coastal areas into the Bunya Mountains (Pye 2004).
42195		threats	eng	Despite significant exploitation in the past, the main subpopulations in southern Queensland are not currently threatened. In some areas regeneration and expansion into disused pastoral and farming areas&#160; is occurring and the majority of the subpopulations are within protected areas. The subpopulations at Mt Lewis and Canabulen Falls contain few  individuals and are very restricted in their extent and as such, are  highly susceptible to stochastic events such as fire. Genetic analysis  indicates that these northern subpopulations are highly distinctive and  there is a potential threat from potential outbreeding depression due to  the widescale planting of ornamental and amenity trees that have  originated from the southern subpopulations.
42196		conservation	eng	As this species occurs in close proximity to the coast, and on predominantly calcareous substrate, nickel mining does not present a threat. Trees may be thrown in high storms (typhoons) but regeneration is frequent. The trees also enjoy traditional protection from the Polynesian Kanaks and it is generally prohibited to fell them.
42196		distribution	eng	Restricted to New Caledonia on the Grande Terre (Province Sud), Isle of Pines and the <st1:place w:st="on">Loyalty Islands. <br/></st1:place>
42196		habitat	eng	This is the only New Caledonian species of Araucaria to occur on calcareous substrate although it is not restricted to these substrates. On the <st1:place w:st="on">Isle of Pines</st1:place> it is often on coral.&#160; It is frequently planted in other coastal areas of New Caledonia.
42196		population	eng	Populations may be extensive, with good natural regeneration.
42196		threats	eng	No threats have been identified for this species. Changes in sea level may be a problem in the future.
42197		conservation	eng	Currently known from only two protected areas (Mt Panie and Mt Do).
42197		distribution	eng	This species is found in scattered subpopulations throughout the main island of New Caledonia. An isolated subpopulation occurs on the Ile d'Art.&#160; The species occurs at elevations ranging from 500 to 1,400 m.
42197		habitat	eng	<p><em>A. <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">montana</st1:place></st1:state> is </em>widely distributed in dense and low humid forests and in tall maquis minier throughout most of Grand Terre. It usually occurs on plateaus situated below summit ridges in areas that favour the formation of deep ore bodies just above the bedrock.</p>
42197		population	eng	Subpopulations may be locally extensive and cover several square kilometers.
42197		threats	eng	Open cast mining, its associated activities and an increase in fire frequencies are the main threats to this species except in locations in the north east where it is unlikely that mining will occur.
42200		distribution	eng	Occurs in eastern China: west to Sichuan and Yunnan and north to Henan.
42212		conservation	eng	Protected subpopulations occur in Yuanyang Lake Reserve and Yushan National Park. Plantations have also been established.  Japan has apparently turned to importing <em>C. lawsoniana</em> from the USA because of the low levels of supply of the native variety.  A ban on logging is now in effect.
42212		distribution	eng	Occurs in Taiwan and remnant subpopulations of var. <em>obtusa</em> are known to occur in South Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu Islands, Japan.
42212		habitat	eng	Occurs in association with, but in a more restricted range than, <em>C. formosensis</em>. Grows in moist evergreen submontane forest.
42212		threats	eng	The timber is very valuable, and rates of exploitation have in the past been very high.
42217		distribution	eng	The typical variety is known from a few locations, whereas var. <em>jiangeensis </em> is known only froma single (monoecious) tree in Sichuan Province.
42217		habitat	eng	The species dominates the mid-elevation coniferous forest on the flanks of gorges and arid valleys.
42217		threats	eng	Constant overcutting has eliminated the species in accessible sites and it is being replaced by thickets of other species.
42219		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Point Lobos Reserve.
42219		distribution	eng	The species as a whole is known from less than 2,000 individuals scattered between about 15 subpopulations. It is unlikely that any of these subpopulations contains more than 250 individuals.  The typical variety occurs in S.F.B. Morse Botanical Reserve, Point Lobos Reserve and  along the coast in Mendocin and north-west Sonoma Counties; while var <em>abramsiana</em> is confined to the Santa Cruz Mountains. The coastal populations are sometimes known as var. <em>pygmaea</em>.
42219		threats	eng	There are some pressures from local residential and agricultural developments, altered fire regimes and possibly from non-native plants.
42220		distribution	eng	The typical variety has a population of 200 individuals, and is thought to exist in two small stands. Whereas var. <em>forbesii </em> is known from fewer than five occurrences in California and probably two occurrences in Mexico.
42220		threats	eng	Regeneration of the typical variety is seriously hampered by goats. For var. <em>forbesii</em> one of the localities is relatively inaccessible but the others are susceptible to frequent wildfires and development.
42231		distribution	eng	Occurs in the U.S.A. and Mexico.
42231		population	eng	Common in some areas.
42236		distribution	eng	The typical variety is known only from a locality near Constanza, Valle del Jaque; var. <em>ekmanii </em> is recorded from Morne la Selle and Morne la Visite, although the latter subpopulation is now thought to be extinct; and var. <em>urbaniana </em> appears to have been reduced to inaccessible areas although viable populations were recorded in 1984 in Pic la Selle.
42236		threats	eng	Increasing settlement has reduced subpopulations of this species to less accessible or attractive areas.
42238		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas: Sagarmatha National Park and Quomolangma, Shey-Phoksundo, Annapurna, Sagarmatha and Jigme Dorji Reserves.
42238		distribution	eng	Himalayas.
42238		habitat	eng	Variety <em>caespitosa</em> is a decumbent high altitude shrub. It occurs in dry valleys on south-facing slopes in open scrubland, on screes, in pioneer forest on river terraces; sometimes also on northwest slopes. Elevation (from GIS): 2,805 to 4,703 m; (from herbarium specimens): 3,600 to 4,800 m. Variety <em>indica</em> is an erect shrub or small tree and tends to occur at lower altitudes.
42238		population	eng	Locally common in at least parts of its range.
42238		threats	eng	No threats are known.
42274		conservation	eng	The Chinese Government has recently imposed a logging ban on old growth forest in western China.
42274		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (SE Gansu, Henan, W Hubei, Shaanxi, W Sichuan, NW Yunnan, SE Xizang [Tibet]) and NE India (Arunachal Pradesh).
42274		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high mountain ranges of the SW Plateau of China between 2,100 and 3,500 m asl, on grey-brown mountain podzols, brown earth or lithosols. The climate is cold and moist, with annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,000 mm. It is a rare species, usually mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies fargesii</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">sutchuenensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga chinensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix potaninii </span>at high elevations, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>spp. at lower elevations; also as a pure forest in Tsin-ling Shan (Wang 1961).
42274		population	eng	Rare in most areas where it occurs.
42274		threats	eng	Logging and deforestation have depleted this species to some extent in some parts of its range.
42277		conservation	eng	The Government of China has recently imposed a ban on logging in western China.
42277		distribution	eng	This species is found in SW China: W Yunnan, SE Xizang [Tibet]; NE India: Arunachal Pradesh; N Myanmar; Viet Nam (Fan Si Pan Mtn.).
42277		habitat	eng	This is a species of high elevations in the great mountain ranges of SW China, occurring between 2,400 m and 4,300 m asl, but usually between 3,000 m and 4,000 m, commonly on north-facing slopes. The soil is a grey brown mountain podzol. The climate is extremely wet, with cool summers and cold, snowy winters (annual precipitation ranges from 1,000 mm to 3,000 mm and more). It grows mixed with other conifers, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea likiangensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. brachytyla</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">brachytyla</span>, or in pure stands towards the tree limit. At lower elevations it is sometimes mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga chinensis, T. dumosa, Juniperus formosana</span> and broad-leaved trees, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula albosinensis, Betula platyphylla</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">szechuanica</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus semecarpifolia</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies delavayi</span>, however, is less common with these trees than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. forrestii</span>.
42277		population	eng	May be locally common, depending on the variety.
42277		threats	eng	Logging has affected many areas although with the introduction of a logging ban in 1998 this problem has reduced.
42285		conservation	eng	Programmes to improve its status are being run by CAMCORE. Felling is prohibited in some countries and the species is listed in CITES Appendix I.
42285		distribution	eng	The Guatemalan Fir is the southernmost member of its genus. It was reported to be common until the 1940s and large populations may still remain in Honduras.  There is disputable evidence that the remaining stands in Guatemala extend no more than 3 ha.
42285		threats	eng	There has been heavy timber exploitation throughout the range. Isolated stands continue to be exploited heavily by local inhabitants and the deep fertile soils, on which the tree grows, are attractive to agricultural development. Cone crops are irregular and germination is poor.
42286		distribution	eng	Both varieties of this species are found in very low densities.
42286		threats	eng	The species continues to suffer from extensive logging and habitat loss.
42293		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas.
42293		distribution	eng	The distribution is mainly confined to the mountains adjacent to southern and eastern Black Sea area. There is a concentration of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">A.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">nordmanniana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nordmanniana) </span>in west Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia) and northeast Anatolia (Turkey) and another concentration in northwest Anatolia (Turkey). In the extreme northwest of Anatolia lies two disjunct areas (Balikesir; <span>Kaz-Daghi (Mt. Ida .), Bursa; Ulu-Dagh (Mt. Olympus of Bithynia))<span><span><span><span> where <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">nordmanniana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">equi-trojani </span>occurs. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not known for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nordmanniana</span> but the extent of the distribution of this species clearly exceeds any criteria for threatened.</span></span>
42293		habitat	eng	High montane zones of mountains on deep fertile soils derived from igneous and granite rocks. It forms both pure stands and mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea orientalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span>. In the Caucasus it occurs between 1,200-2,200 asl but on damper northern slopes it can grow between 600-800 m asl and in Turkey its altitudinal range is between 200-1,900 m (Browicz 1982).
42293		population	eng	It occurs in three subpopulations. 1. West Caucasus and northeast Anatolia (Turkey); 2. Turkey - Northwest Anatolia, from Ulu Dag (Olympus) in the west to Kizil Irmak river valley in the east (sometimes referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bornmuelleriana</span>); 3. Turkey - Kazdagi Mountains in west Anatolia (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. nordmanniana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">equi-trojani</span>) (Browicz 1982)
42293		threats	eng	<p>Even though the wood is highly prized, logging has not had a significant detrimental impact on the population. However, the habitat of&#160; <em>A. nordmanniana</em> ssp. <em>equi-trojani</em> is in decline due to a number of negative effects including acid rain, fire, local timber extraction and habitat degradation associated with large visitor numbers in Kazdagi National Park (Satil 2009).</p>  <span><span><span></span>
42295		conservation	eng	The majority of stands are now within various protected areas in Spain and Morocco. In 2006 these protected areas were included in the first UNESCO Intercontinental Mediterranean Biosphere Reserve.<br/>In Spain <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> is also protected at a regional level under the Spanish law. At the European level, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pinsapo</span> forests have been included in the Habitats Directive (92/43/CEE). <span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext">M<span class="shorttext">ore  detailed information is given in the assessment for each&#160; variety.</span>
42295		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> occurs in two discrete and disjunct areas in southeastern Spain and in the Rif Mountains of Morocco. These are separated by the Straits of Gibralter and a distance of about 135 km. In Spain the typical variety has an EOO of 940 km<sup>2</sup> with an actual AOO of 28.7 km<sup>2</sup>. In Morocco, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pinsapo</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">marocana</span> has an estimated extent of occurrence of 75 km² with an estimated area of occupancy of 28 km². There are a total of five locations. Using standard IUCN methodology, the overall EOO is estimated to be 3,727 km<sup>2</sup> rather than 1,015 km<sup>2</sup>. A significant proportion of the EOO is represented either by the Mediterranean Sea or other unsuitable habitat such as coastal plains. The estimated AOO is considerably less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
42295		habitat	eng	In Morocco <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> occurs in the Mediterranean humid bioclimatic zone. The average annual rainfall is 1,500 mm, increasing to 1,900 mm at an altitude of 1,700 m. Stands are typically found on north facing dolomitic limestone slopes of mountain ridges. The optimal altitudinal range is between 1,400 and 1,800 m, where it forms mixed forests with a range of oaks and maples. Between 1,800 and 2,000 m <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus atlantica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span>. Above 2,000 m the mountain summits are typically dominated by shrubby xerophytic species. In southeastern Spain <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">pinsapo</span> occurs   on dolomitic soils <em></em>in the Sierra de Grazalema<span class="shorttext"> and Sierra de las Nieves but on serpentine soils in the <span class="shorttext">Sierra Bermeja. Forests occur at altitudes between 900 and 1,600 m asl. Above  1,100 m its forms dense, pure forests, but below this altitude trees occur in mixed communities  with a range of oaks and pines. M<span class="shorttext">ore detailed information is given in the assessment for each&#160; variety.</span>
42295		population	eng	There are currently no accurate figures for the total number of mature individuals over the full extent of its range. The Moroccan subpopulation is considerably smaller than the Spanish subpopulation. Recent genetic studies (Terrab<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007) have indicated&#160; that the Spanish and Moroccan varieties have been isolated for considerable periods of time and that there is little, if any, gene flow between them.
42295		threats	eng	In Spain the major threat is fire. Other threats include pests and diseases which are more apparent during drought years when forests are more stressed.&#160; During the last decade (1990s) a regional warming trend and a decrease in precipitation has been observed. These changes have been associated with increasing mortality of trees at elevations below 1,100m (Linares 2009). In Morocco, fire is also a major threat. Deforestation and habitat degradation associated with cannabis cultivation in the areas surrounding the fir stands are additional threats. <span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext">M<span class="shorttext">ore  detailed information is given in the assessment for each&#160; variety.</span>
42299		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas although the vast majority of the population occurs outside of those areas.
42299		distribution	eng	This species is found across N Russia and Siberia, from Archangel'sk eastward to the Amur River, southward to the mountains along the Sino-Russian border and the Tien Shan Range. It is also found in Xingjiang, China, and in Kirgyzstan.
42299		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies sibirica</span> is widespread across the Siberian taiga, where it occurs from near sea level on the northern plains to 2,000 m asl in the mountains. It remains well south of the arctic tree limit in Siberia, in fact it is more common in W Siberia and the Altai Mountains, which have a less severe climate. The soils are usually of alluvial origin, podzolic, and in the mountains also calcareous, well drained and free of permafrost. The climate is cold continental, but not extreme in most parts of the range of the species. There are pure forests, but more often it is mixed with other conifers, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea obovata,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix gmelinii</span>, in the mountains also <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sibirica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sibirica</span>; common broad-leaved trees or shrubs are <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula pendula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus aucuparia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum opulus</span>. In the southwestern part of its range other broad leaved trees are mixed in: <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia cordata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus scabra</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer platanoides</span>.
42299		population	eng	In some areas it forms extensive forests consisting of many thousands of trees.
42299		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this species.
42300		conservation	eng	It is included in some nature reserves in Nepal and India.
42300		distribution	eng	This species is found in Afghanistan (Hindu Kush), Pakistan (Karakoram Range), China (W Xizang [Tibet]), India (Kashmir Himalaya) and Nepal ( from the Milke Danda ridge westwards).
42300		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies spectabilis</span> is the dominant tree in the forests of the central and western Himalaya, especially from <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 3,000 m to 4,000 m, with occasional occurrences on ridges below this height. It needs cool moist conditions at the roots, thus growing better on north facing slopes and often giving way to grass or shrubs on south facing ones.
42300		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution from East Nepal into eastern Afghanistan. It occurs along the southern side of the Himalaya and outlying ridges, forming forests at higher elevation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies spectabilis</span> is usually the dominant tree in the stands but may occur with other conifers or broadleafed trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> in parts of the range.
42300		threats	eng	The forest has suffered severe depletion, especially at the lower elevations, from logging and deforestation. The species is reported to have been lost from the easternmost occurrence in East Nepal in the past 20 years. Deforestation and conversion of land to agriculture is the largest threat, but logging, if followed either by fire or grazing can also lead to the loss of habitat for the species.
42301		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas.
42301		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Honshu and Shikoku, Japan.
42301		habitat	eng	The 'typical' variety of this species grows on high mountains at elevations between 1,200 m and 2,800 m asl [reported from as low as 1,050 m (Wilson 1916)]. The soils are usually of volcanic origin, podzolic and well drained. The climate is cool and wet, with annual precipitation between 1,000 mm and 2,500 mm, and with cold, snowy winters; frequent typhoons cause destruction of the forest in most places before it reaches an age of 250 to 300 years (Franklin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979). This variety is usually mixed with other conifers, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies mariesii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea jezoensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hondoensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix kaempferi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thuja standishii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus parviflora</span>, at the highest elevations <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pumila</span>, and the ubiquitous <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga diversifolia</span>. The most common broad-leaved trees are <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula ermanii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus commixta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus nipponica</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> spp. at lower elevations, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula corylifolia</span> near the tree limit.
42301		population	eng	It makes pure forest on high mountains with large individuals and wide distribution at the core area in Central Honshu. But, in some low altitude mountains such as Ohdaigahara, the population size is small and decreasing.
42301		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified.
42329		distribution	eng	The two varieties (<em>maximowiczii</em> and <em>senanensis</em>) are in the same situation of being confined to small and scattered populations on Fuji-San and Yatsugatake Mountains.
42329		habitat	eng	Degraded montane woodland.
42329		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the tree and the habitat has occurred in the past. Much of the habitat remains degraded and regeneration is poor.
42345		conservation	eng	Populations are being monitored and protected against fire hazards. Old trees are protected from being cut or damaged.
42345		distribution	eng	A number of isolated populations occur within protected areas in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains.
42345		habitat	eng	Subalpine altitudes.
42345		threats	eng	The trees are extremely slow-growing and recruitment may be insufficient. Fire and grazing by wildlife are also problems.
42392		conservation	eng	On January 26, 2000, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) designated Newcomb's snail as Threatened in the Entire Range. USFWS, under the Endangered Species Act, will bring together a team of biologists to develop a recovery plan that will identify steps to be taken to recover the species, including habitat restoration and control of alien species.
42392		distribution	eng	<em>E. newcombi</em> is found only in remote waterfalls, seeps, and springs of six stream systems on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. Each stream supports a single subpopulation of Newcomb's snail (USFWS listing). These subpopulations are located in the Hanalei River, Kalalau Stream, the Lumahai River, the North Fork of the Wailua River, Makaleha Stream and Waipahee Stream. Makaleha and Waipahee Streams both flow into Kapaa Stream.
42392		habitat	eng	The species occurs in fast flowing perennial streams with stable overhanging rocks, springs, rock seeps, and waterfalls (Michael Kido, University of Hawaii, in litt. 1994; Stephen Miller, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. obs. 1994). <br/> <br/>This small snail spends its entire life cycle in the same stream system, as do other Hawaiian lymnaeids but unlike other freshwater Hawaiian snails in the family Neritidae, which have marine larvae that colonize streams following a period of oceanic dispersal (Kinzie 1990). Historic dispersal probably relied on long-term erosion events that captured adjacent stream systems. Newcomb’s snails generally feed on algae and vegetation growing on submerged rocks.
42392		population	eng	The population falls into two groups: subpopulations first observed prior to 1925 and subpopulations observed since 1993. Five subpopulations were identified prior to 1925. Three of these (Wainiha, Hanakapiai, and Hanakoa) no longer exist. Of the two remaining pre-1925 subpopulations, one (Waipahee) is small and the other (Kalalau) is relatively large (see below). These data indicate that the number of Newcomb's snail subpopulations has been greatly reduced since 1925, perhaps by as much as 60 percent. <br/> <br/>Since 1990, surveys of at least 46 streams, tributaries and springs on Kauai have located four previously unknown subpopulations of Newcomb's snail. Three of these are small (see below), and the fourth subpopulation has been described as large. <br/> <br/>USFWS cite information estimating that the six known subpopulations of Newcomb’s snail include a total of approximately 6,000 to 7,000 individuals. Most of these, perhaps more than 90 percent, occur in two of the subpopulations, making the species vulnerable to random events such as hurricanes that could destroy entire subpopulations of the snail. The small sizes of four of the six subpopulations and limited distribution make them vulnerable to extinction from reduced reproductive vigour or from random environmental events.
42392		threats	eng	The direct impact of a variety of intentional and accidental introductions of non-native fish, snails, flies, and frogs threaten the survival of Newcomb’s snail. The most serious threat is predation from <em>Euglandina rosea</em> (the rosy wolf snail), introduced to Hawaii in 1955.  This species can apparently fully submerge itself underwater to eat aquatic snails such as the Newcomb’s snail and has had a serious impact on native snail species on many islands throughout the Pacific. <br/> <br/>Two species of marsh flies prey upon eggs and adults of Hawaiian freshwater snails. The marsh flies were introduced in 1958 and 1966 as biological control agents for a non-native snail that is an intermediate host of the cattle liver fluke. Other introduced predators include the green swordtail, a fish introduced to Hawaii in 1922 to control mosquitoes; the American bullfrog (first recorded in 1867); and the wrinkled frog (first seen in 1896). The two frog species were accidental introductions. <br/> <br/>Other threats include potential water development projects that could affect the fresh water springs providing the species’ habitat.
42393		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas across its distribution, some subspecies that live on islands are endangered.
42393		distribution	eng	<em>Odocoileus hemionus</em> occurs throughout western North America from Alaska and Western Canada through the Rocky Mountains and Western Plains States of the United States south to the Peninsula of Baja California, Cedro Island, Tiburon Island and Northwestern Mexico. The southernmost distribution reaches central Mexico, but the historical boundary is not very clear (Sanchez- Rojas and Gallina 2007)
42393		habitat	eng	Mule deer are well adapted to a variety of habitats including temperate forest, desert and semidesert, open range, grassland, field and scrub habitats as well as Mountainous areas.
42393		population	eng	Where they occur mule deer populations are typically managed by federal, state and provincial agencies that monitor abundance and trends in order to set species management objectives. As a result mule deer remain abundant throughout much of their native range and are not currently in urgent need of further conservation action, but some evidence in the United State and Canada has shown declines in some populations (Bellard <em>et al</em>. 2001). Additionally in Mexico some data show local extinction of some populations in the Chihuahuan desert region of Coahuila and Nuevo León Mexico (Martínez-Muñoz <em>et al</em>. 2002), and in some populations we found evidence of metapopulation dynamics for this specie (Sanchez- Rojas and Gallina 2000).
42393		threats	eng	Today the most urgent threat to mule deer in the wild is the spread of Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE). Currently CWD is more prominent at the local or regional level. CWD has currently been diagnosed in mule deer in the Rocky Mountains region of the United States and other mid-western states. Other threats include: high predator populations (including feral dogs), competition with livestock grazing, human habitat alterations and other anthropogenic forces. Although most of the subspecies are not threatened, the Cedro Island subspecies (<em>O. h. cerrocensis</em>) maybe maintained as Vulnerable (IUCN 1988) because the low number and the high predation by feral dogs and poaching.
42394		conservation	eng	The main problem in USA and Canada is overabundance, and the consequences are the problems caused to humans, as pests, accidents, and one of the most serious are epidemiology and diseases like Lyme disease and others. So policies are needed to reduce populations. Meanwhile the southern populations have problems to survive and some are threatened by different causes. The species occurs in several protected areas across its range.<br/>The populations of Guatemala are listed on CITES Appendix III (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Odocoileus virginianus mayensis</span>).
42394		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Canada south through most of the U.S. and Mexico to South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, northern Brazil, Venezuela, and the Guianas). Southernmost populations in the neotropics may represent other species (Molina and Molinari 1999). Absent from much of southwestern U.S. The species has been introduced in Czechoslovakia, Finland, New Zealand.
42394		habitat	eng	White-tailed deer inhabit a wide range of habitats from north temperate to subtropical and semi-arid environments in North America, and include rainforests and other equatorial associations, as deciduous forests and savannas of Central America and Northern South America (Brokx 1984, Danields 1991, Smith 1991). It is abundant in mixed pine-oak forests of Mexico (Ffollott and Gallina 1981), and in second-growth forests and thickets and forest-savanna ecotones of Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama (Mendez 1984). Ecological limitations in northern or montane habitats are related to depth, quality and duration of snow (Blouch 1984) and in more southern latitudes and lower elevations, the amount and temporal distribution of precipitation (Ffolliott and Gallina 1981, Mendez 1984, Villarreal 1999). O. virginianus favour more mesic climates and vegetation within arid regions. In the Andes countries, distribution of the white-tailed deer is not limited by elevation but rather by steep arid habitat and by rainforest on the mountain slopes (Brokx 1984). White-tailed deer is an extremely adaptable species (see compilation of 500 deer studies in Mexico by Mandujano 2004). The species thrives in close association with man and his agricultural and industrial pursuits. Its requirements are met in practically every ecological type including grasslands, prairies and plains, mountains, hardwoods, coniferous and tropical forests, deserts, and even in woodlots associated with farmland. In the United States, it reaches its largest densities in hardwood forests and bushlands (Teer 1991).<br/><br/>White-tailed deer occupy a well defined home range, but they are not territorial. Home range are influenced by age, sex, density, social interactions, latitude, season and habitat characteristics. Size of home ranges varies inversely with density and vegetative cover. Annual home range averages 59- 520 ha (Marchinton and Hirth 1984). In northeastern Mexico, O. v. texanus home range averages 193 ha for females, and 234 ha for males in a xerophyllous brushland (Bello et al.2004), and O. v. sinaloae in a tropical dry forest in the Pacific Coast of Mexico had a home range of 34 ha during the wet season (Sánchez Rojas et al.1994).<br/><br/>The white-tailed deer is a polytypic species that has become well adapted to different environments. This diversity is reflected in body weight, external dimensions, coat coloration, antler growth and, no doubt assorted physiological, biochemical and behavioural distinctions. In general, the colour is darker in the humid, forested areas, and paler in the drier, more open brushland, reddish in subtropical and tropical environments (Backer 1984). In the northern hemisphere undergo two complete molts per year and exhibit seasonal variation in pelage. The summer coat consists of short, thin, wiry hairs and varies from red-brown to bright tan; the winter coat varies from blue-gray to gray-brown and has longer, thicker and more brittle hairs (Smith 1991). High Andean populations may retain a greyish pelage year-round, while tropical whitetails may keep the tawny,<br/>eddish phase (Baker 1984). Adults have a white nose band, orbital region and throat patch. All underparts including lower tail, insides of legs, venter, and chin are white. Fawns have a reddish-brown with white dorsal spots that disappear at 3-4 months of age (Hesselton and Hesselton 1982).
42394		population	eng	Historically probably not as abundant as at the present time in northern populations. Range has expanded northward farther into Canada as a result of habitat changes caused by humans. White-tailed deer population estimated in the United States must be over 11,000,000 of which a third will be in the State of Texas. In Canada the estimation is a half of million deer (Whitehead 1993). Deer herds in Canada and mainly in the United states are overabundant, but in Mexico, Central America and South America most of the populations are declining, and most of the subspecies status are unknown.
42394		threats	eng	These threats are only considered for the subspecies of Central and South America: feral dogs may be a nuisance to deer in some areas (Causey and Cude 1980). Some populations in Venezuela are threatened by overhunting and habitat loss (Moscarella <em>et al.</em> 2003). Poaching is the other cause of local population extinction.
42395		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range. In general, this species can quickly re-build its numbers and may tolerate a relatively high hunting pressure, if in a suitable habitat and under an appropriate hunting regime. Management operations, such as re-introductions, restocking and translocations, have been carried out widely across its range, and should always be carried out using the appropriate genotypes.<br/><br/>To protect remnant populations of the Italian roe deer <em>C. c. italicus</em>, Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> (2002) recommended the following measures: (1) Conduct research to determine the genetic struture of Italian roe deer, (2) Map extant populations of Italian roe deer, with indications of their genetic purity, (3) Prohibit translocations of roe deer from northern stocks to central and southern Italy, and <em>vice versa</em>, (4) Facilitate the expansion of remaining populations by reducing poaching and eliminating feral dogs, and (5) Establish a re-introduction plan for southern Italy.  Similar actions are recommended to protect genetically distinct peripheral populations in Portugal and Greece. In general, any translocations of roe deer should respect the genetic integrity of populations at the destination site.<br/><br/>Roe deer have been re-introduced into the wild in Israel in the Ramat Hanadiv park on Mount Carmel near Zichron Yaacov. The first release of six females and two males took place in February 1997, a second release of a male and a female took place in March 1998, and a third release of four animals was completed in 1999. Pending information on nthe success of this project, this re-introduction is not yet marked on the distribution map.
42395		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range. To protect remnant populations of the Italian roe deer <em>C. c. italicus</em>, Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> (2002) recommend the following measures: (1) Conduct research to determine the genetic struture of Italian roe deer, (2) Map extant populations of Italian roe deer, with indications of their genetic purity, (3) Prohibit translocations of roe deer from northern stocks to central and southern Italy, and <em>vice versa</em>, (4) Facilitate the expansion of remaining populations by reducing poaching and eliminating feral dogs, and (5) Establish a reintroduction plan for southern Italy.  Similar actions are recommended to protect genetically distinct peripheral populations in Portugal and Greece. In general, any translocations of roe deer should respect the genetic integrity of populations at the destination site.
42395		distribution	eng	The roe deer has a large range in the Palaearctic. It is found through most of Europe (with the exception of Ireland, Cyprus, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and most of the smaller islands), including western Russia (Stubbe 1999). Outside Europe, it occurs in Turkey, northern Syria, northern Iraq, northern Iran, and the Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is extinct in Israel and Lebanon (Wilson and Reeder 2005) (though a re-introduction programme has started in Israel (M. Masseti pers. comm.)). It occurs from sea level up to 2,400 m asl in the Alps (von Lehmann and Sägesser 1986).<br/><br/>In southern Europe there are two subspecies with relatively restricted ranges. <em>C. c. italicus</em> occurs in central and southern Italy, between Southern Tuscany, Latium and Puglia, to Calabria (Lorenzini <em>et al</em>. 2002; Randi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Lorenzini and Lovari 2006). <em>C. c. garganta</em> occurs in southern Spain, in particular in Andalusia (Sierra de Càdiz) (Lorenzini <em>et al</em>. 2002; Lorenzini and Lovari 2006).
42395		distribution	eng	The roe deer has a large range in the Palaearctic. It is found throughout most of Europe (with the exception of Ireland, Cyprus, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and most of the smaller islands), including western Russia (Stubbe 1999). Outside Europe, it occurs in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is extinct in Israel and Lebanon (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m in the Alps (von Lehmann and Sägesser 1986).
42395		habitat	eng	It occupies a wide variety of habitats, including deciduous, mixed or coniferous forests, moorland, pastures, arable land, and suburban areas with large gardens. It prefers landscapes with a mosaic of woodland and farmland (Stubbe 1999). Roe deer are well adapted to modern agricultural landscapes (Andersen <em>et al</em>. 1998, Danilkin 1996; Sempéré <em>et al.</em> 1996).
42395		habitat	eng	It occupies a wide variety of habitats, including deciduous, mixed or coniferous forests, moorland, pastures, arable land, and suburban areas with large gardens. It prefers landscapes with a mosaic of woodland and farmland (Stubbe 1999). Roe deer are well adapted to modern agricultural landscapes (Sempéré <em>et al.</em> 1996).
42395		population	eng	It is widespread and common, and is expanding in many areas. Densities in the northern and southern parts of the range tend to be lower than in the central parts of the range. The central European population is estimated to number c.15 million individuals (EMA Workshop 2006). However, the endemic Italian subspecies <em>C. c. italicus</em>, which is largely restricted to southern Tuscany, probably numbers no more than 10,000 individuals and is at risk from hybridisation with introduced <em>C. c. capreolus</em> (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002)
42395		population	eng	It is widespread and common, and is expanding in many areas. Having almost gone extinct in paerts of southern Europe because of habitat loss and over-harvesting in the first half of the last century, its numbers started increasing again 20-40 years ago because of countryside abandonment, improved hunting regimes and reintroductions.  Densities in the northern and southern parts of the range tend to be lower than in the central parts of the range. The central European population is estimated to number <em>c</em>.15 million individuals. However, the endemic Italian subspecies <em>C. c. italicus</em>, which is largely restricted to southern Tuscany, probably numbers no more than 10,000 individuals and is at risk from hybridisation with introduced <em>C. c. capreolus</em> (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002), which has a large population in the Italian peninsula.
42395		threats	eng	The main threat in Europe is the increased mixing of various genetic stocks as a result of translocations. This may be a particular threat to genetically distinct peripheral populations, such as those in northern Portugal, the southern Italian Apennines, and Greece (Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lorenzini and Lovari 2006). Molecular studies show that roe deer in central and southern Europe are mainly admixed (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002, Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004), indicating that human manipulation has greatly affected the natural genetic structure of populations. The small remaining population of <em>C. c. italicus</em> is also threatened by poaching and predation by feral dogs (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002)
42395		threats	eng	The main threat in Europe is the increased mixing of various genetic stocks as a result of translocations. This may be a particular threat to genetically distinct peripheral populations, such as those in northern Portugal, the southern Italian Apennines, and Greece (Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lorenzini and Lovari 2006). Molecular studies show that roe deer in central and southern Europe are mainly admixed (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002, Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004), indicating that human manipulation has greatly affected the natural genetic structure of populations. The small remaining population of <em>C. c. italicus</em> is also threatened by poaching and predation by feral dogs (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002). The small remnant population in Syria is under severe threat from habitat reduction and human persecution (Masseti 2000).
42396		conservation	eng	Russia has an extensive network of protected areas in the form of National Natural Parks, Special Purpose Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Nature Monuments and the Siberian roe deer is an abundant species in many of them (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000; Korytin <em>et al</em>. 2002). Trophy and commercial hunting are allowed in some of these areas under a license system; the allocation of harvesting quotas is based on periodic estimates of the population size of each species (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Korytin <em>et al</em>. 2002). Under this system 27,300 specimens were legally harvested within the whole Russian territory, during the 1996-7 hunting season (National CBD Reports 2005). However, the amount of illegal hunting beyond this is not known, but could be much larger. More effective management of hunting is needed. The majority of the majority of the isolated Cis-caucasian population inhabits protected areas.<br/><br/>A similar hunting management system exists in China; it has been reported that several thousand roe deer are commercially harvested in Heilongjiang Province every year (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Mongolia has a similar network of protected areas compared to Russia, covering 20.6 millions of hectareas, or more than 13% of the Mongolian territory. Roe deer is present in many of them (Ministry for Nature and Environment 1996). In Mongolia, hunting is permitted between September 1st and December 1st (MNE, 2005). Trophy hunters can purchase hunting licenses, from which $550 USD is allocated to the government (MNE, 2005). Enforcement of wildlife protection laws, inside and outside protected areas, is nonetheless deficient.    <br/><br/>In South Korea, this species is only abundant in strictly protected areas like Cheju Island (Won and Smith 1999). Roe deer is classed as a game species under the current hunting laws, and licensed hunters are allowed to bag a maximum of three individuals per hunting season. The long term effects that the Wildlife Protection Act (in effect from February 2005) will have on the conservation status of this species needs to be monitored.<br/><br/>In summary, the main conservation measures needed involve:<br/>(1)  Effective enforcement of hunting regulations. (2)  Maintanance of suitable habitats, especially in riparian areas.
42396		conservation	eng	The main conservation measures are regulation of hunting and maintenance of suitable habitats on hunting grounds. The majority of the Cis-caucasian population inhabits protected areas.
42396		distribution	eng	The Siberian roe deer has a very wide distribution in the Palaearctic. It is widely distributed in continental Asia and parts of Eastern Europe (Danilkin 1995), from the Khoper and Don River bend to the Ural Mountains and across southern Siberia.  It is found through northern Mongolia (including Navchvandan Mountain in south-eastern parts of Eastern Mongolia, Hangai Mountain Range, Darkhad in Hövsgöl Mountain Range, Hentii Mountain Range, Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range and north-eastern Mongol Altai Mountain Range) west to the coastlines of the sea of Japan, and the Yellow Sea, including the Korean Peninsula (Danilkin 1995). Its geographic range branches out towards the south at the West Siberian Plain down to Lake Balkhash, and from there expanding back to the east well into Kazakhstan without reaching the Aral Sea. Also, it occurs from Manchuria into northern and central China, to the western half of the left margin of the Yang Tze river, into the eastern Tibetan Region (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov <em>et al</em>., 1982; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989). Records from further south as far as northeastern Myanmar require confirmation. It formerly extended as far west and eastern Ukraine, and there is still an isolated population on the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. It also occurs on Cheju Island in South Korea. It has been recorded at altitudes from sea-level up to 3,300 m asl.
42396		distribution	eng	The Siberian roe deer has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic. It is found in southern parts of Siberia and the Urals (to the Volga River in the west), the Russian Far East, and in the mountains of Middle Asia, Mongolia, and Northern and Eastern China. It has been recorded at altitudes of up to 3,300 m.
42396		habitat	eng	Inhabits different types of deciduous and mixed forests and forest-steppes. In summer it is solitary whereas in winter it aggregates into groups of up to 20-30 individuals. During the seasonal nomadic period it forms herds of up to 500 individuals. Polygamous, but does not form harems. Heat usually occurs from mid-July to mid-September; during this period males are territorial. Young are born in May-June; females give birth to one or two calves (rarely up to four).
42396		habitat	eng	The species inhabits different types of deciduous and mixed forests and forest-steppes, where it tends to exploit areas with an abundance of grass cover on which it grazes (Danilkin 1995). In general terms it is most common in the forest-steppe belt of central Russia (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Korytin <em>et al</em>. 2002), where it reaches high population densities of up to 12 individuals per 100 ha in tallgrass meadows and floodplains (Danilkin 1995). It is shy, and most active at night, and often uses salt-licks. In mountains it is found up to 3,300 m asl.<br/><br/>It makes seasonal movements. It is solitary in summer (females stay with their young), but in winter forms mixed groups up to 20-30 individuals. During seasonal movements, group size increases up to 500 individuals. In the province of Amur (Russian Federation), the species migrates every year from winter to summer grounds, for up to 200 km, always following the same routes (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>During heat males are territorial. It is polygamous, but does not form harems. Mating occurs from mid-July to mid-September. Young are born in May-June; the females give birth to one or two calves (rarely up to four). Gestation is six to ten months, usually with a lag phase. Maturity is reached by 13 months, and adults live 10-12 years (Danilkin 1995).
42396		population	eng	Although it is generally considered to be common, it is in delcine in many places because of over-hunting. Danilkin (1995) estimated the total world population to be "about 1 million" individuals, though this represents a considerable decline, as during the nineteenh century, 500,000 were killed annually in Russia. Nevertheless, in the 1990s, healthy populations appeared to be common in China and Russia (Danilkin 1995, Otaishi and Gao 1990). Sheng and Ohtaishi (1993) estimated the total population living in China at the time in "about 500,000" individuals.<br/><br/>The species has almost certainly declined since then due to hunting (Danilkin 1995). For example, in the Amur region of Russia, the population was estimated to be 134,870 individuals in 1991, but it has been in continuous decline since then due to unauthorized hunting and fires (Toushkin, 2007). The situation could be more even more critical in the Korean Peninsula where trapping, overhunting and the opening of new land to logging operations may be having a negative effect on the species (Won and Smith 1999). In 1985, the population size throughout Mongolia was estimated as between 70,000 and 89,000, though in the same year density estimates of 4-5 individuals over 1,000 ha were made in Khovsgol, with a total population estimate for this region of 250,000 animals (Sukhbat and Shagdarjav, 1990). Over the last 10 years, however, the species has largely disappeared from the Bogd Uul mountain region, with only possible sightings in 2004. In the most recent population estimate conducted was in the Nomrog Special Protected Area, where 298 were found (K. Olson pers. comm.). No data seem to be currently available on the status of this species in Kazakhstan.<br/><br/>Population density in Russia depends on vegetation type. It is most abundant in light oak and cedar forests, and is not found in fir forests. In the Sikhote-Alin State Reserve, population density varies from 0.2 to 1.3 individuals per km² (Myslenkov 1990).
42396		population	eng	It is generally widespread and common across the whole distribution area. The population is stable; the species is a game animal.
42396		threats	eng	Illegal hunting for meat and antlers, largely for local use, has eradicated this species from many areas of Russia. In the past, the implementation of proactive law enforcement and successful re-introduction programmes corrected this (Danilkin 1995). Recent data suggest that poaching is again on the rise in Russia and Kazakhstan, though there is currently only limited information on it effects on the populations of <em>Capreolus pygargus</em>. It is of particular concern in relation to the isolated population in the CIS-Caucasus. Poaching is also known to be a serious problem in China. The status of the species on the Korean Peninsula is also problematic, as deforestation and poaching seem to be depleting numbers in many areas (Won and Smith 1999). Although not presently a threat through much of its Russian range, habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock and human disturbance, associated with resource extraction, could constitute a potential future threat. At a smaller scale, in the Amur Region several populations were lost by the formation of the Zeya and Burey reservoirs.<br/><br/>Severe winter weather and natural predation are liable to have at times a strong impact on the survival or presence of some populations in certain regions (Danilkin 1995, Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000), though this is not a major concern for the species overall.
42396		threats	eng	There are no major threats to whole population. However, poaching might be a threat to the isolated population in the Cis-Caucasus.
42397		conservation	eng	The Alpine ibex is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and is protected under national legislation in most range states. It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Hohe Tauern and Kalkhochalpen National Parks, Austria; Vanoise, Ecrins, and Mercantour National Parks, France; Gran Paradiso and Stelvio National Parks and Maritime Alps Natural Park, Italy), and it has been the subject of intensive conservation management in the form of reintroductions and introductions (Shackleton 1997). Reintroductions began at the end of the 19th century in the Swiss Alps, while in Italy they have been significant only since the 1970s (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>According to Shackleton (1997) and Dupré <em>et al.</em> (2001), the main proposal for ibex conservation is to continue restocking populations in appropriate habitats. Reintroductions should also be carefully planned, e.g. by  (1) Using environmental evaluation models for selecting areas for reintroducing ibex, in conjunction with (2) a conservation strategy that aims to make the separate colonies part of a single metapopulation; (3) Giving priority to protected areas, or to other areas capable of guaranteeing efficient surveillance against poaching and disturbance (although this does not mean that controlled hunting areas should be <em>a priori</em> excluded); (4) Selecting founder individuals for new colonies according to specific criteria; (5) Limiting domestic sheep and goat grazing in reintroduction areas to decrease the possibility of parasite and disease transmission, resource competition, and hybridization; and (6) Screeing reintroduction sites for suitability in relation to health and disease transmission.<br/><br/>Other conservation recommendations include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and communication), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (e.g. by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and monitoring all populations.
42397		distribution	eng	The Alpine ibex is endemic to Europe, where its native range is the Alps of France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and northern Italy (Shackleton 1997; Grubb, 2005). It has been introduced to Slovenia and Bulgaria (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). The ibex was driven very close to extinction in the early 19th century, and with the exception of the population in the Gran Paradiso National Park (Italy), all current populations originate from re-introductions or introductions. Although the range of the ibex has increased over the last century as a result of translocations and natural colonisation, its distribution is still rather patchy in the Alps. It occurs from 500 to 3,000 m (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999).<br/><br/>In Austria, all current populations originate from re-introductions, although not always into former or even suitable habitat. The first colony was re-established in 1924 in the Bluhnbach valley (Hagen mountains), and the second in 1936, farther east in Wildalpen, so that by 1988, <em>ca</em>. 740 ibex had been released (Bauer, 1991). By the 1990s, the species is now found in the Bhihnbach valley (Hagen mountains), in the Northern Limestone alps in Wildalpen, and in the Pitz and Kauner valleys of Tyrol, and in the Styria (Hochlantsch massif). In France, it is found mainly in the eastern part of the Alps. Four ibex populations had been re-established in Germany by the 1990s. The first introduction was made at Koenigsee (Berchtesgaden) in 1936 with 24 animals. The founding animals came from the Aosta valley (Italy), from Peter and Paul, and from the Berlin and Munich Zoological Gardens. The animals dispersed after a few years to the Austrian Bluebachtal. In 1951, the population was reduced considerably after an outbreak of sarcoptic mange, but since then numbers have increased slowly. The population straddles the German-Austrian border, wintering in Austria and summering in the Bavarian Alps in Germany. A second population was established at Jachenau, partly the result of immigration of one male from the Austrian colony at Baechental, supplemented by four animals from Swiss founder populations in 1967. After the addition of several more ibex, this population increased to about 100 animals by the 1990s; however, its range is very restricted and there is little potential for expansion. A small colony in Oberaudorf was the result of a re-introduction in 1963 which failed to disperse. It is now restricted to an area of about 100 ha, and foresters consider it a problem because of range over-use. Another small, restricted population became established through natural dispersal from Austria, but its size is unknown. Ibex were introduced into the Rila mountains of Bulgaria (Atlas of the Mammals of Bulgaria) in the mid-1980s. In Italy, re-introductions, combined with some spontaneous migration from adjoining countries (Peracino and Bassano, 1986; Tosi <em>et al.</em>, 1986a), have increased areas with ibex, but its distribution is still rather discontinuous in the Alps.
42397		habitat	eng	Alpine ibex typically inhabit open, rocky habitats at high altitude, above the tree line. Steep, south-facing slops with rugged topography and grassy vegetation are preferred. Below the tree line, at subalpine levels, ibex are only found in open, sunny woodland interspersed with rocky outcrops (Nievergelt and Zingg 1986, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). Ibex feed on alpine grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). This species is diurnal, but most active during the early morning and late afternoon. Living in montane pastures, they eat grasses and some woody plants.  They migrate seasonally to different altitudes, spending the harsher winter months at medium elevations. The animals occur in maternal herds of 10-20 members, while males roam solitarily or in bachelor groups.  Females gestate for about 170 days, and usually carry one kid per pregnancy.  Females are sexually mature by 18 months, and males are mature at 2 years. The species lifespan is typically 10-14 years.
42397		population	eng	After centuries of decline caused primarily by intensive hunting, at the beginning of the 19th century at most a few hundred Alpine ibex survived in the Gran Paradiso massif (Valle d?Aosta region, Italy). Current ibex populations in the Alps are generally restricted to mountain areas above the tree line and are the result of both translocations from the original core of c.100 individuals and natural colonisation (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). These efforts, together with spontaneous migration from adjoining countries, have increased the population and the number of areas inhabited by ibex, although the distribution is still discontinuous (Stüwe and Nievergelt 1991, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). In the 1990s it was estimated that c.30,000 ibex lived in the Alps (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). Populations grew steadily from the 1960s to the 1990s, showing a mean annual growth rate between 3% and 6% (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). About 15,000 ibex were estimated in Switzerland, 9,700 in Italy, 3,200 in Austria, 3,300 in France, 250 in Slovenia and, and 220 in Germany (Shackleton 1997).
42397		population	eng	After centuries of decline caused primarily by intensive hunting, at the beginning of the 19th century at most a few hundred Alpine ibex survived in the Gran Paradiso massif (Valle d’Aosta region, Italy). Current ibex populations in the Alps are generally restricted to mountain areas above the tree line and are the result of both translocations from the original core of c.100 individuals and natural colonisation (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). These efforts, together with spontaneous migration from adjoining countries, have increased the population and the number of areas inhabited by ibex, although the distribution is still discontinuous (Stüwe and Nievergelt 1991, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). In the 1990s it was estimated that c.30,000 ibex lived in the Alps (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). Populations grew steadily from the 1960s to the 1990s, showing a mean annual growth rate between 3% and 6% (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). About 15,000 ibex were estimated in Switzerland, 9,700 in Italy, 3,200 in Austria, 3,300 in France, 250 in Slovenia and, and 220 in Germany (Shackleton 1997).
42397		threats	eng	Although the species is not considered threatened at present, there is concern regarding genetic diversity, the founder effect and minimum viable populations (Shackleton 1997, Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Genetic variability in ibex populations is among the lowest reported from microsatellites in mammal species, and the Alpi Marittime?Mercantour population in particular has suffered from a severe genetic bottleneck associated with its reintroduction (Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). The ibex's distribution remains fragmented and many colonies are small and thus vulnerable to epizootics and stochastic events as well as inbreeding depression. Colonies with >60 individuals are believed to be viable as long as diseases (most importantly mange) do not affect them (Shackleton 1997, EMA Workshop 2006). Hybridization can be a threat where populations are small and sympatric with high densities of domestic goats, as is the case in Italy (Randi <em>et al.</em> 1990, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). High densities of domestic goats and sheep may also have a negative impact on the ibex through parasite and disease transmission and resource competition (Shackleton 1997, J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Appropriate habitat for the species may be decreasing, as the abandonment of traditional agriculture means that high-altitude alpine meadows are reverting to forest through natural succession (EMA Workshop 2006). Human disturbance as a result of increased tourism and recreation is suspected to be a general threat to mountain ungulates (Shackleton 1997). Alpine ibex are legally hunted in some areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia), although hunting is completely prohibited in several range states (Shackleton 1997). Legal hunting is not considered a threat if it is properly planned and regulated, but poaching is a potential threat (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001).
42397		threats	eng	Although the species is not considered threatened at present, there is concern regarding genetic diversity, the founder effect and minimum viable populations (Shackleton 1997, Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Genetic variability in ibex populations is among the lowest reported from microsatellites in mammal species, and the Alpi Marittime–Mercantour population in particular has suffered from a severe genetic bottleneck associated with its reintroduction (Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). The ibex's distribution remains fragmented and many colonies are small and thus vulnerable to epizootics and stochastic events as well as inbreeding depression. Colonies with >60 individuals are believed to be viable as long as diseases (most importantly mange) do not affect them (Shackleton 1997, EMA Workshop 2006). Hybridization can be a threat where populations are small and sympatric with high densities of domestic goats, as is the case in Italy (Randi <em>et al.</em> 1990, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). High densities of domestic goats and sheep may also have a negative impact on the ibex through parasite and disease transmission and resource competition (Shackleton 1997, J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Appropriate habitat for the species may be decreasing, as the abandonment of traditional agriculture means that high-altitude alpine meadows are reverting to forest through natural succession (EMA Workshop 2006). Human disturbance as a result of increased tourism and recreation is suspected to be a general threat to mountain ungulates (Shackleton 1997). Alpine ibex are legally hunted in some areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia), although hunting is completely prohibited in several range states (Shackleton 1997). Legal hunting is not considered a threat if it is properly planned and regulated, but poaching is a potential threat (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001).
42398		conservation	eng	Within Afghanistan, ibex were nominally protected from human harvest by a nationwide presidential ban on hunting.   Ibex populations residing in the Ajar valley (in Bamyan Province) were listed by the Government’s National Environmental Protection Agency as legally protected in 2009, effectively banning all hunting and trading of animals from this population within Afghanistan. They are probably present in Band-e Amir National Park, in the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve (Shank <em>et al</em>. 1977), which is the only protected area in Afghanistan that is currently operational. A series of nature reserves are currently under consideration in the Pamirs of Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor. Conservation measures proposed include surveys to determine the current status and distribution of the species, particularly in the Ajar Valley Reserve. <br/><br/>In China, the taxon is listed as Class I in the Wildlife Protection Law. Asiatic ibex occur in at least eight nature reserves in Xinjiang (Du and Zhang 2006), including Khanasi and Source of the 2 Altai Rivers (Altai mountains), Tuomur Feng,  Bogda Feng, Tianchi, West Tian Shan, and Hami Shan (Tian Shan range) and Taxkorgan (Pamirs). Conservation measures proposed include determining the status of populations throughout their distribution in China, providing additional protection in some areas (e.g. in the Altai), considering others for development of managed, sustainable trophy hunting programs. These latter programs may be useful where ibex numbers are sufficiently abundant, and where removal or reduction of livestock is advised, local people should be provided with compensation. In northern Gansu, livestock need to be managed to reduce conflicts with <em>C. sibirica</em>. It has also been suggested that a cross-boundary reserve be developed that would join up with the Great Gobi Reserve in Mongolia, not only to protect ibex but also other species.<br/><br/>In India, Asiatic ibex is found in several protected areas in the western Himalayan region (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986, 1991a, 1994; Gaston <em>et al</em>. 1981;  Bhatnagar 2003) including: Jammu and Kashmir - Kishtwar and Hemis National Parks and Kanji, Boodkharbu, Tongri, Rangdum, Karakoram, Lung Nag, Rizong Sabu, and Chukor Wildlife Sanctuaries; Himachal Pradesh - Pin Valley and Great Himalayan (possibly) National Parks and the Daranghati (possibly), Gamgul Siya-Behi, Kanawar, Kugti (locally threatened), Lippa Asrang, Manali (locally threatened), Rupi Bhaba, Sechu Tuan Nala, Tirthan and Tundah (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries. <br/><br/>Within ex-Soviet Central Asia, Shackleton (1997) reported that ibex were present in the following Nature Reserves (zapovedniks): Kazakhstan: Aksu-Dzhabagly, Alma-Ata and Markakol; Kyrgyzstarz: Besh-Aral, Issyk-Kul’, Naryn and Sary-Chelek; Russia: Sayano-Shushensky and Altai; Tajikistan: Ramit; Uzbekistan: Chatkal, Gissar and Zaamin. Chatkal Nature Reserve is joined as a “cluster reserve” with Sary-Chelek Nature Reserve located 50 km southeast of Tashkent, and occupies the southwest end of Chatkal range in the western Tian Shan (41°N, 69°59’E). Most of these protected areas harbour small populations of between 200 and 400 ibex, although Sayano-Shushensky Reserve has about 1,000, and Alma-Ata has up to 700 animals. The average number of ibex estimated in Chatkal NR between 1984 and 1993 was around 500 animals/year, although numbers fluctuated as much as 30%. A similar number of ibex was estimated for Gissar NR between 1983 and 1990 (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995). Trophy hunting programs for ibex exist in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Conservation measures proposed included creating an adequate protected areas system for ibex in central and eastern regions of Eastern Sayan, and stopping poaching, with special effort made in areas with currently heavy exploitation. In Mongolia, ibex is a legally protected as a Rare species under the Mongolian Law on Fauna and the Mongolian Hunting Law (Wingard and Odgerel 2002).  No general hunting is allowed, but a limited amount of licensed trophy hunting is permitted. The species is listed as Near Threatened in most recent Mongolian Red List (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006), which represents an upgrade in status from the last 2 Mongolian Red Books, in which the species was listed as Threatened (Shagdarsuren 1987, Shiirevdamba <em>et al</em>. 1997).  Approximately 14% of the species’ range is protected (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006) and it occurs in at least the following protected areas: Altai-Taivan Bogd, Bodgkhan Mountains, Eej Khairkhan Mountain, Great Gobi, Gobi Gurvan Saikhan, Ikh Nart, Khangai Nuruu, Khar-Uvs Lake, Khokh Serkh Mountain, Khovsgol Lake, Otgontenger Mountain, Sharga Natural Reserve, Silkhem Mountain, Tarvagatai Mountain, Tsambagarav, Uvs Lake, and Yoliin Valley. Khokh Serkh Nature Reserve in the Altai region was established specifically for the conservation of this species. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Undertake more rigorous population surveys of all populations; 2) Study the ecology, particularly habitat requirements and movement patterns, and the impacts of livestock  grazing on ibex; 3) Hire, train, and equip law enforcement agents, especially for protected areas; 4) Begin using the money generated from trophy hunting to pay for conservation and management of the species; 5) Establish new protected areas to conserve additional populations of ibex; and 6) Collaborate better with Russia and China to protect populations that live in border regions. Trophy hunters purchase hunting licenses from which US$800 for Altai ibex and UD$720 for Gobi ibex are allocated to the government for a quota of 260 animals per year (MNE, 2005).  Little to none of this money is used specifically for conservation or management of the species (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002), although a small percentage of the money goes toward general conservation activities, such as the budgets of regional protected areas administrations. A long term research project on ibex in Ikh Nart has been established for several years now, and 100-150 are estimated to be living within this protected area (R. Reading pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>Within Pakistan, Shackleton (1997) reported numerous protected areas providing differing levels of protection to ibex. These include: NWFP - Chitral District: Agram-Basti WS, Goleen Gol GR (Anonymous, 1986); Swat District: Giddar Baik WS, Mahu Dand GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987). Northern Areas - Gilgit District: Khunjerab NP, Kargah WS, Naltar WS, Kilik-Mintaka GR, Danyore GR, Sherqillah GR, Pakura Nallah GR, Chassi-Bowshdar GR, Nazbar Nallah GR (Rasool, no date); Diamir District: Astor WS (Rasool n. d.); Baltistan District: Baltistan WS, Satpara WS, Nar Nallah GR, Askor Nallah GR (Rasool, no date). Azad Jammu and Kashmir – Muzaffarabad District: Ghamot GR, Machiara GR (Qayyum, 1986, 87; Zool. Survey Dept., 1986). Mahu Dand GR was created for ibex in 1992. WWF-Pakistan began a hunting program in 1990 at the Bar village near Gilgit (Johnson, 1997, Arshad 2002. In 1991, IUCN-Pakistan, with support from UNDP, in co-operation with local people and the Aga Khan Rural Support Program, initiated a planning process to survey protected areas and to prepare an overall sustainable-use wildlife management plan for ibex populations. The program is to involve hunting by both local and foreign hunters. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Provide complete legal protection for the species. 2) Establish a proper hunting system involving a management plan for locals, as well as for foreigners. Hunting could take place in areas with healthy populations but not in National Parks.
42398		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the mountain ranges of central and northeastern Afghanistan, China (northwestern tip of Gansu, west Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, possibly Tibet on its border with Xinjiang, Schaller 1998), north India (Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh), eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia (Altai, Gobi-Altai, Khangai, and Sayan Mountains, as well as isolated mountains and rocky outcrops in the southeast), northeastern Uzbekistan (west Tian Shan), northern Pakistan, Russia (southern Siberia, southern Tuva, and the Altai Mountains), and Tajikistan (Shackleton 1997; Grubb, 2005). In Afghanistan, ibex were historically found in pockets of steep habitat throughout the Afghan Hindu Kush and its outlying ranges (e.g., Spinghar, Kohe Baba, Feroz Koh, Nuristan). It is currently found in suitable habitat throughout the Afghan Pamir and along the Panj River of north-eastern Badakhshan.<br/><br/>In China, Siberian ibex is found primarily in the mountains surrounding Xinjiang, but also in those of extreme northern Gansu, and Inner Mongolia. Populations are relatively widespread in western Xinjiang (Abudoukadi’er 2003) in the mountains around the Dzungarian basin including the mountains along the border with Kazakhstan from south of the Irtysh River, through the Kok Shaal Tau mountains along the border with Kyrgyzstan and into the Pamir along the border with Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and also throughout the Tian Shan ranges. Populations occur along the Sino-Mongolia border in the Baytik mountains (Xinjiang), in the Mazongshan area of northern Gansu, and as far east as the Daqinshan of central Inner Mongolia (Wang 1998). Slightly separated from these are populations in the Altai mountains in northern Xinjiang, along China’s borders with Mongolia, and Russia. <br/><br/>The Asiatic ibex has a widespread distribution in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and southern Siberia, where it occupies precipitous habitats in a range of environments from hot deserts, low mountains and foothills, to high mountain ridges. It is found throughout the Pamir, Tian Shan, Dzungarian Alatau, Altai, and Tuva Mountains, as well as the western and eastern Sayan. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, Siberian ibex are patchily distributed in rugged terrain throughout the western half of the country, and in central and south-central Mongolia to the trans-Siberian railway line (Ulaanbaatar to Choir, and to Sainshand) (Dulamtseren 1970, 1977, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  More specifically, ibex inhabit the Altai, Hangai, and Gobi Altai Mountain Ranges (Bannikov 1954, Dulamtseren 1970, Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Mallon 1985, Schaller 1994, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Fedosenko and Blank 2001, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). They also occur in the Sayan Mountains near the Russian border west of Lake Hovsgol and in scattered populations in the small mountains in the Transaltai Gobi and in canyons, rocky outcrops, and other rugged terrain throughout the Gobi Desert (Bannikov 1954; Dash <em>et al</em>. 1977, Dulamtseren 1977, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1999a, 1999b, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Fedosenko and Blank 2001, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A small introduced population survives in the Bogd Uul Mountains just outside of Ulaanbaatar (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  The largest number of ibex occurs in the Altai and western Hangai Mountains.  Populations continue to become increasing fragmented, especially in central and southeastern Mongolia (Schaller 1994, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A long term research project on ibex ecology is being conducted in northern Ikh Nart Nature Reserve in northern Dornogobi Aimag (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2006a).<br/> <br/>In India, the Asiatic ibex occurs in the Karakoram, Trans-Himalayan and Himalayan regions of Jammu and Kashmir, and in the Tran Himalayan and Himalayan regions of Himachal Pradesh, as far east as the Sutlej river (Fox, 1987; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1992; Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981; Pandey, 1993). The species occurs in the western half of Ladakh, in the Shyok valley of northern Ladakh, along the Ladakh range to 45 km southeast of Leh, and along both sides of the main Himalayan range eastward to Shingo La pass (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a, 1992; Mallon, 1991). It is present along the southern side of the Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir from the Zoji La pass eastwards to Himachal Pradesh, where it occurs throughout much of Lahul and Spiti, in the upper Beas and Parbati catchments, and east to the Sutlej river (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1992; Pandey, 1993;  Bhatnagar 2003). According to Shackleton (1997), the Asiatic ibex is probably the most abundant Caprinae in Pakistan (Schaller, 1977). It is restricted to the relatively dry mountains of the inner Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush, between about 3,200 to greater than 5,000 m. It inhabits most of the higher mountain ranges of the Gilgit, Diamir and Baltistan Districts, and the northern part of the Chitral District. In Dir, Swat, Kohistan and Mansehra Districts, as well as in the northern part of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, it exists in the inner mountain range and inhabits the southern slopes of the main Himalayan chain (Roberts, 1977, Schaller, 1977, Qayyum, 1985). Outside this distribution area there is an unconfirmed report of a totally isolated population in the Safed Koh Mountains (Districts Kurram and Khyber of NWFP). If animals still exist there, it would represent the southernmost limit of the species’ global distribution (Roberts, 1977).
42398		habitat	eng	The Siberian Ibex primarily occupies mountainous regions from 500-6,700 m asl in rocky terrain and open alpine meadows and crags, seeking out lower elevations during the winter (Fedosenko and Blank 2001).  It occupies precipitous habitats in a range of environments from deserts, low mountains and foothills, to high mountain ridges. Siberian ibex can also be found in areas with canyon, rocky outcrops, and steep ‘escape’ terrain far from high mountains (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). The species does not enter forest zones, but on a hot day does prefer shaded areas, it tends to remain near steep, escape terrain (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Its diet consists of alpine grasses and herbs, and it feeds in early morning and evenings (Fedosenko and Blank 2001).  Ibex live in small groups that vary considerably in size, sometimes forming herds of over 100 animals, but more typically averaging 6-30 animals, depending on the region (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1997, 1999b, Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Diurnal, they spend the day in alternating periods of activity and rest.  Females gestate for 170-180 days (Geptner <em>et al</em>. 1961) and usually give birth to one, sometimes two, kids in the spring.  The animals reach sexual maturity at 24 months for females and 18 months for males, although usually only older males mate (Fedosenko and Blank 2001).  Siberian ibex can live up to 16-17 years Geptner <em>et al</em>. 1961, Fedosenko and Blank 2001).
42398		population	eng	There are no rigorously derived population estimates for ibex in any range state.<br/><br/>In Afghanistan, the Siberian ibex was considered abundant throughout its range prior to the late 1970s and a series of wars. Shank <em>et al</em>. (1977) estimated that around 5,000 animals used the Ajar Valley Reserve seasonally during the 1970s; this population is likely much smaller now (C. Shank pers. comm., 2007).  More than 4,000 were believed to inhabit the Pamir alone. Their present status in the Pamir is unknown, but they are known to persist in reasonably large numbers throughout the ranges of the Wakhan Corridor. <br/><br/>There is no overall population estimate in China. In recent years, the population in the Tian Shan has been guessed at 40,000-50,000 individuals (Wang 1998). Densities in other areas are relatively low. Rough guesses of ibex numbers in the Bei Mountains (northern Gansu) are between 3,000 and 4,000 individuals. The species has almost disappeared in the Daqin mountains range. <br/><br/>In India, population estimates include a minimum of 6,000 in Ladakh (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a) and perhaps another 4,000 on the south side of the main Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, and in the Pir Panjal range of Himachal Pradesh (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1992). Counts of ibex in protected areas include 330 in the Kanji-Boodkharbu, 225 in Lungnag, 250 in Rangdum, and 174 in Rizong Wildlife Sanctuaries (Jammu and Kashmir) (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a), and 174 in the Pin Valley National Park (Himachal Pradesh) where Pandey (1993) estimated a density of 2.3 ibex/km² in 1989. More recent counts in India are not available.<br/><br/>As reported by Shackleton (1997), the total number of ibex in the former Soviet Republics of Central Asia (as well as in adjacent Russia) was estimated at between 100,000 to 110,000 animals. Most of these occurred in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (ca. 70,000) and Kazakhstan (ca. 17,000) with far fewer (8,000 to 9,000) in southern Siberia (3,000 to 3,500 in the Altai, 2,500 in Tannu Ola mountains of Tuva, 1,500 in Western Sayan and 2,000 to 2,500 in Eastern Sayan) and Uzbekistan (2,400). Numbers for the Pamir are unknown, but the species was considered to be common, especially in the western part. Ibex number in the Tian Shan of Kazakhstan may have declined some areas (Green and Mahon, 1995).<br/><br/>The Mongolian Red Data Book 1987 (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987), stated that 1,000 individuals inhabited western Khövsgöl alone, and a total of 80,000 animals occurred in Mongolia in the mid-1980s (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Mallon <em>et al</em>. (1997) stated that ibex numbers declined since that peak estimate of 80,000 due to exploitation, habitat degradation and competition for resources (Schaller 1994, 1995, 1998).  Despite Mallon <em>et al</em>.’s (1997) assertions, the Mongolian Academy of Sciences again estimated that 80,000 inhabited Mongolia in 2002.  However, the MAS 2002 estimate was likely biased, as researchers 1) surveyed very few areas; 2) selected survey locations with the highest reported ibex densities based on information from local people; and 3) extrapolated their data to regions for which they had little to no data for the existence of ibex (B. Lhagvasuren pers. comm. 2002).  Still, relatively large numbers of ibex likely persist in Mongolia. In the Khohk Serkh Reserve in the High Altai, the population was estimated at 1,000 in 1979 by Dzieciolowski <em>et al</em>. (1980) and at 1,200 by des Clers (1985).  Tulgat and Schaller (1992) estimated 600 ibex in the Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area. In 1989, in a 200 sq km study area west of Tsogt in the Altai, Schaller <em>et al</em>. (1994) counted 337 ibex, and estimated there may have been a total of up to 450 animals. Reading <em>et al</em>. (1997) recorded 1,218 ibex in 623 sq km of Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Conservation Park, and estimated that a total of 12,166 argali occurred in the park’s 2.17 million ha (5,207 sq km of mountainous areas) (Reading <em>et al</em>., 1999b).  Few other rigorously derived estimates of population numbers exist for other parts of Mongolia. <br/><br/>Asiatic ibex is widely distributed over northern Pakistan, but is only locally abundant in the northern part of its range. Hess (1986) found the highest density in northern Pakistan to be in the area along the Barpu Glacier (Gilgit District) with 1.2 to 1.6 animals/km² (n = 194-270 animals, area surveyed = 164 km²). Wegge (1988) estimated that >2,000 ibex lived in the Khunjerab NP, at a slightly lower density of ca. 1.0 ibex/km. In many areas the species has densities of >0.1 to >0.3/km² as in the Shinghai Valley, Gilgit District (n = 15-50 animals, area surveyed = 1 76 km², Hess, 1986). Within the Gilgit District, Asiatic ibex is clearly rarer in the southern than in the northern part. The reasons for this may be that compared to northern areas, elevations in the south are generally lower, there are higher densities of humans using alpine pastures, and there are smaller distances between villages. The census of the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1992) gives 2,545 animals for the whole province; in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, a total of 375 were estimated (Qayyum, 1986, 87).
42398		threats	eng	Throughout its range, ibex are hunted for subsistence use because they have traditionally been an important supplementary food for local people. Poaching also occurs in some areas by military personnel, road maintenance workers, and others, especially in areas accessible by vehicle (Schaller <em>et al</em>., 1987). Additional threats to ibex include competition with livestock for food and habitat, and in some areas by predators. As a result of these threats, some populations have declined significantly, especially in regions with dense human populations. <br/><br/>In 2007, producers of wool products in Nepal began marketing a product they termed “yangir”, which they claimed originated from wild, hunted <em>Capra sibirica</em>. (Some hair fibers from <em>C. sibirica</em> are quite fine, and may potentially be used for high-quality wool). At least one importer based in Germany was marketing these products as high-end, speciality scarves. As of this writing, the origin of these products (and whether they indeed came from <em>C. sibirica</em>) had not yet been determined. Trophy hunting programs in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan produce only a few animals/year, and are unlikely to be the source of a commercially-marketed wool product. If <em>Capra sibirica</em> were being poached specifically to feed this market, formerly stable populations could quickly become threatened.<br/> <br/>In Afghanistan, prior to the wars, Siberian ibex was abundant and hunted throughout its range by local tribesmen. The impact of hunting was believed to be limited. Hunting is also the major threat to the species, especially where new roads increase accessibility and modern weapons improve efficiency for hunters. <br/><br/>In China, poaching is a minor threat; guns have mostly been confiscated from pastoralists living near ibex habitat, although some poaching by police and/or military no doubt continues. Competition with livestock may occur.<br/><br/>In India, increased grazing and disturbance from livestock are apparent in some areas (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1986, 1994; Pandey, 1993), whereas in others these activities may be decreasing (Fox <em>et al</em>., unpubl. data). The rugged habitats used by ibex will probably insulate them from excessive competition by livestock (although see Bagchi <em>et al</em>.  2004 for an alternative perspective) so that hunting will remain the primary human influence on populations throughout their range. Possible hybridization of ibex with domestic goats as reported in the Spiti valley (Johnsingh, unpubl. data) needs to be verified and monitored. In Pakistan, competition for food with livestock is a growing threat to Asiatic ibex. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, the major threats to the species include grazing competition and disturbance from livestock, and poaching (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). Ibex is probably less affected than argali by poaching and competition with livestock, because of the more precipitous and hence less accessible terrain it occupies, yet both probably negatively impact the species (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997,  Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). Illegal and unsustainable hunting for meat, trophies and skins remains a threat (Wingard and Zahler 2006), although habitat degradation through grazing by increasing livestock numbers and competition for pasture and water may constitute threats in some areas (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2006b) and increasing resource extraction and mining activities may also result in habitat loss and degradation. Harsh winter weather conditions can also severely impact population sizes locally (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>In Russia, although hunted legally under license, many are shot illegally and in large numbers.
42399		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
42399		distribution	eng	Occurs below 1,350 meters elevation in the southwestern United States (Arizona and New Mexico) and adjoining portion of Sonora, Mexico. In the US, it occurs primarily in southern and western Arizona, where its range does not extend beyond the Colorado River. Found in a small area of southwestern New Mexico, specifically in the Peloncillo Mountains and near Redrock.
42399		habitat	eng	This species occupies a variety of desert habitats, including those with cacti and desert shrubs.
42399		population	eng	In the United States, this species is not abundant, and is found as scattered individuals. Its densities range from 0.08/ha to 0.36/ha, depending on the season. In Mexico, this species is relatively common in suitable habitat.
42399		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include accidental mortality by trapping and poisoning.
42408		distribution	eng	The typical variety of Monterey Pine occurs along the coast of California in three disjunct populations in San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties, Monterey County, and San Luis Obispo County. <em>Pinus radiata</em> var. <em>binata</em> occurs on Guadalupe and Cedros islands, Mexico.  Although trees on these islands differ in morphology from those in the United States, they have been shown to be most closely related to <em>P. radiata</em>. <br/> <br/>Monterey Pine is cultivated for timber in Maui, Hawaii.  It is also widely planted for timber in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Chile, Spain, and the British Isles.
42408		habitat	eng	Monterey Pine is part of the coastal closed-cone coniferous woodland. This habitat is strongly influenced by its proximity to the Pacific Ocean from which the cold waters of southward-flowing currents result in high humidity, low temperatures, and summer fogs. The pine is seldom found more than 11 km from the sea. <br/> <br/>Fire is a major influence affecting the extent and makeup of Monterey pine stands. Fire is frequent, sometimes of natural causes, often accidental, and sometimes deliberately set. Graziers at Cambria, for example, burned the woods to obtain more grass. At Año Nuevo, frequent fires have helped to maintain the pine forest. Without fire, the taller and longer-lived coast Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em> var. <em>menziesii</em>) would usurp land occupied by pines.
42408		threats	eng	The three remaining native stands of var. radiata are infected and under threat of extinction from pitch canker, a fungal disease native to the southeast United States and found (in 1986) to have been introduced to California. When trees begin to die of the disease, they attract bark beetles which provide a pathway for infection of other trees. In some stands, 80-90% of trees are infected.  <br/> <br/>All the mainland stands have been subject to change because undisturbed stands are scarce; nearly all have been grazed, burned, or logged. The stands on Guadalupe Island have been severely impacted by grazing from feral goats, while the stands on Cedros Island appear to be largely secure.
42424		conservation	eng	The entire population of var. <em>insularis</em> is protected. While most of the population of var. <em>torreyana</em> is protected within Torrey Pines State Park.
42424		distribution	eng	Two subpopulationsis are recognized, one as var. <em>torreyana</em> with fewer than 1,000 trees north of San Diego; and the second as var. <em>insularis</em> with fewer than 250 trees on Santa Rosa Island.
42424		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal chaparral.
42424		threats	eng	Trees on unprotected land are highly vulnerable to fire, recreation activities and urban development. There has been a recent serious infestation of five-spined ips bark beetle in the Torrey Pines State Park, but it is now apparently contained. Coastal abrasion is a threat to var. <em>insularis</em>.
42430		conservation	eng	A substantial subpopulation is protected in Lin'an County, Zhejiang, China.
42430		distribution	eng	The species is widespread, but scattered as isolated individuals or in small stands.
42430		threats	eng	The timber is extracted extensively throughout the species' range but most thoroughly in accessible areas. Trees are also being lost through habitat destruction for expanding agricultural activities.
42437		conservation	eng	Three locations are in protected areas: Minziro Forest Reserve and Biharamulo Game Reserve in Tanzania and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda.
42437		distribution	eng	Uganda, Tanzania (region around Lake Victoria). A notable population occurs in the Minziro Forest Reserve in Tanzania, where 13 of 19 herbarium collections used in the assessment were made. EOO 97,974 km² and AOO 18,215 km² based on mapped herbarium specimens. It is possibly found in adjacent Kenya and Congo, but no herbarium collections are known to the assessors.
42437		habitat	eng	Dominant in seasonal swamp forest on alluvial plains. Elevation (from G.I.S.) 1,133 to 1,507 m, from herbarium specimens 1,120 to 1,200 m.
42437		population	eng	Populations appear to be widely scattered in the region and are presumably rare. Last collected in 1962.
42437		threats	eng	Valuable timber tree being exploited, large trees are often removed.
42446		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from various protected areas.
42446		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in New Caledonia from the Riviere Bleu in the south to Mt. Homedeboa in the north. It occurs from 10 to 950 m asl.
42446		habitat	eng	Occurs in maquis vegetation.
42446		population	eng	A relatively common and widespread species.
42446		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
42451		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
42451		distribution	eng	This species occupies the Chihuahuan Plateau in Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, and Zacatecas, Mexico, and western Texas and south-central New Mexico, United States.
42451		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to rocky habitats on and around desert mountain ranges, and is found in desert, grassland, and woodland habitats. It is most commonly in places where there are boulders in proximity to juniper and large shrubs. In the Trans-Pecos (Texas), it is most common between 1,050 and 1,650 meters elevation.
42451		population	eng	This species is common but patchily distributed throughout its range in the United States. It is common in Mexico.
42451		threats	eng	In the United States, major threats include accidental mortality by trapping and poisoning. In Mexico, there are no major threats known to this species.
42452		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>The population on Espiritu Santo is considered Endangered by the Mexican government (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).
42452		distribution	eng	Extends from south-eastern Oregon and south-western Idaho east to western Colorado and north-western New Mexico (United States), and south through Baja California and Baja California Sur (Mexico). It also occurs on the islands of San Marcos and Espiritu Santo (Gulf of California).
42452		habitat	eng	Occupies desert habitats from valley floors to the juniper belt. Found in shrubby areas with sandy or rocky soil.
42452		population	eng	Widespread and fairly common. However, in San Marcos island there are only three known locations for this species.<br/><br/>Recorded population densities range from 0.06 individuals/ha in late spring to 0.35 individuals/ha in autumn. There are multi-annual fluctuations in numbers.
42452		threats	eng	None known to the species as a whole.<br/><br/>However, the populations of this species may be threatened on the two islands in the Gulf of California by predation from feral cats and by human activities.
42453		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed. To conserve this species, it is necessary to protect existing colonies from poisoning, and to protect several acres per colony.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the impacts of disease, specifically sylvatic plague, and on population status and trends (USFWS 2006).
42453		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Colorado to central Arizona, including southeastern Utah and much of the northwestern half of New Mexico in the United States. It occurs from 1,830-3,660 m asl
42453		habitat	eng	It is found on high mountain valleys and plateaus; in open or slightly brushy country, scattered junipers and pines, mainly in areas with high abundance of native plants in northern Arizona. Burrows usually on slopes or in hummocks. <br/><br/>It reproduces slowly, relative to other rodents (Hoogland 2001). Only one litter is produced per year, and only 24% of males copulate as yearlings (Hoogland 2001). All females copulate as yearlings (Hoogland 2001). Seasonal timing of onset of reproduction varies somewhat with latitude, elevation, and year. Gestation lasts about 30 days. Litter size averages about six, but for those females that are successful in weaning offspring, only 3.77 young per female emerge from nursery burrow (Hoogland 2001). The probability of weaning a litter each year is 82% (Hoogland 2001). Parturition occurs in April or early May in northern Arizona (Shalaway and Slobodchikoff 1988). Young stay underground for about one month.<br/><br/>Colonial groups are organized into territories that generally contain one adult male, one or more adult females, non-breeding yearlings, and young of the year; overlap between areas of high use is low between members of neighbouring territories (Travis and Slobodchikoff 1993). <br/><br/>Survivorship is low: only about 50% of females that emerged from burrows as juveniles are alive at the end of their first year, and less than 15% are alive at the end of their second year (Hoogland 2001). Major mortality factors are disease, predation, and disturbance by man. Colonies suffer drastic population declines and are often extirpated during outbreaks of flea-borne sylvatic plague (Rayner 1985). <br/><br/>Feeds on grasses, forbs, sedges, and shrubs. Insects are of minor importance to its diet. Not known to store food in its burrow. It has periods of inactivity during winter, which may last several months; may hibernate in some parts of range.
42453		population	eng	The colonies often consist of fewer than 50 to 100 individuals. Relative to the large decline from historical levels, populations may have been more stable in some states in recent decades (USFWS 2006). Populations in all states within the range have declined significantly compared to historical levels (USFWS 2006). <br/><br/>It has been considerably reduced in range extent in parts of Colorado and New Mexico. Subspecies <em>C. g. gunnisoni</em> is extirpated over much of its former range (Fitzgerald <em>et al.</em> 1994). Ongoing studies in Arizona indicate it may be extirpated in about 70% of its former range (B. Van Pelt pers. comm.).
42453		threats	eng	Indiscriminate poisoning, habitat conversion, and plague have drastically reduced numbers and range (Miller and Cully 2001, Cully and Williams 2001). Plague is probably the greatest threat at this time. Hunters shot 91,000 animals in 2001 in Arizona alone (B. Van Pelt pers. comm.).<br/><br/>USFWS (2006) found that a petition to list this species as threatened or endangered did not present substantial scientific information indicating that a listing may be warranted under any pertinent threat factors. USFWS acknowledged that sylvatic plague has been and continues to be the primary mortality factor for Gunnison's prairie dog, especially at specific sites, but concluded that the impact that this disease has had on the overall status of the species is unclear. <br/><br/>This species reproduces slowly relative to other rodents, and survivorship is low (Hoogland 2001).
42454		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42454		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bighorn Basin in extreme southern Montana, south across central and southwestern Wyoming into western Colorado and northeastern Utah in the United States.
42454		habitat	eng	It inhabits xeric sites with mixed stands of shrubs and grasses. It lives at higher elevations and in meadows with more diverse grass and herb cover than do Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Hoffman, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding occurs shortly after female emergence from hibernation; juveniles appear above ground in early June, 5-7 weeks postpartum; both sexes breed as one year olds. They form loose colonies. <br/><br/>Major predators like golden eagle and badger have been considered minor causes of mortality. It is susceptible to rapid population declines resulting from flea-borne sylvatic plague (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1971; see also papers by Barnes, Cully, and Fitzgerald in Oldemeyer <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>It feeds primarily on forbs and grasses. Like <em>C. ludovicianus</em>, it probably prefers forbs over grasses. Its feeding habits may therefore favour the increase of good forage grasses, except in poor rangeland (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1971). <br/><br/>Individuals emerge from hibernation in the spring (males in late February or early March, two to three weeks before females). During the summer most activity occurs in the morning and late afternoon. By late August all adults are inactive. It may arouse periodically during hibernation period.
42454		population	eng	This species is apparently secure in its range (NatureServe). Populations undergo year to year fluctuations, with one colony known to vary from 11 to 67 animals. Average density is 3.2/ha, with a range of 0.72-6.2/ha.
42454		threats	eng	Sylvatic plague, poisoning, and the conversion of lands to agriculture and urbanization are localised threats.
42455		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its habitat is not currently under threat.
42455		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brooks Range of northern Alaska in the United States, from near the coast of Chukchi Sea to the Alaska-Yukon border; perhaps also northern Yukon in Canada (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
42455		habitat	eng	It occurs in arctic tundra, where there are extensive boulder fields, rock-slides, rock outcroppings, or talus. Requires secure den sites for protection against predation by grizzly bears. Young are born in underground burrows. A litter of 4-5 is born late spring to early summer. It eats grasses and other green plants, and hibernates in winter.
42455		population	eng	This species is apparently secure in its range (NatureServe). It occurs in family groups, with widely scattered populations. Although generally low in density, no estimates are available.
42455		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42456		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.
42456		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Alaska in the United States, southward through British Columbia, Yukon Territory, Northwest Territory and Alberta in Canada, to Washington, Idaho, and Montana in the United States. Although mostly montane in distribution, it occurs down to sea level in northern Alaska.
42456		habitat	eng	It is found in treeless alpine meadows where there are rocky outcrops and talus. Young are born in underground burrows. Gives birth to 4-5 young in late spring or early summer after gestation period of about one month (Whitaker 1980). Diet consists almost entirely of grasses and other herbaceous plants (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Hibernates October-February in south, September-April in British Columbia (Whitaker 1980).
42456		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe).
42456		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42457		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42457		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Western North America from south-central British Columbia and southern Alberta in Canada to the southern Sierra Nevada and White Mountains in southern California, Nevada, southern Utah, and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico in the United States. It is typically found above 2,000 m asl.
42457		habitat	eng	It is found in meadows, valleys, and foothills, often where forest and meadow form a mosaic; occupies open areas relatively free of trees and shrubs. Semi-fossorial; uses one or more burrows; may share hibernation burrow. Burrows open under rocks (or logs or bushes) in areas of well-drained talus, rock outcrops, or scattered boulders. Habitat sizes range from 0.01 to 70 hectare or more (Armitage 1991). Young are born in underground burrows. <br/><br/>Mating typically occurs during two weeks following hibernation Gestation lasts about 30 days. Litters vary in size between 3-8 young per year. Young remain in burrow for 20-30 days (Frase and Hoffmann 1980), emerge from natal burrow late June to mid-July in the mountains of western Colorado. Local reproductive traits vary somewhat depending on the time of snow melt. At the highest elevations, females rarely produce litters in consecutive years (Armitage 1991). Males typically first breed at age three or older (Armitage 1991).<br/><br/>Lives alone, in pairs, or colonies. Colonies typically consist of one or more adult territorial males, 1-5 adult females and their young (usually including yearlings and younger offspring). Virtually all males and slightly less than half the females disperse from the natal colony, typically as yearlings and regardless of population density in males; dispersal distance usually is less than four km but up to 15.5 km for males and 6.4 km for females in western Colorado (Armitage 1991). <br/><br/>May harbour fleas that are vectors of sylvatic plague or tick that transmits Rocky Mountain spotted fever. These marmots are generalist herbivores, feeding on a wide variety of grasses and forbs. They do not store food for the winter.<br/><br/>At higher elevations it may hibernate early September-May; at lower elevations it may emerge late February to mid-March. In the mountains of western Colorado, spring emergence from hibernation begins in late April or early May, emergence for hibernation begins in late August and usually is completed by mid-September (Armitage 1991). In more boreal zones may be active all summer but may begin aestivation in June at lower elevations (Frase and Hoffmann 1980).
42457		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). It lives in small colonies, with the density of colonies varying with the availability of foraging areas and den sites. Populations are often separated by areas of unsuitable habitat.
42457		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42458		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes several protected areas.
42458		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Alaska in the United States, east through Canada south of the tree line to Labrador; in eastern North America south to Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas; in the west absent from the Great Plains, extending down the western mountains to northern Idaho in the United States (Kwiecinski 1998).
42458		habitat	eng	It inhabits low elevation woodland-field ecotones, especially along fields, roads, and streams. It commonly occurs in farmlands and in proximity to human structures. Prefers open areas, such as meadows, pastures, old fields, orchards. Also founds in hilly and rocky areas in open woodlands having fields or meadows adjacent (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). For hibernation prefers hedgerows, woods, steep inclines in stony ground, haystacks, or sites with good drainage and a southern exposure (Kwiecinski 1998). <br/><br/>Young are born in a den in an extensive burrow system. Breeding period extends from early March to mid-April. Gestation lasts 31-32 days. Young are born from April to mid-May. A single litter of 2-6 (average four) is produced each year. Sexually mature in one year. Primarily solitary, except during breeding, though limited social interaction may occur at other times. Abandoned burrows are widely used as den sites by other animals (Kwiecinski 1998).<br/><br/>Diet includes a wide variety of herbs, grasses, and the leaves of shrubs; also invertebrates.
42458		population	eng	This species is common. Reported densities are highly variable, ranging from 0.1/hectare in Quebec to 3.3./hectare in Ohio (Kwiecinski 1998). However, populations are loosely structured because burrow systems are not spatially clustered and animals are asocial and territorial.
42458		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Sometimes regarded as a pest when causing damage to crops, gardens, landscaping, or structures.
42459		conservation	eng	Most of the habitat is protected in Olympic National Park. Research on populations trends and metapopulation dynamics is needed.
42459		distribution	eng	The species' range is limited to the upper slopes of the Olympic Mountains of western Washington (Edelman 2003); the species is almost completely restricted to Olympic National Park (Barash 1973). The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,800 square kilometers (Barash 1973). Most marmots occur at elevations of 1,500-1,750 m asl, with normal lower and upper extremes of 920 and 1,990 m asl (Barash 1973) and rare occurrences to near sea level (30-200 m asl) (Scheffer 1995).
42459		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is near timberline on subalpine and alpine meadows and talus slopes; many colonies are located on south-facing slopes, where food availability is probably greater because of earlier snowmelt (Barash 1973). <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding patterns are probably similar to <em>M. calogata</em> where mating occurs in spring soon after emergence from hibernation, bears young in late May or early June, produces one litter of four or five young per year. Young reach sexual maturity probably in 2-3 years (Banfield 1974).<br/><br/>It grazes on a wide variety of grasses and forbs. It does not store food for the winter; it accumulates body fat. Probably hibernates for about eight months each year, similar to <em>M. calogata</em>.
42459		population	eng	Barash (1989) believed that the total population size was fewer than 2,000, but more recent estimates put the total at 2,000 to 4,000. This reflects better information rather than a population increase. This species is represented by a small number of occurrences or subpopulations, all within one mountain range. The specific number of occurrences depends on how each metapopulation is defined. Sharp declines and local extirpations have occurred at several colony sites since the late 1980s, although other colonies appear to be stable (Edelman 2003). The overall trend is not known.
42459		threats	eng	Predation by coyotes and tree encroachment into subalpine meadows may be responsible for recent local declines (S. C. Griffin pers. comm., cited by Edelman 2003). The latter factor suggests that fire suppression might be a potential threat. Olympic marmots acclimate quickly to human intrusion into colonies and allow observation of behaviour (Edelman 2003).
42460		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
42460		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo, and small adjacent islands.
42460		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), occurring in lowland primary rainforest, logged forests, and 40 year old regrowth.
42460		population	eng	This species has been rarely encountered.
42460		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversion.
42461		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas within its patchy range. Forest management plans that require logging in small blocks would help maintain viable populations.
42461		distribution	eng	This species is found in the U.S. and Mexico. In the U.S. it is found in south-eastern Utah, south and west Colorado, extreme south-eastern Wyoming, west and central New Mexico, and Arizona (USA); in Mexico, it occurs in Chihuahua, Durango, and Sonora (Mexico). There are also introduced populations in many other locations in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah.
42461		habitat	eng	This species is strongly dependent on ponderosa and yellow pine forest habitat, with some use of adjoining pinyon woodlands and mixed coniferous forests.
42461		population	eng	This species is sparse in much of its range, but is abundant at some times and/or in some localities. Recorded densities range from 2 - 114 individuals per square kilometre.
42461		threats	eng	This species habitat is threatened by clear-cutting over large areas. Populations are relatively isolated due to the distribution of ponderosa pine habitat.
42462		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
42462		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada; southern Quebec to Manitoba, south to eastern Texas and Florida. Its range has been extended through introductions into Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, California, Oregon, Washington, and Montana (Teaford 1986, Koprowski 1994). It is also introduced in the British Isles, Italy, South Africa, and Australia (extirpated by 1973), but these introduced ranges are not included in the map here (see Koprowski 1994).
42462		habitat	eng	It is found in large blocks of hardwood or mixed forests, as well as in urban and suburban areas. Prefers mature deciduous and mixed forests with abundant supplies of mast (e.g., acorns, hickory nuts). A diversity of nut trees is needed to support high densities. Also uses city parks and floodplains. Seldom far from permanent open water. In southern Alabama, narrow bands of hardwoods along ephemeral streams were an important component of the habitat in even-aged pine and mixed pine-hardwood stands. Rests in tree cavity or leaf nest; leaf nests apparently are made primarily by dispersing juveniles 18-19 weeks old. Nests in tree cavities or in leaf nests, usually 25 feet or more above the ground. Most winter-spring litters are born in tree cavities, most spring-summer litters in leaf nests (Teaford 1986). Cavities suitable for nesting are dry, 15-25 cm in diametre, 40-50 cm deep, with an entrance hole about eight cm in diameter (Teaford 1986). Females may move young from tree cavity nest to leaf nest, possibly to escape fleas. <br/><br/>In Illinois, most breeding occurs in December-February and May-June; slightly later in more northern latitudes (see Koprowski 1994). One or two litters per year. First litter is produced mostly in February-March, sometimes as early as January in some areas; second litter, July or August. Gestation lasts 44 days. Litter size most often is 2-3. Young are tended by female. Weaning is completed at about 10-12 weeks (in spring and/or late summer-early fall). Most breed as yearlings, sometimes sooner (as early as five months) or later. Reproductive output, including the percentage of adults that produce young and the number of litters per year, is positively correlated with mast abundance. Maximum reproductive longevity is about a decade.<br/><br/>Home range averages 0.5-10 ha, with older males tending to have the largest ranges (Teaford 1986); usually home range is less than five hectares (see Koprowski 1994). Not territorial, home range overlap is extensive; social system is characterized by a linear dominance hierarchy. Disperses up to a few kilometres from natal area upon approaching sexual maturity. Large-scale one-way emigrations have been observed, generally coinciding with high population density and mast crop failure. <br/><br/>Taken by many predators, but predation does not appear to limit populations (Teaford 1986). Mean annual mortality reported for adults is 42-57% (Koprowski 1994). Diet consists of seeds, fruits, nuts, fungi, occasional insects and small vertebrates (e.g., bird eggs). Scatterhoarder; buries nuts and acorn in fall for later consumption (winter-spring). Active during the day, particularly in the morning and late afternoon, though unimodal activity may occur in winter. May be inactive for a day or two during extremely cold, snowy weather.
42462		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant. Reported densities vary from <3/ha in continuous woodlands to >21/ha in urban parks. Population and range are increasing (J Koprowski pers. comm.).
42462		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42463		conservation	eng	A number of occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed.
42463		distribution	eng	This species ranges in the intermountain West of the United States, from southwestern Montana to southern Utah, including eastern Idaho and western Wyoming.
42463		habitat	eng	It prefers large open areas, such as dry meadows, pastures, and cultivated fields in high valleys. In western Wyoming, it occurs in shrub-steppe communities of sagebrush and rabbitbrush. Digs underground burrows. Females produce one litter of 4-6 altricial young per year. Young are born usually in April (Burt and Grossenheider 1964). Lives in large colonies. Feeds primarily on a wide variety of green vegetation and seeds; some invertebrates (e.g. earthworms) (Eshelman and Sonnemann 2000), and some vertebrates; accumulates great reserves of body fat. Usually active from spring through late summer (approximately April-August). Dormant during the fall and winter.
42463		population	eng	This species is common.
42463		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42464		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes some protected areas.
42464		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western United States; eastern Oregon south through northeastern California, southwestern Idaho, north-central Nevada, and extreme southeastern Utah.
42464		habitat	eng	Generally a high elevation species. It inhabits alpine and subalpine meadows, sagebrush flats, mixed brush and grass habitats, pastures and croplands. It is usually found in fairly open habitat (Jenkins and Eshelman 1984). It is seldom far from water. <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding occurs shortly after hibernation. Gestation lasts 23-28 days. Females are reported to produce one litter of 4-12 young, or an average of eight young per litter (Hall 1946). Sexually mature in two years. Lives in colonies. Predators include coyotes, badgers, and weasels.<br/><br/>Feeds primarily on grass, leaves of meadow plants, and seeds. Remains active for longer periods during the spring and summer than are other species of <em>Spermophilus</em>, which live in more arid habitats at lower elevations (Larrison and Johnson 1981). Usually hibernates from late September-May or June (Hall 1946).
42464		population	eng	This species is common. Population density estimates in California range from 1.2/ha in an alpine meadow to well over 100/ha in an agricultural area.
42464		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42465		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42465		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western United States; in eastern Oregon (except northeastern and southeastern corners), northwestern Nevada, and west side of Snake River in west-central Idaho (Hoffman <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
42465		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in high desert (sagebrush, shadscale, greasewood, western juniper), grasslands, pastures (Rickart, in Wilson and Ruff 1999); and also in river valley bottomland. Generally in well-drained soils, especially embankments. It is often around desert springs and irrigated fields. It makes extensive burrow systems. Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow. <br/><br/>Main diet is herbaceous vegetation (grasses, forbs, and exotic annuals), and seeds; may also eat some shrub parts and animal matter. Will often feed on crops. May climb bushes while foraging. Emerges from dormancy in late winter or early spring (males before females) but returns to dormancy during May-July, when grasses dry out. May have separate period of activity in fall. Most active in the early morning.
42465		population	eng	The current population trend of this species is unknown.
42465		threats	eng	Main threats appear to be agricultural conversion and rangeland degradation although these are not major threats throughout the species' range. It causes agricultural damage in some areas and has been subject of control programs.
42466		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42466		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Rocky Mountains in North America, from southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta, Canada, south through northern and eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, northern and central Idaho and western Montana in the United States. Its elevational range is mainly 700-8,000 ft.
42466		habitat	eng	It is found in open habitat: high grass plateaus, sagebrush plains, valley grasslands, openings (meadows, clearcuts) in coniferous forests, alpine meadows, and stream banks. It is not very tolerant of dry conditions. Typically burrows in friable or sandy soils in open ground or bank under boulder or log. Also inhabits south-facing mountain slopes, and agricultural and grazing systems.<br/><br/>Mating occurs soon after females emerge from hibernation. Gestation lasts 24 days. Litter of 2-7 (average 2-4) altricial young is born May-late June. Nursing period usually lasts about 30 days. Sexually mature in 1-2 years.<br/><br/>This species is colonial. In southwestern Alberta, intercolony dispersal was mainly by yearling males; usually dispersed less than four kilometres but up to 8.5 kilometres (Wiggett and Boag 1989). Average home range of adult male was about 0.4 hectare, of adult female about 0.1 hectare. Adult males defend (primarily during breeding season) core areas within their home range. Adult females defend their territory near the nest burrow; and exhibit strong site fidelity. They are a reservoir for Rocky Mountain spotted fever and bubonic plague. Prey for various carnivores and diurnal raptors.<br/><br/>Diet includes a wide variety of vegetation: roots, bulbs, stems, leaves, seeds, and berries. Also eats some animal food (e.g., insects, mice, dead fish). May climb into trees and shrubs to obtain buds and fruits. Spends about 70% of year in hibernation.
42466		population	eng	Reported densities vary from 16.2/ha in natural habitats in southwestern Alberta to 61.7/ha in agricultural bottomlands in Washington. It is colonial and may attain pest status.
42466		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42467		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed.
42467		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three disjunct population units, corresponding to subspecies <em>S. e. aureus</em> found in southwestern Montana and adjoining Idaho; <em>S. e. elegans</em> in northern Colorado, southern Wyoming, extreme western Nebraska, and extreme northeastern Utah; and <em>S. e. nevadensis</em> in north-central Nevada, southwestern Idaho, and possibly extreme southeastern Oregon. However, only one population of <em>S. e. nevadensis</em> still exists in Idaho, it appears to be extinct in Oregon, and it occurs in only a few places in Nevada.
42467		habitat	eng	It occurs in well-drained upland slopes covered by dry grassland or shrub steppe, especially sagebrush; mainly on slopes with loose sandy soils, suitable for digging burrows; mountain meadows, talus slopes (H. D. Smith, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>Young are born in an underground nest. Mating occurs soon after emergence from hibernation. Gestation probably lasts 22-23 days. Females produce one litter per year of 1-11 (usually 6-7) altricial young. In large colonies, home range may be as small as 25-50 yards in diametre. May host fleas that transmit bubonic plague. Predators include coyotes, badgers, hawks.<br/><br/>Feeds on seeds, flowers, stems, leaves, roots of grasses, forbs and shrubs. Will also feed on insects, especially in the late summer. Sometimes eats carrion. Emerges from hibernation in the early spring. Active during spring and summer but becomes dormant again sometime between late July and early September.
42467		population	eng	The species is fairly widespread in several interior western states and is sometimes very abundant. Densities of up to 48/ha have been reported in local areas.
42467		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat degradation, especially agricultural conversion. Sylvatic plague may greatly reduce or exterminate a colony. Indiscriminate poisoning to control crop destruction is also a localised threat.
42468		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42468		distribution	eng	This species is found in western North America, from eastern British Columbia and western Alberta, south through the western United States to California, Arizona, and New Mexico, at elevations of 1,220-3,965 m asl (Bartels and Thompson 1993). There are disjunct population segments in the southern portion of the range.
42468		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain slopes and foothills, alpine tundra, chaparral, open areas in pine, spruce, and fir forests, rocky outcroppings and slides, margins of mountain meadows, and rocky sagebrush country; campgrounds. Often in areas with abundant stumps, rocks, or fallen logs. When inactive or tending young, it occupies burrows under rocks, stumps, logs, trees, bushes, or cabins, in rock crevices, or in banks or along washes. <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in the spring soon after females emerge from hibernation. Females are monoestrous. Gestation lasts 26-33 days. Litter size is 2-8, usually 4-6. Young emerge from burrow typically in July (to early August at highest elevations). Weaning occurs at a minimum age of four weeks. <br/><br/>Predators include snakes, foxes, weasels, and bears. This species may be an intermediate host for the Rocky Mountain spotted fever tick, <em>Dermacentor andersoni</em>. These squirrels are omnivorous. Diet includes seeds, fungus, leaves, flowers, fruits and roots. They also feed on arthropods and meat, including carrion. May store food in burrows in summer. Active mainly March-November at low elevations; season is shorter in high mountains and in areas with abundant snowfall.
42468		population	eng	Populations usually are distributed evenly over good habitat. This species is locally abundant.
42468		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42469		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42469		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Washington, north of the Yakima River and west of the Columbia River and, disjunctly, in the southeastern corner of Oregon, southern Idaho (Snake River Valley), southward through Nevada (except extreme southern Nevada), extreme east-central California, and western Utah in the United States.
42469		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in high desert (sagebrush, shadscale, greasewood). In southwestern Idaho, highest densities were in winterfat-Sandberg's bluegrass communities, with intermediate densities in big sagebrush-dominated communities and lowest densities in shadscale communities; scarce in communities dominated by exotic annuals (Yensen <em>et al.</em> 1992). It generally occurs in well-drained soils, especially embankments, often around desert springs and irrigated fields. Makes extensive burrow systems. <br/><br/>Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow. This species breeds late January-early March, depending on locality. Drought may suppress breeding. Gestation lasts 24 days. Litter size typically is 5-10; one litter per year. Males mature as yearlings or as two year-olds; females breed as yearlings (Rickart 1987).<br/><br/>Mean home range was estimated at 1,357 m². May form colonies but families and individuals live separately. Compared to other ground squirrels, it has high fecundity and low adult survivorship and is short-lived (Rickart 1988). <br/>Diet includes herbaceous vegetation (grasses, forbs, and exotic annuals), and seeds; it may also eat some shrub parts and animal matter. Will often feed on crops. May climb bushes while foraging. Emerges from dormancy in late winter or early spring (males before females) but returns to dormancy during May-July, when grasses dry out.
42469		population	eng	It forms colonies of >30 adults/ha. Although densities of 331/ha (adults and juveniles) have been reported, this figure is likely to be an overestimate. Studies showing 3-32 adults/ha (not including juveniles) are likely to be more representative.
42469		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to agriculture and rangeland degradation. A decline in the late 1980s in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area in southwestern Idaho was due to widespread conversion of desert shrublands to exotic annual-dominated communities by wildfires (Yensen <em>et al.</em> 1992).
42470		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas.
42470		distribution	eng	Endemic of the Caucasus. Distributed on northern slopes of central part of th Major Caucasus Ridge (Prielbrusje), in headstreams of rivers Kuban, Malka, Bakan and Chegem (Karachai-Circassia and Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia). The only species of ground squirrel in the region. Total range is about 300,000 ha. In this area found 234 separate colonies, covered in total 85,000 ha. Majority of colonies are 10-100 ha (126 colonies) and 100-1000 ha (57). Rarely found small (less than 10 ha; 39 colonies) and very big (more than 1000 ha; 12 colonies) (Dyatlov <em>et al.</em>, 1980).
42470		habitat	eng	Prefer alpine meadows, pastures, and cereal and wormwood steppes. Also found in steep slopes with xerophytic vegetation, high-grass subalpine meadows, barley fields and water-meadows. Diurnal. Burrows don't have vertical passages. Most of the burrows have simple structure: short main passages, one nest cell on 30-40 cm under ground. Sometimes burrows have long passages with many bifurcations, additional exits and one or several nesting cells at 80-120 cm below the ground. Due to environmental differences in mountain zones, hibernation ends at different times and, correspondingly, times of mating, reproduction and juvenile dispersal differ. In mid-mountains (1,200-1,400 m) hibernation ends in end of March. In higher zones (2,500-3,000 m) hibernation ends in beginning of May. Beginning of hibernation also differs, but it doesn't depend on altitude, but the amount of accumulated fat. Old males and young females enter hibernation earlier than reproducing females. Juveniles enter hibernation the last. In lower altitudes old males enter hibernation at the end of August, but young are active until end of September. In higher altitudes young still active until October. Mating starts right after hibernation. Gestation is 22 days. Litter size is 2-4 young. Feeds on vegetative parts of different plants, rarely consumes animal food.
42470		population	eng	Common within the range, but may be declining.
42470		threats	eng	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
42477		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas such as Montagne des Sources and Mt Panie.
42477		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the montane areas of New Caledonia, occurring from 400 to 1,200 m.
42477		habitat	eng	Usually a small tree  in the understory of mid to upper montane evergreen forests on both serpentine and non-serpentine soils.
42477		population	eng	May be locally very common.
42477		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this species at the current time.
42505		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in several protected areas, some of which are open to the possibility of mining.
42505		distribution	eng	This species is known from several montane areas in the southern massifs of New Caledonia. Has been recorded from 600 to 1,600 m asl.
42505		habitat	eng	Commonly found along rocky ridges and summits growing with other low shrubs.
42505		population	eng	The total population size for this species is unknown, but it is assumed to be stable.
42505		threats	eng	Fires pose a threat throughout the range of this species and the expanson of mining could be a threat in some areas. Predicted increases in average annual temperature and changes in precipitation patterns could decrease the area suitable for this species and its associated vegetation.
42514		conservation	eng	Only one of the locations (Mont Mou) is a within a protected area. Mining is not prohibited in this area.
42514		distribution	eng	This species is only known from five high peaks in four locations on Grande Terre (1000 to 1,400 m asl). The main localities are at Mont Mou, Me Maoya, Mt. Nakada and Mont Nékandi. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be about 1,900 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> with an area of occupancy of about 20 km<sup>2</sup>. Records from low altitude areas such as Koumac (Valle de la Rade) and the Ile de Pins represent atypical locations and need further investigation.
42514		habitat	eng	Restricted to high altitude montane tropical rainforest, with <em>Araucaria</em> (on Mont Mou) and many other different angiosperms.
42514		population	eng	Small subpopulations of probably less than 100 mature trees in each location.
42514		threats	eng	The most direct threat comes from open cast mining and its associated activities. Fires are also a significant threat. Predicted increases in average annual temperature, changes in rainfall patterns and other manifestations of climate change could decrease the area of suitable habitat for this species.
42515		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus lucienii</span> has been recorded from protected areas in the northeast (Mt Panie) and in the south at Montagne des Sources and the Parc Territorial de la Rivière Bleue.
42515		distribution	eng	This species is found in many parts of the main island of New Caledonia. Localities extend from the higher parts of the Massif du Colnett and the Massif du Tchingou (1,200 m) in the northeast to near sea level (20 m) near Port Boise in the extreme south .
42515		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in montane rainforest on both ultramafic and acidic substrates.
42515		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is assumed to be relatively common and stable.
42515		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this species.
42523		conservation	eng	This species is found within several protected areas in southern New Caledonia.
42523		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus novae-caledonie</span> is restricted to the southern massifs of New Caledonia occurring from 50 to 725 m.
42523		habitat	eng	This species is usually found along watercourses running through maquis shrublands.
42523		population	eng	A relatively common species.
42523		threats	eng	There may be decline in the quality of the habitat due to increasing frequency of fires, but it is not known if this is a threat to this species or not.
42534		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas.
42534		distribution	eng	Widespread and at a range of altitudes (sea level to 1,200 m) through the main island of New Caledonia with the exception of the northwest.
42534		habitat	eng	Frequent in dense humid forests on both ultramafic and schist substrates.
42534		population	eng	The total population is unknown; usually localized.
42534		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this species.
42539		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Prumnopitys ferruginoides</span> occurs in a number of protected areas such as Mont Panie and Montagne des Sources.
42539		distribution	eng	Widespread in New Caledonia although more common in the south. Recorded from 700 to 1,400 m asl.
42539		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist montane rainforest, often with <span style="font-style: italic;">Retrophyllum comptonii</span>.
42539		population	eng	Scattered in humid dense rainforest throughout the ultramfic areas.
42539		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this species. Changes associated with climate change could become a problem.
42542		conservation	eng	This sepcies is found in several protected areas such as Mont Panie Special Botanical Reserve and Montagne des Sources
42542		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Caledonia where it is distributed from Port Boise in the far south to Mt Ignambi on the north east coast. In a few areas it occurs at altitudes as low as 200 m asl but it is most commonly found above 700 m, and going as high as 1,450 m asl.
42542		habitat	eng	Mainly found in upper montane forests and maquis on both ultramafic and schist substrates.
42542		population	eng	Widespread and relatively common.
42542		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats to the species, but climate change may pose a problem in the future.
42545		threats	eng	The status of this widely occurring forest species is affected by slow growth rates, infrequent regeneration, poor seed dispersal and predation by rats. Forest clearing and habitat modification have also contributed to population declines.
42553		conservation	eng	This variety is not recorded from any protected areas.
42553		distribution	eng	China: north-west Yunnan (imperfectly known from the type collection near Zhongdian only). The range of this species remains incompletely known.
42553		habitat	eng	Unknown, presumably found in mixed coniferous forest (altitude of collection 3,150 m) in the mountains surrounding the plain of Zhongdian. It was described as a small tree.
42553		population	eng	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.
42554		distribution	eng	Only known thus far from a locality 4.5 km north of Metepec, Hidalgo, Mexico.
42554		habitat	eng	Cloud forest with <em>Alnus firmifolia</em>, <em>Buddleia cordata</em>, <em>Cupressus lusitanica</em>, <em>Pinus patula</em>, <em>P. teocote</em>, <em>Sambucus mexicana</em>, etc.
42554		population	eng	Unknown.
42554		threats	eng	Unknown.
42555		conservation	eng	This species is reported to occur in the Khaling and Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuaries (Bhutan).
42555		distribution	eng	Bhutan, India, China: Yunnan (Gaoligong Mts.), Xizang (Tibet) (from a single seedling). Its distribution is still imperfectly known.
42555		habitat	eng	From the data on herbarium labels this species appears to occur in a variety of forest types, including mixed pine forest, mixed oak-pine forest, mixed broadleaved forest, secondary forests of these types, including thinned (managed?) forest. The elevation (from GIS) is 729 to 2,613 m, from herbarium specimens 1,676 to 2,750 m (the latter probably more reliable in this case).
42555		threats	eng	Although timber harvesting affects this species, it appears to be adaptable judging from its habitat preferences and is at present not thought to be in decline.
42557		conservation	eng	This species does not occur within a protected area.
42557		distribution	eng	Indonesia, New Guinea (Papua), Vogelkop Peninsula, Mt Nettoti. Known from only one mountain, EOO less than 100 km² and AOO less than 10 km² and probably considerably smaller still.
42557		habitat	eng	Stated to occur in “dark mossy forest” so presumably a ground covering species under a canopy of trees. The altitude is given as 1,920 m above sea level.
42557		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size.
42557		threats	eng	No specific threats are known to this species. The montane forests of the Vogelkop peninsula remain largely undisturbed owing to their geographical isolation and the low density and traditional lifestyle of the human population, although some deforestation is occurring in the region (Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995). No uses are recorded of this species and due to its size and location it is unlikely to be exploited unless it was known to have medicinal properties.
42558		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from several protected areas throughout its range including Canaima National Park in Venezuela and the Brazilian Cerrado Protected Areas Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas National Park.
42558		distribution	eng	Brazil (south of the Amazon Basin, Roraima); Venezuela. Its large range (EOO calculated on the basis of mapped herbarium collections = 4,277,040 km<sup>2</sup>) spans across the Amazon Basin, where no conifers are known to occur. It is possible that it will be found in other regions and countries, such as the Guyanas, when surveys of the floras of tropical South America approach a more complete covering than is the case at present. The presently known range is based on 22 collections giving 13 localities.
42558		habitat	eng	Cerrado, gallery forest along streams, both “tall forest” and “dwarf forest”, often on sandstone. In Venezuela it is reported from montane forest, usually along streams. Elevation (from GIS) 266 to 1,828 m, from herbarium data: 825 to 1,600 m
42558		population	eng	No data on population sizes are known to exist.
42558		threats	eng	Deforestation, conversion to grazing lands. No specific uses of this species are known.
42559		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur within a protected area.
42559		distribution	eng	Philippines, Palawan (Pagdanan Range). Not known from any other than the type location, which is called Ibangley Brookside Hill in the Pagdanan Range at only 40 m altitude.
42559		habitat	eng	Closed tropical evergreen rain forest dominated by angiosperms. This species is possibly utilized for timber, but no specific details are known.
42559		population	eng	Presumably only a small population exists.
42559		threats	eng	Deforestation, logging.
42560		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected area.
42560		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Mangoro River, Tsinjoarivo. Very restricted in two localities, with an EOO of less than 50 km<sup>2</sup> and an AOO of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (probably less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>).
42560		habitat	eng	Eastern sub-humid forest, at elevations between 1,200 and 1,570 m (herbarium label data and GIS estimate).
42560		population	eng	No data are available on the population size or abundance of this species.
42560		threats	eng	Deforestation. This species has probably been utilized for firewood.
42561		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42561		distribution	eng	This species is found on the northern Great Plains; southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba in Canada, and Montana, North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, western Minnesota, and northwestern Iowa in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
42561		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands, rolling hills, fields and croplands. Prefers gravelly or sandy soils for digging burrows. Burrows consist of extensive networks of passages and entrances with several chambers. Young are born in underground nests. The nests are spherical and are lined with grasses in which straw or oat hulls may be found (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1983).<br/><br/>Females typically mate 3-5 days after emergence from hibernation, give birth 22-23 days later. Litter size is 3-11, usually 6-8. Young first leave natal burrow at 28-30 days, sexually mature in one year (Michener 1985). Females live up to six years.<br/><br/>It lives in loose colonies. Home range probably is not larger than 100 yards in diametre (Banfield 1974). May host fleas that transmit bubonic plague. Feeds on a wide variety of herbaceous vegetation in spring and early summer and on seeds and fruits in late summer and fall. Also feeds on insects and carrion, and often damages agricultural crops. Stores seeds in burrows. Hibernation period varies, but usually enters late August-October; emerges by late March or April.
42561		population	eng	This species is common. Average densities at large study sites range from 1.4/ha to 5.2/ha. Animals tend to be concentrated in small areas, so that densities in areas of high concentration (up to 27/ha) are not representative of larger areas. Densities increase dramatically (up to 53.3 juveniles/ha) with synchronous emergence of litters from natal burrow.
42561		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42562		conservation	eng	The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) lists this species as "Not at Risk" (01Apr1992). In 1992 the species was down listed to the blue list vulnerable species in British Columbia, i.e. those which are not threatened with extinction but may be at risk to disturbance (Harcombe <em>et al.</em> 1994). Its range includes a few protected areas within its range.
42562		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Cascade Mountains from southern British Columbia in Canada (west to the Fraser River, north to the Nicola River, east to the Okkanagan River), south to Columbia River in Washington in the United States (Trombulak 1988).
42562		habitat	eng	It inhabits talus slides and clearings; krummholz; closed coniferous forest, pine woodland, and adjacent open meadows and sagebrush steppe (Trombulak, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Remain in underground burrow when inactive (Trombulak 1988). <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Gestation lasts 28 days. Litter size is 1-5 (average four); one litter per year (Trombulak 1988). Females may breed as yearlings, males usually not until second year. Juveniles emerge from natal burrows in July-early August (Trombulak 1987).<br/><br/>Diet includes fungi (especially in fall), green vegetation, seeds, small fruits, carrion. Generally forages on ground, may climb into bushes and conifers. Emergence from hibernation varies among years from mid-April to mid-May; yearlings emerge 1-2 weeks later than adults. Adults and yearlings end activity mid-August to late September; juveniles are active into November and early December (Trombulak 1988).
42562		population	eng	This species is common. Reported population densities are typically low (3/ha in forest, 5-12/ha in adjacent meadow in Washington). Populations may be highest in parks where human refuse is available as food.
42562		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42563		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
42563		distribution	eng	This species is found in the arid and semi-arid regions of southwestern United States and northern Mexico. In the United States, it occurs from southeastern Wyoming and southern South Dakota to western Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. In Mexico, it occurs from northern Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila south to northern Jalisco and northern Guanajuato, and also in Tamaulipas. This species occurs up to 2,100 m asl.
42563		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep, sandy soils with sparse vegetation, including short-grass mesas, desert scrub, and heavily grazed habitats. It is also found also in grassy urban parks.
42563		population	eng	Fairly common. Densities of 2 -7individuals/ha have been reported for this species.
42563		threats	eng	None known.
42564		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42564		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive range in the central United States and adjoining Canada, from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba southward to extreme east central Arizona, the Texas Gulf Coast, and central Ohio. A disjunct population segment straddles the Arizona-New Mexico border.
42564		habitat	eng	It is restricted to dry and sandy (and "tighter") soils of open areas, such as grasslands, cultivated fields, meadows, roadsides, airfields, shrublands, and suburban lawns. Beaches and dry pine barrens are also used. It rests, gives birth, and hibernates in underground burrow. <br/><br/>Breeding period is April-June. Gestation lasts 27-28 days. Litter size averages eight, perhaps larger in older females than in younger ones; with one litter per year. Young are weaned in 26 days, and emerge from the burrow about five weeks after birth. They sexually mature by their first spring. Although not colonial, it does prefer to live in loosely constituted families. Home ranges range from less than an acre to 12 acres; the male range is larger than that of the female (Gunderson 1976). <br/><br/>Diet consists of plant and animal foods: seeds, fruits, grasses, forbs, as well as insects. It may sometimes eat small vertebrates. Enters hibernation by October (adults may hibernate beginning in July), emerges in March or early April.
42564		population	eng	This species is widespread and common. Densities are estimated at 2.5 to 5/ha in spring and 24.5/ha following emergence of young.
42564		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42565		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
42565		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on Mindanao island (Phlippines): Madaum, Tagum Municipality, Davao province (Musser and Carleton 2005).
42565		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary lowland forest.
42565		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
42565		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
42566		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area on Caluit island.
42566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region, on Busuanga and Calauit islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
42566		habitat	eng	This species was formerly found in primary lowland evergreen forests, a habitat that is now absent on these islands. Today, it occurs in secondary forests, and occasionally in gardens where it is considered a pest species. It has not been trapped in grassland (L. Heaney pers. comm.; J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).
42566		population	eng	This species is locally common (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.). It is abundant on Calauit mainly due to a safari ranch that has giraffes, zebras, antilope.
42566		threats	eng	This species is hunted at times, because it can be an agricultural pest, but this is unlikely to be a major threat to the species. However, there is ongoing habitat destruction in some places due to conversion of forests to slash and burn areas that the squirrels can not tolerate (J. C. Gonzalez and P. Widmann pers. comm.).
42567		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
42567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Philippines, where it has been recorded from Mindanao and adjacent small islands.
42567		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, like <em>Sundasciurus philippinensis</em>, this species is locally common in forests (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), occurring in a very wide range of habitats: primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, including the lower edges of mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is found also in agricultural areas (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952).
42567		population	eng	<em>S. mindanensis</em> is locally common throughout its range.
42567		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species are present. However, in the Philippines <em>S. philippinensis</em> is illegally traded as pet, and local hunting for food is another potential threat.
42568		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42568		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central high Sierra Nevada of California, Tuolumne County to Tulare County in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993). It occurs at elevations of 2,300-3,900 m asl; but seldom below 2,500 m asl.
42568		habitat	eng	It occurs on talus slopes, cliffs, rocky borders of meadows and lakes, and the rocky floor of open subalpine forest and alpine fell-fields in Hudsonian and Alpine-Arctic life zones (Ingles 1965). It probably dens among rocks or in burrows under rocks. It is basically terrestrial, but sometimes climbs trees. <br/><br/>Gestation is believed to last about one month. Births occur in early summer. Litter size is apparently 4-5 (Sumner and Dixon 1953). Feeds primarily on seeds of various plants (mainly herbaceous plants); also fungi and probably animal matter on occasion. Typically forages in open, rocky situations; occasionally forages in trees. Hibernates from around mid-October to late spring (Sumner and Dixon 1953).
42568		population	eng	Its abundance varies among sites, but it can be common. It is apparently secure although it has a restricted range.
42568		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42569		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42569		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Western North America, from central British Columbia and southwestern Alberta in Canada, south to Yolla Bolly Range and Mammoth Pass in California, northern Nevada, and northwestern Utah, east to central Montana and western Wyoming; at elevations of 975-2,900 m asl in California (Sutton 1992; Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
42569		habitat	eng	It generally occurs in brushy areas interspersed with herbaceous vegetation and open conifer stands; shrubs typically present include snowberry, chinquapin, mountain mahogany, antelope brush, currant, and buckbrush (Sutton 1992). It is found among logs, brush, and rocky outcrops. Also in brushy areas between subalpine forest and alpine tundra, and in alpine areas themselves. Digs burrows 7-21 inches deep. Constructs grass nest in burrow under stump, log, or rock; also nests above ground in woody vegetation. <br/><br/>Breeds in early spring. Average litter size is five (Washington) to six (California). Usually one litter per year is produced in Washington Cascades (Kenagy and Barnes 1988). Young are born from mid-May to early June (Banfield 1974) and weaned in about six weeks. May live up to five years.<br/><br/>Home range is a few acres, parts of which may be used seasonally (Sutton 1992). Easy prey for many kinds of predators. Competitive interactions with other chipmunk species may limit habitat use. Diet consists of seeds, fruits, green foliage, flowers, roots, buds, bulbs, tubers, fungi, and small animals. Caches food in burrow and in scattered pits dug in soil surface. Hibernates late fall-early spring. May become lethargic during cold summer weather. Stores little energy as body fat; awakens periodically in winter to feed on stored seeds (Banfield 1974, Sutton 1992).
42569		population	eng	Population density is reported as 1.25 per ha, with little fluctuation over time. It can be locally abundant.
42569		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42570		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42570		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of central and eastern Arizona and central and southwestern New Mexico in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993), at elevations of 1,950-3,440 m asl (most common at 2,100-3,300 m asl) (Hilton and Best 1993).
42570		habitat	eng	It occurs on high mountains in clearings and forest edges; pine, spruce, and fir forests. Most common where pine and Douglas-fir overlap (Hilton and Best 1993). Only in moist mesic higher forests in some areas (e.g., San Mateo and Magdalena mountains) (Findley <em>et al.</em> 1975). May be common in oak-juniper habitats in some areas. Perches on logs and stumps, commonly climbs trees. Nests are placed under logs, stumps, and roots, or in hollows of trees (Hoffmeister 1986), including woodpecker holes. <br/><br/>In Arizona: young are born in the first half of June; gestation lasts at least 30 days; individual adult females produce one litter of 4-6 young annually; nursing period lasts 41-45 days; young appear above ground by late July (Hoffmeister 1986).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, acorns, fruits, fungi, some green vegetation, and insects. Commonly forages in trees. Stores food. <br/>Reportedly active March-November in Arizona, though above-ground activity may occur during warmer periods in winter (Hoffmeister 1986, Hilton and Best 1993).
42570		population	eng	This species is considered common. Population density in Arizona was estimated at 5/ha in May, 12.5/ha in August (Hoffmeister 1986).
42570		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
42571		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
42571		distribution	eng	Southwestern United States and northcentral Mexico. In the United States, from Idaho south through the mountains of Arizona and western New Mexico. In Mexico, from Sonora and western Chihuahua to northeastern Sinaloa and northwestern Durango. There are three disjunct population segments (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
42571		habitat	eng	Vegetational characteristics of habitats differ across the species' range, but almost always found near large rocks, boulders, or cliffs. Otherwise, habitats include montane forests of Ponderosa pine and spruce, juniper-pinyon pine woodlands, oak woodlands, saxicolus brush and pygmy-conifer woodlands, riparian vegetation, and desert shrublands.<br/><br/>In its northern range, this species is associated with pygmy conifer woodland, ponderosa pine woodland, saxicoline brush, maple associations, sagebrush and saltbush. In Arizona-New Mexico, with aspen, low elevation shrublands, deserts, and lava fields; various oak associations. In Durango, with madrone, manzanita, and other typical lower Sonoran riparian vegetation.<br/><br/>Primarily terrestrial, but climbs rocks and sometimes woody plants. Dens and nests are in rock heaps, crevices, rocky bluffs and cliffs, underground burrows, and trees (Hart 1992).
42571		population	eng	Locally abundant (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
42571		threats	eng	None known.
42572		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.
42572		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in North America, from western Quebec to the Yukon in Canada, and southward to New Mexico, Arizona, and California in the United States. It is, however, absent from the Great Plains.
42572		habitat	eng	It is found in various habitats. It is common in coniferous forests but also uses clearcuts, deciduous woods, sagebrush, riparian zones, and in western regions may even occur in alpine tundra. Winter nest is up to one metre below ground surface. Summer dens typically are in hollow logs or stumps, in rock piles, or under debris, evacuated burrows. Also nests in tree cavities above ground. <br/><br/>Breeds in early spring. Gestation lasts 31 days. Litter size is 2-7 (average 5-6). Only one litter per year. Second litter may be produced if first fails. Sexually mature in first spring. Home range varies from less than an acre to four acres (Banfield 1974). Feeds mostly on seeds, nuts, fruits, and acorns. May be active throughout the day, but prefers the sunny midday hours. Begins semi hibernation in late October. Fully active by mid-March. May be active on warm winter days.
42572		population	eng	This species is widespread and common. Highly favourable habitats may contain 30 or more per acre, though average densities typically range from 5 to 15 per acre (Jackson 1961).
42572		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42573		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and there are a few protected areas within its range.
42573		distribution	eng	The species' range encompasses the northwest coast of California in the United States, from the south side of the Eel River, Humboldt County, to about three kilometres north of Bodega and Freestone, Sonoma County, and inland no more than 40 kilometres from the coast, at elevations from sea level to at least 1,280 m asl (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 1993).
42573		habitat	eng	Habitat includes dense undergrowth at the edge of humid coastal redwood and mixed coniferous forests (Adams 1967); this is primarily an inhabitant of the Transition life zone (Grinnell 1933). Probably breeds in spring and produces one litter of 4-6 young between May and June. Predators include weasels, mink, and owls. Diet includes seeds, fruit, fungi, insects, etc., depending on availability. It is active throughout most of the year. Probably remains in its burrow only during severe winter storms.
42573		population	eng	This species is apparently secure in its range and is locally common (NatureServe). The total adult population size is unknown but presumably far exceeds 10,000. It is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable.
42573		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified.
42574		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42574		distribution	eng	This species is found in the desert mountains of southeastern California and southwestern Nevada in the United States, at elevations of 1,230-3,180 m asl.
42574		habitat	eng	It inhabits pinyon-juniper woodlands in Upper Sonoran life zone; and may occur in adjacent habitats at higher and lower elevations. It is primarily a rock dweller. It is found among bushes, boulders, and on cliffs (Ingles 1965, Hall 1946). Seeks cover under rock ledges and outcrops, though also may den in trees, at least in summer. Rarely far from shelter of rocks or logs. <br/><br/>Mating probably occurs in April and early May. Gestation lasts 36 days or more. Parturition occurs in late May and June. Litter size 3-6 (mean around four). Juveniles first appear above ground in late July and August. Young are weaned usually by August or September.<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds and fruits, spring forbs, and arthropods. Forages mainly on the ground but also in small trees. Activity is reduced during hottest part of day in summer and during cloudy or rainy periods in winter. Most active at midday in winter, in morning and late afternoon or early evening in summer.
42574		population	eng	This species is considered common in suitable habitat.
42574		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42575		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42575		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Nevada of east-central California (Plumas to Mariposa and Madera counties); and central and adjacent west-central Nevada in the vicinity of Lake Tahoe in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Clawson <em>et al.</em> 1994). It occurs at elevations of 960-2,250 m asl.
42575		habitat	eng	It inhabits chaparral, brushfields, open areas in coniferous forests (e.g., ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, mixed coniferous); occurs among brush, rocks, and logs. Basically terrestrial but sometimes climbs trees. Nests have been found under buildings and in tree hollows. <br/><br/>Mating begins in late April and the first half of May. Gestation lasts about 31 days and young are born from May to July but mainly in the first half of June. Litter size is 2-6. Young are almost fully grown by early September (see Clawson <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Primary foods are various seeds and fruits (especially those of conifers) and hypogeous fungi; also eats some arthropods. Gleans seeds from tree squirrel "leftovers." This species stores food. Known to be active above ground from late March to mid-November.
42575		population	eng	This species is considered common in suitable habitat. Reported densities in the Sierra Nevadas ranged from 0.2/ha in April to 1.0/ha in June.
42575		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range but there are no major threats at present.
42576		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes some protected areas.
42576		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and central Colorado, eastern Utah, northern and central New Mexico, and northeastern Arizona in the United States, at elevations of 1,380-3,360 m asl (Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).
42576		habitat	eng	It is found in various habitats, mainly rocky areas with conifers or shrubs, Pinyon-juniper or rock associations in Arizona (Hoffmeister 1986) and Oklahoma. In New Mexico, it is mainly coincident with the ponderosa pine zone; also in pinyon-juniper and scrub oak-juniper habitats and in open stands or edges of spruce-fir forest; similar habitats in Colorado. Primarily terrestrial but also an adept climber. Commonly perches on rocks, stumps, or logs (Best <em>et al.</em> 1994). <br/><br/>Mating occurs in spring (e.g., late April-May in Colorado) throughout much of the range, bimodally in February and July in southern New Mexico. Gestation lasts about 30 days. Litter size is 2-6. Young are weaned at 6-7 weeks. Generally one litter per year, but the presence of pregnant and lactating females in late summer in some areas suggests a second litter or late breeding.<br/><br/>Home range averages a few hectares. Overwinter survival rate is less than 33%; local extirpation or near-extirpation is a common event (Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds and fruits of various woody and herbaceous plants, and some insects. Feeds mainly on the ground but obtains some food by climbing into trees and shrubs. Stores food in underground caches. Generally not active above ground during coldest winter weather. Most active above ground in morning and late afternoon.
42576		population	eng	This species is locally common in most portions of the range.
42576		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42577		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42577		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Washington eastward through northern Idaho to western Montana in the United States, and adjacent southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta in Canada, at elevations of 720-2,400 m asl (Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Best 1993).
42577		habitat	eng	It is found in various types of coniferous forest and woodland such as spruce-fir, cedar-hemlock, ponderosa pine, riparian communities, and pine/spruce/rhododendron/blueberry at margins of timberline meadows. Most abundant in forest openings or edges, where shrubby undergrowth is abundant. Where range overlaps with <em>T. amoenus</em>, it seems to prefer dense cover (Larrison and Johnson 1981). It is primarily terrestrial, but also climbs trees. Often around logs, brush piles, or boulders in Idaho. Nests are made in shrubs or trees (e.g., on limbs 6-18 metres above ground, or in cavities), in crevices among boulders, under old log piles, or underground.<br/><br/>Breeds late April-May, earlier at low elevations. Breeding may extend through August in the north. Most adult females become pregnant each year. Gestation lasts about one month. In Montana, births occur from late May to mid-June at lower elevations, early to late June at higher elevations. Litter size usually 4-6. Young appear above ground at about 39-45 days (in July). Some live as long as 6-8 years in the wild. See Best (1993).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds and fruit of various trees and shrubs, also leaves and flowers of various forbs; probably also fungi. <br/>Active mainly April-October; wakes periodically in winter to feed from food cache.
42577		population	eng	This species is locally common in much of its range.
42577		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42578		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42578		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Colorado, eastern Utah, and northeastern Arizona in the United States, at elevations of about 1,290-2,700 m asl.
42578		habitat	eng	It inhabits various rocky habitats: woodlands of pinyon-juniper and associated shrubs, rubble slopes, slickrock; may use trees and shrubs for cover; burrows beneath boulders or shrubs (Armstrong 1982). May sometimes use sandy habitats (blackbrush-Indian ricegrass) adjacent to pinyon-juniper or rocky areas. Easily climbs on cliffs and in woody vegetation. Nest sites are associated with piles of broken rock or crevices in solid rock. <br/><br/>In southeastern Utah mating occurs February-March; gestation lasts 30-33 days; young are born during first half of April, above ground in May; average litter size is 5.2 (Wadsworth 1969). Weaning is completed in 6-7 weeks. Sexually mature in 10-11 months; females give birth to their first litter when about one year old (Burt and Best 1994).<br/><br/>Home range in southeastern Utah was estimated at 0.4-1.3 ha (Wadsworth 1972). Diet includes mainly seeds (of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants), also flowers and insects, and, seasonally, small or large amounts of green vegetation; opportunistic, takes advantage of handouts and human food refuse in campgrounds (Armstrong 1982, Wadsworth 1972, Burt and Best 1994). <br/><br/>Activity peaks in morning and late afternoon (Armstrong 1982), especially in summer when it avoids midday heat. Seldom seen above ground mid-November to mid-February (Armstrong 1982).
42578		population	eng	This species is locally common in a naturally fragmented distribution.
42578		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42579		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.
42579		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwestern United States from north-central Oregon through the northern mountains of California (between the Klamath and Eel rivers, east to the Warner Range at the California-Nevada border, south to Yosemite, crossing the Nevada border east of Lake Tahoe). It occurs above 1,500 m asl in the central Sierra Nevada (Gannon and Forbes 1995).
42579		habitat	eng	it is found in coniferous forests and chaparral slopes; transition and Canadian life zones. Does not readily climb trees. Reproduction is probably similar to <em>T. townsendii</em> which breeds in the spring and produces one litter of 4-6 altricial young between May and July. <br/><br/>Predators include weasels, mink, and owls. Diet includes seeds, fruits, fungi, insects, etc. Active throughout much of the year. Probably remains dormant during severe winter weather.
42579		population	eng	This species is considered to be quite common.
42579		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42580		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42580		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northwest United States, where its range includes the Siskiyou Mountains and coast of northern California (north of the Klamath River) northward to the Rogue River. A narrow portion of the range extends into central Oregon. It is found at elevations of 1,830-2,135 m asl (6,000-7,000 feet).
42580		habitat	eng	It occurs in coniferous forests of Sitka spruce, incense cedar, and white and red fir. Reproduction is probably similar to <em>T. townsendii</em> which breeds in the spring and produces one litter of 4-6 altricial young between May and July.<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, fruit, fungi, insects, etc. Active throughout most of the year. Probably remains in its burrow during severe winter weather.
42580		population	eng	This species is considered to be common.
42580		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
42581		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42581		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern California in the United States, from the northern San Francisco Bay area north to Siskiyou County; in the Upper Sonoran and Transition life zones, from near sea level to 2,100 m asl (Best 1993).
42581		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dense chaparral, brushy clearings in forests, and streamside thickets; often associated with black oak, ponderosa pine, digger pine, Douglas-fir, white fir, redwood, sticky laurel, incense cedar, madrone, manzanita, and serviceberry; associated with tan oak on high ridges in Trinity and Humboldt counties, with whitethorn, chokecherry, serviceberry, and silk tassel in large warm tracts of brush in Trinity County (Best 1993). A tree nest was on a limb 15 metres up in a large Douglas-fir at the base of a forested slope (Best 1993). Often uses elevated perches such as stumps, rocks, or lower limbs of trees. <br/><br/>Breeds once a year in spring. Young are born during May-July; timing of reproduction varies with elevation. Litter size is 3-5 (usually four). Female raises litter alone; remains with young for at least three weeks after young emerge. Weaned young may stay together for some weeks after separation from mother.<br/><br/>Males disperse as juveniles; females tend to stay near natal site (Best 1993). Diet includes seeds, fruits, fungi, etc. Forages on ground and in bushes. Active throughout most of the year. Probably remains in its burrow only during severe winter storms.
42581		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in a restricted range.
42581		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
42582		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42582		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the United States in central Sierra Nevada in California, into Nevada in the vicinity of Lake Tahoe, south to the San Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains and Mount Pinos. Reported occurrence in the northern Sierra Nevada has been questioned by D. A. Sutton; field investigations revealed only <em>T. amoenus</em> in localities from which <em>speciosus</em> has been reported (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1994, Sutton 1995). It occurs at elevations of 1,500-3,000 m asl.
42582		habitat	eng	It occurs in open mixed-conifer forests and forests mixed with chaparral; forests of lodgepole pine, Jeffrey pine, and red fir; lodgepole pine/chinquapin/shrub associations in southern California; meadows in some areas. Found primarily in Canadian, but also Hudsonian and upper Transition life zones. Primarily terrestrial but frequently climbs trees. Nests for sleeping and rearing young are in burrows, stumps, logs, tree cavities (e.g., woodpecker holes), or among rocks. <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in May and June, about one month after emergence from hibernation, young are born in spring and early summer. Litter size usually is 3-6 and young emerged in late July in the San Jacinto Mountains, generally one litter per year (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Home range size averages about 1.3-2.6 ha; at Yosemite, the longest axis of a home range was 252 metres. See Best <em>et al.</em> (1994) for information on the distributional relationships among <em>T. speciosus</em> and other <em>Tamias</em> species.<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds of grasses, forbs, and woody plants; fruits; fungi; insects; carrion. Forages in shrubs and on the ground. Stores food in small pits in the ground, in tree crevices, under rocks or logs, among rocks, or underground. <br/>This species is inactive during the coldest part of the winter and/or during periods of prolonged deep snow cover, but may awaken during warm weather to feed; active in every month in southern California. Emerges from winter den in the early spring.
42582		population	eng	This species is considered common. Populations fluctuate seasonally and annually; maximum reported density is about one per hectare (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).
42582		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42583		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
42583		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the eastern United States and adjoining Canada, from southeast Saskatchewan to Nova Scotia, south to western Oklahoma and eastern Louisiana (in the west) and to coastal Virginia (in the east). It is absent from peninsular Florida and the coastal plain between Florida and northern North Carolina. It is introduced to Newfoundland.
42583		habitat	eng	It prefers deciduous woodlands with ample cover, such as brush piles or logs, rocky forested slopes, ravines. Also found in brushlands and hedgerows. Commonly climbs trees and shrubs. Burrows often open at edge or rock, near base of tree, or under the edge of a building. Nest is generally constructed below ground in an extensive burrow system.<br/><br/>Breeding period is from mid-March to early April. A second breeding period occurs from mid-July to mid-August involving young of the previous year. Gestation lasts 31 days. Litter size is 4-15 (3-5 most often). One to two litters per year. Commonly lives 2-3 years, sometimes 5-6 years.<br/><br/>Home range is less than one hectare, typically 0.08-0.60 ha, largest in early summer and early fall; core area of home range is defended against conspecific neighbours; largest home ranges are those of breeding males; low water availability may result in increased home range size. Individuals may make long movements outside their usual range; non dispersing individuals have lifetime home range lengths of up to at least 0.5 km, and dispersal movements may extend to at least 0.9 km (Roberts 1976).<br/><br/>This species utilizes a wide variety of seeds, fruits, and nuts, some mushrooms and insects. Active during the day. In winter, becomes torpid, with frequent arousals.
42583		population	eng	This species is abundant. Depending on the season, population densities may vary from less than one to 15 per acre (Yerger 1953), and sometimes up to 30 per acre.
42583		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42584		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range does include a few protected areas.
42584		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific coast of North America, from extreme southwestern British Columbia in Canada, south to southern Oregon in the United States (Rogue River), southward in the western Cascades to the headwaters of the Rogue River (Sutton 1993).
42584		habitat	eng	Typical habitat consists of mesic closed-canopy forest and dense brush thickets. However, they reach high densities in clearcut areas, where there are decaying logs, evergreen herbs, shrubs, and trees, and a variety of fungi and lichens. Talus slopes with loose rocks are preferred as nest sites.<br/><br/>In Cascades of Washington mating occurs in spring, one litter per year, gestation lasts about four weeks, average litter size 3.8, first breeds at one or two years; young appear above ground in July (Kenagy and Barnes 1988). May live as long as seven years. <br/><br/>Weasels, mink, and bobcats are important predators. This species has a diverse diet. Will eat seeds, nuts, fruits, insects, roots, green vegetation, fungi. Forages mostly on the ground but sometimes also in trees. Caches food in burrow. <br/><br/>Usually remains active at least from March to late November; remains in nest only during severe winter weather (Banfield 1974). Duration of inactivity is longer at higher elevations, especially in areas covered by deep snow. Active all winter in warmer areas, especially along the coast.<br/><br/>It may be a significant agent in the dissemination of harmful fungus that attacks conifer seeds (see Sutton 1993). Sometimes considered detrimental to commercial forestry due to its diet of coniferous seeds.
42584		population	eng	This species is considered common. Density estimates range from 0.6 - 1.1 per ha in virgin forest, but may be 2-4 times higher 3-10 years post-clearcutting.
42584		threats	eng	In coastal British Columbia, the population appeared to decline temporarily as a result of herbicide treatment of Douglas-fir plantation (Sullivan 1990). At present, however, there are no major threats to this species.
42585		conservation	eng	This species is currently not of conservation concern and its range includes some protected areas.
42585		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern California and northern Arizona to northern Colorado, southeastern and northwestern Wyoming, and extreme southwestern Montana in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993). It occurs at elevations of about 1,980-3,350 m asl (6,500-11,000 feet).
42585		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous forests. It is often found near logs and brush in open areas and at the edge of forests. It is found in Transition, Canadian and Hudsonian life zones. Excavates burrows beneath rocks and shrubs.<br/><br/>Reproduction is probably similar to other western chipmunks which mate in the spring and produce one litter of 4-5 altricial young following a gestation period of approximately one month. Young weaned and foraging on their own in mid-July or August<br/><br/>In summer it feeds on seeds and berries, supplemented with other plant material and insects. In autumn, stores seeds and berries in burrow. Occasionally eats birds eggs and carrion (Armstrong 1975). Dormant in winter in snow covered areas; may arouse and appear above ground in warm weather on warm slopes. Others may arouse and feed but not leave burrow (Armstrong 1975).
42585		population	eng	This species is locally common in its fragmented range.
42585		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, but the distribution is highly fragmented.
42586		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42586		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific Coast and Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges of North American, from southwestern British Columbia in Canada, through the Cascade Range of western and central Washington and Oregon, southward along the coast of northern California to San Francisco, and southward through the Sierra Nevadas to south-central California in the United States.
42586		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous forests, in upper pine belt and in fir, spruce, hemlock forests. It occurs from the Transition to the Hudsonian life zone. In Washington, populations generally were higher in old-growth than in younger forest (Buchanan <em>et al.</em> 1990). Makes nest of vegetation in trees in summer; roosts in tree holes in winter. <br/><br/>Most males are reproductively active from March-May. Females produce one, perhaps two litters per year. Litter of 2-8, usually 4-6, young is born in May-June. Young first venture to the ground in August. Families stay together much of first year.<br/><br/>Predators include bobcats, martens, coyotes, and large owls. In spring it feeds on new shoots of conifers, inner bark and developing needles; in summer, some green vegetation, fruits and berries. In autumn it eats seeds from conifer cones. May also eat tree sap, fungi, and nuts. Stores cones in a log or burrow. Active throughout the year but usually remains in nest during severe weather. Daily activity begins at dawn and ends at sunset.
42586		population	eng	This species is considered to be common. Populations fluctuate with variations in food supply. Densities range from 0.2 - 0.5 per hectare.
42586		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. It may be locally threatened by deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
42587		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
42587		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in northern North America. It occurs from Alaska in the United States, eastward across Canada and southward to Arizona and New Mexico (in the west) and to extreme northern Georgia (in the east) in the United States. It is introduced to Newfoundland in eastern Canada.
42587		habitat	eng	It prefers coniferous and mixed forests, but also occurs in deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, and second-growth areas. It prefers to nest in tree cavities; and also constructs leaf nests and uses ground burrows. <br/><br/>It breeds March-April and June-July in Quebec. Gestation lasts 31-35 days. Some females produce two litters per year; litter size averages 4-5. Some females breed when less than one year old (Lair 1986).<br/><br/>This species is more territorial than most other North American tree squirrels. Some populations in British Columbia are limited by food (acting through effect on reproduction) (Sullivan 1990); but factors such as territorial behaviour may limit populations at high density (Klenner and Krebs 1991). <br/><br/>Diet consists of seeds, conifer cones, nuts, fruits. It occasionally feeds on invertebrates and small vertebrates. Commonly caches, and later consumes, large amounts of food. Usually quite conspicuous throughout the day. Most active two hours after sunrise and before sunset.
42587		population	eng	It is widespread in North America, and abundant in many areas. Densities of up to 7-8 per hectare have been reported.
42587		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42588		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes some protected areas.
42588		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Great Plains of North America from southern Manitoba (Canada), eastern North Dakota, Minnesota, and western Wisconsin south to New Mexico and Texas in the United States. The eastern portion of the range extends to extreme western Indiana (Patton 2005).
42588		habitat	eng	The plains pocket gopher prefers open lands such as prairies, pastures, cultivated areas with deep, friable, moist soils; e.g., sandy or moist alluvial soils in Oklahoma. Also oak-hickory savanna, oak savanna mixed with maple-basswood forest, mesquite prairie, prairie-deciduous forest mosaic (Williams, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). They often occur in human-created habitats such as lawns, cemeteries, golf courses and along roadsides. The species is fossorial, denning underground in extensive tunnel systems. Most mounds and tunnels are constructed in the spring and fall. Mating takes place in spring. Gestation lasts about 30 days. Females give birth to one litter of an average four to five young each year, between March and May. The female evicts young from the burrow when they are ready to be weaned. They are sexually mature in 12 months.<br/><br/>The plains pocket gopher is active day and night; peak digging periods are at night and during crepuscular hours. Diet includes, fleshy roots, succulent stems, and small fruits are preferred. They are solitary animals, living within loose "colonies." Tunnels between neighbours are not interconnected. Home ranges are small. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988).
42588		population	eng	They are common and considered a pest in some locations. Population density averages four to five individuals per acre (Banfield 1974).
42588		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Because this species is often considered a pest, it is frequently the target of poisoning and trapping methods to control populations.
42589		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are needed to protect three subspecies in Georgia, <em>colonus, fontanelus</em> and <em>cumberlandius</em>. Areas where these subspecies are known to occur should be converted to wildlife sanctuaries and further human development should be halted. Additional surveys should be done to establish the status and distribution of these remaining subspecies and assess areas of highest priority (Hafner <em>et al.,</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Sherman's pocket gopher (<em>G. p. fontanelus </em>) is considered to be Endangered and possibly extinct by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (Hafner<em>et al.,</em> 1998). Goff's pocket gopher (<em>G. p. goffi</em>) in Florida is presumed extinct.
42589		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern United States, from southern Alabama, southern Georgia, and all but the southern third of Florida (Pembleton and Williams 1978).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>goffi</em> occurred on the Pineda Ridge, along the Indian River, in the vicinity of Eau Gallie (now incorporated into Melbourne), Brevard County, Florida. Historically it was known from 3.2 km north and south of Eau Gallie and as far as 3.2 km inland from the Indian River (Layne 1978, Sherman 1944).
42589		habitat	eng	This species of pocket gopher is found in the deep, sandy soils associated with the open areas of long-leaf pine woods of the southeastern United States. Like other pocket gophers it is primarily fossorial, only leaving its burrow briefly to disperse or feed on above ground vegetation. It is absent from the silt loam soils of the Rio Grande Floodplain.<br/> <br/>Breeding occurs year-round, with peak mating activity from January to August. Litter size is an average of two young per female. Up to two litters per year. Except during breeding season, only one individual occupies a burrow system. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988). The diet is primarily roots, fleshy rhizomes, green succulents, and grasses. Peak activity probably occurs from dusk to dawn. They are active year-round.
42589		population	eng	The southeastern pocket gopher can be common in suitable habitat, but density varies geographically. The last known colony of subspecies <em>goffi</em> was recorded in 1955 and since then no further sightings of the taxon have been documented.
42589		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species overall. Habitat destruction by continued human development of limited habitat areas threatens three subspecies (<em>colonus, fontanelus</em> and <em>cumberlandius</em>) in Georgia (Hafner <em>et al.,</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Conversion of the only known site of occurrence of subspecies <em>goffi</em> to human use apparently led to its extinction.
42590		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
42590		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Honduras north to Jalisco, Mexico (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,700 m (Reid 1997).
42590		habitat	eng	This rodent is poorly known. It occurs in forested and agricultural areas (Reid 1997).
42590		population	eng	This species is locally common (Reid 1997).
42590		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
42591		conservation	eng	This species needs protection of its habitat and more research because little is known about its basic biology.
42591		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: south-east side of Mt. Orizaba, Xuchil, Veracruz, Mexico (Patton 2005). This species was found at 1,300 m (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
42591		habitat	eng	This species was collected from tropical montane evergreen forest (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
42591		population	eng	No population information could be found.
42591		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss for agriculture.
42592		conservation	eng	Found at the Mombacho Volcano protected area in southern Nicaragua.
42592		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Nicaragua and Honduras (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,000 m (Reid 1997). Species found at the Mombacho Volcano protected area in southern Nicaragua.
42592		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but it is presumably similar to other gophers (Reid 1997).
42592		population	eng	It is apparently locally common (Reid 1997).
42592		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
42593		conservation	eng	Found in Carara, Manuel Antonio and Corcovado protected areas in Costa Rica, and in the Chorrogo national park in Panama.
42593		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Patton, 2005) and on the Pacific coast of Panama. It occurs from lowlands to 1,450 m (Hafner and Hafner 1987).
42593		habitat	eng	It is poorly known. It occurs in semideciduous forest, clearings, coastal, and agricultural areas (Reid 1997).
42593		population	eng	This species is locally common (Reid 1997). Range is expanding,
42593		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.
42594		conservation	eng	At present this species is not of conservation concern, and its range probably includes a few protected areas.
42594		distribution	eng	The species' range is restricted to the Willamette Valley, in Oregon in the United States, and to drainages of tributaries (especially the Yamhill River) to the Willamette River system; its range corresponds almost exactly with the extent of the Bretz Flood, which occurred about 13,000 years ago (Verts and Carraway, 1998). Its elevational range rarely exceeds 120 m asl (Verts and Carraway, 1998).
42594		habitat	eng	This pocket gopher is associated with early seral plant communities or cultivated areas that resemble such situations, including weedy lawns, land disturbed by clearing, fields of alfalfa, wheat, or oats, or filbert orchards, often in deep, heavy clay soils (Verts and Carraway, 1998). It avoids wetlands and poorly drained grassy fields (Verts and Carraway, 1998). It occurs in unwooded areas in hilly areas and lowlands and is common in agricultural and pastoral lands (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). As is true of other pocket gophers, habits are mainly fossorial, with some surface activity. Breeds March to July. Gestation lasts probably about 18 or 19 days. Females produce one litter of three to five young per year. Young are born in April to July, weaned by six weeks. Presumably attains sexual maturity by the breeding season after birth.<br/><br/>Diet includes roots and tubers of false dandelion, vetch, fruit and nut trees, root crops, plantains, and grasses. Forages mainly within underground burrow, eats some surface vegetation. Carries food in external cheek pouches to underground storage areas. This species is primarily solitary (males enter burrows of females during breeding season). Predators include owls, hawks, coyotes, and foxes. Individuals rarely live more than three years in the wild. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988).  This species is active throughout the year; it does not hibernate.
42594		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 100,000. Density at a few sample sites was crudely estimated at about 10 to about 32 per hectare (Verts and Carraway, 1998). Verts and Carraway (1998) mapped several dozen collection sites, most of which might be regarded as distinct occurrences (subpopulations). Presumably at least several occurrences have good viability. Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, but the rate of decline is unknown. Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size presumably have been reduced to some degree as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.
42594		threats	eng	Habitat has been and continues to be altered via urbanization and conversion to intensive agriculture. Locally, in orchards and fields, this species is regarded as an agricultural pest and is subject to attempted eradication through poisoning and trapping. Based on the recovery of populations subject to trapping, Verts and Carraway (1998) concluded that this species can recover rapidly from periods of high mortality.
42595		conservation	eng	Probably no occurrences of this species are protected, although the species does occur on lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997). Very little information is available on the conservation status of this species; a status survey to determine current distribution, abundance, and trend is needed.
42595		distribution	eng	The species' range is confined to Carbon and Sweetwater counties in south-central Wyoming (Clark and Stromberg, 1987; Cerovski <em>et al.</em> 2004; Patton, in Wilson and Reeder, 2005). The range of this species lies almost entirely within that of <em>T. talpoides ocius</em>, but the two species occupy distinctly different habitats (Thaeler and Hinesley, 1979).
42595		habitat	eng	This fossorial upland species occurs in gravelly, loose, well-drained soils on ridge tops and along the edges of deeply eroded stream-cut washes, including areas vegetated with greasewood (Clark and Stromberg, 1987; Patton, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Reproduction is probably similar to <em>T. talpoides</em>, which mates between March and mid-June, has a gestation period of about 19-20 days, and produces a litter of four to seven young. This species is primarily solitary. Diet includes roots, tubers and some surface vegetation. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988).
42595		population	eng	In the late 1990s, 15 documented reports existed in the Wyoming Wildlife Observation System and the literature; at that time the species had not been extensively surveyed (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997).  Adequate information is not available to determine abundance (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997), but total adult population size presumably exceeds 10,000. The species has been described as uncommon (see Garber, 1995), whereas Clark and Stromberg (1987) stated that this species "may be abundant within its range." Trend is unknown, information is not available to assess trends, but it is possibly stable (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997). It is not known if historical numbers differ from current numbers (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997).
42595		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known, but the species may be vulnerable because of its limited distribution. This pocket gopher is not very threatened, although its habitat is being developed for natural gas and could be impacted by road construction (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997).
42596		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes several protected areas.
42596		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Central Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and western Nevada from Yosemite National Park to Mount Shasta in the United States. There is a disjunct population on South Yolla Bolly Mountain in northwestern California.
42596		habitat	eng	Mountain pocket gophers are found on mountain meadows and rocky slopes in pine, fir, spruce, and hemlock forests (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999); in rich moist soil, as well as gravelly or rocky ground. They occur on the open forest floor and at the edge of meadows. This species is primarily fossorial. In winter nests may be above ground in snow. Gestation probably lasts about 18-19 days. Females produce one litter of three to four young per year. Young are born in July-August.<br/><br/>This species is solitary, except during the breeding season. Its underground burrow system may cover 200sqft for young animals to 2,000sqft for old females. They may live four years in the wild. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). <br/><br/>Diet includes roots, tubers, and some surface vegetation. Gophers will forage within underground burrows, they may also forage on the surface of ground. Food is collected in external cheek pouches and stored in underground chambers.
42596		population	eng	This species is common within its range and considered secure (NatureServe). Population densities may be 4-14/acre.
42596		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42597		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes many protected areas.
42597		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across central plains and western mountain regions in Canada and the United States, from southern British Columbia to central Alberta and southwestern Manitoba, south to South Dakota and northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, northern Nevada, and northeastern California (Patton, in Wilson and Reeder, 1993).
42597		habitat	eng	Northern pocket gophers prefer deep soils along streams and in meadows and cultivated fields, but they are also found in rocky soils and clay. They occupy a wide variety of habitats ranging from sagebrush steppe, mountain meadows and tundra, to agricultural fields, grasslands, and suburban gardens and lawns (MacMahon, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They are primarily fossorial. Young are born in a grass or leaf-lined nests in a natal chamber within the underground burrow system. Females are monoestrous. Mating usually occurs from March to mid-June, depending on weather and latitude. Gestation lasts about 19-20 days. Litter size is four to seven. Young disperse from the natal burrow at about two months of age (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1983).<br/><br/>They are primarily solitary. Home range may occupy 150-200sq yards. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). They are active throughout the year. They do not hibernate but may be inactive in winter and midsummer for brief periods. Most burrowing activity occurs in spring and fall when soil is loose. Circadian but peaks of activity at dawn and dusk.
42597		population	eng	This species is widespread and common (NatureServe). Estimated densities of up to 91.6/hectare have been recorded (Verts and Carraway, 1999).
42597		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42598		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.
42598		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in disjunct patches in the western United States, in southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, northern Nevada, and northeastern California.
42598		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep, moist, loamy, alkaline soils found in bottomlands of sagebrush habitats, as well as irrigated fields (Verts and Carraway, 2003). Also found in the deep soils of river valleys, or old lake beds; in areas with shadscale vegetation type (M. F. Smith, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It is primarily fossorial. Young are born in underground burrows. Adults may produce two or more litters per year, ranging from three to ten young per litter (Ingles, 1965). Gestation lasts approximately 19 days. <br/><br/>Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). Predators include owls, hawks, foxes, coyotes, etc. Diet includes roots, tubers, and some surface vegetation. Forages from underground burrow and may pull plants down through soil into burrow. Sometimes forages aboveground. Collects food in cheek pouches and carries it to underground storage areas.
42598		population	eng	This species is apparently secure (NatureServe) and can be common in its range.
42598		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42599		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.
42599		distribution	eng	This species is found from Suisun Bay in northern California to the foothills of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains in Oregon. The isolated subspecies <em>eximus</em> occurring only at Marysville Buttes may be extinct.
42599		habitat	eng	It is found in the well-drained soils of valley grasslands, open chaparral, and open foothill woodland. Occupies underground burrows when inactive, and will burrow at the base of shrub, under rock or may use ground squirrel burrows. Uses paths of other animals, trails, dirt roads. Breeds mainly February-September, greatest activity February-April. Litter size is two to four. It may produce more than one litter annually (Kelt, 1988). Diet includes seeds, green vegetation and small fruits (e.g. manzanita).
42599		population	eng	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe).
42599		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42600		conservation	eng	The subspecies <em>morroensis</em> on the south side of Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, California, is listed by USFWS as Endangered.
42600		distribution	eng	This species is found from west-central California, north to Suisun Bay and the American River, southward through the San Joaquin Valley below about 3,000 ft, and extending through the interior valleys and mountains to the coast at Morro Bay and from Point Sal to Point Conception in Santa Barbara County (Grinnell, 1922; Hall, 1981; Kelt, 1988; Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993).
42600		habitat	eng	Heermann's kangaroo rats primarily inhabit dry, gravelly valley grasslands and open chaparral. They may also occur in open foothill woodlands and the lower and upper Sonoran life zones. They prefer sparsely vegetated areas with loosely textured soil. When inactive, they occupy an underground burrow, within which young are born in a nest. Kangaroo rats may dig burrows from the shelter of ground squirrel burrows. Reproduction occurs mainly from February through October where breeding peaks in April and declines after July. Gestation lasts 30-32 days. Litter size is two to five young and adults may produce multiple litters annually. Young appear above ground at four to six weeks. Females breed during their first year.<br/><br/>Diet is mainly seeds, they also eats green vegetation, especially in winter and spring. They also feeds seasonally on small amounts of insect material. They obtain food from ground surface or cuts standing seed heads or green vegetation. This species generally emerges soon after dark. Rain and fog, and sometimes moonlight, may inhibit activity. In San Luis Obispo County, little or no activity occurred in January and February; activity increased in early summer, declined in mid-summer, with possible fall resurgence.
42600		population	eng	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density varies widely with habitat. In San Luis Obispo County, density estimates varied from 42/ha in best habitat to 5/ha in marginal habitat.
42600		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42602		conservation	eng	None a present. The species is close to <em>A. poilanei</em> and differs mainly in the colour of the stomatal bands, which are brownish not whitish. The species was described in the <em>Flore du Cambodge, Laos et Viet Nam</em> 28: 126 (1996) and merits further investiagtion. It was (tentatively) accepted in the world checklist of conifers (Farjon 2001).
42602		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities in Ha Giang and Ha Tuyên provinces of Viet Nam. Only two subpopulations are known
42602		habitat	eng	Occurs in tropical/subtropical small-leaved angiosperm–conifer  woodland on ridge tops of karst limestone formations at 1,000–1,500 m. The woodland is extremely rich in epiphytes, e.g., orchids, and includes many endemics.
42602		threats	eng	No direct threats observed; but there is general deforestation through cutting for firewood, timber, etc.
42603		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Of the 13 subspecies, two are of conservation concern <em>alfredi</em> and <em>leucotis</em>, both are federal C2 candidate taxa. Subspecies <em>leucotis</em> is also a candidate taxon for listing in Arizona (Hafner, 1998).
42603		distribution	eng	This species is found from nearly the entire Great Basin in the United States, from southwestern Idaho (Raft River Valley, Cassia County; Elmore Desert, Elmore County) and southeastern Oregon through eastern California, Nevada, and western Utah to southern California and northern Arizona; west to the Sierra Nevada, east to the Wasatch Mountains. It generally occurs at moderate elevations but has been recorded up to 3,200 m asl in Inyo County, California. There is a discontinuous relict distribution in San Bernardino County, California.
42603		habitat	eng	This species is found in desert valleys dominated by saltbush/shadscale (<em>Atriplex confertifolia</em>) throughout most of its range. It is found also in the blackbush (<em>Coleogyne ramosissima</em>) zone along the southern edge of its range. In southern Nevada, this species is most abundant in <em>Coleogyne</em> and <em>Grayia/Lycium</em> communities; it also occurs in other types of shrubby communities. They occur on rocky slopes in some areas, however, they are rarely captured on sand dunes. <br/><br/>Nests are found in underground burrows that typically open near the base of shrubs. In Inyo County, California, mating usually occurs from February to mid-March, with births from March to mid-April or sometimes later. Pregnant females occur from April to June in Nevada. Gestation lasts 30-34 days. Females produce a single litter of one to four (most often two), though under exceptionally good conditions a few may produce two litters per year. Juveniles typically do not mature sexually in their season of birth in southeastern California (Kenagy and Bartholomew, 1985).<br/><br/>Chisel-toothed kangaroo rats are basically solitary. Reported average home range size varies from less than one hectare to about five hectare (see Hayssen, 1991). They are most abundant in spring and early summer. They are a major primary consumer and prey item for carnivores. Life span averages just over a year. Diet generally is dominated by leaves (especially of saltbush, from which hyper saline outer layers are removed) in the northern and central parts of the range, by seeds in the south. Will sometimes eat insects and fungi. Climbs saltbush plants to forage for leaves. Caches leaves and/or seeds in burrow. This species is active throughout the year and is not known to aestivate or hibernate. They are nocturnal with limited activity at dawn and dusk.
42603		population	eng	This species is widespread and considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Reported population density of up to about seven per hectare in Nevada, and up to 34 per hectare in Utah.
42603		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42604		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes a few protected areas.
42604		distribution	eng	This species is found in the United States in east-central California and west-central Nevada, south to east of Sierra Nevada, and the Mojave Desert in southern California. There are disjunct populations in southeastern California and adjacent southern Nevada (Intress and Best, 1990).
42604		habitat	eng	This species occurs in desert flats among Joshua trees, creosote bush scrub and pinyon-juniper woodland (Ingles, 1965) It is also found among big sagebrush in west-central Nevada. Soil may be coarse sand, gravelly, alkaline, or crusty and impregnated with salts. It generally avoids the vicinity of cliffs and areas with desert pavement (Intres and Best, 1990). When inactive, it occupies burrow in mound at the base of shrub. <br/><br/>This kangaroo rat is solitary except when breeding. Home range size varies seasonally; average 0.4 hectare, peak 1.2 hectare (Intres and Best, 1990). Breeding season reportedly peaks in February or March, but pregnant females have been found also in late April and late May. Gestation lasts 29-30 days. Litter size is three to four. Weaning period begins at 27-29 days. Young leave burrow at 28 days. Sexual activity begins at about 24-56 days. This species possibly has an increased need for water (in the form of succulent vegetation) prior to reproduction.<br/><br/>Diet is probably similar to other closely related species of <em>Dipodomys</em> that feed primarily on seeds, but also eats some insects and green vegetation. In the San Gabriel Mountains, California, cheek pouches contained green grass shoots in winter and pouches also often contained juniper berries. This species is active throughout the year except when snow cover is greater than 40%. Activity peaks at two and six to nine hours after sunset, there is little or no activity around sunrise (Intres and Best, 1990).
42604		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe).
42604		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42605		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
42605		distribution	eng	The species' range includes coastal mountains of west-central California in the United States; the species is historically known from San Mateo County southward to San Luis Obispo County, and east to San Benito County; from near sea level to 1,770 m asl (Best, 1992; Best <em>et al.</em>, 1996).
42605		habitat	eng	The narrow-faced kangaroo rat occurs on maritime slopes covered with chaparral or a mixture of chaparral and oaks. It burrows in sandy, well-drained, deep soils. Subspecies <em>venustus</em> and <em>sanctiluciae</em> inhabit chaparral and chaparral mixed with oaks or digger pine, including sandy, well-drained, and deep soils that have been disturbed by human activity, typically on steep slopes. Shelters and nests are in underground burrows and burrows have been found in open, abandoned agricultural land; one individual may have multiple burrows. Subspecies <em>elephantinus</em> occurs on slopes, flats, and ridgetops with friable soil in mixed and chamise chaparral in oak/pine woodland zone, typically under dense vegetation (sympatric <em>Dipodomys heermanni</em> occupies adjacent open habitat) (Best, 1986). Young are born in underground burrows. The narrow-faced kangaroo rat produces one to two litters of two to four young each year (see Best, 1992). Diet includes seeds of annuals and some green vegetation. Caches seeds underground or in surface pits.
42605		population	eng	For the species as a whole, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or are declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. Subspecies <em>venustus</em> is declining in range and abundance. Recent extirpations have occurred (Caitlin Bean pers. comm., 2004). Subspecies <em>elephantinus</em> is probably stable. Subspecies <em>sanctiluciae</em> is unknown but probably relatively stable.<br/><br/>The three subspecies are known from roughly 50 locations (Caitlin Bean, unpublished map, 2004) that represent probably no more than three dozen distinct occurrences, and not all of these are extant. Subspecies <em>venustus</em> is currently known from just one extant population (Caitlin Bean pers. comm., 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000.
42605		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.  Threats to the subspecies <em>venustus</em> include habitat loss/degradation and fragmentation as a result of urbanization, residential development, and sand mining.
42606		conservation	eng	The dark kangaroo mouse is not known to occur in any protected areas.
42606		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western United States; from southeastern Oregon, northeastern and central-eastern California, Nevada, the tip of southwestern Idaho, and west-central Utah.
42606		habitat	eng	Dark kangaroo mice prefer loose sands and gravel. They are found in Shadscale Scrub, Sagebrush Scrub, and Alkali Sink plant communities in the Upper Sonoran life zone. They may occur in sand dunes near the margins of their range. They remain underground when inactive. They are possibly polyestrous (Hall ,1946). The majority of young are born in May and June. Litter size is two to seven (average 3.9). Predators include owls, foxes, badgers. In west-central Nevada the mean yearly circular home range for males was 6,613sqm and for females, 3,932sqm (O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974). <br/><br/>Seeds are the primary food source. They also eats some insects. They do not appear to utilize free water. They are believed to store food in seed caches within burrow system (O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974). Activity observed March-October. Peak nocturnal activity occurs in first two hours after sunset. Moonlight and ambient temperature influence activity (O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974).
42606		population	eng	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe).
42606		threats	eng	Some <em>Microdipodops</em> populations have declined as a result of the introduction of weedy grasses and extreme habitat alteration for cultivation (e.g., irrigation of dry sinks) (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). In addition to these human-related habitat changes, apparently natural shifts in vegetative zones have resulted in the replacement of rodent communities including <em>Microdipodops</em> by those including <em>Dipodomys deserti</em>, and vice versa (J. C. Hafner, pers. obs.). Natural and human-related habitat modifications may have amplified effects on the already fragmented, patchy distribution of <em>Microdipodops</em> (Hafner <em>et al</em>. 1998).
42607		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in protected areas.
42607		distribution	eng	The range of the pale kangaroo mouse encompasses the Great Basin region of west-central and south-central Nevada, extreme eastern Mono county, California, and a disjunct area in Deep Spring Valley, Inyo County, California in the United States (Hall, 1946; O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974; Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993). It occurs mostly on fine sandy valley bottoms at elevations of about 1,200-1,750 m asl (1,530-1,590 m asl in California). The distribution comprises several disjunct geographic units.
42607		habitat	eng	The species' habitat is nearly restricted to fine sands in alkali sink and desert scrub dominated by <em>Atriplex confertifolia</em> (shadscale) or <em>Artemisia tridentata</em> (big sagebrush). This mouse often burrows in areas of soft, windblown sand piled at the bases of shrubs. Pregnant individuals have been recorded from late March to mid-September. Litter size is reported to range from two to six with a mean of 3.9. This species stores and eats seeds during much of the year and takes a relatively high percentage of insects and green vegetation, especially during the breeding season. This mouse may become torpid; in spring and summer torpor is brief, employed only when starving; in winter multiday torpor may occur (French, 1989). It is nocturnal; and has a burst of activity just after sundown and is active throughout the night.
42607		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. These mice sometimes are locally abundant. Hall (1946) mapped about 42 collection sites in Nevada; these likely represent at least a few dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined over the long term, but the degree of decline is unknown.
42607		threats	eng	Some <em>Microdipodops</em> populations have declined as a result of the introduction of weedy grasses and extreme habitat alteration from cultivation (e.g., irrigation of dry sinks) (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). In addition to these human-related habitat changes, apparently natural shifts in vegetative zones have resulted in the replacement of rodent communities including <em>Microdipodops</em> by those including <em>Dipodomys deserti</em>, and vice versa (J. C. Hafner, pers. obs.). Natural and human-related habitat modifications may have amplified effects on the already fragmented, patchy distribution of <em>Microdipodops</em> (Hafner <em>et al</em>. 1998).
42608		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42608		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Great Plains of North America, from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba in Canada, south to northeastern Utah, southern Colorado, and eastern South Dakota in the United States.
42608		habitat	eng	This species is found in various arid and semiarid upland habitats (usually with sparse vegetation) with loose sandy to clayey soil; dry grasslands, floodplains with scattered cottonwoods (southwestern North Dakota), sagebrush-shadscale (Utah). Sleeping and birthing occur in underground burrows. Gestation lasts about four weeks. Young are born from mid-May to July or August. Most studies indicate two litters per year. Litter size averages four to six, with a range of two to nine embryos. (Manning and Jones, 1988).<br/><br/>This pocket mouse primarily eats weed seeds. It may eat some insects during the early summer. Collects food in external cheek pouches and stores it in underground chambers. Known to feed on seeds of knotweed, Russian thistle, pigweed, foxtail grass, etc. May become torpid for short periods during the winter and summer. In Canada it appears to remain in burrow from mid-October to mid-April; dormant periods probably alternate with periods of activity during this time. Primarily solitary. Predators include owls, weasels, and badgers.
42608		population	eng	This species is widespread and is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density has been estimated at about 0.5 to four per hectare in various locations under different conditions (Manning and Jones, 1988).
42608		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42609		conservation	eng	All three subspecies are of conservation concern: <em>P. i. inornatus</em> and <em>P. i. psammophilus</em>. Also, <em>P. i. neglectus</em> was assessed as "Near Threatened" in a previous Red List evaluation (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
42609		distribution	eng	This species is found in west-central California in the United States, in the Upper Sacramento Valley, Tehama County, southward through the San Joaquin and Salinas valleys and contiguous areas to the Mojave Desert in Los Angeles, Kern, and extreme western San Bernardino counties; also the Tehachapi Mountains and foothills of the western Sierra Nevada below about 600 m asl (Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993; Best 1993).
42609		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry, open, grassy or weedy ground, and arid annual grasslands, savanna, and desert-shrub associations with sandy washes or finely textured soil. It is found in low densities in grassland-blue oak savannas up to 1,500 ft on the east side of San Joaquin Valley. It occurs in alkali sink associations on the floor of the Tulare Basin and in <em>Atriplex</em> and <em>Ephedra</em> associations in the northwestern portion of the Tulare Basin. In Lake County, it occurs on rocky south-facing slope in chamise and buck brush chararral at elevation of 420 m asl (see Best, 1993). On the Carrizo Plain, it occurs in areas with <em>Erodium</em>, <em>Amsinckia</em>, <em>Astragalus</em>, and <em>Bromus</em>. <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Burrows often are at the bases of shrubs. Breeding occurs March-July. Females produces two or more litters of usually four to six per year (Best, 1993). Feeds on seeds of annual and perennial grasses, forbs, and shrubs (Best, 1993) This pocket mouse carries seeds in external cheek pouches to underground storage chambers. Also sometimes eats soft-bodied insects (Best, 1993). Often torpid in colder months.
42609		population	eng	It is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). In Madera County, density was 0.4/ha. In Fresno County, density was 7.3/ha and 5.0/ha on ungrazed sites; home range size is up to a few hundred square metres.<br/><br/>The three subspecies are known from roughly 50 locations (Caitlin Bean, unpublished map, 2004) that represent probably no more than three dozen distinct occurrences, and not all of these are extant.
42609		threats	eng	Agricultural development is a threat to the species in particular in the northern part of its range. More than 90% of the original habitat has been destroyed as a result of agricultural development (NatureServe).
42610		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes many protected areas.
42610		distribution	eng	This species occupies the Great Basin, from south-central British Columbia in Canada, southward to southern California, northern Arizona, and southwestern Wyoming in the United States.
42610		habitat	eng	It is found in arid, sandy short-grass steppes; brushland covered with sagebrush, bitterbrush, and rabbit brush; pinyon-juniper woodland. It usually is found in habitats with light-textured, deep soils; also among rocks. Sleeps and rears young in underground burrows. Reproductively active spring-summer. Gestation probably lasts about 21-28 days. Females will produce up to three litters per year, this may vary with precipitation. The number of fetuses per female ranges from two to eight with an average of five. Young are weaned in about three weeks.<br/><br/>Primarily solitary. Home range has been estimated at up to 0.40 ha.  Primarily a seed eater, but also feeds on insects and some green vegetation in spring/summer. Seeds stored in underground storage chambers. It may forage in grain fields but no significant damage has been noted (Bureau of Land Management, no date). Little above-ground activity occurs in November-March; during this time, long periods of torpor are presumed to alternate with arousal and eating periods. Also may become torpid in summer. It is active within an hour after sunset.
42610		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density may reach 80/ha or more in years with abundant precipitation.
42610		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42612		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to evaluate the current distribution and abundance of this species and to assess the potential effects of threats. Currently, the range of this species falls within several state and national parks, but no conservation measures are in place to address specific needs.
42612		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Labrador south through eastern Quebec, east through central and southern Ontario and Manitoba, Canada, extending south through adjacent portions of the northeastern United States, and the Appalachian highlands to Georgia (Holden and Musser 2005).
42612		habitat	eng	It is found primarily in cool, moist wooded areas, especially in spruce-fir and hemlock forest associations. Also known to occur in riparian areas, bogs and swamps. The woodland jumping mouse is crepuscular and nocturnal, and hibernates from September/October through April/May. Shortening day length of late summer signals the additional deposition of fat reserves, preparing individuals for hibernation (Neumann and Cade 1964, cited in Whitaker and Wrigley 1972).  During hibernation no additional food is consumed, therefore individuals with insufficient fat reserves do not survive.<br/><br/>Diet varies with season and location, but is known to include fungi, seeds, caterpillars, beetle larvae, and berries. Nests may be built in underground burrows, brush or fallen logs. Breeds May-August. Gestation lasts 21-25 days. Litters size is 1-8 (typically five); 1-2 litters per year (one per year in Nova Scotia). Sexually mature as early as 38 days. In Nova Scotia, no female reproduced in the summer of her birth (Ovaska and Herman 1988).
42612		population	eng	Density ranges from 5-60 individuals per ha (Townsend 1935, cited in Whitaker and Wrigley 1972). In Nova Scotia, density varied greatly among years, mainly as result of variation in overwintering survival of juveniles and breeding success of females (Ovaska and Herman 1988).
42612		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Residential, agricultural and industrial development causing the elimination of vegetative cover reduces available habitat, especially suitable hibernation sites. Climate change may also pose a threat to the viability of this species in two ways. Firstly, cold winters that lack sufficient snowfall to provide an insulating layer may result in high rates of mortality during hibernation. Secondly, increased temperatures may lead to the decline of southern populations, which are already restricted to higher elevations.
42613		conservation	eng	The species range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of the subspecies. Conservation measures are needed for several threatened subspecies.<br/><br/>The conservation status of Preble's jumping mouse has been a contentious issue. This subspecies was listed as threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act in 1998. However, investigations of mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA by Ramey <em>et al.</em> (2005) led to questions regarding the validity of subspecies classification and resulted in a movement to delist Preble's jumping mouse (Hall 2006). The delisting proceedings have been suspended to allow for a review of King <em>et al.</em> (2006) which argues against the methodology and findings of Ramey <em>et al.</em> (2005). Preble's jumping mouse is protected at the state level. The Wyoming Department of Game and Fish gives it Priority II status and it is designated a Colorado non-game species, providing legal protection.<br/><br/>The United States Air Force Academy and the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site support populations of subspecies <em>preblei</em> that are well protected. Additionally, Boulder City Open Space, Jefferson County Open Space, and other local programs have some level of protection. However, because many populations or known locations are influenced by off-site considerations, such as stream hydrology, each location should be monitored to determine the status of the population. The floodplain and wetland habitats often used by this species are protected to various extents by state and federal regulations. Protection of habitat should be attained through land acquisition, special designation, private landowner agreements, and natural resources management planning.<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>campestris</em> is classified as Critically Rare with habitat decreasing in South Dakota. The Wyoming Department of Game and Fish give it Priority II status on the grounds that further research is required to determine the level of management required to protect the species. No populations are known to occur in any protected areas or in captivity.<br/><br/>Currently subspecies <em>luteus</em> is listed as threatened by Arizona Game and Fish Commission and by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. Findings that the New Mexican jumping mouse is able to utilize irrigation ditches have suggested that populations may be less threatened than originally believed (Morrison 1990, cited in NMGF, 2004). These initial findings should be more closely studied before any changes in conservation status occur. This subspecies would benefit from protection of high quality riparian zones and restoration of degraded (e.g., over-grazed or eroded) riparian zones.
42613		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Alaska in the United States to southern coastal Hudson Bay to Labrador in Canada, south to eastern North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, northeastern Oklahoma, southeastern Montana, Alberta, and British Columbia; isolated populations occur in southern Wyoming and north-central Colorado (subspecies <em>preblei</em>), and (subspecies <em>luteus</em>) in Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. Its range has expanded southward in the Great Plains since the mid-1960s as the climate has become cooler and more mesic (Frey 1992). Subspecies <em>campestris</em> is found in the Black Hills of Montana, Wyoming and South Dakota. <br/><br/>The range of subspecies <em>preblei</em> has not been well defined, but most occurrences are along the Front Range of Colorado and the southeastern section of Wyoming. The current range in Wyoming probably is restricted to a few isolated patches of suitable habitat in primary drainages and adjacent lowland grasslands (Compton and Hugie 1993).<br/><br/>The range of subspecies <em>luteus</em> includes portions of New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado. The New Mexico range includes the San Juan Mountains (El Rito area), Sangre de Cristo Mountains (North Williams Lake), Jemez Mountains (upper Guadalupe River drainage), Sacramento Mountains (Rio Penasco and Silver Springs Creek), Rio Grande Valley (Espanola to the Bosque del Apache NWR), and lower Rio Chama Valley (Morrison 1992). Arizona range includes the White Mountains, southern Apache County, and northern Greenlee County (Hoffmeister 1986). Jones (1999) reported this subspecies from western Las Animas County, southern Colorado.
42613		habitat	eng	The meadow jumping mouse is found in grassy fields, thick riparian vegetation and wooded areas. The diet varies seasonally, with insects dominating in early spring, followed by seeds and fruit in the summer and fungi, especially Endogone spp, in later summer and fall. <br/><br/>Breeding occurs from April to early September, with a peak in June-August. Gestation lasts 17-20 days. Litter size is 2-9 (average 4-6); individual females may produce up to 2-3 litters per year. Young are born May-early October, weaned and independent in about four weeks. Most first breed in the summer following their birth. Maximum longevity 2-3 years.<br/><br/>Jumping mice are basically solitary. May shift activity area in response to seasonal drying of habitat. Home range generally is about one hectare in males, smaller in females.<br/><br/>The activity pattern of this mouse is primarily nocturnal, but it is also crepuscular. Preparations begin for hibernation around the beginning of September as individuals accumulate about six grams of additional body fat to last through the winter. Hibernation occurs from September/October to April/May.
42613		population	eng	The meadow jumping mouse is common in suitable habitat, with population densities ranging between 7-48 individuals per hectare (NatureServe 2008).<br/><br/>Estimated populations of subspecies <em>preblei</em> at extant locations are generally less than 50, except at the Air Force Academy, Rocky Flats, and potentially East and West Plum Creeks in Douglas County. Available information suggests that this mouse never was abundant at any of the known historical locations (Armstrong 1972). It is documented in Colorado by approximately 18 historical records and seven extant occurrences in Boulder, Jefferson, Douglas, Elbert, Larimer, Weld, and El Paso counties. Long term monitoring and inventory will be needed to determine trends in distribution and population parameters. Because so little is known about the populations in Colorado, it is difficult to determine long-term trends. However, because the habitat is under intense pressure due to urbanization and improper land management, it is likely numbers are declining rangewide. There is some evidence that populations have a tendency to fluctuate in size from year to year (Ellingson <em>et al.</em> 1995). Inventory is needed throughout the historic range. Potential sites could be identified through aerial photographic analysis.<br/><br/>Through the mid-1980s, subspecies <em>luteus</em> had been reported from 14 sites in New Mexico and 11 sites in Arizona. Since then, it has been found in at least three localities in Colorado (Jones 1999) and additional sites in New Mexico (Morrison 1992) and Arizona (Arizona Game and Fish Department map, dated 1 January 2004, shows about 14 localities, some closely adjacent). Long-term trends are poorly known, but available evidence suggests stability. For example, in the late 1980s, Morrison (1992) determined that <em>luteus</em> still occurred in all resurveyed sites in New Mexico and found this subspecies in additional sites in the Jemez and Sacramento mountains, Rio Grande Valley, and the lower Rio Chama Valley. Further surveys are needed to determine the full distribution and area of occupancy.
42613		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. There are threats impacting three of the recognized subspecies.<br/><br/>For subspecies <em>preblei</em> conversion of riparian systems because of urbanization, improper grazing, and agriculture methods, and improper gravel mining practices are likely threats (Bakeman <em>et al.</em> 1997, USFWS 1998). Invasive non-native plants (and consequent weed-control programs) may also threaten the habitat (USFWS 1998). It is important to keep in mind that little is known about the population dynamics of this subspecies. Thus, evaluations of viability should be made very carefully.<br/><br/>For subspecies <em>campestris</em> overgrazing of riparian areas by domestic stock has resulted in the loss of much of the suitable habitat. Such overgrazing is still considered to be the main threat to this subspecies.<br/><br/>Because of subspecies <em>luteus</em> reliance on limited mesic grassland and riparian areas, habitat destruction is of major concern. Agricultural development, including livestock grazing, has destroyed or severally altered riparian habitat in New Mexico and Arizona. Increased recreational use and development in the Sacramento Mountains may further reduce existing habitat patches.
42614		conservation	eng	Populations probably occur in protected areas within the United States and Canada. Monitoring of the effects of fire climate change and loss of riparian habitat to development and agricultural expansion should occur in order to provide more accurate population assessments.
42614		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Yukon, Canada, southwards in to the United States to eastern North Dakota and northeastern South Dakota, south to east-central California, central Nevada, Utah, and north-central New Mexico (Hart <em>et al.</em> 2004).
42614		habitat	eng	It occurs in mesic, montane meadows, stands of alder, aspen or willow, and in riparian areas. The diet of these mice changes with seasonal availability. In early spring fungi and insects dominate, giving way to a primarily granivorous diet in summer. Increased seed consumption allows for fat reserves to build up, which sustain individuals through a hibernation period that may last up to 280 days (Cranford 1999, in Wilson and Reeder, 2005). <br/><br/>Reproduction occurs in early spring, with a female having one litter of 2-8 young. Young born late in the season typically are not able to accumulate sufficient fat supplies, leading to a 55% juvenile mortality rate for overwintering, compared to 16% for adults. Mice surviving the first winter may live up to four years and have three reproductive cycles.
42614		population	eng	The Pacific jumping mouse is common within its range. Population densities vary greatly, from three individuals per hectare in dry grassy areas, to 40 per hectare in mesic meadows where forbs are more abundant than grasses (Cranford 1999, in Wilson and Reeder, 2005).
42614		threats	eng	Populations of Pacific jumping mice appear secure, however, potential threats to long term viability exist. As with similar species, populations of Pacific jumping mice are often greatly reduced by wildfires and prescribed burns, which are becoming increasingly common throughout its range. Because of its reliance on mesic, montane habitats, this species may also be threatened by climate change. But overall there are no major threats to the species at present.
42615		conservation	eng	Several occurrences of the red tree vole are in protected areas. The Survey and Manage program required the U.S. Forest Service to survey for certain logging-sensitive species (including the red tree vole) throughout areas subject to timber sale and to provide adequate no-logging buffers if such species are found. Some vole protection was eliminated in March 2004 when the Survey and Manage provisions of the Northwest Forest Plan were withdrawn. Subsequent litigation may affect the ultimate outcome of this situation.<br/><br/>The red tree vole may benefit from existing/proposed conservation measures for the spotted owl (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). In addition, little is known of the basic biology of this species (Verts and Carraway 1998), including food habits, population genetics, and dispersal.
42615		distribution	eng	This vole occurs in western Oregon, on the west slope of the Cascade Range as far south as the Douglas-Jackson county line, and in the Coast Range to the California border, and on some buttes and low mountains between the major ranges (Verts and Carraway 1998), at elevations of up to 1,600 meters (Manning and Maguire 1999). However, this species possibly occurs also in northern California (see Hayes 1996). Murray (1995) presented DNA information suggesting that specimens from south of the Smith River drainage in Del Norte County, California, were more similar to the Oregon tree voles than to other California populations.
42615		habitat	eng	Red tree voles inhabit mixed evergreen forests; optimum habitat consists of wet and mesic old- growth Douglas-fir forest and various other mesic habitats, including those dominated by grand fir, Sitka spruce, or western hemlock (Johnson and George 1991); <em>P. longicaudus</em> and <em>P. pomo</em> (sensu Johnson and George 1991) exhibit no habitat differences. The species is rare in sapling, pole and managed saw timber stands; young stands may serve as barriers to dispersal (A. B. Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). They are arboreal voles that exhibit some terrestrial activity.<br/><br/>Nests are 2-65 m above the ground, in trees of any size, often in Douglas-fir, generally in the largest available trees, commonly in the lower third of the live crown; several nests may be built in large; whorls of branches provide support for nests in young trees; large branches of old-growth trees can support large maternal nests or nurseries; nests are sometimes built in cavities and hollows in trees or under the moss covering large branches of old trees (Biswell <em>et al.</em>, no date; Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Gillesberg and Carey (1991) found 117 nests and nest fragments in 50 felled Douglas-fir trees; they classified nest trees predominantly as overstorey, vigorous, and with intact tops; of four cavities found in felled trees, two contained red tree vole nests. In northern California, nests of tree voles (probably <em>P. pomo</em>) were most abundant in old-growth forests; associated with large-diameter Douglas-fir, high percent canopy cover, high stump density, low snag density, shorter snags and logs, and lower elevation; all nests were in Douglas-fir, mostly adjacent to trunk on south side (Meiselman and Doyle 1996).<br/><br/>Red tree voles breed throughout the year, but most litters are born February-September. Females may breed within 24 hrs of giving birth. Gestation is 28 days but may be extended to 48 days in lactating females (Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Litter size usually is two to three (range one to four). Newborns are altricial, and are able to leave the nest in one month.<br/><br/>This species is thought to have a very limited dispersal capability (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). Predators include spotted owls, raccoons, etc. Red tree voles feed on Douglas-fir needles. They also eat grand or lowland white fir, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock needles. It may eat tender bark of twigs as well as the pithy centre. They usually feed inside or on top of their nest. It is nocturnal.
42615		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000. It is relatively difficult to capture, so existing records probably do not reflect the true abundance of the species.<br/><br/>Verts and Carraway (1998) mapped approximately 100 collection sites in Oregon; these represent certainly several dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations, but the number of extant occurrences is unknown. The species' habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented rangewide, so the vole's area of occupancy and abundance likely are declining as well, but the rate of decline is unknown (probably less than 30% over the past 10 years). Its distribution has been reduced and continues to decline (Corn and Bury 1988; Verts and Carraway 1998).
42615		threats	eng	Threats include loss of preferred old-growth forest habitat and forest fragmentation by clearcutting practices (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993; Verts and Carraway 1998). <br/><br/>The relatively low reproductive potential of this vole (C. Maser pers. comm.) may reflect the difficulty of converting conifer needles into energy for metabolism (Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species appears to have limited dispersal capabilities. Early seral stage forests may be a barrier to dispersal. <br/><br/>This species has very narrow environmental specificity; its diet and microhabitat are specialized, and its old growth habitat is no longer common.
42616		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern at present, and its range includes several protected areas.
42616		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Oregon and northwestern California, from the Columbia River south to about 100 km north of San Francisco Bay, and from the Pacific coast east to the summit of the Cascade Range.
42616		habitat	eng	Western red-backed voles are found primarily in conifer forests, including lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, western hemlock, Sitka spruce, western red cedar, silver fir, grand fir, white fir, and ponderosa pine. They also occur in mixed forests, which include big-leaf maple and rhododendron. They apparently prefer dense forests with little ground cover, but with large-diameter rotten logs; generally in cool moist microhabitats in deep forest. <br/><br/>Decayed logs appear to be a critical component of suitable habitat, they use logs for cover (Tallmon and Mills 1994). Riparian areas are reported to be most favourable for reproduction, but uplands may have higher populations (see Alexander and Verts 1992). Sometimes found in manzanita brushlands in California. Logged and burned areas do not provide suitable habitat and may be temporarily inhabited (Alexander and Verts 1992). They nest underground in burrows (made by other animals), under logs, or under old leaves. In Oregon, home range size of four radio collared individuals was 606-3,418sqm (Tallmon and Mills 1994).<br/><br/>West of Cascade Range the voles breed throughout the year; populations in Cascade Range breed February-November (females pregnant or lactating mainly April-September). Gestation lasts 17-21 days. Litter size averages two to three (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981, Alexander and Verts 1992). Individual females produce several litters per year. Western red-backed voles are active throughout the year. West of Cascade range, voles are active mostly at night; in the mountains, voles are active throughout the 24-hour cycle (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981).<br/><br/>Their diet is dominated by fungal sporocarps (especially of hypogeous fungi) and lichens. Will sometimes eats green vegetation, grass, seeds, and insect larvae. May store fungi for later use. Forages mainly under cover. Predators include marten, short-tailed weasel, spotted skunk, bobcat, coyote, domestic cat and owls.
42616		population	eng	This species is common. In virgin forest, densities varied from 1.2/ha to 7.9/ha. Densities up to 12.4/ha recorded on a clear cutting several months after cutting, but before slash was burned. After burning, densities dropped and animals had disappeared by the following spring.
42616		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42617		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.
42617		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in North America in forests of the Hudsonian and Canadian life zones. In the west,  from British Columbia, Canada, south to Columbia River and in the Rocky Mountains south to southwestern Arizona and New Mexico in the United States. It ranges across Canada and southward in the mid-west to the northern Great Plains and in the east through the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia.
42617		habitat	eng	Southern red-backed voles inhabit mesic areas in coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests, with ground cover that includes stumps and logs. Mossy logs and tree roots in coniferous forests are optimal. Also found in muskegs, sedge marshes, mesic prairies, tundra and shrub habitats, and bogs within spruce and fir. Colonize clearcuttings in mesic habitats. Found on rock outcrops in some areas (e.g., Virginia). Often associated with abandoned stone walls (fences) in the northeastern United States. In Pennsylvania, abundance increased with forest fragmentation (Yahner 1992). Regarded as an ecological indicator of old-growth conditions in the Rocky Mountains. Also uses second-growth areas.  <br/><br/>They nest under logs, stumps and roots and will use the burrows of moles and other small mammals. Breeds mid-January to late November; peak activity February-October. Gestation lasts 17-19 days. Litters size is one to nine (average 5.6 in Alberta, 6.5 in Colorado). Litters per year: one to four for young females, one to six for older females in Alberta; two per year in Colorado (young of year breed).<br/><br/>Home range varies from 0.25 to 3.5 acres (Merritt and Merritt 1978). Experimentation by Gillis and Nams (1998) suggests that populations separated by an inter-patch distance of 60-70 m would likely be isolated from one another. Mature females are territorial. Populations are noncyclic.<br/><br/>Southern red-backed voles feed chiefly on vegetation, seeds, nuts, fungi, some insects. Summer diet in Colorado (and much of western U.S.) consists almost entirely of fungi. They are mainly nocturnal, active year-long.
42617		population	eng	This species is common and widespread (NatureServe). Density estimates range from 0 to 65/ha, depending on season and location.
42617		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42618		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not particularly impacted at present, so no conservation measures are needed at this time. There are many protected areas within the range of this species in North America.
42618		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Greenland and Queen Elizabeth Islands, islands in the District of Franklin, and Southampton Island; and northern North America above the tree line, from the northeastern District of Keewatin, Canada, to northern Alaska, United States (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).
42618		habitat	eng	It inhabits Arctic tundra in high, dry, rocky areas in summer and lower meadows in winter. It occupies runways beneath the snow and tunnel systems down to permafrost level.
42618		population	eng	Populations of this species undergo wide fluctuations, but it is generally considered common.
42618		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42619		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes some protected areas.
42619		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Labrador, northern Quebec, and Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay, Canada (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is also found in the tundra zone of Quebec-Labrador (Ungava) Peninsula, and offshore islands in eastern Hudson Bay.
42619		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Arctic tundra from sea level to 1,000 m asl. It occupies tundra habitats, beach terraces, rocky hillsides, and alpine meadows above the timberline. Collared lemmings use runways through thickets of willow and birch, they also occupy underground tunnels, in which nests are located. Breeding season usually extends from early March to early September. Gestation lasts 22-26 days. Litter size ranges from one to seven with an average litter size of four to five. Females will have two to three litters annually. Females are sexually mature in one month, males in 1.5 months. Collared lemmings live in small colonies, their home range probably is less than an acre. Summer food consists of grasses and berries. In winter, buds and tree bark are utilized. They are active day/night throughout the year
42619		population	eng	This species is apparently secure within its range. Collared lemmings probably undergo large population fluctuations every two to five years. Densities range from about one per acre to 140+ per acre.
42619		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42620		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.
42620		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Seward Peninsula and south to Kuskokwin Bay, in south-central Alaska, United States.
42620		habitat	eng	It occurs in Arctic tundra, but no further details of its ecology are known.
42620		population	eng	This species is apparently secure.
42620		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42622		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.
42622		distribution	eng	This species is found from the west coast of Hudson Bay to the vicinity of the Great Slave Lake, in the District of MacKenzie, Canada; the westward limit of its distribution is not known (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder, 1993, 2005).
42622		habitat	eng	It occurs in tundra habitats, but most commonly in open, dry areas. It avoids marshy habitats and woodlands except during high densities.
42622		population	eng	This species is apparently secure (NatureServe). It undergoes population cycles, with reported densities varying from  less than one per hectare to 25 per hectare.
42622		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42624		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
42624		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Washington, central Idaho, southern Alberta, and southern Saskatchewan south to east-central California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, northern Colorado, and the western Dakotas in the United States and Canada.
42624		habitat	eng	Sagebrush voles occur in semi-arid prairies, rolling hills, brushy canyons, with loose, well-drained soil (may be rocky). Vegetation usually dominated by sagebrush and bunchgrasses, especially crested wheatgrass. They nest in underground burrows and appear to breed year round, but possibly not in winter in the north. There is a decline in breeding activity in summer. Females may have up to three litters in a season. Gestation averages 25 days. Average litter size is four to six. In Idaho, sagebrush voles apparently occur singly or in pairs during the warm season; they may nest communally in winter (Mullican and Keller 1987).<br/><br/>They eat almost any green plant material, including <em>Bromus</em> (but not the ripe seeds) and other grasses, leaves, flowers and stalks of <em>Eriogonum</em>, and some <em>Artemisia</em> leaves. <em>Castilleja</em> and <em>Lupinus</em> are the most common foods in June and August, respectively, in Idaho. They are active essentially throughout the day, year round, but the main activity period is two to three hours before sunset to two to three hours after full darkness, and a similar period around sunrise.
42624		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). It usually occur in colonies. Numbers fluctuate with climatic variables that affect the availability of succulent vegetation. Population density fluctuates widely (less than 1-20 per hectare in different areas at different seasons in Idaho (Mullican and Keller 1986)).
42624		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42625		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures required at present for this adaptable species.
42625		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower elevations of Willamette Valley, Oregon, and at least two localities north of the Columbia River in adjacent Clark County, Washington in the United States. Specimens reported from east of the Cascade Mountains represent other species (Verts and Carraway 1987).
42625		habitat	eng	Grey-tailed voles are associated almost exclusively with agricultural lands, especially grasses grown for seed, small grains, and permanent pastures of legumes and grasses. Also along grassy highway and railroad rights-of-way. They construct intricate runway and burrow systems. Nests are built underground or above ground under boards, bales, and debris scattered in fields (Verts and Carraway 1987). <br/><br/>Breeding probably takes place throughout the year. Gestation is 21-23 days. Litter size averages about five young. In the laboratory, females as young as 18 days of age are capable of mating and subsequently producing viable offspring (Verts and Carraway 1987). Owls, hawks, foxes, skunks, and domestic and feral cats are common predators. Grey-tailed voles feed on succulent stems and leaves of a wide variety of green plants, including forbs, sedges, and grasses. Clover, wild onion, and false dandelion are also common food items (Verts and Carraway 1987).
42625		population	eng	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). Population densities fluctuate markedly, but few quantitative data are available. Within enclosures, densities comparable to 600 per hectare have been attained.
42625		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Much of the voles original range has been converted to agriculture, which the voles appear to thrive in.
42626		conservation	eng	Most of the North Carolina population is within Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Many other populations are in national forests, parks, or other public lands affording some protection. Many populations are somewhat protected by being in remote areas not currently impacted by human activities. The primary need is to protect the habitat of the rock vole from gross disturbance.
42626		distribution	eng	This species is known from Labrador, Canada, west to Ontario and northeastern Minnesota in the United States, southward at higher elevations through the Gaspe Peninsula, New Brunswick, New England, New York, and northeastern Pennsylvania, and disjunctly in the southern Appalachians to Virginia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee (Handley 1991). A 400 km disjunction separates populations in northeastern Pennsylvania from those in northern West Virginia (Kirtland and Jannett 1982; Kirtland pers. comm., 1994).
42626		habitat	eng	It prefers cool, damp, coniferous and mixed forests at higher elevations in the Appalachians; mossy rocky areas throughout Canada. Optimal habitat is ferns/mossy debris near flowing water in coniferous forests. It also occupies deciduous forest/spruce clearcuts (mainly recent cuts), forest ecotones, grassy balds near forest, and sterile-looking rocky road fills. Occupies shallow burrows and runways. <br/><br/>Nests probably are placed under logs or in similar protected sites. They are made of moss with a lining of grass and have multiple entrance tunnels. Breeding season is from March to mid-October. Gestation lasts 19-21 days. Up to three litters of one to seven (typically three to four) young are reared each year. Birthing peaks in late spring-early summer. Spring progeny breed in their first summer. Males are sexually mature at 15 cm body length and 30 g. Females reach sexual maturity at about 13 cm body length and 30 g. See Kirkland (1977), and DeGraaf and Rudis (1986).<br/><br/>Small isolated colonies seem to be the rule (Banfield 1974). Home ranges probably are less than an acre. Martin (1971) thought that records from atypical habitat may represent expansion of populations under favourable conditions. These might also be dispersing individuals.<br/><br/>Frequent associates include the red-backed vole, deer mouse, and often with masked, smoky, and short-tailed shrews  (Martin 1971; Kirkland 1977). Martin (1971) found no evidence of rivalry between red-backed and rock voles, but thought that the latter may competitively exclude the meadow vole from prime rock vole habitat where the two occur together. Deer may be an important competitor in some areas. <br/><br/>Rock vole remains have been found in the stomachs of a bobcat in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Linzey and Linzey 1968) and three rattlesnakes and a copperhead from the same area. Other predators doubtless include other snakes, weasels, foxes, and short-tailed shrews. Merritt (1987) stated that "predation by avian predators is probably minimized because of inaccessibility of its foraging zone." <br/><br/>Common parasites include fleas, mites, ticks, botflies, tapeworms and roundworms. Six specimens collected in New York in 1947 "exhibited severe damage to the ears by an unidentified fungus" (Martin 1972). Fecal pellets are deposited in special latrine areas. Martin (1971) found a latrine, 50 cm in diameter and 24 cm deep, in a rock crevice.<br/><br/>Diet includes foliage, stems, and fruits of herbaceous plants (forbs more often than grasses and sedges), and fungi. Active day or night (Handley 1991). Also reported as primarily diurnal, with greatest feeding activity taking place in the morning (Martin 1971). This vole does not hibernate; it is active all year.
42626		population	eng	It is considered common in the northern range, but much less abundant in the southern and eastern range. Too little is known to accurately assess current population trends. Historically, a long-term decline appears to have occurred, related to land use and/or climate change (Christian pers. comm., 1994). Rangewide surveys are needed to clarify the status and distribution, especially of subspecies <em>carolinensis</em>.
42626		threats	eng	The pristine forests that support this species are a declining resource, especially in the southern portion of the range.<br/>The principal current threat probably is destruction of the species' habitat, but this may be less of a problem than for many other rare species; the preferred habitat, high elevation talus slopes (in the eastern portions of the range) and other rocky areas, is generally unsuitable for development. Abundant rocks also provide a very uniform subterranean environment that is not particularly vulnerable to disturbance. However, Fichtel (pers. comm., 1992), in discussing threats to the habitat of the long-tailed shrew (<em>Sorex dispar</em>) in Vermont, suggested that ski area development may destroy habitats of this sort. Logging does not appear to have any immediate adverse impact (Kirkland 1977). In fact, at three West Virginia sites, rock voles were more than twice as abundant on recent clearcuts as on adjacent uncut stands (Kirkland 1977). The rock vole is a habitat specialist and occurs in isolated colonies throughout its range (Banfield 1974, Kirkland and Jannett 1982, Majumdar <em>et al.</em> 1986, Kirkland and Krim 1990). Chemical and heavy metal pollution may have less effect on this primarily vegetarian species than on predators in the same habitat. Brooks and Healy (1988), working in West Virginia and Massachusetts hardwood forests, concluded that both intermediate thinning and clearcutting have minimal or ephemeral effects on small mammal communities, but that "long-term, high deer populations may permanently alter habitat structure to the extent that changes occur in small mammal community composition." Overall, considering this is a wide ranging species which appears to be somewhat adaptable, it is considered that there are no major threats to this species at present.
42627		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and it occurs in several protected areas within its range.
42627		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western North America; from east-central Alaska (United States), south through western Canada and the western United States to southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and east to Colorado. Populations at the eastern and southern edges of its range are generally restricted to high elevations in isolated mountains. The elevational range is from sea level up to at least 3,650 m asl.
42627		habitat	eng	It is found in various habitats ranging from dense coniferous forests to rocky alpine tundra, sagebrush semidesert, moist meadows, marshes, along rivers and streams and forest-edge habitat. It frequently occurs in disturbed areas, such as clear-cuts, surface mines, and those that have been fire-impacted. It usually does not make well-defined runways. <br/><br/>Breeds mid-May to mid-September in Alaska and Idaho, May-October in Nevada (mostly June-July). In Alberta females will have one to four litters per year (average two). In Alaska, females will have a maximum of two litters during a lifetime. Litter size is an average of four in Alberta, and five in Alaska (Smolen and Keller 1987). Young of year breed in Alberta, not in Alaska.<br/><br/>These voles seldom live more than one year. They may be displaced by the more aggressive <em>M. montanus</em> (Smolen and Keller 1987). Diet includes green vegetation, seeds, berries, and fungi. In winter they may feed on inner bark of shrubs and trees. They are active throughout the year. Most observed activity in Alaska was nocturnal (Smolen and Keller 1987).
42627		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Populations fluctuate dramatically. Population densities are usually relatively low (typically 5-16 per hectare) but may build up to 40 or more per hectare (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1983).
42627		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42628		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42628		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Alaska in the United States, and central Yukon, and southern Mackenzie south to central Alberta and the western coast of Hudson Bay in Canada.
42628		habitat	eng	Taiga voles prefer early successional stage forests, especially black spruce in riparian habitats. They require rhizomes for winter food and good burrowing conditions such as occur where there is heavy moss cover. Because the preferred habitat may be limited in duration, populations are ephemeral and patchy in distribution. They make burrows with large dirt piles at the entrances. They also make runways through sphagnum. <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. In Alaska, litter size averages 8.8 (range 6-13). Females will produce one or two litters per year. The young of year do not breed (Wolff and Lidicker 1980). Grasses, horsetails, and lichens are important in the diet of these voles, they also eats blueberries (Whitaker 1980).
42628		population	eng	This species is considered secure (NatureServe). Populations undergo major fluctuations.
42628		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42629		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42629		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Alaska in the United States, northern Yukon, and westernmost Northwest Territories in Canada; with an allopatric population in southeastern Alaska and southwestern Yukon (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
42629		habitat	eng	Singing voles are found on high, well-drained slopes, tundra benches, scattered dwarf willows (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Wet tundra and stream banks (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993). Above the timberline; subarctic tundra, willow clumps along water, and often drier ground near water. <br/><br/>They dig their own burrows, or may occupy those of ground squirrels. Young are born in nests in underground burrows. Breeding occurs June to August; four to 12 embryos have been reported. In northern Alaska, singing voles appeared to have a promiscuous mating system (Batzli and Henttonen 1993). They are colonial. In northern Alaska, Batzli and Henttonen (1993) estimated mean summer home range size at 1,259 square metres for males, 450 square metres for females; males tended to be territorial early in the breeding season, females late in the breeding season; immatures were the only cohort to survive the winter. <br/><br/>Singing voles feed mainly on lupines, arctic locoweed, horsetails, sedges, and leaves and twigs of willows. Tubers are cached underground, green vegetation cut and stacked on surface under low willow and birch boughs. They may climb into vegetation while foraging. These voles are active day or night.
42629		population	eng	It is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). It undergoes multi-annual cycles, with numbers at Toolik Lake, Alaska, varying from 5 to 30 per hectare.
42629		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42630		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.
42630		distribution	eng	This species is known from montane and intermontane areas of western United States from the Rocky Mountains northward into south-central British Columbia, Canada, west to the eastern slopes of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges, south into northern New Mexico, and east along the Colorado-New Mexico border. The southernmost population is isolated in the White and Blue mountains of Arizona and New Mexico. Other southern subspecies also occur as isolated populations.
42630		habitat	eng	Montane voles are found in alpine meadows in the south and mountain valleys in the north. They are found in wet meadows, cropland, especially fields and pastures of grass and legumes along fence rows; grassy areas by streams and lakes. They occupy shallow burrows and surface runways.<br/><br/>Montane voles breed April-October. Females usually have two to three litters per year. Average litter size is about six; litter size peaked at three to four year intervals in northwestern Wyoming (Pinter 1986). Females of early cohorts begin breeding at four to five weeks in favourable years. Drought greatly reduced/delayed growth and attainment of sexual maturity in northwestern Wyoming (Negus <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/>Diet includes grasses and sedges; leaves, stems, and roots of a wide variety of forbs. Predators include hawks, owls, foxes, badgers and coyotes. Montane voles are active throughout the year.
42630		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Peak population density was 375-560 per hectare in Utah (Negus <em>et al.</em> 1986). Populations may fluctuate dramatically. Populations peaked at three to four year intervals in northwestern Wyoming (Pinter 1986).
42630		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42631		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.
42631		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout the prairie states of the United States and northward into the south-central provinces of Canada. It occurs in east-central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba south through northern Oklahoma and Arkansas, east to Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, central Tennessee, and westernmost Virginia; relictual populations occur in central Colorado, northern New Mexico, and (formerly) southwestern Louisiana and adjacent Texas (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993). The disjunct subspecies (<em>M. o. ludovicianus</em>), previously found in east Texas and western Louisiana, is apparently extinct.
42631		habitat	eng	These voles occur in a variety of prairie habitats, as well as upland agricultural habitats. They will inhabit herbaceous fields; grasslands, old agricultural lands and thickets; places where there is suitable cover for runways. Also reported from jackpine woods. Habitats include <em>Andropogon-poa pratensis</em> meadows in Kansas, <Artemisia</em>-grass in Wyoming, <em>Festuca-dactylis</em> grasslands in Indiana. Floodplains of rivers serve as dispersal routes in the Southwest. Railroad and highway right-of-ways may serve as corridors for dispersal throughout the range. <br/><br/>Nests are placed in burrows, under boards or logs, and above ground in grassy clumps. It may build winter nests in old anthills. Prairie voles breed year-round, especially spring/fall; peaks in reproduction depend on the availability of moisture. Gestation lasts 20-23 days. There are several litters per year; and one to seven (average three to four) young per litter; litter size varies with season and female size and age. Both parents (and sometimes older siblings) tend neonates. They sexually mature generally by about five to six weeks. <br/><br/>There are three types of social groups: male-female pair, single female, and communal groups of 2-21 individuals (due primarily to increased survival of philopatric juveniles in late fall). Annual home range is rarely more than 1,000 square metres; averages a few hundred square metres. Lifespan generally is one year or less. Most remain at the natal nest until death; those that do disperse leave home at about six to eight weeks and move short distances (e.g., 28 to 30 m; McGuire <em>et al.</em> 1993). Getz (1997) found strong natal philopatry in a low-food habitat in Illinois. <br/><br/>Diet consists almost entirely of vegetation (grasses, forbs) and some insects. Underground tunnel systems frequently are used for feeding on roots. Active both day and night, year-round. Peak activity probably occurs near dusk/dawn. Diurnal activity decreases in summer; nocturnal activity decreases in winter. Prairie voles are important prey species for many predators.
42631		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Periodic high densities may occur every two to four years (perhaps every two years in Oklahoma, where heavy grazing by cattle reduces grass cover and dampens multiyear cycles, Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). However, some researchers believe that distinct multiannual cycles are not characteristic of this species (see Stalling 1990). Average of 25 per hectare; may surpass 250 per hectare in peak years (Krebs <em>et al.</em> 1969); peaks of greater than 600 per hectare and 1,060 per hectare have been reported (see Stalling 1990).
42631		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species across its entire range. Destruction of grasslands for agricultural purposes has greatly reduced the extent of suitable habitat (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). On the other hand, clearing of forests has allowed an increase in distribution and abundance along the eastern margin of its range. In Kansas, it has moved out of areas subjected to experimental prairie fire (Clark and Kaufman 1990).
42632		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42632		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, south through western Washington and western Oregon to northwestern California in the United States.
42632		habitat	eng	It is found in the moist forests of the Pacific coast, brushy, grassy areas. It is most abundant in more xeric sites, especially those supporting stands of short grass, but may favour riparian areas in some localities. More abundant in clearcuts than in virgin forest. It occupies shallow burrows and low cover. <br/><br/>Young are born in nests, dry grasses are placed in cavities under logs or in similar protected sites. Breeding occurs mainly from March to September in Oregon and British Columbia. Gestation is approximately 23 days. Females are estimated to produce a maximum of four or five litters per year, with approximately three to four young per litter.<br/><br/>Diet consists primarily of green vegetation (presumably both forbs and grasses); they also eat fungi. Although active at any time, this species is most active at night.
42632		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Densities vary with habitat and over time due to changes in habitat quality. They can be fewer than 15 per hectare in mature forests, and up to 138 per hectare in clear cuts and old fields.
42632		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In coastal British Columbia, creeping voles were apparently unaffected by herbicide treatment of Douglas-fir plantation (Sullivan 1990).
42633		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
42633		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme southern Ontario, Canada and throughout the eastern United States with the exception of peninsular Florida and the coastal plains of the southeastern states. A disjunct relict population occurs on the Edwards Plateau in Texas.
42633		habitat	eng	It lives in a wide variety of habitats, but in many areas prefers upland wooded areas with a thick layer of loose soil and humus. It spends most of its time underground in shallow burrow systems. Young are born in nests built beneath logs, below surface litter, or underground. Woodland voles breed mid-February to mid-November, probably year-round. In Oklahoma: apparently all year, with the peak October-May; 1-4 litters per year; litter size is 1-5 (average 2.6) (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989).<br/><br/>Home range is estimated at about 0.1 hectares. These voles are not territorial, they appear to occur only in loose social groups. Diet includes roots, bulbs, seeds, fruits, and other vegetable matter. Active throughout the day, year-round. Sometimes regarded as a pest; can do serious damage to nurseries and orchards. May damage apple trees by removing bark from roots, especially in winter.
42633		population	eng	Woodland voles tend to be sparsely distributed in natural habitats, densities usually are highest in orchards during fall. The average population density is up to 2.4 per hectare (Miller and Getz 1969). Recorded densities range up to 15 per hectare, although they likely reach higher numbers in orchards. There is a rapid turnover of individuals in a population.
42633		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42634		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern.
42634		distribution	eng	This species range is in two distinct segments. The smaller portion extends from the Coast Mountains of western British Columbia in Canada to the Blue and Cascade mountains of Washington and Oregon in the United States. The larger portion extends from the Rocky Mountains of southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta, Canada, southward to western Montana, western Wyoming, Idaho, and central Utah in the United States.
42634		habitat	eng	It is a habitat specialist, with a patchy distribution within its range. It prefers subalpine and alpine meadows close to water, especially swift, clear, spring-fed or glacial streams with gravel bottoms, and marshes, or pond edges. It uses underground nests throughout the year. It burrows into stream banks and makes runways in wet meadows. Forested blocks and mountain slopes constitute barriers to movement between suitable habitats.<br/><br/>In Alberta, mating activity was recorded late May or early June through to August or September; young first entered trappable population in early July; maximum of two litters per year; average litter size about 5-6 (range 2-9); about 26% of young bred before their first winter (Ludwig 1988). <br/><br/>Diet includes leaves and occasionally stems of forbs are the major foods. Also eats grasses, sedges and willows. May eat some seeds and insects. Feeds on subterranean parts of plants throughout the year.
42634		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Populations may fluctuate dramatically yearly or seasonally. In Alberta, monthly density estimates (June-September) in several streamside sites ranged from 0.2 to 12.2 per hectare; seasonal recruitment increased population size 0.8- 6.2 times, with highest numbers in August or September (Ludwig 1988).
42634		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42635		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Mexican Red List as subject to special protection, "sujeta a proteccion especial".
42635		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cerro Zempoaltépec (1,800 to 3,000 m), north central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). The distribution of this species is restricted to the area south-east of Rio Cajones, Mixe District, Oaxaca in the two municipalities of Totontepec and Santa Maria Jalapa. <br/><br/>The total area of occupancy is estimated to be 80 km<sup>2</sup> (Frey and Cervantes 1997).
42635		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species has been described as humid Upper Austral Zone, dense oak forest, montane pine-oak forest, evergreen cloud-forest, and evergreen broadleaf rainforest; the habitat where it occurs is humid, with dense oak forest and cleared pastures (Frey and Cervantes 1997). This species is associated with mesic, well-drained soil (Getz 1985 in Frey and Cervantes 1997) It lives in burrows and in long subterranean tunnels (Bailey 1990 in Frey and Cervantes 1997).
42635		population	eng	This is a relict species with a limited distribution (Frey and Cervantes 1997). No population information could be found.
42635		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is undergoing fragmentation from deforestation across its range. It is estimated to have lost 16-20% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (Carton de Granmont and Cuaron pers. comm.).
42636		conservation	eng	It is protected in Wilderness Areas and National Parks and Provincial Parks of British Columbia, Alberta, Washington, Oregon, Montana, Utah, and elsewhere.
42636		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western United States and Canada, but with a highly fragmented distribution (at least seven separate population units). One lies completely within British Columbia, a second extends from southwest British Columbia into central Oregon, a third lies completely in western Washington, a fourth extends from central British Columbia to central Oregon and Idaho, a fifth lies within central California, a sixth occurs along the Nevada-Utah border, and a seventh occurs in eastern Utah and western Colorado and extends slightly into Arizona and New Mexico. It generally occurs above 750 m asl in the western United States and to above 3,000 m asl in the Rockies and California.
42636		habitat	eng	It occurs from sea level to above the treeline; open coniferous forest with heath, shrub understorey; shrub areas on forest edge; mossy meadows in forests; alpine tundra with cover. It nests on the ground under snow (winter) or in burrows (summer). It is solitary in summer except during the breeding season. Family groups may occupy communal nests in winter.<br/><br/>Gestation lasts 19-24 days. Young are born mid-June to early September, though the season possibly is more restricted at high elevations. Litter size averages 3-4 for young-of-year, 4-6 for older females (which may produce two litters per year) (McAllister and Hoffman 1988).<br/><br/>In winter, these voles feed on bark and buds of shrubs and heaths. In summer, they feed primarily on green vegetation, berries, and seeds. Stores food winter and summer. They are active throughout the year.
42636		population	eng	This species has a wide distribution in western North America, there are at least hundreds of known locations where it occurs. Density estimates range from 0.5 to 10 per ha in different habitats in different areas. Irregular population fluctuations are typical.
42636		threats	eng	There are many protected occurrences of this species and no known large-scale threats.
42637		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed.
42637		distribution	eng	This species is found from Labrador west to southern Yukon Territory in Canada, south to southern Alberta (Wilson and Reeder 1993), south-central Saskatchewan, southeastern Manitoba, northeastern Minnesota (United States) (Jannett and Oehlenschlager 1997), southern Ontario, and southern Quebec (McAllister and Hoffmann 1988).
42637		habitat	eng	It is found in boreal habitats where there is abundant shrubby ground cover.
42637		population	eng	This species has a wide distribution in North America and occurs in at least hundreds of known locations.
42637		threats	eng	There are many protected occurrences of this species and no large-scale threats.
42638		conservation	eng	In Montana two sites are in Glacier National Park and one is in a USFS Special Botanical Area. In Washington three sites are USFS Wilderness Areas.<br/><br/>The majority of lower 48 state occurrences have been found in the past 15 years and more are likely to be located. In eastern Canada more work is needed and the extent of occupied habitat even within the centre of its range in western Canada is currently unclear.<br/><br/>Little is known of the ecology of the species. Essentially all publications deal only with distribution or taxonomy. Much additional information is needed on population parameters, movements, and habitat requirements.
42638		distribution	eng	This species is found in Labrador, Canada, west to central Alaska in the United States, and south to Washington, Montana, southeastern Manitoba and northern New England (see Clough and Albright 1987 for recent records from Baxter State Park, Maine, and from Mt. Moosilauke, Grafton County, New Hampshire). Its distribution is apparently spotty even in the centre of its range in central Canada.
42638		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of habitats where moisture levels are high and where sedges and grasses provide both food and cover. Such habitats occur within high-elevation sedge-grass meadows in pine or spring forests, spruce-fir forests, wet meadows, sphagnum bogs, tundra, riparian areas within spruce forests, and in early successional grasslands associated with recently burned forests. Atypically, one subspecies occurs on sagebrush slopes in southern British Columbia.<br/><br/>It occupies burrow systems up to one foot deep and surface runways. Young are born in nests that may be underground or on the surface in concealing vegetation. Breeds May-August. Gestation lasts probably three weeks. Litter size is 2-8 (average four). Several litters per year. At least some breed during the summer of their birth.<br/><br/>Maintains a home range of probably less than one acre. Very sociable; may be found in small colonies. Feeds on grasses, sedges, and other herbaceous vegetation. Active day/night throughout the year.
42638		population	eng	Its widespread distribution extends from Alaska to Labrador and south to portions of the northern United States, but populations are localized; population sizes are not known for any location, although nowhere does this mammal appear to be common. It is patchily distributed throughout the range. Population densities may range up to three dozen per acre.
42638		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42639		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
42639		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Quebec west to southern Manitoba in Canada, south to Kansas, northern Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland in the United States.
42639		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including grasslands, mixed deciduous/coniferous forests, spruce-fir forests, and freshwater wetlands. Competes for living space with <em>Microtus</em>, which is a superior competitor and excludes <em>Synaptomys</em> from higher quality habitats.<br/><br/>Prefers boggy habitat but it is also common in marshes, meadows, and upland forests with thick humus layer (especially when conditions are not hot and dry); areas with intermixture of herbaceous/shrubby vegetation. Occupies burrow systems usually 6-12 inches deep and surface runways (e.g., beneath sphagnum and among roots of shrubs). <br/><br/>Young are born in nests placed on the surface in grassy vegetation or in underground burrows. In New Jersey, nests were just under the surface in tops of sphagnum hummocks (Conner 1959). Breeds year-round; peak April-September. Gestation lasts 21-23 days. Litter size is 1-8 (average 2-5); multiple litters annually in the south. Sexually mature in 60 days, or less for males. <br/><br/>Home range varies from 1/4 to one acre. Sometimes occurs in small colonies. Diet consists primarily of herbaceous plants; leaves, stems, seeds, and rootstocks, especially of grasses and sedges; also eats small fruits (Connor 1959). Active day and night throughout the year.
42639		population	eng	It generally occurs in low densities in most parts of the range, with some locally higher densities recorded in prairie areas. It is said to be colonial, but probably is just locally distributed in suitable habitat patches. Published densities range from 1.6/ha in New Jersey to 106/ha in Illinois. However, temporary local concentrations cannot be used as estimates of area-wide densities.
42639		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. <br/><br/>Human habitat changes (deforestation, elimination of native grasslands, roadways that provide dispersal routes to habitat patches, etc.) that encourage increases in numbers or local distribution of <em>Microtus</em> would be detrimental to <em>Synaptomys cooperi</em>.<br/><br/>In Kansas, this species moved out of or avoided areas subject to experimental prairie fire (Clark and Kaufman 1990). In southeastern Kentucky, it apparently is being displaced via competitive exclusion by expanding meadow vole populations (Krupa and Haskins 1996).
42640		conservation	eng	Approximately 9% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia listed as Least Concern.<br/>Conservation measures required and further research is recommended.
42640		distribution	eng	Tuva (Russia), Mongolian steppes north of the Altai and in adjacent China in NW Xinjiang, N Gansu, N Ningxia, Anhui, and Nei Mongol; see Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1997, mapped as <em>C. eversmanni</em>). <br/><br/>In Mongolia found in Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Govi, Govi Altai Mountain Range, Middle Halh Steppe, Eastern Govi, Dzungarian Govi Desert and Trans Altai Govi Desert.
42640		habitat	eng	An obligate species of sand dune habitats in grasslands or semi-desert.  Inhabits sandy foothills associated with hargana, shrubs, poa, and wild keel vegetation. This species builds shallow burrows with several entrances. Eats seeds and sometimes insects.  Constructs very simple short burrows with only a few entrances; caches seeds in burrows to eat over winter.  Active in early evening and night.  Reproduction begins in April, and 2-3 litters of 4-9 young are produced each year.
42640		population	eng	No data are available at present.
42640		threats	eng	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.
42641		conservation	eng	The northern record is from Mount Data National Park, which aside from about 86 ha continguous mossy forest patch, and has been largely converted to farm land with high value vegetable crops. However, there is extensive suitable habitat in the area (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
42641		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Luzon Faunal Region and is apparently endemic to central and northern Luzon Island (Laguna and Mountain provinces) in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser 1982). It is known only two localities: a high elevation pine forest at 2,250 m on Mt. Data in the Cordillera mountain ranges and a rice field at 75 m in Laguna province (near the International Rice Research centre).
42641		habitat	eng	The species was taken in densely vegetated gullies in pine forest at about 2,250 m (Rabor 1955; Rabor 1986; Sanborn 1952) and in a rice field in the lowlands at about 75 m (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973; Musser 1982). Nothing else is known about the species biology or natural history, but the individual's occurrence in the rice fields may suggest that it is able to tolerate some level of disturbance. The species dentition indicates also it might be associated with bamboo (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
42641		population	eng	This species is only known from only two individuals, the one from the rice field in Laguna province, the other from Mt. Data, on the Cordillera mountain range (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Despite repeated trapping in the areas with different bait and trapping techniques, no additional individuals have been found.
42641		threats	eng	No major threats are known, but it is likely that the species would be affected by conversion of forest into agricultural lands in the Cordillera mountain region, and into human settlements in Laguna (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
42642		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas.
42642		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Kinkazan, Awashima (Niigata Prefecture), Sado, Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishino), Awaji, Shodo, Miyajima, Tsushima, Goto Islands (Fukue, Nakadori), Shimojima (Amakusa Islands), Yaku, and Tane (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to more than 2,500 m asl.
42642		habitat	eng	This semi-arboreal species is found from the lowlands to alpine areas (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species prefers mature forests, with a thick leaf layer.
42642		population	eng	It is a common species.
42642		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
42643		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
42643		distribution	eng	The species as currently recognized is from Luzon island (Philippines). It is described as endemic to the Central Cordillera of northern Luzon (Abra, Benguet, Ilocos Norte, and Mountain provinces) from approximately 1,000-2,000 m occasionally to 2,500 m (Musser 1982; Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952). Due, however, to taxonomic uncertainty of the species, the true distribution range is not known (Heaney pers. comm.).
42643		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on the habitat or ecology of this species.
42643		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
42643		threats	eng	Nothing is known regarding the threats to this species.
42646		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys to confirm the limited range of this species are needed. The ecological requirements, population status, and possible threats to the species should also be studied.
42646		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected in 1972 by Guy Musser in a snap trap on Mount Somoro in the Torricelli Mountains, Papua New Guinea. It is believed to be restricted to this mountain. It was collected at about 1,350 m asl.
42646		habitat	eng	It was collected in undisturbed mossy forest.
42646		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype. The species is believed to be very difficult to catch.
42646		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range, and would be severely affected by threatening stochastic events.
42647		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
42647		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in southern Western Australia and South Australia, as well as extreme northern and south-west New South Wales (Moseby and Read 2008).
42647		habitat	eng	It is a little-known, nocturnal species, that lives in arid areas of sparse mallee, shrublands, and acacia woodland, with scattered shrubland on loamy or clay soils (Moseby and Read 2008).
42647		population	eng	It is common within its limited habitat (Moseby and Read 2008).
42647		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although overgrazing by cattle and hunting by feral cats are localized threats.
42648		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Karijini National Park, Rudall River National Park, Millstream-Chichester National Park, and Collier Range National Park (Lee 1995). The species was previously listed as threatened within the Western Australia until subsequent surveys found that it was more widespread.
42648		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the non-coastal, central and eastern parts of the Pilbara, Western Australia, Australia (Lee 1995). It was formerly more widespread, being found in coastal areas, as well as further to the south (Lee 1995).
42648		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of rocky, hummock grassland with little or no soil and an overstorey of <em>Acacia</em> (Lee 1995; Ford and Johnson 2007). Animals live in small family groups in burrows below mounds of pebbles. Females can produce several litters of four young annually (Start 2008).
42648		population	eng	This species is sparsely distributed within abundant habitat (Start 2008).
42648		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The reasons for its elimination from the southern portion of its range are unclear, but may have been related to predation by feral cats and foxes. Mining may be a very localized threat (Anstee <em>et al.</em> 1997), but this would not affect the overall population size.
42649		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
42649		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west and north-central Colombia, north Venezuela (Musser and Carleton 2005), and north-west Ecuador (Tirira 1999, 2004). It occurs between 400 and 1,750 m (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2001).
42649		habitat	eng	It lives in mature montane and pre-montane rainforest, but can sometimes be found in secondary forests (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
42649		population	eng	It is rare in some regions, but common in others. In Venezuela it is relatively uncommon (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
42649		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42650		conservation	eng	There are probably many protected occurrences of this species.
42650		distribution	eng	This species is distributed over much of the south-central and southeastern United States, from Nebraska and eastern Colorado east to North Carolina, south to Texas, Gulf coast, and central Florida. Florida subspecies <em>smalli</em> of Key Largo is separated from populations in peninsular Florida by about 240 km. Schwartz and Odum (1957) suggested that <em>Neotoma</em> invaded the eastern United States from the Southwest, where the subfamily is well-represented, with one segment of the taxon moving north along the Appalachian Plateau and the other spreading out along the Coastal Plain.
42650		habitat	eng	Eastern woodrats occur in wooded areas, ravines, floodplain forest; swamps and osage orange and other hedges in some areas in southern United States. The coastal subspecies has been found in a wide variety of habitats, including lowland deciduous forests from Florida northward to southeastern North Carolina, generally inside or near edges of forests, primarily deciduous forest. Other habitats include low, wet areas, ranging from marshes to swamps and swamp hammocks. In Georgia and Florida, habitat is wet areas in hammocks and densely vegetated swamps, where nests are built in hollow trees or along stream banks in dense tangles of cabbage palmetto (Hamilton and Whittaker 1979). <br/><br/>David Webster (UNC-Wilmington) suggested that the species is habitat-specific and confined to particular soil types. Preferred habitat in North Carolina consists of low-lying deciduous forests with a dense cover of palmetto (<em>Sabal minor</em>). The Rocky Point, Pender County, population is restricted to an unusual woodland dominated by dense shrub layer of <em>Sabal major</em> established on a unique soil (Pender Series) with a very shallow, acidic A-horizon and a slightly alkaline B-horizon (Webster <em>et al.</em> 1985). The habitat there appears to be similar to the palmetto forests of Florida where woodrats are relatively abundant. <br/><br/>Young are born in a nest in a rocky crevice, in or under a tree, in a brush pile, in an abandoned building (Schwartz and Odum 1957), or in a similar site; rarely in the lower branches of a tree. In the Midwest nests generally are sheltered by a stick house (Hayes and Harrison 1992). Nest commonly is used in successive years, may become quite large. Harper (1927) described a nest of sticks and other debris that filled a hollow cypress stump and rose to a height of three feet. Working in Gulf Coast Florida, Pearson (1952) described nests in barns, hollow logs, and subterranean chambers under stumps, tree bases, and root masses. Nest sites were not excavated to any extent by the rats themselves. The majority of nests described by Pearson were found in dense tangles of low shrubs with only small midden heaps scattered around them. Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described typical woodrat nests as being large, 1.5 to 4 ft in diameter and >3 ft in height. The internal nest cavity was typically 5-8 inches in diameter and carefully lined with finely shredded bark, leaves or grass. The exterior was a jumbled mass of sticks, dried grass, leaves, and assorted rubbish (old bones, pieces of metal, small rocks, etc.) collected by the rat. Nests were left open at the top in sheltered areas, but were roofed over in exposed situations such as in low trees and shrubs. Nests were used all year and, in some cases, for an entire lifetime. Woodrats continually added to their nests and established nests might have several levels and nest cavities.<br/><br/>It breeds from March to October in Oklahoma, mainly February to October in Kansas, apparently all year in Florida and coastal Georgia, all year except reduced in winter in Oklahoma. Females are polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 days. Gestation probably lasts about 33-39 days (Hamilton 1953). Litter size is usually 2-4 (average three) (Hamilton and Whitaker 1979), with up to 2-3 litters per year. The young are altricial with eyes opening in 15-21 days (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Sexual maturity is reached in less than one year and some females, though not males, may breed in their first season (Wiley 1980). Adults appear to live at least three years in the wild (Merritt 1987). <em>Neotoma</em> may have a reproductive potential that is "considerably lower" than other cricetid rodents, based on life span (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981).<br/><br/>The nests of <em>N. magister</em> and presumably <em>N. floridana</em> provide shelter for a large array of other animals, including rabbits, white-footed mouse, snakes, toads, salamanders, as well as spiders and many other invertebrates (Merritt 1987). Woodrats use communal latrine sites and urination sites (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Merritt 1987).  Latrine areas appear to be used over extended periods of time and by more than one individual. <br/><br/>Pearson (1952) inferred from the distribution of nest sites that woodrats may be at least partly colonial. Other authors have described the woodrat as largely solitary and aggressive, sharing their houses only during the breeding season and when rearing young, and with most captured animals carrying scars apparently from fighting with conspecifics (Nowak and Paradiso 1983). Merritt (1987) described the closely related <em>N. magister</em> as territorial, engaging in aggressive displays of foot thumping and teeth chattering to challenge conspecifics at nest sites. <br/><br/>Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described home ranges in Missouri as 0.3 ha for males and 0.2 ha for females. Goertz (1970) calculated home ranges of 0.26 ha for males and 0.17 ha for females in Oklahoma. <br/><br/>Wiley (1980) suggested that the black rat snake and the long-tailed weasel are potential predators because their size allows them to enter woodrat houses. Eastern woodrats feed opportunistically on seeds, nuts, fruits, fungi, buds, stems, roots, and foliage. Fall and winter diet may be dominated by stored nuts and seeds (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Woodrats are active all year and do not hibernate, but may remain in their nests for extended periods during inclement weather (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). They are largely nocturnal (Wiley 1980); most active during first few hours of darkness.
42650		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981), but total population size certainly is in excess of 10,000 individuals. The eastern woodrat appears never to have been abundant over much of the range, but few data are available on population trends. Characterized by low densities, with a Kansas study reporting 0.20/ha in one year and 0.82/ha in another. Density was estimated at 7.6/ha over 851 ha at Key Largo, Florida (Humphrey 1988). Population density in Pennsylvania was 1-4/ha. Densities of 5-8 adults per hectare are probably high for the species (Burt and Grossenheider 1976).
42650		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. The primary threat in the southeastern United States is probably habitat loss. Human modification of Coastal Plain habitats, including forestry practices that favour pine monocultures, fire suppression, and development (golf courses, residential, etc.), probably are putting increasing pressure on remaining populations. The requirement for mature lowland hardwoods in the rapidly developing Southeast puts the species at particular risk. Removal of abandoned buildings and barns might also be harmful by removing potential nesting places. <br/><br/>While the species is probably secure over most of its range, several subspecies of eastern woodrat have undergone declines in recent years. The main threat in North Carolina appears to be habitat loss. The population on Bald Head Island, Brunswick County, was extirpated in 1966, and the Scotts Hill population was destroyed by 1987 when the area was converted to a pine plantation. While the woodrat persists at Rocky Point, much of the lowland forest habitat there was destroyed by the construction of Interstate 40. Predation is a threat for all herbivore species. Feral cats can be a serious threat in developed areas. Woodrats have been shown to suffer from many ecto- and endoparasites and, while the effects of these parasites on <em>Neotoma</em> populations remains unknown, Alan (1987) suggested that at least one population in Florida may have been extirpated by an outbreak of ticks. Neal (1967; cited in Alan 1987) suggested that fluctuations in woodrat populations in the Mississippi River Basin may be linked to abundances in acorn crops, and other authors have linked fluctuations to extreme weather conditions (Nawrot and Klimstra 1976). Hall (1988) pointed out a correlation between gypsy moth spread and woodrat declines in Pennsylvania, suggesting that depressed acorn production may impact woodrat over-winter survival (see Norris 1992).
42651		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.
42651		distribution	eng	This species occurs from western New Mexico from Grant County north, and from central Arizona north to southern Utah and as far west as Mohave County south of the Colorado River (Jones and Hildreth 1989).
42651		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky areas (usually not cliffs) in pinyon-juniper woodland. Sometimes among yellow pines or among cacti and agave. Dens are built of debris among rocks or around base of tree. Dens are sometimes above ground in juniper. <br/><br/>These woodrats breed winter-early fall; most juveniles appear in population in March-May. Litter size usually is 1-5 (average two) with perhaps up to two or more litters per year. Most females are sexually mature at 9-10 months. Few females survive to reproduce a second season (Vaughan and Czaplewski 1985, Hoffmeister 1986).<br/><br/>Much of the diet is composed of foliage and seeds of juniper. These woodrats may learn to select individual junipers with low levels of "defensive" chemicals (Vaughan and Czaplewski 1985). They are also known to feed on ephedra, which may be stored within house (Hoffmeister 1986). This species is chiefly nocturnal, they do not hibernate or aestivate.
42651		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe).
42651		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42652		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42652		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Edwards Plateau and eastern Llano Estacado of central and northern Texas, southwestern and eastern Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, southwestern Missouri, and northwestern Arkansas (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).
42652		habitat	eng	Texas mice prefer rocky slopes or cliffs, wooded or with scrub vegetation. Primary habitat is rocky outcroppings in "cedar" (<em>Juniperus</em>) glades or mixed hardwood forest (Sugg <em>et al.</em> 1990). They are habitat generalists in west-central Texas, where they are at least semi arboreal and travel primarily in trees (Etheredge <em>et al.</em> 1989). Nests are under rocks or in rocky bluff crevices. <br/><br/>They probably breed throughout most of the year except summer, with peaks in spring and fall. Several litters of 3-6 young (average 3.4 in southwestern Missouri) are produced annually. Gestation lasts 23 days (non lactating) to 26-32 days (lactating) (Kirkland and Layne 1989).<br/><br/>Home range averaged 0.2 ha in Missouri, with male range twice that of the female (Brown 1964). Home ranges usually are horizontal (along ledges). Texas mice feed on berries, acorns, seeds, herbaceous plant material, and insects. They are probably mostly nocturnal.
42652		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). Population density was estimated at 0.7 to 5.4 per ha in different regions at different seasons.
42652		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42653		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
42653		distribution	eng	Cotton mice are found in the southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia (Handley 1991) and Great Dismal and Chowan swamps, North Carolina (Boone and Laerm 1993), to Florida, west to Texas and Oklahoma, and north in the Mississippi Valley to Missouri, Illinois (Feldhamer <em>et al.</em> 1998), and Kentucky.
42653		habitat	eng	In most areas, cotton mice prefer bottomland hardwood forests, swamps, and mesic and hydric hammocks but they have also been found in margins of cleared fields, old fields, edges of salt savanna, palmetto thickets bordering beaches, dry hammocks, beach dunes, pine flatwoods, upland timber, mixed pine-hardwood forests, pine-turkey oak, sand pine scrub, along rocky bluffs or ledges, in caves, and in little-used buildings (see Wolfe and Linzey 1977). They are probably most common in areas that periodically are inundated. Cotton mice are terrestrial and arboreal. Large logs and stumps are an important habitat component (McCay 2000). In south-central Florida, daytime refuges were primarily in gopher tortoise burrows, also in ground holes and occasionally in hollow tree cavities (Frank and Layne 1992). Young are born in nests in logs, stumps, moss, under loose bark, under brush, or in old buildings; they prefer elevated nest sites, as much as six metres above ground (see Handley 1991). <br/><br/>Cotton mice breed throughout the year in Florida and Texas, with a decline in summer. They breed March-October in the north. Litter size is 1-7 (average 3-5). Gestation lasts 23 days (non lactating) or 30 days (lactating). Weaning usually occurs by the third or fourth week. Individuals produce up to several litters per year. They sexually mature in 1-2 months. They live usually less than one year, infrequently up to about two years.<br/><br/>Home range is 0.2-0.8 ha in different areas. At least in some areas, this species may exclude <em>Peromyscus leucopus</em>. Cotton mice are very opportunistic feeders, with as much as 3/4 of their diet made up of animal matter. They are nocturnal.
42653		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). On Key Largo, Florida, the average density was estimated at about 16/ha near housing subdivisions and 27/ha distant from subdivisions (Humphrey 1988). Density has been estimated at about 2-10 per ha in various areas elsewhere in its range, although a density of 97/ha has been reported for Tennessee. In many areas, peak densities occur in fall and/or winter.
42653		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42654		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes many protected areas.
42654		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeastern United States, from northeastern Mississippi to western South Carolina, south through Alabama and Georgia and to western and most of peninsular Florida (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
42654		habitat	eng	It favours dry sandy fields and beaches with grass/shrub cover; at Merritt Island, Florida, it is usually found among clumps of palmetto and sea grape with expanses of open sand or among dense palmetto-sea grape-wax myrtle. Occupies underground burrows when inactive; entrances in clumps of grass or beneath sheltering vegetation (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Young are born in underground burrows. <br/><br/>It may breed all year. Much breeding activity on the Gulf Coast occurs from November-January. Produces two or more litters per year. Gestation averages 23-24 days (non lactating) or 28-29 days (lactating). Litter size averages 3-4. Young are weaned in about 18 days. Minimum age at conception is five weeks. Apparently monogamous mating system (Kirkland and Layne 1989).<br/><br/>Feeds mainly on grass/weed seeds and insects; also eats blackberries and wild pea. Beach populations eat fruits and seeds of dune plants, especially sea oats and sea rocket; feeds on invertebrates when seeds are scarce (Matthews and Moseley 1990). It is primarily nocturnal.
42654		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). Population densities of up to six per acre have been recorded (Burt and Grossenheider 1976).
42654		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall.<br/><br/>Of the 16 subspecies, eight coastal forms are of conservation concern. <em>P. p. decoloratus</em> is Extinct; <em>P. p. trissyllepsis</em> (Perdido Key beach mouse) is Critically Endangered; <em>P. p. allophrys</em> (Choctawatchee beach mouse), <em>P. p. ammobates</em> (Alabama beach mouse), <em>P. p. peninsularis</em> (St. Andrews beach mouse), and <em>P. p. phasma</em> (Anastasia Island beach mouse) are considered Endangered; and <em>P. p. leucocephalus</em> (Santa Rosa beach mouse) and <em>P. p. niveiventris</em> (Southeastern beach mouse) Near Threatened. All eight subspecies have restricted distributions and are threatened by habitat loss and associated pressures due to tourism and development.
42655		conservation	eng	Not found in protected areas (except perhaps Podolskiy Tovtry National Park). Listed in Ukraine Red Data Book under category 3 (rare species with limited number of individuals and restricted range).
42655		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Ukraine, where it is found from near the Polish border in the east to the Dnepr River in Central Ukraine and south to the Moldovan border. Populations are fragmented in Ukraine, so the area of occupancy could be much lower than the range indicated on the map..
42655		habitat	eng	The major habitat of this species is virgin steppes. It also occurs in side roads, forest belts, and agricultural fields, and was recently found in former military firing ranges (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Does not avoid sandy soils. An obligate underground species. Its feeding habits are poorly studied, but according to data from southern and south-eastern part of the range it feeds on underground parts of lucerne, chicory, bindweed, mallows and tree seedlings (oak, mulberry, acacia etc.). There are no data on breeding or ecology.
42655		population	eng	There are no data on population size of the species. The range is highly fragmented and consists of isolated populations. Therefore although the species has relatively large extent of occurrence, the area of occupancy is low. Since the end of the 19th century the Podolsk mole rat has been considered a rare species across its whole range (Ognev 1947). Range contraction in historical time is probably due to shrinking of steppe habitats. Subfossil remains of the species were found on the left bank of Dnepr River in Kiev and Zhitomir regions. Therefore, losses of range in the south, north-west and north-east have a long history. Currently population density in optimal biotopes is about 1-8 individuals per hectare.
42655		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss due to cultivation and development is a major threat.
42656		conservation	eng	The species occurs in four protected areas: Los Cipreses, Rio Blanco, Las Chinchillas and Bosque Fray Jorge.
42656		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chile from Copiapo to the area of Rio Biobio, from sea level up to 2,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
42656		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the western Andean slopes in Mediterranean scrub habitat (Braun and Mares, 2002).
42656		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known.
42656		threats	eng	There are possible threats from mining and tourism activities in the Andes area. Further threats are posed by agricultural activities on central valleys and cordillera de la Costa (G. D'elia pers. comm.).
42657		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least ten protected areas in Bolivia, including Los Andes and Pozuelo. These protected areas encompass much of its highland range.
42657		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the high elevations of southeastern Peru, southwestern Bolivia, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina (Jujuy, Salta and Tucumán provinces) (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It is found from 3,850 to 5,000 m asl.
42657		habitat	eng	This species occurs in hilly, arid, Altiplano habitat at over 3,800 m asl. It inhabits rocky terrain, building burrows in shale outcrops and at the bases of shrubs (Braun and Mares, 2002). It is found in both undisturbed and disturbed areas, and readily inhabits man made stone walls. It is a strict herbivore (Cortes <em>et al.</em>, 2002) and predominantly feeds on <em>Thola spp.</em> and <em>Yareta spp.</em> (N. Bernal pers. comm.).
42657		population	eng	The population is stable and the species is locally common.
42657		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In the past there was some commercial collection of this species for fur.
42658		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42658		distribution	eng	The most wide-spread species of sengi. The species is found from northern South Africa through northeast Namibia, east and central Botswana, Angola, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique north to Democratic Republic of Congo. In East Africa, found in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.
42658		habitat	eng	Steppe and savanna woodlands.
42658		population	eng	Widespread, but only locally common.
42658		threats	eng	No major threats.
42659		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42659		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Uganda, north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan. Although some generalized distribution maps indicate that <em>E. fuscipes</em> is found in extreme eastern Central African Republic, there are no records from the country (Corbet and Hanks 1968).
42659		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of savanna habitats.
42659		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
42659		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
42660		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42660		distribution	eng	Relatively restricted distribution in southern Zambia and Malawi, and south-western Mozambique (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Corbet 1971; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
42660		habitat	eng	Savannah grassland with scattered trees and bushes (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
42660		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
42660		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
42661		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42661		distribution	eng	The species occurs in south-western Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and northern South Africa (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
42661		habitat	eng	Said to inhabit more arid terrain than any other <em>Elephantulus</em> species, including dry savanna woodlands, steppe, and semi-deserts (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
42661		population	eng	This species is locally common.
42661		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
42662		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42662		distribution	eng	Eastern areas of South Africa north into Zimbabwe and eastern Botswana and western Mozambique (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
42662		habitat	eng	Rocky outcrops or koppies that provide sufficient cracks and holes for shelter (Coret and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
42662		population	eng	This species is locally common throughout its range.
42662		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
42663		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42663		distribution	eng	This species is found only in north-western Africa, in Morocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia and western Libya (Corbet and Hanks 1968).
42663		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Mediterranean and semi-desert areas, including high mountains (Corbet and Hanks 1968). It has been recorded to 2,750 m asl in the High Atlas (Cuzin and Séguignes 1990). Several aspects of the biology of this species were studied by Séguignes (1983, 1989).
42663		population	eng	In Morocco, the species is not uncommon, but no population data are available.
42663		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present. Habitat destruction may be causing some localized declines; this is a major concern in Morocco and Algeria as human populations expand and large areas are degraded by livestock grazing.
42664		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42664		distribution	eng	Eastern Africa, where it is found from southern and eastern Ethiopia, Kenya, eastern Uganda, southern Sudan, north, central, and western Tanzania, through Somalia (Corbet and Hanks 1968).
42664		habitat	eng	Dry woodlands and steppe areas (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Kingdon 1974).
42664		population	eng	Locally, numbers can be relatively large within the constraints of being monogamous (Rathbun 1979).
42664		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
42666		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
42666		distribution	eng	<em>Meriones shawi</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region. It is found throughout much of North Africa, ranging from the coast to as much as 500 km inland in northeastern Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt (it is present along the west side of the Nile).
42666		habitat	eng	This species is naturally associated with steppe habitat, although it ranges widely in cultivated fields. It increases rapidly in number during good periods of rain. It is a recognised reservoir for leishmaniasis.
42666		population	eng	This species can be very abundant locally. In some areas it is so common that it is considered to be a crop pest.
42666		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42668		conservation	eng	It occurs in Lorentz National Park.
42668		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it ranges from Mount Wilhelmina in the west to Mount Kaindi in the east (Flannery 1995). It is found from 1,900 to 4,100 m asl.
42668		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from moss forest, and alpine grassland and heaths above the tree-line (Flannery 1995). Animals live in burrow systems within the forest and heathland.
42668		population	eng	It is common at some localities.
42668		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as much of its range is at too high an elevation to be impacted by human disturbance. In some areas there is localised burning of alpine scrub during general hunting expeditions. Populations of the species may be locally affected by this habitat disturbance.
42670		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and it is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. Further research is needed into population numbers, range and potential conservation measures.
42670		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Central Africa and East Africa with outlying populations in West Africa. It is a montane species occurring up to 2,300 m asl.
42670		habitat	eng	It is found in the southern part of the Guinean Savanna Zone, especially in the rainforest-savanna mosaic. The species is associated with moist, tall grasslands with scattered trees and shrubs. This species has also been recorded from clear-cut areas at the edge of rainforest.
42670		population	eng	Although this species is usually considered to be a rare species, it has been found to be very abundant in some localities.
42670		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It has been recorded from modified habitats, but further studies are needed on its persistence in these environments.
42673		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.
42673		distribution	eng	Bushy-tailed woodrats occur from the Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories (Canada) south to Arizona and New Mexico and from California east to the Black Hills, South Dakota and the Badlands of the upper Missouri River drainage area of South Dakota and Nebraska in the United States.
42673		habitat	eng	It is found from alpine to Sonoran life zones. Inhabits mountains, cliffs, talus slopes, caves, and rock outcrops, both in forests and open deserts; also found in abandoned buildings and mine shafts. Young are born in nests within den built of sticks among rocks or in old building/mine shafts. Breeding peaks in spring. Gestation lasts about five weeks. Up to 2-three litters per year. Litter size is about 3-4. Births occur April-August in California. Young males disperse by 2.5 months, many females breed in natal area. Commonly one adult male with 1-3 adult females (Escherich 1981).<br/><br/>Most individuals occupy separate dens. Male may exclude other males from small rock outcrop inhabited by multiple females (Escherich 1981). Home range size in Alberta averaged 6.1 ha for males, 3.6 ha for females, much larger than for other woodrat species.<br/><br/>These woodrats feed on a variety of vegetation; twigs, shoots, leaves, needles, fruit, and seeds. They may store food. They are active throughout the year. Primarily nocturnal but may be seen during the day.
42673		population	eng	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Density varies seasonally and annually, and seems to depend upon the density of suitable den sites. Average population density is about one per 20 acres (Banfield 1974).
42673		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42674		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes many protected areas.
42674		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeastern United States, from southeastern Missouri to West Virginia and southern Virginia, south to eastern Texas, Gulf coast, and central Florida.
42674		habitat	eng	Golden mice prefer moist thickets, forests and field borders. They generally use early and mid-successional habitats with thickets and vines, they may range short distances into adjacent fields with sparse red cedars and may cross dirt roads (Morzillo <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Golden mice build nests and feeding platforms on the ground and above ground in the understorey. Young are born in nests that usually are a few inches to 15 ft above ground in bushes and vines. In south-central Florida, nearly all daytime refuges were on the ground under leaf litter; a few were aboveground in shrubs (Frank and Layne 1992). They breed April-October. Gestation lasts 25-30 days. Females produce several litters of 1-4 (average 2-3) young per year.<br/><br/>They are gregarious and live in loose communities. Average home range is less than an acre. In Illinois, home range size of radio-collared individuals was less than three per hectare (average about 1.3 ha or less, depending on the sex and calculation method) (Morzillo <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, nuts, and insects, they also forage in trees. Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Peak activity is 3-4 hours before dawn.
42674		population	eng	This species is considered secure throughout most of its range (NatureServe). Density ranges from 0.5 - 74.1/ha, although peak densities of 5-9/ha are more typical.
42674		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
42675		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. The subspecies in the Florida keys may be of conservation concern.
42675		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Texas to southeastern Kansas, east to southern New Jersey/Delaware and Florida (Honacki <em>et al.</em> 1982). The previously recognized species <em>O. argentatus</em>, is now included in <em>O. palustris</em>, and is known to occur on nine islands in the lower Florida Keys and probably occurs on several others (Goodyear 1992).
42675		habitat	eng	It prefers saltwater and freshwater marshes (semi-aquatic). It may also be found in swamps and moist meadows. Uplands bordering wetlands may be important as refuges during high tides (Kruchek 2004). Able to move between adjacent islands by swimming across salt water; in Virginia, ten movements between two islands separated by 50 m and one movement between two islands separated by 300 m were documented (Forys and Dueser 1993). Nests are placed in grassy vegetation under debris, or woven in aquatic emergents a foot or more above the high water line.<br/><br/>Breeding may occur throughout the year, particularly early spring. Gestation lasts 21-28 days. Litter size is 4-6 (range 1-7). Several litters per year, up to six are known. Young are weaned within two weeks.<br/><br/>The average home range is one acre (Negus <em>et al.</em> 1961). This species is an effective disperser over water and a good colonizer of barrier islands (Loxterman <em>et al</em>. 1998). Diet includes rice and seeds of herbaceous plants. When available (in season), arthropods make up 75% of the diet (Negus <em>et al</em>. 1961). It is primarily nocturnal.
42675		population	eng	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). Reported densities range from about 4/ha in a Texas coastal prairie to >50/ha in the Florida Everglades.
42675		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42678		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
42678		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern United States, from Maryland and southern Ohio south through all but the southern tip of the Florida peninsula, and west to Oklahoma and eastern Texas. Hopper (1943, cited in Stalling, 1997) suggests that the geographic range of the Eastern Field Mouse has expanded in recent history due to the clearing of forests by humans and the expansion of agriculture, providing greater amounts of suitable habitat.
42678		habitat	eng	Eastern harvest mice are found in open grassy areas, especially abandoned agricultural fields, prairie, brier patches, wet meadows, and marshlands. They require substantial ground cover and are seldom found in forested situations. They climb among herbaceous vegetation. Nests are placed in tangled vegetation under debris or above ground. They breed nearly year round, peaks in birth rates occur in spring and fall, with females producing an average of four young per litter (Schmidly 1999). Gestation lasts 21-22 days. They are sexually mature in two to four months. The home range is probably less than 0.4 ha. In Virginia, maximum observed density was 44/ha in winter. The diet includes seeds of weeds and grasses, and insects. They are primarily nocturnal. Mean lifespan is 9.5 weeks (Cawthorn and Rose 1989).
42678		population	eng	The eastern harvest mouse is common throughout its range.
42678		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
42679		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas.
42679		distribution	eng	This species is present in DR Congo, Tanzania (including Mafia and Zanzibar), south-eastern Kenya, Rwanda, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, south-eastern Zimbabwe, north-eastern Angola, and north-eastern South Africa (Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal provinces). Although some generalized distribution maps for this species show the northern form, <em>P. t. tordayi</em>, crossing the Ubangi or Congo rivers into Congo, there is no indication that it actually occurs north of these rivers (Corbet and Neal 1965; Corbet and Hanks 1968). Although <em>P. t. tetradactylus</em> has been reported from the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, apparently there are no confirmed records.
42679		habitat	eng	Forest, dense woodlands, and thickets (Jennings and Rathbun 2001), where animals probably form monogamous pairs (FitzGibbon 1995).
42679		population	eng	Although widespread, the species is only locally common.
42679		threats	eng	There are no major threats. In coastal Kenya, FitzGibbon <em>et al</em>. (1995) estimated that the subsistence take for food is sustainable.
42680		conservation	eng	In Canada, mountain goat habitat, along with more than 3,500 goats, are protected in eight National Parks (Banff, Glacier, Jasper, Kootenay, Nahanni, Revelstoke, Waterton and Yoho), Kluane National Park Reserve, and in Kluane Wildlife Sanctuary. Numerous provincial parks and wildlife reserves throughout western and northern Canada provide additional varying levels of protection. Limited hunting by aboriginal people is permitted in some northern national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and licensed hunting is permitted in many provincial parks. Outside protected areas, goats are legally hunted under strict controls issued by provincial or territorial government agencies. Harvests are set annually for each population. In British Columbia for example, harvest rates vary between populations and range from 0.4 to 9% (Hebert and Smith, 1986), with an average of 1,100 to 1,200 goats shot by resident and non-residents each year in the Province. In Yukon, by contrast, harvests are much lower, varying between three and 15 animals per year, with the aboriginal harvest estimated to be zero. Transplants have been used to re-introduce mountain goats into many areas of its former range. Habitat management continues to play a key role in its conservation, and developments are subject to environmental screening processes on public land. Conservation measures proposed for Canada: 1) Determine the species’ requirements for mature forests on steep slopes in coastal mountain ranges that are used as winter habitat in British Columbia (Hebert and Turnbull, 1977; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1989). Several coastal populations will be affected by current and future timber harvest operations. Ideally, much or most of this habitat should be preserved. 2) Obtain more accurate population inventories in all regions of Canada to allow more detailed management plans to be developed.<br/><br/>In the United States, primary conservation measures have included habitat protection, introductions and re-introductions, and harvest regulation. Eight state wildlife management departments have transplanted mountain goats from native ranges in Canada and the United States. Six of these states did not have indigenous populations. Many transplanted populations were established with only 10 to 15 founder animals. Goats are harvested in nine states under conservative regulations of the wildlife departments which monitor populations. The mountain goat occurs in nine federal protected areas: Alaska: Glacier Bay, Kenai Fjords, and Wrangell - St. Elias National Parks; and Kenai National Wildlife Refuge; Montana: Bison Range National Wildlife Refuge; Glacier National Park; South Dakota: Mount Rushmore National Monument; Washington: North Cascades, and Mount Rainier National Parks. However, most herds are in national forests including many wilderness areas). The International Order of Rocky Mountain Goats, a private organization, raises funds for research and management of the species. One state, Colorado, uses two hunting licenses in an auction and a raffle to raise funds for these activities.
42680		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeast Alaska (USA), south Yukon and southwest Northwest Territories (Canada) to north-central Oregon, central Idaho, and Montana (USA). It has been introduced to Kodiak, Chichagof, and Baranof Islands (Alaska), Olympic Peninsula (Washington), central Montana, Black Hills (South Dakota), and to Colorado, Utah and northeastern Nevada (USA) (Grubb, 2005).<br/><br/>In Canada, mountain goats inhabit all major mountain ranges from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, west to the Coastal Range of British Columbia, and north into the St. Elias, Coast, Cassiar, Logan and Selwyn Ranges of Yukon; and the Mackenzie Mountains of the Northwest Territories. In Alaska, the mountain goat is generally continuously distributed along the mountains extending up the west coast to Prince William Sound and the Kenai Peninsula. Its also occurs in the southern Wrangell and Talkeetna Mountains and the northern Chugach Mountains. Goat populations have been established through transplants on Baranof and Kodiak Islands. In the contiguous states, it is found in a relatively continuous distribution across several large mountain ranges in Washington, Idaho and Montana. Mountain goats are also discontinuously distributed to the east and south of this area, where many herds have been established by transplanting animals. In Alaska and Washington, separate herds are not always distinguished.
42680		habitat	eng	Most mountain goats occur in high altitude habitats, up to the limit of vegetation. Although they sometimes descend to sea level in coastal areas, they are primarily an alpine and sub-alpine species. Throughout the year, the animals usually stay above the timberline, but they will migrate seasonally to higher or lower elevations within that range. Summertime migrations to low-elevation mineral licks often take them several or more kilometers through forested areas. This species is most active during the early morning and late evening, and grazing sometimes continues throughout the night. Their diet includes grasses, herbs, sedges, ferns, moss, lichen, twigs, and leaves from the low-growing shrubs and conifers of their high-altitude habitat. Their main predators are cougars, wolves and brown bears. The species lives in groups that can vary from a few to a hundred, and during the winter months, groups generally coalesce to form large herds. The gestation length is approximately 180 days, with a single birth typically, although twins are common in introduced populations. The age of primiparity varies from 2 to 5 years among populations. Male mortality is much higher than female mortality and very few males live longer than 10 years. Very few females survive more than 16 years (Festa-Bianchet and Côté, 2008).
42680		population	eng	The total population in Canada is approximately 58,000 individuals, but could range from 44,000 to 72,000, distributed as follows: Alberta 2,750; British Columbia 39,000-67,000; Northwest Territories 1,000; and Yukon 1,400. Recent total estimates in the United States are 36,000 to 47,000 individuals, with more than 12,000 animals in the contiguous states, and 24,000 to over than 33,000 in Alaska.
42680		threats	eng	These animals are largely protected from threats due to the inaccessible nature of their habitat. The species is hunted, but there are regulations in both of its range states that have stabilized past declines. Mountain goats are more sensitive to human disturbance than most other ungulates, and are particularly sensitive to harassment from aircraft. Increasing aircraft use for industrial and recreational purposes on mountain goat habitat is a major concern for their conservation.
42683		conservation	eng	Protection of forests and streams by state management.
42683		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.
42683		habitat	eng	Headwaters and midreaches of rocky upland streams.
42683		population	eng	Current population size is unknown, but probably exceeds 1,000 individuals.
42683		threats	eng	Degredation of watershed by feral ungulates; introduced poeciliid fishes.
42684		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
42684		distribution	eng	Restricted to Japan and Taiwan. In Japan occurs on the islands of Ishigaki-jima and Iriomote-jima island (Sakishima islands, Ryukyu archipelago, Okinawa Prefecture Japan). Recently reported from Taiwan.
42684		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mountain streams, usually situated in the virgin subtropical forest.
42684		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
42684		threats	eng	Potential danger by the development of the mountain zone, recent drought appears to have given damage to some stream species (perhaps by global warming).
42685		distribution	eng	Endemic to five states in the United States. The species is known from 10 counties in these states.
42685		habitat	eng	Small, second order streams, partly wooded (Tennessen <em>et al</em>. 1995), and spring-fed moderately flowing forest streams especially where they drain small ponds (Dunkle 2000).
42685		population	eng	Current population size is unknown, but with probably no more than 50 extant populations with less than 50 adults in each of these, the population size is likely to be fewer than 2,500. The population is likely to be declining due to habitat loss and degradation, but may possibly be stable: more data are required to be able to confirm.
42685		threats	eng	Part of one Tennessee stream is used as a fish hatchery; some streams are subject to agricultural pollution. Spring-fed habitats are subject to developmental usage and pollution.
42686		conservation	eng	No protection whatsoever in the three river stretches where it occurs.
42686		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from five counties within the states of Oregon and Washington.
42686		habitat	eng	Open rivers with mud and gravel among rocks (Dunkle 2002). Probably more stable in Oregon than in Washington.
42686		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
42686		threats	eng	Very limited known range. One of three known occurrences is a river in an arid agricultural area with many uses/impacts.
42687		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. The species is known from 25 counties within the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.
42687		habitat	eng	Medium-sized coastal streams and rivers with mud or sand bottoms.
42687		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
42688		conservation	eng	In Florida, large form probably occurs in The Nature Conservancy's Apalachicola Bluffs Sanctuary, smaller form has fair protection in Blackwater River State Forest and Pine Log State Forest.
42688		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from 10 counties within the states of Alabama, Florida and Georgia.
42688		habitat	eng	Clean, sand-bottomed streams.
42688		population	eng	Current population is unknown.
42688		threats	eng	Development and forestry.
42689		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. The species is known from 39 counties within the states of Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.
42689		habitat	eng	Clean streams and rivers with sand or rock bottoms and silt deposits (Dunkle 2000).
42691		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix emiliae</span>).<br/>This species is in need of further study to better understand the limits of its distribution range, its taxonomy relative to other <em>Mico</em>, and major threats.
42691		distribution	eng	Cabrera (1957) described its distribution as the south of the state of Pará, possibly entering contiguous parts of the state of Mato Grosso. Ávila-Pires (1986) was more exact, indicating that it occurs south from the Rio Irirí (<em>C. a. argentata</em> occurring to the north—confirmed by Martins <em>et al</em>. 1988), at least as far south as the southern (left) margin of the Rio Peixoto de Azevedo, an eastern tributary of the Rio Teles Pires. Martins <em>et al.</em> (1988) recorded it on the left bank of the Rio Irirí, south from its mouth. The southern limits would evidently not be beyond the headwaters and upper Rio Paraguai, approximately 14º30'S, where <em>M. melanurus</em> has been registered for a number of localities (Hershkovitz 1977; Vivo 1985). Ávila-Pires (1986; see also Pimenta and Sillva Jr. 2005) suggested that the Rio Teles Pires marks the western limit of its range. Martins <em>et al.</em> (1988) indicated that <em>C. emiliae</em> is limited to the west (left) bank of the lower Rio Irirí, with an undescribed <em>C. argentata</em> subspecies occurring between the Rios Irirí and Xingú. These authors also reported their belief that no marmoset occurs east of the Rio Xingú above the mouth of the Rio Irirí. The distribution of <em>C. emiliae</em> has been confused somewhat by its alignment with a similar, if slightly darker, form in the state of Rondônia by Vivo (1985), referred to here as <em>Mico</em> cf. <em>emiliae</em> (also discussed in the text on <em>M. melanurus</em>).
42691		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest. Also mixed open forest and forest patches in savanna/bush savanna (Cerrado). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Weight 335 g. H&B 21.6 cm, TL 34.1 cm (n = 5) (Ferrari 2008).
42691		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
42691		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unclear. The advance of the southern agricultural frontier, with the arc of forest destruction progressing north through northern Mato Grosso and southern Pará, may be a threat to this species. It is generally not hunted, although they may be found being used as pets.
42692		conservation	eng	A large part of its restricted range is covered by the Coatá-Laranjal Indigenous Area. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix saterei</span>).
42692		distribution	eng	<em>M. saterei</em> occurs in the interfluvium of the Rios Abacaxis (in the east) and Canumã-Sucunduri (in the west), right bank tributaries of the Rio Madeira. <em>M. acariensis</em> occurs on the opposite (left) bank of the Canumã-Sucundurí, and <em>M. mauesi</em> on the opposite (right) bank of the Rio Abacaxis (Silva Jr. and Noronha 1998).
42692		habitat	eng	Primary, secondary, and disturbed terra firme forest and igapó (black-water inundated forest) (Silva Jr. and Noronha 1998).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Weight 400-470 g, H&B 19.5-23.0 cm, TL 34.0-36.0 cm (n = 3) (Siva Jr and Noronha 1998; Ferrari 2008).
42692		population	eng	There is no information on population size or densities.
42692		threats	eng	At present, there are no known major threats to the species. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1998) reported that is apparently common in the most degraded area of its range, the lands immediately adjacent to the right bank of the lower Rio Canumã and Paraná Urariá and the left bank of the lower Rio Abacaxis, where the primary terra firme and igapó forests are almost all modified to <em>capoeiras</em> (second growth) at various stages of succession. It is not hunted, although there is some use as pets (Silva Jr. and Noronha 1998).
42694		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Gurupí Biological Reserve (341,650 ha), Tapirapé Biological Reserve (103,000 ha), and Caxiuanã Nationla Forest (200,000 ha). It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
42694		distribution	eng	The Black-handed Tamarin occurs in the state of Pará, Brazil, south of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Xingú and Rio Fresco, to the lower Rio Araguaia, south as far as the region of Santana de Araguaia (Napier 1976; Hershkovitz 1977). Hershkovitz (1977) limited it to the left bank of the Rio Gurupí, but Johns (1986) censused <em>S. niger</em> in the Gurupí Forest Reserve on the right bank of the river. It in fact extends to the east of the Rio Mearim, occurring as such in the interfluvium of the rios Mearim and Itapecuru, in the state of Maranhão, but the exact eastern limit is not known (Ferrari and Lopes 1990, 1996; J. S. Silva Jr. pers. comm, 2008). <em>Callithrix jacchus</em> occurs along the west (left) bank of the Rio Parnaíba, east of the Rio Itapecuru. The southernmost locality registered by Hershkovitz (1977) is Gradaús, Rio Fresco. <em>S. niger</em> also occurs in the western, forested two-thirds of the Island of Marajó in the Rio Amazonas estuary (Ferrari and Lopes 1996).
42694		habitat	eng	The Black-handed Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, pre-montane forest on the Brazilian Sheild, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Lopes and Ferari 1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Veracini (2002) has studied the diet and feeding behavior of <em>Saguinus niger</em> at the Ferreira Pena Research Station at Caxiuanã, Pará. Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species is a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. One <em>Saguinus niger</em> group studied by Veracini (2002) was found defend a home ranges of 35 ha (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). Mottled-face Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult male H&B 23.5 cm, TL 37.6 cm (Hershkovitz 1977)<br/>Adult female H&B 22.8 cm, TL 37.8 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).
42694		population	eng	Ferrari and Lopes (1996) estimated population densities of <em>S. niger</em> at four localities:<br/><br/>Tailândia: 10.4 individiuals/km (heavily hunted)<br/>Rio Capim: 23.3 individuals/km²<br/>Irituia: 19.0 individuals/km²<br/>Gurupi Biological Reserve: 12.7 individuals/km².
42694		threats	eng	The range of this species overlaps one of the fastest developing regions in the Brazilian Amazon. The current destruction of the Gurupí Biological Reserve exemplifies the devastation occurring in the region.
42695		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I and on the US Endangered Species List.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus m. martinsi</em> may occur in the Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (385,000 ha). Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004) recorded it in the Saracá-Taquera National Forest (429,600 ha) on the right (west) bank of the Rio Trombetas.<br/><em>Saguinus m. ochraceus</em> probably occurs in the Nhamundá State Park (28,370 ha) and the Nhamundá State Environment Protection Area (195,900 ha), Amazonas.<br/><br/>There are no captive-breeding programmes for either subspecies.
42695		distribution	eng	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/>According to Hershkovitz (1966), <em>S. m. martinsi</em> occurs between the Rio Nhamundá (left bank), east to the Rio Erepecurú, north of the Rio Amazonas. It would appear that the mouth of the Rio Trombetas marks the northern limit, but Ávila-Pires (1974) extends the distribution north-east to the upper Rio Erepecurú. The northernmost record is Cachoeira Porteira on the Rio Trombetas (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus m. ochraceus </em>is believed to occur on the west bank of the Rio Nhamundá, possibly extending west to the Rio Uatumã, north of the Rio Amazonas (Hershkovitz 1966). The northern limit to its range mighty be the left  bank of the Rio Alalaú (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1993).
42695		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland tropical primary and secondary forest with a dense understorey.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8.  <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult <em>S. m. ochraceus</em>: H&B 24.7 cm, TL 39.5 cm (Hershkovitz 1977)<br/>Adult <em>S. m. martinsi</em>: H&B 20.8 cm, TL 36.6 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).
42695		population	eng	There is no information available on the population density of this species.
42695		threats	eng	This species is probably not under any immediate threat. However, there is bauxite mining in the lower Trombetas region which is causing localized forest loss and degradation.
42696		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/><br/>Manuripi-Heath Wildlife Reserve (1,000,000 ha) (within range)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (Calouro 1999)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (within range but possibly scarce or even absent, Defler [2004])<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500h) (INDERENA, 1989) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989)<br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (306,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989)<br/>El Tuparro Natural National Park (548,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Palanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1999; within range Defler 2004)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (Struhsaker and Leland 1977; within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Tinigua National Park (201,875 ha)<br/>Pure National Park (1,000,000 ha)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi-Heath Wildlife Reserve (1,000,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
42696		distribution	eng	We are following here the taxonomy and proposed distributions of Silva Jr (2001). The taxonomic arrangement proposed by Groves (2001) was discussed by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2005), especially in relation to the work of Torres de Assumpção (1983). It was not possible to delimit the ranges of the subspecies he recognized, but those of the species were mapped in Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. (2004).<br/><br/>The range of <em>Cebus macocephalus</em> described here includes those of the following taxa recognized by Groves (2001): <em>C. apella fatuellus</em> (Linnaeus, 1766) from Colombia, <em>C. a. peruanus</em> Thomas, 1901 from Peru; 1939, <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> Lönnberg, 1939 (in part) from the upper Rio Juruá. <em>Cebus apella maranonis</em> Von Pusch, 1941, recognized by Aquino and Encarnación (1994), is considered by Silva Jr. (2001) to be a junior synonym of <em>C. macrocephalus</em>, and by Groves (2001) to be a junior synonym of <em>C. a . peruanus</em>. <br/><br/>For Colombia, Defler (2004) described its range as follows: the entire Colombian Amazon, and all of the piedmont forest at least to 1,300 m above sea level, east of the Cordilleras, with the exception of some eastern areas such eastern Vichada and upper Cahuinari. It is also absent from much of the Colombian trapezium. <em>C. macrocephalus</em> (which he referred to as <em>C. apella</em>) is found also in upper valley of the Río Magdalena in Huila, up to 2,700 m above sea level (in the region of San Agustín) and the region of Tierradentro in Cacua to elevations of about 2,500 m (close to Inzá). Following Silva Jr. (2001), <em>C. macrocephalus</em> extends east to the Río Orinoco (<em>C. apella</em> is the form in the Venezuelan Amazon), occurring along the right bank of the Rio Negro to approximately São Gabriel Cachoeira where it is range is then delimited by a line approximately SSE across the Negro-Solimões interfluvium to the region of Coarí (on the Solimões) and then extending across the basin of the Rio Purus to the junction of the Ríos Madre Dios and Guaporé. From there its southern range is delimited by the Madre de Dios in Bolivia (<em>C. apella</em> occurs to the south of the Madre de Dios) west into Peru. Following Aquino and Encarnación (1994) its range then takes on all of the Peruvian Amazon north of the Rio Madre de Dios, but extending across the river to the south beyond the mouth of the Río Inambari (a southern tributary of the Madre de Dios). In Peru, <em>C. macrocephalus</em> (<em>sensu</em> Silva Jr, 2001) has been recorded at altitudes up to 1,800 m above sea level (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).
42696		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of nearly all types of Amazonian lowland and submontane forest, especially palm-dominated forest (Fresse and Oppenheimer 1981; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Defler (2004) observed that it occurs in a wide range of habitats in Colombia. From deciduous gallery forest of the Llanos Orientales to humid evergreen forest as well as secondary growth. Unlike <em>Cebus albifrons</em>, they are averse to flooded forest. Defler (1985) found that while <em>C. macrocephalus</em> chooses more mesic environments in semi-deciduous forests of the Llanos orientales, <em>C. albifrons</em> uses more the thorny <em>Bactris</em> palm forest on dry sandy stream beds. In some parts of Colombia they are serious agricultural pests, feeding on corn (hence the name <em>maicero</em>), sugar cane, cacao and other fruit trees. In Ecuador it is fond in humid lowland and submontane forests (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Struhsaker and Leland 1977; Izawa 1979). Largely sympatric with the untufted capuchins, <em>C. albifrons</em>. The species differ most markedly in their diet through their use of palm fruits (Terborgh 1983; Spironello 1991, 2001). Mean group size for <em>Cebus apella</em> is 18 individuals, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males (adult sex ratio of 0.85). Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). A poorly-defined birth season in Peru is from October to June (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Groups spend much time associating with squirrel monkeys (<em>Saimiri</em>) groups. Janson (1984, 1985a,b, 1990a,b) carried out a field study of the feeding ecology and behaviour of this species in Manu National Park, Peru.<br/><br/>Size: Adult male 1.35-4.8 kg (mean 3.05 kg); adult female: 1.76-3.4 kg (mean 2.4 kg) (Jack 2007).
42696		population	eng	In Tinigua National Park, Stevenson <em>et al</em>. (1992) recorded a density of 16 individuals/km² and, later Stevenson (2007) estimated a density of 27 individuals/km² (Stevenson 2007).  <br/><br/>Freese (1975, 1977) estimated the population density in the Manu National Park to be 36 individuals/km², and similar densities (40 individuals/km²) were found by Terborgh (1983; Terborgh and Janson 1985; Janson 1985a,b).<br/><br/>Further population densities estimates have been published as follows:<br/>Gallery forest in El Tuparro National Park, Colombia - 15-17 individuals/km² (Defler and Pintor 1985)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria, Peru - 8-10 individuals/km² (Soini 1986)<br/>Estación Biológica de Caparú, Colombia - 8 individuals/km² (Defler 2004)<br/>Río Puré, Colombia - 5.8 individuals/km² (Defler 2004)<br/>Samiria basin, Peru - 24 individuals/km² (Freese 1975, 1977)
42696		threats	eng	They are hunted everywhere they occur, and in Peru Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that hunting has led to its extirpation in areas around human settlements.
42697		conservation	eng	Occurs in the following protected areas in Brazil:<br/><br/>Espírito Santo<br/>Linhares Forest Reserve (21,787 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999, 2003)<br/>Sooretama Biological Reserve (27,943 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999, 2003)<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>State Biological Reserve Mata dos Ausentes (490 ha) (Martins 2005)<br/>State Ecological Station Acauã (5,196 ha) (Martins 2005)<br/><br/>An International Committee for the Conservation and Management for the Atlantic forest capuchin monkeys, <em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> and <em>C. robustus</em>, was created in 1992 by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) to promote field studies and organize a captive population from the numerous individuals kept as pets. It languished, but was resuscitated in 2002 (Santos and Lernould 1993; Baker and Kierulff 2002), and took in a Working Group created in 2003 for Barbara Brown’s Titi Monkey (<em>Callicebus barbarabrownae</em>) and Coimbra-Filho’s Titi Monkey (<em>C. coimbrai</em>) (both also occurring in north-eastern Brazil).<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
42697		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus robustus</em> occurs from the Rio Jequitinhonha in southern Bahia and northern Minas Gerais, south through Espírito Santo to the Rio Doce (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988; Oliver and Santos 1991). The westernmost locality is in the state of Minas Gerais is given by Pinto (1941), who collected specimens from the headwaters of the Rio Pissarão, in a mountainous region north of the Rio Piracicaba, not far from the town of Presidente Vargas. It is possible that the Serra do Espinhaço of Minas Gerais, running north-south and defining the transition from the Atlantic forest to bush savanna (cerrado) in the west, marks the western limits of the distribution of this form. Martins (2005) sruveyed the entire range of <em>Cebus robustus</em> and identfied the following range limits: North-east – Rio Jequitinhonha river in Bahia and Minas Gerais; North-west and west – Rio Jequitinhonha in Minas Gerais; South-west – Rio Suaçuí Grande and the Serra do Espinhaço; South-east – Rio Doce in Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Martins (2005) identified an area of intergradation with <em>Cebus nigritus</em> the rios Santo Antônio and Suaçuí Grande.
42697		habitat	eng	Tropical lowland and submontane forest in the Atlantic coast of Brazil. Arboreal quadrepeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). Also dry, semideciduous forests in the western part of its range in Minas Gerais.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals in their diet, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top-ranking male being dominant to the top-ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). No field studies have been carried out examining particularly the behaviour and ecology of this species.
42697		population	eng	Chiarello (1999) obtained encounter rates of 2.47-0.6 sighting/10 km in seven sites in northern Espírito Santo, Brazil.
42697		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Atlantic forest in the states of Bahia (southern), eastern Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, south of the Rio Jequitinhonha and north of the Rio Doce. They are hunted, and the forests within their range have been destroyed for coffee, eucalyptus and pine plantations (cotton in the 19th century), other agricultural crops, and for cattle pasture.
42700		conservation	eng	Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
42700		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: off France, Ireland and the British Isles (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2004). Northwest Atlantic: off northern United States of America (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2004).
42700		habitat	eng	Occurs on the slope at 512–1,520m but generally deeper than 1,000 m (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2004). Maximum recorded size is 76.1 cm total length (TL) (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> 2004). Size at maturity appeared to be smaller in females than males (whereas it is generally the opposite for sharks), however the species is known from relatively few specimens and more investigation is required to confirm the size at maturity (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> 2004). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other <em>Apristurus</em> species, but very little is known of the biology.
42700		population	eng	A recently described species, known from 53 specimens.
42700		threats	eng	An uncommon bycatch of commercial deepwater trawlers (S. Iglésias pers. comm. 2007). Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough, have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). This species appears to be more abundant on the Rockall Bank, where fewer boats operate, than on the continental slope where the Flathead Catshark (<em>Apristurus laurussonii</em>) is more abundant (S. Iglésias pers. comm. 2007).The species is generally recorded deeper than 1,000 m and the depth range may extend deeper than currently known, offering some refuge from fishing pressure. Despite this, it is still poorly known and may share the limiting life-history characteristics of other deepwater sharks making it vulnerable to depletion. Therefore any expansion in deepwater fishing effort could negatively impact this species. Further information is required on deepwater fishing activities (including catch and bycatch levels, effort and trend monitoring) in the North Atlantic and the threat status of this species should be reassessed when such information is available. However, there is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the northeast Atlantic .
42701		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42701		distribution	eng	This undescribed species is known as <em>Apristurus</em> sp.D. in Last and Stevens (1994). Further research is required to resolve species problems in this genus. It is found at depths of 840 to 1,380 m and appears to extend further down the continental slope than most other <em>Apristurus</em> species.
42701		habitat	eng	This deep-water catshark is the largest member of the genus found in Australia. It reaches at least 86 cm, with males maturing at about 67 cm. Biology is virtually unknown.
42701		population	eng	There is no information on population size.
42701		threats	eng	The known distribution of this species includes some heavily fished areas, particularly off southern Australia. This species has not been recorded from the SETF, but this may be due to the similarity of this genus, resulting in all specimens being identified as <em>Apristurus</em> sp. A. These catsharks are possibly rare (T.I.Walker, pers.comm.). Off New Zealand, it is also likely to be affected by trawl fisheries, although as relatively little fishing occurs below 1,200 m depth some of the population occurs beyond fishing depths.
42703		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42703		distribution	eng	This undescribed species is known as <em>Apristurus</em> sp. F. in Last and Stevens (1994) and is known from only three specimens. Further research is required to resolve species problems in this genus.
42703		habitat	eng	This deep-water catshark reaches at least 73 cm. Its biology is virtually unknown.
42703		population	eng	There is no information on range or population size: known from only three specimens taken in 1,030 to 1,050 m depth.
42703		threats	eng	At the present time the effects of the fisheries operating in its very limited distribution area and depth are unknown. Future expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries could pose a threat to this species which may be rare or uncommon.
42704		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42704		distribution	eng	This undescribed species is known as <em>Apristurus</em> sp. G in Last and Stevens (1994) and is represented in Australia by several populations which are distinct from each other and may be separate species. Their relationship to the similar western North Pacific catshark <em>Apristurus herklotsi</em>, has yet to be determined. Further research is required to resolve these taxonomic problems. <br/> <br/>This widely distributed deep-water catshark is found along the Australian continental slope at depths of 590 to 1,000 m.
42704		habitat	eng	This catshark reaches at least 61 cm with males maturing at about 51 cm. Biology is virtually unknown.
42704		population	eng	There is no information on population size.
42704		threats	eng	The wide distribution of this species includes some heavily fished areas, particularly off southeastern Australia by the South East Trawl Fishery (SETF) and South Tasman Rise Fishery, possibly the Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery, and to a lesser extent off Western Australia.  This species has not been recorded from the SETF, but this may be due to the similarity of this genus, resulting in all specimens being identified as <em>Apristurus</em> sp A. These catsharks are possibly quite rare (T.I.Walker, pers. comm.). Deepwater demersal trawl fisheries are expanding in the region. However, a significant proportion of its range receives only minor or no fishing pressure.
42706		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for the Whitefin Swellshark. Research needs to be conducted into the life history and levels of bycatch of this species. </p>
42706		distribution	eng	<p>The Whitefin Swellshark (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cephaloscyllium albipinnum</span>) is found in southern Australia from Batemans Bay (New South Wales) to Eucla (Western Australia), including Tasmania (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).<br/></p>
42706		habitat	eng	<p>The Whitefin Swellshark is a large, stocky benthic catshark found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in 126–554 m (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It grows to 110 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 2009). Although Last and Stevens (2009) reports that males mature by 70 cm TL, Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) states that the smallest adult male examined was ~89.5 cm TL and the largest immature male was 76 cm TL. Females mature by 98 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). This species is oviparous. Like other members of the genus, it is capable of swelling enormously by swallowing water or air. Very little is known of its biology.<br/></p>
42706		population	eng	<p>                    </p><p>The Whitefin Swellshark is a poorly known species and its population size not known.<br/></p>   <p></p>
42706		threats	eng	The area inhabited by the Whitefin Swellshark is subject to intensive fishing effort. This bottom dwelling shark is susceptible to capture by trawlers and is a common component of trawl bycatch off southern Australia (Last and Stevens 2009). In comparative surveys of the South East Fishery trawl grounds from 1976–77 and 1996–97 (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), the 1996–97 catch rate of “Whitefin Swellshark” (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cephaloscyllium </span>sp. A <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu </span>Last & Stevens, 1994, recently described as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. albipinnum </span>Last, Motomura & White, 2008) was 68% of the 1976–77 rate, indicating a reduction in population size greater than 30% over approximately 20 years. Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) notes that in fact these declines probably refer to the Saddled Swellshark (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. variegatum</span>). In any instance, it demonstrates the impact of upper slope commercial trawling on swellsharks, where the Whitefin Swellshark occurs sympatrically with the Saddled Swellshark. Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) suggests that a listing of Near Threatened remains appropriate for the Whitefin Swellshark despite the confusion with the Saddled Swellshark. Fishing effort on the New South Wales upper slope remains high and ongoing.<br/><br/>The observed declines discussed above are only over about one third of the known range of the Whitefin Swellshark although intensive fishing also occurs on the slope elsewhere across its range. There is also evidence of a slight downward trend in population size in the South East Trawl Fishery Observer Program off southern Australia (T. Walker pers. comm. 2003). Catches of the species needs to be closely monitored in the future, given the intensity of trawling effort in its area of occurrence.
42707		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Saddled Swellshark.
42707		distribution	eng	<p>The Saddled Swellshark (<em>Cephaloscyllium variegatum</em>) is endemic to the east coast of Australia from off Rockingham Bay (Queensland) to off Tathra (New South Wales). It may also occur on the Britannia Seamount (off southern Queensland) (Last and White 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
42707		habitat	eng	<p>The Saddled Swellshark occurs on the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope, at depths of 114–606 m (Last and White 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). This is a very poorly known species, and very little is known about its habitat and ecology. This species is oviparous and attains a maximum size of at least 74 cm total length (TL). Males mature at 55–60 cm TL and the smallest free-swimming individuals reported are 17 cm TL (Last and White 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
42707		population	eng	<p>The Saddled Swellshark is a poorly known species which is thought to be quite rare.</p>
42707		threats	eng	<p>The southern portion of the Saddled Swellshark’s range (southern Queensland and New South Wales) receives high trawling effort from prawn and fish trawl fisheries. Declines of <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> spp. have been documented off New South Wales. Graham <em>et al.</em> (2001) documented declines of >30% for “Whitefin Swell Shark” (<em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. A <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu </span>Last and Stevens, 1994, which was recently described as <em>C. albipinnum</em> Last, Motomura & White, 2008) over a twenty-year period on the New South Wales upper slope as a result of intensive fishing pressure. Last <em>et al.</em> (2008) note that in fact these declines probably refer to the Saddled Swellshark. In any instance, it demonstrates the impact of upper slope commercial trawling on swellsharks. Fishing effort on the New South Wales upper slope remains high.<br/></p><p>Current fishing effort, however, in the northern portion of its range (central and northern Queensland) is low. The majority of its depth range is on the upper continental slope where the area of available habitat is narrow. Any future expansion of trawling effort in the north would increase risk. </p>
42709		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Narrowbar Swellshark. The species' biology and distribution need to be better determined.
42709		distribution	eng	The Narrowbar Swellshark occurs in the Western Central Pacific. It is known only from a few specimens taken near Flinders Reef, Queensland, Australia, but it may be more widely distributed along the continental slope off northeastern Australia.
42709		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-AU">The Narrowbar Swellshark is recorded from only two specimens from a depth of 444–454 m on the continental slope, but may be more widely distributed on the continental slope off northeastern Australia (Last and White 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum size is at least 45 cm total length (Last and Stevens 2009). Nothing is known of its biology.</p>
42709		population	eng	Population size of the Narrowbar Swellshark is unknown but may be rare.
42709		threats	eng	The area where the few known specimens of the Narrowbar Swellshark were collected receives little fishing effort. The species may be naturally rare, but no threats are apparent at present.
42710		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for the Speckled Swellshark. The distribution and status needs to be better defined.</p>
42710		distribution	eng	<p>The Speckled Swellshark is restricted to a relatively small area off northwestern Australia where its occurrence is patchy between Rowley Shoals and Ashmore Reef (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
42710		habitat	eng	<p>The Speckled Swellshark, a deepwater benthic catshark, is presently recorded from only a few specimens trawled on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 150–455 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum size is at least 69 cm total length (TL), with males mature by 64 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Nothing else is known of the biology of the species.</p>
42710		population	eng	<p>The Speckled Swellshark is rare in museum collections and is most likely rare to uncommon in the wild.</p>
42710		threats	eng	<p>Areas where the few known specimens of the Speckled Catshark were collected receive little fishing effort. Species may be naturally rare, but no threats are apparent at present.</p>
42711		conservation	eng	None. Species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history.
42711		distribution	eng	This species was designated as <em>Galeus</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994). Relationship between this species and <em>Galeus boardmani</em> from southern Australia needs to be assessed. <br/> <br/>Endemic to Australia. Recorded from off northeastern Australia (Queensland) between Rockhampton and Townsville. Distribution little understood, may be more widely distributed off northeastern Australia.
42711		habitat	eng	Demersal on the continental slope in depths of 310 to 420 m. Maximum size at least 41 cm total length (TL). Males reported to mature at 38 cm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.
42711		population	eng	No information on populations. Limited range may form a single population.
42711		threats	eng	Little fishing effort in area of occurrence. No threats currently apparent.
42712		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999. A Recovery Plan is currently being drafted and will be completed by mid 2003 (S. Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003). It is also listed as an Endangered species under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000, but no management program was in place as of June 2002 (Stirrat and Larson 2002).
42712		habitat	eng	This species was thought to be confined to the turbid freshwater and brackish (6–26 ppt) reaches of rivers (Larson 2000), but a recent specimen provisionally identified as this species was taken from a salinity of 38 ppt in Western Autralia (W. White, Murdoch University, pers. comm. March 2003). Further research is required on its habitat preferences. The ecology (i.e., critical habitat, salinity tolerances) and life history parameters (age and size at maturity for males and females, litter sizes, longevity) of this species are little known and need further investigation. The small eyes and slender teeth of <em>Glyphis</em> species suggest that they are primarily fish eaters adapted to living in turbid waters with poor visibility (Compagno 1984, Fowler 1997).
42712		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but is suspected to be small based on current knowledge and their apparent rarity. The number and size of subpopulations is also unknown. All populations need to be preserved to maintain the genetic diversity within this species. Kakadu National Park (NT) is probably an important site for this species as it may be afforded more protection here than in other areas.
42712		threats	eng	As with other species of the genus, <em>Glyphis</em> sp. C may be largely restricted to freshwater and brackish reaches of rivers. Some of the most threatened chondrichthyan species are those restricted to such habitats, and with naturally very small populations. In addition to all the biological constraints of the marine chondrichthyans, freshwater/brackish species are more seriously limited by threats (such as fisheries and habitat degradation) affecting their restricted populations than are more widely ranging marine species (Compagno 2002). <em>Glyphis</em> sp. C is likely to be threatened by both commercial and recreational fishing and possible habitat degradation. Commercial fishing may be in the form of gillnetting (legal or illegal) or longlining. Recreational fishing may be in the form of illegal gillnetting or hook and line fishing (using bait and/or lures). The potential impacts of fishing operations on this species need further investigation.
42713		conservation	eng	Species composition data from the northwest scampi fishery is necessary.
42713		distribution	eng	Northwestern Australia from Shark Bay to Northern Territory (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).
42713		habitat	eng	This species is known only from the continental shelf off Western Australia in 110–250 m of depth and attains 42 cm in length with males mature at 34 cm (White <em>et al</em>. 2007). One pregnant female contains six egg cases (three in each uteri), which contained small embryos.
42713		population	eng	Population size not known.
42713		threats	eng	A small trawl fishery based off the northwest shelf of Australia is the only fishery likely to catch this species, however, since small scyliorhinids are of little or no commercial value they would presumably be discarded (R. McAuley, pers. comm.). No information is available on post-discard survival. There is no evidence to suggest that this species is under threat from overfishing or by any other means. This species is not utilised commercially and would most likely not be incidentally caught by recreational fishers.
42716		conservation	eng	The only known source of exploitation of the Western Spotted Gummy Shark is the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery. This is a limited entry fishery, where fishing effort is regulated by the use of unitised time-gear access. Shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26°30’S) in 1993. Since the southern extent of the species’ range is north of this point (27°03’S), this is thought to offer a significant refuge for this species.
42716		distribution	eng	<p>The Western Spotted Gummy Shark<span lang="EN-AU"> is endemic to Western Australia in the Eastern Indian Ocean, where it occurs from southwest of Shark Bay to northwest of Cape Leveque (White and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
42716		habitat	eng	<p>The Western Spotted Gummy Shark<em> </em>occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope mainly at depths of 121–402 m, although one specimen has been recorded from 735 m (White and Last 2008). Little is known about its life history characteristics, although both sexes mature at about 60 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 2009). Size at birth is 25–27 cm TL and maximum size is 103 cm TL (White and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Based on the biology of other members of the genus <em>Mustelus</em>, this is likely to be a relatively productive species of shark.</p>
42716		population	eng	The Western Spotted Gummy Shark is reportedly abundant within its range (Last and Stevens 2009).
42716		threats	eng	<p>With regards to Western Australian State managed fisheries, the Western Spotted Gummy Shark is not targeted but was known to be a very minor component of the bycatch in the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery (R. McAuley unpubl. data). However, these catches are likely to have reduced since shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26º30'S) in 1993 and the species may no longer be caught by this fishery. Although the area and depth range fished by the Pilbara Fish Trawl fishery overlaps with the range of the Western Spotted Gummy Shark<em>, </em>has not been recorded as bycatch in that fishery despite extensive sampling (Stephenson and Chidlow 2003).</p>    <p>It is unknown if the species is a component of the bycatch by the Commonwealth managed Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery or the Northwest Slope Trawl Fishery. However, these are low effort fisheries, with only one active fishing vessel in the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (which overlaps only with the species’ southern extent of occurrence), and three active vessels in the Northwest Slope Trawl Fishery in 2007–08 (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>
42717		conservation	eng	All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State?s managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>Relative to the area known to be occupied by <em>O. hutchinsi</em>, shark fishing effort (mainly demersal gillnet) is sparsely distributed and managed via time-gear input controls. The managed shark fishery?s catches and fishing effort are routinely monitored through analyses of statutory daily/trip logbook data and the fishery?s target stocks are subject to regular stock assessments.<br/><br/>The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30? S latitude to 120° E longitude off the north coast, which may include the northern extent of the species? range.<br/><br/>The use of metal snoods (gangions) is commercially prohibited throughout Western Australian waters (except for a small amount of demersal longline effort in the managed shark fishery and pelagic mackerel troll lines).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/><br/>This species is potentially protected in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas, Marine Parks and nature reserves:<br/><br/>Ningaloo Marine Park, WA<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA
42717		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: an Australian endemic, known only from the inner continental shelf off southwestern Australia from Coral Bay (23°08?S, 113°46?E) to Groper Bluff (34°30?S, 118°54?E) (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006).
42717		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf at depths of 0.1?106 m (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species reaches at least 149 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006). Male specimens were mature at 112 cm TL and female specimens at 110 cm TL. Females probably breed every two or three years and produce 18?29 young per litter after a gestation of 9?11 months, with parturition occurring between July and September (Chidlow 2003). Offspring are born at a size of 22?26 cm TL with an embryonic sex ratio that does not significantly differ from 1:1 (Chidlow 2003). <em>Orectolobus hutchinsi</em> are considered opportunistically-selective feeders that prefer a diet of demersal teleosts and octopi (Chidlow 2003).  <br/><br/>Von Bertalanffy growth parameters estimated from vertebral cross-sections and an assumed annual banding pattern were L = 149.45 and K = 0.117 year<sup>-1</sup>. Although the periodicity of vertebral band formation in captive animals did not support synchronous annual vertebral band deposition, captive growth rates matched those predicted with an annual band-deposition frequency (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007).
42717		population	eng	Unknown, but more frequently observed in gillnet and trawl bycatches than other smaller orectolobids (i.e., <em>O. floridus</em> and <em>O. parvimaculatus</em>).
42717		threats	eng	<em>Orectolobus hutchinsi</em> is a component of the bycatch of a commercial fishery that targets sharks, primarily with demersal gillnets, off the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia. Wobbegongs are also caught within the rock lobster (pot) fishery and some small demersal trawl fisheries. Wobbegongs were targeted by a few vessels using demersal longlines in the same fishery until the use of that gear was restricted in 2006. That fishery?s mean annual wobbegong catch was about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35?68 tonnes) between 1999 and 2006 (McAuley 2007). Although wobbegong catches are generally not reported to individual species, small wobbegongs (<150 cm) are selectively discarded alive (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007, McAuley unpublished data). Thus, <em>O. Hutchinsi</em> is believed to be a small component of those aggregated catches with only large specimens being kept.<br/><br/>Small orectolobids also occur in commercial rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, wobbegongs generally cannot be retained by State-managed commercial fishing vessels unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals year<sup>-1</sup> (Sumner and Williamson, 1999). Although the species composition of recreational wobbegong catches is unknown, it is suspected that the majority may be comprised of <em>O. hutchinsi</em>.
42718		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed on the species’ full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.
42718		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: recorded from near the Saumarez Plateau, 22°56’S, 154°21’E, northeastern Australia (Séret and Last 2007).
42718		habitat	eng	Recorded from 590–606 m depth. The only specimen, an adult female, measured 71 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007). Reproduction is oviparous.
42718		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen.
42718		threats	eng	Species may be rare and localised. Little fishing activity in area where single specimen was captured.
42720		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42720		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a confined region in northeastern Australia between Rockhampton and Cairns off the coast of Queensland.
42720		habitat	eng	<em>Pristiophorus</em> sp. nov. B is found in depths ranging from 300 to 400 m. This species grows to approximately 84 cm TL, with males maturing at about 62 cm total length (TL). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
42720		population	eng	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.
42720		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries since its distribution is outside fished areas.
42721		conservation	eng	Turtle Exclusion Devices are unlikely to prevent capture in trawl nets due to their small size.
42721		distribution	eng	Two sympatric forms, which differ in their colour patterns but with identical vertebral counts and shape (Last and Stevens 1994). Their relationship requires further study. Australian Endemic. North West Shelf and Kimberley regions of Western Australia. Distribution possibly wider than reported due to the limited number of surveys of elasmobranch fauna in the area.
42721		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 56 cm total length (TL) but males mature at about 55 cm TL, suggesting a larger maximum size. Presumably reproduce ovoviviparously and likely to feed on benthic invertebrates.
42721		threats	eng	Is a known discarded bycatch in the Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery (Stephenson and Chidlow, draft report). Occurs outside the geographic range of the major prawn trawl fishery in the area but it?s range might overlap if it is distributed further north than currently reported. If so, it is also likely to be discarded as it is of little commercial value and usually discarded alive.
42722		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42722		distribution	eng	This medium-sized dogfish is known only from a few specimens collected off Queensland, Australia (from a depth range of 220 to 450 m).
42722		habitat	eng	The largest specimen caught was a 62 cm male. Biology is virtually unknown. This species is either rare or uncommon.
42722		threats	eng	Any future development of deepsea trawl fisheries off the northeast coast of Australia could pose a threat to this species, as it would be susceptible to being caught as bycatch.
42723		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42723		distribution	eng	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994). Found on the upper continental slope at depths from 240 to 450 m. Eastern Australia, from the upper continental slope between the Queensland Plateau off Cairns, to the Bermagui area, southern New South Wales.  Range is currently uncertain.
42723		habitat	eng	This medium-sized dogfish is either rare or uncommon, and its biology is virtually unknown. It attains at least 65 cm, the smallest mature male examined was 62 cm.
42723		population	eng	No data are available on population size or subpopulations.
42723		threats	eng	This species is not thought to be abundant off central and southern New South Wales (NSW), and their occasional capture in the NSW trawl fishery is unlikely to have much impact on the main population which is presumably to the north (K. Graham pers. comm.). Future development of deepsea trawl fisheries in this area could pose a threat, as it is susceptible to being caught as bycatch.
42725		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42725		distribution	eng	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. D in Last and Stevens (1994). Occurs on the upper continental slope off northwestern Australia, from Port Hedland to North West Cape, at depths of 180 to 210 m.
42725		habitat	eng	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. The maximum total length is about 56 cm, with males maturing at around 44 cm.
42725		population	eng	There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.
42725		threats	eng	This species is known from a limited depth range of 180 to 210 m and on this basis is unlikely to be a significant component of the bycatch of the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fisheries since they operate at depths below 200 m. However, although it is likely that the distribution and range of this species is wider than is currently known, and it may occur well within the depth range of these fisheries, fishing effort is small with only a few boats in operation, and it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.
42726		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42726		distribution	eng	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. E in Last and Stevens (1994). Known to occur on the continental slope off Western Australia at depths of 300 to 510 m.
42726		habitat	eng	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 300 to 510 m, and unlike most spurdogs, which occur in schools, appears to be solitary. It reaches at least 56 cm, with males maturing at around 50 cm.
42726		population	eng	There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.
42726		threats	eng	The area and depth range at which this species is known to occur falls within the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fishery areas. However, fishing effort is small with only a few boats in operation, and although details on bycatch are currently unavailable, given the low fishing effort, it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.
42727		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42727		distribution	eng	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. F in Last and Stevens (1994). Known to occur on the slope off Queensland, northeastern Australia, and also captured in trawls on the outer shelf and upper slope along the New South Wales coast.
42727		habitat	eng	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 120 to 500 m. Maximum total length of males is about 64 cm, and females 73 cm. Size at birth possibly about 22 cm; males mature by about 52 cm, and females about 63 cm. Litter sizes are usually between 3 and 5 pups (K Graham, pers. comm).
42727		population	eng	There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.
42727		threats	eng	Almost all trawlable ground on the slope off central and southern New South Wales is regularly fished maintaining continual fishing pressure on all species including <em>Squalus grahami</em>. A documented decline of approximately 97% of ?greeneye dogsharks? (comprising <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em> and <em>Squalus grahami</em>) between 1976/77 and 1996/97 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales (NSW)) and the Eden-Gabo Island area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) was reported from a fishery independent survey (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Total catches in the abovementioned areas in 220 to 605 m (i.e., much of the known depth range of the two species) declined from a mean of 44.8 kg/h in 1976/77 to a mean of 1.2 kg/h in 1996-97. In 1976/77 the two species were caught in approximately equal numbers off Sydney and Ulladulla, thus it is a fair assumption that the decline was roughly equal for both species in these areas. The 1976/77 Eden data suggested 75% or more of the greeneye dogshark catch in the southern area comprised <em>S. mitsukurii</em> and thus a relatively small proportion of <em>Squalus grahami</em>. However, in 1996 to 1997 no <em>Squalus grahami</em> were caught off Eden-Gabo Island suggesting that trawling to the north may be preventing recruitment of the species into southern NSW.  <br/> <br/>More than half of the known distribution of this species falls within the area of The Coral Sea Fishery (a Commonwealth managed fishery). This is a very small fishery, with only two operators in the trawl sector with extremely low effort, thus threats to this species from fishing activity in this area are thought to be minimal.
42728		conservation	eng	None. Species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history.
42728		distribution	eng	One of two undescribed endemic Australian Squatina species. The western angel shark, referred to as <em>Squatina</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994), is restricted to the west coast of Australia, while the eastern angel shark, <em>Squatina</em> sp. A in Last and Stevens (1994), is restricted to the east coast of Australia.
42728		habitat	eng	Demersal on the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 150 to 310 m. Maximum size at least 64 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology. This species presumably displays aplacental yolksac viviparity, as does other Squatina species. Litter size, gestation period, reproductive periodicity and age and growth parameters are unknown. However, other squatinid species have a long gestation period, for example 6 to 12 months in <em>S. tergocellata</em> (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998) and 10 months in <em>S. californica</em> (Natanson and Cailliet 1986). Parturition may be biennial as in <em>S. tergocellata</em> (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998).
42728		population	eng	No available information on populations.
42728		threats	eng	<em>Squatina</em> sp. B is presently of no commercial value. Angel sharks are generally not susceptible to line or mesh fishing, but are highly susceptible to trawling (Terry Walker, personal communication). Western Australian state fisheries occurring off northwestern Western Australia (north coast shark fishery, Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery) do not encounter this species as they generally fish at depths of <100 m (Rory McAuley, personal communication). The Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery operates at depths of >200 m and is likely to encounter <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. B. However, this fishery is small (presently about four boats) and so is unlikely to impact upon the species.  Given the apparent ‘slow’ life history of angel sharks together with documented declines of other species (Holts 1988, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) any catches (including discards) of <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. B should be monitored in the future to ensure any increased fishing effort does not adversely affect the species.
42729		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, there are large areas that are not trawled in the northern part of its range.
42729		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Cairns region (Queensland) southwards to Lakes Entrance (Victoria).
42729		habitat	eng	Last and Stevens (1994) reported the habitat as outer continental shelf and upper slope in 130 to 315 m depth, but occasionally this species enters waters as shallow as 60 m depth (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Australian Museum Collection Records identified by J.J. Pogonoski Feb 2003). This species, like its southern relative is presumably a demersal carnivore feeding on fish and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>Although Last and Stevens (1994) reported maximum size to be at least 63 cm, Graham <em>et al</em>. (1995) and Graham (1999) reported maximum female size as at least 130 cm and 20 kg. Males attain a maximum size of at least 110 cm total length (TL) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997) and 8 kg (Graham 1999). Females mature at approx. 107 cm TL and males are mature by 91 cm TL (K. Graham, NSW Fisheries, pers. comm. Feb 2003). <br/> <br/>The minimum size of specimens collected in research vessel trawls off New South Wales was 30 cm (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is inferred that size at birth is probably approx. 30 cm.  <br/> <br/>Like <em>Squatina australis</em>, this species is presumably ovoviviparous with litters up to 20 young (Michael 2001), although there is no known specific data on litter sizes in the literature. Gestation period unknown but a similar species (<em>S. californica</em>) overseas has a gestation period of 10 months (Michael 2001).
42729		population	eng	There are no estimates of population size and although the number and size of subpopulations is unknown, large declines have occurred in the past 2 to 3 decades.
42729		threats	eng	Angel sharks are not very susceptible to line or mesh netting techniques, but are susceptible to trawling as they lay on the bottom (T.I. Walker pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/>Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery, SETF) in south-eastern Australia between northern Victoria and central NSW continues to threaten its populations in the southern part of its range where it is thought to be more abundant. Graham <em>et al</em>. (1997) documented a 96% decline (32.6 kg/h in 1976-77 to 1.3 kg/h in 1996-97) in catches across all areas in fishery-independent trawl surveys from the Sydney area (central NSW) to the Eden / Gabo Island Area (southern NSW/Victoria border). In addition, significant reductions in the mean sizes of large <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. A were observed (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997). This area only represents about a quarter of the total range of this species. The species is not (or rarely) harvested in the northern half of its range. Graham <em>et al.</em> (2001) noted that the present levels of trawling in the SETF and NSW Prawn Trawl Fishery were sufficient to keep the numbers of <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. A comparatively low. <br/> <br/>The flesh of angel sharks is excellent eating and is marketed as angel shark, boneless fillets and monkfish (Last and Stevens 1994).
42730		conservation	eng	None. The species may occur inside some marine protected in NSW waters, including the Solitary Island Marine Park and the Jervis Bay Marine Park.
42730		distribution	eng	Undescribed species referred to as <em>Urolophus</em> sp. A by Last and Stevens (1994). Endemic to the Western South Pacific on the east coast of Australia. Last and Stevens (1994) report the species from off Yamba to Jervis Bay, New South Wales. However, recently captured off southeastern Queensland, extending the northern range of the species (Kyne, unpublished data).
42730		habitat	eng	Inshore demersal in depths of 18 to 85 m. Maximum size at least 45 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at about 28 cm TL. Viviparous most commonly with one embryo in each uterus (Kyne, unpublished data). Little else known of its biology.
42730		population	eng	No information on populations.
42730		threats	eng	<em>Urolophus</em> sp. nov. A is a common component of the bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF) (eastern king prawn sector) where it is often caught in small aggregations. It is also taken in the New South Wales Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery. Off the Clarence River and Newcastle, it is more regularly captured in waters between 9?56 m than deeper waters where catch rates where considerably lower (Graham and Wood 1997).  The implementation of Turtle Exclusion Devices in the Queensland ECTF does not appear to be reducing catches (unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Little is known of its biology. Embryos are often aborted from gravid females once landed. <br/> <br/>Urolophids are often captured in large numbers as bycatch in Australian trawl fisheries (for example, see Graham and Liggins 1995). Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001) report an overall decline of 66%  in the catch of urolophids on the continental slope off NSW between 1976-7 and 1996-7 has been reported, with a decline of 90.5% on one survey ground (Eden). Catch rates were not divided by species but comprised <em>U. bucculentus</em> (common), <em>U. viridis</em> (common), <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> (both less common). These data suggest that this group may be vulnerable to trawling activities.
42731		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas.
42731		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador.   Known from three subpopulations, found within the provinces of  Carchi and Esmeraldas.
42731		habitat	eng	Elevational range 500–1,500 m
42731		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42732		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42732		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador.  Found in the province of Loja.
42732		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest.  Elevation range 1,000–1,500 m
42732		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42733		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but recorded as uncommon in the Jauneche private reserve.
42733		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations distributed across the country.  Found in the provinces of  Esmeraldas, Guayas, Napo, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios.
42733		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest.  Elevation range 0–500 m
42733		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.  Its bark is used for heart diseases.
42734		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.
42734		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, this species is known from one collection in 1945, in the Nudo de Portete, between Tarqui and Girón rivers, Azuay province.  This species is unrepresented in Ecuadorean museums.
42734		habitat	eng	A Shrub of Humid Andean vegetation with an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42734		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42735		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
42735		distribution	eng	An endemic to Ecuador, this species is known from six subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar and Loja.
42735		habitat	eng	A herb or shrub of mainly cloud forest.  Elevation range 1,600–3,000 m.
42735		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42736		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but the second locale may be inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.
42736		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from two Andean populations: one discovered in 1943 in the Río Chanchan canyon, 5 km from Huigra, and the other collected two years later between the Río Gamolotal and the Río Huigra on the road to Molleturo.  No recent records exist and no botanical specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
42736		habitat	eng	A shrub of Low Andean Forest with an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42736		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42737		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.
42737		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador, this species is known from a single 1961 collection made near the Río Blanco, in the Carchí province.
42737		habitat	eng	A small shrub of low andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42737		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42738		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
42738		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection in 1944.  The collection was made on the Sevilla de Oro-to-Méndez road, in the Río Negro and Chupianza valley, Zamora-Chinchipe province.
42738		habitat	eng	A small shrub found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42738		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42739		conservation	eng	Not recorded inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
42739		distribution	eng	An endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from at least six collections in forests near the city of Guayaquil. Common in secondary forests in the Cordillera de Chongón Colonche and present in the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco.
42739		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42739		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42740		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
42740		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador. Known from a single collection in 1980 in the Río Pastaza valley, near the Río Negro, in Tungurahua province.
42740		habitat	eng	A treelet of low andean forest.  Found at an elevation of 1,200 m.
42740		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42741		distribution	eng	An endemic of Ecuador, where it is known from two collections: one on the Baños-Mera road, 35 km from Baños along the Río Cashauco, in Tungurahua province, and the other from an unknown locale near Mera, in Pastaza province.
42741		habitat	eng	A small shrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42741		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42742		distribution	eng	An endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three collections. Two of the collections are from Loja province, one on the Celica-Zapotillo road, 4 km beyond Pozul, and the other in the Alamor-Celica road, 2–3 km from the Alamor River. A third population was discovered by X. Cornejo in Cerro Azul, where it was uncommon along a creek in secondary forest.
42742		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of low andean forest, found at an elevation range of 1,000–2,000 m.
42742		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42743		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.
42743		distribution	eng	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations, one located 1–8 km north of Sevilla de Oro and the other near Pampa de Los Cedros, south of Cerro Chivo-Turco and along the tributary creeks of Río Palma.
42743		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,150–2,700 m.
42743		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42744		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
42744		distribution	eng	An endemic to Ecuador, known from five subpopulations in the east of the country.   Found in the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Zamora-Chinchipe and possibly Guayas.
42744		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb that is found at an elevational range of 250–1,000 m.
42744		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42745		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but the collection locale is very close to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
42745		distribution	eng	An endemic to Ecuador. Known from one recent collection on the Valladolid-Yangana road, in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
42745		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42745		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42746		conservation	eng	The Capeira locale is now a suburb of Guayaquil, with a small reserve where the species may persist.
42746		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador.  Known from two collections: in Capeira, 22 km north of the city of Guayaquil on the road to Daule, and in an unknown locale in Manabí province.
42746		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry coastal forests, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42747		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three collections in Chimborazo province, with incomplete locale information.
42747		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42747		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42748		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the Río Palenque private reserve. Gentry (1986) reported a population of one plant in the same locale and five years later Dodson and Gentry (1991) reported its death.
42748		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb or small shrub, found at an elevational range of 150–220 m.
42748		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42749		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42749		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in Loja province, with no exact locale information.
42749		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.
42749		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42750		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42750		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection from the bank of a river in Conocoto, Quito, Pichincha province.
42750		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, known from an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42750		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42751		conservation	eng	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas system but may occur in some coastal reserves.
42751		distribution	eng	Known from at least seven collections, including one in the Río Palenque private reserve.  Found in the provinces of Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Rios, this species is common along roads and rivers in disturbed areas of the coast.
42751		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found at an elevation range of 0–500 m.
42751		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42752		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42752		distribution	eng	Found within the provinces of Esmeraldas, Manabi, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios.  Currently known from at least six subpopulations, some of them inside cacao plantations and disturbed areas.
42752		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of moist lowland and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 70–1,890 m.
42752		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42753		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in a protected area on the eastern slopes of the Andes.
42753		distribution	eng	Known from two collections, one in the Cantón El Chaco, Sitio Tres Cruces, towards the Mirador in Napo province, and the other 20-30 km from Limón (General Plaza) on the Limón-Gualaceo road, in Morona-Santiago province.
42753		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.
42753		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42754		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network
42754		distribution	eng	Known from one collection from 1943, recorded along the Patul River, between the Hacienda Yubay and the Hacienda San José de Caimotán, near Sanaguín, Azuay province.
42754		habitat	eng	A shrub, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42754		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42755		conservation	eng	Occurs inside the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
42755		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, found within the provinces of Esmeraldas, Guayas, Napo, Orellana and Tungurahua.
42755		habitat	eng	A shrub of moist lowland and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.
42755		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42756		conservation	eng	Protected inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras and in the Jatun Sacha private reserve.
42756		distribution	eng	Known there from six subpopulations distributed in the Oriente and Sierra regions of the Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Pichincha provinces.
42756		habitat	eng	A shrub of amazonian forest and coastal piemontano, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42756		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42757		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42757		distribution	eng	Known only from three old collections, found in the provinces of Guayas, Manabi and Chimborazo.
42757		habitat	eng	A shrub of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–530 m.
42757		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42758		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42758		distribution	eng	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three old collections in Tungurahua province.
42758		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,225–1,800 m.
42758		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42759		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
42759		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, 10 km west of Pedro Cabo, along the river, in coastal Guayas province.
42759		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry coastal forest.
42759		threats	eng	Critically threatened from habitat destruction.  No other specific threats are known.
42760		conservation	eng	Probably protected by Ecuador’s protected areas system, but its presence is not confirmed as yet.
42760		distribution	eng	Widely distributed and known from 13 subpopulations in the Costa, Sierra and Oriente regions.
42760		habitat	eng	A shrub of piemontano coastal and amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.
42760		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42761		conservation	eng	Protected inside the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the southeastern lowlands of Volcán Sumaco, inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
42761		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Amazon region and the eastern section of Tungurahua province.
42761		habitat	eng	A shrub of moist lowland and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 250–2,000 m.
42761		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42762		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42762		distribution	eng	Known from one collection in 1974 in La Punta, 10 km north of Macas in the Arapicos road, Morona-Santiago province.
42762		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.
42762		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42763		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42763		distribution	eng	Known from a single 1939 collection in Pichincha province.
42763		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42763		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42764		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42764		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province: inside the Río Guajalito and La Favorita private reserves and on a section of the Quito-Chiriboga road, between Chiriboga and San Juan.
42764		habitat	eng	A subshrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42764		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42765		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42765		distribution	eng	Known from a single population, discovered in 1939 in the Cordillera de los Llanganates, Río Sangarinas and Río San José valley, Tungurahua province.
42765		habitat	eng	A small shrub of high altitude grassland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
42765		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42766		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42766		distribution	eng	Known from two collections, one in Colonia Regina, 5-6 km northwest of Río Verde, Tungurahua province, and another in Napo province at an unknown locale.
42766		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42766		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42767		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42767		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations: one on the Santa Bárbara-La Bonita road, 25–28 km from Santa Bárbara, along the Río Chingual in Sucumbíos province, and in an unknown locale in the Napo province.
42767		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42767		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42768		conservation	eng	Recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and potentially inside the Cotacachi-Cayapas, Los Ilinizas, Cayambe-Coca and Sumaco-Napo-Galeras protected areas.
42768		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Andes and known from 12 subpopulations.  Found in the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Los Rios and Zamora-Chinchipe.
42768		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–2,500 m.
42768		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42769		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42769		distribution	eng	<em>Draba extensa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
42769		habitat	eng	Habitat described as superparamo (4,000–4,500 m).
42769		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
42770		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42770		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area in the eastern Andes, near the border with Colombia. Two subpopulations have been recorded, the first in 1949 15-18 km off the El Carmelo (El Pun)-Aguarico road, and the second in 1979 40 km off the El Carmelo-La Bonita road.
42770		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42770		threats	eng	New roads have intensified the threat of habitat destruction from logging, mining, and disorganized colonization.
42771		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Several collections have been reported near the Podocarpus, Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.
42771		distribution	eng	Known from 15 subpopulations distributed on both sides of the Andean slopes. Several collections have been reported in western Pichincha province, on the old Quito-Santo Domingo road, and in Napo province, on the Baeza-Tena road.
42771		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of moist forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,500 m.
42771		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42772		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42772		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the eastern Andes. First collected in 1974, 25 km off the Loja-Zamora road, near the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and subsequently recorded in 1985, 16km off the Limón-Gualaceo road.
42772		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42772		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42773		conservation	eng	Several populations of this species are inside the Cayambe-Coca and Podocarpus protected areas.
42773		distribution	eng	Known from at least 28 subpopulations stretching from the coastal lowlands near Patricia Pilar to the Amazonian lowlands near Taisha, in Morona-Santiago.
42773		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of coastal and amazonian forests, found at an elevational range of 0–3,000 m.
42773		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42774		conservation	eng	Subpopulations have been recorded within the Río Guajalito private reserve, Reserva Etnica Awá and within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.  May also occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42774		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations on the northwestern Andean slopes and two subpopulations on the southeastern Andean slope, within the provinces of Carchi, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha.
42774		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree of moist forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,500 m.
42774		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42775		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42775		distribution	eng	Known from 10 subpopulations distributed across a wide geographical and altitudinal range.  It is present within the  provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Morona-Santiago, El Oro and Pichincha.
42775		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of moist forest and high altitude shrubland, found at an elevational range of 0–3,000 m.
42775		threats	eng	Known threats affecting this species are deforestation due to conversion of forest to grasslands and the construction of the Guayaquil-Cuenca road, started 10 years ago.  The wood of this species is also used for "tumbados" (X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz 3256).
42776		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42776		distribution	eng	Known from two collections, the first made in 1936 in the Parroquia de La Concepción, below Playa Rica in Esmeraldas province, and the second in the 1970s at an unknown locale in Pichincha province (possibly in the Montañas de Ila). Both sites have since been converted to grasslands.
42776		habitat	eng	A tree of humid coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42776		threats	eng	Both sites where the collections were made have since been converted to grasslands.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42777		conservation	eng	The species has been reported inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
42777		distribution	eng	Known from at least 25 subpopulations and widely distributed in the country's central and northern Andes. A large number of records come from western Pichincha province, on the old Quito-Santo Domingo road.
42777		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree, found at an elevational range of 500–3,500 m.
42777		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42778		conservation	eng	Several collections have been recorded in or near the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
42778		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations in the Andean region.  Located within the provinces of Carchi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Tungurahua.
42778		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.
42778		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42779		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42779		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a small area in the northeastern Andes and known from threesubpopulations: near Cartagena on the road to La Bonita, in Logma Playa 17km off the Cosanga road, and in Playón de San Francisco on the Santa Bárbara-La Bonita road.
42779		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42779		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42780		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42780		distribution	eng	Last recorded 50 years ago. Known from just three subpopulations: in the Cordillera de Huacamayos, between Baños and Cashurcu, and in Río Allpayacu near Mera.
42780		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,500 m.
42780		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42781		conservation	eng	The locality of this species is now protected by the Parque Nacional Sangay.
42781		distribution	eng	Found only once, in 1944, between the Río Sordo and La Esperanza, on the road to Huamboya.  Additional exploration will probably reveal more subpopulations on the eastern slopes of the Andes.
42781		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42781		threats	eng	The principal threat is habitat destruction through mining and colonization.
42782		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42782		distribution	eng	Known from two isolated collections. The first was reported in 1923, on the southwestern slopes of the Andes, between Portovelo and El Tambo, in El Oro province. A second subpopulation was reported in 1939, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, near the Río Mapoto on the old road to Canelos, in Tungurahua province.
42782		habitat	eng	A shrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.
42782		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42783		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Yasuní
42783		distribution	eng	An aquatic herb endemic to Ecuador, growing both submerged and above the water in black water habitats. Collected only twice in 1979, in the easternmost reaches of the Río Yasuní: in Jatuncocha and close to the community of Yasuní. The size of the local subpopulations is unknown, but considering that the species forms colonies it may be locally abundant.
42783		habitat	eng	An aquatic herb found at the borders of lakes and floating islands in amazonian black water rivers (250–300 m).
42783		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42784		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42784		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, collected by K. Hartweg in the first half of the nineteenth century.
42784		habitat	eng	A vine.
42784		threats	eng	The principal threats are habitat destruction due to grazing and disorganized colonization.
42785		conservation	eng	The location of the collections is known to be within a protected area.
42785		distribution	eng	Known from two collections recorded by Padre L. Sodiro in the Pululahua crater more than 100 years ago. May be confined to the old crater, but could also occur on the western slopes of Mindo valley.
42785		habitat	eng	A vine of Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42785		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42786		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42786		distribution	eng	Discovered by K. Hartweg in the first half of the nineteenth century in Condorurcu, near Loja, and currently distributed from Carchi in the north to Zamora-Chinchipe in the south.
42786		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
42786		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation, wildfires and mining.
42787		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42787		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in the eastern cordillera, at the confluence of the Río Pastaza and Río Topo, and near Mera.
42787		habitat	eng	A vine of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42787		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42788		conservation	eng	Collections have been made within the Parque Nacional Cajas.
42788		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, the type collection recorded in 1880 by K. Lehman is the only record in Chimborazo province. The other subpopulation was recorded in Azuay, and is frequently collected in paramos near Cuenca, including ones inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.
42788		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of grassland found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.
42788		threats	eng	The principal threat is fire set by humans.
42789		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42789		distribution	eng	Known from at least five subpopulations in Andean forest and paramo. The only collections in Pichincha province were recorded at the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century by L. Sodiro on the Corazón and Atacazo volcanoes. The collections from Loja were made along the Loja-Saraguro road, more than 20 years ago. Other collections are from Bolívar and Chimborazo provinces (Neuendorf in Jørgensen and León 1999).
42789		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest and shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42789		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires and grazing in paramos, and mining and colonization in southern Ecuador.
42790		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42790		distribution	eng	Known from at least 10 subpopulations and distributed throughout the interandean valley from Azuay to Pichincha.
42790		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb that is common in the wet paramos of Guamaní, Llanganates and Cajas, where it grows among <em>Polylepis</em> forests, on rocky slopes and especially near lakes. Also occurs in grassy paramos and upper Andean forest.
42790		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42791		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, this species may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa, as they preserve montane forest remnants.
42791		distribution	eng	Known from three records in Pichincha province.
42791		habitat	eng	An endemic vine of montane forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42791		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation, invasive species and habitat fragmentation.
42792		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42792		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations from the Imbabura and Cotopaxi provinces.
42792		habitat	eng	An vine of high Andean forest and grassland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
42792		threats	eng	The principal threats affecting this species are fires and grazing.
42793		conservation	eng	Not known to be within any protected areas.
42793		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from the Pichincha province.
42793		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42793		threats	eng	Conversion of native vegetation to grasslands and pine and eucalyptus plantations.
42794		conservation	eng	Not known to be within any protected areas.
42794		distribution	eng	Known from two records in the Pichincha province.
42794		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
42794		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation, invasive species and habitat fragmentation.
42795		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42795		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations: one in the western cordillera in Pichincha province, another on the border between Carchi and Napo provinces, and the third in an unknown locale of Imbabura province.
42795		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
42795		threats	eng	Fires and conversion of paramo to grasslands and pine and eucalyptus plantations.
42796		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42796		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection.  The only available information indicates that the record is from upper Andean forest in the Zamora province.
42796		habitat	eng	A vine of upper Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42796		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42797		conservation	eng	Recorded within the Parque Nacional Llanganates.
42797		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations within the Pichincha and Carchi province.
42797		habitat	eng	A vine of wet and swampy areas in lower and upper Andean forests, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.
42797		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42798		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42798		distribution	eng	Occurs along the Saraguro-Tena road and in the shrubby paramo in Loma de Oro, south of Saraguro. The most recent collection, from 1987, is from the road from General Plaza Gutierrez (Limón) to Cuenca, on the borders of Morona-Santiago province.
42798		habitat	eng	A vine confined to the upper Andean forests, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
42798		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42799		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42799		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of southern Ecuador. where seven subpopulations have been registered in the provinces of Guayas, Loja and Manabí.
42799		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of the coast and dry valleys , found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42799		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat, especially the coastal populations.
42800		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42800		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in widely separated locales in the Andes. The first was made on slopes with dry vegetation along the Pasaje-Santa Isabel-Girón road in the Río Jubones valley. Two later collections were reported in different habitats, in Pilaló and at the Hacienda Leito, near Patate.
42800		habitat	eng	A shrub, found at an elevational range of 500–3,000 m.
42800		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42801		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42801		distribution	eng	Currently known from two populations in the provinces of Chimborazo and Loja. The first population is in the semi-deciduous forests at km 12-15 of the Alamor-Puyango road and the second in the paramos near the Alausí-Parque Guamote road.
42801		habitat	eng	A liana of semi-deciduous forests and paramos, found at an elevational range of 500–3500 m.
42801		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42802		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42802		distribution	eng	Found in the provinces of Esmeradas, Guayas, Manabí and Los Ríos.
42802		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of coastal lowland forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42802		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42803		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42803		distribution	eng	A vine endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single population discovered in 1985, 3 km north of Julio Moreno (currently Simón Bolívar), on the Santa Elena peninsula, in Guayas province.
42803		habitat	eng	A vine of dry coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–300 m.
42803		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42804		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but recorded in the ENDESA private reserve and may occur in the lower area of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
42804		distribution	eng	This endemic species has a geographical distribution is approximately 400 km².
42804		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of coastal and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.
42804		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known
42805		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42805		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations within the Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo and El Oro provinces.  Additional subpopulations may occur in coastal forest and in lower dry inter-Andean valleys, in rocky canyons and dry areas.
42805		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb, found at an elevation of 0–1,500 m.
42805		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42806		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42806		distribution	eng	Subpopulations occur in Cotopaxi province at Tenefuerte, in Azuay province at Loma de la Plata, and in Pichincha at 70 km off the Chiriboga road.
42806		habitat	eng	A terestrial herb of low Andean forest, preferring wet environments and found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.
42806		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42807		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42807		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations within the
42807		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry coastal and inter-Andean vegetation.
42807		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are agriculture and mining.
42808		conservation	eng	Not known to be within any protected areas.
42808		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection 43 km on the Loja-Zamora road, Zamora province.
42808		habitat	eng	A herb of low Andean forest.
42808		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42809		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42809		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, with at least 100 individuals in each, in the dry valley of the Río Mira between Imbabura and Carchi provinces.
42809		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of subtropical/tropical dry Andean vegetation, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42809		threats	eng	Principal threats are agriculture and grazing.
42810		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42810		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations located within the Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Chimborazo provinces.
42810		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of mainly dry and rocky roadsides of the Andes.
42810		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42811		conservation	eng	Three populations occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, all in disturbed areas of the Parque Nacional Sangay.
42811		distribution	eng	For more than a decade, the species was known from a single collection. An intensive search in 1998–1999 revealed six new subpopulations, within the provinces of Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago.  Each subpopulation has 500 clumped individuals in an area less than 100 m².
42811		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of cropland and pastures, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42811		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42812		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42812		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua.
42812		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found at an elevational range of 2,000–4,000 m, mostly in disturbed areas and along roads in dry, inter-Andean valleys.
42812		threats	eng	May be affected by agriculture and grazing.
42813		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42813		distribution	eng	Despite intensive searches in 1998-1999, this species is still restricted to the Pastaza river valley in the province of Tungurahua. Subpopulations are found from the Bascún stream on the slopes of Tungurahua volcano to the Río Negro on the Baños-Puyo road, where it forms clumps of fewer than 100 individuals.
42813		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb that inhabits disturbed areas like roadsides, pastures and cliffs.
42813		threats	eng	Some subpopulations have been affected by the widening of the Baños-Puyo road. Another potential threat is commercial exploitation as ornamental plants.
42814		conservation	eng	Subpopulations are known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
42814		distribution	eng	At least five subpopulations occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, with at least 100 individuals in each subpopulation.
42814		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb with an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42814		threats	eng	The principal threats are agriculture, grazing and trade in the plant as an ornamental outside Ecuador, as well as human population increase inside the Pululahua reserve.
42815		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42815		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, occupying the surroundings of the Parque Nacional Machalilla on the coast, to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus in the Andes.
42815		habitat	eng	A deciduous tree or treelet that has an elevational range of 280–2,500 m.
42815		threats	eng	Forest fragmentation, habitat loss and degradation.   In Manabí province, <em>M. membranifolia</em> has been heavily used and is considered high-quality firewood for the ovens that Pilas region uses for making ceramics (C. Bonifaz, pers. obs.).
42816		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42816		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in the southwest of the Reserva Etnica Awá, in Carchi province: the first is located  20 km off the Lita-Alto Tambo road, the second between San Marcos de los Coaiqueres and Gualpi Medio, and the third in Camumbi.
42816		habitat	eng	A tree of coastal and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 250–2,000 m.
42816		threats	eng	The principal threats are colonization and logging.
42817		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42817		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Ecuador’s wet coastal forests, known only from a 1995 collection by E. Asplund in Cerro Azul, Guayas province.
42817		habitat	eng	A tree of humid coastal forest, found at an elevational of 200 m.
42817		threats	eng	The collection site is currently a working quarry.
42818		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42818		distribution	eng	Perhaps the only South American liana in this family. Known only from the collection of C. Dodson and A. Gentry, made during the botanical inventory of the Jauneche private reserve (70 km off the Quevedo-Palenque road through Mocachi, cantón Vinces) in the 1980s.
42818		habitat	eng	A vine of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational of 100 m.
42818		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42819		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42819		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the Parroquia Jama of Manabí province: at the Hacienda El Recreo, close to Canoa; at the Hacienda San Juan; and in an unknown locale.
42819		habitat	eng	This tree can be locally abundant in wet micro-habitats within dry coastal forest.  Found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42819		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42820		conservation	eng	Most of the five populations of this species are found within protected areas.
42820		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, most of them within protected areas. Common in the higher regions of the Bosque Protector Loma Alta, in the Cordillera Chongón Colonche (X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz, pers. comms.). Other subpopulations occur within the Cotacachi-Cayapas and Mache-Chindul protected areas.
42820		habitat	eng	<em>A. oligocarpa</em> produces bird-dispersed fruit during June and July.
42820		threats	eng	The principal threat is the large-scale deforestation and conversion of coastal forest to croplands over the last 50 years. Another potential threat is the forest conversion to Panama hat plant plantations, a common soil use in the Cordillera Chongón Colonche.
42821		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
42821		distribution	eng	<em>Cardamine lojanensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two subpopulations in Loja province.
42821		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m)
42821		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
42822		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42822		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the central Amazon region, one in Zatzayacu, in Pastaza province, and two on a river bank between Tena and Archidona, in Napo province.
42822		habitat	eng	A tree of Amazonian mainland forest, found at an elevational range of 400–500 m.
42822		threats	eng	Possibly affected by the extensive colonization and alteration of the area between Archidona and Tena since the collection date.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42823		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42823		distribution	eng	Known from one collection by the Spanish botanist J. Tafalla in Guayaquil between 1778 and 1788, and another by H. Eggers a century later.
42823		habitat	eng	A tree of wet coastal forests, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42823		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42824		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42824		distribution	eng	endemic to Ecuador’s . Known only from R. Rose’s 1918 collection in Portovelo, El Oro province.
42824		habitat	eng	A tree or shrub of wet coastal foothills, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42824		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42825		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42825		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the type locale (Pomona, 2 km northeast of Mera and surroundings) in 1940, 1956 and 1985.
42825		habitat	eng	A tree of amazonian forest, found at an elevation of 1,100 m.
42825		threats	eng	The principal threats are human settlements, road construction near the park and mining.
42826		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42826		distribution	eng	Known only from two old collections that were made in a locality named Pallatanga, but apparently the Sodiro collection is from Pallatanga in Chimborazo province and the Mejia collection from Pallatanga near Santa Rosa in the Cantón Pujilí of Cotopaxi province.
42826		habitat	eng	A tree of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42826		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42827		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42827		distribution	eng	Recorded in many collections from the provinces of Guayas, Manabí and Los Rios.
42827		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of wet and dry coastal forests, preferring wet micro-habitats close to creeks.  Found at an elevational range of 0–600 m.
42827		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation and colonization of Ecuador's coastal forest has been considered a threat to this species.
42828		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur within the Parque Nacional Machalilla.
42828		distribution	eng	Four subpopulations are known, some in the San Sebastian region, near Agua Blanca in the Parque Nacional Machalilla, and some in the Cordillera de Chongón and Cordillera de Colonche (X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz, pers. comms.).
42828		habitat	eng	A tree of wet and deciduous forest, found at an elevational range of 0–850 m.
42828		threats	eng	Potential threats are deforestation and conversion of forest to croplands.
42829		conservation	eng	Collections of this species have been made within the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
42829		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Amazon region. Known from 32 collections within the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe.
42829		habitat	eng	A tree of mainland and low Andean forest.  Found at an elevational range of 250–1,800 m.
42829		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation, mining, human settlements, road construction and oil concessions.
42830		conservation	eng	An urgent search for this species is needed on the road that leads from Pallatanga to Hacienda Panza.
42830		distribution	eng	<em>Tournefortia stenosepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one collection in Cañar province.
42830		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).
42830		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
42833		conservation	eng	None needed at present.
42833		distribution	eng	Assessment limited to the New Guinea subppulation only.
42833		habitat	eng	A small, slender shark of up to about 1 m total length (TL). At Heron Island Reef, Queensland, individuals did not exceed 76 cm TL and a mass of 900 g (n = 497). A species that is commonly encountered in shallow coral reef waters. It is well camouflaged and can been observed foraging over reef flats. Its activity pattern is affected by a combination of suitable tidal and light conditions: It is more active at low water and, although epaulette sharks can be found actively hunting during daylight hours, it is more active after dark and particularly around dawn or dusk.  The diet comprises a variety of benthic organisms that it takes from the surface of the substrate or, by burying its head into the substrate, from a few centimetres below the surface (Heupel and Bennett 1998). Annelids and crabs account for the majority of the diet in this species, although there is a degree of ontogenetic shift in dietary preference, with shrimps becoming a more important part of the adult diet (Heupel and Bennett 1998). At rest sharks commonly hide in or beneath coral heads. If in the open, they orient themselves with their head into the oncoming water stream, presumably for station-holding and possibly for prey/threat detection (Peach 2002). <br/> <br/>An oviparous species with males and females maturing at 54 to 62 cm TL. Mating probably occur between July and November, with females carrying eggcases found between August and December, although in captivity they have been noted to breed continuously (West and Carter 1990). Two egg capsules are produced and deposited among coral at night. A pair of egg capsules may be produced every 14 days, resulting in up to about 20 potential offspring per female per annum. Eggs hatch after about 120 days with young at 14 to 16 cm TL. Subsequent growth is initially slow, but reaches about five cm year-1 after about three months  (West and Carter 1990). Epaulette sharks descend into deeper water between coral reefs and have been found at depths of at least 40 m. The species is hypoxia tolerant and is able to survive in anoxic waters. This trait is important as this shark is often found in shallow (<em>ca</em> 15 cm deep), warm (<em>ca</em> 30°C) waters that become severely hypoxic during the night. This trait may enable this species to survive in areas of poor water quality, such as mining run-off in New Guinea.
42833		population	eng	The population size and details of the range of this subpopulation are unknown.
42833		threats	eng	Around New Guinea the species is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs from dynamite fishing and pollution. These processes are likely causing declines in all hemiscyllid species occurring around New Guinea, however quantitative data are not available. The wider distribution of <em>H. ocellatum</em> compared with other endemic <em>Hemiscyllium</em> spp. and the fact that the species is abundant in Australian waters means the species is not threatened with extinction on a global basis. However, given the pressures facing all hemiscyllid sharks around New Guinea, the status of the species requires close monitoring.
42834		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
42834		distribution	eng	Assessment restricted to Southeast Asia subpopulation only.
42834		habitat	eng	Occurs in tropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters near the bottom; often found on and around coral reefs and on sandy plateaus near coral, at depths down to at least 30 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). Often found inside coral lagoons but also on reef flats and reef edges (Stevens 1984). It is also known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries (W.White, pers.comm.). Out of 143 animals tagged at 43 sites by Stevens (1984), 19 individuals were recaptured (14.5%) of which 5 were caught more than once. These data showed that 52% of recoveries were made at the tagging site, 83% within 1 km of tagging site and 91% within 2 km. The average distance moved by individuals was 1.3 km (excluding those animals that did not move from tagging site) and the maximum distance traveled was 5 km. <br/> <br/>Gestation period: 10 to 11 months <br/>Reproductive periodicity: 2 years <br/>Size at birth: 60 cm TL <br/>Average litter size: 9.3 (6 to 12) <br/>Size male maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Size female maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Max size: 300 cm TL <br/>Growth rates, Juveniles: 12.5 to 15.5 cm/yr
42834		threats	eng	Threats from inshore fisheries are high outside Australian waters, particularly Southeast Asia, where these sharks are captured by gillnets and longlines. They are particularly susceptible to local depletion due their very small habitat range and limited movement patterns (Stevens 1984).  This species is also likely to be affected by habitat destruction, particularly in South East Asia. For example, extensive coral reef habitat destruction (pollution and dynamite fishing), in addition, this species is known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries, many of which have been deforested or are heavily populated by humans throughout its range (W. White, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Although they are still recorded, albeit very infrequently within Indonesia (W. White, pers. comm.), evidence suggests <em>N. acutidens</em> was historically more abundant, and have not been seen for several years in some areas. For example, in a preliminary survey of market catches around Bali, no <em>N. acutidens</em> were recorded, and jaws held in the fisheries centre in Jakarta that were several years old were the only evidence that this species was once caught in the region (William White, pers. comm.). Furthermore, evidence of local extinctions in India and Thailand (L. J. V. Compagno, pers. comm.) indicates that this species is extremely susceptible to local inshore fisheries.
42835		conservation	eng	Protected Species in NSW Waters (since 1984). <br/> <br/>In Australia, more study is needed to accurately determine the distributional range, abundance and biology (including possible migrations, sex ratios, fecundity, etc.) of this species.  <br/> <br/>Any dead specimens landed by commercial fishing (especially trawling) operations should be retained and delivered to the nearest relevant research organisation, so that more biological information can be obtained. <br/> <br/>Reported by divers in Cocos-Keeling Islands (Aust.) and also other areas such as the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand) the Mediterranean and Malpelo Island off Columbia. Such community-based dive observations or monitoring may be of use in obtaining information on its biology and knowledge of important habitats in shallow waters. <br/> <br/>There is now more evidence that coastal locations are frequented by mature <em>O. ferox</em> on a repetitive seasonal basis, possibly for reproduction.  Where identified, these sites deserve stringent protection.  <br/> <br/>Development of bycatch mitigation measures such as trawl exclusion devices should be undertaken in relevant fisheries.
42835		distribution	eng	Important sites in Australia occur off New South Wales on the shelf and upper slope of the south coast
42835		habitat	eng	<em>Odontaspis ferox</em> lives on or closely associated with the bottom in deep waters along continental and insular shelves and upper slopes (Last and Stevens 1994) to depths to about 850 m (K. Graham, pers. comm). It is occasionally found in shallower water (Last and Stevens 1994). Hutchins filmed underwater video of an individual in 20 m of water at the Cocos-Keeling Islands (B. Hutchins, pers. comm., cited in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). There are at least three records from pelagic zones in open waters of the Indian Ocean (Bonfil 1995.) An active-swimming offshore shark, caught and seen as individuals and in small groups (Compagno 2001).  <br/> <br/>Little is known of the biology of this shark. Its reproduction is presumably similar to that of the grey nurse shark (<em>C. taurus</em>). Compagno (2001) cites an observation which suggests the species practices uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy. <br/> <br/>Size at birth is over 105 cm and males mature at about 275 cm (Compagno 1984). In Australian waters, this species is born at over 100 cm and attains at least 360 cm, but the size at maturity here is unknown (Last and Stevens 1994). A 2.7 m female specimen caught off the Sydney area was judged to be immature, as there was no sign of ovarian development (K. Graham, pers. comm., cited in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Compagno (2001) cites a maximum total length of at least 410 cm and possibly larger; males mature at 275 cm, females at 364 cm. The large oily liver probably has a hydrostatic function (Last and Stevens 1994), and may help the shark to maintain neutral buoyancy while swimming. Stomachs examined have contained small bony fish, cephalopods, crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994) and small squalid dogfish. A very large <em>O. ferox</em> trawled on the Norfolk Ridge north of New Zealand in 1997 was found to contain a 200 cm seal shark in its stomach. The above information suggests that this species is an opportunistic carnivore (Stewart 1997, cited in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Dentition suggests a more uniform diet of softer prey than in <em>C. taurus</em> (Compagno 2001).
42835		threats	eng	Commercial fishing, whereby this species is taken incidentally, on the outer continental shelf and continental slope is a potential threat to its survival in south-eastern Australian waters. <br/> <br/>From the available information, <em>O. ferox</em> was never abundant off NSW, but there is strong evidence that numbers seriously declined between 1972 and 1997. Of the 35 specimens caught by the NSW Fisheries Research Vessel Kapala, 33 were caught between 1975 and 1981 (from 500 slope trawl tows), but only two were taken from about 250 trawl tows made between 1982 and 1997 (K. Graham, pers. comm. cited in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).   <br/> <br/>The NSW upper slope trawl grounds were again surveyed in 1996-97 and the results compared to those from an initial survey made in 1976-77 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997). Twelve captures (14 sharks) were made during 246 tows in 1976-77, but only a single juvenile was caught during 165 tows made in 1996-97.  Although considered in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) as Near Threatened, based on available NSW catch data reassessment to Vulnerable is warranted in Australia. <br/> <br/>There has been limited take for aquarium display (Kelly Tarlton’s Aquarium at Auckland NZ) but  this species was not successfully kept in captivity.
42838		conservation	eng	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the combined catch of <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes to a maximum of 150 kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus moluccensis</em> has also been nominated for listing as a Vulnerable species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Vulnerable, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a five-year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).
42838		distribution	eng	The taxonomy of <em>Centrophorus</em> species in Australia needs further attention and this species may also warrant closer examination of its distribution and populations. It is still to be determined whether <em>C. moluccensis</em> may in fact be a different (related) species in South Africa, Taiwan, and elsewhere from that known from the Australasia region (D. Ebert, pers.comm., April 2003). In addition, records from the Great Australian Bight (SA) and Tasmania require further investigation.
42838		habitat	eng	Demersal on the outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes in 125 to 820 m, but in Australian waters most common in 300 to 500 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Ovoviviparous, mostly with litters of two pups (Last and Stevens 1994). The diet of this species consists of bony fishes, cephalopods, elasmobranchs and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994). Resilience is very low, minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Fishbase). Males mature at 69 to 73 cm and reach 86 cm and females mature at about 88 cm and reach 98 cm (Compagno 1984, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Born at about 31 to 37 cm (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). The low fecundity, high longevity (closely related species live for at least 46 years according to preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).
42838		population	eng	The population size (although suspected to be small on the east coast) and number and size of subpopulations is unknown. Given the susceptibility of <em>Centrophorus</em> species to overfishing all remaining populations of this species need to be conserved.
42838		threats	eng	The species is fished throughout its entire depth range on the east coast of Australia.  <br/> <br/>1) Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery) in NSW, eastern Victoria and SA (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/>2) Droplining off NSW (NSW Fisheries jurisdiction) <br/>3) South-East Non-Trawl Fishery (SE Australia) <br/> <br/>Documented declines of over 95% between 1976-77 and 1996-97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo I. Area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al.</em> 1997). Catches in the abovementioned areas in 220-605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 12.3 kg/h in 1976-77 to a mean of 0.2 kg/h in 1996-97. The populations of this species in WA waters have not been overfished like those along the east coast of Australia.  <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).
42840		conservation	eng	Further searches are urgently required. Removal of alien invasive trees, particularly <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>, should continue. Translocation to a protected area should be considered as this species is highly threatened and currently does not occur in a protected area. Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
42840		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to South Africa. It was formerly known from a few isolated localities in the Amatola-Winterberg region of the eastern Cape. Today it is only known from two sites on the Kubusi River in the vicinity of Stutterheim.
42840		habitat	eng	Shallow, clear, rocky streams and rivers with wooded banks.
42840		population	eng	The current population size is estimated to be at less than 1,000 (per generation) and declining. At the two known sites, population levels are low, numbering no more than 30 or so individuals (Samways 2006 in press). However, it is suspected that other populations exist in the area but have to be discovered, hence it is estimate of less than 1,000.
42840		threats	eng	There are multiple synergistic threats to this species, including loss of habitat principally through cattle farming, alien invasive trees shading the habitat (especially <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>), pollution of the Kubusi River due to domestic run-off and siltation of the stream. The introduced rainbow trout (<em>Onycorhynchus mykiss</em>) may also be a threat.
42841		conservation	eng	No information available.
42841		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
42841		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Buda forest (south-east Kenya), Mkuwadzi Forest at Nkhata Bay (Malawi) and Rufiji Delta, Zanzibar and Pemba Island (Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, the species has a disjunct distribution: south-east Malawi, Seychelles, Madagascar, south-east Kenya, east Tanzania.
42841		distribution	eng	The species has a disjunct distribution: south-east Malawi, Seychelles, Madagascar, south-east Kenya, east Tanzania. In Est Africa it has been recorded from Buda forest (south-east Kenya), Mkuwadzi Forest at Nkhata Bay (Malawi) and Rufiji Delta, Zanzibar and Pemba Island (Tanzania).  <br/> <br/>In the Seychelles, it is known from the islands of Silhouette and Mahé at both low and high elevations (Blackman and Pinhey 1967, ). This species is very scarce.
42841		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southeast Malawi, Seychelles, Madagascar, southeast Kenya, east Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Buda forest (south-east Kenya), Mkuwadzi Forest at Nkhata Bay (Malawi) and Rufiji Delta, Zanzibar and Pemba Island (Tanzania).
42841		habitat	eng	Dense coastal swamp forests (often seasonal).
42841		habitat	eng	Dense coastal swamp forests (often seasonal). Clear streams in forest. In 1997 the species was recorded in <em>Terminalia</em> forest at sea level (Samways pers. comm.).
42841		habitat	eng	Found in dense coastal swamp forests (often seasonal).
42841		population	eng	No information available.
42841		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
42841		threats	eng	Destruction of coastal swamp forest, on the African mainland most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.
42841		threats	eng	Habitat removal for agriculture is probably the biggest threat. Destruction of coastal swamp forest: on the African mainland most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.
42843		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur within any protected areas. More searches are required to discover further subpopulations, especially in reserves. Fencing off portions of the riverbank is recommended. Translocation to a reserve is also a consideration. Removal of alien invasive trees has greatly benefited this species, as the 2001 Mpumalanga site was formerly invaded by <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>. Indeed, it is only known from this restored site.
42843		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. The type series is from Nqutu, KwaZulu-Natal (Pinhey 1962) but the species has not been rediscovered in the area. This area is now heavily grazed by livestock. Prior to 1962, there are isolated records from the Western Cape, eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, although the Cape records are doubtful taxonomically. After intensive searches over many years, the species was only rediscovered (at 1,300 m asl) in January 2001, in Mpumalanga by M.J. Samways.
42843		habitat	eng	Fine grasses and reeds lining swift, clear, upland rivers (Samways 2006 in press).
42843		population	eng	Population size is estimated to be around 2,000 (per generation) and currently stable.
42843		threats	eng	With more extensive and intensive livestock pressure, the grasses on the banks of rivers have become increasingly cropped and trampled. This may be synergistic with other impacts such as the growth of alien invasive riparian vegetation. The type locality is highly threatened as a result of the above factors. However, the population appears to be stabilized and it is also suspected that it is present at other localities, where it has not yet been discovered.
42845		conservation	eng	Currently it occurs in the Limietberge National Reserve. Searches for <em>C. triceraticus</em> must continue, to establish whether it exists in more protected areas. Ongoing removal of alien trees is likely to be of great benefit to this species. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
42845		distribution	eng	This endemic South African species has a wide range throughout the Western Cape (Pinhey 1984b). It was discovered in 1962 (Balinsky 1963) and very few specimens are known. As it is a large and conspicuous insect, and is not easily overlooked, it must be extremely scarce. Despite many revisits to the type locality, near Franschhoek, the species has not been rediscovered there, although it has recently been discovered in the Cedarberg and Bainskloof, where invasive trees have been cleared. Its extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
42845		habitat	eng	Pools in streams, and occasionally in reservoirs. Rocky, shallow rivers, with deposition pools, and possibly farm dams (Samways 2006).
42845		population	eng	Current population size is not known.
42845		threats	eng	This species faces many threats, which are probably synergistic, including a severe alien invasive tree problem, and loss of habitat to the wine industry and, to a lesser extent, cattle farming and plantation forestry. Over-extraction of water from streams and possibly pollution from the wine industry are increasing threats. Alien invasive trout may also be a problem.
42848		conservation	eng	Subpopulations have been recorded within the Parque Nacional Yasuní.
42848		distribution	eng	Known from only two subpopulations recorded in the Parque Nacional Yasuní (14–15km off Maxus and Añangu road), Orellana province.
42848		habitat	eng	A tree of mainland amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 250–450 m.
42848		threats	eng	The principal threats are oil exploitation and colonization due to road construction.
42849		conservation	eng	Collections have been recorded within the Parque Nacional Yansuní and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno.
42849		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations, widely distributed in the Amazon region.
42849		habitat	eng	A tree of  terra firme forest and wetlands.
42849		threats	eng	The principal threats are oil exploitation, road building, deforestation and colonization.
42850		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje.
42850		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations on the northern coast and in Amazon lowlands of Esmeraldas, Los Ríos and Sucumbios provinces.
42850		habitat	eng	A tree of lowland forest, found at an elevational range of 250–500 m.
42850		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42851		conservation	eng	Collections have been made with a protected area.
42851		distribution	eng	Described from two recent collections in the Reserva Etnica Awá.
42851		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of wet coastal and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 250–2000 m.
42851		threats	eng	The area is still well preserved but some areas are being severely deforested.
42852		distribution	eng	The original publication does not clarify if the species is from Colombia or Ecuador.  Only known from type, this species is thought to have been collected from the province of Loja or Zamora-Chinchipe.
42852		habitat	eng	A liana.
42852		threats	eng	Possibly habitat destruction.
42853		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42853		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations in the coastal foothills of the Andes. The southernmost subpopulation was recorded in the Ila mountains (near Patricia Pilar, between Los Ríos and Pichincha, now a very disturbed locale) and the northernmost one in Ventanas, Esmeraldas province. The other subpopulations occur in the watersheds of the Cayapas and San Miguel rivers. The Esmeraldas collections have been made in both primary and secondary forest.
42853		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of the coastal foothills of the Andes, found at an elevational range of 0–600 m.
42853		threats	eng	The principal threat is the large-scale deforestation of Ecuador's northwestern forests over the last 50 years.
42854		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42854		distribution	eng	Known from two old collections, both of them in Azuay province and dated in 1918 and 1945 respectively.
42854		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forests (2,300–2,635 m).
42854		threats	eng	Much of Azuay's forest is currently fragmented.
42855		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42855		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected by W. Jameson within the province of Loja.
42855		habitat	eng	A vine found at around 2,000 m.
42855		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation for agriculture and cattle, leaving this vine without a support.
42856		conservation	eng	This species is known to be present within the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
42856		distribution	eng	Known from three collections made over 200 years within the Guayas and Manabí provinces.
42856		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of dry coastal semi-deciduous forest (0–500 m).
42856		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is deforestation.
42857		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42857		distribution	eng	Known from two old collections made 300 km and thirty years apart. One was made in Balao, Guayas province; the other along a forest edge in Tandapi, Pichincha province.
42857		habitat	eng	A vine of dry coastal and Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–2,000 m.
42857		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42858		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42858		distribution	eng	Known from at least six collections within the provinces of Esmeraldas, Manabí, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
42858		habitat	eng	A vine of coastal Andean foothills, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42858		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42859		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42859		distribution	eng	Known only from type, collected in Balao, Guayas Province.
42859		habitat	eng	A vine of dry coastal vegetation, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42859		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42860		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42860		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Guallupe, Imbabura province.
42860		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42860		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42861		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42861		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Playa Rica, Esmeraldas province.
42861		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42861		threats	eng	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands.
42862		conservation	eng	The locale is not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
42862		distribution	eng	Discovered by L. Sodiro in 1900, between Cachabí river and Alto Tambo, in Esmeraldas province, and still common in the area today.
42862		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic herb, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42862		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42863		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42863		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection from the Guayas province.
42863		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found at an elevation of 200 m
42863		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42864		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to be within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
42864		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations widely distributed in the coastal, Andes, and Amazon regions.
42864		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of humid coastal and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,500 m.
42864		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42865		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42865		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations on the western and eastern slopes of the Andes.
42865		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian and Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 450–3500 m.
42865		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42866		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42866		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected by L. Sodiro in 1901 in Cerro Atacazo, near Quito.
42866		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest (1500–2000 m).
42866		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42867		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42867		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations. The type was collected in the Río Cañar valley and more recent collections are from the Río San Juan and in an unknown locale in Esmeraldas province.
42867		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.
42867		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42868		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42868		distribution	eng	Known from 14 subpopulations within the provinces of Cañar, Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
42868		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42868		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42869		conservation	eng	This species was collected from an area that is now part of the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
42869		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Pululahua-Yanahurco.
42869		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic herb of  Andean forest and vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
42869		threats	eng	The principal threat is its proximity to Quito.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42870		conservation	eng	Type was collected within an area that is now part of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
42870		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Pangua area within the province of Cotopaxi.
42870		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42870		threats	eng	The principal threats are grazing and fires.
42871		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42871		distribution	eng	Known from two populations: the type, collected near General Elizalde (Bucay), and another near the bridge over the Río San Francisco to the north of Pucuyacu.
42871		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal and coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 510–690 m.
42871		threats	eng	The native vegetation in both locales is fragmented and reduced.
42872		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
42872		distribution	eng	Known from four widely scattered subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.
42872		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42872		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42873		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42873		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Cordillera de Cutucú, along Aguano Yaupi, within the Morona-Santiago Province.
42873		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42873		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42874		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42874		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected within the ENDESA private reserve, Pichincha province.
42874		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42874		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42875		conservation	eng	The historical locale is inside the buffer zone of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and may occur inside the reserve.
42875		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected between Cachabí and Alto Tambo, Esmeraldas province.
42875		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42875		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42876		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42876		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations distributed on both sides of the cordillera. The type was collected along the road between Alausí and El Triunfo, 6.9 km from Huigra. Also collected on the banks of the Río Chanchán.
42876		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian mainland forest to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,500 m.
42876		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42877		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42877		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Río Masfa, Napo province.
42877		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42877		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42878		conservation	eng	May occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay or its buffer zone.
42878		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the Tungurahua volcano.
42878		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42878		threats	eng	The principal threats are natural events related to this active volcano.
42879		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42879		distribution	eng	Known from one population collected in western forests near Tandapi in the Río Pilatón, Pichincha province.
42879		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42879		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42880		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42880		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, recorded in San Carlos de los Colorados, Pichincha province.
42880		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 200–500 m.
42880		threats	eng	Forests in the locale have been almost completely destroyed.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42881		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42881		distribution	eng	Known from a single century-old record, near Gualea, of L. Sodiro, Pichincha province.
42881		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42881		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are know
42882		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42882		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in San Lucas, Loja province.
42882		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
42882		threats	eng	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands, grazing and fires.
42883		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42883		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in an unknown locale in Esmeraldas province.
42883		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m <br/>.
42883		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42884		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42884		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected at the confluence of the Ríos Toachi and Pilatón, Pichincha province.
42884		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m
42884		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42885		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42885		distribution	eng	Known from at least eight subpopulations within the Pichincha province.
42885		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of cloud forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42885		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42886		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42886		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected within the Guayas province.
42886		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal forest.
42886		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42887		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42887		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, one in Puyo and the other in Pastaza.
42887		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian foothills, at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42887		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42888		conservation	eng	The locale is inside the buffer zone of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42888		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Alto Tambo, Esmeraldas province.
42888		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42888		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42889		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42889		distribution	eng	Known from only two subpopulations within the Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
42889		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.
42889		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42890		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42890		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the Atacazo volcano, south of Quito, Pichincha province.
42890		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42890		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42891		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may grow in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas or the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
42891		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province: one on the Río Pilatón, and two others in unspecified locales.
42891		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of humid coastal forest,  found at an elevational range of 500–1000 m.
42891		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42892		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Sangay.
42892		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations, two of them reported on the Tungurahua volcano. The third subpopulation occurs in an unspecified locale within the Pichincha province.
42892		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest,  found at an elevational range of 1,500–3,000 m.
42892		threats	eng	The principal threats are eruption events related to the active Tungurahua volcano. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42893		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42893		distribution	eng	Known only from type, collected from his Hacienda El Recreo (near Canoa), within the province of Manabí.
42893		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–200 m.
42893		threats	eng	Massive alteration of coastal forests.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42894		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42894		distribution	eng	Known from at least five subpopulations mostly from the Lita-San Lorenzo region, inside the Reserva Etnica Awá. The species has also been recorded in Santo Domingo and at 52-53 km  off the Quevedo-Latacunga road.
42894		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothills, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42894		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42895		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42895		distribution	eng	Known only from the type that was collected on the slopes of Pichincha volcano.
42895		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42895		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42896		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42896		distribution	eng	Widely distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, with at least 20 reported collections.  Cultivated in Brazil (Croat 62037).
42896		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42896		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42897		conservation	eng	Subpopulations occur inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
42897		distribution	eng	Known from at least 16 subpopulations widely distributed on both eastern and western slopes of the Andes. The largest number of collections come from Napo and Pastaza provinces.
42897		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,000 m.
42897		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42898		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42898		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations. The type was collected without information of locale, province or date. The other subpopulation was reported from the Pallatanga valley, near San Jorge.
42898		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42898		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42899		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42899		distribution	eng	Known from 22 subpopulations. Located within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Morona-Santiago, Pinchincha and Los Ríos.  The Pichincha and Los Ríos province populations are confined to the area between Patricia Pilar, El Centinela and the Ila mountains.
42899		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal to low Andean forest,  found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42899		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42900		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42900		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the Lita river, Esmeraldas province.
42900		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42900		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42901		conservation	eng	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42901		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the banks of the Cachabí river, between Imbabura and Esmeraldas provinces.
42901		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42901		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42902		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42902		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in an unspecified locale of Guayas.
42902		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42902		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42903		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42903		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected between Paramba and Penanegra, Imbabura province.
42903		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest.
42903		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42904		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
42904		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations. The type was collected in 1976 in the Cordillera de Cutucú. Two other subpopulations occur in Zamora-Chinchipe and one in Pastaza.  May occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
42904		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500? m).
42904		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42905		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42905		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations in Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces. All but two are in Pichincha, between Quito and Chiriboga, between Nono and Tandayapa, and close to Alluriquin. Can be observed growing on the rocky walls of the Aloag-Santo Domingo road, very close to San Antonio del Toachi.
42905		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic herb of coastal forest to low and high Andean forest (500–3,500 m).
42905		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42906		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42906		distribution	eng	Known from two old collections, one in Angamarca, and the other in an unspecified locale.
42906		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
42906		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42907		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42907		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations, none of them inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. The type was collected in the ENDESA private reserve, at 113 km off the Quito-Puerto Quito road. The second subpopulation was recorded in an unknown locale and the third in the Parroquia Tobar Donoso.
42907		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal to coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).
42907		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42908		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42908		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations within the Pichincha province. One was collected in "subtropical forests" of San Nicolás and the second was collected in the ENDESA private reserve.
42908		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal to coastal foothill forest (500–2,000 m).
42908		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42909		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42909		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations, most of them in Pichincha province.
42909		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest to high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,500 m.
42909		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42910		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42910		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations distributed within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas and Pinchincha. The species is common in the ENDESA private reserve, where it forms colonies.
42910		habitat	eng	An terrestrial herb of wet coastal forest on the western slopes of the Andes, found at an elevational range of 500-1,000 m.
42910		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42911		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42911		distribution	eng	Known from 11 subpopulations, distributed exclusively on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas and Pinchincha.
42911		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest to high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–3,500 m.
42911		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42912		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42912		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected between the Río Cachabí and the Río Lita, Esmeraldas province.
42912		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, collected from an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42912		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42913		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42913		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected more than 100 years ago between Nanegal and Gualea, Pichincha province.
42913		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, collected from an elevational range of 1,000–1500 m.
42913		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42914		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42914		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations in the southern Andes. The Loja subpopulations are in the Cantón Celica, in Zapotillo heading towards Pozul, and in Celica heading towards Alamor. A 1991 collection from Morona-Santiago has no locale data.
42914		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–3,000 m.
42914		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42915		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42915		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations in Imbabura province, very common between Lita and Ibarra.
42915		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest and Andean forest, it is very common on rocky dry cliffs between Lita and Ibarra (0–1,500 m).
42915		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42916		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Some additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42916		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected between Río Cachabí and Río Lita, Esmeraldas province.
42916		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, collected from an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42916		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42917		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42917		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations other than the type, collected on the Tungurahua volcano. One subpopulation has been found in the Cordillera de Huacamayos (probably inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras or the Reserva Ecológica Antisana), another in Nangaritza, and the third in Gualaquiza.
42917		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–3,000 m.
42917		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
42918		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42918		distribution	eng	Known from three populations: recorded between El Recreo and Agua Amarga, also recently collected 6 km north of Bahía de Caráquez and in an unknown locale of Guayas province.
42918		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42918		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42919		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42919		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the Río Santiago, Esmeraldas province.
42919		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid collected within wet coastal forest (0–1,500 m).
42919		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42920		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42920		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, El Oro and Pichincha.
42920		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.
42920		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42921		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42921		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations, all in the ENDESA private reserve, near the Río Cabuyales.
42921		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal and coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).
42921		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42922		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42922		distribution	eng	Discovered in 1985 in coastal lowland forests at San Plácido, between Portoviejo and Pichincha, Manabí province.
42922		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of dry coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42922		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42923		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42923		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected on the Río Masfa, Napo province.
42923		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42923		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42924		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42924		distribution	eng	Known from one old and one recent collection in Napo province. The type was collected in Papallacta-Cuyuja in 1901, and the new subpopulation in Quijos.
42924		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42924		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42925		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42925		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Paramba, Imbabura province.
42925		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, collected at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.
42925		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42926		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42926		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected between the Cachabí and Santiago rivers of Esmeraldas province.
42926		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest.  Collected at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42926		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42927		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42927		distribution	eng	Known from at least two collections: one made in 1900 in Gualea, Pichincha province, and a recent one made near Selva Alegre in Esmeraldas.
42927		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m
42927		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42928		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42928		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in San Nicolás, Imbabura province.
42928		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid coastal foothill forest, found at an elevation of 900 m.
42928		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42929		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are reported in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and two plants were found in the Bosque Protector La Perla.
42929		distribution	eng	Known from 33 subpopulations widely distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of  Cañar, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha, Los Ríos and Tungurahua.
42929		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet forest in coastal and coastal foothill areas (0–1,500 m).
42929		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42930		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42930		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Alto Tambo-Cachabí, Esmeraldas province.
42930		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42930		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42931		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42931		distribution	eng	Collected just once, more than 100 years ago in Gualea, Pichincha province.
42931		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42931		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42932		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42932		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected a century ago in Pangoa, in the Cordillera de Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.
42932		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
42932		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42933		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42933		distribution	eng	Known from 37 subpopulations on the western Andean slopes, within the provinces of Pinchincha, Cotopaxi, Ensmeraldas and Imbabura.  Abundant in western Pichincha province including the Río Gujalito, La Favorita, ENDESA, Nanegal and Sarapullo private reserves.
42933		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal foothill forest to high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).
42933		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42934		conservation	eng	Species was collected within an area that is now the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
42934		distribution	eng	Collected only once from inside the Pululahua volcano, Pichincha province.
42934		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
42934		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42935		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42935		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected in Papallacta-Cuyuja, Napo province.
42935		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
42935		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42936		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42936		distribution	eng	Known from 13 subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes, within the Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas and Imbabura province.  The current subpopulations are healthy and well-known, especially in Esmeraldas and Imbabura.
42936		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest up to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
42936		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.  Considered Vulnerable due to the massive alteration of the western slopes over the last 50 years.
42937		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42937		distribution	eng	Known from 18 subpopulations widely distributed on both sides of the Andes, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
42937		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest to high Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
42937		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42938		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42938		distribution	eng	Known from 18 subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes within the Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro and Pichincha provinces. The most recently discovered subpopulations are inside the La Favorita, Maquipucuna and ENDESA private reserves.
42938		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
42938		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42939		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
42939		distribution	eng	Known from at least 29 subpopulations widely scattered on the western slopes of the Andes,
42939		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–2,000 m).
42939		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42940		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42940		distribution	eng	Known from one population collected in an unknown locale.
42940		habitat	eng	Unknown habitat.
42940		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42941		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42941		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, within the Carchi, Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.  Found in the Reserva Etnica Awá and common at altitudes of 400 to 900 m on the Lita-Alto Tambo road.
42941		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal to high Andean forest (0–2,500 m).
42941		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42942		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42942		distribution	eng	An epiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type, collected in Paramba-Río Lita.
42942		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42942		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42943		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42943		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, one collected in Lloa, Pichincha province, and the other in an unknown locale.
42943		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
42943		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42944		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42944		distribution	eng	An epiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collected from an unknown locale within the Esmeraldas province.
42944		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42944		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42945		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42945		distribution	eng	An epiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collected from an unknown locale within the Esmeraldas province.
42945		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42945		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42946		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42946		distribution	eng	Known from one population, recorded near Pauma, Pichincha province.
42946		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest.
42946		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42947		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42947		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected within Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.
42947		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, collected from and elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
42947		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
42949		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42949		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Atacazo volcano, near Florencio, Pichincha province.
42949		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
42949		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42950		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42950		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, one on each side of the Andes. The type was collected in 1904 in Cachabí-Alto Tambo, in coastal Esmeraldas province. Rediscovered in 1988 in Jatun Sacha private reserve, in Amazonian Napo province.
42950		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of coastal and mainland Amazonian forest (0–1,000 m).
42950		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42951		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42951		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Río Cachabí and Río Santiago, Esmeraldas province.
42951		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42951		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42952		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42952		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations, found within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Manabí and Los Ríos.
42952		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal Andean foothills (0–1,000 m).
42952		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42953		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42953		distribution	eng	Known from one population, recorded in Paramba-Alto Tambo-Lita, within the provinces of Esmeraldas and Imbabura.
42953		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
42953		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42954		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42954		distribution	eng	Known only from the population type, collected  in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.
42954		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.
42954		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42955		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42955		distribution	eng	Recorded once, 100 years ago in Nanegal, Pichincha province.
42955		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
42955		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42956		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42956		distribution	eng	Known from a single old collection between the Cachabí and Lita rivers, Esmeraldas province.
42956		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest, collected at an elevational range of 0–500 m.
42956		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42957		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42957		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected by L. Diels in the Pastaza river near Río Negro, Tungurahua province.
42957		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42957		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42958		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42958		distribution	eng	Known from 14 subpopulations distributed on the western and eastern slopes of the Andes, found within the provinces of Azuay, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Loja, Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.
42958		habitat	eng	An epiphytic or hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal to high Andean forest (500?–3,500 m).
42958		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42959		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42959		distribution	eng	Known from 14 subpopulations, most of them from small coastal forest remnants within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Guayas and Pichincha.
42959		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of coastal and coastal foothill forest, found up to an elevational range of 1,000 m.
42959		threats	eng	The principal threat is ongoing deforestation and fragmentation of these forests.
42960		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42960		distribution	eng	Collected once 100 years ago in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province, and not recorded since.
42960		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500-1,000 m.
42960		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42961		conservation	eng	Known to be present within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
42961		distribution	eng	Known from 13 subpopulations scattered across the eastern Andes, within the provinces of Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe.
42961		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
42961		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42962		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42962		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in Coaja Peñanegra, Imbabura province.
42962		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42962		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42963		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42963		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations in the coastal lowlands. Collected in Quillapa, in the Bosque Protector La Perla and in the Tsáchila Peripa community.
42963		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid endemic of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42963		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42964		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42964		distribution	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador. Collected along the Masfa river, Napo province.
42964		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.
42964		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42965		conservation	eng	Type was collected from and area that is now within the Parque Nacional Sangay.
42965		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in 1905 on the Tungurahua volcano.
42965		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42965		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42966		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, this species may occur within the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
42966		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations. The type was collected along the Masfa river, near Quijos. A second subpopulation was recorded in the Cordillera de Huacamayos.
42966		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42966		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42967		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
42967		distribution	eng	Known from 14 subpopulations scattered across the western and eastern slopes of the Andes, located within the provinces of Bolívar, Carchi, Imbabura, Loja, Napo and Pichincha.
42967		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest, found within an elevational range of 1,000–3,500 m.
42967		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42968		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42968		distribution	eng	Known from one collection on the Río Cachabí, Esmeraldas province.
42968		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
42968		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42969		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42969		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the banks of the Río Silanche, inside the ENDESA private reserve.
42969		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500-1,000 m.
42969		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42970		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, may occur within the protected areas of Cayapas-Mataje, Los Ilinizas and Mache-Chindul.
42970		distribution	eng	endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from 16 subpopulations distributed within the four provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos, on the western slopes of the Andes.
42970		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, found within an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
42970		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42971		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42971		distribution	eng	Known from five widely distributed subpopulations within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Morona-Santiago and Los Rios.
42971		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
42971		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42972		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42972		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in an unknown locale within the Esmeraldas province.
42972		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid collected from coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
42972		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42973		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42973		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the Río Cachabí, Esmeraldas province.
42973		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
42973		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42974		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42974		distribution	eng	Collected only once in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.
42974		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
42974		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42975		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
42975		distribution	eng	Known from at least 15 subpopulations on the western Andean slopes, within the provinces of Bolívar, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
42975		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
42975		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42976		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42976		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in an unknown locale, within the province of Guayas.
42976		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
42976		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42977		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42977		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected near Santo Domingo, Pichincha province.
42977		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (300–350 m).
42977		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42978		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42978		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations in unspecified locales of Napo province, some along riversides. One was collected along a river in the Primavera community.
42978		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of periodically flooded Amazonian forest (250–500 m).
42978		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42979		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42979		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in Napo province: one along the road between Tena and Puyo, 58.1 km west of Puyo; one inside the Jatun Sacha private reserve; and the third in an unknown locale.
42979		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of mainland Amazonian forest (250–1,000 m).
42979		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42980		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42980		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the nineteenth century.
42980		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected within low Andean forest (500–1,800 m).
42980		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42981		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42981		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations in Pichincha province. The type locale is the Pilatón river, between 800 and 1000 m elevation; other subpopulations are reported for Nanegal, Maquipucuna and the Tsáchila Peripa community.
42981		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal foothill to low Andean forest (150–2,000 m).
42981		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42982		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42982		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected near the Cachabí and Lita rivers, Esmeraldas province.
42982		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
42982		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42983		conservation	eng	The type was collected from an area that is now probably within the Parque Nacional Sangay.
42983		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made on the Tungurahua volcano (1,000–2,000 m).
42983		habitat	eng	An epiphytic or hemiepiphytic aroid collected within low and high Andean forest.
42983		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42984		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42984		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Nanegal valley, Pichincha province.
42984		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected within low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42984		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42985		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
42985		distribution	eng	Known from 28 subpopulations within the provinces of Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
42985		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal to high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000-3,000 m.
42985		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42986		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42986		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected near the Hojal and Lita rivers, in the Esmeraldas or Imbabura provinces.
42986		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal and coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).
42986		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42987		conservation	eng	Old records were collected from an area that is now covered by the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
42987		distribution	eng	Known from two old records collected in Oyacachi, Napo province.
42987		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
42987		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42988		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42988		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. One population is in an unknown locale of Carchi province, 800 m above sea level; another is on the Esmeraldas-Lita road, 650 m above sea level.
42988		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid, collected from coastal Andean foothills (650–800 m).
42988		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42989		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42989		distribution	eng	Known from one population recorded in 1978, in an unknown locale of Carchi province.
42989		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (900 m).
42989		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42990		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42990		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the Cordillera de Cutucú, Morona-Santiago province.
42990		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of Amazonian and low Andean forest.  The two known populations occur at 1,700 m and 600 m.
42990		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42991		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42991		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in the coastal Andean foothills, only one with locale information (in the Ila mountains).
42991		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid found in coastal Andean foothills (500–1,000 m).
42991		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42992		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42992		distribution	eng	Known from one collection in San Carlos de los Colorados, Pastaza province.
42992		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of amazonian forest (250–500 m).
42992		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42993		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42993		distribution	eng	Known from 12 subpopulations, widely distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
42993		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of humid coastal and coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).
42993		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42994		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42994		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Balao, Guayas province.
42994		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected from humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
42994		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42995		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42995		distribution	eng	Collected once in the Río Chimbo valley, where the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar and Chimborazo come together.
42995		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected within coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500-1,500 m.
42995		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42996		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42996		distribution	eng	Known from four collections, all in the Río Palenque private reserve, Los Ríos province.
42996		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid humid coastal forest (150–250 m).
42996		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42997		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42997		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Gualea, Pichincha province.
42997		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
42997		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42998		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
42998		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations, found within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pastaza, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
42998		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal, Amazonian and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.
42998		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
42999		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
42999		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations within the Pichincha province.
42999		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000-2,500 m.
42999		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43000		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43000		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection in Nanegal, Pichincha province.
43000		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected from low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43000		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43001		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43001		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected within the Pichincha province.  The type locale is not known.
43001		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43001		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43002		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43002		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Río Palenque private reserve.
43002		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal forest (150–250 m).
43002		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43003		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43003		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations. The type was collected in Angamarca; the species was collected again in San Nicolás and in Gualea. Another subpopulation was reported a century ago, in an unknown locale. A more recently discovered populations is in the Parroquia San Antonio, on the banks of the Río Putul.
43003		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal foothill to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43003		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43004		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43004		distribution	eng	Known from three or four subpopulations, within the Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.
43004		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest and Amazonian mainland forest (200–2,500 m).
43004		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43005		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43005		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations on the eastern slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza.
43005		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of Amazonian to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43005		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43006		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43006		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected between Gualea and Nanegal, Pichincha province.
43006		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43006		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43007		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43007		distribution	eng	Known from three collections, of which two have been made in the Río Palenque private reserve.  Valverde (1991) included the species in his botanical inventory of secondary forests of the Cordilleras de Chongón and Colonche, especially in Cerro Azul and Cerro Caña.
43007		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.
43007		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43008		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43008		distribution	eng	Collected in Gualea, Pinchincha province.
43008		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43008		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43009		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43009		distribution	eng	Known from a single population, discovered in an unknown locale of Esmeraldas province.
43009		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43009		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43010		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43010		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. One is at the confluence of the Lita and Cachabí rivers in Esmeraldas province and the other in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.
43010		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal forest (0–1,000 m?).
43010		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43011		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43011		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in the Nanegal and Gualea valley, Pichincha province.
43011		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43011		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43012		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43012		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, discovered in 1976 in the Cordillera de Cutucú, Morona-Santiago.
43012		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43012		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43013		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43013		distribution	eng	Collected only once, in an unknown area of Esmeraldas province.
43013		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
43013		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43014		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43014		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas and Pichincha.
43014		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
43014		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43015		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43015		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations, found within the Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Carchi provinces.
43015		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43015		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43016		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43016		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected on the Río Lita, Esmeraldas province.
43016		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43016		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43017		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43017		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in San Nicolás, Pichincha province.
43017		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43017		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43018		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43018		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Esmeraldas province.
43018		habitat	eng	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest.
43018		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43019		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43019		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, made in the Río Palenque private reserve, Pichincha province.
43019		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (150–250 m).
43019		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43020		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43020		distribution	eng	Known from a single population, collected in Mera, Pastaza province.
43020		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 1,100 m.
43020		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43021		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43021		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in Río Guapará, 20 km north of El Corazón, Cotopaxi province.
43021		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,500 m).
43021		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43022		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43022		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations, found within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Guayas and El Oro.
43022		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
43022		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43023		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43023		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations, three of them apparently near Puyo and Mera. The fourth was recorded in Zamora-Chinchipe province, without locale information.
43023		habitat	eng	A terrestrial aroid of Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.
43023		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43024		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the protected areas of Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Cajas.
43024		distribution	eng	A characteristic shrub of the high central Andes. Known from 30 subpopulations distributed on the southeastern Andean slopes, found within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.  Could also occur in Peru.
43024		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland, found at and elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43024		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43025		conservation	eng	One population has been recorded within Ecuador's protected areas network.
43025		distribution	eng	Known from 12 subpopulations, found within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Loja and Morona-Santiago.
43025		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of dry central and wet southern Andean forests (2,500–3,500 m).
43025		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43026		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43026		distribution	eng	Known to occur in three locales on the western Andean slopes. Several collections have been reported near Chiriboga, on the Guaranda-Caluma road, 18.5 km from Santa Fe, and in an unknown locale of Cotopaxi province.
43026		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43026		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43027		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and areas near the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43027		distribution	eng	Found within the Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43027		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree that is a frequent and common species in remnant Andean vegetation, in hedges and/or shrubby vegetation along rivers (2,500–4,000 m).
43027		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43028		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43028		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations, mainly distributed in western Pichincha province. Isolated subpopulations have been reported from the Baños old road, Cantón Penipe and southern Maldonado.
43028		habitat	eng	A tree of low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43028		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43029		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; probably also in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43029		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations on the northeastern Andes slopes. Collections have been made on the northeastern slopes of the Hacienda Flor del Bosque on the Cuyuja-Quito road, on the Papallacta-Cuyuja road, at 28km off the Playón de San Francisco-La Bonita road, and in an unknown locale inside the same area.
43029		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43029		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43030		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43030		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small area in the southeastern Andes, within the provinces of Azuay and Morona-Santiago. Two subpopulations have been reported 33km and 36km off the Gualaceo-Limón road, and a third northeast of Sígsig.
43030		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,700–3,100 m).
43030		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43031		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43031		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection, in an unknown locale east of Cuenca.
43031		habitat	eng	A rare tree in high Andean forest and shrubland (2,800–3,300 m).
43031		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43032		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43032		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations from a small area on the southeastern slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Azuay and Morona-Santiago. Several subpopulations have been reported from the Gualaceo-Limón road and in areas near the Páramo del Castillo.
43032		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet characteristic of highlands and very wet areas, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43032		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43033		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43033		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations south of Girón valley and one subpopulation north of the valley on the Cañar-Lluracrumi road.  Found within the provinces of Cañar Loja and El Oro.
43033		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of dry and wet valleys (2,000–3,000 m).
43033		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43034		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43034		distribution	eng	Known from 25 subpopulations in the southern Andes. Many collections have been reported from the eastern Andean slopes of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  Could occur in northern Peru.
43034		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.
43034		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43035		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43035		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in deciduous forest 12 km off the Celica-El Empalme road, Loja province.
43035		habitat	eng	A vine of deciduous forest, collected at an elevation of 1,800 m.
43035		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43036		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43036		distribution	eng	Collected only once, in cloudforest 1-2 km north of Nieves, Azuay province.
43036		habitat	eng	A herb or vine of cloudforest, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,100 m.
43036		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43037		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43037		distribution	eng	Known only by the type, collected 1-8 km north of Sevilla de Oro, near the Parque Nacional Sangay, Azuay province.
43037		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43037		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43038		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43038		distribution	eng	The only known population was discovered in the Río Chanchán canyon, approximately 5 km north of the town of Huigra. Chimborazo province.
43038		habitat	eng	A vine of wet forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.
43038		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43039		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43039		distribution	eng	Discovered in 1982 and still known from a single population. The type was collected on a road 4 km east of "Alao", Chimborazo province. This name has not been found on maps, but is probably near the Río Alao, between Cebadas and Pungalá.
43039		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 3,350–3,500 m.
43039		threats	eng	Grazing and habitat destruction.
43040		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43040		distribution	eng	Discovered in Azuay province.  The collection locale could not be confirmed.
43040		habitat	eng	A vine.
43040		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43041		conservation	eng	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but the locale is near the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43041		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection. Discovered on forest edges in the Finca de D. Espinosa, at 12 km off the Loja-Zamora road, Loja province.
43041		habitat	eng	A vine discovered on forest edges, at an elevation of 2,400 m.
43041		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43042		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43042		distribution	eng	Known only from two records within the Loja Province. The type was collected in disturbed forest 2 km south of El Cisne, on the road to Loja, and the paratype in disturbed forest in the Monumento Memorial Roldós,  8 km off the Celica-Guachanamá road.
43042		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–2,700 m).
43042		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43043		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43043		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected outside of Cuenca, at the Partidero Llantera-Chiquitad-Saucay, Azuay province.
43043		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 3,130 m.
43043		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43044		conservation	eng	Type was collected within the  Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43044		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, on the road between Valladolid and Yangana, Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43044		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 2,300 m.
43044		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43045		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43045		distribution	eng	The type was collected in 1888, but the locale mentioned on its label (Jiatillo) does not appear on modern or old maps. The species was rediscovered in 1984–85, both in the Lloa valley and in an uncertain locale of Pichincha province.
43045		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,600–4,500 m).
43045		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43046		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43046		distribution	eng	Discovered in 1985 on the Chillogallo-Chiriboga road, near San Juán, Pichincha province.
43046		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at 3,100–3,260 m.
43046		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43047		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but it could have been collected inside what is now the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43047		distribution	eng	Known from one collection near Loja. No data are available for the exact locale.
43047		habitat	eng	A vine, collected at an elevation of 2,170 m.
43047		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43048		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43048		distribution	eng	Known from only one collection in a forest near Cerro Tipococha, north of Juncal, Chimborazo province.
43048		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (3,220 m).
43048		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43049		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.
43049		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia acerifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador, accurring in Azuay, Bolivar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Guayas, Loja and El Oro provinces.  It is known from 13 subpopulations.
43049		habitat	eng	Occurs in dry shrubland areas to high Andean forest (600–3,000 m).
43049		threats	eng	The main known threat to the species is habitat destruction.
43050		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43050		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi and Sucumbios.  Known from only four subpopulations.
43050		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,520–1,980 m).
43050		threats	eng	The only known threat to the species is habitat destruction.
43051		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.
43051		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia aeranthos</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Morona-Santiago province.
43051		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,370–1,670 m).
43051		threats	eng	The only known threat to the species is habitat destruction.
43052		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.
43052		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia asympeltata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Los Rios province.
43052		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (150 m).
43052		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43053		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.
43053		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia brandbygeana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one subpopulation in Morona-Santiago province.
43053		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (450–700 m).
43053		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43054		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.
43054		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia compacticaulis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces. Only known from four subpopulations.
43054		habitat	eng	Coastal forest and low Andean forest (610–1,200 m).
43054		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43055		conservation	eng	Two populations are known to occur inside protected areas.
43055		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia consobrina</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Azuay, Carchi, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.  It is known from 13 subpopulations.
43055		habitat	eng	Roadsides and in secondary forest (500–2,500 m).
43055		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43056		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside protected areas.
43056		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia dodsonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from three subpopulations occurring in Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43056		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (600–2,200 m).
43056		threats	eng	Principal threats are colonization and the subsequent conversion of native vegetation to croplands.
43057		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.
43057		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia exalata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two subpopulations in Bolívar and Pichincha provinces.
43057		habitat	eng	Dry Andean shrubland vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).
43057		threats	eng	Principal threat is the conversion of native vegetation to croplands.
43058		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43058		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia froebelii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations occurring in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Loja provinces.
43058		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (including roadsides) and high Andean forest (600–3,000 m).
43058		threats	eng	Principal threats are road construction and deforestation related to colonization.
43059		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43059		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia geminiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Pichincha province.
43059		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,133–3,535 m).
43059		threats	eng	Principal threat is the conversion of native forest to pastures.
43060		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.
43060		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia harlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from six subpopulations occurring in Bolívar, Esmeraldas and Los Rios provinces.
43060		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–750 m).
43060		threats	eng	Principal threats are illegal deforestation and habitat destruction.
43061		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43061		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia hitchcockii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected in Tungurahua province.
43061		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43061		threats	eng	Principal threat is the conversion of vegetation remnants to croplands and pastures.
43062		conservation	eng	Type specimen was collected from a protected area (Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras).
43062		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia holmnielseniana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from the type speciman, collected in Napo province in 1980.
43062		habitat	eng	High Andean forest up to high altitude shrubland areas (3,050–3,500 m).
43062		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
43063		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43063		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia ludwigii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only four subpopulations in Chimorazo province.
43063		habitat	eng	Coastal and low Andean forest (530–2,000 m).
43063		threats	eng	Principal threats are deforestation and the conversion of remnants of primary vegetation to pasture and cropland.
43064		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43064		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia lugonis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Pastaza province.
43064		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (1,000 m).
43064		threats	eng	Principal threats are disorganized colonization and the conversion of natural forest to pastures.
43065		conservation	eng	The type specimen was collected from a protected area (Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras).
43065		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia napoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Napo province.
43065		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland areas (2,500–2,840 m).
43065		threats	eng	Currently there are no known threats to the species.
43066		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43066		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia neoharlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected in Loja province.
43066		habitat	eng	Andean vegetation (2,000 m).
43066		threats	eng	Principal threats are deforestation and colonization.
43067		conservation	eng	The type specimen was collected from a protected area (Parque Nacional Yasuní). The species is thought to occur in other protected areas in the region.
43067		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia oellgaardii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from the type specimen, collected from Orellana province.
43067		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest (260–350 m).
43067		threats	eng	Principal threats are oil production, disorganized tourism, and road building allowing more colonization.
43068		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43068		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia parcifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from ten subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.
43068		habitat	eng	Coastal and Andean forest (600–2,600 m).
43068		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43069		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43069		distribution	eng	Discovered on the western slopes of Atacazo volcano, Pichincha province.
43069		habitat	eng	A vine of secondary paramo vegetation and forest patches dominated by <em>Polylepis sericea</em> (3,700–3,800 m).
43069		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43070		conservation	eng	Collected within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43070		distribution	eng	Known from one collection, collected near Cuicocha lake, inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Imbabura province.
43070		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (3,100 m).
43070		threats	eng	Principal threats are fires and colonization.
43071		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected inside the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasachoa.
43071		distribution	eng	Known from at least nine collections within the Chimborazo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  Most of the records are from the vicinity of Quito and Ambato.
43071		habitat	eng	A vine of primary or disturbed forest (2,400–3,500 m).
43071		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43072		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43072		distribution	eng	Discovered on the Pichincha volcano directly above Quito. One century later, it was collected again in an unknown locale within the Pichincha province.
43072		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
43072		threats	eng	Both historical populations have probably been destroyed due to the city's growth.
43073		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43073		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in San José de Niebli, north of Calacalí, and at an uncertain locale, within the Pichincha province.
43073		habitat	eng	A vine of Andean forest (2,000–2,600 m).
43073		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43074		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43074		distribution	eng	Recorded from a single R. Spruce collection in the nineteenth century. The collection locality is unknown, because the description only mentions "Andes".
43074		habitat	eng	A vine.
43074		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43075		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43075		distribution	eng	Discovered near Pomasqui, just north of Quito, in 1894. Since then at least three additional subpopulations have been recorded, two in the 1980s in Pichincha province.
43075		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43075		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43076		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43076		distribution	eng	Known from an 1858 collection by R. Spruce in Rio Pangor, near Juan de Velasco, Chimborazo province.
43076		habitat	eng	A vine
43076		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43077		conservation	eng	Found within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43077		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. The locale is on the road between Valladolid and Yangana, on the slopes of the Nudo de Sabanillas.
43077		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,400 m).
43077		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43078		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43078		distribution	eng	Discovered on the banks of the Río Tarqui, 4–18 km south of Cuenca, Azuay province
43078		habitat	eng	A vine.
43078		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43079		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43079		distribution	eng	Discovered in Lugma Huyca, 12 km north of Saraguro, Loja province.
43079		habitat	eng	A vine, found growing in recently disturbed soils (2,000–2,500 m).
43079		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.  The vine is used by the Saraguro native people as a medicinal plant.
43080		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43080		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection discovered in the Río Chanchán canyon, 5 km north of Huigra, Chimborazo province.
43080		habitat	eng	A vine in low Andean forest.  The locale description mentions a wet forest that is cloudy in the afternoons (1,500–2,500 m).
43080		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43081		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43081		distribution	eng	Discovered near Quito, Pichincha province.
43081		habitat	eng	A vine, collected at an elevational range of 2,700–3,000 m.
43081		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43082		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43082		distribution	eng	Known from two records collected within the Pichincha province.  The type collection was made 20 km west of Santo Domingo in 1961-62; a later collection was made in the Río Palenque private reserve.
43082		habitat	eng	A vine of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
43082		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43083		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43083		distribution	eng	Recorded once in the north and once in the south of Ecuador. The type collection was made near Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province. The second collection was made in the Maldonado valley, at 60 km off the Tulcán-Maldonado road, Carchi province.
43083		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43083		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43084		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43084		distribution	eng	Collected only once near Coca, 2 km south of the Río Napo, Orellana.   Although the locale has been destroyed, additional subpopulations are very likely to occur in the very extensive forests that still remain in eastern Ecuador.
43084		habitat	eng	A vine with large hairy stems and leaves.  Located within well-drained forest (250–500 m).
43084		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43085		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43085		distribution	eng	Known from a single population, collected on the Río Yasuní, 3–4 km above its junction with the Río Napo, Orellana.
43085		habitat	eng	A vine of Amazonian forest (250–500 m).
43085		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43086		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43086		distribution	eng	First recorded on a farm north of San Vicente. The only other record is from the Portoviejo-Pichincha road, 3 km east of San Plácido, Manabí.
43086		habitat	eng	A vine of coastal forest (0–200 m).
43086		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43087		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43087		distribution	eng	Known from single record on the eastern slopes of the Andes. Collected on "the road to Shell-Mera", Pastaza province.
43087		habitat	eng	A vine, collected on a rocky slope, from an elevation of 1,050 m.
43087		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43088		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43088		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection on the Baños-Mera road, Tungurahua province.
43088		habitat	eng	A vine collected within low Andean forest, along a stream (1,200 m).
43088		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43089		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43089		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in the "Valle de Leito", northeast of Baños, near Leitillo, in Pichincha province.
43089		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43089		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43090		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43090		distribution	eng	Found for the first time in the Estero Peñafiel, during the inventory of the Juaneche private reserve, Los Ríos province.
43090		habitat	eng	A vine of coastal forest, collected at an elevation of 70 km.
43090		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43091		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43091		distribution	eng	First recorded in an area near the Parque Nacional Machalilla, Manabí province.  Another small subpopulation was recorded in the botanical inventory of the Juaneche private reserve, Los Ríos province.
43091		habitat	eng	A vine of wet coastal forest (200 m).
43091		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43092		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43092		distribution	eng	Known only from two old collections. The type collection was made near Quito, Pichincha province.  This species was  later discovered in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.
43092		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,800–2,850 m.
43092		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43093		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43093		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in 1920 near Cuenca, Azuay province.
43093		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43093		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43094		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43094		distribution	eng	Known to occur in four isolated locales in the Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Carchi, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua.
43094		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest to dry high altitude shrubland (2,000–3,500 m).
43094		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43095		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43095		distribution	eng	Known from two collections: the first collected near Quito, and the second recorded in an unknown locale in Pichincha province.
43095		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43095		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43096		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43096		distribution	eng	Recorded in three Andean locales and one subpopulation on the Isla Puná, located within the provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo and Guayas. The Andean populations are in Alausi and Huigra, in the Río Chanchán canyon, and in Guaranda.
43096		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forests, dry vegetation in inter-Andean valleys and the coast (0–2,500 m).
43096		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat destruction.
43097		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43097		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection near Baeza, Napo province.
43097		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest (2,000 m).
43097		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43098		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43098		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made on the Chillanes-Bucay road, at the Hacienda Tiquibuso, Bolívar province.
43098		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43098		threats	eng	Threatened by increasing deforestation on the western Andean slopes of Bolívar.
43099		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43099		distribution	eng	<em>Draba aretioides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 14 subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43099		habitat	eng	Habitat described superparamo (4,000–4,500 m).
43100		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43100		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northern Andes of Ecuador, where it has been collected at least three times: on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha, on the eastern slopes of Napo province and in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43100		habitat	eng	A treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43100		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43101		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43101		distribution	eng	Confined to the northern Andes. Known from three subpopulations: one in El Mirador, 15 km south of San Francisco; another on Loma El Corazón, in the Cantón Montúfar; and a third in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43101		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).
43101		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43102		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43102		distribution	eng	Known from two records on the southeastern slopes of the Andes. One is from 11 km east of Loja, possibly inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and the other is from the road between Limón and Gualaceo.
43102		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43102		threats	eng	Principal threats are deforestation and disorganized colonization.
43103		conservation	eng	Three populations occur inside protected areas, two in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and one in the Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43103		distribution	eng	Known from seven isolated subpopulations in several Andean sites, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Mornona-Santiago, Napo and Pichincha.
43103		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43103		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43104		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa.
43104		distribution	eng	Known from several subpopulations in the Andes, especially on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha and around the Quito valley.
43104		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (2,000–4,000 m).  Most of the collections have been reported in wet areas along roads or trails.
43104		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43105		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43105		distribution	eng	Known from two very old collections in unknown locales of Loja province.
43105		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43105		threats	eng	The principal threat is widespread deforestation in the province.
43106		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43106		distribution	eng	Known only from a collection in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.
43106		habitat	eng	A subshrub of Subtropical/Tropical high altitudinal grassland (4,000–4,500 m).
43106		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation
43107		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Cayambe-Coca, Pasochoa, Cajas, Sangay, Los Ilinizas, Llanganates and Antisana protected areas.
43107		distribution	eng	Widely distributed and characteristic of Andean areas. Known from approximately 40 subpopulations within the Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pinchincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43107		habitat	eng	A subshrub or vine of high Andean forest to shrubland at high altitudes (2,000–4,500 m).
43107		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43108		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43108		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made at the beginning of the nineteenth century in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.
43108		habitat	eng	A subshrub in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43108		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43109		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43109		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in its Andean region, where at least 12 subpopulations have been reported within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pinchincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43109		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub high Andean forest and shrubland at high altitudes (2,500–4,500 m).
43109		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43110		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43110		distribution	eng	Located within the Tungurahua province.  Discovered on the slopes of Monte Chimborazo, near Mocha and seen once more in a locale nearby.
43110		habitat	eng	A subshrub or vine of high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43110		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43111		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43111		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations confined to the north and central Andes, within the Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua province.
43111		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of high Andean forest and high altitudinal grassland (2,500–4,000 m).
43111		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43112		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43112		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection on Volcán Pichincha above Quito, Pichincha province.
43112		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub.
43112		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43113		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43113		distribution	eng	Reported twice in a relatively small area between Chimborazo and Cañar provinces. First reported between Santa Rosa and Joyagashi, on the borders of what is now the Parque Nacional Sangay. No data available for the second collection.
43113		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43113		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43114		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43114		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. The first was made in 1920 near Quito; the second was made in 1955 in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.
43114		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb, subshrub or vine of Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43114		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43115		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43115		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations in Azuay province, especially west of Cuenca, on the road to the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43115		habitat	eng	A herb or shrub of Andean forest and high altitudinal shrubland (2,500–4,000 m).
43115		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43116		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43116		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the central Andes, known from 12 collections.
43116		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub, mostly collected in disturbed areas, at an elevational range of 1,500–3,500 m.
43116		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43117		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43117		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations widely distributed in the Andes, within the Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Loja and Pichincha provinces.
43117		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of high andean forest and high altitude grassland (2,000–4,000 m).
43117		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43118		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43118		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Andes.  Known from 15 subpopulations, within the Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43118		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest and upper Andean vegetation (2,000–3,500 m).
43118		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43119		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43119		distribution	eng	Known from two isolated subpopulations: one on the Zamora-Loja road and another in an unspecified locale of Pichincha province.
43119		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43119		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43120		conservation	eng	The collection may be inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43120		distribution	eng	Known from one collection on the northwestern slopes of Antisana, near the Mauca-Machay lake, Napo province.
43120		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high altitude páramo, collected at an elevation of 4,350 m.
43120		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires and grazing.
43121		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43121		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection in the paramo of Laguna Negra, northeast of Alao in the eastern Andes, between Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago provinces.
43121		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high altitude paramo (4,000–4,500 m).
43121		threats	eng	The principal threats are grazing and fires set by humans.
43122		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations have been recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43122		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the northern Andean mountains, within the provinces of Azuay, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha.
43122		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean paramo (3,000–4,500 m).
43122		threats	eng	The principal threats are grazing and fires set by humans.
43123		conservation	eng	Potentially occurs in the El Angel, Llanganates, Cayambe-Coca, Sangay and Antisana protected areas.
43123		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the northern and central Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pichincha. Known from 12 subpopulations in El Angel, El Altar, Volcán Cayambe, the Cordillera de los Llanganates, Guamaní and the Guagua Pichincha paramos.
43123		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry high altitude grassland (,3500–4,500 m).
43123		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43124		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.  More taxonomic research is needed on this species' family.
43124		distribution	eng	<em>Draba ecuadoriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only by the type specimen collected from Napo province.
43124		habitat	eng	Habitat described as superparamo (> 4,500 m).
43124		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43125		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43125		distribution	eng	A shrub endemic to Ecuador, where at least 15 subpopulations have been recorded throughout the Andes, some  Other subpopulations may occur inside similar habitats of the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
43125		habitat	eng	A shrub endemic high Andean forest and high altitude páramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43125		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43126		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43126		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations on the slopes of Volcán Chimborazo, within the provinces of Bolívar and Chimborazo.
43126		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43126		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43127		conservation	eng	Confirmed to occur inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and in areas close to the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43127		distribution	eng	At least 30 subpopulations have been recorded throughout the Andean region.
43127		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude vegetation (2,000–4,000 m).
43127		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation, due to agriculture.
43128		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43128		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection. According to the poor label information, the type was collected near Quito.
43128		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43128		threats	eng	Extensive destruction of vegetation remnants in the Quito valley and surrounding areas.
43129		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43129		distribution	eng	Known from four isolated subpopulations to both sides of the Andes. Collected west of the Andes on the road to Cañar, 77 km southeast of Guayaquil, and 25 km east of Guayaquil; collected east of the Andes on the Río Bobonaza, between Huagracahi and Cachitama. Also collected in an unknown location in Napo province.
43129		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of coastal and amazonian forest (300–900 m).
43129		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43130		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43130		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection from 1992, made in the Cordillera de Huacamayos, south of Cosanga, Napo province.
43130		habitat	eng	A subshrub of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43130		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation due to road construction and colonization.
43131		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Cayambe-Coca, Llanganates, Sangay, Cotacachi-Cayapas and Antisana protected areas.
43131		distribution	eng	Common in the northern and central Andes and known from more than 40 subpopulations, within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43131		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and dry high altitude páramo (2,000–4,500 m).
43131		threats	eng	Threatened by deforestation and fires set by humans.
43132		conservation	eng	Currently, this population may be protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43132		distribution	eng	Known from a single old collection on the slopes of Volcán Antisana, Napo province.
43132		habitat	eng	A subshrub of Páramo.
43132		threats	eng	The principal threats are grazing and fires
43133		conservation	eng	Subpopulations may occur inside the Manglares-Churute and Machalilla protected areas.
43133		distribution	eng	Recorded from two collections in the nineteenth century, one close to Balao, Guayas province, and another at the Hacienda El Recreo, north of San Vicente in Manabí province.
43133		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43133		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
43134		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43134		distribution	eng	known from three historical collections made 150 years ago. The collection labels only mention "In Andinus Quitensibus", this probably refers to the forest that used to surround Quito.
43134		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean forest.
43134		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43135		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43135		distribution	eng	Known from four collections in the central Andes and Azuay province.
43135		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean forest and high altitude vegetation (2,500–3,500 m).
43135		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43136		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43136		distribution	eng	Known from two Azuay collections of dubious provenance.
43136		habitat	eng	A shrub in high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).
43136		threats	eng	Principal threat is deforestation.
43137		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas
43137		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations, recorded from the central Andes to Azuay province.
43137		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43137		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43138		conservation	eng	Confirmed to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43138		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Andes but with only six reported subpopulations.
43138		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and arbustivo páramo (3,000–4,500 m).
43138		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43139		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43139		distribution	eng	Confined to a small region in the central Andes and only known from two subpopulations: one recorded on San Lucas-Oña road, in Loja province, and the other between Oña and the Río Yacuambi, in Azuay.
43139		habitat	eng	A shrub or vine of Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43139		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43140		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43140		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations confined to the central Andes, four in areas near Loja and two on the Gualaceo-Limón road.
43140		habitat	eng	A shrub of high altitude shrubland and vegetation (2,000–3,500 m).
43140		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43141		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43141		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in 1947 on the Río Calera, near Zaruma, El Oro province.
43141		habitat	eng	A shrub of coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).
43141		threats	eng	The collection area is under intense demographic pressure, which threatens the conservation status of native forests in the area.   Habitat destruction.
43142		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43142		distribution	eng	Known from a single population on the eastern Andean slopes. The type was collected in the Río Negro valley, above Río Pailas, on the way to Méndez, Morona-Santiago province.
43142		habitat	eng	A liana of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43142		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43143		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43143		distribution	eng	Reported only once, near the Hacienda El Recreo, north of San Vicente, in Manabí province.
43143		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of coastal forest (0–500 m).
43143		threats	eng	Threatened by the large-scale deforestation.
43144		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43144		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations confined to the central Andes.
43144		habitat	eng	A shrub of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
43144		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43145		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43145		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations in the southern Andes, distributed between Cuenca, Sígsig and San Lucas.
43145		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).  Most of the collections have been from roadsides.
43145		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43146		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43146		distribution	eng	Known from one population discovered 12-15 km off the Vilcabamba-Yangana road, Loja province.
43146		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43146		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43147		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43147		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in a small area of the Río Chanchán valley, near Huigra, Chimborazo province.
43147		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
43147		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43148		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43148		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations distributed in the central Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.
43148		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43148		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43149		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43149		distribution	eng	Known from a single population, collected between Biblián and Cañar. This is a well-studied area, but the species has not been rediscovered.
43149		habitat	eng	A shrub of high altitude páramo (3,000–3,500 m).
43149		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43150		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43150		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, one to the east and another to the west of the Andes. The eastern subpopulation was collected in 1974 in the headwaters of the Río Bobonaza, roughly 12 km east of Puyo. The western subpopulation was collected in 1978 in the surroundings of Maldonado.
43150		habitat	eng	A subshrub of mainland Amazonian and low Andean forest (700–2,000 m).
43150		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43151		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43151		distribution	eng	A shrub endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations, two in Carchi province and the third in Pichincha. The northern subpopulations were recorded to the southeast of Maldonado and on Cerro Golondrinas. The Pichincha collection is from an uncertain locale.
43151		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
43151		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43152		conservation	eng	Two subpopulations have been reported in the Reserva Etnica Awá and one in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43152		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations confined to the northwestern Andean slopes, within the Esmeraldas, Manabí and Pichincha provinces.
43152		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of wet forest, found at an elevational range of 0–2,000 m.
43152		threats	eng	Expanding agriculture and habitat destruction.
43153		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been reported inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43153		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations confined to the northeastern Andean slopes, within the Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces.
43153		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of Amazonian to high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).
43153		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43154		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43154		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations, found within the Napo, Orellana and Sucumbios provinces.
43154		habitat	eng	A shrub recorded along the rivers in the northern Amazonian lowlands, found at an elevational range of 250–600 m.
43154		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43155		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43155		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations distributed east of the Andes. Reported on the Baeza-Lago Agrio road, before the Volcán El Reventador; near Río Negro, east of Baños; and in an unknown locale of Pastaza province.
43155		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
43155		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43156		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43156		distribution	eng	Known from two collections within the Pichincha province. The first was recorded between Nono and Mindo, and the second recorded in an unspecified locale.
43156		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43156		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43157		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43157		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations distributed in the central Andes and the border area of Azuay and Morona-Santiago. No locale data are available for the subpopulations.
43157		habitat	eng	A shrub of high andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,000–3,500 m).
43157		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43158		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43158		distribution	eng	Recorded only once by L. Sodiro.  Locality and habitat are currently unknown.
43158		habitat	eng	A shrub.
43158		threats	eng	Possibly habitat destruction.
43159		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43159		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area in the west of Pichincha province. Recorded east of Nanegalito and on Cerro Negro, roughly 3.5 km east of Nanegalito.
43159		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43159		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43160		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43160		distribution	eng	Known from a collection on the Chillanes-Bucay road, at the Hacienda Tiquibuso, Bolívar province,  Also known from a second collection, probably within the same province.
43160		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43160		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43161		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43161		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in the Andean region of Pichincha province. First recorded in an unknown locale close to Quito. No information is available for the second collection, but it probably occurred within the same province.
43161		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43161		threats	eng	Widespread destruction of native vegetation in the Quito valley.
43162		conservation	eng	Reported in the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Río Palenque private reserve.
43162		distribution	eng	Widely distributed on both sides of the Andes, from the coast to the Amazon lowlands, but known only from six subpopulations.
43162		habitat	eng	A liana of Amazonian and coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
43162		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43163		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43163		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection in 1988 in a disturbed forest near the Latacunga-Pilaló-Quevedo road, 5–15 km east of Pilaló, Cotopaxi province.
43163		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43163		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43164		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43164		distribution	eng	Known from two collections west of Cuenca, Azuay province.  First collected in 1974 in the Sayausid (Sayausi) mountains and subsequently collected on the Cuenca-Soldados road, 19–20 km west of San Joaquín.
43164		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43164		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43165		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43165		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, of the Río Jubones valley, on the Pasaje-Santa Isabel-Girón road, El Oro province.
43165		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of xerophytic vegetation, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.
43165		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43166		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43166		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection reported in a disturbed area along the Cuenca-San Joaquín-Angas road, southwest of Cuenca, between Bayán and the Hacienda Pucán, Azuay province.
43166		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43166		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43167		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43167		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in a small area along the Cotacachi-Apuela road, near the paramos of Tablachupa, Imbabura province.
43167		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43167		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43168		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43168		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations on the eastern slopes of the Andes, from Baños, in the Andean slopes, to Lorocachi in the Amazonian lowlands. One population has been reported in the southern Amazon, west of Limón, in Morona-Santiago.
43168		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree of Amazonian to Andean forest (250–2,500 m).
43168		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43169		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas, but it is thought that the species may occur within Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
43169		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia pectennervia</em> is endemic to Ecuador. The species is known from four subpopulations in Napo province.
43169		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,750–1,950 m).
43169		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (for example, road construction) is the only known threat to the species.
43170		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43170		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia secunda</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations collected from Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces.
43170		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,200 m).
43170		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43171		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.
43171		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia serotina</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 17 subpopulations occurring in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Guayas, Manabí and El Oro provinces.
43171		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest (200–1,200 m).
43171		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43172		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.
43172		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia sodiroi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 15 subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43172		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland areas (700–3,450 m).
43172		threats	eng	Principal threats are mining and the conversion of forest remnants to pasture and croplands.
43173		conservation	eng	Known to occur within a protected area (National Park).
43173		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia sparreana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from one population occurring in Morona-Santiago and El Oro provinces.
43173		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest (260–300 m).
43173		threats	eng	Road construction, colonization and oil production inside Parque Nacional Yasuní are undoubtedly affecting the populations.
43174		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43174		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia tetrandra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from three populations in Napo, Pastaza and Tunguarahua.
43174		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43174		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43175		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43175		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia triramosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Chimborazo province.
43175		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (600–1,200 m).
43175		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43176		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43176		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia tropaeolifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two subpopulations in El Oro province.
43176		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,430 m).
43176		threats	eng	Principal threats are deforestation and conversion of vegetation remnants to croplands and pasture.
43177		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43177		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia truncicola</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from three subpopulations in Carchi and Pichincha provinces.
43177		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,100–2,240 m).
43177		threats	eng	Principal threat is the conversion of forest remnants to croplands.
43178		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43178		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia valvata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only two collections in Morona-Santiago province.
43178		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazonian to high Andean forests (885–2,500 m).
43178		threats	eng	Principal threats are deforestation and excessive colonization.
43179		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43179		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia xerophyta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections, all from Loja province.
43179		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43179		threats	eng	Principal threats are small-scale mining and deforestation.
43180		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43180		distribution	eng	<em>Begonia ynesiae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only four subpopulations in Carchi and Pichincha provinces.
43180		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos  (2,500–3,500 m).
43180		threats	eng	Principal threats are excessive tourism and paramos fires.
43181		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43181		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis chillacochensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador, known only from two recent collections in Loja province and an old collection from El Oro province.
43181		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43181		threats	eng	May be threatened by the Jimbura-Zumba road construction.
43182		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43182		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis farinosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only by the type, collected in Pichincha province.
43182		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43182		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43183		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43183		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis hirtellipes</em> is known only from one collection in 1825.  The location of the collection is unknown.
43183		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43183		threats	eng	Unknown.
43184		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43184		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis hyperythra</em> is known only from the type collection from Chimborazo province.
43184		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43184		threats	eng	Unknown.
43185		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside protected areas in Ecuador.
43185		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador where it Is known from at least five subpopulations in Azuay, Imbabura, Cañar, Loja and Pichincha provinces.
43185		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43185		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43186		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43186		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis laidivo</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collection sites in Bolívar province.
43186		habitat	eng	Humid grassland (3,000–4,000 m).
43186		threats	eng	Unknown.
43187		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43187		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis lechleriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one collection in Azuay province.
43187		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43187		threats	eng	Unknown.
43188		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43188		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis minzaensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least four subpopulations in Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.
43188		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,500–4,000 m).
43188		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43189		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43189		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis papillosa</em> is known only from the type specimen, collected from Pichincha province.
43189		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43189		threats	eng	Unknown.
43190		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43190		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis pavoniana</em> is known only from the type specimen, collected from Pichancha province.
43190		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,500–4,000 m).
43190		threats	eng	Unknown.
43191		conservation	eng	Taxonomic evaluation of this species is required before a conservation assessment can be made.
43191		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis pectinata</em>is known only from two collections, one of which was from Chimorazo province.
43191		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43191		threats	eng	Unknown.
43192		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43192		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis pindilicensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Loja and Tungurahhua provinces.
43192		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
43192		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43193		conservation	eng	A thorough taxonomic evaluation of this species is needed before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43193		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis reicheana</em> is endemic to Ecuador. It is known from only two collections in Azuay and Cañar provinces.
43193		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43193		threats	eng	Unknown.
43194		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43194		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis saxorum</em> is known only from the type specimen collected from Pichancha province.
43194		habitat	eng	Habitat is uncertain, but may have been collected from high Andean forest.
43194		threats	eng	Unknown.
43195		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research on this species is needed before its conservation status can be evaluated.
43195		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis schwerinii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from perhaps four collections from Azuay, Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces.
43195		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43195		threats	eng	Unknown
43196		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43196		distribution	eng	<em>Berberis simonsii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two collections.
43196		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43196		threats	eng	Unknown.
43197		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.
43197		distribution	eng	<em>Matisia alata</em> is endemic to Ecuador. It is known from seven subpopulations in Esmeraldas, Manabi and Pichincha provinces.
43197		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43197		threats	eng	Principal threat is the widescale destruction of coastal forests.
43198		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43198		distribution	eng	<em>Matisia coloradorum</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Esmeraldas, Manabi, Pichincha, Los Rios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43198		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,100 m).
43198		threats	eng	Principal threats are logging and mining.
43199		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43199		distribution	eng	<em>Matisia grandifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Esmeralda, Guayas, Manabí, Pichancha and Los Rios provinces.
43199		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43199		threats	eng	Principal threats are colonization, the wood industry, and mining, all of which fragment habitat.
43200		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43200		distribution	eng	<em>Matisia palenquiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five locales in Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, El Oro, Pichancha and Los Rios.
43200		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43200		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43201		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified before a conservation assessment can be carried out.
43201		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudobombax guayasense</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from Guayas province.
43201		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43201		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this taxon.
43202		conservation	eng	A threat category cannot be assigned until its taxonomic relationship with <em>P. guayasense</em> and <em>P. septenatum</em> is resolved
43202		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudobombax millei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Esmeralda, Guayas, Manabí, El Oro and Los Rios provinces.
43202		habitat	eng	Humid and dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43202		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this tree.
43203		distribution	eng	<em>Amsinckia marginata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one collection from Pichancha province. It has not been collected sonce the beginning of the twentieth century and may now be extinct.
43203		habitat	eng	High Andean forest  (2,850 m).
43203		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43204		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43204		distribution	eng	<em>Cordia rosei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from 3 subpopulations in Chimborazo and Tungurahua provinces.
43204		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).
43204		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43205		distribution	eng	<em>Heliotropium argenteum</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six collections from Azuay and Loja provinces.
43205		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–3,000 m).
43205		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known current threat. Due to its beauty the species has potential as an ornamental.
43206		conservation	eng	A search for this species required to confirm its continued existence.
43206		distribution	eng	<em>Tournefortia obtusiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from a single collection from Guayas province. This tree may already be extinct due to habitat loss.
43206		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43206		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the main threat to this species.
43207		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43207		distribution	eng	<em>Draba hookeri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43207		habitat	eng	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,000–4,500 m).
43207		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species. Potential threats in the lower areas are grazing and fires.
43208		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43208		distribution	eng	<em>Draba obovata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43208		habitat	eng	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,500–4,500 m).
43208		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species. Potential threats in the lower areas are grazing and fires.
43209		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43209		distribution	eng	<em>Draba splendens  </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43209		habitat	eng	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,500–4,500 m).
43209		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43210		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43210		distribution	eng	<em>Draba spruceana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43210		habitat	eng	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,500–4,500 m).
43210		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43211		conservation	eng	Known to occur in protected areas.
43211		distribution	eng	<em>Draba steyermarkii</em> is known from a single population in Azuay province.
43211		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to humid paramo (2,500–4,500 m).
43211		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
43212		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43212		distribution	eng	<em>Draba stylosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collections from Bolívar and Cotopaxi provinces.
43212		habitat	eng	Humid, high altitude paramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43212		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
43213		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43213		distribution	eng	<em>Draba violacea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three colections from Azuay province.
43213		habitat	eng	Habitat described as super paramo (4,400–>4,500 m).
43213		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43214		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43214		distribution	eng	<em>Eudema nubigena</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from eight subpopulations in Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43214		habitat	eng	Habitat described as super paramos (4,000–>4,500 m).
43214		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
43215		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43215		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidium ecuadoriense</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least two subpopulations in Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.
43215		habitat	eng	Paramos (2,500–4,500 m).
43215		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43216		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.  Further study of this species and its family is required.
43216		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidium quitense</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is n=known from at least two subpopulations in Pichincha and Tungurhua provinces.
43216		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–3,000 m).
43216		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43217		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43217		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea abbreviata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is a widespread species found in Morana-Santiago, Napo, El Oro, Pastaza and Sucumbios provinces.
43217		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland and periodically flooded forest (250–500 m).
43217		threats	eng	Principal threat is road construction that facilitates colonization and deforestation.
43218		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43218		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea aculeatosepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from Morana-Santiago, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43218		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43218		threats	eng	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands.
43219		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43219		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea biflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Morana-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43219		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43219		threats	eng	Highly threatened by intensive collections due to its ornamental and commercial value.
43220		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43220		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea geminiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the typespecimen, collected from Tungurahua province.
43220		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43220		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43221		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43221		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea kentii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morana-Santiago province.
43221		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (400–1,800 m).
43221		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43222		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43222		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea lugoi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Pastaza province.
43222		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43222		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation and loss of forest remnants.
43223		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43223		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea manzanaresiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napos province.
43223		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43223		threats	eng	Due to its ornamental value, the species is heavily collected in the wild for commercial use. The principal threat in the Cordillera de los Huacamayos is deforestation, due to colonization.
43224		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43224		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea napoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six collections from napos and Pastaza provinces.
43224		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (250–1,500 m).
43224		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43225		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43225		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea patriciae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type collection from Pastaza province.
43225		habitat	eng	Amazonian and periodically flooded mainland forest (250–500 m).
43225		threats	eng	The locale is being deforested due to colonization.
43226		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43226		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea roeseliae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napos and El Oro provinces.
43226		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43226		threats	eng	Principal threat is deforestation due to colonization of areas near the road.
43227		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43227		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea tayoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuadro.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Morana-Santiago province.
43227		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest  (500–1,000 m).
43227		threats	eng	No threats are known.
43228		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43228		distribution	eng	<em>Aechmea wuelfinghoffii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43228		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest (600–900 m).
43228		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation due to colonization, timber extraction, and mining.
43229		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43229		distribution	eng	<em>Greigia atrobrunnea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43229		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43229		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43230		conservation	eng	known to occur within protected areas.
43230		distribution	eng	<em>Greigia sodiroana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in high-altitude areas of Azuay, Loja and Pichincha provinces.
43230		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (2,000–>4,500 m).
43230		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43231		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43231		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Loja provinces.
43231		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43231		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of Andean forest to croplands.
43232		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43232		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania albescens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Esmeralda province.
43232		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (700 m).
43232		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization.
43233		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43233		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania alborosea</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Bolívar, Carchi, Esmeralda, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces.
43233		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43233		threats	eng	Highly threatened because is heavily collected in the wild for commercial use due to its ornamental value.
43234		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43234		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania alcantareoides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43234		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,200–1,500 m).
43234		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation caused by colonization and small-scale mining.
43235		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43235		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania andreettae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Napos provinces.
43235		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43235		threats	eng	Highly threatened because it is heavily collected in the wild for commercial use due to its ornamental value.
43236		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43236		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania asplundii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely spread in Morona-Santiago, Napos, Pastaza, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43236		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest until low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43236		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43237		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43237		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania atrocastanea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja, Morona-Santiago, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43237		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43237		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.  At least two subpopulations are threatened by deforestation and agriculture.
43238		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43238		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania barbiei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, colleted from Guayas province.
43238		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43238		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43239		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43239		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania bergii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Napos province.
43239		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43239		threats	eng	The principal threat is forest conversion to pasture.
43240		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43240		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania condorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43240		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43240		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation due to colonization, timber extraction and mining.
43241		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43241		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania corniculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from one population in Esmeralda province.
43241		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (600 m).
43241		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and timber extraction.
43242		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43242		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania dalstroemii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43242		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43242		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species. The Cóndor population may be threatened by fires.
43243		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43243		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania ecuadorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Bolívar and Chimborazo provinces.
43243		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (2,500–3,500 m).
43243		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.
43244		conservation	eng	not known to occur within any protected areas.
43244		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania foetida</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Morona-Santiago, Napos, Pastaza, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43244		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43244		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43245		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43245		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania fosteriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widespread in Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.
43245		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43245		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43246		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43246		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania fuerstenbergiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from eight collections from Bolívar, Esmeralda, Guayas, Imbabura, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.
43246		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,000 m)
43246		threats	eng	The majority of Ecuador's coastal foothill forest has been converted to croplands.
43247		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43247		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania fuquae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  Known from four subpopulations in Esmeralda province.
43247		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43247		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation which has led to higher water levels, increased pollution and sedimentation and the destruction of the habitat.
43248		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43248		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania fusispica</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Bolívar, Cotopaxi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.
43248		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43248		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43249		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43249		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania harlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Esmeralda and Pichincha provinces.
43249		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43249		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43250		conservation	eng	not known to occur within any protected areas.
43250		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania henniae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known by only two records from Morona-Santiago province.
43250		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (700–1,050 m).
43250		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and timber extraction.
43251		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43251		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania hirtzii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Napo provinces.
43251		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43251		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and the timber industry.
43252		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43252		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania hollinensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six subpopulations in Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43252		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43252		threats	eng	Unprotected populations are threatened by deforestation produced by colonization and the conversion of forest to pasture.
43253		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43253		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania inexpectata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one record in Esmeralda province.
43253		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (600–700 m).
43253		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and timber extraction.
43254		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43254		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania izkoi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Napo province.
43254		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43254		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
43255		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43255		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania jaramilloi</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Bolír, Esmeralda, Guayas, Imbabura, Manabí, El Oro and Pichincha.
43255		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
43256		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43256		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania kentii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Imbabura province.
43256		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–1,700 m).
43256		threats	eng	The principal threat for is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43257		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania lepidota</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type collection from Pichincha province.  The species has not been collected in over 123 years and may already be extinct.
43257		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (2,000 m).
43257		threats	eng	The area the type was collected from has been completely deforested for charcoal production and croplands.
43258		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43258		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania madisonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43258		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43258		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation produced by colonization, timber extraction and mining. It is also highly collected in the wild for commercial use.
43259		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43259		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania osyana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Bolívar and Loja provinces.
43259		habitat	eng	Coastal forest until low Andean forest (500–2,500 m).
43259		threats	eng	The habitat of the species has been largely deforested and populations occur only in forest remnants along creeks.
43260		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43260		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania poortmanii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen.
43260		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43260		population	eng	No collections have been made since and the area has been deforested and mostly converted to croplands, raising the possibility that the species is extinct.
43260		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43261		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43261		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania pseudospectabilis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43261		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43261		threats	eng	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands.
43262		conservation	eng	not known to occur within any protected areas.
43262		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania puyoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Tungurahua provinces.
43262		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43262		threats	eng	Both subpopulations are threatened by deforestation due to colonization.
43263		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43263		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania remyi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, bolívar, Cañar, carchi, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.
43263		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
43263		threats	eng	Not considered threatened due to its adaptation to forest remnants and trees left standing in pastures.
43264		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43264		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania roseiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province.
43264		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43264		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.
43265		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43265		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania rubrolutea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Sucumbios province.
43265		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43265		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43266		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43266		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania septata</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza provinces.
43266		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43266		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to pasture.
43267		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43267		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania sieffiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collection from Esmeralda province.
43267		habitat	eng	Coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43267		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation due to colonization and grazing.
43268		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43268		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania striata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type collection from Pastaza province.
43268		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (900 m).
43268		threats	eng	The habitat of the species has been totally destroyed by forest conversion to croplands.
43269		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43269		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania teuscheri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It occurs in Azuay, Cañar, Cotopaxi, Guayas, Loja, Manabí and Pichincha provinces.
43269		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43269		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.
43270		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43270		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania xanthobractea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It occurs in Cañar, Imbabura, Loja, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.
43270		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43270		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43271		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43271		distribution	eng	<em>Guzmania zakii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Pastaza, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43271		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest (250–500 m).
43271		threats	eng	The principal threat for the habitat is deforestation produced by oil extraction and colonization.
43272		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43272		distribution	eng	<em>Mezobromelia brownii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Morona-Santiago province.
43272		habitat	eng	High Andean forest until high altitude paramos (2,700 m).
43272		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.
43273		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43273		distribution	eng	<em>Mezobromelia fulgens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43273		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43273		threats	eng	The principal threats are conversion of forest to croplands, reforestation with <em>Pinus radiata</em> and fires set by humans.
43274		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43274		distribution	eng	<em>Pepinia alexanderi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province.
43274		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43274		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and colonization.
43275		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43275		distribution	eng	<em>Pepinia carnososepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo and Pastaza provinces.
43275		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m)
43275		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.
43276		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43276		distribution	eng	<em>Pepinia fulgens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province.
43276		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43276		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization.
43277		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43277		distribution	eng	<em>Pepinia harlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations Morona-Santiago, Napo, El Oro, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces.
43277		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43277		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation due to colonization and forest conversion to croplands.
43278		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43278		distribution	eng	<em>Pepinia hooveri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Esmeralda and Imbabura provinces.
43278		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43279		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43279		distribution	eng	<em>Pepinia verrucosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Sucumbios province.
43279		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (250–1,000 m).
43279		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of its habitat to croplands.
43280		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43280		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulatins in Chimborazo province.
43280		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43281		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43281		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia alata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43281		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (1,950–3,000 m).
43281		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of Andean forest to croplands.
43282		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43282		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia andreetae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collections from Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43282		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43282		threats	eng	The species' habitat has largely been converted to pasture and both collections are from remnants.
43283		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43283		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia bergii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in El Oro province.
43283		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43283		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43284		conservation	eng	not known to occur within any protected areas.
43284		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia caduciflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one location in Pastaza province.
43284		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000 m).
43284		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.
43285		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43285		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia clarkii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected in Esmeralda province.
43285		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to sub-montane coastal forest (400–600 m).
43285		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and colonization.
43286		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43286		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia cosangaensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Napo provinces.
43286		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43286		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43287		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43287		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia devansayana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43287		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (1,100–2,200 m).
43287		threats	eng	The principal threats are conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.
43288		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43288		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia dodsonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Morona-Santiago, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43288		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43288		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43289		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43289		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia elliptica</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Cañar, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43289		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43289		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.
43290		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43290		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia ferrell-ingramiae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations Esmeralda and Imbabura provinces.
43290		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43290		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43291		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43291		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia fusca</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43291		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43291		threats	eng	The species' apparently adaptability to different habitats reduces its susceptibility to threats in the region.
43292		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43292		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia hirtzii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six collections from Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43292		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43292		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43293		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43293		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia lutescens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Pichincha provinces.
43293		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43293		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of its habitat into croplands.
43294		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43294		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia oblongifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.
43294		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to dry semi deciduous forest (500–1,000 m).
43294		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.
43295		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43295		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia pavonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten collections from Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Guayas and Pichincha provinces.
43295		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest and dry Andean vegetation to high altitude paramos (2,000–3,500 m).
43295		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires started by people.
43296		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43296		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia prolifera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja province.
43296		habitat	eng	Coastal to dry semi deciduous forest (500–1,000 m).
43296		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of dry and semi deciduous forest to croplands.
43297		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43297		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia reflexiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, El oro and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43297		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43297		threats	eng	Deforestation is reducing the species' habitat loss and leading to a rapid decrease in the population.
43298		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43298		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia simulans</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 19 subpopulations in Carchi, Esmeralda, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.
43298		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m)
43298		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43299		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43299		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia sodiroi</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Cotopaxi, Manabí and Pichincha provinces.
43299		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43299		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43300		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43300		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia stevensonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 3 subpopulations in Pichincha province.
43300		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43300		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation caused by timber extraction and agriculture.
43301		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43301		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia unilateralis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Guayas and Manabí provinces.
43301		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43301		threats	eng	Few threats are apparent because the plant apparently adapts well to artificial environments like road cuts.
43302		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43302		distribution	eng	<em>Pitcairnia violascens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Cañar, Chimborazo, Loja and El Oro provinces.
43302		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest to dry Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).
43302		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43303		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43303		distribution	eng	<em>Puya aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Carchi, Imbabura, Loja and Pichincha provinces.
43303		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest to dry Andean vegetation (500–4,000 m).
43303		threats	eng	The only threat to the species are fires set by people.
43304		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43304		distribution	eng	<em>Puya angelensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections from carchi province.
43304		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43304		threats	eng	The principal threat is fire set by humans.
43305		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43305		distribution	eng	<em>Puya compacta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43305		habitat	eng	High altitude, humid paramos (2,500–4,000 m).
43305		threats	eng	Habitat loss through fires set by humans, conversion of forest to croplands and reforestation with <em>Pinus radiata</em>.
43306		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43306		distribution	eng	<em>Puya eryngioides</em> is widely distributed in Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43306		habitat	eng	high altitude, humid paramos (2,500–3,500 m).
43306		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires set by people and conversion of forest to pine plantations or croplands.
43307		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43307		distribution	eng	<em>Puya exigua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43307		habitat	eng	High altitude, humid paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43307		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires set by humans and the conversion of forests to croplands.
43308		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43308		distribution	eng	<em>Puya glomerifera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43308		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation to dry and humid paramos (1,500–4,500 m).
43308		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only threat to this species.
43309		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43309		distribution	eng	<em>Puya maculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Sucumbios provinces.
43309		habitat	eng	Humid paramos (2,500–3,500 m).
43309		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only threat to this species.
43310		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43310		distribution	eng	<em>Puya nutans</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.
43310		habitat	eng	Humid paramos (3,000–4,500 m).
43310		threats	eng	The principal threats are fire and the conversion of forest to pine plantations or croplands.
43311		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43311		distribution	eng	<em>Puya obconica</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43311		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–3,000 m).
43311		threats	eng	Principal threats are fires set by people and the conversion of forest to croplands.
43312		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43312		distribution	eng	<em>Puya parviflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven collections from Loja and El Oro provinces.
43312		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–3,000 m).
43312		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of natural forest to pine plantations.
43313		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43313		distribution	eng	<em>Puya pichinchae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two locations in Pichincha province.
43313		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).
43313		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43314		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43314		distribution	eng	<em>Puya pygmaea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven locations in Azuay, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.
43314		habitat	eng	Humid paramos (3,000–4,000 m).
43314		threats	eng	The principal threats are slash and burn agriculture and pine plantations.
43315		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43315		distribution	eng	<em>Puya retrorsa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43315		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation to dry paramos (3,000–4,000 m).
43315		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43316		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43316		distribution	eng	<em>Puya roseana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja province.
43316		habitat	eng	Elevational range: 2,000–3,500 m
43317		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43317		distribution	eng	<em>Puya sodiroana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.
43317		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43317		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat conversion to croplands and fires.
43318		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43318		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea blassii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.
43318		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43318		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43319		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43319		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea euryelytra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43319		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43319		threats	eng	The principal threats are the conversion of forest to croplands and fires set by people.
43320		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43320		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea hauggiae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Azuay province.
43320		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43320		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires and the conversion of native forest to croplands.
43321		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43321		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea inconspicua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Pichincha province.
43321		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43321		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43322		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43322		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea pseudotetrantha</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Loja and El Oro provinces.
43322		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43322		threats	eng	Threatened by the conversion of native forest to croplands.
43323		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43323		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea quadripinnata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Pinchincha provinces.
43323		habitat	eng	High Andean forest high altitude paramos (2,000–3,000 m).
43323		threats	eng	The principal threats are the conversion of forest to croplands and fires set by people.
43324		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43324		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea sinuosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 16 subpopulations in Cañar, Loja, Napo, El Oro and Sucumbios provinces.
43324		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43324		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to pasture.
43325		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43325		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea tandapiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador. It is known from seven subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43325		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43326		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43326		distribution	eng	<em>Racinaea tripinnata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least ten collections in Azuay, Chimborazo, Loja, Morona-Santiago and El Oro provinces.
43326		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,500 m).
43326		threats	eng	The principal threats are the conversion of forest to croplands and fires set by humans.
43327		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43327		distribution	eng	<em>Ronnbergia campanulata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Morona-Santiago province.
43327		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,950 m)
43327		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation produced by colonization, timber extraction, and mining.
43328		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43328		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia acosta-solisii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro and Los Ríos provinces.
43328		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (420–1,500 m).
43328		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43329		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43329		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Imbabura and Loja provinces.
43329		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,500 m).
43329		threats	eng	Threatened by the conversion of forest to croplands.
43330		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43330		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia brenneri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from one population in Pastaza province.
43330		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43330		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation, due to the conversion of forest to croplands.
43331		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43331		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia cernua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay province.
43331		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–4,000 m).
43331		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of Andean forest to croplands.
43332		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43332		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia cucullata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Napo and Sucumbios provinces.
43332		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,500 m).
43332		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forests to croplands and pasture.
43333		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43333		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia cyanea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro and Pichinca provinces.
43333		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,500 m).
43333		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of wet coastal forest to croplands and pasture. The species is threatened by intensive collections due to its ornamental and commercial value.
43334		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43334		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia demissa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43334		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).
43334		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is accidental fire.
43335		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43335		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia dyeriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Esmeralda and Guayas provinces.
43335		habitat	eng	Mangrove forest (0–500 m).
43335		threats	eng	Shrimp-farming has destroyed most Ecuadorian mangrove habitat over the last 50 years.
43336		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43336		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia emergens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43336		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest  (2,500–4,000 m).
43336		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43337		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43337		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia hirtzii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Napo, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43337		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43337		threats	eng	The principal threat is the removal of trees left standing in pasture.
43338		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43338		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia indigofera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least five collections from Carchi and Pichincha provinces.
43338		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (3,000–3,500 m).
43338		threats	eng	Threatened by dry-season fires.
43339		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43339		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia marnieri-lapostollei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43339		habitat	eng	Dry coastal forest (500–1,900 m).
43339		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43340		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43340		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia nervisepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.
43340		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43340		threats	eng	The principal threat is fire set by humans in paramos and Andean forest.
43341		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43341		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia pachyaxon</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Cañar province.
43341		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).
43341		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.
43342		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43342		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia polyantha</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43342		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest to high altitude paramos (1,500–3,500 m).
43342		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is conversion of forest to croplands.
43343		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43343		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia portillae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.
43343		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43343		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are agriculture and fires set by people.
43344		conservation	eng	One population is protected in the Maquipucuna private reserve.
43344		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia pretiosa</em> is endemic to ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43344		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest until sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,500 m).
43344		threats	eng	Highly threatened by intensive collection due to its ornamental and commercial value.
43345		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43345		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia raackii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43345		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,900 m).
43345		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43346		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43346		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia rhodosticta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Azuay, Morona-Santiago, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43346		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43346		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation due to colonization and the conversion of forest to croplands.
43347		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43347		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia rubroviolacea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.
43347		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
43347		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation due to the conversion of forest to croplands.
43348		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43348		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia sceptriformis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43348		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43348		threats	eng	Principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43349		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43349		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia sodiroi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six collections from Chimborazo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.
43349		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43349		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43350		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43350		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia spathacea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five collections from Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43350		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43350		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to pasture.
43351		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43351		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia umbellata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections from Loja and El Oro provinces.
43351		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
43351		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.
43352		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43352		distribution	eng	<em>Tillandsia zarumensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.
43352		habitat	eng	High altitude dry and humid paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43352		threats	eng	Threatened by fires and the spread of pine plantations.
43353		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43353		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea andreettae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Azuay province.
43353		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
43353		threats	eng	The principal threat is destruction of its habitat by fire and the subsequent establishment of sugar cane plantations.
43354		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43354		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea appendiculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja province.
43354		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–2,500 m).
43354		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands and pine plantations.
43355		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas.
43355		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea arpocalyx</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo and Tungurahua provinces.
43355		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation to low Andean forest (1500–3000 m).
43355		threats	eng	Fire is the main threat to this species.
43356		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43356		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea boeghii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Carchi, Loja and Sucumbios provinces.
43356		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43356		threats	eng	The principal threat to the populations in Carchi and Sucumbios is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43357		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43357		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea drewii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Imbabura province.
43357		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43357		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.
43358		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43358		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea limonensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Morona-Santiago and Zamoro-Chinchipe provinces.
43358		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43358		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest remnants to pasture.
43359		conservation	eng	The only known population occurs inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43359		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea lutheri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is kown only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43359		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,690 m).
43359		threats	eng	Specific threats for the species are unknown.
43360		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43360		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea penduliscapa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Morona-Santiago province.
43360		habitat	eng	Piemontano amazonian forest until low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43360		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to pasture.
43361		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43361		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea petraea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.
43361		habitat	eng	High altitude dry and humid paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43361		threats	eng	The principal threat is human-started fires.
43362		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected area.
43362		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea strobeliae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Azuay province.
43362		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).
43362		threats	eng	The only known population was severely impacted by the catastrophic Josefina landslide. Specific current threats are unknown.
43363		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43363		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea tillii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected in Sucumbios province.
43363		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,800 m).
43363		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.
43364		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43364		distribution	eng	<em>Vriesea wuelfinghoffii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay province.
43364		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation (1,000–2,000 m).
43365		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43365		distribution	eng	<em>Werauhia diantha</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi and Pichincha provinces.
43365		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43365		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and the conversion of forest remnants to pasture.
43366		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43366		distribution	eng	<em>Werauhia haltonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Napo province.
43366		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43366		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43367		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43367		distribution	eng	<em>Werauhia paupera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Carchi, Esmeralda and Pichincha provinces.
43367		habitat	eng	Humid to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1000 m).
43367		threats	eng	The populations not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network are threatened by the conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.
43368		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43368		distribution	eng	Known from one collection made in 1931 close to the Caserio de Yamboya, east of Tandapi, Pichincha province.
43368		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43368		threats	eng	Threatened by deforestation
43369		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43369		distribution	eng	Known from three Andean collections. The Pichincha population was recorded on the lower slopes of Cerro Ilaló, in Tumbaco valley. Also found within the Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.
43369		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43369		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43370		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.   One subpopulation has been reported near the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43370		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations in the central Andes, within the Loja and Azuay provinces.
43370		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43370		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43371		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations have been recorded inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa.
43371		distribution	eng	Known from at least 10 populations, within the Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.  Several collections have been recorded in the northern Andes.
43371		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–4,500 m).
43371		threats	eng	Quito’s urban development threatens some populations.
43372		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43372		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations in the Andes.  Four additional collections have been reported, two of them in unknown locales of Pichincha and Imbabura provinces, one on the Loja-Zamora road and on near El Angel.
43372		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43372		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43373		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay and Parque Nacional Cajas, since it has been collected nearby.
43373		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations, recorded within the Azuay, Cañar and Loja provinces.
43373		habitat	eng	A shrub of low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43373		threats	eng	Considered Endangered due to deforestation, fires and conversion of forests to croplands over the last century.
43374		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43374		distribution	eng	Known from one collection, 15 km east of Gualaquiza, in the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago province.
43374		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,090 m).  The collector described the species' habitat as an open area dominated by Bromeliaceae with few shrubs and trees.
43374		threats	eng	The principal threats are colonization and deforestation.
43375		conservation	eng	Two subpopulations have been reported in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and other subpopulations occur nearby.
43375		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations in the cordilleras that divide Loja and Zamora provinces, and has been collected several times in the southern Andes over the last 20 years.
43375		habitat	eng	A shrub or vine of high Andean forest, with a small altitudinal range, around 2,800 m elevation.
43375		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43376		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43376		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, recorded near the Río Pilatón (an affluent of the Río Toachi), east of Alluriquín, in Pichincha province.
43376		habitat	eng	A subshrub, shrub or liana of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43376		threats	eng	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands and urban land.
43377		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43377		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations in the southern Andes and an isolated subpopulation in Pichincha province.
43377		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43377		threats	eng	Probably threatened by deforestation.
43378		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43378		distribution	eng	Known from a single population recorded in Sinangüe, between Ulushapa and Oña, in Azuay or Loja province.
43378		habitat	eng	A shrub collected from high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.
43378		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43379		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43379		distribution	eng	Known only from three subpopulations: one near Alausi, and two in unknown locales of Cañar and Azuay provinces.
43379		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (2,500–3,500 m).
43379		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43380		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43380		distribution	eng	Known from two records from the northern Andes. Only one collection has precise locale data, near El Angel and potentially inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43380		habitat	eng	A subshrub or herb of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland, recorded from an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43380		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43381		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43381		distribution	eng	Known from three isolated subpopulations, one in the north near Balzapamba and two near Loja. The southern populations were recorded on Cerro Villonaco and the Loja-Zamora road, in the property of D. Espinosa.
43381		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43381		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43382		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43382		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection. The only available data is that the species was collected in Chimborazo.
43382		habitat	eng	A subshrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).
43382		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43383		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may grow in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43383		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations on the Loja-Zamora road, within the provinces of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43383		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43383		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43384		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but is probably protected inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43384		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in 1943 on the road between Achupallas and the Nudo de Sabanilla, south of Loja. The exact collection locale is unknown.
43384		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of páramo,  collected at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43384		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43385		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43385		distribution	eng	Known from three collections 18 km off the Aloag-Santo Domingo road and two other subpopulations without locale information in Pichincha and Carchi provinces.
43385		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).
43385		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43386		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43386		distribution	eng	Known from ten collections, nine of them in the southern Andes and one in the north. The southern subpopulations were reported between the Río León valley, near Oña, and Yangana in Loja. The northern subpopulation was reported from Calacalí and may be an error.
43386		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43386		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43387		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43387		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations in the southern Andes. The locale is not known for the first subpopulation, as the label reads "mountain, Prov. Cuenca".  Collected subsequently in Gañadel, between Molleturo and Toreador, and in Cerro Villonaco.
43387		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43387		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43388		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas
43388		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations on the eastern Andean slopes. The northern subpopulation was reported in eastern Imbabura province and the southern subpopulation between Campanas and Arenillas, along the Río Tintas, Morona-Santiago province.
43388		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43388		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43389		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas
43389		distribution	eng	Known from at least eight subpopulations in the southern Andes. Most of the collections have been reported from the south of Loja, in Cerro Villonaco, south of Yangana and Cerro Uritusinga.
43389		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43389		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43390		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43390		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the southern Andes. The first collection was recorded between Paja, Blanca and El Chuncho, southwest of La Huaca. Subsquently collected 5 miles south of Tulcán and in an unknown locale of Imbabura.
43390		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43390		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43391		conservation	eng	Reported inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel and in areas close to the Cayambe-Coca, Cotacachi-Cayapas and Antisana protected areas.
43391		distribution	eng	A shrub or tree endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from 12 subpopulations in the Andes region.
43391		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (1,500–3,500 m).
43391		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43392		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi.
43392		distribution	eng	Widely distributed and sometimes abundant in the Andean region. At least 20 subpopulations are known.
43392		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude vegetation, with an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.
43392		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43393		conservation	eng	The Tungurahua population is protected inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43393		distribution	eng	Recorded from two isolated locales. The first subpopulation was discovered in the Cordillera de los Llanganates, Tungurahua province; and the second in Loja province.
43393		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).
43393		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43394		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43394		distribution	eng	Recorded in four geographically isolated locales, within the provinces of Azuay and Napo.
43394		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).
43394		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43395		conservation	eng	Two records are known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43395		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the southern Andes. Two records have been reported inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and a third between Oña and the Río Yacuambi.
43395		habitat	eng	A shrub of arid shrubland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43395		threats	eng	The subpopulation outside of the protected areas may be threatened by deforestation in the very near future.
43396		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Cayambe-Coca, Cotopaxi and Cajas protected areas.
43396		distribution	eng	Widely distributed and locally abundant in the Andean region.  Located within the Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43396		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and arid shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,500 m.
43396		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43397		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43397		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations in the southern Andes and one in Pichincha province. The northern subpopulation was recorded in the eastern section of the Pedregal and Yanurcu haciendas in Chaparro de Sedritana.
43397		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and arid shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,500 m.
43397		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43398		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43398		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations east of Azuay, the first between Oña and the Río Yacuambi and the second near Gualaceo.
43398		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43398		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43399		conservation	eng	Reported inside the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43399		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations covering a wide altitudinal and geographical range, within the Azuay, Carchi, Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces.
43399		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry, high altitude grassland, shrubland and forest, mostly found at an elevation of 3,200 m.  One subpopulation has been found at 2,500 m near Nabón, in a dry inter-Andean valley.
43399		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43400		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43400		distribution	eng	Found within the provinces of Azuay, Loja, Napo, El Oro, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe.  Seven of the ten known subpopulations are from the southern Andes.
43400		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude vegetation, occurring within an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.
43400		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43401		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43401		distribution	eng	Known from a single 1946 collection made in Horta-Naque, Loja province.
43401		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
43401		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43402		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43402		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection recorded 167 years ago in an unknown locale on the central coast, Guayas province.
43402		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43402		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat destruction.
43403		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, the population is very close to the Parque Nacional Yasuní.
43403		distribution	eng	Known from a single population recorded in the Amazonian lowlands, close to Lorocachi on the Río Curaray, Pastaza province.  May also occur in the Peruvian Amazon.
43403		habitat	eng	A shrub of Amazonian forest, collected an elevation of 250 m.
43403		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43404		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43404		distribution	eng	Known from two collections confined to the higher areas of El Oro province. The first collection was recorded 5 km west of Piñas on the Saracay road. The second collection was recorded in an unknown locale probably within the same region.
43404		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana of coastal foothill forest to Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43404		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43405		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43405		distribution	eng	Known from two historical collections: one made at the Hacienda Almos (possibly Alamos) south of Guayaquil, and the other in Guayaquil.
43405		habitat	eng	A shrub of coastal forest (0–500 m).
43405		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitat destruction.
43406		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43406		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations, most of them in the central Andes of Chimborazo province. The northernmost subpopulation was recorded on the Pilaló-Macuchi road and the southernmost subpopulation was recorded near Cuenca in Chagal.
43406		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43406		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43407		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43407		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations distributed in the northern and central Andes, within the Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43407		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43407		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43408		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43408		distribution	eng	Known from one collection on the slopes of Antisana, Napo province.
43408		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high altitude grassland, at an elevational range of 4,000–4,500 m.
43408		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43409		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43409		distribution	eng	Known from a single 1931 collection. The label description mentions "Equateur, Pâturages élevés du Pichincha", apparently referring to the upper slopes of Volcán Pichincha.
43409		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb presumably in high Andean forest (2500–3000 m?).
43409		threats	eng	Primary threat is thought to be urban growth.
43410		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43410		distribution	eng	Known from four isolated subpopulations, within the provinces of Pinchincha, Chimborazo and Bolívar. The first subpopulation was discovered near Huigra and the second in Paramo Trujillo in Pichincha. The species has been recently collected in Chillanes.
43410		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43410		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43411		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43411		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection on the slopes of Celica, approximately 3 km northeast of Guachanamá, Loja province.
43411		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry Andean forests , found at an elevation of 2,500–3,000 m.
43411		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43412		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43412		distribution	eng	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from five subpopulations in the central Andes, within the Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.
43412		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest and shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.
43412		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43413		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43413		distribution	eng	Known from at least 15 subpopulations, within the provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Los Ríos and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43413		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of wet coastal forest to high Andean forest, found within an elevational range of 0–3,000 m.
43413		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43414		conservation	eng	Occurs in protecetd areas.
43414		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations.  Collected in Cerro Yuibug-Pailacajas, between Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago provinces; in Cerro El Altar, in Pico de Canoningo; and east of Cerro Sara-Urcu, between Pichincha and Napo.
43414		habitat	eng	A herb, forming "pincushions" in the superparamo above 4200 m on sandy wet soils or rocks.  Typical species in this habitat are <em>Azorella, Werneria humilis, Valeriana</em> sp. and <em>Agrostis</em> sp.
43414		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43415		conservation	eng	Some of the subpopulations are protected in the Cotopaxi, Antisana, Chimborazo and Los Ilinizas protected areas.
43415		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations in the central Andes, within the provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha.
43415		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high altitude grassland, found within an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.
43415		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43416		conservation	eng	Two subpopulations have been found on the border of the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, at the San Marcos lake and in the Paramo Guamaní. One subpopulation has been reported near the Parque Nacional Sangay and another in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43416		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations on the northeastern slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43416		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43416		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43417		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43417		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in the northern Andes. The first collection was in Quito, on the Panecillo. The second collection was recorded in a locale close to Cotacachi.
43417		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43417		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43418		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43418		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection recorded in an unknown locale of Imbabura province; the label description mentions "crescit prope Loma de Canaballa", but Canaballa does not appear on modern maps.
43418		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43418		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43419		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43419		distribution	eng	Known from a single record from Pichincha. The label description says only "Pichincha dans un ravin prés d'un torrent".
43419		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43419		threats	eng	Deforestation.
43420		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43420		distribution	eng	Known from four collections near Quito, Pichincha province.
43420		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43420		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43421		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43421		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection from Tipococha, between the Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.
43421		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43421		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43422		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43422		distribution	eng	Known from at least four collections: in Charon Ventanas, north of Sevilla de Oro, near Quinoa on the Cuenca-Cajas road and in Chimborazo province.
43422		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and high Altitude shrubland (2,500–4,000 m).
43422		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43423		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43423		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the southern Andes. First collected 11 km northeast of Girón, and subsequently collected in Loja province.
43423		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43423		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43424		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43424		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in Cerro Pucará, northeast of Nambacola, Loja province.
43424		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43424		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43425		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43425		distribution	eng	Known from 15 subpopulations in the northern Andes, within the provinces of  Carchi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43425		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–4,000 m.
43425		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43426		conservation	eng	Reported from the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43426		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations in the Andean region, found within the provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43426		habitat	eng	A treelet of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo, found at an elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.
43426		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires and deforestation.
43427		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43427		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations.  One subpopulation has been recorded near El Tambo, Cañar province,  the second subpopulation has been recorded in an unknown locale in Azuay.
43427		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry scrubland, and in paramos with occasional wet valleys (2,500–3,500 m).
43427		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43428		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43428		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. For the first collection the label description says "crescit in silvis densis prope Chagál in declivibus occidentalibus Andinum occidentalium in prov. Cuenca". The second collection was made in an unknown locale of Chimborazo province.
43428		habitat	eng	A treelet of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43428		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43429		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43429		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in the Paramo Mirador, southwest of Playón de San Francisco and south of the Río Chingual, in Sucumbíos province.
43429		habitat	eng	A shrub of frailejones páramo, found at an elevation of 3,000–4,000 m.
43429		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43430		conservation	eng	The historical locale is very close to what is now the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43430		distribution	eng	Known from one nineteenth century collection from the slopes of Monte El Corazón, south of Quito, Pichincha province.
43430		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43430		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43431		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations have been reported in the Parque Nacional Cajas, and others are close to protected areas like Cotacachi-Cayapas, Cayambe-Coca, and Llanganates.
43431		distribution	eng	Known from at least 45 subpopulations, distributed everywhere in the Andes apart from the Bolívar and Loja provinces.
43431		habitat	eng	A treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43431		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43432		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43432		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations within the upper Andean forests of Pichincha province. The first subpopulation was recorded in San Ignacio; the second in an unknown locale.
43432		habitat	eng	A shrub of upper Andean forest, at an elevational range of 3,000–4,000 m.
43432		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43433		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43433		distribution	eng	Known from a single population in Loma de Ora, between San Lucas and Saraguro, in the southern Andes.
43433		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43433		threats	eng	The population was discovered in an area where Andean forest remnants are mixed with crops and pastures.
43434		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection. The label information is scant and gives no information for locale nor province.
43434		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43435		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43435		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations in the central and southern Andes. Four subpopulations have been reported in Azuay, two of them inside the Parque Nacional Cajas; two other subpopulations have been recorded in Alao. One subpopulation has been recorded in Loja.
43435		habitat	eng	A shrub of high altitude páramo at 3,500–4,500 m elevation.
43435		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43436		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43436		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the upper Andean forests of Azuay. First recorded n the mountain range between El Pan and Guachapalá. The second collection is without locale information.
43436		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (3,000–4,500 m).
43436		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43437		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43437		distribution	eng	Known from three collections. The first was recorded near Quito, in "locis frigidis Andium Quitensium". A second subpopulation was reported in Bolívar province, northeast of Chillanes in a surprisingly low elevation (2000 m). A third subpopulation, from an unknown locale, in Tungurahua province.
43437		habitat	eng	A tree of páramo, found within an elevational range of 2,000–4,000 m.
43437		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43438		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43438		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations in the central Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.
43438		habitat	eng	A subshrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43438		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43439		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43439		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in Azuay province. The first was recorded in the Paramo del Castillo, northeast of Sevilla de Oro, and the second in an unspecified locale.
43439		habitat	eng	A shrub of high altitude páramo, found within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43439		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43440		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43440		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection within the Pichincha province.
43440		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean forest.
43440		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43441		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43441		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations widely distributed in the western Andes with a wide altitudinal range. One subpopulation has been reported in western Carchi province, and another between Puerto Quito and La Independencia. The collections from Guayas and Cotopaxi provinces are from unknown locales.
43441		habitat	eng	A shrub of coastal and low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
43441		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43442		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43442		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made near Hacienda El Recero, south of Canoa, in Manabí province.
43442		habitat	eng	A shrub of coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43442		threats	eng	Large-scale forest destruction and conversion to croplands.
43443		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made more than 120 years ago. The collection locale is unknown.
43443		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb.
43444		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43444		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. The exact locale is unknown.
43444		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high altitude páramo, found at an elevational range of 3,500–4,000 m.
43444		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43445		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43445		distribution	eng	Reported twice in the Andean region, within the provinces of Carchi and Pichincha.
43445		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43445		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43446		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43446		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, within the Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces.  The first subpopulation is in Pallatanga and the second southeast of Intag.
43446		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43446		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43447		conservation	eng	Approximately four subpopulations have been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43447		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations, within the Azuay, Pichincha and Loja provinces.  Most subpopulations are found within the Loja province.
43447		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest to high altitude paramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43447		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43448		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection. The locale is unknown.
43448		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb.
43449		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations have been reported inside the Cayambe-Coca, Cotacachi-Cayapas, El Angel, Antisana and Cotopaxi protected areas, or in areas close to the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43449		distribution	eng	Known from at least 60 subpopulations stretching from Maldonado, in Carchi province in the north, to Amaluza in Loja to the south. Most of the subpopulations have been reported in the central and northern Andes.
43449		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–4,500 m).
43449		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43450		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43450		distribution	eng	First collected in an unknown locale on the slopes of Antisana volcano. No data are available for later collections in Cotopaxi province.
43450		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43450		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43451		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, additional subpopulations almost certainly occur in the Parque Nacional Yasuní, which is less than 1 km away.
43451		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in Lorocachi, Pastaza province.
43451		habitat	eng	A shrub of Amazonian forest (250–500 m).
43451		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats for the species, due to the incredible remoteness of the only known population.
43452		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43452		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations on the western Andean slopes of Pichincha province. The first collection was made on the Saloya River. The other two collections were reported from the old Chillogallo-San Juan road and 25.7 km west of Chillogallo on the road to San Juan and La Victoria.
43452		habitat	eng	A treelet of dry páramo, found within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43452		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43453		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Llanganates National Park.
43453		distribution	eng	Recorded from three collections in the Paramo Angel and in the Llanganates, within the provinces of Napo and Carchi.   The Llanganates subpopulations were reported in the southeast of Chosa Aucacocha, between Aucacocha and Pan de Azúcar, and in paramo Soguillas, near Torre Llanganati.
43453		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of humid paramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43453		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43454		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43454		distribution	eng	Known from one collection made on the Nudo de Cajanuma, approximately 6 km south of Loja.
43454		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43454		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43455		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43455		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations in the southeast of Azuay province, between Tarqui, Girón and Nabón.
43455		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest to paramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43455		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43456		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43456		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations in the central and western Andes, within the Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.
43456		habitat	eng	A shrub, herb or liana of high and low Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43456		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43457		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43457		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in Cariamaga, on the way to Gonzamaná, Loja province.
43457		habitat	eng	A subshrub of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43457		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43458		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43458		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations distributed in the central and northern Andes, within the Bolívar, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43458		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43458		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43459		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in similar habitats within the Cayambe-Coca and Antisana protected areas.
43459		distribution	eng	Known from one collection made on the Quito-Baeza road, 13 km east of Papallacta, Napo province.
43459		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.
43459		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43460		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43460		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations distributed in the central Andes. One subpopulation occurs in Cañar province and three in Azuay: near Nabón, at the Hacienda Yanasacha-Parroquia Baños and 4-6 km north of Sevilla de Oro.
43460		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to dry grassland paramo (2,000–3,500 m).
43460		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43461		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been recorded inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43461		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations distributed in the northern Andes and on the eastern side of the inter-Andean callejon, within the Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43461		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest and scrubland paramo (2,500–4,000 m).
43461		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43462		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43462		distribution	eng	Collected five times in a small area in southern Azuay and northern Loja, between Cumbe and Saraguro.
43462		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43462		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43463		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Additional subpopulations may occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay or Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43463		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations recorded on the road between Baños and Puyo, within the Tungurahua province. The first collection was recorded east of Río Negro and the second 35 km off the Baños-Mera road.
43463		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43463		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43464		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43464		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in a small area between Alausí and Chunchi,  within the Chimborazo province.
43464		habitat	eng	A subshrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).  Collected in disturbed areas, and along roads.
43464		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43465		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43465		distribution	eng	Widely distributed on the eastern slopes of the Andes, within the Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Sucumbios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43465		habitat	eng	A subshrub of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
43465		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43466		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43466		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. The first was recorded in a locale that the label describes as "paramo de Assuaye; inter Cadludensem et pagum Pomallgactam". The second collection was recorded in Imbabura province.
43466		habitat	eng	A shrub of Andean paramo, collected within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43466		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43467		conservation	eng	Reported inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and potentially also inside the Antisana, Cotacachi-Cayapas and Los Ilinizas protected areas.
43467		distribution	eng	Most of the collections have been recorded on the slopes of the Andean peaks of Antisana, Chiles, Atacazo, Cotacachi, and others.
43467		habitat	eng	Humid high altitude grasslands (3,500–4,500 m).
43467		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43468		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43468		distribution	eng	<em>Buddleja ibarrensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Imbabura province.
43468		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,200 m).
43468		threats	eng	Threatened by deforestation and with a very limited distribution.
43469		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43469		distribution	eng	<em>Buddleja jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay and Cañar provinces.
43469		habitat	eng	High altitude, dry paramos (2,500–4,000 m).
43469		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43470		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43470		distribution	eng	<em>Buddleja lanata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43470		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude, dry paramos (1,600–3,500 m).
43470		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are its limited distribution and the high rates of deforestation in its habitat.
43471		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43471		distribution	eng	<em>Buddleja lojensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Loja province.
43471		habitat	eng	Dry Andean vegetation to high altitude, dry paramos (1,500–3,000 m).
43471		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43472		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43472		distribution	eng	<em>Thismia melanomitra </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Orellana province.
43472		habitat	eng	Periodically flooded Amazonian forest (300 m).
43472		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43473		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.  New studies are needed to evaluate the status of the three recorded subpopulations.
43473		distribution	eng	<em>Styloceras kunthianum </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Chimborazo, Imbabura and Tungurahua provinces.
43473		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).
43473		threats	eng	The species is only found in primary forest and is threatened by deforestation.
43474		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43474		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera anderssonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo, Pichincha and Sucumbios provinces.
43474		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43474		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43475		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43475		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera asplundii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Bolívar province.
43475		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43475		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the main threat to this species.
43476		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43476		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera brachyandra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Cotopaxi and Esmeralda provinces.
43476		habitat	eng	Humid to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43476		threats	eng	Specific threats causing population declines are unknown.
43477		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43477		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera crispiloba</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 12 subpopulations in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.
43477		habitat	eng	Humid coastal to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
43477		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43478		conservation	eng	Known to occur within a protected area.
43478		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera cuyujensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Napo province.
43478		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43478		threats	eng	Specific threats for the species are unknown.
43479		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within protected areas.
43479		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera cylindrocarpa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections from Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43479		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43479		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43480		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43480		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera domingensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Guayas and Pichincha provinces.
43480		habitat	eng	Humid and dry coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43480		threats	eng	Large-scale deforestation of the surroundings of the Toachi-Quinindé road is the greatest threat to the species.
43481		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43481		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera formosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from an unknown locality between 1859 and 1878. May already be extinct.
43481		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43481		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction in Ecuador, the threats to this species are unknown.
43482		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43482		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera holm-nielsenii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Carchi province.
43482		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43482		threats	eng	Threatened by annual clearing along roadsides.
43483		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43483		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera huacamayensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Napo province.
43483		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43483		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown for the species.
43484		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43484		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera ignimontis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Napo and Tungurahua province.
43484		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,900–3,500 m).
43484		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43485		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43485		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera loejtnantii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi, Napo and Sucumbios provinces.  The species may also be present in Colombia.
43485		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43485		threats	eng	The principal threat is the annual clearing of roadside vegetation.
43486		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43486		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera oblongifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  Population size is unknown.
43486		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43486		threats	eng	Specific threats to the subpopulations are unknown.
43487		conservation	eng	The only known population occurs within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43487		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera oyacachensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Napo province.
43487		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43487		threats	eng	Although the only known population is inside a protected area, it remains threatened by the conversion of forest to pasture.
43488		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43488		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera racemiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Carchi province.  No information is available on population size.
43488		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43488		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43489		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43489		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera refracta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 20 subpopulations in Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces.
43489		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest and sub-montane to high Andean forest (250–2,500 m).
43489		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43490		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43490		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera resupinata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.  Population size is unknown.
43490		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).
43490		threats	eng	Other than habitat loss, specific threats to the subpopulations are unknown.
43491		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43491		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera rubrosepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province.
43491		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43491		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the primary threat to this species.
43492		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43492		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera sodiroana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 27 subpopulations in Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.
43492		habitat	eng	Humid sub-montane coastal forest to high Andean forest (900–3,500 m).
43492		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
43493		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43493		distribution	eng	<em>Burmeistera truncata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Pichincha province.
43493		habitat	eng	Low to high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43493		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43494		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any of Ecuador's protected areas.
43494		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Pichincha province. Population size is unknown.
43494		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43494		threats	eng	Specific threats to existing subpopulations are unknown.
43495		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43495		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon albostellatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Chimborazo province.  Population size is unknown.
43495		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43495		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43496		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43496		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon arcuatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Cañar, Carchi, Morona-Santiago and Tungurahua provinces.
43496		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43496		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43497		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43497		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon azuayensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay province.
43497		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43497		threats	eng	The Sevilla de Oro population is severely threatened by fires set in forests and shrubby vegetation to expand pastureland.
43498		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43498		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon baezanus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations in Imbabura and Napo provinces.
43498		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43498		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43499		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43499		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon balslevii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from a single population in Carchi province.
43499		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43499		threats	eng	The principal threat is the annual vegetation clearing along the Tulcán-Maldonado road.
43500		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43500		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon brachysiphoniatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Pichincha province.
43500		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,000–4,000 m).
43500		threats	eng	Currently the native vegetation of the Mojanda paramo is threatened, as forest remnants and shrubby vegetation are frequently burned by tourists.  Another threat is the introduction of exotic aggressive vegetation (especially <em>Pinus</em> spp.) in the surroundings of the Lagunas de Mojanda.
43501		conservation	eng	Known to occur within a protected area.
43501		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon cazaletii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in napo province.
43501		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,500–4,000 m).
43501		threats	eng	Although the species occurs inside a protected area, it may be threatened by fires set by humans around the Laguna de San Marcos and deforestation around Oyacachi.
43502		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43502		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon chiltasonensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi province.
43502		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43502		threats	eng	The principal threat is the annual clearing of vegetation along the Tulcán-Maldonado road.
43503		conservation	eng	The only known population occurs within the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43503		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon chontalensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province.
43503		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43503		threats	eng	The principal threat is the conversion of natural vegetation to pasture, mainly close to Sevilla de Oro.
43504		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43504		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon comosus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe province.  Population size is unknown.
43504		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43504		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43505		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43505		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon dissectus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43505		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43505		threats	eng	The population along the Tulcán-Maldonado road is threatened by the annual clearing of roadside vegetation.
43506		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43506		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon erythraeus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43506		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43506		threats	eng	Potential threats for the species are unknown.
43507		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43507		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon eurystomus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Pastaza province.
43507		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest (250–500 m).
43507		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
43508		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43508		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon fimbriatulus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province. Population size is unknown.
43508		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,200–3,500 m).
43508		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43509		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43509		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon hartwegii </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.
43509		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43509		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43510		conservation	eng	Likely to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43510		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon heteropilis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43510		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43510		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown.
43511		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be present in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43511		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon hirtiflorus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43511		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43511		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
43512		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43512		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon jeppesenii </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from one population in Sucumbios province.
43512		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43512		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
43513		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43513		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon licayensis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from eight subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and El Oro provinces.  Population size is unknown.
43513		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43513		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
43514		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43514		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon llanganatensis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura, Napo and Tungurahua provinces.
43514		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43514		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
43515		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43515		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon medusa </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43515		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).
43515		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation to increase pasture land.
43516		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43516		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon occultus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.
43516		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43516		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43517		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43517		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon papillosus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza provinces.
43517		habitat	eng	Sub-montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43517		threats	eng	There have been high deforestation rates in the surroundings of Archidona.
43518		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43518		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon parviflorus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar and Pichincha provinces.
43518		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43518		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43519		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43519		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon phoeniceus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Napo and Sucumbios provinces.
43519		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43519		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43520		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43520		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon pilalensis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population of less than 50 individuals in Cotopaxi province.
43520		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to high altitude, dry paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43520		threats	eng	Threatened throughout its range by habitat destruction. The stems are also used to heal wounds of cows, which represents an additional threat for the species.
43521		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43521		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon quebradanus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations, one of which may no longer exist, in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43521		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43521		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43522		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43522		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon rimbachii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.
43522		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43522		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.  The Quevedo-Latacunga road subpopulation is threatened by deforestation. Another population, recorded in Riobamba in 1932, is probably extinct due to the urban development during intervening years.
43523		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43523		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon rubiginosus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.
43523		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).
43523		threats	eng	At least one subpopulation is threatened by man-made fires and the conversion of forest to pasture.
43524		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43524		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon rubrodentatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi and Imbabura provinces.
43524		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43524		threats	eng	At least one subpopulations is threatened by the annual clearing of roadside vegetation.
43525		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43525		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon saltuum</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43525		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43525		threats	eng	At least one subpopulation is threatened by the conversion of forest to pasture.
43526		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43526		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon sodiroanus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 12 subpopulations in Carchi, Morona-Santiago, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.
43526		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
43526		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43527		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43527		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon solisii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Chimborazo province.
43527		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,500–4,000 m).
43527		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43528		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43528		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon steinii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known oly from the type, collected from Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43528		habitat	eng	Sub-montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43528		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43529		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43529		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon steyermarkii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces. May also occur in Peru.
43529		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43529		threats	eng	Potential threats are unknown.
43530		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43530		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon subandinus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 18 subpopulations in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43530		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).
43530		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43531		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43531		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon trachyanthus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Morona-Santiago and Tungurahua provinces.
43531		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43531		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.  At least subpopulation is threatened by the conversion of natural vegetation to pasture and croplands. The subpopulation recorded in Baños in 1931 may now have disappeared due to urban and touristic growth in the area.
43532		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43532		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon trichodes</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces. Current population size is unknown.
43532		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43532		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species are unknown.
43533		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43533		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon uncinatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two collections made over 100 years ago from Bolívar and possibly from Chimborazo provinces.
43533		habitat	eng	The habitat is unknown
43533		threats	eng	No threats known apart from habitat destruction.
43534		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43534		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon ursinus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Loja, Morona-Santiago  and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  Population size is unknown.
43534		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43534		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43535		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43535		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon zamorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43535		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43535		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43536		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43536		distribution	eng	<em>Lobelia collina</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja province.
43536		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest to paramos (1,500–3,000 m).
43536		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43537		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43537		distribution	eng	<em>Lobelia subpubera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.
43537		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,500–4,500 m).
43537		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43538		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43538		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia acaulis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi and Napo provinces.  population size is unknown.
43538		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to humid and grassy paramos (3,500–4,500 m).
43538		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown.
43539		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43539		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia aretioides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.
43539		habitat	eng	High altitude paramos (3,000–4,000 m).
43539		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43540		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43540		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia bilineata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collections from Loja province.
43540		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,500–4,000 m).
43540		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43541		conservation	eng	The only known population occurs within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43541		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia caespitosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Loja province.
43541		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43541		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43542		conservation	eng	the only known population occurs within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43542		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia crassomarginata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Loja province.  Population size is unknown.
43542		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43542		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species are unknown.
43543		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43543		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia cuspidata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Cañar provinces.
43543		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,000–4,000 m).
43543		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43544		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43544		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia cylindrocarpa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja province.  Population size is not known.
43544		habitat	eng	Humid paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43544		threats	eng	Specific threats are not known.
43545		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43545		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia laricina</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.
43545		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,500–4,000 m).
43545		threats	eng	Specific threats are not known.
43546		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43546		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia lehmannii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.
43546		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to humid paramos (3,000–3,500 m).
43546		threats	eng	The species is a pioneer and apparently is resistant to fires, but continuous fires will threaten its survival.
43547		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43547		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia oellgaardii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43547		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to paramos (2,500–3,000 m).
43547		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43548		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43548		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia rhizomata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.
43548		habitat	eng	Humid, grass and dry, high altitude paramos (3,500–4,000 m).
43548		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known.
43549		conservation	eng	At least one subpopulation occurs within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43549		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia sparrei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay, Morona-Santiago and Loja provinces.  Population size is unknown.
43549		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,000–4,000 m).
43549		threats	eng	The principal threat are fires set by humans.
43550		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43550		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia speciosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.
43550		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to paramo (3,000–3,500 m).
43550		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43551		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43551		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia tubulosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Cañar and Tungurahua provinces.
43551		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to paramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43551		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43552		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43552		distribution	eng	<em>Lysipomia vitreola</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay province.
43552		habitat	eng	Paramos (3,500–4,500 m).
43552		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species are not known.
43553		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43553		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus affinis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Chimborazo, Napo, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.
43553		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43553		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43554		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43554		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus asplundii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo and Tungurahua provinces.
43554		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,000–4,000 m).
43554		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species are unknown.
43555		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43555		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus ecuadoriensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura, Napo and Sucumbios provinces.
43555		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to paramo (3,000–4,000 m).
43555		threats	eng	Ongoing conversion of native vegetation to pasture and deforestation are threats to the species.
43556		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43556		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus fruticosus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Loja province.
43556		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43556		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43557		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43557		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus furax</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi province.
43557		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43557		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (deforestation) is the main threat to the species.
43558		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43558		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus humboldtianus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.  Population size is not known.
43558		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43558		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species are unknown.
43559		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43559		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus loxensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Loja province.
43559		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43559		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the primary threat to the species.
43560		conservation	eng	Likely to occur within protected areas.
43560		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus lucidus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Napo province.
43560		habitat	eng	High Andean forest to paramo (3,000–4,000 m).
43560		threats	eng	The principal threat is ongoing deforestation in the region.
43561		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43561		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus rostratus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Azuay province.
43561		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43561		threats	eng	The principal threat is fire set by humans to create pasture.
43562		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43562		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus rupestris</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43562		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (3,200–3,700 m).
43562		threats	eng	One subpopulation may be threatened by landslides.  Threats to the other subpopulations are not known.
43563		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43563		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus scandens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 19 subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43563		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–4,000 m).
43563		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.
43564		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43564		distribution	eng	<em>Siphocampylus uncipes</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in El Oro province.
43564		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43564		threats	eng	The species' estimated geographic range is 50 km², most of which has been deforested during the last 40 years.
43565		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43565		distribution	eng	<em>Capparis heterophylla</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 15 subpopulations in Guayas, Loja, Manabí and El Oro provinces.  However, the total number of individuals may be less than 500.
43565		habitat	eng	Dry coastal vegetation to dry sub-montane forest (0–1,000 m).  Adapted to dry conditions and restricted to dry deciduous coastal forest.  The flowers are ephemeral and nocturnal.
43565		threats	eng	The principal threats are conversion of its habitat to croplands, urban areas and fires set by humans.
43566		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43566		distribution	eng	<em>Podandrogyne brevipedunculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 11 subpopulations in Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Imbabura, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces.  Total populations size is estimated as at least 500 individuals.
43566		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1500 m).  The smallest subpopulations grow in closed, dark cloud forest, mainly along creeks; there are also some isolated individuals in open spaces near these forests. Butterflies are attracted by its flowers (X. Cornejo, pers. obs.).
43566		threats	eng	Only one subpopulations occurs within a protected area.  The others are distributed in fragmented habitats.
43567		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43567		distribution	eng	<em>Podandrogyne jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Esmeralda, Guayas, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces.  Population size is estimated at less than 200 individuals.
43567		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).  Grows in closed, dark cloud forest.
43567		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation, conversion of forest to pasture and croplands, road construction and gold mining in El Oro province.
43568		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43568		distribution	eng	<em>Podandrogyne trichopus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is knwn from three subpopulations in Guayas, Loja and Manabí provinces.  The global population may be fewer than 100 individuals.
43568		habitat	eng	Dry and humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m and 2,500–3,000 m).
43568		threats	eng	The principal threats are forest conversion to croplands, road construction and potentially fire.
43569		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43569		distribution	eng	<em>Steriphoma urbani</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It was last recorded 20 years ago in Esmeralda and Manabí provinces. It may already be extinct.
43569		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
43569		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat to the species.
43570		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43570		distribution	eng	<em>Viburnum divaricatum</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from the type, collected from El Oro province.
43570		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (2,000 m).
43570		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.
43571		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43571		distribution	eng	<em>Carica horovitziana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Manabí, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.
43571		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
43571		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.
43572		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43572		distribution	eng	<em>Carica omnilingua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from a single population in El Oro province.
43572		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43572		threats	eng	Deforestation and the conversion of native forest to croplands are the biggest threat to the species.
43573		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43573		distribution	eng	<em>Carica palandensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43573		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,790–1,850 m).
43573		threats	eng	The only known population is threatened by severe deforestation and timber extraction.
43574		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43574		distribution	eng	<em>Carica pulchra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Bolívar and Pichincha provinces.
43574		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43574		threats	eng	Although fragmentation of these forest is not yet severe, the principal threats is conversion of forest to grasslands.
43575		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43575		distribution	eng	<em>Carica sprucei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Napo and Tungurahua provinces.
43575		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43575		threats	eng	The principal threats are the conversion of forests to pasture, disorganized colonization, and road construction.
43576		distribution	eng	<em>Arenaria radians</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Chimborazo province.
43576		habitat	eng	Paramo, near the snowline.
43576		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43577		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43577		distribution	eng	<em>Drymaria stellarioides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Loja and Napo provinces.
43577		habitat	eng	Andean vegetation (1,500–3,200 m).
43577		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43578		conservation	eng	Occurs in nearly all of the protected areas that contain paramo.
43578		distribution	eng	<em>Stellaria recurvata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 45 subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43578		habitat	eng	Humid and dry paramo (2,500–4,500 m).
43578		threats	eng	Not considered threatened.
43579		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43579		distribution	eng	<em>Cecropia maxima</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43579		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43579		threats	eng	The principal threat is total deforestation.
43580		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43580		distribution	eng	<em>Cecropia pastasana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Napo, Morona-Santiago, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43580		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest and foothill Amazonian forest (900–1,500 m).
43580		threats	eng	The principal threat is habitat destruction due to deforestation and subsequent conversion to pasture.
43581		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43581		distribution	eng	<em>Cecropia velutinella</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Pastaza provinces.
43581		habitat	eng	High, and possibly low, Andean forest (1,000–1,700 m).
43581		threats	eng	The intensive deforestation of the Upano valley either decreased its population or created new areas of habitat, because it is a pioneer species.
43582		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43582		distribution	eng	<em>Coussapoa jatun-sachensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Napo and Pastaza provinces.
43582		habitat	eng	Mainland Amazonian forest (250–600 m).
43582		threats	eng	Most of its habitat is intact, except for the Napo locale. A potential threat in the future is road building by oil companies.
43583		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43583		distribution	eng	<em>Pourouma petiolulata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least eight subpopulations in Napo, El Oro, Pastaza and Sucumbios provinces.
43583		habitat	eng	Amazonian mainland forest and periodically flooded forest (250–500 m).
43583		threats	eng	The principal threat is habitat destruction due to road-building and colonization.
43584		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43584		distribution	eng	<em>Maytenus eggersii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from an unknown location in Azuay province.
43584		habitat	eng	Specific habitat type and elevation are unknown.
43585		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43585		distribution	eng	<em>Maytenus jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay and Pichincha provinces.
43585		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43585		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43586		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43586		distribution	eng	<em>Maytenus manabiensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two collections from Manabí province.  The species has not been collected in over 100 years and it may already be extinct.
43586		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
43586		threats	eng	Massive destruction of forests in the province may have already led to the extinction of this species.
43587		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
43587		distribution	eng	<em>Zinowiewia madsenii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.
43587		habitat	eng	Humid Andean vegetation to high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43587		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.
43588		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43588		distribution	eng	Known only from one subpopulation at San Nicolás in Pichinca Province, Ecuador.
43588		habitat	eng	Low Andean Forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43588		threats	eng	The type locality, San Nicolás, may be threatened by the Toachi-Pilatón hydroelectric project.
43589		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43589		distribution	eng	An Ecuadorian endemic known from three subpopulations in the provinces of Napo and Pichincha.
43589		habitat	eng	Found in humid Andean vegetation (300–3,000 m).
43589		threats	eng	The principal threat is intensive forest conversion, especially for agricultural use.
43590		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
43590		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Manabi, Pichincha, Los Rios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43590		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest and low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
43590		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43591		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43591		distribution	eng	Recorded from the provinces of Bolívar, Guayas, Manabi and Los Rios.
43591		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest and submontane coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
43591		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43592		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43592		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in Napo and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43592		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43592		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43593		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43593		distribution	eng	Known from two sites in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43593		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to humid submontane low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43593		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43594		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any formally protected area, although known to occur in a private reserve.
43594		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Imbabura provinces, Ecuador.
43594		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43594		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43595		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43595		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Bolívar province, Ecuador.
43595		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43595		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43596		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43596		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Azuay province, Ecuador.
43596		habitat	eng	Presumably high Andean forest (>2,000 m).
43596		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43597		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43597		distribution	eng	Known from three sites in Bolívar and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43597		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43597		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural crops is the main threat.
43598		conservation	eng	May occur in the protected area system.
43598		distribution	eng	Known from four locales in Pichincha province and one locale in Azuay province, Ecuador.
43598		habitat	eng	Dry high altitude shrubland (3,000–4,000 m).
43598		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires and grazing.
43599		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least one protected area.
43599		distribution	eng	Known from three locales in the Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43599		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43599		threats	eng	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43600		conservation	eng	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43600		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.
43600		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to humid submontane low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43600		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43601		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43601		distribution	eng	Found in Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.
43601		habitat	eng	Coastal forest to humid submontane low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43601		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43602		conservation	eng	Could potentially occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43602		distribution	eng	Known from seven subpopulations in Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43602		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43602		threats	eng	Some sites would be impacting by habitat loss for expanding agriculture, although other sites appear to be secure because of the steep nature of the terrain.  The trunks are utilized locally for building fences and houses.
43603		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected area.
43603		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations on the western slopes of the Atacazo and Corazón volcanos, south of Quito, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43603		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43603		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat, but presumably the steep terrain helps to safeguard the species. The trunks may, like <em>C. corallifera</em>,  be used for fencing and house building.
43604		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur further south, in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43604		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations west of Quito in the province of Pichincha, Ecuador.
43604		habitat	eng	Low to high Andean forest (1,550–2,000 m).
43604		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43605		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43605		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the province of Morona-Santiago, Ecuador.
43605		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m)
43605		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43606		conservation	eng	Occurs on the northern border of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43606		distribution	eng	Recorded from Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.
43606		habitat	eng	Found in coastal and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).
43606		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43607		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43607		distribution	eng	Known onlyu from a single subpopulation in Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.
43607		habitat	eng	Submontane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43607		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43608		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but it could occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43608		distribution	eng	Known only from two subpopulations in Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43608		habitat	eng	Coastal and submontane humid forests (500–1,000 m).
43608		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43609		conservation	eng	Confined to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43609		distribution	eng	Known from three sites in the provinces of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador.
43609		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,300 m).
43609		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43610		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43610		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations recorded near Cosanga and Baeza, Napo province, Ecuador.
43610		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000 m).
43610		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43611		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43611		distribution	eng	Known only from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43611		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–2,200 m).
43611		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43612		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43612		distribution	eng	Known only from a single locality in the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.
43612		habitat	eng	Occurs on limestone outcrops in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,500 m).
43612		threats	eng	The principal threats are urbanization and deforestation.
43613		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43613		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities in the Río Nangaritza valley, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.
43613		habitat	eng	Submontane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43613		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43614		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43614		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection near Miazi, in forests of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.
43614		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (950–1,200 m).
43614		threats	eng	The principal threats are mining and deforestation.
43615		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43615		distribution	eng	Known from four localities in the provinces of Napo and Sucumbios, Ecuador.
43615		habitat	eng	Amazonian forest on the lowlands and foothills (250–1,000 m).
43615		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43616		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43616		distribution	eng	The only known collection was made more than 120 years ago, near Pallatanga in Chimborazo province, Ecuador.
43616		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43616		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43617		conservation	eng	Probably occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43617		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43617		habitat	eng	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43617		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.
43618		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Sangay and Llanganates protected areas.
43618		distribution	eng	The type specimen was collected in the Cordillera de Abitagua near Mera, and a second specimen was collected by R. Spruce, also probably in Pastaza province, Ecuador.
43618		habitat	eng	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43618		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43619		conservation	eng	Recorded inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and is almost certainly inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43619		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43619		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43619		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43620		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
43620		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha, Los Rios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43620		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest and submontane amazonian forest to high Andean forest (0–2,500 m).
43620		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, there are no significant threats to this widespread species.
43621		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43621		distribution	eng	Collected only once, more than 100 years ago, on the banks of the Río Peripa, near Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43621		habitat	eng	Humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
43621		threats	eng	The banks of the Río Peripa have been disturbed by the Daule-Peripa dam and the spread of banana and cacao plantations.
43622		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but sure to occur inside the Los Ilinizas and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas.
43622		distribution	eng	Recorded from Ecuadorian provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas and Pichincha.
43622		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest, humid submontane forests and high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).
43622		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43623		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43623		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bolívar and Los Rios provinces, Ecuador.
43623		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal and humid submontane forests (500–700 m).
43623		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43624		conservation	eng	Recently found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and may also occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43624		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43624		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forests (2,500–3,500 m).
43624		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43625		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but likely to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43625		distribution	eng	Recorded from Napo and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43625		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43625		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43626		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Antisana, Cayambe-Coca and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas.
43626		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo, Pichincha and Los Rios.
43626		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest to high Andean forest (0–3,000 m).
43626		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43627		conservation	eng	One of the recent collections was made in a protected area.
43627		distribution	eng	Recorded from Napo and Pastaza provinces, Ecuador.
43627		habitat	eng	Found in Amazonian mainland forest (250–500 m).
43627		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43628		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43628		distribution	eng	Recorded from Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.
43628		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43628		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43629		conservation	eng	Observed in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43629		distribution	eng	Recorded from Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.
43629		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
43629		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43630		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Reserva Etnica Awá and the ENDESA private reserve.
43630		distribution	eng	Recorded from Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43630		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal and humid submontane forests (500–1,000 m).
43630		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43631		conservation	eng	Not yet recorded in Ecuador’s protected area network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43631		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bolívar, Pichinchaand Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43631		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m)
43631		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43632		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected area network, but its distribution range includes the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43632		distribution	eng	Recorded from Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces, Ecuador.
43632		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).
43632		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43633		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and may also be in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43633		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43633		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43633		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43634		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43634		distribution	eng	Recorded from Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43634		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).
43634		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43635		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43635		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection from the nineteenth century in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province, Ecuador.
43635		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43635		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43636		conservation	eng	Found inside the Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.
43636		distribution	eng	Recorded from Carchi and Napo provinces, Ecuador.
43636		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude shrublands (3,500–4,500 m).
43636		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43637		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43637		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Morona-Santiago province, Ecuador.
43637		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43637		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43638		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and could also occur in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
43638		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities in Napo province, Ecuador.
43638		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,100–3,400 m).
43638		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43639		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected area.
43639		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43639		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).
43639		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43640		conservation	eng	The type locale is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43640		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Napo province, Ecuador.
43640		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43640		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43641		conservation	eng	The collecting locale may now be inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43641		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43641		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43641		threats	eng	The area is currently being deforested to produce charcoal and there is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities.
43642		conservation	eng	The type locality is inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43642		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Volcán Antisana, Napo province, Ecuador.
43642		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid high altitude grassland known locally as páramo (3,800 m).
43642		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43643		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43643		distribution	eng	Collected only once in Nanegal, Pichincha province, at the beginning of the twentieth century.
43643		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,200 m).
43643		threats	eng	Habitat destruction by agriculture and grazing.
43644		conservation	eng	Currently there are some well-preserved forests in the area, and the species may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43644		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in forests on forests on Volcán El Corazón, south of Quito, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43644		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43644		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43645		conservation	eng	Occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and likely also to be in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43645		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Napo and Pichincha.
43645		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (2,000–4,000 m)
43645		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43646		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43646		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43646		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43646		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43647		conservation	eng	The type locality is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43647		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collected near Oyacachi, Napo province, Ecuador.
43647		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43647		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43648		conservation	eng	Found in in what is now the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43648		distribution	eng	Recorded from Napo and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43648		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43648		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43649		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43649		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made near Guamaní, to the east of Pifo, Napo or Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43649		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43649		threats	eng	The area is heavily used for agriculture and grazing, and only a few sites remain with original vegetation.
43650		conservation	eng	Might possibly occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43650		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in the surroundings of Quito, more than 150 years ago, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43650		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43650		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43651		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, although the most recent collection is from a private reserve.
43651		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43651		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (500–1,200 m).
43651		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43652		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43652		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43652		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
43652		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43653		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43653		distribution	eng	Known only from the type location made somewhere on the western slopes of Volcán Pichincha, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43653		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (altitude unknown).
43653		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43654		conservation	eng	Probably occurs inside the Cayambe-Coca, Antisana, Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Llanganates and Sangay protected areas.
43654		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Napo and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43654		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43654		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43655		conservation	eng	Probably occurs inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras or the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43655		distribution	eng	Known from two collections recorded in 1980 and 1992, in forest remnants 5 km south of Cosanga, Napo province.
43655		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43655		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43656		conservation	eng	Recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, in the Río Oyacachi valley.
43656		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43656		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43656		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43657		conservation	eng	It is possible that it persists in similar habitats inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43657		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made at the rocky base of Volcán Pichincha in the nineteenth century, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43657		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (4,000 m).
43657		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43658		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur inside the Reserva Etnica Awá or the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, which are nearby.
43658		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made more than a century ago on the banks of the Río Santiago, in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43658		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest  (70 m).
43658		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43659		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43659		distribution	eng	Known only from two old collections made in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43659		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).
43659		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43660		conservation	eng	The valley is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43660		distribution	eng	Known only from the Río Oyacachi valley, Napo province, Ecuador.
43660		habitat	eng	occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43660		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43661		conservation	eng	Found in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa and may also be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43661		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43661		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000 m).
43661		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43662		conservation	eng	The known localities are all inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43662		distribution	eng	Restricted to the western foothills of the Andes, Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43662		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).
43662		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43663		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43663		distribution	eng	Recorded from Loja province, Ecuador.
43663		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43663		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43664		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43664		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made near El Corazón, Cotopaxi province, Ecuador.
43664		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43664		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43665		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43665		distribution	eng	Known from the type collection made more than a century ago on the banks of the Río Cachabí, near San Antonio, in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43665		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest  (0–500 m).
43665		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43666		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43666		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality in the Lloa valley, southeast of Quito, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43666		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43666		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat; the locality is now almost completely deforested.
43667		conservation	eng	The species may persist in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43667		distribution	eng	Known only from the area between Santo Domingo and Alluriquín in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43667		habitat	eng	Possibly occurs in coastal forest or humid submontane forest or low Andean forest  (500–1,500 m).
43667		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43668		conservation	eng	The type locality is inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43668		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made a century ago in the paramos of Volcán Antisana, Napo province, Ecuador.
43668		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (4,200 m).
43668		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43669		conservation	eng	May possibly occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43669		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made on the western slopes of Volcán Corazón, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43669		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43669		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43670		conservation	eng	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43670		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made on the upper slopes of Volcán Atacazo, south of Quito in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43670		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43670		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43671		conservation	eng	The collection locale is in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
43671		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made more than 140 years ago at the base of Chimborazo, Bolívar province, Ecuador.
43671		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (3500 m).
43671		threats	eng	The area is heavily disturbed by livestock grazing.
43672		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43672		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection from an unknown loaclity, but possibly from the the Río Oyacachi valley, Ecuador.
43672		habitat	eng	Presumably occurs in high Andean forest (>1,000 m).
43672		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43673		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43673		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, made more than a century ago in an unknown locale in coastal forest, Ecuador.
43673		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest.
43673		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43674		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43674		distribution	eng	Known only from a nineteenth century collection by W. Jameson on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43674		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (>3,000 m).
43674		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43675		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43675		distribution	eng	Known only by the type collection made at the beginning of the twentieth century on Volcán Tungurahua", apparently in Tungurahua province, Ecuador.
43675		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43675		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43676		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43676		distribution	eng	Known from a single century-old collection in forests west of Volcán Corazón, between Garretas and El Pongo, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43676		habitat	eng	Recorded from high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43676		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43677		conservation	eng	The type locale is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43677		distribution	eng	Known from a single century-old collection in the upper Río Oyacachi valley, Napo province, Ecuador.
43677		habitat	eng	Was found in pastures and shrubby areas, although the true habitat is presumably high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43677		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43678		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43678		distribution	eng	Known from a single, century-old collection on the western side of Volcán Tungurahua, Tungurahua province, Ecuador.
43678		habitat	eng	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43678		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43679		conservation	eng	Occurs inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates and in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43679		distribution	eng	Known from at least 10 collections in the central paramos in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43679		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43679		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43680		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43680		distribution	eng	Found on the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes in the provinces of Pichincha and Los Rios, but may also be in Cotopaxi and Imbabura provinces.
43680		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,500 m).  Occurs in cloud forest in Los Rios.
43680		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43681		conservation	eng	Occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43681		distribution	eng	Recorded from Carchi and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43681		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,000–3,500 m).
43681		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43682		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the lower area of the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43682		distribution	eng	Recorded from Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.
43682		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43682		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43683		conservation	eng	The type locality may be inside what is now the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
43683		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century in forest at the foothills of Chimborazo, in Bolívar or Chimborazo province, Ecuador.
43683		habitat	eng	Was presumably found in low Andean forest.
43683		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43684		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43684		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century on the banks of the Río Pilatón, in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43684		habitat	eng	Was presumably found in coastal forest or humid submontane forest (800–900 m).
43684		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat; the forests of the type locality have been highly disturbed over the past 40 years.
43685		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43685		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made more than a century ago on the banks of the Río Peripa, close to Puerto Limón, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43685		habitat	eng	Was found in humid coastal forest  (0–500 m).
43685		threats	eng	At present the type locality area is intensively used for agriculture and grazing.
43686		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43686		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made a century ago near Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43686		habitat	eng	Was growing in humid coastal forest  (0–500 m).
43686		threats	eng	At present the type locality is totally deforested and used for agriculture and cattle ranching.
43687		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43687		distribution	eng	Known only from two century-old collections in the western Andes of Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43687		habitat	eng	Presumably occurs in coastal forest or humid submontane forest or low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43687		threats	eng	The collection locales are today very altered by agricultural activities, but significant forest remnants exist between them.
43688		conservation	eng	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Bosque Protector Mindo-Nambillo.
43688		distribution	eng	Recorded from two susbpopulations occurring in Carchi and  Pichincha respectively, Ecuador.
43688		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (900–1,500 m).
43688		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43689		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43689		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, in the forests that once surrounded Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43689		habitat	eng	Was reordered in humid coastal forest  (200–500 m).
43689		threats	eng	The type locality has been massively deforested and fragmented by agricultural activities.
43690		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43690		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, but is possibly still growing in forests inside the Maquipucuna private reserve, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43690		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43690		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43691		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43691		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichinchaa and Tungurahua.
43691		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (4,000–4,500 m).
43691		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43692		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43692		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made near San Nicolás, on the Quito-Manabí trail, perhaps in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43692		habitat	eng	Was found in low Andean forest (1,200 m).
43692		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43693		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43693		distribution	eng	Known only from a single collection made in 1935 long the Morán-Olivos road in Carchi province, Ecuador.
43693		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,200 m).
43693		threats	eng	This area is currently impacted by the conversion of forest to croplands and coal mining.
43694		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in lower sections of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43694		distribution	eng	Known from at least two subpopulations collected a century ago, in Mindo valley and on the lower slopes of Volcán Corazón, both in Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43694		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43694		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43695		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43695		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made more than 100 years ago on the banks of the Río Pilatón, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43695		habitat	eng	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000 m).
43695		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43696		conservation	eng	The localities are probably inside what are now the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
43696		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, on the slopes of Corazón and Chimborazo volcanos, in Pichincha and Chimborazo provinces, Ecuador.
43696		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43696		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43697		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43697		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in an unknown locale of Pichincha province in the nineteenth century, Ecuador.
43697		habitat	eng	Was found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43697		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43698		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43698		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, probably between Nanegalito and Los Bancos, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43698		habitat	eng	Was probably found in low Andean forest (1,550 m).
43698		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43699		conservation	eng	Not known if it occurs inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43699		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made more than 150 years somewhere in the Ecuadorian Andes.
43699		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43699		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is likely to be the main threat.
43700		conservation	eng	Occurs at the entrance to the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43700		distribution	eng	Known from a single subpopulation in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43700		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal and humid submontane forests (500–1,000).
43700		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43701		conservation	eng	May still exist in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Etnica Awá.
43701		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43701		habitat	eng	Was recorded in humid coastal forest  ( 0–500 m).
43701		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43702		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43702		distribution	eng	Recorded in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Loja.
43702		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland (páramo) at the edge of Andean lakes i.e., alpine wetlands (3,000–4,000 m).
43702		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43703		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Reserva Ecológica Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43703		distribution	eng	Recorded in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha. The distribution range may reach the southern paramos of Colombia.
43703		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–4,500 m).
43703		threats	eng	The principal threats are intensive grazing and fires set by people.
43704		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43704		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43704		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43704		threats	eng	The principal threats are intensive grazing and fires set by people.
43705		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43705		distribution	eng	Known from five locales in the southern Andes in Azuay and Loja provinces, Ecuador.
43705		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,000 m).
43705		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43706		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but possibly occurs in the Reserva de Mailas in Azuay or in the Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43706		distribution	eng	Well distributed in the southern Andean paramos in the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Cañar, El Oro, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43706		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,500 m).
43706		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43707		conservation	eng	Abundant in the paramos of the Parque Nacional Llanganates and in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43707		distribution	eng	Recorded throughout the central and northern Andes in the Ecuadorian provinces Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43707		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,500 m).
43707		threats	eng	No major threats, although habitat loss is an ongoing problem in some places.
43708		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43708		distribution	eng	Known to occur in four locales in Loja province, Ecuador.
43708		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–4,000 m).
43708		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43709		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43709		distribution	eng	Known to occur at two locales near Amaluza in Loja province, Ecuador.
43709		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–3,500 m).
43709		threats	eng	The paramos are threatened in the area by grazing and frequent fires.
43710		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43710		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43710		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43710		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43711		conservation	eng	Has been collected in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43711		distribution	eng	Recorded from the mountains surrounding Loja in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.
43711		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,000–3,500 m).
43711		threats	eng	The main threat is frequent fires.
43712		conservation	eng	Confirmed to occur inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates and likely to occur in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel and perhaps southern Colombia.
43712		distribution	eng	Known from at least ten subpopulations, distributed from northern Carchi province to the paramo de Soldados in southern Azuay province, Ecuador.
43712		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43712		threats	eng	The paramos are threatened in the area by grazing and frequent fires.
43713		conservation	eng	Confirmed to occur inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43713		distribution	eng	Recorded from Azuay and Cañar provinces, Ecuador.
43713		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,000 m).
43713		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43714		conservation	eng	Recorded from the inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43714		distribution	eng	Until recently was known only from the type recorded on Volcán Cotacachi, but now recorded from the paramo of Atacazo and Pichincha volcanos (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces) and in the Paramo de Soldados in southern Azuay province, Ecuador.
43714		habitat	eng	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,500 m).
43714		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43715		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43715		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in forests of Cerro Golondrinas, on the western slope of the Andes in Carchi province, Ecuador.
43715		habitat	eng	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43715		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43716		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43716		distribution	eng	Until recently it was known only from near Lurencucho in Azuay province, but the species has since been rediscovered in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, although still apparently confined to southern Ecuador.
43716		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43716		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43717		conservation	eng	Not know to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in protected areas found at high elevations.
43717		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections made more than a century apart. In the middle of the nineteenth century, it was collected at an unknown locale in Cañar province. In 1973, it was collected on Volcán Chiles, in Carchi province. Endemic to Ecuador.
43717		habitat	eng	Was found in both cases in high Andean forest (3,500–4,000 m).
43717		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43718		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43718		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made near Puyo, Pastaza province, Ecuador.
43718		habitat	eng	Found in low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).
43718		threats	eng	The type locality area has been colonized and much of it deforested over the last 50 years.
43719		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43719		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made at Archidona, Napo province, Ecuador.
43719		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43719		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43720		conservation	eng	The type locality may well be inside what is now the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43720		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century on the slopes of Volcán Tungurahua, Tungurahua province, Ecuador.  May well be Extinct.
43720		habitat	eng	Was collected in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43720		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43721		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43721		distribution	eng	Recorded from Azuay, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43721		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43721		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43722		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43722		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43722		habitat	eng	Occurs in Amazonian mainland forest to low Andean forest  (300–2,000 m).
43722		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43723		conservation	eng	May occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay and Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43723		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the middle of the nineteenth century in the forests of Cerro Abitagua, on the border between Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43723		habitat	eng	Was collected in submontane Amazonian forest (1,000 m).
43723		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43724		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43724		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century somewhere in Azuay province, Ecuador.
43724		habitat	eng	Presumably was found in high Andean forest.
43724		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43725		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43725		distribution	eng	Known from a few very old bibliographic references and the type collection is missing. Sayausi, in Azuay province, is mentioned as a locale.
43725		habitat	eng	Presumed to occur in humid Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43725		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43726		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside protected areas but may occur in the lower eastern area of the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43726		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the southeastern Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43726		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43726		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43727		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas, the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. May also occur in the Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43727		distribution	eng	Found commonly on both the eastern and western Andean slopes in the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua. <br/>.
43727		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).
43727		threats	eng	No major threats, although habitat destruction is a problem in some areas.
43728		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43728		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century in an unknown locale in Ecuador.
43728		habitat	eng	The habitat is unknown.
43728		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43729		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43729		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century in Pillzhum, between Cañar and Azuay provinces, Ecuador.
43729		habitat	eng	Was found in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43729		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43730		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but might be found inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43730		distribution	eng	Known from three collections made in the nineteenth century, two of them in Pichincha province and the third record in Napo province, Ecuador.
43730		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest and amazonian forest (0–500 m).
43730		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43731		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43731		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made more than a century ago near Quinoas, Azuay province, Ecuador.
43731		habitat	eng	Found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43731		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (deforestation) is the main threat.
43732		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43732		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, without locale information, somewhere in Ecuador.
43732		habitat	eng	Unknown.
43732		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43733		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43733		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Ecuadorian provinces of Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha.
43733		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1500–3000 m)
43733		threats	eng	No major threats, although habitat destruction has occurred.
43734		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43734		distribution	eng	Known only from the type, collected in 1918 near Chonta, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador. This poorly-known species, similar to others in the genus, appears to be locally rare but with a wide distribution.
43734		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43734		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43735		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43735		distribution	eng	Known from two localities in the paramo of Castillo, southeast of Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province, Ecuador.
43735		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–4,000 m).
43735		threats	eng	The main threat are fires set by people.
43736		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43736		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made a century ago on the banks of the Río Guayllabamba, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43736		habitat	eng	Was found in rocky areas in dry shrubland (1,500–2,000 m).
43736		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and river pollution.
43737		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43737		distribution	eng	Recorded from two poorly described localities in Azuay province, Ecuador.
43737		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43737		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43738		conservation	eng	Confirmed to grow in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43738		distribution	eng	A widely distributed species found in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43738		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid Amazonian forest, coastal forest and high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).
43738		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43739		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43739		distribution	eng	Known from three northern Andean localities in Ecuador. One locality is between Morán and Olivos in Carchi province; and the other two are from Pichincha province, one on  the old Santo Domingo-Quito road, between San Juan and Chiriboga, and the other along the El Paraíso-Saguangal road.
43739		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43739		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43740		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, although may occur inside the Llanganates and Sangay protected areas.
43740		distribution	eng	Appears to be restricted to the Río Pastaza valley, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43740		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43740		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43741		conservation	eng	The type locality may be inside what is now the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43741		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, made on the slopes of the Volcán Tungurahua in the nineteenth century, Tungurahua province, Ecuador.
43741		habitat	eng	Was presumably collected in high Andean forest (>1,500 m).
43741		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43742		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43742		distribution	eng	Known from two localities in the southwestern Andes, in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.
43742		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,200–2,500 m).
43742		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43743		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43743		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bolívar, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.
43743		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43743		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43744		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but probably occurs in the Reserva Ecológica los Ilinizas and in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43744		distribution	eng	Recorded from Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43744		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43744		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43745		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
43745		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made outside of Sayausi, near Cuenca, Azuay province, Ecuador.
43745		habitat	eng	Was found in high Andean forest (3,200 m).
43745		threats	eng	The type locality has largely been transformed by deforestation and agriculture.
43746		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but is very likely to be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43746		distribution	eng	Known from two locales in the southeastern Andes, in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.
43746		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43746		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43747		conservation	eng	Protected inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and may also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43747		distribution	eng	Known from at least five collections in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo and Pichincha.
43747		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
43747		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43748		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43748		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the 1960s along the Panamericana highway, north of Loja, Loja province, Ecuador.
43748		habitat	eng	Collected in dry shrubland (2,500–3,000 m).
43748		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43749		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43749		distribution	eng	Recorded from Imbabura, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.
43749		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid Amazonian and coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
43749		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43750		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43750		distribution	eng	Known only from El Pan, Azuay province, Ecuador.
43750		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43750		threats	eng	The principal threats are habitat destruction through agriculture, grazing and fires.
43751		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but recorded near the borders of the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43751		distribution	eng	Known from at least seven subpopulations in upper Andean forest, in the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Napo. <br/>.
43751		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43751		threats	eng	Threatened by grazing and seasonal fires.
43752		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43752		distribution	eng	Recprded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43752		habitat	eng	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43752		threats	eng	No major threats, although habitat loss may be a problem in some areas.
43753		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43753		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the 1970s northeast of Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province, Ecuador.
43753		habitat	eng	Was found in high Andean forest (3,200–3,350 m).
43753		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43754		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43754		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in the San Marcos valley, inside the Reserva Etnica Awá, Carchi province, Ecuador.
43754		habitat	eng	Was found in coastal forest or humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).
43754		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43755		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
43755		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made a century ago in the Nanegal valley, Pichincha province, Ecuador.
43755		habitat	eng	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43755		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation; over the last few decades the area has been severely altered by agriculture, grazing and logging.
43757		conservation	eng	None of the known subpopulations are inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but the species should be searched for in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43757		distribution	eng	Known from four isolated subpopulations located in the Ecuadorian provinces of Bolívar, El Oro, Loja and Pichincha.
43757		habitat	eng	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
43757		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43758		conservation	eng	The locale is within the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43758		distribution	eng	Known from one collection recorded near Toreador, between Molleturo and Quinoa, Azuay province.
43758		habitat	eng	A shrub of wet paramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43758		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43759		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43759		distribution	eng	Known from a single population discovered near Areviatas Pilares Lake (Laguna Arrebatadas), between Amaluza and Palanda, in Loja province.
43759		habitat	eng	A shrub of pajonal desert (3,350–3,450 m).
43759		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43760		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43760		distribution	eng	Known from three collections: on the peak of the Cordillera de Píllaro, on the Sígsig-Gualaquiza-Cordillera de Matanga road and in an unknown locale of Azuay.
43760		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, found within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43760		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43761		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43761		distribution	eng	Known from four collections in the coastal lowlands, within the provinces of Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Guayas and Manabí.  One collection has also been recored within the Loja province.
43761		habitat	eng	A subshrub of Coastal lowland forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.
43761		threats	eng	Large-scale coastal deforestation.
43762		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43762		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in an unknown Andean forest of Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43762		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of Andean forest (3,000 m).
43762		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43763		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43763		distribution	eng	Known from at least five subpopulations collected in unknown Andean locales, within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Pichincha.
43763		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43763		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43764		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43764		distribution	eng	Known from two isolated subpopulations, one in Azuay and another in Pichincha.
43764		habitat	eng	A liana of Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
43764		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43765		conservation	eng	Reported inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and its surroundings. One isolated subpopulation has been reported on the slopes of Volcán Sumaco, inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
43765		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations distributed mainly in the southern Andes, within the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar, Loja, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43765		habitat	eng	A vine or liana of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert (2,500–3,500 m).
43765		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43766		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but three subpopulations have been reported in areas near the Parque Nacional El Angel and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43766		distribution	eng	Known from six Andean subpopulations, within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Imbabura and Napo.
43766		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest up to wet paramo (2,500–3,500 m).
43766		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43767		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43767		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection near Guayaquil, Guayas province.
43767		habitat	eng	A liana of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
43767		threats	eng	Coastal native forest destruction by urban and agricultural development in the region.
43768		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43768		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, on the western slopes of Pichincha volcano, Pichincha province.
43768		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43768		threats	eng	Native forests in the area have been greatly reduced by the advance of agriculture.  The species is also threatened by eruptions of the active volcano.
43769		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43769		distribution	eng	Known from a Sinangüe collection from 1917 "in silvis subandinis ad Tambillo" (near Quito), Pichincha province.
43769		habitat	eng	A liana of paramo (3,200 m).
43769		threats	eng	Reduction of native vegetation for agriculture.
43770		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43770		distribution	eng	Known from two collections made near Tambillo, south of Quito, and the other in the Lloa valley on the Pichincha volcano, Pichincha province.
43770		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest (2,800 m).
43770		threats	eng	The principal threats are the conversion of native vegetation to croplands and the close proximity to Quito.
43771		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43771		distribution	eng	Known from a single old collection with no precise data for the collection locale, the label only mentions Loja.
43771		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43771		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43772		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43772		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in Chuquiribamba, northeast of Loja.
43772		habitat	eng	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43772		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43773		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43773		distribution	eng	Collected only once, near the Río Daule close to Guayaquil, Guayas province.
43773		habitat	eng	A liana of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
43773		threats	eng	Habitat destruction by urban encroachment and agriculture.
43774		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43774		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in the west and south of Loja province. In the west, it has been recorded on Cerro Villonaco and on the road between Catamayo and Loja. Another subpopulation was reported south of Yangana, close to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43774		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43774		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43775		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43775		distribution	eng	Known from a single population in Tarqui valley, south of Cuenca, Azuay province.  own.
43775		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43775		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43776		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43776		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations in the southern Andes, within the Azuay, Cañar and Loja provinces.
43776		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43776		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43777		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43777		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in Colca, near the confluence of the Arenales and Catamayo rivers, Loja province.
43777		habitat	eng	A shrub, collected from dry Andean vegetation at an elevation of 2,000 m.
43777		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43778		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43778		distribution	eng	Known from at least six collections, most of them reported from the Pallatanga valley and surrounding areas. One isolated subpopulation is in an unspecified locale of Pichincha province.
43778		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of dry Andean vegetation (1,500–3,500 m).
43778		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43779		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43779		distribution	eng	Known from two collections. The first collection was made near Mulaló, Cotopaxi province, the second collection was in an unknown locale of Chimborazo province.
43779		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, found within an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.
43779		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43780		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Llanganates.
43780		distribution	eng	Known from four collections in the Andes. First recorded between Urbina and Monte Chimborazo, probably inside the Reserva Producción Faunística Chimborazo. Later collections were recorded in Gualaceo and Aucacocha, inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates. No data exists for the Carchi collection.
43780		habitat	eng	A shrub of arbustivo desert, within an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.
43780		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43781		conservation	eng	The two subpopulations are known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43781		distribution	eng	Known from several collections of a large subpopulation on the slopes of Cotopaxi. A few additional collections are from a subpopulation reported in Ilinizas, Pichincha province.
43781		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry paramo, found at and elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.
43781		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43782		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43782		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Andean region, especially in the eastern cordillera. Known from 15 subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.
43782		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert (2,500–4,000 m).
43782		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43783		conservation	eng	Potentially occurs within the protected area of Antisana volcano.
43783		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in the upper Andes, within the Imbabura, Pichincha and Napo provinces.
43783		habitat	eng	A shrub of paramo, collected within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43783		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43784		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43784		distribution	eng	Known from ten Andean subpopulations within the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.  No data has been seen for the Imbabura, Loja, Cotopaxi and Napo collections.
43784		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of low Andean forest up to paramo (1,500–4,500 m).
43784		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43785		conservation	eng	One subpopulation may possibly occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43785		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations from the Napo and Pichincha provinces.  One subpopulation is on the northwestern slopes of Monte Corazón (near the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas) and the other on the eastern slopes of Volcán Cayambe.
43785		habitat	eng	A herb or vine of low Andean forest and paramo, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43785		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43786		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43786		distribution	eng	Known from five collections within the Loja, Pichincha and Morona-Santiago provinces, where it is confined to the southeastern Andean slopes.  Collected on the Gualaceo-Limón road, in the Río Negro valley, east of Sevilla de Oro and inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, east of the Nudo de Cajanuma.
43786		habitat	eng	A liana of low Andean forest and paramo, found at an elevational range of 1,500–3,500 m.
43786		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43787		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43787		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made in an unknown locale on the northern slopes of the Río Cañar valley.
43787		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43787		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43788		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43788		distribution	eng	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from five collections in the central Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar and Chimborazo. .
43788		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest up to paramo, collected from an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43788		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43789		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43789		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations from the northern and central Andes, found within the provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo, Napo and Pichincha.  Distributed on both sides of the Cordillera.
43789		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of Amazonian to Andean forest.  The species shows a wide altitudinal distribution, ranging from Borja, at 700 m elevation, to Tandapi, at 2,400 m elevation.
43789		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43790		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43790		distribution	eng	Collected once on the road between Cañar and El Tambo, 4 km from Cañar.
43790		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).
43790		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43791		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur in the Cayambe-Coca or Antisana protected areas.
43791		distribution	eng	Known from three old collections along the road between Papallacta and Baeza, Napo province.
43791		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43791		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43792		conservation	eng	Known to occur around and inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43792		distribution	eng	Confined to the western Andes of Azuay province. Approximately 20 subpopulations have been reported. Two isolated subpopulations have been reported in the south of Cumbe and between Cañar and Azogues.
43792		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (3,500–4,000 m).
43792		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43793		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43793		distribution	eng	Known from one subpopulation, collected several times between 1994 and 1997 on Cerro Uritusinga, towards the Hacienda La Palma, southwest of Loja.
43793		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43793		threats	eng	Found in vegetation remnants, which are seriously threatened by wood extraction for charcoal production.
43794		conservation	eng	Three subpopulations are in or near the Cotacachi-Cayapas and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.
43794		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations in the northern Andes, within the Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43794		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–4,500 m).
43794		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43795		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43795		distribution	eng	Collected once in Tipococha, on the borders of Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.
43795		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, collected at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43795		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43796		conservation	eng	One collection has been reported in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43796		distribution	eng	Known from approximately ten collections reported in the northern Andes, within the Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.
43796		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert, collected within an elevational range of 2,500–4,500 m.
43796		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43797		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been reported inside the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, others at the entrance of the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43797		distribution	eng	Collected four times in relatively isolated areas, within the Chimborazo, Pichincha and Tungurahua province.
43797		habitat	eng	A vine of arbustivo desert, collected at an elevational range of 3,000–4,000 m.
43797		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43798		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43798		distribution	eng	Reported as a new species in 1994 based on one collection, recorded in the Jatun Sacha private reserve, on the Napo river, 8 km east of Misahuallí, Napo province.
43798		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana recorded within Amazonian forest (400 m).
43798		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43799		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43799		distribution	eng	Recorded twice, in a small area of western Pichincha province: 90 km off the road between Chiriboga and Santo Domingo, and at Las Palmeras, in the Río Saloya valley.
43799		habitat	eng	A shrub of low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
43799		threats	eng	Threatened by colonization.
43800		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43800		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, recorded on the Río Cusalagua and near San Jacinto de la Unión, Bolívar province.
43800		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43800		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43801		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43801		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations on the western slopes of the central and southern Andes, within the Azuay and Bolívar provinces. Collected near Chagal and Molleturo, in Balsapamba, and west of the Chillanes.
43801		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43801		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43802		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43802		distribution	eng	Known from 17 subpopulations distributed in the central and northern Andes, within the provinces of Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua.
43802		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–3,500 m).
43802		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43803		conservation	eng	Occurs in a protected area.
43803		distribution	eng	Known from three collections, within the province of Guayas.  Precise locale data has only been seen for one subpopulation, recorded in Puná Vieja on the island of the same name.
43803		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
43803		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43804		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Llanganates.  The recorded subpopulation is protected, as it grows in an area with very difficult access.
43804		distribution	eng	Grows on the southeastern slopes of Cerro Hermoso, Tungurahua province.
43804		habitat	eng	A perennial rosette herb of super paramo, in permanently wet and rocky areas with abundant bryophytes (4,200–4,300 m).
43805		conservation	eng	The two subpopulations are currently protected inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43805		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the eastern Andes, within the Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and Napo provinces.  Recorded in the Paramo Soguillas, which is near the Llanganati towers, and on the Alao-Huamboya road.
43805		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of humid paramo (3,500–4,000 m).
43805		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43806		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43806		distribution	eng	Known from one collection recorded in the Azuay province. Locale information is unknown.
43806		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of paramo (3,050–3,415 m).
43806		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43807		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43807		distribution	eng	Known from three collections within Cañar and El Tambo valleys.  Two collections have been reported in disturbed areas in southern Cañar, and a third in Ingapirca.
43807		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation, confined to xerophytic slopes (3,000–3,500 m).
43807		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43808		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43808		distribution	eng	Known from ten subpopulations distributed in dry valleys of the tributaries of the Jubones River, like Paute and Chira, in the southern Andean region between Girón, Saraguro and Vilcabamba.
43808		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean valleys, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.
43808		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43809		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43809		distribution	eng	Known from 15 subpopulations distributed especially in dry canyons of the Chanchán and Cañar rivers.  Found in dense populations near Huigra, in the Río Chanchán valley.  Most of the collections are confined to a small area between Alausi, Huigra and Chunchi, south of Chimborazo province. One isolated subpopulation has been recorded in Tungurahua province.
43809		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation, in recently disturbed or open areas on roadsides (1,000–3,000 m).
43809		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43810		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43810		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the driest areas of the Río Mira valley. The subpopulations were reported along the Salinas-Lita road.  Additional subpopulations may occur in areas far from roads and urban centres.
43810		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation (500–1,500 m).
43810		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43811		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43811		distribution	eng	Known from at least 15 subpopulations, mainly in the central Andes, within the Imbabura province. Two varieties have been identified: <em>lehmanni</em> and <em>grandiceps</em>.  Twelve subpopulations have been recorded for the first variety, which is confined to canyons of the Río Chanchán, Cañar and Chimbo, where it occurs abundantly along the Panamericana road, sometimes forming large subpopulations. The <em>grandiceps</em> variety is known only from a small area near Huigra, along the Panamericana road, south of Chunchi.
43811		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation (1,500–3,500 m).
43811		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43812		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43812		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area of wet and dry forests along canyons of the Río Girón and León, in Azuay province. Also recorded in the headwaters of the Río Paquishapa, north of Loja province.
43812		habitat	eng	A shrub of wet and dry forest, abundant along roads and disturbed areas (2,000–3,000 m).
43812		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43813		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43813		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the southern Andes. The first subpopulation was recorded 30 km south of Cumbe on the Saraguro road, Azuay province. The second subpopulation was reported in an unknown locale of Loja province.
43813		habitat	eng	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43813		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43814		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43814		distribution	eng	Known from nine subpopulations in the Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.
43814		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–4,000 m).
43814		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43815		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43815		distribution	eng	Known from two collections made in the northwestern Andes, within the Carchi province.
43815		habitat	eng	A vine of Andean and coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43815		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation, which has increased in the past years due to road construction.
43816		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.  Additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43816		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations on the eastern Andean slopes, 25 km from El Carmelo on the road to La Bonita and Oyacachi, within the provinces of Napo and Sucumbios.
43816		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.
43816		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation due to disorganized colonization and mining, which have accelerated with recent road openings, especially in La Bonita.
43817		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43817		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations, where it is confined to the Andean foothills of Pichincha province. Collected 20 km west of Santo Domingo and in areas near Chiriboga.
43817		habitat	eng	A vine of wet coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–500 m).
43817		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43818		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been collected inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43818		distribution	eng	Known from three isolated subpopulations in the Andes, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Loja and Pichincha.  The northern subpopulations have been reported in Chiriboga and Pilaló locales. A third subpopulation has been recorded by three collections near the Centro de Información, inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43818		habitat	eng	A vine of low Andean forest to arbustivo desert, at an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.
43818		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43819		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43819		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in the southern Andes, within Azuay, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.   Locale information has been found for only one subpopulation: near Fierro Urco, southwest of Saraguro. .
43819		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43819		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43820		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
43820		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations, five of them in western Pichincha province, and one from Zamora-Chinchipe.
43820		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43820		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43821		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43821		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection recorded north of Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province.
43821		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43821		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43822		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43822		distribution	eng	Recorded from two Andean collections, within the Tungurahua province.  The first collection is without locale information and the second in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
43822		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43822		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43823		conservation	eng	The slopes of Volcán Sumaco and surrounding areas are protected inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
43823		distribution	eng	Known from two collections on the slopes of Volcán Sumaco, 3 km to the east and 5 km to the west of the Caserío de Huamaní, north of the Hollín-Loreto road, Napo province.
43823		habitat	eng	A vine of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
43823		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation due to the construction of the Hollín-Loreto road.
43824		conservation	eng	Two populations occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43824		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations distributed in the south of the Andes, two of them in Loja and one in the Cordillera del Cutucú, Morono-Santiago province. The Loja subpopulations were located in Fierro Urco and in Cerro Toledo.
43824		habitat	eng	A vine of low Andean forest to arbustivo desert (1,500–3,500 m).
43824		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and fires set by humans.
43825		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur within the Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Antisana and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas.
43825		distribution	eng	Known from two Andean subpopulations, in the surroundings of Cosanga and southwest of Cotacachi, within the provinces of Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha.
43825		habitat	eng	A vine of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
43825		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43826		conservation	eng	One of the reported subpopulations is inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43826		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations, within the Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43826		habitat	eng	A vine of low Andean forest and paramo, at an elevational range of 1,000–3,500 m.
43826		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43827		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43827		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations distributed in the foothills of the southeastern Andes and the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago province.
43827		habitat	eng	A vine of Amazonian forest, found within an elevational range of 200–1,000 m.
43827		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43828		conservation	eng	Additional subpopulations may be found in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
43828		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection, made 3 km east of the Caserío de Huamaní, north of the Hollín-Loreto road, Napo province.
43828		habitat	eng	A vine of low Andean forest, collected within an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.
43828		threats	eng	The principal threat is the deforestation that followed the construction of the Hollín-Loreto road.
43829		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43829		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection from 1943, on the road between Mirador and Pailas, Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43829		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43830		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but be present in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43830		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection recorded in 1990 in the Cantón El Chaco, on the right side of the Quijos river, in the Finca "La Ave Brava", Napo province.
43830		habitat	eng	A shrub or vine of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43830		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43831		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43831		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection made between Campanas and Arenillas, southeast of El Pan, Morona-Santiago province.
43831		habitat	eng	A herb or vine of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43831		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43832		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43832		distribution	eng	Collected four times in the southern Andes, within the Azuay and Morona-Santiago provinces. Of the four subpopulations, only two have exact locale information: one on the Alao-Huamboya road, near El Placer, and the other 4–6 km north of Sevilla de Oro.
43832		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43832		threats	eng	The principal threat for the two known locales is deforestation.
43833		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43833		distribution	eng	Known from two collections in the southern Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.  One subpopulation was reported 1-8 km north of Sevilla de Oro.
43833		habitat	eng	A shrub or vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43833		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43834		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43834		distribution	eng	Described as a new species in 1993, based on a record from 1986 in the Río Guajalito private reserve, 59 km off the old road between Quito and Santo Domingo, Pichincha province.  A later collection was reported near the original locale.
43834		habitat	eng	A vine of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43834		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43835		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43835		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection 12-14 km off the Loja-Zamora road, Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43835		habitat	eng	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
43835		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43836		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacionale Sangay and the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43836		distribution	eng	Known to occur in four locales within the Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.
43836		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).
43836		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43837		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43837		distribution	eng	Recorded in five locales within the Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.
43837		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of paramo, found within an elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.
43837		threats	eng	The principal threats are fires set by humans and grazing.
43838		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43838		distribution	eng	Known from two collections, within the Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  One collection was made at Chiriboga on the western Andean slopes.
43838		habitat	eng	A subshrub of high Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43838		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43839		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43839		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations distributed in the coastal lowlands and the southern Andes, within the Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Guayas, Loja and Los Ríos provinces. The coastal subpopulations were recorded near Balao, and near Babahoyo in Bodegas. Also recorded west of Catamayo on the road to Catacocha.
43839		habitat	eng	A herb or vine of wet and dry coastal forest to low Andean forest, within an elevational range of 0–2,000 m.
43839		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43840		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43840		distribution	eng	Known from six subpopulations within the Cotopaxi, Pastaza, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.
43840		habitat	eng	A subshrub, shrub, vine or liana of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
43840		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43841		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but potentially exists inside the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43841		distribution	eng	Discovered in Mera, near Mangayacu, Pastaza province.
43841		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 1,100 m.
43841		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43842		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur within any protected areas.
43842		distribution	eng	Known from a few old collections in the Andes. The only subpopulation with detailed locale information was recorded at the Hacienda Isco, in the foothills of Volcán Antisana.
43842		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb possibly found within high Andean forest.
43842		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43843		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43843		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the central and northern Andes, within the Cañar, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces. One is from 21 km off the Cotacachi-Apuela road and another from Ingapirca.
43843		habitat	eng	A subshrub of dry Andean vegetation, within an elevation of 2,500–3,500 m.
43843		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43844		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43844		distribution	eng	Described as a new species in 1998, from two collections in the Río Nangaritza valley, near Miasi in the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43844		habitat	eng	A tree of low Andean forest, growing on steep limestone cliffs and slate (1,000–1,500 m).
43844		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43845		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43845		distribution	eng	Discovered near Quito, Pichincha province.  Subsequent collections have been made in an unknown locale in Cañar and within an unknown locale of Chimborazo province.
43845		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,700 m).
43845		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43846		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43846		distribution	eng	Known from three subpopulations in Loja and one in Chimborazo. The Loja subpopulations include one reported in Sozoranga, one in El Calvario and one in an unknown locale.
43846		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high and low Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43846		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43847		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43847		distribution	eng	Known from two isolated subpopulations. The first was recorded near Guápulo, currently inside the Quito metropolitan area, Pichincha province. The second subpopulations were reported in the surroundings of Cuicocha lake, inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Imbabura province. Additional subpopulations may occur in intermediate areas.
43847		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
43847		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43848		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43848		distribution	eng	Known from three collections. Two of the collections were reported in unspecified locales of Pichincha province; a third was reported in Monte Ilaló, near Quito.
43848		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).
43848		threats	eng	The rapid growth of the city of Quito has drastically reduced native surrounding forests, potentially putting this species at high risk.
43849		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but some subpopulations may be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43849		distribution	eng	Confined to eastern Tungurahua province, on the slopes of the Tungurahua volcano.
43849		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43849		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43850		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43850		distribution	eng	Known from three collections on the dry slopes of the Catamayo valley, near Loja. One collection is from Cerro Mataperro, southwest of San Pedro de la Bendita; another from the road between Loja and Catamayo; and the third on the road between San Pedro de la Bendita and El Cisne.
43850		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43850		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43851		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43851		distribution	eng	Known from three collections, confined to areas near Loja. Two collections are from Pucala near Loja and a third on the Río Gimanche, which does not appear on current maps.
43851		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
43851		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43852		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43852		distribution	eng	Known from five collections between Girón and Saraguro, Azuay and Loja provinces.
43852		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub of dry Andean vegetation, collected in dry valleys (2,500–3,000 m).
43852		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43853		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be found in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43853		distribution	eng	Distributed in the central and western Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi.
43853		habitat	eng	A treelet of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert, collected within an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43853		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43854		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be found inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43854		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations in the northern Andes. The first subpopulation was reported in Shanshipamba, east of Mariano Acosta, Imbabura province; the second in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.
43854		habitat	eng	A shrub of arbustivo desert, at an elevational range of 3,500–4,000 m.
43854		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43855		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43855		distribution	eng	Recorded once on the road between Loja and Zaruma, between Las Chinchas and Zambi, Loja province.
43855		habitat	eng	A shrub of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43855		threats	eng	The historical location is potentially threatened by deforestation.
43856		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43856		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in the Azuay and Cañar provinces. One subpopulation was recorded southeast of Cumbe.  Detailed locales for the other two collections are unknown.
43856		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb collected within dry valleys, at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.
43856		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43857		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43857		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection. No data is available for locale, as the label description only mentions southern Ecuador.
43857		habitat	eng	A treelet of Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43857		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43858		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43858		distribution	eng	Known from at least nine subpopulations, within the Chimborazo, Esmeraldas, Guayas, El Oro and Los Ríos provinces.  One subpopulation was recorded in dry vegetation of the inter-Andean valley near Huigra.
43858		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet of wet coastal forest and dry Andean vegetation (0–1,500 m).
43858		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43859		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
43859		distribution	eng	Distributed widely, from Otavalo in the north to Yangana in Loja.  Known from ten subpopulations, eight in the Andean region and two on the coast.  The coastal subpopulations have been reported in Santa Rosa and in the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco near Guayaquil. The Andean subpopulations are mostly in Loja.
43859		habitat	eng	A shrub with a broad altitudinal range, from tropical forests to upper Andean vegetation (0–3,000 m).  Most of the collections were recorded in disturbed areas, which suggests some tolerance to disturbance.
43860		conservation	eng	One collection has been recorded in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and other two subpopulations may be inside the El Angel and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.
43860		distribution	eng	Known from five collections in the northern Andes, within the Carchi and Imbabura provinces.
43860		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–3,500 m).
43860		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43861		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
43861		distribution	eng	Known from three collections: at Cerro Villonaco, 15 km west of Loja; 10 km southwest of the same city towards La Violeta; and close to Loja.
43861		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,000–3,000 m).
43861		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43862		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43862		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection recorded near Nono, Pichincha province.
43862		habitat	eng	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
43862		threats	eng	The destruction of natural vegetation in the area may be the biggest threat to the species.
43863		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43863		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection near Nabón, Azuay province.
43863		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).
43863		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43864		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43864		distribution	eng	Recorded from four collections in the central Andes, within the Bolívar, Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces.  Reported from the Alausí-Huigra road, in Pifo, and in El Batán, inside the city of Quito.   No information is available for the fourth collection, from Bolívar province.
43864		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
43864		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43865		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43865		distribution	eng	Known from one collection on the road from Guayaquil to Durán, Guayas province.
43865		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of wet coastal forest, recorded at an elevation of 0–500 m.
43865		threats	eng	May be extinct due to the near-total destruction of natural vegetation near Guayaquil.
43866		conservation	eng	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but recorded near the El Angel and Antisana protected areas.
43866		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, within the Carchi, Chimborazo and Napo provinces. No locale information is available for recent subpopulations.
43866		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb distributed in the paramos of northern Andean peaks (3,500–4,500 m).
43866		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43867		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and Parque Nacional Cajas, several subpopulations also occur in areas close to the Los Ilinizas, Antisana, Cayambe, El Angel and Chimborazo protected areas.
43867		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Andes.  Known from 50 subpopulations within the Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  Most of the collections are from the Volcán Pichincha region.
43867		habitat	eng	A terrestrial rosette herb of arbustivo and humid paramo, growing singly or in clusters (2,800–4,500 m).
43867		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43868		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43868		distribution	eng	Known from a single collection in the eastern cordillera, between Oña and the Río Yacuambi, Azuay province.
43868		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub of high Andean vegetation, collected at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.
43868		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43869		conservation	eng	Some of these subpopulations may be protected inside the Chimborazo and Antisana protected areas
43869		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations in the central and northern Andes, within the Chimborazo, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  Several subpopulations have been reported from the Antisana and Chimborazo volcanoes, and the species probably also occurs on Volcán Pichincha.
43869		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry paramo, over an elevation of 4,000 m.
43869		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43870		conservation	eng	Collections have been reported within the Parque Nacional Cajas.
43870		distribution	eng	Known from two subpopulations within the central Andes.  Most of the collections come from inside the Parque Nacional Cajas, Azuay province; one collection has been reported from an unknown locale of Loja.
43870		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb, found in wet areas of the superparamos, at an elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.
43870		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43871		conservation	eng	Collected inside the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute and several private reserves in the coast, probably also occurs inside the Parque Nacional Machalilla.
43871		distribution	eng	Abundant in some areas of the Cordillera Chongón Colonche, Guayas province.  Also found within the province of Manabí.
43871		habitat	eng	A tree of dry coastal forest.
43871		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43872		conservation	eng	Protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
43872		distribution	eng	Discovered in the Bilsa private reserve, Esmeraldas province, where it seems abundant.
43872		habitat	eng	A tree of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 350–500 m.
43872		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43873		conservation	eng	In the Flórula de Rio Palenque the species appears under the name Malmea depressa (Dodson and Gentry 1978). Protected in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.  Known to occur in the Río Palenque and Bilsa private reserves.
43873		distribution	eng	Recently described from three locales in Los Ríos and Anchayacu in Esmeraldas province.
43873		habitat	eng	A tree of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 70–600 m.
43873		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43874		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and another in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
43874		distribution	eng	<em>Cotopaxia asplundii</em> is known from six subpopulations confined to the central and northern Ecuadorian Andes, within the provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha.
43874		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dry paramo.
43874		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43875		conservation	eng	Species may be found inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas or in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, since it was collected relatively close to these areas.
43875		distribution	eng	Known from five subpopulations, located within the Cotopaxi, Loja, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43875		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest.
43875		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43876		conservation	eng	Several subpopulations have been recorded in protected areas: in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the borders of the Parque Nacional Sangay, Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
43876		distribution	eng	Known from 13 subpopulations, located inside the Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces, on the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador.
43876		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of Amazonian and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–3,000 m.
43876		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43877		conservation	eng	Collected in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Additional subpopulations may occur in other upper Andean protected areas.
43877		distribution	eng	Most of the 13 known subpopulations are on the eastern slopes of the Andes, within the Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Loja, Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.
43877		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest up to wet paramo, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.
43877		threats	eng	The principal threat is deforestation.
43878		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Sangay.
43878		distribution	eng	Known from eight subpopulations, located within the Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  No precise locale information for the subpopulations is available.
43878		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest up to wet paramo, found at and elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.
43878		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43879		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within any protected areas.
43879		distribution	eng	Known from two collections: the type collection was made in the pajonales del monte Titiacún or Titaicum (described in 1921 as <em>Apium sprucei</em>), and another collection in the "Andes de Quito".
43879		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of paramo, collected at an elevational range of 2500–3000 m.
43879		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
43880		conservation	eng	Recorded within the Mokoko Forest Reserve.
43880		distribution	eng	Endemic to the foothill forests north and south of the main massif of Mt Cameroon.  Within its range it appears to be rare and easily overlooked.
43880		habitat	eng	A much-branched shrub of lowland evergreen rainforest; 0-100 m altitude.
43880		threats	eng	All known sites for this species are believed to be on land threatened by clearance for plantations.
43881		conservation	eng	<em>C. metallica</em> is present at Bakossi Forest reserve and has also been found in Nguti, near the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary. Improved policing of existing protected areas would help to secure the survival of this species.
43881		distribution	eng	Cameroon.  SW Province, Mt Cameroon.
43881		habitat	eng	A branched shrub of lowland evergreen rainforest, at an elevational range of  50–700 m.
43881		threats	eng	All of the known sites for this species are believed to be on land that is under threat from habitat loss/degradation from logging, forest clearance for plantations and small holder farming.
43882		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Korup National Park and at the edge of the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.
43882		distribution	eng	Occurs from the Korup National Park to the northwestern extremity of the foothills of Mt Cameroon.
43882		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree of lowland evergreen rainforest, usually on sandy soils; 60 – 400 m altitude.
43882		threats	eng	The unprotected sites where <em>C. suboppositifolia</em> occurs are under threat of habitat loss/degradation from logging and forest clearance for large-scale plantations.
43883		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Kwamgumi Forest Reserve.  This species may also be present within the Segoma Forest Reserve.
43883		distribution	eng	Only known from the eastern Usambara Mts at Kwamgumi Forest Reserve.
43883		habitat	eng	A much branched tree of lowland forest, found at an elevation of around 350 m.
43883		threats	eng	<em>C. lukei</em> is under threat due to illegal logging and coppicing of this species for poles.  The related species <em>C. usambarensis</em> is also used for making rope, tool/spoon handles and the bark and for treating at least five ailments, however, It is not clear which of these uses apply to <em>C. lukei.</em>
43884		distribution	eng	Distributed along the coast of Bahia, this species reaches Sergipe and may also be found in Alagoas.  The southernmost collection known is at Santa Cruz Cabrália, some 500 km south of the northernmost collection in Sergipe.
43884		habitat	eng	Grows in 'restinga' vegetation on the coastal sand dunes.  These dunes are characterized by white sand.  A threatened species of Cactaceae (<em>Melocactus violaceus</em> Pfeiff.) also occurs in this habitat.
43884		threats	eng	The narrow strip of land where this species occurs is threatened by housing developments.  Some of these new developments are for the tourism industry.  Habitat is also being lost to expanding agricultural plantations of coconuts and pineapples.
43885		conservation	eng	This species is present in Mokoko Forest Reserve and Bimbia-Bonadikomba forest (previously known as Mabeta-Moliwe). Individual trees of this taxon merit special protection given their rarity. A survey to relocate plants at their known sites should assess what measures are most suitable at each site. At Kupe village for example, renting the forest area concerned together with a poster campaign might be the best means of supporting the survival of the subpopulation there.
43885		distribution	eng	Recorded from south and southwest Cameroon: Mt Cameroon at Bimbia-Bonadikamba and at Mokoko, Kupe-Bakossi in western Bakossi and at Kupe Village, South Province at N’Kolandom (one collection from each). Seems very rare given the few collections known despite intensive collecting over recent years in several of the forests where it occurs.
43885		habitat	eng	This blue-flowered cauliflorous treelet or shrub grows in the understorey of lowland evergreen, primary and secondary forest; 200–950 m altitude.
43885		threats	eng	<em>S. arcuata</em> is under threat from habitat loss due to forest clearance for agriculture, especially plantations in the Mt Cameroon area (Cable and Cheek 1998) and in Bakossi, small-holder agriculture.
43886		conservation	eng	The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF) has proposed the creation of two government forest reserves. One of the forest reserves would encompass 54,000 hectares of the Bakossi Mountains and almost certainly include the Kodmin locality for <em>P. cataractarum</em>. An attempt should also be made to confirm if this species still exists on Mt Etinde or not.
43886		distribution	eng	Subpopulations have been found on Mt Cameroon, the Bakossi Mts and Etinde in Cameroon.  Equatorial Guinea subpopulations have been located in Ureka and Moca.
43886		habitat	eng	A rheophytic herb, located in the spray zone of waterfalls on wet rocks in or around fast flowing water, within lowland or submontane evergreen forest, rarely non-epilithic on edge of watercourses, 300–1,450 m altitude.
43886		threats	eng	<em>P. cataractarum</em> does not appear to be under immediate threat in the Bakossi Mts, but at the end of 2000 there were reports of government proposals to allow timber extractions in the area. Forest clearance for wood plantations up to the 1,000 m contour on Mt Cameroon is threatened. Consequently <em>P. cataractarum</em> is likely to become extinct at the Njonji site in the immediate future, if it is not already so. Changes in run-off regime following deforestation within the stream catchments may result in habitat changes which are unfavourable to this species, such as increased silting along watercourses.
43887		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.
43887		distribution	eng	Endemic to the foothills of Mt Cameroon.  The status of Critically Endangered has been allocated to <em>P. bimbiensis</em> on the basis of the threat to the foothills of Mount Cameroon.   (Cable and Cheek 1998: xxxvi).
43887		habitat	eng	large shrub or small tree of disturbed evergreen forest on old volcanic soils.   Found growing with <em>Lophira</em> (Ochnaceae), <em>Desbordesia</em> (Irvingiaceae) and <em>Strombosia</em> (Olacaceae); 80-100 m altitude.
43887		threats	eng	The Bonadikombe-Bimbia forest in which this species seems concentrated is particularly threatened.  Almost all of this forest stands on land reserved for plantation expansion, although a more immediate threat is forest clearance from small-holder farming from the nearby town of Limbe
43888		distribution	eng	Cameroon. SW Province, Mt Cameroon.
43888		habitat	eng	A shrub of evergreen forest on old volcanic soils.
43888		threats	eng	The Bonadikombe-Bimbia forest is under threat from plantation expansion and forest clearance for small-holder farming.
43889		conservation	eng	Located within the Korup National Park.
43889		distribution	eng	The subpopulation is located within Korup National Park, South West Province, Cameroon.  The Korup project area, where <em>Korupodendron</em> was collected, encompasses 2510 km².  It is thought that as many as 200 individuals of <em>K. songweanum</em> may exist at the 500 m altitudinal band.
43889		habitat	eng	A tree that has been recorded on the rocky lower slopes of Mt. Juahan in lowland evergreen forest.  Some tree species associated with <em>Korupodendron songweanum</em> are <em>Napoleonaea egertonii</em> E.G.Baker, <em>Allanblackia monticola</em> Mildbr., <em>Pachypodanthium staudtii</em> Engl. & Diels, <em>Baikaiea insignis</em> Benth. and <em>Uvariopsis</em> sp.
43889		threats	eng	It is not known if the exploitation of <em>K. songweanum</em> for building purposes is sustainable, it is thought that this exploitation may cause a serious decline in the number of individuals of this species.
43890		conservation	eng	Known to occur within in Yangambi, Reserve Flore Isalowe.
43890		distribution	eng	<em>P. chalconeura</em> appears to be restricted to the lowland forests of the Congo basin, including parts of eastern Cameroon.
43890		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous or evergreen forest at an altitude of 0-470 (-1000) m.
43891		conservation	eng	Occurs in numerous protected areas, including the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha), the Sipaliwini Nature Reserve, and the Wai-wai Community Owned Conservation Area.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
43891		distribution	eng	Occurs north of the Amazon throughout the Guianas, southern and central Venezuela and northern Brazil. Limited to the south by the Amazon River, and to the west by the Rio Negro in Brazil and Orinoco in Venezuela. It extends north as far as the west bank of Lago Guri in Venezuela, north of the confluence of the Ríos Paragua and Caroni, its distribution here being limited by the increasing impact of drier vegetation (Hershkovitz 1985), and its eastern boundary in Venezuela appears to be the left bank of the Caroní. It is largely absent from western Guyana, occurring to the east of the Rio Essequibo. In Suriname, it is absent from the coastal plain, while in French Guiana it is only found in the extreme south (approximately 200 km inland). In eastern Brazil, it occurs throughout the State of Amapá and is possibly only absent from wetter regions along the coast.<br/><br/>Although <em>Cacajao</em> and <em>Chiropotes</em> are mutually exclusive, mixed groups of <em>Cacajao hosomi</em> and <em>Chiropotes chiropotes</em> in the region of the Pico da Neblina (Boubli 2002).
43891		habitat	eng	Inhabits terra firme forests (including high forest, savanna forest, and mora forests), and mixed semi-deciduous forest (Mittermeier 1977; Mittermeier and Coimbra-Filho 1977; van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 1981; Kinzey and Norconk 1993; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 1996, 2003; Peetz 2001). <br/><br/>Like other bearded saki species, this species forms large, multi-male, multi-female groups (44 members) (Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003), members of which travel together but subdivide during foraging (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 1981; Frazão 1992). In Suriname, reproduction was seasonal, with most births occurring in the rainy season or beginning of the dry season (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 1981; Peetz 2001).<br/><br/>The species is highly frugivorous, the diet being comprised principally of fruit and seeds (Mittermeier 1977; van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 1981; Kinzey and Norconk 1990, 1993; Frazão 1992; Peetz 2001), supplemented with flowers and non-reproductive plant parts as well as arthropods (Ayres and Nessimian 1982; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1983; Frazão 1991; Kinzey and Norconk 1993; Peetz 2001). Peetz (2001) recorded <em>C. chiropotes</em> eating over 100 species of plant. <br/><br/>Ayres (1981) registered day ranges of 1.3 km for a group in a small fragment (10 ha) near Manaus but a group in an area of continuous forest ranged over much larger areas, travelling as much as 6 km in one day (Frazão 1992). In Suriname, van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (1988) estimated ranges of 2.5 km and home ranges up to 250 ha. Peetz (2001) recorded an average day range of 1.6 km.
43891		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
43891		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats, although localized hunting for food takes place around Indian and bush negro villages.
43892		conservation	eng	The following federal reserves occur within the Uta Hick’s Bearded Saki’s range in the state of Pará: REBIO de Tapirapé (103,000 ha), FLONA Carajás (411,949 ha), FLONA Caxiuanã (324,060 ha), FLONA Itacaiúna (141,400 ha), FLONA Tapirapé-Aquiri (190,000 ha), APA Igarapé Gelado (21,600 ha), RESEX Ipaú-Anilzinho (55,816 ha) and RDS Itapuã-Baquiá (64,735 ha). State reserves in Pará include: the Parque Estadual da Serra dos Martírios/Andorinhas (24,897 ha), APA Lago de Tucuruí – margem esquerda (568,667 ha), APA São Geraldo do Araguaia (29,655 ha), RDS Alcobaça (36,128 ha) and RDS Pucuruí-Ararão (29,049 ha) (Lopes <em>et al.</em> in press). Surveys are needed south of the rio Tapirapé in northern Mato Grosso to confirm range limits.<br/><br/>The Primate Protection Centre (Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros: ICM/CPB), of the Federal Environmental Protection Institute (Instituto Chico Mendes), supports and coordinates primate conservation programmes throughout the country. An international committee to discuss and define actions for the conservation of Amazonian primate taxa (Comitê Internacional para Conservação e Manejo dos Primatas Amazônicos), was established by the the CPB and Instituto Chico Mendes (ICM) and together with the members of the Pitheciine Action Group (PAG) are developing a Conservation Action Plan for the Uta Hick’s Bearded Saki.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
43892		distribution	eng	Endemic to Brazil, the species inhabits the Amazon lowlands, between the Rios Xingu, Amazon and Tocantins-Araguaia (Hershkovitz 1985; Ferrari and Lopes 1996). The exact limits of its range are unknown. However, National Museum (Rio de Janeiro) archives include a record for the region of rio Tapirapé in north-east Mato Grosso, near the forest-savanna transition (J. Siiva Jr. pers. comm.). It is therefore possible that the species occurs in forested areas at the interface between the two biomes.
43892		habitat	eng	Uta Hick's Bearded Saki is endemic to the fluvial plain of Amazonia, where it occurs in tall terra firme humid forests at low altitudes. It has been recorded in disturbed forests. <br/><br/>This species is highly frugivorou, with the diet comprised of seeds (53%), fruit pulp (26%), flowers (18%) and small quantities of insects, leaves and other plant parts (Santos 2002; Vieira 2005). In a study of a group on an island (129 ha), over 150 plant species were consumed. Important species include <em>Alexa grandiflora</em> (Fabaceae), <em>Annona tenuipes</em> (Annonaceae), <em>Inga alba</em> (Mimosaceae), <em>Eschweilera</em> sp. (Lecythidaceae) and <em>Attalea speciosa</em> (Arecaceae). Home range sizes between 60 and 100 ha, and average daily walking distances of 2.5 km have been recorded (Vieira 2005). Recent studies have demonstrated that eastern Amazonian bearded sakis are more tolerant of anthropogenic habitat disturbance than previously assumed, with groups often able to survive in isolated fragments (<50 ha), some of which have been isolated for over 20 years (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2002; Santos 2002; Vieira 2005).
43892		population	eng	Using standardized line transects, population densities and sighting rates have been calculated for a number of areas (see Table 1). This species may occur in greater densities in altered habitats and forest fragments than in areas of continuous forest (Bobadilla and Ferrari 1998; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999).
43892		threats	eng	The key threats to its future survival are habitat loss and fragmentation. The establishment of several large projects (such as the Transamazonian highway BR-230), which bisects the interfluvium from east to west, the Carajás Mineral Complex and the Tucuruí hydroelectric dam, have lead to considerable habitat loss. In the north of the range, the habitat is under pressure from both small-holder and large-scale farming activities and cattle ranching. This species is also hunted for its meat and fur, and hunting pressure is likely to increase due to habitat fragmentation.
43893		distribution	eng	Bamenda Highlands in Western Cameroon extending eastwards.  Mambilla Division in Nigeria.
43893		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree that can be found in the understorey of lower montane evergreen forest at 1,700-2,060 m alt.  In its natural habitat <em>P. moseskemei</em> is easily confused, when sterile, with <em>Chassalia laikomensis</em>.  The two are similar in stature, leaf shape, size and can grow side by side.
43893		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation due to the clearance of land for small-holder farming.
43894		conservation	eng	A small proportion of the preferred habitat (limestone) lies within a Ramsar site (declared 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area.  One mature, reproducing individual in cultivation in the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola, BVI.  22 seedlings in cultivation in the botanic garden nursery (collected in Anegada in 2000).  Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration is being given to including named endemic/ threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.
43894		distribution	eng	Anegada, British Virgin Islands.   Extent of occurrence: 25 km², Area of occupancy: <10 km².  <em>Ex situ</em> population: One mature, reproducing individual in the display collection of the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola, BVI.  22 seedlings are in cultivation at the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden Nursery. <br/> <br/>Population size is unknown, but field observations indicate it to be locally common on limestone and scarce on sand dunes. Treated as one location with no distinct subpopulations.
43894		habitat	eng	Definite preference to limestone substrate – field data show a frequency >50% on limestone and <5% on sand dunes (based on 104 x 20 m² plots).  Field observations indicate poor recruitment – relatively few seedlings or saplings observed.
43894		threats	eng	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  Loose livestock (cattle, goats, donkeys) roam the island and impact at the habitat (trampling) and species level (grazing).  Invasive species may be a problem with increasing habitat fragmentation. The Settlement (Anegada’s only town) has lots of known invasives, three of which have been observed moving into natural habitats – <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> (also found along several western dunes), <em>Cryptostegia madagascariensis</em> and <em>Bryophyllum pinnatum</em>.  Fire may be a problem in the future – increasing use of fire to clear land.  Highest point of Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level.  Most of the preferred habitat is <3 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce quality and area of habitat available to <em>A. anegadensis</em>.  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes.  Formally cut for timber and the resin used as a boat sealant. No current utilization known.
43895		conservation	eng	<em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> is listed as an endangered species on the US Federal Endangered Species Act and a recovery plan has been developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This is based on the PR and USVI subpopulations, with only a small reference to the existence of a subpopulation in BVI.  The BVI National Parks Trust is aware of the location of <em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> individuals within Gorda Peak National Park and is monitoring the subpopulations regularly. A management plan for the Park has been developed.  Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.  There is a loose livestock control programme in operation on Virgin Gorda which is addressing the deleterious effects of free-roaming cattle. The BVI National Parks Trust is developing a horticultural protocol in an attempt to establish <em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> in <em>ex situ</em> cultivation at the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola, as part of their conservation programme.  Currently 4 seedlings have been established in cultivation.  The Monte Pirata subpopulation is located within a Navy conservation zone where it is a known species of concern.  The Bordeaux Mountain subpopulation is within the Virgin Islands National Park where management practices have been reported which will protect the species from uprooting and trampling by feral pigs and donkeys.
43895		distribution	eng	Three locations are currently known.  (1): Monte Pirata on Vieques Island (total area 142 km²), Puerto Rico.  (2): Bordeaux Mountain on St John (US Virgin Islands). Area of St John is 31 km². (3): Virgin Gorda, British Virgin Islands. Area of Virgin Gorda is 21 km² and both subpopulations are located within Gorda Peak National Park which has a declared area of 236 acres (approx. 1 km²).  Extent of occurrence is therefore less than 294 km², based on total area of the three islands. Area of occupancy is unknown.  Formally known from St Thomas (USVI), but this site been developed and only cultivated individuals remain.   <br/> <br/>The following subpopulations have been reported; Monte Pirata on Vieques Island, Puerto Rico where approx. 10-12 mature individuals have been reported by US Fish and Wildlife.  Bordeaux Mountain on St John where approx 100 mature individuals have been reported by US Fish and Wildlife.  Work in the BVI has documented a single locality on Virgin Gorda that comprises of two subpopulations, one of 34 and one of 25 mature individuals, making a total population size for VG of 59 within Gorda Peak National Park.  No recent counts have been made of the PR or USVI subpopulations and it may be that the total global population size for this species has dropped below 250 which would move it into the Critically Endangered category.  An up-to-date census is needed.
43895		habitat	eng	<em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> is an evergreen shrub or small tree to 3-4 m occurring in moist forest at altitudes between 300-400 m. We have seen the Virgin Gorda subpopulation flowering and fruiting regularly and a good population of seedlings has been recorded in Gorda Peak National Park.  Bats have been observed to feed on the fruit, and may be an important dispersal agent.
43895		threats	eng	Both subpopulations on Virgin Gorda are located within Gorda Peak National Park, although one is quite close to a boundary where some development is taking place that may negatively affect its habitat and could result in loss of mature individuals.  The second subpopulation is well within the Park, but close to a walking trail.  Current numbers of people walking that particular trail are very small and are unlikely to pose a threat.  Loose cattle trampling through the Park may pose a threat to individuals.  The Monte Pirata subpopulation is located within a Navy conservation zone where it is a known species of concern.  The Bordeaux Mountain subpopulation is within the Virgin Islands National Park.
43896		conservation	eng	A small proportion of the preferred habitat (limestone) lies within a Ramsar site (declared 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area.  Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/ threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.
43896		distribution	eng	Anegada, British Virgin Islands. Extent of occurrence: 25 km², area of occupancy: <5 km².  Extirpated in Guánica, Puerto Rico.  Population size unknown, but field observations indicate it to be locally common on the western half of the island. Fieldwork has not located it in the eastern half of the island (east of the airport and the Settlement), despite the occurrence of apparently suitable habitat.
43896		habitat	eng	Fieldwork indicates a preference for limestone substrates and it occurred in 69% of plots in open limestone pavement and 60% of plots in the limestone cays.  Fairly widespread also in sand dune habitats where it was found in 25% of plots (based on 104, 20x20 m plots assessed).  No study of breeding biology undertaken, but this species appears to flower and set fruit regularly and in abundance.
43896		threats	eng	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  Loose livestock (cattle, goats, donkeys) roam the island and impact at the habitat (trampling) and species level (grazing).  Invasive species may be a problem with increasing habitat fragmentation. The Settlement (Anegada’s only town) has lots of known invasives, three of which have been observed moving into natural habitats – <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> (also found along several western dunes), <em>Cryptostegia madagascariensis</em> and <em>Bryophyllum pinnatum.</em> Fire may be a problem in the future – increasing use of fire to clear land.  Highest point of Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level. Most of the preferred habitat is <3 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce quality and area of habitat available to <em>C. rupicola.</em>  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes.
43897		conservation	eng	Three of the four St John subpopulations are located within the US Virgin Islands National Park and are considered effectively protected due to management practices adopted by the US National Parks Service. However, we know of no specific conservation actions directed towards this particular species.  BVI National Parks Trust are aware of the location of the Virgin Gorda subpopulation and are monitoring local development activities, although because the subpopulation is located outside the National Park it currently has no legal protection.  Wildlife legislation is being revised in BVI and consideration is being given for named species for protection to be incorporated into the revised legislation.
43897		distribution	eng	Two locations are currently known. (1): St John (US Virgin Islands), area of St John is 31 km². (2):  Virgin Gorda, British Virgin Islands, area of Virgin Gorda is 21 km².  Maximum extent of occurrence is therefore less than 52 km², based on total area of the two islands.  Actual area of occupancy unknown, but is significantly less than 52 km². <br/> <br/>There are four subpopulations on St John, none of which are estimated to be more than 20 individuals.  One subpopulation on Virgin Gorda now less than 30 individuals due to habitat loss.
43897		habitat	eng	<em>Machaonia woodburyana</em> is a small multi-stemmed, spiny evergreen shrub 1.5-3 m occurring in dry forest and coastal thickets.
43897		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation, especially for those populations outside protected areas (the Virgin Gorda subpopulation and one of the St John subpopulations).
43898		conservation	eng	A small proportion of its secondary habitat (limestone) lies within a Ramsar site (declared 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area.  Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.
43898		distribution	eng	Anegada, British Virgin Islands (single island endemic). Extent of occurrence: 25 km².  Area of occupancy: <5 km². <br/> <br/>Population size is unknown, but field observations indicate it to be locally common in the western half of the island. It has been found in only one site in the eastern half of the island (east of the airport and the Settlement).  This may be a distinct subpopulation.
43898		habitat	eng	Fieldwork indicates a preferential occurrence in the sand dunes.  It occurred in 75% of plots in sand dunes and 23% of plots on open limestone pavement. It was not found within the closed canopy habitat of the limestone cays. Distribution based on 104, 20x20 m plots assessed.  Surveys in the open limestone areas east of the Settlement (the main village on the island) has located only one site where there are a few individuals.  No study of breeding biology undertaken, but this species appears to flower prolifically and set fruit regularly and in abundance.  This vine climbs over a wide range of herbs and shrubs on the sand dune system and no preference has been observed for a preferred support species.
43898		threats	eng	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  The coastal areas in the western half of the island are under particular threat for tourism development.  These areas are the primary habitat for<em> M. anegadense</em>.  Loose livestock (cattle, goats, donkeys) roam the island and impact at the habitat (trampling) and species level (grazing). Invasive species may be a problem with increasing habitat fragmentation.  The Settlement (Anegada’s only town) has lots of known invasives, three of which have been observed moving into natural habitats – <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> (also found along several western dunes), <em>Cryptostegia madagascariensis</em> and <em>Bryophyllum pinnatum</em>.  Fire may be a problem in the future – increasing use of fire to clear land. Highest point of Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level. Most of the preferred habitat is <3 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce quality and area of habitat available to <em> M. anegadense</em>.  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes.
43902		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.
43902		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island). Extent of occurrence c. 160 km², area of occupancy only slightly less.  The species is common and occurs almost continuously on all four islands.
43902		habitat	eng	The species is common in most plant associations: <em>Blechnum palmiforme</em> heath, <em>Blechnum penna-marina</em> heath, <em>Phylica arborea</em> woodland, also on bare soil and colonizing the lava of the 1961 eruption on the main island.
43903		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.
43903		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Gough Island).  Collections have been made on Tristan da Cunca and Gough Island.
43903		habitat	eng	The few collected specimens were found in <em>Empetrum</em> heath.
43904		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.
43904		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Gough Island).
43904		habitat	eng	According to herbarium labels this species may be commonly found on wet peats.
43905		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.
43905		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Gough Island).  Extent of occurrence: <50 km².  Area of occupancy: unknown
43905		habitat	eng	According to the specimens collected by N.M. Wace: fern bush, wet heath, beside streams or in wet gullies, 200-600 m.
43906		conservation	eng	Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.
43906		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island).  Extent of occurrence: <16 km².  Area of occupancy: <10 km².  Two subpopulations on Nightingale and Inaccessible. Common in suitable habitats on Nightingale Island, likely to be rare on Inaccessible.
43906		habitat	eng	Occurs in disturbed and open habitats, e.g., around albatross nests, in penguin rookeries, on paths, also in <em>Spartina arundinacea</em> tussock, open patches in <em>Phylica</em> woodland, and sea cliffs.
43906		threats	eng	Vulnerable due to the small area of occupancy with only two subpopulations.  Potential threats are fire and introduced species.  On Nightingale <em>C. moseleyi</em> shares its habitats with the introduced <em>C. australis,</em> but <em>C. moseleyi</em> is more common and no hybrids were observed.
43907		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.
43907		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island).  Extent of occurrence: c. 160 km².  Area of occupancy: c. 100-140 km².  The species is common and occurs almost continuously on Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible Island, and Gough Island; on Nightingale Island it is scarce due to the lack of suitable habitats (literature, personal observations).
43907		habitat	eng	Found in <em>Blechnum palmiforme</em> heath, <em>Phylica arborea</em> woodland, also in bogs and open habitats such as soilslips.
43908		conservation	eng	Gough Island has been a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.
43908		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island).  Common in suitable habitats on all four islands.
43908		habitat	eng	An aquatic herb of streams, small pools, and other wet places.
43909		distribution	eng	Found on Tristan da Cunha: Inaccessible Island and Nightingale Island.  Extent of occurrence: c. 90 km².  Area of occupancy: unknown but likely to be less than 10 km² since it is only known from the sea shore.
43909		habitat	eng	According to Christophersen (1968) open rocky bluffs by the sea.
43909		threats	eng	A general threat is the small population size.  Since the species occurs on the sea shore, grazing and introduced species are possible threats on Tristan da Cunha. Nightingale Island fire is a potential threat.
43910		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.
43910		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island).  Extent of occurrence c. 160 km².  Fairly common on Tristan, Inaccessible, and Gough, on Nightingale only found at a single location.
43910		habitat	eng	In exposed areas, steep slopes, also on bare sandy soil and rocks, on Tristan from c. 20-800 m., on Nightingale found only on a single rock.
43911		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.
43911		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Gough Island).
43911		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected on Glen Beach, stream banks beside a hut, 20 ft above sea level.
43912		conservation	eng	The following protected areas are within the range of the species: Tapajós National Forest (600,000 ha); Itaituba I National Forest (220,034 ha); Itatiuba II National Forest (440,500 ha); and Altamira National Forest (689,012 ha).<br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
43912		distribution	eng	The type locality for <em>Alouatta discolor</em> is given as Forte Curupá (= Gurupá), Pará, Brazil. Gregorin (2006) explained that this was on the southern margin of the Rio Amazonas, not on the Island of Gurupá (opposite), which is occupied by red howler (Fernandes 1994), presumably <em>Alouatta macconnelli</em>. It would seem that this would be the easternmost limit to the range of this species, whjch extends west in a narrow strip along the south bank of the Rio Amazonas and south through the interfluvium bounded by the rios Tapajós and Juruena in the west and the rios Xingu and Iriri in the east (Gregorin 2006). <em>Alouatta discolor</em> is the howler monkey of the Rio Curuá basin. <br/><br/>Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> (1989) indicated that <em>Alouatta discolor</em> occurs on the Islands of Marajó and Caviana, and Mexiana, but here we follow Fernandes (1994), Ferrari and Lopes (1996), and Gregorin (2006) who agree that <em>Alouatta belzebul</em> is the howler occurring there.<br/><br/>Between the lower Xingu in the west and the Tocantins the identity of this species is in doubt (A. Rylands, pers comm.).
43912		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland terra firma and seasonally inundated rain forest.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Fourteen is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Pinto (2002a,b; Pinto and Setz 2004) studied a group of 7-9 animals in northern Mato Grosso that used a home range of 63 ha. <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Size: As for <em>Alouatta belzebul</em><br/>Adult male weight 7.27 kg (n=27) (Peres 1994)<br/>Adult female weight 5.52 kg (n=26) (Peres 1994).
43912		population	eng	There are no published density estimates available.
43912		threats	eng	Both deforestation and hunting occur throughout the range. Extensive deforestation is being driven by logging, cattle ranching and industrial soy plantations - accompanying the Cuiabá-Santarém highway, which bisects its range (north to south) and the Transamazon highway which bisects its range west to east. The paving of these results in deforested swathes 50 to 100 km wide on either side of the road. There is also some limited subsistence hunting.
43913		distribution	eng	Recorded from Tristan da Cunha, Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands only.
43914		conservation	eng	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site.
43914		distribution	eng	Found only on Gough Island, this species is rare and known from a single population.
43915		conservation	eng	Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.
43915		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island).
43915		habitat	eng	On rocky slopes, open patches in <em>Spartina arundinacea</em> tussock, around albatross nesting sites.
43915		threats	eng	The main threat lies in the low number of individuals and the small area of occupancy. It is unlikely that the current situation was caused by human activities, the species was possibly always scarce or a decline was caused by erosion of the volcanic islands and subsequent loss of suitable habitats.  A potential threat is the introduction of alien species and fire caused by visitors. <em>Spartina arundinacea</em> which covers most of Nightingale Island is easily lit and can burn for a long period.
43916		conservation	eng	Islands form part of a world heritage site.
43916		distribution	eng	This species appear to be confined to the lower reaches of the islands.
43917		conservation	eng	Islands fall within a world heritage site.
43917		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha and Inaccessible Islands.
43918		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>Some management has been conducted in recent years by the Conservation Department in order to clear areas of suitable rock face from weeds. Most of the effort has been focused on other, rarer endemic species, and only a small proportion has helped to maintain <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium ascensionis</span> patches. Spores have recently been germinated with the aim of maintaining a safeguard stock in cultivation, and a spore bank has been established.
43918		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central part of Ascension Island, Saint Helena. The extent of occurrence is approximately 3.95 km², and encompasses Green Mountain and the surrounding region, stretching from Middleton’s Ridge in the west to White Hill in the east. However, most of the population occurs in a belt between 550 m and 770 m asl on Green Mountain, where it is locally common on rock faces. The largest parts of the population are found around Breakneck Valley and several of the other valleys draining the south side of Green Mountain, the Old Marine Barracks and Bishop’s Path. With the exception of a narrow gulley on the north side of Cricket Valley where it is also very locally abundant (at 430 m, the lowest altitude recorded), all other outlying localities are extremely small and fragmented. The total area of occupancy is likely to be under 0.5 km².
43918		habitat	eng	The majority of the population occurs on rock faces. Deep shade and/or moderate levels of moisture appear to be necessary for germination, and most of the gametophytes and sporelings occur in deep crevices or very sheltered microhabitats. The moisture is mainly derived from incoming cloud arriving from the southern and eastern sides of the mountain, but plants are also present around a few wet seepages elsewhere (although rarely so, as they are usually overwhelmed by invasive species in such localities). Where found on arid, outlying hills such as Weather Post and White Hill, individuals are entirely restricted to deep crevices and are often very small, with fronds usually 2 cm long or less. However, in less extreme environments, adult plants may colonize drier rock-faces via proliferous plantlets which are produced from near the frond tips. If spreading via this means, small areas of continuous cover can build-up. Very rarely, patches are found growing on soil in dark, sheltered places, and a healthy colony occurs on the old stone walls of the now derelict Old Marine Barracks on Green Mountain.
43918		population	eng	The total population is probably close to 3,500 mature individuals. As the plants are small and densities occasionally reach 100 per m²<sup></sup>, this does not cover a large area. The distribution on Green Mountain is patchy, and largely confined to areas of suitable humid rocks which have not yet been invaded by competitors. However, the overall population may be considered reasonably continuous as occasional plants are found between the core areas. Away from the upper part of Green Mountain, several hundred plants occur in very sheltered gulleys in Cricket Valley. Other populations are physically more isolated and generally number fewer than 50 very stunted mature individuals.
43918		threats	eng	Probably the most serious competitors are the maidenhair ferns, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum cappilus-veneris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. raddianum</span>. The former was first recorded by Eric Duffey in 1958, although as there were few other botanical visits in the preceding 50 years, it is difficult to identify the exact date of arrival. It now occurs over large areas of the south side of Green Mountain, at similar altitudes to those occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium ascensionis</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum raddianum</span> was not recorded until collected by John Packer in 1967. It was apparently common by then, but assuming it to be a relatively recent introduction, has spread very rapidly to occupy a large extent of all the moister banks on the north side of the mountain. In addition, other weedy chasmophytes have invaded suitable habitat, particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Begonia hirtella </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span>. It is almost certain that the advance of such aggressive colonists has lead to substantial out-competition of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium</span> population, which is almost never observed to co-exist with either <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum </span>species. <br/><br/>Since <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ascensionis</span> appears to be dependent on humid, shady places for germination and does not establish easily on dry, open rock faces, climate change could pose further threats in the future if Ascension were to become significantly drier. However, this possibility has not been adequately assessed, and the true effects on the species have not been evaluated.<br/><em><br/></em>
43919		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>Regular weeding is conducted by the Conservation Department to keep invasive species in check. However, larger scale clearance to create new open habitat areas, and restoration of functioning native communities is needed to boost the long-term future of the species. <br/><br/>Recently, attempts have been made to germinate <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogramma ascensionis</span> in cultivation. Staff from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. have successfully used <span style="font-style: italic;">in vitro</span> techniques to rear gametophytes from spores, achieving a high germination rate. Sporophytes have also been reared on Ascension Island from soil collected around known sites. A long term, sustained programme of cultivation is required to ensure that viable living material is secured.
43919		distribution	eng	Known only from the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island (to Saint Helena), South Atlantic Ocean.<br/><br/>Rare throughout the recorded botanical history of Ascension Island, although the population was perhaps reasonably healthy at the time of Hooker in 1843, who recorded it from wet banks and rocks on the south and east sides of Green Mountain at an altitude of 350-550 m. The altitude is clearly an error, as these elevations coincide with the drier ground below and at the foot of the mountain. The plants found by Duffey and by the current assessors all lie between 600 and 750 m, where the climate is indeed often moderately damp. The extant population is extremely thinly scattered along the southern slopes, from Summerhouse Ridge westwards. Several plants are dotted along a knife-edged ridge running down to Breakneck Valley, and a group of approximately 25 plants was found on a cinder cliff just beyond the western-most tunnel on Elliot’s Path. The extent of occurrence is approximately 7 ha, and the area of occupancy less than 10 m².
43919		habitat	eng	All extant individuals occur on sparsely vegetated, vertical cinder banks exposed to the prevailing wind, and thus receive moderately regular moisture from incoming mists. However, those sites at lower altitudes may be subject to arid conditions for long periods. Before the introduction of a large number of weed species to the island from the mid 1800s onward, it seems likely that there would have been much similar habitat across the rock faces of Green Mountain, although most suitable areas are now covered with dense growths of aggressive non-native species, particularly in the damper locations which may once have represented optimum habitat conditions. Known localities are often associated with the native thallose liverwort <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiochasma rupestre</span> (G. Forst.) Stephani.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. ascensionis</span> produces green spores which must germinate soon after dispersal. In other <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogramma </span>species, the gametophytes can persist for long periods, propagating vegetatively via gemmae which may have some dormancy capabilities. The sporophytes are short-lived, and only produced under suitable conditions. These features are probably also characteristic of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ascensionis</span>, which suggests that desiccation of the delicate gametophyte thallus may be a critical limiting factor in survival. Most recently observed plants are very small, reaching no more than 2-4cm high, although from older specimens it is known that heights of at least 10cm were once attained. The diminutive size and persistence of the minute gametophytes ensures that the competitive ability is very low. It is clearly an ephemeral, colonist species, exploiting relatively bare, harsh habitats before later successional communities develop. Potentially suitable habitat areas are now rare on Green Mountain and are likely to suffer further declines.
43919		population	eng	With the exception of one larger patch of approximately 25 plants (see Geographic Range), all subpopulations known are extremely small and number only a few individuals. The sporophytes are very small, short-lived and occur in inaccessible locations, and furthermore, the gametophytes are extremely difficult to locate in the wild as they are inconspicuous and are probably confined to deep crevices. This leads to the possibility that numbers may be higher than that currently estimated (40 mature individuals). However, as searches have been reasonably thorough, the current total is unlikely to be a substantial underestimate.
43919		threats	eng	Invasion by introduced weeds is a serious threat to the long term survival of the species. Relatively bare cinder banks are now rare due to gradual encroachment by a variety of species. Amongst the most important of these are the grasses <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus africanus</span> (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum scrobiculatum</span> L., and broadleaved species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> (L.) D.Don and <span style="font-style: italic;">Begonia hirtella</span> Link. Probably the most serious threat is from the maidenhair ferns, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum capillus-veneris</span> L. and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. raddianum</span> C. Presl. These now occur over large areas of moist cinder bank on Green Mountain, the former species predominantly on the south side and the latter on the north side, and are likely to be direct competitors for the moist crevice habitats required by <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogramma </span>gametophytes.<br/><br/>Bank slippages represent another potential threat. As the population is so small, a single slippage could destroy a large proportion of the world total. Grazing by sheep and rabbits could also be harmful, although most plants currently known are too inaccessible to be reached by either species.<br/><br/>In the longer term, increases in exposure to drying conditions on the mountain, brought about by global warming, could further restrict the habitat available to the species.
43920		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>The Island’s Conservation Department conduct an annual survey of endemic plant numbers in which suitable areas of Green Mountain are searched. In addition, many remote areas may be visited as part of routine maintenance activities. These efforts have failed to locate any populations thus far.
43920		distribution	eng	This species was probably once a component of the “carpet of ferns” which Joseph Hooker described as covering the summit of Green Mountain on Ascension Island, following his visit in 1843. It has not been observed since 1889, although a potential sighting was reported in 1976 near Garden Cottage. When the location was revisited a year later, no trace could be found, and the area is now heavily overgrown with smothering vegetation (Cronk 1980).
43920		habitat	eng	From collected specimens, it appears that the species was a fairly small <span style="font-style: italic;">Dryopteris</span>, and was probably adapted to grow in low fern swards in exposed places, probably above 700 m. Due to the density of tall, vigorous invasive species now present on Green Mountain, it seems unlikely that any suitable habitat now remains. The only remaining chances of persistence are on inaccessible rocky outcrops. However, the chances of rediscovery seem remote.
43920		population	eng	This species is extinct.
43920		threats	eng	From the 1860s onward, a large-scale vegetation programme was commenced on Green Mountain, initiated by Joseph Hooker, with the aim of improving soil structure, water retention and mist interception, and thus enhancing the productivity of the island for the recently established British naval colony. As part of this programme, large areas of fern sward near the summit were destroyed, and over 200 species of non-native trees, shrubs and herbs planted over the slopes. Many of these species were subsequently naturalized. The extensive habitat modifications have almost certainly been the major cause of decline of rare montane endemics such as <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ascensionis</span>. The numerous invasive species have continued to spread, and now occupy almost all the vegetated habitat on the mountain.
43921		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia origanoides</span> is currently present in the Hummock Point Nature Reserve though there are proposals to bring all of the areas where <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> is currently distributed in the wild under legislation. Populations are also under cultivation and surveillance by Ascension Conservation and a restoration project has been underway at Mars Bay since 2006.<br/><br/>The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) in Edinburgh has a collection of living plants and seed material from all extant populations. CEH are also currently researching the genetics of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span>. <br/><br/>The species Action Plan for <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> has also recently been updated and recommends a programme of extensive habitat restoration to ensure the sustainable conservation of this species in the wild.
43921		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ascension Island, South Atlantic. Subpopulations are located at Cotar Hill, Letter Box, Mars Bay, Round Hill, Sisters Peak, South Gannet Hill, along Spire Beach to Hummock Point and Wig Hill. A single plant was also found at Comfortless Cove in 2009 (known as a historical site) but died after being grazed by sheep. The extent of occurrence is approximately 67 km². As the species is extremely rare within this zone, the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2.5 km².
43921		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia origanoides</span> is found on the dry lava plains of Ascension Island from almost sea level to 310 m. An assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> ecology was published in 2009 and the information summarised below is largely taken from Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009); a more complete account can be found therein. &#160;<br/><br/>The mean annual rainfall at Georgetown (which is within the<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. origanoides</span> habitat zone) between 1899 and 2009 is 128 mm yr<sup>-1</sup>, during this period the largest amount recorded was in 1924 (471 mm yr<sup>-1</sup>) and the lowest in 1970 (22 mm yr<sup>-1</sup>). Rainfall events in the areas that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> inhabits on Ascension are therefore episodic and there are months where little or no rain falls; hence periods of drought are not uncommon.<br/><br/>The mean monthly minimum and maximum temperature data from the Meteorological Office at the Ascension Airhead (also within the <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> habitat zone) suggest a Continentality Index of 8.8. This indicates that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> can be classified as a Hyperoceanic; barely hyperperoceanic species (using the criteria of Rivas-Martínez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). Using the UNEP index of aridity (AIu) (UNEP 1992) (again from the Airhead data), AIu = 0.056. This suggests that the <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> habitat almost qualifies for the upper range of Hyperarid.<br/>Most populations are found between sea level and 150 m, the highest population is currently on the Sisters Peak range at 330 m. Strict altitudinal limits remain unknown and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> may have had a wider altitudinal distribution historically. Germination has been observed at slightly higher altitudes than recorded in the wild during recent re-introduction trials on Green Mountain (approximately 400 m), though survival is limited by competition with introduced animal and plant taxa (Gray and Stroud unpublished data). The current population distribution therefore appears to be limited as much by competition from introduced taxa as by climatic factors.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> is a characteristic of the low lying lava plains of Ascension Island where soils are composed of weathered volcanic scoria. Soil chemistry data are variable, sites have medium to high soluble salt content, generally high phosphorus, magnesium, sodium and pH but with correspondingly low values for organic matter (and hence estimated nitrogen release) and calcium. There are extremely high levels of soluble salts at the historical English Bay site perhaps reflecting the coastal nature of the site. However, Comfortless Cove, also a coastal site, has lower salinity levels. It may be possible that there are historical effects from the deposition of guano at bird colonies in the English Bay though this remains speculative (see Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). There does not seem to be any preference for particular volcanic substrate, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> being found on most of the volcanic deposits except those found on Green Mountain. However, as previously indicated, absence in this area may be more to do with increased competition than volcanic substrate.<br/><br/>When damaged, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> produces copious amounts of whitish latex from both stems and leaves. However, latex production does not appear to constitute an effective grazing deterrent. Historically, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> may have been browsed by goats (see Osbeck 1752), and although goats were eradicated in 1944, Ashmole and Ashmole (2000) hypothesize that this may partly account for the disjointed nature of present populations. In the lower xeric zone inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span>, rainfall is sporadic; food availability for herbivores is therefore also likely to be periodic. A perennial species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> represents a potential food item in times of food scarcity, and although the nutritional quality is unknown, herbivores do consume stems, leaves, flowers and fruits; sheep, rabbits and mice have all been observed as eating <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span>. Field observations suggest that unless the entire plant is repeatedly defoliated recovery can occur.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia origanoides</span> exhibits some morphological differences between populations e.g. plant height and diametre. There are undoubted site environmental differences but there is at present no evidence to determine whether this variation is genetic or phenotypic, however, molecular research is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia origanoides</span> flowers are monoecious, and typical of the Euphorbiaceae composed of one female and a few male flowers together forming cyathia resembling true flowers. Typical pollinators include Diptera and members of this family are common among <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> flowers; other likely pollinators include members of the Hemiptera which can be found in large numbers amongst plants at all sites. Controlled pollinations have indicated that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> is self-compatible. Normally three seeds are produced per fruit though fruits with four have been observed. Fruiting occurs throughout most of the life of the plant and the number of fruits found sheltered beneath plants can be related to the size of the plant. The Millennium Seed Bank reports the mean 1,000 seed weight for <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> as 1.78 g. However, the four values reported are very variable; 0.21 g 0.66 g, 1.56 g and 4.67 g (Kew 2008). The large value of 4.67 g seems extreme, however, it is uncertain from the available data whether reported values include for example, minor covering structures, debris, the surrounding fruits or whether fresh or dry seeds were weighed (Kew 2008). A mean value of 0.81 g excluding this extreme value would seem a more cautious estimate. It is not known whether animal taxa are responsible for dispersal, though the lack of an elaiosome suggests that ants are unlikely to disperse seeds. Other main dispersal agents are likely to be wind and water. Ripe fruits are easily transported by the wind and the hemispherical dome life-form appears to offer shelter for detached fruits and seeds; the number of fruits found in soil drops extremely sharply with distance from plant.
43921		population	eng	Following an annual census conducted in 2008, the total population was estimated to be approximately 4,850 mature plants. Classification of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> into mature and juvenile individuals is somewhat subjective, because in harsh conditions, they may flower whilst still only a few cm high. Furthermore, these smaller individuals are subject to large fluctuations in numbers between years as a result of grazing, drought and the instability of the substrate they grown on.<br/><br/>It is important to note that the South Gannet Hill population which has been the major population in recent times has reduced by 40% in area since the last assessment (Gray 2003). It is common in the South Gannet Hill, Cross Hill, Round Hill areas which contain approximately 90% of the island population. The Mars Bay population has almost disappeared in recent times though this has been bolstered by restoration activities.<br/><br/>Subpopulations are fragmented across the island and cross pollination between the easterly subpopulations and those found in more westerly locations may be difficult due to the strong continual southeast trade winds which may make it difficult for pollinators to cross from one side of the island to the other; especially weak flying flies and Hemiptera.
43921		threats	eng	The presence of invasive species is a major threat to the survival in the wild of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span>. These include many species regarded as the worst invasive species in the world (IUCN 2008). Most of these species are in higher vegetation zones, however Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) record the presence of at least six species which they consider capable of dominating vegetation in <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> areas and hence threatening the survival of this species in the wild, these are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Heliotropium curassavicum</span> L., <span style="font-style: italic;">Nicotiana glauca</span> Graham, <span style="font-style: italic;">Leucaena leucocephala</span> (Lam.) de Wit, <span style="font-style: italic;">Melinis minutiflora</span> Beauv., <span style="font-style: italic;">Prosopis juliflora</span> (Sw.) DC and <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium guajava</span> L.. The expansion of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. juliflora</span> in much of the lower lava plains on Ascension since the 1980s is testament to the rapid expansion and domination that some species can attain (Ashmole and Ashmole 2000, Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) and this species is very efficient at commanding available ground water with a root depth of over 10 m. The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. juliflora</span> at present in the <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> areas is limited. The presence of introduced scale insects and mealy bugs on a number of plants also presents a threat to some populations. Introduced herbivores also have some impact notably at the South Gannet Hill area where the population has decreased by 40% in area occupied.<br/><br/>Hybridisation with closely related non-native species may also be a pervasive threat to the <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> gene pool. Plants that appear to be intermediate for certain characters have been recorded at the Airhead and Comfortless Cove areas. Although hybridisation in the subgenus <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaesyce</span> is rare, further research is urgently required to ascertain whether hybridization is currently occurring.<br/><br/>In the arid habitat where <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> occurs, climate change represents a major threat to the population. However at present, it is difficult to predict changes to rainfall on Ascension with any degree of confidence. In contrast Ascension’s land temperature closely correlates to ocean temperature; current predictions suggest that ocean temperature will rise in the immediate and long term future (IPCC 2007). Gray (2009) also examined temperature data from 19 Global Circulation Models (GCM) for the Ascension grid square and found a close correlation with past and present temperature data and the modelled data for the period under study. All of the 19 GCMs currently predict a future rise in temperature for the Ascension grid square. This evidence strongly suggests that temperature is likely to rise on Ascension. A likely consequence of higher temperatures may be a reduction in available soil water in the habitat that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. origanoides</span> occupies since temperature is a significant controlling factor of evapotranspiration
43922		conservation	eng	The entire population is included in Green Mountain National Park. It is surveyed by the Ascension Island Government Conservation Department, including an census of plant numbers conducted annually.<br/>A propagation protocol for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. purpurascens</span> has been created. The species is grown in a local nursery setting. Introduced plants have been planted out in small numbers, and it is hoped that this programme will be expanded in the future. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ptisana purpurascens</span> is held in ex situ conservation at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
43922		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central part of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ptisana purpurascens</span> only occurs in Green Mountain above approximately 700 m. The majority of the population is in a very small area on steep, south and east facing slopes where it is exposed to the prevailing winds. These bring reasonably high amounts of moisture from incoming mists. The area has retained the last vestiges of a fern-dominated community similar to that observed by early visitors to the island, although it is increasing invaded by non-native weeds (AEIUO 2010). A few isolated patches are scattered in the highest parts of the SW slopes of the Green Mountain, where it is very rare. A small number of individuals have also established in the adjacent bamboo thicket at the summit, and under trees nearby. The total extent of occurrence is approximately 12 ha, and the area of occupancy less than 4.5 ha.
43922		habitat	eng	“<span style="font-style: italic;">Ptisana purpurascens</span> is found on the weather side of Green Mountain growing in the open grassland and amongst the dense stand of bamboo at the summit, from an altitude of approximately 700 to 859 m. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ptisana purpurascens</span> is physically the largest of all the endemic species on Ascension and appears to be able to compete favourably with other exotic species, possessing a degree of phenotypic plasticity that may contribute to its survival (Cronk 1980). This plasticity is evident when comparing individuals amongst the bamboo near the summit with those on the more open grassland. The former tends to be smaller and darker, whereas the latter are lighter in colour and larger.” (quoted from Gray 2003)<br/><br/>The reproductive ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. purpurascens</span> is poorly known. Ex-situ attempts to grow this species from spore have failed unless in vitro techniques with sugars have been utilised . Though inconclusive, this might suggest that the species requires or benefits from a symbiotic fungal partner. In-situ, very little reproduction has been observed underneath mature plants. Young plants have been seen in few recently opened land slide areas. These have been very small in total area, and restricted to localities without fast-growing seed-distributed invasive plants. Young plants are sometimes found amongst rich native bryophyte communities<br/><em><br/></em>
43922		population	eng	The population has been subject to an annual survey (AEIOU, 2010). From these counts it has been estimated that the wild population consists of some 6-800 mature plants. Some of these plants, particularly at Buddleja Ravine, are large and consist of several crowns, which have been counted as separate individuals in surveys, but are best considered as large, mature individuals.
43922		threats	eng	Habitat loss, invasive species and catastrophic events are the main threats to this species. The population is no longer in a natural state (Duffey 1964). Evergreen trees have been planted in much of the area where this species occurs. Under these only a small number of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. purpurascens</span> survive. The areas not planted with trees are seriously degraded due to invasive vegetation. The degradation has continued until this date and is projected to continue in the future. Both invasive shrubs and herbaceous plants contribute significantly to the decrease in quality of habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. purpurascens</span>, particularly interfering with reproduction by removing bare ground which is needed for gametophyte establishment.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ptisana purpurascens</span> is susceptible to unpredictable events due to its very small area of occupancy. The main part of the population is in a single narrow ravine, where for example a land slide could do serious damage.
43923		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>The Island’s Conservation Department conduct an annual survey of endemic plant numbers in which key endemic plant habitats are searched for. In addition, many remote areas may be visited as part of routine maintenance activities. These efforts have failed to locate any populations thus far.
43923		distribution	eng	A little known species which was already rare by the time botanical recording began on Ascension Island, Saint Helena. Most reports suggest that it occurred at mid- to moderately high altitudes on Green Mountain, but may have originally extended more widely into the surrounding, arid, lowland zones. The last recorded locality was in a dry gully below the southern slopes of Sister’s Peak, presumably between 200 and 250 m in altitude.
43923		habitat	eng	Although reports of tree-sized plants on Ascension were made by William Dampier prior to human settlement, later reports suggest that the last surviving individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. adscensionis </span>were mostly small shrubs, perhaps persisting for a few decades at most, and regular recruitment would therefore be necessary for survival. Although it is possible that a small population remains on an inaccessible rock face, it seems increasingly unlikely that it would continue to evade attention. Perhaps the greatest possibility of survival is via the germination of a dormant seed. As a species capable of surviving on arid slopes with infrequent rains, it seems likely that the species was adapted to at least short periods of dormancy although there is no information on the persistence of the seed bank. Detection of an isolated seedling remains highly improbable, and the propagules would be extremely vulnerable to grazing by sheep or rabbits within the first few months.
43923		population	eng	This species is extinct.
43923		threats	eng	Goats were introduced to Ascension in the years following its discovery. Later, sheep, rabbits and rats followed. All have probably had a devastating impact on the native flora through grazing, as prior to this the island had no natural large herbivores. Subsequently, invasion by numerous non-native plant species, which now constitute a very high proportion of the total vegetation cover, has resulted in strong habitat modification and lead to massive competition for the dwindling natives and endemics.
43924		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>Regular weeding is conducted by the Conservation Department to keep invasive weeds in check. However, larger scale clearance to create new open habitat areas, and restoration of functioning native communities is needed to secure the long-term future of the species. Sheep and rabbit control should also be considered.<br/><br/>Plants have been grown in cultivation since 2004, and a small spore orchard established near the summit of Green Mountain. At least one individual is also in cultivation at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, and recently, cryopreserved gametophytes and have been placed in long-term storage at the same institute.
43924		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central part of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. It has been a very rare species over at least the past 100 years. A few descriptions of the original habitat and range are available from the mid 1800s, when it was widely-distributed across the drier, mid-altitude slopes of Green Mountain. Joseph Hooker recorded it as growing between 365 and 550 m altitude in 1843. Even by this stage, the vegetation on Green Mountain had been heavily modified by grazing animals and introduced species. The full original native range is unknown. <br/><br/>The extant population occurs predominantly in sheltered valleys on the southern and eastern sides of the mountain and its foot-slopes, scattered between approximately 370 and 697 m. The three largest centres occur in lower Breakneck Valley, an un-named gulley running due south down the mountain and joining with Breakneck, and in Cricket Valley, a crater 1 km to the southeast. Further individuals may be found widely dispersed across the dry slopes nearby, from Mountain Red Hill in the west, across Castle Hill to White Hill in the east. A very small colony&#160;comprising&#160;only approximately 10 mature individuals has also recently been identified in a deep crevice on the north side of Green Mountain, at approx. 620 m altitude.<br/><br/>The total extent of occurrence is approximately 5.4 km², but as this includes may wide-ranging outliers, the area of occupancy is much less, probably below 5 ha, and even this includes much habitat with very low densities.
43924		habitat	eng	Apparently an early successional fern which is capable of dispersing efficiently by spores over a few km, and which may appear on a range of relatively dry, sparsely vegetated areas including cinder banks, rock crevices and open soil. In the driest, low altitude situations, individuals may produce a few sporangia at a small size and die after just one to two years. In moist, shaded situations they tend not to spore until relatively large, and may take two to three years to attain this state. From the high ratio of seedlings to mature plants observed in such localities, it seems likely that only a small proportion of sporelings survive to maturity in the wild. Furthermore, observations of cultivated plants grown at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, suggest that even under favourable conditions, adults last only a few years. These factors indicate that the rate of population turn-over is high.
43924		population	eng	According to an annual plant census conducted in 2008, there were thought to be close to 250 mature individuals present in the wild. The exact number is difficult to assess. Although in the 2008 census, a total of 1,246 plants were recorded, most of these were found at a single locality where a very large number of seedlings germinated in response to clearing of guava scrub. In 2009, a new, large population was surveyed in a remote ravine on the south side of Green Mountain. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ptisana purpurascens</span> generally only produces spores at a relatively large size, and so then number of mature individuals is only a fraction of the total count. However, the recent finds probably increase the total estimate to over 250 mature plants.
43924		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pteris adscensionis</span> is very vulnerable to encroachment by invasive weed species at its remaining localities. The most serious invaders include grasses such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Melinis minutiflorus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus africanus</span>, which form continuous ground cover and thus remove potential germination sites. Broadleaved weeds such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Alpinia zerumbet</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium guajava</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus bermudiana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Spermacoce verticillata</span> are responsible for in-filling large areas of suitable habitat, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Robus rosifolius</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Begonia hirtella</span> are also a significant threat as they invade key refuges on banks and rocks. At the higher altitudes, there may be some competition with the maidenhair ferns <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum cappilus-veneris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. raddianum</span>. Such species have already overwhelmed most of the original suitable habitat areas which once existed on Ascension and have undoubtedly been responsible for an already massive decline. A site in Cricket Valley cleared of guava (<span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium guajava</span>) in 2007 increased in numbers rapidly over the following two years, presumably mainly as a result of liberation from shading and a reduction in the deposition of sclerophyllous leaf litter. Without regular management, further suitable sites would probably be lost.<br/><br/>The other major threat is posed by introduced grazing animals, particularly sheep and rabbits. These are very common at mid-altitudes. Whilst ferns such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteris</span> ssp. are not particularly palatable as adults, they are often grazed avidly grazed rapidly when young, and rabbits dig-up the root systems for unknown reasons.<br/><br/>Bank slippages and rock falls are a minor threat, although in most areas would only be likely to remove a small proportion of the population, which is distributed thinly. Sporelings can be prone to drought, particularly at lower altitudes.
43925		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>Regular weeding is conducted by the Conservation Department to keep invasive species in check. However, larger scale clearance to create new open habitat areas, and restoration of functioning native communities is needed to boost the long-term future of the species. <br/><br/>Recently, a seed bank has been established, and attempts have been made to germinate <span style="font-style: italic;">X.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">ascensionensis</span> in cultivation.<br/><br/>Management of the bamboo forest, and maintenance of suitable areas of trees should also be considered.
43925		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphopteris ascensionensis</span> has an extremely restricted distribution, and is known only from Green Mountain on Ascension Island, Saint Helena. It is limited to small areas of sparsely-vegetated banks on the south and east side of Green Mountain, and more abundantly as an epiphyte on vegetation near the summit. A satellite epiphytic population has been established artificially on Coronation Peak, 250 m from the main summit population. All known localities occur between 660 and 820 m altitude. Most subpopulations are very small and both the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are smaller than 1 km<sup>2</sup>.
43925		habitat	eng	The native habitat is on earthy cinder banks, which are either bare of vegetation or covered in bryophytes. In such places it often co-occurs with the threatened endemic grass <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus caespitosus</span> and several threatened species of moss and liverwort. Since the wide scale planting of trees on the summit of Green Mountain from the 1860s onward, <span style="font-style: italic;">X. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">ascensionensis</span> has also colonized their branches where it occurs as an epiphyte, and also grows sparsely on stems of a dense bamboo forest which now covers the summit area.<br/><br/>In all situations, <span style="font-style: italic;">X</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ascensionensis</span> is restricted to very exposed micro-environments where strong winds bring in much moisture, and these only occur on extreme south and east facing crags and the edge of the forested area. It has green spores which remain viable for a short period only, but appears to disperse reasonably efficiently as terrestrial subpopulations occur in a number of very small sections of suitable bank which are physically isolated from each other. Adult plants spread via rhizomes, but in the epiphytic part of the population, the gametophytes are only common on very moist sections of bark, usually covered in a thin film of decaying bryophyte and lichen. These habitats are rapidly colonized by dense mosses which out-compete the gametophytes. Adult plants grow through the moss clumps, which eventually become heavy and fall in strong winds. Although the plants are lost during these events, new areas of open bark are created which can be re-colonized by the next generation of gametophytes. <span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphopteris ascensionensis</span> therefore acts as an early successional species of epiphytic bryophyte-dominated communities, and is dependent on a very short-lived and transient ecotone for regeneration.<em><br/></em>
43925		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphopteris </span><span style="font-style: italic;">ascensionensis</span> is an extremely difficult species to census accurately, partly because plants are very small and may be thinly-distributed over a wide area, and also because a large part of the population is thought to occur high in the canopies of forest trees near the mountain summit where they are almost inaccessible.<br/><br/>It is estimated that there may be up to 10,000 mature individuals in total. However, the epiphytic population is dependent on a small number of trees (little more than 50). In optimum areas of habitat, up to 300 plants may occur along a single metre length of branch. The terrestrial population is now much smaller than the epiphytic, and probably comprises under 100 m<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat, scattered across numerous small patches.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
43925		threats	eng	Long dry periods are detrimental to this species' survival, causing adult plants to shrivel and abort leaves, and probably killing large numbers of gametophytes. As the sites occupied are already confined the extreme wettest places on Green Mountain, there are no refuges to buffer the species from such adversity.<br/><br/>Invasion by introduced weeds is a serious threat to the long term survival of the species. In terrestrial habitats, the relatively bare banks occupied are now extremely rare relicts of a habitat which was once widespread. They are gradually being encroached by weeds such as the grasses <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus capensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum scrobiculatum</span>, and by broadleaved species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Begonia hirtella</span>. In epiphytic habitats, colonization of tree branches by weeds such as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hirta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. hirtella</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ageratum conyzoides</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus rosifolius</span>&#160; probably has an adverse competitive effect, and also acts to stabilize the habitat, thus reducing the rate at which patches of moss are shed and preventing the creation of bare areas where the gametophytes can establish. In both habitat types, regular management by Conservation Staff is currently an important factor allowing patches to maintain their area.<br/><br/>Bank slippages can destroy small areas of fern cover, although as the populations are highly fragmented and re-colonize more efficiently than some of the other endemic species on Ascension, this may not be catastrophic.<br/><br/>A large part of the total population is dependent on introduced trees planted on the mountain. In many cases, the rate of natural recruitment of these trees appears to be low or zero, although species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus microcarpa</span> may be perpetuated via rooting stems. Many of the trees may now be approaching 150 years old, and if they fall and are not replaced, then this could have a serious impact on the overall habitat availability. The spread of the bamboo forest on the summit of the mountain, which provides some habitat but a low-quality one, may also be detrimental.<br/><br/>Weeding by the Conservation Department is currently an important factor in maintaining population health. Due to the unusual political situation on Ascension (the island’s inhabitants have no right of residency and a human population is only maintained to service military and communications bases), the long term continuation of these activities is not guaranteed.<br/><em><br/></em>
43926		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>Regular weeding is conducted by the Conservation Department to keep invasive weeds in check. However, larger scale clearance to create new open habitat areas, and restoration of functioning native communities is needed to secure the long-term future of the species. Sheep and rabbit control should also be considered.<br/><br/>Plants have been grown in cultivation since 2004, and a small seed orchard established near the summit of Green Mountain. Recently a seed bank has been established.<br/><br/>Further efforts to protect the distinct subpopulation on Weather Post should be established.
43926		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely restricted world distribution. It is known only from the central part of Ascension Island (Saint Helena), South Atlantic Ocean. The main part of the population is restricted to sparsely-vegetated banks and rock ledges on the eastern side of Green Mountain, between 700 and 750 m altitude. A second, small population centre was recently relocated on the cliffs of Weather Post, 2 km northeast (altitude close to 600 m). All subpopulations are very small and both the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are likely to be smaller than 1 km²<sup></sup>.
43926		habitat	eng	As no records of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caespitosus</span> were made before the mid 1800s, nothing is known of its original habitat preferences. Plants can form tussocks up to 40 cm across in good conditions and may have occurred in sparse grasslands at lower altitudes on the mountain than they do today. Now, almost no plants exist in the wild above 20 cm in diameter. Most are very small, and restricted to sparsely-vegetated cinder banks and cliffs on windy, exposed mountain ledges. These habitats are clearly refugial. The almost constant association with wind-exposed locations may partly be due to the greater quantities moisture from incoming mist, but is also likely to be partly because invasive weed species are less vigorous in such places. Colonies are usually associated with the endemic fern <span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphopteris ascensionense</span> and a rich community of native bryophytes (many of these species are also severely threatened). <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caespitosus</span> flowers throughout much of the year and produces numerous seedlings, many of which die in dry conditions, but a reasonable number survive to maturity.
43926		population	eng	Due to the discovery of several new sites over the past year, the total population count has increased from approximately 460 mature individuals to 700-800, spread over six to seven major subpopulations. Scattered individuals probably remain unaccounted for, but no new large patches are likely to remain unknown. The totals include a small number of plants reintroduced to existing sites, as these were not differentiated in the survey. It is estimated that including these reestablished individuals, numbers have remained relatively constant in recent years, although declines could be expected if management efforts were reduced. Densities may reach 65 mature tussocks per m²<sup></sup>.
43926		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus caespitosus</span> is very vulnerable to encroachment by invasive weed species at its remaining locations. The most serious invaders are grasses such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus africanus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum scrobiculatum</span>, which form continuous ground cover and thus remove potential germination sites. Broadleaved weeds such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Begonia hirtella</span> also constitute a significant threat. Without regular management, suitable sites would certainly be lost.<br/><br/>Sheep and rabbits will readily graze plants if accessible, and usually kill plants because the weak roots are easily torn-out. For this reason, most plants are on steep ledges and difficult to access.<br/><br/>Landslips occur regularly on the soft cinder banks, and one in 2009 probably destroyed close to 50 plants. Such disturbance events are also valuable as they create new open habitat areas, but since the existing populations are so small, the losses are damaging because they affect a significant proportion of the population.<br/><br/>The leaves of the tussocks are often infected with a black, smut-like fungal infection. This is common on other plants in the area and appears to be epiphytic. It is not known whether any damaging effects result.
43927		conservation	eng	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>The island’s Conservation Department conduct an annual survey of endemic plant numbers in which key endemic plant habitats are searched for. In addition, many remote areas may be visited as part of routine maintenance activities. These efforts have failed to locate any subpopulations thus far.
43927		distribution	eng	The original geographic range is very poorly known. The only documented locality was provided by H.J. Gordon in 1886, who noted that it was found on the lea side of Weather Post, a hill in the east of Ascension Island, Saint Helena. He recorded the altitude as 460 m, which corresponds to the foot of the cliffs, although it could be a mistake.
43927		habitat	eng	The only known locality of the species is an area on a cliff composed of soft volcanic ash. It was perhaps once confined to the cliffs and plateau of this region, stretching to the foothills of Green Mountain. Being on the side of the island facing the prevailing winds, the area is at a high enough altitude to receive some mist from incoming cloud, and rainfall is higher than at comparable altitudes elsewhere. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus durus</span> has previously been confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caespitosus</span>, which is a smaller and probably more montane endemic species. Confusingly, a population of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caespitosus</span> has recently been found on the lea side of Weather Post, an unexpected location and habitat and the only known site of its extinct counterpart.
43927		population	eng	This species is extinct.
43927		threats	eng	The eastern side of Ascension Island has always been remote and subject to relatively little human disturbance, although introduced goats, sheep, rabbits and rats have probably all had a devastating impact on the native flora through grazing pressures. Subsequently, invasion by numerous non-native plant species, which now constitute a very high proportion of the total vegetation cover, has resulted in strong habitat modification and lead to massive competition for the dwindling natives and endemics. <br/><br/>It is also possibly that <span style="font-style: italic;">S. durus </span>hybridised with the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">S. africanus</span>, which is now a common grass on Ascension island and is particularly abundant in similar habitats to those thought to be occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">S. durus</span> near Weather Post.
43929		conservation	eng	This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>El Tuparro Natural National Park (548,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Tayrona Natural National Park (15,000 ha [12,000 ha on land]) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Isla de Salamanca Natural National Park (21,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Paramillo Natural National Park (460,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (158,125 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Natural National Park (383,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Tamá Natural National Park (48,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Pisba Natural National Park (45,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Los Nevados Natural National Park (58,300 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Chingaza Natural National Park (50,374 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Sumapaz Natural National Park (154,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Las Hermosas Natural National Park (150,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Los Farallones Natural National Park (150,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Serrania de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Puracé Natural National Park (83,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Catatumbo-Bari Natural National Reserve (158,125 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sangay National Park (517,765 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Podocarpus National Park (146,280 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,103 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (Soini 1992)<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Perija National Park (295,288 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES .
43929		distribution	eng	There is no information available that allows for the separation of the ranges of the <em>A. juara</em> of Brazil and Peru from <em>A. seniculus</em> of the Colombian Andes and Venezuela (type locality: Cartagena, Bolivar, near the Río Magdalena, Colombia), so they have been mapped together. <br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>A. seniculus</em> is absent from the Pacific and the desert of the Guajira Peninsula, and has not been reported in from the Department of Nariño (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004). Otherwise, it is present throughout the country, except in non-forested areas and mountainous regions above about 3,000 m above sea level (though it has been reported at 3,200 m in the Central Andes) (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). In Venezuela, Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicate that the howler monkey north of the Rio Orinoco and west through Apure basin north of the Rio Meta the is a distinct, as yet undescribed, form, but Linares (1998) labeled it as <em>A. arctoidea</em>, otherwise also occurring along the north coast of Venezuela. <em>Alouatta seniculus</em> occurs west of the Sierra de Merida and aorund Lake Maracaibo. <br/><br/>In summary, <em>Alouatta juara-seniculus</em> occurs west of the of the rios Juruá and Envira through the Peruvian Amazon north (say) of the Rio Inuya, north along the Andean Cordillera into Ecuador and in Colombia including the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental into Venezuela around Lake Maracaibo, west of the Serra de Merida. It is possible that either an undescribed red howler (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) or <em>A. arctoidea</em> (Linares 1998) occurs north of the Rio Meta in Colombia.
43929		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary lowland rainforest, dry deciduous forest, Andean cloud forest (including oak forest), gallery forest in the eastern plains of Colombia, mangrove swamps, as well as in <em>várzea</em> forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Gaulin and Gaulin 1982). This species can be found up to 3,200 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). In Ecuador, it occupies tropical and subtropical evergreen rain forest from 200 m to 2,000 m, but it is more common below 700 m (Tirira 2007). Tirira (2007) recorded that it occurs in many different forest types, from tall primary evergreen <em>terra firma</em> forest to seasonally flooded forests and palm swamp forest. <br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surrounds the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993). <br/><br/>Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). They can have as many as 14 or 15 individuals, but they usually number four or five or up to 11 or so individuals.  Group sizes recorded by Mendes Pontes (1999) on the Island of Maracá, Roraima, were generally small (from 1-5). Soini (192) observed group sizes ranging from 3-8 (mean 5.54±1.59, n=74) in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru. Adult males will often be solitary. In red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Gaulin and Gaulin (1982) recorded a home range of 22 ha for a group of nine howlers in cloud forest at 2,300 m. In the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982). Two groups studied by Soini (1992) used 6 and 9 ha each in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru.<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.  <em>Alouatta seniculus</em> has also been seen to eat and lick clay at so-called “salado” sites in the Colombian Amazon (Izawa 1975). The reason for this and the consumption of soil from termitaria is still not clearly understood, but may involve the need for certain minerals, or may be due to the properties of clay which, by adsorption, can reduce the effects of toxins ingested with leaves.<br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). The llanos forests are more seasonal, however, than in the Guianas, and it is possible that this is not the case elsewhere. Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic [1982], considered  here to be <em>A. arctoidea</em>).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Venezuela<br/>Adult male 6.31 kg (n=64), adult female 4.67 kg (n=46) (Rodríguez and Boher 1988)<br/>Adult male weight 5.4-9.0 kg (mean 7.2 kg, n=61), adult female weight 4.2-7.0 kg (mean 5.6 kg, n=61) (Ford and Davis 1992).
43929		population	eng	Population density in rainforest areas is very variable in Ecuador, where 5 to 12 individuals/km² have been recorded <br/>Crude densities of 15 individuals/km² have been recorded in Colombia (Defler 2003). Soini (192) estimated an ecological density of 36 individuals/km² in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru. In Brazil, Mendes Pontes (1999) recorded densities of 1.2-2.1 individuals/km² on the Island of Maracá, Roraima, lower in fact those for <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> at 5.0-5.8 individuals/km².
43929		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species. It is hunted, but withstands hunting pressure better than do other atelids. Adapts to relatively disturbed forest, although in Colombia there has been extensive deforestation within its range.
43962		distribution	eng	<em>Saguinus imperator subgrisescens</em> Bolivia, Brazil, Peru<br/>Southwestern Amazon, in Brazil along the east (right bank) of the upper Rio Juruá east to the Rios Tarauacá and Juruparí, to the Brazil/Peruvian frontier. Into Peru, west from the Juruá headwaters, it occurs as far as the foothills of the Andes in the upper Río Ucayali, east of the mouth of the Río Apurimac and to the south of the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya. Its range extends east into Bolivia on both sides of the Río Madre de Dios (Izawa, 1979).  It is probably limited to the south of the Río Tahuamanú. Izawa and Bejarano (1981) reported it only from the Río Muyumanu basin, a south bank tributary of the Río Tahuamanú.  Castro <em>et al.</em> (1990) found that it was absent from the area between Iñapari (just south of the Río Acre) and Iberia (north bank of the Río Tahuamanú) in Peru where <em>S. l. labiatus</em> occurs. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) extended the range indicated by Hershkovitz (1979) east to the basin of the Río Tambopata to the Bolivian border, indicating that the Río Madidi, an eastern tributary of the Río Beni in Bolivia, may mark the southern limit to this species.
43972		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.<br/><br/>A directed management plan for this species in the Mediterranean, including marine protected areas for this species should be established.
43972		conservation	eng	The wreckfish is only known to receive any protection, in the form of fishing restrictions, in the USA and New Zealand <br/> <br/>In the USA, the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council put fishing regulations into place in 1990 and 1991. These cover the area between 3-200 miles off the coasts of North and South Carolina, and East Florida (the area bounded by 30 and 33º N latitude). Commercial fishers must have a wreckfish permit and Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) shares to fish. There is no recreational fishery in the USA. The Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of wreckfish by ITQ holders is 2 million pounds (907 metric tonnes) per year. There is a spawning season closure from Jan 15 to April 15. In addition, longlines may not be used (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/>There is a TAC limit for the commercial fishery in New Zealand of 2,181 metric tons for <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and <em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em> (hapuku) together. There are also some complex bag limits for the much smaller recreational fishery.
43972		distribution	eng	The wreckfish has a widespread but discontinuous range, primarily in the Atlantic Ocean but also ranging into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. <br/> <br/>In the Eastern Atlantic it ranges from Norway to South Africa including the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira, Cape Verde, and Tristan da Cunha. In the Western Atlantic it is found in Newfoundland, Canada and the Gulf of Maine to North Carolina, USA. In the Southern hemisphere it is known from South America (Uruguay, Argentina and Brazil) to New Zealand, including the St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands in the western Indian Ocean (data from Fishbase 2000, Peres 2000). The species shows an anti-tropical distribution (Ball <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/> <br/>The extent of occurrence could probably be estimated by calculating the area of potential habitat using the information in Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999. The area of occupancy would probably be the spawning grounds as this species aggregated to spawn (Peres 2000). However, there seems to be no more information than this available by which to estimate the area of spawning grounds. <br/> <br/>Decline in extent or area of occupancy etc. is assumed to be none as wreckfish are pelagic or inhabit deep rocky reefs. Such rocky reefs are assumed not to fluctuate in size or quality, or be in decline. Indeed, suitable habitat is not believed to be in decline in Brazil (Peres, pers. comm. 2001).
43972		distribution	eng	This is an anti-tropical species in the Atlantic but also occurs around several ocean islands. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from the British Isles and Norway to Senegal, including Madeira, Canaries and Cape Verdes. It is recorded from various parts of the Mediterranean Sea but is uncommon.<br/><br/>This is a large, demersal fish that inhabits continental and oceanic islands slopes of temperate and subtropical waters at both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Mediterranean, southern Indian Ocean and southern Pacific (Heemstra 1986; Roberts 1989, 1996; Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999).
43972		habitat	eng	Juveniles are pelagic to a length of around 50-60 cm and associate with floating seaweeds and wreckage (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Mediterranean, pelagic juveniles occur from June-August (Deudero and Morales-Nin 2000). In Brazil, wreckfish are found on irregular substrate, late juveniles are found from 60-250 m depth while adults are deeper at 150-500 m (Peres 2000). On the Charlestone Bump off South Carolina, most wreckfish are taken over areas of extensive high relief but some are also taken over flat hard bottom (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). The extremes of depth range reported for demersal fish are 42-1,000 m (see Sedbury <em>et al.</em> 1994). Wreckfish inhabit demersal habitats where temperature ranges from  6.0 to 16.3 ºC (data from four localities, Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/>Pelagic juveniles feed on teleost fishes, particularly <em>Trachurus</em> species and as well as other items (Deudero and Morales-Nin 2000). Adults feed on squids and mesopelagic fishes (Weaver and Sedberry 2001). <br/> <br/>Generation time was calculated from age population structure data obtained from research cruises off Southern Brazil (Peres 2000) and other data about the fishery (Peres and Haimovici 1998, Peres 2000). This generation time is calculated from an exploited fishery, however, this is consistent with stocks in the USA which were monitored shortly after exploitation began and where most fish harvested have been between 8 and 12 years old (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/>The maximum observed age of wreckfish (through otoliths) from a study in Brazil was 81 years for males and 64 years for females Peres (2000). However, the oldest fish of more than 500 sampled from the US fishing grounds (Blake Plateau off South Carolina) was just 39 years (Vaughan <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the US fishery, most fish >100 cm total length (TL) were female (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1994). Different fisheries may consistently land fishes of differing size ranges (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999).
43972		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal, oceanodromous species that prefers to inhabit caves and shipwrecks (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). Juveniles congregate below floating objects (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). The species is usually solitary. It feeds on large crustaceans, cephalopods and benthic fishes (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). Spawning takes place in the summer (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It occurs at depths of 40 to 1000 m, commonly only to 200 m (Heemstra 1986, Louisy 2002). It is a gonochoristic multiple spawner and the gonadal cycle is synchronized at the population level (Peres and Klippel 2003). <br/><br/>Adults live very deep in different habitats, rocky or sandy-muddy and young can be found very close to the surface (Louisy 2002). The OBIS point map from FishBase lists this species from 2,550 m.<br/><br/>N = 390, maximum age males = 76 years, females = 62 years. Males L∞ = 109.5 cm TL, K = 0.084 per year, t0 = -4.69 years. Females L∞ = 129.5 cm TL, K = 0.0534 per year, t0 = -6.80 years. Minimum size of recruitment 44 cm TL and minimum age at recruitment 1.5 years. (Peres and Haimovici 2004)<br/><br/>Juveniles of <em>Polyprion</em> species are pelagic and live associated with floating objects. Despite its worldwide distribution and high commercial importance, there is little information on reproductive cycle, fecundity, spawning sites and season of these fish (Peres and Klippel 2003).
43972		population	eng	In the Mediterranean this species is typically rare to uncommon. However, in Lebanon it is regularly caught in very deep longlines (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007).
43972		population	eng	It is not possible to estimate population size at present. A minimum figure could be reasonably derived by estimating numbers of fish from 1998 landings data for all countries for which is this data are available and using this figure but stating a sensible maximum figure is not possible as good data on wreckfish stocks is not available for many localities within the known range of the wreckfish. It also seems likely, as the species lives so deep, that there are also stocks yet to be discovered. It may be possible to make a crude approximation by working out the area of potential habitat based on bathymetry and the known range of the animal and multiplying this by population estimates from the better studied fishing grounds. However, calculating the area of potentially inhabitable areas will be extremely time consuming without the aid of a GIS or similar system. <br/> <br/>Data from the US fishery (1985-97), Brazilian fishery (1989 to 98 with some missing years), and Portuguese and Spanish fisheries (1984-1998) shows no fluctuations above or approaching order of magnitude that cannot be explained by known fishing effort (data from FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998, Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999, Peres 2000).  Large annual fluctuations would be unusual for an animal as long-lived and slow to reach sexual maturity as the wreckfish. <br/> <br/>Evidence from mtDNA indicates that the subpopulation in the north Atlantic is probably isolated from that in the southern hemisphere (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1996). There may also be a subpopulation within the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). Subsequent genetic work using microsatellites has revealed that within the southern hemispheres, there are clear differences between the Brazilian and South Pacific subpopulations (Ball <em>et al</em>. 2000). Temperature profiles and current patterns are believed to prevent significant gene flow between these three subpopulations. <br/> <br/>It seems extremely likely, given the continued and recent increases in exploitation, that the population of wreckfish will continue to decline in the near future, and that freshly discovered stocks will decline rapidly, if fishing is not controlled.
43972		threats	eng	The only known threats are from over-fishing. <br/> <br/>The US fishery for wreckfish only started commercially following the chance discovery of stocks large enough to support commercial fishing off South Carolina in 1987. The numbers of fishing boats involved rose rapidly and there was concern by both biologists and fishermen that the fishery might not be sustainable (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). In general, large fish species that are slow to grow and mature are often poorly equipped to withstand intensive fishing. Although there was no obvious decrease in the length-frequency distributions of wreckfish caught off the US from 1989 to 1997 that would indicate stock declines, this may partly be due to the life-history of the animal. Juveniles are pelagic up to a large size (60 cm) before they descend and become demersal so it may be a number of years before fishing pressure would be reflected in decreasing fish sizes and by then it might be too late to initiate a management plan (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). Current management in the USA assumes that the wreckfish stocks on the US fishing ground will not be affected by fishing elsewhere, but as the source of the pelagic juveniles is not known, this may not be true (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). European fish hooks are frequently found in fish caught from US waters. This would seem to indicate the migration of large wreckfish across great distances (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). Finally, thousands of pelagic juveniles are being caught by pelagic tuna drift-net fisheries in the northern Atlantic (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999) which may affect fisheries of adults in the future. <br/> <br/>The case of Bermuda, where catches dropped rapidly after only being sustained for two years seems to show that high levels of fishing pressure (through use of bottom longlines in the case of Bermuda) can cause commercial extinctions of wreckfish, at least in island habitats (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>The following data on wreckfish fisheries exist in the literature. Declines in landings and CPUE are assumed to reflect declines in wreckfish stocks unless it is known that fishing effort has decreased or other factors are involved. <br/> <br/>1) The wreckfish fishery has existed in Brazil since 1973. The number of vessels involved increased from 10 in the 1970s to more than 35 in 1997 and there were technological advances in the gears used. The only estimated annual landings data available are 2,772 t (1989), 2,150 mt (1990), 1,674 t (1991), 2,291 t (1994) and 1,080 t (1995). CPUE declined 90% (0.72 to 0.073 kg/day/hook) off Southern Brazil from 1989/91 to 1997/98 (all data from Peres 2000). This fishery targets spawning aggregations thus increasing the susceptibility of the animal to overfishing. <br/> <br/>2) Following a maximum Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 2 million pounds annually, imposed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council in 1990/91, the estimated catch from the USA showed a relatively steady decline from 1,270,557 pounds (38,205 fish) in 1992 to 157,299 pounds (4,958 fish) in 2000 (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999, Vaughan 2001). This is a drop of 87%. This is believed to be due to a decrease in fishing effort (Sedberry pers. comm. 2001) as the number of boats targeting wreckfish has declined (from 46 in 1992 to 3 in 2000, a drop of 93%) while the catch per hour has not (Hardy 2001) and the mean lengths of caught fish have not declined (Vaughan 2001). Fishing for wreckfish off the USA requires considerable skill and only the most dedicated fishers have remained. Wreckfish stocks seem large enough to maintain the current fishery (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>3) A small wreckfish fishery off Bermuda developed rapidly from 1979 (25 fish) to 1981 (369 fish) and 1982 (311) fish. Catches declined sharply from 1982 (311 fish weighed roughly 4.7 mt) to 1983 (1.2 mt) and remained below 1.5 mt over the 13 years. In 1996 and 1997, just 6 and 9 fish were caught. The decline in landings from 1981 to 1996 (roughly 5.1 mt to 0.2 t) is a drop of 96% (all data from Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). Rapid declines were associated with the introduction of longlines into what had been a vertical line fishery. <br/> <br/>4) Annual landings of wreckfish from the Azores (off Portugal) climbed slowly from around 50-100 mt in the 1970s and 1980s to a peak of 425 mt 1994. In 1995 the catch dropped rapidly to 246 mt and was down to 139 mt by 1998. As the wreckfish is an incidental catch for a mixed-species demersal fishery which has continued to produce increased landings, it seems the decline is a reflection of decreasing wreckfish stocks. The decline from 1994 to 1998 was 67% (data from Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999, ICES Marine Data Centre 2001). <br/> <br/>5) In Madeira (off Portugal) the wreckfish fishery developed slowly with landings rising from 5 metric tonnes in 1988 to a peak 55 mt in 1994. Landings then dropped 51% to around 27 mt in 1996. This was at least partly due to a drop in the number of fishing trips (by around 45%) but as the catch per trip also dropped (by around 15%) there may have been an actual drop in wreckfish stocks. For this location the reduction in wreckfish stocks is assumed to be 15%. <br/> <br/>6) Annual landings data are also available for Northeast Portuguese waters (FAO Area 27). As Area 27 includes the Azores, ICES landings data, which lists the Azores landings separately was subtracted from Area 27 landings data to give figures for Northeast Portuguese waters (except the Azores). Annual landings here rose from 58 mt in 1986 to 283 mt in 1989, peaked at 406 and 373 mt in 1994 and 1995, respectively, and declined steadily to 165 mt in 1998 (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998, ICES Marine Data Centre, 2001). The decline between 1994 and 1998 was 59%. <br/> <br/>7) In Europe, only Portugal and Spain have reported significant (i.e., >50 metric tons per year) catches of wreckfish in recent decades. Annual landings for Spain in FAO Area 27 remained below 50 mt from 1984 to 1995, rising to 115 mt in 1996 and 265 and 250 mt in 1997 and 1998 respectively (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998). No further information on this fishery could be located, including whether these levels of exploitation are sustainable. <br/> <br/>8) Angola's annual landings of wreckfish stayed below 15 metric tons from 1984-1993. Landings rose sharply thereafter, from 66 mt in 1994 to 235 mt in 1995 and 1,002 and 1,326 mt in 1995 and 1997 respectively (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998). No further information on this fishery could be located, including whether these levels of exploitation are sustainable. See note on systematics above regarding the taxonomic status of <em>Polyprion americanus</em> in southern Africa.  Landings in South Africa include <em>Polyprion oxegenios</em> (some from South Atlantic seamounts and islands) and a species referred to as <em>Polyprion americanus</em> (P. Heemstra pers. comm. to G. Sedberry). <br/> <br/>9) In New Zealand, catch data for <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and <em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em> (hapuku) are lumped together.  Wreckfish have been caught in relatively small quantities by the early Maori, and then by European settlers from the mid 19th century. The first decades of the commercial fishery for both species of <em>Polyprion</em> are undocumented, but it was well developed with a combined catch of over 1,500 mt by the 1930s  (Paul 2000). Management of both <em>Polyprion</em> species (together) is by Quota Management System, introduced in 1986, involving Total Allowable Catches (2,179-2,181 mt annually, 1996-2000). Landings of wreckfish alone for the 1990s are estimated to be in the region of 200-400 mt. (L. Paul, pers. comm., 2001). Only a few fishers specifically target the two species although many fishers have small quotas to cover wreckfish caught incidentally in many fisheries targeting other species (L. Paul, pers. comm., 2001). Stocks are probably overfished, but there has been very little fisheries research carried out to verify the nature of this (C. Roberts, pers. comm. 2000). <br/> <br/>10) Both wreckfish (known in Australia as Bass grouper) and Hapuku (<em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em>) are taken in the blue eye (<em>Hyperoglyphe antartica</em>) fishery off south east Australia. Records of commercial catches since the mid-1980s indicate that catches of Hapuku and Bass grouper in this fishery, which are recorded together, are low, between 10 and 40 t a year, Hapuku being by far the major species. There is no indication as to whether numbers of wreckfish are stable or in decline although some research has recently been initiated which should provide some answers in the future (Pascale Baelde, pers. comm. April 2001). <br/> <br/>In summary, fisheries specifically targeting wreckfish have only developed since the 1970s, apparently because of the technological advances in fishing needed to target a large animal living in deep waters. Where fisheries have suddenly targeted wreckfish specifically (Brazil, Bermuda, Portugal), the fishery has reached a peak and then gone into decline within a few years (< 5). In other cases (Spain, Angola), the sudden increase in landings in the mid-late 1990s indicate the fishing effort targeting wreckfish has greatly increased but it is too early to say whether these fisheries are sustainable. As the wreckfish has a large if discontinuous range and does live deep, it seems likely that wreckfish stocks in some regions remain lightly fished. At present, and in addition to the fisheries already discussed above, wreckfish are known to be caught off Albania, Channel Islands, France, Malta, Greece, Ireland and the United Kingdom. There is no commercial fishery for wreckfish in Canada  (P. Fanning, pers. comm., 2001). It also seems likely there are some stocks that have yet to be exploited or even discovered. A global assessment of the wreckfish is therefore problematic but it does seem reasonable to assume that global wreckfish stocks are in decline for two primary reasons. Firstly, the species is slow to reproduce making it vulnerable to overexploitation and secondly, it shows strong signs of being overexploited in some localities and has recently been subjected to large increases in exploitation in others. Even though stocks may be stable in some areas it is likely, therefore, that globally the stocks have decreased. However, the lack of knowledge of wreckfish stocks in many areas of its range mean that it is currently not possible to draw any conclusions on the extent of this decline other that it will fall between 0% decline and 96% decline (the greatest documented decline being that from the Bermuda fishery).
43972		threats	eng	There are no visible major threats for this species. It is of minor commercial importance, caught by bottom lines. Landings are up to 1,000 tons/year.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean this species is mostly caught by deep long lines.
43973		conservation	eng	None currently in place.
43973		distribution	eng	Globally, the species has a large but discontinuous range in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, also the Mediterranean. In the Eastern Atlantic it ranges from Norway to South Africa including the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira, Cape Verde, and Tristan da Cunha. In the Western Atlantic it is found in  Newfoundland, Canada and Gulf of Maine to North Carolina, USA. In the Southern hemisphere it is known from Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina and New Zealand, also St. Paul and Amsterdam islands in the Western Indian Ocean (see <a href="http://www.fishbase.org/search.html">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>The current assessment is restrictd to the Brazilian subpopulation only. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not known due to this fish living in deep waters.
43973		habitat	eng	Wreckfish are found mainly on irregular substrate, late juveniles are found from 60-250 m depth while adults are deeper at 150-250 m (Peres 2000). Wreckfish inhabit demersal habitats where temperature ranges from 6.0 to 16.3 ºC (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>The fishery in Brazil targets spawning aggregations in the area north of Rio Grande (28 to 30ºS), in austral winter and spring (Peres 2000).
43973		population	eng	There is no information on population size, but the fisheries data indicates these fish are not very abundant.
43973		threats	eng	The only known threat is from overfishing. The fishery in Brazil targets spawning aggregations thus increasing the vulnerability of this animal to overfishing (Peres 2000). Local fishers in 2000 stated that mature fish had become rare in the previous year or so (Peres pers. comm.).
43974		conservation	eng	There are no known fishing restrictions on this species as far as is known. There is a very small no-take marine reserve at Cape d'Aguilar in Hong Kong where Hong Kong grouper may slowly be increasing in number following protection (Andrew Cornish, pers. obs.) and there may be others in southern Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan and mainland China but details are not available. <br/> <br/>There is a serious lack of time-series data from annual landings, CPUE, underwater visual census from countries in the North-West Pacific where this species is distributed. Such data would greatly increase the accuracy of future assessments. <br/> <br/>Ideally, each country would conduct a full stock assessment on this species, which would calculate population size as well as rates of decline. It would also be useful to know from genetic studies whether there are subpopulations within the range of this fish. <br/> <br/>Knowledge of natural reproductive behaviour in the wild, particularly whether the species aggregates to spawn (and where and when), would be of use in managing stocks of this species in the wild.
43974		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus akaara</span> is a western Pacific species, where it occurs in southern Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan and southern China (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is also reported from the Gulf of Tonkin (Tseng and Ho 1988), making it likely that it also occurs in Viet Nam. The reported presence of the species in the Ogasawara Islands (Japan) is questionable (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).
43974		habitat	eng	In Hong Kong, the species inhabits shallow coral communities and rocky reefs to at least 17 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Tseng and Ho (1988) report that fishers from Hong Kong operating in the East and South China Seas take adult and spawning fish along the continental shelf at depths of 15-30 fathoms (27-55 m) while juveniles under 10 cm SL may occur shallower than 10 fathoms (18 m). Japan this fish is taken by handline over rocky reefs (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>Sexual maturation in the female occurs at about 23-24 cm SL, or about three years old (Tseng and Ho 1988). The oldest fish found by two studies was seven years (Tseng and Ho 1988, Hung 1994).  The generation time is therefore assumed to lie between 3-7 years. Hung also provides figures for the percentage of the annual catch off Fujian province that falls in each age class. The mean age of adults was four years but the extremes of three and seven are still used as this subpopulation would have been fairly heavily exploited. Four years was, however, used as the point estimate in the species assessment. The growth in mariculture operations for valuable grouper species has prompted an interest in obtaining broodstock for spawning and hatchery rearing. Males of <em>E. akaara</em> (males are larger than females) are very difficult to obtain, another indication of the severe depletions indicated for this species (Patrick Chan, pers. comm. 2002). <br/> <br/>There is no information in the (sparse) literature to suggest that Hong Kong grouper aggregate to spawn. However, a knowledgeable recreational diver who has dived in Hong Kong reported seeing up to 50 individuals close together on the reef on several occasions (Patrick Chan, pers. comm. 2001) during summer indicating spawning aggregations may have occurred in the past. None have been reported in the last few decades, however, and this species is no longer common in Hong Kong. Attains 35 cm SL (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984). The Japanese All-tackle record for Hong Kong grouper is 1.65 kg (Japanese Game Fishing Association 2001).
43974		population	eng	Apparently many of the Hong Kong groupers landed in Hong Kong in the past were caught from islands off the mainland coast to the north of Hong Kong were they were once common but are evidently no longer common (Patrick Chan, pers. comm. 2001). <br/> <br/>Declines in landings are assumed to reflect declines in Hong Kong grouper stocks unless it is known that fishing effort has decreased or other factors are involved. The mean percentage decline of Hong Kong grouper (excluding Hong Kong and Taiwan which appear to have negligible populations of Hong Kong grouper) from China (90%), Japan (50%) and Republic of Korea (50%) is 63 %. <br/> <br/>Ideally, the percentage decline would be applied to estimates of the original Hong Kong grouper population within each country for which the decline applies. This would be done for all countries and the overall decline would be the percentage difference between the original global population size and the current one. Unfortunately, estimates of country stock size are non-existent for this species. The declines were therefore weighted by rocky reef area (rather than by population size) to give an overall decline figure. This method assumes that pristine densities of Hong Kong grouper were the same at all localities. This is probably not likely to have been the case but it enables a single figure to be derived which is likely more representative of the global situation than the alternative, which is just to say the decline lies between 50 and 90% (the lowest and highest decline rates). <br/> <br/>It is worth noting that simply taking the mean of all decline figures gave a very similar figure, 63% rather than 65%.
43974		threats	eng	The Hong Kong grouper has a limited distribution that coincides with the heavily fished inshore areas of Japan, Taiwan, Republic of Korea and southern China. <br/> <br/>The Hong Kong grouper is the most expensive of all the <em>Epinephelus</em> groupers in Hong Kong. It is known from anecdotal accounts that the abundance of this fish has declined considerably from the 1960s to late 1990s in Hong Kong waters (see Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>Moreover, supply of Hong Kong grouper seed (i.e., the fry and fingerlings), which was the favoured species for mariculture in southern China, is known to have significantly decreased in abundance (the small fish are taken from the wild and then are grown up to market size in captivity). For example, the seed was abundant in Fujian (a province of mainland China) waters in the early 1980s but was very rare by 1994 (Sadovy 2000). In 1979, Hong Kong culturists purchased, for grow-out, at least 180,000 kg of this species (200,000-450,000 fish of 100-200 g) that had been wild-caught from southern China, today seed of this species from China is rare (Sadovy 2000). It was reported that Hong Kong grouper landings could not keep up with demand by the late 1970s and that prices had risen from HK$ 33-50/kg in 1978 to HK$ 50-70/kg in 1979 as a result (Tseng and Ho 1988).  Juveniles are no longer readily available from Hong Kong either (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
43975		conservation	eng	The species is common in the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno. It probably also occurs in the Limoncocha and Sumaco-Napo-Galeras protected areas.
43975		distribution	eng	A widely distributed species found in the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana and Sucumbios.
43975		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly on poorly drained or seasonally flooded soils mainland Amazonian forest (250–1,000 m). The species is less common in Amazon terra firme forest.
43975		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a minor threat.
43976		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in the northern section of the Parque Nacional Sangay.
43976		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area in the eastern Andean foothills of Pastaza province, Ecuador.
43976		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
43976		threats	eng	The principal threats are expanding human settlement and deforestation.
43977		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Sangay and could also occur in the Parque Nacional Podocapus.
43977		distribution	eng	Known from four subpopulations along the southeastern Andean slopes, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.
43977		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
43977		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat.
43978		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but could be in the Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Antisana, Cayambe-Coca and Podocarpus protected areas.
43978		distribution	eng	Known from two isolated subpopulations on the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador. The northern subpopulation occurs in disturbed areas and pastures near Cosanga, in Napo province; the southern subpopulation was discovered in Zamora-Chinchipe province.
43978		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43978		threats	eng	The main threats are deforestation and the destructive harvest of its leaves for artistic use in Easter celebrations.
43979		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in similar habitats within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
43979		distribution	eng	Recorded from near the Santo Domingo-Quevedo road in Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces, and near the Santiago and Cayapas rivers in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.
43979		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
43979		threats	eng	Ecuador's coastal forests have been massively altered over the last 50 years through the impacts of deforestation, agricultural and urban expansion.
43980		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but likely to occur in suitable habitat within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and the Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Sangay and Podocarpus national parks.
43980		distribution	eng	Said to have a wide distribution on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza.
43980		habitat	eng	Occurs in the understorey of low Andean forest (1,000–2,100 m).
43980		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43981		conservation	eng	Despite its relative abundance, the species has only been recorded once inside Ecuador's protected areas network, in the Parque Nacional Machalilla. Wild plants almost certainly also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
43981		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout the wet coastal lowlands, where it is widely cultivated for the "vegetable ivory" of its seeds. Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Manabí, Pichincha and Los Ríos.
43981		habitat	eng	Grows as an understorey plant in humid coastal forest to submontane coastal forest (0–1,500 m).
43981		threats	eng	The principal threat is the overexploitation of the fruit; the infrutescence is harvested entire when ripe, leaving the tree sterile.
43982		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in similar habitats of the nearby Parque Nacional Sangay.
43982		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.
43982		habitat	eng	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
43982		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat.
43983		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus achatellinus</em> is endemic to San Cristóbal and Espanola Islands (558 km² and 60 km² respectively).
43983		habitat	eng	Probably the humid zone of San Cristóbal and Espanola Islands.
43983		population	eng	Number of existing subpopulations and population size are unknown. The species has not been recorded for over 20 years and is possibly extinct.
43983		threats	eng	The reasons for range and population declines are unknown.  However, habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on San Cristóbal island (Silberglied 1972).
43984		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance 7 of 1996.  Present within the Sandy Bay National Park, as described in the SLUP (revised 1998/9).
43984		distribution	eng	Formerly a very abundant tree of the mid-altitudes, 300-600 m.  By the time the Island was first settled in 1659 the Gumwood and other native forests had already suffered one and a half centuries of browsing by goats and rooting by pigs.  Fewer and fewer seedlings survived and the aging forest was already unable to regenerate.  The only woodland now remaining is at Peak Dale where about 1,000 trees grow on steep slopes in an area of 3 ha. There are smaller, scattered subpopulations at Deep Valley (21 trees), Marias (<5 trees), Rock Rose (7 trees), Longwood (2 mature trees growing adjacent to farm land and were probably planted to mark a boundary), and Thompson’s Wood (1 tree). Most of these are found growing close to or out of cliffs.  It is possible that there is genetic exchange between the trees at Peak Dale and Marias but the other sites are geographically and reproductively isolated.  Large scale replanting has taken place at Peak Dale (500 trees in 2002) and Horse Point (2,400 between 1986 – 1992 although survival rates are less than  50% and 5,000 between 2000 – 2003), Ebony Plain (where it is planted with its congener, <em>C. rugosum</em> with which it is known to hybridize), Longwood and at Deep Valley.  Peak Dale has been the source of all material for plantings at Horse Point (now known as the Millennium Forest), Ebony Plain  and elsewhere. The Longwood and Deep Valley provenances have been maintained separate at only material from these sites has been used when planting at either Longwood or Deep Valley.
43984		habitat	eng	Tree, formerly up to 10 m, but now typically half this. The trunk of this species is  usually knarled and crooked and the canopy is umbrella shaped due to the regular di- or trichotomous branching immediately under the terminal inflorescence.  <em>C. robustum</em> has inflorescences of one or few capitula, the capitulum of ray florets are female and disc florets are hermaphrodite.  Seeds germinate freely and natural regeneration is rapid as long as there is no interference by grazing animals or pests. The seedlings do not resemble the adults, being quick growing, slender and straight with much larger leaves. They develop the adult shape when they reach the canopy.
43984		threats	eng	Regeneration of <em>C. robustum</em> can be good, especially when grazing is restricted, however, a number of factors restrict recovery:  <br/>1.  Occasionally animals still stray into Peak Dale, although it is fully fenced, causing damage to planted seedlings. The subpopulation at Marias is on privately owned land which is rented for grazing cattle, thus preventing  regeneration. <br/>2.  Competition from introduced plants at all the sites where the Gumwood now grow.  Introduced plants are competitors for space and when not kept under regular control, can crowd out the Gumwoods. <br/>3. The introduced scale insect, <em>Orthezia insignis</em> Browne, which inflicted considerable damage to the population between 1991-3 and threatened to destroy the whole woodland by 1995.  This species was brought under control with a biological control programme using the agent <em>Hyperaspis pantherina</em> (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Fowler 2001).  <em>Orthezia insignis</em> continues to infect small numbers of trees and has been observed on young seedlings (Rebecca Cairns-Wicks, pers obs.). Whilst the infestations are brought under control by the <em>Hyperaspis</em>, and are not considered a threat to adult trees, it is possible that the impact on seedlings and thus regeneration is more significant. <br/> <br/><em>C. robustum</em> has been an important source of timber since the island was settled by humans in 1659 and was used for fuel and building.   Although not used today, this highly branched tree with dense hard and fine grained wood has the potential to be of local value in the future.  If it can be managed sustainably, this species could be used as a windbreak, as a source of pollen for honey production and for producing high value products for the tourism industry. One local carpenter has already established a small experimental plantation to provide wood for craftwork in the future.
43985		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996). Although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park. Jellico propagates easily and is being translocated to new areas by cutting the stem and planting directly.  Planting policy should be established to keep it within its natural range – i.e., damp gullies, damp spots and flushes.  A patch of Large Jellico has also been planted at below High Peak, where it did not occur naturally.
43985		distribution	eng	Notable subpopulations within Diana’s Peak National Park can be found at High Ridge, Warrens, Byrons, Mt Actaeon, Washhouse, Taylors, Jockies, Landslide, and Newfoundland.  <em>S. bracteatum</em> grows well in stands among the Cabbage trees and tree-ferns, favouring damp spots, flushes and gullies around 750 m.  <br/> <br/>Subpopulation sizes vary from 10s to 100s and are fragmented.
43985		habitat	eng	Jellico propagates easily and is being translocated to new areas by cutting the stem and planting directly.  Planting policy should be established to keep it within its natural range – i.e., damp gullies, damp spots and flushes.
43985		threats	eng	Restricted in area of occupancy, fragmented subpopulations and competition from alien plants species, are all factors threatening <em>S. bracteatum</em>.    Hybridization – hybridization and introgression with the Dwarf Jellico is also a threat to this species as <em>S. bracteatum</em> and <em>S. burchelli</em> grow within close range of each other at several sites (the Landslide and Washhouse).   Extensive planting has also brought the two species close together at other sites (Byrons, Mt Actaeon).  It is suggested that an intermediate subpopulation is growing below the Landslide: Dwarf Jellico grows on the cliff ledge and Large Jellico in the gut below.  Hybridization is likely to pose a greater threat to the Dwarf Jellico because of its much smaller population size. <br/>  <br/>The stems of <em>S. bracteatum</em> were formerly collected and brought down to the market in Jamestown, and eaten raw by the Islanders much like celery.
43986		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996), although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.  A seed orchard was established at the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery in  Scotland in 1997, but this has subsequently been allowed to deteriorate.  It is recommended that this is re-established to bring together the genetic diversity represented in the subpopulations and allow seed collection for further reintroductions.
43986		distribution	eng	A rare plant, local around High Peak c 750 m.  Restricted to small and fragmented subpopulations on steep cliffs just below the crest of the ridge, on the windward side of the central ridge only.  Known to grow on the cliff below path leading to Cuckhold’s Point (the Landslide in Peaks Management Plan), Washhouse Cliff (WASH003 in Peaks Management Plan), Purgatory, and at High Peak. Cronk also records it between Red Rock and the Depot and in small patches on the cliff of Sandy Bay Ridge facing Rose Cottage (no observations have been made at these sites in the last 10 years). Subpopulation sizes are small <50 individuals and severely fragmented.
43986		habitat	eng	Rocky cliffs and ledges on the Peaks, amongst Cabbage trees, tree ferns or exposed ledges.  Flowering is usually December and January.
43986		threats	eng	Competition from introduced and naturalized plants posses a threat for this species, particularly at High Peak where there is no regular management programme.  All subpopulations have been found growing on rocky outcrops that are prone to landslides.   <br/> <br/><em>S. burchelli</em> is thought to be under threat from hybridization with <em>S. bracteatum</em>.  During November 1995, 800 Dwarf Jellico seedlings were planted across the tree fern thicket at several sites along the ridge between Cuckhold’s Point and Mt Actaeon within Diana’s Peak National Park.  A high rate of establishment was recorded (36 out of 50 at one site) in April 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996), however, some of the individuals were planted relatively close to stands of the Large Jellico and  it is suspected that the two species are able to hybridize, and the provenance of the Dwarf Jellico’s planted in 1995 is now uncertain.
43987		conservation	eng	The largest extent of occurrence of <em>T. scaevolifolia</em> lies within Diana’s Peak National Park, which  is protected within the Revised Strategic Land Use Plan (1998/9) and managed under the Environmental Conservation Section of the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department. The Diana’s Peak National Park Management Plan for 1996-2001 requires revision. <em>Trimeris scaefolifolia</em> is also protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.
43987		distribution	eng	<em>Trimeris scaevolifolia</em> is found on central ridge above 700 m,with patchy distribution within Diana's Peak National Park (including Cuckhold's Point and Mt Actaeon).  <em>T. scaevolifolia</em> is also found at High Peak and Depot.  Alien plant control has taken place in the area of Diana’s Peak National Park since 1995, this management has provided an opportunity for the Lobelia to spread along pathsides and cleared areas.  In contrast it is inferred that <em>T. scaevolifolia</em> numbers have declined at High Peak and the Depot where invasives control has been less.  Wherever it occurs, numbers are small. The High Peak lobelia’s could be considered a subpopulation being significantly disjunct from the National Park subpopulation. Q.C.B. Cronk (Cronk 2000) estimates there to be less than 250 mature individuals.
43987		habitat	eng	<em>T. scaevolifolia</em> grows alongside cabbage trees, <em>Carex dianae</em>, ferns and tree ferns of the uplands vegetation. <br/> <br/>Lobelia regenerates best in disturbed open habits, along pathsides etc. It is relatively short-lived and disappears from overgrown places (Cronk 2000).
43987		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is competition from introduced invasive species. Alien plant control programme for Diana’s Peak National Park has reduced this threat and improved habitat quality by providing disturbed open areas for it to spread into. The restricted area of the Park, 81 hectares means that this species will always have a restricted area of occupancy.
43988		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  subpopulations across part of its range are found at Man and Horse Cliffs and Mt Vesey, both  are within the boundary of Sandy Bay National Park, that is  designated in the revised SLUP 1998/9. However, specific Protected Area legislation and management plans have not yet been developed or implemented. There is currently no specific conservation action for this species.
43988		distribution	eng	Found on Old Joan Point Cliffs, Peak Dale and Deep Valley, growing on cliffs associated with the Gumwood, Mt Vesey. <br/>  <br/><em>W. angustifolia</em> has also been recorded at the Depot, Devil’s Hole Cap, Thompsons Wood, Fairyland, Rock Mount, Cason’s, Bevin’s, Grape Vine Gut, Sandy Bay Ridge, Cole’s Rock and Great Stone Top (Cronk 2000).  These sites are predominately unmanaged areas where alien plants are the dominant vegetation type. It is therefore likely that where the small bellflower still persists it is under intense competition from the alien plants. <br/> <br/><em>W. angustifolia</em> has an estimated population of some 1,000 plants.  Subpopulations are highly fragmented and small.
43988		habitat	eng	An endemic to St Helena.  Although  <em>W. angustifolia</em> is found close to High Peak, it is not in the same situation as the large Bellflower. However, it is suspected that where the two species grow in proximity to each other, hybridization can occur. Intermediate size has been observed in<em>W. linifolia</em> (Kerr 1953 referred to in Cronk (2000)) and also recently in the second subpopulation at High Peak and in the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery, Scotland (R. Cairns-Wicks, pers. obs.).  Kerr (1953) suggests that intermediates are either interspecific hybrids or there is great variation in growth and size of <em>W. linifolia</em>.  Leaf material of <em>W. angustifolia</em> and <em>W. linifolia</em> was sent to RBG Kew for DNA testing to investigate this further.
43988		threats	eng	Competition from introduced alien species as well as small and fragmented subpopulation sizes, are the major threats to <em>W. angustifolia</em>.  Hybridization is also a threat, however, this is probably posses a greater threat to <em>W. linifolia</em> as this is rarer.
43989		conservation	eng	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Subpopulations across part of its range are found within the boundary of Sandy Bay National Park designated in the revised SLUP 1998/9, however, specific Protected Area legislation and management plans have not yet been developed or implemented. There is currently no specific conservation action for this species.
43989		distribution	eng	Surveys carried out by staff of the Environmental Conservation Section between 1995 and 2001, monitored subpopulations at: Great Stone Top (facing Shore Island), Turks Cap, Gregory's Battery and Peak Gut Waterfall.  Larger subpopulations (100's), were found at Man and Horse Cliffs and the Cliffs near to Ebony site.  Other subpopulations have been located at Old Joan Point from 5-300 m., Barn, Turks Cap Ridge, Prosperous Bay, Sandy Bay Barn and on the Cliffs between Distant Cottage and the Asses Ears. <br/> <br/>Cronk (2000) reports abundant old stumps on Sandy Bay Barn and considers the site a centre for the tea plant. Old stumps are also numerous at Castle Rock Plain.
43989		habitat	eng	Found in dry subtropical to tropical shrubland, rocky shores and other rocky areas.
43989		threats	eng	Subpopulations are largely recovering due to the removal of grazing pressure from goats and sheep on the Crown Wastes.  Recovering subpopulations sites are Man and Horse Cliffs and on Cliffs near to the Ebony site.  Man and Horse site is vulnerable to competition from alien plants.  Smaller subpopulations are also more susceptible to stochastic events and problem pests such as the Mealy and Australian Bugs. <br/> <br/>Small subpopulations at Gregory’s Battery and Great Stone Top are struggling, this may be due to low levels of recruitment.
43990		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus adserseni</em> is endemic to Santa Cruz Island (986 km²). Total area of suitable habitat left on the island for this species is less than 100 km².
43990		habitat	eng	Humid zone of Santa Cruz Island.
43990		population	eng	The species has not been seen alive recently in spite of extensive collecting on the island. It may already be extinct.
43990		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes of population decline. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
43991		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus albermalensis</em> is endemic to Isabela Island (4,588 km²). Extent of occurrence is likely to be less than 5,000 km².
43991		habitat	eng	Probably found in the humid zone.
43991		population	eng	Number and size of any subpopulations and their locations are unknown.
43991		threats	eng	Introduced predatory species, such as rats and ants, and habitat destruction and/or alteration by feral goats and donkeys. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).
43992		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus chemitzioides</em> is endemic to San Cristóbal Island (558 km²). The area of the habitat where the species should exist is estimated to be less than 100 km².
43992		habitat	eng	Arid and possibly transition zones.
43992		population	eng	Number, size and locations of subpopulations are unknown.
43992		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).
43993		conservation	eng	Listed as a  "Species Presumed Extinct"  in section 4 of Schedule 4 of the Fisheries Management Act 1994, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Listed as "Extinct" under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, by the Commonwealth of Australia.
43993		distribution	eng	First collected/discovered (1855) by crude dredging as a single individual plant from the east end of Spectacle Island, in the Parramatta River, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia.  Second and last collection (1886) by dredging of approximately 15 individual plants from between Shark Island and Point Piper, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia (8 kilometres east of Spectacle Island). Presently unknown.
43993		habitat	eng	Unknown at time of collection in 1855 and 1886.  The two sites, and much of Sydney Harbour, presently has soft sediment seabed with scattered rocky reef and rocky intertidal shores.  Scattered shells and solid waste products (cans, bottles etc.) also lie on the seabed.
43993		threats	eng	Sydney Harbour is in the middle of the city of Sydney, the largest metropolis in Australia with more than 4 million people. In the 200+ years since settlement, the harbour has been seriously degraded by the population explosion. Use of the harbour as recreational facility, port, source of food, and sewer has seriously impacted on the native flora and fauna. Even by 1880, the harbour was found to be overfished by a Royal Commission. The Major Threats that may have caused the extinction of this alga include large and small scale fisheries particularly trawling, infrastructure development including industry, human settlement, tourism/recreation, water transport [including dredging for ship passage], fisheries- related bycatch by netting, and water pollution from agriculture, domestic, commercial/ industrial, oil, sedimentation, and sewage. The water quality of the harbour has improved since the 1972 passage of the New South Wales Clean Waters Act and the more recent removal of sewage outfalls some kilometers offshore. More fish species have moved to the upper estuarine portions of the Parramatta River and whales have returned to the outer harbour. However, for sessile species of limited distribution like Bennetts seaweed, swimming out of the harbour was not an option and the damage was done, permanently. As we do not even know in which decade the extinction occurred, we will never know which of the major threats was causative; a combination of a number of those listed is likely. [Threats information provided by J.R. Paxton in litt.].
43994		conservation	eng	<em>Cladonia perforata</em> is Federally Listed Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, making all Federal landowners with <em>C. perforata</em> responsible for its protection and conservation under the Endangered Species Act. The state of Florida additionally has an active conservation and natural heritage program which tracks listed species (<em>C. perforata</em> is state-listed endangered and has a Heritage Ranking of G1N1) and works to conserve them through land acquisition and management. At least two Lake Wales Ridge sites were acquired under a state project for conservation and recreation lands. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions also include reintroduction efforts at Eglin Air Force Base, home to the largest subpopulation (East Pass) and the two extirpated sites at Pole 28 and A10. East Pass was used as a source population for these reintroductions and there is ongoing monitoring of hurricane impacts and reintroduced population success. Post-fire recovery is being monitored at several subpopulations on the Lake Wales Ridge. Fire management is a critical part of conservation of this and many other Florida scrub species and is ongoing throughout most protected sites along the Lake Wales Ridge and the Atlantic Coast Ridge.
43994		distribution	eng	Three major regions of occurrence exist. 1) North Gulf Coast, including a single natural subpopuation (the largest known subpopulation "East Pass", 0.5-1 km²), and one remnant thallus after Hurricane Opal destroyed two subpopulations, "Pole 28" and "A2".  In addition, two reintroduced populations (at Pole 28 and A2) were established in 2000. 2) Lake Wales Ridge. This region contains the bulk (22 of 32) of the known subpopulations, scattered across single endemic-rich ridge system. Many subpopulations are severely fragmented and dispersal among them very unlikely. The total area of occupancy in this ca. 2,700 km² area is probably on the order less than 5 km² in disjunct patches. Two locations are important for the amount of protected habitat, active fire-management programs and presence of several occupied (with large areas occupied) and unoccupied habitat patches: Archbold Biological Station with 7 subpopulations, Ridge State Forest with 3, and Lake Apthorpe Preserve with 2. Several privately-held populations are of high habitat quality and large area of occupancy. 3) The Atlantic Coast Ridge has two important locations, but overall low extent of occurrence (ca. 720 km²) and area of occupancy. Jonathan Dickinson State Park protects several subpopulations (including one large one at County Line Rd.), and the Bureau of Land Management protects two subpopulations at Jupiter Lighthouse. Several other scattered sites are privately held, small in area occupied and unlikely to persist under dense tree canopies or without being extirpated for coastal development projects. <br/> <br/>Population size - in the traditional sense - for <em>Cladonia perforata</em> is difficult to estimate. It consists of strictly asexual, branching structures which reproduce via vegetative fragmentation. Genetic studies have so far supported an asexual life history (pers. obs.). Effective population sizes are typically one or two genetic individuals per subpopulation. Therefore density and area occupied are probably better measures of abundance for this species than count data. Most subpopulations probably contain less than 0.1 km² coverage of lichen, with a few containing only a few square meters. The degree of fragmentation is naturally high, since appropriate habitat (open Florida scrub) is naturally patchy and disjunct. Most locations are separated by many kilometers of intervening unsuitable habitats and even locations supporting several subpopulations in close proximity still have what are probably very effective barriers to dispersal among them.
43994		habitat	eng	<em>Cladonia perforata</em> occurs primarily in open Florida rosemary scrub, with large gaps between shrubs and plenty of bare sand and other terrestrial lichens. These scrub habitats are fossil inland dunes or stable coastal dunes. It occupies the highest topographic positions throughout most of this range. In the North Gulf Coast region, it can occur downslope into seasonal depressional wetlands with dense herbaceous cover, but saltwater overwash will kill it. <em>C. perforata</em> grows slowly and branches once a year. Fragmentation (vegetative reproduction) can happen via trampling or natural breakage after decades of growth <em>in situ</em>.
43994		threats	eng	The main threats to <em>C. perforata</em> are from habitat loss in the Lake Wales Ridge and Atlantic Coast Ridge, from hurricanes in the North Gulf Coast (overwash and windthrow into unsuitable sites), and from improper fire management throughout. A single hurricane or fire can reduce subpopulations by more than 70% or extirpate it entirely. Dispersal from disjunct sites is extremely unlikely.
43995		conservation	eng	The status of the areas of some of the largest subpopulations in Newfoundland is still a matter of debate. The habitats of the former Norwegian populations were suggested as nature reserves. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) has designated the 'Atlantic population' (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) as Endangered and the 'Boreal population' (Newfoundland) as Special Concern.
43995		distribution	eng	<em>Erioderma pedicellatum</em> is an amphi-Atlantic species known from Europe (Norway and Sweden) and Canada (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland). Today, it is largely restricted to Newfoundland. Fourteen individuals are known from Nova Scotia and 5,060 individuals (thalli) have been documented from Newfoundland. The Newfoundland population comprises 84 localities. Even in the largest local subpopulations <em>E. pedicellatum</em> is a rather rare species and occurs on only a small percentage of suitable trees. In most cases only one thallus of this species is found on a tree.
43995		habitat	eng	<em>Erioderma pedicellatum</em> is an epiphytic species with narrow habitat requirements (primarily old growth, highly oceanic coniferous forests). In Sweden and Norway the species grew on twigs of Norway Spruce (<em>Picea abies</em>) in a unique type of temperate rainforest. In Newfoundland this lichen grows predominantly on the trunks of <em>Abies balsamea</em> and rarely on trunks or twigs of <em>Picea mariana</em>.<br/><br/>The species has very low growth and reproductive rates.
43995		population	eng	Grows in low densities.
43995		threats	eng	Threatened by forest management and is highly sensitive to atmospheric air pollutants such as acid rain.
43996		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine range and locations of existing subpopulations.
43996		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus cinerarius</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Floreana, Santiago and Isabela (173 km², 585 km², and 4,588 km² respectively). Exact range area is unknown, but area of suitable habitat is less than 5,000 km².
43996		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
43996		population	eng	The species has not been recorded during recent collecting on the islands, but it may have been overlooked. Number, size and locations of subpopulations are unknown.
43996		threats	eng	The major threat to this species on Floreana and Isabela Islands is probably human activities (mostly due to farming) and introduced species. The major threat to land snails on Santiago Island are introduced species, particularly the little fire ant (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>) and feral goats and donkeys.
43997		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to determine subpopulation sizes and range.
43997		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus cucullinus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos islands of Espanola, Floreana and Santa Fe (60 km², 173 km², and 24 km² respectively). The total range of suitable habitat for this species is likely to be less than 100 km², but the three islands are treated as three locations.
43997		habitat	eng	Possibly found in the arid zones of these islands.
43997		population	eng	The species was not found during recent collecting on the islands, but it's presence may have been overlooked. Number, size and exact locations of subpopulations are unknown.
43997		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.
43998		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to determine the size and range of subpopulations on the island.
43998		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus curtus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of San Cristobal (558 km²). The range is likely to be less than 100 km².
43998		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
43998		population	eng	The species has not been recorded during recent collecting in the Galápagos, but it may have been overlooked. Size and number of subpopulations is unknown.
43998		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species are likely the major threats for land snails on this island.
43999		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus deridderi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Less than 100 km² of suitable habitat is likely to remain.
43999		habitat	eng	Humid zone of Santa Cruz.
43999		population	eng	It has not been colleted recently and may already be extinct.
43999		threats	eng	Reasons for decline in range and population are unknown, but habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes.
44000		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus duncanus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos island of Pinzon (18 km²).
44000		habitat	eng	Humid zone.
44000		population	eng	A live specimen has never been found and it may have become extinct before its description. Pinzon Island has been under surveyed because it is very difficult to reach.
44000		threats	eng	Reason for population decline is unknown, but habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes. Any existing population would be susceptible to climatic fluctuations due to stochastic cycles of El Niño.
44001		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus elaeodes</em> is endemic to the Galápagos island of Isabela (4,588 km²). Potential area of suitable habitat is large, but there is no information on where this species may be found.
44001		habitat	eng	Humid zone.
44001		population	eng	It has not been found in recent years, but the island has not been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44001		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.
44002		conservation	eng	Further surveys of the island are needed to establish the size and range of the population.
44002		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus galapaganus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Floreana (173 km²). The range of suitable habitat is likely to be less than 100 km².
44002		habitat	eng	Exact habitat type is unknown.
44002		population	eng	It has not been recorded during recent collections in the Galápagos Islands, but Floreana Island was not surveyed extensively so the species may have been overlooked there.
44002		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).
44003		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine size and range of any existing subpopulations on the island.
44003		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus habeli</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of San Cristobal (558 km²). The range of suitable habitat for this species is likely to be less than 100 km².
44003		population	eng	It has not been recorded during recent collecting in the Galápagos Islands, but San Cristobal Island has not been extensively surveyed, so its presence here may have been overlooked.
44003		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).
44004		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine the size and range of any existing subpopulations on the islands.
44004		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus hemaerodes</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Isabela and Fernandina (4,588 km² and 642 km² respectively). The range of suitable habitat for this species is less than 5,000 km².
44004		habitat	eng	Humid zone.
44004		population	eng	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands, but neither Isabela nor Fernandina have been surveyed extensively, therefore the species may have been overlooked.
44004		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.
44005		conservation	eng	Forest areas are managed for conservation by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles – Islands Development Company Silhouette Conservation Project, but there is no legal protection.
44005		distribution	eng	Restricted to Silhouette island, with an extent of occurrence of 20 km² and area of occupancy of  0.06 km². Occurred historically on Mahé and Praslin islands (collected there in 1768) but probably extinct there since the 1800s due to forest clearance. Five mature trees are known from two subpopulations (one tree by itself and four in the other subpopulation), separated by a distance of approximately 1 km.
44005		habitat	eng	Occurs in mid-high altitude forest (over 250 m a.s.l.). The fruit is probably dispersed by endemic frugivorous birds and fruit bats but no direct observations made. Pollinators are unknown.
44005		threats	eng	Past threats include habitat loss through deforestation and agricultural activities, and the impacts of invasive species on both the habitat and the direct competition with the species. Currently, the main threats are the ongoing impacts of invasive species and intrinsic problems given the restricted range and population size.
44006		conservation	eng	Forest areas are managed for conservation by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles – Islands Development Company Silhouette Conservation Project, but no legal protection.
44006		distribution	eng	Restricted to Silhouette Island, Seycheles. Known only from the Anse Mondon River valley with an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 0.5 km².  The species is locally abundant but the number of individuals has not been determined.
44006		habitat	eng	Occurs in riverine forest (100-500 m a.s.l.) growing only within 500 m of the stream bed.
44006		threats	eng	No threats other than stochastic loss in the restricted range.
44007		conservation	eng	The Virgin Gorda subpopulation occurs within Gorda Peak National Park whose boundaries are well respected. Park wardens are aware of the location of all individuals and the Endangered status of the species. One of the trails within the Park has been rerouted because it was considered too close to the single seedling of this species.  A management plan for the Park has been developed. Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule. <br/> <br/><em>Z. thomasianum</em> is listed on the US Federal Endangered list which offers protection in PR and the US Virgin Islands, although its prescription does not apply to private land where the majority of the individuals are located.  Part of the St John subpopulation occurs within the boundaries of the Virgin Islands National Park that is well maintained and managed, affording protection for this subpopulation.
44007		distribution	eng	Puerto Rican bank endemic. Known from small small scattered subpopulations in Puerto Rico (PR); St John, St Thomas (US Virgin Islands); and Virgin Gorda (British Virgin Islands). The largest subpopulation has been reported from St Thomas to cover an area of approximately 50 acres. Other subpopulations exist as scattered individuals at three sites on Puerto Rico, two on St John and a single site in Virgin Gorda. <br/> <br/>The total population was estimated to be between 300-350 in 1988 for the US Recovery Plan with the largest subpopulation estimated at 250 individuals on St Thomas, approximately 50 on St John with scattered individuals on Puerto Rico. The Virgin Gorda subpopulation was unknown at that time.  Since then habitat has been fragmented and lost and mature individuals have been lost from all sites. The St Thomas site has been subdivided and sold for residential development. The Virgin Gorda subpopulation has been documented, but there is a need for an up-to-date census of the PR and USVI sites.  However, the current global population is likely to be less than 300 mature individuals, and may be close to meeting the criteria for Critically Endangered.
44007		habitat	eng	A small evergreen tree/shrub up to 6 m, growing as a component of dry forest. Male and female flowers are borne on different plants and this may be an important detrimental factor for its survival given its low population size and the fragmented nature its distribution.  No seedlings have been reported from the PR or USVI populations and only a single seedling has been observed in Virgin Gorda.
44007		threats	eng	The Virgin Gorda subpopulation is located within Gorda Peak National Park and so is not under threat. Part of the St John subpopulation is located within The Virgin Islands National Park and should be secure.  However, most of the St John subpopulation and the St Thomas subpopulations are on land that has been subdivided for development and must be considered under threat. Similarly some of the Puerto Rico individuals are on private land that is undergoing changing land use. Mining for limestone is also a threat in part of its range. <br/> <br/>The breeding biology may also become a major constraint as numbers get small and may become sufficiently low that reproduction becomes ineffective.
44008		conservation	eng	The Anegada subpopulation occurs on a limestone cay within the Western Salt Ponds Ramsar site (declared in 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area (National Park).  BVI Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration is being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule. <br/> <br/>There is no information on the legal status of the PR subpopulation. <br/> <br/><em>Leptocereus quadricostatus</em> is listed on CITES Appendix II.
44008		distribution	eng	Found on Anegada, British Virgin Islands (BVI) where it is restricted to an area of less than 100 m x 100 m on one of the limestone cays of the Western Salt Ponds. Also found in Puerto Rico (PR) where it is reported from a small area in the dry southwest region of Guánica. <br/> <br/>The global population comprises two subpopulations. The Anegada subpopulation has been surveyed and found to comprise 20-25 individual clumps.  The dense clumping nature of this species makes a precise determination of number of mature individuals very difficult, but 20-25 is a reliable estimate.  Pedro Acevedo (pers. comm.) has told us that the Puerto Rico subpopulation is less than 10 giving a global population size of approximately 35 mature individuals.
44008		habitat	eng	Found growing on open limestone with very little soil.  No study of the breeding biology has been undertaken, but we have seen the Anegada individuals in both flower and fruit.
44008		threats	eng	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation is expected due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  However, the location of<em> L. quadricostatus</em> is in an area unlikely to be damaged from this type of development. <br/> <br/>The highest point on Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level. Most of the habitat for <em>L. quadricostatus</em> is <2 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce the quality and area of habitat available to <em>L. quadricostatus</em>.  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes. <br/> <br/>The current status of the PR subpopulation is unknown, but much of this area has been zoned for residential development that may threaten the surviving plants. <br/> <br/>Other major threats are those intrinsic factors inherent in such small populations.
44009		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus hoodensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Espanola (60 km²).
44009		population	eng	It has not been found during recent colleting on Galápagos Islands, but Espanola has not been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44010		conservation	eng	The Draft Recovery Action Plan for this species has set out five main objectives that will help conserve <em>W. linifolia</em>. These are: <br/>1. To protect all existing subpopulations <br/>2. To propagate individuals by cuttings from subpopulations  <br/>3. To collect seed.  <br/>4. To search for new populations <br/>5. To establish a cultivated population at Scotland Shade house no 4 as a seed orchard.
44010		distribution	eng	<em>Wahlenbergia linifolia</em> is endemic to St Helena.  Currently it is only known from two sites: High Peak and Washhouse cliffs. <br/> <br/>In 1997 the subpopulation at High Peak Site 1, was estimated to be 41 adults and 28 seedlings. This site was thought to be pure <em>W. linifolia</em>.  In June 2002 the subpopulation numbered less than five adults.  <br/> <br/>At High Peak Site 2,  the subpopulation number was estimated to be 21 adults and 24 seedlings. This was a suspected hybrid subpopulation. In June 2002 the subpopulation was estimated as 12. <br/> <br/>Washhouse 1997, the subpopulation was estimated as possibly 12 mature plants. In June 2002 the subpopulation was estimated as six.  In addition the site was more overgrown and fewer seedlings were noted.
44010		habitat	eng	Small, shrubby, sparingly branched perennial up to 0.3 m.  The plants grow on cliff sites amongst tree fern vegetation and exotic weeds. Bellflowers are also known to grow on the trunks of tree ferns, Melliss (1875) described <em>W. linifolia</em> as 'sometimes parasitic on the tree ferns'.
44010		threats	eng	The rampant spread of Flax and Fuchsia which are able to colonise ledges and gaps in the tree ferns are considered to be the principal causes for the decline of the Large Bellflower. Flax, Fuchsia Blackberry, Solanum and Grass sp. continue to cause problems at the three remaining sites, reducing the area of suitable habitat and preventing regeneration. As well as the number of individuals, the number of seedlings observed at all sites was also considerably lower that in 1997.
44011		conservation	eng	Four specific objectives for the recovery of <em>M. begonifolia</em> has been laid out in the Draft Recovery Action Plan.  These objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. To maintain and encourage the growth of Boxwoods at Lot’s Wife <br/>2. To establish three field gene banks, two at White’s Cottage and one at Distant Cottage <br/>3. To determine the life history characteristics and genetic diversity of the Boxwoods as an aid to recovery planning. <br/>4. To maintain <em>ex situ</em> stocks at RBG Kew and Eden Project and establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.
44011		distribution	eng	Endemic to St Helena, the St Helena Boxwood, <em>Mellissia begonifolia</em> was formerly abundant in the dry south and eastern parts of the Island (Long Range, Stone Tops and Boxwood Hill). Melliss (1875) stated that it was extremely rare, and it was presumed extinct towards the end of the 19th Century. However, in November 1998 a single specimen was found by Stedson Stroud growing between scree boulders on the southern, sea-facing slope of Lot’s Wife about 100 m. above sea level. This site is currently the only known area where Boxwoods grow.  The wild population currently numbers 11.
44011		habitat	eng	A much branched, pungently scented shrub or small tree 1-2 m.  All the individuals have been found growing amongst scree boulders below Lot’s Wife.
44011		threats	eng	The population at Lot’s Wife is extremely fragile. It is small in size, with only one mature flowering individual.  The plants are prone to heavy attacks of aphids and caterpillars (Penelope worm), although Ladybirds have kept the aphid infestations under control and manual removal of caterpillars reduced their impact.  <br/> <br/>Mice and rabbits are also present in the area. In the past rabbits have nipped off the tops of plants, which has led to the death of the plant. The prevalence of plant pests could well pose problems in the future. <br/> <br/>All the individuals are growing amongst scree boulders below Lot’s Wife. The rocks are loose and prone to movement when traversed. This puts the plants at risk from either all or parts being broken or crushed.  <br/> <br/>Growing in such a dry environment, the plants are prone to drought.
44012		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus indefatigabilis</em> is known from one population on the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). Its current range is probably less than 3 km².
44012		habitat	eng	Arid zone; found at base of trees, under lava rocks on Santiago Island.
44012		population	eng	Known from only one population.
44012		threats	eng	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropuctata</em>), destruction and/or alteration of habitat by feral goats.  Habitat and population size may also be affected by El Niño, but his is not well documented.
44013		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus jervisensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Rabida (4.9 km²).
44013		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44013		population	eng	The current population size on this island is unknown.
44014		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).
44014		habitat	eng	<em>Scalesia</em> forest.
44014		population	eng	This species was not found alive over the past three years of collecting on Santa Cruz Island. It may already be extinct.
44014		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
44015		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).
44015		habitat	eng	<em>Scalesia</em> forest.
44015		population	eng	It was not found during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands and may already be extinct.
44015		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
44016		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).
44016		habitat	eng	Arid and transition zones.
44016		population	eng	It was not found alive over the past three years of collecting on Santa Cruz Island and may already be extinct.
44016		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
44017		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus nucula</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana (558 km²  and 173 km² respectively).
44017		habitat	eng	Possibly the arid zone.
44017		population	eng	It has not been found during recent collecting on Galapagos Islands. However, Floreana and San Cristóbal Islands have not been extensively surveyed therefore it may have been overlooked. Number and size of subpopulations are unknown.
44017		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There are established populations of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on these islands (Silberglied 1972).
44018		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus olla</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago.
44018		habitat	eng	Arid zone. Found under big piles of lava rocks on Santiago.
44018		population	eng	It is known from two subpopulations and has a total range of less than 5 km².  Each subpopulation has less than 200 individuals.
44018		threats	eng	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>), destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats
44019		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus pallidus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Isabela and Pinta (4,588 km², and 60 km² respectively).
44019		habitat	eng	Possibly from the humid zone.
44019		population	eng	It has not been recorded during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither Isabela Island nor Pinta Island have been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44019		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.
44020		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus perrus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Fernandina (642 km²).
44020		habitat	eng	Humid zone. Found under lava rocks at base of trees (<em>Scalesia</em>).
44020		population	eng	It is known from only one population at the summit of Fernandina Island (on the crater rim), where a very small range of habitat is suitable for land snails.
44020		threats	eng	Fernandina is a protected island, with no fire ants or goats currently on it. The biggest threats are future occupation by goats or invasion by alien plant species.
44021		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus perspectivus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana (558 km² and 173 km² respectively).
44021		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44021		population	eng	It has not been recorded during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither San Cristóbal nor Floreana Islands have been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44021		threats	eng	Habitat destruction or alteration by human activities and introduced species.
44022		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus planospira</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana. Total range area is less than 5,000 km².
44022		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44022		population	eng	It was not found during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither San Cristóbal nor Floreana Islands have been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44022		threats	eng	The range of suitable habitat for land snails on San Cristóbal and Floreana Islands has declined because of human activities (farming, road and house construction, etc.) and because of destruction or alteration by introduced species.
44023		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus rabidensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Rabida (4.9 km²). However, the total range is certainly less than 10 km².
44023		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44023		population	eng	Number and size of subpopulations are unknown.
44023		threats	eng	The restricted range of the species makes the population suscceptible to stochastic events.
44024		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus rugatinus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristobal and Isabela.
44024		habitat	eng	Humid zone.
44024		population	eng	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither of these islands have been surveyed extensively, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44024		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.
44025		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus rugulosus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal, Floreana and Pinta (558 km², 173 km², and 60 km² respectively). Range area is less than 5,000 km².
44025		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44025		population	eng	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, San Cristóbal, Floreana and Pinta Islands have not been surveyed extensively, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44025		threats	eng	The range of suitable habitat for land snails on San Cristóbal and Floreana Islands has declined because of human activities (farming, road and house construction, etc.) and because of destruction or alteration by introduced species.
44026		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus simrothi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Isabela (4,588 km²).
44026		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44026		population	eng	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, Isabela Island has not been surveyed extensively, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44026		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.
44027		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus tortuganus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Isabela (4,588 km²). It is known only from one population at the top of Darwin Volcano.
44027		habitat	eng	Transition to humid zones. Found under lava rocks.
44027		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or alteration and/or fragmentation by feral goats.
44028		conservation	eng	No concerted conservation activities are yet underway.  Forest protection authorities have been notified (Farjon and collaborators, pers. comm. May 2002) and cuttings have been taken by a forestry nursery (Central Forest Seed Company) for propagation (Nguyen Duc to Luu and Thomas 2002).  The area is partly covered by a Provincial Forest Protected Area.
44028		distribution	eng	Current knowledge indicates that it has a very limited range of less than 50 km² in the Bat Dai Son mountains of northern Ha Giang Province on the Chinese border, Viet Nam.  Within this area it is restricted to the ridges and summits. It is scarce or rare in its habitat, scattered (not present on all ridges and summits visited so far).  It does not, as previously thought (see Farjon <em>et al</em>. 2002), occur on the lower slopes or in the valleys as these, where forest is still intact, do not support conifers.
44028		habitat	eng	This small to medium sized tree (10-15 m) grows on the ridges and summits of karst limestone formations (very steep mountains) in elfin forest (cloud forest).  Occurs together with other conifers (the dominant species is <em>Pseudotsuga sinensis</em>) and small-leaved angiosperms, numerous epilithic and epiphytic orchids, ferns, mosses, etc.
44028		threats	eng	Wood cutting is the main threat.  The wood of Cupressaceous conifers, as well as its foliage, is sought after in eastern Asian culture.  The lower slopes are being heavily deforested for the expansion of agriculture, but this is unlikely to reach the ridges.  But firewood cutting and cutting for other purposes (this species produces a fine, yellow-brown very hard, fragrant timber) evidently does occur in some areas.  Due to the lack of transport facilities and other factors, most of the timber has been traded locally.  Estimates of population decline, cannot be made at this stage given our current knowledge.
44030		distribution	eng	<em>Bulimulus trogonius</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Isabela (4,588 km²). Total range area is less than 5,000 km².
44030		habitat	eng	Specific habitat type is unknown.
44030		population	eng	It was not recorded during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, Isabela has not been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.
44030		threats	eng	The most likely threat to the species is habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.
44031		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Total area of suitable habitat left is likely to be less than 100 km².
44031		habitat	eng	Humid zone, near <em>Scalesia</em> forest.
44031		population	eng	This species has not been recorded during recent collections on Santa Cruz and it may already be extinct.
44031		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
44032		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Total area of suitable habitat left is likely to be less than 100 km².
44032		habitat	eng	Arid zone.
44032		population	eng	This species has not been recorded during recent collections on Santa Cruz and it may already be extinct.
44032		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).
44033		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands, <em>S. vaginatus</em> is widespread and common.
44033		habitat	eng	Inland rock; maritime cliff and slope; dwarf shrub heath; tussac.  Found at an elevational range of 0-305 m.
44033		threats	eng	Subpopulations of <em>S. vaginatus</em> occur at lower densities wherever grazing is present.
44034		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands, <em>S. littoralis</em> is widespread and common.
44034		habitat	eng	Inland rock; maritime cliff and slope; dwarf shrub heath; tussac.  Found at an elevational range of 0-305 m.
44034		threats	eng	Subpopulations of <em>S. littoralis</em> occur at lower densities wherever grazing is present.
44035		distribution	eng	Frequent in rocky places in the uplands.  <em>N. serpens</em> occurs as a lowland plant at Big Arch Island, Little Chartres and Narrows Island.  It is possible that the stone runs in these areas represent, at least in part, a retreat habitat, allowing the species to persist in a landscape otherwise subject to high levels of grazing and trampling pressure.
44035		habitat	eng	Inland rock; more rarely scrub (<em>Chiliotrichum</em>) and dwarf shrub heath.  Found at an elevational range of 5-700 m.
44035		threats	eng	Grazing and trampling pressures are the principal threats to <em>N. serpens</em>.
44036		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  Widspread and common.
44036		habitat	eng	Maritime rock, shingle, cliffs and slopes; inland rock; dwarf shrub heath.  Found at an elevational range of 0-300 m.
44037		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.
44037		habitat	eng	Maritime cliffs and slopes; inland rock; dwarf shrub heath.
44037		threats	eng	Grazing is the principal threat to <em>L. suaveolens</em>
44038		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  <em>C. lycopodioides</em> is widespread and common whereve suitable habitat exists.
44038		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrub heath; greens and neutral grassland; acid grassland.  Found at an elevational range of 0-305 m.
44039		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  <em>H. argentea</em> is widespread but rare to scarce where it is found.
44039		habitat	eng	Acid grassland; dwarf shrub heath; scrub; maritime cliffs and slopes.
44040		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place.  The action plan objectives for <em>P. moorei</em> (Broughton 2002) are: <br/>1.  To maintain the current distribution and ensure the continued survival of viable populations. <br/>2.  To try and locate new populations. <br/>3.  To ensure rapid <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
44040		distribution	eng	Moore’s Plantain is an extremely restricted endemic species known only from one site at Empire Beach on West Falkland. The total known world population is restricted to an area 100 x 50 m.
44040		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrub heath, found at an elevational range of 0-60 m.
44040		threats	eng	No threats are currently known, however, given the restricted extent of the population it is potentially at risk from fire, grazing and habitat degradation.
44041		conservation	eng	Rock-cress is listed in the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance (FIG 1999).  Current action plan objectives for <em>Phlebolobium maclovianum</em> (Broughton 2002) are: <br/>1.  To maintain the current distribution and ensure the continued survival of viable populations. <br/>2.  To promote policies that will allow an increase in range.
44041		distribution	eng	Rock-cress is a widespread but extremely scarce endemic plant. It is currently known from twelve 10 km grid squares but most subpopulations are small and isolated.  Subpopulations occur on some small, ungrazed islands.
44041		habitat	eng	A plant of dwarf shrub heath, found at an elevational range of 4-30 m.
44041		threats	eng	Grazing seems to be the major cause of the decline in this species and is likely to continue to be a threat.  Most extant subpopulations are restricted to areas free of livestock.
44042		conservation	eng	False-plantain is listed in the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance (FIG 1999).
44042		distribution	eng	<em>N. falklandicus</em> is restricted to the southern coast of West Falkland. It is currently known from only five 10 km grid squares in two farms.
44042		habitat	eng	An endemic herb of maritime cliff and slope.
44042		threats	eng	No current threats are known.
44043		conservation	eng	Hairy Daisy is listed on the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance (FIG 1999).  The current action plan objective for <em>Erigeron incertus</em> (Broughton 2002) is: To maintain the current distribution of Hairy Daisy and ensure the continued survival of viable populations.
44043		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  <em>E. incertus</em> is relatively widespread, however, subpopulations are never large.  Subpopulations occur on some small, ungrazed islands including at least one Falklands Conservation owned island (Motley Island).
44043		habitat	eng	A herb of dwarf shrub heath.
44043		threats	eng	<em>E. incertus</em> may be vulnerable to grazing pressure and habitat degradation.
44044		conservation	eng	Antarctic Cudweed currently receives no legal protection in the Falkland Islands (FIG 1999).  The current action plan objectives for <em>Gamochaeta antarctica</em> (Broughton 2002) are: <br/>1.  To maintain the current distribution of Antarctic Cudweed and ensure the continued survival of viable populations. <br/>2.  To ensure rapid <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
44044		distribution	eng	Antarctic Cudweed is endemic to the Falkland Islands. The only confirmed material of this species is the type specimen collected near Berkeley Sound in 1842. More recently R. Brännström reported the species from three 10 km grid squares, one each from Saunders, Pebble and Berkeley Sound.
44044		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrub heath, found at an elevational range of 0-60 m.
44044		threats	eng	Grazing, habitat degradation and habitat modification are likely to be key factors in the species present scarcity.
44045		conservation	eng	One subpopulation is fenced and attempts are being made to replant the species but the rates of success are very low.
44045		distribution	eng	One or two small groves remain in dry woodland on steep scree slopes in Oued n'Fiss Valley south of Marrakech in the Atlas Mouintains. Estimates of the area of occupancy have declined from 5,500 ha in 1950 to 1,460 ha in 1986.
44045		habitat	eng	The cypresses are presumably the remnants of a forest that once flourished in a wetter climate.&#160; Today they occur only in wadis and sheltered areas in the Sahara Desert.
44045		threats	eng	The decline is largely due to habitat degradation, overgrazing and to some extent exploitation. Observations during a visit to the site in 1997 indicated a complete absence of natural regeneration.
44046		conservation	eng	The main concentration is in Tassili N'Ajjer National Park, which has been designated a World Heritage Site.  The species has been successfully established in cultivation.
44046		distribution	eng	A paper by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) has summarised and updated what is know about this variety in Algeria. Until the mid-1940s, it was thought that there were no more than ten living individuals of this cypress.  However, by 1949 the population was estimated to have 200 living trees.  The counting of the trees has gone on for a number of decades.  Between 1950 and 1965 various expeditions to the area undertook censuses of the living trees, but in most cases this was simply a record of the number of individuals in each wadi.  A methodological survey started in 1965, when 85 individuals were sufficiently described to be recognized again.  Betweem 1971 and 1972, a forester, Säid Grim, counted 230 living trees and numbered each one.  Those numbers are still evident today. An inventory between 1997 and 2001 conducted by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) discovered that 20 of the 230 trees counted by Grim had died, while there were 23 new ones added to the tally.  The current population size is therefore 233 living cypresses, in varying states of health.  About ten of the newly listed trees are very young, indicating that recruitment does continue in spite of the current drought. <br/> <br/>The 233 trees are distributed over a strip 12 km long by 6 km (on average) wide, along the southwestern border of the Tassili plateau.
44046		habitat	eng	The cypresses are presumably the remnants of a forest that flourished in a wetter climate.  Today they occur only in wadis and sheltered areas in the Sahara Desert.
44046		threats	eng	Regeneration in the wild is evident, but this is very limited. It is believed that the water table has sunk to an extent that regeneration is impeded.  There is evidence that cypresses were found further north in the mid-19th century, and the apparently rapid retreat of some 100 km in their northern limit has been ascribed to intense human exploitation (Abdoun and Beddiaf 2002). <br/> <br/>The total number of cypresses in the Tassili has fallen by almost 8% in 30 years.  The causes of this loss are not easy to identify.  On the majority of the dead trees, there are traces of branches having been chopped off (presumably by shepherds), and some have been burnt to death.  Two trees appear to have succumbed because of the drought.  At wadis frequented by shepherds and tourists, all dead cypress wood is rapidly removed.
44049		habitat	eng	Usually found on mesic sites such as the margins of lakes, streams, and waterfalls, at elevations above 1,000 m.
44052		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44052		distribution	eng	Known only from four subpopulations on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.  The total number of individuals has been estimated at 25-30.
44052		habitat	eng	Shrub dominated wetlands.
44052		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, possible rat predation of seeds, competition with alien plant species, possible invertebrate predation and habitat degradation.
44053		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44053		distribution	eng	Originally this species has been recorded from a few scattered locations along the windward side of the Koolau Mountains, Oahu. <em>C. truncata</em> is now thought to be extinct in the wild.
44053		habitat	eng	Subtropical/Tropical moist lowland forest.
44053		threats	eng	Past threats to <em>C. truncata</em> include pigs, possible rat predation, competition with alien plant species and habitat degradation.
44054		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as a candidate for endangered status.
44054		distribution	eng	<em>Cyrtandra kaulantha</em> is endemic to the windward side of the Koolau Mountains on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.  This species is known from one population of less than 5 individuals.
44054		threats	eng	Threats include feral pigs, alien plant species and possible threats from fire, rats, drought, invertebrate predation, and human impact.
44055		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as a candidate for endangered status.
44055		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the southern Koolau Mountains, Oahu, Hawaii.  Known from a single population containing five individuals and an estimated area of less than 100 km².
44055		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub 1-3 m tall, found in wet shrublands and forests. Ridgecrests and sides of ridges.  The flowers of <em>C. polyantha</em> are white, and in clusters of 7-12.
44055		threats	eng	Threats include alien plant species and possible threats from invertebrate predation, pigs, and human impact.
44056		distribution	eng	Known only from the Koolau Mountains on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.  This species was last documented in 1943.
44056		habitat	eng	A perennial A shrub 1-2 m tall, found in wet forests in gulches.  Leaves are covered with shaggy hairs. Flowers are white, and borne 1-2 per inflorescence.
44056		threats	eng	Feral pigs and invasive alien species.
44057		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44057		distribution	eng	Presently found only on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu; historically found on the island of Maui.  Three subpopulations of <em>G. vitifolia</em> have been recorded with a total population of 43 individuals.
44057		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub or vine of dry to dryish moist forest in gulches.
44057		threats	eng	Feral pigs and competition with alien plant species threaten <em>G. vitifolia</em>.  Goats and rats may also pose a threat to this species.
44058		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
44058		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Waianae Mountains of Oahu.  Known from one population with a total of four individuals.
44058		habitat	eng	A subshrub of moist forests on ridgecrests and gulch slopes.
44058		threats	eng	The moist forest habitat where <em>A. ovovatum</em> has been recorded is being invaded by a number of alien plant species. Additional threats include habitat degradation by feral pigs, and fire.
44059		conservation	eng	<em>A. eremitopetalum</em> is federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44059		distribution	eng	Confined to a single site on the windward side of the island of Lanai.  Known from one subpopulation containing 100 mature individuals.  The extent of occurrence is less than 10 km².
44059		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub of dry forests and shrublands in gulches.
44059		threats	eng	Introduced deer, moufflon sheep, and invasive alien plants constitute the main threats.  Overgrazing by cattle was also a problem in the past.  Dry habitats in Hawaii have reduced by 90% from their original distribution and continue to decline dramatically.
44060		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44060		distribution	eng	<em>A. menziessi</em> is known from  10 subpopulations on the islands of Hawaii, Molokai, Lanai and Oahu, with a total population size of 450-500 individuals.
44060		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub of dry shrublands, including ones that are now dominated by alien plant species. Gulches, plateau lands, and old lava flows.
44060		threats	eng	Threats to <em>A. menziessi</em> include grazing from goats, deer and cattle, competition with alien plant species, invertebrate predation, and possibly fire.  <em>A. menziesii</em> is also available in the landscape trade.
44061		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44061		distribution	eng	Found in a  restricted range of dry slopes of Waianae Mts., Oahu, <em>A. sandwicense</em> is known from 12 subpopulations, totaling 200–300 individuals.
44061		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub up to 6 m. tall, found on steep slopes in dry forest.
44061		threats	eng	Threats include grazing from goats and cattle, habitat degradation by feral pigs, competition from aggressive alien plant species, invertebrate predation, and fire.  Population fluctuations are also a current threat to this species as well as the potential threat of landslides.
44062		conservation	eng	Propagation was attempted at the National Tropical Botanical Garden but was unsuccessful (M. Chapin, pers. comm. 1998).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44062		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Historically, it was found on Kauai, but currently known to occur only on Oahu.
44062		habitat	eng	A clumped clubmoss found growing on the ground or on tree trunks and limbs. Occurs in wet forests and shrublands on ridgecrests, gulch slopes, and gulch bottoms.  Found within an elevational range of 600–1,070 m.
44062		threats	eng	The most important threats to the species and its habitat are feral pigs and alien plants (NatureServe 2003). The habitat is also subject to human impacts and there is a possible threat from fire.
44063		conservation	eng	The Army has adopted a fire management plan that includes realigning targets and establishing firebreaks.  These actions may aid in protecting this species from the threat of fire. The completion of a boundary fence on the south and southeast perimeter of Makua Valley, along with continued goat control efforts, should help to protect this species from goat damage.  This species is being successfully propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden , the Waimea Arboretum, at DOFAW's mid-elevation Nike facility at Pahole (B. Garnett, G. Koob, D. Orr, and S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44063		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllostegia kaalaensis</em> is endemic to Hawaii. Historically the species was found on Kauai. Currently, it is found only on the island of Oahu. There are less than 50 surviving individuals currently known.
44063		habitat	eng	A perennial herb with white flowers. Occurs in moist forests on gulch slopes and in gulch bottoms.
44063		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, introduced alien plant species. There is also a possible threat from fire.
44064		conservation	eng	This species is being successfully propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Lyon Arboretum.  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44064		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllostegia mollis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is found only on the island of Oahu. Current population size is less than 40.
44064		habitat	eng	A perennial herb with white flowers. Occurs in gulches and on steep slopes in diverse mesic to wet forest, found at an elevational range of 450–1,830 m.
44064		threats	eng	Threats include habitat destruction and degradation by feral pigs, and competition from introduced alien plant species (Christmas berry).
44065		conservation	eng	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44065		distribution	eng	<em>Schiedea adamantis</em> is endemic to Hawaii. The species is found only on found on the island of Oahu.
44065		habitat	eng	A shrub. Small flowers are borne in terminal clusters. Occurs on an old volcanic cone of consolidated ash which is now dominated by alien shrubs.
44065		threats	eng	Threats to this species include competition with alien plants, fire and human disturbance.
44067		conservation	eng	This species is being successfully propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden,  the Lyon Arboretum, and the Waimea Arboretum (S. Smith, G. Koob and D. Orr, pers. comms. 1997).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44067		distribution	eng	<em>Schiedea kaalae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs only on the island of Oahu.
44067		habitat	eng	A perennial with a woody base. Occurs in diverse mesic forest to perhaps wet forest on steep slopes in shaded sites, at an elevational range of 210 - 790 m.  Gulch slopes, gulch bottoms and cliffs.
44067		threats	eng	Threats include fire, competition from alien plant species (Christmas berry, Maui pamakani, huehue haole, Koster's curse, mosasses grass, and firetree), habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats, and predation by introduced slugs and snails.
44068		conservation	eng	The Lyon Arboretum's efforts at propagating this species have been unsuccessful (G. Koob, pers. comm. 1997).  Listed as endangered species by state and federal authorities.
44068		distribution	eng	<em>Labordia cyrtandrae</em> is endemic to hawaii. It occurs only on the island of Oahu.
44068		habitat	eng	A shrub growing to 0.7-1.5 m tall. Flowers are greenish yellow or pale yellow. Occurs in moist to wet forests on gulch slopes and gulch bottoms, at altitudes between 730 - 780 m.
44068		threats	eng	Threats include habitat degradation by feral pigs, predation by rats and competition from alien plant species (Christmas berry, Koster's curse, prickly Florida blackberry, and strawberry guava). Fire, naturally-occurring events and human impacts are also possible threats to the species.
44069		conservation	eng	<em>Lobelia monostachya</em> is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum (G. Koob, pers. comm. 1997).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.
44069		distribution	eng	<em>Lobelia monostachya</em> is endemic to Hawaii. It is found only on island of Oahu.
44069		habitat	eng	A shrub. Occurs on dry to moist cliffs and steep slopes with native grasses and shrubs.
44069		threats	eng	Threats include rats, introduced alien plant species and landslides, with a possible threat from invertebrates.
44070		conservation	eng	<strong>Protection Status in Australia</strong> <br/>- Protected Species in Commonwealth waters under the EPBC Act, 1999: East Coast Subpopulation - Critically Endangered (2002). <br/>- Listed as a Vulnerable Species in NSW waters under the Fisheries Management Act, 1994 (since 1999)· <br/>- Listed as a Vulnerable Species in Victorian waters under the Fisheries Act 1995· <br/>- Protected Species in NSW waters under the Fisheries Management Act, 1994 (since November 1984)· <br/>- Protected Species in Tasmanian waters under the Fisheries Regulations, 1996 (since 1998)· <br/>- Protected Species in Queensland waters under the Fisheries Act, 1994 (Fisheries Regulation 1995) (since 1997). <br/> <br/><strong>Recovery Plans</strong> <br/>- A National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia was adopted for implementation by the Minister for Environment and Heritage June 2002. <br/>- A draft Recovery Plan for Grey Nurse Shark has been developed for New South Wales. <br/> <br/><strong>Proposed Conservation Measures</strong> <br/>Conservation measures can been found in the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/publications/grey-nurse-plan/pubs/greynurseshark.pdf">National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a> (Environment Australia 2002). The overall conservation objective is to increase Grey Nurse Shark numbers in Australian waters to a level that will see the species removed from the IUCN Red List. <br/> <br/><strong>Other conservation measures</strong> <br/>Management measures have been developed for the critical habitat site identified at Pimpernel Rock in northern NSW.  Details on management arrangements can be referred to in the Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (Commonwealth Waters) Management Plan Environment Australia, 2001 and the zoning plan for the Solitary Islands Marine Park - Marine Parks Authority, NSW, adopted 1 August 2002 (see <a href="http://www.mpa.nsw.gov.au/simp.html">Marine Parks Authority, New South Wales</a>).
44070		distribution	eng	Because <em>Carcharias taurus</em> is extremely rare in the Northern Territory and South Australia, there is likely to be almost no genetic exchange between sharks on the east and west coasts and, for the purposes of this assessment, the Australian subpopulation is considered to consist of two subpopulations: the New South Wales (east coast) subpopulation, and the Western Australia (west coast) subpopulation. Information for the New South Wales subpopulation follows: <br/> <br/>The grey nurse shark is a migratory species that is known to move north and south between particular sites along the east coast of Australia. When not migrating, these sharks aggregate in or near deep sandy-bottomed gutters or in rocky caves around inshore rocky reefs and islands at depths between 15 and 40 metres (Otway and Parker 2000). Depending on the time of year, both mature and juvenile grey nurse sharks may be found at aggregation sites in southern Queensland and New South Wales. The results of diver surveys concluded that grey nurse sharks were no longer found at many of the sites that they were known to previously use.
44070		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> generally occurs in warm-temperate and sub-tropical waters, ranging from the surf zone and shallow bays to approximately 200 m depth on the outer continental shelf. The species is most usually found on or near the bottom in reef areas but may occasionally occur in midwater or at the surface (Compagno 1984). In NSW and southern Queensland, <em>C. taurus</em> is most frequently sighted in or near sandy-bottomed gutters or in rocky caves, often around inshore rocky reefs and islands at depths of between 15 and 25 m (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 1996, Otway and Parker 1999). <br/> <br/>Embryonic oviphagy and intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in this species and only two large pups are produced per litter every second year. As a result, annual rates of population increase are very low, greatly reducing its ability to sustain fishing pressure. Maximum size attained is 220 to 270 cm total length (TL) (males) and 300 to 320 cm TL (females). Age at maturity is 6 to 7 years (males) and 9 to 10 years (females). Female k = 0.11, Male k = 0.16 (Goldman 2002).
44070		population	eng	The east coast subpopulation has been estimated to possibly consist of as few as 500 individuals (Otway and Parker 2000) and there are concerns that this subpopulation has fallen to such critically low numbers that individual animals may be failing to find mates.
44070		threats	eng	Currently the main threatening processes in Australian waters would appear to be commercial and recreational fishing (including shark control programs in NSW and QLD), in which this species is taken as a bycatch. It has also been suggested that excessive dive tourism activities (i.e., 'shark diving') may also have the potential to adversely impact upon populations of the grey nurse shark. Refer to the <a href="http://www.ea.gov.au/coasts/species/sharks/greynurse/plan/index.html">Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a>  (Environment Australia 2002) for a fuller description of threats facing grey nurse sharks in Australian waters. <br/> <br/>Grey nurse sharks are no longer found in significant numbers at several sites on the East Coast of NSW where they used to be dominant during the 1950s and 1960s. These sites include Brush Island, Jervis Bay and Long Reef, where in the past (1950/60s) aggregations of 40 plus could be observed. However, a recent NSW Fisheries study found that they no longer aggregate at such locations. Numbers of grey nurse sharks in NSW were found to be unexpectedly low, probably numbering less than 500 and possibly as low as 300. There is concern that the east coast subpopulation is suffering from depensation having fallen to such critically low numbers that individual animals may now be failing to find mates. <br/> <br/>During the early 1950s up to 36 grey nurse sharks per year were captured by shark control nets in NSW. However, by the 1980s this number had decreased to three or less per year, and over the last decade (up to 2000) only three grey nurse sharks were caught. The declining catch rate has continued despite increased meshing effort over this period as more beaches were included in the beach protection program. A similar trend was observed in data from the Queensland beach protection program, where grey nurse shark captures decreased from an average of nine sharks per year between 1962 and 1972, to slightly over two sharks per year (Reid and Krogh 1992). <br/> <br/>Although grey nurse sharks have been protected in NSW since 1984, they are still subject to incidental capture by commercial and recreational fishers, and in the ongoing protective beach meshing programs. In particular, vessels targeting wobbegong sharks (<em>Orectolobus</em> spp.) in the NSW Trap and Line Fishery have a significant bycatch of this species (Fletcher and McVea 2000). In the 1998-2001 NSW diver survey, between 5% and 7% of observed grey nurse sharks had wobbegong setline and other line fishing hooks embedded in their jaws (Otway and Parker 2000). There also appears to be little or no recruitment at sites where populations have become locally extinct (D. Pollard and I. Gordon, pers. comms 2003). <br/> <br/>Illegal finning, eco-tourism and trade for aquarium displays may pose additional threats to the recovery of grey nurse sharks in NSW and southern Queensland.
44071		conservation	eng	<strong>Protection Status in Australia</strong> <br/>- Protected Species in Commonwealth waters under the EPBC Act, 1999: West Coast Population - Vulnerable (since 1997). <br/>- Protected Species in Western Australian waters under the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1950 (since December 1999). <br/> <br/><strong>Recovery Plans</strong>:  <br/>- A National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia was adopted for implementation by the Minister for Environment and Heritage June 2002. <br/> <br/><strong>Proposed Conservation Measures</strong> <br/>Conservation measures can been found in the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/publications/grey-nurse-plan/pubs/greynurseshark.pdf">National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a> (Environment Australia 2002). The overall conservation objective is to increase Grey Nurse Shark numbers in Australian waters to a level that will see the species removed from the IUCN Red List.
44071		distribution	eng	Because <em>Carcharias taurus</em> is extremely rare in the Northern Territory and South Australia, there is likely to be almost no genetic exchange between sharks on the east and west coasts and, for the purposes of this assessment, the Australian subpopulation is considered to consist of two subpopulations: the New South Wales (east coast) subpopulation, and the Western Australia (west coast) subpopulation. Information for the Western Australia subpopulation follows: <br/> <br/>Despite a relatively large and active recreational diving industry in Western Australia (WA), no aggregation sites have been confirmed on the west coast, however, one site has been reported to exist off Perth. WA Department of Fisheries research data suggest that grey nurse sharks are more dispersed throughout temperate continental shelf waters than they are in eastern Australian waters.
44071		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> generally occurs in warm-temperate and sub-tropical waters, ranging from the surf zone and shallow bays to approximately 200 m depth on the outer continental shelf. The species is most usually found on or near the bottom in reef areas but may occasionally occur in midwater or at the surface (Compagno 1984). In NSW and southern Queensland, <em>C. taurus</em> is most frequently sighted in or near sandy-bottomed gutters or in rocky caves, often around inshore rocky reefs and islands at depths of between 15 and 25 m (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 1996; Otway and Parker 1999). <br/> <br/>Embryonic oviphagy and intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in this species and only two large pups are produced per litter every second year. As a result, annual rates of population increase are very low, greatly reducing its ability to sustain fishing pressure. Maximum size attained is 220 to 270 cm total length (TL) (males) and 300 to 320 cm TL (females). Age at maturity is 6 to 7 years (males) and 9 to 10 years (females). Female k = 0.11, Male k = 0.16 (Goldman 2002).
44071		population	eng	Whilst a population estimate is not available for the west coast subpopulation, mean annual catches of 77 sharks in the WA demersal gillnet fisheries, in conjunction with a stable CPUE trend indicate that the population is larger and more stable than the eastern subpopulation.
44071		threats	eng	Currently the main threatening processes in Australian waters would appear to be commercial and recreational fishing (including shark control programs in NSW and QLD), in which this species is taken as a bycatch. It has also been suggested that excessive dive tourism activities (i.e., 'shark diving') may also have the potential to adversely impact upon populations of the grey nurse shark. Refer to the <a href="http://www.ea.gov.au/coasts/species/sharks/greynurse/plan/index.html">Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a>  (Environment Australia, 2002) for a fuller description of threats facing grey nurse sharks in Australian waters. <br/> <br/>Unlike NSW and Queensland, grey nurse sharks have never been subjected to targeted fishing in WA. The only significant source of <em>C. taurus</em> mortality on the west coast has been from incidental capture by the demersal gillnet fishery that operates between Steep Point and the South Australia border. Relatively high quality grey nurse shark catch and catch rate data are available from this fishery. These data have been independently verified by estimating the fishery’s total catch from the CPUE recorded by scientific observers (McAuley and Simpfendorfer, draft report). However, these data are only available for the period July 1989 to December 1997, when the species was protected under the Endangered Species Protection Act and commercial reporting ceased. These data cover the eight year period immediately after the historical peak in demersal gillnet fishing effort and the period during which direct management adjustment reduced effort to 42% of its maximum level.  <br/> <br/>Catches of between 70-105 sharks per year (McAuley, unpublished data) indicate that grey nurse sharks were relatively abundant on the lower west coast of WA between 1989 and 1997 and CPUE of grey nurse sharks in the demersal gillnet fishery increased between 1989-1993 and then remained level until 1997, indicating that the population was stable.  <br/> <br/>WA Department of Fisheries (WA DOF) research records do not suggest that aggregation sites occur within the functional area of the WA demersal gillnet fishery. If such sites do occur within the fishery’s geographic boundaries, they are likely to be in areas of heavy reef, where gillnet vessels do not operate due to the risk of net entanglement. Additionally, there are several records of grey nurse shark occurrence in two significant regions outside of the fishery’s operational range, between Steep Point (26º 30’ S) and NW Cape (22º S), which has been closed to shark fishing since 1993 and, in deeper coastal waters (>100 m), where demersal gillnet vessels cannot operate due to their generally small size and the amount of expected damage to gear and catch caused by currents and predation. Both areas are likely to contain large amounts of suitable unfished habitat and are thought to offer significant refugia to this species in WA. However, there is also some concern regarding anecdotal reports that grey nurse sharks were more abundant in the 1960s and 1970s and that there may have been inshore aggregation sites that are no longer in existence. <br/> <br/>Due to the limited reproductive capacity of <em>C. taurus</em>, the precarious status of the eastern subpopulation and the loss of an established index of abundance (commercial catch records), it is recognised that the western subpopulation still has the potential to become Vulnerable in the future. Therefore, developing a means to monitor the abundance of grey nurse sharks in Western Australia and further research into their ecology are necessary. Archival tagging of grey nurse sharks to provide data on distribution and migratory behaviour in Western Australia is expected to be undertaken in the next 12 months. <br/> <br/>This species may well be reassessed over the coming year, as well as undergoing routine reassessments in the future.
44073		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Kauai.  Four subpopulations are known with a total number of 50 to 100 plants.  It has been estimated that there are fewer than 50 mature individuals.
44073		habitat	eng	A weakly climbing or sprawling subshrub of wet forests on ridges and on plateau lands.
44073		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>Alsinidendron lychnoides</em> are competition from the aggressive alien plant species <em>Rubus argutus</em> (prickly Florida blackberry), habitat degradation by feral pigs, and trampling by humans.  This plant is also threatened by potential landslides or hurricanes.
44074		distribution	eng	Previously recorded on the islands of Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and Laysan.  The last known individual was seen in 1964.  Treated by Govaerts in the <em>World Checklist of Seed Plants</em> 1(1): 6 (1995) as a variety of <em>Achyranthes splendens</em>.
44074		habitat	eng	A perennial shrub of dry shrublands on calcareous sand, atolls, and on emerged atolls.
44074		threats	eng	The decline of the species has been attributed to military development, as well as the introduction of alien plants and animals.
44075		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.  Conservation measures such as re-introductions, captive breeding/artificial propagation and the placement of seed into the genome resource bank are all currently taking place.  One of the remaining wild subpopulations is monitored and augmented by private landowners.
44075		distribution	eng	Prior to its rediscovery in 1992, this species was known from only two collections from the 1700s and 1800s. One of the collections is from Kauai, and the other from the island of Hawaii. The population is now known only from the Kohala Mountains on the island of Hawaii and is comprised of three subpopulations, totalling 120 to 150 individuals.
44075		habitat	eng	A many branched perennial shrub of dry forests in gulches.
44075		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include goats, cattle, competition from alien plant species, and fire.
44076		distribution	eng	Recorded on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai.  Rare everywhere except Kauai, but number of subpopulations and mature individuals unknown.  The extent of occurrence is known to be less than 20'000 km².
44076		habitat	eng	A native Hawaiian tree found in dry to mesic forests on all the main islands, except Niihau and Kahoolawe.
44076		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, deer, competition with alien plant species, seed predation by rats, and potentially fire.
44077		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.  Occurs within U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wildlife Refuge.
44077		distribution	eng	Only found on island of Nihoa, the population of <em>A. brownii</em> consists of 40 mature individuals.
44077		habitat	eng	An annual herb of dry shrublands on rocky outcrops.
44077		threats	eng	This species may have experienced some decline due to disturbances resulting from Polynesian settlement of the island. Current threats include invasive alien weeds and landslides. The dry vegetation of Nihoa is also susceptible to accidentally set fires.
44078		distribution	eng	Found only on island of Maui, East Maui, Haleakala Crater.  <em>A. virescens</em> was last collected in 1945.  No pure individuals of the species are known to exist and the last known individuals of hybrid origin, died in 1996.
44078		habitat	eng	A single-stemmed or branched rosette shrub of moist to wet subalpine forests and shrublands.
44078		threats	eng	The decline of <em>A. virescens</em> can be attributed to the heavy impact of introduced goats, pigs and cattle on the native vegetation of Haleakala in the past.
44079		conservation	eng	All remaining individuals are within small fenced, weeded, and monitored areas.
44079		distribution	eng	Found only within the Alakai Swamp area of Kauai.  Three subpopulations are known, with a total population of probably less than 10 mature individuals.  clones but all but one or two declining rapidly in vigor.
44079		habitat	eng	A rhizomatous perennial herb of montane bogs set within wet forests in the cloud zone on the central plateau of the island.
44079		threats	eng	In recent years most of the bogs have been heavily damaged by feral pigs. Alien weeds also pose a threat.
44080		distribution	eng	Found only on island of Kauai and historically also on island of Niihau.  Two subpopulations have been recorded,  with a total of  seven mature individuals.
44080		habitat	eng	A succulent unbranched shrub of sea cliffs and coastal bluffs.
44080		threats	eng	Major threats to surviving individuals include goats, introduced plants, landslides, fire, human impacts, invertebrates and  loss of pollinators.  Widely distributed in botanical gardens throughout the world.
44081		distribution	eng	<em>Brighamia rockii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on the Island of Molokai and historically on Maui and Lanai.
44081		habitat	eng	A 1-5 m tall succulent with an unbranched, stout, fleshy stem thickened toward the base. Tubular flowers are white and fragrant. Usually found on ledges on exposed steep moist coastal cliffs, with native grasses, shrubs and trees.
44081		threats	eng	Threats include deer, goats, introduced plants and, potentially, rats.
44082		conservation	eng	Protected in the Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment declared in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act  of 1989. Also found in the Rustenberg Nature Reserve.
44082		distribution	eng	This tiny stemless succulent, has a very large population size estimated to be between 200,000 and 400,000 mature individuals (best estimate of 288,000).  Although a very large population, it has a very restricted range in the Gauteng and North West provinces of South Africa, being confined to the Magaliesberg mountain range west of Hartebeestpoort Dam.  The extent of occurrence is <600 km², but the area of occupancy, because of the very specific habitat requirements, is <5 km². The population appears to be stable at present.
44082		habitat	eng	Plants grow in patches of coarse quartzitic soils surrounded by typical grassland vegetation.
44082		threats	eng	Collected from the wild by collectors, however, this is assumed not to have had a major impact on the species.  Collection seems to have been limited to a small group of specialist collectors and the species is easy to cultivate.  International trade in the species appears to be limited and it is therefore not considered a priority species for conservation action (Newton and Chan 1998).
44083		conservation	eng	One subpopulation occurs within the Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment, declared in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act 1989, Section 16.
44083		distribution	eng	This recently described species is apparently restricted to the Gauteng Province of South Africa, occurring only on the Magaliesberg and associated ridge systems near Pretoria.
44083		habitat	eng	Grows among rocks of Magaliesberg quartzite in grassland in transition to Sour Grass Veld, on south facing slopes.
44083		threats	eng	Threatened by collectors, trampling, disease, habitat loss and fragmentation, urbanization and development of urban infrastructure, alien vegetation, frequent fires and erosion.
44085		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Alice Glockner Nature Reserve, south of Heidelberg (a butterfly reserve of 160 ha).
44085		distribution	eng	Only two subpopulations of this rare succulent are known, one near Vereeniging and another near Heidelberg, Gauteng, South Africa. These are two widely separated locations.  Has an extent of occurrence of <60 km² and an area of occupancy of <1 km².  The presence of the species at one of the locations is not confirmed and as a result the distribution range is not considered severely fragmented.
44085		habitat	eng	A perennial succulent that grows in loose gravel in open places near trees. Often in disturbed areas.
44085		threats	eng	Threatened mainly by habitat transformation and fragmentation through urbanization and agriculture.  A low cost housing development is proposed on the border of a nature reserve in which one of the subpopulations of <em>D. macellum</em> has been found; with this, the expected harvesting of trees for fuelwood (the low cost township will not be provided with electricity) will threaten the habitat of this species.  Also threatened by alien vegetation and potentially by collectors.
44088		conservation	eng	From the vague description of a herbarium specimen (5 miles on Brits road from Brits-Krugersdorp-Pretoria turnoff) the taxon may occur within the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site.  The taxon may also occur in the Krugersdorp Game Reserve ("Waterval Reserve").
44088		distribution	eng	A procumbent suffrutex apparently endemic to Gauteng, South Africa.
44088		habitat	eng	Grows in open grassland.
44088		threats	eng	The Waterval locality is threatened by urbanization (expansion of Krugersdorp) and the Hennops River subpopulation may be threatened by a proposed tourism development on a neighbouring site.
44089		conservation	eng	Conserved in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve.  Also occurs in the North Eastern Gauteng Initiative (NEGI area) - a conservancy area (Dinokeng conservancy) containing a core nature reserve and surrounding land managed for conservation purposes by landowners.
44089		distribution	eng	Most localities recorded for this species are in the Gauteng Province of South Africa.  Also recorded in Mpumalanga and Free State provinces.  Recorded from 15 subpopulations in seven locations. <br/> <br/>The sizes of two subpopulations have been recorded in the field.  One at Willow Glen was recorded as 80-100 individuals.  This locality is threatened and in an urbanized area.  So where other localities were characterized by a similar situation, a subpopulation size was estimated as the same as this.  Similarly, a subpopulation at Palmietfontein (semi-urban) was recorded at 500-1,000 individuals. <br/> <br/>Decline in the following subpopulations is expected:  Klipriviersberg, Modderfontein, Natal spruit, Esther Park and Palmietfontein.  With extinction in the following subpopulations expected:  Baviaanskloof, Birchleigh, Willow Glen and Marais Steyn Park.
44089		habitat	eng	Occurs in black turf marshes.
44089		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat transformation and fragmentation through urbanization, agriculture and invasive plant species.
44091		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44091		distribution	eng	This is the showiest of the three species of orchids endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.  The species is sometimes divided into two or three separate species.  Occurs on the islands of Hawai'i, Maui, Moloka'i, Lana'i,  O'ahu and Kaua'i.  There are reported to be healthy occurrences on West Maui.
44091		threats	eng	May be removed from the wild by collectors, but the Orchid Specialist Group argue that this is not a major threat to this species (P. Cribb pers. comm.).  The main threats are the impacts of invasive species, and particularly herbivory by snails.
44092		conservation	eng	This species is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum and the National Tropical Botanical Garden (G. Koob and S. Smith, pers. comms. 1997).  Federally and state listed as endangered.
44092		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea crispa</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Occurs in the Koolau Mts. on Oahu.
44092		habitat	eng	Habitats range from steep, open mesic forests to gentle slopes or moist gullies in closed wet forest.
44092		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, rats, weeds, landslides and possibly invertebrates.  Reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of remaining individuals, their limited gene pool, and restricted distribution is also a threat to this species.
44093		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea cylindrocalyx</em> historically occurred on the island of Hawaii.
44094		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea dolichopoda</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Kauai.
44094		habitat	eng	Shrub. The type specimen was growing on a cliff in a very high rainfall area.
44095		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44095		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea dunbariae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Occurs on the island of Molokai.
44095		habitat	eng	A branched shrub. Moist and wet forests. Gulch slopes and gulch bottoms.
44095		threats	eng	Threats include weeds, floods and invertebrates. Possibly also pigs, deer and rats.
44096		conservation	eng	Federal candidate for listing as endangered.
44096		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea eleeleensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kauai.
44096		habitat	eng	A shrub occurring in wet forest.
44096		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, weeds, landslides, invertebrates and possibly rats.
44097		conservation	eng	Federal candidate for listing as endangered.
44097		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea gibsonii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on the island of Lanai.
44097		threats	eng	Threats include deer, weeds, rats and invertebrates.
44098		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44098		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea glabra</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on east and west Maui.
44098		habitat	eng	Branched shrub, of unknown height. Occurs in wet forests on gulch slopes.
44098		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, weeds, landslides, invertebrates and possibly rats.
44100		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44100		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea asarifolia</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs at Blue Hole on Kauai.
44100		habitat	eng	Wet shrubland on steep slopes.
44100		threats	eng	Threats include landslides, invertebrates, humans, possibly pigs, weeds and rats.
44101		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea comata</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Maui.
44101		habitat	eng	A shrub, 1.6-2.6 m tall. Specific habitat is unknown, but probably was moist forests.
44102		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44102		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia peleana</em> ssp. <em>peleana</em> historically occurred on the island of Hawaii. The wild population is now extinct and there is only one known individual left in cultivation.
44102		habitat	eng	Wet forest.
44102		threats	eng	Past threats to the subspecies include pigs, rats, trees falling down with epiphytic plants in them, humans and, potentially, invertebrates.
44103		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44103		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia peleana</em> ssp. <em>singuliflora</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It was last recorded in 1900.
44103		habitat	eng	Wet forest.
44104		conservation	eng	This species is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum and seeds are in storage at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (G. Koob and S. Smith, pers. comms. 1997).  Federally and state listed as endangered.
44104		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea acuminata</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Oahu.
44104		habitat	eng	A shrub 0.3-2 m tall occurring in wet forests in gulch bottoms, on gulch slopes and on ridgecrests.
44104		threats	eng	The species and its habitats are threatened by feral pigs and alien plant species. Predation from rats and slugs as well as impacts from human activities are also possible threats to this species.
44105		conservation	eng	Listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44105		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea asplenifolia</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.
44105		habitat	eng	A shrub, 1.3-2 m tall, occurring in moist to wet forests on gulch slopes.
44105		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, goats, deer, cattle and invasive plant species. Rats and invertebrates are other possible threats to the species.
44106		conservation	eng	Listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44106		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea calycina</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Oahu.
44106		habitat	eng	A shrub occurring in mesic to wet forest.
44106		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, goats, human impacts and invasive plant species. Rats and invertebrates are also possible threats to the species.
44107		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea fauriei</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.
44108		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea habenata</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is restricted to the island of Kauai.
44108		habitat	eng	A shrub, 2.4 m tall. The type specimen was collected in wet forest along a stream.
44109		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44109		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea pinnatifida</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Oahu.
44109		habitat	eng	Occurred in diverse mesic forest. Steep, shady ravines and wet rocky slopes, with <em>Pipturus</em> and ferns.
44109		threats	eng	Threats to the species included habitat degradation from feral pigs, impacts from human activities and invasive plant species. Rats, fire and invertebrates were other possible threats.
44110		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44110		distribution	eng	Narrowly endemic to two adjacent peaks in the northern Waianae Mountains of Oahu.  <em>A. trinerve</em> has been recorded from three subpopulations, with a combined population size of 63 plants.  Less than fifty mature individuals exist within the current population.
44110		habitat	eng	A subshrub found on slopes in wet forests or the wetter portions of diverse mesic forest, 900 to 1,230 meters.
44110		threats	eng	Threats to <em>A. trinerve</em> include, invasion of habitat by the Florida prickly blackberry, habitat degradation by feral goats and pigs.  Trampling and collecting of <em>A. trinerve</em> by humans may also contribute to the decline of the population.
44111		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44111		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Kauai.  <em>A. viscosum</em> is known from four fragmented subpopulations with a total population of 100 plants.
44111		habitat	eng	A weakly climbing or sprawling subshrub of moist and wet forests on gulch slopes.
44111		threats	eng	Threats to <em>A. viscosum</em> include habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats, and alien invasive plants.
44112		distribution	eng	<em>Argyroxiphium caliginis</em> is endemic to West Maui.  Known from two subpopulations.  The total population has a restricted area of occupancy and less than 1,000 mature individuals.
44112		habitat	eng	A woody subshrub of montane bogs at elevations ranging from 1,350 to 1,650 m.
44112		threats	eng	Invasive alien plants and human disturbance are the major threats to <em>Argyroxiphium caliginis</em>.
44113		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  All known populations have been fenced to protect the plants from feral ungulates.
44113		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southeastern and eastern flanks of Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii.  It is known to survive only in three areas. The total population is estimated to be less than 500 individuals.
44113		habitat	eng	A shrub, found primarily in bogs or openings in wet forests at elevations ranging from about 1,625 to 1,900 m.
44113		threats	eng	Threats to <em>A. kauense</em> include grazing from mouflon sheep, cattle and goats, and habitat degradation by feral pigs, invasive alien plants and fire.
44114		conservation	eng	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44114		distribution	eng	<em>B. amplectens</em> is known from a single population on the northern end of the Waianae Mountain, Oahu.  The population contains less than 1,000 mature individuals and has a very restricted area of occupancy.
44114		habitat	eng	A short-lived perennial or sometimes facultatively annual of dry shrublands and forests on cliffs and steep rocky slopes.
44114		threats	eng	Aggressive alien plants and fire are the main threats to <em>B. amplectens</em>
44115		conservation	eng	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44115		distribution	eng	<em>B. conjuncta</em> is endemic to the island of Maui in the state of Hawaii. It has been found only on the island's western mountain mass, the West Maui Mountains.  Known from six subpopulations, with a total population of around 2,500 individual plants.
44115		habitat	eng	A perennial herb of wet forests and bogs. On ridges and in gulches.
44115		threats	eng	The species is threatened from habitat degradation by feral pigs and invasive alien plants.
44116		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mohihi Trail, Kauai.  <em>Bidens cosmoides</em> has had an estimated decline of 50% over the last three generations.
44116		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include lack of pollinator, invasive alien plants, grazing from goats, habitat degradation by feral pigs, and fire.
44117		distribution	eng	<em>B.molokaiensis</em> is a relatively common plant on Molokai, known from many subpopulations with a total of several thousand individual plants.  However, <em>B.molokaiensis</em> has a restricted area of occupancy.
44117		habitat	eng	A perennial herb of dry to moist shrublands on exposed cliffs near the coast.
44117		threats	eng	<em>B. molokaiensis</em> is threatened by grazing goat and deer, invasive alien plants, and fire.
44118		distribution	eng	<em>Bidens populifolia</em> is endemic to the Koolau mountains, Oahu.   Known from four to five subpopulations with a total population size of over five thousand individuals.  <em>B. populifolia</em> has a restricted area of occupancy.
44118		habitat	eng	A subshrub or herb of moist shrublands and forests on exposed windswept ridges and cliffs.
44118		threats	eng	<em>Bidens populifolia</em> is threatened by invasive alien plants and feral pigs.
44119		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44119		distribution	eng	<em>Bidens wiebkei</em> is endemic to Molokai.  Five subpopulations have been recorded with a total population of over 100 individuals.
44119		habitat	eng	A perennial herb of moist shrublands and forests in gulches and on ridges.
44119		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include habitat degradation and possible predation by deer and feral goats, competition with alien plants, and fire.
44120		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44120		distribution	eng	Endemic to East Molokai.  <em>Canavalia molokaiensis</em> has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km² and known from four severely fragmented subpopulations.
44120		habitat	eng	A twining perennial vine of moist shrublands and forests. On gulch slopes and in gulch bottoms.
44120		threats	eng	Extensive habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats pose an immediate threat to the sites where the species occurs. Competition with alien plants (molasses grass) and possible predation by pigs and goats pose additional threats.
44121		conservation	eng	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44121		distribution	eng	<em>Canavalia napaliensis</em> is endemic to the northwestern portion of the island of Kauai in the state of Hawaii.  Known from three severely fragmented subpopulations, with a total population of several hundred individuals.
44121		habitat	eng	A twining perennial vine of dry and moist shrublands and forests in gulches, on ridges, and on gently sloped valley bottoms.
44121		threats	eng	The primary threats to the species include grazing by goats and competition from various aggressive alien plant species.
44122		conservation	eng	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44122		distribution	eng	<em>Canavalia pubescens</em> is endemic to the state of Hawaii on the islands of Niihau, Kauai, East Maui, and Lanai.   Over 10 severely fragmented subpopulations have been recorded across these islands, with a total population of less than 200 individuals.  No subpopulation contains more than fifty mature individuals.
44122		habitat	eng	A twining vine of Dry grasslands, shrublands, and forests. Often at the coast or a short distance inland. Often on rocky lands. On East Maui: often on old lava flows.
44122		threats	eng	Threats to <em>Canavalia pubescens</em> include grazing from goats, deer, and aggressive alien plants.
44123		conservation	eng	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
44123		distribution	eng	<em>Capparis sandwichiana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.  There are many occurrences still surviving on the islands of Kaua`i, Kaho`olawe, O`ahu, Ni`ihau, Moloka`i, Maui, Lana`i, and Hawai`i.  Also found on the Northwestern Hawaiian islands of Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and Laysan.  The total number of plants remaining is still in the thousands, however, a decline in the total population of at least 10% has been estimated over the last ten years.
44123		habitat	eng	A shrub of dry regions, most often in coastal areas, less frequently inland. Growing on cliffs, lava flows, emerged coral reefs and in rocky gulches.
44123		threats	eng	Threats to <em>C. sandwichiana</em> include poor regeneration, grazing by goats, invasive alien plants, fire, urban sprawl and coastal development.
44124		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kohala Mountains, island of Hawaii.  <em>C. calophylla</em> is known from 10–12 subpopulations, with a total population of less than 1,000 individuals.  Each subpopulation contains less than two hundred and fifty mature individuals.
44124		habitat	eng	A shrub, growing on the ground in wet forests.
44124		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>C. calophylla</em> include habitat degradation by feral pigs and possibly predation by rats and invertebrates.
44125		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia waimeae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
44125		habitat	eng	The species grows on the ground or on other trees in wet forests and bogs.
44125		threats	eng	Threats include feral pigs and invasive plant species. Predation from rats and invertebrates are also possible threats.
44126		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia multiflora</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Maui and O`ahu.
44126		habitat	eng	A shrub 2-4 m tall. It was probably found in wet forests.
44127		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>hanaleiensis</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Kaua`i.
44128		conservation	eng	This species is one of four included in a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1998) recovery plan.  Plants are currently found on lands owned or managed by the Federal government, where Federal law protects all plants from damage or removal: Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park and U.S. Army installations.  The Army is aware of the ferns presence and location, and preliminary draft management plans have been developed.  The Army is also consulting with the U.S.F.W.S and negotiations are underway to control threats and promote recovery of endangered species.  Recovery actions recommended include the removal of feral animals, minimizing the impact of military training activities, monitoring known populations, controlling fires and alien weeds, building enclosures around some of the most intact portions of native forest in conjunction with hunting on Lana`i.  Surveys to locate and map additional subpopulations are also important to the recovery.
44128		distribution	eng	The subpopulations of this fern that have been observed within the last 20 years are in the Waianae Mountains of O`ahu, Lana`i, East and West Maui, and Moloka`i.
44128		habitat	eng	<em>Ctenitis squamigera</em> is typically found in the understorey of lowland mesic forests (380–915 m).
44128		threats	eng	This species and it's habitat is threatened by the following: habitat degradation by feral animals (goats, pigs and Axis Deer); competition for space, light, water, and nutrients from alien plants; and fire. In addition, this species is subject to an increased likelihood of extinction and reduced reproductive vigor from random naturally occurring (stochastic) events due to the small number of remaining individuals and it's very narrow distribution.
44129		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44129		distribution	eng	<em>Bonamia menziesii</em> is endemic to Hawaii. It occurs on the six largest islands in the state.
44129		habitat	eng	A twining liana covered with yellowish brown hairs. Occurs in dry to mesic forest, rarely in wet forest.
44129		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, goats, deer, cattle, invasive plant species and fire.
44130		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.  <em>Chamaesyce deppeana</em> is being propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997).
44130		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce deppeana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on O'ahu.
44130		habitat	eng	An erect to sprawling subshrub occurring in moist shrublands on windswept steep slopes, cliffs and ledges.
44130		threats	eng	Threats include invasive plant species such as common ironwood, Hilo grass and Christmas berry, fire and human disturbance. Feral pigs may also pose a threat to the population.
44131		conservation	eng	Listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44131		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce eleanoriae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.
44131		habitat	eng	Shrubs 20-40 cm tall. Occurs in moist vegetation on narrow ridge crests and outcrops and, less commonly, on steep rocky slopes and cliffs.
44131		threats	eng	Threats include goats, rats and invasive plant species.
44132		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44132		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce halemanui</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Occurs on Kaua'i.
44132		habitat	eng	A climbing shrub occurring in moist forests on gulch slopes.
44132		threats	eng	Threats include pigs, deer, fire, invasive plant species and impacts from human activities.
44133		conservation	eng	This species is being propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997). <br/>Federally and state listed as endangered.
44133		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce kuwaleana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on O'ahu.
44133		habitat	eng	A shrub, 0.2-0.9 m tall, occurring on arid basaltic cliffs, exposed rocky dry ridges and on sparsely vegetated steep cliffs.
44133		threats	eng	Threats to <em>C. kuwaleana</em> include competition from alien plants species (<em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> and <em>Cenchrus ciliaris</em>), fire, and vulnerability due to the small number of subpopulations (USFWS 1995).
44134		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce sparsiflora</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.
44134		habitat	eng	Subshrub occurring in open bogs in wet forest.
44134		threats	eng	Threats include pigs and invasive plant species.
44135		conservation	eng	Protective measures and planting were being carried out at Pahole as part of a Recovery Plan. The taxon is listed under the US Endangered Species Act. Plants are still extant in botanic gardens.
44135		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea superba</em> was endemic to the island of O'ahu, Hawaii. It was known from the northern Waianae Mountains and the southern Koolau Mountains.  The subspecies <em>regina</em> was historically present in the southern Koolau Mountains, but has not been collected since 1932.  After its collection in 1870, there were no further documented sightings of <em>Cyanea superba</em> ssp. <em>superba</em> until its rediscovery in the Waianae Mountains in 1971.
44135		habitat	eng	Grew in the understorey of lowland forest (535–700 m).
44135		threats	eng	The major threats to the species and its habitats included invasive alien plants, predation by feral pigs, and rats and slugs.  Other major threats included wildfires generated by activities in the nearby military firing range.  The restricted range of the species also made it very vulnerable to small local disturbances, and hence the last few individuals were easily destroyed.
44136		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44136		distribution	eng	<em>Centaurium sebaeoides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
44136		habitat	eng	An annual herb, 6-20 cm tall, occurring in dry shrublands, primarily at coastal sites with coralline or basaltic substrates.
44136		threats	eng	Current threats include goats, deer, cattle, invasive plant species and impacts from human activities.
44137		conservation	eng	Listed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44137		distribution	eng	<em>Calamagrostis expansa</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Hawaii and Maui.
44137		habitat	eng	Wet forests, open bogs and bog margins.
44137		threats	eng	Threats include pigs and invasive plant species.
44138		conservation	eng	Listed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44138		distribution	eng	<em>Calamagrostis hillebrandii</em> is endemc to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.
44138		habitat	eng	Open montane bogs in the cloud zone.
44138		threats	eng	The species is threatened by feral pigs and invasive alien plants.
44139		conservation	eng	There is an active outplanting programme as part of the Recovery Plan. The subspecies <em>carlsonii</em> is classified as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act.
44139		distribution	eng	The typical subspecies occurs on the windward slopes of Haleakala on East Maui where it is was relatively common, but has declined very rapidly due to the impacts of invasive species.  The subspecies <em>carlsonii</em> has a very restricted distribution and is known only from three to four individuals on the western slopes of Hualalai on Hawaii.
44139		habitat	eng	A short-lived palm-like tree which occurs in rainforest between 1,200 and 1,400 m altitude.
44139		threats	eng	Invasive plants and grazing are a persistent problem.
44140		distribution	eng	See subspecies accounts for further details.
44141		conservation	eng	Listed under the Endangered Species Act. <br/> <br/>Was included in a Recovery Plan, with the main goal being to relocate the taxon and to establish <em>ex situ</em> genetic stock.
44141		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanea copelandii</em> ssp. <em>copelandii</em> was first collected at two sites on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, near Glenwood, Hawaii.
44141		habitat	eng	A small epiphytic shrub (0.3-2 m tall) which grows in wet montane forests dominated by <em>Cibotium</em> spp. (660–1,600 m).
44141		threats	eng	The area where this taxon occurred has undergone much agricultural and residential development.  Also threatened by grazing impact of feral ungulates.  Black rats may also have been a threat, eating fruits and seeds and thereby reducing reproductive output and regeneration.  The loss of the Hawaiian Honeycreepers, has also likely resulted in the loss of the bird pollinators for this plant.
44142		conservation	eng	Listed under the Endangered Species Act.  Cuttings of this taxon have been collected and propagated by the Lyon <br/>Arboretum, although none were reported alive as of April 2001.  No additional species-specific conservation efforts have been undertaken, although a recovery plan has been developed with general recommendations.
44142		distribution	eng	Historically (prior to 1970), <em>Cyanea copelandii</em> ssp. <em>haleakalaensi</em> was reported from the windward side of Haleakala and from Waikamoi to Kipahulu Valley on the island of Maui.  Currently (since 1970), this taxon is known from three subpopulations with a total of 235 individuals on Federal, State, and privately owned lands within the East Maui Watershed Partnership in Haiku Uka, the ridge above Kuhiwa Valley, and Kipahulu Valley within Haleakala National Park and Hanawi Natural Area Reserve.
44142		habitat	eng	A short-lived vine-like shrub which grows on stream banks and wet scree slopes at the base of cliffs and in forest understorey in montane wet or mesic forest dominated by <em>Acacia koa</em> and/or <em>Metrosideros polymorphia</em> (615–1,410 m).
44142		threats	eng	The major threats to this taxon are habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs; competition from several invasive alien plant taxa such as <em>Rubus argutus</em> (Prickly Florida Blackberry), <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> (Strawberry Guava), <em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster’s Curse), <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Hilo Grass), <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (Velvet Tree), <em>Ageratina adenophora</em> (Maui Pamakani), and <em>Tibouchina herbacea</em> (Glorybush); and landslides. In addition, this taxon is potentially threatened by predation by rats and slugs, unrestricted collecting or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants, and by extinction due to random environmental and human events because of the small population sizes.
44143		conservation	eng	The subspecies <em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>brevipes</em> and <em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>mauiensis</em> currently are classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.
44143		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Three subspecies are known, occurring on O'ahu (<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>oblongifolia</em>), Moloka'i (<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>brevipes</em>) and Maui (<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>mauiensis</em>). On Moloka'i and Maui there are fewer than 30 individuals remaining and both of these subspecies are assessed as Critically Endangered (CR D). However, on O'ahu the species is relatively common.
44143		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree occurring in wet forest.
44143		threats	eng	Threats to the species include feral pigs, rodent and slug predation and loss of pollinators.
44144		conservation	eng	The whole species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.  Two subpopulations occur on Federal property, nine are on State land, three in areas leased to the Federal government as part of the Makua Military Reservation and five are in a State Conservation District.  A Recovery Plan for the species has been published (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).
44144		distribution	eng	<em>Alectryon macrococcus</em> is a tree consisting of two varieties, <em>macrococcus</em> and <em>auwahiensis</em>.  There may be a third undescribed variety, which will probably also be listed as Critically Endangered in due course, once the taxonomic status is confirmed.  <em>Alectryon macrococcus</em> var. <em>macrococcus</em> occurs on Kauai, O'ahu, Moloka'i and West Maui, while the var. <em>auwahiensis</em> occurs in the Auwahi and Kanaio districts.  See the varietal treatments for further details on population sizes, etc.
44144		habitat	eng	This slow growing, relatively long-lived tree occurs in various lowland dry to mesic forest types (360–1,070 m).
44144		threats	eng	This taxon was once widespread on leeward sides off all the Hawaiian Islands, but is now almost completely eliminated. The main threats in the past included the impacts of feral cattle, goats and pigs; the impacts of invasive alien plant species; damage from the Black Twig Borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>); and seed predation by rodents. <br/> <br/>Current threats include ongoing competition with invasive alien plant species, <em>Schinus terebinthifolius</em> (Christmas Berry) in particular is now replacing all native vegetation on the southern Waianae Mountains and threatens to occupy the range of all the O'ahu subpopulations.  The Black Twig Borer is still a major problem, with most subpopulations sustaining some damage from this.  Seed predation by invasive alien rodents (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>  is an ongoing problem inhibiting regeneration. Feral goats and pigs are impacting the habitat of most subpopulations through grazing, trampling and resultant soil erosion.  Grazing and trampling by cattle was a major problem in the past for var. <em>auwahiensis</em>, but now all individuals are protected from ungulates by small woven-wire excloures.  Accidental fires as a result of military activities are a potential problem for subpopulations in military training areas on O'ahu, Kaua'i and Maui. <br/> <br/>Given the limited numbers and restricted range, a single natural or human-caused disturbance could be catastrophic.  Also gene pool limitations may depress reproductive vigor and adaptability.
44145		conservation	eng	The var. <em>rotundata</em> is on the US Endangered Species List.
44145		distribution	eng	<em>Achyranthes splendens</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian islands of O'ahu, Molokai, Maui, and Lana'i. It is probably extirpated on Molokai and Lana'i. It is most common on West Maui. The total number of subpopulations and the population size is not known. But there are estimates that the species total may be under 5,000 or 10,000 plants.  <em>A. splendens</em>, is believed to be comprised of two intergrading varieties, var. <em>splendens</em> and var. <em>rotundata</em>. Some authors also include <em>A. atollensis</em> as another variety under <em>A. splendens</em>.  This is an Extinct species which is treated separately from this.
44145		habitat	eng	A small shrub which occurs in low elevation, open, dry forest remnants and open thickets, on talus or rocky slopes, and on coralline plains (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1999). On west Maui, Molokai, and L'anai: on rocky gulch slopes. In southwestern O'ahu: plains consisting of emerged coral reef with calcareous substrates. On east Maui: old lava flows.
44145		threats	eng	On O'ahu it is primarily threatened by urban development, alien plants, and fire. In the rest of its range the primary threats are introduced deer, fire, cattle ranching, and invasive alien plants.
44146		conservation	eng	Considered to be of conservation concern.
44146		distribution	eng	The var. <em>splendens</em> is still a fairly common plant on Maui, and has been collected on Lana'i  in the past but is no longer present on that island.  Current populationsize and number of subpopulations is unknown.
44146		habitat	eng	Occurs in low elevation, open, dry forest remnants and open thickets, on talus or rocky slopes, and on coralline plains (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1999). On west Maui and Lanai: on rocky gulch slopes. On east Maui: old lava flows.
44146		threats	eng	Threats include goats, cattle, competition from alien invasive plants and fire.
44147		conservation	eng	Included as <em>Achyranthes rotundata</em> on the US Endangered Species Act.
44147		distribution	eng	Recorded originally from the islands of O'ahu, Molokai, and Lana'i. It is currently known from only two small areas on the island of O'ahu (Barbers Point and Ka'ena Point). The population is currently estimated to number between 50 and 100 individuals (possibly only 30 to 50 mature individuals).  Previous estimates indicate that numbers were much higher in the past (but more than three generations ago).  The lower numbers might also be attributed to the dry conditions.
44147		habitat	eng	This shrub occurs at low elevations in open, dry forest remnants and open thickets, on talus or rocky slopes, and on coralline plains (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1999). The substrate in southwestern O'ahu consists of emerged coral reef with calcareous substrates.
44147		threats	eng	Most of the taxon's habitat on O'ahu has been destroyed by urban development and agriculture. Additional threats to the taxon include habitat degradation by invading alien plants and fire.  The 'Ewa Plains area is presently being developed. The existing industrial park is being expanded, and hotels, condominiums, golf courses, marina, and other urbanization projects are planned.  A city of 300,000 is proposed for the area.  Probably only the plants which are on Federal land, and those at Ka'ena Point, would not be directly impacted by land development.
44148		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44148		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>kauaiensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.
44148		threats	eng	Threats include feral pigs, goats and invasive plant species.
44149		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.
44149		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>remyi</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.
44149		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is wet forest dominated by <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>.
44149		threats	eng	Threats include feral pigs and goats, predation by invertebrates (the two-spotted leafhopper <em>Sophonia rufofascia</em>) and competition with invasive plant species.
44150		conservation	eng	Two of the three varieties of <em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> are listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as candidate species (<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>kauaiensis</em> and <em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>remyi</em>). The third variety (<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>hanaleiensis</em>) is already extinct.
44150		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kauai. Population size is less than 1,500.
44150		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is wet forest dominated by <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>.
44150		threats	eng	Threats include feral goats and pigs, predation from invertebrates (two-spotted leafhopper <em>Sophonia rufofascia</em>) and competition with invasive plant species
44151		distribution	eng	<em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>laysanensis</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
44151		habitat	eng	Atoll dunes.
44152		conservation	eng	Army Environmental staff have completed a report entitled "U.S. Army Garrison Hawaii, O'ahu Training Areas, Natural Resource Management Final Report". This includes very detailed management plans and descriptions of completed actions for each endangered plant species that occurs on Army land. The Army has also constructed a fence around two subpopulations of 18 plants and removed all pigs from within the exclosure. Weed control and quarterly phenological monitoring are in progress. <br/> <br/>A long-range management plan for the Honouliuli Preserve prescribes actions for alien plant management, ungulate control, fire control, rare species recovery and native habitat restoration. It is expected that these actions will benefit <em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>agrimonioides</em> within the Preserve. <br/> <br/>Plants found at the Pahole Natural Area Reserve are found within a fenced exclosure. <br/> <br/><em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>agrimonioides</em> has been successfully propagated at the Lyon Arboretum's micropropagation laboratory, at the Waimea Arboretum, at the Division of Forestry and Wildlife's Pahole Plant Nursery, and at the National Tropical Botanical Garden. Reintroduction has not been attempted.
44152		distribution	eng	<em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>agrimonioides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Currently it is only known to exist on O'ahu.
44152		habitat	eng	A perennial tufted grass occurring in dry to moist forests on ridges and on gulch slopes, or on old lava flows.
44152		threats	eng	The taxon is threatened by pigs, goats, deer, cattle, alien plants and fire.
44153		conservation	eng	Army Environmental staff have completed a report entitled "U.S. Army Garrison Hawaii, Oahu Training Areas, Natural Resource Management Final Report". This includes very detailed management plans and descriptions of completed actions for each endangered plant species that occurs on Army land. The Army has also constructed a fence around two subpopulations of 18 plants and removed all pigs from within the exclosure. Weed control and quarterly phenological monitoring are in progress. <br/> <br/>A long-range management plan for the Honouliuli Preserve prescribes actions for alien plant management, ungulate control, fire control, rare species recovery and native habitat restoration. It is expected that these actions will benefit <em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> within the Preserve. <br/> <br/>Plants found at the Pahole Natural Area Reserve are found within a fenced exclosure. <br/> <br/><em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> has been successfully propagated at the Lyon Arboretum's micropropagation laboratory, at the Waimea Arboretum, at the Division of Forestry and Wildlife's Pahole Plant Nursery, and at the National Tropical Botanical Garden. Reintroduction has not been attempted.
44153		distribution	eng	<em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Currently it is only known to exist on Oahu.
44153		habitat	eng	A perennial tufted grass occurring in dry to moist forests on ridges and on gulch slopes, or on old lava flows.
44153		threats	eng	The taxon is threatened by pigs, goats, deer, cattle, alien plants and fire.
44154		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44154		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.
44154		habitat	eng	A short-lived perennial shrub, 1.2 to 5 m tall. <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> is found in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Cheirodendron trigynum</em> forest.
44154		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> was extensively damaged by pigs in the past, and pigs are still a major threat to populations on State-owned lands. Competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Holcus lanatus</em> (common velvet grass) and <em>Juncus planifolius</em> (rush) is a major threat to this subspecies. Rats (mainly the black rat, <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and slugs (mainly <em>Milax gagetes</em>) are known to eat leaves, stems and fruits of other members of this genus and therefore are a potential threat to this subspecies. In addition, unrestricted collecting or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants are potential threats to this taxon.
44155		conservation	eng	Federally and state listed as endangered.
44155		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.
44155		habitat	eng	A short-lived perennial shrub, 1.2 to 5 m tall. <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> is found in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em> and <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris linearis</em> forest.
44155		threats	eng	Threats to <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> include habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs, and competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Tibouchina herbacea</em> (glorybush), <em>Paspalum urvillei</em> (Vasey grass), <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Hilo grass), <em>Juncus</em> sp., <em>Hedychium coronarium</em> (white ginger) and <em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em> (Kahili ginger). Two extremely invasive alien plant taxa, <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (velvet tree) and <em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster's curse), are found in nearby areas and may invade this habitat if not controlled. <br/> <br/>The habitat of <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> was extensively damaged by pigs in the past, and pigs are still a major threat to populations on State-owned lands. Competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Holcus lanatus</em> (common velvet grass) and <em>Juncus planifolius</em> (rush) is a major threat to this subspecies. Rats (mainly the black rat, <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and slugs (mainly <em>Milax gagetes</em>) are known to eat leaves, stems and fruits of other members of this genus and therefore are a potential threat to this subspecies. In addition, unrestricted collecting or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants are potential threats to this taxon.
44156		conservation	eng	The population within Haleakala National Park has been fenced and pigs have been eradicated. Due to large populations of pigs in adjacent areas, the park populations must constantly be monitored to prevent further ingress. In 2000, an unspecified number of plants were being grown at the National Tropical Botanical Garden. As of 2001, none remain in cultivation. General conservation efforts applicable to the Multi-Island Addendum plants can be found in the Recovery Plan for the Multi-Island Plants (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999).
44156		distribution	eng	<em>Clermontia samuelii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.
44156		habitat	eng	A short-lived perennial shrub, 1.2 to 5 m tall. <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> is found in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em> and <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris linearis</em> forest, and in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Cheirodendron trigynum</em> forest.
44156		threats	eng	Threats to <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> include habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs, and competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Tibouchina herbacea</em> (glorybush), <em>Paspalum urvillei</em> (Vasey grass), <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Hilo grass), <em>Juncus</em> sp., <em>Hedychium coronarium</em> (white ginger) and <em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em> (Kahili ginger). Two extremely invasive alien plant taxa, <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (velvet tree) and <em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster's curse), are found in nearby areas and may invade this habitat if not controlled.
44157		conservation	eng	The Global Heritage Status Rank is G2 (=Imperiled). Both of the subspecies are included on the US Endangered Species Act.
44157		distribution	eng	<em>Argyroxiphium sandwicense</em> is endemic to the islands of Maui and Hawaii. Subspecies <em>macrocephalum</em> occurs on Haleakala on Maui, and ssp. <em>sandwicense</em> on Mauna Kea on Hawaii. There are eight subpopulations. The Haleakala subspecies is estimated to number 65,000 plants. The Mauna Kea subspecies, however, is down to about 41 naturally occurring plants plus a few thousand outplanted ones.
44157		habitat	eng	These rosette shrubs are usually single-stemmed and rarely branched. A single-stemmed individual lives for a number of years (15–50), produces a terminal inflorescence, then dies (monocarpic). Plants with multiple rosettes produce one inflorescence for each rosette; flowering may occur over several years before all rosettes are exhausted. <br/> <br/>Occurs in dry alpine desert; occasionally also in dry to moist subalpine shrublands and forests. Found on cinder cone slopes, cinder fields, lava flows, in rocky gulches, and on cliffs.
44157		threats	eng	Threats include introduced sheep, goats, mouflon sheep, pigs, predation of native pollinators by alien wasps and ants (the species is self-incompatible and relies on insect pollination), overcollection, and in the case of the Mauna Kea subspecies, its small population size.
44158		conservation	eng	Listed as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act and the Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T1.
44158		distribution	eng	<em>Argyroxiphium sandwicense</em> ssp.<em>macrocephalum</em> is endemic to the upper slopes of Mauna Kea on Hawaii.  It appears to have been formerly abundant. Today, however, there is only a single naturally occurring population which comprises about 41 naturally occurring plants. Plants have been outplanted at several sites on Mauna Kea. These outplanted individuals and their progeny number almost 4,000 individuals, but these do not yet qualify to be counted as mature individuals.
44158		habitat	eng	These rosette shrubs are usually single-stemmed and rarely branched. A single-stemmed individual lives for a number of years (15–50), produces a terminal inflorescence, then dies (monocarpic). Plants with multiple rosettes produce one inflorescence for each rosette; flowering may occur over several years before all rosettes are exhausted. <br/> <br/>Occurs in dry alpine desert; occasionally also in dry to moist subalpine shrublands and forests. Found on cinder cone slopes, cinder fields, lava flows, in rocky gulches, and on cliffs.
44158		threats	eng	Browsing by feral sheep (including mouflon sheep) has been implicated as a major factor contributing to the decline of this taxon. Feral goats and pigs have also harmed the taxon.  Other threats include predation of native pollinators by alien wasps and ants (the species is self-incompatible and relies on insect pollination), overcollection, and in the case of this subspecies, its small population size.
44159		conservation	eng	Listed as Threatened under the US Endangered Species Act and the Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T2.   All of the extant plants are within Haleakala National Park.
44159		distribution	eng	<em>Argyroxiphium sandwicense</em> ssp. <em>macrocephalum</em> is endemic to the island of Maui, where is restricted to the subalpine and alpine deserts of Haleakala on East Maui.  The taxon is restricted to a 1,000 ha site in the crater and on the outer slopes of Haleakala Volcano. <br/> <br/>The taxon declined markedly in the 1800s and early 1900s due to human vandalism (climbers dug up and brought back plants to show they had reached the summit) and to browsing by goats and cattle, and reached a low point in the 1920s.  A reasonable estimate of the population size made in 1935 was 4,000 individuals.  The taxon has rebounded since then due to protection measures, and deserves attention as one of the great conservation success stories in the Hawaiian Islands.  There are currently seven known subpopulations. The population is estimated to number about 65,000 individuals and is increasing.
44159		habitat	eng	These rosette shrubs are usually single-stemmed and rarely branched. A single-stemmed individual lives for a number of years (15–50), produces a terminal inflorescence, then dies (monocarpic). Plants with multiple rosettes produce one inflorescence for each rosette; flowering may occur over several years before all rosettes are exhausted. <br/> <br/>Occurs in dry alpine desert; occasionally also in dry to moist subalpine shrublands (2,100–3,000 m). Found on cinder cone slopes, cinder fields, lava flows, in rocky gulches and on cliffs.
44159		threats	eng	The major threats to the taxon are overcollection and vandalism by humans, and trampling and predation by feral goats. The national park has been fenced to exclude goats, but the threat remains due to the possibility of ingress.  Could also be susceptible to invertebrate pests (the species is self-incompatible and relies on insect pollination), particularly the invasive Argentine Ant (<em>Iridomyrex humilis</em>) which is now known to occur in the area.
44160		distribution	eng	There is more detailed documentation under the two most threatened subspecies, see <em>B. campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>pentamera</em> and <em>B. campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>waihoiensis</em> for details.
44161		distribution	eng	This is a relatively widespread subspecies that is found on the islands of Hawai'i, Lana'i, O'ahu and Kaua'i.  There Many subpopulations, with a total population size of >5,000 plants.
44161		habitat	eng	Grows in wet forests.
44161		threats	eng	Threatened by invasive alien plants and invertebrates.
44162		conservation	eng	Currently there is no Federal or State protection for <em>Bidens campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>pentamera</em>. It is currently  a Candidate taxon under consideration for inclusion on the U.S. Endangered Species List.  The Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T1.
44162		distribution	eng	<em>Bidens campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>pentamera</em> is restricted  to the island of Maui, on Maui's eastern volcano (East Maui) as well as its western volcano (West Maui). The taxon was only known from East Maui until a single subpopulation was found on West Maui in 1988.  The subpopulation in Kipahulu Valley in East Maui consists of at least 300 plants. However, there is some debate over the subspecific identity of these plants. Both ssp.<em> pentamera</em> and ssp. <em>waihoiensis</em> occur in this portion of East Maui. Aside from this subpopulation with an unresolved subspecific identity, fewer than 20 plants are known on East Maui (although the actual number of plants in existence on East Maui may be substantially higher than this number since much of the taxon's habitat is remote and seldom botanized). Only 20 plants were reported in the only recorded West Maui subpopulation when found in 1988 (the occurrence has not been revisited since then). In summary this subspecies is known from 10 populations with a total population of about 500 individuals.
44162		habitat	eng	Occurs in wet forests.
44162		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by feral pigs and goats that adversely modify habitat. While rooting in the ground in search of the invertebrates and plant material they eat, feral pigs disturb and destroy vegetative cover, trample plants and seedlings, and threaten forest regeneration by damaging seeds and seedlings. They disturb the soil and cause erosion, especially on slopes.  Alien plant seeds are dispersed on their hooves and coats as well as through their digestive tracts, and the disturbed soil is fertilized by their feces, helping these plants to establish.  Pigs are a major vector in the spread of many introduced plant species in Hawaii.  Several alien invasive plant species now threaten this subspecies by out-competing and displacing them.
44163		conservation	eng	There currently is no Federal or State protection for this plant.  It is currently a Candidate taxon under consideration for inclusion on the U.S. Endangered Species List.  The Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T1.
44163		distribution	eng	<em>Bidens campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>waihoiensis</em> has been recorded from only a few places on the eastern slope of Haleakala, on Maui. This subspecies is known from one subpopulation of 200 individuals.  There is a subpopulation on East Maui, which may in fact be this subspecies (about 300 plants).  This subpopulation is curently identified as belonging to ssp. <em> pentamera</em>.
44163		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is wet forest.
44163		threats	eng	This subspecies is imminently and highly threatened by feral cattle (introduced in 1793) that adversely modify habitat. Cattle eat native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, cause erosion, create disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, and spread seeds of alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. The forest in areas grazed by cattle becomes degraded to grassland pasture, and plant cover is reduced for many years following removal of cattle from an area. Several alien grasses and legumes purposely introduced for cattle forage have become noxious weeds, which are invasive, out-competing and replacing native plants. <br/> <br/>With only one remaining subpopulation of about 200 individuals, reduced reproductive vigor and extinction due to naturally occurring, random (stochastic) events such as hurricanes, landslides, or floods are major threats
44164		distribution	eng	Overcutting in the past and overgrazing today have led to the confinement of the species to an inaccessible rocky outcrop, where it occurs in a dwarfed form. It is thought that forms growing to 15 m were more frequent at one time.
44164		habitat	eng	Grows on rocky outcrops.
44164		threats	eng	Overgrazing and overcutting are the main threats.
44165		conservation	eng	It may occur in the Sangbé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire (Hoppe-Dominik 1990) and the type locality is not far away from the northern boundary of Liberia’s Sapo N.P. (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). This is a priority species for further survey work, particularly to better determine its current range and population status, whether or not it is subject to hunting, and to investigate other aspects of its ecology.
44165		distribution	eng	Endemic to West Africa, and confirmed only in south-western Côte d’Ivoire, where known from two records, and in eastern Liberia, where there are several records (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The presence of this species in the Kounounkan Massif in south-western Guinea (Barnett <em>et al.</em> 1996) requires confirmation (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). There is no confirmed record of the species from Sierra Leone.
44165		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the rainforest canopy (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).
44165		population	eng	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species, with the most recent confirmed records from Liberia in the late 1980s (Taylor 1992). Apparently rare and very localized (Rosevear 1974).
44165		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known, but like Johnston's Genet <em>Genetta johnstoni</em> and Liberian Mongoose <em>Liberiictis kuhni</em> the species is probably being affected by ongoing habitat loss in the upper Guinean forests, probably more so given that it is a canopy species. It is unclear to what degree this semi-arboreal species is impacted by bushmeat hunting, but this may well be a threat.
44166		conservation	eng	Since 1977, the Asian small clawed otter is listed on Appendix II CITES which indicates that the species is not necessarily threatened with extinction, but the trade on its pelt must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. However, most range countries are not able to control the clandestine trade leading to extensive poaching. Nevertheless, it is a protected species in almost all the range countries which prohibits its killing. The Asian small-clawed otter is once common in the streams and wetlands of south and south east Asia is now restricted to a few Protected Areas. Creation of networks of Protected Areas, identification of sites as wetland of national and International importance under Ramsar Convention has to some extent halts the degradation of its habitat. <br/><br/>Over the years the Otter Specialist Group has developed a cadre of biologist across Asia to conduct field surveys and has popularize otter conservation by promoting otter as ambassador of the wetlands. However, concerted effort to conserve this species is needed. For the long term survival of the species, policy based action, research on factors affecting its survival, habitat based action on creation and where required expansion of protected areas and communication and awareness building actions are needed.
44166		distribution	eng	The Asian small-clawed otter has a large distribution range, extending from India in South Asia east ward through entire Southeast Asia up to Palawan (Philippines) and Taiwan and southern China in the north (Mason and Macdonald 1986, Wozencraft 1993, Hussain 2000). In recent years, in England it has established itself in the wild after escaping from captivity (Jefferies 1990 and 1991). In India it occurs in the Himalayan foothills of Himachal Pradesh (Kulu), West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh as well as in southern Indian hill ranges of Coorg (Karnataka), Ashambu, Nilgiri and Palni hills (Tamil Nadu) and some places in Kerala (Pocock 1941, Prater 1971, Hussain 2000).
44166		habitat	eng	The typical habitats of the Asian small-clawed otter in west Java are wetland systems having pools and stagnant water, including shallow stretches, with depth less than 1 m. These habitats are represented by freshwater swamps, meandering rivers, mangroves and tidal pools. Muller (1839) observed small-clawed otter from slow-flowing lowland streams to submontane streams dominated by rocks and boulders in forested areas. Irrigated rice fields with many crab species (Brachyura) are extensively used by small-clawed otter if proper shelter for them is available. These can act as suitable man made habitats (Melisch <em>et al.</em>, 1996). In Thailand, the rapid-flowing upper areas of the Huay Kha Khaeng are dominated by L. lutra, the slowly meandering river near the dam and the dam itself were used by L. perspicillata while the Asian small-clawed otter occurred mostly in the middle sections, but also at the upper reaches. When different otter species occurred in the same site there was evidence of difference in use of the habitats. Signs of the of small-clawed otter were found wandering further away from the river than the two other species, between patches of reeds and river debris where crabs were more likely to be found (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>In west Java, its presence is positively correlated with slow flowing and stagnant broad rivers and smaller streams, depicting a distinct decline in preference from slow to deep-water bodies. On the other hand, they also use shallow fast-flowing mountain creeks narrower than 5 m, particularly when the course of the streams includes natural pools. In rice fields, they chose slow-flowing irrigation channels narrower than 2 m and with a varied, moderate or low vegetation structure. Like smooth-coated otter the Asian small-clawed otter dislike bare and open areas that do not offer any shelter (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). It prefers pond areas and rice fields than the rivers, whereas it uses mangroves and lakes in proportion to their availability (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). In riverine systems it prefers moderate and low vegetation structure, though their presence was also observed from banks with poor vegetation cover. Neither in ponds nor in rice field areas did they show preference for any of the vegetation structure categories, though poor nor bare structural conditions were the least favoured both in riverine and pond areas and along the rice fields.<br/><br/>The small-clawed otter is adapted to feed on invertebrates as evident from the last two upper teeth (pm4 and m3) which are larger in size for crushing the exoskeleton of crabs and other hard shelled prey. The small clawed otter feeds mainly on crabs, snails and other molluscs, insects and small fish such as gouramis and catfish (Pocock 1941, Wayre 1978). They supplement their diet with rodents, snakes and amphibians too. <br/><br/>During a study in Malaysia, Foster-Turly (1992) examined 328 scats and found that around 80.8% of the scats consisted of crabs, 77.8% fish, 12.5% insects and 4.0% snails. This is the first study in which quantitative information on the diet of wild small-clawed otter was made. This study revealed that though the small-clawed otter is adapted for an invertebrate diet it substantiates its diet with large quantity of fish. Apart from crabs, the major prey item for small-clawed otter was the mudskipper (Gobioidei). This was recorded in the 48% of the scats. The other important prey was Trichogaster spp. and Anabantidae fish, which were represented in 27.4% scats. As evident from the scats the major fish prey were Trichogaster spp 20.7%, Anabis testudineus 5.2%, Clarius spp 2.4% and Channa striatus 1.5%. Apart from these the small-clawed otter in Malaysia also fed on snakes, frogs and insects. Foster-Turly (1992) also examined the diet composition at four different times of the year coinciding with different water levels in the rice fields and concluded that the diet of the small-clawed otter was significantly different at different times of the year. Only the relatively rare dietary components of rodents, snails and snakehead fish (Clarius spp.) showed no significant difference among seasons. Crabs were always the most prevalent food items, but the frequency of occurrence in scats varied from 70.4% to 93.2%. Similarly, though the mudskippers were the second most important food items, they were consumed in significantly different amounts in different seasons from a low of 27.3% to 63.6%. The amount of Trichogaster, Anabis and the Anbantidae also varied considerably. This difference in the use of these prey are most likely due to difference in the life cycle and availability of these prey at different times of the year.<br/><br/>Preliminary analysis of the small-clawed otter spraints from west Java showed their preference for crabs in both natural and man-made habitats (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996). In 87% of all collected spraints, crabs formed the dominant prey. Remaining part of the spraints consisted of fish bones and scales, ribs and vertebrae, unidentified mammalian hair, shrimps, insects and snake scales.In the Huay Kha Khaeng, Thailand almost 90% of the spraints of small-clawed otter contained remains of crabs Potamon smithianus, whereas 5% scats contained each of Fish and Amphibians. Apart from this, in few scats evidences of rodents and other arthropods were also found. Kruuk <em>et al</em>. (1994) estimated the preference for various size classes of crabs eaten by small-clawed otter. Of the 92 scats, 14 scats had crabs size 10-14 cm, 42 scats had 15-19 cm, 26 had 20-24 cm, 12 had 25-29 cm, 4 had 30-34 and 1 had 40-44 cm. The size distribution of crabs taken by small-clawed otter was similar to what was available, and there was not much evidence for selection of specific size. In west Java a preliminary estimate of preferred size confirmed an average of 3-4 cm carapace width (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>The sexual behaviour of small clawed otter has been observed in as young as 18 months old. In captivity, successful breeding has been reported for 2.1 year females and 2.8 year males. The youngest animal to reproduce was a female of 13 months captive born at Bronx Zoo, and the oldest was a 15 years male at the National Zoo, USA (Foster-Turley and Engfer 1988). In the females oestrous cycle has duration of anywhere from 28 to 30 days, with breeding occurring the year round (Lancaster 1975). Some facilities report this cycle extending to ?every few months? with older animals. Oestrus lasts from one to thirteen days.  Behavioural signs of the onset of oestrus may include increased rubbing and marking. <br/><br/>In captivity mating usually takes place in the water, but has also been observed on land on a few occasions. In most cases the exact gestation period could not be ascertained but it is believed to be around 60-86 days (Lancaster 1975, Sobel 1996). The litter size ranges from 2-7. Life span in captivity is around 11 years (Crandall 1964).
44166		population	eng	In most of their range the Asian small-clawed otter is sympatric with smooth-coated and Eurasian otters. In India, all the three species occur in Western Ghats and in the Northeast India where the species occur in small group of two to four individuals. In Western Ghats they are mostly found along the hill streams. They were once common in the mangroves of east Calcutta and Sunderbans (Sanyal 1991). The Asian small-clawed otters occur in freshwater and peat swamp forests, rice fields, lakes, streams, reservoirs, canals, mangrove and along the coast (Sivasothi and Nor 1994). In Malaysia and Indonesia they occur in coastal wetlands, and along the banks of paddy fields. Comparable data from Java, Myanmar, and India revealed that the Asian small-clawed otters have a high climatic and trophic adaptability in south and Southeast Asian tropics, occurring from coastal wetlands up to mountain streams (Melisch <em>et al.</em>, 1996). A reliable population estimate of the Asian small-clawed otter is lacking. As many as 15 individuals were seen in a group in Malaysia (Wayre 1978), four to eight in coastal Sabha (Mason and Macdonald 1986) and two to four in India.
44166		threats	eng	The threat to Small-clawed otter is similar to that of smooth-coated and Eurasian otters. Throughout Asia the potential threat to its continued survival is destruction of its habitats due to changing land use pattern in the form of developmental activities. In many parts of Asia, the habitats have been reduced due to reclamation of peat swamp forests and mangroves, aquaculture activities along the intertidal wetlands and loss of hill streams. In India the primary threats are loss of habitats due to tea and coffee plantations along the hills, in the coastal areas loss of mangroves due to aquaculture and increased human settlements and siltation of smaller hill streams due to deforestation. Increased influx of pesticides into the streams from the plantations reduces the quality of the habitats. <br/><br/>The next important threats to Asian small-clawed otter are reduction in prey biomass due to over-exploitation, which make its remaining habitats unsustainable. Pollution is probably the single most factors causing decline in the population of many fish species (Dehadrai and Ponniah 1997). Reduction in prey biomass affects otter population, and organochloric and heavy metal contamination interferes with their normal physiology leading to the decline in population. The threats to small-clawed otter is prominent in its western range so much so that since last 60 years its range has been shrunk considerable moving west to east from Himachal Pradesh to Assam (Hussain 2007). Once common in the mangroves of east Calcutta and Sunderbans (Sanyal 1991) now it is believed to be locally extinct. It is likely that the present range boundary at the western limit is Assam and in the Western Ghats of Southern India.
44170		conservation	eng	None, apart from a restriction on the mesh size of trawl nets to 100 mm or greater at latitudes north of 50°S.
44170		distribution	eng	Limited to New Zealand between 38°S and 54°S, but most records are from south-eastern New Zealand (Chatham Rise and Campbell Plateau) at 43 to 54°S.
44170		habitat	eng	Occurs over a depth range of 50 to 790 m, but is most abundant in 300 to 700 m. All known records have been obtained by bottom trawlers over soft sediment, however, it is possible that the species also occurs over foul, untrawlable seabed. Feeds on crustaceans. <br/> <br/>Males mature at 35 to 36 cm total length (TL) and females at 37 to 38 cm TL (M.P. Francis, unpubl. data). Maximum known length 41.5 cm TL. Males and females grow to similar maximum lengths. Females produce thick-shelled egg cases, two at a time, that are presumably deposited on the seabed. Size at hatching is unknown but smallest observed free-living individual 11.3 cm TL.
44170		threats	eng	Probably caught occasionally as trawl bycatch, but their small size means that escapement from trawl nets would be high.
44171		conservation	eng	Further investigation into the range and taxonomy of this species is required.
44171		distribution	eng	<em>Halaeulurus</em> sp. nov. A is known from only one specimen caught off the continental slope off the Ashmore Reef, northwestern Australia in 900 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). The species has only been caught from FAO Fisheries Area 57 (Indian Ocean – eastern).
44171		habitat	eng	Data deficient, this species is solely known from the continental slope off northwestern Australia in 900 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994).        <br/> <br/>Appears to attain a larger size than known members of the genus <em>Halaelurus</em>, with the single recorded specimen a immature male at 44 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994).
44171		threats	eng	Data deficient. Probably minimal threats due to the depth they occur in.
44172		conservation	eng	The only reasonably secure population of the Western Giant Eland occurs in Senegal’s Niokolo-Koba National Park and the Faleme Hunting Zone. Major surviving populations of Eastern Giant Eland occur in Faro, Benoue and Bouba Ndjidda N.P. and most of the 27 surrounding hunting concessions in northern Cameroon, and in Bamingui-Bangoran and Manovo-Gounda-St Floris N.P.s and most of the hunting blocks in CAR (East 1999; Planton and Michaux in press).<br/><br/>Effective long-term management of national parks and hunting zones in regions such as Cameroon’s North Province and northern and eastern Central African Republic would ensure the survival of Eastern Giant Eland. Safari hunting is the most likely justification for the long-term preservation of the substantial areas of unmodified savanna woodland which this antelope requires, and sustainable trophy hunting is a key to the Giant Eland’s future. Mature bulls are one of the world’s most prized big game trophies (East 1999).<br/><br/>The survival of the Western Giant Eand depends on continued protection of the Niokolo-Koba population in Senegal. This subspecies’ prospects will remain precarious as long as there is only a single protected population but would be enhanced if additional populations can be protected (East 1999).<br/><br/>Individuals of both subspecies are held in captivity (East 1999; Planton and Michaux in press). A captive breeding group of Western Giant Eland using founders from Niokolo-Koba was established in 2000 in Bandia Reserve, Senegal. There have been 30 births at Bandia between 2000 and 2006 (M. Antonínová and P. Hejcmanová, in Planton and Michaux in press), and a second enclosure has been built in Fathala Reserve, to which a male-only group (9) and a breeding nucleus (1, 3) were translocated in mid-2006 (Antonínová <em>et al.</em> 2006).
44172		distribution	eng	In the past, the Giant Eland probably occurred throughout the relatively narrow belt of savanna woodland which extends across West and Central Africa from Senegal to the Nile. The gap in its recent distribution between Mali and eastern Nigeria contains extensive areas of apparently suitable habitat (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Western Giant Eland has been formerly reported from Senegal to Togo, though its occurrence in Togo might have been a mistaken confusion with Bongo <em>Tragalephaus eurycerus</em> (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). The subspecies still occurs in southeastern Senegal, the far north of Guinea, probably south-western Mali and possibly eastern Guinea-Bissau (East 1999; Darroze 2004; Planton and Michaux in press). <br/><br/>Eastern Giant Elands occur in the central African region, and were formerly distributed from north-eastern Nigeria to north-west Uganda. They now survive mainly in north-east Central African Republic. A separate population lives in northern Cameroon, with herds crossing the Chad border to the east; occasional vagrants may enter Nigerian territory. They may still occur in south-western Sudan, from which they may visit north-eastern DR Congo and north-west Uganda (East 1999; Planton and Michaux in press).
44172		habitat	eng	Giant Eland inhabit woodlands and forested Sudanian to Guinean savannas, never far from hilly/rocky landscapes nor from water (Planton and Michaux in press). Kingdon (1997) considered that it is quite strictly confined to <em>lsoberlinia doka</em> woodland, but recent studies indicate that its range includes areas of <em>Terminalia-Combretum-Afzelia</em> woodland where there is no <em>Isoberlinia</em>, e.g., in parts of Cameroon’s North Province such as Boumedje Hunting Concession (Bro-Jorgensen 1997). Giant Elands feed mostly on leaves, shoots, herbs and fruits (but occasionally on grasses), and will drink daily where water is available (Planton and Michaux in press).
44172		population	eng	Total numbers of the Western Giant Eland probably do not exceed ca. 200 individuals, with most of the surviving animals in Senegal (Planton and Michaux in press). <br/><br/>East (1999) estimated that there are probably more than 15,000 Eastern Giant Eland remaining, with over 12,500 in the CAR. Numbers have increased in CAR, Cameroon and Chad since the 1990s. The numbers that survive in Sudan are unknown, but could be substantial. This suggests a total population of the Eastern Giant Eland in the order of at least 15,000~20,000. Its numbers are probably more or less stable over large areas of its range in Central African Republic and Cameroon where human population densities are very low. However, the Eastern Giant Eland’s overall, long-term population trend is probably gradually downwards (East 1999).
44172		threats	eng	The Western Giant Eland has been reduced to very low numbers by factors such as over-hunting for meat and habitat destruction caused by the expansion of human and livestock populations. <br/><br/>The Eastern Giant Eland occurs in much larger numbers and still has extensive areas of available habitat which are almost uninhabited and are not subjected to development pressures, particularly in northern and eastern Central African Republic and south-western Sudan. However, political instability and armed conflict are major barriers to the implementation of effective protection and management over large parts of the eastern subspecies’ remaining range. If these problems are not overcome, the eastern giant eland’s numbers will gradually decline until its survival is eventually threatened and it becomes restricted to a few protected areas.<br/><br/>In the past, Giant Eland have suffered heavy mortality from rinderpest, to which it is said to be more susceptible than any other antelope. Its demise in The Gambia has been attributed primarily to the devastating effects of this disease (Camara 1990). Populations in the Central African region crashed by 60-80% during and after the 1983-1984 rinderpest outbreak, but have almost recovered now (East 1999).
44173		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the species include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic research, research into factors limiting the population size, habitat and limiting factor management and control of introduced feral predators.
44173		distribution	eng	The marine iguana occurs on the Galápagos Islands. <em>A. c. albemarlensis</em> is restricted to Crossman and Tortuga Islets off Isabela Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 500 km². Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males.
44173		habitat	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is the world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44173		population	eng	The total population of <em>A. c. albemarlensis</em> is estimated at between 20,500–40,000 individuals. Recruitment appears to be zero in all subpopulations on the west and north side of Isabela (Los Cañones, Bahia Urbina, Muñeco and Punta Albermarle), probably because of introduced predators.
44173		threats	eng	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in the <em>A. cristatus</em> population. The main threats to <em>A. c. albemarlensis</em> are declining habitat quality and predation by introduced species (cats, dogs, rats and pigs).
44174		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the species include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic research, and monitoring of the population.
44174		distribution	eng	<em>A. c. cristatus</em> occurs on Fernandina Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².
44174		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44174		population	eng	Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males. The total population is estimated at between 80,000–150,000 individuals and is stable.
44174		threats	eng	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in <em>A. cristatus</em>.  However, the <em>A. c. cristatus</em> population is apparently stable and the main threat is likely to be the subspecies’ restricted range area, which makes it vulnerable to stochastic events.
44175		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, public education, control of introduced predators on the island, and monitoring of the population and habitat.
44175		distribution	eng	<em>A. c. hassi</em> occurs on Santa Cruz Island, Caamaño Islet. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².
44175		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44175		population	eng	Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males. The total population is estimated at between 6,000–10,000 individuals and is currently stable.
44175		threats	eng	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in <em>A. cristatus</em>.  In 2000 extensive habitat contamination occurred after an oil spill. The long-term effects of this spill are not known. The <em>A. c. hassi</em> population is expected to decline in future as a result of ongoing predation by introduced species.
44176		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, public education, control of introduced predators on the island, and monitoring of the population and habitat.
44176		distribution	eng	<em>A. c. mertensi</em> occurs on San Cristobal and Santiago Islands. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².
44176		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44176		population	eng	Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males. The total population is not known.
44176		threats	eng	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in <em>A. cristatus</em>.  In 2000 extensive habitat contamination occurred after an oil spill. The population declined as a result of this spill. <em>A. c. mertensi</em> is also inder threat from predation by introduced species.
44177		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research. Population Viability Analysis is also recommended along with the setting up of a captive breeding programme (pending recommendations from a PVHA workshop).
44177		distribution	eng	<em>A. c. nanus</em> occurs on Genovesa Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².
44177		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44177		population	eng	Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males. The total current population is estimated at around 1,500 individuals. The population has declined by more than 80% over the last ten years.
44177		threats	eng	El Niño has resulted in the population declines seen in this subspecies.
44178		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, and monitoring of the population and its habitat.
44178		distribution	eng	<em>A. c. sielmanni</em> occurs on Pinta Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².
44178		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44178		population	eng	Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males.  The total current population is estimated at between 2,500–6,000 individuals.
44178		threats	eng	El Niño causes extreme fluctuations in population size. The population may also be threatened by pollution.
44179		conservation	eng	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, and monitoring of the population and its habitat.
44179		distribution	eng	<em>A. c. venustissimus</em> occurs on Española and Gardner Islands. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².
44179		habitat	eng	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.
44179		population	eng	Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males.  The total current population is estimated at between 10,000–21,000 individuals occurring in two locations.
44179		threats	eng	El Niño causes extreme fluctuations in population size. The population may also be threatened by pollution.
44180		conservation	eng	The species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur in any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation measures recommended include further surveys for the species, life history studies, genetic research, monitoring and management of the wild population.
44180		distribution	eng	The Campeche spiny-tailed iguana is known only from the type locality in Campeche, Mexico.
44180		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in tropical moist forest from 50–100 m asl. It uses hollow branches as retreats.
44180		population	eng	Total range area and population size are not known.
44180		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known. However, it is believed that habitat loss and degradation will result in future population declines.
44181		conservation	eng	<p>The Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana is protected by Honduran law through a ban on hunting that has been in place since 1994. Actual enforcement of this law, however, is lacking, including within the Turtle Harbor Wildlife Refuge. In an effort to protect and raise awareness for these iguanas, the Utila Iguana Research and Breeding Station (IRBS) was established in 1997. Since 2008, the station has been run by a local non-government organization, The Bay Island Foundation (FIB). The IRBS conducts an environmental education programme, which focuses on environment awareness and protection of the iguana, their habitat, and other natural resources, and runs a breeding program with captive iguanas and wild gravid females, which produces approximately 150-200 juveniles per year. &#160;Captive-hatched juveniles are released on the beaches where the females were captured and also in other suitable mangrove forest areas corresponding to female capture sites. The IRBS is currently conducting a population study in six areas of Utila where <em>Ctenosaura bakeri</em> occurs. The study uses telemetry and mark-recapture techniques to assess the size and structure of the population. &#160;In addition, areas are checked for hunters and evidence of habitat destruction during these surveys.</p><p>In an effort to further reduce hunting, the Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana was recently<span lang="EN-GB">&#160;listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p><span lang="EN-GB"><p>&#160;Recommended conservation measures include active management and protection of the wild population and the creation of specific laws to protect this iguana at both the national and regional levels. Research needs include monitoring of population and habitat trends, as well as an in-depth study of the effects of harvesting on these iguanas.</p></span>
44181		distribution	eng	The Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana is known only from the island of Utila, Bay Islands, Honduras. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 41 km²,&#160;although it is estimated that the iguana occupies less than 10 km² of the island (S.A. Pasachnik and L. Ehlke unpublished data). This iguana occurs from sea level up to 10 m asl.
44181		habitat	eng	The Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana is found primarily in mangrove forests and open beachfront areas, though they can be found in disturbed areas. Adults occur most often in the hollows of Black and White Mangrove trees, while juveniles occur in smaller mangrove trees, shrubs, and on the mangrove forest floor (Schulte and Köhler 2010). There is a dietary shift in these iguanas with age; juveniles seem to be&#160;primarily insectivorous, whereas adults feed arboreally and terrestrially on the flowers and leaves of mangroves, as well as crabs and other invertebrates.<br/><br/>The breeding season occurs in February and March. Mating occurs on the ground in the mangrove forests. The females then migrate from the mangroves to the sandy beaches, nesting most commonly in areas with full sun exposure. The nests can be a few meters long but not more than 60 cm deep; the nesting period is from mid March to June. On average females lay 11 to 15 eggs, though larger females have been known to lay 20 to 24 eggs. The incubation period is approximately 85 days. Hatching occurs from July through September. The hatchlings then move towards the mangrove forest and feed primarily on insects such as termites or flies. As hatchlings, they are an easy prey for birds such as the Great-tailed Grackle (<em>Quiscalus mexicanus</em>), Common Black Hawk (<em>Buteogallus anthracinus</em>)&#160;and Green Heron (<em>Butorides virescens</em>),&#160;snakes such as the Neotropical Racer (<em>Dryadophis melanolomus</em>),&#160;Mexican Parrot Snake (<em>Leptophis mexicanus</em>), Mexican Vine Snake (<em>Oxybelis aenus</em>),&#160;Green Vine Snake (<em>Oxybelis fulgidus</em>)&#160;and Boa Constrictor (<em>Boa constrictor</em>),&#160;and lizards such as Brown Basilisk (<em>Basiliscus vittatus</em>). Both the<em> </em>Common Black Hawk and Boa Constrictor&#160;have been observed to prey on adults.
44181		population	eng	The total population size is unknown, but could be less than 5,000 mature individuals. Although supporting documentation is lacking, it is believed the population is currently declining in correlation with increased habitat destruction over the last five to ten years and continued harvesting for human consumption. Genetic variation in the population does not follow a specific geographic pattern indicating that this iguana appears to be mating randomly across the island (Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> 2009).
44181		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this iguana is habitat loss and fragmentation due to infrastructure development for the tourist industry. Mangrove forest habitat is being used as garbage dumping sites and there is abundant deforestation for housing and marina construction. Beach habitat is being lost as natural vegetation is removed ("cleaning") in preparation for sale of properties and for hotel and road construction. Invasive alien plants are becoming more prevalent with development, which is making habitat inappropriate for egg laying. It has been shown that this iguana is capable of hybridizing with its wide-ranging congener, the Black Spiny-tailed Iguana (<em>Ctenosaura similis)</em>. Although this is currently happening too infrequently to greatly threaten this species, hybridization could become a greater problem with increases in habitat destruction (Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> 2009). Dogs, cats, and rats are also present on the island and pose a threat to iguanas.</p><p>Although protected by Honduran law, the Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana and their eggs continue to be sought for human consumption, and are sold both locally and on the adjacent mainland.</p>
44182		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur within any protected areas, however all wildlife is currently protected under Mexican national law and permits are required to collect and export the species.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.
44182		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenosaura defensor</em> is restricted to northern Yucatán, Mexico.
44182		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forest formation (Holdridge 1967) from 0–100 m asl. The species is mostly terrestrial. Preferred habitat is rocky terrain. Hollows in rock formations are used as retreats.
44182		population	eng	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals.
44182		threats	eng	Habitat is fragmented and is decreasing in quality. The species is also harvested for the international pet trade.
44183		conservation	eng	None.
44183		distribution	eng	The Big Skate is a large rajid found along the western coasts of North America, from the Gulf of California to the Bering Sea and Alaska (Walford 1935, Roedel and Ripley 1950). Although it may be found to depths of 800 m (Martin and Zorzi 1993), it is most common at moderate depths of less than 200 m (Day and Pearcy 1968) and the visual pigments are suited to these comparatively shallow waters (Beatty 1969).
44183		habitat	eng	The Big Skate attains a maximum total length (TL) of 240 cm, although specimens over 180 cm TL (90 kg) are unusual (Martin and Zorzi 1993). Zeiner and Wolf (1993) examined 171 specimens and reported on the weight¬length relationship, maturity and growth parameters. Males were found to mature at 100?110 cm TL (10?11 years) and females at more than 130 cm TL (10?12 years). The fecundity has not been determined.<br/><br/>The reproductive biology of Big Skate is unusual in that it produces large egg cases that contain multiple (1?7) embryos (DeLacy and Chapman 1935, Hitz 1964). There is some evidence that spawning beds are used, and Hitz (1964) reported that large numbers of eggs may be caught by scallop dredge. He observed that egg cases were most abundant at a depth of 60?65 m, and in one instance 152 cases were taken in one 30 minute drag. Hitz (1964) recorded two spawning beds, each at 35 fathoms (64 m), one off Tillamook Head and the other between the Siuslaw and Siltcoos Rivers. Several embryological studies have been undertaken on <em>D. binoculata</em> (e.g., Manwell 1958, McConnachie and Ford 1966, Read 1968, Ford 1971, Evans and Ford 1976). These have utilised egg cases taken off Comox, at 16 fathoms (29 m) off Tsawassen in the Straits of Georgia, British Columbia and from the waters of the San Juan Islands. <br/><br/>Although little is known about the absolute abundance of Big Skate, there have been several published accounts of its comparative abundance. Ebert (1986) captured nine specimens by rod and line in San Francisco Bay and this species accounted for 2% (by number) of the elasmobranch assemblage in this area. The demersal fish assemblages of Oregon have been well studied (Day and Pearcy 1968, Pearcy <em>et al.</em> 1989, Stein <em>et al.</em> 1992). Day and Pearcy (1968) captured 7,689 fish from 67 species and of these, only four specimens of <em>D. binoculata</em> were recorded (0.05% of the catch) and these were taken in water of less than 200 m depth. Pearcy (1989) studied the ichthyofauna of the Heceta Bank, Oregon, using a submersible and, over 16 dives, observed four specimens of <em>D. binoculata</em>. By numbers, Big Skate accounted for approximately 0.1?0.8% of the fish assemblage (Pearcy <em>et al.</em> 1989). More recently, Stein <em>et al.</em> (1992) undertook a similar survey and recorded 10 specimens, most of which were found on mud or mud/boulder substrates.<br/><br/>The ichthyofauna of British Columbia has been well documented and in these waters <em>D. binoculata</em> is relatively abundant. Fargo and Tyler (1991) reported on the species compositions of four distinct fish assemblages (Reef Island, Butterworth, Bonilla and Moresby Gully) and <em>D. binoculata</em> was found to be an important member of the Reef Island assemblage (Perry <em>et al.</em> 1994), constituting 0.10?0.17% of the biomass (Fargo and Tyler 1991). In British Columbian waters, <em>D. binoculata</em> favours shallow (26?33 m) and warmer (7.6?9.4°C) waters (Perry <em>et al.</em> 1994).
44183		threats	eng	In Californian waters the species is, with the California skate <em>Dipturus inornata</em> and longnose skate <em>Raja rhina</em>, one of the three most important rajids in commercial and recreational fisheries (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Martin and Zorzi 1993) and is a bycatch from trawlers, longline and trammel nets (Zeiner and Wolf 1993). Martin and Zorzi (1993) analysed trends in the commercial landings of skates from 1916?1990 and reported that annual landings of Rajidae spp. Ranged from 22.9?286.3 t. Since 1916, rajids have constituted 11.8% of the total weight of elasmobranchs landed (ranging from 1.9?89.5% annually). The skates that are landed in the Californian fishery have tended to be juvenile fish (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Martin and Zorzi 1993), with larger individuals being discarded.
44185		conservation	eng	The Thai government started a project in the 1990s to breed this and other freshwater stingrays in captivity at Chai Nat above the dam on the Chao Phraya River to counter declines of freshwater rays in the river. A single specimen of this ray was seen in captivity there in 1993 (but this was moribund and died during our visit). We later (1996) learned that the project had been put on hold, at least temporarily.
44185		distribution	eng	This species occurs in feshwater habitats. It is known from Grand Lac and Phnom Penh, Cambodia (Mekong River), and also from Thailand in the lower Mae Nam Nan and Chao Phraya river system (Compagno and Roberts 1982, Kottelat 1985, Cook and Compagno 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a). Photographic evidence of a specimen landed from the Mahakam River, Kalimantan (Indonesia) (P. Last pers. comm.). It may be present but unrecorded in other rivers because of its rarity. Subpopulation details are unknown. If, as seems likely, this ray is unable to transit marine habitats, each riverine population will be completely isolated.
44185		habitat	eng	This rarely recorded freshwater species is known from only five specimens in museum collections. No information is available on any of its life history parameters.
44185		population	eng	Rare.
44185		threats	eng	This rare ray is taken very infrequently as bycatch in freshwater teleost fisheries, which are intensive through much of its range. It is possibly also sought after for the aquarium trade, as the young of this ray are small and particularly attractive. Two of the five known museum specimens were from aquarium suppliers. Its habitat is seriously threatened by riverine pollution from agricultural chemicals, sewage and industrial waste in the river catchments, logging activities and river engineering projects (e.g. dam construction on the Chao Phraya River). Continued habitat loss and degradation are likely a major impact on the species.
44186		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia. Occurs between Bass Strait and the North West Shelf.
44186		habitat	eng	In the south of the species range, juvenile <em>Aptychotrema vincentiana</em> are most common close inshore, whereas in the north of Western Australia they occur mainly along the mid-continental shelf (Last and Stevens 1994). Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 79 cm TL, reproduce ovoviviparously with litter sizes of 14–16 (Haacke 1885) and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates (W. White, pers. comm). Research into the biology of <em>A. vincentiana</em> has recently begun.
44186		population	eng	Widespread and common around the South West corner of Western Australia, less common on the west and south coasts. There are apparently only limited records from South Australia and Victoria.
44186		threats	eng	Due to its inshore occurrence, <em>Aptychotrema vincentiana</em>, is subject to capture in a variety of fisheries throughout its range (McAuley, unpublished data, W. White, pers. comm.). Some bycatch in demersal gillnet and small local temperate trawl fisheries in Western Australia, usually discarded alive. Probably significant habitat outside or in unfishable areas within these fisheries.
44187		conservation	eng	The Malampaya Irrawaddy dolphin subpopulation is a component of the Malampaya Sound Ecological Studies Project currently being implemented by Kabang Kalikasan Ng Pilipinas (World Wildlife Fund ? Philippines). This project consists of research, monitoring and raising local awareness about the conservation significance of dolphins in the Sound.
44187		distribution	eng	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems ? the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in completely or partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand. Irrawaddy dolphins were first documented as occurring in Malampaya Sound, Palawan, Philippines, during an investigation of dugongs (<em>Dugong dugon</em>) in 1986 (Kataoka <em>et al</em>. 1995). This is the only known subpopulation of the species in the Philippines and the nearest other known subpopulation is in northern Borneo, some 550 km to the south. The species occurs only in the inner portion of the sound, an area of about 134 km².
44187		habitat	eng	The species inhabits deep pools of large rivers, sheltered inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or fresh- water lagoon or lake systems (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002).  <br/> <br/>During 48 sightings of Irrawaddy dolphins in Malampaya Sound, Smith <em>et al</em>. (in press) found significant differences between environmental characteristics in the inner and outer Sound (DF=158) for depth (F=164.54, Prob.=0.0000), salinity (F=19.27, Prob.=0.0000) and turbidity (F=21.53, Prob.=0.0000), with depth and salinity greater in the outer Sound and turbidity greater in the inner Sound, indicating the restricted environmental preferences of the Malampaya Irrawaddy dolphin subpopulation.
44187		population	eng	The first dedicated cetacean survey of Malampaya Sound, conducted in June?July 1999, recorded 17 sightings during 230 linear km of search effort with a mean encounter rate of 7.4 dolphins/100 km (S.E.=2.9) and a mean group size of 5.3 dolphins (S.E.=1.1; Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002). All sightings were made in shallow waters of the inner Sound, although survey effort also included waters of the outer Sound.  <br/> <br/>Line-transect surveys conducted in April ? November 2001 covered 884 km of trackline in the entire Sound (total area 230.7 km²), and resulted in a total population estimate of 77 individuals (CV=27.4%), confined to the inner portion (133.7 km²; Smith <em>et al</em>., in press). Seasonally stratified estimates were calculated as 67, CV=38.6%; 78, CV=78.1% and 81, CV=31.7% for pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. The absence of Irrawaddy dolphin sightings in the outer Sound (see Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002, Smith <em>et al</em>. in press, and unpublished reports of WWF-Philippines) and the close agreement among abundance estimates from surveys conducted during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons strongly suggest that the subpopulation is resident within the inner Sound. <br/> <br/>There are no direct data on population trends. However, for small cetaceans generally, it is recommended that yearly removals should not exceed 1?2% of the overall population size (Wade 1998). Using a minimum estimate of two dolphins killed per year (see above), this represents 2.6% of the population, according to the best estimate of abundance made during line-transect surveys (77 dolphins). Using the minimum abundance estimate (45 dolphins), the estimated minimum yearly mortality rate would be 4.4% of the population size. Even this latter figure may be an underestimate because it considers only the two confirmed kills recorded during a 7-month study (Smith <em>et al</em>. in press). Considering that the small size of the Malampaya population already makes it vulnerable to extirpation from demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and catastrophic environmental and epizootic events, the current rate of incidental mortality in gillnets will almost certainly lead to extirpation.
44187		threats	eng	Between February and August 2001, two dolphins were accidentally killed in bottom-set nylon gillnets used to catch crabs - locally known as matang quatro nets. Unconfirmed reports from fishermen indicate that three additional dolphins may have been killed in gillnets during the same seven-month period (Smith <em>et al</em>. in press). Although the dolphins are not believed to be hunted in Malampaya Sound, their value for human consumption means that those found alive in gillnets may be taken for food rather than released. <br/> <br/>Although gillnet entanglement is believed to be the dominant threat to the population (Smith <em>et al</em>. in press), other potential threats include incidental takes in fish corrals (baklads), liftnets (bukatot) and crab traps, prey depletion from increased fishing pressure and increased inputs of organic wastes leading to eutrophication (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002).
44188		conservation	eng	This species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas. Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.
44188		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenosaura flavidorsalis</em> is known from eastern Guatemala (Departmento de Jutiapa) through northern El Salvador (Departmento de Santa Ana, Cabañas, San Vicente, Morazán and La Unión) into southwestern Honduras (Departmento de Intibucá) and south-central Honduras (Departmento de La Paz). Total extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 500 km².
44188		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forest and subtropical dry forest formations (Holdridge 1967) from 35–1,010 m asl. The species is mostly terrestrial with rocky terrain being the preferred habitat. Crevices and holes are used as retreats.
44188		population	eng	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population has declined by at least 20%, and perhaps by more than 50%, over the last 50 years.
44188		threats	eng	Habitat is fragmented and is decreasing in area and quality due to deforestation and regular burning of habitat. The species is also harvested locally for its meat.
44189		conservation	eng	<p>Cayos Cochinos is located within a Marine Natural Monument, and within the cays the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is offered protection from exploitation (although the level of protection and enforcement varies between islands).</p>    <p>On the mainland in the Valle de Aguán, a subpopulation occurs within Pico Bonito National Park South, although limited protection or enforcement against collecting is allotted in this area.&#160; Within the Valle de Aguán, locals are working to create a research and breeding station similar to the one established on Utila for the protection and management of the Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana (<em>Ctenosaura bakeri</em>). The board of directors for the Utila Station will advise the Aguán station.</p>    <p>In an effort to reduce illegal trade and over-harvesting, the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana was recently listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>    <p>Research needs for this iguana include further population surveys, genetic analysis, life history, and monitoring of harvest level trends. Conservation actions recommended include management, monitoring, and protection of the habitat, educational awareness, and trade and harvesting regulation and enforcement. The creation of a species action plan and area-based management plan is needed for the Valle de Aguán subpopulation.</p>
44189		distribution	eng	The Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana&#160;is known only from the Valle de Aguán in northern Honduras&#160;and the Cayos Cochinos Archipelago off the Caribbean coast of Honduras, where it occurs primarily on the two largest islands: Cayo Mayor (Grande) and Cayo Menor (Pequeño). These two cays are approximately one km distant from each other. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 1,316 km²&#160;within the Aguán Valley&#160;and 2.2 km² on Cayos Cochinos.
44189		habitat	eng	<p>The Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana inhabits tropical and subtropical dry forest and scrubland from 0 to 250 meters above sea level (Holdridge 1967, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is semi-arboreal and diurnal, taking refuge in hollow logs and rock crevices at night. On Cayos Cochinos, iguanas utilize forest edge habitat consisting of sandy beach strand vegetation and rocky cliffs, as well as areas of open forest, including tree fall gaps. Within the Valle de Aguán it is found most often in undisturbed tropical scrub forests consisting of abundant <em>Acacia</em> and cacti, where it retreats in the hollows of these dominant species. This iguana<em> </em>is omnivorous, consuming fruit, flowers, leafy vegetation, arthropods, a variety of lizards, birds (especially fledglings), and carrion.</p>  <p>On Cayo Menor, marked sexual dimorphism in size has been observed with males being larger. Males are territorial, with multiple females and juveniles residing within the territory. Nesting takes place in sandy substrates from April through July, with 7-18 eggs laid per nest. Hatchlings emerge from June through September (C. Montgomery pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>In captivity, the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana&#160;lives from 10 to 15 years and reaches sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years. They lay eggs twice a year in February/March and August/September. Clutch sizes range from 11 to 41 eggs. The incubation period ranges from 85 to 90 days. Hatchlings have a snout-vent length of 41-52 mm, a total length of 114-149 mm, and average weight of 4 grams (E. Henningheim pers. comm. 2009).</p>
44189		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>The total population size is not known, but is estimated to be less than 5,000 mature individuals within the two range areas (Aguán Valley and Cayos Cochinos). &#160;Although the geographic range of this iguana is substantially greater for the Valle de Aguán subpopulation than for the Cayos Cochinos subpopulation, the density of individuals throughout the Valle is extremely low, making this species very rare within this part of its range and seldom observed (S.A. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2011). &#160;Because the number of iguanas has declined in recent decades as threats have increased, the mainland is no longer considered a stronghold for this species and it is believed their numbers are fewer than on Cayos Cochinos.&#160; The subpopulations are genetically distinct and have been described as two separate evolutionarily significant units (Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> 2011).</p>  <p>The population is currently stable on Cayo Menor (Pequeño), but recent increases in the population density of Common Green Iguana (<em>Iguana iguana</em>) may result in increased competition for resources.&#160; The population on Cayo Mayor (Grande) seems to be at low density, most likely due to hunting and predation by feral dogs. Hunting pressure has been seen to increase on Cayo Menor as local villagers from Cayo Mayor visit the island for additional resources. The population on mainland Honduras in the Valle de Aguán is decreasing rapidly, primarily due to habitat destruction and exploitation.&#160; Although there are no proper estimates for the past and current population size within this area, interviews with local people indicate there has been a dramatic decrease in iguana numbers over the last 20 years (S.A. Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> unpublished data).</p><p></p>
44189		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is habitat destruction and fragmentation. Limited habitat destruction occurs on both islands of the Cayos Cochinos as palm trees are harvested for thatch roofs (Wilson and Cruz-Nieto 1993). The amount of destruction within the Valle de Aguán poses a much larger threat. Land conversion for agriculture began in the 1970s in this region. Dole Fruit Company has a large and expanding banana plantation, causing optimal habitat to be continually cleared and pesticides to be spread throughout the area. Smaller scale destruction also occurs as land is being cleared for cattle. Cattle are permitted to graze within Pico Bonito National Park South, which is the only protected area where this iguana occurs within the Valle de Aguán. The exact amount of land conversion is unknown, but it appears that more than 50% has been affected to some degree (S.A. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2009).</p>    Additionally, feral dogs, cats, and rats exist on both Cayo Mayor and Cayo Menor and are predators of iguanas and their eggs. Predators are even more abundant within the Valle de Aguán, and their impact on the iguana population is more severe. Increases in the <span lang="EN-GB">Common Green Iguana (<em>Iguana iguana</em>) population may also pose a threat to the Cayos Cochinos population.<br/>   <p>Adult iguanas and eggs are sought for both immediate consumption and sale. On Cayos Grande, individuals are collected for consumption, but this threat is much more extreme within the Valle de Aguán. In Olanchito, Valle de Aguán, a festival exists in which the consumption of these iguanas is celebrated and is culturally significant. <span lang="EN-GB">From surveys conducted over the last three years in the Valle de Aguán, locals feel there has been a significant decline in the numbers of iguanas seen. These interviews showed that 84% of the interviewees consume this type of iguana meat of a regular basis, and 60% prefer to eat gravid females. Further calculations show that approximately 12 iguanas are consumed per person per year (S.A. Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). </p>    Illegal exportation for the international pet trade has also been documented for this iguana. Though individuals may be taken from Cayos Cochinos, all documented cases of excessive exploitation and exportation for the pet trade are from the Valle de Aguán. The exact number of animals being exported is difficult to determine because declaration of the species name is not necessary for importation and the exportation is illegal, thus undocumented. Exportation is largely to the United States and Europe. The cost of an individual iguana in the Valle de Aguán varies from $1 to 90 USD, depending on size and sex.</span>
44190		conservation	eng	All wildlife is protected under Mexican national law. this species is not known to occur within any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.
44190		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenosaura oaxacana</em> is restricted to the Pacific versant of the Isthmus of Tehauntepec in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².
44190		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967) from 0–250 m asl. The species semi-arboreal, preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats.
44190		population	eng	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population is fragmented into 6–10 isolated subpopulations.
44190		threats	eng	Habitat is decreasing in area and quality as a result of deforestation and regular burning of habitat. The species is also harvested locally for its meat.
44191		conservation	eng	The Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana is known to occur within Port Royal Wildlife Refuge, Saint Helene Wildlife Refuge, and Barbaret Marine Reserve. &#160;However, there is no form of conservation enforcement within this area, thus this iguana is afforded no protection. There is significant potential for some areas on Roatán and smaller cays to be protected through individual landowner grass-roots conservation actions. Several of these areas have been identified and researchers are working with many locals to keep hunting of this iguana off their property. Captive populations supporting conservation efforts exist in Rotterdam Zoo and in private collections in Germany and the Netherlands. Ongoing conservation actions conducted by S.A. Pasachnik and the Bay Islands Foundation include life history research, an outreach and education program developed in collaboration with local educators, and the creation of a management plan.<br/><br/>The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.
44191		distribution	eng	<em>   <p>  </p></em>     The Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana is restricted to Isla Roatán and Isla Barbaretta, Honduras. This iguana has also been recorded from Big Pigeon Cay, an islet of Roatán (McCranie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but this was not confirmed on recent surveys (S. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2010).&#160; Similarly, reports of this iguana occurring on Morat, a small island between Roatán and Barbaretta, were not confirmed in 2006 (S. Pasachnik pers. obs.). There are small subpopulations of this iguana on multiple small cays around Roatán, however, the names of these cays are often inconsistent, further hindering systematic surveying (S. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2010). It is recorded as occurring from sea level up to 100 m.<em><br/>     </em>
44191		habitat	eng	The Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana occurs in a variety of habitat types including beach and rocky ocean front, mangrove, and tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967). It is semi-arboreal, and uses hollow branches and rocks as retreats. Little is known about the ecology of this iguana, however, research is currently under-way to obtain natural history data for this species.
44191		population	eng	<p>Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals, split into 5-10 subpopulations. The sustainability of each subpopulation is not known. Genetic data indicate that there are distinct haplotypes throughout the island, but more data are needed in order to understand the degree of divergence between subpopulations (S. Pasachnik pers. comm. 2009).</p>
44191		threats	eng	Habitat loss and modification associated with residential and commercial development, as well as small-scale agriculture and ranching, is the main threat to the&#160;iguana. The population is expected to decline dramatically if the current rate of habitat conversion continues (S. Pasachnik pers. comm. 2009). Small-scale eradication of individuals due to them being perceived as pests is also a threat. The wide-ranging congener, <em>Ctenosaura similis</em>, has recently been introduced to a small satellite island, less than 50 m from Roatán. This invasive species could easily disperse to Roatán and also threaten the Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana through competition and hybridization. Current efforts are under-way to minimize this threat through removal (S. Pasachnik pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Although this iguana is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on  International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  (CITES), exploitation for food and the pet trade are both contributing  to the decline of this species. Hunting for food, both whole animals and  eggs, is a significant threat to the persistence of this species.
44192		conservation	eng	Zootropic, International Reptile Conservation Foundation, and Zoo Atlanta have initiated a conservation project for the<em> </em>Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana. The project includes environmental education for local villagers and children focusing on the importance of conserving this iguana and the development of a defined hunting season. The project involves a semi-captive breeding programme on a private reserve owned by Zootropic and is within the distribution area of the iguana. Within this reserve there is also a scientific research station operated by Zootropic and its partners for monitoring the wild population and its habitat. The reserve encompasses 132 hectares, and is the only area in which this iguana is afforded complete protection from hunting and habitat destruction. An additional 1,421 hectares of suitable iguana habitat iguana exists within ten areas where habitat destruction is prohibited. Though this additional land is technically protected, there is little to no enforcement, thus iguanas have been extirpated in some of these areas. Some local villagers are currently developing a sustainable-use plan for this iguana.<br/><br/>In an effort to reduce&#160;illegal trade and over-harvesting, the&#160;<em></em>Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana was recently listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
44192		distribution	eng	The Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana is restricted to upper Rio Motagua valley in eastern Guatemala and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 930 km². Occurs at elevations ranging from 200 to 900 m above sea level.
44192		habitat	eng	The Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana occurs in areas of dry forest and thorn scrub. The predominant plant species in areas where iguanas are present are tree cacti, including Pitayo Organ Pipe Cactus (<em>Stenocereus pruinosus</em>) and Old Man Cactus (<em>Pilosocereus leucocephalus</em>), and tree species such as the Yellow Plum (<em>Ximena americana</em>), Yellow Bells (<em>Tecoma stans</em>)<em> </em>and <em>Licania hypoleuca</em>. Areas without iguanas are dominated by the trees Cacho de Toro (<em>Bucida macrostachya</em>)<em>, </em>Black Cabbage-bark<em> </em>(<em>Lonchocarpus rugosus,</em> Guava<em> </em>(<em>Psidium </em>sp.) and <em>Stenmadenia obovata. </em>The shelters used by this species are hollow trunks or branches of the cactus and trees listed above. Iguanas are usually found within the shelters using their spiny tails to block the entrance. This iguana is one of the main species that feeds on the fruit of the Pitayo Organ Pipe Cactus in the dry forest of Motagua Valley. The seeds of this cactus have been found in faeces and also attached to the external gular parts of the iguanas (Cotí and Ariano 2008). In this way, the Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana is a disperser of this cactus species and thus can contribute to forest cover regeneration.<br/><br/> The eggs of the Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana are one of the main food sources for the Motagua Valley Beaded Lizard (<em>Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti</em>)<em> </em>(Ariano-Sánchez 2007). Though not formally listed, this beaded lizard subspecies is thought to be highly threatened and in extreme danger of extinction (Ariano-Sánchez 2006, Ariano-Sánchez and Salazar 2007). Therefore, maintaining a stable population of the iguana may be relevant to conserving the wild populations of the beaded lizard. The Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana is a keystone species for the dry forests of the Motagua Valley because its presence is considered crucial to maintaining the organization of the ecological community by its position in the food chain and its important role as a seed disperser (Cotí and Ariano 2008).<br/><br/>The maximum size including tail for this iguana is 57 cm (a male), and the average size (including tail) for each sex is 36.40 ± 4.45 cm for females and 46.31 ± 9.0 cm for males (Cotí 2008). The maximum longevity recorded for this iguana<em> </em>is 10.2 years in captivity, with the first reproduction at two years old (De Magalhäes and Costa 2009). The generation length is estimated to be six years. According to local hunters, this species lays between 6 and 12 eggs each year and the incubation period is three months (Cotí 2008).
44192		population	eng	The total population size of Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguanas is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,000 mature individuals. The population is fragmented into 25 subpopulations, the largest of which occurs near Cabañas, Zacapa, and is thought to have approximately 140 mature individuals. Local extinctions have occurred in some areas, such as Morazan in the El Progreso department (Cotí and Ariano 2008).
44192		threats	eng	The main threat to the<em> </em>Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana is habitat loss, which is due primarily to the increase of watermelon crops and the construction of new residential zones within the Motagua Valley.&#160; In some areas cattle farming has triggered land conversion. Open-cast mining projects have also destroyed core habitat. Local people interviewed describe a dramatic decrease in the wild iguana population over the last 20 years. Field observations since 2002 have also shown an increase in mortality of the Pitayo Organ Pipe Cactus&#160;due to local changes in rainfall patterns;<em> </em>this cactus represents the main food source and shelter for the<em> </em>Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana. Feral dogs and cats exist within the range of this iguana, however, evidence of high rates of mortality due to predation has not yet been documented.<br/><br/>It is known that illegal trade and over-harvesting of the<em>&#160;</em>Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana is occurring. People who catch iguanas for meat usually catch six individuals per month, while illegal traders usually catch 50 to 60 individuals per month. Internet and local market surveys have shown that this species is sold in Greece, Germany, and the United States at an average price of US$90&#160; per individual. All sales of this iguana<em>&#160;</em>outside of Guatemala are illegal as governmental authorities in Guatemala have not issued exportation permits for this iguana to date. This illegal trade is thought to be the main cause of local extirpation of iguanas in some localities (Cotí and Ariano 2008).<br/><br/>The<em>&#160;</em>Motagua Spiny-tailed Iguana is used as a protein source by local villagers. In some areas this iguana is heavily hunted in the breeding season for their eggs, which has a large negative effect on the survival and viability of wild populations (Cotí and Ariano 2008). Hunters catch gravid females to consume in total or they make an incision in the ventral part to extract the eggs, then they are sewn up and released. Predictably, these animals soon succumb to bacterial infections and internal haemorrhages.
44193		conservation	eng	This species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.  It is also recommended that a Population Viability Analysis be carried out for this species.
44193		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenosaura quinquecarinata</em> is known from isolated subpopulations in Pacific versant Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica. Extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy is less than 500 km².
44193		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967) from 0–250 m asl. The species is semi-arboreal, preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats.
44193		population	eng	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population is fragmented into 10–15 isolated subpopulations.
44193		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation and regular burning of habitat, and collection for the international pet trade.
44194		conservation	eng	All wildlife is protected under Mexican national law. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.  It is also recommended that a Population Viability Analysis be carried out for this species.
44194		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley in the Mexican state of Michoacán. Area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
44194		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forest formation (Holdridge 1967) from 200–600 m asl. This is a semi-arboreal species. Preferred habitat is open savanna-like terrain with an abundance of tree cacti. Hollow branches of tree cacti are used as retreats.
44194		population	eng	Population size is not known, but is estimated as several thousand individuals. Number of mature individuals is thought to be perhaps less than 2,500 distributed in 10–15 isolated subpopulations.
44194		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss. This iguana is also collected for the international pet trade. However it is not believed that significant numbers are collected so this is not a major threat to the population.
44195		conservation	eng	The species is reported from Tanjung Puting National Park (Nash and Nash 1987). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species.
44195		distribution	eng	The species is found on Banggi island (Nor 1996), Belitung island, and a few scattered localities in Borneo. In  Borneo the species is reported from Tanjung Puting National Park (Nash and Nash 1987), Sungai Sarawak Kiri (Abdullah <em>et al.</em> 2000), and Brunei (Cranbrook and Edwards 1994).
44195		habitat	eng	This may be a coastal species that occurs in many locations along Borneo's coast from sea level up to 100 m asl (Francis and Hill 1986). It may be restricted to coastal mangroves.
44195		population	eng	The species is known only from a few records.
44195		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but if restricted to mangroves it may be losing habitat due to mangrove harvesting and coastal development.
44196		conservation	eng	None in place.
44196		distribution	eng	<em>Platythelphusa armata</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, and has been recorded from the waters of all four countries bordering the lake (Tanzania, Burundi, Zambia and D. R. Congo).
44196		habitat	eng	This is the largest and most distinctive species in the genus and is mainly found in rocky areas, at depths between 5-30 m. The juveniles are found in the sublittoral shell zone from 1-10 m deep in places where the lake bed is rocky, or in the empty shells of <em>Neothauma</em> spp. where they co-occur together with the adults of small-bodied species such as <em>P. maculata</em>, <em>P. echinata</em> and <em>P. polita</em> (Coulter 1991, Cumberlidge <em>et al</em>. 1999). The juveniles of <em>P. armata</em> are often found inside the empty shells of the gastropod <em>Neothauma tanganyicense</em>.
44196		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.), that this species is the subject of a local commercial fishery with large numbers captured regularly and that it is well represented in museum collections.
44196		threats	eng	None known. Supports small local fisheries and there is some small-scale collecting of this species for the aquarium trade. Neither of these is intense enough at present to amount to a serious long-term threat.
44197		conservation	eng	None in place.
44197		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika: Tanzania, Burundi, Zambia and D. R. Congo, from  depths between 20-60 m.
44197		habitat	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika: Burundi, Zambia and D. R. Congo, from depths between 20 and 60 m.
44197		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material<br/>has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.) and that it is well represented in museum collections
44197		threats	eng	None known.
44198		conservation	eng	None in place.
44198		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika: Burundi and Tanzania. This species is found in waters from 5–30 m deep, where the lake-bed is sandy or rocky, and it is sometimes found in sandy or muddy parts of the lake inside empty Neothauma sp. shells.
44198		habitat	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is found in waters from 5.30 m deep, where the lake-bed is sandy or rocky, and it is sometimes found in sandy or muddy parts of the lake inside empty <span style="font-style: italic;">Neothauma </span>sp. shells.
44198		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of<br/>material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers comm.).
44198		threats	eng	None known.
44199		conservation	eng	None in place.
44199		distribution	eng	Lake Tanganyika: Burundi, D. R. Congo. Collected in waters 100-50 m deep where the lake bed is muddy. The type locality is at Moba in Burundi, 20 m deep. This distinct long-legged large species is found in deeper parts of the sublittoral zone in the northern end of the lake where the lakebed is muddy. This species has also been found in<br/>the stomachs of lake fish such as <em>Chrysichthyes brachynema</em> (Capart 1952) and <em>C. stappersi</em> (Coulter 1991).
44199		habitat	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Collected in waters 100-50 m deep where the lakebed is muddy. The type locality is at Moba in Burundi, 20 m deep. This distinct long-legged large species is found in deeper parts of the sublittoral zone in the northern end of the lake where the lakebed is muddy. This species has also been found in the stomaches of lake fish such as <em>Chrysichthyes brachynema</em> (Capart 1952) and <em>C. stappersi</em> (Coulter 1991).
44199		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers comm.)
44199		threats	eng	None known.
44200		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
44200		distribution	eng	Uganda: Ruwenzoris. DR Congo: Nepoko River.
44200		habitat	eng	Rivers and wetland streams in western Uganda.
44200		population	eng	<em>Potamonautes aloysiisabaudiae</em> has a relatively wide distribution and relatively high representation in museum collections, suggesting potentially large population size.
44200		threats	eng	Not considered threatened at present and currently assessed as Least Concern.
44201		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
44201		distribution	eng	Lirranga, middle Congo, D. R. Congo, Central Africa; Tanzania, west coast of Lake Malawi (Nyasa), Malawi. The type locality is Lirranga, at the confluence of the Congo and the Oubangi Rivers, Democratic Republic of Congo. This species is found in the upper reaches of the Congo River, Democratic Republic of Congo; Lake Kivu, Rwanda; Malagarasi River near Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania; Lake Malawi, Malawi.
44201		habitat	eng	In the DR Congo, this species is found in large rivers in the central African rainforest, under rocks. In Malawi this species is found in Lake Malawi.
44201		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such the fact that it is a common and widespread species that has been collected recently from rocky areas in Lake Kivu and from small fast flowing rivers, as well as from large slow flowing rivers flowing into Lake Tanganyika. In addition, <em>P. lirrangensis</em> supports a local fishery in Lake Malawi, and this species is well represented in museum collections.
44201		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44202		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it occurs in a protected area, the Kruger National Park, South Africa.
44202		distribution	eng	Potamonautes obesus is found in Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania (principally in the coastal region, plus Zanzibar and Pemba islands), and Malawi. Tanzania: Zanzibar; Somalia: Matagoi Bool, between Brava and Lugh; Kenya; MALAWI, Zimbabwe. Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania (the coastal region, plus Zanzibar and Pemba islands) and Malawi (Reed and Cumberlidge 2004). This species is also found near Harare, Zimbabwe.
44202		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is seasonal marshy wet ground in savannah country. During the day it lives in burrows (which it digs), while at night it leaves its burrows to feed in water or on land. This species moves into open water when it is available during the rainy season. <em>Potamonautes obesus</em> is a semi-terrestrial crab that occurs in a wide variety of habitats ranging from the banks of rivers to rice fields, where it digs burrows down to reach ground water.<br/><br/>Williams <em>et al</em>. (1964) provided field notes on the habitat of <em>P. obesus</em> found in an arid area close to Mount Meru in northern Tanzania. Those authors collected specimens of <em>P. obesus</em> together with <em>Deckenia mitis</em> Hilgendorf, 1898 (Deckeniidae) from wetland areas where the standing surface water was relatively warm and stagnant. <em>P. obesus</em> and <em>D. mitis</em> were dug out from their burrows sited near the waters edge, and were rarely seen actually in the water. The burrows of these crabs often cause extensive damage to drainage ditches.
44202		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an extent of occurrence that is estimated to be more than one million km². Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (Reed & Cumberlidge 2004) and that it is well represented in museum collections.
44202		threats	eng	The wetland habitat required by this species is seasonal, and long-term threats to this species could come from human encroachment onto wetlands as human populations rise.
44203		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
44203		distribution	eng	This is a common and widespread species. Tanzania, Malawi, and Zambia, and the tributaries of rivers flowing into Lake Tanganyika. The type locality is Mrogoro inTanzania.
44203		habitat	eng	This species lives in major rivers and streams.
44203		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on direct and  indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (present study; S. Marijnissen pers. comm.) and that it is well represented in museum collections.
44203		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44205		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently are in place for this species.
44205		distribution	eng	<em>Trigonognathus kabeyai</em> is known from the Pacific Ocean (FAO areas 61 and 77). Limited area in Japan and one specimen collected from Hawaii.
44205		habitat	eng	Upper continental slopes of southern Japan at depths of 330 to 360 m. Also on SE Hancock Seamount at bottom on uppermost slope (270 m). Thirty-nine specimens were collected from the the surface to a depth of 150 m, at night where the sea was more than 1,500 m deep, by purse seine in the Kumano-nada Sea. Seven specimens were found in stomach contents of <em>Taractichthys steindachneri</em> and <em>Thunnus obesus</em> from the Ogasawara Islands. Number of mature ova in both ovaries was 25 to 26. Myctophid fishes consisting of <em>Diaphus gigas, Diaphus</em> spp., <em>Benthosema fibulatum</em> and <em>Benthosema</em> sp. were the only identified prey in the stomachs. Most of the prey fishes were found almost intact and usually had puncture holes made by teeth. On the basis of stomach content and jaw morphology, this species is thought to be a ram feeder.
44205		threats	eng	This species is a very rare bycatch of purse seine and bottom trawl nets. Local fisheries operate year-round.
44206		distribution	eng	Limited area (Suruga Bay and Enshu-nada Sea) in Japan.
44206		habitat	eng	All specimens were collected in a depth range of 150 to 350 m by bottom trawl nets. Reaches at least 64.5 cm TL (female). Size at maturity 59 cm TL (females) and 54 cm TL (males). No other information on biology.
44206		threats	eng	Bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries in Suruga Bay and Enshu-nada Sea. Bycatch always discarded.
44207		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44207		distribution	eng	The species is found in the eastern North Atlantic: Northern Bay of Biscay and Porcupine Seabight to Lousy Bank (49° 31.9’N to 60°49.7’N).
44207		habitat	eng	Known from 30 type specimens taken on the eastern North Atlantic slope at 1,014 to 1,800 m depth. Occurs at bottom temperatures of 3.67 to 9.57°C, and salinities of 35.13 to 34.87 ppm. Males and females are adolescent at 40 to 46 cm TL, and fully mature at 47 to 50 cm TL. Maximum reported size is 54 cm TL. Reproduction is oviparous but egg cases are unknown (Nakaya and Stehmann 1998).  <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known, egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44207		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
44207		threats	eng	Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44209		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.
44209		distribution	eng	<em>A. brunneus</em> is found in the eastern Pacific (British Columbia, Canada, to Northern Baja California, Mexico, probably south to Panama, Ecuador, and Peru).
44209		habitat	eng	A little-known deepwater shark from the outer continental shelf and upper slope from depths of 33 to 950 m.  Occurs on or near the bottom, and also well above it. Reproduction is oviparous with a single egg at a time per oviduct. Egg cases are about 5 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, with long tendrils that are probably used to attach them to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures. The incubation period is possibly a year. In Canadian waters females carry egg cases from February to August. Diet includes primarily penaeid shrimps but also euphausiids, squids and small fishes.
44209		population	eng	It is relatively common where it occurs (Compagno 1984).
44209		threats	eng	Commonly taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.
44210		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44210		distribution	eng	<em>A. fedorovi</em> is known from northern Japan (FAO area 61).
44210		habitat	eng	Known from about 29 specimens (16 males, 13 females) caught in northern Japanese waters around 1,200 m depth (Dolganov 1985, Nakaya and Sato 1999). Reaches at least 68.3 cm total length (TL) (Nakaya and Sato 1999). A 55.4 cm TL male was mature, female size at maturity is unknown. Maybe an endemic species with a restricted range, however, further research is required to determine its geographical and bathymetrical distribution. Nothing else is known of its biology. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44210		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known (rarely collected).
44210		threats	eng	Deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44211		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44211		distribution	eng	<em>A. gibbosus</em> is only known from 10 specimens (seven males and three females) caught around 900 m depth. Possibly endemic to the East and South China Seas. The largest specimen examined by Nakaya and Sato (1999) was 54.2 cm TL.
44211		habitat	eng	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44211		population	eng	An apparently rare species.
44211		threats	eng	Unknown. Probably taken in deepwater trawl fisheries and not identified. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44212		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44212		distribution	eng	<em>A. herklotsi</em> is found in the Jolo Sea (Philippine Islands) and South China Sea to Shikoku Island (Japan) and the Kyushu-Palau Ridge.
44212		habitat	eng	<em>A. herklotsi</em> is a poorly known inhabitant of the upper continental slope and oceanic ridges at 520 to 900 m depth (Nakaya 1988, 1991). Females mature at about 44 cm TL. Egg cases are unknown. Male size at maturity is unknown (Nakaya 1988). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44212		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
44212		threats	eng	Bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44213		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44213		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, a 41.9 cm TL female, and the paratype, a 40.3 cm TL male, both from the East China Sea.
44213		habitat	eng	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44213		population	eng	Known from only two specimens.
44213		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.
44214		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44214		distribution	eng	<em>A. investigatoris</em> is only known from the holotype, an immature 24.2cm TL female caught at 1,040 m depth in the Andaman Sea (11°46'N, 93°10'E).
44214		habitat	eng	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are thick, and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44214		threats	eng	Unknown. Possibly taken in deepwater trawl fisheries but not identified. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44215		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44215		distribution	eng	<em>A. kampae</em> occurs from central California to the Gulf of California. Compagno (1984) noted uncertainty over the identification of <em>A. kampae</em> from the Galapagos Islands, however, Nakaya and Sato (1999) recognized the occurrence of this species there. An undescribed species closely resembling <em>A. kampae</em> may occur off California and juvenile <em>A. stenseni</em> may also be confused with <em>A. kampae</em> (Compagno 1984). <br/> <br/>A similar, undescribed species with large gill slits, a high rounded anal fin and a white margin to the terminal lobe of the caudal fin occurs in New Zealand and Australia (<em>Apristurus</em> sp., D Last and Stevens 1994; <em>Apristurus</em> sp., E Paulin <em>et al</em>. 1989).
44215		habitat	eng	The biology and distribution of <em>A. kampae</em> is poorly known due to confusion with other <em>Apristurus</em> species, and its deepwater habitat. It occurs near the bottom over the upper continental slope down to 1,888 m depth. Maximum reported size is 58.4 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1999). Reproduction is oviparous, with a single egg laid per oviduct. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid. Where reported the diet of <em>Apristurus</em> species usually includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes.
44215		threats	eng	Taken as in bycatch in deepwater trawls and sablefish traps off California. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44216		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is required to better document the species' distribution, biology and bycatch levels.
44216		distribution	eng	<strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong>: Massachusetts, Delaware and the northern Gulf of Mexico (USA, Mexico), Honduras and Venezuela.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Iceland, Ireland, Canary Islands and Madeira (Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Nakaya and Sato 1998). Possibly further south to equatorial Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
44216		habitat	eng	<em>Apristurus laurussonii</em> is apparently common on the continental slope at 560 to 2,060 m depth (Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>Apristurus laurussonii</em> together with <em>A. parvipinnis</em> are reported to be the commonest <em>Apristurus</em> species in the Gulf of Mexico. <br/> <br/>Maximum size recorded is ~72 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1998, 1999). The smallest mature female reported in the scientific literature is 59.2 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1998, 1999). Reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are thick, and about 6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril. The surface of the egg case is covered by short, fine fibers that form a pattern of numerous fine striations running the length of the case (Nakaya and Sato 1998). As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes (Compagno 1984, in prep. b).
44216		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in deepwater bottom trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico and Northeast Atlantic, but no details available on catch levels.
44217		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44217		distribution	eng	The species occurs off southern Japan (Tosa Bay, Shikoku Island; Okinawa Trough, East China Sea); Seychelles, southwest Indian Ocean; Australia (North West Cape and Ashmore Reef, Western Australia; and off Townsville, North Queensland).
44217		habitat	eng	<em>A. longicephalus</em> occurs over the continental slope at 500 to 1,140 m depth. Maturity information is only available for a single 39 cm TL female, which had a small undeveloped ovary (Nakaya 1988a). Males mature at 42 cm TL and reach at least 50.1 cm TL (Nakaya 1988). Male size at maturity is smaller than the other Japanese species (<em>A. herklotsi, A. macrorhynchus, A. platyrhynchus</em> and <em>A. japonicus</em>) suggesting <em>A. longicephalus</em> is a relatively small species (Nakaya 1988a). Diet is unknown. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44217		threats	eng	Deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44218		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44218		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur from southern Japan to Taiwan Island.
44218		habitat	eng	A little-known deepwater shark of continental slopes. Maximum reported size is 67.4 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1999). Reproduction is oviparous, with one egg per oviduct (Compagno 1984).  <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures.
44218		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44219		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44219		distribution	eng	<em>Apristurus macrostomus</em> is known only from the holotype, caught in the South China Sea.
44219		habitat	eng	Known only from the holotype, a 38 cm totale length (TL) mature male, caught at 913 m depth. The English translation of the original description by Meng, Chu and Li (1985) incorrectly listed the holotype as a female. However, the illustration, figure caption and the Chinese text of the original description shows it to be a mature male (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm., 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44219		population	eng	Only known from the holotype.
44219		threats	eng	Unknown. Possibly taken in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44220		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44220		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the holotype collected from the South China Sea.
44220		habitat	eng	The holotype is an adolescent male, 37.2 cm TL, caught at 913 m depth. Nakaya and Sato (2000) estimated male size at maturity to be about 40 cm TL, and maximum size to be about 57 cm TL. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled, about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44220		population	eng	Only known from the holotype.
44220		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44221		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44221		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Western Central Atlantic from Gulf of Mexico to French Guiana.
44221		habitat	eng	<em>A. parvipinnis</em> and <em>A. laurussonii</em> are the commonest <em>Apristurus</em> species in the Gulf of Mexico. Despite this little is known of their biology. <em>A. parvipinnis</em> occurs over the continental slope at depths of 636 to 1,115 m. Reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct laid at a time. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Egg cases are usually thick-walled, and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44221		threats	eng	Reported to be a relatively common bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.
44222		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44222		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype and eight other specimens collected from the East China Sea.
44222		habitat	eng	<em>A. pinguis</em> is a poorly known species, apparently endemic to the continental slope of the East China Sea. The holotype, an adult male 55.6 cm TL, is the largest of the nine known specimens. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44222		population	eng	The species is apparently rare.
44222		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44223		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.
44223		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Indo-West Pacific from Malaysia and Borneo north to Suruga Bay, Japan.
44223		habitat	eng	<em>A. platyrhynchus</em> is a poorly known, continental slope species. Maximum size was estimated by Nakaya and Sato (2000) to be about 85 cm TL. Both sexes mature around 60 cm TL. Reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct laid at a time. Egg cases are long, slender and cylindrical (9.4 cm long x 2.2 cm wide). The surface of the egg case is smooth, the anterior end lacks processes and is composed of weak fibrous tissue. The posterior end comes to a single point and lacks tendrils (Nakaya and Sato 2000). The construction of the egg cases and absence of tendrils suggests the eggs may be retained in the female and develop in-utero. This appears to be unique among the <em>Apristurus</em> species, however, the egg cases and development of many have yet to be described. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes.
44223		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl, set net and line fisheries throughout its range. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44224		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44224		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the holotype, a 51 cm TL adolescent male caught on the continental slope off Delaware Bay, Northwest Atlantic, at 1,492 m depth. Nominal records at 1,300 to 1,600 m depth in the Eastern Atlantic (which are possibly <em>A. manis</em>). Adults probably relatively large compared to congeners given the size at adolescence.
44224		habitat	eng	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44224		population	eng	Known only from the holotype.
44224		threats	eng	Unknown. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44225		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44225		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, a 41.7 cm TL immature male from 537 m depth in the South China Sea.
44225		habitat	eng	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44225		population	eng	Known only from the holotype.
44225		threats	eng	Unknown. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44226		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44226		distribution	eng	The species is known from only two specimens in the tropical Pacific Ocean from Hawaiian Islands and the Banda Sea, southern Sulawesi.
44226		habitat	eng	A rare shark known only from two specimens taken on insular slopes, on or near the bottom at 572 to 1,482 m depth. The holotype is a 51.4 cm TL gravid female (Hawaiian specimen). The other known specimen is a 10.5 cm TL juvenile (Sulawesi specimen). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44226		population	eng	Only two specimens known.
44226		threats	eng	Unknown. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.
44227		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.
44227		distribution	eng	Western Indian: only known from a single specimen from the Arabian Sea, which is possibly lost (Compagno 1984).
44227		habitat	eng	Caught on or near the bottom in water 1,134 to 1,262 m deep (Compagno 1984). Biology unknown. Size unknown, only known specimen was small. Presumably <30 cm total length (TL).
44227		threats	eng	Unknown. Found in waters deeper than 1,000 m and would not be of any commercial interest, so probably not greatly threatened unless it does actually turn out to have a very restricted geographic and depth range.
44228		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44228		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian: Only known from off southeastern India and Andaman Islands (Compagno 1984).
44228		habitat	eng	A common deepwater bottom-dwelling catshark occurring on the upper continental slope at depths of 293 to 766 m (Compagno 1984). Biology poorly known. Mode of development unknown.
44228		population	eng	Apparently a common species where it occurs (Compagno 1984).
44228		threats	eng	Unknown. Of no interest to fisheries at present. Very little information.
44229		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
44229		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Only known from the South China Sea about 380 to 400 km east of Hainan Island (Compagno 1984).
44229		habitat	eng	Benthic species found on the continental slope in depths of 534 to 1,020 m (Compagno 1984). Biology poorly known. Mode of development unknown.
44229		population	eng	No information on population size and trends.
44229		threats	eng	Unknown. Of no interest to fisheries at present. Very little information available.
44230		conservation	eng	No information available.
44230		distribution	eng	It is recorded from its type locality in Lake Victoria near Kisumu, Kenya (Brown 1994). During an exploration of freshwater gastropods of Lake Victoria in 2002/2003, C. Lange recorded the species in high abundance to the south on the open waters of the Lake and proposed that the species is likely widespread in Lake Victoria.
44230		habitat	eng	Brown (1994) documents that the species is associated with stony beaches of the Lake near Kisumu. Lange´s ongoing study tends to show that the species is almost equally abundant in all the lakes substratum.
44230		population	eng	In an ongoing study, C. Lange found over 1000 specimens from two study sites (Near Kisumu and Mbita point).
44230		threats	eng	There is currently no documented species threat but sedimentation and pollution are possible threats in the future.
44231		conservation	eng	No information available.
44231		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.
44231		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species. It has been dredged from 310 feet, common in littoral zone down to 40 feet.
44231		population	eng	No information available.
44231		threats	eng	No information available.
44232		conservation	eng	More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44232		conservation	eng	More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44232		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology.
44232		conservation	eng	No information available.
44232		distribution	eng	<em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> is widespread in western Africa from Senegal to the Chad-Chari Basin, and south through the Oubangi into the Congo Basin from above Malebo Pool. It is also apparently reported from Lake Tanganyika (Leloup 1950, Mandahl-Barth 1988).
44232		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> is widespread in western Africa, known from Senegal to the Chad-Chari Basin, and south through the Oubangi into the Congo Basin above Malebo Pool. It is also apparently reported from Lake Tanganyika (Leloup 1950, Mandahl-Barth 1988).
44232		distribution	eng	The species occurs in small streams flowing into Lake Tanganyika in Burundi. The Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP) shows the species to be common, may well be patchily distributed on all shores. It is also mentioned as occurring in several other localities in central Africa.
44232		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West African rivers from Senegal to Shaba.
44232		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
44232		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers. Mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. It has a commensal mayfly species (Gillies and Edouard 1989). No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
44232		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers. This has a commensal mayfly species (Gillies and Edouard 1989).
44232		habitat	eng	Thrives in streams.
44232		population	eng	No information available.
44232		population	eng	No information is available.
44232		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be affected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
44232		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).
44232		threats	eng	Sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances. It is also mentioned that the species is used as food by people in the region and bait for fishing.
44232		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
44233		conservation	eng	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to understand its life cycle. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44233		distribution	eng	<em>Coelatura horei</em> is reported as endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Lange <em>et al</em>. 2004), but specimens referable to this species are from both Lakes Mweru (AMNH, MNHN) and Rukwa (BMNH, ZMB).
44233		distribution	eng	<em>Coelatura horei</em> is reported as endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Lange <em>et al.</em> 2004), but specimens referable to this species are known from both Lakes Mweru (AMNH, MNHN) and Rukwa (BMNH, ZMB).
44233		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. Reported to occur in muddy substrates from 0 to 33 m (Lange <em>et al</em>. 2004).
44233		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. It is reported to occur in muddy substrates from 0 to 33 m (Lange <em>et al</em>. 2004).
44233		population	eng	No information available.
44233		population	eng	No information is available.
44233		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura horei</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
44233		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura horei</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
44234		conservation	eng	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to understand its life cycle. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44234		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em> is reported only from Lake Tanganyika.
44234		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em> is reported only from Lake Tanganyika. It may well be patchily distributed on all shores.
44234		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
44234		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
44234		population	eng	No information available.
44234		population	eng	No information is available.
44234		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the north end of the lake (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
44234		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the north end of the lake (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
44235		conservation	eng	No information available.
44235		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (West <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is present in Tanzania and Zambia. It could also occur in DRC and Burundi, though it has not been reported.
44235		habitat	eng	It is confined to hard substrates, cobbles, boulders and stromatolites in moderate to deep waters (5-100 m).
44235		population	eng	No information available.
44235		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation e.g. Malagarasi River delta.
44236		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
44236		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
44236		distribution	eng	The species is present in eastern Africa, west to Democratic Republic of Congo.
44236		distribution	eng	This species is found in the rift valley lakes in East Africa: including Lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward, Kyoga, Kivu and Tanganyika.
44236		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and major lakes.
44236		habitat	eng	Major lakes and surrounding swampy areas. Tributaries and marshes.
44236		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
44236		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
44236		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
44236		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
44237		conservation	eng	No information available.
44237		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kenyan and Tanzanian coast.
44237		habitat	eng	No information available.
44237		population	eng	No information available.
44237		threats	eng	Parts of the range of this species are very disturbed, with high settlement pressure impacting small pools and slow flowing streams, lakes and muddy areas. The main impacted areas are around Mombassa and Dar es Salaam.
44238		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
44238		conservation	eng	No information available.
44238		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern Kenya and Zanzibar, southwards into northern KwaZulu-Natal. Its western limits are uncertain.<br/><br/><strong>EasternAfrica:</strong> It is present in eastern Kenya, and mainland Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from northern KwaZulu-Natal to Tanzania. It extends into the lower Zambesi for an unknown distance. In Zimbabwe it is found in streams in the highveld and southwards (Kristensen and Makura 1987).
44238		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: From northern KwaZulu-Natal to Tanzania. It extends into the lower Zambesi for an unknown distance. In Zimbabwe it is found in streams in the highveld and southwards (Kristensen and Makura 1987).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Eastern Kenya, Zanzibar, mainland Tanzania and southwards into northern KwaZulu-Natal. Its western limits are uncertain.
44238		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from eastern Kenya, Zanzibar, and mainland Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>: I has been recorded from Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia to Kenya and Tanzania. South African presence needs to be confirmed.
44238		habitat	eng	Recorded from muddy residual pools of seasonal streams and amongst rocks in permanent rivers near the Kenyan coast (Brown 1994). Also known from a wide variety of other natural and artificial habitats including floodplain pans, ponds, streams, swamps and ditches.
44238		habitat	eng	This species thrives in ponds, streams, swamps and ditches.
44238		habitat	eng	Thrive in ponds, streams, swamps and ditches.
44238		population	eng	A widely distributed species which is locally common.
44238		population	eng	No information available.
44238		threats	eng	None documented. Given that the species mainly appears to thrive in small wetlands which are likely to be severely affected by sedimentation, drought, anthropogenic disturbance and other forms of pollution, such impacts are the most likely potential threats to the species in the region.
44238		threats	eng	None documented. Given that the species mainly appears to thrive in small wetlands which are likely to be severely affected by sedimentation, drought, anthropogenic disturbance and other forms of pollution, would suggest such impacts are the most potential threats to the species in the region.
44238		threats	eng	No specific threats known.
44239		conservation	eng	Monitoring of populations near Kigoma is part of ongoing research program in Nyanza Project (website ref. below) and in resultant publications (e.g. McIntrye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press).
44239		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from 36 locations in the southern half of the lake, it is known from Kigoma (Tanzania) to Zambia, with uncertain distribution in Congo.
44239		habitat	eng	This species is found on muddy, sandy and sometimes rocky substrate attached to shells in shell lag deposit of macrophytes. 1-20 m depth.
44239		population	eng	When it occurs it is in relatively large numbers.
44239		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species are water pollution, and sedimentation.
44240		conservation	eng	No information available.
44240		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries (Tanzania, DRC, Burundi and Zambia) (West <em>et al.</em>2003).
44240		habitat	eng	The species common underneath cobbles in shallow waters, 0-5 m.
44240		population	eng	No information available.
44240		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.
44241		conservation	eng	No information available.
44241		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, found on all coastlines.
44241		habitat	eng	It is common underneath (occasionally on) cobbles and rocks in shallow depths, 0-3 m.
44241		population	eng	This species is commonly found underneath cobbles, thus populations are not small but may be patchy (E. Michel, pers. comm.).
44241		threats	eng	No information available.
44242		conservation	eng	No information available.
44242		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, found on all coastlines.
44242		habitat	eng	It is common underneath cobbles and rocks in shallow depths, 0-3 m.
44242		population	eng	This species is commonly found underneath cobbles, thus populations are not small but may be patchy (E. Michel, pers. comm.).
44242		threats	eng	No information available.
44243		conservation	eng	No information available.
44243		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found mainly on the east coast - particularly Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia (Michel <em>et al.</em> 2003 and LTBP 1998 database).
44243		habitat	eng	It is common underneath (occasionally on) cobbles and rocks in shallow depths, 0-5 m.
44243		population	eng	No information available.
44243		threats	eng	Sedimentation could affect this species.
44244		conservation	eng	No information available.
44244		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is present on all shores (locality information is available in West <em>et al.</em> (2003) and on the LTBP database).
44244		habitat	eng	It is confined to rocky substrates at moderate depths 5-20 m.
44244		population	eng	No information available.
44244		threats	eng	Sedimentation could affect this species.
44245		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to currently be in place. Recommended actions include further research to improve available data for future conservation assessments.
44245		distribution	eng	Known only from Lake Tanganyika, but documented as being present on all shores.
44245		habitat	eng	Rocky substrates at moderate depth (5–20 m).
44245		threats	eng	General threats in the lake are pollution and sedimentation.
44246		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to currently be in place for this species. Recommended actions include further research to provide better data for future conservation assessments.
44246		distribution	eng	Lake Tanganyika. There seems to be no data on this species, and it’s not listed in West <em>et al</em>. (2003).
44246		habitat	eng	No data.
44246		threats	eng	Threats are unknown, but sedimentation is a problem in the lake.
44247		conservation	eng	No information available.
44247		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is known from river Kingani near Bagamoyo, Tanzania and Athi river system in Kenya.
44247		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers.
44247		population	eng	No information available.
44247		threats	eng	Drought, sedimentation and human disturbance (due to increasing levels of water extraction) plus pollution are the main possible threats.
44248		conservation	eng	No information available.
44248		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria and possibly inflowing waters. A detailed distribution is unknown. Mandhal-Barth lists the species in Winum Gulf, Kavando, Buvuma Channel.
44248		habitat	eng	No information available.
44248		population	eng	No information available.
44248		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances.
44249		conservation	eng	No information available.
44249		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.
44249		habitat	eng	No information available.
44249		population	eng	No information available.
44249		threats	eng	No information available.
44250		conservation	eng	No information available.
44250		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in streams and swamps near Lake Victoria (Kenya and Tanzania) and Lake Tanganyika particularly near the mouth of the river Malagarasi.
44250		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and swamps.
44250		population	eng	No information available.
44250		threats	eng	None documented but water pollution and sedimentation appear to be the main threats to the species.
44251		conservation	eng	No information available.
44251		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a stream near Monkogo in the upper Zambezi, Belovale district, Zambia (Kristensen 2004). No survey work has been undertaken in the area since (Kristensen pers. comm.).
44251		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
44251		population	eng	No information available.
44251		threats	eng	No information available.
44252		conservation	eng	No information available.
44252		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi, dredged from 10-90 feet.
44252		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
44252		population	eng	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> give a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Also, Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) states 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water.
44252		threats	eng	No information available.
44253		conservation	eng	No information available.
44253		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.
44253		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.
44253		population	eng	No information available.
44253		threats	eng	No information available.
44254		conservation	eng	No information available.
44254		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.
44254		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi. It has been dredged from 10-90 feet.
44254		population	eng	Population densities provide in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) states 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water.
44254		threats	eng	No information available.
44255		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
44255		conservation	eng	No information available.
44255		conservation	eng	None known.
44255		distribution	eng	<em>Sphaerium bequaerti</em> is recorded from Zaire (mainly from the Congo), and it is also known from Zambia, Tanzania and even Ghana (Daget 1998).
44255		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is widely distributed, stretching from Zambia and Tanzania through DRC to Ghana (Daget 1998), although some areas in between yet unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sphaerium bequaerti</em> is recorded from DRC (mainly from the Congo) and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania and Burundi coastlines) and marshes around Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> There is one dubious 19th Century record from Eritrea which needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed through DRC to Ghana.
44255		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs in Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania and Burundi coastlines) and Lake Malawi. It is also found in southern Africa countries.
44255		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is only known from one dubious 19th Century record from Ethiopia, which needs confirmation. It is predominantly a southern African species.
44255		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, stretching from Zambia and Tanzania through DRC to Ghana, although some areas in between are yet unknown.
44255		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater lakes.
44255		habitat	eng	Found in lakes and rivers, living within mud.
44255		habitat	eng	Freshwater lakes.
44255		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes and rivers, living within mud.
44255		habitat	eng	This species of Sphaeriidae is found in both flowing and standing water bodies (Appleton 1996). It lives in soft bottom sediment.
44255		population	eng	No information available.
44255		population	eng	No population data was traced.
44255		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
44255		threats	eng	No information available.
44255		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g.mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
44256		conservation	eng	No information available.
44256		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.
44256		habitat	eng	No information available.
44256		population	eng	No information available.
44256		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic influences.
44257		conservation	eng	No information available.
44257		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western shore of Lake Turkana up to 5 m depth.
44257		habitat	eng	This species is found on the littoral rocky bottom and soft muddy substrata to 5m.
44257		population	eng	No information available.
44257		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species are sedimentation and pollution due to organic and inorganic material and shoreline commercial centres. If trawling is introduced, it could also cause a threat to the species given its small distribution range.
44258		conservation	eng	No current conservation measures in place.
44258		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from two disjunct populations (15 sites) in Kigoma, Tanzania. It is possible that further survey may locate more sites for this species. Dead shells have been found from numerous other sites.
44258		habitat	eng	It is found on boulders and rocks in clear water 2-30 m deep.
44258		population	eng	Population genetics study shows that the only two known living populations are genetically isolated from each other (Kuh and Michel 2004 and in prep).  Population densities are high (2-20 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>) when present, but extent of shoreline distribution very small (10s of meters) thus effective populations are small and threatened.
44258		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to settlements and disturbance.
44259		conservation	eng	No information available.
44259		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the Burundi (five to eight sites) and DRC (+25 sites) coastlines.
44259		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hard substrates, cobbles, boulders and stromatolites below wave base, 8-25 m.
44259		population	eng	No information available.
44259		threats	eng	Water pollution, sediments, land agriculture and deforestation threaten this species.
44260		conservation	eng	No information available.
44260		distribution	eng	It is documented as being endemic to lower Tana river region (Hola) in North-eastern Kenya.
44260		habitat	eng	No information available.
44260		population	eng	No information available.
44260		threats	eng	Unknown, but the species distributional area is known to experience frequent severe droughts and is not protected.
44261		conservation	eng	No information available.
44261		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Malagarasi River and Luiche, near Kigoma. It is found at only six sites in Tanzania, one in Zambia and one in DRC. Occasional shells in the Lake proper and individuals in delta regions lead to erroneous range including Lake Tanganyika.
44261		habitat	eng	This species is documented to thrive on the organic sediment deposited by the larger tributaries flowing into the lake i.e. River Malagarasi. Populations are all female, reproduction parthenogenetic by brooding.
44261		population	eng	Found in very large numbers in soft sediment along some banks of tributaries to Lake Tanganyika in shallow water.
44261		threats	eng	No information available on major threats.
44262		conservation	eng	No information available.
44262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Mbamba Bay and Msumbi.
44262		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.
44262		population	eng	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) states at 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water
44262		threats	eng	No information available.
44263		conservation	eng	No information available.
44263		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Mbamba and Monkey Bay.
44263		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.
44263		population	eng	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) state 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear in shallow water.
44263		threats	eng	The potential threats are sedimentation and pollution.
44264		conservation	eng	No information available.
44264		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Mbamba Bay, the lagoon at Monkey Bay, Msumbi (15 feet deep) and Cape Maclear.
44264		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi. This species is found between 0 and 15 feet on rocky, well oxygenated shores.
44264		population	eng	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) state 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear in shallow water.
44264		threats	eng	The region is very disturbed with sedimentation and pollution.
44265		conservation	eng	No information available.
44265		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It is recorded from Simin river near the south-eastern end of Lake Victoria and the Buvuma channel in the northern part of Lake Victoria where it has been dredged at 60 meters depth.
44265		habitat	eng	No information available.
44265		population	eng	No information available.
44265		threats	eng	The species is likely to be susceptible to the human-induced changes to the lake.
44266		conservation	eng	No information available.
44266		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Nkhotakota.
44266		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
44266		population	eng	No information available.
44266		threats	eng	No information available.
44267		conservation	eng	No information available.
44267		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Mutanda, Uganda. However it is not clear whether the species is endemic to the lake or also found else where.
44267		habitat	eng	No information available.
44267		population	eng	No information available.
44267		threats	eng	No information available, but there is general human induced habitat degradation.
44268		conservation	eng	No information available.
44268		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kenyan central highlands (Aberdare and Mt. Kenya) and Mau escarpment, restricted to a total area of 15,800 km².
44268		habitat	eng	It is found in stony streams in least disturbed forest areas.
44268		population	eng	No information available.
44268		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the destruction of the mountain forests in the river catchments by humans through shifting cultivation, and both legal and illegal logging. Wildfires during the dry seasons have also destroyed vast forest regions in the past.
44269		conservation	eng	A large proportion of the mountain forest on Mount Elgon is covered by a National Park. If the species habitat is within the park the species may enjoy some protection.
44269		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is found in Lake Victoria, from Kisumu in Kenya to the Victoria Nile river in Uganda. It is also recorded from the Sipi River on Mount Elgon (Ugandan side). Data from Brown (1994) suggests that this species is common and abundant in Kisumu, but recent survey work near Kisumu has not located the species.
44269		habitat	eng	In Lake Victoria, Brown reports having recorded many species within the stony areas.
44269		population	eng	No information available.
44269		threats	eng	Undocumented. There is a possible threat of drought and sedimentation to the Mount Elgon population. Pollution, human disturbance and sedimentation is a potential threat to the species around Kisumu.
44270		conservation	eng	No information available.
44270		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, occurring at Dagusi Island, Buvuma channel and Kavirondo Gulf mainly from shore to about 12 m depth (in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania waters).
44270		habitat	eng	This species occurs from the shoreline to about 12 meters deep in the lake. Mostly found within the least disturbed areas.
44270		population	eng	Lake Victoria (Winham Gulf) survey data shows it is the least abundant species in the region appearing at four sites of total 50 sites (Lange 2003 ). In an ongoing exploration of Kenyan Lake Victoria gastropods the species has been reported to be rare and associated with least disturbed areas (Field observation).
44270		threats	eng	Pollution, sedimentation and human disturbance all threaten this species.
44271		conservation	eng	No information available.
44271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Kyella, may be localised at northern end of the Lake.
44271		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.
44271		population	eng	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) state 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear in shallow water.
44271		threats	eng	This region is very disturbed with sedimentation and pollution.
44272		conservation	eng	No information available.
44272		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire River. This species is known from Mbamba Bay, Zambo Bay and Lake Malombe.
44272		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
44272		population	eng	No information available.
44272		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented. However, habitat is believed to be declining through sedimentation and pollution.
44273		conservation	eng	No information available.
44273		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Kenya. It is known from the type locality Hall Tarn.
44273		habitat	eng	It exists at about 4,300 meters on the mountain.
44273		population	eng	No information available.
44273		threats	eng	Mt. Kenya forest has in the past experienced extensive destruction by fire outbreaks particularly in the dry periods. Several sections of the forest have also been extensively destroyed through illegal logging by local residents in search of timber, building materials and agricultural land.
44274		conservation	eng	There is an initiative to protect them through a community conservation programme. The Shimba Hills National park is a protected area in the region which covers part of their range.
44274		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern coastal region of Kenya. It is found in the Kaya Forest region and its type locality at Fimboni, Shimba Hills.
44274		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal regions.
44274		population	eng	No information available.
44274		threats	eng	It is not clear whether the species distribution is covered by protected areas (in the Shimba Hills NP) or the wetlands in the human settlement schemes which places some uncertainty over species conservation status.
44275		conservation	eng	The National Trust for the Cayman Islands owns and protects <em>ca</em>. 800 hectares of terrestrial protected areas, but within Grand Cayman suitable protected land for <em>Cyclura lewisi</em> is very scarce. The Blue Iguana Recovery Programme (under the auspices of the National Trust for the Cayman Islands) is successfully breeding <em>C. lewisi</em> in captivity, rearing them to two years old, and releasing them into the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park on Grand Cayman. This restored population began breeding in 2001. Currently nests laid in the Park are being collected, and the eggs incubated to allow head-starting of all hatchlings. Long term the programme seeks to expand this successful pilot project through establishment of a large protected area where a population of <em>ca</em>. 1,000 iguanas can be restored. Control of feral predators will be required in perpetuity. <br/> <br/>The species is fully protected under local legislation, and effectively kept out of international trade by CITES regulations and procedures.
44275		distribution	eng	Although fossil evidence indicates this species was formerly widespread in dry and coastal habitats throughout Grand Cayman, it is currently restricted to the East interior, in the High Rock-Battle Hill area, with extremely rare occurrences south of the Queen’s Highway. The area of occurrence was estimated at 7 km² in 1993, reduced to less than 4 km² by 2002 despite the new establishment of a managed wild population on the Queen Elizabeth II (QE II) Botanic Park, which began breeding in 2001 (Burton 2002).
44275		habitat	eng	Comparison with other <em>Cyclura</em> species in the region strongly suggests there was once a coastal population of <em>Cyclura lewisi</em>, which was gradually displaced or extirpated by human settlements and the construction of a perimeter highway. The sparse interior population is believed to have been attracted to agricultural clearance, where in 1993 the remnant wild population was focused in the intergrade between dry forest/shrubland, and traditional fruit farms. The farms provided thermoregulatory opportunities, herbaceous browse, fallen fruit, and nesting soil, but also brought the iguanas into contact with people. <br/> <br/>Like all <em>Cyclura</em>, <em>C. lewisi</em> is an annual breeder, laying 1 to 22 eggs depending on the female’s age and size. Hatchlings are vulnerable to native snakes (<em>Alsophis cantherigerus caymanus</em>) and naturally have a very high mortality rate. Head-starting young through the first two years increases survival greatly, and is proving an effective medium-term conservation strategy.
44275		population	eng	The unmanaged wild population is so sparse and dispersed (estimated at 10–25 individuals in 2002) that no meaningful assessment of subpopulation structure can be made. The managed population in the QE II Botanic Park is not fenced in and some individuals released at this site have been recovered in the village of East End, indicating that there is potential genetic exchange with the unmanaged remnant population. However, predation by feral cats, combined with threats detailed below, appears to be preventing recruitment of young in the unmanaged population to breeding age (Burton 2002).
44275		threats	eng	Feral and free-roaming dogs and cats kill adults and juveniles respectively and have been shown to be capable of causing local extinction of other <em>Cyclura</em> species in absence of other threats. Rats have also been observed to cause severe injury to <em>C. lewisi</em> hatchlings, and may cause mortality. Both cats and rats have been observed throughout all areas of remaining <em>C. lewisi</em> occurrence, and in 2002 dogs were seen in areas which had supported nesting <em>C. lewisi</em> as recently as 1993. Predation by feral exotics is regarded as one of the major threats to the species. <br/> <br/>Traditional fruit farms have been converted to grassland for cattle grazing on a large scale over the last decade. The loss of fruit trees and herbaceous browse, combined with soil compaction, means this conversion has drastically reduced the extent of suitable habitat for the iguanas. Increasingly land is being concerted for human residential purposes, witch brings an increase in rats, cats and dogs. Habitat conversion is the second major threat to the species. <br/> <br/>Vehicular roads to serve farms in inland residential subdivisions has brought fast-moving traffic into remnant iguana areas. Road killed iguanas have consequently been observed. Although the Blue Iguana is protected under local legislation, occasional illegal captures (not involving international trade) do occur. <br/> <br/>A large breeding population of <em>Iguana iguana</em> from Central America has become established on Grand Cayman. While no resulting direct threats to native iguanas have become evident, the presence of another iguana species confuses the public awareness messages for conservation of <em>Cyclura lewisi</em>. <br/> <br/>Occasional specimens of the closely related <em>Cyclura nubila caymanensis</em> from Little Cayman, have been found free in western Grand Cayman as a result of deliberate or accidental transport of hatchlings on boats and aircraft. No sightings have occurred in eastern Grand Cayman where <em>C. lewisi</em> persists, but there is clearly a potential risk of hybridization. <br/> <br/>Despite a former tradition of consuming tail meat of iguanas, modern day Caymanians do not generally eat iguanas. An increasing Central American immigrant population has, however, brought a tradition of consuming <em>Iguana iguana</em> to Cayman, and there is a danger than this practice could "cross over" to <em>C. lewisi</em>. <br/> <br/>The primary use of Blue Iguanas today is as a major ecotourism attraction: although the population was restored there for conservation reasons, it constitutes one of the main visitor attractions to the QE II Botanic Park. Under this controlled setting with exclusion of dogs and cats, this synergy is proving beneficial to both the Park and the iguanas.
44276		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44276		distribution	eng	Nosy-Be Island, Madagascar (NW-SE axis), where it is widespread in Madagascan rainforests.  The habitat is highly fragmented.
44276		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44276		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire and clearing.
44277		conservation	eng	CITES Appendix II.
44277		distribution	eng	North-west of Imerina (Ampotaka), Madagascar. Not collected since the type specimen in around 1880, occurs in one of the most highly fragmented and disturbed areas in Madagascar.
44277		habitat	eng	High plateaux, supposedly on rocks and inland cliffs (like the other representatives of the group).
44277		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fire.
44278		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44278		distribution	eng	Known from a single locality. Apparently restricted to the Ambilobe area.
44278		habitat	eng	On limestone in deciduous xerophytic forest, north of Ambilobe.
44278		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural purposes.
44279		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.  Some localities for the typical subspecies fall within reserves and protected forests. No subpopulations of subsp. <em>onoclada</em> occur within a protected area.
44279		distribution	eng	The typical subspecies is recorded from south-west Madagascar, extending towards the central high-plateau.  This subspecies is common throughout its range.  The habitat for the high-plateau populations is highly fragmented. <br/> <br/>The subspecies <em>E. a. oncoclada</em> can be found in the Tulear/Saint-Augustin region and on some high plateau inselbergs.  The Tulear subpopulation is thriving and is definitely Least Concern, but the high plateau subpopulations occur in an extremely fragmented habitat.  There are no longer any links between the different subpopulations of this subspecies.
44279		habitat	eng	Found in the south-western bush areas of Madagascar, as well as the inselbergs and rocks of the southern central high-plateau.  Plants growing in the south-west don’t seem to be restricted by the nature of the soil whereas individuals from the high-plateau require well drained rock outcrops to grow, greatly limiting potential localities.
44279		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, mining for the high-plateau specimens.  When old enough this species is possibly used for charcoal.
44282		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.  <em>E. ambarivatoensis</em> grows within the limits of the Ankarana reserve.
44282		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Falaise de l’Ankarana.  <em>E. ambarivatoensis</em> may possibly occur in Windsor Castle, Bobaomby, near Antsiranana.
44282		habitat	eng	Found on Karst (Tsingy).
44282		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural purposes.
44283		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44283		distribution	eng	<em>E. ambovombensis</em> is restricted to the Ambovombe area of Madagascar, where it is locally common.
44283		habitat	eng	Southern bush, in deep shade under shrubs.
44283		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection of <em>E. ambovombensis</em> for horticulture.
44284		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44284		distribution	eng	North-western coast of Madagascar. May also occur on Nosy-Be, the Comoros Islands and Mayotte.
44284		habitat	eng	Found in the coastal areas, on rocky outcrops at 50–100 m. elevation.
44284		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing.
44285		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44285		distribution	eng	Northern Madagascar: Bobaomby (Windsor Castle), Montagne des Français, Ankarana.  Locally common throughout its range.
44285		habitat	eng	Occurs on rock outcrops, within the tsingy (limestone outcrop) areas.
44285		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44286		conservation	eng	Occurs in the two reserves of Ankarana and Analamerana.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44286		distribution	eng	Located in Ankarana and Analamerana.
44286		habitat	eng	Tsingy (limestone outcrops).
44286		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44287		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44287		distribution	eng	Ankazobe, Madagascar.
44287		habitat	eng	Forests remnants on the central high-plateau.
44287		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44288		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44288		distribution	eng	Near Ste-Luce, Fort-Dauphin.
44288		habitat	eng	Coastal rainforest. This poorly understood species may be a natural hybrid.
44288		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, mining, collection for horticultural trade.
44289		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44289		distribution	eng	Dry parts of west and south-west Madagascar. The main subpopulation is in the Tulear region, some satellite subpopulations occur further north and to the south. The species is common wherever it grows.
44289		habitat	eng	South-western dry bush of Madagascar, along with other <em>Euphorbia</em> ssp. which are the dominant species there.
44289		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44290		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44290		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Nosy-Be.  Present in the south, centre, west and north-western region. Absent in the east.  <em>E. aprica</em> is common throughout its range.
44290		habitat	eng	Forest dweller. This is probably a species complex in need of further taxonomic work.
44290		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44291		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44291		distribution	eng	Fort-Dauphin and Tulear area, southern Madagascar. This species is locally common, however, the habitat of <em>E. arahaka</em> is fragmented.
44291		habitat	eng	South-west bush.
44291		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is used locally as charcoal.
44292		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44292		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, restricted to the Montagne des Français near Antsiranana.
44292		habitat	eng	Found on tsingy type rocks.
44292		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44293		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.  The species occurs outside the south-west reserves.
44293		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, known only from one locality between Ampanihy and Androka.
44293		habitat	eng	South-west dry bush, on chalk.
44293		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Possibly used for the horticultural trade.
44294		conservation	eng	Some of the population is located within the Tsimanampetsota nature reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44294		distribution	eng	Southern Madagascar, Fort-dauphin area: Amboasary, Behara, Ranomainty; Tulear area: Tsimanampetsotsa.  The population is highly fragmented.
44294		habitat	eng	Dry bush, on sand.
44294		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for horticulture.
44295		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44295		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area: Behara.
44295		habitat	eng	Dry bush, on sand.
44295		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for horticulture.
44296		conservation	eng	Some of the population is located within the Tsimanampetsota nature reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44296		distribution	eng	Southern Madagascar, Fort-dauphin area: Behara, Tulear area: Tsimanampetsotsa.  The population is highly fragmented.
44296		habitat	eng	Dry bush, on sand.
44296		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for horticulture.
44297		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44297		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.  Fort-Dauphin area: Ranomainty, Amboasary.
44297		habitat	eng	Dry bush.
44297		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.  Collection for horticulture.
44298		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44298		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area.
44298		habitat	eng	Dry bush.
44298		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44299		conservation	eng	Occurs in the National reserve of Bemaraha.
44299		distribution	eng	Only known to occur in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Reserve, Mahajunga Province, Madagascar.
44299		habitat	eng	On Karst limestone (Tsingy of Bemaraha).
44299		threats	eng	Fires.
44300		distribution	eng	Lower valley of the Fiherenana, south-west Madagascar.
44300		habitat	eng	Likely to occur on sands.
44300		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fires.
44301		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44301		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar.  Beroroha, at the Mangoky river.
44301		habitat	eng	Rocky slopes.
44301		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticulture.
44302		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44302		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Plateau Mahafaly (South of Tulear).
44302		habitat	eng	Possibly occurs on dry calcareous bush.
44302		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.  This species also has a potential horticultural appeal.
44303		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44303		distribution	eng	West Madagascar: Anjiafitatra, Boina (Ankarafantsika, Mont Tsitondroina).
44303		habitat	eng	Forests on sand.
44303		threats	eng	Likely threats to this species include fires and habitat destruction.
44304		conservation	eng	Occurs in Masoala reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44304		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.  Thought to be extinct on Sainte-Marie Island and rare on Masoala peninsula, where populations are highly fragmented.
44304		habitat	eng	Exclusively found within rainforest habitat.
44304		threats	eng	Destruction of its native forest.  There is a potential interest in the horticultural trade now it has been rediscovered.
44305		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44305		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Anadabolava.
44305		habitat	eng	Dry forests.
44305		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection.
44306		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44306		distribution	eng	Endemic to east and west Madagascar, where it is considered common.
44306		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44306		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44307		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44307		distribution	eng	Endemic to east, west and south-west Madagascar, where it is considered common.  Eastern evergreen rainforest: Tamatave, Betampona, Maroantsetra, Masoala, Sainte-Marie Island, Nosy Mangabe.  West: Nosy-Be island.
44307		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44307		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44308		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin: Col de Manangotry.
44308		habitat	eng	Forest.
44308		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44309		conservation	eng	Occurs in the reserves of Manongarivo and Zakamena.
44309		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.  Centre: Ankaratra, Lac Alaotra, Pic d’Ivohibe, Zakamena.  West: Sambirano, Manongarivo.  East: coastal areas.  The population occurs on highly fragmented habitat.
44309		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44309		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44310		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44310		distribution	eng	North-west Madagascar. Only known to occur in the Bongolava regions, south-east of Port-Bergé (Boriziny).
44310		habitat	eng	Dry forest on the Bongolava mountains
44310		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticulture.
44311		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44311		distribution	eng	Madagascar, south-western domain, near  the city of Betroka.  Known from a single specimen, never collected again.  One locality known.
44311		habitat	eng	Forests, near streams.
44311		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, floods.
44312		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44312		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Beroroha/Mangoky (Menamaty) area.
44312		habitat	eng	Found on rocky slopes.
44312		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44313		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44313		distribution	eng	Northern Madagascar (Antsiranana district): Windsor-Castle (Bobaomby) and surroundings, where it is locally abundant on the rocky summits.
44313		habitat	eng	Found in rock cracks.
44313		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44314		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44314		distribution	eng	Restricted to Cap-Manambato, north-east Madagascar.
44314		habitat	eng	Found on rocky cliffs by the sea.
44314		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44315		conservation	eng	The only known locality is within the boundaries of the reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44315		distribution	eng	Cap-Sainte-Marie, south-west Madagascar.  There are numerous mature individuals in Cap-Sainte-Marie reserve.
44315		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, in rock cracks on the top of Cap-Sainte-Marie cliff.
44315		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, wildfires, natural disaster, collection for horticulture.
44316		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44316		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Mahafaly plateau.
44316		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44317		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44317		distribution	eng	Probably north-west Madagascar. Mount Mahabenofo (Unknown location).
44317		habitat	eng	Chalk rocks.
44317		threats	eng	Apart from restricted range, unknown.
44318		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44318		distribution	eng	Known only from one collection on the side of the Antananarivo-Tulear road, Tulear (Toliara) area, south-west Madagascar. Only a few mature specimens occur within the only known locality.
44318		habitat	eng	Dry south-west bush of Madagascar.
44318		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44319		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I. Reportedly present in Namoroka reserve (Rauh 1995).
44319		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Mahajanga/Maevatanana area, and possibly from Bemarivo.
44319		habitat	eng	Among grasses, in open forests.
44319		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44320		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (e.g., Namoroka, Rauh (1995)).  Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44320		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Mahajanga/Maevatanana area. Reportedly present in Namoroka reserve (Rauh 1995).
44320		habitat	eng	Among grasses, in open forests.
44320		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44321		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44321		distribution	eng	Madagascar.  Known from the type collection, possibly collected from Bemarivo.
44321		habitat	eng	Possibly Bemarivo shores.
44321		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.  Possible future threat from horticultural trade.
44322		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andohahela).  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44322		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Ampilira to Ampasimpolaka.  The habitat in which <em>E. croizatii</em> occurs is highly fragmented.
44322		habitat	eng	Found in the south-west bush of Madagascar, on rocks.
44322		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44323		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44323		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area.  This species is common in some areas.
44323		habitat	eng	South-western dry forests and bush.
44323		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44324		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. (seen in Andohahela).  Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44324		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area.  This subspecies is common in some locations.
44324		habitat	eng	South-western dry forests of Madagascar.
44324		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44325		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44325		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area.
44325		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44325		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural trade.
44326		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44326		distribution	eng	Recorded from separate localities in southern Madagascar: 30 km south of Ampanihy, Fort Dauphin area, the Tulear area and near Ampotaka.
44326		habitat	eng	Recorded from a variety of habitats: dry calcareous bush, under shrubs, on sands and dunes, rocky areas near the coast and in <em>Alluaudia</em> forest.
44326		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for agriculture and charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44327		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44327		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: known from a single collection 30 km south of Ampanihy.
44327		habitat	eng	South-west dry calcareous bush, under shrubs.
44327		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for the horticultural trade.
44328		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andohahela).  Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44328		distribution	eng	South-east Madagascar, Fort Dauphin area.
44328		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, on sands and dunes.
44328		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44329		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44329		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.  Restricted to the Tulear area.
44329		habitat	eng	Rocky areas near the coast.
44329		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44330		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44330		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: <em>Alluaudia</em> forest near Ampotaka.  This species is common at its only known locality.
44330		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, <em>Alluaudia</em> forest.
44330		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44331		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. (Andohahela).
44331		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area, possibly extending towards Itampolo.  <em>E. decorsei</em> is common throughout its range.
44331		habitat	eng	South-west dry <em>Alluaudia</em> forest.
44331		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also eaten by <em>Zebus.</em>
44332		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44332		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin (Vinanibe).
44332		habitat	eng	On rocks.
44332		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44333		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44333		distribution	eng	Central Madagascar: Antongona (central plateau, Imerina). Rauh (1995) states that the type locality is unknown and assumed that the plant came from Ankarana, however, it is likely that the plant came from the Central Imerina, area as the other known specimen (Decary 13131) was collected in Antongona.
44333		habitat	eng	Unknown. Supposedly on rocks.
44333		threats	eng	Likely threats to the species are; habitat degradation, fire.
44334		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44334		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: all the reserves. <em>E. denisii</em> is common throughout its range.
44334		habitat	eng	South-west dry bush and forests of Madagascar.
44334		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44335		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44335		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Zazafotsy/Zomandao area.  This species is common within its range, where the ecological requirements are met.
44335		habitat	eng	Found exclusively on rock outcrops scattered in grassland, in the high plateau area.
44335		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fires, collection for horticultural trade.
44336		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Ankaratra and Andringitra). Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44336		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Ankaratra mountains, where it is thought to be rare; and in the Fianarantsoa area and Andringitra reserve where it is locally common.
44336		habitat	eng	Found on rocks and inselbergs
44336		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44337		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Ankaratra). Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44337		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Ankaratra mountains, where it is thought to be rare.
44337		habitat	eng	Occurs on rocky areas.
44337		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44338		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andringitra). Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44338		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Fianarantsoa area, Andringitra reserve. This species is locally common on rocks.
44338		habitat	eng	Found on rocks and inselbergs.
44338		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44339		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44339		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area, Mandena forest, Andohahela reserve.
44339		habitat	eng	Forest dweller.  Found in shrubland and forests on sandy, coastal and humid areas.
44339		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44340		conservation	eng	Some localities occurs within the protected areas of Ankaratra, Andringitra and Andohahela.
44340		distribution	eng	Madagascar, central plateau: Ankaratra to Andringitra, East: secondary habitat on destroyed forests, South:Andohahela. Also found on Mayotte and Comoros. The population of <em>E. emirnensis</em> is fragmented.
44340		habitat	eng	A high altitude species of meadows and grassy slopes.
44340		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44341		distribution	eng	Madagascar, central plateau (Ambositra, Antsirabe, Vakinankaratra area).
44341		habitat	eng	Located on meadows and grassy slopes.
44341		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44342		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44342		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Tulear to Fort-Dauphin; central Madagascar: Ihosy area, Zazafotsy.  Both subspecies are relatively common where they occur, but the habitat in which they occur is highly fragmented.
44342		habitat	eng	Located in the south-west bush of Madagascar (dry forest), or on rocks and inselbergs of the central high plateau.
44342		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes.
44343		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44343		distribution	eng	Central High-plateau of Madagascar: Ihosy area, Zazafotsy. It is common throughout its range, where growing requirements are met.
44343		habitat	eng	Found exclusively on rocks and inselbergs.
44343		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44344		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44344		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Tulear to Fort-Dauphin; central Madagascar: Ihosy area. <em>E. e. enterophora</em> is common throughout its range, however, the habitat in which it occurs is highly fragmented.
44344		habitat	eng	Located in the south-west bush of Madagascar (forest tree), or on rocks and inselbergs of the central high plateau.
44344		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes.
44345		distribution	eng	Madagascart: Ambatondrazaka area, Ampasimpotsy.
44345		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest habitat.
44345		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, clear cutting for timber.
44346		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44346		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy (Ambovombe, Amboasary, Andranomana) and the Itampolo area.  The population is slightly fragmented, but common throughout its range.
44346		habitat	eng	South-west bush and forests.
44346		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44347		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44347		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy (Ambovombe, Amboasary, Andranomana). The population is slightly fragmented, but common throughout its range.
44347		habitat	eng	South-west bush and forests.
44347		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44348		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44348		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Itampolo area.
44348		habitat	eng	South-west bush.
44348		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearance for charcoal.
44349		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (maybe Andringitra).  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44349		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar. Zazafotsy, Fianarantsoa area.
44349		habitat	eng	On rocky outcrops and inselbergs.
44349		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44350		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within some reserves and protected forests e.g., Tsimanampetsotsa and Cap-Sainte-Marie. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44350		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Tulear to Fort-Dauphin, where it is common throughout its range.
44350		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44350		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire and habitat clearing for charcoal. <em>E. fiherenensis</em> is used to feed cattle.
44351		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44351		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin, where it is common; and Andrahomana (near Ranopiso).
44351		habitat	eng	South-west bush under shrubs, in sand.
44351		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, highly prized by the  horticultural trade (the Fort Dauphin site is very accessible).
44352		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44352		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Andrahomana (near Ranopiso).
44352		habitat	eng	South-west bush, under shrubs.
44352		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, highly prized for horticulture.
44353		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44353		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin, where it is common throughout its range.
44353		habitat	eng	South-west bush under shrubs, in sand.
44353		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes (the site is very accessible).
44354		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44354		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar, found within the surrounding coastal forest of Iharanae.
44354		habitat	eng	Coastal forests on sand.
44354		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for national and international horticultural trade.
44355		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44355		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Fiherenana valley, north-west of Sakaraha.
44355		habitat	eng	On steep limestone slopes.
44355		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the national and international horticultural trade.
44356		distribution	eng	West and south-west Madagascar: Manongarivo and Fiherenana.
44356		habitat	eng	Sand dunes.
44356		threats	eng	Likely threats are habitat degradation and fire.
44357		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44357		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.  Found in the Ananalalava district (Ambarijeby, Boriziny): Port-Bergé area.  The habitat of <em>E. guillauminiana</em> is likely to be highly fragmented.
44357		habitat	eng	On rocks.
44357		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44358		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44358		distribution	eng	Endemic to south-west Madagascar.  Found within the Ambovombe/Amboasary area, where it is common throughout its range.
44358		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44358		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection of mature specimens for the horticultural trade.
44359		conservation	eng	The two known localities fall within reserves.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44359		distribution	eng	Endemic to north Madagascar.  Found in the Tsingy of Ankarana, and possibly occurs in the reserve speciale of Analamerana, where the specimen is described as "locally common".
44359		habitat	eng	In red soil with leaf litter over limestone, in low (c. 6 m), dense, deciduous forest.
44359		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44360		conservation	eng	None in place as far as is known.
44360		distribution	eng	North-West Madagascar, enigmatic locality: Vavatobé.
44360		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44360		threats	eng	Unknown.
44361		distribution	eng	West Madagascar: Betsiboka.
44361		habitat	eng	Sands of the Betsiboka.
44361		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, natural disaster (flooding).
44362		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44362		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, near Tongobory.(may possibly be found in La Table, near Tulear).
44362		habitat	eng	This species is likely to occur on rocky area amongst the south-west dry bush.
44362		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44363		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Isalo). Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44363		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar, located in the areas of Horombe,Ihosy and Isalo. <em>E. horombensis</em> is locally common throughout its range, when suitable rocks are available.
44363		habitat	eng	Found on rock outcrops.
44363		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44364		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Mangoky area (between Manja and Beroroha).
44364		habitat	eng	Bare sandstone rocks.
44364		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44365		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44365		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Near Cap-Manambato (Iharana district).
44365		habitat	eng	<em>E. iharanae</em> is a coastal cliff dweller.
44365		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44366		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44366		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.  <em>E. imerina</em> is a rare species, found north of the central high-plateau.
44366		habitat	eng	Found growing on some of the rocky inselbergs.
44366		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44367		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests, such as Andohahela and Beza-Mahafaly. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44367		distribution	eng	Driest parts of south-west Madagascar: Tulear, Itampolo, Fort-Dauphin. <em>E. intisy</em> is common throughout its range.
44367		habitat	eng	Dry south-west bush of Madagascar.
44367		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44368		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44368		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Itremo area.
44368		habitat	eng	Found on quartzite sands.
44368		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for national and international horticultural trade.
44369		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44369		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Tulear area, Ifaty.
44369		habitat	eng	South-west bush and forest of Madagascar.
44369		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, clear-cutting for charcoal.
44370		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44370		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear area. The population of <em>E. kondoi</em> is locally common, however, the habitat is  highly fragmented and degraded.
44370		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44370		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also collected for national and international horticultural trade.
44371		conservation	eng	The area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are within the Réserve Spéciale de l’Ankarana. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44371		distribution	eng	Madagascar.  Found on the Tsingy of Ankarana: Andrafiabe (Camp des Américains) and Andavenoko. The species is qualified as "very rare" by people who conducted fieldwork in the area.
44371		habitat	eng	Humus on calcareous rocks.
44371		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural purposes.
44372		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44372		distribution	eng	North Madagascar: Montagne des Francais. Possibly found in the Ankarana and Bemarivo areas (where two dubious specimens were reportedly collected).
44372		habitat	eng	Tsingy (limestone) of the montagne des Francais.
44372		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44373		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44373		distribution	eng	East coast Madagascar, from Fort-Dauphin (where it is locally common) to Sainte-Marie island. The modern collections are all from the southern part of the distribution. The specimens from Sainte-Marie island were all collected in 1880 suggesting that the species is now extinct there.
44373		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
44373		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for national and international horticultural trade.
44374		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44374		distribution	eng	East coast Madagascar, from Fort-Dauphin (where it is locally common) to Sainte-Marie island. The modern collections are all from the southern part of the distribution. The specimens from Sainte-Marie island were all collected in 1880 suggesting that the species is now extinct there.
44374		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
44374		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44375		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44375		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin: Sainte-Luce forest.
44375		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
44375		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for national and international horticultural trade.
44376		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44376		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Mahaboboka area, Amanda.
44376		habitat	eng	South-west dry forest of Madagascar
44376		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also collected for horticultural trade.
44377		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44377		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Plateau Mahafaly, Tsihombe area, where it is locally common on rock outcrops; and Onilahy valley area, Sakamare.
44377		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, occurring only on rock outcrops.
44377		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44378		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44378		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Plateau Mahafaly, Tsihombe area, where it is locally common on rock outcrops.
44378		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, occurring only on rock outcrops.
44378		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44379		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44379		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Onilahy valley area, Sakamare.
44379		habitat	eng	Rocky areas.
44379		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, potential horticultural appeal.
44380		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44380		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear area.
44380		habitat	eng	Unknown. Likely to be the south-west dry bush.
44380		threats	eng	Likely to be habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. <em>E. mainiana</em> has potential horticultural appeal.
44381		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44381		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear (extending east to Mahaboboka) to Fort-dauphin. This species is common throughout its range.
44381		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44381		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. <em>E. mainty</em> is also eaten by cattle.
44382		conservation	eng	<em>E. mananarensis</em> may be present within the Andohahela reserve.
44382		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort Dauphin area: Esomony, Antanimora, Vinanibe.
44382		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
44382		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44383		conservation	eng	Most of the collections are from two reserves (Tsingy of Ankarana and Montagne d’Ambre).
44383		distribution	eng	North Madagascar: Antsiranana (Montagne d’Ambre, Tsingy of Ankarana).
44383		habitat	eng	On chalky areas, with other shrubs and small trees.
44383		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44384		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44384		distribution	eng	Northern Madagascar, found between Andapa and Sambava.
44384		habitat	eng	In wet mosses and lichens.
44384		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44385		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44385		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar, Mangoky region.
44385		habitat	eng	On woody, rocky slopes.
44385		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44386		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Perinet).
44386		distribution	eng	Eastern Madagascar: Mangoro river area, Perinet (Moramanga).
44386		habitat	eng	Eastern rainforest.
44386		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.
44387		conservation	eng	The type collection is from the Reserve Spéciale d’Ankarana.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44387		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Andohakarany, east of the Massif de l’Ankarana.  Known only from the type location.
44387		habitat	eng	Found within dry forest, on rocks
44387		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44389		conservation	eng	occurs in a number of protected areas and forest reserves. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44389		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Fort Dauphin area;  20 km south of Betroka; mountains near Ihosy, possibly between Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa; possibly north of Antananarivo, near Maevatanana; on the High Plateau near Imerina; Zombitse forest (Sakaraha) and at Le Table mountain near Tulear.
44389		habitat	eng	Seems to occur in a variety of bush and forest habitats, but always on rocks (usually granite formations).
44389		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44390		conservation	eng	May occur in the Andohahela reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44390		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, known only from the Fort-Dauphin area.
44390		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44390		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44391		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44391		distribution	eng	Madagascar, possibly between Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa.
44391		habitat	eng	On granite rocks.
44391		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44392		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44392		distribution	eng	Southern central region of Madagascar, 20 km south of Betroka.
44392		habitat	eng	On rocks.
44392		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44393		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44393		distribution	eng	Madagascar.  The precise locality is unknown, but may occur north of Antananarivo, near Maevatanana (Denis 1921).
44393		habitat	eng	Likely to occur on granite rocks.
44393		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44394		conservation	eng	Occurs within the protected Zombitse forest.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44394		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Zombitse forest (Sakaraha), where it is locally common.
44394		habitat	eng	In humus, in the shade under trees.
44394		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44395		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44395		distribution	eng	Madagascar, High Plateau: Imerina (precise locality is unknown).
44395		habitat	eng	Likely to be found on granite rocks.
44395		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44396		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44396		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar, found on the Mountains near Ihosy (Central-South).
44396		habitat	eng	Located on granite rocks.
44396		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44397		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44397		distribution	eng	Madagascar, La Table mountain near Tulear.
44397		habitat	eng	located on rocky areas.
44397		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44398		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44398		distribution	eng	Madagascar, central high plateau (Antsirabe, Ihosy).
44398		habitat	eng	Located on rocks.
44398		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44399		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44399		distribution	eng	Madagascar, only known from the area of coastal Lac Vert, south of Iharana.
44399		habitat	eng	Coastal forest.
44399		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44400		conservation	eng	Occurs within the reserve of Bemaraha.  Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44400		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha and Maevatanana.
44400		habitat	eng	On Tsingy (karst) and amongst grasses.
44400		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44401		conservation	eng	This variety occurs within the reserve of Bemaraha.  Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44401		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha.
44401		habitat	eng	Tsingy (karst).
44401		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44402		conservation	eng	This variety occurs within the reserve of Bemaraha.  Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44402		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha.
44402		habitat	eng	Tsingy (karst).
44402		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44403		conservation	eng	This variety occurs in the reserve of Bemaraha.
44403		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha.
44403		habitat	eng	Tsingy (karst).
44403		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44404		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44404		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar, Maevatanana.
44404		habitat	eng	Amongst grasses.
44404		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44405		conservation	eng	May occur within the limits of the protected forest of Zombitse. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44405		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Itampolo and Sakaraha areas.
44405		habitat	eng	South-west bush and dry forest.
44405		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for the horticultural trade.
44406		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44406		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Itampolo area.
44406		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44406		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for the horticultural trade.
44407		conservation	eng	May occur within the limits of the protected forest of Zombitse.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44407		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Sakaraha area.
44407		habitat	eng	Dry forest.
44407		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire.  Possible collection for horticultural trade.
44408		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within the boundraies of the Ankarana reserve. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44408		distribution	eng	Northern Madagascar, Antsiranana province: Tsingy of Ankarana and the Montagne des Francais.
44408		habitat	eng	Located on tsingy limestone.
44408		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44409		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44409		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Lac alaotra to Tulear and the Fort-Dauphin area.
44409		habitat	eng	Dry forest and bush in rocky areas.
44409		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44410		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44410		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Lac alaotra to Tulear.
44410		habitat	eng	Dry bush in rocky areas.
44410		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44411		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44411		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area.
44411		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44411		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44412		conservation	eng	The two localities fall within the boundaries of the Tsingy of Ankarana reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44412		distribution	eng	Madagascar, Tsingy of Ankarana.
44412		habitat	eng	On Tsingy limestones.
44412		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44413		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44413		distribution	eng	Eastern Madagascar, Ambatondrazaka, Lac Alaotra, etc. <em>E. pachysantha</em> was not collected for 60 years, and only one recent collection from the Andringitra area is known. It is a rarely encountered species, threatened by habitat fragmentation.
44413		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44413		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal and logging.
44414		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44414		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, near Anjamala.
44414		habitat	eng	Pockets of soil, on the face of the cavernous limestone cliffs on the south bank of Fiherenana river.
44414		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural purposes.
44415		conservation	eng	Only known from the Tsingy of Bemaraha reserve. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44415		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Tsingy of Bemaraha.
44415		habitat	eng	Located on tsingy limestone.
44415		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44416		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Ankarafantsika).  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44416		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: ankarafantsika, morondava area, etc. The habitat where <em>E. pedilanthoides</em> occurs is highly fragmented.
44416		habitat	eng	Sandy dry forests of Madagascar.
44416		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44417		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Antanimena, and between Port-Bergé and Antsohihy.
44417		habitat	eng	Possibly located on dry grassland.
44417		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, natural disasters.
44418		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44418		distribution	eng	Northern Madagascar: Sambirano region, Manongarivo massif; and Tsingy of Namoroka, Ankarafantsika.
44418		habitat	eng	Located in dry forests and woods on sandstone ("gres liasiques").
44418		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44419		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44419		distribution	eng	Northern Madagascar, Sambirano region, Manongarivo massif.
44419		habitat	eng	Located in woods on sandstone ("gres liasiques").
44419		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44420		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44420		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Tsingy of Namoroka, Ankarafantsika.
44420		habitat	eng	Dry forests.
44420		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.
44421		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44421		distribution	eng	This species is found in south-west Madagascar (Tulear to Fort-Dauphin), and the central high-plateau (Ihosy area). The type specimen, collected in the 1800s,  supposedly originated from the Ambongo area, however, the habitat type in this area is not suitable for this species, and a collection has not been made in this area since. <br/> <br/>Common throughout its range. A forest dweller, very prone to be destroyed by fires. In areas destroyed by fires, the species is found sheltered in rock cracks. Its habitat is extremely fragmented.
44421		habitat	eng	South-west bush, except in the driest parts. Originally a forest tree but can still be found in heavily destroyed habitat among rocks.
44421		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44422		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44422		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Ambongo, Morondava, Mayotte.  This species is common throughout its range.
44422		habitat	eng	Forest dweller.
44422		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44423		distribution	eng	Western Madagascar: Ambongo, Haut Bemarivo.  <em>E. pirahazo</em> is thought to be extremely rare and the habitat is highly fragmented.
44423		habitat	eng	Dry forests.
44423		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, past collection for rubber production.
44424		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44424		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear to Fort-Dauphin area.  <em>E. plagiantha</em> is widespread and common throughout its range.
44424		habitat	eng	South-west bush.
44424		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also used at a subsistence level for timber and charcoal.
44425		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44425		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: 50 km north-west of Tulear, on the way to the Fiherenana valley (Anjamala area) and near the road from Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy. Known only from the two localities.
44425		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
44425		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fires. Possible future threat from collection for the horticultural trade.
44426		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44426		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: 50 km north-west of Tulear, on the way to the Fiherenana valley (Anjamala area).  Known only from one specimen, never collected again.
44426		habitat	eng	Deciduous forest.
44426		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fires. Possible future threat from collection for the horticultural trade.
44427		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44427		distribution	eng	South-western Madagascar, near the road from Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy. Known only from one locality.
44427		habitat	eng	Forests, near the road.
44427		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fires.
44428		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44428		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Isalo area and central high-plateau area.
44428		habitat	eng	On Isalo sands, in valleys and also in red laterite grasslands.
44428		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44429		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44429		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Isalo area. This variant is common throughout its range.
44429		habitat	eng	On Isalo sands, in valleys.
44429		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.
44430		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44430		distribution	eng	Madagascar, central high-plateau area. This variant is common throughout its range, where the conditions for its growth are met (red laterite soil).
44430		habitat	eng	In red laterite grasslands.
44430		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.
44431		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44431		distribution	eng	Central High-Plateau of Madagascar, Itremo mountains, near Ambatofinandrahana.  Found growing in patches and are locally abundant when the habitat meets the requirements of the species (pure white quartzite sands with traces of soil).
44431		habitat	eng	Restricted to the High-Plateau quartzite sands of the Itremo region (1,500 m.)
44431		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, whole plant collection for the horticultural trade.
44432		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44432		distribution	eng	South-west.Madagascar, Tulear area.
44432		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44432		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44433		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44433		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear to Morombe area. <em>E. randrianjohanyi</em> is common were the forest is undisturbed.
44433		habitat	eng	This newly described species occurs in the south-west bush of Madagascar. Only present in the coastal forests growing on the specific "sables roux" (red sands).
44433		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44434		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44434		distribution	eng	Eastern Madagascar: Mananjary, Ifanadiana, Andrangolava.
44434		habitat	eng	Evergreen forest.
44434		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, logging.
44435		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andohahela).
44435		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area. This species is common throughout its range, where the forest is intact.
44435		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar.
44435		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44436		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44436		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, near Tongobory.
44436		habitat	eng	Dry South-western bush of Madagascar.
44436		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes.
44437		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44437		distribution	eng	Central Madagascar.
44437		habitat	eng	Likely to occur on rocks.
44437		threats	eng	Likely threats to this species will be habitat degradation, fire.
44438		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44438		distribution	eng	Known only from the Angavo mountains, Antanimora area, South-west Madagascar.
44438		habitat	eng	South-west dry bush of Madagascar.
44438		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal
44439		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44439		distribution	eng	Known only from the Analava forest, Iharana-Sambava area, north-east Madagascar.
44439		habitat	eng	Riparian, on stream shores.
44439		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural purposes.
44440		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44440		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: In the Mangoky area, near Nosy-Ambositra (Befandriana-Sud).
44440		habitat	eng	Found on rocks.
44440		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, potentially collection for the horticultural trade.
44441		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44441		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Sakaraha Forest, Sakaraha/Mahaboboka area.
44441		habitat	eng	South-west dry forests, under trees.
44441		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.
44442		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44442		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Betroka, Beraketa, Ampandrandava and Manambolo areas.
44442		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44443		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44443		distribution	eng	Central Madagascar: Ambatofinandrahana, Tulear to Fort Dauphin, and the south-central High plateau (Ivohibe). This species is common throughout its range.
44443		habitat	eng	Found on cipolin marble rock outcrops near Ambatofinandrahana. The high plateau populations are in south-west dry bush on rock outcrops.
44443		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, and mining. Grows only on cipolin rocks, which are exploited as a valuable source of white marble. This species is also used to feed <em>Zebus</em>.
44444		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44444		distribution	eng	Central Madagascar: Ambatofinandrahana. This subspecies is locally common where habitat requirements are met.
44444		habitat	eng	Only found on cipolin marble rock outcrops near Ambatofinandrahana at an altitude of 1,300–1,400 m.
44444		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, mining. The subspecies grows only on cipolin rocks, which is exploited as a valuable source of white marble.
44445		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44445		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear to Fort Dauphin, to the south-central High plateau (Ivohibe). This subspecies is common throughout its range.
44445		habitat	eng	South-west dry bush of Madagascar, or rock outcrops (high plateau populations).
44445		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also used to feed <em>Zebus</em>.
44446		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar: Tulear, La Table area, where this species is locally common.
44446		habitat	eng	South-west dry bush of Madagascar.
44446		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44447		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44447		distribution	eng	East coast of Madagascar: on rocky areas on the Nosivolo (Mangoro).
44447		habitat	eng	Wet rocky areas of the east coast.
44447		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for timber and collection for the horticultural trade.
44448		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44448		distribution	eng	Northern, eastern and southern rainforests of Madagascar, where it is common throughout its range. This subspecies is present in most forest reserves of the eastern and northern coasts.
44448		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44448		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and logging.
44449		distribution	eng	Eastern Madagascar: Mangoro area.
44449		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44449		threats	eng	Habitat degradation.
44450		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.
44450		distribution	eng	Northern, eastern and southern rainforests of Madagascar, where it is common throughout its range. This subspecies is present in most forest reserves of the eastern and northern coasts.
44450		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44450		threats	eng	Habitat degradation. Logging.
44451		conservation	eng	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44451		distribution	eng	East coast of Madagascar, from Mananjary to the Masoala Peninsula.
44451		habitat	eng	Coastal rainforest.
44451		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for timber.
44452		conservation	eng	Occurs in a large number of protected areas.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44452		distribution	eng	The species is present in all the tropical parts of the world and is common throughout its range. The modern distribution of this species appears to have become confused by introductions and subsequent naturalization (it has a long history of utilization be people), so it is hard to know which countries are part of the original range.
44452		habitat	eng	Usually in dry and moist thicket and savanna-type vegetation. This species is used to feed cattle and is widely used as a hedge plant. The latex is used sometimes as a fish poison, and at one time was exploited, although not very successfully, in the production of rubber. The latex apparently has too high a resin content.
44452		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.
44453		distribution	eng	Madagascar, central high-plateau: Antsirabe area.
44453		habitat	eng	On laterite, between grasses or rocky areas.
44453		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fire.
44454		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix I.
44454		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, Tulear and Saint Augustin areas.  <em>E. tulearensis</em> is locally common throughout its range.
44454		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, on rocky limestone cliffs.
44454		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.
44455		distribution	eng	South-western Madagascar, between Mahasoabe and Ihotry
44455		habitat	eng	Dunes.
44455		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fire.
44456		conservation	eng	Listed under CITES Appendix II.
44456		distribution	eng	South-west Madagascar, east of Esomony.
44456		habitat	eng	South-west bush of Madagascar, at the bottom of the mountains near Esomony. Located under shrubs, in stony red earth.
44456		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural trade.
44457		distribution	eng	Known only from the Zakamena reserve, south-east of Lac Alaotra, central Madagascar.
44457		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
44457		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fire.
44458		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44458		habitat	eng	Rivers at less than 100 m asl.
44458		threats	eng	The most likely threat to the species is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation practices in the area.
44459		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44459		habitat	eng	Rivers on the eastern slope of Madagascar (< 800 m asl).
44459		threats	eng	The most likely threats to the species are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation practices in the area; and predation from alien invasive species.
44460		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44460		habitat	eng	Rivers (< 800 m asl).
44460		threats	eng	Most likely threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
44461		distribution	eng	This species was recently described (Ng and Sparks 2003a).
44461		habitat	eng	Known only from the Sofia River.
44461		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation through deforestation and dam construction.
44462		distribution	eng	Recently described species, endemic to Lake Andrapongy and River Ankofia.
44462		habitat	eng	A riverine and lake species.
44462		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is the main threat.
44463		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44463		habitat	eng	Known from rivers flowing into Antongil Bay.
44463		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation of river catchment areas.
44464		conservation	eng	The species' range extends into Marojejy National Park.
44464		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44464		habitat	eng	Known from the Lokoho river basin.
44464		threats	eng	Habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation in unprotected areas is the main threat to the species.
44465		conservation	eng	The species' range extends into Marojejy National Park.
44465		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44465		habitat	eng	Known from the Lokoho river basin.
44465		threats	eng	Habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation in unprotected areas is the main threat to the species.
44466		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44466		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44466		threats	eng	Current threats affecting the population are unknown. Most likely threat is habitat degradation.
44467		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44467		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44467		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation; and predation and competition from alien invasive species.
44468		conservation	eng	The species' range extends into an area of protected forest.
44468		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44468		habitat	eng	Known from the Ivoloina river basin.
44468		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation in unprotected areas.
44469		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44469		habitat	eng	Found in the Laroka-Rianila basin.
44469		threats	eng	Main threat is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
44470		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44470		habitat	eng	Known from the Mahanara river basin.
44470		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat degradation, and competition and predation by alien invasive species.
44471		conservation	eng	Occurs in a national park.
44471		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lower reaches of the Tokahandra River which runs through the National park of Manombo and Manombo Forest.
44471		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
44471		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat loss and deforestation through siltation caused by deforestation; and competition and predation from alien invasive species.
44472		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44472		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44472		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation; and competition and predation from alien invasive species.
44473		conservation	eng	The species' range extends into Ranomafana National Park.
44473		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44473		habitat	eng	Known from the Namorona River basin.
44473		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
44474		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44474		habitat	eng	Known only from a tributary of the lower Sambava River.
44474		threats	eng	Main thrats are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation; and predation by the invasive exotic predator, the spotted snakehead.
44475		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44475		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44475		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
44476		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44476		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44476		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown.
44477		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madgascar. Restricted to a small remaining forested region within the Mananara drainage basin.
44477		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44477		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation; and competition and predation from alien invasive species.
44478		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or recommended at present.
44478		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44478		habitat	eng	Primarily riverine, but with a marine adult phase.
44478		threats	eng	None known at present.
44479		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44479		habitat	eng	Estuaries and lower reaches of rivers.
44479		threats	eng	Main threat is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.
44480		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44480		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44480		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown.
44481		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44481		habitat	eng	Riverrs.
44481		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown.
44482		habitat	eng	Rivers.
44482		threats	eng	No threats currently known to be affecting the population.
44483		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44484		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44485		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44486		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44487		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44488		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44489		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44490		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44491		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44492		conservation	eng	Currently there are no <em>in situ</em> conservation measures in place. However, this species is the subject of a successful <em>ex situ</em> captive breeding program.</span>
44492		distribution	eng	Endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceType"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceName"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></u1:smarttagtype><span times="" new="" roman=""="">Present in the flood plain lakes of the <st1:placename u4:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bemarivo</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u4:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, the major northwards-flowing tributary of the <st1:placename u4:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sofia</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placename u4:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">River</st1:placename></st1:placename> in northwestern <st1:country-region u4:st="on"><st1:place u4:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species is now known to occur in a single lake of that system: Lac Tseny.</span>
44492		habitat	eng	A malacophagous biparentally custodial substratum-spawning cichlid with a protracted period of brood care and a highly seasonal reproductive pattern.
44492		population	eng	<p>No data are avialable on the wild population; previously it was thought to have disappeared from its native range, but more recent surveys rediscovered the species in   Lac Tseny</span>. Captive breeding populations exist in Europe and <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>.</span></p>
44492		threats	eng	Historically, over-fishing. Presently, habitat loss due to environmental degradation, and c</span>ompetition from and/or predation by exotic species.
44493		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44494		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44495		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44496		distribution	eng	Warm-temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes from the Western Cape of South Africa to southern Mozambique and southeastern Madagascar. Normally absent from the cold-temperate west coast of South Africa, north from Cape Town. Depth range 37 m to at least 500 m. Bimodal distribution off the southern Cape Coast of South Africa. Most records are from between 20 and 21° on the outer continental shelf of the Western Cape (Cape Agulhas and Cape Infanta, 60 to 160 m, mostly 70 to 140 m) and between 25 and 27° longitude on continental shelf and upper slope of Eastern Cape from Port Elizabeth to Port Alfred (70 to 290 m, mostly 80 to 120 m). Few intermediate records between these two areas, no records below 300 m on the Cape coast. Possible pupping grounds in Eastern Cape (near Algoa Bay) and off KwaZulu-Natal.  <br/> <br/>Off central KwaZulu-Natal, occurs at 73 to 430 m, mostly below 110 m. Has been taken at 360 m off Delagoa Bay, Mozambique and at 425 to 500 m off southeastern Madagascar (Compagno in prep. a).
44496		habitat	eng	Offshore benthic and epibenthic species on the warm-temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes of southern Africa and Madagascar at 37 m to at least 500 m, with apparent tropical submersion northeastwards along its range and onto the uppermost slopes. Bimodal distribution in South African Cape waters may be linked to restricted habitat (possibly related to feeding). <br/> <br/>Biology, ecology and behaviour sketchily known. Ovoviviparous, with 5 to 7 pups/litter (but 7 to 17 developing eggs recorded). Populations partially segregated; young occur in shallower water than adults off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Possible pupping grounds in Eastern Cape (near Algoa Bay) and off KwaZulu-Natal. Feeds on small fish, crustaceans and squid. Predators poorly known but include tiger shark (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><strong>Known life history parameters</strong> <br/>Size at maturity: 110 cm total length (TL) (females); 83 cm TL (males). <br/>Maximum size: at least 112 cm TL (males) and 136 cm TL (females). <br/>Size at birth: 35 to 37 cm TL. <br/>Average annual fecundity or litter size: 5 to 7 young per litter in two females; others with 1 to 17 eggs.
44496		population	eng	Apparently common or formerly common off the southern Cape coast of South Africa.
44496		threats	eng	Bycatch of demersal bottom trawlers off South Africa and southern Mozambique. Intensive offshore trawl fisheries occur in its known range, but trends in occurrence of this species as bycatch are unmonitored. It is apparently unutilized and discarded (Compagno in prep. a). Probably not sufficiently common in bycatch to be worth marketing.
44497		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44498		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44499		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44500		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44501		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44502		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44503		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44504		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44505		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44506		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44507		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44508		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44509		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44510		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44511		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44512		distribution	eng	Endemic to Nosivolo River, Tamatave Province, Madagascar.
44513		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44514		distribution	eng	Central Pacific: Hawaiian Islands; Eastern Pacific: southern California (USA), Panama, Cocos Islands, Columbia, Ecuador, Chile (northern, central and southern) to Straits of Magellan, Galapagos Islands (Compagno in prep. a). Specimens from southern Chile to the Strait of Magellan may represent a separate species and taxonomic resolution is required (D. Ebert, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Taken only sporadically in Californian waters (D. Ebert, pers. comm).
44514		habitat	eng	Little is known of this deepwater dogfish, which has been recorded from the continental and insular slopes at depths of 400 to 1,143 m (Compagno, in prep. a), although recorded off Chile as shallow as 300 m and off California in depths of 250 to 1,250 m (D. Ebert, pers. comm.). Biology is poorly known. Maximum size 50 cm total length (TL). Size at birth 11 to 13 cm TL. Neonates have an internal yolk sac for nourishment (Ebert 2003). Males adult at 35 to 43 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. a). Females become adult at 43 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Aplacental viviparous with a litter size of at least seven young.  <br/> <br/>Associated with benthic soft mud and sand habitats, but may also feed off the bottom (Compagno, in prep. a). The species feeds on deepwater shrimps, cephalopods, and small mesopelagic bony fishes (Ebert 2003). Based on the presence of mesopelagic prey items this species may migrate into the water column to feed (Ebert 2003).
44514		threats	eng	Sporadic bycatch in the Chilean deep sea shrimp (<em>Heterocarpus reedi</em>) fishery off Northern and Central Chile (from 25º07?41?? to 34º18?43??S and 259?500 m) in small numbers although more abundantly than <em>Centroscyllium granulatum</em> (González 2001, Acuña and Villaroel 2002). Incidentally captured in sablefish traps in California, but it is not utilized (Compagno in preparation a).
44515		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44515		distribution	eng	At present known only from the Naska Submarine Ridge in the Eastern South Pacific, off Chile.
44515		habitat	eng	The holotype, and only specimen, was collected at 330 m. It was an adult female of 40 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology.
44515		threats	eng	Unknown. The species is probably not utilized.
44516		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44516		distribution	eng	Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia, East Africa. Found in the East African coastal region, from northeast Tanzania to Taru, Kenya, to Giohar and Eil, Somalia and inland in Kenya as far as Nairobi. Somalia: The northernmost point of <em>D. imitatrix</em>’s distribution appears to be the Eyl District in Puntland, Somalia (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005), an area with marshes, permanent freshwater, and a major well system (M. Thulin, pers. comm.). The other localities in Somalia where specimens of <em>D. imitatrix</em> were found are all associated with two large rivers, the Shebeele (Uebi Scebeli or Wabi Shabelle) and the Jubba (Giuba or Ganane). The Shebeele River runs from the Ethiopian highlands to the Somali coast where it flows parallel to the coastline forming swamps and dry reaches that end close to the Jubba River. The Jubba runs from Ethiopia to the south of Somalia and is the only river in the area with a reliable year-round flow. Kenya: <em>D. imitatrix</em> is found in waterholes and swampy areas in the coastal lowlands, near Kasigau Mountain, and inland along the Galana and Athi Rivers (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005, and references therein). Tanzania. Tanga. Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. (2005) argued that the type locality is Kadiaro, Kenya (and not Zanzibar), and that the report of <em>D. imitatrix</em> from Zanzibar is most probably the result of a mistake arising from the replacement of a lost label.
44516		habitat	eng	This species exhibits a preference for areas with marshes and low-lying swamps with stagnant surface water. The habitats where this species is found include wetlands, streams, and slow-flowing rivers. <em>Deckenia imitatrix</em> inhabits burrows dug into soft, silt-clay types of sediment and appear to avoid course-grained, sandy soils. It is likely that the area of occupancy of both species of <em>Deckenia</em> within their distributional range is limited by their restriction to areas with a high groundwater level.
44516		population	eng	There is evidence that the population size is decreasing due to habitat disturbance and loss associated with increasing human populations. Its population levels were estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that it has been collected recently from more localities and that it is well represented in museum collections. However, recent field surveys by S. Marijnissen (pers comm.) have revealed that this species may be potentially more vulnerable that previously thought. Although this species has a wide extent of occurrence that is much greater than 20,000 km² (which is above the threshold for vulnerable, VU), it may have an increasingly restricted area of occupancy due to habitat disturbance that would fall into the range for vulnerable (VU). While it is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, its population is estimated to possibly be in decline due to the fact that its habitat is restricted to marshes and wetlands, and these are fragmented and declining in this part of East Africa. The dependence of this species on wetland habitats that are vulnerable to human disturbance and that are associated with a growing human population in the region would argue for the upgrading of the conservation status of <em>D. imitatrix</em> from least concern to vulnerable in the light of the new data.
44516		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance from increasing human population growth. Between 1970 and 1990 the human population in East Africa has more than doubled and it is still growing rapidly (UNEP, 2004). The major threats to freshwater biodiversity in the East African region include the effects of increasing human population growth on the loss of freshwater habitats through deforestation and agricultural encroachment (Darwall <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recent field studies in Tanzania indicate that the quantity and quality of freshwater habitats available to this species have decreased drastically over the past several decades and that habitat disturbance could be a major factor in driving declining population levels of this species.
44517		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44517		distribution	eng	Tanzania and Kenya. The type locality is Wembere Steppe near Tabora (5°02’S, 32°50’E) in Tanzania, and Ng <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported on material from Kilimantinde (5°52’S, 34°55’E), Dar es Salaam, and at a non-specific locality in southern Tanzania near Lake Malawi (as Nyassa Lake). The combination of all known localities for <em>D. mitis</em> (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005) indicates that this species is found in both inland and coastal localities in Tanzania (Dodoma, Tanga, Iringa, Mount Meru, Amani, South Pare Mountains, Kibno, Kilimantinde and Dar es Salaam) and in Kenya (Murangía, Taveta and<br/>Mombasa). <br/><br/>Kenya: <em>Deckenia mitis</em> is found in two inland localities in Kenya (Murang’a and Comarock on the Athi plains), as well as several localities on the coastal lowlands (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Tanzania: <em>D. mitis</em> is found on the coastal lowlands and inland near Mount Meru, near Lake Victoria, and on the Wembere Steppe north of Tabora. There is also a literature report of <em>D. mitis</em> from a locality in southern Tanzania close to lake Malawi but this has not been confirmed (see Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys in the Usambara-Tanga region suggest that <em>D. mitis</em> is restricted to the lower edges of the montane forest and to coastal plains, where it inhabits burrows near the edge of slow-moving streams or near stagnant water bodies such as ponds and wells (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1964). In Tanzania, 17 specimens of <em>D. mitis</em> were collected from their burrows in a wetland area (0,5 km²) near Segera (5°18’S, 38°39’E), and an additional 13 specimens were collected from burrows beside ponds near Mwang’ombe (5°04’S, 39°06’E).
44517		habitat	eng	This species exhibits a preference for areas with stagnant surface water in habitats that include wetlands, streams, and slow-flowing rivers. This  species inhabits burrows dug into soft, silt-clay types of sediment and appear to avoid course-grained, sandy soils. The burrows of <em>D. mitis</em> reach down to the water table. This is also observed in other African burrow-dwelling freshwater crab species including <em>Sudanonautes monodi</em> (Cumberlidge 1987), <em>P. obesus</em> (S.A.E. Marijnissen, pers. obs.), and <em>Afrithelphusa monodi</em> (Cumberlidge 2006a,b), where such burrows ensure crabs a constant water supply during dry periods. It is thus likely that the area of occupancy of <em>D. mitis</em> within its distributional range is limited by its restriction to areas with a high groundwater level. <em>Deckenia mitis</em> prefers marshes and low lying wetlands, and is an air-breathing amphibious species. Williams <em>et al</em>. (1964) provided some observations on the habitat of <em>D. mitis</em> caught in an arid area of northern Tanzania close to Mount Meru. Specimens of <em>D. mitis</em> were collected in warm stagnant surface waters, and never in the cooler streams flowing down mountain slopes. <em>Deckenia mitis</em> and <em>P. obesus</em> share the same habitat and burrow deeply into the soil at the waters edge, often causing extensive damage to drainage ditches.
44517		population	eng	Recent field studies in Tanzania indicate that the quantity and quality of freshwater habitats available to this species have decreased drastically over the past several decades and that habitat disturbance could be a major factor in driving declining population levels of this species. While It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, it is likely that its population is declining based on indirect factors such as the lack of recent specimens from many parts of its range, its poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance from loss of wetlands associated with growing human populations in the region (IUCN 2004).
44517		threats	eng	Between 1970 and 1990 the human population in East Africa has more than doubled and it is still growing rapidly (UNEP 2004). The effects of increasing human population growth on the loss of freshwater habitats through deforestation and agricultural encroachment are recognized as the major threats to freshwater biodiversity in the East African region (Darwall <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recent field studies in Tanzania indicate that the quantity and quality of freshwater habitats available to this species have decreased drastically over the past several decades and that habitat disturbance could be a major factor in driving declining population levels of this species. There are immediate threats from increasing habitat disturbance from loss of wetlands associated with growing human populations in the region (IUCN 2004). Marijinissen <em>et al</em>. (2005) argued for the upgrading of the conservation status of <em>D. mitis</em> to Vulnerable based on new field studies and new population estimates.
44518		conservation	eng	None in place.
44518		distribution	eng	Lake Tanganyika: Zambia and Tanzania. It occurs in waters from 1–60 m deep, on sand or rocks, sometimes inside empty <span style="font-style: italic;">Neothauma </span>shells.
44518		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that material has been collected recently from more than one locality.
44518		threats	eng	None known.
44519		conservation	eng	None in place.
44519		distribution	eng	Lake Tanganyika: Burundi, Tanzania and D. R. Congo. Platythelphusa polita occurs in waters from 5–60 m deep, where the lake bottom is either sandy or rocky and there are shell beds. This species is sometimes found inside empty <span style="font-style: italic;">Neothauma </span>shells.
44519		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that material has been collected recently from more than one locality (R. Bills, pers comm.).
44519		threats	eng	None known.
44520		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44520		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the basin of the Nile River in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Tanzania.
44520		habitat	eng	<em>Potamonautes berardi</em> is found in the streams and rivers that make up the Nile River drainage basin from Cairo in Egypt to Tanzania in East Africa. Otherwise there is no information on the specific habitat requirements of this species.
44520		population	eng	<em>Potamonautes berardi</em> is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution, apparent high abundance (reflected in the relatively high representation in museum collections), which is interpreted here as reflecting potentially high population levels, and lack of long-term threats. However, present population levels are unassessed.
44520		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and pollution.
44521		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44521		distribution	eng	Malawi.
44521		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
44521		population	eng	Continuing decline in extent of occurrence is inferred from the lack of recent collections anywhere in its range in the past 30 years. <em>P. choloensis</em> has been known to scientists for more than 50 years and yet still has only a poor representation in museum collections.
44521		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44522		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44522		distribution	eng	D. R. Congo: Mundung des Kibali (mouth of the Kibali River), Mission du Bourg de Bozas.
44522		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44522		population	eng	The relatively low representation in museum collections of this species is interpreted here as reflecting potentially low population levels (although under-collecting could equally explain these low levels), and in fact its present population levels are unassessed.
44522		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44523		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time..
44523		distribution	eng	Tanzania: Gulf of Bukoba. Democratic Republic of Congo. Rwanda. Uganda (Ruwenzori Mountains between Lake Edward and Lake Albert, 1,800 m).
44523		habitat	eng	<em>Potamonautes emini</em> is a widespread and abundant species that has been collected recently. It is found in streams where the water flow was slow, almost stagnant, with iron oxide flocculates on the streambed. This species was also collected from underneath rocks and cobbles in fast flowing streams near Lake Tanganyika.
44523		population	eng	The population levels and trends of this species are estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected relatively recently from more than one locality and that this species is well represented in museum collections. Its population size is estimated at more than 10,000 mature individuals over the entire range.
44523		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution
44524		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44524		distribution	eng	Tanzania and Kenya: Mara and Arusha regions of Tanzania; Gerdalo, in the Nyanza Province of Kenya. The two specimens of <em>P. gerdalensis</em> from the Nyanza Province of Kenya represent the only new material known since the original description of this species in 1955. These records extend the range of this species northwest along the border between Tanzania and Kenya.
44524		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44524		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be low based on indirect measures such as the lack of recent collections of specimens and its poor representation in museum collections.
44524		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44525		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44525		distribution	eng	Uganda: Tshiwia and Mukoba, SW Kahuzi, 2,200 m asl, Lake Kivu. Luika; Kiandjo, Lake Kivu, 1,850/1,950 m asl; Kasika N'Zokwe, 1,150 m asl; Muenga, Kamituga, lake Kivu, 1,050 m asl; Terr. Shabunda, Kigulube, lake Kivu, 900/1,000m asl; Tabutubu.
44525		habitat	eng	This is a lake-living species.
44525		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44525		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44526		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44526		distribution	eng	DR Congo. Endemic to Idjiwi Island in Lake Kivu. Its extent of occurrence is very restricted (less than 500 km²) because it is endemic to the streams and freshwater habitats on Idjiwi island in Lake Kivu, and all individuals are in just two localities.
44526		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44526		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44526		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44528		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44528		distribution	eng	Ethiopia: Gondar near Lake Tana.
44528		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44528		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44528		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44529		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44529		distribution	eng	Tanzania: Buloa, Amani, Derema, East and West Usambara Mountains; Tanga, and Kiseruii.
44529		habitat	eng	No information available.
44529		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining (despite the material presented here), based on indirect measures such a relatively poor representation in museum collections and increasing threats from habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44529		threats	eng	There are increasing threats from habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44530		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44530		distribution	eng	Kenya (Kibwesi northeast of Kilimandjar, 4,000 m). Tanzania: Kilimandjaro, Nekona, Mrogoro near Dar-es-Salam, Usambara Mountains. Other records in Malawi and DR Congo in Cumberlidge (1998) are doubtful.
44530		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44530		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect measures such as lack of recent collections of specimens, a relatively poor representation in museum collections and increasing threats habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44530		threats	eng	The threats to this species are linked to the increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44531		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
44531		distribution	eng	Uganda and Kenya, East Africa. Mount Elgon.
44531		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44531		population	eng	No information available.
44531		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44532		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44532		distribution	eng	Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo. Potamonautes loveridgei is found in the rivers that flow into Lake Tanganyika including the Luiche River (Ujiji and Dabaga). It is also found in Uzungwe (Uzongwe), Rungwe Mountains, Tanzania.
44532		habitat	eng	Found in the rivers that flow into Lake Tanganyika.
44532		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality and that it is well represented in museum collections
44532		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44533		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44533		distribution	eng	Uganda. Endemic to Lake Mutanda.
44533		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44533		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44533		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. There is also the danger of a potential population decline due to competition with exotic species (Lousiana red claw crayfish, <em>Procambarus clarki</em>) introduced  into Lake Mutanda. This crayfish is doing very well so is very likely to be having negative impacts on this crab, however there have been no surveys for the crab in the lake for the last 30 years.
44534		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44534		distribution	eng	Kenya, East Africa.
44534		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44534		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44534		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44535		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
44535		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the basin of the Nile River in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Lake Victoria, and Rwanda.
44535		habitat	eng	<em>Potamonautes niloticus</em> is found in the streams and rivers that make up the Nile River drainage basin from Cairo in Egypt to Rwanda in East Africa, and it is the only species of freshwater crab found in Lake Victoria. Otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.
44535		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species. However, it would appear that its populations are abundant enough to support small scale local fisheries in Lake Victoria in Uganda and Kenya.
44535		threats	eng	The major long-term threats to this species in the future include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. It could also suffer population declines from over-harvesting in Lake Victoria.
44536		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44536		distribution	eng	This species is found along the border between Kenya and Tanzania. The type locality is in rain forest near Marangu (= Maranga), Morogoro District, at the base of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
44536		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44536		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect measures such as lack of recent collections of specimens, a relatively poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44536		threats	eng	There are threats to this species from increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44537		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44537		distribution	eng	Kenya and Tanzania: The type locality is Lake Chala spanning the border between Kenya and Tanzania. Potamonautes platycentron is endemic to Lake Chala (3°19’S, 37°41’E). The border between Kenya and Tanzania crosses the slopes of Kilimanjaro and passes through this crater lake. The locality information lists P. platycentron from Kenya but it is highly likely that this species is also found on the Tanzanian side of Lake Chala, so it is included in the list of species for Tanzania for completeness.
44537		habitat	eng	Lake-living species.
44537		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining, based on indirect measures such as the lack of recent collections of specimens, a poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.
44537		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44538		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
44538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia (Capart 1954; Cumberlidge et al. 1999).
44538		habitat	eng	<em>Potamonautes platynotus</em> occurs in rocky areas in Lake Tanganyika and is mainly found in the shallow littoral zone up to a maximum depth of approximately 10 m. This species is primarily aquatic, but it has been observed out of water feeding on top of rocks, and it can survive for several hours (up to half a day) without access to water (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.).
44538		population	eng	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.), that it is supplied to the international aquarium trade and that it is well represented in museum collections. The total number of specimens known is < 1,000, but the distributional range throughout this lake is wide and population size is estimated at > 10,000 mature individuals over the entire range of this large lake (34,000 km²). This species has been collected recently (in the past five years) and is available via the aquarium trade.  This species is present in a number of museum collections indicating that it was at least locally abundant up to about thirty years ago, but present population levels are unassessed. Recent SCUBA diving surveys by Saskia Marijnissen indicate that this species is locally common in the Kigoma region. A small fishery for the aquarium trade may impact the numbers of this species.
44538		threats	eng	There are potential future threats from over collection for the international aquarium trade.
44539		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44539		distribution	eng	Tanzania, Kenya, East Africa,  The type locality is Zigi, 9 km from Amani, East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Also found in the Simba Hills, Kenya. Area of occupancy is likely to be less than 2,000 km² due the very specialised niche that this species occupies (tree holes) in forested areas which do not cover the whole extent of occurrence.
44539		habitat	eng	<em>Potamonautes raybouldi</em> occurs in water-filled tree holes in deciduous forests (Bayliss 2002; Cumberlidge and Vannini 2004). Bayliss (2002) provided a detailed ecological study of the habitat of this species. Also lives in streams (but not rivers).
44539		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species but its population is estimated to be declining based on its specialized habitat requirements (water-filled tree holes) and on the increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.
44539		threats	eng	There is an increasing threat from habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.
44540		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44540		distribution	eng	Uganda: Endemic to Lake Rukwanzi.
44540		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44540		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44540		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
44541		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44541		distribution	eng	Tanzania:The type locality is Bagilo, in the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania.
44541		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the forested slopes of the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania.
44541		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect factors such as the lack of recent specimens, its poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.
44541		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.
44551		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44551		distribution	eng	Malawi, Southern Africa.
44551		habitat	eng	Unknown.
44551		population	eng	Population size is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals over the entire range.
44551		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44552		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44552		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika, known only from Tanzanian waters.
44552		habitat	eng	Lake Tanganyika.
44552		population	eng	It has a potentially low population level (based on low representation in museum collections and the scarcity of recent additional material).
44552		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
44553		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44553		distribution	eng	Tanzania: The species is known only from Lake Tanganyika, in the vicinity of Kigoma, Tanzania.<br/><br/>Platythelphusa immaculata is a recently described species. It is currently known from only three locations in Lake Tanganyika. The species is newly-discovered and is currently known from only a few (25) specimens, collected recently. there are no known long-term threats to its habitat.
44553		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
44553		threats	eng	There are no known long-term threats to its habitat.
44554		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
44554		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the vicinity of Mbita Island, Zambia in Lake Tanganyika and was collected by fishermen in deep water (between 40 and 80 m).
44554		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends. <em>Platythelphusa praelongata</em> is known only from a single specimen and from a single locality.
44554		threats	eng	None known.
44555		conservation	eng	Dolphins in the Mekong River receive some degree of protection from the traditional respect afforded by local fishermen (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994, Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Fishermen in Viet Nam worship whales and dolphins because they believe that the animals will aid them if they are in distress (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997).  Most Cambodians and Laotians say that they do not hunt dolphins and believe that bad luck will result from killing them (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994). The Lao Community Fisheries and Dolphin Protection Project was working with local fishermen at Chiteal Pool to reduce incidental catches of dolphins in gillnets, stop explosive fishing and manage aquatic resources in a sustainable manner (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996). One practical measure was the establishment of a fund so that fishermen who found dolphins entangled in their nets and cut them free would be compensated for damages (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994). However, this project has now stopped. Small-scale dolphin watching operations were established at Chiteal Pool (Laos/Cambodia border) in 1997, and this provided substantial income to a few local boat owners. However, due to the decline in dolphin numbers at this pool, the tour operations are now on the verge of collapse. Dolphin-watching also occurs at Kampi Pool and a project partially funded by the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, UK, is planned for 2004 to manage the operations so that they provide maximum benefits to the local community (and thereby increase the value of the dolphins as living resources) while not adversely affecting the animals. <br/> <br/>In Laos, dolphins are legally protected from hunting, capture and trade, with fines of US$ 65?650 and imprisonment for three months to one year. In Viet Nam, all cetaceans are protected by a decree of the national assembly but this is not generally enforced. During the last three years, the Viet Namese government has been drafting a new law that will give authorities greater power to enforce fishery regulations (Perrin <em>et al</em>., in press). Approval by the national assembly is expected in the near future. No legal protection for cetaceans currently exists in Cambodia. However, a fisheries law is being drafted that includes specific regulations pertaining to marine mammals and the Cambodian Department of Fisheries has proposed to formulate a Royal Decree for protecting the Mekong River dolphin population. <br/> <br/>The Mekong Dolphin Conservation Project (currently supported by the Mekong River Commission and Ocean Park Conservation Foundation) was initiated in January 2001. The aims of the project are to assess the Mekong Irrawaddy dolphin population, initiate conservation and management efforts, and build capacity among local government officials. The project works in cooperation with the Cambodian Department of Fisheries, the Wildlife Conservation Society ? Cambodia Program and Community Aid Abroad.
44555		distribution	eng	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997; Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems - the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of southern Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in partially isolated brackish or fresh-water bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand. The first published record of the species in the Mekong was from the diary of a 19th century explorer (Mouhout 1966).  <br/> <br/>The effective range of Irrawaddy dolphins in the Mekong River is a 190 km segment from Kratie (about 500 km upstream of the river mouth in Viet Nam) to slightly upstream of the Laos/Cambodia border at Khone Falls (or Lee Pee), which physically obstructs further upstream movement. During the high water season (June?October), anecdotal reports suggested that the dolphins ascended the Sekong River and its tributaries, the Houay Khaliang, Xepian (to Xepha Falls about 50 km above the Sekong confluence), Xenamnoi (to Tatkhek Falls about 8 km above the Sekong confluence), and Xekaman (to about 50 km above the Sekong confluence and including the Houay Twai tributary and possibly the Xepian). In the Sekong, the dolphins were reported to range as far upstream as Kalaum Town, Laos, about 280 km above the Mekong confluence near Stung Treng, Cambodia (Baird and Mounsouphom, 1997). Based on interviews conducted by Baird (1997) and Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2003), dolphins probably now only rarely, if ever, ascend these rivers. During interview surveys downstream from Kratie to Phnom Penh, children were unaware of the existence of dolphins, whereas adults reported that before 1975, dolphins were observed every day during both low and high water seasons (Isabel Beasley, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Based on visual surveys conducted by Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2003), dolphins are frequently found during the low-water season in nine deep areas in the Kratie to Khone Falls segment. Approximately 2 km below the falls, dolphins regularly occur in a small (ca. 600 m diameter), deep (> 50 m during the high-water season) pool, known locally in Laos as Boong Pa Gooang and in Cambodia as Anlong Chiteal. Dolphins were observed daily in the pool during the dry seasons of 1992-93, generally in groups of 2?10; 17 were seen at least once (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994). Using visual and acoustic methods, Borsani (1999) estimated that there were 8?10 dolphins present in Boong Pa Gooang in late March/early April 1998. Other pools occupied by dolphins in the Kratie to Khone Falls segment are at Koh Suntuk, Kang Kohn Sat and Tbong Klar in the Stung Treng Province, and Sampan, Khasak Makak, Gopidau, Chroy Bantey and Kampi in the Kratie Province. Kampi pool, located 15 km north of Kratie, is currently considered the most important dolphin habitat in the Mekong, due to the 100% reliability of sightings, as recorded during 165 visits to the pool over three years, and the relatively large number of animals observed during each visit (mean group size = 7, range = 1?19) (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003, Beasley, unpublished). <br/> <br/>Dolphins previously inhabited Tonle Sap (Great Lake) (Lloze 1973) but apparently have been extirpated there. Fishing is extremely intensive within the lake and in the channel connecting it to the Mekong. Researchers conducting extensive water-bird surveys in the lake from 1999?2003 have not observed any dolphins (Federic Goes, pers. comm.). Moreover, researchers from the Water Utilization Program ? Finnish International Development Aid (WUP-FIN) Tonle Sap Modeling Project visited sampling stations throughout the lake every month from 2001?2003 and never observed dolphins (Juha Sarkkula, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>The only documentation of Irrawaddy dolphins in the Mekong of Viet Nam consists of a few records reported by Lloze (1973), skulls housed in whale temples near the delta and in the mouth of the nearby Dong River (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997, Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003) and a single carcass found in a fishing net in the Tien distributary near the Cambodian border in March 2002 (Chung and Ho 2002).  During a survey of almost the entire length (224 km) of the two main distributaries of the Mekong, Tien and Hau Giang, in April 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. (1997) were unable to find a single dolphin.  <br/> <br/>During March and May 1997, Baird (1997) observed 40 dolphins in the segment of the Mekong from Kratie to the Laos/Cambodia border. He estimated, on the basis of surveys and interviews, that the total population in the Mekong was roughly 100 individuals. Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2003) conducted 11 boat-based direct-count surveys, traveling upstream from Jum Neight (about 30 km downstream of Kratie) to the Laos/Cambodia border during January-May from 2001 to 2003. All navigable channels were surveyed (zigzagging when widths were greater than one km and transiting through the center when less than 1 km). Unsurveyed channels were either too shallow or unsafe to survey due to high-velocity currents, which also meant a low probability of dolphins occurring there; interview surveys of local people living along these channels supported this assumption. The largest number of dolphins observed during an upstream survey conducted at the height of the low-water season in April 2003 was 64. This number was based on the sum of best estimates of group size, with a range of 55?82, according to the sum of low and high estimates of group size, respectively. A slightly different method was used during 2002-2003, traveling downstream in the same river segment but stopping for 10?30 minutes in the nine deep pool areas where dolphins had been observed during previous surveys. The maximum number of animals recorded using the pool-count method was 69 individuals based on the sum of best estimates of group size, with a range of 57?84 individuals based on low and high estimates, during a survey in May 2003. Paired observation experiments, using land-based survey teams and concurrent boat-based observations, were conducted during each of the pool-count surveys in an attempt to assess the proportion of dolphins missed by the boat-based team. This resulted in a 100% match between the two methods in terms of the number of dolphin groups detected in each of the nine pools and very similar group size estimates when experienced observers were present on both teams (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003).
44555		habitat	eng	Irrawaddy dolphins inhabit deep pools of large rivers, sheltered inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002).
44555		population	eng	No quantitative estimates of population trends are available, but significant range declines in Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and the Mekong mainstem below Kratie imply that the number of dolphins in the Mekong River has declined substantially over the past several decades. Also, for small cetaceans generally, it is recommended that yearly removals should not exceed 1?2% of the population size (Wade 1998) ? the lower bound being more applicable to very small populations that are already vulnerable because of demographic and genetic factors. Four deaths per year (the mean number of carcasses recovered and determined to have died from gillnet entanglement in 2001?2003; Beasley <em>et al</em>. [2002] and Beasley [unpublished]) would represent 5.8% of the population, assuming a best estimate of abundance of 69, based on pool count surveys. Considering that the small size of the Mekong population already makes it vulnerable from demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and catastrophic environmental and epizootic events, the current rate of incidental mortality in gillnets will almost certainly lead to extirpation.
44555		threats	eng	Anecdotal reports suggest high dolphin mortality from deliberate killing for oil (reportedly for use in the motors of fishing boats and lamps) during the rule of the Khmer Rouge in 1970-1975 and then from target practice and the effects of explosives used for blast fishing during the Viet Namese occupation in 1975-1980. Dedicated studies on the dolphin population in 1990-1996 (Baird and Mounsouphom 1997) and 2000-2003 (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Beasley, unpublished) also recorded high mortality with a large proportion of the deaths caused by gillnet entanglement. <br/> <br/>Smith <em>et al</em>. (1997) noted the presence of several dozen 200-400 m long stow nets in the Mekong River mouth, followed upstream by more than 10 rows of nylon gillnets stretched across the entire channel, with only small openings to permit vessel traffic. Those authors suggested that dolphin bycatch and displacement caused by the nets could explain the lack of cetacean sightings during their survey of the lower Mekong in Viet Nam during April 1996. <br/> <br/><strong>Potential additional threats</strong> <br/>Numerous dams have been proposed for the Mekong River system. If built, these would degrade essential habitat features and interrupt the movements of dolphins and their prey. Of greatest concern are the large run-of-the-river dams proposed for the Mekong mainstem at Stung Treng and Sambor (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996). In the Sekong River system, at least two dams have been proposed tens of kilometers below the reported upstream limit of the dolphins. Dolphins are also threatened in the Sekong system by the proposed Xakaman and Xepian/Xenamnoi dam projects. This last project would divert almost all of the flow from the Xepian River to a reservoir behind another dam in the Xenamnoi River (Baird and Mounsouphom 1997). <br/> <br/>Proposed navigation improvement schemes, which entail blasting the pool-riffle sequences that compose dolphin habitat, would probably lead to a dramatic decline, if not extinction, of the Mekong dolphin population due to the direct effects of the explosions and the indirect effects from eliminating or severely degrading their deep pool habitat. Prey declines from overfishing (particularly from the use of explosives and electricity) and unregulated dolphin-watching tourism may also be affecting the population.
44556		conservation	eng	The dolphins receive customary protection from directed killing or intentional disturbance by virtue of the positive role they play in a cooperative fishery with throw-net fishermen (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997). The Wildlife Conservation Society and Myanmar Fisheries Department have plans to establish a long-term conservation program for the dolphins in the upper reaches of the Ayeyarwady River. These entail one or more protected areas where gillnetting would be eliminated or dramatically reduced, enforcing laws that prohibit electric fishing, and monitoring the population and threats to its survival.
44556		distribution	eng	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997; Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems - the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of southern Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in partially isolated brackish or fresh-water bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand.  <br/> <br/>The earliest reference to dolphins in the Ayeyarwady River is from the New T’ang History (Chinese text from ‘about 800 A.D.’ as cited in Luce 1966), which mentions trade in ‘river pigs’ among the Pyu people. During surveys of the Ayeyarwady River between Rangoon [Yangon] and Bhamo, Anderson (1879) observed Irrawaddy dolphins no farther downstream than Prome [Pyay] (about 360 km from the sea) during the low-water season and Yenanyoung (about 540 km from the sea) during the high-water season.  Upstream, the local Shan people reported to Anderson (1879) that dolphins were never found upriver of a point 30 m above Bhamo, where the course of the river was interrupted by rocks. They called the site Labine, or "Dolphin Point." Anderson (1879) also reported that the dolphins ascended larger tributaries, such as the Taping, Khyendwen [Chindwin] and Shuaylee [Shweli], when these were in flood. (See Figure 1 in the attached PDF for a map of the Ayeyarwady River and the locations used to describe the distribution of the dolphin).
44556		habitat	eng	The species inhabits deep pools of large rivers, protected inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002). During surveys in the Ayeyarwady River dolphin sightings were concentrated in geomorphologically complex reaches upstream and downstream of channel convergences (especially tributaries), islands, and defiles (where an alluvial channel becomes abruptly narrow and deep as it cuts through a mountain range, Smith and Hobbs 2002).
44556		population	eng	Between 1996 and 2003 several visual boat-based surveys for Irrawaddy dolphins were conducted in the Ayeyarwady River. The most recent of these indicated that the dry season range of the species has declined dramatically and that the number of remaining animals is precariously small. Two surveys (details below) resulted in the same best estimate of 59 animals remaining. <br/> <br/>During the November-December 2002 survey of the entire Ayeyarwady River sighting conditions were generally good. If the absence of sightings downstream of Mingun is interpreted to mean that this is the range limit for the species in the river system, this would indicate a range decline of 488 km in river length (or 56.7%) compared with the historical distribution reported by Anderson (1879) and that the distance from the nearest reported record of species in the delta is almost 1,000 km. <br/> <br/>During the December 2003 surveys of the Bhamo to Mandalay segment sighting conditions were also generally good. The increase in the number of dolphins observed during the 2003 upstream survey, compared to the 2002 downstream survey, can probably be attributed to the slower speed of the survey vessel and the increased visual coverage of downstream facing tributaries and braided channel confluences (where the dolphins were often found) while surveying in an upstream direction. This hypothesis is supported by similar differences in the number of dolphin groups observed during surveys in upstream and downstream directions between Mandalay and the Shweli River confluence in December 1996 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997), five and two, respectively, and during the 2003 surveys themselves, 16 and 10, respectively (Smith 2003). <br/> <br/>The abundance estimate from the December 2003 survey is probably close to the actual size of the Ayeyarwady dolphin population due to measures taken in the field to increase sighting efficiency (team of trained and mostly experienced observers, three looking forward and one backwards on the main vessel and two looking forward on the smaller vessel, all alternating between searching with 7x50 binoculars and naked eye and given sufficient rest so that vigilance remained high) and the upstream direction of the survey. The relatively narrow cross section of the main channel (mean=650 m; SD=342 m; range=175–2,200 m; determined by laser range-finder readings, when the distances from the survey vessel to both banks were less than about 600 m and there were suitable reflective targets [e.g., steep sand slope, defile walls], or by visual estimation when these conditions were not met) and the limited deep water area within the cross-section where the dolphins were typically found (and where the vessel’s survey path was confined) also ensured a high level of sighting efficiency. <br/> <br/>Potential sighting biases were evaluated using distance estimates and dive time frequencies. According to distance estimation data recorded during the survey (n=16), the sighting frequency declined at around 400 m. Mean vessel speed was 7.8 km/hr or 2.2 m/sec, which means that on average it took 182 seconds to cover the 400 m distance where dolphins had a high probability of being detected (otherwise there would have been a decline in sighting frequency before this distance). Group dive times (n=416) were recorded during nine sightings (mean=20 sec, range=1–105, SD=20). A frequency distribution of these times indicates that 100% of dolphin groups within this distance increment would be at the surface, ‘available’ for detection, at least once and, on average, during about nine surfacings. The dolphins would also be available during the same number of surfacings in the 401–800 m and 801–1,200 m distance increments where the proportion of detections were half the number detected at 0–400 m. This analysis indicates that sighting efficiency during the survey was relatively high and therefore the abundance estimate reasonably unbiased. <br/> <br/>A quantitative estimate of population trend cannot be made from the available data, but there is clear evidence of a major reduction in this population’s extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. As summarized above, the linear extent of occurrence in the Ayeyarwady appears to have declined by nearly 60% since the 19th century. Moreover, the best estimate of the total number of dolphins observed was the same (59) for surveys in 1998 and 2003 even though in the latter, the survey boat was traveling at a much slower speed in an upstream direction (7.8 km/hr) in comparison to the faster speed of the earlier downstream survey (13 km/hr). Distances between dolphin sightings (172 km, 124 km, and 33 km for the longest three during the November-December 2002 survey, and 120 km, 89 km, and 23 km during the upstream December 2003 survey) suggest that the remaining population is fragmented to some extent and that opportunities for demographic interaction among dolphin groups are limited, thereby contributing to projected future population declines.
44556		threats	eng	Smith (2003) recorded a total of 5,701 fishing gears in the main channel of the Ayeyarwady during the November-December 2002 survey. Gill nets accounted for the majority of gear clusters (defined as a grouping of gears within 500 m of the first one observed; 57.4%) and, if sticks with multiple hooks are excluded, the majority of individual gears (53.5%). Gill nets were also the most widespread gears in terms of their distribution throughout the river and there was a significant positive relationship between gillnet encounter rates (i.e., number of gears observed each day) regressed against downstream progress on the survey (DF 19; fixed gillnets p=0.0176, F=6.8321, R2=0.2750; drifting gillnets p=0.0002, F=20.7149, R2=0.5351).  <br/> <br/>Wherever gillnets and cetaceans occur together there will be entanglements and mortality (see International Whaling Commission 1994). The fact that gillnets were present in higher frequencies in areas where dolphins were reported to occur historically but were not observed during the 2002 survey, implies that these fishing gears are at least partially responsible for the range decline of the species. For small cetaceans it is generally recommended that yearly removals not exceed 1–2% of the population size (Wade 1998) – the lower bound being more applicable to very small populations that are already vulnerable to extirpation due to demographic, genetic and other factors. If there are only about 60 animals in this subpopulation (‘best’ estimate of abundance from December 2003 survey), any more than a single death every one or two years may be unsustainable.  <br/> <br/>During the December 2003 survey electric fishing was occasionally observed during daylight hours and reported by local villagers to be practiced widely and surreptitiously at night. A local veterinarian reported that he had examined a stranded dolphin that was killed by electrocution (Smith, unpublished). Electric fishing has been cited as being responsible for the largest number of recent known deaths of the baiji (<em>Lipotes vexillifer</em>), a Critically Endangered dolphin in the Yangtze River of China, and has come to be regarded as the main anthropogenic threat to the survival of that species (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/><strong>Potential additional threats</strong> <br/>Smith (2003) also recorded a total of 890 gold mining operations during 15 days of the 2002 survey. These were concentrated primarily in areas of reduced current, above and below defiles and near channel convergences – the same areas that constitute the preferred habitat of Irrawaddy dolphins (see above). Large boat dredges (15.8% of the total operations) and hydraulic land blasters (13.4% of the total operations) introduce, break up, and redistribute large quantities of gravel and fine sediments. This causes major changes in the geomorphological and hydraulic features of river channels that make them suitable for dolphins. These operations are also very noisy, which may interfere with the ability of dolphins to navigate, detect and catch their prey and communicate.  <br/> <br/>Gold mining operations use mercury to amalgamate the gold. Relatively high levels of THg and MeHg have been found in the muscle of 104 fish belonging to 22 different species sampled from fishermen's catches and fish markets along the entire length of the river. In the most widely distributed genus (Ompok) mean muscle Hg from multiple similar individuals was found to increase significantly in the downstream reaches, as compared to upstream reaches (Slotton <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Irrawaddy dolphin is a predatory species and the biomagnification potential of mercury makes pollution by this element a source of concern to the dolphin population. The risk may be increased by the animals’ affinity for counter-currents, where entrained metals may settle in higher concentrations than elsewhere, and tributary mouths fed by lower-order streams, where gold mining may be even more intense and dilution limited by lower flows relative to the mainstem. Although we have no information on the effects of mercury on Irrawaddy dolphins, a casual link has been suggested between liver disease and high levels of the metal in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas) (Bowles 1999).
44557		conservation	eng	The Irrawaddy dolphin has been adopted as the mascot of the Phattalung Province and local people have expressed great enthusiasm for its conservation. The Nue Ham La Ow Bang Teng Forestry Station, which is responsible for protecting the lake?s wildlife, provides a government infrastructure for dolphin protection. A Royal proclamation by the Queen of Thailand on 3 October 2001 designated the Irrawaddy dolphins in Songkhla Lake as a Royal Protected Species. The proclamation makes harming the dolphins or possessing their body parts punishable by four years in jail and/or a fine of 40,000 Baht (<em>ca</em>. US$1,000). The Irrawaddy Dolphin Conservation Society was established by a local schoolteacher in Phattalung in 1996. The Society has conducted numerous awareness-raising activities and keeps detailed records of dolphin strandings; the compilations are reported directly to the Queen at regular intervals. In 2001, a collaborative research and conservation program with the Irrawaddy Dolphin Conservation Society was initiated by the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, UK.  This project was continued and expanded in 2003, with the involvement of the Thailand Departments of Forestry and Fisheries and support from the Wildlife Conservation Society, USA.
44557		distribution	eng	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997; Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems - the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in partially isolated brackish or fresh-water bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand. Irrawaddy dolphins were first recorded in Songkhla Lake by Pilleri and Gihr (1974) who examined three stranded specimens from Thala Luang, north of Papayurn Island.
44557		habitat	eng	The species inhabits deep pools of large rivers, sheltered inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies. (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002).
44557		population	eng	During survey effort in May 2000 and February 2001 covering 545 km in the inner and middle portions of the lake (Thale Luang), north of Papayurn Island, Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002) recorded only four sightings and calculated a sighting rate of 0.03 dolphins/linear km (mean group size = 4.3 dolphins, S.D. = 2.9, range = 1?8).  All sightings were made in the inner portion, which is the deepest part of the lake (2.1?2.5 m). Due to shallow water and the extremely high density of fixed fishing gear, Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002) proposed that dolphins were probably absent from the outer portion of the lake (Thale Sap) and the southern part of Thale Luang. If their supposition is correct, it means that dolphins do not move out of the lake into the Gulf of Thailand, or vice-versa, making the Songkhla population permanently and completely isolated. The same researchers presented additional evidence of the population?s geographic isolation based on interviews with 86 local fishermen. All the fishermen who stated that they had seen dolphins in the lake (69%) fished in the inner portion of Thale Luang (where the sightings were made during the 2000 and 2001 surveys), whereas the remaining fishermen, who had not seen dolphins, fished either to the north or south. Geographic isolation of the population is also supported by observations made during the line-transect survey described below.  <br/> <br/>In September 2003 a line-transect survey, covering 234 km in 21 hours of search effort, was conducted in Songkhla Lake (B. Smith, unpublished). Sighting conditions were good but no dolphins were seen. The intention had been to search the entire lake, following parallel track lines spaced 3.5 km apart. However, shallow water, dense sea grass and an extremely high density of fixed fishing gear prevented the survey vessel from following the designed track lines in the southern portion of Thale Luang and Thale Sap. Search effort was therefore effectively limited to the same area covered by Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002). The 2003 survey was conducted using a similar vessel/observation platform and the same methods and number of observers as had been used for line-transect surveys for Irrawaddy dolphins in Malampaya Sound, Philippines (see Smith <em>et al</em>. in press). If the sighting rate in Songkhla Lake had been equivalent to that recorded in Malampaya Sound (0.0865 sightings/km; a subpopulation also proposed to be listed as Critically Endangered), 20 dolphin groups should have been detected. Even accounting for the difference in size between the area occupied by dolphins in Malampaya Sound (ca. 134 km²) and the area searched during the 2003 Songkhla Lake survey (ca. 755 km²), if the two water bodies supported approximately the same number of groups and individuals, 5?6 groups consisting of 27?32 individuals (based on the mean group size of 5.3 dolphins recorded in Malampaya Sound) should have been detected.  <br/> <br/>Currently, there is only a single connecting channel between the lake and the Gulf of Thailand. This channel is located at the southern tip of the lake and almost certainly inaccessible to dolphins due to the extremely high density of fixed fishing weirs (which remain set throughout the year) and gillnets (some of which are set throughout the year, others of which are removed when some fishermen practice other occupations during the monsoon season ? May through December, peaking from September through November). Previously a second smaller connecting channel existed at the northern tip of the lake. This has been blocked by a closure dam constructed to prevent saline inputs, which supplies irrigation water to intensive agriculture practiced in the fields surrounding the lake. The published records of Irrawaddy dolphins geographically closest to the southern connecting channel are of two specimens in 1901 at Pattani (ca. 100 km to the south; Bonhote 1903 ? not seen; cited in Pilleri and Gihr 1974) and one stranding in 1994 at Surat Thani (ca. 300 km to the north; Chantrapornsyl <em>et al</em>. 1996). The absence of records near the connecting channel (although this may also be explained by a lack of survey effort), the extremely high density of fixed fishing weirs that probably constitute a physical barrier to dolphin movement, and interview surveys indicating that dolphins do not occur in the southern portion of the lake imply that there is little, if any, demographic exchange between dolphins in Songkhla Lake and those in the Gulf of Thailand ? almost certainly fewer than one successful migrant per year (the criterion for defining a subpopulation according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 3.1). Although we have no information on the geomorphic history of the lake, the dynamic sedimentation and erosion processes typical of marine appended lakes would suggest that there were previous primary (i.e., non-anthropogenic) isolation events. These may have allowed population-level genetic differences to develop between the dolphins in Songkhla Lake and those in coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand, although no data are available to investigate this possibility. A precautionary approach is to consider the dolphins in Songkhla Lake geographically isolated, pending future evidence to suggest otherwise. <br/> <br/>There are no quantitative data for estimating population trends. However, circumstantial evidence indicates declining numbers. Compared to the 2001?2002 surveys reported in Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002), the 2003 survey used three rather than two observers and search effort was conducted from a raised platform about two meters higher above the water level. This should have improved searching efficiency. Even with no change in efficiency, the 2003 survey should have produced at least one or two sightings. It is possible that the difference in results simply reflects random variation in sighting biases, but a precautionary interpretation would be that the very small population that existed in 2001 and 2002 has been reduced even further. This interpretation is reinforced by the high mortality experienced by the population (as evidenced by the large number of recorded deaths; see above) in relation to its extremely low (although precisely unknown) population size.
44557		threats	eng	Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002) listed 28 records of dolphins that stranded in Songhkla Lake between January 1990 and April 2001. At least 13 of them were judged to have died from net entanglement, based upon the presence of net scars on the carcass or the reports of local fishermen (Somserm Choorak, pers. comm.). Of the total strandings, at least nine were calves (i.e., one meter in length or smaller). Since that report, 15 additional strandings have been recorded, including nine calves (four of these in February 2003 and two in December 2003) and a pregnant female (Somserm Choorak, pers. comm). Several of those 15 animals were believed to have been killed accidentally in gill nets and fish traps set for sea bass, the carcasses having been discarded and then drifting ashore. Some of the calves were probably stillborn based on the presence of fetal folds and a non-erect dorsal fin. The pregnant female?s flukes had been cut off, probably to extract her body from a gill net. <br/> <br/>The increase in the number of recorded strandings, from 2.5 per year between January 1990 and April 2001 to 5.5 per year between May 2001 and December 2003 (see above), probably reflects an increase in reporting (due to the greater awareness of local people about the dolphins and efforts to conserve them; see below), the developing capacity of local agencies to respond to stranding reports, and possibly a rise in mortality within the population itself. It is unlikely that any real increase in mortality could be explained by an increasing population size, given the lack of recent sightings despite extensive survey effort (see above). <br/> <br/>The proportion of stranded calves has also increased, which could mean that some adults are habituating to the presence of nets and fish traps, or that the calves are dying at an unusually high rate for altogether different reasons; the causes of death for these carcasses could not be determined (Somserm Choorak, pers. comm.). Although we have no supporting evidence, a possible explanation for the high proportion of stranded calves could be that they were stillborn or died shortly after birth due to high toxic loads from agrochemicals used intensively along the shores of the lake. <br/> <br/>Although incidental mortality in gillnets and fish traps is the principal known threat to the population, prey depletion is another potential threat. This could be the result of overfishing and/or the sedimentation and eutrophication caused by shoreline development and deforestation. A closure dam across a narrow channel that previously connected Thale Luang to the sea has undoubtedly contributed to the cumulative effects of human activities (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Smith, unpublished). Year-round availability of fresh water after the dam?s closure has allowed an increase in shoreline agriculture, which uses large quantities of pesticides and herbicides. The dam?s construction also may have eliminated a movement corridor for dolphins between Songkhla Lake and the Gulf of Thailand.
44558		conservation	eng	Commercial harvest of lake sturgeon is prohibited in all U.S. waters. Sport fishing for lake sturgeon is currently prohibited in the Mississippi River but is allowed in some tributaries in Wisconsin and Minnesota (e.g., Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix rivers) during a short hook and line season in the fall.  Angling in Minnesota has several restrictions as to season, fish sizes and gear and the reported annual sport catch was 2,200–4,200 kg in 1998–2000. Harvest is not allowed in Iowa, Ohio, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois and South Dakota. <br/> <br/>Construction of spawning habitats using coarse stone rip-rapping has been undertaken in some states (particularly Wisconsin) and appears to be highly successful. To help restore populations several states are involved in culture and supplemental stocking programs. The largest of these is Missouri which has stocked over 210,000 lake sturgeon fingerlings in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri rivers since 1986. Survival of stocked fish is considered excellent as tagged lake sturgeon have been recaptured in the Mississippi, Missouri, Gasconade and Osage rivers and commercial fishermen have reported incidental catches reaching nuisance proportions (Hesse and Carreiro 1997). <br/> <br/>Artificial culture and restocking of lake sturgeon is also under development in Minnesota using wild broodstock. Wisconsin DNR propagates some lake sturgeon for restocking purposes with most cultured fish being placed into the same river basins from which broodstock were taken. The Tennessee Valley Authority has stocked thousands of young lake sturgeon within the Ohio River Basin.
44558		distribution	eng	Lake sturgeon spend their entire life cycle in freshwater and are widely distributed in North America. They currently range throughout much of the drainages of the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River, Hudson Bay-James Bay, and the Saskatchewan River (Pflieger 1975, Becker 1983, Ferguson and Duckworth 1997). In the Mississippi basin this species occurs from the headwaters in Minnesota to the northern portion of the state of Louisiana and up the Missouri River into southern South Dakota. There is no known natural exchange of stocks between the Great Lakes and western Canadian provinces and those of the Mississippi River basin, though some stockings in the Mississippi have included lake sturgeon of Great Lakes Basin origin.
44558		habitat	eng	Pectoral fin ray sections have been used to determine that lake sturgeon can live to be over 100 years old - though most are less than 35 years old.  Lake sturgeon typically grow to almost two metres in length and about 90 kg, with rare records from the Great Lakes of fish up to 141 kg (Priegel and Wirth 1971). Compared to sturgeon from Lake Winnebago (Wisconsin) and the Great Lakes, relatively little information is available regarding age, growth, maturity and spawning periodicity of lake sturgeon in the Mississippi River basin.  <br/> <br/>Based on information from northern populations, lake sturgeon spawning occurs when water temperatures rise and reach 9–15°C (Priegel and Wirth 1971, Kempinger 1988). Spawning sturgeon will select shallow areas with relatively strong current velocities (Kempinger 1988).   <br/> <br/>Usual lake sturgeon habitat is the highly productive shoal areas of larger lakes, reservoirs and rivers. Lake sturgeon in the Upper Mississippi River prefer habitat in or adjacent to flow, but with relatively low to moderate current velocity (B.C. Knights, USGS, unpublished data). They are rarely found in backwater habitats without flow. In the Mississippi basin habitat that is in or adjacent to current is generally depositional and has relatively compact silt or silt-sand substrates with presumed high densities of benthic invertebrates.  These areas occur at the lower end of navigation pools near the main channel, the mouths of tributaries and large secondary channels, and at some channel border areas. While migrating, presumably en-route to spawning habitats or high use (feeding/home) areas, lake sturgeon will use areas of the river with relatively high current velocities including tailwaters, the main channel in the upper and mid reaches of navigation pools, and tributaries. <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon are known to move great distances to spawning and feeding habitats (Auer 1996).  In a recent study, nearly half of lake sturgeon radio-tagged in Pool 10 of the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin moved up the Wisconsin River about 140 km to the Prairie du Sac dam (Knights, B.C., USGS, unpublished data). Fish tagged in Pool 5A near Winona, Minnesota moved as far downstream as Pool 10 near Clayton, Iowa (about 170 km). Fifty-four occurrences of passage through navigation dams were observed and 46% of tagged sturgeon moved through at least one dam during the 18–month study. One lake sturgeon tagged in the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Sac, Wisconsin, traveled 415 km and moved through seven dams between September 28, 1999 and March 28, 2001, when it was recaptured by an angler at Lock and Dam 3 of the Mississippi River (A. Runstrom, USFWS, unpublished data). Lake sturgeon stocked by the Missouri Department of Conservation into Pool 24 of the Mississippi River and at several locations on the Missouri River have been reported as far upstream as the Lock and Dam 19 tailwater, as far downstream as Chester, IL, and as far up the Missouri River as the Gavins Point Dam tailwater (K. Brummett, MODOC, unpublished data).
44558		population	eng	Lake sturgeon were generally considered to be rare to uncommon in most waters of the Mississippi River basin since the late 1800s. In 1989, this species was declared as threatened by the American Fisheries Society in all Mississippi River states except Louisiana where they are believed to be extirpated (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1989). The Department of Natural Resources in Iowa and Illinois and the Missouri Department of Conservation list the lake sturgeon as endangered in their respective states, and in Minnesota the lake sturgeon is listed as a species of special concern. The species appears to be extirpated from its former range in Alabama and Arkansas. <br/> <br/>The current status of lake sturgeon throughout the Mississippi basin is considered to be severely depressed from historical abundance levels. However, modern population assessment studies are lacking and rate of stock decline or growth is unknown. Native stocks were extremely depressed prior to the stocking program undertaken by the Missouri Department of Conservation. Following the first releases into Mark Twain Lake (Salt River, a Pool 24 tributary) in 1984, then at Louisiana on Pool 24 of the Mississippi River and at several Missouri River locations in 1988, increasing reports of incidental catch in commercial gear and by recreational anglers has been occurring.
44558		threats	eng	The life history characteristics of slow growth, late maturation, and irregular spawning periodicity make lake sturgeon populations particularly vulnerable to over-exploitation. Sturgeon populations are threatened by industrial and municipal pollution, blockage of access to habitats by dikes and dams, channelization and elimination of backwater areas, dewatering and water level fluctuations, physical destruction of spawning habitat, and inundation of habitat by reservoirs (Rochard <em>et al</em>. 1990, Auer 1996, Beamesderfer and Farr 1997, Noakes <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <br/> <br/>Although there are numerous recorded instances of tagged sturgeon passing through navigation locks, many fish are precluded or delayed from reaching spawning or preferred feeding waters. Dams without locks completely block sturgeon passage and serve as severe impediments to lake sturgeon recovery in the Mississippi basin. Spawning and nursery areas are further degraded from land use problems such as erosion and sedimentation, and direct mortality of lake sturgeon due to impacts with commercial and/or recreational navigation vessels has been documented. <br/> <br/>Although lake sturgeon harvest from the Mississippi River is prohibited, financial incentive to collect roe for caviar remains. Small population sizes may limit poachers from targeting this species but it is likely that incidental captures are utilized and end up in the black market. With the first stocking of lake sturgeon by Missouri DOC now at age 17, there is increasing concern that poachers will target them as the females reach maturity within the next few years.
44559		distribution	eng	At least two groups of white sturgeon occur in the lower Fraser between Mission and Hell's Gate and another in the middle Fraser between Hell’s Gate and the mouth of the Nechako River.   <br/> <br/>Fraser River subpopulations do not mix with the U.S. Regional population. Although it is known that some sub-adults spend time in the estuary (Veinott <em>et al</em>. 1999), Fraser River white sturgeon are not known to migrate further into the marine environment. There are no reports of white sturgeon in the Strait of Georgia off the Fraser River (Lane 1991).
44559		habitat	eng	Although it is known that some sub-adults spend time in the estuary (Veinott <em>et al</em>. 1999), Fraser River white sturgeon are not known to migrate further into the marine environment. There are no reports of white sturgeon in the Strait of Georgia off the Fraser River (Lane 1991). <br/> <br/>In the river below Hell’s Gate some females may spawn as young as 18 and males at 14 years of age. Generation length in the regional subpopulation downstream of the Nechako appears to be in the range of 35–40 years of age.
44559		population	eng	Good information documenting historic population or subpopulation size decline does not exist. Records prior to 1900 (Semakula and Larkin 1968, Echols 1995) indicate annual sturgeon catches in the commercial fishery on the lower Fraser peaked at about 454,000 kg in 1897. The fishery collapsed in 1900, revived slightly in 1907, and collapsed again in 1917. Since then the commercial harvest has rarely exceeded 22,000 kg and during the 1965–75 period was about 12,000 kg per annum. Much of the commercial sturgeon catch was incidental to the salmon fishery although there may have been a directed fishery at the turn of the 20th century. This makes it difficult to compare the historical catch to more recent catches due to the changes in fishing patterns that have occurred. <br/> <br/>Mark recapture estimates for the subpopulation (R.L. & L Environmental Services Ltd. 2000) show a population size of 22,000 (95% CI = 9,800–70,700). Length frequency and age distribution in the mainstem subpopulation  appears relatively normal with most fish younger than age 20 (R.L. & L. Environmental Services Ltd. 2000). Fish < 50 cm in length are under-represented in the length frequency distributions for the mainstem due to sampling gear bias. <br/> <br/>RL&L used a size of > 150 cm (called oversize) to separate adult individuals from sub-adults and juveniles.  On this basis, 45% of the fish sampled in the lower Fraser were estimated to be adult fish; 37% in the canyon section were adults; and 20% of the subpopulation between Hell’s Gate and the Nechako. Overall, total number of adult white sturgeon in the lower Fraser River is estimated to be 8,876 fish or about 40% of the subpopulation. <br/> <br/>RL&L found the sex ratio was skewed to males and varied from 4–4.5:1 below Hell’s Gate, to 7.6:1 in the middle Fraser. Fewer than 10% of the females and 12% of the males examined in the adult size class were in the late reproductive stages, indicating that the proportion of reproductively mature individuals in a given year is quite low. Limited data from an earlier study based on analysis of pectoral fin rays indicated intervals between spawning in the lower Fraser vary from 4–9 years (Semakula and Larkin 1968).
44559		threats	eng	Area of occupancy has no doubt been reduced in the lower mainstem due to the alienation of side channels from dyking activity, the infolding of sloughs and wetlands, development and industrial activity. The loss of sloughs, side channels and other low velocity backwater areas has decreased available juvenile rearing habitat. Loss of side channels may reduce spawning habitat availability as well.
44560		distribution	eng	In the Fraser River drainage of Canada at least five distinct subpopulations of white sturgeon have been identified using two independent genetic techniques - mtDNA and microsatellite DNA (Nelson <em>et al</em>. 1999 and Pollard 2000). The Upper Fraser subpopulation is found in the Fraser River upstream of the Nechako River. Fraser River subpopulations do not mix with the U.S. Regional population.
44560		habitat	eng	Restricted to freshwater in the upper Fraser River only.
44560		population	eng	A preliminary estimate from work being done by the Lheidli T’enneh First Nation (Yarmish and Toth 2001) for shows a subpopulation size of 255 (95% CI = 158–352). This preliminary population estimate may be skewed by the high recapture rate of individuals found in known areas of congregation. However, after extensive sampling, investigators do not believe the population can be larger than a few hundred individuals > 50 cm in length (Yarmish, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Only 19% of the fish captured in the Lheidli T’enneh study were in the > 150 cm size class (Yarmish and Toth 2001). Investigators believe the use of this size class in the latter study may underestimate the number of adult fish as maturity in this slower growing population may occur at a smaller size (Yarmish, pers. comm.).
44561		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Nechako River and it?s tributary the Stuart River (these two have a combined stream length of about 400 km). However, sturgeon are not evenly dispersed throughout this length of river, but are clustered in suitable habitat.
44561		habitat	eng	Restricted to freshwater habitat in the Nechako River and its tributary the Stuart River.
44561		population	eng	The preliminary estimate for first spawning in females of the mid-river population is late 20's with males possibly reaching maturity before 20 years. In the Nechako River preliminary information indicates females may not reach maturity until their late 30?s, or older, and males may not spawn until their early 40?s (this estimate may be skewed by the lack of younger fish in the population). The oldest fish sampled was 88 years of age. Generation length in the Nechako subpopulation could be 50 to 55 years. <br/> <br/>Mark recapture estimates for the Nechako subpopulation (R.L. & L Environmental Services Ltd. 2000) estimate the subpopulation at 571 (95% CI = 421?890). Very few fish less than 30 years of age were sampled, indicating a near total recruitment failure. Only 4% of the individuals sampled were in the juvenile size class (less than 100 cm total length), in spite of a directed sampling effort on this life stage.  <br/> <br/>RL&L used a size of > 150 cm (called oversize) to separate adult individuals from sub-adults and juveniles. On this basis, 80% of the fish sampled in the Nechako subpopulation were in the adult size class. RL&L found the sex ratio was skewed 2:1 to males in this subpopulation. Fewer than 10% of the females and 12% of the males examined in the adult size class were in the late reproductive stages, indicating that the proportion of reproductively mature individuals in a given year is quite low.
44561		threats	eng	In the Nechako, flow reduction has reduced depth and the amount of habitat available in side channels and backwaters.
44562		distribution	eng	Upper Columbia River white sturgeon subpopulation inhabits the Columbia River mainstem upstream from Grand Coulee Dam. In this area, the largest documented group of the species resides in the area between Hugh Keenleyside Dam and the Canada–U.S. border. Other remnant subpopulations occur, or are suspected, throughout the remainder of the drainage. <br/> <br/>Radio telemetry has shown that white sturgeon occurring downstream from Keenleyside Dam in Canada are typically either sedentary or localized in their patterns of movement. However, some fish have moved downstream into Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, at least as far downstream as Kettle Falls (RL&L 1995). Similarly, fish tagged in Lake Roosevelt have been recaptured upstream during sampling operations in Canada (BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file). This evidence of trans-boundary migration suggests that white sturgeon from Keenleyside Dam in Canada to Lake Roosevelt in the U.S. form the same subpopulation. <br/> <br/>Given the exchange of upper Columbia River white sturgeon across the Canada–U.S. border, evidence supporting the concept of a distinct white sturgeon subpopulation in the upper Columbia River can be derived from Anders <em>et al</em>. (2000, in prep). White sturgeon mtDNA haplotypes were compared among 13 localities, and six large river systems over the range of the species (Columbia, Snake, Kootenai, Fraser, Nechako, Sacramento rivers) using pairwise frequency-distribution comparisons (Monte-Carlo simulations using 10,000 iterations of exact, weighted, Pearson chi-square tests). Haplotype frequency distributions were significantly different, or nearly so (P=0.09, 0.06, 0.06 and < 0.01), in four cases where Lake Roosevelt white sturgeon were compared with other subpopulations in the Columbia River downstream. These data point to low levels of gene flow between the groups, suggesting the upper Columbia subpopulation could be managed separately.
44562		habitat	eng	Restricted to freshwater habitat in the upper Columbia River.
44562		population	eng	The abundance of white sturgeon from the Columbia River mainstem between Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border was most recently assessed in 1995, when a population of 1,120 individuals (95% CI = 980 to 1,300) was estimated (RL&L 1996a). This figure does not include sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, and thus represents a minimum estimate of the total subpopulation. A smaller group of white sturgeon, considered part of the same subpopulation, has been identified at the upper end of Arrow Lakes Reservoir, located upstream from Keenleyside Dam. Estimates place the size of this group at 38 individuals (95% CI = 23 to 78) based on the results of 2000 studies (RL&L 2001). <br/> <br/>Extensive study has confirmed spawning by upper Columbia white sturgeon at two locations. The vast majority of spawning occurs at the Pend d'Oreille–Columbia confluence (Waneta tailrace) area near the Canada–U.S. border (e.g., RL&L 1995). Spawning at this site has occurred annually since 1993 — the first year spawning studies were initiated. In 1999, a second spawning area was documented in the upper Columbia River just upstream from Arrow Lakes Reservoir (RL&L 2000).  Spawning did not occur at this site in 2000. <br/> <br/>Despite the regularity of spawning events, age structure analyses show that recruitment began to decline in 1969, and has failed entirely since 1985 (RL&L 1995). Changes in length-frequency distribution follow a similar pattern, with a dramatic reduction in representation by smaller fish in ongoing sampling programs (RL&L 1996a, BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file). Sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, although less intensive, shows a similar recruitment failure (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999, Spokane Tribe, data on file). Thus, recruitment of upper Columbia white sturgeon has failed completely, to the point where continued existence of the subpopulation is at risk. <br/> <br/>First maturity is reached as early as 27 years of age for females and 16 for males (RL&L 1995), although the mean age of maturation is likely higher.  Assuming a mean age of maturity of 30 years for the subpopulation, and limited or complete failure of recruitment for more than 20 years, at least 80% of the subpopulation is estimated to be of reproductive age. Thus, in combination, the groups of white sturgeon composing this subpopulation would represent about 930 mature individuals. Based on sampling currently underway (B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file) the sex ratio is 1.35 males per female (n=94), indicating 396 females and an effective population size of 910 (Falconer 1981). The oldest documented individual in the subpopulation is 69 years of age. Assuming a typical mortality curve and using age 30 as the point at which maturity is reached, the average age of parents (generation time) in the population is likely 40–45 years.
44562		threats	eng	Upper Columbia white sturgeon were isolated from lower Columbia River stocks in the United States in 1941 following the construction of Grand Coulee Dam and related formation of Lake Roosevelt. Kettle Falls in Washington State is thought to have formed a seasonal barrier to white sturgeon migration prior to its inundation by Lake Roosevelt. Construction of Keenleyside, Mica, and Revelstoke dams on the mainstem Columbia River, Brilliant Dam on the lower Kootenay River, and Waneta Dam on the lower Pend d'Oreille River further fragmented the population and altered the natural river regime. In addition, the impoundments created by these dams flooded the riverine system, altering or eliminating critical sturgeon habitats, changing water quality and generally reducing system productivity. Dam construction effects were exacerbated by additional impacts such as pollution and waterfront developments.
44563		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44563		distribution	eng	Known from the Indian Ocean (Maldive Islands, possibly Sri Lanka), South China Sea and Western Central Pacific Ocean (Philippines).
44563		habitat	eng	Inhabits upper continental and insular slopes, recorded depths: 760 to 770 m (Compagno in preparation a). <em>Centrophorus</em> spp. usually occur on or near the bottom over the continental slope from about 200 to 2,300 m depth. <br/> <br/>Reported size ranges from 35.2 to 93 cm total length (TL). Size and age at maturity is unknown. Smallest reported adult male is 75 cm TL; smallest reported adult female is 78 cm TL (Compagno in preparation a). All other aspects of biology unknown. <br/> <br/>Reproduction in <em>Centrophorus</em> is ovoviviparous, and fecundity is low. <em>C. uyato</em> and <em>C. moluccensis</em> (which superficially resemble <em>C. isodon</em>) only have 1 to 2 embryos per litter, compared to 5 to 7 per litter in <em>C. squamosus</em> and <em>C. lusitanicus</em> respectively.  <br/> <br/>Diet includes a wide range of teleosts, other dogfishes, cephalopods, shrimps and occasionally salps.
44563		population	eng	Population unknown.
44563		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl and line fisheries. Other members of the genus exhibit little resilience to fishing pressure and have been rapidly depleted by directed commercial fisheries, and as bycatch (Cavanagh <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further research and monitoring of deepsea fisheries as they expand globally is necessary. <br/> <br/>Utilisation unknown. Probably utilized for liver oil and possibly fish meal.
44564		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
44564		habitat	eng	Found at the upper slope of the Kyushu-Palau submarine ridge, at depths of 340 to 370 m. Males presumably are immature at 21 to 29 cm total length (TL), adult at about 40 to 43 cm TL; size of females is not known. No other information on biology.
44564		population	eng	Known from a limited number of specimens.
44564		threats	eng	Known specimens were collected by research surveys using commercial bottom trawl nets. Of no commercial value, but possibly taken as very rare bycatch in bottom trawl nets. Future expansion of deepwater fisheries could pose a threat to this poorly known species. However, at present there is very little, if any, fishing within the species’ range.
44565		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44565		distribution	eng	Most goblin shark records come from Japan. All Japanese records have been made between Tosa Bay and Boso Peninsula (including Sagami Bay, Suruga Bay, Izu Islands), despite similar fishing gear being used throughout the Japanese Archipelago (Yano 2003). In April 2003 an exceptionally large number of goblin sharks (reportedly 100 to 300) were captured off northwest Taiwan, an area they had been previously unknown from.  <br/> <br/>The species is likely to occur in more locations than presently known as surveys are undertaken in other regions or as deepwater fisheries expand globally.
44565		habitat	eng	This is an apparently rare and consequently poorly known upper slope, possibly mesopelagic species. Maximum size is estimated to be 540 to  617 cm total (TL) using regression analysis based on photographs of a specimen taken in the Gulf of Mexico (Parsons <em>et al</em>. 2002). Males are mature at 264 cm TL; female size at maturity is unknown. Pregnant females are unknown but like other Lamniformes the embryos are probably oviphagous and litter size is likely to be small. The smallest known free-swimming individual was about 88 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Individuals less than 300 cm TL are occasionally reported inshore or near the surface over deepwater at depths ?30 m, and occur to at least 979 m depth. Individuals larger than 300 cm TL have not been collected shallower than about 270 m depth. Maximum reported depth is 1,300 m, however, it is unclear if the specimens referred to in this record were taken on the bottom or in the water column as the trawl was deployed and/or retrieved. The largest reported specimen was tangled in a crab pot at about 1,000 m depth. Most reported captures are of small juveniles taken on or near the bottom over the outer shelf and upper slope. In Tokyo Canyon peak catches of goblin sharks in bottom-set gillnets occur between 200 to 300 m depth.  A seasonal peak in catches occurs between December and April, with secondary peaks reported in July and September in some years (Yano 2003). Total catch is low with a maximum of about 30 individuals a year reported. The fishery takes mainly small juveniles less than 150 cm TL. The largest specimens taken in this fishery exceeded 200 cm TL and were also immature (Yano 2003). Goblin sharks collected at similar depths off New Zealand, South Africa and France (Bay of Biscay) have also been juveniles suggesting that the bulk of the adult population occurs outside the depth range, or is otherwise unavailable to most deepwater fisheries.  <br/> <br/>Their anatomy suggests goblin sharks are a non-vertical migrating mesopelagic species. Although poorly known their diet also suggests a mesopelagic habitat. A large goblin shark taken near the surface off California had been feeding on squid. Juveniles (?150 cm TL) taken off Kaikoura, New Zealand, and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, had been feeding on midwater crustacea (including <em>Macrocypridina castanea rotunda</em>), unidentified teleosts, and squid (including juvenile <em>Teuthowenia pellucida</em>).  <br/> <br/>Goblin sharks were unknown from Taiwan until 2003, when an exceptionally large number (> 100) were reportedly caught off the northwest coast over two weeks in April by a number of fishers. These captures were reportedly made around 600 m depth, following a strong earthquake centred in the area. One fisher reportedly stated that most of these sharks were male. No measurements or other data are known to have been recorded; however, an unconfirmed length estimate of 350 to 400 cm TL for some specimens was reportedly based upon the size of several jaws (M. and M. Kazmers posting on the <a href="http://raven.utc.edu/cgi-bin/WA.EXE?A0=SHARK-L">Archives of SHARK-L@RAVEN.UTC.EDU</a>, 12 July 2003).
44565		population	eng	Reported landings from Tokyo Canyon show no trend in abundance (Yano 2003).
44565		threats	eng	The goblin shark is a rare bycatch of deepwater fisheries with most captures around Japan. In an unusual occurrence, an exceptionally large number (> 100) were reportedly caught off the northwest coast of Taiwan over two weeks in April 2003 by a number of fishers. <br/> <br/>Taken in deep bottom-set gillnet, bottom longline and trawl fisheries; rarely surface drift nets. Also entangled in deepwater fishing gear. Most reported captures are juveniles suggesting that the bulk of the adult population occurs outside the depth range of, or is otherwise unavailable to most deepwater fisheries. <br/> <br/>The jaws are sought after by collectors. The jaws of most of those goblin sharks landed in Taiwan during April 2003 were reported exported to the USA. Prices vary with the size and quality of the jaw, and range from US$1,500?$4,000.
44566		conservation	eng	None in place. Deep-sea marine protected areas would be important in preserving habitat of this and other deepwater species.
44566		distribution	eng	Extent of occurrence uncertain as records are sporadic. Records from the Southern Hemisphere are scarce and the species most likely occurs at more locations than presently recorded. <br/> <br/>Northwest Atlantic (Canada (Gilhen and Coad 1999), New York to New Jersey (Compagno (in prep. b)); Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic (Atlantic Slope off Iceland, France, Portugal, Madeira, Azores, Canary Islands, Senegal and Cape Verde Is.); Western Indian Ocean (Aldabra Island group) and locations in the Southwest Indian (Alastair Graham, pers. comm.); Northwest Pacific (Japan (southern Honshu and Okinawa) and Taiwan); Eastern Indian Ocean (Australia (Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia) (Allen and Cowan 1995)); Western Central Pacific (Coral Sea, off Mackay, Queensland (Johnson and Kyne in press)); Southwest Pacific (New Zealand (Three Kings Ridge and Hikurangi Trough, east of Mahia Peninsula) (Stewart and Clark 1988, Yano 1992, Yano and Musick 1992, Stewart 2000)); and Central Pacific (Hawaiian Islands).
44566		habitat	eng	A large deepwater benthic shark recorded from depths of 200 to 1,890 m on the continental and insular slopes, including around seamounts, troughs and deepwater reefs. This species is occasionally recorded on the continental shelves including in shallow water. This may be abnormal behaviour or where submarine canyons extend close to shore (Compagno in prep. b). The anatomy of this shark (large body cavity, soft fins, musculature and skin) suggests an inactive and sluggish lifestyle (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Maximum size 296 cm total length (TL) (female), 295 cm TL (male) (Yano 1992); mature individuals 200 to 269 cm TL (males), 212 to 295 cm TL (females) (Compagno in prep. b). Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. (1984) observed near-term embryos of 112 and 113 cm TL, and Yano (1992) at 116 to 120 cm TL. A 156 cm TL immature female had an umbilical scar (Yano 1992). Size at birth 120 to 150 cm TL (Yano, unpubl. data).  <br/> <br/>Forster <em>et al</em>. (1970) suggested that <em>P. microdon</em> was oophagous based on the large number of ova (estimated at 20,000) of 9 mm mean diameter observed in the ovary of a 280 cm TL female. Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported mid-term and near-term embryos with stomachs full of yolk. Yano (1992) confirmed the existence of oophagy in this species showing that embryos ingest and utilise yolk material from ovulated ova. Yolk material was observed in the uteri of gravid females and the stomachs of two embryos contained yolk material and egg capsules. Yano (1992) reported that the reproductive mode in this species is a modified form of oophagy in which embryos appear to transfer yolk from ingested egg fragments to their external yolk sac, replenishing external yolk sac reserves and using them in the last stages of gestation. Reported litter size of this species is two (Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1984, Yano 1992, Stewart 2000) but may be four according to Compagno (in prep. b). Gestation period is unknown, but is presumed to be > 1 year and possibly more than two or three years (Yano unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Yano and Musick (1992) found that this species feeds predominantly on teleost fishes (52.8% frequency of occurrence in North Pacific specimens, 80% in South Pacific specimens). Other prey items included etmopterid sharks, squid and octopi. Its very large mouth may allow prey items of considerable size to be ingested (Compagno in prep. b). False catsharks have been photographed in the Indian Ocean (feeding on teleosts used as bait on the camera) and from a submersible off the Hawaiian Islands (feeding on heterocarpid prawns at the entrance to a trap) (Compagno in prep. b).
44566		population	eng	Seemingly uncommon or rare wherever it occurs in its deepwater habitat.
44566		threats	eng	Localised populations of this large shark could be rapidly depleted if it began to be captured more regularly, however, at present it is of little interest to fisheries and is only taken as sporadic bycatch. <br/> <br/>Most specimens of this species have been taken on deep-set longlines or in deepwater bottom trawls (Compagno in prep. b). Among the specimens reported in the literature as taken from commercial fishing operations, individuals have been captured as bycatch of trawls for Atlantic halibut <em>Hippoglossus hippoglossus</em> in the North Atlantic (Gilhen and Coad 1999) and orange roughy <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> in the southern Indian (Allen and Cowan 1995), and developmental fishing surveys for bottom longline fisheries in the North Pacific (Yano 1992). The Queensland, Australia specimen was taken by exploratory deepwater dropline fishing targeting deepwater reef fishes, particularly flame and ruby snapper (<em>Etelis</em> spp.) and bar cod (<em>Epinephelus</em> spp.) (J. Johnson, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Utilization not reported.
44567		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44567		distribution	eng	As presently known, this species appears to be restricted to Chile. The holotype, collected by the HMS Challenger at Station 311, was taken at 52°45.5'S, 73°46'W in the northwestern Strait of Magellan. The type locality was reported as Port Stanley, Falkland Islands (as the Challenger may have proceeded onto that port after surveying in the Pacific). Although Compagno (1984) reports the species from the Falkland Islands, it has not actually been recorded from that locality (J. Pompert, pers. comm.) and at present appears to be restricted to Chilean waters.
44567		habitat	eng	A poorly known deepwater shark. Compagno (in prep. a) notes that the species has been recorded at 400 to 448 m depth on the upper continental slope. The holotype was taken at 448 m (Günther 1887). Recorded in the Chilean deep-sea shrimp fishery at depths of 300 to 500 m (Acuña and Villaroel 2002). Lamilla (2003) reports a maximum size of 61.5 cm total length (TL); size at birth 13 cm TL; minimum size of mature males 31 cm TL; and, a maximum fecundity of 16. Nothing else known of its biology.
44567		threats	eng	Sporadic bycatch in the Chilean deep sea shrimp fishery, in small numbers (Acuña and Villaroel 2002), at depths of 300?500 m.
44568		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44568		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Gulf of Mexico and Venezuela.
44568		habitat	eng	A rare, small, deepwater benthic shark found on the upper continental slope at depths of 402 to 457 m. Virtually nothing known about its biology. Attains a maximum size of at least 49 cm total length (TL). Immature specimens of both males and females examined at 20 to 21 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. a).
44568		threats	eng	This species is not known to be of interest to fisheries at present (Compagno, in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Compagno (in prep. a) writes: "Oxynotids are of limited interest to fisheries, as these sharks are a relatively uncommon bycatch of bottom and pelagic trawl fisheries and to the writer's knowledge are not sufficiently abundant and concentrated to be targeted to any extent". <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Compagno (in prep. a) writes: "Where utilized (Eastern North Atlantic) [oxynotids] are mostly processed for fish meal and oil, but also are prepared smoked and dried-salted for human consumption".
44569		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype collected at an unrecorded depth from the Straits of Magellan, Chile.
44569		habitat	eng	Known only from the holotype collected from the Straits of Magellan (depth unrecorded). Holotype was 68 cm total length (TL) (species may attain a larger size). Nothing known of the biology of this deepwater dogfish (Compagno, in prep. a).
44569		threats	eng	Of no interest to fisheries at present (Compagno, in prep. a)
44570		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
44570		distribution	eng	Known from a single specimen taken in the open ocean about 2,300 km WNW of Santiago, Chile.
44570		habitat	eng	Known only from a single specimen (the holotype) which is an immature male of 26 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. a). This species is apparently oceanic being caught near the surface at 0 to 200 m in water 2,000 to 4,000 m deep. Nothing known of its biology.
44570		population	eng	Known only from one specimen.
44570		threats	eng	No information currently available on threats and interactions with fisheries.
44571		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Given declines in other <em>Squatina</em> species globally, careful monitoring of catches is required, as is life history studies. Taxonomic resolution and validation of the species is required.
44571		habitat	eng	Chirichigno and Cornejo (2001) reported that the species is benthic on sandy bottoms at depths of 30 to 75 m. Maximum size to 150 cm total length (TL) (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001). Nothing known of its biology.
44571		threats	eng	In Peru, this species is of little importance to fisheries, with an average catch of 267 metric tons (mt) per year taken off Peru between 1964 and 1999, and no long-term trend apparent. Landings were very unsteady during this period. The catch ranged from 55 mt per year (in 1992) to 1,615 mt per year (in 1986). There were two peaks, one in 1982 (1,126 mt) and the other in 1986. It is not clear why these peaks were followed by abrupt falls in 1982?83 and 1986?87, respectively, but this may be related to El Niño events. <br/> <br/>Information is not available from other countries.
44572		conservation	eng	Further research is required to determine the species' exact distribution, biology and habitat.
44572		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic where it is known from various localities in the Caribbean: Leeward Islands off Antigua and Anguilla, Netherlands Antilles, Straits of Florida, Colombia and Venezuela (Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
44572		habitat	eng	Recorded from the insular slopes at depths of 521 to 915 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Virtually nothing known of its biology. Maximum size 45.5 cm total length (TL): males are adult at 42.8 cm TL, and females are adult at 39.5 to 45.5 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b).
44572		population	eng	There is no information on population size.
44572		threats	eng	This species is of no interest to fisheries (Compagno in prep. b).
44573		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
44573		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific. Possibly also occurs in the Northeast Pacific. Nominally from the Eastern Central Pacific off Morocco, but this is probably another species (Compagno in prep. b).
44573		habitat	eng	A little-known shark of the upper continental slope reported at depths of 400 to 925 m (Compagno in prep. b) and 250 to 500 m off Northern and Central Chile (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002). Females never observed. Mature males reported at 51 to 59 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Eggcases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.
44573		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries. Off Northern and Central Chile (from 27º46?37?? to 33º19?59??S) the species is taken as bycatch in the deep sea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> fishery (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002). <br/> <br/>Not known to be utilized at present.
44574		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific where it is known only from Panama (Gulf of Panama and Panama Bay) (Compagno in prep. b).
44574		habitat	eng	Known from the continental slope at depths of 915 to 975 m. Maximum size at least 23 cm total length (TL); adult males at or above 20.8 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). In the largest female examined the ovary could be discerned, but no distinct ovarian eggs were apparent (Springer 1979). Nothing known of its biology.
44574		threats	eng	Of no interest to fisheries (Compagno in prep. b).
44575		conservation	eng	No conservation measures exist in Brazil. In Argentina, the species is included in the annual catch quota of the fishery for coastal skates. Fishery landing statistics should be improved, by listing <em>A. castelnaui</em> specifically and not under "unidentified rays and skates". Management measures for this and other elasmobranch species should be reached bilaterally between Argentina and Uruguay in the first instance due to the common zone of fishing shared between them.
44575		distribution	eng	The depth distribution of the species appears to be much wider in south Brazil, where the species occurs across most of the continental shelf (20 to 220 m), than in Argentina, where the species is reported from the inner shelf only (40 to 60 m).
44575		habitat	eng	In south Brazil, the species occurs all year round across most of the continental shelf, at 20 to 220 m, and at bottom temperatures of 9.5 to 22°C without preference for temperatures within this wide range (Vooren 1997, Vooren, unpubl. data). In Argentina, the species occurs at depths of 40 to 60 m and at bottom temperatures of 9.6 to 13.5°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Perhaps in Argentina depths greater than 60 m have bottom temperatures below 9.5°C, which is the minimum limit of the species. This would explain the wider depth distribution of the species in south Brazil where a wider range of temperatures greater than 9.5°C is available.   <br/> <br/>In south Brazil, in trawl surveys of the entire shelf in the years 1980 to 1986 (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data), disc width (DW) was as follows: <br/>-  Total range 20 cm to 103 cm (1 to 18 kg). <br/>-  Most abundant size classes 40 to 90 cm (1.5 to 12.5 kg).    <br/>-  Females maximum size 103 cm, maximum total weight 18 kg. <br/>-  Males maximum size 90 cm, total weight 13 kg. <br/> <br/>In Argentina, maximum total length (TL) is 140 cm and the species feeds on fish, squid and crustaceans (Cousseau and Perrotta 2000).  <br/> <br/>Oviparous, egg-laying occurs from January to October (assessors, pers. obs).
44575		population	eng	Southern Brazil may be the stronghold of the species in terms of its abundance.
44575		threats	eng	In south Brazil the species has been fished by bottom trawling from at least 1986 and was frequently observed in trawler landings in 2002 and 2003 (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). In Argentina, the species has been landed since 1994. Trawl fishing in the habitat of the species is intense. In Argentina and Uruguay, biomass measured by research trawling decreased by 75% in the years from 1994 to 1999 (Hozbor and Massa, unpubl. data) and it is highly probable that in Brazil the species is threatened by fishing at a similar level. <br/> <br/>Furthermore, the vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002).
44576		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific Ocean, from Perú (07°49'S, 80°38'W) to Constitución in Chile (35°43'S, 73°17'W).
44576		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species, which inhabits the continental slope and has been reported from depths of 580 to 735 m: De Buen (1959) described one juvenile male (29.3 cm total length (TL)) from off Valparaíso, Chile. McEachran and Miyake (1984) reported three specimens (two juvenile males, 11.0 cm TL and 16.7 cm TL; one juvenile female, 15.6 cm TL) captured in Perú at 605 to 735 m depth. Lamilla (unpubl. data) found six specimens (three males, 22.0, 29.2 and 24.5 cm TL; three females, 18.3, 22.3 and 23.5 cm TL, all juveniles) at 580 to 720 m depth of Chile. These are the only records of this species. Adults have never been observed and probably occur in deeper water where fishing and surveys are limited. Nothing is known of its biology.
44576		threats	eng	No fisheries currently occur at the depths in which this species has been reported.
44577		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in effect. Since it seems to aggregate in certain areas to feed, closed areas may be effective to protect these aggregations. The use of bycatch reduction devices seems to be ineffective since the animal is sensitive to any injury due to its thin skin.
44577		distribution	eng	Extremely localised and restricted distribution off southern Brazil. Estimated extent of occurrence about 16,000 km², but probably less.
44577		habitat	eng	This is a deepwater electric ray with a known bathymetrical distribution of 400 to 600 m depth at bottom water temperatures from 8 to 9°C. It feeds mainly on polychaetes and isopod crustaceans, which it unearths from the sediment. Maximum size is around 26 cm total length (TL). Matures at 14 to 15 cm TL (males) and 20 to 21 cm TL (females). Ovoviviparous; number of young one or two per litter; size at birth 0.96 cm TL. May breed year-round since different gestation stages were found in a single capture, but gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown.
44577		population	eng	It seems to aggregate over polychaete-rich sediments to feed where large numbers are often captured in a single trawl.
44577		threats	eng	Captured in large numbers as bycatch by the otter trawl fishery targeting squid <em>Illex argentinus</em> off Santa Catarina. Large catches and stomach contents (with large numbers of polychaetes) are evidence of aggregation over special worm rich sediments in order to feed, making it more vulnerable to the bottom trawl fishery.  <br/> <br/>Increasing bottom trawl effort for squids in the only known area of its distribution is a matter of concern, inferring future declines in the number of mature individuals as fishing effort increases.
44578		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently are in effect or proposed. Bycatch mitigation is required. Closed areas may be required to protect this and other species in such areas of heavy, and increasing, fishing.
44578		distribution	eng	Recorded so far only off Santa Catarina and north of Rio Grande do Sul States, Brazil. Northern distribution not reported, but may occur at least to São Paulo State. If so, the range is still likely to be less than 20,000 km².
44578		habitat	eng	Upper continental slope off Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul States (southern Brazil) from 236 to 600 m depth in deep reef habitat. <br/> <br/>Three mature females (38.5, 38.5 and 42.5 cm total length (TL)) had one single developed ovary on the right hand side with yellow follicles with diameters of 12 to 18 mm. The largest female (42.5 cm TL) had both oviducts with large nidamental glands (width of 23 mm in the left and 21 mm in the right) and both uteri flabby and empty with a width of 8 mm and length of 68 mm in the left uterus and 9 mm and 55 mm in the right uterus. One female (36.5 cm TL) had its ovary with 19 white follicles of 3 mm, nidamental glands 11 mm wide and uterus 6 mm wide and 57 mm long. The analysis of this reproductive system did not allow determination of maturity. One other female of 34.5 cm TL was immature, based on its undeveloped sexual system, with its ovary full of 3 mm white follicles, small nidamental glands of 4 mm width and uterus 2 mm wide and 42 mm long. So, maturity in females occurs at 34.5 to 38.5 cm TL and males mature at 36.0 to 37.5 cm TL (Rincon, unpubl. data).
44578		threats	eng	A bycatch in deepwater fisheries (bottom longline and trawl, and baited trap). While there are no specific data on bycatch trends, increasing bottom trawl effort for squids in the only known area of its distribution is a matter of concern, where the species is frequently taken as bycatch. The squid fishery operates in southern Brazil during winters when the Malvinas Current extends northwards to Santa Catarina State, producing optimal conditions for reproducing aggregations of squid. Heavy fishing occurred in the winters of 2001 and 2002, however, conditions were not suitable in 2003 and the squid fishery did not operate in southern Brazil in that year.
44579		conservation	eng	Protected in the Galapagos Marine Reserve where there are ?protected zones? in which fishing is not permitted.
44579		distribution	eng	The Galapagos bullhead shark is not common around the Galapagos Archipelago. In the west it is located at the east and the north side of Fernandina Island and the west side of Isabela Island. This area is known as the Canal Bolivar. In the south part of Galapagos it is located only in Floreana Island and only at the west side of the island (upwelling area). This shark is associated with cold waters and where upwelling is strong (Rivera, unpubl. data).
44579		habitat	eng	A small poorly known tropical and warm-temperate hornshark, demersal on the inshore continental and insular shelves. In the Galapagos it is associated with colder waters and where upwelling is strong. It occupies rocky and coral reefs, often seen at 3 to 30 m (Compagno 2001, Allen and Robertson 1994). It is primarily nocturnal feeding on crabs. Oviparous. Maximum size 105 cm total length (TL); adult male 48 cm TL; newly hatched male 17 cm TL (Compagno 2001, Rivera unpublished data).
44579		population	eng	The Galapagos Islands subpopulation is distinct from the Peruvian subpopulation(s), however, little information is available on population structure.
44579		threats	eng	Not fished in the Galapagos Islands but the apparent limited population size, and possible subpopulation, places the species in a vulnerable position if it began to be captured here. Apparently not a commercial species, though probably taken as bycatch elsewhere in its range and discarded (Compagno 2001). Presumably impacted by inshore fisheries, but no information available. <br/> <br/>Commonly observed by divers (Compagno 2001) and may have ecotourism value.
44580		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Pacific where it is known from Central America and into northern South America.
44580		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling shark known from the continental shelves. Maximum size 64 cm total length (TL); size at birth 21 to 23 cm TL; both sexes maturing at around 43 cm TL. Placental viviparous with a litter size of four (Compagno in prep. b).
44580		population	eng	According to Compagno (in prep. b), it is possibly uncommon compared with other Eastern Pacific triakids in its range.
44580		threats	eng	Probably of minor interest to fisheries where it is likely to be taken in multi-species fisheries throughout its range, however, data are lacking (Compagno in prep. b). The species is utilized, where taken.
44581		conservation	eng	In Brazil, trawl fishing at distances less than three nautical miles from shore (which means at depths of less than about 10 m) is forbidden by law but enforcement of this law meets with practical difficulties, and trawling in the nursery area proceeds almost without restriction. Gillnetting in the nursery area proceeds without legal restrictions. Due to the multi-species nature of the fisheries, regulation measures aimed at a particular species are a difficult proposition. The best solution would be to establish two or three large coastal protected areas in which fishing would be banned, as recommended by Musick <em>et al</em>. (2000) for long-lived marine species threatened by capture as bycatch in fisheries targeting other species. Several other species of elasmobranchs have their nursery and pupping ground in the same shallow coastal waters and would also benefit from this. Public awareness of the problem is increasing. By Decree of the State Government of Rio Grande do Sul, <em>Mustelus fasciatus</em> was, in the year 2002, classified as a species threatened with extinction (Marques 2002).
44581		distribution	eng	This endemic Southwest Atlantic species occurs at low densities over a restricted area (1,500 km of coastline). In Brazil the species occurs only in the extreme south, between latitudes of approximately 29°S and 34°S. The range extends southward to around 35°30?S in Argentina. Nursery area and birth of young occur only on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, at latitudes from approximately 29 to 34°S and into northern Uruguay (Soto 2001), which is a considerable portion of the species? distribution.
44581		habitat	eng	In southern Brazil, the species occurs all year round over smooth bottom of the inner continental shelf at depths down to 250 m, being classified as a non-migratory permanent resident of the area, but the adult females carry out a seasonal inshore-offshore migration. The gravid females stay at depths greater than 20 m during most of the year but migrate to shallow inshore waters in spring. Neonates and small juveniles stay in these waters, which constitute the nursery area of the species (Vooren 1997, Vasconcellos and Vooren 1991, Soto 2001). Pupping occurs in October-December. The presence of large-yolked eggs in the ovary of females with near term pups indicates a yearly reproductive cycle with a gestation period of 11 to 12 months (Soto 2001). <br/> <br/>Population parameters are as follows: <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong>:  111.5 cm total length (TL) (females); 120 cm TL (males) (Soto 2001) <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong>:  Males 147 cm TL (males); 158 cm TL (females) <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  39 to 43 cm TL (Vasconcellos and Vooren 1991); 35 cm TL (Soto 2001) <br/> <br/>The species feeds mostly on shrimps and crabs (Vooren 1997, Soto 2001).
44581		threats	eng	Intensive demersal fisheries exist over the entire area of distribution of this species, already naturally low in density (as evidenced from catches typically of the order of one to ten specimens per one-hour trawl haul in 1980 when the species was still relatively unexploited (Vooren, unpubl. data)). <br/> <br/>In southern Brazil fishing is intense in the habitat of this demersal shark (Miranda and Vooren 1999). The major threat to the species is intensive fishing by pair trawl, shrimp trawl, gillnet and beach seine in the coastal nursery area of the species at depths less than 10 m. The species is caught as bycatch in the shrimp fishery and in the multi-species fishery aimed mostly at an assembly of sciaenid fishes, flounders, mullets, angel sharks and guitarfish (Haimovici and Mendonça 1996, Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). The fishery in the nursery area catches gravid females during their inshore migration in spring and the small juveniles all year round. In gillnets set off the beach during summer, neonates used to be caught in large numbers (10?100 per set) in the 1980?s but were caught only sporadically and in much smaller numbers in 2003 (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). The coastal fishery is driving the species towards extinction through recruitment overfishing.  <br/> <br/>In Uruguay, where it is not targeted but taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries, species-specific catch data are not available. Together with <em>M. schmitti</em>, which is the main species taken, estimated capture for the period 2000?2002 was 900 tonnes per year (Domingo, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>In the coastal region of the Bonaerensean District of northern Argentina and Uruguay the biomass of the species, as measured by trawl surveys, decreased by 96% between 1994 and 1999 (Massa and Hozbor, unpubl. data).
44582		conservation	eng	Since 1995, there are a Permitted Maximum Catch (PMC) for coastal skates and rays in Argentina with a peak of 12,000 tonnes in 1997, and a drop to 4,000 tonnes in 2001 and 2002 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, as this species was until very recently always discarded, the PMC is not an accurate tool for the conservation of this and other small skates.
44582		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (23°S) to Patagonia, Argentina (41°S) (McEachran 1983).
44582		habitat	eng	Off Puerto Quequén the species is found at 36 to 56 m depth and is present during all seasons with a peak in summer. Around 70% of <em>P. bergi</em> sampled in the area are adults. The species did not show sexual differences in size frequency distribution for the whole sample period but some differences were detected seasonally. <em>P. bergi</em> shows a pattern of sexual segregation by season.  <br/> <br/>San Martín (2003) found that the minimum total length (TL) of free swimming females and males were 29.5 cm and 28.1 cm, respectively, and that the size at 50% of maturity were 44.16 cm TL (580 g) and 45.76 cm TL (584 g) for females and males respectively, which represented 79.1% and 75.6% of the largest females and males measured (55.8 and 60.5 cm TL respectively). This author also concluded that the evidence suggested a continuous reproductive cycle during the year, with a maximum number of females carrying eggcases in spring to summer seasons. 31% of adult females sampled carried one eggcase per oviduct (single oviparity). The number of egg produced per year and the hatching time remains unknown.  <br/> <br/>This skate feeds mainly on Brachyuran crabs (91.64%, H = 0.11) (San Martín <em>et al</em>. 2003).
44582		population	eng	It is an abundant small skate in Uruguayan and Argentinean coastal waters. San Martín (2003) suggested that the fishing grounds off Puerto Quequén, Argentina are pupping areas for this species.
44582		threats	eng	This skate is commonly caught by the coastal bottom trawlers operating in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and has very recently become a target species in this multi-species trawl fishery where previously it was discarded (Tamini 2001). Tamini <em>et al</em>. (2006) found in the Puerto Quequén area that the CPUE of the total batoid catch didn?t change in the three years studied. However, species-specific trends are not available, and this fact, combined with the short time frame of the study cannot provide suitable catch trend information for <em>P. bergi</em>. It is also taken as bycatch and discarded in other fisheries off Argentina, including those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries. <br/> <br/>The increase in fishing pressure along the entire range and over the pupping areas of <em>P. bergi</em>, along with the loss of reproductive areas due to disturbance and destruction of the seabed by the coastal fleet of bottom trawlers could potentially push the species towards the Near Threatened category within the next 3?5 years. Careful monitoring as well as further information from Brazil is required.
44583		conservation	eng	Since 1995, there has been a Permitted Maximum Catch (PMC) for coastal skates and rays in Argentina with a peak of 12,000 tonnes in 1997 and a drop to 4,000 tonnes in 2001 and 2002 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, as this species is always discarded, the PMC is not an accurate tool for the conservation of this and other small skates.
44583		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic from Cabo Frío, Brazil (22°56?S) to Patagonia, Argentina (45°S) (Norman, 1937).
44583		habitat	eng	Off Puerto Quequén area (Argentina) this species occurs at 36 to 56 m depth, is present all year with a peak in summer, does not show sexual differences in size frequency distribution and also does not show any pattern of sexual segregation by depth. Only half of the sample (49.5%) was mature (Tamini <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/> <br/>Braccini and Chiaramonte (2002) report a neonate of 6.0 cm total length (TL), and a size at 50% maturity of 24.9 cm TL (86 g) (females) and 26.2 cm TL (93 g) (males), which represented 80% and 84% of the largest females and males measured (31.3 cm TL), respectively. These authors also concluded that the evidence suggested a continuous reproductive cycle during the year, with a maximum number of females carrying eggcases in summer. The number of eggs produced per year and the hatching time remains unknown.  <br/> <br/>This skate feeds mainly on Penoidea and Gammaridea with a narrow niche width B = 0.0975 (San Martín <em>et al</em>. 2003).
44583		population	eng	It is an abundant small skate in Uruguayan and Argentinean coastal waters.
44583		threats	eng	This skate is commonly caught and discarded by the bottom trawlers operating in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) (Tamini 2001). While the conspecific <em>P. bergi</em> has recently become a target species in this fishery, the smaller <em>P. extenta</em> is still discarded. In a study of batoids discarded by the coastal fishery from Puerto Quequén (Argentina), Tamini <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that the discarded mass of <em>Psammobatis extenta</em> was inconsiderable in relation with other batoid species, but was the second most important batoid species discarded by number. These authors also found that the CPUE of the total batoid catches did not change over the three year study period. Thus, no clear changes of <em>P. extenta</em> abundance could be noted. This species is also taken as bycatch and discarded in other fisheries off Argentina, including those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries. <br/> <br/>The growth of fishing pressure along the entire range of <em>P. extenta</em> along with the environmental loss of reproductive areas due to the disturbance and destruction of the seabed made by the coastal fleets of bottom trawlers could be pushing the species towards the Near Threatened category in the next 5?10 years.
44584		conservation	eng	Likely to occur in the Galapagos Marine Reserve.
44584		habitat	eng	This species may be naturally rare and is only seldom caught. Occurs inshore in Chile. Fishbase gives the maximum size as 76.3 cm total length (TL), but notes that apparently it may reach 170 cm TL. Nothing reported of its biology.
44584		threats	eng	Known to be taken in inshore fisheries off beaches in the north of Chile (Iquique and Antofagasta). May be taken by other inshore fisheries throughout its range, but no information is available.
44585		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44585		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific Ocean: Perú (Ancón and Isla Vieja, Independencia Bay (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001)); Chile (Arica to Chiloé, South Chile (Compagno 1984, Leible and Alveal 1982, Sielfeld and Vargas 1992)) to 39°42?S (Springer 1979).
44585		habitat	eng	Inshore benthic species, at depths of 8 to 15 m in summer and 15 to 100 m in winter. Fariña and Ojeda 1993 report it as demersal around rocky subtidal areas at 1 to 50 m depth. <br/> <br/>Maximum size 60 cm total length (TL); size at maturity 52 to 54 cm TL (females) and 42 to 46 cm TL (males); size at birth 14 cm TL. Oviparous, with a single egg per oviduct. Concerning reproductive biology, Miranda (1980) reported an aggregation of specimens of different sexes in during Autumn in San Antonio, central Chile and Fariña and Ojeda (1993) reported females with capsules in central Chile. Hernandez (2003) described embryonic development with material from Coquimbo, northern Chile.  <br/> <br/>Feeds on small crustacean species and other invertebrates.
44585		threats	eng	A bycatch species in inshore demersal trawl and longline fisheries (Leible and Alveal 1982). Species-specific catch information is not available.  <br/> <br/>This species is a popular laboratory animal (Solar 1999, Balmaceda 2001, Basualto 2003, Valenzuela 2003, Ruiz 2004). Over-collecting for research purposes may impact small, localised populations (Natalia Solar, Carolina Balmaceda, Ariel Valenzuela and Pablo Ruiz, pers. comm., Julio Lamilla, pers. obs.). <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>Not economically important, but is used for ?harina de pescado? (Lorenzen <em>et al</em>. 1979, Leible and Alveal 1982).
44586		conservation	eng	Areas on the outer shelf and the upper slope with patches of coral should be preserved as breeding habitat for this species. Bottom fishing should be excluded from such areas. Further survey work is required to determine its range extent.
44586		distribution	eng	The area of distribution of this species, as presently known, is small, comprising only about 600 km of coastline. Within this area the species occurs at low density on the upper continental slope at depths of 250 to 500 m and sporadically on the outer edge of the continental shelf. The species uses patches of coral for egg-laying. The distribution of patches of corals determines the occurrence of this species.
44586		habitat	eng	Maximum size observed is 67 cm total length (TL) (females) and 61 cm TL (males). Females of 55 cm TL are sexually mature (Vooren, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>The species is oviparous and uses patches of coral for egg-laying as evidenced by a catch of egg-laying females on a patch of the stony coral <em>Dophelia pertusa </em> in a trawl survey of its habitat in 2001 (Vooren, unpubl. data). The distribution of coral patches in the depth range of the species is unknown, but it is evident that such patches are naturally scarce and of small size, of the order of perhaps 100?1,000 m² only in the areas with smooth bottom, which has been studied by trawling. Coral patches may be more abundant on rough bottom, which has not been studied by trawling and which may be the preferred habitat of the species.
44586		threats	eng	Patches of coral and of colonial branching sessile invertebrates in general appear to be the habitat necessary for the reproduction of this egg-laying shark. In areas where bottom fishing occurs, such habitat will suffer destruction, especially by trawling, and as a consequence the species will likely disappear from such areas. Indeed, further trawl sampling of the same locality (mentioned in the habitat and ecology section) only a year later revealed the coral patch was no longer present and no <em>S. saurisqualus</em> were caught.
44587		conservation	eng	Research actions are required to better understand biological and ecological aspects of this species and propose appropriate conservation measures where necessary. Preliminary observations and data collection are underway, but better catch monitoring needs to be carried out. The development of management plans (e.g., establishment of landing quotas) may be required in the future. The establishment and enforcement of trawl free areas (protected areas) would also be an important conservation measure if catches continue increasing.
44587		distribution	eng	The slender catshark seems to be an endemic species of the coast of Brazil and Suriname but there is no further information available regarding the range and population size of this species. It is apparently absent from Southern Brazil (Compagno, in prep. b). There is an uncertain record for the Southwest Atlantic (Argentina, off Patagonia) at the BMNH but this needs further confirmation and is possibly a misidentification.
44587		habitat	eng	Little information is available about the life history of this species and very few specimens have been observed. This catshark is benthic and found at depths of 72 to 450 m (Uyeno <em>et al</em>. 1983, Compagno, in prep. b). Reaches a maximum size of at least 43 cm total length (TL) (Compagno, in prep. b). Compagno (in prep. b) reports that a male of 23 cm TL was immature and a male of 43 cm TL was mature, while a female of 37 cm TL was mature. <br/> <br/>This species is oviparous with up to two egg capsules (one per uterus) with long tendrils (filamentous extremities of the capsules) observed in pregnant females (Gomes and Carvalho 1995, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <br/> <br/>Preliminary data on the feeding habits of this species indicate that it feeds on small teleosts and invertebrates (e.g., crustaceans, gastropods, squids) (Gadig <em>et al</em>. 1996). Compagno (in prep. b) reports that it also feeds on foraminifera, sponges and possibly other small sharks (denticles found in the stomach of an adult).
44587		threats	eng	Little information is available regarding threats to this species. Preliminary observations indicate it is often caught in bottom trawl fisheries as bycatch and usually discarded due to its small size. It is occasionally landed when target species (mainly shrimp and some commercially valuable catfish) catches are low (Patricia Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.). However, recently the landings are increasing and preliminary indications are that interest in this species is growing (Patricia Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.) and may cause problems if this continues. <br/> <br/>Some known intrinsic factors also could be considered threats for this catshark. Indeed its restricted range possibly makes it more susceptible than other species to negative environmental impacts of various types.  <br/> <br/>This species is present in the mouth of the Amazon River and distributed in an area highly influenced by the Amazon River discharge. Due to this distribution, it is possibly susceptible to water pollution originating in or carried by the Amazon River. In the future, increasing agricultural and industrial water pollution (chemical wastes) may be identified as threats to this species.
44588		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44588		distribution	eng	Apparently homogeneously distributed on the upper continental slope.
44588		habitat	eng	A little known bottom shark found on the outer continental shelf of southern Brazil and Uruguay at 140 to 190 m depth (Compagno, in prep. b). Females with eggs in their uterus have been captured in September (Spring). Maximum size, 50 cm total length (TL) (possibly reaches a larger size); males mature at 35 to 40 cm TL; females are mature at larger sizes (about 43 cm TL) (unpubl. data).
44588		threats	eng	There is no information from Uruguay at this time.  <br/> <br/>The species is taken as bycatch by otter trawlers for squid off Santa Catarina State, and by bottom longliners and deepwater trawlers off São Paulo State, Brazil.  <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>In some areas, sharks of the genus <em>Scyliorhinus</em> (<em>S. haeckelii</em> and <em>S. besnardi</em>) are now of commercial importance and their value rose substantially during 2001 and 2002. There is no information on current catch sizes, and it is uncertain if all those captured are retained for sale, or if a proportion is still being discarded. This may result in underestimation of actual catches at landing sites.
44589		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44589		distribution	eng	The species is only occasionally captured throughout its range.
44589		habitat	eng	Compagno (in prep. b) reports <em>Scyliorhinus haeckelii</em> on or near the bottom, on the continental shelf and upper slope, at depths of 37 to 402 m. It is associated with deep-reef habitats, mostly deeper than 250 m. Off southeastern and southern Brazil it is found on the upper continental slope. Oviparous with two eggcases deposited at a time (Compagno, in prep. b). Maximum size around 50 cm total length (TL), males mature at 35 cm TL, females at 40 cm TL and size at hatching 10 to 13 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. b), however, these sizes may need verification due to possible confusion with other <em>Scyliorhinus</em> species.
44589		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch by otter trawlers for squid off Santa Catarina State, and by bottom longliners and deepwater trawlers off São Paulo State (Brazil). The most numerously captured specimens are usually adult males, followed by immature males and females. Detailed catch data are not available due to lack of species-specific recording, the problem further compounded by misidentification. The species is captured in low numbers by bottom trawl nets off Uruguay (Domingo, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>In some areas of southern Brazil, sharks of the genus <em>Scyliorhinus</em> (<em>S. haeckelii</em> and <em>S. besnardi</em>) are of increasing commercial interest (their value rose substantially during 2001 and 2002).
44590		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Central Atlantic where it is known from Honduras, Panama and Colombia.
44590		habitat	eng	Known from the upper continental slope, on or near the bottom, at depths of 274 to 457 m. Maximum size at least 47 cm total length (TL) (mature female) (Compagno in prep. b). Nothing known of its biology.
44590		population	eng	According to Compagno (in prep. b), the species is uncommon.
44590		threats	eng	Of no interest to fisheries (Compagno, in prep. b). Springer (1979) suggests that the absence of adults in trawl catches may indicate that adults occupy habitat unfavourable to trawling.
44591		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
44591		distribution	eng	Type specimen from Panama, Eastern Pacific.
44591		habitat	eng	This is probably the smallest of the hammerhead species, residing on the continental shelf in inshore habitats. It is born at around 23 cm total (TL); males are mature at approximately 67 cm TL; and the species reaches a maximum size of approximately 92 cm TL. Uncommonly seen; biological information is lacking; and fecundity is low, with a noted litter size of two (Compagno 1984).
44591		threats	eng	An inshore coastal shark unreported in commercial fishery data for the region and probably taken in inshore artisanal fisheries, to which all life stages are thought susceptible. With no population data available, a small maximum size of approximately 1 m TL and occupancy of inshore artisanally fished coastal habitats throughout its range, this species is likely to be under threat. Its narrow range and documented litter size of only two makes its population sensitive to even low fishing pressure.
44592		conservation	eng	Recommended conservation actions: monitoring of artisanal fisheries directed towards the species, protection of breeding and nursery grounds, and population studies.
44592		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic Ocean: southern Gulf of Mexico and West Indies to Paraná State, Brazil. In Brazil recorded from the States of Amapá, Pará (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2002), Maranhão (Lessa 1997), Ceará (Gadig <em>et al</em>.2000), Paraíba (Gadig and Rosa 1993), Pernambuco (Guedes <em>et al</em>.1989), Bahia (Queiroz <em>et al</em>. 1993), Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo (Gonzalez 1995) and Paraná (Barletta and Correa 1989). In Venezuela recorded from the continental shelf in front of the Orinoco River delta and from the Gulf of Venezuela (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999).
44592		habitat	eng	A demersal coastal marine species. Also in brackish water. Depth to 36 m. In Ceará State, Brazil there were records of juveniles of 15?17 cm disc width (DW) in tidal pools (Furtado-Neto and Pinto 2002). Maximum size 200 cm DW (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 1978, Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). Size of birth approximately 15 cm DW (Bigelow and Schoreder 1953).  <br/> <br/>The diet of this species was studied in Ceará State (Silva <em>et al</em>. 2001). In all, 97 stomachs were analysed, 68.1% with food and 31.9% without. Most common food items were echinoderms (Holoturidae), sipunculids, polychaets (Eunicidae), bivalves, gastropods and crustaceans (<em>Penaeus, Callinectes</em>) and fishes (mainly <em>Pomadasys corvinaeformis</em>).
44592		threats	eng	Increasing fisheries pressure in some Brazilian States, such as Ceará (Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2000), Paraíba and Bahia. In Ceará, juveniles are taken as bycatch of shrimp trawling. In Paraíba State, this species is a target in sports surf fisheries. Currently no information from elsewhere in its range.
44593		conservation	eng	Research is urgently needed and some first steps are beginning to be taken to obtain more baseline information. Habitat conservation measures are a priority for this and other freshwater endemic stingrays. Appropriate policy based actions (management and legislation) should be considered. Formal education and public awareness are certainly needed since freshwater stingrays in general invoke a negative reaction from the general public due to common sting accidents.
44593		distribution	eng	South America Inland Waters: Argentina, Paraguay and possibly Brazil (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003, Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the Paraná-Paraguay River basin, more specifically from the Colastiné River, a branch of Paraná River. Probably found in the upper Paraná and Paraguay River drainages (Castex 1964, Rosa 1985).
44593		habitat	eng	No further information is available regarding habitat, biological and ecological aspects of this species.
44593		population	eng	There are no further data on range and population available for this freshwater ray. Population trends and dynamics have never been estimated for this species.
44593		threats	eng	The threats for this species are not well known. Habitat loss and degradation related to agriculture, infrastructure development and water pollution (from agriculture) seem to be the main potential threats. There are no catch records and apparently this species is not taken for the ornamental trade, or as a food source. Intrinsic factors associated with a relatively limited distribution range might be a problem if severe environmental impacts occur.
44594		conservation	eng	Several conservation measures need to be implemented for <em>P. scobina</em> and very few are in progress. <br/> <br/>Research is currently underway for this species: on taxonomy, biology, ecology, habitat status, cultural relevance and population trends/monitoring studies. While these studies are broad at the present, they are providing significant baseline information for the family Potamotrygonidae, a group for which there is limited information available. No other conservation measures are underway at the present time. <br/> <br/>Fishery management-plans, legislation, regional community management and implementation of sustainable use principles are required for <em>P. scobina</em>. The establishment of a quota system for the ornamental fish trade should also be considered. Habitat conservation and protection, especially of important breeding and nursery areas are needed. <br/> <br/>All these measures depend on education and public awareness in order to become locally understood, adopted and effectively implemented and managed.
44594		distribution	eng	Northern Brazil, in the mid and lower Amazon drainage, from Manaus to Belém (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003); also found in the lower Tocantins River drainage (type locality Cametá; Garman 1913); Pará and Trombetas River (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003) and possibly in the lower drainage of other Amazonas tributaries (author?s pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Reproduction and nursery areas have been observed for this species, more specifically inshore off some islands located in the Marajó Bay region (State of Pará, Brazil) (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs).
44594		habitat	eng	The distribution of this species in the Amazon estuary region is influenced by seasonal salinity variations (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Sexual dimorphism has been recorded for <em>P. scobina</em> (Almeida 2003). Maximum size measured corresponded to a female specimen of 69.1 cm disc width (DW) and 132.5 cm total length (TL) (Almeida 2003). <br/> <br/>Preliminary reproductive data has been observed in the Amazon estuary indicating sexual maturity at 35 cm DW (males) and 40 cm DW (females); ovarian fecundity of 1 to 13; litter size 1 to 16 embryos (Charvet-Almeida <em>et al</em>. in press). Evidence of sexual and ontogenetic segregation has been noted (author?s unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Food items include mainly isopods (Sphaeromatidae) and shrimps (Paleomonidae) (Bragança 2002). <br/> <br/>Population trends and dynamics have never been estimated for this species. Further life history studies of this species are currently underway.
44594		population	eng	There are no further data on range and population available.
44594		threats	eng	This species is used as a human food source in some regions but is also subject to bycatch (hooking and netting) impacts from other fisheries. Juveniles are occasionally illegally caught and exported for the ornamental fish trade. <br/> <br/>Its habitat is threatened by mining activities and agricultural impacts, including water pollution by agricultural chemical wastes. The development of infrastructure, tourism and recreational activities may lead to habitat disturbances, persecution and impacts on reproductive and nursery grounds. Oil spills and the construction of dams are additional potential threats for this species.
44595		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been undertaken. Surveys of the northern and central parts of the species? range are required to obtain population estimates and information on critical habitat. Closed areas with effective enforcement are vital to the survival of this species.
44595		distribution	eng	This endemic species occurs in a restricted area of the Southwest Atlantic: on the continental shelf of Brazil between Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul (23°S to 34°S, an area of about 1,800 km of coastline) (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Menni and Stehmann 2000, Soto unpublished records off Rio Grande do Sul).  <br/> <br/>The species occurs sympatrically with <em>R. bonasus</em> from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina State (Gallo-da-Silva <em>et al</em>. 1997 in Menni and Stehmann 2000, Soto unpubl. data). A reported high abundance of <em>Rhinoptera</em> rays off Paraná State (Barletta and Correa 1989 in Menni and Stehmann 2000), in the centre of the distribution of <em>R. brasiliensis</em>, may refer to either or both species of <em>Rhinoptera</em>. All three specimens of <em>Rhinoptera</em> collected off Rio Grande do Sul on three different occasions during the 1980?s were <em>R. brasiliensis</em> (Soto unpubl. data). Evidence now suggests that the large summer catches of <em>Rhinoptera</em> off Rio Grande do Sul in the 1980?s (Vooren and Lamónaca unpubl. data) were of <em>R. brasiliensis</em>, where the species occurred as a summer migrant in coastal waters at depths of <20 m (Vooren 1997, Soto, unpublished), and this is the only area to have recorded a high abundance of this species.
44595		habitat	eng	Sizes in beach seine catches in Rio Grande do Sul in the summer of 1982 to 1985 ranged from 78 to 91 cm disc width (DW) in males, and from 77 to 102 cm DW in females. A female of 102 cm DW was gravid. Three January embryos were 26 to 37 cm DW (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). There are no records of catches of neonates off Rio Grande do Sul, therefore birth may take place further north. Size at birth is about 43 to 48 cm DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), larger than that of <em>R. bonasus</em>, which is 40 cm DW (Smith and Merriner 1986). Gravid females contained one embryo only, as also observed in <em>R. bonasus</em> by Smith and Merriner (1986). The breeding cycle of females may be biennial, although specific information is not available.  <br/> <br/>On the coast of Rio Grande do Sul the species occurs during summer only, in shallow coastal waters over smooth sandy bottom at depths of less than 10 m and sporadically between 10 to 20 m (Vooren 1997). Bottom temperature at those depths is about 22°C in January and decreases to about 13°C in August (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1996). The summer migration of the species may be related to this seasonal temperature cycle.  <br/> <br/>Stomach contents from specimens from Rio Grande do Sul consisted of mollusc flesh mixed with numerous shell fragments with size of the order of 0.5 mm.
44595		threats	eng	The intensive fisheries by beach seine and pair trawl in the coastal habitat of the species is the major threat to the species. This ray used to be discarded by the beach seine fishery in the 1980?s and has not been seen in commercial trawl landings (probably also discarded). Due to its low fecundity of one embryo only per litter, this viviparous ray is susceptible to recruitment overfishing. <br/> <br/>In the southernmost 700 km of its distribution, off Rio Grande do Sul, the species occurred in the 1980?s as a summer migrant in shallow coastal waters at depths of less than 20 m (Vooren 1997, a reference to <em>R. bonasus</em> but now presumed to refer to <em>R. brasiliensis</em> from identification of specimens by Soto, unpublished). In that area, between 1982?1985 the species was caught and discarded in large numbers by the summer beach seine fishery, with catches of up to 330 individuals in a single seine haul and of a total of 1,711 individuals in a series of eight hauls along 130 km of coastline on a single day in January 1985 (Vooren, unpubl. data). Catches included gravid females with mid-term embryos. Fishing by bottom trawl has been intense in the southern area of the species? range from 1980 onwards, although in recent years the beach seine fishery, important in the 1980s, is now minor due to ever declining catches. In summer 2002/2003, during three months of survey of the shore-based fishery, the species was no longer caught, although other rays (<em>Myliobatis</em> spp., <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp.) were still taken (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data of Project SALVAR).  <br/> <br/>Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) state that numbers of <em>R. bonasus</em> varied greatly between years at certain localities, with incursions of large schools occurring irregularly. This does not seem to be the case with <em>R. brasiliensis</em> in the 1980s, off Rio Grande do Sul. The apparent disappearance of the species here occurred after two decades of intense fishing in its coastal habitat. It is suspected that in the southern part of its range the species has been extirpated by intensive fishing in the restricted area of its summer habitat and/or by fishing further north in the area from which come the southern summer migrants. During the 1980s, rays of the genus <em>Rhinoptera</em> made up 8% of catches of the coastal elasmobranch fishery of Paraná State, in the centre of the geographical range of <em>R. brasiliensis</em> (Barletta and Correa 1989 in Menni and Stehmann 2000). The present situation of the stocks of <em>R. brasiliensis</em> in the central and northern parts of its range is not known, however, fishing in these areas is also intense and declines are inferred.
44596		distribution	eng	Eastern South Pacific: from Ecuador (3°S), through Peru to central Chile (37°S).
44596		habitat	eng	<em>Sympterygia brevicaudata</em> is a shallow water species (at least in the north of Chile). Vargas and Sielfeld (1997) report a mature female specimen of 26 cm TL captured in Chipana Beach (21°19?S) near Iquique, at a depth of 34 to 38 m. Nothing known of its biology.
44596		threats	eng	Probably captured as bycatch in inshore fisheries including bottom trawls targeting crustaceans as well as recreational fishing (particularly for fine flounder <em>Paralichthys adspersus</em>).
44597		conservation	eng	In Argentina the species is included in the annual maximum permitted catch (MPC) of the fishery for coastal skates, established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. In the last two years the landings were higher than this value, and at present this is not an adequate management measure. Species-specific catch data are required as at present all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as "unidentified rays and skates". This applies to countries within the range of this species.
44597		distribution	eng	On the Argentina shelf are two major areas of abundance of <em>S. bonapartei</em>, both clearly associated with estuarine zones. One is located in the La Plata River mouth with densities of up to 2·80 tonnes per km², and the other in front of Blanca and Anegada Bays (El Rincon area, densities up to 1·92 tonnes per km²) (Mabragaña <em>et al</em>. 2002)
44597		habitat	eng	Recorded in coastal and shelf waters from the shoreline to 100 m depth. <br/> <br/>Biology and ecology poorly known. <br/> <br/>In Argentina, size-at-first-maturity is 63.6 cm total length (TL) (females) and 65.0 cm TL (males) and maximum length is 88.0 cm TL (females) and 74.6 cm TL (males) (Mabragana <em>et al</em>. 2002). There is no other demographic information available for the species in the Southwest Atlantic and there is no demographic information available for the species in Chile.
44597		population	eng	The smallnose fanskate <em>Sympterygia bonapartei</em> is one of the most common elasmobranchs in coastal and shelf waters (from the shoreline down to 100 m depth) where it occurs.
44597		threats	eng	From Chile, there are no data on this species. In Uruguay, this species, along with <em>Dipturus chilensis, Sympterygia acuta</em> and <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> are the main target species of a bottom longline fishery. Species-specific catch data are not available, but captures of this group of skates for the period 1999?2002 are estimated at 1,100 tonnes per year (Domingo, pers. comm.). In Argentina the species is part of the fishery for coastal skates. Species-specific catch data are not available. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>All skate species are becoming increasingly important in Southwest Atlantic fisheries (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 1999, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Argentina, skates were discarded until 1994, but are now one of the most important commercial species. The fins at the distal margins are removed and sold mainly to Asian markets at high prices.
44598		conservation	eng	Conservation measures should include: habitat protection and pollution control in estuaries and adjacent coastal areas; regulation of beach seining and shrimp trawling fisheries; bycatch control, with mandatory release of live by-caught individuals.
44598		distribution	eng	It is common in the Orinoco River Delta of Venezuela (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999), is abundant off Maranhão State, Brazil (R. Lessa, pers. comm., Menni and Stehmann 2000) and is commonly captured in beach seining along the coast of Paraíba State, Brazil (R. S. Rosa per. obs.).
44598		habitat	eng	A coastal stingray found in tropical waters of the continental shelf. Reported in depths of 9 to 22 m (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a>) and 8 to 25 m (Lessa 1997). In Paraíba, Brazil it is usually captured in shallower water (less than 2 m) with beach seines. It occurs on sandy or muddy bottoms, usually close to river mouths. <br/> <br/>Maximum reported size is 23.4 cm TL (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999) or 11.8 cm disc width (DW) (FishBase). However, the largest measured female from Paraíba, Brazil was 13.3 cm DW and 25.4 cm TL; largest measured male was 11.5 cm DW and 22.5 cm TL (R.S. Rosa, pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is viviparous. Females with 13 cm DW have one or two fully developed embryos; a male with 9 cm DW has rigid claspers (R.S. Rosa, pers. obs).
44598		threats	eng	Due to its small size, the species is not taken as food. It could be affected by incidental capture in coastal fisheries, particularly beach seining and shrimp trawling, and indirectly, by the impacts on the coastal zone, including urban development, pollution and dredging, particularly at the mouth of estuaries.
44599		conservation	eng	None in effect or proposed at this time.
44599		distribution	eng	This species is occasionally taken by research vessels surveying the North Atlantic continental slope region at depths of 1,000 to 2,000 m. In southern Africa it is known from only a few specimens caught in very deepwater off Cape Town, South Africa.
44599		habitat	eng	A little known benthic catshark of the Atlantic continental slopes recorded at depths of 658 to 1,740 m. Essentially nothing known of its biology. Maximum size is at least 85.2 cm total length (TL): size at maturity is 75.8 cm TL (females); 85.2 cm TL (males).
44599		threats	eng	Possibly caught as bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries and discarded although much of its known range is below that of current fishing activities. Expansion of deepwater fisheries may pose a threat in the future.
44600		conservation	eng	Further surveys and research are required to accurately determine this species’ distribution, biology and ecology.
44600		distribution	eng	Known from only a few specimens from off Mozambique and off South Africa from the shelf edge and upper slope.
44600		habitat	eng	A poorly known skate of the shelf edge and upper slope, recorded in depths of 230 to 322 m. Nothing is known of its biology. Maximum size is at least 25 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989)
44600		population	eng	Known from only a few specimens.
44600		threats	eng	Demersal trawling.
44601		conservation	eng	Further specimens of this little known skate are required to more accurately document its distribution, biology and ecology.
44601		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: presently recorded only from east of Bazaruto Island, Mozambique (Wallace 1967, Hulley 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, pers. comm. 2003) and off Madagascar (Seret 1986).
44601		habitat	eng	A very poorly known rare skate of the deep slope. Recorded from 1,000 to 1,725 m off Mozambique. Virtually nothing is known of its biology. Maximum size is at least 21 cm total length (TL) and 10 cm disc width (DW) (Wallace 1967, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989)
44601		population	eng	No information on range or population: known from only a few specimens.
44601		threats	eng	Due to its depth range, no threats are apparent at present. Potential expansion of deepwater trawling in the future may be of concern.
44602		conservation	eng	None in effect and none proposed at this time.
44602		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic Ocean: Namibia and South Africa (Western Cape and Eastern Cape Provinces).
44602		habitat	eng	A catshark of the continental slopes of Namibia and South Africa recorded at depths of 344 to 1,009 m. Oviparous but virtually nothing known of its biology. Maximum size is 88.5 cm total length (TL) (males: mature at 74 cm TL); 77.3 cm TL (females: mature at 70 cm TL).
44602		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population size.
44602		threats	eng	Probably taken as incidental bycatch and discarded in the deepwater hake (<em>Merluccius paradoxus</em>) bottom trawl fishery off South Africa.
44603		conservation	eng	More specimens are needed to better determine its distribution, biology and ecology.
44603		distribution	eng	Known only from two isolated locations, each represented by a single specimen, in the South Atlantic: west of Cape Town, South Africa in the southeast Atlantic (exact co-ordinates not given; Hulley and Penrith 1966), and at 35°00.0 to 0.6′S, 40°01′W in the Southwest Atlantic (Krefft 1980, Stehmann and Krefft 1988).<br/><br/>Note that the location of the Southwest Atlantic specimen has erroneously been reported as off Uruguay (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). This specimen was in fact collected in international waters, some 850 km off the edge of the Brazilian EEZ, east of Rio Grande do Sul (Soto 2001c).
44603		habitat	eng	A very poorly known oceanic (possibly epipelagic) species known only from two specimens. The Southeast Atlantic specimen was collected by benthic trawl operating at depths of 458–641 m. However, it is uncertain whether the animal was captured near the bottom, or in the water column as the net was being hauled (Hulley and Penrith 1966). The Southeast Atlantic specimen was collected by pelagic trawl operating at 195–205 m depth (Stehmann and Krefft 1988). Its depth of capture was erroneously reported as 0–25 m by Krefft (1980), and subsequently in the literature (i.e., Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The two known specimens are an immature female of 17.6 cm TL which was erroneously reported as a mature male in the original description by Hulley and Penrith (1966) (corrected in Stehmann and Krefft 1988), and a 41.35 cm TL mature male (Krefft 1980, Stehmann and Krefft 1988). The species possesses a luminous organ in a large abdominal pouch which covers the cloaca. This character is unique to the genus (Stehmann and Krefft 1988). There are a number of errors in the original description (Hulley and Penrith 1966) which led Stehmann and Krefft (1988) to provide a detailed and accurate redescription.<br/><br/>Reproduction is assumed to be ovoviviparous. Pectoral fin shape and orientation suggest hovering ability within the water column.
44603		threats	eng	No apparent threats. Small size and oceanic (possibly epipelagic) occurrence probably generally precludes its capture.
44604		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype taken off Tulear, Southwestern Madagascar.
44604		habitat	eng	The holotype and only known specimen (a 38.7 cm total length (TL) adult male) was collected at 425 to 500 m depth.
44604		population	eng	Known only from the holotype.
44604		threats	eng	None identified at present. May be taken as bycatch in expanding deepwater trawl fisheries in the future.
44605		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Mozambique and Somalia.
44605		habitat	eng	A deepwater tropical catshark of the continental slope occurring on or just above bottom on mud substrates at 338 to 766 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).  <br/> <br/>Apparently ovoviviparous. Matures at 31 to 34 cm TL (male) and 31 to 39 cm TL (female), size at birth 10 cm TL. Feeds on cephalopods, small bony fishes and crustaceans (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).
44605		threats	eng	May be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries. No details available, but due to its depth range, it is likely to be caught on an irregular basis. The situation should be re-assessed as deepwater fisheries expand in the region.
44606		conservation	eng	None at present. Fisheries pressure needs to be assessed in southern Mozambique and also the impact of prawn trawl fisheries in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
44606		distribution	eng	<em>C. sufflans</em> is most likely a south western Indian Ocean endemic, occurring offshore from South Africa and Mozambique. Records of this species outside of this region are likely to be due to taxonomic confusion (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, in prep. b).
44606		habitat	eng	Recorded from the continental shelf and uppermost slope in warm-temperate and subtropical waters at depths of 40 to 600 m. Occupies sand and mud bottoms (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, in prep. b).   <br/> <br/>Little is known of the biology of this species. It is oviparous, apparently laying one egg-case per oviduct. In trawl hauls off Kwazulu-Natal immature specimens are most frequently caught while in the depth range sampled (40 to 440 m) adults are not so frequently taken and eggcases have not been recorded. This suggests that adults may inhabit deeper water and lay eggs there, or may be geographically displaced, perhaps off northern Mozambique (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno, in prep. b).
44606		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population biology of this species. It is reported to be common (Compagno in prep. b).
44606		threats	eng	Apparently of no interest to fisheries at present, although taken as bycatch and discarded by commercial bottom trawlers. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Limited ? the skin is possibly used.
44607		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further studies are needed on biology, status and threats.
44607		distribution	eng	The limited range off two areas off Durban and Barra Falsa.
44607		habitat	eng	A poorly known skate of the shelf and upper slope at depths of 137 to 403 m.
44607		population	eng	The limited range may suggest a small, possibly fragmented population.
44607		threats	eng	Trawling and longline fishing
44608		conservation	eng	None. Further surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, habitat, biology and ecology of this and other little known species in the region.
44608		distribution	eng	Known from only three specimens to date from the continental shelf off the Limpopo River mouth, Mozambique. This is despite fairly extensive surveys off Mozambique recently (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, pers. comm. 2003).
44608		habitat	eng	A poorly known skate of the slope.
44608		population	eng	Apparently very rare.
44608		threats	eng	Trawling and longline fishing.
44609		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research on biology is required as is monitoring the impact of longliners and other fisheries on this species.
44609		distribution	eng	Although the range extends from Namibia to the eastern Agulhas Bank off South Africa, this species is most commonly caught at 100 to 300 m.
44609		habitat	eng	Found in deep waters from 15 to 457 m but most commonly taken from 100 to 300 m. All stages of the life history have been trawled in research trawls but the details of the biology and ecology have yet to be described.
44609		population	eng	Not taken in large quantities in each trawl, it appears to be scattered along the deep shelf and upper slope.
44609		threats	eng	Deep water and hake-directed trawling and longline fishing: not caught in large quantities by hake trawlers, and extensive areas of its range are untrawlable. However, the initiation of a hake longline fishery that includes fishing in some untrawlable grounds means that monitoring of catches to determine the impacts of this fishery is essential.
44610		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to accurately determine distribution, as well as provide specimens for life history studies.
44610		distribution	eng	An uncommonly sampled skate, known from a few specimens from off Mozambique and off South Africa.
44610		habitat	eng	A poorly known skate of the shelf edge and slope at depths of 253 to 761 m. Maximum size is at least 90 cm total length (TL), 60 cm disc width (DW) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).
44610		threats	eng	Trawling and longline fishing are possible threats.
44611		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Release of live bycatch should be encouraged.
44611		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southwestern Indian Ocean, off South Africa, Mozambique and Tanzania on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).
44611		habitat	eng	A deepwater warm-temperate and tropical bottom shark of the upper continental slope and outer shelf of southeastern Africa at depths of 180 to 500 m. Apparently geographic or bathymetric segregation of populations by sex occurs, as most specimens taken off KwaZulu-Natal are male. Ovoviviparous, number of young in a litter two (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Size at birth is approximately 15 to 17 cm total length (TL) (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975). Males mature at 29 to 30 cm TL. Size at maturity for females is not known although they are immature at 22 cm TL and mature at 37 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b).
44611		population	eng	Likely to comprise a single population.
44611		threats	eng	Part of its restricted range is subject to intensive bottom trawl fisheries for deepwater crustaceans. Expansion of deepwater fisheries may be of concern in the future.
44612		conservation	eng	At this stage the KZN prawn trawl fishery should be encouraged to release those animals found alive, which represents 80% of the catch.
44612		distribution	eng	Primarily Western Indian Ocean: confined to South Africa (East London northwards: Heemstra and Smith 1991) and Mozambique (Beira southwards: Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).
44612		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf and upper slope from the surfline to depths of at least 290 m. The type specimen was caught by a shore angler.   <br/> <br/>Males mature at 32 to 38 cm total length (TL), reaching at least 56 cm TL. Mature females range from 40 cm TL to at least 56 cm TL (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975). Possibly oviparous, with the females carrying up to eight capsules in each uterus simultaneously. Size at birth approximately 8 cm TL. Pregnant females are caught along the KZN coast in late winter (July to September) (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).   <br/> <br/>In the Tugela Banks prawn trawl fishery, the catch ranged from 30 to 60 cm TL, with a mean of 40 cm TL and a mode of 30 to 50 cm TL (Fennessey 1994). It would appear that mature animals represent a large percentage of the catch.  <br/> <br/>This species feeds mainly on crustaceans, teleosts and cephalopods.
44612		threats	eng	The bycatch in the KZN prawn trawl fishery may constitute a threat, particularly as the catch includes large numbers of mature specimens, with many of the females possibly being pregnant.  The estimated annual catch for the period 1989?1992 was 1,071?2,021 at a mean catch rate of 0.16 individuals per hour. It was found in 18% of the trawls examined, with a 19% mortality rate (Fennessy 1994). Catch rates over a longer time period are needed to assess the status of this species. No details are available of catches in the Mozambique prawn trawl fishery where it may also be caught as bycatch.  <br/> <br/>Given its small size (< 0.6 kg), it is unlikely to be utilised.
44613		conservation	eng	Release of live bycatch should be encouraged.
44613		distribution	eng	Previous to Springer and D'Aubrey's (1972) review both <em>H. natalensis</em> and <em>H. lineatus</em> were placed under the name <em>H. natalensis</em>. Subsequently there are few reliable geographical and bathymetrical records for <em>H. natalensis</em> in the older literature. More recent survey work has clarified the range and depth distribution of the species, particularly in the northeasternmost part of the Eastern Cape Province and off KwaZulu-Natal where <em>H. natalensis</em> and <em>H. lineatus</em> are sympatric.
44613		habitat	eng	Occurs on or near the bottom of the continental shelf from close inshore to 172 m. Offshore specimens are mostly adults. Most offshore records from off the Eastern and Western Cape are from 30 to 90 m with some to 114 m. <br/> <br/>Little known of its biology. It is oviparous with 6 to 11 (more usually 6 to 9) eggcases per oviduct at any one time. Eggs are retained until embryos are at a well-developed stage. <br/> <br/>Feeds primarily on small bony fishes and crustaceans, but also cephalopods and small elasmobranchs.
44613		threats	eng	This species is not targeted, but taken as bycatch by inshore demersal trawlers and discarded. Also taken by sports anglers with rod and reel and infrequently by squid fishers.
44614		conservation	eng	None in effect, but further research is required.
44614		distribution	eng	A very poorly known species.
44614		habitat	eng	Little is known of this rare benthic hornshark. Recorded from the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope in 40 to 275 m, with most records below 100 m (unusual for the family in being recorded from relatively deep water). At least one station that recorded this shark was on sand (Compagno 2001). Although eggcases have not been reported to date it is presumably oviparous. A hatchling and young individuals have been recorded from off southern Mozambique at 110 m (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Diet includes crabs (from the stomachs of two individuals) (Compagno 2001).
44614		population	eng	Nothing is known of its population structure. Apparently rare or uncommon (Compagno 2001).
44614		threats	eng	Unknown, but presumably taken in trawl fisheries throughout its range, including crustacean trawlers off South Africa and Mozambique.
44615		conservation	eng	Research is required to accurately determine its distribution, biology and ecology.
44615		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic: Endemic to the west coast of South Africa from west of Cape Town to south of the Agulhas Bank. It has been found in limited areas of the deep slope southwest of Cape Point and southwest of Saldanha Bay in its known range. An additional record southwest of the Orange River extended its known range northwards (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989; 1991).
44615		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate that may have specialised habitat requirements based on its apparent restricted distribution. It has been recorded in depths of 292 to 1,025 m, but more commonly >600 m. It has been caught in considerable numbers (usually adults) in limited areas below 600 m. Nothing is known of its biology.
44615		population	eng	Information to date suggests that this South African endemic has a localised distribution, although further deepwater trawling may extend the current known range.
44615		threats	eng	None known.
44617		conservation	eng	None in place at present.
44617		distribution	eng	The Madagascar subpopulation is likely to be distinct from the East Africa subpopulation. In addition, if this species is confirmed from Mauritius and the Seychelles, these are also likely to be distinct subpopulations. Thus further studies may reveal that the ?East African subpopulation? may in fact also meet the threatened ?B? criteria (due to restricted geographic range).
44617		habitat	eng	A little-known inshore (exact depth information is not available) benthic shark found on the continental and insular shelves. Occupies coral reefs. Possibly oviparous, but this requires confirmation (Compagno 2001). A female has been kept in captivity for over 33 years (Compagno 2001).
44617		population	eng	Abundant off East Africa a few decades ago (Bass, D'Aubrey and Kistnasamy, 1975a cited by Compangno 2001), but its current status is uncertain although is known to be still fairly common in catches in Tanzania.
44617		threats	eng	Fished locally in artisanal fisheries and landed as bycatch of other fisheries. Inshore fishing pressure is heavy throughout its known range. Although it is uncertain whether the species itself is targeted, its fins are known to fetch a moderate price in Tanzania. Destruction and overfishing of this species? habitat (coral reefs). This species is amenable to captivity but its status in the aquarium trade is unknown.  <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>The skin of this species is tough and is possibly used for leather.  Amenable to captivity given its size (but status in aquarium trade is unknown). Fins are exported to the Far East and are known to fetch a moderate price. The flesh is salted and dried for local use. Jaws sold locally to tourists.
44618		conservation	eng	Further research is required on life history and bycatch levels.
44618		distribution	eng	Research trawl surveys suggest it is most commonly found on the western Cape coast, and rarely encountered east of Cape Agulhas.
44618		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from the deep shelf and upper slope at depths of 310 to 520 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). Nothing known of its biology. Attains a maximum size of about 58 cm total length (TL), 32 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988).
44618		population	eng	Size of population unknown.
44618		threats	eng	Hake-directed trawling. Data on bycatch levels is required.
44619		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Research into life history and bycatch monitoring is required.
44619		distribution	eng	Most records are from South African waters between the Orange River and southwest of Quion Point. Concentrations were recorded between Port Noloth and Doring Bay, and between Doring Bay and Cape Town.
44619		habitat	eng	Upper slope species with the majority of records from 300 to 500 m, with a few records from the deep slope at 650 to 1,000 m, which included large adult females. Nothing known of its biology.
44619		population	eng	Commonly recorded from the upper slope but size of population unknown.
44619		threats	eng	Bycatch in the hake trawl fishery. The potential threat of expanding deepwater trawl fisheries in the region warrants close consideration.
44620		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place for this species. Research into life history and the monitoring of bycatch in any expanding deep-water fisheries is required.
44620		habitat	eng	A deep slope species, with most specimens taken deeper than 700 m. Nothing is known of the species? biology. Maximum size is >60 cm total length (TL), >36 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988).
44620		population	eng	Rarely recorded from the slope but size of population unknown, and rarity may be an artifact of limited deeper water sampling in the region to date.
44620		threats	eng	Expansion of deep demersal trawl fisheries in the region. The species is not utilised.
44621		conservation	eng	Monitoring, abundance estimates and collection of basic biological data is urgently needed, as is taxonomic resolution of the group in the Western Indian.
44621		distribution	eng	Currently recorded from South Africa, east of Cape Algulhas, and ranging eastwards and northwards into at least southern Mozambique. It is also reported from many Western Indian Ocean islands, however, these records are likely to be of undescribed similar species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno and Human 2003).
44621		habitat	eng	Inhabits estuaries and the intertidal zone down to 439 m, also found in sandy areas near deep rocky reefs. Grows to 64 cm total length (TL). Young are born in summer (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are anecdotal reports of this species penetrating inland up rivers and estuary systems that have recently increased in salinity in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. For example, this species has been positively identified in the Kariega estuary, about 2 km from the coast, with water salinity around 35 ppt (B. Human, pers.comm. 2004). The causes of the increased salinity are unknown.
44621		population	eng	Apparently common.
44621		threats	eng	Caught as bycatch by inshore trawlers and inshore anglers. Also found in estuarine and intertidal zone, so local populations might decrease due to coastal developments. Fishing pressure needs to be monitored. It is also likely that the range of this species may decrease significantly when the taxonomy of this genus is better known.
44622		distribution	eng	Known only from five small limestone outcrops in a fibe by eight km area near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.
44622		habitat	eng	Found in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone. The species does not occur in the intervening non-calcareous areas between the outcrops.
44622		threats	eng	The range and population are declining because of repeated cycles of logging on and around the outcrops which result in a drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44623		distribution	eng	Recorded from Batu Punggul on a single limestone outcrop near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.
44623		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone. The species is absent from the surrounding non-calcareous area.
44623		threats	eng	Repeated cycles of logging on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44624		distribution	eng	Recorded from one small limestone ridge on the island of Mantanani Besar, Sabah, Malaysia.
44624		habitat	eng	Occurs on a few exposed limestone rocks on the northern cliffs of the island in tropical coastal forest.
44624		threats	eng	The area is extremely small and the habitat is being lost due to logging and planting of plantations (bananas and other fruit trees) by people from the local village. The habitat is already quite dry and further reduction of the forest cover will make the habitat dry out even further.
44625		distribution	eng	Recorded from Suan Lamba, a limestone outcrop in the Kinabatangan Valley, Sabah, Malaysia. Also formerly occurred on other small surrounding hills.
44625		habitat	eng	Currently known from only one large limestone outcrop; absent in the surrounding non-calcareous area. Found in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest.
44625		threats	eng	Two smaller limestone outcrops nearby Suan Lamba, which also supported subpopulations of this species, have probably disappeared due to quarrying since the 1960s. Repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the limestone outcrops cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44626		distribution	eng	Recorded on three limestone outcrops along a 30 km stretch of the Kinabatangan Valley, Sabah, Malaysia.
44626		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone. currently present at only two limestone outcrops; absent in the surrounding non-calcareous area
44626		population	eng	Recent surveys failed to find the species on one of the hills, Suan Lamba (sampled at 50 separate localities in 2003), from which it has been recorded in the past (Vermeulen 1994).
44626		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrops cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations. It may also be disappearing due to competition and hybridization with <em>O. concinnum</em>.
44627		distribution	eng	Recorded from Batu Baturong, a large limestone outcrop in eastern Sabah, Malaysia.
44627		habitat	eng	occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone; is absent in the surrounding non-calcareous area.
44627		threats	eng	No threats at present, but given the small range would be susceptible to any future impacts on the habitat.
44628		distribution	eng	Recorded from small limestone islets around the island of Labuan, off Sabah, Malaysia.
44628		habitat	eng	Found in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44628		threats	eng	The limestone was quarried for the construction of the Labuan Airport several decades ago.
44629		distribution	eng	Recorded from a single unnamed limestone outcrop near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.
44629		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone; absent from the surrounding non-calcareous area.
44629		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44630		distribution	eng	Recorded from small limestone islets around the island of Labuan, off Sabah, Malaysia.
44630		habitat	eng	Occurred (or poissibly still occurs) in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44630		threats	eng	The limestone was quarried from the islets during the construction of the Labuan Airport several decades ago. The species is possibly extinct as a result.
44631		distribution	eng	Recorded from Batu Tomanggong Besar, a small limestone outcrop along the Kinabatangan River in Sabah, Malaysia. Only found at the north end of the outcrop, where it hybridizes with <em>O. concinnum</em>.
44631		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44631		population	eng	Very few "pure" specimens can be found.
44631		threats	eng	Repeated logging and plantations cause drying out of the vegetation, which results in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.  Quarrying has lead to the loss of two subpopulations, and hybridization may pose a serious threat to this species in the last remaining locality.
44632		distribution	eng	Recorded from small limestone outcrops near Kudat and Banggi Island, Sabah, Malaysia (a 20 x 60 km area). Currently only known from a small limestone crest at the southern tip of Banggi.
44632		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44632		population	eng	The morphologically distinct subpopulation near Kudat went extinct in the 1980s due to quarrying activities.
44632		threats	eng	Quarrying has removed one subpopulation. The remaining subpopulation is in an area that is prone to logging and plantations, which cause drying out of the vegetation, resulting in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.
44633		distribution	eng	Recorded from Suan Lamba and Materis, two limestone outcrops in a 4 x 6 km area along the Kinabatangan River, Sabah, Malaysia.
44633		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44633		threats	eng	The species occurs in an area that has suffered repeated logging, fire, and the planting of fruit plantations, which cause drying out of the forest vegetation, resulting in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.
44634		distribution	eng	Recorded from Suan Lamba, a large limestone outcrop in the Kinabatangan Valley, Sabah, Malaysia.
44634		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44634		threats	eng	The species occurs in an area that has suffered repeated logging, fire and growth in fruit plantations, which cause drying out of the forest vegetation, resulting in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.
44635		distribution	eng	Recorded from a single unnamed limestone outcrop near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.
44635		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44635		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44636		distribution	eng	Recorded from a single unnamed limestone outcrop along the Segama River, Sabah, Malaysia.
44636		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44636		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44637		distribution	eng	Recorded from two coastal limestone outcrops near Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia in a 3 x 10 km area (the area of occupancy is 20 km²).
44637		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44637		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44638		distribution	eng	Recorded only on Gunung Madai, a large limestone outcrop in eastern  Sabah, Malaysia.
44638		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44638		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44639		conservation	eng	Further research is required on this poorly known species in order to better document its distribution, biology and bycatch levels.
44639		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Central Atlantic</strong>: Known from Dominican Republic, Cuba, the northern Gulf of Mexico (Florida to Mississippi, USA), Mexico, Honduras, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
44639		habitat	eng	Known from the continental slope at depths of 732 to 1,461 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Maximum size 46 cm total length (TL); adult males 43 to 46 cm TL, adult females 40 to 41 cm TL. Little is known of its biology. Oviparous, with a single egg per oviduct laid at a time (Compagno in prep. b).
44639		population	eng	Reported as uncommon (Compagno in prep. b).
44639		threats	eng	Of no interest to fisheries (Compagno, in prep. b).
44640		distribution	eng	Known from 40°22?S to 51°10?S in Argentina and off Guafo Island, Chile (43°40?S). Probably more widely distributed in Chile than presently known.
44640		habitat	eng	<em>Psammobatis normani</em> is recorded from the continental shelf of Argentina (70 to 145 m) and the shelf and slope of Chile (70 to 358 m). McEachran (1983) described 36 specimens (25 males, 29.6 to 53.7 cm total length (TL); 11 females, 29.5 to 41.2 cm TL) from Argentina. In Chile, six specimens (all males) were captured by bottom trawl off Guafo Island at depths of 70 to 358 m (Lamilla 1993). These are the only records of this species in the literature.
44640		threats	eng	Bycatch in the bottom trawl fisheries for kingclip fish <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and hake <em>Merluccius australis</em>. In a bottom trawl fishery cruise off Guafo Island, Chile, approximately 10% of total skates captured were <em>Psammobatis</em> species (<em>P. normani, P. rudis</em> and <em>P. scobina</em>). These were all discarded (Lamilla, unpubl. data).
44641		habitat	eng	Recorded from the continental shelf and slope in Argentina and Chile. In Chile, one female between 122 to 124 m depth in 51°00?S to 75°44?W and six specimens (all males) captured in 219 to 352 m depth by bottom trawl near Guafo Island measured 23.1 to 35.2 cm totale length (TL) (Lamilla 1993). Maximum size at least 44 cm TL (FishBase). Nothing known of its biology.
44641		threats	eng	Bycatch in the bottom trawl fisheries for kingclipfish <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and hake <em>Merluccius australis</em>. In a bottom trawl fishery cruise off Guafo Island, Chile, approximately 10% of total skates captured were <em>Psammobatis</em> species (<em>P.normani, P. rudis</em> and <em>P. scobina</em>). These were all discarded (Lamilla, unpubl. data).
44642		conservation	eng	In Argentina the species is included in the annual maximum permitted catch (MPC) of the fishery for coastal skates, established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. In the last two years the landings were higher than this value, and at present this is not an adequate management measure. Species-specific catch data are required as at present all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as "unidentified rays and skates" in both Argentina and Uruguay. <br/> <br/>The implementation of marine protected areas is a priority for this and other vulnerable marine taxa in the region.
44642		distribution	eng	Coastal Southwest Atlantic waters from southern Brazil, Uruguay to northern Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000).
44642		habitat	eng	The biology and ecology of this species are still poorly known. Off Brazil it occurs in shallow coastal waters (0 to 40 m depth). Maximum size: 47 cm total length (TL) (males), 50 cm TL (females) (Cousseau <em>et al</em>. 2000). Chiaramonte (unpubl. data) based on 16 specimens off Puerto Quequen (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina) found that females >48.2 cm TL and males >46.6 cm TL were mature.  <br/> <br/><em>S. acuta</em> feeds on the shrimp <em>Artemesia longinaris</em> which comprises more than 50% of its diet. Other prey items include Polychaeta, Amphipoda, Cumacea, Isopoda, decapod crustaceans, Mollusca and teleost fish (Queiroz 1984, in Menni and Stehmann 2000).
44642		population	eng	In Southern Brazil, <em>S. acuta</em> occurs in shallow coastal waters (0 to 40 m depth). It was one of the most abundant fish species of the shallow zone throughout the year (Lessa and Vooren 1982, in Menni and Stehmann 2000).
44642		threats	eng	Off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34°?41°S), <em>S. acuta</em> is taken by the multi-species fleet that exploits the coastal demersal fish assemblage (Massa <em>et al</em>. in press). There are no data on catches as all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as "unidentified rays and skates". In Uruguay, this species, along with <em>Dipturus chilensis, Sympterygia bonapartei</em> and <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> are the main target species of a bottom longline fishery. Species-specific catch data are not available, but captures of this group of skates for the period 1999?2002 are estimated at 1,100 tonnes per year (Domingo, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Trawl fishing in the habitat of the species is intense and the fishery threatens this species. In the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34°-41°S), biomass measured by research trawling decreased by 49% in the years 1994?1999 (Hozbor and Massa, unpubl. data). However, recent data suggest that the biomass was maintained between 1999 and 2003. Further monitoring is essential for information on longer-term trends. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>In Argentina, skates were discarded until 1994, but are now one of the most important commercial species. The fins at the distal margins are removed and sold mainly to Asian markets at high prices.
44643		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific: Endemic to Chile, from Arica (18°S) to Ancud (42°S).
44643		habitat	eng	<em>Sympterygia lima</em> is endemic to shallow waters of the Chilean coast, at depths of 30 to 60 m. Lamilla <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported a maximum size is 62 cm total length (TL) with size at maturity of 50.5 cm TL (females) and 45 cm TL (males). Size at birth 6.0 cm TL. Oviparous, with eggs in both oviducts in autumn. Feeds on crustaceans, principally <em>Austropandalus grayi</em> and <em>Pseudocorystes sycarius</em>.
44643		threats	eng	Captured as bycatch in the bottom trawl fisheries of Valdivia. Not known to be taken in any other fisheries.
44644		conservation	eng	None in effect or proposed.
44644		distribution	eng	There are only three records of juvenile specimens of this species by Krefft and Stehmann (1975) and Gomes and Costa (2003). These specimens were captured between São Paulo and Santa Catarina States (24° to 29°S and 43°-46°W), Brazil. However, recently captured juveniles and neonates have characteristics that suggest they may belong to this species (author, pers. obs).
44644		habitat	eng	Biology is unknown. However, recently captured neonates had yolky bellies and disc widths of 17.6 to 20.5 cm were taken by the deepwater squid fishery and provide evidence of a local nursery ground (400 to 550 m depth). <br/> <br/>Specimens identified as <em>D. leptocaudus</em> in the bycatch of the deepwater squid fishery had squids <em>Illex argentinus</em> in their stomachs. Only juveniles were saved for further studies, but fishermen reported some adults as also present in the catches, although at present the identification of these specimens cannot be verified.
44644		threats	eng	Bycatch in deepwater squid fishery which trawls for reproductive schools of squid <em>Illex argentinus</em> off Santa Catarina State, Brazil during the winter season (August and September). Studies are required to assess the impact of this fishery, and training is needed given that misidentification with <em>D. chilensis</em> may be confounding accurate recording of bycatch.
44645		distribution	eng	Southwest Atlantic Ocean: off Brazil. Southeast Pacific Ocean: off Chile, in Talcahuano (36°30?S) and Valdivia (39°49?S).
44645		habitat	eng	A little-known deepwater skate. Holotype was taken at 29°57?S at a depth of 1,200 m (Krefft and Stehmann 1974). Sizes observed off Chile (Talcahuano, 36°30?S and Corral, 39°49?S) 55 to 75 cm TL (females, n = 9) and 50 to 70.5 cm TL (males, n = 3). Nothing known of its biology.
44645		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch of artisanal longline fisheries for Patagonian toothfish <em>Disostichus eleginoides</em>. Specific catch data not available.
44646		conservation	eng	No information available on conservation measures.
44646		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific: known only from the original description from Quinteros (Chile).
44646		habitat	eng	No information available on habitat or depth. The size in the original description (Philippi 1892) is 38.5 cm total length (TL).
44646		population	eng	Unknown.
44646		threats	eng	No information available on threats.
44647		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific Ocean: known from the Gulf of California through Central America to Chile, including Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.
44647		habitat	eng	Fishbase reports a maximum size of 41.9 cm total length (TL). No other information available.
44647		threats	eng	No information available, but presumably taken as bycatch in fisheries throughout its range.
44648		distribution	eng	Recorded only on Batu Baturung, a large limestone outcrop in eastern Sabah, Malaysia.
44648		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.
44648		threats	eng	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.
44649		distribution	eng	Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic: Southern Morocco to Northern Cape province, South Africa. Records become sparser near the border of Namibia with South Africa. There are records based on voucher specimens collected off the Northern Cape province of South Africa (down to just north of the Western/Northern Cape border) (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm. 2004).
44649		habitat	eng	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope at 160 to 720 m. Quite common at about 300 to 400 m deep and in Namibian waters most common at 258 to 490 m.  <br/> <br/>A small deepwater bottom shark that occurs in both temperate and tropical waters. Aplacental viviparity, these catsharks bear live young. Feeds mainly on small teleosts.  <br/> <br/>Known life history parameters: <strong>Size at maturity</strong>: approx. 30 cm total length (TL) (both males and females). <strong>Maximum size</strong>: maximum recorded 43 cm TL. <strong>Size at birth</strong>: approx. 12 to 18 cm TL. <strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: 6 to 12.
44649		population	eng	Common to very abundant off central Namibia, but drops out north of the Orange River (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). Abundance needs to be assessed quantitatively along its entire range.
44649		threats	eng	Bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries. The deepwater fisheries off the Namibian coast are well managed and recorded.
44650		conservation	eng	Recommendations: data needs to be collected by onboard observers on the EU vessels fishing off the west coast of Africa.
44650		distribution	eng	Widely distributed along the west coast of Africa, it occurs in concentrations in some areas such as between Port Noloth and Lambert?s Bay and off Doring Bay. Recorded from along the entire coast of Namibia in 102 to 809 m. It ranges southwards to east of Cape Point, but few detailed South Africa records, in 350 to 500 m, and a few recorded from much deeper (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).
44650		habitat	eng	A deep shelf to slope species, very little known about its biology. In Namibia recorded from 102 to 809 m, and in South Africa there are few detailed records in 350 to 500 m, and a few recorded from much deeper (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).
44650		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by likely increasing deeper water trawling pressure in the future. Possible concern regarding European Union (EU) factory trawling off West Africa although no data is currently available.
44651		conservation	eng	Recommended conservation measures include studies on catch rates and life history characteristics.
44651		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic: Southwest of Walvis Bay and off Lüderitz, Namibia and from the Orange River to southwest of Cape Point, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).
44651		habitat	eng	A poorly known species of the continental slope. Smaller specimens appear to be found in waters of 400 to 500 m while larger specimens were from deeper than 700 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size: attains about 64 cm total length (TL), 39 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988).
44651		population	eng	An uncommon to rare skate, at least at the depths sampled to date.
44651		threats	eng	Expansion of commercial trawling into deeper waters.
44652		conservation	eng	Given the vulnerability of large skates to overfishing, bycatch levels need monitoring and research should focus on distribution and ecology.
44652		distribution	eng	There appears to be only limited records of this species in the Atlantic, but it may be more widespread there than presently known. If the specimens referred to above turn out to be <em>A. frerichsi</em> this would extend its range in the Atlantic. The holotype and paratype locality is from off the Rio de la Plata, Argentina/Uruguay (35°04΄ to 36°00΄S, 52°06΄ to 58°00΄W) at depths of 800 to 1,000 m (Krefft 1968). Further specimens were recorded off Argentina and Uruguay in the 1978 ‘Walther Herwig’ expedition at 36°18΄S, 53°19΄W (720 m) and 36°32.9΄S, 53°37.4΄W (1,040 m) (M. Stehmann, pers. comm.). A number of specimens were observed in 2002 and 2003 taken in bottom fish traps targeting <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> off the Rio de la Plata (35°02΄ to 37°23΄S) at depths of 1,464 to 2,609 m (P. Meneses, pers. comm).
44652		habitat	eng	<em>Amblyraja frerichsii</em> is bathydemersal in depths of 800 to 2,500 m off Chile. In the Atlantic, recorded off the Rio de la Plata (Uruguay/Argentina) at depths of 720 to 2,609 m (Krefft 1968, P. Meneses, pers. comm., M. Stehmann, pers. comm.). Mature males have been observed at 105 to 120 cm total length (TL) and mature females at 70.6 to 100 cm TL off Chile. A mature male has been observed off Rio de la Plata at 96 cm TL (P. Meneses, pers. comm.). Nothing known of its biology.
44652		threats	eng	Is taken as bycatch of longline artisanal fisheries for Patagonian Toothfish (<em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em>) off Chile. Taken in bottom fish traps for toothfish off Uruguay/Argentina using <em>Merluccius</em> spp., <em>Illex</em> spp. and <em>Scomber japonicus</em> as bait (P. Meneses, pers. comm.). It is captured in low numbers by bottom trawl nets targeting Argentine Hake (<em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>) off Uruguay (A. Domingo, pers. comm).
44653		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of catches is a priority.
44653		distribution	eng	Southeastern Pacific Ocean: endemic to Chile (25°05?24??S to 34°15?47??S; 35°26?S, 73°01?W) and Perú (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002, Meléndez and Meneses, 1989).
44653		habitat	eng	Benthic and epibenthic on the continental shelf and upper slope on soft bottoms. Compagno (in prep. a) reports this species from depths of 110 to 735 m, but more commonly 200 to 500 m. Ovoviviparous, number of young average 10 (Acuña <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Feeding habits: crustaceans and small fishes, deep-sea shrimp <em>Euphausia mucronata, Heterocarpus reedi</em> and the myctophid <em>Diogenichthys laternatus</em> (Acuña <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Known life history paramenters: <strong>Size at maturity</strong>: 52 to 54 cm total length (TL) (female); 42 to 46 cm TL (male). <strong>Maximum size</strong>: 60 cm TL<strong>Size at birth </strong>: 14 cm TL. <strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: 10
44653		population	eng	Reported as relatively common within its limited range (Compagno in prep. a).
44653		threats	eng	In Chile, bycatch in the deep sea crustacean trawl fishery for the Red Squat Lobster (<em>Pleuroncodes monodon</em>), the Yellow Squat Lobster (<em>Cervimunida johni</em>) and especially the Deep-sea Shrimp (<em>Heterocarpus reedi</em>) off Northern and Central Chile (from 25°05?24??S to 34°15?47??S and 259?498 m depth (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002). In this fishery it was the most important chondrichthyan species by weight, comprising about 5% of the bycatch (Acuña and Villarroel 2002).  <br/> <br/>This species may be of conservation concern due to its narrow geographical range and potential vulnerability to deepwater fishing methods given its bathymetric range and the global expansion of deepwater fishing (Compagno in prep. a).
44654		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific Ocean: known only from the Galapagos Islands (01°33?S), Perú (07°49?S) and from north and central Chile (from off Valparaíso). May be more widespread in its deepwater habitat than presently known.
44654		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate species reported from 400 to 960 m by McEachran and Compagno (1979) and also recorded from 300 to 400 m off Chile (Lamilla, unpubl. data). Maximum size 56.8 cm total length (TL) off Chile (Lamilla, unpubl. data). Males mature at 50.9 to 52.0 cm TL and females mature at 55.2 to 56.8 cm TL (McEachran and Compagno 1979). Nothing known of its biology.
44654		threats	eng	Generally no fisheries in its deepwater habitat at present. No information available. May be taken as bycatch as deepwater trawl fisheries expand.
44655		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific Ocean: known from Ecuador (03°15?S) to Mocha Island, Chile (37°45?S).
44655		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate species recorded on the continental slopes, at 800 m depth off Algarrobo, Chile (33°20?S) by de Buen (1960), at depths of 780 to 960 m by McEachran and Miyake (1984), and 590 to 1,000 m depth off Chile (Lamilla, unpubl. data). Individuals examined off Chile were 13.7 to 45.7 cm TL (males, n = 28) and 5.4 to 12.0 cm TL (juvenile females, n = 27). Adult females possibly occur in deeper water. Nothing known of its biology.
44655		threats	eng	Generally no fisheries in its deepwater habitat at present. No information available. May be taken as bycatch as deepwater trawl fisheries continue to expand.
44656		conservation	eng	None in effect or proposed. Bycatch mitigation is required. Closed areas may be required to protect this and other species in such areas of heavy, and increasing, fishing.
44656		distribution	eng	A Brazilian endemic locally known off Santa Catarina State north to Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. At present most records are centered on the southern part of its range (Santa Catarina State), although this may be due to less fishing effort off Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States were the continental slope is highly inclined.  <br/> <br/>Its extent of occurrence is estimated at 18,000 to 20,000 km².
44656		habitat	eng	The holotype was taken at 800 m (McEachran and Compagno 1980). Maximum size at least 42.4 cm total length (TL). Matures at 40.0 to 42.4 cm TL (males) and 36.5 cm TL (females). Oviparous, laying 4.5 cm eggs in September-October (spring). This species is a deepwater piscivorous skate and feeds mainly on juveniles (2 to 3 cm TL) of abrótea <em>Urophycis brasiliensis</em> at 400 to 600 m depth, but copepods and mysidaceans also make up part of its diet. Although the present information about its feeding aspect is restricted to two samples, the results are evidence of a trophic dependency of <em>G. dorsalifera</em> upon <em>U. brasiliensis</em>, which may be a point of concern given the high economic importance and heavy fishing of this teleost in the south of Brazil. It may occur deeper than 800 m and this needs clarification. Indications are that it is not abundant at the deeper end of its known depth range (400 to 800 m).
44656		threats	eng	A bycatch in deepwater fisheries. Increasing bottom trawl effort for squid in the only known area of its distribution is a matter of concern. This fishery operates down to about 600 m, so deeper water may provide a refuge for this species. Its main prey item, the teleost <em>Urophycis brasiliensis</em>, is heavily fished.
44657		conservation	eng	None in effect or proposed at this time.
44657		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: Between Scotland and Iceland. Southeast Atlantic: South Africa (Northern and Western Cape Provinces from the Orange River mouth south to Cape Agulhas and Eastern Cape Province). Possibly also the Northwest Atlantic (off Newfoundland, Canada) (Compagno in prep. b).
44657		habitat	eng	A benthic catshark of the continental slope, found on or near the bottom at depths of 700 to 2,000 m. South African specimens have been collected on soft bottom between 700 to 1,200 m. This species is also known to migrate off the bottom to feed on midwater prey items. Newborns, as known with other <em>Apristurus</em> species, may inhabit the midwater column until they start to mature whereupon they assume a more demersal lifestyle. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity: approx. 50 cm total length (TL) (both male and female). Maximum size: 61 cm TL (males); 54 cm TL (females).
44657		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population size.
44657		threats	eng	Possibly caught and discarded as bycatch by deepwater trawl fisheries, particularly in the North Atlantic. Expansion of deepwater fisheries may pose a threat to this species in the future, but at present most of its depth range is outside the reach of fisheries in its area of occupancy.
44658		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and potential threats of this little-known species is required.
44658		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is not well known; the location of the type locality is not known beyond the state of Tarapaca, Chile, and since then the species is thought to have only been recorded from an unknown location in the state of Antofagasta, Chile.
44658		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric habitat.
44658		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
44658		threats	eng	As the distribution of this species is not known, it is not possible to assess threats to the species. Potential threats in the region include overgrazing and mining activities.
44661		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44662		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44663		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44664		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44665		distribution	eng	Endemic to Madagascar.
44666		conservation	eng	Protection of coastal habitats, including pollution control and establishment of marine reserves is required. Regulation and management of artisanal coastal fisheries is recommended, including delimitation of fishing areas and periods, limitation of gillnet extension and mesh sizes (minimum and maximum), and mandatory release of live neonate and juvenile specimens.
44666		distribution	eng	Information obtained from sampling off the coastal state of São Paulo, Brazil, from 1996 to 2002, such as the presence of gravid females, neonates and juveniles, indicates that <em>R. lalandii</em> use the area as a primary and secondary nursery ground, with subadults leaving the area as they approach maturity (Motta 2001). Among the 12,406 examined sharks in this period, 7,442 (60.01%) were <em>R. lalandii</em> (Motta, F.S, Gadig, O.B.F., Namora, R.C. unpubl. data). The differences in maturity sizes observed along the Brazilian coast suggest the existence of at least two different stocks of <em>R. lalandii</em> in the area (Motta, F.S, Gadig, O.B.F., Namora, R.C. unpubl. data).
44666		habitat	eng	The Brazilian Sharpnose Shark is a tropical inshore species of the continental shelf, occurring at depths of 3 to 70 m (Compagno 1984, Gadig 1994, Cervigón and Alcalá 1999, FishBase). It is abundant from Venezuela to northern Brazil and in southern Brazil, but in northeastern Brazil, from Ceará to Bahia States, it is less common, possibly replaced by the congeneric <em>R. porosus</em>. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity previously reported as 45 to 50 cm total length (TL) for males (Compagno 1984). However, size at maturity shows variation along the Brazilian coast, as follows: 52 cm TL (males) and 56 cm TL (females) on the northern coast (Lessa 1988), and 58 to 60 cm TL (males) and 63 to 65 cm TL (females) on the southeastern coast (Ferreira 1988, Motta 2001). <br/> <br/>Placental viviparous species with litters of 1 to 5 pups (Gadig 1994, Lessa 1998, Motta 2001). Size at birth is 33 to 34 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Maximum size recorded is 78.5 cm TL (males) and 80 cm TL (females) (Namora 2003). <br/> <br/>The diet includes mainly small teleost fishes (Sciaenidae, Clupeidae, Engraulidae), and is complemented by squid (Loliginidae) and shrimps (Penaeidae) (Compagno 1984, Silva 1997, Namora 2003). In southeastern Brazil, the diet showed sexual, seasonal and ontogenetic variation (Namora 2003).
44666		threats	eng	Major threats include overfishing in coastal artisanal fisheries, mainly with gillnets, throughout most of its range. The species used to be one of the most abundant elasmobranch species in gillnet catches in Maranhão State, Brazil, but today it is rarely caught (Lessa 1998, R.P.T. Lessa, pers. obs.). The species is commonly taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries in São Paulo State, Brazil, corresponding to nearly 60% of the total captured shark numbers at Itanhaém Municipality (Motta 2001, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2002). A large proportion of the captured individuals (nearly 70%) in this and other localities include neonates and juveniles (Motta 2001, F.S. Motta, O.B.F. Gadig and R.C. Namora, unpubl. data). In heavily populated areas, the species also suffers from effects of marine pollution. On the São Paulo coast, the species has been shown to be subject to damage from plastic debris with three specimens found with plastic collars around the head or gill region (Sazima <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Information is urgently required from other countries within its range. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>The flesh of this species is used for food, however the fins are generally not utilised due to their small size.
44668		conservation	eng	Changes to fishing regulations for tuskfish in 2003 for the west coast and Gascoyne coast regions of Western Australia (W.A.) limit the capture of <em>C. cauteroma</em> to fish ≥ 40 cm in length (total length) and to a maximum of four fish per person per day (for recreational fishers) (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b). Since <em>C. cauteroma</em> rarely reaches more than 40 cm in length (Fairclough in prep.), these regulations essentially protect this species from capture in those two regions. However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published. Thus, the MLL for this species may be changed once the results of Fairclough (in prep.) become available. <br/> <br/>In the Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A., there is currently no MLL for retention of <em>C. cauteroma</em> and the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These regulations are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west and Gascoyne regions of W.A. <br/> <br/>Although, in the future, the MLL may change in all regions of W.A. where <em>C. cauteroma occurs</em>, to reflect more knowledge of the biology of this species, the catch limit is unlikely to be increased, since these limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalised as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). <br/> <br/>In Shark Bay, four sanctuary (no take) zones, i.e., South Passage, Mary Anne Island, Sandy Point and the Gudrun wreck, encompass habitats occupied by <em>C. cauteroma</em> (Anonymous 1996, Hutchins 1990, Fairclough in prep.). There are eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park. Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout this marine park (Anonymous (2004). <br/> <br/>Proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks on the north-west coast of Western Australia, including the Dampier Archipelago and Montebello Islands, where <em>C. cauteroma</em> is found (Hutchins 2001, Penn 2002). Marine Parks in Western Australia do not necessarily imply "no take" zones, but may include no take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on bag limits or methods used for capture.
44668		distribution	eng	<em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> occurs on coastal and inshore reefs between the Houtman–Abrolhos Islands (a group of islands and reefs ca 70 km offshore at ca 28º45'S, 113º45'E), on the west coast of Australia and the Dampier Peninsula (16º23'S, 122º55'E), on the north-west coast (Hutchins 2001). The Houtman-Abrolhos Islands is in the vicinity of the path of the southward-flowing Leeuwin Current (Hatcher 1991). This current carries the eggs and larvae of tropical species southwards along the Western Australian continental shelf (Hutchins 1991). The Leeuwin current is likely to be the main reason for individuals of <em>C. cauteroma</em> being recorded in the Abrolhos Islands, since it is considered to be rare at this location and this species was not recorded by Hutchins (2001) during surveys of inshore coastal reefs south of Shark Bay (ca 26ºS, 113.5ºE) (Hutchins 2001). <br/> <br/>One individual specimen was sighted in a fish market in Jakarta, Indonesia (W. White, Murdoch University, pers. comm.), however, this specimen may have been captured in waters closer to the Australian mainland.
44668		habitat	eng	<em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> is a demersal species and is common in shallow waters (< 15 m). However, it has been captured in waters up to 30 m deep (Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is most abundant on rocky platform reefs, coral reefs and on sand or rubble areas associated with rocky or coral reefs (Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Allen 1999, Hutchins 2003, Fairclough in prep.). In Shark Bay, juveniles and adults are found on seagrass beds (Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Small juveniles (< ca 150 mm) use weedy rock or seagrass habitats as nursery areas and generally move onto reefs after the first 1–2 years of life, where they mature (Fairclough in prep.). Some adults remain or may move between seagrass and reef areas (Fairclough in prep.). <br/> <br/><em>C. cauteroma</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner. It spawns between April and November in Shark Bay, although spawning fish are most abundant between September and November, i.e., spring (Fairclough in prep.). Relatively small male gonads indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once. Spawning fish have been collected in the many individual reef habitats occupied by this species in Shark Bay and it is unlikely that this species forms large spawning aggregations, but more than likely spawns in small groups, as is typical of many labrids (Fairclough in prep.).
44668		population	eng	<em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> is abundant in Shark Bay (Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Hutchins 2001, Fairclough <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Visual surveys in South Passage, at the southern end of Dirk Hartog Island, Shark Bay, the eastern coastlines of Bernier and Dorre Islands, and sites in the eastern and western gulfs of Shark Bay suggest that <em>C. cauteroma</em> is abundant in these areas (Hutchins 1990, Hutchins 2001, Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough in prep.). Surveys by Hutchins (2001) demonstrated that <em>C. cauteroma</em> was occasionally or frequently observed at sites between Shark Bay and the Dampier Archipelago and that it was frequently observed at sites on the Dampier Peninsula, but was not recorded to the east of that peninsula. Furthermore, it was not recorded at any of the offshore atolls surveyed, i.e., Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Ashmore reef. Research sampling by Fisheries Western Australia using traps and trawl nets along the north-west (Pilbara/Kimberley) coast of Australia collected moderate numbers of <em>C. cauteroma</em>, suggesting a fairly continuous distribution along this coast (Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). Catches declined rapidly only a short distance north of Broome, which is in agreement with the results of the surveys of Hutchins (2001). <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> does not occur in catches of tuskfish species in the Northern Territory (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.).
44668		threats	eng	Changes in commercial and/or recreational fishing pressure are the main threats to this species. However, there is no information on the level of exploitation of this species in Western Australia. Historical data on commercial catches in reports of the Department of Fisheries Western Australia combine all tuskfish species as one group, i.e., tuskfish, other than <em>Choerodon rubescens</em>. Thus, the contribution by <em>C. cauteroma</em> to these catches is unknown. Catches of tuskfish between 1994/95 and 1998/99 ranged from 16 to 34 t per year (Research Services Division 2000).
44669		conservation	eng	A minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm and a catch limit of four tuskfish per person per day in the west coast and Gascoyne regions of Western Australia limits the capture of <em>C. schoenlenii</em> in those two regions (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b). However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published on Western Australian stocks. In the northern Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A. the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These catch limit regulations for the Pilbara/Kimberley region are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west coast and Gascoyne regions of W.A. Although, in the future, the MLL may change in all regions of WA where <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs, to reflect increased knowledge of the biology of this species (Fairclough in prep.), the catch limit is unlikely to change from four fish per person per day, unless it is reduced further. These limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalised as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). There is also a MLL of 30 cm in Queensland and a catch limit of six tuskfish per person per day. However, in the Northern Territory, while there is a catch limit for recreational fishers, there is no MLL. <br/> <br/>In Shark Bay, Western Australia, several small sanctuary (no take) zones, i.e., Surf Point, Mary Anne Island, Gudrun Wreck and Sandy Point, are likely to encompass habitats occupied by C. schoenleinii (Anonymous 1996, Fairclough in prep.). There are eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park. Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout the marine park (Anonymous 2004). Proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks on the north-west coast of Western Australia (Penn 2002), including the Dampier Archipelago and the Montebello Islands, where <em>C. schoenleinii</em> was recorded frequently during surveys by Hutchins (2001). Marine Parks in Western Australia do not necessarily imply no-take zones, but may include no take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on catch limits or methods used for capture. <br/> <br/>In Queensland, there is a minimum legal length for retention of 30 cm and a catch limit of six fish per person per day (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2003). Approximately 5.1 million hectares of Queensland marine waters are declared marine parks and, of this, 603,000 hectares are fish habitat areas, where fishing is allowed, but the habitat is protected from development (Anonymous 2000). These areas stretch along the entire Queensland coastline (Anonymous 2000). It is likely that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs in at least several of these protected areas. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, a proposed rezoning plan will result in ca 33% of the geographical area of the park being designated as no take zones (GBRMPA 2003). It is likely that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs in several of these protected areas. <br/> <br/>While many marine parks have been introduced in areas within the range of <em>C. schoenleinii</em>, e.g., Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines, most of these are considered to be ‘paper parks’ and are poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced. Only 8% of the 100,000 km² of coral reefs in southeast Asia is included in marine protected areas and only 14% of the 646 MPAs are considered effective, hence the majority of these MPAs probably provide little protection to the species they house (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Local fishermen in Okinawa started a regulation not to catch this species smaller than 1 kg (<a href="http://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/eco/20030328_4.html">A. Nakazono, pers. comm.</a>).
44669		distribution	eng	<em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> occurs as far south on the Western Australian coast as the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands (a group of islands and reefs ca. 70 km offshore at ca 28°45'S, 113°45'E), however, it is considered to be rare at this location (Hutchins 2001). <em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> was not recorded on inshore coastal reefs south of Shark Bay (ca. 26°S, 113.5°E) during the surveys of Hutchins (2001). Surveys by Hutchins (2001, 2003) and Newman <em>et al</em>. (2003) demonstrate that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs along the northern Pilbara/Kimberley coastline of Western Australia as far north as Wyndham (15°29'S, 128°7'E), but not on the offshore atolls along this coast, i.e., Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Ashmore reef. <em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is a target for commercial fishers, fishing tour operators and recreational fishers in Darwin, Northern Territory, and is thus probably widespread in this region (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.). It is taken by recreational and commercial fishers along the Queensland coastline, in particular the Great Barrier Reef, where this species is widely distributed (Grant 1993; J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). <em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is likely to occur throughout south-east Asia, such as the Philippines and the Ryukyu Islands, where it is a commercial target (Westneat 2004, Ebisawai<em>et al</em>. 1995). It is probably equally well distributed throughout the rest of its range, e.g., along the Viet Nam and Thailand coastlines, around Malaysia, Indonesia, Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea and south to Vanuatu, where it is also reported to occur (Eli 2002, Allen and Adrim 2003). Many of these areas provide suitable habitats for this species. A report of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurring in Mauritius must be treated with some caution, since there is no evidence of it occurring between Mauritius and south-east Asia (Eli 2002).
44669		habitat	eng	<em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is a demersal species and is abundant in shallow water reefs in waters of north-western Australia and along the Queensland coast (< 20 m) (Allen 1999, Hutchins 2001, Grant 1993, Randall <em>et. al</em>. 1997, Fairclough, in prep). It is, however, reported to occur in waters up to 60 m deep (Westneat 2004). It is found on sand and weed areas adjacent to coral reefs (Grant 1993, Randall <em>et. al</em>. 1997, Allen 1999). In Shark Bay, Western Australia, it is found on rocky limestone reefs, weedy rock areas, rocky shorelines and seagrass areas (Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough in prep.). In particular, limestone and coral patch reefs are important for adults of this species in Shark Bay (Fairclough, in prep.). Juveniles (< <em>ca</em>. 150 mm) are found in weedy rock or seagrass habitats, but fish above this size are more common on open reefs in Shark Bay, for example (Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough, in prep.). Kanashiro (1998) demonstrated that seagrass beds were important for this species during the first few months of life with the presence of larvae and small juveniles in these habitats at Yagachi Island, Japan. <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> reaches lengths of up to 100 cm and <em>ca</em>. 16 kg in weight (Grant 1993). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). Fifty percent of females mature at <em>ca</em>. 25 cm and it spawns mainly in spring in both Shark Bay, Western Australia, and at Okinawa Island, Japan (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough, in prep.). Histology demonstrated that this species is monandric and that relatively small testes indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep). Males only occur in the upper size classes (> <em>ca</em>. 50 cm) and low numbers of males recorded in the population in Shark Bay and at Okinawa Island, Japan, also suggest that this species would be haremic (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough, in prep.). Since catch rates derived from line fishing or densities derived from visual surveys in Shark Bay demonstrated little variation during the different months of the year (Fairclough, in prep.), it is unlikely that this species forms large spawning aggregations.
44669		population	eng	<strong>Australia</strong> <br/><em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is abundant in many areas of Shark Bay, Western Australia (Fairclough in prep.), and Hutchins (2001) demonstrated that densities ranged from occasional to abundant at locations northwards from Ningaloo reef to Wyndham (15º29'S, 128º7'E). This species is probably equally abundant along the coastlines of the Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia, since this species is distributed across the whole of the northern half of Australia and commercial and recreational catches of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> in the Northern Territory and Queensland are low to moderate (Penn 2002; P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.; J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). Its distribution along the western and eastern coastlines of Australia is likely to be fairly continuous within its range, due to similar habitat being available throughout (Hutchins 2001, Grant, 1993). However, the degree of fragmentation of its distribution and levels of abundance in the Northern Territory of Australia are unclear. <br/> <br/><strong>SE Asia</strong> <br/>Throughout south-east Asia, the distribution of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is probably widespread, since coastal reef habitats are virtually ubiquitous in this region. For example, it was reported to occur from Papua to Sumatra in Indonesia by Allen and Adrim (2003). However, it is rarely reported as being common, e.g., <em>C. schoenleinii</em> was reported to be rare with only sub-adults seen during a rapid biodiversity assessment of the Calamianes Islands (Palawan Province, Philippines) (Werner and Allen 2000) and was not seen at all during similar surveys of the coral reefs of Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea (Werner and Allen 1998), the Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua, Indonesia (McKenna <em>et. al</em>. 2002), or the Togean and Banggai Islands, Sulawesi, Indonesia (Allen and McKenna 2001). This may be due to fragmentation of the populations of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> caused by naturally low abundances and/or localised stock depletions due to fishing pressure and destruction of habitat. The latter may be fairly widespread. For example, in Sabah, Borneo, and Indonesia, fishing pressure is concentrated in the inshore region of the coastline and destructive collection methods have depleted most of the inshore fish stocks (TRACC  2004). Destruction of coral reef habitat is also likely to be a contributing factor (see Threats). <br/> <br/>In Okinawa, Japan, and Hong Kong <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is/was a very important commercial species and is suggested to be overexploited (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Cornish 2003).
44669		threats	eng	A minimum legal size of 40 cm and a catch limit of four tuskfish per person per day in the west coast and Gascoyne regions of Western Australia limits the capture of <em>C. schoenlenii</em> in those two regions (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b). However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published on Western Australian stocks. In the northern Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A. the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These catch limit regulations for the Pilbara/Kimberley region are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west coast and Gascoyne regions of W.A. <br/> <br/>In Shark Bay, Western Australia, for example, only a relatively few fish > 40 cm, the minimum legal length for retention, are captured by line fishing, thus reducing the impact of fishing on this species in that embayment (Fairclough in prep.). Records of catches of recreational fishers in Western Australia indicate that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is regularly one of the top ten species caught from areas of the northern Pilbara/Kimberley region of Western Australia, e.g., Dampier and Broome (Newman <em>et. al</em>. 2003). Thus, there may be the potential for localised depletions of this species in areas of Western Australia, where commercial and/or recreational fishing pressure is high. Catches of the combined tuskfish and parrotfish category in the Northern Territory and Queensland are low, hence it is unlikely to be under widespread threat in these regions (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm., J. Platten, DPIF Queensland, pers. comm.). However, it is specifically targeted by recreational fishers in Moreton Bay, Queensland, which may have a localised impact on this species’ abundance (Grant 1993). <br/> <br/>There is little specific information on the level of exploitation of this species throughout south-east Asia. However, Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. (1995) states that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is an important commercial species in Okinawa, Japan, and that it is overexploited. The majority of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> caught in this region range in length from 20 to 35 cm and thus, based on studies of the reproductive biology of this species, many captured fish are likely to be sexually immature (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). <br/> <br/>Destructive fishing practices, e.g., explosives, spearfishing, poisoning and night-time fishing, used in many parts of south-east Asia to capture fish for local consumption, the live reef fish trade and the aquarium trade, are likely to cause, or may already have caused, declines in stocks of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> in these areas (Munday and Allen 2000, Chou <em>et. al</em>. 2002, Wabnitz <em>et. al</em>. 2003, TRACC 2004). However, there is little data to suggest how much <em>C. schoenleinii</em> contributes to these fisheries. Furthermore, any continued destruction of habitats will lead to further fragmentation of stocks and ultimately to their decline. Land clearing, and thus sedimentation from increased run-off, and poor sanitation in south-east Asian countries, such as Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, also have the potential to destroy important nearshore habitats (Munday and Allen 2000, Chou <em>et. al</em>. 2002). In south-east Asia, it has been estimated that 56 % of all coral reefs are at high risk, and 26% are of medium risk from human disturbance (Bryant <em>et. al</em>. 1998).
44670		conservation	eng	There are minimum legal lengths (MLL) for capture of <em>C. cyanodus</em> in Western Australia and Queensland of 40 and 30 cm, respectively, however, there are no such limits in the Northern Territory. Changes to fishing regulations for tuskfish in 2003 for the west coast and Gascoyne coast regions of Western Australia (W.A.) limit the capture of <em>C. cyanodus</em> to a mixed bag of four tuskfish per person per day (for recreational fishers) (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a). Since <em>C. cyanodus</em> rarely reaches more than 40 cm in length (Fairclough in prep.), these regulations essentially protect this species from capture in those two regions. However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published. In the Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A. the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These regulations are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west coast and Gascoyne regions of W.A. <br/> <br/>Although, in the future, the MLL may change in all regions of W.A. where <em>C. cyanodus</em> occurs, to reflect more knowledge of the biology of this species (Fairclough in prep.), the catch limit is unlikely to be increased, since these limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalised as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). <br/> <br/>In the Northern Territory and Queensland there are catch limits for recreational fishers of 30 and six fish per person per day, respectively. Since this species is not taken in the Northern Territory and catches are low in Queensland (P. de Lestang, DPIF Northern Territory, pers. comm., J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.), this species is well protected in these two states of Australia. <br/> <br/>In Western Australia, several small sanctuary (no take) zones, i.e., Surf Point, Mary Anne Island, Gudrun Wreck and Sandy Point, in Shark Bay, are likely to encompass habitats occupied by <em>C. cyanodus</em> (Anonymous 1996, Fairclough in prep.). There are eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park. Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout that park (Anonymous 2004b). Proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks on the north-west coast of Western Australia, including the Dampier Archipelago and Montebello Islands, where it is likely that <em>C. cyanodus</em> is found (Penn 2002). Marine Parks in Western Australia do not necessarily imply no take zones, but may include no take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on bag limits or methods used for capture. <br/> <br/>In Queensland, approximately 5.1 m hectares are declared marine parks and of that 603,000 hectares are fish habitat areas, where fishing is allowed, but the habitat is protected from any development (Anonymous 2000). These areas stretch along the entire Queensland coastline (Anonymous 2000). In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, a proposed rezoning plan will result in ca 33% of the geographical area of the park being designated as no take zones (GBRMPA 2003). It is likely that <em>C. cyanodus</em> occurs in several of these protected areas. <br/> <br/>While marine parks have been introduced in areas within the range of <em>C. cyanodus</em>, e.g., Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, most of these are considered to be ‘paper parks’ and are thus poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced. Only 8% of the 100,000 km² of coral reefs in southeast Asia is included in marine protected areas and only 14% of the 646 MPAs are considered effective, hence the majority of these marine parks probably provide little protection to the species they house (Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002, Licuanan and Gomez 2000).
44670		distribution	eng	In Western Australia, <em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> occurs as far south as the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands (a group of islands and reefs ca. 70 km offshore at ca. 28º45'S, 113º45'E), however, it is considered to be rare at this location (Hutchins 2001). The Houtman-Abrolhos Islands is in the vicinity of the path of the southward-flowing Leeuwin Current (Hatcher 1991). This current carries the eggs and larvae of tropical species southwards along the Western Australian continental shelf (Hutchins 1991). The Leeuwin current is likely to be the main reason for individuals of <em>C. cyanodus</em> being recorded in the Abrolhos Islands, since it is considered to be rare at this location and this species was not recorded by Hutchins (2001) during surveys of inshore coastal reefs south of Shark Bay (ca. 26ºS, 113.5ºE) (Hutchins 2001). <br/> <br/>Surveys by Hutchins (2001, 2003) and Newman <em>et al</em>. (2003) demonstrate that <em>C. cyanodus</em> occurs along the northern Pilbara/Kimberley coastline of Western Australia as far north as Wyndham (15º29'S, 128º7'E), but not on the offshore atolls along this coast, i.e., Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Ashmore reef. While this species’ distribution is reported to extend along the coastline of northern Australia, data suggests that fishing tour operators in Darwin do not catch <em>C. cyanodus</em> (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.). However, tuskfish in commercial catches are often combined and labeled ‘parrots’ in this region. <em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> occurs along the Queensland coastline around the Gulf of Carpentaria, Cape York Peninsula and on the Great Barrier Reef, and has previously been studied at Heron Island (Choat, 1969). Choat (1969) suggests that this species occurs as far south as ca. 24ºS on the east coast of Australia. <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon</em> species reported to occur in Sri Lanka by the FAO do not include <em>C. cyanodus</em>, however, if it does occur in this area as suggested by Allen (1999), it seems likely to be present only in low numbers or in restricted areas and this would represent the westerly limit of its distribution (De Bruin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <em>Choerodon cyanodu</em> is also reported by divers to occur along the Thailand coastline (Anonymous 2004a) but does not appear in extensive lists of species from that country (Monkolprasit <em>et al</em>. 1997), or other areas outside Australia where it is reported to occur, notably Indonesia (Papua to Sumatra; Allen and Adrim 2003), Japan (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984) and Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea (Werner and Allen 1998). It appears that either records of this species outside Australia, are largely in error, or abundance in these areas is very low. This global assessment is, therefore, based primarily on populations in Australia which are likely to comprise the majority of the global population.
44670		habitat	eng	<em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is a demersal species and is abundant in shallow waters in Shark Bay (< 10 m). It has been captured in waters up to 30 m deep along the Pilbara/Kimberley coast of Western Australia (Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is found on flat bottoms and coral reefs (Allen 1999). However, it is common on rocky limestone reefs, weedy-rock areas, rocky shorelines and seagrass areas in Shark Bay (Travers and Potte 2002, Fairclough, in prep.). Juveniles and adults (< <em>ca</em>. 200 mm) are found in weedy rock or seagrass habitats, but fish above this size are more common on reefs or rocky habitats (Fairclough in prep.). While records suggest that this species reaches 70 cm in length and recreational fishing records suggest a specimen weighing 4.5 kg was captured in Shark Bay (Australian Anglers Association, (WA Division) Inc. 2003), the majority of fish collected in Shark Bay during current research were below 30 cm and none were collected above 40 cm (Fairclough, in prep.). All fish collected by Choat (1969) from the Great Barrier Reef were < 405 mm in length. Mature fish of <em>ca</em>. 100–150 mm have been collected in seagrass and weedy rock habitats, implying that this species may not always migrate to reefs after maturity and it may live its full lifecycle in either seagrass or reef habitats (Fairclough, in prep.). <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner. It spawns between December and February in Shark Bay, i.e., summer (Fairclough, in prep). Relatively small male gonads indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once. Mature and spawning fish have been collected in the many individual reef and seagrass habitats occupied by this species in Shark Bay and it is unlikely that this species forms large spawning aggregations, but more than likely spawns in small groups (Fairclough, in prep.).
44670		population	eng	<em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is rare at the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands, which represent the lower limit of this species’ distribution in Western Australia (Hutchins 2001). Surveys by Hutchins (2001, 2003) and research sampling by Newman <em>et al</em>. (2003) found this species to be abundant at locations northwards from the north west cape of Western Australia, however, Fairclough (in prep.) found that this species was also abundant in many areas of Shark Bay to the south. <br/> <br/>It is probably equally abundant along the Queensland coastline as this area is well within its geographic range, and since it does not feature prominently in commercial or recreational catches (J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). Distribution along the western and eastern coastlines of Australia is likely to be fairly continuous within its range, due to similar habitat being available throughout. The degree of fragmentation of its distribution and levels of abundance in the Northern Territory of Australia and throughout the remainder of its geographic range in south-east Asia are unclear.
44670		threats	eng	There is no direct information on the level of exploitation of this species throughout most of its range. A minimum legal length of 40 cm in Western Australia virtually prevents its capture, since fish caught during research in both Shark Bay and on the northwest coast of Western Australia were always under this size (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a,b,c, Fairclough in prep., Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). Catches of the combined "tuskfish" category in Western Australia are moderate (16 to 34 t per year between 1994/95 and 1998/99; Research Services Division 2000), but, since <em>C. cyanodus</em> is rarely larger than its MLL, it is unlikely to be significant in these catches. Although <em>C. cyanodus</em> is a recognized target for recreational fishers in Queensland, it is only caught in small numbers (J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.) and commercial catches of the combined category of ‘parrots’ (Labrids and Scarids) in that state are around 30 t per year, consisting mainly of <em>Choerodon venustus</em>, <em>C. cyanodus</em> is unlikely to be threatened on the east coast of Australia (J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). <em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is not taken in the Northern Territory of Australia (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Destructive fishing practices used to capture fish for local consumption, the live reef fish trade and the aquarium trade in many parts of south-east Asia, may represent the largest threat to <em>C. cyanodus</em> (Munday and Allen 2000, Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, there is no data to suggest whether <em>C. cyanodus</em> forms a part of any of these industries. Land clearing, and thus sedimentation from increased run-off, and poor sanitation in southeast Asian countries, such as Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, also have the potential to destroy important habitats (Munday and Allen 2000, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002).
44671		conservation	eng	The minimum legal size limit for retention (commercial and recreational) of <em>C. rubescens</em> in Western Australia is 40 cm, which is above the length at sexual maturity of <em>ca</em>. 290 mm (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b; Fairclough, in prep.). Catch limits of four fish per person per day for recreational fishers came into effect on 1st July 2003, however there have been recommendations that this be further reduced to two and the minimum size limit be increased to 45 cm (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b; Harrison 2001). These limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalized as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). <br/> <br/>Sanctuary zones at the Abrolhos Islands include four no take "Reef Observation Areas" (ROA), which were introduced in the mid-1990s (Nardi 1998). These ROAs have apparently had little impact on the size or abundance of C. rubescens (K. Nardi, Department of Fisheries, Western Australia, pers. comm.). Monitoring of future catches and the impact of protected areas on fish numbers has been highlighted as a priority for research (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002). A closed fishing season for <em>C. rubescens</em> was introduced for the "Fish Habitat Protection Area", that surrounds the Abrolhos Islands, from 1 November to 31 January, which encompasses a substantial proportion of the spawning period of theis species (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a). <br/> <br/>There is a no take sanctuary zone in South Passage (southern end of Dirk Hartog Island), Shark Bay, and eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park (Anonymous 1996, Anonymous 2004a). Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout the Ningaloo marine park (Anonymous 2004a). A no take sanctuary zone was also introduced at Mary Anne Island in the western gulf of Shark Bay for <em>C. rubescens</em>, however this may be due to a misidentification of the <em>Choerodon</em> species, since <em>C. rubescens</em> does not occur within the more southern regions of the gulfs of Shark Bay (Anonymous 1996, Fairclough in prep.). <em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is found only occasionally at Rottnest Island, near Perth (Hutchins 1979, 2001). Spearfishing is prohibited within 200 metres from shore and netting is prohibited within 500 metres from shore around Rottnest Island (Anonymous 2004b). <br/> <br/>A marine park was declared at Jurien Bay in August 2003, which contains several no take sanctuary zones and areas which restrict commercial or recreational fishing activities, and in which <em>C. rubescens</em> is likely to occur (Anonymous 2003).
44671		distribution	eng	<em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is found on coastal and offshore reefs on the continental shelf of Western Australia and is suggested to be most abundant at the Abrolhos Islands (ca. 28.5ºS, 113.5ºE), which is approximately in the centre of this species’ distribution (Walker 1983, Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Allen 1999, Hutchins 2001). These islands are situated approximately 70 km offshore from Geraldton, on the west coast of Australia. It is likely to be similarly abundant at sites further north, e.g., along the Zuytdorp Cliffs and the western sides of large islands at the western border of Shark Bay, i.e., Dirk Hartog, Bernier and Dorre Islands (ca. 26ºS, 113.5ºE), although most of these areas are fairly inaccessible, except by boat (Hutchins 1990, Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). It is also found at Coral Bay at the southern end of Ningaloo Reef (Hutchins and Swainston 1986). <em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is captured by commercial and recreational fishers further south from Geraldton, e.g., Jurien Bay and Perth, where there are more coastal and offshore limestone reefs and islands (Hutchins 1979, Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sumner and Williamson 1999).
44671		habitat	eng	<em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is a demersal species found commonly on bare rocky (predominantly limestone) reefs, coral reefs, and rocky reefs with associated coral, algae or seagrass (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Allen 1999, Fairclough in prep.). It is common in shallow waters (< 20 m) and known to be collected in substantial numbers by commercial fishers in deeper waters (up to 100 m) around the Abrolhos Islands (Fairclough, in prep., S. McCaskie, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Small juveniles (< <em>ca</em>. 150 mm) are common in shallow weedy rock habitats and generally move onto more open habitats after the first 1–2 years of life, where they mature after 3 or more years (Fairclough, in prep.). <em>Choerodon rubescens</em> grows to approximately 70 cm in length and has been aged at up to 22 years (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Nardi 1999, Fairclough, in prep.). Fish at the minimum legal length for capture of 40 cm range from 4 to 14 years of age (Nardi 1999, Fairclough, in prep.). <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner. It spawns between August and January, however, spawning fish are most abundant between September and November, i.e., spring (Nardi 1999, Fairclough, in prep.). Small male gonads indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once and Nardi (1999) observed males herding females during the spawning season, suggesting that they maintain harems at this time. Sex ratios of adult fish, i.e., above the size at which 50% of females reach sexual maturity (<em>ca</em>. 290 mm), are biased towards females, i.e., <em>ca</em>. 10 females :1 male (Fairclough, in prep.). Nardi (1999) suggests that <em>C. rubescens</em> aggregates to spawn in shallow waters at the Abrolhos Islands, due to increased counts of this species during visual surveys during its spawning season. <br/> <br/>Current research in Shark Bay and the Abrolhos Islands demonstrates that the size at sexual maturity of females is similar in both regions, but fish are older at this size in the Abrolhos Islands, related to slower growth in this region (Fairclough, in prep.). The sizes at which 50% of individuals change sex in Shark Bay and the Abrolhos Islands are substantially different and may be related to the differences in growth at different latitudes and/or fishing pressure influencing the social structure (Fairclough, in prep.). The ratio of females to males of <em>C. rubescens</em> in commercial catches from the Abrolhos Islands is approximately 1:1. The high fishing pressure and consistent capture of larger, often male, Venus Tuskfish <em>Choerodon venustus</em>, at some locations in Queensland resulted in a decrease in the size at sex change for this species at those sites (Platten <em>et al</em>l. 2002).
44671		population	eng	<em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is abundant in the centre of its distribution at the Abrolhos Islands (Walker 1983, Hutchins 2001). Average mean densities in waters close to the islands recorded during visual census work by Nardi (1999) ranged between 3 and 9 fish/250 m². The Abrolhos Islands support the largest commercial fishery for this species, however, commercial fishers tend to fish in deeper waters away from the actual islands (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002). Wetline catches in this region average 31.5 tons per year and have been consistent for approximately 10 years, however, Penn <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that the population at the Abrolhos Islands may be showing signs of over-exploitation, due to increasing fishing effort by wetliners with little increase in total catch. <br/> <br/>Hutchins (2001) observed <em>C. rubescens</em> frequently at sites surveyed between Jurien Bay and the northern limit of this species distribution at Coral Bay. But this species was occasionally to rarely observed at sites surveyed to the south of Jurien Bay. Visual census surveys in South Passage, at the southern end of Dirk Hartog Island, Shark Bay (ca. 26ºS, 113.5ºE), and on the east and west coasts of Bernier and Dorre Islands, suggest that <em>C. rubescens</em> is abundant in these areas (Hutchins 1990, Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). Since much of the coastline within this species distribution consists of limestone reefs, on which <em>C. rubescens</em> is found, the distribution of this species is likely to be fairly continuous at least between Jurien and Coral Bay (Hutchins 2001, Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995).
44671		threats	eng	An increase in commercial and/or recreational fishing pressure is the main threat to this species, with the largest catches coming from around the Abrolhos Islands, and other areas of importance being Jurien Bay and Shark Bay (Sumner and Williamson 1999, Penn <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sumner <em>et al</em>. 2002). Although commercial wetline catches have remained consistent during the 1990s in the Abrolhos Islands, where 50% of the commercial wetline catch is derived from (Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1999), a 16% increase in effort in 2001/02 compared to the previous year, but with little increase in catches (2%), suggested that stocks in that region were showing signs of over-explotation (Penn <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The lower length at which 50% of females change sex in the Abrolhos Islands (479 mm) versus Shark Bay (545 mm), may indicate that fishing pressure is having an impact on social structure in the former region, as was demonstrated for <em>Choerodon venustus</em> in Queensland (Platten <em>et al</em>. 2002). High fishing pressure resulted in a decrease in the length at sex change for the latter species. <br/> <br/>In the Abrolhos Islands, ratios of females to males in catches of fish that were above the length at 50% sexual maturity and were caught by recreational rod and line fishing are approximately 10:1, whilst for fish collected by commercial fishers, the sex ratios are close to 1:1 (Fairclough in prep.). This implies that there are greater numbers of females in the adult population, as is common for protogynous hermaphrodites, but that commercial fishers are taking approximately equal numbers of females and males. If the minimum legal size limit is increased to 45 cm, the proportion of males in commercial catches may increase. This may have an undesirable impact on the size at sex change in the Abrolhos Islands, as occurred for <em>C. venustus</em> and may eventually have an impact on assemblages elsewhere on the west coast of Australia, if fishing pressure is high enough. <br/> <br/>The Abrolhos Islands represents a unique environment, being the southernmost coral reefs in the Indian Ocean and containing 211 species of hermatypic and ahermatypic corals (Hatcher 1991, Nardi 1998). Anthropogenic threats to habitats at the Abrolhos Islands, such as coral areas, that are occupied by <em>C. rubescens</em>, are well documented, and include activities such as diving and recreational boating. These impacts are considered to be minimal (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, they do require further quantification and the development of suitable management plans (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002).
44672		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is limited to 15% of the total catch and within Oman's territorial waters; foreign vessels may not fish without a licence.
44672		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dermatolepis striolata</span> occurs in the western Indian Ocean: Gulf of Oman and south coast of Arabian Peninsula, Aldabra, Comoros, Madagascar, and the coast of East Africa from Kenya to South Africa (Durban).
44672		habitat	eng	Occurs on coral reefs on rocky bottom often lurking in or near caves (Randall 1995). <br/> <br/>Reaches a maximum size of 85 cm (Randall 1995). It is not known whether this species forms spawning aggregations although "Morgans (1982) reports shoaling behaviour in small groups eight or fewer individuals" (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
44672		threats	eng	Overfishing is likely to be the main threat to this species. Although it appears to be too rare to be of commercial importance and it very rarely appears in Hong Kong markets, imported through the Live Reef Food Fish Trade (A. Cornish, pers. obs. 2004).
44673		conservation	eng	From the 1980s, the Pohnpei State Government began implementing measures to reduce fishing effort on groupers, including a partial sales ban during the spawning season (March to April), but subsistence fishing on aggregations continued during the closed season, with fish being frozen until the end of the ban. Also the ban may have little overall effect since aggregation sites in close proximity to population centers can be targeted outside the ban period. In 1995, the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary was established, but the northwest boundary fell short of covering Camouflage Grouper or Brown-marbled Grouper aggregations, so fishing continued. No foreign fishing vessels are allowed and entry restriction for divers at one site, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (Reef fish spawning aggregations working group 2002). Also monitored in Pohnpei Conservation and Monitoring of Reef Fish Spawning Aggregation Site programme, a total of 1,085 individuals were recorded during monitoring in three days of March 2001 full moon (Pet <em>et al</em>., pers. comm. 2001). <br/> <br/>In Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, the majority of individuals interviewed had a strong awareness of their ability to overfish fish stocks, with ensuring the future sustainability of resources being the predominant reasons for implementing management strategies. Dynamiting is prohibited under customary law and also at a national and provincial level, night time spearfishing at a known spawning aggregation site is prohibited under customary law. However, some young fishermen ignore the night time spearfishing ban. In Buka Island, the power of community leaders to enforce closures within their respective communities appears to have declined considerably in recent years (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>In Komodo Marine Park, Indonesia, spawning aggregation protected zones with seasonal closure recommended for traditional use zones (Reef fish spawning aggregations working group 2002). <br/> <br/>In Australia, a size limit of a minimum 35 cm and a specific group combined bag limit on this species, applying across all sectors of the coral reef fin fish fishery including commercial and recreational fishers and charter boat operators have been proposed in the Draft Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan in Queensland, minimum size limits are set at a point which allows at least half of the fish in a population to reach reproductive maturity and spawn before they are available for harvest. <br/> <br/>In the Solomon Islands, a management plan for the live reef fish trade was drafted in Honiara, seeking to totally protect the spawning aggregations of <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> by placing a ban on aggregation fishing for five days either side of the new moon during the three months of the year when aggregations are known to form (Donnelly 2001). The LRFFT interim licence conditions was revised in 2002 (Oreihaka, pers. comm., 2003), and a recent article in the SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin (Samoilys 2002) stated that the management plan drafted in 2001 was yet to be implemented. <br/> <br/>In Palau, the Marine Protection Act of 1994 prohibits sale or purchase of <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> from April 1 through July 31 each year, intended to protect spawning aggregation. In 1995 the Act was amended to prohibit any capture of these groupers even for subsistence purpose in the closed period (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999). A four-month ‘bul’ (taboo) was enforced in the state of Ngeremlengui, but was not completely effective in preventing fishing on the spawning aggregation, which was said by fishermen to be much smaller than they were ten years ago (Johannes 1999). Exports are monitored, no foreign fishing vessels allowed and entry restriction for divers at one site, species may probably still be in fair condition, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (i.e., into August) (Reef fish spawning aggregations working group 2002). <br/> <br/>In Malaysia, marine parks were established under the Fisheries Act of 1985 for the protection, preservation, and management of natural breeding grounds and habitat of aquatic life. Although this is a general clause, most of the marine parks are situated on coral reefs which are the habitats of this and other serranids.
44673		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus fuscoguttatus</span> is an Indo-Pacific species, ocurring in the Red Sea, along the east coast of Africa to Mozambique, east to Samoa and the Phoenix Islands, north to Japan, and south to Australia. It is unknown from the Persian Gulf, Hawaii, and French Polynesia. It is also recorded from Hibernia Reef, Timor Sea, south of Timor-Leste (B. Russell, pers. comm).<br/><br/>(See <a href="http://www.marine.csiro.au/caab/caabsearch-frames.htm">modelled map for Australian distribution</a>).<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations are known from Palau, Pohnpei (Micronesia), outside the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Australia), Komodo National Park (Indonesia), Dumbea (New Caledonia), and Fiji.
44673		habitat	eng	Occurs in lagoon pinnacles, channels, and outer reef slopes, in coral-rich areas and with clear waters. Juveniles occur in seagrass beds. Forms spawning aggregations. <br/> <br/>Males are easily available for natural spawning in Singapore (Chao <em>et al</em>. 1993). In Palau, sampled mature males ranged in size from 698–870 mm total length, mature females from 420 to 850 mm (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999).
44673		threats	eng	Fishing and habitat destruction of seagrass beds and coral reefs (Burke <em>et al</em>. 2002, Hodgson and Liebeler 2002).
44674		conservation	eng	Totally protected in New South Wales waters (Public Consultation Document 2002). <br/> <br/>Tagged <em>E. coioides</em> are released on artificial reefs in Yan Chau Tong and Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park in 2001 as a part of restocking trial (these together with Red Snapper account for 15,000 fish released to-date) (Cheung 2001). <br/> <br/>Mariculture of this grouper is carried out in SE Asia (Sadovy 2000). This fish is being cultured for local consumption in Thailand and for export using mainly seed supply from the wild (Yashiro 1996). This fish is also cultured in Singapore and Taiwan (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Under current Queensland (Australia) fishery regulation, <em>E. coioides</em>, whose length is less than 35 cm or more that 120 cm is protected (Fishing Industry Organization and Marketing Amendment Regulation 1993).
44674		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus coioides</span> occurs in the Red Sea south to at least Durban (South Africa), eastwards to Palau and Fiji, north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and south to the Arafura Sea and Australia (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It has also migrated through the Suez Canal to the eastern Mediterranean (Randall 1995). Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown. This species is also frequently misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. malabaricus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">E. tauvina</span> in aquaculture and fisheries literature (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/>A spawning aggregation of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. coioides</span> has been reported from Papua New Guinea where 1,000 to 5,000 fish congregate in the muddy/sandy bottom of a large shallow bay for three to four days in every month of the year. At night, the fish sleep partially buried in the mud and have been targeted by local fishers for generations. Fish are speared from a canoe with a hand held spear at night using light lamp to locate them. Fishers report that 30 to 40 years ago they could take between 200 and 500 fish in a night, whereas today (2003) they catch between 50 and 100 fish in a night, a decline of 50% (Hamilton 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. coioides</span> has also been reported to form mixed spawning aggregations with <span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus malabaricus</span> in a bay in New Caledonia (M. Kulbicki, pers. comm.).
44674		habitat	eng	Adults are reef-associated (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003) and are often found in brackish water (Randall <em>et. al</em>. 1997) over mud and rubble (Kailola <em>et. al</em>. 1993). Juveniles are common in estuaries over sand, mud and gravel and among mangroves (Kailola <em>et. al</em>. 1993). <br/> <br/>Maximum age recorded is 22 years (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>Females are mature at 25–30 cm total length (2–3 years old), sexual transition occurs at a length of 55–75 cm, and the major spawning period in the Persian Gulf is from March to June (Heemstra and Randal 1993). In the southern Arabian Gulf it is March to May (Grandcourt <em>et. al</em>. 2003). In New Caledonia spawning aggregations form in late October to early December (M. Kulbicki, pers. comm. 2004).
44674		population	eng	<em>E. coioides</em> is so widely distributed that estimating overall population size, or changes in overall population size is near impossible. As a result little is known about the population. Minimum population doubling time is 1.4–4.4 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).
44674		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat destruction are the two most possible threats. Habitat destruction includes that of coral reefs (adult habitat) (Burke <em>et. al</em>. 2002, Hodgson and Liebeler 2002) and mangroves (juvenile habitat along with estuaries). <br/> <br/>Significant decreases in mangrove area are known to have occurred in SE Asia. In Malaysia, 12% was lost from 1980 to 1990, in the Philippines mangroves have decreased by 60% (4,000 km² originally to 1,600 km² in 1997), in Viet Nam mangroves decreased by 38% (4,000 km² to 2,525 km² in 1997), while in Thailand the loss has been 54% (5,500 km² in 1961 to 2,470 km² in 1997) (Spalding <em>et. al</em>. 1997). These figures represent a loss of some 7,445 km² of mangroves (about 9 % of the SE Asian total) while other countries like Indonesia, which has the largest total area of mangrove habitat in the world (42, 550 km²) are also known to have suffered losses (Spalding <em>et. al</em>. 1997). Such destruction of important habitat will have undoubtedly reduced populations of <em>E. coiodes</em>.
44675		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Hawaii </span><br/>The Fishery Management Plan for Bottomfish and Seamount Groundfish Fisheries in the western Pacific Region (FMP) became effective on 27 August 1986. The FMP prohibits destructive fishing techniques, establishes a moratorium and implements a permit system for fishing for bottomfish in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around the NWHI; it also establishes a limited access permit program for the Mau Zone, a management area in the NWHI with effect from 28 May 1999 (Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 2003).<br/> <br/>Hawaii Administrative Rule established June 1998 prohibits use or possession of nets, traps, trawls, or bottomfish longline in fishing for bottomfish including <em>H. quernus</em>; it establishes restricted fishing areas which prohibits fishing of this fish within such areas; and it also requires vessels to register with Department of Aquatic Resources (DLNR) to legally take and possess bottomfish species (DAR 2002).
44675		distribution	eng	Found in the Central Pacific and limited to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
44675		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>quernus</em> is a demersal fish occurring from 20–380 m. It occurs in coral reef and rocky areas. <br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>quernus</em> appear to be a protogynous hermaphrodite, changing sex from female to male at a large size. A study examining 133 individuals in 1978–1981 found 50% of females had reached sexual maturity by 57.5–62.5 cm while the smallest male was 75 cm and 100% of individuals above 95 cm were male (Everson 1992). The same survey found a skewed sex ratio as 120 of the samples were female and only 10 (8%) were male. <em>H. quernus</em> has a protracted spawning season that extends from January through June. Spawning reached a peak in April, and again in June (Everson 1992).
44675		population	eng	A study of the population genetic structure in the Hawaiian archipelago indicates "populations of <em>H. quernus</em> may be in the order of at least ¾ of a million individuals" but inaccuracies in the model could result in large changes to this estimate and it should, therefore, be viewed with caution (Rivera <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Population doubling time is 1.4–4.5 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population structure </span><br/>302 individuals of <em>H. quernus</em> were taken from ten sites throughout the Hawaiian archipelago in 1999–2001 at depths of 140–381 m. Examination of genetic diversity showed that that Gardner Island, situated about mid-way along the island chain had the greatest genetic diversity, and the second highest proportion on unique alleles. The northern-western (Mar/ N. Hampton through Pear and Hemes islands) and southern-eastern (Hawaii through Nihoa) extreme ends of the archipelago had genetic composition that was largely similar which may suggest the more diverse middle islands served as an ancestral source to the rest of the archipelago. As such, additional consideration should be given to preserving <em>H. quernus</em> stocks in the middle islands (Rivera <em>et al</em>. 2004).
44675		threats	eng	Overfishing is the most serious actual or potential threat.
44676		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus irroratus</span> is found only in the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) in the South Pacific. A single record from Minami Tori Shima Island off Japan appears to be an error (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
44676		habitat	eng	This fish is mainly caught between 20–50 m, but may go deeper to 100 m (C. Ponsonnet pers. comm. 2003). It reaches a size of 34 cm total length. <br/> <br/>No data appears to have been published on the biology of this species.
44676		population	eng	From fisheries data, and discussions with local fishermen the Marquesan Grouper appears to be reasonably abundant between 20 and 50 m in all islands of the archipelago (C. Ponsonnet pers. comm. 2003).
44676		threats	eng	The main threat is from overfishing but at this time the fishing pressure appears to be low enough to be sustainable, at least in the short-term, see justification above, and as long as exports do not begin. The species is unlikely to be threatened despite limited distribution because there is little pressure and it is generally beyond the reach of most current fishing activity.
44677		conservation	eng	Good protection in a 155 km long marine protected area (MPA) in South Africa. A minimum size limit of 400 mm TL applies, and a recreational bag limit of five fish per person per day (within that category of fish). Commercial fishing effort is restricted (number of permits is limited) and has recently been reduced. Fairly good compliance with regulations owing to an active conservation agency in KwaZulu-Natal. No bag or size limit restrictions in Mozambique.
44677		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus albomarginatus</span> occurs along the east coast of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces to 33°S) and southern Mozambique (to 24°50'S). The species is relatively abundant only between 32°15'S and 24°50'S. The species has also been recorded from the southwest coast of India. See the assessment justification for details on extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.
44677		habitat	eng	Closely associated with reefs, mainly in water >30 m deep. There is very little evidence of spawning on exploited reefs in KwaZulu-Natal, possibly because of edge of range effects (Fennessy 2000), or unsuitable habitat. The species is a slow-growing, monandric protogynous hermaphrodite i.e., males are derived from functional females, and the sex ratio in KwaZulu-Natal is heavily female biased; it is not clear whether this is as a result of fishing pressure or because of edge of range effects on reproduction. In Mozambique, where fishing effort was light at time of sampling, the sex ratio was less biased (Fennessy 2000).
44677		population	eng	Not common in South African waters, probably more abundant in Mozambique. The South African population is assumed to be the same stock as in Mozambique.
44677		threats	eng	Over-fishing by small-scale commercial hook and line fishing in South Africa and Mozambique, and an industrial trap fishery in Mozambique poses a high threat.
44678		conservation	eng	Good protection in a 155 km long marine protected area (MPA) in South Africa, although <em>E. andersoni</em> is confined to the inshore (< <em>ca</em>. 200 m from the shore) non-coral reefs there, so suitable habitat in the MPA is restricted. A minimum size limit of 400 mm TL applies, soon to be increased to 500 mm. There is currently a recreational bag limit of five fish per person per day (within that category of fish), soon to become a bag limit of five for both recreational and commercial sectors. Commercial fishing effort is restricted (number of permits is limited) and has recently been reduced. Fairly good compliance with regulations owing to an active conservation agency in KwaZulu-Natal. No bag or size limit restrictions in Mozambique.
44678		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus andersoni</span> occurs along the east coast of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces to 34°05'S), and southern Mozambique (to 24°50'S). Reports of this species occurring in Madagascar are dubious (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is relatively abundant only between 32°15'S and 24°50'S. See the assessment justification for details on extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.
44678		habitat	eng	Closely associated with shallow rocky reefs. Rarely recorded on coral reefs (Chater <em>et al</em>. 1993, Chater <em>et al</em>. 1995). Spawning does not occur south of 30o, and not all fish spawn every year (Fennessy 2000). There is some evidence that there are spawning-related increases in abundance (aggregations) during summer (January to March). The species is a relatively slow-growing, diandric protogynous hermaphrodite i.e., some males are derived from functional females, but some develop from the juvenile phase, so the sex ratio is not female biased as in monandric protogynous hermaphrodites (Fennessy 2000). Size/age at first maturity for females and males is similar. Tagging results indicate that there is a high degree of site fidelity (Bullen and Fennessy 2000).
44678		population	eng	Relatively common in South African waters, particularly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. The South African population is assumed to be the same stock as in Mozambique. The South African population is assumed to be larger because most of the Mozambican reefs are coral, and this is not a coral reef species.
44678		threats	eng	Over-fishing by commercial and recreational hook and line fishing are a moderate threat.
44679		conservation	eng	There is a recreational bag limit of four fish per day for <em>E. armatus</em> but no commercial or other restrictions (J. St John pers. comm. 2003).
44679		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelides armatus</span> occurs in southeast Indian Ocean, where it is endemic to western Australia from Recherche Archipelago to Shark Bay (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Prokop 2002).
44679		habitat	eng	"Inhabits coastal reefs of south-western Australia, where it is commonly encountered by both anglers and divers" (Hutchins and Swainston 1986). "Often found around bommies and shallow reefs" ( Prokop 2002). "An inquisitive species, it readily approaches divers, but is also sighted resting on the bottom" (Hutchins and Swainston 1986). Grows to a maximum length of 56 cm (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>Females can spawn from 231 mm, at the age of 3, with 50% mature at 260 mm. Males can spawn from 272 mm, at the age of 4, with 50% mature at 360 mm (Eastman 2001). <br/> <br/>There is no evidence that this species forms spawning aggregations (J. St. John, pers. comm. 2003), as do some other large groupers, a trait that increases vulnerability to overexploitation.
44679		population	eng	"A relatively common inshore species" (Prokop 2002). No other information is available.
44679		threats	eng	Overfishing is the only threat known at present.
44680		conservation	eng	All waters around the Galápagos Islands are part of the Galapágos Marine Reserve and industrial fishing is prohibited. The reserve is zoned and artisanal fishing is allowed in some areas. However, management is difficult and illegal fishing is common (F. Nicolaides, pers. comm., 2003).
44680		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus cifuentesi</span> is an eastern Pacific species found only in the Galápagos Islands, Isla del Cocos (Costa Rica), and off the coast of Costa Rica (Heemstra and Randall 1993), as well as the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico (M. Craig pers. comm.), and a single record (148 mm SL and 78 g) from a market in Ecuador (Bearez and Jimenez Prado 2003). <br/><br/>This assessment is for the Galápagos Islands subpopulation only.
44680		habitat	eng	Depth range from 40–120 m (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). Size and/or age of sexual maturation is not known.
44680		population	eng	As the Galápagos Islands lie roughly 1,000 km off the coast of Costa Rica, the only other confirmed location for this grouper, it is highly likely there are at least two subpopulations, with minimal gene flow between them. This means that the subpopulation in the Galápagos is unlikely to receive substantial larvae from elsewhere that could replenish Galapágos stocks, should the population there be greatly reduced.
44680		threats	eng	Overfishing is the main threat.
44681		conservation	eng	In July 1985, Florida enacted an 18-inch (total length) minimum size for groupers. The Florida Marine Fisheries Commission set a State recreational bag limit of five groupers per person per day, with an off-the-water possession limit of ten per person, for any combination of groupers (NMFS and GMFMC 2003). Red Grouper landings by commercial fishermen increased slightly in that year. Length frequencies of Red Grouper sampled from the commercial harvest provide little evidence that the minimum size had any significant conservation effect on the commercial harvest. Commercial landings have shown a gradual decline since a current day peak in 1992 (Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999). For recreational harvest, available data suggest an initial decline from Florida State territorial seas after the 18-inch minimum size went into effect; however, the total recreational harvest was little affected by this regulation (Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>In 1990, the Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council (GFMFC) established conservation measures for groupers, including a 20-inch minimum size and a 9.2  million pound (total weight) commercial quota for the shallow water groupers (which included Red Grouper) occurring in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico under GFMFC jurisdiction. The regulations accounted for, at least in part, a 70% decline in the recreational harvest by number and a 41% decline by weight from the average of the two preceding years. Commercial harvest declined by 21%t in 1990 from the two prior years. However, the decline could have been less than 15% if the fishery had not been closed before the quota had been reached (Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999). The quota was raised to 9.8 million pounds in 1992, after a Red Grouper stock assessment indicated that the Red Grouper Spawning Potential Ratio was substantially above the Council’s minimum target of 20%, and the Council concluded that the increased quota would not materially impinge on the long-term viability of the Red Grouper stock. <br/> <br/>A regulatory amendment implemented in 2000 prohibited commercial sale of Red Grouper each year from February 15 to March 15, but has shown little if any reduction in fishing mortality of groupers: on the contrary, increased fishing effort has occurred in the weeks before and after the closed season (NMFS and GMFMC 2003). <br/> <br/>Recently a ten year Red Grouper rebuilding plan to BMSY with a spawner-recruit steepness parameter of 0.7 has been proposed; the annual Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC) during the first three year interval (2003–2005) is 6.56 million pounds gutted weight, approximately a 9.5% reduction from the average commercial and recreational harvest during 1999–2001. The ABC for subsequent year intervals will be set following a future stock assessment by a regulatory amendment or plan amendment. The recreational bag limit has been proposed to change to two Red Grouper out of the five aggregate grouper bag limit per person, with a double bag limit allowed for persons on qualified ‘for-hire’ boats that are over 24 hours. This proposed change is expected to achieve a reduction in recreational harvest of 9%. Other proposed scenarios include a shallow-water grouper possession (trip) limit at 5,200 pounds gutted weight, reducing commercial shallow-water grouper quota to 8.8 million pounds gutted weight, and repealing the closed season from February 15 to March 15 (NMFS and GMFMC 2003). <br/> <br/>Red Grouper catch is managed in Yucatan, Mexico, where there is a minimum catch size of 30 cm TL; a quota of 1,200 mt per year for Cuban fleets since 1995 (Burgos and Defeo 2004); and a closed season from February 15 to March 15 during 2003 and from January 15 to February 15 during 2004 (DOF 2003, 2004). However, it is difficult to manage the fishery in Mexico because of different fleets there (Cuban and Mexican) (Arreguin-Sanchez<em>et al</em>. 1996, Moreno <em>et al</em>. 1996).
44681		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic: North Carolina, USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Bermuda; strays north to Massachusetts (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). (Follow the link below to see a distribution map).
44681		habitat	eng	Juveniles of 3 to 20 cm standard length are occasionally found on shallow seagrass beds and inshore reefs. Larger juveniles (20 to 40 cm standard length) are commonly found in crevices and under ledges on rocky reef bottoms in depth of 5 to 25 m. At 40 to 50 cm standard length and to 4 to 6 years of age, females become mature and begin to migrate to deeper water (50 to 300 m) where they also occur over sandy or mud bottom (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Maximum reported total length was 125 cm. Maximum age 25 years. The first observation of 100% mature female was made at fish age four and total length of 450–499 mm (five fish). The next observation of 100% maturity was made of fish age five and total length of 400–449 mm (two fish). The majority of Red Grouper observed in the fishery range from approximately age five to eight years. Size and age of sexual transition are 301–676 mm SL and 3–13 years respectively. The generation time of this species is estimated to be between 8 and 11 years. The species is a protogynous hermaphrodite and, although not demonstrated to be an aggregation spawner, may be caught in greater numbers during the reproductive season (Moe 1969, Arreguin-Sanchez and Pitcher 1999, Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999).
44681		population	eng	The Red Grouper is a continental species only rarely caught in the West Indies. Major fisheries for this species are in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Moe 1969), Campeche Bank (Solis 1970), Isla Margarita (Cervigon 1966) and off Brazil (Stevenson 1981). It is the most abundant grouper (along with the Gag, <em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em>) in West Florida commercial catches (Bullock and Smith 1991); frequently caught in the Florida Middle Grounds, eastern Gulf of Mexico (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1975). Found, but not common, in Aruba. Not reported from Bonaire, Curacao, St. Martin, St. Eustatius, and Saba (Nagelkerken 1981). Rare in the U.S. Virgin Islands (Randall 1961) and Puerto Rico (G. Garcia-Moliner, pers. comm.).
44681		threats	eng	Overfishing is the main threat. All estimates, based on population dynamics models with implicit or explicit stock-recruitment relationships imposed, indicate that stocks are overfished in many areas.
44682		conservation	eng	A tag-and-release project was initiated in 1996 to study spawning aggregation size and site fidelity (Matos and Posada 1998). <br/> <br/>A series of conservation strategies for spawning aggregations in the Caribbean region is proposed. They include incorporation of known spawning aggregation sites into planning programs for Marine Protected Areas, development and implementation of monitoring and management programmes (Luckhurst 2003).
44682		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic: south Florida, Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Venezuela, and probably throughout the Caribbean to Brazil (FishBase 2003). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown.
44682		habitat	eng	It occurs in coral reefs and rocky areas and is an ambush predator (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).  Spawning aggregations of several hundreds of fish take place approximately one week following each full moon during the months of January to April at the east of Vieques Island, Puerto Rico (Sadovy <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Tiger Grouper becomes sexually mature female between 25?35 cm total length (Sadovy <em>et al</em>. 1994).
44682		population	eng	The population is not likely to be fragmented and population size cannot be deduced from data available. Minimum population doubling time is 4.5?14 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).
44682		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat destruction are the two most possible threats.
44683		conservation	eng	<strong>The Caribbean region</strong> <br/>A series of conservation strategies is proposed to protect the spawning aggregations in the Caribbean region, this includes incorporating known spawning aggregation sites into planning programmes, developing and implementing monitoring programmes, imposing gear restrictions (Luckhurst 2003). The Gramanic Bank area south of St. Thomas has been proposed as a seasonal area closure to protect Yellowfin Grouper. <br/> <br/>No known restrictions on trade in this species are imposed in any Caribbean countries. <br/> <br/><strong>Mexico</strong> <br/>Regulations for all groupers caught on the Campeche Bank (including <em>M. venenosa</em>) include license and a minimum legal total length of 30 cm, a closed season from January 15 to February 15 and an annual catch quota of 1,200 mt for the Cuban fleet. (SEMARNAP 2000).
44683		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mycteroperca venenosa</span> has a rather continuous distribution along the east coast of Central America within the Caribbean and along the east coast of South America, south to Sao Paulo (Brazil), with only an interruption near the exit of the Amazon River. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown.
44683		habitat	eng	Juveniles occur in shallow turtle grass beds; adults are usually found on rocky and coral reefs in depths of 2 to 137 m (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>Spawning takes place at Bermuda in July, in the Florida Keys during March (at least formerly but not confirmed recently), and on the Florida Middle Ground in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from March to August (Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). In Cuba, Yellowfin Grouper spawns during winter and spring with peaks spawning in January and during April-May (García-Cagide and García 1996). Spawning takes place south of St. Thomas (Grammanic Bank) February through April with peaks during the full month in March.
44683		population	eng	Populations in the Caribbean area are suggested to be large historically (Heemstra and Randall 1993), although current population size may be considerably reduced as inferred from the landings of it in the U.S. and territories and the status of its spawning aggregations. Population doubling time: 4.5–14 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).
44683		threats	eng	Most likely threats are overfishing and habitat destruction. Extremely vulnerable during spawning aggregations.
44684		conservation	eng	Conservation action is mainly taken in the Great Barrier Reef. The minimum legal size limit of 38 cm TL is implemented (QFMA 1999) to prevent recruitment overfishing. Three nine-day closures during October–December (timed to coincide with Coral Trout spawning) are in place for the protection of fish spawning aggregations in the Great Barrier Reef (Turnbull and Samoilys 1997, Russell 2003, fishery authority website given in citations). <br/> <br/>Around 20% of the reefs of the GBR are closed to fishing, and this is set to increase (GBRMPA web site). <br/> <br/>Although there are many marine parks in Japan, no protected areas exist to protect groupers (A. Nakazono, pers. comm., 2003).
44684		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plectropomus leopardus</span> is found mainly in the western Pacific from southern Japan to Australia (Queensland and Western Australia), and eastward to the Caroline Islands and Fiji. <br/><br/>The species aggregates for spawning to form a group of around 60 to 130 in Australia (Samoilys 1997), 20 to 30 in eastern Malaysia (T. Daw pers. comm. 2003). Five spawning sites are known from Sabah, Malayasia (SCRFA 2003). Of these, four were still present in 2001/2002 while the fifth had disappeared reportedly due to destruction of the reef from cyanide fishing.<br/><br/>In Fiji, small groupings of the species are found regularly in certain seasons and the groupings tend to be somewhat dispersed particularly along the outer reef edge and well developed inner reefs. Fishers report that they tend to catch more of this fish when it has eggs (SCRFA 2003).
44684		habitat	eng	Larvae are pelagic (Kailola <em>et al</em>. 1993); juveniles live in demersal shallow water in reef habitats, especially around coral rubble (Doherty <em>et al</em>. 1994), whereas adults inhabit coral reefs (Kailola <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/> <br/>Reproductive Biology <br/>Estimates for average size at first reproduction of the fish ranges from 20–25 cm FL (Samoilys 2000) to 32–36 cm FL depending on differing histological criteria (Ferreira 1995). Aggregations occur around new moon (Samoilys 1997) or the full moon (J. Pet, pers. comm.: Komodo National Park, Indonesia) depending on location. In the Cairns area of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, aggregations are found from September to November (Samoilys 1997). An increase in fish density of up to 19 fold (maximum density: 75 fish/1,000 m²).can occur above the level recorded outside the aggregation period (average non-aggregation density: 6.5 fish/1,000 m²). <br/> <br/>Aggregations occur around new moon from September to November (Samoilys 1997). An increase in fish density of up to 19 fold (maximum density: 75 fish/1,000  m²) can occur above the level recorded outside the aggregation period (average non-aggregation density: 6.5 fish/1,000 m². It is suggested that <em>P. leopardus</em> depends on aggregations sites on their home reef for reproductive activities (Zelle 1998).
44684		population	eng	Population estimates by mark-capture data ranges from 1,890 to 2,134 fish for the reef area around Lizard Island (750,966 m²), equivalent to 2.6 fish 1,000 m², whereas it is about 3,988 (5.3 fish 1,000 m²) when estimated by Underwater Visual Census (Zeller and Russ 2000, Samoilys and Carlos 2001). On the Great Barrier Reef, <em>P. leopardus</em> is considered naturally common with densities ranging from 3.5 to 9.0 fish 1,000 m² (Ayling <em>et al</em>. 2000). In contrast the species is relatively uncommon in Solomon Islands, Fiji and Papua Guinea (maximum densities of two fish 1,000 m², but generally less than one fish 1,000 m² (Samoilys <em>et al</em>. 1995).
44684		threats	eng	Overfishing is probably the main threat to the species. <br/> <br/>One major spawning aggregation of <em>P. leopardus</em> disappeared on the Great Barrier Reef probably due to targeted fishing (Samoilys <em>et al</em>. 2001). Catch rates have declined in several areas in the last decade, most notably after introduction of the live reef food fish trade. <br/> <br/>In some areas in the Philippines, the species forms a single species fishery for the live reef fish export market. Catch and export figures reveal a fishery that was once large but has declined rapidly (43% over four years), average fish size has declined, catch rates appear low, and mortality estimates are high (Padilla <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition,  fisher surveys found that more fish were taken when they had eggs, and fish were noted by divers to be in clusters (SCRFA 2003); the fishery also targets immature fish when most mature size fish have gone and often grows out the immature fish to a larger, market, size in floating net pens – referred to as ‘mariculture’. <br/> <br/>Aggregation sites are sometimes particularly targeted by fishers and enable elevated catch rates when fish are aggregated during reproduction.
44685		conservation	eng	There are not known to be any fishing restrictions, nor no-take marine reserves within the range of this species. However, at some places in the Japan Sea, the spawning adult fish are protected by local divers to attract tourist divers (A. Nakazono, pers. comm., 2003).
44685		distribution	eng	Recorded from the main islands of Japan, the Korean Penninsula and South China Sea including China (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984) but not Taiwan (<a href="http://fishdb.sinica.edu.tw/">The Fish Database of Taiwan</a>). Extent of distribution along the coast of mainland China is not clear but it is known from islands close to Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>In Japan <em>S. reticulatus</em> inhabits cooler waters and is found in the Japan Sea and Seto Inland Sea (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975). Reported occurrence in the Ogasawara Islands is in doubt (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997). Given that this is a cold water species and is rare in subtropical Hong Kong, the latter probably represents the southern limit for the species along the coast of mainland China.
44685		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky reefs and feeds on shellfish and crustaceans (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975). Spawning in large aquaria has been observed; the strongest male drove away all other males and then rose rapidly to the surface with a single female where spawning occurred (Nishiguchi and Okuno 1965).
44685		population	eng	Almost nothing is known about the abundance of the Asian sheepshead wrasse. It is "commonly found" in the Japan Sea and Seto Inland Sea (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975) and is rare in the vicinity of Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
44685		threats	eng	Overfishing is likely to be the major threat to this species. The extent of this threat is not known, primarily as this species only appears to be targeted as part of a mixed reef fishery and, therefore, little research has been done on this species individually.
44686		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> occurs in some protected areas in the Galápagos.<br/><br/>The geographical dispersal of <em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is very limited and its biological information is virtually unknown. More information on its present abundance, biology, age-and-growth and management practices is recommended before it disappears due to unsustainable exploitation.
44686		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is an eastern Pacific species found only in the Galápagos Islands, Isla del Cocos (Costa Rica), and off the coast of Costa Rica (Heemstra and Randall 1993), as well as the Gulf of Tehuantepec (Mexico) (M. Craig pers. comm.) and a single record (148 mm SL and 78 g) from a market in Ecuador (Bearez and Jimenez Prado 2003).
44686		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is found on rocky reefs usually in deeper waters (40 to 120 m). <em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> reaches about 100 cm TL in Galápagos (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
44686		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is common but declining in the Galapagos and rare elsewhere in its range. It is more common in the northern Galapagos.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/><em>Galápagos</em><br/>Annual landings of <em>E. cifuentesi</em> decreased from the peak at 14.0 tonnes in 1998 to an average of 2.7 tonnes annually from 2000 to 2003 (Nicolaides <em>et al</em>. 2002, Murillo <em>et al</em>. 2002) (see Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><strong>Table 1</strong>: The volume (in tonnes of live weight) of <em>E. cifuentesi</em> in the Marine Reserve in Galápagos between 1997 and 2001.<br/><strong>Table 2</strong>: The number, amount (in kg) and percentage of <em>E. cifuentesi</em> landed in the three main ports in Galápagos in 2003.
44686		threats	eng	The primary threat to <em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is overfishing, particularly in the Galápagos Islands where it was the second most commonly-landed species. At present the fisheries have shifted effort to sea cucumbers, however, it may possibly shift back to this species in the future.
44687		conservation	eng	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. Further investigation is needed into the systematic status of the savanna form.
44687		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of western Africa from Senegal east to Cameroon, with a number of additional records further east and south, from Gabon, Congo, western Angola, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo/Uganda border area, northwestern and eastern Tanzania, and southeastern Kenya. There are also records from Namibia and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo that need to be verified. It has been found on Bioko Island, but not so far in mainland Equatorial Guinea.
44687		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a range of habitats; it is generally found in lowland tropical forest (including secondary and riverine forest), but has been recorded from savanna in parts of its range (e.g.. Kenya). Colonies typically roost in caves, but in some instances may be found roosting in dense vegetation (Happold 1987).
44687		population	eng	Numbers of animals in roosts ranges from the hundreds, to up to tens of thousands in the savanna form of coastal Kenya.
44687		threats	eng	This widespread species is locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss (significant deforestation), cave disturbance, and subsistence hunting for food.
44689		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas.
44689		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea.
44689		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical moist forest species (both primary and secondary), and can be observed in modified habitats such as plantations. It roosts in caves, lava tubes, water extraction tubes and similar structures.
44689		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species and can be found roosting in groups of 100 or fewer individuals.
44689		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
44692		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species East African range, it seems likely that it is present within some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and potential threats to this species.
44692		distribution	eng	This little known East African species is present in Kenya, southwestern Ethiopia, southeastern Sudan and is possibly present in adjacent Uganda, although this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.
44692		habitat	eng	This species seems to be found in dry savanna, where it is associated with dry stony areas close to water holes. Animals have a specialised flat head for getting into crevices. It is generally found roosting singly or in small colonies.
44692		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
44692		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this species.
44693		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas in Namibia and Angola. In South Africa it has been reported from the protected Algeria forestry station. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
44693		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Africa, ranging along the west coast from the Angola and Namibia border area, south into southern South Africa, and from here into northeastern South Africa, Zimbabwe, and western Mozambique. It is found between 100 m and 2,000 m asl.
44693		habitat	eng	All specimens from the southern Africa subregion were taken in rock areas and, apart from a plentiful food supply, the availability of narrow rock fissures and crevices to roost in during the day appears to be among their essential habitat requirements (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). Absent from north-west Zimbabwe where habitat is thought to be suitable. Roosts in crevices, exfoliated rock, sandstones and granite.
44693		population	eng	This is a locally common species. It is generally found in small numbers, with colonies thought to be tens of animals rather than hundreds.
44693		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its range it is believed to be threatened by considerable habitat change resulting from deforestation.
44694		conservation	eng	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and Schedule I, Part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is known to occur in numerous protected areas, including: Aaralam Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Sanctuary, Chimmony Sanctuary, Chinnar Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Idukki Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kalakkad Sanctuary, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Mukurthi National Park, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Peechi Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Periyar Sanctuary, Shendurney Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park, Thattekadu Sanctuary, Wayanad Sanctuary (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The following are recommended areas of research: taxonomy, life history, survey studies, and ecology. The following are recommended management actions: habitat management, monitoring, public education, poaching control measures, Population and Habitat Viability Assessment, and prevention of conversion of forest areas to private lands, prevention of conversion of natural private forests, coffee and cardamom plantations into tea plantations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; M. Singh pers. comm.)
44694		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Western Ghats in southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu). It is found, rather unevenly, in the hill country of the Western Ghats from the Aramboli Pass (at 8°16’N near the southern tip of India) north to Srimangala (12°01’N, 75°58’E) (Groves 2001).
44694		habitat	eng	This species is found in evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous forests, montane evergreen forests and in riparian forests in lower altitudes in some places (e.g. Megamalai and Anamalai) (Kurup 1979; Singh <em>et al.</em> 1997). It ranges from 300 to 2,000 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>It is folivorous, but will also eat flowers, buds, seeds, bark, stems, insects, and earth (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977; Poirier 1969; Oates <em>et al</em>. 1979); it has been reported to be a facultative frugivore (Sushma and Singh 2006). It has also been reported to forage for cultivated cabbage, potatoes, and cauliflower and ornamental garden poppies (Poirier 1969). It is arboreal, diurnal, and typically occurs in uni-male groups (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003), usually with nine or ten animals in a group.
44694		population	eng	Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimate a total population of less than 20,000 (<10,000 mature) individuals, based on studies in a few areas (Karnataka, M. Singh pers. comm.; Kerala, S. Ram ongoing study; Tamil Nadu, M. Singh and A. Kumar pers. comm.) and extrapolated to the rest of its distribution. After the introduction of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act in 1972, the population has increased (Kurup 1979), and this trend was seen until the early 1990s. The population since then has been relatively stable (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.).
44694		threats	eng	This species is hunted for its skin, which is used for making drums, as well as for other parts of the body, which are used for meat as well as in traditional “medicine” (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). Hunting has decreased in recent years due to better protection and NGO activities through community participation (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.).<br/>According to Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003), past and present threats include habitat loss due to crop plantations, mining, dams, fragmentation, human settlement, hunting, road kills, deliberate fires, storms/flooding, landslides, and local trade for pets. Although fragmentation and habitat loss are threats, this species is not affected as much as lion-tailed macaques (M. Singh pers. comm.). They are better dispersers and have better colonization ability (A. Kumar pers. comm.).
44695		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
44695		distribution	eng	This little known African bat has been recorded from southern Somalia, south Ethiopia and from northern Cameroon, close the border with Nigeria. It is a low elevation species.
44695		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in riverine and riparian woodland in the Duba valley of Somalia and Benue in Cameroon. The roosting sites of this species is not known.
44695		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known, and only a few specimens have ever been collected. It was last recorded in the 1980s, presumably this is a consequence of limited survey effort within the species known range.
44695		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44696		conservation	eng	The collection locality appears to be within Zinave National Park, Mozambique. Further studies are needed to better determine the geographic range, natural history and possible threats to this poorly known bat.
44696		distribution	eng	This little known bat is known only from the type locality of "the south bank of the Save River, 212 km SSW Beira, Mozambique" (Dalquest, 1965).
44696		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a roost site in a large baobab tree, presumably in dry savanna woodland.
44696		population	eng	It is known only from the type series of two animals.
44696		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44697		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed fro this widespread and adaptable species as a whole.
44697		distribution	eng	This widespread southern African species is distributed from southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and southern Tanzania, to the eastern coastline of South Africa. It ranges from eastern Angola and northern Botswana to the southeastern African coastline. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 2,185 m asl, although it has mostly been collected between 500 and 1,500 m asl.
44697		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with dry savanna and riverine forest with fruit-bearing trees. Populations exhibit considerable movements in search of food, and may come into towns and feed on crops and fruit trees. Colonies often roost under the canopy of trees, in thick foliage.
44697		population	eng	It is a quite common species, sometimes forming loose colonies of hundreds of bats.
44697		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations may be impacted by general persecution as crop pests.
44698		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect the habitat of subspecies such as <em>Lissonycteris angolensis goliath</em> and <em>L. a. petraea</em>.
44698		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed at elevations ranging from sea level to 4,000 m asl, in West Africa, Central Africa and East Africa, with some distinct populations present within southern Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, through most of West Africa to Cameroon; from here it ranges southwards into Congo, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, and eastwards into Central African Republic, southern Sudan, eastern and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda and Burundi. In East Africa it is distributed from Ethiopia in the north through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. In southern Africa the species is present in northern Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The nominate subspecies <em>Lissonycteris angolensis angolensis</em> has been recorded from northwestern Angola, central and southern Cameroon, Central African Republic, central Congo, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko, Mbini), Gabon, eastern Nigeria, and northwestern and southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo; the subspecies <em>L. a. goliath</em> is known from four localities in south-east Africa (the border area of Mozambique and  Zambia) between sea level and 1,800 m asl; <em>L. a. petraea</em> is found only in Ethiopia, where it has been recorded from six localities between 1,190 and 2,600 m asl; <em>L. a. ruwenzorii</em> has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, southern Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, northeastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia and Zimbabwe; <em>L. a. smithi</em> is distributed in the lowlands of western Africa, where its distribution follows the savanna and forest zone, it is found up to 1,400 m asl on Mount Nimba.
44698		habitat	eng	Populations of this species have been recorded from a diverse range of habitats, including montane tropical forest, lowland tropical moist forest, Zambezian miombo woodland, Sudanian woodland, moist savanna and mosaics of these habitats with grassland. Groups of this species, generally consisting of six to eight animals, can be most often found roosting at cave entrances and amongst dense vegetation (including under palm leaves). Members of the subspecies <em>Lissonycteris angolensis goliath</em> have been recorded from mid-altitude and afromontane forest, and is probably associated with caves as roost sites; <em>L. a. petraea</em> is present in evergreen and semi-evergreen bush land, and afromontane vegetation, it too may be associated with caves; <em>L. a. ruwenzorii</em> has been recorded from forest clearings and orchards; <em>L. a. smithi</em> is found in savanna and lowland forest, and is considered fairly adaptable to habitat modification.
44698		population	eng	This species can be common in some localities. Some subspecies, such as <em>Lissonycteris angolensis petraea</em>, are known from few specimens.
44698		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some subspecies, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lissonycteris angolensis  goliath</span> may be threatened by loss of habitat resulting from logging operations, and disturbance of cave roosting sites. It is possible that some populations of this species are threatened by over harvesting for subsistence food.
44703		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES – Appendix I<em></em>.<br/><br/>The survival of the Large-antlered Muntjac depends on the viability of populations within protected areas, many of which (particularly in Lao PDR) are currently potentially highly suitable for their species due to their typically large size (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; see also Timmins and Duckworth 1999; Timmins and Duckworth in press). Although Large-antlered Muntjac populations within protected areas face unrestrained hunting, populations outside protected areas are likely to be faring even less well. The limited success to date for protected areas is a reflection of the time it takes to form an effectively functioning system (see threats), rather than a demonstration that the species would better be conserved outside them. Actions of primary importance include the stemming of further habitat loss at lower altitudes, and most importantly controls on hunting (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The single most important conservation measure for the Large-antlered Muntjac is to maintain conservation support for management of the Nakai–Nam Theun NPA, and to help strengthen protection activities there, especially through building technical capacity. Other important protected areas in which to develop management are potentially Nam Kading NPA, as it is already the site of an externally funded protected area management project. A protected area management project is in its infancy in Nakai-Nam Theun NPA, and although well funded for the long-term, the project faces significant challenges, primarily due to low technical capacity and government policy which favours tangible aspects of rural development (road building, plantation agriculture, etc.) over what is perceived as ‘wildlife conservation’ but which should better be seen as securing the protein base and ecologically functioning forests in the interests of the nation and, notably, of subsistence-level rural communities (see below). Few other protected areas within the Lao or Viet Namese range of the species currently have more than paper management. Conservation management needs much wider recognition of the value of lower-altitude forests in protected areas throughout the species’s range, even though (and in fact because) these are generally degraded and from a forestry perspective seem of low importance (see Threats).<br/><br/>Conservation area management in all protected areas within the species’s range must address the issues of how customary hunting by local people can be continued without serious long-term declines in wildlife. The latter is a precondition for the former: customary hunting will have to stop when wildlife stocks become ecologically extinct. The magnitude of difficulty of this balancing act is often underestimated, through an uncritical acceptance of the fact (in any case, disputable, when status of rhinoceroses in South-east Asia and a multitude of species in south-central China is considered) that before ‘international’ conservation principles and practice these species did not become extinct under the custodianship of customary hunting. This is a flawed comparison because in the intervening period human populations have exploded; much wildlife habitat has been lost to other land uses; modern weapons allow far more effective harvest of wildlife than did any customary techniques; and modern connectivity and urban affluence have generated a limitless market for wild meat. In sum, many more people depend on a far smaller area than before, and a new, infinite market can be met using hunting methods which previously did not exist. This means that there is <em>no</em> possibility that unfettered ‘customary’ hunting can conserve ungulates in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, even if ‘customary hunting’ could be defined in a modern context. Greater recognition is also urgent that the two groups that will chiefly bear the damage of current heavy hunting are, self-evidently, the wildlife and, perhaps paradoxically, the local communities: after the current short-term bonanza is over, local people who have not bought their way out of subsistence (and current trends suggest this will be a large proportion of them: most of the financial benefits of wildlife trade flow to already-urbanised traders and other adventives) will lose this income source and most of their non-fish protein. Instead of the currently sterile polarisation within conservation implementing agencies of ‘local people vs wildlife’, which would better be termed ‘short-term human interest vs long-term human interest’, universal recognition that wild mammals are fundamental to rural poverty alleviation is needed (Krahn and Johnson 2007). Inviolate non-hunting core areas may be the most important tool in meeting this challenge. Even though they can legally be established in protected areas in both countries, there has been minimal progress in this regard. Designation and outlining of core areas needs to flow from biologically sound analyses of population needs of species such as the Large-antlered Muntjac, to prevent core areas too small to sustain off-take in surrounding hunting zones or even survival within the core zones themselves. It is important that core areas are not selected starting from the assumption that they will be the areas traditionally not part of local community hunting areas: in many protected areas, these will be remote high-altitude terrain, and thus largely unsuitable for Large-antlered Muntjac. There is the danger that this occurs through the well-meaning intention, to minimise disruption to already marginalized communities. Instead, a longer-term viewpoint is necessary, that if core areas do not succeed in protecting populations of favoured quarry mammals, serious dietary and resource-flow disruption to these same communities is inevitable. It is already happening in some parts of Lao PDR (Krahn and Johnson 2007) and, presumably, Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Surveys for the Large-antlered Muntjac (a combination of searches for evidence in local villages followed by camera-trapping) in Viet Namese portions of the Southern Annamites, especially Lam Dong Province, are needed, and on the basis of results, site-based conservation interventions may be warranted. The same may be true for yet-to-be identified areas of the southern Central Annamites. The weak understanding of Large-antlered Muntjac’s habitat use means that any indirect means (e.g. through habitat cover) to propose key sites for conservation intervention may simply overlook not just the best, but even any plausibly sensible, areas to select.<br/><br/>The Cambodian population, if extant, may be covered partly by the one or more protected areas (Phnom Nam Lyr WS; Mondulkiri Protection Forest; Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area), other parts of it might, however, occur outside these areas. There are, however, no serious protection activities within its presumed national range. Camera-trapping surveys are warranted, and on the basis of results localised species-specific conservation interventions might be appropriate.
44703		distribution	eng	The large-antlered muntjac is only known from the Annamite mountain chain and associated hill ranges of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and, marginally, eastern Cambodia. All current records from Cambodia, like most from Lao PDR and Viet Nam, are trophy antlers held by local hunters (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Large-antlered Muntjac do not inhabit the northern highlands of Lao PDR or Viet Nam, nor the Mekong plain. Its distribution and status in Lao PDR was reviewed by Timmins <em>et al</em>. (1998), but no comparable compilation is available for Viet Nam. There have been no significant extensions of known Lao range since this collation. <br/><br/>In neither Lao PDR nor Viet Nam is there any marked discontinuity in landforms between the Annamite range and the northern highlands. Large-antlered Muntjac seems not to extend into the latter region as defined in Baltzer <em>et al</em>. (2001). Its trophies have been reported furthest to the north-east from the Pu Huong Nature Reserve, Nghe An province (Cao Tien Trung and A. Grieser Johns pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008). Searches further north in Viet Nam have not found the species (e.g. Le Trong Trai <em>et al</em>. 1999c; Le Trong Trai and Do Tuoc pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins in the 1990s). The most northerly evidence in the main Annamite spine is from Pu Mat Nature Reserve, Nghe An Province, on the Viet Namese side and from southern Bolikhamxai on the Lao side, with presence also to the west in southern Nam Kading National Protected Area (NPA) (Schaller and Vrba 1996; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; SFNC 2000; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In Lao PDR, the species might yet be found as far north as southern Xiangkhouang Province and Xaisomboun Special Administrative Zone, which remain largely unsurveyed, as does most of intervening northern Bolikhamxai Province.<br/><br/>South of southern Bolikhamxai Province and southern Nam Kading NPA in Lao PDR, the Large-antlered Muntjac occurs in the Annamites, particularly Nakai–Nam Theun NPA and the Nakai plateau, and outlying hill ranges including the foothills in and around Phou Xang He NPA, Xe Bang-Nouan NPA and Dong Phou Vieng NPA, the Lao–Viet Namese border area in the region of Hin Namno NPA, and the main body of the central Annamites in Xe Sap NPA, the Dakchung Plateau and Dong Ampham NPA (Schaller and Vrba 1996, Davidson <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Steinmetz 1998; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 1999; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>In Viet Nam, south of Pu Mat Nature Reserve, the Large-antlered Muntjac has been recorded in several Annamite sites including Vu Quang Nature Reserve, Ha Tinh Province (Dawson and Do Tuoc 1997; Eve <em>et al</em>. 2001: 45 and 122). From Vu Quang NR southwards, there are, as in Lao PDR, sporadic records of trophies, but little other information save for anecdotal reports of the species’s scarcity (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Le Trong Trai and Richardson 1999; Le Trong Trai <em>et al</em>. 1999a, 1999b, 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; Le Manh Hung <em>et al</em>. 2002; Tua Tien Hue Province Forest Protection Department; Tua Tien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces: B. Long; Kon Plong area, Kontum Province: Do Tuoc; A Loui District, Quang Nam Province and Kon Cha Rang NR area, Gia Lai province: Le Trong Trai; all pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins). In the mid 1990s the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute and the Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources obtained two and three, respectively, freshly hunted animals from the Lam Ha District, Lam Dong Province in the Southern Annamites (a region often referred to as the Langbian or Dalat Plateau), which they mounted as specimens for the respective institutions (Do Tuoc and Pham Trong Anh pers. comm. to RJT). The Da Lat Biology Institute in Lam Dong in October 1995 held 19 <em>M. vuquangensis</em>, reportedly mostly from some or all of the districts of Lac Duong, Di Linh, Bao Loc and Lam Ha (Pham Trong Anh <em>et al</em>. 1996). This area is also one of the few with reasonable historical evidence for Large-antlered Muntjac (Millet 1930; Bauer 1997). No published recent survey has determined the conservation status of the Large-antlered Muntjac in this area, and its southern limit remains poorly known.<br/><br/>In Cambodia, the Large-antlered Muntjac is known only through trophy antlers seen in villages and markets of the <em>Mondulkiri</em> plateau (Desai and Lic 1996; Timmins and Ou 2001; Walston 2001). It is probably very localised: extensive camera-trapping at low elevations on the southern slope in Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area has not detected the species (J.L. Walston and T.D. Evans pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins based on WCS unpublished data), and at higher elevations closed canopy semi-evergreen forest forms a mosaic with deciduous forests, savanna and grassland; the latter are believed to be unsuitable for the species (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Slight doubt over provenance of trophies in Mondulkiri reflects the heavy trade with Viet Nam (albeit mostly to Viet Nam from Cambodia) and lack of influence on hunters’ movements of the international border. On ecological grounds there seems little question that this muntjac should occur in Cambodia, although it may already have been hunted out.
44703		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of the Large-antlered Muntjac remain unclear. Its global distribution is similar to better-understood species such as Crested Argus <em>Rheinardia ocellata</em> and Red-shanked Douc <em>Pygathrix nemaeus</em>, suggesting that it is tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests characteristic of the Annamites, and cannot use the climatically drier hill semi-evergreen forests further north and west. But paradoxically, it is not now common in the ‘ever-wet’ eastern slopes of the Northern and Central Annamite ranges. Perhaps, as is strongly suspected with Red-shanked Douc, substantial population losses have resulted from very high hunting pressure in such regions. While such a proposition is consistent with the apparent decline at Vu Quang Nature Reserve during the 1990s as discussed in Eve <em>et al</em>. (2001: 45 and 122; see above, under Population), there is no real evidence for it, although information from villagers in Viet Nam does suggest such a pattern (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). An intrinsic sub-optimality of closed-canopy ever-wet forest cannot yet be ruled out. Both the areas for which there is reasonable evidence for relatively high abundance, the Nakai Plateau and adjacent areas of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA, and the Lam Dong Province, are both a rather heterogeneous mosaic of habitats, with extensive areas not supporting closed-canopy forest (based on historical rather than recent disturbance). Although much of Annamite Lao PDR and Viet Nam could also be described as “a rather heterogeneous mosaic of habitats”, there are not many extensive such landscapes without high densities of human population and heavy fragmentation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Habitat in Vu Quang NR is more contiguous and primarily evergreen forest, climatically wetter than the above two areas; but at lower altitudes much of the forest is somewhat opened-up (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Village interview data and camera-trapping in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam that suggest a lack of syntopy between the Large-antlered Muntjac and the Roosevelts' group, even though there is a wide sympatry (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008; B. Long pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Large-antlered Muntjac’s altitudinal range remains uncertain: hunting areas around most villages from which specimens come span a wide range. Interviews of villagers throughout Quang Nam, Hue and Quang Tri provinces, Viet Nam, all suggested that this muntjac does not live much above 900 m asl (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). The few real data available also suggest that it may live mostly below about 1,000 m asl (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.), but localised higher occurrence in undulating plateaux, for example in the Southern Annamites of Cambodia and Viet Nam, would not be surprising (Bauer 1997; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Altitudinal information needs evidence of its reliability: specifically, hunters’ statements of origins of skulls, no matter how certain-sounding, need to be taken carefully; often, hunters assertively associate skulls and lowerjaws as from one animal when tooth-wear patterns show that they must have come from different individuals (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The lack of precisely-located field records also hinders assessment of use of secondary habitats. As an ungulate dependent upon ground-level food (including fallen fruit, presumably, when available), densities would be expected to be higher in edge, broken and secondary areas than in closed-canopy tall evergreen forest.
44703		population	eng	Evidence for the Large-antlered Muntjac comes from much of the Annamite mountain range, mostly as trophy antlers in villages abutting or within forest (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Do Tuoc and Le Trong Trai pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 1990s; B. Long pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2006; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The very little field-based evidence of Large-antlered Muntjac contrasts with Northern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus vaginalis</em> being among the most frequently recorded large mammals during field surveys in Lao and Viet Nam (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In most known Lao sites holding Large-antlered Muntjac, few trophies were found compared with those of Northern Red Muntjac; the only exception is the Nakai Plateau and Nakai–Nam Theun NPA where, overall, numbers of trophies of the two species were roughly equal, and which constitute the only area of Lao PDR in which trophy evidence was found commonly over a wide area (Schaller and Vrba 1996; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998). Around the Nam Noy and Nam Phao, Large-antlered Muntjac trophies even outnumber those of Northern Red Muntjac (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008, based on survey in 2007–2008). Distribution in the Xe Sap NPA–Dakchung Plateau area, another region of the main Annamite spine visited several times appears, by contrast, to be patchy (Schaller and Vrba 1996; Showler <em>et al</em>. 1998; Steinmetz 1998; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998). During 1998–1999, camera-trapping in Bolikhamxai Province recorded the species only twice (Robichaud and Stuart 1999). Otherwise there has been substantial camera-trapping effort within the species’s suspected Lao range only in the Nakai Plateau and Nakai–Nam Theun NPA. Camera-trapping in 2007–2008 recorded many Large-antlered Muntjacs in some sectors in a ‘trap’ encounter rate similar to that of Northern Red Muntjac there (Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.). However, occupation of the NPA seems to be patchy: in one of its three sectors where camera-trapping was carried out, no Large-antlered Muntjacs were found, although Northern Red Muntjac and the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex were recorded frequently (Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The plateau and NPA’s Large-antlered Muntjac population stood out as exceptionally large both a decade ago (when it could be compared with many other sites surveyed using comparable methodology) and in a present-day context (despite a lack of similar studies in other sites). In an Indochinese context, the Nakai Plateau and Nakai-Nam Theun NPA were found in 1994–1996 to hold substantial populations of other wildlife which have declined steeply through over-harvest in Indochina. Recent (2006–2007) surveys of the plateau showed that some are now gone, such as Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, but others, such as turtles, otters, Asian Elephants <em>Elephas maximus</em>, and, of most direct relevance to inferring the status of this muntjac, Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> remain in numbers outstandingly high compared with other areas surveyed about the same time (Dersu 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). This situation defies ready explanation given the geographic location (the plateau is particularly accessible) and the presence of a major hydropower project which has boosted the local economy (and therefore fuelled extraction of tradable wildlife) for five years and stimulated heavy logging for over a decade (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; WCS 1995; Timmins and Ou 2001; Dersu 2007). <br/><br/>In general, surveys undertaken throughout Lao PDR suggest that typical quarry species of large mammal are well below carrying capacity even within large habitat blocks (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins and Duckworth in press), and the paucity of evidence for the Large-antlered Muntjac elsewhere in its Lao range indicates a conservation status similar to that of wild oxen or large hornbills, rather than to that of other ungulates of comparable size such as other muntjac species or pigs. Camera-trapping in the Nakai-Nam Theun NPA during 2006–2008 indicates substantial declines of ground-dwelling large mammal populations especially Sambar, cats and Large Indian Civet <em>Viverra zibetha</em>, by comparison with direct observation and sign surveys in 1994–1996; intensive snaring is now commonplace within the NPA and the area has particularly suffered from incursion from over the Viet Namese border (Duckworth 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; RJT pers. comm. 2008 based on WMPA unpublished data; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Although muntjacs of all species are still apparently numerous in this NPA, significant declines are likely to be in progress, as on the Nakai plateau (the semi-quantitative methods used have low power to detect changes even of quite large proportion, if the species is still ‘common’). Elsewhere in Lao PDR over the same period, anecdotal information and a small number of re-surveys suggest that declines in mammals of muntjac size and over (in magnitude obvious even by subjective survey means) are widespread (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, but based largely on areas outside the Large-antlered Muntjac’s range).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam the situation seems to be similar, with no evidence for anything other than very small numbers surviving, although one area which seems to have held large numbers at least into the 1990s has not been re-surveyed. In and around Pu Mat Nature Reserve, despite a number of trophies in local villages in the 1990s, fairly intensive camera-trapping in the late 1990s resulted in perhaps only one image of Large-antlered Muntjac compared with dozens portraying Northern Red Muntjac and several showing animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> group (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; SFNC 2000; RJT pers. obs. based on SFNC unpublished data). However, the spatial overlap between the areas providing the village trophies and where camera-trapping took place is not known. Slightly further south in Vu Quang Nature Reserve, Dawson and Do Tuoc (1997) considered Large-antlered Muntjac as common as Northern Red Muntjac, an assessment echoing that from the adjacent Lao area of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA and Nakai plateau (see above). However, Eve <em>et al</em>. (2001: 45 and 122) concluded a major decline at Vu Quang NR during the 1990s: Dawson (1994) recorded that 13 Large-antlered Muntjacs were caught in snares in the 1993/1994 season alone, and observed one of the species in the southern part of the reserve at this time, but in several years’ presence, including various biological surveys, in the late 1990s, no new evidence of the species was recorded. However, it is unclear to what extent hunted animals were being monitored, and the initiation and consolidation of an international conservation project at this site should have made it more difficult to learn about what animals were being hunted, thereby presumably exaggerating the apparent decline. <br/><br/>From Vu Quang NR southwards, there are, as in Lao PDR, sporadic records of trophies, but little information other than, in many instances, anecdotal reports of the species’s scarcity (see Distribution). Extensive camera-trapping in Thua Tien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces captured only a single possible Large-antlered Muntjac against numerous pictures of Northern Red Muntjac and several animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex. This evident current rarity seems to reflect a steep recent decline rather than naturally low densities based on interviews of villagers throughout Quang Nam, Hue and Quang Tri provinces (B. Long pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In the mid 1990s, two Hanoi institutes obtained five freshly hunted animals from the Lam Ha District, Lam Dong Province in the Southern Annamites (see Distribution) where the species was said to be relatively common (Do Tuoc and Pham Trong Anh pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins). The Da Lat biology institute in Lam Dong Province began amassing specimens in 1990 and by October 1995 held only 271 mammal specimens. Remarkably, 19 (in translation: six stuffed mounts; four skinned heads (skulls?) and 9 skins (trophies?)) of these were of <em>M. vuquangensis</em>, against only 12 <em>M. vaginalis</em>. These were the two most numerous mammal species in the collection (Pham Trong Anh <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is not known if the institute deliberately sought Large-antlered Muntjac, or whether the numbers reflect the relative frequency with which animals were being hunted. There has been no published field survey of this area, so present conservation status of Large-antlered Muntjac there is unknown. Southern Viet Nam in recent decades often has proved to harbour less depleted large mammal populations than further north (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997, Polet and Ling 2004), but hunting still is ubiquitous and is probably increasing (see Threats). In Viet Nam, especially the north, large mammal densities are even more depressed than in Lao PDR (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; Timmins 2002; Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).
44703		threats	eng	As of 2008, suitable habitat for the Large-antlered Muntjac is still extensive (under the reasonable assumption that it uses secondary forest), but, especially within Viet Nam, it seems absent from many accessible, but superficially, at least, suitable habitat blocks. This strongly indicates that overhunting is its primary threat. Heavy deployment of camera-traps in several interior forests of Viet Nam produced few photographs, showing that Large-antlered Muntjac can be rare even in the most remote areas. A decline in them would suggest great susceptibility to hunting, but it is possible that it was never common in the types of interior closed-canopy forest surveyed and is restricted to specific types (not yet camera-trapped) or may even be strongly associated with edges. If the latter, then a high proportion of the population would be facing very heavy hunting pressure, because of proximity to settlement of much of the suitable habitat. Whatever the explanation for the rarity of records in most camera-trapping areas, it suggests a much stronger level of threat than has hitherto been appreciated (e.g. by Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; the listing as only Provisionally At Risk in Lao PDR in the latter is now clearly inappropriately optimistic). While the socio-economic factors outlined in this section bear on the conservation status of all ungulates and primates, of most carnivores, and of many other mammals in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, Large-antlered Muntjac is probably one of two species (the other being Saola <em>Pseudoryx nghetinhensis</em>) which is most at global risk through them. This is because it is big enough to be a main wildlife meat source; it does not have populations secured in other countries such as India, Nepal and Thailand, with installed effective management in at least some protected areas; it does not have populations in the rugged mountain forest blocks where trade-driven hunting of species valued only for their meat (rather than high-value, low-weight, generally medicinal products that can be carried out efficiently from even the remotest areas) is limited by economics of accessibility; and it does not occur on the plains where (for a mix of essentially non-biological reasons) protected area management is being most successful in conserving ungulates (e.g. Cambodia, and Cat Tien National Park, Viet Nam).<br/><br/>Large-antlered Muntjacs are hunted within a thriving hunting and wildlife trading culture in all range states and in adjacent countries such as China and Thailand, involving many land vertebrate species, along with other forest products such as orchids and Aquilaria resin (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001). Hunters do not target Large-antlered Muntjacs, but are seeking any and all species with marketable meat and products for the medicinal markets. Such hunting reaches all this muntjac’s range, and with so many species and products, non-selective methods continue at high levels until the most resilient species is no longer common enough for hunting to be commercially viable. This non-specificity makes regional hunting practices a peculiarly strong driver of localised and, in aggregate, regional, extinctions (e.g. Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). The regional wild meat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are any pigs, muntjacs, and civets to be hunted; Large-antlered Muntjacs will be extinct long before these more resilient species become so rare that communities are driven to ‘fishing down’ for smaller species using methods that do not threaten Large-antlered Muntjacs. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 84 million, that of China more than 1,000 million. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000 and papers therein). There has been no comparable study of ungulate trade levels.<br/><br/>Hunting in Large-antlered Muntjacs's range is therefore very high: in the Northern and Central Annamites of Viet Nam, in a range shared with Saola, an estimated eight million people, almost all with the propensity to eat wildlife and mostly with direct links to the urban wildlife trade, live within 100 km of forest inhabited by Saola, and probably nowhere in the range of Large-antlered Muntjac is further than 30 km from a village (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Within the Northern and Central Annamites, every square kilometre of Viet Namese forest and of Lao forest that is within 5 km of the Viet Namese border probably has snares capable of capturing Large-antlered Muntjac set in it every year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per km² per year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR at least away from the Viet Namese border, but is increasing dramatically. Hunting intensity has in recent decades been generally lower in southern Viet Nam than in Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, leaving many wildlife populations less depleted (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Polet and Ling 2004), but the general increase in regional hunting intensity and economic wealth indicate that hunting intensity in this region must also be increasing.<br/><br/>Closed tropical evergreen forests have inherently low ungulate biomass (Robinson and Bennett 2000), and beyond this populations of all wild animals larger than 20 kg in most of Large-antlered Muntjac’s range have been significantly reduced by human exploitation (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008); the paucity of records across its range shows that this includes Large-antlered Muntjac itself. Field survey encounter rates even with Northern Red Muntjacs and pigs in much of Large-antlered Muntjac's range are remarkably low compared with other areas in Asia (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), wild cattle, elephants, and Tigers are all nearing extinction in this muntjac’s range (e.g. Duckworth and Hedges 1998), and in some of the worst-hit protected areas even the generally robust Northern Red Muntjac and wild pig are ecologically extinct (e.g. the western lowlands of Xe Bang-Nouan NPA, Lao PDR; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, based on 2007 field visit). In the Nakai Plateau and Nakai-Nam Theun NPA, in some sectors the Large-antlered Muntjac and Northern Red Muntjac are similar in abundance. Comparison with other areas, where the former is much scarcer than the latter, implies that the Large-antlered is much more sensitive to hunting than is the Northern Red. It may be intentionally targeted more (although there is no evidence for this, and it seems unlikely), or some facet of population biology such as fecundity (possible given its slightly larger size) may make it less resilient, or it may be associated with habitats that (for other reasons) are targeted by hunters. This latter factor is certainly true at the landscape scale: Large-antlered Muntjac primarily uses lower altitudes, yet forest blocks remote enough for hunting levels to be restrained by the economics of access and removal of meat are primarily mountainous areas of high altitude forest. If Large-antlered Muntjac is an edge species, densities in large unencroached closed forest blocks would be low anyway. The lower-altitude disturbed forests may be the most suitable habitat for this muntjac, but because they are closer to high human population densities than are montane or little-encroached blocks, they support higher levels of generalised snaring and hunting. In comparison, Northern Red Muntjac has large populations in such high altitude remote forest blocks, which may act as a repopulation reservoir for lower altitude areas. It is difficult to think of any habitat that could be a source for Large-antlered Muntjac.<br/><br/>While wild meat is the major driver of muntjac trade, parts such as antlers may be used in for medicinal purposes. There is also the curio/status symbol appeal of trophy antlers: some are even on display in Bangkok (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2000). <br/><br/>The effects of hunting in Lao PDR and Viet Nam have been exacerbated during the last two decades by habitat loss and various socio-economic factors, of which the most biologically significant seem to be:<br/><br/>Economic development and expanding wealth in the region are increasing the demand for wildlife meat and ‘medicines’ (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007) highlighted a common misconception, especially in documentation of development projects in the region, that poverty is a principal cause of biodiversity loss, but as they pointed out for Saola, the main driver of threats for Saola, Large-antlered Muntjac and many other species, at least for the mid-term, is not rural poverty but increasing urban wealth in Indochina and China. In Viet Nam “the free market economy has resulted in feverish periods of trade in wild species nationwide, with negative impacts on biodiversity” (Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2004). In Cambodia, the same factor has fostered a thriving bushmeat market and hunting of species for international wildlife trade (Timmins and Ou 2001; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2006; Timmins 2006). There is a rapid, ongoing, expansion of wealthy social strata in Lao PDR, directly accelerated by illegal trade in rosewood, wild meat, and other forest resources, and by the economics of large infrastructure projects (e.g. Nan Theun 2 hydro-electric power project), creating a significantly greater in-country demand for luxury meats such as venison (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Markets along major roads such as route 13 (e.g. at Ban Namthon) have expanded, not contracted, in the last 15 years and have a huge (albeit unquantified) turnover of wild meat; at this specific market, multiple stalls are selling dried muntjac meat daily (balance of muntjac species unknown).<br/><br/>Road development in Viet Nam, especially the recent construction through the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam of the Ho Chi Minh Highway, parallel to the Lao border, with its many feeder roads to Lao PDR and Cambodia that boost connectivity of rural areas to regional wildlife trade markets, is a severe and probably unmitigatable threat (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In the last decade there has also been a dramatic upgrading and expansion of national and regional road networks in Lao PDR, primarily it seems to make all inhabited areas of the country readily accessible (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008). New road linkages in Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia, are making the area’s natural resources more easily marketable (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Shifting cultivation of local communities is resulting in a net loss of forest and even of dense secondary habitats, and is fragmenting larger forest blocks because of the dispersion of settlements. Shifting cultivation per se could even be beneficial for this muntjac, but recent trends are decreasing the suitability of what might be called ‘the shifting cultivation estate’. These trends centre round a decline in cycle length in rotational systems (hindering regrowth during the fallow period), partly through the increasing number of people depending upon an annually decreasing area, as forest land is lost to infrastructure, tree plantation crops and other forms of continuous agriculture, and partly through well-intentioned government policy to eradicate shifting cultivation.<br/><br/>Recent moves towards landscape-scale habitat clearance for agro-industrial developments particularly in plateau areas of Cambodia and southern Viet Nam, and even in foothill areas of northern parts of the Lao and Viet Namese range of the species, would presumably remove available habitat, further fragment remaining forest areas, increase local affluence and result in new roads. However, this muntjac’s potential use of plantations is not assessed, and probably cannot be, because all such developments are increasing the area in which hunting is easy and at high levels (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).  <br/><br/>Hydropower development throughout the Annamites, particularly in the Nam Theun/Nam Kading basin in Lao PDR, flood habitat but more importantly fuel hunting levels through increasing affluence and market connectivity. The Nakai Plateau, part of the only area known still to support good numbers of Large-antlered Muntjac, is being flooded for a hydropower headpond during mid 2008. This will destroy only a part of the species' range on the plateau, but the project will continue to stimulate hunting. Currently, there are barely-navigable stretches of rocky channel (called kengs) on all streams flowing out from the NPA. All these kengs will be easily passable when the reservoir is full. Nam Kading NPA, further down the same catchment, is also threatened by a hydropower project which will result in a highly dendritic headpond allowing ready access to most of this NPA and so undoubtedly will increase hunting levels significantly. <br/><br/>Growing economic stability and developing infrastructure in all three range countries have initiated a flood of proposals for industrial scale mineral extraction, particularly in the mineral-rich Annamites (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The effects of this on proportionate loss of habitat remain to be seen; they will probably be overshadowed the presence of large numbers of non-local workers with good market connectivity and thus a propensity to hunt, or to pay local people to hunt.<br/><br/>Recent changes in immigration agreements between Lao PDR and Viet Nam and between Lao PDR and China make it much easier for Viet Namese and Chinese people to visit, settle in and conduct business in Lao PDR, and with a clear build up of Viet Namese nationals in pivotal wildlife trade centres such as Ban Lak-20 (= ‘Ban Lak Xao’) on the edge of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA, trade networks with Viet Nam are now better than ever and still improving (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Additional factors hindering the species' survival include:<br/><br/>The difficulties of distinction between this species and Northern Red Muntjac impede its potential legal protection, particularly in situations where a differential status between the Large-antlered and Northern Red applies.<br/><br/>Customary rights of local people to hunt ‘sustainably’ within most Lao and Viet Namese protected areas urgently need modification if most of the ungulate species are to survive in such areas (see Conservation Measures).<br/><br/>As pointed out by Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007), protected area management skills and commitment to the system are still evolving in the Annamites, and this progress lags behind expansion of market-led hunting. Currently, existing protected areas are not stanching declines in ungulates. Protected areas have so far proven impotent in the control of poaching or as a mechanism to safeguard areas from economic development such as hydropower projects, road construction, and mining (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). It will require a major consolidation of effort to install effective anti-hunting measures in any protected area within the range of Large-antlered Muntjac within the next five years (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) and protected area strengthening projects should be thinking in terms of a few decades of collaboration, not a few years (e.g. Leisher 2001). Yet, there is even the danger of the few currently promising protected areas regressing through loss of external funding and talented professionals, ongoing political indifference towards them, and thereby forcing an unfettered short-termism in local residents’ behaviour through a lack of alternative options. There is no plausible method to conserve this species (and others of high value to the wildlife trade which show little resilience to hunting) alternative to protected areas; the problem is arising not through a flawed concept, but through naive optimism about the time-scales and resource inputs needed to effect situational change.<br/><br/>There is a lack of appreciation in the decision-making levels relevant to protected areas, including those with externally collaborative management support projects, of the biodiversity value of lower altitude yet degraded forests relative to high altitude forests which have been less encroached. This results in mis-prioritisation of zones within the protected area. The common situation is that all lower-altitude forests are degraded, and it is this very degradation that makes them of high priority: their conservation status is already so poor that there are no pristine areas left in most of the range of the Large-antlered Muntjac. This is a problem for a wide suite of species restricted to the lower altitudes, not just to this muntjac, but because of its globally small range, it may be the mammal at most global risk through this factor.
44704		conservation	eng	Taxonomic uncertainties within this species-complex forestall any analysis of conservation needs for the individual species. Populations of this species-complex occur in probably most protected areas of the Annamite range and northern highlands of Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). If <em>M. truongsonensis</em> were a localised species then conservation measures additional to support and consolidation of the existing protected area system may be warranted.<br/><br/>Whatever actual taxonomic pattern is found within the species-complex, management of hunting will need to recognise that hunters cannot be expected to recognise muntjacs to species in the field: some methods are non-selective (e.g. snares) while active projectile hunting (e.g. guns, bows, blow-pipes) would be severely reduced in their harvest efficiency if identification had to precede shooting. The only realistic site-based management tool for this species-complex is likely to be the declaration of suitably-sized ‘core areas’, site in ecologically appropriate areas, where all hunting using methods suitable for muntjacs, including under hitherto traditional rights, is prevented. Lao protected area legislation apparently provides for ‘core areas’ within each national protected area although few if any have yet been declared. Each protected area within the species-complex’s range should therefore have at least one large (several hundred km², in the absence of any empirical knowledge of muntjac spatial ecology) core zone declared and enforced. This measure implemented in conjunction with well considered hunting management in peripheral forest areas might also benefit the ongoing dietary needs of local people, who could harvest in a controlled manner animals outside core zones, and who, in parts of montane Lao PDR that have been effectively studied, are being forced into involuntary veganism because the lack of effective wildlife management and sensible hunting quotas, has meant wildlife stocks have fallen severely (Krahn and Johnson 2007).
44704		distribution	eng	The distribution limits of this species are unknown, reflecting ambiguity over what the name refers to, and how to identify taxa within the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex. For a description of the range of this species-complex see <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>. The syntypes of <em>M. truongsonensis</em> were collected from four houses in three locations in Hien District, west Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam. “The three locations are: Hien, the district capital, A Tin village, and A Plo village (15°56'59''N, 107°34'18''E)” (P.M. Giao <em>et al</em>. 1998). Two skulls which share the distinctive mtDNA sequences presented by P.M. Giao <em>et al</em>. (1998) for <em>M. truongsonensis</em> were collected in the adjacent area of Lao PDR, on the Dakchung Plateau (Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999b, 2000; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Published range descriptions for <em>M. truongsonensis</em> (e.g. Groves and Schaller 2000; Grubb 2005) are hypothetical. Specimens and camera-trap photographs of animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex, but morphologically dissimilar to the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> holotype (see taxonomic note) occur from the type locality of <em>M. truongsonensis</em> north to at least the northern highlands of Lao PDR and Viet Nam and probably into adjacent areas of China (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <em>M. truongsonensis</em> may be found to occur throughout the range of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex (dark-pelaged animals appear to be widespread), but equally it could be much more localised. <br/><br/>Circumstantial evidence from Myanmar presents a possibility of more than one taxon in the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species complex in that region (see 2008 Red List account for <em>M. putaoensis</em>), with potentially similar pelage and skull character variation as shown in Indochina. Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999a, 1999b, 2000) placed <em>M. putaoensis</em> as the sister taxon to <em>M. truongsonensis</em> on the basis of mtDNA, and the holotype of the former species shares with specimens speculated to be <em>M. truongsonensis</em> long premaxillae that contact the nasals; in fact skulls of these two taxa may be (nearly) impossible to diagnose apart (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Some uncertainty exists over the pelage characteristics of <em>M. putaoensis</em>, although the assumption is that they are reddish animals (see 2008 Red List account for <em>M. putaoensis</em>). Contrary to the statements of Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) and others, which have not taken into account the patchiness of suitable surveying, the ‘small’ muntjacs comprising the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex are not particularly restricted in range, but are rather widespread in montane areas of northern southeast Asia. The lack of evidence of the complex from many areas, giving an apparent disjunct distribution, is much more likely to reflect the paucity of suitable surveys than the genuine distribution pattern. Survey work in south-west and south-east China, much of Myanmar, the Himalayan region and northern and western Thailand have certainly been insufficient to conclude anything about the range of this species-complex in those regions.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) suggested that various muntjac specimens recorded from China (in Sokolov 1957; Shou 1962) might be attributable to <em>M. truongsonensis</em>, without giving profound justification. It seems, on current knowledge, equally likely that they belong elsewhere in the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex, or, as suggested by the original authors, that they refer to animals from the <em>M. crinifrons</em> species-complex (i.e. that species, <em>M. feae</em> and <em>M. gongshanensis</em>).
44704		habitat	eng	In Lao PDR this species-complex is probably restricted to higher elevations (over 1,000 m asl) and forests at the evergreen end of the spectrum; it may be absent from forest even above 1,000 m asl in drier western areas. In Viet Nam it occurs also down to lower altitudes (perhaps to the foothills) especially on the eastern slope of the Annamites and probably also in northeastern areas (east of the Red River) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Social ecology is likely to be similar to other species of muntjac, which are generally solitary and territorial.<br/><br/>The complex is widely sympatric with northern red muntjac <em>M. vaginalis</em>, although at high elevations over about 1,500 m asl that species appears to become scarce or naturally absent within Indochina, whereas the <em>rooseveltorum</em> complex ascends to over 2,000 m asl in at least northern Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on photographs and other unpublished data of S. Swann/FFI).
44704		population	eng	Over 50 specimens (not all now extant) and close to 100 camera-trap photographs of the species-complex are known to R.J. Timmins from Indochina (pers. comm. 2008), suggesting it is relatively common in both Lao PDR and especially Viet Nam. Results from camera-trapping in Lao PDR (Nan Et–Phou Louey NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data A. Johnson/ WCS; Nakai-Nam Theun NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on Watershed Management Protection Agency unpublished data; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.) and Viet Nam (Hoang Lien Son mountain range: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data S. Swann/FFI) show that the species-complex is at least locally common at these sites, and it could be so over much of its range. In other areas, mostly south of the previous list of areas, such as Pu Mat NR; Thua-Thien Hue province; and Quang Nam province (Viet Nam), and Bolikhamsai province (Lao PDR), the species-complex has been camera-trapped less frequently than <em>M. vaginalis</em> in each area, but this may reflect ecological factors of sampling areas, such as habitat and altitude range (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on various unpublished datasets; SFNC 2000; Robichaud and Stuart 1999).
44704		threats	eng	The main threat to the species-complex is hunting. Especially within Lao PDR and Viet Nam, there is indiscriminate snaring throughout its known range, for local meat consumption and a thriving bushmeat trade (see Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the best protection from hunting at present is the ‘cushioning’ effect of large forest blocks, where the costs of extracting wildlife of low to medium commercial value from the centre are higher than the income from selling it, and where habitat is so extensive it is simply more difficult to hunt out cryptic, non-gregarious species, than it is in smaller forest blocks. Because most such blocks within the complex’s geographical range are centred on rugged terrain, with higher elevations forming the core of such areas, these muntjacs are likely to be significantly less threatened than are sympatric ground-dwelling mammals with altitudinal ranges limited to lower elevations. <br/><br/>In localized areas, especially of northern Indochina, the species-complex is likely to be affected by habitat loss. Here, most ethnic groups practice shifting cultivation and in recent decades there has been a clear net loss and fragmentation of forest: such shifting cultivation is not now in a balanced cycle (for rotational systems), or never was (frontier systems). The adaptability of the species-complex to degraded or fragmented habitats is not well known, although evidence from northern Lao PDR suggests that animals there persist in landscape-scale mosaics including extensive secondary, degraded forest fragments and cultivation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In general it appears that muntjacs (particularly <em>M. vaginalis</em> and <em>M. reevesi</em>) adapt well to secondary and degraded habitats and in fact may reach higher densities in such areas than they do in unencroached habitats. More serious than losses to shifting cultivation, in the most recent years and the immediate future, is likely to be the large-scale replacement of natural forests (albeit mostly heavily degraded) with rubber plantations to supply the burgeoning Chinese market. This is affecting large areas of the northern highlands of Lao PDR and elsewhere, and will have three linked negative effects on ground-dwelling mammals: direct loss of habitat (it is unlikely that rubber plantations will support even mediocre densities of this species-complex, although this is not yet known), decline and destabilisation of the forest resource-base (including wild-meat sources) for subsistence-level communities, leading to higher hunting levels in remaining wildlife areas (C. Wood pers. comm. 2005 to J.W. Duckworth, based on emerging patterns across several provinces in Lao PDR’s northern highlands); and shrinkage of the size of natural habitat blocks and thereby reduction and, locally, loss, of the cushioning effect.
44705		conservation	eng	One of the recorded localities (Silaka Nature Reserve) is a formally conserved area under the control of the provincial conservation agency (Eastern Cape Nature Conservation). However, it is a small low priority reserve suffering from livestock grazing and alien plant invasion.
44705		distribution	eng	Known only from a section of the Eastern Cape coast, between Port St Johns and Xora River mouth (<em>ca</em>. 80 km in length and probably not extending much more than 5 km inland). Area of occupancy is not known, but is considerably less than the extent of occurrence, since the species is only known from forests and woodland on the coastal scarp, a discontinuous habitat along the coastal strip.
44705		habitat	eng	Coastal scarp forest and woodland.
44705		threats	eng	Uncontrolled utilisation of habitat by local people; degradation of habitat and trampling by livestock; increased tourism development associated with spatial development initiatives and increased ease of access due to construction of new roads.
44706		conservation	eng	Both forests are managed by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and are thus afforded some degree of protection. However, the efficacy of this protection is something that needs to be assessed.
44706		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities: Ngele Forest near Kokstad (KZN); and Tabankulu Forest near Mt Ayliff (E. Cape). The two known localities are separated by about 60 km, and the total area of the two forests is 1,480 ha (Ngele Forest is 750 ha and Tabankulu Forest is 730 ha).
44706		habitat	eng	Mist-belt <em>Podocarpus</em> forest.
44707		distribution	eng	Known only from three localities in the vicinity of Port St Johns, on the southern bank of the Mzimvubu River. The localities border an area of <em>ca</em>. 17.5 km². Area of occupancy is not known, but is considerably less than extent of occurrence, since the species is only known from forests and woodland on the coastal scarp, a discontinuous habitat along the coastal strip.
44707		habitat	eng	Coastal scarp forest and woodland.
44707		threats	eng	Uncontrolled utilisation of habitat by local people; degradation of habitat by alien plant invasion and trampling by livestock; increased tourism development associated with spatial development initiatives and increased ease of access due to construction of new roads.
44708		conservation	eng	The two mining companies operating in the area have been notified of the existence of this species and have expressed their willingness to play a part in its conservation. They have offered to support a survey of additional habitat fragments within the marble deposit to try to identify further colonies.
44708		distribution	eng	Known from only one location: believed to be endemic to a single site, a limestone outcrop. The KZN south coast is a relatively well collected area, but this species has not been found at other localities in the region. It appears to be restricted to this geological formation, which has only recently been surveyed for molluscs (Herbert 2002). All known specimens have been collected from an area of less than 1,000 m² (estimate based on field survey, Herbert 2001); total extent of geological formation to which it is probably restricted <em>ca</em>. 40 km².
44708		habitat	eng	Limestone deposits (the Marble Delta) inland of Port Shepstone, in valley thicket and woodland on south facing slopes.
44708		threats	eng	Two companies have extensive quarrying operations in the area and it is heavily invaded by alien plants (Herbert 2002) .
44709		distribution	eng	Known only from a small stretch of coast from just north of Mbotyi to just south of Port St Johns (<em>ca</em>. 35 km in length and probably not extending much more than 5 km inland). Area of occupancy is not known, but is considerably less than extent of occurrence, since the species is only known from forests and woodland on the coastal scarp, a discontinuous habitat along the coastal strip.
44709		habitat	eng	Coastal scarp forest and woodland.
44709		population	eng	In early 2003 living specimens were found to be quite common at a number of localities within its small range area.
44709		threats	eng	Uncontrolled utilisation of habitat by local people; degradation of habitat and trampling by livestock; increased tourism development associated with spatial development initiatives and increased ease of access due to construction of new roads. <br/> <br/>Until recently this species was only known from the types. However, in 2003 it was rediscovered in the Mbotyi area and has subsequently been found again in the Port St Johns area. Although, evidently confined to this small area of the coast, it was in fact moderately common in the scarp forests during the summer of 2002/3. This may support a lower risk categorisation, but it may also simply reflect the fact that weather conditions leading up to this had been particularly favourable for the species. The current distribution of the species is almost certainly fragmented, but its forest habitat was most probably more extensive in the past, within the known distribution. As in many coastal areas, forests have been impacted by human activity, even in rural areas, and are now fragmented. It is likely that threats posed by increased population growth, uncontrolled subsistence utilisation and alien plant invasion will have an impact on most of the remaining forest patches. However, no data specific data are available regarding habitat deterioration. Political and economic imperatives mean that much of the Transkei coast is targeted for development and mining companies have identified significant mineral deposits (ilmenite) in some coastal areas, which they hope to exploit. Construction companies are pressing strongly for the construction of a new north-south trunk road that will facilitate access to the coast and thus stimulate population growth in these areas
44710		conservation	eng	Although the forest is a formally conserved area, supported by an enthusiastic local community, its location within an urban environment is of concern. Furthermore, its small size means that it is thus likely to suffer more from the impact of stochastic climatic events.
44710		distribution	eng	Known only from Dlinza Forest in Eshowe. The forest covers an area of <em>ca</em>. 250 ha.
44710		habitat	eng	Coastal scarp forest.
44710		threats	eng	The Dlinza Forest is a formally conserved area under the control of KZN Wildlife. As such the habitat is afforded a degree of protection. However, since it is a small reserve, it may be negatively impacted by extreme stochastic weather conditions and climate change.
44711		conservation	eng	Although both forests are formally protected areas, the degree of protection afforded by this status is limited, particularly in the case of Nkandla Forest, and a decline in the quality and extent of the habitat is probable.
44711		distribution	eng	Known only from Nkandla and Entumeni forests inland of Eshowe. The two forests are separated by only 35 km. The extent of the two forests is: Nkandla Forest 2,800 ha and Entumeni Forest 620 ha. Total area of occupancy is thus probably less than 3,500 ha.
44711		habitat	eng	Mist-belt <em>Podocarpus</em> and scarp forest.
44711		threats	eng	Both forests are formally conserved areas under the control of KZN Wildlife. As such they are afforded a degree of protection, but both are in remote, very rural areas and subject to utilisation by local people and their livestock, particularly Nkandla Forest.
44712		conservation	eng	Although the forest is a formally conserved area, it is situated in a remote region and is an important resource for the local population. Shortage of conservation funds and lack of political will mean that its protected status is nominal, and thus a decline in the quality and extent of the habitat is probable.
44712		distribution	eng	Known only from Nkandla Forest inland of Eshowe. The forest covers an area of <em>ca</em>. 2,800 ha.
44712		habitat	eng	Primarily mist-belt <em>Podocarpus</em> forest, but merging with scarp forest at lower altitudes.
44712		threats	eng	Nkandla Forest is a formally conserved area under the control of KZN Wildlife. As such the habitat is afforded a degree of protection, but it is in a remote, very rural area and subject to utilisation by local people and their livestock.
44713		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to target this species. However, some of the population is known to occur within national parks and forest reserves.
44713		distribution	eng	Three subspecies are known: <em>I. m. septentrionalis</em> occurs in northern parts of Kenya (flora zone K1 — high grounds of Mts Kulal, Nyiru and Marsabit, 2,000–2,400 m asl) and in Sudan; <em>I. m. cruciata</em> is widespread in Kenya (flora zones K1–6) and Uganda (flora zones U1 and U3); and <em>I. m. meruensis</em> is known only from Tanzania (flora zone T2). Population size and trends are unknown.
44713		habitat	eng	Damp montane forest, streamsides, spray zone of waterfalls and swampy areas (1,100–3,630 m altitude).
44713		threats	eng	No severe threats affecting the whole population have been identified. In the northern part of the species' range habitat is semi-arid and wetlands are the centre of activities for people and their livestock (<em>I. m. septentrionalis</em> is most likely to be threatened in this area).
44714		conservation	eng	The known range lies within protected areas.
44714		distribution	eng	This grass is endemic to East Africa. It is known from Kenya (Mt Kenya) and Tanzania (Mt Kilimanjaro). Total range area of the species is not known. Population size and trends are unknown.
44714		habitat	eng	Found in upland moor along stream sides, on moist ground (4,250–4,850 m asl).
44714		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown. However, this is a high altitude species and its habitat potentially is threatened by climate change.
44715		conservation	eng	The majority of this species' range lies within National Park areas.
44715		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Uganda and Kenya. In Uganda it is known only from Mt Elgon. In Kenya, it occurs within flora zones K3 (Cheranganis Mt Kenya), K4 (Aberdares), K5 (Maut Kenya), and K6 (see FTEA). Population size and trends are unknown.
44715		habitat	eng	<em>L. aberdarica</em> is a large, soft perennial shrub. In Kenya, it is common in swamps in the moorland zone (1,860–3,350 m altitude) (Agnew and Agnew 1994). In Uganda, it is found on Mt Elgon between 1,800 and 3,500 m asl.
44715		threats	eng	There are high human population densities adjacent to Mt Elgon National Park  and Cherengani hills and illegal encroachment into the protected area has been reported to increase in recent years (I. Malombe, pers. comm.). However, trampling of bog and marsh areas by tourist activities in the area and upsurge and collapse of river banks incases of encroachment may be more serious threats.
44716		conservation	eng	The species’ range lies within protected areas.
44716		distribution	eng	This grass is endemic to Uganda and Kenya (Ruwenzori Mtns, Mt Elgon – flora zones U2, U3? and K3). The total range area of the species is not known. Population size and trends are unknown.
44716		habitat	eng	Occurs in marshy places near streams and lake/pool margins in upland moors.
44716		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown. However, this is a high altitude species and its habitat potentially is threatened by climate change.
44717		conservation	eng	The species’ range lies within protected areas.
44717		distribution	eng	This grass is endemic to Kenya (flora zones K3 and K4). Only two subpopulations are known: on Mt Kenya and Mt Elgon. The total range area of the species is not known. Population size and trends are unknown.
44717		habitat	eng	Found in upland moor along stream sides (3,580–4,000 m asl).
44717		threats	eng	Current threats to the population are unknown. However, this is a high altitude species and its habitat potentially is threatened by climate change.
44722		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES – Appendix II, and classified under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Act (1972). In India, very few populations are found in protected areas, and the majority of the population occurs in private lands and commercial plantations (M. Singh pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Further studies of behavior and ecology are needed to better understand the habitat requirements of all the slender loris taxa (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004). Singh <em>et al</em>. (1999) also suggests more detailed surveys in different forest blocks and habitat types in order to obtain quantitative data on densities and distribution. In Sri Lanka a conservation education programme has been launched in order to increase awareness about the taxa (Nekaris 2003).
44722		distribution	eng	The species occurs in southern and eastern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka. <br/><br/><em>L. l. lydekkerianus</em><br/>This subspecies occurs in southern and eastern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), in the dry shrub jungles of the Eastern Ghats (Schulze and Meier 1995; Nekaris and Jayewardene, 2003; Singh <em>et al</em>. 2000). Singh <em>et al</em>. (1999) recorded this taxon most often in areas up to 1,000 m.<br/><br/><em>L. l. nordicus</em> <br/>This subspecies occurs in north-central Sri Lanka, in dry-zone areas (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). Recent reports include Mannar, Wilpattu, Anuradhapura, Sigiriya, Polonnaruwa, Mihintale, Ritigale, Minneriya-Giritale, Trincomalee, and Madura Oya. It is uncertain if the range extends to the southeast of the island as no undisputed sighting has yet been made of this subspecies there (Nekaris and de Silva in press).<br/><br/><em>L. l. grandis </em><br/>This subspecies is found in the Central Province of Sri Lanka, at an average altitude of 900 m (Schulze and Meier 1995a). Although it has thus far been found only in the East Matale Hills, it is probable that it also occurs throughout the lower foothills of the mountains of central Sri Lanka. The highest altitude from which it has been obtained is 1,036 m. Lorises which may conform to this subspecies have recently been seen at Udawatakele and in the Knuckles Range (Nekaris and de Silva in press).<br/><br/><em>L. l. malabaricus </em><br/>This subspecies occurs in India along the west coast and in the wet forests of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It has not been reported from rainforests south of Palghat gap (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.). It is found from the coast up to 1,200 m in Karnataka, and lower elevations in Kerala.
44722		habitat	eng	Two long-term studies have been conducted on the ecology and behavior of this species in India, and one such study has been conducted in Sri Lanka (Nekaris and Bearder 2006; Radhakrishna and Singh 2004); <em>L. l. nordicus</em> is also very well studied in captivity (Schulze and Meier 1995). They are primarily insectivorous (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004). <em>Loris lydekkerianus nordicus</em> is apparently able to survive well near human habitations (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003), as it was found more often associated with disturbed human habitation than with forest (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004); similar trends in India were found by Singh <em>et al.</em> (1999) and were associated with agricultural pest abundance. The highest densities of lorises on Sri Lanka occurred in the dry zone forests; also, the presence of species of this genus is positively associated with insect presence, and negatively associated with secondary forest with little undergrowth (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004; Kumara <em>et al.</em> 2006). <em>L. l. nordicus</em> and <em>L.l. lydekkarianus</em> seem to rely heavily on undergrowth, and are often found in secondary growth forest (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004; Radhakrishna and Singh 2002). Singh <em>et al</em>. (1999) found that relatively open forest and adjoining croplands are the preferred habitat types of lorises in the Dindigul Forests of Tamil Nadu, India. <em>L. l. malabaricus</em> is found to occur more in cardamom plantations and in degraded and stunted rainforests than in primary rainforests (Kumara <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species is characterized by a multiple-male/multiple-female social system of spatial overlap. They sleep in groups of up to 7 individuals and interact commonly throughout the night (Nekaris 2006; Radhakrishna 2001).
44722		population	eng	<em>Loris lydekkerianus nordicus</em>s is known to occur in at least seven distinct populations (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003). Nekaris and Jayewardene (2004b) carried out a survey of slender lorises in Sri Lanka. Population densities of animal were estimated using the animal encounter rate, or ‘sightings’ per km. <em>Loris lydekkerianus grandis</em> had a density of 0.11 to 3.3 animals/km, with an overall density of 0.42 animals/km, while <em>Loris lydekkerianus nordicus</em> were recorded at a density of 0.33 to 3.5 animals/km, with an overall density of 3.65 animals/km. In some localities of the Eastern Ghats, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the population densities of <em>Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianu</em>s are rather high, although not as high as in Dindigul region (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2000; M. Singh pers. comm.). The encounter rate for <em>L. l. malabaricus</em> is 0.21 animals/km.
44722		threats	eng	Severe habitat loss in Sri Lanka and India has threatened this species there (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003; Nekaris and Schulze 2005; Nekaris and Bearder 2006). Other threats in Sri Lanka and India include road kills, electrocution on un-insulated power lines, capture for pet trade and use in traditional “medicine,” and killing due to superstitious beliefs (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003).
44724		conservation	eng	Entire known population occurs within a national park. Small ex-situ cultivation.
44724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Viet Nam, where is is found in Lao Cai Province (Mt. Fan Si Pan). Restricted to the east flank of Fan Si Pan (Phan Si Pan) between circa 2,600-2,800 m in a forest composed of mature trees with few intermediate age classes and few seedlings. The lower forest band was destroyed by forest fire in late 1970s/early 1980s and there has been no subsequent regeneration.<br/><br/>Attempts to find it on high peaks further south in the Hoang Lien Son range have not yielded any other populations.
44724		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies delavayi</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">fansipanensis</span> is endemic on Mt. Fan Si Pan, the highest mountain in Viet Nam in the extreme NW of the country. It is an outlier of a widespread species group found where there are periods of high summer rainfall. It grows on the eastern flank of this granitic mountain at altitudes between <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 2,600 m and 2,800 m asl as an emergent tree in primary evergreen tropical high montane forest.&#160; Rainfall is very high, to 3,500 mm or more per year with frequent clouds cover on&#160; the summit. Snow is common for periods of the winter, with minima temperatures probably in the range of -15ºC.&#160;&#160; Associated taxa are a <span style="font-style: italic;">Borinda</span> species of bamboo, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron</span> spp.
44724		population	eng	Circa 200-250 mature trees, few seedlings.
44724		threats	eng	Currently the main threats are forest fires caused by lightning and those associated with tourist activities and development. The main route to the summit of the Viet Nam’s highest mountain passes through the forest, with an increasing number of people visiting the summit. Currently there is no direct logging risk as the area is too inaccessible and the species occurs in a protected area.
44725		conservation	eng	Five localities are currently protected (Strict Nature Reserve of Montagne des Sources, Special Fauna and Flora Reserve of Mt Kouakoué, Specila Botanical Reserve of Mt Humboldt and Special Fauna and Flora Reserve of Forêt de Saille).
44725		distribution	eng	This monotypic genus is confined to the southern province of New Caledonia. The species occurs at eleven localities. The numbers of mature individuals are unknown.
44725		habitat	eng	Limited to ultramafic (or serpentine) geology which covers an area of 5,500 km². Occurs in primary moist forest at high altitudes (mostly above 800 m) and wet scrub at lower altitudes (500–800 m). Probably wind pollinated, fruits may be animal dispersed, low seed fertility observed.
44725		threats	eng	Mining - two localities known to be affected, all unprotected localities vulnerable due to the geology.  <br/>Bush fire - one locality known to be threatened, others are likely to be threatened by fire. <br/>Logging - possible threat in unprotected sites.
44726		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in Diana’s Peak National Park, which has had an extensive restoration and management programme for the past 10 years. However the majority of populations are outside this protected area.
44726		distribution	eng	Restricted to St. Helena (122 km²) at altitudes of above 650 m. Extent of occurrence < 15 km². <br/> <br/>Total population size is estimated to be 5,000 mature individuals, in 10–15 fragmented subpopulations. This is based on extensive fieldwork in 1999 and 2000.
44726		habitat	eng	A terrestrial fern found growing on shaded rocks, crevices and soil banks.
44726		threats	eng	Encroachment of habitat by exotic species, fragmentation and herbicides (sometimes sprayed along the road edges where some populations are found).
44727		conservation	eng	Majority of the population is in Diana’s Peak National Park which has been actively managed for the past 10 years. This has included extensive clearance of invasive exotics and planting of native species. The regeneration of tree fern thicket into cleared areas is notable.
44727		distribution	eng	Restricted to two main subpopulations in Diana’s Peak National Park, one at Mount Actaeon and one at Cuckold’s Point. Occasional plants have also been observed at High Peak and the Depot but these require verification. Extent of occurrence < 5 km², if individuals at High Peak and Depot included. The two subpopulations comprise 34 and 12 individuals respectively with occasional plants at High Peak and the Depot.
44727		habitat	eng	Terrestrial fern found growing on stone steps, rocks and shaded mossy banks in tree fern thicket. Found in close proximity to the other two endemic <em>Elaphoglossum</em> (<em>E. nervosum</em> and <em>E. bifurcatum</em>). Evidence from allozymes indicate that the species maybe of hybrid origin between <em>E. nervosum</em> and <em>E. birfurcatum</em>. This may explain its rarity.
44727		threats	eng	Population size is probably restricted by suitable habitat. The main threat to the species is encroachment of invasive exotics such as <em>Phormium tenax</em> (New Zealand Flax).
44728		conservation	eng	The world population is restricted to Diana’s Peak National Park. The park has been actively managed for the past 10 years. This has included extensive clearance of invasive exotics and planting of native species. The regeneration of tree fern thicket into cleared areas is notable.
44728		distribution	eng	Restricted to Diana’s Peak National Park at Cuckold’s Point, Diana’s Peak and Mount Actaeon. <br/> <br/>Total population does not exceed 100 plants, composed of five small subpopulations of 10–30 plants.
44728		habitat	eng	Tree fern thicket. Epiphytic on the endemic tree fern <em>Dicksonia arborescens</em> and the Black cabbage Tree <em>Melanodendron integrifolium</em>. Also found on mossy banks.
44728		threats	eng	Population size is restricted by suitable habitat (indigenous tree fern thicket). The main threat to the species is encroachment of invasive exotics such as <em>Phormium tenax</em> (New Zealand Flax).
44729		distribution	eng	The only endemic fern in the Soqotra Archipelago. Recorded by Forbes from Abd al Kuri at the end of the 19th Century, but not seen there recently.
44729		habitat	eng	Occurs in shade within dense thickets in montane woodland and shrubland in the Haggeher mountains. Also on Abd al Kuri. (300–)600–1,450 m (the lowest altitude is a record from Abd al Kuri).
44730		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. It is reported that <em>A. oligophylla</em> is common in dry ravines and at the mouths of the south draining wadis, which feed into the Noged Plain. However, only two specimens are known – the original specimen collected from the mouth of Wadi Ireh by Balfour in 1880 and a second specimen collected in 1990 at apparently exactly the same spot.
44730		habitat	eng	Succulent and drought-deciduous woodland on rocky slopes along the wadis draining into the southern plains. Altitude of 30 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive many-stemmed shrub with attractive, orange-red flowers which hang in racemes at the ends of pendulous branches. The flowers curve upwards and backwards thus regaining their orginal upright position despite hanging upside down.
44731		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44731		habitat	eng	Common in deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains from 200 m (Wadi Di Negehen) to 900 m below the pinnacles; occasionally found in sheltered patches of <em>Buxanthus</em> and <em>Rhus</em> woodland in ravines and on cliffs on the seaward-facing limestone escarpments in the east of Soqotra where it can occur down to 50 m. <br/> <br/><em>Anisotes diversifolius</em> is typically a many-stemmed shrub with erect, rather straggling stems. It is very similar to species of <em>Trichocalyx</em> but lacks the numerous thread-like bracts which surround the flowers in that genus. Recorded from near Qallansiyah in the west of the island in the 19th Century but not seen there recently.
44732		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44732		habitat	eng	Occasional in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 450–600 m.
44733		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra
44733		habitat	eng	Widespread on the plains and foothills of the limestone escarpments; usually in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland; also occasionally in <em>Dracaena</em> woodland (i.e., Firmihin). Altitude of 30–50 m.
44734		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44734		habitat	eng	Succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland (commonly associated with <em>Gnidia socotrana</em> and <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>); dry inland plains, particularly along wadis and the foothills of the limestone plateaus of the west; also at Hamadero and Hoq in the east. Altitude of 20–600 m.
44735		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44735		habitat	eng	The distribution of this species is typical of those of plants found in areas which are catch mist and low cloud. It is readily distinguished by its sub-orbicular, spinose leaves. <br/> <br/>Uncommon and scattered on Soqotra, occurring in semi-deciduous woodland (commonly associated with <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em> and <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>) on limestone in the east, in submontane woodland (associated with <em>Cephalocroton socotranus</em>) in the Haggeher mountains and also as an outlier in the relict woodland at Qatariyah in the Southwest of the island. Altitude of 400–850 m.
44736		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44736		habitat	eng	Occasional on rocky slopes along the sides of the large wadis draining south into the Noged plain; in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>  and <em>Euclea divinorum</em> ). Altitude of 30–600 m. <br/> <br/>This undescribed new species of <em>Rhus</em> is found, typically on cliffs, along the sides of the larger wadis draining south into the Noged plain. The leaves, which are always trifoliate, are bright green, smaller and not as glossy as those of <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em>. It comes into new leaf at the onset of rain and drops its leaves in summer. The flowers appear in winter and are in little-branched panicles which are shorter than the leaves; in <em>R. thyrsiflora</em> the flowers are in open panicles which greatly exceed the leaves. Its fruits, which are similar to those of <em>R. thyrsiflora</em> are said to be sweeter and, unlike those of <em>R. thyrsiflora</em>, are not wrinkled when dry.
44737		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44737		habitat	eng	Restricted to a small area of Southeast Soqotra where it is found mainly on the coastal escarpment cliffs and lip of the limestone plateau. Altitude of 50–300 m.
44738		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44738		habitat	eng	Coastal plains and foothills of Northeast Soqotra where it is often abundant in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of 50–100 m. <br/> <br/>A low intricately branched shrub apparently endemic to Northeast Soqotra. It is distinguished by its narrow, spine-tipped leaves which often bear one or two marginal spines. Vollesen (2000) comments that <em>B. spiculifera</em> is a most remarkable species which has a number of seemingly primitive traits. It is the sole member of subgenus <em>Ebracteata</em> Vollesen which is endemic to Soqotra. Vollesen suggests that <em>B. spiculifolia</em> could be a primitive forerunner to sect. <em>Blepharis</em>.
44739		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44740		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44740		habitat	eng	Usually on sheltered cliffs in evergreen submontane thicket but also less commonly amongst shrubs in clearings in submontane woodland (Qischen). Altitude of 700–1,000 m.
44741		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44741		habitat	eng	Mainly on the limestone plateaus, less commonly on the granite; in a variety of vegetation types including drought deciduous woodland and dwarf shrubland; often associated with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>, <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em>, <em>Croton socotranus</em>, <em>Jatropha unicostata</em> and <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em>. Altitude of 300–600 m.
44742		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44742		habitat	eng	Widespread and common in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of sea-level to 800 (–1,000) m. <br/> <br/><em>Hypoestes pubescens</em> has sometimes been considered to be a form of the widespread and variable <em>H. forskalei</em>. However, plants on Soqotra are consistently grey-green herbs with clear lilac flowers. For the time being <em>H. pubescens</em> is maintained as a distinct species.
44743		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44743		habitat	eng	Locally common on coastal and inland plains where it is typically an undershrub in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland; co-dominant with <em>Croton socotranus</em> and <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em> in the dwarf shrubland of the western inner plains. Altitude of 0–250 m. <br/> <br/>Often heavily grazed and appearing as a dark, almost black, mound beneath <em>Croton socotranus</em>.
44744		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44744		habitat	eng	A rare shrub of sheltered slopes on the highest granite pinnacles of the western Haggeher; associated with <em>Euryops arabicus</em>, <em>Helichrysum rosulatum</em>, <em>Hypericum tortuosum</em> and <em>Thamnosma socotrana</em>. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to limestone cliffs at Reqadihon (above Hoq). These cliffs capture mist and cloud during the winter and are an eastern outlier for a number species (e.g., <em>Coelocarpum haggierensis</em> and <em>Dirachma socotrana</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggeher mountains. This species is closely related to <em>Justicia sp. nov. B</em>.
44745		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44745		habitat	eng	Seaward-facing limestone cliffs in shrubland dominated by <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em> and <em>Ballochia amoena</em>. Altitude of 500 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to limestone cliffs at Reqadihon (above Hoq). These cliffs capture mist and cloud during the winter and are an eastern outlier for a number species (e.g., <em>Coelocarpum haggierensis</em> and <em>Dirachma socotrana</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggeher mountains. This species is closely related to <em>Justicia sp. nov. A</em>.
44746		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44746		habitat	eng	Locally common in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland on the north eastern coastal and inland plains. Altitude of sea-level to 120 m.
44747		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44747		habitat	eng	Widespread on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus; in a number of vegetation types including <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland and dwarf shrubland. Altitude of 20–600 m.
44748		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44748		habitat	eng	Locally common on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus in succulent shubland and dwarf shrubland. Altitude of 50–650 m.
44749		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra (Abd al Kuri).
44749		habitat	eng	Common on the rocky foothills of Jebal Saleh on Abd al Kuri where it is found in dwarf shrubland and succulent shrubland (with <em>Euphorbia balsamifera</em> and <em>Euphorbia schimperi</em>). Altitude of 100–500 m.
44750		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44751		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44751		habitat	eng	Common in succulent shrubland and deciduous woodland. Altitude of 50–650 m. <br/> <br/>Plants from Wadi Ayheft and the Rewgid plateau seem to most consistently match Balfour’s description of this taxa. However, no plants with purple flowers (reported by Balfour for <em>T. obovatus</em>) have been seen amongst recent collections.
44752		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44752		habitat	eng	Perhaps more drought tolerant than <em>Trichocalyx obovatus</em>.
44753		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44753		habitat	eng	On cliffs and rock surfaces, often overlooking the sea; on Soqotra it is rarely found above 200 m (350 m above Ras Shu’ub), however, on Abd al Kuri and Samha it occurs at higher altitudes (up to 650 m). <br/> <br/>Dwarf plants with broader, relatively smaller leaves have been placed in var. <em>humilis</em> Vierh. (1907 p.25). However, this seems to be merely a grazed and stunted form.
44754		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44754		habitat	eng	Restricted to granite slopes in the Haggeher mountains where it is locally common in clearings in semi-deciduous and evergreen submontane woodland. Altitude of (250–)500–950 m.
44755		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44755		habitat	eng	Limestone cliffs in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 15–550 m. <br/> <br/>This rather rare, leafless shrub was first recorded by Georg Popov in 1953 from cliffs, just above sea-level, on the Noged plain; not recently seen there but since recorded from NE Soqotra.
44756		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44756		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland on both granite and limestone. Altitude of 450–950 m.
44757		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44757		habitat	eng	Widespread and, in places, abundant in shrubland and open semi-deciduous woodland, mainly on the limestone plateau, rarely on the granite. Altitude of 50–750 m. <br/> <br/>Usually a low, rounded shrub, distinguished by the small, succulent, rather glossy leaves, small white flowers and white latex.
44758		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44758		habitat	eng	On Abd al Kuri common in succulent shrubland at 200–600 m; on Soqotra in shrubland and deciduous woodland on the western limestone plateau and in semi-deciduous thicket on the Haggeher mountains at 100–900 m. <br/> <br/><em>Cryptolepis</em> (<em>Curroria</em>) <em>macrophylla</em> was originally described on the basis of a number of specimens from Abd al Kuri and a single specimen, the type, from Soqotra. Recently more collections have become available from Soqotra and have shown that the plants from Abd al Kuri consistently differ from those on Soqotra in having paler, broadly elliptic to broadly obovate (not circular) leaves which are rounded or obtuse (not retuse) at the tip and acute (not obtuse or rounded) at the base. The assessor has not seen flowering material from Abd al Kuri and so is reluctant to formerly recognize them at present. On Soqotra <em>C. macrophylla</em> is not common and is found in two rather different habitats: in montane thicket on the Haggeher and in drought tolerant shrubland on the western limestone plateau. On Abd al Kuri it is relatively common in succulent shrubland on the middle and upper slopes of Jebel Saleh and is more or less the only tree on the island.
44759		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44759		habitat	eng	Widely scattered but never common on limestone cliffs in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 50–200 m. <br/> <br/>This attractive shrub typically hangs from vertical cliff faces and is readily distinguished by its sessile, orbicular leaves and twisted corolla lobes. There are unlikey 19th century records of this species from the Haggeher mountains.
44760		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44760		habitat	eng	Very rare on exposed granite outcrops in the Haggeher. Altitude of 900 m.
44761		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44761		habitat	eng	On soil beneath dense deciduous woodland on granite. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the deep maroon, cup-shaped flowers. The only species on the island to grow in the relatively wet conditions of the Haggeher mountains. Originally collected by Theodore Bent in the 19th century. Unfortunately, Bent died in Aden on his return from Soqotra and it was not known whether his collection was made on Soqotra or on the mainland. The mystery was only solved when the plant was rediscovered on the southern slopes of the Haggeher in 1998. It was found to be relatively common over a small area and flowering prolifically.
44762		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44762		habitat	eng	Rare, on shady cliffs in succulent shrubland on the inland slopes of the western limestone plateau. Altitude of 200 m. <br/> <br/>The smallest-flowered species on Soqotra. Only known from a single gathering.
44763		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44763		habitat	eng	Widespread but rare on limestone plateau, usually in thin soil in cracks and in the shade of boulders. Altitude of 200–350 m. <br/> <br/>Related to several other species with tubular corollas from East Africa and Southwest Arabia. There is some variation in the shape of the corolla and the length of the corolla lobes in the few specimens seen on Soqotra.
44764		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44764		habitat	eng	Rare, on the western limestone plateau; in thin soil on limestone pavement in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 550 m. <br/> <br/>Only collected once. Distinguished by the pink, almost flat flowers.
44765		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44765		habitat	eng	Widespread on the limestone plateau; in thin soil beneath bushes and in the shade of rocks in dwarf succulent shrubland. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the yellow flowers with red centre. Possibly the commonest and most widespread species of <em>Echidnopsis</em> on the island.
44766		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44766		habitat	eng	Widespread but never common, typically on cliffs in dry deciduous woodland. Altitude of 50–500 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its petiolate, heart-shaped leaves and the axillary clusters of tiny, sweet-smelling white flowers.
44767		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44767		habitat	eng	Widespread but never common in succulent shrubland and dwarf shrubland. Altitude of 200–650 m. <br/> <br/>Most plants seen on Soqotra were not in flower and so could not be identified with certainty. A specimen from the limestone plateau on Samha is rather atypical; the flowers are small, as is typical of <em>S. socotranum</em>, however, the corona is different. It has been included under <em>S. socotranum</em> for the time being.
44768		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44768		habitat	eng	Rare in succulent shrubland and semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 100–700 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the narrow, obcuneate leaves.
44769		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44769		habitat	eng	Climbing over rocks and shrubs in succulent shrubland and semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 20–800 m. <br/> <br/>Plants with silvery or white versus reddish hairs on the calyx and ovate versus oblong corolla lobes have been separated off as var. <em>glauca</em>. However, recent collections have shown that <em>S. socotrana</em> is much more variable in these characters than previously thought and var. <em>glauca</em> is not recognised here.
44770		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44770		habitat	eng	Rare on limestone pavement, in dwarf succulent shrubland on the western plateau. Altitude of 650–800 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive succulent with decumbent stems and pretty yellow flowers with contrasting red stripes at their centre. The specific epithet refers to the long, erect pedicels which hold the flowers facing upwards.
44771		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44771		habitat	eng	Common in dry woodland and shrubland. Altitude of 15–600 m. <br/> <br/>A leafless climber with dense, often tangled stems and minute reddish brown flowers.
44772		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44772		habitat	eng	Samha: damp and shady cracks in north-facing limestone cliffs. Altitude of 600–700 m. <br/> <br/>Closely related to <em>Begonia socotrana</em>. However, unlike that species <em>B. samhaensis</em> flowers after rain and is not reliant on short day length.
44773		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44773		habitat	eng	Locally common on damp and shady cracks in north-facing cliffs and occasionally on soil under dense vegetation; restricted to limestone cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland (Reyged and Rewgid plateau) and on granite cliffs and pinnacles in montane woodland and shrubland across the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 550–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>First collected by Balfour in 1880. He brought plants back to Britain where it was crossed with southern African speices and rapidly became an important horticulturaly as the hybrid parent of a host of winter-flowering begonias.
44774		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44774		habitat	eng	Grassland and clearings in dwarf shrubland, deciduous woodland and montane woodland, also once recorded as a weed of date gardens on the Hadiboh plain at 50 m. Altitude of 450–1,250 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by the azure blue flowers, marbled leaves and strigose leaves. A plant of grassland in high rainfall areas.
44775		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44775		habitat	eng	Locally common on Samha and Southwest Soqotra; in dwarf shrubland on exposed and windswept desertic limestone plateaus and cliffs. Altitude of 450–700 m.  The flowers are almost actinomorphic and bright white. It is the only cushion-forming species in the genus.
44776		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44776		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland on coastal plains and rocky hill-slopes. Altitude of sea-level to 520 m. <br/> <br/><em>H. kuriense</em> is similar to <em>H. paulayanum</em> but has bigger and relatively narrower leaves, shorter petioles and clearly defined infloresence.
44777		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra (Abd al Kuri)
44777		habitat	eng	Sandy soil on coastal plains in dwarf shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 100 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all other species of <em>Heliotropium</em> in the Archipelago by its roundish, long petiole, suborbicular, long-petiolate leaves, ill-defined inflorescence and white flowers.
44778		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra (Abd al Kuri)
44778		habitat	eng	Sandy soil on coastal plains in dwarf shrubland. Sea-level to 100 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all other species of <em>Heliotropium</em> in the Archipelago by its narrowly elliptic or lanceolate, long-petiolate leaves, poorly defined infloresence and thinner indumentum. There is considerable variation recorded in flower and fruit characters.
44779		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44779		habitat	eng	Coastal plains and limestone slopes; dwarf shrubland. Altitude to sea-level to 200 m. <br/> <br/><em>H. wagneri</em> is distinguished by its shortly petiolate, narrowly elliptic or lanceolate leaves and glabrous or hairy fruits breaking into two pairs of fused nutlets. A specimen from Samha (Miller 11447, E) resembles typical <em>H. wagneri</em> in its flowers and leaves but the fruits breaks into four nutlets. It is interesting that the flowers of this species are consistently white on Abd al Kuri whilst they are always yellow on Samha.
44780		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra (recorded from Jebel Derafonte).
44781		conservation	eng	Although it is present within the Nyungwe National Park, it seems additional measures are needed to conserve the habitat of this species. There is a need for bat awareness programmes for local people to prevent overharvesting of the species. Further field surveys are also needed to locate important roosts and to learn more about the natural history of this poorly known bat.
44781		distribution	eng	This species is known only within the Nyunwe National Park, Rwanda. It has been identified from only two close localities (approximately 8 km apart). Field surveys in surrounding areas of potentially suitable habitat have not found additional populations. It has an elevational range of between 1,750 and 2,512 m asl (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002).
44781		habitat	eng	The only records of this species were from the Albertine rift montane tropical moist forest (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002). The day roosting sites of the species are not known, but seems likely to be caves and similar habitats (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is not known if the species can persist in areas of degraded forest.
44781		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species; colonies of this species have yet to be found but are likely to be small (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002).
44781		threats	eng	Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002) indicates that while there is little information available on this seemingly limited range species, it is probably threatened by habitat destruction (presumably by logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use) and direct exploitation (for subsistence food) in their day roosts.
44782		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but it has been recorded from the Sapoba Forest Reserve in Nigeria and the Bali Forest Reserve in Cameroon (Cotterill 2002). There is a need to identify and protect important areas for this species. Further research is needed into the species distribution, including the location of any additional colonies.
44782		distribution	eng	This species is largely endemic to West and Central Africa, with a single questionable record from northern Uganda. It has been recorded from a few small, and disjunct, colonies in Liberia (including Voinjama; Tokadeh; and the Wonegizi Mountains), Guinea, Nigeria (Sapoba Forest Reserve) and Cameroon (including Lake Manenguba and the Bali Forest Reserve).
44782		habitat	eng	Populations of this species have been recorded from caves in both montane and lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.
44782		population	eng	The species appears to have a small population, but further research is needed to confirm this.
44782		threats	eng	Colonies are threatened by general deforestation, often resulting from logging and mining operations, and overharvesting for the bushmeat trade.
44783		conservation	eng	While the species is present in the Mazumbai Forest Reserve, further habitat protection is generally needed. Additional field surveys are needed to better determine the true extent of the species geographic range.
44783		distribution	eng	This poorly known bat has only been recorded from two localities in Tanzania at elevations of up to 1,900 m asl,  the type locality of 'Amboni Cave Forest, Mkulumuzi River Gorge, 2.5 km W of Tanga, Tanga District' (Kock <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Mazumbai Forest Reserve in the Usambara Mountains. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the range of this recently described species.
44783		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known. It roosts in caves and seems likely to be associated with forest habitats.
44783		population	eng	The species is currently known only from two specimens, and there is no information on population sizes or trends.
44783		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44784		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from some protected areas, such as the  Mount Ruwenzori National Park. There is a need to reduce levels of deforestation within the Albertine Rift region as a whole. There is a need to initiate and develop public awareness programmes in the region, and to reduce the disturbance of roosting localities. Further field surveys are needed to locate additional population of this species.
44784		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of the Albertine Rift, where it has been recorded from the countries of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Rwanda, at elevations of 1,666 to 2,666 m asl. The distribution includes the Ruwenzori Mountains, Kivu Region and Kibali-Ituri-Forest, Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest and Mutura in northwestern Rwanda (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).
44784		habitat	eng	Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002), report that the species is present in Albertine Rift Montane Forest, the Rwenzori-Virunga Montane Moorlands, and marginally into the Northeastern Congolian Lowland Forests and the Victoria Bain Forest-Savanna Mosaic. This species uses natural caves and similar man made environments, such as abandoned mine shafts, as roosting habitats (Faher <em>et al</em>. 2002). Colony size ranges from one to ten individuals (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002).
44784		population	eng	This species is known only from 36 specimens collected from 13 localities, these total only eight distinct locations.
44784		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the deforestation of its montane habitat, generally through logging and mining activities, and the conversion of forest to farmland. It is dependant on cave habitats for roosting, and it is likely that disturbance of these sites could be an important threat to the species. It may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food, and while this needs to be fully confirmed populations are vulnerable to direct exploitation.
44785		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to better determine the extent of the distribution of this species, to gather more information on the species natural history, and to review the threats to this species.
44785		distribution	eng	This recently described bat species is known only from the type locality of Kavunda, between the Sakeji and Zambezi rivers: c. 11 km north-north-east of the source of the Zambezi River in the Ikelenge Pedicle, Mwinilunga District of north-west Zambia (Cotterill 2002). It is likely that the species is also present within similar suitable habitat in Angola and the Congo basin (Cotterill 2002).
44785		habitat	eng	Cotterill (2002) collected the species hanging within evergreen foliage on the underside of a branch at the base of a large tree, within a stand of gallery forest within mesic miombo woodland. It is also reported to be found within roosting within hollow trees (Cotterill 2002).
44785		population	eng	It is currently known only from the type collection of three bats, taken from a cluster of six roosting bats.
44785		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is presumably threatened by the loss of roosting sites resulting from logging and the conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural use.
44786		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect suitable areas of forest habitat for this species, and to initiate appropriate bat conservation awareness programmes among local people. In addition, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
44786		distribution	eng	This West African bat is known from two localities in the Guinea Highlands (c. 600 m asl) of southeast Guinea (Ziama Forest) and north-west Liberia (Wonegizi Mountains) (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002). Surrounding areas have been surveyed but the species has not been found elsewhere.
44786		habitat	eng	This species is associated with both montane and lowland tropical moist forest. The Guinea specimens were captured in a secondary forest close to primary forest, while the Liberian specimen was captured in upland "undisturbed High Forest" (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002). The day roosts of this species are not known, although it is suspected to roost as small colonies in caves, mine shafts and similar habitats (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).
44786		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens.
44786		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat, largely through logging and mining operations, and conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also considered possible that the species could be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food in the future.
44787		conservation	eng	This species is probably present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this bat.
44787		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to South Africa and Lesotho. Skinner and Chimimba (2005) provide the distribution of the species being "confined to the Northern Cape and the Western Cape, where they occur from the vicinity of Franschhoek north to Citrusdal and north-east to Beaufort West and Mazelsfontein in the Great Karoo" but may range a little more widely than this. The species has been recorded at four localities in the eastern Free State and from a number of localities in adjacent Lesotho (Lynch 1994; Watson 1998).
44787		habitat	eng	In the eastern part of its range this bat has been reported close to water in open montane grassveld, and from broken country with koppies and cliffs (Lynch 1994; Watson 1998; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In the Western Cape it inhabits fynbos and possibly the succulent karoo. In the Free State and Lesotho, a number of animals have been collected from rock crevices, including a group of 40 individuals (Watson 1998).
44787		population	eng	This species is very rarely recorded.
44787		threats	eng	It is locally threatened in parts of its range by conversion of land to agricultural use.
44788		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is unclear if it occurs within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known species.
44788		distribution	eng	This southern African species ranges from the type locality of Moçâmedes in southwestern Angola, southwards through western Namibia (the four localities of Berseba, Huab River mouth, Lüderitz district, and 70 km west of Maltahohe) to three localities in the Northern Cape of South Africa (Goegab, Goodhouse on the Orange River, and Steyerskraal) (Herselman 1980; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
44788		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. All of the localities from which they have been collected are arid with a mean annual rainfall of less than 100 mm (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Specimens have usually been caught close to open water, and have been observed gleaning insects from orange trees (Roberts 1951; Taylor 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
44788		population	eng	It appears to be a rarely recorded species.
44788		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened by mining operations in a small part of its range.
44789		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the species distribution, natural history and threats.
44789		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Central Africa where it has been recorded from Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The range is poorly known and it may be distributed more widely.
44789		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. Little additional information is available on the natural history and adaptability of this species.
44789		population	eng	It is generally considered to be rare, however, there have been few recent surveys within the species range.
44789		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known.
44790		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little recorded species.
44790		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Central and East Africa. It ranges from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), into the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and possibly northern Malawi, with the southernmost record from northwestern Angola. The range is not well known and the species is expected to be distributed more widely than is currently known.
44790		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest and moist savanna habitats. It has been recorded roosting in vegetation. There is little information currently available on the natural history of this species. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded, or secondary, forest habitats.
44790		population	eng	This is a rarely recorded, poorly known species.
44790		threats	eng	The species is threatened in the western and eastern parts of its range by deforestation resulting from logging activities, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
44791		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known bat.
44791		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire in the west, through Ghana and Nigeria to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), with scattered records from Gabon, Central African Republic, Angola, Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
44791		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest (Happold, 1987). There appears to be little information available on the roosting habits of this species, but presumably it can be found within hollow trees and dense vegetation. It is not known if the species can persist in areas of disturbed forest.
44791		population	eng	This appears to be a rare, or at least a rarely recorded, species.
44791		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general habitat loss, often resulting from logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
44792		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
44792		distribution	eng	This Central African species is known only from southern Cameroon and a single locality in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Yalosemba North of the River).
44792		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest and swamp forest. Little further is known of the species natural history.
44792		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. The area where this species has been recorded is often inaccessible and it is difficult to catch this species.
44792		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44793		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve in the Central African Republic (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2001), and may be present in additional protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known bat.
44793		distribution	eng	This little known African bat has currently only been recorded from three localities. The type locality is Bibundi in the Western Province of Cameroon (Thomas 1913); three individuals (as <em>G.</em> cf. <em>egeria</em>) were collected from Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve in the Central African Republic (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2001); the species indicated as being present in western Uganda by Koopman (1993), although further details are needed of the collection site in this country.
44793		habitat	eng	There appears to be little information available on the natural history of this species. Lunde <em>et al.</em> (2001) recorded three specimens (allocated to<em>G. egeria</em>) collected in dense secondary tropical lowland forest and along a forest road.
44793		population	eng	This species is known from very few specimens.
44793		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44794		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and potential threats to this species.
44794		distribution	eng	This poorly known African bat has only been recorded from the type locality of 'near Lomie' in Cameroon, and from a single site in western Uganda.
44794		habitat	eng	This poorly known bat is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. It is presumed to live in small colonies, as with other members of this genus.
44794		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
44794		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by logging and the conversion of forest habitat to agricultural use.
44795		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this poorly known forest species.
44795		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda. It has been reported from Kenya, but no specific locality information is available (Aggundey and Schlitter 1984).
44795		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. Presumably it roosts within hollow trees and dense vegetation, although this needs confirmation.
44795		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
44795		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It may be threatened within parts of its range by deforestation resulting from logging and mining activities, and the conversion of forest to farmland.
44796		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. There is a need for additional field surveys to better understand the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
44796		distribution	eng	This little known African bat has only been recorded from the type locality of 'Galole Road, 8.5 km north of Garsen, Coast Province, Kenya'.
44796		habitat	eng	There appears to be little habitat or ecological information available for this species. It may be an inhabitant of coastal forest.
44796		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection.
44796		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear. If it is associated with coastal forest habitats, it is likely to be threatened by extraction of wood and conversion of land to agricultural use.
44797		conservation	eng	The species does not appear to be present in a protected area. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species, as is field research into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
44797		distribution	eng	This little known species has only been recorded from the type locality of 'Lac Calundo'. in eastern Angola.
44797		habitat	eng	There are few details on the natural history of this species, however, Koopman (1971) mentions that most members of this genus are more or less restricted to forested areas.
44797		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
44797		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44798		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution of this species, and to gather additional information on the natural history of this little known bat.
44798		distribution	eng	This species is largely distributed in West and Central Africa, with a possible record from northeastern Tanzania. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through much of West Africa to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (the island of Bioko) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa.
44798		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest (Happold 1987). Colonies are formed of small groups of animals, up to eight individuals, that roost in holes in trees, on the fronds of coconut palms, and presumably in similar vegetation (Rosevear 1965; Jeffrey 1975; Happold 1987).
44798		population	eng	While the species is generally rare, it is considered to be one of the more common forest species of the genus <em>Glauconycteris</em>.
44798		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging and similar activities.
44799		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It may be protected within the Ituri Forest, although this needs to be confirmed. There is a need for further directed field surveys to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
44799		distribution	eng	This little known African bat has been recorded from Côte d'Ivoire (locality not given) (Peterson and Smith 1973); from Oda in Oda Province, Ghana (Hayman 1947; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998); and from the Ituri Forest in northeastern Congo. It has previously been reported to occur in Uganda, however, this is now considered to be in error. It may be present in Sierra Leone, however, it has yet to have been recorded in this country (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
44799		habitat	eng	This species is associated with 'heavy' or closed lowland tropical moist forest (Rosevear 1965; Hayman and Hill 1971). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat degradation.
44799		population	eng	It is currently known only from three specimens. It is very rare, or at least rarely collected (Hayman and Hill 1971; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).
44799		threats	eng	As it has only been recorded from closed forest, it may be threatened by deforestation due to general logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
44800		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species wide distribution it is presumably present in some protected areas.
44800		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in West Africa, through West and Central Africa to Ethiopia and Somalia in the east, from here it ranges south through East Africa and southern Africa, being recorded as far south as northeastern South Africa.
44800		habitat	eng	This species is associated with open savanna woodland, bushland and riverine woodland (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Animals are generally considered to be absent from areas of closed forest, although Rosevear (1965) suggests that the species is present in rainforest. Roosting colonies, containing a few pairs of animals, have been found in thatched roofs of abandoned huts and among dense vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 1917; Ansell and Dowsett 1988).Taylor, 1998
44800		population	eng	Colonies of this species are small, and there are believed to be less than 10,000 individuals in total.
44800		threats	eng	In view of the species wide range and availability of extensive suitable habitat, there are no major threats to this species. This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
44801		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44801		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland on northern and western coastal plains. Altitude of sea-level to 50 m.
44802		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44802		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>Vierhapper also recorded it from Abd al Kuri but an examination of his material leads the assessor to consider it to be referable to <em>H. wagneri</em>.
44803		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44803		habitat	eng	Sandy and coral derived soils on coastal plains and thin soil overlying limestone; dwarf shrubland and <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 350 m. <br/> <br/>Vierhapper considered <em>H. socotraum</em> to have hairy fruits separating into four glabrous, rugose nutlets and yellow flowers. Recorded by Vierhapper from Bandar Shuub.
44804		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44804		habitat	eng	Widespread and sometimes common in dwarf shrubland and drought deciduous woodland; Altitude of 300–700 m. <br/> <br/>This shrubby species is distinguished by the yellowish green, bullate (wrinkled) leaves.
44805		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44805		habitat	eng	Drought deciduous woodland and on wadi sides in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland; seems to prefer damp sand and is a frequent weed along the wadis running through date gardens on the Hadiboh plain. Altitude of 50–250 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the basal rosettes of long-petiolate, dentate-undulate leaves (at least on young plants) and long prostrate stems.
44806		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44806		habitat	eng	Locally abundant on the southern limestone plateau in <em>Dracaena</em> woodland (Firmihin) and semi-deciduous woodland (Qatariyah). Altitude of 400–600 m. <br/> <br/>A shrub < 1 m, almost prostrate in exposed places, all parts thinly covered with short, appressed, tuberculate-based hairs. Leaves: subopposite, dark green, glossy, broadly elliptic to subcircular, 0.5–1.2 x 0.5–1 cm, rounded, entire. Flowers: solitary or paired at ends of branches. Calyx: narrowly triangular, <em>ca</em>. 1 mm long. Corolla: white, 6–7 mm across; tube very short. Stigmas: triangular. Nutlets: 4. <br/> <br/>A very distinctive species distinguished by the subopposite, almost circular glossy leaves. Its affinities within the genus are not at all obvious.
44807		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44807		habitat	eng	Common in drought-deciduous woodland on the limestone escarpments and in sheltered places on the limestone plateau, also in succulent shrubland and submontane woodland. Altitude of 15–1,220 m. <br/> <br/>Plants from Abd al Kuri are generally smaller in all parts and have been recognized as a separate species, <em>T. atrichum</em> Vierh. However, the differences are small and here they are considered an extreme form of this variable species.
44808		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44808		habitat	eng	Restricted to higher parts of the Haggeher mountains in montane evergreen woodland and shrubland. Altitude of 900–1,500 m.
44809		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44809		habitat	eng	A locally common understorey shrub in montane thicket in the central Haggeher mountains. Altitude of (650–)850–1,250 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive, understorey species, with large, soft leaves and big, creamy-white, funnel-shaped flowers which are arranged in pendent inflorescences that resemble the head of an upturned mop. Recorded from Northeast Soqotra (Homhil at 650 m) in the 19th Century but not seen since.
44810		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44810		habitat	eng	Rare on the Southeast limestone plateau where it is found on an exposed and sparsely vegetated desert plain. Altitude of 700 m. <br/> <br/>A compact, cushion-forming shrublet distinguished by its silvery sericeous leaves and its congested, capsular fruits.
44811		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44811		habitat	eng	On limestone cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland dominated by <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>, <em>Buxus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Croton socotranus</em>. Altitude of 700–800 m. <br/> <br/>This small tree is common on the limestone plateau of Firmihin. It is clearly related to <em>B. ameero</em>, which does not grow in the area, but differs in its cliff-rooting habit and pale pink petals. It grows side by side with <em>B. dioscorides</em> (the only place where two cliff-dwelling species have been observed growing together). It is readily distinguished from <em>B. dioscorides</em> by its green, not glaucous, leaves and in differences in the shape of the "holdfast" which attaches the trunk to the cliff face.
44812		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44812		habitat	eng	Rare on limestone cliffs in dry, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 100–300 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive cliff-dwelling tree, characterized by its pinnate leaves and crinkly, deeply irregularly crenate-serrate leaflets. There is some variation; plants from the single population known in the east of the island (at Bit gobeher) differ from trees from the west (at Wadi Ayeq and the cliffs above Qaysoh) in having red (not greenish yellow) petals and leaves with fewer (9–13), more regularly and less deeply crenate-serrate leaflets.
44813		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44813		habitat	eng	Widespread and sometimes abundant on limestone cliffs in dry, semi-deciduous woodland in the south and east of the island. Altitude of 200–750 m. <br/> <br/>An exclusively cliff-dwelling species distinguished by its glaucous leaves and strongly peeling bark.
44814		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44814		habitat	eng	Rare on limestone cliffs and limestone pavement, in dry, semi-deciduous woodland in the Northeast of the island. Altitude of 300–550 m. <br/> <br/><em>B. nana</em> is recognized here as a complex of low, sometimes totally prostrate shrubs and small trees found on limestone cliffs and areas of flat limestone pavement in a relatively restricted area of Northeast Soqotra. Thulin and Al-Gifri (1998) regarded <em>B. nana</em> as a reduced form of <em>B. popoviana</em>.  However, it differs from that species in its smaller, more reduced panicles of red, not yellowish flowers and the glabrous not white-felted undersurface of its leaves. Certain plants from inland cliffs in Northeast Soqotra, included here under <em>B. nana</em>, show great variation in the degree of the division of their leaves and in their habit. The assessor strongly suspects that these plants are the result of hybridization with <em>B. socotrana</em>. The clearest evidence for this is a tree  found at the base of limestone cliffs at Hamadero which is somewhat intermediate in appearance between <em>B. socotrana</em> and "typical" <em>B. nana</em>. It bears both simple and pinnate leaves with the pinnate leaves having the winged rhachises which are otherwise diagnostic of <em>B. socotrana</em>. It seems also to be intermediate in its ecology: typical <em>B. nana</em> is restricted to cliffs, <em>B. socotrana</em> is ground-rooted whereas the intermediate plant was found growing amongst rocks at the base of cliffs. Populations of <em>B. nana</em> found on the seaward-facing escarpments of northeast Soqotra bear only simple leaves.
44815		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44815		habitat	eng	Emergent from <em>Croton shrubland</em> on plains in Western Soqotra (wadi Eyek, 50 m); emergent in <em>Croton</em> shrubland at 350 on road to Dixsam. <br/> <br/>Sometimes has five leaflets (100 m); bark reddish, not peeling.
44816		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44816		habitat	eng	Clearings in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 500–750 m. <br/> <br/>This delicate annual with its small, pretty, bell-shaped flowers appears soon after rain but rapidly dies back to nothing in the dry season.
44817		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44817		habitat	eng	Rare in open dwarf shrubland (Zahr) and degraded succulent shrubland (Killisan) in two widely separated locations. Altitude of 100–350 m. <br/> <br/>Gnarled tree with fleshy dark green leaves and fissured bark. Flowers and fruits at the end of the winter and beginning of summer.
44818		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44818		habitat	eng	The ecology of this species is not clear. It is found in two very different habitats: at low altitudes in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland by the coast and in montane shrubland amongst the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher. Altitude of sea-level to 1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Said to be on the increase in some areas (for instance at Halle in Northeast Soqotra).
44819		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44819		habitat	eng	Restricted the western Haggeher mountains where it is found in low shrubland on rocky granite slopes. Altitude of 450–900 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its large, entirely brown bracts and the petiolate, linear-oblanceolate, olive-green leaves. Previously <em>G. bracteatus</em> was used in a broad sense to include all plants found on Soqotra, Abd al Kuri and in Oman. However, here <em>G. bracteatus</em> is used strictly for plants from Soqotra. <em>G. bracteatus</em> is probably more closely related to species (<em>G. argenteus</em> and <em>G. dhofarensis</em>) from the Arabian mainland than to <em>G. kuriensis</em>.
44820		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44820		habitat	eng	Abd al Kuri: Dwarf shrubland on low sand-dunes, gravel plains and broken rocky slopes. Altitude of 30–500 m.  <br/>Soqotra: exposed and windswept places on the limestone plateau in dwarf shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>Most closely related to <em>G. rotundifolius</em> from the coastal desert of central Oman. Distinguished from <em>G. bracteatus</em> by its grey-green, obovoid to subglobose leaves.
44821		distribution	eng	A monotypic genus endemic to Soqotra.
44821		habitat	eng	Ravines and hillsides, on limestone and granite, in drought-deciduous shrubland. Altitude of 200–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>A rather insignificant prostrate herb. The small flowers are almost completely hidden within the globose clusters of brownish scarious bracts. <em>Haya</em> is superficially similar to <em>Polycarpaea hayoides</em> but differs in its one-seeded capsules and sessile, not stalked, clusters of flowers.
44822		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44822		habitat	eng	Gravelly plains, rocky slopes and wadi-sides in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of 15–600 m. <br/> <br/>A delicate annual herb with linear stem leaves.
44823		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44823		habitat	eng	On large boulders, rocky wadi-sides and cliffs on limestone in dwarf shrubland, succulent shrubland and semi-decidous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m. <br/> <br/>A rather brittle perennial herb with the many stems bearing whorls of linear leaves and arising from a woody stock.
44824		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44824		habitat	eng	Abd al Kuri: rocky slopes in desertic dwarf shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 150 m. <br/> <br/>Differs from other <em>Polycarpaea</em> species on Abd al Kuri by its narrowly spathulate, grey-green leaves (cf. <em>P. caespitosa</em> and <em>P. kuriensis</em>).
44825		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44825		habitat	eng	Rocky wadi-sides on limestone and in date gardens in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shubland. Altitude of  50–450 m. <br/> <br/>Superficially resembling <em>Haya obovata</em> but differing in its three-seeded capsule that opens from the apex and the stalked clusters of flowers.
44826		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44826		habitat	eng	Rocky slopes in dwarf shrubland (Soqotra and Samna) and low succulent shrubland (Abd al Kuri). Altitude of 250–600 m. <br/> <br/>Distingusihed from all the other species of <em>Polycarpaea</em> in the Archipelago by its peduncles which are characteristically swollen beneath the flowering heads. In exposed places or when it has been intensively grazed it often forms dense cushions, the short stems arising from a woody plate-like basal rootstock.
44827		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44827		habitat	eng	Dwarf desertic shrubland, <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland and rarely in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 550 m. <br/> <br/>All plants on Soqotra are referable to var. <em>capillaris</em> Balf.f. No material of <em>P. spicata</em> var <em>spicata</em> has been seen on Soqotra. Var. <em>capillaries</em> differs from var. <em>spicata</em> in several significant respects and should probably be raised to specific status.
44828		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44828		habitat	eng	Succulent shrubland (Soqotra) and low shrubland dominated by <em>Atriplex griffithii</em> (Samha). Altitude of 50–500 m. <br/> <br/>A delicately-stemmed prostrate annual with narrowly spathulate stem leaves.
44829		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra.
44829		habitat	eng	Rare in relict semi-deciduous woodland on limestone cliffs. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 580 m. <br/> <br/>The fasciculate flowers in the inflorescence are unusual in <em>Maytenus</em> in this area although the same structure is also found in <em>M. undata</em>, a species found in Yemen, Ethiopia, Somalia and widespread in tropical and southern Africa. However, the small leaves with entire margins arranged on short spur shoots and the presence of spines distinguishes the taxon on Soqotra from <em>M. undata</em>. <em>M. artbutifolius</em> has rather similar size and shape leaves but they are usually serrate and the inflorescence is clearly branched. In addition, <em>M. arbutifolius</em> is a much more spinose plant.
44830		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44830		habitat	eng	Locally abundant in open dwarf shrubland on the drier parts of the limestone plateaus. Altitude of 300–700 m. <br/> <br/>The only densely spiny clump-forming perennial on Soqotra. Both leaves and phyllaries (the bracts around the flowers are stiff and very sharp.
44831		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44831		habitat	eng	The species on Soqotra is unusual in <em>Distephanus</em> for its habit, leaf venation and one-rowed pappus.
44832		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44832		habitat	eng	A common cushion-plant of rock-faces on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 600–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>Readily recognized by its rigid, sharp-tipped, linear leaves and the flowering heads held erect on long stalks. It is one of the characteristic, and most common, cushion plants of the Haggeher where it frequently grows with <em>Hypericum scopulorum</em> and <em>Helichrsyum rosulatum</em>, the only other cushion-forming species of <em>Helichrysum</em> on Soqotra. There is a puzzling 19th Century record of this species from the Northeast of Soqotra (Homhil) in Forbes (1903). This refers to fruits collected by the expedition . However, no material can be traced and this is a highly unlikely area for this species to occur.
44833		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44833		habitat	eng	Typically growing in shade in grassy clearings and at the foot of cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 200–750 m. <br/> <br/>The only annual species <em>Helichrysum</em> on Soqotra clothed in long woolly hairs.
44834		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44834		habitat	eng	In grassy clearings and amongst rocks in semi-deciduous woodland on both granite and limestone. Altitude of 370–1,067 m. <br/> <br/>One of the group of <em>Helichrysum</em> species on Soqotra with zygomorphic outer florets. Distinguished from all other <em>Helichrysums</em> on Soqotra by its wiry flowering stalks which characteristically recurve with age.
44835		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44835		habitat	eng	Common in the Haggeher mountains; in semi-deciduous submontane woodland; particularly abundant, on sheltered ridges and in the dense thicket around the base of the granite pinnacles, in the eastern Haggeher. Altitude of 900–110 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>H. suffruticosum</em> but larger shrub with smaller, elliptic (not spathulate) leaves with entire margins. Reported to be increaseing in the eastern Haggeher.
44837		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44837		habitat	eng	A common cushion-plant of rock-faces on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 750–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>One of the characteristic cushion plants of the Haggeher, frequently growing with <em>Hypericum scopulorum</em> and <em>Helichrsyum aciculare</em>, the only other cushion-forming species of <em>Helichrysum</em> on Soqotra. <em>H. rosulatum</em> is readily recognized by its soft, narrowly elliptic leaves and the more or less sessile flowering heads. It is less common than <em>H. aciculare</em> and seems more ecologically demanding, being less widespread and not growing at such low altitudes as that species.
44838		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44838		habitat	eng	Samha: Cliffs and in gorges on summit plateau; likes areas that get mists. Altitude of 500–550 m. <br/> <br/>Woody-based herb with fleshy leaves and white flowers.
44839		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44839		habitat	eng	Hanging on limestone cliffs in shrubland. Altitude of 500–800 m. <br/> <br/>Aromatic shrub with greyish-green leaves and pink or lilac flowers. Similar to <em>H. suffruticosum</em> but differing in the narrower, more densely hairy leaves with nerves radiating from the base and entire margin.
44840		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44840		habitat	eng	Hanging on limestone cliffs. Altitude of 50–150 m. <br/> <br/>Shrub with fleshy, whitish green leaves and pink flowers. Found only on vertical rock faces around springs and seepages. In the likelihood of these springs being developed they may even warrant Critically Endangered status. (cf <em>Helichrysum</em> sp. nov., <em>Exacum socotranum</em>, <em>Scaveola socotraensis</em>, <em>Erythroxylum socotranum</em>).
44841		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44841		habitat	eng	Restricted to cliffs on a windswept ridge at the western end of Soqotra. Altitude of 380–530 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>Helichrysum samhaensis</em> but distinguished by the yellow-green, non-fleshy leaves, broadly spathulate leaves. Only known from two collections, both lack mature flowers on the isolated ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub) in the extreme east of the island. This ridge probably captures mists from the monsoon (cf. <em>Nesocrambe socotrana</em> and <em>Pulicaria dioscorides</em>).
44842		distribution	eng	Endemic to Samha?
44842		habitat	eng	North-facing cliffs and broken rocky slopes; seems to prefer areas that attract drizzle and low cloud. Altitude of 500–550 m. <br/> <br/>Mat-forming perennial. Leaves obovate, green above, silvery beneath. Phyllaries golden-brown in overlapping rows, obtuse, margins translucent. Flowers unknown. <br/> <br/>A locally common plant on Samha. Probably referable to <em>Helichrysum</em> but only very old capitula have been seen; more material is required before an assessment can be made.
44843		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44843		habitat	eng	In the Haggeher mountains locally common in semi deciduous montane woodland and shrubland; Altitude of 850–1,300 m.  <br/>In the western limestone plateau on rocky limestone slopes in low shrubland (with <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em> and <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>); Altitude of 650–800 m.
44844		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44844		habitat	eng	Rare in montane semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 1,350 m. <br/> <br/>Last seen by Alan Radcliffe-Smith in 1967.
44845		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44845		habitat	eng	Occasional in semi-deciduous woodland on both limestone and granite. Altitude of 750–800 m. <br/> <br/><em>Kleinia</em> is a genus of succulent shrubs related to the widespread genus <em>Senecio</em>. The rounded, pencil-like stems bear distinctive markings radiating downwards from the leaf scars. This is the only succulent <em>Compositae</em> on Soqotra.
44846		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44846		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland and open woodland in semi-decidous woodland in mist-affected areas. Altitude of 400–800 m. <br/> <br/>Herb < 15 cm with small, woody taproot. Basal leaves in a dense rosette, spathulate, 1.5–4 x  0.1–0.2 cm, sinuate. Capitula in little-branched inflorescence; cylindrical, 0.5–1 cm long. <br/> <br/>Restricted to mist-effected regions on Soqotra including the Haggeher mountains, Jebal Ma’alih and the areas of relict woodland on the Southwest plateaus. It is also found in the refugium of relatively mesic conditions on the north-facing limestone cliffs on Samha (cf <em>Begonia samhaensis</em>).
44847		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44847		habitat	eng	Succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 100 m.
44848		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44848		habitat	eng	Widespread in a variety of vegetation types on Soqotra and Samha. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>Following Kilian (1997, p.265) we have retained <em>L. socotrana</em> as distinct from <em>L. massauensis</em> but they are very difficult to separate using the key characters. Life-span (annual in <em>L. massauensis</em> and perennial in <em>L. socotrana</em>) is a difficult character to determine since both taxa have a thin taproot and no obviously well-developed storage organ. Outer achene colour is similarly not a clear defining character and specimens identified as <em>L. socotrana</em> have blackish outer achenes.
44849		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44849		habitat	eng	Rare, only collected once from a vertical rock face on granite pinnacles in the western Haggeher; growing with <em>Helichrysum rosulatum</em>, <em>Nirurathamnos asarifolius</em> and <em>Hypericum tortuosum</em>. Altitude of ca.1,550 m. <br/> <br/>Kilian (1997) includes this specimen in <em>L. crepoides</em>. However, in facies it is very distinct differing in its generally larger size, habit, leaf shape and colour. It also has a different geographical distribution and ecological habitat. Further collections are needed before the correct status of this interesting collection can be assessed.
44850		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44850		habitat	eng	No habitat details available. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 800 m. <br/> <br/>It was a subshrub with erect stems and lilac flowers in dense terminal panicles. See notes under <em>Pulicaria aromatica</em>.
44851		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
44851		distribution	eng	This largely southern African species ranges from Angola in the west, through southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from here south into Zambia, Zimbabwe, and eastern South Africa. It could be more widespread in southern Africa than is currently understood (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). The species has recently been recorded from Madagascar for the first time, where it was collected from four localities (Kirindy Forest [CFPF]; Sept Lacs; Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea; Parc National de Zombitse-Vohibasia) (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006).
44851		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with dry and moist savanna. Specimens in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were collected from well wooded associations such as Afromontane forest, coastal forest or bushveld (Taylor, 1998). On Madagascar, Bates <em>et al</em>. (2006) reports that specimens were netted over a water pool in relatively intact dry deciduous forest; obtained in open saltpan habitat at the foot of coastal dunes and next to artesian sources forming small freshwater pools; netted in gallery forest along the Onilahy River, near Sept Lacs, in a zone dominated by xerophytic spiny bush; and collected in a dry deciduous forest that also contains some floristic elements of humid forest.
44851		population	eng	It is a locally common species in southern Africa. Very few specimens are currently known from Madagascar.
44851		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although further research is needed to confirm this.
44852		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research on the taxonomy, population ecology and trends is required and the extent of the range requires further clarification.
44852		distribution	eng	Recorded from Israel, Jordan and Egypt (including the Sinai) within the Mediterranean (Dietz, 2005). Outside the area the range extends to Saudi Arabia, and Yemen (including Socotra, but that may be treated as a separate species). In Africa is recorded from northern Sudan (type locality, see Simmons in Wilson and Reeder 2005). <br/>Approximately five localities known in northeast Africa, including Egypt and Sudan.
44852		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky areas, desert and semi-desert. Occurs in oases and forages near the ground and around trees. Roosts in cracks and crevices. In Jordan this species occurs around farms and irrigated areas (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005).
44852		population	eng	The population is apparently small but is probably stable (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005).
44852		threats	eng	Loss of natural habitat because of agricultural intensification. The species is affected by pesticides, although this is not considered a major threat (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005).
44853		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species.
44853		distribution	eng	This widespread African bat has been recorded from Guinea, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire in the west, from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Angola, southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya (Kakamega Forest).
44853		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from both montane and lowland tropical moist forest, and from lowland tropical dry forest.
44853		population	eng	This species has rarely been recorded.
44853		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.
44854		conservation	eng	It is unclear if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and threats to this species.
44854		distribution	eng	This species was initially described from Cameroon, where it has been recorded from localities including the Rumpi Highlands, Mount Kupe and Mount Cameroon. Although there are additional records of this species from Kenya, Somalia, Uganda and from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is uncertain that these actually refer to <em>Pipistrellus eisentrauti</em>. Confirmation of the possible distribution outside of Cameroon is needed.
44854		habitat	eng	This is typically a forest species, and has been recorded from montane and presumably lowland tropical moist forest, and possibly from tropical dry forest and mangrove forest.
44854		population	eng	The population is little known, but it may be locally common in Cameroon.
44854		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but in Cameroon are likely to include encroachment on montane forest by subsistence agriculture.
44855		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
44855		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from a few localities in Ghana, Sierra Leone, southern Cameroon, Gabon, the eastern tip of Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
44855		habitat	eng	Most records have been from lowland tropical moist forest, tropical dry forest and from Guinea savanna.
44855		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well known.
44855		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44856		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive.
44856		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in protected areas.
44856		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic (and marginally in Indomalaya), extending from southern Europe and north Africa (France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, the Balkan countries, Morocco, Algeria, the Canary Islands and Cape Verde Islands) through the Middle East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, northern India and Burma (Horáček and Benda 2004, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,600 m.
44856		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic (and marginally in Indomalaya), extending from southern Europe and north Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, the Canary Islands of La Palma, Tenerife, La Gomera, Gran Canaria, and El Hierro, and the Cape Verde Islands of Santiago and San Vicente) through the Middle East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and northern India (Horácek and Benda 2004, Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m.
44856		habitat	eng	It forages over open woodland, pasture and wetlands, and often feeds at lights in rural areas, towns and cities.<br/>It roosts in rock crevices, occasionally in fissures in buildings or under bark, rarely in underground habitats. Found mainly in  uplands and mountains in North Africa, foraging over water and prairies, roosting in crevices of rocks, trees and buildings. Occurs around cliffs and in rocky areas and deep valleys in the Canaries.<br/><br/>Nothing is known about the migratory behaviour of this species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Migration is suspected in Europe but the longest movement recorded is 250 km.
44856		habitat	eng	It forages over open woodland, pasture and wetlands, and often feeds at lights in rural areas, towns and cities.<br/>It roosts in rock crevices, occasionally in fissures in buildings or under bark, rarely in underground habitats. Nothing is known about the migratory behaviour of this species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
44856		population	eng	In the western part of its range it generally occurs at low densities and is restricted by its habitat requirements, but it is abundant in some European areas bordering the Mediterranean. Summer maternity colonies usually number 20-70 females. In the Canary Islands it is the commonest bat species. In the eastern part of its range population size and trends are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).
44856		population	eng	It generally occurs at low densities and is restricted by its habitat requirements, but it is abundant in some European areas bordering the Mediterranean. Summer maternity colonies usually number 20-70 females. Range expansion from northern Italy through Austria up to the Czech Republic and Slovakia has recently occurred.
44856		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
44856		threats	eng	There are probably few threats in its mainland distribution, except when roosting in buildings.
44857		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g. Tai National Park, Côte d'Ivoire).
44857		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Senegal in the west of its range, throughout much of West Africa to Cameroon, and from here eastwards into southern parts of Central African Republic and throughout much of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, ranging southwards into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), Gabon, Congo and Angola (isolated records). The species has been recorded up to 2,500 m asl.
44857		habitat	eng	Although the species is commonly found in high tropical moist forest and also dry forest formations, its preferred habitat appears to be swamp forest with abundant palms. It has been recorded from cultivated areas, notably oil palm plantations. It is a generally solitary and nocturnal species.
44857		population	eng	It may be relatively common in suitable habitats, however, individuals are difficult to observe, and specimens have rarely been collected. The species is possibly declining locally, but it is generally still widespread.
44857		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. It is used in traditional medicine in parts of the species range (M. Ekue pers. comm.).
44858		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
44858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Zambezian region of Africa, where it has been recorded from east and north of the Kafue River in Zambia, in a 100 km radius around the city of Lusaka. It has been reported from the north-eastern suburbs of Lusaka (e.g. Ngwerere, Munguli).
44858		habitat	eng	This is a species of savanna bushland (moist miombo woodland), where mean annual rainfall is approximately 820 mm. It has been recorded in modified habitats such as rural gardens and golf-courses. It is a social, subterranean species that generally lives in colonies of up to 12 animals. The species is a seasonal breeder with a litter of two young.
44858		population	eng	While this species is known to be abundant in the Lusaka and central provinces, there have been no systematic population surveys to date. Although relatively abundant within parts of its range, there is reason to be believe the population is declining because of overharvesting
44858		threats	eng	As with all mole-rats in Zambia, heavy overharvesting for human consumption is a major threat to this species. The species is considered to be an agricultural and horticultural pest.
44860		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Umfurudzi Safari Area, Zimbabwe.
44860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Zimbabwean pleateau and Miombo woodland regions of central Zimbabwe (the type locality is the headwaters of the Mazoe River about 40 km northeast of Harare) and central Mozambique. The exact limits of the species dsitribution are not known and it is possible that the species occurs in northern Mozambique, although this requires confirmation (there are questions regarding synonymy). It is considered to be unlikely that the species occurs in Malwai. The species is found from close to sea level to above 1,000 m asl.
44860		habitat	eng	This subterranean species is generally associated with sandstone and granitic soils in areas of relatively high rainfall (>700 mm), within scrub and dry miombo woodland habitats. It is a social species that lives in colonies of nine to 10 individuals with a single breeding pair. The species has a litter size of between one and three young.
44860		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
44860		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species. The species is considered to be an agricultural pest, and much of its range is heavily cultivated. Unlike some other members of the genus, this species is not collected for food,
44861		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in Kafue National Park, Zambia.
44861		distribution	eng	This species has been reported only from Itezhi-Tezhi in the Kafue National Park in the southern Province of Zambia.
44861		habitat	eng	This subterranean species has been recorded from grasslands, cultivated fields and agricultural land close to villages. Very little is known about this species biology; it is a social animal and is belived to have similar habits to <em>Cryptomys anselli</em>.
44861		population	eng	This species is abundant where it occurs. It is especially common on the Kafue Flats. Although relatively abundant within its range, there is reason to be believe the population is declining because of overharvesting.
44861		threats	eng	This species is under heavy pressure from human consumption and populations are believed to be declining. It is also apparently considered an agricultural pest.
44862		conservation	eng	There appear to be no conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to identify and protect important roost sites (especially maternity caves). In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. There is a need to better determine the range of this species when compared to that of <em>Miniopterus schreibersii.</em>
44862		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species has largely been recorded from southern and East Africa, with some records from Central African and from the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa it ranges south from Angola and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, into Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia, and from here north into Tanzania, Kenya, possibly Uganda, possibly southern Sudan and possibly Ethiopia. On the Arabian Peninsula it has been reported from Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Harrison and Bates 1991). Because of frequent misidentification between this species and <em>Miniopterus schreibersii</em>, there is a need to carefully review the distribution of <em>Miniopterus natalensis</em>.
44862		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from semi-desert, dry and moist savanna, and mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It is generally a cave roosting species also found in similar habitats such as disused mines.
44862		population	eng	This species can be found in colonies of more than 2,500 animals.
44862		threats	eng	In view of its wide range, there appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of the species distribution it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use, incidental poisoning with insecticides, and the disturbance of roosting and maternity caves by tourist activities.
44863		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
44863		distribution	eng	This little known species is endemic to the island of Anjouan in the Comoros Islands.
44863		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.
44863		population	eng	There is currently little information on the abundance of this species. Specimens were collected by Goodman (2007) from Anjouan in 2007.
44863		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44864		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in its European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. There is an ongoing project for the conservation of this species. Appropriate conservation measures include fencing cave entrances (but not gating) and obtaining legal protection for the species.<br/><br/>In North Africa further research into population trends, establishment and management of protected areas, education, and implementation of national-scale legislation are needed.
44864		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in its European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. There is an ongoing project for the conservation of this species. Appropriate conservation measures include fencing cave entrances and obtaining legal protection for the species.
44864		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis punicus</em> occurs in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya) and on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (to France), Sardinia (to Italy), and Malta.
44864		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis punicus</em> occurs in North-west Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and to western Libya) and on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (to France), Sardinia (to Italy), and Malta (including Gozo).
44864		habitat	eng	This species forages in woodland and shrubland and roosts in underground sites, possibly also in buildings. Bats ringed in Malta were retrapped in Gozo, but there were no indications of longer distance movements (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
44864		habitat	eng	This species forages in woodland, shrubland and semi-deserts. It roosts in underground sites, possibly also in buildings and bridges. Bats ringed in Malta were retrapped in Gozo, but there were no indications of longer distance movements (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
44864		population	eng	On Corsica there are around 3,000 individuals in four colonies. The total population size on Corsica, Sardinia and Malta is estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 individuals. Cave dwelling, therefore there are few colonies. On Malta, over 50% of the population was lost between the latter half of the 1980s and the early 1990s. Numbers appear to have stabilised at 400-450 individuals (Borg 2002, J.J. Borg unpubl. data). The population trend on Corsica is difficult to quantify as surveys before 2000 were very limited, but some colonies have been lost, indicating that there are some threats to the population (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007).
44864		population	eng	Over 10,000 individuals, found in large colonies (300-500 individuals). On Corsica there are around 4,000 individuals in four colonies. The total population size on Corsica, Sardinia and Malta is estimated at between 7,000 and 9,000 individuals. Thgis is a cave dwelling species, therefore there are few colonies. On Malta, over 50% of the population was lost between the latter half of the 1980s and the early 1990s. Numbers appear to have stabilised at 400-450 individuals (Borg 2002, J.J. Borg unpubl. data).
44864		threats	eng	Human disturbance is a major threat, as colonies are located in tourist areas, in caves that are well known and popular. Changes in land management and agricultural pollution are also threats. In North Africa the species is collected for traditional medicinal use.
44864		threats	eng	Human disturbance is a major threat, as colonies are located in touristic areas, in caves that are well known and popular. Changes in land management and agricultural pollution are also threats.
44865		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44865		habitat	eng	Locally common on cliffs in the higher parts of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 700–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive purple-flowered composite often forming large mats hanging on cliffs and steep slopes.
44866		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra
44866		habitat	eng	On limestone in semi-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Gnidia socotrana</em>). Altitude of 500–550 m. <br/> <br/>Originally described by Balfour from rocks south-west of Galonsir. Both the two recent collections were made from the same or a near locality. Forbes (1903) observed the plant below the Adho Dimellus Pass in the Haggeher mountains. It has not been seen there recently and this record should be treated with caution. A distinctive low herb with pretty lilac flowers and succulent leaves. See notes under <em>Pulicaria aromatica</em>.
44867		habitat	eng	No habitat details available. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 700 m. <br/> <br/>Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) noted that his new species was similar to <em>Psiadia arabica</em>, a widespread species on the Arabian mainland, but differed in the absence of sticky glandular hairs. No specimens have been traced and the identity and status of this species remains a mystery.
44868		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44868		habitat	eng	On cliffs in sheltered limestone ravine in deciduous woodland. Altitude of 550 m. <br/> <br/>Aromatic subshrub with erect, woody branches. Leaves clustered towards branch tips, narrowly oblong to obovate, 3–7 x 1–2 cm, entire, densely glandular. Capitula terminal, solitary, 1–1.5 cm diameter; peduncles 1.5–7 cm; ray flowers absent. Pappus outer scales absent (much reduced appearing as a 'rim' to the achene). <br/> <br/>This is one of several plants (e.g., <em>Prenanthes amabilis</em>, <em>Pluchea glutinosa</em>, <em>Sida cordifolia</em>) collected in the 19th Century from near Kischen in the northern Haggeher mountains but not seen there since. However, <em>P. aromatica</em> was recently found on cliffs on an isolated ravine in southern Soqotra and perhaps some of these other plants should be searched for in some of the well-wooded valleys draining south from the Haggeher. It is not clear what the relationships of <em>Pulicaria aromatica</em> are. It is possibly related to <em>P. vieraeoides</em> on the basis of achene characters, habit and inflorescence.
44869		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44869		habitat	eng	Common in a variety of vegetation types, particularly in rocky places, at low and middle altitudes on the limestone escarpments and plateaus of Soqotra; much rarer on granite rocks; also found on Samha. Altitude of 10–750 m. <br/> <br/>Probably the commonest yellow-flowered herbaceous compositae on Soqotra. Very variable in habit and leaf shape.
44870		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44870		habitat	eng	Locally common in rocky places in semi-deciduous, montane shrubland and woodland. Altitude of 700–1,000 m.
44871		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44871		habitat	eng	Locally common in shrubland around the highest granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 1,100–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by the woolly indumentum on the leaves and stems.
44872		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44872		habitat	eng	Restricted to exposed rock-faces on a windswept ridge at the western end of Soqotra. Altitude of 380–530 m. <br/> <br/>Known only from the ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub) in the extreme west of Soqotra. It is an attractive cushion-forming species clearly distinguished by the tightly clustered silver-grey leaves and bright yellow flowers. It is apparently related to <em>Pulicaria pulvinata</em> E.Gamal-Eldin, a mat-forming perennial, endemic to the coastal desert of central Oman. The Soqotran plant differs in its more robust habit and the presence of ray florets.
44873		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44873		habitat	eng	An abundant, often dominant, plant of dwarf shrubland over the plains and limestone plateaus of western Soqotra; much less common in eastern Soqotra; also found on Samha and Abd al Kuri. Altitude of ea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>This rather neat, rounded shrub is characteristic of large areas of western Soqotra. It is readily distinguished by the strong but pleasant aroma of the crushed leaves.
44874		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44874		habitat	eng	Rather local amongst rocks in low shrubland (associated with <em>Hyericum</em> spp., <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Cephalocroton socotranus</em>). Altitude of 700–1,550 m.
44875		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44875		habitat	eng	Common on Abd al Kuri in dwarf shrubland and open woody herb communities on the coastal plain, rocky slopes and in limestone ravines on the mountains (J. Saleh). Altitude of sea-level to 480 m. <br/> <br/>The only species of <em>Convolvulus</em> recorded from Abd al Kuri where it is a widespread and common endemic. It is distinguished by its spathulate leaves which have characteristically undulate margins.
44876		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44876		habitat	eng	Found in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland, dwarf shrubland (with <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em>) and drought-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Cryptolepis intircata</em>) on the coastal plains and limestone plateau. Altitude of 20–650 m. <br/> <br/>There is some variation within this species on Soqotra: plants from the Hadiboh plain of have hairy styles whereas plants from elsewhere on the island have glabrous styles. There is also a variable correlation between this character and filament type: glabrous-styled plants having terete filaments and hairy-styled plants having filaments that are flattened towards the base. No other characters can be found that separate the Hadiboh plants as a distinct taxon. A specimen closely resembling <em>C. hildebrandtii</em> has recently been seen from south Yemen. It has flattened filament bases and glabrous styles and ovary, thus differing from both the two forms found on Soqotra in the combination of these characters.
44877		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44877		habitat	eng	Widespread in a variety of vegetation types including dwarf shrubland, drought-deciduous woodland and submontane semi-deciduous thicket; on both granite and limestone, usually in clearings or in exposed places. Altitude of  50–1,050 m. <br/> <br/>Young and old plants look very different, due to the much longer stems and subglabrous, not densely sericeous, leaves of mature specimens.
44878		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44878		habitat	eng	Sandy and pebbly soil on the desertic coastal plains in dwarf shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 100 m.
44879		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to Soqotra.
44879		habitat	eng	It is possibly synonymous with <em>S. hallieri</em> Engl. and Pilg. from Somalia.
44880		distribution	eng	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.
44880		habitat	eng	Open dwarf shrubland with <em>Atriplex griffithii</em>. Altitude of 100–200 m. <br/> <br/>A much greyer plant than either <em>S. fastigiata</em> (Soqotra) or <em>S. spinosa</em> (Abd al Kuri) and distinguished from them by the corolla tube hairy to the base, not merely on the part that is exserted from the calyx. The flowers open in the morning.
44881		distribution	eng	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.
44881		habitat	eng	Common on the coastal plains in open dwarf shrubland and woody herb communities. Altitude of sea-level to 70 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>S. semhahensis</em> but leaves and stems bright green not grey-green. The flowers open in the morning.
44882		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44882		habitat	eng	Amongst rocks in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous shrubland. Altitude of 100–800 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all the species of <em>Kalanchoe</em> on Soqotra the white or whitish green stems and leaves of fresh material which become scaly and peeling when dry.
44883		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44883		habitat	eng	Rocky slopes and amongst limestone boulders in dwarf shrubland and low succulent shrubland. Altitude of 300–750 m. <br/> <br/>A very distinctive species readily distinguished from all other species in the region by its horizontally-held, slightly zygomorphic flowers in which the anthers are exserted from the corolla. Not as freely flowering as <em>K. farinacea</em>.
44884		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha. Altitude of 100–750 m.
44884		habitat	eng	Common, often in damp, shady places in the mist-affected areas of the island; frequently in disturbed places near habitation; also found in the refugium of relatively mesic conditions on the north-facing limestone cliffs on Samha (cf <em>Begonia samhaensis</em>). <br/> <br/>Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) recognized var. <em>hirsuta</em>, based on a single specimen, with densely hirsute indumentum and strongly dissected, dentate-serrate leaves. This probably represents an extreme form of this variable species and has not been formerly recognised here.
44885		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44885		habitat	eng	Locally common in dwarf shrubland on the coastal plains of Soqotra and Samah. Altitude of sea-level to 50 m. <br/> <br/>Sometimes grows with <em>Lachnocapsa spathulata</em> from which it can sometimes be difficult to separate in flower, however, the flowers of <em>F. socotrana</em> are white or pale lilac and those of <em>Lachnocapsa</em> are pale yellow.
44886		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44886		habitat	eng	Rare in shallow soil in crevices on limestone pavement in sparse dwarf shrubland. Altitude of approx. 650 m. <br/> <br/>This distinctive endemic has no clear allies. It is similar to <em>F. socotrana</em> in fruit shape but differs in flower colour and leaf shape and texture. It is similar to <em>F. stylosa</em> in floral characters but differs in fruit shape, style length and the shape of the stigma. It is restricted patches of thin soil overlying the limestone pavement in exposed places on the rolling plains of the western plateau where it grows with <em>Distephanus qazmi</em>, <em>Melhania milleri</em> and <em>Lotus mollis</em>, endemics which are also associated with this particular habitat.
44887		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44887		habitat	eng	Rare, restricted to vertical rock faces on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 900–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>A rare plant of vertical rock faces on the granite pinnacles. Readily distinguished by its white flowers and small, pendant fruits.  <br/> <br/>Cliff-dwelling shrub < 1 m.  Leaves ovate, < 3 x 1.5 cm, obtuse, irregularly crenate-dentate, cuneate below. Petals <em>ca</em>. 7 mm. Siliqua < 18 x 4 mm, compressed, longitudinally-veined; the lower sterile segment much shorter than the upper segment.
44888		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44888		habitat	eng	Locally common in dwarf shrubland on desertic coastal plains and parts of the limestone plateau near the sea. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>This cushion-forming subshrub has attractive pale yellow flowers and densely white-hairy fruits which can be difficult to distinguish from the fleshy leaves. It has a rather scattered distribution on Soqotra but can be locally abundant (for instance at Faleng). It was recorded from near Qallansiyah by Balfour in the 19th Century but has not seen there recently (cf <em>Taverniera sericophylla</em> and <em>Farsetia socotrana</em>). It is relatively common on Samha, particularly on the summit plateau.
44889		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. <em>Nesocrambe</em> is closely related to <em>Hemicrambe</em> a genus with a remarkably disjunct distribution; with one species, <em>H. fruticulosa</em> on Soqotra and a second <em>H. fruticosa</em>, in Morocco. <em>N. socotrana</em>, with its yellow flowers and dissected leaves, is perhaps most comparable to the Moroccan <em>H. fruticulosa</em>. However, the fruits of both <em>H. fruticosa</em> and <em>H. fruticulosa</em> are quite different from those of <em>N. socotrana</em>: the upper segment is flattened and contains 1–4 seeds whilst the lower segment is sterile, but has vestigeal dehiscent valves. Based on this difference, <em>N. socotrana</em> was described as a new monotypic genus <em>Nesocrambe</em> (Miller <em>et al</em>. 2002). There has been a proposal to transfer transfer this species to <em>Hemicrambe</em> (Al-Shehbaz 2004), but that is not accepted here. It is astonishing that this remarkable plant has apparently survived only in a small refugium at the extreme west end of Soqotra.
44889		habitat	eng	Rare; on a windswept ridge at the western end of Soqotra; in shade in relatively humid cracks and gullies on limestone cliffs and pinnacles. Altitude of 400–550 m. <br/> <br/>The extreme west of Soqotra is generally dry (as witnessed by the sparse vegetation), however, <em>H. socotrana</em> occurs on limestone pinnacles and cliffs on the highest points of the ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub). This ridge traps cloud and limited precipitation from the southwest (summer) and northeast (winter) monsoons and create a small area of relatively humid conditions in this otherwise desertic region.
44890		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44890		habitat	eng	Widespread and locally common in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 250–600 m.
44891		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. First member of the genus to be found in Southwest Asia.
44891		habitat	eng	Very rare, on rocks and vertical cliff faces, near seepages on the limestone escarpment overlooking the Noged Plain. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 150 m. <br/> <br/>Probably most closely related to <em>E. platyclados</em> Boj. a species from Madagascar and the coasts of East Africa.
44892		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44892		habitat	eng	Amongst rocks, both limestone and granite, in semi-deciduous woodland near the Muqadrihon Pass. Altitude of 450–500 m. <br/> <br/>Two varieties have been recognised on Soqotra; var. <em>schweinfurthii</em> and var. <em>papillosa</em> which is distinguished by its narrower, more densely papillose leaves. According to Radcliffe-Smith (1987), <em>A. schweinfurthii</em> includes the Somali endemic <em>Andrachne somalensis </em>Pax but Gilbert in Flora of Somalia (Thulin 1993) maintains it as a distinct species. <em>A. schweinfuthii</em> is therefore considered to be endemic to Soqotra, where it is restricted to granite slopes above the Muqadrihon Pass.
44893		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44893		habitat	eng	Common, sometimes dominant, in submontane semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland in the Haggeher mountains, typically around the base of granite pinnacles; often associated with <em>Rhus thyrsiflorus</em>, <em>Allophylus rhoidiophyllus</em> and <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>. Altitude of 500–1,050 m. <br/> <br/>Abundant in the Haggeher and said to be on the increase in some areas. Also doubtfully recorded from Hamadero in the 19th Century. Comes into leaf, then flowers and fruits in the winter and drops its leaves in the summer.
44894		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44894		habitat	eng	Rare in dwarf semi-deciduous shrubland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 850–1,100 m.
44895		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44895		habitat	eng	Only known from the exposed wind-swept summit ridge of the Hamaderoh escarpment, the highest point in the east of the island, where it is found growing in sheltered cracks between limestone blocks. Altitude of 570–680 m. <br/> <br/><em>E. hamaderohensis</em> resembles a stunted form of <em>E. socotrana</em> and, is close to that species in both vegetative and floral characters: vegetatively it has the same distinctive minute, gland-like stipules, deciduous cyathial bracts and similarly shaped leaves; likewise it is very close in floral characters with its sessile ovary, minutely crenulate cyathial glands and identical floral bracts. However, it differs from <em>E. socotrana</em> in several important respects: it is a shrublet (not a tree) with smaller leaves and smaller, solitary cyathia bearing five (not six) cyathial glands.
44896		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44896		habitat	eng	Widely distributed and sometimes abundant on Soqotra and Samha; mainly in dry areas; on flat or gentle slopes, primarily on limestone pavement but occasionally on sandy plains or granite mountains. Altitude of sea-level to 900 m. <br/> <br/>Delicate, sometimes apparently annual, plants with narrow stems found at high altitudes in the Haggeher mountains have been recognised as <em>A. forbesii</em>. However, there are many intermediates with typical <em>A. perryi</em> and so we have not found it possible to give them any formal status here. Flowers in summer and comes into new leaf after the least rain.
44897		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44897		habitat	eng	Dry areas, prefers flat to gentle slopes on limestone pavement. Altitude of 500–800 m.
44898		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44898		habitat	eng	Restricted to cliffs on the limestone plateau at the western end of Soqotra; also rarely found away from cliffs in the protection of shrubs such as <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>. Altitude of 300–530 m.
44899		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44899		habitat	eng	Frequent on shady cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland and woody herb communities, particularly on the limestone plateau. Altitude of 500–650 m. <br/> <br/>One of the most dramatic plants on Soqotra, with umbels of large white flowers that are strongly and pleasantly scented. It is the largest and most robust bulbous plant on Soqotra, often forming large colonies, particularly on shady cliff ledges where it is immediately recognised by the bright green leaves which can grow up to 1.5 m in length. The large bulb has a distinct stem-like "neck" formed from the leaf bases and surrounded by the remains of old leaves. For colour illustration see Glen <em>et al</em>. (1994).
44900		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44900		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>, <em>Allophylus rubifolius</em>, <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>  etc). Altitude of 600–700 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from all other narrow leaved monocots on the island by its leaves which are pale green with a distinct network of dark green broken stripes across their and with conspicuous hairs along their margin. Two distinct forms of <em>Chlorophytum graptophyllum</em> occur on Soqotra. The first, more widespread, form (e.g., Muqadrihon) has generally broader leaves (usually > 1 cm broad) with straight or slightly undulate margins. The second form is restricted to the central and eastern slopes of the Haggeher (e.g., Kischen in Wadi Di Negehen) and has narrower leaves (usually < 1 cm broad) and distinctly undulate-crisped margins. The description here is based largely on the first form.
44901		distribution	eng	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.
44901		habitat	eng	Only known from the summit ridge of the limestone plateau of Samha. This ridge attracts low cloud and drizzle (principally from the Northeast monsoon?) and, with the cliffs below, provides a unique habitat on Samha. Altitude of 650 m. <br/> <br/>This distinctive new species has not been seen flowering on Soqotra. The description is based on a rhizome collected on Samha and cultivated at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. However, the description should be treated with caution: cultivated material can sometimes be rather anomalous. For instance, Nordal and Thulin (1993) note that plants of <em>C. petraeum</em> which flowered in the first year of cultivation had dimensions well within that found in nature, however, when the same plant flowered the following year it had much larger leaves, a taller inflorescence and somewhat larger flowers.
44902		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44902		habitat	eng	Dense <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em> woodland in the western Haggeher near Scant (the highest mountain on Soqotra). Altitude of 1,400 m. <br/> <br/>This weakly climbing shrub with its long herbaceous stems is only known from a single sterile gathering from the western Haggeher near Scant. <em>A. africanus</em>, the only other asparagus on the island, is not found in the Haggeher mountains, and is a low, spiny shrub.
44903		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44903		habitat	eng	Occasional in succulent shrubland on the northern limestone escarpment, usually in shady places amongst boulders or in cracks in rocks. Altitude of 50–150 m. <br/> <br/>A rather inconspicuous plant with tufted grass-like leaves and hanging fruits.
44904		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44904		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous woodland in mist-affected areas of Soqotra. Altitude of 250–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Leaves appear in winter but die back rapidly at the onset of summer. Readily distinguished by its large, heart-shaped leave, long trailing stems and three-angled fruits.
44905		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44905		habitat	eng	Locally common in succulent shrubland and dwarf shrubland on limestone escarpments and plateaus; dominant in a small area of grassland on J. Ma’alih. Altitude of 15–600 m.
44906		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44906		habitat	eng	Rewgid plateau. Altitude of 300 m. <br/> <br/>Only known from type. Characterised by its reflexed central awn.
44907		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44907		habitat	eng	Sandy coastal plains. Altitude of sea-level to 20 m.
44908		habitat	eng	No details of habitat or location available. <br/> <br/>Only collected once; the specimen is not adequate for a full description.
44909		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44909		habitat	eng	Succulent shrubland, drought-deciduous woodland and along wadis. Altitude of 100–600 m.
44910		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44910		habitat	eng	Coastal dwarf shrubland on Soqotra; desertic foothills on Samha. Altitude of 10–200 m.
44911		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44911		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland and woody-herb communities on desertic plains and rocky slopes. Altitude of sea-level to 600 m.
44912		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44912		habitat	eng	Wet flushes. Altitude of 90 m.
44913		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44913		habitat	eng	Coastal plains in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and in clearings in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 10–550 m. <br/> <br/>Sometimes abundant in the flush of ephemerals that come up after rain on the northern coastal plain.
44914		distribution	eng	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.
44914		habitat	eng	In crevices on exposed limestone ridge and rocky slopes. Altitude of 450–550 m. <br/> <br/>Apparently close to <em>Dipcadi balfourii</em> but only found on the summit ridge and upper slopes of Jebal Saleh on Abd al Kuri. It is white, not yellowish-green, -flowered and lacks the reddish tinge typical of <em>D. balfourii</em>.
44915		conservation	eng	None of the localities from which this species has been recorded are within protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine the taxonomic relationship between this species in and <em>Graphiurus rupicola</em>. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
44915		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from seven localities in the escarpment zone of central and northern Angola and from western Zambia. It has been found from 1,000 to 2,000 m asl.
44915		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with dry woodland habitats. Little additional information is available on the species natural history.
44915		population	eng	The abundance is not well known, but it is probably not common.
44915		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It is possible that there are no major threats to this species within its known range.
44916		conservation	eng	It is probably present in several protected areas, including the Mount Nimba Reserve.
44916		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and western Central Africa. It ranges from eastern Sierra Leone and Guinea to southern Nigeria and Cameroon, with a record from the border of Central African Republic and Congo. It ranges as far south as (possibly) Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and northern Gabon.
44916		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of tropical moist forest and old farm bush habitat, where it lives in small groups occupying hollow trees (or holes in trees) (Grubb <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is nocturnal and seldom seen.
44916		population	eng	It is infrequently recorded.
44916		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. However, as it is present in farmbush, it appears to be able to tolerate some habitat disturbance and is presumed to have no major threats. It is used as a subsistence food, although the impact of this collection on populations is not known.
44917		conservation	eng	There appear to be no conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to establish and manage suitable protected areas for this species.
44917		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few widespread localities in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, to Congo in the east. The distribution is believed to be patchy, as surveys have generally been unable to locate this species outside of its known range.
44917		habitat	eng	This species is associated with moist tropical lowland rainforest and possibly from tropical dry forest. Roosts are unknown, although Sanderson (1940) suggested that they roost in the roofs of disused houses and under the earthy banks of streams.
44917		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
44917		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, and the conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.
44918		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range and adaptability it is expected to occur in many protected areas (such as the Udzungwa Mountains National Park [Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005]). There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for this species as a whole.
44918		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been recorded from Guinea Bissau in the west, to Somalia, southern Sudan and Eritrea in the east, ranging south to most of South Africa.
44918		habitat	eng	This is a lowland species that typically inhabits lowland tropical moist forest, tropical dry forest, and dry and moist savanna. It has also been recorded from more arid areas, grassland, bushveld and Acacia woodland. Animals roost under the bark of trees and similar vegetation, between cracks in walls and under the roofs of houses both thatched and corrugated iron or tiled.
44918		population	eng	In general, this is a locally common species.
44918		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
44919		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Kambai Forest Reserve in Tanzania by Cunneyworth (1996). There is a need to clarify the taxonomic status of animals currently allocated to this species, and thereby better understand the distribution, natural history and potential threats to <em>Pipistrellus flavescens</em>.
44919		distribution	eng	This poorly known species appears to have been recorded from Angola (type locality at Galanga), Burundi, Cameroon, Malawi (including the Shire Highlands [Happold and Happold 1997]), Mozambique, Uganda (Kampala) and Somalia (Shonto Forest). The distribution is uncertain and further studies are needed to clarify the species range.
44919		habitat	eng	Animals allocated to this species have been recorded from both dry and moist savanna, lowland and montane tropical moist forest, and tropical dry forest. Happold and Happold (1997) recorded the species from 'streams surrounded by over-hanging riverine forest'.
44919		population	eng	There are few details available on the population status of this species.
44919		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44920		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
44920		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West and Central Africa, ranging into East Africa. Western distribution ranges from Senegal and Gambia to Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Benin. Recorded as far east as the border between Ethiopia and Somalia. The southern-most records are from Congo and Democratic Republic of the Congo, close to the border areas with Angola.
44920		habitat	eng	This species prefers moist savanna and moist shrubland, but is also found in dry savanna and dry shrubland.
44920		population	eng	This species is relatively common.
44920		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
44921		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need for studies into the distribution, abundance, natural history and possible threats to this species.
44921		distribution	eng	This East African species has been recorded from Djibouti, southern Somalia, southern Sudan, northeastern Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania. It may be more widely distributed (Peterson 1987; Simmons 2005).
44921		habitat	eng	There is little information about the natural history of this bat, in part because it has often been confused with <em>Pipistrellus nanus</em>.
44921		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.
44921		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44922		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas in southern Africa. On Madagascar, it has been recorded from the Parc National de Mantadia (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status of <em>Pipistrellus melckorum</em>, and to better determine the species distribution, habitat requirements and any potential threats.
44922		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Pipistrellus melckorum</em> is unclear because of taxonomic confusion with <em>P. capensis</em>. Simmons (2005) records the range as 'Southwestern South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania'. It may also be present in Malawi. The species has recently been recorded for the first time from the island of Madagascar (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006), where it was found at Parc National de Mantadia in Province de Toamasina, and Antsahabe, Anjozorobe, in Province d’Antananarivo.
44922		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. It roosts mostly under the roofs of buildings but a single animals has been recorded under the bark of a poplar tree (Herselman and Norton, 1985). In Madagascar it was collected from degraded natural forest (Anjozorobe region) and in an agricultural area with some planted banana trees (Mantadia) (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006; Randrianandrianina <em>et al.</em> 2006).
44922		population	eng	Population size and trends are uncertain due to taxonomic difficulties.
44922		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. In Madagascar it has been recorded from degraded or modified habitats.
44923		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is likely that it is present in many protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.
44923		distribution	eng	This bat is widely distributed throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through West and Central Africa, to Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia in the east; from here it is found southwards to southeastern South Africa. The species has been recorded from Madagascar, where it has only been reported from the Kirindy CFPF forest in western Madagascar, and from Zombitse (Rasolozaka 1994). Bates <em>et al.</em> (2006), recommend that the identity of the specimens from Madagascar need to be reviewed. It appears to be absent, or largely absent, from northern Kenya, Namibia, southern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, northern Mozambique, Lesotho and much of South Africa. It is possible that the species ranges more widely in these areas than is currently known, and further field studies are needed to investigate the distribution of the species.
44923		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats. It has been reported from both lowland and montane tropical moist forest, dry and moist savanna, and similar wooded areas. They appear to be particularly common in localities with some banana plants (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). The rolled up, terminal, leaves of these plants are frequently used as roosting sites, although the species has also been recorded in roofs and in thatch of rural huts (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Taylor 2000). Animals usually roost singly or as small colonies of two to six individuals (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
44923		population	eng	Probably not uncommon in suitable habitats (Happold 1987).
44923		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and seemingly adaptable species.
44924		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution of this patchily recorded species.
44924		distribution	eng	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through West and Central Africa to Somalia in the east, and as far south as eastern South Africa.
44924		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from moist and dry savanna, moist and dry tropical shrubland, and deforested areas of formerly tropical moist lowland forest. Roosting sites include tree holes, dense foliage, thatched huts, brick walls and rafters.
44924		population	eng	This appears to be a locally rare species, usually occurring as moderately small colonies of several individuals up to a few dozen animals.
44924		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species. In some parts of its range, this species is threatened by the conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.
44925		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, although it seems likely to occur in some East African parks. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
44925		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded over much of West, Central and East Africa. It ranges from Guinea Bissau in the west, to Sudan, Eritrea and Somalis in the east, being found as far south as Tanzania and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo adjacent to the border with northern Angola.
44925		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is little known, however, it is generally considered to be associated with dry woodland, moist savanna habitats and gallery forest (McLellan 1986; Happold 1987; Koopman 1995; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). It may roost within houses, however, this needs confirmation (Rosevear 1965; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).
44925		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. It may be locally rare, or at least rarely recorded.
44925		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
44926		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
44926		distribution	eng	This sub-Saharan species is widely distributed through West, Central and parts of East Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through West Africa, to Cameroon and Central Africa including much of the Congo basin, into Uganda and East Africa including Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded as far south as southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola. It occurs at elevations of up to 3,200 m asl.
44926		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland and montane tropical moist forest, to moist savanna, tropical dry forest and mangroves. Recorded roosting sites include roofs, eaves of houses and small crevices in houses (Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), with natural sites presumably including hollow trees or under bark.
44926		population	eng	This species is rather common in suitable habitat. It is most often found in small groups of fewer than 20 animals.
44926		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
44927		conservation	eng	It seems probable that this adaptable species is present within a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from Kruger National Park, South Africa. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
44927		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in East and southern Africa. The eastern distribution ranges from Ethiopia and south Sudan to Uganda and Kenya. The southern range extends from Zambia and southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to southern South Africa, and from eastern Angola to central Zambia and Zimbabwe.
44927		habitat	eng	Populations of this bat have been recorded from dry and moist savanna, savanna woodland, lowveld and into more arid areas where surface water is available.
44927		population	eng	In general, this is a locally uncommon species.
44927		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
44928		conservation	eng	It is possible that the species is present in some protected areas. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.
44928		distribution	eng	This species appears to be limited to southern Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988; Holden 2005). The range limits are not well known.
44928		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with savanna woodland (Ansell and Dowsett 1988).
44928		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
44928		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
44929		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known, but may occur in some protected areas across its range.
44929		distribution	eng	Found in southeast Morocco, Saharan Algeria and Libya, and the upper Nile valley in Egypt and Sudan. There are other records of this species from scattered areas outside of this region across west, north and northeast Africa. The species occurs in the central belt of the Sahara, down to 15°N. sub-Saharan records need revision.
44929		habitat	eng	Occurs in desert and semi-desert, but mainly associated with oases with palm trees. Roosts in palm trees and in buildings including rocky areas.
44929		population	eng	The most common species in Sahara oases.
44929		threats	eng	None known.
44930		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded within the Bale Mountains National Park. Additional management of the area is needed to prevent further deforestation of the Harenna Forest. There is a need for further field surveys to better determine  the range of this species.
44930		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the Ethiopian highlands were it is currently known only with certainty from the upper belts of the Harenna Forest in the Bale Mountains National Park and from Abune Yosef (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000; Juste <em>et al.</em> 2004; Benda <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is an early record from "Shoa" (= Shewa), which probably came from the uplands north or northwest of Addis Ababa (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). It is possible that the species occurs in similar areas of montane forest, but it has not been recorded during surveys in either the Beletta Forest or the Sheko Forest (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). There are a number of poorly documented museum specimens that may have come from additional sites within Ethiopia, or possibly from adjacent Eritrea (although this may refer to a specimen of <em>Plecotus christii</em>) (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). The species is found at elevations of 2,500 to 3,000 m asl.
44930		habitat	eng	This species is known only from humid evergreen afromontane forest. The type specimen was collected from the <em>Schefflera-Hagenia</em> forest belt (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). Animals forage in open parts of the forest or edges of clearings.
44930		population	eng	Kruskop and Lavrenchenko (2000) mention that this bat appears to be relatively common within its limited distribution.
44930		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the rapid destruction of montane forest, presumably through extraction of timber and firewood, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
44931		conservation	eng	None in place.  Further research on population is needed in order to make an assessment.
44931		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities in NE Africa, including eastern Libya (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007), Egypt including Sinai and Sudan. A specimen from Eritrea may belong to this species or to <em>P. balensis</em> (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000).
44931		distribution	eng	Known only from a few localities in NE Africa, including eastern Libya (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007), Egypt including Sinai and Sudan. A specimen from Eritrea may belong to this species or to <i>P. balensis</i> (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000).
44931		habitat	eng	Roosts in remote buildings outside urban areas and crevices in rocks, caves and mines. Found in mesic habitats along the Nile River and in open arid habitats around oases in the desert (is not found in cultivated habitats).
44931		population	eng	Probably very small population, only scattered and isolated records.
44931		threats	eng	Affected by human disturbance.
44934		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed.
44934		distribution	eng	This African bat has only been recorded from southeastern Côte d'Ivoire, southern Ghana, and western Uganda close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Kambai Forest Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania (Cunneyworth 1996).
44934		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat. Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) notes that the species seems to be an inhabitant of the high forest. Cunneyworth (1996) reports that an individual was captured in riverine forest on the forest edge.
44934		population	eng	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. It is suspected to be declining as it appears that the species has not been collected since 1984.
44934		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
44935		conservation	eng	Found within two protected areas including the Parc National d'Odzala (Congo). Further studies into the distribution and natural history of this species are needed.
44935		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the west bank of the Congo River, where it has only been recorded from western Congo and the Central African Republic. Surveys have not found <em>Congosorex verheyni</em> south of the Congo River, and it does not seem to occur east of Ubangi (Oubango) River. There are presently three recorded localities, two of which are in protected areas. This species has not been recorded from Cameroon, though it is likely that is occurs there. It may also be found to occur in Gabon, though there is no evidence of its existence there at present.
44935		habitat	eng	<em>C. verheyeni</em> is principally present in primary forest. However, it also occurs in quite dense secondary forest, and in areas of degraded forest. Very little information is available on the biology of <em>C. verheyen</em>. This species may be found in burrows under leaf litter but it is not thought to be a fossorial species. It feeds on invertebrates.
44935		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in suitable habitat. It is found at lower abundances in disturbed habitat.
44935		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
44936		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas, but these are not critical for the survival of the species.
44936		distribution	eng	This species occurs north of the Niger River in southern Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and possibly in Chad, Western Sahara and southernmost parts of Algeria. It has an altitudinal range of not higher than 1,000 m asl.
44936		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly in rocky habitats, but also regularly in gardens and other human-related habitats, including homes (huts). One individual was found in a completely sandy habitat on the inner delta of the Niger River. All members of the genus are insectivorous unlike other rodents which are generally granivorous.
44936		population	eng	It is very common especially in favorable habitats, as suggested by high trapping rates in rocky habitats.
44936		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
44938		conservation	eng	It is probably within The W National Park in Niger, and several additional protected areas of the region.
44938		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from West Africa to Central Africa. Its range includes Burkina Faso, Chad, southern Niger, Nigeria, northern Benin, northern Cameroon, Togo, Ghana and possibly southern Sudan; but the limits of the distribution are unresolved. It does not occur on to the Jos Plateau (Nigeria), so the elevation range is thought to be between 200 and 1,000 m asl.
44938		habitat	eng	It is found in both the rocky areas of the Sahel and in grasslands. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
44938		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitats.
44938		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
44939		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Tassili N'Ajjer National Park.
44939		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Algeria. It occurs at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl.
44939		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species, found in rocky habitats at the base of jebels.
44939		population	eng	It is a common species.
44939		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There is no mining activities in the area, and the habitat is only used by pastoralists.
44940		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44940		habitat	eng	In montane thicket and semi-deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 600–1,400 m. <br/> <br/>The flowering spikes come out before or with the leaves.
44941		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44941		habitat	eng	Locally common on both limestone and granite in the centre and Northeast of Soqotra; growing in shady places in relatively high rainfall areas; particularly common in the dense drought-deciduous woodlands in the valleys draining to the north and Northwest of the Haggeher mountains and in the east of the island on the northern, seaward-facing cliffs and broken limestone ridges (characteristically in solution hollows and pockets of soil on the limestone pavement). Altitude of 50–700 m. <br/> <br/>Originally described as <em>Haemanthus grandifolius</em> (Amaryllidaceae) by Balfour in the 19th Century on the basis of the large paired leaves which are a familiar sight in the NE of the island. However, it was not until 1993 that it was first found in flower and its true affinities with the <em>Hyacinthaceae</em> recognised. <em>Ledebouria grandifolia</em> flowers at the beginning of the winter rains (October–November), and if conditions remain humid, the leaves persist, increasing in size, until well into the following year (January–February) (Miller and Alexander 1996).
44942		distribution	eng	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.
44942		habitat	eng	Rare in tall herb communities on shady ledges of North-facing cliffs on Samha. Altitude of 700 m.
44943		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44943		habitat	eng	Locally abundant in low shrubland and grassland on the limestone plateaus, in accumulations of soil in solution hollows and rock crevices on the limestone pavement. Altitude of 500–900 m.
44944		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44944		habitat	eng	Rare, in dense shade beneath thickets in semi-deciduous montane woodland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 800–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>Erect herb < 20 cm. Leaves: two, flat on ground, broadly broadly-ovate, < 6x4 cm diameter, pilose. Spikes: 10 to 20-flowered, pilose. Flowers: green, <em>ca</em>. 6 mm diameter, with five subequal lobes from a cup-shaped base; spur <em>ca</em>. 2 mm.
44945		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44945		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitats from dwarf shrubland on desertic coastal plains to montane semi-deciduous woodland in high rainfall areas in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of sea-level to 1,100 m. <br/> <br/><em>Euphorbia kischenensis</em> is most readily distinguished from other small-leaved, prostrate Euphorbias by its strongly-toothed cyathial lobes, which, although small, are usually very obvious. However, within <em>E. kishenensis</em> there is a great deal of variation in degree of hairiness, hair type and in habit. Typically it is a perennial plant of the mountains with kidney-shaped discolorous leaves (approaching <em>E. leptoclada</em> and <em>E. hajhirensis</em>) whilst some specimens are apparently annual; these have smaller, concolorous leaves, and come from dry areas. Some plants from the mountains approach <em>E. leptoclada</em> but their leaves are discolorous, their stems puberulent and their cyathial appendages sharply and distinctly acutely toothed. However, because of the number of intermediates it has been impossible to formally recognise even the most extreme forms. The treatment of this species is very provisional and further investigation should clarify its relationship with <em>E. leptoclada</em> and possibly lead to the formal recognition of further taxa.
44946		distribution	eng	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.
44946		habitat	eng	Dwarf succulent shrubland on Abd al Kuri. Altitude of 200–450 m.
44947		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44947		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous shrubland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 560 m. <br/> <br/>There is some doubt as to the status of this species. It is allied to <em>E. hajhirensis</em> and somewhat intermediate between this species and extreme (montane) forms of <em>E. kischenensis</em>. Balfour (Balyley Balfour 1888) notes that his description of <em>E. leptoclada</em> is based on an imperfect specimen of a <em>Euphorbia</em>, the assessor found in Schweinfurth’s collection mixed with specimens of <em>Phyllanthus filipes</em>. It has not been found since it was originally collected in the 19th Century.
44948		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44948		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland on desertic foothills and coastal plains on Abd al Kuri and Southwest Soqotra. Altitude of 100–200 m. <br/> <br/>A broad view of <em>E. schweinfurthii</em> has been taken here. It is distinguished by the combination of shrubby habit, glaucous leaves and more or less entire cyathial appendages. However, it is extremely variable and a number of very distinct forms are found but with numerous intermediates. Provisional and further investigation may lead to the formal recognition of more taxa within this complex.
44949		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44949		habitat	eng	Common in succulent over most of Soqtora; also in the sparse and windswept vegetation on exposed parts of the limestone plateau. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>This cactus-like plant is the only spiny succulent on Soqotra. It is a fairly common plant of dry open areas over much of Soqotra. The specific epithet spiralis coined by Balfour refers to the spiralling of the stem in specimens he observed, however, stems can be either straight or spiraling and, in fact, spiralling of the stem seems rather rare. A second species, <em>E. septumsulcata</em>, was separated by the greater number of stem angles. However, this seems to fall within the variation found in <em>E. spiralis</em> and so is not recognized here. <em>E. spiralis</em> is said to be on the increase in certain areas: for instance at Kilissan, an area badly effected by a series of severe droughts.
44950		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44950		habitat	eng	Rare in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland on the limestone of northern Soqotra. Altitude of 50–700 m. <br/> <br/>Low subshrub, stems often prostrate, < 30 cm. Leaves ovate to elliptic, 5–13 x 3–8 mm, acute or obtuse; stipules triangular, < 1.3 mm long, scarious with irregularly dentate margin, brownish red. Male flowers <em>ca</em>. 1.5 mm diameter, sepals obovate or suborbicular, pedicels < 4 mm; female flowers <em>ca</em>. 2 mm diameter, sepals ovate, pedicels < 20 mm. Capsule six-lobed, subglobose, 3–4 mm diameter.
44951		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44951		habitat	eng	Locally common in drought-deciduous woodland on both limestone and granite. Altitude of 100–650 m. <br/> <br/>The only plant with a serious sting on Soqotra.
44952		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44952		habitat	eng	Widely distributed, typically in turf by water or in rock crevices and hollows that capture water; on both granite and limestone. Altitude of sea-level to 1,050 m. <br/> <br/>This is a rather variable species and in this treatment includes <em>E. gracilipes</em> an endemic described by Balfour. The type of <em>E. gracilipes</em> is a much more delicate plant than typical plants of <em>E. affine</em>. However, the difference in habit of these two specimens is comparable to that found within most populations of <em>E. affine</em> studied during recent visits to Soqotra and it is difficult to find other characters to justify maintaining the two species. <em>E. socotranum</em> is also rather similar to <em>E. affine</em> but the characters defining it are consistent within populations. Plants from Dhofar, the southern region of Oman, recorded as <em>E. affine</em> and <em>E. gracilipes</em>, have recently been shown to represent two separate, species endemic to Oman. <em>Exacum affine</em> is now considered to be endemic to Soqotra and Samha. <em>Exacum affine</em> is widely cultivated as a house plant in Europe under various names including the Arabian, Persian or Socotran Violet. All seed in the horticultural trade originated from collections made by Schweinfurth during his expedition to Soqotra in 1881.
44953		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44953		habitat	eng	Dense shrubland in the higher parts of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 900–1,250 m. <br/> <br/>Less common than <em>E. affine</em>. The attractive foliage and strongly scented flowers give this plant great horticultural potential. Recorded in the 19th Century from above Homhil in the Northeast of Soqotra. It has not been seen there since and seems an unlikely record.
44954		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44954		habitat	eng	Hanging near seepages on vertical cliffs on southern limestone escarpment. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 130 m. <br/> <br/><em>E. socotranum</em> is rather similar to <em>E. affine</em> but the characters defining it are consistent within populations.
44955		distribution	eng	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.
44955		habitat	eng	Located on north-facing limestone cliffs. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 650 m. <br/> <br/>Most closely related to <em>P. alchemilloides</em> (a plant of Southwest Arabia and tropical Northeast Africa) from which it differs in its pink (not white) flowers and the development of a pronounced woody stock.
44956		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44956		habitat	eng	Very rare, on rocks and vertical cliff faces, near seepages on the limestone escarpment overlooking the Noged Plain. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 150 m.
44957		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44957		habitat	eng	Low, <em>Hypericum</em>-<em>Cephalocroton</em> shrubland with emergent <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>. Altitude of 1,350–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>The rarest of the shrubby <em>Hypericum</em> species on Soqotra; only known from two locations. Most likely to be confused with <em>H. scopulorum</em> or <em>H. tortuosum</em> but readly distinguished by the pubescent stems and leaves.
44958		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44958		habitat	eng	Common, sometimes dominant, on granite in dwarf <em>Hypericum</em>-<em>Cephalocroton</em> shrubland on the higher slopes of the Haggeher mountains; co-dominant with <em>Helichrysum rosulatum</em> on pinnacles in the eastern Haggeher; less commonly on limestone cliffs. Altitude of (550–)800–1,350 m. <br/> <br/>Reported to be on the increase in the eastern Haggeher.
44959		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44959		habitat	eng	Shrubland and semi-deciduus woodland on both granite and limestone, often on cliffs. Altitude of (30–)600–1,000 m.
44960		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44960		habitat	eng	Common and widespread on limestone in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of 50–800 m.
44961		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44961		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland and open woody herb communities on desertic coastal plains and slopes, mainly on limestone. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to coastal plains and desertic foothills on the Southwest of Soqotra and on Samha.
44962		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44962		habitat	eng	Dense submontane semi-deciduous thicket around granite pinnacles. Altitude of 1,050–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>The largest <em>Leucas</em> on Soqotra. Rather rare in dense thicket amongst the highest slopes of the central and western Haggeher.
44963		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44963		habitat	eng	Open semi-deciduous shrubland on granite. Altitude of 650–1,000 m.
44964		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44964		habitat	eng	Deciduous shrubland on rocky granite slopes. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 550 m. <br/> <br/>Only collected once above the Muqadrihon Pass. Readily distinguished by its pendulus flowers.
44965		distribution	eng	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.
44965		habitat	eng	Locally abundant in low shrubland at the base of the north-facing limestone escarpment on Samha. Altitude of 400–500 m.
44966		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44966		habitat	eng	On cliffs and large boulders along wadis and on the escarpments. Altitude of sea-level to 350 m. <br/> <br/>More or less restricted to inaccessible cliffs only.
44967		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44967		habitat	eng	Widespread and abundant in open shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland over much of the limestone plateaus. Altitude of 100–700 m. <br/> <br/>One of the commonest shrubs on the island.
44968		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44968		habitat	eng	Open rocky slopes in montane woodland on granite also in high areas on limestone in east and west of island; on Samha on north-facing limestone escarpment. Altitude of 400–1,550 m.
44969		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44969		habitat	eng	Deciduous shrubland on rocky granite slopes. Altitude of 550–850 m. <br/> <br/>This rather insignificant shrub is locally common around the Muqadrihon Pass but scarce elsewhere.
44970		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44970		habitat	eng	Open rocky slopes and cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 450–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>The only succulent-leaved labiate on Soqotra. The leaves when crushed are strongly aromatic.
44971		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44971		habitat	eng	Widespread and locally common on open rocky slopes in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of 100–800 m. <br/> <br/>This strongly aromatic plant often forms extensive and dense mats over rocks.
44972		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44972		habitat	eng	Locally common on open rocky slopes in the Haggeher; also scattered on limestone in the Northeast of Soqotra. Altitude of 330–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Some collections from the limestone in the northeast of Soqotra approach <em>H. balfourii</em>: they have similar whitish stems and the smaller flowers and leaves of <em>T. balfourii</em>. The status of these plants deserves further investigation. It was recorded from the western limestone plateau in the 19th Century but has not been seen there recently.
44973		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44973		habitat	eng	Disturbed ground by tracks and wadi beds. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m.
44974		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44974		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub which is widespread and common in semi-deciduous woodland on both the limestone and granite. Altitude of 200–800 m. <br/> <br/>The most variable species (particularly as regards leaf-shape) of <em>Chapmannia</em> on the island. Readily distinguished from all other species by its one- to two-flowered inflorescenses.
44975		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44975		habitat	eng	Locally common in semi-deciduous woodland in the Muqadrihon Pass and Reyged plateau. Altitude of 450–550 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all other species of <em>Chapmannia</em> on Soqotra by its narrow leaflets. It could, perhaps, be confused with narrow-leaved forms <em>C. gracile</em> (with which it sometimes grows) but can be separated from that species by its many-flowered inflorescence and the general absence of indumentum on its stem, leaves and calyx.
44976		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44976		habitat	eng	Widepread and locally common on rocky limestone slopes and along wadis in the west of Soqotra. Altitude of 5–700 m. <br/> <br/>There is considerable variation in the number of leaflets, sometimes even on the same branch and there is also regional variation in the conspicuous silky indumentum. Plants from Northwest Soqotra have tubercle-based hairs on the axis of the inflorescence whilst these are absent on plants from Southwest Soqotra.
44977		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44977		habitat	eng	Rare, only known from a few trees, in semi-deciduous woodland (with <em>Punica protopunica</em> and <em>Croton</em> spp.) on granite slopes in the western Haggeher. Altitude of 1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Easily recognized by its 3–5 elliptic leaflets which are glabrous above and by the <em>ca</em>. ten-flowered inflorescences and viscid hairs on the bracts and calyces.
44978		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. Scattered, occasionally common.
44978		habitat	eng	A small tree or shrub in moist submontane, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 550–650 m. <br/> <br/>The only tree species within the genus on Soqotra.
44978		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
44979		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44979		habitat	eng	Widespread in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of 10–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>As recognised here, this a very variable species found in diverse habitats. Vierhapper described two further species <em>C. schweinfurthii</em> and <em>C. kuriensis</em> based mainly on leaf characteristics but they are not maintained here because of numerous intermediates. Plants with broader leaves tend to be found in the mountains (<em>C. schweinfuthii</em>) and on the outer islands (<em>C. kuriensis</em>) whilst plants with more or less linear leaves are found on coastal plains.
44980		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44980		habitat	eng	Locally common in open shrubland and woodland clearings on granite on northern slopes of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 400–600 m. <br/> <br/>Readily identified by the marbled pattern formed by the hairs on the upper leaf surface and its characteristic trigonous and beaked fruits.
44981		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44981		habitat	eng	Clearings in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 200–850 m. <br/> <br/>Closely related to <em>I. Nephrocarpa</em> from which it can be distinguished by the: appressed (not crisped) indumentum on the stems and leaflets; narrower leaflets; longer peduncles; and discoid, flattened (not subglobose) fruits. However, there is a considerable degree of overlap in these characters with some rather intermediate specimens. Further study might result in these two species being better treated as varieties. Generally found at higher altitudes than <em>I. Nephrocarpa</em> and (unlike that species) apparently never on the coastal plains.
44982		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
44982		habitat	eng	In thin soil/gravel overlying limestone pavement on exposed limestone plateaus and cliffs. Altitude of 400–750 m.
44983		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44983		habitat	eng	Clearings in semi-deciduous woodland on limestone in Northeast Soqotra and grassland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 500–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Very variable in leaf shape and size.
44984		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44984		habitat	eng	Locally common in dwarf shrubland on the coastal plain and foothills of western Soqotra (with <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em>, <em>Limonium</em> spp. and <em>Farsetia socotrana</em>). Altitude of sea-level to 300 m.
44985		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44985		habitat	eng	Widespread in grassland on the limestone plateaus. Altitude of 300–700 m. <br/> <br/>A most distinctive species with its relatively large purple flowers.
44986		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44986		habitat	eng	On cliffs on coastal limestone escarpment. Altitude of 300 m. <br/> <br/>Only seen on the limestone cliffs at Ras Hebaq.
44987		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44987		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous woodland on limestone escarpment. Altitude of 650 m. <br/> <br/>Apparently a rather rare endemic; possibly overlooked.
44988		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44988		habitat	eng	Common in semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland, mainly on the limestone plateaus but also occurs on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of (50–)200–800 m. <br/> <br/>Recognized by the violet-blue flowers. Usually a slender tree or shrub but can be prostrate in windswept places on the limestone plateau. However, it is easily recognized, even when not in flower, by the distinctive purplish black line along the midrib on the undersurface of the leaflets.
44989		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44989		habitat	eng	On granite cliffs amongst granite boulders, in shrubland. Altitude of 950 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from the other woody <em>Hibiscus</em> species on Soqotra by the combination of five-lobed, cup-shaped calyx and filiform epicalyx lobes. It is perhaps closest to <em>H. noli-tangere</em> but differs in the indumentum of the calyx and epicalyx, the linear not filiform epicalyx lobes and the broadly triangular calyx lobes. Only known from the type gathering on Jebal Jaaf in the eastern Haggeher. This is the only local endemic recorded from the eastern Haggeher although there is evidence of floristic differences between the eastern, central and western Haggeher.
44990		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas..
44990		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern South Africa and Swaziland, possibly ranging into southern Botswana and southern Mozambique.
44990		habitat	eng	The distribution of this species coincides with the availability of bushveld, woodland or forest habitats, indicating a preference for some tree cover. In coastal habitats the species is typically collected in ecotones between coastal forest and grassland. This species is solitary and nocturnal, burrows are excavated under the cover of bushes. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
44990		population	eng	It is widespread and common.
44990		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
44991		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
44991		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges from Senegal to Niger and Burkina Faso. It is possibly present in Nigeria. The southern range boundaries are unknown.
44991		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grasslands and shrublands in Sudan and Sahel savanna. In parts of its range it is considered to be an agricultural pest.
44991		population	eng	This is a common species.
44991		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
44992		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
44992		distribution	eng	This species appears to have been reported from over much of West Africa, although the only confirmed records of this species are from the type locality of Elmina in Ghana and from Benin (it has been confirmed through chromosome studies).
44992		habitat	eng	It is naturally found in areas of moist savanna. The species is a human commensal occurring in agricultural areas.
44992		population	eng	It is common in Benin.
44992		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
44993		conservation	eng	No conservation measure are in place for this species.
44993		distribution	eng	Vooren and Betito (pers. com.) obtained <em>D. tschudii</em> off Brazil between 33°45?and 33°56?S at 27 to 35 m depth, with temperature ranging from 11.6 to 13.5°C and salinities from 32.3 to 33.0?. This is a cold water species entering south Brazilian waters from the south in small numbers during winter, but not spreading farther north than 33°S (Menni and Stehmann 2000). In Uruguay, captures of this species are low (A. Domingo, pers. comm).
44993		habitat	eng	Reported from 22 to 181 m depth (Menni <em>et al</em>. 1981). Many aspects of the life history of <em>D. tschudii</em> are still unknown. <em>D. tschudii</em> feeds mainly on polychaete worms and gammarid amphipods (Menni and Stehmann 2000). It is an aplacental viviparous species (ovoviviparous) (Garcia 1984). <br/> <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong>: Chile - unknown; Argentina - matures at 27.5 cm total length (TL) (females) and at 35 to 46 cm TL (males) (Garcia 1984). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong>: Chile - females between 17.8 and 44.2 cm total length (TL), males between 21.9 and 53.8 cm TL (Pequeño <em>et al</em>. 1988); Argentina - females 39 cm TL, Males 54 cm TL (Garcia 1984). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>: Chile - unknown; Argentina - 8.5 to 9.2 cm TL (Garcia 1984). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: Chile - unknown; Argentina - 1 to 12 (mostly 4 to 5).
44993		population	eng	Given that the range does not extend further south beyond northern Argentina in the Atlantic we assume this species occurs as two separate subpopulations (Atlantic and Pacific coasts).
44993		threats	eng	Caught as a bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries; though of low commercial value and is discarded or utilised for fish meal. Trawl fishing from southern Brazil to northern Argentina expanded rapidly over the last 10 years and continues unmanaged. Off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay, biomass measured by research trawling decreased by 88% in the years 1994?1999 (Hozbor and Massa, unpublished data). However because there was an apparent change in the distribution pattern of the species it is impossible to tell whether this decline was caused by a reduction in population size or geographic availability of Discopyge mitigated by different hydrographic conditions between these years. Trawl fishing in the habitat of the species is intense but there are no data available on catches. In Uruguay, captures of this species are generally low (A. Domingo, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>There is no specific information available on threats in the Southeast Pacific, but it is most definitely taken as bycatch in demersal fisheries in this region.
44996		conservation	eng	None. The ongoing release of these animals from the trawl fishery and from the KZN shark nets should be encouraged.
44996		distribution	eng	The species's current distribution is widespread in the Western Indian Ocean, however, it should not be assumed that this is a single species. <br/> <br/>Western Indian Ocean: Tanzania, Mozambique to South Africa (Compagno 1984), Mauritius (Fricke 1999) and Madagascar (specimens from Toliara, SW coast: 23.21°S, 43.40°E and Fort Dauphin (now Tolanaro) on the SE coast, 25.02°S, 47.00°E.) (B. Seret, pers. comm. 2004). Within South Africa it is confined to the east coast, with KwaZulu-Natal the centre of its distribution, extending into the Eastern Cape (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).
44996		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf and uppermost slope, from the surfline to about 500 m depth (Compagno 1984). The occasional catch of this species in the KZN shark nets comprised mainly mature individuals of both sexes and 38% of the mature females examined were pregnant.  Stomach contents comprised mainly teleosts (48% of stomachs with food) and cephalopods (42%) (Shelmadine and Cliff in prep.). <br/> <br/>In the Tugela Banks prawn trawl fishery the majority of the catch of this species were juveniles; mean size 30 cm total length (TL), range 30 to 50 cm, indicating that this fishing takes place in at least part of the nursery area for this species (Fennessey 1994). <br/> <br/>There is no information on age and growth.
44996		population	eng	There is no evidence to suggest that any subpopulations occur.
44996		threats	eng	In South Africa the species does not have any commercial value and is apparently little utilised. Here the biggest potential threat is demersal trawling for prawns off the Tugela Banks, KZN (which overlaps with the nursery ground of this species). This is both in terms of catches and habitat degradation by trawling. This species was found in 6% of trawls examined, at a catch rate of 0.014 individuals per hour. The estimated annual catch for the period 1989?1992 was 91-172 (Fennessy 1994), with a seemingly high mortality rate of 60%, but this was based on a sub-sample of only 10 animals. Also occasionally taken by surf anglers (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975) and in the shark nets that protect the swimming beaches of KZN (Cliff and Dudley 1992), on the east coast of South Africa where annual catches averaged 30 animals (range 11?69; sex ratio: 3: 1 females to males, 1980?2001). Catch rates averaged 0.7 sharks km/net/yr, with no trend.  About 43% of the catch was released alive (Shelmerdine and Cliff in prep.). <br/> <br/>It is taken in trawls and in artisanal deep set gillnets in Tanzania (Narriman Jiddawi, Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar, pers. comm. 2003). The extent of catches in the Mozambique trawl fishery and in other parts of its range is not known. Given the apparent ?slow? life history of angel sharks together with documented declines of other similar species, catches should be monitored, particularly elsewhere in the species range.  <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>Little utilised, no value in South Africa, unknown elsewhere in its range.
44997		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44997		habitat	eng	Distributed on the southern limestone plateaus from Diksam to Wadi Irih and extending onto the granite of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 20–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>H. quattanensis</em> but differs in the densely stellate-hairy not glabrescent pedicels, epicalyx and calyx, also the leaves are narrower with a distinctly cordate base and crenate margins, and have a tendency to become lobed.
44998		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44998		habitat	eng	No habitat details available. <br/> <br/>Vierhapper and Wagner (Vierhapper 1907) based their description of this species on two collections from Bandar Shu'ub and from Wadi Meige on the northern slopes of Djebal Rahmen. These specimens have not been seen by the authors and a photograph (Vierhapper 1907 tab.7, 2 ) is not particularly helpful. According to the description this species is characterised by the calyx slitting into two segments, linear epicalyx lobes and long pedicels. Several specimens match this description in leaf and epicalyx shape and indumentum but lack the very long pedicels described by Vierhapper and Wagner (and shown in the photograph). Lengthening of the pedicel in fruit is recorded in <em>H. quattanensis</em>, <em>H. scottii</em> and <em>H. dioscorides</em>. The identify of this plant remains a mystery. The geographical distribution of the cited specimens also casts doubt on the integrity of this species.
44999		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
44999		habitat	eng	Drought-deciduous woodland and succulent shrubland on limestone. Altitude of 100–600 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its dense indumentum small of stellate hairs and the complete absence of the large three- to five-armed irritant hairs which are an unpleasant characteristic of the other shrubby or arborescent species of <em>Hibiscus</em> on Soqotra. It seems on the basis of recent collections that <em>H. malacophyllus</em> is a plant with a rather narrow distribution in the north of the island from the Muqadrihon Pass to Ras Heybak.
45000		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45000		habitat	eng	Drought-deciduous woodland on coastal limestone escarpment. Altitude of 100–200 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from the other woody <em>Hibiscus</em> species on Soqotra by its combination of five-toothed calyx, filiform epicalyx segments and the distinctive indumentum on its epicalyx and calyx: the surface of these are clothed with stellate hairs but along their margins the indumentum is apparently composed of simple hairs; these are, on closer examination, a mixture of simple and few-armed stellate hairs with long (<em>ca</em>. 1 mm) arms. Only known from Hoq woodlands on the coastal limestone escarpment below Homhil in the Northeast of Soqotra. These woodlands are floristically rich and perhaps the best example on Soqotra of the woodland found on the seaward-facing slopes on the limestone escarpments.
45001		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra
45001		habitat	eng	Widespread on the coastal plains and dry limestone foothills and plateaus of Southwest Soqotra; mainly in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 600 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from the other woody <em>Hibiscus</em> species on Soqotra by its glabrescent pedicels, epicalyx and calyx. It is closest to <em>H. diriffan</em> with its oblanceolate, reflexed epicalyx lobes. <br/> <br/>Shrub or small tree < 3 m. Leaves broadly ovate or suborbicular, 1–4.5 x 1–4 cm, base broadly cuneate to truncate, margin entire, tip rounded to obscurely crenate, glabrescent above with sparse, large (2–4 mm) three-armed hairs beneath. Epicalyx lobes nine or ten, linear-oblanceolate, 5–9 x 1–4 mm, with a distinct mid-vein and lamina-like margin, becoming strongly reflexed. Calyx cup-shaped, 10–15 mm long, splitting to below the middle into two, broadly ovate, entire lobes.
45002		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45002		habitat	eng	Restricted to dense semi-deciduous woodland on the granitic slopes of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 550–800 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its orange-yellow corollas which are clothered with rust-coloured, three-armed hairs on their outer surface. It is also characterised by the calyx which splits into two, toothed segments and the ovate or rhombate leaves. The plants included here match the plant illustrated in Balfour’s Botany of Socotra (Bayley Balfour 1888 t. 5a). Balfour in his treatment apparently included all plants with funnel-shaped corollas and three-armed hairs, a somewhat broader definition than the one used here.
45003		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45003		habitat	eng	Open deciduous succulent shrubland. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its low habit and its fused epicalyx. The relationship between <em>H. socotranus</em> and the other Soqotran endemic <em>Hibiscus</em> spp. is not clear. The degree of fusion of the epicalyx (to about one third) is unusual within <em>Hibiscus</em> and unique amongst the species on Soqotra; the only other species with a similarly fused epicalyx is <em>H. erlangeri</em> from Somalia which, on account of its epicalyx, has sometimes been separated into the monotypic genus <em>Symphochlamys</em>. <em>Hibiscus erlangeri</em> differs from <em>H. socotranus</em> in its calyx which splits into two, more or less entire lobes and in this resembles some of the other endemic Soqotran species (e.g., <em>H. scottii</em>, <em>H. malacophyllus</em>, <em>H. macropodus</em>, <em>H. diriffan</em> and <em>H. quattanensis</em>). Collected by John Lavranos and Alan Radcliffe-Smith, in 1967 on the north-facing limestone escarpment above Qaysoh near Qalansiyah at the western end of Soqotra. There are several other local endemics and plants of note on this escarpment. These include <em>Boswellia bullata</em>, <em>Dorstenia gigas</em>, <em>Prenanthes amabilis</em>, <em>Aloe squarrosa</em>, <em>Gaillonia thymoides</em> and <em>Hypericum socotranum</em> subsp. <em>socotranum</em>.
45004		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45004		habitat	eng	Common, and sometimes abundant, in the Northeast of Soqotra in rocky areas on the limestone plateau. Altitude of 330–600 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its tubular corolla, without a red base but with red stigmas, its cylindrical calyx and anthers restricted to the top quarter of the staminal column. Its short filiform epicalyx lobes are also distinctive. On Soqotra similar epicalyx lobes are only found in <em>H. noli-tangere</em>, the geographically closest species. Usually a low shrub, <em>H. stenanthus</em>, never grows very tall and, on more windswept sites (for instance above Ras Momi), it is virtually prostrate.
45005		habitat	eng	Restricted to seaward-facing escarpments in Northeast Soqotra where it grows on shady limestone cliffs and boulders in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 20–300 m. <br/> <br/>Common in a fairly narrow altitudinal band on seaward-facing limestone escarpment cliffs in Northeast Soqotra. Its total area of occupancy is probably under 10 km². It is under no immediate or perceived threat but its restriction to a small, specialised niche makes it vulnerable to environmental change. It is also of potential interest to succulent enthusiasts and could be threatened by over-collection. <br/> <br/>In habit very different from <em>Dorstenia gigas</em>. However, in flower its affinities with that species are more obvious.
45006		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45006		habitat	eng	Rocky areas on limestone. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m.
45007		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
45007		habitat	eng	Rocky slopes in drought-deciduous woodland on limestone and granite. Altitude of 100–800 m.
45008		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45008		habitat	eng	Coastal dwarf shrubland and inland cliff. Altitude of sea-level to 550 m.
45009		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45009		habitat	eng	Coastal dwarf shrubland and inland cliff. Altitude of sea-level to 550 m.
45010		distribution	eng	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.
45010		habitat	eng	Sparse dwarf shrubland on dry rocky slopes. Altitude of 30–50 m. <br/> <br/>An inconspicuous plant, growing between rocks and easily over-looked. It is readily distinguished by its rather flattened, prostrate stems.
45011		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45011		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland on rocky slopes. Altitude of 50–500 m.
45012		habitat	eng	Open woody-herb community and dwarf shrubland on rolling limestone plateau. Altitude of 650–700 m. <br/> <br/>Clearly closely related to <em>P. quadrifida</em> and <em>P. kuriensis</em> but differing in the smaller stature and the ground-hugging stems which trail across the ground giving a necklace-like appearance.
45013		habitat	eng	Only known from the ridge above Jebel Shu'ub where it occurs in small depressions on limestone slabs on an exposed ridge. Flower measurements based on buds; no fully open flowers have been seen.
45014		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45014		habitat	eng	Dry rocky slopes. Altitude of 10–700 m. <br/> <br/>Most closely related to <em>Ochradenus arabicus</em> Chaudhary, Hillc. and A.G.Mill. and <em>O. baccatus</em> Del. from the mainland of Yemen. It is similar to <em>O. arabicus</em> in being clearly dioecious but differs in having a fleshy fruit and dull, rather than glossy seeds. The dull, smooth seeds also distinguish it from <em>O. baccatus</em> which has rugose seeds and also has apparently hermaphrodite flowers.
45015		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45015		habitat	eng	Dry rocky slopes and cliffs. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m.
45016		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45016		habitat	eng	Locally common in woodland on the mountains and along wadis. Altitude of 100–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>A common and widespread shrub with small pink or lilac flowers. It is readily distinguished by the asymmetric wing-like calyx which gradually expands and hides the developing fruit. Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) originally described three species (under <em>Dirichletia</em>) from the island. These were later reduced to a single species, <em>Carphalea obovata</em>, by Verdcourt (1973).
45017		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45017		habitat	eng	Common in rocky places on the limestone escarpments. Altitude of 30–650 m.
45018		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45018		habitat	eng	Local in low evergreen shrubland on granite in the central and eastern Haggeher. Altitude of 900–1,550 m. <br/> <br/>A very bad smelling plant.
45019		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45019		habitat	eng	Apparently restricted to semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone escarpment and plateau above Qallansiyah. Altitude of 350–700 m.
45020		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45020		habitat	eng	Rocky places in semi-deciduous woodland on both limestone and granite. Altitude of 400–1,000 m.
45021		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45021		habitat	eng	Widespread and recorded from a variety of habitats including exposed and windswept places on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus, deciduous woodland along wadis and semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone plateaus. Altitude of sea-level to 600 m.
45022		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45022		habitat	eng	Rare on cliffs along wadis draining south into the Noged plain; in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 30–100 m. <br/> <br/><em>Kraussia socotrana</em> is quite distinct form the African species of <em>Kraussia</em> in its non-winged pollen receptacle and pubescent corolla throat and narrower corolla tube. In overall facies <em>K. socotrana</em> shows greatest resemblance to the most geographically remote species, <em>K. floribunda</em> Harv. from southern Africa (Bridson 1995).
45023		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45023		habitat	eng	Wadi Faleng and near Galonsir [Qallansiyah]. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>O. pulvinata</em> from which it differs in its smaller leaves and calyx. It possibly represents an extreme form of that species. Not seen since it was first collected in the 19th Century at opposite ends of the island near Qallansiyah and near Wadi Faleng.
45024		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45024		habitat	eng	Semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 350–1,370 m. <br/> <br/>This species occupies and isolated position within the genus and has no close allies. It was placed in the monotypic subgenus <em>Alsinastrum</em> Bremek.
45025		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45025		habitat	eng	Amongst rocks on limestone plateaus. Altitude of 450–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its rosette-forming annual habit and fruit with a pair of triangular terminal teeth.
45026		distribution	eng	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.
45026		habitat	eng	Shady rocky slopes and ledges, particularly common in cracks on the limestone pavement on Jebal Saleh. Altitude of 30–500 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from the other cushion-forming species by the curious clear eye at the tip of the succulent leaves and calyces. This window of clear tissue possibly acts as a lense to focus the rays of the sun on photosynthetic cells around the sides of the semi-globose leaf tips. This is comparable to the leaves of the living stones, from the genus <em>Lithops</em> (Aizoaceae) from southern Africa.
45027		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45027		habitat	eng	On soil and rocks on the plains and limestone plateaus. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>The commonest cushion-forming plant on the islands. Very variable.
45028		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45028		habitat	eng	Submontane semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 850–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>Rare, in Haggeher mountains.
45029		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45029		habitat	eng	Fairly common in the north central and north eastern part of the island; rocky places on both limestone and granite, often growing in rock crevices. Altitude of 100–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>The emarginate corolla lobes and sweet-smelling jasmine-like flowers are characteristic of this small shrub. It comes into new leaf after rain; drops leaves in summer and flowers in winter. The species was first described in <em>Mussaenda</em> and later transferred to <em>Pseudomussaenda</em> but it is now placed in a monotypic genus. The name <em>Tamridaea</em> is derived from Tamrida, an old name for the capital of Soqotra (now Hadiboh).
45030		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45030		habitat	eng	Locally common in low shrubland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 700–1,400 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its strongly aromatic, evergreen leaves which have strongly inrolled margins.
45031		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45031		habitat	eng	Uncommon, in dense montane woodland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 600–1,000 m.
45032		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45032		habitat	eng	Rather uncommon in shrubland on rocky slopes and ridges in the high Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 700–1,300 m.
45033		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45033		habitat	eng	Usually an annual, but under favourable conditions can live for several years. <em>L. sokotrana</em> is closely related to the widespread species <em>L. indica</em>.
45034		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45034		habitat	eng	Locally common dry rocky slopes and sandy plains. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m. <br/> <br/>Common on the foothills of Jebal Saleh on Abd al Kuri. One specimen collected was quite different from the above description in habit, being tufted and much smaller than the other collections. There do not appear to be any other significant differences. This collection was growing on an exposed sandy plain whereas typically this species is found growing in the shade of boulders. Also found near the village on Samha.
45035		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45035		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland on limestone plateaus. Altitude of 200–600 m.
45036		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
45036		habitat	eng	Coastal plains and desertic foothills, less commonly on limestone plateaus (Ras Geridihon). Altitude of sea-level to 600 m. <br/> <br/>Apparently generally found at lower altitudes than <em>X. aculeolatus</em>.
45037		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45037		habitat	eng	Widespread and often abundant on coastal plains and limestone plateaus. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>On Abd al Kuri <em>L. sokotranum</em> is abundant on the central plains. The plants here are much more robust and with longer spines than those on Soqotra. It is an important nursery plant and protect seedlings, such as <em>Dendrosicyos socotranus</em>, from livestock. It is similar to <em>L. depressum</em> and <em>L. arabicum</em> from the Arabian mainland. <br/> <br/>Much-branched shrub < 2 m. Branches with short spines, < 1 cm long. Leaves obovate, 0.5–2 x 0.1–0.4 cm. Calyx 0.2–0.3 cm long. Corolla yellow, <em>ca</em>.  1 cm long. Fruit red, 0.5–1 cm diameter.
45038		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45038		habitat	eng	Widespread in succulent shrubland and drought deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 650 m. <br/> <br/>Close to, and dubiously distinct from, <em>Withania riebeckii</em>.
45039		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
45039		habitat	eng	Widespread in succulent shrubland and drought deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m.
45040		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45040		habitat	eng	<em>Jatropha</em>-<em>Croton</em> shrubland and semi-decidous shrubland. Altitude of 100–600 m.
45041		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45041		habitat	eng	Abundant in semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland on the western plateau and on the Haggeher and adjacent limestone plateus; dominant in woodland in the northern wadis of the Haggeher mountains; also found on the summit of the coastal escarpment in the east of the island. Altitude of 300–800 m.
45042		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
45042		habitat	eng	Common and widepread on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus; absent from the granite of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>Prostrate herb < 15 cm. Leaves in rosettes, oblong-ovate, 4–9 x 0.6–2 cm, simple to pinnate or bi-pinnate, serrate to biserrate. Flowers: solitary, <em>ca</em>. 1 cm across. Sepals and petals: four. Stamens: many. Fruits: oblong-ovoid, 5–8 x 1–2 mm, rounded at apex, two-locular.
45043		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra. Subpopulations appear to be very scattered and scarce, but under no current threat.
45043		habitat	eng	Flower colour not known.
45044		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45044		habitat	eng	Dry ravines and wadi sides. Altitude of 10–150 m.
45045		habitat	eng	Locally common in the Haggeher mountains; in fissures of vertical cliff faces on granite pinnacles. Altitude of 1,000–1,550 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its glossy simple leaves with their distinctive parallel venation. <br/> <br/>Cliff-dwelling shrublet, to 50 cm; stems contorted, densely covered with leaf scars. Leaves: leathery, bright green, glossy, subcircular, 1–3.5 cm long. Bracts and bracteoles 2–8 mm long. Flowers <em>ca</em>. 1 mm across. Fruit ovoid-elliptic,1.5–2.5 x 4–6 mm; mericarps five-ribbed, prominent, tuberculate; styles 0.5–1 mm long.
45046		habitat	eng	Rare, on cliffs on both the limestone and granite. Altitude of 500–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>The only umbel on Soqotra with a distinct stem. It is relatively common in the zone on the limestone escarpment on Samha which captures low cloud and drizzle at certain times of year. On Soqotra it is restricted to cliffs on the limestone escarpment near Qallansiyah and is rare on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher.
45047		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve. There is a need to conserve remaining patches of primary forest habitat throughout the range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the natural history of this species, particulary its ability to persist in modified or degraded forest habitats. There is a need to review the identity of <em>Myosorex</em> the Rungwe Mountains.
45047		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex kilhaulei</em> is found in the Udzungwe Mountains of Tanzania (Stanley and Hutterer, 2000). Populations of <em>Myosorex</em> from the Rungwe Mountains of Tanzania, might also be assigned to <em>Myosorex kihaule</em> but could represent a different taxon and further studies are needed (Stanley and Hutterer, 2000). Other seemingly suitable locations have been extensively sampled without finding <em>Myosorex kihaule</em>. This species occurs at elevations up to 2,000 m asl.
45047		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary montane forest. One specimen was recorded from a tea plantation. The Udzungwe Mountains are the only area in this region where there is suitable forest which occurs from 1,500-2,000 m asl.
45047		population	eng	This species is relatively common where it occurs.
45047		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general deforestation, through logging and conversion of land to agricultural purposes. Although it is thought unlikely that the forest will be totally cleared, the quality of the habitat will continue to be degraded.
45048		conservation	eng	This species is present in the well protected Mount Kilimanjaro National Park.
45048		distribution	eng	<em>Myosorex zinki</em> is endemic to Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is thought to occur at elevations between 2,470 - 4,000 m asl.
45048		habitat	eng	This species is found in a number of habitats including forest, heathland, moorland and up to edge of alpine desert.<br/>It is a large and distinct species that resembles <em>M. eisentrauti</em> from Bioko (Stanley and Hutterer, 2000).
45048		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
45048		threats	eng	There appear to be no current major threats to this species, however, climate change is a plausible future threat to its montane habitat.
45049		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
45049		distribution	eng	This little known Central African species has only been recorded from two places, the type locality of Ikenge Research Station in Korup National Park, Cameroon (Hutterer and Schlitter 1996), and in Kongana, Central African Republic (Ray and Hutterer 1995). It presumably ranges more widely than is currently known.
45049		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from lowland tropical moist forest.
45049		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens.
45049		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
45050		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded from the Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve in southwestern Central African Republic (Ray and Hutterer 1996). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
45050		distribution	eng	This little known species has been recorded from the Central African Republic and Congo (Hutterer 2005).
45050		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species, however, it appears to be limited to patches of mixed and unlogged lowland tropical moist forest (Ray and Hutterer 1996).
45050		population	eng	It is a localised species.
45050		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
45051		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Mount Oku Faunal Reserve. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
45051		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Cameroon mountains (including the areas of Mount Oku and Lake Manenguba) and to the Gotel Mountains in southeastern Nigeria. It has been recorded at around 2,000 in Cameroon and at 2,300 m asl in Nigeria.
45051		habitat	eng	This little-known species is associated with montane tropical moist forest.
45051		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
45051		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging, conversion of land to agricultural use, overgrazing by domestic livestock, and general fragmentation of suitable forest patches.
45052		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. There is a need to protect the forest habitat of this species.
45052		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range in southwestern Ethiopia. It is currently known only from Sheko Forest and Gore, at elevations of 1,800 m to 1,930 m asl.
45052		habitat	eng	It is found in humid afro-montane forest with a notable abundance of parasitic <em>Ficus</em> and undergrowth dominated by <em>Coffea arabica</em>. The well circumscribed elevational limits of the species may be related to factors associated with vegetational communities. The habitat requirements of the species remain unclear.
45052		population	eng	It is a rare species known only from three specimens.
45052		threats	eng	The rapid destruction of montane forests might threaten the species in the near future
45053		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
45053		distribution	eng	This species is known from rocky habitats, on the right bank of the Niger river, in Mali.
45053		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in rocky areas and cliffs surrounded by dry savanna habitat.
45053		population	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
45053		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45054		conservation	eng	The area is not currently under protection and harbours a large number of endemics. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of montane forest in Cameroon. Surveys are required on the mountains further to the east to see if this species occurs there.
45054		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the upper slopes of Mount Oku, Cameroon. It may occur on other mountains to the east of Mount Oku but this needs to be confirmed. It has been collected at 2,100 m asl.
45054		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane tropical moist forest. Only approximately 100 km² of forest habitat remains on Mount Oku (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2004).
45054		population	eng	It is known only from four collections, so there is no information on population size.
45054		threats	eng	There is deforestation on the lower slopes of Mount Oku for agricultural land, firewood and building materials.
45055		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the species distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
45055		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Cameroon, Cameroon. Specimens have been collected between 1,000 and 3,100 m asl.
45055		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane forest, grasslands, forest fringes, small patches of woodland, and gardens and plantations.
45055		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
45055		threats	eng	Although it has a restricted range, there do not appear to be any current or near future major threats to this species.
45056		conservation	eng	The area of Mount Oku does not appear to be protected and there is an urgent need to conserve remaining suitable forest in this area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
45056		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the edge of a crater lake on Mount Oku, Bamenda-Banso highlands, Cameroon. Recorded by five specimens collected in 1967 from the type locality, an isolated patch of forest on Mount Oku (Verheyen <em>et al</em>. 1997). It was collected at 2,100 m asl.
45056		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane rainforest. Only about 100 km² of suitable forest habitat remains on Mount Oku (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
45056		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known, but it is probably very rare.
45056		threats	eng	The restricted range of this species is threatened by continuing habitat loss, through clearance of land for agricultural use (including grazing) and presumably through some logging activities.
45057		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the Bale Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
45057		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ethiopia in montane evergreen tropical rain forests of the eastern and western plateaus (separated by the Ethiopian Rift Valley). The species probably occurs in most forests of the southwestern mountains (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is present from 1,200 to 2,760 m asl.
45057		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane tropical evergreen rainforest on both the western and eastern plateau of the Bale Mountains. This species sympatric with the heathland <em>L. brevicauda</em> from 2,400 to 2,760 m asl in the Bale Mountains (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998; Lavrenchenko 2000).
45057		population	eng	This species is abundant where it is found.
45057		threats	eng	A predicted continuing loss of montane forests will reduce the geographical range and population numbers.
45058		conservation	eng	It is protected by the Bale Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the establishment and management of additional protected areas.
45058		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south central Ethiopian highlands, on the east side of the Rift Valley in the Chilalo and Gedeb Mountains (Osgood 1936) and from the Bale Mountains (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998), as well as on the west side of the Rift Valley at Bonke.
45058		habitat	eng	This species inhabits <em>Erica</em>-<em>Hypericum</em> heath zone (both upland grasslands and <em>Erica</em> shrubland) on both the western (Bonke) and eastern (Chilalo, Gedeb and Bale Mountains) high Ethiopian plateau.
45058		population	eng	This species is abundant where it is found.
45058		threats	eng	It is an upland grassland species, which occurs in the same habitat as the majority of Ethiopians and their livestock. It is threatened by continuing habitat destruction, but remains sufficiently common and widespread to pose no immediate conservation concerns.
45059		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
45059		distribution	eng	This poorly known species was described in 1996. The known range covers a small area south of the Congo River in northern Democratic Republic of Congo, on the left bank of the Congo River between the Lualaba and Lomami Rivers, and to the west of the Lomami River to Ndele. Found between 300 to 450 m asl.
45059		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland tropical rain forest. It is not known if this species can exist in modified areas.
45059		population	eng	This is a rare and little known species.
45059		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
45060		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Awash National Park. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of habitat for this species.
45060		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to the Ethiopian Rift Valley where it is confined to a small part of the Upper Awash Valley (Lavrenchenko <em>et al.</em>, 1998). All known examples were captured on the eastern bank of Koka Lake and Awash National Park. More recently recorded on Lake Zeway shores (unpublished data). It has been collected at 1,500 m asl.
45060		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the Awash riverbank which is vegetated by <em>Acacia</em>-<em>Commiphora</em> thornbush with high grass, and adjacent agricultural habitats. It is not a truly commensal species as it is not associated with human habitation.
45060		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon, but trap rate data is too minimal to infer this. It is possibly declining due to habitat loss.
45060		threats	eng	Agricultural development might threaten this species in the near future.
45061		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g., Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
45061		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern coastal Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Burkina-Faso and seemingly disjunctly in Nigeria (the type locality); the distribution limits are not well known. It is a lowland species.
45061		habitat	eng	It is found on floodplains around ponds and along rivers (humid all year round), also in cultivated areas, irrigated fields and gardens. This species has additionally been found on the sandy Saloum Islands off the coast of Senegal. It has severe population fluctuations, with population explosions recorded from both Senegal and Mali (L. Granjon pers. comm.).
45061		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
45061		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45065		conservation	eng	It is not thought to occur in any protected areas.
45065		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west-central Angola, the type locality is Chitau. It occurs from 1,000 to 2,500 m asl.
45065		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of montane grassland and swamps. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
45065		population	eng	It is most likely a common species.
45065		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
45067		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
45067		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated populations from extreme northern Malawi, south-central Tanzania (Poroto and Ukinga Mountains) and south-western Kenya, with a single record from Abercorn (=Mbala) Lucheche River in northern Zambia. It ranges from 1,400 to 2,300 m asl.
45067		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane grassland and swamp. Its is not known if the species is found in farmland.
45067		population	eng	It is probably a common species. Populations fluctuate with fires and drought.
45067		threats	eng	Fires caused by both farmers and by poachers hunting large mammals are a potential threat. The species is also threatened by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock.
45069		conservation	eng	Mount Elgon is conserved within Mount Elgon National Park, but better management of the park to conserve this species is needed.
45069		distribution	eng	This species is geographically restricted to the Ugandan and Kenyan upper slopes of Mount Elgon, from 3,300 to 4,200 m asl.
45069		habitat	eng	It is a habitat specialist restricted to alpine heaths on upper slopes (>3,300 m asl) of Mount Elgon where it co-exists with <em>O. typus jacksoni</em> (Clausnitzer and Kityo 2001).
45069		population	eng	It is reasonably common in good habitat.
45069		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and poor management of the species' habitat has resulted in extensive fires (often linked to poaching activities) that have damaged the habitat. Tourism, in particular disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a potential threat.
45071		conservation	eng	The range is within Mount Cameroon National Park.
45071		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the region of the type locality of Mount Cameroon, in Cameroon. It occurs from 2,000 to 4,000 m asl.
45071		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane grassland in the Cameroon highlands. The grassland is often within natural clearings in the forest, but the species is not found in the forest itself. Its is not known if it can persist in cleared areas or farmland.
45071		population	eng	Only very few specimens have been collected suggesting that it is an uncommon species.
45071		threats	eng	There are threats from agriculture at lower elevations on Mount Cameroon, but this species mainly occurs at elevations within the protected area so much of its habitat is currently less threatened.
45072		conservation	eng	It may possibly occur in protected areas in Cameroon.
45072		distribution	eng	this species has been recorded from southern Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, and southern Congo. There are no records from Gabon, and there is an apparently large gap between the Congo records and those in Cameroon and Central African Republic. This is most likely due to lack of collections. This lowland species ranges up to 500 m asl.
45072		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical lowland rainforest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
45072		population	eng	It is not very abundant.
45072		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45076		conservation	eng	Although there are no conservation measures in place;, the species is known from a number of protected areas.
45076		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sahel and Sudan savannas of Senegal, Mali and Niger. The distribution may be disjunct, separated by the inner delta of the Niger River (this is unsuitable habitat). It is also present on some coastal islands of Senegal.
45076		habitat	eng	This species is found in woodlands on sandy and clay soils, and also in fallow lands and cultivated fields. It has also been recorded on sandy and mangrove islands of the Saloun Delta, Senegal.
45076		population	eng	This is a common species, that is locally abundant and is occasionaly considered to be an agricultural pest.
45076		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45077		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
45077		distribution	eng	This little-known species has only been recorded from southeastern Mauritania and western Mali.
45077		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected from Sahel savanna and fallow agricultural land.
45077		population	eng	This species is only known from four specimens.
45077		threats	eng	There are presumed to be no major threats to this species.
45078		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this little known species. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable primary forest within the range of the species.
45078		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from The Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it has been found at Medje (800 m asl in the Ituri Forest) and at Irangi (at 800 to 1,450 m asl).
45078		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from primary rainforest, secondary forest and submontane forest (at Irangi).
45078		population	eng	It is extremely rare, and is known only from a few specimens. Very little is known about this species but it is assumed that its biology is similar to that of other species in the genus.
45078		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, however, primary forests within the range of the species are under threat from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
45079		habitat	eng	Locally common in shade in moist woodland. Altitude of 500–1,200 m. <br/> <br/>Balfour placed this species under the genus <em>Peucedanum</em> but commented that within the genus it was unusual on account of its peculiarly dissected leaves and cordate-based fruit. Recently molecular studies have shown it to be unrelated to any other species in <em>Peudedanum</em> but most closely related to the newly described <em>R. milleri</em>.
45080		habitat	eng	Locally common on the Rewgid plateau; on vertical rock faces on limestone cliffs. Altitude of 600–750 m. <br/> <br/>A very distinctive cliff-dwelling shrub which is restricted to steep, inacessible cliffs on the Rewgid plateau where it is abundant in places.
45081		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45081		habitat	eng	Annual on dry hill slopes near Galonsir [Qallansiyah] Balfour 1888. <br/> <br/>Only one other species of this predominantly Meditearranean and North African genus is recorded from the region, <em>V. microcarpa</em> Lois from Kenya and Ethiopia. However, <em>V. microcarpa</em> is widespread in the Mediterranean region and it is not clear whether it is native to or introduced into tropical Northeast Africa. The status of the Soqotran <em>V. affinis</em>, a rare Mediterranean outlier, which is only known from a single dried specimen, needs further investigation. For the time being it remains an example of a rare Mediterranean–Soqotran geographical disjunction and has interesting biogeographical implications.
45082		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45082		habitat	eng	Thickets in semi-deciduous submontane woodland; more rarely as a low shrub on granite slopes (above Firmihin) or on limestone cliffs (Rewgid); also found on seaward-facing limestone cliffs in the Northeast of Soqotra. Altitude of 700–1,520 m. <br/> <br/>Local in dense thicket in the Haggeher mountains, however, it is also less common in other areas, for instance on the higher seaward-facing cliffs at Reqadrihon (above Hoq). These cliffs attract low cloud and rain during the winter and are a refugium for some species (e.g., <em>Dirachma</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggeher and adjacent limestone plateaus.
45083		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrubland on the eastern and western limestone plateaus. Altitude of 200–650 m.
45084		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
45084		habitat	eng	Widespread and common on the limestone escarpments and plateaus. Altitude of 50–950 m.
45085		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45085		habitat	eng	Common and widespread on the limestone plateaus and above 300 m on the limestone espcarpments; in dwarf shrubland and open woodland. Altitude of 300–800 m. <br/> <br/>Replaces <em>C. subaphylla</em> above 300 m over most of the island; absent from the granite of the Haggeher.
45086		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra.
45086		habitat	eng	A common vine in drought deciduous woodland in the wadis draining the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 200–650 m.
45087		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.
45087		habitat	eng	Widespread and often abundant on the plains and in succulent shrubland on the limestone escarpments; generally occurs below <em>ca</em>. 300 m (replaced by <em>C. hamaderohensis</em> in higher altitudes) but reaches up to 750 m on dry dipslopes of the western limestone plateau; co-dominant at 100 m on Samha in open shrubland. Altitudes of sea-level to 750 m. <br/> <br/><em>C. subaphylla</em> is common in dry, low-lying areas, only rarely occurring above 300 m; at higher levels it is replaced by <em>C. hamaderohensis</em>. It is reported to be on the increase in upland areas. The importance of <em>Cissus subaphylla</em> as a nursery plant for a variety of palatable species is well known throughout the islands. Thus its absence can effect the recovery of populations of trees such as <em>Dendrosicyos</em>, <em>Maerua</em>, <em>Commiphora</em> etc.
45088		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
45088		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout North Africa and the Sahara Desert. In North Africa, it ranges eastwards from Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.
45088		habitat	eng	It is present in arid habitats in rocky areas, often on gravel and hardened soils. Also found on arable land.
45088		population	eng	This is an abundant species that is considered to be an agricultural pest in some countries (e.g. Morocco).
45088		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45089		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
45089		distribution	eng	This species has been captured in three localities in the Congo basin. It is possible that its distribution may include the whole basin.
45089		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
45089		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
45089		threats	eng	It is associated with primary forest, destruction of this habitat will have adverse effect on the range of species.
45090		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
45090		distribution	eng	This species is known from only four disjunct localities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is possible that the species is more widely distributed than is currently known. It is found at elevations of up to 1,800 m asl.
45090		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or secondary forest.
45090		population	eng	Although this species is not common, it can be locally abundant
45090		threats	eng	It is associated with primary forest, destruction of this habitat will have adverse effect on the range of species.
45091		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within the range of this species.
45091		distribution	eng	This species is found only in western Angola, primarily on the Angolan Plateau (Crawford-Cabral 1998).
45091		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Mopane, Combretum and Miombo woodlands (savanna). It is probably commensal with people.
45091		population	eng	It appears to be locally common.
45091		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45092		conservation	eng	It occurs in Zakouma National Park (Chad), where it is syntopic with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. erythroleucus</span>. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
45092		distribution	eng	This species is reliably recorded from northern Niger (Air Massif), north-eastern Nigeria, northern Cameroon, southeastern Chad, and southern and eastern Sudan (see Dobigny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008 for a review).
45092		habitat	eng	According to Dobigny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), this species is ubiquitous in its habitat preferences, having been caught in various ecological situations including sandy millet fields, shrubby areas surrounding cultivated gardens, dried waterholes, remote and non-cultivated fine-gravelled plain or periodically flooded shrub to tree savanna. It has been trapped twice very close to shrinkage cracks where it seems to nest.
45092		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
45092		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45093		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas in Ethiopia
45093		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Ethiopian highlands, where it is found on both sides of the Rift Valley from 800 to 3,300 m asl. A disjunct subpopulation exists on the border with Eritrea
45093		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane forests, scrubland, and adjacent agricultural lands on the Ethiopian Plateau.
45093		population	eng	It is a common, widespread commensal species.
45093		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45094		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.
45094		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Gambia and Senegal through Guinea, Sierra Leone, northern Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, southern Chad and Central African Republic, to southwestern Sudan; the eastern limits of the range are unresolved.
45094		habitat	eng	It is found in tall grass in open savanna woodland, often on rocky hillsides with ironstone soils ('Sudanian and Sahelian Zones'). It is a commensal species that may be found inside buildings.
45094		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is not regularly caught.
45094		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45095		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within the species range in which it is presumed to occur (e.g., Digya National Park in Ghana)
45095		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eastern and southern Ghana, much of Togo, Benin and western Nigeria. There is also a recent outlying record from Guinea (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2002) which may be the result of a translocation. It occurs from sea level to 500 m asl.
45095		habitat	eng	It is a savanna species that is often found living in and around human dwellings.
45095		population	eng	This is a very common species.
45095		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45096		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the known range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of this species.
45096		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bonke and Bulta in the Gamo Gofa region, in the Gughe Mountains of southwestern Ethiopia. The species has an altitudinal range of 2,700 to 3,200 m asl.
45096		habitat	eng	This little-known species has been recorded in upland forest and scrub. Nothing further is known about the biology of this species.
45096		population	eng	This species was described on the basis of nine specimens only.
45096		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but possibly include habitat loss through fire and overgrazing of the species habitat by domestic livestock.
45097		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a large number of protected areas.
45097		distribution	eng	This is a distinctive South African endemic species confined largely to the Fynbos biome (Eastern and Western Cape Provinces). It occurs from Olifants River in the west to Nature's Valley, Plettenberg Bay in the east.
45097		habitat	eng	In is found in Fynbos vegetation, both lowland and montane. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
45097		population	eng	This is a very common species.
45097		threats	eng	The lowland parts of the species range have been impacted by habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and urbanization; populations in montane areas appear to be secure.
45098		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45099		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45100		distribution	eng	Altitude of 650–1,700 m.
45101		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45102		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,800 m.
45103		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45104		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300 m.
45105		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45106		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45107		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45108		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300 m.
45109		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45110		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,400 m.
45111		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45112		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45113		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.
45114		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000 m.
45115		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,360 m.
45116		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,050 m.
45117		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–500 m.
45118		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45119		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45120		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45121		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45122		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45123		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45124		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,600–3,200 m.
45125		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45126		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45127		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,500 m.
45128		distribution	eng	Altitude of 450 m.
45129		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45130		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45131		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45132		distribution	eng	Altitude of 350–1,600 m.
45133		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45134		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45135		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45136		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45137		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45138		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45139		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45140		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45141		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45142		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.
45143		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300–1,000 m.
45144		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45145		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.
45146		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45147		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,785–3,900 m.
45148		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45149		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45150		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45151		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,785–3,900 m.
45152		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45153		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,900–4,100 m.
45154		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,900–4,100 m.
45155		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,800 m.
45156		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,030 m.
45157		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45158		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45159		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.
45160		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150–2,500 m.
45161		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45162		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,500 m.
45163		distribution	eng	Altitude of 350–2,500 m.
45164		distribution	eng	Altitude of 230 to 350 m.
45165		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400 to 600 m.
45166		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,300 m.
45167		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45168		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,100 m.
45169		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45170		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45171		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
45172		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.
45173		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45174		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45175		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.
45176		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45177		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45178		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45179		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45180		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45181		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,200 m.
45182		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45183		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45184		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45185		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
45186		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45187		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45188		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45189		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
45190		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45191		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
45192		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45193		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45194		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45195		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45196		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45197		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45198		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45199		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine the validity and distribution of this taxon.
45199		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been collected from the type locality of Kaffa in central Ethiopia.
45199		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
45199		population	eng	This species is known only from a single skin.
45199		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
45200		conservation	eng	The range includes a number of protected areas.
45200		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from east central Tanzania, northwards through Kenya and northern Uganda, into Somalia, southeastern Ethiopia and southern Sudan. There is a record from Central African Republic and it probably also occurs into the northeastern part of Democratic Republic of the Congo. The western and southern limits of the range are unknown. The species has been recorded at elevations of up to about 1,500 m asl.
45200		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily in tree savannas in rocky areas.
45200		population	eng	This species is locally common in suitable habitat.
45200		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
45201		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45202		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45203		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–600 m.
45204		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300–600 m.
45205		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.
45206		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 300 m.
45207		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,200–1,800 m.
45208		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–700 m.
45209		distribution	eng	Altitude of 600 m.
45210		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300–400 m.
45211		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–500 m.
45212		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–400 m.
45213		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45214		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
45215		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45216		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 200 m.
45217		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 350 m.
45218		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,200–3,500 m.
45219		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,600–2,200 m.
45220		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2300 m.
45221		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,800–2,800 m.
45222		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45223		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–500 m.
45224		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,500 m.
45225		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,700–2,400 m.
45226		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45228		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
45229		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
45230		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45231		distribution	eng	Altitude of 4,000 to >4,500 m.
45232		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500 to >4,500 m.
45233		distribution	eng	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.
45234		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,300 m.
45235		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45236		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,800 m.
45237		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,200–1,300 m.
45238		distribution	eng	Altitude of 800–1,000 m.
45239		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–300 m.
45240		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–500 m.
45241		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 300 m.
45242		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45243		distribution	eng	Altitude of 50 to 700 m.
45244		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150–1,000 m.
45245		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,200 m.
45246		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200 to 500 m.
45247		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400–1,800 m.
45248		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,600–2,400 m.
45249		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 100 m.
45250		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,900–2,100 m.
45251		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,700–2,200 m.
45252		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,500 m.
45253		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,00 m.
45254		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,600–2,800 m.
45256		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45257		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
45258		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
45259		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45260		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45261		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45262		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000 to >4,500 m.
45263		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45264		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
45265		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45266		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45267		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
45268		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45269		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.
45270		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.
45271		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.
45272		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45273		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
45274		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45275		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,270 m.
45276		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45277		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
45278		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,300–4,500 m.
45279		distribution	eng	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.
45280		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.
45281		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.
45282		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45283		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45284		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.
45285		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45286		distribution	eng	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.
45287		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
45288		distribution	eng	Altitude of 4,000 to snow level
45289		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45290		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,900–4,100 m.
45291		distribution	eng	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.
45292		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45293		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,400 m.
45294		distribution	eng	Altitude of 120 m.
45295		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,200–2,500 m.
45296		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,300–2,300 m.
45297		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–2,700 m.
45298		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–350 m.
45299		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45300		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,800 m.
45301		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45302		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45303		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400–700 m.
45304		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45305		distribution	eng	Altitude of 700–1,500 m.
45306		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,300 m.
45307		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45308		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,600 m.
45309		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45310		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45311		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45312		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45313		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45314		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45315		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45316		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45317		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45318		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
45319		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45320		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45321		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,500 m.
45322		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45323		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,450 m.
45324		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45326		distribution	eng	Altitude of 900–1,500 m.
45327		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45328		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
45329		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
45330		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–1,000 m.
45331		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45332		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 600 m.
45333		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45334		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300–1,000 m.
45335		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300–700 m.
45336		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400–900 m.
45337		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–700 m.
45338		distribution	eng	Altitude of 600 m.
45339		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,700–2,000 m.
45340		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45341		distribution	eng	Altitude of 600–1,000 m.
45342		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,800–2,200 m.
45343		distribution	eng	Altitude of 600 m.
45344		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,800 m.
45345		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45346		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–800 m.
45347		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,700–2,100 m.
45348		distribution	eng	Altitude of 80 to 500 m.
45349		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45350		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150–1,000 m.
45352		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45353		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
45354		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–500 m.
45355		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45356		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
45357		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–500 m.
45358		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–500 m.
45359		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45360		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45361		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,800 m.
45362		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
45363		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45364		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45365		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1740 m.
45366		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45367		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45368		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
45369		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45370		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–600 m.
45371		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45372		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45373		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45374		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–300 m.
45375		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,480 m.
45376		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,600–4,000 m.
45377		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45378		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,550–1,570 m.
45379		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45380		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 m.
45381		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–500 m.
45382		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45383		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,150 m.
45384		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45385		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45386		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,380 m.
45387		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45388		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45389		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,050 m.
45390		distribution	eng	Altitude of 550 m.
45391		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,320 m.
45392		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45393		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 2,000 m.
45394		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45395		distribution	eng	Altitude of 960 m.
45396		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100 to 600 m.
45397		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
45398		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45399		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45402		conservation	eng	The current population sizes in terms of both number of individuals and area of occupancy should be assessed as this is not clear from the specimen data. A better understanding of the flowering cycle of this community should be gained, including population fluctuations between cycles. Bamenda Highlands populations outside protected areas may provide valuable information on how immature populations respond to increased anthropogenic pressures.
45402		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Cross River State (1 coll.), Equatorial Guinea:  Bioko (5 coll.), Western Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (9 coll.), Mt Cameroon (9 coll.), Bamenda Highlands (Mt Oku: 1, elsewhere: 3 coll.).
45402		habitat	eng	Occurs in closed canopy submontane and montane forest understorey, occasionally in disturbed forest, (700–)1,000–2,300 m alt.
45402		threats	eng	Much of the montane forest in S.W. Province remains relatively undisturbed, but clearance for agriculture is widespread in the Bamenda Highlands, threatening these populations. Furthermore, the cyclical mass-flowering habit of this species results in large fluctuations in mature populations, making it susceptible to short-term stochastic change, for example local fire events or landslides which could decimate seedling populations.
45403		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the populations above Nyasoso should provide further information on the habitat requirements of this species, particularly the extent to which it tolerates anthropogenic disturbance. Active protection of threatened sites may be required.
45403		distribution	eng	Cameroon: S.W. Province: Kupe-Bakossi (6 coll.), E. Province: Bertoua and Betare Oya (2 coll.), W. Province: Bafoussam-Foumbot (1 coll.), unlocated (2 coll.).
45403		habitat	eng	Found in mid-elevation to submontane forest, preferring forest margins and clearances and lingering in farmbush, 800–1,550 m alt.
45403		threats	eng	Intensification of land use at lower elevations, particularly the conversion of lower forest margins to arable agriculture; this is a significant threat around larger habitations such as Nyasoso in Bakossi, where this taxon has been collected 4 times, and around Bafoussam, a very large town in W. Province around which almost all natural habitat has long been lost.
45404		conservation	eng	Current population sizes in terms of both number of individuals and area of occupancy should be assessed as this is not clear from the specimen data. A better understanding of the flowering cycle of this community should be gained, including population fluctuations between cycles. Bamenda Highlands populations outside protected areas may provide valuable information on how immature populations respond to increased anthropogenic pressures. In addition, a survey of this taxon should be carried out during the next mass-flowering year on Mt Kupe and Manengouba.
45404		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.), W. Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (2 coll.), Rumpi Hills (1 coll.), Mt Cameroon (13 coll.), Bamenda Highlands (Mt Oku: 3 coll., Bafut Ngemba: 1 coll.). <br/> <br/>Previously named <em>Oreacanthus mannii</em> Benth., this taxon has been reassigned to <em>Brachystephanus</em> by D. Champluvier during her monograph of this genus, currently in preparation.
45404		habitat	eng	Found in closed canopy montane forest, (1,300–)2,000–2,600 m alt.
45404		threats	eng	Much of the montane forest in the S.W. Province remains relatively undisturbed, but clearance for agriculture is widespread in the Bamenda Highlands, threatening these populations. Furthermore, the cyclical mass-flowering habit of this species results in large fluctuations in mature populations, making it susceptible to short-term stochastic change, for example local fire events or landslides which could decimate seedling populations.
45405		conservation	eng	It is imperative that the collection sites are revisited to assess current population levels; care should be taken to separate this taxon from similar <em>Brachystephanus</em> spp. A better understanding of its habitat requirements should be gained, in particular the extent to which it tolerates disturbance. Notifying the Nyasoso population of its existence and rarity, perhaps through issuing a conservation poster on this species to local schools and community halls, may help in the protection of these sites. Other potential sites on the mountain should be surveyed for new populations.
45405		distribution	eng	Found on Mt Kupe, above Nyasoso, Cameroon (two collections).
45405		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane forest and secondary regrowth forest, 900–1,100 m alt.
45405		threats	eng	The continued expansion of Nyasoso town has resulted in increased agricultural activity on Mt Kupe up to approx. 1,000 m alt., with further encroachment inevitable in the near future.
45406		conservation	eng	So long as forest remains largely undisturbed above 1,000 m, no intervention is required in Bioko or Cameroon; confirmation of its continued existence in Nigeria is required.
45406		distribution	eng	Recorded from Nigeria, Ogoja (1 coll.); Bioko, Equatorial Guinea (3 coll.); and W. Cameroon, Mt Kupe (3 coll.), Mt Cameroon (2 coll.).
45406		habitat	eng	Found in submontane and montane forest undergrowth, (1,000–)1,300–1,550 m alt.
45406		threats	eng	Forest clearance threatens the Nigerian population.
45407		conservation	eng	Survey of other likely sites in W. Africa, e.g., Mt Nlonako in W. Cameroon. Survey of current known populations may provide a greater understanding of its specific habitat requirements and so where it is most likely to be found in future.
45407		distribution	eng	Recorded from Nimba Mts, Guinea (Conakry); Liberia (4 coll.); Mt Tonkoui, Ivory Coast (1 coll.); Ghana (3 coll. at 2 locations); and Mt Kupe, Cameroon (3 coll.).
45407		habitat	eng	Found in mid-elevation forest, often in wet rocky areas, 900–1,100 m alt.
45407		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture at elevations less than 1,000 m represents a significant threat to the Cameroon population. The montane forests of Ghana and Ivory Coast are similarly threatened. Extensive forest remains on the Nimba Mountains.
45408		conservation	eng	None at the moment. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved   communication to raise  awareness are needed.
45408		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to south Nigeria (Oban district) and Gabon (<span class="dist-lvls-r"><span class="dist-lvl-src">Sierra del Crystal).</span>
45408		habitat	eng	Herb growing on waterfall rocks.
45408		population	eng	Narrow distribution, small size population. The species seems to have been recorded in Cameroon although this needs confirmation.
45408		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution and dam construction.
45409		conservation	eng	Survey work in potential sites in central and eastern Cameroon may reveal further populations of this easily overlooked species; care should be taken to separate it from other similar <em>Dicliptera</em> species, such as <em>D. umbellata</em> and <em>D. laxata</em>. The habitat requirements of this species require greater understanding; at Mt Kupe it appears tolerant of some disturbance.
45409		distribution	eng	Central African Republic: St. Floris N.P., Yalinga, Boukoko (1collection each), Cameroon: S.W. Province: Nguila near Nguti (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.), E. Province: Dengdeng to Gojoum (1 coll.).
45409		habitat	eng	Found in open low altitude forest, 0–750 m.
45409		threats	eng	As a low altitude species, it is vulnerable to habitat loss through conversion to plantations or through logging activity.
45410		conservation	eng	Protection of existing mid-elevation forest is required where possible.
45410		distribution	eng	Nigeria, Gembu Dist. (1 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (8 coll.), Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Kumba (1 coll.), N.W. Province: Bafut-Wum (1 coll.), Central Province: nr. Yaoundé (2 coll.), S. Province: Obang (1 coll.), E. Province (2 coll.), unlocated (2 coll.).
45410		habitat	eng	Found in the understorey of closed canopy mid-elevation forest, (600–)900–1,200 m alt.
45410		threats	eng	Throughout its range, it is threatened by extensive forest clearance. The Northwest Province subpopulation is highly threatened as closed-canopy forest is scarce here today; it was noted in the collection of 1975 that the forest patch in which it was found was "now in exploitation by local people with handsaws"; this site is therefore likely to be lost. At Mt Kupe, it was recorded most often above Nyasoso, at around 1,000 m alt., where agricultural encroachment is causing significant losses of forest. Sites around Yaoundé are also likely to have been lost.
45411		conservation	eng	As a striking and easily recognisable species, <em>J. leucoxiphos</em> could contribute to the promotion of community-based forest protection. Conservation posters on the rarity and uniqueness of this species could be distributed to schools and community centres, encouraging local communities to protect areas where it is found. Further inventory work in the Bakossi Mountains and Rumpi Hills is likely to uncover new locations.
45411		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Cameroon, being recorded from Bakossi Mountains and Rumpi Hills (ten collections).
45411		habitat	eng	Occurs in closed canopy forest understorey, rarely secondary forest, 900–1,500 m alt.
45411		threats	eng	There is an an inferred decline in habitat quality due to illegal logging activity which begun within its area of distribution in 2002, but which has recently reduced following efforts from local conservation groups and communities.
45412		conservation	eng	As the species is readily identifiable, population census data should be possible in protected areas, and an assessment of its habitat requirements made. Further inventory work in suitable lowland sites, such as the Loum Forest Reserve, may provide additional sites.
45412		distribution	eng	Nigeria, Cross River State (3 coll.), Bioko (1 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (3 coll.), Kumba (1 coll.), Central Province: nr. Yaoundé (2 coll.), S. Province: Ebolowa-Amban (1 coll.), unlocated (1 coll.).
45412		habitat	eng	Lowland forest, often along streams, 0–700 m alt.
45412		threats	eng	Throughout its range, deforestation has been extensive in the lowlands, and this continues outside protected areas.
45413		conservation	eng	Atempts to rediscover this species on Mt Cameroon should be made. The collection from Bangem should be verified as the specimen was not available at Kew.
45413		distribution	eng	Nigeria, Cross River State (3 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (1 coll.), Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Babenga nr. Limbe (1 coll.), S. Province: Bipinde (1 coll.).
45413		habitat	eng	Found in the undergrowth of mid- to low-elevation forest, 0–1,000 m alt.
45413		threats	eng	A continued decline in habitat is inferred by clearance of extensive areas of lowland and mid-elevation forest throughout its range for plantation agriculture and timber.
45414		conservation	eng	Protection of the remnant mid-elevation forest in Bakossi appears imperative for the survival of this species. Attempts should also be made to rediscover the disjunct populations in S. Province.
45414		distribution	eng	Cameroon, S.W. Province: Kupe-Bakossi (11 coll.), Mbu-Bakundu (1 coll.), S. Province: 15 km north of Kribi (1 coll.), Bipinde-Ebolowa (1 coll.).
45414		habitat	eng	An understorey herb of mid-elevation to submontane forest, often near water, 700–1,400 m
45414		threats	eng	As this species extends to forest below 1,000 m, it is threatened by widespread deforestation.
45415		conservation	eng	Further data is needed on the range and habitat requirements of this species, particularly the extent to which it can tolerate disturbance. The continued existence at Bipinde should be confirmed during future botanical inventory work at this site.
45415		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (1 coll.), Matoh (1 coll.), Kumbah (1 coll.), Barombi (1 coll.), S. Province: Bipinde (3 coll.).
45415		habitat	eng	An understorey shrub of lowland forest, rarely secondary scrub, 0–350 m alt.
45415		threats	eng	Forest clearance throughout its range. However, at Kumba this species was collected from a road verge, suggesting that it can tolerate some disturbance.
45416		conservation	eng	A survey of the current known populations should be undertaken, including its rediscovery on Bioko. This species should be sought during any future botanical inventory work in additional montane sites such as the highest parts of the Rumpi Hills.
45416		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (3 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).
45416		habitat	eng	Found in understorey of closed canopy submontane and montane forest, 1,330–2,100 m alt.
45416		threats	eng	The forests of Bioko and west Cameroon over 1,000 m alt. are currently under only minimal anthropogenic pressure. However, the low number of locations, and their apparent isolation, render this species vulnerable to stochastic events such as localised landslide or overgrazing by native mammals. It is possible that following the exhaustion of lowland forest resources, there will be increased human encroachment into the montane forests in future unless protected by law.
45417		conservation	eng	<em>Cleistropholis patens</em> is probably most secure at Korup National Park but its protection in other parts of its range is advisable in order to conserve a good tranche of its genetic diversity. The tree or trees at Kupe Village in Bakossi should be examined to see if protection there is supportable.
45417		distribution	eng	Western Nigeria; Central African Republic; Gabon (all 1 coll.); Cameroon: Korup (1 coll.), Kumba (2 coll.), Douala-Edea, Kribi (all 1 coll.), Bipinde (several coll.), Bakossi (3 coll.).
45417		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest, 500–950 m alt.
45417		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for timber, followed by agriculture.
45418		conservation	eng	A survey to revisit the known sites, rediscover the species and assess the likelihood of protecting those subpopulations that do survive is required. Kupe-Bakossi may offer the best hope for the survival of this treelet, assuming that recent conservation proposals are enacted; it has the highest density and most recently discovered sites that are included in a probable protected area for forest.
45418		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites), Bipinde (several collections), Kribi (1 coll.); Gabon (2 sites).
45418		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen forest; 0–1,200 m alt.
45418		threats	eng	Clearance for timber, agriculture and (e.g., Libreville), urban expansion.
45419		conservation	eng	Education, perhaps through a conservation poster, might facilitate protection of this charming tree here. None of the Ebolowa sites seem under immediate threat, although this cannot be said of those elsewhere.
45419		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi (3 coll.), Edea, Ebolowa,  Sangmelima (1 coll. each); Gabon (2 coll.). The three known sites in Bakossi constitute over a third of the global total.
45419		habitat	eng	Found in pristine submontane evergreen forest, 900–1,320 m alt.
45419		threats	eng	Forest clearance for logging and agriculture.
45420		conservation	eng	While both sites in Bakossi (Mungo R. F.R. and Mt Kupe above Nyasoso) are officially protected, resurvey of tree(s) at both sites would facilitate future monitoring. Public education might reduce pressure on this species for, e.g., firewood.
45420		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon, Yaoundé (1 coll. each), Bakossi (2 coll.); Gabon (3 coll. from 2 sites).
45420		habitat	eng	Lowland and submontane evergreen forest, 200–1,600 m alt.
45420		threats	eng	Forest clearance.
45421		conservation	eng	Public education of the importance of this tree is advisable to assure its continued existence at its stronghold at Mt Kupe. A poster explaining this should be produced for local use.
45421		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (12 coll.), Yabassi-Yingui (1 coll. <em>fide</em> Kenfack).
45421		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane evergreen forest, 840–1,200 m alt. In January, the gnarled trunks of this medium-sized canopy tree are largely covered in big pink, fleshy, velvety-hairy flowers.
45421		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for agriculture, especially at the lower parts (below 1,000 m) of its altitudinal range.
45422		conservation	eng	At Mt Kupe, continued monitoring and rental payments (for the conservation site) are needed to ensure the continued survival of this species. The Takamanda site is partly protected as a wildlife reserve but the tree(s) of <em>U. vanderstyii</em> should be refound and monitored. Consideration should be given to educating the inhabitants of the area as to the importance of this plant. At the other locations, trees should be refound (if still existing), censused and considered for protection by the appropriate authorities.
45422		distribution	eng	Congo (Kinshasa); Gabon; Cameroon: Takamanda (1 coll. each); Mt Kupe (two coll.).
45422		habitat	eng	Found in lowland and submontane evergreen forest. Flowers in this small tree are only produced at ground level and radiate from the trunk on pedicels 4–5 cm long.
45422		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture.
45423		conservation	eng	If proposals to protect forest above 1,000 m alt. in much of Bakossi are enacted and respected, this subpopulation seems secure.
45423		distribution	eng	S. Tome; S.E. Nigeria: Obudu (1 coll. each); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (4 coll.); Bakossi (10 coll.); Bali-Ngemba (numerous coll.).
45423		habitat	eng	Found in submontane and lower montane forest, 800–2,000 m alt.
45423		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for timber and agricultural land.
45424		conservation	eng	The best hope for the survival of this species may be the Bakossi Mts at the Kodmin and Nzee Mbeng sites since pressure here is relatively low and since the species was seen here most recently (1998). Continued surveys of the unexplored parts of the Bakossi Mts might well reveal new sites. Further surveys at its other sites, if focussed on this species, might yet reveal that it survives so long as significant areas of forest exist.
45424		distribution	eng	Bioko; Cameroon: Belo to Lake Oku; Rumpi Hills (1 coll. each); Mt Cameroon and the Bakossi Mts (2 coll. each).
45424		habitat	eng	A strangling epiphytic shrub of cloud forest recently resurrected by David Frodin from synonymy in the much commoner <em>S. barteri</em>. Found at 900–2,100 m alt.
45424		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood. It has not recently been seen at the Belo to Lake Oku site despite intensive surveys in the late 1990s (Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000) and since forest has almost disappeared between these two locations, it is probably extinct there. Habitat degradation has been steady on some parts of Mt Cameroon at these altitudes and the species was not refound there in intensive surveys of the early 1990s.
45425		conservation	eng	The status of <em>S. mannii</em> on the Gulf of Guinea islands requires elucidation, perhaps by survey. At Mts Kupe, Cameroon and Mt Oku (Kilum-Ijim) the species seems secure currently.
45425		distribution	eng	Sao Tomé (one coll.); Equatorial Guinea: Annobon (one coll.), Bioko (10 coll. at 4 sites); S.E. Nigeria (Obudu, one coll.); Mt Cameroon (seven coll.); Mt Oku (seven coll.); Kupe and Manenguba Mts (six coll. at four sites); Bamboutos, Bafut-Ngemba (both one coll.).
45425		habitat	eng	One of the very few montane (above 2,000 m alt.) trees that are endemic to the Cameroon uplands (another is <em>Morella arborea</em>), this evergreen canopy tree begins life as an epiphytic shrub. Found in montane forest; (1,400–)2,000–2,400 m.
45425		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood are the main threats.
45426		conservation	eng	Part of the subpopulation in Bakossi that occurs above the 1,000 m contour has a fairly good chance of long term survival.
45426		distribution	eng	Cameroon (6 pre-1978 coll.), Mt Kupe (19 coll., 3 sites); Gabon (3 pre 1978 coll.).
45426		habitat	eng	Found in semi-deciduous and submontane forest, 600–1,200 m alt. This canopy climber is easily spotted when fertile since the orange, bijoux flowers are produced in clusters at eye-level from the figure-of-eight shaped stems.
45426		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for timber and agriculture.
45427		conservation	eng	A plant of this species in semi-natural forest at Limbe Botanic Garden in Cameroon offers excellent possibilities for research into the environmental and propagation requirements of <em>P. goldieana</em>. The subpopulation at Mahole (Bakossi F.R.) offers a good chance of conserving this magnificent species in the wild, possibly by a poster education scheme. Flowering plants offer the potential to attract tourists.
45427		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone (2 coll.), Nigeria (6 coll.), Bioko (1 coll.); Cameroon (2 collections pre-1978, 3 coll. post-1978).
45427		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest, often seen in disturbed areas. This climber almost certainly has the largest flowers (c. 30 × 30 × 30 cm) of any African species of flowering plant. It is the African equivalent of the S.E. Asian <em>Rafflesia</em>, matching it in habitat, colour, size and scent of the flowers. The life cycle of this species is unknown, but it appears to be a perennial, producing annual shoots. It is estimated that a generation might last for 10 years.
45427		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for timber and agriculture.
45428		conservation	eng	A census of the species should be conducted at Lake Edip, the only known extant subpopulation in continental West Africa.
45428		distribution	eng	This species is known from Equatorial Guinea, Bioko; Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon (where it is now possibly extinct), the Bakossi Mountains (one site); Congo (Kinshasa); Rwanda; Burundi; and Uganda. This species has not been rediscovered on Mt. Cameroon since the type collection. The lowest altitudinal record is from the edge of Lake Edip (in the Bakossi Mountains) where a single plant was seen twining on a shrub 2 m tall, and flowering abundantly in Feb 1998.
45428		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane forest at 1,200–2,400 m altitude.
45428		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agricultural purposes, e.g., on Mt Cameroon.
45429		conservation	eng	A detailed study of this species at Kodmin-Edip would provide more precise data on population density and demography, as well as assisting in the placement of future development schemes. Botanical surveys in other parts of the Bakossi Mts, or Rumpi Hills, might yet discover more sites which would reduce the threat assessment of this taxon. <br/> <br/>There are two conservation programmes – the Mt Kupe Forest project and the Mt Cameroon Project that have responsibility for protecting the Bakossi Mts and Mt Etinde respectively.
45429		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon: Bakossi Mts, Kodmin area (4 collections) and Mt Etinde (4 collections). At both sites the species is locally common within its altitudinal range, although inconspicuous unless observed when flowering in the wet season. This species is conspecific in part with material named as <em>Imaptiens</em> sp. nov. 1 in Cable and Cheek (1998).
45429		habitat	eng	First described in 2002 (Cheek and Csiba 2002), the slender, hairpin-shaped flowers of this epiphytic species are flame-red. They are produced in the wet season from stems often only 15 cm long which scramble along mossy branches of low trees and shrubs. Occurs in mossy submontane (Elfin) forest; (800–)1,100–1,700 m alt.
45429		threats	eng	There is a plan to expand existing plantations up the southern slopes of Mt Cameroon, including the Mt Etinde area, to the 1,000 m contour, immediately below the altitudinal range of this species. A reservoir scheme is also planned in the Bakossi Mts where the species has been found. Both schemes, even if they do not directly destroy the habitat in which the species occurs, could do so indirectly, through allowing increased human access to the area, and so encouraging tree felling and small-scale farming.
45430		conservation	eng	A detailed study of this species at Kodmin-Edip would provide more precise data on population density and demography, as well as assisting in the placement of future development schemes. Botanical surveys in other parts of the Bakossi Mts, or Rumpi Hills, might yet discover more sites which would reduce the threat assessment of this taxon.
45430		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (5 coll. from 4 sites).
45430		habitat	eng	This robust, epiphytic herb has the largest flowers of all Cameroonian, and perhaps African, <em>Impatiens</em>. Occurs as an epiphyte in crowns of trees 4–6 cm from ground, in shrubs over streams or it can be terrestrial, on lakeside <em>Sphagnum</em> blanket, 1,200–1,350 m alt.
45430		threats	eng	The planned reservoir scheme near Kodmin may threaten part of the population of this species.
45431		conservation	eng	Enforcement of protected area boundaries is required. Demographic studies are also needed to elucidate generation time and the ecological requirements of this taxon.
45431		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko; Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (6 coll.), Muanenguba (2 coll.), Bamenda Highlands (1 coll.) to Mt Oku (12 coll.).
45431		habitat	eng	This often robust, locally common terrestrial herb has the highest altitudinal range of all Cameroonian <em>Impatiens</em>, occurring in the understorey of montane forest at 2,000 m alt.
45431		threats	eng	Forest on Muanenguba and in the Bamenda Highlands has been under pressure from grassland fires set by graziers and for clearance for agriculture.
45432		conservation	eng	The future for <em>Begonia adpressa</em> seems bleak outside of the Rumpi Hills and Bakossi Mts However, at these last sites it seems secure if proposed conservation measures are respected.
45432		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi, Rumpi Hills, Mt Nlonako, S. Bamboutos (8 pre-1995 coll.).
45432		habitat	eng	Occurs as a terrestrial herb and on rocks in forest, 1,000–1,750 m alt.
45432		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for timber, followed by agriculture.
45433		conservation	eng	Assuming that proposed conservation plans in the Bakossi area are enacted, this locally common species seems fairly secure there above the 1,000 m contour and no other conservation action seems necessary.
45433		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Rumpi Hills, Ebolowa (1 coll. each), Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (17 coll.).
45433		habitat	eng	This species is unique in sect. <em>Squamibegonia</em> Warb. (characterised by peltate scales, indehiscent globose berries, inflorescences enclosed in sheathing bracts) in having long (c. 1 m) slender (1.5 mm diam.) pendulous or rooting stems. It is a hemipiphytes and found in forest; 660–1,300 m alt.
45433		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for timber and agriculture at lower altitudes (below 1,000 m) seems unfortunately inevitable in the Bakossi area.
45434		conservation	eng	The five sites of this species merit revisiting and regular monitoring for numbers of individuals and threats.
45434		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi and Rumpi Hills.
45434		habitat	eng	<em>B. duncan-thomasii</em> appears to be restricted to shady, damp, vertical rock-faces, in forest, sometimes with the rare <em>Nodonema lineatum</em>, 1,550–2,000 m alt.
45434		threats	eng	While cliff faces generally are unlikely to be disturbed, clearance of adjoining forest for fuel and agriculture could endanger this species by removing the shade necessary for its survival.
45435		conservation	eng	Yearly monitoring of plants to assess population trends seems advisable. An attempt should be made to rediscover and assess the status of the Bioko subpopulation.
45435		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (4 coll., 2 sites); Cameroon: Bamenda, Kondo (1 coll.), Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts (8 coll.).
45435		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen forest, 1,000–1,300 m alt.
45435		threats	eng	In the past mainly threatened by agricultural expansion. Assuming that proposed conservation plans in Bakossi are enacted this species seems secure there, its stronghold. Some habitat destruction occurs at its known sites, but levels are low.
45436		conservation	eng	An effort should be made to rediscover this taxon and to assess the size of the subpopulation and its demography in detail. In view of its rarity this species might be suitable for propagation and reintroduction in suitable localities.
45436		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.); Cameroon: Bakossi Mts and Mt Nlonako (1 coll. each).
45436		habitat	eng	Found in forest, 1,000–1,500 m alt.
45436		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for wood and agriculture, e.g., ongoing at Mt Nlonako, the type locality.
45437		conservation	eng	There is a need to revisit the Ngomboku site to assess the population size and potential threats; active protection should be sought at this location.
45437		distribution	eng	Cameroon: S. Bamboutos Mts (6 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll.), Mt Nlonako (3 coll.). The nine collections recorded by Sosef are immediately to the northeast (Nkongsamba-Mt Nlonako) or north (S and W Bamboutos Mts) of Kupe-Bakossi. Subsequent work at Ngomboku in 1999, recorded three sites for the species in a fairly small area east of the village, <em>B. pseudoviola</em> was previously unknown from Kupe-Bakossi.
45437		habitat	eng	This beautiful species is easily recognized in its diminutive size and its purple-black leaf-blades which bear long, white, patent-curved hairs on their upper surfaces. Occurs in wet mid-elevation forest, 600–850 m alt.
45437		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for wood and agriculture.
45438		conservation	eng	Bakossi is the most important area for this genus according to available data, indeed it is only here that plants are known to survive. Research in population density, demography and recruitment would best be conducted at Nyasoso since the plant exists on the very edge of the town in the ‘Nature Walk’ above the school. In the long term, the Nyale site offers best scope for protection.
45438		distribution	eng	S.E. Nigeria (1 coll.); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.); Cameroon, S. W. Province (1 coll. pre-1963 at Barombi Mbo, 3 coll. Kupe-Bakossi in 1990s).
45438		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 650–1,000 m alt. This sprawling monotypic herb resembles a <em>Lobelia</em>, to which it is closely related, in flower. It differs in the peculiar, longitudinally-dehiscent fruit and shade-demanding ecology.
45438		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture: suitable habitat at Bioko was destroyed for cocoa plantations, habitat at Lake Borombi Mbo was reported destroyed in 2002 (Davies. pers. comm.).
45439		conservation	eng	The demography of this taxon is not documented and requires study. Nyasoso at Mt Kupe would be a good base for such research, and as a centre for conservation of the species since a sizeable population exists on the main trail to the summit at 1,100 m. Good populations also exist at Nkom-Wum and in the Bakossi Mts, near Kodmin. Extensive traditions attached to these trees are likely to help protect them in Bakossi.
45439		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (Buea-Bulifambo 2 coll.), Kumba (Barombi, 3 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (5 sites), Wum (2 coll.), Yaoundé (1 obs., M.Cheek), 80 km SSW Yokodouma (1 coll.).
45439		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane forest, (500–)1,000–1,400 m.
45439		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood.
45440		conservation	eng	Protection of existing lowland forest sites is required. Care should be taken to separate this taxon from other lowland <em>Salacia</em> species in future botanical inventory work in Lower Guinea.
45440		distribution	eng	Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (3 coll.), Littoral Province: Bakaka (1 coll.), Nkongsamba-Loum (2 coll.), Central Province: Otélé, nr. Yaoundé (1 coll.), S. Province: 10 km SW. of Amban (1 coll.); Gabon: nr. Makokou (3 coll.); Congo (Brazzaville): Mayombe (1 coll.), Komono to Mbila (1 coll.).
45440		habitat	eng	Occurs in dense riverine, lowland and mid-elevation forest, 500–950 m alt.
45440		threats	eng	There is continued loss of lowland forest in Cameroon and Congo (Brazzaville); the Gabonese sites are likely to have remained relatively undisturbed.
45441		conservation	eng	Efforts should be made to rediscover this taxon in the N.W.Province and to protect it. Individuals may yet survive in royal, sacred or village forests and might be protected there. It appears to be unknown at Bali-Ngemba F.R. the only extant protected area covering the altitudinal range of this species in the Bamenda Highlands. At Mt Kupe the one individual known should be rediscovered and an effort made to find others. Education of the local population is suggested regarding the importance of this species for conservation.
45441		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon: Bamenda Highlands (5 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.).
45441		habitat	eng	Found in forested valley slopes, 950–1,600 m alt.
45441		threats	eng	Felling for timber and clearance for agricultural land: these problems are exacerbated in the N.W. Province by a shortage of both commodities for a dense human population. Forest at this altitude is particularly under threat and may well no longer survive at the localities where this taxon was previously collected. A 25% reduction in forest area over eight years was recorded by Moat (in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000) near Mt Oku using GIS techniques. Forest at Mt Kupe is less threatened, at least above 1,000 m. However, the Kupe material is recorded at 950 m and is thus vulnerable.
45442		conservation	eng	Letouzey and White (1978 loc. cit.) mention this plant occurring in hedges in Bamboutos. Encouragement of this practice, and also evaluating sacred forests there for the existence of this species, might be the means to survival in the northern part of the range. In the southern part of its range <em>M. conrauana</em> seems likely to survive if existing conservation plans go ahead.
45442		distribution	eng	Recorded in Cameroon: Bamboutos Mts (5 coll.), Muanenguba (1 coll.) Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites). <br/>Letouzey and White (<em>Flore du Cameroun</em> 20, 1978) recorded the collections from Bamboutos and Muanenguba. During the late 1990s "we found the taxon also to occur, rarely although fairly widespread, at Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts (four sites)" (M. Cheek, pers. comm.).
45442		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane forest, 1,000–1,500 m alt.
45442		threats	eng	The Bamboutos Mts are densely populated and intensively cultivated, for such crops as <em>Coffea arabica</em>. What few The fragments of forest that remain are under great pressure to supply wood and for further agricultural land. The rate of forest area loss of 25% in eight years for the Oku area is probably matched in the Bamboutos area.
45443		conservation	eng	The effect of forest loss on this, and other rare, sun-loving Compositae, many of which share the same range of habitats, is poorly understood. Research is needed to redress this. Limited 'habitat destruction' at intervals of years, in the form of fires or limited long-fallow small-holder agriculture or small scale tree felling may be helpful to the survival of such taxa by keeping their habitat open and allowing establishment of probably short-lived perennials such as these.
45443		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (10 coll.), Mwanenguba, Kupe Rock, Bamboutos, Lake Aweng, Santa Mt (1 coll. each), Mt Oku (2 coll.).
45443		habitat	eng	Occurs in grassland, near forest, often at well-drained sites; (1,000–)2,000 m alt.
45443		threats	eng	Threats are poorly known, but grazing and the associated annual firing of grassland are considered likely to be detrimental to this species. In addition, cultivation of habitat for crops e.g., at Lake Aweng, Santa and Bamboutos, is a threat.
45444		conservation	eng	Management suggestions: the effect of forest loss on this, and other rare, sun-loving Compositae, many of which share the same range of habitats, is poorly understood. Research is needed to redress this. Limited 'habitat destruction' at intervals of years, in the form of fires or limited long-fallow small-holder agriculture or small scale tree felling may be helpful to the survival of such taxa by keeping their habitat open and allowing establishment of probably short-lived perennials such as these.
45444		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Bauchi Plateau, Jos Plateau, Pawpaw Mt, Amedzefe (1 coll. each); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (3 coll.); Cameroon: Bakossi (3 coll. at 2 sites), Mt Cameroon (11 coll.), Mt Oku (6 coll.).
45444		habitat	eng	Occurs in open woodland, savanna, forest edge; 900–2,000 m alt.
45444		threats	eng	Clearance of trees for agriculture and wood.
45445		conservation	eng	Management suggestions: more material is needed of this taxon from Nyasoso to confirm that it is indeed <em>M. vitalba</em>. Although in <em>Mikaniopsis</em> it is best placed here, it differs from the specimens at other sites in having leaves rounded (not cordate) at the base and more than twice as long as broad, and elongated, not congested, racemes, and in growing at 1,600 m, not 700–750 m alt. Site surveys are required to investigate subpopulations and to gather data on demography and recruitment. This taxon should be looked for in ongoing surveys at the proposed National Park at Mefou, which might form a secure base for the taxon. The Nyasoso site is probably secure.
45445		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Nyasoso, Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Djang, 40 km W of Bertoua (1 coll.), Yaoundé (2 sites); Uganda (2 sites); Gabon; Angola; Congo (Kinshasa) (1 coll. each).
45445		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland gallery, swamp, submontane forest or savanna; 700–1,600 m alt.
45445		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood, and (e.g., Yaoundé area) urban expansion.
45446		conservation	eng	Further investigation of the Etuge collection at Nyandong, Bakossi may reveal a new site for this taxon. If the low levels of forest clearance continue in Gabon and Congo (Kinshasa) continue, this taxon should remain extant there, though its rediscovery in these two countries is advisable in light of the age of the known collections.
45446		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll., 2 sites), Central Province: 20 km NW of Eséka (1 coll.), S Province: Bipinde (1 coll.); Gabon (1 coll.); Congo (Kinshasa), Forestier Central: Yangambi (3 coll.), Watsi, Boende (1 coll.), Yabwesa, Isangi (1 coll.).
45446		habitat	eng	Found in primary forest, including riverine and swamp forest; occasionally in secondary forest growth; 450–1,070 m alt.
45446		threats	eng	On Mt Kupe, this species is recorded in forest down to 900 m, which is below the lower limit of effective protection on this mountain, thus this population is threatened by forest clearance.
45447		conservation	eng	Further botanical inventory work will likely reveal further locations for this taxon in the Bakossi Mountains. Active conservation of the larger populations on Mt Kupe may be required; informing the community at Kupe Village and neighbouring settlements of the rarity and uniqueness of this species has begun with a conservation poster specific to <em>D. kupensis</em>, with the intention that this will promote community-led protection.
45447		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (8 coll.), Nyale, central Bakossi (2 coll.), Nyandong, west Bakossi (1 coll.), Enyandong, north Bakossi (1 coll.).
45447		habitat	eng	Found growing in the understorey of undisturbed mid-elevation to submontane forest on well-drained slopes; 460–1,300 m alt.
45447		threats	eng	Several subpopulations have been recorded on Mt Kupe below 1,000 m alt., which is below the limit of effective protection through restricted land use at this site; these subpopulations are therefore threatened by agricultural encroachment. The Nyandong site is threatened by disturbance along the well-used track to Maseka.
45448		conservation	eng	Rediscovering this rare species, not seen in 20 years, is desirable. It is advised that the starting point be the sites of the D.W.Thomas collections. <em>In situ</em> protection would be ideal, but if unrealistic, cultivation in a botanic garden, such as Limbe, may be warranted, with a view to reintroductions to secure sites in future.
45448		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi-Kumba (3 sites), Mt Kala (1 site).
45448		habitat	eng	Found in the understorey of semi-deciduous and evergreen forest; to 400 m alt
45448		threats	eng	Most of the understorey of Loum F.R. has already been lost to agriculture; much of the forest that survived at Kumba itself, e.g., Barombi Mbo, has been lost in recent decades. Recent reports are that the forest at Mt Kala has been extensively cut-over. Konye lies on the Kumba-Mamfe road that is in the process of being upgraded so increased deforestation along this route is predictable.
45449		conservation	eng	Subpopulations of this shrub in Korup N.P. are probably secure, and the site at Etam, Mungo River F.R. is due to have its protection status upgraded soon. Surveying the numbers, regeneration and demography of the subpopulation at Etam is suggested.
45449		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Calabar-Oban (3 coll.); SW Cameroon: Mamfe to Mundemba (5 coll.).
45449		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 100 m alt.
45449		threats	eng	Logging of forest followed by agriculture, amplified by ongoing, massive upgrading of the Kumba-Mamfe road through the heart of its range.
45450		conservation	eng	The western Bakossi location for this taxon should be resurveyed in order to rediscover this plant and evaluate the size and demography of its subpopuluation, if extant. Surveys of the same nature are advised at other sites. This data could form the basis of a plan to protect the species.
45450		distribution	eng	Coastal Cameroon: W Bakossi, Kribi, Batanga, Nyong at Makak, Bipinde (1 coll. each); Gabon: Libreville (1 coll.).
45450		habitat	eng	Found in wet lowland evergreen forest; to 200 m alt.
45450		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance followed by agriculture in the Kumba-Mamfe area, forest clearance for touristic development (Kribi-Batanga area, M. Cheek, pers. obs. 2000) and for urban expansion in the Libreville area, Gabon (M. Cheek, pers. obs. 2002).
45451		conservation	eng	Although distinctive, <em>D. magnistipula</em> is a poorly known species. Since neither the <em>Fl. Cameroun</em> Euphorbiaceae account, nor that for <em>Fl. Gabon</em>, are available, no recent literature is available on the taxon. It is entirely possible that more collections, representing further sites, exist in herbaria other than that of Kew, such as BR, MO, P and WAG. These should be checked. Demographic and other populational data desirable in assessing the conservation requirements of this species could be obtained if the sites where collections were made are found intact.
45451		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (2 sites), Bipinde (2 coll.); Gabon: Crystal Mts (1 coll.).
45451		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest; 800–1,000 m alt.
45451		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for timber and agriculture is ongoing in both host countries but, so far as is known, is not intense at any of the four sites known for the species.
45452		conservation	eng	Enforcement of existing protected areas would ensure the survival at several sites, although it is uncertain whether any forest survives at the Nigerian localities. Demographic and other populational data for the taxon could be obtained by research at Mahole near the Bakossi Forest Reserve.
45452		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Omo, Okomu, Oban; Cameroon: Kumba, Maguka, S Bakundu, Etinde, Bakossi (3 sites), Nkolbisson, Sangmelima.
45452		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest; to 1,200 m alt.
45452		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for wood, agriculture and urban expansion (Kumba and Nkolbisson) is recorded at 8 of the 11 known sites and it has been extensive at many of these.
45453		conservation	eng	Investigation of unpublished forest plot data from, e.g., Mokoko might give data useful for developing a plan for the management of this species. In the absence of this the Nyandong or Mokoko River sites in Bakossi could be surveyed for this data. The latter looks to be a secure site for the taxon if correct conservation plans are enacted.
45453		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Omo, Ikom, Calabar; Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (2 sites), Wum (1 coll.), Bakossi (2 sites), Lolodorf.
45453		habitat	eng	Found in wet lowland evergreen forest, tending to sand substrates; 400 m alt.
45453		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for timber and expansion of agriculture, both large scale commercial and small-holder.
45454		conservation	eng	Reducing incursions into government forest reserves would protect this species in SW Province. This might be assisted by a public education programme. The sites in Littoral and S Province should be assessed for the existence of <em>Hamilcoa</em>, and of threats, in particular conversion of forest to other uses.
45454		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bipindi (5 coll.), Longii (2 coll.), Eseka, Barombi-Kang (2 coll.), S Bakundu F.R. (3 coll.), Loum F.R. (2 coll.).
45454		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen and semi-deciduous forest; to 400 m alt.
45454		threats	eng	Much of the understorey of the Loum F.R. has been replaced by small-holder plots of, e.g., coco-yam (Colocasia) and cacao (Theobroma). A large part of S Bakundu F.R. is converted to yam cultivation and the specimens from Longii and Barombi-kang both record its presence in logged or degraded forest suggesting that it can tolerate some disturbance, including logging.
45455		conservation	eng	Continued surveys are advised in the altitudinal range indicated in the hope of discovering further sites for the taxon. Production of a conservation poster for use in Bakossi might help locate more sites and educate people as to the rarity of this species.
45455		distribution	eng	Known only from Western Cameron: Kupe-Muanenguba division, Bakossi Mts.
45455		habitat	eng	Occurs in undisturbed submontane forest at 1,000–1,275 m.
45455		threats	eng	Expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats.
45456		conservation	eng	Continued surveys are advised in the altitudinal range indicated in the hope of discovering further sites for the taxon. Production of a conservation poster for use in Bakossi might help locate more sites and educate people as to the rarity of this species.
45456		distribution	eng	Known only from the Nyale Rock, a dramatic inselberg  that dominates the Nyangdong valley in Western Bakossi, SW Cameroon.
45456		habitat	eng	Found in submontane forest at 1,000 m.
45456		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture is the main threat.
45457		conservation	eng	The type, and modern material of <em>T. annobonae</em> from Annobon, need to be examined in more detail to establish whether it is the same entity as the Cameroonian material (see <em>FWTA</em> 1: 372 1963). A survey in Annobon is needed to confirm survival of the species there. Although it has not been found in surveys at Bakossi in the late 1900s, lowland forest was not comprehensively investigated and it may well survive there. Once rediscovered, a plan for the management of <em>T. annobonae</em> can be made.
45457		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Annobon; Cameroon, SW Province: Korup, Mungo River F.R., Ngusi, Kumba-S Bakundu and Kumba-Mamfe.
45457		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest; to 400 m alt.
45457		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for wood, agriculture and urban expansion; large parts of S Bakundu have been cleared for yam plantations (Cable and Cheek 1998) and the Kumba-Mamfe road is being massively upgraded with concomitant expansion of agriculture likely.
45458		conservation	eng	Mt Kupe offers the most likely opportunity of refinding this species. It is advised that an effort be made to do this, and if successful, that further individuals be sought and censured in the area, together with levels of regeneration. If refound, conservation education, perhaps in the form of a poster, is suggested to benefit the local population. Surveys at the other two sites should be conducted if possible.
45458		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Rio Muni; Cameroon: Yaoundé-Deng Deng and Mt Kupe (1 coll. each).
45458		habitat	eng	Found in lowland and submontane evergreen forest, to 1,100 m alt
45458		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture and timber at Mt Kupe and probably (site visits needed to confirm) at the other two sites.
45459		conservation	eng	Data on the population size and demography of this species would inform better conservation management of this taxon. Such studies would best be carried out from Kupe village or Nyasoso both of which have subpopulations nearby.
45459		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Ogoja, Obudu Cattle Range and Boshi Extension F.R. (5 coll.); Cameroon: Nta Ali (1 coll., 1 obs.), Kupe-Bakossi Mts (5 sites).
45459		habitat	eng	Found in perennially wet, mossy, vertical granite in forest shade; 800–1,800 m alt.
45459		threats	eng	Removal of shade due to forest clearance is the most likely threat. The rock face habitat itself is not likely to be mined but plants are vulnerable to rock falls. Much forest clearance in Ogoja has occurred in recent decades.
45460		conservation	eng	This species is fairly secure in the upper part of its altitudinal range in Kupe-Bakossi, but enforcement of the forest reserve boundary is needed if it is to survive at Bali-Ngemba. Surveys should be conducted on the forested hills from which it has been collected elsewhere in Cameroon and also in the Crystal Mts, to determine whether it survives there and whether it can be protected at any of these sites.
45460		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (11 coll. at 5 sites), Bali-Ngemba, Bamenda Highlands (several coll.), Mt Bana, Batcham, Yaoundé, Ebolowa, Sangmelima (1 coll. each); Gabon: Moubighou, Moucongo and Tcyengue (1 coll. each).
45460		habitat	eng	Found in submontane forest; 700–1,500 m alt.
45460		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood particularly in the Bamenda Highlands and Yaoundé area.
45466		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.
45466		distribution	eng	A shrub endemic to Ecuador's southeastern Andes, where it is known only from the original 1943 collection near Valladolid, Zamora-Chinchipe province. It is not confirmed whether the type locale is inside what is now the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, but populations are expected to be found there. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45466		habitat	eng	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
45466		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45467		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas.
45467		distribution	eng	A tree endemic to Ecuador's Amazonian lowlands, where it is known from seven subpopulations in the Parque Nacional Yasuní. The type collection was made at kilometer 71 of the Maxus oil road, south of the Río Tivacuno; others are from Añangu and the Río Tiputini. An intensive inventory of 200,000 trees in the Parque Nacional Yasuní recorded just three individuals (N. Pitman <em>et al</em>., H. Romero-Saltos <em>et al</em>., R. Valencia <em>et al</em>., unpublished data). Additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, or in the Peruvian and Colombian Amazon.
45467		habitat	eng	Amazonian tierra firme forest (250–500 m).
45467		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45468		conservation	eng	In northern Ecuador, at least one subpopulation is protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45468		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes, where seven collections are known. Collected far south in Azuay province and far north in Esmeraldas province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45468		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,000 m)
45468		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45469		conservation	eng	Known to occur within the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul. It may also occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45469		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known from two collections (in Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces). Discovered in 1949 near Lita and rediscovered in 1994 in the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul. It may also occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45469		habitat	eng	A shrub found in humid coastal forest to foothill coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
45469		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45470		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Río Palenque private reserve, near Alluriquín, near Lita, and in the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45470		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes, where four subpopulations are known (Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).
45470		habitat	eng	A shrub found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
45470		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45471		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Etnica Awá, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45471		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northwestern foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from nine collections (Carchi, Esmeraldas, Guayas and Pichincha provinces).
45471		habitat	eng	A shrub  found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
45471		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45472		conservation	eng	Currently not known to occur within protected areas.
45472		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from four collections in El Oro province. The earliest collections are from 1943 and 1947, from Pampa de los Cedros and Cerro Gordo (Zaruma). Two later collections were recorded in 1974 on the Piñas-El Placer (Santa Rosa) and Huertas-Palto roads. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45472		habitat	eng	A shrub found in low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
45472		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45473		conservation	eng	Not confirmed inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45473		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern Andes of southern Ecuador, where five subpopulations are known (in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Two specimens are reported as being collected in Peru, but the determination is uncertain for one and the elevation too low (180 m) for the other.
45473		habitat	eng	A subshrub found in low and high Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
45473		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45474		conservation	eng	All the collections from Loja province were made inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus at Cerro Toledo, on the Yangana-Valladolid road.
45474		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from seven collections (in Loja and El Oro provinces).
45474		habitat	eng	A shrub or vine found in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).
45474		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45475		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
45475		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (in Napo and Pastaza provinces). Most of the 12 known collections are from Napo province: one from Tena, on the lower slopes of the Cordillera de Galeras, and the rest from the Jatun Sacha private reserve, 8 km of Misahuallí.
45475		habitat	eng	An epiphytic shrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest (400–500 m).
45475		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45476		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but might be found in the Parque Nacional Cajas.
45476		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known only from two collections. Discovered in 1934 at Santa Rosa, in Cotopaxi province, and rediscovered in 1977, in Azuay province, on the Jesús María-Molleturo road. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45476		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana  in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
45476		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45477		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45477		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from two collections (in Morona-Santiago province). Both are from the Cordillera de Cutucú: one dated 1944 and the other 1976. May be endemic to the geologically unique Cutucú region.
45477		habitat	eng	A shrub or liana found in lower montane Amazonian forest to high Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
45477		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45478		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Etnica Awá and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45478		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal lowlands (Esmeraldas province). Known only from the 1966 type collection, recorded near Tobar Donoso, at the confluence of the San Juan and Camumbi rivers, near the border with Colombia. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45478		habitat	eng	A liana found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
45478		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45479		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45479		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the original collection on the Río Tigre, near Mera (Pastaza provionce), apparently around the end of the nineteenth century. The species' taxonomy is uncertain, in part because the type was destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. A record from Zamora-Chinchipe may be based on an incorrect identification.
45479		habitat	eng	A tree found in Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (250–1,000 m).
45479		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45480		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45480		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from a single 1972 collection (in Morona-Santiago province). Discovered in the headwaters of the Río Piuntza, in the northwestern Cordillera del Cóndor, and likely to be endemic to this geologically unique region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45480		habitat	eng	A tree found in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
45480		threats	eng	The principal threats are colonization and deforestation.
45481		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45481		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador (Guayas province). Known only from the 1959 type collection, made "86 km east of Guayaquil". No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45481		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).
45481		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45482		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45482		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1963 type collection, recorded along the Río Toachi, near Santo Domingo (in Pichincha province). Two reports from Carchi province require confirmation.
45482		habitat	eng	A shrub found in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).
45482		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45483		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network
45483		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1976 type collection (in Morona-Santiago province). Discovered on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Cutucú, on the Logroño-Yaupi road, and likely endemic to this geologically unique region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45483		habitat	eng	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
45483		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45484		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45484		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from five collections made between 1953 and 1994 (in Pastaza province). All are from forests near Puyo and Shell-Mera. Collected infrequently, even in an intensively collected region.
45484		habitat	eng	A subshrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).
45484		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45485		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network
45485		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1944 type collection (in Morona-Santiago province). Discovered on the Río Itzintza, in the Cordillera de Cutucú, and likely to be endemic to this geologically unique region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45485		habitat	eng	A subshrub found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
45485		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45486		conservation	eng	Collected several times in the ENDESA and Bilsa private reserves, and near Santo Domingo de los Colorados, and protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45486		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces). A specimen in the TROPICOS database mentioning Napo province (Øllgaard 98786) is actually from Esmeraldas.
45486		habitat	eng	A subshrub found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (0–500 m).
45486		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45487		conservation	eng	Known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.
45487		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is frequently collected below 1,000 m to both sides of the Andes (Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Morona-Santiago, Pastaza, Pichincha and Los Ríos province). Collected on the coast in the Río Palenque private reserve, at the Hacienda Clementina, near Santo Domingo, and in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. Less common in the Amazon region, where it has been collected near Puyo and in the foothills of the Cordillera de Cutucú.
45487		habitat	eng	A herb or subshrub found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest, and Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (0–1,000 m).
45487		threats	eng	No specific threats are known.
45488		conservation	eng	Protected in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, the ENDESA private reserve and the Reserva Etnica Awá.
45488		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known from seven provinces (Carchi, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos). One subpopulation was found near the famous Cerro El Centinela, 10 km east of Patricia Pilar, and is likely to be locally extinct there now.
45488		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (0–1,000 m).
45488		threats	eng	The species is attractive to loggers and so is directly threatened by timber extraction.
45489		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras and probably also occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserve Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
45489		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes (in Napo province). Known from two subpopulations: one on the right bank of the Río Quijos in the Finca Ave Brava, Cantón el Chaco; and the other in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, on the trail between El Pacto and Cerro Huahua Sumaco.
45489		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
45489		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45490		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45490		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal Ecuador (Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces). Known from four subpopulations: three of them in the Reserva Etnica Awá and the fourth near Lita.
45490		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (0–1,150 m). In Awá the species grows in hilly terrain and in flooded areas, on black soils and clay.
45490		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45491		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could potentially occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45491		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Imbabura and Los Ríos provinces). First collected by M. Acosta-Solís in 1949 near Lita and rediscovered 25 years later by A. Gentry during the botanical inventory of the Río Palenque private reserve. Today both forests are reduced and fragmented and none of them protected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. <em>D. inversa</em> is listed in the Flora of Panama, citing a Barneby publication (1970). This seems to be an error, because nothing in the publication indicates that the species occurs in Panama. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45491		habitat	eng	A liana found in humid coastal forest (200–500 m).
45491		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45492		conservation	eng	The known population is not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but is very close to the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
45492		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Napo province). Discovered by W. Palacios in 1987, at kilometer 40 on the Hollín-Loreto road, between Guamaní and Pucuno rivers, in the eastern foothills of the Andes. The type locale is the only known population: no other subpopulations have been found, despite intensive liana research in Amazonian Ecuador in recent years. The population size is unknown.
45492		habitat	eng	A liana found in low Andean forest (1,200 m).
45492		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown, but currently habitat is being deforested and fragmented. Poor management of this buffer area could threaten the species.
45493		conservation	eng	Additional subpopulations could occur in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45493		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (in Guayas and Los Ríos provinces), where it has been collected four times in the Río Palenque private reserve, once in the Ila mountains and at least once in an unknown locale of the Guayas province. Most of the collections were recorded in the 1970s, in forests outside Ecuador’s protected areas network and now fragmented or destroyed.
45493		habitat	eng	An understorey vine found in humid coastal forest (0–600 m).
45493		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45494		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45494		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from three old collections of the same population, 5 km north of Huigra, Chimborazo province. Apparently the species is endemic to a small area of the Río Chanchán valley and was last recorded in 1945. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45494		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree found in humid Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
45494		threats	eng	Habitat has been severely altered by deforestation since the species was last recorded. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45495		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in similar habitats inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45495		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southeastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes (Azuay, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Potentially also in Peru.
45495		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).
45495		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45496		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but is expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45496		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from 12 subpopulations (in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi and El Oro provinces).
45496		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).
45496		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45497		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45497		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northwestern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from four subpopulations (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). Recorded near Cerro Golondrinas, in Carchi province; on the Río Saloya; 5 km north of Mindo; and in the Río Guajalito private reserve, where the species seems abundant.
45497		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
45497		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45498		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, the Reserva Etnica Awá and the Río Palenque private reserve. Expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45498		distribution	eng	Endemic to primary forests of northwestern Ecuador, where nine subpopulations are known (in Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).
45498		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
45498		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45499		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network (although known to occur in the Río Palenque private reserve), but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45499		distribution	eng	Endemic to northwestern Ecuador, where 11 subpopulations are known (in Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces). Described by collectors as locally rare, sometimes in disturbed areas along cliffs.
45499		habitat	eng	A treelet found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).
45499		threats	eng	Massive alteration of habitat has occurred during the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45500		conservation	eng	The species has been collected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. It may also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45500		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from 18 subpopulations (in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Sucumbios provinces). Most of the collections are in areas near the Río Guajalito private reserve, San Luis de la Delicia and the Lloa valley. The species has been collected on the western slopes of the Cerro Cotacachi and in the Volcán Pululahua, both inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45500		habitat	eng	A shrub or treelet found in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).
45500		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45501		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network (although known to occur within the Río Guajalito private reserve).
45501		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it has been collected in three locales on the western slopes of the Andes (in Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). One record is from the Bosque Getzemaní, a remnant of primary forest above Apuela on the Cotacachi-Apuela road; another is from the trail to El Chical on the border with Colombia; and several others are from the Río Guajalito private reserve. May occur in similar habitats in Colombia.
45501		habitat	eng	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
45501		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45502		conservation	eng	Recorded in the ENDESA and Río Palenque private reserves and expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45502		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from six collections in wet coastal forests (in Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).
45502		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coast (0–500 m).
45502		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45503		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.
45503		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Manabí province). Discovered in 1995 by X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz on the peak of Cerro Montecristi and still known only from that locale, which is not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. Given the unique weather conditions at the site, the species may be restricted to this one peak. In the type locale only two trees are known, measuring 8 and 10 m high.
45503		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid lower montane coastal forest (500–1,000 m).
45503		threats	eng	The site is threatened by deforestation, grazing and tourism.
45504		conservation	eng	Although it is not confirmed to grow inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, collections have been made close to the western border of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is also expected to be found in the San Sebastián area of the Parque Nacional Machalilla.
45504		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it has been collected at least 20 times, generally in forest remnants below 600 m elevation (Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Imbabura, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces). The species persists in small fragments (X. Cornejo, pers. obs.).
45504		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid and lower montane coastal forest (0–500 m).
45504		threats	eng	There has been extensive deforestation that has swept coastal forests over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45505		conservation	eng	Expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45505		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northwestern Andes of Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1978 type collection, recorded on the banks of the Río San Juan, near Peñas Blancas, Carchi province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45505		habitat	eng	A shrub found in humid lower montane coastal forest (900–1,000 m).
45505		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45506		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuadorean protected areas, but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45506		distribution	eng	Endemic to northwestern Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1990 type collection, from east of Lita (Esmeraldas province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45506		habitat	eng	A shrub found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (800 m).
45506		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45507		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45507		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations in fragmented areas of both low and high elevation Andean forest. Recorded once in Cotopaxi province, 8 km east of Pilaló, on the Latacunga-Quevedo road. Another subpopulation was reported in Pichincha province, near Nanegal. Also found in Los Ríos province, near Cerro El Centinela, whose forests were converted to croplands in 1988 (Dodson and Gentry 1991). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45507		habitat	eng	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
45507		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45508		conservation	eng	There is an unconfirmed report from the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
45508		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1978 type collection (in Pichincha province). Discovered by C. Dodson in the Ila mountain range, at Cerro El Centinela. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45508		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree found in low Andean forest (600 m).
45508		threats	eng	After its discovery in the Ila mountain range, the forests were converted to pasture, cacao and coffee plantations (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45509		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network. Searches are recommended in forest remnants like the Cordillera Chongón Colonche.
45509		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from the type collection, made in 1892 near Balao, in Guayas province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45509		habitat	eng	A shrub, treelet or tree found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
45509		threats	eng	The dry coastal forest present at the time of the collection has since been converted to pastureland for livestock. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45510		conservation	eng	May occur in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
45510		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Napo povince). Known from a single population at the Jatun Sacha private reserve, where it is common in the subcanopy of upland forest.
45510		habitat	eng	A tree found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (400–500 m).
45510		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45511		conservation	eng	The species has not been confirmed inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45511		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection recorded by A. Humboldt and A. Bonpland in Loja province more than 200 years ago. The precise collection locale is unknown. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45511		habitat	eng	A tree found in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
45511		threats	eng	Since it has not been collected for many years and its possible collection locale has been severely altered by agriculture over the past two centuries. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45512		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, though the lack of precise information on the original collection locale, altitude and habitat makes searches difficult.
45512		distribution	eng	Known only from the type specimen, collected some time before 1823 somewhere near Guayaquil, Ecuador (Guayas province). According to the MIssouri Botanical Garden's TROPICOS database, a variety of this species, Eugenia quayaquilensis var. glabrior, has been collected in Guyana. It is unclear if this report from Guyana represents an error or a valid record. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45512		habitat	eng	Specific habitat for this tree is unknown.
45512		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45513		conservation	eng	Protected in the Jauneche private reserve, where it is rare, and in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul; may also be foudn in the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
45513		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's wet coastal forests (Guayas, Manabí and Los Ríos provinces).
45513		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree found in wet coastal forest (0–500 m).
45513		threats	eng	Severe habitat fragmentation has shredded the species' habitat over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45514		conservation	eng	One subpopulation has been reported in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, two are very close to the Reserva Ecológica El Angel, one is near the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and one near the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45514		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where at least eight subpopulations are known (in Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja and Pichincha provinces).
45514		habitat	eng	A shrub or tree found in low Andean forest and humid Andean vegetation (1,000–3,500 m).
45514		threats	eng	Most subpopulations are threatened by fires, crops and the degradation of native vegetation.
45515		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45515		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from two 1940s collections in undetermined locales of Azuay province. The species has not been collected since then. No specimens are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45515		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid Andean vegetation (2,000–2,800 m).
45515		threats	eng	Alteration of the region's natural forests during the twentieth century has been massive. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45516		conservation	eng	Not known to occur with Ecuador's protected areas network, but may possibly occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45516		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population recorded in 1944 in an undetermined locale of Loja. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45516		habitat	eng	A tree found in humid Andean vegetation to high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
45516		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45517		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in protected areas.
45517		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from a single population recorded by J. Steyermark in 1943 in Loja. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45517		habitat	eng	A tree found in low Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
45517		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45518		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in protected areas, but its potential area of distribution includes the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
45518		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces). Known from eight subpopulations growing in secondary forest in the western cordillera, from northern Carchi to central Azuay, but not frequently collected. First recorded in 1935 in Pichincha province. W. Camp reported another collection in Cañar in 1945. The most recent records are from Chimborazo in 1979 and Bolívar in 1985, where the type specimen was collected in the Río Tililag valley.
45518		habitat	eng	A shrub or vine found in high Andean forest to humid paramo (3,000–3,500 m).
45518		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45519		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45519		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it was discovered in 1975 in Pichincha province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45519		habitat	eng	A subshrub or shrub (500–1,000 m). Specific habitat unknown.
45519		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45520		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45520		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known from five subpopulations (in Bolívar, Carchi, Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). One was recorded along the old Quito-Santo Domingo road; the others are from the Intag valley, El Chical, Lita and the Cerro Golondrinas. A sixth subpopulation is protected by the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45520		habitat	eng	A treelet or tree found in submontane coastal forest to high Andean forest (550–2,400 m).
45520		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45521		conservation	eng	The subpopulation at Bilsa is inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45521		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal lowlands (Esmeraldas province). Considered a synonym of <em>H. acuminata</em> by Sleumer (1984), but additional material now suggests the species is a valid entity. Known from three subpopulations: at Bilsa, Muisne and Quinindé.
45521		habitat	eng	A tree found in wet coastal forest (50–100 m).
45521		threats	eng	The species grows in areas that have been severely disturbed by agriculture over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45522		conservation	eng	Confirmed inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Cajas.
45522		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations (in Azuay and Loja provinces).
45522		habitat	eng	A shrub found growing in forests; along streams and roads; and between grasslands in wet slopes of mountains (Berry 1995) (2,300–3,500 m).
45522		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45523		conservation	eng	One subpopulation occurs in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45523		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is widely distributed in and around Loja province. Known from eight subpopulations (in Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).
45523		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest to humid paramo (2,500–3,500 m). Occurs inside forest but also in shrubby areas, between grasslands and in bamboo, along streams and roads.
45523		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45524		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45524		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population between Loja and Saraguro, near San Lucas, approximately 30 km north of Loja. A. Hitchcock collected the type there in 1923 and it was last collected there in 1994.
45524		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m). Found in secondary forest with bamboo.
45524		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45525		conservation	eng	Confirmed to occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45525		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Andes of southern Ecuador, where it is relatively widespread (in Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).
45525		habitat	eng	A shrub found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m). Frequently found in disturbed forests, along streams and roads.
45525		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45526		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Cotopaxi, Llanganates, Sangay, Cajas and Podocarpus protected areas and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa.
45526		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from several subpopulations scattered along the Andes (in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).
45526		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest to shrubby paramos (2,000–4,000 m). Occurs in forest remnants and disturbed areas, near roads and streams, in grasslands and shrubby paramos.
45526		threats	eng	Used as medicine by indigenous groups and has great potential as an ornamental shrub. However, apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45527		conservation	eng	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Sangay, the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, the Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
45527		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is widely distributed in the eastern Andes, from Sucumbíos in the north to Loja in the south (Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).
45527		habitat	eng	A shrub found in low to high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m). Grows at higher elevations in the south, generally over 2,000 m, both in primary and secondary forests and along streams and roads.
45527		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45528		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45528		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ecuadorean Andes (in Cotopaxi province). Known from a single population near Pilaló, along the Quevedo-Latacunga road, where it is locally rare (P. Moreno, pers. comm.).
45528		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m). Occasionally scandet and even epiphytic (Berry 1982).
45528		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45529		conservation	eng	Has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45529		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador (in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Mostly recorded along forest edges in the Cordillera de Sabanilla, between Yangana and Valladolid, and sometimes inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Two specimens in the QCA herbarium tentatively identified as this species were collected farther north, in Fierro-Urco. Most of these collections date from the 1980s.
45529		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
45529		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45530		conservation	eng	Confirmed inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45530		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador, where it has been collected exclusively between Yangana and Valladolid, at the Nudo de Sabanilla (Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Most of the collections were made in the 1980s.
45530		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).
45530		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45531		conservation	eng	Occurs inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45531		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador (in Loja province). Known only from the slopes of Cerro Toledo, inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45531		habitat	eng	A shrub found growing in grasslands and shrubby paramo vegetation (3,000–3,500 m).
45531		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45532		conservation	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45532		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from ten subpopulations in the northern and central Andes (in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces). Munz (1974) considered <em>F. nigricans</em>, from Colombia and Venezuela, as a synonym, but Berry (1982) considers them different.
45532		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest to shrubby paramo (2,000–3,500 m). Grows in wet forests and close to roads and creeks.
45533		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45533		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador (Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces), where it has been collected at least three times. One collection is from Macas and Arapico, on the Río Shilniasa, while the other two are from undetermined locales. The only type was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45533		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
45533		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45534		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45534		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations in Pastaza province. One specimen was collected in Colonia Játiva, 7 km north of Mera; the other is from an undetermined locale. The only type was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45534		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).
45534		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45535		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
45535		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from the type collection, recorded before 1927 on the banks of the Río Machángara, in Guápulo (Pichincha province). This locale is currently inside the metropolitan area of Quito. The holotype was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War, but the isotype is in the US herbarium in Washington, D.C. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45535		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
45535		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45536		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45536		distribution	eng	Endemic to shrubby paramo in Ecuador. Apparently collected three times in undetermined locales of Tungurahua province: twice by W. Penland in 1939 and once by M. Acosta-Solís in 1944. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45536		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in shrubby paramo (3,000–3,700 m).
45536		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45537		conservation	eng	At least one subpopulation is inside Ecuador's parks system.
45537		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces). Some 12 subpopulations are known. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45537		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest to shrubby paramo (2,200–4,200 m).
45537		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45538		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45538		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar and Chimborazo provinces). None of the three known subpopulations, near Chunchi, Cuenca and Cumbe, are inside protected areas, but the species does not seem severely threatened.
45538		habitat	eng	A vine or liana found in wet Andean vegetation to high Andean forest (2,600–3,330 m).
45538		threats	eng	Most of the collection locales have been converted to croplands, but the species persists in small forest remnants and shrubby vegetation along roads. Frequently cultivated; the fruits are sold in local markets in April and May. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45539		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45539		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known to occur in only two places: along the old Quito-Santo Domingo road and the Lloa-Mindo road (Pichincha province). The collection sites are wet forest and not inside protected areas.
45539		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,560 m).
45539		threats	eng	The northern subpopulation could be threatened by the eruption of the Volcán Guagua Pichincha, and the southern population is threatened by the spread of pastureland.
45540		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje.
45540		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal forest, where it grows in the narrow strip of wet forest that runs parallel to the Andes, from Guayas province in the south to Esmeraldas province in the north. Known from five subpopulations: at Naranjal, the Hacienda Clementina, and in the Río Palenque, Jauneche and Mataje private reserves. None of these are part of Ecuador’s protected areas network. Expected also to be found in Colombia. In Mataje, the species grows on the borders of the ethnic reserve. Dodson and Gentry (1978) and Dodson <em>et al</em>. (1985) wrongly used the name <em>Passiflora</em> aff. <em>biflora</em> for this species.
45540		habitat	eng	A vine restricted to closed wet coastal forest  (0–250 m).
45540		threats	eng	Threatened in the southern part of its distribution due to the rapid ongoing deforestation of Ecuador’s coast.
45541		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45541		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known only from the 1979 type collection, made at Cerro Villonaco, west of Loja. The shrubby vegetation in the area is regularly burned and well explored by botanists, so the species may be extinct. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45541		habitat	eng	A liana found in high Andean forest (2,500 m).
45541		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45542		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but probably occurs in one or more of the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.
45542		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes (Napo province). Known only from the 1980 type collection near Cosanga, between the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras. Probably occurs in one or more of these, unless it is narrowly endemic to a small area in the Baeza-Cosanga valley.
45542		habitat	eng	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,800–1,900 m).
45542		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45543		conservation	eng	Has been collected in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45543		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).  <em>P. discophora</em> has been collected in the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.
45543		habitat	eng	A vine or liana restricted to closed wet coastal forest (200–1,100 m).
45543		threats	eng	Rapid ongoing deforestation of Ecuador’s coast. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45544		conservation	eng	The northern subpopulation is inside the Reserva Etnica Awá, where it is well protected.
45544		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador (Carchi, Guayas and El Oro provinces). Two subpopulations are known: one around Naranjal in the south and the other at Tobar Donoso in the north. The southern collections were made at the end of the nineteenth century, and possibly at a higher elevation than that suggested by the label information. The areas close to Naranjal have been converted to croplands. Additional subpopulations may occur higher in the Andes, above Naranjal, at 1,500–2,000 m, but not very close to the Parque Nacional Cajas.
45544		habitat	eng	A vine found in coastal forest to low Andean forest (50–1,800 m).
45544		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45545		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45545		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from two areas (Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces). One is along the Latacunga to Pilaló and El Corazón roads. The other is on the western slopes of the Volcán Corazón, where a single collection was made in 1876 by A. André. It is possible that the Volcán Corazón and the town of El Corazón were confused, and that the species only occurs in the gap between the two parts of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45545		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,400–3,350 m).
45545		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45546		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. However, both locations are near the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, where the species is expected to be found.
45546		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations (in Napo province). One is on the Cosanga-Archidona road and the other on the Hollín-Loreto road.
45546		habitat	eng	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,200–2,000 m).
45546		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45547		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45547		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from most of the peaks in Loja and El Oro provinces. Possibly also occurs in northern Peru.
45547		habitat	eng	A vine found in low and high Andean forest (1,200–3,020 m). The species thrives in small forest remnants and hedges.
45547		threats	eng	None known
45548		conservation	eng	Only the Llanganates subpopulation is inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45548		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from five subpopulations on both sides of the range (Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Recorded at Mojanda, on the northern slopes of Volcán Pichincha, on the western slopes of Volcán Atacazo, in the Llanganates and probably between Chambo and El Altar. The species' distribution is relatively wide in both cordilleras, where it grows in <em>Polylepis</em> forests and upper Andean forests.
45548		habitat	eng	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest and shrubby paramo (2,500–3,750 m).
45548		threats	eng	The species seems to prefer untouched areas, so fires are a severe threat.
45549		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in an Ecuadorean protected areas network.
45549		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's lowland Amazon forest (Napo province). Known from a single population at the Jatun Sacha private reserve, where it seems to be rare.
45549		habitat	eng	A vine found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (350 m).
45549		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45550		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.
45550		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known only from two collections on the Vilcabamba and Valladolid road (Zamora-Chinchipe province), in 1989 and 1992.
45550		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,400–2,700 m).
45550		threats	eng	The area has been largely converted to pasture and it is not known if the species can persist in open areas, as many Passifloras do. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45551		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45551		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where two subpopulations are known (in Loja province). One is inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, above Yangana. The other is in the hills above Amaluza, near the border with Peru.
45551		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,750–3,400 m).
45551		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45552		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.
45552		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population on the western slopes of the Villonaco and Uritusinga mountains, in Loja province.
45552		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,450–2,550 m). The species seems to persist in scrublands along roads
45552		threats	eng	The area's vegetation is disturbed. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45553		conservation	eng	Only the Llanganates subpopulation is included in Ecuador’s protected areas network. Not known to occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay, but collected on the Gualaceo-Sígsig road and expected to found there.
45553		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ecuadorean Andes (Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Tungurahua provinces). Known from three areas in the eastern Cordillera, from Llanganates in the north to Saraguro in the south.
45553		habitat	eng	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,100–3,015 m). Thrives in hedges along roads.
45553		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45554		conservation	eng	Known to occur inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
45554		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where two subpopulations are known (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). One is in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, but was last recorded there in 1890. Another was recorded along the road between Tulcán and Maldonado and was last collected in 1973.
45554		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,470–2,600 m).
45554		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45555		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.
45555		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's dry coastal forest. Known from several locales in the Río Guayas valley, Babahoyo and Daule, but also in the Chongón and Colonche hills, from Montecristi, and from the Andean foothills between Babahoyo and Balsapamba (Bolívar, Guayas, Manabí and Los Ríos provinces).
45555		habitat	eng	A vine found in dry coastal forest (50–300 m).
45555		threats	eng	No specific threats are known.
45556		conservation	eng	Not inside any Ecuadorean protected area.
45556		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population (in Loja province). Located south of Saraguro, the population was recently visited and seems healthy.
45556		habitat	eng	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,800–3,100 m)
45556		threats	eng	The species is threatened by spreading croplands and firewood collection.
45557		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
45557		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from only two subpopulations (in Carchi, Napo and Sucumbios provinces). One is on the Tulcán-Santa Bárbara road and another is near Oyacachi in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
45557		habitat	eng	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,200–3,200 m).
45557		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45558		conservation	eng	Not yet found in Ecuador's protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and the Parque Nacional Yasuní.
45558		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador (Napo, Orellana, Pastaza and Sucumbios provinces), where it is known from several locales between the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras in the west and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and the Parque Nacional Yasuní in the east. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45558		habitat	eng	A vine found in Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (450–1,400 m).
45558		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45559		conservation	eng	Only the Pilaló subpopulation could be partially protected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45559		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Known from four locales: Guaranda, Pilaló, the western slopes of Pichincha and between Cotacachi and Apuela. Until recently the species was nearly unknown, except for a few L. Sodiro collections between 1870 and 1890, because its small green flowers make finding it difficult for the untrained eye.
45559		habitat	eng	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,100–3,260 m). The species thrives along roads and in areas with disturbed vegetation inside primary forest.
45560		conservation	eng	Not inside any Ecuadorean protected area.
45560		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known from 20 subpopulations on the coast (Chimborazo, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro and Los Ríos provinces). Distributed from Atacames in the north to El Carmen and Yanagana in the south and expected to be found in northern Peru.
45560		habitat	eng	A vine found in dry coastal forest to low Andean forest (30–2,600 m).
45560		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45561		conservation	eng	Neither locale is inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45561		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations (in Bolívar and Chimborazo provinces). Collected once above Balsapampa and once above Huigra.
45561		habitat	eng	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,660–2,000 m)
45561		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction.
45562		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45563		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45564		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45565		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45566		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.
45567		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45569		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45570		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45571		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45572		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.
45573		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.
45575		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45576		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45577		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,500 m.
45578		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45579		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,000 m.
45580		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45581		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,500 m.
45582		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45583		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45584		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45585		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500 to 800 m.
45586		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,200 m.
45587		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45588		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,800–3,000 m.
45589		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,700–2,500 m.
45590		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45591		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45592		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 600 m.
45593		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45594		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300 to 600 m.
45595		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45596		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.
45597		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,800 m.
45598		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–2,900 m.
45599		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45600		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45601		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,000 m.
45602		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,550 m.
45603		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,350–2,500 m.
45604		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
45605		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,600–3,000 m.
45606		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
45607		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,800–3,200 m.
45608		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
45610		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,300–3,150 m.
45611		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.
45612		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45613		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 300 m.
45614		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,100–2,650 m.
45615		distribution	eng	Altitude of 75 m.
45616		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300 to 500 m.
45617		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.
45618		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400 m.
45619		distribution	eng	Altitude of 10 m.
45620		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–390 m.
45621		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45622		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 470 m.
45623		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45624		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45625		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
45626		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,800 m.
45627		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45628		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 2,000 m.
45629		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45630		distribution	eng	Altitude of 900–1,650 m.
45631		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300 to 600 m.
45632		distribution	eng	Altitude of 800–1,200 m.
45633		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 300 m.
45634		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 400 m.
45635		distribution	eng	Altitude of 300 to 750 m.
45636		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 760 m.
45637		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,400–1,500 m.
45638		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,300–2,000 m.
45639		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400 to 900 m.
45640		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45641		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 m.
45642		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,800 m.
45643		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45644		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.
45645		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45646		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,100 m.
45647		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,650 m.
45648		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45649		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,900 m.
45650		distribution	eng	Altitude of 400–1,200 m.
45651		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,100–1,200 m.
45652		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45653		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45654		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000 m.
45655		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150 m.
45656		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200 m.
45657		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,350–1,600 m.
45658		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,500 m.
45659		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45660		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45661		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45662		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45663		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
45664		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45665		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45666		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45667		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45668		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45669		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.
45670		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45671		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.
45672		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45673		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45674		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 700 m.
45675		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45676		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45677		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45678		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45679		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45680		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,500 m.
45681		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45682		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45683		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45684		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,400–4,000 m.
45685		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45686		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45687		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45688		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45689		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45690		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45691		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
45692		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45693		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
45694		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45695		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45696		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45697		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45698		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45699		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45700		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
45701		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45702		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,500 m.
45703		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45704		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45705		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45706		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
45707		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45708		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,500 m.
45709		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45710		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45711		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45712		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45713		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2502–1,500 m.
45714		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45715		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45716		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45717		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45718		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000 to 2,500 m.
45719		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
45720		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45721		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
45722		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45723		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45724		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45725		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45726		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45727		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
45728		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45729		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
45731		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45732		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45733		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.
45734		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45735		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.
45736		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.
45737		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45738		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.
45739		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45740		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45741		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
45742		distribution	eng	This endemic tree of Ecuador inhabits the High Andean areas of Azuay province. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45742		habitat	eng	Montane and upper montane cloud forest.
45743		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45744		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
45745		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
45746		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45747		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.
45748		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45749		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
45750		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
45751		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45752		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45753		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
45754		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
45755		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.
45756		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
45757		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
45758		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
45759		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
45760		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45761		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
45762		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45762		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe province). The two collections mentioned by Jørgensen (in Jørgensen and León-Yánez 1999) refer to the type and a plant cultivated from the type. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45762		habitat	eng	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,700 m).
45762		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45763		conservation	eng	Possibly occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45763		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Pichincha province). Known from a single population in the ENDESA private reserve, where it was collected twice before 1985.
45763		habitat	eng	A liana found in humid coastal forest (650–800 m).
45763		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45764		conservation	eng	Additional subpopulations are expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45764		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from two collections in Andean forest at Achupallas, between Yangana and Valladolid (Zamora-Chinchipe province). In 1997 the species was assessed as "Rare" (Walter and Gillett 1998).
45764		habitat	eng	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,500 m).
45764		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45765		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but may be found in the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Reserva de Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno.
45765		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is widely distributed on both sides of the Andes (in Guayas, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).
45765		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in wet coastal forest, Amazonian forest and lower montane forest (0–1,000 m). Grows in cracks on rocks or as an epiphyte, frequently in exposed or disturbed areas.
45765		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45766		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but the Bosque Protector of the Río Toachi and Río Pilatón watersheds is located in the historical collection site.
45766		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from a K. Lehman record in the nineteenth century on the banks of the Río Pilatón, near San Florencio, Pichincha province.
45766		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
45766		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45767		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and similar vegetation remnants.
45767		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known only from the type specimen, collected by L. Sodiro between 1898 and 1901 near Santo Domingo (Pichincha province). The description is suggestive of juvenile samples of <em>P. pernambucensis</em>, which casts doubt on the taxonomic status of the species. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45767		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in lower montane coastal forest (300 m).
45767		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45768		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45768		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the type, collected by J. Steyermark in Arenillas, along the Río Tintas (Zamora-Chinchipe province), in 1943. Today the area is fragmented, but vegetation remnants still occur in the species' potential distribution area. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45768		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,195 m).
45768		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45769		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45769		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is still known only from the type collection recorded more than a century ago by L. Sodiro on the western slopes of Volcán Pichincha. The type specimen is missing (it is not in the Berlin herbarium as indicated by Trelease and Yuncker 1950), and the description of the fruit and the leaf phylotaxy is ambiguous. Until its taxonomy is clearer, the taxon cannot be assessed beyond Data Deficient. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45769		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
45769		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45770		conservation	eng	Neither of the localities are inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45770		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (El Oro province). Discovered in 1923 around Zaruma, between La Chorita and Portovelo, whose forests have been replaced by agricultural land. A second collection was recorded on a cacao tree at the Hacienda Daucay by X. Cornejo in 1993.  It is possible that the species occurs in additional vegetation remnants, especially along creeks and in inaccessible areas.
45770		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (600–2,000 m).
45770		threats	eng	No specific threats are known.
45771		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45771		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations on rocky streamsides (Morona-Santiago province). One is located 2-3 km west of Méndez and the other on the road to Sevilla de Oro. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45771		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
45771		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45772		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45772		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from one nineteenth century collection of W. Jameson, growing in forest along streams, close to Perucho, Pichincha province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45772		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
45772		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45773		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. A report of this species in Colombia's Cordillera Central is actually <em>P. cordata</em>.
45773		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). One is around Maldonado, another near Cotacachi and the third in an unknown locale of Pichincha province. Last recorded in 1992. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45773		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).
45773		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45774		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45774		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it has been collected only once by E. André, along the Río Daule close to Guayaquil (Guayas province) in the nineteenth century. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45774		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
45774		threats	eng	Total destruction of the species' habitat in the last century.
45775		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45775		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha province). Discovered in 1,900 by Padre L. Sodiro, on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha, near Gualea. The lack of new records may be due to taxonomic problems related to the type's destruction in the Berlin herbarium during World War Two. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45775		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
45775		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45776		conservation	eng	Not protected by Ecuador's protected areas network.
45776		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection, recorded by W. Camp in 1945 in the Río Negro valley, on the trail to Méndez (Morona-Santiago province). According to the collector, the species was locally abundant and carpeted the forest along the trail. May potentially occur in the Cordillera de Cutucú. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45776		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).
45776		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45777		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45777		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where a single population was found in 1949 along shady creeks on Cerro Villonaco (Loja province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45777		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
45777		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45778		conservation	eng	Today the collection site is inside the Bosque Protector del Cerro Samama, Guineales and Mumbes.
45778		distribution	eng	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection made before 1953 around La Clementina, in Los Ríos province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45778		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
45778		threats	eng	The principal threat is forest clearing for banana, cacao and citrus plantations.
45779		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45779		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, known from a single collection near Loja more than 100 years ago. Judging by its habitat and phenotype, the species seems closely related to <em>P. boekeii</em> from Peru, which grows in dry exposed areas in inter-Andean valleys. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45779		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).
45779		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45780		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45780		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations in Andean vegetation (Azuay, Loja and El Oro provinces). The type specimen was collected around the Río Oña in 1973 and another was collected in an unknown locale of Loja province. The species has been introduced as an ornamental plant in Germany. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45780		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).
45780		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45781		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
45781		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type locale (which lacks precise locality information) around Guayaquil (Guayas province), collected more than 150 years ago by W. Jameson. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45781		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
45781		threats	eng	Native forests of the type locale area have been replaced by Ecuador's biggest metropolis, but some vegetation remnants still persist in bosques protectores.
45782		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45782		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three isolated subpopulations (Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza provinces). Locally abundant and frequent on riverbanks of shady creeks. The population in Napo province has been collected more than 20 times. Another population was recorded in 1945 in Azuay and a third in 1961 in Loja, on the Gonzamaná-Catamayo road. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45782		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb lower montane Amazonian forest and Andean vegetation (250–3,000 m).
45782		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45783		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45783		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from two subpopulations in undisturbed wet forest (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). One is in Carchi, close to the Río Verde; another is in an unknown locale of Pichincha. Last collected in 1987.
45783		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).
45783		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45784		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45784		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's western Andean slopes, where it is known from a single ninetenth-century collection between the Pichincha and Atacazo volcanos (Pichincha province). The description suggests a close affinity with <em>P. paradoxa</em>; they may even be conspecific. The type of <em>P. involucrata</em> is not in the Berlin herbarium, as suggested by Trelease and Yuncker (1950), and until it is located the species' taxonomy will remain dubious. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45784		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
45784		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45785		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45785		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, apparently confined to the surroundings of Ambato (Tungurahua province). Last recorded in 1988. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45785		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).
45785		threats	eng	The species may be seriously threatened by deforestation around Ambato.
45786		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but additional populations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi Cayapas or in the Reserva Etnica Awá.
45786		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western Andean slopes of Ecuador (Esmeraldas province). The only record is a 1910 collection of L. Sodiro from Lita Paramba. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45786		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (300–600 m).
45786		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45787		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could persist in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45787		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection. The label shows it was recorded 100 year ago by L. Sodiro, in lower Andean forests on the western slopes of Pichincha province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45787		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
45787		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45788		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45788		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from one record from the Río Lita, Esmeraldas province, made by L. Sodiro in 1901. Closely related to <em>P. vallensis</em>, a taxon in the south of Colombia, which grows in very wet Andean forests. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45788		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (200–500 m).
45788		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45789		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could potentially grow in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45789		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from one collection made on Cerro Atacazo (Pichincha province) more than 100 years ago. No precise data exist for the locale nor the elevation of the collection, but the species' similarities with <em>P. parasitica</em> suggest a high-elevation Andean forest habitat above 2,500 m. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45789		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).
45789		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45790		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi.
45790		distribution	eng	Endemic to high-elevation Andean forest in Ecuador, where it has been collected at least five times (Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). In Pichincha province, the species is known from Monte de Mojanda and the surroundings of Pifo. In Cotopaxi and Imbabura provinces, precise locality data is not available. Last recorded in 1979. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45790		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).
45790		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45791		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, however the collection site is now inside Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
45791		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Napo province). Recorded once more than 100 years ago, in the cordillera oriental, near Oyacachi and inside what is now the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. No recent records exist. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45791		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,100 m).
45791		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45792		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Bosque Protector de Maquipucuna and the Nanegal valley.
45792		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha province), where it is known only from two nineteenth-century collections. One is from Quito and the other from between Nanegal and Gualea. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45792		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
45792		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45793		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45793		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador, where it is known only from a 1933 collection in the Río Pastaza valley, close to the Río Negro (Tungurahua province). The loss of the type in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War, like those of many other species described by Diels in the 1,930s, may explain the lack of recent records. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45793		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–1,500 m).
45793		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45794		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network but may be found in the nearby Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas or the Reserva Etnica Awá.
45794		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection recorded by L. Sodiro along the Río Santiago, Esmeraldas province, at the beginning of the twentieth century. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45794		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
45794		threats	eng	The principal threats are deforestation and mining.
45795		conservation	eng	May persist in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and its surroundings.
45795		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Pichincha province). Recorded at the beginning of the nineteenth century by A. Humboldt and A. Bonpland, on the slopes of Volcán Cotopaxi, near Mulaló. No other collections exist. The lack of new collections may be due to the fact that the type specimen was deposited in the Berlin herbarium, where many types were destroyed during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45795		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest and shrubby paramo (3,000–4,500 m).
45795		threats	eng	The Parque Nacional Cotopaxi area is currently threatened by grazing.
45796		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45796		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Loja province), known exclusively from the 1947 type collection in the Cordillera Oriental, 12 km east of Loja. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45796		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
45796		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45797		conservation	eng	No populations are protected in Ecuador's protected areas network.
45797		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it grows in disturbed and exposed areas (in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Three records are from Horta-Naque and a fourth is from an unknown locale of Zamora. Last recorded in 1988. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45797		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest and humid paramo (2,500–4,000 m).
45797		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45798		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45798		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection, recorded in the nineteenth century along the Río Huambi close to Puembo, in Pichincha province. Since then, the historical locale has lost all of its original vegetation; additional subpopulations may occur in inaccessible vegetation remnants close to original collection site. Given its phylogenetic similarities with <em>P. rotundifolia</em>, it should thrive in inter-Andean vegetation. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45798		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (500–1,000 m).
45798		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45799		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but additional populations may be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45799		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Pichincha province). Known from a single infertile collection made by W. Jameson more than 100 years ago along creeks of Volcán Pichincha, above Quito. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45799		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in Andean forest high and paramo (> 3,000 m).
45799		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45800		conservation	eng	May also occur in the eastern side of the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, but not confirmed in either.
45800		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Napo and Tungurahua provinces). Known from one old record in the Pastaza valley, close to the Río Topo, and from a recent record in the Jatun Sacha private reserve. Taxonomically similar to <em>P. hernandiifolia</em>, which is widely distributed in northwestern South American and Central America, but has never been collected in Ecuador.
45800		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (400–1,500 m).
45800		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45801		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection recorded 135 years ago on the slopes of Volcán Pululahua (Pichincha province). The historical locale may be inside what is now the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45801		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,000 m).
45801		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45802		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45802		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from two collections. Discovered in the nineteenth century by L. Sodiro in Cerro Corazón, Pichincha province, and subsequently collected by F. Fagerlind in 1952–1953 in an unknown locale. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45802		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
45802		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45803		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but potentially present in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45803		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from at least three subpopulations (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). Collected on the Pichincha and Atacazo volcanos and in an unknown locale of Carchi province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45803		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high and low Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).
45803		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45804		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any protected area, but could potentially occur in the Parque Nacional Machalilla or other dry vegetation remnants on the coast.
45804		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal lowlands (Manabí province). Known only from the type specimen, collected in 1942 north of Salango in Manabí province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45804		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).
45804		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45805		conservation	eng	Not in Ecuador's protected areas, but may occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45805		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes (Carchi, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Known from three subpopulations, in what are now mostly fragmented forests: one between Nanegal and Gualea, another on the Río Verde, very close to El Chical, and the other near Cosanga. Last collected in 1991.
45805		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
45805		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45806		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45806		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single population on the western slopes of Volcán Pichincha, recorded more than 100 years ago. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45806		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
45806		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45807		conservation	eng	Not in Ecuador's protected areas, but could occur in the Bosque Protector de Maquipucuna.
45807		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces). Discovered in the nineteenth century by L. Sodiro in the Nanegal valley. Subsequently collected by L. Diels in the Río Pastaza valley in 1933, close to the town of Río Negro.
45807		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–1,500 m).
45807		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45808		conservation	eng	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could potentially persist on Cerro Atacazo and its surroundings, including the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.
45808		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador (Pichincha province). The only record is from Tablahuasi, on the Volcán Pichincha, collected by W. Jameson more than 100 years ago. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45808		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest and humid paramo (3,400 m).
45808		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45809		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any protected area, but potentially present in the Bosque Protector Maquipucuna and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
45809		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha province). Only collected once, on the Quito-Nanegal road, in 1961. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45809		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
45809		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45810		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any Ecuadorean protected area, but potentially present in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45810		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador and known from a single collection recorded by W. Camp in 1945 in Cañar province. The type locale is near Tambo, 69 km south of Sibambe. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45810		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m). Similar species of <em>Peperomia</em>, delicate and with fleshy rhizomes, form small populations along the Andes and coastal foothills, often restricted to certain substrates like rock cracks and vulnerable to disturbances.
45810		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45811		conservation	eng	Not yet found in any Ecuadorean protected area.
45811		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's eastern Andean slopes, where it is known from a single 1935 collection (in Pastaza province). The type locality is between Puyo and Canelos, in dense, shaded forest. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45811		habitat	eng	An epiphytic herb found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (250–500 m).
45811		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45812		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any Ecuadorean protected area.
45812		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe province). In the only known population, the plant is locally abundant in forests along the Río Valladolid. It has not been recollected in more than 50 years from this well explored place. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45812		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m). The species appears to be restricted to rocky soils of wet areas.
45812		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45813		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any protected area, but could be present in the Reserva Etnica Awá or the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
45813		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal forest. Collected just once, in 1953, near El Timbre, in Esmeraldas province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45813		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).
45813		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45814		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any Ecuadorean protected area.
45814		distribution	eng	Endemic to shrubby paramo in southern Ecuador. Collected just once, in 1943, along the Achupallas creek, in Zamora-Chinchipe province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45814		habitat	eng	A shrub found in shrubby paramo (3,000–3,500 m).
45814		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45815		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but additional populations could potentially be discovered in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi.
45815		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from one record, collected more than 80 years ago near Angamarca, Cotopaxi province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45815		habitat	eng	A shrub found in shrubby paramo (3,000–3,500 m).
45815		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45816		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any protected area, but additional populations could be discovered in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45816		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, and known from a single 1945 collection. The type locale is 1–8 km north of Sevilla de Oro, in Azuay province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45816		habitat	eng	A subshrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
45816		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45817		conservation	eng	Potentially may occur in the Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.
45817		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, discovered more than 100 years ago in the surroundings of Baeza (Napo and Pastaza provinces), and not seen since. No precise data exist for the collection locale. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45817		habitat	eng	A treelet found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
45817		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45818		conservation	eng	Could potentially occur in the Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.
45818		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador. Discovered more than 60 years ago by J. Isern, close to Baeza, in Napo province, and not seen since. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45818		habitat	eng	A shrub found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).
45818		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45819		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but should be looked for in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45819		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known only from a single 1945 collection by W. Camp in the Río Chanchán canyon, 5 km north of Huigra (Chimborazo province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45819		habitat	eng	A shrub found in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).
45819		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45820		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45820		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from a single 1944 collection on a track ascending the Cordillera de Cutucú (Morona-Santiago province). The locale is difficult to access and scarcely collected. Until new populations are recorded, the species is assumed to be endemic to this geologically unique formation and considered Endangered due to a small geographical range. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45820		habitat	eng	A shrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest (900 m).
45820		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45821		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45821		distribution	eng	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the type specimen, collected in 1941 in Cantón Archidona (Napo province). No precise data exists for the location nor altitude of the collection. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45821		habitat	eng	A liana. Habitat unknown.
45821		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45822		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could potentially persist inside the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
45822		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection, recorded more than 100 years ago between San Pablo and Chillanes, Chimborazo province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45822		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).
45822		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45823		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45823		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from a single 1944 collection near Méndez, in forests along the Río Upano, in Morona-Santiago province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45823		habitat	eng	A subshrub or vine found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
45823		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45824		conservation	eng	The historical locale is probably not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but it is close to the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45824		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection recorded by L. Sodiro in the Río Pastaza valley (Tungurahua province) in the nineteenth century. The lack of new records may be related to the fact that the types are missing. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45824		habitat	eng	A shrub found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (250–500 m).
45824		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45825		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but should be searched for in the Parque Nacional Sangay.
45825		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, known exclusively from the 1945 type collection in cloud forest of the Río Chanchán valley, 5 km north of Huigra (Chimborazo province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45825		habitat	eng	A liana found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).
45825		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45826		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45826		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only on Volcán Pichincha, from two collections of Padre L. Sodiro more than 100 years ago. A collection from Napo province is mentioned in the Missouri Botanical Garden TROPICOS database, but this requires confirmation. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45826		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
45826		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45827		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45827		distribution	eng	Endemic to the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes. The only collection was made in the Río Pastaza valley, near the Río Negro (Tungurahua province), from 1933. The lack of recent collections may be due to taxonomic problems related to the destruction of the type in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45827		habitat	eng	A shrub found in Andean vegetation (1,000–1,500 m).
45827		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45828		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45828		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, known only from the 1944 type collection in a disturbed understorey of the Cordillera de Cutucú (Morona-Santiago province). Until new collections confirm otherwise, the species is assumed to be endemic to this geologically unique formation. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45828		habitat	eng	A shrub found in low Andean forest (1,260 m).
45828		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45829		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45829		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes. The only known population was discovered some time before 1955 in the understorey of the high-elevation cloud forests between Oña and Río Yacuambi (Azuay province), where it was locally abundant. Closely related to the <em>Piper</em> species group confined to the Amazon, like <em>P. augustum</em> and <em>P. leticianum</em>. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45829		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).
45829		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45830		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.
45830		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador. Collected only once, in 1944, by W. Camp around the Río Upano, close to Méndez (Morona-Santiago province). Until new collections suggest otherwise the species is assumed to be endemic to the geologically distinctive formations in this region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45830		habitat	eng	A hemiepiphytic subshrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).
45830		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45831		conservation	eng	The type locale is near the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas, but the species is not yet confirmed in any protected area.
45831		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador. Discovered in 1920 at Cerro El Corazón, Pichincha province, and not seen since. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45831		habitat	eng	A shrub found in Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).
45831		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45832		conservation	eng	Not confirmed in any protected area, but could potentially occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
45832		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Ecuador. Collected once, in 1961, at km 12 or 14 on the road to Zamora, in Loja province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45832		habitat	eng	A shrub found in Andean vegetation (2,800 m).
45832		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45833		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur in remnants of coastal wet vegetation inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Etnica Awá.
45833		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, where it occurs in wet coastal forest (in Guayas and Los Ríos provinces). First collected in 1942, in the surroundings of Entrada, in Guayas. Other collections have been made in the Río Palenque private reserve.
45833		habitat	eng	A vine found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m). Grows in shady microhabitats along forest edges.
45833		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45834		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but might be found in the Maquipucuna private reserve.
45834		distribution	eng	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from six mostly historical records in the Nanegal valley, Pichincha province.
45834		habitat	eng	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m). Reportedly locally abundant in shady secondary forests.
45834		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45835		conservation	eng	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network and the Río Palenque reserve could be too small (<em>ca</em>. 100 ha) to support a stable population.
45835		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ecuador, known from four records from the Río Palenque private reserve (Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces). The species seems confined to a small area in the surroundings of Santo Domingo, where most forest has been destroyed. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.
45835		habitat	eng	A subshrub or vine found in humid coastal forest (150–500 m).
45835		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45836		conservation	eng	Potentially occurs in the Río Palenque private reserve and other remnants with this kind of vegetation.
45836		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Pichincha province). The only known population has been reported from the Ila mountains, where the species was reportedly locally abundant. The only vine species of the genus with a purple leaf underside and with potential as an ornamental plant.
45836		habitat	eng	A vine found in lower montane coastal forest (600 m).
45836		threats	eng	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
45873		conservation	eng	More data are required on the distribution of this species in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, including previous collecting locations. The forest around Ngombombeng and adjacent forest areas should be surveyed to try to rediscover this taxon here. Formal description of the fruits of this taxon, should be made to aid field botanists in identification of this taxon in future.
45873		distribution	eng	Côte d'Ivoire: 60 km N of Sassandra, Davo River Gorge (1 coll.); Ghana: Draw River Forest Reserve (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Ngombombeng near Nyasoso (1 coll.); Equatorial Guinea: location unknown.
45873		habitat	eng	An understorey climber in dense humid forest or secondary forest; <em>ca</em>. 750 m alt.
45873		threats	eng	Widespread and continued loss of lowland and mid-elevation forest in Côte d'Ivoire is likely to threaten any extant populations of this species here. The site at Ngombombeng in Cameroon lies along the route from Nyasoso to Ngomboaku, a somewhat populous area with resultant widespread loss of forest below 1,000 m alt., the limit of effective forest protection on the adjacent Mt Kupe.
45874		conservation	eng	Attempt s are required to relocate this species, and to introduce it into cultivation.
45874		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (1 coll.), Ngambé (1 coll.); Gabon (3 coll. at 3 sites).
45874		habitat	eng	Found in degraded lowland to submontane forest formations, overgrown edges to forest paths; <em>ca</em>. 300–1,000 m alt.
45874		threats	eng	Degradation of forest may actually favour this species, but wholescale clearance for urbanization or plantation establishment is a serious threat.
45875		conservation	eng	the two Bakossi sites should be revisited and seed collected, if available, to help introduce this species into cultivation. Searches around Buea could also be instigated, for the same purpose.
45875		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Buea (4 coll.), Mt Etinde (1 coll.), Barike-Manya, Kumba (1 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites), Bamenda Highlands (1 coll.).
45875		habitat	eng	Found in mid-elevation evergreen forest; 150–1,330 m alt.
45875		threats	eng	Only the two collections from Mwambong and Ngomboaku, in Bakossiland, are likely to have been unaffected by logging activities, and clearance of forest for agriculture. At all the other known locations, much clearance has occurred in the distant and recent past, and is likely to continue in the future.
45876		conservation	eng	Visits to the two known locations should be instigated to assess the chances of survival of this species. Inventory work should be continued in other uncollected areas of suitable habitat, between and around the two locations. If found, seed of this species should be distributed for germination at suitable sites, both <em><em>in situ</em></em> and <em>ex situ</em>.
45876		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mungo River Forest Reserve (1 coll.) and Yaoundé (1 coll.).
45876		habitat	eng	Found in low- to mid-elevation evergreen forest; 150–800 m alt.
45877		conservation	eng	A survey of the number of trees of this species at Korup and Takamanda should be carried out to determine its abundance at these sites, as they are the best protected, thus offering the best opportunity for conservation of this species. Informing local communities, most notably at Nyandong where this species appears most common and in closest proximity to human settlement, of the scarcity of this species may help to promote community-led conservation, particularly as it is such a striking and easily recognizable taxon.
45877		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Cross River State, Oban (3 coll., 2 sites), Atolo to Mamfe (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll., 3 sites), Takamanda Forest Reserve (1 coll.), Korup N.P. (1 coll.); Gabon: Mahounda (1 coll.), Ikembélé (1 coll.).
45877		habitat	eng	Found in low- to mid-elevation evergreen forest, often occurring on rocky slopes; 250–1,000 m alt.
45878		conservation	eng	Both the Baduma and Ejagham collections record the species as locally abundant and at the second site profuse regeneration was recorded. This may be a gregarious, grove forming species, which reduces the likelihood of extinction at any one site due to loss of a single individual. Surveys are advised at all known sites to assess the state and size of subpopulations and to investigate how well these sites are protected. This information could form the basis of a species management plan.
45878		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Baduma, S Bakundu, Lake Ejagham, Campo (each 1 coll.), Bipinde (3 coll.).
45878		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–400 m alt.
45879		conservation	eng	A survey to refind and establish subpopulation sizes and demography would inform a management plan for the species.
45879		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Nolbewoa, Kong, W. Ngoulemakong, N Kumba, Yaoundé-Edea, Yaoundé-Mbalamayo (each 1 coll.); Angola, Rio Muni: Sendye, Okuamkos (each 1 coll.); Gabon: Goualé (1 coll.), Oveng (3 coll.).
45879		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 0–500 m alt.
45879		threats	eng	Forest clearance due to agriculture and logging.
45881		conservation	eng	A revision of <em>Angylocalyx</em> taxa would clarify the distinctiveness and characteristics of this tree. As matters stand it is threatened with extinction at all its known sites, except at Korup N.P. Enforcement of existing reserve boundaries would secure the protection of <em>A. talbotii</em>.
45881		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Oban, (3 coll.); SW Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (2 coll. at 2 sites), Korup (several coll.), Bambuko F.R. (1 coll.), Bakossi, Mungo River F.R. (1 site).
45881		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest; 100–200 m alt.
45881		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for logging and agriculture. Small-holder agriculture was found to be eating into the part of the Mungo River F.R. where the species was seen most recently. Market gardening at the Bambuko F.R. has destroyed much habitat there and forest around Mt Cameroon is also under threat (Cable and Cheek 1998).
45882		conservation	eng	Unless Bali-Ngemba F.R. is protected from incursion more vigorously, the only hope for the survival of this species is the summit area of Mt Kupe and the upper tree line of Mt Cameroon both of which are reasonably secure from threat.
45882		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (4 coll.), Bafut-Ngemba (1 coll.), Bali-Ngemba (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (6 coll.) and Mwanenguba (1 coll.).
45882		habitat	eng	Found insubmontane and montane forest edge; (900–)1,500–2,000 m alt.
45883		conservation	eng	A survey of known sites is needed to find where the taxon is extant, and to assess the best means to conserve it.
45883		distribution	eng	S Nigeria (4 coll. at 3 sites); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (2 coll. at 1 site), W Bakossi (1 site); Gabon (4 coll. at 4 sites).
45883		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; to <em>ca</em>. 650 m alt.
45883		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for agriculture (Mt Cameroon, W Bakossi), wood (e.g., Nigeria), urban expansion (Sibange Farm, Gabon) or a combination of these.
45884		conservation	eng	A survey of known sites is needed to find where the taxon is extant, and to assess the best means to conserve it.
45884		distribution	eng	Cameroon: W Bakossi, Kribi-Lolodorf, Nsambi (1 coll. each); Gabon (11 coll. at 5 sites).
45884		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 500 m alt.
45884		threats	eng	Urban expansion in the Libreville area has probably exterminated what was the stronghold for this species. (6 collections); elsewhere forest clearance for agriculture and wood has been and continues to be a threat to this taxon.
45885		conservation	eng	More data are needed on the survival of this species at its various sites and the extent to which it is already protected. São Tomé should be the priority for a survey.
45885		distribution	eng	Ghana (Atewa Hills, 1 coll.); SE Nigeria (2 coll.); Bioko (2 coll.); Principe (1 coll.); São Tomé (7 coll. at 4 sites); Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (6 coll. at 2 sites).
45885		habitat	eng	Occurs in disturbed submontane forest, 800–1,200 m alt
45885		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood; it may already have been lost from both Nigerian sites (Oban and Obudu) since significant forest loss has occurred there in recent decades. Although it is fairly common at Kupe village, it occurs there at such low altitudes (<em>ca</em>. 800 m) that it is vulnerable to agricultural expansion.
45886		conservation	eng	Forest losses in recent decades suggest that <em>A. scandens</em> may no longer survive at Bafut-Ngemba, Gepka or Obudu. Conservation efforts are probably best focussed where sites are most concentrated, namely São Tomé (5 sites, but protection levels unknown) and Mt Kupe (3 sites, protection levels currently high). At Mt Oku this taxon occurs at the lower altitudinal boundary of protection and is likely to become extinct; one of the two sites there occurs outside this boundary. The population at Mt Etinde occurs at the peak and is inaccessible to all but trekkers. Unless the summit area is cleared for touristic purposes, <em>A. scandens</em> seems secure here.
45886		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko, Clarence Peak, Moca; SE Nigeria: Obudu (1 site); São Tomé and Prinicipe (5 sites); Cameroon: Bafut-Ngemba (2 coll.), Gepka, Nkambe (1 coll.), Mt Etinde (3 coll.), Mt Kupe (9 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Oku (2 sites).
45886		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane to montane forest; 1,200–2,000 m alt.
45886		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood, particularly in the Bamenda Highlands, where forest loss has been running at 25% over eight years at one sample area (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000).
45887		conservation	eng	A is usual with lianas, this taxon is probably often overlooked. More intensive surveys in the Mungo River and Bakossi Forest Reserves might locate subpopulations which, if those boundaries are respected, are reasonably secure. This aside, no known site for the species appears to be within an officially protected area.
45887		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Edea-Kribi 58–65 km, Kumba-Mamfe mile 15, Loum-Kumba at Mungo Bridge, Likumba-Tiko, Mt Cameroon (Mabeta-Moliwe and Onge).
45887		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 50–200 m alt.
45887		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture, both Small-holder (Kumba-Mamfe) and large-scale plantation (Likomba-Tiko, where forest is now absent, and both Onge and Mabeta-Moliwe, scheduled for CDC plantation expansion); also building sand extraction at Mungo Bridge.
45888		conservation	eng	<em>Strychnos staudtii</em> is fairly secure at Mt Kupe on the lower slopes; such is the density of individuals there that currently no action is needed to ensure its survival.
45888		distribution	eng	Mt Cameroon (7 coll. at 3 sites), Kumba area (3 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (21 coll. at 8 sites); Gabon (2 coll. at 2 sites).
45888		habitat	eng	Occurs in evergreen forest; 200–1,200 m alt.
45888		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of lowland forest for commercial plantation expansion (Mt Cameroon area) and small-holder agriculture (elsewhere). Threats in Gabon are not known.
45889		conservation	eng	Efforts should be made to rediscover the species at its known sites and to obtain protection, perhaps by public education, e.g., through a poster campaign. All Loranthaceae are perceived of as nuisance plants in Cameroon since some taxa spread to crop trees.
45889		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria (1 site); coastal Cameroon (7 sites); Gabon (2 sites); Angola: Cabinda (1 site).
45889		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; to <em>ca</em>. 900 m alt.
45889		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood.
45890		conservation	eng	tTe known sites should be revisited and surveyed for the species to assess whether they are included in protected areas or not. Public education might help to reduce pressure on the surviving plants.
45890		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: northern Rumpi Hills to Nta Ali, western Bakossi Mts.
45890		habitat	eng	Lowland to submontane forest, sometimes on rocks near streams; 850 m alt.
45890		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood: only one site (Nta Ali) is protected by a reserve, as far as is known.
45891		conservation	eng	Although the species is reasonably secure at Mt Kupe, this population seems to be an outlier. The Bali-Ngemba F.R. in NW Province has the densest subpopulation of M. dasyanthum known, and should be the priority for protection of the species. Enforcement of existing boundaries would probably be adequate to secure the future of the species there. More data are needed on the survival of forest habitat in the Bamoun area and the continued existence of this species there.
45891		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll. at 1 site) to Bamenda Highlands and Bamoun (numerous coll. at several sites).
45891		habitat	eng	Occurs in upper submontane forest; 1,550–1,900 m alt.
45891		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood, especially in the Bamenda Highlands where between 1987–1995 25% of forest cover was lost in one sample area (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000). The forest of the Bamoun highlands are also afflicted by forest loss, particularly due to dry season fires (N. Ndam, pers. comm.).
45892		conservation	eng	The location of the subpopulation on Mt Kupe should be revisited, and an assessment of the number of individuals and regeneration made.
45892		distribution	eng	Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Kupe (2 coll.), Douala-Edea Reserve (1 coll.), Bipindi (1 coll.), Yangamok II (1 coll.).
45892		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 0–1,000 m alt.
45892		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance, especially at lower altitudes, for agriculture. Even if the trees are left standing, but the undergrowth is cleared, vines can all be cut at ground level, as in the Loum F.R. understorey.
45893		conservation	eng	the subpopulation near Edib village should be revisited, and an assessment of the number of individuals and regeneration made.
45893		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (1 coll.), M’balmayo (1 coll.); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa) (3 coll.).
45893		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 0–1,500 m alt.
45893		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance, especially at lower altitudes, for agriculture. Even if the trees are left standing, but the undergrowth is cleared, vines can all be cut at ground level, as in the Loum F.R. understorey.
45894		conservation	eng	The subpopulations near Kupe Village and Kodmin should be revisited, and an assessment of the number of individuals made.
45894		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone (1 coll.); Bequatorial Guinea: ioko (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).
45894		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 0–1,500 m alt.
45894		threats	eng	Threatened by continued clearance of low altitude forest for plantations, agriculture and urban expansion. Troupin (1962: 93) describes its habitat as "fôrets denses humides sempervirentes de basse altitude", which would suggest below 1000 m. It is likely that all of these collections were from at or below 1000 m, and on Mt Kupe the level of protection is above this altitude. The proposed Bakossi Mts National Park should provide a level of protection for the Kodmin subpopulation, but it is quite probable that the other subpopulations have already disappeared.
45895		conservation	eng	Conservation education as to the significance of this species may help the survival of this species at Nyasoso, Nyale and at Bu.
45895		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mt Tonkoui in Côte d'Ivoire; and on the Bakossi Mts and Mt Kupe in SW province of Cameroon and the Nkom-Wum Forest Reserve in the NW Province.
45895		habitat	eng	Grows as a hemi-epiphyte, usually growing in evergreen submontane forest on tree trunks or branches; 600–1,000 m alt.
45895		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for expanding agriculture and wood are the main threats.
45896		conservation	eng	Surveys of subpopulations at each known site to detect whether the taxon survives at these, and if so, to gather quantitative data on individuals, regeneration and threats. This data could inform a plan to guide management of the survival of this species.
45896		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Okumu F.R., Oban; Bioko; Cameroon: Buea, Mt Kupe (Kupe village, Nyasoso: 1 coll. each).
45896		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 400–1,550 m alt.
45896		threats	eng	Threats include forest loss due to agricultural expansion and wood excavation, particularly at Bambuko (Cable and Cheek 1998), and at due to urban expansion at Kumba.
45897		conservation	eng	Research is needed on the ecology and demography of this species. <em>Morella arborea</em> appears to have some fire-resistant qualities (M. Cheek, pers. obs.) but more exact data are required. Limited grassland fires may equally favour the species as threaten it.
45897		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (Moka area, 4 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (two sites, 6 coll.), Mwanenguba (6 coll.), Bamboutos-Djuttitsa, Bamenda Highlands, Djottin, massif Mbam, Ijim Ridge (1 coll.).
45897		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane and montane forest edge, or isolated in grassland; 1,300–2,400 m alt.
45898		conservation	eng	Further inventory work at other submontane locations on Mt Kupe and Nlonako will likely reveal further sites for this taxon; it may then be downgraded to Vulnerable under the IUCN criteria. Continued protection of submontane forest above 1,000 m on Mt Kupe should ensure its future survival.
45898		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (19 coll. from 3 sites), Mt Nlonako (1 coll.).
45898		habitat	eng	Occurs at mid-altitude to submontane closed canopy forest understorey, occasionally secondary forest; 650–1,250 m alt.
45899		conservation	eng	A revision of African <em>Eugenia</em> is desirable. The identity of the Bangem specimen should be checked. Site visits to establish whether the species survives at each of its known locations is suggested. These could be combined with a demographic study.
45899		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.) and Corisco Is. (1 coll.); Central African Republic (C.A.R.); Cameroon: Kribi, Longii Beach, Bangem (1 coll. each).
45899		habitat	eng	Ocurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–800 m alt.
45899		threats	eng	The threats at the sites in Corisco Isl. and C.A.R. are unknown.
45900		conservation	eng	Further botanical surveys of lowland forest, for example in S Bakossi and Kumba District may reveal further sites for this species; care should be taken to separate it from other large-leaved <em>Campylospermum</em> spp. More data on its ecology are required; if it does require early secondary regrowth, areas of such vegetation should be maintained through active management in lowland protected areas, such as the Mungo-Bakossi Forest Reserves.
45900		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: W Bakossi (2 coll.), Mt Cameroon (4 coll.), Littoral Province: nr. Melong (2 coll.), W Province: Bangati (1 coll.).
45900		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest especially in secondary regrowth, appearing to favour only light shade; 0–300 m alt.
45901		conservation	eng	The Rumpi Hills site should be rediscovered and assessed. Efforts should be made to monitor all subpopulations for numbers of individuals annually. Podostemaceae are vulnerable to increased turbidity of water which reduces the ability of seedlings to establish.
45901		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Rumpi Hills (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (2 sites).
45901		habitat	eng	Occurs on vertical rock faces in waterfalls in submontane forest; 750–1,350 m alt.
45902		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed.
45902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Cameroon it has not been collected elsewhere.
45902		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged growing on rocks in river beds or on rocks at the uphill of waterfalls.
45902		population	eng	Low population, as this plant has been found in two narrow and close localities only (in Mwambong and Mami Wata).
45902		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by dam construction, tourism and recreation.
45903		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population, range, and habitat status.
45903		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon.
45903		habitat	eng	Small aquatic herb, annual, growing on rocks in waterfalls. The rivers in which it  grows are generally not tributary to each other and their fertilization process seems  discrete and complicated.
45903		population	eng	As endemic plant, specialized restricted habitat, only four localities, we can say that the population is fatally low.
45903		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human activities (dam construction, tourism and recreation).
45904		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and so on.
45904		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon. In Cameroon, the plant is endemic to rivers in the coastal area and the South West provinces.
45904		habitat	eng	Flat aquatic herb, submerged, annual, oblate on rocks in flooded rivers.
45904		population	eng	This plant has a very restricted area of occupancy and a very specialized ecology. Therefore the population is low.
45904		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are water pollution, temperatures extreme and sudden drought.
45905		conservation	eng	Rediscovery of the subpopulations at all the listed locations is important, as the majority refer to old collections. Future surveys of <em>Cassipourea</em> taxa in the Lower Guinea and Congolian forests may reveal further populations of this species; care should be taken to separate it from similar species such as <em>C. malosana</em>.
45905		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Menyum (1 coll.); Gabon: Miledi (1 coll.); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa): environs of Mobanga, Bas-Katanga, (1 coll.), Yangambi (5 coll.).
45905		habitat	eng	Found in lowland to mid-altitude rainforest, particularly along watercourses, including periodically flooded forest; 450–1,000 m alt.
45905		threats	eng	Low level anthropogenic disturbance at the Cameroon site may threaten this taxon here; stochastic events such as severe river flooding at the DRC sites may result in loss of local populations.
45906		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the population of <em>Calochone acuminata</em> is recommended. The survival of this species might be enhanced by targeted conservation education in Bakossi.
45906		distribution	eng	SW Cameroon (7 pre 1995 coll.); Gabon: Crystal Mts (7 coll.); Cabinda (1 coll.).
45906		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane evergreen forest, (250–)800–1,000(–1,250) m alt.
45906		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture.
45907		conservation	eng	Efforts should be made to rediscover the trees at the known sites and assess their subpopulations, regeneration (if any) and possibilities for protection. Conservation education regarding the species at the village level may assist survival.
45907		distribution	eng	Ghana; Equatorial Guinea: Bioko; Gabon (1 coll. each); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa) (2 sites: Kama-Lemuna and Bankaie); Cameroon: Lolodorf, Mapanja and Edib (1 coll. each).
45907		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland, or more usually, submontane forest; to 1,200 m alt.
45908		conservation	eng	More data is needed on the survival of this species at its known sites, and on the extent of the subpopulations. At Mt Kupe the survival of this species might be enhanced by targeted conservation education.
45908		distribution	eng	Bioko (1 site); Cameroon: Mt Kupe (2 sites); Gabon: Crystal Mts (2 sites); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa): Kivu (2 sites).
45908		habitat	eng	Found in submontane forest; 750–1,200 m alt.
45908		threats	eng	Threatrened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood at Mt Kupe, especially at the lowest altitudes.
45909		conservation	eng	Efforts should be made to protect a portion of this species’ habitat so that it does not become extinct as a result of the apparently unrelenting expansion of agriculture in the lowlands of SW Cameroon.
45909		distribution	eng	Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon: lower slopes of Mt Cameroon and Mt Kupe.
45909		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest; rainfall exceeding 3 m p.a.
45909		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for expansion of agriculture.
45910		conservation	eng	Large parts of the Bakossi Mts and Mt Kupe have been accorded protected status, but this is likely to only apply to areas above 1,000 m. A targeted conservation education campaign, with a conservation poster, might well help the survival of this species in those parts of its range outside of the proposed protected areas in Bakossi.
45910		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area (Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts) in the SW Province of Cameroon.
45910		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen lowland to submontane forest at 700–900 m.
45910		threats	eng	Threatened by logging activities in the past and by expanding agriculture.
45911		conservation	eng	A taxonomic reassessment of this species with <em>C. leiochlamys</em> is needed. Mt Kupe, with two-thirds of the known sites for <em>C. talbotii</em>, is the key area for the conservation of this species. So long as the boundary of the proposed Mt Kupe protected area is respected, this species seems secure, although some pressure can be expected in the lower part of the altitudinal range.
45911		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Oban (2 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Korup (1 coll.) and Mt Kupe (13 coll. at 4 sites).
45911		habitat	eng	Found in submontane evergreen forest; 840–1,300 m alt.
45912		conservation	eng	Since Kupe-Bakossi has the densest number of sites and collections for the species, it seems to offer the best possibility of survival for the species. It seems likely that several areas in which the species occurs will be protected in future, though not those at lower altitudes.
45912		distribution	eng	Described in 1977, this species was first collected at Limbe. The two other localities recorded by its author, Robbrecht, were 8 km west of Masok and Mambe Forest near Boga. A further collection was made near Limbe in 1993. Numerous extra collections were made at three new sites in Kupe-Bakossi in 1995–present.
45912		habitat	eng	occurs in lowland evergreen and submontane forest; 750–1,400 m alt.
45912		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agricultural expansion and wood, particularly in the lower part of its range in the Mt Cameroon area (Cable and Cheek 1998) and also below 1,000 m in Kupe-Bakossi.
45913		conservation	eng	Implementation and policing of protected area boundaries would ensure the survival of this species in most of its range.
45913		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Chappal Waddi and Chappal Hendu; Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (numerous coll.), Mt Kupe, Mwanenguba, Bamenda Highlands (numerous collections from many sites).
45913		habitat	eng	occurs in montane forest.
45913		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood, especially in the Bamenda Highlands, once probably the main area for this species. In one study area of these highlands, 25% of forest was lost between 1987–1995 (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000).
45914		conservation	eng	If reservoir construction goes ahead, a survey to refind the plants is advised. If any are in danger of destruction, their relocation to another site should be investigated.
45914		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts, Kodmin area (3 coll.).
45914		habitat	eng	Found in submontane evergreen forest; 1,400–1,500 m alt.
45915		conservation	eng	It is proposed that the sites identified above are surveyed to assess the size of their subpopulations of this species, and that measures be taken to protect at least the most significant sites.
45915		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.); SW Cameroon (9 coll.).
45915		habitat	eng	Found in undisturbed lowland evergreen forest; 0–450 m alt.
45915		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance for agricultural expansion, particularly plantations.
45916		conservation	eng	A survey is advised to rediscover the species at its known sites, to quantify the subpopulations and assess regeneration. The forested eastern slope of Mt Cameroon should be given priority.
45916		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll. at 2 sites); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (6 coll. at 3 or more sites), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).
45916		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane evergreen forest; 1,400–1,600 m alt.
45916		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture, particularly at Mt Cameroon
45917		conservation	eng	The status of <em>P. divaricata</em> in the Kumba-S Bakundu area needs reassessment in the wake of the depredations of recent decades. A survey in S Province to rediscover its subpopulations and assess the possibilities of their protection is also advisable.
45917		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Kumba-S Bakundu area (6 coll. at 4 sites: Barombi Mbo, Banga, Bombe, Etam), S Province: Bipinde, Mbanga, Nyong and Lolodorf.
45917		habitat	eng	occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 150 m alt.
45917		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture; Barombi Mbo forest has been largely cleared (A. Davis, pers. comm. 2003) and a large area of S. Bakundu has been cleared for yam farming (Cable and Cheek 1998).
45918		conservation	eng	Due to the proposed enhanced protection of forest at Mt Kupe, Mungo River F.R. and the Bakossi F.R., this taxon has a reasonable chance of survival at these sites. At Kupe village and at Ngomboaku, education for the public in the protection of this species may assist its conservation.
45918		distribution	eng	Cameroon, S Province: Bolobo (1 coll.), SW Province: Mt Cameroon (11 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Kupe-Mungo River F.R. (8 coll. at 4 sites); Gabon: Crystal Mts (1 coll.).
45918		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–950 m alt.
45919		conservation	eng	Populations outside of protected areas could be assisted in their survival by a poster campaign.
45919		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (9 coll. from 2 sites) and Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. from 2 sites).
45919		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 300–1,500 m alt.
45920		conservation	eng	The geographically and altitudinally anomalous collection should be studied to confirm or reject its placement in this taxon; the latter is most likely. A study to quantify the demography of the population at Mt Kupe would help develop a plan to manage the species.
45920		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (6 coll.) and western Bakossi (1 coll.).
45920		habitat	eng	Found in montane forest; <em>ca</em>. 2000 m alt. (But one collection was made at <em>ca</em>. 400 m alt.).
45921		conservation	eng	Kodmin, in the heart of the Bakossi Mts, with three collections, has the densest subpopulation of <em>Pavetta muiriana</em> and is the logical site from which to conduct a demographic survey that will also quantify individuals of this taxon, to provide data for a management plan.
45921		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (4 coll. at 2 sites) and Barombi Mbo (1 coll. at 1 site).
45921		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 400–1,780 m alt.
45921		threats	eng	A. Davis (pers. comm. 2003) reports that much, perhaps most, of the crater forest of Barombi Mbo has been cleared.
45922		conservation	eng	A survey should be made to refind this distinctive species (leaves maroon when live), quantify the subpopulation and develop a plan to protect it.
45922		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (1 coll. at 1 site).
45922		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane forest; 800–1,600 m alt.
45922		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood.
45923		conservation	eng	Research to resolve these uncertainties would aid in management planning for the conservation of this and other species in this habitat in the Cameroon uplands. For the moment, only the summit area of Mt Kupe lacks the two threats outlined above, and so is alone in offering a secure base for <em>Pentas ledermannii</em>.
45923		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Obudu (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Oku area (3 coll.), Bamboutos (1 coll.), Mt Kupe-Mwanenguba (2 sites), Santa, Lake Aweng (1 coll. each).
45923		habitat	eng	Ocurs on montane forest-grassland edge; 1,000–2,060 m alt.
45924		conservation	eng	This bizarre member of the Rubiaceae (appearing to have alternate leaves) is, by the number of collections, particularly common at Mokoko F.R. in the western foothills of Mt Cameroon. This would therefore be the logical site to concentrate on the protection of this species, were it not for the threat of its deforestation for plantation expansion (Cable and Cheek 1998). Ideally, a survey of all the known sites to quantify subpopulations, regeneration and vulnerability, is suggested.
45924		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mokoko (7. coll.), Nyandong, Menyum, Bipinde; Gabon: Abanga, Moumba, Libreville, Kinguele, Mfoa (1 coll. each).
45924		habitat	eng	Found in lowland evergreen forest; up to 1,000 m alt.
45924		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood (Mokoko F.R.) or due to urbanization (Libreville).
45925		conservation	eng	The species is found in several marine protected areas in Brazil, including Parque Estadual do Parcel Manuel Luiz off Maranhão and Parque Nacional Marinho dos Abrolhos off Bahia. Effective management of these sites is necessary.
45925		distribution	eng	The species is found in several protected marine areas in Brazil, including Parque Estadual do Parcel Manuel Luiz off Maranhão and Parque Nacional Marinho dos Abrolhos off Bahia.
45925		habitat	eng	Adults are apparently associated with coral or sandstone reefs of the northeastern Brazilian continental shelf and, in fact, the geographic distribution of known specimens is entirely coincident with that of major reef formations along the Brazilian coast. Juveniles also occur off sandy beaches and in estuaries (Gomes <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Maximum size in the original description (Gomes <em>et al</em>. 2000) was 31 cm disc width (DW), but single adult individuals, estimated to be 40 cm DW, were observed and photographed swimming at 10 to 15 m around reefs and shipwrecks, on the shelf of Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte states (B.M. Feitoza and L.A. Rocha, pers. comm.). Single adults were also observed around reef formations about 8 m in Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia State, where they behaved docilely toward divers (R.L. Moura, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>A gravid female (MZUSP 55476), collected in the reefs of Parcel Manoel Luís, off the coast of Maranhão, aborted one fully formed embryo (L.A. Rocha, pers. comm.). Two other female specimens from the same locality were obtained from the stomach of an adult cobia (<em>Rachycentron canadum</em>) (Gomes <em>et al</em>. 2000).
45925		threats	eng	Indirect threats from impacts on reef areas. It has been reported in the ornamental fish trade in Bahia State and is also taken in small numbers in artisanal fisheries.
46031		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46032		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.
46033		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
46034		distribution	eng	Possible altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46035		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46036		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
46037		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
46038		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
46039		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46040		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.
46041		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46042		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
46043		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.
46044		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
46045		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
46046		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
46047		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.
46048		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
46049		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46050		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
46051		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46052		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
46053		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
46054		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46055		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
46056		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3000 m.
46057		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
46058		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–500 m.
46159		conservation	eng	This creeper seems most common (6 coll.) in Littoral/South Province (Douala-Edea-Ebolowa-Lolodorf-Bipindi) and conservation efforts are presumably best focussed here.
46159		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mokoko (3 coll.), Mamfe (2 coll.), Baduma, Dja, Kribi-Lolodorf, Douala, Bipinde, Ebolowa-Lolodorf, Ebolowa-Nkondo, Lake Tissongo (2 coll.).
46159		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–200 m alt.
46159		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture or wood (e.g., Mokoko; Cable and Cheek 1998).
46160		conservation	eng	The status of this plant in Nigeria needs surveying, in particular since historic collections are concentrated there. Quantitative evaluation of the size of subpopulations, regeneration and threats would help in the formulation of a management plan.
46160		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Afi River, Orem, Okwangwo, Boshi, Oban; Cameroon, SW Province: Korup-Fabe Rd, Kumba-Mamfe Rd (1 coll. each).
46160		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 400 m alt.
46161		conservation	eng	An attempt should be made to rediscover this species in the wild in the Bakossi area since it has not been seen since 1986 despite intensive collection there since 1995. It should also be looked for in the Bipinde area, and threats there assessed, since currently these are unknown.
46161		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Kumba, Yaoundé and Bipinde areas.
46161		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen forest understorey; 150–1,700 m alt.
46161		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for urban expansion (Yaoundé area) and cultivation of crops (Tombel and Yaoundé).
46162		conservation	eng	It is recommended that attempts be made to rediscover this rare species at Bakossi and to educate local villages as to the importance of its conservation. See also the comments made for <em>P. minimicalyx</em>. It is assumed that neither of the Bakossi sites can be formally protected due to their low altitude.
46162		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bipinde and Bakossi.
46162		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; up to 1,000 m alt.
46162		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance for agriculture.
46163		conservation	eng	The collection sites should be resurveyed in order to (a) determine whether the taxon is still extant, (b) decide whether it is indeed rheophytic (restricted to water courses), and (c) determine whether it is threatened by human or other factors.
46163		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bipinde-Kribi and Bakossi.
46163		habitat	eng	Occurs along stream-sides, usually in lowland evergreen forest; 0–1,600 m alt.
46163		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture is suspected, but needs confirmation.
46164		conservation	eng	The lowland forest habitat of <em>P. minimicalyx</em> does not lend itself to formal protection in a gazetted area because it grows in fertile soils close to centres of population and lines of communication. Assuming that a new site cannot be found in one of the areas already mooted for protection, it is recommended that an attempt be made to rediscover plants at one of the known sites and to educate the population as to the desirability of protecting it, possibly by using posters or rental agreements.
46164		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Kumba and Kumba-Mamfe areas.
46164		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 300 m alt.
46164		threats	eng	Clearance of its habitat for agriculture, such as cacao plantations or food crops, is likely along the Mungo valley owing to the prevalence of fertile soils.
46165		conservation	eng	A survey of the subpopulations present at each of the sites is desirable. At the Njonji site, hundreds of individuals were recorded in a small area, but this has not been noted at other sites. Although distinctive in fruit, in flower it may be confused with the very common <em>P. latistipula</em> but can be separated by the pubescent stem and inflorescence.
46165		distribution	eng	Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province (7 coll.).
46165		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 300–800 m alt.
46165		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance for agriculture especially in the Mt Cameroon area, where the planned expansion of plantations is likely to destroy the subpopulations listed above.
46166		conservation	eng	A survey to rediscover the species should be conducted urgently. The Bakossi public should be informed of the uniqueness of these rare trees, and to help ensure their survival. New protected areas in Bakossi are likely to help secure the future of this tree species.
46166		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Jide valley.
46166		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland to submontane evergreen forest; 800–1,100 m alt.
46166		threats	eng	Clearance for agriculture and wood. Both sites, near Kupe village and Nyasoso, are on the edge of cultivated land. Further clearance for agriculture could result in extinction of this species.
46167		conservation	eng	Plant material has already been used by the management team of Banyang Mbo to promote public awareness and pride in this very local and spectacular species. This could be emulated in the Kodmin area. Survey teams in explored parts of Bakossi should look out for new sites for this plant.
46167		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: known only from the Bakossi Mts including the montane part of the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.
46167		habitat	eng	occurs in submontane forest; 1,100–1,500 m alt.
46167		threats	eng	Forest clearance even on a local scale, of a fraction of a hectare, if coinciding with one of the sites of this species, could reduce or destroy a subpopulation. Placement of a proposed new reservoir near Kodmin should be done with caution!
46168		conservation	eng	Surveys should be made to attempt to rediscover this species at its known sites, and to evaluate the size of subpopulations, regeneration, local threats and possibilities for conservation. When this data is available it may well be possible and necessary to re-evaluate this taxon under criterion A, at a higher level of threat.
46168		distribution	eng	Benin; Nigeria: Lagos, Egbada, Benin-Iyek, Akpaka, Ijebu, Idranre; Cameroon, SW Province: Nyasoso, Baduma, Kumba.
46168		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest; 250–800 m alt.
46168		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood; it is very likely that its habitat has been lost at Lagos and Kumba where there has been extensive forest clearance in recent decades’ as there has been in much of Nigeria.
46169		conservation	eng	A survey to rediscover plants of this taxon at the known sites and gather the usual data on each of the subpopulations is recommended. The site at Kodmin, assuming that it is not affected by a proposed reservoir scheme, is particularly secure, being remote from human habitation.
46169		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Oban; SW Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (Etinde and Mokoko), Bakossi Mts (Kodmin).
46169		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane evergreen forest; 0–1,400 m alt.
46169		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood, particularly at Oban and at Mokoko F.R.
46170		conservation	eng	A survey to refind this species at each of its sites, gather quantitative data on subpopulation size, recruitment and protection levels would inform development of a management plan for the species. In the absence of this, conservation efforts should be concentrated at Kupe village, which adjoins the Loum area. At the former, 15 collections were made in recent years (compared with one at Etinde, despite similar sampling effort) suggesting Kupe village to have a very high density of the species. The new Mt Kupe protected area should help secure the future of the species.
46170		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Kupe village, Loum, Ngoase, Etinde, Mt Kala, Mt Fébé, Nteigne; Gabon: Belinga, Mt Babiel.
46170		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest often near the boundary with semi-deciduous forest (M. Cheek, pers. obs.); 200–1,250 m alt.
46170		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance or part-clearance of forest for agriculture; much of the understorey of the Loum F.R. has been cleared and replaced by crops; other parts have been cleared of natural forest and replaced by cocoa (M. Cheek, pers. obs.); Mt Kala has had its forest damaged in recent years and Mt Fébé has had prestige buildings erected upon it; the lower slopes of Mt Etinde (where one plant was recorded at 400–600 m alt.) is earmarked for plantation expansion.
46171		conservation	eng	A survey to rediscover this taxon, quantify subpopulations, demography, regeneration and threats, is advisable. Given far-reaching forest loss in Nigeria and anticipated increased forest loss along the upgraded Kumba-Mamfe Road, the prospects for this species do not seem good. Reassessment under criterion A (requiring better threat data than now available) is likely to result in EN or CR ratings.
46171		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria: Oban, Awi-Akampka, Boli-Bateriko, Iyamoyong F.R.; SW Cameroon: Inokum-Mbenyan, Ebone-Yabassi, Ndikinimeki, Minso and western Bakossi (Kumba-Mamfe: 2 sites).
46171		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest; <em>ca</em>. 250–350 m alt.
46171		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood.
46172		conservation	eng	The Nyale-Kodmin area has least pressure of all known sites and offers the best hope for the survival of this herb. Surveys to determine whether the species survives at the other sites are suggested. If so, an assessment of the best means of protecting them, if feasible, should be made.
46172		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria (2 coll.); Cameroon: Korup N.P., Lake Barombi Mbo (1 coll. each), Bakossi Mts (2 coll. at 2 sites).
46172		habitat	eng	Occurs in the understorey of lowland evergreen forest; 400–1,000 m alt.
46173		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to locate more plants and sites for <em>T. lejolyana</em>, otherwise it might have to be reassessed as Critically Endangered.
46173		distribution	eng	Recorded from east of Nguti in the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, SW province of Cameroon.
46173		habitat	eng	Occurs in evergreen lowland rain forest, 200–300 m alt.
46173		threats	eng	Areas to the north and east of Banyang Mbo are being deforested for agriculture and the area where the species occurs is vulnerable to logging. Once that occurs the area would be opened up to agricultural expansion.
46174		conservation	eng	More effective policing of protected areas is advised, together with annual monitoring of individuals at known sites.
46174		distribution	eng	Occurs in SE Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.
46174		habitat	eng	Found in evergreen forest; to 1,000 m alt.
46174		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of lowland forest for agriculture and wood, particularly in the Mt Cameroon area (Cable and Cheek 1998) and in Nigeria.
46176		conservation	eng	Improved policing of the existing protected areas would secure the future of this species.
46176		distribution	eng	SE Nigeria; Cameroon; São Tomé and Principe (Cameroon line mountains).
46176		habitat	eng	occurs in upper submontane and montane forest; 1,600–2,400 m alt.
46176		threats	eng	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood, particularly in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, once probably the main area for A. bullatus. Study of one area here (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000) showed that 25% of forest was lost between 1987–1995.
46177		conservation	eng	Surveys should be made to rediscover this species at its known sites. It seems possible that it may only survive at Mt Kupe (where the most recent collections are recorded). It is therefore advised that efforts to protect the tree might be centred here. Individuals need to be rediscovered, demographic data obtained and protection secured with the help of local communities.
46177		distribution	eng	Nigeria (Sapoba F.R., 4 coll.); Bioko (2 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Bambuko F.R. (2 coll.) and Mt Kupe (2 coll., two sites).
46177		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest; 400 m alt.
46177		threats	eng	Extremely vulnerable due to clearance of lowland forest for agriculture. It may well be extinct on Bioko due to extensive forest clearance there for cacao plantations in the late 19th and 20th centuries. It may also be extinct in Nigeria due to extensive forest loss there in the late 20th century. Forest loss at Bambuko is documented in Cable and Cheek (1998). It is notable that the species was not found elsewhere around Mt Cameroon during the intensive surveys of the early 1990s. At Mt Kupe it is vulnerable due to its low altitude, placing it outside of the proposed new protected area.
46178		conservation	eng	The best hope for the survival of this species is probably in Gabon, where numerous collections have been made and pressure on forest is relatively low. However, attempts should be made to rediscover the species at all its known sites and to gather demographic data for a management plan.
46178		distribution	eng	Sierra Leone (type coll.); S Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (7 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bipinde (1 site); Gabon (numerous coll. at 3 sites, including Libreville).
46178		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland to submontane forest; <em>ca</em>. 900 m alt.
46178		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for timber and agriculture, particularly in Nigeria, Mt Cameroon and the Libreville area. Threats in Sierra Leone are unknown.
46179		conservation	eng	A revision of the species of <em>Placodiscus</em>, many of which are poorly known, would result in a better understanding of their geographic ranges and identification. From the available evidence Gabon, with two known sites, most warrants concentration of resources in conserving this poorly known species. A survey is advised to rediscover the plant there, and gather demographic data to aid formulate a management plan. Currently, the species is only known to be protected at its Korup site.
46179		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Korup (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (confirmation of identity needed); Central African Republic (1 coll.); Gabon (2 coll., 1 at Libreville).
46179		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 300 m alt.
46179		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for logging, followed by agriculture and urbanization (Libreville site).
46180		conservation	eng	A revision of the species of <em>Placodiscus</em>, many of which are poorly known, would result in a better understanding of their geographic ranges and identification. From the available evidence Gabon, with three known sites, most warrants concentration of resources in conserving this poorly known species. A survey is advised to rediscover the plant there, and gather demographic data to aid formulate a management plan.
46180		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (2 sites); Central African Republic: Boukoko; Rio Muni (1 coll.); Gabon (3 sites).
46180		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and submontane evergreen forest; 200–1,000 m alt.
46180		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for logging, followed by agriculture and urbanization
46181		conservation	eng	Conservation efforts should be concentrated in the Bamenda Highlands where the species seems to be most abundant (six collection sites). The ecological relationship of <em>R. ledermannii</em> with forest edge needs further confirmation. Research is also needed on its demography, (for example is it a biennial?) and requirements for establishment in the wild.
46181		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Chappal Wadi; western Cameroon: Bamenda Highlands (Ndu, Bambili Lakes, Bamenda-Mba Kokeka, Bambui and Laikom) and Mwanenguba.
46181		habitat	eng	Occurs in grassland near edge of forest; <em>ca</em>. 2,000 m alt.
46181		threats	eng	Loss of montane forest due to agriculture is thought to be the main concern for this species. 25% of forest cover was lost in a sample area of the Bamenda Highlands between 1987–1995 (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000).
46182		conservation	eng	Although forest loss in the W. and N.W. Provinces of Cameroon has seriously reduced the population of <em>Q. sanguinea</em> in those areas, it seems relatively secure at Mt Cameroon and Mt Kupe-Bakossi Mts in S.W. Province. So long as these areas remain protected, no further action is needed to ensure the survival of the species. However, data on generation length and other aspects of demography, together with data on densities are desirable
46182		distribution	eng	Recorded from Nigeria: Cross River State (Mt. Koloishe, Obudu Plateau), Cameroon: S.W. and N.W. Provinces.  Restricted to the Cameroon Highlands, from Mt Cameroon in the S to the Bamenda Highlands in the N, with an extension into Nigeria at Obudu, this small tree is distinctive with its red leaf axes.
46182		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane forest; 800–1,750 m alt.
46182		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for wood, followed by agriculture, particularly in the northern part of its range, Bamboutos Mts and the Bamenda Highlands.
46183		conservation	eng	Revisiting all known sites for the species is advised in order to attempt to rediscover it and to assess levels and nature of threats, if ongoing. Data on numbers of individuals per population and demography are also required to inform a management plan for the species.
46183		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mundame-Etam, Bakossi F.R., Nyasoso, Bambuko F.R., Essam (Nanga-Eboko), Bipinde.
46183		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; to <em>ca</em>. 900 m alt.
46183		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance due to logging, followed by agriculture. Although the species is centred in the SW Province, all the known sites here have been affected by habitat destruction to some extent or another. Threats to the  two sites outside of SW Province are unknown.
46184		conservation	eng	Rediscover and investigate more fully the populations of this taxon in the grassy areas on the summit of Mt Kupe, possibly using ropes and harnesses. Surveys of other grassy areas on the mountain, such as Kupe Rock, might reveal further subpopulations. Ideally, surveys should be carried out annually over several years so that fluctuations can be recorded and their significance assessed. Surveys are best conducted between October and March, the dry season, when the plant is flowering and fruiting and so conspicuous and easily identifiable.
46184		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (2 coll.).
46184		habitat	eng	occurs in montane grassland; 1,900–2,000 m alt.
46184		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by stochastic change such as lightning-induced fires or landslides. The species is not threatened by man at present, being found far above the highest limits (<em>ca</em>. 1,100 m alt.) of agriculture on the mountain.
46185		conservation	eng	Formal protection of the Bakossi Mts Forests may help preserve this species; further populations should be sought for in the currently protected Banyang Mbo area.
46185		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (1 coll.), Rumpi Hills (2 coll.), Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites, 1 further unlocated specimen). Despite being a submontane species, it is not known from Mt Kupe; it seems that the Jide valley forms a barrier to its expansion eastwards from the Bakossi Mts It is also not known from Mt Cameroon; here a band of semi-deciduous lowland forest likely forms a barrier to expansion southwards.
46185		habitat	eng	occurs in dense submontane evergreen forest; 1,100–1,500 m alt.
46185		threats	eng	In Bakossi, its habitat is threatened by continued sporadic illegal logging operations.
46186		conservation	eng	A census of the populations at the most protected areas mentioned above should provide better data on which to formulate a conservation strategy.
46186		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Cameroon (8 coll. at 3 sites), Korup National Park (6 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).
46186		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, generally near rivers; 0–800 m alt.
46186		threats	eng	Of the 3 areas in which the taxon is known to occur, it seems secure at only the Korup National Park, where it is afforded a high level of protection. The surviving forest in the Jide valley of the Bakossi Mts has mostly already been extirpated by agriculture owing to the high fertility of the soil; this is likely to continue and the species is already rare here, as evidenced by the single collection, made from the bottom of a steep-sided gorge. Its habitat at Mt Cameroon is vulnerable to clearance for timber extraction and plantation agriculture; already much of the lower altitude forest has been converted to rubber, banana and oil palm plantations.
46187		conservation	eng	Bth the Bakossi Mts and Mt Kupe have recently been given protected status by the Government of Cameroon, and most of the area in which <em>Rhaptopetalum geophylax</em> occurs falls under the Mt Kupe Forest Project based at Nyasoso.
46187		distribution	eng	<em>Rhaptopetalum geophylax</em> appears to be restricetd to Mt Kupe, the Bakossi Mts and the Rumpi Hills of western cameroon where it is relatively common within its altitudinal range. In the Bakossi Mts, a tree is encountered every 1–2 km on average, along a forest trail (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). Usually trees are isolated individuals, but sometimes 3–4  trees occur in close proximity (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). Intensive collecting in the submontane forest of Mt cameroon, only 60 km to the south, has not revealed the presence of this species (Cable and Cheek 1998).
46187		habitat	eng	Occurs in evergreen submontane forest, sometimes near streams; 700–1,300(1,500) m alt. Trees are conspicuous by their fallen flowers in January and February. <br/> <br/>Women of the Bakossi tribe use the leaves of this species to cover baskets of freshly caught tadpoles (an important food source) to stop them from rotting.
46187		threats	eng	There have been logging activities in the Bakossi Mts.
46188		conservation	eng	The rediscovery of the two populations, and an assessment of their size and any local threats, is imperative. Further taxonomic work on the <em>Rhaphidophora</em> complex in west Africa may reveal further populations until now treated as <em>R. africana</em>.
46188		habitat	eng	This taxon was, until recently, considered synonymous with <em>R. africana</em> N.E.Br., but has been resurrected by P. Boyce (pers. comm.). It is readily separated from the latter taxon, being a slender, not robust, climber and having solitary, not clustered, and erect, not pendant, inflorescences. <br/> <br/>Occurs in submontane forest; <em>ca.</em> 1,500 m alt.
46188		threats	eng	The locations of the two known collections remain largely unthreatened, although the site near Kodmin was adjacent to the well-used track from Kodmin to Muahunzum (and eventually to Nyandong), thus it may be threatened by future increased use, and thus expansion, of this route.
46189		conservation	eng	Better policing and higher protection of existing forest reserves would help secure the future of this species. Further intensive survey work is likely to yield additional sites.
46189		distribution	eng	Known from three collections in Nigeria, three in Congo (Kinshasa) and two in Cameroon. <br/> <br/>Occurs in lowland forest; 300–880 m alt.
46190		conservation	eng	It i-s not clear that any of the sites for this species are currently gazetted as protected: this should be rectified if possible, and if governmental protection cannot be secured, efforts should be made to invoke protection from local communities. Ngomboaku, where the species was seen recently at a site that is easily revisited, might be a suitable focus for conservation efforts of <em>F. mannii</em>.
46190		distribution	eng	This taxon was previously known from one collection in Nigeria, one in Gabon, and one in Cameroon (3 km NE Lomié in 1965).
46190		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland swamp forest; <em>ca.</em> 700 m alt.
46191		conservation	eng	A survey of the previous collection site and other suitable locations on the lower slopes of Mt Kupe is imperative in order to rediscover and assess the population size of this taxon. The extent to which it can tolerate disturbance should be studied further, as in its one known location, it was found in an area of relatively high disturbance.
46191		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).
46191		habitat	eng	This species most closely resembles the sympatric <em>C. densicaespitosus</em> Mattf. and Kük., differing in the more perennial habit, and the smaller spikelets and glumes which are more prominently winged. <br/> <br/>Occurs on roadsides in an agricultural area, at 500 m alt.
46191		threats	eng	The only known site is by a road, thus it is vulnerable to disturbance, as dirt roads are often annually "improved" following rain damage.
46192		conservation	eng	This species should be sought for in all future botanical work along rivers within its range. Monitoring of populations in catchments affected by land-use change, such as the Mungo River, should be carried out to assess this taxon’s sensitivity to increased run-off or silting.
46192		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mungo River W of Mbu (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (4 sites, 4 coll.).
46192		habitat	eng	Occurs on rocks and stones in or beside streams and rivers, usually submerged during rains; 500–1,350 m alt.
46192		threats	eng	Illegal logging activity in catchment areas in the Bakossi Mts is likely to result in increased run-off and thus higher river levels with large sediment loads which may wash away existing populations of this taxon or destroy its habitat through excessive silting.
46193		conservation	eng	Further investigation of sedge taxa in the montane forest of the Bakossi Mts may reveal further populations which are less threatened by agricultural encroachment. Care should be taken to separate this species from the superficially similar <em>H. subcompositus</em>.
46193		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (2 coll.).  This taxon is known from only 2 collections made in 1998, one 0.5 km from Kodmin towards Ndip and the second on the path from Kodmin to Muawhojom. It has not been recorded from similar habitat on the adjacent Mt Kupe or elsewhere in the Cameroonian highlands.
46193		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest undergrowth; 1,470–1,500 m alt.
46193		threats	eng	Localised encroachment of small-scale agriculture along the paths from which the 2 collections were made threaten these populations, though this is limited at present.
46194		conservation	eng	Rediscovery, and a subsequent census, of the known population is a priority; subsequent surveys of sedge taxa in the Bakossi Mts may reveal further sites.
46194		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Kodmin, Bakossi (1 coll.).
46194		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest undergrowth; 1,500 m alt.
46195		conservation	eng	Enforced protection of the montane forest habitat on Mt Kupe. A survey of the São Tomé populations, this species’ stronghold, should be carried out and important areas protected where necessary.
46195		distribution	eng	São Tomé and Principé, São Tomé: Contador (1 coll.), Macambrá, Vanhulst (1 coll.), Casa del Pico (2 coll.), Callario (1 coll.), unlocated (1 coll.); Principé: W of Pico (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (2 coll.).
46195		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest undergrowth; 700–2,000 m alt. <br/> <br/>Care should be taken to separate this taxon from the similar <em>M. soyauxii</em> which is recorded at lower altitudes in Cameroon; notes on the separation of these taxa can be found in Simpson (1992).
46196		conservation	eng	Studies of the subpopulations in the Northwest Highlands could be made to better understand the ecology of this taxon, including its tolerance of fire and human disturbance. This species should also be searched for in suitable habitat elsewhere in western Cameroon; discovery of further subpopulations would lead to a downgrading of its conservation status.
46196		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (1 coll.); NW Province: Boyo (1 coll.), Bali-Ngemba F.R. (2 coll.). <br/> <br/>It was first collected in 1999 in two disjunct locations 170 km apart in western Cameroon: between Laikom and Fundong in Boyo Division, NW Province, and near Kodmin in the Bakossi Mts, SW Province. It was recorded as locally common at the latter site. Further subpopulations are likely to exist in locations that have not yet been included in botanical inventories, given the large areas of grassland at altutudes of around 1,500 m in the Bamenda Highlands, Bamboutos and, to a lesser extent, in SW Province (Pollard, pers. obs.).
46196		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane grassland and grassland patches in submontane forest; 1,450–1,550 m alt.
46196		threats	eng	Deliberate burning of the montane grasslands in NW Province may result in subpopulations losses or may lead to long-term habitat changes which do not favour this taxon. The site near Kodmin appears relatively unthreatened though may be lost to forest encroachment if human disturbance remains low.
46197		conservation	eng	Continued protection of the submontane and montane forest on Mt Kupe; a survey of the population of this taxon here will help determine how important a site this is for conservation of this taxon.
46197		distribution	eng	Nigeria, Cross River State: Oban (1 coll.), Obudu Plateau (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (2 sites, 2 coll.), Douala to Likomba (1 coll.); S Province: Bipinde (1 coll.), Rio Muni (1 coll).
46197		habitat	eng	Occurs in closed-canopy lowland to submontane and montane forest; <em>ca.</em> 200–2,000 m alt. <br/> <br/><em>D. viridiflora</em> is very close to <em>D. mildbraedii</em>, an uncommon taxon of Rio Muni with which <em>D. viridiflora</em> was treated as synonymous before a taxonomic revision in 1984. However, it is still possible that <em>D. viridiflora</em> is under-recorded due to confusion with this sympatric species.
46198		conservation	eng	A search of the Cameroonian locality should be made to assess the status of this taxon, and its habitat preferences.  This taxon has been found growing in young secondary forest, which may indicate a preference for disturbance, and so allows the focus of future searches on this habitat type.
46198		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mungo River F.R. (1 coll.); Gabon (2 coll.).
46198		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest; 200–600 m alt.
46198		threats	eng	There has been illegal tree-felling in and around the Mungo River F.R., and it is certain that the habitat quality there is in decline.
46199		conservation	eng	Monitor populations within the Bakossi Mts.
46199		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (5 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Nlonako (1 coll.); Gabon (2 coll.).
46199		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane forest; 1,000–1,500 m alt.
46199		threats	eng	The Bakossi subpopulations should be well protected now, at altitudes of above 1,000 m, but the Nlonako site is not afforded the same level of protection and there is an increasing level of small-scale agriculture on the mountain.
46200		conservation	eng	A full survey of the populations of this taxon should be carried out throughout its range; this should not prove difficult as the species is so distinctive. This will likely lead to the discovery of more sites, thus the conservation assessment may be downgraded in the future. Local populations should be encouraged to use the commoner <em>R. hookeri</em> in preference to <em>R. regalis</em> in building and palm wine production.
46200		distribution	eng	Nigeria, Cross River State: Oban (1 coll.), Equi Issu Hills (1 coll.); Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (1 coll., 1 additional site record), E. Province: Djouo, nr. Somalono (1 coll.); Gabon: Nyanga (1 coll.); Congo (Brazzaville): ‘Nschaggebod’ (1 coll.); Angola (Cabinda): Nkanda Mbaku (1 coll.).
46200		habitat	eng	Occurs in mid-elevation wet forest, often on ridges, where it may be gregarious; 500–850 m alt.
46201		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46202		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
46203		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–2,000 m.
46204		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46205		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.
46206		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
46207		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46208		distribution	eng	Altitude of 200–2,800 m.
46209		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,600 m.
46210		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46211		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,200–2,400 m.
46212		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,300 m.
46213		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,700 m.
46214		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46215		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,400–1,700 m.
46216		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,800–2,200 m.
46217		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,900 m.
46218		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,800–2,900 m.
46219		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46220		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46221		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46222		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46223		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
46224		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
46225		distribution	eng	Altitude of 240–1,200 m.
46226		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,700 m.
46227		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150–250 m.
46228		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.
46229		distribution	eng	Altitude of 220–250 m.
46230		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
46231		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000 m.
46232		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,200 m.
46233		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.
46234		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
46235		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
46236		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46237		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
46238		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,135 m.
46239		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46240		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.
46241		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.
46242		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
46243		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.
46244		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150–600 m.
46245		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–1,900 m.
46246		distribution	eng	Altitude of 150–250 m.
46247		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46248		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,240–1,250 m.
46249		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–3,500 m.
46250		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.
46251		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.
46252		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
46253		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46254		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.
46255		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
46256		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46257		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.
46258		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46259		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
46260		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.
46261		distribution	eng	Altitude of 20–200 m.
46262		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46263		distribution	eng	Altitude of 450–500 m.
46264		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
46265		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46266		distribution	eng	Altitude of 5 m.
46267		distribution	eng	Altitude of 250–500 m.
46268		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
46269		distribution	eng	Altitude of 30 m.
46270		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46271		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.
46272		distribution	eng	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.
46273		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
46274		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.
46275		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
46276		distribution	eng	Altitude of 800–3,000 m.
46277		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46278		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46279		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.
46280		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46281		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.
46282		distribution	eng	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.
46283		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
46284		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.
46285		distribution	eng	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.
46286		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.
46288		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,800–2,500 m.
46289		distribution	eng	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.
46290		distribution	eng	Altitude of 100–3,000 m.
46291		distribution	eng	Altitude of 1,000–2,300 m.
46292		distribution	eng	There are two subpopulations: the Mindanao (Cotabato and Davao) and the Leyte islands subpopulations.
46292		habitat	eng	The flower is white with purple with purple tips to each segment, and spur is green. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests, to 500 m.
46292		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46293		distribution	eng	Two populations on Luzon in severly fragmented habitats (Bataan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Cavite, Quezon, Rizal) and Samar Islands.
46293		habitat	eng	The flower is purple. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests.
46293		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46294		distribution	eng	This species is found in primary and secondary forests at low altitudes on Luzon (Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya).
46294		habitat	eng	<em>Amesiella</em> is an endemic genus. Cootes (2001) noted that the species can be distinguished from <em>Amesiella philippinensis</em> based on the following: The spur of <em>A. monticola</em> is always longer. The flowers of <em>A. monticola</em> are rather and always pure white. The lateral lobes of the labellum <em>A. monticola</em> are straight while that of <em>A. philippinensis</em> are round. The plants of <em>A. monticola</em> are larger and more robust. The leaves are also wider, longer, and thicker.
46294		threats	eng	Habitat loss and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46295		distribution	eng	The species occurs as three populations on Luzon Island (Cordilleras, Central Luzon Mountains, and Southern Luzon - Mt. Mayon) and on Mindoro (Mt. Halcon). Found in primary and secondary forests at low to high altitudes.
46295		habitat	eng	<em>Amesiella</em> is an endemic genus.  The species is a small plant with large white flowers with yellow marks in the labellum.
46295		threats	eng	Habitat loss and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46296		distribution	eng	In the Philippines, found in one population in the mountains of Dinagat Island, a small island in Southern Philippines.  A rare plant found in coastal forests.
46296		habitat	eng	This species is similar to <em>Renanthera</em> and is distinguished from <em>Ascocentrum</em> with the branched inflorescence and four pollinia (Fessel and Balzer 2000).
46296		threats	eng	Loss of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46297		distribution	eng	Found only in the mountains of Nueva Ecija (Luzon Island). Rare plant considered as one population restricted to a locality near the Dalton Pass, in the mountains of the Nueva Ecija (Luzon Island).
46297		habitat	eng	A monotypic genus.  The species is closely related to <em>Hymenorchis javanica</em> from Java with white flowers and serrate margins of leaves, sepals, and petals (Fessel and Balzer 2000).  Flowers very bright red or orange. Found in primary and secondary forests at low altitudes.
46297		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46298		distribution	eng	Found on Calayan, Luzon, Palawan, Mindanao Islands in primary and secondary lowland forests, at low to high elevations.
46298		habitat	eng	Inflorescence short; flowers white, labellum with purple markings
46298		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46299		distribution	eng	Rare plant found only as one population in Northeastern Mindanao.
46299		habitat	eng	Inflorescence short; flowers white, labellum with green marking.  This species is closely similar to <em>Dendrobium sanderae</em>. Found in primary and secondary forests at low altitudes.
46299		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46300		distribution	eng	Found over the entire Luzon Island, Philippines.
46300		habitat	eng	Its distinct white color distinguishes it from the other <em>Vanda</em> species. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests.
46300		threats	eng	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46344		distribution	eng	<em>Bothrops alcatraz</em> is known only from Alcatrazes Island (1.35 km²), the largest of four small islands of Alcatrazes Archipelago, approximately 35 km from the coast of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil.
46344		habitat	eng	The species is active both on the ground and on low vegetation within the Atlantic forest covering Alcatrazes Island.
46344		population	eng	Current population size is unknown, although the species is relatively common on the island.
46344		threats	eng	Alcatrazes Island is currently used as a Naval target practice area.  Such activities are threatening the habitat of the island, which in turn poses a threat to the species present on the island.  Since this snake is known only from this area, habitat disturbance is a particular threat to the population.
46345		distribution	eng	Found in Philippines, Himalayas, Indochina, Malaysia and Taiwan. Population is localized in the Philippines on Luzon Island. Found at high altitudes.
46345		habitat	eng	This is the only representative of the genus in the Philippines. Flowers are fleshy and long-lasting.
46345		threats	eng	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46346		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, localized on one island. Found in high elevations.
46346		habitat	eng	Sepals and petals long and narrow. Staminode rectangular with hairs on the sides.
46346		threats	eng	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46347		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, localized in four islands (Luzon Island: Bontoc, Mt. Province; Mindanao: Agusan, Surigao; Camiguin Island; Dinagat Island). Found in low to medium elevations.
46347		habitat	eng	Petals heavily spotted with black in the upper two thirds. Lip deep purple.
46347		threats	eng	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46348		conservation	eng	The entire island of Palawan is declared a protected area.
46348		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, localized on one island (Palawan). Found in low elevations.
46348		habitat	eng	Lip brownish purple to greenish.  Species is similar to <em>P. acmodontum</em>, <em>P. urbanianum</em> and <em>P. argus</em> but the leaves are grey-green and has smaller flowers.
46348		threats	eng	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46349		conservation	eng	Mt. Halcon is a declared protected area.
46349		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, localized on one island (Mindoro). Found in low elevations.
46349		habitat	eng	Lip dull purple to reddish. Species is similar to <em>P. acmodontum</em>, <em>P. fowliei</em> and <em>P. argus</em> but the shape of the staminode is different.
46349		threats	eng	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46350		conservation	eng	Further orchid surveys are to be encouraged around Nyasoso to attempt to relocate this species and, if successful, introduce it to the CRES orchid garden there.
46350		distribution	eng	Ivory Coast (3 coll.); Nigeria (3 coll.); Cameroon (1 coll.).
46350		habitat	eng	Occurs in forested areas at <em>ca.</em> 1,450 m alt.
46350		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for conversion to agricultural small-holdings or plantations, particularly threatening the Nigerian and Ivory Coast sites where clearance has been widespread in recent decades although the Tai Forest is thought to remain intact.
46351		conservation	eng	Efforts to rediscover the population on the eastern slopes of Mt Cameroon should be made. A survey of its population on Mt Kupe, particularly at lower elevations, would allow a better assessment of its status on the mountain, seemingly the stronghold of this species.
46351		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (3 sites).
46351		habitat	eng	An epiphyte occuring in submontane and montane forest; 800–2,000 m alt.
46351		threats	eng	On Mt Kupe, much of the forest above 1,000 m is protected, thus disturbance is limited, though the site at 1,100 m above Nyasoso is threatened by encroachment of agriculture following the continued expansion of this town.
46352		conservation	eng	Conservation of this taxon should focus upon the Kodmin area of the Bakossi Mts where it appears to be most gregarious and where threats to its habitat are currently limited. A survey of its abundance should be carried out in November, its known flowering period there.
46352		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (3 coll. at 1 site), Mt Kupe (2 coll. at 2 sites), Mt Cameroon (3 coll. at 3 sites), Douala to Bimbia (1 coll.), Mfongu near Bagangu (1 coll.), Bana-Bateha near Fibé (1 coll.), Nkokom Massif near Ndom (1 coll.).
46352		habitat	eng	An epiphyte in submontane and montane forest; 800–1,800 m alt.
46352		threats	eng	The lower altitude sites for this taxon, particularly that on the Douala to Bimbia road and at Nyasoso on Mt Kupe, where it was recorded at <em>ca.</em> 800 m, are threatened by forest clearance for plantation agriculture at the former and for small-holder farming at the latter; these sites are likely to be already lost. The higher altitude sites on Mt Cameroon, Mt Kupe and at Kodmin are, however, less threatened at present.
46353		conservation	eng	The summit of Mt Kupe should be visited in November (recorded flowering time) to assess the only known location for this taxon.  Information on numbers of indivduals, and estimates of population size may then allow us to use Criteria A, C and D1 in future, and prepare a mangement plan, to include both <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation measures.
46353		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).
46353		habitat	eng	An epiphyte of montane forest and scrub at 1,800 m alt. <br/> <br/>This species was discovered in November 1985 at the summit of Mt Kupe by D.W. Thomas and H.L. MacLeod, where it was recorded as a "common branch epiphyte" in forest and scrub. However, intensive botanical surveys on this mountain during the 1990s, including the summit forests and scrub, have revealed no further collections, indicating that this species is extremely limited in its distribution. It is perhaps restricted to the east facing slopes near the summit, which were less well-collected during the 1990s.
46354		conservation	eng	A certain measure of protection has been afforded this species, as this garden area has been fenced off to demarcate the garden’s boundary (Pollard, pers. obs., 2002). A portion of the individual plant was removed from the garden and is now growing as part of the living orchid collection at the CRES headquarters in Nyasoso. A propagation plan is currently being developed by the authors, in collaboration with Martin Etuge, manager of the CRES project garden.
46354		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).
46354		habitat	eng	Phorophyte: <em>Mangifera indica</em> (cultivated) at 830 m alt.
46354		threats	eng	Loss of the only known location due, for example, to the cutting down of the host tree or due to disturbance during harvesting of the mangos is possible.  If this taxon also occurs in the surrounding forest above Nyasoso, it is threatened by the continuing decline in habitat area and quality due to clearance of trees for firewood and small-scale agriculture.
46355		conservation	eng	As this species is found within the village of Enyandong, on a tree in front of the house of the Chief of the village, this is an ideal location for promoting community-based conservation. Local residents here could be encouraged to search for this species in the surrounding forest, perhaps using a species conservation poster as an aid to identification, and to promote protection of any locations where it is found.
46355		distribution	eng	Nigeria: (5 coll. at 5 sites); Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.), unlocated (2 coll.).
46355		habitat	eng	An epilith or epiphyte in submontane and montane forest; <em>ca.</em> 800–2,050 m alt.
46356		conservation	eng	Attempts should be made to rediscover this species in its previous collection localities, and to bring this species into cultivation for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.  Status of habitat at the Gabon locations needs to be researched.
46356		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.); Gabon: Ngounyé (2 coll. at 2 sites).
46356		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland or submontane forest; <em>ca.</em> 200–950 m alt.
46356		threats	eng	The location above Nyasoso on Mt Kupe is below the lower altitudinal limit of effective protection on the mountain and thus vulnerable to habitat loss through encroachment of farms; threats to the Gabon sites are unknown.
46357		conservation	eng	As Kupe-Bakossi now appears the stronghold of this taxon, a survey of the epiphytic orchids of the submontane and montane zone should be carried out to better assess the abundance of this, and other rare taxa. Maintenance of the protection of the montane forests in this area should ensure the survival of <em>D. polydactyla</em>.
46357		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Kupe Bakossi (7 coll. from 6 sites); NW Province: Tatum (1 coll.), Bafut-Ngemba F.R. (1 coll), Baba II (1 coll.).
46357		habitat	eng	An epiphyte of submontane to montane forest and woodland; <em>ca.</em> 1,400–2,000 m alt.
46358		conservation	eng	Attempt to relocate this species and introduce it into cultivation.
46358		distribution	eng	Nigeria (2 coll. at 2 sites); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.); W Cameroon (3 coll., at 3 sites).
46358		habitat	eng	Occurs in forested areas at <em>ca.</em> 1,100–1,800 m.
46359		conservation	eng	Attempt to relocate this species in its Biokan and Cameroonian locations, and introduce it into cultivation.  Further investigation of material from the Congo is needed in order to confirm its identity; the conservation status would be reassessed as VU under criterion B, if it is shown to belong to this species.
46359		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (3 coll. at 3 sites); Cameroon (3 coll. at 2 sites).
46359		habitat	eng	Occurs in forested areas at <em>ca.</em> 1,330–1,800 m alt.
46360		conservation	eng	Attempts to rediscover the species at its two collection locations should be made (preferably in October, its recorded flowering time). This species may be suitable for a species conservation poster to raise awareness within the local communities as to the unique flora of their forests.
46360		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (1 coll.); S Province: Efulen (1 coll.).
46360		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of dense lowland and submontane forest; <em>ca.</em> 200–900 m alt.
46361		conservation	eng	A survey of this taxon should be made at the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve and protective measures should be put in place here if it remains extant.
46361		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Obudu Plateau (1 coll.); Cameroon: Bafut-Ngemba F.R. (4 coll., 1 site), Mt Neshele, 10 km ESE Bamenda (1 coll.), Banyo, Mayo Tankou (1 coll.), Mwanenguba (1 coll.).
46361		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane grassland; <em>ca.</em> 1,700–2,300 m alt.
46362		conservation	eng	Management should focus upon its two strongholds of São Tomé and Mt Kupe. A survey should be carried out at the former in order to assess its current status, as 3 of the 4 known collections were made in the nineteenth century. At the latter, material from the more threatened lower altitude sites should be considered for cultivation and propagation at the CRES headquarters living orchid collection.
46362		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.); São Tomé and Principé: São Tomé (4 coll. at 4 sites); Cameroon (9 coll. at 4 sites).
46362		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb of lowland to submontane forest, rarely in secondary forest; 50–1,330 m alt.
46362		threats	eng	Clearance of forest throughout its range, especially below 1,000 m.
46363		conservation	eng	Attempts should be made to discover this species within its preferred habitat in other parts of the western Cameroon uplands; its recorded flowering period is October to December.
46363		distribution	eng	Equatorial Guinea, Bioko (1 collection); Cameroon, SW Province: Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (1 collection), Mt Cameroon-Mt Etinde (1 collection), Bakossi Mts (2 collections from 2 sites).
46363		habitat	eng	A terrestrial herb along streams in primary submontane forest; 950–1,350 m alt.
46363		threats	eng	The proposal to expand plantations to the 1,000 m contour around Mt Etinde-Mt Cameroon may well adversely affect the subpopulation here; placement of the reservoir at Kodmin may threaten the subpopulation there.
46364		conservation	eng	Urgent action is required to address the issues of timber extraction from the Mungo River area, and to protect the existing forest reserves from illegal encroachment of agricultural activity. Intensive orchid surveying should be carried out for the CRES Orchid Programme at Mungo and other nearby lowland areas, such as the adjacent Loum Forest Reserve.
46364		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection, 13 km from Kumba on the road to Loum, Mungo River Forest Reserve, W Cameroon.
46364		habitat	eng	An epiphyte in lowland evergreen rainforest; 200 m alt.
46365		conservation	eng	As Mt Kupe appears to offer the best chance for survival of this taxon, attempts to rediscover and census the population here should be made. Continued protection of the forest above 1,000 m alt. here should ensure this species’ survival, though it is clearly rare, being collected only once during the extensive surveys on this mountain.
46365		distribution	eng	Nigeria: Mambilla Plateau (1 coll.), Obudu Plateau (2 coll. at 2 sites); Cameroon: Mwanenguba (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.).
46365		habitat	eng	Occurs in submontane and montane forest and woodland; 1,400–1,700 m alt.
46365		threats	eng	Extensive and continued forest clearance at high latitudes in E Nigeria and at Mwanenguba threaten any remaining populations at these sites. The submontane location on Mt Kupe, however, has experienced little disturbance to date.
46366		conservation	eng	More data on the São Tomé population are required. Attempts to rediscovery of this species at both Mwanenguba and Mt Cameroon should be encouraged.
46366		distribution	eng	São Tomé and Principé: São Tomé; Cameroon: Mwanenguba and Mt Cameroon.
46366		habitat	eng	An epiphyte of dense montane forest; 1,450–1,650 m alt.
46367		conservation	eng	Attempt to relocate the area in which the collections were made near Mamfe; efforts should then be made to relocate this species here as it is a more likely location for its future survival than the heavily disturbed Mwanenguba Massif.
46367		distribution	eng	Cameroon, SW Province: Mamfe (2 coll.), Banyang-Mamfe (1 coll.); Littoral Province: Mwanenguba (1 coll.).
46367		habitat	eng	An epilith on seasonally wet rocks, or terrestrial in marshy grassland; 200–1,850 m alt.
46368		conservation	eng	Revisiting the type location and rediscovering this species are a priority. Once this has been achieved, further assessment of its ecological requirements, including its potential for survival in plantation agriculture, can be assessed. Ultimately, enforced forest protection or cultivation followed by propagation may be the only means of conserving this taxon.
46368		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).
46368		habitat	eng	An epiphyte in submontane forest, growing on <em>Coffea</em> sp.; 1,050 m alt.
46368		threats	eng	The only known locality for this species is in an area of forest being encroached upon by plots of <em>Coffea canephora</em>, and may thus be lost in the near future. However, the type specimen was collected from a <em>Coffea</em> tree (possibly a wild species) so this taxon may be able to withstand such a change in habitat in the short term. However, well-tended farms are ‘cleaned’ of epiphytes, thus <em>P. kupensis</em> is unlikely to survive in the long term in coffee plantations.
46369		conservation	eng	Continued monitoring of the two known locations at Mt Kupe is advised. Verification of a possible new location at Onge Forest is required.
46369		distribution	eng	Known only from the Southwest Province of Cameroon where it has been recorded from the SW slopes of Mt Kupe above Kupe village.
46369		habitat	eng	This herb occurs in lowland to submontane evergreen forest; 720 m.
46369		threats	eng	The forest in the Bakossi area is heavily threatened by logging activity, followed by agriculture.
46370		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
46370		distribution	eng	Found in Pakistan, India (Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus River drainages), Bangladesh and Nepal.
46371		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, in one island (Luzon). Population on Luzon considered as one population, but fragmented. Found in low to medium elevations.
46371		habitat	eng	Flowers white with pale pink profusion. Distinct from <em>P. equestris</em> by its mottled leaves.
46371		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46372		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Philippines, in two islands (Luzon Island: Camarines Sur; Mindanao: Zamboanga). Population in the two islands very localized and rare. Found in low elevations.
46372		habitat	eng	Flowers are greenish yellow.
46372		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46373		conservation	eng	There are no declared protected areas within the known area of occurrence.
46373		distribution	eng	Found only in Calayan Island and Cagayan Province (Luzon Island). Occurs as a small island population. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests of Calayan Island.
46373		habitat	eng	Agoo <em>et al</em>. (2003) considers this as a synonym of <em>V. lamellata</em> Lindl. which has widespread distribution within the Philippines and found as well in Borneo, Taiwan, and Ryukyu Island.
46373		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46374		conservation	eng	The entire island of Palawan is declared as a protected area by a national legislation.
46374		distribution	eng	Philippines: Palawan Island, Mindanao Island; and Borneo. Two populations found on two Philippine islands: Palawan and Mindanao island. Found in primary and disturbed lowland forests.
46374		habitat	eng	The species has yellow flowers with fine brown markings. It is easily distinguished by the two small arms on the midlobe.
46374		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.
46477		conservation	eng	Included in Ankarana Special Reserve, Baie de Baly National Parc, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Andohahela National Parc, Ankarafantsika Special Reserve and Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve.
46477		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Ankazobe, Andranofeno- sud; Antsiranana: Antsatrana, Ankarana Special Reserve, Andilamboay, Ambanilalana, Vavatobe, Antafiambotry, Mananara, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve, Tsihomanaomby massif; Fianarantsoa: Ambatomenaloha, Iremo, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve; Mahajanga: Antsoa, Ankarafantsika Integral Natural Reserve, Bokorafa, Marokitrana, Analabe, Toamasina: Mahatsara; Toliara: Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Apiky, Vohipolaka. <br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence: 370,044 km² and area of occupancy: 74,408 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 36 individuals per ha; Abundance < 50 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 24; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 6
46477		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest. Dry deciduous forest.
46477		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of poor regeneration, grassland fire. Possible decline because of exploitation for timber, not tolerant to disturbance. Future decline: 50–80%.
46478		conservation	eng	Included in Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve.
46478		distribution	eng	Antananarivo : Mont Ibity, Vozontanin’i Tapia, Marovato, Fiadanana; Antsiranana: Tsaratanana; Fianarantsoa: Ambohimanjaka, Itremo, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Faliarivo, Ambatofinandrahana, Ambatomainty, Col des Tapia, Fiadanana, Ampandrianombilapa, Ambatomenaloha. Extent of occurrence is 16,850 km² and area of occupancy is 102 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 425 individuals per ha; Abundance > 10,000 mature individuals, number of subpopulations: 17, number of subpopulations in protected areas: 1.
46478		habitat	eng	Found in Sclerophyllous woodland and thicket.
46478		threats	eng	Habitat loss because due to selective logging for construction. Decline possible because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds). Predicted future decline: 1–30%.
46479		conservation	eng	Occurs in Isalo National Parc and Andringitra National Parc.
46479		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Ambatofinandrahana, Ingaro, Isalo National Parc, Col des Tapia, Itremo, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve; Toliara: Benenitra, Sakamarekely. Extent of occurrence: 36,175 km² and area of occupancy: 1,054 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 10 individuals per ha; Abundance: 2,500–10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 15, number of subpopulations in protected area: 5
46479		habitat	eng	Found in <em>Sclerophyllous</em> woodland.
46479		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to exploitation of trees for timber and firewood, grassland fire. Utilized as timber (quite heavily exploited close to villages but trunks re-grow after felling), firewood, and medicine.
46480		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Masoala National Parc.
46480		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Masoala Integral Natural Reserve, Ambodisatirana, Ifonty, Toamasina: Mahatsra, Tampolo, Ambila- Lemaintso Forest Station, Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Mahatsara Forest Station, Brickaville. Extent of occurrence: 28,538 km² and area of occupancy: 15,998 km². <br/> <br/>Density: one mature individual per ha; Abundance: 250–1,000 mature individuals; Number of subpopulations: eight, of which three are in protected areas.
46480		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46480		threats	eng	Habitat loss to shifting cultivation, poor regeneration and timber for construction.
46481		conservation	eng	Included in Protected areas: Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.
46481		distribution	eng	Toamasina: Ampasimpotsy-Gara Forest Station, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Ambatovy, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Antaniditra, Analamay, Ampitambe, Lakato, Sahamaloto. Extent of occurrence: 3,430 km² and area of occupancy: 2,742 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Density: 46 individuals per ha; Abundance: 1,000–2,500 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: eight, of which two are in protected areas.
46481		habitat	eng	Mid-elevation evergreen humid forest.
46481		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to shifting cultivation and mining. Decline possible due to selective exploitation for timber or poor regeneration. Not tolerant to disturbance. Timber used for construction and medicinal purposes.
46482		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Vangaindrano, Mahabo; Toamasina: Tampolo Forest Station, Antanambao; Toliara: Mandena Forest Station, Sainte Luce, Ambinanibe, Mandromodromotra, Fort- dauphin, Manafiafy. Extent of occurrence: 29,709 km² and area of occupancy: 183 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Density: 70 individuals per ha, abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: nine, none are in protected areas.
46482		habitat	eng	Littoral forest.
46482		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to shifting cultivation, and exploitation of forest for charcoal, fire and mining. Decline possible because of selective exploitation for timber (for construction).
46483		conservation	eng	Included in Lokobe Integral Natural Reserve, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Masoala National Parc, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Manombo Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.
46483		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Ambohitralanana, Nosy-Komba Forest Station, Masoala Integral Natural Reserve, Analamay, Ambohitralalana; Fianarantsoa: Ampasimenaloka, Ampangalana-atsimo, Mananjary, Canal de Pangalanes, Mangatsiotra, Zohakandra-Nord (Tohakandra), Vohitrindry, Misevo, Manampano, Manombo Special Reserve, Mahabo; Mahajanga: Marotandrano, Sahamalaza, Analalava; Toamasina: Ambila-Lemaintso, Ambila-Lemaintso Forest Station, Andilamena, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Antetezana Forest Station, Anosinkoraka, Analamena, Tampolo Forest Station Forest Station, Mahatsara, Foulpointe,  Rombevavy, Tampina, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Tampolo Forest Station Forest Station, Androrangambo, Beanana, Andranokoditra, Bemainty,  Mahatsara Forest Station, Andavakimenarana, Vohibola, Zahamena National Parc; Toliara:  Sainte Luce, Mandena Forest Station, Fort-Dauphin, Soanierana, Petriky, Atsotso, Manafiafy. <br/>Extent of occurrence: 212,474 km² and area of occupancy: 55,595 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 166 mature individuals per ha in Ambila-lemaintso, 244 mature individuals per ha in Mandena; Abundance < 1,000–25,000 individuals. Number of subpopulations: 47;  number of subpopulations in protected areas: 8.
46483		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid and littoral forest.
46483		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to exploitation of forest for charcoal, fire, timber for construction and shifting cultivation.
46484		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Parc, Masoala National Parc, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.
46484		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Anjozorobe; Antsiranana: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Betsomanga, Masiaposa, Anjenabe; Toamasina: Beforona, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Analamay, Ampitsofanafo, Anosibe An’Ala, Zahamena National Parc, Sahamaloto; Toliara: Fort-Dauphin. Extent of occurrence: 87,426 km² and area of occupancy: 33,959 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 1,215 individuals per ha; Abundance > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 14; Number of subpopulations in protected areas: 5.
46484		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46484		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation. Possible decline because of selective exploitation for timber. Not tolerant to disturbance.
46485		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Parc, Ranomafana National Parc.
46485		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Manankazo-Ankazobe Forest station; Antsiranana: Marojejy Integral Natural Reserve, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Ampokafo; Fianarantsoa: Ranomafana National Parc; Toamasina: Ambanizana, Sandrangato, Beanjada, Moramanga, Bekorakaka. <br/>Extent of occurrence: 123,128 km², area of occupancy: 21,693 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 35 individuals per ha in site of Bekorakaka; 23.5 individuals per ha in Ambohitantely. Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations in sites: 16; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 12.
46485		habitat	eng	Mid- elevation humid and sub humid forest.
46485		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation. Poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers.
46486		conservation	eng	Included in protected area: Manombo Special Reserve.
46486		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Manombo. Extent of occurrence: 1 km²; area of occupancy: 1 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 0.05 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: < 50. Number of subpopulations: 1; number of subpopulations in protected area: 1.
46486		habitat	eng	Low elevation evergreen humid forest.
46486		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of exploitation or poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of seed dispersers.
46487		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Andringitra National Parc, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Manombo Special Reserve Special Reserve, Mantadia National Parc National Parc, Masoala National Parc, Marojejy National Parc, Zahamena National Parc.
46487		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Mandraka Forest Station; Antsiranana: Marojejy Integral Natural Reserve, Anjanaharibe- Sud Special reserve ; Fianarantsoa: Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Iabomary; Toamasina: Analamazaotra- Perinet Special reserve, Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Mantadia National Parc, Marozevo, Zahamena National Parc, Amboditavolo, Didy, Ambatovola, Antsianaka. Extent of occurrence: 93,912 km² and area of occupancy: 35,433 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 2.6 mature individuals per ha in Betampona, 18 mature individuals in Mantadia National Parc. Abundance: 2,500–10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 19; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 12.
46487		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46487		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation or poor regeneration. Possible decline due to increasing rarity of dispersers (lemurs) and  not tolerant to disturbance.
46488		conservation	eng	Include in protected areas: Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Mantadia National Parc, Andohahela National Parc, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve Natural, Ranomafana National Parc, Pic d’Ivohobe Special Reserve.
46488		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Ranomafana National Parc, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Ampahamerana Forest Station, Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve, Andrambovato Forest Station; Toamasina: Beforona, Mantady National Parc, Antanandava, Ambatovola, Sandrangato, Zahamena National Parc, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve Amboditafonana, Ambodigavo; Toliara: Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Marosohihy. Extent of occurrence: 47,356 km² and area of occupancy: 16,724 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 5 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: < 50 mature individuals in study area. Number of subpopulations in sites: 21; Number of subpopulations in protected areas: 9.
46488		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid, sub humid forest.
46488		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of exploitation (shifting cultivation, selective cutting of timber for construction or poor regeneration). Possible decline because of  increasing rarity of  vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant of disturbance.
46489		conservation	eng	Include in protected areas: Betampona Integral Natural Reserve.
46489		distribution	eng	Toamasina: Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Antsianaka. Extent of occurrence: 22 km² and area of occupancy: 22 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 8.3 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one; number of subpopulations in protected areas: one.
46489		habitat	eng	Low- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46489		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of rarity of seed dispersers. Poor regeneration.
46490		conservation	eng	Include in protected areas: Masoala National Parc.
46490		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Masoala National Parc, Ambanizana. Extent of occurrence: 11 km² and area of occupancy: 11 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 25 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: two; Number of subpopulatiosn in protected areas: one.
46490		habitat	eng	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid, sub humid forest.
46490		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of selective exploitation and cultivation of clove trees. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant to disturbance.
46491		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Andranobetokana; Toamasina: Mananara- Avaratra, Ambalafary. Extent of occurrence: 8,743 km² and area of occupancy: 2,122 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 44 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: three.
46491		habitat	eng	Low elevation evergreen humid forest.
46491		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation and exploitation. Poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant to disturbance.
46492		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Ankarana Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve.
46492		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Antsatsaka, Beramanja, Andilamboay, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve, Anjakely, Ambilobe, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Ambohipiraka, Ambanja, Maromandia, Ankarana Special Reserve, Analavory Ambato (Sambirano). Mahajanga: between Ambandamanga- Manambaliha and Ambodigavo. Extent of occurrence: 12,319 km², area of occupancy: 2,571 km². <br/> <br/>Population size: 108,160 individuals. Number of subpopulations: 21; subpopulations in protected areas: three.
46492		habitat	eng	Low- elevation evergreen humid forest and dry deciduous forest.
46492		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting slash and burn agriculture, selective cutting or poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds and lemurs). The timber is utilized for construction, while the bark and leaves are used for medicine.
46493		distribution	eng	Toliara: Sainte Luce, Mandromodromotra, Ambinanibe, Mandena Forest Station ( Fort-Dauphin). Extent of occurrence : 221 km², area of occupancy: 14 km². <br/> <br/>Population size: 22,469 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: five.
46493		habitat	eng	Littoral forest.
46493		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting agriculture, mining, and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (Lemuridae) and selective exploitation. Timber is utilized for construction and bark is used for making an alcoholic beverage.
46494		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy Integral Natural Reserve, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Mantady National Parc.
46494		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy Integral natural Reserve, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve; Toamasina: Mantady National Parc, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Ambatovy; Toliara: Vohimavo. Extent of occurrence: 94,706 km² and area of occupancy: 18,908 km². <br/> <br/>Population size: 61,200 individuals. Number of subpopulations: 11; Number of subpopulations in protected areas: 6.
46494		habitat	eng	Mid- elevation evergreen humid and sub-humid forest.
46494		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting agriculture, mining, selective cutting of timber for construction (due to the woods highly resistant qualities) and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds, lemurs). Not tolerant of disturbance.
46495		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Analamazotra Special Reserve, Zahamena National Parc, Ranomafana National Parc.
46495		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Ranomafana National Parc, Ampasinambo; Toamasina: Ampasimpotsy, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Farizana, Sandrangato, Antsahapandrano, Nangarana, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Bemainty, Nonokambo, Sahamaloto and Ambatovy (Moramanga). Extent of occurrence: 10,080 km²; area of occupancy: 3,329 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 2,632 mature individuals; Number of subpopulation: 14, number of subpopulations in protected area: three.
46495		habitat	eng	Mid-elevation evergreen humid, sub-humid forest.
46495		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting slash and burn agriculture and poor regeneration. Also declining due to selective exploitation for timber and reduction in populations of seed dispersers (birds and lemurs); not tolerant to disturbance. <br/> <br/>Utilized for medicinal properties, with bark used for making an alcoholic beverage. Timber is used for posts and house frames.
46496		conservation	eng	Included in protected area of the: Manombo Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Masoala National Parc, Ankarana Special Reserve.
46496		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Masoala National Parc, Beankoraka, Masoala Integral Natural Reserve, Sahamalaza (Masoala), Nosy-Be, Andohan’Ifosa, Ankarana;  Fianarantsoa: Manombo Special Reserve, Manombo Forest Station, Amporofo, Ampangalana Atsimo, Ifanirea; Toamasina: Soanierana-Ivongo, Tampolo Forest station, Mahanoro, Rantabe, Tampina, Foulpointe, Antetezana Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Lakato, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Vohibola, Mahatsara Forest Station. Extent of occurrence: 180,310 km², area of occupancy: 29,691 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance : 50–250 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 42; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 4.
46496		habitat	eng	Low- elevation evergreen forest, and littoral forest.
46496		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of selective exploitation of timber for construction. The bark is also used for medicinal purposes. Also threatened by fire, cyclone, invasive alien species and poor regeneration. The decline may also be because of the increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds and lemurs). The species is not tolerant to disturbance.
46497		conservation	eng	Included in protected area of: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Manombo Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.
46497		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Anjozorobe, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Manankazo-Ankazobe Forest Station, Ankafobe, Andranofeno-sud, Sahatsio, Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe, Col de tapia, Antsirabe, Tsitondroina, Ibity; Fianarantsoa: Ivato, Ambohimanjaky, Ambohimanjaka, Mont Ibity, Ampandrambato, between Ivato and Itremo, Marohita, Vohipaho, Ambohimanana; Fianarantsoa: Mananjary, Misevo, Ampangalana Atsimo, Ambatofinandrahana, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, between Ivato and Ambatofinandrahana, Faliarivo, Mangatsiatra, Fiadanana, Anjoma, Anosivelo, Analalava, Ankazondratana, Ankijana, Antanambao, Nosy-varika, Androrangalava, Vatovavy, Ambila, Matatana, Ambositra, Mahabo; Mahajanga: Manandona, Antsiasiaka, Sahavoay, Beveromay, Ilaka-est; Toamasina: Ambila-lemaintso, Ambila-Lemaintso Forest Station, Fierenana, Manohilahy, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Mahanoro, Andranomandry, Marosiky, Ambila-Lemaintso Forest Station, Brickaville, Antanambao, Zahamena National Parc; Toliara: Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Manantantely, Analalava, Sainte Luce, Mandena Forest Station, Vatovary, Mandromodromotra, Ampasimena, Pic Saint Louis, Manantenina, Enivaha, Fort-Dauphin, Ambaravano, Lakandava. Extent of occurrence 199,029 km², area of occupancy: 35,374 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 50–250 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 84, of which 8 are in protected areas.
46497		habitat	eng	Littoral forest, and low- and mid- elevation evergreen forest.
46497		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of shifting agriculture and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (bird and lemurs). <br/> <br/>Roots used for beauty mask, bark used for making alcoholic beverage, fruits eaten and also used as fire wood.
46498		conservation	eng	Included in Masoala National Parc.
46498		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Ambato-Masoala National Parc. Extent of occurrence: 0.00126 km², area of occupancy: 0.00126 km². <br/> <br/>Population very rare. Abundance: < 50 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one.
46498		habitat	eng	Low- elevation evergreen forest, thicket.
46498		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of exploitation and poor regeneration. Possible decline due to increasing rarity of vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant to disturbance.
46499		distribution	eng	Toamasina: Mahatsara Forest Station. Extent of occurrence: 0.17 km², area of occupancy: 0.17 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 84 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one (not in a protected area).
46499		habitat	eng	Littoral forest.
46499		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of selective exploitation, fire, cyclone, invasive alien species and  poor regeneration. Possible decline due to increasing rarity of large vertebrate dispersers (birds and lemurs). Not tolerant to disturbance. <br/> <br/>The leaves are utilized for medicinal purposes and the wood for construction.
46500		conservation	eng	Included in Ankarana RS, Manongarivo RS.
46500		distribution	eng	Antsiranana: Marokasaka, Ankarana, Manongarivo. Extent of occurrence: 5,782 km², area of occupancy: 1,989 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 14,850 matures individuals. Number of subpopulations: 15, number of subpopulations in protected areas: two.
46500		habitat	eng	Mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46500		threats	eng	Habitat loss from selective exploitation and poor regeneration, shifting agriculture, and fire. Utilized as charcoal and wood fuel. Timber also used for construction.
46501		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Zahamena Special Reserve.
46501		distribution	eng	Toliary: Mandena; Antananarivo: Ambohitantely; Toamasina: Analamazaotra, Zahamena. Extent of occurrence: 80,177 km², area of occupancy: 6,585 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 17,058 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 10; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 3.
46501		habitat	eng	Littoral and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46501		threats	eng	Habitat loss of shifting agriculture and uncontrolled annual fires. Utilized as fuelwood.
46502		distribution	eng	Toliary: Lakandava (Fort-Dauphin).  Extent of occurence: 239 km², area of occupancy: 38 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Number of subpopulations: two (both outside protected areas).
46502		habitat	eng	Low- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46502		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of overexploitation, shifting agriculture and poor regeneration. Not tolerant of disturbance. Utilized as fuel wood and for medicinal purposes.
46503		distribution	eng	Toamasina: Tampolo Forest Station, Mahatsara Forest Station, Antetezana Forest Station. Extent of occurence: 4,959 km², area of occupancy: 68 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Abundance: 84 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: three (all outside protected areas).
46503		habitat	eng	Littoral forest.
46503		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to overexploitation, shifting agriculture or poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of insect dispersers. Not tolerant to disturbance. <br/> <br/>Utilized as fuel wood and timber for construction.
46504		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Vohimavo, Manantenina. Extent of occurence: 0,0016 km², area of occupancy: 0,0016 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Abundance: 31 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one (outside protected areas).
46504		habitat	eng	Mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.
46504		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds).
46505		conservation	eng	Included in protected area: Isalo National Parc.
46505		distribution	eng	Fianarantsoa: Isalo National Parc. Extent of occurence: 815.4 km², area of occupancy: 815.4 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Abundance: 17 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one (only in Isalo National Parc).
46505		habitat	eng	Mid- elevation sclerophyluous forest.
46505		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to uncontrolled fires and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrates (bird and lemur) dispersers. Not tolerant to disturbance.
46506		conservation	eng	Included in Mananara North Biosphere Reserve, Masoala National Parc.
46506		distribution	eng	Toamasina: Mananara North Biosphere Reserve; Antsiranana: Masoala National Parc. Extent of occurrence: 81,289 km² and area of occupancy: 25,182 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 27,217 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 24; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 2.
46506		habitat	eng	Littoral and sub littoral forest.
46506		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and uncontrolled fire. Poor regeneration and overexploitation of mature individuals. Utilized as timber for construction, fuel wood and charcoal.
46507		conservation	eng	Included in protected areas: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Andasibe National Parc, Zahamena Special Reserve.
46507		distribution	eng	Antananarivo: Ibity, Ampahatra, Ambohitantely; Fianarantsoa: Andringitra; Toamasina: Andasibe, Zahamena. Extent of occurrence: 88,684 km², area of occupancy: 6,334 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 192,035 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 23, number of subpopulations in protected areas: 4.
46507		habitat	eng	Mid- elevation evergreen humid and sclerophyluous forest.
46507		threats	eng	Habitat loss because of selective logging, shifting agriculture and uncontrolled annual fires. Utilized as fuel wood and charcoal, also the fruit is consumed.
46508		distribution	eng	Recorded from southeastern and southern Brazil; eastern Paraguay and Argentina, Mexico, Central America, Caribbean and northern South America (once recorded from Peru). The list of countries is not complete. From sea level to > 1,000 m
46508		habitat	eng	Humid/subhumid evergreen forest element: scrambling over vegetation and inselbergs of gneiss/granite etc.
46509		distribution	eng	Recorded in Brazil from southernmost Ceará, Pernambuco (native and cultivated), central-eastern and south-eastern Bahia to southern Espírito Santo and south-western Minas Gerais, but widely cultivated; perhaps also native in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo; commonly introduced in the Neotropics.
46509		habitat	eng	Humid/subhumid evergreen forest element.
46510		distribution	eng	Recoredde from Brazil: central-southern (Bahian) caatinga element: caatinga surrounding the Chapada Diamantina, planalto de Maracás, northern Serra do Espinhaço and Serra Geral (Bahia), 300–900 m, east and south of the Rio São Francisco.
46511		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: caatinga, 450–750 m, valley of the Rio São Francisco, western and central-southern Bahia and central-northern Minas Gerais.
46512		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on ± naked or thinly wooded limestone (Bambuí) outcrops or gneiss/granite inselbergs amidst high caatinga forest, 450–750 m, both sides of the Rio São Francisco valley, west-cent./southern Bahia and cent.-northern Minas Gerais.
46513		distribution	eng	Recorded from central-southern caatinga element: in caatinga, 380–950 m, south-western Pernambuco (also vaguely reported from adjacent Piauí) and western and northern to southern Bahia.
46514		distribution	eng	Recorded from Rio Grande do Norte to southern Bahia (from the Chapada Diamantina / northern Serra do Espinhaço eastwards).
46514		habitat	eng	An eastern caatinga element: in caatinga, agreste and carrasco, frequent on deep sandy substrates but not restricted to these, <em>ca</em>. 200–1,020 m,
46515		distribution	eng	Recorded from Southern Rio São Francisco, western and southern Bahia (east and west of the Rio São Francisco) to north-western, northern and central Minas Gerais.
46515		habitat	eng	A caatinga element: on ± forest-covered limestone (Bambuí) outcrops surrounded by caatinga, mata seca semidecídua and cerradão, <em>ca</em>. 450–700 m
46516		distribution	eng	Widespread Eastern Brazil element: from the middle drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha (MG) northwards to northernmost Piauí, and westwards on sandstone outcrops in the cerrado of western Bahia. Endemic to Eastern Brazil. Amongst the commonest of cacti from the region.
46516		habitat	eng	Usually found on rocks (including inselbergs) or very stony ground, open caatinga and campo rupestre, <em>ca</em>. 100–1,550 m.
46517		distribution	eng	Widespread southern neotropical element: western Paraíba, eastern and central-southern Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, north-western, northern and eastern Bahia, north-eastern and central-southern Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo; semi-humid forests of extra-Amazonian Brazil; Atlantic drainage of Andes eastwards (Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay). Has become naturalized in some areas where it has been introduced e.g., Florida (US).
46517		habitat	eng	Occurs in restinga, drier phases of Mata atlântica, agreste, caatinga (especially along temporary water courses), mata de brejo, mata seca (on limestone), mata de galeria and mata do planalto, especially on deep sandy substrates and as a lithophyte, near sea level to ca.1,000 m.
46518		distribution	eng	Recorded from South-eastern and Southern Brazil: central-eastern Minas Gerais, southern Espírito Santo (and presumably northern Rio de Janeiro); Paraguay, Uruguay and northern and eastern Argentina; frequently naturalized or planted elsewhere (including North-eastern Brazil).
46518		habitat	eng	A southern humid/subhumid forest element: sand-dunes in open carrasco, and open restinga near sea level, sea level up to <em>ca</em>. 1,000 m,
46519		distribution	eng	Widespread in Eastern Brazil from northern Piauí southwards; Northern, Central-western and Southern Brazil (southern Pará southwards to Mato Grosso do Sul and Paraná); Central (?) and South America (southwards to E Bolivia, N Argentina and Paraguay).
46519		habitat	eng	An epiphyte, climber or lithophyte (on limestone or on gneiss/granite inselbergs) in caatinga-agreste, cerradão, Mata atlântica, mata de brejo, mata de encosta, mata de planalto and restinga, near sea level to <em>ca</em>. 900 m,
46520		distribution	eng	Widespread neotropical element:  ± common throughout the more humid parts of Eastern Brazil; Neotropics from Central America southwards. It is the most widespread cactus species in Eastern Brazil
46520		habitat	eng	An epiphyte in Mata atlântica, caatinga-agreste, mata do planalto, mata ciliar and cerrado, near sea level to at least 1.300 m.
46521		distribution	eng	Recorded from central and south-eastern Minas Gerais; common in South-eastern and Southern Brazil; North-eastern Argentina (Misiones).
46521		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte in Mata atlântica, including mata de neblina, 500–1,900 m.
46522		distribution	eng	Recorded from central-southern Minas Gerais and southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); common in South-eastern and southern Brazil; eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina (Misiones).
46522		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte or lithophyte, Mata Atlântica, <em>ca</em>. 1,100 m.
46523		distribution	eng	Recorded from eastern Pernambuco to south-eastern Minas Gerais; common in South-eastern and Southern Brazil; south-eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina.
46523		habitat	eng	Disjunct humid forest element: epiphyte or lithophyte, Mata atlântica, including mata de brejo (NE Brazil) and restinga, sea level to 1,200 m.
46524		distribution	eng	Recorded from central, south-eastern and southern Minas Gerais; common elsewhere in South-eastern and Southern Brazil.
46524		habitat	eng	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte or lithophyte in Mata atlântica, including mata de neblina, near sea level to <em>ca</em>. 1,500 m.
46525		distribution	eng	Recorded from eastern Pernambuco to Espírito Santo; extending south-westwards into the interior of South-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and São Paulo), where frequent; replaced by subsp. <em>oreophila</em> in the East Brazilian Highlands, by subsp. <em>pulvinigera</em> in mountains and coastal zones of South-eastern and Southern Brazil, by subsp. <em>hohenauensis</em> in eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina, by subsp. <em>tucumanensis</em> in the eastern Andes of Argentina, Bolivia and Peru (Junín) and by subsp. <em>pittieri</em> in northern Venezuela.
46525		habitat	eng	Widespread humid forest element: epiphytic or epilithic in Mata atlântica, including mata de brejo and eastern foot of the Chapada Diamantina (Bahia) near sea level to <em>ca</em>. 1,200 m
46576		conservation	eng	This species requires specific habitat protection and legal protection.
46576		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one locality in Ovamboland, northern Namibia (16 km W of the fork to Ohopoho of the Ruacana-path) (Cook 2004). Known from type only, collected in 1973 (very good rain year).
46576		habitat	eng	This plant has been found at the edge of a vlei (shallow seasonal or intermittent lake).
46576		population	eng	It has been recorded from only one site in Namibia
46576		threats	eng	Tubers of similar taxa are eaten. Grazing and browsing may be threatening the species.
46577		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46578		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Myanma, Mergui Islands, Thailand (including Phuket), western Malaysia (including Pulau Tioman), Indonesia (Java, Sumatera, Borneo, Singkep, Natuna Besar), Singapore, and the Philippine Islands.
46579		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46579		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pakistan, India (Sikkim), Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh (Indus and Ganges River drainages) and Myanmar (Irrawaddy and Salween rivers).
46580		distribution	eng	Recorded from Australia (northeast Queensland: Cape York Peninsula from the northern tip to the vicinity of Bowen; western Queensland: rivers of the Gulf country; Northern Territory), southeast New Guinea, and Indonesia: island of Rotti near Timor.
46582		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Papua New Guinea and Australia (Jardine River at the northern tip of the Cape York Penisula, Queensland).
46583		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46584		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (<span style="font-style: italic;">Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis</span>) and Appendix II.
46585		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the population of Argentina, which is included in Appendix II).
46586		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46587		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46588		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46589		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46590		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I [except the populations of Botswana, Egypt (subject to a zero quota for wild specimens traded for commercial purposes), Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania (subject to an annual export quota of no more than 1,600 wild specimens including hunting trophies, in addition to ranched specimens), Zambia and Zimbabwe, which are included in Appendix II].
46591		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
46606		distribution	eng	Known only from Tuanniuping, Erlangshan, Sichuan Province.
46606		habitat	eng	Recorded from montane forest at 2,450 m.
46640		habitat	eng	Damp places in dense forests on slopes; 1,300–1,700 m.
46714		habitat	eng	Occurs in forests, often by streamsides; below 1,200 m.
46715		distribution	eng	Known only from the Auas mountains in the central highlands of Namibia.
46715		habitat	eng	Grows on steep, south-facing micaceous schist legdes (Snijman 1984).
46715		threats	eng	In the dry season there are frequent fires in these mountains but the effect on this species is not certain.
46716		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46716		habitat	eng	On exposed limesone screes namely "schwarzkalk", which is typically blackish, interlaced with some green shale (Snijman 1994).
46716		threats	eng	Collecting is the only potential threat.
46717		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46717		habitat	eng	In sand along seasonal water courses or in crevices amongst schists and black limestone along the mountain ranges between Witputz and Rosh Pinah.
46717		threats	eng	None known at present.
46718		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46718		habitat	eng	On south facing slope of sandstone or outcrop; in sandy pockets (WIND 2000). Also on wide ledges of steep south-facing slopes, in association with low, winter-growing succulent shrubland (Snijman 1994).
46718		threats	eng	None known at present.
46719		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe argenticauda</em> is endemic to Namibia. The species is only recorded from seven areas, but it may be more widespread than currently known.
46719		habitat	eng	The species appears to be restricted to dolomite outcrops. It is recorded to be common on black limestone hillock.
46720		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe corallina</em> is listed in CITES Appendix II.
46720		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe corallina</em> is endemic to Namibia. Although it has a relatively restricted range (extent of occurrence estimated at less than 3,750 km²), the population is believed to be stable at present.
46720		habitat	eng	Plants grow on sheer cliffs. They are found on dolomite cliffs of the Kunene river.
46720		threats	eng	The plant is highly sought after. However, future development of a hydro-electric scheme along river may be a more serious threat.
46721		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe dewinteri</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46721		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe dewinteri</em> is endemic to Namibia, where approximately eight subpopulations are known.
46721		habitat	eng	The species grows in rock crevices of steep dolomite precipices and perpendicular cliffs.
46721		threats	eng	Succulent collectors would collect this species, but since it grows in fairly inaccessible areas, this does not seem to be a problem at present.
46722		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe dinteri</em> is included ion CITES Appendix II.
46722		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe dinteri</em> is endemic to Namibia where it has a relatively wide range. Current population size is unknown but is thought to be less than 10,000.
46722		habitat	eng	The species grows on plains, in shade, and in dolomite crevices.
46722		threats	eng	There are no actual or potential threats.
46723		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe erinacea</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46723		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe erinacea</em> is endemic to Namibia. It has a relatively wide extent of occurrence, but the population is highly fragmented. According to Jankowitz, the biggest population is on Namuskluft. The largest subpopulation is probably around 350–400 plants.
46723		threats	eng	Collecting is a real threat in this case. Low recruitment is also a problem.
46724		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe namibensis</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46724		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe namibensis</em> is endemic to Namibia. The species has been described as rare, however, actual data one population size are lacking.
46724		habitat	eng	Occurs on rocky outcrops, on north-facing, uppermost mountain slope, marble rift and low granite ridges.
46725		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe sladeniana</em>
46725		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe sladeniana</em> is endemic to Namibia. Extent of occurrence is thought to be less than 10,000 km². Population size is unknown, but there are believed to be less than 10,000.
46725		habitat	eng	Dwarf shrub savanna.
46725		threats	eng	It is not certain how severe collecting is for this species.
46726		conservation	eng	<em>Aloe viridiflora</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46726		distribution	eng	<em>Aloe viridiflora</em> is endemic to Namibia where it has a relatively wide range (extent of occurrence 20,000–30,000 km²). The species is known from at least six subpopulations.
46726		habitat	eng	Occurs on granite hills, between rocks on rocky outcrops, and in the central western desert.
46726		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is collected. At one location (Namibgrens Farm ), baboons have been observed to pull out all the developing inflorescences from the plants, resulting in no recruitment in the population.
46736		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46736		habitat	eng	The plants were recorded on a plateau, dolomite ridges, red dunes and pockets on black limestone terraces.
46737		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46737		habitat	eng	In blown sand between rocks.
46737		threats	eng	Current threats, if any, are unknown.
46738		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46738		habitat	eng	Recorded as common in sandy soil at the base of a mountain and on a schist pavement (WIND 2002).
46738		threats	eng	none known at present.
46739		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46739		habitat	eng	Noted as desert, but specific habitat unknown.
46739		threats	eng	None known at present.
46740		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46740		habitat	eng	Found in sheltered rock cracks (Duncan 1999). Also recorded as occasional on a dolomite reef projecting from a plain at the base of dolomite hills (WIND 2002).
46740		threats	eng	Nonknown at present.
46741		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46741		habitat	eng	Found on sandy gravel flats in full sun (Duncan 1998) or on sandy plain in red sand.
46741		threats	eng	None known at present.
46742		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46742		habitat	eng	Kloof in mountain valley, rocky slope, mountain slope.
46742		threats	eng	None known at present.
46744		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia, above the Orange river near Gamkab river mouth.
46744		habitat	eng	The species only grows in rock crevices in granite.
46744		threats	eng	Potential threats include habitat destruction and collecting as a result of the increasing human population along the river due to vineyards, goat farming and mines. It is not certain how far the population is from the river, where most of the agriculture is taking place.
46745		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46745		habitat	eng	Occurs in sandy soil around granite domes. The species completes its life cycle on winter rain.
46746		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia. The species is known from several sites on single farm, but may be more wide spread on the Huib plateau, which extends over several farms.
46746		habitat	eng	Grows in silt in black limestone.
46746		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat.
46748		distribution	eng	Known from Aurus and slopes next to Orange river, Namibia.
46748		habitat	eng	Grows on moderate south- and west-facing gravel slopes in rock crevices and under bushes (WIND 2002).
46748		threats	eng	Mining is a potential threat to one subpopulation, as well as population growth along river due to vineyards.
46750		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46750		habitat	eng	Found on quartzite gravel, in rocks on sand blown plain and rock faces, in sandy areas or rocky outcrops.
46750		threats	eng	None known at present.
46751		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46751		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded on granitic gravel, gravel plains, mountain slopes, dolomite outcrops intermixed with flint, in weathered sand on rocky flats, and sandy soil (WIND 2002).
46751		threats	eng	Mining may be a potential threat to one or two subpopulations but even this is not certain.
46752		distribution	eng	Endemic to north central Namibia.
46752		habitat	eng	A rare plant, growing on a flat area in full sun (WIND 2002).
46752		threats	eng	Increased human population pressure and associated overstocking the land with livestock is a potential threat that could cause a decline in the quality of the habitat.
46753		distribution	eng	Known from one location in Brandberg, Namibia.
46753		threats	eng	None known at present.
46754		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia. Known from type only, collected in 1964.
46754		habitat	eng	Dry watercourse (altitude 2,000 m).
46754		threats	eng	None known at present.
46755		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46755		habitat	eng	Found on coarse granite sand formation.
46755		threats	eng	Expansion of Luderitz and associated habitat destruction is a potential threat, but this must be confirmed.
46756		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46756		habitat	eng	Grows hanging from rocks, on vertical mountain walls, and on slopes and plateaux.
46756		threats	eng	None known at present.
46759		distribution	eng	Known from type specimens only, collected from Brandberg Königstein, Namibia.
46759		habitat	eng	Sheltered stony places east of the summit.
46759		threats	eng	None known at present.
46762		distribution	eng	Known only from the Gamsberg plateau, Namibia.
46762		habitat	eng	Found on the Gamsberg summit plateau, which has a flat aspect and clayey soil (WIND 2002, Irish, pers. comm., 2003).
46762		threats	eng	Fire and trampling are potential threats (Irish, pers. comm. 2003).
46763		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46763		habitat	eng	Occurs on dolomite outcrops and sandy soil, in rock crevices (Marloth 1910–1912), on rocky outcrops on cliff, in gravelly soil, on limestone plateau, dolomite outcrop, and in sandy soil in sand pocket (WIND 2002).
46763		threats	eng	None known at present, although collecting is a potential threat and mining could affect a few of the subpopulations if they grow close to the coast.
46766		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46766		habitat	eng	Occurs on stony mountain tops (800–2,000 m altitude). In crevices or among rocks and boulders (Thulin 1974).
46766		threats	eng	No threats known at present, although agriculture may be a potential threat.
46767		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46767		habitat	eng	Found growing in mossy areas. Possibly in pools in the highlands.
46767		threats	eng	Overuse of waterbodies is the main threat to this species.
46780		distribution	eng	<em>Conophytum halenbergense</em> is endemic to Namibia, where it is known from a few subpopulations in Halenberg and Tschaukaib. Each subpopulation has several hundred plants
46780		habitat	eng	The species grows on granite slopes and sometimes in detritus pans but seems to prefer vertical faces and crevices. It is frequently associated with <em>Lithops francisci</em>, gneiss and quartzite cliffs.
46780		threats	eng	Overharvesting by plant collectors is the main threat to the species.
46783		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46783		habitat	eng	Sandblown plains between rocky outcrops, gentle slopes. Sand, rock and gravel plains, gravel terraces, ridges, on south-facing slopes of hills and outcrops. In dolomite, dolerite, gneiss, mica schist, limestone, sandstone, calcrete and quartzite and conglomerates. It has been recorded at altitudes of 70 m and 450 m. The plants are associated with low succulent dwarf shrubby vegetation in association with <em>Psilocaulin dinteri, Brownanthus</em> sp., <em>Salsola, Fenestraria, Dracophilus dealbatus</em> and <em>Cephalophyllum ebracteatum</em>.
46783		threats	eng	None known at present.
46785		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46785		habitat	eng	Rocky or sandy plains. Footslopes of mountain, sand at Halenberg station plain <br/>lower to mid south-facing mountain slopes in sandy soil, on granite, dolomite, gneiss, mica, quartzite and rocky or sandy plains and pockets. It was recorded to be associated with <em>Sarcocaulon, Pelargonium</em> and <em>Eberlanzia</em> (Hartmann 2001, WIND 2002).
46785		threats	eng	Collecting is a threat at Haalenberg. Some collectors return every year, but the extent of collecting is unknown. Habitat destruction by vehicles (4x4 vehicle drivers at Halenberg).
46786		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46786		habitat	eng	Occurs on open sandy-pebble plains.
46786		threats	eng	There is no information available to indicate that collecting or habitat destruction are serious threats (real or potential).
46787		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46787		habitat	eng	Found on light to dark brown or reddish-brown, white or grey-white quartzite, gneiss, schist and calcrete (Cole in Hartmann 2001). The species grows on a gentle limestone slope in grey-white calcrete (Cole 1988).
46787		threats	eng	Collecting is a real threat at least to some subpopulations: highly sought after, live plants, seed, trade.
46791		conservation	eng	Most subpopulations seem to be in the Skeleton Coast Park and the plants are therefore passively conserved. However, if the park is poorly managed, the populations there would not be safe.
46791		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46791		habitat	eng	Found on different forms, combinations and colours of quartz, pegmatite, calcrete, chert, calcite and tourmaline (Cole 1988). Also on gneiss and quartzite stone. In shallow soil, sand, gravel and pebbles in a rock desert, arid low open vegetation, on level to gentle slopes, and also found growing on a low ridge.
46791		threats	eng	Collecting is a real threat. The species is highly sought after (live plants, seed, trade, <em>Lithops</em> specialist collecting). One subpopulation was reported to have disappeared completely due to collecting of live plants but this could not be verified during field work that followed. <br/> <br/>Habitat destruction is also a potential threat. One subpopulation has disappeared at the Rossing uranium mine. The location where the largest number of plants were counted is right next to the tailings dam of the mine. This dam is to be expanded by 2006 or 2007 and this is likely to destroy about 700 or more plants.
46792		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46792		threats	eng	Collecting is a real threat to this species. It is highly sought after (live plants, seed, research, trade, <em>Lithops</em> specialist collecting). Habitat destruction through intensive farming may also be a threat.
46795		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46795		habitat	eng	Dune sand and quartz on wind-blown plains.
46795		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat. The subpopulation at Kovisberg could well be threatened by collecting, but the other subpopulations inside the Sperrgebiet seem to be safe for the moment.
46796		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia. Only one subpopulation has been observed (in a small kloof very near the Orange river, across the Sendelingsdrift mine), but there could be more deeper into the mountains.
46796		habitat	eng	In full sun on rocky slopes and plains in areas that receive sparse winter rainfall. With <em>Tylecodon hallii, Brownanthus</em> and <em>Astridia</em>.
46796		threats	eng	There are no perceivable threats at the moment, however mining is a potential future threat.
46798		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46798		habitat	eng	Recorded in a steep gorge with sandstone, granite and soft black rock.
46798		threats	eng	Current threats to the species, if any, are unknown.
46800		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46800		habitat	eng	In soft, whitish, salty soil of the dry flat pan surface which is otherwise devoid of vascular plants.
46800		threats	eng	No serious threats are known at present. However, the species has a very limited distribution and habitat preference which may well be over utilised by game around Etosha.
46801		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46801		habitat	eng	In narrow cracks of granite boulders.
46801		threats	eng	Apart from its restricted range, no threats are known at present.
46805		conservation	eng	<em>Euphorbia lavrani</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46805		distribution	eng	Known from only one subpopulation in Namuskluft, Namibia.
46805		habitat	eng	Grows on limestone outcrops (Leach 1981), with <em>Ruschianthus falcatus</em> (pers. obs)
46805		threats	eng	Collecting may be a potential threat as Namuskluft is well known for it succulent diversity and endemism and is frequently visited by succulent collectors from all over the world. However, the only limestone outcrops observed here are rather inaccessible and collecting is not likely to cause a continuing decline.
46806		conservation	eng	<em>Euphorbia leistneri</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46806		distribution	eng	Known from one location only, in the vicinity of Epupa falls, Namibia.
46806		habitat	eng	Recorded in white calcareous soil (WIND 2002). It grows in shallow soil with very coarse to fine rock particles with little clay or organic material.
46806		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat. Habitat destruction due to tourism. The development of hydro-electric scheme along Kunene river in the near future is a potential threat in the form of habitat destruction.
46807		conservation	eng	<em>Euphorbia namuskluftensis</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46807		distribution	eng	Known only from one small population in the Namus mountains, Namibia.
46807		habitat	eng	Found only on white limestone outcrop. The species occurs in the rock fissures in the outcrop, with <em>Ruschianthus falcatus</em> and <em>Euphorbia lavrani</em>.
46807		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat, although the site is relatively inaccessible.
46808		conservation	eng	<em>Euphorbia namibensis</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46808		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46808		habitat	eng	Found in sparse cover desert, calcrete, gentle slope in full sun, and in sand. Also observed on flat areas in other parts of the Sperrgebiet.
46808		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat although it probably isn't so bad that it would cause a continuing decline.
46809		conservation	eng	<em>Euphorbia otjipembana</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46809		distribution	eng	Only known from two subpopulations in two locations in Namibia. Plants are uncommon, scattered and recorded as rare and infrequent.
46809		habitat	eng	Occurs on stony east-facing slopes in dwarf mopane woodland in association with a <em>Cyphostemma</em> ("succulent Cissus") species (Leach 1976). Recorded as rare and infrequent at 4,000 ft.
46809		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
46810		conservation	eng	<em>Euphorbia verruculosa</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.
46810		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46810		habitat	eng	Found on gravel hills, plains and rocky outcrops, schist, quartzite, sand and dolomite.
46810		threats	eng	None known at present.
46812		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46812		habitat	eng	Found on granite hills.
46812		threats	eng	None known at present.
46813		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46813		habitat	eng	Recorded on an open flood plain and a gentle slope (WIND 2002).
46813		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the form of vehicle tracks may affect the Halenberg subpopulation, but this has to be verified.
46814		distribution	eng	This shrub is endemic to Namibia.
46814		habitat	eng	Recorded in gravelly sandy soil and red sand dunes (WIND 2002).
46814		threats	eng	None known at present.
46820		distribution	eng	Only known from around the base of and within the Little and Great Karas mountains, Namibia. In the Great Karas mountains it occurs both around the foot of the mountains and also on some of the high, flat topped summits.
46820		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat. The Hoodia Working Group reports that there is no real threat at present, but increased awareness and market value of <em>H. gordonii</em> (currently targetted for its appetite suppressant qualities) could possibly threaten other species in the future.
46821		distribution	eng	Known only from the Tiras Mountains on eastern flank, Namibia (Bruyns 1993).
46821		habitat	eng	Grows on steep granite slopes among rocks and small bushes (Bruyns 1993).
46821		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat. The Hoodia Working Group reports that there is no real threat at present, but increased awareness and market value of <em>H. gordonii</em> (currently targetted for its appetite suppressant qualities) could possibly threaten other species in the future.
46822		distribution	eng	Occurs along the Swakop river from west of Okahandja to near Otjimbingwe and Karibib, namibia.
46822		habitat	eng	Possibly occurs on dry river bed. Found on low rocky ridges (WIND 2002).
46822		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat. The Hoodia Working Group reports that there is no real threat at present, but increased awareness and market value of <em>H. gordonii</em> (currently targetted for its appetite suppressant qualities) could possibly threaten other species in the future.
46823		distribution	eng	Known from only two localities,  40 km apart, in Khowarib gorge, Namibia.
46823		habitat	eng	Occurs on vertical dolomite cliffs only so there may be more localities than currently known. Found with large quantities of <em>Aloe dewinteri</em> and very little other vegetation, quite inaccessible, form large clumps in narrow crevices and small ledges on rock faces. roots are quite shallow in small pockets of soil and the species is able to spread along small veins of ground that enables them to become quite large, the only <em>Lavrania</em> found on such dangerously steep habitats (Bruyns 1993).
46823		threats	eng	this species has different features to others in the genus and its unusual habit makes it more special to collectors (P. Craven, pers. obs.), but it is described as inaccessible so collecting probably not a real threat.
46824		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46824		habitat	eng	Altitude 1,500–1,700 m, among small grass tufts and rocks on granite slope.
46824		threats	eng	Collecting may be a real threat as these subpopulations are more accessible than other taxa. However, this species seems to be more widespread than some of the others. It is assumed for now that it is still stable.
46827		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46827		habitat	eng	Among stones and granitic gravel, shale slopes in upper part of mountain, 2,000 m altitude (WIND 2002).
46827		threats	eng	It is not known is collecting is a real threat, therefore the population is assumed to be stable for the time being.
46828		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46828		habitat	eng	The plants are often almost buried in the sand where they grow, with only the tops of the stems visible and can sometimes become completely buried. They sometimes occur among rock outcrops (Leach 1980). They were recorded to grow in drifting sand and on flats (WIND 2002).
46828		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat.
46829		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46829		habitat	eng	Inside <em>Pentzia</em> bushes on flat-topped mountains in stony areas.
46829		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat. The extent of the effect of collecting at present is not known.
46830		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46830		habitat	eng	Found in crevices between rocks and on granite hills, usually under bushes (mainly <em>Ruschia divaricata</em>) or in crevices between rocks forming dense mats. Plants scattered in crevices, occasionally amongst stones under bushes. Altitude 1,800–1,950 m (WIND 2002).
46830		threats	eng	Collecting is at least a potential threat.
46831		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46831		habitat	eng	Found at 1,400 m altitude in gravel (Schreiber 1967) and on coarse sandy plain at the foot of a mountain (WIND 2002).
46831		threats	eng	No threats are known at present. The entire road between Aus and Rosh Pinah is to be tarred in 2004 and as a result everything in the road reserve up to the fence will be destroyed. This will affect two or three subpopulations partially., depending on how much of a population grows on the other side of the fence.
46833		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46833		threats	eng	None known at present.
46834		habitat	eng	Codd (1975) states that it grows in dry mopane woodland, on high rocky situations up to 2,300 m altitude, in limestone and dolomite.
46836		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46836		habitat	eng	Occurs at high altitudes (2,550 m) (Craven 2000). A scrambler growing over rocks on all areas of the Brandberg above 2,000 m.
46836		threats	eng	No serious threats known at present, although tourism is a potential threat.
46839		distribution	eng	Known only from the summit of Heioab mountain in the Sperrgebiet (Diamond Area 1) in Namibia.
46839		habitat	eng	Found at 1,000 m altitude, facing extreme sandblasting winds. The summit receives considerable condensation from fog. The mountain is completely isolated (Williamson 1995). Probably occurs in quartzite as the mountain seems to be made of this, although this species was not spotted on a recent field trip.
46839		threats	eng	Collecting is a potential threat, even though the species grows in the Sperrgebiet, as collectors often enter the Sperrgebiet as succulent societies/tour groups. The plant is also battered by sandblasting. The mountain seems to be undisturbed at the moment (observation during fieldwork, September 2003).
46840		distribution	eng	Known only from Aurus mountain, Namibia.
46840		habitat	eng	Occurs on a vertical cliff, in well protected cracks and other protected spots on mountain slopes (summit of the mountain at 1,082 m). Associated with <em>Holothrix filicornis, Aloe erinaceae, Conophytum ernianum</em> and several <em>Crassula</em> species and other succulent vegetation. This area receives considerable fog precipitation and the species was observed to occur in the wettest places.
46840		threats	eng	Collecting is at least a potential threat as succulent collectors enter the Sperrgebiet from time to time as succulent societies and reports were received of them collecting plants in the Sperrgebiet without permits.
46845		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46845		habitat	eng	Found on bare loamy flats with <em>Mesembryanthemum longipapillosum</em>, coarse sand-limestone flats, valley floor of alluvium, limestone mixture at base of low dolomite ridge, limestone flats with gravel surface, coarse sand on calcrete plains, lime sand plain with black lime plates and rocks, and flattish alluvium valley.
46845		threats	eng	Small stock farming (grazing damage) is a possible potential threat.
46846		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46846		habitat	eng	Flood plain.
46846		threats	eng	None known at present.
46847		conservation	eng	Occurs in Etosha National Park and tKhaudom Game Reserve.
46847		distribution	eng	Occurs in northern Namibia and possibly also in Angola.
46847		habitat	eng	Found on the margins of calcrete pans, omurambas, ephemeral river beds, turf pans and on red sand plains.
46847		population	eng	Six subpopulations, appears to be reasonably common.
46847		threats	eng	Pans drying up and over-use of water resouirces may be a threat; increased livestock farming possibly causes decline in habitat quality; threats unconfirmed.
46849		distribution	eng	Known only from the tyhpe locality between Etengua and Otjitanda, Namibia.
46849		threats	eng	Agriculture is a possible threat, but more evidence is needed before this can be confirmed.
46850		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia. Known only from the type locality in central Karasberg (Bolus <em>et al</em>. 1915).
46850		habitat	eng	Found at the summit of Scharfenstein (approx. 2,300 m).
46850		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range, but the locality seems to be fairly inacessible.
46851		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46851		habitat	eng	Found growing on river bank between rocks, on mountain slopes, underneath rocks in shady wet places, in sand below rocks, in semi-shade, in a deep rocky gorge, sandy gulley, and on granite.
46851		threats	eng	None known at present.
46853		conservation	eng	No information available.
46853		distribution	eng	A poorly known plant, known from a single collection from the Waterberg plateau in Namibia.<br/>Known from type only, not collected since 1920s. Monospecific Namibian endemic genus (Golding 2002).
46853		habitat	eng	Thornbush shrubland/Northern Kalahari vegetation. It grows totally submerged and develops cleistogamous flowers.
46853		population	eng	Estimated total population size: <1000;  <br/>Estimated number of locations: one
46853		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range. It has been considered as threatened with extinction (Cook 2004).
46854		conservation	eng	No information available.  Loots (2005) gives the status of the species as LC (Least Concern).
46854		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia (Cook 2004).
46854		habitat	eng	This plant grows in temporary rock pools.
46854		population	eng	No information available.
46854		threats	eng	None known.
46856		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46856		habitat	eng	Favours sites among boulders (Hilliard 1999) at 2,000 m. It also grows on stony loam in a pan, on dolomite and in savannah transition (WIND 2002).
46856		threats	eng	No serious threats are known at present, however small stock farming occurs in the area and, if palatable, then the species could be over-grazed or trampled.
46857		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46857		habitat	eng	On floodplain, sandy plain, detritus fans and other sandy places. Probably occurs at altitudes > 1,300 m (Hilliard 1999).
46857		threats	eng	None known at present.
46858		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46858		habitat	eng	Mixed woodland with predominantly <em>Colophospermum mopane</em> and mixed woodland with <em>Euphorbia mauritanica</em>. Mostly on hill slopes, but also on rocky outcrops and dry rivers.
46858		threats	eng	No serious threats known at present.
46859		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia.
46859		habitat	eng	Recorded on a steep slope on the escarpment in semi-shade (1,900–2,332 m altitude).
46859		threats	eng	None known at present.
46862		conservation	eng	The persistence of this unique Andean fish depends strongly on our understanding of its essential habitat and the capacity to measure habitat-quality trends whether they are the result of management or the consequence of the environmental impact produced by human activities. <br/> <br/>More research is needed to understand the importance of subterranean water in the life cycle and resilience of <em>A. ubidiai</em> to habitat perturbations.
46862		distribution	eng	<em>Astroblepus ubidiai</em> is the only historically documented native fish of the Imbakucha watershed, Imbabura, Ecuador. Preñadilla is the local name for all <em>Astroblepus</em> species of the Ecuadorian Andes regardless of taxonomic differences. In other areas of the Ecuadorian Andes the "preñadilla" has been declared as extinct (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores 1992).
46862		habitat	eng	The fact that the habitats of all subpopulations are springs is probably not only because those are the keystone habitats, but also because these are the habitats least favorable to the causes of decline. Caughley (1994) suggested the latter assumption as a safer preliminary hypothesis compared with assuming that the remnants of the species are in the most favorable habitat. Remnant subpopulations are located in refuges that provide certain resilience to habitat destruction and deterioration. <br/> <br/>Preñadilla’s use of underground refugia was first mentioned by Humboldt and Bonpland (1805). Velez-Espino observed the preñadilla to enter interstitial spaces and penetrate into the outlet of springs. The importance of underground water in the life cycle of the species is not known but the genus <em>Astroblepus</em> is known to have troglobitic (exclusively subterranean) and troglophilic (facultative subterranean) species.
46862		population	eng	Six <em>A. ubidiai</em> subpopulations were located in the region from information provided by indigenous residents, followed by extensive field surveys. These subpopulations are distributed in four different drainage basins and their probabilities of escape to other refugia when the environment deteriorates are very limited due to natural and anthropogenic barriers between drainages. Pasture grounds, fields, human settlements, and the presence of the piscivorous largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) in Imbakucha Lake appear to have resulted in the segregation of those populations within this watershed. Extensive sampling showed that the preñadilla is not presently found in Imbakucha Lake and that individuals are concentrated in small lotic-habitat fragments characterized by the presence of springs (Vélez-Espino, in press). Individuals of <em>Astroblepus ubidiai</em> are concentrated in small areas (range 40–650 m²) and restricted to island-like habitats, which can be properly defined as refuges. Each subpopulation appears demographically independent.
46862		threats	eng	Standard anthropogenic perturbations to preñadilla habitat are the deviation of water currents towards pasture grounds, the periodic vegetation clearing from creeks by communities in order to improve the water supply, the use of preñadilla as bait for largemouth bass fishing, the traditional custom of cloth washing in the water in springs, creeks and streams, and the traditional custom also of using aquatic bodies as corridors to move the cattle within the watershed. The use of the local agave called "cabuya" (Cactaceae) for the washing of clothes in the creeks and streams is known to have active chemical substances that kill aquatic fauna, including fish (L. Vélez-Espino, personal observation). <br/> <br/>Overfishing may not have been a problem before the population was fragmented by habitat loss. The current fragmentation between subpopulations within the Imbakucha watershed has been enhanced by the introduction of exotics (Vélez-Espino 2003). Now the concentration of <em>A. ubidiai</em> in a few small localities increases its vulnerability and jeopardizes its persistence. The low probability that dispersers successfully reach other refuges hinders a positive effect of migration on the regional population size (see Fahrig and Paloheimo 1988). During the recovery of the traditional ecological knowledge it was evident that five of former preñadilla habitats were converted in reservoirs for human supply and floriculture, four were transformed in community-washing place, two were dried as a consequence of inappropriate agricultural activities, and one was converted into a religious sanctuary (the cave called "El Socavón" which traditional knowledge recognized as a former source of preñadilla). Another former refuge, the Araque spring, was observed in February 2000 to contain preñadillas, but by July of the same year it no longer contained preñadilla. <br/> <br/>In the Imbakucha watershed (Proaño, Gallopogyo and Quinde), all six anthropogenic perturbations occur in all of the sites. Approximately 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 38 communities within an area of 150 km² have impacted on preñadilla habitat and could be a cause of the poor habitat quality.
46863		distribution	eng	Recorded from Indonesia and the Philippines, but may also extend to the Andaman Islands (India).
46863		habitat	eng	Appear to live in shallow waters in cays or close to shore. Nothing is known about its biology.
46864		conservation	eng	2002 regulations in the South East Trawl fishery in Australia prohibits the landings of livers unless the accompanying carcass is also landed.
46864		distribution	eng	A fairly common but poorly studied species with a wide but patchy distribution. Occurs in the eastern Atlantic (Iceland to southern Africa), Indian Ocean (Aldabra Islands and India), eastern Pacific (northern Chile) and the western Pacific, from New Zealand and southern Australia, on or near the bottom of continental and insular shelves in depths of 270-1,300 m. Locally from Sydney (New South Wales) to Perth (Western Australia), including Tasmania and the southern seamounts.
46864		habitat	eng	Demersal on the slope in depths of 270 to 1,300 m; off Australia most common in 780 to 1,100 m. Feeds mainly on fish and cephalopods. In the Rockall Trough in the northeastern Atlantic, the diet was dominated by squid and micronektonic fish including myctophids. This  species would appear to feed clear of the seabed on benthopelagic organisms (Mauchline and Gordon 1983). The lack of a seasonal pattern to reproduction, with females breeding throughout the year, means that the gestation period is currently unknown. Litter sizes average six with a range from 3 to 9. Annual fecundity is unknown. The productivity of this species appears to be low, with age at maturity in Australia of 15 years at 64 cm (males) and 22 years at 82 cm (females), and longevity of around 60 years (S. Irvine, pers.comm.). The maximum size of specimens in Australia is 105 cm (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).
46864		population	eng	Locally common around New Zealand and southern Australia where it is taken in deep water trawl and hook and line fisheries. Catches off Tasmania have been increasing in recent years; biomass surveys off New Zealand show an increase over the last 10 years but these data should be treated with caution due to problems with standardization of fishing effort (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2000). The average catch rate on the Chatham Rise off New Zealand in 1990 and 1993 was 126 kg/km² (Wetherbee 2000).
46864		threats	eng	The species is coming under increased fishing pressure with the extension of deep water trawl grounds and restricted access to more desirable deep water teleosts such as orange roughy. Mainly a bycatch species but some targeting both for its oil and flesh. The livers are rich in squalene containing 61-73% by weight (Bakes and Nichols 1995). Fillets can retail for up to Aus$12/kg in Australia.
46865		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
46865		distribution	eng	Southern Indo-Pacific. South-eastern Australia and New Zealand, but with a relatively wide depth range from 200 m to over 1,500 m, most often taken in depths of 500 to 1,000 m. Recently found off SE South Africa/Mozambique (Compagno, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>There is no information on whether the population off southern Australia (including seamounts to the south) is linked to the New Zealand population via seamounts and submarine ridges in the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea. It is unlikely that there is any physical connection with the population of "plunketi" recently located off southern Africa (Compagno, unpublished).
46865		habitat	eng	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 200 to 1,500 m, usually 500 to 1,000 m. Occurs mainly around central and southern New Zealand. There is a trend for fish size to increase with depth, with the largest females in deepest water. It is probable that the species extends to greater depths than those sampled. Some early literature suggested that this was among the more abundant deepwater sharks off New Zealand; this may be true at some localities, but more extensive trawling in recent years shows this not to be generally true. It is not considered likely that this reflects a decline in abundance in recent decades. Trawl surveys off southeastern Australia yielded infrequent but large catches of <em>C. plunketi</em>, suggesting aggregations. <br/> <br/>Born ~35 cm. Mature 100 to 120 cm (male), 130 to 145 cm (female). Maximum 170 cm. Ovoviparous with up to 36 pups per litter. Gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown.
46865		population	eng	No information is available on the size of any population.
46865		threats	eng	A small bycatch in some deepwater line and trawl fisheries. Its aggregating behaviour makes it susceptible to localised depletion. There is some danger that because its geographic and depth range coincides with that for some important teleost fisheries its relatively low (apparent) population will continue to decline with continuing and/or expanding fisheries.
54345		conservation	eng	The last known population occurs entirely within the Guanica National Forest. Captive breeding has been successful, and after many years a re-introduction program in Puerto Rico seems to be showing some success, with re-introduced captive-bred animals now returning to the constructed ponds where they were first released (Zippel 2005).
54345		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range, and is known from only a handful of localities along the north and south coasts of Puerto Rico. In recent years it has been recorded from only one location on the south coast of Puerto Rico. The species is considered to be extinct at Virgin Gorda Island (Perry and Gerber 2006). It apparently occurred in St. John (U.S. Virgin Islands), but it is currently believed to be extirpated there (Platenberg and Boulon 2006). It has been recorded from sea level up to 50 m asl.
54345		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in semi-arid, rocky areas of seasonal evergreen forest. Eggs are laid in permanent or temporary pools of water, streams, or small dams for livestock.
54345		population	eng	The north coast population has not been recorded since 1992, and it is most likely extirpated in this area. It was last recorded on Virgin Gorda Island in 1964, and other surveys since then have not located any individuals. Since 1992, there has only been one known population remaining. In 1984, there were 900 mature individuals recorded in this population; subsequently, in 1998, there were only 215 mature individuals recorded (of which 34 were females), in 2002 only 100 mature individuals, and in 2003 only 80 mature individuals were recorded (R. Joglar pers. comm.). It was last recorded in 2007 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
54345		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat, particularly on the north coast. In the south of its range a temporary breeding pool was deliberately drained to clear parking space for visitors to the beach.
54346		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. Given the apparent risk of infection with chytrid, some individuals should probably form the basis for the establishment of a captive-breeding colony.
54346		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but very patchily, distributed on Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) at an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,697m asl. It was also recently found (2001-2002) just outside Santo Domingo.
54346		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic broadleaf forests, often along creeks and streams. Males call from trees overhanging running water, in which eggs are deposited.
54346		population	eng	This species is more common than <em>Osteopilus pulchrilineata</em> in the Cordillera Central. However, other than the Cordillera Central and Santo Domingo localities, there have been very few records in the last two decades.
54346		threats	eng	The montane stream-dwelling habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation due to agriculture and logging. M. Hernandez (pers. comm.) has found dead animals and animals with deformities (one animal with an eye on its back), and declines in suitable habitat are suggestive of chytridiomycosis; indeed, chytrid was confirmed in this species in La Vega, Arroyazo, in the Dominican Republic.
54347		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kakadu National Park.
54347		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the top end of the Northern Territory. It also extends to islands off the coast such as Melville Island. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.
54347		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas where there is a prolonged and intense dry season followed by torrential monsoon rains. On the Northern Territory mainland it is restricted to paper bark swamp, coastal and escarpment savannah woodland and sandstone outcrops, where it lives under leaf-litter. It is often found in association with streams and soaks. On the islands off the coast, however, it can be found in gardens, on roadsides and on the periphery of pine plantations.<br/>Males call from exposed positions on the ground, upon vegetation up to 0.5m above ground, or beneath leaf-litter. Its breeding and larvae are unknown.
54347		population	eng	It is a common species.
54347		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
54348		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is protected within National Parks and World Heritage Area in northern Queensland.
54348		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and in adjacent regions of northern Queensland, from the Atherton Tableland to Cooktown. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,300m asl (McDonald, 1992 and Hoskin, 2004), although recent surveys only found it above 600m asl (Shoo and Williams, 2004). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 6,400km2.
54348		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest species. It is often found on the forest floor under fallen timber or leaf-litter. The breeding season is unknown. Males call from under debris on the forest floor. A clutch of about 12 eggs has been found under debris on damp soil. An adult attended the clutch. The young develop directly in to fully formed froglets.
54348		population	eng	It appears to be patchily distributed but can sometimes be an abundant species, although it can be difficult to find.
54348		threats	eng	Logging was a threat in the past, now tourism in northern Queensland and resulting habitat degradation might be having an impact. However, this species is not significantly threatened at present.
54349		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Bensbach Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea. In Queensland its rainforest habitat is protected within a World Heritage Area.
54349		distribution	eng	This species is known from the trans-Fly region of southern Papua New Guinea, and from the Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland, Australia, from Cooktown in the east to the Archer River in the west. It probably also occurs in southeastern Papua, Indonesia but there are no records from there yet. It occurs up to 50m asl in Papua New Guinea.
54349		habitat	eng	In Papua New Guinea it occurs in grassy woodland and gallery forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development. In Australia it has been recorded from a variety of moist habitats: rainforest, gallery forest (forest along creeks), grassy woodland, monsoon forests and swamps. It may also be found in moist pockets within a dry forest. It associated with both perennial and non-perennial streams. Males call from vegetation up to 0.5m above ground. Its breeding and larvae habits are unknown.
54349		population	eng	It appears to be common where it occurs in Papua New Guinea.
54349		threats	eng	Logging in rainforest habitat was a threat in the past in Queensland, now tourism and associated habitat degradation is more of a threat, however overall there are no major threats to the species at present.
54350		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is currently protected within a World Heritage Area.
54350		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the coast and ranges of northeastern Queensland, from Ingham north to Cooktown. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 15,200km2. It has been found up to 1,300m asl (McDonald, 1993, Hoskin 2004) but recent surveys only found it up to 900m asl (Shoo and Williams, 2004).
54350		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species found in forests at low and high altitudes. It is usually found under fallen timber or leaf-litter. Males call from beneath leaves on the forest floor. Eggs are laid terrestrially and develop directly in to fully formed froglets.
54350		population	eng	This species was previously considered to be patchily distributed however with time more localities have been found suggesting that rather than being patchily distributed, it is difficult to find. The low encounter rate of the species during surveys supports this. It is usually infrequently encountered.
54350		threats	eng	Habitat loss from logging in the past was a threat. Now habitat degradation associated with tourism might be having a localized impact, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened at present.
54351		conservation	eng	The species' habitat is protected within a World Heritage Area.
54351		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in northeastern Queensland, from the middle of the Atherton Tableland south to the Cardwell Range and the Paluma Range. It occurs at altitudes above 360m asl.
54351		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane rainforests and vine forests. It is found principally beneath logs and rocks or under leaf-litter on the forest floor. Males call from beneath cover on the forest floor. Eggs are laid terrestrially and they develop directly in to fully formed froglets.
54351		population	eng	It is a relatively common species that is quite easy to find.
54351		threats	eng	Habitat loss from logging in the past was a threat to this species. Now habitat degradation associated with tourism might be having a localized impact, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened.
54352		conservation	eng	The habitat of the species is mostly within protected areas.
54352		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is found in the southern mountain ranges of Tasmania and is known from approximately 15 locations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 4,200km2, and is bounded by Hartz Mountains in the northeast, Mount Sprent in the northwest, Mount La Perouse in the southeast and Bathurst Harbour in the southwest. It occurs down to sea level in southwest Tasmania.
54352		habitat	eng	The species inhabits moist, cool, alpine habitat; poorly drained sites in moor land (shrubland and heath) and rainforest. In spring and early summer, males call from the ground and low dense vegetation and breeding chambers with sphagnum and lichen. Females spend breeding season in a chamber with a male. About 6-15 eggs are laid in nests in moss or lichen. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
54352		population	eng	There are at least 10,000 individuals.
54352		threats	eng	None known, but it has been noted that nests are vulnerable to trampling by animals and people (researchers or tourists).
54353		conservation	eng	It is listed as rare in Queensland and vulnerable in New South Wales, and is therefore protected by state legislation. Its remaining habitat is largely protected in national parks.
54353		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the mountainous areas between Mistake Mountains and Teviot Falls in south-east Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.
54353		habitat	eng	It is a montane rainforest species, and is usually found among saturated or moist leaf-litter and vegetation near small creeks. It is also commonly found in seepage areas. Calling occurs between August and February. Large yolky eggs are deposited in water-filled burrows hidden from the light. Larvae remain within the nest throughout development and live off the yolk.
54353		population	eng	There are no documented declines in this species.
54353		threats	eng	In the past, a considerable area of this species' habitat was cleared or logged, but a majority of the habitat is now in reserves and protected from clearing or timber harvesting. Nonetheless, disturbances upstream that affect hydrological processes and/or water quality may threaten the species. Stock (cattle) has been observed at a number of breeding sites.
54354		conservation	eng	it is listed as rare in Queensland and vulnerable in New South Wales, and is therefore protected by state legislation. Most of its habitat is within national parks (Border Ranges, Lamington, Mount Warning and Nightcap National Parks).
54354		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic has a restricted distribution in south-east Queensland on the Queensland/New South Wales border above 500m asl. Specimens attributed to this species from regions south of the currently defined distribution are currently not assigned to any species (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 2004).
54354		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforests, and is commonly found in areas of soft, moist soil (e.g. along drainage lines, and in seepage areas). Higher temperatures stimulate breeding in November and December. Males call from underground, often in flask-shaped burrows. About 20-30 eggs are deposited in a frothy nest in the burrow. Larvae emerge from the eggs after several days and then move to the top of the jelly mass and live entirely on the yolk from the eggs. They emerge from the nest as tiny frogs.
54354		population	eng	There are no documented declines in this species.
54354		threats	eng	In the past, a considerable area of the species' habitat was cleared or logged, but the majority of the habitat is now in reserves and protected from clearing or timber harvesting. However, disturbances upstream that affect hydrological processes and/or water quality may threaten the species. Stock (cattle) has been observed at a number of breeding sites.
54355		conservation	eng	It is listed as vulnerable in New South Wales and is therefore protected by legislation in that state. Most of its habitat occurs within national parks and state forests, including Mount Boss State Forest.
54355		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs in north-eastern New South Wales from Mount Hyland in the north to Gloucester Tops in the south, in the northern and central northern mountains of New South Wales.
54355		habitat	eng	It is found in montane subtropical rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest where the rainfall is high (1,500mm annually). It lives in extensive beds of sphagnum moss and seepages on steep slopes. It is a spring-summer breeder, with diurnal calling. About 40-60 large eggs are laid in moist spots such as in rock crevices, under logs or in burrows made in sphagnum moss. In aquatic situations the larvae may be found in the silt of small pools. Larvae remain in the nest and feed off the yolk. They generally emerge after one month. Males tend to the nests whilst the females move on after about five days.
54355		population	eng	There are no documented declines in this species.
54355		threats	eng	In the past a considerable area of the species' habitat was cleared or logged, but the majority of the habitat is now in reserves and protected from clearing or timber harvesting. However, disturbances upstream that affect hydrological processes and/or water quality may threaten the species. Stock (cattle) has been observed at a number of breeding sites.
54356		conservation	eng	Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.
54356		distribution	eng	This endemic of northern Australia is known from the eastern Kimberley’s of Western Australia and into the western escarpment of Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.
54356		habitat	eng	The species is associated with rocky habitats-sandstone hills and gorges, rocky screen and ledges, boulder fields, caves and open escarpments, usually near perennial and non-perennial streams. It shelters deep in caves. It breeds in spring and summer. Males call from beneath boulders in or near the streambed. About 350-400 eggs are laid in a foam nest in rock pools or beneath rocks at the edge of water-draining scree slopes. Tadpoles develop in ponds in about 9 weeks.
54356		population	eng	It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.
54356		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
54357		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54357		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Eritrea, western Ethiopia and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, west in the savannah zone to southern Mali and Sierra Leone. There do not appear to be records from Guinea, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.
54357		habitat	eng	It is a species that lives in a wide variety of habitats including humid and dry savannas, gallery forest, agricultural land, and villages. It can be found in and around rivers and temporary pools, and breeds in stagnant, temporary waters.
54357		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54357		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
54358		conservation	eng	This species has been identified as potentially being vulnerable to chytrid fungus (high&#160;altitude&#160;stream breeder) and as such should undergo monitoring once basic life history, threats and population trends have been assessed. There are still taxonomic issues within this group which require more work. It presumably occurs in one or two protected areas, such as Sehlabathebe National Park.
54358		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of southern and eastern Lesotho above 2,000 m asl. It presumably occurs in nearby South Africa, but so far there have not been any records. The Extent of&#160; Occurrence has not been formally approximated.
54358		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland (including pastureland), living in the vicinity of permanent streams. It breeds in shallow streams, and on the edges of rivers with well-vegetated banks.
54358		population	eng	This species appears to be common and adaptable.
54358		threats	eng	Apart from the local effects of dams, this species does not appear to be seriously threatened, despite its relatively small range. However it has the ecological characteristics of a species that is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis, and so its populations should be regularly monitored.
54359		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from monitoring of subpopulations with particular reference to the spread and effect of chytrid. Base line data on life-history, ecology, population trends and threats are all required before monitoring can begin. It occurs in the&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">uKhahlamba-Drakensberg</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park.</st1:placetype></st1:place>
54359		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the cold and wet north-eastern Drakensberg, restricted mainly to the South African side (Kwa-Zulu Natal and the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Free State</st1:place></st1:state>), at altitudes between 1,800 and 3,200 m. It is commonly found in streams and rivers flowing eastward into <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> rather than those flowing west into <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lesotho</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160;Although some subpopulations are noted to have declined, no reduction in Extent of Occurrence of 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;has yet been noted.</p>
54359		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species in montane grassland. It is found only in pristine habitats, and it is not present in agricultural areas. It is not known to move over land. It breeds in cold clear streams with associated pools with rocky substrates.
54359		population	eng	Concerns have been raised over recorded pathogen-related mortalities&#160;(Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007), although the effect on populations is as yet unknown.&#160;It is locally abundant in its restricted range.
54359		threats	eng	It is not significantly threatened because of the remoteness of its habitat.&#160;Local populations may be affected by overgrazing by livestock (causing erosion and subsequent siltation) and dams on rivers. An additional observed risk is the threat of predation and competition posed by the introduction of trout and other alien fish for recreational fishing into the main rivers of Lesotho (Swartz 2005). There&#160;are several undocumented&#160;chytrid related die-off events recorded for this species at several sites (du Preez & Weldon pers. comm.&#160;December 2009), and chytrid infection rate is&#160;up to 38.6%&#160;in tadpoles&#160;(Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007), although these subpopulations at these same sites still appear healthy&#160;(du Preez & Weldon pers. comm. December 2009).
54360		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat is urgently required. Surveys are needed to establish the current population status of this species.
54360		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen from near La Unión, Zacapa, Guatemala, at 1,570m asl. It may range a little more widely in nearby areas of cloud forest, although this needs to be confirmed.
54360		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane moist forest. The type specimen was found in a bromeliad in primary forest three metres above the forest floor. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
54360		population	eng	No information is available on population status, but it is presumed to be rare.
54360		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss around La Unión as a result of extensive logging and agricultural encroachment. At the known locality, one specimen of <em>Bolitoglossa conanti </em>has been recorded with the chytrid fungus.
54361		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas in the area from which this species is known, and there is an urgent need to protect suitable remaining habitat. Continuing surveys needed to locate and monitor populations of this restricted range species.
54361		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the west slope of Cerro Pozo de Agua, in the Sierra de Caral, Izabal, Guatemala, at 1,150m asl. This location is geographically separated from other high-elevation areas, and it is considered very plausible that <em>Cryptotriton wakei</em> is a restricted range endemic within this area (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).
54361		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest areas commonly classified as subtropical wet forest. The one known individual was collected in old-growth forest in low vegetation. This is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
54361		population	eng	There is no information concerning the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.
54361		threats	eng	The main threat to it is habitat loss, which is proceeding very rapidly in the Sierra de Caral as a result of extensive logging and agricultural encroachment (cattle ranching) (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).
54364		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54364		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the montane regions of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (in the Virunga Volcanoes area), Rwanda, Burundi, southwestern Uganda, southeastern Kenya (in the Taita Hills), and Tanzania (Usambara, and Uluguru Mountains and the Southern Highlands). Its altitudinal range is still unclear, though it seems to be montane, occurring as low as 900m asl in northeastern Tanzania. The animals in Kenya and Tanzania should probably be separated from A adolfifriederici under the name A. leleupi. A record from Tanga near sea level in northeastern Tanzania requires confirmation.
54364		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of montane forest. It is not known whether or not it survives in degraded habitats, but it is likely to require good vegetation cover. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water.
54364		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
54364		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, wood and human settlement.
54365		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and the Amani Nature Reserve.
54365		distribution	eng	This species is known from the following mountain ranges in northeastern, eastern and southern Tanzania: North Pare, South Pare, West Usambara, East Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru, Rubeho, Udzungwa (south at least to the Kihansi Gorge), and Mount Rungwe. It possibly occurs in some of the coastal forests of Tanzania, but this requires confirmation. It is a montane species, and has been recorded at 850-2,050m asl, possibly wider.
54365		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in leaf-litter, stony ground, bare ground and paths in submontane and montane forests, cultivated land, marshland, plantations, introduced bamboo, and grassland. It is very adaptable to many different habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
54365		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54365		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability, it is probably not facing any significant threats.
54366		conservation	eng	No information is available.
54366		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen, from Tumbo Island, off the cost of Guinea.
54366		habitat	eng	There is no direct information on its habitat or ecology, although it is likely to be a terrestrial species in lowland forest. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
54366		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. There have been no records in almost 120 years, but this is probably largely due to the severe taxonomic problems associated with <em>Arthroleptis</em> species which makes it extremely hard to identify species in many parts of Africa.
54366		threats	eng	No information is available.
54367		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54367		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen, from Bismarcksburg, Togo. Animals found in the Togo-Volta Highlands of eastern Ghana might possibly be referred to by this name.
54367		habitat	eng	Assuming that the animals in the Togo-Volta Highlands do belong to this species, then it is abundant in secondary habitats, as well as in lowland forests. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
54367		population	eng	There is no direct information on its population status, and there have been no records in many years, but this is probably largely due to the severe taxonomic problems associated with <em>Arthroleptis</em> species which makes it extremely hard to identify the species in many parts of Africa. However, if the animals in the Togo-Volta Highlands belong to this species, then it is abundant.
54367		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, although if the animals in the Togo-Volta Highlands belong to this species, then it is probably not seriously threatened.
54368		conservation	eng	No information is available.
54368		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Cambondo, in Angola.
54368		habitat	eng	There is no direct information on its habitat and ecology, although it is likely to be a terrestrial species in lowland forest, and possibly other habitats. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
54368		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. There have been no records since its discovery, but this is probably largely due to the severe taxonomic problems associated with <em>Arthroleptis</em> species which makes it extremely hard to identify them in many parts of Africa.
54368		threats	eng	No information is available.
54369		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Mont Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, which was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1981 (the adjacent part in Cote D'Ivoire was added in 1982). However, strengthened and improved management of this site is needed, and further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.
54369		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Nimba in Guinea; it presumably also occurs in the Liberian and Ivorian parts of Mount Nimba, but this has not yet been confirmed. It has been recorded from 500-1,650m asl.
54369		habitat	eng	It lives in high-altitude grassland, gallery forest, and on the edges of marshes. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
54369		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species, but it was formerly recorded as being very common.
54369		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation, since Mount Nimba is subject to slash-and-burn agricultural activities and extensive iron-ore mining operations.
54370		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54370		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lutunguru, at 1,500-1,650m asl, near Lubero, in northern Nord-Kivu, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
54370		habitat	eng	No information is available on its habitat and ecology. If it is similar to <em>Schoutedenella schubotzi</em>, it is adaptable, living in forest, forest edges, and agricultural areas outside forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
54370		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
54370		threats	eng	No information is available.
54371		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve, and continued protection and management of this area is essential. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species.
54371		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi and possibly from the nearby Zomba Mountains. It is found as low as 700m asl in the Ruo Basin, but also occurs higher up on the mountain, including on the plateau, probably up to at least 2,500m asl.
54371		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both lowland and montane forest, including high-altitude cedar forest. It is also found, but is probably much less common, in montane grassland and pine plantations. There is little information on its adaptability to secondary habitats, but it is believed to favour undisturbed habitats. It lives in leaf-litter in areas of very high rainfall. They sometimes climb trees up to at least 2m from the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development, though the site of egg deposition is not known.
54371		population	eng	It is apparently common within its restricted range, but there have been no records over the last 30 years, probably due to a lack of fieldwork.
54371		threats	eng	Although somewhat protected, the forest on Mount Mulanje continues to be lost in places as a result of small-scale farming and extraction of wood.
54372		conservation	eng	It is not known to be from any protected areas.
54372		distribution	eng	This species is from the Itombwe and Kabobo Highlands in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 2,350-2,400m asl.
54372		habitat	eng	It is believed to live in montane forest, and to breed by direct development.
54372		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There are no recent records of this species due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
54372		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54373		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and presumably in other protected areas.
54373		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern and central Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo to western Burundi. Its range is very poorly understood, and the distribution map should be considered as approximate only, since it occurs in an area where there has been very little herpetological work.
54373		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter, presumably in savannah woodlands and forests. It breeds by direct development. Its adaptability to altered habitats is unknown.
54373		population	eng	It is apparently extremely common, at least in parts of its range.
54373		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54374		conservation	eng	It is not known to be from any protected areas.
54374		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Arebi (Uelé), Ituri, in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
54374		habitat	eng	No information is available on its habitat and ecology, although it is presumed to breed by direct development.
54374		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54374		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
54375		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures.
54375		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, 12 km north of Bamako, in Mali.
54375		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat or ecology, although it presumably breeds by direct development, and is therefore not dependent upon water for breeding.
54375		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54375		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54376		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54376		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Murugaragara, near Mosso, Rutana, in south-eastern Burundi, at 1,200m asl
54376		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding its habitat or ecology, although it presumably breeds by direct development.
54376		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. There are no recent records of this species.
54376		threats	eng	No information is available.
54377		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mafwemiro Catchment Forest Reserve, which affords some level of protection, but which is not managed for biodiversity conservation. Further survey work would be useful in determining the species' current population status.
54377		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mafwemiro Catchment Forest Reserve in the Rubeho Mountains in eastern Tanzania, at 1,900m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, at least within the northern part of the Rubeho Mountains.
54377		habitat	eng	Both specimens were found on the floor of montane forest in a small valley, and one of them was collected close to a stream. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
54377		population	eng	It is a recently discovered species known only from two specimens collected in 2001.
54377		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, collection of wood and human settlement.
54378		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures for this species; it is not known from any protected areas.
54378		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from Mount Nimba, in Guinea, at 650-1,250m asl. Its taxonomic validity is unclear.
54378		habitat	eng	It has been recorded to be from forest and presumably breeds by direct development.
54378		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54378		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species although most habitats on Mount Nimba are at risk of degradation from mining activities.
54379		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54379		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Lomami, near Lomela, Sankuru, in central Democratic Republic of Congo. Its taxonomic validity is unclear.
54379		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably breeds by direct development, and is likely to live in lowland rainforest.
54379		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records.
54379		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54380		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kyabobo National Park in the Togo Hills of eastern Ghana (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), and presumably occurs in nearby Fazao-Malfakassa National Park in Togo, as well as several other protected areas across its range.
54380		distribution	eng	Animals credibly referred to this species range from Guinea-Bissau to southern Congo and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Uganda (Bwamba). It is recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Sierra Leone or Central African Republic, but it is likely to occur in these countries. Records from Sudan might refer to this species. The population from Togo Hills in Ghana (currently included in this species' range) may be conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. poecilonotus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">A. zimmeri</span> (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In southern Cameroon it is widespread at low and medium altitudes up to 1,200 m asl. This is almost certainly a complex of species in urgent need of revision, and so the distribution map should be seen as very preliminary.
54380		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary herbaceous growth in the forest zone. It can be found in clearings and along forest tracks, as well as in towns and villages. It has been reported from forest and farmbush habitats in the Togo Hills (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It lays its eggs on the ground, and breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
54380		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitats, and is the commonest amphibian in the city of Yaoundé.
54380		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability, it does not appear to be threatened.
54381		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54381		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Itombwe and Kabobo Highlands in southern Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 1,900-2,000m asl.
54381		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grasslands that presumably breeds by direct development.
54381		population	eng	It is said to be common.
54381		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to the species, but it is not likely to be seriously threatened.
54382		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Udzungwa National Park, but this has not yet been confirmed.
54382		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and southern Tanzania (the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains), and the southern highlands (Poroto Mountains and Mount Rungwe) and extreme northern Malawi (Misuku Hills). It is a montane species, occurring from 1,500 to at least 2,000m asl.
54382		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest, perhaps ranging into montane grassland near forest. No information is available on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor, in low shrubs, in grassy areas, and in wild bananas, and like other members of the genus presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
54382		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status.
54382		threats	eng	Forest loss as a result of agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and human settlement are likely to be the key threats.
54383		conservation	eng	It is present in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kibale National Park (Uganda) and Bwindi National Park (Uganda).
54383		distribution	eng	Specimens have been assigned to this species from Kivu Province in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, northwestern Burundi, southwestern Uganda (Bwindi and Kibale Forests), and southwestern Tanzania (Mbisi Forest and Mount Rungwe). Its altitudinal range is unclear, but it at least occurs between 1,460 and 2,800m asl. Its distributional limits are still unclear, so the map should be considered approximate.
54383		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species that lives in closed tropical forest, savannah and forest remnants (farm-bush). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water.
54383		population	eng	It is common in the appropriate habitat.
54383		threats	eng	There is little information, but it presumably cannot withstand the complete open access to its habitat.
54384		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54384		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the St. Louis Plain on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Given this lack of specificity, attempts to map its distribution can only be approximate at this stage.
54384		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although like other members of the genus it presumably breeds by direct development.
54384		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, probably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
54384		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54385		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54385		distribution	eng	This species ranges from coastal Kenya and eastern and southern Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar), through Mozambique, Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo to western Angola, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe and northeastern South Africa. There is an apparently isolated population in the Nyumbeni Hills in central Kenya. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,500m asl. Specimens from the Bwindi and Budongo Forests of western Uganda have been assigned to this species, but they are significantly outside the main range of the species. They are excluded from the distribution map, pending confirmation of their status.
54385		habitat	eng	It is found in a very wide variety of habitats, including forest, savannah woodland, thickets, wasteland, and suburban areas. It is terrestrial, and is typically found in leaf-litter. It lays its eggs in hollows or burrows in damp earth, often under bushes or around the roots of trees. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
54385		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species in Tanzania and Malawi; however, it is uncommon on the edge of its range in South Africa.
54385		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability, it does not appear to be threatened.
54386		conservation	eng	It is found in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Korup National Park (Cameroon) and presumably occurs in many other protected areas.
54386		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in eastern and northern Democratic Republic of Congo, southwestern Central African Republic, southern Cameroon Gabon, and southern Congo. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea, and might occur in southeastern Nigeria. It occurs up to at least 1,300m asl. The map is very approximate, and connects known localities north of the Congo River. However, it is not clear that all records in fact refer to the same species.
54386		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and slightly disturbed lowland and submontane rainforest, but it is likely to be able to sustain populations in secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
54386		population	eng	It is a very common species, at least in Gabon.
54386		threats	eng	It is presumably impacted locally by clear felling of rainforest.
54387		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
54387		distribution	eng	This species is known widely to be from southern Cameroon, southwestern Central African Republic, and mainland Equatorial Guinea, south at least to Gambia on the coast of southern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.), and extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in Congo, but there are not yet any records.
54387		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow marshes in forest, and does not survive in secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development, and there is no free-swimming tadpole.
54387		population	eng	It is generally very common in Cameroon, but less so towards the west of its range. It appears not to be very common in Gabon.
54387		threats	eng	It is presumably declining because of forest loss.
54388		conservation	eng	It occurs in the University of Dar es Salaam reserve at Mazumbai in the West Usambara Mountains.
54388		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the East and West Usambara Mountains, the Nguru Mountains, and the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern and north-eastern Tanzania. It is a montane species, though its altitudinal range is not yet fully known; the type specimen was collected at 1,530m asl.
54388		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of montane forests, and is generally found in moister situations (sometimes even aggregating alongside water). It probably cannot cope well with habitat loss. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
54388		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
54388		threats	eng	This species is probably adversely affected by forest loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
54389		conservation	eng	The area from which it has been recorded is protected, primarily in the Chimanimani National Park. Surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomic status, distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
54389		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western Chimanimani Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe, where it occurs above 1,500m asl. It is likely to occur in the eastern Chimanimani Mountains across the border in Mozambique.
54389		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens were collected in sinkholes or caves, and a few were found in open montane grassland. It presumably breeds by direct development.
54389		population	eng	It is probably a rare species. There have been no records since this species was discovered in 1962 (when 16 specimens were collected), despite survey efforts.
54389		threats	eng	There is very little direct information available for this poorly known species, and threats to the species are not well understood. As an isolated, montane species, it could be at risk from the effects of climate change.
54390		conservation	eng	This species is said to occur in Virunga National Park and probably also in other protected areas.
54390		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated records from southern Cameroon, southern Congo, and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is an unspecified locality in Cameroon; there are more recent Cameroonian records attributed to this species from Mount Manenguba and from Mount Nkolodon near Yaounde. In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, there are records from Virunga National Park (Laurent 1972) and from the town of Beni. Its occurrence in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Central African Republic is not confirmed; attempts to map its distribution for this assessment however assume that it is found in the intervening areas between the known localities, in the forest zone north of the Congo River. However, Amiet (pers. comm.) points out that <em>Arthroleptis tuberosus</em>, when better understood, might prove to be a montane species, in which case the attempts made at mapping its range so far are clearly wrong. In any case, the specimens from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo were never found in the field, and so their assignation to <em>A. tuberosus</em> is doubtful. It is also possible that animals from Cameroon currently referred to as <em>A. adelphus</em> are in fact <em>A. tuberosus</em>. The confusion surrounding this species will only be resolved by more fieldwork in the central African rainforests, with a particular focus on its calls.
54390		habitat	eng	This is presumably a forest species, living on the forest floor in montane and perhaps lowland forests, which presumably breeds by direct development.
54390		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, pending clarification of its taxonomic status.
54390		threats	eng	It is expected to be declining because of forest loss due to agricultural development and logging.
54391		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
54391		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Guinea to northern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. In Cameroon it occurs in the south, not extending as far north as the Adamawa Plateau. It occurs on the island of Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. It occurs up to 1,200m asl in Cameroon.
54391		habitat	eng	It lives among leaf-litter in lowland and montane rainforest. Although it can live in secondary vegetation, it is found principally in primary rainforest, especially at the foot of mountains in Cameroon. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
54391		population	eng	This is the most common Arthroleptis species around Yaounde. Twenty can be seen on the forest floor in a single morning. It apparently attains its greatest abundance at 400-1,200m asl.
54391		threats	eng	It is presumably declining because of forest loss.
54392		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54392		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mwana, at 1,650m asl, near Mwenga, in southern Kivu (Sud-Kivu Province), eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
54392		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although it presumably breeds by direct development.
54392		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, probably due lack of herpetological work within its range.
54392		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54393		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54393		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the eastern coastal areas of South Africa, from just south of Port St Johns north to the Mozambique border. It ranges inland up to 1,000m asl. It has not been recorded from Mozambique, but it might occur there
54393		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in leaf-litter in coastal forest and thicket, and adjacent grasslands. Its calling is stimulated by rain and it is commonly heard during daylight hours in wet weather. It is very adaptable, and lives in gardens, parks, and alien tree plantations. Breeding is by direct development.
54393		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
54393		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by coastal development, in particular expansion of sugar cane cultivation and urban expansion.
54394		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54394		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, north through Mozambique, Malawi, and eastern Zambia to southeastern and northeastern Tanzania. It is likely to occur in the extreme southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 2,100m asl.
54394		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and montane forests, dense woodland, grasslands and swamps. It appears to be more tolerant of non-forest habitats at higher altitudes. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are laid in leaf-litter.
54394		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54394		threats	eng	Some populations, especially those in the lowlands, might be locally impacted be woodland and forest loss, especially for agriculture and wood extraction.
54395		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, but has not yet been recorded from Udzungwa National Park (although it is likely to occur there).
54395		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tanzania, and occurs on the island of Pemba, and on the mainland in the East Usambara, Uluguru, and Udzungwa Mountains (Kihansi), and Mount Rungwe. It probably occurs more widely in the Eastern Arc Mountains than current records suggest. It ranges from near sea level up to at least 2,000m asl.
54395		habitat	eng	It occurs in both lowland and montane forest, living in leaf-litter, under logs, and in the axils of banana leaves. It is not known to what degree it can tolerate alteration of its natural habitat. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are laid in leaf-litter.
54395		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
54395		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
54396		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures for this species.
54396		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality, Accra, in Ghana. Animals found in the Togo-Volta Highlands of Ghana could possibly belong to this species, or to <em>Arthroleptis brevipes</em>. Alternatively, <em>A. zimmeri</em> could prove to be the correct name for a widespread savannah species of <em>Arthroleptis</em>.
54396		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat or ecology.
54396		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54396		threats	eng	Nothing is known of threats to it.
54397		conservation	eng	It is likely to be present in the Western Area Peninsula Forest Reserve, although much more effective protection and management of this site is required. Additional survey work is urgently needed to determine the current population status of this species.
54397		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the hilly parts of the Freetown Peninsula in Sierra Leone, although it possibly occurs a little more widely.
54397		habitat	eng	It has been found in forest, and in rural gardens near forest, living on rocks. It has been noted as calling away from water, and so it is possible that, unlike other members of the genus, it does not require water for breeding, although this has not been confirmed.
54397		population	eng	There has been no information on this species since it was last collected in 1963, but this is probably due to lack of field surveys in this area. It was described as "not rare" on the Freetown Peninsula at the time of its discovery.
54397		threats	eng	There is likely to be extensive pressure on its forest habitat on the Freetown Peninsula primarily for firewood collection.
54398		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in several protected areas, such as Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda, but information on which specific protected areas it occurs in is lacking.
54398		distribution	eng	This poorly understood species is known only from Rwanda, Burundi and the Kivu Highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is believed to be a montane species, and the type locality is at 1,800m asl.
54398		habitat	eng	It is presumably a species of montane forest, and, if it is similar to other members of the genus, it breeds in streams.
54398		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There have been no records for many years due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
54398		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to it.
54399		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
54399		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is not known. The type locality of "Yoruba (Lagos)" (Peters 1875), Nigeria, is believed to be an error, and it is not possible to map the distribution of this taxon.
54399		habitat	eng	Nothing is known regarding its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
54399		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54399		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
54400		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
54400		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon, through mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) south to Mont Crystal and Mont Iboundji in west-central Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). It lives below 1,000m asl.
54400		habitat	eng	It lives in moist lowland forest and degraded forest. The frogs breed in small streams, often full of dead leaves. Adults come together in large numbers at breeding sites. The males call from rocky areas near streams, or from under bridges.
54400		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
54400		threats	eng	It is presumably affected to some extent by habitat loss.
54401		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
54401		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cameroon south of the Sanaga River and Equatorial Guinea east through southern Central African Republic to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in northern Gabon and northern Congo, but so far there have not been any records. Most of the records are from southern Cameroon; the map presumes that it is distributed through the Congo Basin north of the Congo River, though there are very few records from this poorly sampled area.
54401		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland tropical moist forest, and also in heavily degraded forest provided that it is close to more mature forest. They spend most of their time on the ground. The animals breed in small forest streams with sandy banks.
54401		population	eng	This is a very common species in Cameroon.
54401		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by forest loss.
54402		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from Korup National Park.
54402		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southeastern Nigeria through central and southern Cameroon to Equatorial Guinea, central Gabon and southwestern Central African Republic to the Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs below 1,200m asl. Its eastern distributional limits in the Democratic Republic of Congo are particularly unclear.
54402		habitat	eng	It lives in moist lowland and lower montane forest, and cannot survive in degraded habitats. It is found in mature secondary forest. The animals are usually found on the ground, or in plants up to 20cm above ground. They breed in forest streams and the males call from slopes and marshy depressions close to streams.
54402		population	eng	This is the most common species of Cardioglossa in Cameroon.
54402		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.
54403		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
54403		distribution	eng	This species is known to be from only central and southern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, south to southern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). It presumably occurs at least in Central African Republic and Congo. The subspecies C.g. paternageli has been described from Minim in the Adamawa Plateau of Cameroon, indicating that the animals from the uplands in the northern part of the range of this species perhaps belong to a different subspecies. It presumably occurs up to at least 1,200m asl, perhaps higher.
54403		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland secondary forest and heavily degraded former forest. It is typically found around small, clear streams that do not flow too fast, but can also be found in raphia swamps and marshy secondary bush criss-crossed with tiny water courses. In one study, it moved rapidly into a new forest clearing, but had disappeared within three years as the forest regenerated. It breeds in streams and males call from secluded positions among dead leaves and root systems.
54403		population	eng	It is widespread but not common around Yaounde.
54403		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by forest loss.
54404		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Korup National Park (Cameroon), and presumably in a number of other protected areas.
54404		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, and from western Nigeria east to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south to southwestern Congo. There are records from central and southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and southwestern Central African Republic. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.
54404		habitat	eng	In Central Africa it lives in most lowland and lower montane forest, including secondary forest and heavily degraded habitats. In West Africa they are found only in primary forest. It is usually associated with the edges of steams with margins of small stones and sand. They breed in streams and the males call in groups from among rocks in dense vegetation near streams.
54404		population	eng	It is a very common species, especially in central Gabon.
54404		threats	eng	It is presumably affected to some extent by ongoing habitat loss.
54405		conservation	eng	It does occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but additional habitat protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, and in Nigeria, is needed.
54405		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon at 1,200-2,000m asl. In Nigeria, it has been recorded from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it is known from Mount Manenguba, the southern fringe of the Bamileke Plateau (at Foto and Mount Bana), Mount Nlonako, and the Bamenda Highlands (in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve). At Mwakoumel on Mount Manenguba, it co-exists with <em>Cardioglossa pulchra</em> and <em>C. venusta</em>.
54405		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane areas in forest and in dense secondary growth. Males call from shady situations along streams. It is a stream-breeding species.
54405		population	eng	It is common on Mount Manenguba at about 1,600-1,700m asl.
54405		threats	eng	It is at risk because of forest loss as a result of expanding human settlements, agricultural encroachment, and removal of wood.
54406		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park.
54406		distribution	eng	This species is known only from extreme southern Nigeria and south-western Cameroon at low altitudes.
54406		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist forest and in degraded habitats near more mature forest and can be found in small groups along forest watercourses, often in undergrowth among dead leaves and in holes. It breeds in streams.
54406		population	eng	It is fairly common, though it is often absent from apparently suitable habitat.
54406		threats	eng	This species is presumably affected by forest loss.
54407		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but is largely unprotected elsewhere in its range. A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by the local villages; this project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species.
54407		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of western Cameroon at 1,900-2,650m asl, occurring on Mount Manenguba, and on the Bamenda Highlands at the Bamboutos Mountains, the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, and Mount Oku.
54407		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest, often in bamboo forest, and in degraded habitats with trees. They are associated with areas around fast-flowing streams, where they sit on leaves, or hide in holes or under stones and breed in streams.
54407		population	eng	It is common within its small range.
54407		threats	eng	This species is seriously threatened by forest loss due to agricultural expansion and extraction of wood, as well as by overgrazing and expansion of human settlements.
54408		conservation	eng	It is found in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve in Cameroon and the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. Continued protection of these areas, and further habitat protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, and in Nigeria, is needed.
54408		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon at 900-1,800m asl. In Nigeria, it has been recorded from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it is known from Mount Manenguba, Mount Ngokham, the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, Batie, and Fongo-Tongo. At Mwakoumel on Mount Manenguba, it co-exists with <em>C. melanogaster</em> and <em>C. venusta</em>.
54408		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane forest along fast-flowing streams and also at high elevations along forest edges. It can survive with some deforestation and it breeds in streams.
54408		population	eng	It is known to be common in the breeding season.
54408		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by ongoing forest loss caused by agricultural encroachment, extraction of wood, and expanding human settlements.
54409		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria, but further measures are urgently needed to protect the remaining patches of habitat in its very small range. Additional survey work would be useful to determine the current population status of this species.
54409		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Oshie-Obudu Ridge in Cameroon and Nigeria. It is found from Acha Tugi on Mount Oshie in Cameroon and from the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria. Its altitudinal range is 1,640-1,800m asl.
54409		habitat	eng	It lives in and around relict patches of montane forest, which are now fragmented, and also in secondary vegetation in which no trees remain. It has been found on steep slopes of scree, boulders and clay, overgrown with a dense cover of high grass and trees. It has also been found around streams, where it presumably breeds.
54409		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status, and the species is generally poorly known.
54409		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities and human settlements, and overgrazing.
54410		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and the remaining habitat in the area needs to be protected as a matter of urgency. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
54410		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern slopes of Mount Manenguba at 1,750-1,800m asl in western Cameroon.
54410		habitat	eng	It has been found in and around a small stream running through dense secondary bush and montane forest; it has not been recorded from primary forest, although it might well occur there. The animals hide under large rocks and small stones, and presumably breed in streams.
54410		population	eng	There is no information available on its current population status.
54410		threats	eng	Although the habitat of this species is not especially threatened, it is at severe risk given its small range and vulnerability to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
54411		conservation	eng	It may occur in the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve, but this reserve is not well managed for biodiversity conservation; improved and expanded habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the survival of this species.
54411		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area of the mountains of western Cameroon at 950-1,350m asl at Mount Manenguba, the Bamileke Plateau (at Fotabong, Fontem, and the Mbos Cliffs), Mount Nlonako, and the Rumpi Hills. At Mwakoumel on Mount Manenguba, it co-exists with <em>Cardioglossa pulchra</em> and <em>C. melanogaster</em>.
54411		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane forests near fast-flowing streams in hilly country with high rainfall. It can survive in degraded, secondary habitat close to more mature forest and it breeds in streams.
54411		population	eng	The species is largely unknown, and there is no information on its current population status.
54411		threats	eng	It is at risk due to forest loss caused by agricultural encroachment, extraction of wood, and expanding human settlements.
54412		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
54412		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern, central and eastern Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo and the northern half of Zambia to northern Malawi and southern Tanzania (Njombe and Mount Rungwe). Records from Lukwangule in Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania remain to be confirmed. It generally occurs upland areas, probably over 1,000m asl, and ranging up to 2,500m asl in Malawi.
54412		habitat	eng	It lives near streams in open grassland, and in forest patches. It presumably breeds by direct development. It is also found on the edge of plantations and in rural gardens.
54412		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitats
54412		threats	eng	It is reasonably adaptable, and is probably not facing any significant threats.
54413		conservation	eng	Occurs in Glacier National Park and several Wilderness Areas. There are many occurrences on National Forest or Bureau of Land Management lands, but these might not receive special management consideration, so protection is minimal. Maintenance of cool, forested, unsilted streams and stream corridors is a basic conservation need.
54413		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southeastern British Columbia south through western Montana to extreme southeastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and south-central Idaho (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993, Nielson <em>et al.</em> 2001, Stebbins 2003). There are many extant occurrences in Montana and Idaho and two small population groups in British Columbia (L. Dupuis pers. comm., 2001).
54413		habitat	eng	It lives in clear, cold swift-moving mountain streams with coarse substrate. It may occur primarily in older forest sites, but better information is needed; required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions are more common in older forests. It may be found on land during wet weather near water in humid forests or in more open habitat. During dry weather it stays on moist stream-banks. It lays eggs in long strings under stones in water.
54413		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand and might exceed 10,000. The species is still relatively common in Idaho and Montana. Long-term trend: Likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Short-term trend: Possibly declining based on habitat trends, but few population data are available.
54413		threats	eng	Tailed frogs are sensitive to logging and road building (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993). Logging practices that increase water temperatures and siltation might have an adverse effect on tailed frog populations (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). See also Bury and Corn (1988) and Corn and Bury (1989) for information on negative effects of timber harvest. Despite negative effects of logging, tailed frogs frequently occur in many young forests that have been harvested one or more times in the past. Sensitivity to timber harvest might depend on surface geology and harvest practices (Adams and Bury 2002, Welsh and Lind 2002). Diller and Wallace (1999) emphasized that current timber harvest practices are not as detrimental as those used in the past. Information on the responses of tailed frogs to timber harvest is based primarily on the coastal tailed frog, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. truei</span>. Further information is needed on the responses of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. montanus</span>. Apparently, low dispersal abilities might limit rate of recovery of depleted populations.
54414		conservation	eng	Range includes many national parks and wilderness areas. Maintenance of cool, forested, unsilted streams and stream corridors is a basic conservation need.
54414		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Cascades and the Pacific Coast from southern British Columbia, Canada south to north-western California, USA (Stebbins 1985, Nielson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
54414		habitat	eng	Can be found in clear, cold swift-moving mountain streams with coarse substrates. Primarily in older forest sites, required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions are more common in older forests (Welsh 1990). Diller and Wallace (1999) reported that canopy cover, temperature, and forest age in managed forests were not significantly different between occupied and unoccupied stream reaches in northern California; however, this probably reflects past timber harvest patterns. Animals may be found on land during wet weather near water in humid forests or in more open habitat. During dry weather it stays on moist stream-banks and lays eggs in long strings under stones in water.
54414		population	eng	This species has many extant occurrences distributed throughout the range. Total population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is common in suitable habitat. Its long-term trend is likely relatively stable in terms of extent of occurrence. There has been an unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occupancy, and number/condition of locations. Its short-term population trend is probably declining based on habitat trends, but few population data are available.
54414		threats	eng	It is sensitive to logging and road building (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993). Logging and construction practices that increase water temperatures and siltation might have an adverse effect on tailed frog populations (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983, Welsh and Ollivier 1998). See also Bury and Corn (1988) and Corn and Bury (1989) for information on negative effects of timber harvest. Diller and Wallace (1999) emphasized that current timber harvest practices are not as detrimental as those used in the past. Despite negative effects of logging, this species frequently occurs in many young forests that have been harvested one or more times in the past. Sensitivity to timber harvest might depend on surface geology and harvest practices (Adams and Bury 2002, Welsh and Lind 2002).
54415		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
54415		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cameroon south of Sanaga River, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, southwestern Central African Republic, Congo, and the Mayombe Hills of extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is found from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
54415		habitat	eng	It is found in and around streams and small rivers in lowland forest (including gallery forest). It can live in dense secondary vegetation if there is forest nearby. It breeds in flowing water; the tadpoles live in fast-flowing water and hide in cracks under stones.
54415		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54415		threats	eng	It is presumably declining because of habitat loss as a result of logging and agricultural expansion.
54416		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Korup National Park.
54416		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western and south-western Cameroon, and possibly extreme eastern Nigeria, in hilly country and mountains, at 250-1,100m asl. There are records from Mount Cameroon, and other mountains in Cameroon south of the higher parts of the Bamenda Highlands. Records of <em>Astylosternus schioetzi</em> from the northern part of Korup National Park, east to Nguti, and north to Mount Nta Ali (Lawson 1993) are based on misidentifications and refer to this species (J.-L. Amiet pers. comm.).
54416		habitat	eng	It lives in or near flowing water in lowland and submontane forest, and can survive in somewhat degraded habitats. It breeds in streams and in small marshes criss-crossed with tiny watercourses. The tadpoles live in clear, flowing water.
54416		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
54416		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and logging.
54417		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park, but further protection of the remaining forest habitat is required.
54417		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three small areas of western and south-western Cameroon: between Yabassi and Nkongsamba, at low elevations (apparently, it is absent to the west of Nkongsamba); Mount Yuhan in Korup National Park; and Mount Nta Ali in the Mamfe basin. It occurs mainly below 1,000m asl.
54417		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in and near rivers and slow-flowing streams in lowland and hilly closed-canopy forest. Males call from among dead leaves on the banks close to water.
54417		population	eng	It is a common species, certainly more so than <em>Astylosternus laurenti</em>.
54417		threats	eng	It is severely threatened by loss of habitat within its very small range, primarily due to human settlement and agricultural encroachment.
54418		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park, but further protection of other unprotected forest habitat, such as Mount Manenguba, is required.
54418		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small part of south-western Cameroon at 400-850m asl, from the Ikenge Research Station in Korup National Park, to the south of the Rumpi Hills, Mount Manenguba and the Bamileke Plateau. There are records from Ikenge, Fopouanga, Ekomtolo and Mahole. It is probably a little more widespread than current records indicate.
54418		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in and near slow-flowing rivers and streams in lowland and hilly forest in regions of high rainfall. It can live in dense secondary forest provided that there is a closed canopy. Males call from rocks in and around the water.
54418		population	eng	It is a common species.
54418		threats	eng	This species is severely threatened by habitat loss and degradation, primarily due to human settlement and agricultural encroachment.
54419		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
54419		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from several localities in the western Cameroon mountains from the Bamenda Highlands north-east to the Adamawa Plateau, with some outlying populations at lower altitudes to the south of this range on Mount Ngorro and the Yoko (Djan) Mountains. It has also been recorded from the Obudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria. It occurs in the submontane zone from 900-1,700m asl. The distribution is discontinuous, perhaps due to forest clearance in the 17th century.
54419		habitat	eng	It lives in or near flowing water in lower montane and submontane forest or herbaceous vegetation and gallery forests. At night it can be found in relatively dry areas along forest tracks and in agricultural areas. It can survive in deforested areas in temporary, eutrophic, silted streams that are low in oxygen. Breeding takes place in flowing water, with the males calling from rock cavities or from in the water.
54419		population	eng	It is reported to be common within its range.
54419		threats	eng	Although this species is probably suffering from habitat loss, it appears able to adapt to some non-forest habitats.
54420		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas and protection of the remaining habitat in the range of the species is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to establish its distribution, current population status and threats.
54420		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Nganha on the Adamawa Plateau, at 1,400-1,700m asl, in Cameroon, to which it is probably endemic.
54420		habitat	eng	This species is found along watercourses in a few narrow gallery forests, and in seepage areas in nearby grassland. Tadpoles, almost certainly of this species, have been found in rock pools in streams.
54420		population	eng	It is known only from five specimens.
54420		threats	eng	This poorly known species is probably at severe risk from habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction.
54421		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in a number of protected areas in Cote D'Ivoire, including Tai, Mont Sangbé, Marahoué and Mont Péko National Parks. In Liberia, it is found in Gola National Forest (Hillers and Rödel 2007).
54421		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia and the west of Côte d’Ivoire.
54421		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in secondary forest, and to a lesser extent in primary forest, but it is not found in heavily degraded areas, such as farm-bush. This species breeds in shallow streams.
54421		population	eng	It is not often found, but since it is a secretive species, it is probably more common than has been supposed.
54421		threats	eng	The main threat is ongoing deforestation for wood, agriculture and human settlement.
54422		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection of the remaining montane forests in western Cameroon is urgently needed.
54422		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western Cameroon on the southern slopes of Mount Manenguba and from Mount Bana and Mount Nlonako on the Bamileke Plateau at an altitude of 1,200-1,400m asl. It presumably occurs more widely in the Bamileke Plateau, and there is an unconfirmed record from the Rumpi Hills.
54422		habitat	eng	It lives in or near flowing water in lower montane and submontane forest, often in very steep, precipitous areas close to torrents. It probably hides in holes during the day, and breeds in mountain streams.
54422		population	eng	It is common on Mount Manenguba.
54422		threats	eng	This species is experiencing severe habitat loss within its very small range. However, it is capable of adapting to a measure of forest degradation.
54423		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but is largely unprotected elsewhere in its range. A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, which involves community management of the area involving the local villages, but which needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the species' current population status.
54423		distribution	eng	This species is known only from high altitudes (2,000-2,600m asl) in western Cameroon; there are records from the Bamboutos Mountains, Lake Oku, and Mount Neshele in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.
54423		habitat	eng	It lives in grassy marshes, around lakes, and along streams and watercourses in montane forest, montane shrubland, and montane grassland. Its breeding habitat is not fully known, but it appears to be less tied to flowing water than other members of its genus.
54423		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54423		threats	eng	Overgrazing, forest clearance, and changes in water quality are probably the major threats to this species.
54424		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.
54424		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Cameroon at altitudes of 1,300-2,450m asl. The nominate subspecies is recorded from Mount Manenguba, Mount Mbam, Santa, Mount Bana, Mount Ngokham, the Bamboutos Mountains, and the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, and is likely also to occur on Mount Oku. The subspecies <em>A. r. tchabelensis</em> is known only from the southern slopes of Tchabal Mbaba, at 1,700-1,900m asl, in Cameroon, and might occur on the Mambila Plateau in eastern Nigeria.
54424		habitat	eng	It lives in both the submontane and montane zones, and is typically associated with small streams in forest where it breeds. However, at higher altitudes above 2,000m asl it can also be found along streams in montane grassland, sometimes bordered with trees. It seems able to tolerate minor disturbance of its habitat. The subspecies <em>A. r. tchabelensis</em> lives in relict gallery forests in a generally deforested area.
54424		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54424		threats	eng	Although it is likely that it can tolerate a degree of habitat alteration, this species is probably declining as a result of widespread habitat loss and degradation within its restricted range, mainly due to smallholder agricultural activities, subsistence wood extraction, and human settlement.
54425		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Douala-Edea Forest Reserve and Lac Ossa Wildlife Reserve. The remaining forest habitat in south-western Cameroon is urgently in need of improved protection.
54425		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two general areas in south-western Cameroon: Apouh and Koupongo, near Edéa, in southern Cameroon (these two localities are 50km apart, and are separated by the Sanaga River). Records from the northern part of Korup National Park, east to Nguti, and north to Mount Nta Ali (Lawson 1993) are based on misidentifications and refer to <em>Astylosternus diadematus</em> (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).
54425		habitat	eng	It lives in and near flowing water in lowland forest, and can survive in tall, secondary forest. It breeds in small streams and in marshy depressions with very small, superficial streams.
54425		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species occurring at low densities in the southern parts of its range.
54425		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation.
54426		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it might occur in Campo-Ma'an National Park. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at where the species is known to occur.
54426		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western edge of the southern Cameroon plateau, though it might occur more widely than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is 300-1,000m asl.
54426		habitat	eng	This is a species of lowland rainforest in hilly country. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to forest disturbance. It breeds in streams, and the males call from rocky areas (under rocks or in cracks) close to small streams.
54426		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54426		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss from smallholder farming activities and logging.
54427		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed in the Bamboutos Mountains. In view of its tiny range and possible impacts of climate change, a captive-breeding programme should probably be established.
54427		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bamboutos Mountains in the Bamenda Highlands of western Cameroon, at altitudes of 2,300-2,700m asl. It probably also occurs on Mount Oku in the Bamenda Highlands.
54427		habitat	eng	It lives in bamboo forest and, in the rainy season, grazed montane grasslands where it hides under rocks in seepage areas. It lives in drier areas than other members of its genus. It has never been found at its breeding sites, but it is likely to breed in small streams in rocky areas.
54427		population	eng	It is most common above 2,400-2,450m asl.
54427		threats	eng	It is probably under severe threat from habitat loss and overgrazing. Like other high-altitude species, it also could be at risk from climate change.
54428		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. Further research is needed into the harvest level of tadpoles of this species from the wild.
54428		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southern and western edge of the Cameroon mountain range (excluding Mount Cameroon), extending to the Obudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria. In Cameroon, it is known from Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, the Mbos Cliffs, Fotabong, Petit Diboum, Mount Bana, Acha Tugi near Oshie, Bafut near Bamenda, and the Rumpi Hills. Its altitudinal range is 950-1,750m asl.
54428		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of forest in the submontane zone, usually near rocky streams and springs, or on mossy talus slopes with fissures and caves. It avoids dry areas, living in places where there tends to be orographic mists during the dry season. It can survive in somewhat degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams in rocky areas.
54428		population	eng	It is generally common in suitable habitat.
54428		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is forest loss due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction. The tadpoles are eaten locally by villagers in the Rumpi Hills.
54429		conservation	eng	Its conservation will be facilitated by the fact that it occurs in at least one protected area, the Reserve de Faune de la Lope.
54429		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species is known only from the Reserve de Faune de la Lope in Gabon. It probably occurs more widely.
54429		habitat	eng	Assuming that it is similar to other members of the genus, it is associated with rocky places near streams in lowland rainforest, and breeds in streams.
54429		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
54429		threats	eng	If it occurs more widely than is currently known, it is probably being affected by forest loss in other parts of its range.
54430		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at which this species is known to occur.
54430		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of western Cameroon. There are records from Banyo (near Batie), Petit Diboum, Mount Bana, Foto, Mbakang, Mount Nlonako and Bafut, with an isolated population to the east on Mount Ngorro. It probably also occurs in the western section of the Adamawa Plateau, and perhaps also in Nigeria. It ranges from 800-1,450m asl.
54430		habitat	eng	It lives in degraded forest, dense bush and raffia palm verges along swamps bordering rocky streams. Breeding takes place in streams.
54430		population	eng	It is a common species.
54430		threats	eng	Although it can tolerate some habitat disturbance, it is probably threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction throughout its range.
54431		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur.
54431		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon, and from Bimbia Hill east of Limbe, in western Cameroon. Its altitudinal range is 200-1,000m asl.
54431		habitat	eng	It lives in and around streams and springs in forest, usually sheltering in rocky areas. Most of the known localities are in degraded forest, but it requires dense vegetation in order to survive. Its absence above 1,000m asl is probably related to the lack of streams, which it needs to breed, at high altitudes on Mount Cameroon.
54431		population	eng	It is abundant at many localities on the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon.
54431		threats	eng	Despite its tolerance of secondary vegetation, populations are likely to be threatened by habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities, subsistence wood extraction, and human settlement.
54432		conservation	eng	It is not currently recorded from any protected areas. There is an urgent need for improved protection of remaining forest habitats on Mount Manenguba.
54432		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the south-eastern slopes of Mount Manenguba at 1,550-1,800m asl in western Cameroon.
54432		habitat	eng	It is found in submontane and lower montane forest, around springs and streams, living in holes, humus, gravel, root masses and dense undergrowth. It can survive in open, disturbed forest. It presumably breeds in streams, and co-exists with <em>Leptodactylodon mertensi</em> around 1,700m asl.
54432		population	eng	It is reported to be abundant within its tiny range, and is most common at altitudes of 1,700-1,800m asl.
54432		threats	eng	Habitat loss is taking place on Mount Manenguba due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction, and while this species is tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance, it is nonetheless at severe risk in view of its tiny range.
54433		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining forest habitat at the sites where it occurs, particularly Mount Manenguba, is urgently needed.
54433		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau (at Mount Bana and Petit Diboum), Mount Nlonako and Mount Manenguba, western Cameroon. It occurs between 1,000 and 1,850m asl, though only up to 1,700m asl on Mount Manenguba, above which it is replaced by <em>Leptodactylodon erythrogaster</em>.
54433		habitat	eng	It lives in dense undergrowth in submontane and lower montane forest, and in the dense herbage of raffia palm beds along streams. It can also survive in dense secondary forest habitats. The males call near pools and riffles in small streams, or in waterlogged humus near springs. It avoids rocky areas and breeds in small streams.
54433		population	eng	It is reported to be abundant on the southern and south-eastern slopes of Mount Manenguba.
54433		threats	eng	Although this species can tolerate a degree of habitat modification, it is probably threatened by forest clearance for smallholder farming.
54434		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining forest habitat at the sites where it occurs, particularly Mount Manenguba, is urgently needed.
54434		distribution	eng	This species comprises two subspecies, both endemic to western Cameroon: the nominate subspecies occurs on Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, Mount Kupe, the Bonandam Hills and the Ebonji Hills at 200-1,450m asl; <em>Leptodactylodon ornatus permaculatus</em> occurs on the southern and western slopes of the Bamileke Plateau at Fotabong, Foto, and the Mbos Cliffs, at 1,000-1,400m asl.
54434		habitat	eng	This is not a true montane species, but occurs at low and medium altitudes in hilly areas, usually near mountains, in areas of high rainfall. It lives in wet lowland and submontane forest and also in partially degraded forest. It frequents rocky areas that are found less frequently at lower altitudes. It breeds in fast-flowing streams; the males call from fissures in rocks, or from under stones.
54434		population	eng	Generally, this species is somewhat uncommon, although <em>L. o. permaculatus</em> is not uncommon within its small range.
54434		threats	eng	Despite its tolerance of a degree of habitat modification, this species is probably threatened by forest clearance for smallholder farming.
54435		conservation	eng	It is thought to occur in Korup National Park, though this has not been confirmed.
54435		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon, below 800m asl. Two subspecies are known: the nominate form occurs in the westernmost part of the range (including Nigeria); <em>L. o. orientalis</em> occurs in the east. The ranges of the two subspecies are probably separated around Mount Kupe.
54435		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, requiring forest with a continuous canopy, and is not found in degraded forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams and tiny watercourses in the forest. The males call from holes and cracks in rocks.
54435		population	eng	This is a common species.
54435		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of its lowland forest habitat.
54436		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but remains largely unprotected elsewhere in its range. BirdLife International has conducted a conservation project on Mount Oku for several years; this project involves community management of the area involving the local villages, but it also needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species.
54436		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the higher peaks of western Cameroon in the Bamenda Highlands, and further north-east at Tchabal Mbaba. In the Bamenda Highlands it is known from the Bamboutos Mountains, Mount Mbam, Mount Ngokham, Mount Lefo, Mount Oku, and the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-2,650m asl.
54436		habitat	eng	This is mainly a species of the montane zone, but it also occurs in smaller numbers in the submontane zone down to 1,200m asl. It is strictly confined to forest, and the males call from secluded sites and holes in humus close to streams. At higher altitudes, it breeds in shallow marshes in forest traversed by small, superficial streams. At lower altitudes it breeds in streams in rocky areas.
54436		population	eng	It is reported to be common within its restricted range.
54436		threats	eng	It is seriously threatened by extensive forest loss, mainly from smallholder farming, throughout its range.
54437		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.
54437		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Cameroonian highlands, excluding Mount Cameroon, Mount Kupe, Mount Nlonako, Mount Manenguba and the Rumpi Hills. It also occurs on the Obdudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria. There are two subspecies: <em>L. p. polyacanthus</em> occurs in the northern parts of the species' range at 1,640-1,900m asl in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, Acha Tugi on Mount Oshie, and the Obudu Plateau; and <em>L. p. punctiventris</em> occurs in the southern part of the range at 1,000-1,400m asl on the wet southern and western slopes of the Bamileke Plateau at Foto, Fotabong, Fongo-Tongo, the Mbos Cliffs, Petit Diboum and Mount Bana.
54437		habitat	eng	It lives in montane and submontane forest and degraded forest. During the breeding season males can be found on wet clay, in rock crevices, and small streams; the females hide under stones. Breeding takes place in streams and springs.
54437		population	eng	It is a common species.
54437		threats	eng	Although it can tolerate degraded forest, it is likely to be threatened by ongoing forest loss due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction.
54438		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and in the recently gazetted (2002) Monts de Cristal National Park in Gabon.
54438		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in the Monts de Cristal in north-western Gabon at 460-550m asl. Specimens assigned to this species have also been found at Monte Alen in Equatorial Guinea, where it might occur up to 1,000m asl.
54438		habitat	eng	It has been found only in primary forest under rocks along streams in deep, narrow valleys. It breeds in fast-flowing, rocky streams.
54438		population	eng	It has only recently been described, and only two specimens are known from Gabon. Its population status in Equatorial Guinea is difficult to assess, since it is hard to locate.
54438		threats	eng	It is at risk from habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and logging.
54439		conservation	eng	It might occur in a few protected areas, though this is not confirmed. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur.
54439		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of south-western Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, at 50-1,150m asl.
54439		habitat	eng	It is strictly a forest species, not occurring in secondary habitats. Outside the breeding season it can be found among dead leaves on the forest floor. During the breeding season, males call from rocky areas by streams and springs in forest, especially in valley heads where there are boulders under which tiny currents of water flow. Breeding takes place in streams.
54439		population	eng	It is not uncommon in its favoured habitat, though it is less common on the coastal plain.
54439		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of forest loss and fragmentation due to logging.
54440		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and its remaining habitat in the Bakossi Mountains requires urgent protection.
54440		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the villages of Kodmin and Edib in the Bakossi Mountains, 1,000-1,350m asl, in western Cameroon, although it might be a bit more widespread.
54440		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest, often close to small streams; there is no information on its ability to tolerate changes to its habitat. Breeding takes place in springs and rivulets.
54440		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species.
54440		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by forest clearance for smallholder farming.
54441		conservation	eng	It occurs in Cross River National Park (Nigeria), Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and probably in some other protected areas.
54441		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme southeastern Nigeria (from where it has recently been recorded in the Oban Hills (M. Gartshore pers. comm.), southern and southwestern Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea, generally at low elevations up to 900m asl.
54441		habitat	eng	This is a lowland forest species occurring in hilly areas up to 900m asl. It favours forests that have humid, but not marshy, floors, and requires tall forest with a closed canopy. It breeds in fast, rocky streams with clean water. The males call from the ground not far from water.
54441		population	eng	It is a common species, especially at 300-900m asl.
54441		threats	eng	It is presumably declining as a result of habitat loss.
54442		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas, and is certainly in Korup National Park (Cameroon) and the Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea).
54442		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Nigeria to the Mayombe Hills in the extreme west of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There are records from western and southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, western Gabon, and southern Congo. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.
54442		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest, including secondary forest. It breeds in flowing water, from torrents to slow streams, with a preference for wide, shallow streams with sandy banks.
54442		population	eng	It is a common species at low altitudes.
54442		threats	eng	It is presumably declining because of forest loss within its range.
54443		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54443		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowlands from the Osamba Hills in eastern Nigeria to the Mayombe Hills in extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in Congo and in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.
54443		habitat	eng	It lives in fast-flowing rivers in lowland rainforest, and in secondary and agricultural habitats, including tea plantations. The tadpoles live in fast, even torrential, water, and at the foot of small waterfalls.
54443		population	eng	It is rare around Yaounde, but much more common in the west of its range in Cameroon.
54443		threats	eng	It is presumably decreasing because of declining water quality, but it appears to be relatively tolerant of changes in the terrestrial habitats around its streams. It is subject to intense hunting pressure for food, and is often rare in the areas around villages. In the Rumpi Hills in Cameroon, local people eat the tadpoles.
54444		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and effective conservation of large areas of remaining forest habitat is urgently required to help prevent the siltation of rivers.
54444		distribution	eng	This species is known only from West Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo, where it is presently known only from two localities in the middle of the Kapuas River basin: Nanga Sayan (0° 44'S; 111° 40'E), 33km south of Nanga Pinoh; and Sungai Kelawit (0° 37'S; 111° 47'E), in the Melawi River basin, about 1km upstream from Nanga Pintas. It presumably ranges at least a little more widely, but it probably has a restricted distribution.
54444		habitat	eng	Both known specimens were collected in clear rocky rivers, about 20-50m wide, under large rocks in midstream within tropical moist forest. The morphology of these frogs and the sites of collection indicate that this species is fully aquatic, and is probably dependent upon clear water with a high oxygen content. Breeding ecology is not known, but it possibly breeds by direct development. It has not been found in open areas outside forest.
54444		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens collected 20 years apart. Directed surveys, in suitable habitat, close to the type locality have not recovered any further populations. This suggests that either the species has a very limited distribution or that it exists in very small numbers (R.F. Inger pers. comm.).
54444		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs is now very highly disturbed due to illegal gold mining, and the rivers have become severely degraded as a result of siltation and also pollution with mercury waste (following its use for gold extraction). It is probably also affected by siltation of its aquatic habitat following deforestation of the surrounding land.
54446		conservation	eng	The population of this species in Hubei Province is probably within Lichuanxiaoheshuisha Nature Reserve.
54446		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Beiyang, Lichuan in Hubei Province and Mabian County in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,830m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.
54446		habitat	eng	This species inhabits marshes in forested, mountainous areas. It breeds in pools where the larvae also develop.
54446		population	eng	It is very rare.
54446		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is forest loss due to small-scale agriculture and human settlement.
54449		conservation	eng	This species is present within a number of protected areas in China and the Korean Peninsula and six nature reserves in Russia. It is listed on the Red Data Book of Khabarovskii Region, Russia. There is a need to monitor the relatively small Russian population.
54449		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern China, throughout the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea and in the Khabarovsk and Primorye regions in Russia. Records of this species from southern Japan (Tsushima and Kiushiu islands) are now believed to be in error (M. Matsui pers. comm.). There is a small-introduced population of this species close to Beijing. It is a lowland species present to 500m asl (Russia).
54449		habitat	eng	It inhabits mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests, open meadows, river valleys and swampy bush lands. It breeds in streams, pools, paddy fields, ditches and other waterbodies. This species can adapt to modified habitats.
54449		population	eng	It is regarded as common in both China and Russia.
54449		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by habitat loss and degradation. In Russia, the collection of animals for traditional Chinese medicine might be a potential threat. Moderate numbers are exported, mainly to western Europe and North America in the international pet trade.
54450		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive, in both cases under <em>Bombina variegata</em>. It is known to occur in many protected areas including several National Parks. The cause of recent severe declines in this species requires urgent investigation and action.
54450		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it occurs south of the Po Valley, through the Appenine region, south to the southern tip of the Italian mainland. It ranges from 20m up to almost 1,700m asl (in Latium).
54450		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow, unshaded pools in forests and open areas. Spawning and larval development takes place in these pools. It also occurs in modified habitats, such as low-intensity farmland, pastureland, ditches, irrigations areas, drinking troughs, and ponds.
54450		population	eng	It was formerly common in suitable habitat. However, the species has declined in almost all of its range (with the exception of Calabria, where populations remain stable) over the last 10 years. A survey of representative sites across the species' range showed that the species disappeared from >50% of surveyed sites between 1996 and 2004 (55 occupied sites in 1996 versus 23 occupied sites in 2004: Barbieri <em>et al</em>. 2004). Significant recent declines in the populations of this species have been recorded from the Province of Siena (Piazzini <em>et al</em>. 2005); Abruzzo (Ferri <strong>et al</strong>. 2007); Ancona (Fiacchini 2003); Lazio (Bologna <em>et al</em>. 2000; Bologna <em>et al</em>. 2007) and Emilia-Romagna (Stagni <em>et al</em>. 2005).
54450		threats	eng	Threats to this species are presumed to largely include loss and fragmentation of wetland habitat to drainage for intensive agricultural purposes. However many populations appear to have declined in areas of presumably intact habitat. In some places it may have very small populations (10-12 individuals [Mattoccia <em>et al</em>. 2005]); these small populations are highly subject to stochastic extinctions. This species might also be threatened with chytridiomycosis, which has been associated with the deaths of several captive animals (Stagni <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Stagni <em>et al.</em> 2005), and further research into the possible impacts of this disease on populations of this species is needed. The cause of recent serious population declines remains incompletely known, but it has been speculated that chytridiomycosis is responsible.
54451		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation over much of its range and is present in many protected areas. Appropriate habitat management is needed to maintain wetlands and prevent succession to scrub and woodland. Re-introductions of the species might be needed in parts of the range. There is a need to monitor population changes in this species, especially in the hybrid zone between B. variegata and B. bombina.
54451		distribution	eng	This species is distributed over much of central and southern Europe. It is generally present from central France through central Germany and northern and western Switzerland, north-eastern Italy, the Balkan region and the Carpathian Mountains. Isolated populations are present in Hungary and northern Germany, and its range in northwestern France is now severely fragmented. It is probably extinct in Belgium and some populations have been lost in the south of France. There is only one population remaining in Luxembourg, and the same is true in the Netherlands. The presence of isolated populations in southwestern France (Medoc and Landes) requires confirmation. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom, but it is not known if the species is still present and is not mapped here. The species has an altitudinal range of 100-2,100m asl. Its distribution in western and north-western parts of its range is more fragmented than is shown on the distribution map.
54451		habitat	eng	It can be found in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests, bushlands and meadows, floodplains and grasslands. At low elevations this species lives in deciduous forests, at higher altitudes it is more often found in coniferous forests and highland glades. The species uses many types of wetland, including lakes, ponds, swamps, rivers, stream pools, springs (including mineral and thermal springs), puddles, reservoirs, gravel and clay pits, ditches and even water filled wheel ruts. The breeding habitats are typically unshaded temporary pools within, or close to, woodland. The species can tolerate slight water pollution, and has been recorded at very high densities in areas of cleared woodland in the Carpathian Mountains. This species regularly hybridizes with <em>B. bombina</em> in many contact areas.
54451		population	eng	The species has experienced local extinctions and population declines in western and north-western parts of its range (e.g., southern Switzerland, northwestern and southern France, Germany). However, over parts of its range such as the Carpathian Mountains, Poland and Slovenia, it is still common in suitable habitat.
54451		threats	eng	At a global scale, the species appears not to be significantly threatened. Populations of this species might be locally threatened by the loss of suitable habitat to urbanization, road construction, industry (including oil extraction and transportation) and discharge of pollutants into wetlands. Additionally, it is reported that it is collected as bait by fishermen in certain regions and that it is occasionally collected in large numbers for both the pet trade and scientific use. The impact of collection on this species needs further research. Some artificial habitats where the species occurs (e.g. gravel and clay pits) are threatened by succession. Hybridization with <em>B. bombina</em> might also be considered a threat, at least in some areas. Mosaic hybridization in Transylvania has resulted in the loss of pure populations (Vines 2004).
54452		conservation	eng	More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is also required. Its range includes several protected areas.
54452		distribution	eng	This species is known from forests in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
54452		habitat	eng	It occurs on the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest, where it also lays its eggs. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats, and has only been observed in good quality secondary forest.
54452		population	eng	It is a difficult species to find because it is so small but it is thought to be relatively common.
54452		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and infrastructure development.
54453		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. It has been recommended that the population trends of this species should be monitored over a long period of time, as it is likely to be a good indicator of the condition of the Atlantic Forest ecosystem.
54453		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and southeastern Brazil (in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo) from Ilheus (Bahia) in the north, south to Campinas (São Paulo). It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl. Records from Paraná require confirmation.
54453		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas. It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development, not requiring water, and the egg clutch is deposited on forest floor and each egg is covered by soil particles.
54453		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54453		threats	eng	The main threats relate to extensive habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, clear-cutting, human settlement, and tourism.
54454		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed as a conservation measure, in particular to confirm the existence of this species at other localities. Further maintenance and conservation of its habitat is also recommended. This species' range includes Parque Estadual da Serra da Cantareira.
54454		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Cantareira, in São Paulo State, Brazil. There might be other localities identified soon, but resolution of its taxonomic status is still required. It is known from around 1,000m asl.
54454		habitat	eng	All specimens were collected on the forest floor of primary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like others in the genus, but this has not been observed.
54454		population	eng	This species can sometimes be locally common.
54454		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species, and the Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil has suffered extensive destruction and degradation due to logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
54455		conservation	eng	Its entire known range has been declared a protected area, but there is no infrastructure in place yet. Additional research actions are also needed to conserve this species (for example, to determine the limits of its range), which is listed as threatened on the Paraná state list of threatened species.
54455		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Morro Anhangava, in the Serra da Baitaca, and from Morretes, both in Paraná State, Brazil, in Atlantic forest at an altitude of 450m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
54455		habitat	eng	Males and females have been found on the forest floor or amidst leaf-litter in montane humid forest. Its reproduction is via direct development, with the eggs being laid on the ground.
54455		population	eng	It is relatively common within its small, known range.
54455		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species. The Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil has suffered extensive destruction and degradation due to logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. At certain localities, excessive tourism might also be affecting the populations as visitors trample the habitat.
54456		conservation	eng	This species' range overlaps with three protected areas.
54456		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (in the Serra da Bocaina) and from the municipality of Cunha, both in the state of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 800m asl.
54456		habitat	eng	All specimens were collected on the forest floor of primary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
54456		population	eng	t is known only from the original collection, and it has not been found again since it was first collected in 1998, even though the area has been resurveyed.
54456		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species, and the Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil has suffered extensive destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging.
54457		conservation	eng	The species is present in the 224-km² Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. Additional survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species.
54457		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a single locality "Moray Estate, Rajamally, near Mousakelle, alt. 1,370m asl" in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary of the Adam's Peak area in Sri Lanka. It had previously been collected in the late 1890s at the town Nuwara Eliya (1,710m asl), but is now considered to be extinct at this location (K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.).
54457		habitat	eng	It is associated with hill streams in tropical moist forest. Adults can be found on mossy wet rocks within streams, and in riparian leaf-litter. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54457		population	eng	This is a rare species, now known only from the Moray Estate. There is no information on its current population status.
54457		threats	eng	The extremely restricted distribution of this species makes it very susceptible to water pollution from adjacent tea plantations and the possible negative impacts of tourism within the area.
54458		conservation	eng	It was not recorded from any protected areas.
54458		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka). The scientific name suggests that it might have been collected in the vicinity of the city of Kandy, central Sri Lanka. As the site of collection is unclear, the species has not been mapped.
54458		habitat	eng	While there is nothing known with certainty about the habitat and ecology of this species, it presumably bred by larval development in water as do other members of <em>Adenomus</em>.
54458		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen. There have been no sightings since the original description and the species is now believed to be extinct (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 1998). The general area of Kandy, where this frog is presumed to have occurred, has been well surveyed.
54458		threats	eng	Although the causes of the species extinction not known, if the original collection locality was truly in the vicinity of Kandy, then it is quite likely that extensive urban development has destroyed any suitable habitat (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 1998).
54459		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Peak Wilderness Forest Reserve, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Kanneliya Reserve Forest, Haycock Forest Reserve, Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve and Kitulgala Forest Reserve. Continued and improved management of these reserves is recommended.
54459		distribution	eng	This species is a Sri Lankan endemic, and is found over much of the south-west of the island. It has been recorded at elevations between 30 and 1,230m asl.
54459		habitat	eng	It is normally terrestrial, but also sometimes semi-arboreal, and is associated with hill streams in tropical wet forest. Adults have been observed in rock crevices, leaf-litter and decaying logs, and within tree holes. Larvae are found in permanent pools.
54459		population	eng	It is fairly common where it occurs.
54459		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to the clearance (clear cutting) of forested areas, agrochemical pollution, and expansion of cardamom plantations.
54460		conservation	eng	At least one of the sites where this toad remains common lies within the Bale Mountains National Park, although this protected area is not formally gazetted. Nonetheless, there is a long-running conservation programme in the Bale Mountains National Park (led by the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme). The priority action for the species is the protection of remaining montane forest habitats from commercial and subsistence exploitation. It is listed in Appendix I of CITES, though it is not present in international trade.
54460		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bale Mountains at 3,200-4,000m asl, in Bale Province, Ethiopia.
54460		habitat	eng	This species spans the transition from <em>Schefflera-Hagenia-Hypericum</em> forest to Afro-alpine moorland. Egg strings are deposited amongst moist herbaceous vegetation where development proceeds to metamorphosis through a terrestrial larval stage.
54460		population	eng	During the period 1971-1986, it was found to be common at several sites within its very limited geographical range. The lack of recent records is due to the absence of survey work.
54460		threats	eng	The main threat is probably timber extraction from high-altitude forest, and there is some evidence that this may already have occurred at the type locality.
54461		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional Natural Munchique is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
54461		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl.
54461		habitat	eng	Both known specimens were found on leaves in primary forest. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, although it is suspected to breed by direct development.
54461		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens collected in 1980, and there has been no recent sampling for the species, so its population status is unknown.
54461		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. However, illegal crops are grown in the park, which might threaten its habitat.
54462		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
54462		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality ("Cabacera del Rio Baboso, cerca a Lita’, Carchi Province, Ecuador"), and one other locality close by in the province of Carchi, in the north-western Andes of Ecuador. It has been recorded from 1,180-1,400m asl.
54462		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected on a branch some 50cm above the ground in the forest of a small creek at night (Hoogmoed 1985). A male was collected at night sitting on a tree trunk in a creek, while a female was collected in the afternoon on the forest floor near a creek (Hoogmoed 1989).
54462		population	eng	It is a very rare species, and there have been no records since September 1984. Subsequent visits to the type locality have failed to find any individuals.
54462		threats	eng	The type locality has been severely impacted by habitat destruction as a result of agriculture and logging. In addition, spraying of herbicides in Colombia to control crops is polluting the species' habitat.
54463		conservation	eng	It occurs in Reserva Natural Río Ñambi in Colombia. More research is needed to determine its range, life history and population status.
54463		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the type locality, Tandayapa, in the province of Pichincha, in northwestern Ecuador, and from Reserva Natural Río Ñambi, vereda El Barro, Corregimiento Ortiz y Zamora, municipality of Barbacoas, Nariño, southwestern Colombia. The species can be found around 1,500 m asl.
54463		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of cloud forest. Its breeding habits are not known.
54463		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. There have been no records at the type locality since the 1970s. Although the type locality is often visited by herpetologists, subsequent visits have failed to find any individuals, despite over 150 person-hours of searching (Delia and Cisneros pers. comm.). In Nariño it is known from three specimens collected in 2001 and 2002 (Murillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
54463		threats	eng	Agriculture and logging are threats to this species' habitat at the type locality.
54464		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, and the continued protection of large areas of hilly rainforests is essential.
54464		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo where it is known from several widely scattered localities across the northern part of the island, in relatively steep terrain, at altitudes of 150-350m asl.
54464		habitat	eng	The adults of this species are mostly terrestrial and disperse widely over the rainforest floor. Breeding takes place in small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams. The larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. This species appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.
54464		population	eng	It appears to be abundant in a few places, although in general the population is decreasing in direct proportion to rates of deforestation.
54464		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss and fragmentation, due to the conversion of forests to rubber and oil palm plantations, as well as the resulting eutrophication of streams by chemical fertilisers and stream siltation (thereby depriving larvae of feeding sites).
54466		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kinabalu National Park, which is well protected. Surveys of potentially suitable areas of habitat in adjacent parts of Borneo are needed to determine whether or not this species might occur elsewhere, and also to help better understand its current population status.
54466		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is known only from the montane forests of Kinabalu, Malaysia. Attempts to locate the species on Gunung Mulu in Sarawak have not been successful. The altitudinal range is 1,500-3,050m asl.
54466		habitat	eng	Most records are from moist montane and sub-alpine forest above 2,500m asl. Adults are terrestrial, and breeding is presumed to take place in forest streams.
54466		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown. It is rarely encountered.
54466		threats	eng	The major threat to this species in the future is likely to be selective logging.
54467		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
54467		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected at Napal Licin, Musi Rawas District, south Sumatra, Indonesia. There are further records of <em>Ansonia</em> species in Sumatra that might refer to this species, or to undescribed species. Voucher specimens are needed before the identity of these records can be confirmed.
54467		habitat	eng	It was collected in lowland tropical rainforest that is influenced by regular flooding during the rainy season. The single known specimen was found close to a small stream during the rainy season, and this species is presumed to breed in these streams, adopting a larval development breeding strategy.
54467		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
54467		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
54468		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Kinabalu National Park, which is well protected. However, the area where this species is particularly abundant is increasingly subject to the impact of tourist activities. There is a particular need to expand the existing protected area network (especially above 1,200m asl) south of Kinabalu National Park.
54468		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a portion of montane north-western Sabah (northern Borneo). A large subpopulation exists at one corner of Kinabalu National Park between 1,600 and 2,000m asl. A small population has also been found on Mount Trus Madi at 1,300m asl. Attempts to locate the species on Gunung Mulu in Sarawak have not been successful. It has not been found at other montane sites south of Trus Madi.
54468		habitat	eng	Adults disperse widely over the floor of montane and submontane forests. It breeds in small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams and larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.
54468		population	eng	It is sometimes locally very abundant, especially along streams.
54468		threats	eng	As Trus Madi is being actively logged, it is likely that the population there will be diminished, if not driven to extinction. Destruction of the forest at Trus Madi will probably lead to the siltation of streams in which the larvae develop. If the species occurs at other montane sites, these are likely to remain as insular isolates because of the extensive deforestation taking place at lower elevations.
54469		conservation	eng	This species is known to be present in Kinabalu, Gunung Mulu and Kayan Mentarang National Parks.
54469		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic occurs at a number of sites within Kinabalu National Park, and the Crocker Range south of Kinabalu in Sabah, in Gunung Mulu Park in Sarawak, and also in the montane forests of Kalimantan, including Kayan Mentarang National Park in East Kalimantan. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is from 750-1,600 m asl.
54469		habitat	eng	Adults are found on the floor of submontane and montane forests. Breeding takes place in clear, rocky mountain streams. The larvae cling to rocks in the torrents of these streams. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.
54469		population	eng	It is abundant at most locations where it has been recorded.
54469		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is siltation of streams needed for larval development, as a result of logging in the submontane and montane forests, and the clearance of forests for cultivation.
54470		conservation	eng	Regarding this species' conservation, the type locality is within Doi Inthanon National Park, while the second known locality is from an area that is being proposed as a national park, but improved protection and management are recommended. Studies of its population status, distribution and natural history are needed, and ecological studies are ongoing.
54470		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Thailand: the type locality in Doi Inthanon, and Thongphaphum, in Kanchanaburi Province. It has only recently been discovered, and is cryptic and easily overlooked and might be found to be more wide-ranging. It has been recorded between 930 and 1,650m asl.
54470		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest on sloping land, generally in the vicinity of small streams. It breeds in waterfalls, and the larvae develop in the water.
54470		population	eng	It is apparently not rare in suitable habitat (Matsui <em>et al.</em> 1998).
54470		threats	eng	The type locality is a national park, but this area is under some threat from habitat degradation through agricultural encroachment. This species is used in medical research, but it is not collected at a level that constitutes a threat.The American bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) has also been deliberately introduced to this region and does pose a potential threat.
54471		conservation	eng	Effective preservation of hilly rainforest in the regions of the two known localities is essential. In addition, further survey work in the hilly border area of Sarawak and Kalimantan is necessary to help provide a better indication of the species' current population status.
54471		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in the western corner of Borneo: Mount Damus, near Sambas, in Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Mount Penrissen, in western Sarawak (Malaysia). It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.
54471		habitat	eng	The known localities were primary, hilly rainforest at the time the frogs were collected. The adults are primarily terrestrial, and the larvae are found in forest streams. If it is similar to other members of its genus, it is unlikely to be able to adapt to modified habitats.
54471		population	eng	There are no estimates of population size. Only two specimens are known and it was last collected over 50 years ago. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
54471		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation primarily as a result of logging. The remaining suitable habitat within its range has been almost entirely converted for recreational use (one of the two known sites, Mount Penrissen, has recently been converted into a golf course), or converted to cultivated land. An additional threat is the resultant sedimentation of streams (following logging) which results in the deterioration of breeding habitat.
54473		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in several protected areas, including in Sabah and Sarawak. However, in Kalimantan, the existing forest preserves and parks are not well protected.
54473		distribution	eng	This widespread Bornean endemic is present in relatively steep terrain from 150-1,500m asl.
54473		habitat	eng	Adults can be found on the floor and herb stratum of rainforests. It requires small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams to breed in, an environment that persists only where forest cover is intact. Larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. This species is unable to adapt to modified habitats.
54473		population	eng	It is known to be abundant at several localities.
54473		threats	eng	The main threat is rampant habitat loss due to the rapid clearing of forest in Borneo, and the subsequent siltation of streams.
54474		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas and reserved forests. It is protected by national legislation in Thailand.
54474		distribution	eng	This species is reported from much of Peninsular Malaysia, and Yala province to Chumphon, Thailand. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is also present on Phuket Island, Thailand. It is found at altitudes between 300 and 1,300m asl.
54474		habitat	eng	It is associated with lowland and montane tropical moist forests. Adults are often encountered in boulder crevices and leaf-litter in streams. Breeding takes place in these streams where the larvae also develop. It has been recorded in selectively logged forest after three years of regrowth.
54474		population	eng	It appears to be locally common in Peninsular Malaysia, but is uncommon in Peninsular Thailand.
54474		threats	eng	It is only threatened by possible future clear cutting of forest habitat. Siltation of forest streams might threaten larval habitat.
54475		conservation	eng	It is recorded from several protected areas on Mindanao, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo and Mount Kitanlad Range Natural Parks. Conservation measures should include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests, on Mindanao.
54475		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of central and western Mindanao Island in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
54475		habitat	eng	It inhabits cool mountain streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds in streams, which is where the larvae also develop.
54475		population	eng	It is fairly common.
54475		threats	eng	The major threats include habitat loss and deforestation, due to agriculture and logging, and water pollution.
54476		conservation	eng	This species is known from the Kayan Mentarang protected area and continued protection of large areas of hilly rainforest is needed.
54476		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is known only from a few localities in western and central Sarawak (Malaysia) and scattered areas of Kalimantan (Indonesia), although it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. All known localities lie between 200 and 1,000m asl.
54476		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of lowland moist tropical forest, which breeds in small, clear, rocky streams where the larvae also develop. It has not been found in modified habitats.
54476		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54476		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation largely due to the effects of extensive logging on lowland Borneo.
54477		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially high-elevation riverine habitats and gallery forests, on Mindanao. The taxonomic status of this species requires further study.
54477		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of Mindanao and Dinagat Islands, in the Philippines.
54477		habitat	eng	It inhabits cool mountain streams and rivers in montane rainforest where it also breeds and the larvae develop.
54477		population	eng	It is fairly common where it occurs, but it has a patchy distribution.
54477		threats	eng	This species inhabits high-elevation forests, which are generally less threatened by habitat conversion, agriculture, and human encroachment, and the pollution of streams and rivers. Regardless, some populations of this species are subject to these threats.
54478		conservation	eng	This species is currently not known with certainty from any protected areas, and strengthened and expanded protection of the remaining forest habitat in this region of the Western Ghats is necessary. It is included as part of ongoing field studies begun in 1998 (S.D. Biju pers. comm.) .
54478		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality of "Brumagherries (Brahmagiri Hills)" and adjoining areas of Coorg, Karnataka, in the southern Western Ghats. There are also unpublished reports of this species from Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka), Silent Valley National Park and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala) (Amphibian CAMP 2002). However, further survey work is needed to confirm that the species does occur at these sites (S.D. Biju pers comm.) and these additional areas are currently not included in the map for this species. It has been recorded at an altitude of around 1,000m asl.
54478		habitat	eng	It is presumably restricted to tropical evergreen forest. Its breeding is not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in streams, like other members of its genus.
54478		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54478		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is continuing deforestation (mainly for the cultivation of coffee) in the Coorg area and surroundings.
54480		conservation	eng	The species is known to be present in the Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National parks, both of which are reasonably well managed; however, further protection of the remaining forest habitats, and continued management of the existing protected areas, are needed. Additional surveys of potentially suitable sites in Kalimantan are required to establish whether this species occurs there.
54480		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic occurs at a number of sites within Kinabalu National Park and at other sites in the Crocker Range south of Kinabalu in Sabah (Malaysia); it is also known from Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak. The altitudinal range in Kinabalu is 600-950m asl (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), and its overall altitudinal range is 750-1,600m asl.
54480		habitat	eng	Adults are found on the floor of montane forests and move to clear, rocky mountain creeks to breed. The larvae cling to rocks in torrents in these streams and presumably feed on lithophytes. It appears not to be able to survive in modified habitats.
54480		population	eng	This species is abundant at most locations where it has been reported (such as the Crocker Range).
54480		threats	eng	Logging in the submontane and montane forests could potentially lead to siltation of the streams needed for larval development and result in loss of the lithophytes.
54481		conservation	eng	It is currently considered to be adequately protected within the Silent Valley National Park. Nonetheless, the population status of this species requires careful monitoring, given that it is known only from two locations.
54481		distribution	eng	This species is present only in the Silent Valley and Wayanad areas of Kerala State in the southern Western Ghats of India (Biju 2001) where it has been recorded at elevations between 1,000 and 1,200m asl.
54481		habitat	eng	It is restricted to tropical evergreen forest, and is associated with torrential streams and the forest floor. Breeding presumably takes place by larval development in streams.
54481		population	eng	It is a rare species, though populations are generally believed to be stable within the Silent Valley National Park.
54481		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
54482		conservation	eng	The known range is entirely within the Khao Chong Mountains protected area. The population status of this species requires careful monitoring, given that it is known only from a single location.
54482		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality in the Khao Chong Mountains of Peninsular Thailand. It presumably occurs more widely within these mountains, as has been mapped. The type locality is at an elevation of 300m asl. Some populations in Peninsular Thailand currently assigned to <em>Ansonia malayana</em> might in fact belong to this species (L. Grismer pers. comm.).
54482		habitat	eng	It is restricted to lowland primary tropical moist forest. It is a stream-breeding species.
54482		population	eng	It is apparently uncommon. A pair was collected in 1979, and a further five individuals have been collected since (Kiew 1984b, Matsui, Nabhitabhata and Panha 1998).
54482		threats	eng	The habitat of this species appears to be reasonably well protected at present, and there are currently no major threats. However, given its restricted range, it is potentially at risk from stochastic events and pollution from adjacent tourist sites.
54483		conservation	eng	The species is known from several protected areas, including Kinabalu National Park, which is in Sabah, where good, large areas of forest are now protected, as are some sites in Sarawak. The species might well occur in Kalimantan but existing forest preserves and parks are not well protected. Further protection of large areas of rainforest is needed.
54483		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is widely distributed in relatively steep terrain in Malaysia and Indonesia, from 150-750m asl.
54483		habitat	eng	Adults disperse widely over the floor and herb stratum of rainforest. It requires small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams to breed in, and larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.
54483		population	eng	It appears to be abundant at scattered lowland localities.
54483		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation of large portions of the habitat, with the resultant loss of adult and juvenile (through the siltation of streams) feeding microhabitats. Conversion of forest to oil palm plantations is also a threat and it is possible that a broad portion of its range might soon be converted to <em>Acacia</em> plantations.
54484		conservation	eng	Tioman Island has been designated as a protected area; continued enforcement of this protected status is required. Safeguarding caves and other high-altitude habitats on Tioman Island is needed. The population status of this species requires careful monitoring, given that it is known only from a single location.
54484		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities on Tioman Island, Malaysia, at an altitude of 300-1,000m asl.
54484		habitat	eng	It is associated with boulders and waterfalls in caves. Breeding is presumed to take place in streams.
54484		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, but it is presumed to be stable at present.
54484		threats	eng	The species' habitat is not currently under immediate threat, but the potential clearance of habitat for tourism infrastructure is of concern for the future.
54485		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Gunung Mulu National Park. Further survey work is needed to ascertain whether or not this species is indeed confined to Gunung Mulu. In any event, the population status of this species requires careful monitoring given that it is currently known from only a single location.
54485		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Mulu in northern Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia, at 1,800m asl, though it is possible that it might occur in other montane forest blocks.
54485		habitat	eng	Specimens were observed calling beside a small, clear, mountain stream with a steep gradient. Breeding is presumed to take place in these forest streams.
54485		population	eng	It is believed to be reasonably abundant.
54485		threats	eng	There are no current major threats to this species, but if Gunung Mulu is indeed the only locality at which this species occurs, then it might well be susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
54486		conservation	eng	The upper elevations in the central Cordillera Nombre de Dios have been protected in Pico Bonito National Park since 1988 and also in Refugio de Vida Silvestre Texiguat. Research is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species has been affected by chytridiomycosis. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then a captive-breeding programme may need to be established.
54486		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the middle of the Cordillera Nombre de Dios along the Atlantic versant of north-central Honduras at 750-1,760m asl. It has been collected at only two sites, 60km apart.
54486		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane and lower montane wet forest, and is found breeding in clear water mountain streams.
54486		population	eng	It is uncommon, and the population has been decreasing over the last 15 years.
54486		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include landslides in the upper reaches of streams (due to strong storms and human activities) and slash-and-burn agriculture. As a montane, stream-breeding species, declines could also be linked to chytridiomycosis.
54487		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Given the susceptibility of this species to chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures are likely to require some form of disease management programme and the maintenance of captive populations.
54487		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upper Río Biabo Valley (northern versant of the Cordillera Azul) (Departamento de San Martín), the Río Pisqui, (Departamento Loreto), and Río Cachiyacu (on the border of Departamentos San Martín and Loreto), Peru. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,000-2,000m asl.
54487		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species restricted to submontane tropical forest. Breeding is thought to take place in streams. This species is presumed to be susceptible to habitat change and is therefore not expected to occur in any modified or degraded habitats
54487		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status, but it has been seen as recently as 2004 near Iquitos.
54487		threats	eng	There are no reports of chytridiomycosis impacting this <em>Atelopus</em> species, but it is presumed to be susceptible to this pathogen, which is now causing amphibian declines in northern Peru. It is possible that populations of this species at lower altitudes might be able to survive an outbreak of the disease.
54488		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Puracé, which might benefit in future from improved management. However, given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required. Research into this species' population status and ecological requirements is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
54488		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Valencia, San Sebastián Municipality, in Cauca Department, Colombia, at elevations of 2,900-3,000m asl. It might occur more widely than current records suggest.
54488		habitat	eng	This species is found on vegetation along side streams in montane Andean forests and sub-páramo bush land. There is no information known about breeding habitats, or its ability to tolerate habitat disturbance.
54488		population	eng	There is very little information available, but it was collected as recently as 2000.
54488		threats	eng	There have been serious declines of other high-elevation <em>Atelopus</em> species in the region suggesting that this species might also be at risk. The cause of the declines is still not fully understood, though chytridiomycosis is almost certainly involved, possibly in combination with the effects of climate change.
54489		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species, especially in light of the recent drastic declines observed in other montane <em>Atelopus</em> species. Given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required.
54489		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the department of Cesar, Colombia. It has been recorded between 2000 and 3500 m asl. It might occur a little more widely on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
54489		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests, sub-páramo and páramo. Egg chains are placed in fast-flowing water, and the tadpoles develop in the water.
54489		population	eng	Only six specimens of this species are known, and there have been no records since 1991. It is not yet clear whether or not this reflects lack of survey effort, or a genuine rarity or decline.
54489		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion and logging is also a major threat, as is pollution resulting from the fumigation of crops.
54490		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not encompass any protected areas. However, it was protected in Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras (in Bolívar Province), where it disappeared. The species might be extinct, and it might be too late for measures such as captive breeding; additional survey work is required to confirm the continued persistence of this species in the wild.
54490		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities on the Pacific versant of the Andes of Ecuador at an altitude of 2,200-3,000m asl. The type locality is 15km north of Pallatanga, in Chimborazo Province. The second and third localities are at Cashca Totoras and Las Guardias, respectively, in Bolivar Province.
54490		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest and sub-páramo. There is no specific information known about breeding habits, though it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding taking place in streams.
54490		population	eng	This is an extremely rare species and it has not been recorded since 1988, despite searches, particularly at Cashca Totoras (Bustamante 2002). This suggests that a serious decline has taken place.
54490		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The disease has been confirmed in <em>Gastrotheca pseustes</em> in the same area. Other major threats include habitat loss due to agriculture, logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, and agricultural pollution.
54491		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. As the species might be extinct, it might be too late for conservation measures such as captive breeding; additional survey work is required to confirm the continued persistence of this species in the wild.
54491		distribution	eng	This species is known from only four localities in Azuay, Cañar, and Guayas Provinces in the Pacific lowlands of south-western Ecuador, from 200-460m asl.
54491		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of lowland rainforest, and has been found on riverbanks. There is no specific information known about breeding habits, though it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding taking place in streams.
54491		population	eng	This is now considered a very rare species. There have been no records since April 1995 despite repeated searches. It is no longer found at Río Patul (in Azuay province), where it used to be abundant (L. Coloma pers. comm.).
54491		threats	eng	This species seems to have disappeared, as with many other <em>Atelopus</em> species, likely due to chytridiomycosis, although the altitude at which it occurs is low (the disease normally occurs at higher altitudes in the tropics). Habitat degradation and loss, due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and logging, and pollution, continue to be very serious threats.
54492		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Sangay, which is a World Heritage Site. The population status of this species urgently needs to be assessed; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54492		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Cordillera Oriental in southern Ecuador, Azuay and Cañar Provinces, between 2,500 and 2,800m asl, where it has been recorded from at least 15 localities. There was one record from Parque Nacional Sangay. The specimens from the Departamento Piura, Peru, which referred to this species, are in fact specimens of an undescribed species (Coloma, Lötters and Salas 2000).
54492		habitat	eng	It lives in humid montane forest, sub-páramo, and páramo (Lötters 1996). Breeding takes place in streams.
54492		population	eng	One individual was seen in 2002 in the Parque Nacional Sangay (D. Almeida pers. comm.), but otherwise this formerly abundant species has disappeared from its range.
54492		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Dead and dying animals infected with the chytrid fungal pathogen have been collected in Ecuador (Ron <em>et al.</em> 2003), and it was the first species (in 1980) in Central or South America confirmed to have chytridiomycosis. It tolerates some habitat destruction, and can be found near streams in artificial grasslands. Introduced predators such as trout might threaten the species.
54493		conservation	eng	The distribution range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Sangay, which is a World Heritage Site. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still persists within its natural range. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54493		distribution	eng	This species is known from six localities in the provinces of Morona-Santiago and Loja, in the south-eastern versant of the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera de Cutucú, and the Cordillera del Cóndor, in eastern Ecuador. It has been recorded from 800-2,000m asl.
54493		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information known about breeding habits, though it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding taking place in streams.
54493		population	eng	It is a rare species, and there have been no records since 1984, although some localities at which the species is known to occur have not been well surveyed. It is not known precisely whether or not populations have declined as observed in other <em>Atelopus</em> in the Ecuadorian Andes, though this seems likely.
54493		threats	eng	Agriculture, as well as mining and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species habitat, and much of the natural vegetation within its known distribution area has been cleared. Pollution of streams is also a threat. It is almost certainly at severe risk from chytridiomycosis.
54494		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas. More research into the species' distribution range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the two known localities; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54494		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities: the type locality of Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, and from Murri in La Blanquita, both in Antioquia Department, in north-western Colombia, between 1,300 and 2,000m asl.
54494		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation alongside streams in sub-Andean forests. It has not been recorded outside forest. Its breeding habits are not known, though breeding is likely to take place in streams.
54494		population	eng	It is uncommon. There do not appear to be any confirmed records since 1973, but it is not known if this is indicative of a decline, or simply a lack of survey effort.
54494		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Forest destruction for the creation of fruit plantations is occurring within the species' range.
54495		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and a few unprotected areas nearby (La Marca and Lötters 1997). Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to be maintained in captivity.
54495		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality estimated to be less than 10km² in size (La Marca 1992) in the state of Mérida, in the Venezuelan Andes. In the past, it was most common at the Bosque de San Eusebio (La Carbonera). It has been recorded from 2,000-2,800m asl.
54495		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of cloud forest and it is found along streams. Surviving populations, if it is still extant, are restricted to an isolated patch of forest surrounded by pasturelands. It lays eggs chains in streams, and the larvae develop in these streams.
54495		population	eng	Populations of this frog seem to be restricted to the type locality, where it was formerly abundant, but is now extremely rare, and possibly even extinct. It was last recorded in 1998, despite intensive searches for the species. Observations of population declines were made by La Marca (1995b).
54495		threats	eng	The first alert about the conservation status of the species was advanced by La Marca and Reinthaler (1991).&#160; Infection with <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in this species was reported by Lampo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006a). Local climate data indicate that one of the most severe dry seasons recorded in the region since 1970 coincided with epidemic events. Logging and agricultural expansion, both for crops and livestock, are also major threats to the species' habitat. The recent introduction of <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em> in places near the type locality poses the problem of a new predator. It has been recorded occasionally in the international pet trade although not at levels thought to pose a major threat to the species.
54496		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Surveys to determine the current population status of this species are currently underway (L.A. Rueda Solano pers. comm. 2008). A captive-breeding programme might need to be established.
54496		distribution	eng	This species is known from the páramos of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. It has been recorded between 2,350 and 4,800m asl.
54496		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests, and páramo, and also the lower portion of snowy areas. It can adapt to some modification of its habitat. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54496		population	eng	Although common in the past, the species had not been seen since 1994, due to a lack of surveys in the area. It was recently rediscovered (many tadpoles and six adult males) in early February 2008, in La Serrania de Cebolleta. Two of the six adults were reported ill (Rueda Solano 2008).
54496		threats	eng	The most serious threat to this species is the risk of chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Climate change, habitat loss caused by agriculture, and crop fumigation, are all also major threats.
54497		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darién. Further survey work is needed to establish the limits of the species' range, and additional research is needed to establish whether chytridiomycosis might be a threat.
54497		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Cerro Sapo in south-western Darién Province, Panama. It is suspected that the species is more widely distributed, and may range through much of Parque Nacional Darién. It has been found at altitudes of 50-1,150m asl.
54497		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of tropical montane and submontane forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in forest streams.
54497		population	eng	This species is locally common within its small range, and has been recorded as recently as 2003.
54497		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are deforestation of habitat for agricultural use and general water pollution. Congeners are known to have virtually disappeared throughout much of Mesoamerica, probably due to chytridiomycosis, and this species might also be at risk from the disease, although it occurs at lower altitudes (the disease normally occurs at higher elevations in the tropics).
54498		conservation	eng	The range of the species is within the protected areas of Parque Nacional Chirripó and Parque Internacional La Amistad. The threat of chytridiomycosis means that successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54498		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower montane zone of the Cordillera de Talamanca-Chiriqui axis of Costa Rica (1,800-2,500 m asl) and western Panama (1,400-2,100 m asl) (Savage 2002). It has not been seen in Costa Rica since 1996 and the species is now considered to be extinct in that country; it might also have disappeared in Panama.
54498		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, terrestrial species of stream margins in lower montane wet forest and rainforest. Males are territorial and use an advertisement call to maintain a breeding site. Breeding and larval development for this species takes place in forest streams (Savage 2002).
54498		population	eng	This species was once considered locally abundant along streams. In Costa Rica this species has disappeared from its entire range, and there have been no sightings since 1996 despite many searches in appropriate montane habitats (there have been no new sightings as of August, 2007). The population status in Panama shows evidence of a decline, with no records since the late 1990s.
54498		threats	eng	Marked declines have been noticed in its extent of occurrence. In Costa Rica the decline and probable extinction of this species has been linked to chytridiomycosis (Lips 1998), which was confirmed in this species in 1993 and 1994 (see Lips<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003). Introduction of predatory trout, and general habitat loss both outside, and within protected areas, are also threats to remaining populations. Climate change is considered to be a possible threat.
54499		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes the Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá. More research into the species' range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed. The threat of chytridiomycosis means that successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54499		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality: Cerro del Ingles near San Jose del Palmor, close to Serrania de los Paraguas, in Choco department, between 1,900 and 2,200m asl. It is also known from Boqueron in the Municipality of El Cairo, Valle del Cauca department, in Colombia. It might occur a little more widely.
54499		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species, it occurs in montane forest on the forest floor and near the forest edge. It has not been recorded from anthropogenically disturbed habitats. Its breeding habits are not known, although breeding is likely to take place in streams.
54499		population	eng	The current population status is unknown, and it is known from less than 10 specimens. The species was last collected in 1998, and the area has most likely not been surveyed since then.
54499		threats	eng	Like other <em>Atelopus</em> species, it is presumably at serious risk from chytridiomycosis. Habitat loss due to subsistence wood collection and clear-cutting, and forest clearance for the planting of illegal crops and cattle ranching, is also a major threat.
54500		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, and surveys are urgently needed to confirm the continued existence of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54500		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the type locality, near the village of Tostós in Trujillo State, in the Venezuelan Andes. Its known range is less than 100km². It has been recorded from 2,000-2,700m asl.
54500		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, photophilic species found on the floor of cloud forest. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54500		population	eng	It is a rare species, and there have been no records since it was discovered in 1988. A subsequent survey failed to record this species again, suggesting a possible decline, as is the case with many other Venezuelan <em>Atelopus</em> species.
54500		threats	eng	The most critical threat to this species is probably chytridiomycosis. However, the type locality lies within an unprotected forested area that has been altered at a fast rate, mainly due to subsistence wood collection, and conversion to crop lands and pasture lands. With higher insolation as a result of climate change, this species could be at increased risk due to its habit of basking in the sun. La Marca and Lötters (1997) indicated that severe floods might have affected populations of this species.
54501		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still survives in the wild. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54501		distribution	eng	This species is known from the provinces of Pichincha, Imbabura, and Carchi on the Pacific versant of the Andes in north-western Ecuador. It has been recorded from 600-1,380m asl.
54501		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of humid north-western Andean montane forest. It appears to be able to adapt to secondary forest. It lays its eggs in swift-flowing streams and rivers. It has typical <em>Atelopus</em> tadpoles, attached to rocks.
54501		population	eng	It is a rare species and has not been recorded since September 1984. It has probably undergone a serious population decrease.
54501		threats	eng	The most critical threat to this species is probably chytridiomycosis. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species’ habitat.
54502		conservation	eng	Many of the known localities are within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Parque Nacional Rancho Grande, and Parque Nacional San Esteban. Monitoring of the populations, establishment of a captive-breeding population, and disease management are all urgently required.
54502		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to several localities in the northern and southern versants of the Cordillera de la Costa of Venezuela (Estados Aragua, Carabobo, Miranda, Vargas, Yaracuy and the Distrito Federal) and recently from Cerro Azul (Estado Cojedes) (Rivas Fuenmayor 1998), which suggests that the species might be present throughout the entire mountainous area of the central coastal range (Lötters, La Marca and Vences 2004). It has been recorded from 30-2,200m asl.
54502		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species usually found on rocks of rivulets or the surroundings, where they can climb on to plants up to 1.5m above ground. The general habitat is humid forest in montane and lowland environments. It breeds along swift-flowing streams. The recently rediscovered population was found by a cascading mountain stream in cloud forest.
54502		population	eng	Although this species was once abundant, it has undergone an extreme decline, to the point that despite extensive surveys no specimens have been seen since 1986 and there are no museum records after 1988 (La Marca 1995; La Marca and Lötters 1997; Manzanilla and La Marca 1999; Lötters, La Marca and Vences 2004). Recently (2004), a single small population of <em>A. cruciger</em> has been found just south of the town of Cata within the limits of the 107,000-ha Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, in cloud forest at 600m asl.
54502		threats	eng	The major cause of the observed population decline of this species is chytridiomycosis, which was confirmed in 1986 (Bonaccorso <em>et al.</em> 2003). Pollution by acid rain could be another possible threat, given the vicinity of the species to the large concentration of industries generating polluting gases in the nearby area of Valencia-Maracay. Droughts and flash floods could be a further potential threat, as well as over collecting for scientific or pet trade purposes.
54503		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. In view of the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to locate this species and determine its current population status; a captive-breeding programme may also need to be established.
54503		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western versant of the Cordillera Azul, Huánuco Department, Peru, where it has been observed between 1,650 and 1,800m asl.
54503		habitat	eng	The general habitat in the area of collection is humid mountain forest. It is presumed to be a stream-breeding species.
54503		population	eng	It is currently known only from museum specimens, and was last recorded in 1980.
54503		threats	eng	The threats to the species within its range on the Cordillera Azul have not been recorded. However, like other members of its genus, it is assumed to be at severe risk from chytridiomycosis.
54504		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. Survey work has recently confirmed the persistence of the northern population, but additional surveys are needed to ascertain the population status of the southern population. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity. Research is also needed to confirm the taxonomic status of the northern populations of the species.
54504		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern part of the Colombian Andes in Cauca and Huila Departments, with a separate northern population (<em>Atelopus ebenoides marinkellei</em>) at the Páramo de las Papas, in the Department of Boyacá, in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 2,500-4,700m asl.
54504		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation, mosses and in leaf-litter along streams in Andean forests and páramos. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitat. The tadpoles develop in streams.
54504		population	eng	The northern population had not been recorded since 1995, until its remarkable rediscovery in early May of 2006 in the highlands of Boyacá . The southern populations were last recorded in 1992, though there have not been any recent surveys.
54504		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion (cattle ranching and the planting of illegal crops), as well as pollution from the fumigation of crops, and water source loss are all threats.
54505		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Colombia it occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Isla Gorgona. It is an urgent priority to locate the Ecuadorian population and to implement emergency <em>ex-situ</em> conservation measures. Close monitoring of the population on Gorgona Island is needed, since, as far as is known, chytrid has not yet been recorded from this population.
54505		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-western Ecuador in Esmeraldas, Imbabura, and Pichincha Provinces, at 300-1,140m asl, and on Gorgona Island, a small island 30km off the Colombian coast on the Pacific side, where it occurs close to sea level.
54505		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and submontane humid rainforest, and has not been found in degraded habitats. It breeds in streams.
54505		population	eng	In Ecuador, it has declined very seriously and has disappeared in the last ten years, with no records since November 1994, apart from one record in November 2002 from Bogotá River in Esmeralda Province. For example, in a recent survey, it was not found 5km north-west of Alluriquín (in Pichincha Province), where it used to be abundant (L. Coloma pers. comm.). On Gorgona Island, the species is still very common.
54505		threats	eng	The decline in Ecuador is unexplained, and is possibly due to chytridiomycosis, although its elevational range is rather low for this disease. It is also impacted by habitat destruction and degradation, due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
54506		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas. If chytridiomycosis is indeed shown to be a threat to this species, then the maintenance of populations in captivity will be a needed conservation measure.
54506		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Cordillera Carabaya on the Amazonian versant of Departamento Puno, Peru. Records of this species from Departamento Huánuco and Departamento Ucayali (Rodriguez, Cordova and Icochea 1993) require further investigation. It has an altitudinal range of 1,800-2,500m asl.
54506		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is cloud forest on the Amazonian versant of the Peruvian Andes. The species is not expected to be tolerant of habitat degradation. Breeding is presumed to take place in streams.
54506		population	eng	Its population is unknown, but it might be declining. It has been recorded as recently as 2003.
54506		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. This disease has not yet been recorded in this species, but incidence of the disease is known to be spreading in northern Peru.
54507		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. More research into the species' range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed, and in particular surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species is currently in decline as has been evidenced in other high-elevation stream-dwelling <em>Atelopus</em> species in the region. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established for this species.
54507		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few locations all within close proximity in the Cauca Department, on the western slope of the central Andes, Totoro-Malvasa, in Colombia, between 2,820 and 3,250m asl.
54507		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams on vegetation in páramo, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitat. Breeding and larval development takes place in streams.
54507		population	eng	One recent survey found no individuals, although another survey in 2004 did record several individuals. It is not known to what extent the species is in overall decline.
54507		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other, localized threats include habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion (cattle ranching and the planting of illegal crops), water extraction, and fumigation of illegal crops. Climate change might also be impacting the species.
54508		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Mazán. The population status of this species urgently needs to be assessed. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ </span>conservation measures are already in place for this species, as the Pontificia Universidad Católica of Ecuador is seeking to establish a captive breeding colony at its climate-controlled captive facility (Moore 2007). It is also necessary to control trout populations within the protected areas.
54508		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Laguna Llaviuco, in Azuay province, and from the nearby vicinity in the Cordillera Occidental of southern Ecuador. It is known from eight localities, and has been recorded from 3,150-3,850m asl.
54508		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo and páramo, but is also known to occur in pastureland around the Laguna Llaviuco. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54508		population	eng	This historically abundant species was recorded in May 1995, at a time when no decline was recorded (Coloma, Lötters and Salas 2000). Since then, there had been little survey work, but it is expected that the species has undergone a population decline across its range, although it is still known to survive in the wild (La Marca <em>et al.</em> 2005). More recently, Moore (2007) reported two individuals found in southern Ecuador.
54508		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as climate change and the construction of dams are major threats to the species’ habitat. Invasive trout species might prey on tadpoles of this species.
54509		conservation	eng	The two localities are on the border of Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, where it has been recorded from the private protected area of the El Tambito Proselva Foundation. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species in the wild. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to be maintained in captivity.
54509		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities: the type locality (La Costa), and El Tambito, both localities on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes, in Cauca Department, Colombia, between 1,300 and 1,580m asl.
54509		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in montane forest, and which has not been recorded outside forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but presumably it breeds in streams like other species of the genus.
54509		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens, and, despite survey work, has not been recorded since 1993.
54509		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. There is also a threat of pollution resulting from fumigation of the illegal crops grown in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.
54510		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area, and there is an urgent need for improved habitat protection at its only known locality. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species. Given the probable threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required.
54510		distribution	eng	This species is known from only one site: Granjas del Padre Luna, Municipio de Alban, western slope of the Cordillera Oriental, in Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, at 2,090m asl.
54510		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams in cloud forest. It also reproduces in rapid streams.
54510		population	eng	This species was known to be abundant up until around 1995. Six subsequent visits and some 80 hours of searching during the course of 2002-2003 turned up only one tadpole, perhaps indicative of a serious decline.
54510		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss is also a major threat to this species, mainly caused by agricultural expansion and human settlement.
54511		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Matoury Nature Reserve and Kaw Nature Reserve. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
54511		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-eastern coastal and central French Guiana. It occurs from sea level up to 300m asl.
54511		habitat	eng	This species is known from the proximity of fast-flowing small streams in lowland primary forest. It has not been recorded outside primary forest. Embryonic and larval development occurs in water.
54511		population	eng	This is a common species, although it is not common in Mont Grand Matoury and Matoury region. It has been recorded as recently as 2000.
54511		threats	eng	There are no present threats to this species, but future threats will most likely include shifting agriculture and clear-cutting of the forests. Although illegal, there is still some collection for the pet trade, but at present this is not a major threat to the species. This species probably occurs at elevations below the altitude at which chytridiomycosis seems prevalent, though this nonetheless remains a potential future threat.
54512		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several nature reserves. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
54512		distribution	eng	This species is known from central coastal French Guiana. It has been recorded from 5-200m asl.
54512		habitat	eng	This species is found near fast-flowing small streams and creeks in lowland rainforest; it is not known from any disturbed habitats. Eggs are laid in the water and the tadpoles adhere to rocks.
54512		population	eng	It is a locally common species (Lescure and Marty 2001), and was recorded as recently as 2000.
54512		threats	eng	There are no current major threats. However, it is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis, although it occurs at low altitudes (which might afford it a degree of protection from this disease). An illegal international pet trade exists for this species, but it is not a threat to the species as a whole.
54513		conservation	eng	Both known localities of the species are within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. Further research into the species' range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside its current known range. Given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required.
54513		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo, in Antioquia Department, on the northern slope of the western Andes, in Colombia, at 1,500m asl.
54513		habitat	eng	Both of the known localities are within primary forest, but no other information is available on the species' habitat requirements or breeding habits.
54513		population	eng	This species is known only from ten specimens; however, there has been no recent survey work within its range.
54513		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.
54514		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from two protected areas: Parque Nacional Darién (a World Heritage Site) in Panama and Parque Nacional Natural los Katíos in Colombia. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
54514		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Panama, in the Serranía de Pirre, and also the Chocó of Colombia, at 884-1,500m asl.
54514		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of tropical montane forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in forest streams. There is no information on whether or not this species can survive in degraded habitats.
54514		population	eng	It is considered to be generally common within its known range. It was still common in September 2002 in the Serranía de Pirre, above Cana, in eastern Panama (R. Ibáñez pers. obs.).
54514		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be a future catastrophic decline, due to chytridiomycosis, as has occurred in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Additional threats include habitat loss due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54515		conservation	eng	The known range of the species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still persists in the wild. In view of the severe threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving populations should be maintained in captivity.
54515		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and its immediate vicinity (Guaranda, Gallo Rumi) in the Chimbo Basin of the Cordillera Occidental of Ecuador, in the province of Bolívar. These localities are between 2,600 and 2,923m asl in the upper Río Chimbo Valley (Coloma 2002).
54515		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of humid cloud forest. Frogs have also been collected in disturbed montane cloud forest areas (Coloma 2002). There is no specific information on breeding habits, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.
54515		population	eng	It is a rare species, and the most recent record dates from April 1988 (Coloma 2002). Since then, survey efforts have been unsuccessful in finding any individuals, suggesting a serious population decline and possible extinction.
54515		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the species' population decline is chytridiomycosis. Habitat loss is also a major threat, due to agriculture (crops, livestock, and wood plantations), logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement. Invasive species such as dogs, cats, and chickens also prey on this species.
54516		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz. Further work is required to determine the population status of this species; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, a captive-breeding programme might need to be established for this species.
54516		distribution	eng	This species is only known to occur in the Laguna de Guitara, Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz, Meta Department, Colombia, at 3,400m asl.
54516		habitat	eng	It lives and reproduces in streams in páramo habitats.
54516		population	eng	It is rare, being recorded only from two expeditions conducted in 1975 and 1990. There has been no subsequent survey work for this species.
54516		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Its habitat is threatened by fires caused by cattle ranchers.
54517		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys to confirm the continued existence of this species are needed; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals should be maintained in captivity.
54517		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cordillera Cutucú, in Morona-Santiago Province, in southern Ecuador, around 1,975m asl.
54517		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information on their breeding habits, but these are likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.
54517		population	eng	Although sampling effort through the species' range is insufficient, it is likely that this species has undergone a population decline (as seen in other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>). It was last recorded in 1984, and is perhaps no longer present at the type locality.
54517		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species’ habitat.
54518		conservation	eng	The known range of this species overlapped with several protected areas, including: Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; Reserva Ecológica Antisana; Parque Nacional Cotopaxi; Area Nacional de Recreación el Boliche; Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas; Parque Nacional Llanganates; and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo in Ecuador.
54518		distribution	eng	This species ranged from Imbabura to Chimborazo and Bolívar Provinces, in the Inter-Andean valleys and higher parts of the major Andean Cordilleras of Ecuador, at elevations of 2,800-4,200m asl.
54518		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of humid montane forest, humid sub-páramo (high-altitude bushland), and páramo (high-altitude grassland). This was a stream breeding species. Animals were recorded from disturbed habitats, including modified grasslands, in the Inter-Andean valleys and residential areas close to Quito.
54518		population	eng	There have been no records of this species in Ecuador since 1988, despite extensive searches. It was formerly abundant along streams, but now appears to be extinct.
54518		threats	eng	It probably disappeared due to the synergistic effects of the disease chytridiomycosis-confirmed in this species-and climatic change (local warming and droughts). Habitat loss and the introduction of predatory non-native trout might also have contributed to some population declines, however these threats are unlikely to have caused the substantial decline of the species throughout its range.
54519		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve established in March 2006 to secure one of the last forested valleys for this and other threatened amphibian and bird species. Further surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species. Disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required, particularly if it is found that the species has suffered extensive declines due to chytridiomycosis.
54519		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of south-east Cuchilla San Lorenzo, in the north-west sector of Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (in the department of Magdalena), and the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,900-2,880m asl.
54519		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of sub-Andean forests. It can also adapt to some modification of its habitat. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54519		population	eng	This was a common species when last recorded in 1992. A population was rediscovered on 22 May 2006 when staff of the El Dorado Nature Reserve located two individuals in a small forested stream.
54519		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Climate change, habitat loss due to agriculture, and pollution from the fumigation of illegal crops are also major threats.
54520		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Chagres, but expanded habitat protection is recommended. Further survey work is needed to establish the limits of the species' range, and close monitoring of existing populations is necessary.
54520		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Atlantic versant of central Panama, although it is believed to occur much more widely. It is a low-altitude species, occurring at 10-730m asl.
54520		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of tropical lowland forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in forest streams.
54520		population	eng	This species is reasonably common at a number of localities, and there is little evidence of a decline. However, at Filo de Santa Rita, Provincia de Colón, while relatively abundant in October 2000, only one individual was seen in December 2002 (R. Ibáñez pers. obs.).
54520		threats	eng	The deforestation of habitat for agricultural use and general infrastructure development, as well as water pollution and stream sedimentation, are the main threats to this species. A number of congeners have recently disappeared over much of their range due to the effects of chytrid, although this species probably occurs below the altitude at which chytridiomycosis is prevalent.
54521		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a high priority to conduct surveys to determine the current population status of this species, as well as to initiate a captive-breeding programme
54521		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality: El Tambo, near Guisito, at 800m asl, Cauca Department, Colombia. Lötters (1996) suggested that the elevation given for the type locality (300m asl) was a typographic error in the original publication.
54521		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in tropical humid forests, and presumably breeds in streams.
54521		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
54521		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, as has occurred in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em> (although its occurrence at lower altitudes might afford it some level of protection from the disease). Additional threats include deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54522		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlapped with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and possibly reached the northern limit of the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
54522		distribution	eng	This species was recorded from the Provinces of Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Cotopaxi, and Pichincha, on the north-western versant of the Ecuadorian Andes, at elevations of 200-2,500m asl. Records from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, Valle del Cauca Department, in Colombia, refer to an unidentified, probably un-named species.
54522		habitat	eng	This was a terrestrial species of lowland and montane tropical rainforests. It was a stream breeding species.
54522		population	eng	The species appears to be extinct, with no records in Ecuador since 1989, despite extensive surveys in suitable habitat.
54522		threats	eng	The decline in Ecuador is unexplained, and is possibly due to the disease chytridiomycosis, although this seems unusual given that the species was also found at lower elevations where chytridiomycosis is often not considered to be a threat. Other possible factors contributing to the extinction of this species include general climate change, pollution and habitat loss.
54523		conservation	eng	Occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity. There is also a need to control populations of trout within the National Park.
54523		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Páramo de Palacio, Cundinamarca, Colombia, at an altitude of 3,000-3,300m asl.
54523		habitat	eng	It lives in páramo and does not tolerate habitat destruction. Breeding and larval development take place in fast-flowing streams.
54523		population	eng	This species was once abundant, but it has not been seen since 1993, despite repeated visits to the site.
54523		threats	eng	Although not proven, the most likely cause of the decline of this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. It is also likely to be threatened by fires set by cattle ranchers. In addition, introduced trout prey upon tadpoles in streams.
54524		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Survey work is urgently required to determine whether or not this species still persists, and, in view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving populations should immediately form part of an <em>ex-situ</em> management programme.
54524		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific slopes of northern Ecuador (Maldonado in the Province of Carchi), between 800 and 1,410m asl. Records of this species from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, Valle del Cauca Department, in Colombia refer to an unidentified, probably un-named species.
54524		habitat	eng	It lives on the border between lowland tropical rainforests and montane forests. It is terrestrial, presumably breeding in streams.
54524		population	eng	This species has disappeared from Ecuador, and there have been no records from this country since 1984.
54524		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has caused major declines in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Additional threats include deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the fumigation of illegal crops.
54525		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Carpanta, which borders Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza. Survey work is urgently needed to determine the population status of this species. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
54525		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Reserva Biológica Carpanta, Cundinamarca, Colombia, at an altitude of 2,900-3,350m asl.
54525		habitat	eng	It lives in páramo and cloud forest, and does not tolerate habitat destruction. It reproduces in fast-flowing streams.
54525		population	eng	This species was uncommon until 1990. A single pair was recorded in 1992; however, due to guerrilla activity, no one has subsequently returned to the original locality to look for it.
54525		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.
54526		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and just reaches the northern limit of Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. Additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still persists. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54526		distribution	eng	This species is known from Pichinca and Esmeraldas provinces, in the north-western versant of the Andes of Ecuador, between 700 and 2,200m asl. It is known from more than ten localities.
54526		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of lowland rainforest and humid montane forest. Eggs are laid in strings in streams, and tadpoles attach themselves to rocks.
54526		population	eng	There is no current information on the population status of this species; it was last recorded in 1989, despite survey efforts, suggesting a serious population decrease.
54526		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be a catastrophic decline, due to chytridiomycosis, as has occurred in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are also major threats to the species’ habitat, and very little suitable habitat remains.
54527		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the population status of the species. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
54527		distribution	eng	This species lives on the eastern slope of the eastern Andes, Meta Department, Villavicencio, Acacias, Vereda Portachuelo, via Manzanares, Colombia, at 1,370-1,560m asl.
54527		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams. It tolerates natural disturbances such as landslides, but not significant opening up of its habitat.
54527		population	eng	This species was abundant in the early 1980s, but was last seen in 1985 (despite subsequent surveys in 1987). No one has returned to look for this species since.
54527		threats	eng	It occurs in a very restricted area that is severely threatened by habitat destruction, particularly due to cattle ranching. However, the most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species.
54528		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54528		distribution	eng	This species is found in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, Río Cañaverales, Santander Department, Colombia, at 1,700-2,000m asl.
54528		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams. It tolerates disturbed forest.
54528		population	eng	During the course of multiple visits undertaken in 1979-1982, this species was found to be common. There have been no subsequent surveys for the species, with the exception of one survey in 1992 when this species was not recorded, suggesting a serious decrease.
54528		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.
54529		conservation	eng	Most of the range of this species is within the Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. A new monitoring project for this species was recently begun (www.andigena.org). In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, an <em>ex-situ</em> population might need to be established.
54529		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution of only a few square kilometres at the type locality, in the Páramo de Mucubají, in the Sierra de Santo Domingo, Venezuelan Andes. It has an altitudinal range of 2,300-3,500m asl.
54529		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of páramo and cloud forest, the highest environments in the Venezuelan Andes, resembling alpine tundra, but with daily temperature extremes. It is usually found within grasses and frailejones (<em>Espeletia</em> spp.), and along streams. It probably lives in the shrubs of the sub-páramo environment. It is photophilic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54529		population	eng	It is a very rare species. This is the only Venezuelan Andean amphibian for which an ongoing population monitoring programme exists. The population seems to have experienced a drastic decline in the last 15 years or so, to the point that no individuals of this species were recorded since 1993 (adults) or 1994 (larvae), until recent surveys confirmed that a few individuals (a total of 23 encountered) continue to survive in the wild (Barrio-Amorós 2004).
54529		threats	eng	<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection was confirmed for this species in two different studies (Lampo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006a, 2006b). Introduced trout, introduced conifers, fires caused by humans, over collection, and agriculture and infrastructure development for human settlement are all major threats. Severe dry periods have been associated to the declines experienced in populations of <em>Atelopus mucubajiensis</em>. (Lampo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006; Santiago-Paredes and La Marca 2006). The extreme dry events are thought to have favoured the infection and propagation of chytridiomycosis, which, in synergy with other factors, could be held responsible for the observed population declines.
54530		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still persists in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54530		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza, Colombia, between 2,900 and 3,350m asl.
54530		habitat	eng	It occurs in Andean cloud forests and páramos. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54530		population	eng	This species was common up until 1996, but four expeditions in 1998 and 2003 failed to turn up a single individual at any of the previous known localities.
54530		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has resulted in catastrophic declines of many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Cattle grazing is also a threat to the habitat of this species, and introduced trout have a negative impact on reproductive success.
54531		conservation	eng	The range of this species encompasses the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve was established in March 2006 to secure one of the last forested valleys for this and other threatened amphibian and bird species. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species and, given the threat of chytridiomycosis, a captive-breeding programme might be required.
54531		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of south-east Cuchilla San Lorenzo, in the north-west sector of Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve, in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,900 and 2,800m asl.
54531		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of sub-Andean forests, and can also tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54531		population	eng	This was a common species when it was last recorded in 1992. It was rediscovered in 2006, following survey work in the recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.
54531		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other major threats include climate change, habitat loss caused by agriculture (illegal crops) and logging, and pollution caused by the fumigation of illegal crops.
54532		conservation	eng	The type locality of the species is within Parque Nacional Cajas. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54532		distribution	eng	This species is known only from páramo habitats near Laguna Toreadora, in the Cordillera Occidental, in Azuay Province, Ecuador (Coloma 2002) at around 4,000m asl.
54532		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of herbaceous páramo. Some specimens have been found active close to streams and springs in an area of many interconnected pools, while others have been found on land under rocks (Coloma 2002). There is no specific information available on their breeding habits, but they are likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.
54532		population	eng	The current population status of this species is not known. It has not been recorded since July 1989, despite surveys within the range, suggesting a serious population decrease.
54532		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture (both crops and livestock), as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species' habitat. Invasive alien species are also a problem.
54533		conservation	eng	The range of this species slightly overlaps with Parque Nacional Podocarpus, although it has, to date, not been recorded from inside the park. Further survey work is required to determine the abundance of this species. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
54533		distribution	eng	This species is known from six localities, on the eastern flanks of the Andes in Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, at 2,000-3,450m asl.
54533		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of sub-páramo and páramo. There is no specific information available on breeding, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.
54533		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, but sampling effort through its range is insufficient. It was last recorded in September 1985.
54533		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Habitat loss and degradation as a result of mining and logging is a major threat.
54534		conservation	eng	The known range of the species is close to Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and to establish whether or not it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
54534		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Alto de Caicedo, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, between 1,800 and 2,670m asl.
54534		habitat	eng	It occurs along forested streams in sub-Andean and Andean forests. It is restricted to forest habitats requiring canopy cover over the stream to maintain suitable conditions. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54534		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown, but it was not uncommon when last collected. There has not been any recent survey work for this species.
54534		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Forests within the range of the species are being cleared for the planting of fruit trees, as well as illegal crops.
54535		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur within the Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada and Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still persists in its natural range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54535		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution, in cloud forests in the vicinities of the city of Mérida, in Mérida State, in the Cordillera de Mérida in the Venezuelan Andes. Its elevation ranges from 2,100-3,500 m asl.
54535		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of montane cloud forests. It is photophillic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54535		population	eng	It is now an extremely rare species, and although found in good numbers in 1978 and 1985, it was last recorded in 1994. Subsequent survey attempts to locate this species have failed to find any individuals, suggesting a serious population decrease.
54535		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss and degradation is also a major threat, due to agriculture (crops, livestock, and plantations), logging (in the past), and mining. Climate data from 1975-1990 revealed years with dry spells, which appear to correlate with years where drastic population declines occurred in this species (García<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
54536		conservation	eng	The species was known to occur in Cutervo National Park (Peru) and Tapichalaca Reserve (Ecuador).
54536		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pachydermus</span> is known from the Cordilleras de Tarros (at Cordillera Occidental) and Central of the Andes of northern Peru, departments of  Cajamarca and Amazonas, and from Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in southern Ecuador, Province of Zamora Chinchipe, at about 2,600 m asl (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
54536		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pachydermus</span> occurs in areas that include humid montane forest and cloud forest (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It occurs near streams in páramo and sub-páramo, and breeding takes place in streams. The species requires a permanent source of water (L. Coloma pers. comm. 2008).
54536		population	eng	The current population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pachydermus</span> in Peru is unknown. Fieldwork by the University of Kansas in February 1989 in the vicinity of Cutervo, Department of Cajamarca, revealed no <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus</span>. Nonetheless, the most recent record is from 1994 or 1995, close to San Andrés caves in Cutervo National Park. The only record from Ecuador is from September 1985. Searches at the Ecuadorian locality were carried out on February and September 2001 and on April 2004; they revealed no <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus</span> (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
54536		threats	eng	The San Andrés caves, the general area where the species was found in Peru, are located in Parque Nacional Cutervo, which has 8,214 hectares of land protected by the Peruvian Government. In spite of its protected status, potato and artichoke field crops are located in the area of the Cutervo caves and there is extensive cattle ranching inside the park. Much of the humid forest on the Peruvian side of the species' distribution has been cleared and cultivated, and at higher elevation <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> has been planted. In Ecuador, in the proximities of the species' distribution, 2,000 hectares of forest and paramo habitats are protected within the Tapichalaca Reserve, which is located south of Podocarpus National Park (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Atelopus pachydermus</span> occurs in an area close to the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus peruensis</span>, which disappeared in 1999/2000. Climate change and chytridiomycosis could be implicated in the species' disappearance (see Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
54537		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
54537		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Pastaza, in Pastaza Province, Ecuador, at 1,000m asl.
54537		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information known about its breeding biology, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, and to be a larval developer.
54537		population	eng	Its population status is not known, and it is not known to have been recorded since 1937.
54537		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining (in the future), and wood plantations are major threats to this species’ habitat.
54538		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected area, although it might occur in the Reserva Forestal Protectora El Predio Río Sucio, in the Municipio de Gachalá. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of the species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to be taken into captivity.
54538		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: San Isidro, Municipio de Ubala, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, at 2,600-3,100m asl.
54538		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.
54538		population	eng	There have been no reports of this species since its original description in 1963, but there appear to have been no attempts to relocate it.
54538		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat destruction due to potato farming is also a threat to this species.
54539		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Huascarán, and might be present in Reserva Nacional Callipuy, and Santuario Nacional Callipuy. Disease management and captive-breeding programmes appear necessary given the threat of chytridiomycosis.
54539		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern Peruvian Andes near the surroundings of Celendin, Abra Comulica, San Miguel de Pallaques and Province of Hualgayoc, all in the Departamento Cajamarca; it is (or was) present at Charco (3,700m asl), Huari, Departamento Ancash, and also in the Departamento Piura. Its altitudinal range is from 2,800-4,200m asl.
54539		habitat	eng	It inhabits puna and "sub-puna" (high altitude) habitats, with scattered tussock grass and <em>Baccharis</em> sp. They are sensitive to habitat degradation. Breeding takes place in streams, with larvae adhering to the undersides of large (30-50cm) rocks in swiftly flowing streams at a depth of approximately 30cm.
54539		population	eng	This species was very abundant until 1992, but there appears to have been a decline since then, and several populations, one of them at Cajamarca-Celendín, are believed to have disappeared (R. Schulte pers. comm.).
54539		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The chytrid pathogen has yet to be found in this species, but the disease is known to be spreading in northern Peru, and the declines already reported are likely to be related to this disease. It has previously been reported in the pet trade, although this appears to have stopped. A population in Cajamarca was lost due to water contamination from activities at a nearby gold mine.
54540		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Picachos. Survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54540		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Picachos, Veredas la Esperanza and Andalucia, Caquetá Department, Colombia, between 1,750 and 2,500m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
54540		habitat	eng	It occurs and breeds in streams in premontane moist forest.
54540		population	eng	It is only known from four specimens collected between 1994 and 1998; there has been no subsequent survey work for the species.
54540		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to the planting of illegal crops is a threat to this species.
54541		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and current population status of this species. Considering that chytridiomycosis is the likely overwhelming threat, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54541		distribution	eng	This species is known from Alto Pance (Corea), Municipality of Cali, in the Valle del Cauca Department on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, at 2,600m asl.
54541		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and diurnal species, with all specimens having been found in artificially cleared forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but it presumably breeds in streams like other species in the genus.
54541		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens, and was last recorded in 1996.
54541		threats	eng	The most serious threat to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.
54542		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are required to establish whether or not this species still survives. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54542		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, "Piñango", at 2,920m asl, and from a second population a few kilometres away, in cloud forest near the village of Pinango, Mérida State, in the Andes of Venezuela. It has been recorded from 2,300-2,920m asl.
54542		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of montane cloud forest. It is photophilic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54542		population	eng	This is a rare species. The last recorded observation was in 1997, despite repeated searches, thus suggesting a serious population decrease.
54542		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has also caused major declines in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to logging and agriculture (cattle ranching, crops) -- the type locality was completely destroyed by the mid-1980s -- and introduced trout, are also major threats to the species. With increased insolation as a result of climate change this species could be at enhanced risk due to its sun-basking habits.
54543		conservation	eng	Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Sangay, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and possibly Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still survives. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54543		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities in the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, from Volcán Reventador to the south, to Cordillera de Cutucú. It has been recorded from 1,000-2,000m asl.
54543		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information known about breeding, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.
54543		population	eng	The population of this species has declined dramatically. The last record was in July 1985 (an amplectant pair) despite repeated visits to known (El Reventador) or inferred localities (within its extent of occurrence) (Bustamante 2002).
54543		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, and which has also led to catastrophic population declines in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), logging, mining, and infrastructure development for human settlement, as well as agricultural pollution, are also major threats.
54544		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. A captive-breeding program for this species has been established, and there is ongoing research investigating the biology of a population of this species that apparently has chytridiomycosis.
54544		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the lower Andean versant in the upper Río Huallaga drainage, Departamentos San Martín and Loreto, Peru. It is present at approximately 600-900m asl. There are populations resembling this species from the north-eastern versant of Peru and adjacent Ecuador, but these are not included in this account until their taxonomic status can be more conclusively verified.
54544		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species of lowland and premontane tropical forest. Breeding takes place in streams. It is not known how adaptable the species is to habitat modification.
54544		population	eng	The current population status of this species is not known, although it was recorded as recently as July 2004. It is now considered to be relatively rare, and has disappeared from many known localities.
54544		threats	eng	The threats to this species include the potentially devastating impacts of chytridiomycosis (the disease is already present in northern Peru) which was confirmed in this species in 2003. Other threats include localized habitat loss through conversion to agricultural land.
54545		conservation	eng	It might occur within a protected area (Parque Regional Natural Ucumarí, in Risaralda Department). Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.
54545		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the border of Risaralda and Quindio Departments, Colombia, between 2,200 and 2,900m asl. It might occur more widely than current records suggest.
54545		habitat	eng	It is found on vegetation along streams and away from streams in sub-Andean and Andean forests; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54545		population	eng	This is a rare species, and was last recorded in 1992.
54545		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.
54546		conservation	eng	The presence of this species in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul is possible, but is not confirmed. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures will probably need to include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
54546		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern versant of the Cordillera Azul (Departamento Ucayali), ca. 3km by road after Divisoria on the Tingo Mariá-Pucallpa road, Peru. It was collected at an elevation of 1,600m asl.
54546		habitat	eng	It is recorded from primary montane tropical forest; it is not known whether or not it occurs in modified habitats. Breeding is believed to take place in streams, like other species in the genus.
54546		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species. It appears that the last record was in 1992, but the lack of subsequent observations might be due to lack of survey work.
54546		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The chytrid pathogen has yet to be found in this species, but the disease is known to be spreading in northern Peru. Its habitat might also be threatened by small-scale agriculture (e.g., cocoa and tea), but this requires further confirmation.
54547		conservation	eng	Even though it is a lowland species its potential susceptibility to chytridiomycosis should be investigated as part of its conservation measures, especially in view of the lack of recent records.
54547		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northern spurs of north-western Medellin, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 450m asl. It is most likely a more widespread species, but further survey work is needed.
54547		habitat	eng	This species has been found in vegetation along streams, but it has not been recorded outside forest habitats. Its breeding habitats are unknown but the larvae are most likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.
54547		population	eng	It is considered to be quite rare, and it has not been recorded since 1988.
54547		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by habitat fragmentation, water pollution from mining, and infrastructure development for mining. It appears to be a lowland species, and might therefore be less at risk from chytridiomycosis than some other <em>Atelopus</em> species.
54548		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required, as is further survey work to establish the population status of this species.
54548		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and the immediate vicinity, from between Balsa Puerto and Moyobamba (San Martin), Peru. It occurs at 1,000-2,000m asl.
54548		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of montane primary forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It is a stream-breeding species and not believed to be present in modified habitats.
54548		population	eng	There is no information on population status or abundance, although it was recorded as recently as 2004.
54548		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>; however, the chytrid pathogen has not yet been positively confirmed in this species.
54549		conservation	eng	The range of this species is protected by both Parque Nacional Tapantí and Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo (although it is now believed extinct in the latter area). Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still persists. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
54549		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid montane forest in central Costa Rica in the Cordilleras Central and Talamanca in Costa Rica from 1,100-2,200m asl.
54549		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces in stream margins in premontane rainforest and lower montane rainforest. It is a diurnal, stream-breeding species, and used to be found in great concentrations during the reproductive period from July to August (Savage 2002).
54549		population	eng	This species was formerly abundant but (as of August 2007) it has not been seen since 1986 despite repeated searches; although further searches are needed to finally confirm the exinction of this species. It was formerly abundant on the slopes of Volcán Barva, but is now believed extinct there (Savage 2002).
54549		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other threats to this species might include climate change, collecting for the pet trade, and possibly pollution.
54550		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the limits of its range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
54550		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Serrania Las Baldias, and from one other locality, Belnira, Paramo Morron, both of which are in Antioquia Department, in Colombia, between 2,800 and 3,100m asl.
54550		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation along streams in natural forest edge in the high Andes, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54550		population	eng	It is not a common species, and recent surveys have not found any specimens at the type locality; a decline has also been observed at the other known locality. The most recent record of the species was apparently in 2000.
54550		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other major threats include habitat loss, due to agricultural expansion (illegal crops), water pollution from agriculture, and possibly climate change.
54551		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species still survives. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures should include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
54551		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central Andes of Colombia, from Cauca and Tolima Departments, between 2,500 and 3,000m asl.
54551		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground near streams and also in open areas; it has not been recorded from anthropogenically disturbed habitats. The tadpoles develop in streams.
54551		population	eng	Before 1999 this was a common species, but it has only been recorded once since then (2001) at a single locality despite numerous searches. A serious decline appears to have taken place.
54551		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (including the planting of illegal crops), as well as water pollution from agriculture, are major threats to the species. Climate change might also be a threat, but this needs to be investigated further.
54552		conservation	eng	It is found within the Reserva Comunal El Sira.
54552		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serrania de Sira, in the upper Amazon basin of eastern central Peru, at 2,400m asl.
54552		habitat	eng	It is restricted to an isolated, and mostly inaccessible, mountain ridge in the upper Amazon basin, where the habitat is generally montane and premontane tropical forest. This is a terrestrial species that is presumed to breed in streams, and which is probably intolerant of habitat modification.
54552		population	eng	There is very little information available on its population status, and only a few specimens have ever been seen. It appears to have last been recorded in 1988, and it is not known whether or not a population decline could have occurred since then. Due to the remoteness of the locality there have been no recent surveys for this species.
54552		threats	eng	There is little human disturbance of this very isolated area, although both the pet trade and infection with chytridiomycosis are potential threats to this species in the future, and could lead to a rapid population decline. However, its distribution is so isolated that it might be safe from these threats.
54553		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Research into the species' population status is currently underway (Fundación ProAves 2008). In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
54553		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Mesopotamia, near Páramo de Sonsón, in the municipality of Sonsón, Vereda Caunzal, on the eastern side of the Cordillera Central, about 15km to the east of the municipality of Argelia, in Colombia. It was recorded at 1,500m asl, and might occur more widely.
54553		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in the under-storey of forest along streams; it has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54553		population	eng	The population status is unknown. This is a relatively newly described species which had not been recorded since its discovery in 1996, until its recent (2008) rediscovery (Fundación ProAves 2008).
54553		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, a factor implicated in catastrophic population declines in many montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and the planting of illegal crops, and water pollution from agriculture, are major threats to the species.
54554		conservation	eng	The small range of this species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still survives, and a project aimed at evaluating their population status and at assessing environmental and climate conditions of the cloud forests of Mérida State in the Venezuelan Andes (where populations of this toad might occur in remote ridges and valleys) has been initiated. <em>Ex-situ</em> conservation action might also be required.
54554		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single stream in an isolated cloud forest, the Paramito de San Francisco, near the town of Guaraque, in Mérida State, Cordillera de Mérida, in Venezuela. It has the most restricted geographic range of any Venezuelan <em>Atelopus</em> species, and lives at an altitude of 2,400-2,718m asl.
54554		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of montane cloud forests. It is photophilic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54554		population	eng	At the time of its discovery, this species was particularly abundant at the type locality. However, it is now extremely rare, or perhaps even extinct; the last record of the species was in 1990.
54554		threats	eng	Infection with <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in this species was reported by Lampo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006). Local climate data indicate that one of the most severe dry seasons recorded in the region since 1970 coincided with epidemic events. In addition, clear cutting has greatly reduced the amount of available habitat for this species.
54555		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Further research is necessary to determine the degree of threat posed by chytridiomycosis. A captive-breeding program for this species has been initiated.
54555		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador and eastern Peru, to Amazonas, Pará, Amapá (Brazil), and the Guianas (Frost 1985; but see taxonomic notes). It ranges from sea level to 600m asl.
54555		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of terra firme tropical rainforest and in the leaf-litter near running streams. It appears to be restricted to undisturbed habitats. Breeding takes place in fast-flowing streams.
54555		population	eng	It is locally abundant. It is unlikely to be declining in most of its range, but in Ecuador it is thought to have declined significantly and there are no records since November 1994. It was formerly abundant at Madre de Dios in Peru (A. Salas, in litt. To E. La Marca), but there is no recent information. It appears to be stable at the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005).
54555		threats	eng	Threats to this species include forest loss due to agriculture, and logging and clear cutting, especially in eastern Amazônia. It occurs below the altitude at which chytridiomycosis is normally a problem, but declines have nevertheless taken place in Ecuador and perhaps also Peru, and it is possible that animals from Iquitos in Peru succumbed to this disease (R. Schulte pers. comm. to E. La Marca).
54556		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
54556		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Colombian Pacific lowlands, in Valle de Cauca, Risaralda, and Choco Departments, between 50 and 500m asl.
54556		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter in humid forests close to water sources, and is presumed to breed in streams. It has been found in primary and secondary forest, but not in heavily degraded areas.
54556		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, and has apparently not shown any dramatic population declines. It has been recorded as recently as 2001.
54556		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Since it occurs at very low altitudes, it might not be as prone to chytridiomycosis as other members of its genus.
54557		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected area. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
54557		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities, some 20km apart, in the Colombian Andes: Alto San Miguel and Aguadita, Municipios de Sibaté, and Fusagasuga, Cundinamarca Department, between 2,000 and 2,800m asl.
54557		habitat	eng	It occurs in pristine and disturbed cloud forests. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
54557		population	eng	This species was common until the time of the last record in 1999, although there have been no subsequent surveys for the species.
54557		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, and water pollution caused by run-off from pig farms, are also serious threats faced by this species.
54558		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional El Tamá in Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Natural Tamá in neighbouring Colombia. In view of the risk of infections with the chytrid fungus, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status, as well as to initiate a captive-breeding programme.
54558		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Páramo de Tamá, on the Venezuelan-Colombian border, in Apure State, Venezuela. It has been heard in Colombia from Venezuela, along the stream that marks the border between the two countries. Its known altitudinal range is 2,950-3,200m asl.
54558		habitat	eng	It lives in high-elevation sphagnum bogs in páramo habitat. The tadpoles have been found in streams.
54558		population	eng	This species has not been seen since 1987, but there have not been any surveys within its range since this time.
54558		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The only likely threat to its habitat is fire.
54559		conservation	eng	In Bolivia, it is present in the Parque Nacional Carrasco, Parque Nacional Madidi and Pilon Lajas. In Peru, it is present in Manu Biosphere Reserve. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
54559		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Andes in Peru and Bolivia, at elevations of 600-2,500m asl. The type locality is the Marcapata Valley in Peru, in the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes (south-eastern Cusco Department). Other Peruvian records are from areas close to Puno Department, at 1,700-2,100m asl (Duellman 1979, Köhler 2000a). In Bolivia there are records from La Paz Department, in the Yungas region, and south in the Chapare region,  Cochabamba Department, eastern slopes of the Andes (Fugler 1984, De la Riva 1990, Reynolds and Foster 1992, Köhler 2000a). The larval description of <em>A. tricolor</em> comes from 12 samples from Paucartambo-Atalaya, 68km (by road) north-east of Union Bridge, at Tachila River, 1,700m asl, Cusco Department, Peru; and five specimens from 40km north Caranavi, Buena Vista Hills, Nor Yungas Province, La Paz Department, Bolivia (Lavilla <em>et al.</em> 1997).
54559		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet primary montane forest, corresponding to the Yungas Forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000a). Breeding takes place in streams. Köhler (2000a) observed this species perching, at night, at 0.3-1.2m elevation, in vegetation in disturbed primary forest, and secondary growth along roadsides. Males call in small groups of 4-10 individuals.
54559		population	eng	It is still common within its range, and the declines associated with other species of <em>Atelopus</em> have not yet been noted in this species. It has been recorded as recently as 2003.
54559		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss, due to small-holder farming activities (coffee, coca, chili peppers), and pollution, as a result of increased stream sedimentation. Chytridiomycosis has yet to be found in this species, but is a potential major threat in the future. Introduced predatory trout might be a threat in some areas.
54560		conservation	eng	The species is present in three protected areas in Panama, and was previously found in a number of Costa Rican protected areas. <em>Ex-situ</em> conservation measures are now needed to ensure the future survival of this species, and a captive-breeding program has been initiated.
54560		distribution	eng	This species is known from both Atlantic and Pacific versants of the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, up to 2,000m asl. It is also present on outlying ridges and hills down to 16m asl at a few lowland sites. The species is absent from the lowlands of the Pacific north-west (Savage 2002). Records from Colombia are in error. Recent declines have reduced the Costa Rican range to only one known locality, Fila Chonta, 10km north-west of the city of Quepos.
54560		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest; specimens recorded at lowland rainforest localities were all found along high-gradient, rocky streams, in hilly areas (Savage 2002). It is associated with small fast-flowing streams and is often found along the banks and sitting out on rocks in streams; at night they sleep in crevices or low vegetation. They forrmely occurred in large concentrations during the dry season, from December to May (Savage 2002). Eggs are laid in water and are probably attached to rocks.
54560		population	eng	Over 100 populations of this species were known from Costa Rica where it was often quite common. Drastic declines began in Monteverde in 1988 and the species was thought to have been extirpated in Costa Rica by 1996. However, after nearly eight years during which the species was thought to be extinct, a remnant population was discovered near Quepos, on the Pacific coastal range, in 2003, and was surveyed again in 2005 when more individuals were found. In Panama, some populations have declined, but others persist. For example, Lips (1999) reported a mass mortality in Fortuna, Provincia de Chiriquí, which affected this species in December 1996-January 1997. This site was visited again in February 1998, but the species was not found (Ibáñez 1999). It has been recorded in Panama as recently as November 2002, but it is believed to still be in serious decline.
54560		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has led to catastrophic population declines in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi. One specimen collected in 2003 from the only known site at which the species survives in Costa Rica tested positive for chytrid infection, and the disease was also confirmed in individuals in 1986, 1990, 1992 and 1997. Other threats to the species include habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests, and predation by introduced trout. The only known site in Costa Rica is under serious threat of a landslide that could potentially destroy the entire stream section where they are presently found. It was collected by the thousands in the 1970s and shipped to Germany as part of the international pet trade.
54561		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54561		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Schluch Las Peñas (600m), unweit von Maracay". This area is now believed to be Pozo del Diablo en las cabeceras del Río Güey, on the southern versant of the Cordillera de la Costa, State of Aragua, Venezuela at 700m asl.
54561		habitat	eng	The original habitat at the type locality, semi-deciduous humid forest, has been drastically modified by repeated clearing and burning, and only a savannah-like environment remains. Details from the collection series suggest that the species congregated for breeding in small streams.
54561		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series collected by C. Vogel in 1933. Extensive searches in recent years have failed to find any animals, and the species is now believed to be extinct.
54561		threats	eng	The species is believed to have become extinct following the extensive conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.
54562		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species. Disease management and captive-breeding programmes are recommended.
54562		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern slope of the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the Department of Magdalena, and from the Guatapuri river basin in the department of Cesar, in northern Colombia, between 1,500 and 2,900m asl.
54562		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests. It can also adapt to some modification of its habitat. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.
54562		population	eng	This species was considered to be common when it was last recorded in 1992. There have been no further surveys within its range since then.
54562		threats	eng	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Habitat fragmentation, primarily due to agriculture, and pollution, resulting from agricultural practices and the fumigation of crops, are also major threats.
54563		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Panama by national legislation (as <em>Atelopus varius zetek</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>) decree No. 23 of January 30, 1967. It has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Nacional Altos de Campana and Parque Nacional Omar Torrijos Herrera. A successful captive-breeding programme involving many zoos in North America is in place, although no re-introductions will be made until existing threats can be addressed. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is held at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama; eggs and/or larvae have been produced to date (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September 2007).
54563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Panama, occurring east of the main Tabasará ridge in Provincias Coclé and Panamá at 335-1,315m asl.
54563		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of tropical montane forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in forest streams.
54563		population	eng	This species was reasonably common at a number of localities, and has been recorded as recently as 2005, but it is apparently less abundant north of El Copé, in comparison with observations in 1980. It is very rare or extinct on Cerro Campana. It has been extinct in the El Valle de Antón for approximately 40 years. In recent years, populations have been declining catastrophically due to chytridiomycosis, and the well-known El Copé population collapsed and disappeared over the course of a few months in late 2004 (K. Lips pers. comm.). The chytridiomycosis epidemic appears to be spreading from west to east through Panama, and populations in the eastern part of its range are now at severe risk of disappearing.
54563		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has led to catastrophic population declines in many other species of montane <em>Atelopus</em>. The deforestation of habitat for both agriculture and general infrastructure development, water pollution, and over collection for the pet trade are also threats to this species. In 2003, a road from Sorá to El Valle was opened along the ridge of the Cordillera Central, resulting in heavy sedimentation of most streams on the Pacific and Caribbean slopes, which has negatively affected a significant portion of the habitat used by this species (R. Ibañez, in litt. to E. La Marca).
54564		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Condorito and the Reserva Hídrica Provincial de Pampa de Achala.
54564		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the high plateau (Sierra Grande) of Córdoba and San Luis Provinces, Argentina, at 1,600-2,200m asl.
54564		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky outcrops in montane grasslands and reproduces in mountain streams during the final snowfalls of late August. Free-living larvae develop in these streams, and can occur below ice.<br/>Adults and juveniles are often found in close proximity of the breeding site stream. Juveniles and adults select granite outcrops after the breeding season and avoid the heavily grazed areas. Adults also select the stream and use tall tussock grassland in proportion to its availability. Juveniles use loose, flat, relatively small stones as shelters, while adults use larger rocks (Jofré et al., 2007).  Some habitat disturbance is tolerated.
54564		population	eng	It is common within its limited range. The population was apparently stable through 2002.
54564		threats	eng	The threats to this species are habitat loss due to extensive cattle ranching and the pollution of water sources by cattle. Some populations might also be declining due to fires. In addition, cattle affect larval survivorship directly by trampling, and indirectly through sediment deposition at the breeding sites, resulting from increased stream bank erosion. Future conservation management plans for the species should include the protection of the breeding sites and the surrounding terrestrial area (Jofré et al., 2007).
54565		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
54565		distribution	eng	This species is generally regarded as being distributed from northwest Amazonas state in Brazil, north into Colombia east of the Andes, and into southern Amazonas state in Venezuela.
54565		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of lowland tropical rainforests. It lays its eggs in shallow pools where the tadpoles also develop. It is an adaptable species
54565		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54565		threats	eng	There are no threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
54566		conservation	eng	Its known range is within Ailaoshan National Nature Reserve.
54566		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Shuangbai County in Yunnan Province, China, from 2,550-2,600m asl. It might occur more widely.
54566		habitat	eng	It inhabits bamboo forests and presumably breeds in the streams in bamboo forests and broadleaf forests.
54566		population	eng	Only one specimen has ever been collected, and this species is considered to be very rare and hard to find.
54566		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
54567		conservation	eng	This species is found in El Pinacade Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.
54567		distribution	eng	This species occurs from extreme southeastern California, southern Arizona and extreme southern New Mexico in the USA, south into Mexico. It has nearly been extirpated in California. It occurs from sea level to 1,610m asl (Stebbins 1985).
54567		habitat	eng	This species ranges from arid mesquite/creosotebush lowlands and arid grasslands to oak/sycamore/walnut groves in mountain canyons. It is often near permanent water but is also found near temporary water or far from water. It takes refuge in rodent burrows. It breeds and lays eggs in ponds, slow-moving streams, etc.
54567		population	eng	The total adult population size for this species is unknown but surely is many thousands. It is common throughout its range.
54567		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified (other than localized ones) for this species.
54568		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur within a protected area. More exhaustive searches are needed to determine the population status of this species.
54568		distribution	eng	This species is known only from elevations of 2,050-2,200m asl in the Loja Basin, an inter-Andean valley in Loja Province, Ecuador (Pramuk and Kadivar 2003). It is likely to have a restricted distribution, and recent surveys confirm this.
54568		habitat	eng	The species has been collected in small pools and irrigation canals. Little is known of its habitat requirements or ecology, but breeding is presumed to take place in freshwater by larval development.
54568		population	eng	Past collections indicate that the species was fairly common at areas nearby creeks, even near plantations; however, surveys undertaken between 1989 and 2001 failed to find the species. It appears that it has not been collected since 1968, and a serious decrease might have taken place.
54568		threats	eng	The apparent declines of this species might in part be due to the modification of much of the Loja basin area for agriculture, urbanization, and other regional development. It appears that populations of this toad in the area surrounding Provincia Loja have been severely affected by human activities (Pramuk and Kadivar 2003). Disease might also be a factor but there is no evidence to confirm this.
54569		conservation	eng	Its range includes either or both of Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboró.
54569		distribution	eng	The type specimens of this species come from a locality 12.7km north-west of Empalme, at 2,150m asl (Ergueta and Harvey 1996), in Bolivia, but Köhler (2000) did not find any individuals in this area. Harvey and Smith (1993) point out that the type locality for this species is located at La Serrania de Siberia, between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz Departments in Bolivia. This is the only known locality.
54569		habitat	eng	This species occurs in aquatic and terrestrial habitats within cloud forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000), including small streams (Köhler 2000), and is a larval developing species.
54569		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54569		threats	eng	The major threat to it is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development.
54570		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
54570		distribution	eng	This species is found in North America from Labrador, Hudson Bay area, and Manitoba to northern Texas, Louisiana, central Alabama, northern Georgia, and North Carolina (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from most of the Coastal Plain.
54570		habitat	eng	It inhabits a wide variety of habitats, ranging from forests to prairies, wherever there is sufficient moisture and food. It hides under objects or burrows underground when inactive. In New York, distribution is apparently influenced by soil pH (Wyman 1988). It breeds in nearly any slow or standing body of water, including both permanent and temporary pools, generally in sites with few if any fishes (e.g., Holomuzki 1995). Eggs are laid and larvae develop in shallow areas. Embryo survival declines greatly at pH below 4.5 (J. Herpetol. 26:70). In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).
54570		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant. It is stable overall, with localized declines.
54570		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
54571		conservation	eng	There are conservation units present within its range.
54571		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in Amazonian Brazil and Colombia: Taracuá, Rio Vaupes, Brazil; Amazonas and Vaupes Departments of Colombia near the Brazilian border; and Vichada Department of Colombia near the Venezuelan border. It presumably occurs more widely, and is likely to be found in Venezuela and Peru.
54571		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter in tropical rainforest. Embryonic and larval development occurs in temporary pools.
54571		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species because it is rarely collected.
54571		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species in Brazil. In Colombia, it is threatened by deforestation.
54572		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in China support this species.
54572		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China including Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hubei, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. It occurs from 750-3,020m asl.
54572		habitat	eng	It inhabits grassland and forests. It breeds in streams, pools, backwaters in rivers and ponds where the larvae also develop.
54572		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
54572		threats	eng	Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine is a major threat to this species.
54573		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54573		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southwestern Cape in South Africa, ranging from near Humansdorp in the east along the coastal flats and Cape Fold Mountains to Nieuwoudtville in the west. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl. There are very few recent records from the eastern part of its range, and there might be genuine gaps in its distribution not reflected in the map.
54573		habitat	eng	It is a species of fynbos heathland, surviving to some extent in agricultural areas. It breeds in temporary depressions in sandy areas, and also in clay soils.
54573		population	eng	It has disappeared from certain sites where it used to be common around Cape Town and Stellenbosch, but it is probably more stable and common through most of its range. It is thinly spread, and is rarely encountered in the eastern part of its distribution, probably due to limited habitat, but large-scale emergences have been observed.
54573		threats	eng	The main threats are continuing coastal development, the impacts of alien plants on its habitat, and wetland drainage for urbanization and agriculture.
54574		conservation	eng	It is present in the Farasan Islands Protected Area, Saudi Arabia.
54574		distribution	eng	This species is generally restricted to sites of surface water in widely separated areas of the southern Arabian Peninsula. It is absent from eastern Yemen and southern and central Oman. It is present on the Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,300m asl.
54574		habitat	eng	It is an opportunistic species that is present wherever there are water sources available; this includes garden courtyards, oasis, permanent springs, irrigation canals and permanent small rivers. Breeding takes place in stagnant and slow-moving water.
54574		population	eng	This species is common at water sources.
54574		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species; much of its range is undeveloped.
54575		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas. Further research is needed to assist its conservation.
54575		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "from a pass approximately 5km (by road) north-east of Mendoza (06° 18'S; 77° 27'W, altitude approximately 2,400m asl), Provincia Rodriguez de Mendoza, Departamento de Amazonas, Peru" (Duellman and Schulte 1992).
54575		habitat	eng	Its habitat is montane tropical rainforest, and individuals have been found in bromeliads. Its breeding habits are not known, though it presumably breeds by larval development.
54575		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population status.
54575		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
54576		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research to determine the status of populations should be carried out. It occurs in several protected areas.
54576		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Brazil, Argentina (south to Chubut Province), Uruguay and Bolivia, from sea level up to 2,600m asl.
54576		habitat	eng	It is found at small ponds or bogs with stagnant water, in dry, temperate habitat, mostly in open areas. In Brazil and Argentina, it occurs mainly on the coastal zone. Males call at night from in the water or on the exposed edge of the water. Oviposition occurs in these temporary waterbodies and tadpoles feed and develop in the same site. It has adapted to anthropogenic disturbance.
54576		population	eng	It was abundant in 2003 in Argentina.
54576		threats	eng	It is collected for educational and scientific use and threatened by mistreatment from children and by road kills, but the species in general is not threatened.
54577		conservation	eng	The prevention of water pollution is needed. The species occurs in several protected areas.
54577		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution from Coquimbo (25°S) to Arauco Gulf (37°S), Chile, at elevations of 0-1,500m asl.
54577		habitat	eng	It occurs near rivers, streams and reservoirs. Adults hide in small holes or under stones during the daytime. It reproduces in water near where it lives. The tadpoles are free swimming.
54577		population	eng	Large populations were seen in 2003.
54577		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a threat to this species, as is water pollution caused by agriculture, for example pine plantations, agricultural crops and cattle.
54578		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54578		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of Ethiopia (on both sides of the Rift Valley) and Eritrea. It is known with certainty only between 1,875 and 3,000m asl. Records down to 200m asl in Eritrea and 600m asl in southeastern Ethiopia require confirmation.
54578		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland. There is some suggestion that the species might extend into arid savannah at lower elevations, but this requires confirmation. It breeds in permanent and probably also temporary pools (including in artificially maintained livestock-watering sites) in montane grassland.
54578		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
54578		threats	eng	Populations of this species are presumably impacted by environmental degradation due to human settlement and agricultural encroachment. However, this species is probably adaptable, and its habitat is not declining very rapidly, and so it is unlikely to be seriously at risk.
54579		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. In Borneo the protection of large areas of rainforest in Kalimantan and Sarawak is needed. In Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia this species inhabits almost every protected forest area. It is also protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.
54579		distribution	eng	This species is found from Kyaik Ti Yo National Park in Mon State, Myanmar, through western Thailand, Tenasserim and Malaysia (including Penang and Tioman) to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Natuna Besar and southwest Sulawesi (where it is introduced)), and Malaysian Borneo and Brunei. It is absent from Singapore, Phuket and other islands. It occurs from lowlands up to 1,200m asl (up to 1,400m asl in Sumatra).
54579		habitat	eng	In Borneo it is apparently confined to the banks of rainforest streams and rivers throughout its life cycle, and has been recorded only from heavily forested areas. It has not been reported from disturbed or heavily logged forests. Its larvae live on the bottom of riffles and rapids. In Sumatra and Java it is found in rivers or along small streams in various habitats, from primary rainforest to degraded areas and even near cities. On these islands, the species can tolerate a considerable amount of pollution and is still abundant where other species have disappeared.
54579		population	eng	Its abundance throughout its range varies greatly. It can be present and abundant, present but uncommon, or absent from forests that appear roughly the same.
54579		threats	eng	In Borneo the destruction of large portions of the lowland forests and the reduction of remaining forests into fragmented mosaic are the principal threats. On Borneo, deforestation has an immediate impact on larval development through the siltation of streams. However, in some other places (especially Java) it breeds in polluted rivers in cities. In Sabah and parts of Peninsular Malaysia, it is eaten by the local people.
54580		conservation	eng	It is only known from a small nature reserve, called Tongbiguan.
54580		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Yangbi, on the western side of Yunling Mountain, in Yunnan Province, China, from 1,800-2,400m asl.
54580		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain forests and cultivated fields, and breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.
54580		population	eng	It is not uncommon within its restricted range.
54580		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction taking place within its range due to smallholder farming.
54581		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas including Ruhuna National Park, Bundala National Park, Muthurajawela Sanctuary and the Victoria-Randenigala-Rantembe Sanctuary.
54581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and southeastern Sri Lanka. It occurs from sea level up to 200m asl.
54581		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of wet evergreen tropical forest and dry lands. Specimens have also been recorded in areas of human habitation. Adults are found under stones, leaf-litter and other ground cover. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
54581		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs. It is more common in areas outside primary forest. Although there are no quantitative data available on population size or trends, the population of this toad is considered to be stable at present.
54581		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. It is very common in areas of human habitation.
54582		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas on the island.
54582		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China, and occurs up to 2,700m asl.
54582		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forest, cultivated fields, mixed forests and orchards. It breeds in streams and pools where the larvae also develop.
54582		population	eng	This is a very common species.
54582		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species. It is also collected for food and traditional medicine.
54583		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mortenson Lake National Wildlife Refuge, where a recovery programme, using captive-bred animals and re-introductions, is being implemented. TNC recently acquired a 1,800-acre tract at Mortensen Lake and has arranged a conservation easement with an adjacent landowner. Lake George also is a toad refuge. The success of the recovery programme probably depends on finding some way to combat chytridiomycosis in the wild.
54583		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Laramie Basin, Wyoming, USA. The historical range extent was approximately 2,330km² (USFWS data). As of 2002, it was extant only at Mortenson Lake National Wildlife Refuge, which encompasses four impoundments: Mortenson, Garber, Gibbs, and Soda lakes; the refuge is closed to the public (USFWS 2002e). The extant occurrence probably would be extirpated without recent annual releases of captive-reared toadlets. Populations at former re-introduction sites (Lake George on the Hutton Lake National Wildlife Refuge, and Rush Lake) have been lost due to drought (USFWS 2002e).
54583		habitat	eng	Historically, it is associated with floodplain ponds along the Big and Little Laramie Rivers; use of lakes might have been limited due to saline conditions; irrigation might have flushed out the lakes and made them more suitable for toads (G. Baxter pers. comm.). Currently, it occurs in the vicinity of lakes and adjacent meadows. It uses rodent burrows for shelter. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water.
54583		population	eng	This species was common in the 1950s, but underwent a large decline in the 1960s and 1970s; it was thought to be extinct in the wild in the mid-1980s, but was found again at Mortenson Lake in 1987 and captive propagation began in the mid-1990s using toads from Mortenson Lake (USFWS 2002e). At Mortenson Lake, there has been no natural reproduction by wild toads since 1991; the population is maintained through release of captive-reared young (Parker, Anderson and Lindzey 2000). In June 2002, a survey at Mortenson Lake NWR yielded 124 yearlings and 4 adults (USFWS 2002e). Limited natural reproduction and recruitment of a few metamorphosed juveniles occurred in 2002 (USFWS 2002e). Despite releases of captive-reared individuals, the population at Mortenson Lake NWR appears to be declining (USFWS 2002e).
54583		threats	eng	Mortenson Lake, site of the only known extant population, is infected with the amphibian chytrid fungus (USFWS 2002e). This fungus has been implicated in declines and extinctions of amphibian species worldwide. Retrospective analysis shows that the fungus has been present at Mortenson Lake since at least 1989. In addition, chytridiomycosis is the most commonly seen disease in the captive population. Predation, pesticide use, irrigation practices, and lack of genetic diversity might also limit the abundance of Wyoming Toads in the Laramie Basin. The cause of the original decline remains unknown but might be associated with the invasion of chytrid into the area (USFWS 2002e). Mortenson Lake recently has become more saline (and less suitable for toads) as a result of drought-related increases in evaporation (USFWS 2002e). Salt-cedar was found (and removed) at Hutton Lake NWR in 2002. This plant has the potential to reduce habitat suitability (USFWS 2002e). For the past several years, beginning in late summer, adults with bacterial and fungal infections have been found moribund or dead (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 1999). Predators, probably mustelids, killed several radio-tagged individuals in 1998 (Parker, Anderson and Lindzey 2000).
54584		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu) and Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka). The species has been the focus of recent studies (S.D. Biju 1998-2001).
54584		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India, and has been recorded from Kudremukh, Ponmudi and Kalakad. Specimens collected in Maharashtra are misidentifications of <em>Bufo c.f. scaber</em> (S.D. Biju pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,500m asl.
54584		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species primarily associated with montane tropical moist forest, and is presumed to breed in streams. Individuals have been recorded in abandoned eucalyptus plantations. It has not been recorded from agricultural areas.
54584		population	eng	This is a rare species, and there are no estimates of population size or trends. Populations are fragmented, and the species is believed to be declining throughout much of its range.
54584		threats	eng	The main threat is the conversion of areas of suitable habitat to intensive plantations (tea, eucalyptus and <em>Acacia</em>), and industrial development and urbanization around Ponmudi.
54585		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54585		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from coastal northern Colombia, through Venezuela (from the Orinoco basin northwards), to the lower elevations of Trinidad. However, because of the taxonomic problems associated with this species, this distribution might not be very meaningful. It occurs up to 400m asl in Venezuela, and up to 1,000m asl at Santa Marta in the Sierra Nevada of Colombia.
54585		habitat	eng	It is generally a terrestrial species that is usually found in lowlands plains, savannahs, and dry forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds. On Trinidad, it is found in cane fields, rice fields, and other open agricultural areas. It can penetrate forests by following roads and lumber tracts, and has been reported from a number of disturbed habitats (eg. construction sites devoid of any vegetation).
54585		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
54585		threats	eng	It is not likely to be seriously threatened, but might be impacted be fires and droughts.
54586		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected area, and is presumably present in the Kafue National Park in Zambia.
54586		distribution	eng	This species is so far known from two apparently isolated areas: the coastal plain of central Mozambique in the flood plain of the Pungwe River, north to Thuchila in southern Malawi; and floodplains in the Zambezi catchment area in central and southwestern Zambia. Because its call is not known, it is under-recorded, and probably occurs more widely, in particular between these two areas. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,000m asl.
54586		habitat	eng	More fieldwork is required to identify its preferred habitat, but it has been found in grassy areas that flood during the rains. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to take place in temporary pools. Its adaptability to altered habitats in unknown.
54586		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54586		threats	eng	No information is available.
54587		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas.
54587		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina, central Paraguay, and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. It is found at approximately 80-300m asl.
54587		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands, wet Chaco, and wetlands (Pantanal). It reproduces in temporary and permanent pools (including agricultural pools).
54587		population	eng	It is abundant and the population is stable.
54587		threats	eng	It is not threatened currently, however, it is potentially threatened in the future by habitat destruction and pollution caused by agricultural activities.
54588		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Java and Sumatra.
54588		distribution	eng	This species, endemic to Indonesia, is found in the southern part of Sumatra, Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok and it has been introduced to Sulawesi. Its occurrence in mainland Southeast Asia is uncertain. Records from Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975) probably refer to Bufo quadriporcatus or Bufo parvus. It is a low altitude species, occurring up to 700m asl.
54588		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland forest, degraded forest, and tree plantations, but can also be found around towns in Bali and Lombok. The introduced animals on Sulawesi occur near towns. It breeds in slow-flowing streams where the larvae also develop.
54588		population	eng	It is abundant in forested regions, but much less so in secondary and degraded habitats. It is common on Lombok but it is decreasing on Bali following the introduction of Bufo melanostictus. It is spreading on Sulawesi.
54588		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss. Populations outside forested areas might be decreasing where <em>Bufo melanostictus</em> has been introduced. On Java the species is decreasing generally.
54589		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Ethiopia or Somalia, and probably not elsewhere.
54589		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Eritrea, Djibouti and northern Somalia, and from two localities in adjacent northeastern Ethiopia.
54589		habitat	eng	It is particularly associated with permanent water in arid rocky habitats. It is apparently never found far from the shallow pools in which it breeds. The animals are particularly encountered swimming actively, sheltering amongst aquatic vegetation, or resting beneath stones near the water margin.
54589		population	eng	It is possibly locally common, but seems to exist in scattered and rather isolated populations, probably owing to the limited availability of suitable habitat in parts of its range.
54589		threats	eng	The most likely threat is the increase in human expansion and settlement, with the resulting increase in populations of domestic livestock impacting breeding pools.
54590		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and it also occurs in protected areas in Colombia. Legislation is needed to regulate the international trade and the harvesting of this species.
54590		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Ecuador (in Esmeraldas and Carchi Provinces), and in Colombia on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Nariño, Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Choco Departments, between 200 and 550m asl.
54590		habitat	eng	It lives in closed lowland tropical rainforest, coming close to human habitation in some areas. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools, sometimes close to rivers (where young animals in particular are often found).
54590		population	eng	It is locally common.
54590		threats	eng	The major threats it faces are deforestation for agricultural development and cultivation of illegal crops, logging, mining, the introduction of exotic species, human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. In Ecuador, there is commercial export of animals for pharmacological research and the pet trade.
54591		conservation	eng	It does not occur in protected areas, but it tolerates severe habitat alteration.
54591		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern Chiapas at the Sierra Madre del Sur and central Plateau of Chiapas, Mexico to southern Guatemala, at elevations of 1,000-3,200m asl. The Mexican and Guatemalan distributions are likely to be contiguous.
54591		habitat	eng	It inhabits only the highlands of southwestern Chiapas and Guatemala that are covered by coniferous forest. It is sometimes possible to find individuals in populated areas. It can occur in heavily disturbed, treeless areas. It breeds in temporary ponds.
54591		population	eng	It is common in Guatemala, and common where it occurs in Chiapas, Mexico.
54591		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by water pollution, but this is not considered a major threat at present.
54592		conservation	eng	It occurs in Amani Nature Reserve and Udzungwa National Park, but expanded and strengthened protection of these and other forest reserves in the Eastern Arc mountains is necessary. The species requires close population monitoring.
54592		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the West and East Usambaras, the Ulugurus, and the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania, from 700m asl (perhaps lower) to 1,800m asl.
54592		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane forest zones, occurring in leaf-litter on the forest floor, and breeding in streams. It tolerates limited habitat disturbance, but is not found in open habitats, except when these are close to forest.
54592		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species. However, there is evidence that it is becoming more scarce.
54592		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, collection of wood, and human settlement, and its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
54593		conservation	eng	Field surveys are urgently required to collect a neotype.
54593		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan District, Mysore State" (Rao 1937), in the central Western Ghats of India. The collection is believed to have taken place at an altitude between 200 and 300m asl.
54593		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about its habitat or ecology, although it is presumably a water-breeding species, with larval development.
54593		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is not known.
54593		threats	eng	The type locality is threatened by conversion to agricultural land (including tea plantations), and the development of regional infrastructure (such as roads).
54594		conservation	eng	This species is present in Parc National de Souss-Massa but is not protected by national legislation. It can be bred successfully in captivity.
54594		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western, southern and eastern Morocco, ranging into northern Western Sahara and north-western Algeria, from sea level to 1,600m asl.
54594		habitat	eng	It is present in semi-arid, hilly areas with <em>Argania spinosa</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>, and graminaceous vegetation. It may be found in ploughed fields (Schleich, Kästle and Kabisch 1996), and hides beneath stones during the day. The temporary ponds that it breeds in are mostly located in rocky areas, and it has been observed in artificial waterbodies (such as dammed temporary rivers).
54594		population	eng	It can be abundant in suitable habitat, but is in decline as its habitats are being lost.
54594		threats	eng	It is threatened through much of its range by increased aridity, pollution and drainage of its breeding habitats.
54595		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54595		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cabinda enclave (Angola), and from Brazzaville in western Congo. Attempts to map its range at this stage are speculative, pending resolution of its taxonomic status. If it is valid, then it presumably also occurs at least in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
54595		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology.
54595		population	eng	There is no clear information on the population status of this species, which seems to occur in any likely area where there has been very little herpetological work conducted for many years.
54595		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species.
54596		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national and sub-national legislation in many countries. It is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is considered to be Near Threatened in Spain because of recent declines due to habitat loss, as well as progressive aridity. The species is present in numerous protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
54596		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe (excluding Ireland and most Mediterranean islands [though it is present on Sicily]), and northern Eurasia, with populations in parts of West Asia (Turkey, Syrian Arab Republic and Lebanon) and north Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). In Europe, it is present in most areas (including the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden and Finland), ranging as far eastwards as northern Kazakhstan and eastern Siberia. In the Middle East, it is found through much of Turkey, northwestern Syrian Arab Republic, and has recently been recorded from two mountainous locations in Lebanon. In Africa it has a very fragmented range in the more mountainous regions. The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 3,000m asl, however in northern portions of the range the species occurs at much lower elevations.
54596		habitat	eng	This is a widespread and adaptable species present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, groves, bushlands, meadows, arid areas, parks and gardens. It is usually in damp areas with dense vegetation, and large open areas are generally avoided. The species spawns and larval development takes place in still waters and slow-moving parts of rivers and streams. It is present in many modified habitats.
54596		population	eng	Although this species is generally common over much of its range, some localized declines have been observed.
54596		threats	eng	There are generally no major threats to this widespread and common species. Populations might be locally impacted through deforestation, drainage of wetlands, pollution, agricultural intensification, urbanization, desertification, mortality on roads (migrating animals), and persecution. In parts of the former Soviet Union it is collected in small numbers for the pet trade. This species can be affected by the increase of UV-B radiation (Lizana and Pedraza 1998). Relict populations in montane areas in Lebanon might be threatened by the impacts of global warming. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to the species and has been reported in some Spanish and UK populations. It has declined extensively in Spain due to habitat loss and aridity. One subspecies in Spain, <em>B.b. gredosicola</em>, is threatened by predation by otters and competition with the frog <em>Rana perezi</em>, both of which appear to have moved into higher altitudes as a result of climatic warming. In the United Kingdom the species is increasingly suffering from habitat fragmentation and some unexplained declines have occurred.
54597		conservation	eng	The species is likely to be present in several protected areas. Further research is needed into the breeding biology of this species, and the possible adverse effects of competition with the invasive bullfrog.
54597		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in western Ecuador in the north-western Andean montane forest and western Ecuador moist forests. It has been recorded from 40-2,000m asl.
54597		habitat	eng	It is found from the lower Pacific Andean slopes up to cloud forests. In Las Pampas, the habitat of this species was described as being close to rivers/creeks in low montane cloud forest (Hoogmoed 1989). There is no information about its breeding habitats although it is presumed to be a larval developer.
54597		population	eng	It is a rare species.
54597		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, both for crops and livestock ranching, as well as logging and wood plantations. The invasive bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) is probably also competing with this species.
54598		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and is protected by national and sub national legislation throughout much of its range. The species is listed in many regional, national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas. A re-introduction program in the UK has successfully established at least six, and perhaps quite a few more populations (Denton, <em>et al.</em> 1997; Zippel 2005).
54598		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern, western and northern Europe, ranging from Portugal and Spain, north to Denmark, southern Sweden, and as far east as western Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia and Estonia. There are isolated populations in southwestern Ireland and scattered parts of the United Kingdom (north to southwestern Scotland). It occurs from sea level to almost 2,540 m asl (in Spain).
54598		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in open and unshaded light sandy soils of coastal dunes, lowland heaths, semi-desert, high mountains, pine forest glades, gardens, parks, agricultural fields, sand and gravel quarries and meadows. In the daytime these animals hide in heaps of stones, in sandy soil and under debris. Spawning, followed by a short larval development period, takes place in sunny shallow temporary pools and lagoons. This is a pioneering species in much of southern Europe, sometimes temporarily colonizing new ponds; it is very much less adaptable in northern Europe.
54598		population	eng	The species is locally abundant across much of its range, especially in southern Europe. It is much more localized and is declining in the northern parts of its range (e.g., in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and Estonia). While generally declining in Poland, a large breeding population of about 500 individuals was recorded in 2002 in the Slowinski National Park. It is considered generally rare in eastern parts of its range.
54598		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are loss of specialized habitats (such as heaths and dunes) by natural encroachment of scrub and woodland; afforestation, acidification of breeding pools, agricultural development, infilling of breeding sites (such as temporary pools and sand and gravel quarries); increased mechanization of sand and gravel extraction and infrastructure development for tourism. In some parts of its range (e.g. in UK and Spain) chytridiomycosis is a threat. The species is considered vulnerable to climate change, particularly in southern Europe.
54599		conservation	eng	USFWS (2001) designated as critical habitat approximately 182,360 acres in 22 units in Monterey, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, Orange, and San Diego counties. Critical habitat includes stream and river courses, riparian areas, and adjacent terrace and upland habitats. It does not include existing structures or other developed areas. See recovery plan (USFWS 1999). In Mexico this species is found within San Pedro Martir National Park.
54599		distribution	eng	This species formerly ranged from San Luis Obispo County, California, USA, south to north-western Baja California in Mexico; see Gergus, Sullivan and Malmos 1997 for southernmost record. It is now apparently extirpated in San Luis Obispo County; populations persist in headwater areas of streams in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Riverside, and San Diego counties; recent sightings of scattered individuals have been reported from Orange, San Bernardino, and southern Imperial counties (USFWS 1994). The majority of the remaining populations in Santa Barbara and Ventura counties are in Los Padres National Forest (five viable populations); Sespe Creek in Ventura County has the largest known population. Other populations occur in the Sisquoc, Santa Ynez, and upper and lower Piru drainages (USFWS 1994). It also occurs in San Diego County along the Santa Margarita, Guejito, Sweetwater, Vallecito, San Luis Rey, Santa Ysabel, Witch, Cottonwood, Temescal, Agua Caliente, Santa Maria, Lusardi, Pine Valley, Noble, Kitchen, Long Potrero, Upper San Diego, San Vicente, and Morena drainages; populations in the Temescal, Agua Caliente, Pine Valley, and Cottonwood drainages may be considered viable (USFWS 1994). It was recently recorded in Whitewater Canyon in Riverside County (Patten and Myers, 1992, Herpetol. Rev. 23:122). Recent surveys located very small populations in four creeks in south-western Riverside County (Temecula, Arroyo Seco, San Mateo, and Tenaja creeks) (USFWS 1994). The single recent record in San Bernardino County is from Deep Creek in the San Bernardino National Forest. It is also still extant in north-western Baja California.
54599		habitat	eng	This species inhabits washes, streams, and arroyos, and adjacent uplands (in desert and shrubland). It is also found on sandy banks in riparian woodlands (willow, cottonwood, sycamore, and/or coast live oak) in California. It is also found along rivers that have shallow gravelly pools adjacent to sandy terraces (USFWS 1993). Adults obtain shelter by burrowing into sandy soil. It lays eggs among gravel, leaves, or sticks, or on mud or clean sand, at the bottom of shallow quiet waters of streams or shallow ponds, in areas with little or no emergent vegetation. Newly metamorphosed individuals remain near pools for up to several weeks (until the pools dry up).
54599		population	eng	The total estimated breeding population is less than 3,000 individuals (USFWS, Federal Register, 6 May 1998). Only six of the 22 extant populations south of Ventura are known to contain more than a dozen adults (USFWS 1994). It has been extirpated from an estimated 75% of its former range in the USA (Sweet, in USFWS 1993). Reproductive success has been poor in recent years (USFWS 1993). There is very little recent information on the trends in this species in Mexico. It occurs in at least a couple dozen sites, but viable populations may remain in only five drainages (USFWS 1993). It is known in California from 22 river basins in nine counties (USFWS 1999).
54599		threats	eng	Threats include habitat degradation (mainly through urbanization, dam construction and ill-timed water releases, agriculture, road construction, off-road vehicle use, overgrazing, and mining activities, and also via drought and wildfires), recreational use of habitat (which causes habitat degradation and direct mortality), predation by introduced fishes and bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>), and small population sizes (see USFWS 1993 and 1994 for further details).
54600		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54600		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southeastern Nigeria, through southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in Congo, and has recently been confirmed from extreme southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It is also recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Records from West Africa are considered here to belong to Bufo togoensis. A record from Mumba in southwestern Tanzania requires confirmation. Most records are probably from below 1,000m asl, though it probably ranges higher than this.
54600		habitat	eng	This is a forest species. It can also be found is secondary brush. It breeds in lakes, ponds, and very slow-flowing creeks in poorly drained forest.
54600		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54600		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by ongoing loss of its forest habitat.
54601		conservation	eng	Much of its range is protected in forest reserves of the Mayan Mountains, in Parque Nacional Laguna Lachuá and the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico, and Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras.
54601		distribution	eng	This species is found at low and moderate altitudes in northern and eastern Guatemala, southern Belize, and extreme western Honduras, from 100-1,080m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
54601		habitat	eng	It lives in and near streams in pristine forest in mountainous regions (in Honduras, in lowland moist and premontane wet forest). It breeds primarily in streams but has also been found breeding in pools in Guatemala.
54601		population	eng	It is still found in good numbers in appropriate habitats in Belize and Honduras, and is still common in the Sierra de Santa Cruz.
54601		threats	eng	In Honduras and Guatemala, it is threatened by habitat destruction, and in Belize, by hurricanes.
54602		conservation	eng	It occurs in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and El Imposible National Park in El Salvador.
54602		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slope from south central Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico south to Guatemala and western El Salvador, at elevations of 300-700m asl.
54602		habitat	eng	It occurs in mid-elevation semi deciduous forest close to rivers and moderate-sized streams. It breeds in ponds and streams. It occurs in disturbed habitats, including shade coffee plantations.
54602		population	eng	It is common throughout its range, especially in southern Mexico.
54602		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and possibly water pollution are threats to this species.
54603		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas.
54603		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonas, Colombia; eastern Peru; the states of Pará, Amazonas, and Rondonia, Brazil; and the Departamento Pando, Amazonian Bolivia.
54603		habitat	eng	It lives on the old growth humid forest floor and uses the water retained inside the "ouriço" of Brazil nuts to breed. It also uses small temporary pools.
54603		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Brazil, and locally common in Bolivia and Colombia.
54603		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
54604		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes the Reserva Ecológica los Indios.
54604		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the lowlands of the Isla de Juventud and extreme western Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to 50m asl.
54604		habitat	eng	It inhabits savannah habitat, with pinewood and palms, with sandy soils. Males call from temporary pools (rain puddles), flooded pastures, and other shallow still water (which is also where the eggs are laid). It is an explosive breeder that breeds after heavy rains.
54604		population	eng	It can be very common at breeding aggregations, but is otherwise hard to find.
54604		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation due to intensive agriculture and the extraction of sand for the glass industry. The invasive <em>Dichrostachys cinerea</em> (Marabu), a thorny, fast-growing woody species native to Africa that was introduced to the Caribbean in the 19th century, also poses a threat to native habitat, and is difficult and expensive to control.
54605		conservation	eng	Although this species can be found in protected areas, the protection of these areas is not always guaranteed, and some are subject to human disturbance; improved management of these is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
54605		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas and a few other localities near the Santa Marta volcano, in southern Veracruz, Mexico. It is known from 200-1,600m asl.
54605		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical pine-oak forests with abundant leaf-litter. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
54605		population	eng	This is a naturally rare species.
54605		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss and degradation of its pine-oak forest habitat due to agricultural activities (crops and livestock), wood extraction, and infrastructure development.
54606		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed. It presumably occurs in some protected areas.
54606		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Muna, Buton and Banggai islands in Indonesia. It occurs up to at least 1,000m asl.
54606		habitat	eng	It lives in all habitats, including primary rainforest, secondary forest, plantations, cultivated land and towns. It breeds in ponds, paddy fields, and pools within slow-moving streams where the larvae also develop.
54606		population	eng	It is generally abundant throughout its range.
54606		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
54607		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54607		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the upper Amazon; it is known from eastern Ecuador; eastern Colombia (Amazonia and Vaupés); Marahuaca, Venezuela and Iquitos, Peru. In Venezuela, it is known from a single juvenile specimen from Temiche, Cerro Marahuaca, Amazonas State (La Marca 1992). It has been recorded at elevations of up to 1,350m asl. It has only been collected once in Ecuador. It occurs at Serra da Neblina, Amazonas, and Brazil.
54607		habitat	eng	It lives in old and second growth lowland tropical rainforest and it is found on the ground in primary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It reproduces in small rivers and temporary and permanent streams.
54607		population	eng	It is common in Colombia but rare elsewhere, although perhaps it is understudied.
54607		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
54608		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be present in protected areas, and its remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection. The current population status of this species also needs to be determined.
54608		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from Palma Pampa and Cordillera de Carpish, Departamento Huánuco, Peru. It is believed to have a genuinely restricted distribution, with an altitudinal range of 2,600-3,072m asl.
54608		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary cloud forest on the eastern Andean slopes of central Peru. It has also been found in disturbed areas at the forest edge. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it may breed in bromeliads, presumably by larval development.
54608		population	eng	This species is uncommon and probably declining.
54608		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture (potatoes) is a major threat. Agrochemical use has also contributed to the decline of this species at known sites.
54609		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in protected areas.
54609		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Sénégal: mare de Bata (Sahel de Nioro)" (Chabanaud 1919). The Bata marsh is actually in Mali not Senegal. The distribution of this species cannot be mapped as it has not been possible to specifically locate Bata marsh.
54609		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are not known, although it is presumed to breed in water.
54609		population	eng	The population status is not known.
54609		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
54610		conservation	eng	Although it is known to occur in forest in a recreational area for tourists, expanded protection of lowland forest habitats is clearly necessary.
54610		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from northern Bengkulu Province, Sumatra, Indonesia, where it occurs at low altitudes. It has not been found in West Sumatra, despite attempts to locate it there. There is an old record from Nias Island but there are doubts that the locality of this specimen has been correctly recorded.
54610		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. It probably breeds by larval development in slow-flowing streams.
54610		population	eng	It is probably rare, since a number of expeditions have collected only a few specimens, and it probably occurs at low densities.
54610		threats	eng	The primary threat is likely to be habitat conversion due to smallholder farming and logging activities.
54611		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
54611		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific drainages from the Guatemala/Mexico border to central Costa Rica, and extending via interior valleys to the Atlantic drainages of Honduras and northeastern Nicaragua; an apparently disjunct population is known from the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It is known from elevations ranging from sea level up to 1,435m asl. It is also likely to occur along the Pacific Coastal Plain of Chiapas, Mexico. Records from this area would unite the apparently allopatric populations known from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, with likely contiguous populations ranging widespread along the Pacific versant of Central America. If new records from southeastern Honduras were to be found, it would establish links between populations on the Atlantic and Pacific versants.
54611		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland dry and moist forest, relatively open and disturbed areas, including pastures, roadside ditches, and gardens and vacant lots in urban areas. It breeds in ponds.
54611		population	eng	It is abundant throughout its range.
54611		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
54612		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.
54612		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Great Plains and southwestern USA and northern Mexico. Southern Manitoba to southeastern Alberta, south to Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosí, Mexico; east to western Minnesota, western Iowa, central Missouri, central Oklahoma, and northern and western Texas; west to central Montana, eastern Wyoming, eastern and south-central Colorado, southeastern California, then north through southern Nevada and Arizona to northern Utah and south to Sonora and northerns and central Sinaloa (see map in Krupa, 1990). It is commonly found up to 1,800m asl, and up to 2,440m asl in Colorado.
54612		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deserts, grasslands, semi-desert shrublands, open floodplains, and agricultural areas, typically in stream valleys. It burrows underground when inactive. It breeds in rain pools, flooded areas, and ponds and reservoirs that fluctuate in size. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water (usually clear).
54612		population	eng	Its population is widespread. The population trend is unknown but is probably stable to slightly declining.
54612		threats	eng	This species is not threatened overall. It uses some cultivated areas successfully, but extensive-intensive farming eliminates or reduces local populations. Breeding sites are typically the result of heavy rains and hence not generally subject to loss via water projects. In fact, this toad often breeds in reservoir edges. Suburban sprawl has eliminated breeding and non-breeding habitats in areas adjacent to growing cities in Colorado (Hammerson, 1999).
54613		conservation	eng	Protection of the original ecological conditions is needed.
54613		distribution	eng	This species is found on the lower central Mexican Plateau.
54613		habitat	eng	This species has close affinities to desert and shrublands. It presumably breeds in water.
54613		population	eng	This is a species that is not known very well. There are no studies of the population status of this species but it has been recently collected in central Mexico where apparently healthy populations exist.
54613		threats	eng	Conversion of land for agricultural purposes is the major threat to this species, as well as the proximity of its habitats to urbanised areas.
54614		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its distribution range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and it occurs in several protected areas in Colombia as well in protected areas throughout much of its range in Central America.
54614		distribution	eng	This species ranges from north-central Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, on both Atlantic and Pacific slopes, extending to Pacific lowlands of Colombia and northern Ecuador. It occurs up to 1500m asl (Costa Rica).
54614		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species associated with humid lowland and submontane tropical forest, including secondary forest, forest edges, open areas close to the forest, and occasionally in open areas near towns. It is both terrestrial and arboreal, and breeds in streams, rivers and shallow pools.
54614		population	eng	It is scarce in Colombia and rare in Ecuador. It is a fairly common species in Panama and Costa Rica.
54614		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, mining, exotic species introduction and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54615		conservation	eng	This species is believed to occur in Parque Nacional Huascarán, Calipuy National Reserve and Sanctuary, and Baños de Chancay Reserved Zone. It is listed on the Peruvian Red List.
54615		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Departments of Cajamarca, Ancash and La Libertad, in Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 3,160-4,100m asl.
54615		habitat	eng	It is present in puna and high-altitude plateaus, and dry scrubland. This species breeds in temporary small ponds and permanent shallow streams. It is also present in agricultural land (mostly potato and maize fields).
54615		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
54615		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats. Occasionally it has been recorded in the national pet trade.
54616		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
54616		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to a west-facing slope descending into the Amazonian lowlands of Abra Malaga and San Luis, Provincia Urubamba (Departamento Cusco), Peru. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-3,200m asl.
54616		habitat	eng	This is a forest edge species specifically restricted to the zone of puna grassland directly adjacent to montane forest; it is not known whether or not it can occur in modified habitats. Its breeding habitat is not known, though breeding probably takes place in water.
54616		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
54616		threats	eng	There are not believed to be any major threats to this species at present; however, it might be susceptible to habitat loss in the future.
54617		conservation	eng	Protection of the original pine-oak forest and measures to avoid the pollution of streams from anthropogenic activities are required to protect this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr). A consortium of partners are working on establishing a captive breeding programme and developing an education and awareness campaign for this species (Kapoor 2008). Apulco is a small area informally protected by a local community.
54617		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico, in the states of Puebla and Veracruz. However, it only survives in northern Puebla at Apulco, at 1,400m asl, and Barranca de Xocoyolo, at about 1,300m asl.
54617		habitat	eng	It inhabits pristine cloud forests (dominated by oak) and breeding takes place in streams by larval development.
54617		population	eng	This species was believed to be extinct and has only recently been rediscovered (tadpoles and metamorphs) at Apulco and Barranca de Xocoyolo, where it is uncommon. There have been no recent records of the species at any of the previously known localities in Veracruz, and it is believed to be extinct in these sites.
54617		threats	eng	The disappearance and disturbance of the pine-oak forests, as well as the pollution and desiccation of streams, are the major threats to this species. The habitat has been completely destroyed in the localities where this species appears to have been extirpated.
54618		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54618		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Tingi Hills in Sierra Leone. It is probably related to the <em>Bufo latifrons</em> complex, and might not be a valid species.
54618		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology.
54618		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54618		threats	eng	Nothing is known about specific threats to this species.
54619		conservation	eng	This species might occur in Parque Nacional El Pure, but more research is needed into its distribution since this is poorly known at present.
54619		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, La Pedrera, in Amazonas Province, Colombia, at 150m asl. It possibly occurs in neighbouring Brazil. Its distribution is not completely known because it has just been described.
54619		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and diurnal species that lives in lowland rainforest and reproduces in slow-moving streams.
54619		population	eng	It could be common near its type locality.
54619		threats	eng	It is apparently not threatened within its known range.
54620		conservation	eng	It might occur within Rakhine Yoma Elephant Sanctuary, although the suitability of the forest habitat for the species within this area needs further research.
54620		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two closely situated localities adjacent to Rakhine Yoma Elephant Sanctuary, of the Gwa Township area, Rakhine Division, Myanmar, where it occurs below 100m asl. It is expected that additional surveys within the region will reveal further populations.
54620		habitat	eng	This is a species of primary evergreen forest, which is a seasonal breeder in freshwater habitats, and which is presumed to have a larval development breeding strategy.
54620		population	eng	It was found to be numerous at the type locality, although this might be a seasonal effect.
54620		threats	eng	It is threatened by logging of its forest habitat.
54621		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54621		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest of northeastern Brazil, at 0-900m asl. This species does not occur in Uruguay. Records from Misiones and northwestern Corrientes, Argentina, probably refer to B. ornatus. Records from eastern Paraguay remain unresolved, but are unlikely to refer to B. crucifer.
54621		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter of the rainforest and also disturbed habitats. It reproduces in backwaters of rapidly flowing streams and temporary pools.
54621		population	eng	It is abundant in some areas and uncommon in others.
54621		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural crops and timber extraction are threats facing this species.
54622		conservation	eng	All known localities of this species are within protected areas. In Viet Nam these are within Hoang Lien Son National Park. Further documentation of the species' extent of occurrence, population status and ecological requirements in Viet Nam is needed.
54622		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China in Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, from 450-1,870m asl, and from only two specimens in northern Viet Nam. One of these was collected on Mount Fan Si Pan near Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province (Liu et. al. 2000), and the other was collected at 1,900m asl in O Quy Ho, Sa Pa District, which is very close to, but on the other side of, Mount Fan Si Pan. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.
54622		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest, and has not been found in open areas. Its breeding habits are not known, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
54622		population	eng	It is uncommon.
54622		threats	eng	The threats that it faces are relatively unknown although presumably habitat destruction and degradation are important.
54623		conservation	eng	Relevant conservation measures for this species are unknown.
54623		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kaokoveld and Waterberg areas of northern and north-western Namibia, where it occurs up to at least 1,500m asl.
54623		habitat	eng	Nothing is known regarding its habitat and ecology, although it presumably lives in semi-arid habitats and breeds in temporary waterbodies.
54623		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54623		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
54624		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
54624		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area near the coast of south-western Côte d’Ivoire between Sassandra and San Pedro, and it probably occurs more widely.
54624		habitat	eng	It is known only from the type locality, where it was found in a plantation, so it is not confined to primary forest.
54624		population	eng	There is no recent information on its population status, but given the amount of survey work that has been carried out in the general area, it must be very rare.
54624		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species.
54625		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. In Ecuador it has been recorded from Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística; in Colombia it is known from Chiribiquete and el Pure National Parks. It is not known from protected areas of Peru or Brazil.
54625		distribution	eng	The type is known from Benjamin Constant, Brazil, specimens assigned to this species have also been recorded from Leticia, Colombia; central Peru; northern Ecuador. Colombian specimens have been recorded from 100-200m asl; Ecuadorian specimens have been recorded up to 300m asl.
54625		habitat	eng	This is generally a terrestrial species of primary lowland and premontane tropical moist forest (including terra firme forest) (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). Breeding takes place in slow moving or stagnant waters.
54625		population	eng	This is a rare species throughout most of its range. Brazilian populations are not known.
54625		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), but these are not considered major threats.
54626		conservation	eng	This species is found within the Mapimí Biosphere Reserve and Cuatro Cienegas Ecological Reserve in Mexico. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
54626		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Colorado and Kansas in the USA (Conant and Collins, 1991) to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, Mexico.
54626		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid and semiarid plains, valleys, and foothills in grasslands and desert shrublands. It burrows in soil or hides under rocks, in cracks in soil, or in rodent burrows when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of temporary ponds, rain pools, and pools along intermittent streams.
54626		population	eng	This species is widespread and at least locally common.
54626		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
54627		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Jebel Samhan Nature Reserve, Oman.
54627		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. It is present on the Farasan Islands and a number of other offshore Islands. The altitudinal range of the species is sea level to 2,200m asl.
54627		habitat	eng	This is an opportunistic species that is present wherever there are water sources available, including gardens, oases, permanent springs, irrigation canals and permanent small rivers. It is also frequently found at some distance from permanent water sources.
54627		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
54627		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species; much of its range is undeveloped.
54628		conservation	eng	There is no information on relevant conservation measures.
54628		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-western Paraguay (Chaco Department), and possibly in southern Brazil. It appears that a Peruvian record is likely to have been a misidentification, as the species has not been recorded from anywhere else in the Amazon basin.
54628		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in dry savannahs and breeds in permanent and temporary ponds.
54628		population	eng	This species is not very well known, and there is very little information on its population status.
54628		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
54629		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra. To protect this species, conservation of hilly forest is needed.
54629		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and central Sumatra, Natuna Besar and Borneo where it is found below 700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
54629		habitat	eng	It is present throughout rainforest habitat, but it does not occur in swamp forests. Breeding and larval development takes place in standing water or in slow-moving intermittent streams. It is not found in open habitats outside forests.
54629		population	eng	Although the species appears to occur everywhere in well-drained lowland rainforest, it is not considered to be an abundant species.
54629		threats	eng	The species is threatened by clear felling of forests. This is occurring at an increasing pace in both Borneo and Sumatra.
54630		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and some form of protection of the remaining habitat on the Adamawa Plateau is urgently needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
54630		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Adamawa Plateau in north-central Cameroon.
54630		habitat	eng	It lives in gallery forests in a landscape of montane grassland and wooded savannah, and has been found breeding in streams.
54630		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, and it has only been recorded on a few occasions.
54630		threats	eng	It is probably suffering from continuing degradation of its montane habitats as a result of expanding agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, wood extraction, fire, and human settlement.
54631		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Awash National Park in Ethiopia, in the Elba protected area in Egypt, but it is not in any protected areas in Somalia.
54631		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern and central Somalia, through eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea, northwards through Sudan to extreme southeastern Egypt (vicinity of Gebel Elba only). It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl.
54631		habitat	eng	It is a species of extremely arid localities, and is often found far from the nearest permanent water. It breeds in temporary pools in desert and semi-desert savannah, gheltas (permanent pools at the foot of cliffs or in the mouth of caves) and in water in caves. It can be found deep in burrows during droughts, it emerges from these to breed after rains.
54631		population	eng	It is apparently very common and widespread in Somalia, and has been reported as numerous near Port Sudan, but is somewhat rarer and more localized in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is highly localized and rare in Egypt.
54631		threats	eng	The most likely threat is the increase in human expansion and settlement, with the resulting increase in populations of domestic livestock impacting breeding pools.
54632		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, such as Etosha National Park and the Skeleton Coast National Park.
54632		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Angola and northwestern Namibia from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
54632		habitat	eng	It is a species of arid areas, living in grassland where there are rock outcrops. It breeds in small, temporary steams and presumably in the pools that form in these places.
54632		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitat.
54632		threats	eng	It appears not to be facing any threats.
54633		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54633		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Argentina (Buenos Aires), Uruguay (Artigas, Canelones, Cerro Largo, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Rivera, Rocha, Tacuarembó), and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) below 500m asl.
54633		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial in open areas such as pastures and Pampas grassland. It breeds in temporary and permanent waterbodies. It persists even in areas with heavy agricultural activity.
54633		population	eng	It is common and the population is apparently stable.
54633		threats	eng	There are apparently no threats, and it adapts well to human agricultural activity.
54634		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. There is a need to control the spread of invasive species within these existing protected areas.
54634		distribution	eng	This species has a wide but patchy distribution in lowland Cuba and the Isla de Juventud. It ranges from sea level up to 70m asl.
54634		habitat	eng	It inhabits xeric and mesic lowland forests and savannahs. The males call from flooded ditches and large temporary pools of rainwater, and the eggs are laid in still water. It is an explosive breeder, though outside the breeding season it remains in burrows below ground.
54634		population	eng	It is abundant during breeding, but otherwise burrows underground and is rarely seen.
54634		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture (it occurs in an area of intense agricultural production), and pollution from agricultural pesticides. The spread of the invasive plant species <em>Dichrostachys cinerea</em> is also threatening this species' native habitat.
54635		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in Parque Internacional La Amistad, a transboundary protected area between Panama and Costa Rica. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, the implementation of a disease management and captive-breeding programme is recommended.
54635		distribution	eng	This species occurs on both slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and the Atlantic slope of immediately adjacent Panama, from 760-2,100m asl (Savage 2002).
54635		habitat	eng	Its habitat is premontane and lower montane rainforest. It is a diurnal terrestrial species that is largely fossorial, and has been excavated from leaf-litter along stream banks in August. Juveniles have been found on rocky stream margins throughout the year. This species is an explosive breeder, with reproduction taking place in ephemeral pools after heavy rain in late April to May; eggs are laid in the shallow pools (Savage 2002).
54635		population	eng	The species was once abundant in Costa Rica, but it has undergone marked declines since the 1980s. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species in Panama, but it is presumed to have declined.
54635		threats	eng	The main cause of the population decline is likely to be chytridiomycosis. In addition, there is general habitat loss across the range due to agriculture and timber extraction.
54636		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54636		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern South Africa, Swaziland, most of Zimbabwe, southern and central Mozambique and eastern Botswana, ranging westwards into the Caprivi Strip of Namibia and southwestern Zambia. It probably occurs in southeastern Angola. An isolated record from western Namibia is not mapped, and requires confirmation (it possibly refers to Bufo dombensis (M. Tandy pers. comm.).
54636		habitat	eng	It is a species of open bush land, grassland and savannah woodland, and is often associated with rock outcrops, and occasionally with sandy areas. It breeds in temporary pools. It does not occur in anthropogenically disturbed habitats.
54636		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
54636		threats	eng	Its habitat is not threatened and this species is not believed to be at risk.
54637		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54637		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, La Pampa, Santa Fe), southern Paraguay, Uruguay (Canelones, Colonia, Montevideo, Río Negro, San José) and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) below 600m asl.
54637		habitat	eng	It occurs terrestrially in grasslands, including rice plantations. It breeds in temporary pools, and it adapts well to agricultural habitat.
54637		population	eng	It is common and the population is stable.
54637		threats	eng	There are no generalised threats against this species, although pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements might be localized threats. It is also threatened by automobile collisions.
54638		conservation	eng	In Bolivia it has been recorded from Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Carrasco National Park; and Tipnis Indigenous area and National Park. It is not present in any Peruvian protected areas.
54638		distribution	eng	This is a little known species of Peru and Bolivia. It is present in Peru in Santo Domingo, Carabaya, Departamento Puno and from the foothills of the Andes at Rurrenabaque. In Bolivia it is found in Departamentos La Paz and Cochabamba. It has an altitudinal range of 800-2,500m asl.
54638		habitat	eng	the habitat is primary and secondary montane rainforest of the Amazonian slopes of the Andes. The breeding habitat is not known, but it presumably takes place in water by larval development. It can occur in slightly disturbed forest, but not agricultural land.
54638		population	eng	It can be common at certain sites in Bolivia, however the abundance is not known for Peru.
54638		threats	eng	The major threats are not known. Presumably there is habitat loss through smallholder farming of coffee, coca and other crops.
54639		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Additional survey efforts are required to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild.
54639		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range (only two known localities) in north-western Dominican Republic. Its altitudinal range is 150-175m asl.
54639		habitat	eng	It is found in xeric habitats with broadleaf gallery forest, typically in close proximity to streams. Males call from shallow running water, and eggs are laid in still water. It is not known whether or not animals stay close to streams or spread out into xeric habitats.
54639		population	eng	It is presumably very rare. It has not been encountered by any herpetologist in the three decades since it was discovered, including by herpetologists who have collected extensively on the island, as recently as 2003 (M. Hernandez pers. comm.).
54639		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction from agriculture (crops and livestock) and subsistence wood collection.
54640		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
54640		distribution	eng	This species range occurs throughout most of eastern USA and northern shore of Lake Erie in Canada (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from northern New England and Florida peninsula.
54640		habitat	eng	It can be found in wooded areas, river valleys and floodplains, agricultural areas, usually in areas with deep friable soils. It burrows underground or hides under rocks, plants, or other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of marshes, rain pools, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water lacking a strong current.
54640		population	eng	The population is widespread, generally common and relatively stable, with local declines.
54640		threats	eng	It is not threatened range wide.
54641		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the existing habitat is urgently needed.
54641		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution in eastern Dominican Republic, and is known from six to eight locations very close together. The exact elevational range is not known but it is definitely known from only below 500m asl.
54641		habitat	eng	So far it has only been recorded from degraded forest; however, it is difficult to find outside the breeding season and so may just not have been recorded from primary forest yet. Eggs are laid in temporary pools, and the larvae develop in the pools.
54641		population	eng	Althought this species was formerly known to be abundant at a breeding aggregation near the town of Higuey in 1972, extensive surveys in the region in 2003 did not find any individuals (M. Hernandez pers. comm.).
54641		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation largely due to intensive agriculture, but also due to human settlement and livestock grazing. The development of new tourism facilities nearby poses an additional threat to the existing habitat.
54642		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and probably in other protected areas.
54642		distribution	eng	This species is not well known but it is known that it occurs in upland areas up to at least 1,880m asl, from central and northern Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, east to southwestern Tanzania (Mbisi Forest).
54642		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest and gallery forest, and on forest edges. There is no information on its breeding or on its adaptability to altered habitats.
54642		population	eng	It is not well known, and there is no information on its abundance.
54642		threats	eng	No information is available, though it is likely to be affected by forest loss for agriculture, livestock grazing and human settlement, as well as by fire.
54643		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Kibale National Park in Uganda and the Virunga and Garamba National Parks in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
54643		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Ivindo Province in northeastern Gabon and Sangha Province in northern Congo, east to Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda, south to southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola. If Bufo djohongensis is considered to be a subspecies of this species, then it also occurs in the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon; however, other records of B. funereus from Cameroon appear to be in error. The identification of specimens assigned to this species from Nigeria and Benin should be checked, since they are unlikely to be true B. funereus, and might belong to B. djohongensis, or to another species.
54643		habitat	eng	It is a species of leaf-litter in the interior of rainforests, usually on slightly drier ground, such as ridge tops. The eggs are laid in slow-flowing streams during the dry season, where the larvae develop. It can survive in slightly degraded forests, but not in seriously altered habitats.
54643		population	eng	It appears to be quite common and easy to find in suitable habitats in Uganda.
54643		threats	eng	It is presumably being impacted by loss of forest, especially for agriculture and wood extraction, in some parts of its wide range.
54644		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species.
54644		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Cuba, west of Pinar del Río. It has been recorded from sea level up to 280m asl.
54644		habitat	eng	It occurs along stream banks and under rocks in various habitats such as broadleaf forest, grassland, savannah and agricultural areas. It can occur in disturbed habitats as long as the freshwater body remains undisturbed. Males call at creek sides while eggs are laid in still water, where the tadpoles also develop. In some regions it can be an explosive breeder
54644		population	eng	It is a common species.
54644		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species include intensive agriculture, cattle grazing and agricultural pesticides; however, it is adaptable, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
54645		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
54645		distribution	eng	This species is known from Diouluoshan and Jianfengliang in Hainan, China and from the Annamite mountains of northern Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic, south to Cambodia (Nguyen and Ho 1996, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Stuart 1999). In China it has been recorded between 250-1,300 m asl, while in Lao People's Democratic Republic it is known from 500-600 m asl.
54645		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen and evergreen-mixed deciduous forest. Animals are often found in or near streams (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999; Stuart 1999, 2005), including temporary streams. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It has not been found in open areas outside forest.
54645		population	eng	It is listed as 'Rare' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is regularly collected but the actual population status is relatively unknown.
54645		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to agricultural development, logging and infrastructure development are the main threats facing this species.
54646		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected in Parque Nacional Calilegua, which was created to preserve a representative part of the Yungas forest. Strengthened protection of this reserve, and expanded protection of other remaining habitat, is recommended.
54646		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Jujuy, Ledesma and Calilegua in Argentina from 1,000-1,700m asl.
54646		habitat	eng	It is restricted to montane forests (Yungas). It occurs on the ground and reproduces in slow-flowing streams where the larvae also develop. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known.
54646		population	eng	It is a rare species, but it is nevertheless recorded on a regular basis.
54646		threats	eng	The main threats include selective logging and clear cutting of primary forests, the introduction of predatory fish (trout), and the alteration of watersheds.
54647		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas in both China and Russia. The possible eradication of the species on Okinawajima in Japan needs confirmation, with surveys are needed for several years.
54647		distribution	eng	This species is known from Russia, China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and Japan. It is found in the Russian Far East (including East Siberia) northwards to the Amur River valley; most of central, southeastern and northeastern China, throughout the Korean Peninsula and on Miyakojima and adjacent islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan. The subspecies, Bufo gargarizans miyakonis is endemic to Japan. It was originally distributed on Miyakojima and its adjacent islands, and was introduced to other islands in Ryukyu Archipelago including Okinawajima, Minami Daitojima and Kita Daitojima. In Okinawajima, Bufo gargarizans miyakonis have been captured since the early 1990's and it is now possibly eradicated. The altitudinal range of this species is from 20-800m asl.
54647		habitat	eng	The main habitats of this species are coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (and their glades), grasslands and meadows. It is also present in flood lands and river valleys. Although the species prefers habitats with high humidity, it is rare in very shaded or saturated coniferous forests. Breeding and larval development takes place in rivers, streams, ponds and pools. The species is generally tolerant of habitat modification and may be found in cultivated areas, villages and even parks and gardens in large cities (e.g. Khabarovsk, Russia).
54647		population	eng	This species is very common in China and in the Primorye and Khabarovsk regions of Russia; it is however, rare in both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. In Japan the population is decreasing (especially on Miyakojima) but is not in significant decline.
54647		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species include a general loss of suitable habitat through increasing urbanization and water pollution, mortality on roads and prolonged drought. The species is also captured for laboratory research, and has been gathered for traditional medicine by Chinese and Korean citizens in the Primorye Region of Russia over the last 10 years. In Okinawajima in Japan, the species has been captured since the early 1990's and is now possibly eradicated.
54648		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54648		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Africa, extreme southwestern Namibia, Lesotho and Swaziland. It ranges from sea level up to 3,400m asl.
54648		habitat	eng	It lives in many habitats, including fynbos heathland, succulent karoo, thicket, grassland, and Nama karoo. It breeds in many different types of permanent and temporary waterbodies, including streams, waterholes, lakes, rain pools, and even hoof prints. It is tolerant of low temperatures.
54648		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
54648		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be threatened.
54649		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54649		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Ethiopia and Somalia south to northern parts of South Africa and the northern and eastern parts of Botswana. The apparent range disjunctions in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya might be artifacts of poor sampling. It is likely that the northeastern African populations (from northern Tanzania northwards) and the southern African populations (from Zambia southwards) belong to separate species, with true <span style="font-style: italic;">Amietophrynus garmani</span> occurring in northeastern Africa. The association of the recently reported population from western Tanzania (Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) to either of these northeastern and southern populations needs to be determined. The distributional boundary between this species and <em>Amietophrynus poweri</em> in southern Africa is very unclear, and they might not be separate species. In northeastern Africa it occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.
54649		habitat	eng	It is a denizen of arid savannas, wooded savannas, and agricultural areas, breeding in temporary water (vleis, dams or pans), and sometimes-artificial pools and rivers. In western Tanzania toads were trap-captured entirely in woodland areas (Gardner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
54649		population	eng	It is common in eastern and southern Ethiopia and in southern Africa.
54649		threats	eng	The main threat is environmental degradation resulting from human expansion, settlement and agricultural encroachment. In western Tanzania, much of the miombo woodland area is increasingly threatened by habitat degradation following conversion to agriculture or overharvesting (see Gardner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). However, this is an adaptable species that is not considered to be seriously at risk.
54650		conservation	eng	Protection of the suburban and tropical dry areas around Acapulco represents the only chance for the survival of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
54650		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central coastal Guerrero, Mexico, in north-western Acapulco city.
54650		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is xeric and deciduous forest, and it has never been recorded out of the lowlands near Acapulco. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
54650		population	eng	It is thought to be rare.
54650		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and the expansion of plantations.
54651		conservation	eng	Based on its known habitat and distribution, this species might occur in Pacaya Samiria, Alto Purús and Manu National Reserves in Peru. In Ecuador, its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
54651		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela, Amazonian Colombia in the foothills of the Cordillera Oriental, Ecuador and Peru. In Venezuela it has been reported from the state of Táchira, S Pregonero at Doradas and Uribante rivers. In Peru it is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes, from the regions of Loreto, Huánuco, San Martin and Madre de Dios. It has been recorded at elevations between 300 and 1,400m asl.
54651		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland tropical rainforest and montane humid forest. It is found in primary forest, secondary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994) and open areas close to forest (Ron, 2001). Tadpoles live in low-gradient streams (Lynch, 2006).
54651		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
54651		threats	eng	Dam construction has been a threat to the habitat of some populations.
54652		conservation	eng	Intensive surveys are needed to relocate this species, which is not known from any protected areas.
54652		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Grande de Jujuy, in Jujuy Province, Argentina. The altitude was not recorded, although it is likely to be above 2,800m asl. The type locality is vague, hampering efforts to clarify the status of this species.
54652		habitat	eng	It lives in mountain streams, but nothing more is known about its habitat and ecology.
54652		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1925, so its population status is unknown.
54652		threats	eng	The region where this species was collected is threatened by mining, destruction and degradation of watersheds and bogs, and the introduction of exotic fish species.
54653		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas, including the Garamba National Park of northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and the Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
54653		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria eastward to central and southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, southwestern Congo, and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; it also occurs on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). It presumably occurs in southwestern Central African Republic, and probably also the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. It can occur up to 200m asl.
54653		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest and can survive in degraded secondary habitats. It breeds in flowing water, including creeks in marshes and slow-flowing streams.
54653		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54653		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.
54654		conservation	eng	Its presence has not been confirmed in any protected areas, but it is likely to occur in Iona National Park
54654		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mossamedes District in south-western Angola, although its range is largely unknown.
54654		habitat	eng	It is associated with granitic inselbergs in dry, sandy areas. Its breeding habits are unknown, but reproduction presumably takes place in water.
54654		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, and only a few specimens are known, presumably because of lack of herpetological survey work within its range.
54654		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
54655		conservation	eng	It is in protected areas throughout most of its range.
54655		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout much of the Amazonian Basin, from Western Pacific lowlands, central Panama and eastern lowlands adjacent to central Panama, through the Guianas, south through the Orinoco and Caribbean regions of Colombia, Margarita Island (Venezuela), Bolivian lowlands, throughout much of Brazil, northwestern Paraguay and northern Argentina. It is not present in Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador, Peru or Uruguay. Altitudinal range is up to 1,500m asl.
54655		habitat	eng	This taxon mainly inhabits open areas, savannahs, forests, river shorelines, and reproduces explosively in permanent and temporary waterbodies. By day, specimens hide in holes in the ground. Its presence in forests is apparently due to colonization of intervened habitats along roads and penetration tracks; it has been reported from urban areas in Bolivia. Breeding and larval development takes place in ponds. It can be found breeding in very small and shallow puddles (Lynch, 2006). Time of larvae development is 30 days. It feeds on ants and termites.
54655		population	eng	This is a very common species.
54655		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
54656		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54656		distribution	eng	This species is widely but patchily distributed in southern, central, and northern and north-western Hispaniola (both Haiti and Dominican Republic): Plaine du Nord-Valle de Cibao, Valle de San Juan, and Plaine du Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba. The altitudinal range is from 40m below sea level up to 107m asl.
54656		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry lowland valleys, in both mesic and xeric areas, retreating under rocks and logs. Males call from rain-flooded areas, and eggs are laid in still water. The species breeds year round in some areas. It is occasionally found near water with heavy concentrations of sulphur.
54656		population	eng	In suitable habitats, this species can be found all year round. However, according to B. Hedges (pers. comm.) the species is infrequently encountered.
54656		threats	eng	The major threats to this lowland species are habitat loss, due to both livestock grazing and selective logging, and agricultural pollution.
54657		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. There is a need to control the spread of invasive species within existing protected areas.
54657		distribution	eng	This species is widespread but patchily distributed in Cuba, including the Isla de Juventud, at low elevations (sea level up to 70m asl).
54657		habitat	eng	Mainly a forest species, but it also occurs in xeric and mesic grasslands, and diurnally retreats in burrows near rocks. Males call while floating in rain-flooded pools and the eggs are laid in still water. This species is an explosive breeder.
54657		population	eng	It is abundant during the breeding season, but otherwise is rarely seen since it burrows underground.
54657		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture (it occurs in an area of intense agricultural production), and pollution from agricultural pesticides. The spread of the invasive plant species <em>Dichrostachys cinerea</em> is also a threat to the species' native habitat.
54658		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
54658		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range extends from Amazonian Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Bolivia to the Guianas and central Amazonian Brazil. This species is found at elevations from 50-860m asl.
54658		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that has been found on the ground, close to rivers, or in deep leaf-litter on the forest floor in tropical rainforests. The species seems to be associated with mature gallery forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent waterbodies, some dug by the adults; embryonic and larval development occurs in water.
54658		population	eng	It is locally common, except in the Guianas and Peru, where it is rare.
54658		threats	eng	Logging, forest conversion and clear cutting are all threats to this species. It is not tolerant of habitat alteration. However, it has a vast range, and the threats to the species are generally localized. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
54659		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54659		distribution	eng	This species occurs from extreme southern Somalia (M. Tandy pers. comm.), central and southern Kenya, though Tanzania, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and Angola, south to northern Namibia, northern central and eastern South Africa. It occurs on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba (Tanzania). The boundary between this species and Bufo regularis in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania is poorly understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional. It is introduced on Reunion (to France) and Mauritius. Records from southeastern Uganda might refer to Bufo regularis and therefore require confirmation. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,900m asl.
54659		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable species occurring in a wide variety of savannahs, grassland, thickets, and agricultural land. It is able to breed in more or less permanent and semi-permanent standing water. It breeds frequently in garden pools.
54659		population	eng	It is a very common species. It appears to be spreading in South Africa, perhaps at the expense of Bufo rangeri.
54659		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
54660		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
54660		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Honduras (Caribbean slopes) and from southern Costa Rica (Pacific versant) south to northern Colombia (western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central, and the Magdalena Valley), and northwestern Ecuador. There are isolated populations on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, extending into adjacent Venezuela in the Sierra de Perijá. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300m asl.
54660		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, leaf-litter species of primary tropical moist forest and submontane humid forest, along small streams and large rivers, but can be found away from these sites during the non-breeding season. It occurs in disturbed areas, but only close to forest. It breeds in rocky pools along the borders of forest streams (Scott, 1983).
54660		population	eng	This species is generally abundant in Costa Rica, although it disappeared from Monteverde in the late 1980s (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1997). It has declined in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, Panama. The species is relatively common in Nicaragua, but uncommon in Honduras. This species shows distinct population fluctuations. It is a rare species in Colombia and Venezuela but there are several recent records.
54660		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture, wood extraction, and cattle ranching. It is locally threatened by dams in Venezuela and by oil pollution in Colombia. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Chiriqui, Fortuna, Panama.
54661		conservation	eng	Better information on abundance and trends is needed.
54661		distribution	eng	This species can be found in South-central Canada and north-central USA, from southern Northwest Territories through Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to northern Montana, North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, and west-central Minnesota (Conant and Collins 1991).
54661		habitat	eng	It's habitat is prairies, plains, aspen parklands; areas with relatively soft soil. It is usually found in or near water and burrows into soil when inactive. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in shallow water of lakes, ponds, quiet streams, marshes, potholes, and roadside ditches.
54661		population	eng	Some local declines have been reported (Green 1997), but provincial conservation data centres rank this species as apparently secure in the main portion of its range in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.
54661		threats	eng	It is not threatened range wide. Local declines and low abundance in Alberta have been attributed to loss of wetlands; low abundance/population fluctuation in Manitoba possibly was due to drought (see Green 1997).
54662		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the protected areas of Tarai and Chitwan National Parks in Nepal, Namdhapa and Mouling National Parks and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve (in Arunachal Pradesh State) in India, and the Khungerab and Central Karakorum protected areas in Pakistan.
54662		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Himalayan mountains. It is found from the Hazara Division of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, through northern India and Nepal, and is presumed to be present in Bhutan although this is not yet confirmed. It is also known from the southern slopes of the Himalayas in Xizang (himalayanus) and northwestern Yunnan (cyphosus), China. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-3,500m asl.
54662		habitat	eng	It is generally a high-altitude species, although it may also be found in the evergreen forests of the foothills. It inhabits mountain forests and shrubland near streams and is also found in the vicinity of seepages and cultivated fields. It is largely terrestrial in nature and breeding takes place in hill streams, small pools and puddles where the larvae also develop. It is quite adaptable to anthropogenically modified habitats.
54662		population	eng	It is generally a common species of montane areas, although it is considered to be rare in Pakistan.
54662		threats	eng	The main threats are agrochemical pollution of land and breeding habitats, development of areas for tourism, clear-cutting of montane forests and over collection for food.
54663		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Namibia Desert National Park, and probably in several other protected areas.
54663		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central and western parts of Namibia.
54663		habitat	eng	It is a species of very dry semi-desert areas, where it is associated with rock outcrops. It breeds in temporary rock pools.
54663		population	eng	It is reasonably common in suitable habitat.
54663		threats	eng	It occurs in a habitat that is not significantly threatened, so this species is, unlikely to be at risk, except to some extent by overgrazing by livestock.
54664		conservation	eng	The entire known range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo, 20 km north-east of the capital of San José.
54664		distribution	eng	This species occurred on the Volcán Barva, Cordillera Central, Costa Rica, at 200-2,200 m asl (Savage 2002).
54664		habitat	eng	This species lived in lower montane rainforest. It was a fossorial species, and could be found under surface debris within the forest during periods of heavy rain, but otherwise it concentrated on mossy stream banks during dry periods. It was an explosive breeder that laid its eggs in forest floor pools, as well as in man-made drainage ditches (Savage 2002).
54664		population	eng	It was formerly common in appropriate habitat and during the breeding season at the onset of the rainy season (2,765 males were seen visiting two pools in an eight-day period; Nowak and Robinson 1975). As of August 2007, it has not been seen since 1986 despite repeated searching (seven consecutive years of intensive searching to 2007 - Héctor Zumbado, Andres Vaughn, Warren Calvo, Adrián García unpublised data 2007) throughout its range, and it is now considered to be extinct (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).
54664		threats	eng	Although not proven, the main cause of the population decline and extinction is likely to be chytridiomycosis perhaps in synergy with the effects of climate change.
54665		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Nagarjuna Sagar Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (Pillai and Ravichandran 1996) but reports from Bannerghatta National Park in Karnataka require verification. Recent regional studies including this species have been undertaken by Ravichandran. The actual presence of taxa referable to this species at the recorded localities requires investigation.
54665		distribution	eng	This species is known from above 200m asl in a small number of widely separated localities in Chittor and Nellore (Satyamurti 1967), and Nagarjuna Sagar Tiger Reserve (Pillai and Ravichandran 1986), in the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Intervening areas are devoid of records, though it might yet be found more widely. Its occurrence in the Western Ghats requires further clarification.
54665		habitat	eng	Very little is known about its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
54665		population	eng	There are no recent records for this species, which has a fragmented population that is believed to be declining. There are no quantitative estimates of its population status or trends.
54665		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but presumably include habitat loss.
54666		conservation	eng	It has been found in a few protected areas in Colombia.
54666		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Colombia in Choco Department, and from two localities in north-western Ecuador (in Esmeraldas Province), and is presumed to exist in between these two areas. It occurs between 10 and 500m asl.
54666		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in leaf-litter close to water sources, in lowland tropical moist forest. All records of this species come from mature forest. There is no information on its breeding biology, although reproduction is presumably by larval development in water.
54666		population	eng	It is a rare species, and there have been no records of this species in Ecuador since 1984.
54666		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54667		conservation	eng	A portion of the range previously occurred in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala, but it has now been extirpated from this region. Protection of the remaining habitat of this species is urgently required. Given the threat of chytrid, this species requires close population monitoring.
54667		distribution	eng	This species occurs at moderate and intermediate elevations of central and southern Guatemala and the Sierra de las Minas, eastern Guatemala, from 1,360-1,980m asl. Its range has also recently been extended into contiguous regions of Honduras in the western ranges of the Southern Cordillera Region in the departments of Intibuca, Lemipira and Ocotepeque, up to 2,020m asl (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, McCranie and Wilson (2002) refer all Honduran material to <em>Bufo coccifer</em>.
54667		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak or premontane or lower montane moist forest, and breeds in ponds, marshes and wet meadows. Males have been observed calling from the banks of ponds.
54667		population	eng	This species persists in small numbers in appropriate habitat. Nearly continuous field work throughout the range of this species in Guatemala between 1989 and 1998 produced less than 10 observations.
54667		threats	eng	Its range is severely fragmented due to habitat loss, primarily due to agricultural activities. Formerly robust populations in Guatemala are now extirpated following severe alteration of montane wetlands and cloud forests, and may well have succumbed to the effects of chytrid, which has been documented in other anuran species in the same area (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
54668		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54668		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central, southeastern and southern Brazil; Misiones and Corrientes, northeastern Argentina; and eastern Paraguay at 0-1,200m asl.
54668		habitat	eng	It occurs in a large diversity of habitats, from forests to open areas such as Cerrado habitat. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds and streams. It occurs in substantially disturbed habitats.
54668		population	eng	It is common and the population is stable throughout much of its range. There are only two records from Paraguay. It is locally common in Argentina.
54668		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species; it adapts well to human alteration of habitats and it even occurs in cities.
54669		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Manu, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.
54669		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern Peru. Recorded from La Union, Departamento Ayacucho and the Amazonian slopes of Departamento Cuzco. It has an altitudinal range of 900-1,900m asl.
54669		habitat	eng	Its habitat consists of montane primary and secondary tropical forest. Breeds in slow streams and roadside ditches. It can be found at the edge of agricultural areas, but not in these areas.
54669		population	eng	It is a common species.
54669		threats	eng	Some localized deforestation for smallholder farming (eg. coffee and tea).
54670		conservation	eng	Relevant conservation measures are not known, and it is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
54670		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is not known. Hoogmoed (1989) noted that the published type locality of "Anden von Ecuador" is likely to be an error, and it was more likely to be in Mexico or central America. It has not been possible to map the distribution of this species.
54670		habitat	eng	There are no details of this species' habitat and ecology.
54670		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
54670		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species.
54671		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Nyanga National Park; continued and strengthened mangement of this protected area is needed.
54671		distribution	eng	This species in known only from the Nyanga Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe. It presumably occurs in adjacent Mozambique, but there have been no records here, probably because of a lack of herpetological work in this area. It has been found at 2,400-2,560m asl, but probably also occurs at slightly lower elevations.
54671		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane grassland with exposed bare granite. The animals hide under stones, in cracks in the granite, and in rodent burrows. It breeds in temporary pools, and larvae have been seen moving across wet granite faces.
54671		population	eng	It is rather cryptic and hard to find, but it seems to be fairly common within its very limited range.
54671		threats	eng	The high-altitude habitat of this species has remained relatively intact up until now, although it might be at increasing risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.
54672		conservation	eng	It might occur in the protected areas of the Bosque de Protección Pui Pui and the Bosque de Protección San Matías-San Carlos.
54672		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species is the Andean valleys of Río Chanchamayo and Río Perene, in Junin Department, Peru.
54672		habitat	eng	Its habitat is montane tropical forest. This species' breeding habits are not known, though reproduction presumably takes place in water.
54672		population	eng	Its population status is not known. There do not appear to have been any recent records, perhaps because of lack of herpetological work within its range.
54672		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, and it is not known if it can survive outside montane forest habitat.
54673		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
54673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu and southern Hokkaido. It has also been introduced to Izu Oshima.
54673		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats ranging from coastal areas to high mountains. It breeds in still water where the larvae also develop. It can also be found in anthropogenic habitats.
54673		population	eng	The population is decreasing but it is not in significant decline.
54673		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are mainly in the western part of its distribution. Infrastructure development for human settlement including the construction of roads are the main threats.
54674		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54674		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal belt of Brazil, from the mouth of the Amazon in the north, south to the States of Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais, generally ranging inland up to 200km from the coast. It occurs up to 800m asl.
54674		habitat	eng	It occurs in secondary forest, savannah, agricultural lands, and other open areas and disturbed habitats. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds.
54674		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54674		threats	eng	It appears not to be experiencing any threats.
54675		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro.
54675		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Bolivian Andes, in Cochabamba, Santa Cruz and La Paz Departments. It is know from the type locality, El Chape, in Florida Province, Santa Cruz Department, at an altitude of 2,050m asl, and from Campamento Fortaleza, in Carrasco Province, Cochabamba Department, from 1,875-2,220m asl, and from four localities in Nor Yungas Province, in La Paz Department, from 1,440-2,250m asl.
54675		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet montane forest including cloud and Yungas forest. Köhler (2000a) suggests that it is probably restricted to primary forest. The larvae develop in streams.
54675		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54675		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture.
54676		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra.
54676		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Borneo and Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs up to elevations of 1,600m asl.
54676		habitat	eng	It occurs along rocky creeks and riverbanks and also wanders widely through primary and secondary forests. Occasionally it is found near isolated houses in hilly terrain near forest and in some types of tree plantations. It breeds in rocky-bottomed, strong flowing streams where the larvae also develop.
54676		population	eng	It is relatively abundant in Borneo, but is comparatively rare in Sumatra.
54676		threats	eng	There are no threats to this relatively adaptable species.
54677		conservation	eng	It probably occurs within the Wolong Biosphere Reserve.
54677		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Wolong, in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,800m asl.
54677		habitat	eng	This is a forest inhabitant that breeds in streams.
54677		population	eng	This species is relatively unknown and only very recently described, so there is no information regarding its population status.
54677		threats	eng	BosqueThere is no information on threats to this species.
54678		conservation	eng	It is found in three protected areas in Egypt (Qarum, Lake Burullus and Nile Islands).
54678		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Nile Delta in Egypt, extending as far south as Luxor. It is found between sea level and 150m asl.
54678		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species, living in cropland, including rice fields, swampy areas, floating vegetation and presumably breeding by larval development in waterbodies. It has been recorded in the middle of Cairo (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
54678		population	eng	It is apparently an abundant species.
54678		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats. There is some habitat loss and pollution within its range.
54679		conservation	eng	It is known from Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, and presumably occurs in many other protected areas.
54679		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Zimbabwe, northern Botswana, northern Namibia, and adjoining southern Angola. It is likely to be found in southwestern Zambia.
54679		habitat	eng	It is a species of sandy areas, where it is associated with ephemeral pools and pans in short grassland. It presumably breeds in temporary pools.
54679		population	eng	Little information is available, but it is likely to be common in suitable habitat.
54679		threats	eng	It occurs in a habitat that is not significantly threatened, so this species unlikely to be at risk.
54680		conservation	eng	This species does not occur within any protected areas. Even though individuals of this species are often found close to human settlements, there is still little information on the population status of the species across its range, and its ecological requirements also need further study.
54680		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific coastal plains of Mexico from central-southern Sonora to the south, including most of Nayarit (Rosamorada).
54680		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal open lowlands in thorn-forest or tropical deciduous forest at 200m asl. It is also found in human disturbed areas and can breed in dams and other artificial water systems.
54680		population	eng	Several large populations of this species have been recorded along its range.
54680		threats	eng	This species seems to be very resistant to polluted and drainage waters.
54681		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54681		distribution	eng	This species occurs discontinuously at high altitudes from 1,280-3,300m asl from central Ethiopia (both sides of the Rift Valley), south through the Kenya Highlands (where it occurs widely on both sides of the Rift Valley, and on the floor of the Rift Valley at Lakes Naivasha and Elmenteita), west to Mount Elgon and southeastern Uganda, and south to the rim of the Ngorongoro Crater in northern Tanzania.
54681		habitat	eng	It lives in montane grassland and forest-edge. It breeds in permanent pools, rain-fed temporary pools and flooded fields in montane grassland.
54681		population	eng	It is a common species.
54681		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with consequent agricultural encroachment, and overgrazing by livestock.
54682		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54682		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from montane areas of central and western Kenya, southwestern Uganda, northwestern Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Tanzania (Mahale Mountains), northeastern Zambia and northern Malawi (Misuku Hills). It probably occurs also in Burundi, and is likely to be more widespread than mapped in the mountains around the Albertine Rift in Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. It occurs from 1,500m asl (perhaps lower) up to at least 3,000m asl. Records from central Malawi require confirmation, as do low-altitude records in the Lake Victoria basin in Kenya and Uganda.
54682		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest, occurring only in mature, undisturbed forest. It breeds in pools and slow streams.
54682		population	eng	It is a common species in Kibale Forest, but it is generally encountered only infrequently through most of its range.
54682		threats	eng	It is presumably being impacted by loss of forest, especially for agriculture and wood extraction, in some parts of its wide range.
54683		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Kitulgala Forest Reserve, Messana Forest Reserve and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site.
54683		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to three sites in south-western Sri Lanka (Kitulgala Forest Reserve, Messana Forest Reserve and Sinharaja World Heritage Site). It ranges from 150-1,070m asl.
54683		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species associated with wet leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover, close to streams in tropical wet montane forest, its breeding biology has not been recorded, but it presumably takes place in water, probably in streams, by larval development.
54683		population	eng	Little is known about the population status of this species, but it is not common.
54683		threats	eng	Habitat loss (small-scale agriculture) and human disturbance (local tourism) are the primary threats to this species.
54684		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Konya Wild Life Sanctuary, but expanded protection of forest habitats in the species' range is needed. Further research is needed into the range and breeding biology of this species.
54684		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities (Koyna and Aboli) in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, India. Specimens have been recorded at elevations between 900 and 1,200m asl.
54684		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial toad of moist to wet evergreen forest, and dry riparian grassland. Its breeding has not been recorded, but it presumably takes place in water, probably in streams, by larval development.
54684		population	eng	It is a rare species, and is uncommon at the type locality.
54684		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and clear cutting of forests.
54685		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas, making habitat protection an urgent priority.
54685		distribution	eng	This newly described species was found on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It is known only from the type locality, Sabak Bernam, and from the North Selangor Peat Swamp, though it possibly occurs more widely.
54685		habitat	eng	It is a peat swamp specialist. It is thought be be an explosive breeder, and presumably breeds by larval development.
54685		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but it is possibly hard to find when not breeding (which may be one explanation for its recent discovery).
54685		threats	eng	The major threat is drainage and reclamation of peat swamps for agricultural purposes, and part of its type locality has already been destroyed.
54686		conservation	eng	The only protected area in which it is currently known to occur is Awash National Park.
54686		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia, at 700-1,585m asl, where it has been recorded from two localities: Lake Langano, and the Awash National Park. Its distribution is not typical of an endemic species to Ethiopia, and Largen (pers. comm.) considers that it might be found to occur in Eritrea and Somalia. However, Tandy (pers. comm.) thinks that it might be more restricted, and that the two known populations might belong to different species (in which case their ranges should not be joined, contrary to what has been done in attempts to map their distribution for this assessment).@@
54686		habitat	eng	It is associated with permanent water in arid savannah and semi-desert country. It has been found in and around small lakes, stream-fed pools, irrigation ditches, and large freshwater (non-alkaline) lakes, in a general landscape ranging from a sub-desert steppe of volcanic rubble, xerophilous grasses and thorn scrub, to heavily grazed <em>Acacia</em> savannah. It breeds in permanent lakes and pools.
54686		population	eng	This species was found to be reasonably numerous at both the type locality (Lake Langano) and in the Awash National Park during the 1970s. There has been little recent survey work within its range.
54686		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are environmental degradation and water pollution, resulting from urban expansion and human settlement, agricultural encroachment, and increasing numbers of domestic livestock. However, this species might well benefit from irrigation schemes on the Awash River, which could increase the availability of suitable habitat.
54687		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Khunjerab and Central Karakorum protected areas of Pakistan.
54687		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the northwestern Himalayas of India and Pakistan. The eastern boundary of the range and the southwestern extension still need to be clarified (Stöck <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The map for this species is based largely on the distribution presented in Stöck <em>et al.</em>, 2001. It has been recorded at elevations of between 2,600 and 3,000m asl (Pakistan).
54687		habitat	eng	It is associated with areas of riparian vegetation in alpine forests. Breeding and larval development takes place in ponds and similar stagnant waters. During the day adults are usually hidden under rocks and other ground cover. It may also be found in slightly modified areas.
54687		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
54687		threats	eng	The main threats are the use of pesticides in fields, the pollution of streams with these agrochemicals, and the over-extraction of water from streams for agriculture and domestic use.
54688		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54688		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon through mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), western and central Gabon and western Congo to the Mayombe Hills in western Democratic Republic of Congo. It presumably occurs in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and possibly in southeastern Nigeria, but it has not been confirmed from these countries. Records from West Africa (Sierra Leone to Ghana) refer to Bufo togoensis. Records from Garamba National Park (Inger 1968) and other localities in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and also Kenya presumably refer to other species, perhaps within an overall Bufo latifrons complex.
54688		habitat	eng	This is a species of moist tropical lowland forest, living on the forest floor, often near streams, and requiring a closed canopy. It frequents streams with gravel beaches. It does not survive in secondary habitats. It breeds in calm areas of large streams in the dry season.
54688		population	eng	It is a common species, at least in areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Cameroon and central Gabon, but it appears to be rare in Equatorial Guinea.
54688		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.
54689		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in a number of protected areas.
54689		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Djambala in southern Congo, south through southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and eastern Angola, though northern and western Zambia and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, south to the Okavango Delta in northern Botswana.
54689		habitat	eng	It is tightly associated with permanent water, in particular swamps and flood plains bordering swamps. It presumably breeds in swamps and flooded grassland.
54689		population	eng	There is little information on this species, but apparently the congregate in very large numbers to breed.
54689		threats	eng	It occurs in a habitat that is not significantly threatened at present, but could become so in future as a result of agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.
54690		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is protected in La Muralla and Pico Bonito National Parks, the Lancetilla Botanical Garden, and the Reserva de Visda Silvestre Texiguat.
54690		distribution	eng	Disjunct populations of this species occur on the Atlantic slope of north-central Honduras at 0-1,600m asl.
54690		habitat	eng	It can be found in lowland moist, and premontane and lower montane wet, forest; all specimens have been collected from broadleaf forests. The larvae apparently develop in streams.
54690		population	eng	The population is apparently stable in appropriate habitat and the species is recorded on a regular basis.
54690		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is the impact of landslides on upper clear water streams, as a result of strong storms and human activities taking place in the lower portions of the streams. Habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, smallholder farming, logging, and expanding human settlements is also a significant threat.
54691		conservation	eng	Given its geographical distribution, this species could occur in the Rio Rimac Reserved Zones.
54691		distribution	eng	This species is known from Pisco north to Sechura desert, encompassing the Departments of Arequipa, Ancash, Ica, La Libertad and Lima, Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 70-2,830m asl.
54691		habitat	eng	Its habitat is arid Andean Pacific coastal valleys and agricultural areas (potatoes and maize) close to rivers and streams. Breeding takes place in streams.
54691		population	eng	This species is abundant.
54691		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species. There is some harvesting of individuals for laboratory experimentation. Tourism development is a localized threat.
54692		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania, but this has not yet been confirmed. It is likely to occur in several other protected areas.
54692		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Tanzania (in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains), south through eastern Tanzania to southeastern Malawi. It occurs up to at least 650m asl.
54692		habitat	eng	It is a species of woodland, thicket, dry forest and farmland, often in sandy areas. It has also been found on rocky outcrops. It can tolerate areas of low-intensity cultivation. Its breeding unknown, but it is presumably in water, either in streams or ponds. It is most often found after heavy rain.
54692		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon species, but it is difficult to detect, and might be overlooked.
54692		threats	eng	It is probably impacted by the intensification of agriculture and expanding human settlements.
54693		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species. Improved management of these reserves, and strengthened protection of the remaining forest habitat, is required.
54693		distribution	eng	This species is only known from three very small distributional pockets (Pinar del Río Province, Sierra de Trinidad, and Sierra del Guaso) in Cuba, and each of these may turn out to be separate species. It has been recorded from 100-820m asl.
54693		habitat	eng	It is found in upland pinewoods and mesic broadleaf forest, and is terrestrial by day but may be arboreal at night. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat, and is always found by streams. Males call while floating on the surface of water. Eggs are laid in streams, where the larvae also develop.
54693		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species, although one population in the west is known to be very abundant. However, the eastern population has not been found again since it was first described in the early 1900s.
54693		threats	eng	There is ongoing habitat loss in the upland woodlands in which it occurs from clear-cutting and subsistence logging, charcoaling, fires, and agricultural expansion.
54694		conservation	eng	It occurs in Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomic status of this species and its relatives.
54694		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to the Kenyan Highlands above 1,800m asl, where it occurs on both sides of the Rift Valley, and on Mount Kenya and in the vicinity of Limuru. Records from Nairobi require confirmation. A related species has been found in the Udzungwa Mountains of southern Tanzania, but this has not so far been named.
54694		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland, moorland and forest patches, and it survives in agricultural land. It breeds in small, shallow permanent and semi-permanent pools in open areas.
54694		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species. There is some evidence of a decline at one site, but there is no information as to whether or not such a decline might have been more widespread (M. Tandy pers. comm.).
54694		threats	eng	There is little information on its threats, but although it is somewhat adaptable, it is possibly affected by the intensification of agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding human settlements.
54695		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
54695		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Pacific lowlands from Chiapas, Mexico to central Costa Rica (at 6-300m asl) and on the Atlantic slope in dry interior valleys of Guatemala and Honduras (up to 1,300m asl), and in the upper Río San Juan drainage in Costa Rica (0-1,300m asl).
54695		habitat	eng	It can be found in open areas including disturbed pasturelands in lowland dry forest and marginally in lowland moist and premontane moist forests. It reproduces in temporary pools.
54695		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range.
54695		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
54696		conservation	eng	In Ethiopia, it is known from the outskirts of the Awash National Park, and is almost certainly present in the Omo and Mago National Parks. It occurs in the Tsavo West National Park in Kenya, and is probably present in several others. It does not occur in any protected areas in Somalia, and is unlikely to occur in any protected areas in Sudan.
54696		distribution	eng	This species occurs in arid lowlands from Somalia, through eastern and southern Ethiopia, extreme southeastern Sudan, to northern and eastern Kenya as far south as the Ngulia Hills in Tsavo West National Park. There is an apparently isolated population in the Awash Valley in central Ethiopia. It is likely to occur in northeastern Uganda.
54696		habitat	eng	It lives in very dry savannah where it apparently breeds in temporarily flooded hollows, including roadside ditches, immediately after the beginning of the rains.
54696		population	eng	It is apparently common at suitable sites, at least in southern Ethiopia.
54696		threats	eng	The main threat is environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.
54697		conservation	eng	It is not known with certainty if the species is present in any protected areas. The exact distribution and natural history of this species is not well known and needs further research. Further research is needed into the possible impact of climate change on this species, especially concerning the desiccation of breeding habitats.
54697		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. It is known from relatively few localities, mostly the western foothills of Kuzestan, Lorestan and Fars Provinces. The distribution map for this species is largely based on Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2001). It has an altitudinal distribution of 750-1,200m asl.
54697		habitat	eng	There is little is known about the habitat requirements of this species, though it presumably has similar habitat requirements to <em>Pseudepidalea surdus</em>; like many members of the genus <em>Pseudepidalea</em> it presumably breeds in still or slow moving waters.
54697		population	eng	This species appears to be quite rare.
54697		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are prolonged drought and some localized habitat destruction (often through agricultural expansion) in parts of its range.
54698		conservation	eng	The conservation, expansion and management of cloud forest are key measures to preserve this species since it has not been recorded from any of the Biosphere reserves in Chiapas, Mexico. It also does not occur in any protected area in Guatemala.
54698		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range extends from Los Chimalapas region in south-central Oaxaca, Mexico, south and east along the Atlantic versant as far as the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes in Guatemala. It occurs at 1,000-1,600m asl.
54698		habitat	eng	This species is mainly associated with high humid areas in cloud forest and, in Mexico, pine-oak-Liquidambar forests. It breeds in streams.
54698		population	eng	It is rare across its range.
54698		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss, due to agriculture and human settlement, and water pollution.
54699		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. It is known to be present in the following protected areas in India: Sessa Orchid Wild Life Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wild Life Sanctuary (Arunachal Pradesh) and Nameri National Park (Assam). It is protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.
54699		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of monsoonal mainland Southeast Asia and in northeast India (in Arunchal Pradesh and Assam). In Southeast Asia it is found up to 300m asl, in the northwestern part of its range it is found up to 2,350m asl.
54699		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with both open-canopy and closed deciduous forest types. It breeds explosively in rain-pools. It is able to survive in relatively degraded forest.
54699		population	eng	It is generally common in the deciduous forests of mainland Thailand, but rare in the peninsular rainforests and in India.
54699		threats	eng	Commercial clear-cutting of tropical forests appears to be the only major threat as this species appears to be quite able to maintain its populations even in degraded deciduous forests.
54700		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54700		distribution	eng	This species occurs very widely in humid savannah and savannah- forest transition zones from Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia eastwards to western Ethiopia and southwards to Swaziland and the northern regions of South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. There do not appear to be records from Mali, Togo, Equatorial Guinea, Chad, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It probably occurs more widely in the Democratic Republic of Congo than is mapped. It occurs up to 1,700m asl in South Africa, and probably higher in East Africa.
54700		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid savannahs, forest edges and degraded forest, extending into drier savannahs along rivers. It is also found in agricultural land. It breeds in rivers and streams in savannah areas and in temporary ponds and ditches, especially in the forest zone.
54700		population	eng	It is very common in many parts of its range.
54700		threats	eng	Some populations of this species are no doubt affected environmental degradation, resulting from the expansion of human settlement. However, it is widespread and adaptable and is not seriously at risk.
54701		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
54701		distribution	eng	This is a species complex that occurs throughout the Amazon Basin of South America, the Guianas, and is also present in central Panama and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama, as well as in Gorgona Island, Colombia. Specimens recorded from the west coast of Ecuador are believed to refer to another species and are not mapped here. It is present from sea level to 2,400m asl.
54701		habitat	eng	Terrestrial and nocturnal toad found in primary and secondary lowland, premontane and montane tropical moist forest (including terra firme and seasonally flooded forest). Also present in open areas. In Gorgona Island its distribution appears to be influenced by the understory cover (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M. , 2003). This species is an explosive breeder in temporary pools and streams. Males call along banks of watercourses. It is a very generalist species that can be found in disturbed areas.
54701		population	eng	It is common throughout most countries but is uncommon in Colombia.
54701		threats	eng	It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
54702		conservation	eng	The preservation of ponds and other water systems is important for the reproduction and preservation of the populations of this species. It is known to occur in at least four protected areas along the Pacific coast (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).
54702		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Pacific coast of Mexico from southern Sonora to northern Chiapas. It is also recorded in the Balsas basin in Michoacán and on the Atlantic coasts of Veracruz.
54702		habitat	eng	This species dwells in tropical deciduous forest and tropical semi deciduous forest in the lowlands. It occurs in disturbed habitats, providing that these are not opened up too much. It breeds in streams.<br><br>While the species is known to feed on at least 19 prey taxa, dominant prey items consist of ants, beetles, and termites (Suazo-Ortuño et al., 2007).
54702		population	eng	This is a very common species.
54702		threats	eng	Local populations might be affected by extreme habitat alteration, but generally this species is not threatened.
54703		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. The species is not protected by national legislation in Morocco.
54703		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented range (there is a small area of occupancy within the wide extent of occurrence) in Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and the North African Spanish territories of Melilla and Ceuta. Apparently isolated populations in northern Niger and northern Mali refer to <em>Bufo xeros</em> (U. Joger pers. comm.); an introduced population is present on mainland Spain close to the Parque Natural los Alcornocales. It is not confirmed from the Western Sahara, although it might occur in the extreme north (Geniez <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species range from around sea level up to 2,650 m asl in the Atlas Mountains.
54703		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented range (there is a small Area of Occupancy within the wide Extent of Occurrence) in Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and the North African Spanish territories of Melilla and Ceuta. Apparently isolated populations in northern Niger and northern Mali refer to <em>Bufo xeros</em> (U. Joger pers. comm.); an introduced population is present on mainland Spain close to the Parque Natural los Alcornocales. It is not confirmed from the Western Sahara, although it might occur in the extreme north (Geniez <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species range from around sea level up to 2,650m asl in the Atlas Mountains.
54703		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide-variety of habitats including rocky and stony areas, meadows, cork oak groves, Mediterranean scrub, and agricultural land and sometimes in urban areas. It breeds in fresh or brackish still or slow-flowing waterbodies. The females deposit approximately 5,000-10,000 eggs. During the day the adults of this species hide under rocks or in tunnels.
54703		population	eng	This is a generally abundant species.
54703		threats	eng	There are generally no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Loss of suitable habitat and pollution resulting from development, and mortality through road kill are localized threats to some populations.
54704		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several Biosphere Reserves. The preservation of forests is the only way to protect this species.
54704		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific coastal versant of Mexico, from southwestern Sonora to northern Colima, and is also recorded in southwestern Chihuahua.
54704		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, and riparian environments. It has also been recorded in lowland pine forest in Chihuahua. It presumably breeds in water.
54704		population	eng	This is a common species.
54704		threats	eng	This species requires the presence of ponds and other water systems to survive. The disappearance of forest patches can result in the local desiccation of water systems. However, overall this species is not significantly threatened.
54705		conservation	eng	It occurs in several National Parks and other protected areas, including La Selva, Monteverde and Reserva Indo-Maíz. Population monitoring is recommended in case of outbreaks of chytridiomycosis and/or other diseases. Further studies are needed into the identity of populations allocated to this species from the Pacific coast (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).
54705		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands and middle elevations of the Atlantic slopes and Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, at elevations of 2-1,080m asl. It has recently been recorded from extreme southaeastern Nicaragua (Köhler et al., 2004).
54705		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist and wet forests and the lower portion of premontane wet forest. It is most likely not very tolerant of either canopy removal of forest or alteration and/or siltation of breeding streams. Other species in this clade are highly intolerant of such impacts. It breeds in large streams and is sometimes encountered on the forest floor.
54705		population	eng	It is widespread and regularly encountered during breeding periods. It disappeared from Monteverde in the late 1980s and then reappeared in the 1990s (Pounds <i>et al.</i> 1997).
54705		threats	eng	Alteration of streams, including pollution is a threat to this species. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat.
54706		conservation	eng	It occurs in Upemba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo.
54706		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities: Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo; Bwana Mkubwa, south of Ndola in northern Zambia; and Lago Cameia in eastern Angola. It presumably occurs more widely, and the map assumes its occurrence between the three known localities.
54706		habitat	eng	It apparently shows a preference for forest (presumably gallery forest) and woodland. It breeds in water.
54706		population	eng	There appear to be no recent records of this species, which is only known from a few specimens, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.
54706		threats	eng	There is no direct information, although the habitats within its range are probably reasonably secure.
54707		conservation	eng	None needed, other than further taxonomic study. The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas across its range. The species should be exterminated from New Guinea as a matter of urgency.
54707		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely from northern Pakistan through Nepal, Bangladesh, India (including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, southern China (including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau), Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam, Thailand and Cambodia to Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Anambas Islands and Natuna Islands, introduced to Bali, Sulawesi, Ambon and Manokwari, New Guinea (northeastern portion of the Vogelkop Peninsula, centred on Manokwari). It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,800m asl.
54707		habitat	eng	It is mainly a species of disturbed lowland habitats, from upper beaches and riverbanks to human-dominated agricultural and urban areas. It is uncommon in closed forests. It breeds in still and slow-flowing rivers and temporary and permanent ponds and pools. Adults are terrestrial and may be found under ground cover (eg. rocks, leaf-litter, logs), and are also associated with human habitations. The larvae are found in still and slow-moving waterbodies.
54707		population	eng	It is an abundant species throughout its range that is probably increasing in many areas.
54707		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat. It is eaten locally in northern Thailand.
54708		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least two protected areas. Urgent protection of the forested areas along the Sierra Tarahumara area is recommended.
54708		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme central-eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental, south to western Durango and extreme north-eastern Sinaloa, Mexico.
54708		habitat	eng	It inhabits pristine conifer forests where it can be commonly found along low rivers and streams, where it breeds. It is not present in altered habitats.
54708		population	eng	This is a rare species.
54708		threats	eng	Disturbance, and any kind of alteration of forested areas that might cause the desiccation of streams and soils, are threats to this species.
54709		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. microscaphus</span> is a state protected species in Utah, Nevada and Arizona. Protected populations occur in the Virgin River and its tributaries in Zion National Park.
54709		distribution	eng	This species' range is continuous along the Virgin River and its tributaries in southwestern Utah, Clover Creek, Meadow Valley Wash and possibly the lower Muddy River in southern Nevada, USA (Blair 1955; Price and Sullivan 1988; Schwaner and Sullivan, in press), and scattered in locations across Arizona, and western New Mexico (Sullivan 1993). Known populations of the Arizona toad range from 365-1,770m asl (Blair 1955).
54709		habitat	eng	Rocky stream courses in pine-oak zone in Arizona and New Mexico, although irrigated cropland and reservoirs increasingly used (Price and Sullivan 1988). In Utah, occurs primarily along streams and washes bordered by willows and cottonwoods (Stebbins 1954; Blair 1955), but has been recorded in impounded areas such as Enterprise Reservoir and Gunlock Reservoir (Blair 1955), and more recently, in Quail Creek Reservoir (Sullivan 1995). Lays eggs among gravel, leaves, or sticks, or on mud or clean sand, at bottom of flowing or shallow quiet waters of perennial or semi permanent streams (Dahl <em>et al.</em> 2000) or shallow ponds. Breeding season is not correlated with rainfall (Blair 1955). Calling males heard as early as February at lower elevations, March-April at higher elevations (Schwaner and Sullivan, in press). Individual males, not all calling at the same time, strung out along the shores of streams and lakes (Blair 1955), sometimes in dense aggregations that include many terrestrial satellite males (Schwaner and Sullivan, in press). Most breeding is accomplished within two weeks (Schwaner <em>et al.</em> 1997), although males may continue to call until June or July (Schwaner, unpublished). Amplexus is axillary and males use the basket method (Krupa 1988) to maximize fertilization efficiency (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2000). Clutch size ranges from 3000-4000 eggs (Blair 1955), most of which hatch under ideal conditions. Unless periodic flash floods, natural drying or human alterations to the stream habitat occur, most tadpoles survive to metamorphosis (Schwaner, unpublished). Predation by mammals, birds and snakes, and over-winter mortality, seem to reduce annual production of young and adults (Schwaner, unpublished).
54709		population	eng	In Utah and Nevada, locally very common in suitable habitat within its small range (Schwaner and Sullivan, in press). Schwaner <em>et al.</em> (1997) estimated a population of 1,000 toads along a 1,500m transect of the Beaver Dam Wash at Lytle Preserve. A recent survey in Arizona indicated local declines but no obvious major trend (Sullivan 1993). <br/>The construction of impoundments (Sullivan 1993). Malmos <em>et al.</em> (2001) reported directional hybridisation by common male (<span style="font-style: italic;">B. microscaphus</span>) and rare female (<span style="font-style: italic;">B. woodhousii</span>) matings. Schwaner (2003) reported a hybrid swarm at a golf course near the junction of the Beaver Dam Wash with the Virgin River and genetic introgression of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. woodhousii </span>into putative pure <span style="font-style: italic;">B. microscaphus</span> populations 60 miles upstream. Temporal separation of the two species by different breeding times (Sullivan 1995) was not evident.
54709		threats	eng	A major threat is hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. woodhousii</span>, possibly facilitated by dam construction.
54710		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Kalakkad Mundauthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu) and Silent Valley National Park (Kerala).
54710		distribution	eng	This is a poorly known species that is presumed to be endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India. A record from Maharashtra (Yazdani and Mahabal 1976) requires confirmation. Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (1998) clarified that it does not occur in Sri Lanka. The altitudinal range is from 1,400-2,100m asl.
54710		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species associated with montane 'shola' (grassland-forest mosaic) and tropical moist forest habitat; it has not been recorded from modified habitats. It may be found in the vicinity of water bodies, but the breeding habitat is not known.
54710		population	eng	It is a rare species.
54710		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to the conversion of forested areas to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations), future dam development projects, road construction, and urbanization.
54711		conservation	eng	Several protected areas fall within the species' range.
54711		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai and Sichuan provinces in China, and occurs from 1,700-3,700m asl.
54711		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams, alpine marshes and grasslands. It breeds in streams, ponds and pools where the larvae also develop.
54711		population	eng	It is a very common species in mountainous areas.
54711		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
54712		conservation	eng	It might well occur in Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomic status of this species and its relatives.
54712		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Mount Kenya, the Kinangop Plateau and the highlands around Nairobi, Kenya. Its overall distribution and altitudinal range are still unclear because of confusion with <em>Bufo lonnbergi</em> and <em>Bufo nairobiensis</em>.
54712		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it is apparently a montane forest species that presumably breeds in water.
54712		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54712		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54713		conservation	eng	Its range includes Kaiteur National Park in Guyana, and Canaima National Park in Venezuela.
54713		distribution	eng	This species is known from La Escalera region, in the state of Bolívar, in east Venezuela (La Marca, 1992), and from northwest Guyana from Tukeit, Roraima, and Ikarak. It has been recorded from 500-1,350m asl.
54713		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of cloud forest and lowland moist forest. Breeding is likely to occur along creeks but otherwise there is very little information known about breeding habits.
54713		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
54713		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
54714		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a number of protected areas.
54714		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Arkansas, southern Mississippi, Louisiana, and central Texas in the USA, southward to Palma Sola, Veracruz, Mexico (Mulcahy and Mendelson 2000).
54714		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal prairies, barrier beaches, towns, and a variety of other habitats. Eggs and larvae develop in various kinds of pools, including roadside and irrigation ditches. This species is tolerant of substantial habitat alteration.
54714		population	eng	It is a widespread and common in suitable habitat.
54714		threats	eng	Not threatened.
54715		conservation	eng	This species is quite likely to occur in Reserva Comunal El Sira. Continued maintenance of this, and other remaining habitat in the Serrania de Sira, is necessary.
54715		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Laguna, west slope of Serrania de Sira, Departamento Huánuco, Peru. The type specimen was recorded at 1,280m asl, but the species may well occur from 600 to around 2,000m asl (as another specimen is believed to have been found at 600m asl). It presumably ranges much more widely than has been mapped, but it is nonetheless likely to be endemic to the Serrania de Sira.
54715		habitat	eng	Their habitat is premontane and montane forest on an isolated mountain ridge of the upper Amazon Basin. Nothing is known about their breeding strategy, although it has been suggested that this may be a species that breeds by direct development. It is not known to what degree they can withstand any anthropogenic disturbance.
54715		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
54715		threats	eng	Although the restricted area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some disturbance due to farming activity and human settlements. In addition, the lower parts of the range are being selectively logged.
54716		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site; the continued management of these for biodiversity conservation is important.
54716		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in south-west Sri Lanka, and has been recorded at elevations of between 150 and 460m asl.
54716		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in, and around, tropical lowland moist forest. Adults have been recorded from rubber plantations, tea estates, and domestic gardens close to the forest edge only. The breeding habitat is not known.
54716		population	eng	It is not a common species, and populations may be declining proportionately with a loss in forest habitat.
54716		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss, due to selective logging, and agrochemical pollution.
54717		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Nyika National Park. This species requires close population monintoring given that it is known from only a single location.
54717		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi and north-eastern Zambia. It is a high-altitude species, although its precise altitudinal range is not known.
54717		habitat	eng	It is apparently associated mainly with montane forest, and with wet, boggy places in grassland, and is never far from trees. It breeds in small, shallow pools.
54717		population	eng	It is probably reasonably common within its small range.
54717		threats	eng	Most, if not all, of the range of this species is in a protected area, and so it is probably not seriously threatened at present.
54718		conservation	eng	This species might occur in a number of protected areas in northern Iran, however this requires further confirmation. In Turkmenistan, it has been recorded from the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve. Additional surveys are needed to better understand the distribution of this species relative to related members of the '<em>Bufo viridis</em>' complex.
54718		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the west of the Central Iranian deserts and in the Kopet Dagh Mountains of Iran and Turkmenistan. It possibly occurs western Afghanistan (current range requires research). The distribution map for this species is largely based on Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2001). The altitudinal range is not known.
54718		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is not well known. It occurs in relatively arid areas, including slopes of mountains, and may breed in various slow-moving streams. The species can be found in somewhat disturbed or modified habitats.
54718		population	eng	It is a common species in Turkmenistan. The population abundance of this species is not known for Iran.
54718		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
54719		conservation	eng	The preservation of natural ecosystems including the river systems can guarantee the survival of this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
54719		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Central Mexican Plateau, to the west in northern Colima and north-central Sinaloa, including northwestern, central and eastern Michoacán, central and southern Jalisco, northwestern Guerrero and Oaxaca, and from central Mexico to the east into south-central Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz, Mexico. It can be found between 610-2,400 m asl.
54719		habitat	eng	This species lives in a wide variety of habitats, from lowland xeric scrubs and deciduous forest to coniferous and oak forests. It is also recorded in disturbed environments. It breeds in streams.
54719		population	eng	This is one of the most common toads in Mexico, maintaining healthy populations along its range.
54719		threats	eng	Desiccation, alteration and pollution of rivers and smaller streams are the main threats to this species, as it requires the presence of permanent, clean, shallow water.
54720		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
54720		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Brazilian Cerrado from Maranhão to Minas Gerais states, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 200-1,500m asl.
54720		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in the Cerrado near waterbodies, where it also breeds. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
54720		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
54720		threats	eng	Agriculture, crops and livestock, dam construction and fires are major threats to the species' habitat.
54721		conservation	eng	In Iran part of the species range along the Sarboz River is within a protected crocodile sanctuary.
54721		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sistan va Baluchistan Province of southeastern Iran and western Baluchistan of Pakistan. It has not been recorded from Afghanistan and does not occur in India (M. Khan pers. comm.). This species ranges from approximately sea level to around 700m asl.
54721		habitat	eng	It is generally found in areas where available water occurs, including irrigated land, springs, oasis and all other wetlands. The habitat surrounding these wetlands is mostly semi-desert with date palms. The species largely depends upon wetlands created by agricultural activity. It breeds in ponds and oasis, often in date palm groves. The larvae feed on algal vegetation deposited on the surface of submerged objects. This is an adaptable species often found around human habitations.
54721		population	eng	This toad is locally common in Iran (at areas with permanent water) and locally common in Pakistan (frequent at certain localities).
54721		threats	eng	The populations of this toad in Pakistan are locally threatened by pollution through the use of agrochemicals, and drought and habitat alteration might be leading to some localized declines. There are no immediate threats to the species in Iran.
54722		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes some protected areas: in China it is known from Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve, and both of the populations in Myanmar are within protected areas.
54722		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-east and western Myanmar, extreme northern Viet Nam and Gaoligongshan in Yunnan (Tengchong, Baoshan and Lushui Counties), China, from 1,900-2,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
54722		habitat	eng	It inhabits forested mountain areas, and probably also occurs in the surrounding farmland. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
54722		population	eng	This species is rare and is seldom found.
54722		threats	eng	Forest loss due to agricultural expansion is an ongoing threat.
54723		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine population trends and the importance of perceived threats. A Biodiversity Management Plan (under NEMBA) is required to underpin Memoranda of Understanding between multiple stakeholders. Monitoring is required at known breeding sites to determine their efficacy,&#160;especially&#160;in the eastern range. There is great potential to significantly improve the status of this species through conservation planning and control of threats posed by alien species (including fish, Guttural toads and plants). It occurs on the western fringe of Agulhas National Park, Table Mountain National Park as well as in various City of Cape Town reserves. However, much of its remaining habitat&#160; is made up of urban gardens, is unprotected, and requires significant public education to make any conservation measure a success.
54723		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a very small area (Extent of Occurrence 1,750 km<sup>2</sup>) of the Western Cape Province in South Africa, ranging from the Cape Peninsula eastward to the westernmost part of Agulhas National Park. Its Area of Occupancy (440 km<sup>2</sup>) is continually being reduced by ongoing development and habitat change within the City of Cape Town and Overstrand. It is only known to breed at low elevations, within 25 km of the sea, but adults have been found ranging in the mountains up to 500 m asl. Subpopulations from the City of Cape Town have been shown to be genetically distinct from those in the eastern area of this species' distribution and their disjunction is not believed to have been caused by anthropogenic effects.&#160;Subpopulations in Kleinmond, Betty's Bay and Pringle Bay are now thought to be extinct.
54723		habitat	eng	It breeds in large wetlands, vleis, dams, and sluggish water in lowland fynbos heathland, as well as in altered habitats with permanent waterbodies, and occasionally temporary waterbodies that retain water well into summer, and has a preference for deep water, with floating plants. Females have been reported to lay nearly 25,000 eggs. It forages in fynbos heathland, farmland, suburban gardens, and urban open areas, although always in close proximity to freshwater habitats. There is an ongoing decline in the quantity and quality of suitable habitat for both foraging and breeding.
54723		population	eng	It is locally common and easily seen during breeding in August. Within the last 20 years it has undergone drastic declines from urban areas where it was once abundant, although no quantitative data are available. Collection of quantitative data is ongoing with which it is hoped to provide population data in the future.&#160;The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented as more than half of the occupied habitat area is in small and isolated patches and >50% of subpopulations are considered non-viable.
54723		threats	eng	Although it is tolerant of habitat alteration, it is being negatively impacted by increased urbanization and agricultural expansion in its entire range. Road kills,&#160;urban design,&#160;alien vegetation and introduced fish are all thought to be important factors. A recent introduction and rapid expansion of <em>Amietophrynus gutturalis</em> into the City of Cape Town poses threats of competition and possible hybridisation.
54724		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54724		distribution	eng	This species, which is endemic to South Africa, is known mainly from the Eastern Cape Province east to Umtata in the former Transkei, with a few records from the Western Cape Province. It is mainly found quite close to the coast, but it ranges inland to Grahamstown, Kei Road, Stutterheim and Amatola Mountains. It is generally below 1,000m asl, but ranges up to 1,500m asl in a few places.
54724		habitat	eng	It is a species of grassy, open bushveld areas, and also thickets and agricultural areas. It breeds in large, permanent, usually deep pools, and calls from floating vegetation.
54724		population	eng	It is locally abundant, although populations declined in some areas due to habitat loss.
54724		threats	eng	It is probably being impacted by habitat fragmentation as a result of urban and agricultural development. Significant numbers of animals are also killed on roads.
54725		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Indira Gandhi National Park (in Tamil Nadu), Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park (both in Kerala), and might also occur within other protected areas in the region.
54725		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread in the Western Ghats, India, from 400-900m asl. Dutta (1997) lists uncertain records from the Eastern Ghats, which require further verification.
54725		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial toad associated with leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover of moist tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. It is not known if it can occur in degraded habitat. Breeding takes place in slow-moving stretches of streams.
54725		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
54725		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation caused by both regional infrastructure development (roads, dams, and urbanization) and the collection of wood and timber for subsistence use by local people.
54726		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Usangu Game Reserve.
54726		distribution	eng	This largely unknown species is found mainly in Tanzania, where it ranges widely from the Usangu Flats in the south, east to south of Mount Kilimanjaro, west to Mawere near Tabora, and north to Olorgesaile in the southern Rift Valley of Kenya. Its distributional limits are still not well known, and the map should be regarded as provisional.
54726		habitat	eng	It is a species of sparsely wooded grassland and savannah, and also of flood plains. It is not known how tolerant it is of habitat alteration. It breeds in temporary pools.
54726		population	eng	There is very little information. It could be much more common than current records suggest, but there has been little herpetological work within its range.
54726		threats	eng	There is little information. Local populations might be impacted by overgrazing by livestock, and by human settlement.
54727		conservation	eng	It occurs in a large number of protected areas, which should safeguard the survival of the species if current protection levels are at least maintained. It is protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.
54727		distribution	eng	This species is found in western and Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Myanmar, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Pini and Java). There is an isolated population in southeastern Thailand and the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Dring, 1979 and S. Swan pers. comm.). It does not occur in Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992). It occurs up to 520m asl.
54727		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams in primary and regenerating rainforest, mainly in lowlands. It has not been found in open areas outside forest. It breeds in forest pools and slow-moving streams where the larvae also develop.
54727		population	eng	It is abundant in most areas of suitable habitat in mainland Southeast Asia. It is considered to be uncommon in Indonesia.
54727		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the survival of this species at present.
54728		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species.
54728		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 410m asl.
54728		habitat	eng	It occurs along stream banks and under rocks in various habitats such as broadleaf forest, grassland, savannah and agricultural areas. It was found to use coastal xeromorphic scrub habitat only temporarily (Fong, 2007). It can occur in disturbed habitats as long as the freshwater body remains undisturbed. Males call at creek sides. Eggs are laid in still water, where the tadpoles also develop. In some regions it can be an explosive breeder.
54728		population	eng	It is a common species.
54728		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species include intensive agriculture, cattle grazing and agricultural pesticides; however, it is adaptable, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
54729		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54729		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Africa south of the Sahara from Mauritania eastward Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti; and in the Sahara, in the Trarza region (Mauritania) and in the Air mountains (Niger). Records from Yemen refer to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bufo tihamicus</span>. It is not present in Egypt, reports by Anderson (1898) refer to modern day Sudan (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There do not appear to be records from Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Chad and Central African Republic, but it is likely to occur in these countries.
54729		habitat	eng	It is a species of xeric environments such as dry savannas and semi-deserts. It breeds in temporary puddles and ponds, and has been found close to rivers in Cameroon, although in Benin it appears to avoid rivers and creeks as breeding sites (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
54729		population	eng	It is a common species.
54729		threats	eng	Drought is likely to be the most significant threat to this species, although in parts of its range an increase in the populations of humans and their domestic livestock is likely to impact unfavourably on the overall environment, perhaps especially breeding habitats.
54730		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures currently in place, but further research is needed into the range, ecology, and population status of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and an <em>ex-situ</em> population should be established.
54730		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites: Parque Internacional La Amistad, a transboundary protected area between Costa Rica and Panama, and Cerro Bollo, in the western central cordillera of Panama. It has been recorded at 1,500-1,856m asl.
54730		habitat	eng	This is a largely unknown terrestrial species of tropical montane forest. There is no information available on reproduction or breeding habitats, though it presumably takes place in water. Assuming that it is similar to <em>Incilius fastidiosus</em> and <em>I. holdridgei</em>, it is likely to emerge unpredictably to breed, and is probably very hard to find.
54730		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species. It can still be found above Boquete on the trail to Almirante and Cerro Bollo on the border between Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro Provinces.
54730		threats	eng	The closely related species <em>Incilius fastidiosus</em> and <em>I. holdridgei</em> have both declined dramatically, probably due to chytridiomycosis, and are now possibly extinct. This disease must be considered a very serious threat to <em>I. peripatetes</em> as well, and the disease has already passed through the range of this species. Destruction of available forest habitat (generally caused by the driving of cattle through La Amistad) is a threat to the species.
54731		conservation	eng	It is not found within any protected area, and protection of the species' original forest habitat is urgently needed.
54731		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Tepalcatepec Basin and surrounding areas in south-western Michoacán, south of the Balsas River in Guerrero, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than currently known.
54731		habitat	eng	It inhabits the Pacific lowlands in areas of seasonal tropical forest, and lives under rocks and logs close to streams, breeding in pools.
54731		population	eng	This is a rare species.
54731		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are infrastructure development and agricultural expansion, coupled with changes in the management of agricultural habitat.
54732		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of sites where this species is known to occur. There is also a need for population monitoring given that it is known from only a single location.
54732		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from the Idanre Hills, in Ondo Province, south-western Nigeria. It is very likely to occur in other similar habitats in south-western Nigeria. There have been no recent records of the species, presumably because of a lack of herpetological work within its range.
54732		habitat	eng	It is closely associated with gneiss domes or inselbergs in the forest zone, though is absent from similar inselbergs in the savannah belt. It lives terrestrially in patches of shrubby vegetation and forest on the gneiss domes. The eggs are probably laid on soil, and the tadpoles then disperse by crawling out on the wet, sloping (often almost vertical) rock.
54732		population	eng	It is reported to be very common within its small known range, and tadpoles are abundant during the wet season.
54732		threats	eng	Its rocky habitat is largely inaccessible and useless to humans, so this species is probably not facing any serious threats at present. However, it is intrinsically at risk because of its restricted range.
54734		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species in the immediate future.
54734		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Balabac, Palawan, Dumaran, Culion and Busuanga in the Palawan Island group of the Philippines.
54734		habitat	eng	It thrives in degraded habitats and man-made environments, and is occasionally found in pristine lowland and montane rainforests. It breeds in water where the larvae also develop.
54734		population	eng	It is an abundant and common species.
54734		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
54735		conservation	eng	In Peru the species might occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Alto Purus Reserved Zone, Parque Nacional Manu, Manu Reserved Zone and Amarakaeri Reserved Zone. It is present in many Bolivian protected areas.
54735		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin of central and southern Peru, and the foothills and Andean slopes of Bolivia. It is not believed to be present in Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 350-2,000m asl.
54735		habitat	eng	It can be found in cloud forests on the Andean slopes, and tropical moist forest in the Amazonian foothills. It is associated with streams and standing water, where it presumably breeds. It can occur in modified habitats.
54735		population	eng	This species is reasonably abundant.
54735		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
54736		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54736		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southern Angola, through the northern two-thirds of Namibia, to Botswana, southward to central South Africa. The eastern limit of its distribution is very uncertain due to confusion with Bufo garmani. It is a low-altitude species.
54736		habitat	eng	It is a denizen of open savannahs, wooded savannahs, thornveldt, river valleys and agricultural areas, breeding in temporary water (vleis, marshes, dams or pans), and sometimes-artificial pools.
54736		population	eng	It is a common species, and is often locally abundant.
54736		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
54737		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas.
54737		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the main trunk of the Amazon River from Manaus to eastern Ecuador, including Colombia and Peru. Although Frost (2002) records this species as spanning from the "Amazon river region from Ecuador to Manaus, Brazil", there have been no specific localities provided for eastern Ecuador.
54737		habitat	eng	It lives in old growth and old second growth Tropical rainforest (See discussion by Hoogmoed, 1986). It reproduces explosively in small temporary pools.
54737		population	eng	It is very common.
54737		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species.
54738		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Chitral Gol and Khunjerab protected areas of Pakistan.
54738		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Himalayan moist-temperate forest in the northern North Western Frontier Province and northeastern Baltistan region of Pakistan. It might be present in Afghanistan, although this requires confirmation. The distribution map is largely based on Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2001). It has an altitudinal range of approximately 1,500-3,000m asl.
54738		habitat	eng	It is primarily a terrestrial species of Himalayan moist-temperate forest. Adults are often found under leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover, usually close to sources of water. It breeds in rainwater pools, with the tadpoles developing in these pools. It is quite adaptable to habitat change.
54738		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
54738		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat pollution through the use of agrochemicals.
54739		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
54739		distribution	eng	This species is known from California, Nevada, central Utah, Colorado, and southwestern Kansas in the USA, south to southern Baja California and central Mexico, and to the state of Querétaro. It occurs at elevations up to about 1,980m asl.
54739		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky canyons and gullies in deserts, grasslands, and dry woodlands. It hides under rocks, in rock crevices, or underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water in temporary rain pools, spring-fed pools, and pools along intermittent streams.
54739		population	eng	It is widespread and common.
54739		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
54740		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
54740		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rio de Janeiro State in coastal Brazil. It occurs at very low elevations, from sea level up to only about 50m asl.
54740		habitat	eng	This species lives underground then emerges to breed around standing waterbodies in restinga (shrubland) vegetation and forest. It breeds in shallow temporary rain pools. It is an explosive breeder. It can also occur in urban gardens where rain puddles develop.
54740		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54740		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development is a threat, although it is able to live in gardens where there are rain pools. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
54741		conservation	eng	Preservation of some areas of swamp forest is needed to save the Bornean subpopulations. In mainland Southeast Asia population status information is needed. It is recorded from the Sungai Dusun Game Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia.
54741		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsula Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Sumatra, Natuna Besar and Pulau Bintan), and Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
54741		habitat	eng	Swamp forests are the primary habitat for this toad. It is known to breed in standing water. It has been recorded from rubber plantations, presumably close to primary forest (Dring, 1979, Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
54741		population	eng	There are no estimates of the size of subpopulations in Borneo, but it appears to be common but not abundant in intact swamp forests. It is uncommon in Sumatra and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992), and presumably localized or uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia.
54741		threats	eng	The species' habitat is being rapidly reduced due to the expansion of oil palm plantations, infrastructure development and logging.
54742		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro.
54742		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes, in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz Departments. It has also been recorded in Chapare Province, Cochabamba Department and Caballero Province, Santa Cruz Department in Bolivia (Köhler 2000a; Cortez 2001). It has been recorded from 1,900-2,300m asl.
54742		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species inhabiting wet montane forest including cloud and Yungas forest. The eggs are laid in lotic waters (Köhler 2000a).
54742		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54742		threats	eng	Major threats to this species' habitat include agriculture (mainly from smallholder farmers) and agricultural pollution. Köhler (2000a) points out that it is very common to find this species infected by parasites, with visible red pustules that, according to De la Riva (1997), are caused by the larvae of a trombidioid mite. However, it is not known whether or not the infestations have a negative effect on the species.
54743		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and monitoring needed.
54743		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Coastal Plain, southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia south through all of Florida and west to the Mississippi River in Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991).
54743		habitat	eng	Sandy pine flatwoods and oak scrub; open pine and pine-oak woods; pine or oak savannahs with sandy soils; maritime forests. Occurs on some barrier islands in South Carolina. Seems to favour open-canopied pine flatwoods with grassy ground cover. When inactive, burrows underground or hides under surface objects. Eggs and larvae develop in rain pools, ditches, cypress and flatwoods ponds, and other flooded areas.
54743		population	eng	It is widespread and common. In Florida, seemingly less common than historically, but the species remains common to abundant in many areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
54743		threats	eng	Does not appear to thrive in urban and suburban areas but might remain common in agricultural areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In some areas, threatened by conversion of habitat to dense monocultures of loblolly pine and by continued draining of surface waters in remaining stands of pine savannah and pine-oak (Mitchell 1991).
54744		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes many protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of Buryatia and Irkutskaya Province (Russia).
54744		distribution	eng	This species is known from north and northeast China and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the whole of Mongolia and eastern Russia (Baikal area and the Far East). Presumed to occur in Republic of Korea, but this requires verification. Altitudinal range is between 600 and 2,700m asl.
54744		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the edges of coniferous and deciduous forests, groves, bush lands, meadows, forest steppes, steppes with sandy, rocky and alluvial soils, semi-desert, oases in dry steppes and the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. It is abundant around and in many human settlements, some cities and in agricultural landscapes. Although B. raddei is an opportunistic species, it prefers areas with soft, sandy and alluvial soils. It breeds in stagnant waterbodies such as ditches, pools and paddy fields.
54744		population	eng	The species is widespread and common over much of its range.
54744		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally impacted by high road mortality, and might possibly be threatened by over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine.
54745		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54745		distribution	eng	This species ranges through most of South Africa (excluding the central Karoo region), Swaziland and Lesotho, and almost certainly into extreme southern Namibia. It might also occur in extreme southeastern Botswana, extreme southern Zimbabwe and extreme southern Mozambique, but it has not yet been recorded from any of these countries. It is a low-altitude species, ranging up into the Drakensberg Mountains to over 1,000m asl.
54745		habitat	eng	It is a species of fynbos heathland, grassland, dry thicket forest, savannah and agricultural land. It breeds in dams, ponds, and pools along slow-forming streams, tending to favour permanent water.
54745		population	eng	It is a common species, though it is apparently declining along the northeastern escarpment of South Africa.
54745		threats	eng	It is generally not threatened. The cause of decline in northeastern South Africa is not clear, but it is possibly being displaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo gutturalis</span>, which is expanding its range, and with which it is hybridising. <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo gutturalis</span> probably does better than <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rangeri </span>in agricultural areas. Its decrease could also be the result of climate change.
54746		conservation	eng	It occurs in the poorly protected Kilombero Game Controlled Area.
54746		distribution	eng	This poorly understood species has been recorded only from the Kihansi-Kilombero floodplain in south-eastern Tanzania at 200-500m asl. The only records are from Merera, Mbega and from the confluence of the Kihansi and Kilombero Rivers, but it presumably occurs more widely.
54746		habitat	eng	There is very little information on its habitat and ecology, although it is presumably a species of floodplain grassland that breeds in water.
54746		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, probably because of lack of survey effort.
54746		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it could be impacted upon by agricultural encroachment, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding human settlements.
54747		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54747		distribution	eng	This very widely distributed African species ranges from Senegal to Nilotic Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia, southwards to western Democratic Republic of Congo, northwestern Angola, Uganda and central-southern Kenya. The boundary between this species and Bufo gutturalis in Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania is poorly understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional. There do not appear to be records from Mauritania, Togo, Equatorial Guinea, Djibouti and Burundi, but it is likely to occur in these countries, and also in the northwestern part of Tanzania. Records from Eritrea predate the descriptions of B. asmarae and B. xeros, but it is possible that the species occurs in the western part of the country. Early records of this species from the Ghat region of southern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Algeria and northern Niger are thought to refer to Bufo xeros and are not mapped here (see Schleich <em>et al.</em>, 1996 for further details). It is introduced to the Cape Verde Islands. It occurs from near sea level up to 2,500m asl.
54747		habitat	eng	It lives in both moist and dry savannahs, montane grassland, forest margins, and agricultural habitats, often in association with rivers. Its range appears to be restricted by increasing aridity, and in drier areas, away from permanent water, it is replaced by species such as Bufo garmani and B. xeros. Its occurrence is very patchy in the forest zone, and it even avoids secondary forest, but lives in degraded habitats and towns (including gardens) in the forest zone. It breeds in rivers, making use of shallow areas on the edges, away from the main current.
54747		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
54747		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. In Egypt, the range of the species is increasing with the development of irrigation schemes (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It is collected in large numbers in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.), and has been imported into Canada from Egypt as part on the international pet trade (H. Gerson pers. comm.). However, this is not believed to constitute a threat to the species.
54748		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54748		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Richtersveld, Bushmanland and Namaqualand regions of the Northern and Western Cape Provinces of western South Africa and adjacent southern Namibia. Its altitudinal range is unclear.
54748		habitat	eng	It is associated with arid rocky areas close to permanent or seasonal water. It breeds in small, spring-fed pools, small shallow seepages, vleis, seasonal streams and rivers, rain-filled depressions, and dams, but not in large perennial rivers.
54748		population	eng	It is generally not common, but can be locally abundant. Its breeding populations are scattered, presumably due to distribution of suitable habitats.
54748		threats	eng	It is not seriously threatened at present, since its habitat is largely secure. However, water extraction for livestock farming could eliminate local populations in future.
54749		conservation	eng	Present in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador; possibly occurs in several Peruvian protected areas.
54749		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is from the southeastern lowlands of Ecuador to northern Peru, southern Colombia and parts of western Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of between 200 and 1,000m asl.
54749		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is tropical lowlands forest, where it lives in the leaf-litter. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it might breed in slow-flowing streams.
54749		population	eng	This species is infrequently encountered.
54749		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). The type locality has mostly been converted to coffee plantations.
54750		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
54750		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cerrado of central Brazil, from the states of Pará and Piauí to Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
54750		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas, and is associated with permanent streams and ponds, where the females lay their eggs. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance, even occurring in urban areas.
54750		population	eng	It is a common species.
54750		threats	eng	Agriculture, fire and dam construction are major threats to the species' habitat.
54751		conservation	eng	The species is protected by Parque Nacional Lago Puelo and Parque Nacional Los Alerces (a single record) in Argentina, and Parque Nacional Puyehue and Parque Nacional Vicente Pérez Rosales in Chile.
54751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the temperate forests of Chile and Argentina. In Chile, the distribution extends from Lanalhue Lake (37° 55'S; 73° 19'W), Arauco Province, to Palena 43°S (approximately). In Argentina, the species is restricted to southern Río Negro Province and northern Chubut Province (including a single record from Parque Nacional Los Alerces). It has an altitudinal range of 200-800m asl.
54751		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid to xeric forests, as well as open environments, some of them with a certain degree of disturbance (Vidoz and Ubeda 2000). Breeding occurs in shallow temporary ponds adjacent to rivers, reservoirs and lakes. Adults live in small holes or under bushes during the day.
54751		population	eng	The northernmost population in Chile is declining, while the Argentinean subpopulations seem to be stable, with successful reproduction with recruitment recently verified (Vidoz and Ubeda 2000). It is abundant during the breeding season when courtship aggregations are formed.
54751		threats	eng	The major threat is degradation and fragmentation of habitat, due to agriculture, afforestation with exotic species (pine), overgrazing by cattle, and human settlements. Tourism development also appears to be a threat to the habitat of this species.
54752		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Calilegua and Parque Nacional Baritú.
54752		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Calilegua, Ledesma Department, Jujuy Province and Arasayal, Orán Department, Salta Province, Argentina, from 700-1,700m asl. It is expected to occur more widely, and might be present in Bolivia.
54752		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species occurring in montane forests (Yungas). Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known. It reproduces in slow-flowing streams where the tadpoles also develop.
54752		population	eng	Although it is a rare species, it is nonetheless collected regularly.
54752		threats	eng	Selective logging and clear-cutting of primary forests are the main threat to this species, although it is also being affected by the introduction of predatory fish (trout) and the alteration of watersheds.
54753		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas in India and Sri Lanka.
54753		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in India and Sri Lanka. It is generally present from sea level to 300m asl.
54753		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species inhabits a number of habitat types including wet evergreen tropical forest, tropical dry forest, dry scrubland, grassland, coastal marshes and rural farmland areas. Adults are generally found under ground cover, or during the breeding season they are found in grasslands close to waterbodies. Larvae are aquatic and occur in stagnant waters.
54753		population	eng	It is a common species. Populations of this toad are generally considered to be decreasing over parts of its range (Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats in India).
54753		threats	eng	Deforestation for commercial purposes, pollution of land and waterbodies with agrochemicals and the loss of suitable habitat to urbanization are major threats to this species.
54754		conservation	eng	The only protected area in which it is known to occur is Upemba National Park.
54754		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, although it might occur more widely. It has been recorded from 960-1,300m asl.
54754		habitat	eng	There is no information on this species' habitat and ecology, but it is presumably a savannah species that breeds by larval development in waterbodies.
54754		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
54754		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to it.
54755		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work to determine whether or not this represents a species complex is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
54755		distribution	eng	This species is known from Argentina (Misiones, Corrientes, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Cordoba, Santa Fe, and Tucumán), Bolivia (Beni, Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, Tarija), Brazil (from Ceará to Río Grande do Sul), Paraguay, and Uruguay (Artigas, Salto, Paysandu, Río Negro, and Soriano). It is known from 0-2,000m asl.
54755		habitat	eng	It is widespread, found in various habitats, including the Chaco, Cerrado, and Atlantic Forest regions, although it occurs mainly in open and urban areas. It has been observed eating bees at hives. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds where the tadpoles also develop, and prefers still waterbodies without much vegetation. Males calls at night from the edge or within the water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
54755		population	eng	It is very common. Its range appears to be contracting in northern Cordoba and Jujuy, Argentina.
54755		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, except for the elimination of this species by apiculturists when they see it, but this is only a localized threat. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
54756		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas.
54756		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from Municipio de Bonita, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, where it has been collected at 300m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known, and it is expected to occur more widely.
54756		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense gallery forest in the Cerrado savannah. Animals have been found close to streams and waterfalls, and this species breeds in small pools in slow-flowing streams. It might also occur in pastureland, although this requires verification.
54756		population	eng	This is a seasonally abundant species.
54756		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
54757		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón, this area is poorly managed for conservation and is in urgent need of more effective management. Education and awareness of the local people regarding the use of this species is recommended. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of the species.
54757		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de San Luis, in Falcón State, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 1,150-1,500m asl.
54757		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation in cloud forest. Some individual males have been observed calling in slow-moving water, and the larvae probably develop in water.
54757		population	eng	The most recent specimens were collected in 1992, and no additional specimens have been found since then (although this may be due to a lack of fieldwork within its range).
54757		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is under intense pressure from agriculture and livestock farming, even within Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón. The species is also used in local medicinal use for the preparation of treatments against dermal herpes.
54758		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in protected areas, or whether or not it is protected by national legislation. It requires close population monitoring given that is known from only one location.
54758		distribution	eng	This species is possibly restricted to Wadi al Khalili near Mafhaq (1,550m asl) on a high plateau in northern Yemen.
54758		habitat	eng	It is found within the wadi, and shelters in the surrounding vegetation. Breeding takes place in pools.
54758		population	eng	It is probably common within its restricted range.
54758		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this species, although its restricted range makes it vulnerable to stochastic events.
54759		conservation	eng	It is unclear as to whether or not the type specimen was collected within Silent Valley National Park.
54759		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "near Valiaparai Thodu, Silent Valley Forests, Kerala" (Pillai 1981) in the Western Ghats of southern India. The type specimen was collected at an altitude of 800m asl.
54759		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species described from relatively open tropical moist forest. It may occur under rocks close to hill streams, but there is no further information known about its habitat and ecology.
54759		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, as it has not been found again despite surveys within its range, so its population status is unknown.
54759		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
54760		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
54760		distribution	eng	This species' original description indicates that it was collected close to the Rio Chiriqui near Bocas del Toro, Panama. This is doubted by Dunn and Stuart (1951) and Savage (1972), who suggested that the true type locality was in South America, possibly Peru or Bolivia. In view of the uncertain distribution of this species it is not possible to map its range.
54760		habitat	eng	There are no details known regarding its habitat and ecology.
54760		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
54760		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
54761		conservation	eng	This species' range includes a couple of protected areas in Mexico.
54761		distribution	eng	This species is found in Oklahoma, southern New Mexico, and Texas in the USA, south through north central and northeastern Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991).
54761		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grasslands, cultivated areas, and mesquite savannah. It burrows underground when inactive. It is often found in areas with sandy soil. The eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of rain pools and man-made ditches and ponds.
54761		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. It is commonly encountered throughout its extensive Texas range (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is abundant in south-astern New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996).
54761		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. Populations might thrive with irrigation and construction of stock tanks (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
54762		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected area, and only the preservation and restoration of cloud forest patches in the Sierra de Juárez and the Sierra Mixe can guarantee the preservation of suitable conditions for the survival of this species. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
54762		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in northern Oaxaca in the Sierra de Juárez in Mexico, and another allopatric population has been recorded in the Sierra Mixe, south-central Oaxaca, Mexico; additional survey work is likely to result in its discovery at additional locations. The type locality is at 1,570m asl.
54762		habitat	eng	It appears that this species is confined to high elevations covered with primary cloud forests and lowland rainforest beneath the cloud forest. It breeds in permanent streams.
54762		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
54762		threats	eng	The main threats are the fragmentation and disturbance of the cloud and rainforest habitat, which results in the disappearance of streams and a decrease in the humidity of the leaf-litter.
54763		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are required. In Chile it is suggested that Environmental impact reports should be undertaken in order to protect breeding areas. Occurs in many protected areas in Argentina and Chile. In Peru it is believed to occur in Parque Nacional del Huascarán, Huayllay National Sanctuary, Junín National Reserve, Chacamarca Historical Sanctuary, Alto Cañete Cochas Pachacayo, Apurimac and Aymara Lupaca Reserved Zones. In Bolivia it is known from Sajama, Ulla Ulla and Eduardo Avaroa protected areas.
54763		distribution	eng	The Andean slopes of Argentina, Chile (altiplano in the North to the southern <i>Nothofagus</i> region), Bolivia, and Peru (regions of Puno, Cusco, Junin, and Huánuco); also present in parts of Argentinian Patagonia (<i>B. s. papillosus</i>). It has a wide altitudinal range of sea level (Azapa, Arica, Chile) to 5,100m asl.
54763		habitat	eng	In the Andes the species is present in scrubland and grassland. In the more southern parts of its range it is found in forested areas. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds, altiplano lagoons and slow flowing streams. Has been recorded from arable areas.
54763		population	eng	It is generally abundant where it occurs.
54763		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species; there are some localized declines through the use of agrochemicals and over collection for educational use (dissections) at Universities. It is used for food and medicine in central Peru. In Chile it is threatened by hydroelectric dams, mining activities and water pollution.
54764		conservation	eng	Its range includes Cotapata, Carrasco and Amboro National Parks. It is also found in Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve.
54764		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Cochabamba, Lap Paz and Santa Cruz in Bolivia. It occurs from 1,000-2,300m asl.
54764		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid montane and cloud forest. It is also known to occur in disturbed habitats. There is no information about breeding habitats although it is presumed to be a larval developer in water.
54764		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
54764		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
54765		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54765		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Nigeria eastward to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southwestern Ethiopia, and northwestern and central Uganda. There is a separate population in southern coastal Somalia, coastal Kenya, and northeastern Tanzania (the species is absent from northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia). The type locality at Kihengo in east-central Tanzania (mapped as an isolated locality) is far from all other records of the species (and in view of the lack of any other records of the species in this area, more investigation of this record is required). Isolated inland records from Kenya (Ngatana and Lakes Baringo, Kenyatta and Mbaratumu) require confirmation.
54765		habitat	eng	It seems to be particularly associated with marshy areas in humid grassland or wooded savannah habitats, and has been found around human settlements. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
54765		population	eng	It is generally common in suitable localities within its range.
54765		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by environmental degradation resulting from expansion of human settlement.
54766		conservation	eng	Several protected areas fall within the range of this species. It is listed as a major protected wildlife by Liaoning Province in China.
54766		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern part of Liaoning Province in China, and the central mountains in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea, from 200-700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
54766		habitat	eng	It inhabits riparian habitats in forested areas, and breeds in streams and rivers where the larvae also develop.
54766		population	eng	In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Republic of Korea this species is rare.
54766		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
54767		conservation	eng	Some populations are within national parks in the Venezuelan Coastal range, and the Sierra de Portuguesa (Portuguesa and Lara States). Lower montane forests in the Venezuelan Andes are in need of protection, especially the semi-deciduous forests that have been used for coffee and cacao plantations for centuries.
54767		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Venezuelan states of Aragua, Carabobo, Cojedes, Falcón, Lara, Miranda, Portuguesa, Yaracuy, and the Andean piedmont of Barinas State. It has also recently been reported from Colombia on the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental. It is a mid-altitude species, occurring up to 1,800m asl.
54767		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and crepuscular frog living on the floor of semi-deciduous (seasonal) forest in mountain regions of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range and the northernmost portion of the Venezuelan Andes. It is often associated with slow-flowing stream pools where it congregates in large numbers in the breeding season.
54767		population	eng	It is a common species.
54767		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a major threat since most of the species' habitat is being converted for coffee and cacao plantations.
54768		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. It perhaps occurs in three protected areas in Iran.
54768		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Within Iran the species occurs at the border with Afghanistan and Pakistan. In Afghanistan it is known from south of the Hindu Kush in the southeastern part of the country, and along the Helmand River west of the Sistan basin (Leviton and Anderson 1970). The only report of this species from Sri Lanka is that by Kirtisinghe (1957) who collected three specimens from Mutwal, a coastal suburb north of Colombo, in 1932. Kirtisinghe (1957) additionally suggested that this species might have been inadvertently transported from India by means of sailing vessels. There is a small disjunct population in northern Oman at Wadi Jubaitha, 20km east of Mahdah (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 4,500m asl.
54768		habitat	eng	Found in a wide variety of habitats including; open plains, grasslands, scrubland, forest, suitable agricultural land and human habitations. Breeding occurs in permanent and seasonal pools, seasonal streams and slow-flowing streams. Adults hide under rocks and in crevices. It is a very adaptable species that may be found in houses.
54768		population	eng	It is a locally common species throughout its range.
54768		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Localized threats over much of its range include loss of habitat to infrastructure development; intensification of agriculture; pollution of wetlands and land by agrochemicals; traffic related mortality; and long-term drought.
54769		conservation	eng	In northern Myanmar it has been found in Hkakabo Razi National Park and Htamanthi Protected Area.
54769		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Myanmar and extreme north-eastern India. At present it is known only from the following localities: Putao Plain (the type locality) in Kachin State, northern Myanmar; the area 20-30km to the east of the type locality in Putao Plain in Kachin State, northern Myanmar; Htamanthi, in northern Myanmar on the border with India; and extreme north-eastern India in Arunachal Pradesh and possibly in Assam. It is presumed to occur in between these localities, and probably also elsewhere, but due to lack of sampling in Myanmar and north-eastern India it has not yet been recorded more widely. Recent records from Myanmar are at 556-640m asl.
54769		habitat	eng	This is a species of subtropical forest that has also been found in slightly degraded habitats near very small villages. No information is known about its breeding habits, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
54769		population	eng	It appears not to be a common species, and only six were encountered during a four month survey in northern Myanmar.
54769		threats	eng	There is some limited habitat loss taking place due to subsistence agriculture, but overall the forest within its range is not significantly threatened at the moment.
54770		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected area (it has not been recorded from a conservation forest about 10km from the only known locality). A community-based initiative involving local NGOs and communities is urgently needed to save the only known population of this species.
54770		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a tiny area on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is unspecified. It is apparently confined to Lubuk Selasi, at the head of the Terusan River at about 1,000m asl, on the borders of three districts, Padang Pariaman, Solok and Pesisir Selatan. Despite searches, it has not been found above 1,260m, or below 800m asl. Surveys in several other parts of Sumatra have failed to find this species, and it is likely to have a very restricted distribution.
54770		habitat	eng	It has been found along a small, clear stream with a width of 15m in secondary forest. No evidence of breeding has been found, but it presumably breeds by larval development in streams. It is not known whether or not the species is dependent on forest, though this is likely.
54770		population	eng	This species was rediscovered in 2001 after a gap of 141 years. At present, it is only known from one area, but is relatively abundant within its tiny range.
54770		threats	eng	Since its rediscovery, there has been extensive and very rapid habitat destruction for rice paddies in its only known locality, leading to the siltation of streams, which might affect its ability to breed.
54771		conservation	eng	It is included in Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in the Oban Hills National Park in Nigeria, the Korup National Park in Cameroon, the Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire, the Massif du Ziama Biosphere Reserve in Guinea, the Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, in North Lorma National Forest in Liberia, and almost certainly in several other protected areas. The Upper Guinea population requires further taxonomic studies (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).
54771		distribution	eng	This species' main range is from extreme southeastern Nigeria eastward towards northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from southwestern and southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, northern Congo, southwestern Central African Republic and central Gabon. In West Africa, there are isolated records from southern Ghana, southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia and southern Guinea. It does not appear to have been recorded from Sierra Leone, but it is likely to occur in this country. It is generally a low-altitude species.
54771		habitat	eng	In Central Africa, it lives mainly in secondary forest, but also in tall primary forest, as well dense brush and cocoa plantations. In West Africa, it is restricted to primary forest along the banks of larger rivers. It breeds in relatively calm water in streams.
54771		population	eng	It is generally uncommon through most of its range. It is very rare in West Africa.
54771		threats	eng	Although it is tolerant of some habitat modification in central Africa, it is probably affected to some extent by forest loss, especially when the habitat becomes very open. In the past it has been harvested for the pet trade, and this might have impacted some populations, and so low-level illegal trade might continue. The West African form is considered to be possibly threatened (Hillers and Rödel 2007), given that in Upper Guinea it is found exclusively in large, healthy forests, never in smaller or degraded forests, and large pristine forests are very rare and threatened in Upper Guinea due to&#160;logging, small-holder agriculture and more and more mining activities [e.g. iron  ore in Guinea] (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).
54772		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. Part of the range, along the Sarboz River of Iran, is within a well-protected crocodile sanctuary. The population found at the Taftan Mountain of Iran is also within a protected area.
54772		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the highlands of southwestern Pakistan (western Baluchistan and around Quetta) and much of southern Iran (further verification of identity is needed for the possible isolated population of the Zagros mountains). It has been recorded from eastern Iraq (Steven Anderson pers. comm., September 2008). Altitudinal range in Iran is sea level to approximately 2,250m asl.
54772		habitat	eng	A little known species mostly confined to oasis, pools irrigated areas and their surroundings. Breeding occurs during monsoons, with males gathering in temporal pools. Eggs are laid in double strings, which are wound around the pond vegetation; resulting larvae feed on pond vegetation. During the dry season toads seek damp areas under stones and within vegetation; such sites may hold several toads. Present in agricultural areas and also in the vicinity of human settlements.
54772		population	eng	It is a relatively common species at some temporary waterbodies in Iran; less frequent in Pakistan. It is locally common at the Taftan Mountain in Iran (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008). This species might be overlooked by confusion with juvenile <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> ssp.
54772		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by intensification of agriculture, including the pollution of breeding sites. Some localized population declines might be occurring with extended periods of drought and habitat loss.
54773		conservation	eng	Conservation of the forested areas along the foothills of the Tacana volcano is necessary to ensure the preservation of this species. Fortunately, some programs of protection and restoration of the forests in the area have been implemented. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and ex-situ populations should be established if chytrid is shown to be a threat.
54773		distribution	eng	This species occurs at intermediate elevations along the Pacific versant of eastern Chiapas (Unión de Juarez), Mexico to western Guatemala, at elevations of 1,500-1,700m asl.
54773		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in foothills in premontane tropical forest. It is probably a stream breeder.
54773		population	eng	This is a rare species throughout its range, and there are no recent records of it in either Mexico or Guatemala, despite searches.
54773		threats	eng	The alteration of the original forested areas by local people has severely impacted the only known habitat for this species. Furthermore, as a montane stream-breeding bufonid, it is possible that the species may be at risk of chytridiomycosis.
54774		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Taï National Park. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species, as well as the limits of its distribution range.
54774		distribution	eng	This species in known only from south-western Côte d'Ivoire. It possibly occurs in adjacent Liberia.
54774		habitat	eng	It is known only from primary rainforest. There is no information on its breeding, but if like <em>B. tuberosus</em>, then breeding is likely to take place in small forest streams.
54774		population	eng	It is clearly a very rare species, and is known from only four specimens in an area that has been thoroughly surveyed.
54774		threats	eng	There is ongoing forest loss in south-western Côte d'Ivoire, due to agriculture, timber extraction, and human settlement.
54775		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54775		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Kenya, through Tanzania, southward to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, Malawi and adjacent Mozambique. It has a wide elevational range.
54775		habitat	eng	It lives in sandy habitats in woodland, grassland, open savannah and agricultural fields. It appears to be an opportunistic breeder, breeding in small temporary pools and apparently also in streams. The larvae develop very rapidly, metatmorphosing in just 13 days.
54775		population	eng	It is a hard species to find, but it apparently is reasonably common, at least in some places.
54775		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, and is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
54776		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
54776		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Cuba from sea level up to 560m asl.
54776		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland mesic broadleaf forests and cultivated fields (providing farming is not too intensive). Males call in streams and shallow creeks, and eggs are laid in permanent water.
54776		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitat.
54776		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to intensive agriculture (livestock, sugarcane), charcoaling, and nickel mining. Pollution from agricultural pesticides is also a threat.
54777		conservation	eng	No conservation needed.
54777		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Coastal Plain, USA, from southeastern Virginia to the Florida Keys, west to Louisiana; disjunctive population in Upper Piedmont and Blue Ridge of South Carolina (but not Georgia) (Laerm and Hopkins 1997).
54777		habitat	eng	It is adaptable and ubiquitous. Occupies a wide variety of wooded and unwooded habitats, which usually have sandy soil. Burrows underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of permanent ponds, woodland pools, and flooded depressions.
54777		population	eng	It is common in many areas throughout range, despite habitat alteration.
54777		threats	eng	Basically unthreatened. However, this species has become uncommon in areas where introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span> has proliferated in southern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
54778		conservation	eng	Several protected areas lie within the species' range.
54778		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern Hengduan Mountains of southwestern China (Qinghai, Xizang, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces), from 2,100-4,300m asl.
54778		habitat	eng	It inhabits alpine grassland and cultivated fields. It breeds in stagnant pools where the larvae also develop.
54778		population	eng	It is a common species.
54778		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
54779		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
54779		distribution	eng	This species has littoral habitats (sea level to 400m asl) along the Red Sea coastline of the Arabian Peninsula. It has an altitudinal range of 25-400m asl.
54779		habitat	eng	It can be found in arid vegetation (except in riparian vegetation close to wadis) and wherever there are available water sources. Breeds in still or slow moving water. It is common in arable land close to wadis.
54779		population	eng	It is abundant in wadis and irrigated areas.
54779		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
54780		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54780		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Sierra Leone through Liberia, southern Guinea, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Ghana to western Togo. Records from central Africa refer to <em>Bufo latifrons</em>.
54780		habitat	eng	It lives only in primary forest, usually in close association with the streams in which it breeds, and is usually found on stones in shallow water, or among vegetation next to the streams. It breeds in the slow-flowing sections of the streams and the eggs are glued underwater with mud.
54780		population	eng	It is usually uncommon, but can be extremely abundant locally.
54780		threats	eng	This species is affected by ongoing deforestation throughout its range, due to logging, agricultural expansion, and human settlements. It is more threatened in the east of its range, where recent information on its status is very limited.
54781		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54781		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in central Honshu.
54781		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane-forested areas, and breeds in streams.
54781		population	eng	More information is needed.
54781		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
54782		conservation	eng	Its range includes Mangkangjingshihou, Zulongba and Baimaxueshan Nature Reserves.
54782		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sichuan (Batang, Xiangcheng), Yunnan (Deqin), and the eastern tip of Xizang Autonomous Region, in China, from 2,600-2,700m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
54782		habitat	eng	It inhabits pools, marshes and the surrounding habitats in valleys, and breeds in pools and ponds. Records have also come from agricultural areas.
54782		population	eng	It is quite common in parts of its range.
54782		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture.
54783		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54783		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island and Rio Muni), much of Gabon, central Congo, southwestern Central African Republic, and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been found up to 1,050m asl, but it is generally a lowland species.
54783		habitat	eng	It lives in moist lowland tropical rainforest, including primary and secondary forest with dense undergrowth in slightly marshy situations. It avoids well-drained forest. It breeds in small streams and the males call from cavities near water.
54783		population	eng	It is a very common species in Cameroon, but apparently less common in some other parts of its range.
54783		threats	eng	Although it can tolerate a certain level of habitat alteration, it cannot survive outside forest is almost certainly affected by ongoing forest loss.
54784		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one protected area, the Samburu Game Reserve.
54784		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two localities in north-central Kenya: Loiengalani on the south-eastern shores of Lake Turkana, and Uaso Nyiro River in the Samburu Game Reserve. It presumably occurs more widely.
54784		habitat	eng	The two known localities are in arid semi-desert regions with nearby permanent water (in one case a lake, in the other, a river). The breeding site at Loiengalani appears to be the lake.
54784		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.
54784		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54785		conservation	eng	It occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura and Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, but further protection of the remaining habitat in the range of this species is needed. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored and ex-situ populations should be established if chytrid is shown to be a threat.
54785		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific versant of Mexico from the Chimalapas region in south-eastern Oaxaca south through Chiapas to extreme western Guatemala, at elevations of 1,000-2,000m asl.
54785		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with streams, which provide breeding habitat, in cloud forest; it also occurs in pine-oak (broadleaf) forest, and does tolerate moderate forest disturbance.
54785		population	eng	It is uncommon but still present in one Oaxaca locality, with no evidence of a decline. In Chiapas, it has declined and is now rare, though it still persists. Apparently, it is rare in Guatemala, as recent expeditions within its range have not recorded this species, indicating a decline there also.
54785		threats	eng	The major threat to this species has been the loss and fragmentation of suitable forest habitat as a result of livestock ranching and agricultural activities, and wood extraction. Since this is a montane, stream-breeding bufonid, it is possible that it may be affected by chytridiomycosis.
54786		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54786		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four nearby localities at the southern end of Lake Tanganyika: Kitungulu (Tanzania); Tatanda (Tanzania); Kalambo Falls (Zambia); and Mbala (Zambia).
54786		habitat	eng	There is very little information on its habitat and ecology. It was originally found in a remnant of rainforest, and has more recently been found in woodland.
54786		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and only a few specimens are known.
54786		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54787		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of sites where the species is known to occur. It might be present in the Udzungwa National Park, but it is not clear whether it ranges that far north.
54787		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Udzungwa Mountains and Southern Highlands of Tanzania, from Dabaga south-west to Nyamwanga. It is found above 1,800m asl.
54787		habitat	eng	It is a species of swampy montane grassland. Its ability to adapt to habitat modification is unknown, though most records are from pristine grassland. It breeds in wet areas in the bottom of gentle valleys on high plateaus.
54787		population	eng	It appears to be locally abundant in suitable habitat.
54787		threats	eng	The montane grasslands of southern Tanzania are being destroyed and fragmented as a result of afforestation, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, and human settlement, which is a major threat to this species.
54788		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. An assessment of this species is urgently needed to determine whether or not it is taxonomically valid (Iskandar pers. comm.), and the type specimen should be examined as part of this process. A survey is also needed to determine whether or not this species in fact still survives on Weh Island.
54788		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the holotype from Weh Island, at the northern tip of Sumatra, in Indonesia.
54788		habitat	eng	No information is available on its habitat and ecology, although it is likely to be a lowland forest species that presumably breeds in water by larval development, though this has not been confirmed.
54788		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, although it is not certain that the species still survives as Weh Island is now heavily degraded and there is practically no forest left.
54788		threats	eng	There is no direct information known regarding threats to this species, although clearly forest destruction might well have been a serious threat as there is practically no forest habitat remaining on Weh Island.
54789		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. The subspecies <i>B.v. wilsoni</i> is not known from any protected areas.
54789		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant of Mesoamerica from central Veracruz (in Mexico) to northern Costa Rica; in northeastern Querétaro, Mexico, and on the Pacific slope of Mesoamerica from around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico to central Guatemala, at elevations of 0-1,610m asl. The distinctive subspecies, <i>B.v. wilsoni</i>, occurs on the slopes of western Guatemala drained by the upper tributaries of the Río Grijalva at 300-800m asl.
54789		habitat	eng	It can be found in lowlands through lower montane areas in moist and dry forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds, and withstands substantial habitat disturbance. The subspecies <i>B.v. wilsoni</i> occurs in dry forest. It breeds in permanent ponds and occurs in disturbed habitats.
54789		population	eng	It is common throughout its range. The subspecies <i>B.v. wilsoni</i> is common within its small range.
54789		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The subspecies <i>B.v. wilsoni</i> is considered to be adaptable and not significantly threatened within its small range.
54790		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas (more than 10) are present along the entire latitudinal range of <i>Nannophryne variegata</i>. Species is listed as "Insufficiently Known" (Inadecuadamente Conocida) by Chile (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998) for VIII, IX and X Regions. National legislation to preserve the native <i>Nothofagus</i> forest is necessary for Chile.
54790		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to austral forests of Chile (western slopes of the Andes from 39°S to 51°S) and Argentina, from Shangrila (37°S) to 53°S in the Fuegian Archipelago. This species is the southernmost amphibian in the world, together with <i>Batrachyla antartandica</i>. Its elevational range is between 0-2,000m asl (northern Patagonia, Argentina).
54790		habitat	eng	Its habitat is in temperate to cold humid forests, bogs, and magallanic tundra. Occurs in marshes, under logs in the <i>Nothofagus</i> forest region as well as tundra surrounded by low stature <i>Nothofagus</i> forest in the subantartic region. Reproduces in shallow temporary pools and swamps. Tolerates some disturbance.
54790		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species. Reported to be abundant in 2002 on Isla Wellington, Chile. In Argentina it is more common in the south of the country.
54790		threats	eng	Not threatened over the majority of its range. Habitat destruction and degradation (native forest loss) is a localized threat.
54791		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
54791		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality of Hacienda Yanasona in the Upper Río Marañon area, Cajamarca, Peru.
54791		habitat	eng	Its habitat is the montane forest in the upper Amazon basin. Nothing further is known about its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water.
54791		population	eng	It is a rare species, and there appear to be no recent records, perhaps because of lack of herpetological work within its range.
54791		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
54792		conservation	eng	Given its known habitat and geographic distribution, this species might occur in Parque Nacional Manu and Amarakaeri Reserved Zone. Present in several protected areas in Bolivia.
54792		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Marcapata Valley, (Departamento Cusco); Tutumbaro, Río Piene, (Ayacucho); valley of the Río Cosñipata (Cusco); in Peru. In Bolivia, it is present in Departamentos La Paz; Cochabamba; Santa Cruz, and Chuquisaca. It has an altitudinal range of 500-2,100m asl.
54792		habitat	eng	Its habitat is in the montane tropical forest and cloud forest. It breeds in streams and can occur in slightly disturbed forest.
54792		population	eng	It is a common species.
54792		threats	eng	No threats in Bolivia; localized habitat loss in Peru.
54793		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54793		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from a wide area in central South Africa, and also further another near the Botswana border. Apparently isolated populations are perhaps part of a contiguous range. It is likely to be found in southern Botswana. It probably occurs mainly below 1,500m asl.
54793		habitat	eng	This species lives in Nama karroo shrubland, grassland, dry savannah and pastureland. It breeds in temporary shallow pans, pools or depressions containing rainwater, quarries, and rock pools along rivers.
54793		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
54793		threats	eng	Overall, it is not seriously threatened. In some places it is negatively impacted by maize farming, but it does better in areas of livestock farming.
54794		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, is urgently needed.
54794		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of western Cameroon at 1,200-2,500m asl, where it occurs on Mount Manenguba, the Bamileke Plateau (at Djuttitsa, Batie and Bangwa), the Bamboutos Mountains, and Riboa (between the Adamawa and Mambilla Plateaus). It might occur more widely, and if <em>Bufo djohongensis</em> proves to be a synonym, then its range will extend to the east of the Adamawa Plateau.
54794		habitat	eng	It lives along fast-flowing streams in montane grassland, sometimes with forest strips, and hides in holes during the day. It breeds in slow-flowing streams bordered with trees.
54794		population	eng	It is not a well-known species, though it is probably moderately common in suitable habitats.
54794		threats	eng	Although it can probably cope with some disruption to its habitat, it is probably suffering from continuing degradation of its montane habitats as a result of smallholder farming activities, livestock ranching, wood extraction, and human settlement.
54796		conservation	eng	It occurs in Bwindi National Park, and possibly in some other protected areas.
54796		distribution	eng	This largely unknown species has been recorded only from Uganda, from Lira, south to Entebbe, and south-west to Bwindi Impenetrable Forest. It is likely to occur more widely. However, a Kenyan record from Katera, south of Mount Kenya, is far outside the expected range, and requires confirmation. Records from Egypt refer to <em>Bufo kassasii</em>. However, Tandy (pers. comm.) considers that this species ranges much more widely from Uganda, through the Nile Valley as far north as Egypt.
54796		habitat	eng	There is very little known about its habitat and ecology. It apparently occurs in marshy areas, where it presumably breeds.
54796		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status.
54796		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54797		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is within Wolong Biosphere Reserve. More work is needed to confirm the taxonomic validity of this species (Xie Feng pers. comm.).
54797		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Wolong in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,400m asl.
54797		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests, and breeds in streams and pools.
54797		population	eng	It has only recently been described and at present there is no information available regarding its population status.
54797		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54798		conservation	eng	This species is not found within any protected areas in Mexico but occurs in several in the USA.
54798		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of central and southwestern USA and portions of adjacent northern Mexico. It is absent from high mountains and the West Coast.
54798		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grasslands, deserts and semi-desert shrublands, river valleys and floodplains, agricultural areas, usually in areas with deep friable soils. It burrows underground or hides under rocks, plants, or other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of marshes, rain pools, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water lacking a strong current.
54798		population	eng	Abundant and widespread. The population trend varies with location but is probably stable in most areas. See Sullivan and Lamb (1988) for evidence that B. woodhousii is displacing B. microscaphus in central Arizona.
54798		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
54799		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54799		distribution	eng	This African species ranges from southern Western Sahara, Sahelian Mauritania and Senegal, east to Ethiopia and Somalia, and south to Cameroon and Tanzania, with an isolated population in the Tassili Mountains of southern Algeria and southwestern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Records of Bufo mauritanicus from Niger and Mali refer to this species. There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria and Central African Republic, although it presumably occurs in these countries. Possible records from Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,800m asl.
54799		habitat	eng	It is generally a species of very arid environments, and seasonally dry savannahs, woodlands and shrublands. It is often found in dry riverbeds, and around oases. It breeds in temporary pools, oases, and ponds near riverbeds. It is sometimes found close to permanent water, and in other places it appears to depend on temporary floods for breeding purposes.
54799		population	eng	It is generally common in suitable areas.
54799		threats	eng	Some populations might be adversely impacted by drought, as well as by human expansion and settlement, with the consequent increase in populations of domestic livestock. However, overall this is not a threatened species.
54800		conservation	eng	It has been reported from the Mizoram Wildlife Sanctuary, but additional habitat protection is necessary.
54800		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites, the type locality "Mawblang, ca. 5km. southeast of Cherrapunji town (Khasi-Jaintia Hills District, Meghalaya), latitude 25° 15'N and longitude 91° 44'E, altitude above mean sea-level 4,369 ft. or ca. 1,330 meters", India, and a second, recently discovered site in Mizoram, Bangladesh. It probably occurs at least a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.
54800		habitat	eng	The habitat is primarily wet forest floor, although adjacent scrubland and grassland are also used. The adults are to some degree arboreal. Breeding occurs on both pandanas and the ground. Larvae are found in water holes, presumably in both trees and on the ground.
54800		population	eng	Little is known about this species other than the original description, but it is considered to be rare.
54800		threats	eng	The main threat is clear-cutting of the species' forest habitat.
54801		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas that cover much of its range.
54801		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa, where it occurs in the Southwestern Cape Folded Belt east of Breede River and north of Worcester, in Western Cape Province. It ranges from Matsikammaberg near Vanrhynsdorp in the north, southward to the Hex River Mountains, and eastwards along the Langeberg mountain range to the Outenique, Swartberg and Kammanassie ranges, entering Eastern Cape Province marginally at Misgund in the Tsitsikamma Mountains. Its altitudinal range is 1,000-1,600m asl.
54801		habitat	eng	It is a species of mountain fynbos heathland and grassy fynbos. It breeds in shallow pools in seepage areas, or moist depressions, vleis and slow streams. It uses both permanent and temporary waterbodies.
54801		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
54801		threats	eng	The main the threat is loss of its fynbos habitat, mainly because of the spread of alien vegetation and fires taking place too frequently. Expanding human settlements might be a future threat.
54802		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species and the limits of its range.
54802		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania. The only specimens were collected at 1,840m asl. It has not been found in other, better-surveyed parts of the Eastern Arc mountain chain.
54802		habitat	eng	The only specimens were collected in dry montane forest. The large toe pads suggest that it is arboreal. Its breeding is unknown, but the presence of large numbers of pigmented eggs in the only known specimens suggests that it is neither a live-bearer, nor a direct developer.
54802		population	eng	Only two female specimens are known.
54802		threats	eng	The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
54803		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place this species has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad (Panama), and Parque Nacional Tapantí and Parque Nacional Rincón de la Vieja (Costa Rica).
54803		distribution	eng	This species is known from humid premontane slopes of the Atlantic versant of the Cordillera de Talamanca in south-eastern Costa Rica and adjacent north-eastern Panama, from 1,051-2,040m asl (Savage 2002; Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It seems likley that the species is widespread in appropriate habitats along the Atlantic slopes in areas between Turriabla, Cartago, Costa Rica and Cerro Pata de Macho, Bocas del Toro, Panama (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).
54803		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, species of deep forest (Savage 2002), that inhabits the deep leaf-litter of primary, or mature secondary forest with mature canopies, cloudforest or highland oak forest (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It is possible that this species undergoes direct development, however this requires further investigations (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).
54803		population	eng	Vaughn and Mendelson (2007), mention that this is generally a rare toad with a few individuals being recorded along trails. However it is reported to be generally common in Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, by other researchers (Gerado Chaves pers. comm. 2007). It has been collected only a few times. Small aggregations of between two end eight animals, a few metres apart, have been observed (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).
54803		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species; the Costa Rican part of the species range is almost all within well protected areas.
54804		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54804		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Serra do Mar, Serra do Tabuleiro, and Serra Geral of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at approximately 300-1,100m asl.
54804		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter in humid rainforest. It reproduces in bromeliads by larval development.
54804		population	eng	It is uncommon but widely distributed; it continues to be collected regularly.
54804		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species.
54805		conservation	eng	It occurs in Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve and National Forest.
54805		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality (Parintins; Amazonas, Brazil) and lower Rio Trombetas, Pará, Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.
54805		habitat	eng	It can be found in leaf-litter in old-growth forest. The eggs are laid on aerial roots over temporary pools and the larvae develop in these pools.
54805		population	eng	It is abundant within its range.
54805		threats	eng	Deforestation by clear-cutting for cattle ranching and timber extraction are threats to this species.
54806		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54806		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lowlands up to 900m asl in the States of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, in southern Brazil. Records from Rio Grande do Sul in extreme southern Brazil probably refer to other species.
54806		habitat	eng	It lives in terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads inside primary, secondary and seasonally flooded forests where it lays its eggs. The larvae develop in bromeliads. It does not survive in heavily degraded areas.
54806		population	eng	It is a common species.
54806		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to livestock grazing, clear-cutting, collection of bromeliads, and human settlement.
54807		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Estacion Biólogica Santa Lucia, and Reserva Biólogica Augusto Ruschi, but this is not confirmed. It has been found in forest on private land, and bromeliads from this area have been introduced into nearby protected areas. Since it is quite possible that these bromeliads contained larvae of the species, it may have become inadvertently established in these protected areas.
54807		distribution	eng	This species is known from only from two localities at around 800m asl in the state of Espírito Santo, southern Brazil: the type locality, Santa Tereza; and from nearby at Fundão. It almost certainly occurs a little more widely.
54807		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forests, but not in more degraded habitats, and is dependent upon bromeliads in which it lays its eggs and in which the the larvae develop.
54807		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
54807		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, the collection of bromeliads, and human settlement. The population at Fundão is threatened by coffee cultivation.
54808		conservation	eng	The species' occurs within several protected areas, mainly within its northern range. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
54808		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowland coastal forests of the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná, and from northern Santa Catarina State, Brazil. It occurs at very low elevations.
54808		habitat	eng	This species is found in secondary and primary forest on leaves near the ground and in bogs. It breeds in rain pools on the ground. It is not known to occur in anthropogenic habitats.
54808		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54808		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of forests, and large-scale livestock farming is an increasing threat within the range of the species.
54809		conservation	eng	Many conservation units are present within its range.
54809		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonian, Orinocan and the Andean foothills of Colombia (from the Llanos of Meta south to Amazonia), Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, central and southern Guyana, Suriname, and throughout French Guiana. It is generally found at 0-300m asl but can be found at up to 1,000m asl near Puyo, Ecuador.
54809		habitat	eng	It can be found in old and second growth Tropical Moist Forest and Premontane Humid Forest on the forest floor. It is active on the forest floor by day (Lynch, 2006). Reproduction takes place in natural semi-permanent and temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid out of water usually on roots over the water, and the larvae develop in the water.
54809		population	eng	It is locally abundant throughout its range, except it is rare in Bolivia.
54809		threats	eng	Logging, forest conversion and fires are threats to this species.
54810		conservation	eng	The creation of a new protected area, and research actions to determine if and where it occurs, are needed for its conservation.
54810		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Bituruna, Paraná State, Brazil, at 980m asl, although it might occur more widely.
54810		habitat	eng	It occurs in the forest leaf-litter in humid rainforest. Its reproductive habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds by larval development.
54810		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens collected in the early 1980s, and there is no current information on its population status.
54810		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation arising from rearing of livestock by smallholders, and logging.
54811		conservation	eng	It is recorded from the Makoko and Kendonge Forest Reserves, and probably occurs in Korup National Park. It also has recently been found in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria.
54811		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme south-western Cameroon in the general area of Mount Cameroon and surrounding forests, and from old specimens at 400-600m asl near Basile on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. It has recently been discovered in the Oban Hills in Nigeria (M. Gartshore pers. comm.). In Cameroon there are records from Mount Cameroon (especially from the southern slopes) where it has been recorded at an altitude of 200-1,250m asl, and also from the Kendonge Forest Reserve to the north of Mount Cameroon, the Mokoko Forest Reserve north-west of Mount Cameroon close to the border with Nigeria, and from Baro just outside the north-western border of Korup National Park. Although it can be expected between the known localities in Cameroon, there has been extensive herpetological fieldwork in this area, which is perhaps indicative of a patchy distribution.
54811		habitat	eng	It lives on forest edges and in clearings in moist forest from the lowlands to the submontane zone. They form aggregations of 5-40 individuals including males, females and juveniles. They are most often seen sitting on wet leaves of low herbaceous vegetation. It has also been found in selectively logged forest on the edge of small farms. Its breeding habits are not known, but it is suspected to have a viviparous mode of reproduction, since it is most closely related to the West African genus <em>Nimbaphrynoides</em>.
54811		population	eng	There have been very few records of this species, but it is common on the southern slopes of Mount Cameroon, and is especially numerous at around 1,000m asl. There is also a healthy population in the Makoko Forest Reserve, and it is locally extremely abundant in the Oban Hills. There is no recent information on its status on Bioko.
54811		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss primarily due to agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and human settlement.
54812		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54812		distribution	eng	This species is known from the States of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas and northeastern Bahia, in coastal northeastern Brazil. It occurs patchily within its range, not in all areas of apparently suitable habitat. It occurs up to 800 masl.
54812		habitat	eng	It lives in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads, and in forest-floor leaf-litter inside primary and secondary forest. It is dependent upon bromeliads in which lays its eggs. The larvae develop in bromeliads. It does not survive in heavily degraded habitats.
54812		population	eng	It occurs patchily, but is common where it occurs.
54812		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, and collection of bromeliads, wood plantations and human settlement.
54813		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, although a protected area in the Itombwe Mountains has been proposed and should be established.
54813		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Kiandjo, at 1,850-1,950m asl near Mwengwa, in the Itombwe Mountains, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
54813		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forest.
54813		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological fieldwork within its range.
54813		threats	eng	It is presumably at risk from forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging, and infrastructure development.
54814		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas, including Kerinci-Seblat National Park. Additional effective protection of lowland forests in Borneo, Sumatra and Java is needed. In mainland Southeast Asia no conservation measures are considered necessary beyond maintaining the protected areas that are already established. It is protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.
54814		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from widely scattered localities across Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Sumatra and Java (Indonesia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to at least 1,200m asl.
54814		habitat	eng	The adults of this species live in the leaf-litter of lowland and submontane forests below 1,200m asl. It is usually seen in seepage areas and along the banks of slow moving, small, very shallow streams. It breeds in streams.
54814		population	eng	There are no subpopulation estimates for this species, and it has not been found in any significant numbers at any site in Borneo. It can be locally extremely common in Peninsular Malaysia, locally common in Sumatra, and uncommon in Java and Thailand and is listed as "Vulnerable" in the Thai 1996 Red List (OEPP, 1997).
54814		threats	eng	Destruction of the environment as a result of deforestation is the principal threat to this species. Forest clearing for traditional shifting agriculture probably has little impact on subpopulations because it leaves surrounding population sources to reinvade secondary forests that developed on abandoned agriculture sites. But the pace and scale of contemporary deforestation for large plantations limits the opportunities for re-establishing populations. However, one of the densest populations is at a reforestation site on the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur, attesting to the species' resilience, at least in certain situations.
54815		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. Surveys are needed to locate this species and a captive-breeding programme might need to be established.
54815		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on Mount Pangrango, Mount Gedeh and Curug Luhur, Jawa Barat, Java, Indonesia, at altitudes between 1,000m and 2,000m asl.
54815		habitat	eng	It lives in the boundary zone between moist lowland and montane forest. It breeds in very slow-moving, intermittent streams in forest where the larvae also develop.
54815		population	eng	In 1976, this species was abundant within its small range. In 1987, it was very rare following the eruption of Mount Galunggung. There were no records from the early 1990s until 2003, when one individual was sighted from the Cibeureum Waterfall. It appears to have undergone a major decline.
54815		threats	eng	It appears to have declined drastically due to a volcanic eruption. However, its decline is also reminiscent of similar disappearances of montane stream-breeding amphibians in other parts of the moist tropics, and so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out (although this disease has not so far been recorded in this region).
54816		conservation	eng	It apparently does not occur in any large protected areas, although it occurs in several small regional and private reserves in Argentina.
54816		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, Uruguay (Artigas, Cerro Largo, Paysandú, Rocha, Salto, Tacuarambó, Treinta y Tres Departments), northern Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones, Santa Fé, and Entre Rios Provinces), and southern Paraguay at 0-1,200m asl.
54816		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands. It reproduces explosively in temporary pools and agricultural ditches. It occurs in substantially disturbed habitats, but is not found in areas with intensive cattle activities (perhaps due to soil compaction inhibiting the formation of temporary ponds; R. Maneyro, pers. comm. 2008).
54816		population	eng	It is uncommon and the population is probably stable in Brazil. It is rare in Paraguay. In Argentina and Uruguay, it is abundant during reproductive bouts.
54816		threats	eng	It is threatened in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay by pine and Eucalyptus plantations and drainage of wetlands. It is possibly threatened in the future by the pet trade.
54817		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula. It is listed as vulnerable in the Rio Grande do Sul state threatened list.
54817		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Cambará do Sul, and from 80km to the south-west in Sao Francisco de Paula, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at 900-1,100m asl. Its distribution is not well knon because its explosive breeding habits make it difficult to survey.
54817		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open grassy habitats and borders of auracaria forest, where it breeds after rains in flooded areas near small streams or ditches, with the eggs being deposited between stones in shallow water.
54817		population	eng	It has apparently disappeared from the type locality but persists at Sao Francisco de Paula.
54817		threats	eng	Fire and habitat loss due to cattle ranching are threats to this species, and it is potentially threatened by the international pet trade.
54818		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
54818		distribution	eng	This species is known only from north-western Corrientes Province, Argentina, between 50 and 70m asl.
54818		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally inundated grasslands where it also reproduces. When breeding areas dry up it usually occurs underground. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.
54818		population	eng	It is known from only a few localities but it is common and its population is stable in suitable habitats.
54818		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to the expansion of human settlements is a threat to this species, most notably the growth of the city of Corrientes.
54819		conservation	eng	It occurs in small provincial parks in Argentina, including Fachinal and the Campos San Juan private reserves. Broad-scale conservation actions are necessary to combat the effects of pollution on its breeding habitat.
54819		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern part of Misiones Province, Argentina, and Rivera, Tacuarembó, and Cerro Largo Departments in Uruguay at elevations of 150-350m asl.
54819		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas with rocky outcrops, but also occurs in the ecotones between grasslands and forests of <em>Astronium balansae</em>. In Uruguay, it has been found in eucalyptus plantations. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, other than that males have been found in amplexus in temporary streams and the larvae presumably develop in streams.
54819		population	eng	It is very rare in Misiones (Argentina) where males have been found (in 1998 and 2003) in amplexus with females of other species, possibly because of a lack of conspecifics. The population status of the species in Uruguay is unknown.
54819		threats	eng	The pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices is a known threat to this species. In Misiones, it is also threatened by the conversion of native habitat to pine plantations.
54820		conservation	eng	It occurs in Guarita Municipal Park, but there is a need for improved protection of habitat at other sites at which this species is known to occur.
54820		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the coast of Brazil in Santa Catarina and Rio Grande de Sul states, from 0-20m asl.
54820		habitat	eng	It occurs on sand dunes and nearby areas, and reproduces in temporary pools.
54820		population	eng	It was previously collected rather extensively, but there have only been a few recent collections and the species is believed to have undergone declines in recent years.
54820		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the conversion of habitat for beaches, urbanization, and off-road recreational vehicle use.
54821		conservation	eng	It occurs in several private reserves in Paraguay; it is not protected elsewhere.
54821		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and one locality in Formosa Province, Argentina, at approximately 90-150m asl.
54821		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally inundated grasslands where it also reproduces. It usually occurs underground when breeding areas dry up. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.
54821		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
54821		threats	eng	It is threatened by the pet trade and habitat destruction to expand soy plantations.
54822		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in both Paraguay and Argentina. More research into the species' distribution and the effects of the pet trade is needed.
54822		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Chaco of Argentina (Corrientes [one uncertain record], Chaco, Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, and Formosa provinces) and Paraguay. It occurs at 50-100m asl.
54822		habitat	eng	It occurs in shrubland habitats, lays eggs in temporary pools and is an explosive breeder. It can also be found in disturbed areas such as livestock farms.
54822		population	eng	It is a common species.
54822		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is found in the international pet trade but this is not currently believed to be a threat to the species overall.
54823		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas near where this species was collected. It is categorized as Vulnerable on the Brazil national list.
54823		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Torres, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. The type locality is listed as a municipality, which has since been divided into several municipalities.
54823		habitat	eng	There is no information about its ecology or biology in the literature. It presumably breeds in water.
54823		population	eng	The species had not been recorded since 1960, until its recent rediscovery (one juvenile) in 2004 (Escobar<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).
54823		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, although there has been extensive habitat loss in its range due to urbanization in the last 30 years. The Coastal Atlantic Forest is considered to be one of the smallest and the most threatened ecosystems in Rio Grande do Sul (Fontana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003 in Escobar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
54824		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of sites at which this species is known to occur.
54824		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to coastal Uruguay (Montevideo, Canelones, Maldonado, and Rocha Departments) and adjacent Brazil (one locality in Rio Grande do Sul state). It occurs at sea level.
54824		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species inhabiting coastal sand dunes. It is an explosive breeder, and may be found in large numbers in temporary pools after heavy rains; the larvae develop in these pools. It is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.
54824		population	eng	This species is in decline in some areas and extirpated in others. Nevertheless, it is still common at several localities.
54824		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to human settlements, exotic tree plantations, and the drainage of wetlands.
54825		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. This species requires continued close population monitoring particularly since it is known only from a single location.
54825		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Sierra de Ánimas, Maldonado Province, Uruguay, at an elevation of 350-500m asl. It occurs in an area of less than 10km².
54825		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands and rocky outcrops, and reproduces in permanent small streams. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.
54825		population	eng	It is common at its only known locality, and has not undergone any change in population size in 10 years of monitoring from 1990 to 2000.
54825		threats	eng	Although there are currently no major threats to the species, habitat loss and degradation due to wood plantations and touristic activities might result in declines in the future.
54826		conservation	eng	Research to determine the current status of this species is needed. It does not occur in any protected areas.
54826		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Sao Lorenco do Sul, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at approximately 50m asl.
54826		habitat	eng	It occurs in a seasonally inundated habitat, in which its breeding habits are unknown, though it presumably breeds in water by larval development, like other species of its genus.
54826		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It is known from only two specimens, which were collected in 1905. Because it was only recently removed from synonymy there have been few recent attempts to locate the species, which might explain the lack of recent records.
54826		threats	eng	Rice farming is possibly a threat to its habitat.
54827		conservation	eng	It occurs in Tariquia Fauna and Flora Reserve in Bolivia. In Argentina, it occurs in Baritú and Calilegua National Parks.
54827		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz and Tarija departments in Bolivia. In Argentina, the species occurs in Baritú and Orán, Salta province, and in Calilegua and Tiraxi, Jujuy province. The elevational range is from 700-1,800m asl.
54827		habitat	eng	In Bolivia, it lives in dry forest in Andean valleys, and has been found in very disturbed areas. In Argentina, it occurs in wet montane forests. It can tolerate a small amount of habitat disturbance and can be found in clearings on slopes as well as roadside ditches, but cannot tolerate more intensive habitat modification such as intensive logging or livestock grazing. It is a diurnal and terrestrial species, and an opportunistic extremely explosive breeder. It breeds at the edges of streams (though never in deep water), and also in roadside ditches, and lays its eggs in the water where the tadpoles then also develop. Males call during the day from the water's edge or from within the water.<br/><br/>The breeding activity of this species has been found to be opportunistic throughout a prolonged spring-summer breeding season. The onset and extent of breeding activity is directly influenced by rainfall. Spawning activity follows a pattern of two three-day peaks mostly related to heavy rainfall events. Annual patterns of arrival and length of residence of adults appear to be heavily influenced by the extent of the rainy season (Vaira, 2005).
54827		population	eng	In Bolivia, it is probably abundant. It is abundant during reproductive bouts in Argentina.
54827		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Bolivia. The major populations in Argentina are all within protected areas.
54828		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
54828		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution, and is found in Lavalleja, Maldonado, Rocha, Florida and Ribera Departments in Uruguay. It occurs below 500m asl, but its exact altitudinal range is unknown.
54828		habitat	eng	It lives in grasslands and rocky outcrops and reproduces in small streams. It probably does not tolerate much habitat disturbance.
54828		population	eng	It is commonly found during reproductive bouts and has a population that appears to be stable at present.
54828		threats	eng	Exotic tree plantations are a threat to this species.
54829		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sao Joaquín and Parque Estadual da Serra Furada.
54829		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Bom Jardin da Serra, Sao Joaquim, Santa Catarina State, Brazil, at approximately 1,300m asl.
54829		habitat	eng	It is found on sphagnum moss in montane savannah. Its breeding habits are unknown, but the larvae presumably develop in water.
54829		population	eng	It is only known from a single collection in 1970. There have been few recent attempts to locate this species because it was only recently described.
54829		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are probably the spread of pine plantations, overgrazing by cattle, and fires.
54830		conservation	eng	<p>Close to the banks of Rio Uruguai there is a 740 ha conservation area,  Parque Estadual  Fritz Plaumann, but the species has yet to be found at this site (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010). All known specimens have been recorded outside protected areas or other conservation sites (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010).&#160; More information is needed on this species' population status, distribution and natural history.</p>
54830		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality:   Nova Teutônia, Municipality of Seara, Santa Catarina state, Brazil (Baldo and Basso 2004, E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010)
54830		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be an explosive breeder (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010), and it is thought to reproduce in temporary streams. It may also reproduce in temporary pools (P. Garcia pers. comm. June 2009). It is not known whether this species may occur in disturbed habitats.
54830		population	eng	There have been limited survey efforts in the area where it occurs (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010). Until recently, the last reported collection dated back to August 1965 (D. Baldo pers. comm. June 2009). In the course of monitoring activities for hydroelectric power stations, recent records for this species have emerged by way of pitfall traps in other sites along the Upper Rio Uruguai (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010). A lack of records along the higher limits (730 m asl) of the municipality of Chapecó suggests that the species may be associated with lower elevations (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010).
54830		threats	eng	<p>The region where this species is known to occur is highly disturbed, with a limited number of natural vegetation patches and many areas with agricultural and grazing crops (mostly small-scale farming) and pig farming (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010).<br/></p>
54831		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas, including the Pampa de Achala Hydrological Reserve. Monitoring of numbers extracted for pet trade needed. Surveys are needed to relocate the subspecies M.s. spegazzini.
54831		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Argentina, where it has a fragmented distribution in the following provinces: Buenos Aires (undescribed subspecies); Córdoba (<span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. stelzneri</span>); San Luis (<span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. stelzneri</span>), and Salta (<span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. spegazzinii</span>). It occurs from sea level up to 1,750m asl. De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (2000) and Köhler (2000) consider that this species might occur in Bolivia.
54831		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands with rocky outcrops. Explosive breeder. The gelatinous egg masses are attached to the submerged stems of temporary shallow ponds, streams, and bogs. In San Luis, reproduces in roadside ditches. Somewhat tolerant of habitat changes as long as water sources do not disappear.
54831		population	eng	It is very common in isolated populations in Córdoba. However, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. spegazzini </span>has not been seen since it was discovered (it was described in 1961).
54831		threats	eng	None. Adapts well to agriculture, occurring in rice plantations. This species is harvested for the international pet trade in Argentina.
54832		conservation	eng	It might occur in private reserves.
54832		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states, Brazil, at 200-1,000m asl. Populations from Argentina (M. spectablis) and Paraguay (M. fulvoguttatus) formerly ascribed to this species are now considered distinct species.
54832		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas and forest. Reproduction is explosive and occurs in temporary pools.
54832		population	eng	The population status is unknown because it is very difficult to survey this species.
54832		threats	eng	Deforestation, cattle ranching and water pollution are threats to this species. It is also potentially threatened by the international pet trade.
54833		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Arabuko-Sokoke Nature Reserve (Kenya), the Shimba Hills National Park (Kenya), and potentially occurs in the Selous Game Reserve and Mikumi National Park (both in Tanzania) but it is not yet recorded from these places.
54833		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal Kenya and eastern Tanzania, including Zanzibar and Songo Songo Islands, ranging from Gede in the north, south to the Rondo Plateau. In Kenya, this species occurs only close to the coast, but in Tanzania it ranges inland as far as Kilosa and the Kihanis Gorge in the Udzungwa Mountains. It is generally a low-altitude species occurring up to 800m asl.
54833		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forest, dense woodland, thicket, and the forest-miombo woodland boundary. It survives in modified secondary habitats with good cover. It breeds by internal fertilization, laying eggs in small water-filled holes and crevices (including snail-shells), where the larvae develop.
54833		population	eng	It is regularly encountered, but it is a difficult species to detect, and so it might be more common than is generally supposed.
54833		threats	eng	It is probably affected by the loss of its habitat for agriculture, wood extraction and human settlement.
54834		conservation	eng	There is a population within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, particularly since it is restricted to a single location.
54834		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, on top of Cerro Marahuaca, in Amazonas state (03° 40'N; 65° 27'W), at 2,600m asl, in Venezuela.
54834		habitat	eng	It inhabits high montane tepui habitat. It breeds by direct development, perhaps with internal fertilization.
54834		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54834		threats	eng	There are no current major threats, but its restricted range makes it susceptible to threatening processes such as wildfire.
54835		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and is certainly present in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea) and Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
54835		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Nigeria east through southwestern and southern Cameroon to mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are very few records through most of its presumed range, probably because of limited sampling. The distribution map assumes its occurrence in the large area between Cameroon and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for which there do not appear to be any records. There do not appear to be any records from Central African Republic and Congo but it is assumed to occur in these countries. It is recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).
54835		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest. It is generally restricted to tall forest, but house been found in farms near forest on Bioko. They spend the day on the ground, and move up on to the vegetation at night. They nest in tree cavities containing water, and the tadpoles develop there. The male guards the eggs.
54835		population	eng	It is more common than Nectophryne batesii in most places, but in Korup National Park, this species is less numerous.
54835		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by forest loss.
54836		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and is confirmed from Korup National Park (Cameroon) and Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
54836		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Cameroon to southwestern Gabon, though southwestern Central African Republic to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are very few records through most of its presumed range, probably because of limited sampling. The distribution map assumes its occurrence in the large area between southwestern Central African Republic and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for which there do not appear to be any records. There do not appear to be any records from Equatorial Guinea and Congo, but it presumably occurs in these countries, and is likely also to be present in southeastern Nigeria.
54836		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, and is restricted to tall forest and does not occur in heavily degraded habitats. They spend the day on the ground, and move up in the vegetation at night. They nest in tree cavities containing water, and the tadpoles develop there.
54836		population	eng	It is somewhat uncommon in most places, though more common than Nectophryne afra in Korup National Park.
54836		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by forest loss.
54837		conservation	eng	It was not known from any protected areas. Sufficient minimum bypass flow from the dam is required to maintain the spray habitat. An artificial sprinkler system is in place, and this is especially important in the dry season. Captive breeding is ongoing in Toledo and New York Bronx Zoos. The captive populations have fluctuated as husbandry problems have been encountered and addressed (animals were initially plagued with various infections and nutritional deficiencies); <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> colonies were comprised of a total of 460 individuals on February 12, 2007 (CBSG 2007). Reintroduction efforts should be preceded by an assessment of the species' habitat status and efficiency/operationality of the artificial sprinkler system currently in place.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54837		distribution	eng	This species was only known from the Kihansi Falls, in the Kihansi Gorge, in the Udzungwa Mountains, eastern Tanzania, at 600-940 m asl. Its global range covered an area of less than two hectares around the Kihansi Falls, and searches for it around other waterfalls on the escarpment of the Udzungwa Mountains have not located any additional populations  (Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
54837		habitat	eng	It lived only in soaked herbaceous vegetation in the spray zone of the Kihansi Falls. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born. Clutch size varies from 5–13 offspring (Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
54837		population	eng	It was formerly abundant in a tiny area, with a population of around 17,000 animals. Reports indicate that the species fluctuated naturally in its population size. The population appeared to be at a high in May 1999, dropping to lower numbers in the course of 2001 and 2002 [total population estimates oscillated at around 11,000 individuals up until March 2002; see Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>(2006)], and at a high again in June 2003 [a total population estimate of 20,989 individuals; Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006)]. However, subsequently the population went into steep decline, and by mid-January 2004, only three individuals could be seen and just two males were heard calling. There were a few records of calling animals during the rest of 2004, and an unconfirmed report from May 2005 (CBSG 2007), but there are no records of any individuals since, despite surveys, and the species is now considered to be Extinct in the Wild.
54837		threats	eng	The serious decline and extinction of this species appears related to the Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project, involving the construction of a dam in 2000 upstream on the Kihansi River, which cut off 90% of the original water flow to the gorge, thereby hugely reducing the volume of spray, particularly in the dry season, as well as altering the vegetational composition. An artificial gravity-fed sprinkler system was set up to mimic the natural spray of the Kihansi ecosystem with the remaining water flow. Unfortunately, the sprinkler system was not ready by the time the water was cut off in 2000, and by the time the sprinklers came on nine months later the ecosystem had already dried up (see Krajick 2006). Later, during the dry season in 2003, the artificial sprinkler system failed for a while. Around this time, the fungal disease chytridiomycosis was confirmed in dead animals of this species, and this disease is probably responsible for the final population crash. It is possible that the drought caused by the failure of the sprinkler system resulted in stress to the animals that rendered them susceptible to the disease. There are also reports that the 2003 crash coincided with a brief opening of the dam's floodgates to flush sediments; tests showed that these contained pesticides used in maize farming operations upstream, in concentrations sufficient to kill the toads (Krajick 2006). The impact of predation by safari ants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dorylus</span> sp.) and crabs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potomonautes</span> sp.) is unknown (Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
54838		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve, but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation. Improved management of this reserve, and the protection of other remaining forest habitat in the Ulugurus, is necessary.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54838		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern part of the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania where it has been recorded at 600-2,200m asl.
54838		habitat	eng	The type series was collected in forest, secondary forest, banana cultivation and bamboo. From this information, it seems that it can tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, but probably not the complete opening of its habitat that has taken place in some parts of the Ulugurus. It is ovoviviparous, with internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until the birth of the toadlets.
54838		population	eng	There have been no records of this species since the original collections of the species in 1926 and 1927. In view of the amount of herpetological work that has taken place in this area, it would appear to be a rare species.
54838		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is probably being lost to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements, especially at lower altitudes.
54839		conservation	eng	Amani Nature Reserve is currently the only protected area in which it is known to occur. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54839		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Amani Nature Reserve, in the East Usambara Mountains, north-eastern Tanzania, at 920-950m asl. It is not known how widely it might occur within the East Usambara Mountains.
54839		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were collected in closed submontane forest relatively close to a stream and a dry riverbed. Its breeding requirements are unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other member of its genus, with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets.
54839		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens, collected in traps in February 1999, in an area where the amphibian fauna has been very well studied. It appears to be a very rare species.
54839		threats	eng	The nature reserve in which it is found is well protected, but it is under pressure from illegal gold miners. Much of the forest away from the reserve is being progressively cleared, especially due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction and expanding human settlements.
54840		conservation	eng	Uluguru South Forest Reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far, but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54840		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Uluguru South Forest Reserve, in the Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania. The altitude of this locality is not known, but it is likely to be greater than 2,000m asl.
54840		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. It could be a species of montane forest, or montane grassland, or possibly high-altitude swamps. The details of its breeding biology are unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other member of its genus, with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets.
54840		population	eng	There is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in April 2002.
54840		threats	eng	The threats that this species might face are unknown, although much of Uluguru South Forest Reserve is very remote and faces few threats.
54841		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Uluguru North and Uluguru South Forest Reserves, and also in the Ukwiva Forest Reserve in the Rubeho Mountains. These forest reserves are in need of continued and strengthened management to ensure the maintenance of remaining forest habitat. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54841		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Uluguru and Rubeho Mountains in eastern Tanzania, at 1,200-1,500m asl, and probably higher.
54841		habitat	eng	It has been found only in undisturbed forest, and appears not to tolerate habitat alteration. It is ovoviviparous, with internal fertilization and the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until the toadlets are born.
54841		population	eng	It appears to be a reasonably common species.
54841		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably being lost, especially at lower altitudes, due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
54842		conservation	eng	&#160;This species occurs in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, but not in any well-protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. The population status and trends of this species require monitoring.
54842		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mkalazi Valley at 1,200m in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, Udzungwa Mountains, in eastern Tanzania. Surveys of other parts of the Udzungwa Forest Reserve have not located this species.
54842		habitat	eng	All specimens were found in moist submontane rainforest, close to a stream. At night they can be found on leaves 60-160cm above the ground, and during the day they hide on the ground under fallen trees and coarse wood debris. Its breeding strategy is unknown, but it is assumed to be a live-bearer, like other members of its genus, with internal fertilisation, giving birth to tiny toadlets.
54842		population	eng	It is reasonably common within its tiny range, though much less numerous than the sympatric <em>Nectophrynoides tornieri</em>.
54842		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably being lost due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
54843		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve, but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation and is in need of improved management. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54843		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Uluguru North Forest Reserve on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Uluguru Mountains, eastern Tanzania, at 1,080-1,345m asl. It appears to have a very restricted distribution.
54843		habitat	eng	This species is known only from tall, submontane rainforest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other member of its genus, with internal fertilization, giving birth to tiny toadlets.
54843		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it is known only from two specimens, collected in 1996 and 2000.
54843		threats	eng	The submontane forest on the eastern slopes of the Uluguru Mountains has been extensively cleared, mainly due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
54844		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and the Amani Nature Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54844		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Usambara, Uluguru, Nguru, Ukaguru, Mahenge and Udzungwa Mountains, and on Mount Rungwe, in eastern and southern Tanzania. It occurs from 300m (Kimboza Forest in the Uluguru foothills) up to at least 1,800m asl. This species will probably be eventually found throughout the Eastern Arc mountain chain. Some records from the West Usambara Mountains, and some of the specimens from the Uluguru Mountains, which are both included here, probably represent two undescribed species.
54844		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and montane forest, and is found low in the vegetation and on the ground. It can tolerate some disturbance to its habitat, and can survive in banana plantations, but probably not in very open areas. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born.
54844		population	eng	It is one of the most abundant amphibian species in the overall Eastern Arc mountain range.
54844		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably being lost, especially at lower altitudes, due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction and expanding human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
54845		conservation	eng	It occurs in the University of Dar es Salaam's forest reserve at Mazumbai, but additional protection of the habitat in the West Usambara Mountains is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54845		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the West Usambara Mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. There are records from the Shume-Magamba Forest Reserve, the Mazumbai Forest Reserve, and the Ambangulu Estate between 1,230 and 2,000m asl.
54845		habitat	eng	All records have been from montane and submontane forest, including in the ecotone between forest and ericaceous vegetation. It is probably terrestrial, and some animals were found inside a rotten log. Its breeding is unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other members of its genus, with internal fertilization, giving birth to tiny toadlets.
54845		population	eng	There is little information available on its population status. However, the fact that 23 specimens have been found widely over the West Usambara Mountains, despite limited survey effort, suggests that it is not uncommon in suitable habitat within its small range.
54845		threats	eng	In some parts of the West Usambaras its habitat is probably being lost, especially due to agricultural encroachment, commercial logging, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
54846		conservation	eng	It occurs in several forest reserves, but has not been found in any well-protected area. It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but has thus far not been recorded. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54846		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains and in the Southern Highlands of eastern and southern Tanzania. It is a montane species, ranging from 1,350-2,800m asl.
54846		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species living in forest, bamboo, and grasslands at the forest edge. It has been found in maize cultivation, but needs to be close to the forest edge, and probably cannot tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born.
54846		population	eng	It is relatively common.
54846		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, especially at lower altitudes, due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction and expanding human settlements.
54847		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, but not in any well-protected areas. The population status and trends of this species require monitoring. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
54847		distribution	eng	This species is known from one tiny area, in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, above Chita, on the escarpment of the Udzungwa Mountains, in eastern Tanzania. It is found from 1,500-1,650m asl. It has not been found at other localities in the Udzungwa Mountains.
54847		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane moist forest, living on the ground. It is not known whether or not it can survive in anthropogenically disturbed habitats, since the only known site is in undisturbed forest. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born.
54847		population	eng	The species is quite common in one tiny area, measuring roughly 300m x 300m.
54847		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably being lost due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
54848		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, which is a World Heritage Site. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status and trends of this species.
54848		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mount Nimba region in Liberia. It presumably also occurs in adjacent parts of Guinea and perhaps also in Côte d'Ivoire, but there have not yet been any records. It is a montane species, and the type locality is at 1,290m asl.
54848		habitat	eng	It is apparently a species of forest and forest edge close to savannah. It is a viviparous species, with the female nourishing the young internally prior to the birth of small toadlets.
54848		population	eng	It is apparently extremely common in its small range, but there do not appear to have been any recent records, presumably due to a lack of fieldwork in the area.
54848		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to the mining of bauxite is the biggest threat to this species. There is probably also ongoing loss of forest due to wood extraction. The species is inherently at risk because of its small range.
54849		conservation	eng	The species' range is within Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is restricted to a single location.
54849		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the type locality: "Sector este, cima del Auyan-tepui, Estado Bolívar", in Venezuela (05° 53' 36"N; 62° 29' 12"W), at 1,750m asl.
54849		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of high montane tepui habitat. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
54849		population	eng	It is a rare species.
54849		threats	eng	Although there are no current major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to threatening processes, such as wildfire and disturbance of the habitat by tourists.
54850		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is restricted to a single location.
54850		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the type locality, Cerro El Sol, to the north-east of the Auyán-tepui (0.6km² at 06° 06'N; 62° 32'W), in Bolívar state, Venezuela, at an elevation of 1,700m asl. The summit of Cerro El Sol covers less than 10 hectares (S. Gorzula, pers. comm. 2008).
54850		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal toad that is found in thick herbaceous vegetation on peat bogs of high montane tepui environments. It breeds by direct development.
54850		population	eng	It is a very rare species. It was collected in 1987 (S. Gorzula, pers. comm. 2008).
54850		threats	eng	Although there are no current major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to threatening processes such as wildfires. The herbaceous vegetation on Cerro El Sol is fire-prone during the dry season (S. Gorzula, pers. comm. 2008).
54851		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. A well-managed protected area would help to ensure the conservation of this range-restricted species. There is also a need for close population monitoring given that it is apparently restricted to a single location.
54851		distribution	eng	This species is known from the base of Mount Roraima on the border of Guyana and Venezuela, at an elevation of 1,060m asl. It is not absolutely certain which country the type specimen comes from, but it is presumed that the species is in fact present on both sides of the border.
54851		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of tropical moist submontane forest. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
54851		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54851		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, although its range is in relatively pristine habitat at present.
54852		conservation	eng	It is recorded from Yuruaní National Monument. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is restricted to a single location.
54852		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tepuis Kukenan and Yuruaní, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 2,300-2,700m asl.
54852		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal frog that can be found on rocks in montane tepui environments. It is a communally breeding species, with breeding taking place by direct development in galleries within peat bogs.
54852		population	eng	It is a common species.
54852		threats	eng	Although there are no current major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to threatening processes such as wildfire.
54853		conservation	eng	It is protected in Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes in Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Monte Roraima in Brazil. There is a need for increased education among tourists to make them aware of the importance of not handling these animals in the wild. Close population monitoring is also required, particularly since this species is known only from a single location.
54853		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the summit of Mount Roraima in Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil, and from Wei-Assipo-Tepui in Guyana. It has been recorded from 2,300-2,800m asl.
54853		habitat	eng	A diurnal toad usually found on open rock surfaces in high montane tepui environments. It breeds by direct development.
54853		population	eng	It is common on the summit of Mount Roraima, and its population is probably stable.
54853		threats	eng	Although there are no current major threats, the restricted range of this species makes it more vulnerable to threatening processes, such as disturbance by tourists (who frequently handle the animals).
54854		conservation	eng	It most likely occurs within Parque Nacional Canaima. Close population monitoring of this species is required, particularly since it is known only from a single location.
54854		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the summit of Ilú-tepui (05° 25'N; 60° 58'W), in Bolívar State, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 2,450-2,650m asl.
54854		habitat	eng	A diurnal, high-montane toad found in tepui habitats. It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs under rocks.
54854		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
54854		threats	eng	Although there are no current major threats, the restricted range of this species makes it more vulnerable to threatening processes, such as wildfire.
54855		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Llanganates.
54855		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Antisana, Napo Province, Ecuador, and from the volcano of Quilindana. In total, it is known from only four localities. It has been recorded between 3,400 and 4,000m asl.
54855		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, and both diurnal and nocturnal, inhabiting wet sub-páramo habitats. The holotype was collected in an area of meadows with isolated patches of forest. Creeks and swamps are the typical landscape on the upper limit of the wet altitudinal forest (Hoogmoed 1987). It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs on soil under vegetation.
54855		population	eng	It appears to be a rare, and locally uncommon species; however, this may be an artefact of inappropriate survey techniques.  For example, when digging into the soil under the páramo plants, dozens of specimens have been found (M. Yanez and D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.). The population of this species is thought to be declining.
54855		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, both crops and livestock; climate change may also be impacting the species.
54856		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
54856		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Ecuador (Parque Nacional Llanganates in Tungurahua Province), north to southern Valle del Cauca Department on the eastern and western flanks of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, between 2,800 and 4,700m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
54856		habitat	eng	It lives on fallen leaves and on the ground in montane forest, bush land and páramo. Some populations live in terrestrial bromeliads, leaf-litter, and on vegetation up to 50cm above the ground. Other populations are fossorial. It breeds by direct development and has only been found in undisturbed habitats.
54856		population	eng	It is rare, localized, and uncommon where found.
54856		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54857		conservation	eng	The range of this species in Ecuador overlaps several protected areas, including the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and Parque Nacional Sumaco in Ecuador. It has not been found in any protected areas in Colombia. Improved and expanded habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the persistence of this species in its montane forest habiat.
54857		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cordillera de Guacamayos in north-eastern Ecuador (in Napo Provice) and from the Valle del Sibundoy in Putumayo department, southern Colombia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Its altitudinal range is 2,100-3,500m asl.
54857		habitat	eng	It lives in very wet tropical cloud forest, and is usually found at night on low vegetation and in leaf-litter, although it can be found up to 3m; specimens have been collected along a roadside, on moss in rock crevices. It is found both in undisturbed habitats and in disturbed forests, and individuals have been found away from water. Breeding is by direct development.
54857		population	eng	It is locally uncommon.
54857		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, fire, logging activities, and human settlement. An additional threat is pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54858		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but improved and expanded protection of the montane habitat of this species is necessary.
54858		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central páramos in Tolima, Caldas and Quindio Departments, on the eastern flank of the central Andes, in Colombia, between 2,700 and 3,700m asl.
54858		habitat	eng	It occurs on leaf-litter and rocks on the ground in Andean forests and páramos, and has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. It is a direct developing species.
54858		population	eng	It is not a common species.
54858		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, mainly due to the expansion of agriculture, and pollution from the fumigation of illegal crops. Climate change is also a potential threat to this high-elevation species.
54859		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Sumaco. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, particularly given its restriction to a single location.
54859		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around a small crater lake on the eastern slopes of Volcán Sumaco, in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,500m asl.
54859		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of the cloud forest surrounding the lake. This forest is made up of bamboo (<em>Chusquea</em> sp.), <em>Ficus</em> and other trees up to 20m tall. There is an abundance of epiphytes in the area. It is terrestrial, both diurnal and nocturnal, and specimens have been found under leaf-litter by day (Gluesenkamp 1995). It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs on soil under vegetation.
54859		population	eng	It is locally common.
54859		threats	eng	There are no current major threats to the species, although eruption of Volcán Sumaco poses a future potential threat to its only known site.
54860		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador, but it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Purace in Colombia. It is recommended that the existing protected areas network be expanded to incorporate remaining patches of high-elevation montane forest.
54860		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the type locality in Imbabura Province, Ecuador, north to Narino and Cauca Departments in southern Colombia. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The type locality is at 3,400m asl, and it occurs at similar altitudes in Colombia.
54860		habitat	eng	It has been found only in undisturbed habitats in dense upper montane forest, with trees reaching heights of as much as 10m, and in sub-páramo bushland. It breeds by direct development.
54860		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species; however, this may be an artefact of inappropriate survey techniques. For example, when digging into the soil under páramo plants, dozens of specimens have been found  (M. Yanez and D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).
54860		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement. Pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops is an additional threat.
54861		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kinabalu National Park.
54861		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu, Borneo. Specimens have been collected at 650m asl (Manthey and Grossmann 1997). Its range is not very well known and it might occur a little more widely.
54861		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be an arboreal toad of lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding is believed to take place in small, clear rocky streams. Juveniles have been observed along the bank of a "partially torrential stream" (Manthey and Grossmann 1997).
54861		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
54861		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but are presumed to include habitat loss.
54862		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Protection of areas of lowland riverine forest is the primary conservation measure required. It is protected by wildlife legislation in Thailand. It has been bred in captivity in Europe (Schmidt, 1994).
54862		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in extreme southern Thailand (Satun), Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species that is present at elevations up to 700m asl.
54862		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in forest and other dense vegetation along large lowland rivers. Breeding takes place in clear forest streams. Newly metamorphosed juveniles disperse through the surrounding forest and gradually become arboreal, moving up into the forest strata. It is unable to adapt to modified habitats.
54862		population	eng	It is common in Borneo and Sumatra, locally abundant in Peninsular Malaysia, and uncommon in Thailand (Dring, 1979).
54862		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are riverine development, lowland forest clearance and the resulting sedimentation of streambeds.
54864		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas including Batu Apoi (Brunei), and Lanjak Anteroi and the Crocker Range (both in Sabah). The protection of lowland forests in Sabah and parts of Sarawak now provide stable habitat for this species, but expansion of this protection to hilly lowland forests in Kalimantan is needed.
54864		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the forests of northern Borneo in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Brunei Darussalam. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded. It is generally a lowland species occurring between 150 and 1,050m asl.
54864		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from hilly lowland, and submontane, tropical primary moist forest. It is an arboreal species that breeds in small, clear, rocky streams. It might possibly occur in areas that have previously been used for shifting cultivation, but it cannot adapt to significantly modified habitats.
54864		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54864		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation.
54865		conservation	eng	The only known locality for the species is protected in Gunung Mulu National Park, a 52,000-ha park that is the most studied tropical karst area in the world. Further survey work is requried to determine the current population status of the species at this locality, and whether it might be present in other karst areas of Borneo.
54865		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo where it is known only from the type locality (Gunung Mulu National Park) in northern Sarawak, Malaysia; however, it might occur a little more widely. It has an altitudinal range of 65-1,200m asl.
54865		habitat	eng	All known specimens have been found in primary rainforest in limestone karst areas. The larvae are endotrophic and occur in small pools on the forest floor.
54865		population	eng	The population status and abundance of the species is not known.
54865		threats	eng	It is not certain whether this species is entirely restricted to karst areas, but, if so, then its distribution is likely to be extremely patchy and localized, thereby exposing this species to the hazards of stochastic events.
54866		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Effective protection of lowland rainforest is needed.
54866		distribution	eng	This species is found as far north as Northern Trengganu, including Tioman and Aur Islands, in Peninsular Malaysia, and south to Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992; Ming, 2000). In the Philippines it is found only on Mindanao. It is also found in Siberut, north Sumatra, Mentawai, and Natuna Besar in Indonesia.
54866		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in closed-canopy rainforest, mostly at elevations from 50-900m asl (Grandison, 1972). Breeding and egg deposition in the Philippines occurs in water-filled leaf axils, tadpoles are non-feeding, and the larvae undergo metamorphosis in the same microhabitats.
54866		population	eng	This species is small, cryptic and easily confused with juveniles of other toad species. The population in Singapore is considered small (Lim and Lim, 1992; Ming, 2000). In Indonesia the species is considered uncommon. In forested habitats of the Philippines, it is uncommon and is patchily distributed.
54866		threats	eng	In mainland Southeast Asia this species is unlikely to be threatened although it might be sensitive to deforestation. In the Philippines, the primary threat is the loss of the lowland rainforest.
54867		conservation	eng	The species is present in Kubah National Park, although the southern section is facing increasing pressure from encroaching logging activities. There is a need for improved habitat protection of sites at which this species is known to occur.
54867		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia) and Serasan (north-western Kalimantan, Indonesia), and might also occur in north-western Kalimantan (Indonesia) and south-western Sabah (Malaysia), in Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is a lowland species present at elevations below 200m asl.
54867		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter of hilly lowland primary moist forest. The large eggs are probably deposited in very small rain pools.
54867		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
54867		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging. The northern part of the range now consists of disturbed habitat (largely deforested) and it is unclear whether or not the species still survives there.
54868		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides, herbicides, and mine tailings and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests.
54868		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in Bohol, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao in the Philippines. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
54868		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in riverine areas in montane and lowland forests, and is able to survive in slightly disturbed habitats. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
54868		population	eng	It is locally common.
54868		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include the loss of lowland rainforest (as a result of agriculture and logging), and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers due to agricultural effluents and mine tailings.
54869		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
54869		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from a single female specimen collected from the Akar (= Akah) River, Sarawak, Malaysia. As the specific collection locality on the Akah River could not be located, a distribution map cannot be completed for this species.
54869		habitat	eng	There are no details regarding its habitat and ecology, but it is presumably a lowland forest species that breeds in rain pools.
54869		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, so there is no information on its population status.
54869		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but might include deforestation of lowland forest.
54870		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Kinabalu National Park. Other suitable montane forests, particularly those of Trus Madi, require more effective protection.
54870		distribution	eng	This species is known only from mountains in Sabah and north-eastern Sarawak, in northern Borneo, Malaysia. It might also occur in the mountains of northern Kalimantan, Indonesia, but has not yet been recorded from there. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is present in forests above 1,500m asl.
54870		habitat	eng	All known observations were made in montane 'elfin' type forests. Adults are largely terrestrial and are found in leaf-litter, rock crevices, and holes in the ground. Breeding takes place in small, temporary pools on the forest floor, and tadpoles are endotrophic.
54870		population	eng	It is difficult to observe, but is considered locally abundant in montane forests (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).
54870		threats	eng	Habitat loss is probably the most serious threat, due mainly to logging. Logging is occurring at Gunung Murud, but is below the altitudinal range of this species. The development of recreation and tourism facilities is a potential threat.
54871		conservation	eng	The species' range includes Gunung Mulu National Park and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary.
54871		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-western and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia), but probably also occurs in western Kalimantan (Indonesia), in Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is present at elevations around 800m asl.
54871		habitat	eng	Males have been seen calling from low shrubs in submontane and montane mossy forest. Eggs are probably deposited in very small rain pools.
54871		population	eng	It is moderately abundant within its restricted range.
54871		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is ongoing habitat loss due to agriculture and logging.
54872		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas, but expanded and improved protection of the remaining forest habitat is necessary.
54872		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the hilly areas in southern Hainan Province, China, from 350-1,400m asl.
54872		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests. Males call near small streams, which are probably also the breeding sites.
54872		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
54872		threats	eng	The species is particularly susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation that is taking place primarily due to smallholder farming activities and small-scale wood extraction from expanding human settlements.
54873		conservation	eng	The presence of this species in protected areas requires further investigation. Some areas of habitat are protected in Sarawak.
54873		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Borneo (Brunei and Sarawak) below 1,000m asl. It is assumed to occur across the border into Kalimantan although there are no records from there yet.
54873		habitat	eng	It has been recorded only from lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding is presumed to take place in small forest pools.
54873		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
54873		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation.
54874		conservation	eng	Improved protection and management of the peat swamp habitats and status surveys and other studies are desirable for this species.
54874		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Peninsular Malaysia, it is now restricted to three localities, the Tasek Bera wetland, north Selangor Peat Swamp and Muar Peat Swamp. The Sungei Buloh population on Peninsular Malaysia has disappeared. It probably occurs more widely on Sumatra and Borneo than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
54874		habitat	eng	This species is found in peat swamps and swamp forest. It breeds in swamps by larval development. It is not found in modified habitats.
54874		population	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia it is common where it survives. The Sungei Buloh population, reported in the 19th Century, has now disappeared. In Sumatra the species is common in swamps, but in Kalimantan it is uncommon.
54874		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are wetland drainage, pollution, and other forms of habitat degradation and destruction.
54875		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, and Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios in Colombia.
54875		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality in the eastern cordilleras of south-eastern Darién Province in Panama adjacent to Colombia, extending into extreme north-western Colombia at Los Katios in Choco Department. It is a lowland species that ranges up to 1,400m asl.
54875		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial inhabitant of both humid lowland and lower montane forest, although it is not known from secondary habitats. Its breeding behaviour is unknown; it might breed by direct development if it is like other members of its genus.
54875		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
54875		threats	eng	All known populations are in protected areas, but there are presumably populations outside protected areas that are likely to be threatened by deforestation for agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and also by pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54876		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the status of highland populations that might represent a different species.
54876		distribution	eng	This species occurs at moderate and low altitudes (from 200-1,700m asl) on the eastern Andean slopes and in the upper Amazon Basin of Ecuador, and in the Cordillera de Cutucú and Cordillera del Condór, in Ecuador and Peru.
54876		habitat	eng	It is usually found in leaf-litter, and sometimes on low vegetation, in tropical rainforest, and premontane humid forest. There is no information known about breeding habits, although it presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance, and is not known from secondary forest.
54876		population	eng	It is uncommon where it occurs.
54876		threats	eng	The major threats to the species’ habitat are agricultural development, involving both cultivation of crops and livestock grazing, and logging.
54877		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area, although this species might occur in Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, but sampling is needed to confirm this. A protected area is recommended for this species as it is unlikely to tolerate disturbance of its habitat, and its habitat is currently highly threatened.
54877		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality at Murrí (6° 43'N; 76° 20'W), Nutibara­La Blanquita Route, Frontino Municipality, in Antioquia Department on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,600-1,800m asl. The limits to its distribution are not known.
54877		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that has only been found in wet primary forest. Its breeding habits are not known; it presumably breeds by direct development (if it is like other members of its genus).
54877		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, as it is known only from a few specimens.
54877		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat fragmentation and loss due to the expansion of agricultural activity, timber extraction, and the cultivation of illegal crops, and also pollution arising from the fumigation of illegal crops.
54878		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes the Reserva La Forzosa, but other tracts of montane forest remain in urgent need of formal protection.
54878		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality: Santa Rita, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, between 1,890 and 1910m asl. It is also known from two other locations in Colombia: Guatape (Mesopotamia) and Amalfi (Anori) all in Antioquia Department, in the central Andes, between 1,800 and 1,900m asl. There is no suitable habitat available to the species between these known localities.
54878		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter of sub-Andean and Andean forests, and is restricted to primary and good secondary forest. It most likely breeds by direct development like other species in the genus.
54878		population	eng	It is a common species.
54878		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture, timber extraction, desiccation, and the fumigation of illegal crops, are all major threats to the species' habitat. Climate change may also be a threat, given that this species occurs at relatively high elevations.
54879		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, such that habitat protection remains the most urgent conservation action required. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
54879		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, "El Chaquiro, [department of] Antioquia, Colombia" (amended to "Hacienda Palmas, El Chaquiro, Antioquia Department, Colombia, 2,670m elevation"), and from nearby locations.
54879		habitat	eng	It occurs in high-altitude grassland, and has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. It breeds by direct development.
54879		population	eng	It is a common species within its relatively small range.
54879		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding pastures for cattle grazing. Climate change may be a threat in the future.
54880		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54880		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three widely separated localities near the Atlantic coast of Brazil: Salavador in the state of Bahia (the type locality); Almenara in the state of Minas Gerais; and Arataca in the state of Bahia. It is likely to be found elsewhere, and has been found up to 500m asl.
54880		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and also somewhat disturbed forest in leaf-litter (although it has not been found in heavily degraded areas), and it is often associated with small streams. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it may breed by direct development, like other members of the genus.
54880		population	eng	There is little information on its population status.
54880		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, collection of bromeliads, and the establishment of wood plantations and human settlements.
54881		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. Further survey work is needed to establish whether or not the species still occurs at the type locality or in any location outside the type locality, as the species might already be extinct in view of the scale of habitat destruction in the general vicinity.
54881		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "Santa Rita Creek, fourteen miles north of the village of Mesopotamia in the southern part of the Department of Antioquia, Colombia", at 2,472m asl. It is unlikely to range more widely.
54881		habitat	eng	The type locality was forest when the specimens were collected, but the exact habitat requirements of the species are still unknown. It presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus.
54881		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens collected in 1914. Searches of the type locality since then have not found it, and it is possible that it is now extinct.
54881		threats	eng	At the type locality there has been significant logging in the past, and there is now high human population density in this area with accompanying increased infrastructure development for human settlement. Agriculture, including the planting of illegal crops, is also a threat in the area as well as fumigation of illegal crops.
54882		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, population status and ecological requirements is needed.
54882		distribution	eng	This species is known from the municipalities of Bello, Sonsón and Belmira, in the Cordillera Central in Antioquia Department, Colombia, where it has been recorded from 2,330-3,100m asl. The limits of its range are not yet known.
54882		habitat	eng	This inhabitant of grassland is usually found on vegetation up to 30cm above the ground, and on rocks above the ground along streams and roadsides, and in grassy areas near waterfalls. It is most likely a direct developing species although there have been no direct observations regarding its breeding biology.
54882		population	eng	It is a common species within its known range.
54882		threats	eng	There is very little information available on threats to this species.
54883		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54883		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Campamento Ingeominas, near the headwaters of Río Amparradó in Dabeiba Municipality, Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 805m asl. The limits of its range are not yet known.
54883		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species in submontane forest. There is no information on its breeding habits, though reproduction is most probably by direct development.
54883		population	eng	There is no recent information on its population status, but it was uncommon when it was discovered.
54883		threats	eng	There is no direct information on its threats, but this species is likely to be threatened by deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and also by pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54884		conservation	eng	The exact locality where the species was found needs to be determined and a search for more specimens is necessary. Only after the locality has been rediscovered can more research into the species' real range, population status and habitat requirements be undertaken.
54884		distribution	eng	The exact location of the type locality in Colombia of this species is not known (and so it is not possible to draw a map of its range), but it is hypothesised that it is in southern Antioquia Department (Lynch pers. comm.).
54884		habitat	eng	Since the type locality is not known its habitat and ecology are also not known. It could breed by direct development if it is like other members of the genus.
54884		population	eng	This species is known only from one specimen.
54884		threats	eng	The major threats to it are unknown.
54885		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
54885		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northwestern Tanzania and southern Kenya (Olorgesailie) south to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Angola and western Zambia, as far as southeastern Botswana, southern Mozambique, Swaziland and the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It has not been recorded from Lesotho.
54885		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily in grassland and wooded savannah, but also in agricultural land, livestock ranches, and around human settlements. It breeds in deep, still waterbodies, including in dirty water, with a larval stage and gregarious tadpoles.
54885		population	eng	It is generally common, but it is hard to find when it is not breeding.
54885		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
54886		conservation	eng	The species is relatively common in the Bale Mountains National Park, but there is a need for improved protection of other sites at which this species has been recorded.<br/>  It is listed on Appendix I of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinophrynoides osgoodi</span>).
54886		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of south-central Ethiopia (Arsi, Balé, Sidamo and Gamo Gofa Provinces) at 1,950-3,520m asl. With the exception of the population in the Gughe Mountains, all records are from east of the Rift Valley.
54886		habitat	eng	It is essentially a species of montane forest, though perhaps extending marginally into open moorland. It has been observed breeding in a small, probably temporary, pool in a grassy glade surrounded by <em>Hypericum</em> woodland.
54886		population	eng	It is locally common within its limited range.
54886		threats	eng	It is threatened by environmental degradation resulting from human settlement, specifically the destruction of forests through both subsistence and commercial exploitation.
54887		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Gungunyana Forest Reserve in Zimbabwe. The Chirinda Forest is administered by the Forestry Commission and is one of the best researched forests in Zimbabwe, but the area remains in need of strengthened protection.
54887		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Chirinda Forest in eastern Zimbabwe and the Dombe Forest in adjacent Mozambique. In the Chirinda Forest it occurs at approximately 900-1,300m asl.
54887		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of evergreen forest, often hiding inside or beneath rotten logs. The eggs are laid in pockets of water between the buttress roots of <em>Chrysophyllum gorungosanum</em> trees, or in water-filled grooves on the trunks of fallen trees. It is not found outside forest.
54887		population	eng	It is apparently common in its small range.
54887		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is threatened by agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement.
54888		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in the Mafia Marine Park, but this remains to be confirmed, and improved protection of remaining suitable habitat on Mafia is a priority. On Zanzibar, the Jozani Forest, the largest tract of forest remaining on the main island, has recently had its protection status upgraded to that of a national park.
54888		distribution	eng	This species, which is endemic to Tanzania, is known only from the Mrora Forest on Mafia Island, and from the Jozani Forest on Zanzibar (and from an unmapped, unspecified locality on the east of Zanzibar). All records are from close to sea level.
54888		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, occurring in lowland coastal forest. Some of its remaining habitat is degraded, and it seems to display some adaptability to living in such habitats. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it might breed in puddles in tree roots like <em>Stephopaedes anotis</em>.
54888		population	eng	It is probably an uncommon species.
54888		threats	eng	Its habitat is being degraded rapidly on Mafia for agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlements.
54889		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in the Selous Game Reserve, but this has not yet been confirmed.
54889		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Tanzania, where it ranges from Kichi Hills south to the Rondo Plateau, and inland to Mahenge and the Kilombero Valley. It is a low-altitude species, occurring up to 1,000m asl.
54889		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, living in forest and woodland. There is no information on its ability to adapt to secondary habitats. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it might breed in puddles in tree roots if like Stephopaedes anotis.
54889		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
54889		threats	eng	There is ongoing loss of its habitat due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and human settlement.
54890		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kwamgumi, Segoma and Mtai Forest Reserves, but these are not well protected and are in need of improved management.
54890		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. All records have been from below 410m asl.
54890		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of lowland forest, but also survives in mildly disturbed, selectively logged forest. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it might breed in puddles in tree roots (like <em>Stephopaedes anotis</em>).
54890		population	eng	It is not uncommon within its very small known range.
54890		threats	eng	There is ongoing loss of its habitat due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and human settlement.
54891		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54891		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, 5km south-west of Comas, in Junin Department, in the Andes of central Peru, at 3,283m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
54891		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in puna (high-elevation grassland).
54891		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54891		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
54892		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
54892		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Carapa and Yanamonte, on the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in central Peru, below Abra Tapuna, on the west side of the Río Apurimac, in Ayacucho Department.
54892		habitat	eng	It possibly lives in puna (high-elevation grassland).
54892		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54892		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
54893		conservation	eng	The species might occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but is largely unprotected elsewhere in its range; additional protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, is needed. A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area involving the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species.
54893		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the mountains of western Cameroon, where it occurs on Mount Manenguba and in the Bamenda Highlands in the Bamboutos Mountains and Mount Oku. It also occurs at Santa on Mount Neshele. Its altitudinal range is from 1,750-2,600m asl, but it rarely occurs below 2,100-2,200m asl.
54893		habitat	eng	It is found on flat rocks in fast-flowing streams at high elevations, typically in montane forest patches. It breeds in streams, and it seems that after reproduction the adults disperse into forest patches, open bamboo glades, and montane grassland. The larvae live in fast, even torrential, water. During the dry season the adults may live in water, hiding under stones. It seems to occur at higher altitudes than other members of its genus, living at a higher altitude than both <em>Werneria tandyi</em> and <em>W. mertensiana</em> on Mount Manenguba.
54893		population	eng	It is not a common species. In 1985, it was reported as possibly nearing extinction in the Bamboutos Mountains.
54893		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by forest clearance and degradation resulting from overgrazing, fires, and cultivation.
54894		conservation	eng	In Cameroon, the species occurs in a few forest reserves, such as Nta Ali Forest Reserve; however, the higher elevation forest habitats in western Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, are in urgent need of improved protection. The specimen recorded from Equatorial Guinea was found in Monte Alén National Park in Equatorial Guinea, although confirmation of the taxonomic identity of this population is needed.
54894		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon where it has been recorded from Mounts Manenguba, Nlonako, Kupe and Nta Ali, and at Fotabong in western Cameroon, and on the mountains around Yaoundé (Kala and Mbam-Minkoum) in southern Cameroon. There is also one specimen recorded from Equatorial Guinea on Monte Alén, although this may be another species and requires confirmation. Its altitudinal range is from 800-1,050m asl. It probably also occurs on the southern and western slopes of the Bamileke Plateau, and perhaps also on the Obudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria.
54894		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocks in streams and waterfalls in forest and degraded secondary habitats at the lower limit of the submontane zone, although it has also been found in leaf-litter away from water. On Mount Manenguba it occurs at a lower altitude than <em>Werneria tandyi</em>, although their ranges might overlap slightly. It breeds in streams.
54894		population	eng	It has been found to be reasonably common in suitable habitat within its small range.
54894		threats	eng	This species is presumably affected by habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
54895		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and protection of remaining forest habitat on Mount Cameroon and Mount Kupe is urgently needed.  An ecotourism project has been established at Mount Kupe for some time, which aims to reduce hunting and agricultural expansion, and the area has been proposed as a Strict Nature Reserve (Réserve Écologique Intégrale). Further survey work is needed to confirm the existence and status of the population in Togo.
54895		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower slopes of Mount Cameroon at 700-1,200 m asl, from Mount Kupe around 900 m asl. The taxonomic status of the highly disjunct population from the highlands of west-central Togo ("Bismarkberg") is unclear, and there have been no records from Togo for more than 100 years.  It possibly has a wider range across the Cameroonian highlands than is currently known.
54895		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky streams and waterfalls in submontane forest and degraded secondary habitats. The lack of permanent streams at high elevations on Mount Cameroon probably imposes an altitudinal limit on the species in this part of its range, since it breeds in streams and lives exclusively in and around water.
54895		population	eng	It is common, perhaps even abundant, in suitable habitat on Mount Cameroon. A survey in eastern Ghana in 2001 very close to the Togo highlands failed to recover this species.
54895		threats	eng	It is presumably at risk from forest loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
54896		conservation	eng	It may occur in the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve, although this is not managed for biodiversity conservation; increased protection of the montane forest habitats in western Cameroon is rather urgently needed, particularly on Mount Manenguba.
54896		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Manenguba and the Rumpi Hills in western Cameroon, though its range is not well understood. Its altitudinal range on Mount Manenguba is from 1,300-1,750m asl, and the single specimen from the Rumpi Hills was collected at 1,000m asl.
54896		habitat	eng	It lives on the verges of fast-flowing streams in submontane forest and degraded secondary habitats, where several individuals may cluster together on rocks in the splash zone. On Mount Manenguba it lives at a higher altitude than <em>Werneria merteniana</em>, but at lower elevations than <em>W. bambutensis</em>. It breeds in streams.
54896		population	eng	It is common within its limited range.
54896		threats	eng	It is presumably at risk from forest loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
54897		conservation	eng	A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species. A captive-breeding programme should be considered in view of possible effects of climate change. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status and breeding habits of this species.
54897		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the summit of Mount Oku at 3,000m asl in the Bamenda Highlands in western Cameroon. In view of the absence of suitable vegetation at other localities in Cameroon, this species is probably endemic to this area.
54897		habitat	eng	It lives in Afro-Alpine vegetation and grassland at the summit of Mount Oku. Its breeding habits are unknown, but since it lives above the water limit on Mount Oku, it is presumably either a live-bearer or a direct-developer laying eggs on the ground.
54897		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
54897		threats	eng	The habitat at the summit of Mount Oku is threatened by overgrazing and fire. Because it is a high-altitude species with a very limited range, it is potentially affected by climate change.
54898		conservation	eng	A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species (assuming that it occurs there).
54898		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Cameroon on Mount Oku (at 2,500m asl) and Mount Meletan at 2,200-2,700m asl in the Bamboutos Mountains. Both localities are within the Bamenda Highlands. There is some doubt as to the validity of the record from Mount Oku (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).
54898		habitat	eng	This is a species of montane grassland that retreats to areas near streams and small watercourses in bamboo forest in the dry season. Its breeding habits are unknown, though it is likely to breed in streams.
54898		population	eng	It was reported to be abundant on Mount Meletan.
54898		threats	eng	This species is almost certainly at risk from fire, overgrazing, and forest loss due to agriculture. Habitat damage is very severe in the Bamboutos Mountains.
54899		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria, but there is a need for improved protection of other sites at which the species is known to occur.
54899		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Nigeria on the Obudu Plateau and the higher parts of the Oban Hills, and from a number of montane localities in western Cameroon, including Mount Cameroon, the Rumpi Hills, Mount Kupe, Mount Manenguba, the Mbos Cliffs, and Foto. It is also known from Mount Kala and Mount Mbam-Minkoum near Yaoundé in southern Cameroon. Its altitudinal range is 800-2,000m asl.
54899		habitat	eng	It is confined to montane forest near streams and small waterfalls, and requires forest with a closed canopy. It moves further from watercourses during the rainy season. It presumably normally breeds in streams, though tadpoles have been found in a water tank.
54899		population	eng	It is generally uncommon.
54899		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, primarily due to smallholder farming activities, which is continuing over much of its range.
54900		conservation	eng	One of the places in which it occurs (Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce) is a protected area.
54900		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, Río Cañaverales, and along Río Luisito, Santander Department, Colombia, from 1,700-2,000m asl.
54900		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to running streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on the vegetation, and the larvae develop in the streams.
54900		population	eng	It was known to be common at least until 1987. Since then, no survey work has been conducted for this species.
54900		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54901		conservation	eng	Populations of this species are found within Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.
54901		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Albarregas River and its tributaries in Monte Zerpa, north of the city of Mérida, in Venezuela. It has been recorded from altitudes between 1,975 and 2,400m asl. The exact limits of its distribution are still very unclear.
54901		habitat	eng	It lives on the upper surface of leaves about 2m above the streambed in montane cloud forests, where the eggs are also deposited. When hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they develop further.
54901		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54901		threats	eng	This species is sometimes threatened by periodic fast floods that devastate the margins of the streams, affecting the vegetation and the egg masses deposited there, which can result in the loss of the reproductive effort for one particular season. Introduced trout in the streams may prey on the species' larvae, and water pollution is also a threat.
54902		conservation	eng	The main priority is to limit the spread of trout. Some populations are found in protected areas, such as Sierra de Perijá and Sierra de La Culata in the Venezuelan Andes, and Guanenta Alto Rio Fonce Natural National Park in Colombia.
54902		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Venezuelan Cordillera de Mérida and Sierra de Perijá, and in Colombia on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (in the Departamentos of Norte de Santandar to Cundinamerca), and on the Serrania de los Motilones. Its altitudinal range is 840-2,500m asl.
54902		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forests and in montane evergreen dry forest, along mountain streams. The eggs are laid on vegetation over streams. It appears not to be affected by habitat loss in wider landscape, and survives even if tiny lines of trees remain along the sides of streams.
54902		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but there are several recent records.
54902		threats	eng	This species has disappeared from streams where there are introduced trout.
54903		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected areas.
54903		distribution	eng	This species is known from Antioquia and Caldas Departments, on the western flank of the central Andes in Colombia from 1,850-2,450m asl, and might occur a little more widely.
54903		habitat	eng	Its habitat is vegetation alongside streams in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when hatched the larvae drop into the water below where they develop further. The species requires gallery forest cover over the streams to allow it to reproduce.
54903		population	eng	It is a common species.
54903		threats	eng	Water pollution from agriculture is a major threat. Deforestation is only a localized threat at present, although desiccation and loss of overhanging leaves for breeding are potential problems in the future.
54904		conservation	eng	Its distribution may overlap marginally with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Improved protection of the montane forest habitat in the range of this species is necessary. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, surveys are needed to determine this species' current population status.
54904		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Río Salado and the Cascada de San Rafael, Napo Province, Ecuador, and from 35 km southwest of San Francisco, Putumayo department, Colombia. It is found at altitudes of 1,300-1,900m asl.
54904		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest. The holotype was found in a bromeliad in the spray zone of a waterfall and on a cliff (Lynch and Duellman, 1973). It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.
54904		population	eng	It is known to be rare; it was last recorded in 1979 and searches in 1999-2001 failed to turn up any individuals (Bustamante, 2002). However, the sampling effort throughout its range has probably been insufficient.
54904		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, as a result of agriculture and logging, are the main threats to this species. It is possible that chytridiomycosis may also have contributed to the decline. Predictions suggest that in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).
54905		conservation	eng	It may occur in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Further research into the distribution range and population status of this little-known species is needed, while the potential impacts of climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus require investigation.
54905		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Fundo Nuevo Mundo (at 1,500m asl), a cloud forest of the Cordillera Azul in Huanuco Department, central Peru. It probably occurs a little more widely than is currently known, but it is believed to have a restricted range.
54905		habitat	eng	It is associated with stream habitats in montane tropical forest, where the trees are generally widely spaced and separated by 2-3m tall shrubland. Within this there are also wet depressions and small ravines, with slightly taller (4-9m) elfin forest. Eggs are deposited on leaves above streams, and larvae develop in the streams.
54905		population	eng	It is rare and poorly known.
54905		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion from smallholder farming and human settlement.
54906		conservation	eng	The only protected area from which it is currently known is Yanayacu Biological Station.
54906		distribution	eng	Centrolene bacatum is known from three localities: 11.2 km west-southwest of Plan de Milagro (03 02′S, 78 35′W, 2350 m), Province of Morona-Santiago, Ecuador; Yanayacu Biological Station (0 41′S, 77 53′W; 2100 m), Province of Napo, Ecuador; and 35 km south-east of San Francisco (01 07′N, 76 49′W, 1950 m), Department of Putumayo, Colombia (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
54906		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane primary forest and to a lesser extent secondary forest. Individuals have been found on leaves approximately 130–200 cm above streams, where breeding takes place. Egg clutches are deposited on the upper side of different leaves. Egg clutches have been found to contain 16-20 eggs; embryos have a whitish coloration. Males call from the upper side of leaves (Guayasamin et al., 2006). The species reproduces in the month of April in permanent streams (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
54906		population	eng	Ten individuals of Centrolene bacatum were found at Yanayacu Biological Station during 3 years of inventory work; it is considered to be the most abundant centrolenid at this station (Guayasamin et al., 2006). At Yanayacu, calls of this species are frequently heard along streams, and it is considered to be relatively common (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
54906		threats	eng	The species' habitat is threatened by agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.
54907		conservation	eng	It occurs in the privately owned Reserva La Planada in Colombia, and could be in the binational reserve near Planada. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still survives, and, if necessary, an <em>ex-situ</em> captive population should be established.
54907		distribution	eng	This species is known from three nearby localities in Saloya River Valley in Ecuador (Pichincha Province), at 1,700-2,010m asl, and from the Pacific versant of Colombia, in the Reserva Natural La Planada, 1,780m asl, Nariño Department.
54907		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation next to streams in humid upper montane forest. It breeds in streams and is probably not tolerant of degraded habitats.
54907		population	eng	In Ecuador, the most recent record is from 1989, and the species is no longer present in the Saloya Valley, and is apparently not in other nearby valleys. It has apparently declined seriously. In Colombia, many specimens were collected when it was first recorded, but there have been no recent surveys.
54907		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include: deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.
54908		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas where it occurs, although other conservation actions may be contemplated in the event of positive detection of chytrid fungus in this species.
54908		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes, including in the inter-Andean valleys from Colombia through to Ecuador, to Huancabamba in Piura Department in northern Peru, from 2100-3300 masl. All records of this species from Venezuela are now assigned to <em>Centrolene venezuelense</em>.
54908		habitat	eng	The species lives in montane primary and secondary forests, in páramo bushland and grassland, and in terrestrial bromeliads in inter-Andean valleys. It is nocturnal, sometimes arboreal, and lays its eggs on leaves above streams, the larvae then develop in these streams. In Ecuador, <em>C. buckleyi</em> seems to reproduce in the months of April and May in permanent streams. One clutch was found to contain 18 eggs (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
54908		population	eng	In Ecuador, at Yanayacu Biological Station, only three individuals of <em>Centrolene buckleyi</em> were found after an intensive 3-year inventory effort, suggesting that that this species is quite rare at this locality (Guayasamin et al., 2006). Elsewhere in Ecuador (e.g. Pilaló) the species was formerly abundant; however, it is now absent from these localities (Bustamante et al., 2005; J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008). It is still easily found in Colombia, while in Peru it is known only from two recent specimens.
54908		threats	eng	It appears not to be affected by habitat loss, surviving in areas with heavy human impact. The serious decline in Ecuador is thought to be due to chytrid fungus. However, predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).
54909		conservation	eng	It is not known currently to occur in any protected areas.
54909		distribution	eng	This taxon has been recorded from a non-specific locality in the Mérida Andes, in western Venezuela, at 2,400m asl.
54909		habitat	eng	There are no details regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
54909		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
54909		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
54910		conservation	eng	The species is not present in any protected areas, and some form of formal habitat protection is urgently needed along the west slopes of Abra Tangarana.
54910		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality on the west slopes of Abra Tangarana (1,080m asl) north-east of the San Juan de Pacaysapa, Departamento San Martin, in northern Peru. It is likely to occur more widely, but is believed to have a restricted distribution.
54910		habitat	eng	The area in which this species occurs supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. All individuals of this arboreal species were found on the upper surface of trees 1.5-2.0m above a small stream in a narrow ravine at night. Eggs are laid on leaves, and larvae develop in streams. This species needs the specific narrow microhabitat of flat damp areas with a constant source of water.
54910		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54910		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are unclear, but habitat loss, as a result of the expansion of agricultural activities, wood extraction, and human settlement, is likely to be the main threat.
54911		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, but none in Ecuador. Further introductions of predatory alien fish should be prevented. The species is in need of close population monitoring given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
54911		distribution	eng	This species occurs in all three Cordilleras of Colombia from Antioquia, Caldas and Boyaca Departments, south to the north-western Andean slopes of Ecuador in Carchi and Pichincha Provinces. It has been recorded between 1,750 and 2,500m asl.
54911		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest, where it can be found on vegetation next to running water or on rocks in streams and behind waterfalls. The eggs are placed on boulders in the splash zone of fast-flowing streams and waterfalls. It is a very territorial species, and the males guard the eggs. It is very susceptible to deforestation, and does not survive in degraded habitats.
54911		population	eng	It is localized, but can be conspicuous in its microhabitat. In Ecuador, the population at Quebrada Zapadores (Pichincha Province) appears to have disappeared.
54911		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and deforestation, as a result of agricultural development (particularly the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Other threats include the introduction of alien predatory fish in streams, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other species in its family, it might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a potential threat.
54912		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still survives.
54912		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: San Francisco de Las Pampas, Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador, at 1,800m asl.
54912		habitat	eng	It is found near streams in cloud forest. Reproduction is presumed to be via eggs laid on vegetation, with the tadpoles developing in water.
54912		population	eng	It has not been found since it was first described in the early 1980s. Intensive searching at Bosque Integral Otonga (near the type locality) has not turned up any individuals. However, the type region is large, and the species might have been overlooked.
54912		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, due to small-scale agriculture and subsistence wood collection, is the primary threat to this species, but it might also have been impacted by chytridiomycosis.
54913		conservation	eng	Auyán tepui, the type locality of this species, is a protected Venezuelan Natural Monument within Parque Nacional Canaima.
54913		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the summit and slopes of the Auyán tepui, in Bolívar State in Venezuelan Guayana, at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,900m asl. It might occur on other tepuis in Venezuela.
54913		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected hanging on leaves and branches of vegetation over streams in montane forest. Eggs are laid on the undersides of leaves over water, and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they develop further.
54913		population	eng	It is a common species, especially seasonally during reproduction.
54913		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any threats to this species at present.
54914		conservation	eng	In Ecuador its distribution range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia.
54914		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Western and Central Cordilleras in Colombia, from Antioquia Department, south to the Pacific versant of the Andes of north and central Ecuador (south to Cotopaxi Province). It has been recorded at 1,140-2,710m asl.
54914		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation, usually along streams, but also beside still water, in cloud forest. It also lives near pastures, roadsides, but always close to forest. It breeds in streams and still pools.
54914		population	eng	It is a common species.
54914		threats	eng	The major threats are: deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54915		conservation	eng	The range of this species is within the network of the following protected areas: Parque Nacional Natural Las Hermosas (in the páramo de las Papas), and Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. More research into its range, population status and ecological requirements is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the type locality. Unfortunately it is not safe to do research in this area at present because of security concerns.
54915		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Paramo Guanacas in the central Andes, in Cauca Department, Colombia, at around 1,900m asl. Ruiz-Carranza, Ardila-Robayo and Lynch (1996) rejected records from Risaralda Department, Colombia. It presumably occurs more widely.
54915		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to water sources in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the larvae drop into the water where they develop further. This species requires gallery forest to lay its eggs, and hence it is not able to persist in disturbed habitats.
54915		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens. There has been no sampling for it since it was first collected.
54915		threats	eng	A major threat to its habitat is water pollution from agriculture. Deforestation is only a localized threat at present, although desiccation and loss of overhanging leaves for breeding are potential threats in the future.
54916		conservation	eng	This species probably has been recorded in several protected areas in Colombia, but is not recorded from any in Ecuador. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still survives, and, if necessary, an <em>ex-situ</em> captive population should be established.
54916		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia in Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Risaralda Departments, south to the Tandayapa and Saloya Valleys, in Pichincha Province, Ecuador (where it has been recorded from four localities). Its altitudinal range is 1,900-2,400m asl.
54916		habitat	eng	It inhabits the upper elevations of cloud forest, surviving only in mature forest. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.
54916		population	eng	It has disappeared from all known localities in Ecuador, the most recent record dating back to March 1979, although they might occur elsewhere in this country. In Colombia, it is very rare, and was last recorded in 1996. Overall, it appears to have undergone a serious decline.
54916		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include: deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.
54917		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for improved habitat protection of sites at which this species is known to occur. Further research is needed to help better understand the threats to this species, and close monitoring of the population is recommended given the potential risk of chytridiomycosis.
54917		distribution	eng	This species is known only from forested slopes at elevations of 1,500-1,800m asl on the Pacific versant of the Cordillera Central in the department of Cajamarca in northern Peru. Its range is incompletely known, and it presumably occurs much more widely, but nevertheless probably has a somewhat restricted distribution.
54917		habitat	eng	Associated with streams in montane forest. At night, individuals were perched on the upper surfaces of leaves over streams; others were observed during the day resting vertically on upper leaf surfaces over streams where breeding occurred. Eggs are deposited on leaves above permanent and temporary streams, and larvae develop in the streams. It is not known if the species can adapt to modified habitats.
54917		population	eng	It is believed to be a common species; the type series is represented by 67 specimens.
54917		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not well known. It is probably susceptible to localized habitat loss as a result of livestock farming and selective wood extraction. It might also be vulnerable to the effects of localized climate change and infection with the chytrid fungus.
54918		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the limits of its range and its population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the type locality.
54918		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one stream at the type locality, in the municipality of San Jose de Isnos, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, in Huila Department, Colombia, between 1,980 and 2,190m asl.
54918		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to water sources or in streams in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the larvae drop into the water below where they develop further. This species requires gallery forest to lay its eggs and hence it is very sensitive to the destruction of its forest habitat.
54918		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a few specimens.
54918		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation arising from the expansion of cattle ranching, desiccation of its forest habitat (due to deforestation), and water pollution.
54919		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera de los Picachos.
54919		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the foothills of the east slope of the Cordillera Oriental, in Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Caquetá and Meta Departments, Colombia, between 1,410 and 2,020m asl.
54919		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation along streams in premontane forest. It tolerates some degree of habitat loss. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in water.
54919		population	eng	It is common, with recent sightings.
54919		threats	eng	The loss of vegetation next to streamsides caused by the expansion of cattle ranching is a threat to local populations of this species. But generally its habitat is intact and it is not believed to be significantly at risk.
54920		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia.
54920		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in humid lowland and premontane areas from southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica to western Panama, western Colombia (Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments), and northwestern Ecuador (provinces of Esmeraldas and Pichincha), and also from the caldera of the Río Grande de Tárcoles of central Costa Rica on the Pacific versant. Although the photograph of <em>Centrolene ilex</em> in Köhler (2001) is actually of <em>Cochranella spinosa</em> (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007; Gunther Köhler pers. comm. 2007; Sunyer and Köhler, 2007) there are two additional verified records for Nicaragua (Gunther Köhler pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded up to 1,420m asl.
54920		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of humid lowland and montane primary and secondary forest, this species is usually observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. The eggs are deposited on leaves overhanging streams, and larval development takes place in these streams. It requires foliage over the streams, if the foliage is gone so is the species.
54920		population	eng	This species is difficult to find, but is regularly recorded from suitable habitat.
54920		threats	eng	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat but there are no major threats to the species overall.
54921		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
54921		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of 127km along the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén, on the north slope of the Sierra de Lema, Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 1,250m asl.@@
54921		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane tropical forest, where the single specimen that is known was found perched on the upper surface of a palm leaf about 2m above a stream. It is presumed that this species breeds by depositing eggs on leaves above streams, with the larvae developing in the streams.
54921		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54921		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
54922		conservation	eng	It has been recorded only from within the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo protected area.
54922		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the road between Pomacochas (in Florida District, Bongara Province), and Rioja Province at 2,000m asl in San Martin Department in northern Peru. The limits of its range are unknown.
54922		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to be associated with streams, as it was found at night on a bush in a stream in cloud forest. The area in which it was collected supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves above streams, with larvae developing in the streams.
54922		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.
54922		threats	eng	It is not clear what the major threats are to this species. There is a general regional destruction and loss of habitats through an increase in agricultural activities, selective wood extraction, and human settlement. Intervening valleys in the region are extensively cultivated. This species might also be at risk from chytridiomycosis, but this requires further investigation.
54923		conservation	eng	The known localities are not within protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the known localities.
54923		distribution	eng	This species is known from three sites: the type locality at La Guayacana, in the municipality of Tumaco, in Nariño Department, Colombia, at 100m asl; Tsejpu, Río Zapallo (150m asl); and Río Cachabí (200m asl), both in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. It presumably occurs more widely, at least in the area between the known sites.
54923		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical Pacific lowland rainforest. The first Ecuadorian specimen was found in mature forest away from streams. This species' breeding habits have not been observed, but it presumably breeds in streams, like other species of the genus.
54923		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.
54923		threats	eng	Tsejpu, Río Zapallo is threatened by logging and might already have been cleared. The Colombian locality is presently not threatened.
54924		conservation	eng	Its distribution overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas in Ecuador, but it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia, and further protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species is necessary. Further research is needed to ascertain whether or not chytrid is a threat to this species; given the multitiude of current threats, including the impact of predatory fish, a captive-breeding programme may need to be established.
54924		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two general areas: on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental in Risaralda Department, Colombia; and seven localities on the western versant of the Andes in Ecuador in Pichincha Province. It probably occurs between these areas, but it is a rare species and hard to detect. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,600m asl.
54924		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest, including secondary forest, along streams, where it needs forest vegetation overhanging water, but it is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.
54924		population	eng	It is known to have undergone declines in Ecuador, but has been seen as recently as August 2001. It appears to have disappeared entirely from some regions, such as the Río Faisanes area.
54924		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include: deforestation due to agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.
54925		conservation	eng	It may occur in the Reserva Comunal El Sira. Further research is needed to determine the current population status of this little-known species.
54925		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serrania de Sira at 2,000m asl, extending north-north-west to south-east between two large northward flowing rivers, the Río Pachitea on the west and the Río Ucayali on the east, in Huanuco Department, Peru, at 1,550-2,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, but it nevertheless probably has a restricted distribution.
54925		habitat	eng	The fauna of the Serrania de Sira area apparently represent isolated relicts from Andean relatives that spread across the lowlands during periods of climatic depression in the Pleistocene. The area is cloud forest, and characterized by the presence of many bromeliads and moss. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in streams.
54925		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known (its description was based on a single specimen).
54925		threats	eng	Although the area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some habitat disturbance due to farming and human settlement. In addition, the lower parts of the Serrania de Sira are being selectively logged.
54926		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the true population status of this species and, if necessary, an <em>ex situ</em> population should be established.
54926		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in Colombia (Florencia, in Caquetá Department, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, and Iconouz, in Tolima Department, on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental), and from the Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes (Napo province). Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,800m asl.
54926		habitat	eng	It occurs on streamsides in montane cloud forests, including in secondary forest, providing there is good vegetation cover close to streams. It breeds at streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.
54926		population	eng	It is common where it has been found in Colombia. In Ecuador, it is only known from one specimen (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
54926		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species, but they are likely to include: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a potential threat.
54927		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded only from within the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo protected area.
54927		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the road between Pomacochas (in Florida District, Bongara Province), and Rioja Province at 2,000m asl in San Martin Department in northern Peru. The limits of its range are unknown.
54927		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to be associated with streams, as it was found at night on a bush in a stream in cloud forest. The area in which it was collected supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves above streams, with larvae developing in the streams.
54927		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.
54927		threats	eng	It is not clear what the major threats are to this species. There is a general regional destruction and loss of habitats through an increase in agricultural activities, selective wood extraction, and human settlement. Intervening valleys in the region are extensively cultivated. This species might also be at risk from chytridiomycosis, but this requires further investigation.
54928		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (Rasgon, Estoraques and Guanentá).
54928		distribution	eng	This species occurs on both slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Santander and Norte Santander Departments, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,440m asl.
54928		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation on streamsides in cloud forest. It is not found outside old growth forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in the water.
54928		population	eng	It is abundant, with many recent sightings.
54928		threats	eng	Habitat loss by cattle ranching and crop agriculture are threats to this species. Also, it disappears from streams where trout is introduced, such as in El Rasgon. But generally its habitat is intact and it is not believed to be significantly at risk.
54929		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Puracé.
54929		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Inza, in Cauca Department, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central of the Andes, at 3,000m asl, in Colombia. It presumably occurs more widely.
54929		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found on vegetation along the side of a stream in sub-Andean forest. The larvae presumably develop in streams like other species of the genus, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
54929		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen.
54929		threats	eng	Water pollution from agriculture is a major threat to this species, and human disturbance of the streams when planting illegal crops is also a problem.
54930		conservation	eng	More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
54930		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is given as "a small stream on Peters Mountain 3.6km north of Imbaimadai in the Pacaraima Mountains, 600m asl, in Administrative Region 7, Guyana, at 05° 44'N; 60° 18'W" (Noonan and Harvey 2000).
54930		habitat	eng	The type locality is in evergreen sclerophyllous forest. There is no information known regarding its breeding habits, though reproduction is presumably by larval development in streams.
54930		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has only very recently been described, and which is currently known from only one specimen.
54930		threats	eng	There is nothing known about threats to this species, although the type locality is relatively remote and is not considered threatened at present.
54931		conservation	eng	It occurs in three Natural National Parks in Colombia: Farallones de Cali, Munchique, and Tatama. It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador. There is a need for further survey work in Ecuador to establish the current population status of the species in the wild.
54931		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (in Pichincha Province, where it is known from three localities), north to the northern extent of the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,780-1,820m in Colombia, but has been found down to 1,350m in Ecuador. The Ecuadorian population appears to be isolated from that in Colombia.
54931		habitat	eng	It is a species of undisturbed cloud forest, and has not been found in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.
54931		population	eng	In Ecuador, the species seems to have undergone a severe decline, and it has not been recorded in recent years. It remains uncommon in Colombia.
54931		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include deforestation, due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), fire, logging, and human settlement; the introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.
54932		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for the protection of existing cloud forest fragments, such as the site known as "Pajarito".
54932		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern flank of the northern portion of the Cordillera Oriental, Boyacá Department, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,200m asl.
54932		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to or above streams in cloud forest, and can also occur in secondary forest. It lays its eggs on rocks in streams, and the larvae develop in the water.
54932		population	eng	It is a common species.
54932		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agricultural activities (livestock ranching, and the cultivation of crops) is the main threat to this species.
54933		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
54933		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Río Salado, Río Azuelo and 16km from Santa Rosa in Napo and Sucumbíos Provinces, Ecuador, at 1,300-1,740m asl.
54933		habitat	eng	It is found near streams in cloud forest, and has been recorded over 3m above the ground. Eggs are presumably laid on vegetation, with the larvae developing in water.
54933		population	eng	First collected in 1971, this species was last recorded in 1977. Several trips to known localities where the species occurs have not turned up any individuals (e.g. Bustamante 2002); however, the area of available habitat in the vicinity of the type locality is large, and the sampling effort has probably been insufficient.
54933		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation mainly due to smallholder farming and livestock ranching. It is possible that it may also have been affected by chytridiomycosis.
54934		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its distribution overlaps with the Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje. It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia and within its range in Central America.
54934		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, south to the Pacific slopes of Colombia and Ecuador. It is also found in Colombia on the northern and eastern flanks of the Cordillera Oriental south to Caldas, and in the Magdalena Valley. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
54934		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species of low vegetation in lowland tropical forests and in montane cloud forest, and is restricted to mature forest. It is occasionally found in disturbed habitats. It is frequently found near rivers and streams, so more common at higher altitudes. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water. The species has been found to exhibit strong site fidelity: in the course of two years, males in four headwater streams in El Copé, Panama, moved very little (mean = 2.33 m; mode = 0 m) (Robertson et al. 2008).
54934		population	eng	This species is regularly recorded in Costa Rica. In Monteverde, Costa Rica, it has declined drastically since the mid 1980s. Other Costa Rican populations appear stable. In some sites such as Zarcero, it is the most common glass frog. The species is common in Panama and Nicaragua and moderately common in Honduras. It is common in Ecuador, and is moderately common in Colombia. It appears to be more common at higher altitudes, probably because of the presence of more stream habitats.
54934		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Recorded declines in Costa Rica might be due to the disease chytridiomycosis, however this requires further investigation.
54935		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas.
54935		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of Monte Duida, at 610m asl, in Amazonas Department in Venezuela.
54935		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
54935		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
54935		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
54936		conservation	eng	The species is not recorded from any protected area. Survey work is urgently required to determine the current population status of this species and the precise limits of its range. In addition, the few areas that still contain foothill evergreen forests require urgent conservation action (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
54936		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities clustered in two separate areas in the provinces of Napo, Orellana and Pastaza, Ecuador, between ca. 400-1,000 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2006). It is apparently endemic to the foothill evergreen forests of the central section of the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2006). Its <span style="background-color: white;">extent of occurrence,</span> excluding degraded  unsuitable areas, is estimated to be close to 3,700 km² (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
54936		habitat	eng	It lives in lower sub-montane forest. The holotype was collected in the evening, after it had rained the previous day and night (Flores and McDiarmid 1989). Reproduction is presumed to be via eggs laid on vegetation overhanging rivulets or streams, with the tadpoles developing in water.
54936		population	eng	It is only known from a handful of specimens, and it is considered to be a rare species (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
54936		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture and logging is the primary threat to this species. By 1996, the forest  at the type locality had been cleared. The remaining vegetation formation where this species is found has been reduced from a historical area of ca 13,200 km² due to intense anthropogenic activities, with much of the remaining forest in close proximity to areas of high human pressure (i.e., deforestation, agricultural activities and water pollution), and only about 10% of the remaining foothill evergreen forests are protected within  the Ecuadorian Protected Areas System  (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2006).
54937		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
54937		distribution	eng	This species is known from Filandia and Salinto in Quindio Department, and from Ucumari and Pereira in Risaralda Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Central, between 1,900 and 2,050m asl, in Colombia.
54937		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, hence they do not tolerate much habitat disturbance.
54937		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54937		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to the species overall at present, habitat loss and degradation,due to the expansion of cattle raising, and water pollution, are potential future threats. The invasive <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> is also a threat, since it eats the tadpoles of this species.
54938		conservation	eng	Its range includes Reserva Regional Bosques de Florencia in the department of Caldas.
54938		distribution	eng	This species occurs north of the Cordillera Central in the department of Antioquia, on the eastern flanks of the Cordillera Central in the department of Risaralda, and on the western flank of the Cordillera Central in the department of Caldas, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 800-2,800m asl.
54938		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in cloud forest. It lays its eggs on leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles drop in to the water below. It has also been recorded from secondary forests near water.
54938		population	eng	It is a common species.
54938		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of agriculture, coupled with water source loss, and pollution from the fumigation of crops.
54939		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
54939		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl.
54939		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation overhanging streams, and the larvae develop in the water.
54939		population	eng	This is a rare species which has not been surveyed for since 1992.
54939		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the cultivation of illegal crops. However, the overall condition of the habitat within its likely range is good, with extensive, undisturbed areas remaining.
54940		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the privately owned nature reserve (the Reserva Natural La Planada) at La Planada, Colombia. Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.
54940		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities at altitudes of 1,780 and 1,820m asl on the Pacific versant of the Andes: Tandayapa, in Pichincha Province, northern Ecuador; and La Planda, Nariño Department, in extreme southern Colombia.
54940		habitat	eng	This species lives on vegetation next to streams in humid upper montane forest. It presumably breeds in streams, with the eggs being laid on leaves overhanging the water into which the larvae drop and continue to develop.
54940		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens. There have been no records since the original description, probably because subsequent records have been assigned to <em>Centrolene lynchi</em>, with which it might be synonymous.
54940		threats	eng	If the threats to this species are the same as those facing <em>C. lynchi</em>, the most severe threat is likely to be the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of this species (this process is probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.
54941		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
54941		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in Magdalena Department, Colombia. It has been recorded between 980 and 1,790m asl.
54941		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to water sources in sub-Andean forests and cloud forests. It lays its eggs on leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles fall in to the water below where they develop further.
54941		population	eng	It is a common species.
54941		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), as well as water pollution due to the fumigation of crops.
54942		conservation	eng	Its range includes several National Parks along the Venezuelan Cordillera de Mérida.
54942		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andean Venezuelan states of Táchira, Mérida and Trujillo. It has been recorded between 2,100 and 3,050m asl.
54942		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane cloud forests, where it lives along cascading and other lotic watercourses, usually on overhanging vegetation. Like Centrolene buckleyi, it can probably survive in areas with heavy human impact.
54942		population	eng	It is a common species.
54942		threats	eng	Agriculture, crops and livestock, as well as flooding, might be impacting this species, but it is probably adaptable and not significantly threatened.
54943		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.
54943		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca, Santander and Tolima Departments, Colombia, between 1,130 and 2,060m asl.
54943		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in premontane humid forest; it also occurs in secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in water.
54943		population	eng	It is common, with several recent records.
54943		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (cattle ranching and crops).
54944		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. It was recently recorded from the Parque Nacional Saslaya in Nicaragua (Köhler <em>et al</em>., 2004).
54944		distribution	eng	This species is known from humid lowlands and premontane slopes from north-central Honduras to western Colombia (Chocó, Risaralda and Antioquia departments) and northwestern Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces), from sea level to 1,500m asl.
54944		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, and is generally observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. Populations can persist alond streams in pastures with minimal riparian growth (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). The larvae develop in streams. It is restricted to forest covered streams.
54944		population	eng	This species is common and regularly encountered.
54944		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat to the species habitat, but at present there are no major threats to the species.
54946		conservation	eng	The distribution range of this species appears to overlap with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and to ascertain the limits of its range.
54946		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Río Azuela, Napo Province, in northern Ecuador, at 1,740m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely, but surveys elsewhere have not recorded it, and so its distribution is unlikely to be extensive.
54946		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest. The holotype was found on a mossy limb of a bush about 1.5m above a cascading rivulet at night (Lynch and Duellman 1973). Its breeding is unknown, but is likely to take place in streams.
54946		population	eng	It has not been seen since its original discovery (one individual) in 1971. A few return visits to the type locality have not recorded it.
54946		threats	eng	At the type locality, patches of forest have been cleared for agriculture and livestock farming.
54947		conservation	eng	The type locality is within a private reserve, which is part of a larger network of reserves. Maintenance of the habitat of this restricted-range species is essential to ensure its persistence, and it requires close population monitoring given its restriction to a single location.
54947		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Boquerón at the base of Cerro Ingles, near Vereda La Amarillas, Município El Cairo, in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,160m asl. Even though every stream within 5km of the type locality has been sampled, the species has not been recorded, suggesting that it has a very restricted range.
54947		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected on vegetation next to an open stream in primary forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but it is likely to breed in streams.
54947		population	eng	It was reportedly a common species when collected.
54947		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but given its small range it is susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
54948		conservation	eng	Its presence has not been confirmed from any protected areas, though it might occur in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in Colombia. There is clearly a need for improved habitat protection of sites at which this species is known to occur.
54948		distribution	eng	This species occurs between 400 and 800m along the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, from El Tambito in Cauca Department, south to Ecuador. In Ecuador, it is known only from the type locality: Mindo, in Pichincha Province, at 1,540m asl.
54948		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, living on vegetation next to streams in humid lowland tropical forest and cloud forest. It seems to require closed forest. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging water.
54948		population	eng	It is reasonably common in Colombia, but there are no recent records from Ecuador.
54948		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Other threats include the introduction of alien predatory fish, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other centrolenids, this species might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation).
54949		conservation	eng	Its range includes Amboro, Carrasco, El Palmar and Madidi National Parks.
54949		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes, in the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, at 1,600-2,400m asl (Köhler 2000). Initially, it was known from 51.8km southwest of Tunari Village, Cochabamba Department (Cannatella 1980), and later it was reported in Sehuencas at 2,300m asl (De la Riva 1990), in La Siberia region between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments, and in La Yunga at 2,000m asl in Santa Cruz department (Marquez <em>et al.</em> 1996). It was reported from El Palmar in Chuquisaca department in 1997 (Harvey 1997).
54949		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet montane forest including cloud and Yungas forest. It is an arboreal species, and can be observed perching on vegetation close to streams and small waterfalls, where it also breeds.
54949		population	eng	It is a common species. At present the population appears to be stable.
54949		threats	eng	Agricultural development, agricultural pollution and the development of roads are a major threat to the species' habitat.
54950		conservation	eng	It is not currently known to occur in any of the Ecuadorian state natural protected areas. It is, however, protected at the Estación Biólogica Yanayacu.
54950		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality near Plan de Milagro, Morona Santiago Province, Ecuador, at 2,350m asl; and disjunctively at the Estación Biólogica Yanayacu, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,145m asl. Its distribution might be wider than is currently recognized, especially in the area between the currently known sites.
54950		habitat	eng	This species lives in cloud forest, where specimens have been collected from the upper sides of leaves and ferns within 2m of cascading streams (Wild 1994). It is found in old growth forest only. Eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.
54950		population	eng	Although it was common at Yanayacu in 2003, it was rare when it was collected near Plan de Milagro in 1984.
54950		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging are threats to this species. It has what appears to be a very narrow altitudinal range, potentially making it vulnerable to climate change.
54951		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Península de Paria.
54951		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro El Humo and from a few kilometres north of Macuro, on the Península de Paria, in the eastern portion, in Venezuela. It has been recorded at altitudes of between 580 and 800m asl. It is known from only five localities, but it might occur more widely.
54951		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation overhanging and adjacent to cascading mountain streams, in cloud forests. The eggs are laid on the upper side of the leaves, and when hatched the larvae fall into the streams, where they develop.
54951		population	eng	It is common in the rainy season.
54951		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development, selective logging and infrastructure development for tourism.
54952		conservation	eng	One of the localities from which it is known is within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
54952		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities on the western slope of the western Andes between 800 and 1,280m asl: Dabeiba and Frontino, both in Antioquia Department; and Mistrato in Risaralda Department.
54952		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in very humid tropical forest and cloud forest. It presumably lays its eggs above the stream and the larvae then drop into the stream below, as with other species in the genus.
54952		population	eng	It is thought to be uncommon, and is currently known from only three specimens.
54952		threats	eng	The threats to this species include habitat loss due to timber extraction, cattle raising and agricultural development.
54953		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into this little-known species, including the potential impacts of localized climate change and potential infection with the chytrid fungus.
54953		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is the "west slope of Abra Tangarana, 7km (by road) north-east of San Juan de Pacaysapa (06° 12´S; 76° 44´W, 1080m [asl]), Provincia Lamas, Departamento San Martín, Perú" (Duellman and Schulte 1993).
54953		habitat	eng	The area in which it occurs supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. This species was found on the upper surface of leaves 1.5-2.0m above a small stream in a narrow ravine at night. It is an arboreal species. Eggs are presumably laid on leaves and the larvae develop in streams. This species needs the specific narrow microhabitat of flat damp areas with a constant source of water.
54953		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is currently known only from a single specimen.
54953		threats	eng	It is unknown what the threats are to this species, but they are presumed to include habitat loss through an increase in agricultural development, wood extraction and human colonization. The available habitat is very fragmented.
54954		conservation	eng	Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Llanganates.
54954		distribution	eng	This species is found on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in northern and southern Ecuador (Sucumbios, Pastaza and Zamora Chinchipe Departments), at elevations of 1,100-1,600m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
54954		habitat	eng	It lives in montane rainforest along streams with steep gradients (Lynch and Duellman, 1973). Reproduction is presumed to occur via eggs laid on vegetation, with the tadpoles developing in the water.
54954		population	eng	This species is noted as being uncommon across most of its range.
54954		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species, mainly as a result of smallholder farming activities and clear-cutting of forests. Predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).
54955		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, but is adjacent to Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
54955		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the municipality of Urrao, on the western flank of the western Andes, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, between 2,330 and 2,490m asl.
54955		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean primary forests, and requires canopy cover over streams. Eggs are laid on top of leaves, and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below. It is restricted to primary forest, as it requires overhanging branches for breeding habitat.
54955		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, but it is not thought to be a common species.
54955		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss caused by the expansion of cattle raising, timber extraction, and cultivation of illegal crops is a major threat.
54956		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into this little-known species, including on the potential impacts of localized climate change and potential infection with the chytrid fungus.
54956		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities, firstly at 800m asl near to Tarapoto, and also at 730m asl at Cataratas de Ahuashiyacu on a north-west to south-east ridge north of Tarapoto Province, in San Martin Department, northern Peru. It is likely to occur much more widely.
54956		habitat	eng	The type locality (which is at 800m asl) is in the drainage of the Río Huallaga. The Cataratas de Ahuashiyacu (which is at 730m asl) is a rocky gorge into which two streams plunge. The sides of the gorge are nearly vertical rock walls, and the floor of the gorge is littered with huge boulders. In the type locality, the specimen was found at night on the upper surfaces of a vertical rock face about 3m above the ground in an area of dripping water. At the other locality the specimen was on a low bush next to a cascading stream at night. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in the streams.
54956		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is currently known only from two specimens.
54956		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Within the area there is deforestation through an increase in agricultural development, wood extraction and human colonization. Local tourism is also a threat in the area, and the available habitat is very fragmented.
54957		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.
54957		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca and Santander Departments, Colombia, between 1,630 and 2,060m asl.
54957		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in premontane and cloud forest, and has been recorded from secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in the water.
54957		population	eng	It is common, and has recently been collected.
54957		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat fragmentation and loss due to agriculture (cattle raising and crops).
54958		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca and the Reserva de Biosfera Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare.
54958		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern tip of the summit of Cerro Duida, at 2,140m asl, in Amazonas State, southern Venezuela. It might occur on other mountain peaks in the area.
54958		habitat	eng	It occurs in shrubs in montane forest along streams. Its eggs are presumably placed on the upper surface of leaves, and the larvae then fall into streams where they develop.
54958		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a few specimens.
54958		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
54959		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into this little-known species, including the potential impacts of localized climate change and potential infection with the chytrid fungus.
54959		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from two streams at the type locality: "the ridge above base camp (near Chorro Blanco, about 4-4.5km directly north-east of Monte Seco, Río Zaña, Cajamarca Department, Peru, at 2,610m asl" (Cadle and McDiarmid 1990); and from about 2.5km north-east of Monte Seco at 1,800m asl along a trail to Chorro Blanco, also in Cajamarca Department, Peru.
54959		habitat	eng	This is a montane tropical forest species. Individuals were active mostly on vertical rock faces in the splash or spray zones of waterfalls on rock ledges (upper and lower surfaces) in or around waterfalls, and on liverwort and moss-covered wet boulders in midstream. Many individuals were on rock ledges in waterfalls 6-8m high. Breeding was observed only along permanent streams at high altitudes. Given that all individuals were associated with rock faces near or in waterfalls and that no egg masses were found attached to vegetation, Cadle and McDiarmid (1990) considered that eggs of this species are attached to rocks.
54959		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
54959		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known. There is regional destruction and loss of habitat for livestock and due to selective wood extraction. Protected areas in the region are also threatened by these impacts.
54960		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica (two are volcanoes) and Panama. All known Costa Rican populations are within protected areas. It is also within a protected area in Colombia. The species appears to have disappeared in Costa Rica, and although this is marginal to the full range of the species, surveys are needed in Panama and Colombia to determine whether this decline is more widespread (Brain Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).
54960		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered lowland and premontane localities from central Costa Rica (840-1,500m asl) and Panama (90-1,270m asl) to western Colombia (Choco, Antioquia and Risaralda departments from 100-1,650m asl).
54960		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of humid lowland, premontane and montane forest. It can be observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. Larvae develop in streams. It is restricted to forest covered streams.
54960		population	eng	It is considered to be rare in both Costa Rica and Panama. It is fairly common in Colombia. As of 2007, there have been no recent records of this species from Costa Rica since 1986, despite directed survey efforts (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.).
54960		threats	eng	In Panama the species is generally threatened by deforestation, but overall there are no major threats to the species. The causes of the decline in Costa Rica are not currently known.
54961		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. In Colombia it is known from two protected areas, Los Picachos Nature Reserve and Cueya de los Guacharos Nature Reserve. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
54961		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern Andes in Ecuador (Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forests in the Eastern Subtropical Altitudinal Zone) and Colombia (departments of Casanare, Meta, Putumayo and Caqueta). It has been recorded between 300-1,000m asl.
54961		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary cloud forest where it is usually found along the edge of streams. It breeds in permanent streams. It is not known from any anthropogenic habitats.
54961		population	eng	This species is common in forest.
54961		threats	eng	Smallholder farming of livestock and clear cutting of forests are a localized threat. Water and land pollution from illegal crops in Colombia is also a localized a threat. However there are no major threats to the species survival at present.
54962		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas, such as Parque Nacional Natural Nevado del Huila.
54962		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cauca, Huila and Tolima (Combeima) Departments, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, between 1,900 and 3,030m asl.
54962		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation alongside streams in sub-Andean and Andean forests. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs and hence are very sensitive to disturbance of their forest habitat.
54962		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
54962		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss as a result of clear-cutting of forests and agricultural encroachment, due to the planting of illegal crops and cattle raising.
54963		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
54963		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the southern slope of the Wilhelmina Mountains, Suriname. The type locality is within the range of 500-600m asl.
54963		habitat	eng	The type locality is within primary forest. There is no information regarding this species' breeding habits, though it presumably breeds in streams.
54963		population	eng	This species is known from only one specimen. Recent surveys of areas close to the type locality have not found this species but the type locality itself has not been resurveyed.
54963		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present as it occurs in a very isolated area.
54964		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas.
54964		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid lowlands and premontane slopes from Atlantic slope eastern Honduras to central Panama and on the Pacific versant in humid upland or gallery forest situations from central Costa Rica to southwestern Panama, from 30-1,500m asl (Savage, 2002).
54964		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species of humid lowland and montane forest. It may occur in suitable modified habitats (with some trees remaining), and is usually found in bushes and trees along forest streams. Eggs are deposited on vegetation overhanging streams; larvae develop in the streams.
54964		population	eng	This species is regularly encountered in Costa Rica, and is considered to be common in Panama. There are few records from Honduras and Nicaragua.
54964		threats	eng	Generally threatened by both severe habitat loss resulting from deforestation, and water pollution.
54965		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, while in Ecuador its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
54965		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, in Antioquia, Choco, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Nariño and Risaralda Departments, south to Cotopaxi Province in adjacent Ecuador. It is also known from the eastern slopes of the Cordlillera Central in the Department of Caldas, Colombia. In Ecuador it has been recorded from only five sites covering a relatively small area. It has been recorded at 1,780-2,650m asl.
54965		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in montane forests, and is perhaps a little more arboreal than some other related species. It is not found in degraded habitats, but does occur in selectively logged forest. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.
54965		population	eng	It is very common in Colombia, but uncommon in Ecuador where it appears to have disappeared from Quebrada Zapadores in Pichincha Province, where it once occurred.
54965		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Other threats include the introduction of alien predatory fish, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other centrolenids, this species might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.
54966		conservation	eng	Populations of this species occur in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá, and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
54966		distribution	eng	This species is known from Choco, Antioquia, Valle de Cauca and Risaralda Departments, on the western flank of the western Andes, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is currently recorded as 1,900-1,960m asl but is presumably broader than this.
54966		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in primary sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on the upper surface of leaves and when hatched the larvae fall into the water below where they then develop further.
54966		population	eng	It is very common.
54966		threats	eng	There are few threats at present to this very common species, because most of its range is in protected areas.
54967		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas. However, additional habitat protection is required for this species, given its reliance on intact primary forest.
54967		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the western Andes in Colombia, between 1,140 and 1,430m asl.
54967		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary forest, occurring next to streams. It lays its eggs on the top of leaves in the canopy and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they develop further.
54967		population	eng	It is not a rare species but it is difficult to collect as it occurs high in the canopy.
54967		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss and fragmentation caused by the expansion of livestock ranching activities, timber extraction for subsistence use, and the planting of illegal crops.
54968		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the northern tip of Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.
54968		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality: "La Playa, finca La Playa-La Primavera" (Ruíz-Carranza and Lynch 1996), in the municipality of El Tambo, in Cauca Department, on the western flank of the western Andes, in Colombia, between 1,200 and 1,500m asl.
54968		habitat	eng	It was found on vegetation along a stream in tropical primary forest. There is no information about its breeding habits, but it presumably lays its eggs on leaves, and the larvae then drop into the water, as with other species in the genus.
54968		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen. There have been no surveys of the area since it was first collected because it is a dangerous place to visit, due to ongoing civil unrest.
54968		threats	eng	The cultivation of illegal crops and water pollution from agriculture are potential threats to this species' habitat.
54969		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, and protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species is urgently needed. Survey work is necessary to ascertain the current population status of this species; given the nature of some of the threats, an ex situ population may need to be established.
54969		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (at four locations in Napo Province: near Santa Rosa, Río Azuela, Río Salado, and Guacamayos), and also from the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in Putumayo Department, Colombia. It has been recorded at 1,300-1,750m asl.
54969		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature, closed cloud forest, where it has been found on the leaves and stems of bushes and trees overhanging streams. It does not occur in degraded areas. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.
54969		population	eng	It was most recently seen in Ecuador in 2000, and it appears to be very rare, having apparently disappeared from Río Azuela. There is no recent information from Colombia.
54969		threats	eng	The major threats include: deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other centrolenids, this species might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain slopes as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Chytridiomycosis may present a possible future threat.
54970		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas and Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.
54970		distribution	eng	This species is known from Antioquia, Risaralda, Valle del Cauca and Choco Departments, on the western flank of the western Andes in Colombia between 1,700 and 2,000m asl.
54970		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation away from streams in sub-Andean forests. Its breeding habits have not been observed, although it presumably breeds in streams.
54970		population	eng	It is a rare species.
54970		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
54971		conservation	eng	In Peru it occurs in the Manu Reserve Zone in Peru. Conservation units are present within its range in Brazil. In Ecuador its range overlaps with the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
54971		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is from the Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. It is presumed to occur in southern Colombia, and is mapped as doing so, but there have not so far been any records from this country. In Peru it has been recorded from Panguana (200m) Dpto. Huanuco and Patikza (360m) Dpto. Madre de Dios. Elevation is to 360m asl.
54971		habitat	eng	Inhabits both primary and secondary lightly modified tropical forest (including seasonally flooded forest). Individuals are found on leaves and branches. Eggs are deposited of leaves above waterbodies; tadpoles develop in streams.
54971		population	eng	The population status is unknown.
54971		threats	eng	It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.
54972		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas.
54972		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
54972		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.
54972		population	eng	It is a rare species, but nothing more is known about its population status as it has not been surveyed for since 1992.
54972		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the cultivation of illegal crops is a threat to this species. The habitat around the type locality is in good condition.
54973		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Amboró.
54973		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Santa Cruz Department, at the foot of the slopes of the Bolivian Andes. Records are from El Fuerte, Florida Province, at 1,600m asl, and La Hoyada and Mataracu, Ichilo Province, from 500-1,750m asl (Köhler 2000a; Lötters and Köhler 2000). It almost certainly occurs more widely.
54973		habitat	eng	It can be found in wet montane forest and in peri-Andean forests, specifically in Amazonian forests, in semi-humid montane forest, and in Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is an arboreal species that can be observed perching on wet sites next to streams (Köhler 2000a; Lötters and Köhler 2000). Egg clutches are deposited on rocks in streams.
54973		population	eng	Köhler (2000a) points out that if the environmental conditions are suitable it is easy to observe and is abundant.
54973		threats	eng	Water pollution from agriculture is a major threat.
54974		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu. The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus require further investigation.
54974		distribution	eng	In central Peru this species is known along the Cordillera Oriental in Huancabamba (1,700m asl) and Valle del Perene (1,200m asl), in Pasco Department. In southern Peru it is known from Huanhuachayocc (1,630m asl), Ayacucho Department, and Cosñipata (1,700m asl), Cusco Department. It is likely that it occurs more widely.
54974		habitat	eng	In southern Peru, localities are in cloud forest at the start of the Andes. In central Peru, recorded localities are valleys (vegetation type not known) of the Amazonian drainage. Individuals have been recorded perched on herbaceous vegetation in cloud forest at night. It is not known if the species occurs in modified habitats. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in streams.
54974		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
54974		threats	eng	In southern Peru it is threatened by loss and degradation of its habitat for human settlement and smallholder agriculture.
54975		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
54975		distribution	eng	This species has been confirmed from two widely separated localities on the Pacific slopes of the Andes: at Tandapey, Pichincha Province, and also at Paramba, Imbabura Province, Ecuador, at 780-1,460m asl.
54975		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane and montane forest and cloud forest, where it has been found 10m up in trees.
54975		population	eng	It has not been seen since 1973, despite repeated visits to one of the sites (Tandapey). It has not been found at Paramba since it was originally discovered.
54975		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation primarily from the rearing of livestock, and logging, are threats to this species.
54976		conservation	eng	The populations at La Costa are within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, and at Pialapi they are within the Reserva Natural La Planada (a regional reserve). One of the Ecuadorian localities is a protected area.
54976		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in Colombia [Nariño Department (Pialapi); Valle del Cauca Department (Campe Alegre); and Cauca Department (La Costa), on the western flank of the western Andes in Colombia; and from three localities (Bosque Protector Mashpi, Rio Chalpi and Rio Anope, the latter two near the town of Saguangal) in the province of Pichincha, northwestern Ecuador (Yánez-Muñoz and Cisneros-Heredia, 2008). It is found between 500 and 1,250m asl.
54976		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest on rocks in and beside streams, but all within the spray zone of the cascades of small streams. There is no information about its breeding habits, though it presumably breeds in streams. This species is a microhabitat specialist.
54976		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It might be rare, although there have been no surveys specifically targeting this species.
54976		threats	eng	It is threatened by the expansion of agriculture, including the cultivation of illegal crops, and by water pollution and hydroelectricity schemes.
54977		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
54977		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 2,040-2,270m asl.
54977		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in streams.
54977		population	eng	It is rare, but it has not been surveyed for since 1992.
54977		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the cultivation of illegal crops.
54978		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are within the range of this species.
54978		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Venezuela (one locality in Gran Sabana, estado Bolívar), southern Guyana, Suriname, all of French Guiana, central Amazonian Brazil (where it is known from only one area) (Lescure and Marty, 2001), Colombia (Amazonas department), and Ecuador (provinces of Orellana and Sucumbíos) (Guayasamin et al., 2006, 2008). It has been recorded from 90-900m asl.
54978		habitat	eng	It occurs alongside rivers, on leaves and branches of overhanging vegetation. It is an explosive breeder. It has been found in disturbed areas near streams (secondary forest and degraded habitats), and is apparently relatively adaptable to human disturbance.
54978		population	eng	It is a common species.
54978		threats	eng	Forest fragmentation, clear-cut logging and agriculture are only localized threats to the species' habitat and at present there are no major threats to the species overall.
54979		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.
54979		distribution	eng	This is a little-known species, currently known only from Tutumbaro (at 1,840m asl) on the Río Piene, Ayacucho Department, in southern Peru. It might be more widespread than this.
54979		habitat	eng	The type locality is a disturbed cloud forest in a river valley with bamboo, ferns and elephant's ear plants. The individuals were recorded calling at night from the upper sides of leaves of herbaceous vegetation and elephant's ear plants within 1m of a slow stream. Eggs are presumably laid on leaves, with larval development in streams.
54979		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has been collected only once. Four adult males were used to describe this species.
54979		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The area in general is subject to loss and degradation of habitats due to human colonization and agricultural development.
54980		conservation	eng	The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus on this species require further investigation.
54980		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas in Cuzco Department in southern Peru (Pistipata and Machu Pichu), and from a single locality in central La Paz, Bolivia. It has an altitudinal range of 1,820-2,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, particularly in localities between the two currently known sites.
54980		habitat	eng	This species is strongly associated with streams. At Pistipata, the vegetation consists of coffee and tea plantations with remnants of cloud forest. In Bolivia it has been collected in primary montane forest. Individuals call on rainy nights, on herbaceous plants on dripping wet cliffs and the upper sides of leaves over water, all adjacent to streams. Egg clutches are laid on the tips of the upper surfaces of the leaves, and the larvae develop in streams.
54980		population	eng	It is common in Peru, but uncommon in Bolivia.
54980		threats	eng	It is unclear what the threats are to this species, which is possibly impacted by the loss and degradation of its habitats for human colonization and agricultural development, although in Peru it seems to survive well in coffee and tea plantations.
54981		conservation	eng	The range of the species in Colombia does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection of sites where this species is known to occur. In Ecuador the species is found at Yanayacu Biological Station.
54981		distribution	eng	This species is known from Caldas (Samaná), Cauca (Inza) and Huila (San Jose Isnos) departments on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, between 1100 and 2800 masl. It is also known from the cloud forests surrounding Yanayacu Biological Station (0 41′ S, 77 53′ W; 2100 m) in Ecuador (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
54981		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests, on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves over-hanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, and hence are sensitive to any disturbance of their forest habitat. <br/><br/>Calling activity has been reported for the month of June (Guayasamin et al., 2006). The species requires of a permanent source of water for its reproduction (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
54981		population	eng	In Ecuador, three individuals were collected during 3 years of inventory work, so it appears to be extremely rare here (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008). It appears to be a more common species in Colombia.
54981		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture (including the planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.
54982		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas.
54982		distribution	eng	This species is known from Valle del Cauca Department, northwards through Choco and Risaralda departments to Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the western Andes, in Colombia, between 900 and 1,450m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
54982		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforests and sub-Andean forest, and is often found on vegetation along streams (being restricted to streams with canopy cover). It lays its eggs on the upper surface of leaves and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the stream below.
54982		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.
54982		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture (cattle raising and planting of illegal crops), and water pollution.
54983		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, hence there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where it is known to occur.
54983		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tolima, Antioquia and Caldas Departments on the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, between 500 and 930m asl, in Colombia. It probably occurs more widely.
54983		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean forests, on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves over-hanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, and hence are very sensitive to habitat disturbance.
54983		population	eng	It is a very common species.
54983		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture (cattle raising and planting of illegal crops), and water pollution. A small white fly lays its eggs within the eggs of this species, resulting in egg mortality.
54984		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
54984		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in Antioquia (at Las Orquideas) and Choco (at Opogado and Jurado) Departments on the western flank of the western Andes, between 20 and 820m asl.
54984		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest on vegetation along streams. It is presumed to lay its eggs on the top of leaves and the larvae when hatched to drop into the stream below, like other species of the genus. This species is restricted to streams with good forest cover.
54984		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but there is not much known in general about its population status.
54984		threats	eng	The threats to it are minimal as one locality is in a well-protected area and the other known localities are forests that are currently not threatened by human activities.
54985		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia or Ecuador, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.
54985		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in Amazonian Ecuador (Santa Cecilia), from one location in Colombia (south-western Putumayo), and has recently been reported for the Alto Cainarachi Valley, department of San Martín, Peru (see Torres-Gastello et al. 2007). It occurs between 300 and 400 masl.
54985		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland tropical primary and secondary rainforests, and sub-Andean forests, on vegetation next to running water sources like streams. The holotype was found in primary rainforest (Lynch and Duellman 1973). It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. The eggs are laid on leaves above the streams, and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the stream below.<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
54985		population	eng	This is thought to be a rare species in Colombia, but there is no information on population status in Ecuador or Peru.
54985		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and habitat loss, as a result of agricultural expansion (including the planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.
54986		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur within a protected area.
54986		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Benjamin Constant, Alto Solimões, Amazonas State, Brazil), and also from Leticia, Amazonas Department, Colombia.
54986		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces along forest streams, where it lays its eggs on vegetation above streams into which the larvae drop and develop.
54986		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which was only recently found in Colombia.
54986		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the sites near Leticia are threatened by logging.
54987		conservation	eng	The population occurs in a Natural Monument within the Parque Nacional Serrania de la Neblina. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is known only from a single location.
54987		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cerro Aracamuni, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an elevation of 1,600m asl.
54987		habitat	eng	It lives and reproduces (by larval development) within terrestrial bromeliads in montane forest.
54987		population	eng	It is a rare species.
54987		threats	eng	There are no current major threats, but the restricted range of this species makes it vulnerable to threatening processes.
54988		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at the sites where it is known to occur.
54988		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tolima (Falan near Mariquita), Antioquia (Anori), and Caldas Departments, between 1,100 and 2,000m asl, in Colombia. It is believed to occur more widely.
54988		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves over-hanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs and hence are sensitive to any habitat disturbance.
54988		population	eng	It is a common species in Tolima, but is thought to be uncommon in Antioquia.
54988		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to agricultural expansion (including planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.
54989		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas, such as the Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.
54989		distribution	eng	This species is known from both slopes of the western Andes, between Cauca and Risaralda Departments, and on the western slope of the central Andes, in Colombia, between 2,100 and 2,470m asl.
54989		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean forests. It lays its eggs on leaves above the water and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the stream below where they develop further. It is restricted to gallery forest due to its requirement for overhanging branches for breeding habitat.
54989		population	eng	It is not a particularly common species.
54989		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss, due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54990		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Reserva Regional Bosques de Florencia and the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
54990		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Quindio and Risaralda, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central in the department of Caldas, and on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Valle del Cauca, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,400-2,410m asl.
54990		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation next to running water such as streams. The eggs are laid on leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles fall into the water below where they develop further. It is also recorded from secondary forests.
54990		population	eng	It is a common species.
54990		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss due to agriculture, both crops and livestock, and pollution (as a result of the fumigation of crops).
54991		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but the type locality at least is in need of some formal protection or management.
54991		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality (two sites in close proximity to each other) at 800m asl on the south slope of the north-west-south-east range of the mountains immediately to the north of Tarapoto Province, San Martin Department, in northern Peru. It probably occurs more widely, but it is still likely to have a restricted distribution.
54991		habitat	eng	The type locality is a rocky gorge into which two streams plunge. The sides of the gorge are nearly vertical rocky walls, and the floor of the gorge is littered with huge boulders. The species was found perched on ferns on boulders, but most were on the boulders within 10cm of the waterline at night. They breed in streams, with eggs laid on leaves above water.
54991		population	eng	It is a common species at the type locality, and was described from a series of 31 adult males.
54991		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement, as well as the impacts of tourism. The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus require further investigation.
54992		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador.
54992		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador (at elevations of 1,310-1,700m asl) and in Ayacucho Province, southern Peru. The Peruvian specimens might refer to a distinct species (Duellman and Schülte, 1993). A similar form occurs in Putumayo Department, Colombia; however, further collections are required for taxonomic confirmation of this population (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005).
54992		habitat	eng	It lives near streams in pre-montane forest (Lynch and Duellman 1973; QCAZ database). It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in the water.
54992		population	eng	In Ecuador, it has disappeared from the type locality (Río Salado) and several other localities, but one specimen was seen in Azuela in 1998.
54992		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species, due mainly to the activities of smallholder farmers and as a result of logging. Given its narrow altitudinal range, its decline in Ecuador might be related to the impacts of climate change.
54993		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
54993		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 1,410m asl.
54993		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in the streams.
54993		population	eng	It is rare, but it has not been surveyed for since 1992.
54993		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle raising and the cultivation of illegal crops.
54994		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Manu. Further research into the distribution of this species is required as well as into the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.
54994		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Peru: Cosñipata (Cusco Department, at 1,700m asl) in the southern montane forest and Perene Valley (Pasco Department, at 1,200m asl) in the central montane forest. It is believed to occur in suitable intervening habitat.
54994		habitat	eng	Its habitat is montane primary and secondary tropical forest, close to streams. Individuals have been recorded calling at night from the upper sides of leaves of herbaceous plants adjacent to a small stream. It is not present in degraded areas. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in streams.
54994		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54994		threats	eng	In the Perene Valley it is threatened by agriculture (coffee, tea and coca cultivation) and human settlement.
54995		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within a protected area. More research into the limits of its range, its population status and potential threats is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
54995		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Caldas Department, Colombia, between 1,850 and 1,940m asl.
54995		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the larvae drop into the water below where they develop further. This species therefore requires gallery forest to lay their eggs; hence it is sensitive to any kind of habitat disturbance.
54995		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54995		threats	eng	The threats to it are currently unknown.
54996		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia and Central America, but not in Ecuador. It was recently observed in the Indio-maiz Reserve in Nicaragua (Eric Berlin pers. comm.).
54996		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Honduras, through Costa Rica to eastern Panama, through the lowlands of western Colombia south to Río Palenque in Ecuador. It is known only from a single locality in Ecuador. There are a number of recently published records of this species in Nicaragua (Sunyer and Köhler, 2007), and it has recently been observed at the Indio-maiz Reserve in Nicaragua (Eric Berlin pers. comm. 2007). It is found up to 650m in Costa Rica and up to 800m asl in Panama. The photograph of <em>Centrolene ilex</em> in Köhler (2001) is of <em>Cochranella spinosa</em> (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007; Gunther Köhler pers. comm. 2007). The species was erronously recorded from Rincon, Oca Peninsula, Costa Rica by Savage (2002) (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).
54996		habitat	eng	Occurs along streams in the low vegetation of lowland primary humid lowland forest. Animals are generally observed in riparian bushes and trees. Unlike other members of the genus the female deposits eggs on the underside of vegetation overhanging streams; the larvae develop in streams. It has not been found in degraded areas.
54996		population	eng	It is a common species in Colombia, but is uncommon in Ecuador. It is regularly encountered in Costa Rica and Panama, but is uncommon in Honduras.
54996		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
54997		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where it is known to occur.
54997		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Tolima, Caldas and Antioquia, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, between 400 and 1,650m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than these records suggest.
54997		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation along streams. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, and hence are sensitive to any habitat disturbance.
54997		population	eng	It is a common species.
54997		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to agricultural expansion (including planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.
54998		conservation	eng	The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus on this species require further investigation.
54998		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is the "west slope of Abra Tangarana, 7km (by road) north-east of San Juan de Pacaysapa (06° 12´S; 76° 44´W, 1080m [asl]), Provincia Lamas, Departamento San Martín, Perú" (Duellman and Schulte 1993).
54998		habitat	eng	The type locality supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. Individuals have been recorded at night perched on the upper surfaces of ferns, leaves of trees and herbaceous vegetation at the edge of, or overhanging, a small cascading stream in a narrow rocky ravine. All individuals were less than 2m above the ground or water. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves, and the larvae develop in streams.
54998		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which was described from two adult males and one adult female.
54998		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although they are presumed to include habitat loss through an increase in agricultural development, wood extraction and human colonization. The available habitat is very fragmented.
54999		conservation	eng	It occurs entirely within Parque Nacional Manu. Further research is needed concerning the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.
54999		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cosñipata (at 1,700m asl), in Cuzco Department in the Andes in southern Peru.
54999		habitat	eng	Its habitat is tall primary and secondary Amazonian cloud forest with some tree ferns and bromeliads and luxuriant undergrowth of mosses and ferns. Individuals have been recorded perched on and calling from the upper sides of ferns along a dripping cliff at night (this species is often close to streams and waterfalls). Eggs are deposited on leaves and the larvae develop in streams.
54999		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
54999		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. A road passes through the park in which it is found, but this is not believed to be a significant threat.
55000		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Península de Paria.
55000		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cerro El Humo, in Península de Paria, Sucre State, Venezuela, between 750 and 780m asl. Its distributional limits are still unknown.
55000		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical humid forests, where it occurs along streams. It lays its eggs on the upper sides of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.
55000		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55000		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development and the clearance of vegetation overhanging streams.
55001		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas.
55001		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Risaralda and Antioquia on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, between 800 and 2,060m asl.
55001		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean forests. It lays its eggs on the top of leaves and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
55001		population	eng	It is a common species.
55001		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to agricultural expansion (including planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.
55002		conservation	eng	Some populations are within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Rancho Grande in Aragua State. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
55002		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern versants of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, in the central region, and from the Cerro Azul, in Cojedes State, in the Serranía del interior. It has an altitudinal range between 220 and 1,200m asl.
55002		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forests and gallery forests. It lays its eggs on either side of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.
55002		population	eng	The current population status of this species is not known.
55002		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, but the main threat is likely to be habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities, logging, burning, and human settlements. The Venezuelan Coastal Range is a highly modified habitat.
55003		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali in Colombia, and Parque Nacional Darién in Panama.
55003		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Valle del Cauca, Risaralda, Chocó and Antioquia on the western flank of the western Andes, in Colombia, between 45 and 1,570m asl, from the provinces of Esmeralda and Imbabura, in Ecuador, and from the eastern cordilleras in the south-west of Darién Province in Panama.
55003		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforests, and sub-Andean forests, on vegetation next to streams. It lays its eggs on the lower surface of leaves and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below.
55003		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55003		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species are habitat fragmentation and loss due to the expansion of agriculture, including the cultivation of illegal crops, and water pollution.
55005		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Río Patuca, and it has been collected at the edge of the Río Platano and the Asang Launa Tawahka Biosphere Reserves.
55005		distribution	eng	This species is found in west-central Honduras along the middle portion of the Río Patuca, western Olancho and Quebrada Las Marias near La Colonia, north-western Olancho, at elevations of 100-700m asl.
55005		habitat	eng	It occurs and breeds along streams in lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest.
55005		population	eng	It is moderately common but the population is decreasing.
55005		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are deforestation, forest fires, and water pollution. In addition, much of its range is threatened by the development of the Patuca 2 hydroelectric project.
55006		conservation	eng	The species' range includes a number of protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. The Bahiasolano locality in Colombia is within Parque Nacional Natural Utría.
55006		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands of south-eastern Costa Rica, and central and eastern Panama from 60-100m asl, and also from two localities in western Colombia (Jarado and Bahiasolano), both in Choco Department, from 0-200m asl. It probably occurs much more widely within its general range.
55006		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest and pastures. In Costa Rica this species is most common in degraded habitat (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). Adults may be observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. Eggs are placed on the underside of smooth leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae drop into the water below where they complete their development.
55006		population	eng	It was recently rediscovered in Costa Rica, having not been reported in the country since the 1950s, although there is also a specimen that was collected in 1990 that was previously misidentified. It is now recognised as being a common species in Costa Rica that is not declining (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). There is often some confusion when identifying this species. It is common at some sites in Panama but is considered to be a rare species in Colombia.
55006		threats	eng	Certain populations of this species in Panama and Colombia are threatened by habitat loss, due to increasing agricultural cultivation and logging. There appear to be no major threats to this species in Costa Rica, where it is considered to be a very adaptable species found in disturbed habitats (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).
55007		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas throughout its range.
55007		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lowlands, premontane slopes, and lower areas of the lower montane belt of the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica, and the Pacific slope marginally in northwestern Costa Rica and from southwestern Costa Rica also on the Atlantic versant in central Panama (up to 1,580m asl). Some records from the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica may refer to <em>Hyalinobatrachium chirripoi</em> (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). In Colombia it is known from Tolima, Caldas, Boyaca, Cordoba, Antioquia, Risaralda, Choco and Valle del Cauca departments up to 1,800m asl.
55007		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, and is observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. The larvae develop in these streams. It is restricted to the vegetation over the streams.
55007		population	eng	It is generally a common species throughout its range. The population declined drastically in Monteverde, Costa Rica, by early in the 1990s, but it has since partially recovered.
55007		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat, but there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.
55008		conservation	eng	Some populations inhabit protected areas such as the Sierra de la Neblina, and Canaima National Parks. Others are protected within Natural Monuments, such as Cerro Jaua, Bolívar State.
55008		distribution	eng	This species was originally described from Pico Tamacuari, in Sierra de Tapirapecó, in Amazonas state in Venezuela, from 1,160-1,200m asl. It is now known to be widely distributed in the Guaianan Shield in Venezuela, in Amazonas and Bolívar States, at elevations between 300 and 1,850m asl. It is expected to be present in neighbouring Brazil and Guyana.
55008		habitat	eng	A nocturnal glass frog associated with vegetation along streams in tropical rainforest and montane environments in the Venezuelan-Guaianan shield. Males call from the undersides of leaves overhanging a rock cliff, 2-4m above a forest stream in a hanging valley. A clutch of eggs was found on the underside of a leaf.
55008		population	eng	It is a common species.
55008		threats	eng	It occurs in a region of very low human impact at present.
55009		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species is still extant in the wild.
55009		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Catacamas, Olancho department, east-central Honduras, at an elevation of 500-680m asl.
55009		habitat	eng	It was collected in vegetation along a small stream, in lowland moist forest. It presumably lays eggs in vegetation overhanging streams.
55009		population	eng	It is rare and is known only from a small section of a disturbed stream margin. It has not been seen since the first specimen was collected in 1967. McCranie and Wilson (1997b), collecting at the same locality, did not find this species.
55009		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement is the major threat to this species.
55010		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.
55010		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in the Sierra de la Culata and the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, in the central part of the Venezuelan Andes, in Mérida State, between 1,800 and 2,400m asl. Its distribution is not well known, and it might occur more widely.
55010		habitat	eng	It is found along cascading mountain streams in montane cloud forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams. The males care for the eggs, and then when they hatch, the larvae fall into the water below where they continue their development.
55010		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55010		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although in several parts of its range human activities such as agricultural development might have affected some populations.
55011		conservation	eng	Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.
55011		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be a "waterfall in small forest stream on Cerro Yutajé" (Myers and Donnelly 2001), at 1,750m asl (at 5° 46'N; 66° 08'W), in Amazonas State, Venezuela.
55011		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species were found perched near a little waterfall above a small stream in closed, mossy forest. It is a nocturnal species and males call upside down from the undersides of leaves in dense vegetation up to 3m above the ground. The larvae presumably develop in streams.
55011		population	eng	It was the only centrolenid heard or seen during a six-night search on Cerro Yutajé, where it was found to comprise a small group of fewer than 10 males calling in a concentrated area.
55011		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
55012		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection a much-needed conservation action for this species.
55012		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites 50km apart, in Municipio Pajarito and Municipio Garagoa, in Boyacá Department, on the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes, between 1,600 and 1,750m asl, though it might occur more widely.
55012		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest; the eggs are laid on the vegetation, and the larvae develop in the water. It also occurs in secondary forest.
55012		population	eng	It is a common species.
55012		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the planting of illegal crops. Pollution, resulting from the fumigation of illegal crops, is also a threat.
55013		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. The populations of this species should be monitored as a matter of urgency to determine whether or not declines are taking place in suitable habitat.
55013		distribution	eng	This species occurs up to 1,700m asl in southeastern Brazil from the States of Bahia, Espírito Santo and southern Minas Gerais south to the State of Santa Catarina, though there are no confirmed records from the State of Paraná.
55013		habitat	eng	It is generally encountered clinging close to leaves of herbaceous vegetation and trees usually in the immediate vicinity of running water in primary and secondary forest. The eggs are placed on leaves above water, the young hatching and falling into the water to continue their development. It is not found outside forest.
55013		population	eng	It is very common in some places, but there have been some apparent declines in others. It is not known whether or not these declines are real, or simply an effect of sampling.
55013		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, selective logging, clear-cutting, dams and human settlement. The apparent declines noted in some places where suitable habitat remains are reminiscent of dramatic declines in other montane stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008).
55014		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
55014		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Guerrero and Veracruz in southern Mexico, south through Central America to Colombia (in the Pacific lowlands south to Valle del Cauca, in the Middle Magdalena Valley, and on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental). Records from Venezuela are now referred to <em>Hyalinobatrachium guairarepanensis</em> (Señaris, 2001). Records from Guyana and Suriname presumably belong to undescribed species within this complex, but are retained here in <em>H. fleischmanni</em>, pending resolution of their status (although populations in Guayana are not mapped owing to lack of specification as the their location). The Ecuadorian records were removed from the synonymy of <em>Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni</em> by Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch (1998), and are now treated as <em>H. petersi</em>. It occurs below 1,680m.
55014		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane tropical and subtropical forest in bushes and trees along forest streams. It needs good vegetation cover, but can survive in secondary growth. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water. In Costa Rica this species is known to tolerate substantial water pollution and habitat alteration.
55014		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species in South America. It is common in Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama, although it has declined substantially in Monteverde, Costa Rica and in montane areas in southern Mexico. At Monteverde, densities have declined from one male per metre of stream transect to a few males over several hundred metres. It is rare in El Salvador and uncommon in Nicaragua.
55014		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, and declines in montane populations in Costa Rica and Mexico have been linked to chytridiomycosis.
55015		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Rancho Grande.
55015		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the Cordillera de la Costa, including La Sierra in Cojedes State, and Sierra de Aroa in Yaracuy State, in Venezuela. It has been recorded from 100-700m asl.
55015		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest environments, where it occurs along streams. It lays its eggs on the under side of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.
55015		population	eng	It is probably an uncommon species.
55015		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), as well as logging. Avalanches are a potential threat along the coast, especially during heavy rainfall periods.
55016		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional El Avila and Parque Nacional Macarao. Further research is required to determine the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals may need to form the basis for the establishment of an ex-situ population.
55016		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central part of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range on the Cordillera de la Costa, at elevations between 720 and 1,000m asl.
55016		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams in seasonal (semi-caducifolious) forests. It lays its eggs on leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.
55016		population	eng	The population of this species is in decline, even in pristine habitats. It is associated with <em>Atelopus cruciger</em>, which has disappeared from almost all of its range, probably because of chytridiomycosis.
55016		threats	eng	Agriculture, logging, water pollution, and infrastructure development for human settlement are all major threats to the species’ habitat. However, it is declining even in pristine habitats, suggesting that chytridiomycosis, or some other disease, may be playing a role in the observed declines.
55017		conservation	eng	Populations of this species are within Parque Nacional Canaima.
55017		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Quebrada de Jaspe, in La Gran Sabana, Bolívar State, eastern Venezuela. It has an altitudinal range of 700-1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
55017		habitat	eng	This species is a tropical rainforest inhabitant that lays eggs on the leaves of overhanging vegetation along streams and rivers. The larvae fall into the stream below, where they develop further.
55017		population	eng	It is a common species.
55017		threats	eng	There are significant threats to this species' habitat arising from tourism.
55018		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Canaima.
55018		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities in Venezuela, one in Bolívar State (Quebrada de Jaspe), and the other in Delta Amacuro State (Serranía de Imataca). At the first locality it occurs at altitudes between 850 and 1,000m asl, while at the second, in the Caño Acoima, it occurs at 25m asl. It presumably occurs much more widely, and it is likely to be present in neighbouring Guyana.
55018		habitat	eng	It is usually found on the upper surface of leaves in shrubs and trees along streams at about 2-7m above water level. It is also found in streams with jasper rocks. It lays its eggs on the underside of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below, where they develop further.
55018		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55018		threats	eng	Logging is an ongoing threat to this species' habitat, and mining for gold and diamonds was a past threat.
55019		conservation	eng	It occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá, Alto Río Fonce and Area Natural Unica Los Estoraques.
55019		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Norte de Santander and Santander Departments, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,050m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
55019		habitat	eng	It occurs in riparian habitats in old-growth forests. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in streams.
55019		population	eng	It is common, and there are many recent records.
55019		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion (cattle ranching, planting of illegal crops, and especially onion farming) is the main threat to this species. Pollution, resulting from the fumigation of illegal crops, is also a threat.
55020		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in a protected area.
55020		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on Peters Mountain, 3.6km north of Imbaimadai, Region 7, Guyana, where it was collected at 600m asl.
55020		habitat	eng	It is found in evergreen sclerophyllous forest. The animals were collected close to a shaded, fast-flowing stream, where they were found on leaves above the streams. The eggs are presumably deposited on leaves above tranquil sections of the streams, and the larvae develop in the water.
55020		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type series.
55020		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55021		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.
55021		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality, the "west slope of Abra Tangarana, 7km (by road) north-east of San Juan de Pacaysapa (06° 12´S; 76° 44´W, 1080m [asl]), Provincia Lamas, Departamento San Martín, Perú" (Duellman and Schulte 1993).
55021		habitat	eng	The area in which this species was found supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. Individuals were recorded on the upper surfaces of leaves of trees 1.5-2.0m above a stream in a narrow ravine at night. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves, with the larvae then developing in streams.
55021		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which was described from two specimens: one adult male and one adult female.
55021		threats	eng	It is unknown what the threats are to this species but they are presumed to include habitat loss through an increase in agricultural cultivation, wood extraction and human colonization. The available habitat is very fragmented.
55024		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Nouragues Nature Reserve, Trinité Nature Reserve and Kaw Nature Reserve in French Guiana, in Guyana it is found in the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve.
55024		distribution	eng	This species is known from French Guiana (a dot-map of the distribution is given in Lescure and Marty, 2001) and central Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005). It has been recorded from 50-150m asl.
55024		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, arboreal species that lives along fast-flowing streams and rivers in primary forest. It is usually found on the underside of leaves overhanging the river. Eggs are laid on these leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the water below. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.
55024		population	eng	It is a difficult frog to find, but it is not uncommon and can be found relatively easily when familiar with the call.
55024		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, although near human settlements it might be experiencing some habitat loss, overall the vast majority of its habitat remains undisturbed.
55025		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria in Venezuela. The rainforest in which this species occurs in Tobago is protected in the Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. Taxonomic work is required to investigate whether or not populations of this species from Tobago represent a distinct species.
55025		distribution	eng	The nominal subspecies is known only from the eastern sector of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, with records from Serranía del Interior, Macizo de Turimiquire, and Serranía de Paria in the states of Monagas and Sucre, at elevations of 190-1,200m asl. The subspecies <em>H. o. tobagoensis</em> is recorded from north-eastern Tobago in Trinidad and Tobago. Reports from Colombia are incorrect.
55025		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species that lives on <em>Heliconia</em> vegetation over-hanging cascading streams about 2-6m above the water in tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid on the underside of leaves, and the larvae develop in the water. It has been found only in mature, closed-canopy forest.
55025		population	eng	It is a common species across its range.
55025		threats	eng	In Venezuela, although some of its habitat is within protected areas, other areas are being lost due to human settlement and agricultural expansion. There are no known threats to the species in Tobago.
55026		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of the Andean population.
55026		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guacharaquita, in the state of Táchira, in the Venezuelan Andes at 1,768m asl, and from Mundo Nuevo, in the state of Cojedes, at 396m asl.
55026		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen dry forest in the Andes, and humid forests in the southern central part of the Venezuelan coastal mountain tange. Eggs are laid on the underside of leaves in humid forest near streams, into which the larvae then fall to complete their development.
55026		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55026		threats	eng	The habitat of the Andean populations has suffered from intensive exploitation and degradation in the past, and these populations are now almost extirpated.
55027		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not currently within any protected areas. Management and conservation of its habitat, and the creation of a protected area, would help to conserve it. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is also needed.
55027		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area in Santa Catarina State, in south-eastern Brazil. Knowledge of its range is very incomplete.
55027		habitat	eng	This species is generally encountered clinging close to leaves of herbaceous plants and trees usually in the immediate vicinity of running water. It is known only from primary forest. It breeds in small streams, and possibly also in temporary ponds.
55027		population	eng	Its population status is unknown and there have been no recent collections.
55027		threats	eng	There is habitat degradation due to deforestation within its restricted range, as a result of agricultural development and logging.
55028		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of remaining cloud forest habitats is sorely needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
55028		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities: Río Azuela, Río Reventador and Río Salado, all in Napo Province on the Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, at 1,740m asl.
55028		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest. The holotype was found on the leaf of a herb over a small stream at night (Lynch and Duellman 1973). Reproduction is presumed to occur via eggs laid on vegetation, with the larvae developing in streams.
55028		population	eng	It was last recorded in 1979, when five specimens were collected from one site. The Río Azuela site has been revisited several times without locating any individuals.
55028		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is the main threat to this species, primarily due to smallholder farming and logging. At this stage it is not clear whether or not this species might have declined within pristine habitats. Predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).
55030		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.
55030		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lowlands on the Atlantic versant from north-central Honduras, and on the Pacific slope from southwestern Costa Rica up to 960m asl. It is also known from northern Colombia along the Pacific coast from Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments up to 300m asl into northwestern Ecuador, provinces of Esmeralda and Pichincha.
55030		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of primary humid lowland and montane forest. It occurs in riparian vegetation. Eggs are deposited on leaves and when hatched the larvae drop in to the streams where they develop further. It is known to persist in small patches of suitable habitat.
55030		population	eng	This species is moderately common in Honduras, but uncommon in Costa Rica. There is no information on the population’s status in Nicaragua and Panama. It is considered a rare species in Colombia.
55030		threats	eng	Habitat loss resulting from deforestation, and water pollution are localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species overall.
55031		conservation	eng	Some populations lie within the El Avila, Macarao and Henri Pittier and Rancho Grande National Parks.
55031		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern slopes of the central part of Cordillera de la Costa, and Serranía del Interior, in the Venezuelan coastal range, at elevations between 1,200 and 1,800m asl.
55031		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams, and is usually found on overhanging vegetation up to 2m above the stream. The eggs are laid on the upper and under sides of leaves, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.
55031		population	eng	It is a common frog in undisturbed habitats.
55031		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement. Agricultural pollution is also having an impact on populations.
55032		conservation	eng	Studies about the biology, ecology, and population range and dynamics of this species are necessary to determine the direct conservation measures for it. This species was originally reported to have been collected in Chiribiquete National Park, however this protected area is not in Vaupes Department, and it is unclear as to whether or not the species occurs in this protected area.
55032		distribution	eng	This species is known from tepuis at 400-800m asl in Vaupes department (note that the original publication erroneously listed the department as Caqueta), Colombia, and from the central slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Ecuador.
55032		habitat	eng	It occurs in the dense understorey of old growth forest, next to small streams on tepuis. It lays its eggs on leaves above watercourses, and the larvae develop in streams.
55032		population	eng	It is rare; it was seen in 1993, but no one has gone back to look for it since then.
55032		threats	eng	It is threatened by illicit drug traffic and police measures including aerial fumigation to control this activity.
55033		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas.
55033		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Caribbean slope of Volcan Tenorio in the north of Costa Rica, south to the Fila Asuncion. It is present in west-central Panama, from 800-1,100m asl. It is found at altitude range between 400 to 1,116m asl.
55033		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane wet forest, and lays its eggs on vegetation over fast-moving streams, into which the larvae fall to complete their development.
55033		population	eng	The species is regularly recorded throughout its range in appropriate habitat.
55033		threats	eng	The range of this species is under very little pressure (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.), and populations are generally considered to be stable. The area of the type locality has been converted to cattle farms.
55034		conservation	eng	Its range includes several National Parks and other protected areas.
55034		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guianan Shield in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, south of the coastal savannah belt. It has been recorded from 30-1,850m asl.
55034		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforest and montane Guianan forests. Specimens were found in small, rocky permanent streams in primary forest. Lescure and Marty (2001) indicated that this is a nocturnal, arboreal species that lives in forests along rivers. The eggs are laid on the upper and under sides of leaves overhanging streams, into which the larvae fall to complete their development.
55034		population	eng	Published information indicated that this is an abundant frog in some localities (like Quebrada de Jaspe in Bolívar State, Venezuela) but no exact information was given to ascertain proper figures of population size.
55034		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of minimal human impact, and it is unlikely to be threatened at present.
55035		conservation	eng	Management and conservation of its habitat, creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas. Investigation in to reported population declines at some localities is needed.
55035		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in eastern and southern Brazil from the States of Espírito Santo and southern Minas Gerais, south to Rio Grande do Sul, and northeastern Misiones, Argentina. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
55035		habitat	eng	It is generally encountered clinging close to leaves of herbaceous vegetation and trees, usually in the immediate vicinity of running water in primary and secondary forest. The eggs are placed on leaves above water, the larvae falling into the water to continue their development. It does not occur in open or severely degraded areas.
55035		population	eng	It is abundant in some places, but rare in others. Two new populations are known from Argentina. There have been some reports of declines in Rio de Janeiro where it was once common (Eterovick <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
55035		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, dams, tourism and human settlement.
55036		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its distribution overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.
55036		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Costa Rica, through Panama and the Pacific lowlands of western Colombia, south to Mata Real in Azuay Province in Ecuador. It has also been reported from the Department of Caldas in the middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. It occurs below 400m.
55036		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist primary and secondary lowland forest, adults are usually found in bushes and trees along forest streams. It can tolerate some habitat degradation, but it requires the presence of vegetation over streams, and does occur not in open situations. The eggs are laid on the underside of leaves over streams, the males guard the eggs, and the tadpoles develop in streams.
55036		population	eng	It is moderately rare and patchily distributed in Ecuador and Colombia. In Central America it is not an abundant species. It is presumed to be in decline in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, Panama. It is considered to be stable in Costa Rica.
55036		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55037		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a single private reserve (called 'Rainmaker'). There is a need for further taxonomic studies into this species.
55037		distribution	eng	This species was previously though to occur in scattered localities on the slopes of Volcán Tenorio, Guanacaste Province, to near Barú, Puntarenas Province, in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca in south-western Costa Rica, and from west-central Panama (Savage 2002). However, recent studies have revealed many of these populations to be <em>Hyalinobatrachium talamancae</em>, with <em>Hyalinobatrachium vireovittatum</em> now known only from the type locality ('16 km SW San Isidro de El General on the road to Dominical, 880 m' [Starret and Savage, 1973]) and Fila Chonta in the Pacific slope of Costa Rica (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.).
55037		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, and is seen in bushes and trees along forest streams, where larvae develop.
55037		population	eng	It is known only from a few records.
55037		threats	eng	The population outside of a private reserve is threatened by habitat loss (due to general deforestation).
55038		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
55038		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowland forests of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, and the Amazon drainage basin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, western Amazonian Bolivia and Brazil. It was reported from the La Escalera region, Bolívar state, Venezuela (Duellman 1997), but this record has since be reassigned to <em>Ameerega picta</em> (Barrio-Amorós 2004). It is generally found below 300 m, but occurs up to 1,000 m asl in Ecuador and Colombia.
55038		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that is found on the forest floor of tropical lowland forests. It can be found throughout the day in primary or secondary forest and in edges and clearings (Rodríguez and Duellman 1994). It lays its eggs on the leaf-litter. Tadpoles are carried on the back to temporary pools.
55038		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range. In Venezuela, it is just known from a single specimen without much data.
55038		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55039		conservation	eng	Recorded from Yasuni National Park in Ecuador. Not present in any protected areas in Peru  . This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
55039		distribution	eng	This species can be found in eastern central Ecuador and adjacent areas of Peru. Its geographic range is below 550m asl.
55039		habitat	eng	This diurnal species has been collected in lowland tropical rainforest, and "rolling hills' where it can be found in leaf-litter. Eggs are laid in leaf-litter and the larvae are carried to streams. It is a secretive species known only from primary and good secondary forest.
55039		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
55039		threats	eng	No major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Not thought to occur in the pet trade.
55040		conservation	eng	There is a population within Parque Nacional Dinira. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the population status of this  species as well as some of its threats.
55040		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: about 2km ESE by air from Agua de Obispo, in the state of Trujillo, Venezuela, at 2,250m asl (9.42'N, 70.05'W).
55040		habitat	eng	It occurs in small cold-water streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55040		population	eng	It is a very rare species that appears to have declined. Several attempts to find it in recent years have failed, and it is still known only from the time it was first described.
55040		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and road construction, is the major threat to the species. The locality is near the headwaters of a stream and thus could have been affected by a drought in the past. The species could also potentially be affected by disease, such as chytridiomycosis.
55041		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
55041		distribution	eng	This Colombian endemic species is known from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Risaralda department, from the western slope of the Cordillera Central in Antioquia department, and from north of the Cordillera Central in Quindio department. It has been recorded from 1,450-2,000m asl.
55041		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species found on vegetation alongside water sources such as streams in sub-Andean forest ecosystems. It also occurs in secondary forests and is apparently adaptable to human disturbance. It lays its eggs on leaf-litter in the forest and then carries its tadpoles to water where they develop further.
55041		population	eng	It is a common species.
55041		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species’ habitat. However these are only localized threats, and there are no major threats to the species overall at present.
55042		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
55042		distribution	eng	This species is known from Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in Cauca Department, northwards to La Serrania de los Paraguas in Valle del Cauca Department, on the western slope of the western Andes in Colombia, from 2,190-2,600m asl.
55042		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams in sub-Andean and Andean primary or good secondary forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Its breeding habits are not known, though it is likely to take place in streams.
55042		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species.
55042		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species include habitat loss and fragmentation due to the expansion of cattle raising, timber extraction, and cultivation of illegal crops, and water pollution.
55043		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into this species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
55043		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Finca Primavera, in the municipality of El Tambo, in Cauca Department, on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 1,400m asl.
55043		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground near streams in sub-Andean forests, and it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Its breeding habits are not known but presumably are similar to other species of the genus, with the larvae being carried to streams to develop.
55043		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.
55043		threats	eng	The major threats for this species are not known specifically, but presumably include habitat loss and fragmentation due to the expansion of cattle raising, timber extraction, cultivation of illegal crops and water pollution.
55045		conservation	eng	A locality recorded for Cuzco is within Parque Nacional Manu.
55045		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two localities: San Pedro, Cosnipata (Cuzco Department), and San Gaban (Puno Department) in south-eastern Peru. Its altitudinal range is 820-1,480m asl.
55045		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, riparian species of primary cloud and montane forest, which presumably lays terrestrial eggs, with the larvae then being transported to streams for development.
55045		population	eng	It is uncommon.
55045		threats	eng	In San Gaban it is mainly affected by agricultural activities (mosty smallholder cultivation of coffee).
55046		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas and its southern limit is adjacent to the northern limit of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Surveys are urgently needed to establish the population status of this species.
55046		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a narrow altitudinal zone (2,710-3,500m asl) on the Cordillera Oriental (Cordillera Real or Central), and the Mazán River in southern Ecuador. There are records from six localities.
55046		habitat	eng	It lives in páramo, very humid montane forest, and lower humid montane forest (Coloma 1995). Reproduction probably occurs by the females laying eggs on the ground, and the males bringing the tadpoles to streams for development.
55046		population	eng	The most recent record of this species is from December 1991. An extensive search in Mazán in 1995 (where the species was abundant in 1986) turned up no individuals. It appears to have undergone a serious decline.
55046		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, and logging. The possible disappearance of the species could be related to chytridiomycosis.
55047		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone and the Alto Mayo protected area
55047		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the northeastern slope of the Andes of Peru (Departmentos: Amazonas and San Martín). Estimated altitudinal range of 400-1,700m asl. It might occur more widely.
55047		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, terrestrial species of pre-montane and lowland rainforest. The species is associated with streams. Larvae are carried to streams by the female. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.
55047		population	eng	Abundance is not known.
55047		threats	eng	Because of the large areas of suitable habitat available in protected areas to this species there are no major threats. outside protected areas, there is some localized habitat loss through different human activities, principally agriculture.
55048		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
55048		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, El Boqueronin, in the Serrania de los Paraguas, in Valle del Cauca Department on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, between 1,800 and 2,260m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55048		habitat	eng	It occurs under rocks next to streams in sub-Andean forests. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, though the larvae are presumably carried to streams to develop.
55048		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, but was not recorded during surveys undertaken in 1997, and its current population status is uncertain.
55048		threats	eng	Habitat degradation caused by expansion of agriculture, water pollution, fumigation of illegal crops and timber extraction are all potential threats to this species' habitat.
55049		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and slightly overlaps Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
55049		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Andean slopes and in the western Pacific lowlands of north-western Ecuador. It occurs from 265-1,220m asl.
55049		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid sub-montane tropical forest, and lays its eggs outside water on leaf-litter or low vegetation. The adults then carry the tadpoles on their back to nearby streams where they develop further.
55049		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
55049		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging, and agricultural pollution.
55050		conservation	eng	The only known population is protected within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.
55050		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, in the central sector of Cerro Jaua, in Bolívar State (at 4° 49' 55"N; 64° 25' 54''W), in Venezuela, at 1,600m asl.
55050		habitat	eng	It occurs on the margins of streams on top of tepui and in the surrounding forest. The breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are presumably carried to streams to develop, like other species of the genus.
55050		population	eng	It is common on top of Cerro Jaua.
55050		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55051		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in several protected areas. Its taxonomic status is very confused, so further taxonomic research is required to resolve this.
55051		distribution	eng	This species is reported to range through French Guiana and adjacent Suriname, south to the Manaus area of Brazil. However, there is serious uncertainty as to what species is covered by this name, and attempts to map its range at this stage should be regarded as provisional.
55051		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter of forests, where it lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water to develop further.
55051		population	eng	It is reportedly reasonably common in French Guiana.
55051		threats	eng	There are no known threats, and it occurs widely in an area of minimal human impact.
55052		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Kaieteur National Park.
55052		distribution	eng	Anomaloglossus beebei is found in an area of ca 600 ha on the Kaieteur Plateau, at the eastern edge of the Pakaraima Mountains at an elevation of 450 masl, Guyana. It is possible that this species may occur elsewhere in the area (Kok et al., 2006).
55052		habitat	eng	The species is found exclusively in large terrestrial bromeliads (Brocchinia micrantha). Eggs are deposited on the leaves and the exotrophic tadpoles live in the water-retaining leaf axils (phytotelmata). Reproduction does not appear to be seasonally constrained, as courtship and tadpoles have been observed in March and June to August. Females examined in June and July had 1-5 pigmented eggs (0.9-1.1 mm), with clutch size usually comprised of 4 eggs. Tadpoles feed on detritus, insect larvae, unfertilized eggs and other tadpoles (Kok et al., 2006).
55052		population	eng	This species is considered to be common.
55052		threats	eng	The species might be extirpated in the near future in Kaieteur National Park, as its typical habitat is being slowly invaded by the neighbouring forest. Dead leaves from the surrounding trees cause the disappearance of suitable breeding habitat by filling the bromeliad phytotelms. Observations and interviews with local people suggest that this might have happened in the past to several populations of the species within the park (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).
55053		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. Another specimen of this species is required to replace the now badly damaged holotype, and to enable much needed taxonomic research into the status of this species.
55053		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Antadó, in the municipality of Ituango, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,450m asl.
55053		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground next to streams in sub-Andean forests. Its breeding habits are not known, though it presumably breeds in streams. It is not known whether or not it occurs outside forest.
55053		population	eng	It is only known from the holotype (which is now badly damaged), so nothing is known about its population status.
55053		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown at present, although the only known locality is within a protected area.
55054		conservation	eng	Its distribution overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.
55054		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes, from Napo Province in Ecuador, north to Florencia, Caqueta Department, in Colombia. Specimens assigned to this species have also been reported from the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera, in Antioquia, Caldas and Tolima Departments, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is about 1,000-2,000m.
55054		habitat	eng	It is always associated with streams in montane forest. It does not occur in degraded forest. The eggs are placed under rocks near streams, and the tadpoles develop in streams.
55054		population	eng	It is a common species.
55054		threats	eng	The major threats are: deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Also, chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.
55055		conservation	eng	There is confusion regarding the taxonomy of this species, so further taxonomic research is needed to resolve this.
55055		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Amalfi, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,000-1,500m asl.
55055		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecology are unknown, though it is likely that its larvae develop in streams.
55055		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.
55055		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55056		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to confirm its proposed synonymy with <em>Colostethus fraterdanieli</em>.
55056		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Valle del Cauca Department on the western slope of the Cordillera Central, Colombia, at 1,500m asl. However, it is most likely a synonym of a much wider ranging species.
55056		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground near streams in sub-Andean forests. It is a very adaptable species and is also found in cropland and cow pastures. Eggs are laid in the leaf-litter and the larvae are then carried to streams where they develop further.
55056		population	eng	It is common.
55056		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
55057		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas in Colombia. It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador.
55057		distribution	eng	This species is known from Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas in the Cordillera Occidental, Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,700-1,800m asl, and from two localities in Carchi Province in north-western Ecuador, at 600-900m asl.
55057		habitat	eng	In Colombia it is found on the ground in montane forest next to streams. In Ecuador it occurs in very humid premontane forest, and is apparently restricted to areas where mean annual precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm, and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. It presumably breeds in streams.
55057		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
55057		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis is also a possible future threat.
55058		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.
55058		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality and its vicinity, at Pico Periquito, Rancho Grande, in Aragua State, Venezuela, at altitudes close to 1,300m asl.
55058		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forests, and breeds inside bromeliads, where the larvae develop.
55058		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55058		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55059		conservation	eng	Some populations lie within protected areas, such as the Duida-Marahuaca National Park in Venezuela. The creation of new protected areas and research actions on this species are needed. The Bolivian site is protected in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park.
55059		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from south of the Orinoco river in Amazonas State, Venezuela; Mato Grosso state, Brazil; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname and the extreme north of Bolivia. It was previously reported from many places in Venezuela. La Marca (1996) restricted its occurrence to south of the Orinoco river. Furthermore, its distribution was known from Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil and Perú, but Morales (1994) restricted its distribution to the refuges of Rondonia and Tapajós, in Brazil. Reports from the Guianas probably refer to another species, but are mapped here.
55059		habitat	eng	It occurs at the margins of lakes and pools of stagnant water in tropical rainforest and in Bolivia it is found in seasonally flooded forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in water.
55059		population	eng	It is common at one site in Bolivia. Its status elsewhere is unknown.
55059		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural activities is a threat to this species.
55060		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur within a protected area.
55060		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, about 40km south of Manaus, in Amazonas State, Brazil.
55060		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter in old-growth forest. Its reproductive habits are unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in water.
55060		population	eng	It is abundant in the one known locality.
55060		threats	eng	Logging is a threat to this species.
55062		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55062		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality "below Páramo El Molino, via Canaguá, on the Sierra Nevada [Sierra Nevada de Mérida], 2420m [asl], Distrito Arzobispo Chacón, Municipio Libertad, Estado Mérida, Venezuela". It occurs at an altitude of 2,350-2,700m asl. The exact limits of its distribution are not known.
55062		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When hatched he carries the larvae on his back to streams where they develop further.
55062		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55062		threats	eng	Agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to this species' habitat. Introduced trout are also a threat.
55064		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in a protected area.
55064		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Villavicencio, Meta, Colombia, although there are apparently records from Serranía de la Macarena (see Lynch, 2006).
55064		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although the larvae presumably develop in water.
55064		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55064		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55065		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and some form of formal habitat protection is urgently needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine the status of the the subpopulation in Pastaza Province.
55065		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern side of the Andes, in Ecuador, in two general areas: four localities between 480 and 970m asl in Pastaza Province in central Ecuador, and Centro Shuar Yawi, at 920-1,040m asl, in Zamora Chinchipe Province in south-eastern Ecuador. Records from Peru require confirmation.
55065		habitat	eng	It occurs in eastern Cordillera Real montane forests and Napo moist forests. The distribution lies mainly within very humid premontane forest and pluvial premontane forest. As with other members of the genus, it probably breeds on the ground, under rocks or in leaf-litter, and the larvae are carried by the parent to streams. Most members of this genus do not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55065		population	eng	It was discovered in Zamora Chinchipe Province in 2003. However, surveys in Pastaza Province have not turned up any additional records of this species since it was first discovered.
55065		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement.
55066		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of the Montagne Pelee. The species requires close population monitoring, given that it is restricted to a single location.
55066		distribution	eng	This species is found on the south-eastern slope of Montagne Pelee, Martinique, at 500m asl.
55066		habitat	eng	It lives in grassy areas on lava flows. Eggs are laid on the ground in a nest under leaves and guarded by the adults, and presumably the adults transport the larvae to water, as with other members of the genus.
55066		population	eng	It is relatively common in its tiny range.
55066		threats	eng	Although there are no current major threats to the species, its small range renders it at severe risk of stochastic events, especially from volcanic eruptions.
55067		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. In Panama it is known from Parque Nacional Chagres. A survey is urgently needed to relocate this species in Ecuador and Colombia, and, if necessary, an <em>ex situ population</em> should be established.
55067		distribution	eng	This species apparently occurs in three separate areas: southern Panama; the lower Rio San Juan in Choco Department, Colombia, at low altitudes; and at 600-1,540m asl on the western slopes of the Andes in Carchi, Pichincha and Cotopaxi Provinces, Ecuador.
55067		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, semi-aquatic species that occurs along rocky sections of streams in forest. In Colombia it is found in lowland humid tropical forest. In Ecuador it occurs in very humid premontane forest, and is apparently restricted to areas where mean annual precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm, and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. This species has not been found in degraded areas. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter and the larvae are transported to streams by the adults.
55067		population	eng	It is an extremely rare species, with only two specimens recorded from Colombia, and there have been no records from Ecuador since October 1985, despite extensive searching. This species is reasonably common in some localities in Panama.
55067		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a cause of the observed population decline in Ecuador.
55068		conservation	eng	It is found in at least one protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Peru.
55068		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Pakitsa, Parque Nacional Manu, Peru, and along the Jurua River, Acre State, Brazil, at approximately 250m asl. Note that the verbal range description in Morales (2000) does not match the map for this species in the same publication.
55068		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, though it is likely to breed in water.
55068		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55068		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55069		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of this species.
55069		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of Alta Mira do Xingu, in Para State, Brazil, at 10m asl.
55069		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest. The eggs are laid on land and when hatched the parents carry the larvae on their backs to water where they develop further. It is adaptable to some habitat modification.
55069		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55069		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of the forest, and forest fires are major threats to this species' habitat.
55070		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55070		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in French Guiana and Suriname. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded from 50-800m asl.
55070		habitat	eng	It occurs along the edge of rocky streams in rivulets. The complete development of the tadpoles is completed on the back of the males. The egg deposition site is unknown.
55070		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55070		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and most of its habitat is undisturbed and isolated at present.
55071		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent habitat protection at sites at which it is known to survive.
55071		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four nearby localities at elevations of 2,340-3,000m on the western slopes of the Andes in Carchi Province, in extreme north-western Ecuador.
55071		habitat	eng	It occurs in wetlands and bogs, and in areas of cattle ranching surrounded by forest remnants. It lays its eggs on the ground, and the males carry the tadpoles to water where they develop further. Tadpoles have been found in the months of February and April (Yánez-Muñoz and Meza-Ramos 2006).
55071		population	eng	It is locally uncommon. Fifty calling males were recorded in 2003 in Moran, Carchi Province. A more recent study in this locality suggests that the population size is less than 40 individuals (Yánez-Muñoz and Meza-Ramos 2006). It appears to have disappeared from historical localities.
55071		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is a significant threat to this species, due mainly to agriculture (including livestock ranching) and logging. It is possible that this species has been impacted by chytridiomycosis, which has been confirmed in other frog species within its range.
55072		conservation	eng	Some populations might be protected in Parque Nacional El Avila, near Caracas. Research into the cause(s) of the population decline is urgently needed, as are surveys to determine the current status of populations.
55072		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central part of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, in the vicinity of Caracas, from around 800 to at least 1,520m asl. Its presence has been suggested, but not confirmed, in Quebrada de Caurimare, Miranda State, also in the vicinity of Caracas.
55072		habitat	eng	It inhabits seasonal montane forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are likely to develop in water, like other species of the genus.
55072		population	eng	This species was once considered one of the more common species of the Caracas Valley; however, comprehensive surveys in 1992-1993 and, more recently, in 2004 have failed to find any populations in these areas. It is not known when exactly the decline began, but the decline of <em>Atelopus cruciger</em>, another formerly common frog from the same region, has been documented. It is possible that <em>P. dunni</em> has experienced a similar decline. There are no known extant populations in the wild at present, even in suitable habitat.
55072		threats	eng	The major threats to the species include habitat loss due to urban development and fires, and pollution. The cause(s) of the recent dramatic decline have not been established, but it is charecteristic of declines seen in other species impacted by chytridiomycosis.
55073		conservation	eng	It is currently known only from a single protected area: Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.
55073		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, in the municipality of Urrao, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,300-1,400m asl.
55073		habitat	eng	The details of its habitat and ecology are unknown, and there is no information given in the original description. The larvae are likely to develop in water.
55073		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55073		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55074		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of the species.
55074		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the Cordillera Oriental, La Cueva de las Moyas and the Páramo de Cruz Verde, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, between 3,030 and 3,300m asl.
55074		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams within caves and crevices. Breeding and larval development takes place in streams.
55074		population	eng	It was last seen in 1996. Three visits to the type locality have failed to turn up this species, and it is likely that it has declined severely due to complete habitat alteration.
55074		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to conversion to timber forestry and water pollution caused by urban runoff.
55075		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and some form of formal habitat protection is urgently needed. Further survey work is needed to determine whether any animals survive around Loja and other nearby localities.
55075		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador, at elevations of 850-2,760m asl. It also occurs on the Pacific and Amazonian slopes of the Andes in the Huancabamba depression, Piura Department, northern Peru, at 600-1,800m asl.
55075		habitat	eng	It lives in dry and humid lowland and premontane forest, and occurs near streams, especially in dry forests. The larvae presumably develop in streams.
55075		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. In Ecuador, populations from Loja and nearby localities at the higher altitudes of its range seem to be extinct, but lowland populations are still extant with records as recently as 2003.
55075		threats	eng	The cause of the declines at high elevations, which have taken place even in suitable habitat, could be due to chytridiomycosis. Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to agricultural activities, is also a threat to this species, and the species may also be impacted by invasive alien species and pollution.
55076		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.
55076		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the municipalities of Frontino and Urrao, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,500-2,000m asl.
55076		habitat	eng	The details of its habitat and ecology are unknown, and there is no information given in the original description, although the larvae are likely to develop in water.
55076		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55076		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55077		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
55077		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Morona Santiago Province, southern Ecuador, between 970 and 1,981m asl. Further surveys will probably show it to be more widely distributed.
55077		habitat	eng	This species' range lies within pluvial premontane forest and very humid premontane forest. The annual mean temperature is 18-24°C in both zones. The annual mean precipitation is 4,000-8,000mm in the pluvial premontane forest and 2,000-4,000mm in the very humid premontane forest (data updated from Coloma 1995). Reproduction probably takes place by females laying eggs on the ground, with the males bringing larvae to streams for development.
55077		population	eng	It has always been a rare species. It was not found during the Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) expeditions of 1993, 1999 and 2003 to the Cordillera del Condór region. However, its range is in a poorly explored area, and so its population status remains unclear.
55077		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging are threats to this species. It is possibly also threatened by introduced species.
55078		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.
55078		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Quebrada La Ayura, in the upper part of the municipality of Envigado, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 2,200m asl.
55078		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology, and there is no information given in the original description, although the larvae are likely to develop in water.
55078		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55078		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55079		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is needed for this species, which might occur in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu, although it has not been found there in two extensive collecting trips.
55079		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Amazonas Department in south-western Colombia, at 100-200m asl, and is likely to occur much more widely.
55079		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in forest. It lays eggs in the leaf-litter, and the males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to small waterbodies for their development.
55079		population	eng	It is a rare species with few specimens in collections, although it was collected again in 2003.
55079		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by the expansion of agriculture is a threat.
55080		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55080		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, 3km west of Pilaló on the Quevedo-Latacungo road, Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador, and from a nearby site on the western slopes of the Andes, between 1,760-2,430m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than this.
55080		habitat	eng	Its range lies within very humid premontane forest and low humid montane forest. The annual mean precipitation is 2000-4000mm in the very humid premontane forest, and 1,000-2,000mm in the low humid montane forest. The annual mean temperature is 18-24°C in the very humid premontane forest, and 12-18°C in the low humid montane forest (Coloma 1995). Reproduction probably occurs by the females laying eggs on the ground, and the males bringing the larvae to streams for their continued development.
55080		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has not been found since its original description, although perhaps it has not been searched for.
55080		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural expansion and logging are the major threats to this species.
55081		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
55081		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Municipality of El Tambo in Cauca Department, northwards to the municipality of El Cairo in Valle del Cauca Department, in Colombia, between 1,470 and 1,960m asl.
55081		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter on the ground near streams in primary or good secondary cloud forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. The female lays terrestrial eggs; when they have hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to streams where they then develop further.
55081		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
55081		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species are habitat fragmentation caused by the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching, as well as water pollution from pesticides and the fumigation of illegal crops.
55082		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place; the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
55082		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid lowlands on the Atlantic slope from Costa Rica to east-central Panama and on the Pacific versant in southwestern Costa Rica to west-central Panama. Suggestions that the species occurs in Colombia are incorrect (T. Grant pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 10-865m asl (Savage, 2002).
55082		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, diurnal species generally found in the leaf-litter of humid lowland and montane forest; it may be found in secondary forest and plantations. Adults are often encountered along rocky sections of forest streams. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, the males transport hatching tadpoles to forest streams where they develop.
55082		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55082		threats	eng	In general habitat loss occurs by the destruction of natural forests.
55083		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Taxonomic work is needed to determine if this form is a complex of more than one species.
55083		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Quindio, Risaralda, Antioquia, Nariño and Caldas, in Colombia, between 1,000 and 2,500m asl.
55083		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground close to streams in cloud forests and in dry tropical forests. Eggs are laid on leaf-litter and then the larvae are carried to streams where they develop further.
55083		population	eng	It is a common species.
55083		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are agricultural development (including crops and livestock), logging, agricultural pollution, and the fumigation of crops.
55084		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55084		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities at the heads of the Pastaza River on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, between 900 and 1,000m asl.
55084		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical rainforest, but it is not known whether or not it can tolerate habitat disturbance. There is no information about its breeding habits, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.
55084		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55084		threats	eng	Major threats to this species’ habitat include agricultural activities (both cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), as well as logging.
55085		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55085		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the eastern slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador, from 600-700m asl, and it is likely to occur more widely.
55085		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist forests in the eastern tropical altitudinal zone. Its range lies in a transition zone between humid tropical forest and very humid premontane forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.
55085		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, but it has been recorded as recently as 2001.
55085		threats	eng	Major threats to this species’ habitat include agricultural activities (both cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), as well as logging.
55086		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and possibly with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
55086		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes, in Napo Province, Ecuador, from 1,660-1,910m asl. Records from Colombia and Venezuela are in error (Ruiz-Carranza <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Ecuador, the sampling effort throughout the distribution range might be insufficient, and the known number of localities and its extent of occurrence are likely to increase with more sampling.
55086		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams in cloud forest where the annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C (Coloma 1995). Its level of tolerance to habitat disturbance is unclear, although it may tolerate some selective logging. Its reproductive mode is unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55086		population	eng	There are no data available on the population status of this species, and there have been no recent records.
55086		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is probably deforestation due to expansion of agriculture. It is also threatened by atmospheric and water pollution, and by invasive alien species.
55087		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo.
55087		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality, Antadó, in the municipality of Ituango in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,500m asl.
55087		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in leaf-litter in cloud forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55087		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from the type series. The holotype is now badly damaged.
55087		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55088		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55088		distribution	eng	This species is known from the basins of Rio Jurua and Rio Ituxi, and also from Rondonia State, Brazil, from 60-250m asl.
55088		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried by the parents to streams where they develop further.
55088		population	eng	It is a common species.
55088		threats	eng	Clear-cut logging and fires are threats to this species' habitat.
55089		conservation	eng	Its range includes indigenous reserves and national parks.
55089		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Amazonas and Acre and along the Jurua River, in Brazil, from 100-250m asl. There is very little information known about its distribution and attempts to map its range at this stage should be regarded as approximate.
55089		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried by the parents to streams where they develop further.
55089		population	eng	It is a common species.
55089		threats	eng	Clear-cut logging and fires are threats to the species' habitat.
55090		conservation	eng	The type locality is within a protected area, and Silvânia is a national forest reserve.
55090		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (Chapada dos Veadeiros, in Goiás State, Brazil), and from one record from Silvânia. It has been recorded from 1,500m asl. Attempts to map its distribution are approximate at this stage, and it is likely to occur more widely.
55090		habitat	eng	It is found in the leaf-litter of gallery forests, near streams or small ponds. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried by the parents to streams where they develop further.
55090		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55090		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agriculture (both cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), as well as logging, mining, fire, agricultural pollution and dam construction.
55091		conservation	eng	Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.
55091		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "Alto río Parguaza, Serranía de Guanay (5° 55'N; 66° 23'W)" (La Marca 1996) in Amazonas State, Venezuela, from 1,650-1,800m asl. It is suspected to have a wider distribution.
55091		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, terrestrial inhabitant of tropical rainforest. Males were found calling from shaded spots along a rocky stream. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.
55091		population	eng	This is a common species.
55091		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55092		conservation	eng	One population is within Parque Nacional Guaramacal (at the limit of the range).
55092		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, in the vicinity of the town of Boconó, in Trujillo State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,470m asl, and from a recently discovered population found inside the Parque Nacional Guaramacal, also close to Boconó. It is also now known from the states of Barinas and Portuguesa. It has been recorded from 600-1,800m asl.
55092		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonal montane forest, and cloud forests. It is associated with temporary ponds, where the larvae presumably develop, but exact reproductive habits are unknown. It is probably able to tolerate minor habitat disturbance.
55092		population	eng	It is locally common.
55092		threats	eng	Human settlement, and associated infrastructure development, is a threat to some populations. The lagoon at the type locality has already disappeared. It might also be affected by drought.
55093		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55093		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Venceremos, 394-395km along the Marginal de la Selva road at 1,620m asl (San Martin Department), on the eastern slopes of the central Andes in northern Peru.
55093		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species that was collected in tropical montane forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55093		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55093		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
55094		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55094		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Alto del Buey area, in the Pacific lowlands of Choco Department, Colombia, between 200 and 300m asl.
55094		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground next to streams in lowland forest, and it has not been found in degraded areas. There are no data regarding its reproduction, but it presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.
55094		population	eng	It appears not to be common. There has been very little recent information on this species, although it was collected in 2002.
55094		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55095		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Machalilla, Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute, and Reserva Ecológica Arenillas.
55095		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes and the coastal Cordillera in the provinces of Manabí, Guayas, Bolívar, Los Ríos, Azuay, and El Oro. It has been recorded from 70-1,500m asl (Coloma 1995) and has also recently been found in Loja (Almeida 2002).
55095		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid premontane forest, tropical thicket and thorny scrub, and very dry tropical forest (Coloma 1995). Eggs are laid on land in leaf-litter or under rocks, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults where they develop further.
55095		population	eng	It is a common species.
55095		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are agricultural development (involving cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), logging, and creation of wood plantations. Introduced goats are also degrading the species' habitat, which is severely fragmented.
55096		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
55096		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Colombia. In Colombia it ranges from northern Choco Department in the Pacific lowlands, around the northern tip of the Western and Central Cordilleras of the Andes, to the middle Magdalena Valley. It is a lowland species that occurs up to 400m asl.
55096		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of humid lowland and montane forest, living along streamsides. It is often found along rocky sections of forest streams. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the tadpoles to streams. It is assumed that the species has some immunity to anthropogenic habitat change.
55096		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55096		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55097		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55097		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern lowlands of Ecuador, between 250 and 350m asl. It is likely to occur much more widely.
55097		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter in forest, and breeds in bracts of palms on the ground (the bracts fall to the ground and water collects in them) and other ephemeral small pools. It is probably able to adapt to some habitat modification and most likely occurs in secondary forest.
55097		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55097		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, and oil exploration are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55098		conservation	eng	The distribution range of the species overlaps Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo. Surveys are urgently required to determine the population status and continued persistence of this species.
55098		distribution	eng	This species was known from the inter-Andean valleys of Guayllabamba, Toachi, Chimbo, and Cañar, and on the western slopes of the Andes in northern and central Ecuador, where it occupied areas between 1,500 and 3,800m and was known from more than ten localities.
55098		habitat	eng	It lives in mid- to high-elevation humid montane forest (Coloma 1995). It lays its eggs on the ground, and males carry the eggs to small streams for development.
55098		population	eng	There are no records of this species since the 1960s. Bustamante (2002) provides data of its absence at Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras (Provincia Bolívar), where it used to be a common frog. It is possible that undetected relict populations might still survive.
55098		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture, clear cutting, and human settlement; virtually no habitat remains where this species used to occur. Invasive alien species are also a threat.
55099		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for protection of its remaining habitat. Further survey work is needed to determine this species' current population status and natural history.
55099		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the area of the type locality, Villavicencio, in the foothills of the Orinoco region, Meta Department, Colombia, at 580m asl, where it occurs in a single botanical garden surrounded by a substantial urban area.
55099		habitat	eng	It is known from small patches of forest and from a botanical garden; it has not been found in larger tracts of forest in nearby areas. It is a terrestrial and diurnal species, and it lays its eggs in the leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to small streams for development.
55099		population	eng	It is scarcely distributed in its tiny area of occupancy. There are few specimens known, and it was last seen in 2002. Searches in outlying areas have not turned up any individuals.
55099		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation and destruction caused by the expansion of human settlement, and water pollution, are the primary threats to this species.
55100		conservation	eng	Its distribution range overlaps with several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganatis, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. This species is in need of close population monitoring.
55100		distribution	eng	This species is known from a narrow altitudinal zone (1,140-1,300m asl) on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the vicinity of Volcán Reventador and in the Río Pastaza trench, in Napo, Orellana and Pastaza Provinces, Ecuador.
55100		habitat	eng	It occurs in premontane forest, where the annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and the annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. Reproduction probably occurs by the females laying the eggs on the ground, with the males taking the larvae to streams for their development.
55100		population	eng	It was formerly abundant, at least judging by the large numbers of specimens in museums, but there is little recent information.
55100		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to agricultural expansion (involving crops, plantations and livestock) and logging, is the main threat to this species. Its narrow altitudinal range might leave it vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
55101		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
55101		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia in Cauca, Choco, and Valle del Cauca Departments, between 100 and 640m asl, although its distribution is not well known.
55101		habitat	eng	It lives along streams in lowland and foothill forests, and has not been found in degraded habitats. The details of its breeding biology are largely unknown, but it presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.
55101		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
55101		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55102		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Darién.
55102		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serranía de Pirre, Darién Province, Panama, between 1,100 and 1,440m asl (Grant 2004).
55102		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species of humid montane forest that is often found along rocky sections of forest streams. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the larvae to streams.
55102		population	eng	It appears to be less common on the northern end of the Serranía de Pirre in the ridge-top cloud forest at 1,100-1,230m asl.
55102		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats to the habitat in this species' range.
55103		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, while in Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, an <em>ex situ</em> population may need to be established.
55103		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the Western and Central Cordilleras, from Antioquia Department in Colombia, south to Cotapaxi and Las Pampas Provinces in northern Ecuador, from 1,460-2,120m asl.
55103		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in very humid montane forest, and has also been found in open fields and very modified areas, but is always near streams. The eggs are laid in leaf-litter, and the male transports the larvae to slow-flowing streams.
55103		population	eng	It is still common in Colombia, but it has not been recorded in Ecuador since October 1990, despite extensive survey efforts.
55103		threats	eng	The serious declines noted in Ecuador can possibly be attributed to chytridiomycosis. Additional likely threats are: deforestation, due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55104		conservation	eng	There is a population within Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada (Mérida State), in the Venezuelan Andes. Surveys are required to determine the population status of this species and whether it has been affected by disease. Given the potential risk of disease, there might be a need for the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
55104		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a very restricted area near Páramo de Mucubají, Sierra de Santo Domingo, in estado Mérida, in the Venezuelan Andes, from 2,435-3,300m asl.
55104		habitat	eng	It inhabits páramo grassland and sub-páramo shrubland environments and cloud forest, the highest environments in the Venezuelan Andes, resembling alpine tundra, but with daily temperature extremes. It is usually found within grasses and frailejones (<em>Espeletia</em> spp.), usually along and within streams.
55104		population	eng	It has not been seen in at least a decade, and its range is very much reduced.
55104		threats	eng	Introduced trout and possibly disease might be threatening this species. This species shares its habitat with <em>Atelopus mucubajiensis</em>, a páramo frog well known for having experienced a dramatic population decline (La Marca and Reinthaler 1994; Lotters 1996; La Marca and Lötters 1997) probably due to chytridiomycosis, and so this disease must also be suspected in <em>C. leopardalis</em>.
55105		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there are no conservation measures required for this species.
55105		distribution	eng	The original population from which this species was described has been introduced to Lima. Natural populations are present in Pacific inter-Andean valleys of Departamentos Ancash and Huanuco. Altitudinal range of natural populations is 665-2,180m. It almost certainly occurs more widely.
55105		habitat	eng	Present in arid areas including coastal 'desert' and dry shrublands. Generally occurs close to streams with dense vegetation; breeding takes place in quiet waters close to streams. The species is not greatly sensitive to habitat change.
55105		population	eng	It is a common species.
55105		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
55106		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55106		distribution	eng	This species is ostensibly known from the municipality of Apartado, Antioquia Department, in north-western Colombia, at 30m asl. However, there are doubts as to the provenance of the type specimen.
55106		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, which presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.
55106		population	eng	It is known from just a single specimen, so its overall population status is not known.
55106		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55107		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Machalilla and the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55107		distribution	eng	This species is known from more than ten localities in the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador in the provinces of El Oro, Los Ríos, Bolívar, Guayas, Azogues, and Manabí, from 10-515m asl (Parker and Carr 1992; Coloma 1995).
55107		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical thicket and thorny scrub and very dry tropical forest (Coloma 1995). It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults where they develop further.
55107		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55107		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are agriculture, involving cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock, and logging.
55108		conservation	eng	Its range includes a protected area for a dam project (Zona Protectora Macizo Turimiquire), but the habitat of this species is in need of much better protection.
55108		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Cerro Turimiquire, a mountainous region shared between Monagas, Sucre, and Anzoátegui States, in eastern Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,900-2,630m asl.
55108		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and sub-páramo shrubland. The eggs are laid on land and when hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to water, where they develop further.
55108		population	eng	It is a common species.
55108		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as road construction for telecommunications installations.
55109		conservation	eng	It was found in the private Reserva Maquipucuna, affording it protection of its habitat.
55109		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Maquipucuna, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, at approximately 1,800m asl.
55109		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from a cloud forest stream. Its reproductive mode has not been documented, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.
55109		population	eng	It has not been seen since the original discovery around 1990; recent searches in the type locality and the entire surrounding region have failed to locate any other individuals (although the sampling effort might have been insufficient).
55109		threats	eng	The area where this species was recorded is not currently threatened by forest destruction.
55110		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within its range.
55110		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern, central and upper Amazon Basin of Brazil, from Cerro Marahuaca in Amazonas state, Venezuela, in the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes, Amazonas and Putumayo departments, Colombia and Peru, at 0-800m asl. The records in Venezuela might belong to a different, as yet undescribed species, but pending resolution they are included here.
55110		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary and old growth tropical rainforest on the forest floor. Reproduction occurs in small pools, the eggs are laid out of water and the tadpoles carried to the water.
55110		population	eng	It is common, and the population is stable.
55110		threats	eng	Clear cutting, logging, forest conversion and fires are threats to this species.
55111		conservation	eng	The range of this species might overlap with Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay.
55111		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Negro, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in Tungurahua Province, Ecuador, at 1,225m asl, although it presumably occurs more widely.
55111		habitat	eng	It occurs in premontane forest where the annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm, and the annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. It occurs sympatrically with <em>Colostethus bocagei</em>, <em>C. kingsburyi</em> and <em>C. pulchellus</em>. Its breeding habits are unknown, but the larvae probably develop in streams.
55111		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and it is possible that it has not been seen or looked for since it was first described.
55111		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species. By 1996, the forest had been cleared at the type locality. However, forested areas remain nearby, in Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay. Atmospheric and water pollution, and invasive alien species, are also threats.
55112		conservation	eng	Its range is in a single protected area: Parque Nacional da Amazônia.
55112		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Parque Nacional da Amazônia (along Rio Tapajos) in Brazil, at 100m asl.
55112		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is adaptable to some habitat modification. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults, where they continue their development.
55112		population	eng	It is a common species.
55112		threats	eng	Clear-cut logging and fires are major threats to this species' habitat.
55113		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera y Terretorio Indígena de Pilón Lajas and Parque Nacional Carrasco.
55113		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slopes of the Bolivian Andes. It was known initially from the type locality, approximately 0.25km east of the San Onofre road, 3.3km north of the road to Cochabamba-Tunari Village, in Chapare Province, Cochabamba Department, at 1,693m asl (Reynolds and Foster 1992). Gonzalez at al. (1999) then extended its distribution to western Bolivia, reporting it in the Reserva de la Biósfera y Terretorio Indígena de Pilón Lajas, and in the Yungas forest in La Paz Department. Only four populations of this species are currently known, two in the district of Cochabamba, and two in the northern district of La Paz.
55113		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits the Yungas forest of Cochabamba and La Paz Districts (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Köhler (2000a) found specimens to be common during the day in undisturbed montane forest. The larvae were described by Reynolds and Foster (1992), and develop in streams.
55113		population	eng	The current population trend is unknown, but it is very possibly declining. The population at the type locality is probably now extinct, and has not been seen despite several visits to the area.
55113		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are agricultural development, road construction, and water pollution from agriculture.
55114		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas, and so there might be a need to establish protected areas for this species if habitat degradation significantly increases.
55114		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from near to the junction of the Río Napo and the much smaller Río Sucusari (Loreto Department), in Peru. Very little is known about the range of this recently described species, and it is likely that it is much more widely distributed. It has an altitudinal range of up to 200m asl.
55114		habitat	eng	It is a little-known diurnal frog of tropical lowland moist forest. While it is not generally associated with streams, adults probably carry the larvae to streams to develop.
55114		population	eng	There is nothing known about the population status of this species.
55114		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats to this species as there are few human activities within its range, although there is limited tourism development ongoing in the region.
55115		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.
55115		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro Munchique, and Quintana (near Popayan in Cauca Department), between 2,100 and 2,350m asl, in Colombia.
55115		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground next to streams in cloud forests. It lays its eggs on the ground, which (when hatched), are transported on the backs of the male to temporary ponds where they develop further. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
55115		population	eng	It is a common species.
55115		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement.
55116		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed, for example regarding the limits of its range, and concerning its ecology and population status.
55116		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Venceremos (at 1,620m asl) in San Martin Department on the eastern slopes of the central Andes in northern Peru. It probably occurs more widely over the Andean foothills of Peru.
55116		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species that was collected in tropical montane forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but the larvae probably develop in streams.
55116		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55116		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
55117		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species, and to monitor its status, given that it is known only from one site.
55117		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "Murisipan-Tepui (05 53N, 62 04W)", in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, at 2,350m asl.
55117		habitat	eng	The single specimen was collected under a rock in tropical montane forest. Breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae probably develop in streams.
55117		population	eng	It is known from only one specimen.
55117		threats	eng	There are no current major threats, but fires, caused by lightning, are a potential threat.
55118		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, although the Cordillera del Condór is under little threat because the land mines left during the 1995 border war mean that there is little human disturbance of the region.
55118		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the headwaters of the Río Piuntza, in the Cordillera del Condór, Morona Santiago Province, south-eastern Ecuador, at an altitude of 1,830m asl, although it probably occurs more widely.
55118		habitat	eng	It lives in cool montane cloud forest (Duellman and Simmons 1988). Its reproductive mode is unknown, but the larvae probably develop in streams. It occurs sympatrically with <em>Colostethus exasperatus</em> and <em>C. shuar</em>.
55118		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type series collected in early 1972 (when it was fairly common, with 18 specimens being collected).
55118		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, although it is known that in 1996 there was forest still remaining at the type locality.
55119		conservation	eng	May occur in the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone and the Alto Mayo Protection Forest, Peru. This requires confirmation.
55119		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the lower northeastern slopes and foothills of the Andes from Perú in the region of Yurimaguas (Departamentos: Amazonas, Loreto, San Martin), and from southeastern Ecuador. It has been recorded between 500 and 1,550m asl.
55119		habitat	eng	"The distribution lies within the Very Humid Premontane Forest and Humid Premontane Forest. Annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and 1,000-2,000mm respectively; annual mean temperatures are 18-24 C in both zones." (Coloma 1995). A diurnal species that is mostly restricted to stream habitats. Eggs are laid on land and transported to streams by adults. Can occur in modified and lightly degraded habitat including rural gardens etc.
55119		population	eng	Not rare where it occurs.
55119		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats. Extreme habitat destruction and pollution are the only potential threats.
55120		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55120		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality of 40km south of Manaus, at an altitude of 50m asl in Amazonas State, Brazil, in the municipality of Castanho, at 12km along the road to Autazes. It is expected to occur more widely.
55120		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical forest near igapó (i.e. flooded) forest. It is a largely terrestrial species found in leaf-litter or other ground cover. It breeds by direct development: nests are found in leaf-litter on the forest floor and the endotrophic larvae are not transported to aquatic sites but develop fully within the nests. This species has a clutch size of two to six eggs.
55120		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55120		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55121		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Colombia, and in more than twelve protected areas in Panama, as well as in a single protected area in Costa Rica. There is an urgent need to complete the taxonomic revision of the <em>Colostethus nubicola</em> species complex. Following a clarification of the taxonomic status of this group, it may be necessary to develop ex-situ insurance colonies for remaining western populations.
55121		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Costa Rica (a single locality) and adjacent western Panama (1,050-1,600m), through eastern Panama in lowland and premontane zones (200-860m) to the Pacific coast of western Colombia, south to Valle de Cauca Department (up to 800m in Colombia).
55121		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and diurnal species of humid lowland, premontane and montane forest. Adults may be encountered along rocky sections of forest streams. It can occur in secondary forest and plantation forests, and occurs in degraded habitats in Colombia. The eggs are deposited in the leaf-litter and the males transport hatching tadpoles to forest streams to complete metamorphosis.
55121		population	eng	It remains widespread in the Choco of Colombia (Taran Grant pers. comm. 2007). It was formerly recorded at a single Costa Rica locality, Las Cruces (observed in 2002), but and has recently been found in the San Vito area (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). It was formerly common in Panama, and while it is still present in Cerro Campana and eastern Panama (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007) it has significantly declined in western Panama and is now absent from Fortuna, Santa Fe and El Cope (Karen Lips pers. comm.).
55121		threats	eng	Declines in this species within the western part of the range are associated with the disease chytridiomycosis. Lips <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that 48 dead <em>Colostethus nubicola</em> (infected with the chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em>) were recorded at El Cope in 2004. It is probably also affected by general habitat loss in Panama through deforestation. It is not generally considered to be threatened in Colombia at present.
55122		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas, such as Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina. Research to determine the causes of the current decline is urgently needed.
55122		distribution	eng	Allobates olfersioides is found in coastal forests of the Atlantic Domain from sea level to about 1000 masl. The species can be found from the north of the state of Alagoas to the south of the state of Rio de Janeiro (between<br/>08 54 S and 23 00 S latitudinal degrees), potentially occurring in Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, state of Minas Gerais (Verdade and Rodrigues, 2007).
55122		habitat	eng	Allobates olfersioides is diurnal and lives on the forest floor of primary and secondary forests. The tadpoles hatch in humid terrestrial nests and are carried by their parents to puddles or small rivulets on the forest floor where they feed until metamorphosis. Males are known to carry tadpoles (ca Gosner stage 25) (Verdade and Rodrigues, 2007).<br/>Gravid females were observed in February, April, August, and September, suggesting that reproduction is likely to occur throughout the year. In addition, they have been found to have both mature eggs and developing follicles in the ovaries, which again suggests that they may reproduce more than once during the reproductive season. Females were found to have a maximum of 11 mature eggs (ca 1.5 mm each) and a mean of 8 eggs (Verdade and Rodrigues, 2007). In Bahia, this species was found to have a strong association to bromeliads (Tinoco et al., 2008).
55122		population	eng	It used to be a very common species, but it has recently declined and is now absent from several historical localities in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. The species still appears to be relatively common in northeastern Brazil (V. Verdade, pers. comm. 2008).
55122		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to deforestation and agricultural development, is ongoing, but may not have been severe enough to cause the declines that have been observed. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008). Chytridiomycosis could be implicated in declines, specimens from Rio de Janeiro tested positive for chytrids (Carnaval et al., 2006).
55123		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, which is not known from any protected areas.
55123		distribution	eng	This species has only recently been described and is known only from 12km north-east of Tarapoto, in San Martin Province, Peru.
55123		habitat	eng	This might be a forest species, with larvae that presumably develop in water.
55123		population	eng	There is nothing known about its population status.
55123		threats	eng	The threats to it are not known, although it could be threatened by habitat degradation through conversion to coffee plantations and general agricultural development.
55124		conservation	eng	Its range includes Guanentá and Macarena protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve what is probably a species complex.
55124		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Caldas and Tolima, and from the western and eastern flanks of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Santander, Meta and Serranía de la Macarena. It has been recorded from 350-2,500m asl.
55124		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in cloud forests and in tropical rainforests in the Orinoco region. It is adaptable to a degree of habitat modification and has been found in crop and pastureland. Lynch (2006) considered that the species was quite sensitive to habitat modification by man. Populations on the Orinocoan part of the range are associated to streams and are considered to be quite sensitive; however, populations on the Río Magdalena Valley can be found in disturbed areas and polluted streams, they can even be found in open areas near streams and small ponds (A. Acosta, pers. comm. 2008; J.V. Rueda, pers. comm. 2008).  The larvae develop in streams.
55124		population	eng	It is a common species.
55124		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread, adaptable species.
55125		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
55125		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia and Panama. In Panama it is recorded east of the western cordilleras, in the Azuero Peninsula, on Isla Coiba, in central Panama and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras. In Colombia it is present in the Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios, Department of Chocó. It is a lowland species that occurs up to 800m asl (Panama).
55125		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of humid lowland and montane forest, living along streamsides. It is often found along rocky sections of forest streams. It apparently does not occur in degraded habitats. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the tadpoles to streams.
55125		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55125		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55126		conservation	eng	Some populations lie within the Reserva de Biosfera Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare, and Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó, but measures are needed to stop the illegal mining that is destroying the forests at the type locality and polluting the water.
55126		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality near the headwaters of the Orinoco River, at a place called Pista Constitución (2° 13' 49''N; 63° 20' 00''W) in Amazonas Department, Venezuela, in the vicinity of Cerro Delgado Chalbaud, at 670m asl.
55126		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforest. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it probably lays eggs on the forest floor and adults carry the larvae to the stream where they develop further, as with other species of the genus.
55126		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55126		threats	eng	Gold mining is a major threat to this species' habitat.
55127		conservation	eng	There is a population of this species within Parque Nacional Canaima in Venezuela. Education and awareness is needed for this region, which is important for numerous endemic species.
55127		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 112km along the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén, from an altitudinal range of 860-1,300m asl. The geographic coordinates for this location are 06° 01'N; 61° 24'W.
55127		habitat	eng	This diurnal frog has been found in a muddy roadside ditch, and on the rocky banks of rivers in tropical montane forests at Serrania de Lema. Larvae presumed to be of this species have been found in shallow puddles 5-10cm deep, as well as in small streams and under rocks in small pools in a roadside ditch.
55127		population	eng	It is a common species.
55127		threats	eng	This species might be threated by the construction of power lines which has caused deforestation and has also required the construction of access roads. Tourism is also a threat.
55128		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas, although it might be present in the Reserva Comunal El Sira, an indigenous people's reserve, but this requires further investigation.
55128		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Cordillera El Sira, Pasco Department, Peru, where it has an altitudinal range of 210-800m asl.
55128		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid rainforest. Animals are active alongside small streams, especially near waterfalls where small caves provide shelter. The eggs are presumably deposited in leaf-litter, and a male has been observed carrying the hatched larvae to a stream to complete their development.
55128		population	eng	It is presumed to be reasonably common in suitable habitat.
55128		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although some lower parts of the Cordillera El Sira are being selectively logged.
55129		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
55129		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Pailas, an indigenous village between Sevilla del Oro and Méndez on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Morona Santiago Province, southern Ecuador, at an altitude of 2,195m asl. It might occur more widely, but the survey effort has been insufficient to confirm this.
55129		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest, where annual mean precipitation is 1000-2,000mm and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. Its reproductive mode and its tolerance to habitat disturbance are unknown, but the larvae probably develop in streams. It occurs in parapatry with <em>Colostethus anthracinus</em>, the range of which is close to the type locality of <em>C. peculiaris</em>, but they have not been collected sympatrically.
55129		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has apparently not been recorded since the four specimens of the type series were collected in 1962.
55129		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging. By 1996, the forest at the type locality was observed to be fragmented.
55130		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas in Peru. Within Brazil, it has been recorded within many conservation areas (such as national forests). Further research into the taxonomy and range of this taxon is required.
55130		distribution	eng	This species has a confused disjunctive population distribution. In Peru it is suggested by Frost (1986) that it is known from the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes of Perú from 600-1,000m asl. (Departamentos: Huánuco, San Martín). However Morales (1994) states that it is known only from the type locality (Roque, San Martin). Taxa assigned to C. peruvianus are also reported to occur widely along Madeira River and Rondonia state, Brazil. The type locality in Peru and Brazilian range are represented on the map until the range of this species can be better confirmed. It might occur in Bolivia (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000).
55130		habitat	eng	In Peru it is a premontane species. In Brazil it inhabits lowland tropical moist forest. Generally a forest floor species, eggs are laid on the floor, and tadpoles are carried to small pools by the adults.
55130		population	eng	Abundance is not known. There is some doubt as to whether or not the Peruvian and Brazilian populations refer to the same species. Peruvian specimens are known only from museum collections.
55130		threats	eng	In Peru the species is threatened by conversion of habitat to coffee plantations and other agricultural activities, and generalised logging including clear cutting. Recent surveys have indicated that it is now not present at the Peruvian type locality. There are no major threats to the species in Brazil.
55131		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
55131		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos, in the eastern Andean Cordillera, Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 1,600m asl.
55131		habitat	eng	This species lives on the forest floors of premontane humid forest. Its reproductive mode is not known, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.
55131		population	eng	It was abundant until 1998, and one visit in 2000 recorded several individuals. There have been no more survey visits to the site since then.
55131		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in a guerrilla stronghold where there is little anthropogenic habitat disturbance.
55132		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not this is a valid species (it is probably a synonym of <em>Colostethus pulchellus</em>).
55132		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the western slope of the central Andes, in Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,995m asl. It is most likely a synonym of a much wider ranging species.
55132		habitat	eng	It occurs in the lowest vegetation stratum of cloud forests. There is no information regarding its breeding habits or its adaptability to habitat disturbance, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55132		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55132		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55133		conservation	eng	This species is not currently known from any protected areas, although it might occur in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo (but further investigations are required to confirm this). There is a need to protect habitat remnants at the type locality.
55133		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "between Chachapoyas and Bagua Grande Alva, 500m asl, Amazonas Department, Peru" (Rivero 1991). It is not known if it ranges more widely than this.
55133		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, terrestrial species, reported from moist lowland tropical forest, although it is not known if it was collected in primary or secondary forest, nor whether or not it can adapt to modified habitats. It is thought to be associated with stream habitats, where the larvae presumably develop.
55133		population	eng	There is nothing known about its population status.
55133		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat degradation: the type locality is highly disturbed by agricultural activities (including coffee plantations) and urbanization (establishment of settlements and townships).
55134		conservation	eng	It is found within Parque Nacional Canaima, in which Mount Roraima is one of the protected tepuis.
55134		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Roraima, in Bolívar State, eastern Venezuela, close to the border with Guayana Esequiba, at altitudes between 1,800 and 1,950m asl. It potentially has a wider range since it is found on the mountain slopes as well.
55134		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocks covered by mosses and on moist soils, in areas with very low light intensity and abundant decaying vegetation in humid lower montane forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it probably lays eggs on the forest floor and the adults then carry the larvae to streams where they develop further, as with other species of the genus.
55134		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, although it is possibly rare.
55134		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are avalanches and the disturbance of its habitat by tourists.
55135		conservation	eng	The range of the species in Colombia includes Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios, and in Panama it is known from a number of protected areas.
55135		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western cordilleras and western Atlantic lowlands of Panama adjacent to south-eastern Costa Rica, and central Panama and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras. It is also present on Isla Colón. In Colombia, it is known from north of the Central and Western Cordillera in the departments of Choco and Antioquia. It has been recorded from 110-1,160m asl.
55135		habitat	eng	It is found on the forest floor and along rocky sections of forest streams in humid lowland and montane forest. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the tadpoles to streams where they develop further.
55135		population	eng	This is a common species.
55135		threats	eng	Agriculture (crops, plantations and livestock), as well as logging, agricultural pollution and the fumigation of crops are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55136		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.
55136		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Amalfu (Los Auribios) in Antioquia Department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is known rather imprecisely, being reported as 100-1,500m asl.
55136		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about this species' habitat and ecology, and no details are given in the original description, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55136		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55136		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55137		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia. The species requires close population monitoring, especially in view of the potential risk of chytridiomycosis.
55137		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the inter-Andean páramos of southern Colombia (in Nariño and Cauca Departments) and northern Ecuador (south to Cotapaxi Province), and on the eastern slopes of the Andes from southern Colombia south to the headwaters of the Río Pastaza in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,590-2,970m asl.
55137		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of both dry and humid montane forests. It is a terrestrial species, and breeding takes place in streams. It can be found in secondary growth near streams, but not in open areas.
55137		population	eng	It has disappeared from sites where it used to be abundant in Ecuador, but is still common at Cosanga in Napo Province. It remains common in Colombia.
55137		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss as a result of agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops, are additional threats. There is heavy deforestation as a result of wood extraction at Cosanga, where the species survives in Ecuador. The cause of declines observed in Ecuador is not clear, but could be due to habitat loss, climate change, and/or chytridiomycosis.
55138		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas; its geographic range is not included in any of the 26 Ecuadorian State Natural Protected Areas.
55138		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, San Vicente, 3km west of Limon in the Cordillera Oriental, Azuay Province, southern Ecuador, at an altitude of 2,987m asl.
55138		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest. Its reproductive mode and its tolerance of habitat disturbance are unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in water.
55138		population	eng	It is probably known only from the type series of five specimens collected in 1962. Subsequent survey efforts for this species have been insufficient, but other members of this genus in ecologically similar areas in Ecuador have disappeared or declined.
55138		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging, and also by invasive alien species.
55139		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.
55139		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Calles, in the municipality of Urrao in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,300-1,400m asl.
55139		habitat	eng	Nothing is known regarding its habitat and ecology, and no details are given in the original description, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55139		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55139		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55140		conservation	eng	Its range does not include a protected area. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55140		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations: the type locality of San Rafael, in Antioquia Department, and from Caldas Department, both in Colombia, from 1,200-1,340m asl, and it might occur more widely.
55140		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of forests, although the exact habitat is not known. Its breeding habits are unknown (although the larvae are likely to develop in streams).
55140		population	eng	It is probably an uncommon species, which is still only known from four specimens, with two collected at each of the two known localities.
55140		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55141		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in several small private reserves, ex situ populations should be established because the entire range of this species is nearly entirely deforested and introduced bullfrogs could eliminate the species from remaining forest fragments. Further research and survey work is required to better understand its current population status and in order to advance appropriate conservation measures for this species.
55141		distribution	eng	This species occurs north of Villavicencio, in the eastern foothills of the Andes, Meta Department, Colombia, at 450-800m asl.
55141		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, diurnal species that occurs in foothill forest and lays its eggs in leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs, and then move the larvae to small streams for their continued development.
55141		population	eng	It is rare, and was last seen in 2001, despite recent survey work in its range.
55141		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion is the main threat to this species, and oil extraction may pose a future threat. It is also threatened by the introduced bullfrog, <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>.
55142		conservation	eng	It is known from a single protected area, the type locality being located within Parque Nacional Canaima.
55142		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the top of Mount Roraima, in Bolívar State in south-eastern Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,700m asl.
55142		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was captured inside mosses covering the rocks on the walls of Mount Roraima. This is a rocky environment very close to the top of the tepui.
55142		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.
55142		threats	eng	Disturbance of its habitat by tourists is a major threat.
55143		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still persists in the wild.
55143		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fusagasuga, between Alto de San Miguel and Aguadita, on the western flank of the eastern Andes, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, between 2,410 and 2,469m asl.
55143		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor and along streams in cloud forest; it is not found outside old-growth forest. Its breeding habits are not documented, but it is assumed that breeding and larval development take place in streams.
55143		population	eng	It is rare, and is known from only six individuals. Its range has been completely deforested, except for one private tract of land 11ha in size. Four expeditions since 1995 have failed to turn up any individuals of this species.
55143		threats	eng	Deforestation for the planting of crops and cattle grazing is the primary threat to this species.
55144		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and in the adjacent, recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.
55144		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower slopes of the north-western portion of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in Magdalena Department, Colombia. It occurs between 680 and 1,540m asl.
55144		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams in cloud forest and dry tropical forests near the Caribbean coast. The eggs are laid in bromeliads, and the larvae are then carried on the back of the adults to water where they develop further.
55144		population	eng	It is a common species.
55144		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, agricultural pollution, and infrastructure development.
55145		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one protected area: Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos.
55145		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos, in the eastern Andean Cordillera, Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 1,600m asl.
55145		habitat	eng	This species lives on forest floors of premontane humid forest. Its reproductive mode is not known, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55145		population	eng	It was abundant until 1998. One visit in 2000 found several individuals, but there have been no more visits to the site.
55145		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in a guerrilla stronghold where there is no anthropogenic habitat disturbance.
55146		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and some form of formal protection is urgently required to conserve the habitat of this species.
55146		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species was only known from the type locality at 830m asl, on the road from La Fria to Michelena, in Táchira State, Venezuela, although another population was found close by at a slightly higher elevation (about 1,500m asl). More recently, an additional locality was found along the piedmont of the Cordillera de Mérida. It may occur in suitable habitat in the near vicinity (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
55146		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid lower montane Andean forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs until they hatch when he carries the larvae on his back to water, where they develop further.
55146		population	eng	Some populations are still found along the Andean piedmont facing Lake Maracaibo. Recent field work has revealed several populations with numerous individuals (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
55146		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, water pollution, and infrastructure development for human settlement. The species' area of occurrence is subject to strong anthropogenic pressure (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
55147		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
55147		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality in Venezuelan Guyana: the village of Las Majadas, in Bolívar State, at the merging of the Caura and Orinoco Rivers. It has a very restricted range in a degraded environment, where it has been recorded from 100m asl.
55147		habitat	eng	It occurs in semi-deciduous forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although larvae presumably develop in water, as with other species of the genus.
55147		population	eng	It is known from only two specimens, so nothing is known about its population status.
55147		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development, both for crops and livestock, as well as infrastructure development for human settlements. Over-fishing is also a problem.
55148		conservation	eng	Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuni, and Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha in Ecuador. It is not recorded from any protected areas in Colombia. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is desirable as it is likely that its range is larger than currently known.
55148		distribution	eng	This species is known from the tropical humid forest (Eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone) of Amazonian Ecuador, and from southern Colombia (departments of Putumayo and Caqueta). It is known from elevations of 250-650m asl. The known number of localities and Extent of Occurrence are likely to increase with more sampling effort.
55148		habitat	eng	This species lives under leaf-litter near streams and on overhanging banks of permanent streams in primary and secondary forest. They lay their eggs in the leaf-litter and then the males carry the tadpoles on their backs to the water where they develop. It is not recorded from any anthropogenic habitats.
55148		population	eng	This appears to be an uncommon species.
55148		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation might be a localized threat to the species. The natural vegetation of 14% of its distribution area in Ecuador (as defined by the GAA polygon) has been cleared by 1996 (based on Sierra, 1999 map).
55149		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
55149		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerros Duida and Marahuaca, in Amazonas State, southern Venezuela, at altitudes between 350 and 1,829m asl. It is known only from a few localities, and attempts to map its distribution at this stage are only approximate.
55149		habitat	eng	It lives near streams in tropical rainforest. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae presumably develop in water, as with other species of the genus.
55149		population	eng	It is not a common species but its population is believed to be stable at present.
55149		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55150		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Sangay, Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
55150		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Napo, Tungurahua, Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe Provinces, Ecuador, between 1,272 and 2,370m asl.
55150		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane and cloud forest (Coloma 1995) but its tolerance of disturbed habitats is unknown. Reproduction probably occurs by females laying eggs on the ground, with the males bringing the larvae to streams for them to complete their development. In north-eastern Ecuador it occurs in sympatry with <em>Colostethus bocagei</em>, <em>C. fuliginosus</em>, <em>C. kingsburyi</em>, <em>C. pulchellus</em> and <em>Minyobates abditus</em> near Volcán Reventador. In south-eastern Ecuador the species occurs with <em>C. kingsburyi</em>, and <em>C. pulchellus</em> at the Pastaza trench, and further south with <em>C. exasperatus</em>, <em>C. mystax</em> and <em>C. peculiaris</em>.
55150		population	eng	It was at least formerly abundant, judging by the large series collected through 1984 in the Kansas Museum. It was common in a stream near Loma El Trigal, on the road between Loja y Zamora, in 1987.
55150		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging.
55151		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range.
55151		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Manaus region, Balbin, Amazonas state, Brazil. It is probably more widely spread.
55151		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of old growth and secondary tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae also develop on land.
55151		population	eng	It is abundant and the population is stable.
55151		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
55152		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza and Parque Nacional Natural Iguaque.
55152		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of the Cordillera Oriental; Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Meta Departments; Colombia, between 2,000 and 3,500m asl.
55152		habitat	eng	It lives in open areas, wetlands, forest edges and páramo. The eggs are laid on land, and the males carry the tadpoles to lentic waterbodies.
55152		population	eng	It is abundant, with many records in 2003.
55152		threats	eng	It apparently disappears from areas with heavily contaminated waters, with the contamination coming from agrochemicals and urban runoff.
55153		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least two protected areas in Peru.
55153		distribution	eng	This species occurs to the north of the left bank of the Amazon River and the Rio Trombetas drainage, in Pará State, Brazil, and in the drainages of the Amazon and Maranon Rivers in Loreto, Peru.
55153		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although the larvae presumably develop in water.
55153		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55153		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55154		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the limits of its range.
55154		distribution	eng	The range of this species is not well known. It has been recorded on the Amazonian slopes of the north-eastern Andes and in the Huancabamba depression in northern Peru (Cajamarca and Piura Departments). It possibly occurs between 2,469 and 3,100m asl.
55154		habitat	eng	This is a little-known montane cloud forest species which presumably lays its eggs in leaf-litter on the forest floor and transports larvae to streams.
55154		population	eng	It is not abundant.
55154		threats	eng	Where it has been recorded in the Huancabamba depression it is threatened by deforestation and agricultural activities (mostly cultivation of potatoes).
55155		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia and in Central America.
55155		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Reserva Indio-Maíz and Rio San Juan in Nicaragua, through northeastern and southwestern Costa Rica, throughout much of central and eastern Panama (including several islands in Bocas del Toro), to the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northern Ecuador. It occurs below 800m.
55155		habitat	eng	A terrestrial and diurnal leaf-litter species of very humid lowland and premontane areas, where annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and annual mean temperature is 18-24 C. It can be found in secondary growth and plantations, swampy areas in primary forest, but not in open areas. It is usually close to streams. The eggs are laid in the leaf-litter, and both sexes carry the tadpoles to streams to complete metamorphosis in small, water-filled depressions.
55155		population	eng	It is a common species.
55155		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, the introduction of alien predatory fish in streams, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55156		conservation	eng	The area where this frog is found is protected within Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.
55156		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, a small valley at the north base of Pico Tamacuari, from 1,160-1,200m asl, in the Sierra Tapirapecó, Amazonas State, Venezuela (at 1° 13'N; 64° 42'W).
55156		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal frog found in rocky forest streams, where the larvae presumably develop. Its calls have been heard coming from beneath large boulders.
55156		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55156		threats	eng	Flash flooding is a potential threat to this species, and has been known to occur at the type locality.
55157		conservation	eng	Its type locality is protected within Parque Nacional Canaima.
55157		distribution	eng	This species was until recently only known from a single locality in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at the foot of the Auyan tepui, at 1,650m asl, on a trail from Danto and Pinon. A second specimen was recently discovered by the Cucurital River. The exact distributional limits of this species are not yet known.
55157		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforest, and males call in the margins of small streams in the forest or near waterfalls in the spray-zone. This species lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults, where they develop further.
55157		population	eng	It is common.
55157		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
55158		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if its range extends beyond the two known localities.
55158		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Antioquia Department, in the northern Cordillera Central, Colombia, between 1,480 and 2,270m asl.
55158		habitat	eng	This species is presumably found beside streams in forest like other species of the genus. Its breeding habits are not known, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.
55158		population	eng	Only a few specimens have been collected, and its population status is unknown.
55158		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
55159		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
55159		distribution	eng	This species is known from nine localities in north-western Ecuador, from elevations of 200-1,410m asl.
55159		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid tropical forest and very humid premontane forest (Coloma 1995), as well as lowland grasslands. It lays its eggs on land in leaf-litter or under rocks, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults, where they develop further.
55159		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55159		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging and agricultural pollution.
55160		conservation	eng	In Peru it is present in the protected areas of Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, Tambopata Reserve, Pacaya Samiria Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and possibly Yasuni National Park. It is present in protected areas in Colombia and is found in many Bolivian protected areas.
55160		distribution	eng	This species occurs in low elevation forest on the east side of the Cordillera Oriental of Perú. (Departamentos: Amazonas, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Puno), northern Bolivia, Amazonian Ecuador (Limoncocha and Tiputini), and two sites in southern Colombia (within Amazonas and Putumayo Departaments). It might possibly occur in Brazil. Its altitudinal range is from 100-250m asl.
55160		habitat	eng	Its habitat is an amazon lowland tropical moist forest. Not closely associated with bodies of water (Grant and Rodríguez, 2001). Adults are diurnal and live in leaf-litter. Eggs are laid on the forest floor; the male carries the tadpoles to streams. Has been recorded from selectively logged forest.
55160		population	eng	It is a common species.
55160		threats	eng	No major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). The Ecuadorian populations have been subjected to severe habitat disturbance.
55161		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.
55161		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from the type locality, a forest stream on Cerro Yutajé (5° 46'N; 60° 08'W), in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,750m asl.
55161		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal, terrestrial species found in mossy gallery forests. There is no information about its breeding habits, although the larvae presumably develop in streams.
55161		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
55161		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55162		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the limits of its range, and its ecological requirements and population status.
55162		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Tingo in the Río Utcubamba drainage, on the western slopes of the northern Cordillera Oriental (Amazonas Department), in the Andes of Peru, where it has been collected at an altitude of 2,391m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than is currently known.
55162		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to have been collected in cloud forest, although nothing further is known about its habitat and ecology (but the larvae probably develop in streams).
55162		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55162		threats	eng	General threats to its habitat in the area mostly relate to agricultural activities (such as the cultivation of coffee and tea).
55163		conservation	eng	Indigenous reserves lie within its range.
55163		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rio Jurua, in Amazonas State, Brazil.
55163		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, where it is able to adapt to some habitat modification. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults where they develop further.
55163		population	eng	It is a common species.
55163		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are clear-cut logging and fires.
55164		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. The species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
55164		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental, in Fusagasuga, Cundinamarca Department, and Icononso, Tolima Department, Colombia, at 1,500-1,800m asl.
55164		habitat	eng	It occurs near streams in cloud forest, and seems able to tolerate some minor habitat disturbance. The eggs are laid on land, and the males carry the tadpoles to streams where they develop further.
55164		population	eng	It is known to be an abundant species, although no one has looked for it since 1994.
55164		threats	eng	There are no current known threats to this species, and it is somewhat resilient to habitat disturbance. Nonetheless, its small range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
55165		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas and slightly overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay. Survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species survives in its natural range.
55165		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the inter-Andean valleys and on the western slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador, at elevations of 1,770-3,500m asl.
55165		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest, in ponds in open areas and in streams. Eggs are placed on the ground, and the males carry the tadpoles to streams where they develop further.
55165		population	eng	The most recent record of this species is from 1997 (QCAZ database). It was abundant in the Bosque Protector Mazán in 1986, but one year of searching in 1995 yielded only a single specimen. It was also abundant in Laguna Busa in 1987. Recent expeditions to the range have turned up no specimens, and no surviving populations are known.
55165		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, due to agriculture and clear cutting, but this does not account for the observed decline, and chytridiomycosis is implicated as the likely cause of its apparent disappearance.
55166		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Natural de Macuira, Colombia. The population of this species requires close monitoring, particularly given that is known only from a single location.
55166		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Parque Nacional Natural de Macuira, on the Serranía of Macuira, in the Department of Guajira, Colombia. It has an altitudinal range of 210-780m asl. It occurs in an isolated area of forest habitat in an otherwise arid region, so it is very unlikely to occur anywhere else.
55166		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical forest with dry vegetation, and can be found in secondary forest. The eggs are deposited on the forest floor and the male carries the hatched tadpoles to streams and ponds to complete their development.
55166		population	eng	It is abundant in the rainy season.
55166		threats	eng	There are no current major threats to the species, and its only known population is within a national park. However, its restricted range renders it susceptible to threatening processes.
55167		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic work is required to determine the validity of this species: a more exhaustive comparison, or fresh specimens from the type locality, are needed in order to assess the taxonomic status of this species, <em>E. erythromos</em> (with which it might be conspecific), and the specimens from San Francisco de Las Pampas.
55167		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tanti, and the vicinity of San Francisco de Las Pampas, at about 600-1,800m asl, in west-central Ecuador (Coloma 1995). The type locality, Tanti, is a farm on the highway midway between Santo Domingo de los Colorados and Alluriqu’n.
55167		habitat	eng	This species inhabits very humid premontane forest (Coloma 1995). There is no information about its breeding habits, although the larvae presumably develop in streams.
55167		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55167		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat include agricultural development (both for the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), and logging.
55168		conservation	eng	A replacement for the badly damaged holotype is required to enable much needed research into the taxonomic status of this species.
55168		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in the municipality of Ituango in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,575m asl.
55168		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter near streams in cloud forests. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.
55168		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has not been collected since the original type series.
55168		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
55169		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to both encourage the protection of remaining lowland habitat as well as establish a conservation management plan that includes some form of legislation concerning trade.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptophyllobates azureiventris</span>).
55169		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Tarapoto-Yurimaguas Road, 700m asl (San Martín Department), Peru. It is presumed to have a restricted distribution.
55169		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland primary tropical rainforest, and eggs are laid under leaf-litter and the larvae are transported to small streams. Nothing is known about its adaptability to modified habitats.
55169		population	eng	It is not very common.
55169		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is general habitat loss resulting from various human activities; local people use the area for recreation and there are lots of settlements, with agricultural development, in lower areas. The species has been recorded in trade. Specimens presumably originated from illegal collection by tourists, although they may have been captive bred. However, the species has not been seen in the commercial trade over the last fifteen years.
55170		conservation	eng	The distribution range of the species might overlap with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, but its presence there has not been confirmed. There is an urgent need for further survey work to determine whether or not this species might survive at other sites near the type locality.
55170		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the eastern base of Volcán Reventador, south-west of the Río Azuela bridge on the Quito-Lago Agrio road, in Napo Province, at 1,700m asl, on the Amazonian versant of the Andes in Ecuador.
55170		habitat	eng	The type locality is a forested ridge, which has a relatively low canopy and is exceedingly dense in most places. This forest is cool and very damp, with a conspicuous moss layer and many epiphytes on the tree trunks. Specimens have been found by day, on or close to the ground, in the forest and in adjacent new clearings. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the tadpoles are carried on the back of the adults one by one to bromeliads, where they develop.
55170		population	eng	It no longer survives at its only known locality, but there is a small chance that it survives elsewhere in localities that have not yet been surveyed.
55170		threats	eng	Patches of forest at the type locality have been cleared for agriculture and livestock farming. The species also could have been affected by the synergistic effects of chytridiomycosis and climate change.
55171		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Utria. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55171		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range around Alto del Buey, on the Serrania Baudo, in Choco Department, Colombia, between 980 and 1,070m asl.
55171		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground and in bromeliads in very humid pre-montane forests in the Pacific region of Colombia. There is no information on breeding, but it is probable that the eggs are laid in leaf-litter, and that the tadpoles are carried by the adults to bromeliads. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats.
55171		population	eng	There is little information on its population status.
55171		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species, though it is likely that some populations are threatened by habitat loss due mainly to smallholder agricultural activities, logging, and human settlement. It might also be collected for the pet trade.
55172		conservation	eng	The only protected area from which it is currently known is the Reserva Nacional Alpahuayo Mishana. The taxonomy of this species requires resolution.
55172		distribution	eng	This recently described species is found near to the Iquitos Region in Loreto Department, Peru, where it is present below 200m asl. It is believed that it might range more widely, but further investigations are required to confirm this.
55172		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of primary lowland moist forest. Larvae are deposited in phytotelms.
55172		population	eng	There is nothing known about its population status.
55172		threats	eng	While this species might be threatened by trade, it is currently not possible to determine whether or not individuals being traded are captive-bred or wild-caught (or, if they are wild-caught, whether or not this species is being over-harvested). This species is threatened by the habitat loss occurring through agricultural activities in the south of the protected area in which it is found.
55173		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Internacional La Amistad and Bosque Protector Palo Seco. Further research and survey work is needed to ascertain the possible negative impacts of trade and chytrid.
55173		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western cordilleras and Atlantic lowlands of Panama. It occurs up to at least 1,120m asl.
55173		habitat	eng	This is a phytotelmic canopy species of humid lowland and montane forest, with breeding taking place in bromeliads.
55173		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
55173		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to logging, livestock ranching and human settlement. The level of trade in this species is not known. It is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis.
55174		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, and the species occurs within many protected areas. Within Colombia, Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. Nicaragua has established CITES export quotas for this species.
55174		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the humid lowlands from southeastern Nicaragua on the Atlantic slope and southeastern Costa Rica on the Pacific versant to northwestern Colombia (Golfo de Uraba on the Caribbean coast and the lower Atrato River drainage and Bahia Solano on the Pacific coast) (sea level up to 1,000m asl). In 1932, 206 specimens of <em>D. auratus</em> from Taboga or Taboguilla Islands, Panama were released in the upper Manoa Valley, Oahu, Hawaii in an attempt to control non-native insects (Silverstone, 1975; McKeown, 1996). A few feral populations of <em>D. auratus</em> descended from these animals still persist in the mountains and valleys of Oahu.
55174		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and terrestrial diurnal species of humid lowland and submontane forest. It is also found in dense secondary growth and cocoa plantations (Kitasako, 1967). The adults are often associated large buttressed trees. Males are essentially non-territorial, but occasionally engage in aggressive competition (Wells, 1978). The species is polygynous; females actively compete for males and attempt to guard their mate from others. The species shows a high degree of paternal care. After oviposition upon leaf-litter the male guards and cares for the clutch of three to 13 eggs (Silverstone, 1975; Schafer, 1981; Heselhaus, 1992). On hatching (13-16 days in captivity) the tadpoles are carried by the male to a stagnant water body in a tree-hole, the leaf axil of a bromeliad (up to 30m from the forest floor), or a small ground pool (Eaton, 1941; van Wijngaarden, 1990). Wild tadpoles feed on protozoans and rotifers, and metamorphose after 39-89 days; in captivity, sexual maturity is attained at between six and 15 months (Eaton, 1941; Silverstone, 1975; Summers, 1990; Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994). A reduction in the number of egg clutches and tadpoles maintained by the male results in a more rapid development of the eggs and higher growth rate of tadpoles (Wells, 1978; Summers, 1990). Longevity of at least six years reported in captivity (Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994).
55174		population	eng	This is an abundant species that is often seen and regularly recorded throughout its range. There is great geographic variation in the appearance of this species; over 15 distinct colour morphs of wild <em>D. auratus</em> have been recorded. (Heselhaus, 1992). The blue morph of <em>D. auratus</em> present on the Pacific side of Panama is believed to be threatened with extinction (Heselhaus, 1992).
55174		threats	eng	There is a general loss of suitably wooded areas and collection for the international pet trade. Owing to the apparently low fecundity of this species, the possibility exists that over harvesting, especially in the more rare morphs, might contribute to localized population declines. Approximately 18,500 specimens of <em>D. auratus</em> were reported in trade over the period 1991 to 1996. The great majority of specimens were live animals, exported from Nicaragua, and presumably destined for the herpetological pet market. The USA was by far the largest single importer of <em>D. auratus</em> (about 15,000 animals in total) during this period. It is believed that the trade in Nicaragua was decreasing by 2002 because of over collection. McKeown (1996) states that populations on Oahu are highly sensitive to destruction of their habitat and over collection. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, the current impact of this pathogen on <em>D. auratus</em> is not known.
55176		conservation	eng	Present in Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park and Tambopata National Reserve, Peru.
55176		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the lower Amazonian in Southeastern Peru (Departamentos: Cusco, Madre de Dios). Brazilian range is inferred from records close to the international border. Expected to occur in Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is from 200-300m asl.
55176		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland moist forest. Associated with bamboo type habitats in forest. Breeds inside bamboo where it deposits larvae. Not present in modified habitat.
55176		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55176		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Their specific bamboo habitat is not threatened. There is not thought to be any trade in this species. There is minor shifting cultivation within the species' range.
55177		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. It is also necessary to review international legislation regarding the illegal trade of this species.
55177		distribution	eng	This species is known from both flanks of the western Andes, in the department of Valle del Cauca, and from the western flank of the central Andes, in the departments of Quindio and Risaralda, in Colombia, between 1,580 and 2,100m asl.
55177		habitat	eng	It occurs on the lowest stratum and on bromeliads in cloud forests and very dry forests. Eggs are laid in the leaf-litter, and the larvae develop in bromeliads.
55177		population	eng	It is a common species, but it is believed to be declining.
55177		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation caused by agricultural expansion, timber extraction, crop fumigation, and the removal of bromeliads is a major threat. This species is also collected illegally for the pet trade.
55178		conservation	eng	<p>This species is presumed to occur within the Santiago-Comaina Reserve as it was found in close vicinity to this protected area (E. Twomey pers. comm August 2011). More research is needed on this species' distribution, population trends and threats.</p>
55178		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species&#160;<span lang="EN-US">occurs in northwestern&#160;Peru, where it is known only from the lowland valley formed between the Cordillera del&#160;Condor and the Cerros de Campanquis, and from southern Ecuador, near Panguintza, at approximately 800 m asl. (Twomey and Brown&#160;2008; E. Twomey pers. comm. August 2011).&#160;The type series collected in 1929 and the majority of the specimens found in 2006 come from the same area,&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">the&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">south bank of&#160;the Río Marañón at the mouth of the Río Santiago in Amazonian Peru&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;2008). Only a single individual was found in&#160;the north bank of the&#160;Marañón east of Río Santiago&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;2008). This species is believed to be restricted to that region where it occurs from approximately 177 to 400 m asl,&#160;but it also could possibly occur at higher elevations in the&#160;Cordillera del Condor as a population of this species was reported from that area (20 km&#160;northeast of Santa Rosa)&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">by Mark Pepper in 2007&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;2008)<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">.&#160;Further survey efforts in suitable neighbouring areas like&#160;the&#160;<span lang="EN-US">north side of the Marañón along both east and&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">west banks of the Santiago, the Cerros de&#160;Campanquis and &#160;the&#160;west bank of the Santiago 8 km from its&#160;junction with the Marañón&#160;were unsuccessful &#160;in finding this species (Twomey and Brown&#160;2008)<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be approximately 7,352 km</span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">²; however, this species is presumed to occur more widely across the Río Santiago valley and it could occur over an area of up to 14,000&#160;km</span></span></span></span></span></span><sup><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US">² (E. Twomey pers. comm. August 2011).&#160;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>
55178		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of lowland tropical moist forest&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). Individuals were found either in low-lying parts of the forest or in forest adjacent to streams&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). These streamside habitats are characterized by abundant <em>Heliconia</em>, which appears to be an important breeding site for this species as four tadpole-carrying males were found in or near <em>Heliconia</em>, suggesting these plants are used for tadpole deposition&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). Frogs not found directly in phytotelmata (term for water bodies held by plants) were usually on the ground, suggesting that this species is at least partly terrestrial.&#160;Egg deposition may also be&#160;terrestrial, as an adult pair was observed for&#160;several minutes courting in the leaf litter&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). This species has been only found within intact forest and it is unknown whether it might be able to tolerate any degree of habitat degradation ( E .Twomey pers. comm. August 2011).
55178		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It had not been seen alive since 1929 (Myers 1982), until 17 individuals were found during an expedition to its type locality in 2006.&#160;The valley’s inaccessible nature (this valley is only accessible from the east, by river via the Pongo de Manseriche, a gorge that constricts the 750-m-wide Marañón to a 120-m-wide rapid) and dangerous indigenous unrest (the Santiago valley is inhabited by Huambisa and Aguaruna natives, who, until recently, engaged in regular intertribal combat) prohibited exploration for 77 years before this first known herpetological survey of this region in 2006&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">(Twomey and Brown&#160;2008), which reported the presence of this species from the Rio Marañón's banks. This frog is common within its known distribution range and only in two small areas of the Santiago valley was it found in high&#160;densities&#160;(E. Twomey pers. comm. August 2011). This suggests that this species may be continuously distributed in seemingly homogeneous lowland&#160;habitat&#160;(E. Tomey pers. comm. August 2011).&#160;</span></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>
55178		threats	eng	<p>There has been illegal gold mining in the Santiago valley but it is unknown how this minor threat might affect the species (E. Twomey pers. comm. August 2011).&#160;Chytrid infection and Bd tests (test for the&#160;epizootic amphibian fungal parasite <em>Batrachochytrium&#160;dendrobatidis)&#160;</em>were consistently negatives for adults and tadpoles although due to the small sample this will need further verification&#160;(Twomey and Brown&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).</p><p></p>
55179		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range.
55179		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Cachoeira Juruá, Rio Xingu, Pará state, Brazil; from about 300km to the northwest of the type locality, Taperinha, Pará state, Brazil; and from Flona Tapajos, Santarem, Pará state, Brazil. It is probably more widespread than currently recognized.
55179		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of the tropical rainforest. It uses the water inside the "ouriço" of Brazil nuts and small temporary pools for reproduction. Eggs are laid on the ground and the tadpoles are carried to pools to develop.
55179		population	eng	It is common where it is found.
55179		threats	eng	Forest conversion, logging, fire and the international pet trade are threats to this species.
55180		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II, but it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into its range and ecology, and its potential conservation measures.
55180		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Isla Loma Partida and Isla Popa in Bocas del Toro Province, Panama, where it is found from 5-140m asl. It possibly has a larger range than is currently known.
55180		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland forest. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor, and adults carry the larvae to phytotelms for their development.
55180		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
55180		threats	eng	The pet trade is a potential threat to this species, although current levels of exploitation are unclear.
55181		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru it is present in Reserva Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo.
55181		distribution	eng	This species is recently described from northern Peru (Departamento: Loreto) and the eastern lowlands of Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 200-500m asl.
55181		habitat	eng	Found in primary lowland tropical rainforest on leaf-litter. This small diurnal frog is most frequently seen on logs or among leaf-litter in humid forest. Presumed to deposit larvae in bromeilads, this requires confirmation. Not present in modified habitats.
55181		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55181		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized loss of primary forest. The impact of the pet trade on this species is not known. It is believed not to be a popular species, and is little traded. There is no official trade of the species from Peru or Ecuador; illegal exports of this species are thought to have occurred from Ecuador.
55182		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Escalera Regional Conservation Area (J. L. Brown pers. comm. August 2011), although it is not known to what degree the area's boundaries are enforced. However, given habitat loss outside this area and within the species' range, habitat protection should be prioritized. The implementation of conservation and management programmes is important. There is a management programme under way for the species (ASPRAVEP Project). Monitoring of harvest levels for the pet trade is needed, as is legislation regulating trade and enforcement of this legislation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranitomeya fantastica</span> is covered in Appendix II of CITES as <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrobates fantasticus</span>.
55182		distribution	eng	This Peruvian endemic occurs north of the Río Mayo and along the  Río Huallaga, in the Regions of San Martín and Loreto, Peru. Northernmost populations can be found along the   Río Panapura, near Yurimaguas, while the northern spur of Cordillera Azul near Chazuta comprises the southernmost limit of its range (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011). It has an altitudinal range of 180-1,200 m asl  (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011). It is known from 13 geographical localities and threat-defined locations  (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011), and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be about 5,318 km<sup>2</sup> based on the minimum area polygon.
55182		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species found only in older secondary growth and primary wet forests where arboreal phytotelms are common (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011). This frog uses phytotelmata (water-holding plants) to breed, where females usually deposit 2-5 eggs ( J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011) and males will then guard and tend the eggs, and later transport and deposit larvae (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011). Some subpopulations are quite arboreal (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011).  It is not known to occur in overly modified habitats  (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011).
55182		population	eng	It appears to be rare or uncommonly seen within its range (J. L. Brown, E. Twomey and T. R. Kahn pers. comm. July 2011), although on occasion it can be locally abundant (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011). Individuals are collected for the pet trade. Its global population is not considered to be severely fragmented following IUCN's guidelines.
55182		threats	eng	Harvesting for the international pet trade is an important ongoing threat, but so is habitat loss. Much of this frog's habitat is close to human settlements, making it more vulnerable to habitat destruction and degradation.
55183		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in the Reserva Comunal Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo, but this requires further investigation. It is also not clear that it represents a valid taxon, so further taxonomic research is required to resolve this confusion.
55183		distribution	eng	This species' range is not known. It is possible that it was collected from a small region in the Ucayali drainage in Loreto Department, Peru, but this is not certain and no map can be produced for this species.
55183		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in lowland tropical moist forest. It probably breeds by larval development, but it is not known where the adults deposit the larvae.
55183		population	eng	There is nothing known about the population status of this species.
55183		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55184		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Chagres and Area de Manejo Especial Nusagandi in Panama, and occurs in several protected areas in Colombia.
55184		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the central and eastern cordilleras of Panama to the Pacific lowlands of Colombia as far south as the lower River Anchicaya. Its recorded altitudinal range is 160-800m in Colombia, perhaps higher in Panama.
55184		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland forest. The eggs are deposited on the forest floor, and the adults carry the larvae to plants (leaf axils, usually bromeliads) for development. It is associated with mature forest, and probably does not survive in degraded habitats.
55184		population	eng	It is considered to be common at some sites.
55184		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It appears not to be in international trade.
55185		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range.
55185		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowland forests of Pará, Maranhão and Tocantins states, Brazil. It probably occurs more widely, in particular between known sites.
55185		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of the tropical rainforest, and reproduction takes place in temporary pools. Eggs are laid on the ground and the tadpoles are carried to the water.
55185		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
55185		threats	eng	Forest conversion, logging, fire and the international pet trade are threats to this species. The populations in Tocantins state are threatened by hydroelectric development.
55186		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Corcovado.
55186		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of south-western Costa Rica, adjacent south-western Panama, and possibly in south-eastern Costa Rica, from 20-100m asl.
55186		habitat	eng	A diurnal, terrestrial species most often found in relatively undisturbed humid lowland forest, but also recorded from secondary forest and plantations. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor and the female transports the tadpoles to bromeliads to complete metamorphosis.
55186		population	eng	It is common in Costa Rica.
55186		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, selective logging, and human settlement. The current level of offtake of specimens for the international trade is unknown.
55187		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
55187		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific Lowlands of Colombia, in the Departments of Antioquia, Choco, and Valle del Cauca, from sea level up to 1,000m.
55187		habitat	eng	It lives mostly on the ground in tropical rainforests, but it can be found also perching on leaves at different levels above ground. It can survive in secondary forest, and in small plantations, but not in open areas. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are transported to bromeliads by the female.
55187		population	eng	It is a common species.
55187		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species is also sometimes collected illegally for the international pet trade and the medicinal trade, but it is not clear that this has a significant impact on its populations.
55188		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Treated in National legislation as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19-1999).
55188		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the lower Amazonian in north central eastern Perú (Departamentos: Huánuco, Loreto, San Martín). Its altitudinal range is from 200-700m asl.
55188		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of primary lowland tropical moist forest. Phytotelm breeder. Not thought to occur in modified habitats.
55188		population	eng	Can be common where it occurs.
55188		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture. Small-scale illegal trade in this species has been observed.
55189		conservation	eng	Present in lowland zone of Yanachaga Chemillen National Park, Oxapampa Province. There is no official exportation of this CITES App. II species from Peru.
55189		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is lower Amazonian in central eastern Peru (Departamentos: Huánuco, Pasco). Its altitudinal range is from 400-1,200m asl. It might occur more widely.
55189		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of premontane and lowland moist tropical forest. It breeds in phytotelms. Can occur in coffee plantations and other non-intensive crops, not present in dense monoculture.
55189		population	eng	It is relatively common where it occurs.
55189		threats	eng	No major threats, an adaptable widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Severe habitat loss might lead to a localized decline in the species. Specimens have been reported in trade, however the impact of trade on wild populations of the species is incompletely known. It is presumed that wild caught specimens have been illegally exported by tourists; there is no official exportation of the species from Peru. Trade levels are suspected to be low but require further investigation.
55190		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55190		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from two localities in Colombia on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental: west of Dagua at 850-1,200m on the south-facing versant of the upper Río Anchicayá drainage, Department of Valle del Cauca; and from Alto del Oso near San José del Palmar in the Department of Chocó. Its overall altitudinal range is between 600 and 1,200m asl. Records from the Serrania de Baudo in the Department of Chocó (not mapped) require confirmation.
55190		habitat	eng	It lives mostly on the ground in submontane tropical rainforests, but it can also be found perching on leaves up to 60cm above ground. It is not found in heavily degraded areas, but does occur in mature secondary forest. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the tadpoles are carried on the backs of the females to bromeliads, where they develop. The females feed the tadpoles on unfertilized eggs.
55190		population	eng	It is a locally common species in its tiny range.
55190		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss and degradation, as a result of agricultural development (illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution, resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It occasionally appears in the illegal pet trade.
55191		conservation	eng	Some populations live within protected areas south of the Orinoco river in Venezuela. It is considered in the Venezuelan Red Data Book as Lower Risk, Least Concern. It is listed under Appendix II of CITES (listed 22-10-1987), and in the European Community, it is listed under regulation 338/97, Annex B, listed on 01-06-1997 (Walls 1994; Cites web-site). It breeds easily in captivity.
55191		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guianan Orinoco drainage of Venezuela north to the Río Orinoco (in Bolívar and Amazonas States), east into Guyana to the Essequibo River, south into extreme northern Brazil, and west into eastern Amazonian Colombia. In Venezuela it has been recorded from sea level up to 500m asl.
55191		habitat	eng	This brightly coloured diurnal frog is found in leaf-litter, on the ground, on open rocks, near rivers and rivulets, under logs and on trunks of fallen or inclined vegetation in tropical rainforests. During the dry season, specimens congregate under rocks and fallen tree-trunks. Eggs are laid out of water, and the tadpoles are then carried to streams where they develop further. It is adaptable to some habitat disturbance.
55191		population	eng	It is a common species.
55191		threats	eng	Agriculture, logging and fire are threats to the species' habitat. It is also in the international pet trade.
55192		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix II of CITES. The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
55192		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Panama (within El Valle and Cerro Campana, in the central areas of the country and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras), south to Colombia (south to Río Saija). It occurs below 1,000m, generally much lower.
55192		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland forest. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the tadpoles are carried on the back of the male to bromeliads, where they develop. It is not found in degraded habitats, but does occur in mature secondary forest.
55192		population	eng	It is very abundant in some areas.
55192		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Unlike most species of Dendrobates this species is not collected for the pet trade.
55193		conservation	eng	Reportedly present in the Cordillera del Cóndor Reserve, this species is also protected by national legislation. Further research into the distribution and population status of the species is necessary, and there is a need to monitor its presence in international trade.
55193		distribution	eng	This species is currently known with certainty only from a single location in the vicinity of the town of Santa Rosa at the foothills of the Cordillera del Cóndor (Cajamarca Department), north-eastern Peru, at around 1,000m asl.
55193		habitat	eng	It has only been recorded from primary premontane forest, with breeding taking place in bromeliads.
55193		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. Much of the area is deforested and populations are only known from forest remnants that remain on some steep cliffs and slopes.
55193		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat clearance for agricultural use (including pastureland and coffee cultivation). Recently, a few specimens have also been reported in international trade.
55194		conservation	eng	Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July 1985 forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55194		distribution	eng	This species is known only from La Brea, near Patia River, Guangui, Cauca Department, in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, where it has been recorded between 50 and 200m asl. It is not known if it occurs more widely.
55194		habitat	eng	This species lives mainly on the ground in undisturbed, lowland rainforest, but it can also be found perching on leaves at different levels above the ground. There are no degraded habitats within its tiny known range, and so its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown. There is no information on its breeding habits, but it is likely to be similar to <em>Dendrobates histrionicus</em>, where the eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are transported to bromeliads by the female.
55194		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon in its only known locality.
55194		threats	eng	There is little direct information on threats to this species, but the major threats are likely to include deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and also pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. This species has never been involved in the international pet trade.
55195		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Measures need to be put in place to ensure levels of offtake of this species from the wild are sustainable. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55195		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the central and western Andes, in Antioquia Department, to the eastern slope of the central Andes, in Caldas Department, Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,160 and 2,200m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
55195		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in leaf-litter in montane forest, although it may also climb on vegetation in the interior of primary forest. It lays its eggs in leaf-litter and the tadpoles develop in bromeliads.
55195		population	eng	It is a common species.
55195		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss/degradation, due to agriculture, logging and fire, and pollution as a result of the fumigation of crops. It is also harvested illegally for the international pet trade.
55196		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and is found in several protected areas within its range. A well-studied population of <em>O. pumilio</em> is present in the Finca La Selva Biological Reserve, northeastern Costa Rica (Donnelly, 1989; Limerick, 1980; McVey, 1981; Pröhl, 1997); populations are suspected to occur in Braulio Carrillo National Park, Corcovado National Park, and Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica. Within Panama the species is present in a number of protected areas including Isla Bastimentos National Marine Park within the Bocas del Toro archipelago (Summers <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Nicaragua has established a CITES 2001 export quota of 3,450 specimens for this species.
55196		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the Atlantic versant, humid lowlands, and premontane slopes in eastern central Nicaragua (0-940m asl) south through the lowlands of Costa Rica and northwestern Panama (including many islands in Bocas del Toro), from 1-495m asl (Savage, 2002).
55196		habitat	eng	A diurnal and mostly terrestrial frog of humid lowland and premontane forest, cacao plantations, and abandoned forest clearings. Males appear to be fiercely territorial; individual territories have been estimated at 2.5 m2 (Donnelly, 1983). Observations concerning mating behaviour suggest that some <em>O. pumilio</em> are at times polygynous (McVey <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Donnelly, 1989; Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994). Females lay a clutch of three to nine eggs in moist leaf-litter; clutch sizes in captive specimens of six to 16 eggs have been recorded (Limerick, 1980; Silverstone, 1975). There appears to be no information on the number of clutches laid annually. <em>O. pumilio</em> eggs hatch approximately seven days after oviposition, adults then carry the developed tadpoles from the forest floor to water filled bromeliads (Limerick, 1980). <em>O. pumilio</em> tadpoles have a very specialized oophagous diet, feeding solely on food eggs supplied by the female (Heselhaus, 1992; McVey <em>et al.</em>; 1981, Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994). There is little available information on wild larval development; Heselhaus (1992) reports that captive tadpoles fed an artificial diet ‘grow slowly, taking four to six months, a third longer than with natural feeding, to reach metamorphosis’. Sexual maturity is reached at a minimum size of 19mm (approximately 10 months). There are few data on longevity; Donnelly (1983) concluded that the population at Finca La Selva, Costa Rica was mostly comprised of ‘long-lived’ adults; Zimmermann and Zimmermann (1994) gave longevity of 4 years for captive <em>O. pumilio</em>.
55196		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range. The species exhibits significant colour and pattern polymorphism especially among populations in the Bocas del Toro archipelago of Panama (Summers <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Populations in forest habitat at La Selva, Costa Rica, seem to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).
55196		threats	eng	Habitat loss and over-collection for the pet trade are the principal threats to this species. It is believed that the species is currently being unsustainably collected, and because of the apparently low fecundity of this species, the possibility exists that over-harvesting might lead to localized population declines. Distinct island forms are particularly susceptible to both over-collection, and the development of islands for tourism purposes. The great majority of reported trade over the period 1991 to 1996 was in live animals, presumably by the herpetological pet market. The largest overall exporter of <em>O. pumilio</em> between 1991 and 1996 was Nicaragua (>95% of exports); the USA consistently accounted for over 80% of recorded live <em>O. pumilio</em> imports from Nicaragua during this period. Current export levels from range states are not known. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, the current impact of this pathogen on <em>O. pumilio</em> is not known. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
55197		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range.
55197		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Amazonia, in the Rio Madeira drainage of western Brazil, although it is known definitively only from Rondônia and adjacent Amazonas, and also Iquitos, Peru.
55197		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the forest floor in the tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs out of the water on a leaf, and the tadpoles are carried to the seasonal water sources including bromeliads.
55197		population	eng	It is abundant.
55197		threats	eng	Forest conversion, fire, logging and mining are threats to this species.
55198		conservation	eng	It is present in Alpahuayo Mishana Reserve (Peru). In Peru there is National legislation to treat as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19-1999). This species should remain listed on CITES to prevent unsustainable trade. It is illegal to export the species from either Ecuador or Peru.
55198		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Iquitos and Yurimaguas Region, Loreto, northeastern Perú, and from two sites in Ecuador. A lowland species found below 200 m asl.
55198		habitat	eng	This diurnal frog occurs in primary and secondary lowland tropical rainforest; it is mostly terrestrial but also climbs tree trunks (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It breeds in phytotelms, and may be found in mature secondary forest.
55198		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Peru, rare in Ecuador.
55198		threats	eng	Currently there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Illegal trade in this species has been observed (from 1987 to 1995), possibly caused through confusion of this species with a legally exportable species.
55199		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55199		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens collected somewhere in Pasco or Junin Departments, Peru. Its exact range is not known and so its range has not been mapped. The altitudinal range is suggested to be 600-1,500m asl.
55199		habitat	eng	This is presumably a tropical forest species that deposits eggs in the leaf-litter and carries its young to streams to complete their development.
55199		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens, so its population status is unknown.
55199		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55200		conservation	eng	It is present in the Reserva Comunal El Sira, an indigenous people's reserve. Strengthened management may be necessary to ensure the maintenance of this species' habitat.
55200		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cordillera El Sira (in the departments of Huanuco, Pasco, Ucayali), Peru, at an altitude of 750-1,000m asl. This is a single isolated mountain, so the species is probably restricted to this area.
55200		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of primary montane cloud forest, and is presumed to use phytotelms for breeding. It is not known if it can occur in secondary or modified habitats.
55200		population	eng	Nothing is known of its population status, although it is likely to be rare.
55200		threats	eng	Although the restricted area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some disturbance due to farming and human settlement. In addition, the lower parts of the range are subject to selective logging.
55201		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the protected areas of Bosque Protector Palo Seco and Parque Internacional La Amistad. Further research is needed into the current population status of the species, and some form of management or legislation needs to be put in place in order to control the level of offtake for the pet trade.
55201		distribution	eng	This species is a Panamanian endemic of the western Cordillera Central adjacent to Costa Rica. It is present at around 1,370m asl.
55201		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest, with breeding taking place in plants.
55201		population	eng	The species was formerly considered to be common, but its current population status is not known.
55201		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. It is also subject to collection for the pet trade.
55202		conservation	eng	Cerro Yapacana is a Venezuelan natural monument, like most other tepuis in the region. Surveys are necessary to monitor the population trends of this species. Measures are also required to combat illegal trade of this species, and to regulate the mining activities so that the survival of the species is not jeopardised.
55202		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Cerro Yapacana, at elevations from 600-1,300m asl, in Amazonas state, Venezuela.
55202		habitat	eng	It occurs in terrestrial bromeliads in montane tepui forest. Breeding probably takes place in bromeliads.
55202		population	eng	According to Gorzula and Señaris (1999) this frog is exceedingly common in bromeliads on the summit, and it is possible to collect hundreds in just a few hours. It is still found in great numbers.
55202		threats	eng	Intensive open gold mining in the area is a major threat to the species' habitat. Barrio and Fuentes (1999) reported the illegal collection and exportation of some 150 specimens to Germany, and other collections for scientific purposes. Wildfires might also be a threat to the species' habitat.
55203		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia. In Ecuador, its range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55203		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Colombia (in Cauca and Narino Departments) and north-western Ecuador (in Pichincha, Esmeraldas, Imbabura, and Los Rios Provinces). It occurs from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
55203		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and submontane rainforest and can survive in moderately degraded areas, at least in the more humid parts of its range. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are transported to bromeliads by the female.
55203		population	eng	It is very common in Colombia but has disappeared from most of its range in Ecuador, only still surviving in the north of its range in that country.
55203		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, mining and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is sometimes recorded in the international pet trade.
55204		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. This species breeds easily in captivity, and is found in zoos around the world.
55204		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowland forests of the Guianas and adjacent Brazil. A point locality map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 600m asl.
55204		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor of tropical rainforest. Its eggs are laid out of water, and then the tadpoles are carried by the males to puddles (tree holes, etc) where they develop further.
55204		population	eng	It is locally common in French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001). Elsewhere it is common but patchily distributed.
55204		threats	eng	It is illegally collected for the pet trade.
55205		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes at least two protected areas on the Atlantic Coast. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Maintaining the CITES listing of this species is necessary to ensure its survival.
55205		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on the western flank of the eastern Andes, and the eastern flank of the central Andes, in Colombia, between 350 and 1,200m elevation.
55205		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical humid, dry and very dry forests, on the lowest stratum of the forests, in the Caribbean and Andean region. The eggs are terrestrial and the adults then carry the tadpoles to temporary pools, where the tadpoles develop further. It is also known from disturbed habitats such as banana plantations, although it does require that the habitat be not entirely cleared.
55205		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55205		threats	eng	This species was popular in the pet trade but is now listed by CITES. It is very difficult to breed in captivity. There are no major threats to the species at present. It could be threatened by the pet trade if the CITES status was lifted.
55206		conservation	eng	Within Brazil there are a number of protected areas (conservation units) present within its range.
55206		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range includes east-central Peru (Huanuco, Pasco and Ucayali Departments) and adjacent Brazil. It has not yet been recorded from Bolivia, but is expected to occur there. It has an altitudinal range of below 300m asl.
55206		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding takes place in small tree holes, tadpoles are carried to water by the parents. It is not known if it can occur in secondary or modified habitats.
55206		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55206		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable protected habitat remaining. In Brazil there is localized forest conversion for agricultural purposes. There is possibly some illegal trade in this species.
55207		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, but it is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55207		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from higher areas next to the road from Tarapoto to Yurimaguas, from 900-1,200m asl in San Martin Department, Peru, although it is possible that it might range more widely.
55207		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary tropical moist forest, so its adapatability to degraded habitats is not known. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, although reproduction presumably takes place by larval development.
55207		population	eng	There is nothing known about its population status.
55207		threats	eng	Its threats include loss of habitat to agricultural development and collection of wood for subsistence purposes. Trade in this species has been observed at low levels.
55208		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55208		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon drainage basin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil, from the foothills of the Andes east to the mouth of the Amazon and north into eastern French Guiana, at below 400m asl.
55208		habitat	eng	This diurnal frog has been found in tropical rainforest, in epiphytes growing on trees, and in leaf-litter on the forest floor (Ron, 2001). At Lago Agrio, Ecuador, individuals have been collected on the ground in primary forest (Duellman, 1978). The eggs are laid on the ground, and the tadpoles are carried to the water in bromeliads. It has been seen 40m above the forest floor.
55208		population	eng	Its abundance varies throughout its range, it is common in Colombia while it is rare in Ecuador.
55208		threats	eng	Clear cutting, forest conversion, logging, fire, human settlement and water pollution (near Belem city) are threats to this species.
55209		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a protected area (Parque Nacional General de División Omar Torrijos Herrera).
55209		distribution	eng	This Panamanian endemic has been recorded from a single locality in the continental divide in Coclé Province on the Atlantic coast. It is arboreal, and difficult to survey, and consequently its range is considered to be incompletely known. The altitudinal range of this species might be 4-912m asl, although this requires further investigation.
55209		habitat	eng	It is a largely arboreal species of humid tropical lowland and montane forest. Breeding takes place in arboreal vegetation, and adults then transport larvae to forest streams to develop.
55209		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
55209		threats	eng	The main threats are general habitat loss (destruction of natural forests) due to agricultural development and logging, and potentially over-collection for the pet trade.
55210		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55210		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, from Río Anchicaya in Valle del Cauca Department, to Río Saija in Cauca Department, between 100 and 1,200m asl.
55210		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground and in bromeliads in primary and good secondary, lowland and sub-montane forests. The tadpoles presumably are deposited in bromeliads.
55210		population	eng	It is very common.
55210		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation due to agricultural development (including planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of crops. Unlike other species of the genus, it has not been recorded in international trade.
55211		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Santuaro de Fauna y Flora Guanentá, improved habitat protection is required, and there is a need to monitor and regulate the offtake of this species for international trade. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.
55211		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Santuaro de Fauna y Flora Guanentá, Alto Río Fonce, Río Cañaverales and El Reloj; and also in Municipio de Socorro, Santander Department, Colombia, at 1,700-2,000m asl.
55211		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of cloud forest, and only occurs in secondary forest if there is a lot of leaf-litter and bromeliads (since it lays its eggs in leaf-litter and the males bring the larvae to the bromeliads).
55211		population	eng	It is common, with many recent records.
55211		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation and loss is the main threat, and is taking place primarily due to agricultural expansion. This species is also found in the pet trade.
55212		conservation	eng	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, and the type locality is within the private Reserva Natural La Planada.
55212		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, La Planada, Altaquer, in Nariño Department, on the western flank of the western Andes, Colombia, between 700 and 2,020m asl. It occurs in a poorly explored region, and might range more widely.
55212		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforests and cloud forests, and also along forest edges, provided they are moist, in the Pacific Andean region. Eggs are laid on the ground and the male carries the larvae to streams where they develop further.
55212		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55212		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, the habitat outside the reserve in which it is found is threatened by habitat fragmentation and loss caused by expansion of agriculture, timber extraction, and chemical spraying of crops. Assuming that this species' range extends outside the reserve, its habitat must also be threatened by these processes.
55213		conservation	eng	It is not known with certainty if it occurs in any protected areas. The impact on it of collection for medicinal use and commercial trade in wild specimens should be monitored.
55213		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Ecuador (in El Oro, Azuay and Loja Provinces) and north-western Peru (in Ancash, Piura and Tumbes regions), west of the Andes, at 153-1,769m asl. The record from Ancash, Peru, is doubtful (E. Lehr pers. comm.). It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
55213		habitat	eng	It lives in equatorial dry forest near streams and can be found in altered habitats. It lays its eggs in leaf-litter, and the males carry the larvae to running and standing water where they continue their development.
55213		population	eng	In southern Ecuador this is an abundant species.
55213		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agrochemical pollution of waterways, and is also collected for medicinal use in Ecuador (although not currently in sufficient numbers to be a threat).
55214		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but possibly occurs in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul and the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo.
55214		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon drainage of Peru, from the eastern foothills of the Andes east to the Río Huallaga, in the departaments of Huánuco and San Martín, from 270-1,200m asl.
55214		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species of lowland and montane tropical moist forest that can be found in both primary and slightly degraded habitat. Eggs are deposited on the ground and the larvae are then transported to streams by the male.
55214		population	eng	It can be extremely common where it occurs.
55214		threats	eng	There is significant habitat loss within its range due to agricultural activities (mostly coffee plantations).
55215		conservation	eng	In Ecuador its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuni, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, and Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Cuyabeno. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55215		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ecuadorian Amazon Basin in Napo moist forests in the Eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone, and from the department of Putumayo (between Alto Río Caquetá) in Colombia. It occurs between 200-700m asl.
55215		habitat	eng	This species lives in leaf-litter close to streams of primary and secondary Terra Firme forest and seasonal flooded forest. It has also been recorded from ant nests in banana plantations. Eggs are laid in leaf-litter and when hatched the males carry the tadpoles to small temporary or permanent pools on their backs and the tadpoles develop in these pools. It is not known from any anthropogenic habitats.
55215		population	eng	It is a common species in primary forest but is usually found in lower densities in secondary forest.
55215		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to the species. The natural vegetation of 27.2% of its distribution area (as defined by the GAA polygon) has been cleared by 1996 (based on Sierra, 1999 map).
55216		conservation	eng	Its range includes Pilan Lajas Biosphere Reserve.
55216		distribution	eng	This species was originally known at the foot of the western Andes in Bolivia. It was recorded in San Carlos and San Ernesto (the type locality), in the department of La Paz. It was rediscovered in Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve by Gonzales <em>et al.</em> (1999) after a century, and is now known from an additional two localities. It has been recorded from 800-1,400m asl.
55216		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species from the Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Populations are also found in disturbed habitat such as pastureland. It lays its eggs terrestrially, and then the tadpoles are carried on the backs of males to streams, or small waterbodies, where they develop further.
55216		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55216		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
55217		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje, Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia, such as Gorgona Natural National Park. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
55217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern part of the Colombian Pacific Lowlands (in Gorgona Island, Nariño, Cauca, Valle del Cauca Departments) and in the northwestern lowlands of Ecuador (in Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Imbabura Provinces). It occurs below 1,460m asl.
55217		habitat	eng	It lives in on the ground in dense moist tropical rainforests. It can also be found in altered zones, such as gardens and railway tunnels. The species has been found to be associated to open areas (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003).<br><br>The eggs are laid on the ground and the males transport all the larvae together to small streams.
55217		population	eng	It is a common species. It was found to be the most abundant species in Gorgona Island (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003).
55217		threats	eng	The major threats are: deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Also, chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat. Although it is somewhat adaptable, it disappears if the habitat is far too open and therefore too dry. It appears in the international pet trade, but it is not known whether or not this is a significant threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a possible future threat.
55218		conservation	eng	It occurs in two national Parks, Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães and Parque Nacional do Pantanal.
55218		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso), from two nearby localities (Barra do Bugres and Cáceres, Mato Grosso), from Aquidauana, Mato Grosso do Sul, and from Santa Rita do Araguaia, in Goias, Brazil. It was collected in the Upper Negro region of the Pantanal.
55218		habitat	eng	Individuals were found amidst leaf-litter in gallery forests in the Cerrado, which is also its breeding habitat. The eggs are laid on land and then the larvae are deposited in streams where they develop further. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55218		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55218		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fire is threats to the species' habitat.
55219		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas. Improved habitat protection is required at sites where this species is known to occur.
55219		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and adjacent areas including the Tarapoto-Yurimaguas road (San Martín Department) in Peru. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known. It has been recorded up to 600m asl.
55219		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland tropical moist forest and "rolling hills", and can be found in primary and possibly slightly degraded habitats. The breeding habitat is not known, although the larvae are presumably deposited in water.
55219		population	eng	There is nothing known about the population status of this species.
55219		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of forest habitat through agriculture (coffee), livestock production, and subsistence wood collection. The species has not been recorded from international trade.
55220		conservation	eng	Its range includes the protected area of Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul. Further taxonomic research is required to determine whether or not this species is conspecific with <em>Colostethus whymperi</em>.
55220		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities. The first is the type locality: Río Palenque, 47km south of Santo Domingo de los Colorados, in Pichincha Province, north-western Ecuador, at 170m asl. The second is Montañas de Bilsa, in Esmeraldas Province. It is likely to occur at least a little more widely. This species has been recorded from 225-450m asl.
55220		habitat	eng	These frogs are apparently restricted to creek systems in tropical wet forest. At the type locality, the forest along these creeks has a somewhat broken canopy with significant amounts of bamboo and other secondary growth vegetation mixed with the tall trees. The relief is rather steep and much of the openness of the canopy appears to be due to tree falls, although there has been some cutting in the area (Vigle and Miyata 1980). The eggs are laid terrestrially and the larvae are then deposited in creeks and streams where they develop further.
55220		population	eng	It is rare. In July 2005 it was again recorded at the type locality in small numbers (Delia and Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).
55220		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), and logging. The type locality has been completely destroyed by a banana plantation.
55221		conservation	eng	The range of <em>Epipedobates espinosai</em> does not include any protected areas, and it might no longer occur in the type locality, which has been completely altered. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55221		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Hacienda Espinosa, at about 350m asl, 9km west of Santo Domingo de los Colorados, in the province of Pichincha in north-western Ecuador.
55221		habitat	eng	If it still occurs, this species is presumably found in lowland forest. There is no reliable information on its breeding habits, although the larvae are presumably deposited in water for their development, as with other species of the genus.
55221		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, and it might have disappeared from the type locality as a result of the complete alteration of this area.
55221		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are logging and the invasive species <em>Rana catesbeiana</em>.
55222		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil and in Bolivia.
55222		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern (Minas Gerais, Goiás, and Tocantíns), northern (Pará), and northeastern (Maranhão), Brazil. It has also been recorded from five localities in the eastern Bolivian mountain ranges. It has been recorded from 400-1,500m asl.
55222		habitat	eng	A diurnal species found in rock crevices at creek margins in rupestrian fields, within the vegetation on a forest waterfall and amidst leaf-litter. Eggs are laid on the litter and tadpoles are then carried by their parents to streams where they develop further. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55222		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55222		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat. It is in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
55223		conservation	eng	Its range includes many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55223		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the "Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northwestern Bolivia, the Guianas, and Amazonian Brazil." (Frost, 2002). It occurs below elevations of 400m asl. There is one record from 1,500m asl in Colombia.
55223		habitat	eng	It occurs on the forest floor in the tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid on the leaf-litter, and the tadpoles are carried on the back to temporary pools. "Diurnal and terrestrial, this species is usually associated with fallen palm fronds, branches, and small gaps in the forest". (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994).
55223		population	eng	It is not common in the Guianas but it is common elsewhere.
55223		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species.
55224		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas near the type locality. A search for any remaining populations is urgently needed before the species is declared extinct.
55224		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Asarrio, on the Pescado River in the Amazonian lowlands, Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 200m asl. It has not been found elsewhere, and probably has a very small range.
55224		habitat	eng	The area where it was collected was lowland forest. It is probably a terrestrial and diurnal species, laying its eggs in leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to pools of water in epiphytes for development.
55224		population	eng	It is known from a single specimen, which was described in 1970. Recent work in the region has not turned up any new specimens. Given the level of habitat destruction that has taken place within its range, it could be extinct.
55224		threats	eng	The entire region where the type specimen was collected has been deforested for cattle farming since 1978.
55225		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
55225		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Nauta" (Cope 1874), which has traditionally been thought to be in Amazonian Peru in Loreto Department. However, it is far from certain that the type locality is in Peru, and it is more likely that this species comes from Panama.
55225		habitat	eng	This is possibly a lowland moist forest species that presumably breeds by larval development, but it is not known where the adults deposit the larvae.
55225		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55225		threats	eng	Its major threats are not known.
55226		conservation	eng	Present in Parque Nacional Manu and Machiguenga Communal Reserve in Peru and Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá in Brazil.
55226		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Peru, in Manu, Urubamba and Altos Purus River drainage, and also recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. It can be found in altitudes of up to 500m asl.
55226		habitat	eng	A lowland tropical moist forest species; it specifically occurs in bamboo forest. Eggs are laid on land; the adults carry the tadpoles to streams. It is not known if it can occur in degraded habitats.
55226		population	eng	It is a common species.
55226		threats	eng	No major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55227		conservation	eng	Surveys of potentially suitable habitat within the area defined as "Chiriquí" during the initial species description, are urgently required to determine the continued existence of this species, which might now be extinct.
55227		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is recorded as "Chiriquí", which at the time of description included the Atlantic versant and the Pacific versant of western Panama. Given the unspecified nature of the single locality a map cannot be produced for this species.
55227		habitat	eng	This species is largely unknown but it could have been collected from a forest habitat. The larvae presumably develop in water.
55227		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, and the level of deforestation within the region of collection might have led to its extinction.
55227		threats	eng	The main threats are principally presumed to include habitat loss given the extensive deforestation of the Chiriquí region.
55228		conservation	eng	Studies about the biology, ecology, population range and dynamics of this species are necessary. It occurs in El Pure National Park.
55228		distribution	eng	This species is found in Amazonas, Caqueta and Vaupes Departments, Colombia, at 210m asl (J. Lynch, unpubl. data). It is likely that it occurs in neighbouring areas of Brazil.
55228		habitat	eng	It occurs in the humid forests of the Amazon region. It is terrestrial and diurnal. It lays eggs in the leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to small streams for development.
55228		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was collected in 2002 and 2003 in appropriate habitat.
55228		threats	eng	In the southern part of its range, it is threatened mostly by habitat destruction caused by expanding cattle ranching activities.
55229		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with five protected areas including Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sangay and Limoncocha Reserva Biológica. In Peru, it is present in the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone.
55229		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin in southern Ecuador and northern Peru (Río Santiago), at elevations of 200-1,200m asl.
55229		habitat	eng	This diurnal leaf-litter frog occurs in lowland terra firme tropical rainforest. Eggs deposited in leaf-litter; tadpoles are carried to small streams. Has been recorded in old secondary forest.
55229		population	eng	This species can be common in some areas.
55229		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Possibly potentially threatened by an increase in the pet trade.
55230		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park, possibly present in San Matias-San Carlos Protected Forest, Peru. In Brazil it is present in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá.
55230		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Río Ucayali and Río Huallaga basins of eastern Perú (Departamentos: Huánuco, Pasco, Ucayali), and Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is 274-800m asl.
55230		habitat	eng	Its habitat is primary premontane and lowland moist tropical forest. Not present in degraded areas. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter; larvae are carried to streams.
55230		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55230		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is localized habitat loss through various agricultural activities (general crops and coffee). Not known to be in trade.
55231		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas throughout its range, and is protected by national legislation and listed on CITES Appendix II. The taxonomic status of the population recorded in Venezuela needs to be determined.
55231		distribution	eng	This taxon is known from the lowlands of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and Peru. There is an isolated population in Venezuela still attributed to this species. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1200 masl.
55231		habitat	eng	It occurs among dead tree branches on the leaf-litter of tropical moist and dry forest. Eggs are laid on the leaf-litter; tadpoles are carried on the adult's back to temporary pools. Animals can occur in primary and secondary forest, at forest edges and in lightly degraded habitats.
55231		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55231		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). A. picta is not often encountered in the pet trade.
55232		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the limits of its range, and also its taxonomic status.
55232		distribution	eng	This species is known from the single location of Pongo, close to Tarapoto (San Martin Department), Peru, where it is possibly found at 1,000m asl.
55232		habitat	eng	This is a lowland tropical moist forest species, with larvae that presumably develop in water.
55232		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55232		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55233		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within its range.
55233		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Navio, Amapá State, in the Guiana region of northern Brazil, at 100-310m asl, although it presumably occurs more widely.
55233		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the tropical rainforest floor. It probably lays its eggs in the leaf-litter, while the larvae are carried to temporary pools for their development.
55233		population	eng	It is very common in the type locality.
55233		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are international trade, and habitat destruction due to mining.
55234		conservation	eng	It might occur in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul, although this requires confirmation. The taxonomy of this species requires further work; many specimens are misidentified in museum collections (Jungfer pers comm.).
55234		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the eastern versant of the Cordillera Azul, Ucayali Department, Peru, from 300-550m asl. It might range further, but this cannot be fully determined until taxonomic issues surrounding this species are resolved.
55234		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and tropical moist rainforest. It is not known if it can occur in degraded habitat, although it is possible that it occurs at forest edges. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor and the larvae are then transported to streams by the males.
55234		population	eng	There is nothing known about its population status.
55234		threats	eng	Within its current known range this species is threatened by smallholder subsistence farming (including cattle), other agricultural activities and deforestation for timber and subsistence use.
55235		conservation	eng	Its range is within Parque Nacional Canaima. Further taxonomic research is required to determine whether or not the two specimens collected so far are conspecific.
55235		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the summit of the Chimantá Massif, where two specimens were collected on the north-western edge of the Amurí tepui, at 2,100 and 2,600m asl, in Venezuela. These two specimens were collected 45km apart and, according to Walls (1994), could possibly represent two species. This species could occur more widely.
55235		habitat	eng	It occurs in high montane environments, on the tops of tepui, where one specimen was taken from within the root mat of a <em>Bonnetia roraimae</em> tree. This species presumably breeds by larval development, but it is not known where the larvae develop.
55235		population	eng	It is probably a common frog at the type locality.
55235		threats	eng	There is no information known about threats to this species, but it occurs in a region of very limited human impact.
55236		conservation	eng	It is found in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Further research is needed into this species, especially with regards to the impact of trade.
55236		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cordillera Azul, Huánuco Department, Peru, where it can be found at an altitude of around 1,330m asl. The range of this species might be wider than is currently known. It has also been introduced to the Tarapoto area of San Martin Department, although very little is known about this population.
55236		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane tropical rainforest. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the larvae are carried to streams for their development.
55236		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55236		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by habitat clearance for agricultural activities (such as cultivation of tea, and other small scale farming). Illegal trade has also been recorded and might be a threat; it is known that local people illegally collect this species for dealers. The habitat area where it occurs is largely protected by the presence of terrorist groups.
55237		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, and Manu Biosphere Reserve.
55237		distribution	eng	This species is known from lower premontane Andean forest in the upper Río Madre de Dios watershed, and Río Candamo y Guacamayo, Perú. (Departamentos: Cusco, Puno). It has an altitudinal range of 300-600m asl.
55237		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species of lowland and premontane tropical rainforest. An edge species that has been found close to disturbed areas. Eggs are deposited on the ground; males carry the larvae to streams.
55237		population	eng	It is generally uncommon.
55237		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Not recorded in the pet trade.
55238		conservation	eng	It was known to occur in the buffer zone of the Bosque de Protección San Matías-San Carlos, but a species conservation programme is urgently needed.
55238		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Iscozacín (a tributary of the Río Palcazú, in the Pachitea drainage), Pasco Department, Peru, at 400m asl. While it is not believed to be endemic to a specific area, recent surveys in nearby areas have not revealed this species (Icochea pers comm).
55238		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in lowland tropical rainforest. There is no information on its breeding habits, although the larvae presumably develop in water.
55238		population	eng	It is presumed to be very rare, and it is 30 years since it was last recorded.
55238		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural activities taking place within its range. The type locality was converted to agricultural use, and there is also dense cattle ranching.
55239		conservation	eng	It is not known with certainty if this species occurs in any protected areas, and expanded protection of the remaining montane forest within the range of the species' is recommended. The possible impact of overharvesting for medicinal use, and commercial trade in wild specimens, requires further investigation. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55239		distribution	eng	This species is known only from seven localities on the Andean slopes of the Bolívar Province in central Ecuador, where it occurs at elevations of approximately 1,000-1,769m asl.
55239		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest near streams. Eggs are laid in the leaf-litter, and the males carry the larvae to running and standing water for development. It is not known if this species can adapt to habitat modification.
55239		population	eng	It appears to have been declining in the northern portion of its range in Ecuador, where some populations have disappeared.
55239		threats	eng	The major threat is agrochemical pollution of waterways, and habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities. It is also collected for medicinal use in Ecuador. Some of the declines appear to have taken place in suitable habitat, so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a possible threat.
55240		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in its range, except for in Venezuela and Guyana.
55240		distribution	eng	This species occurs below 500m asl in Bolívar state, Venezuela, and also in Guyana, Suriname and in the Amazon basin of Colombia, Brazil, Peru and northwestern Bolivia. Although the species range map in Walls (1994) depicts the species in French Guiana, a recent work by Lescure and Marty (2001) does not include this taxon for that country.
55240		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal and terrestrial species that is found in old and second growth tropical rainforests on the forest floor. The eggs are laid in the litter and the tadpoles are carried on the back to temporary pools.
55240		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
55240		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55241		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro. Survey work is necessary to determine the population status and trends of this species. Captive breeding might be required if the risk of chytridiomycosis proves real.
55241		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, stated to be "toma de agua de Mapararí" in the municipality of Federación, in Sierra de Churuguara, in the state of Falcón, Venezuela (approx. 10.47N, 69.25W), where it has been recorded around 800m asl. An additional population in Parque Nacional Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro was found in May 2002 (J. Manzanilla pers. comm.).
55241		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, diurnal frog found in deciduous lower montane tropophilous forests. The larvae are presumably carried on the backs of the males to streams, as with other members of the genus.
55241		population	eng	There has been an observed decline in the population of this species. However, in May 2002, specimens were collected at the type locality and a new population was also found in Parque Nacional Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro.
55241		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, due primarily to agriculture (crops and livestock), and general disturbance by humans, is the main threat. Water extraction is a threat at the type locality. Pollution and/or parasites might be causing what appear to be problems in the development or incomplete development of the limbs. It is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis.
55242		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, and expanded protection of the remaining montane forest within the range of the species is recommended.
55242		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes in the state of Mérida, in Venezuela. It occurs from 200-1,800m asl.
55242		habitat	eng	It inhabits seasonal (semi-deciduous) montane forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55242		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, but appears to be in decline in some parts of its range. La Marca (1995a) noted population declines in this species in several localities in the Andes of Venezuela.
55242		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction and alteration, due primarily to agriculture (for both crops and livestock), infrastructure development for human settlement in the vicinity of the city of Merida, and tourism development. In addition, pollution may also be contributing to the observed declines.
55243		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. Improved habitat protection is required at sites where this species is known to occur. There is also a need for close population monitoring, particularly given its small range and the potential risk of a chytridiomycosis outbreak.
55243		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in the vicinity of Santo Domingo, in the state of Mérida, in the Venezuelan Andes. It has been recorded from 1,300-1,950m asl.
55243		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane humid forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When the eggs are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to the streams where they develop further. It seems to be quite tolerant of habitat disturbance, and is sometimes found in very polluted streams (but see Major Threats).
55243		population	eng	It is a common species.
55243		threats	eng	Its habitat is impacted by agriculture, wood collection, and human settlement, although this does not seem to be having an immediate impact on the species. It is potentially at risk from a chytridiomycosis outbreak, since it has been reported to be infected (Lampo et al., 2006a), though it does not appear to show any symptoms of the disease. In May 2004, some specimens with malformations (polymelia, amelia) were found at the type locality (J. Manzanilla and E. La Marca pers. comm.) where significant pollution of the stream was also observed.<br/><br/>The species was recently found to be restricted to a small area with a radius of approximately 2 km², and it is abundant at only one site of ca 2 m² (Rosemary Sánchez, pers. comm. 2008).
55244		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier (Rancho Grande) and Parque Nacional San Esteban where it is a common species. Further work is required to resolve the taxonomy of this species. This species should be monitored carefully, given the potential future threat of chytridiomycosis.
55244		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of the Venezuelan coastal range, from 30-1,610m asl.
55244		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal, and lives on the ground and along streams in semi-deciduous forest. Adults carry larvae on their backs to streams, where metamorphosis is completed.
55244		population	eng	It is very common.
55244		threats	eng	Fires are a major threat, as are agricultural encroachment and human settlement, although it appears not to be significantly threatened by pollution from domestic wastewater. Chytridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.
55245		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and its remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection. This species requires close monitoring, particularly given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
55245		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Cerro Socopó in the municipality of Mauroa, in the state of Falcón, Venezuela, at 600-1,250m asl. It might occur more widely than is currently known.
55245		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that has been found living among grasses in a small marsh along an unpaved road, and in calm parts of a small stream. Males have been observed calling from river margins. The larvae are presumably carried on the backs of the males to streams where they develop further, as with other members of the genus.
55245		population	eng	It is a rare species that is probably declining rapidly because of habitat loss. It was last collected in 2004.
55245		threats	eng	The area around the site of its description was formerly cloud forest, but the forest was cleared to establish pasturelands for cattle farming. Climate change, acid rain, and pollution are also threats. It is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis.
55246		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status requires further research.
55246		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, "Hato Arriba, Distrito Morán, Sierra de Barbacoas" (Yústiz 1991), at 1,800m asl in Lara State, Venezuela, and from a few other localities in the vicinity of the type locality.
55246		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist tropical montane forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When the eggs hatch, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55246		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. In May 2002, many specimens were found at the type locality and other additional localities.
55246		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the intensification of agricultural activities within its range.
55247		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier. Additional surveys are required to establish whether or not this species is still extant, particularly since there is still suitable habitat in its natural range.
55247		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and the nearby vicinity, at elevations between 900 and 1,100m asl, in Paso Portachuelo, near Estación Biológica de Rancho Grande, Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Aragua State, Venezuela.
55247		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest. Breeding habits are unknown, although it probably lays eggs on the forest floor and adults carry tadpoles to the stream where they develop further, like other species of the genus.
55247		population	eng	It has not been recorded since its discovery 50 years ago, and so it might have declined and possibly even disappeared. In the last 10 years, searches for the species have been unsuccessful. This is one of the largest species of the genus, occurring in one of the best-studied places in Venezuela, and so it is of great concern that no further populations or specimens of this frog have been discovered.
55247		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, but chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat.
55248		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes at least one protected area (Parque Nacional Guatopo), in which it is widely distributed.
55248		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Guarico and Miranda, in the central part of the coastal forest range of Venezuela, between 150 and 750m asl.
55248		habitat	eng	It occurs along the banks of fast-flowing streams in primary humid lowland forests. The eggs are deposited under decaying leaves on the forest floor. The larvae are then presumably carried on the backs of the males to streams where they develop further, as with other members of the genus.
55248		population	eng	Its population status is not known, although there have been recent collections of specimens in Parque Nacional Guatopo.
55248		threats	eng	Agriculture was a threat to this species in the past but this region is now within a protected area. The disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a future threat.
55249		conservation	eng	The rainforest in which this species occurs in Tobago is protected in Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. Survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species, and research into the causes of the decline of this species is needed; a captive breeding programme might need to be established if the threat of chytridiomycosis proves real.
55249		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upland areas of north-eastern Tobago Island and Little Tobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago. It is found at elevations of between 120 and 360m asl.
55249		habitat	eng	This is a tropical forest species. Males of this species call from rocks in streams during the daytime. The eggs are laid on land; hatching tadpoles (11-19 in number) are carried to streams by the male where they complete their development. It is not thought to occur in degraded habitat.
55249		population	eng	Populations of this species have declined significantly over the last 10 years, prior to which it was thought to be relatively abundant.
55249		threats	eng	The causes of the current decline in this species are unknown. Areas of suitable habitat remain and there are no known human impacts on the species. It is possible that the species might have been impacted by chytridiomycosis, though this has not been proven.
55250		conservation	eng	Although most of the range of this species is within a protected area (Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria), this reserve is under pressure of deforestation (by the local people). Strengthened management and protection of this site is necessary to safeguard this species.
55250		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro Azul, Macuro, and Cerro El Humo, 10km north of Macuro, in Península de Paria, Sucre State, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 400-1,000m asl.
55250		habitat	eng	It lives along streams in lowland humid forest up to cloud forest habitat. A clutch of eggs is deposited in the leaf-litter of the forest floor, and then after hatching the larvae are carried to water where they develop further.
55250		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, although specimens were collected in Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria as recently as May 2004.
55250		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to selective logging and small-scale agriculture. Chytridiomycosis represents a potential future threat.
55251		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species in Trinidad.
55251		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Northern and Central Ranges of the island of Trinidad, in Trinidad and Tobago, occurring from montane areas down to sea level. In Venezuela, the taxonomic status of the populations from the southern versant of the central Venezuelan Coastal Range are currently being assessed (Manzanilla et al., in prep., in Manzanilla et al., 2007).
55251		habitat	eng	Adults are found along densely shaded, narrow, shallow, slow-flowing, clear water streams in undisturbed montane and moist forests, where they engage in elaborate courtship and defensive behaviours. A terrestrial species, it lays its eggs in leaf-litter and on rocks near streams and the adults carry the tadpoles on their backs to the deeper stream pools. The populations in Tamana caves in central Trinidad are known to use the cave ponds for their tadpoles. Tadpoles in other populations have also been found in still temporary pools far from streams. The exact deposition site appears to be dependent on the presence of predators, with adults migrating significant distances in search of predator-free pools. These animals depend on the insects that eat bat guano for food.
55251		population	eng	In Trinidad it is considered to be very common with generally stable populations.
55251		threats	eng	In Trinidad, the species is locally threatened by domestic, agricultural, and some industrial water pollution. On the southern slopes of the Northern Range in Trinidad, deforestation has resulted in fragmentation of the species' habitat.
55252		conservation	eng	Although it is protected in two Venezuelan Andean national parks (Yacambú and Terepaima National Parks), some populations (in Cubiro and Guarico) live outside protected areas. Expanded protection of the montane forest within the species' range is recommended.
55252		distribution	eng	This species is known mainly from Yacambú and Terepaima National Parks in Lara State, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,200-1,800m asl.
55252		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams and on the forest floor of montane moist and cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they hatch, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55252		population	eng	It is a common species and there is currently no evidence of any decline. Healthy populations were found in April 2003 in Parque Nacional Yacambú.
55252		threats	eng	In some parts of the range, populations are affected by the extensive clearing of land for coffee plantations (and specifically by the agro-chemicals associated with the plantations).
55253		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected within national parks (Sierra Nevada and Sierra de la Culata). However, the existing protected areas network requires expansion to ensure the protection of suitable cloud forest habitats for this species. Further research is required to establish the reasons for the species' decline in apparently suitable habitat, and to determine whether chytrid poses a threat.
55253		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes of Mérida State, Venezuela, from 1,600-3,090m asl.
55253		habitat	eng	It occurs in clear, fast-flowing streams in Andean cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55253		population	eng	It is a rare species and has been in decline in recent years.
55253		threats	eng	Some of the original environments occupied by this frog in the vicinities of the city of Mérida, in the Cordillera de Mérida, have been drastically changed by human activities, particularly due to agricultural expansion, for both crops and livestock. Much of the remaining habitat is severely fragmented. Introduced trout prey on the larvae of this species. However, this species is also declining in undisturbed habitats, which suggests an additional threat, possibly disease (such as chytridiomycosis).
55254		conservation	eng	A population probably occurs within Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other tracts of montane forest habitat, are necessary.
55254		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality and the vicinity: Páramo de la Culata, in the district of Libertador, in the state of Mérida, Venezuela, at 2,600-3,000m asl.
55254		habitat	eng	It inhabits clear, fast-flowing streams in Andean cloud forests and sub-páramo shrubland. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55254		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55254		threats	eng	Livestock farming is a major threat to the species' habitat, which is now severely fragmented. Introduced trout also prey on the larvae of this species.
55255		conservation	eng	The species' range may be partially within Parque Nacional Los Paramos. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other tracts of montane forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes, are necessary.
55255		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Venezuelan Andean states of western Mérida and eastern Táchira. It has been recorded between 1,825 and 2,670m asl.
55255		habitat	eng	It occurs in clear, fast-flowing streams in Andean cloud forests, and in the puddles alongside the streams, and is sometimes hidden inside introduced "kikuyo" pasture grasses (<em>Pennisetum clandestinum</em>). The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55255		population	eng	It is an uncommon species and is in decline.
55255		threats	eng	Most of the species' original habitat has now been lost to agricultural activities (involving livestock and crops), and the remaining habitat is severely fragmented.
55256		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas; protection of remaining tracts of forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes is necessary.
55256		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities within Mérida State, on the road from Mérida to La Azulita, in Venezuela, at elevations of 1,700-2,400m asl.
55256		habitat	eng	It is found along mountain streams in cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55256		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55256		threats	eng	The main threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as agricultural water pollution. The introduced bullfrog (<em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>) also poses a threat.
55257		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to ensure that the remaining habitat at the type locality is maintained.
55257		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Chorotal, 15km south-east of la Azulita, and the nearby vicinity, in Mérida State, Venezuela, between 1,880 and 2,400m asl.
55257		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs; when they hatch, the male carries the larvae on his back to the water where they develop further.
55257		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55257		threats	eng	The primary threats to this species are habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and agricultural pollution. The invasive bullfrog <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> is also a threat.
55258		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, although it is possible that it might occur in Parque Nacional Páramos El Batallón y La Negra. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other montane forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes, are necessary.
55258		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single zone near Bailadores, in Mérida State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,800-2,600m asl.
55258		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry evergreen montane forest, where it lives along slow-flowing streams. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55258		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55258		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, caused primarily by intensive agriculture, has reduced the area of occupancy of this species to less than 10km².
55259		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of remaining tracts of forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes is necessary.
55259		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality in Táchira State, Venezuela (Boca del Monte, Camino del Pregonero), from 2,300-2,800m asl. Other Táchira localities listed in Barrio (1999) are unconfirmed.
55259		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55259		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55259		threats	eng	The major threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, and agricultural pollution, and the area of occupancy of this species is now less than 20km².
55260		conservation	eng	A population may be protected within Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other montane forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes, are necessary.
55260		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Vía El Morro, in the district of Libertador, in the state of Mérida, Venezuela, from 1,800-2,300m asl.
55260		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.
55260		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55260		threats	eng	The major threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, and predation on larvae by invasive trout; the area of occupancy of this species is now less than 20km².
55261		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Phyllobates</em> spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55261		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, along the Río San Juan drainage south to the Río Raposo, in Choco and Valle del Cauca Departments, between 90 and 1,000m asl.
55261		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in humid lowland and submontane forests, and is found in primary and secondary forest, but not in degraded areas. The eggs are laid in leaf-litter, and the male takes the larvae to slow-flowing water.
55261		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55261		threats	eng	The major threats are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It sometimes occurs in very small numbers in international trade.
55262		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Phyllobates</em> spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55262		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, in Risaralda, Choco, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca Departments, between 500 and 1,500m asl.
55262		habitat	eng	It lives in humid lowland and montane forests, usually occurring near streams, and can survive in logged forest, but not in open areas. The eggs are laid on the ground and the male transports the larvae to streams.
55262		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55262		threats	eng	The major threats are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It occurs in the international pet trade, but it is not known to what extent this poses a threat to the species. Chytridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.
55263		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama and three in Costa Rica. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55263		distribution	eng	This species is known from humid lowlands and marginally in the premontane zone of the Atlantic versant from extreme southeastern Nicaragua to central Panama (including islands in the Bocas del Toro Province), a single specimen from just west of the Panama Canal, from 10-601m asl (Savage, 2002).
55263		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, diurnal species of humid lowland forest; it may be present in secondary growth and plantations. Adults are often found in the rocky sections of forest streams. Eggs are deposited in dry leaf-litter; the males transport hatching tadpoles to forest streams to complete metamorphosis.
55263		population	eng	This species is uncommon in northern Costa Rica, but more common in the south; presumably, it is also common in Panama.
55263		threats	eng	General habitat loss occurs by the destruction of natural forests and water pollution. In Costa Rica, there is some illegal collection of thi species for the international pet trade, however this is at a low level and probably does not constitute a major threat (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi; the current impact of this pathogen on populations is unclear.
55264		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and the protection of part of this species' lowland forest habitat is recommended. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Phyllobates</em> spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55264		distribution	eng	This species is known only from tiny areas on the Pacific coast of Colombia on the Río Saija drainage, in Cauca Department, occurring up to 200m asl.
55264		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in humid forests, and is only known from primary forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. The eggs are laid on the ground and the males transport the larvae to permanent pools.
55264		population	eng	It is extremely common in its tiny range.
55264		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is very occasionally reported in international trade in small numbers.
55265		conservation	eng	Most of the species' range is in three protected areas in Costa Rica, including Parque Nacional Corcavado. There is a need for strengthened management of these sites, and expanded protection to include other remnant forest patches in Costa Rica. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species for the pet trade should be investigated. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55265		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands of the Golfo Dulce region of south-western Costa Rica, from 20-550m asl (Savage 2002), and has recently been recorded from close to the city of Dominical in the Provincia de Puntarenas of Costa Rica (Ryan 2002). It is expected to occur in parts of immediately adjacent south-western Panama.
55265		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, terrestrial species associated with streams in primary lowland moist and wet forests. Eggs are usually deposited on leaves above the ground; the male carries hatching larvae to small pools to complete their development (Savage 2002).
55265		population	eng	This species is moderately common and regularly recorded (although extremely rare in Dominical, Costa Rica).
55265		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest clearance for agricultural land and tree plantations. Water pollution caused by contamination from gold mining activities is also a threat, as is potential over-collection of adults for the pet trade.
55266		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Cabañeros and Doñana National Parks, Spain, and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Spain, and is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books. Given the potential future threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored closely.
55266		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern and eastern Portugal and western and central Spain, from 100-1,300 m asl.
55266		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with meadows and open oak (<em>Quercus</em>) forests, most often in sandy areas. Reproduction and larval development generally takes place in temporary waterbodies (most often stream habitats), occasionally in permanent waterbodies; larval development is relatively long in this species and may last more than one season. The species is not very adaptable.
55266		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat, and is more abundant in the western part of its range. Population declines have been observed in Spain, potentially because of introduced predators.
55266		threats	eng	The main threats are the loss of suitable Mediterranean forest habitat, the introduction of predatory fishes and Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>), and the loss of suitable aquatic habitats through pollution, canal construction, dams, and urbanization. A potential future threat is chytridiomycosis, which has already affected the related <em>Alytes obstetricans</em> in Spain.
55267		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
55267		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western and central Rif Mountains and middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco. It is known only from about twenty fragmented localities, from 200-2,050m asl. This species is not present in the North African Spanish enclave of Ceuta (Mateo <em>et al</em>. 2003).
55267		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in humid sites in montane karst and escarpment areas. Adults inhabit cracks and fissures in rocks, or live under stones close to permanent streams, pools, and other waterbodies. Surrounding vegetation may be scrub, cork oak groves, and orchards. It spawns in water, producing approximately 60 eggs at a time (with 3-4 clutches a year), which are then carried around outside the water by the male, who releases the larvae back into water at the point of hatching.
55267		population	eng	It is locally common in suitable habitat.
55267		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is considered to be the introduction of the predatory fish <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> to breeding ponds. Domestic water pollution is also a threat to the population in Chauen, although other populations in the surrounding area are not threatened by this contamination. Overall, the threats facing this species are currently localized, and it is not believed to be seriously threatened at present.
55268		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and is protected by national legislation in many of its range states. The species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas. Further research into the current decline is needed especially into the impacts of disease. In Central Spain there is a captive breeding programme for this species, and some reintroductions have been carried out. In the Spanish national Red List is considered Near Threatened, and subspecies <em>pertinax</em> is considered Vulnerable.
55268		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the northern half of Portugal and Spain (where populations are very fragmented, and there is a small Area of Occupancy within its Extent of Occurrence), through most of France, to southern Belgium, extreme southeastern Netherlands, Luxembourg, western and north-central Germany, and western and northern Switzerland. Populations in coastal Portugal west of Lisbon are extinct. It has been introduced to the UK, with several established populations. It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 2,400m asl (in the Pyrenees).
55268		habitat	eng	It lives in terrestrial habitats, including temperate forests, semi-arid areas, walls, embankments, and slopes with small stones and sparse vegetation. Aquatic habitats in which the species breeds range from slow moving rivers to stagnant permanent ponds and pools; gravel and clay pits are also used. The larvae of this species frequently hibernate. The species can occur in suitable modified habitat such as traditional agricultural land, and even urban areas (e.g., in Barcelona).
55268		population	eng	it is reported to be declining (including local extinctions) across its range, but it is still widespread and common in many areas (e.g., in much of France).
55268		threats	eng	General habitat loss, largely to agricultural development (including loss of breeding sites), has contributed to the decline of the species in some areas. Fragmentation of populations might be a problem for the species, e.g. in Spain, Portugal and Germany. Certain populations of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Alytes obstetricans pertinax</span> in protected areas of central Spain have severely declined and disappeared as a result of chytridiomycosis (Bosch <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Bosch <em>et al.</em>, 2000); a few specimens have recently been found again in this area (M. García-París and J.W. Arntzen pers. comm.). Additional mortality of the species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal (Soares <em>et al.</em>, 2003); the disease might be non-native and have been transferred to the lake by an introduced North American predatory fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Mortality initially attributed to the bacteria <em>Aeromonas hydrophila</em> "red-leg disease" has also been reported (Márquez <em>et al.</em> 1995). Predation by<em> L. gibbosus</em> and other introduced predatory fish species, such as salmonids, is also a considerable threat to this species.
55269		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in Spain and is listed in the Spanish national Red Data Book. It has been recorded from Doñana, Islas Atlánticas de Galicia, and Cabañeros National Parks, Spain. There is a need to further clarify the distribution of this species and the related <em>Discoglossus jeanneae</em>.
55269		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and most of western Spain), where it is found at altitudes ranging from sea level to 1,940m asl (Piedrahita, Spain).
55269		habitat	eng	It is generally found within or in the direct vicinity of water (with surrounding dense vegetation), including still waters, swamps, mountain streams, drinking troughs and sometimes-brackish waters. The terrestrial habitats of the species occur on granite and other metamorphic rocks, and include sandy areas close to the sea, open areas, meadows, thickets, gulley's and woodland edges. The species breeds, and larval development takes place, within shallow permanent or temporary waterbodies. It is often present in slightly modified areas, such as traditional farmland.
55269		population	eng	In Spain, it is abundant over much of its range (with the exception of the northeastern populations), while in Portugal the species can be locally abundant in fragmented populations.
55269		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are both a general intensification of agriculture and the introduction of predatory fishes and crustaceans (especially the Louisiana Crayfish-<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) through much of the species range. Desertification is a threat to the species in the more arid parts of its range such as southern Portugal. Additionally, hydroelectric projects are leading to habitat loss in parts of Portugal. However, overall this species is probably not seriously threatened at present.
55270		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in France and Italy and is listed in the Regional Catalogue of Cataluña, Spain. The species is present in protected areas in Italy, and probably elsewhere within its range.
55270		distribution	eng	This species is native to the islands of Sicily (Italy), Malta and Gozo (Malta) (<span style="font-style: italic;">Discoglossus pictus pictus</span>), and to northern Algeria and Tunisia (<em>Discoglossus pictus auritus</em>). The western limit of its distribution in Algeria is unclear, and it might extend to the mountains close to the Moroccan border. The North African subspecies, <em>D.p. auritus</em>, has been introduced to southern France and northeastern Spain (Girona Province), where it is expanding its range. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,500m asl (Sicily).
55270		habitat	eng	It is present in a wide variety of Mediterranean habitats including open, sandy coastal areas, pastures, vineyards, woods and forests, often in dense vegetation close to waterbodies. It breeds in most types of still water habitats, and is sometimes present in marshes and brackish water. In Sicily, populations have been associated with irrigation channels, water cisterns, pipes and canals in cultivated areas.
55270		population	eng	Introduced populations in Spain and France appear to be abundant and expanding their range. It is rather common in Sicily. Further information is needed on the populations of the species over the rest of its distribution, though it is believed to be common in some areas.
55270		threats	eng	Sicilian populations appear to be locally threatened (but not especially endangered) by a decline of traditional land-use, including urbanization. Maltese populations are reported to be threatened by groundwater extraction.
55271		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Italy. It has been recorded from Parco Regionale Sette Fratelli and Parco Nazionale Gennargentu-Golfo di Orosei in Sardinia. Further investigations into the genetic diversity of this species are needed. It occurs in the Parc National Port-Cros in France.
55271		distribution	eng	The species is mainly restricted to the islands of Sardinia, Italy and Corsica, France (where it is absent from the high mountains in the centre of the island), with other populations occurring on a number of smaller Mediterranean islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the Monte Argentario peninsula of the Italian mainland (Tuscany), and also the islands of Port-Cros and Le Levant in the south of France. It has been recorded at elevations from sea level to 1,770m asl (Sardinia).
55271		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial habitats including still and slow-running waters in open or wooded (coniferous and broadleaf) areas and maccia; it may even occur in slightly brackish pools. The eggs are deposited between aquatic vegetation in streams, and the larvae develop in these streams. The species can tolerate some habitat disturbance.
55271		population	eng	This species is still relatively common in suitable habitat in both Sardinia and Corsica. Little is known about mainland populations of Tuscany, although it is possible that they are threatened due to their probable small size. Populations on Port-Cros Island (France) have increased following the eradication of introduced fish: <em>Gambusia</em> and <em>Scardinus erythrophalmus</em>.
55271		threats	eng	It is threatened by general loss of suitable woodland and aquatic habitats. Aquatic habitats used by this species on Corsica (and presumably on Sardinia) are being lost through damming of streams and increased water abstraction for tourism. However, overall this species does not appear to be significantly threatened. There were some die-offs of this species in Sardinia in 2004 and 2006, but the cause is unknown (Bovero <em>et a</em>l. 2008).
55272		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in some protected areas.
55272		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout much of the Mediterranean zone of Morocco and Ceuta and Melilla (Spain). Confirmation of the species presence in western Algeria is needed. The species reaches elevations of 2,600m asl in the High Atlas mountains.
55272		habitat	eng	The species is associated with streams, cisterns and pools of either fresh or saline water. It breeds in these wetland habitats; females lay a maximum of 1,000 eggs. Terrestrial habitats of the species include <em>Quercus</em> forest, Nerium oleander scrub and ruins. Individuals can often be found hiding under rocks, in crevices and even under the bark of cork oaks (<em>Quercus</em> sp.). It is presumed that the species can withstand some light habitat modification.
55272		population	eng	The species is generally common in Morocco, most especially in sub humid and humid areas.
55272		threats	eng	The localized loss of breeding sites through agricultural development and increased salinisation in lagoons are the main threats to this species. However, it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
55273		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55273		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout the Drakensberg and Maluti Mountains in South Africa and Lesotho and along the eastern escarpment of South Africa and Swaziland. Its altitudinal range is 580-2,675m asl.
55273		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest and grassland. It breeds in fast-flowing perennial forested streams. It is always associated with permanent streams because the tadpole takes two years to develop.
55273		population	eng	It is a common species.
55273		threats	eng	The main threats are afforestation, siltation of streams, damming of mountain rivers, water extraction and the introduction of trout.
55274		conservation	eng	Almost the whole range of this species is conserved in protected areas.
55274		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Eastern Langeberg Mountains in Western Cape Province, South Africa, from the vicinity of Montagu and Kogman's Kloof, eastwards through Swellendam and Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve, probably as far east as the Gouritz River. Its altitudinal range is 215-500m asl.
55274		habitat	eng	It lives in forest patches surrounded by mountain fynbos heathland outside the breeding season. Fast-flowing perennial streams are required for breeding. The tadpoles take two years to develop.
55274		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55274		threats	eng	It is not significantly threatened. Locally, there are some impacts from alien species introductions (but less in the Langeberg than some other places), a small amount of afforestation, and fires taking place too frequently.
55275		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55275		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Cape Province in South Africa, from the Cederberg in the north south to the Hex River, Du Toit's Kloof, Hottentots Holland and Klein River Mountains, and eastwards along the Riviersonderend and Langeberg Mountains to the vicinity of Ashton and Montagu. It altitudinal range is 60-1,770m asl.
55275		habitat	eng	It lives in fynbos heathland and forest. It breeds in perennial streams in forested gorges of the southwestern Cape mountains. The tadpoles take two years to develop.
55275		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55275		threats	eng	It is not significantly threatened. Locally, there are some impacts from alien species introductions (but less in the Langeberg than some other places), a small amount of afforestation, and fires taking place too frequently.
55276		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55276		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coastal mountain ranges of the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa, from the Huis and Pederberg Rivers in the Outeniqua Mountains in the west, eastwards along the Tsitsikamma and Kareedouw mountain ranges to the Krom River Forest Reserve in the east. Its altitudinal range is 230-790m asl.
55276		habitat	eng	It lives in fynbos heathland and forest. It breeds in fast-flowing streams in the mountains. The tadpoles take two years to develop.
55276		population	eng	There is little information, but it is probably locally common.
55276		threats	eng	Much of the range is protected, but some afforestation is taking place. Other threats include siltation of streams, and perhaps fires taking place too frequently.
55277		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Liuwa Plain and Lochinvar National Parks.
55277		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known only from western Zambia, from the Barotse floodplain along the Zambezi River, and from the Kafue Flats. Its geographic range remains largely unknown.
55277		habitat	eng	This is believed to be a fossorial species of floodplains in savannah country. If it is like other members of the genus, it nests in a burrow in wet soil adjacent to temporary water, into which the larvae move when hatched.
55277		population	eng	It has only recently been discovered, and only a few specimens have so far been found, so its population status is not clear.
55277		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55278		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
55278		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Masiliwa in central Tanzania. The exact location of the type locality is still open to question.
55278		habitat	eng	It is believed to be a fossorial species of open woodland. If it is like other members of the genus, it nests in a burrow in wet soil adjacent to temporary water, into which the larvae move when hatched.
55278		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from only from three specimens in one locality. There have been no records since 1929, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.
55278		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55279		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55279		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Senegal east to Kenya, south to Angola, northern Botswana, central Mozambique, and extreme northern South Africa. It generally avoids the forest belt, but it is present in the West African forest zone, and in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Definite records are lacking from certain countries within its mapped range: Togo, Central African Republic, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, and Namibia. It might also occur in Sudan. There are not very many records from the different parts of its range, and so the map should be considered as highly provisional.
55279		habitat	eng	Through most of its range, it is a woodland and savannah species, though it occurs in forest and secondary habitats in West Africa. It is fossorial during the dry season. It nests in a burrow in wet soil by temporary water (even up to 200m from water). The tadpoles move into water (probably in the same way as Hemisus marmoratus) and the female guards the nest.
55279		population	eng	Since it is seen only during rainy weather or when it is breeding, it is hard to assess its abundance. It appears to fluctuate hugely in numbers. It can be abundant in the West African forest zone. There are no recent records from South Africa.
55279		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
55280		conservation	eng	The highest priority for conservation research of this species is to assess its ability to disperse. Understanding the impact of perceived threats and population size and trends is also required. This species occurs in the iSimangaliso Wetlands Park, the Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Game Reserve, and other protected areas.
55280		distribution	eng	This species, which is known only from South Africa, occurs in southern Mpumalanga, and central and eastern KwaZulu-Natal, south to Durban on the coast (Extent of Occurrence of 51,000 km<sup>2</sup> and Area of Occupancy conservatively estimated to be 1%). The northernmost coastal record is from Hluhluwe. It ranges from sea level up to over 1,000 m on the summit of the Lebombo Mountains. It has not been recorded from Swaziland, but it presumably occurs in this country.
55280		habitat	eng	It inhabits grassland and savannah. It breeds in seasonal pans, swampy areas, and in pools near rivers. It nests in burrows in wet soil by temporary water, and tadpoles move to water to develop.
55280		population	eng	<p>Breeding congregations of this species appear to be relatively small and widely dispersed. This species is considered to be severely fragmented as no subpopulation has >50% of individuals and >50% of subpopulations are considered non-viable.</p>
55280		threats	eng	The main threats include: habitat loss due to afforestation, sugar cane cultivation, and urbanization and invasive alien plants lowering the water table.
55281		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55281		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the savannah zone of sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia, east to western Eritrea, western Ethiopia, and southern Somalia, thence south to the northern and northeastern parts of South Africa, eastern and northern Botswana, northeastern Namibia, and Angola. There is an apparently isolated population south of Lake Tana in northwestern Ethiopia. It occurs in all countries within its mapped range, though definite records appear to be lacking for Sierra Leone, Mali, Togo, Rwanda, and Burundi. It occurs up to 1,850m asl in Ethiopia.
55281		habitat	eng	It is typically a savannah species, though it has also been found in primary and secondary forest, farm bush, montane grassland, and plantations. It breeds in permanent and temporary waterbodies, including isolated pools in rivers when the water levels drop. The eggs are laid in subterranean nests, where the tadpoles hatch. They subsequently move into water (the females dig channels for them to move along if they are close to water). It is likely that the females also carry the larvae to water, though this is not yet proven.
55281		population	eng	Because of its fossorial habits, it is generally seen only when it is breeding, or during the rainy season, when they occur regularly. It is a very abundant savannah frog in West Africa, and elsewhere in its range, as in northern South Africa.
55281		threats	eng	It is an abundant and adaptable species, which faces no significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55282		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55282		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of southwestern and western Ethiopia at 1,500-2,700m asl.
55282		habitat	eng	It is typically found in montane grassland, but penetrates at least marginally into tropical deciduous forest and into somewhat arid savannah. It is usually found in marshy situations, and in the vicinity of streams. It is a fossorial species, generally living underground except when breeding. The eggs are presumably laid in subterranean nests in which the tadpoles hatch, and from where they subsequently move into water to develop. Larval development has been confirmed in a small, semi-permanent pool, and has been suspected in a small river.
55282		population	eng	It seems to be relatively common in a number of different habitats.
55282		threats	eng	The main threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion
55283		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park, and presumably in other protected areas.
55283		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, though it ranges very close to the Ugandan and Central African Republic borders.
55283		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species of lowland rainforest. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. Assuming that its biology is similar to that of other members of its genus, the eggs are presumably laid in subterranean nests in which the tadpoles hatch, and from where they subsequently move into permanent and temporary waters to develop.
55283		population	eng	It is apparently common in suitable localities within its range.
55283		threats	eng	There is little direct information, but the species is at least potentially impacted by deforestation.
55284		conservation	eng	It is known from two protected areas in Gabon: Petit Loango National Park and the Reserve de Faune de la Moukalaba-Dougoua.
55284		distribution	eng	This species has been known for quite some time to be from extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo, north of the estuary of the Congo River. However, it has also recently been discovered in south-western Gabon in Petit Loango National Park and the Reserve de Faune de la Moukalaba-Dougoua (Burger pers. comm.). It presumably occurs in the intervening parts of Congo and the Cabinda enclave of Angola. In Gabon it has been found from sea level up to 110m asl.
55284		habitat	eng	This species has been found in pristine lowland rainforest, in secondary (but fairly well regenerated) forest, in small forest patches in savannah, and in forest along the savannah-forest ecotone. Its breeding habits are unknown, but assuming that its biology is similar to that of other members of its genus, the eggs are presumably laid in subterranean nests in which the larvae hatch, and from where they subsequently move into permanent and temporary water bodies to develop.
55284		population	eng	This is probably a common species, but because of its secretive and fossorial habits it is probably often overlooked. Most recent records have been from pitfall traps.
55284		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species, bu the limited available data do not indicate any immediate threats.
55285		conservation	eng	It occurs in Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) and Mweru Wantipa National Park (Zambia).
55285		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Upemba National Park and Lake Mweru in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and from Lake Meru Wantipa in north-eastern Zambia.
55285		habitat	eng	It is presumably a species of savannah woodlands. Assuming that its biology is similar to that of other members of its genus, the eggs are laid in subterranean nests in which the larvae hatch, and from where they subsequently move into permanent and temporary water bodies to develop.
55285		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There do not appear to have been any recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological fieldwork within its range.
55285		threats	eng	There is no direct information available on threats to this species. Much of its known range is inside protected areas, though the level of protection is weak.
55286		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.
55286		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern New York, the southern Great Lakes region, and southern South Dakota to southeastern New Mexico, southern Texas, USA, and adjacent Mexico, and the Gulf Coast east to northwestern Florida. Isolated populations occur on the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. In Canada, it is restricted to Point Pelee (formerly) and Pelee Island in extreme southwestern Ontario (Oldham and Campbell, 1990 COSEWIC report).
55286		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the edges of sunny marshes, marshy ponds, and small slow-moving streams in open country and in forest along bodies of water without dense canopy cover. It may periodically range into adjacent non-wetland habitats in some regions. Eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of ponds, marshes, ditches, slow streams, springs, or rain pools.
55286		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its extensive range, although there have been some declines in the northwestern part of its range. Also, in the eastern portion of its range, populations are disappearing from agricultural and grazed areas in the Shendoah Valley of Virginia.
55286		threats	eng	It appears to be significantly threatened only in the northwestern portion of its range. The reasons for the declines remain speculative but vegetation succession, climatic fluctuations, predation by native and exotic species, competition from other frog species, and water pollution caused by pesticides and/or other chemicals associated with agriculture are possibly significant (Harding 1997, Lannoo 1998, Hammerson 1999, Hammerson and Livo 1999).
55287		conservation	eng	It benefits from most measures that protect wetlands.
55287		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, west to southeastern Tennessee and southeastern Louisiana, USA.
55287		habitat	eng	Its habitat is grassy margins of swamps, marshes, lakes, ponds, streams, ditches, bogs, and nearby temporary pools, including such habitats in openly wooded areas that do not produce excessive shade. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water.
55287		population	eng	Its population is fairly abundant in many parts of its range.
55287		threats	eng	It is not very threatened but is detrimentally affected by activities that degrade or destroy wetlands, including changes that involve the introduction of exotic fishes.
55288		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine whether or not this species can survive only in polluted areas, because of the ineffectiveness of the chytrid fungus in such environments. If this proves to be the case, then well-meaning conservation measures to abate water pollution could unintentionally lead to the extinction of this species. Given the nature of the threats, it may be worth considering the establishment of a captive-breeding programme for this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55288		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Cordillera de Talamanca, Cordillera de Tilarán and Cordillera Central, Costa Rica, at 780-1,650m. However, it has disappeared from most parts of its range, surviving mainly around San José only.
55288		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that lives in premontane moist and wet forests and rainforest, and tolerates disturbance to its habitat. It remains the most abundant species in San José and suburbs near heavily polluted streams, especially in shade-grown coffee plantations and gardens. It breeds in streams.
55288		population	eng	Since the late 1980s, it has disappeared from pristine areas, including in protected areas such as Parque Nacional Tapantí and the Reserva Biológica Monteverde, where it was once common. It remains common only in highly altered habitats in metropolitan San José.
55288		threats	eng	Despite the apparent adaptability of this species, it is nonetheless subject to unconfirmed factors that have caused amphibian faunas to decline in certain locations in Central America, in particular the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis. It is possible that this species survives only in polluted areas because the chytrid fungus is more susceptible to pollution than the frog. The few, known remaining populations of this species are threatened by an introduced fish (<em>Xiphophorus hellerii</em>) that preys on the larvae. This species is also found in the international pet trade.
55289		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in protected areas in Ecuador but not in Colombia. It has been recorded from several protected areas in Central America.
55289		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic versant from eastern Honduras to central Panama, and on the Pacific slope from eastern Panama through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia (two known localities in Choco Department) to northwestern Ecuador. It has been recorded below 750m asl (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.).
55289		habitat	eng	A nocturnal, canopy species that inhabits primary humid lowland forest. Specimens have been found in the forest canopy and understorey above a headwater streamlet on a forested ridge. They have been seen at night on leaves and trunks of trees. It generally lives in the canopy, coming down only to breed. It breeds in tree holes and in small pools without fish. Eggs are deposited in the water-filled crevices and cavities of fallen trees; larvae develop in these pools. The same breeding site may be used until it is filled by falling debris (eg. leaves). It has been recorded only from undisturbed forest.
55289		population	eng	This species is often considered to be a rare species, although more likely it is under-recorded, since it is a canopy species and has a very soft call (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). Only occasional individuals are seen from time to time.
55289		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The known localities in Ecuador are facing considerable human pressure. This species occurs at too low densities to be of interest to the international pet trade.
55290		conservation	eng	It is protected by many parks throughout its range. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55290		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Atlantic slopes and lowlands from southern Veracruz and northern Oaxaca in Mexico, south-eastward to northern Honduras and continuing on to the Caribbean slope to Panama. There is also an isolated record from the Cartagena Botanic Garden in northern Colombia. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,250m.
55290		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical lowland and montane forest, where there is a continuous forest cover. The presence of temporary or permanent ponds is important for its reproduction. It can live in secondary forest, and even very heavily degraded areas as long as there is a tree close to a pond (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). It does well in areas where there has been selective logging.
55290		population	eng	This is generally considered to be an abundant species.
55290		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests although it is known to survive in places with a degree of anthropogenic alteration. It is also recorded within the pet trade.
55291		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru it is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu and very possibly in Reserva Nacional Pacaya Samiria and Zona Reservada Allpahuayo Mishana. In Colombia it is present in the El Pure protected area.
55291		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazonian lowlands in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Departments Amazonas, Loreto and Madre de Dios); recently recorded from 50km southwest of Manaus in central Brazil (Hoogmoed, pers comm.). It is suspected to occur in Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is 50-600m asl.
55291		habitat	eng	A high canopy species of primary tropical lowland rainforest, descending to low branches to breed (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, this species has been collected in Terra Firme Forest on branches and shrubs (Ron, 2001). Breeding takes place in fallen trees containing small water pools; tadpoles have also been collected in small pools on the ground. The species may be found over small waterbodies.
55291		population	eng	It is rarely encountered.
55291		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55292		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, and Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species occurs in Colombia, as is predicted. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55292		distribution	eng	This species is known from the single locality of Río Tuira at Río Mono in Darién Province, Panama. It has been recorded from five localities in Ecuador and is presumed to occur in Colombia, although it has not yet been recorded. It ranges from 100-1,000m asl.
55292		habitat	eng	An arboreal species of humid lowland forest. The single specimen in Panama was collected on a bush in a swamp. The holotype was found at night perched about one and a half meters above the ground in a bush at the edge of a swamp (Duellman and Trueb 1967). A gliding species, the Ecuadorian specimens have been heard calling from bushes overhanging a shallow pond in a banana grove at night (Duellman 2001). It deposits its eggs on the leaves floating on ponds, and larvae jump into the pond and develop in the water. Since it depends on the forest canopy, it is not very adaptable to disturbance.
55292		population	eng	The species is known only from a single record in Panama. It is considered to be rare in Ecuador.
55292		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a major threat in Ecuador, due to agriculture, timber, and human settlement.
55293		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Continued survey work is needed to monitor the population status of this species, and particularly to determine whether or not the reason for the apparent decline is due to chytridiomycosis. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55293		distribution	eng	This species occurs from north-eastern Puebla state and south-central Veracruz state, Mexico, to north-western Honduras on the Atlantic versant; and from south-central Guerrero state, Mexico, to central El Salvador on the Pacific versant, at elevations of 300-1,500m asl.
55293		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland to montane moist forests on mountain slopes. It occurs in both pristine and disturbed habitats. Breeding takes place in small intermittent or permanent waterbodies.
55293		population	eng	It was formerly locally abundant in some locations in Chiapas state, Mexico, El Salvador and Guatemala. However, recent surveys in Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from all the sites surveyed. It is uncommon, but occasionally found in breeding aggregations in Belize and Honduras. In Guatemala and Honduras, the population is declining due to habitat destruction.
55293		threats	eng	Chytridiomycosis is probably the main cause of the disappearance of populations in Mexico, and the species is now probably seriously at risk from this disease. Habitat destruction due to subsistence and small holder agriculture is also a threat to this species, which also was formerly common in the pet trade.
55294		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55294		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid lowlands and less commonly on premontane Atlantic slopes from north-eastern Honduras to south-eastern Costa Rica (Savage 2002), from 15-1,300m asl. There are currently only two records of this species in Nicaragua, both from the Bosawas area (Javier Sunyer pers. comm.); further surveys are needed to fully determine the range of the species in this country.
55294		habitat	eng	This is a seldom seen species of undisturbed lowland and montane humid and wet forests, being less commonly encountered in adjacent premontane wet forest and rainforest. It has a naturally highly fragmented habitat. This species lives in tree canopies, it is an explosive breeder descending to temporary pools to reproduce.
55294		population	eng	It is not especially common, but is regularly seen in mating aggregations at many sites.
55294		threats	eng	The major threats to it are general habitat loss and fragmentation through deforestation due to agricultural development and logging. In Costa Rica, recent studies indicate that, although it has a patchy distribution, there is no ongoing habitat loss at the known localities (Gerardo Chaves and Brian Kubiki pers. comm. 2007). In Honduras, habitat loss is taking place at two of the known localities, however much suitable habitat remains and it does not appear to be under threat (James R. McCranie  pers. comm. 2007).
55295		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including at least three in Panama and three in Costa Rica. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, but it is not confirmed from any protected areas in Colombia.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
55295		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in the humid lowlands and lower portions of the premontane zone of southeastern and southwestern Costa Rica, through Panama and the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northwestern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 15-750m.
55295		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal canopy species of undisturbed humid lowland forest. Explosive breeding takes place in temporary rain pools without fish following, or during, heavy rains. Eggs are deposited on the upper-surfaces of leaves, 1.5-8m above the water. Hatching tadpoles fall into the water below.
55295		population	eng	This species is rarely seen because of its arboreal habits. It abundance is unclear.
55295		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The known localities in Ecuador are facing considerable human pressure. Museum specimens of this species have been found to be infected with chytridiomycosis, but the current impact of this pathogen on the species in the wild is not known.
55296		conservation	eng	It is protected in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Ocote, Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Reserva de la Biósfera Tawahka Asagni in Honduras. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).
55296		distribution	eng	This species is found as fragmented populations on the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz State and northern Oaxaca State, Mexico; eastern Honduras; central Costa Rica; and central Panama, from 95-2,000m asl. It has not been recorded from Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, nor Nicaragua.
55296		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforests and montane humid forest where it breeds in tree holes. It is found in both intact forest, and, in at least Costa Rica and Panama, it can be common in young secondary growth forest and coffee plantations far from forest (Brian Kubiki, Branko Hilje and Sofía Rodríguez pers. comm. 2007).
55296		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species. In Costa Rica, this has always been a rarely seen species, but its call can be heard regularly in the appropriate habitat. Although several populations are known in Mexico, these are completely disjunct and it seems that the species has been extirpated from one or two locations. It is a rare species in Mexico and it has been found only once in the last 30 years. In Honduras, it is known only from two specimens. There are no recent data from Panama.
55296		threats	eng	The most important threats to it are severe disturbance, clearance and transformation of its original habitat to open areas, arising from smallholder farming and subsistence wood collecting.
55297		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species is within the protected area of the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins, although maintenance and conservation of its habitat within the park is required.
55297		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil), and from one other locality about 10km away. It was recorded around sea level.
55297		habitat	eng	It has been found at night on a rock in the margins of the Verde River. The type locality is closed forest and open areas so it is not clear exactly which habitat it was found in.
55297		population	eng	It is not thought to be a common species, and only a few specimens have been recorded.
55297		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55298		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).
55298		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of southeastern Brazil from southern Bahia to northern São Paulo. It occurs from close to sea level up to 500m.
55298		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads and bamboo cavities inside the forest and on the forest edge, and also in coastal restinga shrubland. It breeds in temporary pools and is not found in heavily degraded habitats.
55298		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55298		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss, in particular due to expanding human settlements, but also due to expanding agriculture, livestock grazing, and clear-cutting, and the collection of bromeliads.
55299		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55299		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonas State in southern Venezuela and in Bajo Río Iuirida in adjacent eastern Colombia. Its presence in adjacent Brazil, in similar suitable habitats, is expected. It is a lowland species.
55299		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal, nocturnal species living in flooded "varzea" forest. It has been found in both primary and secondary forest, but since most of its habitat is still in good condition, it is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded habitats. It is an explosive breeder, breeding in water in inundated areas.
55299		population	eng	It is a common species.
55299		threats	eng	Local population might be impacted by mining, but overall it is not seriously threatened.
55300		conservation	eng	It occurs in Serra do Tabeleiro State Park and several private reserves.
55300		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the coastal mountains of Santa Catarina state, Brazil, at 500-800m asl.
55300		habitat	eng	It lives on the edge of rainforest, and occurs in understorey vegetation. It reproduces in small water-filled holes in the ground.
55300		population	eng	It is abundant and the population is apparently stable.
55300		threats	eng	It is threatened by cattle that trample vegetation and cause water pollution.
55301		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil. Some populations are protected in Iguazú National Park and minor provincial reserves of Misiones Province.
55301		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in central and southeastern Brazil from Brasília, the Serra da Mantiqueira and the coastal ranges, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul and extreme northeastern Argentina in Misiones Province, at elevations of 300-1,200m asl.
55301		habitat	eng	In the north of its range, it is a typical montane species, living on the forest edge and inside forest. In the south, it lives in more open habitats in shrublands and grasslands. It breeds near slow-flowing streams and permanent ponds with clear bottoms. It tolerates substantial habitat destruction.<br/><br/>Males build concealed subterranean nests and guide the females to these nests, where eggs (mean = 227 eggs; range = 101-288; n = 5 clutches) are laid. Embryos and facultatively oophagous tadpoles (at least in stage 25) stay in these nests until flooding transports them to ponds or streams (Haddad et al., 2005).
55301		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55301		threats	eng	Apart from the effects of water pollution, there are very few threats to this species.
55302		conservation	eng	Some populations of <em>A. s. pederseni</em> occur in the 17,600-ha Parque Nacional Mburucuya. The existing protected areas network requires expansion to ensure the protection of lowland riverine and wetland habitats. Further survey work is necessary to determine the status of populations of the nominate subspecies.
55302		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina in north-west Corrientes Province (<em>A. s. pederseni</em>) and Entre Rios and Buenos Aires Provinces (<em>A. s. siemersi</em>). In Uruguay, it occurs in two localities in San Jose and Rocha states (<em>A. s. siemersi</em>). It occurs at elevations of 0-70m asl.
55302		habitat	eng	<em>A. s. pederseni</em> occurs in leaf axils of terrestrial <em>Aechmae</em> bromeliads in gallery forests along main river systems. It reproduces in temporary pools close to the bromeliads. The nominal subspecies occurs and reproduces in wetlands and river deltas (Río Paraná), and tolerates moderate habitat disturbance.
55302		population	eng	The nominal subspecies was known to be uncommon, and the last record is from 1982. All populations have disappeared from Argentina and Uruguay, the reason for which is not well understood. However, in 1983, the Paraná had the largest flood of the century and the population here subsequently disappeared and has not been found since, despite many attempts to relocate it. The subspecies <em>A. s. pederseni</em> is rare but was recorded in 2002 and 2003, and this population at least appears to be stable.
55302		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by fires used to expand or maintain pastures and pine forestry plantations. Some populations are also likely to be threatened by the "Hidrovía Paraná-Paraguay" project (the transformation of the Paraguay-Paraná-Uruguay-La Plata river system into a 3,400-km long shipping canal). In Uruguay, this species is threatened by draining of wetlands for agricultural expansion.
55303		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de Serra das Almas-Crateus, and probably also in other protected areas..
55303		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the xeric and subhumid regions of northeastern Brazil, south to northern Minas Gerais. It is a low altitude species.
55303		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry Caatinga savannah, and is usually found on vegetation, including in bromeliads, and in rock outcrops. It breeds in temporary streams in open areas.
55303		population	eng	It is a common species.
55303		threats	eng	The main threats relate to habitat loss, especially due to livestock, and also due to crops and fire.
55304		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. ProAves, a Colombian NGO, in partnership with international conservation NGOs, has recently purchased an additional 1,560 acres of land to the north-west of the park, thereby expanding the current area under protection.
55304		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, in northern Colombia, where it has been recorded from 1,230-2,700m asl.
55304		habitat	eng	It is found on rocks within fast-flowing streams near waterfalls in montane forest. The female puts her eggs on her back and the young develop directly.
55304		population	eng	It is a common species.
55304		threats	eng	Agriculture, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species’ habitat. In particular, deforestation around streams is a major threat.
55305		conservation	eng	Its range includes Reserva Regional Bosque de Florencia in Caldas department.
55305		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western flank of the central Andes, in south Antioquia and Caldas departments, the north and south-eastern flank of the central Andes (in Antioquia and southern Tolima departments), and the western slope of the eastern Andes, in Santander and Cundinamarca departments, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 900-2,000m asl.
55305		habitat	eng	It is found on rocks in fast-flowing mountain streams in transition and montane forest. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, and the young develop directly.
55305		population	eng	It is a common species.
55305		threats	eng	Major threats to the species’ habitat include agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging; agricultural pollution is also a threat.
55306		conservation	eng	Additional survey work is urgently required to determine whether or not it still survives in the wild, although further taxonomic research is also needed to ascertain whether or not it is a valid species or not.
55306		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: La Salina, Boyacá Department, Colombia, at 1,450m asl.
55306		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. However, like other members of its genus, it is probably associated with streams and waterfalls in montane forest. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
55306		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it is known only from the single type specimen. Surveys in the region of the type locality have not produced any individuals.
55306		threats	eng	The region where this species occurs has been severely affected by mining for salt production, and all possible suitable remaining habitat for this taxon has been destroyed at the type locality.
55307		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the protection and restoration of forested highland areas of northern Chiapas, Mexico, is needed. Further research is required to determine whether chytrid might pose a threat to this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55307		distribution	eng	This species occurs above 1,600m asl on the northern slopes of the central highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, from Jitotol to Soluschiapa.
55307		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in cascading mountain streams in cloud forest areas.
55307		population	eng	This is not a rare species.
55307		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation and the disturbance of cloud forest remnants (at present, mountainous cloud forests are the most impacted habitats in Mexico). Chytridiomycosis may also also pose a  potential threat to this species.
55308		conservation	eng	Urgent protection of the Sierra de Juárez area is suggested since there are no existing protected areas in the region. In view of what appears to be a genuine risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and ex-situ populations may need to be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55308		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de Juárez, northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at elevations of 680-1,850m asl.
55308		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian that requires the presence of streams and humid microhabitats.
55308		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon and is known only from a few localities.
55308		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the disturbance and desiccation of streams in cloud forest. In addition, larvae with keratinized mouthparts have been found in southern Mexico, which suggests infection with chytridiomycosis.
55309		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and the lowland forest habitat of this species is in urgent need of protection. Further research is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and whether it is at risk of infection with chytrid.
55309		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lowlands of the Atlantic versant in southern Costa Rica and adjacent north-western Panama, from 170-440m asl (Savage 2002).
55309		habitat	eng	The few known specimens have been collected on low vegetation (approximately 3m above ground) within humid lowland forest. The species may be associated with headwater streams (Savage 2002). Larval development is presumed to take place in these streams.
55309		population	eng	It is a rare species known only from three specimens.
55309		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is general habitat loss due to deforestation for smallholder farming activities, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species.
55310		conservation	eng	Its range includes several national parks, such as Braulio Carrillo, and other protected areas.
55310		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Caribbean and Pacific slopes of the mountains of Costa Rica, at elevations of 500-1,580m asl.
55310		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane wet forest and rainforest. A nocturnal stream breeder, males call throughout the year but are most active from August to December. The species sometimes aggregates around small, shallow streams or seeps draining into streams. Tadpoles are found in quiet pools.
55310		population	eng	It is regularly encountered in suitable habitat throughout its range. This species persists in good numbers in areas known to be infected with chytridiomycosis (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).
55310		threats	eng	Threats to this species include deforestation, stream alteration, and pollution, but populations are generally stable.
55311		conservation	eng	It occurs within the Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Texiguat. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species, particularly given the threat of chytridiomycosis.
55311		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sierra de Nombre de Dios and Montaña Macuzal, Atlantica and Yoro departments, north-central Honduras, at elevations of 90-1,400m asl.
55311		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest. It has been collected along shallow, slow-moving streams. It lays eggs in vegetation over streams.
55311		population	eng	It is uncommon and all populations are believed to be declining.
55311		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence and small holder agriculture, and logging, is the main threat to this species. Landslides on the upper clear water streams (caused by strong storms and human activities in the lower portions of the streams), water pollution, and fires are also threats. Chytridiomycosis presents a potential threat to this species.
55312		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo. There is a need for close population monitoring, particularly if chytrid is shown to represent a genuine threat. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55312		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme eastern Oaxaca (Chimalapas) and extreme south-western Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent Guatemala.
55312		habitat	eng	This species only inhabits montane cloud forest from moderate to high elevations in almost pristine environments. It is presumed to breed in streams.
55312		population	eng	It is not very common.
55312		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to deforestation and infrastructure development. However, chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat.
55313		conservation	eng	In Honduras, it is known to occur in Parque Nacional Cusuco and in Parque Nacional Cerro Azul, both formally protected since 1987. Surveys are required to monitor the population status and trends of this species, particularly given the threat of chytridiomycosis.
55313		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sierra de Omoa and Espíritu Santo in north-western Honduras and north-eastern Guatemala, between 40 and 1,570 m asl.
55313		habitat	eng	It is found on low vegetation along streams in lowland moist forest, and premontane and lower montane wet forest. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
55313		population	eng	Formerly, it was moderately common in appropriate habitat. Currently, though, the population is declining throughout its range.
55313		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture (for uses such as pasture), wood extraction, and water pollution. A large population resides in Cusuco National Park; but in 2008, it became apparent that habitat destruction is beginning to encroach upon the habitat of this species. Several individuals were found less than 1 km away from an area being cleared for agriculture (J. E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008). Chytrid infection has recently been confirmed in this species (39.6% prevalence; Kolby J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E. and Field, R. in press).
55314		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, this species has been recorded from at least three protected areas in Panama, and more than three protected areas in Costa Rica. Further survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species, and to ascertain clearly whether or not chytrid poses a threat or not. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established.
55314		distribution	eng	This species is known from the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama (300-1,450m asl). In Costa Rica, the species occurs on the Atlantic versant at 656-1,740m asl and on the Pacific slope at 880-1,600m asl (Savage 2002).
55314		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest. Adults are usually found in the proximity of streams. During the day, individuals hide in vegetation, especially in leaf axils of epiphytes and terrestrial aroids. At night, moderately dense congregations have been found along small, fast-flowing streams. Males call from dense vegetation several metres away from the streams, from 0.5-3.0m above ground. Larvae develop in quiet pools, but sometimes adhere to large rocks in the stream bottom when the streams rise following heavy rains (Savage 2002).
55314		population	eng	It was formerly common but as of 2002 had apparently disappeared from its entire Costa Rican range except for a remnant population at Monteverde where it has declined substantially since the late 1980s. As of 2007, a new population was found in Tuis de Turrialba, Costa Rica (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). It is now infrequently seen in Costa Rica, and it is presumed to have declined in Panama.
55314		threats	eng	Museum specimens have been found to be infected with chytrid fungi, and although it requires confirmation, it is likely that infection with this pathogen, perhaps in combination with climate change, is responsible for the current population decline. Habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities is also a threat to this species.
55315		conservation	eng	The species' range overlaps with several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55315		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Espírito Santo States), from 500-1,800m asl.
55315		habitat	eng	This species is found in the forest sitting on vegetation 1-3 metres above the ground, mostly in bromeliads. Females carry the eggs in a pouch and release the tadpoles into bromeliads. It can live in disturbed habitats, almost anywhere with trees. They need bromeliads to breed.
55315		population	eng	This is a very common species.
55315		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to clear-cutting of forests is a localized threat, however there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.
55316		conservation	eng	In Venezuela, a number of populations are located within Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria, while the species' rainforest habitat in Tobago is also partially protected. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of this species.
55316		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsula de Paria in Venezuela, and from the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to approximately 1,000m asl.
55316		habitat	eng	A nocturnal and arboreal species, on Trinidad it is found in the leaf bases of bromeliads and aroids. It is also found in bushes or in montane humid forests, and appears not to have been reported from altered habitats. It carries its eggs on its back and has larvae that develop in the leaf axils of bromeliads.
55316		population	eng	The current population status of this species is not known.
55316		threats	eng	Some populations may be affected by small-scale agricultural activities and timber extraction. On Tobago road construction is probably having an effect on its habitat.
55317		conservation	eng	The species' range overlaps with several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55317		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Espirito Santo States), from sea level to just above 1,000m asl.
55317		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the forest sitting on vegetation 1-3 metres above the ground, mostly in bromeliads. Females carry the eggs in a pouch and release the tadpoles into bromeliads. It can live in disturbed habitats, almost anywhere with trees. They need bromeliads to breed.
55317		population	eng	This is a very common species.
55317		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to clear-cutting of forests is a localized threat, however there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.
55318		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. More research into its Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55318		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Espirito Santo States). It occurs between 600-1,200m asl. It might also occur above this level.
55318		habitat	eng	This species occurs in bamboo clusters or on leaves of low vegetation in primary forest. Females carry eggs on their back and then deposit the tadpoles in bamboo stems. It can tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, and can be found anywhere where there are trees and bamboo.
55318		population	eng	This is a very common species. There have been observed declines in some locations, but they are continuing to persist but at lower densities (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
55318		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species' overall survival at present.
55319		conservation	eng	Some populations protected within national parks in Venezuela, but it is not confirmed from any protected areas in Colombia.
55319		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera de la Costa and the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela, extending into the northern Cordillera Oriental (dept Norte de Santander) in Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,600m asl. The specimens from the Colombian and Venzuelan Andes belong to another, as yet, undescribed species (Barrio Amorós, 2004).
55319		habitat	eng	It is a species of pre-montane humid forests, that is particularly associated with bromeliads. The eggs are carried on the back of the female in a pouch, and the larvae are deposited in bromeliad axils. It can survive in degraded forest, so long as bromeliads are present.
55319		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. Four individuals were recorded in Venezuela in 1999, but there are no recent records from Colombia due to lack of surveys.
55319		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, livestock, logging, and human settlement. Collection of bromeliads might also be a problem, at least locally, and habitat loss due to fire is also a threat.
55320		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.
55320		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type collection in the higher western slopes of the Cordillera Colán in the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where it has been found at altitudes of 2,970-3,330m asl. It is difficult to determine whether or not it is endemic to the Huancabamba Depression.
55320		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found above the tree line in grassy areas, bogs, and the fronds of terrestrial bromeliads. The adults carry the larvae on their backs before depositing them in a currently unknown site.
55320		population	eng	The population status is not known.
55320		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. It might be impacted by regional agricultural activities, but this requires further investigation.
55321		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.
55321		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in Caquetá, Huila, and Putumayo Departments) and in Ecuador south to Zamora Province, at 1,000-2,000m asl.
55321		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, living on the vegetation next to water sources inside cloud forest. There is a record of an individual observed in a flat area on a ridge, with a relatively open canopy and many tree falls, but otherwise there is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. The eggs are carried in a pouch on the female's back, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
55321		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
55321		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation due to smallholder livestock ranching and cultivation of crops (including some illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55322		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved protection of forest habitats at sites where this species is known to occur in the Chocó-Darién forests of western Ecuador.
55322		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of north-western Ecuador and western Colombia, at 100-600m asl. There is only one known locality in Ecuador in Esmeraldas Province. In Colombia, it is known from a small number of localities in the departments of Antioquia, Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Chocó. It could be more widespread than records suggest.
55322		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and lives on vegetation inside humid lowland forest near water. It has only been found in closed forest and has not been found in secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are carried on the back of the female.
55322		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55322		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (livestock, illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55323		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas, such as Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.
55323		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Valle del Cauca, Risaralda, Chocó, and Antioquia, in the Andean cloud forests on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental, at elevations of 1,700-2,500m asl, in Colombia. It might occur more widely.
55323		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded from primary forest, where they are found on vegetation. They are direct developing frogs with the eggs kept in the pouch of the female.
55323		population	eng	It is a common species.
55323		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and fragmentation due to the expansion of agriculture (particularly cattle raising) and logging.
55324		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55324		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern part of the Cordillera Occidental, and the central and southern part of the western flanks of the Cordillera Central and Macizo Central in Cauca, Nariño and Valle del Cauca departments, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,760-3,050m asl. It might occur more widely.
55324		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation inside the forest and next to streams in Andean forests. It also inhabits open areas, pastures and human disturbed areas. The eggs are raised in a pouch on the back of the female and the tadpoles are then transported to small pools where the tadpoles develop further.
55324		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55324		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species.
55325		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence is needed, and establishment of a protected area for this species would be advisable.
55325		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Cauca and Huila on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central in south-central Colombia, from 2,000-2,600m asl.
55325		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, occurring on vegetation alongside streams in Andean forests. It has also been recorded from relatively disturbed areas such as in trees in farmers' gardens. Its main requirement is dense vegetation. The eggs develop in a pouch on the back of the female and then the larvae are transported to small pools where they develop further.
55325		population	eng	This is a common species.
55325		threats	eng	A major threat resulting in destruction of its habitat is the cultivation of illegal crops. Water pollution is also a threat.
55326		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, and its habitat is in urgent need of protection, particularly since it is confined to primary intact forest. Further survey work would help establish the species' current population status.
55326		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities from the north side of the Cordillera Central in the Department of Antioquia, to the eastern slopes of Caldas Department, Colombia, between 1,700 and 2,200m asl. It might be more widespread than current records suggest.
55326		habitat	eng	This species is a canopy dweller restricted entirely to primary Andean forest. The eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
55326		population	eng	It is known from only 10 specimens and is thought to be a rare species.
55326		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction for agriculture and livestock, and as a result of logging.
55327		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected in Parque Nacional Calilegua, but there is a need for additional protection of Yungas habitat in the range of this species.
55327		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the slopes of the Andes in Jujuy Province, Argentina, at mid elevations from 1,550-2,600m asl.
55327		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that lives in montane forests (Yungas), and occurs arboreally in tree crowns, tree holes and rock crevices. Although there are records of this species persisting in moderately disturbed habitats for a few decades, intensification of the disturbance eventually led to the species' disappearance in these areas. Males call from burrows, and during amplexus, males place eggs in the marsupial pouch on the female's back. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop in the pouch, which is also where they develop into froglets.
55327		population	eng	It is very rare, but has been collected as recently as 2002.
55327		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, mainly due to selective logging and clear cutting of primary forests.
55328		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected in Parque Nacional Baritú in Argentina, and Reserva Nacional de Flora y Fauna Tariquía in Bolivia.
55328		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities on the slopes of the Andes in Salta Province, Argentina, and also in Tarija Department, Bolivia, at 1,500-1,600m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than records indicate.
55328		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in the canopy of montane forests (Yungas). During amplexus, males place eggs in the marsupial pouch on the female's back. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop in the pouch. The females subsequently deposit the larvae in small pools of water on the forest floor where metamorphosis takes place. This species' tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known.
55328		population	eng	It is a very rare species, but has been collected as recently as 2002 in Argentina.
55328		threats	eng	The major threats include selective logging, the clear-cutting of primary forests, introduction of predatory fish (trout), and the alteration of watersheds.
55329		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It occurs, or occurred, in several protected areas in Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica. A small ex-situ population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith <em>pers. comm</em>. September, 2007).
55329		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid lowland and premontane forests from central Costa Rica to central Panama on the Atlantic slope, and from the Pacific versant of eastern Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, to western Ecuador (south to Manta Real [Almendáriz and Carr, 1992]; however it has not been recorded from Manta Real in a recent survey [Ana Almendáriz pers. comm., 2007]); in Costa Rica, it is known from three localities in Limón Province (300-700m asl); the overall elevational range is from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
55329		habitat	eng	A canopy species of lowland and montane humid forest characterized by high humidity throughout the year, including both primary and secondary forest, but not occurring in open areas. Animals have been recorded in African palm plantations in Ecuador (John D. Lynch pers. comm. 2007). Individuals have been found near to rivers and creeks. It breeds by direct development, the female carries fertilised eggs in a pouch on her back, the eggs hatch as fully developed frogs. It has the largest known amphibian eggs.
55329		population	eng	The species has declined in El Cope (now gone from this site, Lips <em>et al</em>., 2006; Karen Lips pers. comm., 2007) and El Valle in Panama, and the last Costa Rican record is from 1996; it has not been recorded again in this country as of August 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). As of 2007, there is little new information on the status of populations in eastern Panama, however it is presumed to still be present here (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm., 2007). The species was formerly common in Ecuador, however populations have now dramatically declined in this country although it is not certain that the species is extirpated, and it is considered to be nationally Data Deficient (Luis Coloma pers. comm. 2007). In Colombia, it appears to have never been an especially common species (John D. Lynch pers. comm. 2007).
55329		threats	eng	This species has disappeared from Costa Rica and western Panama; these declines have been associated with the disease chytridiomycosis (Lips <em>et al.</em>, 2006). This disease is also present in the lowlands of western Ecuador (Luis A. Coloma pers. comm. 2007), and may have contributed to the substantial declines of this species in Ecuador currently associated with extensive habitat loss. Areas of forest close to the type locality of "Cachabé" (= Cachabí), Provincia Esmeralda, Ecuador have now been deforested and no <em>Gastrotheca cornuta</em> are present here (Luis A. Coloma pers. comm. 2007). It is possible that the species has declined in Colombia, with few records and ongoing serious habitat fragmentation in Cauca and Nariño (John D. Lynch pers. comm. 2007; Fernando Castro pers. comm. 2007). Major threats other than disease are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55330		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, but none in Ecuador. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
55330		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in the departments of Antioquia, Risaralda, Choco, Valle del Cauca and Cauca), and in one locality in the southern part of Pichincha Province, in northern Ecuador. There is also an isolated population at Florencia in the department of Caldas on the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 1,230-2,090m asl. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known.
55330		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation inside primary and secondary montane forests, usually near water sources. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are carried on the back of the female.
55330		population	eng	It is rare in Ecuador, where it has not been found in recent years, but it is still common in Colombia.
55330		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (livestock, illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Fire is probably also a threat in some places. Its apparent disappearance in Ecuador could be due to habitat loss, but chytridiomycosis, which has affected other species of <em>Gastrotheca</em> in Ecuador, cannot be ruled out.
55331		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55331		distribution	eng	This species is known from north of the Río Medellín in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in the northern department of Antioquia, Colombia from 2,000-2,700m asl.
55331		habitat	eng	It is known from primary and secondary forest and grassland. It is a very adaptable species found in human habitats such as plantations, farmland, and urban gardens, as long as there is a pool to breed in. The eggs are raised in a pouch on the back of the female and the tadpoles are then transported to small pools where the tadpoles develop further.
55331		population	eng	It is a common species.
55331		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
55332		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making the protection of its high-elevation sub-páramo and forest habitat a priority. Survey work is needed to establish the status of populations in Colombia.
55332		distribution	eng	This species occurs at elevations of 2,530-3,400m asl in a small area in the southern part of the Cordillera Central in Colombia (in the department of Narino) and in the Nudo de Pasto region in southern Colombia (also in the department of Narino) and northern Ecuador (Carchi Province).
55332		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation in sub-páramo bush land and montane forests, often close to streams with forest remnants. The female carries the eggs in a dorsal pouch, and the larvae are deposited in slow-moving or standing water.
55332		population	eng	It is common and is frequently encountered, although there are few recent records from Colombia (due to lack of survey effort).
55332		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Fire is probably also a problem in some places.
55333		conservation	eng	It is recorded from both Manú National Park and Machu Pichu.
55333		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Amazonian slopes of the Andes, and is recorded from three different areas, namely Machu Picchu, San Luis and San Pedro in the department of Cusco, southern Peru. Records from the department of Cajamarca are thought to be in error and require further verification. It has an altitudinal range of 2,000-3,000m asl.
55333		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary montane tropical forest; it exhibits some resilience in the face of habitat distrubance, and may be found in low intensity farmed areas. The eggs hatch on the female's back, and the larvae are also carried on the back.
55333		population	eng	This species is very common.
55333		threats	eng	The major threat is extensive habitat loss due to agriculture (tea and coffee), and the development of infrastructure for tourism.
55334		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55334		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of eastern Brazil, up to 700m asl, from the State of Pernambuco, south to the State of Espírito Santo.
55334		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forest, and on the forest edge, and is associated mainly with terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads. It has also been found in bromeliads in shrubland and in rocky outcrops. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are carried in a pouch on back of the female, and the young frogs grow in bromeliads.
55334		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
55334		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, selective logging, and collection of bromeliads, fire and human settlement.
55335		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
55335		distribution	eng	This species is known only from east of Canchaque and Huancabamba, on the western slope of the Huancabamba Depression (Piura Department), Peru, where it has been recorded at altitudes of 1,740m and 2,130m asl.
55335		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from cloud forest, montane dry forest, scrubby pasture and lightly disturbed areas. The breeding habitat is not known, though the eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female.
55335		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. There have been no recent records.
55335		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. It might be impacted by regional agricultural activities, but this requires further investigation.
55336		conservation	eng	Some populations are probably protected in Parque Nacional Los Alisos.
55336		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of Sierra del Aconquija, Sierra de Medina and Sierra de Taficillo (near Tucumán), in north-western Argentina, in Catamarca, Tucumán and Salta provinces, at 1,500-2,000m asl. It might occur more widely, including in Bolivia.
55336		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in the tree canopy of montane forests (Yungas). During amplexus, males place eggs in the marsupial pouch on the female's back. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop in the pouch. The females subsequently deposit the larvae in small pools of water on the forest floor where metamorphosis takes place. This species' tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known.
55336		population	eng	It is a very rare species. The most recent record is from 1995, but there has been no recent survey work.
55336		threats	eng	Major threats include selective logging, the clear-cutting of primary forests, introduction of predatory fish (trout), and the alteration of watersheds.
55337		conservation	eng	It is not known to be from any protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
55337		distribution	eng	This species is found in the area of Nudo de Pasco in Departamentos Pasco, Junin and Huánuco, central Peruvian Andes. It is recorded at elevations of between 3,000 and 4,020m asl.
55337		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of dry puna grasslands, this species breeds by direct development. It is quite common in traditionally cultivated arable land.
55337		population	eng	It is relatively abundant.
55337		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species. It can occur in low intensity agricultural areas.
55338		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Further research is needed to investigate the cause of the apparent decline of this species in Ecuador.
55338		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Pichincha and Cotapaxi provinces) and western Colombia (from Nariño Department to Antioquia Department). It has been recorded between 700 and 2,010m asl.
55338		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species, living on vegetation, including arboreal bromeliads, in forest habitats, usually next to water sources. It prefers undisturbed habitats, but can be found on the edge of secondary forest. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female.
55338		population	eng	The population status of this species across much of Ecuador is unknown. It was most recently recorded in 1996, and appears to have declined. Data from the Reserva Otonga (Pichincha Province) suggest that it is now absent from where it once occurred (L. Coloma pers. obs.). It is an uncommon species in Colombia.
55338		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The decline in Ecuador is unexplained and has taken place within suitable habitats, and might perhaps be related to climate change, or to chytridiomycosis (which has been recorded in <em>Gastrotheca</em> species in Ecuador), or to a combination of these two factors.
55339		conservation	eng	It is protected within Parque Nacional Tamá in both Venezuela and Colombia.
55339		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Páramo de Tamá, in Venezuela (Apure and Táchira Sates) and adjacent Colombia (Norte de Santander Department), at 2,300-2,350m asl.
55339		habitat	eng	This is a species found in cloud forest, which lives in rotten wood. It has been found in degraded forest, and although is very hard to see it is easily heard. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are carried on the back of the female.
55339		population	eng	It was abundant in the mid 1980s, and the absence of recent records is probably due to a lack of survey effort.
55339		threats	eng	There is very little recent information available, though much of its habitat is protected.
55340		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
55340		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "El Tambo, 31.5km (by road) east of Canchaque, 2,770m [asl] (5° 22'S; 79° 33'W), Cordillera de Huancabamba, Departamento de Piura, Peru" (Duellman and Trueb 1988). It is difficult to determine as to whether or not it is endemic to the Huancabamba Depression.
55340		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species in montane cloud forest, which presumably carries its eggs on the back of the female.
55340		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
55340		threats	eng	There is some small-scale deforestation in the vicinity of the collection site that might represent a threat.
55341		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Carrasco, but further protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat in the species' range is needed. Further survey work is also required to determine the biology and population status of this species, particularly to ascertain whether or not it survives in the wild.
55341		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality "La Siberia", 40km from Comarapa toward Pojo, in Carrasco Province, Cochabamba Department, Bolivia, at 2,800m asl (De la Riva 1992). Surveys in nearby areas have not found this species, suggesting that it has a genuinely restricted range.
55341		habitat	eng	An arboreal cloud forest species, there is no information known about breeding, although the eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female, like other species of the genus.
55341		population	eng	This species is known only from a single female, collected in 1989, from the type locality, and it might now be extinct.
55341		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss as a result of agriculture (crops and livestock) is a major threat at the type locality.
55342		conservation	eng	Its geographic range slightly overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas, and it also occurs in the Bosques Protector Masan and Zurocucho. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and to ascertain whether it is declining in suitable habitat due to chytrid.
55342		distribution	eng	This species is known from eight localities in intermontane basins in the Andes, in Azuay Province, southern Ecuador, at 3,000-3,600m asl.
55342		habitat	eng	It inhabits sub-páramo, subhumid pastureland and grassy páramo (Duellman and Hillis 1987). There is no information on the breeding habits of this species, but the eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female, and it is likely that the larvae are deposited in small pools of water or streams.
55342		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. It is often confused with <em>G. pseustes</em>, and it appears that one or other, or both, of these species may be declining.
55342		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due, in particular, to large-scale livestock ranching. However, it might be declining even within suitable habitat, possibly due to chytridiomycosis.
55343		conservation	eng	It is present in Santiago-Comainas Reserved Zone of Peru and Ecuador, and Yasuni National Park, Ecuador.
55343		distribution	eng	This species' range is the Upper Amazon basin in northern Perú (Departamento: Amazonas) and eastern lowlands of Ecuador. 250-1,200m asl
55343		habitat	eng	This is a canopy species found in primary tropical moist lowland and montane tropical forest. A direct development species, its eggs are carried in a pouch on the females back. It is not present in modified habitats.
55343		population	eng	The population status of this canopy species is unknown.
55343		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to selective logging and agricultural activities. It might be susceptible to chytrid infection, but this requires further investigation.
55344		conservation	eng	In Peru, it might occur in Huayllay and Ampay National Sanctuaries, Junin National Reserve, Chacamarca Historical Sanctuary and Apurimac Reserved Zone. In Bolivia, it occurs in Carrasco National Park, Cotapata National Park, Pilon Lajas National Park and the Tariquia protected area. Further research into this species is needed.
55344		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazonian drainage systems of the Andes, from central Peru to southern Bolivia, at altitudes of 1,500-4,230m asl.
55344		habitat	eng	It is present in primary, secondary and disturbed cloud and montane forest in the valleys of the central Andes. Taxa assigned to G. marsupiata also commonly occur in most types of regional agricultural areas and flooded areas. Breeding takes place in stagnant and slow flowing waters. It has a degree of tolerance to water pollution.
55344		population	eng	It is locally common.
55344		threats	eng	The threats to this complex species are difficult to determine. Forest populations might be threatened by deforestation and agricultural activities. The species might be in small-scale international trade, although there is often confusion between this species and G. peruana or G. riobambae.
55345		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55345		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal regions and mountains of southeastern Brazil from the State of Espirito Santo, south to the State of Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 1,500m asl, but probably not all the way down to sea level.
55345		habitat	eng	It lives in the canopy of undisturbed primary forest, where it hides in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are carried in a pouch on back of the female, where it breeds its froglets.
55345		population	eng	It is probably common, but it is hard to detect since it is a canopy species. It is very poorly known and is not often found.
55345		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to clear-cutting, selective logging, collection of bromeliads and human settlement.
55346		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Podocarpus. In Peru, it is present in some natural forest and also in Cutervo National Park and Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla.
55346		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Andean slopes around the Huancabamba Depression region, Loja Province, southern Ecuador; and Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura regions, northern Peru; at 1,900-3,130m asl.
55346		habitat	eng	It occurs in shrubs in humid montane forests and in altered habitats. The females carry the eggs in pouches on their backs and put the tadpoles in streams.
55346		population	eng	It was common in Loja in 2003. It is also common in Peru.
55346		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species, especially the forest destruction caused by agricultural activities in the locality of Celendín, Cajamarca department, Peru. Enciso et al. (2008) recently reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>G. monticola</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.
55347		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in both Colombia and Venezuela. In Panama the species has been recorded from Reserva Forestal Fortuna and Parque Nacional Darién.
55347		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Panama, Colombia and Venezuela. It has been recorded from two general areas in Panama: the western central cordillera adjacent to Costa Rica, and the eastern cordilleras in southeastern Darien adjacent to Colombia. The area in Panama between places is well surveyed and it does not appear to exist here. In Colombia it occurs along the border with Panama, and also widely in the northern portions of the Western and Central Cordilleras of the Andes, and on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera (including the Cordillera Macarena), extending east to the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela. In addition, there is a record for Chorlaví, Putumayo department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 400-2,400m asl.
55347		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of lowland forest and montane cloud forest, including in disturbed cloud forest. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female.
55347		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55347		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, since it is tolerant of forest alteration. It might be affected, at least locally, by pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55348		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Manu.
55348		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south-west base of the Cordillera de Vilcanota, west of Río Putumayo, 10km (by road) from Ollantaytambo, and also from the Acjanaco-Pillahuata road (both sites are in Cuzco Department, Peru). It might be present in Puno Department, although this requires confirmation. This species' altitudinal range is 2,700-2,800m asl. Its total range is considered to be reasonably well-known.
55348		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in cloud forest, but not in degraded habitats, in the Andes. The larvae develop in bromeliads.
55348		population	eng	It is very rare.
55348		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for subsistence use of wood and timber and by increasing colonisation of the area. It is not considered to be threatened by agricultural activities.
55349		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; however, it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. There is a need for improved protection of the forest habitat of this species, and further research is also necessary to understand the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.
55349		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the upper Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes in Ecuador (Sucumbios, Imbabura and Carchi Provinces) and Colombia (on the eastern slope of the Nudo de Pasto in Narino and Putumayo Departments). Its altitudinal range is 2,600-3,100m asl.
55349		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary cloud forest, and has also been found in agricultural fields (potato cultivation) in Ecuador, though it now appears to be reduced in this habitat. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are carried on the female's back.
55349		population	eng	It is now an uncommon species in Ecuador, whereas it was formerly common three decades ago.
55349		threats	eng	There are only four locality records in Ecuador and all are facing severe human-induced habitat deterioration. The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (mainly crops), logging, and human settlement, as well as fire. However, the decline in Ecuador remains unexplained, and might perhaps be related to climatic changes, since the species appears to have disappeared in pristine habitats. It is also possible that the use of agro-chemicals in agricultural areas (particularly for potato cultivation) could have led to declines in this habitat. Chytridiomycosis is probably not implicated in any declines, since the species is not associated with water, though this still cannot be ruled out.
55350		conservation	eng	A number of populations are protected in national parks, including Parques Nacionales El Avila, San Esteban, Yurubi and Henri Pittier. Research is needed to better understand the reasons for the species' decline in suitable habitats.
55350		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cordillera de la Costa in the Venezuelan coastal mountain range, from 800-1,800m asl.
55350		habitat	eng	It is associated with bromeliads (especially during dry periods when it takes refuge in them) in cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are carried on the female's back.
55350		population	eng	In some places (such as in Cerro Avila; Barrio 1999) it seems to be an abundant species; however, in other places (such as Parque Nacional Henri Pittier; La Marca 1995b; Manzanilla <em>et al.</em> 1995), where it used to be common, it is now less so.
55350		threats	eng	Threats to its habitat are minimal in some places like Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, but elsewhere the habitat is severely threatened by agriculture, logging and infrastructure development. The cause(s) of the decline in pristine habitats is not clear, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out, but it seems improbable as this species is not associated with water.
55351		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
55351		distribution	eng	This species is possibly endemic to the Abra Tapuna, on the crest of the Cordillera Oriental in Ayacucho Department, Peru, where it has been found at approximately 3,710m asl. Its distribution is not well known.
55351		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found in puna grasslands. The larvae develop in still waters.
55351		population	eng	There is no recent information on this species.
55351		threats	eng	It is not know what threats there are to this species, but they are likely to be minimal as it occurs in a very isolated area.
55352		conservation	eng	It is unclear if the species is present in any protected areas, but it might occur in the Huayllay National Sanctuary, Junin National Reserve, Chacamarca Historical Sanctuary and the Parque Nacional de Huascaran Sector Carpa.
55352		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Andean and inter-Andean valleys of northern and central Peru. It is present in the regions of Cajamarca, La Libertad, Ancash, Huánuco, Junin and Lima. It might occur in the region of Amazonas; this, however, requires confirmation. The altitudinal range is from 2,300m to 4,600m asl.
55352		habitat	eng	It can be found in high plains and puna habitats, and is present in traditional arable lands. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds, drainage ditches and other still waters. The species can also be found in urban areas.
55352		population	eng	It is often a very abundant species.
55352		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has previously been recorded in the pet trade in Germany, although this is not believed to represent a significant threat to the species.
55353		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
55353		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 2,500-3,200m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in northern and central Ecuador, where it has been recorded from eight localities.
55353		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal inhabitant of cloud forests, and can also be found in forest edge and secondary, degraded habitats. It is closely associated with arboreal bromeliads. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are carried on the female's back.
55353		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species, but it appears to be declining, and some populations have disappeared.
55353		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, this species is probably impacted by severe habitat loss, especially due to agriculture and the impacts of fire. The causes of its decline in pristine habitats are not clear; chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out, but it seems improbable, since this species is not associated with water.
55354		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, Parque Nacional Sangay and Parque Nacional Cajas. Given the threat of chytrid, it may be necessary to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.
55354		distribution	eng	This species occurs at elevations of 2,200-4,000m asl, in the Andes of northern and southern Ecuador, from Pichincha to Azuay Provinces.
55354		habitat	eng	This species can be found in old-growth cloud forest and altered zones such as secondary forest and pastures; it also can be found in páramo. The female carries the eggs in a pouch on her back and then deposits the larvae in small pools of water.
55354		population	eng	The populations in several localities (Cashca Totoras and near Parque Nacional Cajas) have disappeared. Many populations were once abundant in the mid 1980s, and these are now severely reduced. It can be easily confused with <em>G. litonedis</em>, which can complicate attempts to assess the population status of both species.
55354		threats	eng	Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species, and this is probably the main cause of its decline. It is relatively tolerant of habitat destruction, although it requires some thickets to persist. The conversion of habitat for human settlements has severely fragmented its habitat, and aggressive afforestation programmes in páramo habitats, using exotic pines, are probably also a threat.
55355		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it is found close to the northern limit of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of this species, and to investigate its breeding biology.
55355		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a limited region on the Abra de Zamora ridge, between Loja and Zamora, in the Cordillera Oriental in southern Ecuador, at 2,750-2,850m asl. Although it is known only from the type locality, it probably occurs more widely.
55355		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo. The type locality is exceedingly wet, with cold winds blowing from the east. The vegetation near the crest consists of grasses and dense bushes, and large bromeliads are abundant on the ground and in the bushes. Individuals have been found in bromeliads and under rocks. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, but it is not known whether or not this species breeds by direct development or by larval development.
55355		population	eng	There is little information on its population status, but it is probably a very rare species.
55355		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, largely due to conversion of habitat to pine tree plantations, and expanding agriculture (involving both crops and livestock).
55356		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
55356		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Yuraccyacu on the Tambo-Valle del Apurimac trail 2,620m asl, Departamento Ayacucho, Peru" (Duellman and Trueb 1988).
55356		habitat	eng	Its habitat is the cloud forest on the eastern slopes of the Andes. The eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female, but it is not known whether or not breeding is by direct development or larval development.
55356		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
55356		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55357		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
55357		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Andes and inter-Andean valleys in northern and central Ecuador from Imbabura south to Chimborazo. Its altitudinal range is 2,200-3,500m asl.
55357		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation inside montane forests and in a variety of habitats ranging from wet montane meadows to dry rocky hillsides, agave plants and corn fields. It is often found close to water sources such as pools, streams and drainage, and irrigation ditches. The eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female, and the larvae are deposited in still water or very slow-flowing streams.
55357		population	eng	It was once a common species, but has undergone declines across much of its range.
55357		threats	eng	Probably much of its past decline relates to extreme habitat loss. Although the species is clearly adaptable, it probably cannot survive when nothing but pastures remain. Pollution and global and local climatic change could be implicated in the observed declines. It is unlikely to be a victim of chytridiomycosis (though this cannot be ruled out, in particular because of its association with streams).
55358		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of the breeding habitat of this species. More research is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality and to confirm whether the species is in decline, and the causes of the decline.
55358		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the immediate vicinity of the type locality: Valle de Sibundoy, in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes, in southern Colombia, from 2,250m asl.
55358		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near the forest edge in Andean forests; it has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. The eggs develop in a pouch on the back of the female and the larvae are then transported to small pools where they develop further.
55358		population	eng	It was previously considered a common species. However, recent surveys of the type locality have not found the species (J. Lynch pers. comm.). It is uncertain whether this represents a real decline or simply lack of sampling.
55358		threats	eng	The main threat is the drainage of wetlands for agriculture and livestock farming, thereby reducing the breeding habitat available. Water pollution from agriculture is also a major threat.
55359		conservation	eng	The only known locality is within Parque Nacional Amboro, and continued management of this area is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it might occur beyond the type locality.
55359		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Abra de la Cruz, in Parque Nacional Amboro, Caballero Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, at 2,286m asl. It might occur a little more widely, but it probably has a restricted distribution.
55359		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from cloud forest and is probably a direct developing species.
55359		population	eng	It is known from only two individuals, one collected in 1857, and the other in 1997. It is clearly very rare, because the area where it was rediscovered has been well surveyed, without success.
55359		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as infrastructure development for human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
55360		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and some form of habitat protection is needed to ensure the maintenance of some cloud forest within the range of this species. Survey work is required to determine whether it might occur between known sites.
55360		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few sites on the eastern face of the Cordillera Oriental and associated ranges of Peru. It has been recorded from the departments of Huánuco, Pasco and northern Junín. The range is not completely known and it may occur more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from elevations of 2,500-3,090m asl.
55360		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that inhabits primary and disturbed cloud forest; it is sometimes present near villages and can be found in pastures with trees. Breeding is by larval development, and the larvae complete their development in ponds.
55360		population	eng	It is uncommon.
55360		threats	eng	The major threat is deforestation due to agriculture, logging and human settlement. The inhabited areas of Chaglla and Carpish are in a region of intensive cultivation, principally for potatoes.
55361		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is known from three protected areas in Bolivia.
55361		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is on the Amazonian slopes of Andes in Ecuador, Perú (Departamentos: Amazonas, San Martín) and Bolivia. In Ecuador it is found in the eastern Cordillera Real montane forests in the eastern subtropical altitudinal zone. Its altitudinal range is 400m to 2,000m asl.
55361		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal frog found in primary forest of lowland and montane humid forest. At Cordillera de Cutucú, Ecuador, one specimen was found in a flat area on a ridge with cloud forest that had a relatively open canopy and many tree falls (Duellman and Lynch, 1988). A direct development species, the eggs are carried in a pouch on the females back. It is not present in modified habitats.
55361		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55361		threats	eng	General habitat loss is through agricultural and human settlements.
55362		conservation	eng	The type locality is entirely within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, but there is a need to combat activities that result in the loss of native habitat within the park boundaries. More research is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
55362		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the region of the type locality: Cerro Munchique on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, in Cauca Department, Colombia, from 2,170-2,540m asl. It might occur somewhat more widely.
55362		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation and next to streams inside forest and at the forest edge, and seeks refuge in bromeliads. It can occur in habitat such as páramo as long as there are bromeliads. Breeding is by direct development, with the eggs kept in the pouch of the female until hatched.
55362		population	eng	It is relatively common at the type locality.
55362		threats	eng	Although its only known locality is a protected area, cultivation of illegal crops is leading to the destruction of native habitat in some parts of the park.
55363		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected within national parks (such as Parque Nacionale Henri Pittier and Parque Nacional Yurubí).
55363		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Venezuelan coastal mountain range, in the Federal District, and in Aragua and Yaracuy States, from 650-1,200m asl. Its range is very poorly known.
55363		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development, with the eggs and hatchlings being carried on the female's back.
55363		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55363		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
55364		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay. It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indiwasi in Colombia.
55364		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, and in Amazonas Department in northern Peru. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in Huila and Caquetá Departments, Colombia, at 1,100-2,370m asl.
55364		habitat	eng	It lives in montane tropical forests (Duellman 1974), and it is likely that the eggs develop directly in a pouch on the female's back.
55364		population	eng	It is rare in Colombia, and there are very few, if any, specimens in Ecuadorian museums. It might be a hard species to find, and so its population status might be incorrectly estimated.
55364		threats	eng	In Ecuador, this species is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development for livestock and crops, in addition to forest clearance. It is less seriously threatened in its Colombian and Peruvian ranges.
55365		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional San Esteban. The taxonomic status of this species requires further clarification.
55365		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at San Esteban, in Carabobo State, Venezuela.
55365		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane tropical forest, and is presumed to breed by direct development with the eggs and hatchlings being carried on the female's back.
55365		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species, which has not been collected again since it was first described. It is not known whether or not it is very rare or whether or not it has disappeared.
55365		threats	eng	Agricultural development, logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to this species' habitat.
55366		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Sangay, in Ecuador. In Peru it is present in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina.
55366		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru and Colombia (Caquetá to Putumayo), from 300-2,000m asl.
55366		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found in dense cloud forests where it favours perches, being found on the branches of bushes and small trees (Trueb 1974). At Cordillera del Cutucú, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in very wet forest, where the ground and most trees were covered with moss (Duellman and Lynch 1988); it was also collected at the same habitat type in Peru. It is not present in modified habitats. This species reproduces by direct development and the eggs are carried in a pouch on the female's back. It is probably a specialized predator on other frog species that only survives in areas of high frog density.
55366		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55366		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss due to infrastructure development for human settlements, logging, and agricultural development (including for the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock). Although much forest habitat remains within the range of this species, it is very sensitive to slight habitat alteration and the rate of forest loss within the majority of its range (the Ecuadorian portion) is very high.
55367		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad, the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, and Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).
55367		distribution	eng	This species occurs through much of the central and eastern cordilleras of Panama, south through the Pacific slopes of Colombia (in Antioquia and Cauca Departments, and almost certainly more widely) and the northern slopes of the western and central cordilleras, to north-western Ecuador (south to the Guajalito Protection Forest in Pichincha Province). It has not yet been recorded from Costa Rica (as of August, 2007) (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007), but may be present within this country. It is known only from a small number of localities within its overall range, from 300-2,000m asl.
55367		habitat	eng	Its habitat is very humid lowland, lower montane and cloud forests; it inhabits primary forest only. By day, individuals have been found in leaf-litter on the forest floor, whereas by night they favour perches above the ground. It lives only in areas of high frog densities, since it preys on other frogs. Breeding is by direct development; the eggs are carried on the back of the female.
55367		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
55367		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation due to agricultural development (including cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55368		conservation	eng	Present in some protected natural areas (Reserva Comunal El Sira, Parque Nacional Manu) in Peru, and Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guacharos in Colombia.
55368		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the upper Amazon Basin and lower Amazon slopes of the Andes in Peru (Departamentos: Cusco, Huánuco, Ucayali). It is known from only two localities in Ecuador, and a single locality in Colombia (Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guacharos). It is not present in Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is 300m to 2,000m asl. MAPPED IN BRAZIL, CHECK THIS OUT
55368		habitat	eng	This tree frog inhabits primary tropical rainforest and montane cloud forest. Individuals have been found in primary forest at night, perched on vegetation 0.3-0.7m above the ground (Sheil and Mendelson III, 2001). A direct development species; its eggs are carried in a pouch on the females back. It is not present in modified habitats. It is probably a specialized predator on other frog species that only survives in areas of high frog density.
55368		population	eng	It can be considered as an uncommon to even a rare species.
55368		threats	eng	No major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55369		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Cuera de los Guacharos, Colombia, and Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Brazil. Further survey work is needed to better determine the limits of the distribution of this species and its current population status.
55369		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in the Colombian Andes at 1,350-1,910m asl, and also from the Brazilian Amazon at much lower altitudes. On the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes it occurs in southern Antioquia Department, and the eastern slope in Caldas Department; on the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes it occurs in Parque Nacional Cuera de los Guacharos, in Huila Department, and in extreme western Caqueta Department. In Brazil, it has been recorded from the vicinity of Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, in Acre State.
55369		habitat	eng	It occurs on the lower stratum of vegetation, among fallen leaves, and on shrubs in primary cloud forest. It is very sensitive to moisture and is restricted to primary forest. It eats other species of frogs, and probably only survives in areas of high frog density. Females lay their eggs and glue them on to their back, where they develop directly.
55369		population	eng	It is considered to be a very rare species, and is known only from about 20 specimens.
55369		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to cultivation of illegal crops, livestock farming and logging.
55370		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. In Colombia it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu. In Peru it might be present in Gueppi Reserved Zone.
55370		distribution	eng	This species is the Upper Amazon Basin in southeastern Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 100-1,200m asl. In Ecuador, it is widely distributed; however it has not been found in recent years.
55370		habitat	eng	This is generally a primary tropical moist forest species. This frog has been found in primary and secondary forests (Duellman, 1978). In the Iquitos region, Perú, specimens have been found only in primary forest, where most individuals were found sitting on low vegetation at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). A direct development species; eggs are carried in a pouch on the female's back. It is not present in modified habitats. The species eats other frogs, and probably only survives in areas of high frog density.
55370		population	eng	It is generally a rare species. There is some population decline in Ecuador, the causes are unclear.
55370		threats	eng	There are no major threats. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55371		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is present in Parque Nacional Manu, Peru; Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and Parque Natural el Pure. It is also present in a number of protected areas in Brazil.
55371		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the upper Amazon basin of Ecuador, Peru, Colombia and western Brazil, however it is not present in Bolivia. A lowland species, its altitudinal range is generally below 1,000m asl.
55371		habitat	eng	This rare, diurnal and nocturnal species has been found in Terra Firme forest, where it can be collected in leaf-litter but is sometimes found in the top of high trees in tropical rainforest. It is generally found only in undisturbed forests (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It breeds by direct development on the dorsum of the adult frog. It is probably a specialized predator on other frog species that only survives in areas of high frog density.
55371		population	eng	This is a cryptic species.
55371		threats	eng	It has no major threats, and is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and selective logging.
55372		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
55372		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of "Río Aloapan, 16.1km (by road) west of Jalapa de Díaz (18° 01' 12''N; 96° 39' 36''W), Oaxaca, Mexico" (Campbell and Duellman 2000). The specimens were collected at 405m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.
55372		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were collected on low vegetation at the edge of the Río Aloapan in lower montane rainforest. This species is presumed to be dependent on water for breeding and to have a larval development breeding strategy.
55372		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the initial collection.
55372		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction.
55373		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas in Bolivia, Brazil and Peru.
55373		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is Western Brazil (Acre, Amazonas and Rondonia), northeastern Bolivia, and southeastern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.
55373		habitat	eng	The habitat is lowland and premontane moist tropical forest. Generally, it is found in the understorey vegetation; it is a typical forest edge species. Breeding takes place in temporary pools. This species increases in number when habitats are disturbed, although it does require some nearby bushes and other low vegetation.
55373		population	eng	A common species, it is increasing in distribution in vegetation along newly constructed roads.
55373		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
55374		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55374		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It occurs up to about 800m asl.
55374		habitat	eng	The species is found on the leaves of trees or shrubs, up to two metres above the ground, next to forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It can also be found in disturbed areas such as banana plantations. It breeds in forest streams.
55374		population	eng	It is a common species.
55374		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to clear cutting of forests is a localized threat to this species.
55375		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Yasuni and Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha.
55375		distribution	eng	This species is known from Amazonian Ecuador, below 600m asl. It probably occurs more widely, and perhaps also in neighbouring countries.
55375		habitat	eng	It inhabits Eastern Cordillera real montane forest and Napo moist forests in the Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zone. At Santa Cecilia, although it was found in a wide variety of habitats including clearings, banana groves, swamps, and primary forest, most individuals were in secondary growth forest, where they were found on low vegetation at night. It is a larval developer.
55375		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
55375		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55376		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55376		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco to the State of Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 1,100m asl. This name has also been widely used for certain frogs from Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas and the lower Amazon basin, but they are now considered to belong to other, possibly undescribed, species.
55376		habitat	eng	It lives on shrubs or on the ground near waterbodies on the edge of tropical moist forests, in degraded forest, and in open areas near forest. It is not found in the interior of mature forest. It breeds in temporary or permanent still water, sometimes even in flowing water. Both egg deposition and larval development occur in lentic water (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It has been found very close to the sea.
55376		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55376		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability to degraded habitats, this species is not threatened.
55377		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Toro Toro.
55377		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern Andes in southern Bolivia. It was recorded in the departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca and Potosi (Duellman, De la Riva and Wild 1997; De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is also known from Tarija Department. It has been recorded from 2,600-3,500m asl and is currently known from 12 populations.
55377		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and is known from open areas. It inhabits high Andean vegetation and dry inter-Andean valleys (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Köhler 2000a). Duellman, De la Riva and Wild (1997) observed individuals perching on small trees and bushes or on brush woods, close to stream banks in the Julpe River area. It breeds in streams.
55377		population	eng	It is locally common.
55377		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to mining and agriculture (which, in turn, causes water pollution and sedimentation of streams).
55378		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. A taxonomic review to resolve the status of the species complex is needed.
55378		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central, southern and southeastern Brazil, including Rondonia state; in extreme eastern Bolivia; in the drainages and the mouth of the Río Paraná, in Corrientes, Entre Ríos and Buenos Aires provinces, Argentina; in the oriental region of Paraguay; and in the northernmost part of Uruguay. The elevational range for this species is 0-2,000m asl.
55378		habitat	eng	It is a widespread, generalist species. It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in tropical rainforest and in open areas. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance, and it is commonly seen in human settlements and in disturbed environments.
55378		population	eng	It is common throughout most of its range, except in Paraguay.
55378		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture could be affecting the species in Paraguay. This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection in São Paulo state, Brazil (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55379		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, the geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní; and possibly occurs in Limoncocha Reserva Biológica.
55379		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazonian lowlands of Peru, northeastern Ecuador and two sites in the southern part of Amazonas Department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is to 300m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular between known sites.
55379		habitat	eng	A little-known nocturnal species, it is recorded from bushes in primary flooded and terra firme forest. Its breeding habitats are not known; observations suggest that it possibly uses bromeliads for refuge (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).
55379		population	eng	The population is not known. The species could be Near Threatened in Ecuador; however records from southern Colombia and Peru suggest that it might be much more widely distributed than is currently known.
55379		threats	eng	In Ecuador there is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), and selective logging.
55380		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55380		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in southeastern and southern Brazil. It occurs around 800-1,200m asl.
55380		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It is not known from disturbed habitats. It breeds in permanent forest streams.
55380		population	eng	It is a common species, but hard to catch.
55380		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to deforestation and large-scale farming is a localized threat to this species.
55381		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55381		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Brasilien" (Lichtenstein and Martens 1856) which is presumed to refer to Brazil.
55381		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
55381		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55381		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55382		conservation	eng	Some populations are within national parks (such as Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón).
55382		distribution	eng	This species is known from Aragua, Cojedes, Falcón and Zulia States, and from the district of Federal, in Venezuela, from 200-1,000m asl.
55382		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical moist forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although its larvae presumably develop in water.
55382		population	eng	It appears to be naturally very rare. In Falcón it might be common in the canopy.
55382		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to clearance of the forests.
55383		conservation	eng	Present in the Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone and Pacaya Samiria National Reserve.
55383		distribution	eng	This species has an apparently disjunctive distribution of near Iquitos (Loreto) in the north of Peru, and Cusco Amazonico, (Madre de Dios) 15km east of Puerto Maldonando. However, it might range more widely, especially between known sites, as it is likely that it is confused with similar hylids. Elevation is below 200m asl.
55383		habitat	eng	Its habitat is primary lowland tropical moist forest. Adults live around vegetation choked ponds; eggs are laid in the water. It is not known if this species can adapt to modified habitats.
55383		population	eng	This species is not very common.
55383		threats	eng	Some localized habitat loss through small holder farming and subsistence use of forest. Some impacts of urbanization from Iquitos.
55384		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas. While additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is still extant in its natural range, protection of the remaining cloud forest fragments is important to preserve the humid habitats for this species as well as other amphibians. It is listed by the Mexican government in the category "Special Protection" (Pr).
55384		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Oaxaca, and north to the towns of San Gabriel and San Sebastián, in south-western Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
55384		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine-oak and cloud forests, and prefers rocky streams with abundant vegetation as microhabitat. It presumably breeds in streams.
55384		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since the 1960s. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
55384		threats	eng	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. The disappearance of the fragments of cloud forest in Oaxaca, the most fragile habitat in Mexico, is also threatening this species. At present this area is under extreme pressure from human population growth.
55385		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55385		distribution	eng	This species from the Serra do Espinhaço and Serra do Caraça in southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Bahia south to the southern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It is a montane species occurring over 1,000m asl.
55385		habitat	eng	It is a species of open, rocky high-altitude grassland that is often found on stones at the edge of brooks and streams. It breeds in permanent streams.
55385		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55385		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat degradation due to human settlement, tourism and fire.
55386		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas and the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute. In Colombia it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
55386		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in Nariño and Cauca Departments) and widely in western Ecuador, from 500-2,000m asl.
55386		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation inside lowland and montane forests, usually very close to streams. Specimens have been found calling from vegetation over, and boulders in, cascading mountain streams. It can survive in secondary forest if vegetation persists around streams. The eggs are deposited among rocks at the water's edge, and the larvae develop in streams.
55386		population	eng	It is locally very common in suitable habitats.
55386		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural development (including cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is probably also affected by the introduction of exotic fish species, pollution from agriculture, and droughts.
55387		conservation	eng	Due to the risk of chytridiomycosis it should be monitored carefully for this disease.
55387		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yosocuno and near Nativitas in the Mixteca Alta area of north-western Oaxaca, Mexico, although the limits of its distribution are not known. Its altitudinal range is 2,455-2,670m asl.
55387		habitat	eng	It is associated with montane oak forest and sometimes uses bromeliads as refuges. Larvae of this species have been collected from a small stream.
55387		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55387		threats	eng	It is presumed to be threatened by the conversion of suitable forest habitat to agricultural land. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to this disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.
55388		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55388		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cerrado of Central Brazil, at 800m asl.
55388		habitat	eng	It occurs in low vegetation next to permanent bodies of water, where it also breeds. It most likely lays its eggs in the water. It adapts well to human disturbance and is often found in pastures.
55388		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
55388		threats	eng	Logging, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species' habitat.
55389		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55389		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands of the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Bahia, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 500m asl.
55389		habitat	eng	Adults are found in stagnant water and on bulrushes (taboas) where there is no arboreal vegetation, in swamps. They breed in temporary or permanent stagnant pools. They have also been recorded in anthropogenic habitats such as gardens and artificial ponds.
55389		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55389		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species overall.
55390		conservation	eng	The current known range of this species falls entirely within protected areas (Parque Internacional La Amistad, Panama, and at least three protected areas in Costa Rica). Further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55390		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,500-2,040m asl (Savage 2002).
55390		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal tree frog of humid lower montane rainforest. Breeding usually takes place in small puddles and water-filled depressions. Males call from leaves and twigs above the forest flood. Tadpoles are benthic (Savage 2002).
55390		population	eng	This is generally an uncommon species. The population is decreasing, but threats to the species remain unknown. In Costa Rica, the species has disappeared from Cerro Chompipe and Tapanti. It declined drastically in Monteverde, but a few individuals persisted until at least the late 1990s, and the particular site where they were found has not been visited since; there is a chance that it still survives at Monteverde. In Panama there is a scarcity of information on its distribution and abundance, though it appears to have declined, and the most recent record is from Parque Internacional La Amistad, in Chiriquí Province, in 1991.
55390		threats	eng	The reasons for the population decline of this species are not known with certainty, though it is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis, perhaps in association with climate change.
55391		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. Current distribution and population status data in Southeast Asia are needed.
55391		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern and central China, northeast India (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunchal Pradesh and Nagaland), northern Myanmar, extreme northern Thailand and Viet Nam. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest in Southeast Asia, especially in areas between known sites. It is known from elevations between 600-2,500m asl.
55391		habitat	eng	A largely arboreal frog of tropical evergreen and deciduous forest, that is also found in grasslands, and agricultural land close to forests. Breeding habitats are ponds and terraced paddy fields. It was observed as an explosive breeder in almost any water body, including rice paddy fields.
55391		population	eng	In China this is a very common species. There are no recent data available for Southeast Asia, suggesting that the species might be uncommon, at least, in Thailand and Viet Nam.
55391		threats	eng	General habitat degradation including water pollution might be a threat to this species. In India it is also potentially threatened by over collection for food and medicinal purposes. Consumption is only reported from Nagaland and Maghalaya in India.
55392		conservation	eng	It might occur in Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Rio Abiseo National Park, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone and Tingo Maria National Park but this requires confirmation.
55392		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is known only from three sites along the western slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, from close to Balzapata, Departamento Amazonas to the vicinity of Tingo Maria, Departamento Huánuco, and parts of Departamento San Martin, in Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 1,330-1,850m asl. It is assumed to occur more widely, in particular between known sites.
55392		habitat	eng	The habitat is not completely known; it has been recorded from partially cleared cloud forest. This species is presumed to breed in stagnant water, such as small pools. This species does not appear to be well known.
55392		population	eng	The population is not known, though it is likely to be common.
55392		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown. Agricultural development (e.g., coffee) might be a threat to this species.
55393		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55393		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Alto-Araguaya, the type locality on the border of the states of Mato Grosso and Goiás, Brazil, at 700m asl.
55393		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.
55393		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55393		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and dam construction.
55394		conservation	eng	The protection of forest fragments in eastern central Mexico is recommended since no protected areas currently are included within the species' range. Further survey work and research is needed to determine whether chytrid poses a threat to this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55394		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, from Tlaxcala and northern Puebla and east-central to southern Puebla, at elevations of 1,800-3,100m asl.
55394		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding amphibian requires highly humid habitats such as streams in high-elevation cloud and pine-oak forests. It also takes refuge in bromeliads.
55394		population	eng	It is a common species.
55394		threats	eng	Disturbance and clearance of the primary forest and the desiccation of streams are the main threats to this species. Chytridiomycosis may be a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.
55395		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55395		distribution	eng	This species is known from the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre del Sur in the state of Guerrero, Mexico. The type collection was at approximately 2,000m asl.
55395		habitat	eng	This is presumed to be a montane forest species that breeds in temporary pools.
55395		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55395		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by logging and agricultural development.
55396		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats and part of its range includes Biosphere Reserves and Natural parks.
55396		distribution	eng	This species occurs from western and southeastern Colorado and southern Utah, south through Arizona and western New Mexico in the USA to northern Oaxaca in Mexico. There are also isolated populations in northeastern New Mexico and the Big Bend area of western Texas. It is found from near sea level to about 3,000m asl (Stebbins, 1985).
55396		habitat	eng	This frog requires temporary or permanent pools in rocky arid scrub and mountains. It is found in rocky canyons and along intermittent or permanent streams. It frequents arroyos in semi-arid grassland, streams in pinon-juniper and pine-oak woodlands, and tropical scrub forest (Mexico) (Stebbins, 1985). It is primarily terrestrial, and in breeds in pools along canyon-bottom streams.
55396		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown, but this species is common in some areas. The population is believed to be stable.
55396		threats	eng	This species has well adapted populations along its wide range.
55397		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55397		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar, Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Caraça, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 600-1,000m asl.
55397		habitat	eng	This species is found on vegetation near streams in primary and secondary forests. It breeds in permanent forest streams. It has not been recorded outside good forest.
55397		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55397		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
55398		conservation	eng	In Peru this species might occur in Apurimac Reserved Zone, Parque Nacional Manu, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone; but this requires confirmation. Present in several Bolivian protected areas.
55398		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the Amazonian slopes of the Andes of Peru (Departamentos Cusco and Puno) and Bolivia (Departamentos La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz). Its altitudinal range of 1,000-2,500m asl.
55398		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary montane and cloud forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It breeds in fast-flowing streams (highly adapted to this) and is not present in modified habitats.
55398		population	eng	Locally, it is very common.
55398		threats	eng	Deforestation through smallholder farming and mining (water pollution) are major threats. Chytrid fungus might be a threat to this species but requires confirmation.
55399		conservation	eng	It is protected within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
55399		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is the summit of Huachamacari tepui (03° 50'N; 65° 45'W), in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at 1,700m asl, although it might occur more widely.
55399		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high montane tepui forest where it lays its eggs in very rapid waters. The larvae live in the fast-flowing sections of the rivers.
55399		population	eng	It appears to be common at the Huachamacari summit.
55399		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
55400		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Maintenance and conservation of its habitat is required as it does not appear to be able to withstand habitat disturbance. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55400		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 700-1,000m asl, and perhaps slightly higher.
55400		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the forest floor and in epiphyte bromeliads in primary forest. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas. It breeds in bromeliads by larval development.
55400		population	eng	It is a common species.
55400		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a localized threat to this species, but overall there are no major threats at present.
55401		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55401		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil, ranging from the State of Pernambuco south to the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 700m asl.
55401		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species living in primary and secondary forest and forest edge, including degraded forest. It breeds in fish ponds, lakes and pools.
55401		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55401		threats	eng	It is adaptable to degradation of its habitat, and so it is not seriously threatened. Spread of intensive agriculture and human settlements might impact certain populations.
55402		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55402		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is not known. The type locality of "angeblich aus Südamerica" (Peters 1873) suggests that it was collected in South America.
55402		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
55402		population	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen.
55402		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55403		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas.
55403		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range in the USA is from southern Illinois and western Kentucky to Gulf Coast, Louisiana to Florida Panhandle, eastern Georgia, and adjacent South Carolina; west of the Mississippi River, occurs disjunctive in central and northern Louisiana, southeastern Oklahoma and adjacent southwestern Arkansas, and central Arkansas (Conant and Collons 1991).
55403		habitat	eng	Its habitat is permanent wooded swamps (tupelo, cypress, birch, buttonbush, and vine tangles) bordering rivers and streams. It may climb high into trees and is generally intolerant of impoundments that flood habitat. Males call from trees, shrubs, and vines that are in or next to water. Eggs and larvae develop in swamp pools.
55403		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in the appropriate habitat. Most state herpetology accounts mention the existence of large populations. In South Carolina, Gibbons and Semlitsch (1991) noted "large choruses" in three locations on the Savannah River Site, plus additional smaller populations. Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) rated this species as common to abundant in Florida. Barbour (1971) noted the occurrence of a "magnificent population" in some of the swamps in Hickman County, Kentucky. Redmond and Scott (1996) stated that this species is especially abundant around Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee. "Locally common in some good habitats" in the limited range in extreme southern Illinois (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999). Abundant in floodplain swamps in western Union and Alexander counties, Illinois (Smith 1961:87). Apparently stable; no evidence of a decline in recent decades.
55403		threats	eng	Swampy habitat protects the species from many threats deriving from habitat alteration, but threats include clearing and draining of baldcypress-tupelo swamps (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999).
55404		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Further research to confirm the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55404		distribution	eng	This species occurs in São Paulo State and Parana State, Brazil. It occurs up to 800m asl.
55404		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near permanent and temporary ponds in open areas. It breeds in these ponds and is also found in very disturbed habitats such as agricultural land and artificial ponds.
55404		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55404		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this very abundant and adaptable species.
55405		conservation	eng	Present in many protected areas in Bolivia and Parque Nacional Manu in Peru.
55405		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, Peru, Departamentos Cuzco and Puno; Bolivia, Departamentos La Paz, Cochabamba and Sanata Cruz. Its altitudinal range is 450-2,210m asl.
55405		habitat	eng	Its habitat is cloud and Yungas forest, breeds in slow flowing streams and ditches. It is present in disturbed habitat.
55405		population	eng	It is very common.
55405		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
55406		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
55406		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Caracas, Venezuela, from 900-1,000m asl.
55406		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown (they were not described in the original description). However, Caracas lies within a region dominated by humid premontane forest. This species is likely to breed by larval development in water, but this is not known for certain.
55406		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, but it is potentially a rare species. It has not been recorded since the original description. If this species is restricted to the Caracas Valley, there is a large possibility that this frog might now be extinct, since its natural habitat has been replaced by the metropolis of Caracas.
55406		threats	eng	This species is clearly threatened by the urbanization of Caracas, which has resulted in most of its habitat being destroyed.
55408		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55408		distribution	eng	This species from southern Brazil occurs in the coastal lowlands and the Serra do Mar, up to 1,200m, from Linhares in the State of Espírito Santo south to Florianopolis in the State of Santa Catarina.
55408		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation in secondary forest, often near swamps. It has also been found in open areas, such as grassland. It hangs its eggs in the vegetation above temporary still water, into which the larvae fall and develop.
55408		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55408		threats	eng	Due to its adaptability it is not seriously threatened, but is probably impacted locally by agriculture and wood plantations.
55409		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range.
55409		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the upper Amazon Basin of Bolivia, western Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and southern Colombia. Distribution range is extending in vegetation alongside newly created roads. Elevation is from 200-1,200m asl.
55409		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of bushes in open forest and clearings. Individuals can frequently be found in disturbed areas. Breeding takes place in permanent and temporary shallow ponds (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994); eggs are laid out of the water on leaves; tadpoles develop in the water. It can also breed in artificial ponds.
55409		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
55409		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to clear cutting.
55410		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55410		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Federal District and the states of Goiás, Minas Gerais and São Paulo, in the Cerrado of central and southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.
55410		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near streams in primary and secondary forest, and also in forest edge and forest clearings. It breeds in permanent streams. It has also been found in plantations.
55410		population	eng	This is a very common species.
55410		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very common species.
55411		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55411		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal region of eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco, south to the State of Rio de Janeiro. It ranges up to 1,100m asl.
55411		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation, usually near pools of still water, in open areas, grassland, pastureland, secondary forest, and coastal restinga scrub, but not in primary forest. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools. Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).
55411		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
55411		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species and does not appear to be facing any threats.
55412		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55412		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil from the state of São Paulo, south to the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It ranges up to 1,000m asl.
55412		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and in some plantations, but not in eucalyptus. It is not found in open habitats. Outside the breeding season it is found on trees. During the breeding season it is found in permanent waterbodies, such as ponds or lakes, or slowly flowing brooks. The egg clutch is laid between aquatic plants in these permanent waterbodies.
55412		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55412		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, it is impacted by the spread of intensive agriculture and eucalyptus plantations, as well as by clear-cutting.
55413		conservation	eng	Protection and restoration of the degraded forest areas is recommended. The species' range includes a few protected areas, but these need restoration and better management at present. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55413		distribution	eng	This species occurs at high elevations in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico, from Durango and adjacent Sinaloa southward to Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca, and to the east in the central Volcanic Belt to Hidalgo and Puebla.
55413		habitat	eng	It occurs only at high elevations in pine-oak and pine-fir forests and in the associated streams. It is a stream breeding amphibian.
55413		population	eng	It is a common species within appropriate habitat.
55413		threats	eng	Disturbance, clearance and modification of the species' habitat is the main threat. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat, as it is a high-elevation, stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.
55414		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas.
55414		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the north-eastern slopes of the central highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, between 1,600 and 1,700m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.
55414		habitat	eng	It occurs in streamside vegetation within cloud forest, and is presumed to breed in the streams.
55414		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
55414		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, it seems possible that it is suffering habitat loss through some degree of deforestation for timber and conversion of land to agricultural use.
55415		conservation	eng	Many populations are protected within National Parks and Biosphere Reserves. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Peru it can be found within the Manu Biosphere Reserve and Tambopata National Reserve. In Panama, it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Chagres and Parque Nacional Darién. In Guyana, it is known from the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve (Ernst et al., 2005).
55415		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Amazon basin, the upper Orinoco river, the delta of the Orinoco river, Trinidad island (not present on Tobago) Trinidad and Tobago, the Guianas, Peru, lowland tropical Bolivia, the Amazonian basin of Brazil, the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, Esmeraldas department, Ecuador and the central and eastern lowlands of Panama. In Venezuela, it has been recorded in the states of Amazonas, Bolívar and Delta Amacuro, as well as from the Andean foothills of Barinas and Táchira. It has been recorded between 0 and 1,000m asl.
55415		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species found in tropical rainforest, where it is found on trees up to a height of 5m. It is also found on bushes and trees in gallery forests, and it may use exposed bedrocks. The eggs are laid in mud basins, which are built by the males at the edge of watercourses or ponds (Duellman, 1997). The tadpoles are then washed into the river. During the dry season, they are active at night on sandy or muddy edges of slow-moving streams (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat modification.
55415		population	eng	It represents the only case of a disappearing population in the Amazon basin (Ducke Reserve, Manaus, Brazil), although it is abundant elsewhere.
55415		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55416		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in the Biotopo del Quetzal. Surveys are needed to determine the population status of this species, and the reasons for the observed decline. It is also necessary to ensure that ornamental plant farms adhere to protocols to ensure the safe and proper disposal of pesticides.
55416		distribution	eng	This species is found in the highlands of Alta and Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, at 1,300-1,536m asl.
55416		habitat	eng	It has been found in open, grassy meadows when they become flooded during the early part of the rainy season. It has also been found beneath sheaths of banana plants and in a bromeliad. This species appears to tolerate some level of habitat disturbance. Breeding takes place in temporary pools.
55416		population	eng	Campbell and Lawson (1992) report that the species can be abundant during the early part of the rainy season. Numerous recent visits to the range of this species have failed to turn up any individuals, suggesting a serious decline.
55416		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is the ornamental plants industry, which requires heavy use of pesticides and fungicides because the cut flowers and ferns exported to first world countries have to be completely free of insects or blemishes. In areas with many of these ornamental plant farms, the streams are typically heavily contaminated. Another cause of the observed declines, which have taken place even in suitable habitat, could be chytridiomycosis.
55417		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, although a protected area is not necessary for such an adaptable species.
55417		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern part of the western flank of the Central Andes in Antioquia department, in Colombia, from 1,500-2,580m asl.
55417		habitat	eng	It is found in open areas such as secondary forest and also pasture land. The eggs are laid in temporary and permanent pools. It can be found almost anywhere where there are ponds in which to breed.
55417		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55417		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this very common and adaptable species.
55418		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55418		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central part of Cordillera Oriental of the Andes (4° 40'N to 6°N), in the Cundinamarca, Boyacá and Santander Departments, Colombia, at 1,750-3,900m asl.
55418		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams and in bromeliads in premontane humid forest, cloud forest, and páramo, and also in open areas and secondary forest, and reproduces in streams.
55418		population	eng	It is common, with many recent records.
55418		threats	eng	Threats to this species include landscape transformation and habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and cattle ranching), the introduction of predatory trout, and water pollution due to the use of agrochemicals.<br/><br/>A <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection has been reported for this species (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008).
55419		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Yasuni National Park and Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística. Possibly occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu, Colombia. It is uncertain if it is present in a reserved zone within Peru.
55419		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin of southern Colombia (Leticia), Ecuador, Peru, and western Brazil (Acre and Rondonia). It might be present in Bolivia, but requires confirmation. Its elevation is from 100-800m asl.
55419		habitat	eng	Its habitat is both secondary and primary tropical moist forest. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, all individuals were found at night on vegetation. Males usually call from emergent swamp vegetation, or, less frequently, at the edge of forest (Duellman, 1978). Eggs are deposited on leaves over waterbodies; larvae develop in these waters.
55419		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
55419		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55420		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55420		distribution	eng	This species is from northeastern and eastern Brazil ranges from Sao Pedro da Agua Branca in the State of Maranhao, west and south through the States of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia to the State of Rio de Janeiro. It occurs up to 700m asl.
55420		habitat	eng	It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including savannahs, shrubland, open areas, and dunes, but not in closed forest. It is usually found on vegetation near stagnant waterbodies. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
55420		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55420		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, and is not facing any known threats.
55421		conservation	eng	Many conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. It is known from the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005).
55421		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the "Upper Amazon Basin of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, as well as French Guiana" (Frost, 2000). It was recently recorded in central Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005) and it is also known from widely scattered populations along the Madeira and Amazon Rivers in Amazonas state, Brazil. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001).
55421		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is usually observed on the leaves of bushes in tropical rainforest and secondary forest. After heavy rains, the frogs congregate at ponds in, or at the edge of, the forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, individuals have been found in open areas and flooded forests (Ron, 2001). Eggs are laid out of the water on leaves, and the larvae develop in semi-permanent pools.
55421		population	eng	It is not common in French Guiana or Brazil (Lescure and Marty, 2001), but it is common in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.
55421		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a threat to this species, but it does adapt to habitat alteration.
55422		conservation	eng	It is found in Parque Nacional El Cusuco and Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras, and in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de la Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal in Guatemala. Further research is necessary to ascertain whether chytrid is a threat to this species.
55422		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant of north-western Chiapas State, Mexico; central and eastern Guatemala; the Maya Mountains of Belize; and north-western Honduras, at 350-1,790m asl.
55422		habitat	eng	It is found in bromeliads in premontane and lower montane wet forest. It breeds by larval development. It is also found in leaf sheaths on banana trees, and tolerates some level of habitat disturbance.
55422		population	eng	It is known from single specimens in Belize and Mexico. It is uncommon in Guatemala, but it continues to occur in suitable habitat, although some populations are in serious decline. In fact, some higher elevation populations in Guatemala, where most of the range occurs, appear to have declined sharply although the species has not disappeared; populations at lower elevations appear stable. It is relatively common in Honduras.
55422		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation, due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), and water pollution which is taking place at higher elevations. The declines observed at high elevations, which have taken place even in suitable habitat, could be due to chytridiomycosis.
55423		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
55423		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Buritis, in the state of Minas Gerais, in Brazil, from 500m asl.
55423		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.
55423		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55423		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and the construction of dams.
55424		conservation	eng	The area from which it has been recorded belongs to the Brazilian military, potentially affording it some protection.
55424		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Cachimbo" (Napoli and Caramaschi 1999), at about 09° 21'S; 54° 57'W, in the state of Pará, Brazil, between 200 and 400m asl.
55424		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.
55424		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55424		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and the construction of dams.
55425		conservation	eng	In Paraguay the range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation programs for the protection of high forest in eastern Paraguay and water sheds is needed. In Argentina it occurs in Iguazu National Park and in several provincial and private reserves.
55425		distribution	eng	This species is known from Misiones and adjacent Corrientes provinces in northeastern Argentina, and from eastern Paraguay, and from Sao Paulo State and Rio Grande do Sul State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 70-500m asl.
55425		habitat	eng	This species occurs in littoral swamps and bordering fast moving streams in forests and grassland. It breeds in these streams and flooded grasslands. It has been recorded from some artificial waterbodies. It has also been recorded in secondary forest as well.
55425		population	eng	This is a common species in Paraguay and Argentina, but it is considered rare in Brazil.
55425		threats	eng	Conversion of the land for agriculture is a major threat to this species in Paraguay and Brazil, in Argentina it is only threatened by the drying of streams caused by forest conversion to pine plantations.
55426		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
55426		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon Basin from southern Colombia and adjacent Ecuador south through Peru to northern Bolivia, the Guianas and the upper Orinoco Basin in Venezuela and Brazil. It generally occurs below 400m asl but can occur at up to 1,000m asl in Ecuador.
55426		habitat	eng	It inhabits the trees and branches of tropical rainforest. In the rainy season, nocturnal and arboreal adults are most commonly seen perched transversely on stems and small branches above slow moving streams (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles also develop in water.
55426		population	eng	It is abundant in much of its range, but it is uncommon in Suriname and Bolivia.
55426		threats	eng	Forest conversion, logging, clear cutting and fire are threats to this species.
55427		conservation	eng	It occurs in three protected areas: Guanentá, Rasgon, and Los Estoraques.
55427		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, Santander and Norte de Santander Departments, Colombia, at 1,050-3,000m asl.
55427		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in cloud forest, and near streams in heavily disturbed areas. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in the water.
55427		population	eng	It is common, with many recent records.
55427		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat loss due to agricultural cultivation and cattle ranching, and predation from introduced trout.
55428		conservation	eng	Its range includes Carrasco National Park.
55428		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Yungas of Cochabamba and La Paz departments, in Bolivia, from 700-2,300m asl.
55428		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist montane forest, as well as disturbed habitats. It breeds in small streams and roadside ditches.
55428		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55428		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
55429		conservation	eng	Most of the species' range occurs within several protected areas. Maintenance and conservation of the species' habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence would be desirable.
55429		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Serra da Bocaina) and Campos do Jordão, in São Paulo State, and in Serra da Mantiqueira (Parque Nacional do Itatiaia and Monte Verde), southeast Brazil. It occurs above 1,000m asl.
55429		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near montane streams in primary and old secondary forest. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas. It breeds in permanent streams.
55429		population	eng	It is a common species.
55429		threats	eng	This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55430		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Survey work is required to determine the current population status and range of this species, and particularly to ascertain whether or not it still survives at the type locality. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55430		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the type locality of Totontepec, Sierra Mixes, and from one other locality west of Zacatepec, very near the type locality in Oaxaca, Mexico. The specimens from the type locality were collected between 1,780 and 1,896m asl, and the specimens from the second locality were collected at 1,360m asl. The exact limits of its distribution are not known, but it is believed to have a restricted distribution.
55430		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical cloud forest. The adults have been found on vegetation along streams; larvae have been found in a pool in a small stream. It is presumed to be sensitive to habitat modification.
55430		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, and two other specimens recently collected from the second locality.
55430		threats	eng	The forest at the type locality has been cleared and no suitable habitat remains in the area. It is unlikely that any animals now remain at the type locality (Ustach <em>et al.</em> 2000). The second locality is also suffering from severe habitat fragmentation and the remaining habitat is likely to disappear in the near future. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation, stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55431		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area; a plan for the protection and/or restoration of the large forested areas of Sierra de Juárez is urgently required. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species and whether or not it still survives in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
55431		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern slope of the Cerro Pelón, Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico at 2,500-2,700m asl.
55431		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding amphibian seems to occur in rocky streams in cloud forest areas.
55431		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
55431		threats	eng	It has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. It occurs within an area in Sierra de Juárez, Mexico, which is undergoing a rapid rate of land transformation at present due to logging and agricultural activities.
55432		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in Parque Internacional La Amistad and might occur in Parque Nacional Volcán Barú. Further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55432		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Cordillera de Talamanca, on Cerro Pando on the Pacific slope in Costa Rica and Atlantic versant in Panama, and on the Pacific slope in south-western Panama, from 1,810-1,920m asl (Savage 2002).
55432		habitat	eng	It is found along torrential stream courses in primary humid lower montane forest throughout the year. Males are strongly territorial, with small home ranges. Eggs (clutches of 10-36) are deposited on leaf surfaces of low vegetation above streams; hatching tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below (Savage 2002).
55432		population	eng	Extensive monitoring has shown that this species has disappeared from its former range. It was formerly locally common in Tablas, Costa Rica, but has disappeared from all known sites since the early 1990s. In 2006, the Costa Rican portion of the species range was surveyed, however the species was not found (Joseph Vargas pers. comm. 2007). There is no information on the population size or abundance of this species in Panama, though this population has probably also declined seriously.
55432		threats	eng	The observed population decline is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis, since it has taken place within pristine habitats. Habitat loss as a result of smallholder livestock farming is also a threat.
55433		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
55433		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on the Pacific slopes of Andes in Ecuador from Carchi Province to Cotopaxi Province. It probably occurs a little more widely, including in extreme southern Colombia (J. Lynch pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is 1,000-2,000m asl.
55433		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane cloud forests, but also in disturbed areas such as tree plantations, marshy clearings, artificial pools and water-filled roadside ditches. Individuals are sometimes founds in bromeliads and heliconias. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.
55433		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55433		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, probably not facing any significant threats.
55434		conservation	eng	The species' entire range is protected within several protected areas. Maintenance and conservation of this habitat is required. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is also needed, as it might be much larger than is currently known.
55434		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra dos Órgãos, (Teresópolis, Petrópolis, Guapimirim and Mage), Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The true range of this species is most likely larger, in particular occurring between known sites. It has been recorded from around 1,750m asl.
55434		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocks along the edge of small montane streams in primary forest. It breeds in permanent streams. It has not been recorded outside primary forest.
55434		population	eng	It is a common species.
55434		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is wholly within protected areas.
55435		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de Montecillos. Expanded protection of the montane forests of Honduras is necessary.
55435		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de Opalaca and the Sierra de Montecillos, Montana de La Sierra, in south-west Honduras, at 1,800-2,160m asl.
55435		habitat	eng	It lives in arboreal bromeliads in lower montane moist forest, and breeds in ponds.
55435		population	eng	It is considered moderately common.
55435		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation primarily due to agricultural expansion (involving both crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.
55436		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Puracé, and also Parque Nacional Natural Nevado del Huila. Taxonomic research is needed to confirm whether or not it is a synonym of a wider ranging species.
55436		distribution	eng	This species is found in the cloud forests on the eastern slope of the central Andes at altitudes of 2,400-2,850m asl, in the departments of Cauca and Huila (Belalcazar), in Colombia.
55436		habitat	eng	This inhabitant of Andean areas is found on vegetation or on the ground in forested areas near fast-flowing streams, not quite up to the altitude of the páramo alpine ecosystem. The eggs and larvae develop in water.
55436		population	eng	It is a common species.
55436		threats	eng	Localized threats to this species are water pollution and habitat loss due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops.
55437		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55437		distribution	eng	This species from south-eastern Brazil ranges from Santa Teresa in the state of Espírito Santo to Juiz de Fora in the south-east of the state of Minas Gerais, from 70-800m asl.
55437		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forests, and clearings inside forest, and is found on the border of small streams where it builds subterranean nests. The males call from underground, and the larvae develop in permanent streams.
55437		population	eng	It is common.
55437		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, wood plantations, clear-cutting, fire and human settlement.
55438		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area. Urgent restoration and protection of the remnants of cloud forest in the Sierra de Juárez is required. A field study is necessary to evaluate the population status of this species, and whether or not it still survives in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
55438		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de Juárez, east of Oaxaca City, in south-eastern Mexico, at 2,640-2,890m asl.
55438		habitat	eng	This species is associated exclusively with pristine streams in cloud forests.
55438		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
55438		threats	eng	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. The fragmentation and disturbance of the forest due to logging and other human activities, and the continuing desiccation of streams, has probably also contributed to the disappearance of this species.
55439		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area, and the protection and/or restoration of the original habitat of this species is required. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species, and whether or not it survives in the wild; given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
55439		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in two locations, one on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur, Distrito de Pochutla, Oaxaca, Mexico (the type locality, at 2,160m asl), and one 7.5km south-east of Llano de Guadalupe, in north-west Oaxaca (2,850m asl).
55439		habitat	eng	This species was collected in pine-oak forest. It is believed to breed in small streams.
55439		population	eng	This species has only been collected twice, once in 1969 and again in 1993. Recent attempts to locate it have been unsuccessful.
55439		threats	eng	A major threat is the loss of pine-oak forest habitat to logging and agriculture. It might also have been impacted by chytridiomycosis.
55440		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
55440		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Ribas do Rio Pardo, in Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, from 400m asl.
55440		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.
55440		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55440		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and the construction of dams.
55441		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra del los Tuxtlas, but expanded protection of cloud forest habitat in this region is needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55441		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in northern Chiapas and eastern Oaxaca, Mexico. The type locality is at 1,690m asl.
55441		habitat	eng	It only inhabits high-elevation cloud forests with cascading mountain streams. It presumably breeds in streams.
55441		population	eng	This is a common species within its restricted range.
55441		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging represents the main threat to this species.
55442		conservation	eng	Urgent protection of the cloud and montane forest habitat of this species is required. An assessment of the population status of this species needs to be undertaken, particularly to determine whether chytrid poses a threat. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55442		distribution	eng	This species occurs from north-western Hidalgo to the south and west to northern Puebla, Mexico. It is found from 2,000-2,300m asl.
55442		habitat	eng	It is specifically associated with epiphytic vegetation (bromeliads) in cloud and evergreen montane forest, and breeds in streams.
55442		population	eng	This species is relatively common within its restricted range.
55442		threats	eng	The rapid rate of deforestation of the cloud and montane forests of Mexico is the main cause of the decline of this species and others. The disappearance of the forest results in the disappearance of streams and other water reservoirs where the species breeds. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.
55443		conservation	eng	The Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba probably protects the population, although the type locality is in a community land-use zone of the reserve. Broad-scale actions are necessary to deal with the threat of water pollution.
55443		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and is known from the type locality in Charazani and the nearby Pomasani River, in Huasawaico, Saavedra Province, in the department of La Paz (Aparicio 1999), Bolivia. There is an additional record from near Waleke, in Bautista Saavedra Province, Charazani Canton. The elevation range is 2,700-3,200m asl.
55443		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic and terrestrial species, inhabiting streams in the inter-Andean valleys (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is a stream breeder, and the larva is morphologically indistinguishable from larvae of <em>Hyloscirtus armatus sensu lato</em>, exhibiting stream adaptation through a robust body with strong tail musculature, enlarged oral disc, increased number of labial tooth rows, and complete marginal papillae (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2005).
55443		population	eng	It is abundant at the type locality.
55443		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is water pollution: the only known population occurs in a stream used by the local communities living nearby (S. Reichle pers. comm.).
55444		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas; as with many other montane cloud and pine-oak forest patches in Mexico, there is an urgent need for the protection of the forest remnants in the Chimalapas region.
55444		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Chimalapas region that includes the Sierra Atravesada in south-eastern Oaxaca and adjacent Chiapas, Mexico, at 850-1500m asl.
55444		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding amphibian inhabits low or moderate altitude streams in cloud forest or dry pine-oak forest, and takes refuge in bromeliads.
55444		population	eng	It is known to be common.
55444		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation resulting from logging, and the subsequent dessication of forest streams.
55445		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas in the region.
55445		distribution	eng	This species is found in central China including Taiwan, Province of China, from 200-1,000m asl.
55445		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, cultivated fields, pools and the surrounding areas. It breeds in the pools.
55445		population	eng	It is a common species.
55445		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species.
55446		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas. This species is a priority for urgent survey work in order to determine whether or not it is still extant.
55446		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the oriental slope of the Andes, and is known only from the type locality: "Parjacti, 83.2km by road north-eastern Cochabamba, on road to Villa Tunari, Chapare Province, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, elevation approximately 2,044m" (Reynolds and Foster 1992).
55446		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal forest species, reported in the Yungas forest (Reynolds and Foster 1992; De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). There is no information on breeding, though it is likely to be a larval developer in water, like other species of the genus.
55446		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, and it might be extinct. The areas surrounding the type locality have been well surveyed in recent years, but the species has not been recorded again since its original collection in the 1970s.
55446		threats	eng	The quality of the species' habitat continues to decline due to agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
55447		conservation	eng	Legal protection of the Natural Park in Guerrero is required since it is not in a biosphere reserve and currently lacks any management plan. Further survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species; also, in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55447		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Carrizal de Bravos, central-western Guerrero, Mexico. It is found from 2,340-2,600m asl.
55447		habitat	eng	It is associated with humid cool areas in wet pine-oak-fir cloud forest. Breeding takes place in streams.
55447		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
55447		threats	eng	The disturbance and transformation of the species' forest habitat is the major threat, mainly as a result of logging and the continuing expansion of human settlements in the region. Chytridiomycosis might also be a threat, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55448		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
55448		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is not precisely determined, although it covers most of the southeastern and central USA and part of south-central Canada. It is sympatric with H. versicolor in south-central U.S. and Wisconsin area and perhaps many other areas as well. See Little <em>et al.</em> (1989) for information on distribution in West Virginia, southern Ohio, and southwestern Pennsylvania.
55448		habitat	eng	Its geographic range includes wooded areas and woodland edges (including woodlots in prairies), usually within a few hundred meters of water. It is often found in recently disturbed areas with abundant shrubs, herbaceous growth, and vines. It is an arboreal and terrestrial species. When inactive, it may hide in tree holes, under bark, under leaves, or under tree roots. In Tennessee, frogs associated with knothole cavities in trees in fall were not there after mid-November (Ritke and Babb 1991). Eggs are laid and larvae develop in temporary or permanent waters of flooded ditches, puddles, river sloughs, creeks, and small ponds, where there are woody branches or extensive herbaceous growth along the edges. Males call from water surface or from vegetation or ground near water. Individuals generally breed in the same site in successive years (Ritke <em>et al.</em> 1991).
55448		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but apparently common. It is probably relatively stable.
55448		threats	eng	It is not a threatened species.
55449		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed at present. Its range includes several protected areas.
55449		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA, from Delaware south to southern Florida along Coastal Plain, west to south-central Texas; north from Gulf Coast to southeastern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama; isolated population in south-central Missouri (Conant and Collins 1991). This species has been introduced into extreme northwestern Puerto Rico (Isabela-Aguadilla area), but it is not clear if it still survives there.
55449		habitat	eng	Swamps, marshes, and the edges of ponds, lakes, and streams, particularly where there is abundant floating and emergent vegetation. During daytime, rests among cattail blades or other leaves or shaded branches. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow, still water. Males call while perched on plants next to water (up to 5m above surface) or while sitting on floating plants. Larvae occur mainly in dense floating vegetation.
55449		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but it is apparently common, and is likely to be stable.
55449		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55450		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55450		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of central Minas Gerais State in Brazil, above 900m asl.
55450		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near permanent and temporary streams (where it breeds) in forest and open areas.
55450		population	eng	It is common.
55450		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat degradation due to smallholder livestock grazing, fire, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
55451		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55451		distribution	eng	This species from the mountains of southeastern Brazil ranges in southern Rio de Janeiro and northeastern São Paulo States, and adjoining southeastern Minas Gerais (Napoli, 2005). Its altitudinal range is 800-1,200m asl.
55451		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forests, and forest edge and clearings inside forest. It is usually found on vegetation in the forest and in clearings, near or away from streams. It breeds in streams where it constructs nests in mud.
55451		population	eng	It is a common species, but has declined in some locations (Eterovick <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
55451		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting and human settlement. This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55452		conservation	eng	The only known localities of this species are in protected areas: Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos, and Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina. However, it cannot now be located in these areas. Urgent surveys are needed to determine whether or not this species still survives.
55452		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Mar at 800-1,200m asl in south-eastern Brazil in the states of Rio de Janeiro and extreme eastern São Paulo. Records from Parana State are incorrect, and records from Argentina have been assigned to <em>Hyla semiguttata</em>.
55452		habitat	eng	This frog is a species of primary and secondary forest, where the adults live in bromeliads, either epiphytic on trees or growing above or near the beds of swift, torrential brooks and streams. The larval stage lives in pools and basins in fast-flowing mountain streams and brooks, with stones or boulders in the stream-bed, surrounded by very turbulent water.
55452		population	eng	<em>Bokermannohyla claresignata</em> has not been recorded for 25 years, and extensive searches in recent years for this species in Rio de Janeiro have failed to locate it. The lack of records from São Paulo might be attributable to a lack of surveys. Difficulties in locating individuals might also be attributable to the species' preference for epiphytic bromeliads in tall, slender trees.
55452		threats	eng	This species appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and so the threats that it faces are not well understood. The apparent decline where suitable habitat remains is reminiscent of dramatic declines and disappearances in other montane stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as the cause of this.
55453		conservation	eng	Its known range is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina, where conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed.
55453		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra da Bocaina in São Paulo State, and also from Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, at altitudes above 200m asl.
55453		habitat	eng	The adults live in bromeliads on trees, near streams in primary forest. The larvae are specialized to live in swift mountain torrents.
55453		population	eng	There is no information regarding the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.
55453		threats	eng	At present, threats to this species are still relatively unknown.
55454		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55454		distribution	eng	This species from the Colombian Andes occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Central and eastern and western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental (in the Departments of Cauca, Quindío, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca), at 950-2,300m asl.
55454		habitat	eng	It lives in disturbed areas that formerly supported cloud forest, and has not been found in closed forest. It is typically associated with open areas, especially where there are still waterbodies, such as small lakes, reservoirs, grassy marshes or pools, and natural and artificial wetlands. Some specimens have been found in Agave plants by day. It breeds in permanent ponds.
55454		population	eng	It is a common species.
55454		threats	eng	It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by water pollution resulting from aerial spraying.
55455		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas in Panama, and a single park in Costa Rica (Parque Internacional La Amistad). In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
55455		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of south-eastern Costa Rica to central Panama, from sea level to 1,116m asl, and also from the Pacific slopes of eastern Panama (Savage 2002). The possible presence of this species in Colombia adjacent to eastern Panama needs to be confirmed.
55455		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest or humid lowland and montane forest, where it has been found along streams. The species breeds in swift streams; eggs are deposited under rocks, and larvae cling to rocks by means of an oral disk (Savage 2002).
55455		population	eng	Little is known about the population size or abundance of this species. It has disappeared from western Panama, including Reserva Forestal Fortuna (1996-97), and El Copé (2004); it is still present at low abundance in the Darien area (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007). Remaining populations in central and eastern Panama are expected to severely decline in the near future (Karen Lips and Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007). In Costa Rica, the species has not been recorded recently, however there has been little sampling effort in the range (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
55455		threats	eng	The declines in western Panama are probably due to chytridiomycosis (see Lips <em>et al</em>. 2006), and this is likely to be the most serious threat to the species. It is probably also impacted by the destruction of natural forests for the planting of crops, smallholder livestock ranching, and logging.
55456		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but the protection of the Sierra de Juárez and adjacent areas in northern Oaxaca is urgently required. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55456		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro San Felipe, northern Oaxaca and So la de Vega and La Cofradia, central Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs at elevations from 1,540-2,650m asl and is currently known from only five localities. It might occur a little more widely.
55456		habitat	eng	From the limited information available, it appears that this frog inhabits and breeds in lower streams in montane cloud forest.
55456		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55456		threats	eng	Loss of the original montane forests on the slopes of northern Oaxaca due to agriculture, logging and human settlement is a major threat. Chytridiomycosis might be a threat to this species, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55457		conservation	eng	It is present within numerous protected areas throughout its range.
55457		distribution	eng	This species has two disjunctive populations. The first population ranges through Panama (Azuero Peninsula, central Panama and eastern lowlands), northern Colombia (Orinoco and Caribbean regions only), most of Venezuela and partially into northern Brazil, the islands of Trinidad and Tobago and throughout much of the Guianas. The second population is largely restricted to the Atlantic Forest region of Brazil. It is present at elevations of between 0-2,300m asl.
55457		habitat	eng	This species has a variety of habitats, ranging from humid tropical forests, semiarid environments, grasslands, llanos, intervening habitats, pastures and lower montane forests. It is an arboreal nocturnal species, found on leaves of trees, on shrubs and other vegetation near watercourses. The species breeds in temporary pools at the beginning of the rainy season. Specimens are occasionally also found on the ground. It is possible to find this species in severely degraded habitats including urban areas and human dwellings.
55457		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55457		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species. While there is significant population growth over much of the range of this species with resulting habitat loss (through infrastructure development and water pollution), much of this is localized. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55458		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55458		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cerrado of Central Brazil in the states of Goiás and Tocantins, from 1,500m asl.
55458		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near permanent and temporary waterbodies in open areas, where it also breeds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55458		population	eng	It is a common species.
55458		threats	eng	Logging and dam construction are threats to the species' habitat.
55459		conservation	eng	The protection and restoration of the original forest is necessary for the protection of this species and others inhabiting the cloud forests of the Sierra de Juárez. This species is considered "Threatened" by the Mexican government. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme.
55459		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cerro Pelón and Cerro Humo Chico in the Sierra de Juárez, north-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico. It is currently known from only three localities. It is found from 2,640-2,670 m asl.
55459		habitat	eng	This species is known only from pristine forest, and requires the presence of low or moderate streams at high elevations in areas covered by cloud forest. It is likely to breed in streams.
55459		population	eng	This species used to be very conspicuous in its habitat. However, recent efforts to find individuals have been unsuccessful. It was last collected in 1980, and is possibly now extinct.
55459		threats	eng	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis. The disturbance and clearance of the forest in the Sierra de Juárez has probably also contributed to its disappearance. The forest and stream at the type locality, however, appear to be healthy (T. Burkhardt pers. comm. 2008).
55460		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas, but the montane pine-oak forest habitats of Mexico in general are poorly protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether chytrid is a threat.
55460		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern versant of the Sierra Juárez (at 1,600-2,180m asl), near the crest of the Sierra Juárez (Cerro Machín and Cerro San Felipe) (at 2,370 and 2,670m asl), and the Sierra Mixes (at 2,121-2,568m asl), Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur a little more widely.
55460		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and pine-oak forest at high elevations. Adults may be found close to forest streams or in arboreal bromeliads. The larvae have been found in pools in streams.
55460		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55460		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the conversion of forest habitat to agricultural land, and by logging. Chytridiomycosis may also pose a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream-dwelling amphibian, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55461		conservation	eng	This species does not occur within a protected area, and protection of any remaining habitat for the species is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species, and whether or not it still survives at, or outside the vicinity of, the type locality.
55461		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Campo Grande da Serra, and nearby Nova Manchester in São Paulo, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The type locality is between 600 and 800m asl.
55461		habitat	eng	Specimens were found on shrubs by the side of a brook at the type locality. There is no information on breeding habits, but reproduction might take place in streams.
55461		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens, and recent surveys in the area have not recorded it.
55461		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development has destroyed the species' habitat at the type locality. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a threat.
55462		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama, and two in Costa Rica. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55462		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica and western Panama (at 910-1,450m asl) and the Pacific slope of south-western Panama (at 1,200-1,400m asl) (Savage 2002).
55462		habitat	eng	An arboreal species of the lower reaches of cloud forest. It is associated with low dense vegetation overhanging small montane streams (less than 1m above the water). Tadpoles develop in these streams, adhering to rocks (Savage 2002).
55462		population	eng	It is now a rare species (Savage 2002). The Costa Rican population has declined dramatically, and it might now be extinct in this country. A dramatic decline was documented in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, in Panama, and the most recent record from this country is from the Bosque Protector Palo Seco, on the highlands of Bocas del Toro, in 1998.
55462		threats	eng	The decline in Costa Rica and in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Panama, is probably due to chytridiomycosis, and this is likely to be the most serious threat to the species. It is probably also impacted by habitat loss as a result of agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
55463		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55463		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in northeastern and eastern Brazil from São Luis do Maranhão in the State of Maranhão, south to Ilha do Cardoso in the State of São Paulo. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55463		habitat	eng	It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including open areas, pastureland, grassland, savannah, primary and secondary forest, coastal restinga scrubland. It is usually found on vegetation near waterbodies. It lays its eggs on tree leaves above the temporary and permanent waterbodies, and the larvae fall into the water to develop. Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to March (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).
55463		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55463		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, not facing any known threats.
55464		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to establish the relationship of this species to Hyla minuta. Its range includes Carrasco National Park.
55464		distribution	eng	This species is known from the foothills of the Andes and the northwestern Amazonian parts of Bolivia. It has been recorded from 180-700m asl.
55464		habitat	eng	It inhabits swamps and forest edges, where it also breeds. The eggs are attached to leaves, and tadpoles fall into the water below where they develop further. It is possibly adapted to some anthropogenic disturbance, but it does not occur in urban areas.
55464		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55464		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present.
55465		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the limits of its range, particularly to ascertain whether or not it might survive in forested areas outside the type locality. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
55465		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single female specimen collected in 1998 from the type locality: Quebrada Sancapech, Finca San Francisco, Huehuetenango department, Guatemala, at 1,270m asl. This locality is in the north-western portion of the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes.
55465		habitat	eng	It is recorded from cloud forest. There is no information on breeding, although closely related species breed by larval development in tree cavities and in bromeliads.
55465		population	eng	There is no information on current population status, and three subsequent trips to the type locality have not turned up any more individuals.
55465		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat to this species: it was found in the only small forest fragment in the area, which is surrounded by extensively cleared agricultural lands. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat, as other species of the genus have also declined in Guatemala due to the impacts of the disease.
55466		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected area. Additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is still extant in its natural range. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55466		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental and associated ranges in Mexico. It is also found in central Veracruz and northern Oaxaca in Mexico. It occurs from 450-1,900m asl.
55466		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest habitats. It breeds and takes refuge in bromeliads.
55466		population	eng	This has always been an uncommon species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1974. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
55466		threats	eng	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. Deforestation and alteration of the cloud forest are probably also major threats, as it requires bromeliads in mature trees to survive.
55467		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55467		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra do Navio, in the state of Amapá, in Brazil north of the Amazon Delta, and in neighbouring French Guiana. It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m asl.
55467		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey vegetation of lowland tropical rainforest. Males call from above water (ponds and small rivulets), and the eggs are laid in the water, where the tadpoles also hatch and develop.
55467		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55467		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
55468		conservation	eng	It occurs in one protected area, the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, where work has been under way by The Nature Conservancy in conjunction with Fundación Natura and other partners to support the expansion of the existing reserve, as well as the the creation of a new public protected area.
55468		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental, in Boyacá and Santander Departments, Colombia, at 1,630-2,400m asl.
55468		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in cloud forests, and also in secondary forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.
55468		population	eng	It is known to be common, although there has been no survey work for this species since 1987.
55468		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and cattle ranching, and predation by introduced trout, represent the major threats to this species.
55469		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica de Pedra Talhada in Alagoas State.
55469		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil is known only from Areia Branca, in Sergipe State, and from the municipality of Quebrangulo in Alagoas State, from 160-360m asl. It almost certainly occurs more widely in north-eastern Brazil.
55469		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest. There is no information on its breeding habits, although it presumably breeds in water.
55469		population	eng	There are only a few records of this species, and very little information is available concerning its population status.
55469		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, wood extraction, fire, and human settlement.
55470		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
55470		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Caribbean and Gulf coasts of southern Mexico, south into Chiapas, northern Guatemala, and Belize. Further, south, the range is discontinuous with one or two localities in Honduras, several known localities in Nicaragua and then continuous from Costa Rica through Panama to Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. In Colombia, it occurs in the Pacific lowlands and on the western slopes on the Cordillera Occidental, as well as around northern edge of Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central to the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (in Santander Department). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
55470		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid tropical forest, including primary and secondary forest and forest edge, but also in heavily disturbed areas where most of the forest has been removed. The eggs are placed on leaves overhanging temporary (and sometimes permanent) pools; the tadpoles develop in water.
55470		population	eng	This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat throughout its range, though is less common in Ecuador.
55470		threats	eng	It is very adaptable, and has been found in very open landscapes in Costa Rica (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55471		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and urgent protection of the cloud forest areas in Sierra de Juárez is recommended. A survey to determine whether or not this species is still extant in the wild is also required. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55471		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at around 2,000m asl on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juárez, in the vicinity of Vista Hermosa town, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico.
55471		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to cloud forest, and is highly dependent on humid habitats and in particular, the vegetation along low streams as well as epiphytic plants that serve as a refuge. It is a stream-breeding species.
55471		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1962. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
55471		threats	eng	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. The disappearance or disturbance of the unique cloud forest environment, primarily through selective logging, at Sierra de Juárez, is also a serious threat to the survival of this species as well as many other amphibians, especially those associated with humid habitats.
55472		conservation	eng	It occurs in several reserves, including Serro do Tabuleiro State Park and Marumbi State Park.
55472		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Parana and Santa Catarina states, Brazil, at 300-1,100m asl.
55472		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in rainforests. It reproduces in small water-filled holes in the ground.
55472		population	eng	It is common and the population is stable within forest habitats.
55472		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and water pollution are threats to this species.
55473		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55473		distribution	eng	This species from the Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil ranges from the State of Rio Grande do Norte, south to State of Paraná. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55473		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and in open areas (both natural and artificial habitats). It is usually on vegetation above and near the temporary and permanent small, still-waterbodies. It lays its eggs in water, where the larvae develop (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).
55473		population	eng	It is an extremely common species.
55473		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, not facing any known threats.
55474		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in at least one protected area (Parque Nacional do Pantanal).
55474		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cerrados of southwestern Brazil in the states of Mato Grosso do Sul and São Paulo. It possibly also occurs in adjacent Paraguay, but there are no records from there yet. It has been recorded around 800m asl.
55474		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds, in open areas. It presumably breeds in ponds. It is not known whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55474		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55474		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55475		conservation	eng	The type locality is within a protected area.
55475		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Chapada dos Veadeiros, in Goiás State, Brazil, from 1,200m asl.
55475		habitat	eng	It occurs in gallery forests along streams, in which it breeds.
55475		population	eng	It is a common species.
55475		threats	eng	Logging, mining and fires are major threats to its habitat.
55476		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
55476		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Oriental, from central Veracruz and south-east Puebla, southward to Oaxaca, the Valley of Oaxaca and the mountains south of the valley, in Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55476		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowlands around the valley of Oaxaca where, for part of the year, it can congregate in flooded grassy fields or in the pine-oak and pine forests at higher altitudes. It requires the presence of bromeliads for refuge in the dry season. This species breeds in seasonal pools and streams.
55476		population	eng	It is a common species.
55476		threats	eng	At higher altitudes, forested areas are affected by infrastructure development for human settlement, which is degrading the habitat of this species.
55477		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55477		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from two localities in the municipalities of São José da Vitória and Wenceslau Guimarães, in southern Bahia State, Brazil. The two known localities are at altitudes of 100-130m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the known sites.
55477		habitat	eng	It is primarily an inhabitant of tropical Atlantic rainforests. The two known sites are located in mountainous areas, receiving 1,500mm of rain annually. It can be found in primary forest with large trees and an abundance of epiphytes, but it has also been recorded from cocoa plantations adjacent to the forest. It is presumed that it breeds in temporary pools or permanent streams.
55477		population	eng	There is little information available on the population status of this species.
55477		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Although it has been recorded from cocoa plantations, the long-term suitability of this habitat requires further investigation.
55478		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes numerous protected areas.
55478		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental from southern Durango and the Sierra Madre Oriental from southwestern Tamaulipas southward to the Cordillera Volcánica and the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, Mexico. It is found at elevations of about 910-2,900m asl (Stebbins, 1985).
55478		habitat	eng	It is found in mesquite-grassland, scrub forests and pine-oak forest. It has been recorded in bromeliads on pine trees (Duellman, 2001). It breeds in shallow pools, ponds, and slow moving streams. Egg masses are laid in loose clumps attached to vegetation in shallow water.
55478		population	eng	There are numerous secure populations of this species.
55478		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55479		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55479		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Misiones province, Argentina; Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Santa Catarina, São Paulo and Bahia states, Brazil, and in central, eastern and southern Oriental region, Paraguay, at 150-800m asl.
55479		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical humid forests and at the edges of these forests. It reproduces by making nests in temporary and permanent pools (including artificial pools) and near slow-moving streams. In southeastern Brazil reproductive activity has been reported for the month of December, potentially also occurring in January (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).  It occurs in substantially altered habitats.
55479		population	eng	It is abundant throughout its range.
55479		threats	eng	Deforestation by clear cutting is a threat to this species, although it does adapt to selectively logged and second growth forest.
55480		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected natural areas in its range. In Peru, it occurs in Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and Reserva Comunal El Sira. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Llanganates.
55480		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon basin in the Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, at below 450m asl. It has not been recorded in Venezuela.
55480		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal frog is usually found throughout primary and secondary lowland and premontane tropical rainforest, and around forest ponds during the rainy season (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also. At Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, individuals were found in floodable forest and flooded forest (Mauritia flexuosa) on aquatic edges, shrubs, and branches of trees (Ron, 2001). It is also found in savannah ponds with low vegetation surrounding them.
55480		population	eng	It is common in much of its range and the population is stable.
55480		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55481		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
55481		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is from Atlantic and Gulf Coastal plains, United States, from southern Virginia to eastern Louisiana, south to southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).
55481		habitat	eng	It can be found in Pine flatwoods and savannahs and pine-turkey oak, usually near bogs or ponds. Occasionally it is found in hardwood forests and swamps. It is mostly arboreal, from low shrubs to high treetops. It hides under or in rotting logs, stumps, or snags during dry or cold weather. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded ditches and transient pools and ponds, occasionally in cypress swamps.
55481		population	eng	It is common to abundant in many areas.
55481		threats	eng	It is not threatened.
55482		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad, Panama, and in more than three protected areas within Costa Rica.
55482		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the slopes of the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 750-1,900m asl (Savage 2002). It almost certainly occurs more widely than has been mapped, and is also probably found between known sites.
55482		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal canopy species associated with primary humid premontane and lower montane forest. Breeding, egg deposition and larval development take place within tree-holes.
55482		population	eng	Because this is a high-canopy species, it is overlooked, and it is therefore hard to assess its population status.
55482		threats	eng	The main threat is general habitat loss as a result of deforestation due primarily to the clearing of land for livestock ranching.
55483		conservation	eng	This species' range is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos, where maintenance and conservation of its habitat is needed. More research is also needed to aid its conservation, in particular to determine whether or not it still survives at the type locality.
55483		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (Teresópolis) in Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The altitude of the type locality is about 1,500m asl.
55483		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation at the edge of streams in montane primary forest. It presumably breeds in permanent streams.
55483		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, although it is known from only two specimens and it has not been found recently, so it is possible that it is extinct.
55483		threats	eng	There are several main threats facing this species. Although its known range is within a protected area, habitat degradation due to touristic activities is taking place within the area. There are also planned infrastructure developments for the park in which it occurs, and chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat.
55484		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the limits of this species' range, its ecological requirements and its population status is needed.
55484		distribution	eng	This species is known only from about 40m asl from the vicinity of the type locality, which is Powakka , Suriname District, Suriname (Goin and Goin 1968).
55484		habitat	eng	The specimens were found in riverine forest along streams in moist savannah. There is no information about its breeding habits, though breeding might take place in streams.
55484		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens. It has not been recorded since the 1970s but there might not have been sampling of the area since then.
55484		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55485		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area.
55485		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, Boyacá Department, Colombia, at 2,000-2,020m asl.
55485		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces in shrubs in flooded pastures, marshes, and temporary pools.
55485		population	eng	It is abundant, with many recent records. The population appears to be increasing.
55485		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55486		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' ecological requirements is needed.
55486		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Sinnamary, French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001), and from several localities in the coastal savannah belt in Suriname. A dot-map of the species' distribution is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 40m asl.
55486		habitat	eng	The species is found in savannah around temporary ponds created in the wet season. It can be found on bushes and in the grass. There is no information on breeding, but it most likely breeds in the ponds.
55486		population	eng	It is an abundant species that is easy to find in the breeding season.
55486		threats	eng	It does not appear to be threatened and seems to be unaffected by nomadic livestock farming.
55487		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Sangay.
55487		distribution	eng	This species occurs in tropical South America, east of the Andes, in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad island (Trinidad and Tobago), the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Amazonian Brazil. It is generally found below 500m asl, but in Ecuador it occurs at up to 1,200m asl.
55487		habitat	eng	This nocturnal treefrog is found in trees and on branches along streams, open ponds, lakes and in gaps in primary forest (Duellman, 1978; Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It also occurs in flooded savannahs. Specimens can be found in disturbed areas such as gravel pits. In Brazil, it also occurs in Pantanal and Cerrado habitats. Reproduction takes place in permanent waterbodies. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles, which are toxic to fish, develop in the water as well.
55487		population	eng	It is abundant throughout most of its range.
55487		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55488		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55488		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Brazil, in the States of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.
55488		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, but is not found in open areas. It sits on herbaceous vegetation above waterbodies, and breeds mainly in permanent, and sometimes temporary, still water. The eggs are laid on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall and develop.
55488		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
55488		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, clear-cutting, fire, tourism, and human settlement.
55489		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and habitat preservation and restoration is required. It is listed as "Threatened" by the Mexican government.
55489		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-eastern and western Querétaro, north-eastern Puebla and adjacent Veracruz, south to south-central Veracruz, in Mexico.
55489		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest, and breeding takes place in temporary streams.
55489		population	eng	It is not common.
55489		threats	eng	Conversion of forest to agricultural land has resulted in the disappearance of the original habitat of this species. The mesic montane forest is one of the most heavily impacted environments in Mexico. Pollution from mining is also degrading the quality of the species' habitat.
55490		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55490		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central plateau of Goiás and the Federal District and southeastern Minas Gerais state, Brazil. It has been recorded from 600-1,100m asl.
55490		habitat	eng	It occurs in small streams in gallery forests, where they also breed. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55490		population	eng	It is a common species.
55490		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and the construction of dams are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55491		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, although conservation and maintenance of its habitat are needed.
55491		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Parque Nacional do Itatiaia (Brejo da Lapa, Alto Itatiaia) on the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, Brazil, from 1,800-2,400m asl. This is a poorly sampled species that might occur somewhat more widely.
55491		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from montane secondary forest and shrubland, and also from farmland. It breeds in permanent streams.
55491		population	eng	It is fairly common.
55491		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural encroachment.
55492		conservation	eng	It is recorded as having been present in a number of protected areas including: Parque Nacional Santa Fe, Parque Internacional La Amistad, and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. This species is an urgent priority for survey work, in order to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
55492		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Cordillera Central of Panama at elevations of 1,120-1,650m asl on both sides of the continental divide in the western part of the Serranía de Tabasará and on the Pacific slopes of the eastern part of the Cordillera de Talamanca. It has not been recorded from Costa Rica, but may be present in this country.
55492		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that inhabits humid montane forest, small ponds, puddles, and low-gradient streams. Breeding occurs in these aquatic habitats.
55492		population	eng	The population of this species has declined seriously. It is not certain that any populations now survive, and the species could be extinct.
55492		threats	eng	Infection by the chytrid pathogen was recorded by Lips (1999) at the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, in Chiriquí, and this is probably the most serious threat to the species. It is probably also impacted by habitat loss caused by the destruction of natural forests.
55493		conservation	eng	More taxonomic research is desirable as the type specimen might prove to be a juvenile of another species.
55493		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "in the forest at Mazaruni, British Guiana" (Goin 1966). The exact locality is unknown, and so no map has been drawn for this assessment.
55493		habitat	eng	It presumably inhabits lowland forest and breeds by larval development in water.
55493		population	eng	There is nothing known about the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen.
55493		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. However, the type locality is within an undisturbed isolated region of forest.
55494		conservation	eng	The distribution range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay.
55494		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Guianas, in the Amazon Basin in Brazil (except in savannah enclaves), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is generally found below 500m, but it can be found at up to 1,000m asl.
55494		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal hylid frog is found in natural and secondary tropical rainforests, and in clearings. Males call from leaves on vegetation along watercourses, a few cm above water level. Reproduction takes place in permanent and temporary waterbodies. It is rarely observed far from forest ponds (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been found in floodable forests, open areas and Terra Firme Forests (Ron, 2001).
55494		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
55494		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55495		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and population monitoring needed.
55495		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA on the Coastal Plain and some upland areas from North Carolina to southern Florida, west to Louisiana, including northern Mississippi (Keiser, 1992, Herpetol. Rev. 23:86); disjunctive populations occur in Delaware and adjacent Maryland, southwestern Kentucky and adjacent Tennessee, and in southeastern Virginia; introduced and probably now extirpated in southern New Jersey (Conant and Collins 1991).
55495		habitat	eng	This species? habitat is sandy areas in pine savannahs and in low wet woods and swamps (e.g., willow oak-blackgum, cypress swamps). When inactive during cold or dry season, it burrows under tree roots, vegetation, or in soil; otherwise mostly arboreal and thus dependent on trees near water. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of ponds, swamps, and bayheads; in Virginia, breeding sites were temporary ponds dominated by graminoids, beneath open canopies (Mitchell 1991). Reproduction is more successful in semi-permanent ponds due to the absence of predatory fishes. In some areas, deep ponds, such as Carolina Bays and borrow pits, are preferred breeding sites.
55495		population	eng	Overall, trend is unknown but likely relatively stable. In Florida, declines might have occurred in altered habitats and in areas subject to excessive collecting (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
55495		threats	eng	It is secure in the major portion of the range, less so in peripheral areas. In some areas, (e.g., Virginia) they are threatened by the conversion of native pine habitat to high-density monocultures of loblolly pine (Mitchell 1991). In Florida, habitat alteration and collecting for the pet trade are threats of unknown magnitude (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
55496		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is an urgent need for protection of remaining lowland forest habitat in this part of Ecuador.
55496		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of north-western Ecuador, from 200-500m asl. It is known from three localities, but with further sampling is likely to occur more widely.
55496		habitat	eng	This is originally a lowland forest species. However, specimens have been collected at a large duckweed-covered pond in a banana plantation outside forest; a few individuals were calling from bushes at the edge of the water, while others were found on grasses overhanging shallow muddy pools (Duellman 1973). It breeds in ponds, and probably deposits its eggs in the water.
55496		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55496		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, and much of the natural vegetation within its range has been cleared. While its occurrence in banana plantations may suggest that the species can survive in altered habitats, farming practices have changed radically over the last 20 years, especially with the use of pesticides, and cultivation that is more intensive. The soil is very fertile, and banana plantations do very well; however, these plantations are increasingly intensively managed and the use of pesticides poses an increasing threat.
55497		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area, but it is able to live in agricultural areas.
55497		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal southeastern Brazil, in Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina states, at 0-200m asl.
55497		habitat	eng	It was presumably originally a forest species. However, it adapts well to rice fields and other agricultural habitats. It occurs in vegetation surrounding seasonal and permanent pools. It reproduces in water.
55497		population	eng	It is very common and the population is stable.
55497		threats	eng	Water pollution is possibly a threat to this species.
55498		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55498		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal eastern Brazil in the States of Espírito Santo and Bahia. It is possibly more widespread. It ranges up to 650m asl.
55498		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal rainforest and in scrubby coastal "restinga" vegetation, as well as in gardens, farmland, and towns. It has been observed on vegetation around permanent ponds, where it breeds.
55498		population	eng	It is a common species.
55498		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any known threats.
55499		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
55499		distribution	eng	This Japanese endemic species is distributed in Ryukyu Archipelago including Kikaijima, Amamioshima, Kakeromajima, Yoron Island, Ukejima, Tokunoshima, and Okinawajima.
55499		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet areas, including marshlands and pools, in both grassland and forest, often close to human habitation. It can be found in disturbed habitats. It breeds by larval development in temporary pools and rice paddies.
55499		population	eng	It is a common species, though there are some localized declines where habitat is lost.
55499		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats to this species.
55500		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its Brazilian range. Possibly, present in the Peruvian protected areas of the Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone and Tamshiyacu Reserved Zone.
55500		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Peru (Department of Loreto) and Rio Solimões, Rio Juruá and Rio Purus, Brazil. It is found at elevations up to 300m asl.
55500		habitat	eng	A little-known species, it is generally found in the understorey vegetation of tropical moist forest. It may be present close to open ponds and large streams. It is presumed that the eggs are deposited in water and the tadpoles then develop.
55500		population	eng	The population status is not known.
55500		threats	eng	No major threats, this is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture and selective logging.
55501		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected area, and the implementation of a conservation strategy in the Sierra de Juárez is urgent. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine whether or not it survives in the wild; in view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55501		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca City, and Cerro San Felipe and Cerro Machin, Oaxaca, Mexico. It is also recorded from the Sierra Madre del Sur (Puerto del Gallo) in south-western Guerrero and Oaxaca. It is known from elevations of 2,200-2,865m asl. With increased survey work, it is quite likely to be found elsewhere, especially in intervening areas between known sites.
55501		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species occurs only in pine-oak forest at high elevations. It shows a close affinity to slow streams and small bushes.
55501		population	eng	This was never a common species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys at known sites to locate it have been unsuccessful.
55501		threats	eng	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. Logging of the original pine-oak forest at Sierra de Juárez is also a major threat to this species.
55502		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas, including Reserva Científica Natural de Valle Nuevo, although most are in need of improved management.
55502		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout much of Hispaniola, from sea level up to 1,856m asl, although populations are extremely fragmented.
55502		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian found only in fast-flowing mountain streams in mesic broadleaf forests. Males call from rocks or low vegetation near and in water.
55502		population	eng	This species is believed to have undergone a decline in recent years, and during the course of recent surveys in Haiti was found to be absent from a number of streams (B. Hedges pers. comm.). In the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic, it appears to persist in appropriate habitat at many localities (based on field observations from 1998-2000; M. Hernandez pers. comm.).
55502		threats	eng	Due to the fact that it is a mountain stream-dweller, it is more sensitive to habitat destruction than many other species. In Haiti, severe degradation of streams has already significantly altered its breeding habitat. Mining is a threat in some areas in the Dominican Republic as is infrastructure development.
55503		conservation	eng	More taxonomic research is desirable as this might prove to be a juvenile of another species.
55503		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality in Guyana of "valley of the Demerara River, British Guiana" (Ruthven 1919). The exact location is not known and hence no distribution map can be drawn for this assessment.
55503		habitat	eng	The region of the type locality is lowland tropical rainforest. There is no information regarding this species' breeding habits, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
55503		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from only one specimen.
55503		threats	eng	The major threats it faces are unknown. However, the region of the type locality is within an undisturbed, isolated region of forest.
55504		conservation	eng	The Venezuelan populations of this species are probably protected in the Sierra de la Neblina National Park. It occurs in protected areas in Colombia.
55504		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Colombia in the departments of Amazonas, Vaupes and Irinida, and from extreme southern Amazonas state in Venezuela. It presumably occurs in intervening parts of Amazonian Brasil, and is mapped as doing so, although there are not yet any confirmed records. It is a lowland species recorded from around 200m.
55504		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal, nocturnal species of primary and secondary lowland moist forest, always associated with streams, and not occurring in open habitats. It breeds in large streams.
55504		population	eng	It is a common species.
55504		threats	eng	Apart from the local impacts of mining, it is unlikely to be threatened.
55505		conservation	eng	It occurs in El Pure National Park and Caparu Biological Station.
55505		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Colombia in the departments of Amazonas, Caquetá, and Vaupés (Lynch, 2008), at 100-200m asl (J. Lynch, unpubl.). It almost certainly occurs much more widely, including in neighbouring Brazil.
55505		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforests where it occurs on the vegetation. It lays eggs in slow-moving streams, and the larvae develop there also.
55505		population	eng	It is uncommon, but it was collected in 2002.
55505		threats	eng	This species is threatened mostly only in the southern part of its range, by habitat destruction caused by the expansion of cattle ranching activities.
55506		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55506		distribution	eng	This species from the Atlantic forests of coastal southeastern Brazil occurs from the State of Rio de Janeiro, south to the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. It ranges up to 1,000m.asl.
55506		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and old secondary forest along streams, and is not found in open habitats. It is usually found on the ground or on low vegetation near forest streams. It breeds in streams.
55506		population	eng	It is reasonably common, but is not abundant.
55506		threats	eng	Some major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting and human settlement.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55507		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55507		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Pebas, Ecuador" (Cope 1871), Loreto Department, Peru. The holotype has been lost, and the description cannot be equated with any living species. The type locality is too vague (it might be Pebas Real) so the range of this species has not been mapped in this assessment.
55507		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it is likely to breed by larval development in water.
55507		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55507		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
55508		conservation	eng	It has been collected in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz, the Parque Nacional Pau Brasil, the Parque Nacional Descobrimento and the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Ecoparque de Una.
55508		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and eastern Bahia State and a single site in the Municipio de Minas Novas, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is approximately 90-300m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55508		habitat	eng	This species is known from both late secondary tropical forest, with small streams and deep leaf-litter. Males are found vocalising under (or mostly) the leaf-litter, but exceptionally call from leaves and bushes above streams. Females are found on leaves above the margins of streams. It is presumed that reproduction takes place in the backwaters of these fast flowing streams. Many of the specimens were observed in secondary forest in fazendas (farms).
55508		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
55508		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It appears to tolerate a degree of habitat modification.
55509		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.
55509		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Alpinópolis, and from the immediate vicinity, in the Serra da Canastra, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. This is a poorly sampled region for amphibians, so it might occur more widely.
55509		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky habitats in savannah, on stones or trees near small waterfalls of permanent streams. There is no information regarding its breeding habits, but it is likely to breed by larval development in steams.
55509		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status.
55509		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species include habitat degradation due to agricultural development and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism, and also fires.
55510		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, where conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required.
55510		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, where it has been recorded from about 1,500m asl.
55510		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and old secondary gallery forests, on the ground or in leaf-litter near water. It breeds in permanent streams. It has only been recorded from a protected area, so its tolerance of habitat disturbance is unknown.
55510		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
55510		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to touristic activities can be a threat to this species.
55511		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within its range.
55511		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Lago Codajás, situated north of the main stream of the Amazon between Manaus and Teffé in Amazonas State, Brazil.
55511		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a lowland rainforest species that breeds by larval development in water.
55511		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, and there have been no records since it was discovered.
55511		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55512		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55512		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of central, eastern, and northeastern China. This is largely a lowland species.
55512		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mixed and deciduous broadleaved forests, bushlands, meadows, swamps, paddy fields, ponds and the surrounding vegetation. It can be found along the banks of rivers, streams and lakes. Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant ponds, puddles, oxbow lakes, flooded quarries and lakes with dense herbaceous vegetation.The species is presumed to tolerate some degree of habitat modification.
55512		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
55512		threats	eng	The species is threatened locally by pollution (often from agrochemical use) and by habitat loss to increasing urbanization.
55513		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55513		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Santarém, in Pará State, Brazil.
55513		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it is likely to be a lowland rainforest species that breeds by larval development in water.
55513		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It was last collected over 100 years ago.
55513		threats	eng	There is no direct information on the major threats to this species.
55514		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, this species has been recorded from a protected area (Bosque Protector de Palo Seco).
55514		distribution	eng	This species is a Panamanian endemic, known only from Río Changena, in Bocas del Toro Province at altitudes of 830-910m asl on the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Talamanca, not far from the border with Costa Rica. It might occur more widely.
55514		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species that inhabits humid montane forest where there is high rain fall throughout the year. It breeds in forest ponds.
55514		population	eng	There is little information on its population status, since little work was undertaken on this species while it was considered to be a subspecies of <em>Hyla pseudopuma</em>. It is known only from a single locality where 48 specimens were collected. If its population status is similar to that of <em>H. pseudopuma</em>, it can be expected to be common.
55514		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is general habitat loss through the destruction of forests as a result of logging and agricultural development.
55515		conservation	eng	It is protected within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
55515		distribution	eng	The known range of this species is currently restricted to the summit of Cerro Marahuaca (03° 40'N; 65° 27'W), at 2,600m asl, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, although it might occur more widely.
55515		habitat	eng	It inhabits high, montane tepui habitat such as shrubs and forest. The larvae live in fast-moving streams, and are highly adapted to this environment.
55515		population	eng	It is a common species.
55515		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
55516		conservation	eng	The range of this species is known to be within Texiguat Wildlife Refuge. Maintenance of existing tracts of remaining habitat is an important conservation measure for this species.
55516		distribution	eng	This species is found in the extreme west of the Sierra Nombre de Dios, La Fortuna village, between the Departamentos of Yoro and Atlantica, north-central Honduras. The type locality is at 1,550m asl.
55516		habitat	eng	This species is found on the ground and on low vegetation along streams, in lower montane wet forest. It lays its eggs in patches of moss in trees overhanging streams; when the eggs hatch the tadpoles fall in to the stream.
55516		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its very restricted range.
55516		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and logging. This frog is very dependent on pristine habitat as it depends on sufficient humidity for moss for breeding in the trees.
55517		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Italy and Switzerland. It is present in a number of protected areas.
55517		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to mainland Italy and the island of Sicily (Italy); smaller populations are present on the edge of its range in southern Switzerland and western Slovenia (a single site on the Italian border). The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to at least 1,855m asl.
55517		habitat	eng	It is usually associated with lowland woodland and forest; also found in some wetland habitats (e.g. reedbeds). It breeds in standing waters (lakes, small stagnant ponds, water tanks). The species is sometimes found in modified habitats (e.g. rice fields).
55517		population	eng	It is still quite abundant in Italy, although populations have declined in some alpine valleys.
55517		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by local habitat loss to urbanization and water pollution (presumably by agrochemicals). But overall, it is not seriously threatened.
55518		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada, Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Guaramacal.
55518		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes of Venezuela, in the states of Mérida and Trujillo. It has been recorded from 1,800-3,000m asl. Records from Sierra del Turimiquire, in Sucre and Monagas States, are misidentifications.
55518		habitat	eng	It is found alongside streams in cloud forests. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging water, and when hatched the larvae fall into the water below.
55518		population	eng	It was formerly considered to be an uncommon species, and it t is possible that it is decreasing in some places due to habitat loss. However, in some places like Monte Zerpa, north of the city of Mérida, this frog has replaced a formerly abundant species (<em>Hyla platydactyla</em>) that has undergone serious declines.
55518		threats	eng	The major threat to this species’ habitat is agricultural development, involving both cultivation of crops and livestock grazing. Predation by introduced trout is also a problem.
55519		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of Buryatia and the Evreiskaya Autonomous Province of Russia.
55519		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and other small islands), central, northern and northeastern China, it is found throughout both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea, present in northern Mongolia and the southern Russian Far East.
55519		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mixed and deciduous broadleaved forests, forest steppes, bush lands, meadows, swamps, paddy fields, ponds, and the surrounding vegetation. It is often found along the banks of rivers, streams, and lakes. Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant ponds, puddles, oxbow lakes, flooded quarries, and lakes with dense herbaceous vegetation. The eggs are sometimes deposited in river and stream pools. The species tolerates some degree of habitat modification, and may even be found in large cities.
55519		population	eng	This species is common throughout and is only rare and sporadically distributed in the area of Lake Baikal and Mongolia.
55519		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but are presumed to include general habitat loss, (often from changes in land use such as conversion of paddy fields to vegetable farming), pollution and prolonged drought in arid areas.
55520		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55520		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Cerrado biome in the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, in Brazil. It occurs up to 800m asl.
55520		habitat	eng	It occurs on the upper parts of low vegetation, and inhabits springs, streams, and marshes, where it also breeds. It also adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55520		population	eng	It is a common species.
55520		threats	eng	Logging and dam construction are major threats to the species' habitat.
55521		conservation	eng	It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas.
55521		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the town of Cobija (11° 00' 45''S; 68° 45' 27''W), at 250m asl, in Nicolas Suarez Province, Pando Department, extreme northern Bolivia (close to the border with Peru), and from Riberalta, in Beni Province, Bolivia. It is likely to have a much wider distribution in Bolivia and neighbouring Peru.
55521		habitat	eng	This is apparently not a forest species, and it has been found in open habitats with tall grass around small ponds and roadside ditches. It is probably well adapted to anthropogenic disturbance, and presumably breeds in ponds and ditches.
55521		population	eng	It is common at Cobija, although it is hard to find in certain seasons.
55521		threats	eng	Since it is an adaptable species it is not likely to be facing any particular threats at present.
55522		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55522		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the open grasslands of the Serra Geral, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul states, Brazil, at 900-1,730m asl.
55522		habitat	eng	It occurs in open grasslands and streams and reproduces in fast-flowing streams in open areas or along forest edges. Males have been observed perched on vegetation along the edge of pools, waterfalls and torrents.
55522		population	eng	It is abundant and the population is stable.
55522		threats	eng	Water pollution is a potential threat to this species.
55523		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. The Government of Mexico considers it "Threatened" (Amenazada). Close population monitoring is required, especially given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
55523		distribution	eng	This species is known from two disjunct populations: one in San Vicente de Benitez, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, Guerrero, and the other in San Gabriel Mixtepec, Oaxaca, also in the Sierra Madre del Sur, south-western Mexico. It is found at elevations of 750-1,080m asl in Guerrero, and at elevations of 580-1,530m asl in Oaxaca. It might occur more widely.
55523		habitat	eng	This species only inhabits montane forest at moderate elevations. It breeds in temporary streams.
55523		population	eng	This species is not common. Recent surveys suggest that it has undergone a decline in numbers.
55523		threats	eng	The destruction and degradation of the original forest cover (mainly due to logging) in Guerrero, is the major threat to this species, and most of the localities where the species occurs have been severely impacted by human activities. Recently documented declines might be due to chytridiomycosis.
55524		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements, and population status is needed.
55524		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Kanaima, Mount Roraima and Mount Ayanganna, west-central Guyana. It has been recorded between 800-1,500m asl.
55524		habitat	eng	It inhabits upland forest, and it has been observed along streams, and away from streams. There is no available information about breeding habits, though reproduction is likely to take place in streams.
55524		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species.
55524		threats	eng	There are no known threats and the species known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.
55525		conservation	eng	It is possible that it occurs in El Pure National Park. Surveys are needed to establish its range.
55525		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and one other location; it is known from lowland rainforest near Timbo, Vaupés department, Colombia, and at Tarapaca/Leticia, Amazonas department, Colombia, at 170m asl (J. Lynch, unpubl. data).
55525		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest where it occurs in the vegetation. It is an arboreal and nocturnal species. Its reproductive sites are unknown, but breeding is likely to take place in water.
55525		population	eng	Few specimens of this species are known, but it was collected in Tarapaca in 2002.
55525		threats	eng	Both localities where this species is confirmed are threatened by habitat destruction caused by expanding cattle ranching activities. However, a large area of undisturbed forest occurs between these points where this species is also likely to occur.
55526		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Tambopata National Reserve, and given its known habitat and geographical distribution, it might occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Peru.
55526		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout much of Amazonian Peru, including northern Departamento Loreto to the Iquitos area, through to the southeastern areas adjacent to the rivers Tambopata and Manu (Departamento Madre de Dios). It is also known from the vicinity of the Jurua river, Amazonas, Brazil, and a recent record from close to Parque Nacional Madidi, Bolivia. Its elevation is from 200-280m asl.
55526		habitat	eng	Generally, it is present in the understorey vegetation of humid tropical forest. Breeding congregations assemble near pools, egg deposition site not known; larvae develop in the temporary ponds. It is not known if the species can occur in secondary or modified habitats.
55526		population	eng	This is an abundant species. Duellman and Trueb (1989) stated that based on the number of individuals observed in breeding congregations, H. koechlini would be among the most abundant anurans at Cusco Amazonico. Later, Duellman (1995) found Hyla koechlini to be the most abundant species of frog at Cusco Amazonico. It is also common in the Tambopata National Reserve (A. Angulo pers. obs.).
55526		threats	eng	Present in a well conserved region with few threats.
55527		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, so the protection of the unique habitat of this species is recommended, especially since several other threatened species are also found in this area.
55527		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at San Vicente Lachixio, Sola de Vega District, in south-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,200m asl.
55527		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry pine-oak forest, and presumably breeds in streams.
55527		population	eng	Only one specimen has ever been collected of this species, which is thought to be rare.
55527		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is logging of the area by local people.
55528		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
55528		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes of central and northeastern Colombia in the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Santander, and Norte de Santander. It has been recorded from 1,600-3,600m asl.
55528		habitat	eng	It inhabits páramo, ponds, pasture (including artificial), urban zones, and gardens. It presumably breeds in ponds.
55528		population	eng	It is an abundant and extremely common species.
55528		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species. It is used for experiments in universities for teaching purposes, but this is not considered a threat.
55529		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a protected area (Parque Internacional La Amistad) in Panama. It does not occur in any protected areas within Costa Rica.
55529		distribution	eng	This species is found on humid premontane slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 368-1,200m asl (Savage, 2002).
55529		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal tree frog of humid lowland and montane forest characterized by rainfall throughout the year. This species can also be found in modified habitats (with some trees) such as pastureland. Eggs are deposited in pools within streams; the larvae develop in these pools.
55529		population	eng	This species is abundant in Costa Rica. There is no information available on the abundance of this species in Panama.
55529		threats	eng	There is some general habitat loss through deforestation.
55530		conservation	eng	Many conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.
55530		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Amazon basin in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. In Venezuela, it has been reported from Amazonas, Barinas, Miranda, and Táchira states. It might be more common than might be expected from published records, extending along the flanks of the lowland versants of the Cordillera de Mérida from Táchira to Miranda states. It occurs at up to 1,500m asl.
55530		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal species is usually found perching on shrubs and low trees along lagoons, pools, and streams and in rivers, in tropical humid forests. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also. It is also associated with open and disturbed habitats (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been found in open areas and floodable forests (Ron, 2001).<br/>The species is very adaptable and occurs commonly in sites of severe intervention (Lynch, 2006).
55530		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range.
55530		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55531		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia.
55531		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Colombian and Ecuadorian Andes. In Colombia it occurs patchily in the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central, and on the eastern slope of the Nudo del Pasto (in the departments of Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, Quindio and Tolima). In northern Ecuador it is known only from a small area in Carchi and Imbabura Provinces. Its altitudinal range is 1,950-3,100m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
55531		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation (including in bromeliads and on branches) in primary and secondary forests next to water sources (usually streams). It has been found in a small, wooded ravine in otherwise cleared pastureland, and breeds in slow-moving streams.
55531		population	eng	Although patchily distributed, it is common where found.
55531		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55532		conservation	eng	It might occur in the El Tama National Park in both Colombia and Venezuela, but its presence there has not been confirmed.
55532		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the headwaters of Tachira River in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, in the Department of Norte de Santander, Colombia, east along the northwestern slopes of the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela in Táchira and Mérida States. Its known altitudinal range is 1,250-1,700m asl.
55532		habitat	eng	It is a species of semi-deciduous montane forests, and it has been found singing from puddles in the middle of a road in a very disturbed area. It breeds in streams.
55532		population	eng	There is little information on abundance, due to lack of survey work, but it has been seen as recently as 1995. There is just one Colombian record. This species was listed by Vial and Saylor (1993) as having experienced population declines, but there is no evidence to support to this point or view, and the locality given ("Sierra del Turimiquire, Sucre/Monagas") is clearly in error. In 2001 it was reportedly found without difficulty in brooks of cloud forest (Barrio Amorós, 2001).
55532		threats	eng	It is not obviously threatened, since it has been found in degraded habitats. Almost all of its populations are in places without protection that have been much affected by coffee plantations.
55533		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia.
55533		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of the upper Amazon basin in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. Its elevation is below 450m asl.
55533		habitat	eng	Generally, it is found on leaves and branches in lowland primary and secondary tropical moist forest, riverine forests, and degraded areas. It breeds in temporary or semipermanent ponds (Rodriguez and Duellman, 1994) .
55533		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55533		threats	eng	Because of the large areas of suitable habitat available to this species, there are no major threats. outside protected areas, there is some localized habitat loss through different human activities, principally agriculture.
55534		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected within Canaima National Park.
55534		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of La Escalera and Cerro Roraima, in Bolívar state, Venezuela to western Guyana (Mount Roraima and Mount Ayanganna). It has been recorded from 600-1,400m asl.
55534		habitat	eng	It has been seen calling from boulders in, and leaves, branches, and a log above a cascading stream. It is also found in open areas with fringe vegetation and in waters that are very stagnant. Some specimens have been found on trees up to 3 metres above the water in gallery forest. The eggs are usually deposited on vegetation overhanging the streams, and when hatched the tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop further.
55534		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55534		threats	eng	Fire is a localized threat, but this species occurs in a region of limited human impact so there are no major threats overall at present.
55535		conservation	eng	It occurs in several parks and protected areas.
55535		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Araucaria plateau; Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná and Santa Catarina states; Brazil; at 800-1,100m asl.
55535		habitat	eng	It occurs in open savannah, and it is absent from closed-canopy forest. It is mainly found in the backwaters of small streams, and in the seasonal and permanent pools where it reproduces.
55535		population	eng	It is abundant and the population is stable.
55535		threats	eng	Water pollution is a localised threat to this species. It is, however, fairly adaptable to habitat disturbance and very good at dispersing.
55536		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55536		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites in Mato Grosso State (Aripuanã and Apiacás) and a single location in Rondônia State (Nova Colina), Brazil. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55536		habitat	eng	It occurs in the contact zone of the Cerrado savannah ecosystem and the Amazonian rainforest. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, although its breeding habits are not known.
55536		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55536		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55537		conservation	eng	Many conservation units occur within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
55537		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the "Amazon Basin (Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil) " (Frost, 2000), at less than 600m asl. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001).
55537		habitat	eng	This frog is usually found at night on leaves and branches around ponds in tropical rainforest or open areas (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in secondary forest (Duellman, 1978). It also occurs in Cerrado and gallery forest in northeastern Maranhao, Brazil. Eggs are laid out of the water on leaves; and the tadpoles develop in the water.
55537		population	eng	This species ranges from uncommon to common.
55537		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55538		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55538		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in Rio de Janeiro, Paraná, Minas Gerais and São Paulo States, as well as Ilha Grande in the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-1,200m asl, but in Ilha Grande it has been recorded at sea level.
55538		habitat	eng	This species occurs near rivulets and temporary ponds in primary and secondary forest. Subterranean nests are built in muddy soil or banks near the waterbodies. The tadpoles live in permanent streams. It has also been found in anthropogenic habitats such as gardens, plantations, etc.
55538		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55538		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Clear cutting of forests could be a localized threat but it is not currently occurring within its range.<br/><br/>A similar species (<em>Aplastodiscus</em> cf. <em>leucopygius</em>) has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55539		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this species within its taxonomic group needs to be resolved.
55539		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, São Vicente, in São Paulo State, Brazil.
55539		habitat	eng	There is no information known regarding its habitat preferences or ecological requirements. However, other species within its taxonomic group breed in ponds.
55539		population	eng	It has only been collected once, so its population status is not known. It is very similar to other species in its taxonomic group in the surrounding region.
55539		threats	eng	Deforestation is presumably a threat to this species, although there is not enough information known at present to determine its major threats.
55540		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador, including Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay, but is apparently not recorded from any in Colombia. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
55540		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in Caquetá and Putumayo Departments) and Ecuador (south to Morona Province). It ranges from 2,000-2,600m asl.
55540		habitat	eng	It lives in upper humid montane forest, and it also survives in pastureland and other altered habitats. However, although it is adaptable, it probably cannot tolerate extremely severe habitat clearance, leading to a very open landscape. It is associated with creeks and breeds in streams. Individuals have been found on vegetation along small creeks within forests; tadpoles have been collected in bodies of water with limited movement (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005).
55540		population	eng	It is a common species.
55540		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss from agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species has a narrow altitudinal range, and lives in habitats where catastrophic extinctions have occurred in other frog species with stream-dwelling tadpoles, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis. Mueses-Cisneros (2005) reports that all tadpoles examined in his study lack keratin in their mouthparts; however, he suggests that this is not necessarily related to chytrid infection.
55541		conservation	eng	It is protected in many parks throughout its range.
55541		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean lowlands of Mexico and central America, from southern Veracruz, Mexico (including the eastern Yucatan Peninsula) southeastward through Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, at 0-1,585m asl.
55541		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and montane tropical humid forest. It is found in temporary and permanent ponds where it breeds. It persists in disturbed habitats, as long as there is deep water available.
55541		population	eng	It is locally common throughout its range.
55541		threats	eng	It is threatened only by the complete removal of vegetation.
55542		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
55542		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of Cerro Duida, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at about 900m asl. There is some information to suggest that it might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
55542		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of montane tepui environments. There is no information about its breeding habits, although it is presumed to be a larval developer.
55542		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55542		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
55543		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from two protected areas: the congruent Reserva Biológica de Una and the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Ecoparque de Una.
55543		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from two protected areas in Una Municipality, Bahia State, Brazil. It is a lowland species that has been collected below 100m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, and the limits of its distribution are not known.
55543		habitat	eng	It inhabits fragments of lowland tropical closed-canopy gallery forest. Individuals have been found above ground in bromeliads and on leaves close to small streams and temporary pools. It is presumed to breed in small pools, or slow-flowing stream sections.
55543		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
55543		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55544		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55544		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Japí, and Serra da Mantiqueira, and from Serra Paranapiadaba and Rodovia Mogi-Bertioga in Serra do Mar, in São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl.
55544		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation or on the forest leaf-litter near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest. It breeds in permanent streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
55544		population	eng	It is a common species.
55544		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to clear-cutting of forests and infrastructure development are threats to this species.
55545		conservation	eng	Its range includes several National Parks.
55545		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra de San Luis to Unare depression, in northern Venezuela. It has been recorded from 200-1,600m asl.
55545		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical moist forests in low and highlands. It is relatively adaptable and is found in some rural villages, and is an opportunistic species that takes advantage of human-induced clearings. It has been found breeding in permanent grass-covered, natural, or man-made pools, within primary cloud forest or near to human buildings.
55545		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
55545		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species at present.
55546		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for expanded protection of remaining forest habitats in the Colombian Andes.
55546		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in the department of Santander, Colombia, at 2,540-2,700m asl. It may be more widely distributed than existing records indicate.
55546		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in cloud forest, but only in old growth forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the tadpoles larvae in streams.
55546		population	eng	It is known to be common, although there has been no survey work for this species since 1998.
55546		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and cattle ranching, and predation by introduced trout, are the major threats to this species.
55547		conservation	eng	It occurs in several parks and protected areas.
55547		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Rio Grande do Sul and southern Santa Catarina states, southern Brazil, at 500-1,000m asl.
55547		habitat	eng	It is found on forested mountain slopes, inhabiting streams with clear running water. The clutch is fixed to vegetation hanging into the water.
55547		population	eng	It is common and the population is stable.
55547		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss due to deforestation and cattle ranching are threats to this species.
55548		conservation	eng	Many conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
55548		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Venezuela, the Guianas, and the Amazon basin in Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In Ecuador, it occurs at elevations of up to 1,000m asl.
55548		habitat	eng	It has been found on leaves and branches of primary and secondary tropical rainforest and in clearings near forest (Duellman, 1978). It is a nocturnal and arboreal species, usually in trees, but after heavy rains males call from the ground, grasses, herbaceous vegetation, or bushes around temporary ponds (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water and the tadpoles develop there also.
55548		population	eng	It is rarely seen in most of its range but it is locally common in Suriname.
55548		threats	eng	Forest conversion, logging, and clear cutting are threats to this species.
55549		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55549		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of central Minas Gerais state, in Brazil. It has been recorded above 800m asl.
55549		habitat	eng	It occurs on stones at the edge of brooks and streams in gallery forests, and breeds in the streams. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55549		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55549		threats	eng	Mining and logging, as well, as fire, and the disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat.
55550		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
55550		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed east of the Colombian Andes in Meta, Casanare, Cundinamarca, and Arauca Departments, at 280-800m asl.
55550		habitat	eng	It lives in wet savannahs near waterbodies. It appears to require open situations and accordingly is very common in transformed habitats (Lynch, 2006). It is tolerant of severe human impacts and it reproduces in seasonal and permanent pools.
55550		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55550		threats	eng	It occurs in very disturbed and polluted areas. If <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em> is introduced to its range, the population might suffer.
55551		conservation	eng	The creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed for this species. Conservation units are present within its range.
55551		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the interior basins of Tocantins state, Brazil and the eastern Brazilian Amazon basin, including the Santa Cruz lowlands of Bolivia and northern Paraguay, French Guiana and Suriname.
55551		habitat	eng	It occurs on leaves and branches near waterbodies in tropical rain and dry forest and in forest edges. It reproduces in natural temporary ponds.
55551		population	eng	It is locally common in Bolivia and Brazil, but it is rare in the Guianas.
55551		threats	eng	Clear cutting is a threat to this species.
55552		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection, and/or restoration, of pine-oak forests at sites where this species is known to occur. Close population monitoring is required, especially given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55552		distribution	eng	This species is found only on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely, especially in intervening areas between currently known sites. It occurs at elevations of 900 and 2,000m asl.
55552		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and pine-oak forest, and is almost exclusively found in forest streams and the surrounding vegetation. Animals seek refuge in bromeliads during the dry season. Breeding takes place in streams.
55552		population	eng	This is a common species.
55552		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to expanding agriculture (crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement. Tadpoles have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinized mouthparts, which suggests that chytridiomycosis might be a threat.
55553		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed into this species, for example to determine the limits of its range, and its ecological requirements and population status.
55553		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known, and has been recorded only from the type locality of "Huancabamba" (Boulenger 1912), in Pasco Department, Peru, where it was collected at 1,900m asl.
55553		habitat	eng	All that is known about its habitat and ecological requirements is that it lives in montane forests and is likely to breed in water.
55553		population	eng	There is nothing known about its population status. It has not been found since it was first collected.
55553		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known, although there is some agricultural development in the general area (cultivation of coffee and rearing of livestock).
55554		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55554		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the unspecified distribution of "Brasilia" (Schneider 1799), presumably Brazil.
55554		habitat	eng	Neither its habitat nor its ecological requirements are known, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
55554		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55554		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55555		conservation	eng	Although most of the species' range is outside protected areas, it may occur in Parque Nacional La Culata and/or Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Remaining cloud forest habitats in the Venezuelan Andes are in urgent need of protection.
55555		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes of Mérida State, in Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,200-2,400m asl. Records from the Sierra del Turimiquire, in Sucre and Monagas States, are misidentifications.
55555		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of small ponds in cloud forests. It lays its eggs directly in water, where the larvae also develop.
55555		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is estimated to have undergone a significant decline over the past ten years.
55555		threats	eng	The main threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as agricultural pollution. The recent introduction of <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> has probably been at least parly responsible for the decline in populations of this frog.
55556		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
55556		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the lowlands in State of Rio de Janeiro, below 100m, southeastern Brazil, from Itaguai in the west to Macae in the east.
55556		habitat	eng	It lives on vegetation near ponds and other still waters in a very wide array of habitats, from forest, to open areas, to cities. It breeds in temporary ponds.
55556		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
55556		threats	eng	Other than drainage of breeding sites for human settlement and mosquito control, this species faces no known threats.
55557		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists and is protected in parts of its range by national and sub-national legislation. The species occurs in many European and North African protected areas.
55557		distribution	eng	The natural distribution of this species is in the western Mediterranean. It is present in southern France, Monaco, coastal northwestern Italy (Ligury and southern Piedmont), Spain, Portugal, and in northern Africa (Morocco, northern Algeria, and northern Tunisia). In the drier parts of its range (for example in parts of north Africa and Iberia) its distribution is fragmented due to limited available habitat, and it has a small Area of Occupancy within its wider Extent of Occurrence. The species is also present on the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal) (it was introduced in antiquity on these islands). It is introduced on Menorca (Spain). The distribution in Algeria and Tunisia is poorly known but several authors have mentioned that the species ranges south of the Tell Atlas (D. Donaire-Barroso pers. comm.). It is generally found at low to mid elevations from sea level, rarely up to 2,650m asl (Morocco).
55557		habitat	eng	This species may be found in trees, shrubs, orchards, vineyards, and grasses generally near to freshwater habitats; the species can occur at high densities within suitable vegetation. Breeding and larval development take place in ponds, springs, irrigation ditches, temporary pools, flooded meadows, lagoons, cattle pools, wells and even swimming pools. It is sympatric in some areas with <em>Hyla arborea</em> (and produces infertile hybrids).
55557		population	eng	Generally, it is common across its range. Populations in southeastern Spain and isolated populations in the Basque country, Spain, are declining mostly through loss of breeding habitats. It is locally threatened in Italy.
55557		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by terrestrial habitat loss (intensification of agriculture; infrastructure development), aquatic pollution (agriculture; mosquito control), and loss of breeding sites (e.g.. drinking troughs). The introduction of predatory Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>), and fishes (such as <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) to breeding sites is a serious threat to this species. The species appears to show a greater resilience to eutrophication than many other species, possibly as the eutrophic waters promote the growth of reed mace and other favorable vegetation.
55558		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
55558		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant of Mexico and Central America, from southern Veracruz and northern Oaxaca states, Mexico, south-eastward on the Pacific lowlands along central Guatemala and southward to Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, from sea level to 1,300m asl. It is also known from the north and east of South America (central Magdalena valley, Colombia), and from Venezuela to southeast Brazil, and also from Trinidad island, Trinidad and Tobago, from sea level to 300m asl.
55558		habitat	eng	This is a savannah and forest edge species, often associated with wetlands, that may commonly be found in disturbed or altered habitats at foothills and low elevations in secondary forests and pasture grasslands or cut-over forests. It is also found in marshy areas outside or adjacent to forest, including temporarily open areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools and the eggs are put on leaves, with the tadpoles then falling into the water. In the Gran Sabana region in Southeastern Venezuela, it has been found calling at night from bushes and grasses in, and adjacent to, forest ponds (Duellman 1997). In Trinidad, it has been found on grass or small bushes over temporary pools, drains, or rice fields, in open country; and sometimes over temporary ponds at the edges of forests (Kenny 1969). This nocturnal species may hide on the undersides of leaves, or at the base of musaseae leaves (Solano 1968). In the Venezuelan Guayana, males of this species start calling from the marginal vegetation of temporary and permanent lagoons at the beginning of the mid rainy season (Gorzula and Señaris 1999).
55558		population	eng	It is abundant throughout its range, and probably increasing.
55558		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
55559		conservation	eng	This species is known from El Puré National Park and Amacayacu National Park in Colombia. The species is present in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55559		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin in southeastern Colombia (in the departments of Vaupés and Amazonas), adjacent Amazonas State, and western Acre State, Brazil, and in northeastern Peru. It has been recorded between 100-250m asl.
55559		habitat	eng	The species was recorded from primary forest. It is presumably a stream breeder, like other species in the genus. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.
55559		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55559		threats	eng	Smallholder farming and logging are localized threats to the habitat of this species, however there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.
55560		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55560		distribution	eng	This species from the Atlantic forests of southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Bahia south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs up to 1,600m asl.
55560		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary forest, shrubland, coastal restinga scrub, and wood plantations, but not in primary forest. It is usually found on low vegetation near the waterbodies, such as ponds, large puddles or ditches at the forest edges or in clearings. It breeds in temporary ponds.
55560		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55560		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting and human settlement.
55561		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas in both Panama and Costa Rica. Further surveys are required to fully determine the range of this species.
55561		distribution	eng	This species is known from humid lowlands and premontane slopes from Departamento Gracias a Dios in Honduras (McCranie <em>et al.</em>, 2003) and south-eastern Nicaragua to south-eastern Costa Rica on the Atlantic versant (20-900m asl), and on the Pacific versant in humid premontane areas of south-western Costa Rica and western and central Panama, at 1,000-1,330m asl (Savage, 2002). It is expected to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
55561		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal canopy species of primary humid lowland and montane forest. Eggs are deposited in tree holes, which is also where the larvae develop. Males have been found calling from tree holes (McCranie <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
55561		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this rarely seen, high-canopy species.
55561		threats	eng	The major threat is loss of primary forest habitat due to agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlement.
55562		conservation	eng	It occurs close to Biotopo del Quetzal, and possibly occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. The cloud forest habitat of this species is in need of further protection.
55562		distribution	eng	This species is known from two disjunct populations, in the Municipio de Purulhá, in the department of Baja Verapaz, and the Sierra de Santa Cruz, Izabal Department, both in Guatemala, at 700-1,830m asl. It has been reported, but not collected, from the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas (this locality is not mapped here).
55562		habitat	eng	It occurs in the vegetation of pristine cloud forest, and is assumed to breed in tree cavities or bromeliads.
55562		population	eng	It has always been rare, and has not been seen since 1994, although there have been no recent searches specifically targeting this species.
55562		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, primarily due to agriculture, logging, and expanding ornamental plant farms.
55563		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55563		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Taperinha, Santarem, in Pará State, Brazil.
55563		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it is likely to live in the rainforest and breed in water.
55563		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has not been found again since it was first collected.
55563		threats	eng	There is no information regarding threats to this species.
55564		conservation	eng	Several protected areas occur within the range of this species.
55564		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Llanos of eastern Arauca-Meta (Colombia) and Venezuela eastwards through, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. It is also present on the Icacos Peninsula of southwestern Trinidad island. Lescure and Marty (2001) indicated that this species inhabits the littoral band at the north of French Guiana, and that further south the species is replaced by <em>Dendropsophus nanus</em>. It is found from sea level up to approximately 600m asl.
55564		habitat	eng	It is usually found in lowland savannahs, open grassland and at forest edges. In the Gran Sabana region, it has been found at night calling from leaves of bushes around a tropical forest pond, and from vegetation 40-60cm above the water. Eggs and tadpoles develop in temporary pools. It is an adaptable species.
55564		population	eng	It is generally a common species, although it is considered to be uncommon in Colombia.
55564		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. In Colombia, it is locally threatened by oil extraction and forest loss.
55565		conservation	eng	Its range includes many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.
55565		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands east of the Andes, from the Guianas, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, and Venezuela southward through Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil to Bolivia (including interandean dry valleys), Paraguay, Uruguay, and Salta and Misiones Provinces in Argentina. In Bolivia, it occurs at up to 1,800m asl.
55565		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of tropical moist forests (including clearings), forest edge, and marshes. Although it is especially common in the lowlands, where the frogs congregate in large numbers at temporary ponds in the forest, it is also common around roadside ditches and puddles in the cloud forest on the steep slopes of La Escalera and at grassy ponds in the Gran Sabana (Duellman, 1997). It colonizes man-made standing water caused by agricultural activities and the constructions of roads (Gorzula and Señaris, 1999). It is found on leaves and branches in tropical rainforest. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid in the water, and the tadpoles develop there also. In southeastern Brazil, reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to January, and possibly also February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). Individuals from Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, were found in a restricted area of disturbed forest (Duellman, 1978).
55565		population	eng	This is one of the most common amphibians of South America found largely in Brazil. In the rainy season, this is the most abundant species in the Gran Sabana region in southeastern Venezuela.
55565		threats	eng	There is no relevant threat to the species overall.
55566		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes at least three protected areas, but further protection of the cloud forest fragments in Mexico is needed.
55566		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental from central Nuevo Leon to central Veracruz, Mexico. Other allopatric populations occur in southern Veracruz, north-central Oaxaca and northern Chiapas, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55566		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest, and is frequently associated with bromeliads or elephant-ear plants. It can sometimes be found on the ground, in bushes, or on small plants. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
55566		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
55566		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation arising from agricultural development and logging. Local people also consume it and it has been observed to be common in the local trade in Jalapa.
55567		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the protection of remaining forested habitat in the Sierra de Juárez is urgent. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55567		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Vista Hermosa town, Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,800m asl.
55567		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest, and occurs in mountain streams and rocky habitats.
55567		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55567		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of original, intact cloud forest due to smallholder agricultural activities and logging.
55568		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area, and protection and restoration of cloud forest remnants is extremely urgent. Survey work is necessary to establish its current population status. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55568		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Coscomatepec region in central Veracruz, Mexico, at altitudes of 900-1,500m asl.
55568		habitat	eng	It is highly associated with epiphytic plants in cloud forest, but breeds in temporary streams.
55568		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55568		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to the conversion of original forest cover to agricultural land, especially coffee plantations.
55569		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
55569		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Anangu/Garzacocha region of the Río Napo in eastern Ecuador and nearby Amazonian Colombia and Peru. It is also known from Manaus and the Juruá river, Amazonas state, Brazil. It is found below 300m asl.
55569		habitat	eng	The type locality is a tropical wet forest and is believed to be mostly undisturbed except for scattered patches (Vigle and Goberdhan-Vigle, 1990). This species calls from water hyacinths and bushes in ponds and along slow-moving streams in, or at the edge of tropical rainforest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also.
55569		population	eng	It can be common in appropriate habitats; these are ponds with floating vegetation.
55569		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, degradation, and water pollution are threats to this species. The range in Brazil is well preserved.
55570		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55570		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is listed in error as Panama in the original description, though it has been suggested that it comes from Bolivia. This name has not been assigned to any known species or place, and it is not known where the type specimen comes from.
55570		habitat	eng	There is no information known regarding its habitat or ecological requirements.
55570		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55570		threats	eng	There is no direct information concerning the major threats to this species.
55571		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range.
55571		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Monagas, Bolivar and Amazonas states in Venezuela; the Amazon basin in the Guianas and Amapá, northern Pará and northern Maranhao states, Brazil, at 0-1,400m asl.
55571		habitat	eng	This nocturnal tree frog is found in open environments, grasslands, and Cerrado with scattered trees. In the Gran Sabana region, Venezuela, this species has been found in gallery forests in savannah, where it calls from trees, ferns and low bushes along a road cut, as well as from marginal vegetation of permanent lagoons and backwaters of slow-flowing rivers. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also.
55571		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55571		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55572		conservation	eng	Its known range is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, where maintenance and conservation of its habitat is required.
55572		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Serra dos Órgãos, Rio de Janeiro State, south-eastern Brazil, where it occurs above 1,200m asl. It is likely also to be found at other sites.
55572		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in primary forest, where it breeds in permanent streams.
55572		population	eng	It is a rarely encountered species.
55572		threats	eng	This species is threatened by infrastructure development for tourism.
55573		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and effective formal protection of the Omiltemi State Ecological Park is needed; the Puerto del Gallo also requires urgent protection. Further survey work is needed to better understand the population status of this species, and whether chytrid poses a threat. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55573		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, in Omiltemi and Puerto del Gallo, Mexico, at elevations from 1,985-2,520m asl.
55573		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-elevation cloud and pine-oak forest, in association with streams. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it might take place in streams.
55573		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55573		threats	eng	Degradation and destruction of the forest patches in Guerrero due to smallholder farming activities and logging is a major threat to this species. Chytridiomycosis may also be a threat, since it occurs at high elevations (and presumably breeds in streams), and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55574		conservation	eng	The creation and expansion of protected areas and research actions are needed. It does not occur in any protected area.
55574		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Serra do Mar and Serra Geral in Santa Catarina state, Brazil, at 800-1,100m asl.
55574		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest edges and gaps in vegetation. It reproduces in temporary and permanent ponds.
55574		population	eng	It is common and the population is stable.
55574		threats	eng	Even though it adapts well to habitat disturbance, it could be threatened by water pollution.
55575		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomy research is needed to resolve the species complex.
55575		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northeastern Brazil southward through central Paraguay, northern Argentina, eastern Bolivia, to extreme southern Brazil, Uruguay, and the La Plata Basin in Argentina, at 0-1,500m asl.
55575		habitat	eng	It occurs on herbaceous vegetation at the edge of standing water. It is an unspecialized species that occurs in many habitat types including tropical rainforest and open areas (Amazonian savannah and disturbed areas). It breeds in temporary waterbodies. It also adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55575		population	eng	It is very common.
55575		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55576		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó, Área de Preservação Ambiental Sul and Reserva Particular do<br/>Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça.
55576		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra do Cipó, near Jaboticatubas, and from Serra do Caraça, both in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, above 800m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
55576		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams in gallery forest, and presumably breeds in streams. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55576		population	eng	It is a common species.
55576		threats	eng	Mining, fires, and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species' habitat. The disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a problem.
55577		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and urgent protection of the forests along the Sierra de Juárez and Sierra Mixe is required. The species is in need of close population monitoring, particularly if chytrid is shown to be a genuine threat.
55577		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra de Juárez and Sierra Mixe, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. A specimen has also been collected from Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico, but this record is in doubt. It probably occurs more widely than records suggest. It occurs at elevations of 680-2,256m asl.
55577		habitat	eng	It inhabits mesic cloud forest, and is commonly found in or near streams and low vegetation, and presumably breeds in streams.
55577		population	eng	This is a common species.
55577		threats	eng	The high rate of disturbance of the cloud forest is the main threat to this species. Tadpoles have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinised mouthparts, suggesting that chytridiomycosis might be involved.
55578		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55578		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two localities in eastern Brazil: Pedra Azul in northern Minas Gerais State, and Maracas in central Bahia State. It presumably occurs more widely than this.
55578		habitat	eng	It lives in dry Caatinga (thorn forest) savannah, and in rock outcrops. It presumably breeds in temporary ponds.
55578		population	eng	It is very poorly known, and there is no information on its population status.
55578		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing and fire.
55579		conservation	eng	It does not occur within any protected areas, and its cloud forest habitat is in urgent need of protection. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55579		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Veracruz, Mexico, in the Huatusco region, at around 1,325m asl, although it might occur a little more widely.
55579		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and breeds in streams.
55579		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55579		threats	eng	The main threat is the transformation of cloud forest fragments to coffee plantations.
55580		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55580		distribution	eng	This species from eastern and northeastern Brazil ranges from Prado in the south of the State of Bahia north to Brejo da Madre de Deus in the State of Pernambuco and to Crato in the State of Ceara.
55580		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry Caatinga savannah, living on low vegetation near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary or permanent pools.
55580		population	eng	It is a common species.
55580		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, and fire.
55581		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are within the range of this species.
55581		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guania department in Colombia, Bolívar State in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Amapa state, in Brazil. It has been recorded up to 900m asl.
55581		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species inhabiting tropical lowland rainforest. Reproduction most likely occurs in forest ponds and pools. Eggs and tadpoles are placed and develop in water. It is not known whether or not it is able to adapt to disturbance of its habitat.
55581		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55581		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very widespread species, although there might be some localized threats to some populations.
55582		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55582		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two streams at altitudes of 2,225 and 2,350m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the province of Morona-Santiago, Ecuador.
55582		habitat	eng	It is known only from streams in cloud forests. It is active at night and breeds in mountain streams.
55582		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55582		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but they are likely to include deforestation due to agricultural development, rearing of livestock, logging and the development of human settlements.
55583		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur within any protected area. A specific survey to evaluate the conservation status of the cloud forest areas in the Huasteca region in Mexico is required, and a programme to restore and protect this area is important to conserve this and other amphibian species. It is a very high priority to relocate this species and determine its current population status; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of a captive-breeding programme. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55583		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in central Veracruz close to Teziutlán, at the border with the state of Puebla, Mexico. The type locality is at 1,600m asl.
55583		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and bushes in cloud forest, and presumably breeds in streams.
55583		population	eng	This species has not been collected since it was first described, and is most likely a rare species.
55583		threats	eng	There is high pressure from infrastructure development for human settlements, and other anthropogenic activities in this region, and alteration of the original forest cover is resulting in the disappearance of streams and other water systems required for the survival of this species. Chytridiomycosis might also be a threat to this species, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55584		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area (although it does occur in a forest reserve where protection is minimal).
55584		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Municipio Albán (Granjas Padre Luna) and Laguna de Pedro Palo, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, at 2,000-2,060m asl. It is expected to occur somewhat more widely.
55584		habitat	eng	It lives on shrubs in flooded grassland, pastures, marshes, and temporary pools. It presumably breeds in pools.
55584		population	eng	It is abundant, with many recent records.
55584		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55585		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
55585		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Paraguay".
55585		habitat	eng	There is no information regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is likely to breed in water.
55585		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status.
55585		threats	eng	The major threats to it are unknown.
55586		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama (including Parque Nacional Chagres), and from Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo (Costa Rica). It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and in Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
55586		distribution	eng	This species occurs in scattered lowland and premontane humid forest sites on the Atlantic slope from central Costa Rica (at elevations of 600-750m asl) to central Panama and in the Pacific lowlands and western slopes of the Western Cordillera in Colombia (100-1,000m), south to northwestern Ecuador (550-920m). In Colombia, it also occurs around northern edge of Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central, and in the Magdalena Valley on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central and the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, reaching 1,600m in the Magdalena Valley.
55586		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane and lowland rainforest, where adults have been found in association with riparian vegetation and rocky streams, in which the tadpoles develop. Its adaptability to disturbed habitats is not known.
55586		population	eng	It is common in Colombia and Panama, but scarcer in Costa Rica and Ecuador.
55586		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55587		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to expand the protected area coverage in the Colombian Andes. Research is needed to determine the current population status of this species and to ascertain whether chytrid poses a threat.
55587		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Nudo de Pasto area on the eastern slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador. In Ecuador, it has been recorded only in the extreme north-eastern páramos around Sánta Barbara on the Cordillera Oriental on the border with Colombia. It has been recorded at about 1,950-2,700m asl.
55587		habitat	eng	A cloud forest species, it has also been found in partially cleared forest, where frogs were found at night on branches of trees above a stream. However, its adaptability to disturbed habitats is not well known. It breeds in streams.
55587		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55587		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. All known localities in Ecuador are subject to severe human disturbance. The species lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.
55588		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55588		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic rainforest of eastern Brazil in São Paulo, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and eastern Minais Gerais states. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
55588		habitat	eng	It inhabits the borders of the Atlantic rainforest, and is also in gallery forests. It occurs on vegetation or on the ground near or in temporary or permanent waterbodies. It builds clay nests, and the larvae develop in water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance and does well in disturbed areas.
55588		population	eng	It is a common species.
55588		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
55589		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.
55589		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin in Amazonas and Bolívar states, Venezuela; Colombia; Brazil; Ecuador; Bolivia and Peru, at up to 1,300m asl.
55589		habitat	eng	This tree frog species has been found on the leaves and branches of primary and secondary tropical rainforests, as well as open spaces close to forest. It prefers swamps within forest, but it also could be found in temporary watercourses or permanent ponds. Specimens usually perch at heights less than 1.5m, on leaves, frequently on Heliconia (De la Riva 1993). Reproduction occurs in temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid in water and the tadpoles develop there too. According to the QCAZ database, individuals can be found in altered zones.
55589		population	eng	It is locally uncommon to common.
55589		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55590		conservation	eng	It apparently does not occur in any protected areas.
55590		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (mouth of Pauini River) and Purus River in the central Amazon Basin in Brazil. It almost certainly occurs much more widely.
55590		habitat	eng	It occurs on leaves and branches in open areas near rivers in tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid in streams and the tadpoles develop there also.
55590		population	eng	It is a common species.
55590		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55591		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Parque Nacional El Tamá in Colombia and Venezuela.
55591		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area on the eastern slopes of Cordillera Oriental, Colombia (in the Departments of Boyacá and Norte de Santander) and from nearby at Betania in the State of Táchira, Venezuela. Its known altitudinal range is 2,200-3,000m asl.
55591		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species, living in cloud forests, disturbed forests, tree plantations, and in deforested areas. It breeds in permanent pools.
55591		population	eng	It is an abundant species, although it is not often recorded due to lack of survey effort.
55591		threats	eng	Since it is tolerant of degraded habitats, and survives where there is heavy use of agro-chemicals, it is probably not a threatened species.
55592		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work in areas of suitable habitat in order to determine whether or not this species still survives in its natural range, and to evaluate the present condition of the forested areas north to San Gabriel Mixtepec. The protection of remaining intact habitat within this area is recommended.
55592		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre del Sur in southern Oaxaca, north to about San Gabriel Mixtepec and Jalatengo, Mexico, at between 1,200 and 1,700m asl.
55592		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest. It generally dwells on low vegetation along streams, and breeds in permanent streams.
55592		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not seen recorded since the 1960s. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
55592		threats	eng	The destruction and degradation of its cloud forest habitat is a major threat to this species, and there is high pressure from infrastructure development for human settlements, and other anthropogenic activities in this region. However, this species has also disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.
55593		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacahi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute. In Peru it has been reported for Parque<br/>Nacional Cerros de Amotape (Venegas et al., 2008).
55593		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia (Chocó Department southwards), Ecuador (to south of Basaje) and Peru (region of Tumbes). It has been recorded at 100-1,000m asl.
55593		habitat	eng	It lives in a very wide variety of habitats, including forest, degraded areas, gardens, and urban areas. It can be found in the canopy, but descends to lower vegetation at night to breed. It breeds in permanent pools, including artificial ponds.
55593		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55593		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
55594		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the original cloud forest habitat is required. Given the apparent risk posed by chytrid, a captive-breeding programme may need to be established.
55594		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Pacific versant of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca, and in central Guerrero and south-western Oaxaca in fragmented areas, at elevations of 1,280-2,000m asl.
55594		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits cloud forest, close to low streams.
55594		population	eng	Recent surveys suggest that this formerly common species has declined and is now rare.
55594		threats	eng	The recently recorded declines are probably due to chytridiomycosis, although habitat loss and disturbance due to human activities (agriculture and logging) also represents a major threat to this species.
55595		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of its remaining intact habitat is recommended. Survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species.
55595		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (approximately 15° 53'N; 91° 16'W) on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, at 1,050-1,080m asl.
55595		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical rainforest, breeding in temporary pools and slow-flowing streams, and also in the axils of elephant-ear plants. It can survive in heavily degraded habitats, providing that the habitat is not opened up too much.
55595		population	eng	It is rare and declining. Only 20 specimens have been collected and it is becoming harder to find.
55595		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to human settlement (returning refugees), which is associated with expanding small-scale agriculture and wood collection. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a cause of the observed decline.
55596		conservation	eng	The type locality is within a protected area.
55596		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Chapada dos Veadeiros, in the municipality of Alto Paraíso de Goiás, in Goiás State, Brazil, at 1,200m asl.
55596		habitat	eng	It is found along streams, in which it breeds, in gallery forests, and probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55596		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55596		threats	eng	Logging and fires are the major threats to its habitat.
55597		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range.
55597		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities nearly 1,000km apart from each other: Río Cauca, near the border of Antioquia and Bolivar Departments in north-western Colombia; and extreme north-western Esmeraldas Province, in Ecuador, at 500m. It is likely to occur between these two localities.
55597		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of the canopy of rainforest, and probably breeds in tree holes.
55597		population	eng	It appears to be an extremely rare species, though this might be an artefact of it being a canopy species that is very hard to detect.
55597		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Both localities from which is has been recorded are seriously threatened, with the only known site in Colombia particularly threatened by the expansion of livestock farming.
55598		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas.
55598		distribution	eng	This species from Central America occurs in the humid lowlands of the Atlantic versant from southeastern Nicaragua, including Isla Grande de Maíz, through Costa Rica to eastern Panama; and on the Pacific versant from central Panama to northwestern Colombia, and barely across the continental divide into northwestern Costa Rica. Its altitudinal range is 20-620m asl.
55598		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland humid forest, but may also occur in disturbed habitats. It is an explosive breeder following torrential rains. The eggs are deposited in small masses on the surface of shallow breeding ponds.
55598		population	eng	Within forests it is a relatively rare species, however in Costa Rica, it is very common outside of forests, especially in areas of cattle pasture with some ponds (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
55598		threats	eng	This is a very adaptable species, present wherever there are swampy or wet habitats (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). There may be localised threats through deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55599		conservation	eng	It is present in some Protected Natural Areas in Peru and in Yanachagana Chemillén, Manu, and Tingo María National Parks. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Sangay. In Colombia, it occurs in several protected areas.
55599		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (to 5° 30'N) south to the Cordillera Central; along the length of the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador and in Cusco, Junín, San Martín, Pasco, and Ucayali departments in Peru; at elevations of 410-2,190m asl.
55599		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and aquatic frog found in or along streams in cloud montane forest. Individuals have been seen on low bushes over torrential mountain streams, others have been found on vegetation along streams at night and in bromeliads by day (Duellman, 1972). It is not found in secondary forest, and it presumably breeds in streams.
55599		population	eng	In Podocarpus in 1998, it was uncommon. It is common in Colombia, and in 2002, it was common in San Martin, Peru.
55599		threats	eng	The principal threat to the species is the deforestation around streams for coffee and coca plantations.
55600		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including: Parque Nacional Volcán Barú, Costa Rica; Parque Internacional La Amistad, Panama; and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Panama.
55600		distribution	eng	This species is known from three disjunct populations in the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,920-m asl (Savage 2002). It may range more widely than is currently known.
55600		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy of humid upper montane forest, and is associated with the bromeliad flora of this habitat. Animals are regularly heard in the transition zone between primary and secondary forest, and between secondary forest and "tree gardens" that are attached to contiguous forest (Erik Lindquist pers. comm. 2007), suggesting some adaptability to habitat degradation. The larvae develop in bromeliad pools, and hence this is a phytotelmic species.
55600		population	eng	The available evidence suggests that the Costa Rican populations are apparently stable in 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007) (although this observation may be linked to the difficulty in recording densities of this canopy species, Karen Lips pers. comm, 2007). A number of males were recently reported calling at Las Tablas, Costa Rica (Andrew R. Gray in litt. to Karen Lips, 2007). It is seemingly common at some sites in Panama. The species is difficult to observe and is mostly recorded by its call.
55600		threats	eng	In Panama, the major threat is forest loss due to agricultural expansion, logging for timber, and human settlement. In Costa Rica, the entire of this range is within well protected areas and populations are stable.
55601		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. Continued and strengthened management of this reserve, and expanded protection of cloud forest elsewhere in the range of this species is needed.
55601		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca and Santander, Colombia, at 1,750-2,000m asl.
55601		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in old growth cloud forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in the water.
55601		population	eng	It was common in Virolín in 1987; however, there has been no survey work for the species since.
55601		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and cattle ranching, and predation by introduced trout, are the major threats to this species.
55602		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this species; the population is probably increasing due to deforestation. Its range includes several protected areas.
55602		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east central Mexico, from southern San Luis Potosí and northernmost Querétaro southward through the eastern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula, as well as from northern Guatemala and Belize to northern Honduras, at 0-770m asl.
55602		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry, moist, and wet forests, and is commonly found using bromeliads and banana plants as a refuge in the dry season. It tolerates significant levels of disturbance, and it breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
55602		population	eng	This hylid species is one of the most abundant throughout its range. It is probably increasing due to forest destruction.
55602		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55603		conservation	eng	Much of the species' range is included within national parks, including Parque Internacional La Amistad. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
55603		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of the Cordillera Central and Talamanca in Costa Rica, at 1,930-2,800m asl. It might occur slightly more widely.
55603		habitat	eng	A nocturnal stream-breeding treefrog occurring in fast-flowing streams in lower montane and montane rainforests. Males call from rocks in streams and along stream margins, and sometimes from low vegetation near streams. Tadpoles typically are found adhering to large rocks in cold mountain streams (Savage 2002).
55603		population	eng	Recent searches in Cerro Chompipe, a known historical locality that has not suffered much habitat modification, have not found this species, although it continues to be seen at Cerro de la Muerte and several other localities within its range.
55603		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. The decline witnessed at Cerro Chompipe could be due to chytridiomycosis.
55604		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Parque Nacional Mache Chindul and Reserva Ecológica Cotacahi-Cayapas in Ecuador.
55604		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of western Colombia, from western Antioquia southwards to northwestern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 50-500m asl.
55604		habitat	eng	It is a species of closed forest, including small patches of secondary forest. However, it needs a closed canopy in order to survive. It lives on vegetation close to streams in which the tadpoles develop.
55604		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but it can be found.
55604		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55605		conservation	eng	It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, but is likely to occur in a few.
55605		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Jaboticatubas, in the Serra do Cipó, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, above 800m asl. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known, within the Serra do Cipó.
55605		habitat	eng	It is an explosive and restricted breeder with activity restricted to a few days at the beginning of the rainy season (hence making it potentially difficult to locate at other times). It breeds in swamps or temporary puddles, and probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55605		population	eng	Although this species has not been recorded in 30 years, its particular breeding habits mean that it might have escaped detection in surveys of its range.
55605		threats	eng	The most significant threats to its habitat are infrastructure development for human settlement, and fires. Disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a threat.
55606		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and improved protection of the forests of south-western Oaxaca and the central highlands of Guerrero is urgently needed. Close population monitoring is required, especially given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55606		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur, in central Guerrero, and central and south-western Oaxaca, Mexico. It probably occurs at more localities than have been mapped within its general range.
55606		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud and pine-oak forests at 700-1,070m asl and is commonly found in shallow water or on low vegetation along mountain streams. It breeds in streams.
55606		population	eng	This is a rare species, and it appears to have undergone declines.
55606		threats	eng	The high rate of habitat disturbance, due to agricultural activities within forested areas in Mexico, and specifically in Oaxaca and Guerrero, is the main threat to this species. Recent declines might also be due to chytridiomycosis.
55607		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Sierra Nevada and Sierra de la Culata National Parks in Venezuela, and probably also occurs in other protected areas. Close population monitoring of this species is required, particularly if chytrid is shown to be a genuine threat.
55607		distribution	eng	This Andean species occurs in the Cordillera de Merida in the states of Barinas, Merida and Tachira, and from Sierra de Perijá in Zulia State, Venezuela, at 1,600-3,000m asl. It is also known from the eastern slopes of Cordillera Oriental in Colombia in the department of Norte de Santander, at 1,050m asl. Records from Sierra del Turimiquire in Sucre and Monagas states are in error.
55607		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forests, and is able to tolerate minor habitat disturbance. It is usually found along streams, where it breeds.
55607		population	eng	Formerly an abundant species, there are few recent records, in part due to lack of survey efforts in its range. However, some populations, such as those north of the city of Mérida on Monte Zerpa, Venezuela, have experienced declines in suitable habitat (E. La Marca pers. obs.). However, in 2001 it was reportedly found without difficulty in Venezuela in brooks of cloud forest (Barrio Amorós 2001).
55607		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation, especially the conversion of cloud forests to pasture lands. However, declines that have taken place in suitable habitat suggest another threatening process might be operating, possibly chytridiomycosis.
55608		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes two protected areas. No conservation measures are deemed necessary at present. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55608		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Madre Occidental, from central Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Veracruz, and from the central Cordillera Volcanica in Mexico.
55608		habitat	eng	In central Mexico, this species occurs at high elevations (2,400-3,600m asl) in pine and fir forests in mountainous habitat. In Veracruz, it inhabits lower elevations (1,400-1,500m asl) and is associated with low and moderate streams and ponds, where it presumably breeds.
55608		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears stable at present.
55608		threats	eng	This species appears to be well adapted and able to survive in disturbed areas.
55609		conservation	eng	The range of this species' includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence would be useful.
55609		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serrania region of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, Brazil. It has been recorded above 900m asl.
55609		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation around open ponds in meadows. The eggs are laid in gelatinous masses, which float on the water of permanent and temporary mountain pools and slow flowing streams. It is very adaptable and is found in almost any habitat where there is water available for breeding.
55609		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55609		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very common, adaptable species.
55610		conservation	eng	The range includes an archaeological park, which affords it some protection. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55610		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central and upper Río Magdalena Valley, in Huila department, Colombia, from 1,750-2,250m asl. It probably occurs somewhat more widely.
55610		habitat	eng	A small frog inhabiting forest and secondary forest patches. It is adaptable and able to live in farmland. It lays its eggs in ponds and temporary pools where the tadpoles develop.
55610		population	eng	It is a common species.
55610		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species that seems to be quite adaptable.
55611		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55611		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern and southern Brazil in the States of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Parana, and Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs at intermediate elevations at 800-1,400m asl.
55611		habitat	eng	It lives in forested habitats, and in grassland and pastureland, and is usually found on vegetation near ponds, pools, and lakes. It breeds in permanent pools and small streams, and the egg clutches are attached to vegetation in the water.
55611		population	eng	It is a common species. In Estação Biológica de Boracéia in São Paulo State, the species appears to have disappeared. The decline has been linked to the higher abundance of H. albopunctata.
55611		threats	eng	The main threats are water pollution, and loss of habitat due to fire.
55612		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. Further research is necessary to determine the current population status of this species in the wild, and whether chytrid poses a threat.
55612		distribution	eng	This Andean species from Colombia and Ecuador occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental from Putumayo Department in southern Colombia south to Morona Province in southern Ecuador. It lives at elevations of 1,950-2,660m asl.
55612		habitat	eng	It is a species of cloud forest. Specimens have been found on stems and branches of bushes near, or over, streams at night. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It presumably breeds in streams.
55612		population	eng	There is very little information, since there are only a few records of this species.
55612		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species also lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.
55613		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine whether or not it still survives in the wild.
55613		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: 5.8km (by road) west of Totontepec (17° 14' 24''N; 96° 03' 36"W), at an elevation of 2,103m asl, on the Sierra Mixes in northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur more widely, but it is believed to have a small distribution.
55613		habitat	eng	It was collected in pristine cloud forest, and was found in crevices in boulders in a small stream and on leaves of vegetation surrounding the same stream. It is presumed to reproduce by larval development in the water.
55613		population	eng	The population status of this recently described species is not known.
55613		threats	eng	The type locality of this species was totally cleared and burned as far back as 1983, and the stream was badly silted and littered with burned logs. Even if the species does occur elsewhere, chytridiomycosis is a very real threat, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55614		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55614		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rio de Janeiro State in southeastern Brazil, in lowland areas.
55614		habitat	eng	This species occurs in natural (such as savannahs and grasslands) and disturbed coastal areas (such as pastureland, and gardens). It breeds in temporary or permanent ponds.
55614		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55614		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very common and adaptable species.
55615		conservation	eng	It range includes several protected areas.
55615		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central highlands of Goiás, Distrito Federal and Minas Gerais states, in Brazil, from 1,200m asl.
55615		habitat	eng	It occurs in rock crevices in permanent or temporary streams. Spawning occurs in both these sites. Tadpoles were found attached to stones on the bottom of pools within deep sections of permanent streams with small waterfalls and quartzitic rocks. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55615		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55615		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55616		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica and a single protected area in Panama.
55616		distribution	eng	This species occurs primarily in the humid, lower montane zone of the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and the Pacific slope of western Panama, but marginally in humid areas of the premontane zone, from 1,120-2,340m asl (Savage, 2002).
55616		habitat	eng	It is a largely nocturnal tree frog of humid montane forest. It can be found in trees in pastures and similar open areas; it is commonly found in puddles on roads (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The species is an explosive small pond breeder; reproduction follows heavy rains, eggs are laid in small masses in the water.
55616		population	eng	In general, it is a very common species. In Panama, this species is presumed to have undergone some declines in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. Although this species declined at one point at Monteverde and Cascajal, Costa Rica, populations have since recovered at Monteverde, and this species remains commonly encountered within Costa Rica.
55616		threats	eng	Generally, it is threatened by habitat loss through the destruction of natural forests. While museum specimens of this species have been found to have the chytrid fungi, the current impact of this pathogen on the species is not known.
55617		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, and its remaining intact habitat is in urgent need of protection. Survey work is urgently required to determine the current population status of the species.
55617		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Pilaló at 2,320m in Cotopaxi Provice, and nearby areas in Ecuador.
55617		habitat	eng	It has been found only in disturbed cloud forest, where adults have been found by day. There is no information on its ability to survive in heavily degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.
55617		population	eng	Recent efforts to locate the species at the type locality were unsuccessful, but more surveys are needed before it can be concluded whether or not this species has declined in suitable habitats.
55617		threats	eng	At the type locality, patches of forest have been cleared for agriculture and livestock farming, possibly posing a serious threat to the survival of the species. The species lives in habitats where catastrophic extinctions have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling tadpoles, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.
55618		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55618		distribution	eng	This species is found in Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. In Panama, it is found in the Chitiqui lowlands, Azuero Peninsula and Río Bejuco. In Colombia, it occurs in the northern lowlands, including in the Lower and Middle Magdalena Valley, as well as in the Llanos region in the Departments of Arauca and Casanare. In western Venezuela, it is recorded from the States of Falcón, Mérida, and Táchira, and is to be expected in Zulia, Apure, and Barinas. It occurs from sea level to 700m asl.
55618		habitat	eng	It lives arboreally in degraded forests, humid lowland savannah, pastureland, and in agricultural and urban areas. It is not found in primary forest and it breeds in temporary and permanent ponds. It is often found in bushes at the edges of ponds or in the water in the shallows of these ponds. Nests are constructed mostly in sandy substrates at the edge of streams. Eggs (1783-2050, mean=1896) are deposited within this chamber and take 95 days (at 21 C) to complete development, up to and including metamorphosis. Reproduction peaks in February (dry season), although nests have been found at other times of the year (Chacón-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
55618		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55618		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any known threats.
55619		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research needed to determine status of species complex. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
55619		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species from Misiones, Chaco, Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, La Pampa, and Santa Fe (0-1250m asl); all departments in Uruguay; Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina in Brazil; and southern Paraguay.
55619		habitat	eng	It occurs in open habitats in forests, grasslands, and flooded savannahs. It breeds in permanent ponds and flooded grasslands. It is possible that it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55619		population	eng	It is a common species.
55619		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agricultural water pollution (specifically pesticide runoff) in Córdoba.
55620		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas throughout its range.
55620		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Amazon basin in South America, south to the Chaco region of Paraguay and along the banks of the Río Paraguay-Parana, Argentina. It is present on Trinidad island, Trinidad and Tobago. It is found from the lowlands to 1,400m asl.
55620		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found in primary and secondary forest (Duellman, 1978), but it is usually found in grasses or bushes (leaves and branches) in flooded areas, seasonal swamps, slowly moving water, choked ditches or rivers. It is common to find it in pastures and fairly open country. The presence of this species might be associated with the plant <em>Montrichardia arborescens</em>. In the Iquitos region, Perú, this frog is common in permanent and semi permanent open ponds, where males call from water surface amidst grassy areas (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). Eggs and tadpoles develop in the water. It can occur in badly degraded habitats, rural gardens and sometimes in towns.
55620		population	eng	It is a common species.
55620		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species that has large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55621		conservation	eng	There is no information available describing whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
55621		distribution	eng	The type locality and distribution of this species are not known.
55621		habitat	eng	There are no details regarding its habitat and ecological requirements.
55621		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status.
55621		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55622		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes many protected areas.
55622		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Amazonian Brazil, is present in southern Colombia and northern French Guiana, and occurs in Amazonian Bolivia, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is from up to 400m asl. Records from Venezuela, documented from Amazonas State (a museum record from Bolívar state needs documentation for a precise locality) are misidentifications.
55622		habitat	eng	It is found in many habitat types. Within tropical forest is can be found on leaves and branches; in water or vegetation growing around ponds and lagoons; on the banks of large rivers; and can also be found in Amazonian savannah. Reproduction can occur in temporary waterbodies. It can also occur in degraded habitats and urban areas.
55622		population	eng	It is generally a common species outside Colombia and Venezuela.
55622		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), fire, and infrastructure development. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55623		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Fazenda Vereda Grande.
55623		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Presidente Olegário, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at 947m asl, although it might occur more widely.
55623		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation alongside streams in the Cerrado savannah, and also inhabits gallery forests, but it does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. Breeding takes place in water.
55623		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55623		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and agricultural pollution.
55624		conservation	eng	Its type locality is within a protected area.
55624		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Pirassununga, in São Paulo State, Brazil. It most likely occurs in a larger area, but this area has been poorly sampled. It has been recorded from around 600-700m asl.
55624		habitat	eng	It is found on the top of blades of grass in savannahs, and breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
55624		population	eng	This is a very common species where it is known to occur.
55624		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are thought to be fire and agricultural pollution.
55625		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas throughout its range.
55625		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Upper Amazon Basin from southern Colombia through Ecuador, lower Amazon Basin in Perú (Departments: Amazonas, Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco, Puno, Ucayali), and adjacent Brazil to Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.
55625		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of primary and secondary tropical rainforest, individuals congregate in and around permanent and temporary ponds and swamps for breeding. Eggs are deposited in ponds. Individuals can be found in clearings and slightly modified habitats.
55625		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55625		threats	eng	It has no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). It is only threatened by extreme habitat loss.
55626		conservation	eng	Found in many protected areas including three in Colombia; three in Ecuador; several conservation units in Brazil; and Parque Nacional Manu in Peru.
55626		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin of southern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil. Its altitudinal range is around 100-200m asl.
55626		habitat	eng	This tree frog is generally found on branches in secondary and primary tropical rainforest, congregating for breeding in temporary ponds and swampy areas. Presumably, eggs and tadpoles develop in these waterbodies. It is an adaptable species and also occurs in degraded habitats and pastureland.
55626		population	eng	It is not an abundant species.
55626		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining.
55627		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in both Costa Rica and Panama. Further research is urgently needed into the population status of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures likely should include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
55627		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the slopes of the cordilleras (Tilarán, Central and Talamanca) of Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, from 1,210-2,040 m asl (Savage 2002).
55627		habitat	eng	This species occurs along or in clear streams in lower and premontane rainforest. Males call at night from riparian bushes and herbaceous vegetation at the margin of or overhanging fast-moving mountain streams. Amplexus and egg deposition have not been observed in this species; tadpoles have been collected from streams.
55627		population	eng	In Costa Rica, it was presumed to have disappeared from Monteverde, Tapantí, and Las Tablas where it once was common. It was last seen in 1993 at Las Tablas and had apparently disappeared from Monteverde by 1989. As of August, 2007, even though some survey effort has taken place in the range there were not considered to be any other recent records from Costa Rica of this formerly common frog (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). More recent news from Andrew Gray and Mark Wainwright (in litt. To Bruce Young, September 2007; http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7609780.stm), reported the rediscovery of this species at the Tropical Science Center Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, with several males being heard. In Panama, there are records from the Bajo Mono highlands of Chiriquí in 1982, and from Las Tablas in the early 1990s, but it had disappeared from the latter site by 1996. There might not be any subsequent records, indicating a decline and possible disappearance in this country, too.
55627		threats	eng	The overall decline in this species is probably taking place as a result of infection of populations with the chytrid pathogen. Within Panama, it is threatened by general habitat loss through agriculture and selective logging.
55628		conservation	eng	It occurs in no protected areas in Guatemala and in El Imposible National Park in El Salvador. It does not require protected areas.
55628		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Pacific lowlands and foothills from extreme eastern Oaxaca, east of the plains of Tehuantepec, Mexico, through Guatemala southward to central El Salvador. Another population occurs at the Cintalapa Valley in southwestern Chiapas (0-700m asl). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55628		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub humid and humid lowlands and foothills. Populations persist in cutover forests and low scrubby forest. Not found in primary forest. It breeds in small temporary and permanent ponds.
55628		population	eng	It is common in Guatemala and El Salvador and abundant in Chiapas.
55628		threats	eng	Water pollution is a localised threat.
55629		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional El Chico, although this was logged in the last 10-15 years and is subject to human settlement. Expanded and strengthened protection of the high-elevation pine and fir forests in the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Hidalgo is necessary, and an extensive survey to establish the current population status of this species (and the threat posed by chytrid) is required. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55629		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Madre Oriental, in extreme east-central Hidalgo, up to the border with the states of Puebla and Tlaxcala, Mexico. It has been recorded at 2,250-3,050m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55629		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine and fir forests and montane meadows, and is commonly found close to streams, in which it breeds.
55629		population	eng	This is thought to be a rare species. Surveys conducted in 2001 within the species' range collected only a single specimen.
55629		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the activities of smallholder farmers, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis may also be a  threat, as it is a high-elevation stream-breeding amphibian, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55630		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55630		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the imprecise type locality of Beni Province, Bolivia.
55630		habitat	eng	There is no information regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is likely to breed in water.
55630		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55630		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55631		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements, and population status is needed.
55631		distribution	eng	This species is known from the forested slopes of Mount Roraima and Mount Ayanganna in west-central Guyana, where it has been recorded from 1,430-1,500m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
55631		habitat	eng	It can be found along streams and elsewhere in the forest, both on the forest floor and in the higher foliage. There is no information available on its breeding habits, though reproduction is likely to take place in streams.
55631		population	eng	This is a relatively abundant species locally.
55631		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and the known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.
55632		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Ecuador.
55632		distribution	eng	This species is disjunctively distributed in the humid lowlands of southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent southwestern Panama, central and eastern Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and the northern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, to western Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 10-900m asl.
55632		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species that occurs in primary and secondary forest, but also in heavily altered areas such as small strips of trees in pastureland. Breeding takes place in a shallow water-filled depression constructed by the male close to a stream. Developing tadpoles swim from this nest to streams when they become flooded.
55632		population	eng	It is common in Ecuador, uncommon in Colombia, and fairly common on the south Pacific slope of Costa Rica.
55632		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
55633		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. It possibly occurs in Alto Purus in Peru. It was recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu in Colombia. In Brazil, it is present in a number of conservation units.
55633		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the upper Amazon basin. It was recorded from Brazil (Acre, Amazonas and Pará); Colombia (Amazonas); Ecuador and Peru (Loreto and Huanuco). Its altitudinal range is below 700m asl.
55633		habitat	eng	Found on branches and low vegetation in primary and secondary tropical moist forest. Eggs are deposited out of the water on leaves; tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It may occur in lightly disturbed habitat.
55633		population	eng	It is more common in the central Amazon; it is less common in Colombia and Peru.
55633		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and logging (clear-cutting and possibly selective).
55634		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex. It occurs in protected areas throughout most of its range.
55634		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cerrado of southern Pará to central Minas Gerais state, Brazil, from eastern Paraguay, and from eastern Bolivia in Santa Cruz department. There are only a few records known from eastern Paraguay.
55634		habitat	eng	It inhabits the Cerrado and occurs on the emergent or marginal herbaceous vegetation near ponds, pools, or lagoons in open areas. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds, near grassland vegetation. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55634		population	eng	It is very common in Brazil, but is uncommon in Bolivia and Paraguay.
55634		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, fires, and the construction of dams are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55635		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
55635		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia in the Departments of Antioquia, Chocó and Valle del Cauca, Colombia, below 800m. There is also an unpublished record from Esmeraldas Province in northwestern Ecuador (K.-H. Jungfer, pers comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55635		habitat	eng	It lives in undisturbed tropical rainforest, and is not found in degraded areas. It probably breeds in ephemeral and permanent ponds.
55635		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55635		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55636		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55636		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Eastern Nicaragua to central Panama on the Caribbean slope. In Panama, this species is found in the western cordilleras and western Atlantic lowlands adjacent to southeastern Costa Rica, Cerro Campana, central Panama, and eastern cordilleras adjacent to central Panama. Its elevation is from sea level to 650m asl. Venezuelan specimens previously assigned to <em>Hyla albomarginata</em> are provisionally assigned to <em>Hyla rufitela</em>, and are known from a few localities along the Caribbean Coast and Maracaibo Lake Basin. They are not mapped here pending finally confirmation of their taxonomic identity.
55636		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest and tolerates some disturbance.It can be found in open areas, but this needs to be close to forest (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).  It reproduces in swamps surrounded by trees.
55636		population	eng	It is locally common in the appropriate habitat.
55636		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests.
55637		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and the establishment of new protected areas is a matter of urgency. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is in decline.
55637		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities 60km apart (Domingos Martins and Santa Teresa) in Espírito Santo State in the Atlantic coastal forest region of south-eastern Brazil, at 600-800m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
55637		habitat	eng	It has been found only in secondary forest, and breeds in small, swift, clean mountain brooks. It does not appear to survive outside forest. It lives on vegetation 1-4m above the streams, and the egg clutches are attached to leaves overhanging the streams.
55637		population	eng	It is a rare species, though there have been some recent records.
55637		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development (for wood plantations and livestock grazing), and clear-cutting and human settlement.
55638		conservation	eng	It is found within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.
55638		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at Cerro Jaua (04° 49' 55''N; 64° 25' 59''W), in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 1,600m asl. It might also occur at lower altitudes on the slopes of Cerro Jaua, but this requires confirmation. It is probably a slope-loving species, and is likely to occur more widely.
55638		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found on branches of vegetation 0.3-1m above the ground, along streams on the slopes of tepui. Males call from small trees in the margins of the river and on rocks and small trees in the middle of the river. The breeding habits are unknown, although reproduction is likely to take place in streams.
55638		population	eng	It is common.
55638		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55639		conservation	eng	The protection of the Sierra de Juárez forest fragments is extremely urgent since there are currently no protected areas in this region. Further surveys to establish the species' population status are also required, and in view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55639		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the northern slopes of Sierra de Juárez, northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,580-2,020m asl.
55639		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species exclusively inhabits cloud forest in the highlands of the Sierra de Juárez, and is found in moist and rocky habitats with abundant aquatic vegetation along streams.
55639		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; however, it is probably quite rare, and there have only been a few individuals collected since the 1970s.
55639		threats	eng	The transformation and clearance of original cloud forest in the region is the main threat to this species. In southern Mexico, tadpoles have been found with damaged mouthparts, an indication of chytrid infection.
55640		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, although it is on edge of the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras. Maintenance and/or protection of the species' remaining intact habitat is recommended.
55640		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro del Mono near La Unión in eastern Guatemala close to the border with Honduras; and nearby at Quebrada Grande, Department of Copán, in extreme western Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 1,370-1,450m asl.
55640		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane wet forest, where it breeds in tree cavities.
55640		population	eng	This is a poorly known species. Only two adult specimens have been collected from Honduras and one juvenile specimen from Guatemala. It is extremely rare and is probably in decline. Recent visits to the Honduran site have failed to find the species.
55640		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is severe deforestation, due to coffee cultivation and livestock grazing. The only known site in Honduras is highly disturbed, but the habitat is in better condition at the Guatemalan site.
55641		conservation	eng	It can be found in many protected areas.
55641		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Rio Grande de Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Sao Paulo, Brazil; northern Argentina; Uruguay; and Oriental region of Paraguay, at an altitude of 0-1,000m asl.
55641		habitat	eng	This species occurs in natural and artificial open habitats including grasslands (including rice plantations). It breeds in small temporary and permanent waterbodies, such as ponds, ditches, puddles or flooded areas. It can be found on low vegetation near waterbodies; the small clutch of eggs is attached to aquatic plants.
55641		population	eng	It is very abundant and stable.
55641		threats	eng	There are no major threats. It adapts well to agricultural habitats.
55642		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species.
55642		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern China, below 1,200m asl.
55642		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests in hilly areas. It breeds in still waters such as paddy fields and pools.
55642		population	eng	It is a common species.
55642		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
55643		conservation	eng	It occurs within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, affording its habitat some degree of protection.
55643		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities very close to each other within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes in Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl. Field trips to comparable habitat south of the type locality have not found it, but it is likely to occur a little more widely than is currently known.
55643		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation above forest streams. Since it is only known from the edge of streams it is thought to be able to tolerate some disturbance of the forest as long as the forest edge by the stream remains intact. Its breeding habits have not been observed, although it is known to have large larvae that take a long time to develop.
55643		population	eng	It has been collected only twice in the past 25 years, despite many surveys of the area, suggesting that it is a rare species.
55643		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the cultivation of illegal crops in the park, in particular the water pollution arising from the chemical sprays used on the illegal crops.
55644		conservation	eng	Several populations are found within protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55644		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon Basin in Venezuela (one record in the Cerro Neblina in extreme southern Amazonas state), Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and northwestern Bolivia. In Ecuador it occurs in the Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forests and Napo Moist Forests in Eastern Subtropical, Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zones. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,200m asl.
55644		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, arboreal species inhabits understorey vegetation in primary and secondary tropical rainforest, and forest edges. Individuals can be found in altered areas (QCAZ database). The eggs are laid out of water, the larvae is laid in temporary and permanent pools.
55644		population	eng	It is a fairly common species in Peru and Ecuador. It is apparently less common elsewhere.
55644		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55645		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is protected by national legislation and is present in some protected areas.
55645		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean Islands of Corsica (France) and Elba, Cavallo, Monte Cristo, Sardinia, Maddalena, Caprera and San Pietro (Italy). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,750m asl (Corsica).
55645		habitat	eng	This species is found within the vicinity of pools, ponds and streams, usually in woody areas. In residential areas they can be found in gardens, as long as there is nearby water. It reproduces in springs, cisterns and other suitable waterbodies.
55645		population	eng	It is still quite widespread and common, especially in Corsica and Sardinia. The populations on the smaller islets are subject to fluctuations in size related to the temporary character of the breeding sites.
55645		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species at present.
55646		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Chamela Biosphere Reserve. Protection and restoration of the remaining isolated forest fragments is recommended. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55646		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific coast of Mexico from southern Jalisco to Oaxaca. There are records from Jalisco, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. It probably has a reasonably wide altitudinal range, and the type locality is at 1,968m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55646		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland dry tropical forest. It is commonly found in temporary ponds during the rainy season, and has a short breeding season.
55646		population	eng	This species is common. It is often collected along the Pacific coast of Mexico.
55646		threats	eng	The small patches of cloud forest in this region are continuously being transformed to open cultivation areas reducing the habitat available to the species.
55647		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Present in protected areas in Georgia (Hoseov and Skibahoa Reserves), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Jordan (Dana and Al Mujib Wildlife Reserves) and Lebanon (Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden, Ammiq marshes and Sandy Beach of Sour).  It is present in several protected areas in Turkey. The contact zone between <em>H. savignyi</em> and <em>H. arborea</em> in Georgia requires special attention (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.)
55647		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Asia and southern Transcaucasia, including Cyprus, southeastern Turkey, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula (the Asir region of southern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen), Iran (Zagros region, and an isolated population in Golestan National Park [Max Kasparek pers. comm. November 2008]), northern Iraq, Talysh (Azerbaijan), Armenia, and northwestwards to Tbilisi, (Georgia). It has also been reported from the northeastern region of Sinai, Egypt (first recorded in the early 1990's). It is present from 400m below sea level (Jordan) to above 1,800m.
55647		habitat	eng	The species lives in much drier landscapes than <em>Hyla arborea</em>, including steppes, deserts and semi-deserts. It is also present in gardens, bush lands, montane forest edges, open oak and juniper forests, and areas with permanent or semi permanent water sources (including oasis) with good surrounding vegetation (e.g.. <em>Phragmites</em>, Oleander). The species may be found at considerable distances from waterbodies in xeric environments, such as rocky slopes and on the xerophytic bush <em>Alhagi pseudoalhagi</em>. Spawning and larval development takes place in small stagnant waterbodies, drainage canals and slow flowing brooks with dense herbaceous and shrub vegetation. The species is able to adapt to light habitat modification, and may be found in rural, or semi-urban, areas where suitable wetland habitat exists.
55647		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. It is the most abundant amphibian species in Israel; it is very common in Lebanon and is considered to be rare in Jordan.
55647		threats	eng	Severe drought, drying from water extraction, overgrazing and habitat loss might lead to localized declines. In Syrian Arab Republic and the Arabian Peninsula it might be threatened by water pollution and anthropogenic changes of habitat. In Israel, available breeding sites have declined by up to 30% in recent years.
55648		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó.
55648		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais state, Brazil. It has been recorded from above 1,000m asl.
55648		habitat	eng	It occurs on stones and rocks near permanent and temporary streams with running water in the Cerrado. The egg clutches are attached to the substrate and are well sheltered in rock crevices or under stones. Tadpoles are found only in permanent streams where males also call. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55648		population	eng	It is a common species.
55648		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fire, and the disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat.
55649		conservation	eng	Its range includes the protected area of Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.
55649		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities: the type locality in Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra; and Uberlandia, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known.
55649		habitat	eng	This species inhabits gallery forests and occurs on low vegetation in the margins of streams. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. The larvae are found in small ponds at the edges of the streams.
55649		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55649		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging, fires and the construction of dams.
55650		conservation	eng	In Bolivia it is present within the Manuripi Heath Nature Reserve. It is found within a number of conservation areas in Brazil including Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, in Acre State.
55650		distribution	eng	This species is present in Rondonia State and western Acre State Brazil, southeastern Peru (Cusco Amazonico), and northern and central Bolivia. It is present below 300m asl.
55650		habitat	eng	It is present in swamps at the edge of tropical moist tropical forest. Breeding is assumed to take place in these wetlands. It may be found in slightly degraded habitat.
55650		population	eng	It is a reasonably abundant species.
55650		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55651		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area in Brazil.
55651		distribution	eng	Hypsiboas semiguttatus occurs in the slopes of the Serra do Mar from the Municıpality of Piraquara in the state of<br/>Paraná (25 29 05 S, 48 59 02 W), through the Municipality of São Bento do Sul (26 15 01 S, 49 22 43 W), reaching Municipality of Rio dos Cedros (26 41 10 S, 49 20 00 W), both in the state of Santa Catarina, this last one being its southernmost record. The region is considered an area of contact between the Araucaria forest and the<br/>Atlantic forest, at 800–1200 masl (Garcia et al., 2007).
55651		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the slopes of rainforest in vegetation along rivers. It reproduces in streams and tolerates habitat disturbance.<br/><br/>Males call from vegetation, from October to February. Males start calling 1–2 h after sunset, on the margins of small dams that are filled by clean water streams from inside the forest. Males call from twigs or grassy vegetation at heights ranging between 0.1– 1.0 meter, close to water. Tadpoles are found in areas of calm water in the same streams (Garcia et al., 2007). The advertisement call of this species is described in Garcia et al. (2007).
55651		population	eng	This species is uncommon; its populations fluctuate but persist.
55651		threats	eng	This species' major threat includes deforestation, water pollution and tourism.
55652		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55652		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco in the north, south to the State of Santa Catarina. It occurs up to 800m asl.
55652		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, coastal restinga scrub, and also disturbed habitats, such as pastureland, but needs shrubs and cover. It is usually found on vegetation near waterbodies in clearings or on the forest edge. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds, and on the margins of lakes and reservoirs.
55652		population	eng	It is a common species.
55652		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species and is not facing any known threats.<br/><br/>It has, however, recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55653		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55653		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from Porto Seguro in the southern part of the State of Bahia, south though eastern Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro, to Capão Bonito in the State of São Paulo. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55653		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and in gardens, but not in very open habitats. It is usually found on vegetation or on the ground near marshy patches, but is sometimes high up in trees where it is hard to find. It is an explosive breeder in temporary and permanent ponds on forest edges. Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of January and February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). The tadpoles eat other tadpoles.
55653		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55653		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and fire.
55654		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas.
55654		distribution	eng	This species is mostly found in the central eastern coastal region of Bahia State, Brazil, although an Atlantic forest population is also present in Santa Terezinha Municipality in eastern Bahia. The altitudinal range of this species is approximately 20-720m asl, and it probably occurs at least a little more widely than is currently known.
55654		habitat	eng	This is a species generally associated with tall Restinga (coastal) forest that has also been collected in little-disturbed primary Atlantic forest. The Restinga vegetation is mostly large trees with a dense understorey on a sandy substrate. Individuals can be found calling from bromeliads. Breeding takes place in the slow backwaters of fast-flowing streams.
55654		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55654		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by disturbance of the Restinga forests due to agricultural development, logging and development of infrastructure for tourism and human settlement.
55655		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55655		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the state of Bolívar in Venezuela, and in the adjacent portion of western Guyana (Mt Ayanganna and Paramakatoi), from 500-1,850m asl.
55655		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical rainforests, where it is found on leaves of low herbaceous plants and bushes usually over slow moving streams. Males have been found on exposed bedrock in streams of gallery forests and calling from marginal vegetation at heights up to 3m above the water. The eggs are laid in pools and slow moving streams, where the larvae also develop.
55655		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
55655		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species overall at present, since it occurs in a region where there are minimal impacts to its habitat.
55656		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not this represents a complex of species.
55656		distribution	eng	This species is known from Antioquia to Valle del Cauca Departments, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,100-2,000m asl.
55656		habitat	eng	It is found on low vegetation alongside streams in primary forest and secondary forest. It can tolerate some habitat destruction as long as vegetation remains alongside the stream. Eggs are laid on the top of leaves above the stream and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they then develop further.
55656		population	eng	It is a common species.
55656		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming and subsistence logging, and water pollution from the spraying of illegal crops.
55657		conservation	eng	The species' range overlaps with Tam Dao National Park and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam and many protected areas in China. Its population status and distribution data are required for Viet Nam.
55657		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and northern Viet Nam and in Zhejiang, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan Provinces in south and central China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The altitudinal range is between 400-900m asl.
55657		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species inhabiting montane areas including cultivated fields, bamboo forests and shrubland. It breeds in rice fields and permanent pools.
55657		population	eng	It is common within its range.
55657		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat to this species.
55658		conservation	eng	The range of this species falls entirely in the Parque Nacional Cofre de Perote. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to determine whether or not this species still survives; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
55658		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the west slope of the Cofre de Perote Mountain, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,500-2,550 m asl.
55658		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry pine forest, and is found only in mountain streams in crevices and rocks.
55658		population	eng	This species used to be abundant, but it has not been collected in over 10 years despite numerous surveys in suitable habitats in the area from which it has been recorded.
55658		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the disappearance of suitable stream habitat. Its apparent disappearance in areas of remaining suitable habitat is suggestive of a threat such as chytridiomycosis, so this requires investigation. At the type locality, the frogs were known only from a single ravine and spring source. The spring had been capped and the flow directed via pipeline down the mountain towards an army outpost below. It appears there is no habitat for this species to breed in since the diversion of the spring flow (T. Burkhardt pers. comm. 2006).
55659		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, which is a well-preserved and protected area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55659		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra de Coalcoman and Cordillera Volcanica in Mexico. Michoacán, state of Mexico and Morelos, knows it from southern Sinaloa southward. It occurs from 100-1,500m asl.
55659		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical and semi deciduous forest and is also found in pine-oak forest. It breeds in water.
55659		population	eng	This is a common species.
55659		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the disturbance and transformation of its forest habitat.
55660		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least two biosphere reserves including Chamela-Cuixmala, as well as other national parks. At present, no conservation measures are required for this species.
55660		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Sinaloa, southward along the Pacific lowlands to southern Oaxaca, and inland in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in Morelos and Puebla, Mexico. It occurs up to 1,332m asl.
55660		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subhumid lowlands in seasonal forests. It is highly associated with temporal streams and ponds where it breeds.
55660		population	eng	This is a very common species. Several surveys conducted in central and Pacific Mexico report the presence of abundant populations of this species.
55660		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this species, but local populations are presumably impacted by deforestation.
55661		conservation	eng	It has not been confirmed from any protected areas.
55661		distribution	eng	This species occurs over a large area of northeastern Brazil from Manga in the north of the State of Minas Gerais, west to Sao Salvador do Tocantins in the State of Tocantins, north to Sao Pedro de Agua Branca and Ilha de Sao Luis in the State of Maranhao, east to Mamanguape in the State of Paraíba.
55661		habitat	eng	It lives in dry and moist savannah and shrubland, and is found on low vegetation near permanent and temporary ponds. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds.
55661		population	eng	It is a common species.
55661		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, human settlement and fire.
55662		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
55662		distribution	eng	This species is known from Coastal Plain of the eastern USA from southeastern Virginia to Florida Keys, west to southeastern Texas (Conant and Collins, 1991). There are isolated occurrences in Mississippi, North Carolina, and northern Virginia. It is introduced on Grand Bahama Island and Little Bahama Bank (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991).
55662		habitat	eng	Open woods, cities, and towns; thick low vegetation near water; wherever there is adequate moisture, hiding places, nearby standing water, and insect food. When inactive, hides under loose bark, palm leaves, in tree holes, in gardens, and in other protected sites. There is a non-breeding "rain call" given by males from trees and bushes when rainfall is impending. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded roadside ditches, flat woods ponds, swamps, and small, semi permanent stock-watering ponds. Males call from debris and twigs above water, on ground near water, or hidden in grass clumps adjacent to permanent or temporary rain pools of moderate depth (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
55662		population	eng	Often abundant, these species populations are likely to be stable.
55662		threats	eng	There are no major pervasive threats. It adapts to moderate habitat disturbance.
55663		conservation	eng	The geographic range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco. Continued and strengthened management of this reserve, and expanded protection of cloud forest elsewhere in the range of this species, are needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine its current population status, and whether chytrid poses a threat.
55663		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Napo Province, Ecuador: Volcán Sumaco, and the Cordillera de Guacamayos. It probably occurs a little more widely. Its altitudinal range is 2,040-2,500m asl.
55663		habitat	eng	It lives in very humid, low cloud forest, and breeds in streams. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats.
55663		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55663		threats	eng	The main threat is forest clearance due to agriculture, livestock farming, and wood extraction. It lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.
55664		conservation	eng	Its range is not within any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55664		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Poços de Caldas, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at about 1,200m asl.
55664		habitat	eng	The specimens were collected in savannah. This species is believed to be a stream breeder.
55664		population	eng	It has not been collected again since it was first described, and its current population status is not known.
55664		threats	eng	Mining and infrastructure development are major threats to the habitat in the region of the type locality, although there is no information known regarding specific threats to this species.
55665		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species considering its small range.
55665		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Boyacá Department, Colombia, at elevations of 2,000-2,020m asl.
55665		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces in shrubs in flooded pastures, marshes, and temporary pools.
55665		population	eng	This species is abundant and there are many recent records. Some populations even appear to be increasing.
55665		threats	eng	There are no current major threats; however, its small range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
55666		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55666		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from Quebrangulo, in Alagoas State, Brazil, where it has not been observed below 600m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.
55666		habitat	eng	This species is known from grassland areas with rushes. It breeds in small pools and puddles, in which the larvae develop.
55666		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It is found in seasonal spawning aggregations, whereas it is encountered less frequently outside rainy periods.
55666		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55667		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, but has not been recorded from any protected areas in Colombia.
55667		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern lowlands and cordilleras in the Darien Province of Panama, and in adjacent Colombia, extending the western and northern slopes of the Western Cordillera, as far south as the Department of Risaralda, and east to the middle Magdalena Valley in the Departments of Cunidnamarca and Boyaca. It occurs below 500m asl.
55667		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of humid lowland forest, which is able to survive in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools.
55667		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
55667		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55668		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura. Protection of the remaining forest areas in southern Mexico is important. A declaration of the Chimalapas region as a biosphere reserve is urgently needed.
55668		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of central Guerrero and eastern central Oaxaca, southward through the isthmus of Tehuantepec to northwestern Chiapas, Mexico. It is also found on the slopes of the Chiapan highlands, mainly in the Río Grijalva drainage, Mexico.
55668		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sub-humid oak and pine forest. It is commonly found in arboreal bromeliads. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
55668		population	eng	This is a common species.
55668		threats	eng	Transformation or disturbance of the original forest habitat of the species is a major threat.
55669		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55669		distribution	eng	There is no indication of the type locality of this species in the literature. It is not known whether or not it is from Suriname, even though the name might imply this. It is known only from an illustration drawn in the 1700s.
55669		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology.
55669		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
55669		threats	eng	There is no information on this species’ major threats.
55670		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55670		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Suwon in north-western Republic of Korea. Its distribution is not well known, but it probably occurs more widely than currently suggested.
55670		habitat	eng	There is very little information on its habitat and ecological requirements. It is known to inhabit paddy fields, and it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
55670		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
55670		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55671		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for protection of the remaining cloud forest remnants in this area. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. Further research is needed to determine the levels of offtake of this species from the wild.
55671		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-eastern Hidalgo, southward through northern Puebla to central Veracruz, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs at intermediate elevations.
55671		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests characterized by moderate to low temperatures and high humidity. It is always associated with streams and epiphytic plants. It presumably breeds in streams.
55671		population	eng	This is a common species. Several surveys conducted in the last few years in the Hidalgo-Veracruz region report healthy populations along its range.
55671		threats	eng	Transformation of the forest into cultivated areas affects the presence of trees and epiphytic plants, the preferred habitat of this species. In some towns in Veracruz, this species is consumed as a traditional cooked dish; however, there is no information on the level of offtake.
55672		conservation	eng	The only protected area from which it has been recorded so far is the Reserva Tapichalaca.
55672		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of a small stream on the road between Yangana and Valladolid, in the Reserva Tapichalaca in Zamora-Chinchipe Province, Ecuador, where specimens were collected at around 2,667m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.
55672		habitat	eng	It was collected close to a stream in montane cloud forest, where a male specimen was recorded calling on a branch approximately 2.5m from the ground. It is presumed that the larvae develop in streams.
55672		population	eng	This species is known only from the recently collected type series.
55672		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The only known population is in a protected area, but it is likely to occur in areas where its habitat is being degraded.
55673		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and urgent protection of the forested areas surrounding San Gabriel Mixtepec and Puerto del Gallo is recommended. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; if the threat of chytrid proves to be real, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55673		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Oaxaca and Guerrero, Mexico, in the vicinity of San Gabriel Mixtepec, south-western Oaxaca and Puerto del Gallo, Guerrero, Mexico, at elevations of 1,600-1,900m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55673		habitat	eng	A stream-breeding species, it occurs in pine-oak forest, and individuals are often found on low vegetation such as ferns and bushes along mountain streams.
55673		population	eng	This was never a common species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it within known localities have been unsuccessful.
55673		threats	eng	Clearance of the original forest cover for conversion to agricultural land in the region is a threat to this species. However, the species has also disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.
55674		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a single protected area: Parque Nacional Darién.
55674		distribution	eng	This species is a Panamanian endemic restricted to Cerro Mali, adjacent to Colombia, at 1,265m asl. It might occur more widely.
55674		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, where it is an arboreal species that presumably breeds in water.
55674		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from the type specimen.
55674		threats	eng	It has no known threats.
55675		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica. Further research is urgently needed into the ecology and population status of this frog; in view of the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55675		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowest portion of the humid lower montane zone in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,100-1,650m asl (Savage 2002).
55675		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal tree frog occurring in humid premontane and lower montane rainforest areas. Males usually call from vegetation overhanging the fastest-flowing stretches of streams, 1-3m above the water. Amplexus and oviposition are unknown for this species. Eggs are deposited under rocks in streams, and the tadpoles attach themselves to rocks by means of the large oral funnel (Savage 2002).
55675		population	eng	In Costa Rica, it has disappeared from Monteverde, Tapantí, and Las Tablas where it once was common. As of August, 2007, even though some survey effort has taken place in the range there have been no recent records from Costa Rica (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). In Panama, there were records from the Cerro Horqueta highlands of Chiriquí in 1982. It used to be seen regularly at the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí (Panama), but its population collapsed in January 1997, and it has not been seen there since. This is possibly the last record from Panama, and it seems that it might have disappeared from this country as well.
55675		threats	eng	The observed population decline has taken place in pristine habitats, and might be due to chytridiomycosis, and perhaps also the effects of climate change. It is generally also affected by habitat loss as a result of logging.
55676		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Acre (state), Brazil. It probably occurs more widely.
55676		habitat	eng	It is not usually found around temporary waterbodies in the tropical rainforest and in disturbed secondary habitats and it reproduces in temporary pools.
55676		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
55676		threats	eng	There are no major threats and it adapts well to deforestation.
55677		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55677		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality north of Ipanoré in Amazonas State, Brazil. It is likely to occur more widely. Attempts to map its range for this assessment should be regarded as very approximate, in view of the lack of specificity of the type locality.
55677		habitat	eng	It is probably found in the understorey vegetation of tropical rainforest, and it presumably breeds in water.
55677		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no records since its discovery, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
55677		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55678		conservation	eng	It might be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador, and might also occur on Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indi Wasi in Colombia. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
55678		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (two localities: La Barquilla and El Reventador in Sucumbios Province and Napo Province) and Colombia (eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Caqueta and Putumayo). It might be more widespread than records suggest. Its altitudinal range is 740-1,700m asl.
55678		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forests, as well as secondary forest. It is a stream-breeding species, particularly associated with creeks, streams and swampy areas in forest, especially with vegetation overhanging streams.
55678		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
55678		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss from agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species lives in habitats where catastrophic extinctions have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling tadpoles, probably due to chytridiomycosis.
55679		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55679		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon Basin in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northwestern Bolivia, and Brazil. It occurs up to 800 masl in Ecuador.
55679		habitat	eng	Although this species occurs in primary and secondary tropical rainforest, it most commonly is found around temporary ponds in clearings near forest. This species inhabits a variety of non-forest situations (Duellman, 1978; Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). Reproduction occurs in temporary bodies of water. Eggs are laid out of water, on leaves while tadpoles develop in the water.
55679		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout most of its range. Can be common in aquiculture ponds in Ecuador.
55679		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55680		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the status of this species complex. Its range includes several protected areas.
55680		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Mato Grosso and northern Mato Grosso do Sul, in Brazil, to the department of Beni, in eastern Bolivia and the department of La Paz, in western Bolivia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs up to 700m asl.
55680		habitat	eng	It occurs in the Pantanal, Cerrado, and flooded savannahs. It breeds on low vegetation near waterbodies such as rivers or in marshy grounds. It is not well adapted to anthropogenic disturbance.
55680		population	eng	It is a common species.
55680		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture is a major threat.
55681		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas. While additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is still extant in its natural range, a program to protect the forest areas surrounding the Cerro Teótepec is also recommended. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55681		distribution	eng	This species is found only on the slopes of Cerro Teótepec, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Guerrero, Mexico, at 1,760-2,415m asl.
55681		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pine-oak and bamboo-tree fern forests. It is commonly found associated with cascading mountain streams where it breeds.
55681		population	eng	This is a rare species. Recent attempts to locate it have been unsuccessful, suggesting a population decline, and it might even be extinct.
55681		threats	eng	It has possibly been impacted by chytridiomycosis. In addition, the transformation of the forests along the transect between Filo de Caballo and Atoyac to open agricultural lands and farmlands is having a detrimental impact on the remaining habitat of this species.
55682		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.
55682		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Shaanxi, southern Gansu, eastern Sichuan and central Anhui provinces in central China, from 600-2,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
55682		habitat	eng	It inhabits paddy fields, shrubland, grassland, edges of rivers and ponds in hilly areas. It breeds in still water in paddy fields and pools.
55682		population	eng	It is declining over some parts of its range.
55682		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
55683		conservation	eng	Present in El Pure National Park, Colombia and Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística, Ecuador.
55683		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the upper Amazon Basin of western Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-600m asl.
55683		habitat	eng	It is a canopy species observed in primary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is not recorded from secondary or modified habitat. Nothing further is known about this species, though it is likely to breed in water.
55683		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55683		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55684		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil. It is not known from protected areas in Argentina or Uruguay.
55684		distribution	eng	There are a few localities in the departments of Treinta y Tres, Cerro Largo, and Tacuarembó in Uruguay and disjunctive in southern Brazil (Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), and Corrientes in Argentina. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 90-1,000m asl.
55684		habitat	eng	It is exclusively living in open grassy habitats. It occurs in small waterbodies, such as ponds or temporary puddles where it breeds explosively.
55684		population	eng	It is uncommon but stable in Brazil. It is considered abundant in Argentina and Uruguay.
55684		threats	eng	One major threat is habitat degradation due to agricultural activities and water pollution. Fire is also a potential threat.
55685		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas, which is quite well managed. However, protection and restoration of the Volcán Sán Martin and surrounding areas is urgently required to ensure the species' persistence. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55685		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas at Volcán San Martin, southern Veracruz, Mexico. It is known from 500-1,180m asl. There is also one specimen from Toledo District in Belize that has been assigned to this species, but further taxonomic work is required to confirm the identity of this population, which probably belongs to another species.
55685		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical rainforest on the slopes of Volcán San Martin. It is probably a stream-breeding species.
55685		population	eng	This is a rare species, and it is known from only two specimens collected at the type locality.
55685		threats	eng	Disturbance and transformation of the original forest habitat, primarily due to agricultural development, is a major threat to this species in its range (outside Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas).
55686		conservation	eng	It is not currently known to occur in any protected areas.
55686		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Selva Río de Oro, Chaco Province, Argentina, at 70m asl.
55686		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is likely to breed in water.
55686		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen collected in the 1960s, and has not been observed during at least three attempts to find it in recent years.
55686		threats	eng	Its major threats are not known.
55687		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
55687		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is not precisely determined, although it covers much of the eastern USA and southeastern Canada. It is sympatric with H. chrysoscelis in Wisconsin, south-central U.S., and probably many other areas. See Little <em>et al.</em> (1989) for distribution in West Virginia, southern Ohio, and southwestern Pennsylvania. See McAlpine <em>et al.</em> (1991) for information on distribution in eastern Maine and southwestern New Brunswick.
55687		habitat	eng	It inhabits various kinds of wooded and forested habitats. It is both arboreal and terrestrial. It hides in tree holes, under bark, in rotten logs, under leaves, and under tree roots when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow woodland ponds and marshes, puddles, ponds in forest clearings, swamps, bogs, and many other kinds of permanent or temporary waters lacking a significant current, including ponds created through excavation by humans. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992). In central Ontario, embryos and larvae exhibited high degree of acid tolerance (J. Herpetol. 26:1-6).
55687		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but it is abundant and probably stable.
55687		threats	eng	This species is not threatened overall. Introduced bluegill sunfish might cause declines in larval tree frog abundance (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999).
55688		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55688		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in northern Colombia (including in the Magdalena River basin) and in northern and western Venezuela (including around Lake Maracaibo). In both countries it is also found in the Llanos ecosystem east of the Andes, in Barinas and Apure states in Venezuela, and in Arauca and Casanare states in Colombia. It occurs below 500m asl.
55688		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species of low altitude open environments of lowlands, including flooded grasslands, degraded areas with low vegetation, and shallow standing water. It breeds in standing water and swamps.
55688		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55688		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, which is not facing any known threats.
55689		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
55689		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality in Gámbita, Santander Department on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental. Its altitudinal range is from 1,750-2,400m asl.
55689		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces in shrubs in flooded pastures, marshes, temporary pools.
55689		population	eng	It is abundant, and there are many recent records. It appears to be increasing in its population.
55689		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55690		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range
55690		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central Amazonia, Brazil.
55690		habitat	eng	It occurs in natural and artificial temporary ponds, forest edges, open areas, pastures, urban areas, and river edges. Its eggs and tadpoles develop in the water.
55690		population	eng	It is very abundant.
55690		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55691		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello in Mexico, but is not recorded from any protected areas in Guatemala.
55691		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of central Chiapas, Mexico, south-west to the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala. In Guatemala, it occurs on the central Plateaus and in the south-east (1,450-2,340m asl). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55691		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak and pine-fir forests and high grasslands. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds.
55691		population	eng	It is uncommon in Guatemala and has not been seen since 1995. Extensive recent surveys in the last few years indicate that this species is nearing extirpation in this country. It is still abundant in Chiapas.
55691		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement is the major threat.
55692		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55692		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern slopes of Mount Roraima and the slopes of Mount Ayanganna in west-central Guyana, from 1,480-1,550m asl. Its distribution is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.
55692		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in primary montane forest. There is no information available about its breeding habits, but reproduction is likely to take place in water.
55692		population	eng	It is not thought to be a common species.
55692		threats	eng	There are no known threats and this species' known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.
55693		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55693		distribution	eng	This species is known from the low elevation Amazonian drainage of southeastern Colombia, southern Venezuela (Amazonas State), and central Amazonian Brazil. It occurs from up to 80-400m asl.
55693		habitat	eng	It is found in trees in tropical rainforest next to lakes, permanent waterbodies or flooded forest (igapo), especially in rivers of clear or black waters in the Amazon basin. It also occurs along side rivers in savannah enclaves in Amazonia. It lays its eggs in streams (no nests). The tadpoles live in the streams.
55693		population	eng	It appears not to be a common frog. It has been confused in the past with Hyla boans.
55693		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species overall at present, since most of its range is in areas of minimal human impact, although there are some localized threats.
55694		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55694		distribution	eng	This species from southern and southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Sao Paulo, Parana and Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 800m asl.
55694		habitat	eng	It is a species of flooded areas, such as abandoned rice fields. It is usually found on vegetation near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary and semi-permanent still waterbodies, and also semi-permanent swamps on forest edge. It is not found inside forest.
55694		population	eng	It is a common species.
55694		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species and is not facing any known threats.
55695		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Estação Biológica de Santa Lucia and the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.
55695		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of Santa Tereza Municipality, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 650m asl, and from a newly discovered locality, Fazenda Palmeira, in Itapebi Municipality in the state of Bahia.
55695		habitat	eng	It is restricted to forest, including secondary forests, and can tolerate a degree of disturbance, but it is not found in open or severely degraded areas. It is usually found on vegetation near water, and breeds in forest streams.
55695		population	eng	It is common at the type locality, and there have been some recent collections there.
55695		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting and human settlement.
55696		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes numerous protected areas.
55696		distribution	eng	This species can be found at the Mountains of central Arizona and south-eastward into west-central New Mexico; isolated population in Huachuca Mountains, Cochise County, southern Arizona; ranges southward into Mexico in the Sierra Madre Occidental to southern Chihuahua (Duellman 2001) and perhaps to north of the Mexico City region, but the precise distribution in Mexico is unclear due to taxonomic uncertainties (Frost 2002, Crother <em>et al.</em> 2003). It occurs at about 910-2,900m asl (Stebbins 2003).
55696		habitat	eng	In the USA it is found in wet meadows, near shallow pools, ponds, and slow-moving streams, in oak-pine and ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests. It occurs on the ground or in shrubs and trees. It breeds in shallow pools, ponds, and slow moving streams. Egg masses are attached to vegetation just below the water (Behler and King 1979).
55696		population	eng	There are numerous secure populations of this species.
55696		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55697		conservation	eng	The original collecting locality is protected within the Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
55697		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the south fork of the Río Las Vueltas, on the south slope of Volcán Barva in Heredia Province, Costa Rica, at 2,100m asl.
55697		habitat	eng	It was found in lower montane rainforest and presumably breeds in water.
55697		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, as this species is known only from two specimens from the same locality (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
55697		threats	eng	If this species has declined or disappeared, it would have happened in pristine habitat, and possible threats would therefore include chytridiomycosis, climate change and airborne pollution.
55698		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55698		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the State of Acre, Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.
55698		habitat	eng	It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in open grassland areas and disturbed habitats. It reproduces in temporary waterbodies.
55698		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55698		threats	eng	There are no major threats because it adapts well to deforestation.
55699		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera del Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán.
55699		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western Zapotitlán de las Salinas, central Puebla, and northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur more widely than is currently known. It occurs at about 1,500m asl.
55699		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding amphibian inhabits temporary streams with rocks and arid scrub vegetation that provide suitable microhabitats. It seeks refuge in bromeliads during the dry season.
55699		population	eng	It is a common species.
55699		threats	eng	The major threat is the ongoing disturbance and loss of the species' arid tropical scrub habitat due to infrastructure development, partly due to the construction of tourist facilities.
55700		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is likely to be within Parque Nacional Yurubí.
55700		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality, stated to be "Los Bacos" (Mijares-Urrutia and Rivero 2000) in the municipality of Bolívar, in the Sierra de Aroa in Yaracuy State, Venezuela (about 10° 22'N; 68° 50'W), at 1,580-1,600m asl. It might have a wider distribution within the Sierra de Aroa, but this has not yet been confirmed.
55700		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forests that is likely to breed in water.
55700		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55700		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging. However, the cloud forests that this species inhabits, in spite of having been reduced in area, are still extensive and continuous above 1,000m asl.
55701		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas, including Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.
55701		distribution	eng	This species can be found in humid premontane areas or marginally in the lower montane zone of the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,200-1,804m asl (Savage 2002).
55701		habitat	eng	It inhabits bromeliads in humid montane forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in the bromeliads (phytotelmic species), with eggs laid on the outside leaves above the waterline in the bromeliad cups (Savage 2002). Populations can persist outside of forest where suitable trees with bromeliads remain, for instance within some pastures (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
55701		population	eng	The available evidence suggests that Costa Rican populations are apparently stable in suitable habitat, and have not had the confirmed declines exhibited in many other montane species (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.), (although this observation may be linked to the difficulty in recording densities of this canopy species, Karen Lips pers. comm, 2007). As of 2007, there is little new information on the status of Panamanian populations (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm., 2007).
55701		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but in Panama they likely include general habitat loss as a result of logging, human settlement, and some agricultural activities. There are no threats to this species in Costa Rica.
55702		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55702		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Zhaoping area in eastern Guangxi, China, at around 140m asl, although it might be found to occur more widely.
55702		habitat	eng	Very little is known about its habitat and ecological requirements, although it has been found inhabiting banana groves near a village. Its breeding habits are not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
55702		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status.
55702		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
55703		conservation	eng	It occurs in Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz, Ceplac (Itabuna), Reserva Biólogica de Una, and Parque Nacional Descobrimento.
55703		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern coastal area of the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil: from Itabuna south to Prado. It occurs very close to the sea, up to 50m asl.
55703		habitat	eng	It lives in forest and forest edge, but not in more open habitats. It has been found in swamps on the forest edge, and in puddles inside, and on the edge, of forest. <br/><br/>It can be found perched on leaves of marginal vegetation of temporary ponds inside undisturbed or secondary forest patches (Pimenta et al., 2007).<br/><br/>It breeds in temporary puddles.
55703		population	eng	It is very abundant within its small range.
55703		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. It is inherently at risk because of its very restricted range.
55704		conservation	eng	It occurs in four protected areas: Reserva Particular do Patrimonio Usina Frei Caneca; Parque Ecologio Vasconales Soburiho; Reserva Ecologia de Dois Irmaos, and Estação Ecológica de Murici.
55704		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the northern part of the State of Alagoas and in the State of Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 700m asl.
55704		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, including secondary forest, and breeds in streams. It does not occur in open or degraded areas.
55704		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
55704		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting and human settlement.
55705		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and abundance of this species need to be researched. Its known locality is not within a protected area.
55705		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Aitape, in northern coastal Papua New Guinea.
55705		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are unknown, but it possibly lives in rainforest, or possibly grassland. There is no information known regarding its breeding habits, though reproduction is presumed to be by larval development in water.
55705		population	eng	It has not been recorded again since it was first discovered, and it is considered to be a rare species.
55705		threats	eng	Insufficient data are available to determine what its major threats are.
55706		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55706		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across mainland New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula in Papua New Guinea in the east to Ambon in Indonesia in the west. It is also found on the Indonesia islands Misool and Seram. It is a lowland species, occurring below 700m.
55706		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical forest, including degraded forest, calling from trees adjacent to forest swamps. It is less common outside forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools and swamps.
55706		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55706		threats	eng	Its habitat is extensive and the species is not threatened at the present time.
55707		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programs should be initiated for this species. Its range includes a few protected areas, however these areas require better management.
55707		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the upland forests of New Guinea from Okapa in the central-eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea including the Huon Peninsular, to the Anggi Lakes region of the Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia. It is also known from Agaun in Milne Bay Province, southeastern Papua New Guinea. It occurs between 1,200-3,300m asl.
55707		habitat	eng	This species occurs along torrential mountain streams in rainforest. It breeds in fast moving, cold streams. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.
55707		population	eng	It appears to be abundant wherever it occurs, and certainly numbers at least in the millions.
55707		threats	eng	Its upland forest habitat in mainland New Guinea is in good condition, and there are no threats currently identified.
55708		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of these species complex needs must to be resolved. Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programs should be initiated. It occurs in several protected areas.
55708		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in New Guinea from the Arfak Mountains (Vogelkop Peninsula) in the west (Indonesia) to the southeastern Peninsula of Papua New Guinea in the east, as far as Agaun in Milne Bay Province. It occurs from 500-2,000m asl.
55708		habitat	eng	It lives in vegetation along streams and small brooks in lowland and montane rainforest, and also occurs in disturbed habitats. It breeds in streams in which the younger larvae live. Old larvae are semi-terrestrial (Günther, 2006).
55708		population	eng	It occurs in large numbers wherever it is found.
55708		threats	eng	Suitable habitat is extensive and no serious threats are known. Locally, pollution of streams from mining is taking place.
55709		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be determined. Its range as currently defined does not overlap any protected areas.
55709		distribution	eng	For the purposes of this assessment (in view of the taxonomic uncertainties associated with this species), its distribution is considered to be limited to the Aru Islands and Misool Island (where it was originally described). Although it possibly also occurs on mainland western Papua, Indonesia, this has not been confirmed (Richards pers. comm.).
55709		habitat	eng	Its habitat is unknown, but it probably occurs in coastal lowlands, in rainforest or swampy habitats.
55709		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55709		threats	eng	There are no specific threats known for this species. However, the Aru Islands are being logged and cleared for agricultural land, which is most likely affecting its habitat.
55710		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to better determine the distribution and population status of this species in the high mountains of central Papua New Guinea.
55710		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Mount Wilhelm in the central mountains of Papua New Guinea, but it might have a broader distribution at high altitudes in New Guinea. Another population might survive on Mount Giluwe and perhaps also on Mount Hagen. It has been recorded from above 3,000m asl, and so the amount of habitat available within its potential range is probably limited.
55710		habitat	eng	There are no specific data available, but it is probably found in montane rainforest. It presumably breeds in torrential high-altitude streams.
55710		population	eng	There is no recent information available on the population status of this species. There are specimens in a collection in Papua New Guinea from the 1970s and 1980s that might represent this species.
55710		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but it is known from an area where there is very little human impact. A potential future threat is the spread of chytridiomycosis, which has been implicated in the declines of high-altitude, torrent-dwelling tree-frogs in Australia.
55711		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55711		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in West Papua, New Guinea, Indonesia, about 100km apart: the Panara Valley near Doorman Top; and the Wapoga River headwaters (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2000), where it was recently discovered. It probably occurs in intervening areas where there is extensive suitable habitat, and its distribution is probably substantially broader than is currently recognized. It occurs over 1,000m asl.
55711		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation along torrential mountain streams in submontane rainforest, where it is most often seen at night. It has only been found so far in closed forest, and it is presumed to breed in streams.
55711		population	eng	It was found to be common in its recently discovered site.
55711		threats	eng	No threats are known, and it probably has a relatively wide distribution.
55712		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55712		distribution	eng	This species is known from two widely separated localities in Papua New Guinea: the Schrader Mountains, and the southern flanks of the Star Mountains near the Papuan (Indonesia) border. It is known from altitudes between 1,600 and 2,200m asl.
55712		habitat	eng	It is found on vegetation along torrential mountain streams, in which it presumably breeds, in rainforest.
55712		population	eng	This species is not always collected when visiting the same location suggesting that it is either a rare species, or one that is hard to find.
55712		threats	eng	It is not known what the general threats are to this species, but localized threats might be an issue.
55713		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements, and population status need to be determined. It has not so far been found within a protected area.
55713		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Tanimbar Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia.
55713		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are unknown, although it is presumed to breed in water by larval development.
55713		population	eng	There are no known records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.
55713		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55714		conservation	eng	It occurs in Arfak Mountains National Park.
55714		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea. It was previously known only from the type locality, but it has been found more recently at 1,850m asl at the Anggi Lakes. The altitude of the type locality is unknown.
55714		habitat	eng	It is a montane forest species that can survive in degraded and secondary habitats. It breeds in small, slow-flowing streams and ditches.
55714		population	eng	It has been found to be common in overgrown roadside ditches and in slow-flowing streams.
55714		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this adaptable species, and the area where it occurs is well protected by local people.
55715		conservation	eng	Its Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and population status need to be better documented. Its range overlaps with a few protected areas however these are in need of better management.
55715		distribution	eng	This species is known from widely scattered localities in southern New Guinea and the Aru Islands. There is also an isolated population in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. It occurs at very low elevations, probably below 50m asl.
55715		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savannah areas. It breeds in temporary pools and swampy areas. It is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification, inhabiting some rural gardens and villages.
55715		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
55715		threats	eng	There are no known threats. It probably mainly occupies open grassland habitats through a wide area and so is under little threat from forest clearance.
55716		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species need to be better documented. It has not been found in any protected areas.
55716		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of localities in the eastern mountains of Papua New Guinea, and it is probably widespread in suitable habitats in the region. It occurs at 1,200-1,800m asl and is likely to be restricted by the availability of suitable habitat.
55716		habitat	eng	It is not found in forest, but lives in deep, permanent swamps in grasslands, and in gardens in and near the swamps in which it breeds.
55716		population	eng	It is common, but occurs very patchily.
55716		threats	eng	There are few current threats, but it could potentially be at risk from drainage of swamps for agricultural use in the future.
55717		conservation	eng	No conservation methods are required at present. It is not known from any protected areas.
55717		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the mountains of central and eastern Papua New Guinea. It occurs above about 1,200m asl up to at least 2,000m asl.
55717		habitat	eng	This species is common in deforested valleys in the mountains of New Guinea. It also persists in highly disturbed urban areas. It breeds in slow-moving water, ponds and dams. It was even observed breeding in an old swimming pool in Goroka Town, Papua New Guinea (S. Richards pers. comm.).
55717		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
55717		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is common in disturbed habitats and so is unlikely to be at risk.
55718		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas.
55718		distribution	eng	This species is known from 14 different locations in a narrow band on the eastern edge of the tablelands and the great escarpment of the Great Dividing Range, within central-eastern to lower north-eastern New South Wales, Australia. It is only found above 400m asl.
55718		habitat	eng	This species is associated with areas of unpolluted, upland streams in heath land or dry open forest on the tablelands, or wet sclerophyll and rainforest vegetation on the edge of the escarpment and in deeper gullies. The adults do not occur away from upland stream habitats. Nothing is known about habitat use of this species outside the breeding season. The larvae develop in the streams.
55718		population	eng	It is not abundant, and has generally been recorded as small populations.
55718		threats	eng	This species has a small geographic range and has suffered habitat loss and fragmentation through clearance for agriculture. Many of the streams within the species' range have been stocked with exotic fishes (carp, trout, mosquito fish) that are likely to be predators of the tadpoles. The impact of forestry practices at many sites where the species is known to occur requires assessment.
55719		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and population status need to be documented. It occurs in at least one protected area.
55719		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Although its distribution is poorly documented, it probably occurs widely in monsoon forests and rainforest in southern New Guinea. It has not yet been recorded from Indonesia. All records are from below 100m asl.
55719		habitat	eng	It lives in closed-canopy rainforest, but also occurs in more open forest and moist savannah across southern New Guinea. It breeds in temporary pools, and survives in degraded habitats. It can tolerate bush fires.
55719		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but is sometimes hard to find.
55719		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be at risk.
55720		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55720		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Telefomin region of central New Guinea, and was reported by Menzies and Zweifel (1976) from the Vogelkop Peninsula. However, Richards (pers. comm.) is of the opinion that the Vogelkop specimens represent a different taxon and they are not included here within <em>Litoria dorsivena</em>. This species is known from altitudes around 1,800m asl.
55720		habitat	eng	This is a torrent-dwelling frog of montane rainforest, presumably found adjacent to torrential streams in which it probably also breeds.
55720		population	eng	There do not appear to be any records of this species since it was first described, and so its population status is unknown.
55720		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55721		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, although further survey work should be conducted to better document its distribution.
55721		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in north-central Papua, Indonesia, and presumably occurs in the extensive suitable habitat in this region. Current records are from below 300m asl.
55721		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest, including in degraded and disturbed habitats (it has been found in an area that had been very heavily logged), where it breeds in temporary and permanent swamps and pools.
55721		population	eng	It is reasonably abundant.
55721		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be majorly threatened by changing patterns of land use, particularly since it is known to persist in degraded rainforest habitats.
55722		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to relocate this species, which is not known to occur in any protected areas, and also to determine its conservation needs.
55722		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Timor, Sumba, Sawu, and Alor in the Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesia and East Timor.
55722		habitat	eng	It probably lives in dry forest and breeds in water, although the details of its habitat and ecological requirements are not known.
55722		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, and there are no recent records presumably due to lack of survey work.
55722		threats	eng	There is no recent information regarding threats to this species, but it is probably threatened by habitat loss.
55723		conservation	eng	Much of its habitat is protected in the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area. Its distribution needs to be better documented.
55723		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southern slopes (730-1,200m asl) of the mountains of eastern New Guinea (in Papua New Guinea), including the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (which encompasses most of its range).
55723		habitat	eng	It lives in small streams in rainforest, and breeds in streams. It can be found on forest edges, but not in significantly degraded habitats.
55723		population	eng	It is abundant in the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area.
55723		threats	eng	No threats are known. Local communities protect its habitat to some extent.
55724		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
55724		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is in northern Papua New Guinea, but the exact location is not known. Otherwise the species is known with certainty only from Ivimka Camp, at 100m asl in the Lakekamu Basin, Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea (Richards and Oliver, 2006). Records from Darai Plateau, Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, and from Dark End Lumber, Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea refer to <em>Litoria sauroni</em>, whereas those from Huon Peninsula, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea refer to <em>L. dux</em>, and those from the northwestern coastal mountains of Papua New Guinea refer to <em>L. huntorum</em>. Records from the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua, Indonesia, could refer to one of these species, but most likely represent an undescribed species (S. Richards, pers. comm.). However, <em>Litoria graminea</em> almost certainly occurs more widely in eastern Papua New Guinea than is currently known.
55724		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, living entirely in the canopy of lowland and foothill rainforest. It needs high, closed-canopy, forest to survive, and is not found in degraded habitats. Its breeding requirements are unknown, though it possibly lays eggs in tree holes, and presumably breeds by larval development.
55724		population	eng	Although few specimens of this canopy-dwelling species exist in collections, it is probably abundant where it occurs, based on call records. It is hard to find, and so it has probably been under-sampled.
55724		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to this species, but it probably requires intact rainforest and so would suffer from forest clearance.
55725		conservation	eng	A couple of protected areas occur within the range of this species. Protected areas are needed to safeguard its rainforest swamp habitat. Its distribution needs to be better documented.
55725		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern slopes of the Star Mountains (Menzies 1993), the Southern Highlands Province (Richards, unpublished data), both in Papua New Guinea, and from the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula, in Papua, Indonesia. There is possibly a related population in the Fakfak Mountains on the Bomberai Peninsular. It occurs from 300-1,300m asl.
55725		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of swamps in tropical rainforest. It is also known to persist in disturbed habitats in the Southern Highlands. It breeds in small stagnant temporary or permanent pools in streams, and has also been observed breeding in ditches. It lays its eggs on leaves overhanging the water and when hatched they drop into the water (Günther, 2006).
55725		population	eng	It is a locally very abundant species.
55725		threats	eng	Forest clearance in the foothills of the Star Mountains has damaged many breeding sites of this species.
55726		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be better documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
55726		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southeastern coast of Papua New Guinea between Yule Island and Dogura, where it is relatively widespread. It is generally a lowland species, probably ranging from sea-level up to 1,100m asl.
55726		habitat	eng	It occurs in open, coastal tropical savannahs. It breeds in still water.
55726		population	eng	It is a common species.
55726		threats	eng	There are no known threats. Its habitat is unlikely to be at risk from existing or foreseeable impacts.
55727		conservation	eng	Its distribution should be better documented. It occurs in the Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55727		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the mountains of central New Guinea from the Star Mountains, Indonesia, in the west to at least Okapa in the eastern mountains of Papua New Guinea in the east. It is known to occur at 800-2,000m asl.
55727		habitat	eng	It occurs around swamps and small, slow streams in montane rainforest. It can survive in degraded habitats. It breeds in slow-flowing streams, swamps, and ditches along roads, laying its eggs on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall.
55727		population	eng	It is abundant throughout its range, but occurs patchily, and is not found in every stream where it would be expected.
55727		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
55728		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
55728		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is not known. It is known only from the type locality of "Java" (Ahl 1926), Indonesia. However, Iskandar and Colijn (2000), question whether or not this taxon was truly collected in Java. It is not possible to produce a map showing its range.
55728		habitat	eng	There are no details known concerning its habitat and ecological requirements.
55728		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55728		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55729		conservation	eng	Attempts are needed to discover populations of this species, which is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55729		distribution	eng	This species is known from an unknown locality in northern Papua New Guinea. The collection took place during an expedition along the Ramu River and the river emerging at Madang.
55729		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecological requirements.
55729		population	eng	Only one specimen is known, so there is no information regarding its population status.
55729		threats	eng	If it was found in the Gogol Valley, this area is heavily degraded and this species is therefore likely to be threatened by changes to its habitat.
55730		conservation	eng	It occurs on a mountain where local communities are providing some habitat protection. Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55730		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the upper Sepik drainage of northern Papua New Guinea. It probably occurs throughout this mountainous region but further data on its distribution are required. It occurs around 1,600m asl.
55730		habitat	eng	This species lives in and around small streams in montane rainforest, and probably breeds in torrential mountain streams.
55730		population	eng	It was rediscovered in 1993 on Mount Stolle, Sandaun Province, where it is reasonably common.
55730		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in a very remote area.
55731		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring. The taxonomy of different populations also needs to be assessed.
55731		distribution	eng	Populations referred to this species are found on the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua, Indonesia, and in the Star Mountains of Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to about 1,000m asl.
55731		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small rainforest streams in the foothills. It probably breeds in rocky streams and lays unpigmented eggs, like other species of the genus.
55731		population	eng	The populations in the Star Mountains are considered to be locally abundant.
55731		threats	eng	Some streams within its range have been degraded by domestic pollution, potentially constituting a threat to it.
55732		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
55732		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two mountains on Rossell and Tagula (Sudest) Islands in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. Given the largely unbroken extent of habitat and low elevation on both islands, this species is likely to be widely distributed on both.
55732		habitat	eng	It is very common along low-elevation forested streams throughout central Tagula (Sudest). It is present along both rather large (approximately 5-8m wide) streams as well as tiny (around 1m) tributaries. Its breeding habitats are unknown.
55732		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitat.
55732		threats	eng	There are no known threats. The habitat on Tagula (Sudest) and Rossel remains in reasonable condition. The forest on Tagula Island was damaged by logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered. There are no immediate plans for logging.
55733		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas, so there is a need for improved habitat protection at the lowland sites where this species is known to occur. The distribution of this species requires further documentation.
55733		distribution	eng	This is a poorly known species occurring in the north-western islands of the Solomons archipelago, from Isabel and New Georgia in the south, to Buka (in Papua New Guinea) in the north. Recent studies (S. Richards, unpubl.) suggest that this species is more widespread in the Solomon Islands than previously documented. It is a lowland species that probably occurs only up to about 50m asl.
55733		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal, and found in tropical rainforest. It possibly breeds in swamps in forests. In Bougainville it has been observed laying eggs on the vertical surface of trees above water-filled tree holes; the tadpoles then fall into the water.
55733		population	eng	There is no information on population status, but it most likely occurs at low densities.
55733		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging.
55734		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55734		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the headwaters of the Wapoga River in north-western Papua, Indonesia. It is probably more widespread in suitable habitat, but its distribution and population status require further documentation. It is known to occur at 550-1,200m asl.
55734		habitat	eng	It occurs in and around torrential streams, in which it presumably breeds, in closed-canopy rainforest.
55734		population	eng	It is an abundant species where found.
55734		threats	eng	No threats are known to this species, which occurs in a very remote area, with no people living in the vicinity of the type locality.
55735		conservation	eng	The forest in the vicinity of the Ok Tedi mine needs urgent protection.
55735		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area at altitudes of 550-650m asl around the headwaters of the Ok Tedi River in the Star Mountains in Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Its distribution remains largely undocumented.
55735		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swamps in tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs on leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the water below.
55735		population	eng	It has been observed as abundant in swamps but it might be declining locally.
55735		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest clearance taking place for development of mining infrastructure and for new villages associated with the Ok Tedi mine.
55736		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of the western populations needs to be assessed. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55736		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in the mountains of central and eastern New Guinea, occurring in eastern Papua (Indonesia) and most of Papua New Guinea. It occurs between 1,000m and 2,500m asl.
55736		habitat	eng	It occurs in and around torrential streams in montane rainforest. It breeds in streams. It has also been found in degraded forest.
55736		population	eng	It is abundant wherever it occurs.
55736		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
55737		conservation	eng	Further documentation of its distribution is needed. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. Its range includes Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55737		distribution	eng	This species is found across a wide area of the central mountains of Papua New Guinea, and across the border at Okbap and Langda in Papua, Indonesia. It has recently also been recorded from Mount Simpson, in Milne Bay Province, greatly extending the range of the species eastward. It occurs from 1,000-2,500m asl.
55737		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential streams in montane rainforest. It presumably breeds in these streams.
55737		population	eng	This is an extremely abundant species.
55737		threats	eng	No threats are known. Because of its abundance, it is unlikely to be at risk.
55738		conservation	eng	There is an integrated conservation and development project taking place in the Toricelli Mountains, although this species is not known from any protected areas.
55738		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 550m asl in the Torricelli Mountains on the north coast of Papua New Guinea. Animals that might be this species have also been found on Yapen Island at 650-850m asl (Gunther pers. comm.).
55738		habitat	eng	The type series was collected from a small grassy swamp in a forest clearing, which is presumably where this species breeds.
55738		population	eng	No information is available on its population status in its type locality, but the animals on Yapen Island are abundant.
55738		threats	eng	No information is available on the major threats to this species.
55739		conservation	eng	Further documentation of its distribution is needed. Its range includes Crater Wildlife Management Area. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated.
55739		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the eastern mountains of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), and is presumably widespread in this region. It occurs from about 1,200-2,400m asl.
55739		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams in lower-montane rainforest. It is also known to persist in degraded forest (S. Richards pers. comm.). It breeds in slow-moving small streams.
55739		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55739		threats	eng	Some populations are possibly being extirpated by clearing of forest for rural gardens, but it can withstand some forest disturbance.
55740		conservation	eng	Attempts are needed to rediscover this species and to document its distribution and population status. It is not known from any protected areas.
55740		distribution	eng	This species is known only from "Moaif", the type locality, in the northern lowlands of Papua, Indonesia.
55740		habitat	eng	It is presumed to live in forest and to breed in water.
55740		population	eng	It is known only from the type locality, and there have been no recent records, so its population status is unknown.
55740		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55741		conservation	eng	Further documentation of the species' distribution is needed. It is not known from any protected areas. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated.
55741		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of Papua, Indonesia: the type locality in the Snow Mountains, and two locations in the Wapoga River headwaters (where the species was found in 1998). There was one specimen-collected 40km southeast of Nabire in Papua. It has been recorded between about 500-1,000m asl.
55741		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential streams in rainforest It lays unpigmented eggs near the streams.
55741		population	eng	It was quite abundant when collected at Wapoga River.
55741		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species as it is in a very remote area. The species is presumably secure, but data are lacking.
55742		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be better documented. It occurs in Crater Wildlife management Area, and in some other protected areas.
55742		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on Gebe and Yapen Islands, and is known from at least one site south of the central cordillera. It is a lowland species occurring up to 1,000m asl.
55742		habitat	eng	It occurs along small, quiet streams and seepages in tropical rainforest. It breeds in streams and seepages. It does not occur in significantly modified habitats.
55742		population	eng	It is abundant wherever it occurs.
55742		threats	eng	None are known.
55743		conservation	eng	Urgent efforts are needed to rediscover it and to determine its taxonomic status, distribution, and population status. This will require additional topotypic material to determine its taxonomic identity. It is probably a synonym of <em>Litoria nigropunctata</em>, but no specimens still exist for this species.
55743		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Yapen Island (probably near Ansus), Papua, Indonesia.
55743		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are unknown.
55743		population	eng	It has not been collected again since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.
55743		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to this species.
55744		conservation	eng	There should be further documentation of its distribution, and its population status also requires monitoring, particularly given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia. It should be noted that the Baiyer River Sanctuary is a small zoo, and not a protected area.
55744		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Baiyer River Sanctuary, in Western Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at 1,200-1,500m asl.
55744		habitat	eng	It lives and presumably breeds in mountain streams in rainforest.
55744		population	eng	It has only been found twice, the last time being in 1987. It is not common in its only known locality.
55744		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55745		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species needs to be better documented to aid its conservation.
55745		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality near Agaun, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea, at 1,200m asl.
55745		habitat	eng	The only known population was first observed around a pool in rainforest. Males were observed calling from low vegetation. These frogs lay eggs attached to leaves overhanging the water.
55745		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status.
55745		threats	eng	The type locality was subsequently cleared for gardens, but the population appears to have persisted despite the clearance. Gardening might eventually impact on this (and other) populations. However, if this species has a wide distribution (as is likely), then gardening is unlikely to have more than a localized impact and will be of little concern in the foreseeable future.
55746		conservation	eng	It might occur in Arfak Mountains National Park. If it is a torrent-dwelling species, its population will require close monitoring, given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia.
55746		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Wendessi (at 2,400m asl) and from the Arfak Mountains (also at 2,400m asl), Papua, Indonesia. A recent specimen from Yapen Island might be this species, but this has not yet been confirmed (Gunther pers. comm.).
55746		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in torrential streams in tropical rainforest.
55746		population	eng	There are no confirmed records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.
55746		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55747		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species needs to be properly documented. It is known to occur within two protected areas.
55747		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities between the Star Mountains and Haia on the southern side of the central mountains of Papua New Guinea, covering a linear distance of about 430 kilometres. It occurs from 300-1,200m asl.
55747		habitat	eng	It is found around forest pools in foothill rainforests. It breeds in temporary pools and swamps, and has also been observed breeding in seepages and ditches.
55747		population	eng	It is a relatively uncommon species.
55747		threats	eng	Some breeding sites in the Star Mountains have been destroyed by gardens (S. Richards pers. obs.).
55748		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species needs to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.
55748		distribution	eng	This species is known from Efogi and Tabubil in eastern Papua New Guinea, and it was recently discovered in the Kikori area of Gulf Province. It presumably occurs in the extensive suitable habitat that exists between these localities. A very similar species has been found on Yapen Island, which could be this form (R. Günther pers. comm.). It occurs at 100-800m asl in Kikori and around 1,100m at Efogi.
55748		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and is found near small streams and forest pools in lowland and foothill rainforests. Breeds in temporary and probably permanent pools and slow-flowing portions of streams. It is found in mature forest and in rural gardens.
55748		population	eng	It is uncommon, but is probably a canopy dweller, so it might be overlooked.
55748		threats	eng	No threats are known. Logging is ongoing, might have an impact on this species.
55749		conservation	eng	The distribution, and population dynamics of the species need to be determined. Its range overlaps with a few protected areas.
55749		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the lowlands of mainland western New Guinea and Yapen Island, extending eastwards at least to the Lakekamu Basin. It occurs up to 650m asl.
55749		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest. It breeds in still ponds and ditches. It can tolerate a large degree of habitat modification, and can be found around villages for example.
55749		population	eng	They can be locally common, but can also disappear and reappear from locations without explanation.
55749		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55750		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species requires close population monitoring, given that it currently is known only from a single locality; further survey work is needed to determine whether or not it might occur more widely.
55750		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Merauke, in southern Papua, Indonesia, and there have been very few records since it was first discovered in the late 1960s. It occurs close to sea level.
55750		habitat	eng	It has only been found in a grassy, swampy area in the town of Merauke, where it breeds. It presumably occurs elsewhere, but its broader habitat requirements are not yet known, and surveys have not been successful in locating it.
55750		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55750		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats, but given that it occurs close to sea level it might be susceptible to habitat loss due to development in coastal areas. It has been found once in the pet trade in Jakarta.
55751		conservation	eng	It has not so far been recorded from any protected areas.
55751		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Upaelisafupi Stream, Cloudy Mountains, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It might be endemic to the Cloudy Mountains, as it has not been observed in the nearby Pini Range or in the southern end of the Owen Stanley Mountains, though it probably occurs at least a little more widely than has been mapped to date. The type series was collected at 700m asl.
55751		habitat	eng	All specimens of this species were collected 1.5-2.5m above the ground in low vegetation adjacent to a small, rocky, mountain stream in closed-canopy tropical forest. This species is believed to breed in streams.
55751		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, so its population status is not known.
55751		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55752		conservation	eng	Its current known range is wholly within Lorentz National Park, which is also a World Heritage Area.
55752		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lowlands of the Lorentz River region of southern Papua, Indonesia. It presumably occurs more widely in the rainforests of this region but this is not a well-studied area.
55752		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding the breeding habits of this rainforest species.
55752		population	eng	This species has not been collected since it was first described, so its population status is unknown; however there have been no surveys of the type locality since then.
55752		threats	eng	It is presumably not facing any particular threats, but is in fact secure due to the extensive areas of natural habitat that survive, but new data are required before a reasonable assessment can be made of the threats to it.
55753		conservation	eng	There should be further documentation of its distribution. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is found in Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55753		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of localities in rugged mountain habitats of eastern Papua New Guinea. Its altitudinal range is 850-1,500m.
55753		habitat	eng	It lives in and around torrential streams in rainforest. It appears to be tolerant of at least some level of habitat degradation, and can be found in rural gardens. It breeds in streams, including silted streams.
55753		population	eng	Its abundance ranges from uncommon to reasonably common.
55753		threats	eng	None are known. It is adaptable and occurs in remote areas where there is little human pressure.
55754		conservation	eng	The potential impacts of logging on this species need to be assessed. It occurs within several protected areas.
55754		distribution	eng	As it is currently recognized, this species occurs widely in the lowlands of New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Islands. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
55754		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest where it congregates around forest pools after heavy rains. It breeds in swamps, temporary forest pools, and in flooded ditches and pools in disturbed habitats such as gardens and regrowth forest.
55754		population	eng	It is abundant in lowland habitats.
55754		threats	eng	None are known, although logging might be impacting some populations in the Solomon Islands.
55755		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
55755		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central southern New Guinea, and has been recorded from Papua New Guinea only. It is found below 500m asl.
55755		habitat	eng	It lives in permanent swamps in lowland rainforest and disturbed forest. It is known to persist in degraded habitats and breeds in swamps.
55755		population	eng	It is very abundant where it occurs.
55755		threats	eng	No threats are known. It does well in disturbed areas.
55756		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements, and population status need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
55756		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality, the Baliem River Valley, and from Wanena, in Papua, Indonesia, at around 1,600m asl. It is presumably more widespread but additional data are lacking.
55756		habitat	eng	It was recorded in grassland and rural gardens, and was observed breeding in permanent pools.
55756		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, but the first collection contained hundreds of specimens.
55756		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known, but it appears able to withstand a degree of habitat modification.
55757		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements, and population status need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
55757		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations: Sorong, on the Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua (Indonesia); and Wahai on Seram Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. It is a lowland species found near sea level.
55757		habitat	eng	It has been found in a town in Seram, and presumably breeds in water.
55757		population	eng	There have been no records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is not known.
55757		threats	eng	There are no data available concerning threats to this species.
55758		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
55758		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the coastal lowlands of southeastern Papua New Guinea. It is restricted to coastal plains at very low altitudes.
55758		habitat	eng	It is found around swamps in lowland closed forest. It is also known from open areas such as rural gardens. It breeds in swamps and intermittent pools.
55758		population	eng	It is a common species.
55758		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present.
55759		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas, although its distribution needs to be properly documented.
55759		distribution	eng	This recently discovered species from New Guinea is known only from the Wapoga River headwaters in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,100m asl. However, its distribution is certainly wider than currently documented.
55759		habitat	eng	It has only been found in mature rainforest so far, in and around small, slow-flowing streams in which it breeds.
55759		population	eng	It is reasonably common where found.
55759		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known. However, although it is only known from a single locality, it is in a region of extensive, undisturbed forest with an extremely low human population density, and so it is not likely to be at risk in the near future.
55760		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. The species requires close population monitoring given that it is known only from around the Enarotali area. Further survey work is necessary to establish whether or not the species occurs in habitats away from the lake shores.
55760		distribution	eng	This species is known only from several lakes in the Enarotali area of Papua, Indonesia, at about 1,700m asl.
55760		habitat	eng	It lives on the rocky shorelines of the lakes.
55760		population	eng	It has been found to be very common within a small area, and is very well represented in museum collections.
55760		threats	eng	No threats are known at present. However, since it occurs in an area subject to heavy tourist activity, it might be susceptible to disturbance and degradation of its habitat.
55761		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of population at the type locality needs to be assessed, and there should be better documentation of its distribution. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It can be found in Crater Wildlife Management Area, and probably in other protected areas.
55761		distribution	eng	As it is currently recognized, this species is widespread in the mountains of central and eastern mainland New Guinea (in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and is also known from Goodenough and Fergusson Islands, from 300-1,600m asl.
55761		habitat	eng	It lives in and around small streams in lowland and montane rainforest (hill forest). It breeds in streams, and also occurs in degraded forests and rural gardens.
55761		population	eng	It appears to be abundant throughout its range.
55761		threats	eng	No threats are known.
55762		conservation	eng	It is presumed to be present in several protected areas.
55762		distribution	eng	This species is known from a wide area in the Mato Grosso region of central and southern Brazil. It has been recorded between 200 and 400m asl.
55762		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species of open flooded savannah areas, and floating meadows of large rivers. It breeds in the associated waterways.
55762		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
55762		threats	eng	No threats are known.
55763		conservation	eng	It is presumed to be present in several national parks.
55763		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Guyana and northern Brazil, and from north-central Bolivia. Its apparently fragmented distribution might be a reflection of the taxonomic problems associated with this species. It has an altitudinal range of 150-400m asl.
55763		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species of open flooded savannah areas, and floating meadows of large rivers. It breeds in the associated waterways.
55763		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
55763		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
55764		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas in Bolivia, Brazil, and Argentina.
55764		distribution	eng	Taxa assigned to this species by Frost (2003) are present in Argentina (Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Santa Fé, and Santiago del Estero); Uruguay (known only from Termas del Arapey, Depto. Salto, and Artiga); Brazil (Matto Grosso and Rondonia); Paraguay; Bolivia (Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Pando). Recorded from elevations of 100-200m asl.
55764		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species of open flooded savannah areas, and floating meadows of large rivers. Adults occur on emergent vegetation and breed in the associated waterways. Does not tolerate habitat disturbance that causes the disappearance of water (such as the drainage of wetlands).
55764		population	eng	It is a very common species near aquatic habitats.
55764		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; large areas of suitable habitat remain. Local populations are probably impacted by agricultural intensification and urbanization.
55765		conservation	eng	In Ecuador Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuni. It is not present in any Peruvian protected areas.
55765		distribution	eng	This species occurs disjunctively in Amazonian Ecuador and northeastern Peru. Further field sampling is expected to identify new localities. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Its altitudinal range is 200-1,200m asl.
55765		habitat	eng	Its habitat is primary and secondary lowland tropical rainforest, often close to bamboo habitats. At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, this nocturnal species has been collected in floodable forests (Ron, 2001). Breeding takes place in bamboo and tree holes, tadpoles are raised by the female on unfertilised eggs. It is not present in disturbed areas.
55765		population	eng	It is not locally common.
55765		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a relatively widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55766		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given declines that have taken place in torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia and particularly given its small range. Further survey work is also necessary to better understand the distribution (including its possible occurrence on other islands and on the mainland of New Guinea), habitat requirements, and population status of this species.
55766		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the east slope of Goodenough Island, in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea, at about 900m asl.
55766		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams in forest. As with other species in the genus, this species presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the tadpoles presumably have large suckers.
55766		population	eng	The current population status is unknown. It has been recorded on Goodenough Island at least once since it was first described, but has not been found on neighbouring islands.
55766		threats	eng	The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes.
55767		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented, as well as the taxonomic status of different populations. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected area.
55767		distribution	eng	As it is currently recognized, this species has a relatively broad distribution in eastern Papua New Guinea and the D'Entecasteaux Islands (Goodenough Island, Fergusson Island and Normanby Island). It occurs at 100-1,600m asl.
55767		habitat	eng	It lives in and close to streams in rainforest. It presumably lays large eggs in torrential streams, and the tadpoles have large suckers. It has only been found in mature forest.
55767		population	eng	It is common where it has been found.
55767		threats	eng	No threats are known, since it lives in remote areas.
55768		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55768		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Mount Dayman type locality, in Milne Bay Province, in extreme eastern Papua New Guinea. It has also been collected from other localities, but these specimens are not believed to be <em>Nyctimystes daymani</em>. The type locality is at about 700m asl.
55768		habitat	eng	Specimens have been found in rocky streams in forest. If this species is similar to other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and has larvae which presumably have large suckers.
55768		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, but this species has probably not been recorded since it was first described.
55768		threats	eng	The major threats to it are unknown.
55769		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented, as well as the taxonomic status of different populations. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It has been found in the Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55769		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread over the rugged highlands of the Huon Peninsula and central Papua New Guinea, at 1,200-2,000m asl.
55769		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in montane rainforest. This species lays large eggs in torrential streams. The tadpoles have large suckers. It has only been found in mature forest.
55769		population	eng	It is common where it is found.
55769		threats	eng	No threats are known. It lives in very remote areas.
55770		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55770		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in Papua, northwestern New Guinea, Indonesia, at about 600m asl. It probably occurs in suitable habitat between these localities.
55770		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the larvae have large suckers.
55770		population	eng	It was last recorded in 1998 (Richards et. al. 2000), and is known from only two specimens, one from each locality.
55770		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
55771		conservation	eng	Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in the Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55771		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread in the mountains of eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), at 1,500-2,200m asl.
55771		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. Presumably this species lays large eggs in torrential streams. The tadpoles have large suckers. It can survive in rural gardens, and in phragmites, along streams.
55771		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55771		threats	eng	None are known, since it is adaptable and lives in remote areas.
55772		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55772		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality of "Camp VIa, Utakwa [or Octakwa] River, 3000 ft", Papua, Indonesia. The altitude of this locality is 914m asl. A specimen in the South Australian Museum from the Star Mountains in Papua New Guinea might represent a significant range extension, but further studies are required to confirm the identity of this specimen.
55772		habitat	eng	It presumably inhabits streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae presumably have large suckers.
55772		population	eng	This species has not been recorded again since it was first described, so its population status is unknown. A recent visit to the area failed to find it, but the survey was not exhaustive.
55772		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55773		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55773		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two mountains in south-eastern Papua New Guinea between 1,400 and 1,600m asl: the type locality ("Mondo, Papua" in the Central Province), and Mount Obree, approximately 150km to the south-east.
55773		habitat	eng	It is common along small (approximately 1-2m wide) streams in steep forested terrain. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential streams and has larvae with large suckers.
55773		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat. It was for a long time known only from the original collection but has recently been collected again (F. Kraus pers. comm.), and was possibly overlooked by earlier workers because it seems to inhabit only very tiny trickles instead of the larger streams that many other <em>Nyctimystes</em> species favour.
55773		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present, and there is extensive suitable habitat still available between the two known localities.
55774		conservation	eng	Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs within the Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55774		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the mountains of central and eastern New Guinea. It occurs from 850-1,600m asl.
55774		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. Similar to other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the tadpoles presumably have large suckers.
55774		population	eng	It is not a common species, and is only rarely encountered.
55774		threats	eng	There are probably no threats to this species at present; its habitat appears quite secure.
55775		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.
55775		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread in the mountains of eastern New Guinea, including the Huon Peninsula and throughout the Papuan Peninsula where it has been recorded with certainty from Woitape, as well as Mount Simpson, Milne Bay Province, near the southern tip of the island. It occurs from 1,000-2,000m asl.
55775		habitat	eng	It is common along both open and forested larger streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, this species lays large eggs in torrential streams and has tadpoles with large suckers. It is tolerant of human habitat disturbance and is quite common in the village of Woitape, which provides only sparse arboreal vegetation along the river passing through the village.
55775		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55775		threats	eng	There are no threats to this relatively widespread and adaptable species.
55776		conservation	eng	Its type locality is within Arfak Mountains National Park. Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55776		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Hatam sul Monte Arfak", in the Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia.
55776		habitat	eng	It is a montane species that presumably lives in streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.
55776		population	eng	No data are available on its population status, and there are no known records since it was first described, although there have been no subsequent surveys of the area.
55776		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
55777		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected areas.
55777		distribution	eng	This species is known only from mountains of north-central Papua New Guinea at 1,500-2,500m asl.
55777		habitat	eng	No data are available, but it presumably occurs along small streams in rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, this species lays large eggs in torrential streams and has tadpoles with large suckers. It is not found in degraded habitats.
55777		population	eng	It is a low-density species.
55777		threats	eng	None are known.
55778		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55778		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Simbang", on the Huon Peninsula in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
55778		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs adjacent to streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.
55778		population	eng	There are no known records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.
55778		threats	eng	There are no data available on threats to this species.
55779		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55779		distribution	eng	In Papua New Guinea, this species is so far known only from the southern slopes of the Star Mountains, while on the Indonesian side of the border it has been found at Okbap, which is also part of the large area of rugged and suitable habitat for this species in the Star Mountains region. Its altitudinal range is 1,600-2,000m asl.
55779		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams in tropical rainforest, and has also been found in rural gardens and in scrubby regrowth. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential streams and has larvae with large suckers.
55779		population	eng	This species occurs at relatively low density.
55779		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is eaten locally.
55780		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55780		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the western slope of Mount Victoria, Papua New Guinea. There is no exact altitudinal information known, although it is a montane species.
55780		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.
55780		population	eng	There are no confirmed records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown. However, it is a difficult taxon to distinguish from other similar species.
55780		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and its habitat is not currently threatened.
55781		conservation	eng	Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. The taxonomic status of the populations on Rossel Island needs to clarified. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected area.
55781		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tagula (Sudest) and Rossel Islands, in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea at 150-350m asl. However the populations on Rossel are most likely a separate species hence this species is probably restricted to Tagula.
55781		habitat	eng	It is common along small (approximately 1-2m wide) tributary streams of large, forested lowland streams. It apparently largely avoids the larger streams. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it is a larval developer in streams. There is no information on its adaptability to degraded habitats.
55781		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
55781		threats	eng	None are known. The habitat on Tagula (Sudest) and Rossel remains in reasonable condition. The forest on Tagula Island was damaged for logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered. There are no immediate plans for logging.
55782		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55782		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the north-east slope of Mount Dayman, and from the eastern slope of Mount Simpson 40km further south, in Milne Bay Province, in extreme eastern Papua New Guinea. Its true range is probably small but is likely to include Mount Suckling to the north of Mount Dayman, although it is unlikely to extend further north than this. The type locality is at 1,370m asl, and this species has been recorded from 1,300-1,500m asl on the eastern slope of Mount Simpson.
55782		habitat	eng	This species is generally found along small streams (approximately 2-5m wide) in primary forest. On the eastern slope of Mount Simpson it has been observed to be tolerant of habitat disturbance and in places it lives along village streams largely devoid of trees. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays eggs in streams where the larvae also develop.
55782		population	eng	It is known to be very common in areas of suitable habitat on Mount Simpson.
55782		threats	eng	It is unlikely at present that there are any major threats to this species, even though it is not known to what degree habitat destruction has taken place within its range. It is tolerant of the degree of disturbance that is characteristic of the area at present.
55783		conservation	eng	Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area and in other protected areas.
55783		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species that occurs in the mountains across most of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) from 480-1,400m asl.
55783		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. This species lays large eggs in torrential streams. The tadpoles have large suckers. It has been found in areas where abandoned rural gardens have grown back into secondary forest.
55783		population	eng	It appears to be abundant wherever it occurs.
55783		threats	eng	None are known.
55784		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within its range. Improved habitat protection is required at sites at which this species is known to occur. There is also a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
55784		distribution	eng	This species is known only from several locations on Halmahera and Morotai Islands, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. Its elevational range is not known, but the highest point within its range is 1,200m asl.
55784		habitat	eng	There is no reliable information available, but it probably occurs in streams in tropical rainforest. As with other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the tadpoles have large suckers.
55784		population	eng	The species was last collected on Halmahera Island in 1989.
55784		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, following the widespread logging that has taken place on Halmahera Island in the past few years.
55785		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected areas.
55785		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Kokoda and Garaina areas between 400 and 700m asl, and from the western slope of Mount Obree at 900m asl, in eastern Papua New Guinea. It is expected to occur in the 130km gap between the Kokoda and Garaina areas.
55785		habitat	eng	It occurs along moderate-sized (approximately 3-8m wide) streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it lays eggs in streams where the tadpoles also develop. On Mount Obree it has been recorded from secondary forest.
55785		population	eng	It has been found to be reasonably common, but is not abundant in the Kokoda and Garaina areas, and is common at Mount Obree.
55785		threats	eng	There are no known threats. It can tolerate living in disturbed areas near villages. Extensive habitat exists throughout its range.
55786		conservation	eng	Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. Its range includes Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.
55786		distribution	eng	This species is known from several locations in the rugged mountains of eastern New Guinea, between Mount Kaindi and Mount Obree, Central Province, and Mount Simpson, Milne Bay Province, in Papua New Guinea. It has been collected from 1,280-2,480m asl. It likely occupies most of the Owen Stanley Range at appropriate elevations.
55786		habitat	eng	It lives along small (1-2m wide) streams in montane rainforest. Similar to other species in the genus, it probably lays eggs in streams where the tadpoles also develop.
55786		population	eng	It is known to be common on the western slope of Mount Obree, Central Province, and on the eastern slope of Mount Simpson, in Milne Bay Province.
55786		threats	eng	Increased sedimentation in the streams due to mining is a localized threat. A road has also been built recently within its range. At Mount Simpson the species is utilized as a food item when it can be obtained. It is not known whether or not the current level of utilization is a threat.
55787		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55787		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen from the type locality, Gapaia Creek, between Garaina and Saureli, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, which is about 1,280m asl. It is likely to have a relatively broad distribution in suitable habitats but additional data are needed.
55787		habitat	eng	It occurs in torrential mountain streams in rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, this species lays large eggs in torrential streams and has larvae with large suckers.
55787		population	eng	Only one specimen is known, so its population status cannot be determined.
55787		threats	eng	The area from which it has been recorded is remote and is probably safe from most threats.
55788		conservation	eng	Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.
55788		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area of the eastern Star Mountains in the vicinity of the type locality (Telefomin, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea), and from an area 30km to the west. It has been recorded at about 1,750m asl. Although it is probably more widely distributed, no data are available to support this view at this stage.
55788		habitat	eng	This species occurs in torrential streams in rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.
55788		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55788		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and there are not thought to be any specific threats to its habitat at present.
55789		conservation	eng	There are many protected areas within the range of distribution of this species.
55789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon Basin from Amapá, Brazil, through the Guianas, Venezuela (Amazonas State), to Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. There is a need for better documentation of the geographical range of the species, especially in Venezuela. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,200m asl in Ecuador.
55789		habitat	eng	Old and second growth rainforest. Reproduction in narrow permanent waterbodies (streams/igarapes) inside tropical moist rainforest; frogs call from understorey vegetation along the streams.
55789		population	eng	Uncommon and somewhat locally distributed in range.
55789		threats	eng	It is assumed that agriculture practices, habitat degradation, logging and habitat fragmentation might have some effect on local populations. But overall, it is unlikely to be significantly affected across its wide range, much of which experiences minimal human impact.
55790		conservation	eng	Protected under the figure of a Biosphere Reserve in Venezuela. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
55790		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon basin from southern Colombia, Ecuador through Brazil to the Guianas and northeastern Brazil at elevations up to 700m asl. There is a recent record from the Orinoco Delta in Venezuela, in Delta Amacuro state, and a record (but no specimen) in Santa María de Erebato, in estado Bolívar. A record from San Jacinto, northern Departamento Loreto, Peru might be in error.
55790		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, specimens have been found on low vegetation in primary forest or at the edge of forest at night (Duellman, 1978). Probably reproduces in small permanent streams.
55790		population	eng	Apparently uncommon to rare throughout much of the range.
55790		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation might threaten some local populations, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.
55791		conservation	eng	Its distribution range includes Parque Nacional Yasuni in Ecuador, and it might also occur in protected areas in Peru.
55791		distribution	eng	This species is only known from lowland and intermediate elevations between 200 and 450m asl, of the Río Napo drainage in the provinces of Napo, Francisco de Orellana and Sucumbíos, in Ecuador. It is also known from the Iquitos area in the Loreto department in Peru. Further work is likely to show that this species occurs much more widely.
55791		habitat	eng	In Ecuador it occurs in the Napo moist forest in the Eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone. It is an inhabitant of primary forest. A canopy dweller, it breeds by larval development in bromeliads, usually very high up in trees (up to 15m above the ground). It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55791		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. This is primarily due to the species occurring in the high forest canopy, so it is very difficult to determine its population status.
55791		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55792		conservation	eng	This species might occur in Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone, Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone and Bosque de Proteccion San Matias San Carlos.
55792		distribution	eng	Specimens currently referable to O. elkejungingerae are now considered to be reasonably widespread in northern and central Peru. Peruvian specimens previously referred to as O. verruciger (from the central Peruvian Departments of Junin, San Martin and Ucayali) have been added to this account on the advice of Karl-Heinz Jungfer (pers comm). Restricted to moderate elevations (300-1,100m asl).
55792		habitat	eng	Lowland, premontane and montane forest, in the "rolling hills" area. Eggs are laid in small streams; the tadpoles develop here. Not recorded from secondary habitat.
55792		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
55792		threats	eng	Although parts of its range are threatened by clear-cutting, road development and coffee plantations (especially in San Martin), large areas of suitable habitat remain for the species.
55793		conservation	eng	More research into its extent of occurrence (for example, whether or not it occurs within any protected areas), ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55793		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Pakaraima Mountains of western Guyana. The adult male holotype was collected around 30km south-east of Imbaimadiai (5° 37' 30"N; 60° 14' 42"W), in Mazaruni-Potaro District, Guyana, at around 585m asl.
55793		habitat	eng	The one known specimen was collected in primary forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, though reproduction is presumably by larval development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
55793		population	eng	This is a very recently described species that is currently known only from one specimen (collected in 1997), so its population status has not been determined.
55793		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and the known locality is in an undisturbed, remote area.
55794		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55794		distribution	eng	This species is known only from between 250 and 600m asl, in the Río Napo drainage in the provinces of Napo, Francisco de Orellana and Sucumbíos, Ecuador. It is expected to occur much more widely, but this has not yet been confirmed.
55794		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Cordillera Real montane forest and Napo moist forest in the eastern tropical altitudinal zone of Ecuador. Specimens have been found only occasionally, on trees or bushes around 6m above the ground in primary forest. It is a canopy dweller, which is where males call from, and is thought to breed in bromeliads (up to 30m above the ground). It has also been recorded from banana plantations.
55794		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, since only a few specimens have been found so far. This is primarily due to it occurring in the high forest canopy, making it very difficult to survey.
55794		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), and logging.
55795		conservation	eng	It occurs in El Pure National Park.
55795		distribution	eng	This species is known from Amazonas Department in Tarapaca/Leticia and Río Pure, Colombia. 100-200m asl. It is believed to occur much more widely, and it will probably be found in neighbouring Brazil and Peru.
55795		habitat	eng	It occurs in bromeliads in lowland rainforest and is arboreal and nocturnal. It reproduces in bromeliads and tree holes.
55795		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55795		threats	eng	It suffers some habitat loss in the southern part of the range. Most of the range is unthreatened.
55796		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).
55796		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is in the Atlantic forests from Bahia south to Santa Catarina, Brazil; northeastern Argentina; and central and southern Oriental region, Paraguay. Its altitudinal range is 0-700m asl.
55796		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal frog that occurs on shrubs and trees inside rainforest. It reproduces in temporary and permanent pools inside forest. It is restricted to pristine habitats.
55796		population	eng	It is locally abundant and stable in suitable habitats in Brazil. It is assumed to be declining in Paraguay due to observed habitat loss.
55796		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and dams is a major threat. It is probably seriously threatened in Paraguay.
55797		conservation	eng	This species might occur in Yanachaga Chemillen National Park. Possible conservation measures could include the extension of existing protected areas.
55797		distribution	eng	This species’ can be found in eastern premontane slopes of central Peru. It can be found at elevations of 730-1,000m asl.
55797		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species of primary tropical moist forest. A phytotelm, breeding occurs in bromeliads. It is not present in degraded areas.
55797		population	eng	It is locally common in good habitat.
55797		threats	eng	Because of the large areas of suitable habitat still available to this species there are no major threats. There is some habitat loss through different human activities, principally agriculture (crops and ranching).
55798		conservation	eng	Some populations are within protected areas.
55798		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon basin, in the Guianas and the upper Amazon Basin in Venezuela (Amazonas and Bolivar states), Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil. A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). This species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 860m asl.
55798		habitat	eng	It is in an arboreal species found in primary and secondary forests (often along rivers) and border of forest, usually at heights of up to 1.5m. It is associated with savannahs in Suriname. For reproduction, the species employs temporary ponds.
55798		population	eng	This species can be considered as uncommon to common. It is not frequent in French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001).
55798		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to this species, it is threatened locally in Venezuela by illegal mining, and water pollution from the mining is a threat to the species' habitat.
55799		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with several protected areas including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
55799		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout much of Amazonian Ecuador, and a single site in northeastern Peru. It might range further south, as it is often confused with a similar Osteocephalus. Its elevational range is 200-1,200m asl.
55799		habitat	eng	Specimens have been found in primary forest and forest edge (Duellman, 1978; Jungfer and Hödl, 2002). This is an arboreal species that breeds in temporary ponds and slow moving streams. It may occur in slightly degraded habitats.
55799		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
55799		threats	eng	Although there is considerable loss of habitat in Ecuador through settlement and agriculture, there are still large areas of suitable habitat available to this species.
55800		conservation	eng	Within Peru this species might occur in the Tambopata National Reserve (Doan and Arizábal, 2002). Given its habitat and geographic distribution it might also occur in Apurimac Reserved Zone, Manu Biosphere Reserve, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. It is also present in protected areas within Bolivia.
55800		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Upper Amazon Basin and lower Andean slopes, Departments of Madre de Dios and Puno, Peru; Departments of Beni and La Paz, Bolivia; also present in Rondonia, Brazil. It is present from 200-1,000m asl.
55800		habitat	eng	It is present in lowland tropical moist forest; generally in open lakes and swampy areas within, or close to, forest. It possibly occurs in palm tree savannah. Its eggs are laid in shallow pools.
55800		population	eng	It is abundant where it is present.
55800		threats	eng	There are no major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55801		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species might occur in Santiago Comaina and Gueppi Reserved Zones, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Bosque de Protección San Matias San Carlos, Yanachaga Chemillen National Park and Yanesha Communal Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Colombia it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and Parque Nacional El Pure.
55801		distribution	eng	This species can be found in southern Colombia, Amazonian Ecuador and much of northern and central Amazonian Peru. Its elevation is between 200 and 700m asl.
55801		habitat	eng	A sub-canopy (c. 20 m) species of floodplain tropical forest, and terra firme forest. It may be found on tree branches and in open areas (Ron, 2001). It is a phytotelm breeder, with eggs laid in bromeliads. It is not present in disturbed habitats.
55801		population	eng	It is a common species.
55801		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55802		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.
55802		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the state of Acre, Brazil. It is expected to occur more widely.
55802		habitat	eng	This species can be found in leaf-litter of tropical rainforest. Its reproductive mode is unknown, though it is presumably by larval development. It is not known whether or not the larvae develop in plants, or in waterbodies.
55802		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but its distribution is not well known.
55802		threats	eng	Deforestation is probably a major threat.
55803		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.
55803		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela and Colombia and in the Amazon Basin of Ecuador, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas. It also occurs in gallery forest within the Cerrado of Mato Grosso and Maranhão, Brazil. An old record from Caracas, again cited in Barrio (1999) was considered to be erroneous by Trueb and Duellman (1971). Its altitudinal range is up to 1,250m asl.
55803		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal frog found in primary and secondary tropical rainforest as well as gallery forest in Cerrado. Individuals perch on trunks in the forest (up to a height of 40m), or sit at the banks of ponds. Also found at the border of forest. The species reproduces in temporary ponds or watercourses (including water-filled tire tracks) in the forest or at the border where it lays eggs. Tadpoles live in the water. Newly metamorphosed individuals are associated with temporary ponds (Neckel-Oliveira, 2007).
55803		population	eng	This species is abundant.
55803		threats	eng	Habitat loss/clear cutting are major threats.
55804		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. In Colombia it might occur in Cuevadea los Guacharos.
55804		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador and Colombia. Specimens previously referred to from central Peru (Departments of Junin, San Martin and Ucayali) have now been included in O. elkejungingerae (Karl-Heinz Jungfer pers comm.). It is possible that specimens considered to be O. verricigar in Colombia might refer to a different species (Karl-Heinz Jungfer pers comm.). It has an altitudinal limit of 1,400-2,000m asl.
55804		habitat	eng	This species’ habitat is montane and lowland tropical rainforests. At Cordillera del Dúe, Ecuador, the vegetation consists of lower humid montane forest, where there are many large trees, but the canopy is incomplete. Mosses and small ferns are abundant, and a thick layer of leaf-litter is present. Individuals of this species have been found in a broad, shallow ravine near to a stream. Males have been observed calling from low bushes and rocks along a pool in the stream (Trueb and Duellman, 1970). Breeding takes place in pools and slow streams. The species can be found alongside roads and in very disturbed habitat.
55804		population	eng	This is a common species.
55804		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and logging, but since the species is very adaptable, these are probably not having a very serious impact on the species.
55805		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species might occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone and Pacaya Samiria National Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55805		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Amazon Basin in Ecuador within a latitudinal range encompassed by the Río Napo to the north and the Río Curary to the south. Also known from two localities near Iquitos, Junction of Río Yanamono and Río Amazonas, Quebrada Grande, junction of Río Sucusari and Río Napo Departamento Loreto, in northeastern Peru. It has been recorded from Leticia in Colombia. All localities are from 100-250m in elevation. Further work is likely needed to understand if this species occurs more widely.
55805		habitat	eng	This species can be found in tropical primary moist forest including terra firme forest and seasonally flooded forest. It has been recorded from open areas (Ron and Pramuk, 1999) but this requires further investigation. Breeding takes place in temporary pools. It is not present in degraded areas.
55805		population	eng	This species is reasonably abundant.
55805		threats	eng	There are no major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55806		conservation	eng	Its range includes a protected area and several forest reserves, although they are not well managed at present.
55806		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Jamaica, where it is widespread throughout the country, except in the southern parts. It has been recorded up to 1,500 m asl.
55806		habitat	eng	It inhabits open woods, parkland, and montane forests, usually associated with bromeliads, which are used for retreat and calling sites. It is mainly arboreal. It can tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance, for example it can live in good secondary forest as long as there are bromeliads. It lays its eggs in bromeliads, and the tadpoles also develop there.
55806		population	eng	It is a common species.
55806		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture, human settlement, tourist development and selective logging is a localized threat,. Suitable secondary forest habitats are starting to develop at mid-elevations in Jamaica, due to abandonment of farms, and so in some places it might be increasing. It is mainly the coastal areas that's habitats are being affected the worst at present.
55807		conservation	eng	It occurs in several forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and increased management of these, and improved habitat protection, are necessary.
55807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Jamaica. It formerly occurred on the south-western coast, at an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,200m asl.
55807		habitat	eng	This species is found in mesic broadleaf woods and forests on tree trunks and in bromeliads; it requires large dead trees. Males call from hollows in branches and bromeliads, and eggs are laid in bromeliads. It is not found in significantly altered habitats but can be found in regenerating forests.
55807		population	eng	There has been a decline in its abundance, and this species is now rarely encountered or heard calling, except in pockets of suitable habitat.
55807		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agriculture, human settlements, development for tourist activities, and logging.
55808		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55808		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 2,000m asl.
55808		habitat	eng	It is arboreal; males call from bushes and eggs are laid in standing water. It occurs anywhere near water in forests and anthropogenic open areas. It is an opportunistic breeder in any temporary or permanent standing waterbodies.
55808		population	eng	It is an abundant, ubiquitous species on Hispaniola.
55808		threats	eng	It has no apparent threats.
55809		conservation	eng	It is known from a few forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and increased management of these reserves, and improved habitat protection, are necessary.
55809		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted and fragmented range in central Jamaica, where it has been recorded from 120-880m asl.
55809		habitat	eng	It is found in bromeliads in pine and deciduous forests. Eggs are laid in bromeliads. It was thought not to have a call until recently as it does not have a vocal sac, but it actually does vocalize by means of vibration. It is restricted to old growth forest, and is not tolerant of disturbance of its forest habitat.
55809		population	eng	This species appears to be less common than <em>Osteopilus wilderi</em>.
55809		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat throughout its range, primarily for agriculture, human settlement, development for tourist activities, and selective logging.
55810		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic, although these are not well managed for biodiversity conservation. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species in the wild, and to determine whether chytrid is a threat.
55810		distribution	eng	This species has a highly fragmented distribution on Hispaniola, which suggests that it is declining from a previously more uniform distribution. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,091m asl. It is presently known to persist at only one location in the Dominican Republic.
55810		habitat	eng	It occurs in mesic broadleaf forests, including remnant forests. Males call in flooded pools after heavy rain. Records from 40 years ago found the species in anthropogenic habitats such as rice fields, but recent records are all from forest. Eggs are laid in still water where the larvae also develop.
55810		population	eng	This species has always been hard to find, but even so it appears to be in decline, with many historic populations that appear to have disappeared. It was not recorded during extensive searches of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic in suitable habitat from 1998 to 2000. It was last recorded in Haiti in 1985.
55810		threats	eng	Major threats include deforestation due to agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, and logging. Since it appears to have declined in suitable habitats, chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat.
55811		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55811		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Cuba, the Isla de Juventud (Cuba), Archipelago de los Canarreos (Cuba), the Archipelago de Sabana-Camaguey (Cuba), Cayos de San Felipe (Cuba), the Cayman Islands, and the following places in the Bahamas: Little and Great Bahamas Banks, Long Island, Cat Island, Conception Island, Rum Cay, San Salvador, Crooked-Acklands Bank, and Great Inagua Island. It is introduced on Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St John, St Thomas), Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Beef Island and Peter Island (British Virgin Islands), the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Florida Keys and mainland Florida (USA), Hawaii (USA), Anguilla, St Martin (France portion, not yet in Netherlands portion), St Barthelemy, Bonaire, and Limon, Costa Rica (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). It occurs from sea level up to 1,110m asl.
55811		habitat	eng	It generally inhabits mesic habitats but may be found in xeric habitat in the Bahamas, living in all kinds of disturbed habitats, including towns and houses. It is also present in forests, mangroves and coastal areas. It can also tolerate brackish water. It is found on the ground and on tree trunks. Males call from vegetation near pooled rainwater. Eggs are laid in still water, including pools, marshes, flood pastures, and ditches. It is competing with other species, and predates native amphibians in the wild. It might also be a vector for pathogens.<br/><br/>Breeding events have been found to last only one night and male mating behavior changes from acoustic competition to scramble searching over the breeding event. Most males have similar opportunities to mate with a female, and there doesn't appear to be a direct adaptive benefit for high mating selectivity by females, which can increase the invasive capacity of <em>O. septentrionalis</em> (Vargas Salinas, 2006).
55811		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species. It is spreading rapidly, with frequent new island records (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
55811		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.  The species' diet suggests that it could severely impact native species, and its tadpoles impact those of some native anurans (see Perry and Gerber, 2006).
55812		conservation	eng	It occurs in several forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection. Its range overlaps with the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park. Given this species' very specific habitat requirements, improved and strengthened habitat protection and management is essential.
55812		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central Jamaica at an altitudinal range of 120-880m asl.
55812		habitat	eng	It is commonly found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads in closed-canopy forests. The species can occur in secondary growth, as long as there are bromeliads (since the eggs are laid, and larval development occurs, in bromeliads only).
55812		population	eng	It is declining but is more common than <em>Osteopilus marianae</em>.
55812		threats	eng	The major threat to this bromeliad-dependent species is habitat loss due smallholder farming activites, wood extraction, and human settlement.
55813		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve as well as a few other protected areas. Real protection of the tropical deciduous forest areas in coastal Mexico is needed.
55813		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Sonora, southward along the Pacific coast including the Balsas Depression, to southern Oaxaca, Mexico. It is found up to 1,000m asl.
55813		habitat	eng	This species inhabits xeric lowlands and tropical deciduous forest, commonly occurring in areas characterized by a prolonged dry season. In the rainy season it is common to find many individuals congregated in temporary pools and even in artificial ponds and other water reservoirs, where they breed.
55813		population	eng	This is a common species.
55813		threats	eng	Transformation of the original forest habitat of this species is a major threat.
55814		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55814		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal mountains (Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira), in Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, southeastern Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl.
55814		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the vegetation near waterbodies inside primary and secondary forest. The clutches are laid on leaves above the water, when hatched the tadpoles drop into the permanent streams below. It has not been recorded outside forest habitats.
55814		population	eng	It is a common species.
55814		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
55815		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from two protected areas: Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Serra do Teimoso (Bahia); and Reserva Biólogica duas Bocas. Population monitoring is needed to determine wheter or not the species is in decline.
55815		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in eastern and southeastern Brazil: Santa Teresa (type locality) and Cariacica in the State of Espírito Santo; and Jussari in the State of Bahia. It presumably occurs between these areas, and can be expected to occur at least a little more widely.
55815		habitat	eng	It is a forest species that cannot tolerate serious deforestation. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched they fall in to the stream below where they develop further.
55815		population	eng	It is very common where it occurs. At the type locality it appears to have experienced a significant decline (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
55815		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, and logging and human settlement.
55816		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.
55816		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal mountains in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná States, Brazil. It occurs from 50-1,200m asl.
55816		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near streams inside primary and secondary forest. The eggs are laid on leaves above the water, and when the tadpoles hatch they drop into the permanent stream below. It has also been found at the forest edge, but not outside forest.
55816		population	eng	This is a common species where it is found. It has undergone large population fluctuations in the past. Current declines in Rio de Janeiro need further monitoring to determine whether or not they are populations fluctuations or actual declines.
55816		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and infrastructure development are major threats to this species.
55817		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55817		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Espinhaço (at Serra do Cipó and the Municipality of Turmalina and Nova Lima), and Serra do Caraça in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It occurs above 1,000m asl.
55817		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams in gallery forests and open areas. The eggs are deposited on leaves above the water, and fall into the permanent stream below when hatched. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
55817		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55817		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement, and disturbance of the habitat from touristic activities and fire are threats to the species.
55818		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu, Tambopata National Reserve, and Gueppi Reserved Zone, and given its habitat and geographic distribution it might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. Additional conservation measures might include determination of the impact of harvesting for human consumption on the Balta (and maybe other) population(s) and if necessary implement a harvest management program.
55818		distribution	eng	This species is found in Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana and upper Amazon Basin in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Christian Marty observed it for the first time in French Guiana in 1993 (Lescure and Marty, 2001). A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided by Lescure and Marty (2001). The altitudinal range is 0-300m asl.
55818		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest and gently rolling hills covered with tropical forest. Specimens have been found in primary forest, secondary forest, and at the edge of the forest (Duellman, 1978). It reproduces in water-filled tree holes, temporary and permanent ponds.
55818		population	eng	It is not commonly recorded because of its arboreal habits.
55818		threats	eng	Although probably not generally threatened, local populations are no doubt impacted by various forms of deforestation. This species is eaten by the local population comprised of Cashinahua Indians (Balta, Departamento Ucayali) and the Achuar Indians in Ecuador. Although widespread, one of the populations is a source of protein for human consumption and it would be useful to determine whether or not other populations might be similarly exploited elsewhere.
55819		conservation	eng	Its ranges overlaps with all of the protected areas in Suriname and French Guiana.
55819		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. In Guyana it is known only from the type locality ("area north of Acarai Mountains, west of New River (ca. 02°N; 58°W), Rupununi District, Guyana") in extreme southern Guyana (Duellman and Hoogmoed, 1992). It is widespread in Suriname and French Guiana (Lescure and Marty (2001) provide a dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana).
55819		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland primary forest. They breed in very small tree holes in the canopy of the forest. Females feed the tadpoles by depositing unfertilised eggs in the tree holes. The larvae are oophagous.
55819		population	eng	This species is often heard in the forest, but is difficult to see as it occurs very high up in the trees. Calling males were estimated at a density of 0.9km2 in primary forest in French Guiana (P. Gaucher pers. comm.).
55819		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of the forest might be a threat to this species in the future but at present its habitat is generally secure.
55820		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Brazil. Occurs in a small private reserve in Argentina.
55820		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountainous parts of southern and southeastern Brazil (from southern Minas Gerais south to northern Rio Grande do Sul), west to east-central Misiones Province, Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 400-1,700m asl.
55820		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal frog found in the canopy of primary forest. It is an explosive breeder, spawning in permanent still waterbodies in the forest. Probably not tolerant of much habitat disturbance.
55820		population	eng	This species is not well known and is probably a rare species, although some very large populations have been found breeding in the northern part of its range. The southern population (which is probably a different species) seems to be much rarer. It is probably easily overlooked when not breeding.
55820		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, wood plantations, logging and human settlement.
55821		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from two protected areas: Parque Estadual Intervales and Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho.
55821		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens, one collected in Parque Estadual Intervales, and the other in Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho, both in São Paulo State, Brazil.
55821		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be an inhabitant of moist tropical forest. One of the specimens was collected in an epiphytic bromeliad 10cm above the ground. It is presumed that egg deposition either occurs in pools in tree cavities, or in pools on the forest floor.
55821		population	eng	Since it is known only from two specimens, the population status of this species cannot be determined.
55821		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Although the only known populations are in protected areas, it is also likely to occur in areas where its habitat is being lost.
55822		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55822		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Brazil, from extreme southern Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul, inland to include eastern and central Minas Gerais. It ranges up to 800m asl.
55822		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary forest and forest edge, living on vegetation near waterbodies. It is an explosive breeder, using temporary and permanent ponds. The egg clutches are laid floating on the water.
55822		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55822		threats	eng	The only significant threats are clear cutting and water pollution, but this species is not seriously at risk.
55823		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within its range. Venezuelan population protected in Sierra de la Neblina National Park, Amazonas state. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55823		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern Suriname, central Guyana, French Guiana and Amazonian Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Lescure and Marty (2001) gave a record for Peru. McDiarmid and Paolillo (1988) gave the first and only record of this species in Venezuela: Rio Baria, base del Cerro Neblina in Amazonas State; no further Venezuelan samples are known. Its altitudinal range is 0-450m asl.
55823		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits the canopy of tropical primary rainforest, where they breed in tree cavities and may seldom, if ever, descend to the ground (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, this species has been found in open area, floodable forest, and in Terra firme forest on branches of trees (Ron, 2001). It reproduces in tree cavities and it is characterized by loud vocalization.
55823		population	eng	Rarely recorded, probably because of its arboreal habits.
55823		threats	eng	Local populations are no doubt impacted by forest conversion, clear cutting, selective logging, and human settlement. However, overall this species is not significantly threatened.
55824		conservation	eng	The wide distribution range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.
55824		distribution	eng	This species is found in Central America, from central Tamaulipas and southern Sinaloa, Mexico southward on both coasts to central Nicaragua and on to the Pacific lowlands through Panama, from 0-1,610m asl. In South America it occurs throughout the Amazon basin, south to Paraná (Brazil), Paraguay, northern Argentina. It is also present on both Trinidad and Tobago. It has an altitudinal range in South America of sea level to 800m asl.
55824		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, canopy-dwelling forest and forest-edge species. It occurs in a number of habitat types from savannahs and other open habitats to both dry and moist forests. It can be found in disturbed habitats, animals may even be found within human dwellings. It can live within second growth forest and plantations. This species breeds at the beginning of the rainy season, with males calling at night while floating in large temporary pools or intermittent streams. The floating egg clutches are laid in the water where the tadpoles also develop.
55824		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55824		threats	eng	There are no major threats, this is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to drying of wetlands, forest destruction, urbanization, pollution and fire. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55825		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Research to determine its population status and distribution, and actions to protect the original habitat, are needed.
55825		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (São Bento), Novo Horizonte, Lauro Muller in Santa Catarina State, and Serra de Araracuara, Guaratuba, in Parana State, southern Brazil, at approximately 800-1,000m asl.
55825		habitat	eng	It occurred on vegetation near forest streams in rainforest, laying eggs on vegetation overhanging the streams in which the larvae developed.
55825		population	eng	Once somewhat common in areas where it occurred, it has not been seen since 1970 despite repeated searches. The reasons for the decline are unknown.
55825		threats	eng	The habitat in the localities where the species occurred is relatively intact. Its disappearance from apparently suitable habitat is reminiscent of that of other high-altitude frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as being the causative agent.
55826		conservation	eng	To aid its conservation, more research is urgently needed into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status, in particular to determine whether or not it has a restricted range, if it is subject to any major threats, and if it occurs in any protected areas.
55826		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mongaguá in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, although the exact locality is not known. It might occur more widely, but this has not yet been confirmed.
55826		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat is unknown (the habitat of the type locality was not given in the original description), but if it is similar to other species of the genus it possibly frequents forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, though again if it is similar to other members of the genus reproduction is presumably by larval development in streams.
55826		population	eng	This species was described from only one specimen, so its population status is unknown, and no further collections have been made in the type locality.
55826		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55827		conservation	eng	It has been found in several protected areas.
55827		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil is known from four localities: Santa Teresa (the type locality) in the State of Espírito Santo; Teresopolis and Parati in the State of Rio de Janeiro; and Ubatuba in the State of Sao Paulo State. Its altitudinal range is 200-800m asl.
55827		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas. It is usually found on vegetation near permanent or temporary shallow streams, in which the tadpoles develop.
55827		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
55827		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting, human settlement and fire.<br/><br/>A similar species, <em>Phrynomedusa<em> cf. <em>marginata</em> has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).</em></em>
55828		conservation	eng	The range of this species is wholly within protected areas, although it is clear that conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required even in these areas.
55828		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Teresópolis, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, and Boraceia, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, from 800-1,500m asl, although its distribution is not well known. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.
55828		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded from streams in primary forest. Larvae have been found in small pools in permanent streams.
55828		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55828		threats	eng	Its habitat is being degraded in Boraceia, where harvesting of palmito palm trees is opening up the forest canopy.
55829		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55829		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the coastal areas of northeastern Brazil, from the States of Bahia, Alagoas and Pernambuco. It occurs up to 550m asl.
55829		habitat	eng	It has been found on the forest edge in bromeliads, and might also occur inside forest in bromeliads in the canopy. It has not been found in open or heavily degraded areas. It breeds in bromeliads by larval development.
55829		population	eng	It is a common species.
55829		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and collection of bromeliads.
55830		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas, but maintenance and protection of its habitat is urgently required.
55830		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the summit of Aripo, in the Northern Range, and probably also Morne Bleu Ridge, Trinidad Island, in Trinidad and Tobago. The total range of the species is estimated to be 10km² or less. It is known from around 940m asl.
55830		habitat	eng	It is found in montane rainforest and elfin woodland. It has a very specific microhabitat and is associated with the giant epiphytic bromeliad, <em>Glomeropitcairnia erectiflora</em>. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads. It is not adaptable to disturbance of its habitat.
55830		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55830		threats	eng	It is threatened by the collection of bromeliads from the forest, and the over collecting of specimens.
55831		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55831		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Alhandra, which is close to sea level, in the state of Paraíba in north-eastern Brazil.
55831		habitat	eng	All the specimens were found inside bromeliads, in which this species is presumed to breed by larval development. Its broader habitat preferences are not known, although it is perhaps associated with coastal Restinga shrubland, or with forest.
55831		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.
55831		threats	eng	It is known only from an area that has been heavily impacted by human activities and so it is likely to be threatened by these activities. These threats are human settlement, in particular, but also agricultural development, livestock grazing, logging and collection of bromeliads.
55832		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca and in the Estación Ecológica Murici.
55832		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from several localities in north-eastern Brazil in the states of Alagoas and Pernambuco: Mata do Catole, in the municipality of Maceio; Rio Largo; Mata da Salava; the Estación Ecológica Murici; and Jaqueira. It occurs from sea level up to 650m asl.
55832		habitat	eng	It lives in arboreal bromeliads in forest, and also in bromeliads in rocky outcrops, but it has not been found in disturbed habitats. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.
55832		population	eng	This is a common species.
55832		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood extraction, human settlement and collection of bromeliads. The area where it is found is suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction in extent of forest patches, and some populations in Alagoas appear to be at severe risk as a result of this.
55833		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca and in the Estación Ecológica Murici.
55833		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from two localities in north-eastern Brazil: Fazenda Bananeiras, in the municipality of Murici, in the state of Alagoas; and Usina Colonia in the state of Pernambuco. It has been recorded up to around 650m asl.
55833		habitat	eng	It lives in arboreal bromeliads in forest (in which it breeds by larval development), and has not been found in degraded habitats.
55833		population	eng	It is less common than <em>Phyllodytes edelmoi</em>, with which it shares a similar geographic range.
55833		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood extraction, human settlement and collection of bromeliads. The area where it is found is suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction in extent of forest patches.
55834		conservation	eng	It occurs in three reserves: Santa Tereza and Santa Lucia Estacion Biólogica; Reserva Biólogica Augusto Ruschi; and Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz.
55834		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil is known from several localities in the State of Espírito Santo, from Domingos Martins northwards, as far as Porto Seguro in the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 600m asl.
55834		habitat	eng	It lives inside bromeliads in the canopy of lowland moist forest, and does not occur in degraded areas. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.
55834		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55834		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and collection of bromeliads.
55835		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55835		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal region of eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco, south to southern Espírito Santo State. Records from Paraíba require confirmation. It occurs up to 650m asl.
55835		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads in lowland moist forest and in coastal "Restinga" shrubland (including in quite open "Restinga"). It breeds by larval development in bromeliads. The females lay a few eggs in each leaf axil and use more than one bromeliad during egg laying.
55835		population	eng	It is a common species.
55835		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, fire, logging, human settlement and collection of bromeliads.
55836		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55836		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil is known from Porto Seguro in the State of Bahia, north to Areia Branca, in the State of Sergipe. It occurs up to 800m asl.
55836		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads in coastal "Restinga" scrub (including open "Restinga"), and also in secondary lowland moist forest. It is normally found in canopy bromeliads, and only very rarely in bromeliads on the ground or in low vegetation. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.
55836		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55836		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, human settlement, tourism, fire and collection of bromeliads. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008)
55837		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55837		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil is known only from the vicinity of its type locality at Maracas and Santa Ines in east-central Bahia State. Records from the state of Sergipe refer to the recently described <em>Phyllodytes punctatus</em> (Caramaschi and Peixoto 2004).
55837		habitat	eng	It apparently lives in terrestrial bromeliads in open areas, and breeds in the bromeliads by larval development.
55837		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, of which there have been no recent field observations, probably due to a lack of survey effort.
55837		threats	eng	There is no direct information on the threats to this species, but in view of its known range the major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, fire and collection of bromeliads.
55838		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu, Tambopata National Reserve and Gueppi Reserved Zone, and might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. It is not present in any Brazilian protected areas however the forests of this State are still well conserved.
55838		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru, close to the Iquitos region (Departamento Loreto), and along the basins of the Tambopata, Manu and Madre de Dios rivers (Departamento Madre de Dios). It is present in Acre, Brazil and also occurs in northern Bolivia. It occurs at elevations of up to 200m asl.
55838		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species active on the ground or low vegetation. Restricted to lowland primary tropical rainforest. Eggs are laid on leaves; tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It is not present in modified habitats.
55838		population	eng	It is not a common species, but it is relatively easily encountered
55838		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55839		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in Parque Estadual das Furnas do Bom Jesus (Araujo et al., 2007).
55839		distribution	eng	This species is known from Morro do Ferro (type locality), in the municipality of Poços de Caldas, state of Minas Gerais, and from Parque Estadual das Furnas do Bom Jesus, in the municipality of Pedregulho, state of São Paulo, Brazil. The taxonomic status of the population at Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra, in the municipality of São Roque de Minas, Minas Gerais, requires assessment. It is found between 647-1540m asl.
55839		habitat	eng	This species has been found in transition zones between typical cerrado and secondary semideciduous forest. It occurs in open areas on shrubs near pools. The egg clutch is deposited on leaves above permanent flowing water, and when hatched the tadpoles fall into streams below.
55839		population	eng	It is a rare species. It seems to occur at low densities at the Parque Estadual das Furnas do Bom Jesus (Araujo et al., 2007).
55839		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to mining and fires, as well as pollution from mining activities, are the major threats.
55840		conservation	eng	It is present in the Reserva Comunal El Sira (an indigenous people's reserve). Further survey work is necessary to determine the precise limits of the distribution of this species, its current population status in the wild, and its breeding biology.
55840		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the west slope of the Serrania de Sira, Huánuco Department, Peru. It possibly occurs in the Cordillera Azul, but this requires further investigation. Its presumed altitudinal range is around 1,280m asl.
55840		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from low cloud forest at 1,280m asl. Otherwise, nothing further is known about this species, though it may use temporary ponds for breeding.
55840		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55840		threats	eng	Although the restricted area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some habitat disturbance due to farming and human settlement. In addition, the lower parts of the range are being selectively logged.
55841		conservation	eng	The species' distribution encompasses several protected areas.
55841		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon Basin in Venezuela (Amazonas and Bolívar states), Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and the Guianas. It also occurs in the Cerrado habitat of Manhao state, Brazil. It has been recorded from 0-800m asl.
55841		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal tree frog. It has been found calling from the limbs of trees in tropical rainforest at heights of more than 2m above the water in a forest pond (Duellman 1997). Gorzula and Señaris (1999) reported a leaf-nest found about 2m above a forest pool. Tadpoles then develop in temporary waterbodies. They are also found in gallery forest in Cerrado.
55841		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
55841		threats	eng	There are very few threats through its wide range, though it is probably impacted locally by very severe habitat loss, such as clear-cutting. It might benefit from road cuts through forest where individuals congregate to reproduce. There is currently an increased interest in the toxic compounds in the skin of this frog (which is used for hunting practices for several tribes of Amazonia). This might increase harvesting effort in the future, but at the moment, such utilisation is not considered to constitute a threat to the species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55842		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is needed to determine the status of the populations in Rôndonia. It occurs in several protected areas.
55842		distribution	eng	This species is found in the dry Amazonian slopes of the Andes and lowlands of eastern Dept. of Santa Cruz (Bolivia); northern Argentina; and western Mato Grosso and Rôndonia, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is 200-1,800m asl.
55842		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical dry forest, and edge situations close to rainforests. Males call at night from vegetation. The eggs are attached to leaves in vegetation above temporary pools, and hatched tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop. They have also been observed breeding in artificial ponds in Parque Nacional Calilegua.
55842		population	eng	It is common throughout most of its range.
55842		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by agricultural practices (including fire) and wood extraction.
55843		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Llanganates. In Colombia the Santander population overlaps with the Guanenta-Alto Río Fonce National Park. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not there are two different species in Colombia, considering the disjunctive nature of the species distribution. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is also desirable.
55843		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin and the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Colombia (departments of Caquetá and Santander) and Ecuador (Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forests and Napo Moist Forest in the Eastern Subtropical and Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zones). In Santander it is known from 1,700m asl, and in Caquetá it is known from around 400m asl. In Ecuador it is known from 400-1,800m asl.
55843		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lower montane and montane primary and secondary rainforest. Specimens have been taken at night on low vegetation overhanging pools of water (Cannatella, 1980). Eggs are laid on leaves above permanent pools, and when hatched the tadpoles drop in to the water below. It is not known from anthropogenic habitats.
55843		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55843		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation from small farms, and clear cutting of forests are localized threats, however there are no threats known to the species' overall survival. In Ecuador its range is close to an active volcano.
55844		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55844		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sergipe to São Paulo, in eastern Brazil, from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
55844		habitat	eng	It is mainly known from the Atlantic Forest edge. It occurs on vegetation near standing waterbodies. The egg clutch is deposited in leaf nests above the water, and when hatched the larvae fall in to the water below where they develop further. Reproductive activity in this species has been recorded in the months of December to February, potentially also occurring in November (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It probably adapts well to moderate anthropogenic disturbance.
55844		population	eng	It is a common species.
55844		threats	eng	Mining and logging are major threats to the species' habitat.
55845		conservation	eng	Present in Parque Nacional Manu in Peru, and numerous protected areas in Bolivia, and presumably Brazil.
55845		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southwestern Amazon Basin from southeastern Peru (Departments of Madre de Dios and Ucayali); western Brazil (States of Amazonas, Acre, and Rondonia) through northern and eastern Bolivia (Departments of Pando, Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, and Santa Cruz). It is present at 450m asl.
55845		habitat	eng	It is present in primary lowland tropical moist forest, secondary forest and also disturbed open areas. Foam nests are made on leaves above pools, the tadpoles fall from these into the water.
55845		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55845		threats	eng	Because of the large areas of suitable habitat still available to this species there are no major threats.
55846		conservation	eng	Its type locality is within a protected area.
55846		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Chapada dos Guimarães, in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, at around 800m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, but its distribution is very poorly known.
55846		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of the Cerrado savannah, and occurs on vegetation near small streams in which it breeds.
55846		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55846		threats	eng	The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock) and fire. The disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a threat.
55847		conservation	eng	Given its known habitat and geographic distribution, this species might occur in Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, and might also be in Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone.
55847		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, "Loreto, Peru" and Moyobamba, Departamento San Martin, Peru. It has been recorded from two localities in Colombia (Caqueta Department). There is a single record from the Ecuadorian Amazon provided by Read (2002) with no specific locality data. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Its elevation is up to 800m asl.
55847		habitat	eng	A Lowland tropical rainforest species. At Loreto, Perú, one specimen was found in rolling terrain with steep slopes and small, sandy bottomed streams in primary forest (Duellman and Mendelson III, 1995). The breeding habitat is not known, though the larvae are likely to develop in streams. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.
55847		population	eng	It is generally rare, with few specimens at each locality.
55847		threats	eng	A Lowland tropical rainforest species, it can be found in Loreto, Perú. One specimen was found in rolling terrain with steep slopes and small, sandy bottomed streams in primary forest (Duellman and Mendelson III, 1995). The breeding habitat is not known, though the larvae are likely to develop in streams. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.
55848		conservation	eng	The known locality for this species is not within a protected area. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
55848		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, La Blanquita in the municipality of Frontina, in Antioquia Department, on the northern part of the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 1,640m asl.
55848		habitat	eng	The one known specimen of this species was found on a leaf on vegetation near a stream in primary forest. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams.
55848		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from one specimen. It has not been recorded again at the type locality, but it is most likely a very difficult species to find.
55848		threats	eng	Clearing of the forest for fruit cultivation is a major threat to the habitat in this species' range.
55849		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55849		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of São Paulo south to the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55849		habitat	eng	It lives inside moist primary and secondary forest, and on the forest edge, but not in more open areas. It is usually found on shrubs near standing waterbodies. The eggs are laid on leaves over permanent ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.
55849		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55849		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, and clear-cutting.
55850		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán, but this requires confirmation.
55850		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, near Balzapata, and upper Río Chiriaco, in Amazonas Department, Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 1,850-1,910m asl. It is not known if this species is restricted in range, or whether or not it is likely to be found more widely.
55850		habitat	eng	This is a cloud forest species about which very little is known. The larvae presumably develop in water.
55850		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
55850		threats	eng	It might be threatened by the agricultural activity (such as cultivation of coffee) that is occurring around the type locality.
55851		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and its habitat may be in need of formal protection to guard against encroachment. Further research is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and whether chytrid poses a genuine threat.
55851		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Agua Rica, south-west of Limón, on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, at around 1,890m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
55851		habitat	eng	It is apparently a species of montane cloud forest, presumably breeding in slow-flowing streams, or perhaps occasionally in still water.
55851		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55851		threats	eng	The habitat around the type locality is apparently not very threatened at the moment, although there is some agricultural encroachment of the forest. However, the species lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis, and so this is a potential threat.
55852		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní. It is not found in any Peruvian protected areas.
55852		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in North Teniente Lopez, between Río Pastaza and Río Tigre, northern Departamento Loreto, Peru; and from three single localities in Ecuador. While the species is known from only a few sites it is expected to occur more widely in the suitable habitat between these areas. It occurs up to 450m asl.
55852		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest. At Loreto, the holotytpe was found in a permanent or semi-permanent pond supporting Heliconia in a depression in rainforest. This specimen was perched on a leaf of a vine 4m above the ground; the vine was attached to a tree at the edge of the forest pond (Duellman and Mendelson III, 1995). The species deposits eggs on leafs overhanging temporary ponds; the larvae develop in the pools. It is not present in degraded habitat.
55852		population	eng	It is not an abundant species.
55852		threats	eng	The most western part of the Ecuadorian range is suffering from habitat loss (agriculture, logging etc.).
55853		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas, and can survive well in urbanised areas.
55853		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is South America, east of the Andes, including much of the Amazon basin, and it occurs as far south as northern Argentina. It is not present in the Amazonian areas of Ecuador or Peru. It occurs from the lowlands up to 1,500m asl.
55853		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that perches on shrubs and herbaceous vegetation in seasonally flooded grasslands and open habitats in tropical dry forests. It is also common in secondary vegetation near moist sites. Males call from bushes in, and at the edges of temporary ponds in the forest, with most individuals perched within 1m of the surfaces of the ponds. Nests have been found at the beginning of the rainy season about 1m above the water of small pools. The eggs are deposited on leaves above the water; tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It has been recorded from urban areas in Bolivia.
55853		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55853		threats	eng	Extreme levels of habitat degradation, such as forest clear-cutting, fires, over-grazing by cattle, commercial agriculture might be impacting some local populations, but this species is adaptable, and there are probably no significant threats to its survival at present. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55854		conservation	eng	Possibly occurs in Lagoa do Peixe National Park, but this is not confirmed. Creation of new protected areas and research actions needed.
55854		distribution	eng	This species can be found in extreme southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), and Uruguay (Durazno, La Valleja, Maldonado, Rivera, Rocha, San Jose, and Treinta y Tres Departments), at an elevation of 0-500m asl.
55854		habitat	eng	It occurs in shrubland and is arboreal. It lays eggs on vegetation above standing water. The larvae develop in water and the tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.
55854		population	eng	It can be common in some parts of its range.
55854		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by pet trade and conversion of native habitat to pastures.
55855		conservation	eng	Within Costa Rica, the former range included several national parks and other protected areas; none of the remaining populations are within protected areas (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007). The species is known to be present within at least six Panamanian protected areas, but it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. A successful captive breeding program began in 2001 at the Atlanta Botanical Garden, which has since transferred individuals to other zoos to continue these captive breeding efforts. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September 2007).
55855		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica and Panama, and marginally in Colombia. It occurs predominantly on the Atlantic versant from the vicinity of Tilarán, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, to western Panama; the disjunct Pacific slope records are from north-western Costa Rica and south-western, central, and extreme eastern Panama in the Darien area, where it extends marginally across the border into Colombia. In Costa Rica the species is now only known with certainty from three sites: Fila Asunción, 15km south-west of Limón (an abandoned farm); in a forested area near Parque Nacional Barbilla near Siquirres (where one female has been found); and from Guayacán (in Limón Province). The first of these three sites is the only site known to have a large breeding population. All other previously known Costa Rican populations of this species have disappeared including those in Monteverde, San Ramón, Braulio Carrillo, and Tapantí. Its altitudinal range is 440-1,600m asl.
55855		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal tree frog associated with sloping areas in humid lowland and montane primary forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. The eggs are usually deposited on leaf surfaces and the larvae are washed off or fall into water below the site of oviposition.
55855		population	eng	It was once considered to be a reasonably common species in Costa Rica, but most populations have recently disappeared. The species is still considered to be reasonably common in lower elevation in central and eastern parts of Panama (where, for example, there are recent records from Palmarazo), but extensive declines have been recorded in western Panama from the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, (no records from this site since 1999) and El Copé, Coclé (declined from 2004, although it persists at a very reduced abundance [Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007]) (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no recent population information from Colombia.
55855		threats	eng	The massive declines noted in this species are probably due to chytridiomycosis. Recent studies by Woodhams <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that among species studies, this was one of the more resistant species to infection with chytridiomycosis; possibly suggesting a reason for the continued persistence of limited numbers of this species at El Copé. General habitat loss also remains a threat, and this is especially the case in Costa Rica where deforestation by squatters threatens Fila Asunción, one of the three known remaining populations.
55856		conservation	eng	The type locality is protected within Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.
55856		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, in the vicinity of the biological station of Rancho Grande, on the road from Maracay to Ocumare, in Aragua state, Venezuela. More recently it has been recorded west of the park, near the town of Bejuma, state of Carabobo, and on Cerro Zapatero, between the<br/>towns of San Felipe and Nirgua, state of Yaracuy, Venezuela (Lotzkat et al., 2007). It has been recorded between 1,000-1,300m asl.
55856		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of cloud forest, it lays its eggs on leaves above pools and slow-flowing streams. It has a less elaborate nest than <em>Phyllomedusa trinitatis</em>.
55856		population	eng	It was overcollected following its description in 1962, and has not been recorded since 1974 at the type locality and its vicinities, despite considerable search efforts (Lotzkat et al., 2007). A few individuals were found in October 2006 at Cerro Zapatero; however, detailed studies on the population status of this species are needed (Lotzkat et al., 2007).
55856		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any threats to this species at present, although it does occur in a well-managed protected area. Up until the time it was last seen at Rancho Grande it suffered from being overcollected. If it occurs more widely than is currently known, it could be found in places where its habitat is threatened.
55857		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
55857		distribution	eng	Caramaschi (2006) indicates that the species is only known from the Municipality of Jaboticatubas, in the Serra do Cipó,<br/>state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, associated to the Espinhaço mountain range.
55857		habitat	eng	It is believed to inhabit open areas and rocky Cerrado savannah on the tops of plateaus and mountain ranges. The egg clutch is presumably deposited on leaves above the water, and when hatched the larvae fall into a permanent stream below.
55857		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, so its population status is not known.
55857		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55858		conservation	eng	It has been collected in the Reserva Ecológica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE).
55858		distribution	eng	This species is known from the plateaus in the state of Goiás (the Serra da Mesa, Chapada dos Veadeiros, and the Serra dos Pirineus) and in the Distrito Federal (in the Área de Relevante Interesse Ecológico (ARIE) do Capetinga, in the Reserva Ecológica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE)), Brazil. It occurs at altitudes above 900m asl.
55858		habitat	eng	It is found in open Cerrado savannah, with short and scattered shrubs, and breeds in small streams with the larvae developing in pools within the streams.
55858		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55858		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
55859		conservation	eng	In Peru this species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata National Reserve, and might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Peru. It is present in many Brazilian protected areas and presumably in protected areas in Ecuador and Bolivia.
55859		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Amazon basin in Ecuador, the lowlands east of the Andes in the Departments of Huánuco, Loreto, Ucayali and Madre de Dios, Peru; northern Bolivia and western Brazilian Amazonia. It has an altitudinal range of 100m to 400m asl.
55859		habitat	eng	It is usually found on trees around temporary pools in lowland primary and secondary tropical rainforest and forest-edge habitats. The eggs are deposited on leaves and the tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It can be found in modified habitats at the forest edge.
55859		population	eng	It is a common species.
55859		threats	eng	There are no major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55860		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, although it might do so.
55860		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes: Río Salado in Napo Province, Ecuador; and Caquetá Department, Colombia. It presumably occurs between these two sites. Its known altitudinal range is 1,350-1,400m asl.
55860		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary montane forest, where it breeds in ponds.
55860		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55860		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55861		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
55861		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador: around the type locality, Río Anchicayá, in Valle Department, Colombia, at 300m asl; and Puerto Quito, in Pichincha Province, Ecuador. It will presumably be found to occur more widely, at least in the area between the two known sites. Its overall altitudinal range is 100-500m asl.
55861		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland moist forest, and is found only in mature forest. The eggs are placed on leaves overhanging slow-flowing streams and ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.
55861		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55861		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development (including plantations), illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
55862		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.
55862		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Brazil, in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and São Paulo States. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55862		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near standing waterbodies in savannah, forest edge and anthropogenic areas such as pasture land and rural gardens. The eggs are laid in leaf nests above the water and fall into the permanent streams below. Reproductive activity for this species has been reported for the months of December through March, potentially also occurring from July to November and April-May (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).
55862		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55862		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this common, adaptable species.
55863		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55863		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chacoan region of eastern Bolivia, northern Paraguay, Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), and northern Argentina.<br/>Up to 1500 m
55863		habitat	eng	It occurs in the dry Chaco and is an arboreal species. It occurs on vegetation near temporary lagoons or ponds and the males call at night. They make a coarse leaf nest, filled with their glutinous egg-clutches which hangs over the water, the hatched tadpoles then drop in to the water below where they develop. It breeds only in the rainy season and is not tolerant of substantial habitat disturbance.
55863		population	eng	This species' geographic range is the Chacoan region of eastern Bolivia, northern Paraguay, Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), and northern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,500m asl.
55863		threats	eng	It is threatened by the international pet trade and in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff. Fires are also a threat.
55864		conservation	eng	Some populations are found within protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55864		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon basin in Venezuela, southern Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and central and western Brazilian Amazonia. Its altitudinal range is 0-450m asl.
55864		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that is usually found perched on branches usually about 1-3m, but sometimes up to 7m, above temporary ponds. Eggs are laid on leaves and tadpoles develop in pools. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in forest at night (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, individuals have been found in open areas and floodable forests (Ron, 2001). Occurs in second and old growth forest and disturbed habitats around ponds. It has been observed breeding in cesspools.
55864		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
55864		threats	eng	Habitat loss/destruction and forest clear-cutting are major threats. Native peoples consume it but this activity does not threaten population levels.
55865		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55865		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the interior regions of the states of São Paulo and Paraná, Brazil; Misiones, Argentina; and southern Oriental region of Paraguay. It occurs at an elevation of 400-1,000m asl.
55865		habitat	eng	It occurs in the rainforest on herbaceous vegetation near swamps. The egg clutch is deposited in leaf nests above the water in permanent pools in forests. Larvae develop in pools. It occurs in secondary forest and pastures.
55865		population	eng	It is uncommon in Paraguay, but common in Brazil and Argentina.
55865		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agricultural activities is a threat.
55866		conservation	eng	Several populations are found within protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. The population from Reserva Forestal Imataca in Venezuela has a high risk of becoming endangered once the forest is subject of logging practices and consequent depauperation of the original pristine forest vegetation.
55866		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range extends from southeast Venezuela to French Guiana, Amazon basin in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In Venezuela, it has been reported from the States of Bolívar (Reserva Forestal Imataca, and km13 on the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén), and Amazonas (base of Cerro de la Neblina, and Mavaca river). Its altitudinal range is 0-500m asl.
55866		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species living in pristine tropical rainforests, usually found on trees around temporary and semi-temporary pools during the wet season. A specimen from the Gran Sabana region of Venezuela was found calling from a Heliconia leaf near the edge of a temporary pond in the forest after a rain. It lays eggs on leaves and tadpoles develop in pools. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found at night on bushes and low trees in forest (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in open areas and floodable forests on shrubs and aquatic edges (Ron, 2001).
55866		population	eng	It is generally uncommon (common in Suriname).
55866		threats	eng	Various forms of habitat loss no doubt impact local populations, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened.
55867		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps several protected areas along the Venezuelan Coastal Range.
55867		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Coastal Range mountains of northern Venezuela and has also been recorded over much of the island of Trinidad (in Trinidad and Tobago). It has been recorded from below 100m asl (on Trinidad) up to approximately 1,300m asl (in Venezuela).
55867		habitat	eng	It is a bush dwelling species commonly found in slender bushes at the edges of ponds, generally in quite open country, but also in moist forests. It is also found by ditches in secondary forests. The adults and their nests are found living in trees above water tanks and other man-made pools of water. It builds nests by joining two leaves, and then places the eggs in this nest overhanging standing water, and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the water below. It has also been found in polluted water, and is considered to be an adaptable species.
55867		population	eng	It is a common species.
55867		threats	eng	There is some severe habitat loss/degradation impacting some local sub-populations, but as a whole there are no major threats at present, since it is adaptable.
55868		conservation	eng	Conservation units are present within the range of this species. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística de Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. Venezuelan populations are protected within Sierra de La Neblina National Park.
55868		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname and Amazon Basin from northeastern Brazil to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northern Bolivia and Venezuela (at Baría river, base of Cerro Neblina, Amazonas state). The dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). Its altitudinal range is 0-450m asl.
55868		habitat	eng	It is usually found on trees and bushes next to streams or permanent waterbodies in tropical rainforest. Eggs are found on leaves and tadpoles migrate into the water. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, specimens of this species were found in primary forest and secondary forest at night, where adults were on bushes and trees (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, this nocturnal species has been found in inundated forest and open areas and terra firme forest (Ron, 2001).
55868		population	eng	It is common to abundant throughout its range.
55868		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation might be a threat to some populations, but overall it is not threatened.
55869		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. It probably does not occur in many protected areas in Colombia.
55869		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in northwestern Colombia and the Magdalena Valley, extending into adjacent Panama, where it is known from two sites in the eastern lowlands in southeastern Darien Province. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300m asl.
55869		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, living on vegetation in humid lowland forest, including dry forest and degraded habitats with forest patches. Breeding occurs in swamps and ponds.
55869		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
55869		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development (especially for cotton and rice), illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the general use of agro-chemicals, as well as the spraying of illegal crops. Drying up of breeding sites is probably also a problem.
55870		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the Chiapan cloud forests is urgently needed to ensure the persistence of this, and other endemic, species in the region. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures might need to include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme. Further research is needed to determine whether or not the species has been affected by chytrid. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55870		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern slopes of the Meseta Central de Chiapas, Mexico, and the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, western Guatemala, from 1,540-2,200m asl.
55870		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests, and is associated with mountain streams where it breeds.
55870		population	eng	It was common according to Duellman (2001) but it might now be uncommon. Recent searches in Guatemala have failed to find the species, and it seems that this population is declining. It is known now from only one locality in Chiapas, in a fragile ecosystem supporting only a few individuals.
55870		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture and human settlements in northern Chiapas and Guatemala are a major threat. However, the observed decrease might also be due to chytridiomycosis, which has seriously affected other stream-breeding amphibians in the region.
55871		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area, and protection of remaining cloud forest habitat in southern Chiapas is urgently needed. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, the establishment of a captive-breeding programme might be necessary. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55871		distribution	eng	This species can be found in extreme south-western Chiapas, Mexico, southward to northern Pacific Guatemala from 1,700-2,200m asl.
55871		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forests and is commonly found in vegetation along mountain streams.
55871		population	eng	It is uncommon in Guatemala and rare at one location in Chiapas.
55871		threats	eng	Deforestation and transformation of native forest to agricultural areas represents the main threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation, stream-breeder, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus in this region.
55872		conservation	eng	The only known locality is within Parque Nacional Pico Bonito. Further survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species; in view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55872		distribution	eng	This species occurs in only one locality, Cerro Bufalo, Quebrado de Oro, Sierra Nombre de Dios, Departamento Atlantida in north-central Honduras, between 930 and 1,550m asl.
55872		habitat	eng	A stream-breeding species, it has been found along streams in premontane wet forest.
55872		population	eng	It is moderately uncommon and appears to be in decline.
55872		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood collection, and landslides represent major threats to this species. Tadpoles have been found infected with the chytrid fungus, and this is probably the cause of the recently observed decline.
55873		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species is within Parque Nacional Cusuco. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
55873		distribution	eng	This species is found in Parque Nacional Cusuco on the Sierra de Omoa, Departamento de Cortés, north-western Honduras, between 1,410 and 1,990 m asl.
55873		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding amphibian is found on low vegetation along streams, and in arboreal bromeliads in lower montane wet forest.
55873		population	eng	This species was previously moderately common, but populations are currently undergoing drastic declines.
55873		threats	eng	In 2007, the overall prevalence of <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in sampled individuals of this species was found to be of an order of magnitude of 78%. Larvae of this species which are infected with <em>Bd</em> commonly develop oral defects including disrupted tooth rows and eroded jaw sheaths (especially the upper jaw sheath) (Kolby, J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E. and Field, R. in press).
55874		conservation	eng	The species occurs wholly within the Parque Nacional Cusuco, declared a national park since 1987. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55874		distribution	eng	This species is only found within the Parque Nacional Cusuco in the Sierra de Omoa, Departamento de Cortés, north-western Honduras, between 1,490 and 1,680 m asl.
55874		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding frog is found on low vegetation along streams in the lower montane wet forest. It is restricted to streams throughout its life cycle.
55874		population	eng	It is considered moderately common within its very restricted range. However, the species is believed to be in decline given the absence of metamorphs observed during recent (2006-2008) field surveys (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).
55874		threats	eng	<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection has recently been confirmed in this species (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008). It is likely to be highly susceptible to chytridiomycosis based on observations in its congener, <em>P. dasypus</em>.  In addition, tadpoles of this species have consistently been found in extremely low numbers (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).
55875		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. However, the range includes the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatanes as well as the slopes of the southern Guatemalan volcanoes, which are also proposed for protection. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether chytrid is a threat.
55875		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the central and southern highlands of Guatemala at an altitudinal range of 2,400-3,500m asl.
55875		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian, living in fir forest, pine-cypress forest, and montane grasslands. It is not known whether or not it can survive in lightly degraded habitats.
55875		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
55875		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat destruction due to expanding agriculture and human settlement, and extraction of wood. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected among congeners.
55876		conservation	eng	There is protection of the cloud forests in southern Mexico and it occurs in several parks in Honduras, one in Guatemala, and one in El Salvador. However, given the threat of chytridiomycosis, a captive-breeding programme might need to be established.
55876		distribution	eng	This species occurs on both versants from south-eastern Chiapas, Mexico, to east-central Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 950-2,600 m asl.
55876		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species inhabits cloud forests and premontane and lower montane forest. It is associated with cascading mountain streams.
55876		population	eng	It is still relatively common in Honduras, but, while formerly common, it is now uncommon in Guatemala and El Salvador. It has not been recorded in Mexico since 1944, and recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful.
55876		threats	eng	Although it tolerates moderate habitat destruction, loss of original forest cover affects the microhabitat of this species. In Honduras, tadpoles have been found with deformed mouthparts, indicating chytridiomycosis. This is probably the explanation for the observed declines in the species in recent years.
55877		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, and also in Biotopo del Quetzal and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. Protection of the cloud forested areas in southern Chiapas is needed. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55877		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chiapas, Mexico, and western Guatemala, in an altitudinal range of 1,000-2,400m asl.
55877		habitat	eng	This is a high-elevation cloud forest species, associated with rocky mountain streams where it breeds.
55877		population	eng	A recent survey in Chiapas indicated its disappearance, at least from some localities, and there have been no records from Mexico since 1993. A survey of Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala in the Sierra de las Minas, showed a dramatic decline of this species, most likely due to chytridiomycosis (confirmed in a tadpole of another species at the same site). The survey also showed that the species no longer appears to be breeding at this site, although tadpoles have been observed at nearby localities.
55877		threats	eng	Although chytridiomycosis is the suspected cause of decline in Mexico and in Guatemala, deforestation and transformation of the original forested areas due to agriculture, logging and human settlement is also a major threat to the species.
55878		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining forests in Chiapas, in particular, is urgent. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
55878		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two disjunct populations on the Atlantic slopes of northern Chiapas, Mexico, and western Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is from 1,175-2,200m asl. Its distribution remains largely unknown, and the species could occur more widely.
55878		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane cloud forests, and is associated with high-elevation streams and adjacent low vegetation where it also breeds.
55878		population	eng	There is no information on its population status in Guatemala, but they are considered rare in Chiapas.
55878		threats	eng	The disturbance and deforestation due to human settlement and associated activities is a major threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat to this species, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55879		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura, which still contains well-preserved forest areas. Regular surveillance of this area is required to avoid illegal logging and other human activities from degrading the forest. Protection of other forest areas in Chiapas is needed. Further survey work is needed to better understand the population status of this species, and whether chytrid poses a threat. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55879		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Cerro Tres Picos and Soconusco region, south-western Chiapas, Mexico. It is known from elevations at around 2,130m asl.
55879		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits cloud forest at high elevations.
55879		population	eng	It is considered rare.
55879		threats	eng	Transformation or deforestation of the cloud forests in the Soconusco region is a major threat to this species. Chytridiomycosis may also be a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.
55880		conservation	eng	It is present in Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo in Mexico, and is presumably present in several protected areas in Guatemala. Improved legal protection of the extensive forested areas in Los Chimalapas is needed.
55880		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Pacific slopes from Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico, to central Guatemala, at 1,500-2,000m asl.
55880		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pine-oak and cloud forests. It is closely associated with low vegetation along small mountain streams. Reproduction occurs via larval development in streams.
55880		population	eng	It is common to abundant in Chiapas and Guatemala.
55880		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of the genus in the region.
55881		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal. In view of the threat of chytrid, the status of this species should be very closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
55881		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra de las Minas and the Sierra de Xucaneb, central and eastern Guatemala, from 1,400-1,900m asl.
55881		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests, living in vegetation near cascading streams, and breeds in clear streams. It can survive in old secondary forest.
55881		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. There is evidence of a recent dramatic decline and possible extirpation in Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, in the Sierra de las Minas, possibly due to chytrid (a tadpole of another species at this site was confirmed to have chytridiomycosis).
55881		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, especially due to encroaching agriculture (in particular leather-leaf plantations). There is also the risk of contamination or change in flow-regime of streams. As noted, chytridiomycosis is also a threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of this genus in Central America, and due to the apparent disappearance of this species at a site where chytridiomycosis in another species has been confirmed.
55882		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Celaque, and possibly also Parque Nacional Pital, both in Honduras; the Salvadorian population is not protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the status of this species in the Salvadorian part of the range.
55882		distribution	eng	This species is known from Parque Nacional Celaque, Montaña Celaque, in the department of De Lempira, western Honduras, and from El Pital in northern El Salvador near the Honduran border. It might occur in Parque Nacional Pital in Honduras (on the Salvadorian border), where larvae thought to belong to this species have been found. Its altitudinal range is from 2,450-2,530m asl.
55882		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation and boulders along pristine streams in lower montane moist forest. It breeds in streams, and is not found in disturbed habitats.
55882		population	eng	It is moderately common in Honduras; there are no recent records in El Salvador.
55882		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, mainly due to agricultural encroachment and wood extraction. Pollution from pesticides is also suspected to be a problem. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat, given the impact that it has had on some other high-elevation stream-breeding members of this genus in Central America.
55883		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the forested areas surrounding San Cristobal de las Casas is needed. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the population status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55883		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Meseta Central of Chiapas, in northern San Cristobal de las Casas, Mexico, at 2,400m asl.
55883		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak forests, presumably inhabiting and breeding in mountain streams.
55883		population	eng	This is a rare species.
55883		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is clear-cut logging of its forest habitat, and transformation of the forest to agricultural land. Chytridiomycosis might also be a threat, since this is a high-elevation stream-dwelling species, and declines due to the disease have already been detected in other species of this genus.
55884		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas, Biotopo del Quetzal, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Bisis Caba. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the population status of this species requires close monitoring, and animals might need to be maintained in captivity. The taxonomic status of this species, relative to <em>Plectrohyla sagorum</em>, requires investigation.
55884		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of the northern highlands in Guatemala from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes to the highlands of Alta Verapaz and the Sierra de las Minas, from 615-1,850m asl.
55884		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species inhabits cloud forest, and individuals have been found among rocks alongside streams. It is not found in degraded habitats, but does occur in old secondary forest.
55884		population	eng	It is a common species, but there is evidence of a recent dramatic decline and possible extirpation in Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, in the Sierra de las Minas, possibly due to chytridiomycosis (a tadpole of another species at this site was confirmed to have the disease). However, <em>P. quecchi</em> is reportedly still breeding at nearby sites.
55884		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, especially due to encroaching agriculture (in particular leather-leaf plantations). There is also the risk of contamination or change in flow-regime of streams. As noted, chytridiomycosis is also a threat, given the impact that this has had on some other members of this genus in Central America, and due to the apparent disappearance of this species at a site where chytridiomycosis in another species has been confirmed.
55885		conservation	eng	It is present in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo (Mexico) where a well-preserved forest still exists, but is not known from any protected areas in Guatemala, and there is a need for improved protection of suitable habitats for this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the status of populations in Mexico and El Salvador, and to assess the risk posed by chytrid.
55885		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Chiapas, south-central Chiapas, Mexico, south-west to Guatemala and again in northern El Salvador (not mapped here), from 1,000-2,050m asl.
55885		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding amphibian exists only in cloud forests.
55885		population	eng	It is abundant in two localities in the Cuchumatanes, Guatemala. It is very rare in Mexico, where it is known from a single locality. Only one specimen is known from El Salvador.
55885		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to deforestation and transformation of the original forest habitats in both southern Chiapas and Guatemala for agriculture, logging, timber plantations, and human settlement.  Since this is a relatively high-elevation, stream-breeding species, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat, and has already led to declines in other species in this genus in Central America.
55886		conservation	eng	It occurs in the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatanes. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species and the limits of its range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established
55886		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes in western Guatemala, at 3,200-3,395m asl.
55886		habitat	eng	All records have been from small caves, with streams flowing out of them. It is presumed that the adults live in the surrounding montane pine forest, which is now somewhat degraded.
55886		population	eng	The type series was collected in 1968. A visit to the cave where the series was collected in June 1989 turned up no individuals. The forest around the cave had been cleared, the area was heavily grazed, and the water in the stream in the cave was heavily silted. In 1995, a tadpole was found very close to the type locality in a stream that has subsequently dried up after the water was piped to the local community. In 2002, tadpoles were found at another locality (Magdalena). There are few other streams in the region and most natural habitat has been severely degraded.
55886		threats	eng	The main threats to the species, as already indicated, include forest destruction (due to expanding farming and human settlements, as well as wood extraction) and deterioration of water quality. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of this genus in Central America.
55887		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area; the site from which it has been recorded is on private land. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, it is necessary to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status and the limits of its distribution, and possibly to initiate a captive-breeding programme.
55887		distribution	eng	As currently understood, this species is known only from the type locality on the southern slopes of the Sierra de Xucaneb, north of the Río Polochic, Alta Verapaz, in central Guatemala (15° 22'N; 90° 01'W), at 1,000m asl.
55887		habitat	eng	It apparently lives near, and breeds in, streams and waterfalls in montane forest. It has only been recorded from undisturbed habitats.
55887		population	eng	When discovered, a handful of adults and tadpoles were observed at the type locality. However, recent attempts to locate the species have not been successful.
55887		threats	eng	The only known site is facing habitat loss as a result of farming and wood extraction. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of this genus in Central America.
55888		conservation	eng	Research on population status and threats is needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55888		distribution	eng	This species is discontinuously distributed from western Pennsylvania southwest to northeastern Mississippi, central Alabama, and Georgia, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
55888		habitat	eng	It can be found in wooded hilly areas. it is terrestrial and probably hides under objects or underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in pools in or adjacent to woods: spring pools, flooded ditches, and pools along streams, woodland ponds. Eggs are attached to leaves, sticks, or other vegetation in water.
55888		population	eng	Historically represented by many and/or large populations throughout most of the range, but number of extant populations is unknown. Status is poorly known. Hulse <em>et al.</em> (2001) mapped 28 locations at the northern extent of the range in Pennsylvania but stated that all of these are historical records; "no specimens have been reported in the past 20 years or so."
55888		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown but logging might impact local populations.
55889		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55889		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to eastern Georgia, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
55889		habitat	eng	The habitat is in low areas in hardwood forests, swamps near rivers and streams, marshes, and wet open woods. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded ditches and shallow ponds.
55889		population	eng	Many secure populations occur across the range.
55889		threats	eng	There are no known threats. Clear cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.
55890		conservation	eng	This species occurs in San Pedro Martir National Park in Mexico.
55890		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwestern California, south into northern Baja California Norte, Mexico. It is found from near sea level to about 2,290m asl (Stebbins 1985).
55890		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky canyons near streams and washes with permanent pools. It requires some shade as it retreats to shaded rock crevices during the day. It ranges from desert and coastal stream-courses to the pine belt in the mountains (Stebbins 1985). It breeds in the quiet water of rocky streams. Eggs are attached to twigs or are loose on the bottom (Stebbins 1972).
55890		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
55890		threats	eng	Under natural conditions, solar UV-B radiation reduces embryo survival. The effects of this at the population level remain to be determined (Anzalone <em>et al.</em> 1998). Local populations are impacted by urbanization.
55891		conservation	eng	A survey in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico and the surrounding areas is needed to determine the presence of this species in its only recorded Mexican locality. This species occurs in many protected areas.
55891		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-central United States (north to Kansas, south through Oklahoma and Texas) to extreme northeastern Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991, Collins 1993, Lemmon et al. 2007). In Mexico it is only known from the lower Rio Grande Valley in Tamaulipas, west to Matamoros, in extreme northeastern Tamaulipas. It was reported from Colfax County, northeastern New Mexico, apparently extending range about 325 km west (Herp. Rev. 22:64), but that specimen was later identified as P. triseriata (Degenhardt et al. 1996) [now P. maculata].
55891		habitat	eng	Habitat includes open prairie grasslands, pastures, meadows, shrubby areas, lawns near breeding habitat, and the edges of woodlands (Collins 1993, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This frog is most abundant near the edges of shallow semipermanent to permanent ponds, irrigation canals, and cattle tanks (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It goes underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary rain pools and sometimes in permanent ponds.
55891		population	eng	This species is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range (Pierce and Whitehurst 1990). Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000. This frog is abundant in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and south-central Kansas (Collins 1993).<br/><br/>Over the long term, likley stable in extent of occurrence; unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Current population trend is unknown but probably stable to slightly declining.
55891		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Various kinds of habitat loss and degradation attributable to human activities (e.g., urbanization, intensive agriculture) undoubtedly have caused localized declines.
55892		conservation	eng	There are no conservation methods needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55892		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the eastern USA and adjacent southeastern Canada (east to Labrador, Bergman 1999), west to Manitoba, Minnesota, Iowa, eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from southern Florida. It was formerly believed to have been introduced in Cuba (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), but it has not been found there (Powell and Henderson 1999).
55892		habitat	eng	Typically it is found in moist wooded areas, especially near breeding pools. The species is mostly terrestrial and it hides under logs, rocks, or other objects when inactive. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in small temporary or permanent waters of ponds (including those in fields with nearby forest), marshes, ditches, and swamps, especially those with standing plants, sticks, or other debris. Males call usually from among herbaceous vegetation adjacent to or standing in water. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).
55892		population	eng	There are thousands of populations and millions of individuals.
55892		threats	eng	Wetland drainage reduces the available habitat. It does not thrive in areas of urbanization and intense agriculture, but the species is moderately adaptable. However, the species does not face major threats on a global scale.
55893		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. Many occurrences are in protected areas.
55893		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the southeastern USA from Pennsylvania and New Jersey to Texas and western Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).
55893		habitat	eng	Habitat includes open and wooded areas such as meadows, moist forests, bottomland swamps, and the vicinity of ponds, bogs, and marshes; this is mainly an upland frog in the north, but it also inhabits lowlands in the south (Conant and Collins 1991). Breeding sites include shallow ponds, flooded woodlands and pastures, and rainwater pools in ditches, fields, and open woods; eggs adhere to sticks and grass (Mount 1975, Redmond and Scott 1996).
55893		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Many occurrences have good viability.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This frog is common to abundant in much of its range.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations. Many secure populations exist throughout the range.
55893		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.
55894		conservation	eng	No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55894		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Southeastern U.S. from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida and west to southern Mississippi (Conant and Collins 1991).
55894		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine flat woods and forests, wet meadows, moist woodlands, and prairies, often near small gum or cypress ponds; in or near ponds, potholes, and ditches with grassy margins or emergent vegetation. It is a primarily terrestrial species that burrows into banks of ponds and ditches. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded roadside ditches and fields, margins of shallow ponds, temporary woodland pools, and bogs. Eggs are attached to vegetation.
55894		population	eng	Many secure populations exist throughout the range.
55894		threats	eng	This species is not threatened. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.
55895		conservation	eng	No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55895		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is from the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, west to southeastern Alabama, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
55895		habitat	eng	Its habitat is grassy/sedgy areas near bogs or ponds in pine flat woods or along pools and streams in hardwood forests and cypress swamps. It can usually be found perched in grasses, sedges, or low shrubs. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in grassy, rain-filled depressions and semi-permanent ponds.
55895		population	eng	Many secure populations exist throughout the range.
55895		threats	eng	This species is not threatened. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.
55896		conservation	eng	No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55896		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the Coastal Plain of southeastern United States from North Carolina to central Florida, west to southeastern Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991).
55896		habitat	eng	It is found in pine flat woods and its habitat surrounds breeding pools. It burrows into the ground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded fields and ditches, pine barren ponds, and cypress ponds.
55896		population	eng	Many secure populations exist throughout the range.
55896		threats	eng	It is not threatened. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.
55897		conservation	eng	This species' range overlaps numerous protected areas throughout its range.
55897		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern British Columbia in Canada through the USA to Baja California, Mexico, then east to Montana, Idaho, and Nevada. It also occurs on the Channel Islands off southern California (Behler and King 1979). Desert populations in southern California were probably introduced. It is introduced on Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia (Reimchen 1990), Canada. It was recently found on Revillagigedo Island in Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, where it is probably breeding and was possibly introduced (Waters 1992). It occurs from sea level to over 3,000m asl.
55897		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats including grassland, chaparral, woodland, forests and farmland. It is usually found among low vegetation near water. It breeds in marshes, lakes, ponds, ditches, reservoirs and slow-moving streams (Stebbins 1985). It lays eggs on submerged plant stems or on the bottom. It sometimes breeds in weakly brackish water.
55897		population	eng	There are many occurrences of this highly abundant species.
55897		threats	eng	Introduced mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) prey heavily on larvae and might negatively affect this species' populations (Goodsell and Kats 1999). However, this is not a pervasive threat. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
55898		conservation	eng	Habitat protection needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
55898		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA from southern Kansas to southern Texas; disjunctive populations occur in west central and southwestern Illinois, southeastern Missouri and adjacent Arkansas (Conant and Collins 1991).
55898		habitat	eng	It is basically a terrestrial species. It can be found in moist woods, sand prairies, ravines, along streams and swamps, around ponds, and cultivated areas. In addition it can be found in sand prairies and cultivated fields in southeastern Missouri and adjacent Arkansas. It burrows into soil when inactive, using its forelimbs. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded fields, ditches, sloughs, small ponds, or other temporary bodies of water.
55898		population	eng	It is apparently localized but not uncommon in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
55898		threats	eng	Extensive agriculture, housing developments, and other land uses have greatly reduced the breeding habitat in southeastern Missouri, though the species is still present in highly cultivated areas there (Johnson 2000). It is apparently more secure in the major part of its range in Texas and Oklahoma.
55899		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas. In view of reported declines and taxonomic changes affecting the scope of the species, determination of current status is appropriate.
55899		distribution	eng	Range includes portions of southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States, from Michigan (Lower Peninsula), southern Ontario, and western New York through Indiana, Ohio, and western Pennsylvania to southern Illinois, western Kentucky, and northwestern Tennessee (Lemmon et al. 2007).
55899		habitat	eng	Habitats include damp meadows, marshes, forest edges, bottomland swamps, and temporary ponds, particularly in open country (Minton 2001, Gibbs et al. 2007). Formerly this frog was plentiful in agricultural and suburban situations in Indiana, but this is no longer the case (Minton 2001). Winter is spent underground or under surface cover. Breeding sites include quiet, shallow, usually temporary water with submerged and low emergent vegetation, especially rain-flooded meadows and ditches and temporary ponds in floodplains (Minton 2001, Gibbs et al. 2007).
55899		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This frog is common in much of its large range.<br/><br/>Over the long term, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined, but the degree of decline is uncertain. Minton (2001) stated that this species was numerous in Indiana in 1945-1970, declined markedly during 1975-1985, and apparently has increased since then. In discussing P. triseriata and P. maculata as a single species, Gibbs et al. (2007) cited declines in New York state during the period 1970-2000. Moriarty and Lannoo (in Lannoo 2005) also cited declines in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada.<br/><br/>Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are slowly declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.
55899		threats	eng	These frogs are tolerant of some forms of habitat alteration (e.g., clearing of forest), but loss of wetlands, forest expansion, and unknown factors (possibly including agricultural chemicals, drought, and chytrid fungus) have caused declines in some areas (Gibbs<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
55900		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55900		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through some southern parts of Brazil, in the following States: Minas Gerais; the southern part of Goiás; southern Bahia; and the northern part of Espírito Santo. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
55900		habitat	eng	It is almost entirely aquatic, and is found in lakes, ponds and other waterbodies in Cerrado and Caatinga savannah, and is often found floating at the surface of the water. It breeds in water. It is not known whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55900		population	eng	It is a common species.
55900		threats	eng	Expanding agriculture is impacting its populations, overgrazing by domestic livestock, infrastructure development (for expanding human settlements, and dams), and water pollution from agriculture are all threats.
55901		conservation	eng	Occurs in Aparados de Serra and Serra Geral National Parks.
55901		distribution	eng	This species is known only from open grasslands in the southern regions of the Serra Geral region of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 800-1200m asl.
55901		habitat	eng	It inhabits mainly permanent pasture ponds and still-water pools of slowly flowing creeks. The eggs are deposited separately or in small clumps, fixed to submerged plants.
55901		population	eng	It is common and stable.
55901		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
55902		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55902		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in the north east of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these localities. It occurs around 500m asl.
55902		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that occurs in permanent ponds and still-water pools of slow moving streams near larger rivers in open areas. They breed in pools and streams. It has also been found in human habitats that have large water reservoirs.
55902		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55902		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development for human settlement and agricultural pollution are threats to the species.
55903		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55903		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Northeastern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones, Santa Fe and Santiago del Estero), Uruguay, and extreme southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina) from 0-500m asl.
55903		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that occurs and reproduces in ponds and still-water pools of slowly moving creeks. Does not tolerate habitat disturbance that causes the disappearance of water (such as the drainage of wetlands).
55903		population	eng	It is very common and stable.
55903		threats	eng	There are no major threats. It apparently thrives in rice plantations that receive heavy doses of pesticides.
55904		conservation	eng	Several protected areas occur within its range.
55904		distribution	eng	The recent taxonomic reassignments of the subspecies of <em>Pseudis paradoxa</em> have implications for the current understanding of this species' distribution; it is currently known from the type locality ("Surinami") and the Brazilian states of Amapá, Roraima and Maranhão (see Aguiar-Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
55904		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that occurs on vegetation in permanent waterbodies such as ponds and still-water pools of slow moving creeks, surrounded by forest, savannah or grassland. Also found in flooded plains and at the edges of ponds, swamps, frequently in mildly brackish water. Eggs and very large tadpoles can be found in water. It is a very adaptable species. It has been reported from rice fields in Trinidad (pending confirmation of this nominal species' presence in Trinidad). Adults aestivate in the soil during the dry season (Lynch 2006).
55904		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range.
55904		threats	eng	There are no major threats, but local populations are affected by habitat loss due to agricultural activities and human settlement. In Paraguay, a species formerly considered to be <em>Pseudis paradoxa</em> (perhaps one of the subspecies recently elevated to full species status) is harvested for the international pet trade, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
55905		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55905		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Brazil in the States of Goias, Tocantins and Mato Grosso, along the Tocantins and Araguaia River basins. Its distribution is still imperfectly known. It occurs at low altitudes.
55905		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, and is found in permanent ponds, lakes and swamps, where it also breeds. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is not known.
55905		population	eng	It is a common species.
55905		threats	eng	Expanding agriculture is impacting its populations, overgrazing by domestic livestock, infrastructure development (for expanding human settlements, and dams), and water pollution from agriculture.
55906		conservation	eng	It does not occur within any protected areas, and urgent protection of the original habitat of this species is required (especially in Aguascalientes where only a small area of suitable habitat remains). This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
55906		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Aguascalientes and extreme north-western Jalisco, Mexico, at elevations between 1,800 and 1,900m asl.
55906		habitat	eng	It occurs only in flooded grasslands, and breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
55906		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55906		threats	eng	The transformation of the original grassland habitat into agricultural land, and the subsequent pollution from pesticides, are major threats to this species.
55907		conservation	eng	The species' range in Mexico includes several protected areas.
55907		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-central Arizona (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996) in the USA, southward along the Pacific coast through to western Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Colima in Mexico. Inland it is found from central Jalisco to northern Michoacán and adjacent Guanajuato, Mexico. It occurs from near sea level to about 1,490m asl (Stebbins 1985).
55907		habitat	eng	In Arizona, this frog lives in burrows in open mesquite grassland. In Mexico it is also found in tropical scrub forests. It is a terrestrial burrowing species. It is common in temporary pools formed by rains where it also breeds.
55907		population	eng	Fieldwork in several localities along its range has recorded well-preserved populations, especially those occurring in Biosphere Reserves. Based on the map in Trueb (1969), there appear to be many populations, particularly in the southern part of its range.
55907		threats	eng	The species' is threatened by agricultural development in some parts of its range, especially within its wide Mexican range.
55908		conservation	eng	Given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
55908		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Juárez in northern Oaxaca, Mexico, although it might occur more widely. It has an altitudinal range of 594-900m asl.
55908		habitat	eng	It inhabits mesic cloud forest. Males call from branches or bushes along streams in which the larvae develop.
55908		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
55908		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
55909		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection and restoration of forested areas in Guerrero is urgently needed. Further research and survey work is needed to determine the extent to which chytrid poses a threat; there may beed a need to establish a captive assurance colony of this species.
55909		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, central Guerrero, Mexico, at elevations from 700-950m asl.
55909		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest. It is often found on low vegetation, under logs, rocks and vegetation along streams where it breeds.
55909		population	eng	It is not a common species.
55909		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of smallholder farming activities and logging is the main threat to this species. A larva has been found with keratinised mouthparts, indicative of chytridiomycosis.
55910		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two Biosphere Reserves in Chiapas (La Sepultura and El Triunfo) and is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government, although improved protection of forest habitats in southern Mexico is needed. It also occurs in Parque Nacional Montecristo in El Salvador, but is not protected in Guatemala. Given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis populations of this species should be monitored closely.
55910		distribution	eng	This species ranges from south-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, southward to Guatemala and eastern El Salvador (from 500-2200m asl). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55910		habitat	eng	The subspecies <em>Ptychohyla euthysanota euthysanota</em> lives in cloud forests while the other subspecies (<em>P. e. macrotympanum</em>) lives in broadleaf forests and pine forests. Both subspecies are highly associated with mountain streams. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
55910		population	eng	It is common in Guatemala and abundant in Chiapas, Mexico. Its population status is unknown in El Salvador.
55910		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is alteration of the original habitats and microhabitats due to smallholder agricultural activity and logging. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species, particularly for high-altitude populations. Declines due to chytridiomycosis amongst species of this genus have already been detected in Guatemala (Mendelson, <em>et al.</em> 2004).
55911		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in its range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
55911		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Guatemala, through most of Honduras to central Nicaragua, from 620-2,070 m asl.
55911		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, living on low vegetation along mountain streams where it breeds, but is tolerant of some habitat disturbance. However, it does require some woody vegetation cover, such as trees along steams in pastureland.
55911		population	eng	It is still relatively common in some areas, but is in decline.
55911		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and pasture, forest fires, and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat. Tadpoles have been found with deformed mouthparts, and one was confirmed with chytridiomycosis in Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala in the Sierra de las Minas, where there has been an observed dramatic population decline (although the species is still present at this site) (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004), while an additional positive chytrid test (57.5% prevalence) was confirmed for Parque Nacional Cusuco in Honduras (Kolby J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E. and Field, R. in press). Although this species is widely distributed across Mesoamerica, its fragmented distribution leaves populations highly vulnerable to local extirpation (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).
55912		conservation	eng	Although present in protected areas such as Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Las Cruces Biological Station (the latter is part of the Reserva de la Biósfera La Amistad), the habitat in the range of this species is in need of further protection.
55912		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and extreme western Panama, from 880-1,524m asl (Savage 2002).
55912		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, stream-breeding species, present in humid montane forest and usually found along (and occasionally in) small streams and dense vegetation no more than one metre above the water.
55912		population	eng	It is moderately common in appropriate habitat.
55912		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are the alteration of water flow in streams (for instance through hydroelectric projects), and general habitat destruction due to smallholder livestock ranching and more extensive agriculture (crops). Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species.
55913		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the protection of the original forested areas in Guerrero and Oaxaca is urgently needed. Further research and survey work is needed to determine the extent to which chytrid poses a threat; there may beed a need to establish a captive assurance colony of this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
55913		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slopes of Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico, at elevations between 700 and 2,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55913		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak and cloud forest, and is found in, or on, low vegetation along mountain streams. It breeds in streams and some populations have been found surviving in coffee plantations.
55913		population	eng	This is not a common species.
55913		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss mainly as a result of deforestation and the planting of coffee and other non-timber plantations. Larvae have been found in southern Mexico with keratinised mouthparts, indicative of chytridiomycosis.
55914		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55914		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the road to La Cumbre, Municipio de la Democracia, Huehuetenango, Guatemala, from approximately 600-1,000m asl.
55914		habitat	eng	It occurs along, and reproduces in, streams in dry forest.
55914		population	eng	It was found to be common in 1996 within this restricted range.
55914		threats	eng	Although this species does tolerate moderate levels of habitat destruction, wholesale habitat loss caused by agricultural activities is a major threat to the species. Chytridiomycosis is also a major threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
55915		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de las Minas and Montanos del Mico Catchment Reserve. Given the risk of chytridiomycosis, there may be a need to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.
55915		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de las Minas, the Montañas del Mico, and the Sierra Xucaneb in eastern and central Guatemala, from 100-895m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
55915		habitat	eng	This is a stream-breeding species that lives in moist tropical forest, often along streams, and is not found in degraded habitats.
55915		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
55915		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to expanding agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement, as well as water pollution, are the major threats to the species. Chytridiomycosis is also a major threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
55916		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in all three countries. Given the risk of chytridiomycosis, there may be a need to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.
55916		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme south-eastern Guatemala, northern and central El Salvador, and south-western to south-central Honduras, from 1,440-2,050m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
55916		habitat	eng	This stream-breeding species lives on low vegetation along streams in premontane to lower montane moist forest. It is tolerant of some habitat disturbance; however, it requires some woody vegetation, such as trees along streams in pastureland.
55916		population	eng	It is relatively common.
55916		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, creation of pasturelands, and forest fires. Chytridiomycosis is also a major threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004), and similar declines have also been observed in Honduras.
55917		conservation	eng	This species has not been found in any protected area, though one has been proposed within its range. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.
55917		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra de Santa Cruz, eastern Guatemala, from 366-1,150m, though it might occur a little more widely.
55917		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed subtropical moist forest and is found near, and breeds in, streams.
55917		population	eng	It is a common species within its range.
55917		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement, and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
55918		conservation	eng	It is found in three protected areas, namely Pico Bonito, Texiguat, and Capiro y Calentura National Parks. Further survey work is necessary to determine the degree to which chytrid poses a threat to this species.
55918		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Nombre de Dios in the departments of Atlantida, Colon and Yoro in northern Honduras, at 160-1,580m asl.
55918		habitat	eng	A stream-breeding species, it lives on vegetation and boulders along streams, in lowland moist forest and premontane and lower montane wet forest. It can survive in somewhat degraded forest.
55918		population	eng	It is relatively common.
55918		threats	eng	The main threats are loss of habitat due to subsistence agriculture, creation of pastureland, and forest fires. Chytridiomycosis is also a plausible potential threat.
55919		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
55919		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to the mesic forests of the Atlantic slopes of northern Oaxaca, Mexico, from 400-1,500m asl. It has been recorded from the Sierra Mazateca, the Sierra Juárez and the Sierra Mixes, and it might occur more widely.
55919		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest and lower montane rainforest, where it is generally found in vegetation close to streams. The larvae develop in pools in the streams.
55919		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55919		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction. Larvae have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinised mouthparts, indicating chytridiomycosis.
55920		conservation	eng	In Peru this species is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve, Parque Nacional Manu, and might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana, Alto Purus, Manu and Amarakaeri Reserved Zones, and Pacaya Samiria National Reserve and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. It is present in many protected areas in Brazil.
55920		distribution	eng	This species is an Amazonian species of southern Colombia (Leticia); Departments of Madre de Dios, Ucayali, and Loreto, Peru; western Brazilian Amazonia; and northern Bolivia (De la Riva <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It has an altitudinal range of 50-200m asl.
55920		habitat	eng	It is found in swampy areas in lowland tropical flooded rainforest, including floating meadows, and is associated with streams, rivers and waterways. The eggs and larvae develop in water, the egg deposition site is not known.
55920		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
55920		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to shifting cultivation and logging.
55921		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55921		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Southern Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), Paraguay, Bolivian Pantanal, and northern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 150-1000m asl.
55921		habitat	eng	It lives in savannah and shrubland. It is often found near temporary and permanent waterbodies, where it breeds. It adapts well to human disturbance.
55921		population	eng	It is common.
55921		threats	eng	There are no threats, although agricultural activities in eastern Paraguay might threaten some populations.
55922		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least three protected areas: Reserva Biólogica de Sooretama; Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz, and Reserva Florestal da C.V.R.D.
55922		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil is known from the region of Linhares in the State of Espírito Santo, north to Porto Seguro in the State of Bahia. It is a very low altitude species, occurring from sea level up to 30m asl.
55922		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads in forests, "Restinga" scrub, and open areas near the coast. It breeds by larval development in temporary ponds.
55922		population	eng	It is a common species.
55922		threats	eng	The main threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement, tourism, and collection of bromeliads. However, this species is reasonably adaptable, and is not significantly threatened.
55923		conservation	eng	The species is known from a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
55923		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar in the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. It occurs around 1,200m asl.
55923		habitat	eng	They are found on vegetation near small streams and brooks in primary and old secondary forest where they also breed. They have not been recorded outside forest.
55923		population	eng	This is a very common species.
55923		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation, the creation of small farms for agriculture, and fires is a threat to the species.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
55924		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas established on the island. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species.
55924		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Ilha de Alcatrazes, an island off the coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The maximum elevation of the island is no more than 100m asl.
55924		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forest, and has also been recorded from degraded forest. The breeding habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
55924		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55924		threats	eng	Ilha de Alcatrazes was used as a military base in the past, but this is no longer the case. Although there currently is no human settlement on the island, direct disturbance of the species, and degradation of its habitat from touristic activities and fire are ongoing threats.
55925		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from at least one protected area (Parque Nacional Altos de Campana). Further research is needed into the range, ecology and potential conservation measures.
55925		distribution	eng	This species is a Panamanian endemic of the western Pacific lowlands, Azuero Peninsula, central Panama, and Pacific lowlands.
55925		habitat	eng	It occurs in xeric, scrubby forest and in savannahs. It can occur in artificial habitats and presumably breeds in temporary ponds.
55925		population	eng	It is common at a number of sites.
55925		threats	eng	Infrastructure development and water pollution are major threats.
55926		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55926		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal region of Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,000m asl.
55926		habitat	eng	It is a species of open areas, including grassland and pastureland. It is found on vegetation above ponds and other area of standing water. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
55926		population	eng	It is a common species.
55926		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, and is not facing any known threats.
55927		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. More research into the Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed, as well as an assessment of what are the major threats to the species. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55927		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mangaratiba in Rio de Janeiro State, to Picinguaba, in São Paulo State, Brazil. It is known up to 800m asl.
55927		habitat	eng	This species is known from primary forest but it might also occur in secondary forest. It breeds in permanent streams, and also in artificial ponds, but is otherwise not known from human habitats.
55927		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55927		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of forests is a major threat to the species, as it is not known to occur outside forest.
55928		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55928		distribution	eng	This recently described species from south-eastern Brazil is known only from Santa Teresa in the state of Espírito Santo, at 700m asl.
55928		habitat	eng	It is thought to live and breed in bromeliads in moist topical forest.
55928		population	eng	Only two specimens are known at present, and there is no other information regarding its population status.
55928		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but in the vicinity of the type locality it is potentially at risk from expanding agricultural activity, wood plantations, and human settlements, as well as from the collection of bromeliads.
55929		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55929		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal regions of eastern and southern Brazil, from the State of Bahia, south to the State of Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 1,100m asl.
55929		habitat	eng	It lives in both forest and in more open areas, such as "restinga" shrubland, but not in farmland. It is commonly, but not always, associated with bromeliads. It is often found in forest on vegetation near temporary and permanent ponds where it breeds.
55929		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55929		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability, it is probably not seriously threatened, though agriculture, clear-cutting, removal of bromeliads, and human settlements might impact some populations.
55930		conservation	eng	The protected area which its known range is wholly within is Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.
55930		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single protected area that is in both São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, in south-eastern Brazil. It has been recorded above 500m asl, to at least 1,600m asl, although the upper limit of its altitudinal range is not known. It might occur more widely.
55930		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near streams, in which it breeds, in primary and secondary forest.
55930		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55930		threats	eng	There are no current threats to its habitat at present, since it is only known to occur in a protected area, but it might occur outside this area in which case these parts of its habitat could be under threat.
55931		conservation	eng	Both of the known localities are in protected areas.
55931		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra da Bocaina and the Serra Itatiaia, in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States, in south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely. It occurs above 1,200m asl.
55931		habitat	eng	It breeds in bromeliads in montane moist forest, but very little other ecological information is known.
55931		population	eng	It is known from fewer than 10 specimens, so its population status is not known. No attempts have been made to return to the localities for many years to try to collect the species.
55931		threats	eng	There is very little information regarding potential threats to this species.
55932		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55932		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Brazil from the State of Bahia, north to the State of Paraiba. It ranges up to 960m asl.
55932		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable species that lives in lowland forest, forest edge, open habitats and rocky areas, often in bromeliads, on shrubs or in swamps. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
55932		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55932		threats	eng	Apart from bromeliad collecting, this species probably faces almost no threats.
55933		conservation	eng	It occurs within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca, which is also a sacred area for the indigenous people.
55933		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from Amazonas State, Venezuela. There are also specimens reported from Belem, in Para State, Brazil, although these are thought to be misidentifications, so are not considered valid for this assessment. This species is expected to occur more widely and has been recorded under 300m asl.
55933		habitat	eng	This species is usually found around temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest or in forest edges surrounding tepuis. The eggs and larvae develop in water.
55933		population	eng	It is very rare.
55933		threats	eng	The lowland areas where this species occurs might be threatened in the future by the expansion of human settlements. However, at present, this species is probably not significantly threatened.
55934		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55934		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina, in Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones and Chaco; in Brazil from Rio Grande do Sul to Sao Paulo; in Paraguay it occurs along the eastern and southern region and in Uruguay it can be found in the entire country. Its altitudinal range is 0-1,000m asl.
55934		habitat	eng	It can be found in grasslands and clearings in rainforest. It reproduces in temporary pools and occurs in altered habitats.
55934		population	eng	Its abundance varies from common to rare throughout its range.
55934		threats	eng	Selective logging, clear-cutting of primary forests for agriculture (including rice plantations) are major threats. Pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices-Industrial pollution (organic wastes) is also a threat.
55935		conservation	eng	The species is not within any protected areas, but they are not thought to be necessary considering its adaptability to habitat disturbance. A determination of its exact range would be useful.
55935		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Llanos of Colombia (departments of Arauca, Meta and Guaviare), from 200-500m asl. The type locality is "near junction of Río Guaviare and Río Ariari, Guaviare, Colombia".
55935		habitat	eng	It is usually found around permanent waterbodies in tropical savannah. It lays its eggs and tadpoles in permanent pools. It is also found in a variety of anthropogenic habitats such as gardens and agricultural land.
55935		population	eng	It is a very common species. Its range might even be increasing.
55935		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very common and adaptable species.
55936		conservation	eng	Several protected areas occur within the range of this species.
55936		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela, lowland Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Amazonas and Pará states, in Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 650m asl.
55936		habitat	eng	It is usually found around or in bushes over small temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest and forest edges. Males are found calling from vegetation 5-10m above the water of temporary pools in primary or secondary forest. It is an explosive breeder, and the eggs and tadpoles are found in temporary forest pools. It is very adaptable to human disturbance of its habitat.
55936		population	eng	It is a common species.
55936		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Local threats include habitat destruction and fire.
55937		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas throughout its range.
55937		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the humid lowlands and lower edges of the premontane zone from Honduras (Departamento Gracias a Dios) and Nicaragua to central Panama on the Atlantic versant and Pacific slope subhumid lowlands of northwestern Costa Rica south through the humid lowlands of southwestern Costa Rica, exclusive of western Panama on the Atlantic side from 1-700m asl (Savage, 2002; McCranie and Wilson, 2002). In Colombia it is known from Acandi, in the department of Choco around 30m asl.
55937		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species that is usually found in bushes, low trees, stumps and fallen logs near the forest floor in tropical primary and secondary rainforest, but also in secondary growth or in isolated trees and shrubs in pastures and other open areas (Savage, 2002). Breeding occurs in temporary pools after heavy rains. Eggs and tadpoles live in the water.
55937		population	eng	It is a common species.
55937		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this wide-ranging, common species.
55938		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55938		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar, in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl.
55938		habitat	eng	The species occurs on leaves or stems of low vegetation near and away from streams or ponds in forests, secondary growth, or clearings. It breeds in natural or artificial pools, or slow flowing streams. It is also found in disturbed habitats such as pastureland and rural gardens.
55938		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
55938		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, as it appears to be able to persist in disturbed habitats.
55939		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research to resolve this species complex is needed.
55939		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands of Poços de Caldas to the southern part of Serra do Espinhaço, in Brazil. It has been recorded from above 800m asl.
55939		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas on low vegetation near permanent or temporary ponds. The spawn are deposited in temporary or permanent ponds, and attached to the vegetation. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55939		population	eng	It is a common species.
55939		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as mining and fires are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55940		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.
55940		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, where it is known from the type locality in the Serra da Canastra, and a recently recorded locality at the Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Galheiro (Oliveira-Filho and Kokubum 2003). It has been recorded above 800m asl.
55940		habitat	eng	This species occurs in gallery forests on low vegetation near streams, in which it breeds, and apparently adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55940		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
55940		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are logging and fires.
55941		conservation	eng	The known sites of the species are wholly within a few protected areas, but the species clearly occurs outside protected areas as well. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat are essential. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside its known range.
55941		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality (Teresópolis) in the state of Rio de Janeiro, and from Serra Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar in Rio de Janeiro State, and the region of Domingos Martins, in Espirito Santo State, Brazil. The distribution map is based on the assumption that it occurs in intervening areas between the known sites. It occurs from 700-1,200m asl.
55941		habitat	eng	The species occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in forest edge. It breeds in slow-flowing permanent streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
55941		population	eng	It is not thought to be a common species.
55941		threats	eng	The known range of this species is currently restricted to protected areas, so the main threat is fire, although there is some illegal infrastructure development for human settlement also occurring in the parks. It most likely occurs outside these areas, and hence will be locally threatened by farming and deforestation.
55942		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes at least two protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55942		distribution	eng	This species is known from the valley of the Rio Doce in the state of Minas Gerais, in southeastern Brazil. It has been recorded from 300-600m asl.
55942		habitat	eng	This species occurs on low vegetation in primary and secondary forest at the edge of lakes where it also breeds. It has not been recorded outside forest.
55942		population	eng	It is a common species.
55942		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forests, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is a threat to this species.
55943		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional Amboró is at the edge of its range. Taxonomic research and monitoring is needed to determine the taxonomic and population status of some of the subpopulations currently assigned to this species.
55943		distribution	eng	This species is found in temperate valleys east of the Andes in Bolivia at 1,000-1,800m asl. It is found in the departments of Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Köhler 2000). The records from Argentina are in error (Lavilla <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is still very little information on its extent of occurrence, and attempts to map its distribution at this stage should be regarded as approximate and preliminary.
55943		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species from open areas in inter-Andean valleys, montane Tucumano-Bolivian forest and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). De la Riva (1993) and De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (1994) observed males calling at sunset from the ground or perching on bushes, brushwoods or rushes surrounding Bermejo Lake. Köhler (2000) states that it can be found next to ponds or water tanks on emergent vegetation. There is no other information on its breeding habits. This species is not thought likely to adapt well to altered habitats.
55943		population	eng	It is locally common at the three or four known locations.
55943		threats	eng	Its major threats are habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.
55944		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55944		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Brazil in the eastern portions of Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande de Sul states, 0-1,200m asl.
55944		habitat	eng	Occurs in secondary and old growth forest habitats at slowly flowing streams or ponds with clear water. The males call at night on low vegetation next to water. The egg clutch is stuck to aquatic vegetation.
55944		population	eng	It is common and stable where suitable habitats survive.
55944		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and water pollution is a major threat.
55945		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55945		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Brazil, from the type locality (Silvânia) and the municipality of Ipameri in the state of Goiás, and the Distrito Federal, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 700-1,200m asl.
55945		habitat	eng	In inhabits the Cerrado and occurs on vegetation near waterbodies inside or at the edge of gallery forests, where it also breeds. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55945		population	eng	It is a common species.
55945		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and fires are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55946		conservation	eng	It is present in the Tambopata Reserved Zone, Peru, and several protected areas in Bolivia.
55946		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South America, and it is known only from southern Peru (Cusco Amazonico and Tambopata) and northeastern Bolivia (Departments of Beni, Pando and Santa Cruz) (De la Riva 1993, De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its altitudinal range is up to 450m asl.
55946		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and arboreal species that is reported in the Amazonian rainforest and wet forest in transition to lowlands. De la Riva (1990) and De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (1994) point out that this species can be found calling on aquatic vegetation or on emerging bushes from temporary ponds, in primary forest or in ecotones; and also on peripheric vegetation from ponds. In Peru, this species is reported only from forest (Duellman and Wiens 1993). Breeding takes place in temporary ponds. The species is not present in degraded habitat.
55946		population	eng	It is a common species.
55946		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
55947		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55947		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal mountains of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais States in southeastern Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-2,200m asl.
55947		habitat	eng	This species is found on low vegetation or on boulders associated with ponds in open areas. Tadpoles have been collected from temporary and permanent ponds. It is also known from disturbed open areas such as artificial ponds and pastureland.
55947		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55947		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this common and adaptable species.
55948		conservation	eng	In Peru, it is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve and Parque Nacional Manu, and it might also occur in Gueppi and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. It is presumably present in protected areas in Brazil, Colombia and French Guiana.
55948		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon Basin of southern Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Departamentos Loreto and Madre de Dios). It is also present in Brazil from 70-90km north of Manaus. Records of this species in French Guiana might refer to a different taxon and require further investigation. It is a lowland species.
55948		habitat	eng	It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in lowland tropical rainforest or its edge. It occurs in rainforest more commonly than in disturbed areas. Breeding takes place in open or Heliconia-choked ponds in clearings and in the forest (Duellman and Wiens, 1993). At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in primary forest, secondary forest, forest edge, and banana grove habitats (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in floodable forest and Terra Firme Forest (Ron, 2001). Eggs and tadpoles develop in ponds.
55948		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55948		threats	eng	No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to fire and slash-and-burn agriculture, but it is somewhat adaptable, and might not be greatly impacted by such alteration of tis habitat.
55949		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55949		distribution	eng	This species from coastal eastern and southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. It has been recorded up to 1,000m (but the natural limits are not clear because it spreads beyond its natural range in horticultural bromeliads).
55949		habitat	eng	It lives in open habitats, coastal "Restinga" scrub, and the edges of the forests, often it is found on low vegetation near waterbodies. It likes to shelter in bromeliads and is very abundant in those growing on rocks near the coast. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
55949		population	eng	It is a common species.
55949		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, human settlement, tourism, and collection of bromeliads.
55950		conservation	eng	Part of its range is protected within Parque Nacional Canaima.
55950		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the general region of the type locality, which is given as "127km along the El Dorado-Santa Elena de Uairen road" (Duellman 1986), in Bolívar State, south-eastern Venezuela, at altitudes between 180 and 1,250m asl (05° 57'N; 61° 27'W). Its range is still largely unknown, and it is expected to occur more widely.
55950		habitat	eng	Males of this nocturnal species were found situatued horizontally or head-up, calling from leaves of herbaceous vegetation and bushes over a sluggish stream, or from small, deep ponds in forest, and on vines above and around vegetation around a temporary pool at the edge of the forest (Duellman 1997). It has also been recorded from marginal vegetation at the edge of a lagoon (Gorzula and Señaris 1999). Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumably a larval developer in water.
55950		population	eng	It is not common.
55950		threats	eng	The installation of power lines and the associated development are localized threats to this species' habitat. The disturbance of its habitat by tourists and fires is also a problem. However, in general this species occurs in a region of relatively low human impact, and so it is probably not very seriously threatened.
55951		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species is in protected areas.
55951		distribution	eng	This species occurs above 1,000m asl in the mountains of southeastern Brazil, from the Serra da Mantiqueira in the State of São Paulo north to the Serra do Caraça in the State of Minas Gerais.
55951		habitat	eng	It is a species of open, rocky, high-altitude grassland, living on the ground or on low vegetation near ponds or slow-flowing streams in the upper reaches of the mountains. It breeds in permanent and temporary slow-flowing water.
55951		population	eng	It is a common species.
55951		threats	eng	Its habitat is under some pressure from fire and tourism, but this species is not seriously threatened.
55952		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas.
55952		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid lowlands and lower premontane forests from eastern Nicaragua to northwestern Panama on the Atlantic versant and on the Pacific slope from the Río Barranca drainage of central Costa Rica to southwestern Panama. There is also isolated population at Bajo Calima in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia. It occurs from sea level to 1,200m, mostly below 700m. Records of Scinax quinquefasciata from Colombia might be referable to this species.
55952		habitat	eng	It is primarily a nocturnal species of lowland, and marginally montane, tropical forest. It can also be found in secondary and disturbed forest habitats. It breeds in temporary ponds during the wet season. Eggs are laid in the pond, or on adjacent vegetation, and the larvae develop in the ponds.
55952		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55952		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be severe deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the use of agro-chemicals. Although it is somewhat adaptable, it probably cannot tolerate the opening up of the habitat on a large scale.
55953		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55953		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern Brazil, from the State of Rio de Janeiro, north to the State of Paraíba, with an apparently isolated population in the State of Maranhão. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55953		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species that lives in primary and secondary forest, on forest edges, and in a variety of open habitats. It has also been found inside houses. It is often found on low vegetation near ponds, lakes or flooded areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
55953		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
55953		threats	eng	Apart from clear-cutting, this species does not face any serious threats.
55954		conservation	eng	Some populations might be protected within Canaima National Park in Venezuela.
55954		distribution	eng	This species is known from the general vicinity type locality, on km 144 on the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén (05 53N, 61 23W), at an elevation of 1,210m asl, in Bolívar state, southeastern Venezuela. It has been recorded from 500-1,500m asl. It potentially also occurs in Brazil but there are no records from there as yet. It almost certainly occurs more widely.
55954		habitat	eng	Its habitat in Bolívar state has been defined as the marginal vegetation of oligotrophic wetlands (Gorzula and Señaris 1999). Males of this species have been found calling from blades of grass in swallow marsh and from grass along a sluggish stream. Amplectant pairs have been found about 1m above water on a bush (Duellman 1997). By day, it hides beneath stones. Tadpoles apparently develop in shallow pools (about 15cm deep). It has also been recorded from around temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest and its edge.
55954		population	eng	It is a common species.
55954		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present. It occurs in a region of limited human impact.
55955		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
55955		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal southeastern Brazil from the State of Espírito Santo, south to the State Santa Catarina. It altitudinal range is 100-1,300m asl.
55955		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and old secondary lowland and montane rainforest, it is usually found on vegetation near streams, where it breeds.
55955		population	eng	It is a common species.
55955		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging and human settlement.
55956		conservation	eng	In Peru, it might be present in Gueppi, Santiago Comaina and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones, Pacaya Samiria National Park, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Parque Nacional Manu. In Ecuador it is found in Yasuni National Park; Limoncocha Reserva Biológica and Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Gyabeuo.
55956		distribution	eng	This species can be found in much of the upper Amazonian region of Ecuador (including the Río Santiago Valley), throughout Peru (Departamentos San Martin; Loreto; Ucayali; Huánuco; Madre de Dios) and wide-ranging in western Brazil (Acre State). It is a lowland species.
55956		habitat	eng	A forest inhabitant, most individuals have been observed on bushes and branches of trees at night (Duellman and Wiens, 1993), although, at Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, specimens have been found in primary forest, secondary forest, forest edge, banana grove, and clearing habitats; individuals were on the ground and on vegetation (Duellman, 1978). Temporary pools are used as breeding habitats.
55956		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
55956		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to clear cutting, fire and smallholder farming, but it is a reasonably adaptable species, and it might not be significantly affected by the alteration of its habitat.
55957		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.
55957		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Brazil, lowland Bolivia, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 0-2,000m asl.
55957		habitat	eng	It is usually found on low vegetation around temporary and permanent waterbodies. Eggs and tadpoles are found in the water. It can withstand some level of anthropogenic disturbance and has been found in rice cultivation.
55957		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55957		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
55958		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.
55958		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern, southeastern and central Brazil as well as in eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina, and northern Uruguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-2,000m asl.
55958		habitat	eng	It occurs in open habitats such as pastures. During breeding time it can be found in standing waterbodies, such as ponds. The spawn are attached to aquatic vegetation and the tadpoles develop in the water. It is very common in urban areas, and inside houses.
55958		population	eng	It is common even in deforested regions.
55958		threats	eng	There are no threats.
55959		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Venezuelan populations occur in a major Biosphere Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
55959		distribution	eng	This species is present in the middle and upper Amazon Basin in Brazil, Venezuela (Amazonas state), Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. It occurs up to 1,000m asl in Ecuador.
55959		habitat	eng	This species can be found in primary and secondary tropical rainforests, flooded forest, edges, and even cultivated lands, with reproduction in ponds and temporary watercourses. It has been reported perched head down on Heliconia plants, shrubs and trees close to water (De la Riva 1993). It is usually found around temporary waterbodies and its edge. Eggs and tadpoles can be found in the water.
55959		population	eng	It is a common species. S. garbei seemed to become more common as forest was cut at Santa Cecilia, Ecuador (Duellman, 1978). It is not a common species in the primary forest at Cusco Amazónico, Perú, where solitary individuals were found throughout the year, but more commonly in the rainy season, on leaves and stems of bushes, palm fronds, and tree trunks 0.4-1.5m above the ground at night (Duellman and Wiens, 1993).
55959		threats	eng	There are no threats. It is an adaptable species.
55960		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.
55960		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Brazil, southeastern Paraguay (along the Rio Parana), northeastern Argentina, and Uruguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,200m asl.
55960		habitat	eng	It lives in open habitats and breeds on the ground or on low vegetation next to the water margins of standing waterbodies such as puddles, ponds or small lakes. Out of spawning period it is arboreal; the egg clutch is deposited on aquatic plants. It adapts to anthropogenic disturbance (often found in houses).
55960		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55960		threats	eng	There are no threats.
55961		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
55961		distribution	eng	This species occurs up to 1,200m asl in the Serra do Mar of southeastern Brazil from the States of Espírito Santo and southeastern Minas Gerais, south to the State of Parana.
55961		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, on forest edges, and in secondary growth, gardens, open situations, and even inside houses. It is usually found on low vegetation near streams and ponds. It breeds in pools along the side of streams, ponds, and even swimming pools.
55961		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55961		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, not facing any known threats.
55962		conservation	eng	In view of the lack of recent records and the decline of stream-breeding frogs in other parts of the wet tropics, it is an urgent priority to carry out surveys for this species.
55962		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Santa Teresa and Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo in south-eastern Brazil, at 650-700m asl.
55962		habitat	eng	This species lives in forest, where it was found on vegetation near streams. It apparently breeds in streams, and hides in bromeliads.
55962		population	eng	Only a few specimens are known. It has not been found in Santa Teresa since its initial discovery, despite searching, and so it is probably rare there, and only a few specimens are known from Domingos Martins.
55962		threats	eng	There is no direct information on the threats to this species, but in the vicinity of the type locality it is potentially at risk from expanding agriculture, wood plantations, and human settlements, as well as from the collection of bromeliads. The lack of recent records, despite searching, gives cause for concern, given the decline of stream-breeding frogs in other parts of the wet tropics. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis).
55963		conservation	eng	The species is known from two protected areas. The creation of new protected areas to conserve the species' habitat is desirable. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55963		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of São Paulo, in Brazil. It occurs from 700-900m asl.
55963		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary forest edges on low vegetation near waterbodies, such as ponds and slow-flowing streams. The eggs are deposited near the water surface and are attached on to the vegetation in slow-flowing streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
55963		population	eng	It is a common species.
55963		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation, and agricultural encroachment is a threat to the species.
55964		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55964		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of the state of Minas Gerais, and in the coastal Atlantic Forest of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States in southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
55964		habitat	eng	The species is found on the vegetation of the marshy ground inside primary and secondary forests of the coastal lowlands. It has also been recorded from disturbed forest and near the forest edge, but not from open areas. It breeds in temporary rain pools.
55964		population	eng	It is a common species.
55964		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forests, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is a threat to the species.
55965		conservation	eng	In Peru this species is known to occur in Tambopata National Reserve and Parque Nacional Manu, and might also occur in Alto Purus, Manu and Amarakaeri Reserved Zones, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.
55965		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowland "rolling hills" of the southeastern slopes of the Andes (Departamento Huanuco, Departments of Ucayali and Madre de Dios), central and southern Peru, and also from a single locality in Colombia. It might occur in northern Bolivia and western Brazil. It can be found at elevations of 200m.
55965		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland primary tropical moist forest. It may occur at the forest edge, but not in degraded habitats. Eggs are deposited in temporary pools.
55965		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
55965		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Local populations might be impacted by deforestation.
55966		conservation	eng	The protected area within which this species is found is Kaw Nature Reserve.
55966		distribution	eng	This species is known from Gabrielle and Kaw Creek in north-eastern French Guiana (Lescure and Marty 2001), and is likely to occur more widely. A dot-map of the distribution is presented in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs at very low altitudes, up to only about 10m asl.
55966		habitat	eng	This species inhabits marshes in lowland rainforest and has not been found in disturbed areas. It presumably breeds in water.
55966		population	eng	It is not thought to be a common species. It can be found relatively easily after heavy rains but otherwise it can be very difficult to locate.
55966		threats	eng	Its major threats are unknown, but most of the known range is within a protected area, so there are not expected to be any major threats to this species' habitat at present.
55967		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins protected area.
55967		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality (Juréia, Iguape) in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, where it occurs from sea level up to about 500m asl. The region around the type locality has not been sampled so it might be more widespread than is currently known.
55967		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest, and breeds in temporary pools.
55967		population	eng	It is common.
55967		threats	eng	The only known populations are within a protected area, where its habitat is likely to be relatively secure. Populations that are presumed to occur outside this area are likely to be threatened by habitat loss.
55968		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
55968		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 650m asl.
55968		habitat	eng	This species lives in forest and can survive in somewhat degraded habitat. It is found on vegetation near streams, in which it breeds.
55968		population	eng	It is very common in its small known range.
55968		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement, but at present not much habitat loss is taking place near its only known locality.
55969		conservation	eng	It occurs in the El Tupurro National Park in Colombia, and probably in Cinaruco- Capanaparo National Park in Venezuela.
55969		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the "Llanos" of eastern Colombia and northern Amazonas State in Venezuela. The only Venezuelan record appears to be from Puerto Ayacucho, in Amazonas; in the map its presence is assumed in Apure and Barinas states. All records are from below 400m asl.
55969		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist savannahs, breeding in temporary and permanent ponds and flooded land.
55969		population	eng	It is a rare species.
55969		threats	eng	With the exception of the effects of fire on its habitat, this species is not likely to be threatened.
55970		conservation	eng	In Colombia the known locality in Puré is in Puré National Park. In Brazil the type locality is within an indigenous reserve. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status, in particular in Brazil, is needed.
55970		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in Amazonas, Brazil, and from Caparú (department of Vaupés) and Puré (department of Amazonas), in Colombia. It occurs between 100-200m asl.
55970		habitat	eng	It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in primary forest. Eggs and tadpoles are in the water. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.
55970		population	eng	In Colombia it is known as a common species, but there is no information available on the population status in Brazil.
55970		threats	eng	Shifting agriculture is the only potential threat to the species, although this is most likely a localized threat and not a major threat to the species overall.
55971		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes two protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55971		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peruibe, Ubatuba and Ilha Bela in coastal São Paulo State, and also from Paraná State, Brazil. It occurs up to about 50m asl.
55971		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest edge, and breeds in temporary pools. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.
55971		population	eng	It is a common species.
55971		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of the forest, and infrastructure development, particularly for tourism is a major threat.
55972		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Estadual da Serra da Tirrica. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55972		distribution	eng	This species is known from Maricá to Cabo Frio, in the littoral region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. It occurs up to 200m asl.
55972		habitat	eng	It is found in littoral forest (Restinga) in bromeliads in rocky outcrops where it also breeds. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.
55972		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
55972		threats	eng	Deforestation and the collection of bromeliads from the forest, as well as infrastructure development are major threats to the species.
55973		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55973		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the mountains of southeastern Brazil, at 700-1,200m asl in the State of Minas Gerais.
55973		habitat	eng	It lives inside lowland and montane forests, including riparian forests, and on forest edges, but not in more open areas. It is usually found on vegetation near streams. It breeds in streams and pools in streams.
55973		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55973		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to wood plantations, logging, mining and human settlement.
55974		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with several protected areas.
55974		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Minas Gerais state in Brazil. It has been recorded above 700m asl.
55974		habitat	eng	It occurs in gallery forests in the Cerrado, and on the edge of the Atlantic Forest. It is found on low vegetation near waterbodies, such as ponds or streams where it also breeds. It probably adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55974		population	eng	It is a common species.
55974		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.
55975		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus <em>Scinax</em>.
55975		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Espinhaço, Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Caraça, in Minas Gerais State, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 400-1,200m asl.
55975		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest, and also shrubland and is usually found along the edge of streams. It breeds in permanent streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
55975		population	eng	It is a common species.
55975		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation from infrastructure development and agricultural encroachment are threats to the species.
55976		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Chorro El Indio, Venezuela.
55976		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes of Venezuela and Colombia. In Venezuela it is found on both sides of the Táchira depression. It is known from a single locality on El Tamá massif, an outreach of the Colombian Cordillera Oriental, at Bramón, 600m. It is widely distributed throughout the Cordillera de Mérida and found both on the northwest face of the Cordillera towards the Maracaibo lake basin (La Azulita at 1,400m, near Santa Cruz de Mora, 1,600m or in Chiguará at 1,400m) and the southeast face toward the upper drainage system of the Orinoquia lowlands or Llanos (Mesa de Quintero at 1,700m, Uribante dam, 1,000m). In Colombia it is known from two adjacent localities in cloud forest from 1,400-1,500m, close to the Venezuelan border (Chinácota).
55976		habitat	eng	It has been observed in disturbed vegetation above ditches surrounded by tall grasses as well as on artificial water tanks, ponds, and trails. It has also been observed in less disturbed areas with remnant forest patches (Parque Nacional Chorro El Indio). An individual has been found inside a bromeliad 2m above the ground on a fence post, however the breeding habitat of this species remains unknown.
55976		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
55976		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. There might not be any major threats to the species, as it appears to be able to exist within modified habitats.
55977		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.
55977		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra da Canastra in the mountains of south-western Minas Gerais State, Brazil, although it might occur more widely. It is found above 900m asl.
55977		habitat	eng	It inhabits the Cerrado savannah, and occurs on the ground or on low vegetation near ponds or small lakes, where it also breeds.
55977		population	eng	The population status of this very poorly known species is not known.
55977		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock) and fires.
55979		conservation	eng	The known range of this species is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos.
55979		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra dos Orgãos in south-eastern Brazil, at about 1,200m asl. There has not been sampling outside its range, so it might have a wider distribution than is currently known.
55979		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in clearings in primary and secondary forest, but has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds in bromeliads, and the larvae develop inside these.
55979		population	eng	It is very common within its very small range.
55979		threats	eng	If it is found to occur outside its known range within a protected area it might be threatened by habitat loss or degradation.
55980		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.
55980		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Paraguay, northern Argentina (Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Formosa, Entre Ríos, Jujuy, Salta, Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, Misiones, Buenos Aires), Uruguay (Artigas, Paysandú, Río Negro and Salto), eastern Bolivia (Beni, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, Tarija), and southwestern Brazil to Rio Grande do Sul State. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
55980		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest, shrublands and grasslands. It breeds in temporary pools in open vegetation areas, the eggs being deposited in the water and the tadpoles developing in the same site. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55980		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
55980		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55981		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within its range. For example, some populations occur within Canaima National Park, in Bolívar state, southeastern Venezuela.
55981		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Venezuela and the Guianas, through the Amazon Basin of Brazil to northern Bolivia, and east the Brazilian States of Ceará and Maranhao. Records from the State of Alagoas in northeastern Brazil require confirmation. A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is presented in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m, probably higher.
55981		habitat	eng	It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest and rainforest edge. It is also present in more open areas such as Cerrado moist savannah and coastal savannahs (for example in the Guianas), as well as surviving to some extent in anthropogenic habitats, such as pastureland, secondary growth and rural gardens. Males of this nocturnal frog call from herbaceous vegetation 40-50cm above the water. The eggs and tadpoles can be found in the water.
55981		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Bolivia, Brazil, and the Guianas, but is rare in Venezuela.
55981		threats	eng	Overall, this species is not threatened, but habitat loss and fires probably impact local populations.
55982		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into its Extent of Occurrence is desirable. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55982		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, in Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and São Paulo States, in Brazil. It occurs from 800-2,200m asl.
55982		habitat	eng	The species occurs on low vegetation near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest. It has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds in permanent streams.
55982		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55982		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation, infrastructure development and agricultural encroachment is a threat to this species.
55983		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo, the Zona Reservada Biabo Cordillera Azul, Parque Nacional de Yanachaga-Chemillén, the Reserva Comunal Yanesha, and the Bosque de Protección San Matías-San Carlos (although this requires confirmation).
55983		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes in the departments of Amazonas, Pasco and San Martin, from 1,600-2,400m asl.
55983		habitat	eng	It can be found in upper and montane rainforest (cloud forest) and lower montane rainforest. It presumably breeds in ponds, swamps and open areas. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded habitats.
55983		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
55983		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known, but there is general agricultural development throughout much of the region that is likely to be affecting it.
55984		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
55984		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil occurs from the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais, north to the States of Pernambuco and Paraiba.
55984		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry "Caatinga" savannah and rock outcrops, as well as agricultural land. It can be found in bromeliads or on vegetation near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary ponds.
55984		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55984		threats	eng	It is probably not seriously threatened, but some populations might be impacted by intensive agriculture, or by overgrazing by livestock.
55985		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
55985		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Beni and Santa Cruz in eastern Bolivia. It has been recorded from 150-450m asl.
55985		habitat	eng	It typically inhabits open areas, but also inhabits various forms of forest and moist savannahs. It breeds in flooded savannahs and temporary ponds. It calls while perching on small grass in flooded areas. It also adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance, such as cattle ranching.
55985		population	eng	It is a common species.
55985		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
55986		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve, and might also occur in the Alto Purus Reserved Zone, Manu Biosphere Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.
55986		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the upper Amazon Basin in extreme eastern Peru, in the drainages of the Río Purus and Río Madre de Dios, Departamento Madre de Dios. It can be found up to 200m asl.
55986		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest. Eggs are deposited in temporary pools. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.
55986		population	eng	It is a very abundant species. It is one of the most abundant species at Cusco Amazonico (Duellman, 1995) and nearby Tambopata (Doan and Arizábal, 2000).
55986		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Local populations might be impacted by deforestation.
55987		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and Argentina.
55987		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in the states of São Paulo south to Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil; northeastern Misiones Province in Argentina; and a few localities in southern Oriental Region of Paraguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,000m asl.
55987		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and forest edges. It reproduces in temporary and permanent pools (including artificial pools and water-filled tire tracks on dirt roads). It occurs in secondary forest.
55987		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Brazil and Argentina but is rare in Paraguay.
55987		threats	eng	Clear-cutting for wood extraction and pine plantations is a major threat.
55988		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus <em>Scinax</em>.
55988		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Brazil in the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. It occurs up to 800m asl.
55988		habitat	eng	This species lives and breeds in bromeliads inside primary and secondary forest and littoral shrub vegetation (Restinga). It has not been recorded outside forests.
55988		population	eng	It is a common species.
55988		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forests, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is a threat to this species
55989		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Kaw Nature Reserve in French Guiana. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
55989		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in French Guiana and southern Suriname and Guyana. A dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana is presented in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded between 200-700m asl.
55989		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the trees around temporary pools in primary forest. It breeds in these pools. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.
55989		population	eng	This is not an uncommon species.
55989		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present. It occurs in a region of very limited human impact.
55990		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Parque Nacional Machalilla, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
55990		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Ecuador. There are also records for the Pacific lowlands of Colombia in the Department of Chocó, though these might be referable to Scinax elaeochrous. It has been recorded from 20-500m asl. It has also become established as an alien species in the vicinity of Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos Islands (not mapped here).
55990		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable species, living on the forest edge and in open habitats with some trees, even entering houses. It breeds in temporary pools.
55990		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
55990		threats	eng	It is not facing any significant threats.
55991		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur within any protected areas, and conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is also needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the two known localities.
55991		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities: Monte Belo, and Poços de Caldas, both in Minas Gerais State, in south-eastern Brazil, where it has been recorded at around 1,000m asl. Sampling of this area is poor, so it might have a larger distribution than is currently known.
55991		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary gallery forests on vegetation along rivers, but has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. Larvae were found in ponds on the streams margins.
55991		population	eng	It is a common species.
55991		threats	eng	Mining is the main threat to this species, in particular due to the pollution of its habitat that this activity causes.
55992		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55992		distribution	eng	This species from southern Brazil ranges from Ribeirão Branco in the state of São Paulo, south to northeastern part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul State. It occurs up to 800m asl.
55992		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest and forest edge. It is not known from disturbed areas. It creates a foam nest in temporary pools, and is an explosive breeder.
55992		population	eng	It is a very common species.
55992		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is threatening the species.
55993		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Parque Nacional Chagres and Parque Nacional Soberania in Panama as well as in South America.
55993		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the lowlands from central Panama to the eastern lowlands of San Blas, through to Colombia in the Magdalena Valley, Northwest Orinoquia and Upper Pacific region, and northern Venezuela and the Orinoco to Guyana and Suriname. It occurs up to 1,300m asl. In Venezuela, this species has been recorded from the states of Amazonas, Aragua, Bolívar, Carabobo, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Lara, Miranda, Monagas, Sucre, and Yaracuy. It is not reported from French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001), where it seems to be replaced by <em>Scinax proboscideus</em>.
55993		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, largely arboreal species of sub-humid scrubby forest and moist savannahs found perched on low vegetation at the edges of temporary or permanent ponds close to moist forests. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds. This species can occur in modified habitats.
55993		population	eng	It is considered to be abundant in some localities.
55993		threats	eng	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a major threat.
55994		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas throughout its range and is very tolerant of human settlement.
55994		distribution	eng	This species is present in Mesoamerica, in the Cerro Campana and Rio Trinidad, central Panama and eastern lowlands of Darien Province (Panama). In South America the species is widespread throughout the Amazon basin (also occurring in the Guianan Shield and on Trinidad and Tobago) and might be found from sea level to around 2,600m asl. It has been introduced to northern Puerto Rico, Martinique and Saint Lucia.
55994		habitat	eng	This large, arboreal, nocturnal frog inhabits a vast array of habitats, from open environments to moist forests. In the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela, males have been found calling from the ground and low vegetation around temporary ponds in the forest, and amplectant pairs were on low vegetation. Scinax ruber is a "pest" species primarily inhabiting cleared areas in the rainforest. This species generally breeds in small temporary pools. In cultivated areas, the species breeds in roadside ditches and shallow, temporary ponds. Animals have been recorded in modified environments such as gardens and parks (Duellman and Wiens, 1993).
55994		population	eng	This is a common species that is abundant in temporary waterbodies during the rainy season.
55994		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species.
55995		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.
55995		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal region of Caraguatatuba, in São Paulo State, to Rio de Janeiro State, in Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.
55995		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas such as savannahs, as well as in artificial habitats. It breeds in temporary pools from the rain, as well as in swamps. It is also found inside houses in rural areas, and in most artificial open areas.
55995		population	eng	This is a very common species.
55995		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance and the creation of open areas favour this species.
55996		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil and Argentina. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.
55996		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern, southern and central Brazil; northern La Paz in Bolivia (one locality); southern and central oriental region of Paraguay; Uruguay; and northeastern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Misiones and Santa Fe). It occurs from 0-1,500m asl.
55996		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas in grasslands and rushes, and communities of <em>Eryngium</em> sp., it also occurs in forests. During the spawning period it can be found at small permanent and temporary waterbodies, often at cattle ponds. The spawn are attached to aquatic vegetation. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
55996		population	eng	It is a common species.
55996		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species. Pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices - industrial pollution (organic wastes) might be localized threats.
55997		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
55997		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the Caribbean versant of Mexico, from central Tamaulipas, southward along the Atlantic coast to the Yucatan peninsula to Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. In the Pacific, it is found from Guerrero, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, southward to northwestern Costa Rica (0-1,530m asl). It also occurs on the Corn Islands, Nicaragua.
55997		habitat	eng	This species seems to prefer disturbed or altered habitats at foothills and low elevations in secondary forests and pasture grasslands or cutover forests. It is also found in disturbed areas in the savannahs and in marshy areas outside or adjacent to forest, including temporarily open areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
55997		population	eng	It is abundant throughout its range.
55997		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
55998		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures for this species.
55998		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lost holotype from the state of Bahia. No map of its range can be drawn because of the lack of specificity of the type locality. This name cannot be assigned to any known species, though Hoogmoed and Gruber (1983) speculated that it could refer to <em>Hyla nebulosa</em>.
55998		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, although it presumably breeds in water.
55998		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
55998		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
55999		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is not yet known from any protected areas in Colombia.
55999		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Colombia (in the Departments of Chocó and Risaralda) and from northwestern Ecuador. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites in Colombia and Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 20-500m asl.
55999		habitat	eng	It lives in secluded places on forest edges and in open areas with some trees. The type series of this species was collected at a large duckweed-covered pond in a banana grove. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop in temporary and permanent ponds.
55999		population	eng	It is a common species.
55999		threats	eng	It is not facing any significant threats.
56001		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
56001		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal regions of the Atlantic forest of Rio de Janeiro State, and from Ilha Grande, in Brazil, up to 600m asl.
56001		habitat	eng	It occurs inside primary and old secondary forest near slow-moving streams, and spawns in slow reaches of small brooks. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.
56001		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56001		threats	eng	The major threats that it faces are habitat loss due to deforestation arising from agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development and fire.
56002		conservation	eng	Its range includes one protected area Sipaliwini in Suriname.
56002		distribution	eng	This species is known from the savannahs of El Manteco in Bolívar state, Venezuela, and from Guyana and Suriname (only Sipaliwini), and Brazil. It has a fragmented distribution because of its specialized habitat requirements. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
56002		habitat	eng	It inhabits savannahs and man-made open habitats. It breeds in ponds and standing water by larval development.
56002		population	eng	It has a scattered distribution, and is not a common species.
56002		threats	eng	Fires are a potential threat to the species' habitat. But in general it is not significantly threatened.
56003		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
56003		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from Teresopolis in the State of Rio de Janeiro, north to Santa Teresa in the State of Espírito Santo. Its altitudinal range is 600-1,200m asl.
56003		habitat	eng	It lives in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads inside forest and rocky areas. It does not occur in heavily degraded areas. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.
56003		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56003		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, collection of bromeliads, human settlement, tourism and chemical spraying of bromeliads for mosquito control.
56004		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
56004		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Llanos of eastern Colombia at 200-880m asl, and has recently been recorded from the amazonian lowlands and eastern slopes of Andean Venezuela, from around 100-300m asl.
56004		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist grassland, pastureland and savannahs near waterbodies. It reproduces in seasonal and permanent pools.
56004		population	eng	It is a common species.
56004		threats	eng	No threats are known.
56005		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within the range of the species.
56005		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Arauca, Meta and North Santander, Colombia, and in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and eastern, southern and southeastern Brazil. In Venezuela, it occurs in Falcón State (Mijares and Arends, 1999) and northeastern Venezuelan Caribbean coast, including Margarita Island. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.
56005		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical savannahs, forest edge and open areas. It is very adaptable to human disturbance. Males have been observed calling from <em>Heliconia</em> leaves about 1.5m above the ground and 2m from the edge of a forest pond, or from other vegetation above temporary ponds, or tussock of grasses in the pond. In Bolívar state, males concentrate in low bushes around lagoons during the rainy season. It breeds in standing water (permanent and seasonal). The eggs and tadpoles are in the water.
56005		population	eng	It is a very common species. It is abundant around temporary waterbodies in the rainy season.
56005		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
56006		conservation	eng	The species doesn't need any particular protection measure. It occurs in many protected areas.
56006		distribution	eng	This species geographic range is from the Atlantic and pacific versants, from the Rio Grande embayment in extreme southern Texas, U.S.A. southward to Costa Rica, including the Yucatan Peninsula. In the Pacific, it occurs from southern Sonora southward to central Costa Rica (0-1,610m asl).
56006		habitat	eng	It can be found in lowlands and foothills; xerophytic vegetation and savannahs in semiarid regions in north, humid evergreen forest in Caribbean lowlands of Central America; gardens with pools. It can also be found in the vicinity of ponds, pools, canals, and flooded fields (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999). It hides underground, under tree bark, in leaf axils, or in tree holes when inactive. It breeds in ponds.
56006		population	eng	It is widespread and abundant in Middle America.
56006		threats	eng	This is a well-preserved species that can survive even associated with human settlements and altered habitats.
56007		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Belize, and in the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico in Guatemala. It is also found in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Ocote, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Montes Azules in Mexico, although more forest protection is needed in Mexico. Further monitoring needs to be conducted to determine whether or not the recently documented decline is due to chytridiomycosis.
56007		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of southern Mexico and northern Central America from Oaxaca and southern Veracruz through northern Chiapas, Mexico, and into El Peten and northern Alta Verapaz in Guatemala, and also Belize (from 300-1,200m asl). It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.
56007		habitat	eng	It can be found in vegetation in humid mid-altitude and montane forests, and also occurs in secondary forest. It breeds in temporary pools and streams, and in depressions in logs that fill up with water.
56007		population	eng	It is uncommon, but its population is stable in suitable habitat, in Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala. Recent surveys in Oaxaca, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from some localities.
56007		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place in much of its range. The recently documented decline in Oaxaca has taken place in suitable habitat, and could be due to chytridiomycosis.
56008		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56008		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slope of northeastern Honduras, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama to northern Colombia; and on the Pacific versant from central Costa Rica to southwestern Panama and from El Valle de Anton, Cocle Province, Panama, to Colombia. In South America, it occurs in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and western Ecuador, and around the northern slopes of the Western and Central Cordilleras in Colombia to the Middle Magdalena Valley. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,600m asl (Costa Rica).
56008		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, where usually they are found in secluded sites at the edge of, or in, shallow temporary pools and occasionally at the edges of streams or large ponds. It tolerates substantial forest disturbance, and lives on forest edge and in open country, even where there are few trees. It breeds in small, usually temporary pools, even in footprints of cattle, and avoids larger ponds as breeding sites.
56008		population	eng	This is an abundant species throughout its range.
56008		threats	eng	It is not facing any significant threats.
56009		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several national parks and other protected areas.
56009		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica and adjacent Nicaragua, at 15-520m asl.
56009		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland tropical rainforest, and has also been found breeding in very disturbed habitats, including pastures (Gerardo Chaves and Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). Males call throughout the rainy season, from shallow water and low bushes, usually hidden in vegetation. Breeding takes place in small, shallow temporary pools or ponds (Savage 2002).
56009		population	eng	It has been considered uncommon, but regularly recorded in Costa Rica. However, a study in 2006 found this species to be abundant in northern Costa Rica (Mahmoot Sasa unpublished data).
56009		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to small- and large-scale agriculture and logging. The forests of south-eastern Nicaragua have been less altered than those on the Costa Rican side of the border.
56010		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas.
56010		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the humid lowlands from southwestern Costa Rica to eastern Panama on the Pacific slope, and on the Atlantic versant in central Panama, to northern Colombia and the middle Magdalena Valley. Its range is expanding in Costa Rica. It ranges from sea level up to 500m asl.
56010		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal tree frog that inhabits lowland moist and wet forests close to shallow rocky pools, and stream banks. It can survive in secondary forest, but it generally needs good vegetation cover. In Costa Rica, it has been observed in relatively open areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). It is less frequently found in the vegetation overhanging the streams. Benthic tadpoles are found in clear pools and slow-moving water.
56010		population	eng	It is a common species in Panama and Colombia. In Costa Rica it is rare, despite its expanding range.
56010		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56011		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56011		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Honduras to northwestern Panama on the Atlantic slope; and on the Pacific slope in southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama and El Valle de Anton, Cocle Province, in west-central Panama. There is an isolated record from the middle Magdalena Valley in Santander Department, Colombia (that might eventually prove to be a separate species). It occurs from sea level to 1,525m asl.
56011		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest in the vicinity of rocky streams where it reproduces. It can tolerate substantial disturbance of its habitat, and is found in plantations and urban areas.
56011		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
56011		threats	eng	It is not facing any significant threats.
56012		conservation	eng	It is not so far known from any protected areas.
56012		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Fazenda Santo Onofre, 10km east of Maracás, at 960m asl in the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil. Frogs have been collected from other localities that probably represent this species, but this has not yet been confirmed.
56012		habitat	eng	It lives inside terrestrial bromeliads on the forest edge and in open areas, and can probably tolerate some habitat alteration. The larvae have been found in permanent pools.
56012		population	eng	It appears to be abundant in its only known locality.
56012		threats	eng	@The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood plantations, clear-cutting, ollection of bromeliads, and human settlement.
56013		conservation	eng	In Colombia it is known from Pure, La Paya, and Amacayacu protected areas. In Ecuador it is present in Cuyabeno. It is present in several conservation areas in Brazil.
56013		distribution	eng	This species is wide-ranging in the upper Amazon basin of southern Colombia, Peru and western Amazonia in Brazil. It is known only from a single locality in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 50-140m asl.
56013		habitat	eng	This is a semi aquatic frog. At night, they are found in permanent and semi permanent ponds in open areas. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, all individuals were on emergent vegetation in a pond in primary forest (Duellman, 1978). It may also be found on floating mats of vegetation in large rivers. Eggs are laid in the water.
56013		population	eng	It is reasonably common.
56013		threats	eng	While there are no immediate threats to this species, localized habitat loss is no doubt affecting some populations.
56014		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. It is present in Parque Nacional Manu in Peru. Found in many conservation areas in Brazil.
56014		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is from the upper Amazon Basin of southeastern Colombia, Ecuador (three localities), Peru and Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 50-300m asl.
56014		habitat	eng	This semi aquatic frog is commonly found amidst floating vegetation, usually dominated by water lettuce (Pistia), in open permanent and semi permanent waterbodies (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994) including ponds, large lakes, flooded meadows and other lentic waterbodies (such as streams with standing water). It breeds in these wetlands. It may be present in altered habitats where waterbodies with floating vegetation are available.
56014		population	eng	It is generally common throughout much of its range.
56014		threats	eng	While there are no immediate threats to this species, localized habitat loss is no doubt affecting some populations.
56015		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Some Venezuelan populations occur in protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.
56015		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed; it is present in the Orinoco basin of Venezuela (in the states of Amazonas, Bolívar, Delta Amacuro, Monagas and Sucre) and the Amazon basin of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Brazil and Ecuador, it is also found on Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago) throughout the Guianas and in the seasonally flooded lowlands of Maranhão, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 300m asl.
56015		habitat	eng	This species is found in flooded plains, floating meadows, ponds and large lagoons with floating vegetation (especially <em>Eichhornia</em> sp.) in forest clearings, at forest edges and in savannah, where males call from herbaceous vegetation just above the surface of the water. It has also been found under the leaf litter in tropical rainforest, and in seasonally flooded agricultural land. At night, this semi aquatic frog congregates at permanent or semi-permanent ponds in open areas. The males call from floating vegetation or emergent grasses (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). This species breeds in the wetlands with which it is associated. It has been recorded from flooded roadside ditches (Trinidad).
56015		population	eng	It is common through most of range.
56015		threats	eng	Fire and clear-cutting of forest might be localized threats to this species. It might also be threatened in some areas by water pollution.
56016		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. The effect of mosquito controls on the population also needs to be investigated.
56016		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais States, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs above 1,000m asl.
56016		habitat	eng	The species occurs on vegetation above large ponds or lakes in open vegetation or at the edge of forests. It breeds in permanent ponds and lakes. The water is usually deep, never shallow. It is not known from anthropogenic habitats.
56016		population	eng	It is a common species.
56016		threats	eng	Drainage of waters for mosquito management and the application of insecticides to kill mosquitoes is a threat to the species. This is also occurring within protected areas.
56017		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56017		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil occurs in the States of Espírito Santo and Bahia, north to Praia do Forte. It is found close to sea level.
56017		habitat	eng	It is a very aquatic species, almost always found in small temporary and permanent pools or ponds at the borders of forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
56017		population	eng	It is a common species.
56017		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, and human settlement.
56018		conservation	eng	In Itabuna it occurs in a research station run by CEPLAC, the Comissão Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira (the Executive Commission of the Cacaueira Farming Plan), which operates under the auspices of the Brazilian Government Ministry for Agriculture, Cattle Breeding and Supply. This species is also found at the Estação Experimental in Linhares, run by EMBRAPA, which is the Agricultural Research Corporation of the Brazilian Government Ministry for Agriculture, Cattle Breeding and Supply.
56018		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil has been recorded from Itabuna and Ilhéus in the state of Bahia, and from Linhares in the state of Espirito Santo. It presumably occurs in intervening areas between these sites, although the limits of its distribution are still very poorly known. It occurs up to 50m asl.
56018		habitat	eng	This species lives in or near ponds on the forest edge, always staying close to water, and is sometimes found on vegetation near water. The eggs are laid on leaves above temporary or permanent ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.
56018		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status as there have been very few records.
56018		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, and human settlement.
56019		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
56019		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south of Bahia State, southwards through Espirito Santo State and into Rio de Janeiro State, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to only about 100m asl.
56019		habitat	eng	This species is found only on floating vegetation in swamps (deep water >50cm) in open areas. The eggs are deposited on a leaf surface above the water. They can also live in disturbed habitats that have deep pools of water, such as cattle ponds.
56019		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56019		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to the drainage of wetlands for the creation of agricultural land, and pollution from agriculture are threats to the species.
56020		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56020		distribution	eng	This name cannot be related to any known population of frogs in the wild, and this species is only known from the unspecified locality of South America.
56020		habitat	eng	It is presumably a largely aquatic species that has a larval development breeding strategy.
56020		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56020		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56021		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least three protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).
56021		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from the southeastern part of the State of Minas Gerais, though the coastal regions of the States of Espirito Santo and Bahia. It occurs up to 500m asl.
56021		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary forest, clearings in forest and forest edges, and breeds in temporary ponds.
56021		population	eng	It is very abundant where it occurs.
56021		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss especially due to wood plantations, but also due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, and human settlement.
56022		conservation	eng	It occurs in Caxambu State Park, Paraná. It is listed as Vulnerable for Rio Grande de Sul state’s list of threatened species.
56022		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 100-1200 masl.
56022		habitat	eng	It occurs on low bushes surrounding large permanent lakes in open areas.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs in the hot and rainy season and males call from the floating vegetation, generally in permanent ponds. The reproductive mode is probably by means of eggs and exotrophic tadpoles in lentic water (Toledo et al., 2007).
56022		population	eng	It seems to be an abundant species (Toledo et al., 2007).
56022		threats	eng	It is threatened by water pollution.
56023		conservation	eng	The range of this species is within Kaieteur National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
56023		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna, and from Mount Wokomung, Guyana, between 1,490 and 1,550 m asl (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002, MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It probably has a very restricted range.
56023		habitat	eng	It is a high-elevation forest species. All specimens were collected at night, on leaves or branches, 1-3 m above ground. Females carry the eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back.
56023		population	eng	It is a relatively uncommon species.
56023		threats	eng	There are no known threats, and all known localities for this species are in undisturbed, remote areas. Nonetheless, given its small range, it remains vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
56024		conservation	eng	The range of this species is within Kaieteur National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
56024		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna, and from Mount Wokomung, Guyana, between 1,490 and 1,550 m asl  (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002, MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is thought likely to have a very restricted range.
56024		habitat	eng	A high-elevation forest species. All specimens were collected at night on leaves or branches 1-5 m above ground. Females carry the eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back.
56024		population	eng	This was the most abundant amphibian species encountered on Mount Ayanganna (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002).
56024		threats	eng	There are no known threats, and all known localities for this species are in undisturbed, remote areas. Nonetheless, given its small range, it remains vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
56025		conservation	eng	The range of this species is within Kaieteur National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
56025		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna and from Mount Wokomung, Guyana, between 1,490 and 1,550 m asl (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002, MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It probably has a very restricted range.
56025		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary forest. Specimens were collected at night, on moss-covered branches or bog habitat, 1-4 m above ground, or in the base of a large terrestrial bromeliad. The females carry the eggs on their back, and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back. They have not been recorded from disturbed areas.
56025		population	eng	This is not an uncommon species.
56025		threats	eng	There are no known threats, and all known localities for this species are in undisturbed, remote areas. Nonetheless, given its small range, it remains vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
56026		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Kaieteur Falls National Park. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
56026		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands of west-central Guyana, including the base of Mount Wokomung (05° 04' 53" N, 59° 50' 28" W, 680-698m), in the Pakaraima Mountains. It has been recorded up to 1,400m asl.
56026		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland and montane primary forest, this species is usually associated with streams. Individuals have been found on rocks in streams and along the banks. The females carry the eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back. Kok et al. (2006) report on a female carrying 25 eggs on her back.
56026		population	eng	The species is abundant in suitable habitat at lower elevations (MacCulloch et al., 2006).
56026		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species overall, although it might be threatened locally. However, it occurs in a region of very limited human impact.
56027		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Canaima National Park.
56027		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Chimantá tepui in Bolívar state, Venezuela, where it is found at elevations from 1,850-2,600m asl.
56027		habitat	eng	It is found in association with humid rocky habitats, where it is found in crevices, caves, on open rock surfaces and adjacent peat bogs, in streams and rivers on the tepuis summits of the Chimanta massif. Juvenile frogs have been found inside terrestrial bromeliads (Brocchinia) in bogs bordering open rocky areas. Eggs and juveniles are carried on the back of females, and they reproduce by direct development.
56027		population	eng	It is a common species within its restricted range.
56027		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any threats to this species. It occurs in a national park in a region of minimal human impact.
56028		conservation	eng	Its range is within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
56028		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Mount Duida (at 1,400m asl, from which it was originally described) and the slopes and summit of Mount Huachamakari (at 1,700m asl), both in Amazonas State, Venezuela. The limits of its distribution are not known.
56028		habitat	eng	@It occurs on rocks in streams on the tops of tepuis. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back, and reproduces by direct development.
56028		population	eng	It is apparently not a common species.
56028		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.
56029		conservation	eng	Its range is within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
56029		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaca, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, where it has an altitudinal range of 340-1,200m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.
56029		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocks along the forested margins of small streams. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back, and breeds by direct development.
56029		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56029		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.
56030		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.
56030		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the type locality, the Jaua tepui, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,600m asl (04° 49' 55''N; 64° 25' 59''W), although the limits of its distribution are not known.
56030		habitat	eng	This species was found on rocks in a fast-flowing cascading stream, and it is known to reproduce by direct development, and to carry its eggs and juveniles on its back. It was found to be sympatric with <em>Stefania percristata</em>.
56030		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56030		threats	eng	There are no known threats to its habitat at present.
56031		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.
56031		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Jaua tepui, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,600m asl (04° 49' 55''N; 64° 25' 59''W). The limits of its distribution are not known, and it might also occur at lower altitudes on the slopes of Cerro Jaua, but it is probably a summit species.
56031		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species was found on branches of vegetation 0.3-1m above the ground, along streams at the top of the tepui. It reproduces by direct development, and carries its eggs and juveniles on its back.
56031		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56031		threats	eng	There are no known threats to its habitat at present.
56032		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.
56032		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the summit of Cerro Sarisariñama, from 1,000-1,400m asl, in the state of Bolívar, in Venezuela. The limits of its distribution are not known.
56032		habitat	eng	Like other members of the genus, it is probably found on rocks and vegetation along streams on top of tepuis. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back and breeds by direct development
56032		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from the type series.
56032		threats	eng	There are no known threats to its habitat at present.
56033		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the Monumental Natural Los Tepuyes. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its restriction to Yuruaní tepui.
56033		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the summit of Yuruaní tepui, in Bolívar state, Venezuela, at 2,300m asl (05° 19'N; 60° 51'W). It probably has a very restricted distribution.
56033		habitat	eng	It occurs in crevices and on rocks near streams. It breeds by direct development, and it carries its eggs and the juveniles on its back.
56033		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
56033		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
56034		conservation	eng	More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
56034		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Roraima (type locality, 1,402m; Duellman and Hoogmoed 1984), the north-east plateau of Mount Ayanganna, and Mount Wokomung, all in Guyana. The limits to this species' distribution are not known. It is found between 1234-1550m asl.
56034		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary forest, and the females presumably carry their eggs on their backs, with the juveniles developing fully there.
56034		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
56034		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and all the known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.
56035		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Parque Nacional Canaima. In addition, Venezuelan flat top mountains (tepuis) are protected by law, so all the species occurring on them are protected.
56035		distribution	eng	This species is known from Aprada tepui (tepuis are Venezuelan flat top mountains) at 2,500m asl, and from Angasima tepui (Adanta) and Upuigma tepui (El Castillo), from between 2,000 and 2,100m asl. The mountain chains of Angasima tepui and Upuigma tepui are not physically connected, and lie about eight to 10km apart. Aprada tepui is likewise separated from the Chimantá massif, and lies about 20km to the north-east of it. This species therefore has a disjunct distribution.
56035		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal frog found on open, rocky surfaces, and in crevices and depressions close to watercourses. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back, and breeds by direct development.
56035		population	eng	It is common on these summits.
56035		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present.
56036		conservation	eng	Some Venezuelan populations are protected within Canaima National Park in Bolívar State.
56036		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ayanganna Mountain in Guyana, in the La Escalera region and from the slopes of Auyantepui in Bolívar state, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 600-1,500m asl.
56036		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species usually found on marginal vegetation of rocky permanent streams, most frequently closely associated with cascading mountain streams, on clean boulders in, and at the edges of streams, perched perpendicular to some branches over streams, and in the spray zone of waterfalls. Adults carry the eggs and juveniles on their back where they breed through direct development.
56036		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
56036		threats	eng	There are probably no threats to this species, since it occurs in a region of minimal human impact.
56037		conservation	eng	Its range is within Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its restriction to Auyan-tepui.
56037		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the summit of Auyan-tepui, in Bolívar state, Venezuela, at elevations ranging from 1,750-2,400m asl. It probably has a genuinely restricted distribution.
56037		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal frog that has been found hidden amongst rocks in cascading mountain streams, and about 1m above the ground on branches of tepui vegetation along watercourses. By day, specimens hide below rocks by the rivers, or in vegetation close to these watercourses. Adults carry the eggs and juveniles on their back where they develop directly.
56037		population	eng	It is a common species within its restricted range.
56037		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, but it might be susceptible to wildfire and habitat disturbance by tourists.
56038		conservation	eng	It is protected in Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.
56038		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pico Tamacuari, in the Sierra Tapirapecó, at altitudes of 1,160-1,270m asl, in the Venezuelan state of Amazonas. It probably has a wider distribution than is known, but this requires confirmation.
56038		habitat	eng	This is a montane nocturnal frog that was found at a helipad clearing in ridge-top forest, and in low vegetation near a forested stream in the drainage of the north base of Pico Tamacuari. Adults carry the eggs and juveniles on their back, where they develop directly.
56038		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56038		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.
56039		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Kaieteur Falls National Park. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
56039		distribution	eng	At the time of Duellman and Hoogmoed's (1984) review of <em>Stefania</em>, <em>S. woodleyi</em> was known only from the type locality: Mount Kanaima, Guyana, at an elevation of 700m asl. MacCulloch and Lathrop (2002) reported specimens collected from three additional locations in Guyana: Tukeit, near the base of Kaieteur Falls, 100m asl; Paramakatoi, 800m; and Ayanganna, 870m asl. More recently, MacCulloch et al. (2006) reported that the species was also found at the base of Mount Wokomung (05° 04' 53" N, 59° 50' 28" W, 698m), also in Guyana.
56039		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary lowland forest. It is usually found near streams on rocks or on branches. The females carry eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back. It has not been recorded outside primary forest.
56039		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56039		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and its habitat is relatively isolated and is currently undisturbed.
56040		conservation	eng	It occurs within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
56040		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south summit of Mount Duida, in Amazonas State, Venezuela (03° 19'N; 65° 38'W), at 2,150m asl. It might occur more widely.
56040		habitat	eng	It inhabits high montane tepui vegetation, where it occurs in forest and shrubs adjacent to rivers, streams and peat bogs. It is suspected to breed by laying its eggs in shallow swampy areas, in which the larvae develop.
56040		population	eng	It is a common species.
56040		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.
56041		conservation	eng	The national park within which this species has part of its range is Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón.
56041		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of Cerro Galicia, Curimagua, in the Sierra de San Luis in the municipality of Miranda, in Falcón State, north-western Venezuela (11° 10'N; 69° 42'W), where it has been recorded around 1,300m asl. There is some doubt whether or not this locality is correct as it has not been seen again since it was first collected.
56041		habitat	eng	The specific habitat requirements of this species are not known. It has been suggested (Mijares-Urrutia <em>et al.</em> 1999) that it prefers to inhabit specific microhabitats that are difficult to access within the cloud forest, or alternatively it could be a frog with very secretive habits. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it presumably breeds in water.
56041		population	eng	Mijares-Urrutia <em>et al.</em> (1999) suspect that this species is scarce, and there have been no records since the type series was collected.
56041		threats	eng	Agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), is a threat to this species' habitat, despite the fact that it occurs inside a national park.
56042		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are within Canaima National Park.
56042		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Bolívar state, Venezuela, from Auyan-tepui, Abacapa-tepui, Acopán-tepui, Amurí-tepui, Apacara-tepui and Chimantá-tepui. It is a summit species and occurs from 1,630-2,600m asl.
56042		habitat	eng	During the day, the species is found within Brocchinia (terrestrial bromeliads), where it hides inside the contained water if disturbed. It breeds at night in shallow temporary pools in peat bogs or between the adjacent rocky areas. It lays its eggs in little pools or in swampy areas.
56042		population	eng	It is the most common frog on Auyan-tepui (Myers 1997). It is very common within its range.
56042		threats	eng	Wildfire and the disturbance of the species' habitat by tourists are the only known threats. In general this species is probably not at significant risk.
56043		conservation	eng	Iit is not currently known from any protected areas.
56043		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "Sabanas del talud del Guadacopiapuy-tepuy, cerca del Yuruani-tepuy" (Ayarzaguena, Señaris and Gorzula 1992) in the state of Bolívar, in south-eastern Venezuela, at around 1,250m asl. It might occur more widely.
56043		habitat	eng	It is found by day within the tubes of terrestrial <em>Brocchinia</em> bromeliads in high swampy montane environments on the summits of tepui. The breeding habits are unknown, although it presumably breeds in water like other species of the genus.
56043		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens, so there are no data on its population status.
56043		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats.
56044		conservation	eng	Its habitat is protected within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
56044		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Marahuaca, in Amazonas State, southern Venezuela, at 2,550m asl (03° 45'N; 65° 30'W). It might occur more widely.
56044		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high montane tepui vegetation, and reproduces in rivers by larval development.
56044		population	eng	It is common.
56044		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
56045		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given that it is known only from a single location.
56045		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Ptari-tepui (5° 47'N; 61° 47'W), at 2,400m asl, in Bolívar state, Venezuela. It is likely to have a genuinely restricted range.
56045		habitat	eng	It is found in crevices and under slabs in rocky areas adjacent to shrublands on the bare sandstone summit of Ptari-tepui. Reproductive habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds in water like other species of the genus.
56045		population	eng	It is a common species.
56045		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
56046		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Canaima.
56046		distribution	eng	This species is known only from La Gran Sabana region, in south-eastern Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 800-1,360m asl. It might occur more widely.
56046		habitat	eng	It has been suggested that this might be a terrestrial frog that takes refuge inside bromeliads during dry periods. The same plants are inhabited by this species in marshes and shallow pools (2-6cm deep) in savannah grassland, where it calls from Cyperaceae plants. It lays its eggs in ponds where the larvae also develop.
56046		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56046		threats	eng	Fires are the only known threat to this species' habitat, which overall is unlikely to be subject to any major threats.
56047		conservation	eng	The protected area in which the type locality is located is Parque Nacional Kaieteur (which is also known as Kaieteur Falls National Park).
56047		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is given as "Kaieteur Falls, 366m asl (05° 10'N; 59° 28'W), Mazaruni-Potaro District, Guyana" (Duellman and Yoshpa 1996). It might occur more widely.
56047		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland tropical primary forest, and all the specimens were collected from the edge of the Potaro River. There is no information known about its breeding habits, but it presumably breeds in water.
56047		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status. It is known only from a small number of specimens (at least three), all caught within 100m of each other.
56047		threats	eng	Since its known range is within a protected area there are not expected to be any major threats to its habitat at present.
56048		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas.
56048		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Itapetinga in central state of Bahia, north to Exu in the State of Pernambuco. It has been recorded at around 800m asl.
56048		habitat	eng	It is a species of the "agreste" transition vegetation between the moist Atlantic forest and dry "Caatinga" savannah. It is often found in bromeliads, and breeds in temporary ponds in open areas.
56048		population	eng	It is a common species.
56048		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, collection of bromeliads and human settlement.
56049		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Parque Nacional Machalilla, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute. In Peru, it occurs in the Zona Reservada de Tumbes.
56049		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific lowlands of South America from extreme southern Colombia (Nariño Department) through Ecuador, to the lowlands of northwestern Perú (Departamentos: Piura, Tumbes). Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,000m asl.
56049		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal frog of lowland and premontane wet and dry forests. It has also been found in disturbed areas. Lives in bromeliads and holes in tree trunks. It reproduces in lentic waterbodies.
56049		population	eng	This species is common in Ecuador (many seen in 2003) and is uncommon in Peru.
56049		threats	eng	Large parts of the habitat have been destroyed by deforestation for agricultural activities and cattle ranching, but the species is reasonably adaptable and not seriously threatened.
56050		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56050		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in coastal regions from the State of Espírito Santo to the State of São Paulo, and also in the interior in the State of Minas Gerais, north to São Domingos in the southern part of the State of Goiás. It is a low altitude species. It has been moved around outside its natural range in horticultural bromeliads.
56050		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary lowland forest, and of coastal "restinga" scrub. It can tolerate a moderate amount of habitat disturbance. They are usually found inside bromeliads. The eggs are laid in the shallow waters of temporary and permanent pools, ponds and small lakes. Reproductive activity has been reported for the month of December, and potentially may also occur in February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).
56050		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56050		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, and collection of bromeliads, logging, and human settlement.
56051		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56051		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Yucatán peninsula, Mexico and southward to Guatemala and Belize. Also in Lago de Yojoa in northwestern Honduras (0-740m asl).
56051		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of semi deciduous forests and savannahs with clearly seasonal rainfalls. In Guatemala this species occurs in subhumid habitats and savannahs. It avoids tall forest and also occurs in a variety of disturbed, anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
56051		population	eng	This species has peripheral populations possibly in decline and other populations that are possibly increasing. It is still one of the most abundant frogs in the Yucatán. It is most abundant in areas that are the most disturbed in Mexico and it is common in Guatemala.
56051		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
56052		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve. Further protection of the forest habitat of this species is needed.
56052		distribution	eng	This species is known from Pacific coastal Mexico, in central Sinaloa, southern Jalisco, Colima and Michoacán to Guerrero and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.
56052		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland xeric and thorn-scrub forest and tropical deciduous forest. Its breeding season is restricted to the rainy season as it breeds in the temporary streams and ponds formed by rainfall.
56052		population	eng	This is a common species.
56052		threats	eng	Changes in rainfall patterns affect the seasonal activity of this species. Fires might also impact it. But overall, this species is not significantly threatened.
56053		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the limits of its range and its ecological requirements is needed.
56053		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal lowlands of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, up to 50m asl.
56053		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads in Restinga vegetation and breeds in temporary rain pools in the same habitat. It is only usually found during the breeding period as it is otherwise hidden in bromeliads. This is the only frog that eats fruit.
56053		population	eng	It is very common.
56053		threats	eng	The major threat to it is the destruction of Restinga vegetation for the development of human infrastructure.
56054		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park, Haute Dodo Classified Forest, Cavally Classified Forest and Ankasa Conservation Area.
56054		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western Côte d’Ivoire in Taï National Park, Haute Dodo Classified Forest and Cavally Classified Forest, and from south-western Ghana in Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve and the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA), a protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north twinned with Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south. It might also occur across the border in Liberia.
56054		habitat	eng	It is confined to primary and secondary lowland rainforest, where it is dependent upon very large tree holes (an uncommon microhabitat) in which it breeds. It has been found in wet evergreen and moist semi-deciduous forest but is not found in degraded habitats.
56054		population	eng	It is not common, probably because of its very restricted habitat, or because it is reclusive and therefore easily overlooked.
56054		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is ongoing forest loss in south-western Côte d’Ivoire, due to agricultural development, timber extraction and human settlement.
56055		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
56055		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon east to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kivu), and south to extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo (Mayombe). It has been recorded from Gabon, and presumed to occur in southwestern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.
56055		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest. The frogs are arboreal and aquatic spending most of their time, and breeding, in the small bodies of water that accumulate in cavities of living and dead trees. It can survive in heavily degraded forest, providing that large trees survive.
56055		population	eng	This is a hard species to find, and so its abundance is unclear.
56055		threats	eng	Despite its tolerance of habitat modification, it depends on large trees with holes that collect rainwater, and is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.
56056		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56056		distribution	eng	This species occurs above 400m asl in northern Mozambique, Malawi, and eastern Zambia, north to southwestern Tanzania in the Rungwa area north of Lake Rukwa. There are very few records from the northern part of its range, presumably due to lack of survey work, and its distributional limits are still poorly known.
56056		habitat	eng	It is a species of grassy pools and marshes in moist grassland and savannah. It can survive in anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in ephemeral ponds and with dense peripheral vegetation.
56056		population	eng	It is common wherever it is the only dwarf Afrixalus species present. Where it is sympatric with Arixalus delicatus, this species always appears to be the more rare of the two, and its populations are much smaller, with numbers of calling males at several sites estimated to be less 50 individuals.
56056		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be seriously threatened, although it might be in long-term decline as a result of unsuccessful competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus delicatus</span>, which appears to be an aggressive competitor. Some populations might be impacted by agricultural spread. Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations.
56057		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.
56057		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ethiopia, where it is currently known from only two areas (the vicinity of Bonga, and Godare) at 820-1,800m asl, in the south-western region of the country.
56057		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical deciduous forest and forest edge, breeding amongst herbaceous vegetation surrounding pools in forest clearings. It has also been found in coffee plantations and other secondary habitats. For breeding it requires emergent vegetation in marshy pools, at least some of which are likely to become dry for part of the year.
56057		population	eng	It appeared to be relatively common at the type locality in 1971, but its status is otherwise unknown due to lack of recent survey work.
56057		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to selective logging, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment (including coffee plantations).
56058		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56058		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Zimbabwe, central Mozambique and southern Malawi, from low to medium altitudes. Records from northeastern Mozambique and southeastern Tanzania probably refer to other species, and are not included here.
56058		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist savannahs and shrubland, breeding in ephemeral grassy pools, flooded grassland and marshes. It can survive to some extent in anthropogenic habitats.
56058		population	eng	It is abundant at suitable locations.
56058		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be seriously threatened, although some populations might be impacted by agricultural spread and human settlement. Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations.
56059		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56059		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Avoca and Mount Edgecombe in KwaZulu-Natal (eastern South Africa) northward through the coastal belt of Mozambique, the low altitude parts of Malawi to Tanzania (inland as far as Singida and Ushora), southeastern Kenya, and southern Somalia as far north as Marere. It also occurs on Zanzibar. It is a low altitude species, and is found below 300m asl in South Africa, and below 500m asl in most of its range.
56059		habitat	eng	It is a species of coastal bush land; savannah, shrubland, grassland, forest, thicket and anthropogenically disturbed habitats. It breeds in emergent vegetation usually at the edges of relatively permanent water (including marshes, vleis and pools) favouring plants with long leaves that can be folded to make leaf nests over water.
56059		population	eng	It is common in the north of its range, where it occurs in very large breeding aggregations, but it has declined in extreme south of range where it is not common (though it is possibly under-recorded).
56059		threats	eng	In the south of its range it is threatened by sugar cane farming, urbanization, and the spread of eucalyptus (drying up breeding sites). Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations. However, overall it is not threatened.
56060		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas. It has been reported for Kyabobo National Park (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
56060		distribution	eng	This species apparently occurs in three major isolated populations: from eastern Sierra Leone east to western Togo; from western Nigeria to western Democratic Republic of Congo; and in western Angola. However, it is possible that the Angolan population is in fact contiguous with the one to the north. Records from Uganda and western Kenya refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus osorioi</span>, and records from the Central African Republic presumably refer to another species. The record in Rödel (2000) refers to another species.
56060		habitat	eng	It lives in grassy vegetation, cultivated land, bush land and degraded forest in the forest belt and in forest outliers and gallery forests in moist savanna. It is very adaptable, but needs some form of cover. It is not found in primary rainforest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above still water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds, puddles, ditches, ruts and herbaceous marshes where they develop.
56060		population	eng	It is a common species, and is probably increasing, as forest is lost.
56060		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to this species.
56061		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Bale Mountains National Park.
56061		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to high-altitude areas of southern Ethiopia on both sides of the Rift Valley at altitudes of 1,700-2,750m asl.
56061		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forest at altitudes, and rarely in montane grassland after forest clearance, typically breeding amongst herbaceous vegetation surrounding pools in forest clearings. It can survive in suitable situations in plantations, rural gardens, and even urban areas. For breeding it requires emergent vegetation in marshy pools, at least some of which are likely to become dry for part of the year.
56061		population	eng	It is locally common within its relatively restricted range.
56061		threats	eng	Threats include forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment.
56062		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Salonga National Park.
56062		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central parts of the Congo basin in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It probably has a wider distribution in the Congo basin than the few records suggest. There are no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
56062		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland rainforest, and is unlikely to be tolerant of alteration to its habitat. Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably lays its eggs on leave above water, into which the tadpoles fall and develop.
56062		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56062		threats	eng	Most of its habitat remains intact, but shifting agriculture might impact local population.
56063		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56063		distribution	eng	This species ranges from coastal Kenya southward through eastern and southern Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe to coastal KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. It is a lowland species generally occurring below 300m, though it has been recorded up to 1,300m asl.
56063		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist savannah, bush land, grassland, and dry forest, with a possible preference for dense savannah. It breeds in permanent and semi-permanent pools, dams, vleis and marshes with reeds and sedges, tending to favour permanent waterbodies. The eggs are laid on emergent vegetation, particularly on leaf blades of Cyperus sedges.
56063		population	eng	It is an abundant species in suitable sites, breeding in small congregations.
56063		threats	eng	In the south of its range it is threatened by sugar cane farming, urbanization, drainage of breeding sites, afforestation with pines, and the spread of eucalyptus (drying up breeding sites). Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations. However, overall it is not threatened. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56064		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56064		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the hilly areas of the West African forest zone in Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. It has also recently been recorded from Ghana in the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA) a twin wildlife protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south. The distributional limits of this species, especially in relation to Afrixalus vittiger, remain largely unknown, and the map should be regarded as provisional.
56064		habitat	eng	It occurs widely in degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone. It is not found in primary or even secondary forest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop.
56064		population	eng	It is a common species.
56064		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats, though local populations might be impacted by very severe habitat clearance.
56065		conservation	eng	This species ranks amongst the highest in the need for conservation orientated research within South African threatened frogs. The taxonomy of the species complex is in need of comprehensive review.&#160;Important questions are still unanswered concerning the call and tadpoles of this species.&#160;There is a definite need to identify management areas, describe breeding phenology, and to identify direct threats; in particular, the effects of changes in water quality at sites with this species need to be documented. The Area of Occupancy needs to be calculated as well as an assessment of the health of all known sites. Once this has been achieved, monitoring at known breeding sites should be instigated. It occurs in Tsitsikamma National Park, Goukamma Nature Reserve, and Diepwalle Forestry Area.
56065		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from around 7 locations at low altitude (South Africa on either side of the border between the Eastern   Cape and Western Cape Provinces. Extent of Occurrence is 1,756 km² and the Area of Occupancy has not been formally calculated but is known to be declining as some sites (e.g. Covie) which are presumed lost as no adults or tadpoles have been found there for at least three years. Although some sites are pristine, others are threatened by alien vegetation.</p>
56065		habitat	eng	<p>It lives in a coastal mosaic of vegetation types, including mountain fynbos heathland, and forest. It breeds in small dams and shallow semi-permanent water with much emergent vegetation and even in well vegetated ornamental garden ponds. It is suspected that this species requires high water quality for breeding.&#160;Habitat is declining due to encroachment by urban development, alien invasive vegetation and chemical pollution. Species in this genus deposit between 20 and 50 eggs on vegetation above the water. Tadpoles emerge, drop into the water and remain there until metamorphosis.</p>
56065		population	eng	<p>The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented as no one site holds >50% of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation. Visits to one site at Covie have not produced any individuals (adults or tadpoles) for three years. It seems likely that this subpopulation has become extinct, but further visits are required to substantiate this. The cause for this disappearance is as yet unknown, but change in water quality is suspected as a possible reason.<br/></p>
56065		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to urban and recreational development, afforestation, invasive vegetation, agricultural expansion and chemical pollution.&#160;These threats are likely to act locally on breeding sites.&#160;Drought may cause additional stresses for this species.
56066		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. The protected area network in western Cameroon urgently needs to be expanded to include the remaining montane forest habitats, particularly those on Mount Manenguba.
56066		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few mountains in western Cameroon, specifically the western and southern slopes of Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, and the southern portion of the Bamileke Plateau (at Mount Bana, Foto and Batie), at an altitude of 1,200-1,900m asl.
56066		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest (including secondary forest and forest edges), and raffia palm swamps, and is often associated with streams in which it breeds (which is unusual for a species in this genus).
56066		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species.
56066		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and removal of wood.
56067		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56067		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern and southern Cameroon, south to northeastern Gabon (at M'passa) east to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southwestern Uganda. It is also recorded from the island Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (R.C. Drewes pers. comm.). There do not appear to be records from Central African Republic, Congo and Equatorial Guinea (mainland), though it presumably occurs in these countries. It is also likely to occur in Rwanda.
56067		habitat	eng	It is confined to forest interior, and does not occur in altered habitats. The eggs deposited on a leaf (which is not folded) near flowing water (unusually for Afrixalus species which usually breed in still water).
56067		population	eng	It is reasonably common in suitable habitat in Cameroon, but it is rare in Kibale Forest, Uganda, where it is on the edge of its range.
56067		threats	eng	Local populations are no doubt affected by forest loss as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and removal of wood.
56068		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park, and perhaps in other protected areas.
56068		distribution	eng	This poorly known species occurs in eastern and central Democratic Republic of Congo, at 750-1,000m asl. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably because of lack of recent herpetological work within its range.
56068		habitat	eng	It is found in dense forest, where it is associated with stagnant pools where it presumably breeds. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, though it is likely to favour undisturbed forest.
56068		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56068		threats	eng	Local populations are probably being affected by forest loss as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and removal of wood.
56069		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
56069		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Bibundi, Cameroon, although this form cannot be matched to any known species in the wild.
56069		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in water by larval development.
56069		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56069		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56070		conservation	eng	There are no records from Udzungwa National Park, but it is likely to occur there.
56070		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Udzungwa Mountains in southern Tanzania, occurring between 1,300 and 2,050m asl. It is possible that it also occurs in the Uluguru Mountains (Pickersgill 2007).
56070		habitat	eng	It is a species of marshy areas in open montane grasslands, and from grassy glades in forest/grassland mosaic. It has been found in pastureland, but it is not clear that in can survive in croplands.
56070		population	eng	It is moderately abundant in suitable habitats.
56070		threats	eng	Its montane grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation, agricultural expansion, fire, and human settlement.
56071		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
56071		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southeastern Guinea through Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and western Ghana, with a disjunct population in southwestern Nigeria.
56071		habitat	eng	It is found mostly in primary rainforest, although it has recently been recorded in farm bush (degraded forest and farmland) (Hillers and Rödel 2007). It is often found with <em>Afrixalus dorsalis</em> but separated by microhabitat preferences, with <em>A. dorsalis</em> using more open, exposed sites, and <em>A. nigeriensis</em> calling from dense vegetation. During breeding, the eggs are laid on leaves overhanging temporary ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.
56071		population	eng	In suitable habitats it is very common.
56071		threats	eng	It is probably losing much of its habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and logging.
56072		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Virungas National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Bwindi National Park in Uganda.
56072		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Kivu Province in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, western Burundi, and south-western Uganda, probably north to Mount Ruwenzori. It is normally found above 1,500m asl.
56072		habitat	eng	Its habitat is not well known, but it has been found in montane grassland, bamboo forests, and in wetland areas in reeds and papyrus. It breeds in marshy areas.
56072		population	eng	It is not a very abundant species.
56072		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture and human settlements.
56073		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56073		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Angola, east through the Democratic Republic of Congo, to Uganda and western Kenya. It might occur in Burundi and Rwanda.
56073		habitat	eng	It lives in degraded secondary forest, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the central African rainforest belt. Its breeding is not known, but it probably breeds in temporary ponds and swamps, and perhaps also in small permanent waterbodies where there is vegetation above the water on which to lay eggs.
56073		population	eng	It is an abundant species that is probably increasing as closed-canopy rainforest is destroyed.
56073		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
56074		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56074		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Nigeria east of the Cross River, through southwestern and southern Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea to central Gabon. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It presumably occurs in southwestern Central African Republic and northern Congo, but there are not yet any records from these countries.
56074		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary forest and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone (and only rarely in undisturbed forest), often occurring in marshy areas. The eggs are laid on leaves over temporary and permanent pools, into which the tadpoles fall and develop.
56074		population	eng	It is a common species.
56074		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
56075		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56075		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Nigeria, east to western Ethiopia, and south to southern Tanzania and southern and western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and probably also in northern Angola, Zambia and Malawi.
56075		habitat	eng	It occurs widely in moist and dry savannah, and degraded former forest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop.
56075		population	eng	It is generally an abundant species.
56075		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is facing no obvious threats.
56076		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56076		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Bonamandune, near the city of Douala, in Cameroon. It is possible that it is not a valid species.
56076		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements.
56076		population	eng	If it is a valid species, it is possibly extinct following the very extensive habitat destruction that has taken place around the city of Douala. There have been no records since its discovery, despite extensive herpetological work in the area.
56076		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the only area from which it has been found is now a large city.
56077		conservation	eng	It occurs in Tsavo West and Tsavo East National Parks in Kenya, and in Tarangire National Park in Tanzania.
56077		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded from a small number of localities in inland southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania. It has been recorded from Ngomeni in Kenya south to Tarangire National Park in Tanzania. Its distribution is still imperfectly known, and it is probably more widespread than the few records suggest.
56077		habitat	eng	It is associated with grassy pools and marshes in dry savannah. It presumably breeds in temporary pools.
56077		population	eng	The limited information available suggests that it is common in suitable locations.
56077		threats	eng	Local populations are probably affected by overgrazing by domestic livestock, as well as by fire, and perhaps drought. However, it is unlikely to be seriously at risk.
56078		conservation	eng	<em><em>    </em></em>    <p>Determining whether the two subspecies are separate species is a high conservation research priority for this species, and the entire genus in <st1:country-region><st1:place>South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> is in need of taxonomic attention. Insufficient information exists on life history of the subspecies, and monitoring of breeding sites is recommended at the extremes of the distribution. Although there are many threats to individual sites, the species as a whole is not considered to require conservation effort at this time.</p>  <p><em>Afrixalus spinifrons intermedius</em> occurs in the <st1:place><st1:placename>Khahlamba-Drakensberg</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>National   Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <em>Afrixalus s. spinifrons</em> occurs in a number of coastal protected areas.</p>
56078		distribution	eng	This species, which is endemic to South Africa, occurs as two subspecies: <em>A. s. spinifrons</em> occurs in the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands, and eastern Cape coast of South Africa at low to intermediate altitudes; <em>A.s. intermedius</em> occurs at altitudes above 1,000 m to around 1,500 m asl in western&#160;KwaZulu-Natal between the midlands and foothills of the Drakensberg. The Extent of Occurrence is around 19,000 km², and the Area of Occupancy is estimated to be 10% of this.
56078		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It is associated</span> with low vegetation in shrubland and dry forest. It breeds in vleis (including dams) and temporary pools and pans (including roadside pools)&#160;and uses emergent vegetation to create egg nests.&#160;Species in this genus deposit between 20 and 50 eggs on vegetation above the water. Tadpoles emerge, drop into the water and remain there until metamorphosis.
56078		population	eng	This species is hard to detect but it is known to be doing well at some sites where it appears abundant.
56078		threats	eng	<p>Certain subpopulations are affected by loss of wetlands through urban and recreational development, afforestation, agricultural expansion, pesticides, and overgrazing by livestock. Coastal populations (i.e. <em>A. s. spinifrons</em>) may be at higher risk than those inland due to heavier development pressure along the KZN coastline.&#160;</p>
56079		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56079		distribution	eng	This species is traditionally known only from Zanzibar Island in Tanzania. However, recent studies have shown that it occurs on the Tanzanian mainland from Amboni in the northeast, south to Liwale in the southeast, and inland to the Kilombero floodplain, as well as on Zanzibar. It is generally found below 300m asl.
56079		habitat	eng	It is a species of grassy pools and marshes in humid shrubland, mixed farmland and savannah. It breeds in marshes, shrub-dominated wetlands, and permanent pools.
56079		population	eng	It is an abundant species in suitable locations.
56079		threats	eng	Overall it is not threatened, and it is an adaptable species, but certain populations are affected by urbanization and water pollution. It is hybridising widely with the forest species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus stuhlmanni sylvaticus</span>, in areas where forests have been destroyed or heavily disturbed.
56080		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Shimba Hills National Park, but the maintenance and protection of other tracts of lowland coastal forest habitat is essential to ensure the persistence of this species.
56080		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Shimba Hills in southern coastal Kenya south through the East Usambara foothills in north-eastern Tanzania, as far south as the Kazizumbwi Forest in central coastal Tanzania. There is an unconfirmed record from further north along the Tana River in eastern Kenya. It occurs only very patchily within the mapped range due to limited suitable habitat.
56080		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forest that can survive in secondary growth and plantations, but not in completely degraded habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and water-filled depressions in forest.
56080		population	eng	It is fairly abundant where it occurs.
56080		threats	eng	Although it can tolerate degraded forest and secondary growth, these habitats are also known to be suitable for <em>A. stuhlmanni</em> with which this species hybridizes, and this is probably the most serious threat to the species.
56081		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but there have not yet been any confirmed records.
56081		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains in Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, but it is a species of medium to high altitudes. Records from the coastal plain of Tanzania require confirmation.
56081		habitat	eng	It is a forest-dependent species, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds in swampy valley bottoms and temporary pools in closed-canopy forest.
56081		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
56081		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, logging, and expanding human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
56082		conservation	eng	It occurs in Upemba National Park.
56082		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lower Shaba Province in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, although it might well occur much more widely than this.
56082		habitat	eng	It is believed to be a species of moist savannah, presumably breeding in small pools.
56082		population	eng	There is no recent information on its population status, but it is presumably abundant, since the type series consists of over 1,000 specimens.
56082		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
56083		conservation	eng	It is present in Taï National Park and Haute Dodo Classified Forest (Côte d’Ivoire) and in Bobiri Forest Reserve (Ghana).
56083		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three general areas: Mount Nimba in western Côte d’Ivoire; Taï National Park and Haute Dodo Classified Forest in south-western Côte d’Ivoire; and Bobiri Forest Reserve in south-western Ghana. It presumably also occurs in Liberia and Guinea, but there have not yet been any records.
56083		habitat	eng	It is a species of forest edge habitats, not being found in the forest interior, but nor is it found in heavily degraded habitats outside forest (such as farm bush). It is typically found along forest roads and in tree-fall gaps. It breeds in small temporary ponds and puddles, with the eggs being laid either on leaves above water, or directly in the water.
56083		population	eng	It is not common, but it is very hard to find and so is perhaps under-recorded.
56083		threats	eng	It is probably losing much of its habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and logging.
56084		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56084		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through West Africa from Gambia east to Nigeria. It is presumed to occur in Senegal, but there does not appear to be a definite record from this country. The distributional limits of this species, especially in relation to <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus fulvovittatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. quadrivittatus</span>, remain largely unknown, and the range map should be regarded as provisional.
56084		habitat	eng	It occurs widely in moist and dry savanna, and occasionally in gallery forest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop.
56084		population	eng	It is a very abundant species with huge populations in appropriate habitats.
56084		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is facing no obvious threats.
56085		conservation	eng	It has been reported from Kyabobo National Park in eastern Ghana (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It probably occurs in several other protected areas.
56085		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated records from Gambia and southern Mali, east to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (on the Sudan border) in savannas. There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Burkina Faso, Chad or Sudan, but it is likely to occur in these countries. The small number of records over much of its range probably reflects the lack of herpetological work in many parts of west and central Africa.
56085		habitat	eng	It is a species of dense moist, and open dry, savannas. It is probably tolerant, at least to some extent, of habitat alteration. It breeds in temporary ponds, eggs can be found above water.
56085		population	eng	It is locally very common, though it is patchily distributed.
56085		threats	eng	Overgrazing might impact local populations, but it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56086		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56086		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Angola, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, most of Zambia, and southwestern Tanzania adjacent to the Zambian border. A record from Mbega in the Kilombero Valley of southeastern Tanzania probably refers to Afrixalus quadrivittatus (M. Pickersgill pers comm.). A record from Tulawaka in northwestern Tanzania, and records from Duque de Braganca and Cabiri in northwestern Angola (Ruas 1991) require confirmation.
56086		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist savannah and shrubland that is probably tolerant of some alteration of its habitat. It is typically associated with flooded grassland, small marshes, and temporary pools, in which it breeds.
56086		population	eng	It is relatively abundant where it occurs.
56086		threats	eng	It is probably reasonably adaptable, and is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56087		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas and has definitely been recorded from the Reserve de Fauna de la Lope-Okanda in central Gabon.
56087		distribution	eng	This newly described species has been recorded from southern and southwestern Cameroon, where it occurs widely in the forest zone below 630m, south through central Gabon to southern Congo. Amiet (2000) shows that earlier records of Hyperolius tuberculatus from southern Congo (Largen and Dowsett-Lemaire 1991) are in fact of this species. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea, and perhaps elsewhere.
56087		habitat	eng	The species occurs around large, slow-flowing rivers surrounded by intact rainforest. It ranges a little further north that Alexteroon obstetricans into slightly drier forest. Males call in vegetation close to rivers. Small clumps of eggs are laid on leaves above small, residual ponds (close to rivers), into which the larvae fall, and develop.
56087		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
56087		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss, especially as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging.
56088		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected area, though it might well occur in the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve; habitat protection is a matter of urgent priority for this species. Survey work is also required to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range.
56088		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from two localities at 800-1,050m asl, 6km apart near the villages of Betenge and Mofako on the eastern slopes of the Rumpi Hills in south-western Cameroon. It might occur a little more widely, but appears to be absent from other sites that have been explored nearby.
56088		habitat	eng	It is associated with narrow streams in forests, over which there is a continuous canopy. It favours well aerated, flowing water, but avoids torrents. Males call close to streams in dense vegetation, and they presumably breed in a similar manner to <em>Alexteroon obstetricans</em> (i.e., small clumps of eggs are laid on leaves above streams, into which the larvae fall, and develop).
56088		population	eng	There is no available information on its population status.
56088		threats	eng	Severe forest loss is taking place in the Rumpi Hills due to smallholder farming activities, logging, and human settlement.
56089		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from the Reserve de Faune de la Moukalaba-Dougoua in southwestern Gabon.
56089		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern and southwestern Cameroon below 800m, with a possible discontinuity in the general region of the Sanaga River. It has also been recorded from Monte Alen in Equatorial Guinea and from southwestern Gabon (M. Burger, pers comm.) and it presumably occurs widely in these two countries, and probably elsewhere, for example in northern Congo. However, the species is curiously patchy in its distribution, and is often absent from apparently suitable habitat within its general range.
56089		habitat	eng	It is associated with narrow streams in forests, over which there is a continuous canopy. It favours well aerated, flowing water, but avoids torrents. Males call close to slow-flowing streams. Small clumps of eggs are laid on leaves above streams, into which the larvae fall, and develop.
56089		population	eng	It is a common species.
56089		threats	eng	The species requires closed-canopy forest, and is presumably declining due to forest clearance for agriculture and timber.
56090		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. The protected area network in western Cameroon urgently needs to be expanded to include remaining montane forest habitats, such as those on Mount Cameroon.
56090		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in western Cameroon: Mubenge on the southern slopes of Mount Cameroon, where it is known only from the type specimen; and Nkondjock at 750m asl on the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau, where it is known from a small number of specimens and a handful of field observations. It presumably occurs more widely, but it has not been found elsewhere despite extensive fieldwork in the region.
56090		habitat	eng	It has been found in dense forest where the eggs are placed above small pools with stagnant or slowly flowing water, and the larvae develop in these pools. It is not known whether or not it can survive in secondary habitats.
56090		population	eng	This species is poorly known, but it seems to be rare. It is probably mute, and this makes it very hard to find.
56090		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be ongoing forest loss due to subsistence wood cutting and agriculture, and human settlement.
56091		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur, such as on the Itombwe massif. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.
56091		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Itombwe and Kabobo highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and from the mountains of western Rwanda. It has never been found below 2,100m, and is rare below 2,400m asl. There have been no recent records of this species, presumably due to lack of fieldwork within its range.
56091		habitat	eng	It is a species of high-altitude forests, especially bamboo forest. By day, it hides in broken bamboo stems at 2-4m above the ground, or, where bamboo is scarce, it hides between bark and moss, which covers the tree trunks. There is no information on its breeding, but it is presumed to breed in water.
56091		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
56091		threats	eng	There is no direct information, but it is restricted to unprotected habitats that are probably being lost due to agriculture, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
56092		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it is likely to be present in some.
56092		distribution	eng	This species is largely unknown but has been found from extreme southeastern Nigeria, through southwestern Cameroon (including at Mount Cameroon, Mount Manenguba, the Rumpi Hills, Fopwanga (near Nkondjock), the Mbos Plains, and the Yaounde area), east to Mbet, and south to Belinga in northeastern Gabon. It is likely to occur in Equatorial Guinea, but there have not been any records so far. It is probably a low to mid altitude species, but it has been recorded up to 1,850m asl.
56092		habitat	eng	It lives in montane and lowland moist forest, grassy meadows and coffee plantations. It is often associated with mountain streams, breeding in pure and well-aerated water. It can survive in degraded forest.
56092		population	eng	Its abundance is unknown, probably because it is almost mute and is therefore hard to find. It might be more abundant than the few records indicate.
56092		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by severe and widespread forest loss, especially if this reduces the water quality.
56093		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56093		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Itombwe Mountains of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, where it has been recorded above 2,400m asl.
56093		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland that is presumed to breed in water (although this has not been confirmed).
56093		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56093		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
56094		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56094		distribution	eng	This species ranges from south-central Cameroon to northern Angola, east to central Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and recently from southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers comm.). It is presumed to occur in Congo.
56094		habitat	eng	It is associated with swamps, lakes and streams in the Central African forest belt, and it is often seen along large rivers. It can be found in undisturbed forest, but it has also been observed in very open bush land with no forest in the vicinity. The eggs are laid on leaves above still or flowing water, into which the larvae fall and develop.
56094		population	eng	It is a common species.
56094		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species, and is unlikely to be facing any significant threat.
56095		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56095		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Lake Tumba region of west-central Democratic Republic of Congo, although it might occur more widely.
56095		habitat	eng	It has been found in open areas within forest. If it is similar to <em>Cryptothylax greshoffi</em>, then it breeds in a variety of both still and flowing waterbodies.
56095		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56095		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but if it is as adaptable as <em>C. greshoffi</em>, then it is unlikely to be seriously at risk.
56096		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and in the Manombo Special Reserve.
56096		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeastern lowlands of Madagascar from sea level up to at least 800m asl.
56096		habitat	eng	It is a species of open areas, including savannahs, degraded habitats, agricultural areas, grasslands, and rice fields. It breeds in a wide variety of temporary and permanent waterbodies, including rice fields.
56096		population	eng	It is locally common in some sites.
56096		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. There is a low level international pet trade, but this is probably not impacting negatively on the species.
56097		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but perhaps occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.
56097		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Madagascar, close to the Montagne de Francais near the northern tip of Madagascar, and between Sambava and Andapa. It is likely to occur between these areas, and perhaps elsewhere, but it is probably patchy in its distribution due to the lack of suitable habitats in the arid area in which it lives. It is a low altitude species, occurring up to at least 500m asl.
56097		habitat	eng	The species thrives in open areas near rice fields, and is also found on the edge of sand dunes, and in villages and towns. It breeds in temporary and probably permanent waters.
56097		population	eng	It is common in its known localities.
56097		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is probably not threatened, despite its small known range.
56098		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56098		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 500-1,600m asl in eastern and central Madagascar, where it is broadly distributed. Further research might show it to occur both north and south of the area mapped. There is an isolated record from northern Madagascar. Records from Marojejy and Manakara require confirmation. Records from Montagne d'Ambre probably refer to Heterixalus carbonei. Records from Tsaratanana could refer to either this species or H. carbonei.
56098		habitat	eng	It lives in deforested and otherwise degraded areas, such as savannahs, fields, croplands, urban areas and villages. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.
56098		population	eng	It is a common species.
56098		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. Low numbers appear in international trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
56099		conservation	eng	It occurs in Cap St Marie Special Reserve and Mandena Classified Forest, and possibly in Parc National d'Andohahela.
56099		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme southeastern and southern Madagascar, below 300m asl.
56099		habitat	eng	It lives in dry forest areas, rainforest edges, littoral forest on sand (i.e., habitat immediately behind sand dunes) deforested areas, croplands and villages and urban areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.
56099		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
56099		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. Low numbers appear in international trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
56100		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha and Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre.
56100		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kirindy and Tsingy de Bemahara in western Madagascar (below 200m asl), and from Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar (at around 900m asl). It presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these locations. Records from Tsaratanana could refer either to this species or to <em>Heterixalus betsileo</em>.
56100		habitat	eng	It is a dry forest species in the west and a rainforest species in the north, and has not been found outside forest so far. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
56100		population	eng	It is uncommon in currently known localities.
56100		threats	eng	The major threat to it is forest loss for subsistence agriculture and local wood extraction.
56101		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Isalo and Parc National d'Ankarafantsika, and possibly in other protected areas.
56101		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern and western Madagascar, where it is broadly distributed. It might occur between the mapped localities. It occurs up to 800m asl.
56101		habitat	eng	It lives in dry forests, deforested areas, agricultural areas, especially rice fields. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water, including in rice fields.
56101		population	eng	It is common where it has been found.
56101		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
56102		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Masoala, and perhaps in other protected areas.
56102		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern and eastern Madagascar where it is broadly distributed, mostly in low altitude areas up to 800m asl. It is also recorded on Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). Records from the Andringitra area in southeastern Madagascar require confirmation and are not mapped here.
56102		habitat	eng	It lives on rainforest edges, dry forested areas, littoral forest on sand (i.e., the habitat immediately behind sand dunes) deforested areas, croplands and villages and urban areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.
56102		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56102		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. Low numbers appear in international trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
56103		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Masoala and in the Analamazoatra Special Reserve.
56103		distribution	eng	This species was described from central-eastern Madagascar in the Perinet area, and it has also been found in coastal northeastern Madagascar. It presumably occurs in the intervening area. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.
56103		habitat	eng	Its ecological requirements are not well known, but it occurs in open areas in the rainforest belt, only occasionally penetrating the rainforest itself. It is found mainly in open areas and agricultural land, especially in rice fields. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.
56103		population	eng	It is a common species.
56103		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
56104		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, and perhaps in other protected areas.
56104		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the central plateau of Madagascar from 1,200-1,500m asl.
56104		habitat	eng	It lives in montane grassland, croplands, and disturbed areas at relatively high altitudes, but not in rice fields. It has a specialized breeding habitat, favouring acidic brown waters in permanent and temporary waterbodies.
56104		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56104		threats	eng	The transformation of bogs into rice fields might be a threat to this species. It is found in international trade, with hundreds being exported annually, although it is not clear that this constitutes a threat to the species. It is perhaps in competition with <em>Heterixalus betsileo</em>, which does well in rice fields.
56105		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Ankarafantsika.
56105		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern and western Madagascar, at Nosy Be, Ankarafantsika (not mapped) and Kirindy (also not mapped). It is likely to occur between these sites. It occurs from sea level up to 300m asl.
56105		habitat	eng	It lives in open areas, rice fields, agricultural areas and dry forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.
56105		population	eng	It is common at its few known sites.
56105		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
56106		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56106		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Madagascar. However, the taxonomic uncertainty regarding this species makes it impossible to determine its distribution accurately. It occurs at very low altitudes, probably below 200m asl.
56106		habitat	eng	It lives in open areas, agricultural land, urban areas, swamps and rice paddies. It breeds in temporary and permanent still waterbodies.
56106		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56106		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and unlikely to be threatened.
56107		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56107		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Ngoto, Lobajegebiet" (Ahl 1931), in the Central African Republic.
56107		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56107		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56107		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56108		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56108		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Ethiopia, southern Sudan and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, through Uganda, Kenya and southern Somalia, south to central Mozambique and Zimbabwe. There is an apparently isolated population in KwaZulu-Natal, eastern South Africa, and in extreme southern Mozambique. It might occur in northern Botswana and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, but the respective distributions of this species and Hyperolius nasutus are not well known. It is likely to range further west through the Central African Republic and southern Chad, but there are no records from these countries, and the respective distributions of this species and Hyperolius igbettensis (known from Cameroon westwards) are very poorly known. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl in Ethiopia, and 2,286m asl in Malawi.
56108		habitat	eng	It is associated with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It can be found around human settlements, but apparently does not respond well to extreme urbanization and agricultural intensification. It breeds in swamps, shallow plans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes and permanent pools.
56108		population	eng	It is a common species through most its range, though it has decreased in South Africa, and now rare outside protected areas in that country.
56108		threats	eng	In South Africa it is threatened by afforestation, coastal development, wetland drainage, and lowering of water table due to the spread eucalyptus. The Ethiopian populations are almost certainly being affected by environmental degradation as a result of expanding human settlement. However, overall, this species remains abundant and is not seriously at risk.
56109		conservation	eng	It has not been confirmed from any protected areas.
56109		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-western Cameroon, where it occurs as far east as the Yaounde region. It is generally a lowland species, but it has been found up to 1,300m asl to the north-east of Mount Cameroon.
56109		habitat	eng	It is strictly arboreal, and is confined to mature forest with large trees, with breeding taking place in water in tree holes.
56109		population	eng	In suitable habitats it can be a common species.
56109		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is presumed to be ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.
56110		conservation	eng	It might occur in Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.
56110		distribution	eng	This species is known only from several localities in the mountains of western Cameroon, from Mount Manenguba north to the Bamileke and the Bamenda Highlands, ranging from 750-1,900m asl.
56110		habitat	eng	It lives in savannah, tall grassland, bush land, and herbaceous vegetation. Breeding takes place in shallow marshes, ponds, lakes and slow-flowing streams with tall, reedy vegetation.
56110		population	eng	It is common on the Bamileke Plateau, and is very common on the Mbos Plains at Mboassoum and Santchou.
56110		threats	eng	It might suffer from loss of habitat as a result of encroachment by agriculture and human settlements, but it is adaptable and is probably not at serious risk.
56111		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
56111		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Deutsch-Ostafrika [Tanzania]" (Ahl 1931). It is not possible in this assessment to produce a species range map for this taxon, which cannot be matched to any known species in the wild.
56111		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56111		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56111		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56112		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56112		distribution	eng	This species from the eastern side of the African continent ranges from extreme southern Somalia, south through Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique to KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa), and inland to southern Malawi and extreme southeastern Zimbabwe. It is a low-altitude species, occurring up to 300m asl in South Africa.
56112		habitat	eng	It lives near water in low elevation dense, humid savannah and grassland. It breeds in shallow pans, vleis and marshes, with floating and emergent vegetation, usually, though not always, preferring temporary water.
56112		population	eng	It is generally a common species, though it has declined in areas heavily impacted by human activities in South Africa.
56112		threats	eng	It is generally not threatened, but it is affected by urban expansion, agricultural intensification and the introduction of bass in the south of its range. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56113		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56113		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species has been found only in the Marungu Highlands, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 2,300m asl.
56113		habitat	eng	It is likely to be a montane grassland species that might breed in swamps and temporary pools.
56113		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56113		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to it.
56114		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
56114		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western and central Cameroon east through Central African Republic, southern Sudan and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda, southwestern Ethiopia, and western Kenya. It is presumed to occur in southern Chad. There are few records from the poorly explored regions of the Central African Republic and southern Sudan. It occurs at least up to 820m asl, probably higher.
56114		habitat	eng	It is a savannah species; breeding in small pools, penetrating forest in heavily deforested areas around Nkongsamba and Yaounde in Cameroon. In southwestern Ethiopia it has been found in tropical deciduous forest.
56114		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56114		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be significant threats within its wide range, though Ethiopian populations are possibly at risk from forest loss.
56115		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kyabobo National Park in Ghana, and in some small forest reserves in Ghana, as well as in some "sacred groves" that are protected traditionally by local communities.
56115		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Akwapim-Togo Hills range in easternmost Ghana and adjacent western Togo.
56115		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary forest, forest edge and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably attaches its eggs to leaves above shallow, densely vegetated temporary ponds.
56115		population	eng	It is extremely abundant in its small range.
56115		threats	eng	Despite its small range, it does not appear to be significantly threatened. Only complete opening up of its habitat would be adverse to it.
56116		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56116		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Angola to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Zambia, Zimbabwe and northern Botswana. It is likely to occur in western Mozambique and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, but there have not yet been any records. Its distribution remains largely unknown due to confusion with the similar Hyperolius nasutus.
56116		habitat	eng	It is associated with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It breeds in swamps, shallow plans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes and permanent pools.
56116		population	eng	It is a common species.
56116		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be threatened, since it occurs in an area of low human impact.
56117		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
56117		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Farenda Bango, Loanda [Luanda]" (Ahl 1931), Angola.
56117		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56117		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56117		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56118		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Bobiri Forest Reserve (although it is not clear how well protected this is) as well as the Ankasa Conservation Area.
56118		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bobiri Forest Reserve in south-western Ghana and from the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA), a twin wildlife protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south, also in Ghana. It is presumed to occur in other forests in Ghana, but it cannot range much further to the west, where <em>Hyperolius zonatus</em> occurs.
56118		habitat	eng	It is confined to lowland forest, where it is associated with temporary, stagnant pools in which it breeds. The eggs are laid on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall and develop.
56118		population	eng	It is very common at the type locality (Bobiri Forest Reserve).
56118		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to logging, agriculture and human settlements.
56119		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in Central African Republic.
56119		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southeastern Nigeria, throughout southern Cameroon, as far as the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). A record from Medje in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo is doubtful and requires confirmation. The eastern and southern distributional limits of the species are very unclear, and it is likely to be found in Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. It is a lowland species not occurring above 600m asl.
56119		habitat	eng	It is described as a bush land species, presumably living in secondary vegetation in the tropical forest belt. It breeds in small ponds.
56119		population	eng	It is abundant near Mamfe in western Cameroon, and is common in southern Cameroon
56119		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56120		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56120		distribution	eng	This species is known only from coastal areas of south-western Cameroon within 30km of the coast.
56120		habitat	eng	It lives in degraded former forest (farm bush) on sandy soil, and can live within a few metres of the sea. Breeding takes place in small pools, and the eggs are placed 4-5m above still water into which the larvae fall and develop.
56120		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
56120		threats	eng	Although it is clearly adaptable, it is probably at risk from expanding agriculture and human settlements within its small range.
56121		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56121		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Ngoto, in south-western Central African Republic. Records from Congo and western Democratic Republic of Congo are in error. This name cannot be linked to any known species in the wild, and is probably a synonym of another species.
56121		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water.
56121		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56121		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56122		conservation	eng	It is present in Bwindi National Park (Uganda) and the Virungas National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
56122		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, western Burundi, and south-western Uganda. It occurs between 1,600 and 2,850m asl.
56122		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in swamps in montane grassland and forest.
56122		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56122		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock) and human settlements.
56123		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, including Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire and Sapo National Park in Liberia.
56123		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through Liberia and southern Guinea, to south-central Côte d’Ivoire.
56123		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, and confined to primary rainforest where it is generally found by streams. It breeds exclusively in flowing water, laying its eggs on leaves above water into which the larvae fall and develop.
56123		population	eng	In suitable habitats it is a common species.
56123		threats	eng	It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.
56124		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virungas National Park. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.
56124		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kivu Province in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, from Mount Ruwenzori south to the northern slopes of the Itombwe Mountains. It occurs at intermediate altitudes, and the type locality is at 1,750m asl. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of survey work within its range.
56124		habitat	eng	It is a species of transition forests, and its adaptability to degraded habitats is not known. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it presumably takes place in water.
56124		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56124		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to logging, agriculture and human settlements.
56125		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56125		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in western and northern Angola. Its distribution is not well known.
56125		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in water.
56125		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, and there have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56125		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56126		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56126		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central and southern Cameroon, south to Angola and northwestern Zambia, and east to Uganda and westernmost Kenya. There do not appear to be records from the Central African Republic, but it is likely to be found in this country, and possibly also in Tanzania and Rwanda. It is not clear whether or not it occurs in the forested parts of the central Congo basin.
56126		habitat	eng	It lives in forest habitats (usually edges and clearings), degraded former forest (farm bush) and most savannahs. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, including swamps, swamp forest, lakes, pools and seasonally flooded grassland. Its breeding sites generally have abundant grassy vegetation.
56126		population	eng	It is a common species.
56126		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that it is not facing any significant threats.
56127		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56127		distribution	eng	This species ranges through West Africa from eastern Sierra Leone to western Cameroon, where it extends to just south of the Sanaga River.
56127		habitat	eng	It lives in clearings in forest and degraded forest, as well as in cultivated land, secondary brush, and gallery forests in savannah. It avoids closed forest. It breeds in small, sometimes putrid, pools and marshes. The eggs are laid on leaves above water (the leaves are folded), and the larvae fall into the water, where they develop.
56127		population	eng	It is an abundant species that is probably increasing as its habitat is increasing.
56127		threats	eng	It is probably not seriously affected by habitat loss. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56128		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks. Research is needed to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in apparently suitable habitat.
56128		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kenyan Highlands, east of the Rift Valley, from Limuru to Thompson’s Falls, and east to the Nyambeni Mountains. It is a montane species and the type locality is at 2,200m asl.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
56128		habitat	eng	It is a species of open farmland and high-altitude grassland. It breeds in temporary, and sometimes permanent, pools. It is often found together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperolius montanus</span>.
56128		population	eng	It said to be an abundant species, but there has apparently been a general decline in its population.
56128		threats	eng	Its montane grassland and pastureland habitats are probably not seriously threatened (except perhaps by afforestation), but there has apparently been a general population decline in areas of suitable habitat for reasons that are not understood.
56129		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56129		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo in the general vicinity of the Itombwe Mountains and the mountains to the west of Lake Kivu, though the limits of its distribution are not clear. The type locality is at 900-1,000m asl, so it is perhaps a species of intermediate altitudes.
56129		habitat	eng	It is apparently an arboreal forest species. Its breeding habits are unknown, but reproduction is presumably in water.
56129		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56129		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
56130		conservation	eng	It is present in the Bwindi National Park (Uganda), Ruwenzori Mountains National Park (Uganda), and Virungas National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
56130		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Rwanda, western Burundi, south-western Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (west of Lake Edward and in Mount Ruwenzori). It is a montane species, but its exact altitudinal range is unclear.
56130		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane forests, associated with rivers, streams and moving waters where it presumably breeds. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.
56130		population	eng	It is rare and seldom found.
56130		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is probably impacted by the loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock), wood extraction and human settlements.
56131		conservation	eng	It is not confirmed from any protected areas, though it probably does occur in at least one. Nonetheless, there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.
56131		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-western Cameroon at 100-1,100m asl. It occurs as two separate populations: a northern range from Mboassoum and Mankouat (near Nkongsamba) to Fopouanga (near Nkondjock); and a southern population from near Kribi to the general vicinity of Yaounde. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
56131		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense primary and secondary forest, and does not survive outside forest. It breeds in flooded swamps with shallow water and in small pools.
56131		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
56131		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture, and human settlements.
56132		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56132		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of the general area of "Quilombo", Angola.
56132		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56132		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56132		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56133		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
56133		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type localities of "Rio Luinha, Quilombo and N'golla Bumba" (Noble 1924) in Angola. For this assessment, attempts to map its range show the general area of Quilombo. The sites of Rio Luinha and N'gollo Bumba could not be accurately mapped or located.
56133		habitat	eng	This species presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56133		population	eng	Nothing is known about this species’ population status.
56133		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56134		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56134		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lodjo, in the Ituri Forest in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, close to the border with Uganda.
56134		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably breeds in water.
56134		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no records since the original description, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56134		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56135		conservation	eng	It is present in Bwindi National Park (Uganda) and Virungas National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
56135		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo from north-west of Mount Ruwenzori, south to west of Lake Kivu, extending into extreme south-western Uganda in the Bwindi Forest. Its recorded altitudinal range is 700-2,000m asl.
56135		habitat	eng	It is a species of transition and montane forest. It has been found in dense secondary vegetation overhanging a small stream and in a small marsh in forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it presumably takes place in aquatic habitats.
56135		population	eng	It is reasonably abundant where it occurs.
56135		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock), wood extraction, and human settlements.
56136		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
56136		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of Duque de Bragança, Angola, although its name cannot be matched to any known species in the wild.
56136		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56136		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56136		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56137		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
56137		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through the forest zone of West Africa. It occurs as four subspecies: <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperolius f. fusciventris</span> from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea, Liberia and westernmost Côte d’Ivoire; <span style="font-style: italic;">H. f. lamtoensis</span> in southwestern, central and southeastern Côte d’Ivoire and in southwestern Ghana; <span style="font-style: italic;">H. f. burtoni</span> in southeastern Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria; and an unnamed subspecies in southwestern Cameroon. The exact boundaries between these subspecies are not always clear. A record from Guinea-Bissau requires confirmation.
56137		habitat	eng	It lives in clearings in forest, secondary forest, degraded forest, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lamtoensis</span> lives in primary forest in Taï National Park and elsewhere in Côte d’Ivoire, whereas the other subspecies are more associated with secondary forest and farm bush. The species breeds in small, temporary pools and marshes. The eggs are laid on leaves above water.
56137		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56137		threats	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. f. lamtoensis</span> is probably affected by the loss of its habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. The other subspecies are adaptable and are not facing any significant threats.
56138		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56138		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Befale in central Democratic Republic of the Congo.
56138		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, but it presumably breeds in water.
56138		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no records since the original description, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56138		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56139		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56139		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Somalia to the northern coast and eastern highland of Kenya, south to Tanzania, where it ranges through most of the country. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. viridiflavus, H. mariae, H. marmoratus and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should be regarded as provisional.
56139		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56139		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56139		threats	eng	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56140		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56140		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of "Loanda" (Ahl 1931), Angola, which presumably refers to Luanda, Angola.
56140		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56140		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56140		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56141		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
56141		distribution	eng	This species ranges through West Africa from Sierra Leone to southern Gabon. Its occurrence in Gabon has only recently been confirmed (M. Burger pers. comm.), and it is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea, from where there have not yet been any confirmed records. There appear to be no records from Benin, and its apparent absence from this country might be genuine.
56141		habitat	eng	It lives in and around large swamps in secondary habitats in the forest belt, in which it breeds. It does not live in undisturbed forest. In West Africa it is typical of the forest-savanna transition forest. It breeds in very large, mostly permanent ponds, often in huge numbers.
56141		population	eng	It is very patchy in its distribution, and it is not found in many localities, but is present in vast numbers at suitable sites.
56141		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements. It is found in patchy distribution and it is probably especially susceptible to the loss of breeding sites.
56142		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species.&#160;It occurs in several protected areas, including Table Mountain National Park and De Hoop Nature Reserve.
56142		distribution	eng	This is a coastal species occurring at low elevations (&lt;500 m asl) along the southern coast of the Western Cape (including the Cape Peninsula), and east into the western part of the Eastern Cape. Its EOO is 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> with an estimated AOO of 5%.
56142		habitat	eng	It lives in wetlands in coastal fynbos heathland. It breeds in large and small pans, dams, vleis, and even slow-flowing streams. It needs emergent vegetation, and therefore requires relatively permanent water, though it seems to avoid very deep water.
56142		population	eng	<p>This species is relatively abundant in many wetland areas and can tolerate disturbance. It is not considered to be severely fragmented.</p>
56142		threats	eng	Spreading alien vegetation can lead to drying out of its breeding habitats. It is probably also adversely affected by fires. Several populations have disappeared due to the impacts of agricultural and urban expansion on its native habitat.&#160;No evidence exists that collection of Arum Lily flowers affects this species in any way whatsoever.
56143		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56143		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Ussagara, Neu Kamerun [Chad]" (Ahl 1931), so no distribution map has been prepared for this species for this assessment.
56143		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56143		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56143		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56144		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56144		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Democratic Republic of Congo north of the Congo River. Its distributional limits are very unclear and should be considered provisional.
56144		habitat	eng	There is no direct information on its habitat and ecology, but assuming that it is ecologically similar to <em>H. tuberculatus</em>, then it occurs in bush land and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone, breeding in a variety of waterbodies.
56144		population	eng	There is no direct information on the population status of this species, but as a member of the <em>Hyperolius viridiflavus</em> complex it is likely to be abundant.
56144		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it is unlikely to be threatened.
56145		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56145		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen from Congo da Lemba, in extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo.
56145		habitat	eng	This species presumably breeds in water, although its habitat and ecological requirements are not at all well known.
56145		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen, and there have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of recent herpetological work within its range.
56145		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56146		conservation	eng	It is likely to be found in several protected areas.
56146		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from a few records from a poorly explored area from extreme northwestern Zambia to central Malawi. However, it almost certainly occurs in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and eastern Angola, and it is likely that some recent records of Hyperolius bocagei, for example from Angola, northeastern Zambia and southwestern Tanzania (Sumbawanga) actually refer to this species.
56146		habitat	eng	It lives in rather humid, dense savannah, where the males call from scattered trees and grass stems. It can probably adapt to some extent to altered habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and marshes in savannah, and possibly also permanent pools.
56146		population	eng	Although there have not been many records, it is very common and conspicuous within its range.
56146		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56147		conservation	eng	Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
56147		distribution	eng	This species is known only from highlands at around 1,760m asl at Lusinga, in Upemba National Park, in Shaba Province, south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, although it presumably occurs more widely.
56147		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, but if it is similar to <em>Hyperolius atrigularis</em>, then it might be a montane grassland species. Its breeding habits are unknown, though reproduction is likely to take place in swamps and temporary pools.
56147		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56147		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56148		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa Scap Forest Reserve; it could also occur in the Udzungwa National Park, although its presence there has not yet been confirmed.
56148		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Luhega Forest in the Udzungwa Scap Forest Reserve at 1,740m asl in the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. It is probably more widespread in the Udzungwa Mountains, though it appears to be absent from apparently suitable sites close to the type locality.
56148		habitat	eng	It has been found in swamps in dense montane forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to take place in swamps. Its adaptability to altered habitats is unknown.
56148		population	eng	It is common in its only known locality.
56148		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is likely to be the loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction, and human settlements.
56149		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56149		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Ethiopia, western Kenya, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, through western, central and southern Tanzania to Malawi, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola. There appear to be no records from Mozambique and Sudan, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It occurs up to at least 2,300m, asl perhaps higher.
56149		habitat	eng	It lives in moist savannah, tropical deciduous forest, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), and it also survives in banana plantations (living in the leaf exils). The species has been found breeding in large ponds and swamps.
56149		population	eng	It is a common and conspicuous species.
56149		threats	eng	The Ethiopian populations might be affected by forest clearance, human settlement and agricultural encroachment, but overall, this species is not facing any significant threats.
56150		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
56150		distribution	eng	This species is known mainly from central and southern Cameroon, south to the Petit Loango National Park in southwestern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). There are also records from west and central Uganda, from the Budongo Forest, southeast to Entebbe, and southwest to the Mghainga Gorilla National Park. There are apparently isolated populations on the lower slopes of Mount Cameroon, and in the foothills of the Rumpi Hills, Mount Manenguba, and the Bamileke Plateau in southwestern Cameroon. It is presumed to occur in Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo.
56150		habitat	eng	It lives where forest and savannah interdigitate in marshes, roadside ditches, small pools, tall grassland, and degraded forest, sometimes far from water. It breeds in still water in marshes and roadside ditches and small pools in degraded forest and in more open situations. It does not live in open savannah.
56150		population	eng	It appears to be common, at least in some localities.
56150		threats	eng	This is an adaptable species and is unlikely to be experiencing any major threats.
56151		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire), Mont Peko National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Niokolo-Koba National Park (Senegal), and probably in several other protected areas.
56151		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Senegal, Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, northern Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. There is an outlying population at Lamto in central-southern Côte d’Ivoire, and it is speculated that this is introduced. It presumably occurs in Guinea-Bissau, but there have not so far been any records. It occurs mainly at reasonably high altitudes, up to 1,500m asl on Mount Nimba, but the population at Lamto is at a very low elevation.
56151		habitat	eng	It is a species of high-altitude grassland, savannah and gallery forests, living in particular in areas subject to flooding. The eggs are laid directly in water, usually in small, temporary pools and swamps with abundant grassy vegetation.
56151		population	eng	It is a common species.
56151		threats	eng	It appears to be a reasonably adaptable species and is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56152		conservation	eng	It is present in the Virunga National Park.
56152		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Its range is very imperfectly known, but at present it has been recorded from Niapu east to Kilo (west of Lake Albert), south to the Virunga National Park. It is likely to occur in Rwanda, but there do not appear to be any records. There is little direct information on its altitudinal range, but it is mainly a lowland species that probably occurs up to at least 1,500m asl.
56152		habitat	eng	It is presumably a forest species that breeds in water, but very little information is available. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown.
56152		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56152		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.
56153		conservation	eng	It is recorded from the Bwindi National Park (Uganda), Kibale National Park (Uganda), Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Gombe Stream National Park (Tanzania), Kakamega National Park (Kenya) and probably several other protected areas.
56153		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northwestern Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, southwestern and southern Uganda (north to Budongo Forest) and western Kenya (in Kakamega Forest). There is an apparently isolated population on the Ufipa Plateau in southwestern Tanzania. It has been recorded at least between 650 and 2,100m asl.
56153		habitat	eng	It is a species of forest interior and forest remnants (including small patches) and severely degraded former forest (farm bush). It does not survive in completely open habitats. It breeds in a variety of habitats, including papyrus and reed vegetation along savannah streams, swamps covered with grass, swamps in farm bush and dense swamp forests. The eggs are laid on leaves over water into which the tadpoles fall and develop.
56153		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56153		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.
56154		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Resolution of its taxonomic status is required.
56154		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the poorly defined type locality of Togo. No range map has been prepared for this species, since the type locality is not specific, and this is almost certainly not a valid species.
56154		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably breeds in water.
56154		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56154		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56155		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana, but it is not known how well protected this area is, as well as the Boi-Tano Forest Reserve, Draw River Forest Reserve, and the Ankasa Conservation Area, a twin wildlife protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north, and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south.
56155		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Lakota in south-central Côte d'Ivoire, and in Ghana from Bobiri Forest Reserve in the south-west and Boi-Tano Forest Reserve, Draw River Forest Reserve, and the Ankasa Conservation Area. Surveys in the forests of south-western Ghana in recent years have not succeeded in locating this species.
56155		habitat	eng	It has only been found in lowland wet evergreen tropical rainforest, and it probably cannot survive in altered habitats. The males call at dusk, from branches above small, swiftly flowing streams in which the species breeds (it can sometimes be found up to 4m above water in the vegetation).
56155		population	eng	It could be a rare species, but it is very cryptic, and so might be under-recorded.
56155		threats	eng	It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture, and human settlements.
56156		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and the Itombwe Mountains are in urgent need of formal protection.
56156		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Itombwe Mountains in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 2,550m asl. A mapped occurrence in Burundi (Schiøtz 1999) appears not to be correct.
56156		habitat	eng	It is a species of high-altitude bamboo forests. Its breeding biology is unknown, but if it is similar to the closely related <em>Hyperolius castaneus</em>, then it is likely to breed in swamps.
56156		population	eng	It is poorly known, but it is apparently a rare species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of recent herpetological work within its range.
56156		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss for agriculture, livestock and human settlements.
56157		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent protection of its habitat.
56157		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the area to the west of the southern part of the Itombwe Highlands and northern slopes of the Kabobo Highlands, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been recorded at 1,850-2,000m asl.
56157		habitat	eng	It is a species of transition forests, and its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. Its breeding biology is also unknown, though it presumably takes place in water.
56157		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of recent herpetological work within its range.
56157		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by habitat loss for agriculture, livestock and human settlements.
56158		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56158		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Locam Landana dictum, in frondibus Borassorum" (Rochebrune 1885), Cabinda enclave, Angola. No distribution map has been prepared during this assessment for this species.
56158		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56158		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56158		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56159		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56159		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Locum Landana dictum, in foliis Musarum" (Rochebrune 1885), Cabinda enclave, Angola. No distribution map has been prepared for this species for this assessment.
56159		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56159		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56159		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56160		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Parks, and will probably also be found in other protected areas.
56160		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Upemba area of southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and from extreme northwestern Zambia. It almost certainly occurs more widely, in particular in eastern Angola.
56160		habitat	eng	It lives in gallery forest and dry forest patches in the humid savannah zone. It probably breeds in streams and small marshes in gallery forest.
56160		population	eng	It is a common species is suitable habitats.
56160		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56161		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56161		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south to southwestern Tanzania, western Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. viridiflavus, H. mariae, H. marmoratus, H. glandicolor, H. parallelus and H. pyrrhodictyon are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional.
56161		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56161		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56161		threats	eng	It is an extremely abundant species that is not facing any significant threats.
56162		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas, including Mikumi National Park in Tanzania.
56162		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two separate areas: on the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts from Witu south to the Dar es Salaam area (and including Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia islands), and inland as far as Mikumi National Park; and around Lake Mweru in northeastern Zambia and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. glandicolor and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional.
56162		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56162		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56162		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56163		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56163		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Mozambique, through eastern Malawi and eastern Zimbabwe to Swaziland and eastern and southern South Africa. The western parts of the range in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa probably represent recent spread at higher altitudes. It has also extended its range along the south coast of South Africa (it originally did not occur west of Tstitsikamma. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. glandicolor and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl in South Africa.
56163		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bus hand, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using permanent, but often also in temporary, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56163		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species, and it is extending its range towards the southwest in South Africa.
56163		threats	eng	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56164		conservation	eng	It has not been found in the Udzungwa National Park, though it might occur there.
56164		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Tanzania, where it has been recorded from the Udzungwa Mountains and from the Njombe area in the western part of the Southern Highlands. It has been suggested that it might occur in northern Malawi, but recent surveys on Mount Rungwe, in southern Tanzania, close to the Malawi border, did not find this species. Its altitudinal range is not recorded, but it is likely to be mainly above 1,800m asl.
56164		habitat	eng	It lives in open, windswept, montane grasslands. It has been found in pastureland, but it is not clear that it can survive in croplands. It breeds in shallow, temporary swamps.
56164		population	eng	It is rarely seen, but easily overlooked, and so perhaps not as rare as records suggest.
56164		threats	eng	Its montane grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation, agricultural expansion, fire, and human settlement.
56165		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56165		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely from northeastern Tanzania, through Malawi to central Mozambique. It is present on the island of Zanzibar. A record from Ngurdoto Crater in Arusha National Park, north-central Tanzania, was a misidentified Hyperolius viridiflavus ommatostictus. It is a low-altitude species, though it occurs to at least 1,000m asl.
56165		habitat	eng	It lives in dry forest, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) and low-intensity farmland. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds in rather open forest and farm bush.
56165		population	eng	It is a common species.
56165		threats	eng	Although it can withstand considerable habitat alteration, there is almost certainly a limit to the amount of opening of its habitat that it can tolerate.
56166		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks.
56166		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kenya Highlands. It is known with certainty from several localities to the east of the Rift Valley. Specimens from the Mau Forest and other localities to the west of the Rift Valley are provisionally assigned to this species. It is a montane species occurring up to 3,100m asl, and probably as low as 1,800m asl.
56166		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species of montane grassland and farmland. It apparently breeds in marshes in savannah or very open farmed areas.
56166		population	eng	It is a common species.
56166		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
56167		conservation	eng	It has not been confirmed from any protected areas, though it might occur in some.
56167		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the eastern part of southern Cameroon, with a recent record from Barrage de Tchimbele in northwestern Gabon. It presumably occurs in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and perhaps also in other countries in the region.
56167		habitat	eng	It is a strictly arboreal species is confined to mature forest. It requires the presence of large trees, and it is not found outside forest. It breeds in water in tree holes, where the tadpoles develop very slowly.
56167		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56167		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.
56168		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006) and in Pendjari National Park, Benin (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It may also occur in other protected areas.
56168		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Botswana, northern Namibia and western Zambia, north to northern Angola. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records. It might occur in northwestern Zimbabwe, but its distribution is very poorly known. Records from northwestern Zambia possibly belong to an undescribed species. It has recently been reported from Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and northern Benin (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
56168		habitat	eng	It is associated with emergent vegetation and sedges at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It can be found around human settlements. It breeds in swamps, shallow pans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes, permanent and temporary pools and ponds. A prolonged breeder, it begins reproduction 2-5 months after the beginning of the rainy season. Females were found to lay an average of 150 and 199 eggs over two sampling periods (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
56168		population	eng	It is a common species.
56168		threats	eng	It occurs widely in an area of limited human impact, and is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56169		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park.
56169		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in south-western Côte d’Ivoire: the foot of Mont Niénokoué (approximately 15km west of Guiroutou) on the south-western edge of Taï National Park; and a nearby locality 30km to the north of this.
56169		habitat	eng	It is found only in primary rainforest, and probably attaches eggs to leaves above shallow temporary ponds and swamps, where the larvae develop.
56169		population	eng	It is a very uncommon species. A visit to the type locality in 2002 was unsuccessful in locating the species.
56169		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.
56170		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Although part of Mount Nimba is protected as the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve (which was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1981) the site is urgently in need of stricter protection and improved management, particularly given that it represents the only known site where several highly threatened species are known to persist.
56170		distribution	eng	This species is known only from lowlands on the south-eastern foot of Mount Nimba in Côte d’Ivoire, though it presumably also occurs in Guinea and Liberia.
56170		habitat	eng	It lives in clearings in lowland forest, where it calls at the edge of large swamps. It presumably breeds in swamps.
56170		population	eng	It is apparently extremely common in its restricted range.
56170		threats	eng	The threats are hard to determine, since it is not known to what extent the species can adapt to opening up of its habitat. It appears to have a genuinely small range, since it is a conspicuous species and probably would have been found elsewhere if it is more widespread. It might be adversely affected by expanding agriculture, logging and human settlement.
56171		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56171		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely through the West African savanna zone from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria, northern Cameroon and western Central African Republic. It presumably occurs in Chad, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Niger and possibly Mauritania, though there do not appear to be published records from these countries. The eastern limit of its distribution, and its point of contact with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperolius viridiflavus</span>, are unknown. The range map should therefore be regarded as provisional.
56171		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savanna, grassland and bushland, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created water bodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, water bodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56171		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56171		threats	eng	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56172		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56172		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sandoa, in Kasai Province, south-western Democratic Republic of Congo, near the border with Angola.
56172		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are not known, althought it presumably breeds in water.
56172		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type specimen.
56172		threats	eng	Nothing is known about direct threats to this species.
56173		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56173		distribution	eng	This West African species occurs in southern Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone.
56173		habitat	eng	In the forest zone, this species lives in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). In the savannah zone it lives in gallery forest. It has also been found on cultivated land, including irrigated rice fields. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
56173		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56173		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
56174		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56174		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely through the central African rainforest belt from southeastern Nigeria, eastern to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and extreme southwestern Uganda (Mgahinga Gorilla National Park), south to the Cabinda Enclave (Angola). It also occurs on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). It occurs from sea level, probably up to 2,000m asl.
56174		habitat	eng	It is a species typically associated clearings and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone, but also occurring in the forest. It breeds in streams and small pools.
56174		population	eng	It is a very common species that is probably increasing with forest loss.
56174		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56175		conservation	eng	The only protected area in which this species is know to occur is Serengeti National Park.
56175		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from Gong Rock on Moru Kopjes in the southern sector of Serengeti National Park in northern Tanzania, at an altitude of 1,585m asl, although it presumably occurs more widely.
56175		habitat	eng	There is very little information on its habitat and ecology. It appears to be strongly associated with rocky habitats. Its breeding details are unknown, though reproduction is likely to take place in ephemeral pools.
56175		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56175		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
56176		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas.
56176		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Congo, through Angola to southern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Zambia, northern Botswana and northern Namibia. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. pyrrhodictyon and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional.
56176		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56176		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56176		threats	eng	It is an extremely abundant species that is not facing any significant threats.
56177		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56177		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, east to northern Congo and extreme southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.), south through mainland Equatorial Guinea to west-central Gabon. Records from the Democratic Republic of Congo lack precision and are not mapped here. Records of this species from Korup National Park in southwestern Cameroon (Lawson 1993) are misidentifications and probably refer to Hyperolius bolifambae (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).
56177		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary habitats, including degraded forest and bush land in the lowland forest belt. Breeding takes place in small swamps, pools and streams.
56177		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56177		threats	eng	It would probably be affected by extreme opening up of its habitat, but it appears to tolerant most current forms habitat change, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56178		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania, and it is almost certainly present in many other protected areas.
56178		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the lower Tana River, through the coastal plain of Kenya and Tanzania to central coastal Mozambique. In Tanzania it is found inland as far as the Kilombero floodplain, and it probably occurs further inland than mapped in northern Mozambique. It occurs on the island of Zanzibar. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
56178		habitat	eng	It is a species of low-altitude humid savannah woodland that is also found in scrubby coastal forest. It occurs in heavily degraded former forest at medium altitudes. It appears to be able to adapt to modified habitats. It breeds in marshes.
56178		population	eng	It seems to be uncommon and widely scattered, but it is secretive and hard to find, so it is probably under-recorded.
56178		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56179		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56179		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Cameroon south of the Sanaga River to central Democratic Republic of Congo, with records from southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.), Gabon and southern Congo. It presumably occurs in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and probably also in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. Records of this species from Korup National Park in southwestern Cameroon (Lawson 1993) are misidentifications and probably refer to Hyperolius concolor (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).
56179		habitat	eng	It lives in bush land and degraded forest in the forest belt, and also in flooded coastal grassland. It breeds in shallow pools and marshes, often in open situations.
56179		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56179		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats.
56180		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Mont Sangbé National Park and the Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests in Côte d’Ivoire and the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon, in the Simandou Range, of southeastern Guinea.
56180		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern and eastern Sierra Leone and southern Guinea to southwestern Ghana. It possibly occurs further east than mapped in Ghana in the forests along the Ghana-Togo border. It occurs at low and high altitudes.
56180		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary forest, forest clearings, and to a certain extent heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) and sugar cane cultivation if plenty of tall trees remain. In primary it is only present close to larger rivers. It breeds in flowing water, from very small, slow-moving creeks to fast-flowing mountain streams in primary forest. The eggs attached to leaves above water, into which the larvae fall and develop.
56180		population	eng	It can be locally common, but it is usually uncommon.
56180		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements.
56181		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Nyika National Park in Malawi, and it might be found in the Udzungwa National Park in Tanzania, but there have not yet been any confirmed records from this area.
56181		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Udwungwa Mountains, Southern Highlands and Ufipa Plateau (perhaps an isolated population) in southern and southwestern Tanzania, extending into northern Malawi (as far as the Nyika Plateau), and extreme northeastern Zambia. Records from Amani in northeastern Tanzania, and from the Kilombero Valley in southeastern Tanzania seem unlikely, and require confirmation. It is a montane species that is probably generally found above 1,400m and up to at least 2,000m asl.
56181		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland that also adapts well to agricultural land. It breeds in small pools, ponds and streams.
56181		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56181		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56182		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
56182		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River to central Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. There are records from Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Congo. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. This species and Hyperolius concolor appear to avoid each other. If H. lomamiensis and H. olbrechtsi are synonyms of this species, then it also extends as far as southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. However, pending clarification of these points, the distribution map reflects a more restricted understanding of H. platyceps.
56182		habitat	eng	It lives in dense, degraded secondary habitats in the forest belt, and breeds in swamp forest, raphia swamps, artificial ponds, and still-water areas in braided streams. It does not occur in closed-canopy forest, though it may occur occasionally in clearings in mature forest. It does not live in grass-dominated habitats.
56182		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56182		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats.
56183		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56183		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tshimbulu sur Luebi, in Kasai Province, south-western Democratic Republic of Congo, and from Rio Chingufo, in north-eastern Angola.
56183		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water.
56183		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56183		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56184		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine, and monitor, the current population status of this species.
56184		distribution	eng	This species is probably restricted to the surroundings of the falls of the Lofoi River, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of survey work within its range.
56184		habitat	eng	It is only known from the area around the Lofoi River waterfalls. It could be a specialized species restricted to the spray zone of the waterfalls, or to humid forest fed by the spray.
56184		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56184		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. However, any developments upstream of the falls could have a devastating impact on the micro-habitat on which this species depends, as happened with the Kihansi Spray Toad <em>Nectophrynoides asperginis</em>.
56185		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56185		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Locum Landana dictum, in foliis Musarum" (Rochebrune 1885), Cabinda enclave, Angola. No distribution map has been prepared for this species for this assessment.
56185		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56185		population	eng	The population is not known.
56185		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56186		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but it has not so far been recorded there.
56186		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the plateau of the Udzungwa Mountains, south to the Njombe area in the Southern Highlands, southern Tanzania. It is a montane species, so far recorded at 1,500-1,850m asl.
56186		habitat	eng	It lives in open farmland, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), and montane grassland. The males call from sedges near water, and from floating vegetation, in small pools in which they breed.
56186		population	eng	It is a common species.
56186		threats	eng	Despite its very small range, it is clearly an adaptable species, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56187		conservation	eng	It occurs in the proposed Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park. This needs to be gazetted to improve the survival chances of this species.
56187		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western parts of the island of Unguja (Zanzibar) in Tanzania. It occurs at very low elevations.
56187		habitat	eng	It lives in several habitats in the better vegetated western part of Unguja, including dry forest, moist forest, and bush land. It can survive in somewhat degraded habitats, but cannot tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. The males call from vegetation around pools, where they breed.
56187		population	eng	It is apparently common within its small range.
56187		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements. It is not known whether or not it occurs in the international pet trade, as records of it in trade probably refer to <em>Hyperolius substriatus</em>. In any case, the level of such trade is not likely to be sufficient to constitute a threat to the species.
56188		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status requires further investigation.
56188		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in western Angola: the margins of the Quanza River; Cabiri; and Catumbela.
56188		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, which presumably breeds in water.
56188		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56188		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56189		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56189		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southernmost coastal Somalia south along coastal lowlands of Africa to southern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. There are also inland records in southern Kenya, southern Malawi, and southern Zimbabwe. Records from northern Malawi and northern Botswana are disjunctive from the main range of the species, and A Schiøtz (pers. comm.) has suggested that the Botswana records might not refer to this species. Records from extreme western Kenya and Soroti in central Uganda are not mapped and require confirmation. It occurs on Mafia and Songo Songo islands in Tanzania.
56189		habitat	eng	It lives generally in lower-lying coastal regions, and at higher altitudes in some places. It is a species of open savannah, bush land and grassland. It can survive in some modified habitats, and can re-establish populations following serious disturbance. It breeds in shallow pans, vleis, open swamps, and dams with water lilies or other floating vegetation. It uses both semi-permanent and permanent water. It differs from the similar Hyperolius viridis in that it calls from floating vegetation, as opposed to grass in wet fields.
56189		population	eng	It is a very common species through most of its range. It is relatively abundant in South Africa, often occurring in large numbers at breeding sites.
56189		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56190		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56190		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Luvungi (sur la Ruzizi)" (Laurent 1940), in Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
56190		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56190		population	eng	The population is not known.
56190		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56191		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kafue National Park.
56191		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the area around the Kafue River in southwestern Zambia, and the uplands to the south, but not extending as far as the Zambezi River. Its distributional limits are still not well known.
56191		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56191		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56191		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56192		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56192		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Mohorro, Tanzania.
56192		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56192		population	eng	The population is not known.
56192		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56193		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56193		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia, to southwestern and southern Tanzania, and Malawi. The subspecies H.q. mertensi is known only from the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi. It is presumed to occur in northern Mozambique, but there have not so far been any records. It generally occurs at middle to higher elevations, usually above 1,000m, and occurring up to at least 2,300m asl.
56193		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid savannah woodland. It adaptability to altered habitats is not known. The males call from grass stems near swampy patches, where it breeds. The subspecies H.q. mertensi occurs in montane grassland, and is found on short grasses, breeding in small pools between tussocks.
56193		population	eng	It is a common species.
56193		threats	eng	It occurs widely in an area of low human impact, and is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
56194		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56194		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Vulkangebiet nordöstlich des Kivu-Sees" (volcano region north-east of Lake Kivu, on the boundary between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda). It is not possible to determine which country this species was collected in.
56194		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56194		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56194		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56195		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Selous Game Reserve, and probably also in the Udzungwa National Park.
56195		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kilombero floodplains and the lower eastern slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania, from about 200m up to about 900m asl.
56195		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in moist savannah, shrubland, grassland, forest and swamp forest. It probably also occurs in many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, and probably spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It presumably breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are presumably deposited directly into the water.
56195		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance, but it is likely to be common, like other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex.
56195		threats	eng	There is little direct information, but it is presumably an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, like other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex.
56196		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56196		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cabinda enclave in Angola.
56196		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological preferences of this species, which presumably breeds in water.
56196		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. There have been no records since its discovery, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56196		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56197		conservation	eng	It occurs in Hwange National Park and Matetsi Safari Area.
56197		distribution	eng	This species is known only from extreme northwestern Zimbabwe.
56197		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56197		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56197		threats	eng	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56198		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur is needed.
56198		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Obudu and Mambilla Plateaus of eastern Nigeria, and the Bamenda Highlands, and the Adamawa Plateau (at Ngaouyanga and Banguve), western and central Cameroon. Two subspecies occur: <em>H. r. riggenbachi</em> and <em>H. r. hieroglyphicus</em>, the latter occurring in the Bamenda Highlands and on the Obudu Plateau, in an enclave surrounded by the former subspecies. Its altitudinal range is 900-1,800m asl.
56198		habitat	eng	It lives in wetlands and small wooded watercourses in montane grassland. Males call at dusk from the stems of waterside plants. It breeds in still water near streams.
56198		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56198		threats	eng	It is probably affected by the ongoing loss of its montane grassland, wetland and stream habitat due to small-scale agricultural activities and wood collection, as well as human settlement.
56199		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs at least in Salonga National Park, and perhaps in several other protected areas.
56199		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from two localities in the Congo basin in the Democratic Republic of Congo: the type locality at Gembe, in the Marais Koiteko, near Lodja, Sankuru; and from Monkoto near Salonga National Park. It probably occurs widely in the southern Congo basin.
56199		habitat	eng	This species has been found in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), although it is not known whether or not it is found inside forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, though reproduction presumably takes place in water.
56199		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56199		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. Assuming that it survives well in farm bush, it might not be facing any significant threats.
56200		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Shimba Hills National Reserve, which is in need of strengthened management.
56200		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Shimba Hills, south of Mombassa, in coastal Kenya, being replaced further south by <em>Hyperolius mitchelli</em>.
56200		habitat	eng	It lives in dry forest, dense humid savannah, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in marshes and temporary pools.
56200		population	eng	It is common in its tiny range.
56200		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion and increasing human settlements.
56201		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas.
56201		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Omaniundu, near Lodja, Sankuru, in south-central Democratic Republic of the Congo. It probably occurs widely in the southern Congo basin.
56201		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in water.
56201		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56201		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56202		conservation	eng	It occurs in Garamba National Park.
56202		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known from the northern half of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Its distribution is very poorly understood because of confusion with Hyperolius cinnamomeoventris, and the map should be regarded as provisional.
56202		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid savannah, possibly occurring in clearings in the forest zone. It lives and breeds in marshes, ponds, springs and marshy vegetation along small streams.
56202		population	eng	There is very little information, but it is common at least in Garamba National Park.
56202		threats	eng	There is very little information, but it is probably adaptable and is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
56203		conservation	eng	It is not known if this taxon occurs in any protected areas.
56203		distribution	eng	This taxon is known from Quilombo, Rio Luinha and Duque de Bragança, Angola. Attempts to map its range for this assessment show the general area of Quilombo and the area of Duque de Bragança.
56203		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56203		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56203		threats	eng	The threats to this taxon are not known.
56204		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
56204		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in southern and eastern South Africa, ranging from Baviaanskloof in Eastern Cape Province, north and east along the coast through Kwazulu-Natal and Swaziland to Nespruit in Mpumalanga Province. It has not been found in Mozambique, but it is very likely to occur there. It is generally a low-altitude species in most places, but it occurs up to over 1,000m asl in some places.
56204		habitat	eng	It is a species of savannah and thicket, usually it is found in dense reeds and emergent vegetation along rivers and pans. It breeds in semi permanent water.
56204		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56204		threats	eng	Certain populations are probably being affected adversely by afforestation, commercial agriculture (especially for sugar cane), and urban spread. It is possibly benefiting from the spread of the invasive water hyacinth, which creates suitable breeding habitat.
56205		conservation	eng	It occurs in Tsavo East National Park.
56205		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area of southeastern Kenya, from Tsavo East National Park, east to near Kakoneni, north to Garsen.
56205		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in dry savannah, shrubland and grassland, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56205		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species in its small range.
56205		threats	eng	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56206		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, but if it is conspecific with <em>H. wermuthi</em> (and further taxonomic research is required to resolve this) then it is likely to be found in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, Taï National Park, and Diécké Classified Forest.
56206		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from N'Zérékoré in southern Guinea.
56206		habitat	eng	Since the name <em>H. wermuthi</em> has been used for all subsequent records, there is no specific information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, although it is presumably also found only in primary forest, where it breeds in swamps and small temporary ponds.
56206		population	eng	There have been no recent records, but it is presumably uncommon, as with <em>Hyperolius wermuthi</em>, with which this species is presumably conspecific.
56206		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to it, but as with <em>H. wermuthi</em>, agricultural expansion, logging, and encroaching human settlements are presumably all threats affecting it.
56207		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, Nguru South and Kanga Forest Reserves, and probably also in the Udzungwa National Park, but definite records are lacking for the latter.
56207		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa, Mahenge, and South Nguru Mountains and from the lowland Ruvu South Forest Reserve in eastern Tanzania, and from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi. It probably occurs much more widely in suitable localities between the currently known sites. It occurs from the coastal plain, probably up to 2,000 m asl. Records from Zanzibar appear to be in error.
56207		habitat	eng	It is found in evergreen forest, forest clearings and open farmland, usually in marshy areas. The eggs are deposited on leaves above water, and the parents guard the eggs. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
56207		population	eng	It appears to be a common species, but it is hard to find, and is almost certainly under-recorded.
56207		threats	eng	It appears to be very adaptable. While overall it is probably not facing any significant threats, in the <st1:place>South Nguru</st1:place>s some of the major threats to the amphibian species of the area are forest loss and degradation as a result of fire, selective logging, encroachment from agricultural land and the removal of the forest shrub and herb layer for the cultivation of cardamom and yams (Menegon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).
56208		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56208		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species ranges from northwestern Angola to southern Democratic Republic of Congo to east-central Zambia. It appears to occur at moderately high elevations. It distribution is very poorly known, and the maps should be regarded as preliminary. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56208		habitat	eng	There is no information, though it presumably breeds in water.
56208		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56208		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, though it occurs in an area of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be threatened.
56209		conservation	eng	It is not known if this taxon occurs in any protected areas.
56209		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Bipinda, Cameroon.
56209		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56209		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56209		threats	eng	The threats to this taxon are not known.
56210		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in the Gungunyana Forest Reserve.
56210		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern portion of the eastern Zimbabwe uplands, and adjacent Mozambique. Records from South Africa are in error.
56210		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and forest edge, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56210		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56210		threats	eng	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56211		conservation	eng	It is found in the Bobiri Forest Reserve (Ghana), Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Korup National Park (Cameroon), and presumably in several other protected areas.
56211		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Côte d’Ivoire west to western Cameroon, with an apparent distributional gap in Togo and Benin. It is to be expected in Liberia. It is presumed to occur in Togo (Segniagbeto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
56211		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist forest and in degraded forest and bush land. In Taï National Park it occurs only in primary forest. It breeds in temporary forest ponds, with the eggs that are placed on leaves above water, into which the tadpoles fall.
56211		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56211		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion and increasing human settlements.
56212		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the University of Dar es Salaam's forest reserve at Mazumbai. Further survey work is necessary to obtain a better understanding of the population status and distribution range of this species.
56212		distribution	eng	This species is known only from just outside the Mazumbai Forest Reserve at 1,410m asl in the West Usambara Mountains, in north-eastern Tanzania. It might occur more widely in the West Usambara Mountains, although there is little remaining undisturbed forest at this altitude.
56212		habitat	eng	It is known only from undisturbed montane forest. The only known breeding site is a small swamp in forest, bordering a small stream.
56212		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, and only one small population is known. It possibly has no advertisement call, so it might be easily overlooked.
56212		threats	eng	The forest habitat outside the Mazumbai Forest Reserve is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and expanding human settlements.
56213		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
56213		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the unspecific type locality of "Africa" (Ahl 1931). It is not possible to map its distribution.
56213		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.
56213		population	eng	The population is not known.
56213		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56214		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56214		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Ukami, supposedly in the Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania. However, this locality appears to be in the Udzungwa Mountains, so there is considerable doubt as to where the type specimen comes from. No distribution map is provided. This name cannot be linked to any known species in the wild, and is probably a synonym of something else.
56214		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
56214		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56214		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56215		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kyabobo National Park in Ghana.
56215		distribution	eng	This species occurs only from the Akwapim-Togo Range in eastern Ghana and western Togo.
56215		habitat	eng	It is a forest species that is restricted to an area where forest is severely degraded (though it does not occur in degraded habitats outside forest). A stream-breeding species, it is closely associated with very fast-flowing streams and waterfalls; the eggs are laid on leaves above water. It has been found on or near vertical cliffs in forest, in gullies in open forest, and in trees and on vegetation close to streams.
56215		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, and only a very few localities are known.
56215		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements.
56216		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56216		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through the rainforest belt of central Africa, from southeastern Nigeria through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo, to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is likely to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there have not yet been any confirmed records. It is recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Amiet (2000) shows that earlier records of Hyperolius tuberculatus from southern Congo (Largen and Dowsett-Lemaire 1991) are in fact Alexteroon hypsiphonus.
56216		habitat	eng	It is a species of forest clearings and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), and secondary forest in the central African rainforest belt. It does not occur in closed, undisturbed forest. It breeds in both still and flowing water, using both temporary and permanent waterbodies.
56216		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56216		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats.
56217		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56217		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Lake Mbaratumu in south-central Kenya, through eastern and southern Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, to Swaziland to KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa, south as far as Port Edward. It is a low-altitude species that is recorded up to 1,000m asl in Tanzania.
56217		habitat	eng	It is a species of low-altitude savannah woodland, bush land, grassland and thicket, often occurring in coastal habitats. It adapts to some altered habitats, including certain types of farmland, golf courses and parks. It breeds in reed beds on the periphery of swamps and rivers, as well as dense vegetation around pans, temporary pools and dams.
56217		population	eng	It is a very numerous species.
56217		threats	eng	Afforestation, sugar cane farming, and urban spread are affecting certain populations in South Africa. However, overall this species is not significantly threatened.
56218		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56218		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cuilo, along the Luita River, in Lunda, northern Angola.
56218		habitat	eng	It was apparently found in gallery forest in the humid savannah zone. It presumably breeds in water.
56218		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56218		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56219		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56219		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northwestern Ethiopia through southern Sudan to western Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, northwestern Tanzania, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and probably eastern Central African Republic. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. nitidulus, H. glandicolor and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional. It occurs from low altitudes up to 2,400m asl in Ethiopia.
56219		habitat	eng	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland, forest edge and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.
56219		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56219		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56220		conservation	eng	It occurs in Bobiri Forest Reserve, but it is not clear how well protected this site is, as well as Boi-Tano Forest Reserve, Draw River Forest Reserve and the Ankasa Conservation Area, a twin wildlife protected area comprising Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south, in Ghana.
56220		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-central and western Ghana and southern Côte d'Ivoire.
56220		habitat	eng	It occurs in closed-canopy lowland rainforest, where it calls from high up in the trees, sometimes far from water, but usually beside streams. Its breeding habits are unknown.
56220		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species. It is easy to overlook, since it is a canopy species, but it has a distinctive, though rarely heard, call.
56220		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements.
56221		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas so far, though it is likely to be found in some.
56221		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded with certainty only from the highlands of south-western Tanzania. There are records from near Mbeya in the southern highlands, and from Sumbawanga and Mumba on the Ufipa Plateau. Records from eastern Zambia require confirmation (Schiøtz pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than this, and is likely to be found in Malawi, Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
56221		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with high-altitude grassland. It differs from the similar <em>Hyperolius pusillus</em> in that it calls from grass in wet fields, as opposed to from floating vegetation. It presumably breeds in temporary pools and flooded fields.
56221		population	eng	This species is poorly known, but it is common where it occurs.
56221		threats	eng	There is little direct information on threats to this species, but some of its populations are likely to be impacted by afforestation, spread of agriculture, and expanding human settlements.
56222		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, Taï National Park, and Diécké Classified Forest. Further taxonomic work is required to resolve the possibility that this species is a synonym of <em>H. soror</em>.
56222		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Guinea, Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. It is so similar to <em>Hyperolius fusciventris</em> that it might well be overlooked. It probably occurs up to over 1,000m asl on Mount Nimba.
56222		habitat	eng	It is found only in primary forest, and breeds in swamps and small temporary ponds.
56222		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56222		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion, logging, and encroaching human settlements are threats affecting this species.
56223		conservation	eng	This species was found in Virunga National Park.
56223		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Mount Teye at 1,800m asl on Mount Ruwenzori, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
56223		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in water.
56223		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from a single specimen.
56223		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56224		conservation	eng	It occurs in Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests, Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, and presumably in several other protected areas.
56224		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Sierra Leone to south-central Côte d’Ivoire, through to extreme southern Guinea. It presumably occurs in Liberia, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records.
56224		habitat	eng	It lives only in primary rainforest and is usually found close to small temporary ponds and swamps. Eggs are laid on vegetation above small, stagnant pools.
56224		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
56224		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being degraded by agricultural expansion, logging and expanding human settlements.
56225		conservation	eng	It occurs in Banco National Park and Mont Peko National Park in Côte d'Ivoire, and in Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana
56225		distribution	eng	This species ranges from south-western Côte d'Ivoire to south-central Ghana, though within this general range it is known only from 4-5 localities.
56225		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary forest and forest edges, rather than undisturbed primary forest. It only occurs marginally in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.
56225		population	eng	There have only been a few records, but it is abundant where it has been found.
56225		threats	eng	It is probably suffering from severe deforestation as a result of agricultural expansion, logging, and growing human settlements.
56226		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56226		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges from Gambia to southern Mali, northern Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Togo, northern Benin and northern Cameroon. There do not appear to be records from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Niger and Nigeria, although it presumably occurs in these countries. Only a few localities are known over a huge area, but this is probably at least in part due very limited fieldwork taking place within its range.
56226		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry savannas, wooded savannas and gallery forests. It breeds in temporary water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools. The frogs call from the ground and from elevated sites in the vegetation. It is believed to be an adaptable species.
56226		population	eng	It is a hard species to find, and expertise is needed to separate it from <span style="font-style: italic;">Kassina senegalensis</span>, so it is probably significantly under-recorded. Nevertheless, it appears to be reasonably common in Comoé National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. There are indications that populations fluctuate significantly.
56226		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.
56227		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea and Liberia), and in the protected area at Pic de Fon (Guinea).
56227		distribution	eng	This West African species is known from the forest zone of Sierra Leone, Liberia, southern Guinea, and extreme western Côte d’Ivoire (where it occurs at least in the Mount Nimba area). Earlier records of this species from further to the east are now separated as <em>Kassina arboricola</em> and <em>K. schioetzi</em>.
56227		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal, forest-dwelling species, which can exist in secondary forest. There also records from moist savannah and montane savannah areas as well as montane grassland. It seems to be able to survive in habitat fragments and gallery forests, but is unlikely to tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. It presumably breeds in both temporary and permanent waterbodies, favouring large, well-vegetated pools, like other members of its genus.
56227		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, but it is probably not rare.
56227		threats	eng	Certain populations are probably suffering as a result of severe deforestation taking place due to agricultural expansion, logging and expanding human settlements.
56228		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56228		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal east to western Nigeria in the savanna zone. There are records from Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger and Nigeria. It might range further east than this, but this is not confirmed. It presumably occurs in Guinea-Bissau and Guinea, though there do not appear to be any records.
56228		habitat	eng	It is a species of northern Guinea savanna woodland, extending into drier Sudan savanna. It is associated with various species of ponerine ants that hide in ant nests during the dry season. It breeds in temporary water, favouring large, well-vegetated, shallow pools. It is probably an adaptable species, though it is not very well known.
56228		population	eng	It is very common where it has been found, but it is patchily distributed and is often overlooked.
56228		threats	eng	It is probably an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.
56229		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56229		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Angola to western and northern Zambia. It presumably occurs in Shaba Province in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, but it has not yet been confirmed from this country.
56229		habitat	eng	It is associated with dense swamps and flooded grasslands in wooded savannah. It breeds in flooded grasslands, marshes, and slow-flowing streams in dense vegetation.
56229		population	eng	It is a common species, and the males call in very large numbers from flooded grasslands.
56229		threats	eng	It occurs in a region with minimal human impacts, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56230		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park and Cavally Classified Forest.
56230		distribution	eng	This species is only known from western and south-western Côte d'Ivoire, from the Mount Nimba area, south to the Taï National Park. It is likely to occur in Liberia and Guinea, but there have not so far been any records. Records from Sierra Leone are in error.
56230		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting lowland rainforest, and living only in mature and closed-canopy forest. It breeds in large temporary forest pools.
56230		population	eng	It is a very localized species, but nonetheless abundant where it occurs.
56230		threats	eng	It is probably suffering from severe deforestation as a result of agricultural expansion, logging, and growing human settlements. The trend towards decreasing rainfall seriously affects this species in particular, since it lives in a sandy area, and low rainfall leads to drying out of its breeding ponds.
56231		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas
56231		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Witu in coastal Kenya south to KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa, and inland to southern Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe and eastern Swaziland. It ranges up to 1,400m asl at Vumba in Zimbabwe, but it is generally low-altitude species.
56231		habitat	eng	It lives in savannah, bush land, grassland, and agricultural areas. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools, pans, vleis, marshes and dams.
56231		population	eng	It is a common species.
56231		threats	eng	In general, it is adaptable and is not facing any significant threats. However, in the south of its range it is locally impacted by afforestation, the spread of invasive trees (lowering the water table), sugar cane farming, and urban expansion. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56232		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56232		distribution	eng	This species occurs in scattered locations in northern and southern Somalia, and northeastern Kenya and southern and eastern Ethiopia. It probably occurs between the recorded localities, but its distribution might also be fragmented by lack of available habitat. Records from northern Tanzania are in error. Overall, there are few records as a result of limited herpetological work within its range.
56232		habitat	eng	It is a species of arid savannah and bush land. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.
56232		population	eng	It is probably quite common at sites where permanent or seasonal water occurs within its generally arid habitat.
56232		threats	eng	The most obvious potential threat would be environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.
56233		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve in Cameroon.
56233		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western and central Cameroon east though southwestern Central African Republic to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs from low altitudes up to 2,600m asl in Cameroon. Its presence in northern Congo is presumed.
56233		habitat	eng	It lives in a variety of habitats, including lowland secondary forest and savannah, and montane forest and grassland. It also occurs in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in still water, but has also been found around streams at high altitudes.
56233		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance, though it is believed to be common in suitable le habitats.
56233		threats	eng	Given its tolerance of a broad range of habitats, it is unlikely to be under serious threat.
56234		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it is likely to occur in some. Its taxonomic relationship to <em>Kassina maculosa</em> requires clarification (Laurent 1976; Schiøtz 1999).
56234		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known only from northern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
56234		habitat	eng	It is a species found in clearings in rainforest, and also in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). Its breeding habits are unknown, but assuming that it is like other members of its genus, it breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.
56234		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56234		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but if, as it appears, it is tolerant of habitat alteration, then it is unlikely to be seriously threatened.
56235		conservation	eng	It occurs in Come National Park, Marahoue National Park, Lamto Reserve, Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, and Mont Peko National Park.
56235		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from Côte d’Ivoire and extreme southeastern Guinea so far. It ranges from Lamto north to Comoé, and west to Mount Nimba.
56235		habitat	eng	It is mainly a species of wooded Guinea savannah and gallery forest, occurring only in very small numbers in open savannah. It appears to be reasonably adaptable, providing that good vegetation cover remains. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.
56235		population	eng	It is common in all of the localities so far investigated, but it is hard to find.
56235		threats	eng	It is probably not seriously threatened, except possibly by very severe opening up of its habitat for agriculture.
56236		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56236		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in the savannah zone of Africa from Senegal, east to western Ethiopia, southern Somalia, and Kenya, thence south to Namibia, and South Africa. Records from Eritrea refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Kassina somalica</span>. There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Togo and Burundi, but it presumably occurs in these countries. Its distributional limits in Kenya and northern Tanzania with respect to <span style="font-style: italic;">Kassina somalica</span> are still poorly understood, and the distribution map should be considered provisional. It occurs up to 2,000 m asl in Ethiopia.
56236		habitat	eng	It occupies a wide range of habitats, humid and dry savannas, shrubland, forest edge, degraded forest, the lower levels of montane grassland, and a variety of anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.
56236		population	eng	It is an extremely widespread and abundant species.
56236		threats	eng	Although certain populations might be affected by very severe habitat degradation, in general it is not threatened. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56237		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks in Kenya.
56237		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern Eritrea, Ethiopia (southern and eastern parts of the country, and in the Rift Valley), northern and southern Somalia, eastern Kenya, and northern Tanzania. The distributional limits of this species are poorly understood in Kenya and Tanzania; the map should be considered provisional.
56237		habitat	eng	It lives in arid savannah, probably breeding in both permanent and temporary waterbodies.
56237		population	eng	It is probably quite common at sites where permanent or seasonal water occurs within its generally arid habitat.
56237		threats	eng	The most obvious potential threat would be environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.
56238		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
56238		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western and northern Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is expected to occur in eastern Angola, but there have not yet been any records.
56238		habitat	eng	It is associated with flooded grassland in dense, moist savannah. Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably takes place in flooded grassland.
56238		population	eng	Although it is a very secretive species, it is abundant in suitable sites.
56238		threats	eng	It occurs in a region with minimal human impacts, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56239		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in several protected areas, but there do not seem to be any definite records.
56239		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species occurs widely through much of Angola. It probably occurs mainly at medium elevations over 1,000m asl. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56239		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be a species of savannah woodland. Assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other Leptopelis species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56239		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56239		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56240		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56240		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eastern Tanzania, where it ranges from Bagamoyo, south to the border with Mozambique, and inland as far as the Kilombero Valley. It presumably occurs in northern Mozambique, but there have not been any records so far.
56240		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist savannah woodland, with many trees and bushes, and it can survive in various altered habitats, providing that there is good vegetation cover. During the breeding season, the males sit high up in bush and grasses, often quite far from water. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. It probably breeds in temporary pools.
56240		population	eng	It is a common species.
56240		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56241		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon, Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, and Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve in Gabon.
56241		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria to Cameroon and the Central African Republic to extreme western and northern Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. A record from Dundo in extreme northeastern Angola (Laurent 1954, Ruas 1991) requires confirmation. Records from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) refer to Leptopelis modestus (R.C. Drewes pers. comm.).
56241		habitat	eng	It is an ecologically versatile species, living arboreal in secondary forest, swamp forest and in degraded habitats (farm bush) outside forest. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near swamps and pools, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56241		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species, but it does not usually occur at very high densities.
56241		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56242		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, and is likely to occur in the Udzungwa National Park, though there have not yet been any records.
56242		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern and southern Tanzania, and occurs in the East Usambara Mountains, the Uzungwa Mountains, and on Mount Rungwe. It probably also occurs on other mountain ranges in the Eastern Arc Mountain chain. It ranges from 700-2,100m asl.
56242		habitat	eng	It is a species of transition and montane rainforest, and can tolerate limited habitat disturbance, although it requires forest in reasonable condition nearby. The eggs are laid in an underground nest near streams and pools (sometimes as much as 10m away), into which tadpoles emerge.
56242		population	eng	It is common along watercourses in the Udzungwa Mountains, but is apparently less common in the East Usambara Mountains.
56242		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
56243		conservation	eng	It is not known if this taxon occurs in any protected areas.
56243		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Gbarnga, and from Mount Coffee, Liberia.
56243		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds by larval development in temporary waterbodies.
56243		population	eng	The population is not known.
56243		threats	eng	The threats to this taxon are not known.
56244		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56244		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Angola east through northeastern Namibia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe, thence north through western Tanzania, eastern Burundi, and eastern Rwanda to central Kenya, with apparently isolated populations in southern and western Ethiopia. It is also known from northern Cameroon, although this population could be connected to that in western Ethiopia through the very poorly explored region in southern Sudan, northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. Its distribution is not well known, and it might be found to occur in other countries such as Botswana, Mozambique, Nigeria and Uganda. Earlier records from South Africa appear to have been in error. It occurs up to 1,900m asl in Ethiopia.
56244		habitat	eng	It is essentially fossorial, although it has been collected from the axils of banana leaves, and lives in both dry and humid savannah and grassland, also penetrating at least marginally into clearings in tropical deciduous forest. It lives in anthropogenically disturbed habitats, for instance around Nairobi. It breeds in temporary pools, laying eggs in underground nest near the water.
56244		population	eng	It is likely to be overlooked because of its burrowing habits, but it is probably generally quite common, and can occur in great numbers during the breeding season. It is very common around Nairobi.
56244		threats	eng	Certain populations are probably impacted by the effects of human settlement and agricultural encroachment, though these seem likely to be minor in relation to the area of suitable habitat available. Overall it is not significantly threatened. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
56245		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
56245		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Nigeria to southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo and western Democratic Republic of Congo. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is to be expected in southwestern Central African Republic and in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.
56245		habitat	eng	It is a species of dense rainforest, not occurring in secondary habitats. It is arboreal, often calling from branches and lianas high up in the forest. The eggs are laid in an underground nest near streams, into which tadpoles emerge.
56245		population	eng	It is a common species.
56245		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.
56246		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56246		distribution	eng	This species of dubious taxonomic validity is known only from Musola on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea.
56246		habitat	eng	It is likely to be a forest species, possibly breeding by direct development, if it is closely related to <em>Leptopelis brevirostris</em>.
56246		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, probably due to taxonomic confusion.
56246		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56247		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
56247		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Nigeria, though southern Cameroon, to mainland Equatorial Guinea as far as Itsiba and Moudouma in south-central Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). Records from northern Gabon reported in Lötters <em>et al.</em> (2001) actually refer to an undescribed species (M. Burger pers. comm.). It occurs on the island of Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. It is presumed to occur in Congo, and probably also in southwestern Central African Republic, though records from these countries require confirmation.
56247		habitat	eng	It is a species of mature, closed-canopy lowland rainforest. It is a specialized snail-eater. The males call from branches, often in fairly large numbers and independent of water. It is believed to breed by direct development, presumably with the eggs laid in underground nests, with no free tadpole stage, but this is not yet confirmed.
56247		population	eng	It is a common species.
56247		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.
56248		conservation	eng	It is known from the Ngorima East Reserve in Zimbabwe, and it probably occurs in some other protected areas.
56248		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Malawi, central Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe. It is a low-altitude species.
56248		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist savannah woodland, with many trees and bushes, and it can survive in various altered habitats, providing that there is good vegetation cover. During the breeding season, the males sit high up in bush and grasses, often quite far from water. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. It probably breeds in temporary pools.
56248		population	eng	It is a common species.
56248		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56249		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56249		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal and Gambia to Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Togo, northern Benin, northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon and southern Chad. There do not appear to be any records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire and Niger, but it is likely to occur in these countries.
56249		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry open savanna and grassland. It is believed to be fossorial, spending most of the year underground. Males have been found calling in flooded meadows, on bare ground or amid tufts of grass. It lays its eggs in a burrow in loamy soil (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). As in other <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptopelis</span> species, it is expected that larvae emerge and develop in water.
56249		population	eng	It appears to be a very uncommon species, and is known only from a very small number of records across its vast mapped range. The absence of records from large areas is partly related to the limited herpetological work that has been carried out in this area, but also due to its secretive habitats, and perhaps also a patchy distribution. In northern Benin it does seem to be very patchily distributed (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
56249		threats	eng	There is very little information, but it is unlikely that this species is significantly threatened
56250		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve in Gabon, and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in Central African Republic.
56250		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Nigeria to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, with records from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is presumed to occur in Congo. It has a wide elevational range, from near sea level, probably to over 1,500m asl.
56250		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of lowland and montane rainforest that does not survive in secondary habitats. It presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground, but its breeding habits and habitats are unknown.
56250		population	eng	It is a common species.
56250		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.
56251		conservation	eng	It is present in Kibale National Park (Uganda), Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Garamba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and probably many others.
56251		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southern and western Uganda, northwestern Tanzania, and presumably also in Rwanda and Burundi. There is an apparently separate, isolated population in central and southeastern Cameroon and northeastern Gabon, though it could occur in the intervening area in southwestern Central African Republic, northern Congo and northern Democratic Republic of Congo. It couls also be present in extreme southern Sudan and extreme western Kenya. It has been recorded from below 1,000m up to at least 2,100m asl.
56251		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of lowland, montane and gallery forests, and also more open habitats, such as savannah woodland. It also lives in heavily degraded habitats (farm bush) in the forest zone. In Cameroon it does not occur in undisturbed, closed-canopy forest, but it is found in raphia swamps, and seasonally flooded areas within forests where the canopy is discontinuous. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are washed in water after flooding.
56251		population	eng	It is a common species that might be expanding as forest habitats are degraded.
56251		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56252		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks in Kenya.
56252		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of southern Somalia, Kenya, and northeastern Tanzania, ranging inland as far as Nairobi in Kenya. It is generally a low-altitude species, perhaps ranging up to 1,500m asl in Kenya.
56252		habitat	eng	It is a species of savannah woodland, with many trees and bushes, and it can survive in various altered habitats, providing that there is good vegetation cover. It is also found in clearings in dry forest. During the breeding season, the males sit high up in bush and grasses, often quite far from water. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. It probably breeds in temporary pools.
56252		population	eng	It is a common species.
56252		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56253		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56253		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Angola through southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to northwestern Zambia. Earlier records from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi appear to refer to other species.
56253		habitat	eng	It is a species of gallery forests, dry forests and well-wooded humid savannahs. It presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground, but its breeding habits and habitats are unknown.
56253		population	eng	It is a common species.
56253		threats	eng	It occurs widely in an area of very limited human impact, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56254		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in Virunga National Park.
56254		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at 1,000m asl in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, near the Semliki Sector of Virunga National Park at the Mamudioma River (a tributary of the Djuma River), on the new road to Watalinga.
56254		habitat	eng	Assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56254		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56254		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56255		conservation	eng	It is known from at least one protected area: Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania.
56255		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities: Mokanga, near Fizi, at 1,170m asl in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; Gombe Stream National Park in western Tanzania; and Senga, at 1,650m asl, in south-western Tanzania. Records from Burundi require confirmation, but it is very likely to occur in this country. In any case, it can be expected to occur more widely, in particular in areas between the currently known sites.
56255		habitat	eng	This species has been found on branches in dense bush at the edge of a clearing in dry forest, from where the males were calling. In south-western Tanzania it was found in riverine forest within pristine miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em> spp.) woodland. This species' adaptability to altered habitats is not known. There is no information on its breeding habits, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56255		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56255		threats	eng	There is very little information on the threats to the species.
56256		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56256		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through the lowlands eastern and southern Africa, from Mozambique north of the Save River and eastern Zimbabwe, north through Malawi and southern and eastern Tanzania, as far as the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in coastal Kenya. It occurs on the island of Zanzibar (Tanzania). It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,600m asl.
56256		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and montane evergreen forest and especially in dry forest, in both pristine and secondary habitats, often along streams. Males call from leaves of branches, often at 3-4m above the ground, and also from the mouth of burrows in the ground. It does not survive in open habitats outside forest, but it does occur in small forest remnants. If it is similar to most other members of its genus, it generally lays its eggs in a nest near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. An egg mass has been observed in the root mass of floating vegetation in a permanent forest pond.
56256		population	eng	It is often a common species in suitable habitats, although it is perhaps more common at lower densities at higher altitudes because of lack of suitable breeding sites.
56256		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.
56257		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas, most notably the Bale Mountains National Park.
56257		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ethiopian plateau, on both sides of the Rift Valley, at altitudes of 1,900-3,900m asl.
56257		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species, typically occupying montane grassland and sometimes Afro-alpine moorland, it is less commonly found at forest margins. It has also been found in rural gardens and urban areas. It breeds by larval development in pools and small streams, both permanent and temporary.
56257		population	eng	It is common to abundant at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.
56257		threats	eng	The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and agriculture.
56258		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56258		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana to southwestern Togo, with a disjunctive population in southern Benin and Nigeria. It is confined to low elevations.
56258		habitat	eng	It is an adaptable species, living in primary and secondary evergreen forest, semi-deciduous forest, forest galleries in southern Guinea savannah, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It is often found in humid, swampy areas, and near streams. It breeds in very small puddles and temporary ponds. The eggs are deposited in burrows on the ground, near the water, and the tadpoles move to water after hatching.
56258		population	eng	It is an extremely common species, but is more common in closed-canopy forests than in other habitats.
56258		threats	eng	Since it is an adaptable species, it is not significantly threatened
56259		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56259		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Congulu at 700-800m asl in western Angola.
56259		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56259		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably because of the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56259		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56260		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda, and the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park in Uganda. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species and to investigate aspects of its breeding biology.
56260		distribution	eng	This species is known only from high altitudes in north-western Rwanda, south-western Uganda and adjacent eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Its range is centred on the Virunga volcanoes, with an altitudinal range of 2,000-2,800m asl and occasionally down to 1,500m asl. The map in Schiotz (1999) is in error, since it is, by mistake, a duplicate of that for <em>Leptopelis oryi</em>.
56260		habitat	eng	It is known from montane meadows in steep forest on volcanic soils, and also from highland savannahs and heathland. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is also unknown. There is no information on its breeding. However, assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other species in the genus, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56260		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
56260		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats, but most of its range is in protected areas. However, political instability and high human population pressure continue to threaten the remaining habitat in its range.
56261		conservation	eng	It occurs in Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kibale National Park (Uganda), and Bwindi National Park (Uganda).
56261		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, north-western Burundi, and south-western Uganda. Its altitudinal range is unclear, although it is probably generally above 1,500m asl.
56261		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forests. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It breeds in seasonally flooded swamp forests where the eggs are buried in nests in the ground and the larvae then washed into water after flooding.
56261		population	eng	This is a common species.
56261		threats	eng	Little information is available on the threats it faces, although it is likely to be affected by loss of habitat for agriculture, wood extraction and human settlements.
56262		conservation	eng	Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
56262		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Nyonga, in Upemba National Park, Shaba Province, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
56262		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56262		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably because of the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56262		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56263		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Gola and Kambui Forest Reserves in Sierra Leone, Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire, Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests in Côte d’Ivoire, and Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana.
56263		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Sierra Leone, through Liberia, southern Guinea and Côte d’Ivoire, to southern Ghana.
56263		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and lives along streams in primary rainforest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it presumably breeds in the proximity of streams, with nests that are built on land near the water.
56263		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
56263		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being degraded by agricultural expansion, logging and growing human settlements.
56264		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56264		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Quissange in western Angola.
56264		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56264		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. It is known only from the holotype, which has been destroyed.
56264		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56265		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve (Gabon), and presumably several other protected areas.
56265		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Nigeria, Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea to southern Gabon, Congo, southwestern Central African Republic and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Its altitudinal range is not known.
56265		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary lowland rainforest, secondary growth, and palm plantations. It is typically associated with large, slow-flowing watercourses. Although it appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat alteration, it cannot survive in open, degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown, though it presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground near water.
56265		population	eng	It is a common species.
56265		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.
56266		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas.
56266		distribution	eng	This species lives in three widely separate regions: the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (these animals having previously been identified as Leptopelis aubryi (R.C. Drewes pers. comm.); at 700-1,850m asl in eastern Nigeria (Obudu Plateau) and Cameroon (Mount Cameroon, Mount Manenguba, Bamileke Plateau (Mount Bana and Foto) and around Yaounde); and at medium to high (up to 2,000m asl) altitudes in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
56266		habitat	eng	It lives around streams in thick vegetation in montane forest and secondary brush. It does not survive in open areas outside forest. It breeds in still water and marshes.
56266		population	eng	It is a common species.
56266		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the collection of wood.
56267		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56267		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Malawi, through the lowlands of central and southern Mozambique, southeastern Zimbabwe and Swaziland, into northern and eastern South Africa, south to Durban (though there have been no recent records south of Richard's Bay). Records from the South African-Botswanan border areas require confirmation. It is a low-altitude species.
56267		habitat	eng	It lives in humid savannah woodland and coastal savannah-bush land-grass land mosaic, sometimes in the vicinity of rivers. It does not generally occur in agricultural land. It breeds in shallow, grassy pans and swamps. It makes a nest on the ground near the water. The larvae develop in the nest and then move into the water.
56267		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species through much of its range, but it is uncommon in South Africa.
56267		threats	eng	Although this species is not seriously threatened overall, it appears to be significantly impacted in South Africa by afforestation and urban spread.
56268		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56268		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern South Africa, ranging from Manubi in Eastern Cape Province, northeast to Sodwana Bay in KwaZulu-Natal. It is a low-altitude species.
56268		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry coastal forest and gallery forest. It also lives in parks and gardens, but not significantly in agricultural land, though it does survive in somewhat disturbed habitats. It uses permanent and semi-permanent water for breeding, favouring swamps and pans in forest and thicket. It makes a burrow nest on the ground near the water. The larvae develop in the nest and then move into the water.
56268		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56268		threats	eng	Its habitat is being lost, especially as a result of urban spread, expanding large-scale commercial agriculture, drainage of breeding habitats, drying out of breeding habitats due to the spread of invasive plants, and afforestation.
56269		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56269		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 1,000-2,000m asl on the Bamileke Plateau, Bamenda Highlands and Adamoua Plateau (including Tchabal Mbabo and Mount Nganha) in western and central Cameroon, and on the Mambilla Plateau in eastern Nigeria.
56269		habitat	eng	It lives is montane grassland and pastureland, and it has been found calling at tiny springs and seepage points in the complete absence of cover. It breeds in still water and marshes.
56269		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56269		threats	eng	It is capable of surviving in highly degraded habitats, and so is probably not seriously threatened.
56270		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Korup National Park in Cameroon, and probably in several other protected areas.
56270		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely from extreme southeastern Nigeria, through central and southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo to western and central Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It presumably occurs in southwestern and southern Central African Republic and in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there do not yet appear to be any records from these areas. The limits of its distribution are poorly known through most of its range. It occurs at low altitudes, but also up to well over 1,000m asl in Cameroon.
56270		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in secondary habitats (farm bush) in the forest belt, but sometimes also in undisturbed forest, and also gallery forests and in dense vegetation in montane grassland and moist savannah area. Its breeding is unknown, though it presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground near water.
56270		population	eng	It is a common species.
56270		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats. It is used for human consumption and medicine, but probably not at a level that constitutes a threat to this species.
56271		conservation	eng	In Côte d’Ivoire, it occurs in Tai and Mont Sangbe National Parks, and in Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests.
56271		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire and south-western Ghana. It possibly ranges as far east as Nigeria and its western limits in Liberia are unknown.
56271		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of primary forest, only rarely occurring in secondary forest. It breeds in small streams and small temporary ponds. The eggs are laid in holes in the ground close to water, or in dry areas where temporary ponds will form at the start of the rains.
56271		population	eng	In suitable habitats it is very common.
56271		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agricultural cultivation, and the collection of wood.
56272		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
56272		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central and southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, through mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Congo, to western and central Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Central African Republic and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. Records from Korup National Park in southwestern Cameroon are considered to be misidentifications, and possibly refer to Leptopelis calcaratus (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.)
56272		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and to some extent in secondary growth, though it requires the presence of trees. It breeds in forest swamps, the eggs are laid in nests on the ground close to water.
56272		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56272		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the collection of wood.
56273		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
56273		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria through central and southern Cameroon and Gabon to southern Congo. It is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and is to be expected in southwestern Central African Republic, western Democratic Republic of Congo and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. It lives below 1,000m asl.
56273		habitat	eng	It lives in dense primary and open secondary lowland forest. It does not occur in gallery forests in the savannah zone, and it avoids places where the understorey has been cleared. Males call from several metres above the ground. It breeds in raphia swamps, puddles, water holes and small streams, avoiding large swamps with deep water. The eggs are laid in nests on the ground, close to water.
56273		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
56273		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the collection of wood.
56274		conservation	eng	It occurs in Garamba National Park.
56274		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two localities: Garamba National Park in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo; and savannah near Budongo Forest in western Uganda. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in the area between these two locations. There appear to be no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
56274		habitat	eng	It is a species of dense, humid savannah with tall grass and scattered bushes. The males sit high up in grass or on branches during the wet season. In the dry season they are found buried in soil, and under rocks. Its breeding is unknown, though it presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground near water.
56274		population	eng	There is very little information, but it is reasonably abundant where it has been found.
56274		threats	eng	There is little information, but it is likely to be an adaptable species, and it occurs in a region of limited human impact.
56275		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species requires close population monitoring given that it is restricted entirely to Príncipe.
56275		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Príncipe Island, in São Tomé and Príncipe, in the Gulf of Guinea. It is present through most of the island, up to at least 700m, and possibly up to 1,000m asl.
56275		habitat	eng	It generally inhabits wet forest along the edges of creeks and streams. It can also be found in forest remnants and possibly in towns. It presumably buries its eggs close to water, with the tadpoles moving into pools or streams where they develop further.
56275		population	eng	It is a reasonably abundant species.
56275		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats, but increasing development of the island, leading to severe opening up of the habitat, is a potential future threat.
56276		conservation	eng	It presumably a occurs in a number of protected areas.
56276		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the uplands of southern Tanzania, Malawi and northern Mozambique to northern Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. The limits of its distribution are very uncertain owing to confusion with Leptopelis bocagii. In particular, the distribution of this species in Angola is very unclear, and the maps should be regarded as provisional.
56276		habitat	eng	It is a species of upland humid savannah woodland that is able to adapt to farmland. It is fossorial for much of the year. The males call from the ground or from branches close to the ground. It breeds in partially flooded fields, presumably laying eggs in a nest on the ground close to water.
56276		population	eng	It appears to be a common species, but records are frequently confused with Leptopelis bocagii, making the situation very unclear.
56276		threats	eng	It appears to be an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, and in any case occurs in a region of low human impact.
56277		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, and in the University of Dar es Salaam's reserve at Mazumbai. It has not yet been recorded from Udzungwa National Park, but with further survey work probably will be shown to occur there.
56277		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to several mountains in the Eastern Arc chain of Tanzania, namely: Uluguru, Udzungwa, East and West Usambara, and South Pare. It probably occurs a little more widely than these records suggest. Although mainly a montane species, it lives in the foothills down at least to 300m asl (perhaps lower), and up to at least 2,000m asl.
56277		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed, intact rainforest, not surviving in seriously disturbed habitats outside forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams, although the eggs are laid in a nest on land not far from water.
56277		population	eng	In some places it appears to be easy to find and even common, whereas in other places it is rare.
56277		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, as well as the harvesting of wood. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
56278		conservation	eng	Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
56278		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, at 700-1,300m asl.
56278		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be a species of savannah woodland. Assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.
56278		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; only a few specimens have ever been collected.
56278		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, although it occurs in a region of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be threatened.
56279		conservation	eng	It is present in the Bale Mountains National Park.
56279		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ethiopian plateau, on both sides of the Rift Valley, at altitudes of 1,930-3,010m asl.
56279		habitat	eng	It is strictly associated with montane forest, not surviving in degraded habitats. It breeds by larval development in pools and small streams, both permanent and temporary. The eggs are laid in nests on land not far from water.
56279		population	eng	It is still locally common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.
56279		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss from forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment. In some areas, this species seems only to survive in isolated forest remnants, such as often occur along the slopes of steep-sided valleys.
56280		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
56280		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern most Nigeria, southwestern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, western Gabon and southwestern Congo to extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. It presumably occurs in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. Records from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and from Fort Crampel in central Central African Republic are not confirmed (this last record is found significantly outside the known range of the species).
56280		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of humid lowland rainforest, occurring in secondary forest, but not normally out degraded vegetation outside forest. It breeds in streams, the eggs presumably are laid in nests on land close to the water.
56280		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56280		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the harvesting of wood.
56281		conservation	eng	It is not currently known to be present in any protected areas, and the protection of forest remnants in the Gughe Mountains, and the search for further sites where the species might be found, are of the highest priority.
56281		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Gughe Mountains, at 2,600-3,000m asl, in southern Ethiopia.
56281		habitat	eng	It is confined to montane forest remnants, and has not been found in degraded habitats. Calling males have been found along the banks of streams, in which larval development presumably occurs. The eggs are presumably laid in nests on land, near the water.
56281		population	eng	It was still reasonably numerous in at least two localities in 1975, but the absence of subsequent records is due to a lack of fieldwork.
56281		threats	eng	The main threats are forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment. The Gughe Mountains are heavily populated and intensively cultivated, and only small patches of montane forest remain.
56282		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and the Amani Nature Reserve.
56282		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to several mountains in the Eastern Arc chain of Tanzania, namely: East Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru, and Udzungwa (Kihansi Gorge and Mwanihana Forest). It probably occurs a little more widely than records suggest. It occurs mainly above 900m asl, and it is probably sub-montane, perhaps not ranging much above 1,650m asl.
56282		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet submontane rainforest, but can tolerate slight disturbance and is sometimes found in banana patches in forest clearings. However, it is never found in open areas away from mature forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it presumably breeds in water, and males call near streams. The eggs are probably laid in nests on land, not far from water (either streams or temporary pools).
56282		population	eng	It is a common species.
56282		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, as well as the harvesting of wood. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat from the activities of illegal gold miners.
56283		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas. The most obvious requirement is habitat conservation at selected sites, within the species range, where still undamaged lowland forest survives.
56283		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the highlands of south-western Ethiopia, at altitudes of 1,500-2,200m asl.
56283		habitat	eng	It is confined to dense, tropical deciduous forest, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds by larval development in pools and small streams, both permanent and temporary. The eggs are laid in nests on land, not far from water.
56283		population	eng	It is still locally common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.
56283		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment.
56284		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve and the Udzungwa National Park.
56284		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to several mountains in the Eastern Arc chain of Tanzania, namely: East and West Usambara, Nguu, Udzungwa, Poroto and Mount Rungwe. It occurs above 900m asl, up to elevations of at least 1,800m asl in southern Tanzania.
56284		habitat	eng	It inhabits submontane and montane forest, and requires mature, closed-canopy forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it presumably breeds in water, and males call near streams. The eggs are probably laid in nests on land, not far from water (either streams or temporary pools).
56284		population	eng	It is a very common species through much of its range.
56284		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the harvesting of wood. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat from the activities of illegal gold miners. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade although this is not currently believed to constitute a major threat.
56285		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56285		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal and Gambia widely through the West and Central African savannah zone to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There do not appear to be records from Mali, Central African Republic, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.
56285		habitat	eng	It lives in dry and humid savannah woodland, shrubland and grassland. It is tolerant of alteration of its habitat. It breeds in temporary savannah ponds. The eggs are deposited in burrows on the ground, near the water.
56285		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56285		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
56286		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56286		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gojjam Province, northern Ethiopia, at altitudes of 2,000-2,700m asl.
56286		habitat	eng	It is confined to montane grassland. Breeding activity is particularly associated with the banks of small streams, in which larval development occurs. The eggs are laid in nests on land near the water.
56286		population	eng	It is common to abundant at many sites within its limited range.
56286		threats	eng	The most likely threats are posed by human settlement and agricultural encroachment, but these seem to be minor in relation to the area of suitable habitat available.
56287		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in some protected areas, but this has not been confirmed.
56287		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, at 720m asl, and away from the coastal plain, although it might occur in neighbouring countries.
56287		habitat	eng	This species lives in lowland rainforest, in flat-bottomed valleys with slow-flowing streams, or on the ground with puddles and water holes in the rainy season. Breeding takes place in still water and marshes, and the eggs are presumably laid in nests on land, near water.
56287		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon and is thinly distributed within its range.
56287		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by ongoing forest loss, due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.
56288		conservation	eng	It is present in the proposed Obo National Park.
56288		distribution	eng	This species occurs on São Tomé and Príncipe islands, in São Tomé and Príncipe, from close to sea level up to at least 1,420m asl.
56288		habitat	eng	It lives in primary forest, farm bush (heavily degraded former forest), coconut groves, coffee plantations and disturbed areas. It lays its eggs on leaf surfaces over still or very slow-moving water, and the tadpoles develop in the water.
56288		population	eng	This species is common on both islands.
56288		threats	eng	It is currently not threatened, given its adaptability to modified habitats. A potential future threat is the development of the oil industry in the islands, which is likely to radically alter the overall environment.
56289		conservation	eng	A large portion of its range falls within the proposed 295km² Parc Naturel Obo.
56289		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to São Tomé Island in São Tomé and Príncipe. It is restricted to primary forest remnants at elevations usually above 800m asl.
56289		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary rainforest, and is known to breed by larval development in tree holes. The same tree hole can be utilized by many individuals for breeding at different times.  It has previously been reported from towns, but there is now significant doubt about these records.
56289		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species, since it is notoriously difficult to find.
56289		threats	eng	Little information is available on threats, though it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction, and human settlements.
56290		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas, and has definitely been reported from Korup National Park in Cameroon.
56290		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Niger Delta in southern Nigeria, through southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to the Mayombe Hills in southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs inland at least as far east as extreme southeastern Cameroon. It presumably occurs in Congo, southwestern Central African Republic and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but has not yet been recorded from these countries. Its southern and eastern distributional limits in particular are poorly known, and the map should be regarded as provisional in this regard.
56290		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of closed-canopy, undisturbed rainforest. The eggs are laid in a foam nest attached to leaves above slow-flowing streams. The larvae fall into the water and develop in the streams.
56290		population	eng	It appears to be a low-density species.
56290		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by ongoing forest loss, especially for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
56291		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park. Further protected areas are needed within its range.
56291		distribution	eng	This species is endemic in Ethiopia, occupying mountain areas to the east of the Rift Valley, at 1,980-3,200m asl.
56291		habitat	eng	It is typically found in montane grassland, less commonly at the margins of montane forest (Harenna Forest) on the southern slopes of the Bale Mountains. It breeds in marshes and pools, both permanent and temporary.
56291		population	eng	It is common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.
56291		threats	eng	The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and agriculture.
56292		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56292		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ethiopia, occupying mountain areas to the west of the Rift Valley, generally at 2,500-3,000m asl, with two lower records at 820 and 1,750m asl.
56292		habitat	eng	It is typically found in montane grassland, less commonly at forest margins. The two lower altitude records are from clearings in tropical deciduous forest. It is also found in rural gardens and in urban areas. It breeds in marshes and pools, both permanent and temporary.
56292		population	eng	It is common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.
56292		threats	eng	The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and agriculture.
56293		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56293		distribution	eng	This species has an apparently disjunctive distribution in three main areas: south-western Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, southeastern Guinea, and Liberia; southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon; and Bioko island (Equatorial Guinea) although there are no recent records from here. The western populations probably belong to an undescribed species.
56293		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary forest, forest clearings and farm bush (heavily degraded former forest). It lays eggs in larger temporary ponds in forest, where the larvae develop.
56293		population	eng	It is patchily distributed, but it can be extremely abundant locally.
56293		threats	eng	It cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, but it is generally not very threatened.
56294		conservation	eng	There are no records from the Udzungwa National Park, but with further survey work it probably will be shown to occur there.
56294		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. It has generally been recorded at 1,800-2,000m asl, but probably has a wider altitudinal range than this.
56294		habitat	eng	It lives in forest, montane grassland, and open farmland near forest. It breeds in shallow pools, including artificial ponds, with emergent vegetation. It is probably a forest species that moves into open areas when it is breeding. It exhibits a rather unusual and cryptic defensive posture.
56294		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
56294		threats	eng	Its montane forest and grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation, agricultural expansion, fire, and human settlement.
56295		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas.
56295		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west-central Africa where it is recorded from Equatorial Guinea (mainland), Gabon, Congo, and the western part of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Cameroon and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) refer to Phlyctimantis boulengeri. It is likely to be found in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there have not yet been any records. The eastern limit of the distribution of this species with respect to Phlyctimantis verrucosus is not yet understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional.
56295		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary forest, forest clearings and farm bush (heavily degraded former forest). It breeds in grassy areas with deep temporary pools within the forest belt.
56295		population	eng	It is a common species.
56295		threats	eng	It cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, but it is generally adaptable and is not significantly threatened.
56296		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kibale National Park (Uganda), Bwindi National Park (Uganda), and no doubt many other protected areas.
56296		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and western Uganda and northern Rwanda, west to eastern and central Democratic Republic of Congo. The western limit of the distribution of this species with respect to Phlyctimantis leonardi is not yet understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional. Its altitudinal range is not known, though it is likely to occur at least between 600 and 2,000m asl.
56296		habitat	eng	It is a species of both lowland and montane forest, generally associated with secondary and edge habitats, and in degraded areas, including farm bush. The eggs are laid in temporary pools, where the larvae develop.
56296		population	eng	It is generally a common species, though it is uncommon in Kibale National Park (Uganda).
56296		threats	eng	It probably cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, but it is generally not significantly threatened.
56297		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56297		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and eastern South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. It is only known from one record in Lesotho but presumably is more widespread in this country. It occurs from sea level up to 1,700m asl.
56297		habitat	eng	It is mainly a grassland species that also occurs in fynbos heath land in the Western Cape Province. It breeds in both temporary and permanent still waterbodies, such as pans, ponds, dams, and marshes, where it requires emergent vegetation. It lays its eggs on vegetation or other objects underneath the water. It is reasonably tolerant of disturbance and can breed in artificial ponds.
56297		population	eng	It is a common species.
56297		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
56298		conservation	eng	NZ Department of Conservation (DOC), through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan, administers conservation management of the species and permits appropriate species research. Regular population monitoring and a habitat restoration programme are needed. The colonization of the islands by introduced mammalian predators must be prevented.
56298		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Maud Island, Marlborough Sounds, South Island, New Zealand. In 1997, 300 individuals were translocated to Motuara Island, where it seems to have been established successfully.
56298		habitat	eng	It can be found in coastal forest, mostly in deep boulder banks on lower slopes. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which then undergo direct development without a larval stage.
56298		population	eng	This species' population is estimated at between 27,500 and 39,500 individuals in a 16-ha forest remnant on Maud Island. The founder population on Motuara Island&#160; is estimated to be comprised of at least 150 frogs (Tocher and Pledger 2005).
56298		threats	eng	The introduction of mammalian predators, such as <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mustela erminea</em>, represents a major potential threat to this species. Disease (chytridiomycosis) also represents a possible threat, since it has recently been identified in the closely related <em>L. archeyi</em>.
56299		conservation	eng	This species might occur in Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru; and in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and El Pure National Park, Colombia.
56299		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Yapima, Departamento Vaupes, and Leticia, Departamento Amazonas, Colombia, to Quebrada Vasquez, north side of lower Río Tahuayo, Departamento Loreto, Peru. Its elevation is below 200m asl.
56299		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary lowland tropical moist. The breeding habitat is not known. It is not known if it can adapt to significantly modified habitats.
56299		population	eng	It is common in Colombia and uncommon in Peru.
56299		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), but its range is in an area of low human impact.
56300		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or whether or not it is just undergoing natural population fluctuations.
56300		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra (or Maciço) de Baturité, in the State of Ceará, north-eastern Brazil, at 600–1,000 m asl.
56300		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been found in dry or moist leaf-litter on the ground, in bromeliads, and stream margins in reasonably well-preserved closed forests. However, it can also survive in shaded coffee plantations. It is a diurnal species that breeds by direct development, and the eggs are probably deposited in wet spots on the ground.
56300		population	eng	It was very common within its small range, and often found at numerous localities since it was first described up until 1993; however, from 1994 to 2003 there were 34 surveys of the same sites and not a single individual was found, until in July 2004 three individuals were recorded.
56300		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, and human settlement. The very good soils and favourable climate of the area are encouraging agricultural expansion, and the species is unable to survive in the banana plantations that are rapidly taking over the area.
56301		conservation	eng	Its range includes several national parks.
56301		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Guiana Shield, from Mount Roraima in Western Venezuela, to nearby Guyana (Mt Ayanganna, Mt. Wokomung, Kaieteur National Park and&#160; northern Pakaraima region), reaching to Serra do Veado, in Amapá state, Brazil. It is found between 40 and 2,200 masl.
56301		habitat	eng	This tiny diurnal frog is found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor of rainforests near streams. Often associated with formations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Monotagma spicatum</span>, males call from the base of plants, hidden among rootlets and among dead leaves at the base of&#160; plants (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The deposition of eggs takes place at the beginning of the rainy season, and they develop directly. One female was found to deposit a single, large egg among dead leaves (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
56301		population	eng	It is not a common species. It is probably locally abundant, but its secretive habits make it hard to find (R. MacCulloch pers. comm. 2009).
56301		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present, and it occurs in a region of minimal human impact.
56302		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas, and the formal protection of remaining forest and forest fragments in the Serra de Maranguape is urgently needed.
56302		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra de Maranguape, in the State of Ceará, north-eastern Brazil, at 800-900m asl.
56302		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species that lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forest, and has also been found in bamboo and banana plantations, as well as forest fragments (but not open habitats). It is a direct developer, and the eggs are probably laid on the ground.
56302		population	eng	It is abundant in certain parts of its small range and is regularly recorded.
56302		threats	eng	The Serra de Maranguape is being very heavily deforested, due to logging, agriculture, and human settlement.
56303		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Reserva Particular do Partimônio Natural Serra do Jequitibá.
56303		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil: Fazenda Luzitania on the Rio Almada near Ilheus; and Santa Teresinha. It presumably occurs more widely, including in intervening areas between the two known localities. It is found up to 800m asl.
56303		habitat	eng	At Fazenda Luzitania, a single specimen was collected in a cacao farm under cacao trees, bananas and some larger, emergent shade trees, on the ground in the leaf-litter near a small creek. At Santa Teresinha specimens were collected in terrestrial bromeliads in forest. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
56303		population	eng	There is very little information on the population status of this species, which is known from only four specimens.
56303		threats	eng	The major threats to it are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, collection of bromeliads and logging.
56304		conservation	eng	Many subpopulations lie within protected areas such as National Parks and a Biosphere Reserve.
56304		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon basin from Venezuela, Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. In Venezuela, it is known from the states of Amazonas, Bolívar and Barinas the species is probably present in Apure, given this pattern of localities. The indication of presence in Trujillo State by Barrio (1999:42) seems to be a lapsus since no specific locality is given, and the taxon is not indicated as coming from Trujillo in the states listing (Barrio:90). Its elevation is between 0-400m asl.
56304		habitat	eng	This species can be found on the floor of primary forest, where it is active by day and night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is also known from open environments such as grasslands surrounded by forest habitats. It lays eggs in foam nests on the ground.
56304		population	eng	This is a common species.
56304		threats	eng	Clear cutting is a major threat to this species.
56305		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56305		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the planalto and coastal Serra Geral of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, at elevations of 300-1,100m asl.
56305		habitat	eng	Occurs in secondary and old growth forests, Araucaria stands, and plantations. Reproduction is unknown but presumed to have foam nests on the ground.
56305		population	eng	This is a common and stable species, especially in pine plantations.
56305		threats	eng	There are no threats. It adapts well to human alteration of native habitat.
56306		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56306		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo. It ranges up to 1,700m asl.
56306		habitat	eng	It lives on the leaf-litter inside primary and secondary forest and shrubland, and can also survive in gardens. The tadpoles live in still water puddles and temporary ponds (unlike some species of the <em>Leptodactylus marmoratus</em> group which have terrestrial larvae).
56306		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56306		threats	eng	Since it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably not seriously threatened, but certain populations are probably impacted by agriculture, wood plantations, logging and human settlement.
56307		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. This taxon needs taxonomic revision.
56307		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Lower Chaco and oriental region of Paraguay; eastern lowlands of Santa Cruz (Bolivia); northern Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and Misiones Provinces). Its altitudinal range is from 50-900m asl. Argentinian populations were assigned to this species by De La Riva (1996).
56307		habitat	eng	It can be found in open areas, breeding close to flooded grassland and temporary ponds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance (and even found in gardens).
56307		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56307		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
56308		conservation	eng	The range of the species overlaps with all of the protected areas in French Guiana. It has been recorded in Parque Nacional Tumucumaque, Amapá, Brasil, and its distribution in Suriname overlaps the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (M. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence outside French Guiana, its ecological requirements and its population status is needed.
56308		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from French Guiana and Suriname, where it is widespread, and from Brazil (states of Amapá and Pará). It may also likely be found in Guyana. <br/><br/>It has been recorded from 0-600 masl (M. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).
56308		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the leaf-litter of primary forest. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.  <br/><br/><em>Leptodactylus heyeri</em> exhibits nocturnal activity, males call at dusk in the rainy season (April-May). Individuals have been found both in moist low elevations and on the summit of small hills (about 120 masl), with or without rocks, in drier conditions. The species was never found during the dry season (Boistel et al., 2006).
56308		population	eng	It is not considered to be a very common species.
56308		threats	eng	There are no known threats currently known for this species.
56309		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas.
56309		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout most of the Amazon basin, south to Argentina and Paraguay. It is present on the southwest peninsula of Trinidad Island, Trinidad and Tobago. It occurs from sea level to approximately 800m asl.
56309		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in areas of open vegetation, such as stream and river edges and agricultural clearings. It is generally associated with primary and secondary forest, forest edges and in some places savannah (eg. Trinidad). De la Riva (1993) indicated that the species has been found in human clearings, and within secondary forest in Bolivia. In Trinidad, it has been reported from roadside marshes and in vegetation close to ditches. Generally, the species lays eggs on land and has a direct development breeding strategy.
56309		population	eng	This is a common species.
56309		threats	eng	There are no threats to the overall survival of the species.
56310		conservation	eng	The known locality in the Chinapau River area is within an indigenous reserve, affording some level of protection. It also occurs in Kaieteur National Park (Kok et al., 2007).
56310		distribution	eng	This species was originally known from three localities in Mazaruni-Potaro District, Guyana. In his description of the species, Heyer (1975) gave the type locality of Chinapoon River (at about 300m asl) on the upper Potaro River, and a second locality as Demerara Falls (it has not been possible to map this locality in this assessment as its exact location is unknown). Additional specimens were recently collected in October 2000 at 1,500m asl on Mount Ayanaganna in the Pakaraima Mountains, also in Potaro-Mazaruni District, Guyana (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002). Heyer (1975) suggested that the Chinapoon River in the description of the type locality probably referred to Chenapowu River. Chenapowu (also referenced as Chenapou and Chenapau) is a river and a village on the upper Potaro River. Kok et al. (2007) recently reported records from Kaieteur National Park, Mount Ayanganna, Mount Wokomung and the Merume Mountains in the Pakaraima Mountains region of Guyana.
56310		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and montane tropical primary forest. <br/><br/>It is a mostly nocturnal species, inhabiting leaf litter. Reproduction seems to be constrained to the wettest months of the year. Gravid females have been found to contain 3-10 large white eggs (Kok et al., 2007).
56310		population	eng	It may be locally common (Kok et al., 2007).
56310		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and it occurs in a large area of undisturbed remote forest.
56311		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56311		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná. Populations in the states of Espírito Santo (Almeida and Angulo, 2006) and Santa Catarina (Kwet, 2007) were recently found not to be conspecific with <em>Leptodactylus marmoratus</em>. The species ranges up to 1200 masl.
56311		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that lives on the ground in primary and secondary forest, and also in clearings and on the forest edge, as well as in gardens. Males commonly call from the ground under vegetation in the late afternoons. The eggs are laid on the ground; tadpoles live and develop in the leaf-litter outside water.
56311		population	eng	It is a very common species. It experienced a population decline at Estação Biológica de Boracéia, but has since rebounded and is abundant again.
56311		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting and human settlement.
56312		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
56312		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Pará, Mato Grosso, Tocantins, and Goiás in Brazil, above 600m asl.
56312		habitat	eng	It inhabits the Cerrado, and occurs on the ground in moist fields in open habitats, where it also breeds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
56312		population	eng	It is a common species.
56312		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
56313		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species occur in the national parks of Argentina (Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi and Parque Nacional Los Alerces), and it is also present in several protected areas in Chile.
56313		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the austral temperate forest of Chile (where it is known from several localities in the 11th Division) and Argentina between latitudes of 41°S and 46° 2'S. It is probably more widely distributed than currently understood. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,400m asl (in Argentina).
56313		habitat	eng	This species’ habitat is the cold mountain streams of austral temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, where it may tolerate some habitat disturbance. Specimens have been found under logs at the margin of mountain streams. Chilean localities typically occur in <em>N. antartica</em>, <em>N. betuloides</em>, and <em>Drymis winteri</em> forest, while at the Argentinian localities the main vegetation is pure deciduous <em>N. pumilio</em> forest. Reproduction takes place by larval development in streams.
56313		population	eng	Very little data are available on its population status. A population of at least 20 individuals was found in 2002 in Caleta Level, Chile, and there appears to have been little change to the available habitat between 1990 and 2002.
56313		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is presumed to be introduced predatory salmonid fishes.
56314		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, Parque Nacional Los Alerces and Parque Nacional Lago Puelo.
56314		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Argentinean Patagonia. It is present in the provinces of Río Negro (in several localities within the Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, <em>A. g. gargola</em>), Neuquen (volcanic tablelands of Lonco Luan and surroundings <em>A. g. neuquensis</em>) and Chubut (Parque Nacional Los Alerces and Parque Nacional Lago Puelo). It has an altitudinal range of 200-2,200m asl.
56314		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic species associated with both small alpine lakes and streams, and Patagonian forest streams. Breeding takes place in streams and ponds. The species may be found in areas slightly disturbed by cattle farming.<br/><br/>Adult frogs overwinter in both terrestrial and underwater conditions for ca 8 months per year (May to December) (Logares and Úbeda, 2006). The tadpole has a long development period (2-3 years) and overwinters in the water under a layer of ice and snow. They are locally abundant, and appear to be grazers of the periphytic community and detritus gatherers, with diet matching the tadpoles' morphological and structural adaptations to a lotic-benthic habitat (Baffico and Úbeda, 2006).
56314		population	eng	It is a common species.
56314		threats	eng	The ongoing introduction of exotic predatory fish species (trout) into the stream habitats of this species is considered to be a major threat, although population declines have yet to be observed.
56315		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Reserva Nacional Altos de Lircay.
56315		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Lircay, Alto de Vilches (35° 28'S; 71° 11'W), in Talca Province, Chile, on the western slopes of the Andes. Its altitudinal range is 900-1,200m asl. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently known.
56315		habitat	eng	Its habitat is <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Adults and larvae occur in the water or under rocks, but are always close to streams.
56315		population	eng	This species was seen in small groups of 8-10 individuals in 2002, although nothing else is known about its population status.
56315		threats	eng	Forest fires are a common threat in the area, and tourists, which disturb the habitat, are another significant threat.
56316		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Bernardo O'Higgins.
56316		distribution	eng	This species is known from two adult specimens at only two localities: Puerto Edén (49° 8'S; 74° 25'W) at Wellington Island; and Seno Huemules (48° 43'S; 74° 25'W), both in southern Chile.
56316		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tundra and small forests composed of <em>Nothofagus betuloides</em>, <em>Embothrium coccineum</em>, <em>Maytenus magellanicus</em> and <em>Drymis winterri</em>. It can be found under logs. Its reproductive details are unknown, though this presumably occurs by larval development in water.
56316		population	eng	It is probably a rare species. It was seen in 1998, but two expeditions in 2001 and 2002 to the same locality failed to locate it.
56316		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
56317		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in a protected area.
56317		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is not clear. It has been recorded from the poorly designated, imprecise type locality of Potero Grande in Chile.
56317		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in streams, like other members of the genus.
56317		population	eng	It has not been collected for over 100 years.
56317		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
56318		conservation	eng	The area where it is thought to have been collected might be protected in Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael. The taxonomic status of this species needs further study.
56318		distribution	eng	This species is conclusively known only from one locality, Inchy, in coastal southern Chile. Charles Darwin collected this specimen. Confusion over the precise location has hampered efforts to rediscover this species. Records of this species from elsewhere in Chile and in Argentina refer to other species.
56318		habitat	eng	While its actual habitat preference is not known the region of the type locality has tundra and islands of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.
56318		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56318		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown, but the region is completely inaccessible and uninhabited.
56319		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas and no conservation measures are in place.
56319		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Pehuenche Valley in Mendoza Province, Argentina, between 2,000 and 2,500m asl. It is considered possible that it might range more widely.
56319		habitat	eng	This riparian species breeds in permanent Andean alpine sulphuric streams.
56319		population	eng	It is locally common within its known range.
56319		threats	eng	There are no known current threats to it.
56320		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56320		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro Mirador in the Cordillera Pelada, Valdivia Province, Chile, at 1,100m asl. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently recognized.
56320		habitat	eng	This species was found under logs in ecotonal areas between bogs and temperate <em>Nothofagus fitzroyi</em> forest. It reproduces by larval development in cold fast-moving streams.
56320		population	eng	Many individuals were found at the type locality in 2002.
56320		threats	eng	Its major threats are not known.
56321		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Puyehue. There is a need to determine whether or not Argentinian populations of <em>Alsodes</em> from the forests of Neuquén and Río Negro Provinces are referable to this species.
56321		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Andean Chile: Cautin (at a latitude of 38° 50'S), and Puyehue. Published records from Isla Wellington (at a latitude of 50° 00'S, Diaz and Nunez 1988) do not refer to this species. It has been recorded from altitudes of 500-1,000m asl. It is possible that Argentinean populations of <em>Alsodes</em> from the forests of Neuquén and Río Negro Provinces might belong to <em>A. verrucosus</em>, although until this can be verified these populations have not been included in attempts to map its range.
56321		habitat	eng	It occurs under logs and near damp areas in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and reproduces by larval development in cold deep streams.
56321		population	eng	The population status of this species is not well known. Five adults were collected in Puyehue during 2001.
56321		threats	eng	Deforestation due to logging is a major threat. Argentinean populations possibly referable to this species are threatened by introductions of predatory trout.
56322		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56322		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western slope of the Chilean Andes, at 38°S latitude, San Ignacio de Pemehue, Cautin Province, Chile. Its altitudinal range is 1,000m asl.
56322		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown.
56322		population	eng	This species has not been seen since its description at the beginning of the 20th century. Three recent expeditions in 1995, 1996, and 2002 all failed to locate it.
56322		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by pine plantations might be a threat to this species.
56323		conservation	eng	While the species was previously recorded from Parque Nacional Laguna Blanca it is now known only from the ponds within the buffer zone of the park. Measures need to be put in place to prevent the introduction of predatory fishes into the habitat of the remaining subpopulations.
56323		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-western Argentinean Patagonia where it has been recorded from a system of endorreic and isolated lagoons scattered in the volcanic tablelands of Neuquen (between 38° 55' and 39° 32'S and 70° 20' to 70° 39'W). Its altitudinal range is 1,265-1,410m asl.
56323		habitat	eng	The species inhabits permanent lagoons that are surrounded by steppe and/or semi-desert. Individuals are found in areas adjacent to the ponds, in aquatic and terrestrial habitat, although most often in aquatic habitat, and breeding takes place within these ponds. It is not known from degraded habitats.<br/><br/>Tadpoles have been found January–March (Fox et al., 2005).
56323		population	eng	It is common within its preferred habitat. New subpopulations have recently been discovered (at 14 satellite lakes/ponds), but the major subpopulation (Laguna Blanca) is believed to have been extirpated.<br/><br/>Surveys of this species in 15 lakes in and around Laguna Blanca National Park at various times between 2000 and 2002 revealed relatively high densities of individuals near shorelines (overall average highest density per lake of 0.58 individuals/m2). Densities were highest in late summer (March)(Fox et al., 2005).
56323		threats	eng	The main subpopulation (Laguna Blanca) is believed to have been extirpated through predation by introduced fishes (perch and salmonids). The remaining subpopulations are isolated from this lake and mostly appear to be stable, although eutrophication of two ponds due to livestock may be leading to a decline in two subpopulations. Introduction of predatory fishes to the remaining lakes is a potential major threat to all subpopulations.<br/><br/>A recent study (Fox et al., 2005) reported that most populations had many dead and moribund tadpoles and frogs, all of which showed clinical signs of an unknown disease. While it does not appear to be decimating populations, the possible presence of pathogenic disease warrants special consideration.
56324		conservation	eng	The species was previously protected in Parque Nacional Laguna Blanca; however, it is now extirpated in this park because of the introduction of predatory fishes and habitat loss. Three of the subspecies lack any protection, and habitat protection is urgently needed as are measures to prevent the future introduction of predatory fish species.
56324		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-western Argentinean Patagonia, and has been recorded from a number of localities in Neuquen Province. The altitudinal range is from 1,000-1,500m asl.
56324		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground under stones and in humid ravines surrounding small-scattered lagoons, in volcanic tablelands, with steppe and semi-desert landscapes; it is presumed to breed in the lagoons. The species does not occur in modified habitats.
56324		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56324		threats	eng	The main threat is the introduction of predatory fishes (perch and salmonids) in Laguna Blanca, but it is also threatened by the loss of pond side vegetation through overgrazing and trampling by livestock (sheep).
56325		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are necessary to determine the limits of the range of this species in this unexplored and remote area.
56325		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality pond, Laguna de los Gendarmes (46° 6'S; 71° 41'W; ca 1,050m asl), and other nearby ponds in south-western Argentinean Patagonia (north-west of Santa Cruz Province). It is known only from a single plateau.
56325		habitat	eng	Its habitat comprises permanent and endorreic lagoons at approximately 1,000m asl in the hilly landscape of the Patagonian steppe, and the temperate deciduous austral beech forest (<em>Nothofagus pumilio</em>). Breeding takes place in permanent ponds. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.
56325		population	eng	It is a common species.
56325		threats	eng	The region where this species occurs is relatively remote, and is not currently experiencing any threats.
56326		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to confirm whether or not the species still survives at the type locality or if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality (although it is not a safe area to conduct fieldwork at present). If the species still survives, restoration and protection of its habitat will be necessary for its survival, since the type locality is not within any protected area.
56326		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, 8km east of Sonsón, in the Cordillera Central, in the department of Antioquia, Colombia, at 2,780m asl. It might be more widespread, but it is difficult at present to survey in surrounding areas due to security problems.
56326		habitat	eng	The species was recorded on wet rocks very close to the surface of the stream in primary forest.
56326		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens, and while there have been at least a dozen surveys of the type locality since its first description they have all failed to find the species. It has not been seen again since it was first described.
56326		threats	eng	Unfortunately, the habitat of the type locality has been quite degraded, largely as a result of guerrilla activities.
56327		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56327		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador from 50-900m asl.
56327		habitat	eng	It inhabits Western Ecuador Moist Forests in the Western Tropical Altitudinal Zone. Individuals are usually found in the leaf-litter. It can also be found in altered areas (secondary forest), but it is still restricted to habitats with leaf-litter. It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs on leaf-litter.
56327		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
56327		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for human settlement, and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species' habitat.
56328		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
56328		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cerrado of central Brazil, and is known from the states of Goiás, Tocantins, and Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from 500-1,500m asl.
56328		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of gallery forests and open areas in the Cerrado. It breeds in the leaf-litter and breeds by direct development. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
56328		population	eng	It is a common species.
56328		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, agricultural pollution, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.
56329		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Nacional de Junin. Measures are urgently required to control and manage the offtake of this species from the wild.
56329		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range comprises the small tributaries of Lake Junin, and highlands and neighbouring cordilleras of Junin and Pasco Departments in central Peru. It occurs at an altitude of approximately 4,000m asl.
56329		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic riparian species, found in small tributaries of Lake Junin but not in the lake itself.
56329		population	eng	It can be abundant where it occurs, but appears to have declined.
56329		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation for food and medicine.
56330		conservation	eng	More than ten protected areas are present within the range of this species in Chile and Argentina. National legislation to preserve <em>Nothofagus</em> forest at all latitudes is needed.
56330		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the austral forest of Chile and Argentina; it is distributed from Mehuin (39° 25’S) to the Virtudes Islands (51° 31’S). Its altitudinal range is from 50-1,000m asl.
56330		habitat	eng	It can be found in very humid temperate to cold forests, bogs and wetlands surrounded by forests, shores of ponds, and lakes surrounded with swamps. Adults of this species also climb at <em>Nothofagus trees</em>. Eggs are laid on the ground under logs or moss. After rain, these areas are flooded and the tadpoles develop in flood water. The species can occur in lightly modified habitats such as rural gardens.
56330		population	eng	It is locally distributed and abundant in some localities. It was last seen in 2003.
56330		threats	eng	Destruction and degradation of native forests (deforestation, fires and land use) are a major threat.
56331		conservation	eng	The population occurs in a highly protected area in Parque Nacional Los Alerces. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its restricted range.
56331		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (Isla Grande in Menendez Lake, 42° 40'S; 71° 51'W), an island completely protected in Parque Nacional Los Alerces, Chubut Province, Argentina. It occurs at 500m asl.
56331		habitat	eng	It can be found in very humid temperate forest dominated by <em>Nothofagus</em>. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it may breed within small temporary pools. It is not known whether or not it can occur in modified habitats.
56331		population	eng	This species is locally common within its restricted range.
56331		threats	eng	There are no current threats at the type locality, but its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
56332		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Legislation to preserve the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.
56332		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the austral temperate forests of Chile and Argentina. It is distributed from Concepción (36° 47'S) to Coihaique (45° 33'S). It has an altitudinal range of 50-1,000m asl.
56332		habitat	eng	It is widely distributed in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest with Mediterranean or oceanic influences; humid temperate forests; bogs, marshes and wetlands surrounded by forest; shores of ponds and lakes surrounded with swamps. It may be found under logs; males calls from crevices under moss close to streams. Eggs are deposited under logs or moss; following rain the egg deposition site becomes flooded and larvae develop in the floodwater. It tolerates some deforestation.
56332		population	eng	It is common in pristine habitats. There are large populations of this species.
56332		threats	eng	There is some habitat destruction and degradation including exotic tree plantations and human settlements, mainly in the north part of the range.
56333		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two protected areas.
56333		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities: Puente Traihuanca (approximately at 46° 25'S; 72° 04'W), Laguna San Rafael, and Kent and Melchor Islands, Aisen Province, Chile. Its altitudinal range is from 0-500m asl. Its distribution might be larger than currently understood.
56333		habitat	eng	This species can be found in steppe habitat in valleys surrounded by forest of <em>Nothofagus antartica</em>, <em>N. betuloides</em> and <em>Drymis winteri</em>, and it shows tolerance to deforestation. It is often found below logs and rocks and in shrub habitat. Eggs are laid under logs or moss. After rain, the area becomes flooded and larvae develop in the water.
56333		population	eng	It was found to be abundant in two localities in 1999.
56333		threats	eng	This species is threatened by predation by introduced mink (<em>Mustela vison</em>).
56334		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many national parks and reserves of Chile and Argentina. The northernmost populations of Chile are listed as "Vulnerable" (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998). National legislation to preserve the native forest and environment is needed.
56334		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Chile and Argentina with a wide latitudinal range in the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest region: approximately 1,600km between 32° 30'S and 46°S. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,000m asl.
56334		habitat	eng	This species is found in a broad range of habitats, from <em>Acacia</em> steppe to Valdivian rainforest, and from temperate to cold conditions. Actual limits of distribution appear to be determined by restrictions on the reproductive process, imposed by total annual rainfall in the north and by minimum temperatures in the south. The species generally occurs in association with breeding sites (temporary or permanent shallow ponds surrounded with swamps and bogs). Northern populations of this species (in Central Chile) live in relictual forests. It may be found in marshes (swamps) of the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Males call from under bushes and eggs are laid under logs and in the leaf-litter inside the forest; following rain, the deposition area becomes flooded and larvae develop in water. It tolerates minor habitat disturbance.
56334		population	eng	It is generally a common species. Northern Chilean populations are declining due to habitat destruction.
56334		threats	eng	The most impacted subpopulations are those of the north, which are affected by deforestation for cattle ranching and human settlements. Due to its wide distribution, major threats differ between regions, but include many forms of agriculture and wood plantations.
56335		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56335		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs from the State of Bahia, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul, and inland to the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
56335		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest, and forest edge, but not outside the forest. It breeds in temporary, and sometimes permanent, ponds, and occasionally swimming pools. The tadpoles only eat the tadpoles of other species.
56335		population	eng	It is not a common species, and is hard to find, but can appear to be more abundant if it is looked for at the right time.
56335		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting and human settlement, as well as harvesting for the national and international pet trade, which might be locally unsustainable.
56336		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Morrocoy in Venezuela, and in several protected areas in Colombia.
56336		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela (where it has been reported from the States of Falcón, Lara, Mérida and Zulia, and is expected from Trujillo). A record from Apure State, east of the Andes in Venezuela, is doubtful and requires confirmation; it is not mapped here. It is a species of low altitudes occuring from sea level up to 500m asl.
56336		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species that lives in grasslands and open environments, including semi-arid habitats. They make jelly nests in water and the carnivorous tadpoles develop in temporary pools. It is an opportunistic species, breeding when conditions become suitable.
56336		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species. It can be abundant in certain localities, but its distribution appears to be patchy, there are sometimes several kilometres between populations, even in apparently suitable habitat. This species was listed as having experienced population declines by Vial and Saylor (1993), but there is little evidence to support this view.
56336		threats	eng	It might be adversely affected by droughts, and the national and international pet trade might have a local impact. Agriculture and livestock grazing in the eastern part of its range might also affect it.
56337		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. The distribution of the species in Venezuela in not known with certainty, and is the reason why we do not know whether or not some populations live within protected areas.
56337		distribution	eng	This species geographic range exists from Amazonian Basin of Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, southern Venezuela (although there are no specimens to confirm as yet), Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 0-400m asl.
56337		habitat	eng	This species can be found in open environments in forested areas and on the ground in leaf-litter within old growth rainforest. At Santa Cecilia, one specimen was found sitting on the ground in secondary forest at the night (Duellman, 1978). Rodríguez and Duellman (1994) observed that this terrestrial, nocturnal frog backs into leaf-litter so that only the head is visible, in this position it waits for passing prey. It breeds in pools.
56337		population	eng	It is a rare to locally common species.
56337		threats	eng	The major threats are not known, although the species could be of interest to the pet trade, which might affect some populations.
56338		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56338		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is from the Chacoan region of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. It has an altitudinal range of up to 700m asl.
56338		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species. It breeds explosively during the first heavy rains of the year. In Cordoba, Argentina, it does not reproduce every year. The eggs are scattered on the bottom of the ponds and it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
56338		population	eng	It is a common species, but it is seldom found during the dry season. It is declining in the southern portion of the range due to persecution.
56338		threats	eng	Local human populations persecute this species because of unfounded beliefs that it is venomous. It is also collected for the international pet trade. Eggs are sold internationally for scientific research.
56339		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56339		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in north-eastern Brazil: Joazeiro, in the northern part of the state of Bahia; and Cabaceiras, in the state of Paraiba. It presumably occurs more widely, including in the intervening area between these two localities. All records have been from about 200m asl.
56339		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry Caatinga savannah, which presumably breeds in temporary ponds by larval development.
56339		population	eng	There is no information on this species' population status, since it is known from only a few specimens. Since it cannot be easily distinguished morphologically, it is probably under-recorded.
56339		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species, but it is possibly affected by agricultural expansion, and especially by over-grazing by livestock. It is possibly also present in the national and international pet trade.
56340		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
56340		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Pampean region of Argentina (Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Entre Ríos, La Pampa, Mendoza and Santa Fe), Uruguay (Rocha and San José), and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 0-500m asl.
56340		habitat	eng	This frog occurs in grasslands on the ground near temporary waterbodies, and also occurs in roadside ditches and in irrigated cropland. The eggs are laid on the bottom of temporary ponds.
56340		population	eng	It has apparently disappeared from at least two sites in Uruguay (Rocha, in Laguna de Castillos, and San Jose, in Delta del Tigre). It is rare in Argentina.
56340		threats	eng	Habitat loss (due to agricultural development and housing development) is a major threat, as is water and soil pollution due to agriculture, industry, and human settlement. It is sometimes subject to persecution because of unfounded beliefs that it is venomous. It is also collected for the international pet trade and its eggs are sold internationally for scientific research.
56341		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Machililla and Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute in Ecuador, and the Zona Reservada de Tumbes in Peru. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species in Peru.
56341		distribution	eng	This species is found in xeric environments of north-western Peru (Departamento Tumbes) and the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (Guayas and Manabi Provinces). Two subspecies are recognized: <em>C. s. scaphiopeza</em> in Ecuador, and <em>C. s. stolzmanni</em> in Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 0-100m asl.
56341		habitat	eng	The habitat where some individuals have been collected can be described as tropical scrub, which is usually fairly open with a few trees, but remains green for about half the year. Other specimens have been collected in an open and sandy desert, with scattered, low, desert vegetation, and trees that are absent except in or near temporary streambeds (Peters 1967). It lives below ground when not breeding, but is an explosive breeder during good rains (with breeding taking place in water).
56341		population	eng	It is a very rare species, but has been recorded in the last few years in Ecuador. There is no information on its population status in Peru.
56341		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (especially cattle ranching), logging, and human settlement. Soil pollution, due to agrochemicals, also represents a threat.
56342		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status should be reviewed, in particular in relation to <em>Ceratophrys cornuta</em> (Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).
56342		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the headwaters of the Pastaza River, in Napo Province, eastern Ecuador. The exact altitude of this site is unclear, though it is clearly a montane locality.
56342		habitat	eng	This is presumably a montane forest species. If it is similar to other species in its genus, it is an explosive breeder in ephemeral pools.
56342		population	eng	This species has not been seen since the original collection in the 1940s, though this is probably related to the lack of survey effort, and its elusive nature.
56342		threats	eng	There is no precise information, owing to uncertainty relating to the exact location of the type locality.
56343		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas: Kaa-Iya in Bolivia, and PN Defensores del Chaco in Paraguay. Occurs in the Chancani Provincial Reserve, the Formosa Natural Reserve, Teuquito Multiple Use Reserve in Argentina.
56343		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 70-200m asl.
56343		habitat	eng	This species can be found in Chaco dry shrubland and gallery forest. It is an explosive breeder during the first heavy rains, breeding in temporary ponds. outside breeding season adults remain buried underground. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
56343		population	eng	It is not well known from Bolivia and Paraguay, but the Argentinian populations appear to be large and widespread. This species is rarely seen except when juveniles leave ponds where they develop.
56343		threats	eng	It is collected for the international pet trade, and subject to heavy collecting during the breeding season. It is threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff.
56344		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi and Parque Estadual do Forno Grande.
56344		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil at around 650m asl in the state of Espírito Santo: Santa Teresa and Castelo. It presumably occurs between these two localities, and probably more widely.
56344		habitat	eng	It is confined to forest, where it is arboreal, living in epiphytic bromeliads. Breeding is by larval development in bromeliads.
56344		population	eng	It is a common species.
56344		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, especially due to the collection of bromeliads, and also due to agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and tourism, though some of its habitat is quite well protected.
56345		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.
56345		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Santa Teresa, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 675m asl, although it might occur more widely.
56345		habitat	eng	Its habitat is terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads near the ground inside forests and on the forest edge, but not in more degraded habitats. Breeding is by larval development in bromeliads.
56345		population	eng	It is a common species.
56345		threats	eng	The area where it is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby, due to agricultural development, wood plantations, bromeliad-collecting, logging, human settlement and tourism.
56346		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
56346		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Alto Macae, Nova Friburgo, at 1,200m asl in the state of Rio de Janeiro, in south-eastern Brazil. Records from Santa Teresa in the state of Espirito Santo do not refer to this species (Peixoto pers. comm.).
56346		habitat	eng	If it is like other members of its genus, it presumably lives in bromeliads in forests, and perhaps also on rock outcrops, but not in more degraded habitats. It presumably breeds by larval development in bromeliads.
56346		population	eng	It has not been recorded since the type series was collected in 1909.
56346		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by the collection of bromeliads, and by human settlement.
56347		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56347		distribution	eng	This species from south-eastern Brazil is known only from the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, where it occurs between 800 and 1,200m asl.
56347		habitat	eng	The species is associated to streams, where individuals can be found on rocks near streams, in shallow water, soil and leaf litter (Jordão-Nogueira et al., 2006), in primary and secondary forest. It breeds in streams.<br/><br/>Individuals are mostly active by day, but also exhibit some nocturnal activity. The species feeds on arthropods, with beetles, ants, dipterans and insect larvae being the predominant items. Females have been found to contain between 70-127 unpigmented vitelogenic eggs (Jordão-Nogueira et al., 2006).
56347		population	eng	Jordão-Nogueira et al. (2006) report on 37 individuals collected between late September and early October 2004.
56347		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is loss of habitat as a result of clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism.
56348		conservation	eng	It is now only known from Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó. Population monitoring is urgently needed for this species.
56348		distribution	eng	This species is known from Santana do Riacho in the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais in south-eastern Brazil, from 800-1,000m asl.
56348		habitat	eng	This species lives in primary and secondary forest on the ground on the edges of permanent streams with sandy and rocky bottoms and with grass and shrubs on the borders. It breeds in the streams.
56348		population	eng	It is not a very common species. Populations outside the protected area in which it occurs appear to have disappeared even from apparently undisturbed streams. A few individuals were recorded from a stream inside the park in 2001. It might still be persisting in some streams in the park, but more surveys are needed to confirm its current population status.
56348		threats	eng	The main threats to it are loss of habitat as a result of wood extraction, livestock grazing, human settlement, tourism and fire.
56349		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least three protected areas.
56349		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern and central part of the State of São Paulo, in southeastern Brazil at around 800m asl. Its altitudinal range is presumably wider than this.
56349		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground near streams, on in the water, in primary and secondary forest. It is a diurnal species. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are placed in crevices under rocks or stones.
56349		population	eng	It is very common in its relatively restricted range.
56349		threats	eng	The main threats are loss of habitat as a result of clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. In addition, the species has recently tested positive for the chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> (Carnaval et al., 2006).
56350		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Estación Ecológica Murici.
56350		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Murici, in the state of Alagoas, north-eastern Brasil, at 600m asl.
56350		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in forest and breeds in streams, like its congeners.
56350		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. It has not been seen since it was first collected.
56350		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood extraction and human settlement. The area where it is found is also suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction of forest patches.
56351		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not it is declining even where suitable habitats survive, and whether or not chytridiomycosis is involved.
56351		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from southern Brazil, mostly from the state of Sao Paulo, but also from south-western Minas Gerais State and south-western Rio de Janeiro State. It used to be found at the biological station at Boraceia in Sao Paulo, but can no longer be found there, having last been seen around 1980, despite subsequent searches. It is, however, still found in other places. Its altitudinal range is 500-2,000m asl. It has also been recorded from the Argentinean province of Misiones (a single specimen from 1961), but this record probably refers to another species.
56351		habitat	eng	This diurnal species occurs in and near rocky streams, in which it breeds, or marshy areas with slow-flowing water, in primary and secondary forest. It does not occur in open areas.
56351		population	eng	This species is uncommon. The population at Boraceia disappeared, despite apparently having suitable habitat remaining. This decline is reminiscent of disappearances of stream-breeding, high-altitude frog species in other parts of the wet tropics.
56351		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. It is perhaps also affected by soil and water pollution due to agricultural and industrial practices. However, it appears that this species might also have experienced some unexplained declines in areas of suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as the cause.
56352		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is declining in the higher altitude parts of its range, even where suitable habitats survive.
56352		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil in the States of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, from sea level to 1,800m asl. It used to be found at the biological station at Boraceia in Sao Paulo, but can no longer be found there; it was last seen around 1980, despite subsequent searches. It is, however, still found in other places.
56352		habitat	eng	It lives in and near rocky streams in primary and secondary forest. It does not occur in open areas. It breeds in streams and the eggs are placed in crevices under rocks and stones.
56352		population	eng	It is a very common species. The population at Boraceia disappeared (last seen in 1979), despite apparently having suitable habitat remaining, as well as the population at Santa Teresa. This decline is reminiscent of disappearances of stream-breeding, high-altitude frog species in other parts of the wet tropics.
56352		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, tourism and fire. It is perhaps also affected by soil and water due to agricultural and industrial practices. However, it appears that the species might also have experienced some unexplained declines in areas of suitable habitat in the higher altitude parts of its range. Such declines are potentially ominous, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
56353		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional do Itatiaia is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
56353		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two high-altitude localities in southern Brazil: Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, at Itamonte, in the state of Minas Gerais; and the Serra da Bocaina, in the northern part of the state of Sao Paulo. It might occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-2,200m asl.
56353		habitat	eng	This species lives on the ground near fast-flowing streams in high-altitude grasslands. It breeds in the streams by larval development.
56353		population	eng	It is not common, but it can be found when being surveyed for.
56353		threats	eng	Its major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to tourism and fire. It might also be adversely affected by freezing ice in the montane grasslands.
56354		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56354		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Fazenda Água Branca, in the state of Bahia, in eastern Brazil, close to sea level.
56354		habitat	eng	It presumably lives close to, and breeds in, streams in forest, like its congeners.
56354		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status. There have been no records since it was first collected.
56354		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging and human settlement.
56355		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Estadual Rio Guarani, Brazil, and in Argentina in the Reserva de la Biósfera Yabotí, Parque Nacional Iguazú, and several provincial reserves.
56355		distribution	eng	This species can be found from 300-750m asl in Misiones, Argentina; Tres Baras de Paraná, Paraná, Brazil (here, its range is severely fragmented); and Itapua Department, Paraguay.
56355		habitat	eng	It occurs near permanent streams (in which it breeds) in rainforest, and probably does not tolerate habitat disturbance.
56355		population	eng	It is common in its limited range.
56355		threats	eng	Threats to this species include selective logging, clear-cutting of primary forests, pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices, and industrial pollution by organic wastes. The introduction and spread of <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> is also a threat to this species.
56356		conservation	eng	This species disappeared from a protected area in Belo Horizonte. It is, however, still present at the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça (Canelas and Bertoluci, 2007).
56356		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lagoa Santa, Belo Horizonte and Serra do Caraça, at 700-900m asl in the southern part of the state of Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil. It could occur in other places, but it has not so far been discovered elsewhere.
56356		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground near streams inside forest, and breeds in the streams.
56356		population	eng	Two of the three known populations disappeared in the mid 1980s, the surviving population is from Serra do Caraça, with records dating from 2001-2002.
56356		threats	eng	There has been a huge urban expansion within this species' known range, with much forest being lost, and streams becoming polluted.
56357		conservation	eng	Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56357		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is in the Serra do Mar in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 300-800m asl.
56357		habitat	eng	It was found in Atlantic forest fragments, at fast-running streams rushing over rocks. Adults and juveniles were found in the water and larvae were attached to rocks in the splash zone.
56357		population	eng	It was last collected in the late 1970s and recent surveys have failed to record it.
56357		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. It has apparently disappeared from seemingly suitable habitat. It is possibly threatened by tourism.
56358		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional do Caparaó. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56358		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pico de Bandeira, in the state of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, from 2,450-2,740m asl.
56358		habitat	eng	It was found by the side of a stream in montane grassland. If it is like other species of <em>Cycloramphus</em>, the larvae live on rocks out of water in the splash zones of waterfalls.
56358		population	eng	It is known from only two specimens collected in 1977 and 1980. The lack of subsequent records appears to be related to a lack of surveys, and there is insufficient information to know whether or not this species is common or rare.
56358		threats	eng	The main threat is probably habitat loss due to fire.
56359		conservation	eng	This species occurs in municipal parks that do not offer much protection. The creation of new protected areas is therefore needed.
56359		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Serra do Mar in the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina, Brazil, from 800-1,000m asl.
56359		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that occurs in leaf-litter in rainforest. It probably lays eggs on the ground where larvae hatch and develop, away from water.
56359		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in 2003.
56359		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation arising from agricultural development and logging is a major threat.
56360		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Improvement of law enforcement within protected areas to prevent habitat loss due to infrastructure development is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
56360		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Serra do Mar in the southeastern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro and the northern half of the state of São Paulo, including the offshore islands of Ilha Grande and São Sebastião. It occurs up to 800m asl. It is no longer known from the type locality, Boracéia, where some other species have also declined or disappeared in suitable habitat.
56360		habitat	eng	This species is common on the wet rocky faces of small streams in primary and secondary forest. Larvae were collected from the wet seeping rock walls. It has not been collected outside forest.
56360		population	eng	It is a common species. There is no longer a population at Boracéia (it was last recorded there in 1988), but it has not been observed to decline elsewhere. This decline is reminiscent of disappearances of stream-breeding, high-altitude frog species in other parts of the wet tropics.
56360		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat, and this is even taking place in some protected areas, even though illegal. However, it appears that the species might also have experienced an unexplained decline in an area of apparently suitable habitat in a higher altitude part of its range. Such a decline is potentially ominous, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
56361		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas, but there remains a need for improved conservation and maintenance of existing habitat.
56361		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra dos Órgãos and Serra da Mantiqueira, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, from 800-1,200m asl.
56361		habitat	eng	It occurs on rock wall seeps and in forest streams in primary and good quality secondary forest. Larvae have been observed on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams.
56361		population	eng	This is not a common species.
56361		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat, and this is taking place in some protected areas, even though this is illegal.
56362		conservation	eng	The one known locality for this species is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56362		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Alto Itatiaia, very close to the borders of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro States, in Brazil, at around 2,200m asl.
56362		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in leaf-litter, like other species in the genus, and breeds by larval development.
56362		population	eng	It is currently known from only two specimens.
56362		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown, although the type locality is in a protected area, affording the species some indirect level of protection.
56363		conservation	eng	The type locality is very close to Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56363		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Quecaba, Aguas Mornas, in Santa Catarina, Brazil, from 300-500m asl.
56363		habitat	eng	It occurs in Atlantic forest, probably in streams, in which it is likely to breed.
56363		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, since it was collected over 50 years ago.
56363		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
56364		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, so the creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56364		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (Rio dos Cedros) in Santa Catarina State, Brazil, from 300-350m asl.
56364		habitat	eng	It is found in the rainforest, in fast-flowing rocky streams. It reproduces in streams and the larvae are found on rocks in the splash zone.
56364		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in the late 1970s, and recent visits to type locality have failed to detect this species.
56364		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging and development of hydroelectricity infrastructure is a significant threat.
56365		conservation	eng	Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56365		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Serra do Mar in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil.
56365		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the forest floor of the rainforest. Reproduction is presumably by larval development.
56365		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in 1950 and is known from only about six specimens.
56365		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
56366		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, and population status is needed, in particular to determine whether or not its range is much larger than currently known.
56366		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern state of São Paulo, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-1,000m asl.
56366		habitat	eng	This species occurs on stones in primary and good quality secondary forest streams. Larvae are found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams. It has not been recorded outside forested habitat.
56366		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56366		threats	eng	Air and water pollution from industry, and disturbance of the species' habitat by touristic activities are major threats.
56367		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi, but this needs to be confirmed. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56367		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Casa Ypiranga in the Serro do Mar, near Morretes, in the state of Parana in southern Brazil, at around 600m asl. The type series was collected along the Curitiba-Paranagua railway.
56367		habitat	eng	The type series was collected in crevices and cracks in the vertical cliffs along the railway. If it is like other species of <em>Cycloramphus</em>, the larvae live on rocks in the splash zones of waterfalls and streams in rocky areas in and around forest.
56367		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, and searches since 1982 have failed to find any individuals.
56367		threats	eng	It might be impacted by tourism.
56368		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
56368		distribution	eng	This species is known from parts of the Serra do Mar (including the Serra dos Órgãos, the Serra da Mantiqueira, and the Serra da Bocaina), in Brazil. It has been recorded between 100-1,100m asl.
56368		habitat	eng	It is restricted to forest, where it lives on the ground and is usually not associated with water. Its breeding habits are not known, though reproduction is presumably by terrestrial larval development. Advertisement and territorial calls are reported in Brasileiro et al. (2007).
56368		population	eng	It might be common but it is a very cryptic species, so it is very difficult to study.
56368		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development might be a localized threat to this species, but its range overlaps with many protected areas.
56369		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56369		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Atlantic coast of Brazil from the southeastern part of the State of Bahia, south to the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It ranges up to 1,000m asl.
56369		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species lives in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas, where it lives on stones at the margins of forest streams, where it breeds. The tadpoles develop out of the water in the splash zone of waterfalls.
56369		population	eng	It is generally a common species. In the State of Rio de Janeiro, it was very common, then apparently disappeared for no obvious reason, and then reappeared and is now very common again.
56369		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fire and human settlement.
56370		conservation	eng	Both areas where this species is found are within protected areas. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate it and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
56370		distribution	eng	This species is known from portions of the Serra da Bocaina (part of the Serra do Mar) and Itatiaia (in the Serra da Mantiqueira), in the northern coastal region of São Paulo State and the southern tip of Rio de Janeiro State, in Brazil. It occurs at around 800m asl.
56370		habitat	eng	This is a stream-associated species that occurs near waterfalls in forest. Larvae are found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks, in or next to streams. At night this species often retreats into rock crevices.
56370		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, and it has not been collected for over twenty years, despite occasional searches.
56370		threats	eng	Its major threats are unknown, but the habitat of the known localities for this species is enclosed within protected areas.
56371		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas, but not in any that are adequately managed.
56371		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Mar in the states of São Paulo and Santa Catarina, in southern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,000m asl. Records from the state of Paraná require confirmation.
56371		habitat	eng	This species is associated with fast-flowing streams in primary and old secondary forest. The larvae develop out of the water in the splash zone of waterfalls.
56371		population	eng	It is locally common in Santa Catarina State, where the populations appear to be stable where suitable habitat survives. There is little recent information from São Paulo State.
56371		threats	eng	The major threats to the known sites for this species are probably related to habitat loss due to tourism, dam construction and human settlement. A wider set of threats, such as agricultural development and logging, might impact other sites where this species has not yet been discovered.
56372		conservation	eng	The type locality is within a protected area (although it is not known exactly which one). Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56372		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Campos do Jordão, in São Paulo State, Brazil. This locality is at 1,700m asl.
56372		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in leaf-litter in forest and breeds by larval development.
56372		population	eng	This species is known from only one specimen.
56372		threats	eng	The threats are unknown, but the type locality is within a protected area.
56373		conservation	eng	Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins is the only protected area from which this species is currently known. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records.
56373		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins, in Iguape, São Paulo State, Brazil. The type locality is at around 200m asl.
56373		habitat	eng	This species was found in a waterfall habitat at the edge of the rainforest. Males called from steep rock surfaces or in rock crevices, sitting near or under waterfalls. Larvae are presumably found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams, as with other species in the genus.
56373		population	eng	It has not been recorded again since it was first collected, so its population status remains unknown.
56373		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown, but its known range is within a protected area. Some other Cycloramphus species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56374		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Gaia in Paraná State. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56374		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Serra do Mar in the states of Paraná, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, in southern Brazil, at 500-900m asl.
56374		habitat	eng	This species is associated with fast-flowing streams and waterfalls in primary and old secondary forest. It sometimes hide in rock crevices. The larvae presumably develop out of the water in the splash zone of waterfalls, as is the case with other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species.
56374		population	eng	It has not been found since the original collections, when it was common. It is not known whether or not the lack of recent records is due to insufficient survey effort, or whether or not there might have been a genuine decline.
56374		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, logging, tourism and human settlement.
56375		conservation	eng	Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56375		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil; near Fazenda Unacau in São José da Vitória Municipality; and from a locality in Uruçuca Municipality (Dixo and Verdade 2004). It occurs up to 180m asl.
56375		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected among rocks about 100m from a stream. The large distance between the collection site and the stream suggests that it is not stream-dependent, and the species' morphology is similar to that of the other forest floor species with terrestrial larvae, such as <em>Cycloramphus stejnegeri</em>.
56375		population	eng	There is no information and there have been very few records.
56375		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, logging, fire and human settlement.
56376		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Estadual Serra da Graciosa. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56376		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, São João da Graciosa, in the Serra do Mar in the state of Paraná, Brazil, from 50-150m asl.
56376		habitat	eng	This species occurs in fast-flowing rocky streams, in which it reproduces, in lowland forest.
56376		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It has not been collected since the original collection in the late 1970s, despite survey efforts since 1986.
56376		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by tourism.
56377		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56377		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It has been recorded between 800-1,200m asl.
56377		habitat	eng	It is a forest species associated with streams. Reproduction is presumably by larval development in or near streams.
56377		population	eng	It was found to be common within its known range in the 1970s. However surveys in the past few years have not found any individuals. Surveys of the neighbouring suitable habitat are needed to establish whether or not it occurs there.
56377		threats	eng	The known range of this species is within a protected area, so there are no known threats to its habitat, and the reason for the apparent decline is still unknown (but chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out).
56378		conservation	eng	It occurs in Serra da Graciosa State Park. The creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records.
56378		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, São João da Graciosa, Serra do Mar in the state of Paraná, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 50-150m asl.
56378		habitat	eng	It occurs in fast-flowing rocky streams in lowland forest and it reproduces in streams.
56378		population	eng	The population is unknown. It has not been collected since the original collection in the late 1970s.
56378		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown. It is possibly threatened by tourism. Some other Cycloramphus species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56379		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Further research into the cause of the recent declines is needed.
56379		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar in the state of São Paulo, in Brazil, from about 800m asl.
56379		habitat	eng	This species is found under, or on top of, rocks in or next to small forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It presumably has larvae that are found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams, like other members of the genus.
56379		population	eng	This is a reasonably common species; however, there has been an unexplained decline over its whole range recently. It was once common in Boracéia, but has been considered locally extinct there since 1988.
56379		threats	eng	There is a steel works on the coast that pollutes the water, which might be affecting local populations. The reason for the observed decline is currently unknown, but chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
56380		conservation	eng	This species' known range is within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos.
56380		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few localities in a small region of the Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It is known from relatively high altitudes.
56380		habitat	eng	This species is usually found under leaf-litter in forest, or sometimes in burrows, but it has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. The eggs are laid under leaf-litter in burrows or under logs. It has terrestrial larvae which live away from water.
56380		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, but it is not regularly encountered when collecting.
56380		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown, but known localities are within protected areas.
56381		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.
56381		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is the most southerly extent of the Serra Geral in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where it is found from 400-900m asl.
56381		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforest in fast-moving rocky streams, in which it reproduces. The larvae attach themselves to rocks in the splash zone.
56381		population	eng	It has not been recorded since 1982, perhaps due to a lack of survey work.
56381		threats	eng	Road construction has altered streams where this species was once found, and might constitute a threat to it.
56382		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
56382		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a single locality on top of the Marahuaca tepui, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,550m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56382		habitat	eng	It occurs in a high montane environment on top of the tepui. Its breeding habits are not known, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
56382		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56382		threats	eng	There is no direct information.
56383		conservation	eng	It occurs within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.
56383		distribution	eng	This species is known from Vegas Falls from the summit of Mount Duida, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at 1,402m asl. It might also occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56383		habitat	eng	It inhabits the foothills of the montane tepui environment. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development, like other species of the genus.
56383		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56383		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56384		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Reserva Comunal El Sira, which is an indigenous people's reserve.
56384		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Huancabamba, Pasco Department, and Huánuco Department, in central Peru. Further investigations might reveal that this cryptic species has a wider range. Its altitudinal range is 220-1,000m asl.
56384		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial leaf-litter species of lowland and premontane tropical moist forest. It probably breeds in a foam nest at the edge of temporary ponds.
56384		population	eng	This cryptic species is known only from a few specimens.
56384		threats	eng	General localized threats to it are habitat clearance for smallholder agricultural development, and for coffee and other cash crop plantations.
56385		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas throughout much of its range.
56385		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazonian lowlands of Peru (Departments of Amazonas, Huánuco, Junin, Loreto, Pasco, Madre de Dios, and San Martin), Amazonian Ecuador, southern Colombia, and adjacent western Brazil. It might occur in Bolivia, although this requires further investigation. It has an altitudinal range of 100-1,100m asl.
56385		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, leaf-litter species of lowland and premontane tropical and floodplain forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It breeds in foam nests and deposits eggs in temporary ponds. It is also present in disturbed and secondary forest.
56385		population	eng	This species is abundant and common.
56385		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56386		conservation	eng	In Peru, the area of the range has been proposed as a Priority by the Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Colombia it is present in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu; Parque Nacional El Pure and Parque Nacional Cahuinari.
56386		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Colonia Departmento (Loreto), northeastern Peru and Amazonas in southeastern Colombia. Its altitudinal range is below 200m asl. The limits of its distribution are not very well known, and it can be expected to range more widely.
56386		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy (wide leaved) flooding forest with and wide leaves. Generally, it is present close to forest streams. It is present in secondary forest, but it is not known if it can occur in degraded forest.
56386		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56386		threats	eng	There are no major threats and there are large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56387		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56387		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,818m asl.
56387		habitat	eng	It inhabits mesic woods and forests, and open habitats, usually found under ground litter, logs and trash. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development. It is also found in urban areas.
56387		population	eng	It is very common in forested, non-forested and urban areas.
56387		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
56388		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
56388		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cauca department, northwards to Antioquia department, in cloud forests on the western flanks of the Western Andes, in Colombia, from 2,000-2,600m asl.
56388		habitat	eng	This species is found on vegetation in primary and secondary forest and forest edge. It is a direct developing species. It is not known from open habitats and requires dense vegetation.
56388		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56388		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
56389		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed.
56389		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and its vicinity between Papallacta and Cuyuja in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,660-2,750m asl. It probably occurs elsewhere, though it is unlikely to be a widespread species.
56389		habitat	eng	It occurs in upper montane cloud forest, and presumably breeds by direct development. There is no information on its adaptability to disturbed habitats.
56389		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
56389		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, creation of plantations, logging, and human settlement.
56390		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56390		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of the Darien Province, Panama, south through the Pacific lowlands and western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia to El Oro Province in southern Ecuador. It also occurs from the northern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental to the Middle Magdalena Valley in Colombia, and in Gorgona Island, Colombia. It ranges from sea level to 2,330m asl.
56390		habitat	eng	It is a species that has been found in forest clearings, road cuts in forest, and banana, cacao and coffee plantations, as well as in forested areas (the latter in Gorgona Island. Urbina-C. and Londoño-M. (2003) found that this species is greatly influenced by the canopy cover. It is found in both lowland and montane habitats. It is mostly terrestrial, sometimes occurring off the ground in vegetation. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are deposited either on the forest floor or low in the vegetation.
56390		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56390		threats	eng	It is not facing any significant threats.
56391		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, although these are in need of improved and strengthened management.
56391		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guantanamo Province, Cuba, with an altitudinal range of 30-1,150m asl.
56391		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic hardwood forests on the ground and in rock crevices. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56391		population	eng	It is uncommon even in suitable habitat.
56391		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agriculture, subsistence farming, charcoaling, and tourism (both because of infrastructure development and the impact from tourists).
56392		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected area., and there is an urgent need for the establishment of a protected area to safeguard the primary forest remaining at the type locality. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
56392		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, El Estadero, in Caldas Department, Colombia, from 2,000m asl.
56392		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of the understorey of very wet primary forest, and it breeds by direct development with eggs laid on the ground. It has not been recorded outside primary forest, suggesting that it is very sensitive to habitat disturbance.
56392		population	eng	It is not thought to be a rare species, but it is a difficult and dangerous area in which to conduct survey work.
56392		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and destruction due to logging, agriculture and the planting of illegal crops.
56393		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. This species is in need of close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
56393		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Pilalo on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in central Ecuador, at 760-2,486m asl. It is not likely to occur anywhere else.
56393		habitat	eng	It inhabits a region of cool cloud forest, but it is rarely observed within the forest, and is more often seen in exceedingly moist microhabitats in cleared areas near forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56393		population	eng	It is extremely common in its tiny area of distribution.
56393		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat destruction and degradation might impact this species, though it seems to adapt relatively well to degraded areas. However, its restricted range means that it might not be able to withstand extremely severe habitat alteration that leads to a drying out of its moist microhabitats.
56394		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. Within Peru, the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. In Ecuador, it occurs in the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. In Colombia it is known from the Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and La Paya protected areas. In Brazil it has been recorded in the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá.
56394		distribution	eng	This species is generally an Amazonian species; it is present in the lowland reaches of the Andes in southern Ecuador; found in Departmento Loreto in northern Peru, southern Colombia, and Acre State Brazil. It can be found in elevations of 100-900m asl.
56394		habitat	eng	This is primarily an Amazonian species that invades the lower reaches of the Andes (Duellman and Pramuk, 1999). In lowland forest, is found in terra firme and seasonally flooded forest with a close canopy and wide leaves. Individuals are usually found perched on leaves at night (10-15m); by day they have been found in bromeliads and sleeping on the undersides of leaves on bushes and trees (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994; Duellman, 1978). Feeds on ants and termites. This is a direct development species. The species is present in cultivated areas.
56394		population	eng	It is abundant in Colombia and Ecuador; known from relatively few individuals in Peru.
56394		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Within Peru selective wood extraction and oil exploitation (northern Peru) and colonization (central Peru) are specific threats.
56395		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce and the Cachalú private reserve.
56395		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a tiny area on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes, near Virolín, in the department of Santander, Colombia, at 1,740-2,400m asl.
56395		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation in the undergrowth of cloud forests, and can only be found in old-growth forest. It reproduces by direct development.
56395		population	eng	It is a very uncommon species that has declined dramatically since it was first discovered. In 2001, only two individuals were recorded in the entire year.
56395		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and livestock ranching.
56396		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56396		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the northern slopes of the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, near Aldea Vista Hermosa, Guatemala, at 600-650m asl. It might occur more widely.
56396		habitat	eng	It has been found only in undisturbed forest habit transitional between premontane moist and premontane wet forest. Animals were found on or under rocks, and on leaf-litter near streams. This species presumably breeds by direct development, with eggs that are laid on land.
56396		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56396		threats	eng	It is facing habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activity and wood extraction. Water pollution is also likely to be a problem.
56397		conservation	eng	Its range includes a forest reserve, but there is no management of this area for conservation. There is an urgent need for effective and expanded protection of the pine forest habitat of this species.
56397		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality: Loma del Espejo, Alturas de Pizarras del Sur, Sabanas Llanas, Pinar del Río, in western Cuba. It was collected at 130m asl.
56397		habitat	eng	It occurs in open, secondary pine forest, with a herbaceous vegetation layer primarily comprising <em>Lycopodiella</em> sp., ferns (<em>Pteris</em> sp.), and grass (<em>Eleocharis</em> sp.). The soil is acidic and is derived from sandstone. It is found on the ground under leaf-litter and other cover. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56397		population	eng	It is moderately common but is a very cryptic species.
56397		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to fires and clear-cut logging of the forest.
56398		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56398		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: vereda El Centro, Betulia Municipality, Santander Department, Colombia, at an altitude of 2,280m asl. It might occur more widely.
56398		habitat	eng	This species is associated with mature montane forest, where the holotype was found in leaf-litter. It is presumed to have a direct development breeding strategy.
56398		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
56398		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
56399		conservation	eng	The type locality is wholly within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
56399		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Parque Nacional Las Orquídeas, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,410m asl. It might be more widely distributed.
56399		habitat	eng	This is an inhabitant of the understorey of very wet primary forest. It is a direct developing species.
56399		population	eng	It is not common.
56399		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species within its known distribution, which is a large area of undisturbed and currently non-threatened forest.
56400		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza and Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz.
56400		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is from the Paramos de Chingaza, Guerrero, and Sumapaz,  Cundinamarca Department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 2,600-3,300m asl.
56400		habitat	eng	It occurs in low shrubs in páramo habitat, and is able to tolerate some habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development.
56400		population	eng	It was recorded as abundant in appropriate habitat in 2001.
56400		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by fires and cattle ranching is a major threat.
56401		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56401		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western flank of the central Andes in the departments of Quindío, Valle del Cauca, Caldas and Risaralda, Colombia, from 2,650-3,100m asl.
56401		habitat	eng	It occurs on herbaceous vegetation or on humid rocks, about 20cm above the ground. It is possible to find individuals under small waterfalls or in small brooks covered by undergrowth, or under alder crops (<em>Alnus acuminata</em>) in the forest and forest edges. It has not been found outside forest habitat. Breeding is by direct development.
56401		population	eng	It is a very common species in its small range.
56401		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, since its habitat is relatively secure.
56402		conservation	eng	The only known locality is not within a protected area. Further survey work is needed to confirm the persistence of the species at the type locality, and any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56402		distribution	eng	This species is known from only one stream in Alta de Oso, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Chocó department, Colombia, at 950m asl.
56402		habitat	eng	This species occurs next to waterfalls and in channelled crevices, or on vegetation on the sides of the waterfalls. It breeds by direct development.
56402		population	eng	It has only been collected once and was observed to be uncommon. There have been numerous surveys of the type locality and surrounding areas since its original discovery, but the species has not been rediscovered.
56402		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation caused by subsistence wood collecting, agriculture (illegal crops), as well as pollution from the spraying of illegal crops, are all potential threats. Other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56403		conservation	eng	Although its range is wholly within Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional la Bayamesa, these protected areas are in need of improved management.
56403		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Turquino Peak, Sierra Maestra, in Cuba, at 1,700-1,974m asl.
56403		habitat	eng	It occurs in high-elevation closed-canopy moist forest, and has not been recorded from disturbed forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56403		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56403		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place as a result of clear-cutting, charcoaling, agricultural expansion, disturbance from touristic activities, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56404		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Jaragua, but this park is not well managed and significant habitat destruction is ongoing within the park's limits; this protected area is in need of improved and strengthened management for biodiversity conservation. The species is also present in the Reserva Cientifica Via Panomámica Aceitillar.
56404		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Peninsula de Barahona, in Hispaniola, from sea level up to 600m asl.
56404		habitat	eng	It is found in dry scrub forest, and retreats by day into caves and rock crevices. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56404		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitat.
56404		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss from charcoaling and infrastructure development for human settlement. There is also a cement mine within the range of the species.
56405		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the protected areas at Yaxchilan, and the El Triunfo and El Ocote Biosphere Reserves (where extensive forest remains) in Mexico. Additional fieldwork is needed to evaluate the status of the populations in the field.
56405		distribution	eng	This species can be found from central Veracruz in Mexico to western El Peten, Guatemala, at 0-600m asl.
56405		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of lowland moist forest, and occurs in low vegetation, including under leaf sheaths of banana plants. Reproduction occurs by direct development, probably on the ground in moist leaf-litter.
56405		population	eng	This is a poorly known species that has not often been collected; little is known about its biology and ecology. It is locally common in Chiapas and is known from a single locality from El Peten, Guatemala.
56405		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of the original forest cover, in particular due to logging and agriculture.
56406		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas including the San Ramon, Monteverde, and Braulio Carrillo protected areas of Costa Rica, and Parque Internacional La Amistad (Costa Rica and Panama).
56406		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slope of northern and central Costa Rica, south to extreme north-western Panama. Its altitudinal range is 60-1,245m asl (Savage 2002).
56406		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and premontane wet forest and rainforest areas. It has been found active on low vegetation at night, and in bromeliads and leaf-litter during the day (Savage 2002). Breeding takes place by direct development, with the eggs possibly deposited on vegetation. It does not adapt well to modified habitats.
56406		population	eng	This species is rarely seen and continues to appear occasionally on censuses at the San Ramon Reserve and at Monteverde, Costa Rica. It has always been a rare species for which there is little information on population trends.
56406		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present, as the whole of its naturally small historic range is within well-managed protected areas.
56407		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. Within Peru the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). In Ecuador, the species is present in the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. It can be found in a number of Colombian protected areas. It is not known to occur in any Brazilian protected areas, but presumed to do so through its large range in this country.
56407		distribution	eng	This is an Amazonian species. In Ecuador it is known from many eastern localities at elevations up to 1,200m asl. In Peru it has been recorded from Departamento Loreto; Departamento Huanuco and southeast Peru in Departamento Madre de Dios. It is known only from a few localities in Amazonian Brazil (Amazonia) and is present at a single locality in Colombia (Santa Rosa de Sucumbios (400m asl) in Intend. Putumayo). Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.
56407		habitat	eng	It generally occurs in closed-canopy, primary tropical forest, and occasionally flooded forest. Individuals may be found in leaf-litter in primary forest by day, but are usually perched on, and call from, low vegetation in the forest at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). This is a direct development species with eggs and young completely independent of standing water. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unclear, although specimens have been found in secondary forest (Duellman, 1978).
56407		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
56407		threats	eng	There are no major threats. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging, colonisation and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56408		conservation	eng	Recommended conservation measures include improved management of the existing protected area and habitat maintenace within the national park.
56408		distribution	eng	This species has a very small range in the Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica, at 1,650-2,250m asl.
56408		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, found hiding under rocks in closed-canopy forest, and is not tolerant of habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56408		population	eng	It was once a common species within its restricted range. It was last collected in 2006 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56408		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park, the primary threat remains habitat destruction (even within the National Park where there are coffee plantations). Disturbance as a result of touristic activities is also a threat, since visitors to the park have a marked influence on the habitat and leave a great deal of litter behind.
56409		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.
56409		distribution	eng	This species has a small range in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, where it has been recorded from 1,000-2,340m asl.
56409		habitat	eng	It is found in closed-canopy forest under rocks and logs in the daytime, and calls in the early evening from low herbaceous vegetation. It has been recorded from disturbed forest, but only in very recently disturbed forest suggesting that it might only be hanging on and not persisting in this habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56409		population	eng	It is a very common species within its restricted range.
56409		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56410		conservation	eng	It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56410		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the middle and upper Río Grijalva Basin from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the Montañas de Cuilco in western Guatemala to north of Ocozocuautla in Chiapas, Mexico, from 600-1,000m asl.
56410		habitat	eng	This species occurs in premontane dry forest along small tributary streams. It reproduces by direct development.
56410		population	eng	It is probably uncommon in Guatemala.
56410		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution are the major threats to this species.
56411		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, but improved protection of habitat at lower elevations, particularly in the south, is needed.
56411		distribution	eng	This species has a small range in the interior of Dominica, where it has been recorded from 300-1,200m asl.
56411		habitat	eng	Although a habitat generalist, it is an arboreal species with a preference for higher elevation rainforests, where the forest becomes a little more open. The eggs develop directly without a larval stage.  It has been found in disturbed areas, such as along access roads created to support the hydroelectric project in Parque Nacional Morne Trois Pitons.
56411		population	eng	It is generally abundant, and fills the ecological niche occupied by <em>Eleutherodactylus martinicensis</em> at lower elevations.
56411		threats	eng	On Dominica, the montane forests are largely inaccessible and secure due to the rugged topography of the area. However, there is some degradation taking place in the south of the island due to small-scale farming and selective logging.
56412		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Colombia, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
56412		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in southern Colombia in the Pacific lowlands and slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the Departments of Nariño and Valle del Cauca, south to the Río Mira in extreme northern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 100-1,600m asl.
56412		habitat	eng	It is a forest inhabitant, occurring from tropical lowland forest to lower cloud forest. The ability of this species to adapt to disturbed habitats is unknown, although it is probably restricted to closed forest. It is closely associated with small streams, and only rarely strays from the immediate vicinity of these; they are not found along larger rivers. It is active at night, sitting on rocks or in rocky crevices, or on very steep cliffs alongside streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56412		population	eng	It is a very uncommon species.
56412		threats	eng	The major threat is probably habitat loss, due to agricultural development (including plantations, and the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Pollution, resulting from the spraying of illegal crops, is also a significant threat.
56413		conservation	eng	One of the two recorded sites is in Parque Nacional Celaque. In view of the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56413		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in the Montana de Celaque, Departments of Lempira and Ocopepeque, western Honduras, at 1,400-1,840m asl.
56413		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground along mountain streams in premontane and lower montane moist forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, with eggs laid on land.
56413		population	eng	It has always been extremely rare, and might now be extinct.
56413		threats	eng	All streamside <em>Craugastor</em> known to occur above 900m asl have disappeared in Honduras for reasons that remain unclear, although infection with chytridiomycosis is clearly a possibility. Other threats include agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, forest fires, water pollution, and landslides.
56414		conservation	eng	Much of the known range of this species is in protected areas. However, further surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and determine its current population status; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56414		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of the northern and central portions of the Costa Rican cordilleras at an altitude of 1,000-1,200m asl (Savage 2002).
56414		habitat	eng	This nocturnal arboreal frog inhabits premontane wet forest and rainforest. It usually is found close to streams, but has occasionally been collected in bromeliads as much as 5m above ground. Males call from stream banks, and females descend from trees for mating (Savage 2002). Eggs are laid out of the water on the ground, and breeding occurs by direct development.
56414		population	eng	It was once common, or at least regularly seen, in Monteverde and the San Ramon Reserve, but as of August 2007, it has still not been recorded since 1990, despite searches, thus suggesting that a serious decline has taken place (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). It has also not been seen in Cascajal, San Jose Province, since 1972 (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.).
56414		threats	eng	This species has disappeared from apparently suitable habitats, with the implication that the major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis (perhaps in combination with the effects of climate change), leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane amphibian species that are associated with streams.
56416		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, although coffee plantations have been expanding within the park's limits. Improved management of this important protected area is needed.
56416		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains, Jamaica, at an altitude of 545-1,970m asl.
56416		habitat	eng	It is found in deep woods on streamside rocks and among ground litter; the males call from concealed terrestrial sites. It can only tolerate very temporary habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are laid on the ground.
56416		population	eng	It is common in old-growth forests.
56416		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and destruction, primarily due to smallholder farming activities, the removal of woody vegetation, and the impact of tourist activities.
56417		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this largely unknown species.
56417		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 2,770m asl on the western slopes of the Cordilera de Huancabamba, Piura Department, Peru. The range for this species is incompletely known; it is suspected to be endemic to Huancabamba but this cannot be confirmed (Wild pers comm.)
56417		habitat	eng	Its habitat is humid montane forest. The single known (male) specimen was calling from a reed leaf 0.5m above the ground at night. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56417		population	eng	This species has been named from a single specimen.
56417		threats	eng	There is regional destruction and loss of habitats for livestock rearing and selective wood extraction in the area, and these threats could affect this species.
56418		conservation	eng	Much of the known range of this species is in protected areas. However, further surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and determine its current population status; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56418		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cerro Cacao in the Cordillera de Guanacaste, Cordillera de Tilarán (1,200-1,600m asl), and on the northern (600-1,700m asl) and eastern (900-1,400m asl) slopes of Volcán Poas (Cordillera Central) in Costa Rica (Savage 2002).
56418		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical premontane and lower montane forest. It is nocturnal, foraging along steep sloping banks of mountain streams (Savage 2002). A female has been observed to lay her clutch of eggs in a hole and then cover it with sand (Hayes 1985).
56418		population	eng	The species has disappeared from Monteverde where it was abundant until the 1980s. There was one sighting in the northern part of the Cordillera de Tilaran in 1994, but the site has not been resurveyed since (J.A. Pounds pers. comm.). Recent surveys in Cerro Cacao (2001) and the Cordillera Central where the species was previously recorded have not revealed any individuals (F. Bolaños and G. Chaves pers. comm.). As of August 2007, there had been no new reports despite surveys within the species range (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
56418		threats	eng	Since this species has disappeared from apparently suitable habitats-and some parts of its original habitat remain pristine-the major threat to the species is likely to be chytridiomycosis (perhaps in synergy with climate change), which has lead to catastrophic population declines in many other amphibian species that are associated with high-elevation streams.
56419		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas, but might occur in Parque Nacional Pico de Tancitaro. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of the species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56419		distribution	eng	Historically, this species ranged in a wide area in Michoacán, Mexico, but it is now restricted to north-western and central Michoacán at around 1,500m asl.
56419		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pine-oak forest. It is clearly a terrestrial species that prefers to live under stones and on the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56419		population	eng	There is no information regarding the population status of this species.
56419		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and infrastructure development for human settlements.
56420		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama. Continued protection of primary forest habitat is essential to ensure the survival of this species.
56420		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chicoral in Valle del Cauca Department, northwards to Pueblo Rico in Risaralda Department, in the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,880-2,500m asl.
56420		habitat	eng	It is found on low herbaceous vegetation or on epiphytic vegetation in forest habitats, and has not been recorded outside primary forest. It breeds by direct development.
56420		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
56420		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities, including the planting of illegal crops.
56421		conservation	eng	The Venezuelan populations are within Parque Nacional El Tamá and the Estación Demonstrativo El Rasgon. Its occurrence in protected areas in Colombia is unclear.
56421		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Norte de Santander and Santander, Colombia, and nearby at Macizo de Tamá in Venezuela. Its altitudinal range is 1,900-3,550m asl.
56421		habitat	eng	It is a cloud forest species, also living in páramo grassland and sub-páramo bushland areas. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is usually found at night on low vegetation; during the day it hides under rocks, logs or among vegetation. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.
56421		population	eng	It is common in Colombia, but there is little information on its population status in Venezuela.
56421		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Fire might also be a threat. However, it has a broad altitudinal range, and overall its habitats are probably not seriously threatened.
56422		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador.
56422		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands and the lower slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from Serranía de Baudó south to northwestern Ecuador. It occurs from sea level to 1,100m asl.
56422		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland and submontane forest, not occurring in degraded habitats. It lives mainly along clearwater, gravely streams flowing through swampy moist rainforest. It is commonly found along small, sluggish streams at night, usually on the ground or on rocks beside or in the stream, or sitting in shallow water on gravel, silt, or submerged leaf-litter. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56422		population	eng	It is an uncommon to moderately common species.
56422		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56423		conservation	eng	The type locality is protected inside Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.
56423		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small stream in Rancho Grande, at 1,090m asl, in Aragua State, Venezuela.
56423		habitat	eng	Its habitat is montane streams in cloud forest.
56423		population	eng	It has not been seen for nearly fifty years, despite it being known from a well-surveyed area, so its population status is currently unclear. However, surveys in this area have not targeted this species or its microhabitat, so it is possible that it has been overlooked.
56423		threats	eng	This species is probably not threatened by habitat degradation as the habitat at the only known locality remains intact. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a threat to this species.
56424		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the two known localities.
56424		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the lower cloud forest along the eastern base of the Cordillera Central, in the departments of Antioquia and Caldas, in Colombia, from 700-1,200m asl.
56424		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that has been recorded from secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
56424		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown; there have not been enough surveys in this area.
56424		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
56425		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56425		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of the Puerto Rican Bank, including Puerto Rico, the British Virgin Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. It has also been introduced to Panama City in Panama where its range appears to be expanding. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,219m asl.
56425		habitat	eng	This species inhabits xeric to mesic forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development. It is very common in disturbed habitats, pastures, open forests and urban areas. It has also been recorded in urban areas, in particular in residential gardens and vacant land, in Panama City where it is introduced.
56425		population	eng	The species is not declining in the lowlands. The situation in the highlands is unknown.<br/><br/>This species appears to be declining wherever <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> spreads, but numbers are still high (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
56425		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, since forest habitats are currently spreading on Puerto Rico.
56426		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Montanos del Mico Catchment Reserve, and might also occur in Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas. Close population monitoring is required given that this species is known from only a few sites.
56426		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Montañas del Mico and the northern slopes of the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, in the Departamento de Izabal, eastern Guatemala, at 591-786m asl.
56426		habitat	eng	Although it is found at relatively low elevations, it lives in typical cloud forest conditions with frequent fog and drizzling rain. It is found in undisturbed forest only. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
56426		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56426		threats	eng	Small-scale wood extraction is taking place, but much of its habitat is included in a protected area.
56427		conservation	eng	It occurs in the private Reserva Natural La Planada in Colombia, and in the Bosque Protector Río Guajalito in Ecuador.
56427		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two general areas in the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador: the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in extreme southern Colombia in the department of Nariño and adjacent Ecuador; and in the Saloya River Valley in Pichincha Province, north-western Ecuador. It is likely to occur between these two areas. Its known altitudinal range is 1,750-2,120m asl.
56427		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane cloud forest that is only found in undisturbed habitats. Individuals may be found in the leaf-litter and on low herbaceous vegetation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known.
56427		population	eng	It is generally a rare species, although it is apparently moderately common at La Planada in Ecuador, close to the Colombian border.
56427		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56428		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work in the region is required to determine the population status of this species.
56428		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 333-1,640 m asl, although it occurs at lower altitudes only on the northern slope.
56428		habitat	eng	It lives in closed-canopy forest. Males call near water, and it breeds by direct development with the eggs laid on the ground.
56428		population	eng	This species was formerly common in good habitat. It was last observed in 2005 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56428		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56429		conservation	eng	It occurs in the La Planada private reserve in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56429		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (Imbabura and Pichincha Provinces) and extreme southern Colombia (Department of Nariño). It is likely to occur between these two areas, and perhaps more widely. Its known altitudinal range is from 1,460-2,800m asl.
56429		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane cloud forest, also surviving in secondary growth where there is good vegetation cover. It has been found on low vegetation in dense forest at night, sometimes close to streams. Juveniles are active during the day on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are deposited in leaf-litter.
56429		population	eng	It is common in both undisturbed and secondary habitats.
56429		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56430		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56430		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 3,370m asl in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in Amazonas Department, Peru.
56430		habitat	eng	It was found in páramo alpine habitat with scattered trees, often stunted and covered with lichens and mosses. Bushes and spiny bamboo are also characteristic of this habitat. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56430		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it was named from just a single specimen.
56430		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown, although there is regional destruction and loss of páramo habitat through an increase in livestock grazing, other agricultural uses and selective wood extraction.
56431		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56431		distribution	eng	This recently described species is presently known from three localities at 680-1,200m asl on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in the province of San Martin, northern Peru. It most likely has a much wider range.
56431		habitat	eng	Individuals were found in lower humid montane forest. A juvenile was observed on an elephant-ear plant at night, and a male was on the leaf of a herbaceous plant at night. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56431		population	eng	Only a few individuals have been observed, and two adult males and one adult female were used to describe this species.
56431		threats	eng	Within its current known range it is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural development (including creation of coffee plantations), selective wood extraction and human settlement.
56432		conservation	eng	In the Dominican Republic, this species occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra Baoruco Oriental. There is an urgent need for strengthened and expanded protection of forest habitats in the Massif de la Selle in Haiti.
56432		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Massif de la Selle in Haiti and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola, at an altitude of 152-1,697m asl.
56432		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in closed pine and hardwood forests. Eggs are laid in bromeliads and on the ground under rocks. Habitat quality is declining and the species has been found in degraded habitats.
56432		population	eng	It is common within suitable habitat.
56432		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to small-scale agriculture, cattle grazing, mining and charcoal collecting is taking place at a rapid rate in both Massif de la Selle and the Sierra de Baoruco.
56433		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Carrasco. This species requires close population monitoring given that it has a very restricted range.
56433		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality: the province of Chapare, in the department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, at 2,100m asl, and from a very nearby locality at 1,700m asl.
56433		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species that inhabits moist montane forest. It appears to be dependent on the presence of epiphytes. There is no information known about breeding habits, but it probably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.
56433		population	eng	It is a common species at the type locality.
56433		threats	eng	Logging might be a threat in the future, but at present there are no major threats, and the population is stable.
56434		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56434		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,212m asl.
56434		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of relatively mesic areas, including forests, caves, agricultural fields, and near human habitations. It is a very adaptable species. Eggs are laid in depressions in moist soil and it breeds by direct development.
56434		population	eng	This species is very common in suitable habitats.
56434		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
56435		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.
56435		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities at altitudes of 2,963-3,330m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Colán in Amazonas Department, northern Peru. The complete range of this recently described species is not known, and it might be endemic to the Cordillera de Colán.
56435		habitat	eng	It can be found in evergreen forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas, and is not known from modified habitats. The paratype was found in a grassy bog above the tree line. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56435		population	eng	A few individuals have been observed in the area, and one adult female and one adult male were used to describe this species.
56435		threats	eng	Selective wood extraction might be taking place at the site from which this species is known (and would therefore constitute a threat to it), but this requires confirmation.
56436		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay, and also Parque Nacional Cajas.
56436		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andean Cordillera (Cordillera de Matanga to the Abra de Zamora) in southern Ecuador from 2,195-2,850m asl. It has also been reported from 3,400m asl at Río Mazan, Azuay. It is recorded from six localities.
56436		habitat	eng	It inhabits páramo grassland, sub-páramo shrubland and cloud forests (Lynch and Duellman 1980). Breeding is by direct development.
56436		population	eng	There is very little information available on the current population status of this species. Four individuals were collected in 1985, but there appear to be no subsequent records, though this is probably due to a lack of survey work within its range.
56436		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat from agricultural activities and dam construction.
56437		conservation	eng	It occurs in the protected areas of Parques Nacionales Sierra de Bahoruco, Parques Sierra de Bahoruco Oriental and in the Reserva Cientifica Laguna Rincón in the Dominican Republic, and also in protected areas in Haiti, but there is a need for improved management of these areas for conservation.
56437		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Massif de la Hotte, Massif de la Selle, Sierra de Baoruco, Cordillera Central, and Sierra de Neiba, in Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 800-2,500m asl.
56437		habitat	eng	It is found in upland closed-canopy forest and forest edge, under rocks and debris. Eggs are laid under rocks, and it breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
56437		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56437		threats	eng	The cloud forest habitat of this species is being destroyed at a rapid rate, even in protected areas, as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56438		conservation	eng	The species' range in Mexico includes several protected areas.
56438		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Arizona (Santa Rita and Pajarito mountains), southeastern New Mexico (lower Pecos River drainage), and central Texas (Edwards Plateau escarpment) in the USA, southward to central and western Mexico to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. In Texas, it is present in most of the canyons and in some other rocky areas from the Edwards Plateau to the Big Bend (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999). The species is found between 404-2,945 m asl.
56438		habitat	eng	This species inhabits relatively low elevation areas in shrublands and deserts including treeless, dry, yucca-covered hills and brushy woodland, open pine forests and juniper-live oak woodland (Texas). It can also be found in large, low clumps of cactus (Sonora) and in rocky limestone areas. In Texas, it is found in canyons, often associated with creosote bush and mesquite in the west and with maples and other deciduous trees in the east (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is a terrestrial species and hides under rocks, in caves, or crevices. It lays eggs on land under rocks or logs, or in caves or crevices. It breeds by direct development.
56438		population	eng	This is a very abundant species in Mexico. In Texas, this species is seldom seen and apparently exists only at low density (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999).
56438		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
56439		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
56439		distribution	eng	This species is known from three sites in Antioquia Department (Antadó, Murrí, and Urrao) and at comparable altitudes on the western slope of the Serranía de los Paraguas, in Chocó Department, Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,900m asl. It might occur more widely, in particular between the two currently known areas.
56439		habitat	eng	It is found on herbaceous vegetation, in primary forest only. It is a direct developing species.
56439		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
56439		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops are localized threats, but there are no major threats to this species at present.
56440		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, incuding the Valle Nuevo Natural Scientific Reserve.
56440		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic, from 788-1,879m asl.
56440		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, inhabiting montane closed forest where it is often found in bromeliads. The males guard eggs laid in bromeliads.
56440		population	eng	It is relatively uncommon even within suitable habitat.
56440		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat destruction due to agriculture and charcoal production.
56441		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but there is insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being degraded.
56441		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and western Cuba, including the Isla de la Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,316m asl.
56441		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in mesic primary and secondary forests. It can tolerate shade grown coffee plantations, but relies on tall trees so it is not tolerant of very disturbed areas. The eggs are laid in bromeliads and also on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56441		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56441		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of the forest, agriculture, infrastructure development for tourism and human settlement and disturbance of the forest by tourists are the main threats.
56442		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and Parque Nacional Texiguat. Further research is necessary to establish the cause of declines at high elevations, particularly to ascertain whether chytrid is a threat.
56442		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Nombre de Dios, the Montaña La Muralla, and the Montaña Texiguat, in the departments of Atlántida, Colón, Yoro and Olancho in north-central Honduras, at 50-1,550m asl.
56442		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground, along small and medium-sized streams in lowland moist forest, and premontane and lower montane wet forest. It does not tend to survive in degraded habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
56442		population	eng	The lowland populations appear to be common, but higher elevation populations are severely reduced above 900m asl. However, a recent study found lowland (120 m) frogs strongly infected with chytrid fungus (Puschendorf et al., 2006).
56442		threats	eng	The major threats include deforestation as a result of agricultural and livestock encroachment, human settlements, logging, fires and landslides. In addition, chytrid infection has recently been reported for a lowland population (Puschendorf et al., 2006).
56443		conservation	eng	It is present in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.
56443		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from altitudes of 1,700-2,030m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Colán in Amazonas Department, in northern Peru. The complete range of this recently described species is not known, and it might be endemic to the Cordillera de Colán.
56443		habitat	eng	Its habitat is evergreen forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas. All individuals were found on the ground in humid montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56443		population	eng	Six adult females and one adult male were used to describe this species.
56443		threats	eng	Selective wood extraction might be taking place at the sites from which this species is known (and would therefore constitute a threat to it), but this requires confirmation.
56444		conservation	eng	It occurs within Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.
56444		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an isolated tepui in the Venezuelan state of Amazonas, specifically at the north base of Pico Tamacuari, in the Sierra Tapirapecó (01° 13'N; 64° 42'W), from 1,160-1,460m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56444		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial, nocturnal frog inhabiting montane tepui forest. Specimens have been found at night on low vegetation. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it presumably breeds by direct development.
56444		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56444		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.
56445		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Cerro Hoya, but expanded protection of habitat on the Azuero Peninsula is needed. Further research is also required to determine whether chytrid poses a real threat to this species.
56445		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Azuero Peninsula, Panama, where it has been recorded at altitudes of 61-940m asl.
56445		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species associated with streams in dry lowland and montane forest. It breeds by direct development and eggs are deposited on the ground.
56445		population	eng	It is apparently locally abundant.
56445		threats	eng	General habitat loss through deforestation is a major threat. Some other species of the genus that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56446		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia, such as Los Farallones de Cali and Munchique National Natural Parks.
56446		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from the Department of Antioquia south to Narino, with a possibly isolated population in Pichincha Province in northwestern Ecuador. There are additional populations on the northern slope of Cordillera Occidental (Antioquia), and on the eastern slope of Cordillera Central (Antioquia and Caldas). It occurs at elevations of 1,200-2,200m asl.
56446		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species of montane cloud forest, including secondary forest and clearings, but not in very open areas. It is not associated with streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, though the egg deposition site is not known.
56446		population	eng	It is a not a common species.
56446		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56447		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. Additional survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56447		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the Departament of Santander, Colombia, 1,740-2,300m asl.
56447		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation in the undergrowth of cloud forests. It can also be found at forest edges and shrubs in pastures, so it can tolerate some level of disturbance, but probably cannot tolerate the complete opening up of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56447		population	eng	This is a rare species that was last recorded in 2002.
56447		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and cattle ranching.
56448		conservation	eng	Its known range is wholly within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
56448		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Las Orquideas, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,780-2,000m asl. It might occur outside this locality but there are no other records at present.
56448		habitat	eng	This is an inhabitant of premontane and cloud forests, which is usually found on vegetation at medium to low heights above the ground, inside the forest or at the forest edge, but not outside forest habitat. It is a direct developing species.
56448		population	eng	It is not a very common species.
56448		threats	eng	There are no threats at present to its habitat in the protected area in which it is found.
56449		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.
56449		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, at an altitude of 890-2,325m asl.
56449		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species dependent on closed-canopy forest, retreating by day into bromeliads. Eggs are laid inside the bromeliads and the species breeds by direct development.
56449		population	eng	This species was common within its original habitat, which has now largely been destroyed.
56449		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being destroyed at a high rate throughout the Tiburon Peninsula, as a result of logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture. Only small pockets of intact habitat remain..
56450		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it is found close to the northern limit of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. There is a definite need for expanded and improved protection of the sub-páramo habitat of this species.
56450		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, 13.5km east of Loja, at the crest of the Cordillera (Abra de Zamora) between Loja Province and Zamora-Chinchipe Province, Ecuador, at 2,800m asl. It might occur elsewhere, though it is unlikely to have a very wide distribution.
56450		habitat	eng	It lives in high-altitude sub-páramo bushland habitats. Specimens have been collected during the day from terrestrial bromeliads. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56450		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
56450		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing within its range, with the expansion of both agricultural activities and pine plantations.
56451		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de la Guadeloupe, but the area is not well managed for biodiversity conservation. There is a need to expand and strengthen the existing protected area coverage of Guadeloupe. Furthermore, the species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the combined likely impact of introduced predators and the potential threat of chytridiomycosis; it may be necessary to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.
56451		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Basse-Terre portion of Guadeloupe, from sea level up to 1,400m asl.
56451		habitat	eng	It is aquatic, living in large and small streams, preferring boulders in reasonably fast-moving waters. It is usually found in rainforest, and also grassy savannahs. It only occurs in disturbed habitats where there are trees along rivers. The eggs are laid on vegetation and in rock crevices, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
56451		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitats within its small range.
56451		threats	eng	The stream habitat on Guadeloupe is fragile, small in extent, and the habitat continues to decline. The forest is being cleared for agriculture, especially banana plantations, and also for the construction of human settlements; the activities of local fishermen also lead to habitat disturbance. Another major threat is pollution from pesticides used in banana plantations, as well as from domestic sources. Predation from introduced predators, such as rats, cats and mongooses, may also be having an impact on numbers, while the introduced congener <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em> might be a competitor. Chytridiomycosis has also been recorded as present in some amphibian species on Dominica, and is a serious potential threat to this species.
56452		conservation	eng	Besides the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, this species also occurs in the Protected Landscape Maisi-Yumuri. Habitat maintenance within the range of this species is an essential requirement.
56452		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely restricted range in two locations in eastern Cuba: the mouth and lower reaches of the Río Yumuri; and the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt (though the taxonomic status of this population has been questioned). The altitudinal range is from 30-212m asl.
56452		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, found at low elevations in closed forest. They call from shrubs, and are also found in rock crevices. Breeding takes place by direct development. Although they can occur in coffee plantations, they are not found in open habitats.
56452		population	eng	There are only a few records of this species, despite extensive survey efforts to locate it. However, the species appears to be locally common when heard calling.
56452		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to subsistence wood collecting, and smallholder farming activities, as well as moderate impacts from touristic activities.
56453		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay. There is a need for expanded and improved protection of the sub-páramo habitat of this species.
56453		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eight localities on the eastern face of the Cordillera Oriental, east of Cuenca, in Morono-Santiago Province, Ecuador, at 2,195-2,988m asl.
56453		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-altitude sub-páramo bushland and cloud forests, but can survive in somewhat degraded forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56453		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56453		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing within its range, with the expansion of both agricultural activities and pine plantations.
56454		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56454		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the area of the type locality of Sitio Sisavita, Vereda Carrizal, in the municipality of Cucutilla, Norte de Santander Department, Colombia. Animals have been collected at 2,250m asl, and it might occur more widely than is currently known.
56454		habitat	eng	It appears to be specifically associated with patches of moss along trails (presumably trails within forest). It is not found within the forest interior or in open areas. Animals may be found perched on ferns at night. It is a direct developing species and is thought to be a seasonal breeder. It is assumed to not be adaptable to habitat change.
56454		population	eng	This is an abundant species within its specific habitat type.
56454		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss due to smallholder farming, and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
56455		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56455		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Miquihuana at 2,000m asl, south-west of Victoria in extreme southwestern Tamaulipas Province, and from northeastern Querétaro, both in Mexico. It is found between 1,590-2,000m asl.
56455		habitat	eng	Specimens have been found in shrublands and adjacent conifer forests, and in live oak forests. It is assumed to be a direct developing species.
56455		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56455		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. However it appears to inhabit a very restricted area hence any kind of alteration or transformation of the species' habitat is a major threat.
56456		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul.
56456		distribution	eng	This species is known from two streams at altitudes of 500 and 730m asl on ridges extending from the Andes into the Amazonian Basin in San Martin Department, and from Río Pauya, Loreto Department, in northern Peru. It was relatively recently discovered and is likely to range much more widely.
56456		habitat	eng	All the adults were found on mossy boulders, and some juveniles were also discovered on herbaceous vegetation, at night in a deep ravine in lower humid montane forest. The type locality is a rocky gorge into which two streams plunge. The sides of the gorge are nearly vertical rock walls, and the floor of the gorge is littered with huge boulders, many of which support thin layers of moss. The second locality is a wooded, boulder-strewn with cacade stream on the road. This species breeds by direct development.
56456		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. Three adult males and two adult females were used to describe it.
56456		threats	eng	Within its current known range it is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural development (including the establishment of coffee plantations), selective wood extraction and human settlement. If this species is restricted to specific 'rocky gorge' type habitats, it might be particularly sensitive to habitat disturbance.
56457		conservation	eng	Although this species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, the type locality remains unprotected. Further research is needed to determine whether this species occurs outside the two known localities.
56457		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Murri) and from Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, both in the municipality of Frontino, in Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,100-2,000m asl.
56457		habitat	eng	It is usually found on low vegetation and in leaf-litter, inside cloud forests and very humid forest; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56457		population	eng	It is more common at Murri than at Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas.
56457		threats	eng	Outside the national park, there is increasing pressure on the remaining habitat from agricultural development, including the planting of illegal crops.
56458		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas and urgent protection of the cloud forest remnants in Mexico is required. Further work should be conducted to determine whether or not the recently documented declines are due to chytridiomycosis. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56458		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Atlantic foothills and slopes of south-eastern San Luis Potosi and northern Veracruz, to northern Oaxaca to the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. It is known from 400-1,900m asl.
56458		habitat	eng	It prefers rocky streams in premontane and lower montane wet forests, and is a direct developing species.
56458		population	eng	This is a common species, although recent surveys in Oaxaca, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from some sites.
56458		threats	eng	Intense and rapid disappearance of cloud forests is a major threat. Recently documented declines in Oaxaca could be due to chytridiomycosis.
56459		conservation	eng	The type locality does not fall within a protected area, and the habitat has been so badly disturbed that it might not even be suitable for protection. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not the species still survives at the type locality; any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56459		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality: 4km south of the junction of the Sonsón-Dorada and Argelia roads, Municipality of Sonsón, Department of Antioquia, in the northern part of the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes, at 2,350m asl.
56459		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary cloud forest on herbaceous vegetation and fallen leaves, and breeds by direct development.
56459		population	eng	It is uncommon; two specimens were collected in 1978 and a further four in 1981. Since then, repeated searches of the type locality have not found any individuals, and surveys in the surrounding areas have not recorded this species.
56459		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (illegal crops) is the major threat at the type locality.
56460		conservation	eng	It occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce and the Estacion Demostrativa El Rasgon.
56460		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (departments of Cundinamarca, Boyaca, and Santander) at elevations of 1,750-2,400m asl.
56460		habitat	eng	It occurs in under storey vegetation near watercourses in cloud forest, and also occurs in secondary forest. Reproduction is by direct development.
56460		population	eng	This is a common species.
56460		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, both crops and cattle ranching, is a major threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56461		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including the national parks of Henri Pittier, San Esteban, Macarao, and El Avila.
56461		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Venezuelan Coastal Range in the states of Aragua, Distrito Federal and Sucre. It has been recorded from 577-2,060m asl.
56461		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of upland montane cloud forests; its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56461		population	eng	It is a common species.
56461		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to agriculture and logging, is a major threat.
56462		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56462		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern and central parts of the State of Bahia, eastern Brazil, from Guaratinga north to Santa Teresinha. It occurs up to 800m asl.
56462		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist forests and in cocoa plantations. It is adaptable to more open areas, providing that trees are present. It has been found in the leaf-litter in cocoa plantations and in bromeliads in forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, but it is not known where it lays its eggs.
56462		population	eng	It is a common species.
56462		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, industry and human settlement.
56463		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56463		distribution	eng	This species from eastern and southern Brazil occurs from the State of Bahia, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
56463		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest and forest edges, but not in more open areas. It is usually found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, or on leaves in low vegetation inside the forest. It breeds by direct development.
56463		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56463		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear cutting, fires and human settlement.
56464		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Guatopo, Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, and Parque Nacional San Esteban.
56464		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges in the States of Aragua, Carabobo, Miranda, Sucre, and Yaracuy. It has been recorded from 250-1,600m asl.
56464		habitat	eng	A terrestrial and nocturnal frog that inhabits lowland humid and montane cloud forests. It breeds by direct development.
56464		population	eng	It is a common species.
56464		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture.
56465		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Cotapata, and the ecological needs of this species should be incorporated as part of the management plan of this protected area.
56465		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Chaco, Bolivia, and from the nearby surroundings. The type locality might actually be "Chaco in the Unduavi valley, Yungas de La Paz, 16° 21'S; 67° 49'W, at approximately 1,850m." Its altitudinal range is around 1,850-2,700m asl.
56465		habitat	eng	This species is a diurnal inhabitant of montane cloud forest. There is no information on breeding, but it probably breeds by direct development like other species of the genus.
56465		population	eng	It is an abundant species at the type locality. However, although it is currently common, it is feared that the species will undergo a steep population decline in the near future, especially as the quality of its habitat declines.
56465		threats	eng	Agriculture and logging are the major threats to its habitat.
56466		conservation	eng	The species is not currently found within any protected area and, although a proposed local protected area (Managed Flora Reserve of Canasí) will include its habitat, it is unclear whether or not this area, if designated, will be well managed.
56466		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two small nearby sites, near Santa Cruz del Norte, La Havana Province, in Cuba. It has been recorded from around sea level.
56466		habitat	eng	It is found on limestone rocks and cliffs in open areas just beside the coast. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56466		population	eng	It is a very common species within its restricted range.
56466		threats	eng	The species is restricted to an unprotected site close to an area of high human population density. Canadian tourist companies are planning the development of this part of the coast in the near future, and oil extraction activities are also taking place in this area.
56467		conservation	eng	The species' range includes Parque Nacional Guaramacal, but this area is not sufficiently managed to counter the threats to this species.
56467		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality: Páramo de Guaramacal (between 2870 and 3000 masl), in the vicinity of Boconó, state of Trujillo, Venezuela.
56467		habitat	eng	Pristimantis boconoensis occurs in the páramo ecosystem (páramo grassland, cloud forests, and high-altitude forest), and can be found under the perennial shrubs of Espeletia, sometimes in boggy areas in the Páramo de Guaramacal and perhaps in other páramos (Rivero and Mayorga, 1973). Calling activity is reported to occur at nightfall and into the night (Rivero and Mayorga, 1973). It breeds by direct development.
56467		population	eng	It is considered to be a common species (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
56467		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is habitat loss due to infrastructure development (primarily the construction of power lines) and fire.
56468		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal.
56468		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Alta Verapaz and the Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, at 1,300-1,700m asl.
56468		habitat	eng	It occurs on the forest floor in undisturbed cloud forest. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water for breeding.
56468		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56468		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (in particular leather-leaf plantations), wood extraction, and human settlement.
56469		conservation	eng	Occurs in PNNs Chingaza and Sumapaz.
56469		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chingaza, Sumapaz, and Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Cundinamarca and Boyacá Departments, Colombia, 2,500-3,600m asl.
56469		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forests, páramo, and open areas. It also occurs in pastures as long as there are shrubs, and adapts well to disturbance. Reproduction is by direct development.
56469		population	eng	It is abundant and was collected in 2003.
56469		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
56470		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.
56470		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States, in Brazil. It only occurs up to about 400m asl.
56470		habitat	eng	This species occurs among the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest and forest edge. It presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus. It has not been recorded outside forest.
56470		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
56470		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation, infrastructure development for human settlement, and fires are major threats to the species.
56471		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
56471		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern portions of the central Andes of Colombia (in Cauca, Caldas, Huila, Quindio Tolima and Valle del Cauca departments), from 2,400-3,000m asl, in high cloud forests, and also from Cerro Munchique (at 2,520m asl) in the western Andes of Colombia.
56471		habitat	eng	During the day they occur on the ground and inside arboreal bromeliads. At night they are active on vegetation up to 2.5m above the ground. They inhabit open areas, beside and inside the forest. They also occur in virtually any other habitat including pastureland, croplands, heavily degraded forest etc. It breeds by direct development.
56471		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56471		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species.
56472		conservation	eng	Portions of the range of <em>C. bransfordii</em> are protected in national parks or protected areas of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Panamanian taxon is present within the protected areas of: area de manejo especial Nusagandi; Parque Nacional Chagres; Parque Nacional Soberania, and Parque Nacional Altos de Campana.
56472		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Eastern Nicaragua to central Costa Rica. In Costa Rica it is known from 60-880m asl. In Nicaragua it has been collected as high as 1,330m at Cerro Kilambé. The Panamanian taxon formerly included within <em>C. bransfordii</em> is found on the Atlantic versant of central Panama, from the lowlands to elevations approaching 2,000m asl. All populations currently referred to as <em>C. bransfordii</em> are included on the map.
56472		habitat	eng	<em>Craugastor bransfordii</em> is associated with lowland moist and wet forests, premontane wet forest, and marginally in premontane rainforest; may be found in moderately disturbed areas. The Panamanian taxon is also present in these habitat types, although it is unclear as to whether or not it is tolerant of habitat disturbance. Both taxa are terrestrial, direct development species occurring in the leaf-litter layer.
56472		population	eng	Several related species have been included in<em> C. bransfordii</em> in the past making it difficult to discern distribution and abundance from the literature. <em>C. bransfordii</em> is known to experience marked population fluctuations from year to year. The population at La Selva, Costa Rica, appears to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56472		threats	eng	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a threat to these taxa. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56473		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Protected Landscape Maisi-Yumuri, but maintenance of other existing habitat within the range of this species is required.
56473		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two isolated locations on the Maisi Peninsula in extreme eastern Cuba, including from the mouth of the Río Yumuri. Its altitudinal range is from 30-221m asl.
56473		habitat	eng	It is found on rocks and cliffs in closed hardwood forest, habitat within which it is moderately common. It breeds by direct development.
56473		population	eng	There are only a few records of this species, despite extensive efforts to locate it.
56473		threats	eng	The primary threats to the species include habitat degradation and loss due to subsistence agriculture and wood collecting, and moderate impacts from touristic activities.
56474		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali and Parque Nacional Natural Tatama.
56474		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia from the states of Antioquia, Cauca, Risaralda, Quindio and Valle del Cauca. It has been recorded from 1,140-3,200m asl.
56474		habitat	eng	It occurs inside forest, sub-páramo shrubland and páramo grassland, and during the day individuals are found inside bromeliads. It is found alongside mountain streams. It breeds by direct development and is also known from anthropogenic habitats such as pastureland.
56474		population	eng	It is a common species.
56474		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.
56475		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work in the region is required to determine the population status of this species.
56475		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a very small area on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, where it has been recorded at elevations of 575-2,375 m asl.
56475		habitat	eng	It is found under ground cover in dwarf cloud forest, and also in clearings (although the latter is not its main habitat, and it is not known whether or not the species can persist outside forest). Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56475		population	eng	It was formerly common in good habitat in the past, but due to habitat loss the species is now considered to be an extremely rare species. It has been recently (2006) recorded (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56475		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56476		conservation	eng	Populations are found within Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata and possibly Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.
56476		distribution	eng	This species is known from the cloud forests (upper limit) and  páramo ecotones from Sierra de La Culata, state of Mérida, Venezuela, between 2900 and 3300 masl (La Marca, 2007). <br/><br/>La Marca (2007) indicated that the locality and elevation provided in the original description (Mérida, 1600 masl) may perhaps correpond with the locality from where specimens were sent to the British Museum (city of Mérida), as no additional specimens have been found for this specific locality.
56476		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and normally found under rocks in páramo and the ecotone of páramo/cloud forest. La Marca (2007) also indicates that individuals can be found in rock walls, in páramo close to potato crops, and in abandoned fields surrounded by cloud forest. Other anuran species found with M. briceni include Mucubatrachus culatensis and Atelopus oxyrhynchus (La Marca, 2007). <br/><br/>The species breeds by direct development.
56476		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56476		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present, but its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
56477		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, which are well managed at present.
56477		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the interior of Puerto Rico and the uplands. It has been recorded from close to sea level up to 1,078m asl.
56477		habitat	eng	It is found in closed forest and open meadows. It also occurs in coastal grass-dominated wetlands in sympatry with Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi (N. Rios-López, pers. comm. 2008). Eggs are laid on the ground, and they breed by direct development. It has also been seen in banana plantations.
56477		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
56477		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although there might be localized threats from infrastructure development and agriculture.
56478		conservation	eng	It occurs in a single protected area in Mexico, Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, and is present in Biotopo del Quetzal and the Bisis-Cabá and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves in Guatemala. Survey work is needed to evaluate the status of this species in Chiapas.
56478		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Atlantic versant slopes of the northern highlands of Guatemala from Sierra de las Minas, Alta Verapaz, and Baja Verapaz, westward through Sierra de los Cuchumatanes to north-western Huehuetenango, Guatemala, then to Chiapas, Mexico, in Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, at altitudes of 1,200-2,000m asl.
56478		habitat	eng	This species prefers riparian habitats along streams flowing through premontane and montane wet forests, cloud forest and humid pine-oak forest. It is commonly found on the ground or beneath leaf-litter along streams, where it also breeds by direct development.
56478		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout its range; there is no recent information from Chiapas.
56478		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat loss and disturbance due to agriculture and selective logging, particularly since it clearly does not adapt well to disturbed areas. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56479		conservation	eng	It is recorded from the Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Peru, and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador.
56479		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (1,707-2,622m asl), northern (1,500-1,600m asl) and western (1,830m asl) slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, province of Zamora-Chinchipe, Loja, and the Cordillera de Cutucù (1,700m asl), province of Morona-Santiago in southern Ecuador. Also recorded from Abra Pardo Miguel (2,180m asl) in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in the department of San Martin, Peru (05° 46'S; 77°42'W).
56479		habitat	eng	It is present within humid montane forests. Individuals occur on low vegetation at night and in bromeliads by day (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). Breeding takes place by direct development although the egg deposition site is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
56479		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. In Peru, only two specimens have ever been recorded.
56479		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and human settlement.
56480		conservation	eng	In the south the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve, (Madre de Dios). It is not known if the Contamana population is within a protected area. The species has been recorded in Brazil from both Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.
56480		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowland rainforest in Cocha Cashu Biological Station and Tambopata Research Center (Madre de Dios), the Andes ridge above the mouth of the Candamo and Guacamayo river, (Puno) (to 350m asl), from Contamana in central Peru (850m asl), and in the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil.
56480		habitat	eng	This is a primary floodplain and upland forest inhabitant. In Manu, the understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. Males called from 30-160cm above the ground from uncovered perched or more frequently from inside cavities formed by green leaves of small trees or by dead leaves accumulated in branches and small palms. This is a direct development species. It is not know to occur in degraded habitats.
56480		population	eng	The population is unknown.
56480		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56481		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and in Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.
56481		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Colombian and Ecuadorian Andes. In Colombia it occurs on the Cerro Munchique in the Cordillera Occidental, and widely on both slopes of the Cordillera Central in Cauca, Nariño, Valle del Cauca and Putumayo Departments. It extends south to Ecuador, where it is found in Carchi, Imbabura, Sucumbios Provinces, south to Nevado Cayambe. It altitudinal range is from 2,500-3,700m asl.
56481		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary forest and forest edges, sub-páramo bush land, páramo, open areas, and croplands. It is typically found on herbaceous and gramineous vegetation, and in bromeliads (including giant bromeliads in the páramo). It breeds by direct development, the eggs are deposited in bromeliads and in leaf-litter.
56481		population	eng	It is a common species.
56481		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is probably also impacted by fire.
56482		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas in Panama, two in Costa Rica (although it has not been recorded in this country since 1978), and a few in Colombia.
56482		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lowlands from southeastern Costa Rica of the southern Atlantic versant to western Colombia (from Choco southwards to Valle del Cauca departments as well as Gorgona Island in Cauca department); in Costa Rica it is known only from extreme southern Limón Province.
56482		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, riparian, primary forest species of lowland moist and wet forests. The species reproduces through direct development. It is has not been recorded outside mature forest.
56482		population	eng	It is a rarely seen species in Mesoamerica, and it is relatively uncommon in Colombia. In streams on Gorgona Island they are quite common. In Costa Rica, this species has not been recorded since 1978 despite extensive surveys in the historical range and may be extinct in this country (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).
56482		threats	eng	General habitat loss through deforestation and pollution of waterways are localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species overall at present.
56483		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas, but there is a need to strengthen and expand the existing coverage of protected areas in the Colombian Andes.
56483		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Antioquia and Caldas on the Cordillera Occidental of the Colombian Andes from 1,140 -1,940m asl. Cochran (1970) recorded one individual from Valle de Cauca Cisneros below 500m asl, but Lynch (1997, 1998b) and Ruiz-Carranza, Ardila-Robayo, and Lynch (1996) did not consider this to be a valid record. Probably by mistake, Acosta-Galvis (2000) included Valle del Cauca in its distribution.
56483		habitat	eng	It is found among fallen leaves, and branches and leaves of low herbaceous vegetation in secondary montane forest and mature forests. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
56483		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56483		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is the main threat to the species outside protected areas.
56484		conservation	eng	Although the known distribution of the species is wholly within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, this protected area is in need of improved and strengthened management. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of the species.
56484		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in the department of Cauca, in the cloud forests on the western slopes of the western Andes in south-western Colombia, from 2,200-2,440m asl. However, it may be more widely distributed than is currently known.
56484		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground among logs and rocks inside cloud forests, and has not thus far been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56484		population	eng	It is not a common species. Recent fieldwork has failed to find the species at any of the known localities (but the species has always been rare so no conclusions can be drawn yet).
56484		threats	eng	A major threat to the species is habitat loss within the park, due to the planting of illegal crops.
56485		conservation	eng	Its known distribution is not within a protected area. However, it is near Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, and further sampling in the park might find it here.
56485		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Alto Río Cuevas, near Murri, in the municipality of Frontino, in Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 1,900m asl.
56485		habitat	eng	This species occurs in leaf-litter in cloud forests, and breeds by direct development.
56485		population	eng	It is known only from one specimen collected over 20 years ago. Repeated visits failed to find other individuals. However, no species of this species group is ever common (except for <em>Eleutherodactylus cerastes</em>).
56485		threats	eng	Agricultural development, and the cultivation of illegal crops, are threats to its habitat.
56486		conservation	eng	In Peru this species might occur in one small-protected area in NW Peru Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Area de Recreación Cajas, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
56486		distribution	eng	This species from the Western Cordillera of the Andes ranges from southern Ecuador (at Luz Maria in Azuay Province, and around Cuenca de Loja in the Loja Basin in Loja Province), through the Huancabamba Depresion area of northen Peru, in the Provinces of Piura and Cajamarca, south at least as far as Huambos. In southern Ecuador it occurs at elevations of 1,800-3,100m asl.
56486		habitat	eng	This species’ habitat is the tropical montane dry forest, montane cloud forest, and sub-páramo (Duellman and Pramuk, 1999). It is characterized by a humid temperate regime. Although it sometimes is found on low vegetation at night, most individuals have been found by day; many were under rocks in sub-páramo, others were in either terrestrial or arboreal bromeliads in forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). A direct development species, the egg deposition site is not known. It occurs in pastures and disturbed habitats.
56486		population	eng	It is a common species both in Peru and Ecuador (where seen in 2003). This species is the most widespread species of the genus in western Peru and Ecuador.
56486		threats	eng	In Peru (including within protected areas in the region), destruction and loss of habitats for livestock and selective wood extraction. In Ecuador habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats.
56487		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, but there is an urgent need for the expansion and strengthening of the existing protected areas network in Colombia's Cordillera Occidental.
56487		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the cloud forests of the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, from the department of Risaralda to the department of Valle del Cauca, in Colombia, from 1,400-2,700m asl.
56487		habitat	eng	It is found on the ground in primary and secondary cloud forests, but has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds by direct development.
56487		population	eng	It is a common species.
56487		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss caused by agricultural development, including the planting of illegal crops.
56488		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. In Colombia it occurs in the La Planda private reserve.
56488		distribution	eng	This Andean species ranges along the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental from La Planada in the department of Nariño in extreme southern Colombia, south to Cotopaxi Province in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,140-3,000m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
56488		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, and does not occur in open areas. It is arboreal in bushes and trees, and is associated with epiphytes in high vegetation. It is especially abundant along trails through cloud forest, particularly in the proximity of small streams. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited in leaf-litter.
56488		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56488		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development (including plantations, and the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56489		conservation	eng	It might occur in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul, but this requires confirmation.
56489		distribution	eng	This species is known from cloud forest in the vicinity of the type locality, "Pass der Carretera Central auf 1,650m NN [asl]", in the Cordillera Azul in Huanuco Department, Peru.
56489		habitat	eng	Its habitat is cloud forest, where the trees are generally spaced widely, separated by 2-3m, in tall shrubland. Wet depressions and small ravines are scattered throughout the area, with slightly taller (4-9m high) elfin forest. This species breeds by direct development.
56489		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
56489		threats	eng	There is no information about the threats to this species.
56490		conservation	eng	Its range is within Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.
56490		distribution	eng	This species is known from the summits of Cerro Yaví, at 2,150m asl, and Cerro Yutajé, at 1,700-1,750m asl, in Amazonas State, Venezuela. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56490		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species found in wet, mossy forests. Males call frequently, both during the day and night, from concealed sites in caves and from beneath thick moss mats growing over sandstone. At Cerro Yaví, all the specimens were collected at night in the forest, except for the holotype, which was collected while calling from underneath a moss mat on sandstone. This species breeds by direct development.
56490		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56490		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56491		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
56491		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, and most likely occurs in suitable habitat in between. It has been recorded from 2,440-2,800m asl.
56491		habitat	eng	It is found on low vegetation or in leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest or forest edge, but has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56491		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species, and is very common in Munchique.
56491		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) are the main threats to the species.
56492		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56492		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the lowlands of southwestern Colombia (Departamentos of Valle de Cauca, Cauca, and Nariño) and northwestern Ecuador, below 1,000m asl.
56492		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland tropical humid forests, also living in secondary growth, but not in open areas. Specimens have been found on low vegetation in the spray zone of a small waterfall. It is not known whether or not the species is restricted to these waterfall habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56492		population	eng	It is generally uncommon, but is occasionally locally abundant.
56492		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56493		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Protection and maintenance of the existing mangrove habitat of this species is essential, and further survey work is needed to determine whether or not the species might occur in other marshes nearby.
56493		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one site (1ha), south-west of Dame-Marie, Département de la Grand 'Anse, on the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti. It occurs at sea level.
56493		habitat	eng	This amphibian is confined entirely to coastal mangrove marshes. Its breeding habits and requirements are unknown, although it presumably breeds by direct development.
56493		population	eng	There is very little information available on the population status of this species. It was last recorded in 1991 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56493		threats	eng	The fragile mangrove marsh in which it occurs is in an area of severe habitat destruction, and the mangroves are probably being cut for charcoal.
56494		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56494		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serrania de San Lorenzo in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northern Colombia, at 1,520-2,200m asl. It probably occurs more widely in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta than is currently known.
56494		habitat	eng	It occurs in riparian forest (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008). During the day it can be found under rocks along rivers in very humid areas. At night, it is found on top of leaves or branches, on bushes around 20cm above the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56494		population	eng	It is a rare species. It was recently found during a survey at San Lorenzo (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008).
56494		threats	eng	Agricultural development, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging and agricultural pollution, are major threats to its habitat.
56495		conservation	eng	It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56495		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites 50km apart in the municipalities of Pajarito and Garagoa, both in Boyacá Department, Colombia, where it is found between 1,350 and 2,060m asl.
56495		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shrubs in riparian cloud forest, often near streams. It occurs in secondary forest, but it is not known if it can survive outside forest. Reproduction is by direct development.
56495		population	eng	It is common and has been collected as recently as 2002.
56495		threats	eng	Landscape transformation and habitat loss due to agricultural development and cattle ranching are major threats to its habitat.
56496		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several Peruvian protected areas including Parque Nacional Manu, Tambopata Candamo National Reserve, Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul, Von Humbolt National Forest, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, Machiguengo Communal Reserve and the El Sira Communal Reserve. In Colombia it is found in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and El Pure National Park. There are no conservation measures in place in Brazil. It is not known as to whether or not there are any conservation measures in place in Ecuador.
56496		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of the upper Amazon basin. It is present throughout most of Amazonian Peru. Found in southern Colombia; in Brazil, it is known with certainty only from Solimoes River, Amazonas state. There are no exact locality records for Ecuador.
56496		habitat	eng	This species can be found in primary and secondary flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. In Manu, the understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. This frog is most frequently observed perched on low vegetation in primary forest at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is presumed to be a direct development species; egg deposition site occurs on low vegetation. It is present in secondary forest and lightly degraded habitat.
56496		population	eng	outside Colombia and Ecuador, this is a common species.
56496		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.
56497		conservation	eng	It is protected in Tapantí, Volcán Poas, Amistad, Volcán Irazu National Parks in Costa Rica, and in at least four protected areas in Panama. The one known location in Colombia is within Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas. Further studies are needed into the declines of this species in Costa Rica and western Panama, and the potential impacts of chytridiomycosis on eastern populations.
56497		distribution	eng	This species is known from lowland, premontane, and lower portions of the lower montane belts from the Atlantic slope of northern Costa Rica to northern Panama along the Pacific versant from extreme southwestern Costa Rica to western Panama up to 1,900m asl. In Colombia it is currently known only from one locality; Las Orquideas in Choco department, from 1,500m asl, but it is probably more widespread, occurring up to the Panamanian border.
56497		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the leaf-litter and low vegetation of primary lowland moist and wet forest, premontane wet forest and rainforest. It breeds by direct development. Females lay their eggs on leaf surfaces and brood them. It has not been recorded outside forest habitats.
56497		population	eng	The species has disappeared from lower portions of its range (<1000m) since the mid 1990's in Costa Rica but it appears to be stable at higher elevations (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). In western Panama the species has declined substantially at El Copé, Coclé (during 2004), although it is still present here in much reduced numbers (Lips <em>et al.</em>, 2006; Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007). In eastern Panama, 2007 surveys have found this species to still be common at higher elevations (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007). There is little current information on the status of the populations in Colombia.
56497		threats	eng	The most likely cause of decline at lower altitudes is destruction of natural forests as a result of logging, agriculture and human settlement, and possibly infection with the disease chytridiomycosis. This is a paradoxical species because it has remained stable at higher elevations in Costa Rica, in contrast to many other species in which the higher elevation populations have declined most drastically. In Panama, some higher elevation populations have declined at El Copé, presumably through the impacts of chytridiomycosis (see Lips <em>et al</em>., 2006). Further studies are needed into the persistence of this species in areas of former decline.
56498		conservation	eng	The status of this species should be closely monitored, and, given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, some individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population. The species has been recorded from a few protected areas including Parque Internacional La Amistad. New information on the conservation status of this species is needed for Panama to determine whether it is possibly extinct.
56498		distribution	eng	This species is found on the extreme south-western Pacific slope of Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, at elevations of 1,219-1,800m asl (Savage 2002).
56498		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in streams in premontane and lower montane humid forests, and breeds by direct development.
56498		population	eng	This species used to be common in Costa Rica; however, like many other frogs in the <em>Craugastor rugulosus</em> group, it has disappeared from much of its known range. Likewise, populations are known to have declined in the uplands of western Panama. A field survey in 2004 within the Panamanian range of this species did not reveal any animals, and further information is urgently needed on the status of this species in Panama (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). No further information is currently available as to whether this species still persists in Panama (Jay Savage, Roberto Ibáñez and Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007).
56498		threats	eng	While the destruction of natural forests is presumably a threat to this species, the large population decline has taken place within pristine habitats, and this might well be due to chytridiomycosis.
56499		conservation	eng	There is a population within Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.
56499		distribution	eng	This species is known from a restricted locality in Amazonas State, Venezuela, from the north base of Pico Tamacuari, in the Sierra de Tapirapecó, at altitudes between 1,160-1,200m asl. It might occur more widely.
56499		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial, diurnal, montane forest frog living in small caves under granite boulders. Some specimens were found in the roots of Araceae plants on the tops of boulders. At night, specimens were found perched on leaves in the forest about 1m above the ground. This species breeds by direct development.
56499		population	eng	Based on the frequency of calling, this species seemed to be one of the most common frogs in the type locality area, according to Myers and Donnelly (1997).
56499		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56500		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua. It also occurs in the Reserva La Planada private reserve, Colombia.
56500		distribution	eng	This species can be found in cloud forests from 1,750-2,800m asl, on the Pacific versant of the western Andes in northern Ecuador and adjacent southern Colombia (Nariño Department).
56500		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that has been found in terrestrial bromeliads, and may be encountered on the sides of roads and in herbaceous vegetation, in leafy cloud forests. It is presumed to be a direct developing species although the site of egg deposition is not known. It is tolerant of habitat disturbance provided bromeliads are available.
56500		population	eng	It is fairly common, or at least was so when last searched for in the mid-1980s.
56500		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation occurring for a range of reasons, including logging and agricultural development for the cultivation of crops (some of them illegal) and livestock grazing.
56501		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas.
56501		distribution	eng	This species is found in humid forests of the Atlantic lowlands and southern premontane slopes from Honduras to eastern Panama (including islands in the Bocas del Toro) and marginally on the Pacific slope in northwestern Costa Rica, at elevations of 19-1500m asl (Savage, 2002; Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
56501		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest; it may occasionally be recorded in coffee fincas. Adults are found in leaf-litter by day, and on low vegetation at night. This species shows a direct development form of reproduction; eggs are deposited on low vegetation.
56501		population	eng	In Costa Rica it has disappeared from higher elevations of its range where it originally was rare (e.g., Peñas Blancas valley of Monteverde); populations appear stable in lowlands. Populations are considered to be stable in Panama; the species appears to be rare in Honduras.
56501		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from severe deforestation.
56502		conservation	eng	Within Colombia some of the populations are distributed in several natural reserve areas that are well protected. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56502		distribution	eng	This species can be found in low to moderate elevations along the Pacific versant of Colombia, at elevations of 1,500-2,300m asl, and Ecuador, at elevations of 500-2,000m asl (Frost, 2002). It is distributed in Colombia from the department of Antioquia, to the border of Ecuador (Depto Nariño). In Ecuador, occurs in Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Pichincha Provinces.
56502		habitat	eng	This species inhabits northwestern Andean montane cloud forest, and adjacent open, wet areas. The species is terrestrial with nocturnal habits, it can be found among fallen leaves. Some individuals can be observed on very low vegetation, on even grounds or on slopes. It is presumed to be a direct development species; the egg deposition site is not known.
56502		population	eng	This is a rare species, seen most recently in 2001 in the Valle del Cauca, Colombia. There are many Colombian specimens in museum collections. There could be no recent records in Ecuador.
56502		threats	eng	Deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops cause general habitat loss.
56503		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur.
56503		distribution	eng	This species is known from elevations of 1,735-1,840m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba (the Huancambamba depression is a complex system of relatively low ridges, basins, and valleys), and at 1,500m asl on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in the province of Piura, northern Peru. The range of this species is not completely known, and it could occur more widely.
56503		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of montane forest. Males have been found calling from leaves and stems of herbaceous vegetation 14-40cm above the ground along a road cut in cloud forest. Adults of both sexes were found in bromeliads by day. Breeding occurs by direct development.
56503		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
56503		threats	eng	The major threat is the destruction and loss of habitat for livestock ranching and as a result of selective logging.
56504		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in all three countries in which it occurs.
56504		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from central Belize and central Guatemala to the La Ceiba city area on the northern coast of Honduras, from 20-1,000m asl.
56504		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor in lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest, and also in cocoa plantations and degraded forest. It breeds by direct development.
56504		population	eng	It is common in Guatemala, but relatively uncommon elsewhere.
56504		threats	eng	The major threat to it is habitat loss due to agricultural development for the cultivation of crops and livestock grazing, logging, development of infrastructure for human settlement, and fire.
56505		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia, and in Ecuador its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
56505		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Department of Antioquia in western Colombia, south to Cimbo in the Province of Guayasca, western Ecuador. It occurs from sea level up to 1,700m asl.
56505		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and closed secondary forest and forest edge. It does not occur in open areas, but is found on forest edge next to cultivated land. It lives in medium and low vegetation, sheltering by the day inside bromeliads and other plant leaf axils. It is often is found on vegetation beside streams, but it also occurs in forest away from streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56505		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species, but can be locally abundant.
56505		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56506		conservation	eng	It is found in El Cusuco National Park (Townsend et al., 2006). One locality in Honduras is on the edge of Cerro Azul National Park. Surveys are needed to determine where other remnant populations survive and how these could be better protected. Further research is necessary to determine whether chytrid is a real threat.
56506		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands between the Río Motagua in Guatemala and the Río Chamelecón in Honduras, at 30-1,370m asl.
56506		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and premontane wet forest, living along small tributaries, especially of the Río Motagua. It is often found sitting on low vegetation, sometimes on the banks of streams. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding. It probably tolerates some habitat disturbance because one individual was found in a coffee plantation.
56506		population	eng	It has disappeared from above 900m asl in Honduras and much of the Honduran portion of the range is badly deforested; it was still common in 1998 in streams at 30-330m asl in extreme north-western Cortés Department in Honduras. It is uncommon in Guatemala.
56506		threats	eng	Serious habitat degradation is taking place due to agriculture, livestock, logging, and human settlement. However, these threats do not account for the high-altitude declines seen in this species, which could be due to chytridiomycosis.
56507		conservation	eng	The forests on Tobago in which the species is found are protected in the Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
56507		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to north-eastern Tobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago, from sea level to approximately 550m asl.
56507		habitat	eng	It is often found in forest leaf-litter and is more rarely encountered close to forest streams. The males call from low bushes. It is a species that breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited in leaf-litter.
56507		population	eng	This species is quite common.
56507		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species other than its rather restricted range which renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
56508		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of the species, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
56508		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Antioquia, Choco, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca, on the western slopes of the northern half of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at moderate elevations (800-1,540m asl).
56508		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of rainforest, it can be found along streams, on medium to low perches on vegetation, although adults are usually too heavy to be supported by the leaves so they are commonly found on rocks. Provided there is gallery forest present over streams, it is able to tolerate considerable habitat modification. Breeding takes place by direct development.
56508		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species.
56508		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to the species overall at present, some localized habitat loss is taking place due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56509		conservation	eng	Protected areas are present within the Brazilian range of the species.
56509		distribution	eng	This species occurs in low elevation forests in northeastern Brazil in Amapa, in French Guiana, and in Suriname. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.
56509		habitat	eng	It is usually found on the leaf-litter of tropical rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known. It is able to adapt to human disturbance.
56509		population	eng	It is a common species.
56509		threats	eng	Fire is a threat to the species' habitat.
56510		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, Area Nacional de Recreación El Boliche, and Reserva Ecológica Cayamba-Coca.
56510		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the eastern edge of the Andes from southern Colombia (Departments of Nariño and Putumayo) southward to Napo Province in Ecuador. It occurs at 1,900-3,400m asl.
56510		habitat	eng	It is a species of upper humid montane forest, sub-páramo bush land, and páramo grassland. It is associated with open areas, especially at very highest altitudes. However, in the forest zone, it is generally associated with primary, undisturbed forest, where it can be found in bromeliads up to 3m above the ground. It is generally found under rocks or logs on muddy ground during the day. At night it is very active on the ground and on low perches in grass or small bushes. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56510		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56510		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56511		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work in the region is required to determine the population status of this species.
56511		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from 990-1,290m asl.
56511		habitat	eng	It has been found in upland hardwood forests and ravine pinelands. It prefers to hide under rocks, in sinkholes or in vertical rock crevices. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56511		population	eng	Relatively few specimens of this species are known, and there is no information on its current population status.
56511		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56512		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Farallones de Cali, but there remains a need for improved protection of its remaining forest habitat in the Cordillera Occidental. Further survey work is necessary to establish the current population status of this species.
56512		distribution	eng	This species is known from Valle del Cauca and Choco Departments in the cloud forests of the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 900-2,200m asl.
56512		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly in the forest canopy and is mostly active in vegetation 1.5m above the ground in primary and secondary forest; it has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds by direct development.
56512		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56512		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agricultural development and cattle ranching has already destroyed some of the habitat within the range of the species.
56513		conservation	eng	Although the species has not been recorded from a protected area, the Quebrada de Oro is at the edge of Parque Nacional Pico Bonito.
56513		distribution	eng	This species was known only from Quebrada de Oro in the Río Viejo, south-east of La Ceiba, Department of Atlantida, northern Honduras, at 880-1,130m asl.
56513		habitat	eng	Animals were recorded along streams in premontane wet forest. It was presumably a direct developing species.
56513		population	eng	It was always extremely rare, and is now believed to be extinct. Several visits to the only known site in recent years have failed to locate the species.
56513		threats	eng	The species is believed to have disappeared through a combination of threats including deforestation resulting from agricultural encroachment, human settlement of the region, logging, fires and landslides. The area from which this species was recorded is subject to extensive landslides; these often severely impact the species habitat. It should be additionally noted that all streamside <em>Craugastor</em> above 900m asl have disappeared in Honduras in a manner that is consistent with the disease chytridiomycosis.
56514		conservation	eng	It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56514		distribution	eng	This species is known only from altitudes of 600-800m asl in lower humid montane forest on the slopes of a ridge north-east of Tarapoto, in San Martin Department, Peru.
56514		habitat	eng	The area in which it was found supports premontane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys, which it is not known to occur in, are extensively cultivated. All the adults were observed at night on rocks in and along cascading streams. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56514		population	eng	Nine adult males and four adult females were used to describe this species, the population status of which is not known.
56514		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss where it is found due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agricultural activity (the cultivation of crops, and the rearing of livestock, for example), cultivation of cash crops (such as coffee) and human settlement. These might all be threatening this species.
56515		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
56515		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Puerto Rico, Isla Vieques, Isla Culebra, U.S. and British Virgin Islands. The altitudinal range is from sea level to 335m asl.
56515		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in xeric to mesic forests. This species is a habitat generalist, occurring in various anthropogenic habitats. It also occurs in both disturbed and natural coastal grass-dominated wetlands (N. Rios-López, pers. comm. 2008). Males call from tall vegetation. Eggs are laid in bromeliads and it breeds by direct development.
56515		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>In Tortola, Virgin Gorda, the species appears to be declining wherever <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> spreads (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
56515		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
56516		conservation	eng	The only known locality is right on edge of Parque Nacional Cerro Azul, so the species might well occur within the protected area although there are no records to date. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species and to determine whether or not it is indeed present in Parque Nacional Cerro Azul.
56516		distribution	eng	This species is known only from between Laguna del Cerro and Quebrada Grande in the Department of Copan, in the extreme west of Honduras, at 1,000m asl, close to the Guatemala border.
56516		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species, but it is believed to occur in premontane wet forest, although the holotype was found on the ground in a coffee plantation, which might suggest some ability to adapt to secondary habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.
56516		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
56516		threats	eng	Primary threats probably include deforestation as a result of agricultural and livestock encroachment, human settlements, logging, fires and landslides.
56517		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species might occur in one small-protected area in the north-west, the Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sangay.
56517		distribution	eng	This species is known from two disjunct regions: the Amazonian slopes (2,195-3,140m asl) of the Cordillera Oriental in the province of Morona-Santiago and Amazonian slopes (2,710-2,800m asl) of the Abra Zamora, Zamora-Chinchipe Province in the southern Cordillera Oriental, Ecuador (in southern Ecuador it is known from at least 12 localities); and the crest and upper eastern slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba in northern Peru (around 05° 28'S; 79°17'W). It probably occurs in intervening areas between the currently known Ecuadorian and Peruvian distributions.
56517		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the cloud forest and sub-páramo of the high Amazonian slopes of the Andes (Lynch and Duellman 1980). The Huancambamba depression is a complex system of relatively low ridges, basins, and valleys. All individuals for which habitat data are available were found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads by day (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). Breeding takes place by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
56517		population	eng	It is a common species.
56517		threats	eng	In Peru, this species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of livestock farming and selective logging.
56518		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but it occurs on the border of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador. It may be worth investigating the possible expansion of this reserve to include part of the range of this species.
56518		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the foothills of the Andes in north-western Ecuador and south-western Colombia: Pote, Río Santiago, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; Alto Tambo, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; and the Altaquer-Tumaco Road, department of Nariño, Colombia. Its known altitudinal range is 360-1,200m asl.
56518		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature and secondary moist forest, but it is not found in open areas. Specimens have been found on leaves of bushes 50-60cm above the ground at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, although the site of egg deposition is not known.
56518		population	eng	It is an extremely rare species.
56518		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss -- most likely due to deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement -- and pollution (resulting from the spraying of illegal crops).
56519		conservation	eng	The population is protected within the Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata. Close population monitoring of this species is required given that it is known only from a single locality.
56519		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single, very restricted locality in the Páramo de Los Conejos, in the Sierra de la Culata, in the state of Mérida, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 3,000-3,600m asl.
56519		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits páramo grassland. It breeds by direct development.
56519		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56519		threats	eng	Agriculture and habitat disturbance by tourists are major threats.
56520		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with Tumbes Reserve Zone in the department of Tumbes and Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone in the department of Amazonas, both in northern Peru. In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
56520		distribution	eng	This species is known from 1,975m asl in the Cordillera de Cutucù and Coangos at 1,500-1,600m asl on the western slope of Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, and from 1,750m asl on the eastern slope of the Cordillera del Cóndor, in the department of Amazonas, Peru. This species is also observed in the department of Tumbes. It might occur more widely, especially in areas between known locations.
56520		habitat	eng	All individuals have been collected in humid montane cloud forest. Adults have been found perched on low vegetation at night; juveniles and adults were on the forest floor by day. This species breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. It has not been found outside old growth forest.
56520		population	eng	There is limited information on the population status of this species. In Ecuador, this species is rare although it was recorded in 2003 in two localities in the Cordillera del Cóndor. The Peruvian locality is the first record, and based on an adult female.
56520		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation through agriculture (especially livestock ranching), logging, and mining. The Cordillera del Cóndor region is not currently threatened because of land mines remaining there from the 1995 border war.
56521		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes many protected areas. The range in Peru includes an area that has been proposed as a Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996).
56521		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin of western Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In northern Peru this species is observed in the Departments of Loreto and Ucayali. Frost included western Brazilian Amazonia in its range but inventories in that region did not record the species. Its altitudinal range is from 0-600m asl.
56521		habitat	eng	This species is a conspicuous forest inhabitant. They are found on the leaf-litter of primary and secondary tropical rainforest by day, but more commonly found on low vegetation at night. Eggs and direct development occur on land.
56521		population	eng	It is common in Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru.
56521		threats	eng	Logging, livestock, mining and fire might threaten some populations but there is no overall threat to the species.
56522		conservation	eng	It occurs in all of the protected areas found in Puerto Rico. Monitoring of the disease is recommended.
56522		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Puerto Rico, and has been introduced on to Isla Vieques and Isla Culebra, as well as to Dominican Republic, St. Thomas, St John and St. Croix in the US Virgin Islands, and Hawaii and Florida in the United States. Individuals of <em>E. coqui</em>  were introduced to New Orleans and Boston, although in New Orleans the species was never established, as introduced individuals were only males (Dundee 1991), and in Boston’s case, individuals appear to be restricted to a greenhouse at the University of Massachussetts’ grounds (Pearson 2006). It appears to have been incidentally transported to Guam, although it is not considered to have established a breeding population there (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). These instances are not mapped as part of the species' range. The species has been recorded from sea level up to the highest peak in Puerto Rico at 1,338 m asl.
56522		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic forests. Males call from elevated exposed surfaces such as leaves and tree trunks. It has also been recorded from agricultural land including plantations and arable land, and other disturbed habitats such as towns. Nests are usually found on vegetation, and it develops directly.
56522		population	eng	The lowland populations are common and should be considered "Least Concern" but apparently there has been an observed decline in the upland population in the Palo Colorado Forest, suggesting that upland populations should be listed as "Near Threatened" (Burrowes <em>et al.</em> 2004).
56522		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a major threat to this species in particular clearance of the land for agriculture. The cause of the decline in the Palo Colorado Forest is chytridiomycosis probably linked to climate change. Rats and mongooses have been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators) to <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species in Puerto Rico (Hedges 1993), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges 1993; and Thurley and Bell 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of <em>Eleutherodactylus coqui</em>), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to establish their relative contribution to amphibian declines.
56523		conservation	eng	It has been collected in Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guácharos (Municipio Palestina, Huila) and the Reserva Forestal Ventana (Municipio Gigante, Huila).
56523		distribution	eng	This recently described species has been collected in Caqueta and Huila Provinces in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 (San Vicente de Caguán) to 2,600m asl (Gigante). It might occur more widely.
56523		habitat	eng	It is a montane forest species that is found along streams and on vegetation alongside roads, although it is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.
56523		population	eng	It was the most abundant frog in the type locality.
56523		threats	eng	The threats to it are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to agricultural development and logging.
56524		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayamabe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. In Colombia, it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indi Wasa.
56524		distribution	eng	This species can be found at moderate elevations (1,150-1,800m asl) along the eastern face of the Cordillera Oriental from southern Colombia (Caquetá) to southern Ecuador.
56524		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest. One individual was found on the forest floor by day, while others were found on the ground at night; some individuals have been found on stream banks (Lynch and Duellman 1980). Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56524		population	eng	This is a rare species across its range; it has not been seen since 1990 in Colombia, although there has been little survey work.
56524		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture (including the planting of illegal crops), human settlement, and logging is the main threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56525		conservation	eng	The species occurs only in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species.
56525		distribution	eng	This species is known from only one site on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 1,120m asl.
56525		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, occurring in high-elevation cloud forest. It has been recorded only from forest edge but this is probably not suitable habitat. Males call from bromeliads or orchids, which they appear to require for reproduction. The species breeds by direct development.
56525		population	eng	It is known from fewer than 10 specimens, and is probably very rare.
56525		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56526		conservation	eng	Part of the range is well protected within Parque Nacional Manu. Further survey work is necessary to determine the species' current population status and whether it is indeed confined to the Cosñipata Valley.
56526		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be entirely restricted to the Cosñipata Valley (1,580-1,700m asl), on the north-eastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a frontal range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental in Cusco Department, Peru.
56526		habitat	eng	It can be found in tall forest with some tree ferns and bromeliads and luxuriant undergrowth of mosses and ferns. Except for a single individual that was collected under a rock, all specimens have been recorded calling from low vegetation in cloud forest at night. It is not known from modified habitats. This species breeds by direct development.
56526		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56526		threats	eng	The major threat is small-scale agriculture (involving both crops and livestock) taking place within the valley.
56527		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining existing habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.
56527		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, from 303-760m asl.
56527		habitat	eng	It inhabits limestone caves and crevices in closed, humid forest; males call from well within the caves, where the eggs are laid. It breeds by direct development.
56527		population	eng	It is moderately common.
56527		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in the Formon-Macaya region, including throughout Parc National Macaya, due to logging (charcoal collection) by locals and slash and burn agriculture.
56528		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas, including Park National Natural Katios in Colombia.
56528		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lowland and premontane forest zones of Costa Rica to extreme northwestern Colombia (Park National Natural Katios) from 10-2,000m asl.
56528		habitat	eng	A species of humid lowland and montane forest, it can be found in mature and second-growth forests and along forest margins; it also exists in coffee farms and brushy pastures. Adults can be found on the forest floor and in low vegetation. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
56528		population	eng	It is a regularly seen, abundant species.
56528		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species that can adapt to significant habitat modification.
56529		conservation	eng	Its range possibly overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. There is a need for improved protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species.
56529		distribution	eng	This species is only known from five localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, at 1,410-1,700m asl, in the Río Quijos Valley. It may have a slightly wider distribution.
56529		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal cloud forest species, found among moss, ferns or herbaceous plants on cliffs over streams. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56529		population	eng	It is reasonably common in its small range.
56529		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, plantations, logging, and human settlement. About 60% of the natural vegetation had been removed from within its known range by 1996. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56530		conservation	eng	Its range is not included in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of the montane forest habitat of this species.
56530		distribution	eng	This species is known from more than ten locations in the vicinity of Pilalo on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in central Ecuador, where it has been recorded from 760-2,486m asl.
56530		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found on low vegetation along, or on banks of, streams at night (Lynch and Duellman 1997) in montane forest. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are laid in leaf-litter.
56530		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
56530		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to the species’ habitat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with montane streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56531		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56531		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, São Vicente, in the state of Mato Grosso, in Brazil, at around 200m asl.
56531		habitat	eng	It occurs on the border of the Cerrado savannah and the Pantanal wetlands. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.
56531		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56531		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56532		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area.
56532		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia, from 1,530-2,600m asl. It is expected to occur more widely on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, but this has not yet been confirmed.
56532		habitat	eng	During the day it can be found under rocks or on the upper surface of small leaves along rivers in very humid areas. At night, it is found on the upper surface of leaves or on branches or bushes 20cm above the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56532		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56532		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development is a major threat to it.
56533		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu, (Madre de Dios) Peru. In Colombia it is present in Amacayacu, La Paya and El Pure. It is present in Yasuni and a second protected area in Ecuador.
56533		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern Amazonian lowland rainforest of Ecuador; and central Peru (Panguana, 200m asl, Huanuco, southern Peru, Pakitza, 350m asl (Madre de Dios) and Tavara (Puno)). In Colombia it is present in the Departamento de Putumayo at 400m asl, but penetrates the low cloud forest at the base of the Pastaza trench.
56533		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland primary rainforest, but invades low cloud forests. It is nocturnal and is found on low vegetation (0.5-1.5m) in dense forests (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). It is also present in secondary forest. It is presumed to be a direct development species; egg deposition site is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown, although it can be found in lightly modified habitat.
56533		population	eng	It is frequent in some areas, but not over the entire range.
56533		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.
56534		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps the Reservas Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56534		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 1,200-1,800m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Ecuador, from the provinces of Imbabura and Esmeraldas, south to Bolivar. It has been recorded from around ten localities.
56534		habitat	eng	It is a cloud forest species that lives in bromeliads by day. At night, individuals have been found on ferns and leaves up to 2m above the ground, in dense forest, and along streams. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56534		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species, but it is hard to find, and so it might not be as rare as it seems.
56534		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, plantations, logging, and human settlement. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56535		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas.
56535		distribution	eng	This species geographic range is from the humid forests of lowland and premontane zones and lower portion of the lower montane zone from northern Costa Rica to western Panama (40-1,800m asl). There are no records of this species from Colombia although it has been cited as occurring there in some literature.
56535		habitat	eng	This species inhabits most forest types including humid lowland and montane forest. It is also found in degraded habitats outside forest. Adults are generally found on low vegetation. It is direct-developing species, and the eggs may be laid in the crevices of tree trunks.
56535		population	eng	While there might be more than one biological species classified in this taxon, with the exception of La Selva (Whitfield et al., 2007), there are no signs of decline anywhere in the Costa Rica range (Lips, 1998; Andrew R. Gray in litt. to Karen Lips, 2007 [report on continued presence at Las Tablas]). There is no information on the populations of this species in Panama.
56535		threats	eng	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a threat. While museum specimens of this species have been found to have the chytrid fungus, the current impact of this pathogen on the species is not known. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56536		conservation	eng	In Bolivia it is protected by Madidi and Cotapata National Parks and Natural Areas of Integrated Management, and in Carrasco and Amboro National Parks. In Peru the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (Madre de Dios) and Parque Nacional Manu (Cuzco).
56536		distribution	eng	This species occurs east of the Andes, from central Peru to northern and central Bolivia. It is not present in Argentina (this is E. discodalis). In Bolivia, it is found in the Departments of Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000). In Peru it is found in the Departments Madre de Dios, Cusco, Huanuco and Junin. Its altitudinal range is from 200-2,000m asl.
56536		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and arboreal species. It inhabits the foothills of the Amazonian rainforest and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). The understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. Köhler (2000) and Cortez (2001) point out that it is a mainly terrestrial species that is common in disturbed areas. It can be observed calling on the ground or on low brushwoods. This species breeds by direct development and egg deposition site is in leaf-litter.
56536		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
56536		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; it can survive in modified habitats including gardens.
56537		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional Pico Bonito. Surveys to determine whether or not there are surviving populations of this species are needed; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56537		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Cordillera Nombre de Dios on the Atlantic slope south of La Ceiba in northern Honduras at 1,520m asl.
56537		habitat	eng	The two known specimens were collected along a very small stream in lower montane wet forest.
56537		population	eng	A landslide destroyed the stream where the type specimen was collected in 1988. Visits to the area in 1995 and 1996 turned up no additional specimens.
56537		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other high-elevation amphibian species that are associated with streams. Considering that all streamside <em>Craugastor</em> above 900m asl in Honduras have disappeared recently, this species might well be extinct.
56538		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Sangay. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56538		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities east and west of Cuenca, Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, from 2,835-3,384m asl. It is also known from the Protected Forest of Mazan, within Parque Nacional Cajas.
56538		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found beneath rocks and logs in sub-páramo shrubland and páramo grassland habitats. It breeds by direct development.
56538		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
56538		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, primarily due to agriculture, is the major threat.
56539		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species might occur in one small-protected area (Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Improved and expanded protection of the habitat of this species is needed.
56539		distribution	eng	This Andean species is known from elevations of 2,470-2,710m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and at 3,000-3,100m asl on the the ridges north of the Cuenca de Loja, in southern Ecuador, and at elevations of 2,770-2,820m asl on the western slope of the Cordillera de Huancabamba in Piura Province in northern Peru.
56539		habitat	eng	It inhabits páramo, sub-páramo and humid cloud forests (Lynch 1979c; Duellman and Pramuk 1999). Specimens have been found in terrestrial bromeliads or under rocks; one individual from Peru was found in a tree at night (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, although the site of egg deposition is not known.
56539		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56539		threats	eng	General habitat loss through deforestation for livestock ranching and selective wood extraction is the main threat to this species, including even in protected areas.
56540		conservation	eng	The collection locality of this taxon is in the Reserva Biológica Monteverde.
56540		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Monteverde in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Its altitudinal range is 1,520-1,600m asl.
56540		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from herbaceous vegetation in the lower parts of montane rainforest.
56540		population	eng	This species is known only from three female specimens. Many herpetologists have searched for it without success (except for a report from the early 1980s). However, this species is hard to distinguish from related species, and there is a lack of knowledge about the microhabitats where it occurs, thus hampering survey efforts ever since it was described. Scientists have been unable to find this species since well before other species of amphibians began declining in Monteverde in 1988, and so there is no evidence that it disappeared as part of that phenomenon. The current population status is therefore unknown. There have been no new reports of this species as of August 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
56540		threats	eng	There is no reliable information on threats, but they might be affected by airborne pollution.
56541		conservation	eng	The range of this species is wholly within Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these specific areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of these areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat, is urgently needed.
56541		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, at an altitude of 800-1,400m asl.
56541		habitat	eng	It is restricted to closed humid forest at high elevations, and breeds by direct development.
56541		population	eng	It is a common species within suitable habitat.
56541		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction due to agriculture, woodcutting, and disturbance from touristic activities, as well as infrastructure development for human settlement.
56542		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56542		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serrania de Perijá, Casa de Cristal, in the municipality of Manaure, César Department, Colombia. Animals were collected at 2,800m asl.
56542		habitat	eng	It was found below rocks, but there is no further information available regarding its habitat and ecological requirements. It is presumed that this is a direct developing species.
56542		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
56542		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to agricultural development and logging.
56543		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several forest reserves, but many of these are in need of improved management.
56543		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, distributed in western Jamaica from sea level to 635m asl.
56543		habitat	eng	It is found in association with rocks and caves and requires closed-canopy moist forest. This species breeds by direct development, and eggs are laid on the ground. It does not occur in open habitats.
56543		population	eng	It is more abundant than many other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> on Jamaica and is moderately common.
56543		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation and loss due to agriculture, human settlements, tourism development, and logging.
56544		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, but there is insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being degraded.
56544		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sierra Maestra and Macizo de Sagua-Baracoa, in eastern Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,515m asl.
56544		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with streams but it can also be found far from streams, and is found under rocks or logs in predominantly riparian habitat. It can also be found in disturbed habitats such as agricultural land and even urban areas if there are streams. It lays eggs under stones at the water's edge.
56544		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitat.
56544		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place, even within the limits of protected areas. Its stream habitat is particularly sensitive to habitat alteration from agricultural water pollution.
56545		conservation	eng	It is present in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.
56545		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 1,700m asl in humid montane forest on the western slopes of the Cordillera Colán, in Amazonas Department in northern Peru. The complete range of this recently described species is not known, and it might be endemic to the Cordillera de Colán.
56545		habitat	eng	It was found in evergreen forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas. Breeding is presumably by direct development.
56545		population	eng	This species has been named from a single specimen, so its population status is not known.
56545		threats	eng	There might be selective wood extraction in the area in which this species is found (which would be a threat to it) but this requires confirmation.
56546		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica El Angel, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, and Parque Nacional Cotopaxi. In Colombia, this species does not occur in any natural reserve area.
56546		distribution	eng	This species can be found at elevations of 2,750-4,400m asl on the Nudo de Pasto of southern Colombia and in the western and eastern Andes of Ecuador south to the Desierto de Palmira.
56546		habitat	eng	This species can be found in montane forests and páramo habitats. In Ecuador, this species has been found on the crests of the eastern and western cordilleras and on the connecting ridges (Lynch, 1981). This species inhabits extensive gramineous areas and on typical vegetation (Puya) from the páramo; in the lowest area of its altitudinal distribution, this species is found in areas of eucalyptus, and on vegetation associated to the ground. When inactive, they shelter under rocks on very humid grounds. This species breeds by direct development and egg deposition occurs under rocks.
56546		population	eng	This species is widely distributed, and presumably relatively common. There were many records in 2000. In Papallacta, Ecuador, this species is more rare in the 2000s than it was previously. Recent surveys elsewhere in Ecuador indicate its normal presence at some localities (Bustamante, unpubl.).
56546		threats	eng	General habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crop cultivation are all threats. However, this is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
56547		conservation	eng	In Mexico this species' range includes Sierra del Abra-Tamchipa Biosphere Reserve and El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.
56547		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southern Texas in the USA, to adjacent northeastern Mexico. Its range in southern Texas has increased due to transport in potted plants. Introduced populations exist in the San Antonio and Houston areas, and at Port Aransas, Mustang Island (McCord, 1993, Herpetol. Rev. 24:65). In Mexico the species is found in central Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, eastern San Luis Potosi and along Veracruz and extreme northeastern Puebla. Its distribution is probably less fragmented than has been drawn.
56547		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low and moderate elevations in foothills. It is found in moist shaded vegetation, palm groves, thickets, ditches, resacas, lawns and gardens, and hides in sheltered moist spots when inactive and it sometimes burrows. It is a terrestrial breeder and breeds by direct development. It lays eggs in moist, sheltered spots on land.
56547		population	eng	This species can be common to abundant in suitable habitat. It is probably the most abundant frog in the lower Rio Grande valley in Mexico (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
56547		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
56548		conservation	eng	In Peru occurs in the Manu and Bahuaja-Sonene National Parks. It is present in several protected areas in Bolivia.
56548		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Andes of southern Peru and northern Bolivia. It is known from Cosñipata (Departamento Cusco) Peru, south to central Bolivia (Cochabamba Department). Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,800m asl.
56548		habitat	eng	This species is from primary and secondary tropical moist forest. Specimens may be found perched on low (< 50 cm) herbaceous vegetation and fern in cloud forest at night. This species breeds by direct development and is not present in modified habitats.
56548		population	eng	It is a common species.
56548		threats	eng	There is little information about threats to this species. It is possibly locally threatened by deforestation for agriculture.
56549		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parc National Morne La Visite, but there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of this protected area, and maintenance of the existing habitat, is urgently needed.
56549		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Selle, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from 1,720-2,200 m asl.
56549		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in high-elevation pine forest, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56549		population	eng	It is very rare, and only a few specimens have ever been found. It was last recorded in the mid 1980s, but there have been few subsequent surveys.
56549		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is the primary threat to this species, largely as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56550		conservation	eng	This species has been collected within Biotopo del Quetzal and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. Further research is necessary to determine whether chytrid poses a real threat.
56550		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the cloud forest of the Sierra Xucaneb and the Sierra de las Minas, central Guatemala, at 1,500-2,290m asl.
56550		habitat	eng	This species can be found along streams in cloud forest. Reproduction occurs via direct development. It can persist in reduced numbers in moderately disturbed areas.
56550		population	eng	It is uncommon but still regularly seen in appropriate habitat.
56550		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat destruction, and more than 50% of its habitat has been lost in the last 10 years due to conversion of forest to ornamental plant farms. Some other species of the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56551		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the El Cido Biosphere Reserve and Parque Nacional Cofre de Perote. Improved protection of the montane forests along the Huasteca region in Mexico is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56551		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Tamaulipas, southern San Luis Potosi and adjacent north Querétaro, and northern Hidalgo to central Veracruz and adjacent northern Puebla, Mexico. The species is known to occur between 580-1,798 m asl (Nieto Montes de Oca and Pérez Ramos, 1998).
56551		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane cloud forest and several individuals have been found on trees and bushes in cultivated land, suggesting that it is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. It breeds by direct development.
56551		population	eng	This is a rare species.
56551		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to logging, as well as some agricultural activities.
56552		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador and in La Planada private reserve in Colombia.
56552		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the foothills of the Andes in north-western Ecuador and south-western Colombia: El Cristal, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; Alto Tambo, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; and the Altaquer-Tumaco Road, department of Nariño, Colombia. Its known altitudinal range is 830-1,200m asl.
56552		habitat	eng	It lives in humid montane and submontane forests, and also in disturbed forest, but not in open areas. It is generally active on low vegetation at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56552		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
56552		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss -- most likely due to deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement -- and pollution (resulting from the spraying of illegal crops).
56553		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Farallones de Cali.
56553		distribution	eng	This species is known from Valle del Cauca Department on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 1,750-2,600m asl.
56553		habitat	eng	It is usually active in the medium-high canopy inside primary and good quality secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
56553		population	eng	It is not a rare species, but it is not common either.
56553		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops).
56554		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area.
56554		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north-east slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in Colombia, from 1,500-2,600m asl. It might occur more widely on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, but this requires confirmation.
56554		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal inhabitant of forested areas, and breeds by direct development.
56554		population	eng	It is rare.
56554		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development is a major threat to this species.
56555		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
56555		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from a locality at an altitude of 183m asl in the Amazonian lowlands on the Río Tigres in extreme northern Loreto Department, Peru, although it is possible that it is more widespread.
56555		habitat	eng	The area it was found in is situated along the border of a swamp in secondary and primary forest. The only known specimen (a gravid female) was found on leaf-litter in primary forest. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56555		population	eng	It is currently known only from the holotype, and there is no information on its population status.
56555		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by localized habitat loss due to human activities such as agricultural development (including cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock.
56556		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas. A systematic survey to corroborate the presence of this species in the type locality is required. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56556		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Antiguo Morelos, southern Tamaulipas, Mexico at 250m asl.
56556		habitat	eng	It has been collected in caves and lowland forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56556		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56556		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, particularly due to logging.
56557		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco, and slightly with the Reserva Ecológica Antisana. Improved protection of the montane forest habitat of this species is needed.
56557		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,350-3,155m asl. It has been recorded from nine localities and probably occurs somewhat more widely.
56557		habitat	eng	It inhabits upper montane forests and clearings and is tolerant of some limited habitat degradation. It is found beneath rocks and logs by day and on low vegetation at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56557		population	eng	It is a common species within its small known range.
56557		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to deforestation for agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.
56558		conservation	eng	In Ecuador this species is known from many protected areas including Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru the range of this species overlaps with Manu Reserve Biosphere of southern and Pacaya-Samiria Reserve Zone of northern Peru.
56558		distribution	eng	This species is present in suitable habitat throughout Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and presumably western Brazil. It ranges up to 1,000m asl.
56558		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species occurring in primary and secondary forests (Duellman, 1978; Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994); this includes seasonally flooded, terra firme and upland tropical forests. It is presumed to breed by direct development; the egg deposition site is not known. It is not recorded from degraded habitats.
56558		population	eng	It is frequent in good habitat.
56558		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56559		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area, although it lies just outside the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. This locality is within a "protected" area where the Corporación del Valle del Cauca (CVC) generates electricity as waters leave Lago Calima.
56559		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality (over about 1km) of the Alto Río Calima in the Valle del Cauca department on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,230-1,250m asl. Surveys of the surrounding area have not recorded the species indicating that it is most likely a very restricted range species.
56559		habitat	eng	It is found in vegetation along the stream and on rocks inside and immediately adjacent to the stream in low cloud forest. It breeds by direct development. It is only known from this one stream and is thought to be a microhabitat specialist, like other species of the group.
56559		population	eng	It is quite common at the type locality.
56559		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is potentially the hydroelectric power dam only a few kilometres upstream, but there is no access to the species' habitat as it is part of the dam property. Its habitat does not appear to be otherwise threatened. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56560		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith, pers. comm. September 2007).
56560		distribution	eng	This species occurs on humid lowlands and premontane slopes on the Atlantic versant from southeastern Honduras, through northern Nicaragua to eastern Panama; on the Pacific slope, marginally in the Cordillera de Guanacaste and Cordillera de Tilarán of Costa Rica, southwestern Costa Rica, and adjacent western Panama. Its altitudinal range is 1-1,620m asl. Records of this species from just west of the Canal area in Panama south through Colombia to western Ecuador are misidentified specimens of <em>Diasporus gularis</em>, <em>D. quidditus</em>, and <em>D. tinker</em> (Lynch, 2001).
56560		habitat	eng	It is a generally arboreal, nocturnal, species of humid lowland and montane forest; also known to tolerate very disturbed habitats. This species has a direct development form of reproduction; eggs are deposited in bromeliads.
56560		population	eng	This is a widely distributed and abundant species. It has declined from some higher-altitude parts of its range such as Monteverde, but also from lowland La Selva (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56560		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56561		conservation	eng	The Omiltemi Park is under protection by the local people, although it no longer has any formal protection status and is subject to increasing anthropogenic disturbance. There is a need to protect the montane forest habitat of this species. A new survey to evaluate the current status of the populations in Guerrero is required.
56561		distribution	eng	This species is found in Omiltemi, Mazatlan and the surrounding areas of Chilpancingo, in north-central Guerrero, Mexico. The type locality is at about 2,250m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
56561		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forest and crops in the forest, and is commonly found under logs and rocks during the day. During the mating season males climb on rocks and bushes, and breeding is by direct development.
56561		population	eng	This is not a common species.
56561		threats	eng	Disturbance and/or loss of the forests north of Chilpancingo are the main threat for this species since it is restricted to high-elevation forests in the Omiltemi area.
56562		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
56562		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Cuba from 0-1,375m asl.
56562		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that requires closed mesic forest. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in damp leaf-litter.
56562		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56562		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction as a result of deforestation due to agricultural development for crop cultivation and subsistence farming, charcoal manufacture, and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism. Agricultural pollution is also a threat.
56563		conservation	eng	One locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, and the other is in a private reserve that has well-protected primary forest. The maintenance of these protected areas is essential for the long-term survival of this restricted-range, microhabitat specialist.
56563		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities close together; one in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and the other just outside the park, both in Cauca department, on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 1,470-1,600m asl.
56563		habitat	eng	This species is a microhabitat specialist, found on rocks near waterfalls in streams in primary forests. It has not been recorded outside primary forest. It breeds by direct development.
56563		population	eng	It is not thought to be a rare species.
56563		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species' habitat at present, as its habitat is relatively well protected. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56564		conservation	eng	In Bolivia, this species occurs in the Amboro, Tariquia and Aguarague protected areas. In Argentina, some populations are protected in Calilegua and Baritú National Parks.
56564		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia (Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, and Tarija from 950-2,200m asl) and northwestern Argentina (Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán Provinces from 700-1,200m asl).
56564		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in the leaf-litter of humid montane forests. Eggs are laid under logs on the forest floor and develop directly. It can tolerate a small amount of habitat disturbance and can be found in clearings on slopes as well as roadside ditches, but cannot tolerate more intensive habitat modification such as intensive logging or livestock grazing.
56564		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout its range. It is recorded every year in Argentina.
56564		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation due to wood extraction and agricultural expansion are threats to this species.
56565		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of the montane cloud forest habitat of this species.
56565		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities on the western slopes of the Andes in Pichincha Province, north-western Ecuador: Quebrada Zapadores, near Chiriboga, at 2,020m asl; and from San Ignacio, at 1,920m asl. Reports from Colombia are in error (J. Lynch pers. comm.).
56565		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane cloud forest, although its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. Specimens have been found on low vegetation along streams at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56565		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56565		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing within its range, due to expanding agricultural activities (including the rearing of livestock) and human settlements.
56566		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and an urgent programme of protection and restoration of the Agua del Obispo area is required. Further survey work to evaluate the population status of this species is also necessary. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56566		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Agua del Obispo, central Guerrero, Mexico.
56566		habitat	eng	It inhabits a small area of pine-oak forest at moderate elevations. Individuals are frequently found perched on the branches of trees from which they usually call. It breeds by direct development.
56566		population	eng	This is a rare species.
56566		threats	eng	The primary threat is habitat loss and degradation, as the forested areas surrounding Agua del Obispo have been severely disturbed or transformed by human activities.
56567		conservation	eng	This species is known only from the Parc National Macaya; there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species.
56567		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one site on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 1,120m asl.
56567		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, occurring in high-elevation cloud forest. While it has been recorded from forest edge, this is probably not suitable habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56567		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens.
56567		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is severe habitat destruction, which is taking place as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56568		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indi Wasa, in Colombia. Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador.
56568		distribution	eng	This species occurs at an elevation of 1,440-1,950m asl on the eastern face of the Andes in Putumayo and Caquetá (Colombia) and Napo (Ecuador). In Ecuador it is only known from three nearby localities.
56568		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest, and is associated with stream habitats (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
56568		population	eng	Generally, this is not a common frog anywhere in its range, although a good-sized series was collected in Colombia in 1990 in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua.
56568		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (including the planting of illegal crops) and logging. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56569		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and formal habitat protection is urgently needed to secure the future survival of this species.
56569		distribution	eng	This species is known from Páramo Sonsón, in southern Antioquia and eastern Caldas Departments, in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, from 2,400-3,000m asl.
56569		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of sub-páramo, it is usually active among vegetation in the low stratum and is often found sheltering in epiphytes, in forested areas, but it can also be found in open areas. It has not been recorded from disturbed forest or from anthropogenic habitats, although it may occur in these areas. It breeds by direct development.
56569		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56569		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops).
56570		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Estación El Rasgón.
56570		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the eastern and western flanks of the Cordillera Oriental in Santander and Norte de Santander, Colombia, at 1,800-2,550m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
56570		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey of cloud forests, sometimes near streams. It also occurs in secondary forest, but has not been found outside forested areas. Reproduction takes place by direct development.
56570		population	eng	It is a common species.
56570		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural crops and cattle ranching is the main threat to this species.
56571		conservation	eng	In Colombia, it is recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Munchique (Cauca) and La Planada (Nariño). In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.
56571		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the western Andes in northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imabura, Pichincha Province) and southern Colombia (departments of Cauca and Nariño), from 1,780-2,700m asl.
56571		habitat	eng	This is a montane tropical cloud forest species, and is present in humid microhabitats. At night,it perches on branches and herbaceous vegetation immediately above small streams and sits on rock faces in the spray zones of waterfalls; some have been found in crevices or between rocks in small streams (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It is presumed to be a species that breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
56571		population	eng	In 1977, this species was recorded as abundant in Carchi and Imbabura in Ecuador. However, during surveys conducted between 1997 and 2003, it was found to be rare at many localities
56571		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is a major threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56572		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. This species would benefit from the creation of a protected area to conserve its habitat, as it is restricted to pristine páramo. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
56572		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Páramo del Duende, in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, from 3,000-3,600m asl. Its range is likely to extend up to high areas next to the Farallones de Cali peaks.
56572		habitat	eng	It is usually found in bromeliads, and only in pristine humid alpine páramo habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56572		population	eng	It is a very common species, although hard to catch.
56572		threats	eng	The locality is currently pristine páramo and is quite steep, so there are no present threats to this species' habitat. Climate change might represent a potential future threat since this species is located at high altitude in páramo habitat.
56573		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães. Taxonomic revision is needed to determine whether or not Bolivian specimens represent a different species.
56573		distribution	eng	This species is known only from within 25km of the type locality, Chapada dos Guimarães, in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, and from a single locality in Bolivia, although its distribution is still very poorly known. The records are from around 800m asl.
56573		habitat	eng	It occurs on vegetation in gallery forests in the Cerrado savannah, and breeds by direct development, although there is no information known about the egg deposition site. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
56573		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56573		threats	eng	Agricultural development, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging and fires, are major threats to this species’ habitat. Disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a problem.
56574		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, although more effective protection is required for this species.
56574		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western and central Cuba from 0-830m asl.
56574		habitat	eng	It is found in closed-canopy mesic forests, and is normally terrestrial but calls from arboreal sites. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56574		population	eng	It is a common species.
56574		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are agricultural development and pollution, and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism.
56575		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; however, it does not occur in any protected areas in Colombia. There is a need for improved protection of the montane forest habitat of this species. Further survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
56575		distribution	eng	This species is found at intermediate elevations (from 2,300-2,900m asl) on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Sucumbios and Napo Provinces) and southern Colombia (Putumayo department, eastern flank of the Nudo de Pasto). It is known from relatively few localities.
56575		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in sloping areas of upper humid montane forest, but can also be found in forest edges. Specimens were found under rocks and logs, and on areas of humid grass by day (Lynch and Duellman 1980). They are also found amidst leaf litter (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56575		population	eng	It has never been a common species but is regularly encountered in appropriate habitat. The last records might be from the 1970s in Ecuador, but there have been no known recent attempts to find it.
56575		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are general habitat loss, caused by agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), and pollution (from the spraying of illegal crops).
56576		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza and Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz.
56576		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the páramos of Chingaza, Sumapaz, and La Rusia, in the departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, Colombia, from 2,600-3,300m asl.
56576		habitat	eng	This species occurs in páramo areas, and also in cloud forest. It is associated with herbaceous vegetation, and very small bushes.
56576		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56576		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to crop agriculture and cattle ranching.<br/><br/>A  infection has been reported for this species (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008).
56577		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Internacional La Amistad, Bosque Protector Palo Seco, and Reserva Forestal Fortuna. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
56577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western central cordillera of Panama. It has been recorded from altitudes of between 910 and 1,450m asl. It has not been recorded from Costa Rica, but may be present in this country.
56577		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest. It breeds by direct development, with eggs deposited on the forest floor.
56577		population	eng	While there is little information available on the population status of this species, it is known to have declined in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí.
56577		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is general habitat loss as a result of smallholder farming activities, logging and human settlement, although the current observed population decline is thought to be due to chytridiomycosis (Lips 1999).
56578		conservation	eng	It is known from a few protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species, and there is a need to provide more adequate protection of the remaining forest habitat.
56578		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra de Trinidad, Cuba, from 350-830m asl.
56578		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial inhabitant of closed-canopy, humid forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56578		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56578		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the disturbance of the habitat from tourist activities.
56579		conservation	eng	Survey work is urgently needed to determine the population status of this species, and the reasons for its decline. It is known to occur in the Parque Nacional La Tigra and the Reserva Biológica Cerro Uyuca.
56579		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Río Choluteca watershed from Cerro La Tigra and Cerro Uyuca to El Zamorano in south-central Honduras at elevations of 800-2,000m asl.
56579		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of this species is premontane and lower montane moist forest. It occurs in leaf-litter, and has been collected along streams and in a citrus grove away from streams. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56579		population	eng	There have been no sightings of this species since 1985 despite one targeted effort to look for this species. Considering that all streamside <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> occurring above 900m asl in Honduras have disappeared recently, this species might be extinct.
56579		threats	eng	Although the precise reasons for the declines seen in this species are unclear, it is possible that the apparent disappearance might be due to chytridiomycosis.
56580		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56580		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is Florencia, Caqueta Department, Colombia, at 740-1,660m asl, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental. Its distribution is probably much greater, considering the amount of available habitat nearby.
56580		habitat	eng	This is a species that inhabits cloud forests, on strata from the ground up to 2m above the ground, particularly on roadsides. It also occurs inside dense forests along forest breaks.
56580		population	eng	It is abundant and was collected in 1992, although no surveying has been conducted at this site in quite a while.
56580		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops.
56581		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.
56581		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Santa Teresa, in the state of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 650m asl, although it might be more widespread.
56581		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest, and breeds by direct development.
56581		population	eng	It is extremely abundant in its small range.
56581		threats	eng	The area where the species is found is quite well protected (as it is a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where the species might occur), due to agricultural development (including the creation of wood plantations), logging, human settlement and tourism.
56582		conservation	eng	It has been collected within the Reserve de la Biosfera Río Platano and on the edge of Parque Nacional Agalta. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.
56582		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Sierra de Agalta and Sierra Punta Piedra in the departments of Olancho and Colon east-central and north-eastern Honduras, at elevations of 150-1,459m asl.
56582		habitat	eng	It occurs and breeds (by direct development) in leaf-litter on the ground in lowland and premontane moist forest. It is often found near streams.
56582		population	eng	Formerly, this species was relatively common, but now is apparently in decline. Substantial habitat has been lost in recent years, and a recent survey conducted in appropriate habitat turned up no records of this species.
56582		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and cattle ranching), logging, human settlement, and forest fires. However, since the observed decline has also taken place in suitable habitat this could be suggestive of chytridiomycosis as a significant threat (at least to higher-altitude populations).
56583		conservation	eng	In Colombia, the species occurs in Reserva La Planada (department of Nariño), and in Ecuador its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56583		distribution	eng	This species is found at elevations of 1,540-2,100m asl on the Pacific slopes of the western Andes in Ecuador (Saloya Valley, Pichincha Province) and extreme south-western Colombia (La Planada, Nariño Department). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
56583		habitat	eng	It is a montane cloud forest species. It occurs in old growth and secondary forest, but not outside forest habitats. During the day, it can be found in epiphytic bromeliads as much as 7m off the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56583		population	eng	It was abundant in suitable habitat in La Planada, Colombia, in the late 1980s, and has been recorded during the course of recent surveys in Ecuador.
56583		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is a major threat.
56584		conservation	eng	It occurs in Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and Reserva Ecológica Antisana in Ecuador.
56584		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the valley of the Río Papallacta on the eastern face of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, and Putumayo Department, Colombia, at elevations of 2,160-2,750m asl. In Ecuador, the species is only known from four localities. It probably occurs more widely.
56584		habitat	eng	This species has been found in partially cleared and old growth cloud forest. It is active at night on top of low herbaceous vegetation. Mueses-Cisneros (2005) reported finding specimens next to the shores of the Rio Putumayo and within the forest, from ground level, on top of herbaceous vegetation, up to 3m high, above shrubs. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56584		population	eng	This species was recorded as common in Guacamayos, La Sofia, Cosanga, and Reventador, Ecuador, in 2003.
56584		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is a major threat.
56585		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to investigate the current population status of this species, and to determine whether or not there are any immediate threats at present. Close population monitoring is required given that it is known only from the Volcán Sumaco.
56585		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the peak of Volcán Sumaco, in Napo Province, Ecuador, at around 3,900m asl. It is not likely to occur elsewhere.
56585		habitat	eng	It lives in high-elevation grassland and bushland habitats on the Volcán Sumaco. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56585		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56585		threats	eng	There is no recent information on threats in its only known locality. Its highly restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
56586		conservation	eng	The type locality is next to Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, into which its range is known to extend.
56586		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near Teresópolis, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, although it might range more widely. It occurs between 800-1,100m asl.
56586		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest and forest edges. It is presumably a species that breeds by direct development, like others in the genus.
56586		population	eng	It is common.
56586		threats	eng	Its range overlaps with a protected area, but it also occurs outside this area, where infrastructure development for human settlement might be threatening some populations.
56587		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
56587		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern and western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and the eastern and western slopes north of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Quindio, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca. It has been recorded from 980-2,600m asl.
56587		habitat	eng	It is associated with premontane and montane forests, cloud forests and secondary forests. It is also found on low vegetation and is very common in roadside forests, especially juvenile individuals.
56587		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56587		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.
56588		conservation	eng	The species was well protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. It was formerly suggested that any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
56588		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred on the volcanoes Barva, Irazú, and Turrialba, of the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, at elevations of 1,100-2,100m asl (Savage 2002).
56588		habitat	eng	It has been recorded along streams in premontane and lower montane rainforest; with breeding taking place on land by direct development at stream margins.
56588		population	eng	Although it has been well studied and collected extensively, and was formerly abundant throughout its range, it has not been recorded despite extensive directed surveys since 1986. There have been no new records as of August, 2007. A serious decline appears to have taken place and there is now considered to be no doubt that the species is extinct (F. Bolaños and G. Chaves pers. comm.).
56588		threats	eng	The most likely cause of its disappearance in suitable habitats is the disease chytridiomycosis, perhaps in combination with climate change or other, unknown, factors.
56589		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56589		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of Estero Vicente, a tributary of the Río San Miguel, in Comunidada San Miguel, Parroquia Telembí, Cantón Eloy Alfaro, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. This is a lowland species found approximately between 225 and 275m asl. It might occur more widely.
56589		habitat	eng	It is found in evergreen lowland tropical forest, where it breeds by direct development.
56589		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
56589		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
56590		conservation	eng	It is known from two protected areas, and the naval station affords the species some level of protection.
56590		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo Province, in Cuba, from sea level up to 151m asl. It occurs on Guantanamo Naval Station and has only rarely been encountered outside this site.
56590		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric rocky regions at low elevations in mesic tropical forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56590		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56590		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for human settlement and tourist facilities, as well as the disturbance of the habitat by tourists, is the major threat to this species.
56591		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species is urgently needed.
56591		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four localities in a limited area of cloud forest in the upper valley of the Río Pilatón in the province of Pichincha, Ecuador, at elevations of 1,700-2,010m asl.
56591		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, in humid subtropical and humid temperate regimes, and is usually found away from streams. It occurs in bromeliads in the sub canopy. It breeds by direct development, which takes place in bromeliads.
56591		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. It has been recorded as recently as December 2002 in Pichincha.
56591		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to logging, is the major threat to the species.
56592		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also required to determine the population status of this species.
56592		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 575-1,300m asl.
56592		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, occurring in mesic hardwood closed-canopy forests, and has not been recorded from disturbed forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56592		population	eng	It is known to be a moderately common species in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 2005 (Hedges and Díaz, 2009).
56592		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is severe habitat destruction, which is taking place as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56593		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Grand Etang Forest Reserve. Increased protection of its remaining rainforest habitat is needed. The species needs to be carefully monitored (Henderson and Berg, 2006).
56593		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central and south-eastern Grenada, Lesser Antilles, where it has been recorded from 300-840m asl.
56593		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforests and forest edge and montane meadows surrounded by agriculture. It lives on the ground and on vegetation. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56593		population	eng	This species is poorly known, but it appears to be moderately common in suitable habitat.
56593		threats	eng	Habitat loss and destruction is the major threat to this species, primarily due to urbanization and tourism development, as well as agriculture.<br/><br/>It has also been suggested that the species could possibly be threatened by the invasive <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>, although this is uncertain at this time (Henderson and Berg, 2006).
56594		conservation	eng	It is present in Reserva Comunal El Sira; this is specifically an indigenous people reserve. It is not known if this species is present in protected areas in Brazil.
56594		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species that is present in the region of Panguana (at 220m asl) and Serrania de Sira (at 800-1,380m asl) in a relatively small area in the extreme eastern portion of Huanuco, central Amazonian Peru. It was recently recorded from Acre and Amazonas States Brazil, where it is found at elevations above 1,380m asl.
56594		habitat	eng	It is an upland forest inhabitant. In Central Peru, the habitat is mainly covered with unexploited primary forest. The habitat type is not known for Brazil. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56594		population	eng	Its population is unknown.
56594		threats	eng	There are presumed to be no major threats. It is now a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). In Peru, there has been a significant loss habitat through agriculture and colonization.
56595		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina, in both Peru and Ecuador.
56595		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species that is known from one locality at 1,550m asl on the western slopes of the northern part of the Cordillera del Cóndor (Morona-Santiago), Ecuador. It can also be found in two localities along the Río Comainas (at 665 and 1,138m asl) on the eastern slopes of the southern part of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Amazonas Department, Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 665-1,830m asl.
56595		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found on low vegetation in humid montane forest at night (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). This species is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56595		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. Four adult males and six adult females were used to describe it.
56595		threats	eng	It is threatened by localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agricultural activity (the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), and human settlement. In Ecuador, the known range is particularly threatened by road construction (Cisneros-Heredia pers comm.).
56596		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not in any protected areas, although protection of the species' habitat is not urgent at present as it is an adaptable species. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
56596		distribution	eng	This species is known from the oriental slope of the Central Cordillera, between Caldas and Antioquia Departments, in Colombia, from 1,800-2,200m asl.
56596		habitat	eng	It is a common species in the forest, along roadsides and in adjacent areas. It is active at night on low vegetation. It is an adaptable species that is also found in places such as pastureland, and degraded former forest and it breeds by direct development.
56596		population	eng	It is a common species.
56596		threats	eng	There are no threats to this adaptable species.
56597		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of the species, and its habitat is in need of urgent protection (particularly given its dependence on gallery forest to maintain humidity levels). Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56597		distribution	eng	This species is found along forested streams in Antioquia, Tolima, and Caldas Departments, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 1,100-1,850m asl. The type locality is in San Carlos (Lynch and Rueda-Almonacid 1999).
56597		habitat	eng	This is a forest species usually found along the edge of streams that is associated with naturally occurring open areas in primary and secondary forests. Gallery forest cover is needed to keep humidity high; hence, it is very sensitive to any disturbance of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56597		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status.
56597		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation for agricultural development and the planting of illegal crops, although these activities are mainly localized at present. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56598		conservation	eng	There are records of this species from Parque Nacional Pico Bonito, Parque Nacional Capiro and Parque Nacional Calentura. Surveys to relocate this species and to determine its current population status are urgently required; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56598		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Quebrada de Oro and Cerro Calentura in the Sierra Nombre de Dios in the Departments of Atlantica and Colon, northern Honduras, at elevations of 200-1,260m asl.
56598		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in leaf-litter in undisturbed lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest, and breeds by direct development.
56598		population	eng	Although once relatively common, it is now in decline: it was not recorded once during a total of 20 days of searching during 1995 and 1996 in suitable habitat.
56598		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the apparent disappearance of this species is chytridiomycosis.
56599		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve, Dpto Madre de Dios, Peru. It also occurs in protected areas in Brazil and Bolivia.
56599		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon Basin of Peru (Department of Madre de Dios and Cusco and two places in the Department of Puno) and from Bolivia to Brazil. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,900m asl.
56599		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is humid montane and lowland forest, including secondary forest and edges. It inhabits upland, flooding, and oxbow palm swamp forest. Individuals are found in the leaf-litter, on vegetation and on bromeliads at night.
56599		population	eng	It is very common in Peru and Bolivia.
56599		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
56600		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of the species, and there is a need for the protection of remaining tracts of montane forest in this region.
56600		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities within the vicinity of the type locality, Puerto Suárez, on the Cordillera Occidental in Caldas Department, Colombia, from 1,800-2,650m asl.
56600		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forests, and is very dependent on humid conditions and streamside conditions. It can be found on rocks and low vegetation. It needs gallery forest to maintain the humid conditions, and hence is not tolerant of any disturbance of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56600		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56600		threats	eng	Habitat loss, as a result of deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), is the major threat to this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> associated with montane streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56601		conservation	eng	The range includes several protected areas.
56601		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Honduras and northwestern Costa Rica, south to northwestern Colombia, up to 1,520m asl.
56601		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of humid lowland and montane forest, and is often seen in disturbed forest or forest edge. In lowland dry forest areas, it is restricted to riparian gallery forest in the dry season, but disperses throughout forest in the wet season (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). Reproduction occurs by direct development. In Colombia, it has not been recorded from secondary forest.
56601		population	eng	This species is often common in Costa Rica, although populations have undergone some recorded declines at La Selva (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
56601		threats	eng	Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi (R. Puschendorf pers. comm.), but populations are still high. There are no major threats to the species habitat overall at present as it has a wide range.
56602		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56602		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to eastern Dominican Republic from 0-909m asl. Coastal populations have probably been extirpated from western La Romana.
56602		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic forests and occasionally mangroves, but does not adapt well to degraded forests. It calls from a variety of elevated surfaces. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are laid on the ground or in bromeliads.
56602		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitat, especially in the eastern part of its range.
56602		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to development of infrastructure (such as hotels) for tourism, and agricultural encroachment by smallholder farmers and livestock grazing.
56603		conservation	eng	The historical range includes Parque Nacional Tapantí as well as other protected areas. It is a high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species (most especially within the Cordillera de Talamanca) and determine whether or not it survives in the wild; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56603		distribution	eng	This species was found in Costa Rica on the Meseta Central Oriental and Occidental, on the Pacific slopes of the volcanoes Poás and Barva, on the Atlantic slopes of the volcanoes Irazú, Turrialba, and on the slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca, at elevations of 1,050-2,286m asl.
56603		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that has been found along streams in premontane and lower montane wet forest at both pristine and moderately disturbed sites. It reproduces in stream margins by direct development.
56603		population	eng	It has not been seen since 1986 despite extensive searches in a number of sites from which it was formerly known (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007). There is a possibility that populations persist in parts of the Cordillera de Talamanca, as limited survey work has recently taken place within this area. Until directed surveys have been undertaken in this region, the species is still considered to be extant.
56603		threats	eng	The most likely cause of the disappearance at known sites of this species is chytridiomycosis, possibly in combination with the effects of climate change.
56604		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56604		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western flanks of the Andes in the Ecuadorian provinces of Cotopaxi, Imbabura, and Pichincha, at 700-2,000m asl.
56604		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland tropical forest and cloud forest. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56604		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56604		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.
56605		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, but is not known to occur in a protected area in Haiti. Maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed, and further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.
56605		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range on the Massif de la Selle, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) where it is known from only two isolated sites, one in Haiti, and one in the Dominican Republic. Its altitudinal range is 1,045-1,303m asl.
56605		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-elevation mesic forests, occurring in bromeliads in tall trees (which it uses as diurnal retreats, and for calling sites and breeding). It breeds by direct development.
56605		population	eng	This species is probably very rare; very few specimens have ever been collected and few individuals have been heard calling.
56605		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is habitat destruction due to small-scale agriculture and charcoaling, a particular threat to the tall trees that are its favoured habitat.
56606		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Serranía de la Macarena.
56606		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca and Meta, and from the Serranía de la Macarena, in Colombia. Its altitudinal range is from 1,000-1,600m asl. It might be more widely distributed than existing records indicate.
56606		habitat	eng	This species inhabits premontane humid forests, and is found on low vegetation. It has been recorded from secondary forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56606		population	eng	It is a common species, and was last collected in 1993 when the last surveys took place.
56606		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (crops and cattle ranching) is the main threat to this species.
56607		conservation	eng	Its range includes Carrasco and Amboro National Parks.
56607		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chapare Province, in the department of Cochabamba, in La Siberia, which is at the border between the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz in Bolivia (De la Riva and Lynch 1997). It has been recorded from 2,000-3,000m asl.
56607		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal inhabitant of the cloud forest of Yungas (De la Riva and Lynch 1997, De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is mainly terrestrial, and Köhler (2000) noted that some individuals could be observed perching actively on brushwoods, bushes and ferns, or on the ground during the day. It is a direct developing species, and clutches contain as many as 30 eggs.<br/><br/>The advertisement call of this species is described by Jansen and Köhler (2007).
56607		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56607		threats	eng	Incidental habitat loss/degradation is a threat to local populations, but overall this species is not significantly threatened at present.
56608		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic and the Parc National Morne La Visite in Haiti. However, there is little or no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being destroyed. Improved management of these protected areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed, while further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.
56608		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Selle in Haiti, and the Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, in Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 803-2,100 m asl.
56608		habitat	eng	It occurs in upland mesic pine forests, usually under rocks and logs. It has been recorded from recently disturbed forest, although this is probably not suitable habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56608		population	eng	Known to be moderately common in suitable habitat, it was last recorded in 2007 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56608		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction, as a result of charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture, is the primary threat to this species, and is taking place even in the protected areas of La Selle and Bahoruco.
56609		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas in Panama and Colombia and one in Costa Rica.
56609		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic lowlands from extreme southeastern Costa Rica to eastern Panama and on the Pacific versant in central Colombia; populations in the Ríos Sinú, Cauca, and Magdalena questionably placed here (following Lynch, 1985). In Costa Rica it is known from the Valle de Talamanca and the vicinity of Carbón, Limón Province, at elevations of 20-200m asl (Savage, 2002).
56609		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species of primary humid lowland forest, and secondary forest. Adults are found under surface debris and in leaf-litter, its range often associated with caves or rocky stream banks. It breeds by direct development.
56609		population	eng	It is common in Panama and relatively rare in Costa Rica.
56609		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
56610		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán in Peru, and in Ecuador with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Sangay, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
56610		distribution	eng	In Ecuador, this species is known from 1,000-1,800m asl on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, from 1,700-1,975m asl in the Cordillera del Cutucú, and from 1,500-1,550m asl in the Cordillera del Condór. The only Peruvian record is at 1,700m asl on the western slope of the Cordillera de Colán, Bagua Province, Amazonas Department, from 05° 36'S; 78° 19'W. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in areas between the known Ecuadorian and Peruvian ranges.
56610		habitat	eng	This species can be found in evergreen secondary and old growth humid montane forest with herbaceous plants, shrubs, and lianas. Specimens have been found on leaves of bushes or palm fronds 1-2m above the ground (Lynch and Duellman 1980). In Peru, the species was found along a stream in humid montane forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56610		population	eng	This is an uncommon species in Ecuador, where it was first recorded as recently as 2003. In Peru, only a single specimen has been recorded.
56610		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat destruction through an increase in livestock farming, agro-industrial development, and selective wood extraction.
56611		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
56611		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, at 1,700m asl in the Cordillera del Cutucú, and from one other locality about 400km north (in Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, at 2,000m asl), in Ecuador. It is likely to occur more widely, in particular between the known sites.
56611		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected in a flat area on a ridge with cloud forest with a relatively open canopy and many tree falls (Duellman and Lynch 1988). It can also occur in fairly disturbed areas, for example it has been found on roadsides. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
56611		population	eng	It was found to be common in 2001 in Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.
56611		threats	eng	Agricultural activity (both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock) is a future threat, while logging, and infrastructure developments for human settlement, are ongoing threats to its habitat.
56612		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is within Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.
56612		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Paranapiacaba, in São Paulo State, Brazil, at around 800m asl.
56612		habitat	eng	Its habitat requirements are unknown, but the type locality was primary forest at the time of collection.
56612		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen (which is in bad condition), so there is no information on its population status.
56612		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown, but the type locality is now within a protected area.
56613		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is therefore a need for urgent habitat protection in the range of this species.
56613		distribution	eng	This species occurs at elevations of 2,850-3,380m asl in a small part of the Ecuadorian Andes, west of the Páramo de Apagua, in the province of Cotopaxi.
56613		habitat	eng	It is a high-altitude cloud forest species, where individuals have been found under rocks by day. It has apparently also been found in high-altitude bush land and grassland. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56613		population	eng	It is a common species within its small known range.
56613		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to deforestation for agricultural development and human settlement.
56614		conservation	eng	Part of the species' range is protected within Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Further research is needed to establish the reasons for the decline of this species, even within protected areas; if chytridiomycosis is proved to be a genuine threat, then a captive assurance colony may need to be established.
56614		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur from Páramo Mucubají (Santo Domingo mountain range) to Páramo El Pajarito (Trujillo mountain range) and El Escurial (La Culata mountain range), in Venezuela, between 2900 and 4000 masl (La Marca, 2007).
56614		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in páramo grassland. It breeds by direct development.
56614		population	eng	It is rare and in decline. Populations of this frog are undergoing declines in areas where it was previously abundant, such as the Páramo de Mucubají, although it is still common in less surveyed areas.
56614		threats	eng	Although most of the populations are in protected areas, agriculture (involving both crops and livestock), as well as fires, are threats to the species' habitat. However, the cause of the current declines is not known, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
56615		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, making the protection of habitat within its range an urgent priority.
56615		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Ecuador (Papallacta Valley near Cuyuja, in Napo Province, and Monte Olivo, in Imbabura Province), and from three localities in Putumayo department, Colombia. It is found between 2,350-2,910m asl. It probably occurs more widely but this requires confirmation.
56615		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species of páramo grassland, cloud forest, and clearings (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It breeds by direct development.
56615		population	eng	This species was rare at Monte Olivo, where it was last collected in the year 2000.
56615		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture development and agricultural pollution, are the major threats.
56616		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management and protection of these areas is necessary.
56616		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range on the Sierra del Turquino in Cuba, from 800-1,974m asl.
56616		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and requires closed mesic cloud forests. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are laid on the ground.
56616		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
56616		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation, as a result of deforestation due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourist activities, and infrastructure development for human settlement. Although it may occur in the core of the Sierra Maestra, it is restricted to high-elevation cloud forest, which is declining rapidly.
56617		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the population status of this species.
56617		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, at an altitude of 300-1,886m asl.
56617		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, found in closed-canopy forests, and appears to be associated with streamside habitats. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56617		population	eng	At the time of the last survey in 1991 it was known to be moderately common.
56617		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56618		conservation	eng	The known range of the species is just outside Parc National Morne La Visite, although there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat within the park is being destroyed. This is clearly a species requiring urgent site-based conservation action specifically to conserve the remaining habitat in the area. Survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56618		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one small locality in the Massif de la Selle, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from 1,515-2,121m asl.
56618		habitat	eng	It occurs only at high elevations in moist forest, calling from the ground or from low grasses in the forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56618		population	eng	It is very rare, and possibly already extinct. It has been seen only a few times, most recently in 1985 although there have been few herpetological surveys in the region since.
56618		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is severe habitat destruction, due to charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56619		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Reserva Ecológica Antisana. Increased protection of the habitat of this species in the Ecuadorian Andes is necessary.
56619		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from five localities on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Río Papallacta Valley, in Napo Province, and Playon de San Francisco, in Sucumbios Province, Ecuador. It has been recorded from 2,105-2,890m asl.
56619		habitat	eng	This is an inhabitant of páramo, cloud forest, and clearings by day, and at night it has been found on rocks, on the ground and on low vegetation (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It breeds by direct development.
56619		population	eng	The species is rare at Playon de San Francisco, where one individual was collected in the year 2000.
56619		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss and degradation, due to livestock farming, fires and agricultural pollution.
56620		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. There is a need for urgent site-based conservation action to ensure the formal protection of remaining habitat on the Tiburon Peninsula and thereby the persistence of this and several other species of threatened amphibians in the region.
56620		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti, at an altitudinal range of 576-1,480m asl.
56620		habitat	eng	It is found in crevices of exposed limestone in closed moist forest, and calls from low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56620		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56620		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to habitat destruction (which is ongoing), although perhaps less so than other frog species. Logging (charcoal collection) by locals and slash and burn agriculture are major threats.
56621		conservation	eng	The protected area in which it occurs is the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park.
56621		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in eastern Jamaica, occurring from 0-1,650m asl.
56621		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species, often found on rocks, requires rainforest but can occur in secondary forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56621		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
56621		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place, even within the protected area in which it occurs, and there are coffee plantations within the park's limits. Hikers also disturb the species' habitat, and there is a lot of litter left behind from tourists visiting the park.
56622		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and restoration and protection of the remaining habitat of this species is urgently required. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56622		distribution	eng	This species is known from the areas surrounding San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico, at 2,100m asl.
56622		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is pine and pine-oak forests at intermediate elevations. It breeds by direct development.
56622		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56622		threats	eng	Most of its range has been dramatically transformed in the past few years by an increased rate of logging and urbanization.
56623		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas.
56623		distribution	eng	This species can be found in lowland and premontane humid forests of eastern and central Panama, where it is found at elevations of 10-850m asl, and on the Atlantic slopes of northwestern Panama and eastern Costa Rica. There are a few records for the premontane Pacific slope in Costa Rica, where it is found at elevations of 10-1,520m asl (Savage, 2002).
56623		habitat	eng	It inhabits the leaf-litter of humid lowland and montane forest; it is also present in cleared areas close to the forest. It breeds by direct development.
56623		population	eng	It is apparently common and regularly seen in Costa Rica.
56623		threats	eng	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a major threat.
56624		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park, and several forest reserves.
56624		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Jamaica, and it occurs up to 1,515m asl. It appears to have been accidentally introduced into Bermuda in vegetation imported from Jamaica in the 1890s. However, it became apparent that the population was declining by the mid 1990s, and might have been extirpated from Bermuda since no specimens of this species had been observed since 1994 (Bacon et al., 2006).
56624		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and is found in a variety of mesic habitats including rural gardens and former forest. It is dependent on moist habitats, as well as in undisturbed forest. Agricultural land might not be suitable due to the pollution from agrochemicals. The eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56624		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat.
56624		threats	eng	It is a relatively adaptable species although extensive clearance of the habitat is a major threat, for example from intensive agricultural practices and infrastructure development. It is less threatened than most other Jamaican species.<br/><br/><br/>In Bermuda, studies strongly suggest that Bermuda’s whistling frogs and toads were exhibiting effects caused by exposure to environmental stressors (pesticides and heavy metals, see Bacon et al., 2006).
56625		conservation	eng	Although recorded from several forest reserves, these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and there is a need to strengthen and improve the management of these reserves for biodiversity.
56625		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in western and central Jamaica, with an altitudinal range of 150-670m asl. Much of the mapped range includes many historical localities, and it is unclear whether the species still occurs throughout this range.
56625		habitat	eng	It is found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads or on rocks in wet limestone forests, and appears to be intolerant of any disturbance to its habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56625		population	eng	It is very rare, with only a few records in the last decade.
56625		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agriculture, human settlements, logging, and bauxite mining.
56626		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali and Regional Reserve Ucumari.
56626		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Risaralda and Antioquia, and from the western slopes north of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Caldas and Antioquia, Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,680-2,320m asl.
56626		habitat	eng	It occurs mostly on leaves or branches along streams in cloud forest. It can also survive in secondary forests, but not in open areas outside forest. It breeds by direct development.
56626		population	eng	It is a common species.
56626		threats	eng	Major threats included habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), and pollution as a result of the fumigation of crops. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high-elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56627		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is an urgent need for effective protection of remaining suitable habitat in the range of this species.
56627		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the north-west of Haiti, ranging from 20-330m asl.
56627		habitat	eng	It is found on limestone ridges with boulders and xerophytic vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56627		population	eng	It is relatively common in suitable habitats.
56627		threats	eng	Extremely severe habitat destruction due to charcoaling and small-scale agriculture is taking place on the north-western peninsula of Haiti, which now looks like a lunar landscape, devoid of vegetation, although some pockets remain where this species might occur.
56628		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
56628		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental in Boyacá and Santander Departments, Colombia, at altitudes of 2,200-2,400m asl.
56628		habitat	eng	It inhabits very humid cloud forests, on vegetation above streams, and only occurs in well-preserved forests. Reproduction is by direct development.
56628		population	eng	This is a rare species that was collected for the last time in 1992. It has not been surveyed for since.
56628		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops is the major threat to this species.
56629		conservation	eng	Survey work is urgently needed to establish the current population status of this species, subsequent to which a recovery program and strict protection of the species in the Pedregal Reserve and surroundings areas might need to be implemented. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56629		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality (El Pedregal Reserve) in the Southern Distrito Federal, central Mexico, in the lava fields of Volcán Xitle, in the southern part of Mexico City.
56629		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry shrubland, and breeds by direct development.
56629		population	eng	This is not a very common species and it is difficult to collect.
56629		threats	eng	The extension of Mexico City has resulted in the disappearance of most of the available suitable habitat for this species, with the result that it is now believed to be restricted to a very small protected area, the Pedregal Reserve. The Pedregal has been subject to long-term disturbance (fragmentation and isolation), and is now little more than an isolated vegetation fragment of 160 ha with no natural corridors.
56630		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected area. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
56630		distribution	eng	This species is known from Gran Rio, central Suriname, probably at around 250m asl.
56630		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is primary forest.
56630		population	eng	It is known from only a single specimen.
56630		threats	eng	There are no threats to the type locality at present, as it is undisturbed and isolated.
56631		conservation	eng	It is not found within any protected areas, and protection of the forested areas along the Soconusco region in Mexico is clearly necessary. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56631		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Soconusco region and slopes of Volcán Tacana, southern Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent western Guatemala at Volcán Tejumulco, at elevations of 1,500-2,700m asl.
56631		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is montane cloud forests, and it breeds near streams and does so via direct development.
56631		population	eng	It is uncommon and is known only from few localities.The population in Guatemala is known to be declining, and there have been no records from Mexico since 1997 (recent surveys in Chiapas have not been successful in locating it).
56631		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is declining because of chytridiomycosis, which has heavily impacted some other streamside <em>Craugastor</em> species. Habitat loss is also a threat to the species, particularly in Mexico where the population occurs in a continuously altered forest.
56632		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas, but these are not well managed for biodiversity conservation and the habitat within them continues to be degraded. The existing protected areas network is in need of more effective and strengthened management.
56632		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in central Cuba, where it has been recorded from sea level up to 820m asl.
56632		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky areas in mesic, closed-canopy forests. It is restricted to these forest habitats and breeds by direct development.
56632		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, but is patchily distributed.
56632		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, as a result of deforestation for agriculture, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the disturbance of habitat by tourist activities.
56633		conservation	eng	The majority of the Cockpit Country is government-owned Forest Reserve, although it has not yet been formally declared a protected area. Maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently required.
56633		distribution	eng	This species is known presently from only three localities in Cockpit Country, central-western Jamaica. It has been recorded from 250-640m asl.
56633		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, and is found only in pristine closed-canopy forests, and does not tolerate habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56633		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56633		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is habitat destruction, due to agriculture development, expansion of human settlements, cutting of timber for firewood, and selective logging. Improved access to previously inaccesible parts of the interior by means of the building of roads has led to increased deforestation and selective logging.
56634		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas, which are well managed. The species requires careful population monitoring, particularly in light of the potential threats posed by climate change and/or chytridiomycosis. In addition, further research may help elucidate the relative impact of introduced species (rats and mongoooses) on local populations.
56634		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the interior uplands in Puerto Rico, having been recorded from 300-1,182m asl.
56634		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and along forest edges or openings, retreating by day into bromeliads or under moss and rocks. It has not been recorded outside forest habitats. Eggs are laid in bromeliads, and it breeds by direct development.
56634		population	eng	One population in the elfin forest has been reported as declining. However, apparent declines may be a result of variation in the survey methodology, given that acoustic surveys were conducted at different time frames early and later on in the study (N. Rios-López, pers. comm. 2008).
56634		threats	eng	In the past, extensive deforestation took place over much of Puerto Rico due to agricultural expansion and wood-cutting; current disturbances include tourism and infrastructure development for tourism and radio communication facilities. As a high-altitude species, it might also be susceptible to climate change and/or chytridiomycosis. Rats and mongooses have also been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges, 1993, and Thurley and Bell, 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide, 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of Eleutherodactylus coqui), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to elucidate their relative contribution to amphibian declines.
56635		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a couple of protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is essential. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine whether or not it has a wider range than currently known.
56635		distribution	eng	This species is known from at least three municipalities in Serra do Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It occurs at elevations of 800-1,200m asl.
56635		habitat	eng	This species lives on the floor of primary or good quality rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
56635		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56635		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present, although there was some logging, but this occurred over a hundred years ago.
56636		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Guanahacabibes, which is a well-protected area in Cuba. Protection of other tracts of suitable forest habitat where the species occurs is recommended.
56636		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Peninsula de Guanahacabibes, in extreme western Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to 20m asl.
56636		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky areas and caves with high humidity in moist forest areas; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56636		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56636		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to infrastructure development; a road has recently been built directly through the habitat of the species, and the peninsula may become a landing point for cruise ships in the future.
56637		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, but these are in need of improved protection and management.
56637		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the upland areas (60-1,150m asl) of south-eastern Cuba.
56637		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in closed moist forest. Eggs are laid in bromeliads and breeding takes place by direct development.
56637		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56637		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and human settlement.
56638		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56638		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Espírito Santo, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul. It is also recorded from Misiones Province in northeastern Argentina, presumably also in adjacent Paraguay (though it has not yet been recorded from this country). It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
56638		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and old secondary forest, but not in more open areas. It is found on the forest floor and on low vegetation. It breeds by direct development, and the egg clutches are laid in shallow cavities on the forest floor.
56638		population	eng	It is a very common species. It experienced a population decline at Estação Biológica de Boracéia, but has since rebounded and is abundant again.
56638		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear cutting, fires and human settlement.
56639		conservation	eng	This species is a priority for further survey work to determine whether or not it might still survive in the wild, and surviving populations might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme. The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the Agua del Obispo forests is urgent since there are many threatened amphibians known to occur in this area. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56639		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Agua del Obispo at 980m asl, central Guerrero, Mexico, although it is likely to occur a little more widely.
56639		habitat	eng	It has been recorded inhabiting pine-oak forests, and breeds by direct development.
56639		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
56639		threats	eng	Loss of original forest cover due to conversion to agricultural land, and as a result of excessive logging, has had an impact of this species. However, it has also disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.
56640		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona, Colombia, and in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas in Ecuador, and probably in several other protected areas.
56640		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the lowlands of western Colombia (in Antioquia, Chocó, Risaralda, Valle, Cauca and Nariño Departments), south to northwestern Ecuador (as far as Huigra in Chimborazo Province). It also occurs around the northern tip of the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central in Cordoba Province, Colombia and in Gorgona Island, also in Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 400m asl. It has been reported from a single locality at 1,200m asl that requires confirmation.
56640		habitat	eng	It lives in both primary forest and disturbed habitats, including in deforested areas, with a strong preference for secondary, degraded vegetation. In Gorgona Island, however, this species was found to be associated to forested areas and its distribution was heavily influenced by the amount of canopy cover (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003).<br/>Specimens have been found on low vegetation in forest, and on bushes and herbaceous plants on open habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56640		population	eng	It is an extremely common species, but is rare in primary forest.
56640		threats	eng	It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying.
56641		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. Further research is needed into the range and breeding ecology of this species.
56641		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the southern Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 1,000-1,873m asl (Savage, 2002).
56641		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid premontane forest. Little is known about the species’ biology, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
56641		population	eng	It is generally a rare species.
56641		threats	eng	The main threat is general habitat loss primarily due to agriculture and logging.
56642		conservation	eng	Although occurring in several protected areas, several of these are not well managed for biodiversity conservation and habitat loss is proceeding within the boundaries of these reserves. There is a clear need to improve and strengthen the management of these existing protected areas.
56642		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra, the Sierra del Cobre, and the Sierra de la Gran Piedra, Cuba. The altitudinal range is 650-1,375m asl.
56642		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and requires closed mesic forest. The species calls from the ground, and breeds by direct development.
56642		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
56642		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and loss due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourist activities, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56643		conservation	eng	This species has never been recorded in a Biosphere reserve or any other protected area. A survey to evaluate the present status of this species in the field is required.
56643		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Big Bend region of Texas, USA, and southward in extreme southern Coahuila, central Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Guanajuato and Querétaro, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is from 600-2,000m asl.
56643		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of pine and oak forests. It has been found in springs, canyons, caves, and ravines. It hides under rocks and leaf-litter when inactive and sometimes burrows. It breeds by direct development and lays eggs in moist, sheltered spots on land.
56643		population	eng	This is not a rare species, although its area of occupancy within its overall range is probably quite small.
56643		threats	eng	Urban sprawl and the transformation of original forests in some localities along its range threaten some populations of this species.
56644		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.
56644		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Amapá in northern Brazil, southern French Guiana and eastern Suriname. It has been recorded from 30-310m asl.
56644		habitat	eng	It seems to prefer dry forest floor with some sunlight (Hoogmoed, Lynch, and Lescure, 1977). It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is not known.
56644		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56644		threats	eng	Fire is a threat to the species' habitat.
56645		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, although these are often not well managed and habitat disturbance is ongoing within the parks' limits. Improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas is recommended.
56645		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic, where it has been recorded from 1,545-2,455m asl.
56645		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial in high-elevation pine forests, and has not been recorded outside forested regions. It calls from low vegetation, the eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56645		population	eng	It can be locally common, but it is patchily distributed.
56645		threats	eng	Disturbance from ecotourism is a major threat, as is habitat destruction due to agricultural activities.
56646		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species.
56646		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a very small area north-west of Nono at 2,140m asl on the western slope of the Andes in Pichincha Province, Ecuador.
56646		habitat	eng	It is found in cloud forest, where it is a highly specialized species, living on wet rock faces. It is unlikely to be very adaptable to modified habitats in view of its specialized microhabitat requirements. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56646		population	eng	It is a very rare species, and only five specimens have ever been collected.
56646		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is deforestation as a result of agricultural development (crops and livestock), and human settlement.
56647		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Colombia, it occurs in the private Reserva Natural La Planada, and also in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.
56647		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Nariño Department, Colombia, and north-western Ecuador (El Cristal, Esmeraldas Province). It probably occurs more widely, and its altitudinal range is 1,200-2,020m asl.
56647		habitat	eng	This species has been found only in humid tropical cloud forest. It appears to be diurnal, and during the day individuals have been observed in recesses formed by buttresses and roots, and hopping in the leaf-litter (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.
56647		population	eng	It was collected most recently in 1990 in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, when a single individual was located.
56647		threats	eng	It is threatened by general habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops.
56648		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, ex-situ populations may need to be established.
56648		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, and has an altitudinal range of 455-1,152m asl.
56648		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in mesic broadleaf forests. Males call from tree trunks and the canopy, eggs are laid in tree trunk cavities, and breeding is by direct development.
56648		population	eng	There are indications that populations have declined over the last three decades, even in suitable habitat (R. Joglar pers. comm.).
56648		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is chytridiomycosis (linked to climate change), which is suspected to be causing the observed declines in this species.
56649		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species.
56649		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the vicinity of Río Pitzara, Pichincha Province, on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, at 1,000-2,000m asl.
56649		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial, restricted to primary cloud forest, and cannot tolerate any disturbance of its habitat. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56649		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
56649		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural development (crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.
56650		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas; given the species' sensitivity to any habitat disturbance, protection of remaining primary forest habitat within the range of the species is essential.
56650		distribution	eng	This species is known from cloud forest in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and from the municipalities of Guatepé and Anorí, in Antioquia department, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,000m asl.
56650		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary forest and breeds by direct development and is not associated with streams. It is very small (at most 23mm long) and is very sensitive to any variation in humidity. It is not tolerant of any habitat disturbance.
56650		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56650		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops).
56651		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc Naturel Morne La Visite and Parc National Macaya in Haiti, and also in Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruca and Parque Nacional Sierra Bahoruca Oriental in the Dominican Republic. There is an urgent need for strengthened management and protection of these reserves, particularly on the Tiburon Peninsula.
56651		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Tiburon Peninsula and eastern Sierra de Baoruca, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,697m asl.
56651		habitat	eng	This species requires closed-canopy forest and frequents bromeliads. The eggs are laid in bromeliads and it breeds by direct development.
56651		population	eng	Although this species can be moderately common in suitable habitat, it is declining and rarely encountered in much of its range.
56651		threats	eng	It is rapidly declining throughout its range due to severe habitat destruction, even in protected areas. In the Dominican Republic much habitat destruction has taken place in the last 10 years due to agriculture and cattle grazing. In Haiti, severe habitat destruction has occurred in the Formon-Macaya region, including throughout Parc National Macaya, mainly due to logging (charcoal collection) by locals and slash and burn agriculture.
56652		conservation	eng	One known locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Purace, and the second locality will soon be protected within the newly created Parque Nacional Natural Fragua. Further survey work is necessary to establish the current population status of this species, its ecological requirements, and to determine whether it occurs outside the two known localities.
56652		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities: one on the Oriental slope from the Cordillera Central in Huila Department, and the other on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central in Caquetá Department, Colombia, from 2,300-2,600m asl.
56652		habitat	eng	This species inhabits intermediate strata in primary forest. As only a few individuals have been recorded, not much information is known regarding its exact habitat requirements, but it is believed to be extremely moisture dependent. It breeds by direct development.
56652		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, and is known only from six specimens.
56652		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is the main threat to the species.
56653		conservation	eng	There are two protected areas within its range.
56653		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Cáceres, in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, at around 120m asl. It is probably more widespread, but this requires confirmation.
56653		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of the Pantanal wetlands, and it is presumed to breed by direct development, like other species of the genus.
56653		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56653		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by habitat changes as a result of livestock farming.
56654		conservation	eng	There is a need for improved and expanded protection of the seasonal forest areas along Pacific coastal Mexico as well as the inland mixed forests. Further survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
56654		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is known from the south-western portion of the Mexican plateau, from Nayarit and Jalisco westward into Michoacán and the adjacent eastern state of Mexico.
56654		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland deciduous seasonal forest and even in lowland dry mixed forests. It breeds by direct development.
56654		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, but it is believed to be declining.
56654		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to smallholder farming, logging, and human settlement.
56655		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed.
56655		distribution	eng	This species is known from Boraceia, Paranapiacaba, Riacho Grande and Teresópolis in the Serra do Mar, in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo States, Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-1,200m asl.
56655		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the forest floor leaf-litter or occasionally on low vegetation, in primary and good quality secondary forest. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest.
56655		population	eng	It is not a common species, but it is relatively easy to find if looking for it.
56655		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement is threatening a few local populations, but overall the species appears unthreatened at present.
56656		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.
56656		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra do Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, Brazil, where it has been recorded from around 2,200m asl.
56656		habitat	eng	There is no information known about the habitat or ecological requriments of this species, which presumably breeds by direct development.
56656		population	eng	Its current population status is unknown as it has not been surveyed for in this area for over 30 years, although it was reportedly common in surveys of this area in the past.
56656		threats	eng	The threat to this species is unknown, but the type locality is within a protected area.
56657		conservation	eng	The range includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
56657		distribution	eng	This species is known from Valle del Cauca department in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, from 10-920m asl. It probably occurs more widely than records suggest.
56657		habitat	eng	An arboreal species found on middle and low strata on sloping terrain, inside or alongside small streams wherever there is suitable forest cover. It breeds by direct development.
56657		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56657		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in an area of low human population density, its habitat remains at risk from logging.
56658		conservation	eng	This species is protected in several national parks and private reserves in Costa Rica, and is probably present in a number of Panamanian protected areas.
56658		distribution	eng	This species is found in the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,500-2,500m asl (Savage 2002).
56658		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species found in low vegetation in dense montane forest and rainforest. It may be found in both primary and secondary forest and is presumed to breed by direct development.
56658		population	eng	It is an abundant species regularly seen in appropriate habitat, and has not declined at sites where many other species have disappeared, such as Monteverde (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1997) and Las Tablas (Lips 1998; Andrew R. Gray in litt. to Karen Lips, 2007).
56658		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species, although all known populations are within protected areas.
56659		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruca and Parque Nacional Sierra Bahoruca Oriental in the Dominican Republic, there is a need to greatly strengthen and improve the management of these protected areas to ensure more effective protection of the broad-leaf forest habitat within these areas.
56659		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the western Massif de la Selle in Haiti and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,061m asl.
56659		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of closed mesic broadleaf forests, as well as shade-grown coffee and cacao plantations, this is a very specialized burrowing species, with males calling from constructed underground chambers and the eggs being laid underground.
56659		population	eng	It can be locally uncommon and is patchily distributed.
56659		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss: the forest of Baoruco is severely threatened by expanding agriculture and cattle grazing, even within Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco.
56660		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, but even this protected area is subject to the effects of habitat loss. Maintenance of the remaining suitable habitat and improved protection of existing protected areas is essential.
56660		distribution	eng	The smallest frog in world, this species occurs only in Holguin Province in eastern Cuba from sea level up to 600m asl.
56660		habitat	eng	It is found in closed rainforest on poorly drained soil, and maintenance of local humidity is critically important for its survival. It breeds by direct development.
56660		population	eng	The species is common in suitable habitat.
56660		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by habitat loss as a result of the deforestation taking place from subsistence farming and wood collecting.
56661		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
56661		distribution	eng	This species is known from the inter-Andean dry valleys and transitional zones within southwest Santa Cruz and northeast Chuquisaca departments in Bolivia. It has been recorded from 750-1,800m asl.
56661		habitat	eng	This species has been observed calling on rocky banks and under secondary formation brushwood. It is also known from primary dry forest, and disturbed dry forest. It breeds by direct development, and has also been recorded from degraded forest and rural gardens.
56661		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
56661		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.
56662		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador, although it has recently been collected from the Estacion Biólogica Yanayacu near Cusunga. Protection of montane forest habitat in the range of this species is recommended, and further survey work is needed to monitor the population status of this species, particularly given the potential threat of chytrid.
56662		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities in the upper Río Papallacta Valley, in Napo Province, Ecuador, from 2,160-2,750m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely.
56662		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found on bushes, and in bamboo at the edges of small cascading streams at night in upper humid montane forest. It has not been recorded from secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
56662		population	eng	Very little is known of this species' current population status, but it is a rare species at the Estacion Biólogica Yanayacu (where it was collected as recently as 2003).
56662		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities and logging. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis.
56663		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, but it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.
56663		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes from the department of Valle del Cauca in Colombia, south to the province of Pichinca in Ecuador, from 1,380-2,560m asl. It is presumably more widespread than current records suggest.
56663		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest. It is not known if it can tolerate habitat degradation, but other members of its species group can tolerate limited disturbance. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56663		population	eng	It is not particularly common, but it is not rare.
56663		threats	eng	The major threats are thought to be deforestation for the creation of plantations, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56664		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios).
56664		distribution	eng	This species is known from lowland rainforest at Finca Panguana (200m asl) on the Río Llullapichis, 4-5km upstream from the Río Pachitea, (Huanuco), central Peru and Tambopata in Departmento Madre de Dios in southern Peru. It is not recorded from Bolivia; this lowland species is expected to range more widely. It is present below 200m asl.
56664		habitat	eng	Its habitat is mainly covered with unexploited primary forest. The holotype was found in a rocky streambed in lowland rainforest by day. This species breeds by direct development. It is not known if it occurs in modified habitats.
56664		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown.
56664		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56665		conservation	eng	It occurs outside any protected areas although the Motagua Valley has been proposed for a new national park. There is an urgent need to expand the protected areas network to include additional tracts of suitable remaining habitat in the range of this species. Further research is necessary to determine whether chytrid poses a threat.
56665		distribution	eng	This species can be found in mid Motagua Valley and associated areas in central and eastern Guatemala and the slopes of the Salamá Basin in Baja Verapaz, at elevations of 500-1,400m asl. It is likely to occur somewhat more widely.
56665		habitat	eng	It is restricted to narrow riparian corridors in premontane dry forest. No other member of the genus occurs in such dry areas in this part of Central America. Reproduction occurs via direct development.
56665		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but it is still seen regularly.
56665		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities and extraction of wood. Some other species of the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56666		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.
56666		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities on the eastern face of the Andes in Cocodrillos, Napo Province, Ecuador. It has been recorded from 1,700-2,200m asl.
56666		habitat	eng	It is found in well-shaded cloud forest, and most individuals have been recorded perched on bushes or low trees at night (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It has also been found above small streams. Breeding is by direct development.
56666		population	eng	It is a rare species (only three specimens were collected in 2001).
56666		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56667		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.
56667		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality called "Reservorio de Mamo" (Lutz 1927), near La Guaira, in Venezuela, at around 500m asl.
56667		habitat	eng	Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
56667		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56667		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56668		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its distribution range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; it might also overlap with Parque Nacional Llanganatis and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. It is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru. Further survey work is needed to determine if the species is more continuously distributed between records in Ecuador and Peru.
56668		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from elevations of 1,370-1,910m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Napo and Sucumbios Provinces, Ecuador, and from about 1,300m asl on the southern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor in Departmento Cajamarca, Peru (06° 05'S; 78° 43'W). It is likely to occur more widely.
56668		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest. They are most frequently encountered at night on leaves of herbaceous vegetation or low bushes in clearings or at the forest edge (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. It occurs in old and second growth forest.
56668		population	eng	In Ecuador, it is an uncommon species. In Peru, it has only been reported from two specimens (both sub-adult females).
56668		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to livestock ranching, agro-industry, and selective logging.
56669		conservation	eng	It is known from the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo.
56669		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities at 2,000-2,180m asl along the road from Abra Pardo de Miguel to Moyobamba on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central in northern San Martin Department, Peru (05° 46'S; 77° 42'W). It probably occurs more widely.
56669		habitat	eng	All the known individuals were found on leaves on low vegetation less than 1m above the ground in humid montane forest at night. Reproduction is by direct development.
56669		population	eng	Very few individuals of this species have been recorded, so its population status is unknown. One adult male and three adult females were used to describe it.
56669		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due to increasing agricultural activity, selective wood extraction, and human settlement.
56670		conservation	eng	It occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce and in the Parque Nacional Natural Tamá.
56670		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution on both slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, where it is found from 1,550-2,350m asl, in the departments of Cundinamarca (Laguna Pedro Palo), Boyacá, Santander, and Norte de Santander. It probably occurs more widely, in particular between known localities.
56670		habitat	eng	This species is a cloud forest inhabitant, and occurs in leaf-litter and disturbed areas provided that small patches of forest remain nearby. Reproduction is by direct development.
56670		population	eng	This is a rare species that was last collected in 1991, but there has been no survey work since.
56670		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (including planting of illegal crops) is the main threat.
56671		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
56671		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in French Guiana and Suriname. The type locality, "the New River, British Guiana" is in an area claimed by Suriname, but is actually in Guyana. A dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded from 50-700m asl.
56671		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species that is found only in primary forest. Eggs of this species have been observed underneath the moss on trees, 3-5m above the ground. It has not been recorded outside primary forest.
56671		population	eng	This is a common species.
56671		threats	eng	There are no real threats to this species at present.
56672		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range, although there is insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being destroyed.
56672		distribution	eng	This species occurs across most of Hispaniola. It might have a larger range than is currently known. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,697m asl.
56672		habitat	eng	A big frog found in mesic hardwood forests, it lays eggs in sheltered areas on the ground, and breeds by direct development. It is sensitive to severe habitat destruction, but can persist in plantations such as coffee and banana as long as there are trees and shade.
56672		population	eng	It is a common species.
56672		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, in particular agricultural expansion, livestock farming, urban development and charcoaling is a major threat.
56673		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent, recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.
56673		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern and north-western flank of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the departments of Magdalena and Guajira, Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,530-2,130m asl.
56673		habitat	eng	A terrestrial frog, individuals have been found under logs or rocks on roadsides. When active, they occur on top of rocks, logs or low vegetation, beside streams. It breeds by direct development.
56673		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56673		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss, due to agricultural activities (involving both crops and livestock), as well as pollution due to the fumigation of crops.
56674		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed even within the park boundaries. Improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas is necessary.
56674		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra and the Sierra del Cobre, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is 454-1,880m asl.
56674		habitat	eng	It occurs only in moist closed forest, and breeds by direct development.
56674		population	eng	The species is uncommon even in suitable habitat.
56674		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56675		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56675		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of southern Sinaloa, Mexico.
56675		habitat	eng	It has been found on rocky and humid areas on the forest floor in the foothills of tropical deciduous forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
56675		population	eng	In the 1950s and 1960s it was said to be an abundant species within its range. However, it is now considered to be a rare species. It is possible that the apparent change in status might be a result of misidentifications, although it is possible there has been a real decline.
56675		threats	eng	Disturbance and desiccation of the crevice microhabitats used by this species, due to selective wood extraction and wild fires, is a major threat to it.
56676		conservation	eng	Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Cuyabeno, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
56676		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities along the eastern face of the Andes in Ecuador, at low to moderate elevations from 1,300-2,160m asl. It is currently known from only five localities, but probably occurs more widely.
56676		habitat	eng	Specimens have been found in cloud forest in low vegetation (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It does not occur outside old growth forest. It breeds by direct development.
56676		population	eng	It is fairly common in some areas, such as Estación Biólogica Yanayacu, where it has been seen repeatedly from 2000-2003.
56676		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.
56677		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and habitat continues to be destroyed even within the park boundaries. Improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas is necessary.
56677		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,230m asl.
56677		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in closed mesic forest, but appears to be less sensitive to habitat alteration than some other species in the genus. Breeding is by direct development.
56677		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56677		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56678		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
56678		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality of Finca La Antigua, vereda Palma de Oro, Betulia Municipality, Santander Department, Colombia, although it might occur more widely. It was collected between 1,300 and 1,700m asl.
56678		habitat	eng	It was collected close to streams in very humid forest, and is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
56678		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
56678		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
56679		conservation	eng	The type locality is within a protected area, Parque das Mangabeiras, but it is not well managed. The other known localities are within small protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat are required, as is taxonomic research to confirm the identity of newly collected specimens.
56679		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Belo Horizonte), from the Serra do Curral, Serra do Caraça and Ouro Preto in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It might also occur in a few other localities, but the identity of specimens from these other areas is still to be confirmed. It has been recorded from around 700-800m asl.
56679		habitat	eng	This species occurs on leaf-litter in gallery forests and in forest edges along creeks. The type locality is secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like others in the genus.
56679		population	eng	It is observed to be common during the breeding season.
56679		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to clear-cut logging, disturbance due to tourism, and infrastructure development for human settlement in the area.
56680		conservation	eng	Its range is adjacent to Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, but it has not been recorded from inside the park.
56680		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in Cauca Department on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 800-1,580m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
56680		habitat	eng	It is active on low vegetation on slopes inside primary forest, and breeds by direct development.
56680		population	eng	This is thought to be an uncommon species as it has only been collected a few times, although the area is not well sampled.
56680		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by the cultivation of illegal crops is a major threat to this species.
56681		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park and several forest reserves; however, there are coffee plantations even within the park's limits and habitat disturbance resulting from tourist activities in the park remains an issue. There is clearly a need for more effective and strengthened management of the existing protected areas in the region.
56681		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but very patchily, distributed in the Jamaican interior, ranging from 120-1,290m asl.
56681		habitat	eng	It occurs only in lowland and montane moist old growth forests, and is almost always associated with arboreal or terrestrial bromeliads. Males call from, and eggs are laid in, bromeliads.
56681		population	eng	It is uncommon.
56681		threats	eng	Its dependence upon bromeliads in mostly undisturbed forest makes it especially susceptible to habitat loss. Unfortunately, habitat degradation and deforestation is taking place in much of its range (such as the Blue Mountains) due to agricultural activities, human settlements, and logging.
56682		conservation	eng	The species does occur in the lower elevations of the Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Maintenance of the remaining suitable habitat and improved protection of existing protected areas is essential.
56682		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a single locality in the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, at an altitudinal range of 200-950m asl.
56682		habitat	eng	It occurs in closed mesic forest, but also occurs in secondary forests. It is usually found in leaf-litter and it breeds by direct development.
56682		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitat.
56682		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction due to agricultural expansion, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development.
56683		conservation	eng	Populations of this species occur within three national parks, including Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas; the maintenance of these protected areas is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species, particularly given its association with primary forest.
56683		distribution	eng	This species is known from Antioquia to Risaralda Departments on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at elevations of 1,500-1,800m asl.
56683		habitat	eng	It is active on low vegetation in primary montane forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Breeding is by direct development.
56683		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56683		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss, as a result of the expansion of agriculture and livestock farming in the region.
56684		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Its introduced range is expanding due to human activity. It needs to be eradicated from its introduced range.
56684		distribution	eng	This species occurs on most of the Lesser Antilles. Within the Lesser Antilles it is unclear which populations are indigenous, and which are introduced. It has been suggested that it originated in St Lucia, but for the purposes of this assessment it is considered to be indigenous throughout the Lesser Antilles. It has been introduced in many other regions including Jamaica; in Venezuela, it has been reported from the states of Aragua, Bolívar, Distrito Federal, Lara, Mérida, Miranda, Monagas and Sucre, and its range is still expanding. It has been reported as introduced to San José in Costa Rica. It is also known from one introduced locality in Colombia, and from one in Guyana. It has also been introduced to Panama City, Panama and to the Port of Spain dock area (from where it is expanding its range) on Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It has been introduced into the Bermuda islands. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,300m asl.
56684		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptive species and is found mainly in disturbed habitats, such as mowed fields, yards, gardens, sugar-cane fields, towns, houses, and plantations. It is even deliberately introduced to gardens. In some places it is also found inside forest, usually in gaps and clearings. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56684		population	eng	This is an extremely abundant species, and its range is increasing.
56684		threats	eng	There are, overall, no significant threats to this very adaptable, invasive species. In Bermuda, however, studies strongly suggest that Bermuda’s whistling frogs and toads were exhibiting effects caused by exposure to environmental stressors (pesticides and heavy metals, see Bacon et al., 2006).
56685		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Estacion Demostrativa El Rasgón. Additional protection of forest habitat in the range of this species is necessary.
56685		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of the type locality on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Santander, Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,900-2,400m asl.
56685		habitat	eng	It lives on rocks and vegetation up to 3m above the ground along streams in mature forests (and is found only in the forest interior). It breeds by direct development.
56685		population	eng	It is a rare species, and appears to be in decline.
56685		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as wood plantations. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the population status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56686		conservation	eng	It has apparently been recorded from within Parque Internacional La Amistad.
56686		distribution	eng	This species is a Panamanian endemic known only from the type locality "along the Río Changena, Provincia Bocas del Toro, Panamá, 830m [asl]" (Lynch 1980) in the western Cordillera Central adjacent to Costa Rica.
56686		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial, direct developing species found in humid montane forest.
56686		population	eng	It is known only from the 1966 type collection of six specimens.
56686		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
56687		conservation	eng	There are three protected areas within this species' range.
56687		distribution	eng	This species is known from both flanks of the Cordillera Occidental in the departments of Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca, in Colombia, from 1,500-2,090m asl.
56687		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests, and dense populations occur in some areas in forest and in open areas of scattered trees. It can occur in disturbed habitats as long as there are bromeliads on trees. Individuals are active up to 3m above the ground and are frequently found in bromeliads. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are deposited inside bromeliads.
56687		population	eng	It is often rare, but can also be locally common.
56687		threats	eng	A localized threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation caused by smallholder farming and livestock grazing.
56688		conservation	eng	Although the species does occur in the Parc National Morne La Visite in Haiti, there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be lost. It is also known from Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, which is better-managed, but is nonetheless still suffering from significant habitat degradation. The maintenance of remaining suitable habitat across the range of the species and improved protection of existing protected areas is essential.
56688		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range on the Massif de la Selle, in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). It has been recorded from 1,242-2,146m asl.
56688		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, occurring in mesic pine and broadleaf forests, and does not tolerate habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56688		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat, which is rapidly disappearing.
56688		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is severe habitat destruction (even in the protected areas of Parc National Morne La Visite and Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco) as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling), and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56689		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
56689		distribution	eng	This species occurs in plateau areas of southeastern Brazil to southeastern Goiás state. It has been recorded above 600m asl.
56689		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas or forest edges on low vegetation or above the ground, where it also breeds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance and breeds by direct development.
56689		population	eng	It is a common species.
56689		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fires, and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species’ habitat.
56690		conservation	eng	This has been collected within the recently created Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.
56690		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from a single locality at an altitude of 1,000m asl in the valley of the Río Utcubamba (a tributary of the Río Marañon), in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in Amazonas Department, Peru.
56690		habitat	eng	Specimens were taken from moist leaf-litter in evergreen cloud forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas. Reproduction in this species is by direct development.
56690		population	eng	Only juveniles of this species are known, and its overall population status has not been determined.
56690		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although there is regional destruction and loss of habitat through increasing agricultural activity, selective wood extraction and human settlement.
56691		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the 145,000-ha Parque Nacional Podocarpus, although the population at the type locality remains unprotected. Further survey work is necessary to better determine the current population status of this species, and to determine whether it might occur more widely than currently known.
56691		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality near Puyo, in the province of Pastaza, in Ecuador, and also from the upper watershed of Curintza in Parque Nacional Podocarpus at 2,700m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, at least in the area between the two currently known sites.
56691		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of montane cloud forest, occurring in the understorey herbaceous layer. The type locality consists of a mixture of heavily disturbed forest, a cutover and cultivated hillside, and less-disturbed, secondary growth forest. It breeds by direct development.
56691		population	eng	It is a very rare species. In two years of study in Parque Nacional Podocarpus, only two individuals were collected.
56691		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (involving both crops and livestock), as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56692		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Regional Reserve Serrania de los Paraguas. Maintenance of the species' habitat is essential to its long-term survival given its restriction to forest habitats. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species.
56692		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the region of the type locality in the municipality of El Cairo, in Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments, Colombia, from 1,900-2,250m asl. It is unlikely to have a much wider distribution, as surveys of nearby areas have not found the species.
56692		habitat	eng	It is usually abundant on vegetation along small streams in primary and secondary cloud forests; it has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds by direct development.
56692		population	eng	It is a common species.
56692		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present, as its known distribution is currently conserved within a protected area.
56693		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Viñales, which is a well-managed protected area, and several nearby reserves.
56693		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de los Organos and the Sierra del Rosario, Cuba. It has been recorded from 75-182m asl.
56693		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky areas, and sometimes retreats to terrestrial bromeliads in closed-canopy mesic forest; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It calls from rock crevices, or sometimes on vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56693		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56693		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is disturbance of its habitat by tourists.
56694		conservation	eng	In Colombia, the species is marginally present in La Planada private nature reserve, and in the lower parts of the following National Natural Parks: Cerro Munchique; Los Farallones de Cali; and Los Paraguas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56694		distribution	eng	This species occurs from San Jose del Palmar on the Río San Juan, Department of Choco, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, south to northwestern Ecuador. It occurs from near sea level to 1,900m asl, though it is generally found below 1,000m asl.
56694		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and submontane rainforest. It has been found in both primary and secondary forest, not in open areas. It often perches on broad leaves or on branches along streams at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56694		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but it is occasionally locally common.
56694		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56695		conservation	eng	In Peru, The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul (Loreto) and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). In Colombia it is present in La Paya and Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu. In Ecuador it has been recorded from Limoncocha Reserva Biológica and Yasuni National Park. In Brazil it has been recorded in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.
56695		distribution	eng	This species is known from lowland forest western Ecuador, Amazonian Peru, Leticia in Colombia and Acre State, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 100-900m asl.
56695		habitat	eng	It is a sub-canopy, primary and secondary tropical moist forest species (including flooded forest). Animals are frequently encountered in arboreal bromeliads by day; at night frogs are found on vegetation 1-2m above the ground (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). This species breeds by direct development.
56695		population	eng	This is a common species.
56695		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats, as it is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56696		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56696		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. It is a high-altitude species, occurring at 800-2,500m asl. The type series from Iguape might have been from a lower altitude, but this area is now a city.
56696		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and old secondary forest, but not in more open areas. It breeds by direct development.
56696		population	eng	It is not common in some places, but is common in others.
56696		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fires and human settlement.
56697		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas and Multiple Use Areas. Further research is necessary to investigate the reasons for the apparent decline in populations of this species, but habitat loss appears to be a significant factor.
56697		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of Honduras to northern and southwestern Nicaragua, at 100-1,640 m asl.
56697		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and sub-montane wet and moist forests, and is found along streams and small rivers; it can survive in degraded forest and secondary growth. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on land.
56697		population	eng	It was formerly common, but has declined, and seems to have disappeared above 900 m asl in Honduras, along with several other stream-dwelling <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu lato</span> species. Lowland populations survive, but, overall, the species is now relatively uncommon.   An isolated population of this species was found on Cerro Guanacuare, Coluteca Department, in 2006 (M. Ryan pers. comm. February 2009).      <p></p>
56697		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, livestock, logging, human settlement, and fire (as well as the added risk of resulting water pollution), but these do not explain the extent of the decline witnessed at higher elevations. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em>  <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu lato</span> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher elevations, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species. Pollution, presumably due to the fumigation of crops, has also been suggested as one cause of the decline at high altitudes.
56698		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat cotinues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.
56698		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a few localities in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, where it has been recorded from 818-1,455m asl.
56698		habitat	eng	It is found in arboreal bromeliads in mesic upland forest. The eggs are laid in bromeliads, and they breed by direct development. It has not been recorded from disturbed forest.
56698		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56698		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56699		conservation	eng	The most important protected area from which this species has been recorded is Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Further research is needed to determine the reason for the observed population declines.
56699		distribution	eng	Pristimantis lancinii can be found in the Cordillera de Mérida, within the National Parks of Sierra Nevada and Sierra de la Culata, in the states of Mérida and Trujillo, Venezuela, in subpáramo and páramo habitats, between 2500 and 3400 masl (La Marca, 2007).
56699		habitat	eng	Pristimantis lancinii is a terrestrial inhabitant of páramo grassland that breeds by direct development. <br/><br/>In the region of Mucubají, Pristimantis lancinii is sympatric with Pristimantis paramerus, Pristimantis kareliae, Paramophrynella ginesi, Atelopus mucubajiensis and Aromobates leopardalis. The species can be found amid vegetation and under rocks and moss next to streams.  P. lancinii was abundant in April 1981; however, it was difficult to find in the month of November of the same year (La Marca, 2007).
56699		population	eng	It is now very difficult to find (Barrio-Amorós, 2001), and populations are believed to be experiencing declines (although the exact rate of decline is not known).
56699		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss, due to agriculture (involving both crops and livestock) and fires. However, most of the populations are within relatively well-managed protected areas, and the cause of the decline within these is not known, though chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
56700		conservation	eng	It is present in many Colombian and Ecuadorian protected areas. Part of the Peruvian range has been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). It is not present in any Brazilian protected areas.
56700		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the upper Amazon Basin of southern Colombia, Ecuador, extreme western Brazil, and northern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,630m asl.
56700		habitat	eng	This species can be found in lowland and montane rainforest, cloud forest, terrae firme forest flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. Individuals have been recorded on the ground by day and on low vegetation at night. In the Andes all specimens were on bushes or low trees at night (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). It is a direct development species that presumably deposits its eggs in leaf-litter. It has been recorded from secondary forest and forest edge. Rodriguez and Duellman (1994) report females containing 20-52 unpigmented eggs.
56700		population	eng	It is common in Ecuador and adjacent Colombia, however, there are few individuals recorded in Peru.
56700		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats and it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56701		conservation	eng	The range of the species is included in the Páramo Urrao, which is a Protection Forest Reserve (IUCN category VI), but improved management and protection of this area are needed. There is also a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is known only from the type locality.
56701		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Frontino Páramo, in the municipality of Urrao, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 3,700-3,850 m asl. It is probably genuinely restricted to this area.
56701		habitat	eng	This is a páramo species that is usually found on vegetation and occurs among moss and axils of <em>Espeletia</em> spp. It breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56701		population	eng	The current population status is unknown; only seven specimens are known from three separate collections.
56701		threats	eng	The Frontino Páramo is in a remote area and at a very high elevation, so there currently are no significant threats. However, climate change might reduce the suitable habitat available and force the species to move to higher elevations, and hence further restrict its range.
56702		conservation	eng	It is found in the Río Blanco Water District of the city of Manesalles (a forest protected for water catchments), which affords some protection. However, there is a need for additional protection of this species' sub-páramo habitat.
56702		distribution	eng	This species is known from several locations in the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes: the type locality ("Boqueron, Serranía Las Valdías, Municipio de Medellin"), El Yerbal (in the municipality of Belmira) and Sonson, all three in the department of Antioquia; as well as Quebrada Negra vicinity, in the county of Pensilvania, and in the Reserva Río Blanco, County of Manizales, in the department of Caldas, north of Quindio and Tolima Departments. It has been recorded from 2,600-3,200m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than currently records suggest.
56702		habitat	eng	It is found on fallen leaves and grass roots in sub-páramo habitats; it is not known whether it can occur in disturbed habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
56702		population	eng	It is a rare species, although this may be partly due to the species' cryptozoic behaviour.
56702		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops).
56703		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Further work should be conducted to determine whether or not the recent declines are due to chytridiomycosis. It is protected by Mexican Law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56703		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, from southern Veracruz to Tabasco and Chiapas, and southwards to western Belize, Guatemala, and northern Honduras, from 10-1,500m asl.
56703		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter in lowland and premontane tropical forest and is tolerant of moderate habitat alteration (it occurs in cacao and shade-coffee plantations in Honduras). Reproduction is by direct development.
56703		population	eng	It is uncommon in Belize and Guatemala, and rare in Mexico. There are few localities known for Honduras. Recent surveys in Oaxaca, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from some localities.
56703		threats	eng	Forest destruction and the conversion of forest to shaded crops are low threats, although subsistence agriculture is a threat in Honduras. The recent declines in Oaxaca could be due to chytridiomycosis.
56704		conservation	eng	Some of its populations are included inside protected areas in Colombia (such as the Reserva Natural La Planada). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56704		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities at altitudes of 1,200-2,565m asl on the western flanks of the Andes in extreme south-western Colombia, and in the provincias of Carchi (Maldonado), Esmeraldas (El Cristal) and Pichincha (Río Faisanes) in northern Ecuador. Its distribution is not well known.
56704		habitat	eng	It can be found only in cloud forest, where it has been found on low vegetation near streams at night (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Reproduction is by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known.
56704		population	eng	It is a rare species known from very few collections. It was last recorded in 1992, but it has not been surveyed for intensively since then.
56704		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development, logging and the cultivation of illegal crops is a threat to this species.
56705		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darién.
56705		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Cerro Tacarcuna and Cerro Mali in the eastern cordillera in the south-east of Darién Province, south-eastern Panama. Its altitudinal range is 1,450-1,630m asl.
56705		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
56705		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. There is no recent information on this species, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
56705		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
56706		conservation	eng	It occurs in Katios National Natural Park in Colombia, and possibly in some other protected areas in this country. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56706		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northwestern Ecuador, through western Colombia north to the border of Panama (there are currently no confirmed records from Panama, though it presumably occurs there). It occurs from sea level up to 1,230m asl.
56706		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid mature forest, secondary forest and forest edges, not occurring in open areas. It is mainly an arboreal species that is active at night on low vegetation or on tree trunks. When inactive, during the day, it is found in leaf-litter and inside bromeliads. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56706		population	eng	It is common at around 300m asl in Ecuador, and is also generally common in Colombia.
56706		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56707		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in both countries, although improved and strengthened management of these is needed. Further research is needed to investigate the reason for this species' decline at higher elevations.
56707		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central and eastern Honduras on the Atlantic versant to northern Nicaragua, at 40-1,200m asl.
56707		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground of lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest, and can survive in somewhat degraded habitats providing there is shade over leaf-litter. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.
56707		population	eng	It can be very common, but it is undergoing severe declines in Nicaragua at higher elevations.
56707		threats	eng	The main threats to its habitat come from agriculture, cattle ranching, logging, forest fires, and severe dry seasons. The causes of the declines at high altitudes are not understood.
56708		conservation	eng	It is included in a tiny provincial protected area, La Tabla, an "Area Protegida de Recursos Manejados".
56708		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the northern foothills of the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, where it has a patchy distribution and ranges from 394-465m asl.
56708		habitat	eng	It is found in closed mesic forest including wet limestone forests. It calls from rock surfaces and from trees, and breeds by direct development.
56708		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56708		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction from agricultural activities (mainly subsistence farming).
56709		conservation	eng	The species' distribution overlaps with Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve.
56709		distribution	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and also in the department of Antioquia, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 1,800-2,650m asl.
56709		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal, nocturnal species that inhabits areas covered by dense primary forest or minimally disturbed forest, and is quite sensitive to disturbance of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56709		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
56709		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).
56710		conservation	eng	It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56710		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the Andes of Venezuela and Colombia: near the town of La Grita at 1,768m asl in Táchira State, in Venezuela; and from Cabeceras del Río Pamplona, at 1,700m asl, on the border between Venezuela and Colombia.
56710		habitat	eng	It is a species of evergreen dry montane gallery forests, where it is typically found on rocks in streams. In Colombia it has been found in open, disturbed areas. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56710		population	eng	It was found to be common in one stream in 1985, but could not be found in nearby streams. It was also found to be common on the Venezuela-Colombia border in 1992. The absence of subsequent records might be due to a lack of survey effort.
56710		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being degraded for potato cultivation, but there is some evidence that it is adaptable to at least a measure of habitat alteration, so this degradation of its habitat might not be a serious threat to it.
56711		conservation	eng	Almost the whole island of St. John is protected as the Virgin Islands National Park, but there is a need for improved habitat protection on St. Thomas and St. Croix.
56711		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands. It has been recorded from sea level up to 10m asl.
56711		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open semi-xeric habitats, sheltering under surface debris. It is often encountered in agricultural areas on St. Thomas (Platenberg and Boulon, 2006). Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56711		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered, but it has been recorded recently.
56711		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (involving both crops and livestock) and infrastructure development for tourism and human settlement.
56712		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, but this area is not well-managed, and habitat degradation is ongoing. Improved management of existing protected areas and maintenance of remaining habitat are essential.
56712		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Selle in Haiti, and Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 1,182-2,303 m asl.
56712		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in upland pine forest, preferring sheltered sites, and calling from the ground. It does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56712		population	eng	For unknown reasons, it has been rarely encountered in the Dominican Republic in the last two decades, despite surviving in intact forest, which suggests that it might either be a rare species or one in rapid decline. It was last recorded in 2007 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56712		threats	eng	The primary threat is severe habitat destruction as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56713		conservation	eng	In Colombia, there are no natural reserve areas in the distribution area of this species. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56713		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper humid forest at elevations of 1,960-3,400m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Andes and from 2,590-2,700m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Sucumbios, Imbabura, Carchi, Napo, and Pichincha Provinces) and southern Colombia (Nariño and Putumayo Departments).
56713		habitat	eng	This species’ habitat is páramo and upper cloud forest. It is a species with low diurnal activity and extensive nocturnal activity. During the day it occurs under rocks and on logs; at night it is active on low vegetation. It can also be found amidst leaf litter (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). Specimens from the Amazon slopes have been found in clearings in cloud forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1980; Lynch and Duellman, 1997). It is able to withstand some habitat disturbance. Reproduction is presumed to occur via direct development.
56713		population	eng	It is abundant in 2000-2003 in all five Ecuadorian provinces where the species has been recorded.
56713		threats	eng	General habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are all threats.
56714		conservation	eng	It is recorded from several protected areas, including Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas. However, there is a need for improved habitat protection across its range, particularly in the Chimalapas region. Further survey work is required to better understand the range and population status of this species.
56714		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Atlantic versant of Mexico from central Veracruz eastwards to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and north-central Chiapas through northern Guatemala. One isolated population has been recorded in north-eastern Guatemala and another in south-western Belize. It also occurs on the Pacific versant in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. It occurs at 5-500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than known records suggest.
56714		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of lowland tropical rainforest and evergreen forest, and is associated with terrestrial microhabitats (commonly found under rocks). Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56714		population	eng	There is little information on the current population status of this species across its range, but it is at best uncommon.
56714		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to logging and smallholder agricultural activities, is a major threat to this species.
56715		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes National Natural Park Purace and Nevado de Huila National Natural Parks.
56715		distribution	eng	The occurrence of this species is clustered around the series of volcanoes that lie along the frontier of the departments of Cauca and Huila (Coconuco, Huila, Pan de Azúcar, Puracé, and Sotará), in Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,800-3,300m asl.
56715		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of high-elevation cloud forest and páramos. Many specimens were found under rocks and logs on very humid soils during the day. At night, they are active on vegetation up to 1m above the ground. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
56715		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56715		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
56716		conservation	eng	There is no natural reserve area inside its distribution area.
56716		distribution	eng	This species occurs at intermediate altitudes (2,300-2,900m asl) in the valley of the Río Chingual at localities in both Colombia (Nariño and Putumayo Departments) and Ecuador. In Ecuador, it is only known from around Santa Bárbara. It might occur more widely.
56716		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits leafy upper montane cloud forest (Lynch and Duellman 1980), where it is found among leaves and branches low above the ground. In secondary forests this species can extend its activity to the dense regenerating vegetation on the ground of the forest. It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.
56716		population	eng	There is little recent information regarding its population status. It was common in the 1960s at the Ecuadorian locality.
56716		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and the cultivation of illegal crops is a threat to this species.
56717		conservation	eng	The type locality is a small private ecological reserve (the Estación Biológica y Reserva Jatun Sacha).
56717		distribution	eng	This Ecuadorian species is known from the type locality, in the flood plain of the Napo River, on the eastern face of the Ecuadorian Andes, at 450m asl, as well as from four other recently documented localities: Serena Village, on the south side of the upper Napo River, at 560m asl in Napo Province; 5km south of Dayuma Village at 267m asl, and the south side of the Yasuní River, at 220m asl, both in Orellana Province; as well as Morona Santiago Province (the precise locality has not been given).
56717		habitat	eng	The type locality is situated in flood-plain habitat, which is continually subjected to flooding and agricultural activities. Specimens have been located at night on vegetation 0.5-2m above the ground. The type specimens were collected in secondary forest. The habitat at other localities includes agricultural land surrounded by secondary forest, and coffee plantations surrounded by primary forest. This species therefore appears to be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification.
56717		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56717		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (involving both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), as well as logging and road construction. The primary and secondary forest at the type locality is fragmented by farms, and the possible future construction of a road through the protected area in which it occurs is cause for concern.
56718		conservation	eng	The species occurs inside the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia. Further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species and the limits of its range. In view of the possible risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored.
56718		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the Florencia Forest, Samaná municipality, in Caldas department, on the Cordillera Central in the Colombian Andes, from 2,000-2,450m asl.
56718		habitat	eng	This species is a microhabitat specialist that occurs on top of very humid rocks in stream rapids in cloud forest. It has not been recorded away from the vicinity of rapids in forested streams. It breeds by direct development.
56718		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56718		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by subsistence wood collecting and agricultural development (the planting of illegal crops). The species is an extreme habitat specialist hence increasing its vulnerability to threatening processes. Furthermore, some other species of the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis.
56719		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but many of these are in need of improved management.
56719		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, distributed through most of Cuba, at low to moderate elevations, from 50-1,150m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
56719		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species restricted to closed-canopy mesic and xeric forests, and is commonly heard calling from the ground. It lays a single egg under leaf-litter on the ground, and reproduction takes place by direct development.
56719		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
56719		threats	eng	It is particularly susceptible to habitat disturbance due to livestock and subsistence agriculture.
56720		conservation	eng	The single known specimen was collected within Parque Nacional Manu.
56720		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cosñipata (at 1,700m asl) on the north-eastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a frontal range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental, in Cuzco Department, Peru. The range of this species is not completely known and it might occur more widely.
56720		habitat	eng	It was collected on a bush at night in montane tropical cloud forest. Reproduction in this species is presumably by direct development.
56720		population	eng	It is known from a single specimen.
56720		threats	eng	There is no information about threats to this species; the only known specimen came from within the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu.
56721		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Biotopo del Quetzal and the Reserva de la Biósfera Bisis Cabá. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56721		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Atlantic versant of Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico, southeast to Guatemala. It also occurs on the Pacific versant, from eastern Oaxaca through Chiapas to the south-western highlands of Guatemala, at elevations of 300-2,000m asl.
56721		habitat	eng	It can be found in lower montane evergreen forest, and it occurs and breeds by direct development near streams.
56721		population	eng	There are very few records of this species and it appears to be uncommon. In Chiapas, it is currently known only from a single site. Recent surveys in Guerrero and Oaxaca indicate that it has disappeared from all sites surveyed, suggesting a serious decrease.
56721		threats	eng	The declines witnessed in Mexico are probably due to chytridiomycosis, since some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis. Habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement is also a threat.
56722		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
56722		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities at altitudes of 470-1,200m asl on ridges of the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central in San Martin Department, northern Peru. It occurs through a relatively wide altitudinal range (including lowlands) and consequently might range much more widely.
56722		habitat	eng	At the type locality all the individuals were collected at night on low vegetation in lower montane rainforest. Reproduction in this species is by direct development.
56722		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56722		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not specifically known, although there is localized deforestation and loss of habitat in the area through an increase in agricultural activity, selective wood extraction and human settlement.
56723		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making the protection of cloud forest habitat in the Papallacta Valley an urgent priority.
56723		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Papallacta Valley on the eastern face of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,135-2,750m asl, though it probably occurs a little more widely.
56723		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forests; one individual has been found under a rock by day, and others were collected on the leaves of herbaceous plants and low bushes at night. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56723		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56723		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, livestock farming, logging, and human settlement.
56724		conservation	eng	Its range includes Carrasco National Park.
56724		distribution	eng	This species was initially known only from the type locality, Sehuencas, in Carrasco Province, in the department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. Recently it was found on the old road to Chapare, at 2,000-2,200m asl, and near to Karahuasi, in the department of Santa Cruz at 2,150m asl, in the northeastern Andes (Köhler and Lötters 1999, Köhler 2000). It probably occurs more widely.
56724		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, mainly nocturnal, forest species, occurring in the Yungas forest. It has been observed on bushes, brush woods and ferns, at 0.3-2.0 metres above the ground. It can survive in slightly disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development.
56724		population	eng	It is a common species in Sehuencas.
56724		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
56725		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Luquillo National Forest Reserve and the Carite Forest Reserve, which are well-managed protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56725		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the interior uplands of eastern Puerto Rico at elevations of 273-1,050m asl.
56725		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species occurring in mesic broadleaf forest where the males call from low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56725		population	eng	There has been an unexplained major decline in abundance in the last two decades, even in relatively well-protected forests (such as El Yunque, see Burrowes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and some populations have been entirely extirpated.
56725		threats	eng	In the past, extensive deforestation took place over much of Puerto Rico due to agricultural expansion and wood-cutting; current disturbances include tourism and infrastructure development for tourism and radio communication facilities. As a high-altitude species, it might also be susceptible to climate change and/or chytridiomycosis. Rats and mongooses have also been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges 1993, and Thurley and Bell 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus coqui</span>), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to elucidate their relative contribution to amphibian declines.
56726		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
56726		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Atlantic versant of Mexico from San Luis Potosi and Veracruz along the Caribbean lowlands to Belize and northwestern Honduras; crossing the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and thence southeast along the Chiapas and Guatemalan versant to El Salvador (Lynch, 2000). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,100m asl.
56726		habitat	eng	It is only known from tropical lowland and montane rainforests. It occurs in the leaf-litter and can also occur in coffee plantations. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56726		population	eng	It is common in Chiapas through El Salvador. It is the most common frog in the southern foothills of Guatemala. There are few records from Belize and Honduras.
56726		threats	eng	Deforestation is the only major known threat to this species.
56727		conservation	eng	This species might occur in the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey, but this requires confirmation. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at which this species has been recorded in the Sierra Madre Oriental.
56727		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Nuevo León to western Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, northern Querétaro, and extreme north-western Hidalgo, Mexico, at moderate elevations from 650-2,000m asl. It is probably more widespread within its general range.
56727		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pine-oak forest habitats. On several occasions it has been collected from caves. It breeds by direct development.
56727		population	eng	Although several additional populations have been identified, this species is nowhere common.
56727		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging is the main threat to this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56728		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia, and in the Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56728		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern cordilleras in the southeast and southwest of Darién Province in extreme eastern Panama, south throughout western Colombia to the southern part of Guayas Province in Ecuador. It also ranges around the northern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central to the middle and upper drainage of the Magdalena Valley, in Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
56728		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland and submontane rainforest, with a few records also from dry forest. It is a terrestrial species that can survive in secondary forest, but not in open areas. It is often found along streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56728		population	eng	It is a common species.
56728		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56729		conservation	eng	It occurs in the La Planada private nature reserve in Colombia, but there is a need for further protection of cloud forest habitat in the region.
56729		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area in the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, at La Planada at 1,200m asl in the department of Nariño, extreme southern Colombia, and just across the border at Maldonado at 1,410m asl, in the province of Carchi, extreme northern Ecuador.
56729		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, and is associated with the spray zones of waterfalls, where it lives on vegetation and rocks. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown, but it is unlikely to tolerate significant habitat alteration. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56729		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56729		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be habitat loss and degradation, due to agricultural development, plantations, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution (resulting from the spraying of illegal crops).
56730		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further survey work is urgently needed to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it still survives in the wild. Maintenance of existing habitat at the type locality is also required.
56730		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality in the Presquile du Nord Ouest, Haiti, at around 100 m asl.
56730		habitat	eng	The species was recorded in a rocky ravine in remnant riparian forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56730		population	eng	It has not been recorded since it was first collected. At least one survey at the type locality in 1997-the last herpetological survey of the region-failed to record the species (S.B. Hedges pers. comm.).
56730		threats	eng	Logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture are the main threats to the species.
56731		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
56731		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species known from altitudes of 185-312m asl in the Amazonian lowlands on the Río Tigres in extreme northern Loreto Department, Peru. It is possible that it is more widespread.
56731		habitat	eng	All the known individuals of this species were found on the leaves of herbaceous plants and bushes 0.1-1.0m above the ground in primary forest at night. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
56731		population	eng	Three adult males and one adult female were used to describe this species.
56731		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agricultural development (for both crops and livestock, for example).
56732		conservation	eng	Its range does not overlap any protected areas.
56732		distribution	eng	This species can be found from 1,140-1,960m asl in the Río Blanco drainage in Provincia Pichincha, in the north-western Andes in Ecuador, and probably occurs more widely.
56732		habitat	eng	This species can be found in montane cloud forest in humid tropical and humid temperate regions, in bromeliads in the sub canopy, and also in pastures and secondary forest. Individuals have been found on low vegetation at night, or on herbaceous plants and ferns near streams (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56732		population	eng	During the course of survey work in 2002-2003 it was found to be common in Curipollo, Nonegal.
56732		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
56733		conservation	eng	It occurs in several forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and there is a clear need for improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas.
56733		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in western Jamaica, ranging from sea level up to 680m asl.
56733		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of mesic forests on the coast and in the uplands; although associated with closed-canopy forest, it can tolerate some habitat degradation. Males call from the ground or from low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development and may be associated with bromeliads.
56733		population	eng	It has rarely been encountered during the last decade, although it is commonly found in Dolphin Head in extreme western Jamaica. It has also been recently seen in Rocklands (B. Hedges, pers. comm. 2007; K. Jones, pers. comm. 2007).
56733		threats	eng	Although this species appears to be slightly more tolerant of habitat disturbance than some other species in the genus, such as <em>Eleutherodactylus sisyphodemus</em> and <em>E. griphus</em>, rather extensive habitat destruction and deforestation is taking place within its range, caused by agriculture, human settlement and logging.
56734		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, and the Estación Demonstrativo El Rasgon.
56734		distribution	eng	This species is known from the department of Santander, Colombia, where it has been recorded from 1,750-2,400m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known.
56734		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest, and breeds by direct development.
56734		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56734		threats	eng	Its habitat is under high pressure due to the cultivation of crops and the rearing of cattle.
56735		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species occurs in the Zona Reservada de Tumbes and might occur in the Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
56735		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. It is reported from below 1,600m asl in Santa Cruz, Cajamarca region, Canchaque, Palambra in Piura region, and in Lambayeque region it can be found as low as 450 m asl (all in northwestern Peru), but also as high as 3,200m asl in the sub-páramo in Province Loja of southern Ecuador. It also occurs in Azuay, Zamora Chinchipe Provinces in Ecuador. <br/><br/>It can be found between 450-3,200m asl.
56735		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest, sub-páramo, and páramo. One specimen has been found in sub-páramo in Provincia Loja, Ecuador (Duellman and Pramuk, 1999). A number of specimens have been found under rocks at the edge of a stream in thorn forest with trees 12-18m high. Individuals have also been found in large bromeliads on rocky slopes and cliffs (Venegas, 2005).  This species breeds by direct development; the egg deposition site is not known. It occurs in secondary and old growth forest.
56735		population	eng	Both in Peru and Ecuador, it is a common species. It was last seen in 2003 in Ecuador.
56735		threats	eng	Destruction and loss of habitats for livestock and selective logging is taking place, even within protected areas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato </em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56736		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.
56736		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of the Oriental and Occidental Cordilleras in the departments of Santander and Boyacá, Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,460-3,340m asl. It probably occurs more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56736		habitat	eng	It inhabits typical vegetation of high Andean forest: gramineous, herbaceous and small bushes, lichens and moss, and natural pastures. Individuals are active in leaf-litter, and during the day they can be found under rocks. This is a species that breeds by direct development.
56736		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56736		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development, creation of pine plantations, and overgrazing by goats, is a major threat.
56737		conservation	eng	This area has been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996).
56737		distribution	eng	This species is known only from lowland forest in Colonia (a rural settlement), Loreto, in northern Peru. It might range more widely and is present below 20m asl.
56737		habitat	eng	This area is a flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It is not known if the species can occur in degraded habitat.
56737		population	eng	The population is unknown. Ten individuals were used to describe this species.
56737		threats	eng	This is largely unknown species. In the vicinity there is a general loss of habitat through agriculture, harvesting of wood, colonisation and oil exploration.
56738		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve.
56738		distribution	eng	This species is known from the municipalities of Sonson and Belmira, in the high and sub-páramo areas of the department of Antioquia, and is also reported from Caldas Department, inside the Florencia forest, between Samana and Pensilvania, in Colombia, from 2,560-2,900m asl. It is unlikely that the species will be found to occur in between known localities as most of the habitat has already been degraded or destroyed.
56738		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary forest, and is active on leaves and branches on high or medium strata. It breeds by direct development.
56738		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56738		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).
56739		conservation	eng	The range of this species in Peru overlaps with some areas proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Cuyabeno Reserva. It is present in at least three Colombian protected areas. In Brazil it has been recorded in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.
56739		distribution	eng	This species is known from lowland forest in western Brazil, southeastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador and eastern Peru (all Loreto and one record in Ucayali). Its altitudinal range is between 100-500m asl.
56739		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary forest, where it is most commonly seen on the ground, logs, or tree roots along small streams at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The microhabitat is very moist and the forest floor is heavily littered with wet dead leaves. It occurs in areas of flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. It also occurs in the forests edges, near small streams secondary and modified forest. It breeds by direct development, leaf-litter Ovid position.
56739		population	eng	It is common in Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; it is uncommon in Brazil.
56739		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56740		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Municipal do Maciço da Costeira.
56740		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sao Bento do Sul, Corupa, Blumenau, Florianopilis, and Garuva, Santa Catarina State, Brazil, at 100-700m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
56740		habitat	eng	It occurs inside secondary and old growth forest in humid areas, on the ground or on stones and low vegetation. The details of its breeding biology are unknown.
56740		population	eng	It is abundant and its population is stable.
56740		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation.
56741		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, Regional Reserve Ucumari and Regional Reserve Bosques de Florencia.
56741		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of Colombia in the departments of Cauca, Valle de Cauca, Choco, Risaralda, Quindio, Caldas and Antioquia. It occurs at moderate to intermediate elevations of 800-2,400m asl.
56741		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that inhabits the leaf-litter and ground of cloud forests and secondary forests. It is active part of the day and night, on the fallen leaves on the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56741		population	eng	It is a common species.
56741		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops are major threats to the species' habitat.
56742		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat at what is currently the species' only known locality is urgently needed. The surviving population requires close monitoring.
56742		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from a single locality of about one hectare in size at Meseta del Guaso, Cuba, at an elevation of 720m asl.
56742		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in mesic closed-canopy forests, and breeds by direct development.
56742		population	eng	It is moderately common at its only known locality.
56742		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat destruction due to subsistence farming and charcoaling, as well as clear-cutting.
56743		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are within the range of this species.
56743		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Amapá and Amazonas states, in Brazil. It was recorded from only two localities in Brazil. As these localities are on opposite sides of the Amazon region, it is likely that the species has a much wider distribution than is mapped here. It has been recorded from 30-1,460m asl.
56743		habitat	eng	A terrestrial leaf-litter species found in tropical lowland and montane forest. It breeds by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known. It is adaptable to human intervention.
56743		population	eng	It is a common species. It is the second most commonly encountered anuran species at the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005).
56743		threats	eng	There are some localized threats to some populations, but overall the species' is not threatened at present.
56744		conservation	eng	Studies on population trends and threats are needed.
56744		distribution	eng	This species can be found in south-central Texas, USA and in central Querétaro, Mexico. It can be found between 1,000-2,000m asl (Nieto Montes de Oca and Pérez Ramos, 1998).
56744		habitat	eng	Cracks, caves, and crevices in cliffs and limestone hills in areas of woodland, scrubland, grassland, and desert; also among human-generated debris and on watered lawns (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999). Species is somewhat tolerant of suburbanization. It lays eggs on land in a moist, sheltered site.
56744		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown; it is secretive and easily overlooked. It is rather common but somewhat localized and seldom seen (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999).
56744		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
56745		conservation	eng	The type locality is near Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, but it has not been recorded from inside the park. Protection of the species' habitat is essential for the long-term survival of this restricted range, primary forest species.
56745		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: La Empalada, in the municipality of Mistrató, in the department of Risaralda, Colombia, from 1,760-1,790m asl. There has been quite extensive sampling in the neighbouring regions suggesting that it is most likely confined to this area.
56745		habitat	eng	It is usually found on low vegetation and in leaf-litter, inside primary cloud forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56745		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56745		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development, particularly the cultivation of illegal crops.
56746		conservation	eng	Some populations are distributed inside La Paya National Natural Park, Colombia. In Peru, the range of this species overlaps with the areas have been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Brazil, the range is within a well-conserved region of the Brazilian Amazonia. It might be within Limoncocha Reserva Biológica and Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística, Ecuador.
56746		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazonian lowlands and slopes of northern Ecuador and adjacent southern Colombia (Departamentos de Amazonas y Putumayo), south to south-central Peru and parts of western Brazilian Amazonia. Its altitudinal ranges from 100-1,300m asl.
56746		habitat	eng	This species’ habitat is the Amazon lowland and submontane primary and secondary moist tropical forest. Specimens of this species have been collected on low vegetation in forested situations at night (Lynch, 1974). During the day it shelters on fallen leaves on the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development and the egg deposition site is not known. It may be found in selectively cut secondary forest.
56746		population	eng	Generally, it is a rare to uncommon species.
56746		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56747		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56747		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, La Desirade, Iles des Saintes, Martinique, Dominica, Antigua, St Martin (introduced), and St Barthelemy (where it has also been introduced) in the Lesser Antilles. It has been extirpated on St Lucia. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,250m asl on Guadeloupe.
56747		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily in mesic forest areas, but has also been collected in dry forest. It has also been found in disturbed habitats, such as banana plantations, sugar cane fields, gardens, and houses. It is active on the ground, calling from soft, wet surfaces, but retreats to arboreal bromeliads. The eggs are laid on the ground.
56747		population	eng	It is a very common species, and is more common in undisturbed habitats.
56747		threats	eng	Although not seriously threatened, this species is affected by introduced predators, such as cats, rats and mongooses, by forest loss, and possibly also by pesticides. Another species in the genus (<em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>) is perhaps a competitor, and appears to be replacing this species in open areas.
56748		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the montane forests at Cerro Ovando is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56748		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro Ovando, south-western Chiapas, Mexico, and from one location in the Pacific versant at Aldea Fraternidad, northern Guatemala. It occurs from 1,500-2,000m asl.
56748		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting pine-oak forest at moderate elevations. It breeds by direct development.
56748		population	eng	This is a rare species.
56748		threats	eng	At present, the pine-oak habitat in the only two locations where this species occurs is still intact. However, logging represents a potential threat.
56749		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56749		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-eastern Michoacán, east to Morelos, in central Mexico.
56749		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine forest areas and requires abundant rocks and leaf-litter, and breeds by direct development.
56749		population	eng	This is not a common species, but there is very little recent information on its population status.
56749		threats	eng	Disturbance and transformation of the original forest due to the expansion of urbanised areas is a serious threat to this species.
56750		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
56750		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes and piedmont of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca and Meta, Colombia. It has been recorded from 450-1,800m asl.
56750		habitat	eng	This species is known from altered forests, and occurs on bushy vegetation. It is associated with fast flowing streams.
56750		population	eng	It is a common species.
56750		threats	eng	Agriculture might be a localized threat to the species but there are no major threats to the species survival at present.
56751		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
56751		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Atlantic versant from extreme southeastern Honduras to western Panama (including the Bocas del Toro Islands), at elevations of 1-1,200m asl.
56751		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest. It reproduces in the leaf-litter via direct development and it tolerates habitat disturbances.
56751		population	eng	This species is relatively common in Costa Rica, although populations have shown some decline at La Selva (Federico Bolaños, pers. comm.; Whitfield et al., 2007). It is rare in Honduras and Panama at the edges of its range.
56751		threats	eng	Habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a major threat to this species. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56752		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
56752		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and western areas from Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the locality of San Lorenzo, in the departments of Cesar, Guajira, and Magdalena in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,300-2,450m asl.
56752		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species known from cloud forest areas. It occurs in closed-canopy (up to 25 m) secondary forest, riparian forest, and pine plantations (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008).  It can be found on fallen leaves and under rocks and logs. It breeds by direct development.
56752		population	eng	It is very common. Recently found in surveys at San Lorenzo (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008).
56752		threats	eng	Cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock, are major threats to this species' habitat
56753		conservation	eng	The range of this species is wholly within Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, although logging is taking place within this area. A survey to evaluate the population status of this population in Los Tuxtlas is needed, and real protection of the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas and the surrounding areas is urgent. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56753		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Mexico. The type locality is recorded as 900-1,200m asl.
56753		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is lowland tropical humid rainforest; it seems to live on the ground and under leaf-litter. Breeding takes place by direct development.
56753		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56753		threats	eng	The high rate of transformation of original forest habitat in this area is notorious, and deforestation for the cultivation of coffee, fruits and tobacco is rapidly increasing.
56754		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. As such, there is a need for improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas.
56754		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in Pico Turquino and Santiago de Cuba Province, Cuba, where it ranges from 845-1,974m asl.
56754		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in closed moist forests. The species breeds in and lays its eggs in bromeliads, and breeds by direct development.
56754		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56754		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction, which is taking place as a result of deforestation for agricultural activities, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56755		conservation	eng	It is reported to occur in the Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla (Enciso et al., 2008).
56755		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities, at altitudes of 2,800-3,470m asl, on the road from Balsa to Leymebamba, near the crest of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, and at Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla, all in the region of Amazonas, northern Peru. It is not known if this species has a restricted range, but it is possible that it may occur in between known sites.
56755		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest. Individuals can be collected under stones by day. Those recorded from 3,470m asl were in areas of wet páramo vegetation, whereas an individual collected from 3,300m asl was in elfin forest. Both habitats are within very humid montane forest. This species breeds by direct development.
56755		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. Three adult males and one adult female were used to describe it.
56755		threats	eng	The major threats to it are unknown, although there is general regional destruction and loss of habitat through an increase in livestock grazing, other agricultural activities and selective wood extraction. Enciso et al. (2008) recently reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>P. melanogaster</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.
56756		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional El Tamá.
56756		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "km. 15 Delicias a Rubio" (Rivero 1982), 1,800m asl in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56756		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal inhabitant of seasonal, semi deciduous forest, which breeds by direct development.
56756		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56756		threats	eng	Clearance of its habitat for coffee plantations is the most likely threat to it.
56757		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica (including Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo, and Parque Internacional La Amistad) and Panama (Parque Nacional Chagres and Parque Nacional Volcán Barú). Studies are needed to better understand the taxonomic relationship between this species and <em>Pristimantis cruentus</em>, so as to aid in the correct identification of populations (Gerardo Chaves, pers. comm.).
56757		distribution	eng	This species is found in the cordilleras of Costa Rica and the highlands of central Panama, at elevations of 1,150-2,700m asl (Savage, 2002).
56757		habitat	eng	It inhabits relatively undisturbed, dense, primary humid montane forest. Breeding takes place by direct development.
56757		population	eng	In Costa Rica, this species is rarely seen and there is little information on its population status. Lips (1998) reported a sharp decline at Las Tablas (Costa Rica), but populations have persisted at Monteverde (Costa Rica) (Pounds <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Further information is needed on the status of the species' populations in Panama.
56757		threats	eng	In Panama, the major threat is logging. In Costa Rica the species is not threatened. The cause of the decline at Las Tablas has not been determined, but chytridiomycosis may be involved, as it was detected in this species at this location (Lips <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2003). It persists at Monteverde where chytrid has also been recorded (Pounds <em>et al.</em>, 1997).
56758		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.
56758		distribution	eng	This species is known from "Ridge N Pico Tamacuari, 1,270m asl, Sierra Tapirapecó" (Myers and Donnelly 1997), in the state of Amazonas, in Venezuela (01° 13'N; 64° 42'W). It has been recorded from 1,160-1,270m asl and probably occurs more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56758		habitat	eng	This inhabitant of montane tepui forests breeds by direct development.
56758		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56758		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56759		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios) in southern Peru and Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul in Central Peru.
56759		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities: Colonia and Cosñipata (Cusco); between Mitupucuru and Estero Ruana (Ayacucho); from three localities in Finca Panguana (Huanuco) in central Peru; and Cocha Cashu and Tambopata (Madre de Dios) in southern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-2,200m asl.
56759		habitat	eng	This is a cloud forest and lowland forest inhabitant. In Central Peru, specimens were obtained on leaves at night. Some were found in a pineapple patch by day, others were found in bromeliads by day. In Cosñipata Valley, one was found on a fern at night. It is a direct development species that can be found in edge and slightly modified habitats.
56759		population	eng	The population status is unknown.
56759		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
56760		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Madidi and Parque Nacional y Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and also Parque Nacional Carrasco.
56760		distribution	eng	Initially, this species was known only from the type locality, 3.3km north of the road towards San Onofre, in Chapare Province, in Cochabamba Department, but more recently there are more records from La Paz Department, also in Bolivia (Lynch and Duellman 1997; De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Cortez 2001). It has been recorded from 1,950-2,400m asl.@@
56760		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of Yungas forest, this species has not been recorded from disturbed areas. It is a terrestrial species, although its limbs suggest that it might be adapted to a more arboreal lifestyle. It is both nocturnal and diurnal. Reproduction is by direct development, and juveniles are seen during December and January.
56760		population	eng	It is a rare species, and only a few individuals have been observed. It is no longer recorded at the type locality.
56760		threats	eng	Agricultural activity, logging and the construction of roads are major threats to this species' habitat.
56761		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species (including whether or not it even still survives in the wild), and particularly to establish the reasons for its decline.
56761		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Montañas del Merendón on the Sierra de Omoa, west of San Pedro Sula in the Department of Cortés, Honduras, at elevations of 150-200m asl.
56761		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces by direct development in leaf-litter on the ground of lowland moist forest, and is often found in the vicinity of streams.
56761		population	eng	It was formerly relatively common but is now in precipitous decline. It was not recorded in the course of visits to the known range of the species in 1996 and 1998 where the habitat remains relatively intact.
56761		threats	eng	Since the range of this species is well protected from obvious human disturbance (the area from which it is known has been managed and protected for the last 30 years), the cause of its decline is unclear. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species. On the other hand, this species occurs at a much lower altitude than most frog species that have been affected by such unexplained declines.
56762		conservation	eng	It is so far known only from the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, and the Estacion Demonstrativo el Rasgon. Further survey work is recommended to ascertain whether the species might occur more widely.
56762		distribution	eng	This species is known from two protected areas on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in the department of Santander, Colombia, from 2,400m asl.
56762		habitat	eng	It inhabits the interior of very humid cloud forests, and is found on vegetation on the low stratum. It is not found outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56762		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56762		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss, as a result of agriculture, and agricultural pollution.
56763		conservation	eng	It is present within the recently created Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.
56763		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 525m asl in the Río Marañon Valley in Amazonas Department, Peru. It has only recently been described and might range more widely.
56763		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical moist forest, especially near streams. The vegetation in these areas consists principally of leguminous plants and other drought-resistant trees. Both terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads are locally abundant, and this region also supports thorn forest. This is a direct developing species.
56763		population	eng	Only a few individuals have been observed, so its population status is not known.
56763		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss through human activities, principally agriculture, which might be affecting this species outside the protected area in which it has been found.
56764		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few Biosphere Reserves. The protection and restoration of extensive areas of montane forest in Oaxaca, Veracruz and Hidalgo is needed to protect this species and other amphibians that are found in the area.
56764		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of north-central Oaxaca, Guerrero, Puebla and adjacent Veracruz and Hidalgo, Mexico. It is known from 1,500-3,420m asl.
56764		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine-oak montane forest and montane cloud forest. It is a terrestrial species, frequently found under leaf-litter, and it breeds by direct development.
56764		population	eng	This is a common species, although recent surveys in Oaxaca suggest that it has disappeared, at least from certain sites.
56764		threats	eng	Deforestation and transformation of the original forest can affect the microhabitat for this species, however large populations have been found in Oaxaca and Guerrero. Recently documented declines in Oaxaca have taken place in suitable habitat, and could be due to chytridiomycosis.
56765		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded within the Parque Nacional Cusuco and Parque Nacional Cerro Azul. Despite occurring within these protected areas, this species still experienced dramatic population declines for unknown reasons (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. November 2008). Further research is required to determine the status of the surviving population at Cusuco National Park.
56765		distribution	eng	This species is known from west and northwest Honduras. It is recorded from Cerro Azul in Copán Department, and from Montaña del Cusuco (National Park) and Montaña del Merendón (west of San Pedro Sula) in the Department of Cortés, within the Sierras of Espíritu Santo and Omoa. The species is found at elevations of 1,050-1,841 m asl.
56765		habitat	eng	This is a leaf-litter species found along streams in pre-montane and lower montane wet forest. The species breeds by direct development.
56765		population	eng	It was formerly relatively common, but underwent a precipitous decline. This species had not been seen alive since 1983 (Kolby and McCranie 2009), and repeated attempts to relocate this frog in appropriate habitat and weather conditions in Parque Nacional Cusuco between 1992 and 1996 were unsuccessful. It was considered to be Extinct until an individual was recently (2008) recorded from Cusuco National Park (Kolby and McCranie 2009).
56765		threats	eng	While the species is clearly threatened by habitat loss and degradation (largely resulting from the conversion of forest to subsistence agricultural use), this does not explain the sudden disappearance of populations from areas of pristine forest (namely Parque Nacional Cusuco). It seems possible that factors related to declines in other montane frog species, such as chytridiomycosis and climate change, might have contributed to the species' decline.  Although this species undergoes direct development, its <em></em><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>affinity towards streamside habitats creates a heightened risk for chytridiomycosis.  In 2008, <em>Plectrohyla dasypus</em> larvae infected with amphibian chytrid fungus were recorded from the same stream area where this species was rediscovered. The single adult male <em>C. milesi</em> recorded in 2008 tested negative for chytrid infection by PCR analysis (Kolby and McCranie 2009).  It is hopeful that a small population of resistant individuals may persist in Cusuco National Park, but even so, the existence of this species remains in jeopardy.  Shortly after making this discovery, a large treefall crashed onto the site where <em>C. milesi</em> was found, demolishing the understorey vegetation and altering the forest patch (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. November 2008). <span lang="EN-US">Almost no original forest occurs at Cerro Azul and there is none&#160;remaning&#160;at the  Merendón locality (J. McCranie pers. comm. October 2009).
56766		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several national parks.
56766		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is from the Atlantic slope from eastern Honduras to southeastern Costa Rica, at elevations of 15-940m asl.
56766		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the forest floor leaf-litter in undisturbed lowland moist and wet forest. It reproduces via direct development and it tolerates some forest disturbance.
56766		population	eng	It is uncommon, but widespread and regularly seen. The population at La Selva, Costa Rica appears to have experienced declines (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56766		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56767		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas, including Valle Nuevo Natural Scientific Reserve.
56767		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic, with an altitudinal range of 879-2,300m asl.
56767		habitat	eng	It requires mesic upland broadleaf or pine forests. Males call from low vegetation; eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56767		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56767		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction due to the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock.
56768		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, and the Estación Demonstrativo El Rasgon.
56768		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, and Santander, Colombia, from 1,740-2,400m asl.
56768		habitat	eng	It inhabits low level vegetation in very humid cloud forests, and is able to adapt to secondary forest as well as forest edges. Breeding is by direct development.
56768		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56768		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development.
56769		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species, making the protection of cloud forest habitat at the type locality a priority. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it might occur outside the vicinity of the type locality.
56769		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, between the municipalities of Ramiriqui and Zetaquira in the Cordillera Oriental, in the department of Boyaca, Colombia. It has been recorded from 3,060-3,800m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56769		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest, and individuals can be found under rocks and logs during the day. At night they are active on low vegetation in open areas and inside the forest, and in areas surrounded by potato crops and cattle ranching. It breeds by direct development.
56769		population	eng	It is a rare species, and fewer than ten individuals have been collected.
56769		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, and in particular potato farming.
56770		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera Chamela-Cuixmala. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56770		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands (700m asl or below) of southern Jalisco and Colima, Mexico, but is perhaps more widespread.
56770		habitat	eng	It can be found in tropical deciduous forest, and requires an abundance of leaves and debris on the ground. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development.
56770		population	eng	It is thought to be a common species.
56770		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation, due to clear-cutting and smallholder agricultural activities, represents the main threat.
56771		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, which makes formal protection of this species' high-altitude habitat a priority.
56771		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eight localities on the edges of the Ambato-Riobamba Valley in central Ecuador between 2,560 and 3,700m asl.
56771		habitat	eng	It lives in high-altitude páramo grassland and sub-páramo bush land. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56771		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56771		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation. At the type locality, for example, patches of natural vegetation have been cleared for agriculture, livestock farming, and pine plantations, and this is believed to be having a serious impact on the species.
56772		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, and Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
56772		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Cauca, Valle, Risaralda, and Choco on the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,110-2,350m asl.
56772		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams on medium to low level vegetation in primary and secondary cloud forest. Although it has not been recorded outside forest it is tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance. Breeding is by direct development.
56772		population	eng	It is usually a common species.
56772		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops) is a localized threat to this species, but there are currently no major threats to it. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.
56773		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional El Tamá.
56773		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Matamula, in the municipality of Delicias, Táchira State, in the Venezuelan Andes, at an altitude of 1,120m asl.
56773		habitat	eng	This arboreal inhabitant of seasonal (semi-deciduous) forests breeds by direct development.
56773		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56773		threats	eng	The threats to this species are mostly unknown, although it is probably affected by the creation of coffee plantations.
56774		conservation	eng	The Department of Natural Resources controls access to Mona Island, which is gazetted as a nature reserve. There is a need to control introduced predators on this island, and to monitor the population of this species closely.
56774		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mona Island (Puerto Rico). Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 10m asl.
56774		habitat	eng	It is found in limestone solution holes in dry scrub forest. It is uncommonly recorded in bromeliads. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56774		population	eng	It is an abundant species on the island.
56774		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range, being confined entirely to Mona Island, and is vulnerable to the impacts of introduced predators on the island.
56775		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it has been recorded from the adjacent protected areas of Parque Nacional Volcán Barú and Parque Internacional La Amistad.
56775		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Cordillera Central of Panama adjacent to Costa Rica, although its distribution is incompletely known. It is known to occur at an altitude of around 1400m asl.
56775		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and low vegetation species of humid montane forest. It reproduces by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not clear.
56775		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
56775		threats	eng	The major threat is presumed to be general habitat loss through deforestation.
56776		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas (including Valle Nuevo Natural Scientific Reserve). However, several of these existing protected areas are in need of more effective management.
56776		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a limited range at high elevations on the Cordillera Central, in the Dominican Republic. It has been recorded from 1,270-2,424m asl.
56776		habitat	eng	This species is associated with closed-canopy forest and forest remnants, and is primarily found in the fern understorey. Males call from arboreal vegetation, including ferns. Eggs are laid on the ground, and breeding is by direct development.
56776		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat at high elevations.
56776		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction from agricultural development, livestock farming, and disturbance from tourist activities.
56777		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from two protected areas in Panama and the Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo in Costa Rica. The known location is not within a protected area in Colombia but the area in between the known localities includes several protected areas that it is likely to be recorded from. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).
56777		distribution	eng	This species is known from the premontane zone of the Atlantic slope from central Costa Rica (1,245m asl) and Pacific versant central Panama (550-975m asl), and is also known from localities near La Hondura, San José Province, in Costa Rica. In Colombia it is still known only from the type locality in Río Raposa, Valle del Cauca department, but it most likely occurs up to the Panama border along the Pacific coast. This is a very small frog found in the canopy, and so it is probably significantly under-recorded, and the apparently patchy distribution is probably not an accurate representation of its status.
56777		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species of humid montane forest. It is principally a canopy species with few known specimens. It is presumed to breed by direct development, like other species of the genus.
56777		population	eng	There is very little information, since it is so hard to collect.
56777		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown at present, but its known range in Colombia is currently not threatened and is remote from human influence.
56778		conservation	eng	Its range includes Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56778		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution in the region of the type locality, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, where it has been recorded from 800-1,380m asl. It is currently known from only six localities.
56778		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of humid tropical and subtropical primary forest and altered zones within primary forest (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Adults live in the forest canopy and breed by direct development.
56778		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
56778		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss, mainly due to rapidly expanding banana plantations, is a serious threat.
56779		conservation	eng	Both sites from which it is known are within protected areas: the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo in Peru, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador. Additional taxonomic research is required to resolve the taxonomic status of this species.
56779		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species known from the eastern slope of Abra Pardo Miguel (San Martin Department) on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Cordillera Oriental in northern Peru; and from La Pituca, Río Curintza (Zamora), Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 1,800-2,000m asl.
56779		habitat	eng	The Peruvian locality is a stream with rocky banks in humid, upper montane forest. Stones along the edge of the stream are covered with moss. The frogs were found by day in cavities between stones. According to Schulte (pers. comm.), the frogs are "imitating exactly a mossy stone". This species breeds by direct development.
56779		population	eng	Only a few individuals have been observed, and four adult females were used to describe this species. Those specimens are poorly preserved as they died en route from the type locality to the collector's home in Tarapoto, Peru.
56779		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss due to activities such as agriculture (both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock) that might be a threat to this species. Gold mining might affect it in Ecuador.
56780		conservation	eng	Much of its range is included in protected areas, including Parque Nacional Chagres.
56780		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central cordilleras of Panama, ranging from 700-1,000m asl.
56780		habitat	eng	It is associated with low vegetation in humid montane forest. Breeding is by direct development, although the site of egg deposition is not known.
56780		population	eng	It is generally rare, but common in a few sites such as the head of the Río Changuinola and the Bosque Protector Palo in Bocas del Toro Province and the continental divide near Copé, Coclé Province.
56780		threats	eng	The principal threat is habitat loss, mainly due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
56781		conservation	eng	The species' distribution includes National Natural Park Purace.
56781		distribution	eng	This species is known from about a dozen localities; Paramos on the Nudo de Pasto and the southern end of the Central Cordillera in Colombia (from 2,900-3,275m asl), Paramo de Purace, on the occidental slope of the central Cordillera in the department of Cauca from 2,900-3,000m asl, the department of Nariño: Laguna de la Concha, Paramo del Tabano, Pasto. The range of this species might extend in to Ecuador (but has not yet been recorded), since the habitat is the same beyond the border.
56781		habitat	eng	It is usually found on vegetation in páramo to sub-páramo and upper Andean forest. It is active mostly at night or at sundown. When inactive during the day, it occurs under rocks, logs and among dense grasses. It breeds by direct development. It has not been collected from anthropogenic habitats.
56781		population	eng	It is a common species.
56781		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are only localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species overall at present.
56782		conservation	eng	t is not known from any protected areas.
56782		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Finca Volcán, in the Sierra de Xucaneb, Alta Verapaz Department, central Guatemala, at 875m asl. However, there is now some doubt as to the correctness of the locality data associated with the specimen (Savage pers. comm.) and there might also be taxonomic problems with this species.
56782		habitat	eng	This species presumably inhabits premontane wet forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development.
56782		population	eng	It is known only from a single female specimen collected in 1978. It is likely to be rare, since subsequent attempts to locate it have been unsuccessful.
56782		threats	eng	Very little is known about the threats that it faces, but its habitat is being lost due to agricultural encroachment.
56783		conservation	eng	The projected range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, although there are no records from these parks yet. Until collectors become familiar with the necessary collection techniques the existing data on its range will remain incomplete.
56783		distribution	eng	This species is known from two widely separated areas along the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from Chocó, Valle del Cauca, and Antioquia Departments, from 2,100-2,250m asl. The gap in the known distribution is surely a consequence of a lack of survey effort and hence it is presumed in this assessment that it occurs in between these two areas.
56783		habitat	eng	Most collectors probably never see this species or, if they do, they see it and mistake it for insect droppings. The largest specimen ever found was only 17mm long. The colouration makes the organisms very cryptic on the surface of ferns very near the tips where water collects and drips. This species has only been recorded from primary forest and from forest edges. Reproduction is by direct development.
56783		population	eng	This is a very abundant species at two localities on the Serrania de los Paraguas. However, at the only other locality from which it is known (western Antioquia) it is uncommon.
56783		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat are habitat destruction due to the cultivation of crops and livestock farming, as well as chemical pollution from spraying of the crops.
56784		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56784		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in southeastern Brazil in the States of Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and possibly elsewhere. It altitudinal range is 50-1,300m asl.
56784		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and montane forest, forest edges and eucalyptus plantations, but not in more open areas. It climbs on tall herbaceous vegetation and lays its eggs in epiphytic bromeliads, among other places. It breeds by direct development.
56784		population	eng	It is a common species.
56784		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fires and human settlement.
56785		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps slightly with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56785		distribution	eng	This species is known from more than ten localities on the lower Pacific slopes of the Andes, from the province of Cotopaxi northwards to the province of Carchi in Ecuador. It is also likely to occur in adjacent Colombia, although there are, as yet, no confirmed records. It ranges from 600-1,540m asl.
56785		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of humid premontane forest; most individuals have been observed in the immediate vicinity of streams (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Breeding takes place by direct development.
56785		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56785		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, which has been particularly severe in the last few years due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging; pollution due to agriculture is also a threat. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56786		conservation	eng	This species' distribution includes Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve, and also Ucamari Regional Park.
56786		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern half of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Tolima, Caldas, Quindia, Risaralda and southern Antioquia, in Colombia, at elevations of 1,800-2,200m asl. It might occur more widely.
56786		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species, restricted to primary cloud forests with abundant fallen leaves on the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56786		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56786		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is the major threat.
56787		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador. In Peru, it has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56787		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in Peru between 1,080 and 2,180m asl along the road from Abra Pardo Miguel to Moyobamba, San Martin Province, on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central. It has recently been recorded from a single locality in Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, Ecuador, at 1,800m asl.
56787		habitat	eng	This is a montane and cloud forest species, and is not known to occur in degraded habitats. Adults and juveniles have been found approximately 1m above the ground in humid montane forest at night; one juvenile was on the ground by day. This species breeds by direct development.
56787		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56787		threats	eng	In Peru, the major threat is loss of habitat for agriculture, selective logging, and human settlement. In Ecuador, selective logging is the primary cause for loss of habitat.
56788		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza.
56788		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality and a discontinuous range in the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Meta in Colombia. It has been recorded from 3,100-3,870m asl.
56788		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo shrubland, páramo grassland, and forested areas. It is usually found on vegetation, or during the day it can be found under rocks and logs, and in active periods on low vegetation. It also occurs in secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
56788		population	eng	It is a common species.
56788		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fires are major threats to the species’ habitat.
56789		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Tamá in Venezuela, and in the PNN Pisba and the PNN El Cocuy in Colombia.
56789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Páramo de Tamá, in the State of Táchira, Venezuela, and in the pàramos in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia (in the Departments of Boyacà, Norte de Santander, and Santander). Its altitudinal range is 2,500-4,100m asl.
56789		habitat	eng	It is a species of páramo montane grassland. It breeds by direct development.
56789		population	eng	It is apparently an abundant species, but has only seldom been recorded in recent years due to lack of effort.
56789		threats	eng	Apart from the effects of fire on its habitat, this species is probably not facing any significant threats.
56790		conservation	eng	This species' only known locality is within Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.
56790		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra de Cubatão, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, at around 800m asl.
56790		habitat	eng	The type locality is old secondary forest, and the specimens were all collected on either the forest floor or on low vegetation. This species presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
56790		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens.
56790		threats	eng	It is currently known only from within a protected area, so its habitat is currently protected, although air pollution has been a problem in this region in the past.
56791		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with several protected areas including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganatis, Parque Nacional Sangay, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
56791		distribution	eng	This species can be found along the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes in the Río Pastaza Valley (1,180-1,800m asl), southern Ecuador (Provincia de Morona-Santiago, from 2,195-2,835m asl), Cordillera del Due (1,150-1,700m asl), and Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Curintza, 2,600m asl).
56791		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests. The frogs have been found on low vegetation and rocks, usually along streams, at night (Lynch and Duellman 1980). Breeding takes place by direct development.
56791		population	eng	It is a rare species in parts of its range, for example, at Parque Nacional Podocarpus where it was last seen in 1997.
56791		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and logging, is the main threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56792		conservation	eng	In Peru, the range of this species is overlap with the areas have been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps several protected areas. It is present in three Colombian protected areas.
56792		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Ecuador; northeastern Peru and from around Puerto Nariño (Amazonas) in southwest Colombia. Its elevation is from 200-900m asl.
56792		habitat	eng	It can be found in the upper Amazon basin and cloud forest. The frogs are active on the forest floor by day; a few have been found on low herbaceous vegetation at night (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). This species breeds by direct development. It may be found in primary, secondary and lightly modified habitat.
56792		population	eng	It is a common species.
56792		threats	eng	Presumably, there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56793		conservation	eng	This species inhabits a few biosphere reserves and other protected areas throughout its range.
56793		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northeastern Zacatecas to southern Sinaloa, southwestward to Pacific Nayarit, and then south to northeastern Oaxaca, in Mexico. Inland it is found from Guerrero to Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, the State of Mexico and Veracruz. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of 2,600m asl (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).
56793		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical deciduous forest to trough oak, pine and fir forest, and in coastal towns (including the downtown area of the city of Guadalajara) (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008). It breeds by direct development.
56793		population	eng	From field collections in recent years it appears that this is an abundant species in some locations.<br/><br/>It is the most abundant amphibian species in the city of Guadalajara (Ponce-Campos and Huerta-Ortega, 2004).
56793		threats	eng	This frog requires an abundance of leaves and debris on the ground in the forest, and fragmentation and alteration of the forest can disturb and reduce this microhabitat.
56794		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Parque Nacional Nevado de Colima. There is currently a program for park management, and those responsible for the program visit the area frequently (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its limited range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56794		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Colima and adjacent Jalisco, on the slopes of the Nevado de Colima, Jalisco, Mexico. It occurs from 600-2,400m asl.
56794		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and inhabits tropical lower montane forest, pine and oak forest. Breeding takes place by direct development.
56794		population	eng	The species is considered to be widespread on the slopes of the volcano and is very abundant during the rainy season (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).
56794		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the eruption of the nearby Volcán de Fuego de Colima. <br/><br/>While there is tourism in the area, road access is limited and difficult, limiting the impact of this activity on the species (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).
56795		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
56795		distribution	eng	This species can be found in lowland and premontane humid Atlantic forest slopes from northeastern Honduras to western Panama and Pacific versant Costa Rica and west-central Panama, at elevations of 4-1,200m asl (Savage, 2002).
56795		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, forest-floor species of humid lowland and montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56795		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon, but widely distributed, and regularly seen in Costa Rica. The population at La Selva, Costa Rica appears to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56795		threats	eng	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a threat to this species. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56796		conservation	eng	Although the species occurs in the Parc National Macaya and the Parc National Morne La Visite in Haiti, there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. It is also known from Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, which is better managed than protected areas in Haiti; however, degradation of the habitat within the park's limits continues. Strengthening the management of the existing protected areas network is essential, as is maintenance of the remaining habitat within the range of the species. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
56796		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte and the Massif de la Selle, in Haiti, and Sierra de Bahoruco, in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 576-1,515 m asl.
56796		habitat	eng	It is usually found in sinkhole caves in upland broadleaf forest and forest remnants, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Males call from tall vegetation and rocks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56796		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. It was last recorded in 2006 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56796		threats	eng	The primary threat is habitat destruction (due to charcoaling and agriculture), which is ongoing even in the protected areas of the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti and the Massif de la Selle. Similarly, deforestation is taking place at the one known locality in the Dominican Republic as a result of mining, charcoaling, and agriculture.
56797		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, although this is not a well-managed protected area and there are even coffee plantations within the park's limits (as well as significant disturbance of the habitat from tourist activities). There is a clear need for improved and strengthened management of this particular protected area.
56797		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range in the Blue Mountains, in eastern Jamaica, and has been recorded from 1,060-1,880m asl.
56797		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species restricted to dense closed-canopy deciduous forest, and does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. Males call on the ground, and eggs are laid in hollows beneath rocks. It breeds by direct development.
56797		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.
56797		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction, primarily due to smallholder farming activities, and also from introduced vegetation.
56798		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56798		distribution	eng	This species is known from six localities on the western flank of the Andes in the provinces of Cotopaxi and Pichincha, Ecuador, at 1,140-2,100m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
56798		habitat	eng	It is a cloud forest inhabitant, and it is not known whether or not it tolerates minor habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56798		population	eng	It is a common species.
56798		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.
56799		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad (Costa Rica and Panama) and two protected areas in Panama, and subpopulations within these seem relatively secure. Further research is needed into the range and ecology of this species, as well as the impact of chytridiomycosis.
56799		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of south-eastern Costa Rica and north-western Panama at an altitude of 400-1,450m asl.
56799		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the spray zone on rocks, boulders, and cliff faces in the middle of moderate-sized cascading streams in lowland moist forest, premontane and lower montane wet forest and rainforest. It does not occur in modified habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56799		population	eng	It is a rare species in Costa Rica, being recorded very infrequently. The last record for Costa Rica was in 1984, but there have been very few surveys in the region (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.). In Panama it is believed to have declined in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí.
56799		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is believed to be the disease chytridiomycosis, and it has already disappeared from one site where chytrid fungus was found.
56800		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species occur in protected areas, including National Natural Park Purace and National Natural Park Huila.
56800		distribution	eng	This species is known from between the departments of Cauca and Huila, on the central Cordillera, in Colombia, from 3,200-3,500m asl.
56800		habitat	eng	It is usually found in bushy and herbaceous vegetation in páramo (not forest). It is active mostly at night, although it calls during the day, from shelters. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
56800		population	eng	It is a common species.
56800		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Although there might be some localized threats, its habitat is largely isolated from threat due to its high elevation.
56801		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56801		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in western Mexico in the states of Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco and Michoacan. Its range is not well known, and its altitudinal limits are unclear.
56801		habitat	eng	There is no direct information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it is likely to be associated with semi-deciduous forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56801		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56801		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56802		conservation	eng	Some populations are included inside protected areas in Colombia (in the Reserva Natural La Planada, Parque Nariño and Parque Nacional Natural Munchique). In Ecuador, its geographic range coincides with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56802		distribution	eng	This species can be found in cloud forest at altitudes of 1,255-1,780m asl on the Pacific versant of the Andes in the departments of Cauca and Nariño, Colombia, and at 1,200-2,600m asl in the provinces of Carchi (Maldonado), Esmeraldas (Cristal, Río Blanco), and Imbabura (Cuellaje), in Ecuador.
56802		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that occurs on low vegetation (0.5-5m above the ground) in cloud forest in areas next to forest breaks or on high branches on sloping areas inside relatively undisturbed forest. One Ecuadorian specimen was obtained from the canopy of a felled tree by day (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.
56802		population	eng	It has always been considered an uncommon species, and it was last collected in the late 1980s. The region where it is known to occur has been only infrequently surveyed.
56802		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to logging, agricultural development, and the cultivation of illegal crops are all threats to it.
56803		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas throughout its range. In Peru the range of this species overlaps with Cordillera del Colan (Amazonas), Cordillera del Cóndor and Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul and Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). It is present in a number of Brazilian protected areas including Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo Galeras, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. It is present in four Colombian protected areas.
56803		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Amazonian basin of Peru, Ecuador, southern Colombia and Acre State, Brazil. Within Brazil, it has an additionally apparent disjunctive population close to Manaus, Amazonas state. The wide altitudinal range of 100-2,000m asl is probably indicative of the taxonomic difficulties with this species. In particular, the high elevation possibly represents a taxon restricted to Ecuador.
56803		habitat	eng	Generally it is a lowland tropical moist forest to cloud forest. In Ecuador only the species ascends to slopes of the Andes to high elevations. Adults have been observed on low (up to 3m) vegetation at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development and possibly a leaf-litter egg deposition site. It has been found in degraded habitats.
56803		population	eng	It is a common species.
56803		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56804		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica El Ángel. There is a need for the protection of the high-elevation páramo habitat of this species.
56804		distribution	eng	This species is known from Páramos del Angel and Chamizo, Carchi Province, in extreme northern Ecuador, at elevations of 3,000-4,150m asl. More survey work, including in nearby Colombia, might turn up additional localities for this species.
56804		habitat	eng	It can be found in sub-páramo and páramo habitats, and is also found in secondary forest. It is a fossorial species that breeds by direct development.
56804		population	eng	In 2000, it was noted as being uncommon in Chamizo. In 2002-2003, Páramos del Angel was burned and subsequent visits have failed to find this species.
56804		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, primarily due to agriculture and wood extraction. Severe fire damage might have extirpated this species from Páramos del Angel.
56805		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.
56805		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rio de Janeiro State including Ilha Grande, in Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
56805		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the ground inside primary and secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like others in the genus. It has not been recorded outside forest.
56805		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56805		threats	eng	Clear cutting of the forest was a threat to the species habitat in the past but it has now stopped. Infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism is a major threat at present, including inside the protected areas.
56806		conservation	eng	The biological reserve in which it occurs is the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.
56806		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Santa Teresa, in the state of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 650m asl, although it might be more widespread.
56806		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the ground of primary and secondary forest, and breeds by direct development.
56806		population	eng	It is a common species within its small known range.
56806		threats	eng	The area where the species is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where the species might occur), due to creation of wood plantations, smallholder farming, logging, human settlement and tourism.
56807		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species is within Parque Nacional Muralla. Further research is needed into the reasons for the species' decline, and additional survey work is required to assess its current population status. If the risk of chytridiomycosis proves real, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56807		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to north-western Olancho, Honduras, at elevations of 1,180-1,350m asl.
56807		habitat	eng	This species can be found in premontane moist forest, where it has been found in leaf-litter near streams. It breeds by direct development.
56807		population	eng	It used to be relatively common but it is now in decline. Fieldwork within the range of this species in 2001 failed to turn up this species.
56807		threats	eng	The precise reasons for the decline of this species are unclear. However, some other species in the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species.
56808		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu in Peru, and Parque Nacional Carrasco in Bolivia.
56808		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species known from Paracti (Cochabamba Department), in Bolivia, at altitudes of 650 and 1,300m asl, and in Peru from Pakitza (at 350m asl) and Madre de Dios. Both localities are separated by a distance of approximately 700km. This species' altitudinal range is 350-1,300m asl.
56808		habitat	eng	The Bolivian localities comprise evergreen tropical montane forest; in Peru it is known from lowland forest areas. It has been recorded calling from bushes at the edge of the road during light rain and was heard from the canopy at about 6-10m above the ground during a heavy downpour. Reproduction in this species is by direct development.
56808		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56808		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species, which is presumed to be widespread and to have large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (involving both crops and livestock, for example), oil exploration and settlement.
56809		conservation	eng	A survey to determine the presence of this species in the only protected area within its range, Omiltemi Park, is required. No records have been reported recently, even when the park was under state protection. Recently, the park has been subject to human activities that jeopardize the survival of the native fauna and flora. This species is in urgent need of habitat protection. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56809		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur, central Guerrero, Mexico, at altitudes of 2,200-2,600m asl.
56809		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine, oak and pine-oak forests, and requires an abundance of leaf-litter on the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56809		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
56809		threats	eng	Habitat loss and disturbance due to smallholder farming activities, livestock and removal of wood through logging and subsistence collection, is having a negative impact on the microhabitat of this species.
56810		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; in view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56810		distribution	eng	This species can be found at moderate elevations of the Sierra de Omoa west-south-west of San Pedro Sula on the Atlantic versant of north-western Honduras, at elevations of 760-1,150m asl.
56810		habitat	eng	The species occurs in, and breeds by direct development along, streams in premontane wet forest.
56810		population	eng	It is known from 24 specimens. Formerly, it was moderately common, but is now undergoing a precipitous decline. A visit to the area of the type locality in 1996 failed to turn up individuals of this or any other amphibian.
56810		threats	eng	Although habitat loss is certainly affecting this species, this does not explain the dramatic decline that has taken place. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher elevations, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species.
56811		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama, and from several protected areas in Colombia.
56811		distribution	eng	This recently described species is widely distributed in the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of central Panama. In Colombia it is known from west of the Andes from the Panamanian border to northern Cauca department, at elevations of up to 1,040m asl.
56811		habitat	eng	It is a large terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest. Direct development is the method of reproduction and the egg deposition site is not known. It requires moist conditions and hence is restricted to primary forest.
56811		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a rare species throughout its range.
56811		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests are localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species' overall survival at present.
56812		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and slightly Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It has also been recorded from the Llanganates and Sangay National Parks.
56812		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range is from the Páramos to the north and east of Guaranda on the western slope of the Andes, and on the eastern slope of the Andes in Llanganates and Sangay National Parks, Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 3,160-3,800m asl. It is known from fewer than ten localities.
56812		habitat	eng	This species can be found in Páramo habitats where it is mostly found in terrestrial bromeliads of the genus Puya. Its tolerance of habitat disturbance is unknown. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56812		population	eng	It is a somewhat uncommon species in Llanganates in 2000-2002. It is heard more easily than it is found.
56812		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although feral cows and fire are potential threats.
56813		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species might possibly still survive in the wild, and the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56813		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred in eastern Jamaica at an altitudinal range of 225-1,215 m asl.
56813		habitat	eng	This is a stream-dwelling species associated with aquatic and riparian habitats in mesic forests. Males call from rocks in streams or at waterfall bases. There is a possibility that it could have been a live-bearing species, but this is unconfirmed.
56813		population	eng	It has not been seen since the mid-1980s and is now possibly extinct. In 1985, it was still abundant in its range but within one or two years, the species underwent a marked and rapid decline.
56813		threats	eng	This species has apparently disappeared from its known range, even though its range included the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park, and some undisturbed forest still survives; this suggests that factors other than habitat loss are implicated in its disappearance, such as chytridiomycosis and introduced predators (<em>Rattus rattus</em> is abundant throughout Blue Mountains up to the highest peaks).
56814		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it may occur in Parque Nacional Podocarpus. There is a need for improved protection of the sub-páramo habitat of this species.
56814		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern Andes from the valley of Cuenca to the Loja Basin, in southern Ecuador, where it has been recorded from five localities. Its altitudinal range is 2,720-3,120m asl.
56814		habitat	eng	It inhabits sub-páramo bushland with scattered trees, and has been found in terrestrial bromeliads under stones in dirt banks; it is not known whether it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56814		population	eng	It is moderately abundant, being neither rare nor common.
56814		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development, rearing of livestock, and human settlement.
56815		conservation	eng	It occurs in the El Yunque de Baracoa Ecological Reserve, but improved protection and maintenance of the existing habitat are still required.
56815		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single locality around El Yunque de Baracoa, Cuba, at an altitude of about 300m asl.
56815		habitat	eng	It requires undisturbed moist forest, and breeds by direct development.
56815		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56815		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and disturbance from touristic activities.
56816		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and slightly with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56816		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north-western flank of the Andes in Ecuador, from 400-1,800m asl.
56816		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of humid temperate and subtropical primary and secondary forest (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It breeds by direct development.
56816		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56816		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging, and the habitat within its range is now severely fragmented. Agricultural pollution is also a threat to this species.
56817		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, and Regional Reserve Bosques de Florencia.
56817		distribution	eng	This species is known only from along the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia from Paramillo (Antioquía Department) to Valle del Cauca Department, and from the eastern slope of the department of Caldas in the Cordillera Central. It occurs at moderate elevations from 700-2,000m asl. It might occur a little more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56817		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species that inhabits primary or secondary forests with good regeneration. It perches on branches and bushes very high above the ground. Eggs are laid on logs and moss, and breeding takes place by direct development.
56817		population	eng	It is a common species.
56817		threats	eng	The primary threats are habitat loss, due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), and pollution, as a result of the fumigation of crops.
56818		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Yasuní.
56818		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern lowlands of Ecuador, between 250 and 350m asl. It is very poorly known, and is probably more widespread, but this requires confirmation.
56818		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of moist Napo forests in the tropical eastern altitudinal zone. It has been recorded only from primary forest, and does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. It is an arboreal species, found up to 30m above ground at the base of bromeliads. Two specimens were found on the ground immediately after large trees had been felled.
56818		population	eng	There is very little information known about its population status, but this is probably because it is a canopy species that is very hard to detect.
56818		threats	eng	Agricultural development, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to this species’ habitat.
56819		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Parc National Macaya and Parc National Morne La Visite, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of these protected areas, and maintenance of the remaining habitat within the species' range, is essential.
56819		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte and the Massif de la Selle, in Hispaniola, where it has been recorded from 333-1,212 m asl.
56819		habitat	eng	It is found under rocks in upland primary forest. Although it was collected at the edge of forest in a disturbed area, this is unlikely to be suitable habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56819		population	eng	It was moderately common in suitable habitat, which has now largely disappeared within its range. It was last recorded in 1991 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56819		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture, which is taking place even in the protected areas of the La Hotte and La Selle ranges.
56820		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
56820		distribution	eng	This species is known from the altiplano antioqueño from the central Cordillera, in the Department of Antioquia, in Colombia, between 1,800 and 3,100m asl.
56820		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species that is active inside dense forests and can also persist in secondary forest and wet pastureland on the ground. It breeds by direct development and is very dependent on moisture.
56820		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
56820		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. Cattle ranching and agriculture are localized threats at present.
56821		conservation	eng	It is protected in Parque Nacional Laguna Lachúa in Guatemala. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56821		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the lower Caribbean slopes of northern Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent Guatemala, where it is known from small tributaries that drain into the lower Río Grijalva, at altitudes of 300-350m asl.
56821		habitat	eng	It can be found in premontane wet forest along small tributary streams in which it presumably breeds.
56821		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
56821		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural development is a major threat to this species, and water pollution represents an additional threat.
56822		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, but it is afforded some protection due to the isolation of some of its populations confined on the Marias Islands. Taxonomic revision of this species is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56822		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Nayarit on the Pacific mainland, and from two of the three Marias Islands in the Pacific Ocean, Mexico.
56822		habitat	eng	It inhabits shrublands and dry forest at low altitudes, and breeds by direct development.
56822		population	eng	No information on the population status of this species is known.
56822		threats	eng	Disturbance and transformation of its habitat due to tourism and smallholder agricultural activity is a major threat to it.
56823		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas and Regional Reserva Ucumari.
56823		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Cordillera Occidental, between Carmen de Atrato in Choco department and Munchique in Cauca department, and from the western slope of the Cordillera Central in Quindío department, Colombia. It has been recorded from 900-2,400m asl.
56823		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary forest with good regeneration and weeds in open areas. It is very adaptable to secondary habitats. It is a nocturnal species, and can be found on branches up to 3 metres above the ground, sometimes next to streams. During the day they hide under rocks or logs and it breeds by direct development.
56823		population	eng	It is a common species.
56823		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.
56824		conservation	eng	Its range includes Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, and several forest reserves.
56824		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Jamaica, and has been recorded from 0-1,640m asl.
56824		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of terrestrial habitats, including riparian forest, open forest and forest edges; it can also be found in banana groves and pastures as long as they are near the forest edge, and can tolerate moderate habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56824		population	eng	It is considered to be a common species.
56824		threats	eng	It is intolerant of complete habitat clearance arising from agricultural and infrastructural development.
56825		conservation	eng	The Sierra de Neiba was declared a protected area, but it is not effectively managed, and habitat destruction within this area has been severe. Improved protection of the remaining habitat on the Sierra de Neiba is urgently required.
56825		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the crest of the Sierra de Neiba, along the border between the Dominican Republic and Haiti, Hispaniola. It has also been recorded from another locality in the Dominican Republic to the south-east of the Sierra de Neiba. Its altitudinal range is from 1,455-1,870 m asl.
56825		habitat	eng	It is found under rocks and logs, and in low arboreal bromeliads, in high-elevation, dense, closed hardwood forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56825		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat, although this habitat is declining extremely rapidly. It was last recorded in 1996 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56825		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is severe habitat destruction and deforestation, primarily due to subsistence farming and charcoaling.
56826		conservation	eng	It occurs in Sierra Nevada National Park (Páramo of Mucubají).
56826		distribution	eng	Pristimantis paramerus is only known from the region of Mucubají, state of Mérida, Venezuela, in páramo habitats, between 3200 and 3330 masl (La Marca, 2007).
56826		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial inhabitant of páramo grassland, and breeding is by direct development.<br/><br/>Individuals of this species have always been found associated to rocks in páramo streams (La Marca, 2007).
56826		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. Vial and Saylor (1993) recorded the species as undergoing population declines, but failed to provide any documented evidence to support this view. Subsequently, Barrio-Amorós (2001) reported an alarming decline, to the point where it is now very difficult to find.
56826		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, due to agricultural activities (the cultivation of crops) and fire, and associated pollution.
56827		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
56827		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 950-1,050 m asl.
56827		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that inhabits closed forest; males call from shallow, underground chambers. The eggs are also laid underground and it breeds by direct development.
56827		population	eng	It was known to be moderately common in its original habitat, which has now largely disappeared from within its range. It was last recorded in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56827		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation primarily due to logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56828		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Estacion Biólogica Las Cruces in Costa Rica, and from three protected areas in Panama, including Parque Nacional Chagres. An <i>ex-situ</i> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith, pers. comm. September 2007).
56828		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Pacific slopes of south-western Costa Rica (at 884-1,220m asl) and the Atlantic slopes of north-western Panama (at 365-1,450m asl), to central and eastern Panama (at 50-800m asl) (Savage, 2002). It is difficult to observe, and so might have a much wider range.
56828		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species inhabiting low vegetation within dense humid premontane and montane forest. It can also be found in forest edge habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56828		population	eng	It is uncommon, but regularly seen in Costa Rica.
56828		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agro-industry and clear-cutting of the forest. The species is present at El Copé, Panama, however owing to the species natural rarity at this site, it is difficult to determine whether the population abundance declined as part of the significant amphibian die-offs recorded here in 2004 (Karen Lips, pers. comm. 2007).
56829		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are within Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve area. There is an urgent need for the protection of remaining forest habitat within the range of this species, particularly given its senstivity to habitat disturbance.
56829		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and from the municipality of Guatepé, in Antioquia Department, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,850m asl.
56829		habitat	eng	It is usually found on vegetation in the intermediate and lower strata of high-altitude Andean cloud forests; it is restricted to primary forest because of its moisture needs. It breeds by direct development.
56829		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56829		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).
56830		conservation	eng	It occurs in the La Planada private nature reserve in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, and Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul.
56830		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands and on the western slopes of the Andes from the Department of Nariño in extreme southern Colombia, south to Manta Real in western Ecuador. A record from the Valle del Cauca in Colombia (Kattan, 1984) refers to Eleutherodactylus palmeri (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). Its altitudinal range is from 200-2,000m asl.
56830		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland tropical rainforest and montane cloud forest. It occurs in primary and secondary habitats, but not in open areas. It is nocturnal, and is found at night on shrub-like vegetation up to 2m above the ground, and during the day in bromeliads axils. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56830		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56830		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56831		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Population monitoring is needed to determine the current status of the populations in Estação Biológica de Boracéia.
56831		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in southeastern Brazil in the States of Espírito Santo, southern Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and possibly elsewhere. It ranges up to 800m asl.
56831		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of primary and secondary forest in the leaf-litter, and does not occur in open habitats. It breeds by direct development, and eggs have been found in a low bank of earth.
56831		population	eng	It is a very common species. It has experienced a population decline at Estação Biológica de Boracéia (Eterovick, <i>et al.</i>, 2005).
56831		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fires and human settlement.
56832		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it is possible it may occur in Parque Nacional Sangay. Further survey work is required to better understand the range and ecology of this species.
56832		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in the Upper Río Pastaza Valley in the vicinity of Yungilla and Mount Tungurahua, near Baños, in Tungurahua Province, Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,800-1,840m asl. Additional survey work may reveal that the species occurs more widely than current records suggest.
56832		habitat	eng	It is known only from altered, degraded montane forest, with some exotic trees. Its apparent rarity might be related to it possibly having a strong preference for pristine habitats, where it could prove to be more common. Breeding is believed to by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56832		population	eng	It has always been a rare species.
56832		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, rearing of livestock, logging, and human settlement.
56833		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Ecuador from the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. In Peru it has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56833		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a single locality at 3,470m asl on the road from Balsa to Leimebamba, near the crest of the northern part of the Cordillera Central in the department of Amazonas, Peru. Recently, it was recorded in Ecuador from a locality in Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, at 1,800m asl.
56833		habitat	eng	This is a montane forest species that is not well known. It breeds by direct development and it is not known if it can tolerate modified habitats.
56833		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56833		threats	eng	The species is threatened by selective logging activities in Ecuador. Threats in Peru are unknown, but there is general deforestation as a result of an increase in livestock and other agricultural activities, and selective logging.
56834		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Armando Bermudez, Parque Nacional Jose del Carmen Ramirez, and the Reservas Cientificas Valle Nuevo and Del Ebaño Verde, but there is inadequate management of these areas for biodiversity conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. There is a need for improved and strengthened management of these protected areas, and for close population monitoring of the species, particularly given the threat of chytrid.
56834		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the highest elevations of the Cordillera Central, in the Dominican Republic, where it has been recorded from 2,000-3,050m asl.
56834		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and found in upland closed forest and forest remnants, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. It calls from low vegetation, lays its eggs on the ground, and breeds by direct development.
56834		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56834		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction, due to agriculture, livestock farming, and disturbance from tourist activities. Chytrid fungus has been detected in this species in La Vega and Valle Nuevo in the Dominican Republic.
56835		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56835		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil occurs in the State of Bahia, Brazil, from Teixeira de Freitas north to Cairu. It ranges up to 130m asl.
56835		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation inside primary and secondary forest. It does not occur in more open areas. It breeds by direct development.
56835		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56835		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, and logging and human settlement.
56836		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be lost. Improved management of the existing protected areas, and maintenance of remaining habitat within the species' range, is urgently required.
56836		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti, where it ranges from sea level to 750 m asl.
56836		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, typically found in association with caves or creek beds, in closed forests. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56836		population	eng	Although it was common in the 1960s, it has only been encountered at two localities during many surveys conducted over the last two decades. It was last seen in 1991, although there have been no subsequent surveys to look for the species.
56836		threats	eng	The reason for the decline in the species is not known, but habitat destruction is severe throughout the Tiburon Peninsula, mainly as a result of logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56837		conservation	eng	Its distribution range includes Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Yasuni, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
56837		distribution	eng	This species is known from north of the Pastaza River, in Amazonian Ecuador below 600m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, probably in neighbouring Colombia and Peru, although this requires confirmation.
56837		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forest and Napo Moist Forests in the eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone. Specimens have been taken by day on the forest floor and by night on low vegetation in forests. At Parque Nacional Yasuni it has been recorded in Terra Firme primary forest. It is also known from secondary forest, and clearings.
56837		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56837		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.
56838		conservation	eng	There is a need for improved management of the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve.
56838		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Atlantic versant of the north-eastern and eastern portions of the departments of Olancho and Colón, respectively, in Honduras, at elevations of 150-680m asl.
56838		habitat	eng	It can be found in lowland moist and premontane wet forest. It reproduces by direct development along streams.
56838		population	eng	It is relatively common, but is likely to be decreasing due to ongoing habitat destruction within its range. The dramatic declines that have been seen in some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> in Honduras have not been observed in this species so far.
56838		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, forest destruction throughout this species' range, mainly as a result of agricultural expansion, is nonetheless rampant and causing a decrease in available habitat for this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, especially in Honduras, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56839		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina in Peru, and in Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador.
56839		distribution	eng	This species is known from altitudes of 1,700m asl in the Cordillera Cutucù, from 1,550m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, both in Ecuador, and from 1,138m asl on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Amazonas Department, Peru. Its range is not very well known.
56839		habitat	eng	It has been found so far only in old growth cloud forest. The only record for this species in Peru was on a leaf two metres above the ground at night. It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.
56839		population	eng	Few individuals of this species have ever been observed, and it is a rare species in Ecuador (where it was last recorded in 1998).
56839		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat due to agricultural development, wood extraction and mining are all threats to this species.
56840		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56840		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on the Caribbean slopes of northern Chiapas, Mexico, where it is known from along the small, upper tributaries that drain into the Río Grijalva and the Río Usumacinta (Campbell and Savage 2000). It has been recorded at altitudes of 400-1,700m asl. It might occur more widely.
56840		habitat	eng	It inhabits premontane wet forest and lower montane wet forest, where individuals have been found by day under rocks by a mountain stream. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56840		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56840		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and logging.
56841		conservation	eng	This species' range includes Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve.
56841		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Antioquia, Caldas (type locality: Samaná), and Tolima on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 1,180-1,500m asl.
56841		habitat	eng	It is found mostly inside mature forests, but also occurs in areas near the forest edge (though it has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats). It is nocturnal, and occurs on vegetation alongside small streams. It breeds via direct development.
56841		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56841		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock, illegal crops) is the major threat to the relic patch of forest in which this species occurs. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56842		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park.
56842		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of the Blue Mountains and the John Crow Mountains, extending to the north-eastern coast of Jamaica. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,275m asl.
56842		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic forests (montane rainforest, wet limestone forest, elfin woodland) in rocky areas. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56842		population	eng	This species is fairly common and more abundant than some other frog species in the Blue Mountains.
56842		threats	eng	Its range is limited and its forest habitat is declining rapidly due to agriculture, human settlement, and logging.
56843		conservation	eng	The species' range includes National Natural Park Las Hermosas.
56843		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Occidental slope of the central Cordillera, from Cerro Pan de Azucar, the vicinity of the type locality (Tenerife, Valle del Cauca department), and also from above Chaparal, in Tolima department, all in Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,850-3,460m asl.
56843		habitat	eng	It inhabits sub-páramo and páramo areas, occurring on low vegetation and on the ground among grasses. It is a species that breeds via direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
56843		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
56843		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops is a problem at lower elevations, but at higher elevations, where it mainly occurs, its habitat is not currently threatened.
56844		conservation	eng	It is present in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina, and is also believed to occur in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán. Further research into this species is required.
56844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cajamarca and Amazonas Departments, northern Peru. It is present at two localities (at 1,138m and 1,750m asl) on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Condór; a single locality (at 1,300m asl) on the southern edge of the Cordillera del Condór; and at altitudes of 1,830m asl and 2,400m asl in the northern part of the Cordillera Central. This species is believed to have a continuous distribution between the Cordillera del Condór and the Cordillera Central, and might prove to be more widespread.
56844		habitat	eng	It can be found in humid and semi-arid montane forest, but it is not known if it can occur in modified habitats. The holotype was collected in an arboreal bromeliad by day in semi-arid forest. Specimens from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Condór were found on low vegetation at night in humid montane forest. This species breeds by direct development.
56844		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. Records of three adult males and one adult female were used to describe this species.
56844		threats	eng	It is threatened in the south of its range by deforestation through increased agricultural activity (rearing of livestock and cultivation of crops), by selective wood extraction and by increasing colonization of the area.
56845		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, although it is possible it may occur in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
56845		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Abra de Zamora, in the province of Zamora-Chinchipe, southern Ecuador, at 2,850m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
56845		habitat	eng	It inhabits sub-páramo bushland with scattered trees. The holotype was found in a terrestrial bromeliad during the day, while the paratype was found on the branch of a brush at night. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56845		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56845		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, livestock farming, and human settlement.
56846		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados, Bosques de Florencia.
56846		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Central Cordillera, from the department of Valle del Cauca, through Quindio, Tolima, Risaralda, Caldas and Antioquia, with one population isolated on the Occidental Cordillera in Jerico, Antioquia department, Colombia. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in Caldas department. It has been recorded from 1,900-3,700m asl.
56846		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud montane forests and sub-páramo shrubland areas. A nocturnal species, it occurs in secondary forests and in areas that have been disturbed. It occurs on low vegetation, up to 2 metres above the ground. It is quite adaptable and can be found in most agricultural land and rural areas. It breeds by direct development.
56846		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56846		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread, adaptable species.
56847		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Barbilla.
56847		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central to south-eastern Costa Rica, on the Atlantic slopes at elevations of 39-1,200m asl.
56847		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter of lowland and premontane moist rainforest. It can persist in moderately disturbed areas, including plantations (cacao, coffee and exotic trees) and breeds on the forest floor.
56847		population	eng	It is collected occasionally. It can experience marked population fluctuations from year to year.
56847		threats	eng	The species is relatively adaptable, being only absent where land is thoroughly converted to open pasture and pineapple plantations. The range of this species is severely fragmented by this habitat loss.
56848		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas. The range of this species overlaps with Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios), Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul in Central Peru and Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone in northern Peru. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. It is present in a number of protected areas in Brazil.
56848		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the upper Amazon basin of western Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and southern Colombia. It is found at elevations of 200-1,750m asl.
56848		habitat	eng	Primarily it is a terrestrial (and low vegetation) species of upland cloud, flooded lowland and oxbow palm swamp forest (Lynch, 1980; Lynch and Duellman, 1980). A species that breeds by direct development, its egg deposition takes place in leaf-litter. It may also occur in secondary habitat.
56848		population	eng	It is a common species.
56848		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56849		conservation	eng	In Colombia, this species occurs in the San Augustin Archaeological Park and probably also occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua. In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
56849		distribution	eng	This species can be found in cloud forest at 1,410-2,750m asl on the eastern face of the Andes, and on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Caquetá, Huila, and Putumayo (Colombia), and Sucumbios, Napo, and Pastaza provinces (Ecuador). It probably occurs more widely, in particular in areas between known populations.
56849		habitat	eng	This species can be found in montane cloud forest. It has been found in old-growth forest and in adjacent altered forest. It is nocturnal and occurs inside bromeliads from ground level up to 2m high, and also on herbaceous and shrubby vegetation up to 1.5m high. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56849		population	eng	Historically, this species has been uncommon where collected.
56849		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops) is a threat.
56850		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56850		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality "approximately 2km W [west] of Huambos (06° 27´S; 76° 57´W, elevation 2500m [asl]), Provincia de Chota (Duellman 1991), and from Río Zaña, ca. 06 51’ S, 79 06’ W, 1800 masl (Duellman and Lehr, 2007), both in the Department of Cajamarca, Peru.
56850		habitat	eng	The type locality supports low, scrubby forest vegetation with scattered terrestrial bromeliads. Individuals of this species were observed in terrestrial bromeliads or calling from rock ledges at night. Presumably this species breeds by direct development.
56850		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56850		threats	eng	The threats to this species at the only recorded site are not known, although in general there is regional loss of habitat due to increased agricultural activity and selective wood extraction.
56851		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and immediate protection of the remaining habitat at the type locality is urgently required.
56851		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: La Cantera, Miranda, Granma Province, eastern Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from 100-270m asl.
56851		habitat	eng	It is found on rocks and cliff bases in closed mesic forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56851		population	eng	Only about 20 specimens of this species have ever been collected, and despite surveys and field collections in surrounding areas, it has not been found elsewhere.
56851		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to mining and smallholder agricultural activities.
56852		conservation	eng	Not currently known from any protected areas. Efforts are ongoing to transform the Serrania de los Paraguas into a protected area. This species requires close population monitoring given that it has such a restricted range.
56852		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities, both in the Serrania de los Paraguas in Choco and Valle del Cauca departments, on the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, between 2,160 and 2,400m asl. It probably does not occur in adjacent Risaralda department (because a sister species is found there).
56852		habitat	eng	It is usually found on top of leaves in dense primary cloud forests. It is active at night, on medium to high vegetation (up to 2m above the ground), and occasionally it occurs on vegetation along streams. It has only been recorded from dense pristine forest. It breeds by direct development.
56852		population	eng	A minute frog species found on the tops of leaves in primary cloud forest. It is very difficult to collect, and relatively few specimens have been successfully collected.
56852		threats	eng	The habitat of the type locality is relatively unthreatened at present, but there is a road proposed for this area in the future, which will present a major threat to the species if it goes ahead.
56853		conservation	eng	This species' type locality is within the Reserva de la Biósfera de La Amistad.
56853		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Costa Rica in Puntarenas Province, Cantón Coto Brus, Zona Protectora Las Tablas, Finca Jaguar (8° 55´N; 82° 44´W) on the Río Coton around 20km north-north-east of La Lucha, at 1,850m asl.
56853		habitat	eng	The one known individual was found on a rocky stream bank in lower montane rainforest.
56853		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status; it is known only from a single specimen
56853		threats	eng	Disease might be an immediate threat to this species; the single known individual was found in association with dead and dying frogs, and was observed to be sick. Pollution might pose an additional threat.
56854		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Cajas.
56854		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, about 30km north-west of Cuenca, in the province of Azuay, Ecuador, at 3,580m asl. The area where it occurs is poorly explored, and it is likely that it will be found to occur more widely.
56854		habitat	eng	It is a species found in páramo dominated by bunch grass, where individuals have been located beneath stones by day. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56854		population	eng	It is common at its type locality.
56854		threats	eng	There is no recent information on threats at its only known locality.
56855		conservation	eng	In Peru, this species might occur in one small-protected area in NW Peru Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, and Area de Recreación Cajas.
56855		distribution	eng	This species occurs at elevations of 1,800-3,100m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and the Andean plateau of southern Ecuador, south to northern Peru on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba in Piura Province and San Andrès de Cutervo (at 1,800m asl) in the northern part of the Cordillera Occidental in Cajamarca Province.
56855		habitat	eng	It can be found in the upper humid montane forest at sub-páramo. Many frogs are abundant in forest-edge situations, but scarce in the interior of the forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). In Ecuador, many individuals have been found in the axils of elephant ear plants and arboreal bromeliads by day. In Peru, an individual was found on a mossy cliff at night and another was calling at night from low vegetation. It breeds by direct development and the egg deposition site is not known. It occurs in disturbed and undisturbed habitats.
56855		population	eng	In Ecuador this species is common (recorded in 2003), but in Peru it is a rare species.
56855		threats	eng	Destruction and loss of habitats for livestock and selective wood extraction are major threats to this species. This also applies to the protected areas in the region.
56856		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of the species, such that the remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection, particularly considering this species' low tolerance of habitat disturbance.
56856		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Pan de Azúcar, in Antioquia department, Colombia, at 1,800m asl.
56856		habitat	eng	It is usually found on vegetation in cloud forests, and is thought to be restricted to forest habitat. It breeds via direct development.
56856		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56856		threats	eng	The habitat at the type locality has been badly destroyed as a result of human settlement and the collection of firewood.
56857		conservation	eng	The species is found in several protected areas.
56857		distribution	eng	This species occurs between the departments of Antioquia and Cauca, on the central Cordillera of Colombia, between 2,540-3,400m asl.
56857		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo and páramo areas, as well as upper primary and secondary forest. During the day it occurs on the ground, among low grass or under logs and rocks. At night, when active, it can be found on vegetation, especially in open areas on top of weeds. It breeds via direct development.
56857		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
56857		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are localized threats but there are no threats overall to this species at present.
56858		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco. The sites at which it is known to occur in Haiti are in need of improved management and protection.
56858		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Massif de la Hotte, Tiburon Peninsula, and Plaine de Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba, Haiti; and along the south-western coast of the Dominican Republic, excluding the Peninsula de Barahona. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,758m asl.
56858		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial in dry scrub forest, mesic broadleaf forest, and secondary forests. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56858		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56858		threats	eng	Forest loss due to subsistence agriculture, charcoaling, and livestock is the main threat within the range of this species.
56859		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Guanahacabibes, which is a well-protected area, as well as several other protected areas.
56859		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range and patchy distribution on the Peninsula de Guanahacabibes, Alturas de la Habana-Matanzas, and Isla de Juventud, in Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to 381m asl.
56859		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas, coastal cliffs and caves in mesic forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat, and it breeds by direct development.
56859		population	eng	It is considered to be uncommon, and is usually only seen in suitable habitat from June to October.
56859		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat disturbance from tourist activities and infrastructure development for tourism.
56860		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de la Guadeloupe. Additional protection of the forest habitat of this species is required, and it is also necessary to control introduced predators within existing protected areas.
56860		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Basse-Terre portion of Guadeloupe in the Lesser Antilles, ranging from sea level to 1,250m asl.
56860		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species in mesic forests and rainforests, and calls from the ground or low vegetation. It can survive in secondary forest, but not outside forest. The eggs are laid on the ground and on bromeliads, and develop directly without a larval stage.
56860		population	eng	It is a little more common than <i>Eleutherodactylus barlagnei</i> in suitable habitats within its small range. It has decreased in general in the north of its range, probably due to damage to its habitat. It has also decreased around the Volcán Soufriere in the south of its range since 1991, probably due to the effects of volcanic eruptions.
56860		threats	eng	The forest habitat on Guadeloupe is fragile, small in extent, and habitat quality continues to decline. Major threats include pollution from pesticides used in banana plantations, forest clearance for agriculture (especially banana plantations) and construction of human settlements, and introduced predators (particularly rats, cats and mongooses). The introduced <em>E. johnstonei</em> might be a competitor, and appears to be displacing this species. Some recorded declines are associated with the effects of volcanic eruptions.
56861		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
56861		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the northern part of the Cordillera Occidental in Peru. Two localities are at altitudes of 3,050 and 3,200m asl on the road between Cajamarca and Celendin (on the eastern slopes of Abra Comulica); the third locality at 3,760m asl is north of Cajamarca. Its range is not completely known, and it is difficult to estimate if this species has a much larger range. There have been very few surveys of the region.
56861		habitat	eng	This is a little-known species found in montane grassland. All individuals have been collected under stones by day. Those from 3,050m asl were in a wet grassy area, whereas the individual from 3,200m asl was in tussocks. The only specimen at 3,760m asl was collected under a rock in a grassy region by day. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.
56861		population	eng	Three adult females were used to describe it.
56861		threats	eng	A general threat in the area, which might also be impacting this species, is agricultural development (principally potato cultivation).
56862		conservation	eng	It might occur in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura. It does not occur in a reserve in Guatemala.
56862		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Mexico and Guatemala, ranging from central Guerrero, southeastward through Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as far as northern Chiapas, extreme southern Chiapas (on the Pacific slopes), and western Guatemala. It has been recorded at 700-1,000m asl.
56862		habitat	eng	This species occurs at lowlands in tropical seasonal forest. Individuals can be found on the rocks, on the ground or under rocks and debris. The species can be found in disturbed habitat and it reproduces via direct development.
56862		population	eng	It is abundant in Chiapas and Guatemala.
56862		threats	eng	Disturbance and transformation of the original tropical forests areas are threats.
56863		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Armando Berudez and in the Reservas Cientificas Valle Nuevo and Del Ebaño Verde, but there is inadequate management of several of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. There is a need for improved management and protection of these reserves, and also for close population monitoring of the species, particularly given the threat of chytrid.
56863		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic, from 1,212-1,770m asl.
56863		habitat	eng	It occurs in upland pinewoods and forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Males call from the ground or from rocks, eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56863		population	eng	It is clearly rare and is known from only a few localities.
56863		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, in particular from agriculture, livestock farming, charcoaling, and disturbance from ecotourism. Chytrid fungus has been detected in this species in La Vega and Casabito in the Dominican Republic.
56864		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56864		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Cuba, Little and Great Bahamas banks, Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac. It is introduced on Jamaica, and in Florida, Alabama (not mapped here), Georgia (Winn <em>et al.</em> 1999), Louisiana (Platt and Fontenot 1993), Hawaii (Kraus <em>et al.</em> 1999) and Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It was also recorded as an introduced species in central Veracruz, Mexico, but it has not been recorded there again since the 1970s and is not mapped here. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 727 m asl.
56864		habitat	eng	It is mostly terrestrial in mesic and xeric areas, forests, caves, beaches, nurseries, gardens, urban areas, but is found in arboreal bromeliads on Grand Cayman. It breeds by direct development.
56864		population	eng	This species is very common in all habitats.
56864		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
56865		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
56865		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental from the department of Cauca northwards to the department of Antioquia, and including Risaralda, Choco and Valle del Cauca departments, in Colombia, from 1,580-2,600m asl.
56865		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species, it occurs on top of low vegetation near streams in forest. It breeds by direct development and has not been recorded outside forest.
56865		population	eng	It is usually an uncommon species, but it is a microhabitat specialist making it difficult to find. At a locality near Quernal, in Valle del Cauca, a large series was collected when collectors adapted their techniques and began searching in low trees along steep banks.
56865		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops) is the main threat to this species.
56866		conservation	eng	In Bolivia it is protected by Madidi and Cotapata National Parks and Natural Areas of Integrated Management, Pilon Lajas Biosphere and Indigenous Land Reserve; and Carrasco and Amboro National Parks. In Peru, the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu. No conservation measures are needed.
56866		distribution	eng	This species occurs east of the Andes from the Department of Ayacucho, Peru to west-central Bolivia (Departments of Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz). It is present at approximately 950-3,470m asl (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000).
56866		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species present in primary (and disturbed) montane cloud and Yungas forest, and open areas, including sub-páramo (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Cortez 2001; Köhler 2000). It perches on vegetation 0.5-2.0m asl. Gravid females have been collected from January to July. It is possible that reproduction stops during the peak of the dry season, at least in some places. The species may use bromeliads as a place for oviposition, but this needs confirmation. While it is present in disturbed forest it does not occur in agricultural areas.
56866		population	eng	In Bolivia, Köhler's studies in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz; Aguayo's (2000) in Cochabamba, and Cortez' (2001) in La Paz indicate that this is an abundant species. Its abundance in southern Peru is not known.
56866		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There are some localized threats through degradation of habitats for agriculture, deforestation, livestock and wood extraction
56867		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56867		distribution	eng	his species is known only from the type locality, a cloud forest at San Eusebio, near La Carbonera, in Mérida State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,316m asl. It might occur a little more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56867		habitat	eng	It is known only from montane cloud forest, and is presumed to breed by direct development.
56867		population	eng	There is no recent population information on this species.
56867		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56868		conservation	eng	There is no information. It is not known from any protected areas.
56868		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Igaraçu in the state of Pernambuco in north-eastern Brazil.
56868		habitat	eng	It is likely to be a forest species.
56868		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it has not been recorded since the original collection over 100 years ago.
56868		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to it, although the forests in the state of Pernambuco have been very heavily impacted by human activities.
56869		conservation	eng	It is likely to be protected by Carrasco and Amboro National Parks.
56869		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slope of the Andes, from the Chapare Province, in the department of Cochabamba, to southern Florida Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. It has been recorded from 2,000-2,500m asl. It might occur more widely but this requires confirmation.
56869		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that is both nocturnal and diurnal. It inhabits the Yungas forest (Köhler 2000), and breeds by direct development.
56869		population	eng	It is a common species.
56869		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture is a major threat.
56870		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama, including Parque Internacional La Amistad and Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. Further research is needed into the possible decline of the species at Reserva Forestal Fortuna, and the potential impacts of the chytrid pathogen on this species.
56870		distribution	eng	This species is fairly widespread on both slopes of the cordilleras of Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, at elevations of 1,089-2,650m asl (Savage, 2002).
56870		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species inhabiting leaf-litter in primary humid premontane and montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56870		population	eng	It is generally common and regularly recorded in Costa Rica (Pounds <i>et al.</i>, 1997; Lips, 1998), although there are indications that it has undergone declines at several sites at which it was formerly common, such as the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, in Panama.
56870		threats	eng	Declines of this species have been recorded in both Panama and Costa Rica. For example, in Panama a massive die-off of amphibians has been observed at the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, with chytridiomycosis suspected as the major causal factor (Lips, 1999), and they are now no longer common at Las Tablas in Costa Rica where they were formerly abundant (K. Lips, pers. comm.). On the other hand, museum specimens of this species collected from La Selva-Volcán Barva (now in the Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo) in 1986 have been found infected with chytrid fungi (Puschendorf, Bolaños and Chaves, 2006), yet the species appears to have persisted in this area, where strong declines have taken place amongst other species (R. Puschendorf, pers. comm.).
56871		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, but there is a need for additional protection of primary forest habitat in the range of this species.
56871		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the areas of Murri, Las Orquideas and San Jose del Palmar, on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,140-1,540m asl.
56871		habitat	eng	It inhabits low vegetation, especially ferns next to streams in primary forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56871		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
56871		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).
56872		conservation	eng	This species is an urgent priority for survey work in order to determine whether or not it still survives in the wild, and any surviving populations might need to be maintained in captivity if the risk of chytridiomycosis proves genuine. The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection and restoration of the remaining cloud forest is urgently needed in the Sierra de Juárez where no protected areas currently exist. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56872		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Vista Hermosa town, Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at about 1,500m asl.
56872		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forest; it appears to have arboreal habits and breeds by direct development.
56872		population	eng	This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1983. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.
56872		threats	eng	Although disturbance and clear cutting of montane cloud forest habitats in Sierra de Juárez (primarily for agriculture) represent a threat to this species, it has disappeared even in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.
56873		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas. There is a need to protect lowland forested areas close to the Caribbean coast.
56873		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the humid lowlands of Atlantic slope southeastern Nicaragua, southeastern Costa Rica and adjacent northwestern Panama, at elevations of sea level-260m asl (Savage, 2002).
56873		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of the leaf-litter in lowland moist and wet forests. This species also occurs in disturbed habitats and banana plantations. It has a direct development form of reproduction.
56873		population	eng	It is a common to abundant species.
56873		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from severe deforestation.
56874		conservation	eng	The Citadel Laferriere is a World Heritage Site (designated in 1982), and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Haiti. The current status of the species is unclear, and further survey work is needed determine its population status. Maintenance of the surrounding forest is necessary.
56874		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range, and is found only in and around the Citadel Laferriere (Citadel of King Christophe), a huge fortress built on the peak of a mountain nearly a thousand metres above the plain from which it rises, in northern Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 550-650 m asl. There is a second, albeit questionable, record from the nearby Carrefour Marmelade.
56874		habitat	eng	It was recorded from a moist dungeon in an old fort and probably occurs in the surrounding forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56874		population	eng	This species is probably rare. It was last recorded in 1985 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56874		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction due to charcoal collection and subsistence farming.
56875		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas that are well managed. Further survey work is necessary to monitor the status of populations, particularly given the threat of chytrid, and it may be necessary to establish a captive-breeding programme.
56875		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, where it has been recorded from 273-1,182m asl.
56875		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial in mesic, upland broadleaf forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It calls from bushes and tree trunks, eggs are laid in bromeliads, and it breeds by direct development.
56875		population	eng	Studies have shown that populations have been declining (R. Joglar pers. comm.).
56875		threats	eng	Although some habitat destruction is taking place, this is not sufficient to explain the extent of the observed declines. Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species, and is likely to be implicated in the declines (R. Joglar pers. comm.).
56876		conservation	eng	Currently, the species is not known to occur in any protected area, and so protection of the only highland forest where this species is found is essential to ensure its persistence.
56876		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western foothills and highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, at 760-1,100m asl, in an area bordered by Cintalapa, Berriozabal and Presa Nezahualcoyotl.
56876		habitat	eng	It is associated with wet forest areas, and inhabits the forest floor under leaf-litter among limestone boulders and limestone caves. It breeds by direct development.
56876		population	eng	This is a rare species.
56876		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is reduction of original forest cover, since it occurs in an area of high human-induced disturbance, and its only known habitat covers a very small area.
56877		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Laguna de Barbaro Reserve and the Punta Cana private reserve.
56877		distribution	eng	This species has an apparently patchy distribution within a restricted range in La Romana Province, Dominican Republic, where it ranges from sea level up to 60m asl.
56877		habitat	eng	It occurs in low elevation semi-mesic broadleaf forests. Males call from dense understorey, eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56877		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56877		threats	eng	There is severe habitat destruction taking place within its range, mainly due to tourism, slash and burn agriculture, and livestock farming.
56878		conservation	eng	The geographic range of this species overlaps several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Sumaco, Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay.
56878		distribution	eng	This species occurs in cloud forests, at elevations of 1,140-1,700m asl, on the eastern face of the Andes and the Cordillera de Cutucú in Ecuador.
56878		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forests; specimens have been found on low vegetation at night, and most were found in ravines near streams (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It also occurs in secondary forest and forest edges. Breeding is by direct development.
56878		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species.
56878		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, mainly due to agricultural activities, is the main threat to this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56879		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Area Natural Unica los Estoraques and the Estacion Experimental El Rasgon in Venezuela. Its occurrence in protected areas in Colombia is unclear.
56879		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia in the Cordillera Oriental (including the Serranía de Los Motilones), in the Departments of Norte de Santander and Santander; and in Macizo de Tamá and the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela. Its altitudinal range is 1,600-2,700m asl.
56879		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forests, including secondary forest, and in terrestrial bromeliads in sub-páramo bush land. It breeds by direct development.
56879		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
56879		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Deforestation due to potato cultivation is perhaps the most significant threat. However, many of its habitats, especially at higher altitudes, are unlikely to be seriously threatened.
56880		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone, Peru, and in Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador. Further survey work is needed to better understand the limits of the distribution of this species.
56880		distribution	eng	This species is known from elevations of 1,710-2,620m asl in the southern part of the Cordillera Oriental, in the provinces of Loja and Zamora Chinchipe, 1,700m asl in the Cordillera de Cutucù, and from 1,550m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago Province. The only Peruvian record is from the upper Río Comainas, at 1,750m asl, on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, in the province of Condorcanqui, Amazonas Department. Sampling effort through the range is insufficient.
56880		habitat	eng	This species can be found in montane cloud forests; specimens have been collected in bromeliads and in low vegetation by night (Lynch 1979c). In the Cordillera del Cóndor of Ecuador, gravid females were found in January and August. Breeding is thought to take place by direct development.
56880		population	eng	It is very rare in Ecuador, while in Peru only a single juvenile specimen has been recorded.
56880		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural activities, wood extraction, and mining.
56881		conservation	eng	Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.
56881		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the summit of Cerro Yaví, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,150m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.
56881		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that was collected on low vegetation and in a small cave in montane tepui forest. It breeds by direct development.
56881		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56881		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
56882		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Columbia River Forest Reserve, and possibly in the Bladen Nature Preserve and the Chiquipul Forest Reserve, in Belize. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Guatemala, but might occur in Parque Nacional Río Dulce.
56882		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central and eastern Guatemala, and adjacent southern Belize, at 150-1,170m asl. It might occur in Honduras, but has not yet been recorded.
56882		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed lowland and premontane moist and wet forests, and is often found far from streams. It is sometimes found in limestone outcrops and caves. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.
56882		population	eng	It is rarely encountered, but is sometimes locally common.
56882		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and logging.
56883		conservation	eng	In Colombia it is known from La Payas Nature Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and Parque Nacional Yasuní. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed.
56883		distribution	eng	This species is known from Amazonian Ecuador (Sucumbios, Orellana and Pastaza Provinces) and adjacent Colombia in the Department of Putumayo. It has been recorded between 330-570m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
56883		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary forest and flooded forest (Duellman, 1978). It is active mostly at night among fallen leaves and low vegetation, it is frequently found in epiphytes. It presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus, with egg deposition in the leaf-litter. The ability of the species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
56883		population	eng	In Ecuador, it is an uncommon frog although widely distributed. There is no population information for Colombia.
56883		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are localized threats but there are no known threats to the species' overall survival at present.
56884		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is an urgent need for the protection of primary forest habitat within the range of this species.
56884		distribution	eng	This species is known only from six localities at elevations of 1,500-2,710m asl on the western flank of the Andes in the provinces of Imbabura and Pichincha, north-western Ecuador.
56884		habitat	eng	It lives in primary forest, and is somewhat adaptable, being found on forest edges and the edges of pastures. The use of ferns by this species stands out dramatically in comparison with the limited degree to which most other Andean <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> perch on ferns. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56884		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
56884		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development (including livestock farming), logging and human settlement.
56885		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56885		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the Serrania de los Paraguas, in Valle del Cauca, Choco and adjacent Risaralda Departments in the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 2,200-2,400m asl. It might be more widespread, but more survey work is needed to confirm this.
56885		habitat	eng	It is restricted to canopy forests on hill slopes, and may be associated with waterfalls. It occurs on low and high vegetation in the canopy, showing population fluctuations depending on weather conditions (during wet cycles it was rare, and during dry cycles it was common, suggesting that it is in the canopy during the wet cycle). It breeds by direct development.
56885		population	eng	For many years this species appeared inexplicably rare, but during an El Nino event in 1997 more than 50 were caught in an hour.
56885		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is relatively secure at present, although if a planned road is built this will be a major threat to its habitat.
56886		conservation	eng	In Colombia it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua. In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
56886		distribution	eng	This species can be found at 1,660-3,300m asl on the eastern face of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Sucumbios and Napo provinces) and southern Colombia (Caquetá and Putumayo departments). It is likely to be a little more widespread, in particular in areas between known sites.
56886		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, cloud forest species. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is strongly associated with water and the edges of streams; some individuals occur on riparian vegetation, but the majority occurs on rocks in the watercourses. During the day it is possible to find them under rocks. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56886		population	eng	This species is reasonably common, and was found in great abundance along the road above western Caquetá in every stream in a transect in 1990.
56886		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops).
56887		conservation	eng	Its range includes Canaima National Park, and Kaiteur National Park.
56887		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of La Escalera, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, and in adjacent Guyana and southern French Guiana (M. Hoogmoed pers. comm.). It probably occurs mainly at intermediate elevations, up to around 1,600m asl.
56887		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal arboreal species that inhabits forests. It has been collected at the Gran Sabana region on a cliff, and on leaves of herbaceous vegetation and bushes at heights of 1-1.5m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.
56887		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56887		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56888		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas; further research is urgently required into the possible ongoing impact of pathogens on populations of this species. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is held at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama; eggs and/or larvae have been produced to date (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).
56888		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western and central cordilleras of Panama, and is present at altitudes of between 560 and 1,000m asl.
56888		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic species associated with humid montane forest streams. It breeds by direct development, although the site of egg deposition  is not known.
56888		population	eng	It is reported to be common where it occurs.
56888		threats	eng	Although general habitat loss through deforestation is a recognized threat, pathogens, possibly including the chytrid fungus, are also considered to be a threat.
56889		conservation	eng	Its range is within Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.
56889		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Bocaina, São Paulo State, Brazil. The exact altitude of this locality is unknown, but it is probably at around 1,000m asl.
56889		habitat	eng	It is known from the leaf-litter of forests. The type locality has both secondary and primary forest, but it is not known in which area exactly this species was collected from. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
56889		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens, and there is no recent information on its population status.
56889		threats	eng	There are no known threats to its habitat at present.
56890		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sangay, but there is a need for additional protection of suitable habitat in the Cordillera de Matanga.
56890		distribution	eng	This species is known from six localities in the Cordillera de Matanga east of Cuenca, in the province of Morona Santiago, southern Ecuador, at 2,652-3,384m asl.
56890		habitat	eng	It seems to be primarily an inhabitant of páramo grassland that ranges down into meadows and pastures in upper cloud forests. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56890		population	eng	It is a common species.
56890		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, which is taking place due to agricultural development (involving both crops and livestock) and human settlement.
56891		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo in Mexico.
56891		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme southern Michoacán and México (state) in Mexico, south and east along the Pacific slope to western Guatemala. It also occurs in Veracruz and eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, on the Atlantic slope. In Guatemala it is known from above 2,000m asl.
56891		habitat	eng	It occurs in a great variety of habitats, from lowland forests (tropical rainforest, tropical semi-deciduous forest) to montane pine and pine-oak forests, and cloud forests. It can survive in secondary forests, but not in open habitats. It breeds by direct development.
56891		population	eng	It is a common species.
56891		threats	eng	The major threat is the clearance of forest habitat for agriculture and as a result of logging, which is probably leading to the disappearance of shade, humidity and leaf-litter microhabitats on which the species depends.
56892		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps several protected areas, including the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56892		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the upper cloud forest at elevations of 2,075-3,000m asl on the western flank of the Andes in the provinces of Pichincha, Imbabura, Carchi, Cotopaxi and Bolívar, Ecuador.
56892		habitat	eng	It seems to be restricted to the upper humid montane forest, and has been found most commonly under stones, logs, and wood chips along road cuts and in pastures by day (Lynch and Duellman 1997). In Cashca Totoras, this species is only found near streams. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56892		population	eng	It is recorded as being uncommon in two sites (at Intag and Moran, in 2002), but common in Cashca Totoras (in 2000-2003).
56892		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to livestock farming and wood extraction activities, and the habitat is now severely fragmented.
56893		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas; however, there are ongoing efforts promoting the creation of a formal protected area that would include the Serrania de los Paraguas. This species requires close population monitoring given that it has such a restricted range.
56893		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities on the Serrania de los Paraguas, in Valle del Cauca and Choco departments, on the Cordillera Occidental in western Colombia, from 2,100-2,250m asl.
56893		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to forest habitat, or the forest edge. It occupies exactly the same microhabitat as <em>E. myops</em> with which it is microsympatric. At one of the two localities, <em>E. quantus</em> is more abundant than <em>E. myops</em>, but the reverse occurs at the other locality suggesting local ecological differences. It breeds via direct development.
56893		population	eng	This species is sometimes regularly encountered and sometimes inexplicably uncommon. Its very small size probably explains its rarity in collections.
56893		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is relatively unthreatened at present, although if a planned road is built this will present a major threat to the species' habitat.
56894		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone, Peru. In Ecuador, it is present in several protected areas.
56894		distribution	eng	This species is distributed primarily on the eastern slopes of the Andes, where it is known in Ecuador from elevations of 920-1,740m asl in the Cordillera Oriental, (Morona-Santiago) at 1,700m asl in the Cordillera de Cutucù, and 1,500-1,550m asl (Napo) on the western slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor. In Peru it is known from elevations as low as 200m asl in the Amazonian lowlands (Amazonas). In Colombia it is known from a single site in western Putumayo. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,900m asl.
56894		habitat	eng	It is present in the Amazon cloud forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). In both Peru and Ecuador, all individuals have been found on low vegetation at night. It is a species that breeds by direct development; the egg deposition site is not known. It is not known if the species occurs in degraded habitats.
56894		population	eng	It is a common species.
56894		threats	eng	Presumably, there are no major threats to this species. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56895		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama including Parque Nacional Darién, and its range also includes a few protected areas in Colombia.
56895		distribution	eng	This recently described species in Mesoamerica is found in both central Panama, and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama. It also occurs in northwestern Colombia. It occurs from elevations of sea level to about 500m asl.
56895		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and arboreal species of primary and secondary humid lowland forest and forest edge. It breeds by the direct development method of reproduction; the egg deposition site is not known. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
56895		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a common species, but it is difficult to find, as it is so small.
56895		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat, but there are no major threats to the species at present.
56896		conservation	eng	In Colombia most of the populations are inside La Planada Natural Reserve. In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica El Angel, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
56896		distribution	eng	This species can be found at elevations of 1,410-2,710m asl, on the Pacific slopes of the western Andes in Ecuador, and in extreme southern Colombia, in Nariño Department, at elevations of 1,700-2,600m asl.
56896		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest in the humid temperate regime and humid subtropical regime. Most individuals have been found perched on leaves and branches at heights up to 2.5m above the ground, but one was found sitting amidst dead bamboo leaves on the ground (Lynch and Duellman 1997); they are sometimes found near streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, though the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
56896		population	eng	Locally common (for example, in Intag, Imbabura, Ecuador, in 2003), this species has disappeared from some localities where it was known to exist historically. For example, it was common when it was collected in the Quebrada Zapadores, Ecuador in the 1970s, but had disappeared by 1997 at this locality despite a lack of habitat disturbance.
56896		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging, agricultural development (livestock ranching and illegal crops), and human settlement is a major threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56897		conservation	eng	The range of the species overlaps with three protected areas.
56897		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Cauca and Huila departments to Quindio and Tolima Departments on the Central Cordillera, in páramo areas including Parque Nacional Natural Nevado Huila, Barragan, Pan de Azucar and Campanario. It has been recorded from 3,000-3,570m asl.
56897		habitat	eng	It is usually found on vegetation in páramo, represented mostly by gramineous or sparse vegetation. It breeds by direct development. It is not known from anthropogenic habitats but its range is above the elevation of such settlements.
56897		population	eng	It is a common species.
56897		threats	eng	It lives in a remote area and there are no known threats.
56898		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56898		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Mamanguape in the State of Paraíba, south to Prado in the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 800m asl.
56898		habitat	eng	It lives is primary and secondary forest, on the forest edge, and in rocky areas, but not in agricultural land or plantations. It is usually found on the ground in leaf-litter, and also in low vegetation. It breeds by direct development.
56898		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
56898		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.
56899		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the protected area of the Estação Biológica de Boracéia.
56899		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Boracéia, in São Paulo State, Brazil, at around 900m asl.
56899		habitat	eng	This species is found only in primary or secondary forest, primarily in leaf-litter, but it can also be found calling on low vegetation. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
56899		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens, but it is a very difficult species to find and is also hard to differentiate from other species, so other specimens might exist that have been misidentified. Visits to the type locality have heard it calling in great numbers, suggesting that it could be common, although it has not often been collected.
56899		threats	eng	It is threatened by the extraction of palm trees, which is opening up the canopy of the forest and disturbing its habitat.
56900		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the Panamanian protected areas of Parque Nacional Darién and Area de Manejo Especial Nusagandi. Its range includes several protected areas in Colombia.
56900		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the south from the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama to the Río San Juan de Micay in western Colombia, in the forested lowlands north and west of the Andes extending in to the middle of the Magdelana valley, south to dry forests. There are isolated populations in the Montes de Maria and along the Serrania de Perija and possibly in the inter-Andean valley of the Río Cauca, Colombia. It is known up to 1,500m asl.
56900		habitat	eng	A largely terrestrial species also associated with low vegetation in humid lowland and montane forest also common in wet pastureland and rare in primary forest. It breeds by the direct development method of reproduction; the egg deposition site is not known.
56900		population	eng	This species is reasonably common.
56900		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.
56901		conservation	eng	In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species, and particularly the surviving population at Río Murciélago, should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. The species has been recorded from several protected areas in the past.
56901		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the lowlands and premontane slopes from eastern Nicaragua on the Atlantic slope and north-western Costa Rica on the Pacific versant to extreme western Panama (including Isla Escudo de Veraguas), exclusive of the Golfo Dulce region of south-western Costa Rica, at elevations from sea level up to 1,220m asl (Savage 2002).
56901		habitat	eng	The species is associated with small streams principally in lowland and premontane wet forests, although also dry forest with perennial streams, and is often found on rocks and under boulders in the stream. The only known remaining site in Costa Rica is dry forest that has a constant flowing stream (even through the dry season) and has a water temperature higher than other sites in Costa Rica from which it has disappeared. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56901		population	eng	It was formerly widespread in Costa Rica but has not been seen in much of its range since 1986. Sites where it was formerly common, such as Volcán Cacao, have been searched repeatedly in the last decade without success. A small population persists in the Río Murciélago, in the Guanacaste Conservation Area, where several individuals were recorded in 1994, 1995, and 2003 (Sasa and Solórzano 1995; M. Sasa unpubl.; Puschendorf <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is nothing known about the populations in Panama, and only a few specimens are known from Nicaragua (though this might well be due to a lack of survey effort).
56901		threats	eng	It is generally affected by the destruction of natural forests for agriculture and timber, but this does not explain its disappearance from pristine habitats. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a threat to this species.
56902		conservation	eng	It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher altitudes, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a threat to this species, and is something that needs to be monitored for carefully.
56902		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of the Pacific slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca of south-western Costa Rica, between 1,480-1,820m asl.
56902		habitat	eng	This species occurs in stream margins in the upper portions of premontane wet forest and rainforest and in the lower section of lower montane rainforest. One female was collected in a bromeliad. This species' breeding site is unknown.
56902		population	eng	It was collected on a number of occasions in the 1970s. It has not been seen since the 1980s, but there have been no searches for it in known sites for at least 10 years, or perhaps more. Ther have been no recent sightings of the species as of August, 2007.
56902		threats	eng	Forest destruction and possibly also airborne pollution are its major threats.
56903		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
56903		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serrania de Perijá, Casa de Cristal, Municipio de Manaure, César Department, Colombia. Animals were collected at 2,800m asl.
56903		habitat	eng	It was found below rocks, and is presumed to breed by direct development.
56903		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
56903		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming and small-scale susbsistence wood extraction.
56904		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, making habitat protection a priority for this species.
56904		distribution	eng	This species is known from the district of Bogota, the municipality of Silbate and the municipality of Cabrera in the department of Cundinamarca, in Colombia, from 2,000-2,800m asl.
56904		habitat	eng	It inhabits Andean forest, and some individuals have been found under logs and rocks. Breeding is by direct development.
56904		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56904		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (involving cultivation of crops, and livestock farming).
56905		conservation	eng	Galeras is designated as a Fauna and Flora Sanctuary. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given its extremely restricted range.
56905		distribution	eng	This species is known from an active volcano (Galeras) in the Municipality of Pasto, in the department of Nariño, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 3,150-3,720m asl.
56905		habitat	eng	The species is very adapted to volcanic soils and vegetation, and occurs at the sub-páramo and páramo altitudinal level and also slightly into forest. They are usually found under rocks or inside the sparse vegetation of the area. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats, but there are no human settlements at these high elevations anyway.
56905		population	eng	It is a common species.
56905		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the active volcano, since there is not much human activity at this elevation.
56906		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Park National Natural Tatama and Park National Natural Orquideas.
56906		distribution	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest sites on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Antioquia and Chocó departments, in Colombia, from 1,790-2,250m asl. It probably also occurs in the western Department of Risaralda as well, but there are currently no records from there.
56906		habitat	eng	The species inhabits heavily degraded areas next to dense forests. It is common to find them on the ground, among leaf-litter or on herbaceous vegetation or grasses. It is not common inside the forest. It breeds by direct development, and requires very moist conditions, hence the degraded habitat must still be moist.
56906		population	eng	At different localities it can either be uncommon or very abundant.
56906		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.
56907		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.
56907		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of Pico Periquito, in Rancho Grande, Aragua State, Venezuela, at altitudes between 1,090 and 1,275m asl. It could occur more widely but this requires confirmation.
56907		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal inhabitant of cloud forests that reproduces by direct development.
56907		population	eng	It is a rare species, but there is very little recent information on its population status. The type locality is one of the best-studied localities in the entire Venezuelan coastal mountain range. The absence of recent records might indicate that this species is rare, or is facing declines, or occurs in a microhabitat that has not been adequately sampled.
56907		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56908		conservation	eng	In Peru it occurs in the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu. Within Bolivia it has been recorded in the protected areas of Madidi, Carrasco, Cotapata and Amboro. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
56908		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Andes of Bolivia and Peru. It is known from four localities in Peru: Huanhuachayocc (1,650m asl) on the trail from Tambo to Apurimac Valley, (Departamento Ayacucho); Buenos Aires (2,400m asl) in Cosñipata, n the northeastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a front range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental and, Hacienda Huyro (1,720m asl) in Umasbamba Valley (both in Departamento Cuzco), and in elfin forest at 1,870m asl in the isolated Serranìa del Sira, (Departamento Huanuco). In Bolivia, it is known from the Departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. Its altitudinal range is from 1,000-2,400m asl.
56908		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the montane forests on the Amazonian slopes. Individuals may be found perched on low vegetation. It breeds by direct development. It is not known is this species occurs in degraded areas.
56908		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56908		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. There is some localized loss of habitat for agriculture and colonization in Central Peru; in southern Peru localized agriculture (including livestock) and colonization are the main threats.
56909		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat is an urgent priority.
56909		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range (occurring in just one small area) on the north-eastern base of the Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest, Haiti, at an altitude of around 30 m asl.
56909		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that has been found in leaf-litter and under rocks in forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56909		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 1985 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56909		threats	eng	The main threat is extensive habitat destruction due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56910		conservation	eng	It occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura.
56910		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to western Veracruz and adjacent Hidalgo and Puebla in Mexico between 1,200 and 2,100m asl. There is an apparently disjunct population in central and south-eastern Chiapas (and adjacent Oaxaca) (Lynch 2000b). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
56910		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical montane forest, and it is not known if it can survive in disturbed habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development.
56910		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56910		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to logging, human settlement, and some agricultural activities.
56911		conservation	eng	Within Ecuador it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Podocarpus, but it is not known from any protected areas in Peru. Further survey work is necessary to determine whether this species might occur more widely than currently known.
56911		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Andes of Peru and Ecuador. It has been recorded from elevations of 2,770-3,050m asl on the western slopes and crest of the Cordillera de Huancabamba, Piura Department. Peru; recently, it was collected in Ecuador from Curintza, in the province of Zamora Chinchipe, in Parque Nacional Podocarpus at 1,800m asl.
56911		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, humid montane and cloud forest, and it is not known if it can survive in degraded areas. Individuals have been found at night on low vegetation, and under ground cover by day. It breeds by direct development.
56911		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
56911		threats	eng	The major threat across the range is habitat loss, due to deforestation for agriculture (mostly livestock farming) and selective wood extraction.
56912		conservation	eng	In Ecuador the species is present in Parque Nacional Podocarpus, but it is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru.
56912		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Andes of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In Peru it is known from a single locality at 1,080m asl on the road from Abra Pardo Miguel to Moyobamba, San Martin Province (Amazonas Department) on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central. In Ecuador, it is known from a single locality in Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, at an elevation of 1,800m asl. It perhaps occurs a little more widely.
56912		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species (> 3m) of primary cloud and montane forest; it is not known if this species occurs in degraded areas. Specimens have been recorded from terrestrial bromeliads in lower humid montane forest. It breeds by direct development.
56912		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. Only a few individuals have been observed.
56912		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (mostly livestock) and selective logging.
56913		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from at least two parks in Panama, but there is clearly a need for additional protection of its montane forest habitat. Further research is needed into the potential impacts of the chytrid pathogen on this species.
56913		distribution	eng	This species can be found in premontane and lower montane southern slopes of the Cordillera Talamanca-Barú of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 950-1,800m asl (Savage 2002).
56913		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocks and waterfalls in streams within humid montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56913		population	eng	It was historically quite common where it occurred. In Costa Rica, this species was last recorded in 1964, no recent searches (as of August, 2007) have revealed more animals and it is believed to be extinct in this country. It is believed to have declined in upland western Panama, though this requires further investigation. No further information is currently available as to whether this species still persists in Panama (Jay Savage, Roberto Ibáñez and Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007)
56913		threats	eng	It has possibly disappeared in Costa Rica, and it is believed to have declined in pristine habitats in western Panama. Other species of this <em>Craugastor</em> group that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a cause of the decline in this species. In addition it is generally affected by the destruction of natural forests for agriculture and timber.
56914		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas. Further research and survey work is needed to determine the reasons for the decline, and the species' current population status. In view of the possible risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56914		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in the interior uplands of Puerto Rico at an altitudinal range of 40-1,152m asl.
56914		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial in mesic forests. Males call from the ground or low vegetation. Eggs are laid in rotten logs, and develop directly.
56914		population	eng	There has been an unexplained decline of this species during the last two decades.
56914		threats	eng	The cause of the decline in this species is not known, but it is thought that chytridiomycosis linked with climate change might have played a role.
56915		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is a need for improved management of these for conservation.
56915		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra, Sierra de la Gran Piedra, and Cuchillas de Toa, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from 290-1,150m asl.
56915		habitat	eng	It is found in closed mesic upland forests. It breeds by direct development.
56915		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56915		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place, even in the protected areas, as a result of agriculture, wood cutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56916		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
56916		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from northern Honduras through Nicaragua and Costa Rica to Panama, on the Pacific slope from southwestern Costa Rica through Panama to western Colombia, south to the Department of Valle del Cauca. It occurs from sea level to 1,600m asl.
56916		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, but also survives in disturbed habitats, including degraded secondary vegetation, plantations, rural gardens and urban areas. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are deposited in the leaf-litter.
56916		population	eng	This is a common species in Honduras and Costa Rica but is rare Panama, and is moderately common in Colombia. The population at La Selva appears to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56916		threats	eng	It is very adaptable, and is overall not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56917		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
56917		distribution	eng	This species has an island-wide distribution in Cuba, excluding the extreme east. It has been recorded from sea level up to 830m asl.
56917		habitat	eng	It lives in riparian and aquatic habitats in forests and disturbed habitats, as long as there are streams or swamps. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56917		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
56917		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss from agriculture, and infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat.
56918		conservation	eng	It is protected within Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.
56918		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rancho Grande, where it is still commonly observed around the Rancho Grande Biological Station, in Aragua State, Venezuela, at around 1,100m asl. It might range more widely than is currently known.
56918		habitat	eng	This arboreal inhabitant of cloud forest breeds by direct development.
56918		population	eng	It is a common species.
56918		threats	eng	There are no threats to its habitat at present.
56919		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay, and it occurs in both Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Cajas.
56919		distribution	eng	This species’ geographic range in southern Ecuador includes Andean cordilleras surrounding the Cuenca basin, from 2,620-3,600m asl, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus. It is known from more than ten localities.
56919		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground and in low vegetation in cloud forest and páramo vegetation, in well-preserved habitats. Reproduction is by direct development.
56919		population	eng	It is an uncommon to rare species in El Cajas and Podocarpus.
56919		threats	eng	This species is not seriously threatened as it generally occurs in areas that are not heavily affected by habitat destruction and degradation.
56920		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, making protection and maintenance of remaining habitat an urgent priority.
56920		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities in the Sierra Maestra, south-eastern Cuba, at an altitude of 80-240m asl.
56920		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams with grassy margins in moist forest. Males call from river beaches of sand and pebbles and from emerging rocks. Eggs are laid in excavated holes on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56920		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
56920		threats	eng	There is a high level of human disturbance and habitat destruction in the range of the species due to infrastructure development for tourism and human settlements, agricultural expansion, and water pollution from agricultural activities and human settlements.
56921		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. In view of the disappearance of other stream-dwelling <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> above 900m asl in Honduras, the population status of this species needs to be carefully monitored.
56921		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of western and central Guatemala, including the mountains of Alta Verapaz, and the eastern portion of the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes, in the department of Quiché, at 770 ­ 1,250m asl.
56921		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, living along streams, and is not found in degraded forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.
56921		population	eng	It is a common species, though decreasing.
56921		threats	eng	There is continued degradation of its habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, logging, and human settlements. Water pollution is also a threat to its breeding habitat.
56922		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is a need for improved management of these areas for conservation.
56922		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted and very patchy range in the Sierra Maestra and Macizo de Sagua-Baracoa, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from 212-1,060m asl.
56922		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary mesic forest. Males call from shrubs and small trees. It breeds by direct development.
56922		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat.
56922		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place, even in protected areas, as a result of agriculture, wood cutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.
56923		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Colombia it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona.
56923		distribution	eng	This species occurs below 800m asl in north-western Ecuador, and across the border in Colombia near Altaquer in Nariño Department. It also occurs on Gorgona Island, situated 56km off Colombia’s Pacific coast.
56923		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary lowland forest, not occurring in open areas. It is sometimes, but not always, found near streams. Specimens have been found at night on low vegetation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56923		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56923		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to include agricultural development (livestock, plantations, and illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56924		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.
56924		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of western Colombia from 0-900m asl, in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Choco, Risaralda, and Antioquia, and it probably occurs a little more widely. Records from Ecuador are in error.
56924		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to primary and secondary forest, and is not found in open areas. It lives on fallen leaves on the ground and on very low herbaceous vegetation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56924		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56924		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for the creation of plantations, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56925		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Cusuco and Parque Nacional Texiguat in Honduras, but not in any protected areas in Guatemala.
56925		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme eastern Guatemala near the Honduran border, and from the following localities in western and north-central Honduras: Cerro Quebrada Grande, Montaña Pico Pijol, Montaña La Fortuna, Montaña Portillo Grande, Parque Nacional Cusuco, and Montaña Merendón west of San Pedro Sula. Its altitudinal range is 1,050-1,800m asl.
56925		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor in premontane and lower montane wet forest, and also occurs in degraded forest and coffee plantations (but not in more open habitats). It presumably breeds by direct development.
56925		population	eng	This is a moderately common species.
56925		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is severe habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement, and fire. In addition, chytrid infection has recently been detected in this species (4.9% prevalence; Kolby J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E., and Field, R.,  in press), although it is considered to be unlikely that the species is threatened by chytridiomycosis, possibly attributed to their ability to dissociate from permanent water sources.  The two infected individuals likely represent those which haphazardly ventured close enough to a stream to acquire the chytrid fungus (J.E. Kolby, pers. comm. 2008).
56926		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Macarao.
56926		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a juvenile series collected from Curucuruma, in the state of Aragua, Venezuela, at about 1,000m asl. It might occur more widely, but more surveys are needed to confirm this.
56926		habitat	eng	It probably occurs in cloud forest, and breeds by direct development.
56926		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
56926		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
56927		conservation	eng	The geographic range of the species overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Sumaco, and Parque Nacional Llanganates.
56927		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, from the Pastaza trench (at 1,080-1,300m asl) and from the north in the Cordillera del Dué (at 1,150m asl). It is known from six localities.
56927		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of cloud forest, individuals have been found up to 2m above the ground on herbaceous plants, bushes, or low limbs of trees at night. It probably does not survive in degraded habitats. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56927		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56927		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development (particularly livestock farming), logging, and human settlement.
56928		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera Encrucijada and Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, both in Mexico.
56928		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme south-eastern Pacific Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent northern Guatemala, from 0-700m asl.
56928		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forests, and is not known from altered habitats. It breeds by direct development.
56928		population	eng	This is an abundant species within its restricted range.
56928		threats	eng	The major threat is disturbance and transformation of the original forest areas due to agriculture and logging.
56929		conservation	eng	Some populations are inside the Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas and Parque Nacional Natural Tatama. Protection of the species' habitat is essential to its long-term survival given its reliance on an intact forest canopy.
56929		distribution	eng	This species is known from Antioquia, Chocó and Risaralda departments on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,000-1,900m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
56929		habitat	eng	It occurs on cliffs or on rocks in streams with a suitable forest canopy cover. It breeds by direct development, and juveniles occur on vegetation near streams.
56929		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
56929		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56930		conservation	eng	The species' range is not currently within any protected area, which means that habitat maintenance and protection is essential to ensure its persistence. Survey work to evaluate the current population status of this species is also needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56930		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sierra de Coalcoman, north-western Michoacán, Mexico, occurring only at elevations above 2,000m asl.
56930		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forest and cloud forest, and requires the presence of bromeliad plants in the dry season, and low bushes and trunks on the ground in the humid season. It breeds by direct development.
56930		population	eng	This is a rare species.
56930		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat disturbance and loss due mainly to agriculture and logging.
56931		conservation	eng	It's range coincides with the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco, but additional protection and maintenance of habitat in the Sierra de Bahoruco is necessary. Further survey work is also required to determine the current population status of this species.
56931		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de Bahoruco, in the Dominican Republic. It has been recorded from 727-1,370 m asl.
56931		habitat	eng	This is a cloud forest species, found in terrestrial upland mesic broadleaf and pine forests. It is also found in recently clear-cut forest, but it is probably not able to sustain a population in that habitat (R. Powell pers. comm. June 2009). Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56931		population	eng	This species has only been encountered once or twice during many visits to the region over the last two decades. It was last recorded in 1999 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56931		threats	eng	It is restricted to an area suffering severe habitat destruction, largely due to the impacts of agriculture and charcoaling.
56932		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo and the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina.
56932		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Andes of northern Peru. It has been recorded at 2,180m asl on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in San Martin Province from 1,138m asl, and from 1,750m asl on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor (in Amazonas Department). The altitudinal range of this species suggests that it might range more widely; further surveys are needed within the region.
56932		habitat	eng	It is a humid montane forest species that is not known to occur in degraded areas. Individuals were collected on low vegetation (less than one metre above the ground) at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56932		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
56932		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown, although within the region there is a general loss and degradation of habitats due to agricultural activity (including livestock rearing) and some mining activities.
56933		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica. Further research is needed into the range, ecology, and potential conservation measures for this frog.
56933		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lowland and premontane zones of southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent southwestern Panama, at elevations of 10-1,220m asl (Savage, 2002).
56933		habitat	eng	It is a large, nocturnal, terrestrial species of primary humid lowland forest, secondary forest, and plantations. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are probably deposited in leaf-litter. Juveniles may be found active during the night and day. Juveniles have been seen mainly in the mid to late wet season (Savage, 2002, M. Ryan pers. comm.).
56933		population	eng	It is a common species that is regularly seen in Costa Rica. It is not very abundant from the Río Terraba to Río Savagre along the Pacific slope of Costa Rica, and appears to be one of the least common frogs in this region.
56933		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation. In five years of surveys it was not found to occur in forest patches less than 10ha in size (M. Ryan pers. comm.).
56934		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes two small-protected areas.
56934		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slopes of Mexico, from central Guerrero eastward through southern Puebla and southern Oaxaca into extreme southwestern Chiapas.
56934		habitat	eng	This species inhabits only lowland tropical dry forest and premontane and lower montane dry forest, where it lives close to rocky streams and other moist habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
56934		population	eng	This is a very common species. However, there appear to have been some disappearances in Guerrero and Oaxaca.
56934		threats	eng	The fragmentation, deforestation, and desiccation of the species' forest habitat are major threats, as it requires moist habitats to survive. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully, and the declines observed in Guerrero and Oaxaca could be due to this cause.
56935		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
56935		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Molleturo on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the province of Azuay, Ecuador, at 2,317m asl. It might occur more widely.
56935		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were collected from beneath stones in an area of pastureland and scrubby vegetation, with little remaining forest. This is presumably a montane forest species that has been able to adapt to highly disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56935		population	eng	There is no recent information, probably due to insufficient survey effort.
56935		threats	eng	There is no recent information on threats at its only known locality.
56936		conservation	eng	Some populations are inside Yotoco Forest Reserve, which affords some protection to the species' habitat, but there is clearly a need for improved protection of the habitat of this species, particularly given its microhabitat requirements.
56936		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four localities in the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia, at elevations of 1,500-2,000m asl.
56936		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, commonly found in leaf-litter in primary and disturbed forests, but is restricted to moist conditions. Breeding is by direct development.
56936		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56936		threats	eng	This is a large frog with a small population that is very sensitive to human disturbance. All known localities are threatened by the expansion of the city of Cali, in particular due to agriculture and human settlements.
56937		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
56937		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Pacific drainages of Tonalá, Chiapas, Mexico, where it occurs on the Pacific versant in the vicinity of Escuintla, south-eastward through southern Guatemala to eastern El Salvador, 400-2,000m asl.
56937		habitat	eng	It inhabits steep, rocky streams primarily in Premontane Wet Forest, but also in Lowland and Lower Montane Wet Forests. Reproduction occurs via direct development. Occurs in second growth forest and shade coffee plantations.
56937		population	eng	This species is common and persistent in Guatemala and El Salvador. It is abundant in Mexico.
56937		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a major threat. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56938		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Further research is necessary to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat. Further, given that this may represent a complex of species, each with an exceedingly small range, taxonomic work is needed to ascertain the true taxonomic status of individual populations.
56938		distribution	eng	This species is widely, albeit patchily, distributed in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), with an altitudinal range from sea level up to 900m asl.
56938		habitat	eng	It occurs in xeric pine forest and mesic forest, including in degraded areas. Males call from, and females lay eggs in, closed underground chambers. Breeding is by direct development.
56938		population	eng	It is rarely encountered, and believed to be declining in suitable habitat for reasons that are unknown.
56938		threats	eng	The major threat is severe habitat destruction due to agriculture (the cultivation of crops and livestock farming) and charcoaling. However, this does not explain the decline in suitable habitats, and other factors such as invasive predators, climate change, and chytridiomycosis may be implicated.
56939		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent, recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.
56939		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north-western slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, Colombia, at 1,800-2,600m asl.
56939		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of moist forest habitats, it is arboreal and nocturnal, occurring under rocks and logs during the day.
56939		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56939		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (cultivation of crops and livestock farming).
56940		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Columbia River Forest Reserve and probably in the Bladen Forest Reserve in Belize; and in the Montanas del Mico Catchment Reserve and the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. Further research is necessary to establish the reasons for the declines witnessed in this species in undisturbed habitat.
56940		distribution	eng	This species is known from the foothills of eastern Guatemala, including the Montañas del Mico, the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, and the northern portion of the Sierra de Merendón. It is also known from the Maya Mountains of Belize. It ranges from near sea level to about 900m asl.
56940		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and premontane wet and moist forest, living in and alongside streams. It is not found in degraded forest. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are laid on land.
56940		population	eng	Although still common in Belize, it has suffered serious population reductions since the 1990s in Guatemala, where it was formerly common.
56940		threats	eng	Habitat loss is taking place due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. However, it is declining even in suitable habitat in Guatemala. Other species of the genus that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56941		conservation	eng	It was recorded in Parque Nacional Manu.
56941		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Santa Isabel in Cosñipata Valley, at an altitude of 1,700m asl, and from the north-eastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a frontal range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental, both in Cuzco Department, Peru.
56941		habitat	eng	This species was found in cloud forest in areas with some tree ferns, bromeliads, and luxuriant undergrowth of mosses and ferns. All individuals were found on low herbaceous plants at night. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.
56941		population	eng	It is a rare species, and despite occurring in a relatively well-surveyed area it has not been recorded since its original collection.
56941		threats	eng	The species is currently known only from within the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu. It is not known if there are populations outside this area, and if these are threatened.
56942		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and in the Reserva de Vida Silvestre Texiguat. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.
56942		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cerro Bufalo in the Dept. of Atlantida and Montaña La Fortuna in the Department of Yoro, Honduras, at elevations of 1,550-1,800m asl.
56942		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter in lower montane wet forest. Breeding takes place by direct development.
56942		population	eng	Although always rare, the species is now in precipitous decline. Visits to the sites, both in 1995 and 1996, failed to turn up any individuals.
56942		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by subsistence agriculture and landslides are the major threats. However, these threats do not account for its decline in pristine habitats. Rather, its disappearance is likely to be as a result of disease (such as chytridiomycosis), although it is perhaps surprising for this to be the case in such a species since it is not associated with streams.
56943		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
56943		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slope of the Andes, in the western region of the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, between 400-1,850m asl.
56943		habitat	eng	It has been reported from Interandean Valleys and semi-humid montane forest. It is a terrestrial and arboreal species, and can be found calling on bushes 0.6-2.0 metres above the ground, near small streams in forest and open areas, as well as disturbed areas. It breeds by direct development.
56943		population	eng	It is an abundant species at the type locality, and also common elsewhere.
56943		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
56944		conservation	eng	This species is found in Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi.
56944		distribution	eng	This species is known from Atlantic forest in the municipalities of Guaraqueçaba, Piraquara, and Morretes, in Paraná State, Brazil, from 40-1,100m asl.
56944		habitat	eng	It occurs in secondary and old growth coastal rainforest, where it is found in vegetation and on the forest floor. It reproduces by direct development and lays eggs on the ground.
56944		population	eng	It is abundant within its range.
56944		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat due to selective logging, cattle ranching, and tourism.
56945		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
56945		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western flank of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the departments of Cesar, Guajira and Magdalena, Colombia, from 1,100-2,600m asl.
56945		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found on dense vegetation and branches, and is active up to 1.5m above the ground. It is more common in the interior of forests than next to streams. Breeding is by direct development.
56945		population	eng	It is very common.
56945		threats	eng	Cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock, are major threats to this species' habitat. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.
56946		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Columbia River Forest Reserve and probably in the Bladen Forest Reserve in Belize; and in the Montanas del Mico Catchment Reserve and the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. Further research is needed to determine the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.
56946		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Maya Mountains in Belize south to the Caribbean foothills of Guatemala, including the Sierra de Santa Cruz, the Montañas del Mico, and the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, from sea level up to 1,160m asl.
56946		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor near streams in moist forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development, and the species is not dependent on water for breeding.
56946		population	eng	It has declined drastically in Guatemala, where it is now extinct at localities where previously hundreds could be found in a few hours. It is now rare at those Guatemalan localities where it still survives. It is still common in Belize.
56946		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. It is declining, even where suitable habitat remains, for reasons that are not understood. However, some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56947		conservation	eng	Some populations are within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas and Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
56947		distribution	eng	This species is known from Antioquia, Choco, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca Departments on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 50-1,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely, in particular between known sites.
56947		habitat	eng	It is restricted to closed-canopy forest alongside streams in primary forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56947		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
56947		threats	eng	It is probably affected by ongoing forest loss in some parts of its range, especially for agriculture and logging, as well as by fumigation of illegal crops. However, much of its habitat is relatively remote from human influence, though this is likely to change in the near future. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.
56948		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo. Further survey work is necessary to evaluate the current population status of this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56948		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Ovando and surrounding areas, in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico, at 1,200-1,900 m asl.
56948		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane cloud and mixed forests, and breeds by direct development.
56948		population	eng	The current population status is unknown.
56948		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due, in particular, to logging.
56949		conservation	eng	There are no formal protected areas within the range of the species, although Páramo Urrao is a Protected Forest Reserve. The creation of a protected area to conserve the habitat of this species is recommended, although this measure alone will not protect the species against the effects of climate change. Close population monitoring of this species is required, given its extremely restricted range.
56949		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality in the Páramo de Frontino, in the department of Antioquia, in Colombia, at 3,300-3,800 m asl. It is probably genuinely restricted to this area.
56949		habitat	eng	It occurs in páramo and sub-páramo areas, amongst fallen leaves, grass and sparse vegetation. It is closely associated with the leaf axils of <em>Espeletia</em> spp. It breeds by direct development.
56949		population	eng	The species is rare in collections, but it is difficult to access the páramo for herpetological surveys; it is probably not a rare species.
56949		threats	eng	The range of the species is at very high elevations and out of reach of human disturbance at present. However, climate change could be a future threat that reduces the suitable habitat available to the species.
56950		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are within Parque Nacional Natural Serranía de La Macarena. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
56950		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serranía de Macarena and the piedmont of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Meta and Cundinamarca, Colombia, from 1,000-2,400m asl.
56950		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is associated with fast-flowing streams, with individuals usually occurring on vegetation up to 50cm above the ground, sometimes in secondary habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
56950		population	eng	It is a common species.
56950		threats	eng	This is an adaptable species, and probably is not significantly threatened by habitat loss at present, although its habitat will become threatened by cultivation and fumigation of crops (which could cause pollution of streams), and the rearing of livestock. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.
56951		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, making the protection of remaining forest habitat in the range of this species a priority.
56951		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-western Durango and adjacent Sinaloa, from Revolcaderos Durango to El Palmito, Sinaloa, Mexico. The type locality is at about 1,830m asl.
56951		habitat	eng	It inhabits mixed boreal-tropical forest; the original habitat was described by Webb (1962) as transitional pine-oak forest. It is restricted to rocky habitats such as crevices and boulders. Breeding is by direct development.
56951		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56951		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to logging and clear-cutting.
56952		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas, but there is very little management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of these, and maintenance of other remaining habitat, is essential. Research is also needed to determine whether or not chytrid is implicated in the decline of the species.
56952		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Septentrional and Cordillera Central, in the Dominican Republic, and in the Massif du Nord, Haiti. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,758 m asl.
56952		habitat	eng	It is usually found beside streams in mesic closed-canopy rainforests. Males call from the river and stream banks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
56952		population	eng	It was common in the past and was known from many localities, but it has not been recorded since the mid 1980s. Extensive surveys were carried out within its range between 1998 and 2000 (M. Hernandez pers. comm.), but these failed to find any individuals, thus suggesting a catastrophic decline, even within suitable habitats.
56952		threats	eng	In the Cordillera Central, habitat destruction is taking place as a result of agricultural development (including livestock farming), and disturbance from ecotourism. However, chytridiomycosis is a possible reason for its decline within suitable habitats.
56953		conservation	eng	In Ecuador the species is present in Parque Nacional Podocarpus; in Peru it is known from Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla (Enciso et al., 2008). Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56953		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Andes of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In Peru it has been recorded from localities at elevations of 2,400-2,850m asl in the northern part of the Cordillera Central (Amazonas region). In Ecuador, it is known from a single locality in the Romerillos, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, at 1,900m asl. It might range more widely.
56953		habitat	eng	It is known only from disturbed cloud forest. The type locality is on a mostly cultivated ridge with remnants of dense low forest (6-8m high) bearing many orchids and bromeliads. A second Peruvian locality is on a ridge overlooking the cultivated valley. In both localities, the individuals were found in large terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads by day. It breeds by direct development.
56953		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
56953		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction through an increase in agriculture, selective logging, and human settlement. Enciso et al. (2008) recently reported <i>Aeromonas caviae</i> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <i>P. schultei</i> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.
56954		conservation	eng	It was previously known from a protected area on St. John, and it may occur in Virgin Gorda Peak Forest Park. The habitat of this species on Tortola and Virgin Gorda requires improved protection, and there is also a need to control invasive predators. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56954		distribution	eng	This species is now restricted to Tortola, Virgin Gorda and Great Dog in the British Virgin Islands, having been extirpated from St. John in the U.S. Virgin Islands. It has been recorded from sea level up to 227m asl.
56954		habitat	eng	It is found in dry scrub forest in terrestrial bromeliads, and has not been recorded outside forested areas. Males call from near to the ground and terrestrial bromeliads; eggs are laid in bromeliads, and breeding is by direct development.
56954		population	eng	This species appears to be declining wherever <i>Osteopilus septentrionalis</i> spreads. The Great Dog population is somewhat distinct, extremely limited in range, and very susceptible to development there (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
56954		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for tourism, human settlement, and road construction is a major threat. Rats and mongooses have also been introduced to the island and most likely pose a threat.
56955		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
56955		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, at an altitude of 1,060-1,081 m asl.
56955		habitat	eng	It is found under rocks at high elevations in closed moist forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
56955		population	eng	It has only been encountered once during the last two decades, despite considerable collecting effort in its only known locality prior to 1991. The species is rarely encountered even in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
56955		threats	eng	The reason for the decline of this species is unknown, although there has been severe habitat destruction within its range due to charcoal collection and slash-and-burn agriculture.
56956		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
56956		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Yaraccyacu, Ayacucho Department, Peru, at 2,620m asl. It might range much more widely, but there has been little survey work of the surrounding areas.
56956		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species were collected in cloud forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
56956		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56956		threats	eng	Threats at the type locality are unknown. Generally in southern Peru, agriculture (including livestock) and colonization are the principal threats.
56957		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed given that the species is not tolerant of much disturbance of its habitat.
56957		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities: one in the municipality of Sonsón and the other in Belmira, both in the department of Antioquia, Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,620-2,800m asl.
56957		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary forest or slightly disturbed forest, along streams, in dense vegetation. It is also common in areas with waterfalls. This is a nocturnal species, and during the day it is usually found under rocks. Breeding is by direct development.
56957		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
56957		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56958		conservation	eng	In Colombia some populations of this species are distributed in La Planada National Reserve, while in Ecuador its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
56958		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities at elevations of 1,200-1,780m asl in cloud forest on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Carchi and Esmeraldas Provinces) and adjacent Colombia (Nariño Department). It might occur a little more widely.
56958		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, and is usually active on vegetation 1-3m above the ground, inside dense and undisturbed cloud forests. It may occur on vegetation along streams. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56958		population	eng	There is little information on the current population status of this species. However, it was observed and photographed in the mid-1990s in La Planada, Colombia.
56958		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56959		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, although the type locality is within an area protected for its role as a water catchment.
56959		distribution	eng	This species is known from a couple of localities that are very close to one another in Paramo de los Valles, in the municipality of Cajamarca in Tolima Department, in the central Cordillera Oriental, Colombia, at altitudes of 3,400-3,680m asl. The range of this species could be wider, as the region to the south of the known localities has not been well surveyed.
56959		habitat	eng	It is typically found on low vegetation among grasses in páramo, and has also been recorded from pastureland. It breeds by direct development.
56959		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56959		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by cattle grazing, and in particular the burning of the páramo in order to cause the grass to grow faster for the cattle to graze upon.
56960		conservation	eng	In Peru the range of this species overlaps with the Cordillera de Colán Reserved Zone, a 60,000ha protected area declared in 2002. In Ecuador it is present in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
56960		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Andes of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In Peru, it has been recorded from elevations of 1,850m asl on the upper western slopes of the northern Cordillera Central (drained by tributaries of the Río Chiriaco flowing northward into the Río Marañon), and from 1,700m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera Colan (both sites in Amazonas Department). It is known in Ecuador from a single locality at 1,850m asl, in the Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus. This species might range more widely than these current records suggest.
56960		habitat	eng	This is a montane tropical forest species. In Peru, males were recorded calling at night from leaves of low herbaceous plants in highly disturbed, humid, upper montane forest. In the Cordillera Colan, a sub-adult female was found on a bush near a stream, and two juveniles were collected in leaf-litter in humid montane forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development. It is not known if this species occurs in degraded areas.
56960		population	eng	The current population status is unknown; only a few individuals have been observed.
56960		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to selective logging and agriculture (including livestock).
56961		conservation	eng	It is unclear whether this species is represented in a protected area; clearly, though, habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the persistence of this restricted-range species.
56961		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles, from 275-922m asl.
56961		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and can be found in rainforests, forest edge and montane meadows surrounded by agriculture. It lives on the ground and on vegetation. The eggs are laid on the ground, and breeding occurs by direct development without a larval stage.
56961		population	eng	It is not a well-known species, but it appears to be moderately common in suitable habitat.
56961		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to urbanization and tourism development, as well as for agriculture.
56962		conservation	eng	It is not currently recorded from any protected areas, but there are ongoing efforts to transform the Serrania de los Paraguas into a wildlife reserve.
56962		distribution	eng	This species is known only from forested streams along the highway between Cartago and San José del Palmar on the western slopes of the Serranía de los Paraguas, in the department of Chocó, Colombia, from 1,850-1,860m asl.
56962		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams and by waterfalls, on wet rocks and moss inside the forest; adequate canopy cover is an important habitat requirement. It breeds by direct development and some juveniles are found on wet vegetation next to waterfalls.
56962		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
56962		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is relatively unthreatened at present, although if a planned road is built this will present a major threat to the species' habitat. Agricultural development (illegal crops) also presents a potential future threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56963		conservation	eng	Most of the range of this species is within the mountains of Los Paraguas, which forms a natural unit of the high Andean ecosystem. At present there is an ongoing effort to transform this area into a wildlife reserve. Other populations are inside Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Conservation of the species' habitat is essential for its long-term survival since it is restricted to primary forest.
56963		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the departments of Valle del Cauca and Choco, in Colombia, from 1,700-2,250m asl.
56963		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species found on medium to high level vegetation in primary cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56963		population	eng	It is uncommon.
56963		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species' habitat although there are plans to build a road across the Serrania de los Paraguas. This will become a major threat if the plans go ahead, and would provide access for the expansion of agricultural activities and logging.
56964		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for protection of montane pine-oak forest habitat in this part of the state of Oaxaca. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56964		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Zanatepec, Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,450-1,600m asl.
56964		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forest and breeds by direct development.
56964		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
56964		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat disturbance and degradation due to logging and the creation of agricultural land. The area where this species occurs is still relatively undisturbed, due to the lack of roads and towns; however, logging is expected to increase in the next few years.
56965		conservation	eng	Its geographic range does not overlap any protected areas, making it a priority to protect the remaining fragmented habitat of this species.
56965		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Cashca Totoras, Bolivar Province, in central Ecuador, at 3,200m asl. It may be more widely distributed than current records suggest.
56965		habitat	eng	At the type locality, all individuals were in the vicinity of a spring in upper humid montane forest, but many individuals were found in herbaceous vegetation in forest. It also occurs, to a limited extent, in secondary forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56965		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in a patch of forest (Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras) of about 300ha.
56965		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (cultivation of crops and livestock farming) and logging; the forest habitat in and around the type locality is now severely fragmented.
56966		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species, and its remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection.
56966		distribution	eng	This species is known from the páramos on the border of the departments of Tolima and Quindio, in the Cordillera Central of Colombia, from 3,580-3,680m asl.
56966		habitat	eng	It occurs in páramo areas, under rocks, logs, and in the roots of grasses among <em>Espeletia</em>; it is also found in pastureland. It breeds by direct development.
56966		population	eng	It is a common species.
56966		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by cattle grazing (and in particular, burning of the páramo in order to cause the grass to grow faster for the cattle to graze upon) is the major threat.
56967		conservation	eng	Most populations are inside Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados.
56967		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Caldas, Risaralda and Tolima on the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 2,700-4,350m asl.
56967		habitat	eng	It occurs in páramo vegetation and is active at night, calling on the ground among grasses and low bushes. During the day it occurs on graminaceous vegetation or under logs and rocks. It also occurs above the tree line and can be found in pastureland, but this is a marginal habitat for the species. Breeding is by direct development.
56967		population	eng	The species is very abundant in Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados and is also common elsewhere.
56967		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by smallholder livestock grazing and cultivation of crops (some of them illegal) is a threat to it outside protected areas. However, this species is adaptable and much of its range is at altitudes above the level of significant human impact, and so it is not greatly threatened.
56968		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, but this area is in need of improved management for biodiversity conservation.
56968		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Arroyo Bueno, La Melba, Holguin Province in eastern Cuba, at less than 200m asl.
56968		habitat	eng	It occurs on riverbanks along streams and in the leaf-litter in secondary forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56968		population	eng	It is uncommon even in suitable habitat.
56968		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction due to human settlements and agriculture.
56969		conservation	eng	The only known locality is within La Planada Natural Reserve. Continued management and maintenance of this protected area is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species, particularly given its dependence upon good forest. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of this species, and to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
56969		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality in cloud forest on the western slope of the Andes in extreme southern Colombia. It is presumed to extend into adjacent Ecuador but has not yet been recorded there. It ranges from 1,700-2,020m asl.
56969		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, and is usually found on medium to high vegetation along side streams inside primary forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56969		population	eng	It is not a common species.
56969		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the habitat at the type locality at present, but there is pressure from local people to convert the current protected area to land for agriculture and cattle farming.
56970		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve, (Madre de Dios), Bahuaja-Sonene National Park and Machiguenga Communal Reserve. In Brazil it has been recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.
56970		distribution	eng	This species is known in Peru from lowland rainforest in Cocha Cashu and La Colpa, Río Tambopata, (Madre de Dios); ridges above mouths of Candamo Guacamayo River, (Puno); Panguana, Río Pachitea (Huánuco); and  Alva (Amazonas). It is also present in Acre state, western Brazil (Gascon pers comm.), department of Pando, Bolivia, and has been recently recorded at Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Orellana province, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia, 2006). It is also known from elevations of 200-300m asl.
56970		habitat	eng	This is a low vegetation species that is a floodplain and upland forest inhabitant. In Manu, the understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. In Central Peru, the habitat is mainly covered with unexploited primary forest. Males usually call from low vegetation 0.1-2m above the ground. It breeds by direct development; gravid females contained 11-25 mature eggs. It is not present in degraded habitats.
56970		population	eng	Many specimens were used to describe this species.
56970		threats	eng	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56971		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and its cloud forest habitat is in need of protection.
56971		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in the Río Saloya basin, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, from 1,700-2,050m asl.
56971		habitat	eng	It can be found in cloud forest in a humid temperate regime, occurring in low vegetation near streams. It also occurs in old and secondary growth. Reproduction is by direct development.
56971		population	eng	It is a rare species, and was seen most recently in 2002.
56971		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (primarily livestock farming) and wood extraction.
56972		conservation	eng	Both of this species' known localities are within protected areas.
56972		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Boracéia) and from Atibaia, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It has been recorded around 800m asl.
56972		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter and low vegetation in primary and secondary forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
56972		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, as it is only known from a few specimens from each locality.
56972		threats	eng	There are no major threats to its habitat at present, although palm trees are collected in the Boracéia locality, potentially degrading its habitat by opening up the forest canopy.
56973		conservation	eng	Urgent protection of the Sierra de Juárez forests is needed. There are no federal protected areas in this region, and those that do exist are "ejidal", meaning they belong to several local owners with no legal and continuous protection. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56973		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuautlapan, central Veracruz, and Vista Hermosa in the Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, above 1,800m asl.
56973		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species have been found in rainforest (cloud forest). It breeds by direct development.
56973		population	eng	Formerly an abundant species (E. Smith pers. comm.), at present it is hard to find more than one or two specimens during the course of an evening's fieldwork suggesting a recent population decline.
56973		threats	eng	The accelerated rate of transformation of the original forests in northern Oaxaca is certainly the cause of the decline of amphibian populations in the Sierra de Juárez region. Both regions where the species is found are under extreme pressure from local human populations with some parts completely transformed by agriculture and logging. However, it is not clear whether the recent decline reported in this species is solely due to habitat degradation, or whether some other factors might also be at play.
56974		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas, though it may occur in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. There is a need for improved protection of cloud forest habitat within the range of this species.
56974		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in the vicinity of Bogotacito, on the Duitama-Charalá road, in Gambita Municipality, Santander Department, Colombia, from 2,200-2,400m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
56974		habitat	eng	It occurs in very humid cloud forests on vegetation in the low stratum. Although commonly found in the forest interior, it has also been recorded from secondary forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56974		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56974		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (particularly livestock farming) and pine plantations.
56975		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
56975		distribution	eng	This species' range is the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera de Matanga and the Cordillera del Cóndor in southern Ecuador, from 1,707-2,835m asl.
56975		habitat	eng	This species can be found on low vegetation in well-preserved cloud forests. Breeding is by direct development.
56975		population	eng	It is rare in the Cordillera del Cóndor.
56975		threats	eng	Its range is not significantly threatened since people are averse to entering the area due to the land mines left during the Ecuador-Peru border war in 1995.
56976		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the reasons for its decline within pristine habitats. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population. It occurs in Parque Nacional La Muralla and Parque Nacional Pico Pijol and the Reserva de Vida Silvestre Texiguat.
56976		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in north-central Honduras: Parque Nacional La Muralla, in north-western Olancho Department; Montaña La Fortuna, in Parque Nacional Pico Pijol, near Portillo Grande in Yoro Department; and Cerro San Francisco, in Atlantida Department. It has been recorded at 1,125-1,900m asl.
56976		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces by direct development on the ground along streams in premontane and lower montane wet forest.
56976		population	eng	Although formerly relatively common, this species is now in precipitous decline. Recent surveys indicate that it has disappeared from at least two of its three known localities (last seen in Texiguat in 1993), with no recent information from the third locality (Parque Nacional Pico Pijol).
56976		threats	eng	Although habitat destruction caused by subsistence agriculture is a major threat, the species' decline in pristine areas is not entirely understood. However, it should be noted that many other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher elevations due to chytridiomycosis, and so this is presumably a major threat to this species.
56977		conservation	eng	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica.
56977		distribution	eng	This species can be found in humid lowlands and premontane slopes on the Pacific versant of western Panama and Costa Rica, on the Meseta Central Occidental, and in gallery forests in the subhumid northwest and peripherally on the Atlantic lowlands near Laguna Arenal, at elevations of 3-1,330m asl (Savage, 2002).
56977		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal leaf-litter species found in humid lowland-dry forest, but may also be present in other forest types, secondary forest, plantations and pastureland. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
56977		population	eng	It is a very common species.
56977		threats	eng	Generally it is threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation.
56978		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.
56978		distribution	eng	This species is known from Pico Periquito, Rancho Grande, in Aragua State, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 1,100-1,200m asl.
56978		habitat	eng	This species is a cloud forest inhabitant that breeds by direct development.
56978		population	eng	No specimens have been collected recently. The type locality is near a biological station frequently visited by herpetologists, and so the absence of records suggests that it might be rare, or else it has seriously declined or occurs in a microhabitat that has not been well studied.
56978		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
56979		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain the remaining habitat at the type locality. Further research is needed for this largely unknown species.
56979		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 1,735-1,840m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba (Piura Department), Peru.
56979		habitat	eng	It can be found in humid montane forest, where males have been observed calling from herbaceous vegetation 0.3-1.0m above the ground. Individuals have also been collected from low vegetation in disturbed habitat where there were a few large trees present. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
56979		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
56979		threats	eng	The threats to it are unclear, although at the type locality there is some destruction and loss of habitat to due to livestock grazing and subsistence collection of wood.
56980		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected area, and protection of the remaining montane forest habitat is urgently needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56980		distribution	eng	This species can be found from San Marcos and Sololá, Guatemala, and adjacent eastern Chiapas, Mexico, at elevations of 1,300-2,200m asl.
56980		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical humid cloud forests. It is a terrestrial species that can also be found in small bushes. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
56980		population	eng	There are no recent records from Chiapas and the species is uncommon in its small range in Guatemala.
56980		threats	eng	Loss and disturbance of the original forest habitat, primarily due to agriculture and logging, is the major threat.
56981		conservation	eng	In Colombia it occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and La Planada private nature reserve. In Ecuador its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul, Parque Nacional Machalilla, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
56981		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of southwestern Colombia (in Cauca and Nariño Departments) and western Ecuador (south to Manta Real), at 100-670m asl.
56981		habitat	eng	It lives in primary or slightly disturbed forest. It is a canopy-dweller, and is usually encountered at night on medium to high bushes, and in arboreal bromeliads, often near streams and rivers. During the day, it shelters in bromeliad axils. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.
56981		population	eng	It can be locally common, but it is hard to detect since it is a canopy-dweller.
56981		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
56982		conservation	eng	Its range includes Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve area. Protection of the montane habitat of this species is essential, given its intolerance of any habitat disturbance.
56982		distribution	eng	This species is known from cloud forest in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and from the municipalities of Sonson and Guatepé, in Antioquia Department, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,800 and 2,800m asl.
56982		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species, it is usually found perching on low vegetation in primary forest, to which it is restricted. It breeds by direct development.
56982		population	eng	It is common in Florencia (in Samana), but is generally uncommon elsewhere.
56982		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation as a result of the collection of firewood by locals, as well as the clear cutting of the forest and general disturbance by humans, and possibly also the cultivation of illegal crops.
56983		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. It is present in Guepi Reserve Zone, Peru. It occurs in a number of protected areas in Brazil.
56983		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout much of the Amazonian lowlands of Peru, Ecuador, southern Colombia and western Brazil (Acre). It has been recorded from elevations of 200-950m asl.
56983		habitat	eng	This species can be found in primary tropical lowland terra firme forest. The species is usually found in the litter of tropical rainforests, occasionally in open areas. It breeds by direct development and egg deposition occurs in leaf-litter. It is not present in modified habitats.
56983		population	eng	It is a rarely found species.
56983		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
56984		conservation	eng	The range of the species is wholly within La Planada Natural Reserve. Continued management and maintenance of this reserve is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species, particularly given its reliance on good forest. Further survey work is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
56984		distribution	eng	This species is known only at the type locality, on the pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Nariño, Colombia, from 1,700-2,020m asl. It is presumed that this species may be found in the northern area of Ecuador, in the province of Carchi, but it has not yet been recorded there.
56984		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, found on vegetation 1-2m above the ground, near streams in primary or good quality secondary forest. Breeding is by direct development.
56984		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56984		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the habitat at the type locality at present, but there is pressure from local people to convert the current protected area for agricuture and cattle grazing. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
56985		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Puracé and Parque Nacional Natural Nevado de Hulia in Colombia. It is not recorded from any protected areas in Ecuador.
56985		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the southern Cordillera Central, from Nevado de Huila, Colombia to extreme northern Ecuador, at 2,280 -3,500m asl. The central and northern Cordillera Central records (Antioquia-Tolima departments) and the Cordillera Occidental records (Jericó, Antioquia departments), correspond to a different species, <em>E. permixtus</em>. In Ecuador, it is now known from two localities, El Carmelo and El Chamizo in Carchi Province.
56985		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest, sub-páramo, and páramo areas. It has been found beneath rocks, logs, or in deep grass. It has also been reported as being associated to streams, bromeliads, leaf litter and vegetation up to 3m high (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). At night, specimens are active on vegetation (Lynch 1979d). It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. It occurs in old-growth and secondary forest.
56985		population	eng	It was abundant in the 1970s and 1980s throughout its range. Since then, only a few individuals have been found in Ecuador, at El Chamizo, in Carchi Province in 2000.
56985		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops).
56986		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, but additional protection of the cloud forest habitat in the range of this species is necessary.
56986		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from 11 localities on the upper slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the provinces of Imbabura and Pichincha, north-western Ecuador, at elevations of 1,550-3,190m asl.
56986		habitat	eng	It is a cloud forest species. Most individuals have been found under stones or clods of earth by day. Although it can tolerate a small amount of habitat degradation, it cannot survive in places where opening up of the habitat results in a decrease in humidity. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
56986		population	eng	It was once very common, but it has now declined in certain places, especially where disturbance leads to general drying out of the habitat.
56986		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development (including livestock farming), logging and human settlement.
56987		conservation	eng	It is present in the Reserve Forest of Zipaquirá and Cogua. Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza
56987		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca Department, and in the Reserve Forest of Zipaquirá and Cogua, Colombia. It has an altitudinal range of 2,530-2,900m asl, and it might occur more widely than is currently known.
56987		habitat	eng	This species is present in remnant patches of cloud and riparian forest, but not in areas modified for agriculture. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56987		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
56987		threats	eng	The clearance of suitable forest areas for agricultural use is the main threat to this species.
56988		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected areas, but there is insufficient management of these for conservation, and the habitat continues to be degraded. Improved protection of the existing protected areas network is needed, as is urgent research to determine the cause of the decline.
56988		distribution	eng	This species was formerly known from upland areas throughout western Cuba in Pinar del Río and Matanzas Provinces, Cuba, but its range has now decreased significantly. It has been recorded from 70-155m asl.
56988		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rocky areas and caves in lowland, mesic closed-canopy broadleaf forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
56988		population	eng	It is known from a relatively small number of scattered localities, and is considered to be a very rare species. There have been recent declines in the population, even in good habitat.
56988		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to infrastructure development for tourism, disturbance of the habitat by touristic activities, and agriculture. Two specimens collected in 2003 showed signs of disease, although the results of studies investigating which disease specifically are pending. However, declines within suitable habitat are suggestive of chytridiomycosis.
56989		conservation	eng	Protection of the forests of central Oaxaca is extremely urgent since no protected areas exist in this region. Further survey work is needed to establish its current population status. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56989		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra de Miahuatlán and Mixteca Alta, Oaxaca, Mexico.
56989		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forest areas, and breeds by direct development.
56989		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
56989		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat disturbance and loss due to agricultural expansion and logging.
56990		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
56990		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the area of Municipio de Inzá and Municipio Paéz, Cauca Department, Colombia, although it might occur more widely. It has been collected between 2,400 and 2,670m asl.
56990		habitat	eng	This is a species found in high Andean forest, where specimens were located at night perched along streams. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56990		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
56990		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
56991		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from at least three protected areas in Panama, including Parque Nacional Chagres. In Colombia its range includes several protected areas.
56991		distribution	eng	This species is known in Panama from east-southeast of the main Tabasara ridge, and adjacent central areas. In Colombia it is known west of the Andes south to Valle del Cauca department, and across the northern edge of the western and central cordilleras, then in to the middle Magdalena valley. It is known up to 1,400m asl.
56991		habitat	eng	It is an understorey inhabitant, mainly found in the leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest humid lowland and montane forest. Direct development is the method of reproduction and the egg deposition site is not known. It is able to tolerate a lot of disturbance of its forest habitat. It has also been found well adapted to shady coffee plantations.
56991		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species in Panama. In Colombia it is an abundant species.
56991		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this quite adaptable species at present.
56992		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas.
56992		distribution	eng	This species is known from humid lowland forests of the Atlantic versant from Nicaragua to eastern Panama, at elevations of 15-646m asl (Savage, 2002).
56992		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits low vegetation within humid lowland and montane forest. It is sometimes found within modified habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.
56992		population	eng	This species is common in the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica; it is also abundant in Panama. However, the population at La Selva, Costa Rica appears to have experienced declines (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56992		threats	eng	Generally it is threatened by habitat loss resulting from severe deforestation. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
56993		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guácharos. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
56993		distribution	eng	This Colombian species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the extreme west of the department of Caquetá, as well as from the type locality in the headwaters of the Río Magdalena, in the department of Huila. It occurs at moderate altitudes between 1,350 and 2,040m asl.
56993		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, occurring on vegetation along streams and on damp soils. Breeding is by direct development.
56993		population	eng	It is a common species.
56993		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are the cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.
56994		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and urgent protection and restoration of the original native forests in the Tarahumara Mountains is necessary. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56994		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua (Tarahumara mountains), to Jalisco, Mexico, in the Sierra Madre Occidental, at elevations of around 2,400m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
56994		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine forest and lives under bark and leaves on the ground. Breeding is by direct development.
56994		population	eng	This is a rare species.
56994		threats	eng	The main causes of habitat loss and disturbance in the Tarahumara forests are logging and agriculture (both for crops and livestock).
56995		conservation	eng	Within Costa Rica this species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Corcovado and the Reserva Biólogica el Naranjal; it is not recorded from any protected areas in Panama. Studies are needed to determine the reasons behind the drastic decline, possibly through the disease chytridiomycosis, in this species. Further field studies are urgently needed to locate any remaining individuals.
56995		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western Costa Rica and extreme south-western Panama, at elevations of 25-525m asl (Savage 2002).
56995		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species associated with rocky areas of streams in humid lowland forest. It breeds via direct development.
56995		population	eng	This is a large species, unlikely to be overlooked, that was formerly very abundant. Since 2000, extensive field work within distribution has revealed only a single individual (photographed in 2001 in Esquinas, Osa Peninsula) (Gerardo Chaves and Brain Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).
56995		threats	eng	A number of other species of the genus <em>Craugastor</em> have suffered serious recent declines, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis. It was suggested during an earlier version of the GAA (2004) that as this species occurs at lower elevations than some of these affected congeners, it might have been at lower risk of infection. However, recent surveys have now located only a single individiual, and it appears as though chytridiomycosis, or a similar disease or event, has resulting in the drastic decline of the population. Outside protected areas, the main threat is habitat loss due to logging.
56996		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56996		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, south of Rayón Mescalapa, in Chiapas, Mexico, although it might occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is not clear.
56996		habitat	eng	This is presumably a montane forest species that presumably breeds by direct development.
56996		population	eng	There is no recent information regarding its population status, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
56996		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
56997		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
56997		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the departments of Cesar, Guajira and Magdalena, Colombia, from 1,300-2,700m asl.
56997		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that can be observed perching on arboreal bromeliads, in which it shelters during the day. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are also laid on arboreal bromeliads.
56997		population	eng	It is extremely abundant.
56997		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock.
56998		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. There is a need for improved protection of remaining primary forest within the range of this species.
56998		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the western base of the Andes in Ecuador. It has been recorded from five localities, at elevations between 220 and 830m asl.
56998		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary, perhaps undisturbed, forests, in humid climes (Lynch and Duellman 1997), and breeds by direct development.
56998		population	eng	It is a rare species.
56998		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss is particularly severe within its range (primarily due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging and road construction), and much of the remaining habitat is now severely fragmented.
56999		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this species requires revision. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
56999		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Sinaloa to southwestern Nayarit, Mexico. It occurs between 840 and 2,200m asl.
56999		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry shrubland, tropical dry forest and pine forest. It breeds by direct development.
56999		population	eng	The species is common in southwestern Nayarit, although not so common in Jalisco (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).
56999		threats	eng	Disturbance and transformation of forest to agricultural land is a major threat.
57000		conservation	eng	Some populations occur within Henri Pittier, Macarao, El Avill and Guatopo National Parks.
57000		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cordillera de la Costa in Venezuela, and from the Federal District, and the states of Aragua, Carabobo and Miranda. It has been recorded from 300-1,200m asl.
57000		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal inhabitant of humid lowland forest and cloud forests. It is not known to occur in open habitats. It breeds by direct development.
57000		population	eng	It is a common species.
57000		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present, and its habitat is well protected.
57001		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, the area is not effectively managed and most of the threats are taking place within the park's boundaries. Improved management and protection of this area is essential to ensure the persistence of this species.
57001		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, Cuba, occurring at an altitude of 300-600m asl.
57001		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, found only in closed mesic forests, and it breeds by direct development.
57001		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57001		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and deforestation, as a result of the impacts of subsistence farming and charcoaling. Mining within the park might also pose a threat to this species.
57002		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, Regional Reserve Río Blanco, Parque Nacional Natural Serrania Los Paraguas, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, Regional Reserve Ucumari and Regional Reserve Bosques de Florencia.
57002		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Occidental Cordillera (from the departments of Antioquia and Cauca), and from the Occidental slope of the Central Cordillera (from the departments of Valle del Cauca and Caldas) and the Oriental slope of the Central Cordillera (in the department of Caldas), Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,600m asl.
57002		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary forests (cloud forests), and is also well adapted to disturbed areas. It is active at night, and occurs on low vegetation. It breeds by direct development.
57002		population	eng	It is a common species.
57002		threats	eng	The fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.
57003		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but there is often insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be degraded. More effective management of these protected areas is required to ensure the long-term survival of this species.
57003		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de Cubitas and the Sierra de Najasa, Pan de Matanzas, Sierra de Trinidad, in Cuba. It appears to have a relictual and patchy distribution. It has been recorded from sea level up to 390m asl.
57003		habitat	eng	It is found on large rocks and in caves in broadleaf forest (mesic or semi-xeric), and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.
57003		population	eng	It is an uncommon species that is difficult to find outside appropriate weather conditions.
57003		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (smallholder farming) and mining.
57004		conservation	eng	This species is known only from the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
57004		distribution	eng	One of the smallest frogs in the world, this species has a very restricted range, occurring only on the peaks of Formon and Macaya at high elevations on the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 1,700-2,340 m asl.
57004		habitat	eng	It is slightly arboreal in closed montane pine and cloud forest with shrubs, tree ferns, bromeliads, and climbing bamboo. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
57004		population	eng	Believed to be common in suitable habitat, it was last recorded in 1991 (although there have been no surveys of the area since).
57004		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place primarily due to logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.
57005		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but it may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
57005		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Pilaló, at 2,460-2,480m asl, in the province of Cotopaxi, western Ecuador, but it might occur more widely.
57005		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid upper montane forest. It has been found along forest edges, but is more common inside forest. Adults and juveniles have been found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads by day, and perched on vegetation and tree limbs at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
57005		population	eng	At the time of its discovery, it was considered to be uncommon. Recent attempts to locate the species at Pilaló have been unsuccessful, but more intensive surveys are needed.
57005		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation which is taking place due to agricultural development (including livestock farming), logging and human settlement. As such, the forest at its only known locality is now severely fragmented.
57006		conservation	eng	In Colombia, it occurs in the Volcán Galeras and Volcán Chiles protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica el Angel and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
57006		distribution	eng	This species is known from Volcán Galeras (Nariño) and Páramos in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura and Napo Provinces). Its altitudinal range is 3,220-4,150m asl.
57006		habitat	eng	It can be found in páramo and sub-páramo habitats. Specimens have been collected by day beneath rocks (Lynch, 1981). It occurs inside leaf axils and holes in <em>Puya</em>, <em>Espeletia</em>, and <em>Cortadeira</em> plants. It is presumed to be a direct development species with eggs that are deposited in moss. It occurs in secondary sub-páramo and in recently burned páramos in Ecuador.
57006		population	eng	It was collected in the mid 1990s in Colombia. It was found to be common to abundant in 2000 (Papallacta, Napo) and 2003 (El Angel, Carchi) in Ecuador.
57006		threats	eng	It occurs at very high elevations above the level of serious human impact, and so it is probably not significantly threatened.
57007		conservation	eng	This species was collected from within an indigenous reserve. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57007		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the valley of the Río Lari, in Limón Province, Costa Rica, at 400-440m asl.
57007		habitat	eng	The species was recoreded from premontane rainforest.
57007		population	eng	It is known only from two males found calling alongside streams; nothing is currently known about population abundance.
57007		threats	eng	There is little habitat loss within the range of this species.
57008		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
57008		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Córdoba and western Antioquia departments, south to Valle del Cauca departments, in Colombia, up to at least 1,880m asl.
57008		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf-litter and on epiphytes and bushes in areas of good forest, they also occupy secondary forest and even banana plantations. It is a species that breeds by direct development. Males frequently call from the underside of leaves causing a certain frustration for collectors.
57008		population	eng	This is a common species.
57008		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
57009		conservation	eng	It occurs marginally in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, but additional protection of forest habitats is clearly needed. As a stream-associated species of eastern Cuba, this species must be monitored carefully because other stream-dwelling amphibians in the West Indies have disappeared suddenly after being formerly abundant.
57009		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Macizo de Sagua-Baracoa, eastern Cuba, at an altitude of 195-900m asl.
57009		habitat	eng	This is a riparian/aquatic species occurring in streams and nearby areas in mesic closed forests. It breeds by direct development.
57009		population	eng	It can be moderately common in the narrow, suitable habitat in which it occurs.
57009		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to deforestation for subsistence farming and logging, and mining.
57010		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios) in Peru. In Brazil it is present in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre. It is not known to occur in any Bolivian protected areas.
57010		distribution	eng	This species is known from central (a single locality) and (presumably) northern Bolivia, central and southern Amazonian Peru (Departmentos Madre de Dios, Cusco and Puno) and recorded from western Acre State, Brazil. This is a lowland species.
57010		habitat	eng	All specimens were found in primary humid tropical rainforest. At Finca Panguana and Cosñipata Valley (Peru) many individuals were found by day, they were in leaf-litter on the forest floor, and others were calling from a log. It breeds by direct development and is not present in modified habitats.
57010		population	eng	It is a common species.
57010		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.
57011		conservation	eng	The species' range is within the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.
57011		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Florencia Forest, Samaná municipality, in Caldas department, in the Cordillera Central of Colombia, from 1,800-2,400m asl.
57011		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species, found on low vegetation alongside streams in primary or secondary forest with suitable canopy cover. They lay eggs in the moss beside the stream, and breed by direct development.
57011		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57011		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by subsistence wood collecting and clear cutting, and agricultural expansion (the planting of illegal crops). Water pollution, resulting from spraying of illegal crops, is also a threat.
57012		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sangay.
57012		distribution	eng	This species is known from low to moderate altitudes (320-1,250m asl) in the valley of the Río Pastaza, on the Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes. It might occur more widely but this requires confirmation.
57012		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, and it possibly also adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.
57012		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, and there is very little recent information.
57012		threats	eng	Agricultural development, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to this species’ habitat.
57013		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas near where this species has been found, but one has been proposed for the Sierra de Danta Cruz. Given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures likely should include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.
57013		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Sierra de Santa Cruz, Izabal, Guatemala, at 900m asl. Recent specimens collected 10km from the type locality might belong to this species.
57013		habitat	eng	It is known to inhabit old-growth premontane wet forest, and is unlikely to be able to adapt to degraded habitats. Individuals have been seen at night along streams. They presumably breed by direct development and are not dependent on water for breeding.
57013		population	eng	There is no information on population status, but congenerics inhabiting similar habitats and elevations have declined significantly.
57013		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place due to recent human settlement, as well as agricultural encroachment and wood extraction. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57014		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps Parque Nacional Llanganatis, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.
57014		distribution	eng	This species is known from the east slope of the Ecuadorian Andes, from near the border with Colombia, in the province of Sucumbios, south to the Llanganatis Mountains (Napo and Tunguragua Provinces) at altitudes between 2,360 and 3,700m asl.
57014		habitat	eng	it inhabits páramo, sub-páramo, and montane forest habitats. Individuals have been taken by day beneath rocks or logs in pastures or páramos. It also occurs in secondary and old growth forest, but not in heavily degraded areas. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
57014		population	eng	It is common in Sucumbios and Napo (in 2000-2003). However, recent exploration of the Llanganatis Mountains has not revealed any individuals.
57014		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural activities (crops and livestock ranching), plantations and logging.
57015		conservation	eng	As far as is known, this species occurs only in the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.
57015		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single forest fragment, the Florencia Forest, Samaná municipality, in Caldas department, on the Cordillera Central of Colombia, from 1,900-2,400m asl.
57015		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species, usually found on low vegetation in dense, reasonably intact forest. It breeds by direct development.
57015		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57015		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (the planting of illegal crops).
57016		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps the  Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. There is a need for additional protection of humid montane forest in the range of this species.
57016		distribution	eng	This species is known from nine localities at elevations of 2,870-3,190m asl on the western slopes of the Andes in the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar, and Cotopaxi, Ecuador.
57016		habitat	eng	It has been found at the upper edge of humid montane forest. Although some specimens have been found under rocks by day in disturbed areas, it is more abundant on vegetation in well-preserved forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
57016		population	eng	It was common at Casco Totoras in 2003, where the population appears to be stable. However, in some nearby areas its habitat is severely disturbed and fragmented.
57016		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is very serious in its range due primarily to the activities of smallholder farmers and subsistence harvesting of wood.
57017		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57017		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in the Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela, extending westwards to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (where it is found in Parque Nacional Natural Tamá at 2,300m asl), Colombia. In Venezuela it is known from Boca de Monte, near Camino de Pregonero in Tachira State, and from La Soledad in Barinas State. Its altitudinal range is 1,000-2,400m asl.
57017		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest, where it lives in bromeliads and breeds by direct development.
57017		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, known from only a small number of specimens, including just five from Colombia (though it has been collected again in this country since 2001).
57017		threats	eng	There is little direct information on threats to this species, but human-induced deforestation and habitat alteration are probably having a significant impact on it, due to activities such as smallholder agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
57018		conservation	eng	The forests of Tobago in which this species is found are protected as the Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it has such a limited range.
57018		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to lowland parts of north-eastern Tobago Island (in Trinidad and Tobago).
57018		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with forest and more specifically with palm trees. Males call from the ends of palm tree fronds, and females have been found on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development; the site of egg deposition is not known, but may be within the palm trees.
57018		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57018		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species, but its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
57019		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. As such, improved management of these, and maintenance of the remaining habitat, is urgently needed. Furthermore, this species requires close monitoring given that many other stream-dwelling <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have suddenly disappeared for unexplained reasons, even in pristine habitat.
57019		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, within an altitudinal range of 455-1,400m asl.
57019		habitat	eng	It is aquatic and restricted to high-altitude montane streams in closed cloud forest. It is the most aquatic of all Cuban <em>Eleutherodactylus</em>. It breeds by direct development with eggs that are laid on land.
57019		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitats, although the availability of this habitat is limited.
57019		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction that is taking place due to agricultural expansion, wood-cutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement; as a high-altitude, cloud forest, stream-dwelling species, it also might be susceptible to chytridiomycosis.
57020		conservation	eng	The range of this species falls within the Macizo Montanoso del Turimiquire Protective Zone, but there is a need for improved management of this area for biodiversity conservation.
57020		distribution	eng	This species is known from La Trinidad, Monte Turimiquire, in a cave at about 1,830m asl, in the eastern portion of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range between Sucre and Monagas States.
57020		habitat	eng	It has been found in a cave in cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development.
57020		population	eng	It is believed to be a rare species.
57020		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock.
57021		conservation	eng	The Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57021		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, Hacienda La Sierra, Municipio de Paipa, Boyacá Department, Colombia, and it might occur more widely. It has been collected at 2,700m asl.
57021		habitat	eng	It is found in both oak and pine forests, where animals have been recorded perched on bromeliads, on leaves and occasionally in the leaf-litter. It is more abundant in native forest than restored (30 year old oak) forest. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.
57021		population	eng	It is a common species.
57021		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It is currently only known from within a protected area, but it is likely to be impacted by forest loss if it occurs more widely.
57022		conservation	eng	Within Costa Rica the range of this species is protected by several national parks and a private reserve. In Panama it is present in a number of protected areas including Parque Internacional La Amistad and Reserva Forestal Fortuna.
57022		distribution	eng	This species is known from humid premontane slopes of the Cordillera Central, Cordillera Costeña, Cordillera de Tilarán, and Cordillera de Talamanca up to western Panama; also marginally in lower montane belt, at elevations of 920-1,590m asl (Savage, 2002).
57022		habitat	eng	A leaf-litter frog primarily of premontane wet forest, rainforest and marginally in lower montane wet forest. It may also be found in secondary forest, plantations (such as shaded coffee) and pastureland. It breeds by direct development.
57022		population	eng	It is described by Savage (2002) and Pounds <em>et al.</em> (1997) as a common species. Because of the difficulty in identifying it, there are no good population data.
57022		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to the species.
57023		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Luquillo National Forest. In view of the possible risk of disease to this species, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and it might be necessary to establish <em>ex-situ</em> assurance colonies.
57023		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution in the Sierra del Luquillo, Puerto Rico. Its altitudinal range is from 660-1,039m asl.
57023		habitat	eng	It lives underground in elfin forest, and males call from root cavities of various trees. It has not been recorded outside forest.
57023		population	eng	The population of this species is currently believed to be stable.
57023		threats	eng	Although the population is currently stable, and there are no immediate major threats to the habitat of this species, its very restricted range and specialized habits make it vulnerable to extinction even in the protected areas of El Yunque through stochastic and/or global processes, which may include climate change and/or chytridiomycosis.
57024		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica El Angel, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.
57024		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Andean Valleys from southern Colombia to Central Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 2,200-3,400m asl.
57024		habitat	eng	Normally this species is found in grasslands and cultivated areas in inter-Andean Valleys (Lynch, 1981). The species occurs in the forested regions in the humid temperate and humid sub temperate regimes (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). It has also been reported to occur in pastures, ditches, shrubs, crops, forest edges and urban areas (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). By day individuals have been found beneath rocks, dirt clods, wood, bricks, paper, or under the cover of grass (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). At night, males are actively calling on low herbaceous vegetation within one meter of the ground. Reproduction appears to be year-round (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in burrows excavated by the frogs themselves. It can be found in heavily disturbed habitats including downtown Quito.
57024		population	eng	An abundant species in Ecuador, this frog is heard whenever it rains in Quito.
57024		threats	eng	It is threatened only by heavy agrochemical pollution.
57025		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the fragments of cloud forest and pine-oak forests that still remain in the Guerrero area is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57025		distribution	eng	This species is known from Puerto del Gallo, north-central Guerrero, and the Sierra del Sur de Oaxaca, Mexico. The recent record from Oaxaca is probably in error and is currently under taxonomic revision. The type locality in Guerrero is at 2,034m asl.
57025		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak and montane cloud forest remnants, and breeds by direct development.
57025		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57025		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation due to logging and the cultivation of crops.
57026		conservation	eng	There are many populations inside Los Nevados National Natural Park. Some populations are also within the Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve. It might also occur in other protected areas.
57026		distribution	eng	This species is known from Valle del Cauca department northwards to Antioquia department on the Central Cordillera, in Colombia, between 2,250-3,600m asl.
57026		habitat	eng	It occurs in areas from cloud forest up to páramo. It inhabits and thrives in disturbed forests, and is very common on low vegetation next to roads and streams. During the day it can be found under rocks and logs. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It is quite tolerant of habitat destruction; its only requirement is moist conditions.
57026		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57026		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. However, it should be noted that some other species of Eleutherodactylus that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57027		conservation	eng	The forests on Tobago in which the species occurs are protected, mainly in Little Tobago Game Sanctuary. Further research is needed to establish the reasons for the declines observed in this species.
57027		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Trinidad and Tobago, where it is widespread in forested areas, occurring up to 936m asl. In Venezuela this species has been reported from Distrito Federal, Sucre and Zulia States, occurring up to 500m asl, but these specimens most likely belong to another, as yet undescribed species, and so are not mapped here.
57027		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that lives on bushes or on the ground in tropical forests. The eggs are laid either on the ground or in bromeliads and breeding is by direct development.
57027		population	eng	There is little information on its population status. However, populations on Tobago have declined over the past five years; it is not known whether it is declining on Trinidad.
57027		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Since declines on Tobago have been taking place within suitable habitat, chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
57028		conservation	eng	Some populations are within Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.
57028		distribution	eng	This species is known from La Mucuy, Monterey, Monte Zerpa and the Bosque de San Weusebio, in Mérida State, in the Venezuelan Andes, from 1,800-2,600m asl.
57028		habitat	eng	It lives in bushes and on the ground in cloud forests and secondary forests. Breeding is by direct development.
57028		population	eng	It is a common species.
57028		threats	eng	Its habitats are not seriously threatened at present, and much of its range is in protected areas.
57029		conservation	eng	There are no areas of natural reserve in its distribution area in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserca Biológica Limoncocha and Parque Nacional Yasuní. The range of this species also overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul and might overlap with Otishi National Park, Peru. It is not recorded from any Brazilian protected areas.
57029		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazonian Ecuador and Colombia (Putumayo), western Brazilian Amazonia (Purus River) and eastern Peru (several places in Loreto and a single site in Cusco). Its altitudinal range is from 100-600m asl.
57029		habitat	eng	This species is found in disturbed areas, secondary forests, and in primary forests sitting in bushes at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994; Duellman, 1978). During the day it can be found on the forest ground. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are presumably deposited in the leaf-litter, under ground cover and possibly in bushes.
57029		population	eng	It appears to be a common species over much of its range.
57029		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats. It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
57030		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but most of these are in need of improved management for conservation.
57030		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Cuba, including the Isla de Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 845m asl.
57030		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species sometimes found in bromeliads, but also outside bromeliads, in mesic forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Males call from tree branches and leaves, and eggs are laid in bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development.
57030		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
57030		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural activities is the main threat.
57031		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57031		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on Cuba, including the Isla de Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 845m asl.
57031		habitat	eng	It occurs in mesic secondary and primary forest and grassland. Males call from grasses and low herbaceous leaves. It has also been recorded from agricultural land, and other disturbed habitats. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
57031		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitats.
57031		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
57032		conservation	eng	The species' distribution is within the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.
57032		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, in the Municipality of Pensilvania, Department of Caldas, in Colombia, at 1,800-2,400m asl.
57032		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal species, often found perching on medium to high vegetation, next to streams in primary forest with suitable canopy cover. During the day, it is found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development and lays up to 18 eggs that are deposited on moss, up to 1m above ground.
57032		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57032		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation caused by logging (subsistence wood collecting, clear cutting) and agricultural development (the planting of illegal crops).
57033		conservation	eng	The range of the species overlaps with a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
57033		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Serra dos Orgãos in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It has been recorded between 800-1,200m asl.
57033		habitat	eng	This species lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor, or on low vegetation, and breeds in terrestrial bromeliads inside primary or secondary forest. The eggs are not laid in the water of the bromeliad but on the axil of the outer leaves. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
57033		population	eng	It is a common species.
57033		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear cutting of the forest was a threat in the past. Infrastructure development for human settlement is an ongoing threat, even inside some protected areas.
57034		conservation	eng	It is known to occur only in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area.
57034		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution on the peaks of Formon and Macaya on the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 1,700-2,340m asl.
57034		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, occurring in open sites in montane closed pine and cloud forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
57034		population	eng	It is believed to be common in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 2006 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).
57034		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, primarily due to logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.
57035		conservation	eng	In Peru, the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galereas, Reserva Ecológica Antisana and Parque Nacional Llanganates.
57035		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon basin of southern Ecuador, Amazonian Bolivia, and eastern Peru. The presence of this species in Brazil requires further investigation. It is found in lowlands and recorded as high as 1,700m asl by Duellman and Pramuk, (1999).
57035		habitat	eng	high-elevation, premontane and lowland primary forest (including swamp forest) with close canopy and wide leaves. It is usually observed perched on leaves of trees and bushes at night in swamp forest. It has been found in rotten logs during the day. It breeds by direct development and the egg deposition site is not known. In Ecuador the species has been found in secondary forest and areas slightly disturbed by agriculture.
57035		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
57035		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). For Ecuador, climate change has been suggested as a threat to this species.
57036		conservation	eng	Most of the Colombian populations are inside La Planada Natural Reserve. In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
57036		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities on the western flank of the Andes in extreme southern Colombia (1,700-2,020m asl) and provinces of Carchi, Cotopaxi, and Pichincha, Ecuador (900-1,800m asl). In Colombia, it occurs on the western slope from the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Nariño. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
57036		habitat	eng	This species can be found in cloud forest in the humid subtropical and temperate regime (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It occurs on vegetation up to 1.5m above ground, inside the forest as well as next to waterfalls. It breeds by direct development and eggs are deposited on the tops of leaves; the clutch is guarded by an adult. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.
57036		population	eng	It was found to be rare in 2002-2003 at the La Favorita Experimental Station in Pichincha, but was common at La Planada in Colombia in 1998.
57036		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops) is a threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57037		conservation	eng	It has been reported for Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda (Gillingwater and Patrikeev, 2004). It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57037		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Potosí, Querétaro and northwestern Hidalgo and northern Puebla, Mexico, at 200-2,945m asl.
57037		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane cloud forest and pine-oak forest, although it has also been found in grazed areas, rock crevices and stone walls. It breeds by direct development.
57037		population	eng	This is a common species.
57037		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.
57038		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57038		distribution	eng	This species is known from Puebla, Hidalgo and Veracruz, Mexico.
57038		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, although it presumably breeds by direct development.
57038		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57038		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57039		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone, Peru. In Ecuador this species occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.
57039		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. In Ecuador it is known from: the area north of San Lucas, in Loja Province, at 3,100m asl; at Abra Zamora at 2,500-2,800m asl; and at Curintza, Romerillos and Bombuscaro, in Zamora Chinchipe Province, at 2,100m asl. In Peru it occurs in Amazonas Province on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor and Upper Río Comainas at elevations of 665-1,750m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
57039		habitat	eng	Specimens are found beneath stones and logs in sparsely wooded pasture or in cloud forest and sub-páramo habitats. Peruvian specimens were collected at night on vegetation up to 2m above the ground. It breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
57039		population	eng	It is a common species.
57039		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, logging, mining, and human settlement.
57040		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
57040		distribution	eng	This species is known from the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, and Bolivar, western Ecuador, at elevations of 1,800-3,000m asl.
57040		habitat	eng	It occurs in relatively intact cloud, humid montane, and temperate montane forest. It can be found near streams and in bromeliads. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
57040		population	eng	It is rare throughout much of its range.
57040		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to smallholder agricultural activities, and subsistence wood collection. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57041		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.
57041		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Huila, Nariño and Cauca, on the east slope of the highlands of the Cordillera Central, Colombia, from 2,900-3,275m asl.
57041		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species occurs on vegetation up to 1.5m above ground, inside the forest as well as next to streams. During the day it can be found under rocks and logs, and it is also found in páramo vegetation. Breeding is by direct development.
57041		population	eng	It is common.
57041		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, in particular in Nariño Department, caused by logging and agricultural development for crop cultivation (including illegal crops) and rearing of livestock. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.
57042		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of remaining habitat in the range of this species.
57042		distribution	eng	This species occurs on mountain crests east and north of Loja, in Loja and Zamora Chinchipe Provinces, southern Ecuador, at 2,710-3,100m asl. It is known from only three localities.
57042		habitat	eng	It inhabits páramo grassland and sub-páramo bush land. Specimens have been collected beneath rocks or on vegetation. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.
57042		population	eng	It was relatively common in the late 1960s, but there has been much habitat loss since then, and insufficient fieldwork in the area where it occurs.
57042		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation which is taking place due to agricultural development (including livestock farming) and human settlement.
57043		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are slightly below the Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve area. Unfortunately they will most likely not be included in this reserve, however protection of this species' habitat is probably not necessary at present as it is tolerant of significant disturbance of its habitat.
57043		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Antioquia and Caldas on the Oriental slope, of the northern central Cordillera, and from the occidental slope of the oriental Cordillera in the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. It has been recorded from 800-1,880m asl.
57043		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species, it is usually found under bushes, in forest edge, secondary forest, and open areas in forests. It breeds by direct development. It is able to withstand significant disturbance of its forest habitat and actually seems to benefit from it.
57043		population	eng	It is a common species especially in secondary forest.
57043		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species at present.
57044		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57044		distribution	eng	Pristimantis vilarsi is known from Brazil (only from the Purus river), Colombia (between the river Guaviare and Caquetá), northern Peru (one record in Loretoyacu, in the department of Loreto) and from southern Venezuela. <br/><br/>In Venezuela it is distributed through all known lowland rainforest south of the Orinoco river, except for the extreme eastern ones (e.g. Imataca) (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).<br/><br/>It has been recorded from 100-1230 masl.
57044		habitat	eng	This species is found in the leaf-litter of lowland tropical rainforest. It is easily found at night, on low plants, leaves, rocks, mossy walls, and on the ground, near or far from streams. During the day it can be found on leaf litter. Calling males have been seen on rainy nights in May 2005 at Tobogán de la Selva, Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas state, Venezuela (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).<br/><br/>It is a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known. It is apparently able to adapt to some disturbance of its habitat.
57044		population	eng	It is a common species.
57044		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
57045		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57045		distribution	eng	This species is confined to eastern Brazil in the State of Bahia, from Prado north to Santa Teresinha. Records from Perambuco and Alagoas require confirmation. It occurs up to 800m asl.
57045		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest, and forest edge. It does not occur in more open areas. It breeds by direct development.
57045		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57045		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.
57046		conservation	eng	Some populations occur within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Los Farallones.
57046		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,700-2,680m asl.
57046		habitat	eng	It occurs on grasses along roads and forest edge, and is never found far from forest. A nocturnal species, during the day it can be found under rocks and logs in forested areas. It breeds by direct development.
57046		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57046		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).
57047		conservation	eng	Three of the localities in which it occurs are within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, and the fourth is in Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo.
57047		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the western part of Antioquia Department, on the western and eastern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and from one locality in northern Antioquia Department, on the northern face of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, between 1,480 and 1,940m asl,
57047		habitat	eng	It is restricted to very humid forests, and occurs on Araceae vegetation and ferns, up to 1.5m above the ground. Breeding is by direct development.
57047		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57047		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species' habitat at present as its known range is wholly within two parks.
57048		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve.
57048		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic ranges from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental in western Mexico from the Rio Fuerte drainage in northern Sinaloa, to the Rio Balsas drainage in southwestern Michoacán.
57048		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland dry forest and premontane dry forest from 60-2,150m asl. It breeds by direct development.
57048		population	eng	This is a common species.
57048		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for human settlements and logging are threats to the forest habitat of this species.
57049		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas in Panama and Costa Rica.
57049		distribution	eng	This species is known from very humid lowland and premontane areas from southwestern Costa Rica to western central Panama on the Pacific versant and in central Panama on the Atlantic slope, at elevations of sea level to 1,700m asl (Savage, 2002); this species is not present in Colombia.
57049		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of relatively pristine humid lowland and montane forest, secondary forests and tree plantations. Breeding takes place in bromeliads and it presumably breeds by direct development.
57049		population	eng	It is a common species that is regularly seen in southern Costa Rica.
57049		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation.
57050		conservation	eng	It is present in the Los Tuxtlas National Biosphere Reserve. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of the species.
57050		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the isolated Sierra de Los Tuxtlas of southern Veracruz, Mexico, at altitudes between 400 and 1,200m asl.
57050		habitat	eng	It occurs along streams in premontane and lower montane wet forests; it is not known if this species can adapt to habitat modification. Breeding is by direct development.
57050		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57050		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss in the region.
57051		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Parque Nacional Machalilla and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.
57051		distribution	eng	This species is known from more than ten localities on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, from 100-1,270m asl.
57051		habitat	eng	Although it occurs in wet areas, the species can also tolerate conditions in the relatively dry forests. It occurs in humid subtropical regime, humid tropical regime, dry subtropical regime and dry tropical regime (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). It is more commonly found in forests, but can also be found in plantations and highly disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development.
57051		population	eng	It is a common species.
57051		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, agricultural pollution and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species’ habitat. Its habitat is presently severely fragmented.
57052		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas on the island, and so effective protection of the species' remaining habitat is needed to ensure its persistence.
57052		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Ile de la Tortue, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from around 400 m asl.
57052		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, found on rocks and in leaf-litter, in xeric hardwood forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
57052		population	eng	There is little information available on this species' population status. It has not been collected since it was first described, although there has been no recent survey work for this species.
57052		threats	eng	Extensive habitat degradation, due to charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture, is taking place on Ile de la Tortue.
57053		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
57053		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola. It is widespread in eastern Hispaniola and occurs in central Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 788m asl.
57053		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial in a variety of mesic habitats, including plantations, woods, gardens, ravines, and trash piles in urban areas. Males call from caves, rocks, or low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.
57053		population	eng	This is a common species.
57053		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species currently, although habitat destruction is taking place.
57054		conservation	eng	Its distribution includes several protected areas, but most are in need of greatly improved management and protection. There is also a need for improved habitat protection at unprotected sites where this species is known to occur, particularly in the Massif de la Selle.
57054		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Tiburon Peninsula, east to the Massif de la Selle, and also in the Massif du Nord, in Hispaniola. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,324m asl.
57054		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in mesic broadleaf forest, and is found in bromeliads and other plants. It can also be found in the leaf axils of banana plantations. Males call from the forest canopy, and eggs are laid in bromeliads; breeding takes place by direct development.
57054		population	eng	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.
57054		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is taking place within its range, due to charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture.
57055		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain the remaining habitat at the known localities. Further research is needed into this little-known species.
57055		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities at altitudes of 1,600 and 1,735m asl in humid montane forest on the western slope of the Cordillera de Huancabamba, in Piura Department, Peru.
57055		habitat	eng	It is a humid montane cloud forest species that has also been recorded from disturbed habitats. Calling takes place from low vegetation and this species breeds by direct development.
57055		population	eng	It is common where it is found, although few individuals have been observed.
57055		threats	eng	The threats to it are unclear, although there is some destruction and loss of habitat in the area due to livestock grazing and subsistence collection of wood.
57056		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, most of which are well managed. Further research is necessary to determine the reasons for the species' decline.
57056		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, where it has been recorded from 150-1,189m asl.
57056		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, occurring in mesic upland forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Males call from low vegetation, and breeding is by direct development.
57056		population	eng	Studies show that populations of this species are declining in both the higher and lower elevations of its range (R. Joglar pers. comm.).
57056		threats	eng	Although some habitat destruction is taking place (due to agriculture and infrastructure development for roads and human settlement), the primary reason for the observed declines is believed to be chytridiomycosis (acting in combination with climate change).
57057		conservation	eng	In Colombia because of its extensive distribution many of this species populations are inside protected areas: Munchique, Los Farallones, Las Orquideas, Tatama, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, and Purace National Natural Parks; La Planada Natural Reserve, and some areas that are in the process of being declared protected areas like Los Paraguas Mountains and Florencia forest. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, Parque Necional Cotopaxi, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Sangay, Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, and Area de Recreación Cajas.
57057		distribution	eng	This species is known from lower montane and cloud forest at 800-3,300m asl on both Pacific and Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Colombia and Ecuador. It occurs from southern Ecuador, to the three Cordilleras and the northern area from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. It is the most widespread <em>Pristimantis</em> in the Colombian Andes. The records from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta might be in error.
57057		habitat	eng	It occurs in deforested and disturbed areas, next to streams or far from them, in cloud forest and sub-páramo habitats. It is tolerant of substantial habitat disturbance. It also occurs inside old-growth forest, but it is not very common. It perches on vegetation up to 3m above ground, during the day it can be found on fallen leaves. It breeds by direct development and the egg deposition occurs under rocks.
57057		population	eng	It is abundant in Colombia, although it has been declining in some localities in Ecuador. It appears to undergo population fluctuations. For example in Huacalito, the species ranged from common to absent to common over the course of six years. Populations in western Cundinamarca were common until the mid 1940s but have not been observed in numerous trips between the late 1960s and 2000. In Ecuador, it was previously abundant at many localities, although it has been recently found at sites such as Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras, Provincia Bolívar, Reserva Otonga (QCAZ database) it is not as common as in the past. (Bustamante 2002; L. Coloma pers. obs.)
57057		threats	eng	Presumably extinctions in western Cundinamarca are a result of water pollution from Bogotá. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully (the disappearances in western Cundinamarca appear to predate the appearance of chytridiomycosis as a threat to amphibians).
57058		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species. A protected area would be desirable for this species, to prevent human disturbance from reducing the species' already restricted range in the future. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
57058		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Deude Paramo, in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, on an isolated mountain at 3,300-3,600m asl. It might occur more widely.
57058		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasses in páramo, where it breeds by direct development.
57058		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
57058		threats	eng	There are no threats to at present as it occurs at such high altitudes that there are no human disturbances to its habitat.
57059		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.
57059		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is given as El Cerro de Tatama, in Choco Department, Colombia, at 4,050m asl. However, this locality is actually in Risaralda Department.
57059		habitat	eng	The habitat at the type locality is páramo. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
57059		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, as it is known only from one specimen.
57059		threats	eng	There are no threats to its habitat at present as it is at too high an altitude for human interest.
57060		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas, Biotopo del Quetzal, and the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatanes.
57060		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central highlands of Guatemala, including the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes, the Sierra de Xucaneb, and the Sierra de las Minas. It lives at 600-1,300m asl.
57060		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest, including slightly degraded forest, and is usually found on bushes and undergrowth. Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not dependent on water for breeding.
57060		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57060		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, extraction of wood, and human settlement.
57061		conservation	eng	It is not currently recorded from any protected area, but there are ongoing efforts to transform the Serrania de los Paraguas into a wildlife reserve. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.
57061		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites on the crest of the Serranía de los Paraguas on the border of the departments of Chocó and Valle del Cauca, in Colombia, from 2,100-2,250m asl.
57061		habitat	eng	Individuals perch on low vegetation inside dense undisturbed forests. It breeds by direct development.
57061		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57061		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species' habitat at present, but there are plans to build a road along the Serranía de los Paraguas that will threaten the species' habitat in the future if it goes ahead as planned.
57062		conservation	eng	Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.
57062		distribution	eng	This species is known from the summit of Cerro Yaví, at 2,150m asl, and Cerro Yutajé, at 1,700m asl, in Amazonas State, Venezuela. Its distribution is not very well known, and it might occur more widely.
57062		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, and has been found on low vegetation in wet, mossy forests and in bromeliads (such as <em>Brocchinia</em> species) in Cerro Yutajé. It has been found on low vegetation in cooler forest and on a more open, windy site, perched on a dry leaf, at the summit of Cerro Yaví. Some specimens have also been found under slabs of rock. This species breeds by direct development.
57062		population	eng	It is reported to be the most common <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species on Cerro Yaví (Myers and Donnelly 1996), and is in general a common species.
57062		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
57063		conservation	eng	A portion of this species' range is within the Reserva de la Biósfera Sian Ka'an, which affords it some protection. Protection of the original forest in the Yucatan Peninsula is also recommended. This species is protected by Mexican Law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57063		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, in east-central Yucatan and north-central Quintana Roo, Mexico. The type locality is 10m asl.
57063		habitat	eng	Its habitat is lowland tropical semi-deciduous and deciduous forest. It is both terrestrial and arboreal and is sometimes found in caverns and cenotes. Breeding is by direct development.
57063		population	eng	It is rarely encountered but is occasionally locally common.
57063		threats	eng	The major threats to this species is habitat loss and disturbance due to tourist activities, in particular along the Quintana Roo Mayan area.
57064		conservation	eng	The species is protected by national parks or natural monuments throughout its range.
57064		distribution	eng	This species is known from Amazonas state in Venezuela, southernmost Colombia, from Roraima and Amapá in Brazil, Suriname, French Guiana and Guyana. It has been recorded from 10-300m asl.
57064		habitat	eng	It is usually found in the litter of tropical rainforests. It breeds by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is not known.
57064		population	eng	It is generally not a common species, but is reportedly common in French Guiana.
57064		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread species.
57065		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas (such as Parque Nacional Viñales), but there is a need to improve the management of these reserves for conservation.
57065		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de los Organos and the Sierra del Rosario, in western Cuba. It has been recorded from 75-182m asl.
57065		habitat	eng	This is a large species that is found in rock crevices and caves in mesic broadleaf forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat and is always associated with limestone. It breeds by direct development.
57065		population	eng	It can be locally common, but is also uncommon in some localities; only a few individuals have been recorded at one locality in the Viñales region, despite many collections in nearby areas (B. Hedges pers. comm.).
57065		threats	eng	The main threat is infrastructure development for tourism, and the disturbance of habitat by tourist activities.
57066		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within the range of this species (WWF-INPA conservation units).
57066		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonian Brazil at 10-60m asl, and has been recorded from INPA WWF reserves near Manaus, and also from reserves near Belem. It is presumably much more widespread, especially in the intervening parts of the Amazon basin between Manaus and Belem.
57066		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter of tropical rainforest, and is also found in secondary and degraded habitats. Egg deposition and direct development takes place on land.
57066		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
57066		threats	eng	Fires are a threat to this species.
57067		conservation	eng	Surveys are urgently needed to establish whether or not this species still survives in the wild.
57067		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Zongo Valley, in Murillo Province, in the department of La Paz, Bolivia, at 1,250m asl (Reichle and Köhler 1997).
57067		habitat	eng	The single specimen was found under rocks in Yungas forest (Reichle and Köhler 1997). The absence of finger discs suggests it is a terrestrial species. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
57067		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, which was collected in January 1996. A subsequent visit to the type locality in 1999 and then in 2002/2003 found no individuals and it might now be extinct.
57067		threats	eng	The type locality has been entirely destroyed with the construction of a hydroelectric power plant.
57068		conservation	eng	The range of the species does not include any protected areas, and protection of its habitat is clearly needed, particularly given its reliance upon intact forest.
57068		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in Antioquia Department, on the northern Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, from 2,030-2,800m asl.
57068		habitat	eng	It is usually found perched on very low vegetation, up to 20cm above the ground, along streams inside primary or secondary forest or forest edge, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It is nocturnal, and breeds by direct development.
57068		population	eng	It is a common species.
57068		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (primarily for cattle and the cultivation of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57069		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but many of these are in need of improved management.
57069		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra del Rosario, the Sierra de Camarones, and Pan de Matanzas, in western and central Cuba. It has been recorded from 155-390m asl.
57069		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in mesic broadleaf forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. At the Sierra de Camarones locality it is found on rocks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.
57069		population	eng	It is a rare species; in several decades of field work B. Hedges (pers. comm.) encountered it only once.
57069		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, infrastructure development for human settlement, and tourism; agricultural pollution may also be having a negative impact on populations.
57070		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
57070		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of the departments of Valle del Cauca, Choco, Risaralda and Antioquia, in northwestern Colombia, from 230-800m asl.
57070		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species, occurring in primary forest or gallery forest. It is found along streams or rivers and seems partial to waterfalls, and can even be found on rocks in the middle of the river. It breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in depressions on the soil. It is restricted to gallery forest.
57070		population	eng	It is a large, common frog.
57070		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops, and pollution resulting from fumigation of illegal crops is a threat. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.
57071		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.
57071		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra dos Orgãos and the coastal mountains of Rio de Janeiro city, in Rio de Janeiro State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 800m asl.
57071		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, though it is believed to be by direct development. It has also been recorded from domestic gardens near the forest, that also have trees.
57071		population	eng	It is a common species.
57071		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of the forest, and illegal infrastructure development for human settlement even within protected areas are major threats to the species.
57072		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirement is needed.
57072		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra dos Orgãos, and the lowlands of Silva Jardim and Casimiro de Abreu, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It has been recorded from sea level up to 600m asl.
57072		habitat	eng	This species occurs among the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest. There is no information known about breeding, though it is believed to be by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest.
57072		population	eng	It is a common species.
57072		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and infrastructure development for human settlement, including illegal development within protected areas, is a major threat to the species.
57073		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection in the Miomoso do Sul.
57073		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mimoso do Sul, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 70m asl. With survey work, it probably will be shown to occur more widely.
57073		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forest, and does not occur in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
57073		population	eng	It is reasonably common at the only known locality.
57073		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and livestock grazing), logging, and human settlement.
57074		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Estacion Biólogica Augusto Ruschi.
57074		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Santa Teresa, in the State of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 650m asl. It might be more widespread.
57074		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forest, and does not occur in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
57074		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57074		threats	eng	The area where the species is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where the species might occur), due to agriculture (including wood plantations), logging, human settlement, and tourism.
57075		conservation	eng	Present in at least 10 national parks of Chile and Argentina. Legislation to protect native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.
57075		distribution	eng	This species is widespread within the <em>Nothofagus</em> temperate forests of Chile and Argentina from 39° 30'S to 49° 10'S. Its altitudinal range is from 10-1,300m asl.
57075		habitat	eng	It occurs in shady microhabitats (swamps and streams borders) in humid forests dominated by <em>Nothofagus</em> spp. Larval development takes place in water-filled cavities on the ground; the species has free-swimming tadpoles. It may be present in slightly disturbed habitat.
57075		population	eng	The species is common in appropriate habitats.
57075		threats	eng	General habitat loss and degradation due to deforestation is a major threat. Water pollution caused by forestry work is also a threat.
57076		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Contulmo National Monument. There is a need for improved protection of native temperate forest habitat in this region of Chile.
57076		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Contulmo National Monument, Bío-Bío Province, south-central Chile, at an elevation of 50-350m asl. Considering the available habitat in the region, the range is probably not much larger than is currently recognized.
57076		habitat	eng	It can be found under logs and rocks in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and does not tolerate extensive habitat disturbance. It lays eggs in small, terrestrial water-filled holes on hillsides, where the larvae develop.
57076		population	eng	It is generally uncommon. A small series was collected most recently in 2002.
57076		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of conversion to large-scale pine and eucalyptus plantations. There is also disturbance of the habitat from tourist activities.
57077		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least six national parks in Chile and one in Argentina. Legislation to protect the native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.
57077		distribution	eng	This species is mostly found in the temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forests of Chile (40° 50'S to 45° 20'S), with a single known locality in Argentina (Lago Puelo National Park, Chubut Province) (Ubeda <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,500m asl.
57077		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid forests associated with cold streams. Larval development takes place in water-filled cavities on the ground. Adults occur under logs or in small holes at the edges of forest streams. Males call in the breeding season from small holes during the daytime. Females deposit eggs inside the holes and free-swimming tadpoles characterize the species. It is not recorded from degraded habitats.
57077		population	eng	Populations are generally small. During the breeding season, up to 15 individuals can aggregate. It was last recorded during November 2002.
57077		threats	eng	Destruction and degradation of native <em>Nothofagus forests</em> (generally through fires and plantation forestry with exotic species) are major threats.
57078		conservation	eng	It occurs in Nahuelbuta National Park, which is relatively well managed, but there is a need for additional protection of native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.
57078		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities located not far from each other: Pichinahuel, Rucapehuen, and Ramadillas, all in Arauco Province, Chile. Its altitudinal range is from 100-800m asl.
57078		habitat	eng	It is commonly found under logs and rocks in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Although it can persist near streams in disturbed areas, it does not occur in pine plantations. Eggs are laid in small, terrestrial water-filled holes on hillsides, where the larvae develop.
57078		population	eng	It is locally common within its limited range.
57078		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of wood extraction and conversion to pine and eucalyptus plantations. There is also some habitat disturbance from tourist activities.
57079		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca and the Monumento Natural Cerro Ñielol. Legislation to protect the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.
57079		distribution	eng	This species is known from 38°S to 40°S in Cautín and Valdivia Provinces, Chile, from 50-1,000m asl.
57079		habitat	eng	This species can be found under logs close to swamps or streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and it may persist in fairly disturbed areas. Eggs are deposited in small, water-filled holes on hillsides.
57079		population	eng	It is locally common.
57079		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by wood extraction and establishment of pine and eucalyptus plantations. In the northern part of its range it is threatened by forest fires.
57080		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca and Parque Natural Alerce Costero in Chile. In Argentina, it occurs in Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi. There is a need for improved legislation to protect remaining tracts of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest in the range of this species.
57080		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lake region of Chile, approximately from 40°S to 44°S, and from a single locality in Argentina (Puerto Blest, Río Negro Province). Its altitudinal range is from 50-1,000m asl.
57080		habitat	eng	This species is found under large logs and rocks near streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Eggs are deposited in small, water-filled holes on hillsides.
57080		population	eng	It is uncommon even in suitable habitats. In Chile it was recorded as recently as November 2002, but there have been no records for Argentina since 1973.
57080		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by wood extraction and establishment of pine and eucalyptus plantations.
57081		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
57081		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the north-western and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, northern Colombia, from 1,550-2,870m asl. It may occur more widely than current records suggest, but is likely to be restricted to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
57081		habitat	eng	It is both nocturnal and diurnal, and appears to be confined to forest where it occurs under rocks and logs (which is also where it lays its eggs). Breeding is by direct development.
57081		population	eng	It is a common species.
57081		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction due to agriculture.
57082		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57082		distribution	eng	This montane species from south-eastern Brazil occurs in the states of Sao Paulo, extreme south-western Rio de Janeiro, and extreme southern Minas Gerais, from 1,500-2,500m asl.
57082		habitat	eng	It lives in high-altitude grassy fields with rocks in open areas. Breeding in this species is probably by direct development.
57082		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57082		threats	eng	Its only threats are likely to be the impacts of tourism and fire on its habitat.
57083		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57083		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the State of Acre in the Brazilian Amazon. Its range is very poorly known, and it presumably ranges more widely, including into neighbouring Peru and Bolivia.
57083		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the forest floor in the tropical rainforest. Reproductive mode is unknown, but it is presumably by larval development in water.
57083		population	eng	Few specimens have been collected. Its abundance is unknown.
57083		threats	eng	Some logging for timber is now taking place within its range, but overall it occurs in an area of limited human impact.
57084		conservation	eng	It occurs in many conservation units.
57084		distribution	eng	This species? distribution is in the Amazon basin, from Colombia, Peru and French Guiana to the Amazon River in Brazil. It is rare in French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001). There is a dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). Its altitudinal range is from 0-200m asl.
57084		habitat	eng	It occurs in marshes, swamps, and flooded forest. Lescure and Marty (2001) suggest that males also call from flooded holes. Reproduction is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development in water.
57084		population	eng	It is an uncommon to rare species.
57084		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
57085		conservation	eng	Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57085		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, Lima Duarte, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, although it might occur more widely. This locality is at around 1,000m asl.
57085		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is found along, and breeds in, streams in secondary forest (there being no remaining primary forest at the type locality).
57085		population	eng	It is a common species at the type locality.
57085		threats	eng	Disturbance from tourism is its main threat.
57086		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57086		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
57086		habitat	eng	It is active diurnally on rocks and low vegetation along larger forest streams and small forest rivers, including both primary and old secondary forest. The tadpoles live in streams with rocky bottoms where the water is relatively calm.
57086		population	eng	It is generally common, but is uncommon in some places. It appeared to decline significantly in Boracéia, from being once common, it was considered locally extinct in 1998, it has recently been captured again using pit-fall traps.
57086		threats	eng	There are few threats, since it lives in steep areas with little development, and much of its habitat protected. The effects of tourism and water pollution are probably the most significant impacts.
57087		conservation	eng	The only known locality is within Parque Nacional do Caparaó.
57087		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality in the Caparaó Mountains, on the border of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo States, in Brazil, where it has been recorded at around 2,000m asl.
57087		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is found along streams in primary and secondary forest. The larvae presumably live in shallow rivelets in the forest, as with other species in the genus.
57087		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. There are no recent records of this species, but there has not been sampling of the area for a long time. Surveys in 1981,1987 and 1988 failed to find any individuals.
57087		threats	eng	Its major threats are unknown, but its habitat is enclosed within a protected area.
57088		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos.
57088		distribution	eng	This species is known from Alto do Soberbo in the Serra dos Orgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, where it occurs from 800-1,500m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known and it might occur more widely.
57088		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is usually found along streams in primary and good quality secondary rainforest. Males are observed calling along streams, in which this species breeds.
57088		population	eng	It is very common.
57088		threats	eng	Clear-cut logging and infrastructure development for human settlement are the major threats to its habitat.
57089		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins.
57089		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra dos Itatins, in São Paulo State, Brazil, from 50-700m asl.
57089		habitat	eng	This diurnal species inhabits small streams in primary and secondary forest. Males are territorial and call from rocks along streams. Oviposition takes place in submerged nests, previously excavated by the male in sand and gravel.
57089		population	eng	It is very common in primary forest, but is less common in secondary forest.
57089		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to the felling of palm trees is a threat to its habitat, and is also occurring within the protected area in which the species is found. Infrastructure development for human settlement and disturbance by tourists are also threats.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
57090		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.
57090		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerias States, Brazil, between 2,000-2,500m asl.
57090		habitat	eng	This diurnal species occurs on rocks and low vegetation along forest streams in primary and secondary forest, and has also been observed in open grassland. It presumably breeds in streams.
57090		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, and it was last collected in 1976.
57090		threats	eng	Fire, disturbance from tourism, and extreme frosts are its major threats.
57091		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
57091		distribution	eng	This species from southern Brazil is known from the Serro do Mar in the south-western part of the state of São Paulo, and from the eastern part of the state of Paraná. It is also known from the Ilha do Cardoso in Cananéia Municipality, in São Paulo State. Its altitudinal range is 100-1,100m asl.
57091		habitat	eng	This species found in primary and old secondary forest is active during the day on rocks and low vegetation along larger forest streams and small forest rivers. The males call from shaded places near streams on rocks and in rock crevices and caves. The larvae live in streams with rocky bottoms where the water is relatively calm.
57091		population	eng	It is common.
57091		threats	eng	This species' major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development for crops, livestock grazing logging, tourism, and human settlement. It is probably also at risk from water pollution.
57092		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57092		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the following States: extreme southeastern Minas Gerais; south and central Espírito Santo; Rio de Janeiro; and east to central São Paulo. It's altitudinal range is 600-1,500m asl.
57092		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species of primary and secondary forest, not being found in open areas. It lives on rocks and low vegetation along forest streams. It breeds in small streams.
57092		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57092		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, tourism, fire and human settlement. It is probably also at risk from water pollution.
57093		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Estadual de Campos do Jordão, and a few other small parks.
57093		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Campos do Jordão, in São Paulo State), and also Monte Verde, Camanducaia, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It has been recorded from 1,400-1,800m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known, and it might occur more widely.
57093		habitat	eng	This diurnal species occurs on stones or hidden under rocks in forest stream margins in primary and good secondary forest. It breeds in streams.
57093		population	eng	It is a common species.
57093		threats	eng	Tourism disturbance is a threat to it, as is infrastructure development for human settlement.<br/><br/>The species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection with a variety of methods. Although infected tadpoles appear to co-exist with the disease, the presence of the fungus is of concern given the threats that assail the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest (Toledo et al., 2006a).
57094		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, included Aparados da Serra and Serra Geral National Parks.
57094		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme southern Santa Catarina and in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 400-1,000m asl.
57094		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest, inhabiting streams and cascades with clear running water. Males calls on stones or hidden under rocks at the stream margin. The spawn is probably deposited below stones in slow flowing streams.
57094		population	eng	It is abundant and stable in appropriate habitats.
57094		threats	eng	Water pollution, deforestation, and pine and banana plantations are all threats.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006b).
57095		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.
57095		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra do Mar, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It most probably occurs elsewhere along this mountain range but no sampling has been carried in the potential range. The known locality is at around 800m asl.
57095		habitat	eng	This diurnal species presumably occurs in small rivulets in the Serra do Mar mountains. The known locality is good secondary forest. No information is known about this species' breeding habits, but it presumably breeds in the small rivulets and the larvae develop in streams, as with other species in the genus.
57095		population	eng	The population is unknown and it is presently only known from a few specimens.
57095		threats	eng	Its threats are unknown, but the known locality is within a protected area, affording its habitat some protection. There was some logging of the area in the past, and air pollution was also a past threat.
57096		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
57096		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.
57096		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species found in forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It breeds in the small rivulets, and the tadpoles develop in the streams. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
57096		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57096		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement, clear cutting of forests and fire are localized threats, but there is no major threat to the species overall.
57097		conservation	eng	Both of the known localities are within protected areas; Parque Nacional do Itatiaia and Parque Municipal da Serra do Japi. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the two known localities.
57097		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States) and from Serra do Japi in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. It has been recorded between 800-2,000m asl. It presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these localities.
57097		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species found in streams in primary and secondary forest. It presumably breeds in the small rivulets and the tadpoles develop in the streams. It has not been recorded outside forest.
57097		population	eng	It is a common species.
57097		threats	eng	Livestock farming was a threat in the past in Serro do Japi. Fire might also be a threat at this locality, and there is also disturbance from military activities and tourism.
57098		conservation	eng	All its known localities are in protected areas.
57098		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities at around 1,200m asl in the Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It probably occurs more widely, but its distribution is poorly known.
57098		habitat	eng	It occurs at permanent stream margins in riparian forests in primary and secondary gallery forests. Larvae were found in the same streams.
57098		population	eng	It is not a very common species.
57098		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to tourism and fire are the major threats to this species.
57099		conservation	eng	It occurs in Grutas de Botuvera and one other Municipal park.
57099		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and coastal Santa Catarina, southern Brazil, at 150-1,000m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
57099		habitat	eng	It occurs on stones or hidden under rocks at forest streams margins in rainforest. It reproduces in streams.
57099		population	eng	It is common and stable in suitable habitat.
57099		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
57100		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed, in particular to try and determine what caused the apparent decline.
57100		distribution	eng	This species is known from Serra do Mar, in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro State, and Ilha Grande, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It has been recorded up to 900m asl.
57100		habitat	eng	This diurnal species inhabits primary and secondary forest along streams. Males call next to or over small streams on roots, rocks, and leaves. It breeds, and tadpoles develop in small-forested streams. It has not been collected outside forest habitat.
57100		population	eng	There has been an observed decline at Boracéia, but this appears to have reversed and it is now considered a very common species. It is more common in primary compared to secondary forest.
57100		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to tourism disturbance and infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat. <br/><br/>The cause of the observed decline is not known, although this species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006b).
57101		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.
57101		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Itatiaia Mountains at around 2,200m asl on the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil.
57101		habitat	eng	It lives in primary forest in and around streams (in which it breeds) and cascades with clear running water. The males calls from stones or secluded places under rocks at the margins of the streams.
57101		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57101		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, tourism and fire.
57102		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Natural do Caraça, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça and Parque das Mangabeiras.
57102		distribution	eng	This newly described species from the state of Minas Gerais in southern Brazil is known only from the Serra do Curral and the Serra do Caraça, at around 850-1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
57102		habitat	eng	It lives in the transition zone between the Atlantic rainforest and the Cerrado savannah domains, where it is found on the margins of small streams in secondary gallery forest. It presumably breeds in the streams.
57102		population	eng	It is a common species within its small known range.
57102		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to the creation of wood plantations, logging, human settlement, tourism and fire.
57103		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional do Caparaó is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57103		distribution	eng	This high-altitude species is known only from Parque Nacional do Caparaó, in the state of Minas Gerais in south-eastern Brazil, where it occurs at around 2,300m asl. It might occur more widely.
57103		habitat	eng	It is associated with streams, in which it presumably breeds, in open high-altitude grassland.
57103		population	eng	Only a few specimens are known. The lack of subsequent records appears to be related to a lack of surveys, and there is insufficient information to know whether or not this species is common or rare.
57103		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is probably habitat loss due to fire and the effects of tourism.
57104		conservation	eng	At least ten protected areas occur within the range of the species. In Chile the species is listed as "Insufficiently Known" (Inadecuadamente conocida) (Reglamento de la Lez de Caza, Chile, 1998). Legislation to protect the native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest is needed.
57104		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the austral <em>Nothofagus</em> forests of Chile and Argentina. In Chile it is distributed from Ramadillas (37° 18'S) to Wellington Island (49° 10'S) in Valdivia, Osorno, Chiloé, and Pallena Provinces. In Argentina it is present in Neuquén, Río Negro and Chubut Provinces. Its altitudinal range of 0-1,000m asl.
57104		habitat	eng	It occurs below logs and rocks in wetlands of temperate <em>Nothofagus forest</em>. Adults occur in permanent and temporary pools, swamps, and marshes. It requires vegetation-surrounding wetlands for egg deposition. Larval development occurs in pools and ponds.
57104		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57104		threats	eng	Generally threatened by habitat destruction caused by wood extraction, establishment of pine plantations and loss of poolside breeding vegetation. Introduced predatory fishes (trout) might also present a threat to the species.
57105		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru, this species is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve and Parque Nacional Manu, and might also occur in Santiago Comaina, Pacaya Samiria and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones, Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Amarakaeri and Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zones and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.
57105		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin in southern Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru, and western Brazilian Amazonia along the Jurua River. In Peru, it is known from slopes east of the Andes to lowland Amazonian plains encompassing the Departaments of Amazonas, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and San Martin. Its altitudinal range is from 100-1,000m asl.
57105		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary tropical moist forest; specimens may be collected in clearings, open areas and banana groves. It breeds by direct development; gravid females contain 15-51 eggs. It is not known if it can occur in modified habitats.
57105		population	eng	It is a very common species throughout its range.
57105		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
57106		conservation	eng	Its range includes Carrasco and Amboro National Parks.
57106		distribution	eng	This species is known from seven localities Santa Cruz and Cochabamba departments on the eastern slope of the Andes in Bolivia, from 1,000-2,150m asl. It was formally known only from the type locality, Chape, in Florida Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, at 2,060m asl. It might well occur more widely.
57106		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits the Yungas forest. It has been found under rocks, and males have been observed perching on small secondary vegetation. It also tolerates disturbed habitats. There is no information known about breeding, although it probably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.
57106		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57106		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present.
57107		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Zona Reservada Biabo Cordillera Azul.
57107		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from the area of Ponga de Shilcayo and in the surrounding areas of near Tarapoto, Zapatero and Shapaja (San Martin Department), Peru. It is presumed that this species has a larger range, and that further sampling within the region will indicate this. It is present at altitudes of 360-680m asl.
57107		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of lowland tropical forest, which may also be found in rocky streambeds in ravines on mountain slopes. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
57107		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population status.
57107		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is possible that habitat degradation and loss is happening in the vicinity of the town of Tarapoto.
57108		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas, though habitat protection might be necessary in the future. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species.
57108		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality in the Cordillera del Cóndor (1830 masl), Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador.
57108		habitat	eng	This species can be found in subtropical old-growth forest. At Río Piuntza, Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador, two specimens were collected by day on the forest floor (Lynch 1974). It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development.
57108		population	eng	It was uncommon when last recorded in 1999.
57108		threats	eng	It occurs in an area that was mined during the Ecuador-Peru border war in 1995, with the result that there is little human activity in the area now. However, a proposed road might introduce threats to the area.
57109		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Estação Biológica de Santa Lúcia and the Reserva Biológica de Duas Bocas.
57109		distribution	eng	This species is known from three records: two from Espirito Santo State, and one from the type locality in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at around 700m asl.
57109		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in forest, and it is possibly an explosive breeder that is likely to breed by direct development.
57109		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
57109		threats	eng	Logging is a major threat to this species' habitat.
57110		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Defensores del Chaco in Paraguay, although it is not known from any protected areas in Argentina.
57110		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chaco of Paraguay (in Central, Presidente Hayes, and Alto Paraguay Departments) and northern Argentina (in Chaco, Cordoba, Corrientes, Formosa, Santa Fe, and Santiago del Estero Provinces). In Paraguay it occurs up to 200m asl.
57110		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry scrubland and semi-arid areas, and breeds in temporary pools and water tanks on cattle farms. In Argentina, it occurs in vegetation near saline lakes. During the dry season individuals burrow underground and wait for rains before emerging again. The breeding season is short and larval development is rapid.
57110		population	eng	It is a common species in Paraguay but is very rare in Argentina, where it was last collected in 1986. Extensive work in an area in Cordoba where it was once recorded has not turned up any recent specimens.
57110		threats	eng	This species can be threatened by fires, and potentially also by over-grazing by livestock.
57111		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57111		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern, central and eastern areas of Chacoan environments: Argentina (provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Salta, and Formosa), Bolivia (departments of Santa Cruz and Tarija), and Paraguay (departments of Presidente Hayes, Boquerón, and Alto Paraguay). Its altitudinal range is from 0-200m asl.
57111		habitat	eng	It occurs in the dry and wet Chaco. It breeds in temporary and artificial ponds. Its adaptation to anthropogenic disturbance is not known.
57111		population	eng	It is common in the northern portion of its range. It is rare and declining in Argentina.
57111		threats	eng	There are few threats at present, although the causes of the declines in Argentina are not understood, and fire and over-grazing by livestock could be involved. However, the possible future construction of a water channel to transport water from Río Paraguay to central Chaco will result in the introduction of a number of potential predatory fish species into Paraguay. Habitat destruction for agriculture is a threat in Argentina. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
57112		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Defensores del Chaco in Paraguay. In Argentina, occurs in the Chaco, Río Pilcomayo, and Copo National Parks, the Los Colorados Private Reserve, and the Teuquito Multiple Use Reserve. More research into the species' distribution, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
57112		distribution	eng	This species is known from La Rioja, Formosa, Cordoba, Salta, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, and Chaco provinces, Argentina, and also from adjacent Paraguay (Departamento Alto Paraguay). It occurs up to 300m asl.
57112		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species that inhabits dry scrubland and semi-arid areas. They breed in temporary pools and water tanks on cattle farms. During the dry season they burrow underground and wait for rain before emerging again. They have a very short breeding season and the tadpoles develop rapidly.
57112		population	eng	It is an uncommon species throughout its range.
57112		threats	eng	It is threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff.
57113		conservation	eng	It occurs in all the protected areas of Puerto Rico. A study of population trends is desirable (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
57113		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Puerto Rico, Isla Vieques, Isla Culebra, and the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. The altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,030m asl.
57113		habitat	eng	It is semi-aquatic, inhabiting streams, marshes, and irrigated fields, as well as drainage ditches and gutters in both forested, open country and urban areas. Males call from ground or aquatic vegetation, eggs are laid in foam nests.
57113		population	eng	While this species is abundant and widespread in the U.S. Virgin Islands, it appears to be in decline in the British Virgin Islands (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
57113		threats	eng	While this is an adaptable species and is known to occur in brackish waters, a potential threat to species viability in coastal wetlands is comprised by the predicted rise in sea level and salt water intrusion as a consequence of global warming (Rios-López, 2008).<br/><br/>Its tadpoles may be vulnerable to competition from <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> (Perry and Gerber, 2006).
57114		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas.
57114		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central America from the lowlands of the Pacific slope of Costa Rica, south through Panama to South America, it is also present on the Caribbean slope of Nicaragua and on Providencia and San Andrés Islands, Colombia and San Miguel and Saboga (Panamá). In South America it has a patchy distribution from Madeira River (Brazil) to the high Magdalena Valley in Colombia and southern Venezuela, southward to Bolivia, and also including Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It occurs up to 1,400m asl.
57114		habitat	eng	It is a large, mostly nocturnal species of open grassy areas, humid lowland forest, dry forest, secondary forest, swamps, pasture, drainage ditches and rice fields. It is not present in coffee plantations. The adults live in a burrow retreat, although there is no evidence that they excavate these burrows. It is usually associated with permanent water sources, although may also be found in marshes and temporary ponds. The eggs of the species are laid in foam nests, often hidden in vegetation. The larvae develop in shallow, muddy ponds, where they take refuge under leaves on the bottom. It probably breeds during the early to mid rainy season.
57114		population	eng	This is a common species.
57114		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; it does not appear to be affected by water pollution.
57115		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57115		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and southeastern Bolivia to northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Pantanal in Brazil. It can be found up to 800m asl.
57115		habitat	eng	It occurs in semi-arid environments. The males build a deep mud nest for egg laying at the borders of temporary ponds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57115		population	eng	It is common in most of its range and is abundant in Argentina.
57115		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
57116		conservation	eng	At least two protected areas are within the extent of occurrence of this species, but its occurrence in these areas is not confirmed.
57116		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Caatinga region of northeastern Brazil, from sea level to 400m asl, and it has also been recorded further south on the coast of Bahia state, Brazil. It is not known whether or not this coastal population is contiguous with the main range of the species.
57116		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of dry Caatinga savannah. Nothing is known about the ecology of this species, though it presumably breeds in temporary pools, like other species of the genus, and is a larval developer.
57116		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
57116		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, though overgrazing and fire could possibly impact it.
57117		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from within Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó.
57117		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, from 1,200m asl. Its range is not well known, and it probably occurs more widely.
57117		habitat	eng	This inhabitant of the Cerrado savannah lays its eggs in subterranean foam nests (sometimes under stones), and the larvae are then carried to water such as puddles, swamps or temporary ponds.
57117		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57117		threats	eng	Logging and fires are threats to this species. Disturbance of its habitat by tourists is also a major threat.
57118		conservation	eng	The taxonomy needed to resolve this species is complex. It occurs in several protected areas.
57118		distribution	eng	This species is known from Northern Argentina (Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Tucumán), Chaco and western oriental region of Paraguay; northern Uruguay (Artigas and Salto), lowland Bolivia; and parts of western (Acre) and southern Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul). It occurs from 0-1,000m asl.
57118		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground near ponds and flooded areas. It deposits eggs in large foam nests over puddles and flooded areas, with covered or bare vegetation, in water less than 15cm deep. Males call from the water's edge or from within the water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57118		population	eng	This is a common species. In Cordoba, populations have declined substantially due to persecution.
57118		threats	eng	It is consumed as food in Argentina, and this has lead to a decline in populations in Cordoba.
57119		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57119		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in Colombia and marginally in Venezuela in the foothills and lower slopes of the Andes. In Colombia it occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, in the Cauca and Magdalena valleys, and in the western and eastern foothills of the Cordillera Oriental (including the eastern Llanos area). In Venezuela it has been reported from the Doradas River area in Táchira State. Its altitudinal range is 140-1,800m asl, with a doubtful elevation record of 2,600m asl.
57119		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and lower montane and montane humid forest, but also in any degraded habitats where there are puddles. It is a terrestrial and nocturnal species, and is closely associated with waterbodies. It shelters on muddy holes near water, and it breeds in temporary pools, using foam nests.
57119		population	eng	It is an abundant species that appears to be increasing.
57119		threats	eng	It is not facing any significant threats.
57120		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57120		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of southeastern Brazil in the state of Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from 1,000-1,400m asl.
57120		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of the Cerrado. Eggs are laid in subterranean foam nests (sometimes under stones), and the tadpoles are carried by water to puddles and streams. It is not known whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57120		population	eng	It is a common species.
57120		threats	eng	Fire and disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat.
57121		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Peru including the Tambopata National Reserve.
57121		distribution	eng	This species is known from areas adjacent to the Rivers Tambopata and Manu (Madre de Dios), Peru; northern Bolivia and might occur in central Bolivia. It can be found at an elevation of up to 450m asl.
57121		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that is present in clearings in lowland primary and secondary tropical rainforest. Reproduction takes place in foam nests, in temporary ponds. It may be found in urban areas and other disturbed habitats.
57121		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57121		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species.
57122		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57122		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon Basin in Colombia and Venezuela. It can also be found in the northwestern sector of the Amazon basin in southwestern Colombia, northeastern Brazil, and extreme southern Venezuela. In Venezuela, it has been reported from Cerro Neblina, Estado Amazonas. Its distribution is not completely known. It can be found at altitudes below 400m asl.
57122		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rocky habitats in the forest of tropical rainforest. It also occurs in flooded forest. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water.
57122		population	eng	It is locally common.
57122		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57124		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57124		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Argentina, Paraguay, most of the lowlands of Bolivia and central Brazil. It can be found at elevations up to 500m asl.
57124		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species occuring in open habitats. It breeds in temporary ponds and northern populations do not adapt as well as other leptodactylids to anthropogenic disturbance, but it is still found in cattle areas. In Argentina, it does adapt to severe habitat disturbances.
57124		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
57124		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
57125		conservation	eng	The protected areas of Dominica are generally above the maximum known elevation of the species and contain few, if any, animals. Captive populations occur in Jersey (Montserrat origin), St Louis (Dominican origin) and some other zoos. No hunting of animals on Dominica has been allowed since 2003, and public awareness actions have taken place to inform the Dominican public of the magnitude of threat facing their national dish and to discourage illegal hunting.
57125		distribution	eng	This species occurs mostly on the western side of Dominica (there is a more limited population-possibly translocated or reintroduced-on the eastern side, but not mapped here) and in the Centre Hills of northern Montserrat, having been unsuccessfully introduced on Jamaica and Puerto Rico. It has apparently been extirpated from Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St Kitts, and might once also have occurred on St Lucia and Antigua. Its range is now restricted on Dominica to around 25 km² and to about 20 km² on Montserrat. It is a relatively low-altitude species on Dominica, occurring from sea level up to (rarely) 400 m asl. On Montserrat it is present from sea level to 430 m asl.
57125		habitat	eng	The species lives in dense secondary vegetation, plantations (Dominica only), ravines, and flooded forest. It is terrestrial and nocturnal, hiding in burrows during the day in moist forest. It appears as though the animals are associated with certain soil types that allow the digging of nests. The eggs are laid in foam nests at the bottom of a burrow. The tadpoles (26-43 per nest) develop terrestrially in the nest, not in water. Both females and males guard the nest. The larvae feed on infertile eggs deposited in the nest burrow by the female.
57125		population	eng	The species might have been in decline on Montserrat since Cyclone Hugo in 1989 and the Soufriere volcanic eruption of 1995, but analysis of census data does not confirm this (J. Fa pers. comm.). The population on the eastern Centre Hills of Montserrat is relatively inaccessible, and is consequently larger. On Dominica it was formerly abundant in suitable habitat (possibly as recently as 2002), despite heavy exploitation for food (estimated annual harvest of 8,000-36,000 animals), but the population started to crash during 2002 with few individuals reported in 2003, and it might now be nearing extinction with a population suggested to be as low as 8,000 animals (Magin 2004).
57125		threats	eng	The species is consumed by humans and is prized for its meat (both subsistence and commercial use for tourists), which has contributed to its decline. Substantial habitat loss is also taking place over much of its range due to agriculture, human settlement and pressure from touristic development. On Montserrat, populations in the South Soufriere Hills, Soufriere Hills and Garibaldi Hill have been lost to lava flows from recent volcanic eruptions. The population of Dominica, where the species was once most abundant, has declined catastrophically from 2002 until the present, following a major confirmed outbreak of the fungal disease chytridiomycosis. This decline is continuing and appears to have significantly impacted most, if not all, of the population in that country.
57126		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57126		distribution	eng	This species from southern and southeastern Brazil and adjacent coastal islands from the northern part of the State of Santa Catarina, north to the State of Rio de Janeiro. It ranges up to 800m asl.
57126		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, living in primary and secondary forest near streams, but not in more open areas. It breeds in streams.
57126		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57126		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, human settlement and tourism.
57127		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57127		distribution	eng	This species occurs from extreme southern Texas, USA, through Mexico and Central America to the Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia, through most of northern Venezuela, as far as the lower Orinoco basin, and the Llanos region of both Venezuela and Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,530m asl.
57127		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, nocturnal species found in savannah, grassland, semi-arid lands, and open habitats in humid and dry, lowland and montane tropical forests. It is seen near marshes, ponds, and any temporary lentic body of water, and is common in open and disturbed sites, and also in grasslands, cultivated fields, roadside ditches, and a wide variety of other habitats. It often hides under rocks or in burrows under clumps of grass. It lays its eggs in foam nests whipped from body secretions; foamy masses may be placed in excavations made in ground by male. The larvae live in the watery centre of the foam mass until rains allow them to swim into nearby pools.
57127		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species in a variety of habitats in the Yucatan Peninsula and vicinity (Lee 2000). In Texas, populations reportedly are sparse but probably stable (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) or extirpated (Dixon 2000). It is very common in Costa Rica, and is a very common species in South America.
57127		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is facing no major threats. It might be extirpated at the northern periphery of the range in southern Texas due to heavy use of organophosphates (Dixon 1987, 2000).
57128		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57128		distribution	eng	This species is known from central to southern Brazil; also in Uruguay (Riveira Department). Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.
57128		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas, on the ground, near waterbodies. It lays its eggs under the ground, and the tadpoles are carried by water to ponds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance (has been collected in Eucalyptus plantations).
57128		population	eng	It is a common species.
57128		threats	eng	Agriculture, extraction (mining), fire and infrastructure development (dams) are all threats.
57129		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas in South America, but none in Panama.
57129		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Panama from the Azuero Peninsula to central Panama, throughout South America, east of the Andes, south to southern Brazil, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. It is distributed over much of Trinidad and Tobago (including Little Tobago Island). It occurs up to 1,700m asl.
57129		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and nocturnal frog found in open country, savannahs, grasslands, marshy areas, degraded forests and urban habitats. Males of this species start calling at the onset of the very first rains. Breeding takes place in small burrows in shallow temporary wetlands and the edges of permanent lagoons. The eggs of the species are laid in foam nests within the burrows, when the burrows flood the larvae escape into the adjacent wetlands where the tadpoles then develop. It is an adaptable species that can survive in modified habitats.
57129		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range, although it is generally not a common species in Panama.
57129		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57130		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research to resolve this species complex is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
57130		distribution	eng	This species is known from Southern Brazil through Uruguay to Paraguay (lower Chaco and the south), inter-Andean dry valleys in Bolivia, and northern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Misiones, Salta, Santa Fe, San Luis, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán). It occurs from 0-1,700m asl.
57130		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species occuring in open areas, on the ground near waterbodies. It deposits its eggs in foam nests in terrestrial burrows, and the larval development takes place in temporary ponds and flooded grasslands. It is also found in urban areas in southern Brazil.
57130		population	eng	It is uncommon in Bolivia and Paraguay, but common in southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.
57130		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57131		conservation	eng	In Bolivia it is present in Madidi and Carrasco protected areas. In Peru this species might occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Tingo Maria and Yanachaga Chemillen National Parks, Yanesha Communal Reserve, Bosque de Proteccion San Matias San Carlos and Apurimac Reserved Zone (although this requires confirmation). There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
57131		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andes of southern and central Peru and northern Bolivia. In Peru it occurs on the northeastern slopes of the Andes to central-eastern slopes, encompassing the Departments of Huánuco, Ayacucho, Junin, Pasco, San Martin and Ucayali. In Bolivia it is present in the Departamentos of La Paz and Cochabamba. It has an altitudinal range of 100-1,800m asl.
57131		habitat	eng	This species can be found in both montane primary and lowland tropical moist forest of the Amazonian slopes and Andes foothills of the Andes. Breeding takes place in foam nests within stagnant waters. Occasionally it is found close to roadside ditches in forest habitat.
57131		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57131		threats	eng	At present, there are only localized threats to this species. Certain populations are probably impacted by deforestation.
57132		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
57132		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, near Cartagena, in Colombia. The type locality is unspecific and hence it is not possible to determine the distribution of this species.
57132		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
57132		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
57132		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
57133		conservation	eng	No information is available. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still survives.
57133		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Nossa Senhora do Socorro, in the state of Sergipe, in north-eastern Brazil.
57133		habitat	eng	If it is like other members of its genus, it probably occurs near forest waterbodies, and makes foam nests in temporary pools.
57133		population	eng	There have been no records of it since the original collection in the 1860s.
57133		threats	eng	If this is a forest-dwelling species, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging, livestock grazing and human settlement.
57134		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57134		distribution	eng	<em>Leptodactylus jolyi</em> is known to occur in disturbed areas around Paranapiacaba and Rio Grande da Serra (around 23 44’ 21’’ S, 46 23’ 02” W, 760 masl), both in the state of São Paulo, Brazil (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). Cerrado populations from Minas Gerais and São Paulo may be conspecific with <em>Leptodactylus sertanejo</em>.
57134		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, grassland species, usually found near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary pools, digging its nest near the water. Males call from human altered habitats such as fallow plots in urban areas covered by short (< 1m tall) grass-like vegetation. Males call either from within underground chambers or exposed (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). The reproductive season coincides with the rainy season (September-February). Clutch size is unknown (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm. 2008).
57134		population	eng	It is common at the type locality (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm. 2008).
57134		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, tourism and fire.
57135		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and in Venezuela it occurs in the Canaima National Park, and in Biosphere Reserves like the Orinoco-Casiquiare.
57135		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Greater Amazon basin of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Brazil north to Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas. In Trinidad and Tobago it is known only from a single specimen collected at an unspecified locality on Trinidad Island in 1915; verification of the presence of the species in Trinidad and Tobago is needed and it is not mapped here. This species occurs from sea level to 1,800m asl.
57135		habitat	eng	This species can be found on the forest floor and in burrows; savannah enclaves in the tropical old and second growth rainforest; usually call next to temporary or semi-permanent waterbodies. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in Terra Firme forest on leaf-litter (Ron, 2001). At Iquitos region, this nocturnal frog inhabits upland forests, where pairs construct foam nests in depressions next to shallow pools (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Guyana, the species appears to prefer habitats that contain large and deep lentic sites exhibiting comparatively high dynamics due to frequent flooding and draining events. It has been recorded in both primary and exploited forest sites, although reproduction could only be confirmed in primary forest (Ernst et al., 2007).
57135		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
57135		threats	eng	It is, overall, not seriously threatened and is reasonably adaptable. Selective logging, however, may affect larval growth and survival (Ernst et al., 2007).
57136		conservation	eng	Given its geographical distribution, this species might occur in Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape and El Angolo Game Preserve in Peru. It occurs in Machililla, Manglares Churute, and Mache Chindu National Parks.
57136		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal central Ecuador to coastal central Peru (Congon). In Peru it occurs in Departments of Ancash, Cajamarca, Piura, and La Libertad. Its altitudinal range is 0-400m asl.
57136		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry equatorial forest. In this area, however, it is completely restricted to wet areas. Specimens of this species have been taken on the floor of scrub forest as well as in and about drainage ditches and bushes at a farm (Heyer and Peters, 1971). It occurs also in secondary forest. Eggs are deposited in foam nests in waterbodies.
57136		population	eng	It is uncommon in Ecuador (recorded in 2002) and Peru (recorded in 2001).
57136		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species.
57137		conservation	eng	The species has been used in experimental commercial frog farms (Péfaur and Sierra 1995). It occurs in many protected areas.
57137		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cerrados and Caatingas Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Bolivia, northern Argentina (Misiones and Corrientes Provinces), and southern Brazil. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000m asl.
57137		habitat	eng	This species can be found in open habitats and savannah enclaves in dry and moist tropical forests. In Bolivia it has been reported from primary and secondary forests, along rivers, and in pasturelands; also in temporary ponds (De la Riva 1993). It occurs in the water or on the ground near waterbodies. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. It is a very adaptable species and is a hgood coloniser of man-made, or formerly closed habitats (Heyer 2005).
57137		population	eng	It is presumably a common species over much of its range.
57137		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is harvested for human consumption, but there is no evidence that this is at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
57138		conservation	eng	It does occur in several protected areas, but monitoring of its population status is needed, and there is a need to ensure that harvesting of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner.
57138		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina, from 0-300m asl.
57138		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of open habitats that breeds in temporary ponds. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57138		population	eng	It is common in parts of Paraguay and Bolivia but is rare in Argentina due to over-harvesting for the international pet trade.
57138		threats	eng	Over-harvesting for the international pet trade is a major threat. It is collected in Paraguay and Argentina, and each adult is worth $300-$600.
57139		conservation	eng	The taxonomy to determine the status of the southern distribution of this complex species is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
57139		distribution	eng	This species is known from Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Salta, Santa Fe, San Luis, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán (Argentina); Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, Tarija (Bolivia); Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil); southern Paraguay; and Uruguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-600m asl.
57139		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species found in grassland habitats. It occurs on the ground near waterbodies. It breeds underground (making its nests in chambers beneath the soil), and the larvae then develop in water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57139		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57139		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
57140		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, including Canaima National Park.
57140		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Brazilian Amazonia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela (1 record) and the Guianas. Its altitudinal range is from 15-700m asl.
57140		habitat	eng	It is found in savannahs, open areas, forest edges, and secondary and primary lowland forest. It can sometimes be found under logs. Reproduction occurs in temporary waterbodies. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water.
57140		population	eng	It is common in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Colombia, but rare in Colombia.
57140		threats	eng	It is not seriously threatened. It is possibly impacted locally from fire and serious habitat degradation, though it is tolerant of some habitat modification.
57141		conservation	eng	Some populations are found within protected areas.
57141		distribution	eng	This species occurs below 1,250m asl in southern Venezuela and eastern Colombia. In Venezuela, it has been reported from Amazonas and Bolívar states, and in Colombia from Guainia and Vichada states. There are two isolated populations on rocky outcrops in southern Colombia.
57141		habitat	eng	It is a rock-dwelling, nocturnal, terrestrial frog inhabiting rocky areas (both granitic and sandstone) in both savannah and forest. It is associated with streams. It builds a foam nest, and the tadpoles live in splash zones on rocks out of the water.
57141		population	eng	It is a common species.
57141		threats	eng	No threats are known.
57142		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.
57142		distribution	eng	This species is known from Colombia (one locality in Guania), Venezuela (the states of Bolívar and Amazonas), Brazil (Amazonia-Tapajos National Park), and Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. It has been recorded up to 1,300m asl.
57142		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas and rural gardens, as well as forests. Gorzula and Señaris (1999) stated that it is an indicator of oligotrophic non-forest areas. Some individuals sit at the edges of water in ditches or streams by day, but most sit on the ground by night, sheltered by rocks or leaves. Some specimens were found sitting in the openings of holes in the ground, and most juveniles shelter under rocks or logs by day (Duellman 1997). The eggs are laid in foam nests on land, and the tadpoles then develop in lentic water. It is tolerant of habitat modification.
57142		population	eng	It is a common species. Duellman (1997) reported this species to be abundant throughout the cloud forest and in the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela.
57142		threats	eng	There are no threats to this adaptable species.
57143		conservation	eng	The range does not include any protected areas, so protection of remaining habitat at sites at which this species is known to occur is urgently needed. Additional survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
57143		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of Cerro Socopó, about 30km by road south-west of Guajiro, in the municipality of Mauroa in Falcón State, Venezuela, at about 1,250m asl. Mijares (1997) suggested it might be present in Cerro Azul (about 1,880m asl) and Cerro Cerrón (about 2,080m asl). These Cerros, along with Cerro Socopó, comprise the Serrania de Ziruma.
57143		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams bordered by open vegetation with shrubs and herbaceous plants. The habitat surrounding the known localities is artificial open land, which is a result of the clearing of cloud forest, suggesting that the species may inhabit other natural open places nearby. It is a diurnal terrestrial species that breeds in ponds. It makes foam nests on the water and the tadpoles are free-living.
57143		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. It is known from only two collections, both made prior to the description of the species in 1997. A brief attempt to find the species in 2003 was not successful, perhaps because this survey took place below the elevation at which this species was previously recorded.
57143		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and fires, and pollution as a result of agricultural activities.
57144		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57144		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Tamaulipas on the Atlantic slope of Mexico, and from southern Sonora on the Pacific slope of Mexico, southwards through Central America to South America west to the Andes, as far south as Rios Province in Ecuador. It occurs from sea level up to 1,550m asl.
57144		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, but also survives in mangroves, open grassy areas, flooded pastures, disturbed secondary growth, farmland and urban areas. It reproduces by larval development in foam nests in burrows, usually on the edge of temporary waterbodies. The species exhibits parental care, with the female creating a channel to move the larvae if the burrow dries.
57144		population	eng	It is common to abundant throughout its range.
57144		threats	eng	It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying.
57145		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within the range of this species.
57145		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guianan region of Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. It has not yet been recorded from Guyana. In Brazil, it is known from Acre, Pará and Roraima (Heyer, 2005). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs from sea level up to 600m asl.
57145		habitat	eng	It inhabits rocky outcrop areas, in lowland tropical rainforest (Heyer, 1995; Heyer, 2005). It places foam nests under stones, and the tadpoles are raised in riverlets during the rainy season.
57145		population	eng	It is a common species.
57145		threats	eng	There are no threats to this widespread species at present.
57146		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57146		distribution	eng	This species is known from Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, northeastern and central Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. It does not occur as far south as Paraguay (Heyer, 1978). It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
57146		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary tropical rainforests, forest edge, and savannah enclaves in forest, flooded and open environments. It lives on the ground around temporary ponds and other waterbodies. The males construct basins in muddy areas that are flooded by heavy rains. Eggs are laid in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in lentic water. It is adaptable to human modification of its habitat.
57146		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
57146		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Fire, clear cutting, logging, infrastructure development and agricultural expansion might impact local populations.
57147		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of this complex species. It occurs in several protected areas.
57147		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern foothills of the Andes in Bolivia and the Yungas of northwest Argentina, extending eastward through Paraguay, Mato Grosso and Goiás to Bahia, Brazil. It ranges southward to central Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Misiones, Salta, Santa Fe, San Luis, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán) and Uruguay. It occurs from 0-1,800m asl.
57147		habitat	eng	It occurs throughout the Chaco and much of the Cerrado in grassland, on the ground near standing waterbodies where it breeds. Reproduction occurs in foam nests under ground and the larvae develop in water. Reproductive activity in southeastern Brazil has been reported for the month of October, although the species may potentially reproduce in August, September and November (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).  It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance. Some populations occur in forests and deforested areas.
57147		population	eng	It is abundant in Argentina and fairly common elsewhere. This species occurs in dispersed populations so large series are rarely collected.
57147		threats	eng	There are no threats, although some populations might be susceptible to clear-cutting.
57148		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57148		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in eastern Brazil from the State of Rio Grande do Norte, south to the eastern part of the State of Sao Paulo. It occurs from the lowlands up to 900m asl.
57148		habitat	eng	It lives in muddy places at secondary lowland forests, shrubby vegetation, and wet cow pastures near forest, but not in primary forest. It breeds in temporary ponds.
57148		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57148		threats	eng	Apart from the impacts of clear-cutting and overgrazing by livestock, this species is probably not facing any threats.
57149		conservation	eng	Since it currently has no formal protection, consideration should be given to establishing Icacos Swamp as a protected area. There remains a need for further surveys at appropriate times of the year at the type locality to determine whether or not this species still persists.
57149		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Icacos Swamp on the south-western peninsula of Trinidad Island, Trinidad and Tobago.
57149		habitat	eng	A specimen of this species was found calling at night in a burrow under a mass of fern roots in a stagnant swamp. It is presumed to use aquatic habitats for breeding and to breed by larval development.
57149		population	eng	The current population status of this species is not known. Since the species was described, extensive surveys of the type locality have not located any further specimens.
57149		threats	eng	There are no known threats at present; the Icacos Swamp is a relatively pristine area.
57150		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.
57150		distribution	eng	This species is known from São Paulo State to Santa Catarina State, Brazil. It occurs up to 900m asl.
57150		habitat	eng	It is known from open areas along river and forest edges, and in natural and anthropogenic clearings in forest. Males of this species start calling at the onset of the very first rains, and then breeding occurs, prior to flooding, in small burrows excavated by the males in shallow temporary pools. Eggs are laid in foam nests.
57150		population	eng	It is a common species.
57150		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development for tourism are major threats.
57151		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
57151		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in South America east of the Andes. It occurs in: the Icacos Swamp in the southwest peninsula of Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago); the Orinoco basin of Colombia and southern Venezuela; the Guianas (only in savannah areas) south through Amazon Basin in Brazil to northern and eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz); the States of Amazonas, Bahia, Ceará, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and São Paulo in Brazil; eastern Paraguay; the whole of Uruguay; and the States of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, La Pampa, Misiones, Neuquén, Río Negro, Santa Fé, San Juan and San Luis in Argentina. The identity of specimens referred to this species in Venezuela remains unclear. It has been recorded from sea level to around 1,400m asl.
57151		habitat	eng	It occurs in many habitats, including savannahs, grasslands, open habitats in dry areas, forest edge, and along riverbanks in humid tropical forests. This species is well adapted to habitat modification and disturbance, and can be found in rural gardens, secondary habitats and urban areas. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies. It is frequently found in ponds, small lakes or flooded areas. The spawn is deposited in large foam nests on the water surface. Tadpoles exhibit schooling behavior. Specimens have been found along the banks of large lagoons in Bolívar state, Venezuela.
57151		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout much of its range. The population in Uruguay is stable.
57151		threats	eng	There is no significant threat, since it is very adaptable. Hunting for food might impact populations locally, as might extreme habitat degradation and fire.
57152		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this complex species.
57152		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil. It has an altitudinal range from sea level up to 1,700m asl. In Brazil it is only known from Roraima state.
57152		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor in gallery forests, but apparently it is not present in open savannahs in Venezuela, but is found at forest edges in savannahs in Brazil. It lays its eggs in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in water. It is adaptable to human habitats and occurs in completely disturbed areas including cattle pastures.
57152		population	eng	It is a common species.
57152		threats	eng	There are no threats to this widespread, adaptable species.
57153		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Yanachaga Chemillen (J. Icochea pers. comm.). It might also occur in Yanesha Communal Reserve and Bosque de Proteccion San Matias San Carlos.
57153		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chontilla, Iscozazin Valley, Pasco, and Serrania de Sira, Huánuco, central Peru, east of the Andes. Its altitudinal range is from 780-2,500m asl.
57153		habitat	eng	This species can be found on the forest floor of the Amazonian flanks of the Andes. Reproduction takes place in foam nests in temporary ponds. There is no information on whether or not this species can occur in modified habitats.
57153		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
57153		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to increased agricultural activity, largely driven by government policies (land tenancy of the area is conditional upon converting forest to agricultural land).
57154		conservation	eng	Many populations are protected within protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
57154		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Amazon forest. It ranges from southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador and eastern Peru in the west of its range, into northern Bolivia, much of central and parts of norther Brazil, with records from French Guiana.
57154		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial frog found in leaf-litter in primary, secondary, and seasonally flooded tropical rainforests. It has also been found in more open areas and in seasonally flooded forest. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies; tadpoles are carnivorous and cannibalistic. Eggs are found in foam nest and tadpoles are usually found in lentic water (though in some places the larvae are terrestrial).
57154		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
57154		threats	eng	There are no threats. It might be locally threatened in Colombia by consumption by Amerindian people. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
57155		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57155		distribution	eng	This species is known from Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, and the Amazon basin in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and isolated localities from the Cerrado in central Brazil. It has been recorded up to 600m asl. Before a recent revision (1994) of this taxon, it was confused as<em> Leptodactylus podicipinus</em> and <em>Leptodactylus wagneri</em>, and no major revision of Venezuelan material has been undertaken, the true geographic distribution of the species in unclear in Venezuela. The listed Venezuelan localities produce an unlikely distribution pattern, and so it is necessary to confirm the identity of Venezuelan specimens in order to clarify its geographic range in this country.
57155		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of tropical rainforest, forest edge, open areas, savannah enclaves in the tropical rainforest, and open Cerrado formations. It is usually found on the ground near waterbodies. It lays its eggs in foam nests in temporary pools, and the tadpoles develop in lentic water. It is considered to be a highly adaptable species to secondary and anthropogenic habitats. In Guyana, this species was found in primary forest exclusively, and it appears to prefer habitats that can be characterized by open, scarcely vegetated understorey and the presence of large, highly dynamic aquatic sites (Ernst et al., 2007).
57155		population	eng	It is a common species.
57155		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Changes in thermal environment, however, can affect larval growth and survival (Ernst et al., 2007).
57156		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57156		distribution	eng	This species is known from Misiones, Argentina; Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, and Santa Catarina, Brasil. Here, its altitudinal range is from 400-1,200m asl. The range of this species is not completely understood because in appearance it is very similar to Leptodactylus gracilis.
57156		habitat	eng	This species can be found in savannahs and forest edges. It reproduces in foam nests placed in holes dug into the ground. It occurs in deforested areas, and adapts fairly well to agricultural activities.
57156		population	eng	It ranges from abundant to common across its range. Populations in Misiones are stable.
57156		threats	eng	Cattle ranching is a threat in Brazil. In Misiones, the establishment of pine plantations threatens populations.
57157		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57157		distribution	eng	This species is known from open formations of Paraguay south to Uruguay (Salto Department), adjacent Argentina, Bolivia, central and western Brazil, and extending along the Rio Madeira and Rio Amazonas within the Amazon basin. An outlier population occurs in Igarapé Belém, Amazonas, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
57157		habitat	eng	It lives in grasslands and open habitats, often living near ponds and flooded areas. It lays eggs in foam nests at the edges of permanent and temporary ponds and flooded areas, whether or not covered or cleared of vegetation, but generally in shaded areas about 5 cm deep. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance (occurs in urban areas in northern Argentina).
57157		population	eng	It ranges from rare to very common throughout its range (common especially in suitable habitat).
57157		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57158		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas,
57158		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South America near the coast in north-central and northeastern Colombia and in northwestern and north-central Venezuela. It is a lowland species that is usually found close to sea level. In Central America it is known from the lowlands of the Pacific slope from northwestern Costa Rica to northern Colombia, although its occurrence in northwestern Colombia is presumed, since the species also occurs in Panama, but it is not been recorded from this area and is, therefore, not mapped as doing so. Atlantic slope records also indicate the region near Laguna de Arenal and the San Carlos area in Costa Rica and the Canal Zone area of central Panama, from 3-1,150m asl.
57158		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species associated with open habitats in humid lowland forest, other forest types, grassland, marshes, swamps, temporary ponds and ditches. In Costa Rica, animals can frequently be found in urban areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The species is an explosive breeder that deposits eggs in temporary and permanent ponds.
57158		population	eng	It is a common species.
57158		threats	eng	It is opportunistic, and is not facing any known threats.
57159		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57159		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central Brazilian Cerrado, from the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso and Tocantins, Ceara and Maranhão. It has been recorded from 400-1,000m asl.
57159		habitat	eng	It occurs in Cerrado savannah on the ground near permanent waterbodies, where it also breeds. It vocalizes in open areas. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance (even occurring in urban areas).
57159		population	eng	It is a common species.
57159		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57160		conservation	eng	Many populations are within protected areas.
57160		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon basin of Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil. Records from southern Venezuela are misidentified specimens of <em>L. riveroi</em>. It has an altitudinal range of 0-500m asl.
57160		habitat	eng	This species can be found in leaf-litter on forest floor and in swamps in tropical rainforest; also found on the edges of clearings and in more open areas in forest. Reproduction occurs in semi-permanent waterbodies. Males call from within holes in the ground. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. Tadpoles resemble those of <em>Hypsiboas geographicus</em> and <em>Leptodactylus riveroi</em>, but do not form schools (Lima, 1992). In Guyana, the species was observed to prefer habitats characterized by an open canopy and the presence of small and shallow, but comparatively persistent, aquatic habitats, often occurring in disturbed habitats and to a lesser degree within primary forest (Ernst et al., 2007).
57160		population	eng	It is common to locally common throughout its range.
57160		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
57161		conservation	eng	It is present in numerous protected areas in Peru and Bolivia. In Brazil it has been recorded in the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre.
57161		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes, Departments of San Martin, Pasco, Loreto, Cusco, Junin, Huánuco, and Madre de Dios, Amazonian Peru; eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes. It is also present in Leticia, Colombia and western Acre State, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 200-2,050m asl.
57161		habitat	eng	This species can be found in lowland rainforests as well as montane rainforests. It breeds in pools and other stagnant waters. It may be found in roadside ditches, and completely degraded areas.
57161		population	eng	It is a frequently observed species.
57161		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
57162		conservation	eng	The conservation measures are not known.
57162		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Nauta, in Loreto Region, Peru. The type specimen has been lost, and attempts to map this species' range can only mark the approximate position of the type locality, and should therefore be regarded as provisional.
57162		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
57162		population	eng	Nothing about this species' population status is known.
57162		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
57163		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57163		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon basin in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela, at altitudes from 90-450m asl. In the Brazilian Amazon, it is known only from fragmented forests around Manaus, in Amazonas state.
57163		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species found at regular intervals on the forest floor and along the banks of rivers in tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in lentic water. The tadpoles resemble those of L. rhodomystax and Hypsiboas geographicus, forming congregations.
57163		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57163		threats	eng	Mining and associated water pollution is a major threat to the species' habitat.
57164		conservation	eng	Its range includes Canaima National Park and Kaiteur National Park.
57164		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Bolívar, in Venezuela and Guyana (Chinoweing and Kaiteur Falls). It has been recorded from 230-2,100m asl.
57164		habitat	eng	This moderately large, terrestrial Leptodactylus is found in tropical rainforests. In the La Escalera region, Venezuela, most individuals were associated with seepages and rivulets on granitic bedrock (Duellman 1997) that seems to be characteristic of the species' habitat throughout its range (Heyer 1995). Its presence is invariably associated with seasonally dry rocky areas such as granite outcrops and sandstone escarpments (Gorzula and Señaris 1999). Breeding occurs on bedrock seepage and very shallow water-foam nests. Tadpoles swim over rocks (very common on rock surfaces).
57164		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
57164		threats	eng	Fires are a threat to the species' habitat locally, but in general it is not significantly threatened.
57165		conservation	eng	Its range includes Canaima National Park, in Bolivar State, Venezuela.
57165		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela. It might occur a little more widely. It has been recorded from 800-1,250m asl.
57165		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of savannahs (natural and human induced by fire destruction of original moist tropical forest). Duellman (1997) reported that this species was found in cloud forests on the slopes of the Sierra de Lema and in the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela, under rocks and logs by day and on open ground at night, especially at the edges of small ponds and slow-moving streams. In heavy rains they begin to call a lot. They lay masses of eggs in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in water.
57165		population	eng	It is a common species within its range.
57165		threats	eng	Fires are a threat to the species' habitat locally, but in general it is not significantly threatened.
57166		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas, although it does occur near the edge of Parque Nacional Celaque. While further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range, improved habitat protection and maintenance of the existing habitat is also urgently needed.
57166		distribution	eng	This species is known from Montañas de Celaque and Sierra del Merendón in the Department of Ocotepeque in extreme western Honduras, at elevations of 1,470-2,000m asl.
57166		habitat	eng	The species has been collected in pastures around small ponds and inundated areas in premontane moist forest and lower montane moist forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams.
57166		population	eng	It is known from only three localities: it has already disappeared from one of these (El Chagüitón); at the second (Belén Gualcho), it persists rather precariously in a pool dug to provide water for cattle in a pasture; and at the third (El Portillo), its status is unknown.
57166		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by agriculture and the creation of pasture for cattle ranching, as well as urbanization, is the main threat to this species.
57167		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).
57167		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern Brazil, from the State of Paraiba west to the State of Ceará, south to the State of Rio de Janeiro and extreme northern São Paulo. It occurs up to 900m asl.
57167		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, including dry forest and forest edge, but not in open areas. It may also be found in cacao plantations. It digs subterranean burrows near temporary ponds, in which it breeds.
57167		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57167		threats	eng	Apart from the impacts of clear-cutting, intensive agriculture and overgrazing by livestock, this species is probably not facing any threats.
57168		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57168		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central and western Amazon basin from the Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru to Brazil. It is generally found in the lowlands, but there are records up to 1,200m asl in Ecuador.
57168		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor of tropical rainforest, including secondary forest, and more open areas in forest. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. Adults tend to occur in holes in the ground.
57168		population	eng	It is common in the Guianas and Brazil but uncommon in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
57168		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular agricultural expansion, logging and fire are threats to this species.
57169		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57169		distribution	eng	This species is known from central, southeastern and northeastern Brazil, eastern Bolivia and southern Paraguay. It occurs up to 2,000m asl.
57169		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas and rocky outcrops, in rock or termite cavities and the tadpoles develop in lentic habitats (quiet side pools of the stream). It does not seem to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57169		population	eng	It is only common in ideal habitat situations.
57169		threats	eng	There is little information, but overgrazing, agricultural intensification, and fire might impact local populations.
57170		conservation	eng	This species' type locality is within Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros.
57170		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Alto Paraíso de Goiás, in Goiás State, Brazil, at 1,200m asl.
57170		habitat	eng	It occurs in open habitat in grasslands near waterbodies. The larvae are found in streams running down the hillsides.
57170		population	eng	The current population status is not known.
57170		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
57171		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
57171		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil has a very wide range from northern Minas Gerais and northern Bahia, north to the States of Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, and Rio Grande do Norte.
57171		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry and moist savannah and agricultural land in the Cerrado and Caatinga ecosystems, and in dune systems in Atlantic Rainforest zone. It builds foam nests and incubating chambers on wet ground near temporary ponds. The larvae develop in water.
57171		population	eng	It is a common species. In Bahia, the species occurs in high densities on preserved habitats in the northern region, but is absent from sites further south with more human pressure (Tinoco et al., 2008).
57171		threats	eng	Apart from the impacts of intensive agriculture, overgrazing by livestock and fire, this species is probably not facing any threats. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008)
57172		conservation	eng	In Tobago it occurs within protected forest areas. It is not known to occur in any protected areas elsewhere in its range.
57172		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lesser Antillean islands of St. Vincent and Bequia (St Vincent and Grenada banks), Grenada and is widespread on the continental islands of Trinidad and Tobago. It has been recorded from sea level up to near 730m asl.
57172		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and nocturnal forest and forest edge species often found close to forest stream banks, shaded gullies, and caves. It may also be found in meadows, at roadsides in parks and rural yards. The species breeds in waterbodies such as streams and drainage ditches, and the larva develop in these wetlands. The eggs are laid in foam nests in temporary ponds and ditches, and the larvae develop in water. It is able to adapt well to altered habitats.
57172		population	eng	It is a common species throughout most of its range. <br/><br/>Its present status in Bequia is unknown (Daudin and de Silva, 2007).
57172		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is taking place due to urbanization and tourism development, as well as for agriculture, but it is not known how this is affecting the species. There are no known threats to this species in Trinidad and Tobago.
57173		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57173		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Pacific slope of Colombia (Antioquia Department) to central Ecuador, at elevations of 0-1,400m asl. See taxonomic note.
57173		habitat	eng	This species can be found in open areas of lowland and montane dry and moist tropical forests. It known to occur in human-modified habitats such as roadsides, pastures, secondary forest as well as the interior of old growth forest. It lays eggs in foam nests attached to low vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.
57173		population	eng	It is common in Ecuador (recorded in 2003) but possibly uncommon in Colombia where research effort has been more limited.
57173		threats	eng	It is threatened by agrochemicals, but persists in severely deforested areas.
57174		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57174		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities at around 200m asl in the state of Bahia, in eastern Brazil: Itajibá and Guaratinga. It will probably prove to be more widespread.
57174		habitat	eng	This is a species of wet pastures at the edge of forest, which can survive in wet fields outside forest. It breeds using foam nests in temporary pools.
57174		population	eng	It is abundant in its two known localities.
57174		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, creation of wood plantations and human settlement.
57175		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
57175		distribution	eng	This species is present as disjunctive populations in southern Colombia; throughout much of Amazonian Ecuador; disjunctive populations in northern Peru and western Brazil (Acre). It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,800m asl.
57175		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that occurs in a wide variety of habitats. Specimens have been found in clearings, marshes and swamps, primary forest, secondary forest, terra firme forest, flooded forest, streams, and lakes (Duellman, 1978; Ron, 2001). It is usually not found too far from waterbodies. Eggs are laid in foam nests in lentic waterbodies; the tadpoles develop in these areas. It may be found in modified areas including agricultural land.
57175		population	eng	Its abundance is variable throughout its range.
57175		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species; it can adapt to modified habitats.
57176		conservation	eng	It occurs in Nonoai State Park, Rio Grande do Sul. It is listed by Paraná state as critically endangered. It occurs in Iguazu and El Palmar National Parks and the Yaboti Biosphere Reserve in Argentina.
57176		distribution	eng	This species is known from Southern Brazil (Paraná to Rio Grande do Sul), Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina (Misiones and Entre Rios). It has an altitudinal range of 0-1,200m asl.
57176		habitat	eng	It occurs in open and forested areas on rocky soil along rivers. Tadpoles are found in temporary ponds along rivers. It occurs in deforested areas.
57176		population	eng	In Paraná, the Itaipú dam destroyed all known populations. The status in Santa Catarina is unknown. It is common in fairly disturbed sites in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and Uruguay. It is common in Misiones and Uruguay.
57176		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to agricultural activities, water pollution, hydroelectric development, and pine plantations are all threats.
57177		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57177		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Orinoco Basin of Colombia and Venezuela and the Amazonian basin of Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. In Trinidad and Tobago it is known only from a single specimen collected at an unspecified locality on Trinidad Island in 1915; verification of the presence of the species in Trinidad and Tobago is needed. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl (Bolivia).
57177		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial frog of primary and secondary tropical rainforest, that is often associated with ant nests (<em>Atta</em> spp.). It can be found at the forest edge, pastures, and, in Bolivia, in the gallery forest within wet savannah. Animals can be found below logs, leaf-litter and other cover in forests. The species builds foam nests at the edge of temporary pools; the larvae develop within these waterbodies. It has been recorded from logged forest, although its ability to adapt over the long-term is unclear.
57177		population	eng	It is locally common throughout its range.
57177		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57178		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57178		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the central part of the State of Alagoas, south to the state of São Paulo. It is a lowland species, occurring up to 600m asl.
57178		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and old secondary forest, and also in agro forestry systems such as cacao plantations. It is usually found on the ground near waterbodies. It is an explosive breeder, using temporary still waters.
57178		population	eng	It is generally uncommon, though it is locally very common in cacao plantations in the State of Espírito Santo. At Reserva Florestal de Morro Grande, the use of sampling techniques that target leaf litter taxa shed 18 individuals for this species (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).
57178		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, wood plantations, logging and human settlement.
57179		conservation	eng	Larvae of this species have been observed in Parque Estadual da Pedra Azul.
57179		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality and the vicinity of the fountainhead of the Rio Jucu, next to Parque Estadual de Pedra Azul, in the municipality of Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. It has been observed at 1,200-1,500m asl. This species might occur a little more widely, but it might also be restricted to a single river drainage.
57179		habitat	eng	This species is associated with clean, cold upland streams with some lentic water pools in the Atlantic rainforest, and it is assumed that it does not tolerate habitat modification. Larvae have been observed in the pools.
57179		population	eng	It is presumed to have a low population density, as with other members of this genus.
57179		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be adversely affected by forest loss due to smallholder agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
57180		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is within Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.
57180		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Bocaina, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The exact locality is not known but is thought to be above 500m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.
57180		habitat	eng	The single specimen from which this species is known was found concealed under a rock at the margin of a mountain stream at night. This species presumably breeds in streams like other species in the genus.
57180		population	eng	This species is known from only one specimen.
57180		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown, however its habitat is within a protected area.
57181		conservation	eng	Parque Florestal do Itapetinga is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57181		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Florestal do Itapetinga, Atibaia, in São Paulo State, Brazil. This locality is at around 800m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.
57181		habitat	eng	Individuals were found in a small, clean, cold montane rivulet in forest, and larvae were found in deeper pools.
57181		population	eng	The population status is unknown, this species is only known from a few specimens.
57181		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to human settlement and fire might be threats to this species.<br/><br/>A similar species (<em>Megaelosia</em> cf. <em>boticariana</em>) has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).
57182		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed, in particular to determine whether or not the species occurs within the two disjunctive populations.
57182		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Serra do Mar in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, Brazil. It is known from above 900m asl. It is also known from one locality in southern Rio de Janeiro State.
57182		habitat	eng	It occurs during the day on emergent rocks in shallow places in primary forest. Larvae were collected from under large rocks in a moderate-sized forest stream. The tadpoles develop in the streams. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.
57182		population	eng	It is a common species, but very difficult to catch.
57182		threats	eng	This species is restricted to primary forest and is threatened by water pollution, infrastructure development, and any kind of forest clearance.
57183		conservation	eng	Parque Nacional do Itatiaia is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57183		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, although it probably occurs more widely. The locality is somewhere between 500-1,000m asl.
57183		habitat	eng	During the day it is found on emergent rocks in shallow places in streams in primary forest. Eggs are laid under large rocks in moderately-sized forest streams, in which the larvae also develop.
57183		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, as it is known only from a few specimens. However, it is not considered rare, but just very difficult to catch as it is very agile.
57183		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but the type locality is in a very secure national park, providing very good protection for its habitat.
57184		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the Estação Biológica de Boracéia.
57184		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of the type locality (Alto da Serra), and Boraceia, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, and probably occurs at least a little more widely. It has been recorded between 700-900m asl.
57184		habitat	eng	It occurs along small to medium-sized mountain streams in the forest. Adults and juveniles are diurnal and have been observed on large rocks, or in the water. Larvae have been observed in slow water in the deepest parts of a mountain stream.
57184		population	eng	The population status is unknown, it is only known from a few specimens.
57184		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown, but the species' habitat is secured within a very good protected area.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2006b).
57185		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Quebrada el Condorito and the Pampa de Achala Regional Hydrological Reserve.
57185		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierras Grandes de Cordoba, Argentina, where it ranges from 1,800-2,500m asl.
57185		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane grasslands and rocky outcrops therein. Reproduction takes place in permanent streams and it does not tolerate habitat disturbance.
57185		population	eng	It is a rare species, but populations appear to be stable where suitable habitat remains.
57185		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation caused by cattle ranching is a threat to this species; cattle ranching also leads to the deterioration of water quality for breeding sites. Some populations might be declining due to fires.
57186		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is needed to resolve this species complex. It also occurs in several protected areas.
57186		distribution	eng	This nominal species is known from central and southern Brazil (from Minas Gerais south), Uruguay, Paraguay and northern and central Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, La Rioja, Misiones, Río Negro, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, San Luis, Tucumán).<br/><br/>The tetraploid <em>Odontophrynus americanus</em> presents three disjunct population groups, isolated from one another by diploid populations. One of these tetraploid groups is distributed in central and eastern Argentina, southern Brazil, southern Paraguay, and Uruguay, with the other two population groups of the tetraploid form inhabiting southeastern Brazil, and northwestern Argentina respectively (Rosset et al., 2006).<br/><br/>It occurs from 0-2,000m asl.
57186		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species occuring in open grasslands and savannahs. During breeding time it is found at shallow, temporary ponds and flooded areas. Males call at night from the edge of, or from within the water. The eggs are laid on the muddy bottom of a pond and the tadpoles develop in the same site. It tolerates substantial habitat disturbance.
57186		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range.
57186		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57187		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
57187		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Aguadita Springs (30km north in Famatina village: 28° 54'S; 67° 31'W), La Rioja, Argentina, at 2,200m asl, and from one other site nearby. Specimens referred to this species from Catamarca Province (in Lavilla and Cei 2001) do not pertain to this species.
57187		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane dry shrublands and nearby rocky outcrops, and breeds by larval development in small spring-fed pools.
57187		population	eng	Its population status is not known. The type series was collected in the 1970s, but no one has returned to the type locality since then. However, a few adults were found at a nearby site in 2002.
57187		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are nomadic livestock and firewood extraction, which cause habitat loss and degradation.
57188		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas.
57188		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Cristalia in northern Minas Gerais, north to Urucui in Tocatins and Guaramiranga in Ceara, east to Areia in Paraiba. It avoids very low altitudes, and is commonly found around 800m asl.
57188		habitat	eng	It is a species of "Caatinga" savannah that has also been found on the edge of wet forests. It is usually found on the ground near water. It is an explosive breeder, and the tadpoles live in small intermittent streams and temporary ponds.
57188		population	eng	It can only be readily found when it is breeding, and then it is common.
57188		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and fire.
57189		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Pampa de Achala Regional Hydrological Reserve.
57189		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Córdoba and Santiago del Estero provinces, Argentina. It can be found at altitudes of 1,450-1,600m asl.
57189		habitat	eng	It occurs under rocks in montane grasslands and forests. It reproduces in permanent mountain streams. The larvae develop in these streams for more than a year before metamorphosis. It tolerates substantial habitat modification.
57189		population	eng	It is common and stable in Argentina in suitable habitats.
57189		threats	eng	It is somewhat threatened by habitat destruction (including by fire) for wood extraction and cattle ranching.
57190		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57190		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Goiás, São Paulo, and Minas Gerais states, Brazil. In spite of Cei (1980) and Frost (2000), there do not appear to be reliable records of its presence west of eastern Brazil (Cochran, 1955). Lavilla <em>et al.</em> (2000) do not recognize its presence in Argentina, and there are no specimens from Paraguay in the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay. It has an altitudinal range of 500-1,000m asl.
57190		habitat	eng	A fossorial species that can be found in open areas and forest edges. It reproduces explosively in temporary pools (including artificial pools).
57190		population	eng	It is an abundant and stable species. It occurs in suburban gardens.
57190		threats	eng	Severe habitat loss due to infrastructure development and agricultural activities (cattle ranching) can impact this species, and its habitat is fragmented.
57191		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected area.
57191		distribution	eng	This species is known from the provinces of Santiago del Estero, Chaco, Córdoba, Formosa, Jujuy, Santa Fé, Santiago del Estero and Salta, in Argentina. In Paraguay, it has been found in the departments of Alto Paraguay, Boquerón, and Presidente Hayes (Rosset et al., 2006). The population from Pampa Grande (Santa Cruz department, Bolivia) is also considered to be <em>Odontophrynus lavillai</em> based on photographic records (see Rosset et al., 2006).<br/><br/>Its altitudinal range is from 150-2,100m asl.
57191		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species of open habitats from the Chaco to the Inter Andean Valleys. Breeding and larval development takes place in temporary waterbodies, including roadside ditches. The species shows some adaptability to anthropogenic disturbance.
57191		population	eng	In general this is a locally common species. Small populations have been found as recently as 2002.
57191		threats	eng	In Argentina the species is threatened by habitat destruction through wood extraction and general agricultural activities.
57192		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area. Additional survey work is needed to establish whether or not this species might still survive in the wild, prior to the recommendation of any specific conservation actions.
57192		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Botucatu, in São Paulo State, Brazil. It is known from around 800-900m asl.
57192		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the ground near waterbodies in open areas near forest edge; it is not known from anthropogenically disturbed habitats. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
57192		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens, and was last collected in 1990. A drastic population decline is suspected to have taken place; subsequent searches have not been successful in finding this species, either at the type locality, or elsewhere, and it might now be extinct.
57192		threats	eng	The type locality for this species has been destroyed by infrastructure development and agriculture.
57193		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Pampa de Achala Regional Hydrological Reserve, Cordoba, Argentina.
57193		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and south-central Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 50-1,500m asl.
57193		habitat	eng	This species can be found in montane forests, rocky outcrops, and scrub habitats. It reproduces in permanent streams. The larvae remain in streams where metamorphosis occurs after about eight months. It tolerates substantial habitat destruction.
57193		population	eng	It is less common than other Odontophrynus in Argentina but regularly recorded.
57193		threats	eng	It is threatened by water pollution and fires caused by agricultural and mining activities.
57194		conservation	eng	This species is known only from protected areas, though it presumably also occurs more widely.
57194		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros (in Alto Paraíso de Goiás Municipality), Parque Estadual dos Pirineus (in Pirenópolis Municipality), both in Goiás State, and from the Distrito Federal, Brazil. It is presumed to occur more widely. It has been recorded above 800m asl.
57194		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the Cerrado savannah, it occurs on the ground near waterbodies, but does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. The larvae are found in small temporary streams.
57194		population	eng	This is a common species.
57194		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (for both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock) and fires.
57195		conservation	eng	Both of the localities from which it is known are in protected areas.
57195		distribution	eng	This species from south-eastern Brazil is known from two localities in the Serra do Mar in the state of São Paulo: Boraceia in Salesopolis, and Serra de Paramapiacaba in Santo Andre. Its altitudinal range is 500-800m asl.
57195		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, forest clearings and forest edges, where it deposits its eggs in muddy, temporary ponds.
57195		population	eng	It is common at its two known localities.
57195		threats	eng	Although this species has so far been found only in protected areas, it is almost certainly found in other places, where the major threats to it are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting and tourism.
57196		conservation	eng	No information is available. It is a high priority to relocate this species and to determine whether or not it is declining in suitable habitat. It is not known from any protected areas.
57196		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Campos do Jordao in the Serra de Mantiqueira, in the state of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, at 1,700m asl.
57196		habitat	eng	If it is like other <em>Paratelmatobius</em> species, it will be found to be terrestrial in forest and forest clearings, with breeding taking place in temporary ponds or streams.
57196		population	eng	There is no recent information its population status. It was described from museum specimens collected in 1953.
57196		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, though it is likely to be impacted by clear-cut logging. The lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high-altitude frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
57197		conservation	eng	It occurs in two protected areas.
57197		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in the Serra do Mar in the state of São Paulo, south-east Brazil, although it might be more widespread: Paranapiacaba, Boracéia and Salesópolis. Its altitudinal range is 500-800m asl.
57197		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground near small temporary streams inside primary forest. The eggs are laid in small ponds at the edges of the temporary streams.
57197		population	eng	It is less common than <em>Paratelmatobius cardosoi</em>, but it can still be found.
57197		threats	eng	Although it has so far been found only in protected areas, this species is almost certainly found in other places where the major threats to it are probably related to habitat loss and degradation due to clear-cutting and tourism.
57198		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species, making habitat maintenance and protection for this species a very high conservation priority. A more carefully managed burning regime would also benefit this species.
57198		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, in the vicinity of Albania, in the municipality of Herveo, department of Tolima, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, Colombia, from 3,100-3,400m asl. It is most likely restricted to this area.
57198		habitat	eng	It occurs under rocks and logs in grasses in sub-páramo areas. It can also be found in pastureland and arable land, although this is not ideal habitat as it is often burned. It breeds by direct development.
57198		population	eng	This is a rare species.
57198		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is fire, in the form of frequent burning of the páramo so that the grass grows more quickly for cattle grazing.
57199		conservation	eng	Carrasco National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57199		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, 10 km N of Monte Punko, in Carrasco National Park (17 33' S, 65 17' W, 3350 masl), and from the nearby locality of Jatum Potrero, Carrasco National Park (17 31' 26" S, 65 11' 21" W), both in the Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, between 3250-3400 masl. It possibly occurs more widely.
57199		habitat	eng	The species lives in the ‘‘ceja de Monte’’, covered by low, humid montane forest typical of the Yungas region in the<br/>transition to paramo vegetation (De la Riva, 2007).<br/><br/>It breeds by direct development.
57199		population	eng	It is a common species.
57199		threats	eng	Assuming that it is present outside the national park, this species is presumably impacted by habitat loss and degradation as a result of overgrazing, smallholder farming, and expanding human settlements.<br/><br/>The predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are also considered to pose a serious threat to the species, in addition to its restricted distribution (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
57200		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and improved habitat protection and maintenance is required at sites where this species has been recorded. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
57200		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Rio Marcapata" on the Amazonian slopes of the southern Andes of Peru (Cusco Department) at 2,740m asl. It is believed to occur much more widely than is currently known.
57200		habitat	eng	This species can be found in montane cloud forest. It breeds by direct development.
57200		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
57200		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to small-scale agriculture (potatoes, livestock) and firewood collection.
57201		conservation	eng	It does not exist in any protected areas. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very restricted range.
57201		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the type locality, 15km south-east of Maraypata near Laguna Gwengway, and from Alcas, San Rafael District, Ambo Province (Huanuco Department). It occurs at altitudes of around 3,680m asl.
57201		habitat	eng	This is a montane forest inhabitant that is now found in Puna grassland as a result of deforestation. It can be found in gardens, potato fields, and other similar habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
57201		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57201		threats	eng	The major threat to this species in the past was loss of forest habitat, but the species seems to have adapted relatively well in the face of such habitat degradation. There are no immediate threats at present, although agrochemical pollution might pose a threat in the future.
57202		conservation	eng	The major part of its range is protected in Parque Nacional Yanachaga Chemillen, and given the pressures facing this area the continued maintenance and management of this area will be essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species.
57202		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Cordillera Yanachaga, at 2,300-2,700m asl (in Pasco Department) in Peru. Although its range is not well known, it is presumed to be confined to the Cordillera Yanachaga.
57202		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting montane cloud forest and elfin forest; it is not known if it occurs in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
57202		population	eng	Its current population status is unknown, but it may be uncommon.
57202		threats	eng	The Yanachaga Mountain is the last large forested area in this region of Peru, and there is increasing human pressure to convert the land for agricultural activities (for example, "Rocoto" [chilli pepper] plantations).
57203		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and the habitat of this species is in urgent need of protection.
57203		distribution	eng	This species is known currently from two localities near El Carmelo and in El Chamizo, Carchi Province, Ecuador, at 3,100-3,200m asl. It was recently discovered in Nariño Department on the Colombian side of the border near Carmelo. It might range a little more widely.
57203		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected by day beneath logs in a wet pasture in páramo habitat; they have also been found in holes in the ground. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
57203		population	eng	It was rare at El Chamizo in 2000, where two individuals were found.
57203		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to the expansion of agricultural activities.
57204		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas, making protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat a high priority.
57204		distribution	eng	Melanophryne carpish is known from cloud forests at elevations between 2750 and 2960 masl in central Peru (Department of Huánuco: Cordillera de Carpish), and in northern Peru (Department of Amazonas: Laguna de los Cóndores: 6 50′49″ S, 77 41′40″ W). The distance between the two localities is 364 km (airline) (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).
57204		habitat	eng	Specimens have been found on the ground and in a pitfall trap near terrestrial bromeliads (November and February, respectively) and in the centre of a water-filled bromeliad about 1 m above ground during the afternoon (a gravid female, found in July).  Melanophryne carpish is restricted to primary cloud forests with (terrestrial) bromeliads, which are used as hiding places and presumably for deposition of eggs. One female contained 83 pigmented eggs that have an average diameter of 1.6 ± 0.14 mm (n = 10) (Lehr and Trueb, 2007). Tadpoles were found in November in bromeliads (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Stomach contents of one specimen revealed arthropods belonging to the following orders/families: Coleoptera, Juliaformes, Formicidae and Staphylinidae (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).
57204		population	eng	Melanophryne carpish is considered to be either a secretive and/or rare species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
57204		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and firewood collection.
57205		conservation	eng	Research is needed to resolve its taxonomic identity.
57205		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Monte Redondo, Buenavista, in either the department of Cundinamarca or the department of Meta, Colombia, at 1,000-1,300m asl.
57205		habitat	eng	This is probably a terrestrial species, living among fallen leaves and under rocks and logs in cloud forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in its genus.
57205		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen (now lost) which was collected more than 100 years ago.
57205		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. However, deforestation as a result of agricultural development and cultivation of illegal crops is taking place within its range.
57206		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Manu, but further survey work is needed to determine whether it might occur beyond the vicinity of the type locality.
57206		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "S slope Abra Acjanacu, 14km NNE Paucartambo", Cordillera de Paucartambo (Cusco Department), at 3,400m asl in Peru; it is endemic to the south-east of the Cordillera Paucartambo.
57206		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of wet puna and elfin forest, and is not present in degraded areas. Breeding takes place by direct development.
57206		population	eng	It is very common where it occurs.
57206		threats	eng	The major threat is the destruction of habitat by the activities of smallholder farmers.
57207		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be present in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for improved habitat protection at sites at which this species is known to occur.
57207		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three mountain peaks: Chaglla, Maraypata, and Palma Pampa, in the Departamento Huánuco, Peru, at an altitude of 3,070-3,380m asl.
57207		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and can be found in montane cloud forest and wet shrubland, and formerly in forested wet grassland close to the edge of forest. It breeds by direct development.
57207		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57207		threats	eng	It is severely threatened by agricultural activities (especially potato cultivation).
57208		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is required.
57208		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, given as "on the road across the northern part of the Cordillera Central between Leimebamba and Chachapoyas, at 19km SSW [south-south-west of] Leimebamba, in cloud forest, Amazonas, Peru" (Duellman 2000). It is believed to be a range-restricted species, but its distribution is still not understood.
57208		habitat	eng	It has been collected in montane cloud forest, where it is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.
57208		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
57208		threats	eng	Its threats are not known.
57209		conservation	eng	Although it has been recorded within Parque Nacional Podocarpus, additional habitat protection is required. Further survey work is necessary to help better determine the current population status of this species.
57209		distribution	eng	This species is known from the community of Cajanuma and Parque Nacional Podocarpus, Lojas Province, between 2215 and 3200 masl, on the eastern Andean Cordillera in southern Ecuador, and from the Rio Blanco Basin (3100 masl), Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru.
57209		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground in páramo habitat. Reproduction is believed to occur by direct development.
57209		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57209		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat destruction and degradation, in particular for small-scale agriculture and non-timber plantations; it might also be impacted by fires.
57210		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary.
57210		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "Conchamarca, Ambo, of the eastern Andean slopes of central Peru (Departamento: Huánuco) 3,420m asl".
57210		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and can be found in <em>Polylepis</em> forest ("Queñoales") and pasture with bushes ("Matorral Húmedo"). The species needs moist areas to survive, and has not been found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
57210		population	eng	It is extremely rare.
57210		threats	eng	The <em>Polylepis</em> forests have been reduced drastically by human activities over the years (primarily due to potato farming and cattle ranching).
57211		conservation	eng	The local people of Maraypata informally protect the remaining forest, but given the continuing rate of forest loss there might well be a need for the establishment of a formal protected area and an official management plan.
57211		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from different valleys in Huánuco, on the Andean slopes of central Peru (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). It has been reported from localities such as Conchamarca, Yaurin, Huancamonte and Maraypata (Province of Ambo, Department of Huánuco). It has an altitudinal range of 3030-3430 masl.
57211		habitat	eng	It occurs in <em>Polylepis</em> forest ("Queñoales"), montane forest, and pasture with bushes ("Matorral Humedo"); it is also present in disturbed areas where water is available. It has been observed during the day on the ground and in the leaf litter, while at night it is found on leaves. Lehr (2006) reports that the species is active at night on the vegetation, between 0.3–1.5 m above ground. <br/><br/>It breeds by direct development.
57211		population	eng	The species is common in the leaf litter during daytime and at night on plants (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
57211		threats	eng	The <em>Polylepis</em> forests have been reduced drastically by human activities over the years (primarily due to potato farming and cattle ranching).
57212		conservation	eng	It occurs entirely in Parque Nacional Carrasco. Close population monitoring of this species is required, given that it appears to have such a limited range.
57212		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella iatamasi </span>is known from the type locality and its surroundings, in the northwestern limit of Carrasco National Park (boundary between Arani and Chapare), in the Province of Cochabamba, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). Its elevational range varies between 2,600-4,192 m asl.
57212		habitat	eng	The species occurs in cloud forest, elfin forest, and humid páramo. Calls are emitted from mosses on the floor by day (De la Riva 2007). It is often found under stones at higher elevations, and on vegetation at lower elevations. It breeds by direct development.
57212		population	eng	It is considered to be an abundant species.
57212		threats	eng	There are no major threats at present; however, its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes. In addition, the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose a serious threat to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
57213		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary.
57213		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations on the Andean slopes of central Peru: Cascas near Huasihuasi (Departamento Junín) and Bellavista and Jatunchinchi, Paucartambo region, Departamento Pasco. It is present at altitudes from 2,800-3,820m asl.
57213		habitat	eng	It can be found in primary montane cloud forest, and at forest edges, but not in degraded habitats. It is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.
57213		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57213		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, including potato farming and livestock ranching.
57214		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary.
57214		distribution	eng	This species is known only from "Palma Pampa' and the Cordillera de Carpish, on the eastern slopes of the Andes in central Peru (Departamento Huánuco), at an altitude of 2,600-3,020m asl.
57214		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of montane cloud forest, it can also be found in forest edge but not in agricultural land. It is a direct developing, terrestrial species.
57214		population	eng	There is limited information available on its population status, but it is known to be very rare at the type locality.
57214		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat destruction as a result of agricultural activities, primarily from potato farming and livestock ranching.
57215		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in Carrasco National Park. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.
57215		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serrania Siberia (17 50' S, 64 45' W, 2500-3160 masl), on the border of the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, (provinces of Carrasco and Caballero, respectively), Bolivia (De la Riva, 2007).
57215		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting cloud and elfin forest, and its ability to adapt to altered habitats is not known. It has been found near rocks along a road, under stones and logs, on moss and on tree roots, and is both diurnal and nocturnal (males call both day and night, De la Riva, 2007). Breeding is by direct development.
57215		population	eng	It is apparently a fairly common species. However, it does not seem to have been recorded since 1994, though this is probably the last time a herpetologist visited the area where it occurs.
57215		threats	eng	There is ongoing habitat loss and degradation, due to the activities of smallholder farmers, timber harvesting, and expanding human settlements. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
57217		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary. Attempts to breed this species in captivity have proved unsuccessful.
57217		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "north slope of Abra Tapuna, 7km N Mahuayura", Cordillera Oriental west of the Río Apurimac (Departamento: Ayacucho). It was collected at an elevation of 3,710m asl.
57217		habitat	eng	It can be found in montane shrubland and cloud forest, but it is not known whether or not it could occur in degraded areas. It is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.
57217		population	eng	The current population status is unknown.
57217		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss, primarily from the clearance of land (mainly through the use of fire) for agriculture.
57218		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to protect the cloud forest habitat of this species.
57218		distribution	eng	This species is known from the departments of Huanaco (Huancapallac), Junin (type locality: Cascas, near Huasahuasi) and Pasco. It has been collected at elevations between 2,600 and 2,750m asl.
57218		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that can be found in cloud mountain forest, and dry Andean valleys with scrub vegetation; it is not known from degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
57218		population	eng	It is uncommon.
57218		threats	eng	The major threat is general habitat loss as a result of agricultural activities (cultivation of potatoes, and livestock farming), and deforestation for firewood.
57219		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57219		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes between 3,000 and 3,600m asl. There are isolated records from the departments of Boyaca, Santander (including the type locality at the Páramo de la Rusia) and Norte de Santander. Its distribution is still not well known, and it probably has a much wider range than is currently known.
57219		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, and is found in páramo grassland and montane forest, as well as secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
57219		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57219		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to agricultural development, grazing by domestic livestock, and the spread of pine plantations.
57220		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas. There is a general need for further research into the fauna of the Huancabamba depression fauna. It has been suggested that a protected area should be established in the region.
57220		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, "El Tambo, 31.5km E [east of] Canchaque (Departamento: Piura) at 2,770m asl" (Cannatella 1984), Peru. Its total range is not known but it is believed to be restricted to the Huancabamba region.
57220		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species can be found in humid montane forest under rocks. Although it is not known if it occurs outside primary montane forest, it has been found along forest edges (including roads). It breeds by direct development.
57220		population	eng	It was common when collected in 1991, but its current population status is not known.
57220		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is general habitat loss through agricultural activities (including the cultivation of potatoes, and livestock grazing).
57221		conservation	eng	Although it is present in the Santuario Nacional Tabaconas-Namballe, protection and maintenance of the habitat on the Cordillera de Huancabamba is necessary.
57221		distribution	eng	This species is known only from sites at El Tambo on the Cordillera de Huancabamba (Departamento Piura) and Santuario Nacional Tabaconas-Namballe (Cajamarca) in Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 2770-3100 masl.
57221		habitat	eng	It can be found in humid montane forest under rocks, and in páramo habitats (hiding in low vegetation), but does not occur in agricultural areas. Breeding takes place by direct development.
57221		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57221		threats	eng	In Huancabamba, the main threat to the species is expanding agricultural activities (mainly due to potato farming and livestock ranching).
57222		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
57222		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the vicinity of Papallacta, in Napo Province, and from El Chamizo in the province of Carchi, northern Ecuador, at 3,000-3,350m asl. Its range is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.
57222		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected beneath rocks and logs in grassy páramo, sub páramo, or (rarely) in high montane forest habitats. This is a terrestrial species that reproduces by direct development.
57222		population	eng	It was rare in El Chamizo in 2000, when only one individual was found.
57222		threats	eng	The major threats to it are habitat destruction and degradation due to smallholder farming, human settlement and fires.
57223		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection and maintenance a priority. The species is, in general, quite poorly known, and further research is needed into its biology and population status.
57223		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in the eastern Andes west of the Apurimac River, and from Cordillera Vilcabamba, Departamento Ayacucho, Peru, between 2,460 and 2,650m asl. It is believed to be a genuinely restricted-range species.
57223		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting montane cloud forest, but it is not known whether or not it occurs in degraded areas. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
57223		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57223		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, subsistence wood collecting, and human settlement.
57224		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
57224		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Maraynioc, in Junín Department, Peru. It might be a restricted-range species.
57224		habitat	eng	It is presumably found in montane cloud forest, where it is probably a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.
57224		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status. It has not been seen or collected since the 1800s.
57224		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57225		conservation	eng	It is probably present in Parque Nacional Manu, but populations occurring outside the park remain in need of protection.
57225		distribution	eng	This Peruvian endemic is known from Abra Accanacu, Paucartambo, in the department of Cusco. The original publication gives an incorrect locality of "near Juliaca, Departamento: Puno". Records from Bolivia are misidentifications. It is present at elevations of 2,800-3,500 m asl.
57225		habitat	eng	It can be found in the altiplano shrublands, and may be found at the edges of agricultural land (but not in cultivated areas). It breeds by direct development.
57225		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
57225		threats	eng	General habitat loss through agricultural activity (cultivation of potatoes) and other human activities is the major threat.
57226		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
57226		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella pinguis is known only from the type locality of "Choquetanga Chico" (16 48' S, 67 21' W), in Inquisivi Province, department of La Paz, Bolivia, at 3450 masl (Harvey and Ergueta 1998; De la Riva, 2007). Although it is likely to have a small range, its distribution is still very incompletely known.
57226		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species have been found under stones in a humid stream bed; the area consists a mixture of low elfin forest and pastures, with abundant mosses and lichens. Other anurans found at the type locality were Pristimantis platydactylus, Telmatobius espadai, and Gastrotheca marsupiata (Harvey and Ergueta, 1998; De la Riva, 2007).<br/><br/>The species presumably breeds by direct development.
57226		population	eng	It is known only from the original specimens, and there has been no recent surveying of the type locality.
57226		threats	eng	It is probably threatened to some extent by smallholder agriculture. <br/><br/>In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
57227		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, so protection and maintenance of existing habitat is a priority. Further research is needed into the biology and population status of this species.
57227		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Celendin and its surroundings, in the vicinity of Cajamarca, Departamento Cajamarca, Peru. It has an altitudinal range of around 3,200m asl.
57227		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting páramo grassland, and is not found in degraded areas. Breeding takes place by direct development.
57227		population	eng	It was previously common, although its current population status is not known.
57227		threats	eng	Habitat loss, as a result of agricultural expansion (potato farming and livestock ranching), represents the major threat to the species.
57229		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.
57229		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, 13km east-south-east of Yamobamba, in Otuzco Province, La Libertad Department, Peru. Although it is likely to have a small distribution, the limits of its distribution are not very well known.
57229		habitat	eng	The habitat type of this species is not known. It is terrestrial, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.
57229		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
57229		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by general agricultural activities.
57230		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in Coscapa, which is within the contiguous Cotapata preserved area (De la Riva, 2007).
57230		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella wettsteini is known from the surroundings of the area of Unduavi, in the Unduavi Valley, Province of Sud Yungas, Department of La Paz (16 19' S, 67 54' W), and the locality of Coscapa, which is within the contiguous Cotapata preserved area and is 3.1 km (airline) from the type locality. Although it is most abundant between 3200 and 3700 m, the total altitudinal range of the species is 2900–3900 masl (De la Riva, 2007 and references therein).
57230		habitat	eng	The species has been found from the upper limits of the cloud forest to humid paramo grassland. Individuals are found under stones and are active by day and night, including calling activity (De la Riva, 2007). Gravid females have been reported to have an average of 13 eggs 5 mm in diameter during the months of March, July, August, and December, and clutches have been found under stones in August an January (De la Riva, 2007 and references therein).<br/><br/>The species survives well in in disturbed habitats.
57230		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57230		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known. It is possibly threatened by general agricultural activities.
57231		conservation	eng	All known localities are within Carrasco National Park.
57231		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the northeastern slope of the Andes, from Chapare Province, Department of Cochabamba, to eastern Caballero Province, Department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (De la Riva and Köhler 1998, Köhler 2000). It occurs at 1,700-2,300m asl.
57231		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that can be found in very humid cloud forest or in Yungas forest. During the day, it can be found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. One individual was found inside an epiphytic bromeliad, 3-4m from the ground (Köhler 2000b). It breeds by direct development.
57231		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57231		threats	eng	There are no known threats, since its forest habitat is well protected.
57232		conservation	eng	Given its known habitat and geographic distribution, this species might occur in the Santuario Nacional Tabaconas Namballe, in Peru.
57232		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the high ridges in the Andes in the region of the Huancabamba Depression in Loja Province (Ciudad de Loja), southern Ecuador, and Piura Department, northern Peru. In Peru it is known only from one site 33km south-west of Huancabamba. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is known from altitudes of 2,040-3,000m asl in Ecuador, and from 1,700m asl in Peru.
57232		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and terrestrial species lives in cracks in the ground below the leaf-litter in upper montane forest, but not in old growth forest. It also occurs in areas bordering pastures and other open areas. Reproduction occurs by direct development.
57232		population	eng	This species’ population status is known only at a few localities, possibly because it is hard to collect. Judging by its calls, it was common in Loja in 2003.
57232		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to subsistence agriculture.
57233		conservation	eng	Its geographic range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay in Ecuador.
57233		distribution	eng	This species is known from moderate altitudes on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes from the Cordillera del Cóndor in Peru, and the Cordillera de Cutucú in Ecuador (in Pastaza, Zamora Chinchipe, and Morona Santiago Provinces). It has an altitudinal rage of 900-1,700m asl. It was recently recorded from the Alfonso Ugarte military post in Amazonas Department, Cordillera del Cóndor, Peru, at 1,138m asl.
57233		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected during the day in leaf-litter in cloud forest (Lynch 1976d), and it also occurs in old growth and secondary forest. Reproduction occurs via direct development.
57233		population	eng	It is rarely encountered, possibly due to its secretive habits.
57233		threats	eng	Its range in the Cordillera del Cóndor is not significantly threatened since people are averse to entering the area due to the land mines left during the Ecuador-Peru border war in 1995.
57234		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed.
57234		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the east slope of Abra Chinchillo, 42km north of Balsas, Chachapoyas Province, Amazonas Department, Peru, at 2,870m asl. Its distribution is not well understood, and it might occur more widely.
57234		habitat	eng	It was recorded from disturbed cloud forest, where it is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.
57234		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which has probably not been recorded since it was described.
57234		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possibly threatened by agricultural development.
57235		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Manu, Peru.
57235		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Amazon basin, with records from Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia. In Ecuador it is known from Tiputini Biodiversity Station, province of Orellana; in Peru it is present in the regions of Loreto, Cusco, Huánuco and Madre de Dios, with an apparently isolated population in San Martin (this possibly being a new species). It also occurs in western Brazil (Amazonas State), southeastern Colombia (Amazonas Province), and northern Bolivia. It has been found at elevations of 100-1,200m asl.
57235		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species of lowland, premontane and montane primary tropical moist forest. Its reproductive mode is not known, but it is presumed to breed by direct development. It is generally not present in modified habitats.
57235		population	eng	It is a reasonably abundant species.
57235		threats	eng	Presumably, there are no major threats to this species; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as clear cutting and smallholder agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
57236		conservation	eng	All of its known localities are within Parque Nacional Carrasco.
57236		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Chapare and Carrasco Provinces, in Cochabamba Department, on the slopes of the Bolivian Andes at 1,000-1,500m asl.
57236		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, living in the leaf-litter of tropical moist montane forest, where it is apparently restricted to undisturbed forest. It breeds by direct development.
57236		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57236		threats	eng	There are no known threats, since its forest habitat is well protected.
57237		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57237		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Linhares in the northern part of the State of Espírito Santo, north to Prado in the southern part of the State of Bahia, southeastern Brazil. It is a lowland species, occurring up to 30m asl.
57237		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in forest, forest edge, degraded habitats and pastures, as well as in swamps. It breeds in foam nests in temporary ponds.
57237		population	eng	It is a common species.
57237		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to intensive agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, and clear-cutting and human settlement.
57238		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57238		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in northeastern Brazil, from the State of Maranhao, south to the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,000m asl. Records from Argentina are apparently based on confusion with Physalaemus biligonigerus.
57238		habitat	eng	It is a species of open areas, living in dunes, "Cerrado" and "Caatinga" savannahs and coastal "Restinga", but not in forest. It is usually found on the ground near temporary ponds, or in the water. It breeds in temporary ponds.
57238		population	eng	It is a common species.
57238		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and fire.
57239		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57239		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mato Grosso and Mata Grosso do Sul in Brazil, Paraguay, the eastern lowlands of Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 0-1,200m asl.
57239		habitat	eng	It occurs on the ground near semi-permanent or temporary waterbodies or flooded grasslands where it breeds. It also breeds in temperate ponds and roadside ditches. It adapts very well to human disturbance, pollution and agricultural activities (including pesticide usage).
57239		population	eng	It is common and stable in Argentina.
57239		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57240		conservation	eng	It has been collected in the Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar. There is a need for further survey work to determine, and monitor, the population status of this species.
57240		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the municipality of Ubatuba, on the northern coast of São Paulo State, Brazil. All specimens collected and observed were at an altitude of 0-50m asl. It probably has a genuinely restricted distribution that is characteristic of the <em>Physalaemus signifer</em> group to which it belongs.
57240		habitat	eng	This species is associated with ponds or leaf-litter of the coastal plain in the Atlantic rainforest. It reproduces on the forest floor near places that are prone to flooding. The eggs are laid in a foam nest built on the water surface, and are anchored to the margins of ponds, or alternatively, on the wet leaf-litter close to the ponds.
57240		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57240		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known, but it might be affected by localized forest loss.
57241		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.
57241		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra da Bocaina, at 1,200m asl in the state of Sao Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely.
57241		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial forest species, living near temporary ponds in which it presumably breeds.
57241		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; there have been no recent observations, but this might be due to a lack of surveys.
57241		threats	eng	It is likely to be affected by clear-cutting. The lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high-altitude, water-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
57242		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies are needed to resolve the status of different populations that might represent different species. It occurs in several protected areas.
57242		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and central-western Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Tucumán), adjacent Bolivia; Paraguay; Uruguay (Artigas, Cerro Largo, Paysandu, Rivera, Río Negro, Rocha, Salto, Soriano, Tacuarambo, Treinta and Tres) and southern and central Brazil. It occurs from 0-1,400m asl.
57242		habitat	eng	It occurs in grassland near temporary and permanent lentic waterbodies where it breeds. Males call from the edge or from within the water, and the eggs are deposited in spherical foam nests that float on top of the water. It is able to adapt to anthropogenic disturbance.<br/><br/>Fecundity appears to be variable: a population in Argentina has been reported to produce between ca 1000 and 1600 eggs per female, whereas a population in Uruguay has been reported to produce ca 200-400 eggs (Camargo et al., 2008).
57242		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
57242		threats	eng	It is not threatened overall. It is threatened to some extent in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, and land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff. However, it is a very adaptable species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
57243		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas, but it probably occurs in Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.
57243		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Campo Grande, in the municipality of Santo André, in the state of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, at 800m asl, although it is almost certainly more widespread.
57243		habitat	eng	It lives in old secondary forest (there being no primary forest left at its only known locality), and forest edges, but not in more open areas. It is terrestrial, usually being found near standing water. The eggs are deposited in foam nests in shallow temporary ponds.
57243		population	eng	It is locally common in the small area from which it is known.
57243		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is probably loss of habitat due to human settlement.
57244		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Estación Ecológica Murici.
57244		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the municipalities of Passo de Camaragibe and Murici, in the state of Alagoas in north-eastern Brazil, where it occurs up to 600m asl.
57244		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter around ponds in lowland moist forest. The eggs, which are laid in foam nests, have been observed in temporary ponds and in the water of tree holes near the ground.
57244		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57244		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural development, livestock grazing and human settlement.
57245		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57245		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in central Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and the lowlands of central and eastern Bolivia. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
57245		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground near permanent and temporary bodies of water in the savannah habitats of the Cerrado and Pantanal. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57245		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
57245		threats	eng	The spread of intensive agriculture in the Cerrado biome is presumably affecting local populations of this species.
57246		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57246		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Paraiba (at Sao Jose do Bonfim), south to the central part of the State of Bahia (as Maracas) and the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais (at Manga). It is a lowland species, typically found at around 200m asl.
57246		habitat	eng	It lives in "Caatinga" dry savannah, where it is terrestrial, usually being found near temporary ponds or in the water. It presumably makes foam nests with larval development in temporary pools.
57246		population	eng	It is a rare species over its large range.
57246		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing and fire.
57247		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57247		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific lowlands and Andean foothills of north-western Ecuador, from 100-1,000m asl, from Río Cupa south to Río Baba. Its distribution is not well known, and it might occur more widely.
57247		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical moist forest, and in more open, altered habitats. It breeds by larval development, making foam nests in small still waterbodies.
57247		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57247		threats	eng	Although this is an adaptable species, it is probably affected by the very severe habitat degradation that is taking place within its range due to livestock grazing and clear-cutting, especially when the habitat is opened up completely.
57248		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57248		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the type locality the Reserva Biológica Nova Lombardia, in the State of Espirito Santo, north to Itabuna in the southern part of the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 750m asl.
57248		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, but always occurs inside forest, not in more open habitats. It lives on the forest floor in leaf-litter near temporary waterbodies, in which it makes foam nests to breed.
57248		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57248		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.
57249		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Bolivia. It occurs in Calilegua National Park in Argentina.
57249		distribution	eng	This species is known from the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, and Formosa in Argentina, and from Chacoan Bolivia in the Department of Tarija. It has an altitudinal range of 200-700m asl.
57249		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the Chacoan lowlands and lower Yungas habitats. It breeds explosively in ephemeral ponds and waterbodies and deposits its eggs in foam nests over water. Males call from the edge or from within the water. It adapts very well to human disturbance, pollution and agricultural activities (including pesticide usage).
57249		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Argentina.
57249		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
57250		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
57250		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern, central, southeastern and southern Brazil; Misiones and Entre Rios, Argentina; Eastern Paraguay. In addition, there is a single specimen tentatively listed as this species, coming from El Manteco, in Bolivar State, Venezuela. The identity of this specimen requires further investigation. It occurs up to 2,000m asl.
57250		habitat	eng	This is a widespread, nocturnal species that occurs in many habitats including open grassland, flooded savannahs, and pastureland. It breeds in cattle ponds or temporary waterbodies such as puddles, often in water-filled hoof tracks. The eggs are laid in foam nests, attached to grass stems at the margin of the pond. It is a very adaptive species.
57250		population	eng	It is common throughout much of its range.
57250		threats	eng	It is not threatened overall. It is locally threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff.
57251		conservation	eng	There is a protected area at the type locality, in which it might occur.
57251		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil. Its distribution is not well known, and it might occur more widely. It is found above 800m asl.
57251		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in rocky fields, and probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. It presumably breeds in water, although this has not been confirmed.
57251		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57251		threats	eng	This species is possibly affected by fire, expanding human settlements, and disturbance resulting from tourism.
57252		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed.
57252		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern Venezuela, southern Guyana, Suriname, and central and eastern Brazilian Amazonia. Its altitudinal range is 0-350m asl.
57252		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable species, living on the forest edge, in clearings, and in a variety of anthropogenic habitats. Habitat disturbance enables the species to expand its range. Breeding takes place in temporary pools during the late wet season (March to April). The eggs are laid in foam nest next to pools, and the tadpoles develop in water.
57252		population	eng	It is a common species.
57252		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species
57253		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Parque Estadual do Itacolomi.
57253		distribution	eng	This recently described species was collected in the Serra do Italcolomi in the Serra do Espinhaço, Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at approximately 1,600m asl.
57253		habitat	eng	The specimens were collected in an ephemeral pond located in a rocky field, with bushes and small trees and a sandy soil predominantly covered by grasses in a Cerrado savannah habitat type known as "campo rupestre". This species is presumed to breed in pools and to have a larval development breeding strategy.
57253		population	eng	Its population status is unknown as yet as this species is currently known only from the type series.
57253		threats	eng	The pond that this species was collected from was affected by livestock (horse faeces) and accidental burning of surrounding vegetation.
57254		conservation	eng	This species might occur at the Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó. It is known to occur at Reserva Particular do<br/>Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça (Canelas and Bertoluci, 2007).
57254		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Serra do Espinhaço and Serra do Caraça, in the state of Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil, where it is found above 800m asl. Its distribution is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.
57254		habitat	eng	It is a species that is found in shrubland and grassland, which breeds in temporary puddles or swamps where it makes floating foam nests. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57254		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57254		threats	eng	It is possibly affected by fire, expanding human settlements, and disturbance resulting from tourism.
57255		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Punta Lara Reserve in Argentina.
57255		distribution	eng	New research has shown this species is more widely distributed than previously recognized. It is known from Buenos Aires and Entre Ríos in Argentina; from Santiago Vázquez to Arroyo Solís, in the margins of La Plata River, Uruguay and from one population at Cerro Colorado (Florida) and another from Rivera Department. It has an altitudinal range of 0-100m asl.
57255		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally flooded grasslands and rocky outcrops near rivers. It reproduces in temporary pools and its tolerance to habitat disturbance unknown.
57255		population	eng	It is rarely found except during reproductive periods. Its population status is unknown although this species was collected in both Uruguay and Argentina in 2002.
57255		threats	eng	Pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements are major threats. Habitat destruction is another threat to this species.
57256		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in both countries.
57256		distribution	eng	This species was previously recorded only from the non-specific type locality "Venezuela". However, <em>Physalaemus enesefae</em> has now been shown to be a synonym of this species, thus clarifying its geographic range. It is widespread in northern Venezuela south of the Andes and the coastal mountains, with records from the states of Apure, Bolívar, Cojedes, Guárico and probably Portuguesa, and an isolated record to the south in the state of Amazonas. In Colombia, the species has been recorded for the "Llanos orientales" in the departments of Arauco, Meta and Casanare. It occurs below 800m asl. It is likely to occur in Guyana, but there are no records.
57256		habitat	eng	It lives in savannahs, grassland, shrubland, pastureland and tropical rainforest. It is nocturnal, and is usually found near pools, and the males have been observed calling from secluded places and from herbaceous vegetation. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
57256		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57256		threats	eng	With the exception of the impacts of fire on the vegetation structure, this species is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
57257		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57257		distribution	eng	Physalaemus marmoratus can be found in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), and also in Paraguay (Nascimento et al., 2006).
57257		habitat	eng	Physalaemus marmoratus breeds in temporary shallow ponds of open habitats. Males call floating on the water with the large vocal sac inflated. During the axillary amplexus a foam nest is constructed on the water surface where the unpigmented eggs are deposited (Nascimento et al., 2006).<br/><br/>It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57257		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
57257		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although agricultural activities could be a threat in eastern Paraguay, and probably also in parts of Brazil.
57258		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57258		distribution	eng	This species is known from Misiones, Argentina; Durazno, Florida, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Montevideo, Rivera, Rocha, San Jose, Soriano and Canelones, in Uruguay. In Brazil, it is known in Parana, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. It has an altitudinal range of 0-1,200m asl.
57258		habitat	eng	This species’ habitat is in the forest borders and Cerrado grasslands. It is a terrestrial species that reproduces using a foam nest in natural temporary pools. It adapts to heavily disturbed and polluted habitats.<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species lays between 400 and 800 eggs per female, whereas in Uruguay these figures ranged between 700 and 1300 eggs per female (Camargo et al., 2008).
57258		population	eng	It is abundant and widespread.
57258		threats	eng	There are no major threats -- it adapts to fairly polluted areas.
57259		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57259		distribution	eng	This species is known from Buenos Aires and Entre Ríos in Argentina. It is known to occur within the entire country of Uruguay. In Brazil it is known from Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. It has an altitudinal range of 0-750 m asl.
57259		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands near waterbodies. It makes foam nests in natural temporary pools. It occurs in urban areas in Uruguay. Females were found to have an average of 296.95 (range 70-621) mature oocytes (Maneyro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Reproduction has been reported from April to June, which coincides with autumn and early winter in Uruguay  (Maneyro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).
57259		population	eng	It is uncommon throughout most of its range. It is common in Uruguay during the short reproductive period (April-June).
57259		threats	eng	Pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements are major threats. Habitat destruction is another threat.
57260		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57260		distribution	eng	This species from southern Brazil is known from only two localities: Campos do Jordao in the Serra da Mantiqueira, in the state of São Paulo; and Poces de Caldas, in the state of Minas Gerais. It occurs above 1,200m asl, and it almost certainly occurs more widely than is currently known.
57260		habitat	eng	It lives in open areas and in secondary forest, and is terrestrial, usually being found near temporary ponds or in the water. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds, where it builds a foam nest.
57260		population	eng	It is a common species in its only known localities.
57260		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to creation of wood plantations, livestock grazing, mining and human settlement.
57261		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57261		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais (at Manga) and from the central part of the State of Bahia (at Itabuna), north to Sao Jose do Bonfim and Mamanguape in the State of Paraiba. It occurs up to 240m asl.
57261		habitat	eng	It lives in "Caatinga" dry savannah, and spreads into open areas where the Atlantic forest is cleared. It is terrestrial, and is usually found near temporary ponds or in the water. It breeds in temporary ponds, building a foam nest.
57261		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57261		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing and fire.
57262		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Research actions and creation of new protected areas is needed.
57262		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 0-1,200m asl.
57262		habitat	eng	This species inhabits leaf-litter of damp woodland, frequently in secondary forests or transition zones from woodland to grassland. During breeding the frogs are found at small ponds or temporary waterbodies such as road puddles. The eggs are laid in foam nests attached to grass stems at the margins of ponds.
57262		population	eng	It is an abundant and stable species.
57262		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat.
57263		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57263		distribution	eng	This species is known primarily from the Serra do Mar in southern Brazil, ranging from Santa Teresa in the State of Espirito Santo, south to Sao Bento do Sul in the State of Santa Catarina. It is typically found at around 800m asl.
57263		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and on the forest edge, but not in more open areas. It is terrestrial, and is usually found near temporary ponds or in the water. It breeds in temporary ponds, building a foam nest.
57263		population	eng	It is a common species.
57263		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, tourism and human settlement.
57264		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
57264		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from western Ecuador (Provincia de Manabí and Provincia del Guayas) from sea level to 330m asl.
57264		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from lowland evergreen and semi deciduous Costa forest and lowland dry shrub. It inhabits open artificial areas, such as pastures, the vicinity of buildings and other cleared areas. It breeds in stream pools and presumably temporary pools during the rainy season.
57264		population	eng	This species is seasonally abundant.
57264		threats	eng	This is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
57265		conservation	eng	It used to at least occur at the Estação Biológica de Boracéia.
57265		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Mar, in the state of São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil, up to 1,200m asl. Its distribution is likely to be at least a little wider than is currently known.
57265		habitat	eng	It lives in primary forests in leaf-litter or on stones near water. It is often associated with small temporary pools (even boot prints) on the forest floor. Unlike most other species of <em>Physalaemus</em>, it breeds in temporary streams, where the eggs are deposited in foam nests in wide pools in the streams.
57265		population	eng	There is very little recent information, there have been few recent attempts to study or locate it, and there are no recent records.
57265		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, though it is likely to be impacted by clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. The lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high-altitude, stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.
57266		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57266		distribution	eng	This species is known from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 0-1,200m asl.
57266		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests, but also adapts well to human-disturbed habitats. It breeds in small temporary waterbodies such as puddles, gutters, or ditches. The spawn is deposited in small foam nests under roots, leaves or branches at the margins of waterbodies.
57266		population	eng	It is abundant and stable in suitable habitats.
57266		threats	eng	It is probably locally impacted by severe habitat loss, for example from commercial cattle ranching, expanding wood plantations, clear felling, and expanding human settlements. However, it is generally adaptable and not significantly threatened.
57267		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57267		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in central and southeastern Brazil, the eastern Santa Cruz lowlands of Bolivia, eastern Paraguay and the alto-Paraguay area. In spite of assertions by Cei (1980) and Asociación Herpetológica Argentina (2000), the species probably does not occur in Argentina. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,500m asl.
57267		habitat	eng	It is a typical fossorial and seasonal frog, well adapted to a semi-arid continental climate. It inhabits savannah and grassland habitats in the Cerrado biome, and occurs on the ground near standing and temporary waterbodies, such as ponds and swamps, where it also breeds. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57267		population	eng	It is a common species.
57267		threats	eng	The spread of intensive agriculture in the Cerrado biome is presumably affecting local populations of this species.
57268		conservation	eng	This species is only known from the following areas, which are all protected areas: Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, the Reserva Biológica de Sooretama, and the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Feliciano Miguel Abdala.
57268		distribution	eng	This species from south-eastern Brazil ranges from Linhares, in the state of Espírito Santo, west to Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, in the state of Minas Gerais, and occurs up to 500m asl. Its distribution is still not very well known.
57268		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, where it is usually found on the forest floor in leaf-litter near temporary waterbodies (but not in open areas). The eggs are laid in foam nests on the leaf-litter near water, and larval development takes place in temporary pools.
57268		population	eng	It is locally common.
57268		threats	eng	Although all known sites are protected, this species almost certainly occurs in nearby areas, where agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and dams threaten its habitat.
57269		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57269		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in southern and southeastern Brazil from the State of Santa Catarina north to the southern part of the state Espírito Santo and the southeastern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
57269		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, living in the leaf-litter, on the ground or in low vegetation, including grass near marshy ponds at the edge of the forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.
57269		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57269		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting, tourism and human settlement.
57270		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57270		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Amazonian Ecuador, northeastern Peru, and Amazonian Colombia. Further research is needed to determine whether the species that occurs in French Guiana is <em>P. petersi</em>, <em>P. freibergi</em>, or an undescribed species (Funk et al., 2008). We temporarily include this population in <em>P. petersi</em>'s account until its taxonomic status can be clarified. It occurs between 89 and 1200 masl in Ecuador.
57270		habitat	eng	This diurnal and nocturnal species has been found in primary and secondary forest, and forest edge (Duellman, 1978). It is terrestrial, and is often found in leaf-litter. Breeding takes place in temporary waterbodies and slow-moving streams during the wet season. Its eggs on foam nest next to pools and tadpoles are found in the water.
57270		population	eng	It is a common species.
57270		threats	eng	Local populations are probably impacted by severe habitat loss, such as clear-cutting, and agricultural expansion. However, overall, this species is not significantly threatened.
57271		conservation	eng	It occurs in Machililla National Park in Ecuador.
57271		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Ecuador, where it occurs in Manabi, El Oro, Guayas, and Loja Provinces. It has an altitudinal range of 0-530m asl.
57271		habitat	eng	It can be found in scrub savannah, Pacific tropical forest and equatorial dry forest. This species can be found in areas of human-modified habitat (QCAZ database). This is an explosive breeder, laying eggs in a foam nest in temporary pools.
57271		population	eng	It can be abundant during reproductive bouts (recorded in 2002).
57271		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss owing to agricultural expansion and human settlement. It is reasonably adaptable, but probably cannot withstand very serious habitat degradation.
57272		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
57272		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central America on the Atlantic versant of Mexico from southern Veracruz southwards to eastern Panama. There is also one record from central Querétaro, Mexico. In South America this species is found from northern Colombia south to the Magdalena Valley of Colombia and the Orinoco River in Venezuela. It is widespread in Trinidad and Tobago, and is likely to occur in Guyana, but there no records. It is a mostly lowland species occurring up to 1,540m asl.
57272		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland savannahs and open environments, as well as natural and disturbed humid lowland and montane forest, tropical dry forest, and other anthropogenic habitats, commonly in, around and in almost any natural or human-made temporary ponds, puddles, potholes, hoof prints, ditches, pastures, secondary growth and along forest edges or small permanent ponds or water catchments. The males call at night while floating on water. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools. Females of this species prefer nesting communally when pairs happen to be found in the same area (Zina, 2006).
57272		population	eng	It is an extremely common species in South America and much of Central America. It is uncommon in southwestern Campeche, Mexico, and Belize.
57272		threats	eng	With the exception of the impacts of fire on the vegetation structure, this species is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
57273		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a private protected area adjacent to a national protected area (Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute).
57273		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in western Ecuador (Guaya and El Oro Provinces) from sea level up to 150m asl.
57273		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland deciduous, semi deciduous and evergreen Costa forest. A number of individuals have been collected in artificially open areas, breeding in the vicinities of buildings, pastures and agricultural lands. Animals have been recorded from flooded rice fields and grasslands and banana plantations. The species breeds in small ponds during the rainy season. Floating foam nests are constructed.
57273		population	eng	The species can be abundant during the breeding season.
57273		threats	eng	This is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
57274		conservation	eng	It occurs in the San Martin Reserve-Park, Entre Rios, the El Bagual Reserve, Formosa, and in small private reserves in Argentina.
57274		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Corrientes, Formosa, Santa Fé, Misiones, and Entre Rios provinces (Argentina); Uruguay; southern Oriental region and lower Chaco, Paraguay; and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). It has an altitude of 0-500m asl.
57274		habitat	eng	It is a grassland species that occurs near semi-permanent or temporary waterbodies where it breeds. The eggs are laid in foam nests, attached to vegetation at the margin of the pond. It occurs in rice fields, other agricultural areas, and rural gardens.
57274		population	eng	It is uncommon in Paraguay and Argentina, but locally common in Brazil.
57274		threats	eng	It is not threatened in Paraguay where it occurs in cattle pastures nor in Brazil where it occurs in rice cultivation. It is also not threatened in Argentina.
57275		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca.
57275		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Ibitipoca, at 1,200-1,680m asl in the state of Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely.
57275		habitat	eng	It is found in secondary forests and gallery forests (there being no primary forest left within its known range), living in leaf-litter or on stones near water. The eggs are deposited in foam nests in wide pools in temporary streams.
57275		population	eng	It is not very common.
57275		threats	eng	The only known site where this species occurs is well protected, so its main threats are habitat damage due to fire and the effects of tourism.
57276		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Junkanigas RAMSAR site (declared in 2002) and the Ibara Provincial Reserve.
57276		distribution	eng	This species is known from Santa Fe, Corrientes and Chaco, Argentina. The populations that are reported from Paraguay don't belong to this species. It has an altitudinal range of 30-60m asl.
57276		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonal wetlands where it remains underground when water is not present. It reproduces in these seasonal wetlands. It occurs in disturbed habitats wherever there is temporary water and dirt to burrow itself in.
57276		population	eng	This is a common species. New populations were discovered in the early 2000s, showing that this species is more abundant than was previously recognized.
57276		threats	eng	Pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements are all threats. Habitat destruction is another threat.
57277		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57277		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern and eastern Brazil ranges from the northern part of the State of São Paulo, north to the southern part of the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl. The animals in São Paulo probably belong to a separate, undescribed species.
57277		habitat	eng	It is found in flooded areas, or near temporary and permanent ponds, inside or at the edge of primary and secondary forest. It does not occur outside forest. The eggs are laid in foam nests on the leaf-litter or mud near temporary and permanent ponds, in which the larvae develop. Reproductive activity has been reported for the month of November, with the potential of also occurring in October, although longer breeding periods are also known to occur (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).
57277		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57277		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.
57278		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Florestal Nacional Mario Xavier protected area, but this is poorly protected and in need of improved management.
57278		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Horto Florestal de Santa Cruz, Itaguaí Municipality, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. The only known site is very close to sea level.
57278		habitat	eng	It was probably originally a primary forest species, but now lives only in secondary forest, since this is all that remains within its range. It is usually found near ponds in forest. The eggs are laid in a foam nest on the surface of temporary pools.
57278		population	eng	It has a very small, but stable, population.
57278		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to conversion of habitat to eucalyptus plantations, and human disturbance.
57279		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57279		distribution	eng	This species from coastal southeastern Brazil ranges from the eastern part of the State of São Paulo to the northeastern part of the State of Paraná, Brazil. It occurs close to sea level.
57279		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forest and forest edge, as well as coastal "Restinga" scrub, but not in more open areas. It breeds in temporary ponds and other areas subject to flooding on the forest floor. The males call from the edges of forest ponds, and the eggs are laid in a foam nests that can be deposited on the water, or anchored to the margins of the ponds, or placed on humid leaf-litter near the ponds.
57279		population	eng	It is a common species.
57279		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, tourism and human settlement.
57280		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
57280		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Southern Amazon basin in drainage of Madeira, Tapajos and Jurua rivers, Brazil.
57280		habitat	eng	This species can be found in leaf-litter in lowland rainforest. Its reproductive mode is unknown, though it is likely to be by direct development. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known.
57280		population	eng	It appears to be stable, but population size hard to assess because it can be sampled only with pitfall traps.
57280		threats	eng	Deforestation from agriculture and logging is probably impacting local populations, but overall, this species is unlikely to be threatened.
57281		conservation	eng	It occurs in Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula.
57281		distribution	eng	This species is known from Uruguay (in the departments of Canelones, Florida, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Montevideo, Rocha, San José and Treinta y Tres, Artigas, Durazno, and Río Negro) and from Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), from 0-1,100m asl.
57281		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal sand plains, open savannahs, rocky outcrops, grasslands and open montane habitats, and probably does not tolerate habitat disturbance. Breeding takes place in temporary pools.
57281		population	eng	This species is rare and occurs in widely scattered populations. It is probably extinct in Montevideo Department because of habitat destruction.
57281		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat destruction due to encroaching cultivation of crops, establishment of pine plantations, and encroaching human settlements.
57282		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least three protected areas in Argentina.
57282		distribution	eng	This species is known from Argentina, in Jujuy, Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, Formosa and Santiago del Estero Provinces. Museum specimen records from eastern Santiago del Estero, Formosa, and Chaco Provinces might have incorrect locality information recorded on their labels. It can possibly be found in dry lowlands and submontane habitats in southern Bolivia (the species is cited for Bolivia based on a record more than 100 years old, and it was tentatively included as a Bolivian species by De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (2000)). It has been recorded from 200-1,500m asl.
57282		habitat	eng	It occurs in the Chaco-Yungas transition on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Argentina (and possibly Bolivia). It also occurs in montane grasslands. Pairs build foam nests that float in small permanent and temporary pools. Males call from the edge or from within the water. It also occurs in disturbed habitats, including urban areas.
57282		population	eng	It is abundant in Argentina.
57282		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
57283		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas.
57283		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Guyana and northern Brazil (Roraima State), through Venezuela (including Isla Margarita) and eastern and northern Colombia into the Pacific lowlands of Panama from Azuero to central Panama. It is native in Aruba, but introduced in Curaçao, Klein Bonaire and Bonaire. Its range does not reach French Guyana (cf. Lescure and Marty 2001), and there are no records from Suriname. It occurs up to 500m asl.
57283		habitat	eng	It lives in open grasslands and savannahs, often in relatively dry areas. The species uses ephemeral or permanent small water pools for breeding, but can also be found far from the water. At the onset of the first rains, these frogs emerge from sandy soils where they hide during the dry season. They make foam nests in water. It is a very adaptable species to human-induced change of its habitat.
57283		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57283		threats	eng	There are no known threats, since it is a very adaptable species.
57284		conservation	eng	There a number of populations that are protected by the National Parks of Argentina and Chile. In Chile this species is considered as "Insufficiently Known" (Inadecuadamente Conocida) (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998).
57284		distribution	eng	This species occurs over a wide geographic range in Argentina and Chile including the Patagonian steppes, transitional zones, and austral temperate forests. It has an altitudinal range of 0-2,300m asl.
57284		habitat	eng	Typically it occurs below rocks or in vegetation in steppe habitats. The species can persist in harsh climatic conditions. Reproduction takes place in the margins of seasonal pools; it has free-swimming larvae. The species is somewhat tolerant of habitat disturbance.
57284		population	eng	This is a very common species in Patagonia. The species presumably has a large and well distributed population.
57284		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to the species as a whole.
57285		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in Bolivia and two (Los Andes Provincial Reserve and Laguna Pozuelos National Park) in Argentina, but not found in Peruvian protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for the species in Bolivia and Peru.
57285		distribution	eng	This is an Andean species ranging from southern Peru, through much of Bolivia (Departments of Santa Cruz, Tarija, Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Oruro and Potosi) and northwestern Argentina. It is present at elevations of 1,600-4,200m asl.
57285		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of open montane puna grassland and semi deciduous forest habitats (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000). Pairs build foam nests that float in small permanent and temporary pools. This species is present in agricultural land.
57285		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its range.
57285		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in its range.
57286		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57286		distribution	eng	This species is distributed very widely in northeastern Brazil, from the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais and the central part of the State of Bahia, north to the States of Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará and Maranhão. It occurs up to 750m asl.
57286		habitat	eng	It is a species of "Caatinga" and "Cerrado" savannah that also lives in dune fields. It can live close to human habitation. It is a fossorial species that spends much of the year buried below ground, but emerges to breed explosively in temporary water. It makes foam nests and has very rapid larval development.
57286		population	eng	It is a very abundant species. In Bahia, the species occurs in high densities on preserved habitats in the northern region, but is absent from sites further south with more human pressure (Tinoco et al., 2008).
57286		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and fire. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008)
57287		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work to resolve the status of allopatric populations is needed. It is not known from any protected areas.
57287		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Argentina surrounding the Salinas de Ambargasta (Córdoba, La Rioja, San Juan, Catamarca, and Santiago del Estero Provinces) and from southern Bolivia, in the Department of Santa Cruz (at 200m asl). It has an altitudinal range of 100-700m asl in Argentina.
57287		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species on open habitats such as grasslands in the Chaco. It is an explosive breeder. Pairs build foam nests that float in small temporary pools. Its adaptation to anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.
57287		population	eng	It is locally common throughout its range.
57287		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known; its habitats are not significantly threatened.
57288		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Quebrada del Condorito and the Reserva Hídrica Provincial de Pampa de Achala.
57288		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pampa de Achala, Cordoba Province, Argentina, from 1,800-2,600m asl.
57288		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane grasslands and associated rocky outcrops. Adults live under rocks or in abandoned rodent holes outside the breeding season. It reproduces explosively during the first rains in November and December. Pairs spin a gelatinous nest attached to vegetation in temporary pools, or sometimes in backwater pools of streams.
57288		population	eng	It is abundant within its small range, although it is seen only during the breeding season.
57288		threats	eng	Significant threats to this species have previously included extensive cattle ranching and the associated alteration of water sources. However, the recent declaration of protected areas within its range means that the future of this species now looks much more secure.
57289		conservation	eng	In Bolivia it is present in the Apolobamba and Eduardo Avaroa Natural Reserves, Cotapata National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management and Carrasco and Sajama National Parks. In Peru it has been recorded from the Reserva Nacional Salinas, Agada Blanca and Pampa Galeras-Reserva de Junin. It occurs in the Laguna Pozuelos National Park in Argentina.
57289		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Peru to central Bolivia, northeastern Chile and northwestern Argentina. In Peru the species is present in the regions of Ancash, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Lima, Cusco, Huancavalica, Junin and Pasco. In Bolivia it occurs in the Departments of Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Tarija and Potosi (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Chile, the species is known only from Putre and Chungara Lake, Parinacota Province, close to the Peruvian border. It is present at an altitudinal range of 3200-5400 masl.
57289		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of open montane puna, grassland and páramo habitats. It is frequently found under rocks close to small seasonal waterbodies and peat bogs, or at the sides of streams (Cortez 2001). It breeds explosively in slow-moving streams and small ponds. It is present in irrigated agricultural land.
57289		population	eng	It is generally a locally common species; in Chile it has a small, decreasing population. It is a rarely recorded species in Argentina but few herpetologists venture to its inaccessible habitat.
57289		threats	eng	In Chile livestock are considered to be a threat.<br/><br/>The species has tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection, although it did not exhibit  clinical signs of chytridiomycosis. In addition, there is evidence of upward expansion of this and another two anuran species to newly available habitat brought about by recent deglaciation in the Andes of Peru. The large increase in the upper limit of known Bd infections (from 4112 to 5348 masl) also expands the spatial domain of potential Bd pathogenicity (Seimon et al., 2006).
57290		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57290		distribution	eng	This species is known from Argentina in Catamarca, Córdoba, La Pampa, La Rioja, Mendoza, Neuquén (?), Río Negro, Salta, San Juan, San Luis and Tucumán. It has an altitudinal range of 150-1,200m asl.
57290		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands and open scrubland. Adults live under rocks or in abandoned rodent holes outside the breeding season. It reproduces explosively during the first rains in November and December. Pairs spin a foam nest that floats in temporary pools (sometimes in backwater pools of streams). It is abundant in agricultural cropland.
57290		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57290		threats	eng	It is not threatened overall.
57291		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57291		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Chile from the northern arid territories to the southern <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and from sea level to the vegetation line in the Andes range western slopes of Central Chile. In Argentina, it is widely distributed from the western shore of Laguna Superior de Epulafquen, Departamento Minas (Neuquén) south to the area between La Plata and La Chico lakes, Departamento Río Senguer (Chubut). It has an altitudinal range of 0-2,100m asl.
57291		habitat	eng	It is typically found in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, but may also be found in steppe, grassland and transitional zones. It may also be found in urban areas, and in other altered habitats. Adults occur terrestrially in vegetation, below logs and below rocks. It reproduces in all types of waterbodies (although the species generally prefers shallow ponds). Free-swimming larvae characterize it.
57291		population	eng	It is a very abundant species within its preferred habitat.
57291		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species, though a number of populations are impacted by fires, water pollution (by both agriculture and industry) and habitat desiccation.
57292		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Calilegua and Pampa de Achala Provincial Hydrological Reserve.
57292		distribution	eng	This species is known from Argentina in Catamarca, Córdoba, Chaco, Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, San Juan, San Luis and Tucumán. It has an altitudinal range of 250-1,500m asl.
57292		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species in open lowland and montane shrublands. It is an explosive breeder. Its pairs build gelatinous nests that float in small temporary pools. Males call from the edge or from within the water. It occurs in agricultural habitats.
57292		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57292		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57293		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57293		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Paraná. Records from Paraguay appear to be in error. It occurs at 500-1,700m asl.
57293		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, but not open areas, living in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Adults are sometimes found in the stumps of tree ferns. It breeds in mountain streams.
57293		population	eng	It is a common species.
57293		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism.
57294		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57294		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in Misiones Province, Argentina, and in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 150-1,200m asl.
57294		habitat	eng	This species can be found in forest patches along margins of small streams. It reproduces in flowing streams. It evidently tolerates some level of disturbance because it is found along streams in pastures and young second growth.
57294		population	eng	It is uncommonly seen because of its habits, but regularly encountered when sampling with pitfall traps in appropriate habitat.
57294		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to selective logging and clear-cutting of old growth forests, cattle ranching, and forest plantations are all threats to this species. Water pollution caused by agricultural practices (cattle) and industrial pollution (organic wastes) is another threat.
57295		conservation	eng	This species' range overlaps with several protected areas.
57295		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and central districts of Misiones Province, Argentina, from 300-1,200m asl.
57295		habitat	eng	It inhabits <em>Araucaria</em> forests in mountainous regions, and breeds in small streams. Outside the breeding season it occurs in leaf-litter. The eggs may be deposited under stones on streambeds.
57295		population	eng	It has never been recorded as being abundant, and one population in Sao Francisco de Paula has disappeared.
57295		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation, for smallholder livestock ranching, and the establishment of pine plantations. It is also threatened by pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices and industrial pollution with organic wastes.
57296		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57296		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the State of Pernambuco, south to the State Santa Catarina, with isolated populations at Maranguape and Ibiapaba in Ceará. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
57296		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, on the forest edge, and in degraded areas near forest. It lives in the forest leaf-litter. It spawns in temporary slow-flowing water in forest or on the forest edge.
57296		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57296		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. It is also harvested for the international pet trade, though this is unlike to have a significant impact on the populations.
57297		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57297		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the southern regions of the Serra Geral, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 500-1,000m asl.
57297		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests in mountainous regions. It breeds in small streams. Outside the breeding season, it occurs terrestrially in the leaf-litter. The eggs may be deposited under stones of streambeds.
57297		population	eng	It is common and apparently stable in suitable habitats.
57297		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat.
57298		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
57298		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Fazenda Jaburi, in the municipality of Espigão D'oseste, in the state of Rondonia, in the south-central Amazon basin of Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.
57298		habitat	eng	It is known only from open rainforest, where it presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.
57298		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57298		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57299		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57299		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in northeastern Brazil, from the central part of the State of Bahia, north to the States of Paraiba, Ceara and Piaui.
57299		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial frog found in dry "Caatinga" savannah and secondary forest. The eggs are laid in temporary streams.
57299		population	eng	It is a common species.
57299		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and fire.
57300		conservation	eng	There is a protected area in this region (Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó) in which this species presumably occurs.
57300		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais in southern Brazil, where it is found above 800m asl, occurring at least up to 1,300m asl. It might occur more widely.
57300		habitat	eng	It is a species of Cerrado savannah that reproduces in temporary or permanent streams.
57300		population	eng	It is not common.
57300		threats	eng	It might be affected by fire, and by disturbance resulting from tourism.
57301		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57301		distribution	eng	This species from the highlands of southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It is found from at least 650m up to over 1,000m asl.
57301		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, but probably not in open areas, living in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds in slow-flowing water.
57301		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57301		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, human settlement and fire.
57302		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros.
57302		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Brazil, in the State of Goiás. It is likely to occur somewhat more widely. It has been found at around 1,200m asl, though its elevational range is presumably broader than this.
57302		habitat	eng	It lives in open habitats in Cerrado savannah. There is no information on whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance. It breeds in streams.
57302		population	eng	It is a common species.
57302		threats	eng	It populations are believed to be impacted by expanding agriculture, overgrazing by domestic livestock, wood extraction, and fire.
57303		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57303		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the central part of the State of Bahia, south to the southern part of the State of Espírito Santo. It occurs up to 500m asl.
57303		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, and can live in secondary forest but not open habitats. It lives in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, and it breeds in small forest streams.
57303		population	eng	It is a common species.
57303		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, human settlement and logging.
57304		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57304		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in the States of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and extreme southeastern Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. Its altitudinal range is from 500-1,300m asl.
57304		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in primary forest, but also in old secondary forest, where it is found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds in permanent and temporary streams.
57304		population	eng	It is common where it is found.
57304		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to tourism, human settlement and fire. However, the forest is reasonably well protected within its range.
57305		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
57305		distribution	eng	This species is known from the municipalities of Santa Teresa, Colatina, and Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo in south-eastern Brazil, where it occurs up to 650m asl.
57305		habitat	eng	@It lives in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas, where it is usually found along small mountain streams in the forest, in which it breeds. The males call from under large rocks or from rock crevices.
57305		population	eng	It appears to be a common species (as judged by the abundance of its larvae).
57305		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, human settlement and logging.
57306		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed, in particular the creation of a protected area is necessary. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
57306		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the Poços de Caldas Plateau, in Minas Gerais State in south-eastern Brazil, where it was recorded at around 1,200m asl.
57306		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small temporary streams, in which it breeds, near swamps at the edge of riparian forests.
57306		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, but it is only known from a few specimens. It is probably declining at the type locality but probably occurs elsewhere.
57306		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation arising from mining. Pollution from the mining industry is also a threat.
57307		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57307		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cachoeiro do Itapemirim, in the state of Espírito Santo in south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely. The only records are from low altitudes close to sea level.
57307		habitat	eng	It has been found in primary and secondary forest, living in leaf-litter near streams in which the larvae probably develop.
57307		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens.
57307		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, human settlement and logging.
57308		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57308		distribution	eng	This species from eastern and southern Brazil occurs in the States of Bahia, Espírito Santo, extreme northeastern Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro (though some questions have been raised about its presence in the last State). It occurs up to 800m asl.
57308		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and is not found outside forest. It lives in the leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds in small forest streams.
57308		population	eng	It is a common species.
57308		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, human settlement, fire and logging.
57309		conservation	eng	It occurs in Serra do Tabuleiro State Park. The creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed.
57309		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal forests of Santa Catarina, Brazil, at elevations of 300-1,000m asl.
57309		habitat	eng	It occurs on the forest leaf-litter near streams. It reproduces in backwaters of small streams.
57309		population	eng	It is rare, but stable in suitable habitat.
57309		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat to this species.
57310		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
57310		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Roraima (northern Brazil), to eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, southwestern Brazil and northern Argentina. In Bolivia it occurs in the Departments of Beni, La Paz and Santa Cruz. It is absent from French Guiana. It can be found at altitudes of up to 700m asl.
57310		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species occurring in a wide variety of habitats, including the Cerrado, Chiquitano forest, transitional humid forest, tropical moist forests, humid savannahs, swampy areas, and flooded fields. It reproduces in permanent and temporary ponds and moist grasslands. Eggs and tadpoles breed in the water. It is adaptable to human induced habitat change.
57310		population	eng	It is a common species.
57310		threats	eng	There are no major threats. It might be locally impacted by habitat loss for agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development, as well as fires and pollution.
57311		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.
57311		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra dos Carajás, in the municipality of Marabá, Pará State, Brazil. Attempts to map its distribution for this assessment show the general area of the Serra dos Carajás, to which this species is believed to be endemic.
57311		habitat	eng	It is known from upland open vegetation formations, such as the Pampas, Pantanal, Llanos and Cerrado. It is presumed to reproduce in either or both permanent or temporary ponds, and to have a larval development breeding strategy.
57311		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57311		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57312		conservation	eng	It is present within areas northeast of Iquitos (Peru) that has been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). It is present in a number of Brazilian protected areas.
57312		distribution	eng	This species is known from Leticia, Amazonas, in southern Colombia, and from Explorama and Río Pauya, Loreto in northern Peru. It has been recorded along the edges of Jurua River, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 100-300m asl.
57312		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species present in primary flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves; and possibly in more open/edge areas. Eggs are deposited in shallow pools.
57312		population	eng	It can be abundant where it occurs.
57312		threats	eng	Presumably there are no major threats; it is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
57313		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57313		distribution	eng	This species is known from Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones, and Santa Fé in Argentina. In Uruguay it is known throughout the country. It is known from Minas Gerais, Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, in Brazil. In Paraguay it is known from the central and southern Oriental region. Its altitudinal range is 0-1,000m asl.
57313		habitat	eng	This species can be found in grasslands, including rice plantations. It reproduces in temporary pools including agricultural ditches. It adapts well to disturbed habitats.
57313		population	eng	It is abundant throughout much of its range.
57313		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species, it adapts well to agriculture.
57314		conservation	eng	Some Venezuelan populations occur within protected areas.
57314		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the "Llanos" lowlands of Colombia and Venezuela in the Orinoco drainage system. It generally occurs up to 800m asl, but it is also found at the southern end of Cerro Corocoro in Venezuela at the unusual altitude of 1,220m asl.
57314		habitat	eng	It is a species of savannahs, grasslands, degraded tropical dry forests, and gallery forests. During the dry season it can be found in dry leaf-litter along the beds of temporary woodland streams. In the Cerro Corocoro area, which is well drained and seasonally arid, it has been found in sparse aquatic vegetation in shallow water along the edge of a drying, boulder-strewn stream. The animals breed in temporary and permanent pools, and in temporary streams. They have been found climbing aquatic thorny palms (<i>Bactris</i> spp.) from which they descend to lay eggs in temporary or permanent ponds.
57314		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
57314		threats	eng	It is not seriously threatened, but expanding rice fields, and the associated chemical water pollution are probably impacting some populations.
57315		conservation	eng	There is a protected area in the Serra do Cipó (Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó) in which this species presumably occurs.
57315		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais in southern Brazil, where it occurs above 800m asl. Its distribution is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.
57315		habitat	eng	It lives in open, grassy areas around temporary ponds, in which it presumably breeds. It adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance.
57315		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57315		threats	eng	It might be affected by fire, expanding human settlements, and disturbance resulting from tourism.
57316		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status requires investigation.
57316		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Itá Ibaté, in Corrientes Province, Argentina, at approximately 600m asl.
57316		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in water by larval development, like other members of the genus.
57316		population	eng	It is known only from the type series collected in the 1960s.
57316		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57317		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57317		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Santa Cruz (Bolivia); central, southeastern and southern Brazil; Itapua (Paraguay); and Corrientes and Misiones (Argentina). It has an altitudinal range of 0-1,000m asl.
57317		habitat	eng	It can be found in marshland within Cerrado and seasonally flooded grasslands, where it breeds. It adapts to human disturbance (for example, occurs in rice cultivation).
57317		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
57317		threats	eng	Although it is not threatened overall, it might be affected locally by the same threats facing the Cerrado biome (such as fires and agriculture).
57318		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57318		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Lower and Middle Magdalena Valley in northern Colombia, in the Caribbean areas in northern Colombia and Venezuela, and in Lake Maracaibo basin in Venezuela. It occurs up to 150m asl.
57318		habitat	eng	It lives in savannahs, dry forests, and riparian forests in open, dry environments. Its breeding is not known, though it presumably takes place in water.
57318		population	eng	It is very common in Colombia, but appears to be uncommon in Venezuela.
57318		threats	eng	It is an aggressive species, not facing any known threats.
57319		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be resolved.
57319		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rio Piedade, São Jose do Rio Preto, in the state of São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil.
57319		habitat	eng	If it is like other species in the genus, it breeds in water (possibly in temporary pools), probably in forest.
57319		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57319		threats	eng	No information is available.
57320		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57320		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in south-central Brazil, and has been recorded from the Distrito Federal, and from the States of Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo. It has been found at 600-1,200m asl.
57320		habitat	eng	It is a species of Cerrado savannah, living in moist fields, and pastures. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance. It breeds in temporary pools and swamps.
57320		population	eng	It is a common species.
57320		threats	eng	Local populations are probably impacted by the spread of intensive, commercial agriculture, as well as by fire and dam construction.
57321		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57321		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the Cerrado biome of south-central Brazil, and it is recorded from the States of Bahia, Goiás, Tocantins and Minas Gerais. It is found at 400-1,200m asl.
57321		habitat	eng	It lives in Cerrado savannah, occurring in open areas, and breeding in somewhat wet, marshy areas, and temporary pools. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57321		population	eng	It is a common species.
57321		threats	eng	Local populations are probably impacted by the spread of intensive, commercial agriculture, as well as by fire and dam construction.
57322		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Chapada da Diamantina.
57322		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the region of Chapada Diamantina, in the northern part of the Espinhaço Range in the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil, at around 1,200m asl.
57322		habitat	eng	It lives on the banks of small streams with white sand and rocks, in high-altitude grassy vegetation, and breeds in temporary streams and ponds.
57322		population	eng	This species is common within its small range.
57322		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to expanding cultivation of crops and livestock grazing, and fire.
57323		conservation	eng	Although it is not currently protected in any reserve, its range still includes much intact forest.
57323		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Mar in the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina in southern Brazil at 800-1,000m asl.
57323		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that lives in secondary and old growth forest. It reproduces in ephemeral pools. It does not occur in open areas outside forest.
57323		population	eng	It occurs in scattered localities, but it is often common where is found. Its population is stable in suitable habitats.
57323		threats	eng	The main threats are deforestation, expanding cattle ranching, and expanding pine plantations.
57324		conservation	eng	It is present in Salinas y Aguada Blanca Reserva Nacional. Education programmes are needed to inform local people of the importance of ensuring that the harvest of this species from the wild is managed sustainably. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57324		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Arequipa region of Perú (Arequipa and Moquegua departments). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000-4,500m asl.
57324		habitat	eng	It is a riparian semi-aquatic frog. It is present in streams, wet grassland and shrublands, and ditches. It may be found in modified habitats wherever there are streams or ditches. Eggs are laid in the water.
57324		population	eng	It is common where it occurs, but declines have been noted at lower elevations, probably because of over-harvesting.
57324		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is water pollution caused by agrochemicals and domestic waste. It is also harvested for food and for use in traditional medicine. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations might be very susceptible to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. arequipensis</em>.
57325		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Río Abiseo.
57325		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the westernmost ridge of the Cordillera Central of northern Peru (in the departments of Amazonas, San Martin and La Libertad). It is only recently discovered and might range much more widely. Large areas of potentially suitable habitat are available that have not been surveyed. It can be found at altitudes of 2,600-4,000m asl
57325		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic riparian species that lives under rocks at the edge of small streams, in which it presumably breeds, in very humid sub alpine páramo. <br/><br/>Tadpoles assigned to this species appear to represent the most specialized <em>Telmatobius</em> larvae known to date (Aguilar et al., 2007).
57325		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
57325		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high altitudes might prove to be very susceptible to chytridiomycosis, but this has yet to be reported from <em>T. atahualpai</em>. This species might also be subject to over-harvesting, like many other members of the genus, but this has not been confirmed.
57326		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional y Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, this species should be monitored closely.
57326		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Yungas forests of La Paz Department, Bolivia, from 2,000-3,000m asl. <em>Telmatobius ifornoi</em>, known only from Chuspipata, in Nor Yungas Province, La Paz Department, at 3,050m asl, is now considered to be a synonym (Lavilla and Ergueta 1999).
57326		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that occurs in fast-flowing rivers and streams in cloud forests and Yungas forest. It is often present in the muddy bottoms of streams. There is no information on its breeding biology, though it presumably takes place by larval development in streams.
57326		population	eng	This is the most common and widespread <em>Telmatobius</em> species in Bolivia.
57326		threats	eng	It is affected by ongoing habitat loss and degradation, as a result of logging and agricultural expansion. It is also threatened by water pollution and aquaculture. Despite these threats its populations appear to be currently stable. However, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat that could cause serious declines, but this has not yet been confirmed in this species.
57327		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.
57327		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cordillera Occidental of northern Perú, in the departments of Cajamarca and La Libertad, where it has been collected at elevations of between 2,000 and 3,520m asl.
57327		habitat	eng	It is a riparian semi-aquatic species, and can be found under rocks along streams in cloud forest to páramo; it is also present in irrigation ditches in cultivated areas. It is presumed to be a stream breeder.
57327		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
57327		threats	eng	There is little information available on its threats, although water pollution might be a localized threat. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius brevipes</em>, but congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.
57328		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the maintenance of suitable habitat for this species. It also requires close population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chytrid infection.
57328		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Huallaga River and its tributaries, in Huánuco Department, Peru, and it has an altitudinal range of 2,000-3,600m asl.
57328		habitat	eng	It is a riparian semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, living in small streams in shrubland and cloud forest, and is not present in cultivated areas.
57328		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
57328		threats	eng	Agrochemical runoff into streams, as a result of use in potato cultivation, is a major threat to this species. Other <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are believed to be particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, though the pathogen has yet to be reported from this species.
57329		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, but might range into the lower elevations of Parque Nacional Huascarán. Further research is needed to determine the levels of offtake of this species from the wild. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57329		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Peruvian Andes and is known from the vicinity of the type locality "Puna de Crusjircan" in the department of Ancash, and from the Río Blanco, near Banos, in the department of Huanuco. It is known from 3,950-4,000m asl, but presumably has a broader elevational range than this.
57329		habitat	eng	This species is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog of the puna. Breeding takes place in streams.
57329		population	eng	It has been recorded as abundant.
57329		threats	eng	Water pollution from mines and domestic use of water is a localized threat. It is probably also collected for food and medicine. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations might be particularly prone to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. carrillae</em>.
57330		conservation	eng	A few populations are protected in Parque Nacional Los Alisos. Conservation actions needed to conserve the species include the expansion of existing protected areas to ensure increased protection of habitat; the control of invasive predators within protected areas; and close population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chyrid.
57330		distribution	eng	This Argentinean endemic is distributed from the type locality of La Banderita (27° 08'S; 66° 02'W) (Catamarca Province) north to Los Sosa River (Tucumán Province), ranging from 1,400-2,200m asl.
57330		habitat	eng	It is mostly aquatic, occurring in montane forest streams in the Aconquija Range (Tucumán-Catamarca, Argentina), and is not present in modified areas. Breeding takes place in the streams, and the larvae are aquatic; there is no dispersal between streams.
57330		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57330		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging and clear-cutting of primary forests and conversion of habitat to wood plantations. Other threats include alteration of watersheds, sedimentation and pollution of waterbodies (often by livestock, but also from mining waste), and predation by introduced trout. Chytridiomycosis may be a potential future threat.
57331		conservation	eng	A 95% of its estimated geographic range is found within Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). The risk of disease means that it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status. Any surviving individuals should form the basis for the initiation of a captive-breeding programme.
57331		distribution	eng	This species is only known from three localities, in the vicinity of Abra de Zamora and from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the provinces of Loja and Zamora Chinchipe, southern Ecuador (Merino-Viteri et al., 2005). Its geographical range has been calculated at ca 107.9 km2 (Merino-Viteri et al., 2005). Its altitudinal range is 2,700-3,200m asl.
57331		habitat	eng	It lives in very wet, cold elfin forest dominated by thick layers of moss, lichens, liverworts, dense bushes, bromeliads and bamboo, and it is closely associated with streams. Individuals have been found beneath rocks in a roadside streambed, and in a roadside ditch. It presumably breeds in streams.
57331		population	eng	The species has not been collected since November 1981 in spite of 10 surveys conducted between 1987 and 2003 in its type locality (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
57331		threats	eng	There is evidence that <em>Telmatobius</em> species in Ecuador have been impacted by disease (including chytridiomycosis, but also from another fungal disease, a nematode infection, and from morphological malformations). Climatic abnormalities might also be implicated, and are perhaps related to the incidence of disease outbreaks. In addition, habitat loss and degradation is taking place due to agricultural development (crops and livestock ranching) and human settlement. <em>Telmatobius</em> species have traditionally been heavily used for food by local people.
57332		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is present within the Cordillera El Colán protected area.
57332		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cordillera El Colán, in Amazonas Department in the northern Peruvian Andes, at 2,410m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
57332		habitat	eng	This is a riparian, semi-aquatic species of rocky high-gradient streams in undisturbed cloud forest. It is not known if it can occur in disturbed habitat.
57332		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population status.
57332		threats	eng	Outside existing protected areas, the major threat is likely to be ongoing forest loss. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius colanensis</em>, but congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.
57333		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas. There are no conservation measures in place.
57333		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Cerro Madrid (29° 39'S; 68° 36'W), in Gualcamayo Valley at 3,050m asl in San Juan Province, Argentina. This is the southernmost species of <em>Telmatobius</em>.
57333		habitat	eng	All that is known about its habitat and ecological requirements is that it is thought to have been collected from a mountain stream.
57333		population	eng	It is known only from the type series of three individuals.
57333		threats	eng	The type locality is in a gold mining area that is dangerous for researchers to visit, so the threats to this species remain poorly known. It is possible that the presumed aquatic habitat of this species might be being polluted by mercury, although this requires verification. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57334		conservation	eng	It is present in the Lake Titicaca Reserve, but measures are needed to maintain suitable aquatic habitat for breeding and to mitigate the impacts of other threats. Captive-breeding programmes around Lake Titicaca are generally considered to have been unsuccessful to date. In Peru, National legislation to treat as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19.1999) is needed.
57334		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Titicaca of Peru (Departamento Puno) and Bolivia (Departamento La Paz) at an elevation of 3,810m asl.
57334		habitat	eng	It is a wholly aquatic species, with reproduction taking place in shallow waters close to the Lake's shoreline.
57334		population	eng	It was previously common, but it has experienced massive declines, and it is now seriously threatened.
57334		threats	eng	Major threats include over-harvesting of adults, the presumed predation of larvae by introduced trout, water extraction from the Lake, and domestic and agricultural water pollution. There has been a severe loss of suitable aquatic habitat where reproduction takes place. Although not yet recorded, chytridiomycosis remains a potential future threat.
57335		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. Inclusion in the national and international legislation as VU is needed.
57335		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Las Cascadas, along the Loa River, in El Loa Province, Chile (22° 29'S; 68° 58'W) on the western slopes of the Andes. It can be found up to 2,260m asl, and probably occurs elsewhere along the Loa River.
57335		habitat	eng	It is found in a river that crosses a desert. It reproduces in the river, and has large free-swimming larvae.
57335		population	eng	There are large populations where it occurs, and in 2002 it was abundant at the type locality.
57335		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is water pollution caused by mining activities. It might also be threatened in the future by chytridiomycosis.
57336		conservation	eng	It is not known to be present in any protected areas. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis.
57336		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: 13km ESE Yamobamba, 18km SE Agallpampa on the road from Otuzco to Huamachuco (7° 59'S; 78° 36'W), La Libertad Department, in the northern Peruvian Andes, at 3,290m asl. It presumably occurs more widely.
57336		habitat	eng	It has been collected in a densely vegetated roadside marsh in an open pasture. The marsh was fed by a brook draining into the Rio Moche, and was in the very humid subalpine páramo. The frogs were active in pools and running water by day. Breeding takes place in wetlands.
57336		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
57336		threats	eng	The threats are not currently known. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius degener</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.
57337		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco and possibly also in Parque Nacional Amboro.
57337		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the slopes of the Bolivian Andes, at La Siberia, on the border between the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, and from Sehuencas in Parque Nacional Carrasco. It has been found at approximately 2,600m asl, though it presumably has a broader elevational range than this, and may also occur more widely.
57337		habitat	eng	It is both aquatic and terrestrial, and inhabits cloud forest and mountain streams, though its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.
57337		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57337		threats	eng	It is likely to be adversely affected by ongoing habitat loss and degradation taking place mainly due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57338		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57338		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Puquios, in El Loa Province, Chile (21° 00'S; 68° 23'W). It can occur up to 4,150m asl. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently recognized.
57338		habitat	eng	The pool in which this species can be found was formed by local people damming a hot stream. This species' breeding habits are unknown, though reproduction is presumably by larval development in water.
57338		population	eng	When it was discovered in 1998, there were more than 30 individuals in a tiny pool. The same pool held only four individuals in 2001.
57338		threats	eng	Its major threats are unknown, although chytridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.
57339		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas. Habitat protection and maintenance is recommended, complemented by more general actions to mitigate the effects of water pollution and channelization, and to manage exploitation. Close monitoring of surviving populations of this species is required.
57339		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the canyon of the Río Huayllamarca, in Carangas Province, Oruro Department, in the Bolivian Andes, at around 3,965m asl.
57339		habitat	eng	It lives in streams in high-elevation puna grassland habitats, where it presumably breeds by larval development.
57339		population	eng	It is fairly common at the type locality.
57339		threats	eng	Populations are possibly affected by water pollution from agriculture, over-harvesting for medicinal use, and the deviation of water from streams for the irrigation of crops. Although not yet recorded, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57340		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and there might be a need for improved habitat protection at the type locality. The species is in need of close population monitoring given its very limited range and the potential threat of chytridiomycosis..
57340		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "la cordillera de Catamarca en el arroyo `Aguas Calientes' (4,020m asl) en las inmediaciones de Cazadero Grande", Catamarca, in north-western Argentina.
57340		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species known only from a single thermal spring of about 5km in length. Breeding takes place in the stream and the species does not occur in modified habitats.
57340		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
57340		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by the use of the stream as a watering point for passing livestock, and the removal of vegetation from the area for firewood, but at present these threats appear to be minor, and no decline has been noted. Chytridiomycosis also is a potential future threat.
57341		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at the type locality. Further survey work is needed to assess the current population status of the species, and there is a need for close monitoring of populations given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57341		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Río Sihuas, in the department of Ancash, in the Peruvian Andes at an elevation of 2,700m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known, and it is likely to occur more widely.
57341		habitat	eng	This is a riparian semi-aquatic species. It is found under rocks in fast-flowing streams in alder forest. It is also found under rocks in pools and moist soil. Reproduction occurs in streams. It is not known if it occurs in degraded habitats.
57341		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57341		threats	eng	It is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations might be particularly prone to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. hockingi</em>.
57342		conservation	eng	It occurs in the National Reserve of Andine Fauna Eduardo Avaroa. Further research is needed to investigate the reasons for the declines observed in this species.
57342		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Andean highlands of Bolivia, in Sud Lípez, in the southern part of the department of Potosí, at around 4,200m asl.
57342		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that lives in very scattered populations in small streams, rivers and peat bogs, in a cold desert landscape. Some populations live in thermal springs. It presumably breeds by larval development in water.
57342		population	eng	It is locally common. Although its populations appear to be relatively stable, there is some evidence of a decline.
57342		threats	eng	The causes of the observed declines are not known, but given the high elevation at which the species occurs, climate change could be a threat.
57343		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required to ensure the long-term persistence of this species.
57343		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two nearby localities in Jujuy Province, in north-western Argentina: El Moreno (the type locality); and El Angosto. Its altitudinal range is 3,500-3,600m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
57343		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, and is found in high mountain streams usually surrounded by scrubby bush land. It is not known from any modified habitats.
57343		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57343		threats	eng	Current threats include pollution of the streams by livestock, and collection of vegetation surrounding the streams for firewood (leading to increased run-off sedimentation). Other potential threats include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), stream pollution from mining activities, destruction of high mountain bogs associated with the streams, and alteration of stream watersheds. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential future threat.
57344		conservation	eng	It is not known to be present in any protected areas. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis.
57344		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cordillera de Huancabamba (in Piura Department) at an altitude of 1,840-3,080m asl.
57344		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, and can be found under rocks in streams in very humid montane forest, humid lower montane forest and possibly dry lower montane forest. It may occur in disturbed areas, where water quality remains good, and has been recorded close to towns and agricultural areas.
57344		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57344		threats	eng	There are no current major threats known for the areas occupied, though there may be some localized stream degradation. However, <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. ignavus</em>, congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.
57345		conservation	eng	This species might occur in the protected area of the Reserva Nacional Pampas Galeras, although this requires confirmation.
57345		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Allipaca, near Puquio, Ayacucho Department, in the southern Peruvian Andes, at around 3,300m asl. It might occur more widely.
57345		habitat	eng	It is a riparian semi-aquatic frog that may be found under rocks in streams and waterfalls in montane shrubland and grasslands. It breeds in streams.
57345		population	eng	Its population status is not known. It is a very poorly known species.
57345		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, which has yet to be reported from <em>T. intermedius</em>.
57346		conservation	eng	It might be present in the Reserva Chacamarca although this requires confirmation. There is a need to regulate its harvesting and to reduce the local water pollution. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored closely.
57346		distribution	eng	This species is known from much of the central Andes in Peru (from the departaments of Ayacucho, Huancavelica and Junín), from 2,700-4,500m asl.
57346		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic riparian frog, and may be found in muddy beds of streams among shrublands and grasslands. It has been found in ditches on arable land. Breeding takes place in streams.
57346		population	eng	It was previously common, but has undergone declines.
57346		threats	eng	This species is locally affected by harvesting for both food and traditional medicine, and by water pollution (from agrochemicals and domestic waste). <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, although this disease has yet to be reported from this species.
57347		conservation	eng	The species is not present in any protected areas, and therefore habitat protection is a priority. Further survey work is necessary at higher elevations to establish the current status of those populations.
57347		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the valley of Tafí in Tucumán Province, Argentina, with an altitudinal range of 1,900-3,100m asl.
57347		habitat	eng	It is a wholly aquatic, stream-breeding species of mountain streams within bog land areas; at higher elevations, the surrounding vegetation is shrubland, while the vegetation in lowland areas includes some trees (<em>Alnus</em> spp.). The species is not present in any modified habitats.
57347		population	eng	It was previously common and had been recorded from seven localities. However, the species was last collected in 1992 and it appears to have disappeared from the lower parts of its range (it was not found during intensive surveys in 2003). The status of populations at higher elevations is currently not known, as there have been no recent collections within this part of the range.
57347		threats	eng	Current threats to the species include predation by introduced exotic fishes (trout); urbanization and the drainage of bogs; alterations of watercourses (through measures such as canalization); degradation of bog habitat by four-wheel drive vehicles; potato cultivation close to the stream edges (increasing sedimentation); construction of roads across the streams; plantation of exotic tree species (pines, with subsequent sedimentation during harvesting); and construction of power-lines in the gorges and within the streams (also resulting in stream sedimentation). Potential future threats include water pollution through mining activities, and also chytridiomycosis: populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius laticeps</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk
57348		conservation	eng	It may be present in Parque Nacional Cutervo, although this requires confirmation. Further research into this little-known species is needed.
57348		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of the town of Cutervo, Cajamarca Department, in the northern Peruvian Andes, and was collected at an elevation of 2,620m asl. It is expected to occur more widely, but additional survey work is needed to confirm this.
57348		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, with breeding taking place in streams and ditches in the town.
57348		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population status of this species; it was last collected in 1993 by J. Wiens at the type location.
57348		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species, although it is presumably impacted by habitat loss, while within Cutervo it is threatened by water pollution. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. latirostris</em>, congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species may be seriously at risk.
57349		conservation	eng	In Bolivia the species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Cotapata and Parque Nacional Sajama. In Peru, it presumably occurs in Reserva Nacional del Titicaca. In Chile, it occurs in Parque Nacional Lauca. It is plausible that some populations of this widespread species are extinct or have declined due to chytridiomycosis, but further survey work is needed to investigate this.
57349		distribution	eng	This species has the broadest distribution of any <em>Telmatobius</em> species. It is known from the Andean region of southern Peru, northern and central Bolivia and northern Chile. It is recorded in Peru from the Lake Titicaca and Cusco region (Cusco and Puno departments), with uncertain records from Ayacucho (not mapped). In Bolivia, it is recorded from the departments of La Paz, Oruro, and the highlands of Cochabamba. It is present in the altiplano of northern Chile (Parinacota, Lauca River, and Chungara Lake, Parinacota Province). It is also recorded from three localities in Argentina (Jujuy Province on the Bolivian border), although the taxonomic status of these specimens is unclear. It occurs from 3,000-5,244 asl.
57349		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog of streams, waterfalls and slow moving water in montane grasslands and shrublands. Breeding takes place in small lakes, streams and rivers with good water quality.
57349		population	eng	In Bolivia and Peru it is locally common, although declines have been reported for Peruvian populations (Seimon et al., 2006). In Chile the species is reported to have large populations, and to be abundant in high plateau streams.
57349		threats	eng	This or a closely related species is currently subject to human consumption in southern Peru (Angulo, 2008), and is susceptible to eutrophication of waterways through agricultural activities (livestock and agrochemicals). It is not currently threatened in Chile.<br/><br/>The species has tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Seimon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2005, 2006) in the Cordillera Vilcanota of southern Peru, specimens exhibited clinical symptoms of chytridiomycosis. Healthy specimens, however, were found in the region of Puno, also in southern Peru, during recent fieldwork (February 2006; I. De la Riva pers. comm.). There is evidence of upward range expansion of this and another two anuran species to newly available habitat brought about by recent deglaciation in the Andes of Peru. The large increase in the upper limit of known Bd infections (from 4,112 to 5,348 m asl) also expands the spatial domain of potential Bd pathogenicity (Seimon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006).
57350		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Huascaran. There is a need to regulate harvesting and offtake of this species. Close population monitoring is required, particularly given the potential threat of chytrid.
57350		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ancash Department, Peru. It is restricted to the Río Santa, from the type locality of the "mouth of Rio Santa 500m from Lake Conococha, Provincia Recuay (4,050m asl)" 30km northwards along this river and in small rivers and waterways associated with the river (Conococha, Catac, Laguna Aguashcocha, Pachacoto). It has an altitudinal range of 3,515-4,150m asl.
57350		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic stream-breeding, frog restricted to the puna region, and may be found under rocks and submerged plants in slow-moving sections of rivers. It is not recorded from degraded habitats.
57350		population	eng	It is uncommon.
57350		threats	eng	Major threats include local use for food and medicine (including the larvae), and water pollution from mining and agrochemical use. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. mayoloi</em> it could be at risk.
57351		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.
57351		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern-most ridge of the Cordillera Central, Amazonas Department, in the northern Peruvian Andes at an altitude of approximately 2,050m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
57351		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, and may be found under rocks in cloud forest streams. It has been observed in muddy roadside ditches at night.
57351		population	eng	Nothing is known of the species' current population status.
57351		threats	eng	The major threats are not known. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius necopinus</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.
57352		conservation	eng	About 9.7% (942.5 km2) of the species' geographic range is comprised within Ecuador's Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas, mostly in Parque Nacional Cajas (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Although protection and maintenance of existing habitat is clearly needed, the risk of disease means that it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status. Any surviving individuals should form the basis for the initiation of a captive-breeding programme.
57352		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from more than 10 localities on both slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes from the Cuenca Basin (in the Province of Azuay) north to Juan Benigno Vela (in the Province of Tungurahua). Records from Intac in the Province of Imbabura are considered to be invalid, and are not mapped here. The altitudinal range is 2,469-4,000 m asl. The geographic range comprises ca 9,675 km2 (Merino-Viteri<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
57352		habitat	eng	Its ecological realm includes cloud forests, moist scrubland, high-altitude páramo grassland, evergreen montane forests and dry montane scrubland (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is found in the vicinity of streams and rivers. By day, adults usually are found beneath rocks and in weedy vegetation in and at the edge of streams (where they breed).
57352		population	eng	It was formerly reasonably common, but it has declined dramatically and might be extinct. It was last recorded in Lagunas de Atillo, in the Province of Chimborazo, in December 1994. Subsequent surveys at historical localities (N=9, 1994-2005) have been unable to locate the species again (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
57352		threats	eng	<em>Telmatobius</em> species in Ecuador have been impacted by disease (not only from chytridiomycosis-confirmed in this species in 1994-but also from another fungal disease, a nematode infection, and from morphological malformations). Climatic abnormalities might also be implicated, and are perhaps related to the incidence of disease outbreaks. In addition, habitat destruction and degradation is taking place due to agricultural development (crops and livestock ranching) and human settlement. Local people have traditionally heavily used species of the genus for food.
57353		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional Calilegua, although the reserve is in need of improved management. This species requires close population monitoring given that it is currently known from only a single site, and there is the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57353		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from the Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy Province, in north-western Argentina. The type locality of "Cerro de la Escalera, Orán Range, Salta Province", is unspecific and cannot be relocated, and therefore is not mapped here. It has an altitudinal range of 1,400-2,550m asl.
57353		habitat	eng	It is mostly aquatic and inhabits and breeds in streams in montane forest. The species is not known to occur in modified habitats.
57353		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57353		threats	eng	The only known populations of this species are within a protected area. If the species occurs outside the Parque Nacional Calilegua, then threats might include selective logging, introduction of predatory fishes (trout), alteration of watersheds, and the impacts of mining operations. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57354		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. Strict monitoring of population and inclusion in national legislation as DD is needed.
57354		distribution	eng	This species is known at only a single locality, Ollagüe, in El Loa Province, Chile (21° 13'S; 68° 15'W), at 3,800m asl.
57354		habitat	eng	This is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog, occurring in streams and small rivers in the high Andes, and which is not known to occur in modified or degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.
57354		population	eng	It is only known from a single collection made in 1998 when a few animals were found. No one has returned to this site since.
57354		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. <em>Telmatobius</em> species living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, but this has yet to be reported for <em>T. peruvianus</em>.
57355		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas; there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
57355		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, La Ciénaga (about 27° 30'S; 67° 00'W), close to the town of Medanitos (27° 32'S; 67° 36'W), in Catamarca Province in north-western Argentina. It might range more widely and further surveys are needed in the surrounding areas. It was collected at 3,300m asl.
57355		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, occurring in high mountain streams surrounded by montane grasslands. Breeding takes place in the streams.
57355		population	eng	It is a rare species, which has not been surveyed for since it was discovered.
57355		threats	eng	The threats to it are unknown. Potential threats in the general area include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), water pollution through mining activities, destruction of high mountain bogs (from which the streams originate) by cattle, and the alteration of watersheds. <em>Telmatobius</em> species living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, so this is a potential future threat for this species.
57356		conservation	eng	The species is not present in any protected areas, and therefore habitat protection is a priority. Further survey work is necessary at lower elevations to establish whether any populations may still survive.
57356		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Calchaquí Valley, Catamarca and Tucumán Provinces, Argentina. It has been recorded from seven localities, and has an altitudinal range of 2,600-4,200m asl.
57356		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, breeding in mountain bog streams surrounded by dry shrubland. It does not occur in modified habitats.
57356		population	eng	It has disappeared entirely from the lower-elevation parts of its range.
57356		threats	eng	Current threats to the species include: introduction of predatory exotic fishes (trout); urbanization and the drainage of bogs; alterations of watercourses (through measures such as canalization); degradation of bog habitat by four-wheel drive vehicles; potato cultivation close to the stream edges (increasing sedimentation); construction of roads across the streams; plantation of exotic tree species (pines, with subsequent sedimentation during harvesting); and construction of power-lines in the gorges and within the streams (also resulting in stream sedimentation). Potential threats include water pollution through mining activities, and chytridiomycosis: populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius pisanoi</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk
57357		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and protection of suitable habitat is urgently required. There is also a need for continued population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chytrid.
57357		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three nearby localities in Jujuy Province, north-western Argentina: El Moreno, El Angosto and San Jose de Chani. It has an altitudinal range of 3,600-3,750m asl.
57357		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, breeding in high mountain streams surrounded by rough bush land, and does not occur in modified areas.
57357		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57357		threats	eng	Current threats include the pollution of streams by livestock activities, and the collection of vegetation surrounding the streams for firewood (resulting in run-off and stream sedimentation). Potential threats from nearby villages include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), stream pollution through mining activities, and the destruction of high mountain bogs (stream watersheds). Chytridiomycosis also poses a potential future threat.
57358		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this species.
57358		distribution	eng	This species can be found in central western Andean slopes of Departamentos Ancash and Lima, Peru. It was recorded from elevations of 2,000-4,000m asl.
57358		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog present in streams, and canals and ditches close to fields. It is a stream breeder.
57358		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
57358		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are water pollution through agrochemicals and domestic waste. It might be utilized locally for food, but this requires confirmation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius</span> populations living at high elevations might be particular prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis; the pathogen has yet to be reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">T. rimac</span>.
57359		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas, and protection of suitable habitat is clearly required. There is also a need for continued population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chytrid.
57359		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities within the Famatina range of mountains, Aimogasta (type locality 28° 33'S; 66° 49'W) and a gorge near to Anjullon (28° 44'S; 66° 56'W), in La Rioja Province, western Argentina. It has been recorded from elevations between 1,800 and 2,050m asl.
57359		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, breeding in high mountain streams surrounded by dry bush land, and is not present in modified habitats.
57359		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57359		threats	eng	Current threats include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout); stream pollution through livestock and mining activities; collection of streamside vegetation (with resulting increased runoff); and destruction of high mountain bogs and other watersheds. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57360		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Survey work in the tributaries of the El Ingenio is urgently needed to ascertain whether the species is still present; the possibility of re-introducing the species to the El Ingenio stream also should be considered.
57360		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four sites: the El Ingenio stream (which is the type locality), and its tributaries the Río Arenal, Loma Redonda and Lio los Cerrillos, in the Campo Arenal area of Catamarca Province, north-western Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 3,000-3,050m asl.
57360		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, breeding in high mountain streams surrounded by shrubland, but is not present in modified habitats.
57360		population	eng	This is a rare species that has not been seen since a catastrophic flooding event took place in 1997 when the main river, El Ingenio, rose seven metres above its normal level and washed away everything except for large rocks. While it seems that the species no longer survives in the El Ingenio stream itself, the tributaries of El Ingenio have not been surveyed since the flooding event.
57360		threats	eng	Previous, and possibly remaining, major threats to any surviving populations include pollution from mining activities; introduction of predatory fishes (trout); destruction of high mountain bogs; and alteration of watersheds. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential future threat.
57361		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57361		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the La Siberia region of the Bolivian Andes in the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, from 2,000-2,900m asl.
57361		habitat	eng	It lives in montane cloud forest, and is found near small rivers and in roadside ditches. It is both aquatic and terrestrial, and breeds in streams. It is able to tolerate some level of habitat disturbance.
57361		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
57361		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture and timber extraction, and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57362		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional El Palmar and Parque Nacional Amboró. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis there is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
57362		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bolivian Andes, where it has been recorded from the departments of Chuquisaca, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz (Köhler 2000a), from 1,000-2,800m asl.
57362		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, occurring in both open and forest habitats, in inter-Andean valleys. It can be found at night by the sides of roads, in waterways or trenches, or in ponds and small streams (Köhler 2000a). There is no information on its breeding biology, though it presumably takes place by larval development in water.
57362		population	eng	It is locally common, although it is apparently in decline.
57362		threats	eng	It is probably declining because of water pollution, and habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, logging, and livestock grazing. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at higher altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, so this disease might be a potential threat for this species in the future.
57363		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for immediate protection of its montane forest habitat. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57363		distribution	eng	This species is known from only four localities (Río Encrucijada, La Cumbrecita, Cerro el Manchao and Casa de Piedra de los Cajones) in the Sierra de El Manchao, Catamarca Province, in north-western Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 2,200-2,300m asl.
57363		habitat	eng	It is wholly aquatic, breeding in small rivulets in mountain Yungas forest. The species does not occur in modified habitats.
57363		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57363		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, due to both selective logging and clear-cutting of primary Yungas forest. Other threats include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), alteration of watersheds, agricultural activities, and potential mining within the area. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57364		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.
57364		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "13km ESE Yamobamba, 18km SE Agallpampa on road from Otuzco to Huamachuco (75° 09'S;  78° 36'W)" in the Cordillera Occidental, Huamachuco (La Libertad Department), in the northern Peruvian Andes. It has been collected at 3,290m asl. Its distribution is poorly known and it is likely to occur more widely.
57364		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog, that breeds in streams, pools and marshes in very humid subalpine páramo. It is not known from degraded habitats.
57364		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57364		threats	eng	There is no information on immediate threats to the species. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius thompsoni</em>, this species would appear to be at risk.
57365		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.
57365		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the Cordillera Oriental of northern Perú (in Amazonas Department) at 2,150-3,470m asl. Its distribution is poorly known and it is likely to occur more widely.
57365		habitat	eng	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, typically found under rocks, and along streams and drainage ditches, in very humid montane forest. It is not known from degraded habitats.
57365		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57365		threats	eng	There is no information on immediate threats to the species. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius truebae</em>, this species would appear to be at risk.
57366		conservation	eng	Approximately 4.9% (6.5 km2) of its estimated geographic distribution is comprised within Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Although protection and maintenance of existing habitat is clearly needed, the risk of disease means that it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status. Any surviving individuals should form the basis for the initiation of a captive-breeding programme.
57366		distribution	eng	This species is known only from six localities in the general vicinity of the Cajanuma Mountains, Cordillera Oriental, in Loja and Zamora Chinchipe Provinces, southern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 2,500-3,050 m asl. Its geographic range is approximately 132 km2 (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
57366		habitat	eng	It is found in the vicinity of streams, rivers and irrigation ditches, in pastures, humid montane shrubland and humid montane forest. Adults can be found beneath stones and logs in or near streams (which is also where they breed). It is not known to what extent it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
57366		population	eng	Populations of this species have declined seriously, and it was last recorded in July 1987, close to Centro Administrativo of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. It might possibly survive in the south-eastern páramos of Loja Province, but there are also concerns that it is already extinct.
57366		threats	eng	<em>Telmatobius</em> species in Ecuador have been impacted by disease (including chytridiomycosis, but also from another fungal disease, a nematode infection, and from morphological malformations). Climatic abnormalities might also be implicated, and are perhaps related to the incidence of disease outbreaks. In addition, habitat destruction and degradation is taking place due to agricultural development (crops and livestock ranching) and human settlement. Species in the genus are also commonly used for food.
57367		conservation	eng	It might be present in Parque Nacional Cotapata and in the Apollobamba Mountains. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57367		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Yungas of the department of La Paz, Bolivia, at an altitudinal range of 3,000-3,600m asl.
57367		habitat	eng	This species inhabits upper montane humid forests. It is an aquatic species that has been observed both in streams and under big, flat stones (Lavilla and Ergueta 1995). There is no information on the breeding habits of this species, but it presumably breeds in streams.
57367		population	eng	It is an uncommon species; the most recent records date to 2004.
57367		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by the loss of riparian habitat and water pollution, presumably from agricultural activity and from domestic sources. It might also be susceptible to infection with the chytrid pathogen.
57368		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
57368		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Vilama, in El Loa Province, Chile, at 2,500m asl. Its range might be wider than is currently recognized.
57368		habitat	eng	It occurs within a montane river in the high desert.
57368		population	eng	It was found to be abundant when the type locality was visited in 1998 and 1999.
57368		threats	eng	The only currently known threat to this species is water pollution caused by mining. Chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.
57369		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.
57369		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Andes of Bolivia, between Chapare Province, in the department of Cochabamba, and Caballero Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, at 2,000-3,000m asl (De la Riva 1994).
57369		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that can be observed on the bottom of small streams or rivers, and in ponds, in montane cloud forest and Yungas forest. It presumably breeds in water by larval development. It is not known from exposed areas outside forest.
57369		population	eng	It is locally common.
57369		threats	eng	It is probably declining because of habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture and logging, and also water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.
57370		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Serra do Cipó National Park, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça and in some other protected areas.
57370		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Espinhaço and Serra do Caraça, in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil.
57370		habitat	eng	It lives in rocky, rupestrian open areas on wet rock walls near streams or water falls. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures. The tadpoles live on wet rock walls where water the water drains.
57370		population	eng	It is a common species is its relatively small range.
57370		threats	eng	There is little information, but it is potentially affected by fire, and by disturbance resulting from tourism. In view of the declines observed in some of the species of <i>Thoropa</i> in southeastern Brazil, this species should be monitored for possible future population collapses, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis.
57371		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. In view of the declines observed in some of the species of <em>Thoropa</em> in southeastern Brazil and the confirmed presence of the chytrid fungus in this species, populations should be monitored for possible declines.
57371		distribution	eng	This species from southern and eastern Brazil ranges from the southern part of the State of Paraná, north to the State of Bahia, inland to the eastern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.
57371		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in forest, above forest, or near forest, living on wet rock walls near streams or waterfalls. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures. The tadpoles have been found on wet rock walls where water drains. The species feeds mostly on invertebrates, especially ants, beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and spiders (Siqueira et al., 2006).
57371		population	eng	It is a common species. It was once common in Estação Biológica de Boracéia, but has not been recorded there since 1979 and is now considered to be locally Extinct (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). This appears however to be a very localized decline and it is still found in the rest of the state as well as in other states.
57371		threats	eng	Major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, human settlement, tourism and dams. In addition, this species has tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> (Carnaval et al., 2006).
57372		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, there is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
57372		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southernmost part of the Atlantic forest in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, from 300-1,000m asl.
57372		habitat	eng	This species lives in forested areas on rocky cliffs; eggs are deposited under waterfalls on rocks.
57372		population	eng	It is rarely collected, although it was found in 2001, and it appears to have disappeared from some localities.
57372		threats	eng	Some populations of this species have been affected by changes in watercourses, and by sedimentation caused by road construction, as well as by general forest loss. However, these factors do not fully account for the recorded declines. Like amphibians in some other parts of the wet tropics, it appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat, even though this disease has not yet been confirmed from Brazil.
57373		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha and Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno. In Peru it is known from the Gueppi Reserved Zone. In Brazil (Acre) it is known from Floresta Nacional em Rhondonia and Chico Mendes Extractive Reserva.
57373		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Amazonian Peru and Ecuador; it is present in the State of Amazonas (Brazil); it has been recorded from parts of Colombia and was recently recorded from Bolivia. It has an altitudinal range of approximately 100-1,150m asl. It probably occurs even more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57373		habitat	eng	It is active by day and night, on the forest floor and in swampy areas in the forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been found in seasonally flooded forests and open areas (Ron, 2001). The eggs are laid out of, but close to, water; the tadpoles develop in water.
57373		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
57373		threats	eng	It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration, bauxite mining (Rhondonia) and colonization.
57374		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.
57374		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the municipality of Santa Teresa, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 650-675m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known, and it might occur more widely.
57374		habitat	eng	It is found in forest, including secondary forest (but not in open areas) where it lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Assuming that it breeds in the same way as <em>Zachaenus parvulus</em>, the egg clutch is deposited on the ground under leaves, and the terrestrial larvae live and develop in a hole under the leaf-litter.
57374		population	eng	It is a hard species to find, and so its population status is unknown. However, it has been found in the type locality since the initial collection.
57374		threats	eng	The area where this species is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where it might occur), due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, logging, human settlement and tourism.
57375		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional da Serra des Orgaos and other protected areas.
57375		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Serra do Mar and Ilha Grande, in the State Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.
57375		habitat	eng	This species lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest. The egg clutch is deposited on the ground under leaves, and the terrestrial larva lives and develops in a hole under the leaf-litter.
57375		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57375		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, tourism and fire. However, its habitat is reasonably well protected.
57376		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
57376		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is not clear. The type locality is "Port Otway, Patagonia" (Cope 1890). Lynch (1971) mentions that it is based on one specimen from Port Octay, Chile. The name cannot be matched to any known species occurring in either Argentina or Chile (Lavilla pers comm.).
57376		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
57376		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57376		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
57377		conservation	eng	No specific actions are required. Its range includes a number of protected areas.
57377		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Huon Peninsula, along the central mountainous spine of New Guinea from Purosa (Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea) west to the Sibil Valley (Papua, Indonesia), and in Central Province (Mount Obree) and Milne Bay Province (Munimum) in southeast Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 1,450-2,000m asl.
57377		habitat	eng	This species is found on the forest floor in tropical hill and montane rainforest. They breed in ephemeral ponds. One specimen was collected in a rural garden, suggesting that it is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation.
57377		population	eng	It is not observed to be a common species.
57377		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57378		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57378		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Aru Island and in northern, southern, and eastern New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), up to 1,100m asl.
57378		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of tropical rainforest and lowland dry forest, as well as in teak plantations. It breeds in ephemeral and permanent ponds.
57378		population	eng	It is very abundant.
57378		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57379		conservation	eng	The Extent of Occurrence and population status of the species needs to be documented. It is known from the Arfak Mountains National Park.
57379		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of western and central Papua, Indonesia. It has been collected around 2,000m asl.
57379		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest floor in montane rainforest. Its breeding habitat is unknown, although it presumably breeds in pools on the forest floor. It has not been recorded from degraded habitats.
57379		population	eng	It is not thought to be a common species.
57379		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57380		conservation	eng	The Extent of Occurrence and population status of the species need to be determined. The type locality is not within a protected area.
57380		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Namosado, in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at 930m asl.
57380		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor in tropical rainforest, and is likely to have an aquatic larval stage.
57380		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it has not been recorded since it was first described.
57380		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
57381		conservation	eng	Its range includes at least two protected areas, namely the Gibraltar Range National Park and Washpool National Park.
57381		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north-eastern corner of New South Wales close to the border with Queensland. There are seven confirmed localities, and several other as yet unconfirmed localities, suggesting that it most likely has a larger range than is currently mapped here. It occurs at elevations above 600m asl.
57381		habitat	eng	It is usually found in streams or temporary pools in high rainfall rainforest. It lays eggs in nests in the ground, where the larvae also complete their development.
57381		population	eng	It is not a common species, and most known populations are small.
57381		threats	eng	Livestock farming is a major threat to the species, mainly due to the trampling of nest sites.
57382		conservation	eng	Most of its habitat occurs within national parks (such as Richmond Range National Park and Yabbra National Park).
57382		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities within one continuous forest block in the Richmond Range and Yabbra Range in north-eastern New South Wales. It may possibly also occur at three additional locations, but these require confirmation and hence are not mapped here. It occurs at elevations above 600m asl.
57382		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane moist forest and subtropical rainforest where there are seepage areas beside seasonal or permanent streams and other water saturated sites. They lay eggs in a foam nest hidden from light and the larvae develop entirely on the yolk.
57382		population	eng	There are no documented declines in this species.
57382		threats	eng	In some areas there has been considerable clearing of the habitat, but the majority of the habitat is now protected. However, it may still be susceptible to upstream disturbances that affect hydrological regimes or water quality. Direct damage to breeding habitat by domestic stock has been observed at one site.
57383		conservation	eng	The Kirindy Forest forms part of the Menabe Forest complex, which has been proposed as part of the Systéme d’Aires Protégées de Madagascar.
57383		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Kirindy Forest (not Kirindy-Mitea) in western Madagascar, at around 100m asl.
57383		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry deciduous forest, and has not been found outside forest in open areas, but does occur in somewhat degraded forest. It breeds in temporary pools and puddles; the larvae grow rapidly, developing in 12 days.
57383		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57383		threats	eng	Kirindy Forest is seriously threatened by subsistence farming, wood extraction, and livestock.
57384		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57384		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in eastern Madagascar, and also at Montagne d'Ambre and     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve in extreme northern Madagascar (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Records from western Madagascar require confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl.
57384		habitat	eng	It is a tropical forest species, including both undisturbed and disturbed habitats (such as edges and clearings in the forest). It is not found in open areas. It requires leaf-litter, and survives in tree plantations. It breeds explosively in temporary and permanent still water.
57384		population	eng	It is a very common species, breeding in very dense populations.
57384		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57385		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo; Parc National Tsingy de Bemahara; and Fôret D'Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
57385		distribution	eng	This species in western, northwestern and northern Madagascar, with records from the following localities: Kirindy Forest (not Kirindy-Mitea); Sahamalaza Peninsula (Berara); Tsingy de Bemahara; Benavony; Montagne des Français and Fôret D'Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It was recently described and so its true geographic range is still not very well known, and it probably occurs between the recorded localities. Populations from west Madagascar previously attributed to Aglyptodactylus madagascariensis might belong to this species. It is a low-altitude, occurring below 300m asl.
57385		habitat	eng	It lives in dry and humid tropical forests, and also in somewhat degraded forest, but it is not found outside the forest. It breeds in pools or marshy areas, both temporary and permanent, including still pools in dried up riverbeds.
57385		population	eng	It is probably common, but it is hard to find when it is not breeding.
57385		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.
57386		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57386		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northeastern, eastern and southeastern Madagascar. It ranges from around 100m up to 1,000m asl. Records from western Madagascar refer to Boophis occidentalis.
57386		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of moist rainforests, including slightly disturbed habitats, but it is not found in open areas. It can be found in isolated gallery forests. It is usually near streams, at least during the breeding season. It breeds explosively in streams and in small trickles of water.
57386		population	eng	It is locally common within its range.
57386		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is collected for the international pet trade in very small numbers, but this is very unlikely to constitute a threat to the species.
57387		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National d'Andohahela and the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57387		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar. There are three confirmed localities: Andohahela and Nahampoana in the south, and Andasibe in the north. These have been joined into a single polygon in the map on the assumption that it occurs in intervening localities. Its altitudinal range is 400-900m asl. Records from Ranomafana, Zahamena and Masoala in northern and northeastern Madagascar could belong to this species or to Boophis sibilans.
57387		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species, generally found along small streams and brooks. It is only in pristine forest. It breeds in streams.
57387		population	eng	There is very little information, but it is rare in Andasibe but common in Nahampoana.
57387		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It might also be impacted by pollution of streams.
57388		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela.
57388		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Andohahela in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, above 400m asl. A photograph of a specimen from 1,000m asl much further north at Ranomafana possibly also represents this species.
57388		habitat	eng	This is a species that is found in pristine rainforest, and which does not occur in degraded areas. It breeds in streams.
57388		population	eng	It is abundant within its small known range.
57388		threats	eng	The area where it occurs is well protected. If it occurs more widely (as is likely), then its forest habitat is probably receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57389		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.
57389		distribution	eng	This species occurs at Benavony and Manongaribo, in north-western Madagascar, and probably occurs widely in the low-altitude Sambirano forest zone. It is probably even more widespread than this, and might occur at Tsaratanana. Its recorded altitudinal range is 200-700m asl.
57389		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine and slightly degraded forest close to primary forest. It presumably breeds in streams.
57389		population	eng	Little information is available, but it is not particularly rare.
57389		threats	eng	There is very rapid deforestation within its range due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoaling, and expanding human settlements.
57390		conservation	eng	The Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
57390		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud and nearby localities in north-eastern Madagascar, from 800-1,000m asl. It might prove to occur at other sites, although it has not been confirmed at Marojejy.
57390		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine rainforest, and of slightly degraded habitats (but these are always close to good forest). It breeds in streams.
57390		population	eng	It is common in its small range.
57390		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57391		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra and the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely.
57391		distribution	eng	This species is known from several high-elevation localities in central Madagascar, including Andringitra, Ankaratra, Mandraka, Itremo, Col des Tapias and Ambohitantely. It occurs at 1,200-1,800m asl, possibly higher.
57391		habitat	eng	It is a species of high-elevation rainforest. It also survives in degraded areas and open habitats, providing that some trees remain. It needs fast-flowing, clean streams for breeding, and so it is not found in villages.
57391		population	eng	It is locally very abundant.
57391		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also adversely affected by the pollution of breeding streams.
57392		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57392		distribution	eng	This species occurs at Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar, and further south in the general vicinity of Tsaratanana. Other rainforest areas of northern Madagascar might also harbour this species. Its recorded altitudinal range is 500-900m asl.
57392		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid rainforest, surviving only in slightly modified habitats. It breeds in streams.
57392		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57392		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57393		conservation	eng	All known sites are in protected areas.
57393		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar, from the Andasibe area south to Andohahela. It is also known from Ambohitantely in central Madagascar. Its altitudinal range in eastern Madagascar is 400-1,000m asl, and it is recorded at 1,500m asl at Ambohitantely.
57393		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest, surviving at most only in slightly altered areas. It breeds in streams.
57393		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57393		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also adversely affected by the pollution of breeding streams.
57394		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana and the Analamazoatra Special Reserve.
57394		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar from Andasibe south to Ranomafana. Its recorded altitudinal range is 800-1,000m asl.
57394		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species, living along streams, and also surviving at the edge of rainforest, but never fully outside forest. It presumably breeds in streams.
57394		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57394		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57395		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species requires revision, since it includes more than one species (Glaw pers. comm.). It occurs in many protected areas.
57395		distribution	eng	This species is widely, but patchily, distributed in the northern half of Madagascar, from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
57395		habitat	eng	It lives in a variety of habitats, including rainforest and dry forest, and also in savannah close to forest, and breeds in streams.
57395		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57395		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
57396		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, and probably in the nearby Parc National de Mantadia.
57396		distribution	eng	This species from east-central Madagascar is known with certainty only from a small area around Andasibe. Records from Marojejy, Masoala and Tsaratanana probably belong to an undescribed species. Its recorded altitudinal range is 815-900m asl.
57396		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforest, including old secondary forest close to pristine forest, and breeds in streams.
57396		population	eng	It is normally considered to be rare, as although it was once found to be common this was only in a very small area.
57396		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57397		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57397		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in western and southern Madagascar, from sea level up to 800m asl.
57397		habitat	eng	It lives in dry forest, open areas, rice fields, savannahs, and wetland areas. It breeds in temporary ponds.
57397		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57397		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57398		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs revision, since it probably includes two species (Glaw pers. comm.). It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.
57398		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Madagascar, where it is known from two confirmed localities in the eastern rainforest belt: Ranomafana, and Farimazava Forest in the Antoetra area. Its recorded altitudinal range is 900-1,000m asl.
57398		habitat	eng	It lives inside forest, and in open areas in rainforest, and also does well in disturbed habitats, including in agricultural sites. It breeds in streams.
57398		population	eng	It is locally abundant in Ranomafana.
57398		threats	eng	This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57399		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.
57399		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-eastern Madagascar at Marojejy and Andrakata, where it has been recorded from around 300m asl. Its geographic range is not completely known.
57399		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary rainforest, but not in open areas, and breeds along brooks and streams.
57399		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57399		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57400		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ranomafana and Mantadia National Parks.
57400		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from small number localities in central eastern Madagascar (Ranamafana, Mantadia and Mandraka), and one western record (Mahajeby Forest). Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,000-1,100m asl.
57400		habitat	eng	It is a species of rainforest, including disturbed sites adjacent to rainforest. It breeds in wide forest streams.
57400		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57400		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.
57401		conservation	eng	Its only known site is on the border of the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57401		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Andasibe at about 900m asl, in central eastern Madagascar. It is likely to be found elsewhere.
57401		habitat	eng	It is known from secondary growth around an artificial dam, close to rainforest, and has also been found in open grass near the lake created by the dam, and in nearby forest. It has not been found in very open areas away from forest. It presumably breeds in the dam's lake, where the water is slow-flowing.
57401		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57401		threats	eng	The only known site for this species is reasonably well protected. If it occurs elsewhere, it is likely to be experiencing habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57402		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57402		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on the high plateau of central Madagascar, but it is also known from western Madagascar (Ambohijanahary) and northern Madagascar (Tsaratanana). Its recorded altitudinal range is 900-2,200m asl. Records from Kalambatritra (not mapped) require further investigation.
57402		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforests, fields, and disturbed stream sides near slow-moving and stagnant water, rice fields, and degraded sites. It breeds in slow moving and still waters, both permanent and temporary.
57402		population	eng	It is a common species.
57402		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. It is collected for local consumption, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
57403		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra and Parc National de Ranomafana.
57403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana to Andasibe and also further north at Besariaka. It recorded altitudinal range is 900-1,000m asl.
57403		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary rainforests and rainforest edges, usually in clearing and openings, and around ponds along rivers, but not deep in the forest interior. It does not survive in very open areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
57403		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57403		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57404		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National d'Andohahela.
57404		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in south-eastern Madagascar (Nahampaoana, Andohahela, and Marovony) at 200-400m asl.
57404		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, and breeds in streams.
57404		population	eng	It is moderately common.
57404		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57405		conservation	eng	This species has not been found in any protected areas so far, but it does occur close to the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra. The relationship between this species and <em>Boophis idea</em> needs to be clarified (Vences pers. comm.).
57405		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in eastern Madagascar at Andasibe and Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie), and presumably occurs in intermediate localities. A record from Ranomafana requires confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.
57405		habitat	eng	It is a species found in rainforest and disturbed sites in rainforest. It has also been found in eucalyptus plantations and in open areas away from forest, where some trees survive. Breeding probably takes place in still water.
57405		population	eng	It is a rare species, of which there have been very few observations.
57405		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57406		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57406		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in the eastern rainforests of east-central Madagascar, from Fiherenana southwards. Its recorded altitudinal range is 900-1,100m asl.
57406		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species, usually observed in disturbed or open areas in rainforest, and the forest edge. It has also been found in agricultural areas, and in large swamps, but generally close to forest. It uses temporary and permanent still waterbodies for breeding.
57406		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57406		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57407		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe.
57407		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nosy Be Island and from Sahamalaza Peninsula (Berara) on the mainland, north-western Madagascar. It occurs from sea level up to 200m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
57407		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, and also occurs in tree plantations, gallery forest, and dense secondary vegetation, but always along streams, in which breeding takes place.
57407		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57407		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fire, and expanding human settlements. It is probably also impacted by water pollution on Nosy Be, and also by the drying up of streams as a result of water abstraction.
57408		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra.
57408		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in south-eastern Madagascar, and is known only from Andringitra. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,500-2,650m asl. It perhaps occurs more widely.
57408		habitat	eng	This is a species of montane heathland, with its known localities being mainly above the tree line. It breeds in brooks and streams. The large larvae probably take at least one year to complete metamorphosis.
57408		population	eng	It is common at higher altitudes, but is rare at lower altitudes.
57408		threats	eng	There are few threats where this species occurs, but fire and livestock grazing could possibly affect it.
57409		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57409		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Vohidrazana and near Andasibe at 850-900m asl in eastern Madagascar, although it might occur more widely.
57409		habitat	eng	It lives in vegetation along streams in which it breeds, both inside forest and in dense secondary vegetation in open areas outside forest.
57409		population	eng	It is common at its only known sites.
57409		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57410		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57410		distribution	eng	This species is known from many localities in eastern Madagascar, and from Isalo and Ambohititantely in the west. It is a mid-altitude species, occurring at 300-1,100m asl.
57410		habitat	eng	It is a species of both pristine and degraded rainforest, and secondary vegetation where trees survive. It probably cannot survive complete opening up of the habitat. It is always along streams, where it breeds.
57410		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57410		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also impacted by pollution of its breeding streams.
57411		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57411		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, occurring in numerous localities in eastern Madagascar, and also at Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar and Ambohitantely in central Madagascar. It occurs from sea level up to about 1,700m asl.
57411		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and disturbed rainforest, but not outside forest. It breeds in still or slow-flowing water.
57411		population	eng	It is a common species.
57411		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. It occasionally appears in the international pet trade, but not a level to constitute a threat to the species.
57412		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra and Parc National de Ranomafana.
57412		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Madagascar from Ambohimitombo south to Andringitra, from 900-1,500m asl. Records from elsewhere require confirmation, and probably refer to other species.
57412		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest species that is not found in secondary habitats. It is most often seen at night along streams in which it probably breeds.
57412		population	eng	It is locally common where found.
57412		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is rapid loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57413		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57413		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Mandraka in central eastern Madagascar, at 1,200m asl. Records from Andohahela, Ranomafana, Ambatovaky and Anjanharibe-Sud might refer to this species, or to undescribed species, or to <em>Boophis liami</em> or <em>B. solomaso</em>. A possible record from Mantadia requires further investigation.
57413		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary vegetation at the edge of streams in which it breeds, near degraded rainforest. It is likely to be a forest species persisting in secondary habitat, and it is not found in areas without trees.
57413		population	eng	This species is rare in its only proven locality.
57413		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57414		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57414		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar, at 300-1,000m asl.
57414		habitat	eng	It is a primary and secondary rainforest species, not living outside forest. It breeds in streams.
57414		population	eng	It is a common species.
57414		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57415		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Andringitra and Ranomafana National Parks, and probably in other protected areas.
57415		distribution	eng	This species is known from many localities over a fairly broad range in the high plateau and montane areas in central Madagascar. It occurs at 1,400-2,400m asl.
57415		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest, scrubby forest on boulder, and savannah areas at high altitudes, but not in agricultural areas. It breeds in brooks and streams.
57415		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57415		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. Siltation of streams might also be impacting its breeding habitat. It is collected in small numbers for the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
57416		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Andohahela and Ranomafana National Parks, and probably in other protected areas.
57416		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforest belt of southeastern Madagascar, from Ranomafana south to Andohahela. Older records from elsewhere in Madagascar probably belong to other species. Its recorded altitudinal range is 300-800m asl.
57416		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and degraded rainforest, and in open areas in and adjacent to the forest, but not in very open habitats far from forest. Dense breeding aggregations have been observed. It breeds in streams.
57416		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
57416		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57417		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Isalo and is likely to occur in the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra, although it has not yet been found there. It also occurs in one planned protected area (Sahamalaza).
57417		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from four widely separated localities in western and north-western Madagascar: Isalo; Bemaraha; Sahamalaza, and outside the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra. It occurs from close to sea level up to 800m asl.
57417		habitat	eng	It lives in dry and transitional forest, and has been found in severely degraded habitats with planted trees along streams in a village, although it probably cannot survive in completely open habitats. It is an explosive breeder in streams.
57417		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species, but it can be locally abundant.
57417		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is rapid habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by pollution of its breeding streams.
57418		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Manombo Special Reserve.
57418		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern and southeastern Madagascar from the Masoala Peninsula south to Fort Dauphin. It occurs from sea level up to 550m asl.
57418		habitat	eng	It lives in open coastal forest, degraded forest, and in highly disturbed habitats at low elevations. It is not found in closed-canopy forest. It breeds in swamps and in temporary and permanent pools.
57418		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57418		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57419		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra, Parc National de Ranomafana, and in protected areas near Andasibe.
57419		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and southeastern Madagascar from Perinet south to Fort Dauphin, from sea level up to 1,100m asl.
57419		habitat	eng	It is associated with ponds and swamps in secondary and degraded forest, and with streams with trees in agricultural areas. It probably cannot tolerate the complete opening up of its habitat. It breeds in temporary ponds.
57419		population	eng	It is locally common, but it is an explosive breeder and is often hard to detect.
57419		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57420		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, and possibly also in Parc National d'Andohahela and Parc National d'Andringitra.
57420		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from south-eastern Madagascar at Ranomafana, with unpublished records from Andohahela and Andringitra, and possible specimens from Kalambatritra. It is likely that new localities will be discovered, both as a result of exploration and as a result of re-identification of existing museum specimens. It has been recorded at 800-1,100m asl.
57420		habitat	eng	It is restricted to pristine rainforest, and is always found close to fast-flowing streams, in which it presumably breeds.
57420		population	eng	This is a rare species.
57420		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57421		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ranomafana and Midongy-du-Sud National Parks, and in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57421		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar from Perinet south to Midongy-du-Sud, at 850-1,000m asl.
57421		habitat	eng	It is a species of rainforest, not occurring in secondary habitats. It probably breeds in slow-flowing brooks.
57421		population	eng	It is a common to abundant species locally.
57421		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57422		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana, the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambatovaky, and probably in other protected areas.
57422		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the central-eastern rainforests of Madagascar, from Ambatovaky south to Ranomafana. Its recorded altitudinal range is from 450-915m asl.
57422		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine rainforest and of nearby degraded habitats. It is not found in open areas away from forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams.
57422		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57422		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57423		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana, and in the Analamazoatra Special Reserve.
57423		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern and southern rainforest belt of Madagascar, from Andasibe south to Nahampoana. Its recorded altitudinal range is 300-900m asl. Some old records of this species might be referable to Boophis bottae, or to undescribed species.
57423		habitat	eng	It lives along streams in, and at the edge of, rainforest, but never fully outside forest. It presumably breeds in streams.
57423		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57423		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57424		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57424		distribution	eng	This species is very wide-ranging in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar, at 800-1,650m asl.
57424		habitat	eng	It lives in primary rainforest along streams, and does not survive in altered habitats. It breeds in streams.
57424		population	eng	It is a common species.
57424		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57425		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, and probably in several other protected areas, including those near Andasibe.
57425		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in east-central Madagascar. Although there has been some confusion in identifying this species, studies of type specimens show that it clearly represents a valid, distinct species that seems to be restricted to highland areas from 900-1,500m asl.
57425		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest, and also in open grassland close to forest fragments. Breeding presumably takes place in streams and brooks.
57425		population	eng	It is a rare species, known from only a few localities.
57425		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.
57426		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Mantadia.
57426		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central part of the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar, from Mantadia south to Antoetra, from 900-1,200m asl.
57426		habitat	eng	This species is found only in pristine rainforest, and probably breeds in small brooks and streams.
57426		population	eng	It is locally common.
57426		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57427		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.
57427		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the general vicinity of Ranomafana in south-eastern Madagascar, at 900-1,000m asl, although it might occur more widely.
57427		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine forest along streams and brooks, in which it presumably breeds, and has not so far been found in secondary forest.
57427		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57427		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57428		conservation	eng	This species is known from three protected areas: Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre;     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008); and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57428		distribution	eng	This species is known from     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Parc National de la Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), from the Andapa region, and from the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, in northern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from 650-1,150m asl. It might prove to be more widespread.
57428		habitat	eng	It inhabits both pristine and degraded rainforest, as well as secondary vegetation where trees survive. It probably cannot survive complete opening up of the habitat. It is always found along streams, in which it breeds.
57428		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57428		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also impacted by pollution of streams.
57429		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57429		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality near Andasibe in east-central Madagascar. Records from Ranomafana, Zahamena and Masoala in northern and north-eastern Madagascar could belong to this species or to <em>Boophis albipunctatus</em>. It has been recorded at 900m asl.
57429		habitat	eng	It is restricted to pristine rainforest, where it is presumed to breed in streams.
57429		population	eng	This species is moderately common where it has been found.
57429		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It might also be impacted by pollution of streams.
57430		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57430		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Vohidrazana at 850m asl in eastern Madagascar, although it might occur more widely.
57430		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine forest and in old secondary vegetation, and is presumed to breed in brooks.
57430		population	eng	It is uncommon.
57430		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57431		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57431		distribution	eng	This species is widely in eastern Madagascar, from Mananara south to Andohahela, at 300-900m asl.
57431		habitat	eng	It has only been found in pristine forest. It breeds in small streams in rainforest.
57431		population	eng	It is a common species.
57431		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57432		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57432		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed through eastern and northern Madagascar, from sea level to 900 m asl.
57432		habitat	eng	It lives in many habitats, including degraded rainforest, coastal forest, urban areas, rice fields and other croplands, and savannah. It is sometimes associated with large open streams in forest. It breeds in temporary pools and rice fields.
57432		population	eng	It is very common at many localities throughout its range.
57432		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57433		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57433		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed along the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar from Masoala south Kalambatritra. Its altitudinal range is 350-1,000m asl.
57433		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, but not in open habitats. It breeds in streams.
57433		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57433		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57434		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57434		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern and northwestern Madagascar, south to the Masoala Peninsula, at elevations of 500 to at least 1,100m asl.
57434		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest along small streams and brooks in which it breeds. It is not found in secondary habitats.
57434		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57434		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57435		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, making protection of remaining habitat in Ankaratra a top priority. Continued monitoring of the population is essential.
57435		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from the Ankaratra Massif, a small, unprotected locality in east-central Madagascar, at 2,100m asl. It is a mountain-top species, the Ankaratra summit being at 2,643m asl. It is unlikely to have a large range.
57435		habitat	eng	Although this species might originally have occurred in montane rainforest, it is now restricted to high-elevation grasslands with relict montane forest. It breeds in fast-flowing mountain streams and inhabits nearby degraded areas. This habitat is burned annually and is subject to extensive overgrazing and cultivation (as potato fields).
57435		population	eng	Its population is undoubtedly small, since the species is rare and only occasionally encountered.
57435		threats	eng	Since it lives in a severely degraded area, its habitat is under constant threat from fire, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding potato farming. It might also be threatened by the impacts of pollution and siltation of its breeding streams, as well as from droughts. As a mountain-top species, it is potentially at risk from global warming. It is one of the most threatened amphibians in Madagascar.
57436		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Privée de Berenty and in Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea.
57436		distribution	eng	This species has been recently described from Kirindy Forest in central-western Madagascar. It also occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Privée de Berenty in extreme south-eastern Madagascar. It might have a more extensive range than is currently known, possibly occurring between these two sites. It has only been recorded at very low altitudes, below 100m asl.
57436		habitat	eng	This species lives in dry tropical woods and forest, and has not been found in cleared areas. It breeds in temporary pools.
57436		population	eng	It is locally common at Kirindy, but there is only one specimen known from Berenty.
57436		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.
57437		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57437		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northern, west central, and southwestern Madagascar below 800m asl.
57437		habitat	eng	It is a species of the drier parts of Madagascar, occurring in open areas, including rice fields and other agricultural sites, savannahs, semi-desert scrub, dry deciduous forest, littoral forest, also locally outside forest in some more humid areas. It is often associated with sandy soils, and is fossorial outside the breeding season. It breeds explosively in temporary ponds.
57437		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57437		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57438		conservation	eng	A carefully regulated trade is the best management option for this species. It occurs in the Ranomafana, Mantadia and Andringitra National Parks, and in the Pic Ivohibe Special Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57438		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in east-central Madagascar from Fierenana south to Andringitra, at 600-1,200m asl.
57438		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species in rainforest. It has also been found outside forest in slash-and-burn areas, even at considerable distance from forest. It probably cannot tolerate complete opening up of the habitat. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae are washed by rain into streams, where they develop.
57438		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57438		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, deforestation does affect it adversely. It is in the international pet trade, but this is unlikely to be a serious threat.
57439		conservation	eng	It is found in the Manombo Special Reserve and Parc National de Ranomafana. There is a need for trade in this species to be carefully regulated including the maintaining limited exportation quotas. Attention should be given to conservation of the two distinct population conservation units of this species (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57439		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species was known only from a single locality, (next to Tolongoina, south-east Madagascar) but recent fieldwork has extended its known range by the discovery of several new populations, all in south-eastern Madagascar, from Parc National de Ranomafana (at Mangevo) south to near Manambondro, at 60-629m asl (Rabemananjara <em>et al.</em> 2005; Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006; Glaw and Vences 2007).
57439		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest, including in very tiny patches. It is now found only in degraded rainforest, probably because of severe habitat degradation within its range. It is not found in open areas, nor in littoral forest on a sandy substrate. It presumably breeds in swamps or small streams, with the eggs being laid on the ground near water.
57439		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but there is very limited suitable habitat within its range.
57439		threats	eng	The area where the species occurs is being degraded rapidly due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoaling, livestock grazing, fires, and expanding human settlements. It is also possible that over collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat.
57440		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57440		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in western and southwestern Madagascar, with recent records from Isalo and from the central plateau near Antsirabe. It ranges from sea level up to 900m asl.
57440		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats including dry forest, savanna woodland, degraded habitats and in open areas. It is a terrestrial species. The eggs are laid on land near water, and the larvae develop in temporary and permanent pools, and sometimes in brooks.
57440		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57440		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, and there are few, if any, habitat-related threats, though it might be impacted by fires and by overgrazing by livestock. It is has been suggested that over collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but it is only traded in low numbers.
57441		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making protection of the remaining habitat of this species a top priority. A moratorium on the export of <em>Mantella cowani</em> was implemented in 2003 (through the application of a zero export quota on any CITES Appendix II species until populations recover).
57441		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the high plateau of east-central Madagascar from Antakasina, Antoetra, and Itremo with old records to the west that require further investigation. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) located two main population nuclei: the first around Antoetra region, and the second in the Tsinjoarivo area, at about 200 km from Antoetra. It occurs at 1,000-2,000m asl. There is conflicting information on its distribution based on (often very unreliable) hearsay reports from commercial collectors. The Farimazava population next to Antoetra might no longer survive.
57441		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, living in tiny strips of vegetation along streams and nearby montane grassland savannah and humid stone walls. It lives in underground cavities during the dry season, and it can hide in these during fires. It presumably breeds like other mantellas, with the eggs laid on the ground, and the larvae developing in streams. So far, there are no data are on tadpole morphology.
57441		population	eng	It was formerly reported as being common, but a drastic population decline occurred recently, as deduced from a dramatic reduction in its distribution and in the number of mature adults (Andreone and Randrianirina 2003).
57441		threats	eng	The fact that the observed decline in this species followed a period of increased exploitation for the international pet trade suggests that populations were over-collected, resulting in a population reduction. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) note that collectors used to collect 2,000 individuals a day, but in 2003 only 100-150 animals per day were collected by an entire village. The species also occurs in a region that has largely been deforested, and the remaining forest fragments are being lost due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction and charcoal production, fires, and expanding human settlements. However, the species appears able to adapt to open areas, and usually does not penetrate within forests. The Farimazava population next to Antoetra has hybridized with <span style="font-style: italic;">Mantella baroni </span>and might no longer be distinct.
57442		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but is likely to occur in Parc National de Mantadia and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Zahamena. A carefully regulated trade is required for this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57442		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities covering a very small area in east-central Madagascar: Ifoha west of Parc National de Mantadia; a forest area east of Ambohimanarivo; and outside the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Zahamena. Its recorded altitudinal range is 800-1,057m asl.
57442		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of forest edge around swamps. It has been found in secondary forest, but not in open areas. Breeding is similar to other mantella species, with the eggs laid on the ground and the larvae developing in swamps.
57442		population	eng	It is locally common, but has a patchy occurrence.
57442		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is also possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but this has not been demonstrated.
57443		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional de Isalo. Trade in this species needs to be very carefully regulated, and the populations require close monitoring (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57443		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small region in south-western Madagascar. It is known from many sites within the Isalo Massif, either within or outside the national park (at 700-1,000m asl). Recent surveys have shown it to be distributed more widely than was once thought. It ranges from Grotte des Portugais and Amparambatomavo, south in a thin band to Ambatovaky and Sakavato (F. Andreone pers. comm.). Records from near Toliara (Busse and Böhme 1992), and from the Morondava region and Mandena (Glaw and Vences 1994) are probably erroneous (Vences, Glaw and Böhme 1999).
57443		habitat	eng	It is usually found around seasonal streams, and in wet canyons (where it is sometimes, but not always, associated with narrow gallery forest). It breeds in a similar way to other mantella species, with the eggs laid on the ground and the larvae developing in swamps or in slow running temporary streams. It is apparently it is resistant to the repeated fires that are common in the Isalo area.
57443		population	eng	This species is sometimes locally abundant in suitable habitat; where present it may occur with high densities.
57443		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to grazing and fire, and in some localized regions due to mining for sapphires. It is actively sought after for the pet trade, and during the rainy season up to several thousand specimens can be collected. Such collecting might pose a major threat to the species, but this has not, as yet, been demonstrated.
57444		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57444		distribution	eng	This species is known from at least ten localities in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, at 300-950m asl.
57444		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species in rainforest, including in slightly degraded forest. It lives along brooks and streams. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae develop in streams.
57444		population	eng	It is locally common.
57444		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. It has appeared in very small numbers in the pet trade, but is not likely to be heavily collected.
57445		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, and is also maintained and bred in several facilities outside Madagascar. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57445		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widely distributed in north-eastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Folohy (where its habitat has been degraded), and occurs from 0-600m asl. It is known from more than five localities and probably occurs at more sites than are currently known.
57445		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest species, which is often particularly abundant in bamboo forest and other types of forest with abundant tree holes (in which it breeds). It is primarily terrestrial but also climbs on low vegetation.
57445		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57445		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is traded in low numbers for the international pet trade, but not at a level that is likely to constitute a threat.
57446		conservation	eng	Its presence is not confirmed in any protected areas, but it occurs close to Parc National de Ranomafana. There is a need for careful regulation of the trade in this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57446		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Madagascar from near Niagarakely, south to Ranomafana. It has been recorded from 700-1,050m asl.
57446		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, living in forest and forest edge, in particular along streams. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae develop in streams.
57446		population	eng	It is uncommonly encountered, but large numbers have been recorded in trade.
57446		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. It is also possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes poses a threat, but this requires further investigation.
57447		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy. The second site at the Analabe Rainforest is not protected, but is currently remote from logging activities (N.H.C. Rabibisoa pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57447		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern and northern Madagascar, with records from Marojejy at 300 m asl and Est Betaidambo in the Analabe Rainforest along Ramena River (west of Tsaratanana Reserve National Integral) at 700 m asl. It was described in 1999, based on a single specimen in the collections of the Zoological Institute of the University of Antananarivo. The original description was based on a colour slide, but the holotype has since been found and redescriptions have been published (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
57447		habitat	eng	This is a species of low and mid altitude rainforest. It is terrestrial, and 4-5 individuals have been found in a stony brook. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is likely to reproduce like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mantella</span>, with the eggs being laid on the ground, and the larvae developing in water.
57447		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, but the paucity of records suggests that it is rare.
57447		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is likely to be receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) record that there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its assumed habitat in northern Madagascar.
57448		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making protection of remaining habitat a top priority, particularly given the high rate of habitat loss and degradation within its range. The species also requires careful population monitoring, and any trade should be carefully regulated. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57448		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several fragmented localities in east-central Madagascar covering a small area south of Fierenana, at 900-1,000m asl.
57448		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species living in gallery forest around large swamps, and in seasonally flooded forest, but is not found outside forest. Breeding is the same as other mantellas, with the eggs being laid on land and the larvae being washed into swamps by rain. It is very seasonal in its breeding, and hard to find when it is not breeding.
57448		population	eng	It is a locally common species, and has been observed at high densities.
57448		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs is severely threatened, with its forest habitat receding due to the impacts of subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal production, the spread of eucalyptus, fires, and expanding human settlements. It has, in the past, been collected in large numbers by commercial collectors, and trade might pose a major threat to the species.
57449		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Any future trade in this species should be carefully regulated. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57449		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern and northeastern Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Zamena, at 100-1,000m asl.
57449		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground along streams in rainforest and forest edge, but not in severely degraded habitats. It presumably breeds like other mantellas, with the eggs laid on land, and the larvae developing in streams.
57449		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57449		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It has so far only been traded in very small numbers, but there could be greater demand in the future.
57450		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserve De Biosphere De Mananara Nord and the Réserve Spéciale d' Ambatovaky. There is a need for careful regulation of the trade in this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
57450		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in north-eastern Madagascar from Mananara-Nord, south to An'Ala, at 300-950m asl.
57450		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of swampy rainforest, and does not occur in secondary habitats. It breeds in swamps in forest.
57450		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57450		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. It is possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but this requires further investigation.
57451		conservation	eng	This species has recently been recorded from the Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The Montagne des Français has been granted Temporary Protected Area Status (the first of three steps necessary to create a permanently protected area) (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Increased protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is needed. Any future trade in this species should be carefully regulated. It is maintained in captivity in several facilities outside Madagascar. Research is needed to establish the taxonomic status of populations to the south-west of the type locality.
57451		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several localities in extreme northern Madagascar, including   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008),  Montagne des Français, Antogombato, Andranotsymaty, Antsahampano, Ivovona, Anjiabe, Andoajampoana, Mangoaka, Antsiranana, Ankitsakalaninaombi, Daraina, Mahavavona, Joffreville, Francom and the island of Nosy Hara. There are records from 5 to 959m asl, though most records are below 300m asl.
57451		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of deciduous dry forest on karst landscape, usually found near temporary brooks and streams, where it breeds. It can survive in degraded habitats to some extent (see D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), but it needs shade and good vegetation cover. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) mention animals being found within extended mango plantations.
57451		population	eng	It is a common species, albeit very localized.
57451		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, due to the impacts of fires, selective logging and the collection of firewood, and livestock grazing; it is also affected by the subsequent permanent drying out of smaller streams following forest loss. It has been recorded in the pet trade in relatively large numbers, although this is now greatly reduced.
57452		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57452		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from east-central and southeastern Madagascar, at 600-1,100m asl. Some specimens formerly assigned to this species are now thought to belong to M. brevipalmatus.
57452		habitat	eng	It is a forest floor species, living in rainforest, but not in secondary habitats. Its breeding is unknown, but the eggs are probably laid on land, with the larvae developing in streams.
57452		population	eng	It is a common species.
57452		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57453		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57453		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in northeastern, eastern and central Madagascar, from Marojejy and Andohahela. It occurs from sea level to 1,500m asl.
57453		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest, usually found in association with slow-flowing streams and swamps, and sometimes also fast-flowing streams. It is not found in secondary habitats. The eggs are laid on leaves above water into which the larvae fall.
57453		population	eng	It is a common species.
57453		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57454		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57454		distribution	eng	This species, as recently redefined, is known only from two localities, Andasibe and An'Ala, at 850-900m asl.
57454		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is often found near streams, usually in pristine or only slightly disturbed rainforest. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are presumably laid on land.
57454		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57454		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57455		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela and Parc National de Marojejy, and probably also in other protected areas. Its taxonomy needs revision (Raxworthy and Vences pers. comm.).
57455		distribution	eng	This species was stated in the original description to be widely distributed in eastern and central Madagascar, and also to occur in Andohahela in south-eastern Madagascar. However, taxonomic confusion between this species and <em>Mantidactylus bicalcaratus</em> makes its distribution very unclear. Its altitudinal range is 300-1,500m asl.
57455		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal inhabitat of rainforest, being particularly associated with screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.). It is only found in pristine forest. The eggs are laid in leaf axils (often of <em>Pandanus</em>), and this is where the larvae also develop.
57455		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57455		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by the collection of <em>Pandanus</em>, which is used for the roofs of huts.
57456		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana and the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely.
57456		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in east-central Madagascar at 1,000-2,000m asl, from Ambohitantely south to south of Ranomafana.
57456		habitat	eng	It lives near seeps and tiny amounts of slow-flowing water in open areas, rice paddies and other agricultural areas, forest edge, and inside montane forest. It has been found in gardens in Antananarivo. The egg deposition side is unknown, but the tadpoles have been found in seeps.
57456		population	eng	It is a common species.
57456		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57457		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57457		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ambohimitombo and possibly very nearby at Antoetra, in east-central Madagascar, at 1,100m asl.
57457		habitat	eng	A recent specimen provisionally attributed to this species from Antoetra was recorded near a stream in montane grassland near a forest.
57457		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57457		threats	eng	There is no direct information on its threats. However, it is likely that its habitat is at least under pressure from fires and livestock grazing, and pollution and siltation of streams.
57458		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre, Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, and Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.
57458		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Montagne d'Ambre, Tsaratanana and Manongarivo in northern Madagascar, at 500-1,200m asl.
57458		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest only. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is perhaps by direct development, since the species is not associated with streams.
57458		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57458		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57459		conservation	eng	It occurs in the     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve, the Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57459		distribution	eng	This species is known from several areas in northern and northwestern Madagascar, from Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) south to near Maevatenana. It probably also occurs in other areas. It has been recorded at 200-1,150m asl.
57459		habitat	eng	It lives only in pristine rainforest, along streams and rivers on the forest floor. Its egg deposition site is not known, but tadpoles live in streams.
57459		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57459		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57460		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57460		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in east-central Madagascar, from Ambatuvaky south to Andringitra. It has been recorded at 500-1,100m asl.
57460		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest, and has once been found in secondary habitats next to forest. The eggs are laid on leaves above streams, into which the larvae fall and develop.
57460		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57460		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57461		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57461		distribution	eng	This species is wide ranging in northern and east-central Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Ranomafana. It has been recorded at 300-1,200m asl.
57461		habitat	eng	It is a species of the rainforest floor. It does not survive in heavily degraded areas. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
57461		population	eng	It is a locally and seasonally abundant species.
57461		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57462		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, Parc National d’Andringitra and Parc National d’Andohahela, and in the Réserve Spéciale du Pic d'Ivohibe.
57462		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively broad distribution in south-eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana south to Andohahela, and occurs from 500-1,300m asl.
57462		habitat	eng	It lives in crevices among boulders and rocky areas, usually close to flowing waters. This species is found in pristine forest, and does not survive in secondary or degraded areas. The details of its breeding biology are unknown, though breeding possibly takes place in water flowing among rocks.
57462		population	eng	It is a rather rare species.
57462		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57463		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57463		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in northern, eastern and western Madagascar. The map is very provisional since this is an unresolved species complex. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
57463		habitat	eng	It lives in both intact and degraded rainforest, and is occasionally observed in deforested agricultural areas, where some shade and cover remain. It breeds in streams, pools, puddles and rice fields. Knoll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) collected larvae from "small and very shallow, slow-flowing streams".
57463		population	eng	It is very common at many sites.
57463		threats	eng	Deforestation appears to be affecting some populations, but not others, presumably reflecting the fact that this is a complex of several species. However, as currently understood, this species is, in general, not significantly threatened.
57464		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57464		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in northern and eastern Madagascar, from Montagne d'Ambre south to Andohahela. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
57464		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of rainforest, including degraded forest, where Pandanus occurs in the understorey. It has also been found in eucalyptus plantations, but not in open areas. It breeds in Pandanus leaf axils by larval development.
57464		population	eng	It is locally abundant where screw-pines (Pandanus) occur.
57464		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the harvesting of screw pines, which are used for the roofs of huts.
57465		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas throughout the eastern rainforest belt.
57465		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species in northern and eastern Madagascar, with one record in central Madagascar. Two isolated records from west central and south-central Madagascar need to be confirmed. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
57465		habitat	eng	It is a streamside species in rainforest, including degraded forest, and open areas adjacent to forest. It is often associated with wetlands, bogs, stagnant water, and seeps, but not fast-flowing streams. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools and in slow-moving water. Knoll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) collected one of the benthic larvae "from a puddle beside a footpath on muddy ground".
57465		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57465		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57466		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and Parc National d’Andringitra.
57466		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Ranomafana area, south through the Andringitra Mountains to the Chaines Anosyennes, in south-eastern Madagascar. It has been recorded at 800-1,500m asl, and possibly also occurs lower than this.
57466		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of rainforest that is not tied to water, and also occurs in somewhat degraded habitats. Breeding presumably takes place by direct development.
57466		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57466		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57467		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one reserve near Andasibe, and in Parc National de Ranomafana.
57467		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Madagascar from Andasibe and Ranomafana. It occurs at 800-1,200m asl.
57467		habitat	eng	It lives in swamps in or near forest, and in degraded habitat where there are swamps, but not in agricultural areas. It often calls from low vegetation. It breeds in swamps, the eggs being laid on leaves above water.
57467		population	eng	It is a locally very abundant species.
57467		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. However, being reasonably adaptable, it is less affected by these threats than many other species.
57468		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout the eastern rainforest belt.
57468		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern and eastern Madagascar from Nosy Mangabe Island south to Ambila. It also occurs on Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). It ranges from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
57468		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest, degraded forest, and invasive eucalyptus forest in the rainforest belt. It is not found in open areas. It probably breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57468		population	eng	It is a common species.
57468		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57469		conservation	eng	It occurs in Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely and in the Parc National d'Andringitra.
57469		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of the high plateau of central and east-central Madagascar, from Ambohitantely south to Andringitra. Additional localities will probably be found as a result of further survey work. It is recorded from 1,400-2,400m asl.
57469		habitat	eng	It lives alongside streams in mid to high-elevation forests. It also occurs outside forest in high-altitude savannah and in disturbed and cleared areas in wet marshy places, but not in agricultural land. It breeds in streams.
57469		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
57469		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. There might be some threatened cryptic species within this unresolved complex.
57470		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela.
57470		distribution	eng	This species is known from Andohahela and Manantantely in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, but it has only recently been described and its distribution in relation to other species is not yet understood. It has been recorded from 300-600m asl.
57470		habitat	eng	It lives in crevices among boulders and rocky areas in pristine forest, usually close to flowing waters, and does not survive in secondary or degraded areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it possibly takes place in water flowing among rocks.
57470		population	eng	It is locally moderately common.
57470		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57471		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57471		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Madagascar occurs widely in the coastal rainforest belt from Marojejy southwards, probably as far as Andohahela. It occurs from sea level up to 600m asl.
57471		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, often found near streams, usually in pristine or only slightly disturbed rainforest. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are presumably laid on land.
57471		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57471		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57472		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57472		distribution	eng	This species from east-central Madagascar is known with certainty only from the vicinity of Andasibe and An'Ala. Records from other parts of Madagascar might be referable either to this species, or to <em>Mantidactylus tandroka</em>, <em>M. tschenki</em>, or <em>M. moseri</em>. It is likely to occur at least in Ambohitantely, Zahamena and Mantadia, and perhaps elsewhere. Its recorded altitudinal range is 850-1,200m asl, possibly higher.
57472		habitat	eng	It is usually observed near streams and tiny trickles of water in rainforest, where it climbs on low vegetation. It is almost never found in disturbed areas. Its breeding is unknown, and could either be by direct or larval development.
57472		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57472		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57473		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Isalo.
57473		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west-central Madagascar, where it is known only from the Isalo Massif. Records from Analavelona are not confirmed. Records from Tsingy de Bemaraha and the Kelifely Plateau refer to an undescribed species. It has been recorded at 200-800m asl.
57473		habitat	eng	It lives in dry tropical forest, usually near streams, and often in canyons, and has not so far been found in disturbed areas. Breeding takes place in pools in permanent streams.
57473		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57473		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fire, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. Not all of the Isalo Massif is protected.
57474		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57474		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in Madagascar, usually above 600m to 2,400m asl. The map is extremely provisional given the taxonomic complexities associated with this unresolved complex.
57474		habitat	eng	It lives along streams, usually in open areas (such as agricultural areas and above the tree line in montane grassland), but sometimes in forest. It breeds in streams.
57474		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
57474		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. There might be some threatened cryptic species within this unresolved complex.
57475		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, the Réserve Spéciale du Pic Ivohibe, and Parc National de Midongy-du-Sud.
57475		distribution	eng	This species is known from many localities in south-eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana south to Midongy-du-Sud, from 700-1,050m asl.
57475		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, and is sometimes found in quite disturbed habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development, and away from water.
57475		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57475		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57476		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57476		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed and known from many localities in eastern Madagascar from Masoala south to Andohahela. It occurs from sea level up 1,200m asl.
57476		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest and disturbed secondary areas, and is arboreal, sometimes being found in leaf axils of screw pines (Pandanus). It does not survive in completely open areas. It breeds explosively in temporary and permanent ponds, and pools within streams.
57476		population	eng	It is locally extremely common when breeding.
57476		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.
57477		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57477		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the plateau of central Madagascar, and on the eastern slopes, from Ambohitantely south to Andringitra. It has been recorded at 900-2,000m asl.
57477		habitat	eng	It lives in open marshy areas, forest edge, near villages in secondary vegetation. It is not known from agricultural areas. It breeds in marshes.
57477		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57477		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, with few threats, but is probably impacted by livestock overgrazing and fires.
57478		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Mantadia and the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57478		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Andasibe area, including from two protected areas. Records from further south appear to be referable to other species, although it is probably more widespread. It has been recorded at 800-1,200m asl.
57478		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary and degraded forest, and low secondary vegetation, but only rarely in primary forest. It is most often observed on low vegetation far from water. It breeds by direct development and is not associated with water.
57478		population	eng	It is locally very abundant within its known range.
57478		threats	eng	This species is probably not affected by deforestation as it is adaptable and therefore unlikely to be threatened.
57479		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, Parc National d'Andringitra, Parc National d'Andohahela, and probably Parc National de Midongy du Sud.
57479		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana, south to Andohahela. Records from northern Madagascar require further investigation. It has been recorded at 1,350-2,500m asl.
57479		habitat	eng	It is always associated with rocky outcrops, both in forested zones, and above the tree line. It breeds in streams. The very large tadpoles spend at least a year in the stream before metamorphosis.
57479		population	eng	It is a rare species. No adult males have ever been collected.
57479		threats	eng	Being in remote rocky areas, it is probably not as seriously threatened as several other species. However, it is probably impacted by fires, livestock (affecting water quality), and water pollution.
57480		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.
57480		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the general vicinity of Ranomafana at 650-1,050m asl in south-eastern Madagascar, although it presumably occurs more widely.
57480		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary and degraded forest, and low secondary vegetation, but only rarely in primary forest. It is most often observed on low vegetation far from water. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not associated with water.
57480		population	eng	It is very abundant.
57480		threats	eng	This species is probably not affected by deforestation, as it is adaptable and therefore unlikely to be threatened.
57481		conservation	eng	It occurs in numerous protected areas.
57481		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed at numerous localities in northern and eastern Madagascar, and also occurs at Isalo in western Madagascar. The distribution map is not very meaningful since this is an unresolved complex. It ranges from sea level to 2,500m asl.
57481		habitat	eng	It is usually closely associated with streams in primary and degraded rainforest. It needs some tree cover at lower altitudes. It is also found in montane heathland, but not in agricultural areas. It lives on the ground, on rocks, and in low vegetation. It breeds in streams.
57481		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57481		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, except perhaps by extreme deforestation. However, some of the constituent species in the unresolved complex are possibly threatened.
57482		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy, Parc National de Masoala, and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57482		distribution	eng	This species is known from Andasibe in eastern Madagascar, north to Masoala, Anjanaharibe and Marojejy in northeastern Madagascar. It has been recorded at 500-1,000m asl.
57482		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found only in pristine rainforest. The eggs on leaves above streams, into which the tadpoles presumably fall, and develop.
57482		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57482		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57483		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57483		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar from Sambava south to Andringitra. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
57483		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest, being often found in swamp forest and littoral forest, but not in disturbed forest. It is most often found in the axils of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). Its breeding is probably unknown, and it is not clear if it is by larval or direct development.
57483		population	eng	It is infrequently found. It seems to have a surprisingly low population density, but it is perhaps not being correctly sampled.
57483		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of screw pines (Pandanus spp.), which are used for the roofs of huts.
57484		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57484		distribution	eng	This species is known from many localities in eastern and northeastern Madagascar. However, the map is misleading due to taxonomic and nomenclature problems. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
57484		habitat	eng	It is found in or near streams in forest in more or less pristine rainforest. It has been found in open areas near forest, but it is thought that these are surviving individuals from recent forest clearance, and that the species cannot maintain long-term populations outside forest. Its breeding is unknown, but it is probably by larval development in streams.
57484		population	eng	It is rare in places where it has been heavily harvested, but can be locally abundant elsewhere along forest streams.
57484		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is collected for human consumption, and this can have a local impact on populations.
57485		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57485		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the rainforest belt of eastern and northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andohehela. It has been recorded at 200-1,000m asl.
57485		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species that has been found in tree holes and temporary waterbodies. It has also been found in eucalyptus growth near rainforest, but general it is found only in mature forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams.
57485		population	eng	It is a common species.
57485		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57486		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas including the      Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
57486		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread in northern Madagascar from     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) to the Masoala Peninsula and Nosy Be Island. It occurs from near sea level up to 900m asl. Specimens reported from western and southeastern Madagascar (Blommers-Schlösser and Blanc, 1991) and from Mayotte (a French island in the Comoro archipelago) are probably in error, or belong to undescribed species (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
57486		habitat	eng	It lives in both pristine and disturbed rainforest, and in plantations and dense secondary growth, but not in very open areas. It needs tree cover and shade. It is usually found on the forest floor, and calls from bushes. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.
57486		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57486		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57487		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela and the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra.
57487		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern Madagascar, from the Kalambatritra Reserve south to Andohahela. It has been recorded from 1,200m asl, perhaps up to 1,800m asl.
57487		habitat	eng	It lives among rock outcrops with dripping water in montane rainforest, and is not found in degraded areas. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.
57487		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57487		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57488		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57488		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern and eastern Madagascar. The map is not meaningful for the same reason as for Mantidactylus grandidieri. It has been recorded at 200-1,000m asl. Records from Nosy Be probably refer to M. ulcerosus.
57488		habitat	eng	A semiaquatic species found in or near streams in forest in pristine rainforest. Its breeding is unknown, but it is probably by larval development in streams.
57488		population	eng	It is a moderately common species, being more common in the north of its range.
57488		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is collected for human consumption, and this can have a local impact on populations.
57489		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two protected areas: the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana and Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre.
57489		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Madagascar, at Montagne d'Ambre, Tsaratanana and Nosy Be Island. Following Vences <em>et al.</em> (2002b) records from eastern Madagascar are not considered here. It has been recorded at 300-1,400m asl.
57489		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, and is not found in disturbed areas. It probably breeds by direct development, but this requires confirmation.
57489		population	eng	It is a rare species, with very few records.
57489		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57490		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.
57490		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near An'Ala in eastern Madagascar, and from Andapa in north-eastern Madagascar, from 500-840m asl.
57490		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest along swampy streams and in secondary bushland, but not in very open areas. It breeds in pools and swamps close to streams.
57490		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, especially when breeding.
57490		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57491		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57491		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ankaratra Massif in central Madagascar south to Antoetra. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,000-1,600m asl.
57491		habitat	eng	It lives in swamps in forest, forest edges, degraded forest, savannahs, and montane grassland. It breeds in swamps.
57491		population	eng	It is locally very abundant.
57491		threats	eng	Although it is an adaptable species, its habitat is probably being impacted by overgrazing, fires (which are likely to be too frequent), and by drought. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened.
57492		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Marojejy and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.
57492		distribution	eng	This species is known only from north-eastern Madagascar at Marojejy, Anjanaharibe-Sud, and Betaolana. It possibly occurs on the Masoala Peninsula. It has been recorded at 600-900m asl. Reports from south-eastern Madagascar (Anosyenne Mountains) are due to the mislabelling of a specimen.
57492		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of pristine rainforest, and is not found in disturbed areas. If the records of this species from Masoala are correct, then it also occurs in small patches of heathland. It is not associated with water, and is presumed to breed by direct development.
57492		population	eng	It is moderately common.
57492		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57493		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d’Andohahela and Parc National de Midongy-du-Sud.
57493		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern Madagascar, from Mindongy-du-Sud south to Fort Dauphin, from near sea level up to 900m asl.
57493		habitat	eng	This adaptable species does require some tree cover, and lives in leaf-litter in rainforest, degraded habitats, and eucalyptus plantations. It is independent of water and is presumed to breed by direct development.
57493		population	eng	It is very abundant.
57493		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57494		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and Parc National de Masoala, the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe and the Réserve Spéciale d'Ambatovaky, and the Réserve de Biosphère de Mananara-Nord.
57494		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Ambatovaky, and from the islands of Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie) and Nosy Mangabe. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.
57494		habitat	eng	This species is found only in undisturbed rainforest, where it lives independently of water, and probably breeds by direct development.
57494		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but very rare in some places.
57494		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57495		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57495		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed in northern and eastern Madagascar from Montagne d'Ambre south to Andohahela. It also occurs on Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). It has been recorded from near sea level up to 2,050m asl.
57495		habitat	eng	It lives in both pristine and disturbed rainforest. It is arboreal, often found in leaf axils or screw pines (Pandanus spp.) and other plants. It is associated with swamps, and can be found outside forest in swamps and pools in some places, but it avoids very open areas without cover. It breeds in swamps.
57495		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57495		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by the collection of screw pines, which are used for the roofs of huts.
57496		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57496		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution, and is recorded from many localities in eastern and northeastern Madagascar, with a few records on the central plateau, and one isolated locality in south-central Madagascar (Isalo). It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
57496		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky streams in rainforest, degraded forest, and open areas adjacent to forest, and in more open savannah on the high plateau of Madagascar. It breeds in streams. The eggs are laid on steep rocks near streams, tadpoles in water.
57496		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57496		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by anything other than very extreme deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57497		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57497		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in coastal eastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohahela. A record from Antsalova in western Madagascar is not included in this species, following Vences and Glaw (2001). It occurs from sea level up to 700m asl.
57497		habitat	eng	It is both arboreal and terrestrial in pristine rainforest. It probably breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57497		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57497		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57498		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra.
57498		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Andringitra in south-eastern Madagascar, where the species is restricted to elevations between 1,500 and 2,500m asl. It has been found at about ten localities in Andringitra.
57498		habitat	eng	It lives in rocky streams in forest or above the tree line. It is not dependent on forest and is usually found outside forest in rocky landscapes. The species is largely aquatic and breeds in the slower-flowing parts of streams.
57498		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57498		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably being impacted by overgrazing and fires (which are likely to be too frequent).
57499		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57499		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Antsirasira at around 100m asl in north-western Madagascar, although it probably occurs more widely.
57499		habitat	eng	It has only been found around a temporary pond in a cacao plantation, living in leaf-litter. The original habitat is unknown, but it was presumably rainforest. This species' breeding habits are unknown, but reproduction is likely to take place in temporary ponds.
57499		population	eng	It is locally abundant in a very small area.
57499		threats	eng	There is very little information available on threats to this species, which is clearly adaptable, although it might be affected by extreme opening up of its habitat.
57500		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57500		distribution	eng	This species is disjunctly distributed in eastern Madagascar from Andapa south to St Luce. Specimens from northeastern Madagascar might belong to a different species. It occurs from sea level up to 1,400m asl.
57500		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest, including coastal littoral forest, but not in degraded areas. It is usually found near streams and swamps in sandy areas. It breeds in swamps.
57500		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57500		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57501		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57501		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar from Masoala to the Ranomafana region. Some previous records from northeastern Madagascar refer to M. striatus. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
57501		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine rainforest, usually observed on leaves of low vegetation. Its breeding is unknown, but it is possibly by direct development, since the species appears not to be associated with waterbodies.
57501		population	eng	It is rarely encountered, but has been found to be locally abundant at a few sites.
57501		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57502		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57502		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benavony (near Ambanja), Manongarivo, and Tsaratanana in north-western Madagascar, at 200-1,100m asl.
57502		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species in primary forest near streams, and is not found in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams, and probably lays its eggs on plants above the water.
57502		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57502		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57503		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57503		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in eastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohehela, at 200-900m asl.
57503		habitat	eng	It is a species of rainforest and forest edge, not surviving in heavily degraded areas. It lives along, and breeds in, brooks.
57503		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57503		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57504		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela.
57504		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to a small area in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, where it ranges from 800-1,400m asl.
57504		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforest, living in and around streams, and is not found in secondary habitats. The eggs are laid outside water close to streams; the larvae then move to water, where they develop.
57504		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
57504		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57505		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Andohahela and Midongy-du-Sud National Parks.
57505		distribution	eng	This species has a small range in extreme south-eastern Madagascar from Midongy-Sud to Andohahela, at 50-1,000m asl.
57505		habitat	eng	It occurs in degraded as well as pristine forest, but usually in mature forest; it has once been recorded in an open area next to relict forest. It lives in fast-flowing, rocky streams, where it breeds.
57505		population	eng	It is locally common. However, it has become extinct in some localities around Fort Dauphin.
57505		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is also collected for human consumption, but this is probably only a localized threat.
57506		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57506		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed at numerous localities in northern, eastern and central Madagascar, from Tsaratanana south Andohahela. The map is not very meaningful since it is an unresolved species complex. It occurs from sea level up to 2,500m asl.
57506		habitat	eng	It is usually closely associated with streams in primary and degraded rainforest. It needs some tree cover at lower altitudes. It is also found in montane heathland, but not in agricultural areas. It lives on the ground, on rocks, and in low vegetation. It breeds in streams.
57506		population	eng	There is conflicting information on its abundance, probably reflecting the fact that it is a complex of species.
57506		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, except perhaps by extreme deforestation. However, some of the constituent species in the unresolved complex are possibly threatened.
57507		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57507		distribution	eng	This species is known from Marojejy south to Andasibe in eastern and northeastern Madagascar, at 300-900m asl.
57507		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine rainforest, sometimes close to streams, but usually at some distance from them. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.
57507		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but is sometimes rare.
57507		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57508		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57508		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in eastern Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Ranomafana. There are also two isolated localities in west-central Madagascar (Ambohijanahary and Mahajeby Forest), and one on the central plateau at Ambohitantely. It has been recorded at 600-1,500m asl, but probably also occurs lower than this.
57508		habitat	eng	It is a streamside species living on the ground in pristine and very slightly degraded rainforest. It breeds in brooks and streams.
57508		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57508		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57509		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and the protection of remaining habitat (including important streams) on the Ankaratra Massif is urgently needed. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not the species might survive elsewhere on the Massif, and to determine the current population status of the species.
57509		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a single, small area at 2,200m asl on the Ankaratra Massif in central Madagascar. This site is within 443m of the highest Ankaratra summit (2,643m asl).
57509		habitat	eng	Although it originally lived in montane rainforest, it is now known only in high-altitude grassland with forest remnants. It breeds in fast-flowing mountain streams.
57509		population	eng	In the last 20 years, it has only been recorded in a single stream, where it is known to be rare. Despite recent survey work, it has not been found at other locations on the Ankaratra Massif.
57509		threats	eng	The main threats to its habitat on the Ankaratra Massif are fire, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding potato farming. However, water pollution and stream sedimentation as a result of agriculture and mining might also be threats. As a mountain top species, it could also be at risk from the effects of global warming.
57510		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57510		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in northern, eastern and central Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Andohahela, at 500-2,000m asl.
57510		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species living along streams in pristine rainforest. It is not found in altered habitats. The eggs are placed on leaves above water, and the larvae develop in slow-flowing streams
57510		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57510		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57511		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, and in the Masoala and Marojejy National Parks.
57511		distribution	eng	This species is known only from east central and northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andasibe, at 500-1,200m asl.
57511		habitat	eng	It lives along brooks in primary forest. It is not found in altered habitats. It presumably breeds in streams.
57511		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, but its apparent abundance varies seasonally.
57511		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57512		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, and perhaps in Parc National d’Andohahela.
57512		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from two localities at 400-900m asl in south-eastern Madagascar: Ranomafana, and Chaines Anosyennes. It is suspected to occur more widely, in particular between these two known sites.
57512		habitat	eng	This is a species of pristine rainforest only. It is not tied to water, so presumably breeds by direct development.
57512		population	eng	It is a moderately common species, but is less common than the closely related <em>Mantidactylus luteus</em>.
57512		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57513		conservation	eng	It occurs in all the protected areas within its range including the Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve  and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
57513		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Madagascar from   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve  and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) south to Sahamalasa and Masoala. It has been recorded from sea level up to 900m asl. It might be more widespread.
57513		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and degraded rainforest, as well as in secondary vegetation. It has been observed both on the ground and in trees. It breeds in streams.
57513		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57513		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57514		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57514		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohahela. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,400m asl.
57514		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species living in pristine and disturbed rainforest and swamp forest, but not in open areas. It is usually observed in the leaf axils of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). It breeds in the leaf axils of Pandanus by larval development.
57514		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57514		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.
57515		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.
57515		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few localities in eastern and central Madagascar that are widely scattered, suggesting either that more than one species is involved or that additional intervening localities exist that have not yet been confirmed. The known areas are: St Luce and other localities around Fort Dauphin; Marojejy to Betaolona; and Ambohitantely. This species has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
57515		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species of rainforest. Its microhabitat is the leaf axils of screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.), in which it breeds by larval development. It can live in degraded forest providing that <em>Pandanus</em> pines survive.
57515		population	eng	It is locally common.
57515		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of <em>Pandanus</em>, which is used for the roofs of huts.
57516		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57516		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern and northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andringitra. It has been recorded from sea level up to 850m asl. It is also known from Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie) and Nosy Mangabe.
57516		habitat	eng	It is found both on the ground and in trees, usually near streams in pristine rainforest. It is not found in altered habitats. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.
57516		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57516		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. There is probably little habitat left in the southern part of its range.
57517		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Marojejy, Parc National de Masoala, and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.
57517		distribution	eng	This species is known only from north-eastern Madagascar from Marojejy, south to Masoala. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.
57517		habitat	eng	It lives along streams in pristine rainforest, and does not survive in altered habitats. Its breeding biology is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.
57517		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57517		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57518		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Masoala and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.
57518		distribution	eng	This species is known from Anjanaharibe-Sud, south to the Masoala Peninsula in north-eastern Madagascar, at 500-1,000m asl.
57518		habitat	eng	It lives only in pristine rainforest. There is no information on its breeding biology, but it probably breeds by direct development.
57518		population	eng	It is not a common species, and is hard to find.
57518		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57519		conservation	eng	It occurs on the border of the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57519		distribution	eng	The confirmed sites for this species are from Fierenana to Andasibe in eastern Madagascar. It is likely to occur much more widely, and there are unconfirmed reports from Ranomafana far to the south. This species has been recorded from 900-1,200m asl.
57519		habitat	eng	It lives in open swamps (in which it breeds) and flooded rainforest, and also in somewhat degraded forest.
57519		population	eng	It is very abundant, but rarely encountered.
57519		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57520		conservation	eng	It occurs only in Parc National de Marojejy.
57520		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Parc National de Marojejy, at 1,250m asl, in north-eastern Madagascar. It is unlikely to be very widespread.
57520		habitat	eng	It is known only from a single site where it has been found in bushes in an artificial clearing surrounded by montane forest. It calls during the day. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it lives far from water, so it presumably breeds by direct development.
57520		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
57520		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. However, its forest habitat is at risk of receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57521		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57521		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Madagascar, from Fierenana south to Ranomafana. It probably occurs both north and south of these localities. Calls that are almost certainly attributable to this species have been heard as far south as Andohahela. Its recorded altitudinal range is 600-1,200m asl.
57521		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in pristine forest, and is occasionally found in degraded forest patches. It is not associated with water. It possibly breeds by direct development, though this is not proven.
57521		population	eng	It is locally a very abundant species.
57521		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57522		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe. Although not yet confirmed from Parc National de Masoala, it is likely to occur there as well.
57522		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Nosy Mangabe and the nearby mainland along the coast of the Antongila Bay. It might occur more widely on the Masoala Peninsula. It occurs from sea level up to 400m asl.
57522		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation near streams and brooks, and among boulders and in caves, in pristine rainforest; it cannot survive in altered habitats. The breeding biology is unknown, and it could reproduce by either direct or larval development.
57522		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57522		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57523		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra, Parc National d’Andohahela, and Parc National d’Andringitra.
57523		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-eastern Madagascar, from Andringitra south to Andohahela, where it ranges from 600-1,000m asl. Records from north-eastern Madagascar are erroneous.
57523		habitat	eng	This is a species of pristine rainforest only, which does not live in altered habitats. It is found on the forest floor, and is particularly associated with bamboo. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development.
57523		population	eng	It is a rare species with a patchy distribution.
57523		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57524		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Marojejy and Parc National de Masoala.
57524		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from north-eastern Madagascar from Marojejy, and from Betaolana to Masoala, at approximately 400-800m asl.
57524		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest, where it is often found close to, but sometimes at some distance from, small streams. It is not found in altered habitats. Its breeding biology is unknown, and it is not clear if it takes place by larval or direct development.
57524		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57524		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57525		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.
57525		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainly only from the Marojejy Massif at 700-1,400m asl in north-eastern Madagascar. There is one specimen collected from Tsaratanana that probably belongs to this species, but this awaits confirmation.
57525		habitat	eng	It is usually observed near streams and tiny trickles of water in rainforest, where it can be found climbing on low vegetation. It is not found in disturbed areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, and could be by either direct or larval development.
57525		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57525		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57526		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parc National de Mantadia, and possibly also in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57526		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Andasibe and Mantadia in east-central Madagascar, although it is likely to be more widespread. All records are from around 900m asl. The distributional relationship between this species and its sibling and cryptic species, <em>Mantidactylus eiselti</em>, needs to be clarified.
57526		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary rainforest, and in eucalyptus plantations near forest. It probably breeds by direct development, but this has not yet not been confirmed.
57526		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57526		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
57527		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57527		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in many localities in eastern Madagascar except in the northeastern region, from Voloina south to Nampoana. It has been recorded at 100-1,100m asl.
57527		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest and in heavily disturbed secondary habitats, but not in open areas. It is an arboreal species most often found in leaf axils, especially of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
57527		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57527		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.
57528		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, but its range comes close to Parc National de Midongy du Sud.
57528		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three sites in eastern and south-eastern Madagascar at approximately 450-850m asl: An'Ala, Befotaka and Vondrozo, although it probably occurs more widely.
57528		habitat	eng	It lives in swampy areas in both pristine and degraded rainforest, though it is not known how tolerant it is of habitat degradation. It probably breeds in swamps and slow-moving small streams.
57528		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57528		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57529		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.
57529		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the general vicinity of Ranomafana, in south-eastern Madagascar, at 600-1,200m asl. There are possible records requiring confirmation from elsewhere in south-eastern Madagascar.
57529		habitat	eng	It is usually observed near streams and tiny trickles of water in rainforest, where it climbs on low vegetation. It is not found in disturbed areas. Its reproductive mode is unknown, and it could be by either direct or larval development.
57529		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57529		threats	eng	This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57530		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57530		distribution	eng	This species complex is widely distributed in Madagascar except the high plateau and in the arid southwest. The map is not very meaningful, since it is an unresolved complex. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
57530		habitat	eng	It is associated with (usually slow-flowing) streams in rainforest and in heavily degraded areas, and in open swampy areas. It does survive in agricultural land. It breeds in many types of water, especially slow-flowing streams.
57530		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57530		threats	eng	It is generally not seriously threatened, since it is very adaptable. However, some of the cryptic species within the complex might prove to be threatened, especially by pollution of streams, and extreme opening up of the habitat.
57531		conservation	eng	It occurs in Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, Manombo Special Reserve, Parc National de Ranomafana, and Andohahela National Park.
57531		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in southeastern and eastern Madagascar, from Andasibe south to Andohahela. It has been recorded at 50-1,050m asl.
57531		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine rainforest, living on the forest floor and on low vegetation. It does not survive in altered habitats. It probably breeds by direct development.
57531		population	eng	It is rarely encountered.
57531		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57532		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe, but is not yet confirmed from Parc National de Masoala.
57532		distribution	eng	This species occurs around the Antongila Bay and on the island of Nosy Mangabe in north-eastern Madagascar. Records from Andohahela in south-eastern Madagascar require confirmation, and are not included here. It has been recorded from sea level up to 100m asl.
57532		habitat	eng	It inhabits very low altitude rainforest, living along rocky streams among boulders and moss, and is intolerant of disturbed habitat. It breeds along streams under mossy boulders, the eggs being laid on rocks.
57532		population	eng	It is locally common.
57532		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, and expanding human settlements. Forest loss is particularly severe on the coast of mainland Madagascar.
57533		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57533		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northwestern and northeastern Madagascar from Soalala east to Sambava. Records from elsewhere in Madagascar require confirmation. It has been recorded from sea level up to 800m asl.
57533		habitat	eng	It occurs in several habitats, especially in open areas, in swampy places adjacent to degraded rainforest, in areas with cultivated trees, and in coffee and cacao plantations. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds and swamps.
57533		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57533		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57534		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana and the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.
57534		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-western Madagascar at Manongarivo and Tsaratanana, from 800-1,000m asl, and probably occurs a little more widely.
57534		habitat	eng	It is known only from pristine forest and has not so far been found in secondary areas.
57534		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57534		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57535		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, Parc National de Mantadia, and Parc National de Ranomafana.
57535		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Ambohitantely and the Andasibe region, south to Ranomafana, at 850-1,500m asl, in central, eastern and southeastern Madagascar.
57535		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, often found near streams, usually in pristine or only slightly disturbed rainforest. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are presumably laid on land.
57535		population	eng	It is a moderately common species locally.
57535		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
57536		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57536		distribution	eng	This species is known only from An'Ala at 850m asl in eastern Madagascar, although it might occur more widely.
57536		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and degraded forest near streams, in which it probably breeds.
57536		population	eng	It is a moderately abundant species.
57536		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the serious deforestation that is taking place at its only known locality, where there appears to be harvesting of timber for buildings through selective logging. This species is probably also being affected by forest loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
57537		conservation	eng	Maintaining the protected areas in the northern and western mountains of Thailand, safeguarding these from further fire and encroachment impacts, and further developing the protected areas system of eastern Myanmar are recommended for this species.
57537		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Myanmar and northern, southern and western Thailand. It was originally recorded also from China but this population has now been described as a distinct species (B. platyparietus). Records from the Tay Nguyen plateau of south-central Viet Nam represent B. intermedia (Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is generally found in hilly to steep mountainous areas above 500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57537		habitat	eng	This species inhabits evergreen forests. Males have been observed calling from small mountain streams. They are a stream-breeding species, and the larvae develop in water.
57537		population	eng	No quantitative data are available, but anecdotal information indicates that the species is uncommon to rare even in the areas where it occurs (Taylor, 1962). When commissioned, collectors have had difficulty-finding animals.
57537		threats	eng	An apparently strong tie to evergreen forest makes this species sensitive to forest degradation processes, including fires and logging. Its long larval stage requiring clear, clean streams adds a further sensitivity to drought and pollution.
57538		conservation	eng	It might occur in Fubo, Chishuihe and Changjianghejiang-Xiaoboduan Nature Reserves, although this requires further investigation.
57538		distribution	eng	This species is found at two clearly separated localities in Junlian and Hejiang Counties, in Sichuan Province, China, where it has an altitudinal range of 800-1,100m asl. It might occur more widely.
57538		habitat	eng	It is found close to streams or springs in forested areas. The eggs are deposited under stones in the streams.
57538		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
57538		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over harvesting for food by local people. It is probably also threatened by habitat loss due to smallholder agriculture, logging and human settlement.
57539		conservation	eng	All of the localities in Myanmar are within protected areas. It is also in Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam. More information is needed on population status, distribution and natural history. Meanwhile the management of protected areas within its known range could be strengthened.
57539		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000), northeastern Myanmar (Boulenger, 1887), and northern Thailand in Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai and southwestern Yunnan in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it is presumed to be present in Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has been recorded at mid to high altitudes, from 650-2,100m asl.
57539		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forest and streams. It breeds in small hill streams and tadpoles depend on clean, clear water.
57539		population	eng	It is common and frequently encountered in China although few records/specimens exist from mainland Southeast Asia even from well-surveyed areas.
57539		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to dams and power plants are major threats to this species. It is collected by local villagers for consumption.
57540		conservation	eng	This species is not currently recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
57540		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Tay Nguyen Plateau of south-central Viet Nam, though it might extend into southern Lao People's Democratic Republic or extreme north-eastern Cambodia. It has been recorded above 900m asl.
57540		habitat	eng	This species is known from forested areas, and breeds in streams.
57540		population	eng	It was common at the type locality in the early 1900s, but there is no recent information on its status.
57540		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear cutting and human settlement.
57541		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps several protected areas.
57541		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and southwestern China in Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Hunan and Yunnan Provinces, from 1,000-2,450m asl. It is likely to be found in Viet Nam, but this has not yet been confirmed.
57541		habitat	eng	It inhabits small and medium hill streams and the surrounding forests. It breeds in the streams where the larvae also develop.
57541		population	eng	It is common in its localities.
57541		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species. It is also collected by local villages for consumption in certain areas, although at present this is not considered a major threat.
57542		conservation	eng	Several parks in Sabah, Malaysia, have large tracts of appropriate habitat, including Gunung Mulu, Crocker Range, and Gunung Kinabalu National Park. However, there remains a need for improved protection and maintenance of submontane forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia.
57542		distribution	eng	This species is known only from montane regions (750-1,800m asl) of northern Borneo.
57542		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of sub-montane forests (oak-chestnut and mossy forest), adults are found in the leaf-litter, and on vegetation close to streams (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Breeding occurs in small, clear, rocky, mountain streams.
57542		population	eng	It appears to be relatively abundant.
57542		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat through logging, particularly in the Trus Madi portion of the species' range. Other parts of the range are threatened by forest clearance for pine and eucalyptus plantations.
57543		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gunung Mulu National Park. The species is in need of close population monitoring given its restriction to a single locality. Further survey work is required in areas of suitable habitat adjacent to Gunung Mulu.
57543		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one site within Gunung Mulu National Park, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia at 1,800m asl.
57543		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane forest; all specimens were seen calling along small, clear mountain streams.
57543		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
57543		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. However, despite the presence of this species within a protected area, there is always a potential risk of encroaching habitat loss.
57544		conservation	eng	Several parks in Sarawak provide refuge, but effective preservation of lowland hill forests in Kalimantan is needed if the range of this species is to be preserved. It is currently present in at least five protected areas.
57544		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern and north-central Borneo in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei Darussalam. It is found above 300 m asl.
57544		habitat	eng	It occurs in hilly, lowland rainforests. Adults can be found on the forest floor, moving to clear, rocky streams to breed.   Larvae are fossorial and live in gravel beds of riffles and rapids in small streams (Haas<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).   It appears able to tolerate some habitat modification.
57544		population	eng	It is very common within suitable habitat.
57544		threats	eng	Deforestation, and siltation of larval habitats, are the main threats to the species.
57545		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to rediscover this species.
57545		distribution	eng	This species is known only from old specimens from Bunguran Besar (Great Natuna Island), Indonesia.
57545		habitat	eng	As with certain other members of its genus, this species is presumably found in lowland forest areas. It probably breeds in streams.
57545		population	eng	There have been no records since its discovery over 100 years ago, presumably due to a lack of survey work, so its population status is unknown.
57545		threats	eng	The forest loss that is taking place within its range might constitute a threat to it.
57546		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Lipaso Forest Reserve, but this is probably not being managed adequately for the purpose of biodiversity conservation. More effective protection and preservation of mid-elevation forests in the area around the Maliau basin (Sabah) is essential. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
57546		distribution	eng	The only record of this species is from the type locality: the bank of a small tributary of Sungai Liwagu, in the Lipaso Forest Reserve, Labuk and Sugut District, Sabah, in Malaysian Borneo. It was recorded at an elevation of 310m asl. It has not been found in Gunung Kinabalu National Park, not far from the type locality, despite intensive sampling.
57546		habitat	eng	It was found along a clear, rocky hill stream in lowland forest. If this species behaves like its congeners, adults move widely through the forest and larvae develop in the gravel beds of riffles and rapids.
57546		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and it appears to be rare.
57546		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss, since it occurs in a lowland forest type that is being rapidly logged. Siltation of larval habitats is a threat.
57547		conservation	eng	It is present in the Danum Valley and Gunung Mulu National Park. However, more effective protection of lowland hill forest is necessary; some of the localities from which it was originally reported have been heavily logged.
57547		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is known from a wide area of Sabah and northern Sarawak, Malaysia. The type locality was at 150m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57547		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland, hilly rainforest. Adults move to small, clear, rocky streams to breed; the larvae require silt-free, gravel or rocky bottom streams.
57547		population	eng	It seems to be relatively abundant in some regions.
57547		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is logging, which also contributes to the siltation of streams and thereby hinders the ability of tadpoles to feed.
57548		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for more effective protection of lowland hill forest in eastern Sarawak. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.
57548		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Serhassan Island (Lesser Natuna) off the western tip of Borneo, and in eastern Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia. It probably occurs more widely in Sarawak than current records suggest.
57548		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest, where it occurs on the forest floor and the lower hebaceous strata. They breed in clear, rocky, small streams.
57548		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species. It is difficult to find outside the breeding season.
57548		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the deforestation of Sarawak's forests, which is detrimental to both adult and larval stages. Threats to the species on Serhassan Island are not known.
57549		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra.
57549		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from many localities in Borneo as well as Riau and West Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species generally found below 750m asl.
57549		habitat	eng	Adults and juveniles disperse widely in lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in quiet stretches of small streams.
57549		population	eng	It is uncommon in Sumatra. There are no population estimates for Borneo, but larvae are quite abundant in quiet rainforest streams.
57549		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat to this species.
57550		conservation	eng	It is found within Xe Xap National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic. Surveys of the species' population status and distribution are urgently required, based on which options for protected area establishment and/or engagement of local people to reduce their impact on the species' habitat will need to be determined.
57550		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of Ko Rong village, Gia Lai Province, on the Tay Nguyen plateau of south-central Viet Nam (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998a; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000), and from the Annamite Mountains of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999). It has been recorded from 800-1,600m asl.
57550		habitat	eng	It is recorded from wet evergreen forest, and breeding takes place in streams.
57550		population	eng	It is apparently not extremely rare in Viet Nam (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998), but is known from only a single specimen in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999).
57550		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, the only known locality has been badly affected by logging and by clearance of the forest undergrowth (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998).
57551		conservation	eng	It appears adequately protected if existing protected areas in Viet Nam and Thailand remain secure. It is considered Vulnerable in the 1997 Thai Red List (OEPP 1997).
57551		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of locations in northern and central Viet Nam, as well as from Doi Inthanon and Doi Ang Khang in northern Thailand, northwest and central Lao People's Democratic Republic and southwestern Yunnan, China. It occurs at moderate to high altitudes from 800-2,400 m asl.
57551		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in small hill streams.
57551		population	eng	In China this species is rare and hard to find, especially outside the breeding season. However, it has been recorded as common in Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam.
57551		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, including the construction of dams and power plants are threats to this species.
57552		conservation	eng	It is known only from Gunung Kinabalu National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
57552		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu in Borneo, Malaysia, where it has been recorded at elevations of 1,750-2,200m asl (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).
57552		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of montane tropical moist forest (inhabiting the transition zone between upper oak-chestnut and mossy forest). Adults can be found in leaf-litter, rock crevices, and in holes in the ground. Breeding takes place in streams.
57552		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species.
57552		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. However, despite the presence of this species within a relatively well-managed protected area, there is always the potential risk of encroaching habitat loss.
57553		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas on Hainan.
57553		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountain ranges of central and south-western Hainan, China, from 270m to over 1,000m asl.
57553		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in hill streams.
57553		population	eng	It is uncommon (Lu Sunqing pers. comm.).
57553		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence agriculture and small-scale wood collection. Local people also collect the species for food.
57554		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes numerous protected areas.   It is important to assess the presence and extent of the impact of the chytrid fungus on frog populations in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kusrini <em>et al. </em>2008).
57554		distribution	eng	This species is found in Palawan, Mindoro, Bohol, Basilan, and Mindanao in the Philippines and in Java, Sumatra, Madura and in Kangean in Indonesia. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,570 m asl.
57554		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests. In Indonesia, tadpoles have been collected from quiet pools and ponds. In the Philippines, tadpoles have been taken in flowing streams in lowland forest. Examined females have been found to contain 400-1,300 eggs (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).
57554		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57554		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation. In Java, this is mainly due to small-scale agriculture and urban development (M. Kusrini pers. comm. September 2009). More recently, the species has tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</span>, although there are currently no records of population declines for this species (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
57555		conservation	eng	It inhabits most protected forest areas of southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. In Borneo and Sumatra, the effective preservation of alluvial forest areas would protect this species.
57555		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia in northern Sumatra and Kalimantan. In Malaysia it has been reported with certainty from two sites in Sarawak. In mainland Southeast Asia it is known from Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, but is absent from Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is generally recorded at low altitudes but can be found up to 1,000m asl in Thailand.
57555		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of primary lowland evergreen rainforest and adjoining degraded forest and plantations. Breeding takes place in small, slow-flowing streams, and tadpoles live in pools and deep sections of these streams. Adults and juveniles range widely in forest.
57555		population	eng	It is generally common in Malaysia, but is considered uncommon in Thailand and Sumatra. Population size is variable in Borneo.
57555		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the rapid clearing of lowland forests.
57556		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in a number of protected areas. Sampling needs to be conducted in the submontane and montane zones in central Kalimantan to determine the extent of occurrence of this species.
57556		distribution	eng	This is a Bornean endemic recorded from three corners of the island. It has not been reported yet from the main mountain mass in Kalimantan. It is suspected to have a much wider range than is currently known. It has an altitudinal range of 900-1,800m asl.
57556		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane forests. Adults and juveniles disperse widely through forests and breeding takes place in small streams. Larvae develop in quiet pools of such streams.
57556		population	eng	It is abundant at a number of localities.
57556		threats	eng	Deforestation of the oak/chestnut forests, which contain valuable timber, is proceeding rapidly with consequent shrinkage of the habitat of this species. In the past, submontane forests at the elevations occupied by this species were essentially continuous over a large portion of Borneo. Logging is changing this once continuous habitat into a series of islands. Under these circumstances, local subpopulations that go extinct because of stochastic fluctuation cannot be re-established by immigration.
57557		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in mainland Southeast Asia, but not in Borneo. Preservation of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.
57557		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975), Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992; Leong, 2000) and Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at elevations below 300m asl.
57557		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest, including regenerating forest. Adults and juveniles range widely in swampy forest. Breeding takes place in small, slowly flowing streams. Tadpoles live in slow-flowing sections of forest streams.
57557		population	eng	In Malaysia and Singapore the species is common, but nothing is known about its' abundance in Borneo.
57557		threats	eng	Lowland forest clearance is the main threat to this species.
57558		conservation	eng	Population status and distribution surveys including basic natural history information are required before meaningful conservation measures can be formulated for this species.
57558		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Lang Bian Mountain of southern Viet Nam.
57558		habitat	eng	It is presumably a stream breeding species.
57558		population	eng	There have been no recent records of this species, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
57558		threats	eng	There are no threats reported for this species.
57559		conservation	eng	Substantial populations are securely protected in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Thailand.
57559		distribution	eng	All confirmed records of this species are from northern, northeastern, western and Peninsular Thailand, northeast India (Assam and Meghalaya) southeastern Bangladesh (Chittagong and Rangamati Hill-district), southern Myanmar and western Lao People's Democratic Republic. It might extend into northern Peninsular Malaysia (P. van Dijk and R. Sukumaran pers. comm.). Altitude records range between 60 and 1,350 m asl.
57559		habitat	eng	It is often found under leaf-litter in evergreen forest in monsoon and rainforest climatic regions, as well as dense mixed deciduous forest. Tadpoles inhabit deep sections of forest streams with little current.
57559		population	eng	The occurrence of this species can be localized, but where the species occurs adults tend to be fairly common and tadpoles are generally abundant.
57559		threats	eng	While individuals and populations could be affected by forest clearance and other impacts such as stream pollution, drought, and local collection for consumption (northeastern Thailand), these threats are unlikely to threaten its survival in the near future.
57560		conservation	eng	Further surveys are urgently required to determine the population status and distribution of the species. Based on the results, protected areas encompassing viable populations of the species should be established. <em>Ex-situ</em> conservation breeding might be desirable, but no Leptobrachium species has yet been bred in captivity.
57560		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Ko Rong, Tram Lap and Buon Luoi villages on the Tay Nguyen Plateau, in Gia Lai Province of southern central Viet Nam, from 600-1,000m asl. It perhaps occurs a little more widely.
57560		habitat	eng	It is known from evergreen-forested areas. Larvae inhabit stony clear streams (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998a; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000).
57560		population	eng	Locally, this species is not uncommon, and larvae and amplexing pairs have been observed (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998a).
57560		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is clear-cut logging.
57561		conservation	eng	It occurs in Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve, although there is a need for improved management outside the core area.
57561		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Jingdong County in central Yunnan Province, China, at around 2,400m asl.
57561		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forests, and breeds in streams.
57561		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
57561		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, primarily due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
57562		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Teman Negara National Park, and the Crocker Range.
57562		distribution	eng	This species is known from Gunung Kinabalu, Trus Madi, the Crocker Range and Mendolog, in Borneo, Malaysia. It might also occur in the central mountains of Borneo. It has an altitudinal range of 350-1,700m asl.
57562		habitat	eng	It is a little-known terrestrial species of sub-montane and montane forest. Breeding takes place in forest streams.
57562		population	eng	It is generally believed to be uncommon, although Malkmus <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that it is common on the banks of streams crossing through oak-chestnut forests on Gunung Kinabalu.
57562		threats	eng	The major threat is the rapid logging of sub-montane forests, which contain valuable timber. The resultant increased siltation of forest streams is also a threat to larval habitat.
57563		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and population status of this species, while conservation measures should focus on ensuring that all distinct taxa are included in securely protected areas. The Fan Si Pan type locality is included in Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve. The referred Cuc Phuong and Doi Inthanon locations are also already protected.
57563		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fan Si Pan Mountain, northern Viet Nam, on the Chinese border (Dubois 1983; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are unconfirmed records from Cuc Phuong National Park (van Dijk pers. obs.) and perhaps from Doi Inthanon, Thailand (see Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999), but these have been taken into account when mapping the range of this species, and its distribution remains very unclear.
57563		habitat	eng	This is a species that inhabs fast-flowing streams in shady forest. The referred specimen from Cuc Phuong was found at the side of a stream in a karst forest area at about 400m asl (van Dijk 2000). The specimen from Doi Inthanon was found near a peat swamp area in a stream at 2,550m asl (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999).
57563		population	eng	It is relatively common at Fan Si Pan Mountain.
57563		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are forest degradation (due to agricultural development and logging) and stream pollution. All three known and referred localities are also popular tourist destinations, with associated development plans and threats.
57564		conservation	eng	It is found in several large parks in Sabah, Sarawak and east Kalimantan.
57564		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic has been found at many sites in Sabah, and in adjacent parts of Sarawak and Kalimantan, from 200-1,500m asl.
57564		habitat	eng	It lives in closed-canopy forests, and breeding occurs in small, clear, rocky streams.
57564		population	eng	There are no estimates of subpopulation status, but it is not rare at sites where it has been found.
57564		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is clearance of its forest habitat.
57565		conservation	eng	In mainland Southeast Asia one population is securely protected in Taman Negara National Park, and this species is also found in at least three protected areas in Borneo.
57565		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded mainly from Borneo, where there are records from Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Brunei Darussalam. In peninsular Malaysia, records from two mountain peaks (Gunung Tahan and Gunung Benom) have been assigned to this species (Grandison 1972; Berry 1975). In Peninsular Thailand there are records from Thong Pha Phum Forest, in Kanchanaburi Province, but these require verification. It probably occurs more widely on Borneo than current records suggest. It has an altitudinal range of 150 to above 1,500m asl.
57565		habitat	eng	It is confined to primary and old secondary rainforests. Adults and juveniles live in the floor litter and in the herb and shrub strata. Breeding occurs in streams with clear water and sandy to rocky bottoms. Larvae live amid the rocks on the bottom of the watercourse.
57565		population	eng	In Borneo it appears to be abundant at some sites in some years and much less common in others, while in Peninsular Malaysia it appears to be an uncommon species.
57565		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat to this species, while siltation of streams following deforestation is a threat to the larval habitat.
57566		conservation	eng	It is present in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary in central Sarawak. However, there is a need for more effective preservation and protection of lowland rainforest in western Kalimantan. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.
57566		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is known from western Sarawak, Malaysia and adjacent parts of west Kalimantan, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is a lowland species found from 100-500m asl.
57566		habitat	eng	It is restricted to closed-canopy hilly rainforest and does not occur in disturbed habitats. Adults and juveniles occupy the forest floor and shrub strata. Adults breed along the banks of clear, rocky streams and the larvae develop in the riffles of such streams.
57566		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
57566		threats	eng	The major threat is logging, which also results in increased siltation of forest streams and thereby poses a threat to larval habitat.
57567		conservation	eng	The species is known to inhabit a number of legally protected areas (Taman Negara National Park and Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary) and watershed/amenity protection areas (Genting Highlands). Monitoring populations and studying its conservation biology would be useful.
57567		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in Marathiwat and Yala Provinces in extreme southern Thailand south to central Peninsular Malaysia. Its altitudinal range is from 300-1,200m asl.
57567		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist rainforest. Individuals are generally found in or near streambeds. It is thought to breed in streams.
57567		population	eng	It is uncommon to common in areas where it occurs.
57567		threats	eng	Its habitats are relatively secure, and it can survive in forests that have been selectively logged. Locally, some populations might be at risk from forest clearance.
57568		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species.
57568		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern China (including Hong Kong), from 110-1,400m asl.
57568		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding forests and high-altitude grasslands. Breeding occurs in streams.
57568		population	eng	It has a large population.
57568		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to this species.
57569		conservation	eng	It is found in Gunung Kinabalu National Park.
57569		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Gunung Kinabalu, Borneo, at 1,850m asl.
57569		habitat	eng	All known specimens were found on the ground in montane forest (oak-chestnut); breeding presumably takes place in streams.
57569		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
57569		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
57570		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is within Na Hang Nature Reserve, established in 1994, which is considered relatively undisturbed (BirdLife International 2001).
57570		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Na Hang Nature Reserve, in Tuyen Quang Province in northern Viet Nam (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998). Records from Sa Pa (Fan Si Pan) and Tam Dao (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000) seem to be in error. It might occur more widely.
57570		habitat	eng	This species is known from a cave entrance at 314m asl. The general surroundings are karst forest ranging from 300-800m asl. Breeding presumably occurs in streams.
57570		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
57570		threats	eng	Forest destruction and stream pollution might be significant threats in the wider area, but more information is needed to determine the specific threats to this species.
57571		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.
57571		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southwestern China in Sichuan, Guizhou and Hubei provinces, and from Phongsaly, Bolikhamxay and Khammouan provinces, Lao People's Democratic Republic. It occurs from 600-1,800 m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57571		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding broadleaf and mixed forests. It breeds in streams.
57571		population	eng	This is a very common although difficult to catch amphibian.
57571		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular infrastructure for human settlement and water pollution from agriculture.
57572		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in Thailand and elsewhere, and its survival should be secure as long as these protected areas remain intact. In China it occurs in the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve. Further taxonomic studies would be desirable, as would information on distribution, population status and natural history of the various forms.
57572		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Myanmar, most of Thailand (Taylor, 1962; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999), several localities from Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), northern and central Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Lathrop et al, 1999b; Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000), Mengyang in Jinghong County in southern Yunnan, China, and is localized in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975). It is known from 200-1,900m asl.
57572		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and streamside evergreen forest. Tadpoles inhabit clear swift-flowing sand gravel streams.
57572		population	eng	It is a small cryptic species but is generally fairly common and sometimes very common in suitable localities.
57572		threats	eng	Degradation of forest and streams through agricultural and other developments are threats to this species.
57573		conservation	eng	The species is known from the protected areas of the Crocker Range and Gunung Kinabalu National Park. There remains a need for greatly improved protection of lowland rainforest habitat at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
57573		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of sites in northern Borneo. Most records are from Sabah (Malaysia), but it is also known from north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia) and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia). It has an altitudinal range of 500-1,500m asl.
57573		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter and lower shrub layer of closed-canopy forests. It breeds in small, clear, rocky streams.
57573		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
57573		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is logging of lowland rainforest.
57574		conservation	eng	The known range of this species is just outside Hoang Lien Son National Park.
57574		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Fan Si Pan Mountain, in Viet Nam, from 1,660-2,040m asl. It is likely to range more widely, but its distribution is still very poorly known.
57574		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest and is a stream breeding frog.
57574		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
57574		threats	eng	There is no information available regarding threat to this species but they are presumably similar to those for other amphibians in the region.
57575		conservation	eng	The only known population of this species inhabits a national park. Tourism and local development within the national park should be carefully managed and regulated.
57575		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the middle-upper slopes of Tam Dao in northern Viet Nam, at about 900-1,100m asl. It is likely to range more widely, but its distribution is still very poorly known.
57575		habitat	eng	It is known from sloping boulder streams, in which it breeds, in closed evergreen forest.
57575		population	eng	It is not particularly rare at the type locality, but it has not been found or reported elsewhere despite being highly distinctive and visible, suggesting that it is a highly localized species.
57575		threats	eng	The only known streams inhabited by this species are downstream from Tam Dao village, which is a growing tourist destination, with inherent risk of pollution and development affecting the species. Forest in the town's vicinity continues to be gradually but extensively modified by collecting for subsistence and local and regional trade.
57576		conservation	eng	Herpetological surveys are required to determine whether or not this species is present in existing protected areas on the Kon Tum Plateau. Additional protected areas might need to be established in the Buen Luoi-Tram Lap-Kon Cha Ran area. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.
57576		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of Kon Cha Rang and Tram Lap villages on the Kon Tum plateau of southern Viet Nam, as well as Ngoc Linh Mountain, Quang Nam Province, from 900-1,200m asl. It might range a little more widely than records suggest.
57576		habitat	eng	It is known from montane forest, and breeding takes place in streams.
57576		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
57576		threats	eng	The Kon Tum plateau is suffering substantial forest loss from agriculture and clear-cutting, with much resultant stream degradation.
57577		conservation	eng	Its range includes Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve.
57577		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Zhushihe Township, Mangla County, southern Yunnan Province, China, from 850-1,000m asl. It is likely to range more widely, in particular into neighbouring Lao People's Democratic Republic.
57577		habitat	eng	It inhabits high quality evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in hill streams.
57577		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
57577		threats	eng	Forest destruction is ongoing in the area, and only a tiny area of forest remains within this species' known range.
57578		conservation	eng	The species exists in protected areas in Sabah, but remains unprotected in Sarawak. There is an urgent need for the protection of remaining suitable lowland forest habitats at sites where this species is known to occur.
57578		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western Sabah and east-central Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo at elevations of 200-700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
57578		habitat	eng	It is known only from primary, hilly, lowland rainforest. Adults and juveniles live on the forest floor. Breeding presumably takes place in small, clear streams as with other species of the genus.
57578		population	eng	It does not appear to be common or abundant at any site.
57578		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of habitat through clear-cutting, and most suitable lowland habitat in Sabah has now been logged.
57579		conservation	eng	All known populations are within protected areas.
57579		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Gunung Kinabalu National Park, the Crocker Range, and Mount Trus Madi, Borneo, from 1,300-1,600m asl.
57579		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of montane forests, and breeding takes place in small forest streams.
57579		population	eng	It is recorded infrequently.
57579		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
57580		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. Required conservation measures include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the effective protection of remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests.
57580		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Balabac and Palawan Islands, in the western Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, although its distribution does appear to be patchy.
57580		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests and appears to be dependent on mountain streams where it breeds. The larvae are suspension feeders and prefer quiet pools in streams.
57580		population	eng	It is often common.
57580		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest habitat to shifting agriculture, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers due to agricultural effluents and mine-tailings.
57581		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Ujung Kulon National Park and Gunung Halimun National Park, Gunung Gede Pangerango National Park and Gunung Tangkuban Perhahu National Reserve.
57581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Java, Indonesia, where is has a fragmented range due to limited available habitat. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 1,200m asl.
57581		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor of primary and secondary forests, and to some extent, plantations. It breeds in streams.
57581		population	eng	It is common but not abundant.
57581		threats	eng	The main threat is encroachment of the natural forests on Java for small-scale farming, and for wood. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
57582		conservation	eng	This species occurs in most protected areas of Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew, 1987) and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992). In Borneo and Sumatra the expansion of effective preservation of lowland forests linked by forested corridors is essential. It has been bred in captivity occasionally by zoos (Frankfurt/Main, Germany) and private hobbyists (Schmidt, 1976; Pfeuffer, 1989).
57582		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yala, southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962), throughout Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975; Dring, 1979), Tioman Island, Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992; Leong, 2000), Sumatra, Bintan, all parts of Borneo and the Natuna Islands. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
57582		habitat	eng	It inhabits intact lowland and submontane rainforest, generally in the vicinity of forest streams. Adults are terrestrial in habits, but tadpoles live in clear forest streams (Dring, 1979).
57582		population	eng	It is regularly encountered, and its characteristic call is frequently heard in suitable habitat. It is uncommon in Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992).
57582		threats	eng	Loss and fragmentation of the species' habitat are the major threats. Local populations might become exposed to the hazards of stochastic events. The species is harvested for the national and international pet trade, which might affect local populations.
57583		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, such as Mount Malindang National Park, and other protected areas, although there is a need for improved protection on Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, and Bohol to protect the remaining forest on these islands.
57583		distribution	eng	This species is known from Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Samar, and many parts of Mindanao, in the southern and eastern islands of the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
57583		habitat	eng	It is usually found on the forest floor in leaf-litter of montane and lowland rainforests and is dependent on mountain streams where it breeds. Tadpoles are suspension feeders and prefer quiet pools in streams.
57583		population	eng	It is generally common.
57583		threats	eng	Major threats include the loss of the lowland rainforest due to logging, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, due to agricultural effluents and mine-tailings.
57584		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
57584		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the Lang Bian Plateau, Lam Dong Province, and Buon Luoi, Gia-Lai Province, in Viet Nam, and also from Huey Sapan in Lao People's Democratic Republic (although this locality could not be located and has not been used when mapping this species' range for this assessment). It might occur more widely.
57584		habitat	eng	It is presumably a lowland forest inhabitant that breeds in streams.
57584		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series.
57584		threats	eng	The threats to it are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and human settlement.
57585		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
57585		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Buon Luoi, 20km west of the town of Kannack, An Khe District, Gia-Lai Province, Viet Nam, although it might occur more widely. It was collected at between 700 and 750m asl.
57585		habitat	eng	This is presumably a lowland forest inhabitant that breeds in streams.
57585		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
57585		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and human settlement.
57586		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a couple of protected areas in the region, including the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve in China, in the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao People's Democratic Republic and the one known locality in Thailand is in Doi Phu Kha National Park.
57586		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Yunnan (Hekou and Pingbian) and southern Guangxi (Longzhou) in China and is reportedly widespread throughout Viet Nam (Bourret, 1941; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000), yet recent surveys have only yielded a few specimens (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999, Nguyen and Bain pers. comm.). Specimens have been collected from southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), and one on the hilltop of Doi Phu Kha, Nan Province, Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.). The records from central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999) might be in error (B. Stuart pers. comm.).
57586		habitat	eng	In China this species is known from forest from 220-1,200m asl. In the rest of its range there is little known except that specimens have been reported from a swampy area and evergreen forest (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999) and stated to occur from 250m to 1,500m asl (higher towards the southern part of the range). It has also been recorded along forest streams and very close to streams. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
57586		population	eng	In China this species is considered rare but there are no population estimates available for other parts of its range. Inger <em>et al.</em> (1999) reports of many animals calling at a breeding site, suggesting that the species can be locally common.
57586		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing in China, in particular for rubber plantations. Water pollution and shifting agriculture are threats to this species in Thailand, and general clear cutting of forests and slash-and-burn agriculture is reducing the habitat of this species over much of the rest of its range.
57587		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in both Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic. In China it occurs in the following National Nature Reserves: Dawangling, Baiyong, and Xishuangbanna. More information is needed about the species' population status, distribution, taxonomy and natural history before conservation measures can be determined.
57587		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic, and the mountains of northern Viet Nam as well as southern Yunnan (Mengla), western Guangxi (Dawangling Nature Reserve) and southeastern Guangdong (Baiyong Nature Reserve and Heweishan) in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In Viet Nam it is known between 250m asl (northern Viet Nam) to 1,700m asl (Kon Tum plateau) (Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000). In China it has been recorded from 470-900m asl.
57587		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forest and the associated small hill streams. It is found near and in forest streams where it also breeds. Males have been observed calling from foliage about 2.5m above the ground.
57587		population	eng	This species was originally thought to be very rare when it was known only from Yunnan. Recent information suggests that it is more common in the Baiyong National Nature Reserve in China and also in Viet Nam.
57587		threats	eng	There is ongoing forest loss, and threats from dams and power plants.
57588		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps several nature reserves. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
57588		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Ping Wu and Maoxian Counties, in northern Sichuan Province, China, between 1,300 and 2,000m asl.
57588		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and breeds in small hill streams where the larvae also develop.
57588		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status.
57588		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, due in particular to the activities of smallholder farmers.
57589		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Ailao Shan National Nature Reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
57589		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Jingdong County, in south-western Yunnan Province, China, from 2,300-2,450m asl.
57589		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests and breeds in streams, where the larvae also develop.
57589		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
57589		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is relatively well protected at present, and there are currently no major threats. However, its restricted range renders it particularly vulnerable to stochastic events.
57590		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Ailao Shan National Nature Reserve.
57590		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Jingdong, Shuangbai and Xingping counties, in south-western Yunnan Province, China, from 1,500-2,450m asl.
57590		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in slow-flowing streams where the larvae also develop.
57590		population	eng	This is probably not an uncommon species.
57590		threats	eng	Habitat loss is taking place within the range of this species, mainly due to agricultural development.
57591		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not overlap with any protected areas, making protection of the remaining habitat in the area a priority to ensure the species' survival.
57591		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single small stream in Puxiong in Yuexi County, in southern Sichuan province, China, from 2,850-3,000m asl.
57591		habitat	eng	It inhabits mixed forests, and breeds in small streams where the larvae also develop.
57591		population	eng	The only known population comprises probably less than 100 individuals, and is declining.
57591		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, due to logging and hill fires, represents the major threat to this species. The disappearance of forests has also caused a reduction in rainfall in the region and many streams have dried up in the area as a result.
57592		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps several protected areas.
57592		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guizhou and Chongqing Provinces in central China, from 1,790-2,300m asl.
57592		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and shrubland habitat, and breeding takes place in small, shallow-gradient streams.
57592		population	eng	It is uncommon.
57592		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are very rapid habitat destruction and degradation, through logging in particular.
57593		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas, including: Emeishan, Wawushan, Gonggashan, Wolong, and Dujiangyan.
57593		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Sichuan Province, China, and occurs from 1,200-2,000m asl. It probably ranges slightly more widely.
57593		habitat	eng	It is a forest inhabitant that breeds in streams (which is also where the larvae develop).
57593		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species, but it is known to be relatively rare.
57593		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, collection of firewood, and infrastructure development.
57594		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with two protected areas; Emeishan Natural Heritage Reserve (a World Heritage Site) and Wawushan Mountain National Forest Park.
57594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Emei and Hongya counties in central Sichuan Province, China, from 1,520-1,920m asl. However, it might occur more widely than records suggest.
57594		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and breeds in streams.
57594		population	eng	It is so far known from only two locations, and it is rare at both of these.
57594		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, partly due to infrastructure development associated with increased tourism.
57595		conservation	eng	The only known population is within a small-protected area, Guangwushan Natural Reserve.
57595		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Guangwu, in Nanjiangxian County, Sichuan Province, China, at 1,600m asl.
57595		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams, in which it breeds, and the surrounding forest.
57595		population	eng	The population status is unknown, further studies are needed
57595		threats	eng	Tourism is a threat to its habitat.
57596		conservation	eng	The range of this species partly overlaps two protected areas, namely Emeishan Natural Heritage Reserve and Wawushan National Forest Park.
57596		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in Emei and Hongya Counties in central Sichuan Province, China, at 1,050-1,800m asl.
57596		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, breeding in streams where the larvae also develop.
57596		population	eng	It is relatively abundant at both locations.
57596		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due primarily to smallholder farming activities; disturbance from tourists is an increasing threat.
57597		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, so there is a clear need for the protection of the montane habitat of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
57597		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in Daliangshan in Zhaojue and Yuexi Counties, southern Sichuan Province, China, at 2,700-3,300m asl.
57597		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits forest and shrubland habitats.
57597		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status.
57597		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to the impacts of nomadic livestock farming and wood extraction.
57598		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.
57598		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Gansu, southern Shaanxi, and central and northeastern Sichuan provinces in China, from 700-2,000m asl. Its distribution appears to be increasing and it is now found at lower elevations.
57598		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and hill streams, and breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.
57598		population	eng	This is a common species that is increasing for reasons that are not understood..
57598		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are main threats to this species, although they are probably not impacting it very seriously.
57599		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent protection of its habitat.
57599		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Yuexi (Puxiong) County in south Sichuan Province, China, from 2,600-2,900m asl.
57599		habitat	eng	It inhabits marshes, streamside pools, backwater pools, small streams and the surrounding forest. Breeding occurs in streams.
57599		population	eng	It is rare, and there are only two populations, both of which are declining.
57599		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss due to subsistence wood collection, but fire is also a serious threat (one fire event led to an overall population decline of more than 70%).
57600		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas, but there is a need to promote awareness amongst tourists of the need to minimize their disturbance of cave habitats.
57600		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Hunan provinces in central China, from 1,000-1,790m asl.
57600		habitat	eng	It inhabits limestone caves in forested habitats. Breeding takes place in springs and stream pools inside the limestone caves.
57600		population	eng	There is limited information on the population status of this species, but it is known from only a few sites within its apparently large range.
57600		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is posed by the disturbance and degradation of its limestone cave habitat, mainly due to increased tourism. Tadpoles of this species are also collected for food.
57601		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.
57601		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Sichuan and northern Yunnan Provinces, China, from 1,800-3,300m asl.
57601		habitat	eng	It inhabits riparian habitats, and breeds in small- to medium-sized hill streams.
57601		population	eng	It appears to have a small population.
57601		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due to clear-felling and agricultural expansion.
57602		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps several protected areas.
57602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Sichuan Province in China, and occurs from 1,700-2,520m asl.
57602		habitat	eng	It occurs in shrublands and coniferous forest, and breeding takes place in small streams and marshes.
57602		population	eng	It is known from only seven or eight locations and its population appears to be small.
57602		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are possible threats to this species.
57603		conservation	eng	The type locality might be within Washan Nature Reserve.
57603		distribution	eng	This species was only recorded once from the non-specific type locality of Washan, in southern Sichuan Province, China (there are several localities with this name in Sichuan).
57603		habitat	eng	There is no information known regarding its habitat preferences, though it is likely to be associated with montane forest. It presumably breeds in streams, like other members of the genus.
57603		population	eng	Only one specimen was ever collected and the species has never been found again.
57603		threats	eng	It is difficult to determine what threats there are to this species without accurate knowledge of its extent of occurrence.
57604		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Baimaxueshan, Habaxueshan, Panzhihuasutie and Yading Nature Reserves.
57604		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Sichuan and northwestern Yunnan provinces, in China, from 2,010-3,300m asl.
57604		habitat	eng	It is usually found along medium sized streams and springs in forest. It breeds in the same habitats.
57604		population	eng	It has a large population that is currently stable.
57604		threats	eng	Logging occurred in the past within the range of the species but this has now ceased and is no longer a threat. There are no other threats known currently.
57605		conservation	eng	The recent sightings of this species are from within Hkakabo Razi National Park.
57605		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Adung Valley in extreme northern Myanmar, at 3,650m asl.
57605		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain streams, in which it presumably breeds.
57605		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens collected in 1931 by a professional plant collector. There have been recent sightings of it but no collections have been possible (Wogan pers. comm.).
57605		threats	eng	There is no information available regarding threat to this species.
57606		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in protected areas.
57606		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen collected in Bhutan. As the type locality for this species is only given as 'Bhutan', it has not been possible to produce an accurate distribution map for it.
57606		habitat	eng	Although nothing is currently known about the habitat of this species it is presumed to be associated with and to breed in streams, like other species of the genus.
57606		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status or abundance of this species.
57606		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57607		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas in the region.
57607		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern Nepal, and southeastern Qinghai, the eastern and southern part of Xizang, southern Gansu and northwestern Sichuan provinces in western China. It is likely to occur in Bhutan and India, but there are not so far any records. It is found at high elevations of 2,200-5,100m asl.
57607		habitat	eng	It is an alpine species associated with the headwaters of streams, stream banks and the edges of glacial lakes in grassland habitats. It breeds in streams. Information on the development of the tadpoles is given by Song and Huang (1990).
57607		population	eng	This is a very common species.
57607		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use, and the pollution of waterways and the surrounding land by agrochemicals. Overgrazing might also be a threat in parts of its range.
57608		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57608		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of 'Taining' [Qanning Mountain], Daofu Country, Sichuan Province, China, at around 3,500m asl.
57608		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in small forest streams, and also spring-fed streams in alpine meadows.
57608		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57608		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57609		conservation	eng	Three protected areas are present within the range of this species, namely Wolong Nature Reserve, Emeishan Natural and Historical Heritage Reserve, and Wawushan National Forest Park.
57609		distribution	eng	This species is only known from three locations in Emei, Hongya and Wenchuan in Sichuan Province, south-western China, at 2,700-3,400m asl.
57609		habitat	eng	It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits small streams and the surrounding habitat, near the peak of mountains.
57609		population	eng	The population is small and declining.
57609		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due mainly to infrastructure development for tourist activities; water pollution is an additional threat.
57610		conservation	eng	A few small-protected areas are present within the range of this species such as Gonggashan and Daochengyading National Nature Reserves.
57610		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Sichuan and northwestern Yunnan (Zhongdian) provinces in China, from 2,200-4,000m asl.
57610		habitat	eng	It inhabits small forest streams and spring-fed streams in alpine meadows. It breeds in streams.
57610		population	eng	The population is presumed to be large considering its wide distribution.
57610		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species.
57611		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within the Gaoligong Shan Nature Reserve, now part of the Three Parallel Rivers World Heritage Site.
57611		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Gongshan and Biluoxueshan, in north-western Yunnan Province, China, from 2,500-3,850m asl. It is likely to be found in neighbouring northern Myanmar, but there are no records to date.
57611		habitat	eng	It inhabits spring-fed marshes in conifer forests, and breeds in very small streams.
57611		population	eng	It is probably quite a rare species.
57611		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat encroachment for agriculture and human settlement.
57612		conservation	eng	This species' only known location is within Gonggashan National Nature Reserve.
57612		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Jiulong County in southern Sichuan Province, China, from 3,120-3,750m asl. It might occur more widely.
57612		habitat	eng	It inhabits seepages, marshy pools and the surrounding areas in high mountains, and breeds in streams.
57612		population	eng	It is found in only one location, where the population is currently stable, although very small.
57612		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57613		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species lies within the Liupanshan National Nature Reserve. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.
57613		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from Liupanshan, in Jinyuan County, Ningxia Huizu Zizhiqu Autonomous Region, China, from 1,900-2,500m asl.
57613		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest where it breeds in small- to medium-sized, spring-fed streams.
57613		population	eng	It is common within its small range.
57613		threats	eng	Its habitat is within a protected area so it is not presently threatened by habitat destruction or degradation. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
57614		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild.
57614		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Garze County, in north-western Sichuan province, and Jiangda, in eastern Xizang province, China, from 3,300-3,500m asl.
57614		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in small hill streams, low-gradient spring-fed streams, and low-gradient medium-sized streams. The surrounding habitats are a mosaic of alpine meadows and forests.
57614		population	eng	Only three specimens have ever been collected (including the type specimen), two of which were collected in the 1970s. It has not been found in its natural range since the 1970s despite repeated searches by herpetologists, and it is possible that it is now extinct.
57614		threats	eng	The species is threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (livestock and crops) and human settlement; climate change might also pose a future threat. Poor recruitment as a result of these threats might be a factor contributing to the species' disappearance.
57615		conservation	eng	A lot of protected areas are present within the range of this species.
57615		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Qinghai, western Sichuan, eastern Xizang and northwestern Yunnan provinces in western China, from 2,600-4,200m asl.
57615		habitat	eng	It inhabits small to medium sized low-gradient streams, seepages and spring-fed marshes in sub-alpine and alpine areas. The surrounding habitats may include cultivated fields, forests, shrublands, grasslands and/or only sparse vegetation. It breeds in freshwater.
57615		population	eng	This is a very common species.
57615		threats	eng	There are no threats known, expect perhaps overgrazing.
57616		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area, and the montane habitat of this species is in need of protection. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
57616		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Muli, in south-western Sichuan Province, China, from 3,050-3,400m asl.
57616		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-gradient streams and riparian habitats (mainly shrublands), and breeds in streams.
57616		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status.
57616		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to overgrazing from livestock and increasing human settlement.
57617		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in protected areas, but it might occur in Rara National Park or Shey-Phoksundo National Park.
57617		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of north-western Nepal, where it has been recorded from 3,000-5,000m asl.
57617		habitat	eng	It is an alpine species strongly associated with streams in grassland habitats. While the species is known to breed in streams there is little information available on the site of egg deposition or larval ecology.
57617		population	eng	It is considered a rare species.
57617		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use (irrigation). There is also ongoing habitat loss for agriculture and human settlement.
57618		conservation	eng	The range of this species is just outside Niubeiliang National Nature Reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
57618		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from Ningshaan County, southern Shaanxi Province, China, where it has been recorded from 1,970-2,550m asl.
57618		habitat	eng	It is found near streams among grasses in mixed forest. The breeding habitat is unknown, but it is presumably in streams where it breeds by larval development.
57618		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known; only two specimens have ever been collected.
57618		threats	eng	There is little direct information on threats; however, it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities.
57619		conservation	eng	Its range probably overlaps at least one protected area.
57619		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Linzhi, Bomi and Yadong Counties, Xizang Zizhiqu, China and from northeastern Pakistan, eastern Nepal and northwestern India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations between 3,000 and 5,000m asl.
57619		habitat	eng	An alpine species associated with streams in moist, forested and grassland habitats in hilly areas. It breeds in low-gradient streams and pools, laying eggs under fallen logs or under stones. Tadpoles over-winter.
57619		population	eng	It lives in groups and is locally common.
57619		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use (irrigation), and water pollution from the use of agrochemicals.
57620		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps several reserves, including Jiangshan, Tangjiahe and Wanglang Nature Reserves.
57620		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Pingwu County, in north-eastern Sichuan Province, China, at about 2,200m asl.
57620		habitat	eng	It lives close to villages in secondary vegetation and in small streams fringed by dense shrubs. It breeds under rocks in streams.
57620		population	eng	It is common, although the population is believed to be small.
57620		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development and human settlement.
57621		conservation	eng	The only known confirmed location is within the Jintangkongyu Nature Reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given it is known from only one protected area.
57621		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Kangding and Muli, in western Sichuan Province, China, at about 3,400m asl. The population from Muli might actually be <em>S. muliensis</em>.
57621		habitat	eng	It inhabits small, slow-flowing streams surrounded by lush vegetation in forest or grassland habitat. It probably breeds in streams like other species of the genus.
57621		population	eng	At the one confirmed location the species is considered to be rare.
57621		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present. However, its restricted range renders it more vulnerable to threatening processes.
57622		conservation	eng	The Nielamu location in China is within the Yadong National Nature Reserve.
57622		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Nepal and in parts of northern India (West Bengal, Sikkim and Meghalaya) and from southern Xizang province (Yadong, Cona and Nielamu) in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and is expected to occur in Bhutan. It is present at elevations between 2,700 and 5,000m asl.
57622		habitat	eng	It is an alpine species associated with small streams, seepages, stream-fed marshes and the surrounding forests and grassland habitats. It is known to breed in streams.
57622		population	eng	In Nepal and India this species is considered common, but in China fewer than ten specimens have been collected and it is considered rare.
57622		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use (irrigation), and water pollution from the use of agrochemicals.
57623		conservation	eng	It is recorded from the Luojishan, and Panzhihua-Sutielin Nature Reserves.
57623		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Yuexi, Mianning, and Xichang in southern Sichuan Province, China, from 2,600-3,750m asl.
57623		habitat	eng	It inhabits small- to medium-sized streams and the surrounding riparian forest. It sometimes also occurs in marshes and at the marshy edges of lakes. Breeding takes place in streams.
57623		population	eng	There is no information on the currrent population status of this species.
57623		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused by logging in the Yuexi area.
57624		conservation	eng	The entire known range of this species is within Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserves.
57624		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan in central Yunnan Province, China, from 800-2,600m asl.
57624		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests and breeds in slow-flowing streams.
57624		population	eng	It is rare and difficult to find.
57624		threats	eng	Its habitat is well protected, and it is not facing any known threats.
57625		conservation	eng	The species' range overlaps with a few protected areas, including Pinghushan and Badagongshan National Nature Reserves, and Emei Shan Natural and Historical Heritage Reserve. It is a protected species in Sichuan, Hunan and Guizhou Provinces.
57625		distribution	eng	This species is known from Emei Shan and Junlian in Sichuan Province, Jiangkou and Yinjiang in Guizhou Province, and Sangzhi in Hunan Province, China, from 600-1,700m asl.
57625		habitat	eng	It breeds in slow-flowing streams surrounded by forest, cultivated fields, and grassland.
57625		population	eng	It is a rare species, and has nearly disappeared from Emei Shan.
57625		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are over-collecting for the pet trade and habitat loss and degradation.
57626		conservation	eng	Although one population inhabits the Hoang Lien Son National Park, and the adjacent Hoang Lien Nature Reserve, there is a need for improved management of these existing protected areas to halt ongoing degradation of habitat within them.
57626		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Fan Si Pan mountain area of extreme northern Viet Nam, at about 1,900-2,500m asl.
57626		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy forests; adults live on the forest floor up to 15m away from streams, while during the breeding period the animals move to small, slow-moving streams. Males construct and guard nests under rocks in the stream. Water temperatures may be as low as 11°C during egg development.
57626		population	eng	It is not uncommon in suitable habitat (S. Swan pers. comm.).
57626		threats	eng	The larvae of this species are at least one year old before metamorphosis, which may result in this species being more susceptible to degradation of its forest and stream habitats. The area of occurrence, which includes Hoang Lien Son National Park, is under significant threat from over-exploitation of natural resources, land clearance for cultivation, and accidental fire. The habitat type most threatened is lower montane evergreen forest, which has already been significantly reduced in extent. Remaining areas of natural habitat at all elevations are being degraded by selective timber extraction, collection of firewood and establishment of cardamom plantations. An additional potential threat is tourism development (Tordoff 2002).
57627		conservation	eng	It occurs in Leigongshan Nature Reserve, which is reported to be highly degraded, and there is clearly a need for improved management of this area. There is also a need to carefully monitor and regulate local trade in this species. All frogs, including this species, are protected in Guizhou.
57627		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two locations at Leishan, in south-eastern Guizhou Province, China, from 800-1,800m asl.
57627		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forests, and breeds in slow-flowing streams.
57627		population	eng	It is now considered to be a very rare species.
57627		threats	eng	Over-collecting by local villagers for consumption is a major threat to this species, and habitat destruction and degradation due to collection of wood is also a potential threat.
57628		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species. It is a protected species in Jiangxi and Fujian.
57628		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi and Hunan provinces in southern China, from 580-2,030m asl.
57628		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forests, and breeds in streams. The tadpoles over-winter.
57628		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57628		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular logging, infrastructure development and dam construction.
57629		conservation	eng	Provided existing protected areas in Peninsular Thailand, Malaysia and Sumatra remain intact and free from disease impacts; no additional conservation actions seem necessary for this species.
57629		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Thailand from Nakhon Sri Thammarat southwards (Taylor, 1962) through most of Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975, as M. montana) and from Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs from the lowlands at about 150m asl up to montane forests over 1,500m asl (Dring, 1979).
57629		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed-canopy evergreen forests. Tadpoles develop in forest streams.
57629		population	eng	There are no published data and collected series are generally modest (Grandison, 1972; Dring, 1979), corresponding to the 'occasional' encounter rates at most locations, though it can be locally abundant (P.P. van Dijk, J. Sukumaran, D. Sharma, J. Tang, Y. Norsham, D. Iskandar and Mumpuni pers. comm.).
57629		threats	eng	This species appears widespread and adaptable enough not to be threatened by anything other than widespread systemic habitat degradation, pollution or epidemic disease.
57630		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary.
57630		distribution	eng	This species has been recently described from Phnom Aural, in the eastern Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, where it occurs from 500-1,140m asl. It might occur more widely.
57630		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur close to cascade sections of mountain streams in evergreen hill forest. It presumably breeds in streams, like other species of the genus.
57630		population	eng	In favourable habitat it is common.
57630		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57631		conservation	eng	The two protected areas in which it is found, namely Gunung Kinabalu and Tama Negara National Parks, are well protected.
57631		distribution	eng	This species is known from Gunung Kinabalu and the Crocker Range on Borneo, in Sabah (Malaysia), from 1,200-1,900m asl.
57631		habitat	eng	It is restricted to montane forests, where adults and juveniles have been found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Breeding is thought to take place in slow-flowing regions of clear, rocky streams.
57631		population	eng	There are no estimates of the status of its subpopulations but it does not appear to be abundant.
57631		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57632		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Moulin Wild Life Sanctuary and Shera Wild Life Sanctuary in India and many protected areas in China. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Bordoloi (2000).
57632		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland states) and central China. It is found at elevations of 100-2,500m asl.
57632		habitat	eng	It is associated with riparian vegetation, hill streams and leaf-litter in evergreen tropical forest habitat. It breeds in streams.
57632		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
57632		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
57633		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species falls inside country parks in Hong Kong.
57633		distribution	eng	This species was, until very recently, thought to be restricted to Hong Kong, southern China, and the only confirmed records are still from Hong Kong. A specimen from Fujian Province in China was reported in the original description, but there are no recent records from there (and it is not mapped as occurring there). Animals tentatively referrable to this species have also been reported from Lang Son and Ha Bac Provinces of north-eastern Viet Nam by Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000 (also not included in the map). This species has been recorded from 20-750m asl.
57633		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and breeds in hill streams.
57633		population	eng	In Hong Kong it is uncommon; there is no information on the status of populations from Viet Nam.
57633		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss and degradation, caused by urbanization and water pollution (as a result of chemicals used in mosquito control programmes).
57634		conservation	eng	Its range probably overlaps with Badagongshan Nature Reserve.
57634		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Tianping Mountain, Sangzhi, in northern Hunan Province, China, at 1,600m asl.
57634		habitat	eng	This species probably inhabits hill streams and the surrounding forests, like most other members of the genus. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.
57634		population	eng	Only one specimen has ever been collected, so its population status is unknown.
57634		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57635		conservation	eng	It occurs within Daweishan National Nature Reserve.
57635		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Daweishan in Pingbian and Hekou Counties, in southern Yunnan Province, China, at around 1,900m asl, although it might occur more widely.
57635		habitat	eng	It inhabits hilly areas and is probably a forest inhabitant that breeds in streams, like most other members of the genus.
57635		population	eng	This is a rare species.
57635		threats	eng	It could be threatened in the future by tourism, if this is not carefully managed.
57636		conservation	eng	Continued protection of Gunung Mulu National Park is required to ensure the long-term conservation of this species.
57636		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park, Borneo, at 1,800m asl, and has not been found in Kinabalu National Park despite intensive sampling there, so its range appears to be genuinely restricted.
57636		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found along a small, clear, rocky stream in montane forest. Larvae presumably develop in slow-flowing parts of these streams.
57636		population	eng	There is very little information on population status.
57636		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species since its habitat is well protected.
57637		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Great Snow Mountain National Nature Reserve (Yongde County), and the Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve (Jingdong Country).
57637		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Jingdong and Yongde counties in south-western Yunnan Province, China, from 1,400-2,400m asl. It might occur a little more widely than records suggest.
57637		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor of evergreen broadleaf forests. It breeds in the head of streams and the larvae are then washed some distance downstream.
57637		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
57637		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (including plantations) and subsistence wood collection.
57638		conservation	eng	In China this species has been recorded from Ailaoshan, Lujiang, and Juheyinyongshuiyuan Nature Reserves.
57638		distribution	eng	This species is known from the areas of Jingdong and Gongshan in Yunnan Province, China and from a recent record from Puliebadze in Nagaland State, India. It is presumed that further field surveys will indicate that this species ranges more widely than is currently known. It has been collected up to 2,225m asl (Nagaland).
57638		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of montane tropical forest. It is found close to streams in bushes and shrubs. Breeding is presumed to take place in the streams. It is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat change.
57638		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57638		threats	eng	In China this species is threatened by clear cutting of forests. It is presumed that it is also threatened in India by habitat loss.
57639		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species in China falls within Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve. The one known locality in Viet Nam is within the Hoang Lien Son National Park.
57639		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern Yunnan province (Luchun, Jingdong, Jinping and Shuangbai) in China, and has recently been discovered from Mount Fan Si Pan in Viet Nam. In China it has been recorded from 1,000-2,400m asl. In Viet Nam it was collected at 1,600m asl.
57639		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and is a stream breeding amphibian. In Viet Nam it was collected in montane forest and scrub vegetation at the forest edge. The males were observed calling from vegetation near mountain streams.
57639		population	eng	It is considered somewhat uncommon in China, but there are no population estimates available for Viet Nam.
57639		threats	eng	In China, forest clearance is a threat, but most sites are now well protected. In Viet Nam, forest degradation from wood collection and cardamom plantations alongside the streams are threats.
57640		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. More work is needed to ascertain whether or not this is a valid species, and if so, its distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs should be determined. The identity of the animals from China attributed to this species also needs to be clarified.
57640		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from "Upper Rotung (2000ft [610m asl])" in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India. There are also records from Motuo County at 2,500m asl in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China (Fei 1999), but it is not certain that these refer to the same species, and so are not included in the map here.
57640		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs in tropical moist forest, but nothing is known regarding its habitats and biology. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other members of its genus.
57640		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known with certainty only from a single specimen.
57640		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57641		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas.
57641		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zhejiang, Hunan, Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangxi Provinces in central China. Animals tentatively referred to this species were reported from Fan Si Pan, northern Viet Nam, by Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 480-1,900m asl.
57641		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests and hill streams.
57641		population	eng	There is a large population of this species in China. There is no population information available for Viet Nam.
57641		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species in China. In Viet Nam there is no available information on potential threats.
57642		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in Thailand, including the Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, but stronger protection of its habitat in Peninsular Malaysia is required.
57642		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the mountain ranges of southern Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, from 300-1,000m asl. Records from Cambodia remain unconfirmed. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
57642		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed evergreen rainforest and montane moss forest. Larvae live in small, clear, swift-flowing streams.
57642		population	eng	This is an uncommon species even in prime habitat.
57642		threats	eng	Some subpopulations might be threatened by local forest clearance, although overall its montane forest habitat is reasonably secure.
57643		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. Taxonomic research to review variation across the species' range would be useful.
57643		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from northeastern India (Arunchal Pradesh and Nagaland) through northern Myanmar, northern and western Thailand, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and northern Viet Nam south through the Annamite mountains of the Lao-Vietnamese border region, and southern and western Yunnan and western Guangxi provinces, in China. It is found at elevations between 250-2,500m asl.
57643		habitat	eng	It exclusively inhabits evergreen forest areas, in monsoon and perennial rain climates. It breeds in streams and tadpoles live in clear, swift-flowing streams.
57643		population	eng	It is known to be common throughout most of its range.
57643		threats	eng	It is a widespread species; individual populations experience a wide variety of threats. The species overall is probably only potentially threatened by pervasive impacts such as mass forest destruction or water pollution/erosion runoff. In China it is collected locally for food.
57644		conservation	eng	It is recorded from at least one protected area, Mangshan National Nature Reserve.
57644		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Hunan and northern Gaungdong Provinces in China, from 380 to over 1,000m asl.
57644		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and streams (in which it breeds).
57644		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
57644		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation, arising from smallholder agriculture and dam construction.
57645		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species in China is within Motuo National Nature Reserve.
57645		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Medog, in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 850-1,350m asl. It probably occurs more widely, and can be expected to occur in north-eastern India.
57645		habitat	eng	It is known from forested areas, where adults are often found near streams, lakes and cultivated fields. It breeds in streams.
57645		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
57645		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
57646		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas in China. It is found within the Hoang Lien San National Park in Viet Nam, and within Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand. Further study is needed to determine the complete Extent of Occurrence of this species.
57646		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southwestern China, from 550-2,850m asl. Animals tentatively referred to Megophrys minor were reported from Fan Si Pan Mountain, Lao Cai province, northern Viet Nam, from 1,400-1,900m asl, by Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000, and from Chiang Mai 'Thailand' by Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected from northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and eastern Myanmar.
57646		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests and streams. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
57646		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species in Viet Nam or Thailand, but in China, it is very common.
57646		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
57647		conservation	eng	The three localities where this species has been recorded are all inside nature reserves: Jiangshan, Tangjiahe, and Daxiaonanshan.
57647		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kuang-wu Shan in Nankiang County and Qingchuan in Sichuan Province, and Wenxian, in Gansu Province, China, from 1,600-1,850m asl.
57647		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and surrounding shrubland habitat. It probably breeds in streams like other species of the genus.
57647		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57647		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, especially due to infrastructure development for touristic activities.
57648		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species falls within protected areas in China. The one location in Viet Nam from which it has been tentatively recorded is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.
57648		distribution	eng	This species is known from six locations in southern Sichuan, China, from 700-1,500m asl. Records tentatively referred to this species were reported from Fan Si Pan Mountain, Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam, at 1,400-1,900m asl, by Orlov <em>et al.</em> (2000), but the identity of these records has not yet been confirmed.
57648		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and forests, and breeding takes place in streams.
57648		population	eng	This is a common species.
57648		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by smallholder farming activities and tourism.
57649		conservation	eng	The one location in Viet Nam from which it has been tentatively recorded is within Hoang Lien Son National Park. The other location in China is within Motuo National Nature Reserve.
57649		distribution	eng	This species was originally known only from Medog, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at around 1,530m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, and can be expected to occur in north-eastern India. Animals tentatively referred to this species were reported from Fan Si Pan Mountain, Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam, at 1,400-1,900m asl, by Orlov <em>et al.</em> (2000), but their range has not been mapped as part of this assessment, pending confirmation of their identity.
57649		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests and breeds in streams.
57649		population	eng	This is considered a rare species in China. There is no population status information available from Viet Nam.
57649		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57650		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas in China. In Viet Nam it is found in Hoang Lien Son National Park and Pu Hoat Nature Reserve, while in Lao People's Democratic Republic it occurs in Phou Dendin National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Stuart 2005). Further degradation of Hoang Lien Son National Park and Tam Dao Nature Reserve should be prevented.
57650		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, Phongsaly province in northern Lao People's Democratic Republic, and southern Yunnan and Guangxi provinces in China. In Viet Nam, it is known from four localities; Fan Si Pan and Tam Dao National Park, Ha Giang Province and Pu Hoat Nature Reserve (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is known from 1,400-1,700 m asl at Fan Si Pan, 900-1,200 m asl at Tam Dao (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000), 600 m asl at Phongsaly (Stuart 2005), 1,000-1,500 m asl at Ha Giang and from 730-1,800 m asl in China. It probably occurs more widely.
57650		habitat	eng	It lives near streams in evergreen forest and its tadpoles develop in clear mountain streams.
57650		population	eng	In China this species is quite common. It is considered 'Rare' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992).
57650		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, both areas of occurrence, while declared as nature reserves, continue to be extensively impacted by forest product collection, agricultural and forestry activities, fires and presumably pollution (BirdLife International 2001). In China, serious habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing due, in particular, to the expansion of rubber plantations.
57651		conservation	eng	Its wide range and known occurrence in several protected areas throughout its range suggests that no immediate conservation measures are needed at present. Additional information on population status, distribution and biology would be useful.
57651		distribution	eng	This species is known from Myanmar as far south as Tenasserim, northern Thailand, Phuket Island (Thailand), northern Lao People's Democratic Republic, northern Viet Nam, southern Yunnan and southwestern Guangxi in China, and Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh in India, and Bhutan and Nepal. It is known from two isolated localities in Chittagong and Chittagong Hill-tracts in Bangladesh and most likely occurs more widely in this country. It occurs at elevations of between 500 and 2,500m asl.
57651		habitat	eng	It is known from evergreen broadleaf forest alongside streams. Males have been observed calling from logs, bushes and rocks along streams. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
57651		population	eng	This is generally an uncommon species, and is rarely encountered in numbers.
57651		threats	eng	Forest loss is ongoing within the Chinese range of the species. Localized clearance of forest habitat and agricultural pollution are threats in South Asia. In Southeast Asia stream degradation from human clearance and collection activities as well as pollution might be a threat.
57652		conservation	eng	It has been reported from Mouling National Park and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve, in Arunachal Pradesh.
57652		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to four areas of north-eastern India: Mouling National Park, and northern West Siang District, both in Arunachal Pradesh; Darjeeling and Kalimpong in West Bengal; and the Garo Hills and Tura Hills in Meghalaya. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at altitudes between 1,100 and 2,000m asl.
57652		habitat	eng	This species is associated with riparian vegetation in tropical moist forest. Breeding takes place in forest streams.
57652		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends or abundance.
57652		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57653		conservation	eng	Some of the localities of this species are within protected areas, including Wolong, Luojishan, Fengtongzai, Meigudafengding and Labahe National Nature Reserves.
57653		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Sichuan province, China, from 2,000-3,200m asl.
57653		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams in thick forests and shrublands, and breeds in slow-flowing streams.
57653		population	eng	It is a rare species, with a small population.
57653		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are possible threats to this species.
57654		conservation	eng	The one known occurrence of this species is not within a protected area.
57654		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Fenghuang Village, in Shuicheng County in western Guizhou Province, China, from 1,800-1,870m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
57654		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-gradient streams, in which it breeds, and the surrounding subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests.
57654		population	eng	It is known only from a singe location. There is no information known regarding the size of the population.
57654		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57655		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with quite a few protected areas in the region.
57655		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southwestern China in Hunan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Yunnan provinces, from 800-1,800m asl.
57655		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of hill streams in evergreen broadleaf forests. It breeds in streams.
57655		population	eng	There is a large population of this species.
57655		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species including agriculture and dam construction.
57656		conservation	eng	Its range includes Wawushan National Forest Park.
57656		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Wawushan, in Hongya County, Sichuan Province, China, at approximately 1,800m asl, and is likely to occur more widely.
57656		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams and damp soils that have a thick growth of grasses or bushes, and also rock crevices. It breeds in streams, and the larvae live in holes or under stones in the streams.
57656		population	eng	It is not common, and is difficult to find. Only one population is known.
57656		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is increasing tourism to the area.
57657		conservation	eng	Part of its range is within Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve.
57657		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wuliangshan in Jingdong County, central Yunnan Province, China, from 2,000-2,400m asl. It has also recently been recorded from Puliebadze and Noklak, in Nagaland, India. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar, although there are no records from there yet.
57657		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in small hill streams.
57657		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57657		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by forest loss that is taking place outside the protected area in which it occurs (i.e. in the buffer zone).
57658		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes Shenglongjia National Nature Reserve.
57658		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Hubei provinces in central China, and occurs above 1,000m asl.
57658		habitat	eng	It inhabits small hill streams and the surrounding riparian habitats. It probably breeds in streams like other species of the genus.
57658		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57658		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
57659		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area.
57659		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Zhangmo, Nyanang, in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 700-1,000m asl.
57659		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and the surrounding forests.
57659		population	eng	It is a very rare species. Only three specimens are known, all from the type locality.
57659		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57660		conservation	eng	The range of some populations falls within established national parks and a Biosphere Reserve (Parque Nacional Serranía de la Neblina and the Reserva de Biosfera Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare).
57660		distribution	eng	This is a monotypic genus known only from the general vicinity of the type locality, on the foothills of Cerro Neblina, near the Rio Baria, in Amazonian Venezuela, at 140m asl. The limits of its distribution are unknown, and it could occur more widely.
57660		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of lowland tropical rainforests, and has not been found in modified habitats.
57660		population	eng	It is apparently a common species.
57660		threats	eng	This species lives in a remote area that is at least partially protected, so it is unlikely to be seriously threatened by any particular pressures. However, deforestation and habitat degradation due to smallholder agriculture and logging probably threaten local populations, and gold extraction might pose a future problem, if illegal mining starts in the area where it occurs.
57661		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57661		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality at Mambimap Village, in the Adelbert Range of Papua New Guinea at 1,360m asl, and from the Bewani Mountains and the Hunstein Mountains of northern Papua New Guinea. It is likely to occur in all of the North Coast ranges.
57661		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, but has also been found in rural gardens adjacent to a village. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably laying eggs on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.
57661		population	eng	It is quite common at the type locality and the series collected at the Bewani Mountains is quite large suggesting that it is also common at this locality.
57661		threats	eng	There are no known threats. It seems to be adaptable to some extent, since it has been found in a rural garden. There is extensive suitable habitat available within the range of the species.
57662		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. Its range might include the Mount Wilhelm protected area.
57662		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bismarck, Schrader and Hagen mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea, and probably in other ranges in the general vicinity (Menzies 1999). It has been collected from 2,100-2,400m asl.
57662		habitat	eng	Little is known, but certainly occurs in montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57662		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57662		threats	eng	Selective logging, and the clearance of forests for rural gardens are localized threats.
57663		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57663		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at around 2,400m asl: the north-western slopes of Mount Giluwe, and south-east of Mount Hagen.
57663		habitat	eng	It lives in mid-altitude montane rainforest, where it is a presumed direct developing species, probably breeding on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.
57663		population	eng	It is a common species.
57663		threats	eng	It is perhaps locally threatened by selective logging.
57664		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57664		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality "near Kowat, Adelbert Range" (Menzies 1999), in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, at 900m asl.
57664		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill forest and, like other species in the genus, presumably breeds by direct development.
57664		population	eng	It is quite common.
57664		threats	eng	Shifting cultivation is threatening its habitat.
57665		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57665		distribution	eng	This species is known from Aieme Creek, a tributary of the Musgrave River, in Central Province at around 450m asl, and from the region from Dorobisoro to Laronu on the western slope of Mount Obree from 600-800m asl, Papua New Guinea.
57665		habitat	eng	It occurs in the foothill rainforest at Aieme Creek, and is common in patches of relatively undisturbed habitat around some of the villages west of Mount Obree. It does not appear to be particularly tolerant of habitat disturbance as it is absent from the adjacent secondary forest that is regenerating. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably breeding on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.
57665		population	eng	It is quite a common species in undisturbed habitat.
57665		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to logging might be a threat to this species in some areas, although it is unlikely to be a wide ranging threat given the extent of forest still remaining between the two currently known sites.
57666		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with the edge of Wandamen Nature Reserve.
57666		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in the Wondiwoi Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, from 800-950m asl.
57666		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense primary rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57666		population	eng	It is an abundant species within its small range.
57666		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
57667		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57667		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Moiyokabip, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. The altitude at which it was found has variously been given as 1,200m and 1,520m asl.
57667		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest and can possibly adapt to secondary and degraded habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably breeding on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.
57667		population	eng	It is quite common in its type locality.
57667		threats	eng	No information is available.
57668		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area, and protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat around the type locality is recommended. Further survey work is needed to determine the biology and population status of the species, and to understand the limits of its range better.
57668		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Mount Elimbari, Simbu Province, Papua New Guinea, and is thought likely to have a very narrow distribution. It was collected between 2,400 and 2,500m asl.
57668		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57668		population	eng	It is quite common at the type locality.
57668		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has become isolated and fragmented due to clearance of the land around the area of the type locality. It is also threatened by bushfires that are increasing due to intensified droughts.
57669		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57669		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Hagen Range, northeast of Mendi, and the Kubor Range, east of Mount Hagen, in Papua New Guinea, and from intervening areas with suitable habitat. Its altitudinal range is 1,920-2,500m asl. It is thought likely to have a reasonably wide distribution.
57669		habitat	eng	It lives in mid-montane forest. It has been found in places where selective logging has been taking place. It is presumed to breed by direct development, and probably lays eggs on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.
57669		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
57669		threats	eng	There is little information, though it appears to be tolerant of at least a degree of logging.
57670		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. Part of its range overlaps with the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area.
57670		distribution	eng	This species is known from three widely scattered locations: the Ok Tedi headwaters region, the Moro and Gobe highlands region, and in the eastern Schrader Mountains, all in the mountains of western and central Papua New Guinea. It presumably occurs more widely, especially in intervening areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 1,000-1,900m asl.
57670		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane rainforest, including disturbed forest habitats. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57670		population	eng	It is abundant wherever it has been found.
57670		threats	eng	None are known and it is tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance.
57671		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area
57671		distribution	eng	This species has been found in mountainous terrain spanning over 200km linear distance in eastern Papua New Guinea from at least the Ekuti Dividing Range near Wau to Myola in the Owen Stanley Ranges. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-2,930m asl.
57671		habitat	eng	It lives in mid-montane rainforest, and on the forest edge, but does not tolerate severe habitat degradation. However, it has been found in a few rural gardens. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably laying eggs on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.
57671		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57671		threats	eng	Burning and other forms of habitat degradation have greatly reduced its occurrence around the type locality (Hidden Valley).
57672		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented.
57672		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is unknown. The only known specimen was collected in the Digul River area, Merauke Regency, Papua, Indonesia. The precise (and indeed even the general) locality has not been determined.
57672		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is presumably rainforest. Like other members of its genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57672		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. The one known specimen still exists.
57672		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
57673		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but a management plan has been suggested for the Peruvian population.
57673		distribution	eng	This species is known in Peru only from the type locality, "Lodge Cuzco Amazónico" (Wild 1994), Río Madre de Dios, about 15km east-north-east of Puerto Maldonado, in Madre de Dios Department. In Bolivia, it is known only from a single site. It is expected to range more widely (Reichle pers comm.), and is present below 200m asl.
57673		habitat	eng	It can be found in temporary swamps, and permanent waterbodies, in flooded primary tropical rainforest. It might lay eggs on the surface of swamps, but this requires further investigation. In Bolivia it has been found in both disturbed and forest edge habitat.
57673		population	eng	This species is common in Bolivia.
57673		threats	eng	The Peruvian locality is threatened by selective wood extraction, although this might be potentially beneficial in that small ponds might be created (J. Icochea pers. comm.).
57674		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57674		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern Madagascar in the rainforest belt from the Antongila Bay area south to Andohahela. It is also on Nosy Mangabe and Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). Records from further north in northeastern Madagascar and from northwestern Madagascar are based on misidentifications. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300m asl.
57674		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species in pristine and degraded forest, bamboo forest, and secondary growth. It does not occur in completely open areas, and needs trees for breeding. It breeds in tree holes by larval development and non-feeding tadpoles.
57674		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57674		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57675		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known from only a single protected area.
57675		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 2,000-2,658m asl in south-eastern Madagascar, where it is known with certainty only from Andringitra. Records from Andohahela require confirmation, and the species has not been found there in recent surveys. It might occur more widely, but there is very little high-altitude habitat at other sites in south-eastern Madagascar.
57675		habitat	eng	It lives in rocky areas within heath land and grassland at high elevations above the tree-line. It breeds in small rock pools and has non-feeding tadpoles.
57675		population	eng	It is abundant at several localities within Andringitra.
57675		threats	eng	Its habitat is largely immune to destruction, and even fires are unlikely to have much effect on this species. It might possibly be susceptible to climatic changes, as it is confined to mountain tops.
57676		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, which is poorly managed, and Parc National d'Andohahela, which is well managed.
57676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme south-eastern Madagascar at Andohahela and Nampoana, with a recent record from Ambohitantely in central Madagascar. It ranges from sea level to 1,500m asl. Its distribution is evidently not very well known.
57676		habitat	eng	This species lives in pristine forest and degraded forest, but is not found in open areas because it needs trees for breeding. It breeds in tree holes and has direct developing larvae.
57676		population	eng	It is seemingly abundant at Andohahela, but is not common at Ambohitantely.
57676		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.
57677		conservation	eng	The habitat of the Anosy Mountains is in urgent need of protection. This frog is known from a locality within Andohahela National Park, but appears not to be common there (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, this site is not well protected, and is under pressure from agricultural conversion and logging. Further research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, life history and threats.
57677		distribution	eng	This species has a very small range in south-eastern Madagascar, in the Anosy Mountains, at 1,900 m asl, close to the mountain summit at 1,959 m asl. It has recently been reported from Andohahela, a national park within the Anosy Mountains, at a site 1,548 m asl (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 795 km² and it occurs at two locations, defined by human pressures from agriculture and exploitation of forest resources.
57677		habitat	eng	It is apparently confined to bamboo forests at high elevations, and presumably breeds in water filled cavities in bamboo and has a non-feeding larval form.
57677		population	eng	It is uncommon in Andohahela National Park (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010).
57677		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires, and expanding human settlements. However, as a mountain-top species, it could also be a risk from global warming.
57678		conservation	eng	The area where it occurs used to be protected by local people to at least some extent.
57678		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Oro Province, Papua New Guinea: the type locality near the Myola Guest House, at 2,700m asl and Mount Tafa, at 2,400m asl.
57678		habitat	eng	One individual was found in leaf-litter on a forested ridge. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
57678		population	eng	Only two specimens are known; this is a very hard species to find.
57678		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in an area that has experienced very little human impact.
57679		conservation	eng	Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57679		distribution	eng	This species is known from two widely separated mountainous regions at high elevations in Papua New Guinea: in the Owen Stanley Range; and in the mountains south of Wau, Morobe Province. It presumably occurs in intervening areas where there is much additional suitable habitat. It occurs from 2,800-3,840m asl.
57679		habitat	eng	It lives in high-altitude grasslands and is a species that breed by direct development.
57679		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57679		threats	eng	There are no known threats. The habitats where it occurs are not under any immediate threat.
57680		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57680		distribution	eng	This species is known so far only from the vicinity of the Myola Guest House, 7km south and 6km west of Mount Bellamy, Oro Province, in Papua New Guinea, at 2,080-2,270m asl, and is likely to occur more widely.
57680		habitat	eng	It lives in montane grassy meadows and is presumed to breed by direct development. It has also been found on montane forest edges, and in treefern-dominated grassland.
57680		population	eng	It is a common species.
57680		threats	eng	The habitat in the area where it occurs is probably reasonably secure, so there are currently no known threats to this species.
57681		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
57681		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and northeastern São Paulo. It is a lowland species occurring up to 200m asl.
57681		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland primary and secondary forest, living on the ground in the leaf-litter. It is not found in open areas. It breeds in temporary ponds inside the forest.
57681		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
57681		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, human settlement, tourism and fire.
57682		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57682		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Stolle, in Sandaun Province, western Papua New Guinea, at about 1,600m asl. Given the extensive available habitat, it might eventually be found to be more widely distributed.
57682		habitat	eng	It lives in mossy rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
57682		population	eng	When collected it was not observed to be common, and only three specimens were collected.
57682		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to it.
57683		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
57683		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest over much of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and Yapen Island (Indonesia), but it is apparently absent from the eastern half of Papua New Guinea. It occurs from the lowlands up to 1,000m asl.
57683		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and foothill rainforest, and also persists in highly degraded rainforest habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development, probably with subterranean nests.
57683		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs, but is distributed patchily.
57683		threats	eng	Although not well known, this species has a broad distribution across most of western and central New Guinea and given extent of suitable habitat and lack of threats there appears to be no cause for concern.
57684		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.
57684		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known only from the type locality, Mount Nibo, 9km north and 15.5km east of Lumi, between 700-1,550m asl, in the Torriceli Mountains, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.
57684		habitat	eng	It is presumably a forest inhabitant and presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
57684		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
57684		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.
57685		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.
57685		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Somoro and Wilbeite Village, in the Torricelli Mountains, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. It was collected somewhere between 730-1,420m asl.
57685		habitat	eng	This is presumably a forest inhabitant that presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
57685		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens.
57685		threats	eng	There are no major threats to it at present.
57686		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57686		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single series of specimens from the type locality, Arau, in the Kratke Mountains, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at around 1,400m asl.
57686		habitat	eng	It occurs in habitat described as a transition between mid-mountain fagaceous (belonging to the beech family of trees) forest and a lower-montane mixed rainforest rich in herbaceous undergrowth. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57686		population	eng	No information is available; there have been no recent records.
57686		threats	eng	No data are available.
57687		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. The range of the species might include Cyclops Mountains Nature Reserve.
57687		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north coast mountain ranges of mainland New Guinea, spanning 300km east-west between Tawarin River, Papua, Indonesia and the Torricelli Mountains, Papua New Guinea. It occurs around 1,000m asl.
57687		habitat	eng	It is closely associated with small mountain streams in rainforest. It breeds by direct development.
57687		population	eng	It is abundant within small streams.
57687		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57688		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57688		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities on the northern slopes of the central mountains of Papua (Indonesian New Guinea), including the Star Mountains, and the Kosarek, Bimi and Oksibil areas of Jayawijaya District. It possibly also occurs at a site 9km west of Telefomin, in Papua New Guinea. For the purposes of this assessment, the Telefomin locality has been excluded from the distribution map, pending confirmation of this population's identity. Its altitudinal range is 1,400-1,840m asl.
57688		habitat	eng	Thrives in disturbed habitats, including villages, lawns and rural gardens, and presumably occurs in forest as well. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57688		population	eng	Locally, it is very abundant.
57688		threats	eng	There are probably no threats. It is a very adaptable species.
57689		conservation	eng	Its range does not overlap with any protected areas.
57689		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded only from two localities 38km apart: Mount Victoria, and the Myola Guest House, in the Owen Stanley Range in south-eastern Papua New Guinea. It is possibly more widely distributed. Myola Guest House is at about 2,000m asl.
57689		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter and beneath logs in mossy montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57689		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. The most recent record of it is from 1987.
57689		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57690		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Crater Wildlife Management Area, and probably other protected areas.
57690		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed along the flanks of the central mountain range of New Guinea, between the Wapoga drainage in western Papua, Indonesia and the Purari River drainage in Papua New Guinea, at elevations of 80-1,520m asl.
57690		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical forest, breeding in mud cavities, where around 14 eggs are laid. It breeds by direct development. It is not found in degraded habitats.
57690		population	eng	It appears to be abundant where it occurs.
57690		threats	eng	Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is probably not threatened at present.
57691		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Crater and Kikori Wildlife Management Areas, and probably other protected areas, though these are not necessarily secure from threats such as logging.
57691		distribution	eng	This species is known from several widely scattered localities in the Gulf Province of Papua New Guinea, and it is probably widely distributed in suitable habitats in southern Papua New Guinea. It is a lowland species, occurring below 600m asl.
57691		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor in lowland rainforest. It makes nests in soil cavities and breeds by direct development. It is not found in degraded areas.
57691		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
57691		threats	eng	Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is probably not seriously threatened at present. However, the Kikori Wildlife Management Area, where it occurs, is slated for logging one day in the future.
57692		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57692		distribution	eng	This species is known from three widely separated locations in northern Papua New Guinea: the Hunstein, Schrader and Adelbert Mountains. It has been recorded between 600-1,370m asl. It is presumed to occur between these localities, and perhaps more widely.
57692		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest, and is presumably a species that breeds by direct development like other species in the genus.
57692		population	eng	It has been observed as a locally quite common species.
57692		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57693		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57693		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kosarek, Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, at 1,400m asl. It is possibly more widespread in suitable habitat.
57693		habitat	eng	This species presumably occurs in rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57693		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1979.
57693		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. However, not much forest is left in the area from which it was collected.
57694		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
57694		distribution	eng	This species is known from widely scattered locations in Papua, Indonesia between the eastern Vogelkop in the west and the Lorentz River in the east. It is probably widely distributed in suitable habitat. It occurs from 850-2,500m asl.
57694		habitat	eng	It lives near streams in low-mid-montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57694		population	eng	They have been observed to be relatively uncommon.
57694		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57695		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57695		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two areas in northern Papua New Guinea at 900-1,600m asl: the Adelbert Mountains, and the mountains of the Huon Peninsula. It is very poorly known. An animal that is almost certainly known to be this species was collected at 1,100m asl on the Huon Peninsula in 2003.
57695		habitat	eng	This species lives in rainforest and good secondary growth rainforest, in leaf-litter in very wet, mossy forest. It appears able to withstand a small degree of habitat disturbance, and it presumably breeds by direct development.
57695		population	eng	There is little information available regarding this species' population status, since there have been only a few records of it. The animals located in 2003 were abundant.
57695		threats	eng	There are no major known threats to it.
57696		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of the species. Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly investigated, particularly to determine whether or not it is able to withstand logging pressure.
57696		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in north-eastern New Britain, Papua New Guinea. S. Richards (pers. comm.) has recently documented a population of this species to the south-west of the two previously known populations. It has been recorded from 350-1,000m asl.
57696		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest, and has also been found in recently cleared rainforest (although the long-term survival of this population has not been documented). It breeds by direct development.
57696		population	eng	It occurs in high densities in some habitats.
57696		threats	eng	It is threatened by the logging of lowland forest in New Britain.
57697		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.
57697		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the eastern half of Papua New Guinea, including the Huon Peninsula and several islands off the eastern tip of the mainland. Its altitudinal range is from 60-1,750m asl.
57697		habitat	eng	This is a riparian species that occurs in and next to small rocky streams in rainforest. It breeds by direct development, with nests with around 12 eggs in mud and sand chambers adjacent to streams. It has also been found in muddy streams in semi-degraded areas.
57697		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
57697		threats	eng	Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is probably not seriously threatened at present.
57698		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known to occur within any protected area.
57698		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality 4km north of Lae (at sea level), and from the north-west slope of Mount Shungol 30km to the south-west of the type locality (at around 700m asl), in Papua New Guinea.
57698		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected in lowland rainforest, whereas at Mount Shungol this species was found in the leaf-litter of primary rainforest. Like other members of the genus, this species presumably breeds by direct development.
57698		population	eng	Only one specimen was obtained from the type locality, and the population status at Mount Shungol is not known.
57698		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance might be a local threat to it.
57699		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57699		distribution	eng	This species was known only from one old specimen from the type locality near Sattelberg, on the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, which was collected at an unknown altitude.
57699		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs in lowland rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development.
57699		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and the single known specimen has been destroyed.
57699		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, although habitat clearance for rural gardens has taken place around the tip of the Huon Peninsula.
57700		conservation	eng	None required at present. It is not known from any protected areas.
57700		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a relatively wide area of mountains in western Papua New Guinea, extending almost to the Papuan (Indonesia) border. It almost certainly also occurs in suitable habitats in Papua, Indonesia but as yet has not been recorded from there. It occurs from 600-1,600m asl.
57700		habitat	eng	It occurs along small streams in rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57700		population	eng	It seems to be abundant where it occurs, and presumably has large populations throughout its known range and elsewhere in suitable, unexplored areas. It is probably stable and secure.
57700		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
57701		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
57701		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the Bewani Mountains in north-western Papua New Guinea. It seems likely that it will be found in additional mountain ranges north of the Sepik River (such as the Torricelli Mountains and the Cyclops Mountains). It has been collected between 950 and 1,200m asl.
57701		habitat	eng	It has been collected on the floor of primary medium-crowned lowland hill forest. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57701		population	eng	This species appears to be uncommon.
57701		threats	eng	No data are available.
57702		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57702		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality on Mount Rossel, Rossel Island, at 700m asl, and has recently been collected in central Tagula (Sudest) Island from 150m asl, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea.
57702		habitat	eng	It is found in the leaf-litter of primary rainforest and cloud forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57702		population	eng	It was originally known only from a single specimen collected around 1960, but it has recently been collected again at the type locality as well as at the new locality of Tagula Island. It is not considered an uncommon species although it is not readily collected in large numbers either.
57702		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Tagula and Rossel Islands are very largely covered by primary or slightly disturbed rainforest and suitable habitat for this species is plentiful.
57703		conservation	eng	The type locality of this amphibian species is situated in the Bale Mountains National Park, although this protected area has not yet been formally gazetted. Conservation of <em>Erica</em> woodland and heath throughout the Ethiopian mountains is a high priority. Clearly, there is an urgent need to conduct further survey work to establish whether this species might be more widely distributed.
57703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bale Mountains, east of the Rift Valley, in Ethiopia, where it has been found at 3,200m asl.
57703		habitat	eng	It is known only from giant heath (<em>Erica arborea</em>) woodland, just below the timberline. All specimens have been collected by day from beneath logs and boulders. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but females have been found to contain large and unpigmented ova, which is probably indicative of either direct development or at least of a terrestrial nest.
57703		population	eng	It seemed to be reasonably numerous in the type locality in 1986; the absence of recent records is due to a lack of survey effort.
57703		threats	eng	Direct damage to the narrow belt of giant heath with which this animal is associated, by either humans or their livestock, does not seem very likely in the near future, but would be disastrous. A more worrying possibility is the indirect harm resulting from logging of contiguous tall forests at a slightly lower elevation.
57704		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.
57704		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities between Garaina and Popondetta in Morobe and Northern Provinces, eastern Papua New Guinea. It is presumably widespread in the lowland and hill forests in this region. It is known from up to 700m asl.
57704		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in lowland rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
57704		population	eng	The population is unknown.
57704		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57705		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57705		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Tafa, at 2,070-2,590m asl in south-eastern Papua New Guinea.
57705		habitat	eng	It lives in montane rainforest, where it is probably secretive and terrestrial, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57705		population	eng	No information is available; there have been no recent records.
57705		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, though it probably occurs in a remote area.
57706		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented, particularly on mainland Papua New Guinea. It is not known to occur in any protected area.
57706		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern tip of the New Guinea mainland, and Woodlark, Rossel, and Tagula (Sudest) islands. It is a lowland species that has been recorded up to 350m asl.
57706		habitat	eng	A fossorial species found in primary or secondary lowland rainforest or cloudforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a direct developer.
57706		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species where it occurs.
57706		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present. The forest on Tagula Island was damaged by logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered. There are no immediate plans for logging and most of the species' known range is forested. The species is utilized on Tagula Island for magic purposes (it is believed to provide fertility to land if planted) but the level of utilization is likely to be too low to be a major threat.
57707		conservation	eng	It is found within Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.
57707		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities within the mountains in the vicinity of Wau, Papua New Guinea, from 2,100-2,600m asl.
57707		habitat	eng	It lives in montane rainforest in moss and breeds by direct development.
57707		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57707		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57708		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57708		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality at around 1,500m asl near Agaun, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It is possibly more widespread in suitable habitat.
57708		habitat	eng	It lives in montane rainforest, where it is secretive, terrestrial, and fossorial, and is not found in degraded habitats. Breeding in this species is by direct development.
57708		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57708		threats	eng	It might be threatened by forest loss as a result of expanding rural gardens.
57709		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57709		distribution	eng	This species is known from several high-altitude localities in the Eastern Highlands and Western Highlands provinces, Papua New Guinea. It occurs from 1,800-3,500m asl.
57709		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in montane rainforest and forest/grassland mosaic. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57709		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57709		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. There are unlikely to be serious threats to its survival within its known range.
57710		conservation	eng	The Nature Conservancy is currently negotiating a land concession in the Adelbert Mountains, which would help to conserve this species.
57710		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the Adelbert Mountains, at around 1,500m asl, in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea.
57710		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in primary tropical rainforest, where it breeds by direct development. It can also survive in secondary and degraded habitats and appears to be quite adaptable.
57710		population	eng	It appears to be common at the type locality.
57710		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species. The region where it occurs is densely populated by people, and forest clearance for rural gardens is taking place, but this species is not thought to be threatened, given its adaptability.
57711		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57711		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of the southwestern Cape, South Africa, from Hottentots Holland east to the Langeberg. It ranges from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
57711		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing frog living in fynbos heatland and forest. It does not adapt well to alteration of its habitat. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57711		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57711		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are loss of its habitat as a result of afforestation, the spread of alien vegetation, and fires taking place too frequently. However, overall, its habitat is well protected.
57712		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57712		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northwestern Angola, through northern Namibia, southwestern Zambia, much of Botswana and Zimbabwe, to southern Mozambique, Swaziland, and South Africa as far south as Eastern Cape Province. It generally occurs below 1,400m asl.
57712		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry savannah woodland and bush land, also occurring in agricultural areas and towns. It avoids montane grassland and forest. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57712		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57712		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.
57713		conservation	eng	Determining the basic biology including habitat choice and dispersal is seen as being a high priority for this species together with the identification of direct threats. Interim conservation agreements need to be made with land owners. Once population estimates have been made, monitoring of populations and habitat is required.&#160;The&#160;Mkambati population is in a&#160;protected area.
57713		distribution	eng	This recently described species occurs from 25 to 1 400m asl in the Kwazulu-Natal midlands of south-eastern South Africa along the mist belt from Boston in the west to Melmouth in the north-east and down to the coast at Mkambati. Its Area of&#160;Occurrence is declining and is currently approximated to be 10% of the measured Extent of Occurrence, 11 000 km<sup>2</sup>.
57713		habitat	eng	It is most often found on the edges of wood plantations in grasslands, and it presumably breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests. Ongoing sylviculture over most of its area of occurrence threatens the habitat of this species. At Mkambati it occurs in undisturbed grassland.
57713		population	eng	It is an uncommon species that occurs in congregations of 20-30 individuals.&#160;No one site holds >50% of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.&#160;<p></p>
57713		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are believed to be continued afforestation in the region and the construction and maintenance of roads.
57714		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57714		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on the southern slopes of the Cape Fold Mountains, South Africa, from the Langeberg Mountains near Swellendam in the west, to the Outenique Mountains in the east. It ranges from sea level up to over 1,000m asl.
57714		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing frog in forest, forest fringes and fynbos heathland. It does not survive in disturbed areas. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57714		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57714		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are loss of its habitat as a result of afforestation, the spread of alien vegetation, and fires taking place too frequently. However, overall, its habitat is well protected.
57715		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57715		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of the southwestern Cape, South Africa, from the Cederberg in the northwest to the Outenique Mountains in the southeast. It ranges from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
57715		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species of fynbos heathland and mountain fynbos that also lives in pine plantations. It presumably breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57715		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species. Its populations are not dense, but they are widespread.
57715		threats	eng	It is to some extent impacted by alien plants that damage its habitat, but overall it is not seriously threatened.
57716		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57716		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Tanzania south to the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, through southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa. Outside South Africa, the distribution of the species is poorly known especially in Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. It might occur in eastern Angola. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl.
57716		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of habitats including open woodland and grassland, and mountain slopes, generally in moister areas. It can adapt to modified habitats. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57716		population	eng	It is a common species.
57716		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, and is not facing any significant threats.
57717		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57717		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Namaqualand coast of South Africa, and in adjacent sandy inland areas, from the Gariep (Orange) River south to the Langebaan area. It is a lowland species.
57717		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that lives in scrub-covered sandy areas in the succulent karroo biome. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57717		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57717		threats	eng	There is some agricultural expansion in south of its range, which might be impacting this species.
57718		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57718		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-central Africa. Its distribution is centred on Zambia, with records from eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, western and southern Malawi and western Mozambique. Records from Tanzania are based on misidentifications, and records from Zimbabwe require confirmation.
57718		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species associated with sandy soils in savannah woodland, shrubland and grassland. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57718		population	eng	It is locally a very common species.
57718		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be threatened, since it occurs in a region where natural habitats are largely intact.
57719		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern South Africa. There are two subspecies: Breviceps r. rosei occurs on the west coast of Western Cape Province, and on Robben Island; Breviceps r. vansoni occurs on the south coast of Western Cape Province.
57719		habitat	eng	It lives in sandy soils in coastal thickets, including on vegetated dunes, and also inland in a few places in fynbos heathland. It is reasonably adaptable, and survives in some modified habitats. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57719		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57719		threats	eng	It is no doubt impacted in some places by coastal development and by the spread of alien vegetation and agriculture. But overall, it is adaptable and is not significantly at risk.
57720		conservation	eng	Despite threats, including sugar farming, afforestation and agriculture, this species is not seen as having a high priority for conservation research or other actions in view of its large Extent of Occurrence. It also occurs in Mlawula Nature Reserve in Swaziland, and in Greater Saint Lucia Wetlands National Park, Hluhluwe Game Reserve and Mkuze Game Reserve in South Africa.
57720		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mtunzini in KwaZulu-Natal, south-eastern South Africa, north through Swaziland along the Lebombo Mountains to Komatipoort in Mpumalanga Province, in eastern South Africa. It has a relatively large Extent of Occurrence (12,700 km²) and Area of Occupancy estimated at 3% of its Extent of Occurrence (381 km²). It is a lowland species (0-350 m asl) occurring in flat and hilly areas.
57720		habitat	eng	This is a species of coastal and dune forest, and dry woodland savannah, which is not found in altered habitats. It presumably breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests.
57720		population	eng	<p>It appears to&#160;be a fairly&#160;common species.</p>
57720		threats	eng	Afforestation, sugar farming and subsistence agriculture are localized threats in parts of its large range.
57721		conservation	eng	Resolving taxonomic issues, identifying management units, biology and threats are seen as key priority research areas for this species. Additional policy is required in terms of agreements with commercial land owners. Of the threats, it is important to invest effort into how this species can best co-occur with developing agriculture. Once population sizes have been established, monitoring of populations and habitat should be put in place.&#160;It occurs in several protected areas, including Blouberg Nature Reserve, Thabina Nature Reserve, and the Wolkberg Wilderness Area.
57721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Limpopo Province of north-eastern South Africa, where it occurs in two disjunct subpopulations: <em>Breviceps s. sylvestris</em> occurs along the eastern escarpment; and <em>B. s. taeniatus</em> occurs in the Soutpansberg Mountains. The Extent of Occurrence is 11,700 km<sup>2</sup>, but the Area of Occupancy of the two subpopulations is thought to be only 101 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;The two subspecies are thought to be isolated by about 80 km of unsuitable habitat. It is a highland species, occurring between 800 and 1,800 m asl.
57721		habitat	eng	It breeds in natural forests, grassy forest fringes, and adjacent open grassland and gardens, but never far from forest. Individuals have also been found in plantations. Nests have been found under stones with the female in attendance. It breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests.
57721		population	eng	It is locally common to abundant. Its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (i.e. more than half of the total number of individuals are in isolated patches).
57721		threats	eng	The main threats are loss of habitat due to afforestation, fire, fruit plantations, and subsistence agriculture, and to a lesser extent housing.
57722		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57722		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern plateau slopes of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, from the Nico Malan Pass in Eastern Cape Province, northward through extreme eastern Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland to the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.
57722		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species living in forest and adjacent grassland along the eastern escarpment down to coastal bush along the KwaZulu-Natal coast. It also lives in suburban gardens. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.
57722		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57722		threats	eng	The most significant threat is loss of habitat due to afforestation. But overall, it is not significantly threatened.
57723		conservation	eng	Protection of lowland tropical forest is the main conservation measure required for this species. It has been recorded from Matang National Park in Sarawak, and possibly occurs in adjoining Kubah National Park.
57723		distribution	eng	This little-known species is a Bornean endemic recorded only from the Bidi area of extreme western Sarawak (Malaysia) and from one locality in north-central Kalimantan (Indonesia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57723		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing frog occurring in lowland rainforest. Nothing is known about the breeding habitats of this species, but reproduction is presumably by larval development in water, like other members of the genus.
57723		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or abundance.
57723		threats	eng	The principal threat to it is loss of habitat through clear-cutting.
57724		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Mulu National Park.
57724		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from the type locality, Gunung Mulu, in Borneo. It is difficult to find and is expected to range much more widely.
57724		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species collected in tropical swamp forest that is presumed to breed in standing water after heavy rains, like other members of the genus.
57724		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
57724		threats	eng	It is currently known only from one site. There is no information on threats to this species.
57725		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
57725		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Myanmar through most of Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, to southwestern Cambodia, southern Viet Nam and central Peninsular Malaysia (Taylor 1962, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Stuart 1999, Stuart and Emmett 2006). In Cambodia it is known from 400 m asl (Stuart and Emmett 2006).
57725		habitat	eng	Most observations are from disturbed forest areas, forest edge and other secondary/impacted habitat, from level lowlands to mid-altitude hill areas, but no records are available from agricultural landscapes. It breeds in, and tadpoles grow, in rain pools. It is an explosive breeder.
57725		population	eng	This is a cryptic species, but emerges in substantial numbers to breed.
57725		threats	eng	This species is collected for consumption in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999) and parts of Thailand, and is probably affected by severe habitat loss in some places. But overall, this species is adaptable and is not significantly threatened.
57726		conservation	eng	It is present in the Danum Valley Protected Area.
57726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Borneo and has been recorded from several widely scattered localities in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and can be expected to occur in Indonesia and Brunei Darussalam.
57726		habitat	eng	It has been found only in lowland rainforests, where it is a burrowing species that probably lays its eggs in pools of standing water on the forest floor.
57726		population	eng	It has been collected only rarely, and nothing is known about its population status.
57726		threats	eng	The major threat to its habitat is deforestation due to clear-cutting.
57727		conservation	eng	Although it is not known from any protected areas, the type locality is very close to Gunung Leuser National Park.
57727		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is Tanjung Laut, and it was rediscovered at Sauraya, on the Alas River, in 1999. Both localities are below 200m asl.
57727		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland primary forest. If it is like other members of the genus, it is likely to be a burrower, laying its eggs in pools of standing water on the forest floor.
57727		population	eng	A single specimen was collected in 1999, but its overall population status is unknown.
57727		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by clear-cutting of forest.
57728		conservation	eng	Several protected areas lie within the range of this species.
57728		distribution	eng	This species was originally thought to be restricted to southwestern China (Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou provinces), but it has recently been found in Fan Si Pan Mountain in Viet Nam (Orlov, 2002). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in northern parts of Southeast Asia, and it can be expected to be found in northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and eastern Myanmar. It has been recorded from 700-2,400m asl.
57728		habitat	eng	It is found in a very wide variety of habitats in hilly areas, and breeds in pools and paddy fields.
57728		population	eng	In China this species is common and easy to find. There is no information available on the population status in Viet Nam.
57728		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation resulting from human settlement are major threats to this species in China. Farm ducks also eats it. Threats to this species in Viet Nam are unknown at present.
57729		conservation	eng	It has been found in the Udzungwa and Shimba Hills National Parks, and the Amani Nature Reserve.
57729		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in eastern and northeastern Tanzania and in southeastern Kenya. In Tanzania, it is known from the North Pare, South Pare, East Usambara, Uluguru, Nguu, Nguru, Ukaguru and Udzungwa mountains, Tanzania, including the mountain foothills. In Kenya, it is known from the Taita and Shimba Hills, Kenya. It occurs from lowlands (down at least to 300m asl) up to 2,200m asl.
57729		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor, hiding under rotting logs or stones. It can also climb to at least 2m in the vegetation, and has been found in the leaf axils of both wild and cultivated bananas. In most places it is somewhat tolerant of habitat degradation, though generally needs to be close to mature forest, though it has been found far from forest in degraded habitats in the Ukaguru Mountains. Its breeding habitats are unknown, but it is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
57729		population	eng	It is secretive, but during the rains, it appears to be not uncommon.
57729		threats	eng	Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is probably adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
57730		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57730		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Galela, on Halmahera Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, at about 650m asl.
57730		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in rainforest, and (like other members of the genus) breeds by direct development.
57730		population	eng	It has most likely not been collected since it was first described from a single specimen, so its population status is unknown.
57730		threats	eng	No information is available.
57731		conservation	eng	Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57731		distribution	eng	This species is found in several localities in the region of the type locality in the Western Highlands Province, central Papua New Guinea, at 2,200-2,500m asl.
57731		habitat	eng	It lives in burrows in mossy microhabitats on the forest floor in extremely rugged mountains. It is known to persist in secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
57731		population	eng	It is not uncommon, and is probably moderately common in some places.
57731		threats	eng	There is little information, and it can persist in secondary habitats. Grazing by domestic pigs might be a problem, since they can break up the mossy microhabitats. It lives above the altitude at which rural gardening takes place.
57732		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It occurs in a couple of protected areas.
57732		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the eastern half of the Papua New Guinean mainland, and on Tagula Island in the Louisiade Archipelago. It has been recorded up to 1,520m asl.
57732		habitat	eng	It occurs on the forest floor in rainforest. Males have been observed calling from low trees and rock crevices. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably breeds by direct development.
57732		population	eng	It is uncommon where it occurs.
57732		threats	eng	None are known.
57733		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57733		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a non-specific type locality, in northern Halmahera Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, perhaps up to 670m asl.
57733		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57733		population	eng	It has not been recorded since it was first described, and its population status is not known.
57733		threats	eng	There are no data available on specific threats to this species, although there is some circumstantial evidence of extensive forest loss on Halmahera.
57734		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented; in particular with a view to determining whether or not the two known populations are contiguous. It is not known from any protected areas.
57734		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two widely separated areas of mainland New Guinea: Onin Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia; and the southern slopes of the Star Mountains, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Its distribution might prove to be continuous, but new data are urgently required to assess this possibility. The type locality in Papua is at 70m asl, and in the Star Mountains it has been recorded from 1,460-1,600m asl.
57734		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical rainforest, where the type specimen was found in a limestone cave. Specimens observed by Richards (pers. comm.) were in hill and montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, this species presumably breeds by direct development.
57734		population	eng	This is not thought to be a common species.
57734		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to it.
57735		conservation	eng	It occurs in Manusela National Park on Seram.
57735		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens from three small islands off the Papuan coast in Indonesia: Ambon and Seram Islands in the Maluku Islands, and Batanta Island. It is a lowland species, and was found below 50m asl.
57735		habitat	eng	It lives in seasonally flooded lowland forest, where it is terrestrial, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57735		population	eng	When it was last found (in 1987, on Seram), it was variously reported as being very rare and common.
57735		threats	eng	There are no specific data on threats to this species, but there is evidence of increasing disturbance of the forest on Seram, and the habitats on Ambon are very heavily disturbed.
57736		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57736		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Kerewa, in Papua New Guinea, at 3,340m asl. It probably occurs on other mountains nearby.
57736		habitat	eng	The type locality is within montane rainforest, where (like other species in the genus) this species presumably breeds by direct development.
57736		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, and there have been no records of it since it was first described.
57736		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by fires lit by local people as part of their shifting agricultural practices.
57737		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.
57737		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of localities in the Eastern Highlands and Chimbu provinces, in Papua New Guinea. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-3,100m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records indicate.
57737		habitat	eng	It lives in montane rainforest in rugged mountains and can tolerate some habitat degradation. It is a terrestrial species and breeds by direct development.
57737		population	eng	It is one of the most common frogs where it occurs.
57737		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by logging in some parts of its range, though insufficient data are available. However it occurs in some inaccessible areas where it should be safe.
57738		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. This species is a priority for survey work, in order to establish its current population status.
57738		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sanana Island, in the Sula Islands, Indonesia. It is known only from the type specimen, and there have been no records since it was first described.
57738		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in lowland forest, though there is no recent information. There is also no information on its breeding details, though it presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
57738		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
57738		threats	eng	This species is likely to be seriously threatened by the extensive logging taking place on Sanana Island.
57739		conservation	eng	The Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57739		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the Crater Mountain Biological Station located in the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in south-western Chimbu Province, on the southern escarpment of the Central Range, Papua New Guinea, at altitudes of 850-900m asl.
57739		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected in hill forest, where one adult was found underground, and the other two adults were collected in a ditch. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57739		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
57739		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57740		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. The range of this species includes the Cyclops Nature Reserve.
57740		distribution	eng	Although few data are available about this species, it appears to be widespread in the northern lowlands of central New Guinea. It occurs between the Sepik River and the summit of the north coastal ranges, in East Sepik and West Sepik provinces, Papua New Guinea. B. Tjaturadi (pers. comm.) recently found this species in the Cyclops Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, and its distribution might be broader than has so far been documented. It has been recorded from 240-1,000m asl.
57740		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest, secondary forest and anthropogenic grassland. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57740		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
57740		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57741		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies are needed to determine whether or not more than one species is included in this "taxon". It occurs in many protected areas.
57741		distribution	eng	As currently understood taxonomically, this species occurs throughout New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and including Yapen, Biak, Goodenough, Fergusson and Misima islands) from close to sea level up to at least 1,920m asl.
57741		habitat	eng	It burrows in the forest floor in lowland and hill rainforest, and also in degraded forest, forest edges, rural gardens, and around landslides. It breeds by direct development.
57741		population	eng	It is widespread but occurs at relatively low densities.
57741		threats	eng	None are known, given its adaptability and wide distribution.
57742		conservation	eng	The impacts on this species of forest damage and habitat damage at the summit of Mount Binnie, especially that resulting from the Ok Tedi mine, should be closely monitored.
57742		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at an altitude of 2,200m asl, on the summit of Mount Binnie, in the Star Mountains, Western Province, Papua New Guinea.
57742		habitat	eng	This species lives in burrows and under large stones in disturbed and primary montane rainforest, and breeds by direct development.
57742		population	eng	When collected it was observed to be relatively uncommon, but there have been no further surveys of the area since then.
57742		threats	eng	It is known only from an area that has been severely impacted by the Ok Tedi mine, and so it is probably experiencing habitat loss.
57743		conservation	eng	Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It is found in Crater Wildlife Management Area and other protected areas.
57743		distribution	eng	Based on recent unpublished observations by S. Richards (pers. comm.), this species has a relatively wide distribution in Western and Gulf provinces, Papua New Guinea, from 100-1,100m asl.
57743		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, in lowland and hill rainforest. It breeds by direct development in pandans and tree ferns. It can also be found marginal habitats and forest edges, providing pandans are present.
57743		population	eng	It is a widespread but relatively low density species.
57743		threats	eng	None are known, though it might be affected by logging locally.
57744		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.
57744		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of localities in the rugged central mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea, in Western Highlands, Eastern Highlands, Simbu (Chimbu) and Morobe provinces. It has been recorded from 1,400-2,580m asl.
57744		habitat	eng	It lives in hill and montane rainforest, often in steep country such as cliffs. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
57744		population	eng	It is not a common species but can be found in large numbers in appropriate habitat.
57744		threats	eng	In Simbu Province it is collected to be fed to pigs.
57745		conservation	eng	Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57745		distribution	eng	This species has a rather wide distribution at high altitudes in the mountains of central Papua New Guinea in Southern Highlands, Western Highlands, Eastern Highlands, and Chimbu provinces. Its altitudinal range is 2,230-3,400m asl.
57745		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor in dense, primary montane rainforest. It breeds by direct development. It is reasonably adaptable to degraded habitats, including rural gardens.
57745		population	eng	It is not usually a high-density species, but small areas with dense populations are sometimes found.
57745		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, since it is a reasonably adaptable species.
57746		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Effective protection of lowland forests is needed in some parts of its range.
57746		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and western Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Tioman Island, and northern and central Borneo. It has been recorded between 150m and 1,200m asl.
57746		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary rainforest and edge habitats. It breeds in small, temporary waterbodies that are rich in decaying organic matter. Tadpoles have been found in stagnant water. In Borneo it has been found in rural gardens.
57746		population	eng	It appears to be abundant in Borneo, uncommon on the peninsula and in Thailand, and not uncommon but patchily distributed in some sites in the Philippines.
57746		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include deforestation, habitat conversion to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers.
57747		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57747		distribution	eng	This species is found in remnants of the Atlantic rainforest in the state of Alagoas at Maceio and Rio Largo, in north-eastern Brazil. All records are from near sea level.
57747		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, living on the ground in leaf-litter or under fallen palm leaves, and is not found outside forest. It shows a preference for humid sites, and is probably an explosive breeder in temporary ponds.
57747		population	eng	It is hard to find, and its population status is unknown.
57747		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing and human settlement. The area where it is found is suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction of forest patches.
57748		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57748		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely from the eastern part of the Department of Santa Cruz in Bolivia, through Paraguay, to central and southeastern Brazil (in the States of Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais and São Paulo). Its elevational range is 100-1,500m asl.
57748		habitat	eng	It lives in open areas in savannahs in the Chaco and Cerrado biomes, and also in the Chiquitano dry forests of Bolivia. It is normally associated with temporary waterbodies and flooded areas in forests, grasslands, fields, where it breeds. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57748		population	eng	It is a common species.
57748		threats	eng	Certain populations might be impacted by fires and the spread of intensive agriculture, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened.
57749		conservation	eng	It is present in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador; and possibly in the Guippe protected area of Peru.
57749		distribution	eng	This species is present in two localities in Amazonian Ecuador, below 400m asl (Provincia de Sucumbios and Provincia de Napo). It was reported from Iquitos, Peru by Rodriguez and Duellman (1994). While the species is known from relatively few sites, it is believed to be much more widespread. It occurs at elevations of 200-400m asl.
57749		habitat	eng	It can be found in primary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in or near a semi-permanent pond in primary forest at night (Duellman, 1978). It breeds in temporary ponds. It is not known if this species occurs in degraded habitats.
57749		population	eng	This is a cryptic species; there is no information on the population status. The sampling effort throughout its range is probably insufficient.
57749		threats	eng	It is presumably a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). In Ecuador it is threatened by destruction around the Napo River.
57750		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57750		distribution	eng	This species is known only from very low altitudes, up to 40m asl, in the States of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo in southeastern Brazil.
57750		habitat	eng	It is a species of forest edge, and primary and secondary forest, not occurring in open areas. It breeds in temporary ponds inside a lowland forest.
57750		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
57750		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, industry, tourism and human settlement.
57751		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (including Parque Nacional Manu, Pacaya Samiria Reserve, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru; and the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní in Ecuador.)
57751		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Amazonian Perú (Departamentos: Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Ucayali), eastern Ecuador, and western Brazil (Acre, Rondonia and surrounding areas). It is present in southern Colombia (Acosta Galvis, 2000). It occurs in northern Bolivia (De la Riva et al, 2000; Steffen Reichle pers comm.). It has been recorded up to elevations of 300m asl.
57751		habitat	eng	It lives in holes, leaf-litter, and ponds and swamps in terra firma primary and secondary tropical rainforest and in seasonally flooded forest. It is usually fossorial but has been found in bushes. Breeding occurs in marshy areas; larval development takes place in these areas. It is not known if it occurs in degraded areas.
57751		population	eng	It is abundant in terra firma primary forest.
57751		threats	eng	It is generally a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.
57752		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biólogica de Sooretama, Reserve Biólogica de Duas Bocas, and Reserva da Curd.
57752		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Cariacica in the State of Espírito Santo, north to Nova Vicosa in the southern part of the State of Bahia, eastern Brazil. It is a lowland species, occurring up to 60m asl.
57752		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forests, including secondary forests, not occurring in open habitats. It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It has also been observed in temporary ponds inside the forest, where it is probably an explosive breeder.
57752		population	eng	It is believed to be common, but it is a secretive species that is hard to detect.
57752		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging and human settlement.
57753		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, although there is still a need for expanded protection of Atlantic forest habitats in this region of Brazil.
57753		distribution	eng	This species is known only from very low altitudes, up to 40m asl, in the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil, with disjunct populations in the southern part of the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil. However, it might occur more widely than current records suggest.
57753		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas. It has been observed in temporary ponds inside lowland forest, and is known to be an explosive breeder.
57753		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57753		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (including wood plantations and livestock grazing), logging, and human settlement.
57754		conservation	eng	t is not known from any protected areas.
57754		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Aruanã and Canabrava, in the state of Goiás, in east-central Brazil, at 200-400m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than is currently known.
57754		habitat	eng	This very poorly known species occurs in Cerrado savannah. Members of this genus are normally associated with temporary ponds for breeding.
57754		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57754		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by the spread of intensive agriculture, fire, and the building of dams.
57755		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57755		distribution	eng	This recently described species has only been recorded from the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area in the municipality of Camamu, Bahia State, Brazil, where it was collected at 120m asl.
57755		habitat	eng	It was collected in a temporary pool within tropical forest that was a mix of early secondary growth and good cover. Surrounding farms in the area have good forest cover. Breeding in this species takes place in temporary ponds.
57755		population	eng	It was common in the breeding season at its only known locality.
57755		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area has been designated for use by rural farmers by the Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária (INCRA). As such it seems likely that a degree of habitat modification will take place in the area, and it is not known if this species will be threatened by, or be able to adapt to, these changes.
57756		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57756		distribution	eng	This recently described species has only been recorded from the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area in the municipality of Camamu, Bahia State, Brazil, where it was collected at 120m asl.
57756		habitat	eng	It was collected in a temporary pool within tropical forest that was a mix of early secondary growth and good cover. Surrounding farms in the area have good forest cover. Breeding in this species takes place in temporary ponds.
57756		population	eng	It was common in the breeding season at its only known locality.
57756		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area has been designated for use by rural farmers by the Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária (INCRA). As such it seems likely that a degree of habitat modification will take place in the area, and it is not known if this species will be threatened by, or be able to adapt to, these changes.
57757		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas through its wide range.
57757		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela (a single locality in Amazonas state, at the base of Cerro Neblina in Baría river), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil (in the vicinity of Manaus in Amazonas state). It occurs up to 300m asl.
57757		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, fossorial species, usually hiding in holes or in the leaf-litter of tropical rainforests. Embryonic and larval development takes place in water. It is an explosive breeder in temporary pools. It probably occurs in disturbed habitats, but its adaptability to such anthropogenic zones is not yet known.
57757		population	eng	It is a common species.
57757		threats	eng	There are no overall threats, but there are localized threats from clear-cutting.
57758		conservation	eng	It occurs within the large Parque Nacional da Amazônia.
57758		distribution	eng	This species is known from Humaitá and Uruá, Amazonas and Pará States, and possibly also from Acre State, in Brazil.
57758		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter of old-growth forest and probably breeds explosively in temporary pools.
57758		population	eng	It is common within its limited range and its population is probably stable.
57758		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57759		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57759		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the States of Santa Catarina, Paraná and São Paulo in southeastern Brazil. It ranges from sea level up to 800m asl.
57759		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary forest, also occurring on the forest edge, but not in more open habitat. The eggs are laid in temporary ponds amid air bubbles produced by the parents, tadpoles develop in these ponds.
57759		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57759		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, tourism and human settlement.
57760		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in at least one protected area (Parque Nacional do Pantanal Matogrossense).
57760		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, in south-central Brazil, and has been found at around 300m asl.
57760		habitat	eng	It is a species found in Cerrado savannah and the Pantanal wetlands, living in savannah, shrubland and grassland. There is no information on its breeding habits, but it probably reproduces explosively in temporary pools.
57760		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57760		threats	eng	There is little direct information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by the spread of intensive agriculture (in particular cattle ranching and soybean cultivation), as well as fires and the impacts of dams.
57761		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas in Colombia. Further research is needed into the range (particularly in Panama), ecology, and potential conservation measures for this frog.
57761		distribution	eng	This species is reported in Mesoamerica from the Central Panama lowlands; it is also present in Colombia. The range map for this species probably under-represents its distribution in Panama. In Colombia it is known from the Caribbean coast and the Uraba Gulf to the Magdalena valley, from 0-600m asl.
57761		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of open grassy areas, occasionally occurring within forest. Breeding takes place in ponds. It can also occur in pastures, arable land.
57761		population	eng	It is considered to be common in some areas in Panama. In Colombia it is not a common species, and is quite secretive.
57761		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this quite adaptable species.
57762		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57762		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the following States: Espírito Santo; southeastern Minas Gerais; and southern Bahia (north to Una). It ranges up to 550m asl.
57762		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and secondary forest, but not in more open habitat, living on the forest floor. It is an explosive breeder. The eggs are laid in temporary ponds in forest, in which the tadpoles develop.
57762		population	eng	It is a common species.
57762		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, and logging and human settlement.
57763		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57763		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely through Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazilian Amazonia. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 200m asl.
57763		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter or in holes in the forest floor in lowland tropical rainforest. It is an explosive breeder. The animals congregate to breed on one night in temporary pools in primary forest. The eggs laid on the surface of the water, and embryonic and larval development takes place in pools.
57763		population	eng	It is the most common Microhylid in the forests of French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001). It is commonly found during the breeding season but is elusive at other times.
57763		threats	eng	There are no threats overall, but there is ongoing habitat loss due to logging and fire, affecting local populations.
57764		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Yasuní (Ecuador); Parque Nacional Manu, Pacaya Samiria Reserve, and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (Peru). Present in a number of protected areas in Colombia and Bolivia. In Brazil it has been recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.
57764		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Eastern Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador; Colombia (Leticia); Peru (Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali); northern and central Bolivia and western Acre State, Brazil. It is a lowland species of below 400m asl (Steffen Reichle, pers comm.).
57764		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf-litter, on low herbaceous vegetation, and in and around ephemeral ponds and swamps in primary tropical rainforest. It is an explosive breeder in the above waterbodies; eggs are deposited on the pond surface. It has been recorded from selectively logged areas (Bolivia); and lightly disturbed habitats (Peru). This species has an interesting mutualistic relationship with tarantula species.
57764		population	eng	It is common in Peru and Bolivia; uncommon in Ecuador and Colombia.
57764		threats	eng	It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
57765		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
57765		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Mount Sisa in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea. The type series was collected at 2,000m asl; the species was absent from forest near the summit of Mount Sisa at 2,500m asl, so it might have a narrow distribution.
57765		habitat	eng	It is found within forest leaf-litter in the transition zone between <em>Nothofagus</em>-dominated vegetation with a rather open understorey, and a more dense higher altitude moss forest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57765		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
57765		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57766		conservation	eng	The extent of its distribution needs to be documented, and a search for additional populations needs to be undertaken. Its range does not overlap with any protected areas.
57766		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites 1km apart on Mount Menawa, in the Bewani Mountains, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, where it has been collected from 950-1,200m asl.
57766		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the interior and edges of closed-canopy rainforest, and breeds by direct development.
57766		population	eng	When collected, it was recorded as common, but difficult to find.
57766		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57767		conservation	eng	Further document of its distribution is needed. It is not known from any protected areas.
57767		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely along the bases of the northern coastal mountains of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), up to 500m asl.
57767		habitat	eng	It is a censorial species that lives in tropical rainforest and on forest edges, but not in really degraded areas. It breeds by direct development.
57767		population	eng	It occurs patchily, being common only very locally.
57767		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, except very locally.
57768		conservation	eng	Further documentation of the species' distribution is needed. There are a couple of protected areas within the species range.
57768		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the north coastal ranges from the Adelbert Range in the east, to the Bewani Mountains in the west, and in the Star Mountains in the south of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 1,320m asl.
57768		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the interior and edge of tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development.
57768		population	eng	It is has been observed to be locally abundant.
57768		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57769		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
57769		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from the Mount Carbine Tableland, Thornton Uplands, Finnigan Uplands and Bakers Blue Mountain in north-eastern Queensland. It is generally recorded from above 750m asl, although it was once recorded from around 586m asl, although there is a suggestion that this record might be a misidentified <em>C. exiguus</em>.
57769		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of moderate- to high-elevation tropical rainforest. Males are usually observed calling from amongst leaf-litter, or from under logs and roots and other debris on the forest floor. It is a terrestrial breeder, and the young develop directly into fully formed froglets.
57769		population	eng	It occurs at moderate to high densities, and is one of the most frequently encountered amphibians within its range.
57769		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. Its very restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
57770		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
57770		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality, the bank of the Aimba River, and the near vicinity, on Tagula (Sudest) Island (on which it might occur more widely), in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been collected at 15m asl (and possibly up to 50m asl).
57770		habitat	eng	It has been collected in secondary forest and lowland rainforest adjacent to the Aimba River. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development. It appears to be adaptable to a degree of habitat modification.
57770		population	eng	It is abundant.
57770		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57771		conservation	eng	As there have been no confirmed records of this species for over 100 years, there is an urgent need to determine its current status, and the correct identities of the animals (which fit its description) that are widespread in south-eastern Papua New Guinea.
57771		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Moroka, at 700m asl, in Papua New Guinea. Animals that fit the description of this species, but which are not yet confirmed as being of this species, are widespread in south-eastern Papua New Guinea.
57771		habitat	eng	It is presumably a forest inhabitant that breeds by direct development.
57771		population	eng	t is known only from the type series, described in 1898.
57771		threats	eng	No data are available.
57772		conservation	eng	It might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.
57772		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the type locality, 7km north of the village of Konti (about 12km north-east of Serui), and its vicinity, on Yapen Island, in Papua Province, Indonesia. It might also have been recorded at a second locality approximately 25km west of the type locality, although this requires confirmation and has not yet been mapped. The type locality is 650m asl.
57772		habitat	eng	The area where this species was collected is covered by patches of primary and secondary rainforest. Animals were found perched on fern fronds or leaves of shrubs 1.5-3.0m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57772		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
57772		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57773		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57773		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Bewani Mountains, Papua New Guinea, at 950m asl.
57773		habitat	eng	It was found among shrubs in closed-canopy rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57773		population	eng	Only two specimens were collected and no others were observed or heard calling at the type locality, so its population status is unknown.
57773		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57774		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57774		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern New Guinea (in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) at 700-1,600m asl.
57774		habitat	eng	This species can be found among bushes in tropical rainforest. It is arboreal, living up to 10-15m above ground. It breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it can live in disturbed habitats.
57774		population	eng	It is common locally.
57774		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, since it lives in remote, extensive, rugged habitats.
57775		conservation	eng	The species' range includes Lakamu Wildlife Management Area.
57775		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern half of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 1,300m asl.
57775		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low vegetation in tropical rainforest. It is a direct developing species that breeds on the top of forest floor vegetation in valleys.
57775		population	eng	It is relatively common and regularly encountered.
57775		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57776		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57776		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Mount Dayman, at around 1,400m asl, in Papua New Guinea. Other populations have been referred to this species from the vicinity of Wau and westwards in Papua New Guinea, but these belong to an undescribed species.
57776		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low vegetation in tropical rainforests, and breeds by direct development.
57776		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species, since there have been no recent records.
57776		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
57777		conservation	eng	Its type locality is not within a protected area.
57777		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Dayman in Milne Bay Province, south-eastern Papua New Guinea, at 2,230m asl.
57777		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57777		population	eng	The original collection contained 78 specimens. There have been recent surveys of the species' known range but results of these surveys are not yet available (Allison pers. comm.). Apart from this, there is no recent information on this species' population status.
57777		threats	eng	Part of the type series was collected in a patch of forest in grassland suggesting that habitat fragmentation might be a threat to this species. However, insufficient data are available at this stage to state this with certainty.
57778		conservation	eng	It is found in Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.
57778		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Kaindi, near Wau in Papua New Guinea, at 1,900-2,500m asl.
57778		habitat	eng	It lives in mossy montane rainforest, and along roadsides by forest, but not in heavily degraded habitats. It is found at night in low vegetation, up to 1m above the ground, and in leaf-litter during the day. Brreeding is by direct development in this species.
57778		population	eng	The most recent records of this species are from the 1980s, when it was reasonably common.
57778		threats	eng	It is threatened by the extensive forest loss that has occurred within its range due to fires.
57779		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57779		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Galela, on northern Halmahera Island, Maluku Province, Indonesia, at 670-760m asl.
57779		habitat	eng	Its habitat is unknown, but it presumably lives in rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57779		population	eng	There have been virtually no surveys for amphibians in the Maluku Islands for many years, and this species was last recorded in the late 1800s.
57779		threats	eng	There are no data available on specific threats to this species, but extensive forest loss has been reported on Halmahera Island.
57780		conservation	eng	All populations occur within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and the current tenure is a forest reserve under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992. The area is currently managed by the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, and is proposed for national park status. The area is included in the Wet Tropics Management Plan and the Wet Tropics Conservation Plan. Currently the access road onto the Carbine Tableland has been closed in most of the habitat suitable for this species, and the road is not maintained in the remainder.
57780		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known only from a small area above 1,100m asl on the Carbine Tableland, north-west of Cairns in northern Queensland, Australia. Suitable habitat exists in the Daintree National Park/ Mossman Gorge section, but the presence of the animal has yet to be confirmed there.
57780		habitat	eng	It is seen on leaf axils and crevices in branches, bark, roots or rocks in rainforest. Males call from, and eggs have been found in, <em>Linospadix</em> palms. The young develop directly into fully formed froglets.
57780		population	eng	It is not considered a common species and has a patchy distribution, although in some parts of its range it can occur at moderate to high densities. Its patchy distribution may be linked to its preference for understorey dominated by <em>Linospadix</em> palms, and the availability of this microhabitat.
57780		threats	eng	Potential threats include climate change (see Williams and Hilbert 2006) and habitat degradation, mainly from human impacts on the parks (for example, erosion following human traffic, increased visitation, habitat degradation, and infrastructure development, such as roads and telecommunications towers, walking tracks and other tourist facilities).
57781		conservation	eng	Mount Michael is currently not included within any protected area. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and to ascertain whether there are any major threats within its range.
57781		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Michael, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at 3,100m asl. It has not been recorded from other mountain ranges nearby suggesting that it might be endemic to Mount Michael.
57781		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane rainforest and alpine grassland. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57781		population	eng	There are no records of this species since it was first described in 1962, but there have been no surveys of the area since.
57781		threats	eng	There is a high human population density in the lowlands of Mount Michael, which is placing increasing pressure on the forests at higher elevations.
57782		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57782		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central mountainous region of Papua New Guinea, from Chimbu Province to Morobe Province, at 2,200-2,650m asl. The southeastern and western populations might be disjunctive, though they are mapped as being contiguous.
57782		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane rainforest and forest edges, but not in areas where the habitat is severely degraded. It is found in vegetation up to 1m above ground at night, and in leaf-litter during the daytime. It breeds by direct development.
57782		population	eng	It is very common where it occurs.
57782		threats	eng	It occurs in a remote area and is unlikely to be threatened.
57783		conservation	eng	The species' Extent of Occurrence needs to be determined. Its range is not known to include any protected areas.
57783		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of Lae (Morobe Province) to the Adelbert Mountains (Madang Province), Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.
57783		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland rainforest and breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it occurs in disturbed habitats.
57783		population	eng	It has been recorded as common.
57783		threats	eng	None known, although logging might affect some populations.
57784		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57784		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality on Mount Hunstein, Papua New Guinea, at 1,000m asl.
57784		habitat	eng	It was found in shrubs in closed-canopy rainforest, and this species is presumed to breed by direct development.
57784		population	eng	It is known from only a single specimen.
57784		threats	eng	There are no known threat to it, and the type locality is probably safe from human disturbance for the time being.
57785		conservation	eng	The species' Extent of Occurrence needs to be determined and the population status assessed. It might occur within Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.
57785		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea from the Southern Highlands and Western Highlands provinces south-eastward to the vicinity of Wau, Morobe Province. It occurs from 1,900-2,800m asl.
57785		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane rainforest, among boulders and grass near streams. It is an adaptable species that can probably withstand a degree of habitat degradation. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
57785		population	eng	It is a common species.
57785		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
57786		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57786		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea from the vicinity of Wau, Morobe Province, to Western Highlands Province. There are also disjunctive populations in the Adelbert Mountains and on the Huon Peninsula. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-2,900m asl.
57786		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill and montane rainforest, including formerly logged forest. It lives in low vegetation, and has also been found in landslides, rockslides, and rocky areas. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57786		population	eng	It is common where it is found.
57786		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened.
57787		conservation	eng	The species' Extent of Occurrence on other mountains in the vicinity needs to be documented. It is known to occur in Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.
57787		distribution	eng	This species is found on the mountains in the vicinity of Wau, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 2,300-3,000m asl.
57787		habitat	eng	This species inhabits heavily mossed montane rainforest edge, alpine grassland and secondary and disturbed rainforest. It breeds by direct development.
57787		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57787		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57788		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57788		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "on the west slope of Mount Riu, on Tagula (Sudest) Island, in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea" (Zweifel 1962). Its altitudinal range is 250-350m asl.
57788		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical rainforest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57788		population	eng	It has not been recorded since it was first collected in 1956, and only three specimens are known.
57788		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The forest on Tagula (Sudest) Island was damaged by logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered, and there are no immediate plans for logging.
57789		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
57789		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the type locality 16km north of Fakfak town on the Bomberai Peninsula (the neck of the Vogelkop Peninsula), Papua, Indonesia, and might occur more widely. It was collected at 860m asl.
57789		habitat	eng	It has been found in primary forest consisting of dense bushes below tall trees. Animals were found perched on herbaceous vegetation, on lower parts of shrubs or on leaf-litter. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57789		population	eng	High densities of this species have been recorded.
57789		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is loss of habitat. During the 1980s and early 1990s many of the tall trees in the Fakfak Mountains were cleared during road construction. However, by 2000 much of the road had been covered by secondary growth and plantations, although it is not known if this is favourable habitat for this species.
57790		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57790		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Myola Guest House, 7km south and 6km west of Mount Bellamy, in Northern Province, Papua New Guinea, at 2,080m asl. It is presumably more widely distributed within suitable habitat.
57790		habitat	eng	It inhabits moss and leaf-litter in montane rainforest, and is not known to occur in disturbed habitats.
57790		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status, but it proved difficult to find in the field.
57790		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57791		conservation	eng	Although relatively widespread, this species is poorly known and there is an urgent need to document its extent of distribution, habitat requirements and population status. It is not known from any protected areas.
57791		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and eastern Papua New Guinea, including islands in the D'Entrecasteaux group. It ranges up to 1,600m asl.
57791		habitat	eng	This species has been collected adjacent to rocky streams and in trees in tropical rainforest. It is somewhat adaptable to habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development.
57791		population	eng	It is common in some places but is not abundant.
57791		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened. The habitat on Goodenough Island in the D'Entrecasteaux group is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes.
57792		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe, Monongarivo Special Reserve, and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57792		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme northern and northwestern Madagascar to Manongarivo; it has also been recorded from the islands of Nosy and Nosy Komba. It ranges from close to sea level to 1,100m asl.
57792		habitat	eng	It lives in both pristine and disturbed rainforest, ylang-ylang (perfume bush) cultivation, coffee and cacao plantations, and secondary vegetation. It is very adaptable, and occurs wherever there are tree holes and bamboo. It breeds in tree holes and bamboo, and has non-feeding larva.
57792		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
57792		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. However, if sugar cane farming spreads, this opens up the habitat too much, and would be a serious threat.
57793		conservation	eng	It occurs in Yapen Nature Reserve.
57793		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known only from Yapen Island (off the north coast of New Guinea, Indonesia), 7km north of Kontiunai, at 620-680m asl. It has only been found immediately around the type locality, and has not yet been found elsewhere.
57793		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of tropical forest, including in secondary re-growth forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57793		population	eng	It is a reasonably abundant species.
57793		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by the selective logging that is continuing in the area where it is found.
57794		conservation	eng	The distribution and ecology of this species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57794		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands of Papua New Guinea from Finschhafen, Morobe Province, to Popondetta, Northern Province. It occurs up to 500m asl.
57794		habitat	eng	This species is found in burrows in the forest floor on forested hillsides at fairly low elevations. It can tolerate a degree of habitat modification and has been found in burrows on abandoned logging roads. It is breeds by direct development.
57794		population	eng	It is a locally very common species.
57794		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57795		conservation	eng	Even though it occurs in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.
57795		distribution	eng	This newly described species from Papua, Indonesia, is found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 400-800m asl. Some very similar animals have been found far away in the Crater Mountains of Papua New Guinea (Bickford pers. comm.), but their range has not been mapped in this assessment.
57795		habitat	eng	It lives under leaf-litter on the forest floor, and has only been found so far in mature forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57795		population	eng	This species has been found to be abundant during rain.
57795		threats	eng	The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.
57796		conservation	eng	Its range includes Oia Mada Wara Wildlife Management Area on Goodenough Island. Further survey work is needed to better determine the population status and distribution of this species on other islands in Milne Bay, as well as on the mainland.
57796		distribution	eng	This species is known from Goodenough Island and the Cloudy Mountains of the southernmost mainland of Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from about 800-1,600m asl.
57796		habitat	eng	This species is found below ground in lowland hill forest to montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
57796		population	eng	Only two specimens were collected from Goodenough Island, but calls heard during collection suggested a common species within its small range.
57796		threats	eng	The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, though it remains intact at higher altitudes.
57797		conservation	eng	Even though it is found in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.
57797		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species was found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, at 400-800m asl.
57797		habitat	eng	It lives under leaf-litter on the forest floor, and has only been found so far in mature forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57797		population	eng	It is very abundant; more so than the sympatric <em>Copiula major</em>.
57797		threats	eng	The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.
57798		conservation	eng	The distribution of the species needs to be further documented. Its range does not include any protected areas.
57798		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Papua New Guinea; Central Province, and Fergusson, Woodlark and Misima Islands, Milne Bay Province. It has been recorded up to 200m asl on the mainland and Misima Island, and from 960-1,330m asl on Fergusson Island, and from sea level up to 100m asl on Woodlark Island.
57798		habitat	eng	This species is found in long grass or similar vegetation, and in tropical rainforest. It is a very adaptable species that is tolerant of habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development.
57798		population	eng	It is a very abundant species, even in disturbed habitat.
57798		threats	eng	None known, and it appears to be able to persist in heavily modified habitats such as domestic gardens.
57799		conservation	eng	It occurs in Yapen Nature Reserve (although the logging taking place elsewhere on Yapen Island is also taking place here).
57799		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Wewak area on the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and from Yapen Island (off the north coast of New Guinea, Indonesia), 7km north of Kontiunai, at 620-680m asl.
57799		habitat	eng	It inhabits open secondary woodland in the Wewak area and degraded forest on Yapen Island, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57799		population	eng	It is a common species.
57799		threats	eng	There is little information on the threats to this species (although selective logging is taking place on Yapen Island), but it is possibly not seriously threatened, given that it appears to be able to persist in disturbed habitats.
57800		conservation	eng	None required apart from documenting its natural history. It is known to occur in Cyclops Nature Reserve.
57800		distribution	eng	This species is found on forest slopes in northeastern New Guinea. It has been recorded from 670-1,220m asl.
57800		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the forest floor in lowland and hill tropical rainforest. It is not known whether or not it occurs in disturbed habitats. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
57800		population	eng	It is a common species.
57800		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57801		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57801		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon Basin from the Guianas, Venezuela (from a few localities in Bolívar state), Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. It has an elevation of 0-600m asl.
57801		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal frog of fossorial and secretive habits, found beneath dead leaves or at the edges of water in flooded depressions and semi-permanent and seasonal ponds of old growth tropical rainforests. It breeds in pools.
57801		population	eng	Very few records exist probably because it persists underground except during brief explosive periods of reproduction.
57801		threats	eng	It is not seriously threatened, but local populations would suffer from deforestation.
57802		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. Conservation of the species' habitat is advisable as it is unlikely to tolerate significant disturbance of its habitat. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
57802		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Quebrada Guanguí, in the upper Río Saija drainage, in the department of Cauca, Colombia, from 100-200m asl. It is most likely a wider ranging species, but more sampling is needed to confirm this.
57802		habitat	eng	It calls from beneath leaf-litter and from holes in the ground covered with leaf-litter in humid tropical forest. The eggs and larvae develop in small temporary rain pools.
57802		population	eng	It is thought to be a rare species, but it is a secretive forest species so this has not been confirmed.
57802		threats	eng	There are no threats to the habitat at the type locality at present because there is not much human influence in the area.
57803		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biólogica de Sooretama, which forms part of the Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves World Heritage Site.
57803		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the coastal plain of the states of Espírito Santo and southern Bahia, south-eastern Brazil, ranging up to 60m asl.
57803		habitat	eng	It is found in forest, including secondary forest and forest edges, but not open areas. It is an explosive breeder in temporary pools in forest and on the forest edge.
57803		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this cryptic species.
57803		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, industry, and human settlement.
57804		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57804		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern Chaco: northern Argentina; southeastern Bolivia; Paraguay; and Brazil (from Maranhão to São Paulo). It occurs at elevations up to 1,500m asl.
57804		habitat	eng	Burrowing form occurs on the ground near waterlogged soils, where it breeds explosively in temporary pools. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
57804		population	eng	It is locally abundant during reproductive bouts.
57804		threats	eng	It is threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff. In Paraguay, this species is captured (legally) for the international pet trade.
57805		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. The species is not listed in the CITES Appendices. Trade in wild animals should be sustainably regulated through a quota system. Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) undertook a study into the economics of captive-breeding this high-demand species, concluding that it is well suited to intensive commercial captive breeding programmes. Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) determined that the market demand for this species could easily be met through captive-breeding only.
57805		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely along the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar. It is a very secretive species and probably occurs at many more localities than records indicate. The northernmost locality (Sambava) has not been confirmed since its original description. Most records are concentrated in east-central Madagascar from Antsihanaka south to Fierenana, with isolated records further south at Vondrozo and Soavala. Its recorded altitudinal range is 150-900m asl.
57805		habitat	eng	It is usually found in primary rainforest and swamp forests, and in clearings and poorly drained places adjacent to or within forest. It is not found in severely degraded habitats. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.
57805		population	eng	It varies in abundance from extremely common to very rare.
57805		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is exploited commercially, but probably not at a level that seriously impacts populations. This exploitation results largely from the placement of its sister species, Dyscophus antongili (the Tomato Frog), on Appendix I of CITES.
57806		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57806		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in northwestern and western Madagascar, from Ambanja south to Tsimanampetsotsa, from sea level to 400m asl.
57806		habitat	eng	It lives in dry tropical forests and savannahs and in more moist forests in the far north. It is not known from heavily degraded areas. It breeds in temporary pools.
57806		population	eng	It is a common species.
57806		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fires, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
57807		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57807		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Bolivia, southern Paraguay, northeastern Argentina, south-eastern Brazil, and Uruguay. It ranges between sea level and 200m asl.
57807		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally flooded grasslands, and leaf-litter of dry and moist forest. It is nocturnal, feeding principally on ants and reproduces in lentic pools. Eggs float on top of the water. It is tolerant of some habitat modification and can survive in rural gardens and urban areas.
57807		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
57807		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57808		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra, and also in the Pro-Mata (Protection of the Mata Atlântica in Minas Gerais (PROMATA/MG)) Reserve.
57808		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the south-eastern border of the Planalto das Araucárias, Serra Geral, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 900-1,200m asl.
57808		habitat	eng	It occurs in subterranean habitats in open fields and breeds explosively in temporary ponds.
57808		population	eng	It is uncommon but its population is apparently stable and it is regularly recorded.
57808		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to cattle ranching.
57809		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57809		distribution	eng	This species is found in Mesoamerica in the western Pacific lowlands of Panama. In South America this species has been recorded in Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela (Sucre and Bolìvar states), Trinidad Island, Trinidad and Tobago and the Guianas. Its distribution is poorly known, and its taxonomic status is in need of revision. It occurs up to 500m asl.
57809		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter and in tree holes in tropical rainforests and on the forest edge, as well as grasslands and shrublands. Breeding takes place in ponds, and eggs and tadpoles in water. Male specimens have been found calling from water up to 30cm deep, in flooded forest. It is tolerant of some habitat modification and can survive in rural gardens and pastureland.
57809		population	eng	It is considered to be common at some sites.
57809		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. But shifting cultivation, logging, fire, infrastructure development, agro industrial farming and water pollution might impact local populations.
57810		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57810		distribution	eng	This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Parana in the State of Goias, north to Balsas in the State of Maranhao and Picos in the State of Piauí.
57810		habitat	eng	It is a species of "Caatinga" and "Cerrado" savannah, occurring in a wide variety of anthropogenic habitats. It is very resistant to habitat modification. It is a fossorial species, emerging to breed explosively in temporary ponds.
57810		population	eng	It is a common species.
57810		threats	eng	Apart from the effects of over-grazing by livestock, this species is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
57811		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected area.
57811		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Yungas forests of north-western Argentina, where it is currently known only from the type locality: Los Toldos, Santa Victoria Department, Salta Province, at 1,100m asl (22° 18’S; 64° 40'W). Specimens from Bolivia with spotted bellies that are currently attributed to <em>Elachistocleis ovalis</em> might pertain to this species.
57811		habitat	eng	This species is known from subtropical montane moist forest, where it reproduces in temporary pools. Activity appears to be associated with rainy weather conditions. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance unknown, although the one site where this species was collected is in a heavily disturbed agricultural area.
57811		population	eng	<em>Elachistocleis skotogaster</em> is known only from the type series of 10 individuals collected in 1999. A subsequent visit in 2000 to the type locality failed to record this species, possibly because this visit was during a drier period.
57811		threats	eng	It might be threatened by the heavy deforestation and cattle ranching that are occuring in the type locality.
57812		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is urgently needed.
57812		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in northern Venezuela, east to northern Suriname, and it is also present on Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It is presumed to occur in northern Guyana, though there are not yet any records from this country. Records from Colombia and Panama refer to Relictivomer pearsei (see taxonomic notes). It is a lowland species occuring up to at least 500m asl, and all records are from close to sea level.
57812		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of tropical forest, including closed-canopy secondary forest, and possibly also coastal savannahs. In Trinidad animals occur in the forest leaf-litter; males may be found calling from small water-filled stump holes (Murphy, 1991). It is not found in open country on Trinidad (Kenny 1969). Spawning takes place in temporary pools, the eggs float and are non-adhesive, and the larvae develop in the same waterbodies.
57812		population	eng	There is little information, but it is possibly a rare species.
57812		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It is generally considered to be threatened by habitat loss and degradation, presumably this is localized and is a result of deforestation, although this requires confirmation.
57813		conservation	eng	No conservation methods are needed.
57813		distribution	eng	This species is native to the USA from southern Maryland to southeastern Kansas, south to Florida Keys and eastern Texas. It has scattered disjunctive populations along the northern and western margins of its range (Conant and Collins 1991). It is introduced on the Little and Great Bahama banks, and on Grand Cayman Island, Cayman Islands, where it is very abundant (Schwartz and Henderson 1988, Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
57813		habitat	eng	It occupies a wide variety of shaded moist habitats. It burrows into soil or hides in or under surface cover or debris when inactive. Males call from sheltered locations, often from beneath objects at water's edge or partially buried in grass (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Eggs and larvae develop in lakes, ponds, sloughs, flooded roadside ditches, swamps, stream margins, rain puddles, etc. Uses both temporary and permanent waters. Can persist in human modified habitats such as residential areas.
57813		population	eng	It is represented by many and/or large populations throughout most of the range (Nelson 1972). In Florida and eastern Texas, common to abundant even in many suburban situations (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The introduced population on Grand Cayman is very abundant.
57813		threats	eng	It is not threatened.
57814		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout much of its range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57814		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Atlantic slope of Mexico, from central Veracruz to the south and east to southern Campeche and Quintana Roo to Guatemala, Belize and the north-central coastal areas of Honduras, at elevations of 0-350m asl. An isolated population occurs in Sian Kaan Biosphere Reserve in the Yucatán Peninsula.
57814		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, inhabiting tropical humid forests with abundant leaf-litter coverage. In Belize and Mexico, occurs in semi deciduous forest. It occurs in cacao groves and breeds in temporary ponds.
57814		population	eng	It is locally common in Mexico and Belize; uncommon in Guatemala and Honduras.
57814		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species, although it can tolerate plantations.
57815		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species inhabit Biosphere Reserves and other protected areas. The remaining populations are not in need of conservation measures at present. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57815		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Nebraska, southeastern Colorado, and southern Arizona (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996), in the USA, to Sonora and coastal Sinaloa and Nayarit in Pacific Mexico. Inland it occurs from Sonora eastward to central Chihuahua through Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and extreme east San Luis Potosí and adjacent Veracruz in Mexico.
57815		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-arid and arid lowlands such as mesquite and shrublands. It is also known from grasslands, rocky wooded hills, marsh edges, near springs, streams, and rain pools, river floodplains, scrub desert, and cultivated fields. It hides in rotten logs and stumps, burrows, and under rocks and other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains and larger ponds that dry up in some years.
57815		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but is locally common. In Texas it can be abundant in grassland and desert habitats (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
57815		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species. However global climatic changes can affect seasonal arid cycles in parts of its range.
57816		conservation	eng	Protection of lowland forests is needed. Protected at La Selva and Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sureste (formerly known as the Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve in Nicaragua.
57816		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slope of southeastern Nicaragua and Costa Rica, at elevations of 1-500m asl.
57816		habitat	eng	It inhabits leaf-litter of lowland moist and wet forests and breeds in temporary pools.
57816		population	eng	It is rarely seen except during exhaustive searches in leaf-litter plots where it can be regular. It can be seen in large numbers during brief explosive breeding aggregations. In Costa Rica, it is a very easy species to see during the explosive breeding period (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
57816		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a major threat to this species.
57817		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Mexico. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
57817		distribution	eng	This species can be found from southern Sinaloa southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the Pacific versant and from central Veracruz to the south and east to Oaxaca and Chiapas continuing to Guatemala and El Salvador, at elevations of 0-1,000m asl.
57817		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the lowlands in tropical moist and dry forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds and can tolerates habitat disturbance.
57817		population	eng	It is common in Guatemala and uncommon in El Salvador; it is abundant in Mexico.
57817		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57818		conservation	eng	It is not presently known from any protected areas, and improved protection and preservation of rainforest habitats is needed in Sarawak and Kalimantan.
57818		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo and has been reported only from several lowland points in Sarawak (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, although the amount of available habitat is rapidly declining. It is likely to be found in north-western Kalimantan (Indonesia), but this has not yet been confirmed. It is present at elevations below 300m asl.
57818		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter of the forest floor, but has also been found in tree holes. It has not been found outside forest. Nothing is known of its breeding habits.
57818		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this secretive species.
57818		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss and fragmentation, due to clear-cutting.
57819		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species needs to be documented further. It is found in the Kamiali Wildlife Management Area.
57819		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Papua New Guinea, including in the Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux islands and Woodlark Island. It occurs below 500m asl.
57819		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest floor in primary tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it is adaptable to secondary habitats.
57819		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
57819		threats	eng	Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is unlikely to be threatened. It is utilized on Tagula (Sudest) Island for magic (it is believed to provide fertility to land if planted) but the level of utilisation is not a major threat at present.
57820		conservation	eng	It inhabits many protected areas in the region, and ensuring their integrity (particularly by preventing collection of frogs at breeding sites) should go a long way towards securing the conservation of this species. The effects of harvesting of non-protected populations should also be investigated.
57820		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-central Myanmar (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998), through mainland Thailand (Taylor 1962), southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999), and Cambodia (Bourret 1942), to southern Viet Nam, from southern Gai Lai Province to the Mekong River (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is found up to 600m asl.
57820		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of dipterocarp forest and other deciduous forest areas, and breeds in seasonal or temporary deep rain pools (Heyer 1973; Inger and Colwell 1977; Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998).
57820		population	eng	It is locally common at breeding sites, but is otherwise a highly cryptic fossorial species, only occasionally seen on the forest floor (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998). Large numbers are traded for consumption in rural markets, indicating either large populations, or intensive collection at limited breeding sites (Taylor 1962; P. van Dijk pers. comm.).
57820		threats	eng	This species is threatened by local consumption in substantial numbers in parts of Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, where it is collected during breeding seasons. The females found in markets in Thailand are getting smaller, suggesting an adverse effect of collection on the species. It is apparently not greatly affected by forest degradation, but it is generally not commensal in human habitation or agricultural landscapes.
57821		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57821		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Amazon basin: French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Venezuela. Dot-map of distribution in French Guiana provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). In Venezuela it is known from a single record in Bolívar state, at Reserva Forestal Río Grande, between Río Grande and El Palmar. In Ecuador it is known from only three localities. It occurs up to 400m asl.
57821		habitat	eng	Terrestrial frog found in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary tropical rainforests, including flooded forests. It has been found in ponds and flooded areas within forest. Eggs and tadpoles occur in the water.
57821		population	eng	It is uncommon through much of its range, although it is reported as abundant in Peru and Bolivia.
57821		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57822		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, and in several forest reserves; there is a need for increased protection and improved management of these and other reserves in the East Usambaras.
57822		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the East Usambara Mountains (including the Magrotto ridge) and the Nguu Mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. It ranges from 600m to at least 1,200m asl.
57822		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland and montane forest, and is sometimes associated with wild bananas. It appears to be very rare in heavily disturbed forest or in open areas. However, it is locally abundant in stands of introduced bamboo in the Amani Botanic Garden. The eggs are deposited in hollow bamboo stems or leaf axils (and perhaps tree holes) where water is trapped, and where the larvae develop.
57822		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species, and is very hard to find outside the breeding season. However, it is easily found in the Amani Botanic Garden in the East Usambaras during the breeding season due to the extensive stands of exotic bamboo, with which it is closely associated (30% of holes in broken bamboo stems have been found to contain eggs, larvae or adults).
57822		threats	eng	It is almost certainly adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture. The habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
57823		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but there have not so far been any records.
57823		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. It is a montane species, but its elevational range is not clear, although it ranges higher than <em>Hoplophryne rogersi</em>.
57823		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest, and is often found inside fallen bamboo stems or on wild bananas. It is not found in disturbed forest. The eggs are laid on the inner surface of banana leaves or in stems, or in split bamboo; the tadpoles develop in water trapped in leaf axils or in bamboo.
57823		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57823		threats	eng	It is almost certainly adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially due to small-scale agriculture and logging.
57824		conservation	eng	Although it is found in Yapen Nature Reserve, logging continues here.
57824		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known from two localities in Papua, Indonesia: Yapen Island (off the north coast of New Guinea), 7km north of Kontiunai, at 620-680m asl; and Dabra (on the New Guinea mainland), at 80m asl. It has only been found immediately around the type localities, and has not yet been found elsewhere.
57824		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of tropical forest, including in secondary re-growth forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57824		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57824		threats	eng	It might be threatened by selective logging.
57825		conservation	eng	Even though it occurs in Wandamen Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.
57825		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species from New Guinea has been found in two localities in Papua, Indonesia: the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 350-850m asl; and the Fakfak Mountains, on the Fakfak Peninsula, at 860m asl. Specimens from Batanta Island might also belong to this species.
57825		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of tropical forest under leaf-litter, and can tolerate a small amount of logging. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57825		population	eng	It is common, but not abundant.
57825		threats	eng	The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.
57826		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kikori integrated conservation and development project area.
57826		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Sisa, at 2,000m asl, in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea.
57826		habitat	eng	It has only been found in primary forest, calling from exposed positions on litter on the forest floor, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57826		population	eng	It is a relatively low density species.
57826		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, though the one area in which it has been found is reasonably secure from disturbance.
57827		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies are urgently required to determine how many taxa are included in this species complex, and their ranges subsequently need to be documented to determine whether or not any have restricted distributions that might make them susceptible to threats such as localized logging or mining activities.
57827		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Katow, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. It is mapped here as a complex, but some of the component species have now been described. The resolution of the complex is not complete however and the real distribution of H. rufescens has not yet been determined. The complex has been recorded up to 3,570m asl.
57827		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that is active at night on the forest floor in tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development.
57827		population	eng	This species is very common within its range.
57827		threats	eng	The range of this species is uncertain so it is impossible to determine threats at present.
57828		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57828		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species from New Guinea is known only from the headwaters of the Wapoga River, at 1,070m asl in Papua, Indonesia.
57828		habitat	eng	It was found in tall forest, under debris on the forest floor.
57828		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
57828		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this species in the remote, rugged area in which it was found.
57829		conservation	eng	Even though it occurs in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.
57829		distribution	eng	This newly described species from Papua, Indonesia, is found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 360-650m asl. It was recently recorded by Günther (2003) from the Fakfak Mountains, and it almost certainly occurs on Yapen Island.
57829		habitat	eng	It has been found only in primary forest, where it lives below leaf-litter on the forest floor and presumably breeds by direct development.
57829		population	eng	It is common, but not abundant.
57829		threats	eng	The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.
57830		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.
57830		distribution	eng	This newly described species from Papua, Indonesia, is found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 580-950m asl.
57830		habitat	eng	It has been found only in primary forest, where it lives below leaf-litter on the forest floor, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57830		population	eng	It is reasonably abundant, but only on the ridge above 800m asl, above the level of <em>Hylophorbus picoides</em> and <em>H. tetraphonus</em>.
57830		threats	eng	The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.
57831		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Reserve de la Biosfera El Triunfo (Mexico) and Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas (Guatemala). There is a need for improved protection of the tropical cloud forests in central Chiapas.
57831		distribution	eng	This species can be found from central Chiapas, Mexico, to Guatemala, El Salvador, and south-western Honduras, at elevations of 1,470-2,200m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57831		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid pine-oak forests. It is able to tolerate some limited habitat destruction, but probably requires humid microclimates, and occurs in short-grasses and in coffee groves. It breeds in temporary to semi-permanent pools.
57831		population	eng	The status of this species is unknown in Guatemala and El Salvador. It is rare in Honduras, and uncommon and declining in Chiapas.
57831		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due in particular to logging of its pine-oak forest habitat.
57832		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not needed for this species. It occurs in many protected areas.
57832		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Pacific and Atlantic slopes in Mexico, in the Atlantic, from southern Texas, USA, to Costa Rica, in the Pacific, from southern Sonora to Costa Rica, at elevations of 0-2,100m asl.
57832		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low and moderate elevations in tropical humid forests as well as disturbed and opened habitats. It can also be found in moist sites in arid areas; margins of ponds, marshes, under leaf-litter, in underground burrows, under rocks and other surface cover, in packrat nests. Eggs and larvae develop in pools formed by heavy rains or irrigation water.
57832		population	eng	This dry Pacific slope species is currently spreading into Meseta Central and to the Caribbean slope at Cachí, Cartago Province, in Costa Rica. However, this species has disappeared and then reappeared in limited parts of its range at Monteverde (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is common along both Pacific and Atlantic slopes in Mexico, and is widespread and common in the Yucatan Peninsula (Lee 2000). In Texas, it is fairly common but seldom seen (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico, it is abundant in old growth vegetation but rare in second growth.
57832		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57833		conservation	eng	Both of the known regions where it occurs lie within protected areas, and continuation of rigorous management of the existing parks is the best guarantee for the conservation of this species.
57833		distribution	eng	This species has been found at several sites within Gunung Kinabalu National Park, from 1,300-1,800m asl, and at one site in the Crocker Range to the south, in western Sabah, Borneo.
57833		habitat	eng	It lives within the litter of montane forests (oak-chestnut), and is presumed to breed in small temporary pools on the forest floor and possibly in phytotelms (water-filled cavities in plants such as bromeliads).
57833		population	eng	It is regarded as very common within Gunung Kinabalu National Park.
57833		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
57834		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
57834		distribution	eng	This species is known only from old specimens from Bunguran Besar (Great Natuna Island), Indonesia.
57834		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in lowland forest areas, as with certain other members of the genus, and probably breeds in still water temporary pools and puddles.
57834		population	eng	There have been no records since its discovery, and its population status is unknown.
57834		threats	eng	There is no direct information available on the threats to this species, although it might be seriously threatened if forest loss is taking place within its range.
57835		conservation	eng	This species was not collected in a protected area.
57835		distribution	eng	This species was collected in the Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak, Malaysia, at "Long Re (03° 42' 02"N; 115° 32' 06"E), east of Bario along [the] forest trail to [the] Kalimantan border" (Das and Haas 2003). It was collected at an altitude of around 1,050m asl.
57835		habitat	eng	It was found calling from a water-filled node of a bamboo plant that had fallen across a forest path within primary submontane forest, following a night of torrential rainfall. Its breeding habitats are unknown, but this species may breed in these water pools at the internodes of bamboo plants.
57835		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, so its population status is not known.
57835		threats	eng	The whole of the Kelabit Highlands, where the holotype was collected, are threatened by commercial logging (presumably both clear-cutting and selective logging). The type of bamboo in which this species was found is harvested by local people for subsistence use.
57836		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from at least three protected areas. Preservation of rainforests is important for the survival of this species.
57836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and northeastern Borneo, occurring in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations between 200-1,300m asl.
57836		habitat	eng	It lives in the floor litter of closed-canopy montane and lowland forests. Breeding takes place in very small rain pools, and possibly in phytotelms. Specimens have been recorded from areas that have been severely logged.
57836		population	eng	There are no estimates of population size, although the species is reported to be abundant in some areas.
57836		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat to this species.
57837		conservation	eng	The species inhabits several protected areas throughout its range. Safeguarding the integrity of existing protected areas and gathering information about the species' conservation biology is desirable.
57837		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan Provinces, including Hong Kong, in southern China, central Myanmar through northern Thailand, and much of Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and virtually all of Viet Nam (Matsui <em>et al.</em>, 1996; Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It occurs from lowlands up to 900m asl.
57837		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands, shrublands, and deciduous forest and is also found on the edge of rainforest (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It has also been found in degraded forest and abandoned and cultivated fields. It breeds in small temporary rain pools or freshwater marshes.
57837		population	eng	It is generally not a common species, not even at breeding aggregations, and populations appear to be localized within its wide range.
57837		threats	eng	Destruction and degradation of breeding habitats caused by land use changes and the intensification of agriculture are threats to this species in China. In mainland Southeast Asia there might be localized impacts from forest degradation or the pollution of rain pools.
57838		conservation	eng	It is present in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak), Betung Kerihun National Park (Kalimantan), and Ulu Temburong National Park (Brunei). Protection of lowland forests in Sarawak and Kalimantan is the main conservation measure required for this species.
57838		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in Borneo: in south-central Sarawak (Malaysia), around Betung Kerihun National Park in Kalimantan (Indonesia), and in Brunei Darussalam. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 150-300m asl.
57838		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of closed-canopy forests. Breeding almost certainly occurs in small rain pools.
57838		population	eng	It is rarely found, and is known from only a few specimens.
57838		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging is the principle threat.
57839		conservation	eng	It might occur inside Long Shan Nature Reserve.
57839		distribution	eng	This species is known from Menglian County in southern Yunnan Province, China, and will probably be found to occur more widely (Yang Datong pers. comm.), including in Myanmar. It has been recorded from 300-1,000m asl.
57839		habitat	eng	It inhabits fields near forest, and small ponds, and breeds in ponds and flooded paddy fields.
57839		population	eng	It is common in its only known locality.
57839		threats	eng	Pollution is possibly a threat to this species.
57840		conservation	eng	On Java, it occurs in the Ujung Kulon National Park. Further survey work is needed to assess the current population status of this species.
57840		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from Lampung on Sumatra, and Ujung Kulon National Park in west Java, Indonesia.
57840		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, and degraded, patchy forest. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it probably breeds in small, still-water pools and puddles.
57840		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown; there is only one recent record.
57840		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and agricultural encroachment.
57841		conservation	eng	Although it is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park, it might occur in other montane forests in other parts of Sarawak and Kalimantan, so the continued maintenance of these forest habitats is essential.
57841		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, Borneo. It has not been recorded in the heavily surveyed Gunung Kinabalu National Park, and probably does not occur in Sabah. It is restricted to altitudes above 1,500m asl.
57841		habitat	eng	It is known from montane forest and is presumed to breed in small, temporary forest pools.
57841		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population status.
57841		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
57842		conservation	eng	Orang National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
57842		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Orang National Park, in Assam, India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The holotype and paratypes were collected at 100m asl.
57842		habitat	eng	It was collected in dry grassland adjacent to forest, or close to emergent trees bordering grassland. Pairs in amplexus have been collected in early June (during the south-west monsoon). Males call after heavy showers from the bank of small puddles, while hiding under roots and overhanging blades of grasses (<em>Saccharum</em> sp.) and from thickets of ferns. The larval stages of this species are unknown (Dutta <em>et al.</em> 2000).
57842		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species.
57842		threats	eng	Encroachment by human settlement around Orang National Park might be a potential threat to this species.
57843		conservation	eng	Although present in several forest reserves, and Templer's Park, these areas are in need of stronger legal protection and management.
57843		distribution	eng	This species is known at present only from Pasoh Forest Reserve, Gombak Forest Reserve, Frim, and Templer's Park in Selangor and Negeri Sembilan States in Peninsular Malaysia. All records are from below 300m asl.
57843		habitat	eng	All records are from undisturbed lowland rainforest and associated bamboo stands (Kiew 1984a; Manthey and Grossmann 1997). Reproduction sites include water-filled bamboo stumps and other cavities.
57843		population	eng	It is quite common within its restricted range.
57843		threats	eng	This species has a limited range, in which its available habitat is small, fragmented, and being converted to non-timber plantations and through infrastructure development.
57844		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. The preservation of the lowland rainforest is essential for the conservation of this species.
57844		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Laut in the Natuna Islands and has been found in one locality on Java.
57844		habitat	eng	It is found in the leaf-litter of lowland and hill forests and occasionally in disturbed forests. It breeds in small pools of water.
57844		population	eng	In most of its range this species is considered to be common.
57844		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation.
57845		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Siberut National Park and in Gunung Niut Penrisen Nature Reserve. There is a need to establish more effective protection of rainforest habitats at moderate elevations within the range of the species.
57845		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Sipura, Siberut, Tanah Masa, and Pini (Mentawai Islands, Indonesia), and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia) on Borneo. The Kalimantan locality is less than 30km² from the town of Penrissen. The species is not known to occur below 1,000m asl.
57845		habitat	eng	It is a forest floor species that occurs in submontane areas. It is presumed to breed in very small rain pools.
57845		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
57845		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is forest loss due to clear-cutting.
57846		conservation	eng	The only known locality is at the core of Taman Negara National Park, Peninsular Malaysia's largest protected area. Safeguarding the park should help conserve the species.
57846		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kuala Teki in the Gunong Tahan mountain complex in central Peninsular Malaysia.
57846		habitat	eng	It is known only from the flanks of the Gunong Tahan mountain complex, presumably in primary rainforest. If it is like other members of the genus, it breeds by larval development, perhaps in rain-filled cavities.
57846		population	eng	Its population status is unknown and it has not been reported since 1922, but the absence of records might be indicative of a lack of survey efforts rather than an absence of the species.
57846		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
57847		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary.
57847		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout much of the lowland forest of Borneo, below 300m asl, and is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.
57847		habitat	eng	This is a lowland, tropical moist forest species, not found in modified habitats, and is presumed to breed in small pools of standing water on the forest floor.
57847		population	eng	It is relatively abundant where it occurs.
57847		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of habitat as a result of clear-cutting of tropical forest.
57848		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this widespread, common species. Its range includes several protected areas. The subspecies endemic is found in Mount Harriet National Park, South Andaman Island, India.
57848		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Peninsular Thailand, it is widely distributed throughout Malaysia (including Sabah, Sarawak and Phuket Island), central and western Indonesia (Nias, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Timor, Sulawesi, Kabaena, Muna, Butung and Wowoni), and Palawan in the Philippines. There is a possibly isolated population near Tak in western Thailand. The subspecies K.b. goshi is endemic to Little Andaman and South Andaman Islands, India and is assessed here as part of K. baleata. It has been recorded up to 800m asl, in the Andaman Islands it is known to occur at sea level.
57848		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland rainforests and is also tolerant of disturbed habitats. It has been collected in flood plains and has been observed in arboreal situations up to 6m above the ground. In the Andaman Islands it is reported to be a tree-hole nester. It is known to breed at the beginning of the rainy season. Tadpoles do not feed and develop rapidly.
57848		population	eng	It is an explosive breeder that is locally common.
57848		threats	eng	No significant threats are presently known to this species. In the Andaman Islands it is threatened by the loss of the preferred habitat of old ficus trees.
57849		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.
57849		distribution	eng	This species is known from central to northeast China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea (including Cheju-do Island). It is found between 10-900m asl.
57849		habitat	eng	It inhabits paddy fields, and other cultivated fields and is also found around villages. It breeds in ponds, ditches and rainwater pools.
57849		population	eng	It is a common species.
57849		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
57850		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed at present for this species. The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy of this species is required.
57850		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Philippines. It is found on the central islands of Negros, Panay, Guimaras and Cebu, in many parts of Luzon including the adjacent smaller islands of Polillo and Marinduque, on Mindanao Island, Leyte Island, and the islands of Patnanungan, Jomalig, Catanduanes, Tablas, Romblon and Sibuyan. A record from Mindoro is presently attributed to this taxon. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57850		habitat	eng	It is usually found in secondary growth vegetation and man-made habitats, but it also inhabits lowland and lower montane rainforests.
57850		population	eng	It is an abundant and common species especially during the wet season.
57850		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is the pollution of streams and rivers especially from agricultural run-off.
57851		conservation	eng	Only a few protected areas, such as Pulag National Park, are currently found in this region of the Philippines. There is a need for increased protection of the remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the Cordilleras.
57851		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras and possibly in the Sierra Madres, on northern Luzon Island, and Polillo and Palaui in the Philippines.
57851		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane and lowland forests, but occasionally is also found in forest edge habitats. It lives in water-filled tree holes and hollows. Tadpoles have been collected in the same microhabitats.
57851		population	eng	It appears to be common, especially in forest and forest edge.
57851		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is the deforestation of lower montane and lowland forests in the Cordilleras. The montane forests are either being converted to vegetable farms or are being developed into real estate.
57852		conservation	eng	A protected area needs to be established on the island of Catanduanes to protect this island's biodiversity.
57852		distribution	eng	This species is found on Catanduanes Island and on several mountains of the Bicol Peninsula, in the Philippines, from 200-300m asl.
57852		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower altitude montane and lowland forests, where it is found in forest, along forest edges, and in secondary growth vegetation. This is a highly adaptable species that also occurs in modified habitats beside these forests. It lives and presumably breeds in water-filled tree-holes and hollows.
57852		population	eng	It is a common species.
57852		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is continued destruction of lowland rainforest for agricultural development and human settlements. However, this species is adaptable and is probably not significantly threatened.
57853		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in or near a number of protected areas, but several of these are not secure from the threats of uncontrolled fires and collecting of frogs for human consumption. Efforts are needed to secure these national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and to manage the exploitation of populations of this species outside protected areas.
57853		distribution	eng	This species is known from mainland Thailand, adjoining southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Taylor 1962; Stuart 1999), and Dac Lac Province in southern Viet Nam (Orlov 2002). It presumably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
57853		habitat	eng	It is known mostly from areas originally covered with deciduous dipterocarp forest, and has not been reported from agricultural areas. Breeding takes place in seasonal pools (Heyer 1973).
57853		population	eng	There is no reliable information available on the population status of this species. Large numbers in markets could indicate large populations, or intensive collection, or both. It has not been found during some recent herpetofauna surveys of areas where it was historically known to occur (P. van Dijk pers. comm.), suggesting a possible decline.
57853		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is intensive collection for local consumption, gravid females being preferred. Its habitat has also been extensively impacted by fire and other anthropogenic processes, or cleared completely for agricultural development and other land uses.
57854		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. It can live in disturbed habitats; hence protected areas are not essential for the species' long-term survival.
57854		distribution	eng	This species occurs on major islands all over the Philippines. It has recently been recorded on Palawan.
57854		habitat	eng	It is usually found in human habitats such as agricultural areas, ditches, artificial ponds and lakes. Tadpoles develop in the same microhabitats.
57854		population	eng	It is abundant and common especially during the wet season.
57854		threats	eng	Available information indicates that this species is not subject to any significant threats. A possible threat is predation and competition from alien invasive species.
57855		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present. Its range overlaps with numerous protected areas.
57855		distribution	eng	This species is widespread through much of Southeast Asia, South Asia and China. In Southeast Asia it occurs from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam, south to Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo Pontianak), Sulawesi (Makassar, Palu, and Flores) and the islands of Tioman, Phuket, Langkawi and Singapore. It has a fragmented range in India (known to occur in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Bangladesh. In China it is known from Yunnan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan Provinces, and also Hong Kong and Macau. It has been introduced to Taiwan, Province of China. It is found from sea level up to 750 m asl.
57855		habitat	eng	It is a species commensal with humans that rapidly colonizes urban habitats. It is quite adaptable and was presumably originally a wetland/riverbank/forest edge species that has adapted successfully to agricultural and residential landscapes, although it can still be found in dry forests. It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, breeding in small pools, usually seasonal rain pools, or ponds. It can burrow or climb into shrubby trees.
57855		population	eng	This species is generally quite common throughout most of its range.
57855		threats	eng	It is collected for consumption in many places, but this does not appear to have a significant impact on its populations. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat. It meets several criteria to be considered a vertebrate pest, and an accidentally imported individual was recently intercepted at Perth International Airport, Australia (Tyler and Chapman 2007), while another one was intercepted at Andersen Air Force Base, in Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
57856		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas, such as Pulag National Park. There is a need for increased protection of the remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the Cordilleras.
57856		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras and Sierra Madres of northern Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
57856		habitat	eng	The primary habitats for this species are the lower montane and lowland forests, including streams and rivers. It is occasionally found in disturbed habitats adjacent to these forested areas.
57856		population	eng	It is common wherever it is found but has a very localized distribution.
57856		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is the deforestation of lower montane and lowland forests in the Cordilleras, and the pollution of streams and rivers. The montane forests are either being converted to vegetable farms or are being developed into real estate.
57857		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas in the region.
57857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern Sichuan and southernmost Gansu provinces, in southwestern China, from 500-1,200m asl.
57857		habitat	eng	It is found in hilly areas near villages. It has also been recorded from tree-holes. It breeds in rain-filled, temporary pools and ponds.
57857		population	eng	In the past it was a very common species, but it might not be as common now.
57857		threats	eng	Infrastructure development is a major threat to this species.
57858		conservation	eng	It has a wide range and is expected to occur in numerous protected areas.
57858		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of eastern India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m asl in India, and from sea level up to 1,300m asl in Sri Lanka.
57858		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species found in a wide variety of habitat types including dry forests, plantations (coconut and rubber), wetlands and areas close to human habitations. It is generally found under leaf-litter, in loose soil, and under logs and other ground cover. Breeding and larval development take place in stagnant and temporary waterbodies.
57858		population	eng	It is a common species.
57858		threats	eng	The pollution of waterbodies with agrochemicals and the loss of suitable terrestrial habitat through urbanization are the main threats to this species.
57859		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.
57859		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces in southwestern China, from 1,430-2,320m asl. It is likely to occur in eastern Myanmar, but this has not yet been confirmed.
57859		habitat	eng	It lives in cultivated fields, and near and in villages. It breeds in temporary pools, ponds, irrigation ditches and roadside ditches.
57859		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57859		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, although water pollution might possibly be a threat.
57860		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure for it is the continued designation of Mount Banahaw and Mount Isarog as protected areas.
57860		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of south-eastern Luzon Island and from Polillo Island in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57860		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane and lowland forests, occasionally being found in human-modified habitats beside these forests. It prefers cool and unpolluted mountain streams, where its larvae have been observed.
57860		population	eng	It is common in intact forest but has a patchy distribution. It is still known from fewer than 20 specimens, although recent field surveys show that it is fairly common in its preferred habitat.
57860		threats	eng	Populations of this species outside the two protected areas that it also occurs in are threatened by forest loss through small-scale logging and agriculture development. The disturbance of the lowland forest in the protected areas where it occurs is not significant.
57861		conservation	eng	Its range includes Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.
57861		distribution	eng	This species is known from 1,400-2,000m asl at several localities between the eastern edge of Eastern Highlands Province, and Wau, in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
57861		habitat	eng	It lives under litter on the rainforest floor and breeds by direct development.
57861		population	eng	It is thought to be a reasonably common species.
57861		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57862		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species needs to be documented. It is not known from any protected area.
57862		distribution	eng	This species is known the southern end of the Owen Stanley Mountains, Pini Range, and Cloudy Mountains of southern Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,550m asl.
57862		habitat	eng	This species is found on the forest floor in the leaf-litter of lowland hill forest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a direct developer.
57862		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
57862		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57863		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57863		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Victoria, Mount Tafa and the Owen Stanley Mountains south of Wau, in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, at 2,200-2,700m asl.
57863		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found on the forest floor in rainforest, which is presumed to breed by direct development. It is not found in degraded habitats.
57863		population	eng	It is uncommon.
57863		threats	eng	There are some local threats to this species, such as gold mining in Hidden Valley, which could bring many people into the area. It is likely to be safer elsewhere in its range in the Owen Stanley Mountains.
57864		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence for this species needs to be determined and the population status needs to be assessed. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.
57864		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Opio and the Kubor Range in Western Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. Zweifel (2000) also referred a specimen from Baiyer River to this species, which has been recorded from between 1,750 and 2,180m asl.
57864		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
57864		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens.
57864		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
57865		conservation	eng	It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area and Lorentz National Park.
57865		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central mainland New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), at 15-1,550m asl.
57865		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf-litter on the forest floor, always in mature forest, not in degraded habitats. It breeds on the forest floor, and it breeds by direct development.
57865		population	eng	It varies in its abundance from uncommon to very common.
57865		threats	eng	With the exception of localized impacts, there are no known threats to this species.
57866		conservation	eng	The species' extent of occurrence needs to be determined and its population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
57866		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Myola Guest House, in Northern Province, Papua New Guinea, 5km east and 0.5km south of Myola town, at 2,080m asl.
57866		habitat	eng	This species was found on litter on the forest floor in lower montane forest, and found by day under "surface cover" (Zweifel 2000). It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
57866		population	eng	It is considered relatively common.
57866		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57867		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela and the Tolagnaro Fivondronana Classified Forest. Further research is needed to investigate the breeding biology of this species.
57867		distribution	eng	This species is known only from extreme south-eastern Madagascar, in the Anosyenne Mountains, Parc National d'Andohahela, and Tsitongambarika (north of Tolagnaro). It occurs at 700-1,900m asl.
57867		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests in an area of extensive, continuous rainforest, and is thought to be associated with boulders and granitic outcrops. It is not known from disturbed habitats. The breeding biology of this species is completely unknown.
57867		population	eng	It is apparently not common, but it is very hard to detect, and probably has a patchy occurrence.
57867		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.
57868		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57868		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Papua New Guinea: the type locality (Arau), and the northern side of the Huon Peninsula. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,400m asl.
57868		habitat	eng	It lives in zones transitional between mid-montane and lower-montane forest, where it calls from exposed positions on the forest floor. It has been found only in mature forest.
57868		population	eng	It is reasonably common where it has been found.
57868		threats	eng	No information is available.
57869		conservation	eng	None required. Its range includes a number of protected areas.
57869		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the north coast of Papua (Indonesia), north and south of the central range of Papua New Guinea and from Normanby Island also in Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to 1,430m asl.
57869		habitat	eng	This species is active at night on the forest floor in tropical rainforest. It is an adaptable species that has also been recorded from rural gardens. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
57869		population	eng	This species is abundant within its range.
57869		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57870		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57870		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rossel Island, Papua New Guinea, where it occurs from sea level up to 700m asl. Records from Tagula (Sudest) Island belong to a distinct and as yet undescribed species.
57870		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest and cloud forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57870		population	eng	There have been no recent records.
57870		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present. Rossel Island is very largely covered by primary or slightly disturbed rainforest, habitat is plentiful, and this species ranges across the entire altitudinal range of the island.
57871		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Safeguarding the ecologically intact survival of substantial areas of montane forest, including protection from pollution impacts, would protect the species from the effects of hill development.
57871		distribution	eng	This species might be endemic to the hill and mountain areas of Peninsular Malaysia. There are old records and one recent one from Sumatra, Indonesia. The range mapped in Sumatra remains uncertain. It can occur as low as 550-790m asl, but it occurs mainly above 1,000m asl.
57871		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen rainforest and forest edge, and is an extremely secretive species. It lives in, calls from and breeds in hollows in tree trunks and bamboo by larval development, but its distinctive call makes it easily recognisable and able to be surveyed (P.P. van Dijk, Norsham, Y., J. Sukumaran, Mumpuni pers. obs.). The population density seems to be limited by tree hole availability. Clearing in and around forests can encourage the growth of giant bamboos that can provide additional microhabitat.
57871		population	eng	Populations of this species are known from most surveyed hill and mountain areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Where it occurs it is generally numerous (based on calls), especially above 900m asl.
57871		threats	eng	It is able to withstand modest habitat impacts such as road construction, but would be threatened, at least locally, by plans for the large-scale Malaysian Highlands Development Project.
57872		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Borneo, and has been recorded in a protected area in Sumatra. Effective preservation of lowland forest is needed to conserve this species.
57872		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Borneo, and has also been recorded from northern Sumatra (known only from a single specimen). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species occurring below 700m asl.
57872		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland primary rainforest. Males call from water-containing holes in trees. Breeding and larval development takes place in the tree holes.
57872		population	eng	It is considered to be locally abundant.
57872		threats	eng	The principal threat to the species is clear-cutting of lowland tropical rainforest.
57873		conservation	eng	It is occurs in several protected areas including Ujung Kulon National Park, Gunung Halimun National Park, Gunung Gede Pangerango National Park and Gunung Tangkuban Perhahu National Reserve.
57873		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central and western parts of the island of Java, and was recently discovered in the Barisan-Selatan National Park in Lampung, at the southern end of Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
57873		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, and survives in small numbers in agricultural gardens and plantations. It breeds in ponds, slow-flowing streams and pools along braided streams.
57873		population	eng	It is common in forests, but is found in much smaller numbers in disturbed habitats.
57873		threats	eng	It is tolerant of a degree of forest alteration, but declines in the population are observed where forest has been degraded.
57874		conservation	eng	One locality, Khao Sebab in Thailand, is a protected area, and large parts of the Cardamoms have recently also come under protection. Effectively protecting areas of natural habitat in southern Viet Nam is a priority for the species, as is collecting more information on its status, distribution and biology.
57874		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Indochinese hill rainforest block, from southeastern Thailand through the Cardamoms of Cambodia to the Kon Tum-Lang Bian plateau of southern Viet Nam and the Annamite mountains of southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Taylor, 1962; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Stuart, 1999, Swan pers. comm.). Altitude records range between 600-1,200m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Stuart, 1999).
57874		habitat	eng	All available records are from swampy muddy areas in forest. It presumably breeds in swamps and pools by larval development.
57874		population	eng	The limited information available suggests that the species is uncommon to locally common.
57874		threats	eng	Forest degradation might be a threat, but otherwise threats are mostly unknown for this species.
57875		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to gather appropriate data on the population status of this species and its preferred habitat. Ensuring that the known highland populations in Peninsular Malaysia are included within protected areas is also important for its conservation.
57875		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded with certainty only from Bukit Larut, the Cameron Highlands, and the Genting Highlands at 1,200-1,900m asl in Peninsular Malaysia. There is an old, low altitude, record from the Batu Caves near Kuala Lumpur that requires investigation, and it probably refers to <em>Microhyla palmipes</em>, or a juvenile <em>M. borneensis</em>. Records from peninsular Thailand require confirmation. A record from Tawitawi Island in the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines refers to <em>M. petrigena</em>. Records from Borneo probably refer either to <em>M. petrigena</em> or <em>M. borneensis</em>. It seems likely that this species (<em>M. annectens</em>) is endemic to the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia, perhaps extending into extreme southern Thailand.@@
57875		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor and puddles in evergreen submontane and montane rainforest (Grandison 1972; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999), and breeds in temporary pools.
57875		population	eng	Population data for this species are largely unknown because most recent records have come from the same location, where it can be readily found.
57875		threats	eng	There are some localized threats to this species, mainly relating to agricultural activities and the development of tourist and transport infrastructures, although the montane forests of Peninsular Malaysia are reasonably secure.
57876		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. No conservation measures appear necessary at present although resolution of the taxonomic status of this complex is needed.
57876		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Yunnan Province (Jinghong, Mengla and Mengyang counties) in China, northeast India, eastern Bangladesh, through Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, and southern Viet Nam, south to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia) and parts of Borneo, but is absent from Singapore. The only recorded island occurrence is on Langkawi (Berry 1975). It occurs up to 1,200 m asl.
57876		habitat	eng	It inhabits various types of moist evergreen forest, including monsoon and perennial rainforest types, being generally associated with hilly regions (Dring 1979, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Stuart 1999, Berry 1975), and often found near streams (Stuart 2005). It also occurs in secondary growth. Breeding mainly takes place in still pools.
57876		population	eng	It is generally common in appropriate habitat, forming large choruses.
57876		threats	eng	Selective logging does not pose a serious threat to this species, but deforestation does threaten local populations. It is also reported to be controlled as a pest in South Asia, although the reasons behind this are currently unclear. Water pollution might possibly be a threat in China.
57877		conservation	eng	More information is needed about the species' population status, distribution and conservation biology. Effective preservation of lowland forest is essential for the survival of the species. It is present in several protected areas.
57877		distribution	eng	This species is known from many scattered localities in Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and probably occurs over the whole island in suitable environments. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 70-550m asl.
57877		habitat	eng	It is known from lowland areas of primary rainforest, forest edges and moderately modified rainforest. Explosive breeding takes place in forest pools. Adults are generally found in leaf-litter.
57877		population	eng	Although this species is not seen often, this is probably a reflection of its small size and camouflaged colouration. It is difficult to locate and is most likely to be seen after heavy rains.
57877		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are largely unknown, although it is unlikely to tolerate extensive forest degradation from logging and expanding oil palm plantations.
57878		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.
57878		distribution	eng	This species is known from central, southern and south-western China, including Taiwan and Hong Kong, eastern Myanmar, throughout Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (Bourret 1942, Taylor 1962, Berry 1975, Lim and Lim 1992, Nguyen and Ho 1996, Stuart 1999). It generally occurs in lowlands and at mid-altitudes up to about 220-1,500 m asl.
57878		habitat	eng	A species of the forest edge, occasionally encountered on the forest floor of primary forest, but most often heard in massive choruses at forest edge puddles and pools. It is also known occasionally from plantations, tall shrublands and cultivated fields. It breeds in relatively permanent still waters, such as grassy pools, marshes, ponds and paddy fields in hilly areas.
57878		population	eng	It is generally abundant in appropriate habitat in Southeast Asia. It is regarded as a rare species in Taiwan, Province of China. The distribution in China is fragmented.
57878		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation due to residential and agricultural development are threats to this species in China. No populations were ever found in paddy fields in Taiwan, Province of China, presumably owing to the use of pesticides and fertilizer application.
57879		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from a protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine the range, habitat preferences and population status.
57879		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Mayabunder (east of Burma temple), North Andamans" (Pillai 1977), in the Andaman Islands, India.
57879		habitat	eng	This is presumed to be a fossorial or terrestrial species, possibly associated with the leaf-litter substrate of tropical moist forest, which presumably breeds in water by larval development.
57879		population	eng	It is known only from the type locality, where it is presumed to be rare.
57879		threats	eng	It might be threatened by urbanization around Mayabunder.
57880		conservation	eng	Cat Tien National Park is close to the type locality.
57880		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Ma Da forest, in Dong Nai Province, southern Viet Nam, although it might occur more widely.
57880		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
57880		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species.
57880		threats	eng	No information available for this species.
57881		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies of this species in relation to <em>Microhyla annamensis</em> and <em>M. erythropoda</em> are desirable.
57881		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Da Lat on Lang Bian Plateau, Viet Nam.
57881		habitat	eng	This species presumably breeds in water by larval development.
57881		population	eng	It has not been found since the original description in 1943, although the type locality is easily accessible for survey work.
57881		threats	eng	No information is available.
57882		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.
57882		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central, southern and south-western China, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, including major islands such as Taiwan, Province of China, Hainan, Sumatra, Penang, Siberut, Phuket as well as Great Nicobar Island, India. It occurs up to 1,400m asl.
57882		habitat	eng	It inhabits disturbed areas such as riverbanks, gardens, fire-maintained grassy areas, paddy fields and savannah forest as well as secondary vegetation. It breeds in temporary rain puddles, paddy fields, ditches, marshes and slow-flowing streams.
57882		population	eng	It is generally abundant in appropriate habitats.
57882		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of forests might threaten the species is some parts of its range. It is eaten in northern Thailand, but this is not considered to be a threat.
57883		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site. Continued active management of this area is required, and further survey work is needed to monitor the population status of the species.
57883		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in southern Sri Lanka: Morningside in eastern Sinharaja (06° 24'N; 80° 37'E), and Mahawalatenna in Balangoda (06° 35'N; 80° 45'E). The recorded elevation range is 515-1,110m asl.
57883		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species associated with shaded, wet leaf-litter, in tropical moist forest. Larvae are found in inland wetlands, including old abandoned gem mining pits surrounded by tropical forest.
57883		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57883		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss, due to the establishment of cardamom plantations, as well as by pollution resulting from agriculture.
57884		conservation	eng	The only known population is within the Danum Valley Conservation Area, which is the largest protected lowland dipterocarp forest in Malaysian Borneo. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from a single protected area.
57884		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from the Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. It appears to have a genuinely restricted distribution. Specimens have been collected below 250m asl.
57884		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Little is known of its habits, but presumably it breeds in small rain pools like most of its congeners.
57884		population	eng	It is known only from two or three specimens.
57884		threats	eng	The Danum Valley is a well-protected area. However, its restricted range renders it susceptible to threatening processes.
57885		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with a few protected areas in the region.
57885		distribution	eng	This species is known from Shaanxi, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Zhejang and Anhui Provinces in central China, from 100-1,700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
57885		habitat	eng	It inhabits hilly areas in grassland and is found near streams. It breeds in paddy fields and pools.
57885		population	eng	It is a common species.
57885		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from agricultural pesticides is a major threat to this species.
57886		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas throughout its range.
57886		distribution	eng	This is a very widespread species, occurring through most of South Asia, including Sri Lanka. It occurs up to 2,000m asl. The boundary between this species and <em>Microhyla fissipes</em> is not clear, but has been arbitrarily set at the western border of Myanmar, pending further information.
57886		habitat	eng	It occupies a number of habitat types including lowland scrub forest, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and urban areas. Sub-fossorial in habit, it is also found in forest floor leaf-litter. It is mostly a nocturnal species that is only active diurnally during the rainy season. It breeds in temporary rain pools and other bodies of still water. It can occur in modified areas, such as non-intensively farmed agricultural land.
57886		population	eng	It is a common species through most of its range.
57886		threats	eng	Globally there are no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened by agrochemical pollution (land and water) and the conversion of habitat to intensively cultivated land.
57887		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. On Peninsular Malaysia, further surveys of known and possible additional localities would be desirable, as would ensuring adequate long-term protection of the known sites.
57887		distribution	eng	This species is known from three widely separated locations in Peninsular Malaysia (Batu caves, Kuala Tahan in Taman Negara National Park, and Sekayu waterfalls in the adjoining area of Trengganu-Berry, 1975; Leong and Tan, 2001), as well as from Sumatra, Nias, Java, Madura and Bali (Indonesia). Its distribution in Indonesia is patchy within the range mapped.
57887		habitat	eng	All three Peninsular Malaysian localities are in forest where foothills meet lowland. In Indonesia the species is found in forest at low and higher altitudes. It breeds in stagnant ponds and slow-flowing water. It is usually confined to forest and forest edge habitats.
57887		population	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia the population status of this species is largely unknown. A single specimen was collected in 1998 in Trengganu. In Indonesia the species is very abundant in several places, but less common in others.
57887		threats	eng	The population at Batu Caves in Peninsular Malaysia is severely impacted by (past) mining, religious and recreational use of the site, and encroachment by expanding residential housing. On Sumatra, forest loss is the main threat.
57888		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas.
57888		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern and central Borneo where it is known from scattered localities below 250m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.
57888		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary lowland rainforest where adults live on the ground in the leaf-litter and breed in very small rain pools.
57888		population	eng	As the species is easy to find when it is breeding, it is presumed to be abundant.
57888		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation through clear-cutting.
57889		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from at least three protected areas including Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak) and Batu Apoi National Park (Brunei).
57889		distribution	eng	This species occurs below 700m asl in central and north-eastern Borneo in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), and Brunei Darussalam. It also occurs on Tawitawi Island in the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, where a record of this species (Diesmos and Leong pers. comm.) was previously incorrectly assigned to <em>Microhyla annectens</em>.
57889		habitat	eng	Adults occur in the litter of lowland primary rainforest, and breed in small, clear streams.
57889		population	eng	As the species is easy to find when it is breeding, it is presumed to be abundant.
57889		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation through clear-cutting.
57890		conservation	eng	Where the original specimens were collected is now in Nui Chua Nature Reserve. Its possible occurrence in Binh Chau Phuoc Buu Nature Reserve should be investigated.
57890		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the coastal area of Thuan Hai to Vung Tau Provinces in southern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942).
57890		habitat	eng	Breeding in this species presumably takes place in water by larval development.
57890		population	eng	It has not been recorded since the 1940s.
57890		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the region is presumably extensively modified by agricultural development.
57891		conservation	eng	It is probably secure from all but the most pervasive threats, and is known to inhabit many protected areas. Conservation action appears not to be warranted at the moment beyond maintaining existing protected areas.
57891		distribution	eng	This species is known from central, southern and southwestern China (including Hainan Island, Hong Kong and Macau), and Mainland Thailand at least as far south as Prachuab Khiri Khan province (perhaps to Chumphon), Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam. It is not reported from Myanmar (Taylor 1962, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been introduced to Guam, although it is unknown whether it has established a breeding population in the island (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It occurs from lowlands just above sea level to highlands up to at least 1,100 m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).
57891		habitat	eng	It is mainly observed in forest edge situations. It inhabits disturbed areas such as cultivated fields, abandoned fields, grasslands and plantations, but is apparently not a commensal of large-scale agricultural areas. It breeds in large temporary rain pools, ponds or paddy fields.
57891		population	eng	It is a common species in appropriate habitat, although it is cryptic, seasonal and not often seen.
57891		threats	eng	This species is marketed for human consumption in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999).
57892		conservation	eng	Given its wide range and habitat preferences, it is likely to occur in a number of protected areas.
57892		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Sri Lanka and much of peninsular and northwestern India, and is also present in Bangladesh. It occurs from sea level up to around 460m asl in Sri Lanka and 700m asl in India.
57892		habitat	eng	A lowland species inhabiting dry forest, shrubland and grassland, agricultural land and often close to human habitation (including urbanised areas). Individuals are found in loose soil, amongst leaf-litter, and under logs and other ground cover. Breeding takes place in still waters and paddy fields. There is little information available on larval ecology.
57892		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57892		threats	eng	Pollution of land and waterways by agrochemicals, wetland reclamation (drainage for urbanization) and loss of habitat to infrastructure development are all threats to this species.
57893		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Bilgiris Rangaswamy Wild Life Sanctuary in Karnataka, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and to investigate further its breeding biology.
57893		distribution	eng	This species is known from Biligirirangan Hills (Karnataka) and Wayanad (Kerala) (Biju 2001) in the southern Western Ghats at elevations ranging between 600 and 1,800m asl.
57893		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, leaf-litter species of hilly areas, associated with riparian vegetation (especially grassland) in moist evergreen tropical forest. It has also been recorded from lightly disturbed forest fringes. There is little information on its breeding biology, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
57893		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this recently described species.
57893		threats	eng	In the past, the major threat to this species was habitat loss through conversion to agricultural land (cultivated fields) and the extraction of wood from tropical forests. Habitat loss due to urbanization in the region is now the main threat.
57894		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Gunung Leuser and Taman Negara National Parks. Remnants of the Batu Caves limestone outcrop should be effectively protected and restored where possible. This species' taxonomic status should also be reviewed.
57894		distribution	eng	This species is known in Peninsular Malaysia from two localities: Batu Caves near Kuala Lumpur (the type locality), and Kuala Tahan in the Taman Negara National Park. In Sumatra it is known from three localities: two in Gunung Leuser National Park in Aceh (Iskandar pers. comm.), and one near Lahat in south Sumatra (Mumpuni pers. comm.). It is a low altitude species.
57894		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species was originally a limestone crag area surrounded by lowland forest. It is found in forested areas in Sumatra. It presumably breeds in slow-flowing streams, but no data are available to confirm this.
57894		population	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia there are no population data available for this species, which has not been reported in recent decades despite its type locality being extremely easy to access. In Sumatra this species is rare but it has been collected as recently as 1999.
57894		threats	eng	The most serious threat through most of this species' range is likely to be forest clearance through logging. The type locality is now a partly quarried limestone crag surrounded by housing estates, and is annually flooded with pilgrims.
57895		conservation	eng	Besides the Horton Plains National Park, it also has been recorded from the Pattipola Forest Reserve, Agra-Bopats Forest Reserve and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve.
57895		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central hills of Sri Lanka at an altitude of 1,800-2,200m asl.
57895		habitat	eng	It occurs in lentic habitats, in upper montane grassland and forest. Adults are generally found close to pool and grassland edges, while larvae are found in both permanent and seasonal pools.
57895		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57895		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss through conversion to intensive agricultural use (e.g. vegetables); other threats include droughts and fires, especially in Horton Plains National Park.
57896		conservation	eng	Good populations of this species inhabit a variety of protected areas. Taxonomic research on the status of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Micryletta</span> and presumed subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">M. inornata lineata</span> Taylor, 1962 would be useful.
57896		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andaman Islands in India, from Mengla in southern Yunnan, China, throughout Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia, including some islands such as Phuket (Frith 1977). It is not recorded from Myanmar but it probably occurs in the eastern and southern parts. It is unknown from Singapore. The type locality is an unspecified location in Sumatra, where there were no records until it was recently rediscovered from Lahat, south Sumatra, Indonesia (Mumpuni pers. comm.). In India it occurs at elevations up to 50 m asl, in Cambodia it has been reported from 37 m asl, whereas in Lao People's Democratic Republic it has been recorded from 200-545 m asl.
57896		habitat	eng	It is generally found at the forest edge and in other disturbed situations, but it is rarely commensal in agricultural or residential areas. It breeds in small temporary rain pools and is an opportunistic, explosive breeder.
57896		population	eng	It is a cryptic and inconspicuous species that can be moderately common in places in Southeast Asia (P. van Dijk pers. comm.). In India it is considered common but in China it is reportedly rare.
57896		threats	eng	In China, there is serious habitat loss, especially from rubber plantations and expanding human settlements. Elsewhere in its range it is not known to be significantly threatened.
57897		conservation	eng	It is protected within Kenting National Park at the southern tip of Taiwan, Province of China, but other populations require stricter protection. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.
57897		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution in central and southern Taiwan, Province of China, and occurs below 1,000m asl.
57897		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forests, and is sometimes also found in cultivated fields and orchards. It breeds by larval development in temporary rainwater pools, blocked ditches and cisterns.
57897		population	eng	Only three or four populations have ever been found of this species, and it is considered to be very rare.
57897		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to human settlement and small-scale agriculture.
57898		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57898		distribution	eng	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the following States: Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo (including on Ilhabela Island), and southeastern Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.
57898		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, living in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, and does not occur in open areas. It breeds by direct development: the larvae develop in the eggs in the leaf-litter.
57898		population	eng	It is a very common species, though difficult to find.
57898		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fire, tourism and human settlement.
57899		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57899		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Cuenca Basin in Azuay Province, south to Barrio-Laguna, in Canton Saraguro, in Loja Province in southern Ecuador. It has been recorded at 2,450-2,650m asl in the Cuenca Basin, and at 2,620m asl at Barrio-Laguna.
57899		habitat	eng	It lives in pastures, grassland, and agricultural fields and degraded secondary habitats, not in closed forest. Animals have been collected close to small pools. Its breeding is unknown, but it is presumably by larval development in ponds.
57899		population	eng	It is a common species.
57899		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any known threats.
57900		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57900		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland and premontane zones from Costa Rica and Panama to montane Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. In Costa Rica it is found primarily on the lower Atlantic slopes of the cordilleras, and in the lowlands and on the slopes of the southwestern region. In Colombia, it occurs in the Pacific lowlands, on the lower western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and around the northern edge of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central to the Middle Magdalena Valley. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,600m asl.
57900		habitat	eng	It is a secretive, nocturnal leaf-litter species of humid lowland, montane forest, including secondary forest and areas close to these forests. Adults are generally found under fallen logs and other surface debris. Breeding takes place in swamps and shallow water-filled depressions on the forest floor.
57900		population	eng	It is rarely found, probably largely due to its secretive habits.
57900		threats	eng	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
57901		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lorentz National Park, which is reasonably well protected.
57901		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in New Guinea, North River (Lorentz River), near Sabang, in Papua, Indonesia. It probably occurs at around 150m asl.
57901		habitat	eng	There are no specific data on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably occupies tropical rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57901		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen.
57901		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57902		conservation	eng	Further documentation of the species' Extent of Occurrence and habitat requirements is needed as well as an assessment of the current population status. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.
57902		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Papua New Guinea: Owen Stanley Mountains, Central Province, to Mount Dayman, Milne Bay Province. It is a montane species occurring up to 2,800m asl.
57902		habitat	eng	This arboreal species inhabits tropical rainforest and breeds in trees. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
57902		population	eng	It can be locally very common.
57902		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57903		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, such as Mount Malindang National Park, although there is a need for increased protection of remaining forest habitats on Mindanao.
57903		distribution	eng	This species is known from Biliran Island and several montane localities on Mindanao, in the Philippines. It is expected to be found on intervening islands.
57903		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy forest but has also been found in disturbed lower montane forest. Male calling aggregations have been observed beside ponds and lakes. It is known to breed by direct development, and does not require water for breeding.
57903		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
57903		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of lower montane and lowland rainforest on Mindanao due to agriculture (crops and plantations) and logging.
57904		conservation	eng	This species might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.
57904		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from collections made on Waira Mountain about 7km north-north-east of the village of Kontiunae (Konti), on Yapen Island, Papua, Indonesia, at 600-680m asl. It might occur more widely.
57904		habitat	eng	The type series was collected in dense vegetation under closed-canopy rainforest. The frogs were found in bird's nest ferns at heights of 4-10m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a direct developing species.
57904		population	eng	It was more abundant at the type locality than the sympatric <em>Oreophryne waira</em>.
57904		threats	eng	Selective logging was recorded in the area where the type series was collected, and this might be a threat.
57905		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Wandamen Nature Reserve, though this is not secure from logging.
57905		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the Wondiwoi Mountains, west of the coastal village of Yretuar, at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, and from 54km along the Nabrie-Mapia road, in Papua, Indonesia, at 350-750m asl. It almost certainly ranges more widely.
57905		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation in tropical rainforest up to 2m above the ground. It occurs in dense and open forests, but not in secondary habitats, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57905		population	eng	This species is abundant at its type locality.
57905		threats	eng	Some selective logging is taking place within its range, but this is probably not a serious threat.
57906		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species needs to be documented and its population status needs to be assessed. Its taxonomy is currently under investigation. Its range probably includes Cyclops Nature Reserve.
57906		distribution	eng	This species' known geographic range extends from Madang, on the north coast of Papua New Guinea, to possibly as far as the Cyclops Mountains, Papua, Indonesia. It is present on Kairuru Island, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to about 1,000m asl.
57906		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest, and degraded forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
57906		population	eng	It is not a common species.
57906		threats	eng	None known, but no data available.
57907		conservation	eng	An assessment of the impact of logging on the species is required. It is not known from any protected areas.
57907		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea, ranging up to 350m asl, perhaps higher.
57907		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal, the males calling from bushes and trees at night in lowland rainforest. Survives well in very degraded forest and gardens. It breeds by direct development.
57907		population	eng	It is abundant within its distribution.
57907		threats	eng	Logging is very intensive on the island and might impact some populations, but this species is very adaptable.
57908		conservation	eng	Its extent of occurrence at high altitudes in central New Guinea needs to be documented. It has not been recorded from any protected area.
57908		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from three localities: from high altitudes 9km north-east of Lake Habbeman; from about 70km south-east of Angguruk; and from the southern slopes of the Valentyn Mountains, all in the central mountain ranges of eastern Papua, Indonesia. It occurs from 2,800 up to 3,500m asl.
57908		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane rainforest and grassland and breeds by direct development. Specimens have been collected under low vegetation or on moss in moist habitats.
57908		population	eng	There were no records of this species since the 1970s, when it was observed to be relatively common, until it was recently found at two new localities.
57908		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and it occurs within a remote area, affording it some protection.
57909		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Bogani-Nani Wartabone National Park and the Tangkoko-Batu Angus and the Dua Sudara Nature Reserves. However, these two nature reserves have been very heavily deforested. There is a need for much strenghtened management of existing protected areas in this region, and also for further survey work to determine the population status of this species.
57909		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Sulawesi, Indonesia, above 1,000m asl.
57909		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest, and presumably lays eggs on the ground that develop directly without a larval stage.
57909		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown. Until it was rediscovered in 1999, it was known only from the holotype.
57909		threats	eng	The area where it occurs is experiencing some of the most severe habitat loss in Sulawesi, with forest clearance having taken place almost up to the mountain summits.
57910		conservation	eng	It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.
57910		distribution	eng	This recently described species is found on the crest of the Wondiwoi Mountains and adjacent eastern slopes (the western slopes have not been surveyed) down to 750m asl at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, in Papua, Indonesia, and it might occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is 750-900m asl.
57910		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical rainforest with patchy, dense undergrowth. Animals were found perched in bushes and other vegetation between 1 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited 1.5-2.4m above the ground, and are guarded by the male parent (Günther, 2006).
57910		population	eng	Specimens of this species are difficult to find, so its population status is not known.
57910		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57911		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and current population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57911		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Went Mountains, at 800-1,050m asl, in Papua, Indonesia.
57911		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in tropical rainforest and breeds by direct development.
57911		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no records since the original description.
57911		threats	eng	There are no data available regarding threats to this species, although the only known locality is in a remote area, with very little development.
57912		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of the Idenburg River population needs to be determined in order to clarify the extent of occurrence of this species, the range of which includes Lorentz National Park.
57912		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of central Papua, Indonesia.
57912		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
57912		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, as there are no known collections of it since it was first described.
57912		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which has part of its range in an protected area, affording it some level of protection.
57913		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements, and population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57913		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Morotai Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, but probably also occurs on Salawati and Halmahera (although the specimens from these islands have been lost). Specimens from Geg Island might also belong to this species, which is presumably a lowland species.
57913		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in tropical forest and breeds by direct development.
57913		population	eng	Its population status is unknown as it has probably not been recorded since it was first discovered.
57913		threats	eng	No data are available.
57914		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of the species need to be documented. Taxonomic issues are currently being addressed. Its range includes Kamiali Wildlife Management Area.
57914		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Huon Peninsula southeast to Kokoda and Popondetta, Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to 1,400m asl.
57914		habitat	eng	It is found in rainforest, but is also adaptable and found in rural gardens and urban areas. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
57914		population	eng	It is a very common species.
57914		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57915		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
57915		distribution	eng	This recently described species is distributed in the Adelbert Mountains and adjacent coastal region of Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, westward to the south slope of the Schrader Mountains, and probably northwest as far as the vicinity of Lumi, West Sepik Province. It has an altitudinal range of 0-975m asl.
57915		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical rainforest. Animals were found perched in vegetation up to 5m above ground. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.
57915		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
57915		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57916		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence and the population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57916		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality 18km south-west of Bernhard Camp, along Idenburg River, Papua, Indonesia, at 2,150m asl, and it presumably occurs more widely.
57916		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane rainforest, where it is arboreal and scansorial, and presumably breeds by direct development.
57916		population	eng	There have been no records of it since its discovery.
57916		threats	eng	There is no information available regarding threats to this species, but it is known from a very remote area with few human impacts.
57917		conservation	eng	The species' distribution on nearby islands needs to be documented and an assessment of the population status at the type locality is needed. Its range probably includes Oia Mada Wara Wildlife Management Area.
57917		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two islands in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea: the eastern slopes of Goodenough Island, at 1,600m asl, and from 980-1,830m asl on Fergusson Island.
57917		habitat	eng	This species is found in trees and on the ground in open lower montane tropical rainforest and lowland hill forest, as well as in bamboo groves. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate secondary habitats, since it occurs above the altitude at which rural gardening takes place. It is a direct developer and egg clutches have been observed in the hollowed centres of standing, dead bamboo stems.
57917		population	eng	It appears to be very common, at least on Fergusson Island.
57917		threats	eng	No threats are known at the higher elevations where the species occurs. The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes. On Fergusson Island, the habitat is impacted by gardening up to 300-400m asl in the east, and up to 700m asl in the west.
57918		conservation	eng	The distribution of the species needs to be determined and the current population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
57918		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Milne Bay Province in Papua New Guinea, specifically from two of the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Goodenough Island and Fergusson Island). On Goodenough Island it is known from 1,600m asl, and from Fergusson Island it is known from 1,720-1,830m asl in the east of the island.
57918		habitat	eng	It is found on the forest floor and in trees in montane tropical rainforest, where it presumably breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate secondary habitats, since it occurs above the altitude at which rural gardening takes place.
57918		population	eng	Little information is available regarding the population status of this species, but it might be moderately common within its tight altitudinal band. It has only recently been rediscovered after an absence of records for many years.
57918		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at the higher altitudes where it occurs. The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well by as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes. On Fergusson Island, the habitat is impacted by gardening up to 300-400m asl in the east, and up to 700m asl in the west.
57919		conservation	eng	It occurs in Komodo National Park and perhaps other protected areas within its range.
57919		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Sumbawa, Rinca, Komodo, and the western part of Flores, in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia, below 600m asl.
57919		habitat	eng	It lives in bushes and trees in tropical dry forest and shrubland. Breeding is presumably by direct development, with the eggs being laid on the ground.
57919		population	eng	It is not an abundant species, but is still regularly recorded.
57919		threats	eng	Very little is known about threats to this species, but plans for introducing livestock to the area would be particularly detrimental.
57920		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area.
57920		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Moroka [Central Province], British New Guinea [Papua New Guinea]" (Parker 1934). It is most likely a lowland species.
57920		habitat	eng	This species presumably inhabits tropical rainforest and, like other species in the genus, presumably breeds by direct development.
57920		population	eng	It has not been collected since the late 1800s, so its population status is unknown.
57920		threats	eng	There is no information on threats.
57921		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
57921		distribution	eng	This recently described species is distributed throughout the Island of Biak and the east of Supiori, Papua, Indonesia. The altitudinal range of the species is not known.
57921		habitat	eng	It has been found in swamps, under fairly dry conditions in cultivated areas and also in remote tropical forests. Animals have been collected perching in vegetation between 0.5 and 7m above ground level. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57921		population	eng	It is presumed to be a common species.
57921		threats	eng	The species has been recorded in cultivated land, and so it might not be significantly threatened.
57922		conservation	eng	The Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and current population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57922		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Moroka, and from the Milne Bay area, in Papua New Guinea. It is a lowland species.
57922		habitat	eng	It is known from lowland rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development (like other species in the genus).
57922		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57922		threats	eng	Its major threats are unknown.
57923		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
57923		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality from New Guinea, in the Derewo River basin in the mountains of western Papua, Indonesia, at 2,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely.
57923		habitat	eng	This species is found in moss on boulders and trees in montane tropical rainforest. There is no degraded forest where the species has been found, and so its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57923		population	eng	It is common in its only known locality, but occurs patchily.
57923		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
57924		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status for this species need to be determined. There are no protected areas within the known range of this species.
57924		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of Halmahera, Ternate, and Batjan Islands, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia.
57924		habitat	eng	It is presumably a forest dwelling species that breeds by direct development.
57924		population	eng	There are no recent records of this species, but there have been no surveys of this area.
57924		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
57925		conservation	eng	The mountain forests on Bali are protected, but for recreational purposes, not for biodiversity conservation. On Lombok the species presumably occurs in Gunung Rinjani Nature Reserve. There is clearly an urgent need for survey work to establish the current population status of this species on the two islands, and its presence within existing reserves.
57925		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Bali and Lombok in Indonesia, from above 1,000m asl.
57925		habitat	eng	It is known only from highland forest. It presumably lays eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development without a larval stage.
57925		population	eng	There is no recent information on this species, and it has not been recorded since the 1930s.
57925		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being severely impacted by very large-scale international tourism.
57926		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures for this species.
57926		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from Ialibu, in Southern Highlands Province, and Tabubil, in Western Province, Papua New Guinea, from 550-1,920m asl, and it might occur more widely.
57926		habitat	eng	It has been collected in tropical forest, where animals were found on vegetation above the ground. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57926		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
57926		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57927		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in Cyclops Nature Reserve.
57927		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Matapau, in West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. It has also tentatively been identified as occurring in the Sentani region of Papua, Indonesia, at 90-300m asl.
57927		habitat	eng	The animals in Sentani live in very disturbed forest and in sago swamps in highly disturbed habitats, but there is no information on the habitat at the type locality.
57927		population	eng	The animals occurring at Sentani are common, but there is no information on this species' population status at the type locality.
57927		threats	eng	The animals at Sentani are probably not threatened, as they do well in disturbed habitats. Nothing is known about threats to this species at the type locality.
57928		conservation	eng	It might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.
57928		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality (and its immediate vicinity), which is near the road to the village of Ambaidiru, about 17km north-east of Serui, on a ridge of Amoman Mountain (belonging to the Tamampi Massif), on Yapen Island, Papua, Indonesia. This species was collected at altitudes of 800-1,200m asl. It might occur more widely.
57928		habitat	eng	The type series was collected in dense vegetation in rainforest. The frogs were perched on leaves and shrubs between 0.5 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this species presumably breeds by direct development.
57928		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat, although this requires further investigation.
57928		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57929		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. More research and survey work is needed to determine the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species.
57929		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rama Mese on the eastern side of the island of Flores in Indonesia, although it might occur a little more widely.
57929		habitat	eng	It lives in bushes and trees in tropical dry forest and shrubland, and presumably lays its eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development.
57929		population	eng	There is no information on its population status. The most recent specimens were collected in 1997.
57929		threats	eng	There is little information on specific threats to this species, but it would presumably suffer from extensive habitat loss.
57930		conservation	eng	It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.
57930		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the slopes and valleys east of the main ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, from 450-800m asl. It is possible that it is also present on Yapen Island and in the Fakfak Mountains, although further studies are needed to confirm the identity of animals from these regions.
57930		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical forest, where specimens were mainly found perched on the leaves of shrubs between 0.3 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57930		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant.
57930		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57931		conservation	eng	It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.
57931		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the slopes and valleys east of the main ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, from 500-900m asl. It is possible that it is also present in the Fakfak Mountains, although further studies are needed to confirm the identity of animals from this area.
57931		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforest, where specimens were found perched in trees between 3 and 6m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57931		population	eng	Specimens of this frog are difficult to find.
57931		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57932		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Gunung Lompobatang and Latimojong Nature Reserves.
57932		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mounts Lompobatang and Latimojong, above 1,000m asl in southern Sulawesi, and from Gunung Karua at 1,200m asl in south-central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
57932		habitat	eng	It lives in undisturbed highland forested areas. It presumably lays eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development without a larval stage.
57932		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon, and patchily distributed, species.
57932		threats	eng	The primary threat is habitat conversion due to smallholder farming.
57933		conservation	eng	This species might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.
57933		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from collections made on Waira Mountain about 7km north-north-east of the village of Kontiunae (Konti), on Yapen Island, Papua, Indonesia, at 600-680m asl, and from a second site 5km north-west of the type locality (also on Yapen Island) at altitudes of 900-1,150m asl. It might occur more widely.
57933		habitat	eng	The type series was collected in dense vegetation under closed-canopy rainforest. The frogs were perched on leaves and shrubs between 1 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57933		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
57933		threats	eng	It might be threatened by selective logging, which was recorded in the area where the type series was collected.
57934		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of the Yapen Island populations needs to be assessed. This species' known range probably includes Yapen Nature Reserve.
57934		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in north-western Papua, Indonesia, at 1,070m asl, and also from Yapen Island (also in Papua), at 500m asl.
57934		habitat	eng	It is found under leaf-litter and on low foliage in dry ridges in tropical rainforest, and has not been found in degraded habitats. Like other species in the genus, it breeds by direct development. The males parent guards the eggs on the ground, and transports the juveniles on its back (Günther, 2006).
57934		population	eng	It is thought to occur only at low densities.
57934		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
57935		conservation	eng	The species needs to be rediscovered and its extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status need to be determined.
57935		distribution	eng	No specific locality is known for this species, but it probably occurs somewhere in the northern half of Papua New Guinea.
57935		habitat	eng	It is presumably a tropical forest species that breeds by direct development.
57935		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
57935		threats	eng	No data are available.
57936		conservation	eng	Until this species is rediscovered, no conservation plans can be made.
57936		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mengkoka Mountains in south-eastern Sulawesi, Indonesia. However, the exact location of these mountains is not clear, and it is not possible to determine this species' range.
57936		habitat	eng	This is likely to be a burrowing species in rainforest that presumably lays its eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development.
57936		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, so its population status is unknown.
57936		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
57937		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57937		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Vaupés and Amazonas in southeastern Colombia, across the lowlands of southern Venezuela (Amazonas state) and through the Guianan region (Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana), to Amapá in Brazil. The Venezuelan populations range from the base of Cerro de la Neblina in southernmost tip of Venezuela, northward to the upper Ventuari River. The elevational range for this species is from about 200-1,100m asl.
57937		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal tropical rainforest species, males calling mostly on rainy days. They perch next to streams, or live on the forest floor under leaves or among roots. The males are territorial. The eggs are laid inside or outside water. The tadpoles are aquatic and hide under leaves in small ponds. It is not very adaptable to habitat alteration.
57937		population	eng	It is a common species.
57937		threats	eng	Local populations are probably impacted by habitat loss caused by logging, human settlement and agricultural (including ranching) development. But overall it occurs in a region of minimal human impact.
57938		conservation	eng	It occurs in Canaima National Park (Venezuela).
57938		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela (Gran Sabana in Bolívar state), and adjacent Guyana (in the region of Mount Roraima) from 700-1,400m asl. It might occur more widely.
57938		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that lives in tropical rainforest, usually adjacent to streams. Tadpoles have been found in La Escalera region amidst leaves in a slowly flowing, tannin-coloured stream on sandy substrate (Duellman 1997). It also uses streams with rocky streambeds. Males call from between rotten trunks, holes, mats of roots and from under rocks, usually near swampy areas. The tadpoles burrow in the sandy bottom of streams.
57938		population	eng	It is common within its range.
57938		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of limited human impact, but local populations are probably impacted by agriculture, logging and human settlement
57939		conservation	eng	It occurs in Canaima National Park (Venezuela). Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the identity of specimens from Jaua-Sarisariñama.
57939		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Chimantá tepui, Jaua tepui and Mount Roraima in Bolívar state, southeastern Venezuela, and Mount Ayanganna in western Guyana. It occurs at 1,500-2,151m asl.
57939		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal toad living at the borders of slow-flowing streams in high montane tepui habitats. It calls from holes in leaf-litter or from between trunks or in crevices between rocks near montane streams. The tadpoles live in the substrate at the bottom of small ponds adjacent to flowing waters (the spiracle protrudes from the substrate enabling respiration).
57939		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
57939		threats	eng	Tourism could be a threat in Mount Roraima, but otherwise there are no significant threats.
57940		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be further documented. Its range does not include any protected areas.
57940		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the central mountains of Papua New Guinea from Mount Hagen in the west to Mount Otto in the east. It occurs at about 1,800-2,800m asl.
57940		habitat	eng	This species is found on saturated ground under moss in montane forest. It has not been observed in disturbed habitats. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57940		population	eng	It is reportedly quite common.
57940		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and its range is quite isolated.
57941		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and current population status need to be documented for this species. It is not known from any protected areas.
57941		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Hellwig and Wichmann Mountains near Lake Habbema, and in the vicinity of Doorman River, in central Papua, Indonesia, at 2,200-3,000m asl. It is possibly more widespread.
57941		habitat	eng	This is presumably a montane forest species that breeds by direct development.
57941		population	eng	There is no recent information available on the population status of this species.
57941		threats	eng	There is no information available on specific threats to this species, but it occurs in a very remote area.
57942		conservation	eng	The species' extent of occurrence needs to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
57942		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kaironk Valley in the Schrader Mountains, Madang Province, and from 120km to the south-west at Mendi in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. It was recorded between 2,200 and 2,400m asl. It might have a wide distribution in Enga Province, where there has been little survey work.
57942		habitat	eng	This species was found under logs on the forest floor just inside primary forest close to anthropogenic grassland. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
57942		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
57942		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
57943		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be documented and the population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
57943		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 2,050-2,600m asl on Mount Dayman and Mount Simpson, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It might be endemic to this mountain complex.
57943		habitat	eng	This fossorial frog is usually found in either montane closed-canopy forest or (more frequently) in open tussock grass and shrublands. It presumably breeds by direct development.
57943		population	eng	It is a common species in appropriate habitat.
57943		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any threats to it as its habitat is sufficiently isolated from areas of human settlement such that habitat disturbance is insignificant.
57944		conservation	eng	Further documentation of the species distribution is required. Its range includes Mount Wilhelm National Park.
57944		distribution	eng	This species is known from four disjunctive regions at very high altitudes in the mountains of central Papua New Guinea. It is recorded from 2,490-4,000m asl.
57944		habitat	eng	It inhabits alpine grassland with tree ferns. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
57944		population	eng	It is a very common species in appropriate habitat.
57944		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species due to its high elevation. Fire is a potential threat.
57945		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57945		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in scattered localities in eastern Madagascar, from Ambana north to Ambatovaky. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 950m asl.
57945		habitat	eng	It is found near pools and marshes in clearings in rainforest. It is also found in secondary vegetation, but not in very open areas away from forest. It is an explosive breeder using permanent and temporary pools. It is fossorial when it is not breeding.
57945		population	eng	It is locally and temporally abundant.
57945		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57946		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, although it has not so far been recorded there, despite intensive sampling. Additional survey work is needed to determine the status of this species and whether or not it even still survives in the wild.
57946		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the hills west of Amani, in the East Usambara Mountains, in north-eastern Tanzania, probably at around 900m asl.
57946		habitat	eng	It is apparently a forest species found in leaf-litter, with ecological and breeding requirements perhaps similar to those of the <em>Hoplophryne</em> species. No other information is available on its habitat and ecology.
57946		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype. There have been no records since the late 1920s, despite extensive herpetological work in the Amani area (though perhaps not quite in the area where this species occurs).
57946		threats	eng	This species is likely to be adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially due to small-scale agricultural activities. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
57947		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in Varirata National Park.
57947		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is in the Sogeri plateau 8km north and 27km east of Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea, at 460m asl. The limits of its distribution are not well understood.
57947		habitat	eng	This is a very adaptable species that calls from concealed positions (possibly in holes) in mowed lawns, plantations, and in closed-canopy rainforest. It breeds by direct development.
57947		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
57947		threats	eng	Since it appears to be able to withstand severe habitat disturbance, it is probably not facing any serious threats.
57948		conservation	eng	More information is needed before realistic conservation measures can be formulated for this species. Better management of Templer's Park, Selangor, would benefit the population there, and options to designate Gunung Benom a protected area should be explored. It occurs in several protected areas on Sumatra.
57948		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia at low altitudes on Siberut, Tanah Masa, Sipora, Pini and Sumatra, and in Peninsular Malaysia (from Johor to Kedah). There is a new record from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary at 700m asl in Narathiwat Province, in extreme southern Thailand (Yodchaiy Chuaynkern pers. comm.).
57948		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rainforest at low to medium altitudes, including forest edges. In Thailand it has been found in clearings in the forest. They can live up to 30m above the ground in trees where they are very difficult to find, which might explain the relatively small number of records. They breed in temporary forest pools.
57948		population	eng	It is uncommon but has been recorded from several locations in all three countries in recent years. Normally only a few specimens are collected at a time.
57948		threats	eng	Forest degradation is likely to be the major threat to this species, since it does not appear to survive in severely degraded habitats.
57949		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas.
57949		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Namibia and eastern Angola through western Zambia, to southern Democratic Republic of Congo at Lake Mweru. It possibly occurs in northern Botswana and western Zimbabwe, but it is not definitely recorded in these countries. Records from southern Tanzania require confirmation.
57949		habitat	eng	There is very little information on this species. It is presumably occurs in savannah woodland. If it is like other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools and pans.
57949		population	eng	It is known from very few records over its wide range. It appears to be a rare species.
57949		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be threatened, since it occurs in a region where natural habitats are largely intact.
57950		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
57950		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Angola, south through western and southern Namibia to the northern part of the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. It occurs from 600-1,200m asl.
57950		habitat	eng	It is a species adapted to arid environments, and is closely associated with inselbergs and other rock exposures. It breeds in temporary pools and depressions in rocky arid areas, favouring deep rock pools that keep water for a long time, as the tadpole is a relatively slow developer.
57950		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
57950		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present, although quarries and mines might be localized threats, particularly pollution resulting from mines.
57951		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57951		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme southern Somalia and from Lake Baringo in the Kenyan Rift Valley, south through Tanzania and eastern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo to western Angola, northern Namibia, northern and eastern Botswana, northeastern South Africa and Swaziland. It also occurs on the islands of Zanzibar and Mafia. It occurs from sea level up to at least 50-1,450m asl.
57951		habitat	eng	It is a species of savannah woodland and grassland. It also occurs in agricultural habitats. It breeds in temporary pans and pools, and in flooded grassland and small dams.
57951		population	eng	It is a common species.
57951		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is well known in the pet trade but this is not currently at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
57952		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57952		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal east in the savannah zone to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There do not appear to be records from Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Niger, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.
57952		habitat	eng	It lives in very open grassy savannah and in wooded savannah, but it is not found in forest. It also occurs in agricultural habitats. It is associated with various species of ponerine ants, and they hide in ant nest during the dry season. It breeds in large temporary ponds, where it has large floating egg masses.
57952		population	eng	It is a common species.
57952		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
57953		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57953		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded only from southern Somalia and southern Ethiopia. It presumably occurs between these two areas, and perhaps more widely, for instance in northeastern Kenya.
57953		habitat	eng	It is probably a species of open dry savannahs and dry grassland. The single Ethiopian record is from riverine <em>Acacia</em> woodland in a region otherwise dominated by arid savannah. If it is like other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools and pans. Outside the breeding season it probably lives in subterranean cavities near water.
57953		population	eng	There is very little information. Only a single (juvenile) specimen has been collected in Ethiopia, so its numerical status in this country remains unknown.
57953		threats	eng	There is little information, but the most likely threat is environmental degradation resulting from human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.
57954		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57954		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Tsaratanana at 2,000-2,600m asl in northern Madagascar. Records from Marojejy and Andringitra require confirmation.
57954		habitat	eng	It lives in high-elevation rainforest and bamboo forest, and is not found in open areas. Its breeding is unknown, but presumably takes place by larval development in water-filled bamboo stems.
57954		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57954		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is potentially susceptible to dry season fires.
57955		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy, Zahamena Special Reserve, Parc National de Mantadia, Réserve Spéciale d’Ambatovaky, and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.
57955		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively broad distribution in northeastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andasibe. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,100m asl.
57955		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species in rainforest, found in holes in trees, in bamboo stems, and in the leaf axils of traveller’s palms and screw pines (Pandanus spp.). It has been found in degraded forest but not in open areas. It breeds by larval development in water-filled tree holes and bamboo.
57955		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57955		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57956		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57956		distribution	eng	This species has a very uncertain distribution because of its confused taxonomic status. The type locality is "East Betsileo", which is presumably in east-central Madagascar, but this is not a specific locality, so no range map can be prepared for this species. Some other specimens have also been assigned to this species, but it is not clear that this is correct.
57956		habitat	eng	It is presumably an arboreal rainforest species that breeds in tree holes and bamboo.
57956		population	eng	There is no recent information available on the population status of this species.
57956		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
57957		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas including Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
57957		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, in northern, eastern and central Madagascar, from   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) south to Andohahela. It also occurs on the island of Nosy Managabe. There is an isolated population in west-central Madagascar at Ambohijanahary. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,400m asl.
57957		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species, where it is usually arboreal but is occasionally found on the ground. It needs mature forest. It breeds in tree holes.
57957		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, but is sometimes rare.
57957		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57958		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.
57958		distribution	eng	This species is known only from north-eastern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Ambolokopatrika and Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. Current records are from 875-975m asl. It might occur more widely than current records suggest.
57958		habitat	eng	It lives in mid-high-altitude transitional forest, with tall trees and an abundance of epiphytic plants. It climbs on small tree trunks 2-4m above the ground. It is apparently not a phytotelm specialist, but probably hides in tree holes, under bark, and at the base of epiphytes. Breeding presumably takes place via larval development out of water. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.
57958		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, and it is thus far known from only six specimens.
57958		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires, and expanding human settlements.
57959		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe, the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo, and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57959		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to a small area in extreme north-western Madagascar, from Tsaratanana to Manongarivo, including the island of Nosy Be. It has been recorded from sea level up to 600m asl.
57959		habitat	eng	It is found only in pristine rainforest. Breeding is by larval development in the axils of plants, such as screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.).
57959		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species.
57959		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. It occurs in a region where the rainforest is fragmented, and continuing loss of habitat can be expected. Its bright colouration might make it attractive for future commercial collecting. It might also be affected by the collection of screw pines, the leaves of which are used for the roofs of huts.
57960		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy, the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe.
57960		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Madagascar, on the island of Nosy Be in the north-west, and at Sambava, Marojejy and Antanaharibe-Sud in the north-east. The identity of the populations near Antongila Bay is uncertain, and the overall range of this species is very poorly known. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
57960		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal inhabitant of rainforest that is also found in coffee plantations and bamboo growth, as it can occur outside forest where tree holes and bamboo are available. This species presumably breeds by larval development in tree holes.
57960		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species, but it has a patchy distribution.
57960		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.
57961		conservation	eng	It might occur in several protected areas, depending on the resolution of its confused taxonomic status.
57961		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern and eastern Madagascar. The taxonomy of this form is extremely confused, and some literature records might refer to other species. As a result of this, attempts to map its range probably do not give a meaningful picture of its distribution. It has been recorded from 300-1,500m asl.
57961		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal rainforest species that is usually found in the leaf axils of screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.) and in bamboo stems, in which it breeds by larval development. It can survive in slightly degraded areas, secondary vegetation, and eucalyptus growth, but not in very open areas.
57961		population	eng	It is moderately common.
57961		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of <em>Pandanus</em>, which is used for making the roofs of huts.
57962		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, and may also occur in Parc National de Masoala.
57962		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif, Andapa Fivondronana and the Masoala Peninsula. It has been recorded at 600-1,250m asl.
57962		habitat	eng	It is a species of transitional forest and medium altitudes, with tall trees and abundant lichens, mosses and ferns. It appears to be closely associated with screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.). It has been found in degraded forest, providing that screw pines are still present. It presumably breeds by larval development in the leaf axils of screw pines.
57962		population	eng	It has only recently been discovered, but it appears to be moderately common in suitable habitat.
57962		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is probably particularly sensitive to the collection of screw pines, which are used for making the roofs of huts.
57963		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57963		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three specimens collected in 1949 at 2,600m asl on the Tsaratanana massif in northern Madagascar, close to the summit, Maromokotro, which is at 2,876m asl. Records from Anjanaharibe-Sud and other locations away from Tsaratanana refer to another species (C.J. Raxworthy pers. comm.). It might be restricted to the highest parts of the Tsaratanana massif, and attempts to relocate the species have been successful (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).
57963		habitat	eng	It inhabits tall montane rainforest and bamboo, and is probably not found outside mature forest. It presumably breeds in bamboo stems by larval development.
57963		population	eng	It is known from only three specimens collected in 1949. It has not been found in two surveys within its high-elevation range since the mid 1990s.
57963		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is probably secure at the high elevations at which it occurs, but, as it is a mountain-top species, it might be at risk from global warming.
57964		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57964		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern and east-central Madagascar from Manongarivo south to Andringitra. It has been recorded at 400-1,200m asl.
57964		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of rainforest, most often observed in screw pine (Pandanus spp.) leaf axils. It also occurs in secondary and degraded vegetation, but not in completely open areas. It breeds in Pandanus leaf axils by larval development.
57964		population	eng	It is a common species at some localities..
57964		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.
57965		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57965		distribution	eng	This species occurs in many localities in central-eastern and southeastern Madagascar, from Anjanaharibe south to Anadohahela, and also at Ambohitantely on the central plateau. It has been recorded at 100-1,500m asl.
57965		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and fossorial species of rainforest, including littoral forest. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is not known. Its breeding is completely unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.
57965		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but it is difficult to find.
57965		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
57966		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
57966		distribution	eng	Although the range of this species is not known, it is presumed to be restricted to Madagascar, as are all other species of <em>Plethodontohyla</em>.
57966		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are not known, although breeding is thought likely to be by larval development, possibly underground, or in leaf axils or tree holes.
57966		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
57966		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
57967		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57967		distribution	eng	This species occurs in many localities in east-central and southeastern Madagascar from Ambatovaky south to Andohahela. It has been recorded from sea level up to 800m asl. Specimens from northern Madagascar might belong to this species, but this requires confirmation, and is not included here.
57967		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial and terrestrial species of rainforest, including in somewhat degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.
57967		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57967		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57968		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, which is relatively well managed.
57968		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in east-central Madagascar, one of them (East Betsileo) being very vague. The only precisely known locality is Parc National de Ranomafana. Although the species might occur in other rainforest areas, many have now been surveyed and the species has not been reported from any of them. It has been recorded at 900-1,100m asl.
57968		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and sub-terrestrial species of rainforest, and has so far not been found in degraded habitats. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.
57968		population	eng	It is a rare species, and only a few specimens are known.
57968		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. The habitat surrounding Parc National de Ranomafana continues to be degraded.
57969		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Zahamena, Parc National de Mantadia and Parc National d'Andringitra.
57969		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Madagascar from Zahamena south to Andringitra, at 900-1,400m asl.
57969		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and fossorial species of primary and somewhat degraded rainforest, and also occurs in pine plantations. It is particularly associated with forests that are rich in moss and lichens. It is not found in open areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to take place by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.
57969		population	eng	It is an uncommon to moderately common species.
57969		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57970		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Betampona and Parc National de Marojejy, and probably in Parc National de Masoala and Parc National de Mananara Nord.
57970		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in north-eastern and eastern Madagascar: Betampona; Marojejy; Ambolokopatrika; and Masoala. Its altitudinal range is approximately 200-1,000m asl.
57970		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial and terrestrial species of rainforest, including coastal rainforest. It has so far been found only in mature forest. There is no information on breeding, though it is likely to take place by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or tree holes.
57970		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
57970		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. The coastal rainforest is under particularly serious pressure as a result of human activities.
57971		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
57971		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in the Tsaratanana Massif in northern Madagascar, at 2,000-2,600m asl.
57971		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and occurs in high-elevation forest and perhaps montane grassland, and has not been recorded in degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils or in tree holes.
57971		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57971		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire, and expanding human settlements.
57972		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57972		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in many localities in northeastern, east central and southeastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohahela. Specimens from Kalambatritra in southeastern Madagascar might belong to this species, but this requires confirmation. It has been recorded at 400-1,100m asl, but perhaps also occurs lower than this.
57972		habitat	eng	It is a species of pristine rainforest, sometimes living on vegetation and sometimes in tree holes. It has not been found in altered habitats. It breeds in tree holes by larval development.
57972		population	eng	It can be a locally common species.
57972		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57973		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57973		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed at several localities in northern, eastern, southeastern, and mid-western Madagascar. It could be a complex of several species and the map might therefore not give a meaningful distribution. It has been recorded at 300-1,000m asl.
57973		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species that lives in rainforest, including degraded forest, but not in open areas. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.
57973		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
57973		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57974		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana, and in the Analamazaotra and Ambohitantely Special Reserves.
57974		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and eastern Madagascar from Ambohitantely and the Andasibe area, south at least to Ranomafana. It occurs at 500-1,500m asl.
57974		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and degraded forest, but not in open areas. It breeds in tree holes and leaf axils by larval development, possibly exhibiting parental care.
57974		population	eng	It is a very abundant species locally.
57974		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
57975		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, Parc National de Marojejy, the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe, and the Réserve de la Biosphère du Sahamalaza-Iles Radama. Further research is required to resolve the taxonomic status of this species.
57975		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in northern Madagascar, from Sahamalaza to the island of Nosy Mangabe, from sea level up to high altitudes.
57975		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial and terrestrial species of lowland and montane rainforest, which is not found in degraded areas. It is thought likely to breed by larval development, possibly underground, or in leaf axils or tree holes.
57975		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
57975		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57976		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
57976		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andohahela. There are also records from Bemahara and Ambohijanahary in west-central Madagascar. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
57976		habitat	eng	It is a species of rainforest, including degraded forest, not found in open areas. It is both terrestrial and found in low vegetation. It breeds in leaf axils and tree holes by larval development.
57976		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57976		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
57977		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57977		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in many localities in northeastern and east-central Madagascar from Masoala south to the lowlands east of Ranomafana. It possibly occurs further south. It has been recorded from sea level up to 900m asl.
57977		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species, usually being found in very slightly degraded areas. It is terrestrial and sometimes fossorial, often living in leaf-litter. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.
57977		population	eng	It is usually a rare species, but it is sometimes found in reasonable numbers.
57977		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
57978		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, Parc National de Marojejy, and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.
57978		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from northern Madagascar from Tsaratanana to Marojejy, at 900-2,100m asl. Records from further south in Madagascar refer to <em>Plethodontohyla coronata</em>.
57978		habitat	eng	It is a species of middle- to high-elevation rainforest, and has not so far been recorded from degraded areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to take place by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or tree holes.
57978		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57978		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.
57979		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There might be a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.
57979		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from central Madagascar from Angavokely, south to Zanzinakely. It probably occurs more widely in central Madagascar. Records from northern Madagascar (Tsaratanana) and extreme south-eastern Madagascar require confirmation and probably refer to other species. Its confirmed altitudinal range is 1,600-2,400m asl, although it probably also occurs at lower elevations.
57979		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of rainforest, including open areas near rainforest. It has also been found in pine plantations, high-altitude grassland and heath land, and even in potato fields. Breeding takes place in a subterranean jelly nest, and they have non-feeding tadpoles that complete their development in the nest.
57979		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57979		threats	eng	Although it appears to be a relatively adaptable species, it is probably impacted by frequent fires and overgrazing by livestock.
57980		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve.
57980		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Usambara (East and West), Nguu, and Nguru Mountains in northeastern Tanzania at around 900 to 2,000m asl.
57980		habitat	eng	It lives in montane and submontane forests, and can survive mild disturbance where good vegetation cover remains, but cannot tolerate complete forest clearance. It lives on the forest floor, where it is semi-fossorial. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they develop directly without a larval stage.
57980		population	eng	It is a common species.
57980		threats	eng	It is almost certainly being adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
57981		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Nyanga National Park and several neighboring state parks.
57981		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, north of Mutare. It is likely to occur across the border in Mozambique, but has not so far been recorded there. It probably occurs mainly above 1,500m asl.
57981		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of montane forest, usually found under rotten logs or under piles of leaf-litter; its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known. Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not associated with water. The eggs are laid in a burrow, consisting of a hollow in humus beneath a layer of dead leaves.
57981		population	eng	It is believed to be reasonably common within its small range.
57981		threats	eng	The high-altitude habitat of this species has remained relatively intact up until now, but it might be at increasing risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.
57982		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but has not so far been recorded from there.
57982		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania, and on Mount Rungwe in southern Tanzania. In the northern Udzungwa Mountains it occurs very close to the range of <em>Probreviceps loveridgei</em>, and the two species are possibly sympatric. It occurs in the montane and submontane zones, and its altitudinal range in the Udzungwa Mountains is 1,050-2,100m asl, and it has been found at 1,550m asl on Mount Rungwe.
57982		habitat	eng	It lives in montane and submontane forests, and can survive mild disturbance where good vegetation cover remains, but cannot tolerate complete forest clearance. It lives on the forest floor, where it is semi-fossorial. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they breed by direct development without a larval stage.
57982		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
57982		threats	eng	It is almost certainly adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture.
57983		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Uluguru North and South Forest Reserves, and is generally protected by the remoteness of the area in which it occurs. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from a single site.
57983		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the upper elevations (1,800-2,500m asl) of the Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania.
57983		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland, where it lives on the ground and is semi-fossorial. It occurs marginally in montane forest close to grassland. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they breed by direct development without a larval stage.
57983		population	eng	It is quite common.
57983		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably reasonably safe, and the species might not be seriously threatened, although it might be susceptible to burning of its grassland habitat.
57984		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Field surveys and the designation of a neotype are required before the species' range; population status and habitat requirements can be determined.
57984		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "[the] Base of [the] Anamallai Hills, Coimbatore District" (Rao 1937), in the southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India.
57984		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat or ecological preferences, though it is likely to occur in moist forest. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires free-standing waterbodies for breeding or whether or not it breeds in habitats such as leaf axils or tree holes instead.
57984		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the lost holotype.
57984		threats	eng	The major threats are not known.
57985		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Field surveys and the designation of a neotype are required before the species' range; population status and habitat requirements can be determined.
57985		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Saklespur, Hassan [District]" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at 948m asl.
57985		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat or ecological preferences, though it is likely to occur in moist forest. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires free-standing waterbodies for breeding or whether or not it breeds in habitats such as leaf axils or tree holes instead.
57985		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the lost holotype.
57985		threats	eng	The major threats are not known.
57986		conservation	eng	It has only been recorded with certainty from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Records from other protected areas, namely Indira Gandhi National Park and Kalakkad Wild Life Sanctuary (both in Tamil Nadu), Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka), Bhimashankar Wild Life Sanctuary (in Maharashtra), and Purna Wild Life Sanctuary (in Gujarat), may refer either to this species or to congenerics. Further taxonomic studies are urgently needed to clarify its precise distribution and altitudinal range, and to resolve confusion with related species (current collections of it probably represent more than one species).
57986		distribution	eng	This species is currently reported to be widely distributed throughout the Western Ghats of India. The type locality is Wayanad, and the species is only known with certainty from this site (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).
57986		habitat	eng	It inhabits low foliage, such as leaf sheaths of palms and tree fern fronds, in tropical moist forests. It breeds by larval development, and deposits its eggs in tree holes where the larvae develop. Breeding begins soon after the onset of monsoon rains. This species has been recorded from a cardamom plantation adjoining a forest reserve suggesting that it is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification, but presumably still requires trees for breeding.
57986		population	eng	It is rare and difficult to find.
57986		threats	eng	The major threat to it is conversion of areas of suitable forest habitat to agricultural land (including eucalyptus, coffee and tea plantations).
57987		conservation	eng	It was rediscovered in the Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary in Goa, but the other populations remain unprotected.
57987		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three sites in the southern Western Ghats: Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary (in Goa); Sakleshpur, Hassan District (in Kasrnataka); and Amboli (a hill station in Maharashtra). It can be expected to occur somewhat more widely than these current records suggest. It has been reported from 400-800m asl.
57987		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial frog associated with tropical moist evergreen and deciduous forests, and can be found in disturbed secondary forest although this is not the preferred habitat. Rao (1937) reported specimens from the "whorls of banana leaves", but this requires confirmation. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires waterbodies for breeding.
57987		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57987		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss following conversion to agricultural land (including plantations) and infrastructure development (for industry, tourism, and human settlement).
57988		conservation	eng	The only known population is protected within the Kanneliya Forest Reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is currently known only from a single site.
57988		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka. The type series was collected at 150m asl in Kanneliya Forest Reserve (near Galle).
57988		habitat	eng	Adults are terrestrial and arboreal and prefer lowland moist forest habitats. Breeding takes place, and tadpoles have been found in, tree holes. It has not been recorded from modified habitats.
57988		population	eng	It is known only from the type locality, and is considered to be locally rare.
57988		threats	eng	The species' habitat is protected within the Kanneliya Forest Reserve. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
57989		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in a number of protected areas: the Knuckles Range, Namunukula Forest Reserve, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the Royal Botanical Gardens, and Udawattakele Reserve Forest.
57989		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a number of isolated populations in the low country wet zone and the central hills of Sri Lanka, including Sinharaja Forest, Knuckles Range, and Namunukula and Udwattakele. It has an altitudinal range of 460-1,220m asl.
57989		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, terrestrial, and sub-fossorial, and mostly inhabits moist montane forest. Adults can be found in leaf-litter, under ground cover, in tree holes and crevices, and in water tanks. Larvae are found in stagnant waters. It can also be found in gardens, secondary forest and other lightly disturbed areas.
57989		population	eng	It is a locally common species with a stable population.
57989		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is agrochemical pollution of land and water.
57990		conservation	eng	Besides Horton Plains National Park and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, it is also recorded from Agra-Bopats Forest Reserve and Pattipola Forest Reserve. Further research is needed to investigate the breeding biology of this species, and also to understand the reasons for the die-back of mature trees in some of its key protected habitats.
57990		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central hills of Sri Lanka where it has been recorded at elevations of 1,830-2,135m asl.
57990		habitat	eng	It is generally restricted to montane tropical moist forest habitats. Adults can be found in leaf-litter (and are at least partially fossorial), under stones and other ground cover, beneath bark, on the trunks of trees, and in the canopy. Breeding is thought to take place by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires water for breeding.
57990		population	eng	It is a rare species.
57990		threats	eng	The principal cause of decline appears to be habitat loss through the conversion of forests to cultivated land (tea plantations), logging with subsequent replanting of plantation forests (in Pattipola) and droughts and fire (especially in Horton Plains National Park). Die-back of mature trees in Horton Plains National Park and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve is also a key threat to the species (although the causes of this die-back are not known).
57991		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley National Park, both in Kerala, which form part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. It is also present in the Ponmudi Hills of Kerala.
57991		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be restricted to the southern Western Ghats, Ponmudi Hills (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Wayanad and the Silent Valley (Kerala), and Saklespur, Hassan District (Karnataka) in India. The distribution record in the Shevaroys Hills of the Eastern Ghats, as reported in Dutta (1997), requires further confirmation. It has been reported from elevations of 300-950m asl.
57991		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical moist evergreen and deciduous forests, and coffee plantations with a natural canopy cover. It can be found in tree holes between two and four metres above ground level (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1984), and in the leaf-litter substrate. It may also be found in abandoned eucalyptus plantations close to forest. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires waterbodies for breeding.
57991		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
57991		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to conversion to agricultural land (including coffee plantations) and human settlements.
57992		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range it is possible that this species occurs in a number of protected areas in both India and Sri Lanka.
57992		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in India and Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,000m asl in India, and from 3-175m asl in Sri Lanka.
57992		habitat	eng	It is found in various types of forest, grassland and pastureland, often close to human habitations. It is found in dry soil areas with ground cover (such as stones and logs). In India individuals are associated with termite mounds. It is an explosive breeder in temporary pools.
57992		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
57992		threats	eng	General habitat loss through infrastructure development and various forms of pollution is a major threat.
57993		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in some protected areas, but this is not confirmed.
57993		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in the lowlands of northern Colombia, including the Middle Magdalena Valley, and extending eastwards to northwestern Venezuela (probably in southwestern Zulia State). There is an isolated population of the Pacific versant of central Panama. It is a low-altitude species.
57993		habitat	eng	There is little information. It is a terrestrial species of lowland forests, and possibly also savannahs. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known. It breeds in temporary pools.
57993		population	eng	There is little information, but it appears to be uncommon.
57993		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by ongoing habitat loss.
57994		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe.
57994		distribution	eng	This species occurs on two islands (Nosy Be and Nosy Komba) off the north-west coast of Madagascar, and in north-eastern Madagascar between Sambava and Andapa. An old record from "Imerina" is too vague to be of value, while records from Réunion Island are erroneous. It has been recorded from sea level up to 300m asl.
57994		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest, heavily degraded secondary vegetation, and plantations, provided there is sufficient shade, tree cover and leaf-litter. It is a terrestrial species found in leaf-litter and in burrows. It breeds in underground nests with parental care, but it is not known if breeding takes place by larval or direct development.
57994		population	eng	It is a common species on Nosy Be. There is no information from elsewhere, but it is clearly much more rare on the mainland of Madagascar.
57994		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fire, and expanding human settlements.
57995		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making this a priority species for immediate habitat protection. There is also a need for controlled, sustainable trade in this species.
57995		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Fierenanan, at 950m asl, in eastern Madagascar (though it might occur more widely).
57995		habitat	eng	It is probably restricted to large, flooded forest areas on sandy ground, and presumably breeds in swamps. Its adaptability to altered habitats is unknown.
57995		population	eng	There is little information on the current population status of this species. However, it is presumably locally common, at least according to evidence from commercial collectors.
57995		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by over-collecting for the international pet trade.
57996		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Berenty and Isalo National Parks, and probably in other protected areas.
57996		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in west-central, southwestern, and extreme southeastern Madagascar from Kirindy Forest south and east to the Fort Dauphin region. It has been recorded from sea level up to 800m asl.
57996		habitat	eng	It lives in dry forest, spiny forest, littoral forest, bush savannah, arable land, rice fields, and urban areas, often in sandy areas with intermittent rainfall. It is an explosive breeder, usually in temporary pools and in rice paddies.
57996		population	eng	It is a very common species seasonally.
57996		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57997		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
57997		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northwestern, western, southwestern and extreme southeastern Madagascar. It probably occurs in most dry areas of western and southwestern Madagascar. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.
57997		habitat	eng	It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including sub deserts, open areas in dry forest, urban areas, agricultural land, savannahs, and scrubby vegetation. Large breeding aggregations have been observed during rainy episodes. It breeds in temporary ponds.
57997		population	eng	It is a very common species when breeding.
57997		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
57998		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional de Isalo. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Controlled, sustainable trade of this species is required, possibly involving a trade quota. Additional studies are needed to determine if this species is suitable for commercial captive-breeding operations (see Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
57998		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a few areas within the northern postion of the Isalo Massif (at 700-1,000m) near Isalo (in the Province of Fianarantsoa) in south-western Madagascar. Recent surveys have shown it to occur a little more widely than was previously thought, from Amparambatomavo south to Lola (F. Andreone pers. comm.).
57998		habitat	eng	It is found in open, rocky areas, generally in dry forest, and in more humid vegetation in canyons. It is partly rupicolous and able to climb vertical walls within the narrow canyons of the Isalo Massif. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) note that the species is largely fossorial and specialised to live within the narrow and wet canyons of the Isalo Massif, and has a high dispersal capability (most likely during storms in the rainy season). Breeding is presumed to take place in shallow, temporary pools.
57998		population	eng	It appears to be locally abundant in the humid canyons.
57998		threats	eng	Over-collection for the international pet trade could be a significant threat to this restricted-range species, and it is still commonly recorded in international trade (the high level of mortality among captive animals might be contributing to the high level of trade). Its habitat might also be at risk from fire, wood extraction, overgrazing by livestock, and recent sapphire mining activities in areas adjacent to the species' known range. Disturbance by tourists within the range of the species are reported to have increased, but the impacts of this are unclear.
57999		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National d’Andringitra.
57999		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the central plateau of Madagascar from Ankaratra south to Andringitra, from 1,300-2,000m asl.
57999		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species found in montane forests, savannahs and agricultural areas. Breeding takes place in large, temporary, and perhaps also some permanent, pools.
57999		population	eng	It is locally common, but the extent of its habitat is somewhat limited.
57999		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is considered to be the loss of suitable breeding habitats to agricultural activities, even though this is an adaptable species. Introduction of predatory fish into pools is also a significant threat.
58000		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, Parc National de Mantadia and Parc National de Zahamena. Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) undertook a study into the economics of captive breeding this species, concluding that it is well suited to intensive commercial captive breeding programmes, and indeed that market demand could potentially be fully met with captive-bred animals.
58000		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Madagascar from Zahamena south to the Andasibe area. It has been recorded at 100-1,000m asl.
58000		habitat	eng	It is a species of rainforest and degraded secondary vegetation in the east, and deciduous dry forest in the west. It does not survive in very open areas. Breeding takes place by larval development in shallow, temporary pools.
58000		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
58000		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, fire, and expanding human settlements. The bright colouration of this species might make it more attractive for commercial collecting in the future. There are currently small numbers in the pet trade, but probably not at a level to have a negative impact on the species.
58001		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58001		distribution	eng	This taxon is known from the non-specific type locality of "Côte N.O. [north-west] de Madagascar", and no distribution map can be prepared for it.
58001		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds by larval development in water.
58001		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58001		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58002		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58002		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern Madagascar from Masoala south to Chaines Anosyennes, at 100-1,100m asl.
58002		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine rainforest, swampy forest, forest edge and degraded forest. It does not occur in very open areas. Breeding takes place in temporary pools in and near forest.
58002		population	eng	It occurs patchily, and is not common, but it is occasionally found in large numbers when breeding.
58002		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
58003		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58003		distribution	eng	This taxon has been recorded from Lavenambato, in Tulear region, south-western Madagascar.
58003		habitat	eng	It is presumed to breed by larval development in water.
58003		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
58003		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58004		conservation	eng	It almost certainly occurs in the Selous Game Reserve, and possibly in the Udzungwa National Park, but records are lacking.
58004		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Tanzania from the Uluguru Mountains, southwest to Mount Rungwe and Songea, and southeast to Nchingidi. It occurs at both low and high altitudes up to 1,600m asl, perhaps more.
58004		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and submontane forest and miombo woodland, where it burrows into logs in dry season. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate any degradation of its habitat. Its breeding requirements are unknown, though it is presumed to be by direct development.
58004		population	eng	It is irregular in occurrence, but this is probably because it is overlooked because of its very secretive habits.
58004		threats	eng	Because the ecological requirements of this species are so poorly known, it is not possible to assess its threats.
58005		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps several protected areas. The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be further documented.
58005		distribution	eng	This is a very widespread species that is common in rainforest habitats on mainland New Guinea from the western tip of the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua, Indonesia, to eastern Papua New Guinea. It occurs at altitudes up to 1,500m asl, although there are old records from 2,600m asl.
58005		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and scansorial species that calls from bushes and saplings in rainforest understorey at night, and hides beneath litter and logs during the day. It has also been found in disturbed habitats such as gardens and degraded forest. It breeds by direct development, and the male parents carry the babies on their backs (Günther <em>et al</em>., 2001; Günther, 2006).
58005		population	eng	It is a common species with overall numbers likely to be in the millions.
58005		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58006		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).
58006		distribution	eng	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the State of Espírito Santo and the southeastern part of the State of Minas Gerais, to the central part of the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 550m asl. Records from the State of Rio de Janeiro are now referred to <em>Stereocyclops parkeri</em>.
58006		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest. It breeds in small, temporary ponds inside the forest. It in not found in open habitat outside forest.
58006		population	eng	It is very common at breeding sites, but is normally secretive and hard to find.
58006		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing and logging and human settlement.
58007		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Bosque da Barra, and Floresta Nacional Mario Xavier.
58007		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowlands of the State of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil, close to sea level.
58007		habitat	eng	It lives in coastal "restinga" scrub, forest edge, and primary and secondary forest. It is an explosive breeder, using both small and large temporary ponds. A population from Rio de Janeiro had reproductive activity recorded for the month of December (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It is not found in open habitat outside forest.
58007		population	eng	It is abundant where it is found.
58007		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to fire, tourism and human settlement.
58008		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre, and the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.
58008		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Montagne d'Ambre and Tsaratanana south to Sahamalaza in northern and northeastern Madagascar. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.
58008		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, secondary growth, and plantations in rainforest areas. It does well in disturbed habitats such as cacao plantations. It breeds in terrestrial nests with non-feeding larvae.
58008		population	eng	It can be a very abundant species.
58008		threats	eng	It is probably not significantly affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
58009		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Further research is required to clarify its taxonomic status, since it is not clear what animals are covered by its name (Glaw pers. comm.).
58009		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and north-eastern Madagascar from Montagne d'Ambre south to the Andasibe area, from sea level up to 1,300m asl. It probably occurs at more localities than have so far been recorded.
58009		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest, and also in somewhat secondary habitats, including forest edges. It is terrestrial, and lives in leaf-litter. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.
58009		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58009		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
58010		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserve Speciale d'Ambohitantely, which is very poorly protected. Improved management and protection of the remaining habitat of this species is clearly urgently needed.
58010		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two small habitat fragments in the vicinity of Ambohitantely, in central Madagascar, at 1,500m asl. Surveys at other potential localities on the high plateau have yet to reveal any additional populations (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> . 2008).
58010		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting montane forest, and has not been found in altered habitats. Breeding is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em> (terrestrial nests with non-feeding larvae).
58010		population	eng	It is very rarely found.
58010		threats	eng	The forest is disappearing very rapidly at its only known locality due to the impacts of fire, illegal woodcutting by local people, and overgrazing by livestock. No other suitable habitat is found anywhere nearby. As of 2006, habitat loss was continuing, and this species will disappear unless this can be addressed (D. Vallan pers. comm.).
58011		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe and the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Glaw pers. comm.).
58011		distribution	eng	This species is reliably known only from Nosy Be Island, and Benavony and Manongarivo on the adjacent mainland, in north-western Madagascar. A badly damaged specimen from Montagne d'Ambre cannot be assigned to any known species. This species occurs from sea level up to 700m asl.
58011		habitat	eng	It lives in the leaf-litter of both primary and degraded rainforest, and in coffee plantations. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.
58011		population	eng	It is common and adaptable on Nosy Be, but is much less common on the mainland.
58011		threats	eng	This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.
58012		conservation	eng	It occurs in Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe on Nosy Be. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.
58012		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to two small islands: Nosy Be and Nosy Komba off the north-west coast of Madagascar. It might occur on the adjacent mainland, but it has not been found there during recent surveys. It has been recorded from sea level up to 300m asl.
58012		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, coffee plantations, and dense vegetation along roads. Although it is somewhat adaptable, it needs some shade and leaf-litter. It breeds in a foam nest in leaves on the ground, with non-feeding tadpoles in the nest.
58012		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
58012		threats	eng	High human population density and urbanization on the islands of Nosy Be and Nosy Komba are undoubtedly contributing to a reduction in the availability of suitable habitat. Any factors resulting in the loss of humid leaf-litter, such as expanding sugarcane cultivation, will be very detrimental for this species. Other possible threats include fires and pollution from agricultural pesticides.
58013		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.
58013		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in north-eastern Madagascar (Marojejy and Voloina), from 100-1,300m asl.
58013		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in forest in leaf-litter and is probably adaptable, although it is not found in plantations. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.
58013		population	eng	There is no specific information on its population status, but it is probably a very rare species.
58013		threats	eng	This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
58014		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.
58014		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie) and Nosy Mangabe, two islands along the north-east coast of Madagascar, and also from Nahampoana, 1,000km to the south in extreme south-eastern mainland Madagascar. It seems likely that geographically intermediate populations will be found, although it is not certain that the recorded populations necessarily belong to the same species. It has been recorded from sea level up to 100m asl.
58014		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in rainforest and degraded, secondary vegetation, but not in very open areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.
58014		population	eng	It is locally common.
58014		threats	eng	This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
58015		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, depending on the resolution of its taxonomic status.
58015		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Marojejy, Andasibe and Nahampoana, three widely separated localities in eastern Madagascar, although the record from Nahampoana, in south-eastern Madagascar, might refer to <em>Stumpffia tetradactyla</em>. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,300m asl.
58015		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species, living in rainforest, forest edges, and eucalyptus at the edge of forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>S. gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.
58015		population	eng	Around Andasibe this species is locally abundant. There is no information regarding its population status at other localities.
58015		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.
58016		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, for example Kaieteur and Mabura Hill Forest Reserve (Guyana), La Neblina (Venezuela), and several in Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana.
58016		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in northern and central Brazilian Amazônia, through the Guianas, to southeastern Venezuela (the only known record from this country coming from Bolívar state, east slopes of Cerro Santa Rosa, in the Serranía del Supamo), and southeastern Colombia. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs at low elevations at 100-700m asl.
58016		habitat	eng	It lives under leaf-litter and in holes in the ground in humid tropical forests at low elevations. It lays large, terrestrial eggs, which develop into non-feeding tadpoles on the ground, and which do not develop in water. It is not known from degraded habitats.
58016		population	eng	It is a rare frog in collections and its range is poorly documented. However, it can be locally common in places.
58016		threats	eng	It is probably not seriously threatened, but local populations might be impacted by fire and clear cutting.
58017		conservation	eng	The range in Colombia overlaps with La Paya National Park. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and Limoncocha Biological Reserve. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed.
58017		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Vaupés and Putumayo departments, Colombia, and adjacent Ecuador (Napo Moist Forests of the Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zone). It has been recorded between 200-600m asl.
58017		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that inhabits tropical moist forests. It lives on and under the forest floor, and in muddy areas next to water springs. Clutches of two embryos are laid 10cm underground and the young breed by direct development without a larval stage. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
58017		population	eng	It is a very difficult species to find so it appears to be uncommon, but it is secretive, and so it might be more common than it appears.
58017		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are localized threats but there are no known major threats to the species overall at present.
58018		conservation	eng	It potentially occurs in the Serranía de la Neblina National Park in Venezuela, and is likely to be present in other protected areas.
58018		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three widely separated areas in the Amazon basin: Vaupés in southeastern Colombia; the Baría river, at the base of Cerro Neblina, in Amazonas state, southern Venezuela; and the vicinity of Manaus, Amazonas state, in central Brazil. It presumably occurs widely between these localities. All records have been from around 100m asl.
58018		habitat	eng	It is usually found in leaf-litter or in holes in the ground in tropical rainforest. It can also be found in muddy areas next to water springs. It calls from rotten tree trunks and logs. Clutches of two embryos are laid 10cm underground. These terrestrial eggs are large and develop into non-feeding tadpoles, which do not require water. It is not adaptive to human modification of its habitats.
58018		population	eng	It is not a very common species.
58018		threats	eng	It is probably not seriously threatened, but local populations might be impacted by shifting agriculture and clear cutting.
58019		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, it occurs in the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno. In Peru it occurs in Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Pacaya-Samiria Reserve, and Reserva Comunal El Sira. In Peru it is covered under national legislation; treated as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19-1999).
58019		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Ecuador, and the eastern Amazonian region of Perú (Departamentos: Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios). It is present from 200-1,000m asl.
58019		habitat	eng	It is present in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest (terra firme and flooded). It has been recorded from both leaf-litter and bromeliads. It is a phytotelmic species that breeds in leaf axils, probably by direct development. It may be found along roadsides and in old growth secondary forest.
58019		population	eng	It can be abundant.
58019		threats	eng	It is generally a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Over harvesting of bromeliads might lead to some localized declines.
58020		conservation	eng	In Peru it is present in several protected areas (Pacaya-Samiria Reserve, Alpahuayo Mishana Reserve). In Colombia it is present in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu.
58020		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Northeastern Amazon of Perú (Departamento: Loreto) and southern Amazonian Colombia (Leticia region). It is present below 200m asl. It is likely to be found in neighbouring Brazil.
58020		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from both leaf-litter and bromeliads in primary tropical moist rainforest. It is a phytotelmic species that breeds by direct development. Eggs are deposited in bromeliad axils. It is not present in degraded habitats.
58020		population	eng	It is a possibly common, cryptic species.
58020		threats	eng	Large areas of suitable habitat are remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Over harvesting of bromeliads might lead to some localized declines.
58021		conservation	eng	The species might occur in Gueppi Reserved Zone, Peru. It is not known to be present in any Brazilian or Colombian protected areas.
58021		distribution	eng	This species was known originally from Amazonian Peru, where it was discovered at San Jacinto, near Teniente Lopez, in Loreto Province. There are now records that are believed to refer to this species from Tabatinga, in Amazonas State, Brazil (700km ESE of San Jacinto), and from Leticia in southeastern Colombia. These records are included in the distribution map, and it is presumed to occur in the intervening areas. Its altitudinal range is from 190-350m asl.
58021		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species of lowland primary forest. It is only present in damp forest, and is not present in modified habitats. The reproductive mode is not known, but it is likely to be by direct development in bromeliad axils.
58021		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
58021		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats, since it is probably a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging (selective and clear-cutting), collection of bromeliads, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).
58022		conservation	eng	Given the species' wide range it is probably present in a number of protected areas.
58022		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in peninsular and northeast India and throughout much of Bangladesh. It is a lowland species present at elevations below 600m asl.
58022		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found in both forests and agricultural land. Breeding takes place in shallow ponds and marshy wetlands.
58022		population	eng	It is a common species.
58022		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are agrochemical pollution of waterbodies and urbanization.
58023		conservation	eng	This wide-ranging species presumably occurs in several protected areas.
58023		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South Asia, and is found throughout much of southern and eastern India, northwestern India, and has also been recorded from northeastern Pakistan (Shakarparian Hills, Islamabad), Nepal and northern and southeastern Sri Lanka. It is present from sea level up to approximately 1,000 m asl (Pakistan).
58023		habitat	eng	This is a completely fossorial species that buries itself in loose, moist soil. Specimens have been observed in dry forest areas, plains, home gardens and low-intensity agricultural areas. The adults surface only during the summer monsoons; during the dry months they retreat into the soil. In Pakistan, termites are reportedly the main food of this species. Breeding takes place during the monsoon rains. Males call from the banks of torrents or paddy fields, and eggs are laid in masses which float on the water surface.
58023		population	eng	Little is known about the population status of this species. The range is contiguous and populations might generally be stable. In Sri Lanka and in Gujarat, India, the species is regarded as common in its preferred habitat, whilst in Pakistan it is considered rare.
58023		threats	eng	The main threats are the loss of suitable habitat to increasing urbanization, and the pollution of both land and wetlands with agrochemicals.
58024		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species needs to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58024		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Star Mountains of central New Guinea (in Papua New Guinea), to the northern Star Mountains at Okbap (in Indonesia). Its altitudinal range is 1,900-2,100m asl.
58024		habitat	eng	Animals of this species call from open, boggy areas in mid-montane rainforest. This species has also been found underneath moss on vertical seepage banks in disturbed habitats, and it presumably breeds by direct development.
58024		population	eng	There is little information; it appears to be localized.
58024		threats	eng	It might be threatened by the extensive forest clearance that is taking place within its range for rural gardens, although it might be somewhat adaptable.
58025		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Arfak Mountains National Park.
58025		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near Makwam, Papua, Indonesia, including at the Anggi Lakes. It occurs around 1,500-2,000m asl.
58025		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter and below logs on the forest floor in tropical rainforest, and breeds by direct development.
58025		population	eng	It was reportedly fairly common when it was collected.
58025		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58026		conservation	eng	The distribution needs to be documented, particularly in areas between currently known localities. It is likely to occur in some protected areas, but this has not yet been proven.
58026		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from four localities in southern Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea. All localities are near sea level, and it is unlikely to occur above 500m asl. The mapped distribution presumes its occurrence between known locations.
58026		habitat	eng	It presumably inhabits the forest floor in lowland rainforest, but there are no ecological data. It presumably breeds by direct development.
58026		population	eng	Only four specimens are known.
58026		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58027		conservation	eng	No specific actions required but documentation of the species' ecology and distribution would be worthwhile. It is not known from any protected area.
58027		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Schrader, Hagen and Kubor Ranges and the Sepik-Wahgi Dividing Range of central New Guinea, Papua New Guinea, at 1,300-2,900m asl.
58027		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is adaptable and is known from cultivated areas and lower and mid-montane forest. It breeds by direct development.
58027		population	eng	It is common in lower and mid-montane forest.
58027		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58028		conservation	eng	It occurs in Lorentz National Park.
58028		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality near the upper Lorentz River, and Eipomek, approximately 140km east of the type locality, in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,700-2,400m asl.
58028		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest, and possibly also montane grasslands (according to local informants; Blum and Menzies 1988), and presumably breeds by direct development.
58028		population	eng	It is reportedly rare, according to local people.
58028		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species, but the area around Eipomek has been heavily cleared for rural gardens.
58029		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species needs to be documented. Its range does not include any protected area.
58029		distribution	eng	This species is known only from localities between 1,300 and 2,160m asl in the eastern Huon Peninsula mountains, Papua New Guinea.
58029		habitat	eng	It was found in tropical rainforest in humus on the forest floor, from where males were heard calling during the day. This species breeds by direct development.
58029		population	eng	There are no records of this species since it was first collected, although there have been no subsequent surveys of the area.
58029		threats	eng	It is not known what threats there are to this species, although there might be some villages nearby that could threaten its habitat in the future.
58030		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is likely in Lorentz National Park.
58030		distribution	eng	This species occurs at moderate to high elevations in the mountains of Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea). It has been found at 1,800-2,800m asl.
58030		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the forest floor in montane rainforest. It has been found in moss and leaf-litter in podocarp and elfin forest, but has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
58030		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species, but is not abundant.
58030		threats	eng	It occurs in very remote areas, and there are no known threats.
58031		conservation	eng	None required apart from further documentation of the species' distribution. Its known range includes Crater Wildlife Management Area.
58031		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southeastern part of New Guinea, from near the Papua (Indonesia) border almost to Port Moresby. It has been recorded between 240-1,270m asl.
58031		habitat	eng	This species is found under humus on the forest floor in tropical rainforest. It is not known from degraded habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development and under logs.
58031		population	eng	It not a common species.
58031		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58032		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status needs to be documented, including populations in forest habitats. It is not known from any protected areas.
58032		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Eipomek Valley and the adjacent Famek Valley, and from Okbap, in western New Guinea (Papua, Indonesia), from 1,800-2,080m asl.
58032		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical rainforest under moss, and also between 20 and 30cm deep in the ground in grasslands and gardens, so it can clearly persist in severely modified habitats. It breeds by direct development.
58032		population	eng	It is not a common species, and occurs at low densities.
58032		threats	eng	This species is probably not facing any major threats, as a result of its adaptability.
58033		conservation	eng	The habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.
58033		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern foothills of the Nassau Mountains, Papua (Indonesia), eastward in the north coast ranges of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 700-880m asl.
58033		habitat	eng	This species is found on the forest floor in lower montane rainforest. It has not been recorded from degraded habitat. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
58033		population	eng	It is thought to be an uncommon species.
58033		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58034		conservation	eng	It could occur in Lorentz National Park, but this has not been confirmed.
58034		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the high mountains of central Papua, Indonesia, at 2,000-2,800m asl.
58034		habitat	eng	It is found only in montane forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.
58034		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58034		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in very remote areas.
58035		conservation	eng	This species' range includes Arfak Mountains National Park.
58035		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, "Hatam" (probably near Makwam), in the northern Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, at 1,500m asl. The name of the type locality is not actually a place but the name of the local people in this area.
58035		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest, where it is probably a terrestrial species, rather than fossorial, based on its morphological evidence. It is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
58035		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from only three specimens.
58035		threats	eng	Its habitat might potentially be threatened by smallholder farming, which is common in this area.
58036		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58036		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the north coast of Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea, and central mountains of Papua New Guinea. It ranges up to 1,300m asl.
58036		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and lower montane rainforest, and cleared areas such as small-scale subsistence farms around villages, where it calls from beneath the humus on the ground. It breeds by direct development.
58036		population	eng	It is not common anywhere, occurring at low densities.
58036		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be threatened in view of its wide distribution and tolerance of habitat modification.
58037		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. The type locality is not within a protected area.
58037		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Angguruk, in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,400m asl.
58037		habitat	eng	No information is available.
58037		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It has only been collected once, in 1979.
58037		threats	eng	The possible threats to this species are not known, although the area in which it was collected is quite disturbed and has been so for quite some time.
58038		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58038		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known only from the type locality in Eipomek Valley, Papua, Indonesia, at 1,800m asl.
58038		habitat	eng	It inhabits grassy and rocky areas, including in anthropogenic habitats, where it calls from beneath rocks or vegetation. Breeding in this species is by direct development.
58038		population	eng	It is common where it is found.
58038		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be facing any serious threats, particularly given its adaptability to anthropogenic habitats.
58039		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence and population status of this species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
58039		distribution	eng	This species is known only from below 300m asl in the vicinity of Lae, Papua New Guinea, although it might also occur in the Adelbert Mountains.
58039		habitat	eng	It is found beneath leaf-litter in rainforest, and can possibly adapt to degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development in this species.
58039		population	eng	Only three specimens have been collected, but it appeared to be common in its type locality.
58039		threats	eng	Although the forest at the type locality has been destroyed by infrastructure development, clearly posing a threat to this species, the surrounding habitats remain intact.
58040		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence and population status of the species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
58040		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Papua New Guinea: Mambimap, at 1,500m asl in the Adelbert Mountains, Madang Province; and further to the west in the Bewani Mountains, West Sepik Province (Allison pers. comm.).
58040		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that breeds by direct development. Males call from below ground in old gardens, areas of tall grass, and closed forest.
58040		population	eng	It appeared to be common at its type locality.
58040		threats	eng	Although there is very little information on the threats to this species, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened, given its apparent adaptability to secondary habitats.
58041		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. There are no protected areas within the known range of the species.
58041		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bewani Mountains and the Hunsein Range, Papua New Guinea, from 1,000-1,920m asl.
58041		habitat	eng	It was collected on the ground in montane forest, where it breeds by direct development.
58041		population	eng	It was observed to be uncommon in the Hunstein Range.
58041		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it, and its known range is in isolated areas.
58042		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58042		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Tembagapura, in the Sudirman Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, at 2,200m asl. It is likely to prove more widely distributed along the southern versant of the central dividing mountain range of western New Guinea.
58042		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that was collected from within surface litter of a very mossy montane closed-canopy forest, on a steep slope facing south-west that was drained by a small stream. Breeding in this species is presumably by direct development.
58042		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, so its population status is unknown.
58042		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58043		conservation	eng	The potential distribution of this species on other north-coast mountain ranges of New Guinea needs to be investigated. It is not known from any protected areas.
58043		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Bewani and the Hunstein Mountains, in northern Papua New Guinea, at 900-1,400m asl.
58043		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species living in tropical rainforest in epiphytes, and which also burrows into the leaf-litter. It presumably breeds by direct development.
58043		population	eng	It appears to be common at both known localities.
58043		threats	eng	There is little information available on threats to this species, although it occurs in some very remote areas where there is little human impact.
58044		conservation	eng	The distribution needs to be documented, particularly its occurrence between the only three known localities. Its range includes Arfak Mountains National Park and Wandamen Nature Reserve.
58044		distribution	eng	This species is known from three separate localities, from the Vogelkop Peninsula, from the base of the Wandamen Peninsular in the Wondiwoi Mountains, and from the Star Mountains of Papua, Indonesia. It has been recorded from 500-1,260m asl. It presumably occurs much more widely.
58044		habitat	eng	It calls at night only, from beneath the forest floor (20-30cm below the ground) in humus in hill forest. It has not been recorded in degraded habitats. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
58044		population	eng	It was observed as common in the Wondiwoi Mountains.
58044		threats	eng	Logging is potentially a threat to this species.
58045		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence and population status of the species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
58045		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known only from Eipomek Valley in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,800m asl.
58045		habitat	eng	It has been found in moss and short grass in secondary vegetation (rural gardens), usually in wetter places, and may also occur in forest (but this has not yet been confirmed). It appears to be terrestrial rather than fossorial.
58045		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58045		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species, but it is known only from an area that has been extensively cleared for rural gardens, although it appears to be able to adapt to this anthropogenic habitat.
58046		conservation	eng	The distribution of the species needs to be documented and further clarification of the habitat requirements is necessary. It is not known from any protected areas.
58046		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known only from three localities at moderate to high altitudes (1,000-3,500m asl) in the southern watershed of the central mountain ranges of Papua, Indonesia.
58046		habitat	eng	It is found in wet places in forest under ferns and mosses, and presumably breeds by direct development.
58046		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58046		threats	eng	No information is available.
58047		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are required. The range of this species includes a number of protected areas.
58047		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Papua, and the north coastal ranges of New Guinea, and from the Schrader Mountains of Papua New Guinea. It is present on Yapen Island. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.
58047		habitat	eng	It calls from beneath the soil surface in tropical rainforest. It is also known to persist in heavily disturbed habitats including villages and degraded forest. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.
58047		population	eng	It is a common species.
58047		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
58048		conservation	eng	The distribution needs to be documented more adequately, and the population status needs to be assessed. It occurs in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area.
58048		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea occurs in the central mountain ranges of eastern Papua (Indonesia) and western Papua New Guinea, at 1,280-2,000m asl.
58048		habitat	eng	No data are available, but it presumably lives on the floor in tropical rainforest, but has also been found in rural gardens and other degraded areas as well. It presumably breeds by direct development.
58048		population	eng	It appears to be very uncommon and is hard to find.
58048		threats	eng	Very little information is available, but it appears to be adaptable to secondary habitats.
58049		conservation	eng	The Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.
58049		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central mountain ranges of Papua, Indonesia to western Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 2,200-2,800m asl.
58049		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-elevation mossy rainforest, otherwise nothing known. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.
58049		population	eng	It was observed to be uncommon, but very little information is known.
58049		threats	eng	There are local threats from mining; in particular Mount Fubilan has been reduced to nothing by mining.
58050		conservation	eng	More information is needed.
58050		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic is known from near Nerang, north to the Enguella Region, west of Mackay, Queensland, Australia.
58050		habitat	eng	They inhabit seasonally inundated drainage lines in forested areas usually dry sclerophyll forest. Males call from small burrows and females deposit their eggs in the burrow. They will also use abandoned crayfish holes.
58050		population	eng	It is a common species.
58050		threats	eng	More information is needed.
58051		conservation	eng	It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, making the protection of forest habitat within its range an urgent priority.
58051		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats in India, and is known from only two localities, both in Idukki District in the Cardomom Hills in Kerala: Kattapana; and near Idukki town. Its recorded altitudinal range is 850-1,000m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
58051		habitat	eng	It has been found in disturbed secondary forest contiguous with montane evergreen forest, but presumably occurs in undisturbed forest as well (though apparently it does not survive in open, completely cleared habitats). For most of the year it is a fossorial species, living from 1.3-3.7m below ground. It comes to the surface for a few weeks a year to breed in temporary and permanent ponds and ditches by larval development. It often breeds in ponds close to streams.
58051		population	eng	It is a rare species, though very hard to find. Only 135 specimens have so far been observed, and, of these, only three have been females.
58051		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to expanding cultivation (of coffee, cardamom, ginger and other species).
58052		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including several NATURA 2000 sites, and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Spain, and is listed in a number of national and subnational Red Data Books.
58052		distribution	eng	This species is present in most of the Iberian Peninsula (except the northern area of the Peninsula and parts of central and northern Portugal), and southern France. There are also isolated populations in western France. It occurs from sea level (France and Spain) up to 1,770m asl (Spain). Its Area Of Occupancy is much smaller than its Extent Of Occurrence, as it is restricted to a specific type of habitat.
58052		habitat	eng	The burrowing habits of this species generally restrict its distribution to areas with sandy or soft soils. It occurs in dunes, oak forest, scrub, cultivated land, and open areas, sometimes close to human habitation. In France it is largely restricted to coastal regions. It breeds in temporary pools and livestock ponds with thick vegetation that occasionally may be brackish. This species has a long larval development period, which makes it vulnerable to introduced predators and desiccation of ponds.
58052		population	eng	This species is generally common in suitable habitat. However, population declines have been observed in most of its range.
58052		threats	eng	In Iberia threats include the isolation of populations by agricultural intensification, destruction of wetland habitats (by urban development) and their pollution (with agrochemicals), and introduction of predatory Louisiana crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) and fish (such as <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) to breeding areas. Mortality on roads, and tourism development, are causing localized declines in some populations. In France, tourism and wetland drainage are the principal threats to this species. Overall, the severity of the threats to this species appears to be increasing.
58053		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention; listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by legislation in Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia (Yugoslavia) and Israel. It is recorded in a number of national and subnational Red Data Books and Lists. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. It is protected in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran. There have been successful captive breeding and re-introductions of this species in Armenia. Conservation measures, such as habitat construction, are taking place in Israel. Further status surveys are needed in parts of its range or potential range (e.g., Albania, Moldova, Ukraine, Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq).
58053		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention; listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by legislation in Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia (Yugoslavia) and Israel. It is recorded in a number of national and subnational Red Data Books and Lists. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. It is protected in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran. There have been successful captive breeding and re-introductions of this species in Armenia. Conservation measures, such as habitat construction, are taking place in Israel. Further status surveys are needed in parts of its range or potential range (e.g., Albania, Moldova, Ukraine, Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq).
58053		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south-east Balkans, east to south-eastern Transcaucasia and northern Iran, and south to the Levant. In the Balkans it occurs in Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, southern Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey. It occurs widely, but in scattered populations in Turkey. In Caucasian region it is found in southeastern Armenia, Georgia north to Tbilisi and Azerbaijan, north to southern Dagestan in Russia, and east to the Caspian coastal area of Iran. In the Levant it occurs in northern Syrian Arab Republic and in the southern Coastal Plain [Ashdod] of Israel (the southernmost limit of its range), but it is probably extinct in Jordan where it has not been observed since 1984. It has been recorded from two sites in Lebanon in 2005; in the Hasbani Valley and in the Bekaa Valley near the Aammiq marsh. The species is also expected to occur in Albania, Ukraine and Moldova, but there appear not to be confirmed records from these countries, and records from northern Iraq require confirmation. It occurs from sea level to 2,000m asl.
58053		habitat	eng	It is a largely fossorial species. Terrestrial habitats occupied are generally open uncultivated lands such as light forests, steppe (and steppe-like habitats), semi-desert and rocky areas. It is generally less selective than Pelobates fuscus in terms of soil preference, inhabiting not only soft soils suitable for a fossorial life (although they are preferred), but also solid, rocky soils, particularly friable clay with pebbles. Spawning sites include stagnant temporary waterbodies; river or lakeside temporary waterbodies and large permanent pools. It can occur in slightly modified areas, including intensively grazed areas.
58053		population	eng	It appears not to be a common species; although a number of populations are often highly fragmented and subject to significant population fluctuations especially in the south of its range. The species is uncommon in Serbia (Kalezic and Dzukic 2001). It is relatively common in Iran. In Lebanon there are very localized but small populations. It is a threatened species in Israel. The species is possibly extinct in Jordan. This species is very rare in the Caucasus Region.
58053		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat loss through drainage or loss of breeding wetlands and conversion of land to agricultural and industrial use. Threatened by habitat destruction (especially of breeding sites) in Jordan and Israel. In Iran it is threatened by Caspian Sea coastal development, including holiday homes and agriculture (rice). Fragmented populations are susceptible to extinction through population fluctuations, most especially within arid landscapes.
58054		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas, though it may be present in the Merja Zerga Biological Reserve. There is certainly a need for improved protection of the habitat of this species.
58054		distribution	eng	This species is known only from fragmented localized areas on the coastal plains of north-western Morocco. The northernmost location is the town of Larache, while the southernmost population is known from the north-eastern part of the salt marshes of Oualida. The species may range further south than Oualidia, and this possible range extension requires further investigation. Yus Ramos and Cabo Hernandez (1986) mentioned the presence of <em>Pelobates cultripes</em> in the Melilla region (Spain), which might refer to <em>P. varaldii</em>, though this record is far outside the known range of any <em>Pelobates</em> species. <em>P. varaldii</em> is not found above 350m asl.
58054		habitat	eng	It is generally fossorial, inhabiting lowland sandy uncultivated soils, sometimes in the vicinity of cork woodlands. The spawning sites are most often still temporary waterbodies (such as dayas and rain puddles). It does not occur in anthropogenically modified habitats.
58054		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, although it is believed to be declining.
58054		threats	eng	The major threats include habitat loss and degradation due to the conversion of land to livestock pasture, and the pollution of stagnant waters with livestock droppings (Schleich, Kästle and Kabisch 1996). In addition, arable agriculture may be leading to the loss or disturbance of the sandy substrate soil habitat, with which the species is strongly associated. Populations of the species are now often restricted to temporary ponds, and those remaining in permanent waterbodies are being eliminated through the presence of predatory fishes (specifically <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>).
58055		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Regional Catalogue of Andalucía, Spain. It is not yet protected by national legislation. It is present in Doñana and Sierra Nevada National Parks, Spain.
58055		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Portugal and southern Spain. Further investigations into the range of this recently described species are needed in Portugal . It is present from sea level to approximately 1,450m asl in Granada province, Spain.
58055		habitat	eng	It can be found in dry or slightly damp open habitats including open woods, shrubland, salt marshes and cultivated areas. It can survive in intensively farmed areas. It breeds after rain in shallow sunny ponds (up to 1.5m deep), lagoons, stream backwaters, drains, roadside ditches and possibly in salt marshes. It is present in some modified habitats (such as non-intensively farmed fields).
58055		population	eng	It is locally abundant in suitable habitat in Spain, and it is increasing in Donana. It is considered to be scarce in Portugal.
58055		threats	eng	Loss of suitable freshwater breeding habitats (including stream channelization) is a threat as is habitat fragmentation. Predation of larvae and adults by exotic fish and Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) introductions is also a threat.
58056		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation throughout its range states (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997) and it is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is recorded several national and subnational Red Data Books and lists and it is present in a number of protected areas (including several NATURA 2000 sites). In some areas protection of temporary ponds is a conservation priority for the species.
58056		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Portugal, northern, central and eastern Spain, most of France, and in coastal northwestern Italy (only in Liguria and southern Piedmont). In Portugal there is limited information on the distribution of this species in relation to <em>Pelodytes ibericus</em>. It occurs from sea level up to 1,630m asl.
58056		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitats are dry or damp stony areas (including drystone walls). It is also observed in dunes, flooded quarries and cultivated areas. It is often present in calcareous or sandy areas. Aquatic habitats, where it breeds, include shallow, sunny, open (often ephemeral or temporary) waters, small pools, ditches and slow, small streams with a sandy substrate. It can occur in traditionally farmed areas.
58056		population	eng	It is generally locally abundant over much of its range. The species is generally scarce in Portugal, and it is threatened in Italy due to loss of breeding sites on the edge of its range. Populations in southern Spain and northern Portugal are highly threatened and fragmented.
58056		threats	eng	Threats include drainage of marshland and canalization of rivers (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Loss of suitable freshwater breeding habitats and habitat fragmentation are also threats. Intensification of agriculture is threatening the species in Iberia. Desertification is a threat in parts of its range (southern Portugal). Predation of larvae and adults by exotic fish and Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) introductions (especially in Iberia) is also a threat. Hydroelectric projects are leading to habitat loss in parts of Portugal.
58057		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58057		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Riviersonderend, Du Toitsberg, Elandskloof and Limietberg Mountains in Western Cape Province, South Africa. It occurs at 300-2,000m asl.
58057		habitat	eng	It is a species of fynbos heath land that does not survive in degraded areas. It breeds in wet mossy areas near rivers, hillside or roadside seepages, and heavily vegetated streams. It lays 8-10 eggs in moss or similar vegetation, which develop directly, without a larval stage.
58057		population	eng	It is patchily distributed but widespread but in small populations in a habitat that is not significantly fragmented.
58057		threats	eng	Its habitat is largely protected, although it is being impacted by the spread of alien species (in particular pines), and fires taking place too frequently. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor.
58058		conservation	eng	<p>This species requires monitoring of habitat and populations to achieve ecologically sound fire management once basic information concerning population size and phenology is collected. Removal of alien invasive plant species, <span style="background-color: white;">already being implemented in some protected areas,</span> should continue across the entire range of this species. It occurs in Babilonstoring, Fernkloof, Maanschynkop and Vogelgat Nature Reserves. The effects of fire on this and other species of&#160; <em>Arthroleptella&#160;</em>requires research.</p>
58058		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations on the slopes of the lower Klienrivier and Babilonstoring Mountains, near Hermanus, in Western Cape Province, South Africa, above 200 m asl and up to 1,100 m asl.&#160;Most of its very restricted extent of occurrence (EOO) (17 km² and area of occupancy estimated at 10% of EOO) falls within protected areas.
58058		habitat	eng	<p>This is a species of fynbos heathland, which does not survive in degraded areas. It breeds in wet mossy areas near densely vegetated streams and hillside seepages. It presumably lays its small direct-developing eggs (expected to be 10 like other members of the genus) in moss or similar vegetation.</p>
58058		population	eng	It occurs in small, widely scattered subpopulations associated with seepages within two locations, one a large mountain range and the other a small mountain range. Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) but the species as a whole should be buffered against these fluctuations by the relatively large number of subpopulations within each location if the fires are not severe enough to extirpate the entire location.<p></p>
58058		threats	eng	<p>Its habitat is largely protected, although one threat to it is the spread of alien species (in particular pines and hakeas)&#160;and too frequent and intense fires which are&#160;expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus).&#160;However, these threats are not considered to be severe or intense but require active management as they will act synergystically.</p>
58059		conservation	eng	Much of its range at high altitudes is in protected areas.
58059		distribution	eng	This species is known from KwaZulu-Natal Province and East Griqualand (in Eastern Cape Province), southeastern South Africa. It occurs up to 2,700m asl.
58059		habitat	eng	It lives in pockets of forest and dense vegetation in the Drakensberg and the midlands in Kwa-Zulu Natal. It breeds in wet mossy areas in riverine bush and forest near waterfalls and rapids. Clutches of 14-40 eggs are laid in moss and leaf-litter on edges of streams. The eggs develop directly without a larval stage.
58059		population	eng	It lives in small, fragmented populations over wide area.
58059		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats, since its habitat is generally well protected.
58060		conservation	eng	Although urban spread, invasive plants and fire are threats, no conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species. Much of this species' range is protected in the <span style="background-color: white;">well-managed </span>Hottentots Holland and Kogelberg Nature Reserves. Taxonomic revision is still in progress and more work on population status is required in order to begin monitoring populations trends (and the effect of threats such as fire frequency). Results from research need to feed into conservation management plans in affected areas.
58060		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hottentots Holland and Kogelberg Mountain (up to 1,200 m asl) complexes, South Africa. It has a small Extent of Occurrence of 283 km<sup>2</sup> with an Area of Occupancy estimated at 10%.
58060		habitat	eng	It inhabits fynbos heathland and does not survive in degraded areas. Breeding is by direct development, and eggs (average expected to be 10 like other members of the genus) are laid in wet vegetation in fynbos seeps and marginally in forest habitats.
58060		population	eng	This species occurs in small, widely scattered <span style="background-color: white;">subpopulations (these are currently estimated to be 12). F</span>ire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) but the species as a whole should be buffered against these fluctuations by the relatively large number of locations.
58060		threats	eng	Even though its habitat is largely protected, the major threats to this species are the spread of alien species (in particular pines) and too frequent and intense fires. Coastal populations are likely to be affected by urban development. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor.
58061		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species; however,<span style="background-color: white;"> monitoring programs are required to determine population trends</span>. Most of this species' range is in Table Mountain National Park and Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens and thus potential impacts from tourism need to be properly managed. Results from research need to be placed into a management framework for active conservation measures, inclusive of invasive species control.
58061		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Table Mountain and to the other mountains of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, where it occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl. It is very restricted with a small Extent of Occurrence (134 km<sup>2</sup>) and an Area of Occupancy estimated to be 10%.
58061		habitat	eng	It is a species of fynbos heathland and forest that does not survive in developed areas. Breeding is by direct development, with 5-12 eggs being laid in moss or similar vegetation in wet mossy areas near rivers, hillside or roadside seepages, and heavily vegetated streams.
58061		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be relatively abundant on the Cape Peninsula.&#160;Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) but the species as a whole should be buffered against these fluctuations by the relatively large number of locations<span style="background-color: white;"> (currently estimated to be 10).</span></p>
58061		threats	eng	Even though its habitat is largely protected, the major threats to this species are the spread of alien species (in particular pines) and too frequent or intense fires which cause extreme population fluctuations. Increased tourism in the area needs to be properly managed to minimise impact. There has probably been some loss of habitat in the past due to urban development and pine plantations on parts of the mountains.
58062		conservation	eng	Although it occurs in the Ngele Forest Reserve, most of the habitat of this species is not protected, so improved protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is a priority. The relative impact of perceived threats needs to be researched and populations together with habitat require monitoring. Recent surveys have found that the majority of populations occur on land belonging to two private forestry companies (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). These companies initially responded positively towards the species' conservation, and management guidelines were developed and provided to both companies, with one company implementing a long-term monitoring programme for this species (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). However, there has been a recent change in environmental management staff and no further monitoring efforts have taken place since. It is unknown whether these companies have implemented the suggested management recommendations (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009).
58062		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area of mist belt on the eastern escarpment of KwaZulu-Natal Province (which includes the former enclave of Eastern Cape, recently incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal), South Africa. Six fragmented and isolated subpopulations were known until 2004 (Minter <em>et al.</em> 2004). Recent surveys indicate that the species is extant at four of the six known sites, but it is possibly extinct at two of these sites (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). In addition, it has been found to occur more extensively in <st1:place><st1:placename>Ngele</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> than previously known, in the Mpur forestry area, and a new population within the Ixopo region (Roelton Dam) was also discovered (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009).   Within the Mpur forestry area, <em>A. ngongoniensis</em> was recorded at several new sites (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). In total, 12 subpopulations are now known, although these are aggregated in only four locations. It is known to occur between 1,020 and 1,720 m asl, and its total area of occupancy is estimated to be 9 km² (J. Harvey pers. comm. December 2009), while its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 1,525 km².<br/>  <br/>  <em></em> <strong></strong>      <p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em></em></a> <strong></strong></p>
58062		habitat	eng	It is known from montane forest and, to a lesser extent, high-altitude grassland (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). It appears to be strongly associated with riparian zones, and in grassland sites, with very dense vegetation (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). Most sites from which it has been recorded are surrounded by exotic tree plantations (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). It generally prefers steep slopes, close to seepages. It breeds in decaying vegetation at the base of grass and sedge tussocks on grassy slopes in the mist belt of the escarpment. Males call from well-concealed positions at the bases of grass tussocks by day, while at night they climb to calling positions about 20 cm below the tips of grass stems. The eggs are laid on damp soil or vegetation and develop directly, without a larval stage.
58062		population	eng	Based on surveys conducted in 2003–2005, the global adult population size of <em>A. ngongoniensis</em> is estimated to lie between 2,495 and 3,350 individuals (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). It is uncertain how many discrete subpopulations are involved, but for the purposes of this assessment we are provisionally<span style="background-color: white;"> considering twelve subpopulations, two of which may be extinct, </span>based on the results of recent field work (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). The largest single subpopulation would appear to occur in <st1:place><st1:placename>Ngele</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and while '<st1:place><st1:placename>Poortje</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest'</st1:placetype></st1:place> may also hold a large subpopulation, this still needs to be confirmed  (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). Although the Mpur forestry sites are separated, various sites may be connected as part of a larger subpopulation  (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009).&#160;The spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as one subpopulation/location holds >50% of individuals. Other subpopulations are small and scattered and distances are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.<br/><em></em><p></p>
58062		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is experiencing a rapid rate of loss, due to afforestation, the spread of invasive wattle trees (lowering the water table), and the impact of inappropriate fire regimes. Additional threats include timber plantations, overgrazing, fragmentation, dust and habitat damage due to harvest activities (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006, 2009). The greatest threats are fires, invasive plants and habitat fragmentation resulting in population isolation (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009). Forest populations appear to be less threatened given that their habitat patches are typically larger and not as exposed to many of the identified threats, including burning (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). Inappropriate use of agrochemicals for alien plant control could also potentially impact upon a population, although this has not been investigated (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009). Climate change could also be a potential threat given predictions of loss of grassland biome and species range shifts and contractions due to changes in climatic conditions. This species has a small range and has less than half the population distributed in subpopulations that are within a transformed land matrix and it is not likely that there is 'new' habitat to colonise, although this requires further investigation (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <br/><br/><p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
58063		conservation	eng	Many of the known locations are within protected areas. There are no immediate priorities for conservation research of this species.
58063		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern South Africa, where it lives at low altitudes near Rooi Els and Betty's Bay, and at higher altitudes in the Hottentots-Holland, Kogelberg and Kleinrivier Mountains, east to the Bredasdorp Mountains, Western Cape Province. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl. Counting mountain ranges as locations, it is known from at least 16 locations and probably occurs in many more. Its estimated extent of occurrence is 6,382 km².
58063		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland and montane fynbos heath land that also survives in certain anthropogenic habitats, such as exotic plantations in places (though these are not favoured habitats). It breeds in wet mossy areas near rivers, hillside or roadside seepages, and heavily vegetated streams. It lays around 10 eggs in moss or similar vegetation, which develop directly, without a larval stage.
58063		population	eng	It is a common species, and is occurs less patchily than other <em>Arthroleptella</em> species.
58063		threats	eng	Its habitat is largely protected, although it is being impacted by the spread of alien species (in particular pines), afforestation, and fires taking place too frequently. Coastal populations are likely to be impacted by urban development. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor as most reserves are actively managed.
58064		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, but there is a need for expanded and strengthened protection of forests in the Usambara Mountains. The species also requires close population monitoring, particularly given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis.
58064		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the East and West Usambara Mountains (including the Magrotto ridge) in north-eastern Tanzania, at 600-1,800m asl.
58064		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky streams in montane forests, and is generally confined to mature forest. It lays its eggs on rocks over which water is trickling, close to torrential streams and waterfalls. The larvae remain attached to the rocks, where they develop. When not breeding, the adults can be found on the forest floor, in holes on the ground, and in rock crevices.
58064		population	eng	It is common in its specialized habitat.
58064		threats	eng	This species is adversely affected by general encroachment and degradation of the forest, and siltation of streams. A potential future threat might be the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, since the related species, <em>A. yakusini</em>, has been shown to carry this fungus. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
58065		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park. Populations should be carefully monitored, particularly since chytrid has been confirmed in this species.
58065		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Uluguru, Udzungwa and Mahenge Mountains in eastern Tanzania, with an altitudinal range of approximately 350-1,950m asl.
58065		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky streams in montane forests, and is generally confined to mature forest (though is possibly more tolerant of open woodland situations than <em>Arthroleptides martiensseni</em>). It lays its eggs on rocks over which water is trickling, close to torrential streams and waterfalls. The larvae remain attached to the rocks, where they develop. When not breeding, the adults can be found on the forest floor, in holes on the ground, and in rock crevices.
58065		population	eng	It is regularly encountered in suitable habitat, and is not uncommon.
58065		threats	eng	This species is adversely affected by general encroachment and degradation of the forest, and siltation of streams. This species has been confirmed as carrying the fungus that causes chytridiomycosis, but it is not yet known if this will lead to a catastrophic reduction in populations, as has been the case with amphibians in other parts of the world.
58066		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58066		distribution	eng	This species occurs in most of southern Africa, but only in uplands north of the Tropic of Capricorn, and in highland areas in Tanzania and Kenya, north to Ethiopia (where it occurs mainly to the east of the Rift Valley, with isolated populations to the west). Its range in Tanzania and Kenya is very poorly known, and it is expected to occur in Uganda. Its presence in Angola has not been confirmed. It occurs up to 2,500m asl in Ethiopia. Its range might have increased during the last century due to human activity.
58066		habitat	eng	It is a species of grasslands (including montane grassland) and dry savannahs, favouring open areas with short vegetation, and is extremely successful in grassy meadows. It breeds in any shallow water body, including vleis, flooded depressions, drainage ditches, puddles, small pools, inundated grasslands and shallow pans, especially where grass is growing. They have been found in large numbers in disused termitaria.
58066		population	eng	It is extremely common and occurring in almost all suitable habitats throughout its range. It is usually present in high densities.
58066		threats	eng	It is a supreme generalist, and it adapts extremely well to disturbance.
58067		conservation	eng	No research or conservation priorities are listed for this species.&#160;It is known from Karoo National Park, Vrolijkheid Nature Reserve and Boesmanskloof Private Nature Reserve.
58067		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Karoo (between 750 and 1,500 m asl) in the Western Cape and Northern Cape Provinces in South Africa. It has a large extent of occurrence (23,575 km²) and an area of occupancy of 1,746 km².
58067		habitat	eng	It lives in dry shrubland, semi-deserts, and rocky areas. It is probably associated with stony substrates, aestivating in rock cracks and crevices during harsher conditions. It is an opportunistic breeder, taking advantage of rainfall of sufficient magnitude, regardless of the season in which it occurs. It breeds in temporary natural stream side pools, but is also able utilize man-made water sources.
58067		population	eng	Where it is known&#160;it appears to be locally abundant.
58067		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but given that it is probably fairly adaptable, and that it occurs in an area of low human impact, it is probably not particularly threatened.
58068		conservation	eng	It occurs in Upemba National Park.
58068		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Katanga Province, in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
58068		habitat	eng	It is likely to occur in inundated grasslands in savannah, like other members of its genus, and it presumably breeds in inundated grasslands, marshes and temporary streams and pools.
58068		population	eng	Only 12 specimens of this species are known.
58068		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58069		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Richtersveld Contractual National Park and in the Goegap Wildflower Reserve. Its presence in the Namaqualand National Park and Ai-Ais Fish River Canyon Trans-frontier National Park (in Namibia) is unconfirmed but likely.
58069		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upland Succulent Karoo biome, from Nuwerus, just north of the low-lying Knersvlakte, in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, north to the Hunsberg in Namibia. It is absent from a narrow strip along the coast.
58069		habitat	eng	It is associated with the distribution of granitic inselbergs in dry shrubland and semi-desert. It probably spends a large proportion of its time aestivating in cracks and under layers of granite. It is only active after suitably large rainfall events. It breeds in any small body of water that can hold water for a sufficiently long period to enable the tadpoles to complete their development, such as pools in rocky streambeds, and eroded "tanks" in the granitic bedrock, which have good water holding abilities.
58069		population	eng	It appears to occur in fairly large populations, but it is seldom encountered due to the low numbers of days per year that it is active (as a result of the low rainfall), and the poor collecting effort in its range.
58069		threats	eng	Some populations are probably being impacted by mining for copper and quarrying for granite. Otherwise, it is probably not facing any threats.
58070		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58070		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Swellendam in the Western Cape Province in South Africa, east and north to the Tugela River basin in KwaZulu-Natal, and the lowlands of southern Swaziland. It is absent from higher altitudes along the Mpumalanga and Kwa-Zulu Natal escarpment, where it is replaced by its sister-taxon, Cacosternum parvum. It occurs up to at least 1,400m asl, perhaps higher. Records from Mozambique require clarification (E. Scott pers. comm.).
58070		habitat	eng	It inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types, including fynbos heath land, savannah, shrubland, grassland, farmland, plantations, rural grassland, degraded forest and urban areas, occurring in areas of relatively high rainfall. It breeds in vleis and deeper pools in open wooded grassland areas, in thick reed beds, and in dense grassy verges of ponds. Its habitat preferences are generally more restrictive than those of Cacosternum boettgeri. During dry periods, these frogs aestivate below the surface, or under logs and stones, sometimes emerging in large numbers after heavy rain.
58070		population	eng	It is one of the commonest frogs in its range, and can be heard calling from almost every substantial rut, drainage ditch and puddle in the wet season.
58070		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species and it appears not to be threatened.
58071		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas, including the Royal Natal National Park, and the Giant’s Castle and Cathedral Peak Game Reserves.
58071		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to high-altitude habitats above 1,200m asl up to at least 2,100m asl in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, occurring along the Kwa-Zulu Natal Drakensberg escarpment, the Mpumalanga Escarpment and Wolkberg Arc. It occurs at higher altitudes than the closely related Cacosternum nanum.
58071		habitat	eng	It appears to occur mainly in high-altitude grassland habitats, but also in pastureland, plantations and montane forest. It breeds in well-vegetated ponds, ditches, marshes, streams and inundated grassland. The males conceal themselves in very dense vegetation, mainly grasses, at the edge of small waterbodies or streams. Its ecology is broadly similar to that of Cacosternum nanum, except that it appears to occur more frequently in anoxic, marshy habitats.
58071		population	eng	It is locally abundant where it occurs, and inhabits most suitable habitat within its range.
58071		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, and is not considered to be threatened or in immediate need of conservation action.
58072		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58072		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is not known with certainty, but it is likely to be the winter rainfall regions west and south of the Cape Fold Mountains, in southwestern Cape Province, South Africa. It is a low altitude species.
58072		habitat	eng	It is a species of fynbos heath land, and in the dry season individuals have been found aestivating under stones or logs and amongst the roots of dead reed-like plants in dried up watercourses. It is capable of persisting in highly disturbed urban and agricultural areas. It breeds in ditches, irrigated land, inundated grasslands and small pools (livestock watering holes) and puddles.
58072		population	eng	It is locally abundant and present in almost every suitable water body, bar those that are heavily polluted with industrial waste.
58072		threats	eng	Although the southwestern Cape is under huge pressure from agriculture, urban development, the draining of wetlands and invasive alien plants, it does not appear to be perturbed by such activities, and it readily adopts man-made waterbodies as alternative habitat. Its status should, however, be kept under review because of its small range that is subject to extreme pressures.
58073		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are prioritised for this species. It is known from Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho, and Greater Saint Lucia Wetland Park and Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve in South Africa.
58073		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Africa and Lesotho, where it has been recorded from the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal Province (South Africa) and coastal regions (0 m asl) from Durban north to Charter's Creek. It is also known from the southern Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa, up to at least 1,800 m asl, perhaps higher. Its distribution is large (Extent of Occurrence is 25,650 km<sup>2</sup>), and Area of Occupancy (estimated at 2% of EOO) is incompletely known at present.
58073		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with grassland areas, and breeding takes place in dense grass tussocks in inundated wetlands, marshy areas, or adjacent to slow-flowing side waters of highland streams. It is found in both low- and high-altitude habitats.
58073		population	eng	<p>It appears to be relatively abundant in places where it is found.</p>
58073		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats known to the species at this time. Potential future threats are small scale farming and pollution associated with fertiliser and pesticides.</p>
58074		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon, Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve in Gabon, and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in Central African Republic.
58074		distribution	eng	This species is known from western, central and southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including the island of Bioko), Gabon, southern Congo, and southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It might occur in southeastern Nigeria, the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo.
58074		habitat	eng	It is a lowland forest species that can survive in somewhat degraded forest, but not in open habitats outside forest. The males call from cavities and holes near streams, and it breeds in still water pools along streams.
58074		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58074		threats	eng	Despite its adaptability, it is likely to be affected by forest loss due to logging, agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
58075		conservation	eng	It occurs in Bale Mountains National Park, although this protected area has not yet been formally gazetted. Conservation of <em>Erica</em> woodland and high-altitude forest throughout the Bale Mountains is a priority. Clearly, there is an urgent need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species, and to determine whether it might occur more widely than currently known.
58075		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, at 2,400-3,200m asl. It has so far been found only in two localities near Katcha, but probably occurs a little more widely.
58075		habitat	eng	It is known only from giant geath (<em>Erica arborea</em>) woodland and adjoining <em>Schefflera</em>-<em>Hagenia</em> forest, where it is found on the grassy banks of small, fast-flowing streams. The breeding behaviour is unknown, but female specimens contain large and unpigmented ova. The presence of such eggs is generally considered to be indicative of either direct development or at least a terrestrial nest. If true in this case, the eggs are most likely to be deposited amongst herbaceous vegetation on the banks of small, swift-flowing streams, which is the habitat where fully mature females have been found.
58075		population	eng	It seemed to be reasonably numerous at the type locality in 1986. The absence of subsequent records is due to the lack of survey effort.
58075		threats	eng	Direct damage to the narrow belt of giant heath (with which this animal is most closely associated), by either humans or their livestock, does not seem very likely in the foreseeable future, but could be disastrous if it did occur. A more worrying threat is the possibility of logging in contiguous tall <em>Schefflera</em>-<em>Hagenia</em> forests at slightly lower elevations.
58076		conservation	eng	A priority for conservation research is to estimate the population size of adults in subpopulations, as well as determining the cause of direct threats. Obtaining a memorandum of understanding with land owners is also of high priority. It occurs in several protected areas, including Umtamvuna Nature Reserve and Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve. However, additional habitat and waterway protection is required.
58076		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to south-eastern South Africa, where it ranges from Dwesa Nature Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province east to southern and central KwaZulu-Natal Province. Its Extent of Ocurrence (EOO) has been estimated as 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>, with an Area of Occupancy of approximately 1% of the EOO (150 km², and declining).&#160;It occurs in 9 locations, all between 50 and 900 m asl.
58076		habitat	eng	It lives in coastal forests and gallery forests, where it is usually found along streams, and does not survive in open areas. It breeds in streams, hanging its eggs above water on branches, and sometimes on rock faces. The larvae fall into the water where they develop.
58076		population	eng	<p>Little population information is available for this species.&#160;It is considered to be severely fragmented as 50% of individuals are in isolated patches and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.</p>
58076		threats	eng	Much of the forest habitat of this species has been lost to sugar cane cultivation and other agriculture, woodcutting, afforestation and urbanization. It is also threatened by pollution and siltation of streams.
58077		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve (which is in need of continued and strenghtened management), although Mount Ribaue remains unprotected.
58077		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi and Mount Ribaue in Mozambique, where it occurs above 1,200m asl up to almost 3,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely in the mountains of south-eastern Malawi and northern Mozambique.
58077		habitat	eng	It is particularly associated with rocky areas in both montane forest and grassland. The eggs are laid in wet moss at the edge of rivulets running over rocks, and the larvae disperse by migration across wet rocks.
58077		population	eng	It is abundant on Mount Mulanje, breeding in vast numbers.
58077		threats	eng	Although somewhat protected, the habitat on Mount Mulanje continues to be lost in places as a result of subsistence agriculture and extraction of wood. Other threats include uncontrolled fires and the spreading of exotic pines throughout the plateaus (pines are invading and locally replacing the natural vegetation as they regrow faster after fires).
58078		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Korup National Park.
58078		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-eastern Nigeria to south-western Cameroon, generally at low altitudes, and also on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).
58078		habitat	eng	It lives close to flowing water in closed-canopy lowland forest. The eggs are placed on moist rock surfaces close to streams, and the larvae develop on the rock surfaces in damp conditions. This is the most water-dependent member of the genus in Cameroon.
58078		population	eng	It is fairly common.
58078		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.
58079		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park, and possibly in a few other protected areas.
58079		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lowland, coastal plain of south-western and southern Cameroon and from Bioko Island in Equatorial Guinea.
58079		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest and mangrove forests, and can tolerate a limited degree of habitat disturbance. The males call in forest, often far from water, and guard a nest of eggs on large leaves a few centimetres above the ground. This species appears not to be water-dependent, and the larvae are presumably terrestrial.
58079		population	eng	It is a common species.
58079		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.
58080		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas, including Mont Sangbe National Park in Côte d’Ivoire.
58080		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the hilly parts of West Africa in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire, from near sea level up to 1,400m asl.
58080		habitat	eng	It is found only in forested hilly country, and lives in or near water, breeding in fast-flowing streams. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae attach themselves by means of suckers to rocks in waterfalls and rapids.
58080		population	eng	Although it is patchily distributed, it is very abundant where it occurs, for example on the Freetown Peninsula in Sierra Leone.
58080		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. In some places it is also adversely affected by mining activities, for example on the Simandou Range, and on Mount Nimba.
58081		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and La Lopé National Park (Gabon).
58081		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (both Rio Muni (mainland) and the island of Bioko), south as far as southwestern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). It probably occurs in southeastern Nigeria. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,768m asl.
58081		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, especially in rocky areas. It does not adapt well to modification of its habitat, though it is found in more mature secondary forest. The adults live in cracks and fissures in rocks. The eggs are deposited in fissures in cliff faces, on tree trunks, and on leaves, and are guarded by the male. The tadpoles fall to the forest floor and are terrestrial. This species is probably not water-dependent, though it is sometimes found by streams.
58081		population	eng	It is a common species.
58081		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58082		conservation	eng	It occurs in Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and Monts de Cristal National Park in Gabon (created in 2002); it may occur in Campo Ma'an National Park in Cameroon.
58082		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western slope of the southern Cameroon plateau, Cameroon, from Monte Alen in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and from Barrage de Kinguele in north-western Gabon.
58082		habitat	eng	It lives in rocky areas in lowland forest, usually near flowing water, and cannot survive significant modification of its forest habitat. The eggs are laid, and the larvae develop, on rocks outside water, but in the splash zone of streams and small waterfalls.
58082		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58082		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58083		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
58083		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Adamawa Plateau and the western Cameroonian mountains (on both the western and eastern slopes up to 1,450m asl), and in the hilly areas of southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northwestern Gabon (from Yaounde southwest to Mount Alen, south to Barrage de Tchimbele and Barrage de Kinguele in northwestern Gabon). It has also been recorded from the base of the Mambila Plateau in Nigeria.
58083		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky areas in forest up to 1,450m asl, often close to streams. It is also sometimes found in secondary habitats. The eggs are deposited on large rock surfaces on cliffs, and are guarded by the male. The tadpoles develop terrestrially on the cliff surfaces and do not require water.
58083		population	eng	It can be common in suitable locations.
58083		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58084		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any formal protected areas, and there is a need for improved and expanded protection of montane forests in western Cameroon, particularly on Mount Manenguba and in the Rumpi Hills.
58084		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the mountains of western Cameroon: on the southern slopes of Mount Manenguba; Mount Nlonako; the Rumpi Hills; and the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau at Mount Bana, Petit Diboum, and the Mbos Cliffs. Its altitudinal range is 950-1,500m asl.
58084		habitat	eng	It is found in submontane forest, including secondary growth, where it characteristically sits on rocks in the middle of fast-flowing streams, or on vegetation near the streams. The eggs are deposited on wet rock surfaces in the splash zone of waterfalls that are guarded by the male. The larvae develop on these rocks, and do not enter water.
58084		population	eng	It is a common species.
58084		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58086		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58086		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Somalia and Kenya, south to eastern Zimbabwe, Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa. It occurs on Mafia, Zanzibar and Pemba islands in Tanzania. It is likely to occur in Zambia, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records. Records from Budongo Forest in western Uganda, from Lokichokio in northwestern Kenya and from Ngatana in northeastern Kenya require confirmation, and are not mapped here. It is a low-altitude species.
58086		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry and humid savannahs, shrubland, grassland and coastal habitats, and it is adaptable to alteration of its habitats. It breeds in temporary, and sometimes permanent, waterbodies, including puddles, pools, swamps, vleis, roadside ditches, and flooded grassy depressions.
58086		population	eng	It is generally a common, sometimes abundant, species, though there have been no recent records from South Africa, which is on the edge of its range.
58086		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, though it does seem to have declined in the edge of its range in South Africa for reasons that are not clear.
58087		conservation	eng	It has apparently been recorded from the Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda and the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and presumably occurs in Kahuzi-Biega National Park. However, the effectiveness of the conservation of these areas is probably compromised by the unstable political situation within its range. There is a need for further survey work in this region to better determine the distribution and current population status of this species.
58087		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species has been recorded only from the "Lake Region" of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, and north-western Burundi. There do not appear to be any recent records of this species, presumably because of lack of herpeological work within its range. It is presumably a montane species, but its altitudinal range is not recorded.
58087		habitat	eng	It is probably a forest species. It has been recorded as occurring in forest streams, where it presumably breeds.
58087		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58087		threats	eng	Assuming that it is a forest species, it is probably affected by the increased collection of firewood and building materials.
58088		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy, to determine whether or not it is in fact a distinct species.
58088		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Accra, Ghana.
58088		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of other members of the genus, and it likewise probably also breeds in water by larval development.
58088		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58088		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58089		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas.
58089		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mauda (Uele), in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. When mapping its range this can only be done approximately, owing to a lack of specificity regarding the type locality.
58089		habitat	eng	This species' habitat and ecological preferences are not known, although they are presumably similar to other members of the genus, and it likewise probably also breeds in water by larval development.
58089		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58089		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58090		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in all of the forested protected areas within its range.
58090		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea, Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Ghana to south-western Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Togo and Benin, and its absence from these countries might be genuine, owing to lack of suitable habitat.
58090		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary lowland rainforest, and can survive in small forest fragments, though at lower population densities (and it might not be able to persist for long in such situations). Breeding takes place in very small temporary puddles.
58090		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitats.
58090		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.
58092		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park and the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.
58092		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mount Nimba area in extreme south-eastern Guinea and north-eastern Liberia, from the Taï National Park in south-western Côte d’Ivoire, and from Draw River and Boi Tano Forest Reserves, Ghana. It presumably occurs a little more widely than this, although it has not been found in surveys of many intervening areas.
58092		habitat	eng	All specimens have been found in primary forest close to inselbergs in leaf-litter. Its biology and breeding are unknown, although most records have come from drier parts of the forest suggesting that it is not dependent on water for breeding.
58092		population	eng	It is an extremely rare species.
58092		threats	eng	It is affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. On Mount Nimba it is also threatened by potential mining concessions.
58093		conservation	eng	Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
58093		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Upemba National Park, and nearby areas, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
58093		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
58093		population	eng	It is apparently a very common species, although there have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58093		threats	eng	There is no recent information.
58094		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58094		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species has been recorded only from the Itombwe Highlands in southern Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, above 2,400m asl.
58094		habitat	eng	There is very little information regarding its habitat and ecology, although it is known to live in swamps in montane forest, where it presumably breeds.
58094		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
58094		threats	eng	There is no recent information on threats to this species.
58095		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its large range.
58095		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon, east to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Uganda and Rwanda. There are records from mainland Equatorial Guinea and from the island of Bioko, Gabon, Congo, and southwestern Central African Republic, and it is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. There is an absence of records through much of the Congo Basin, but this is probably due to under-sampling. However, its northern and southern distributional limits are very poorly known, and should be regarded as provisional. It occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, probably higher.
58095		habitat	eng	It lives on the floor of primary, secondary and riparian rainforest, and is often associated with rivers. It is not found in open habitats outside forest. It breeds in small pools.
58095		population	eng	It is a common species.
58095		threats	eng	It is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58096		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Kakum National Park in Ghana, and it is probably present in several other protected areas.
58096		distribution	eng	This species' main range is from southeastern Nigeria to southern Cameroon and northeastern Gabon (at Makokou). It presumably occurs in mainland Equatorial Guinea, but there have not so far been any records. There are outlying records to the west of the main range from Iperin in southwestern Nigeria, the Togo-Volta Highlands in eastern Ghana, and from Kakum in southern Ghana. It generally occurs at fairly low altitudes. The records from southwestern Nigeria and Ghana might belong to another species (Rödel, M.-O. <em>et al.</em>, in press). Animals very similar to this species, but much smaller, have been found in central Gabon, and are not mapped here.
58096		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest and in degraded secondary vegetation near forest, but not in open areas away from forest. It breeds in small pools.
58096		population	eng	It is common around Yaounde in Cameroon, but it is generally localized and uncommon through most of its range.
58096		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.
58097		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) and the Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda). However, the quality of habitat in these protected areas has declined due to the influx and settlement of refugees as a result of regional political instability.
58097		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species occurs in the mountains of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, from the region of Mount Ruwenzori, south to west of Lake Kivu, and in western Rwanda, and north-western Burundi. It is very likely to occur in Uganda, but there appear to be no confirmed records. It occurs at very high altitudes, from at least 2,400m asl (perhaps lower) to over 3,000m asl.
58097		habitat	eng	It is a species of swamps and marshes in both montane forest and montane grassland. It presumably breeds in swamps.
58097		population	eng	There is little recent information on the population status of this species, but it is apparently not uncommon in suitable habitat.
58097		threats	eng	It is probably affected by the mass movement and settlement of refugees, and the resultant increased demands for firewood and building materials.
58098		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58098		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species is known only from its type locality, Luanda, in Angola.
58098		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological preferences are not well known, but are presumably similar to those of other members of the genus, and this species probably likewise breeds in water.
58098		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
58098		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
58099		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ruaha, Tarangire, Serengeti and Rubobo Island National Parks.
58099		distribution	eng	This recently described species ranges widely in the interior of northern and central Tanzania, from the Great Ruaha River, north to the Serengeti National Park, and west to Rubondo Island in Lake Victoria, and Tabora. Frogs that are probably this species have been heard in the Masai Mara Game Reserve in Kenya.
58099		habitat	eng	It occurs in savannahs, including in areas with long dry seasons, and breeds in flooded grassland and in pools of water with fringing vegetation. It also breeds in paddy fields, and has been found in ditches in towns.
58099		population	eng	It is a common species.
58099		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58100		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58100		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal, Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Benin, but it is likely to occur in these countries. Records of this species from Virunga National Park in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo have been assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynobatrachus gutturosus </span>by Perret (1988). It is mainly a lowland species, but occurs up to 1,200 m asl in Cameroon.
58100		habitat	eng	It is a species of gallery forests in humid savannas, secondary forest along streams in the forest zone, and farm bush. It sometimes colonizes savanna habitats that have not been burned. It breeds in temporary stagnant pools.
58100		population	eng	It is a very common species where it occurs.
58100		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.
58101		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58101		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Congo" (Ahl 1923), which is presumably in Democratic Republic of Congo. Because of the lack of explicit locality data, it is not possible currently to map its range.
58101		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological preferences are not well known, but are presumably similar to other members of the genus, and this species probably likewise breeds in water.
58101		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records.
58101		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
58102		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Petit Loango National Park (Gabon) Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve, and presumably in several other protected areas.
58102		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwestern Cameroon south through Gabon to southwestern Congo, and inland as far as southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni).
58102		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland rainforest, surviving to some limited extent in degraded forest. It is often found by tracks and small marshes in the forest. It breeds in small pools.
58102		population	eng	It is a common species.
58102		threats	eng	It is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58103		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. There is a need for improved habitat protection of montane forest habitats in Cameroon.
58103		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon at 850-1,850m asl. There are records from the Obudu Plateau and the higher parts of the Oban Hills in Nigeria, and from the Rumpi Hills, Mount Kupe, Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, and the Bamileke plateau (Petit Diboum, Mount Bana, Fotabong an Foto) in Cameroon.
58103		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane primary and secondary forest, degraded forest, and dense brush where it breeds in still pools along mountain streams. It does not appear to survive in completely open habitats.
58103		population	eng	It is abundant at 1,400m asl on Mount Manenguba, but rare at 1,000m asl on Mount Nlonako.
58103		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.
58104		conservation	eng	Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
58104		distribution	eng	This species was described from Upemba National Park, in Shaba Province in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records have also been claimed from north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe, but it is likely that these actually refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus mababiensis</em> (which this species might indeed be a junior synonym of). Pending resolution of its taxonomic status, this species is currently understood as occurring only in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
58104		habitat	eng	It is associated with streams and marshes in humid savannah and gallery forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but reproduction presumably takes place in water, as with most other members of its genus.
58104		population	eng	It is a cryptic species, but apparently it is not uncommon in suitable habitat. However, there have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work in the area.
58104		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
58105		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58105		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Haute Lubitshako, in Fizi District in southern Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, at 1,900-2,000m asl.
58105		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be a forest species, breeding in water, but its specific habitat requirements are not known.
58105		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58105		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
58106		conservation	eng	It is present in Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo); Bwindi National Park (Uganda); Ruwenzori National Park (Uganda) and Kibale National Park (Uganda).
58106		distribution	eng	Assuming that this species includes Phrynobatrachus petropedetoides, it is known to occur at least in the Ituri Forest at Medje (northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo), Mount Ruwenzori, and Kibale and Bwindi Impenetrable Forests (southwestern Uganda). It occurs at least between 800 and 1,800m asl. Its distribution is very unclear, and the map joins known localities. Records from western Tanzania require verification.
58106		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter and beside streams in montane forest and is not a typical Phrynobatrachus in that lays its eggs off of the ground, usually in tree holes, often above streams, and the parents guard the eggs. It appears to be a species confined to the interior of forest.
58106		population	eng	It is very poorly known, but it appears to be an uncommon species in Kibale Forest, but more common in the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest.
58106		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.
58107		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58107		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Príncipe island in the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea. It is present from sea level up to 948m asl.
58107		habitat	eng	It is a typical puddle frog, present in primary forest, farm bush (heavily degraded former forest), and abandoned plantations where wet conditions prevail. It breeds in most types of water, but it is not found in drainage ditches. It is generally not present close to human habitation.
58107		population	eng	It is generally common where it occurs.
58107		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species facing no immediate threats.
58108		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58108		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Buala am Uam, in southern Chad. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map this species' distribution should be considered as approximate.
58108		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and this species likewise presumably breeds in water.
58108		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58108		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58109		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58109		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Guinea savanna zones of West Africa, from Senegal and Gambia, east to Nigeria. There are records from Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mauritania and Niger, but it almost certainly occurs in these countries.
58109		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid and dry savanna, also living in altered habitats, such as agricultural areas and villages. It breeds in a variety of temporary water habitats, including small temporary ponds and puddles, and ditches in villages.
58109		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58109		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58110		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park and Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.
58110		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and eastern Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. Records from Guinea-Bissau require confirmation. It probably occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, perhaps higher.
58110		habitat	eng	It is a rainforest species, where it is generally found close to small streams in leaf-litter. It can survive in secondary forest and plantations, but not in open areas. It is presumed to breed in stagnant or slow flowing water, and lays its eggs on the surface of the water.
58110		population	eng	It is very common in Guinea, but it is very rare in Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire.
58110		threats	eng	It is affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. In some places it is also affected by mining.
58111		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58111		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Buta, in north-central Democratic Republic of Congo.
58111		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.
58111		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58111		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58112		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range. There is a need for further survey work in order to determine the current population status of this species.
58112		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the heavily fragmented forest region of south-western Ghana and south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire. It is known from Banco National Park in Côte d’Ivoire and from five localities in Ghana: Kakoum National Park; Boi-Tano Forest Reserve; Draw River Forest Reserve; the Ankasa Conservation Area, a twin wildlife protected area comprising Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south; and Bobiri Forest Reserve.
58112		habitat	eng	It is usually found on the floor of swampy primary rainforest, but it has also been found at the edge of small temporary pools in bamboo forest and close to forest edge. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to take place in water.
58112		population	eng	There is very little information concerning its population status, since only a few specimens are known. It is a very inconspicuous forest floor species, so it is probably often overlooked or mistaken for other <em>Phrynobatrachus</em> species.
58112		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements.
58113		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58113		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Yambata in northern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Cameroon are in error and refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus accraensis</em>. The location of the type locality is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map its distribution must be considered as approximate.
58113		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it probably also breeds in water.
58113		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58113		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58114		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kibale National Park and Bwindi National Park (both Uganda) and Kakamega National Park (Kenya).
58114		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and southwestern Uganda (north to the Budongo Forest), eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and western and northwestern Rwanda. There is an apparently isolated population in western Kenya, but the range is still very poorly known, and the map should be regarded as provisional. Records from Mount Kenya and from Katera south of Mount Kenya are not included here, pending confirmation of their identity. Its altitudinal range is not well known, but it is probably usually above 1,000m asl.
58114		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter puddle frog, generally living in the interior of, and on the edge of montane forest. It is often associated with swampy in forest. The eggs are larvae laid in water, generally in swampy situations, where the larvae develop.
58114		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
58114		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.
58115		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire) and the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire).
58115		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Upper Guinea forest zone of West Africa, in Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia, and western Côte d’Ivoire, up to approximately 1,000m asl.
58115		habitat	eng	It is restricted to the drier parts of primary rainforest, where it is an arboreal species usually found low in the trees. It breeds by larval development in tree holes, and also in empty nuts, snail shells, and other tiny waterbodies. Eggs are attached to the bark of the tree or the top of a shell or similar, above the water, and they then hatch four to five days later and the larvae drop into the water below where they complete their development.
58115		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitats.
58115		threats	eng	This species is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. Some populations might also be affected by mining activities.
58116		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58116		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, with an isolated population in Virunga National Park in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (previously assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynobatrachus calcaratus</span>, but referred to this species by Perret (1988)). It is presumed to occur in Guinea and might also occur in Mali and Burkina Faso. Its distribution is still very imperfectly known, and it might comprise more than one species. Specimens from southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo previously allocated to this species are now assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. rungwensis</span> (Poynton and Broadley 1985). Likewise, specimens from Malawi are now assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. stewartae</span> (Stewart 1967). A specimen from Angola appears to be intermediate between <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gutturosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. rungwensis</span> (Poynton and Haacke 1993).
58116		habitat	eng	It is a species of closed-canopy forest, gallery forests, and humid wooded savannas, though it is much more typical of forests. It can probably survive in secondary forest. It is usually found in the surroundings of ponds and swamps. It breeds in large temporary ponds and swamps.
58116		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitats.
58116		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.
58117		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
58117		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Adamawa Plateau in central Cameroon south to southwestern Congo. There are no records from Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Central African Republic, but it is presumed to occur in these countries. It is a lowland species that avoids the littoral zone, and probably occurs up to at least 1,200m asl.
58117		habitat	eng	It lives in and around raphia swamps, ditches, marshes and small pools in forest (including seasonally flooded forest), degraded secondary habitats (farm bush), and gallery forests in the savannah zone. It breeds in still water.
58117		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58117		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species and it is presumably not seriously affected by forest loss.
58118		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58118		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in southern Ethiopia: near Bore at 2,650m asl, 70km north-west of Kebre Mengist, to the west of the Rift Valley; and near Dorse at 2,600m asl to the east of the Rift Valley. It is likely to be found more widely.
58118		habitat	eng	At Bore, this species was found amongst herbaceous vegetation at the margins of pools in grassy glades surrounded by forest comprised of <em>Schefflera</em> and <em>Hagenia</em> species. At Dorse, it was collected from a heavily grazed marshy area of extensively cultivated habitat supporting only remnants of former forest cover. It breeds in pools and marshes.
58118		population	eng	It was common near Bore in 1975.
58118		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural expansion, human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.
58119		conservation	eng	Although not recorded from Mount Kenya and the Aberdares National Parks, it is possible that it does occur there, but further survey work is needed to better understand the distribution of this species in the Kenyan highlands.
58119		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only two montane localities in Kenya: Irangi Forest on the south-eastern slopes of Mount Kenya; and Kimande on the south-eastern slopes of the Aberdare Mountains. It probably occurs a little more widely in the Kenyan highlands (at least on Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountains). Its currently known altitudinal range is approximately 1,900-2,300m asl.
58119		habitat	eng	It appears to be a diurnal species. Males have been found calling on the banks of small streams in montane forest, from under roots or logs, and from holes in the mud. It is probably dependent upon montane forest for its survival. It possibly reproduces in streams, although this requires confirmation.
58119		population	eng	There is little information on its population status since it is a difficult species to locate.
58119		threats	eng	It is possible that the Kimande population is now extinct because of severe modification of the native habitat by local subsistence farming. This is also likely to be a threat to the species elsewhere in its range.
58120		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Kenya, Aberdares and Arusha National Parks.
58120		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the highlands of Kenya, with records from the Cherangani Hills in the northwest, the Nyumbeni Hills in the northeast, and from several places in the Central Highlands, including Mount Kenya, the Aberdare Mountains and Thika, among others. There is an apparently isolated population on Mount Meru in northern Tanzania. It is a montane species occurring up to 3,000m asl.
58120		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane meadows and grassland. It is often associated with the edge of waterbodies such as swamps and streams, where it breeds.
58120		population	eng	It is a common species.
58120		threats	eng	Little information is available, but it is probably adaptable and not facing many threats. Overgrazing by livestock, and smallholder agriculture might impact local populations.
58121		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks.
58121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kenyan Highlands east of the Rift Valley. It is known from the Aberdare Mountains and Mount Kenya, south to Nairobi. It occurs up to 3,100m asl.
58121		habitat	eng	It is associated with rain-filled temporary pools in montane grassland, where it presumably breeds.
58121		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58121		threats	eng	There is little information available on threats to this species, but it is probably adaptable and not facing many threats. Local populations might be impacted by overgrazing by livestock, and smallholder agriculture.
58122		conservation	eng	It occurs in several forest reserves, including the Amani Nature Reserve and in the University of Dar es Salaam's nature reserve at Mazumbai. There is a need for improved management and protection of forest reserves in the Usambara Mountains.
58122		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the East and West Usambara Mountains (including the Magrotto ridge) in north-eastern Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is 700-1,500m asl.
58122		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with montane and submontane forest, and is also found in rural gardens and in open areas, but generally not far from forest and certainly not in completely open landscapes. Breeding takes place in small streams, marshes and pools, egg masses being attached to rocks or vegetation above the water.
58122		population	eng	It is widespread and common within its small range.
58122		threats	eng	The encroachment and degradation of the forest for agriculture, human settlement and wood is probably adversely affecting this species to some extent, despite the fact that it is somewhat adaptable. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
58123		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire), Kakoum National Park (Ghana), and in several other protected areas.
58123		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the upper Guinea forest zone of West Africa in Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and south-western Ghana. It probably occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, and perhaps even higher.
58123		habitat	eng	It is found only in forest, mostly in primary but sometimes also in secondary forest, and is usually associated with swampy areas, breeding in small forest streams.
58123		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitats.
58123		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. Some populations might also be affected by mining activities.
58124		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58124		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in eastern and southern Africa from northern Tanzania south to eastern South Africa, west to Namibia and Angola. There is an isolated record from Isiolo in Kenya, northeast of mount Kenya. Because of taxonomic uncertainties, the northern limits of the distribution are unclear. The species might extend even as far as Ethiopia and Sudan. Records of Phrynobatrachus parvulus from Uganda (Kibale Forest-Vonesh (2001), Bwindi Impenetrable Forest-Drewes and Vindum (1994), and Kampala-M. Pickersgill (pers. comm.) might refer to this species.
58124		habitat	eng	It lives in open and wooded savannah, less frequently grassland. It survives in agricultural land. It breeds in permanent, semi-permanent and temporary waters, including marshes, vleis and ponds, slow-flowing streams, the edges of small pans, and shallow stagnant water amongst emergent vegetation.
58124		population	eng	It is a widespread and very common species that is found in huge numbers at breeding aggregations
58124		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58125		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve this species' taxonomic status.
58125		distribution	eng	Assuming that this is a valid species, it is known only from Crater Lake at 2,000m asl on Mount Manenguba, in western Cameroon.
58125		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in Crater Lake, which is relatively shallow. The surrounding habitat is montane grassland.
58125		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records.
58125		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
58126		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park in Ethiopia, and probably in several other protected areas.
58126		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ethiopia, where it is widely distributed in the central and southern parts of the country on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is generally found at 1,300-2,800m asl, possibly down to 800m asl.
58126		habitat	eng	It is found amongst herbaceous vegetation or rocks at the swampy margins of lakes, rivers, streams and temporary pools in both moist grassland and forest clearings. It breeds in lake edges, rivers, streams and pools.
58126		population	eng	It is quite common in Ethiopia wherever suitable habitat is found.
58126		threats	eng	It is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural expansion, human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.
58127		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58127		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Buala am Uam, in southern Chad. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map this species' distribution should be considered as approximate.
58127		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.
58127		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58127		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58128		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58128		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in the savannah zone of Africa, from Senegal and Gambia, east to Ethiopia and Eritrea, south to Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. It occurs on the island of Zanzibar (Tanzania). There appear to be no records from Burkina Faso, Chad and Lesotho, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It occurs up to 2,200m asl in Ethiopia.
58128		habitat	eng	It is typically associated with herbaceous vegetation along the margins of shallow marshes, lakes, rivers, streams and pools, both permanent and temporary. It is found in semi-desert scrub, arid and humid savannah, agricultural land, and even at clearings deep within forest. It breeds in temporary ponds and puddles associated with pans, streams or vleis.
58128		population	eng	It is a widespread and often abundant species.
58128		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is facing only local threats.
58129		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of both this species and <em>P. brongersmai</em> needs to be re-examined.
58129		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Lambarene, Ogowe, in west-central Gabon, and (on the assumption that <em>Phrynobatrachus brongersmai</em> is a synonym of this species), from Grand Cape Mount in western Liberia.
58129		habitat	eng	This species' habitat and ecological requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.
58129		population	eng	There are no recent records from either country, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range, although recent collections of frogs from southern Guinea might refer to <em>P. brongersmai</em> (Rödel pers. comm.).
58129		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58130		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ngezi Forest Reserve, which protects the last remaining stand of indigenous rainforest on the island. Continued management and protection of this forest reserve is essential to the long-term survival of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether the species still survives elsewhere on Pemba.
58130		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern part of Pemba Island, Tanzania, where it has been recorded from three localities: Machengwe Swamp; Wete; and Ngezi Forest Reserve.
58130		habitat	eng	It lives on the forest floor, and in forest fringes and clearings, and has not been found in areas away from the forest. It breeds in pools, marshes, puddles and roadside ditches in and near tropical evergreen lowland forest.
58130		population	eng	It is a common species in Ngezi Forest Reserve. It is not clear that it survives elsewhere on the island, although intensive surveys have not yet been carried out.
58130		threats	eng	It is probably greatly reduced in population size because of the almost complete loss of indigenous broadleaf lowland forest in Pemba, largely for agriculture. There has been widespread introduction of clove trees throughout the island, and it seems not to be present in clove thicket. It is now intrinsically at risk because of the small size of its remaining distribution.
58131		conservation	eng	It occurs in Garamba National Park.
58131		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species is known only from west-central and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The map is provisional, connecting the three localities from which this species is known: Kunungu, Mauda and Garamba National Park. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
58131		habitat	eng	It is known from grassy and shrubby savannah, and from gallery forests in Garamba National Park. Its habitat preferences in the forest zone (e.g., at Kunungu and Mauda) are not clear, though it is suspected to survive well in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). There is no information on its breeding, though it is presumably similar to most other members of the genus, and breeds in water.
58131		population	eng	It is apparently fairly abundant in Garamba National Park.
58131		threats	eng	There is no direct information, but this species is beloved to be adaptable, and not facing any significant threats.
58132		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58132		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in upland areas of Angola, Botswana, Zambia, northern and eastern Zimbabwe, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, and southern Tanzania. Records from Uganda (Kibale Forest-Vonesh (2001), Bwindi Impenetrable Forest-Drewes and Vindum (1994), and Kampala-M. Pickersgill (pers. comm.)) are currently assigned to this species (though they might refer to Phrynobatrachus mababiensis), and are mapped here disjunctive from the main distribution. It is likely to occur in the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, and in northern Mozambique, but there do not appear to be any records from these countries. Most records are probably from over 1,000m asl, and it probably occurs up to over 2,000m asl.
58132		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid savannahs and grassland, including montane grassland, sometimes penetrating montane forest. It survives well in agricultural land, including in rice paddies. It breeds in grassy pools, puddles and marshes.
58132		population	eng	It is an abundant in suitable habitats.
58132		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58133		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58133		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Nile Valley of central and southern Sudan, south through the Democratic Republic of Congo to Zambia, Malawi, and northern Mozambique. A record from Ujiji in western Tanzania suggests that the species is more widespread in that country. Records from Cameroon refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus steindachneri</em>.
58133		habitat	eng	It lives in humid savannah, grassland, and rainforest and degraded former forest (farm bush) at medium altitudes in permanently wet sites. It is believed to be able to survive in agricultural land in wet areas. It is particularly associated with flooded grassland, interspersed with reeds, where it presumably breeds.
58133		population	eng	Although it is patchy in its distribution, at suitable locations populations tend to be large, and it can be locally very abundant.
58133		threats	eng	It is probably an adaptable species that is only facing localized threats.
58134		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Taï National Park and Mont Péko National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), and Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire).
58134		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Sierra Leone, through Liberia and southern Guinea, to south-western Côte d’Ivoire. It probably occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, and perhaps even higher.
58134		habitat	eng	It lives in swampy parts of primary rainforest, and does not survive in secondary habitats. It deposits its eggs terrestrially close to water, and the larvae develop in extremely small puddles.
58134		population	eng	It is a very common species, more so than <em>Phrynobatrachus guineensis</em> with which it has been confused.
58134		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. Some populations might also be affected by mining activities.
58135		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Tai, Banco, Mont Péko, Mont Sangbé and Kyabobo National Parks, and Haute Dodo Classified Forest.
58135		distribution	eng	This species from West Africa occurs in Liberia, southern Guinea, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southwestern Ghana, with separate populations in eastern Ghana, Togo and southern Nigeria.
58135		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and sometimes secondary forest. It does not survive outside forest. It breeds in temporary puddles and small ponds.
58135		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitats.
58135		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. Some populations might also be impacted by mining.
58136		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58136		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Buala am Uam, in southern Chad. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map its distribution should be considered as approximate.
58136		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.
58136		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58136		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58137		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.
58137		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Buddu Forest, in southern Uganda along the western shore of Lake Victoria. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map its distribution should be considered as approximate. It has also been reported from Mount Kenya, but this requires confirmation.
58137		habitat	eng	This species most likely has similar habitat and ecological requirements to those of most other members of the genus, and presumably also breeds in water.
58137		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably due to taxonomic confusion, and due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58137		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58138		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and presumably in several other protected areas.
58138		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (in the vicinity of Upemba National Park), east to southern and central Tanzania (as far as the Udzungwa Mountains), south to Kasungu in central Malawi (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.). It has not been recorded from northeastern Zambia but presumably occurs in this country. Most records are probably from above 1,000m asl, and it probably occurs up to 2,000m asl.
58138		habitat	eng	It is a species of miombo woodland savannahs, and open grassland, including montane grassland. It is particularly associated with grassy pools, puddles and marshes where it presumably breeds. It is likely to be able to adapt to altered habitats, although data are lacking.
58138		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitats.
58138		threats	eng	There is very little information, but it is unlikely to facing anything other than localized threats.
58139		conservation	eng	It occurs in Garamba National Park.
58139		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in northern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo in both the savannah and forest zones: Buta; Garamba National Park; Faradje; Kisangani; and Avakubi. The map joins these localities. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
58139		habitat	eng	At Garamba, it is found in a variety of habitats from gallery forest to open grassland, frequenting marshes, ponds and streams. Its habitat preferences in the forest zone are not clear, though it is suspected to survive well in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). There is no information on its breeding, though it is presumably similar to most other members of the genus, and breeds in water.
58139		population	eng	It is apparently a fairly abundant species in Garamba National Park.
58139		threats	eng	There is no direct information, but this species is believed to be adaptable, and not facing any significant threats.
58140		conservation	eng	A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of <em>Phrynobatrachus steindachneri</em>. The species might also occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.
58140		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. In Nigeria it is known from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it occurs in the Bamenda highlands at Mount Oku, Bangwa, Banyo, the Bamboutos Mountains and Foulassi. It occurs up to 2,100m asl on Mount Oku.
58140		habitat	eng	It is associated with slow-flowing watercourses in montane forests, forest strips, and montane grassland. It can be found in very open situations. It breeds in still water and marshes.
58140		population	eng	It is common, even abundant, within its small range.
58140		threats	eng	It is presumably adversely affected by the ongoing loss of forest and the degradation of montane grassland within its range due to agricultural expansion (particularly overgrazing by livestock), wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
58141		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58141		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Fort Crampel, in the Central African Republic.
58141		habitat	eng	It probably has similar habitat and ecological requirements to those of most other members of the genus, and presumably also breeds in water.
58141		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58141		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58142		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mulenge Forest Reserve, and the type locality is close to Nyika National Park, in which it is also likely to occur.
58142		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species is so far known only from two localities: Rumpi, in northern Malawi; and Mulenge Forest, in south-central Tanzania. It presumably occurs in intervening locations, and perhaps more widely. Its altitudinal range is unclear, though it probably occurs above 1,200m asl.
58142		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to marshy areas in dry forest and grassland, especially where there is vegetation in the water. It presumably breeds in marshes and well-vegetated waterbodies.
58142		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58142		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58143		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58143		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an approximate type locality in the massif of Nanzergwa, Burundi, at 2,300-2,500m asl.
58143		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a montane forest species, breeding in water.
58143		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
58143		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
58144		conservation	eng	It occurs in Taï National Park. Further work is required to resolve its taxonomic validity.
58144		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Tai Forest, in south-western Côte d’Ivoire.
58144		habitat	eng	It is believed to be a lowland rainforest species that presumably lives in similar habitats to those of most other members of the genus, and that probably also breeds in water.
58144		population	eng	It has not been found since it was originally collected in 1975. Over 30,000 frogs have been checked in the type locality in recent years, without recording this species, so it is either extremely rare, or not a valid species.
58144		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but if it is a forest-dependent species, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agricultural development, logging and human settlements.
58145		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in all of the forested protected areas within its range.
58145		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia, western and southwestern Côte d’Ivoire and Boi Tano Forest Reserve and Draw River Forest Reserve in Ghana. Records from Cape Three Points Forest Reserve in southwestern Ghana require confirmation (M.O. Rödel pers. comm.). It was for a long time known only from the type locality, N'Zébéla and N'Zérékoré, in southern Guinea until the synonymy with P. alticola was confirmed. It occurs up to 1,600m asl.
58145		habitat	eng	It is a species found in leaf-litter of secondary forests with a broken canopy, tree fall gaps in primary forest, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) and occasionally in moist savannah. It breeds by direct development. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae develop with the gelatinous mass.
58145		population	eng	It is an extremely common species.
58145		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.
58146		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Matipa Forest Reserve in the Misuku Mountains. Its taxonomic status requires review.
58146		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Ukinga and Rungwe Mountains of southern Tanzania, and in the Misuku Mountains and at Nchenachena in northern Malawi, and at Maroka (in the highlands south-west of Zomba) in southern Malawi. It has recently been found much further to the north in the Uluguru Mountains of eastern Tanzania. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular between the currently known sites. It is a montane species, probably occurring above 1,000m asl, and perhaps ranging to over 2,000m asl in places.
58146		habitat	eng	It appears to be a species of montane forest, forest edges, and open montane grassland. It apparently lives in marshy areas in open situations, or at the edge of montane forest, and presumably breeds in marshes and associated pools.
58146		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status. It has only seldom been recorded, presumably due to confusion with <em>Phrynobatrachus parvulus</em> and <em>P. mababiensis</em>.
58146		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are agricultural expansion, wood extraction and expanding human settlements, which are most likely adversely affecting it by causing the ongoing loss of forest and degradation of montane grassland within its range.
58147		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve.
58147		distribution	eng	This species is known only the southern and eastern Udzungwa Mountains, northern Uluguru Mountains, and the Nguu Mountains in eastern Tanzania, generally occurring above 900m asl. It presumably occurs in some other mountains of the Eastern Arc range.
58147		habitat	eng	It inhabits submontane and montane forest, where it is associated with mountain streams. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it presumably takes place by larval development in small streams. It has not been found in degraded habitats.
58147		population	eng	It is regularly encountered within its small range.
58147		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements.
58148		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kibale National Park (Uganda), and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda).
58148		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, north-western Burundi and south-western Uganda. It probably occurs mainly above 1,500m asl, ranging to at least 2,300m asl.
58148		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter species of mountain forest that is particularly associated with swamps and rivulets. The eggs are laid, and the larvae develop, in these waterbodies. It occurs only in undisturbed habitats.
58148		population	eng	In Uganda, the species is recorded as being common in the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, but uncommon in Kibale Forest.
58148		threats	eng	Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock), wood extraction, and human settlements.
58149		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas including Taï National Park, Haute Dodo Classified Forest, and Banco National Park in Côte d'Ivoire, and Kakoum National Park in Ghana.
58149		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-western and south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire, and from south-western Ghana. It might occur in Liberia, but there have not been any records so far.
58149		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary forest, and is not found in secondary forest. It deposits eggs on dried-up puddles just before the rains, and the larvae develop in very small puddles.
58149		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitat.
58149		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
58150		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.
58150		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its approximate type locality of Boutry, in south-western Ghana.
58150		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, which are assumed to be similar to those of most other members of the genus. This species therefore also probably breeds in water.
58150		population	eng	There have been no recent records of it, presumably due to taxonomic confusion.
58150		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58151		conservation	eng	It might also occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.
58151		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. In Nigeria it is known from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it occurs in the Bamboutos Mountains, the Bamileke Plateau (at Bangwa), Mount Manenguba, Mount Kupe, and the Rumpi Hills.
58151		habitat	eng	It lives in and around small streams, roadside ditches, raphia swamps and marshes, surrounded by submontane and montane forest and grassland. It can survive in altered habitats. It breeds in still water and marshes.
58151		population	eng	This is a common species within its range.
58151		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, not at serious risk from habitat change.
58152		conservation	eng	It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon) and Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea).
58152		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwestern Cameroon south to Monte Alen in mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni). It probably occurs up to over 1,000m asl. Records from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) refer to Dimorphognathus africanus.
58152		habitat	eng	It lives in the vicinity of streams in forest, and only survives in secondary habitats at higher elevations. They lay eggs on leaves close to water, but not above water. The tadpole falls to the ground and develops on land (it never enters water). The tadpole does not have a fully developed alimentary canal, and so it does not eat, but instead is dependent on its yolk. The alimentary canal is only developed and functional at the time that the tadpole develops into a frog. This process is referred to as semi-direct development.
58152		population	eng	It is a common species.
58152		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58153		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies should be prioritized to establish the status of disjunct distributions. No conservation actions are currently prioritized for this species.&#160;All populations recorded to date have been found in protected areas, Kogelberg Biosphere Nature Reserve,&#160;Hottentots Holland Nature Reserve and Fernkloof Nature Reserve.
58153		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Hottentots Holland, Kogelberg Mountain complex, and the Klein River Mountains, in the south-western part of Western Cape Province, South Africa, from 200-1,800 m asl. It occurs in four locations, and the extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> with an area of occupancy (AOO) of approximately 5% of the EOO, estimated based on availability of appropriate habitat (streams) within the EOO.
58153		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain fynbos heathland, and is restricted to areas with high rainfall (2,000-3,000 mm of rain per year). It breeds in shallow streams and seepages.
58153		population	eng	<p>This species is relatively abundant within areas where it occurs. The population is believed to be stable.</p>
58153		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the spread of alien species (pines in particular), afforestation, construction of dams, and too frequent fires. However, these threats are currently believed to be relatively minor due to sound reserve management.
58154		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas.
58154		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely through the equatorial forest zone of central Africa from southeastern Nigeria and Cameroon south through Gabon to the Mayombe region of western Democratic Republic of Congo, and east to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are uncertainties as to its distributional limits, especially along the southern border of its range. There do not appear to be records from Congo and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but it presumably occurs in these countries.
58154		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers. It is not known how adaptable it is to alteration of its habitat, but it can probably survive in secondary habitats providing that some form of canopy cover, or at least shade, remains. It breeds in still water, and has predatory tadpoles.
58154		population	eng	It is a very common species where it occurs. It was recorded as rare at Mount Nlonako in Cameroon.
58154		threats	eng	It is presumably affected, at least locally, by severe forest loss such as clear felling, and the expansion of open agricultural systems. This species is commonly kept in captivity as a pet, but international trade is not believed to be a threat to its populations. Overall, this species is not seriously threatened, since much of its habitat remains intact.
58155		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status requires clarification.
58155		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Mauda (the type locality) on the upper reaches of the Ubangi River in the extreme north-east of the country; and Kotili, near Buta, in the northern Congo basin. It presumably occurs more widely.
58155		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to be ecologically similar to <em>Hymenochirus boettgeri</em>, and to therefore be a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers. It presumably breeds in still waterbodies.
58155		population	eng	There is little information on this species' population status, but over 400 specimens have been collected at Kotili.
58155		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
58156		conservation	eng	It is known to occur just outside the borders of the Lac Téle Community Reserve (LTCR) in the Congo, operated by the Wildlife Conservation Society (Jackson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is likely to occur within the Reserve.
58156		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality north of the mouth of the Congo River, in extreme western Democratic Republic of the Congo, northeast along the border with Congo as far north as the border with the Central African Republic, and from the Likouala Region, Republic of <st1:country-region><st1:place>Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It may occur more widely.
58156		habitat	eng	The two individuals reported from the Congo were found in amplexus in flooded forest (Jackson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It is presumed to be ecologically similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenochirus boettgeri</span>, in other words, a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers.
58156		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It was recently reported from two specimens in the Republic of Congo (Jackson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
58156		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. There is significant trade of this species as a pet, although it is not thought to be a major threat at present.
58157		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity requires further investigation.
58157		distribution	eng	This species is known only with certainty from its type locality, "Fernand-Vaz" (Boulenger 1906), on the coast of central Gabon.
58157		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be ecologically similar to <em>Hymenochirus boettgeri</em>, and to therefore be a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers. It presumably breeds in still waterbodies.
58157		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58157		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
58158		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout range, including Canaima National Park in Venezuela.
58158		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and northern and central Brazil. Disjunctive records from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá in western Acre State in western Brazil might refer to another species. Despite its wide distribution, it is known from only a few records, possibly due to lack of herpetological work within its range. Venezuelan specimens were previously reported as <i>Pipa aspera</i> (La Marca, 1992). It is a lowland species, occurring up to 860m asl.
58158		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species living in permanent and temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest, including ponds, puddles and roadside ditches. These animals can cross land when their ponds dry out. Direct development takes place on the dorsum of the adult in water. It is apparently adaptable to human disturbance (although a population in eastern Venezuela disappeared after a road was asphalted).
58158		population	eng	It is a common species.
58158		threats	eng	It is probably not seriously threatened, but local populations are probably impacted by logging and fire.
58159		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes one protected area within each country. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.
58159		distribution	eng	This species is known from western French Guiana, eastern Suriname and central Guyana. It probably occurs more widely. It has been recorded from 100-300 m asl.
58159		habitat	eng	An aquatic frog found in calm areas of small streams amongst the leaf-litter. It has also been recorded from deep stagnant rock pools. The eggs are laid on the back of the female and develop directly on the back. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.
58159		population	eng	It is not thought to be a common species.
58159		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
58160		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
58160		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Brazil in the following States: Ceará, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Bahia, Espírito Santo, and Minas Gerais, and presumably also Rio Grande do Norte and Sergipe.
58160		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that occurs in permanent waterbodies in dry "Caatinga" savannah and "agreste" transition vegetation between "Caatinga" and Atlantic Forest. It breeds in water, the eggs being carried on the back of the female, with the larvae developing in the water. It can be found in fish farms, where it can be a pest.
58160		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, but such habitats are scarce through much of its range.
58160		threats	eng	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and agriculture, in particular contamination of breeding ponds as a result of their being used by livestock. Pollution of waterbodies by pesticides might also be a problem.
58161		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Reserva Canclón Hidrológica in Panama, but additional protection of the wetland habitat of this species is needed. Further research is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
58161		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Río Ucurgantí and Río Canclón of Darien Province, Panama, and tentatively from Río Zulia in Norte de Santander, in northern Colombia. It occurs up to 30 masl.
58161		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species restricted to swamps and other suitable wetlands. The eggs presumably develop on the back of the female, either by larval or direct development.
58161		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
58161		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction of forests surrounding the wetlands (due to logging, subsistence agriculture, and livestock farming); water pollution is also a threat.
58162		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. The introduced populations need to be controlled to prevent its expansion into the Orinoco river basin.
58162		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in northern Venezuela, centred on the Lake Maracaibo Basin. Its range includes a small part of northeastern Colombia. It has been introduced into the Lake Valencia Basin in northern Venezuela, posing concern about its possible expansion to the south into other river basins, such as the Orinoco. In Venezuela, its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 300m asl.
58162		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species living in lakes, ponds, and marshes in flat, open areas, including grassland and flooded habitats. It is able to cross land. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, and the larvae emerge into water, where they develop.
58162		population	eng	It is a very common species. Its introduced population is expanding into previously unoccupied areas in central Venezuela.
58162		threats	eng	There are no known threats. It is controlled as a pest, but this has a negligible impact on its populations.
58163		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58163		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Amazon basin of South America in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. It is also present at scattered localities in southern and eastern Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It is a lowland species found below 400m asl.
58163		habitat	eng	Aquatic species that lives in slow flowing watercourses, backwater of streams, and ponds and pools in tropical rainforest, hiding under submerged leaf-litter. They also occur in flooded forest. They seldom venture onto land, where they move clumsily. Direct development takes place on the dorsum of the adult.
58163		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
58163		threats	eng	It is not seriously threatened, but local populations are probably impacted by habitat loss and degradation due to logging, agricultural expansion, and human settlement.
58164		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one conservation unit.
58164		distribution	eng	This species is known from widely scattered localities in the Amazonian basin of Brazil, Colombia and Peru. There is also a record from French Guiana (housed at KUH), although it needs to be verified.
58164		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species. It occurs in permanent waterbodies associated with salt licks in the tropical rainforest. The eggs presumably develop on the back of the female, either by larval or by direct development.
58164		population	eng	It is possibly abundant but it is poorly known.
58164		threats	eng	Forest destruction and international trade are both threats to this species.
58165		conservation	eng	It has not been confirmed from any protected areas, and there are very few within its range.
58165		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Guinea-Bissau, through western Guinea, to southern Sierra Leone.
58165		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species, and is usually found in still water, milky, silt-laden water, shaded by trees in lowland forest, including secondary forest. However, it has also been found in small, very slow-moving rocky streams, and in water in agricultural land, providing that the water remains shaded. It can thrive in newly created aquatic habitats, which it readily colonises overland. It avoids waterbodies with large fish populations. It breeds in water and has predatory tadpoles.
58165		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
58165		threats	eng	The main threat might be harvesting for local human consumption. The animals are caught with whicker trays. Removal of shade trees and introduction of predatory fish might also be threats, at least locally. However, it is thought that the species is not seriously threatened.
58166		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58166		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is very poorly known. There are records from: Garamba National Park in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa in western Democratic Republic of Congo; northeastern Angola; several localities covering most of Gabon; Point Noire in Congo; mainland Equatorial Guinea; and Longyi, Akok, Efulen, Bipindi, Nkoemvone and Ebolowa in Cameroon south of the Sanaga River. We follow Loumont (1983) in provisionally assigning records to the west and north of the Sanaga River to Silurana tropicalis. The distribution map should be considered as provisional.
58166		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species, that is found in small water holes in lowland rainforest around 1m deep and 1-2m in diameter. It can tolerate some habitat disturbance, but require canopy cover over its ponds. It has filter-feeding tadpoles.
58166		population	eng	It is a very abundant species locally.
58166		threats	eng	It is presumably affected, at least locally, by severe forest loss such as clear felling, and the expansion of open agricultural systems.
58167		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58167		distribution	eng	This West Africa species ranges from Senegal to western Cameroon north and west of the Sanaga River. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). We follow Loumont (1983) in provisionally assigning records to the east and south of this range to Silurana epitropicalis. However, the distributional limits of both species require further clarification. There do not appear to be any records from Mali, but it might occur in the extreme south of this country.
58167		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species, associated with secondary and primary forest, and degraded former forest (farm bush), living in all kinds of stagnant waters. It enters streams and rivers during dry season, and breeds in temporary pools during the wet season. It is associated with gallery forests in the savannah zone.
58167		population	eng	It is an extremely common species in the forest zone of West Africa.
58167		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is harvested for human consumption, which might have a local impact on certain populations.
58168		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
58168		distribution	eng	This species is known only from highland areas of western Cameroon, in particular from Mount Manenguba and the Bamileke and Bamenda Plateaus. Specific localities include Mount Manenguba (1,900m asl), the Mifi-Noun River near Galim (1,100m asl), Mbouda (1,400m asl), Tadu (near Mount Oku), Ber, Nkoutoupi, Nchoupa, and Bangourain. It is probable that specimens from Manengole (600-700m asl) and Bangwa (1,400-1,500m asl) belong to this species.
58168		habitat	eng	It is water-dependent and has been found in a shallow crater lake overgrown with grass, in a swamp, and in artificial fishponds, generally in areas of montane grassland and pastureland. It breeds in still water, and migrates for short distances over land outside the breeding season.
58168		population	eng	It is a poorly known species, but it has been found to be abundant at least on Mount Manenguba and at Galim. It is probably generally abundant in the Cameroonian highlands.
58168		threats	eng	It is harvested locally, and some of its habitats might be under threat from expanding agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlements. However, it does appear to be capable of colonising artificial habitats, and it can co-exist with at least some introduced fish species.
58169		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species is still very poorly known, and it has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, but it is almost certainly present in several.
58169		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the four localities: Longyi, north of Kribi, on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon; Mekambo in north-central Gabon; Makokou in northeastern Gabon; and Bouchia in southern Central African Republic. It no doubt occurs elsewhere, but because of the difficulty in identifying cryptic Xenopus species, probably some records of this species have been assigned to Xenopus fraseri. The map joins the three known localities on the assumption that it occurs in the intervening area. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea and Congo, and possibly in Democratic Republic of Congo.
58169		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species found in small water holes and shady swamps (including pools only 200m from the sea at the type locality) in lowland forest. It is clearly adaptable, since it has also been found in swamps at the edge of a village. It breeds in still water. In Cameroon, it occurs in the same water holes as Silurana epitropicalis, but the two species have different diurnal activities, X. andrei being active on the water surface at night, and S. epitropicalis being active in the daytime. In Bouchia it is sympatric with X. pygmaeus, X. muelleri and S. epitropicalis.
58169		population	eng	Very little information is available, but many specimens were found at Bouchia.
58169		threats	eng	In view of its wide distribution and likely adaptability to altered habitats, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened. It is harvested for human consumption, and this might have an impact on local populations.
58170		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Elgon, Lake Nakuru and Marsabit National Parks, and probably in several other protected areas.
58170		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded with certainty from the highlands of Kenya, from Mount Elgon in the west, to Marsabit in the north, and Nairobi in the south. It occurs in the Rift Valley at Lakes Naivasha and Nakuru. There are records from Tanzania at: Bermi near Babati; Serengeti National Park; and Njombe in the south of the country. It seems likely that this species replaces Xenopus muelleri in upland areas through most of East Africa, and many records previously assigned to X. muelleri in the inland parts of East Africa might well refer to this species. It is likely to occur in Uganda. The current map should be considered provisional. It occurs above 1,000m asl, especially above 1,800m asl, and has been found up to 2,400m asl, probably higher.
58170		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species associated with high-altitude grassland and moorland, including pastureland. It does not occur in forest. It lives and breeds in pools and slow-flowing streams.
58170		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
58170		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be threatened, since it is adaptable, and its habitats are not significantly threatened.
58171		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species is very poorly known, and it is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
58171		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mawa, halfway between Yokadouma and Moloundou in the upper Boumba Valley in south-eastern Cameroon. It probably occurs more widely in the central African forest belt, but there have been no additional records, presumably because of the difficulty in identifying cryptic <em>Xenopus</em> species. It is likely that some records of this species have been assigned to <em>X. fraseri</em>.
58171		habitat	eng	This is a water-dependent species in a lowland rainforest region. Its ecology is likely to be similar to that of <em>X. fraseri</em>, which is an adaptable species.
58171		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58171		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be facing any particular threats, particularly given its likely adaptability, and the fact that it is almost certainly more widespread than is currently known.
58172		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58172		distribution	eng	This species has its range centred on the Ethiopian Plateau (where it occurs on both sides of the Rift Valley and it the Valley itself) and Eritrea, and it is reputed to occur in the Lake Turkana region of northwestern Kenya and immediately adjacent Sudan. Its altitudinal range is 820-2,745m asl; records up to 3,500m asl are unsubstantiated.
58172		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species, living in permanent water in a wide variety of habitats, including both montane and lowland forest, montane grassland, <em>Acacia</em> woodland and arid savannah. It breeds in permanent, still and slow-flowing waterbodies.
58172		population	eng	It is common to abundant in many localities.
58172		threats	eng	The most likely threats are environmental degradation and aquatic pollution resulting from human activities. However, it is a resilient species, and is not seriously threatened.
58173		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58173		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and south to northern Angola. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Records from northern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, up to the border with Uganda, probably refer to Xenopus pygmaeus. Records from central and southern Angola (Ruas 1996) require confirmation.
58173		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species of lowland rainforest, living and breeding in pools, and sometimes in slow-flowing streams. It can tolerate habitat degradation, providing that shade is provided by overhanging trees. It has filter-feeding tadpoles.
58173		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
58173		threats	eng	In view of its wide distribution and adaptability to altered habitats, this species is unlikely to be threatened. It is harvested for human consumption, and this might have an impact on local populations.
58174		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58174		distribution	eng	The range of this species is unclear following the removal from <em>Xenopus victorianus</em> from <em>X. laevis</em>. For the purposes of this assessment we have assumed that all animals from southern Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique southwards (including in almost all of Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland) belong to <em>Xenopus laevis</em>. In addition we treat all animals in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Congo west of 28ºE as belonging to <em>X. laevis sudanensis</em>. Records from Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo east of 28ºE refer to this <em>X. victorianus</em>.  This species ranges from sea-level up to 3,000m asl.<br/><br/>It is introduced in several places outside its native range, including the USA where it was first introduced in the 1930s and 1940s for laboratory use and later as an aquarium pet. It was introduced and established locally in California (San Diego, Orange, Riverside, Los Angeles, Ventura, and Imperial counties) and Arizona (Tucson area) (Stebbins 1985, Lafferty ad Page 1997). It has been recorded from, but it is not established in Colorado. It has also been introduced to Chile (introduced in the 1970s to central Chile, Valparaiso to Concepción Provinces), parts of the United Kingdom (extant in south Wales and presumed extirpated from the Isle of Wight [not mapped here], and a number of occasional records from other locations [not mapped], the Departments of Deux-Sèvres and Maine et Loire in France and Java (Indonesia) [not mapped here]. It is introduced also in the Lage stream, about 20 km W of Lisbon, Portugal (Rebelo <em>et al</em>., 2007) and there is a large invasive population in Sicily (Lillo <em>et al</em>. 2005; Faraone <em>et al</em>. 2008) [not mapped here]. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Sudan, but there do not appear to be confirmed records from this country. Records from Congo refer to <em>Xenopus petersii</em>. Its range is also extending in parts of Africa, often by introduction because it is used for live bait, and it has spread extensively in South Africa. It occurs up to 3,000m asl.
58174		distribution	eng	The range of this species is unclear following the removal from <em>Xenopus victorianus</em> from <em>X. laevis</em>. For the purposes of this assessment we have assumed that all animals from southern Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique southwards (including in almost all of Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland) belong to <em>X. laevis</em>. In addition we treat all animals in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Congo west of 28ºE as belonging to <em>X. l. sudanensis</em>. Records from Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo east of 28ºE refer to this <em>X. victorianus</em>. There is an isolated record from Gabon (M. Beier pers. comm. January 2006). <br/><br/>It is introduced in several places outside its native range, including the USA where it was first introduced in the 1930s and 1940s for laboratory use and later as an aquarium pet. It was introduced and established locally in California (San Diego, Orange, Riverside, Los Angeles, Ventura, and Imperial counties) and Arizona (Tucson area) (Stebbins 1985, Lafferty ad Page 1997). It has been recorded from, but it is not established in Colorado. It has also been introduced to Chile (introduced in the 1970s to central Chile, Valparaiso to Concepción Provinces), parts of the United Kingdom (extant in south Wales and presumed extirpated from the Isle of Wight [not mapped here], and a number of occasional records from other locations [not mapped], the Departments of Deux-Sèvres and Maine et Loire in France and Java (Indonesia) [not mapped here]. It is introduced also in the Lage stream, about 20 km W of Lisbon, Portugal (Rebelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and there is a large invasive population in Sicily (Lillo <em>et al</em>. 2005, Faraone <em>et al</em>. 2008) [not mapped here]. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Sudan, but there do not appear to be confirmed records from this country (there is an uncertain record assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">X. l. sudanensis</span> from Jebel Marrah, Sudan (M. Beier pers. comm. January 2006) [not mapped here]). Records from Congo refer to <em>X. petersii</em>. Its range is also extending in parts of Africa, often by introduction because it is used for live bait, and it has spread extensively in South Africa. This species ranges from sea-level up to 3,000 m asl.
58174		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.
58174		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant, and often increasing, species.
58174		threats	eng	It is very successful and adaptable, and is an invasive species in many areas. Recent studies show that it is not impacted by the herbicide atrazine. Chytridiomycosis was detected in museum specimens of this species dating back to 1938, and it is hypothesized that the international trade in this species might have introduced this fungal disease to other regions of the world. The disease does not appear to have any detrimental affect on populations of this species.
58175		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. More data are needed in order to determine the conservation status and requirements of this species.
58175		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in the mountains east of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, between Dodola and Aselle (the type locality) at 2,650m asl, and in the Arussi Mountains at 2,500m asl. It could be more widespread.
58175		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species. At the type locality it was found in pools, streams and marshes surrounded by grassy clearings derived from montane forest. At its other site, it was found in a stream flowing through cultivated land. It is perhaps formerly a montane forest species, with only remnant populations surviving due to habitat loss, but this has not been confirmed. It presumably breeds in water, like other species of <em>Xenopus</em>.
58175		population	eng	There is very little information: only a few specimens are known.
58175		threats	eng	The most likely threats to this species are forest loss, environmental degradation and aquatic pollution resulting from human activities such as shifting agriculture and smallholder farming.
58176		conservation	eng	A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area involving the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species. A captive-breeding programme should be considered in view of the risk of a catastrophic collapse of the population if a predatory fish species is introduced to the lake.
58176		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Oku at 2,200m asl on Mount Oku, western Cameroon. It might occur elsewhere in the Cameroon highlands, but there are few lakes with ecological characteristics similar to Lake Oku.
58176		habitat	eng	Lake Oku is a shallow, eutrophic lake completely surrounded by montane rainforest. This species is entirely water-dependent, quite inept on land, and is the main aquatic vertebrate in the lake, filling the ecological niche of a fish.
58176		population	eng	It is abundant in Lake Oku.
58176		threats	eng	The main threat to this species would appear to be the risk of introduction of a predatory fish species into Lake Oku, which could wipe out this restricted-range species. Such a scenario is highly plausible given the high protein demands of surrounding communities.
58177		conservation	eng	Its range includes many protected areas.
58177		distribution	eng	This species appears to occur in three separate populations: from eastern Côte d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso eastward across Sudan-Guinea zone to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southern Sudan, northern Uganda, and perhaps northwestern Kenya; from the Kenyan coast, south to northeastern South Africa, Swaziland, northern Botswana, northeastern Namibia, and southeastern Angola; and from the Ennedi in northeastern Chad. It seems likely that many records from the inland parts of Tanzania currently assigned to this species should in fact be referred to Xenopus borealis, and the distribution maps probably records this species as occurring much too widely in this country. It is mainly a lowland species, but probably occurs up to at least 2,000m asl.
58177		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species, using both temporary and permanent ponds, and also streams and rivers in the dry season. In West Africa it occurs mainly in the dry savannah and northern humid savannah zones, preferring drier condition to Xenopus laevis. It is found in agricultural and other altered habitats. It seldom occurs in forests. It also prefers hotter conditions compared with X. laevis, and uses muddier waters. It breeds in still water pools
58177		population	eng	It is a common species.
58177		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
58178		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58178		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Gabon, Congo, Angola and extreme northern Namibia, east to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, extreme western Zimbabwe and northern Botswana. Records from Tanzania require confirmation.
58178		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.
58178		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species.
58178		threats	eng	It is very successful and adaptable, and is invasive in many areas.
58179		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Garamba and Virunga National Parks in Democratic Republic of Congo.
58179		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Bagandou, Etoi and Bouchia in southern Central African Republic, east to northeastern Democratic Republic Congo as far as Semliki in western Uganda. It presumably occurs in northern Congo, but this has not yet been confirmed. Because of the difficulty in identifying cryptic Xenopus species, probably some records of this species have been assigned to Xenopus fraseri. This probably includes at least some X. fraseri records from Garamba and Virunga National Parks.
58179		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species found in small water holes, pools and shady swamps in lowland forest. It is clearly adaptable, since it has also been found in swamps at the edge of a village. It breeds in still water. In Bouchia it is sympatric with X. andrei, X. muelleri and S. epitropicalis.
58179		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
58179		threats	eng	In view of its wide distribution and likely adaptability to altered habitats, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened. It is harvested for human consumption, and this might have an impact on local populations.
58180		conservation	eng	It is not know from any well protected areas.
58180		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Bundibugyo in Semliki Valley in western Uganda, at the foot of the Ruwenzori Mountains at 700m asl, and from Budongo Forest, east of Lake Albert, in western Uganda. It presumably occurs elsewhere, including in nearby Democratic Republic of Congo.
58180		habitat	eng	It is assumed to be a water-dependent species in lowland rainforest. However, the type locality is a pool in a banana plantation, where it lives together with <em>Xenopus pygmaeus</em>. It appears that, like <em>X. fraseri</em>, it can survive in degraded habitats, provided that the pools which it requires for breeding in are shaded.
58180		population	eng	It is a very poorly known species, and there is no information on its population status.
58180		threats	eng	There is very little direct information on threats to this species. It probably cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, and it is likely also to be harvested locally for human consumption.
58181		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda), Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (Uganda) and Kibale National Park (Uganda).
58181		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains bordering the Albertine Rift in southwestern Uganda, western and northern Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It ranges as far north as Kibale Forest in Uganda. Records from Tanzania are now considered to be doubtful. It is a high-altitude species, descending as low as 1,200m asl.
58181		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species of highland swamps and lakes, often occurring in small and large ponds, very rarely in rivers, and occasionally in streams. It is not a forest species, and it is adaptable, living in high-altitude grassland and agricultural areas, where it does not require shade. However, it is not normally in very open water where fish are present. At the lower elevational limit of its range in the Kibale Forest, where it is rare, it is perhaps more of a forest species.
58181		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
58181		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened, although harvesting for human consumption might have a local impact.
58182		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda), Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (Uganda) and Kibale National Park (Uganda).
58182		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains bordering the Albertine Rift in southwestern Uganda, western Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It ranges as far north as Kibale Forest in Uganda. It probably occurs in northwestern Burundi. It is known to occur from 1,200 up to 2,300m asl.
58182		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species of highland swamps and lake margins, often occurring in small and large ponds, ditches and streams. It is a very adaptable species, found in both forest and in high-altitude grassland and agricultural areas, where it does not require shade. It is replaced by Xenopus pygmaeus in lowland forest.
58182		population	eng	It is a very abundant species.
58182		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened, although harvesting for human consumption might have a local impact.
58183		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58183		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Lubile, in Pangi Territory in east-central Democratic Republic of Congo, at 700m asl.
58183		habitat	eng	It is likely to be associated with streams and rivers, in which it presumably breeds, in lowland rainforest.
58183		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from the type series.
58183		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58184		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58184		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in eastern and southern Africa, occurring mainly in upland areas (especially in the tropics) from Eritrea and Ethiopia south to southern Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, and Angola. It occurs from sea level to 2,000m asl in South Africa 2,800m asl in East Africa and 3,100m asl in Ethiopia. It presumably occurs in extreme southern Namibia and in the Caprivi Strip, but there do not appear to be any records from this country. A record from Landiani in northern coastal Kenya requires confirmation.
58184		habitat	eng	It requires permanent water surrounded by dense herbaceous vegetation, in grassland, forests, savannah and agricultural land. It prefers shallow water, including ponds, streams and rivers, and breeds in still water and on the edges of streams.
58184		population	eng	It is very common in many sites throughout its range.
58184		threats	eng	It is a widespread and adaptable species that is facing only localized threats.
58185		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas other than Virunga National Park.
58185		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Virunga National Park in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, at 600-2,200m asl.
58185		habitat	eng	It lives in and around streams, in which it presumably breeds, in submontane and montane rainforest.
58185		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, although the type series was very large, indicating that it is common within its small known range. There have been no recent records.
58185		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. The effects of political instability in the area on this species are not known.
58186		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58186		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in South Africa, Lesotho, western Swaziland and extreme southern Namibia. There are also isolated populations in the Naufluft Mountains and along the Fish River in south-central Namibia.
58186		habitat	eng	It is a species of grassland, fynbos heath land, and succulent karroo and Nama karroo shrubland. It survives in altered habitats such as pastureland and agricultural land. It breeds in well-vegetated streams rivers, and in ponds and dams in dry areas.
58186		population	eng	It is a common species, with large breeding aggregations.
58186		threats	eng	It is not significantly threatened, it is an adaptable species, but some local populations have been adversely affected by dams. The construction of the Hardap Dam on the Fish River in Namibia appears to have had a negative influence on the habitat downstream, as the river is considerably drier than it was before the dam was built. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Western Cape and Northern Cape, South Africa.
58187		conservation	eng	It occurs in Chimanimani National Park and adjacent state forests, as well as Rhodes Nyanga National Park.
58187		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, on Inyangani Mountain and in Chimanimani National Park. It occurs above 2,000m asl. It is likely to occur in nearby Mozambique, but there have not so far been any records.
58187		habitat	eng	It lives in and around rocky, fast-flowing streams in montane grassland. Adults have been found sitting on rock ledges behind waterfalls, or on rocks in the middle of rapids; juveniles frequent more quiet backwaters. The eggs are laid in shallow rocky pools.
58187		population	eng	There is little recent information on the population status of this species.
58187		threats	eng	The high-altitude habitat of this species has been relatively intact up until now, but it might be at risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.
58188		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve, which is in need of continued and strengthened management.
58188		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi, where it occurs above 2,000m asl.
58188		habitat	eng	It is a strongly aquatic species associated with pools in cold mountain streams in montane grassland and forest, but it does not survive in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams, and the larvae apparently remain in the water for two years before metamorphosing.
58188		population	eng	It is common in its restricted range.
58188		threats	eng	Although somewhat protected, the habitat on Mount Mulanje continues to be lost in places as a result of subsistence agriculture, and the extraction of wood (which in turn probably results in the siltation of streams).
58189		conservation	eng	It occurs in Virunga National Park and Mount Elgon National Park.
58189		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Ruwenzori in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and south-western Uganda, at 700-2,500m asl. There have been more recent records from Mount Elgon in western Kenya (and it is assumed to also be present on the Ugandan side of Mount Elgon). It is probably also present on other mountains in eastern and central Africa.
58189		habitat	eng	It lives in and around streams, in which it presumably breeds, in submontane and montane rainforest.
58189		population	eng	There is very little information on the population status of this species, although the type series was very large, indicating that it is common within its small known range.
58189		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. The effects of political instability in the area on this species are not known.
58190		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species, although further research on population trends would be useful and required for a sound basis for future monitoring.&#160;Taxonomic investigations of disjunct distributions require attention.&#160;It is currently known from four protected areas: Grootvadersbos Nature Reserve, Boosmansbos Wilderness Area, Swartberg Nature Reserve, and Garcia State Forest.
58190		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Swartberg, Langeberg and Hottentots-Holland mountain ranges&#160;in the eastern part of Western Cape Province, South Africa. It occurs at medium to high altitudes, up to at least 1,800 m asl.
58190		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain fynbos heathland, and is associated with rocky streams on steep, well-vegetated slopes, and forest gorges. It breeds in pools at the sides of streams, and in deeper, slow-flowing water.
58190		population	eng	.It is considered to be a common species in all three mountain ranges.
58190		threats	eng	Much of its habitat is protected, but even within the protected areas this species may be threatened by the damming of streams, the spread of invasive alien plants, and by too frequent fires. However, these threats are currently thought not to be sufficiently intense and are being presumably managed within the protected areas.
58191		conservation	eng	It occurs in Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks in Kenya and Arusha National Park in Tanzania. Further research is required to clarify its taxonomic status.
58191		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in the central highlands of Kenya on the Mau Escarpment, the Aberdare Mountains, Mount Kenya and the Cherangani Hills, between 2,080 and 3,100m asl. It has also been recorded from Arusha and Mount Meru in northern Tanzania (Pickersgill pers. comm.; Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2004). Records from Ethiopia have been shown to be wrongly assigned (Largen 2001), and records from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo might refer to other members of this genus, and therefore require confirmation.
58191		habitat	eng	It is presumably associated with streams in montane grassland, and perhaps also forest, but it has also been found in a town.
58191		population	eng	This is a common species.
58191		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58192		conservation	eng	This widespread species occurs in many protected areas.
58192		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone in the west to Uganda, western Kenya and northwestern Tanzania in the east, south to northeastern Angola. There is probably a discontinuity in its range between western Togo and western Nigeria. There appears to be an isolated population on the Jos plateau in northern Nigeria. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is assumed to occur in Rwanda and Burundi, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records from these countries.
58192		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary habitats and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone, and in gallery forests in the humid svanna zone. It avoids closed forest in central Africa. In West Africa, it occurs in closed-canopy forest as well as in secondary habitats. It is usally found low in the vegetation. In central Africa it breeds in still-water ponds, marshes, raphia swamps and creeks, and sometimes-in very slow-flowing water. In West African breeds in large temporary ponds, and permanent streams, associated with dwarf crocodiles Osteolaemus tetraspis.
58192		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58192		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to face anything other the localized threats.
58193		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve (Gabon).
58193		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern and southern Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), south to central Gabon. It occurs mainly at low altitudes, but it occurs up to more than 1,000m asl in Cameroon. It presumably occurs in northern Congo, though there have not yet been any records from this country.
58193		habitat	eng	This is a species of primary and slightly disturbed rainforest, requiring a closed canopy. It is usally found on low vegetation in the forest. It breeds in slow-flowing water, in particular in slow areas in streams, and in pools isolated from the main current, usually on a sandy substrate.
58193		population	eng	It is a common species.
58193		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58194		conservation	eng	It occurs in Cross River National Park in Nigeria, but there is a need for improved and strengthened protection of the forest habitat of this species in western Cameroon.
58194		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area of western Cameroon, from the Rumpi Hills to the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau, and Nkongsamba, and from the Oban Hills in Nigeria where it has recently been recorded (M. Gartshore pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is not clear, but it is probably found mainly at intermediate elevations.
58194		habitat	eng	This is a forest species known from hilly country in the foothills of the Cameroonian mountains, and it does not survive in degraded habitats. It lives close to fast-flowing streams, where it breeds; the larvae can be found in calmer areas of these streams.
58194		population	eng	It is uncommon.
58194		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements.
58195		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58195		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Angola, through the Caprivi Strip of Namibia to extreme northern Botswana, extreme southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, much of Zambia (except the northeast), eastern and northern Zimbabwe, southern Malawi, and west-central Mozambique.
58195		habitat	eng	It is a species of open savannahs, savannah woodland, and forest, occurring mainly in upland areas. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. Its breeding has not been described, but, like others members of its genus, it presumably requires permanent waterbodies, such as lakes, small rivers, ponds and swamps
58195		population	eng	It is a common species in much of its range.
58195		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in an area of limited human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
58196		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58196		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Senegal to western Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and southern Somalia, south to southern Mozambique, with an apparently isolated population in northern Eritrea. It is presumed to occur in Guinea, Togo, Chad, Sudan, and possibly Liberia, but definite records appear to be lacking from these countries.
58196		habitat	eng	This is a strongly aquatic species in savannah areas, where it lives in and around permanent lakes, small rivers, ponds and swamps. It also survives in modified habitats. It usually occurs in permanent waterbodies, but if these dry out, it hides in sheltered areas and termitaria. It breeds in still-water lakes, ponds and swamps.
58196		population	eng	It is a common species.
58196		threats	eng	It is a very widespread and adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is used locally as a food source in West Africa, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
58197		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and probably in several other protected areas.
58197		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northeastern and north-central Angola through southern Democratic Republic of Congo to northern Zambia. A record from western Angola requires confirmation. It is poorly known, and is likely to range more widely.
58197		habitat	eng	There is little information, but it has been found in riparian forest in humid savannah, occurring mainly in upland areas. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It is associated with permanent waterbodies. Its breeding has not been described, but, like others members of its genus, it presumably requires permanent waterbodies, such as lakes, small rivers, ponds and swamps
58197		population	eng	There is little recent information, but it is likely to be common in suitable habitats.
58197		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in an area of limited human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
58198		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve (Gabon).
58198		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southwestern and southern Cameroon to the Democratic Republic of Congo, south at least to southern Congo. Its eastern limits in the Democratic Republic of Congo are unclear, although its range is as far east as Kasai Province. There are records from Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic and Congo, and it is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. It is a low-altitude species.
58198		habitat	eng	It is a lowland forest species that can survive in gallery forests and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It is often founds along the banks of large, slow-flowing stream and small rivers, in which it breeds.
58198		population	eng	It is a common species.
58198		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58199		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for improved protection of montane forest habitat at sites where this species is known to occur.
58199		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western and central Cameroon on the Bamiléké and Adamawa Plateaus, generally above 1,000m asl. There are records from Bangwa, Ibong, Ndom, Banen, Bagam, Ngaoundere, Tibati, Mount Nganha, and Mayo Darle.
58199		habitat	eng	It lives in the submontane zone along water courses bordered by gallery forest. It also occurs at lower elevations in forest outliers. Males sing in chorus in flooded areas in gallery forest, and tadpoles have been found in pools in small streams.
58199		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
58199		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock grazing), logging, and human settlements.
58200		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea and Liberia), Kakoum National Park (Ghana), Boi Tano Forest Reserve (Ghana) and the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA), a twin wildlife protected area comprising Nini-Suhien National Park (166km²) to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve (343km²) to the south (Ghana).
58200		distribution	eng	This species is known from several records in West Africa: southern Guinea (Mount Nimba and Ziama Forest); northern Liberia (Mount Nimba); south-western Côte d'Ivoire (Haute Dodo Classified Forest and Taï National Park); and south-western Ghana (Kakoum National Park, Boi Tano Forest Reserve and the Ankasa Conservation Area). Perret (1977) noted its presence in Nigeria, but no localities were given in Perret (1983), so its occurrence in Nigeria requires confirmation.
58200		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, and is known only from undisturbed primary forest. It presumably breeds in temporary pools.
58200		population	eng	It is a very rare species, and is rarely encountered.
58200		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
58201		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas.
58201		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a restricted area on the western escarpment of Angola. There are records from Congulo and Quirimbo, and it is likely to occur more widely.
58201		habitat	eng	It apparently occurs in swamps in forest, and presumably breeds in water (although this is not known for certain).
58201		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
58201		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58202		conservation	eng	The only known locality in China is within Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve, and the locality in Myanmar is within Hkakabo Razi National Park.
58202		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slope of Gaoligongshan, including Pianma Township, Lushui and Yangbi Counties, in Yunnan Province, China, and from Pangnamdim in extreme upper Myanmar (Smith 1940). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 1,540-1,620m asl.
58202		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain streams, in which it breeds, in fast-flowing water and waterfalls, and in the surrounding habitats.
58202		population	eng	It is a very rare species in China. It was apparently locally common at Pangnamdim, at least in the 1930s (Smith 1940), although there is no recent population information available from Myanmar.
58202		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58203		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation, but it is not known from any protected areas. Recent field studies were undertaken by Ray (1999).
58203		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Chakrata, in Uttaranchal, India, although it might occur more widely. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,500m asl.
58203		habitat	eng	Very little is known about its habitat and ecological requirements, although it has been recorded from hill stream habitat. All that is known about its breeding biology is that the eggs are deposited on the leaves of aquatic plants.
58203		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this recently described species.
58203		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
58204		conservation	eng	Its range includes three protected areas in Viet Nam, and in China it occurs in Huangliangshan and Daweishan National Nature Reserves. Ensuring that socio-economic and tourist developments at Sa Pa do not impact the ecological viability of the area would be a primary conservation objective.
58204		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hekou and Luchun Counties in south Yunnan Province, China (where Zhao and Adler (1993) referred to it under its <em>Amolops macrorhynchus</em> synonym), from Sa Pa in extreme northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942), and from the extreme northern Annamite Mountains (S. Swan pers. comm.) of Viet Nam. It is likely that this species occurs more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 800-1,700m asl.
58204		habitat	eng	It is found in clear, swift-moving streams, and on the ground in closed-canopy primary forest up to four metres from water. It inhabits waterfalls during breeding.
58204		population	eng	In China this species is considered to be rare, but in Viet Nam it has been observed to be abundant during the breeding season (S. Swan pers. comm.).
58204		threats	eng	The integrity of the type locality, Sa Pa, is under some threat from forest clearance and tourist infrastructure development (BirdLife International 2001). Within its range in China there is very little habitat destruction and degradation, which is now only taking place in the reserve buffer zones.
58205		conservation	eng	A considerable proportion of its populations occur in nature reserves and the habitats are accorded some form of protection. The Vietnamese range of the species is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.
58205		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern, central and west China including Shannxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Guixhou, Zhejiang, Hunan, Fujian, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. Records from Yunnan province, and from Fan Si Pan Mountain in Viet Nam (Ohler et. al., 2000) refer to <Amolops mengyangensis </em> (Ohler, 2007). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at elevations between 700-1,900m asl.
58205		habitat	eng	A territorial species found in hill forests and on boulders along streams during the breeding season. It breeds in streams.
58205		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
58205		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation, the construction of hydroelectric plants and the liming of streams for fish are major threats to this species in China. It is also collected in China by the local people for consumption in certain areas, although this is not considered a threat. In Viet Nam cardamom plantations along the streams might be a threat.
58206		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Namdhapa National Park and Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary (both in Arunachal Pradesh). It is protected by national legislation in India. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Sabitri Bardoli and Maren Ao.
58206		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from India (Himanchal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam), northern Bangladesh and much of Nepal. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-2,500m asl.
58206		habitat	eng	It is associated with streams and riparian vegetation within tropical evergreen forest. Breeding takes place in streams. There is little available information on egg deposition or larval ecology.
58206		population	eng	It is generally considered to be rare.
58206		threats	eng	There is a continuing loss of suitable stream habitats, through both deforestation and changes in water management (dams).
58207		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and Mouling National Park (Arunachal Pradesh, India). Recent field studies including this species have been undertaken by Roy (1999), Brodoli and Borah (1998-2002) and Chanda (1994). It is protected by national legislation in India.
58207		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast India (Meghalaya, Arunchal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland and West Bengal). Records in Fei (1999) from Xizang province near the border with India require confirmation. It is found at elevations of between 100 and 1,700m asl.
58207		habitat	eng	A semi-aquatic species found in hill streams. Calling takes place on the stream banks and eggs are deposited on stones at the stream edge.
58207		population	eng	It is reported to be common where it occurs.
58207		threats	eng	It is threatened by changes in water management (dam construction) and unspecified agricultural pollution.
58208		conservation	eng	This species is known from a few protected areas including Shengnongjia Nature Reserve and Emeishan Mountain Scenic Site.
58208		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Sichuan and western Hubei provinces in China, between 1,000-2,200m asl. It is known from fewer than 10 locations, but it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58208		habitat	eng	It lives in forests and breeds in streams.
58208		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58208		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation are major threats to this species.
58209		conservation	eng	Much of its existing range is within nature reserves and forest parks. There is a need to control harvest and trade in this species.
58209		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-west and central Hainan Province, China, and has been recorded from 80-960m asl.
58209		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and cascades fringed by forests.
58209		population	eng	It is not a common species.
58209		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture and the construction of hydroelectric plants. Exploitation for human consumption is also a major threat to this species.
58210		conservation	eng	Most of the range of the Hong Kong population is within protected areas, and it is also protected in Hong Kong under the Wild Animals Protection Ordinance. At least one population in Guangdong occurs in Gutian Nature Reserve and its surroundings in Huidong County.
58210		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area of southern China in Hong Kong (both the New Territories and Hong Kong Island) and nearby Guangdong Province at 20-790m asl (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). It probably occurs a little more widely, but records from Fujian Province refer to <em>Amolops daiyunensis</em>. However, it is unlikely to occur in other areas in Hong Kong as extensive searches have not turned up any new locations (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). In Guangdong Province it is difficult the survey effort is a lot less extensive, but studies on Wutongshan close to the border with Hong Kong found <em>Amolops ricketti</em> (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). It is possible that it also occurs in the mountain ranges in eastern coastal Guangdong between Hong Kong and Gutian, but this cannot stated with any degree of certainty until more fieldwork is carried out (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.).
58210		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of forest-fringed, small hill streams, particularly those with cascades. It does not survive where the forest is removed. The eggs are laid in rock crevices near cascades and watrerfalls where the water splashes over them, and the larvae cling to the stones and rocks in streams by means of a ventral sucker.
58210		population	eng	It is a common species in Hong Kong where there is suitable habitat.
58210		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation caused by silviculture, clear-cutting, and the construction of hydroelectric plants and other infrastructure. However, the population in Hong Kong appears to be relatively secure, but part of the habitat of the Guangdong population was under threat in 1997 when it was last surveyed.
58211		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation, but it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Fieldwork was recently undertaken in the area by Ray (1999).
58211		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality near Sahiya, in Uttaranchal, India, at 500m asl. It might occur more widely.
58211		habitat	eng	It is believed to be restricted to hill streams, but nothing further is known of its biological or ecological requirements.
58211		population	eng	There is no information available on this species' population status.
58211		threats	eng	Threats to this species remain unknown.
58212		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species falls within the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve, which forms part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas World Heritage Site.
58212		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Deqing and Zhongdian in north-western Yunnan Province, and Daliangshan in Sichuan Province, China, from 1,020-2,000m asl.
58212		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams inside forest, and breeds in streams.
58212		population	eng	It is a common species.
58212		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due mainly to smallholder farming activities.
58213		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas, though there are several nature reserves within its range.
58213		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kangding County in west Sichuan Province, China. It has been recorded from 2,600-3,500m asl.
58213		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane streams in forest, and breeds in streams.
58213		population	eng	It is known from only three locations, but is considered to be common at all three.
58213		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to infrastructure development.
58214		conservation	eng	Its range is within Hkakabo Razi National Park. Evaluating the taxonomic status of this species compared to <em>Amolops viridimaculatus</em> (a fairly widespread species found in, and endemic to, adjoining Yunnan Province, China) is advisable.
58214		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pangnamdim, in the Nam Tamai Valley, in extreme northern Myanmar (Smith 1940).
58214		habitat	eng	It can be presumed that this species inhabits torrential streams or waterfall areas, like other species in the genus, although this has not yet been confirmed.
58214		population	eng	Only two known specimens were collected in 1937-39, so this species' population status is not known. Results from recent herpetological surveys are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).
58214		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in what is a pristine area of Myanmar.
58215		conservation	eng	It inhabits probably every significant protected area from Hala Bala to Endau-Rompin. No conservation action appears necessary, though it would be a good species for long-term monitoring.
58215		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Thai-Malay Peninsula from extreme southern Thailand, to Johor State, Malaysia (Taylor, 1962; Berry, 1975). It is known from at least 43-1,500m asl.
58215		habitat	eng	It exclusively occurs on boulders and bedrock in and along fast-flowing, clear-water forest streams, from lowlands to highlands. Tadpoles live in the same streams, attaching themselves to rocky surfaces using their ventral suction area.
58215		population	eng	This is a common and abundant species. It is found in most rushing forest streams in Peninsular Malaysia, each substantial boulder has one or more <em>A. larutensis</em> on it and one needs to watch carefully to avoid stepping on them accidentally. It appears to have been common historically, and is still considered to be at present (Berry, 1975). It is probably the most common frog in forest boulder streams all through the Thai-Malay Peninsula.
58215		threats	eng	The tadpoles are susceptible to water pollution, in particular sedimentation. It is used in medical research but the numbers collected are not at a level to constitute a threat.
58216		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.
58216		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Qiliba, in Zhaojue County, western Sichuan Province, China, at around 3,000m asl.
58216		habitat	eng	It is found in hilly areas where it inhabits streams, in which it breeds, and the surrounding habitats.
58216		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
58216		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58217		conservation	eng	Part of its range might fall within Wolong Biosphere Reserve.
58217		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Li County and Maoxian County, and might also occur in Wenchuan County, in central Sichuan Province, China, from 1,300-2,350m asl.
58217		habitat	eng	It lives in and along streams in forests, and breeds in streams.
58217		population	eng	It is a common species with a stable population within its small range.
58217		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by dam construction.
58218		conservation	eng	Part of the species' range overlaps with Wawushan National Forest Park.
58218		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Zhaojue, Mianning, Hongya, Luding and Baoxing in southern Sichuan Province, China. It has been recorded from 1,840-3,700m asl.
58218		habitat	eng	It inhabits small mountain streams in forests and grasslands, and also breeds in streams.
58218		population	eng	It is known from ten locations. Several populations have been experiencing declines, with one poulation known to have declined by more than 50 per cent.
58218		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is continuing infrastructure development for human settlement. There is also significant water pollution from the mining industry.
58219		conservation	eng	Taxonomic evaluation of this species in comparison with other <em>Amolops</em> species from south-west China is advisable.
58219		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in north-east Myanmar, near the border of China, at 2,000m asl.
58219		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about its habitat preferences beyond that the type locality is at 2,000m asl. More knowledge of the topography of the area would be needed to determine what kind of habitat is most likely here.
58219		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, which has not been recorded again since its discovery.
58219		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58220		conservation	eng	Certain populations of this species occur in some nature reserves.
58220		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Gansu and western Sichuan provinces, China. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 2,800m asl.
58220		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of large streams and small rivers, in forest and shrubland, it also breeds in streams.
58220		population	eng	It is very abundant and easy to collect.
58220		threats	eng	Water pollution from various sources is a major threat to this species.
58221		conservation	eng	Viable populations of this species inhabit several protected areas throughout its range. Monitoring and natural history/conservation biology studies are desirable but are not currently necessary for the species' survival. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58221		distribution	eng	This species is reported from northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya and Nagaland), Nepal, Bangladesh (Khagrachari Hill-district), Bhutan through northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940) and Tenasserim (latopalmatus-Boulenger, 1882) and northern Thailand (Taylor, 1962) to western Yunnan (Longchuan) and southern Xizang (in disputed territory between China and India), China. It is found between 100-2,000m asl.
58221		habitat	eng	It inhabits waterfall areas, bedrock and boulders in torrential perennial streams in evergreen forest. Breeding takes place within the streams and tadpoles inhabit the same streams as adults.
58221		population	eng	It is reportedly relatively common in appropriate habitat throughout most of its range, although in Yunnan, China it is considered very rare and is known from only one specimen and a few field observations.
58221		threats	eng	It could potentially be threatened by systemic impacts such as hydrological changes or massive forest destruction, but it appears to be generally secure in ecologically functional forest. Some populations might be declining due to loss of habitat from agricultural pollution and the construction of dams.
58222		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh State, in India. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Sarkar (1992) and Shresthra (2001). It is protected by national legislation in India.
58222		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nepal, northeastern India (West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) and southeastern Xizang province (Bomi, Medog, Cona and Chayu), China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at elevations of 850-2,350m asl.
58222		habitat	eng	While primarily found in shaded stream rapids, this frog has also been recorded from ponds in secondary habitat. Eggs are deposited on aquatic plants, and in stone crevices at the edge of steams.
58222		population	eng	It is not a common species.
58222		threats	eng	There is a continuing loss of habitat to urbanization. The species is also threatened by dam construction, and possibly over collection for medicinal use.
58223		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in a protected area.
58223		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality "2km east of Barabise" (Yang 1991), Barabise (27°  33'N; 86° 06'E), along Sabhaya, Kbota, a tributary of the Arun River, in Nepal, at 1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
58223		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic species, confined to hill streams.
58223		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type collection.
58223		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
58224		conservation	eng	It is found in Tam Dao National Park, Hoang Lien Son National Park and Ba Be National Park in Viet Nam and in quite a few protected areas in China. Safeguarding, and restoring where possible, the ecological integrity of hill areas in northern Viet Nam would be highly desirable.
58224		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in northern Viet Nam (Bourret, 1942; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999), as well as southern and western China including Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hubei, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces. It has been recorded from 410-1,520m asl.
58224		habitat	eng	It inhabits boulder and bedrock surfaces at waterfalls and in torrential stream sections in forest. Tadpoles inhabit the same streams.
58224		population	eng	It is not uncommon in appropriate habitat (Bourret, 1941, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
58224		threats	eng	Stream pollution is a concern at least in Tam Dao in Viet Nam and probably elsewhere, as are ongoing socio-economic developments (slope agriculture, residential and tourism infrastructure).
58225		conservation	eng	Strengthening existing, and creating new protected areas to protect the fauna and flora of the Tay Nguyen Plateau of southern Viet Nam is recommended. Studies of the conservation biology of this endemic species are highly desirable, as are further herpetological surveys of the Annamite Mountains.
58225		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kon Cha Ran, An Khe District, Gia Lai Province, and Ngoc Linh Mountain, Quong Nam Province, in southern Viet Nam, where it occurs at 800-1,000m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999; Bain pers. comm.).
58225		habitat	eng	Specimens (adults and juveniles) were collected from wet vertical rock faces at a waterfall at 1,000m asl in relatively intact forest (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has also been collected from rocks beside waterfalls at 800m asl.
58225		population	eng	It is a locally common species in appropriate habitat.
58225		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is logging on the Tay Nguyen Plateau for coffee cultivation.
58226		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within Huangshan Scenic Area.
58226		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Huangshan in Anhui Province, and Jiande and Anji counties in Zhejiang Province, China. It has been recorded from 150-700m asl.
58226		habitat	eng	It occurs in hill streams and the surrounding habitats, and breeds in streams. The existence of tadpoles has not been recorded for this species. This is the only amphibian known to make use of ultrasonic communication; males produce diverse bird-like melodic calls with pronounced frequency modulations that often contain spectral energy in the ultrasonic range (Feng <em>et al.</em> 2006).
58226		population	eng	It is very rare and known from fewer than five locations.
58226		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and clear-cutting.
58227		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Hainan (nature reserves and forest parks).
58227		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of central and south-western Hainan, China, and has been recorded from 80-780m asl.
58227		habitat	eng	It inhabits medium- to large-sized streams, and surrounding riparian habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.
58227		population	eng	It is not a common species.
58227		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due, in particular, to agricultural activities.
58228		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserves. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.
58228		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to two mountains, Wuliang and Ailao, in Jingdong County, Yunnan Province, China. It has been recorded from 1,000-2,400m asl.
58228		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane streams in sub-tropical, evergreen, broad-leaved forests, both during the breeding and non-breeding season.
58228		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
58228		threats	eng	There are no known current threats to this species. However, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
58229		conservation	eng	In China this species occurs in Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve (which is not well protected), and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve (which is well protected). In Viet Nam it occurs in Hoang Lien Son National Park. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58229		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Yunnan Province in the Gaoligongshan area, and Wuliangshan in central Yunnan Province, China, and from one location (Fan Si Pan Mountain) in northern Viet Nam (Ohler 2000). It has also recently been recorded from Dzuna, in Nagaland, India. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar but there are as yet no confirmed records. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest. In China it has been recorded from 1,400-2,350m asl, and the one known locality in Viet Nam is at 1,750m asl.
58229		habitat	eng	In China this species is known from hill streams in forest, and in Viet Nam the only record is from a large stream with boulders in montane forest. Breeding takes place in streams.
58229		population	eng	In China this species is uncommon, while in Viet Nam only one specimen was collected in 1997 and no other individuals were sighted at the time (S. Swan pers. comm.).
58229		threats	eng	This species is threatened by small-scale agricultural development, and dam construction.
58230		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
58230		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fujian, Anhui and Zhejiang provinces in China, and has been recorded from 100-1,100m asl.
58230		habitat	eng	It occurs in big streams and the surrounding forest habitat, both during breeding and non-breeding season.
58230		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58230		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
58231		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
58231		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Cameroon and eastern Gabon, east through southwestern Central African Republic and northern Congo to central Democratic Republic of Congo. It might occur in Equatorial Guinea. There is an isolated record from Kakindo in south-central Angola but there is doubt regards the identity of this specimen (Rödel <em>et al.</em>, in press). The contact zone between this species and Aubria subsigillata requires further investigation.
58231		habitat	eng	It lives in swamps or along small streams in lowland forest, gallery forest and degraded secondary habitats (farm bush) in the forest zone. It breeds in still-water pools, swamps and marshes.
58231		population	eng	Little information is available on its abundance.
58231		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats.
58232		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Taï National Park and Banco National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea and Liberia), and Korup National Park (Cameroon).
58232		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Guinea and northern Liberia, through southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Ghana to southern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon (as far as Kribi). The apparent distribution gap in Benin and Togo might be genuine. The contact zone between this species and Aubria subsigillata requires further clarification, and it is possible that further studies will show that this species does not range east of Ghana, and that the species in Nigeria is in fact A. subsigillata.
58232		habitat	eng	It lives in primary forest in swamps or along forest streams. Unlike other members of its genus, it appears not to occur in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams.
58232		population	eng	It is quite a common species, but it is not abundant.
58232		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58233		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.
58233		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon, though mainland Equatorial Guinea to southwestern Gabon. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). The contact zone between this species and the more recently described Aubria masako and A. occidentalis is poorly understood and requires further investigation. It is possible that this species ranges as far west as Nigeria. An old record from Angola is shown by Perret (1996) to belong to a very different, undescribed species.
58233		habitat	eng	It lives in swamps or along small streams in lowland rainforest, gallery forest and degraded secondary habitats (farm bush) in the forest zone. It breeds in still-water pools and marshes.
58233		population	eng	Little information is available on its abundance.
58233		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats.
58234		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58234		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, occurring below 1,000m asl.
58234		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforest, but also lives in gardens, villages, towns, and other anthropogenic habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58234		population	eng	It is a common species.
58234		threats	eng	The war in Bougainville has probably minimised impacts of logging, but it is doubtful that this species would be adversely affected by logging.
58235		conservation	eng	Its distribution on Bougainville and other islands needs to be determined, and its population status needs to be assessed. There are no protected areas within the species' range.
58235		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at the southern end of Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded between 500 and 1,500m asl.
58235		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical rainforest and reproduces by direct development, laying its eggs in trees.
58235		population	eng	It is not a common species.
58235		threats	eng	It is not clear what the threats are to this species. The conflict on Bougainville Island, which ended in 1997, probably minimised the impacts of logging on this species.
58236		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58236		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Buka and Bougainville Islands, Papua New Guinea, up to 500m asl.
58236		habitat	eng	It inhabits the floor of tropical rainforest, and also degraded habitats, such as rural gardens, forest regrowth, and plantations. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58236		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
58236		threats	eng	The war in Bougainville has probably minimised impacts of logging, but it is doubtful that this species would be adversely affected by logging.
58237		conservation	eng	The distribution on Bougainville and other islands needs to be documented, and the population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
58237		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and southern Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
58237		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical rainforest, and can also survive in degraded habitats such as rural villages, plantations and degraded forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58237		population	eng	It is a common species.
58237		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any threats to this species.
58238		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58238		distribution	eng	This species occurs on northern and southern Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, at 700-1,000m asl.
58238		habitat	eng	It is a scansorial and arboreal species inhabiting rainforest. It has not been found in degraded habitats, perhaps because the habitat within its altitudinal range is still in good condition. It breeds by direct development.
58238		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
58238		threats	eng	The war in Bougainville has probably minimised potential impacts of logging and mining.
58239		conservation	eng	The species' range in the Solomon Islands needs to be documented. Its range does not include any protected areas.
58239		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea), Choiseul and Isabel Islands, Solomon Islands. It occurs up to 500m asl.
58239		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest floor in lowland and foothill rainforest (S. Richards pers. obs.). It appears to be able to persist in secondary forest, rural gardens, villages etc. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58239		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species in lowland rainforest and logged habitat, and appears to be more abundant in disturbed compared to pristine forest.
58239		threats	eng	There are none known and this species appears to be able to persist in secondary forest and other disturbed habitats.
58240		conservation	eng	The impacts of logging on the species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58240		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Solomon Islands, including Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea. It occurs from coastal areas up to 700m asl.
58240		habitat	eng	It is a scansorial species living in tropical rainforest, and also in rural gardens and degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development, with the eggs deposited in vegetation above the ground.
58240		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58240		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened, unless there are any negative impacts of invasive species, or from serious clear-cutting.
58241		conservation	eng	The impacts of logging on this species need to be determined, and the range in the Solomons Archipelago needs to be further documented. There are no protected areas within the range of this species.
58241		distribution	eng	This species is known from Buka and Bougainville Islands in Papua New Guinea, and Choiseul and Isabel Islands in the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.
58241		habitat	eng	It is a scansorial species in lowland and hill rainforest. They have also been found on the forest edge, and in native bananas (not in plantations), but it prefers primary forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in leaves in trees about 2m above the ground.
58241		population	eng	This species appears to be abundant (S. Richards pers. obs.).
58241		threats	eng	Logging is a threat to this species, particularly in the political Solomon Islands portion of the range.
58242		conservation	eng	The Solomon Islands Government is currently formulating legislation to control the export of this species. It is not known from any protected areas.
58242		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Solomon Islands and Bougainville and Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.
58242		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the forest floor in tropical rainforest, and appears to persist in secondary forest, rural gardens and other degraded areas. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development and lays eggs in small hollows at the base of trees.
58242		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range.
58242		threats	eng	In the past this species was exported in large numbers to Europe and other regions for the pet trade. Despite this it remains widespread and exceptionally abundant throughout the Solomon Islands.
58243		conservation	eng	Preserving and restoring the ecological integrity of the northern Vietnamese hill forests and streams, particularly of Tam Dao National Park, should be a target measure for this species' conservation. Evaluating the taxonomy of the large <em>Paa</em> and <em>Limnonectes</em> frogs of Asia, incorporating Chinese specimens, would also be very helpful. This species is listed as 'threatened' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992).
58243		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, in Chapa and Bac-Kan (Bourret 1942). The record from Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999) is excluded here because of a probable identification error.
58243		habitat	eng	The observations made by van Dijk (1999) of what were presumed to be these species, noted it in small streams overgrown by dense secondary forest at 800-900m asl. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
58243		population	eng	It has apparently not been recorded in the literature since 1942. Frogs tentatively identified as this species were not uncommon at Tam Dao in 1999 (van Dijk unpubl.), though they were not reported from here by Inger <em>et al.</em> (1999).
58243		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by local consumption, and also from forest degradation and stream pollution arising due to agricultural development (including smallholder farming and creation of tree plantations), and logging and increasing human settlement.
58244		conservation	eng	Its range is within Hoang Lien Son National Park and Pu Hoat Nature Reserve in Viet Nam, and Huang Lian Shan Nature Reserve in China. Safeguarding representative parts of the Sa Pa-Fan Si Pan region as strictly protected areas is also recommended as a conservation measure for this species.
58244		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Fan Si Pan Mountain, in northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942), and also from Pu Hoat, Nghe An Province, also in Viet Nam. One specimen has also been collected in Huang Lian Shan Nature Reserve in Yunnan Province, southern China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The type specimen was collected at 1,700m asl (Bourret 1942). Newer records are from 1,250-2,050m asl.
58244		habitat	eng	It was found on leaf-litter close to and in streams, and breeds in streams.
58244		population	eng	This species is thought to be rare (Swan pers. comm.). It is known from a single specimen collected in 1938 (Bourret 1942), and also from more recent records (Ohler <em>et al.</em> 2000; Swan pers comm.).
58244		threats	eng	The Sa Pa-Fan Si Pan area is under threat from subsistence agriculture and development for tourism (BirdLife International 2001). This species is also probably consumed locally.
58245		conservation	eng	There are many protected areas within the range of this species. It is necessary to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.
58245		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central China, and has been recorded from 500-2,000m asl.
58245		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of forest and shrubland, and breeds in hill streams by larval development.
58245		population	eng	It is a common species although some populations have experienced declines.
58245		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is over-collecting for food, although water pollution caused by the mining industry is also a threat.
58246		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Shresthra in Pashupati nagar (2001). It is protected by national legislation in India.
58246		distribution	eng	This species is present in central and eastern Nepal and also in parts of northeastern India (Sikkim, West Bengal and Meghalaya). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected to occur in Bhutan. It has been recorded from elevations between 1,000 and 2,000m asl.
58246		habitat	eng	While this species is known to inhabit mountain streams in forested areas, very little other information is available on its ecology or breeding habits. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.
58246		population	eng	It is considered to be very rare, although no quantitative data exist.
58246		threats	eng	Loss of forest surrounding streams, potential siltation of breeding sites, changes in water resource management (dam construction) and other infrastructure development are all major threats.
58248		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas, including Wuliangshan and Huanglianshan National Nature Reserves. There is a need to control harvest and trade in this species.
58248		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central and southern Yunnan Province, China, from 1,650-2,200m asl. It presumably occurs in northern parts of Southeast Asia, in particular in northern Viet Nam, but this has not yet been confirmed.
58248		habitat	eng	It inhabits fast-flowing hill streams and riparian habitats in forests and grassland, as well as drainage ditches by roadsides, and ponds. Breeding takes place in water.
58248		population	eng	It is a rare species, but its habits make it hard to find. It appears to be in serious decline.
58248		threats	eng	Over-collecting for food is a serious threat to this species; habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture and wood extraction is an additional threat.
58250		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Pic de Fon Classified Forest (Guinea), Haute Dodo Classified Forest and Mont Sangbe National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), and the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Liberia and Guinea).
58250		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea and Liberia to south-western Côte d'Ivoire. It occurs from low altitudes to more than 1,000m asl. Records from eastern Ghana and Togo refer to <em>Conraua derooi</em>. A record from eastern Côte d'Ivoire refers to a juvenile <em>Hoplobatrachus occipitalis</em>.
58250		habitat	eng	It lives in or near fast-flowing permanent streams in rainforest in hilly country. It is forest-dependent, and is not found in open areas. It breeds in streams and the tadpoles are usually found in the slow-flowing or nearly stagnant sections of streams.
58250		population	eng	It is extremely localized, but abundant wherever it occurs.
58250		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements. In certain places its habitat is also being lost due to mining, for instance at Simandou in the Pic de Fon Classified Forest in Guinea, and Mount Nimba in Guinea and Liberia. Mining is probably also leading to the pollution of breeding streams.
58251		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58251		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Ethiopia highlands west of the Rift Valley, and in Eritrea, at altitudes of 800-2,500m asl.
58251		habitat	eng	It is a highly aquatic species, particularly associated with permanent rivers, streams and large pools in both montane grassland and montane forest
58251		population	eng	It seems to be relatively common in several sites in Ethiopia, though it is almost certainly under-recorded because it is so difficult to catch.
58251		threats	eng	Although not generally threatened, local populations are probably affected by environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent exploitation of resources for subsistence and commercial purposes, as well as water pollution.
58252		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve (Gabon).
58252		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Nigeria to the Mayombe region of extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from southwestern and southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo. It is assumed to occur in southwestern Central African Republic and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but it has not been confirmed from these countries. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It occurs at low elevations, probably up to over 1,000m asl.
58252		habitat	eng	It lives in or near fast-flowing, clear-water rivers and streams at low altitudes in rainforest. It can survive in somewhat degraded forest, providing that trees remain and that it is not open farm bush. The males call close to water. It breeds in running water where the flow is not too fast or torrential. The young spend the day on gravel and sand at the side of streams and rivers. Around Nkongsamba in western Cameroon, Conraua crassipes, C. goliath and C. robusta occur sympatrically.
58252		population	eng	It is a common species.
58252		threats	eng	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements, and well as by sedimentation of its breeding streams.
58253		conservation	eng	There are some small protected areas within the range of the species, including Kiabobo National Park in Ghana, but it has not been confirmed from any of these. Improved protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat in the range of the species is recommended. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species survives. Captive breeding might need to be considered.
58253		distribution	eng	This species was described from Misahohé in western Togo, and all records of <em>Conraua alleni</em> from eastern Ghana and Togo refer to this species. It is likely that the species is endemic to the Togo-Volta Highlands of eastern Ghana and western Togo.
58253		habitat	eng	It is a forest-dependent species living in or near fast-flowing water. The tadpoles have been found in streams.
58253		population	eng	It was probably once quite abundant, but a recent survey in Ghana failed to find it, suggesting a serious decline. There is no recent information from Togo.
58253		threats	eng	Most of the forest habitat within its small range has been lost, and so this species is probably very seriously threatened, if not extinct. Habitat loss is taking place as a result of agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlements. Stream sedimentation might be having an affect on breeding.
58254		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. There is a need to work with local communities to ensure that the harvest of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.
58254		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the foothills of the main mountain range in western Cameroon (excluding Mount Cameroon). It is known from Nkongjock, Nta Ali, the Bamileke Plateau, Mount Manenguba, Mount Kupe, and the Rumpi Hills. It has recently been recorded from the Oban Hills in Nigeria (M. Gartshore pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is 750-1,400m asl.
58254		habitat	eng	It lives in and near cold, fast-flowing streams, in grassland as well as forest. It does not require tree cover, and in Nkongsamba it can be found in urban areas. It prefers colder, faster water than does <em>Conraua goliath</em>, and the tadpoles live in fast, even torrential, water. Around Nkongsamba, <em>Conraua robusta</em>, <em>C. crassipes</em> and <em>C. goliath</em> occur sympatrically.
58254		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58254		threats	eng	This large species is harvested for food and is considered a delicacy. Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements; the sedimentation of its breeding streams is probably also having a detrimental impact on the species.
58255		conservation	eng	The impacts of logging need to be documented, and the species' ability to persist in disturbed habitats needs to be investigated. It is not known from any protected areas.
58255		distribution	eng	This species occurs virtually throughout the Solomon Islands and on Bougainville in Papua New Guinea, up to 700m asl.
58255		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams in lowland rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground. It also occurs along streams in somewhat degraded areas, provided that vegetation is left along the streams.
58255		population	eng	It is common within its range, but it occurs patchily.
58255		threats	eng	Clear-fell logging might have some impact on populations of this species. It is also eaten locally.
58256		conservation	eng	The impacts of logging in particular need to be assessed, but also the collection levels for food and sale need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
58256		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Solomon Islands and on Bougainville and New Britain in Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.
58256		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and small rivers in lowland rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground. It has also been found in streams and rivers in rural gardens and degraded forest. It has also been found in caves.
58256		population	eng	This species is common within its range.
58256		threats	eng	Logging and collection for food and for export to the pet markets in Europe and elsewhere might be impacting some populations.
58257		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status for this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58257		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Guadalcanal Island, in the Solomon Islands.
58257		habitat	eng	This species presumably inhabits montane tropical rainforest, and presumably breeds by direct development, laying its eggs on the ground.
58257		population	eng	It has not been recorded again since it was discovered in 1968, but there have been no recent surveys of the area.
58257		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The civil war in Guadalcanal has probably reduced the threat from extractive industries.
58258		conservation	eng	The impact of logging on this species needs to be assessed.
58258		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Solomon Islands archipelago and Bougainville Island in Papua New Guinea. However, it has not been well characterized, and it is possible that it is conspecific with <em>Discodeles bufoniformis</em>.
58258		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs along small streams in lowland rainforest, breeding by direct development and laying its eggs on the ground.
58258		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58258		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by logging, which might have impacted some populations and will probably continue to do so. It is apparently also eaten on Makira Island.
58259		conservation	eng	The impacts of logging need to be assessed, and the species' distribution among the islands of the Admiralty Archipelago needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.
58259		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Manus and Rambutyo in the Admiralty Islands, Papua New Guinea. It is a lowland species, being found below 100m asl.
58259		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams in tropical rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground. It has also been found in suburban areas, rural gardens, and other degraded habitats, but lives at higher densities in mature forest.
58259		population	eng	It was recorded as recently as 2002, and is relatively common.
58259		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, logging could have a major impact on this species (about 30% of islands are subject to serious logging pressure). It is consumed locally for food.
58260		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it is very widespread and tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. In view of the species wide range it is presumed to occur in numerous protected areas. It has been recorded from two protected areas in Iran.
58260		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of South Asia including southern Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. It is also present in southeastern Iran (this is the westernmost part of its range). An old record from Thale Sap Songkhla in southern Thailand is believed to be in error and is not considered to be valid. It is present from sea level to at least 2,500m asl.
58260		habitat	eng	This frog is a very aquatic species found in marshes, pools and various other wetlands within a variety of habitat types. It has been recorded from brackish water in southern Sri Lanka. Adults are generally found basking at the edge of the waterbodies and males call from within the water. The species breeds, and the larvae develop, in suitable waterbodies. The species may be found in modified habitats, usually where suitable wetland habitat is available.
58260		population	eng	This species is very common in undeveloped areas.
58260		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. The species is locally threatened over parts of South Asia by pollution of aquatic habitats (generally through the use of agrochemicals), prolonged drought in arid areas, and the drainage (wetland reclamation) and desiccation of wetlands. There are no known threats to this species in Iran or Afghanistan.
58261		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures.
58261		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to areas of permanent and temporary water in the Red sea coastal region of Yemen and Saudi Arabia. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,400m asl.
58261		habitat	eng	It is a highly aquatic species, found in temporary and permanent waterbodies; it is also present in irrigated areas. Eggs are laid in the water. The species may aestivate during the dry season.
58261		population	eng	It is extremely abundant where it occurs
58261		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
58262		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation.
58262		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Khugairk Reserve Forest, Manipur, India (alt. ca. 925m [asl])" (Chanda 1990). The limits of its distribution are still not known, and it might range more widely.
58262		habitat	eng	This species presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58262		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
58262		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
58263		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Convention. It has a wide range and is presumed to occur within many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58263		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. It is present from sea level to approximately 760m asl.
58263		habitat	eng	It is a largely aquatic species, found in most types of waterbodies, and in various habitats, where it is associated with aquatic vegetation. It has been recorded from brackish water in Sri Lanka. It breeds in the waterbodies.
58263		population	eng	It is generally common throughout its range.
58263		threats	eng	Agrochemical pollution of aquatic habitats is the main threat to the species. Capture of adults for food, mortality in fisheries and use, as research animals are also threats, at least locally.
58264		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58264		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of Schwe Gyen on the Sitang River, Pegu (Bago) Division, Myanmar. It is not possible to map its distribution, as it is not possible to accurately locate the type locality.
58264		habitat	eng	This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58264		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
58264		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58265		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park on South Andaman Island. It is protected by national legislation.
58265		distribution	eng	This species is known only from South Andaman Island, India. It is generally found close to sea level. It perhaps occurs more widely within the Andaman Islands.
58265		habitat	eng	It is found in grassland, primary and secondary forest, and near mangrove forests. Breeding takes place in ponds. It can also live in disturbed habitats (paddy fields). It is known to hybridise with Fejervarya limnocharis in the wild.
58265		population	eng	It is an abundant in rice paddy fields.
58265		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this species.
58266		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58266		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the unspecified type locality of "India". It is presumed to have been collected within the boundaries of current-day India.
58266		habitat	eng	This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58266		population	eng	The population is not known.
58266		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58267		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58267		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the unspecified type locality of Bengal that might now possibly be within either Bangladesh or India.
58267		habitat	eng	It is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58267		population	eng	Its population is not known.
58267		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58268		conservation	eng	It is included as part of ongoing field studies by S.D. Biju (pers. comm.), and it is protected by national legislation.
58268		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be endemic to the Western Ghats mountain range in India. Specimens referable to the type description have been located in Wayanad (Kerala). There is a need to confirm the identity of populations reported from outside Kerala (e.g., those from Maharashtra; Biju <em>et al.</em> in prep.). It has been recorded at altitudes between 400 and 1,250 m asl.
58268		habitat	eng	It is a grassland frog associated with waterlogged or marshy areas, and it has also been recorded from suitable wet patches of forest and lightly degraded former forest.
58268		population	eng	This is a locally uncommon species.
58268		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is continuing habitat loss caused by the conversion of suitable areas to agricultural use (including plantations).    Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agro-ecosystems in the central <st1:place>Western Ghats</st1:place> (Gurushankara<em> et al. </em>2007).
58269		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a number of protected areas. Monitoring of populations and harvest levels in countries where it is exploited is needed. This species needs to be eradicated from New Guinea, and its breeding status in Guam needs to be determined. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58269		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed frog. It is known from coastal southern China in Guangxi and Hainan Provinces, from Great Nicobar Island in India, and from most countries in Southeast Asia including the Philippines. In New Guinea introduced populations are known from the Sorong, Manokwari, Nabire and Jayapura areas of Papua, Indonesia. It has been introduced to Guam, although its breeding status and range in this island are unclear (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
58269		habitat	eng	It occurs in mangrove forest, estuarine habitats, swamps and open, wet coastal areas, such as roadside ditches and puddles. It also thrives in man-made environments such as rice paddy fields. Tadpoles develop in rain pools above the high water line on the mainland, and in any body of standing water in the Philippines. It is tolerant of moderate salinity.
58269		population	eng	It is common to abundant in appropriate habitats. It is introduced to New Guinea and its population there is increasing.
58269		threats	eng	Over-harvesting is a potential threat to this species. Habitat destruction and degradation might also be threatening some populations, in particular the destruction of mangroves for wood, expansion of human settlements, and the construction of roads. There are no threats to the species in the Nicobar Islands. In New Guinea this species is probably a threat to native fauna.
58270		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58270		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of Jessore, Bangladesh.
58270		habitat	eng	It is thought likely to be an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58270		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58270		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58271		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park, Agra-Bopats Forest Reserve, Pattipola Forest Reserve and the Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve.
58271		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central hills of Sri Lanka. Krishnamurthy and Shakunthala (1993) reported it from Karnataka, India. Dutta (1997) rejected the species' presence in India, but notes that there is an unspecified form of <em>Fejervarya</em> in Karnataka and Maharashtra that is closely related to <em>F. greenii</em> (S. Dutta pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,700-2,135m asl.
58271		habitat	eng	It is associated with wetland habitats (including riparian vegetation) within montane tropical moist forest, and is not present in modified habitats (since there are only pockets of natural habitat within these). Adults are both aquatic and terrestrial, and may be found under grass tussocks. Larvae are present in shallow, vegetated, slow-flowing waters and marshes.
58271		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58271		threats	eng	The loss of forest habitat through conversion to cultivated land (tea plantations), pollution (principally by agrochemicals), desiccation of wetlands and forest fires in Horton Plains, and predation by introduced trout (<em>Salmo</em> sp.) are the main threats to this species.
58272		conservation	eng	None are needed, other than determining its geographic distribution.
58272		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bandung and Sukabumi in western Java, Indonesia. It has been recorded between 200 and 700m asl. It was only recently described and probably occurs more widely on Java.
58272		habitat	eng	This species is only known from paddy fields, where it also breeds.
58272		population	eng	This newly described species is locally common.
58272		threats	eng	None are known since it lives entirely in human modified habitat.
58273		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the following protected areas; Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka), Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyer Tiger Reserve and Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), and Indira Gandhi National Park (Tamil Nadu). It is included in a number of ongoing field studies in the Western Ghats. It is protected by national legislation.
58273		distribution	eng	Specimens referred to this species have been recorded throughout the Western Ghats, India. Records from Gujarat require confirmation (S.D. Biju pers. comm.) and are not included as part of this assessment. This species has recently been reported from Arunachal Pradesh, India (Sarkar and Ray 2006), although given the huge geographic discontinuity these populations might pertain to another species.
58273		habitat	eng	Habitats include wet evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest and marshlands. It has been recorded from modified habitats including agricultural land and villages. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds. There is little information available on larval ecology.
58273		population	eng	It is a locally common species, although it is considered to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh (Sarkar and Ray 2006).
58273		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of intensive agriculture and urbanization is a major threat.   Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agroecosystems in the central <st1:place>Western Ghats</st1:place> (Gurushankara<em> et al. </em>2007).
58274		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas including Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Kelani Valley Forest Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Knuckles Forest Reserve, Tangamalai Forest Reserve and the Wasgamuwa National Park.
58274		distribution	eng	This species is a widely distributed Sri Lankan endemic found throughout much of the south and centre of the island. It is present from 150-1,580m asl.
58274		habitat	eng	It is associated with tropical forest, savannah, grasslands and wetlands, in both montane and lowland areas. Specimens have also been recorded in rubber and palm oil plantations and home gardens. Adults are generally semi-aquatic in nature. Larvae are aquatic and may be found in puddles, pools and streams (often at the edges).
58274		population	eng	It is generally a common frog.
58274		threats	eng	Agrochemical pollution of land and water appears to be the main threat to this species.
58275		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species. Taxonomic analysis of the <span style="font-style: italic;">F. limnocharis</span> complex is needed, and determination of the species' breeding status in Guam is also required. No other conservation actions are necessary at this time. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58275		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of South Asia and Southeast Asia, including many islands in Indonesia, the Philippines, Phuket and Singapore and is also found in northern, central, southern and south-western China (including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau). It is distributed in western Japan, in the western half of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu Districts and Nansei Islands. It was recently introduced to Tsushima and Iki. The northern extremity of the species range in Japan is expanding rapidly. It has also been introduced to Guam, although it is not known whether it has established a breeding population there (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is found from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.
58275		habitat	eng	It inhabits most open wet habitat types, including river floodplains, wet agriculture areas such as rice fields, ditches, marshes, parks, gardens and other habitats and in closed-canopy forest (although this is rare in some regions). Its breeding and larval development take place in various wetland habitats.
58275		population	eng	Frogs of this complex are generally common and abundant in suitable habitat. A slight decline (associated with pesticide application) has recently been observed in the Sri Lanka population/species and deformed specimens have also been observed.
58275		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the use of agrochemicals, specifically pesticide application, the drainage of suitable wetland areas and prolonged droughts. Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agroecosystems in the central Western Ghats (Gurushankara<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
58276		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58276		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of Manila, Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
58276		habitat	eng	This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58276		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58276		threats	eng	The specific threats to it are not known, though the type locality is now a large city.
58277		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58277		distribution	eng	This species was originally described from the type locality of "Hong-Kong", China. The type specimens are believed to have been lost and a neotype (the holotype of <em>Rana gracilis</em>; Wiegmann, 1834) from Kap Shui Mun, Lantau Island, Hong Kong, China, was designated by Dubois and Ohler (2000).
58277		habitat	eng	This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58277		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58277		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58278		conservation	eng	The species appears to have been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, and it is protected by national legislation. Further systematic work and field studies are urgently required to determine the current taxonomic and population status of this species.
58278		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type series collected from Naduvattom, Tamil Nadu (not Kerala as stated in the type description) in the southern Western Ghats. It is a montane species found at elevations of around 2,200m asl.
58278		habitat	eng	This little-known species of tropical moist forest is generally terrestrial in nature. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58278		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
58278		threats	eng	This species is threatened by a continuing loss of habitat caused by the conversion of forest to agricultural use and for commercial timber plantations.
58279		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation. Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.
58279		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Water courses in the forests of Jog, Shimoga, Mysore State, 4,000-5,000 feet [around 1,200-1,500m asl]" (Rao 1922), in Karnataka in the Western Ghats, in southern India.
58279		habitat	eng	As the original collection took place in "the forests of Jog" (Rao 1922) it is presumed that this is a species of wet semi-evergreen forest that breeds in water by larval development.
58279		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection, so its current population status is unknown.
58279		threats	eng	The remaining forests in the area of the type collection are threatened by a number of factors, including the conversion of land for agricultural use (including for paddy fields and coconut palms), and subsistence harvesting of timber and wood products by local people.
58280		conservation	eng	The species is present in Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in India, and might be found in other protected areas in Nepal and Nagaland. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Shresthra (2000). It is protected by national legislation in India.
58280		distribution	eng	This species is present in Nepal where it occurs throughout much of the country, and has recently been recorded from Nagaland (where it is widely distributed) and West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, India, as well as from southern and southeastern Bangladesh. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is generally found at elevations below 500 m asl.
58280		habitat	eng	It occurs in grassland, forest and agricultural land (especially paddy fields) and close to human settlements. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools, marshes and paddy fields. There is no information on egg deposition or larval ecology.
58280		population	eng	It is considered to be common.
58280		threats	eng	The main threats are the loss of breeding habitat (including pollution and/or poisoning by agrochemicals), and over harvesting (mostly for subsistence use, and medicinal use).
58281		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a number of protected areas, including the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve. A taxonomic evaluation of this species is required. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58281		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Southeast Asia. It is known from a number of possibly isolated locations in Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Taylor 1962, Berry 1975 and Frith 1977), it occurs widely in Borneo, and on Siberut, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Tawi-tawi and Jolo in Indonesia. In the Philippines, it occurs only on the islands of Palawan (from where there have been no recent records), Balabac and Sibutu. It is known from Car Nicobar, Teressa, Katchall, Nancowry, Kamorta, Pulo Milo, Little Nicobar, and Great Nicobar Islands in India (S.P. Vijayakumar pers comm.). It has also been reported from Arunachal Pradesh, in India (Sarkar and Ray 2006). It occurs up to 1,200 m asl.
58281		habitat	eng	It is usually found in secondary-growth vegetation and human-modified habitats such as grassy or shrubby vegetation in swampy situations, disturbed environments, towns, cities and logging roads, but it also inhabit lowland and lower montane rainforests and swamp forest. Males call from ditches, flooded fields, and ponds. The species breeds in rainwater ponds, flooded fields, lowland swamps, tree holes, and roadside ditches.
58281		population	eng	It is fairly common throughout its range, except in Arunachal Pradesh, where it is considered to be rare.
58281		threats	eng	In the Nicobar Islands it is threatened by the loss of its forest habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding wood plantations, growing human settlements, and the construction of roads. However there are no significant threats to the species overall.
58282		conservation	eng	It is present in the Nilgiri Biosphere Protected Area, and is protected by national legislation. It is included as part of ongoing field studies from 1998 onwards (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).
58282		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from only two populations, in Wayanad in Kerala and the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India. Reports of this species from Maharashtra require further confirmation and are not included as part of this assessment. It has been recorded from 800-1,600m asl.
58282		habitat	eng	It is associated with stagnant and running waters in disturbed forest and cultivated areas adjacent to forests, and is not found in cultivated areas away from the forest. Breeding takes place in both artificial and natural ponds. There is little information on its larval ecology.
58282		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
58282		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are continuing habitat loss due to agriculture (involving crops, livestock farming, and plantations) and human settlement.
58283		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Chandaka Wildlife Sanctuary and the Simlipal Tiger Reserve. It is protected by national legislation.
58283		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the State of Orissa in eastern India. It has been recorded at elevations between 100 and 500m asl. It is widely distributed throughout Orissa.
58283		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with grasslands and agricultural areas, with nearby ponds, streams and other suitable wetlands. There is little information on breeding biology or larval ecology.
58283		population	eng	It is a common species.
58283		threats	eng	Agrochemical pollution of both terrestrial and aquatic habitats is the main threat to this species.
58284		conservation	eng	Recent sampling in the Parambikulam area has failed to locate any specimens that are referable to the type description, so further sampling of the area's forests is urgently required. It is possible that the type locality might be in a protected area (possibly the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary), but the original site of collection is unclear. This species is protected by national legislation. Its taxonomic validity needs to be investigated.
58284		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Western Ghats type locality of "Parambikulam forests, Cochin State" (Rao 1937), now in Kerala, India. It is possible that the type specimen was collected at around 700m asl.
58284		habitat	eng	While this species was collected from "Parambikulam forests" (Rao 1937) there is no confirmed information on its habitat and ecology. It is presumed to breed in water by larval development.
58284		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is unknown.
58284		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58285		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in Royal Chitwan National Park.
58285		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and eastern Nepal, and in southern and southeastern Bangladesh. It occurs at elevations below 500 m asl.
58285		habitat	eng	It is associated with paddy fields. Reproduction takes place in both ponds and paddy fields.
58285		population	eng	It is considered to be common.
58285		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the pollution of waterbodies with agrochemicals.
58286		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58286		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the type locality of a "small pool of water at a height of about 2,000 feet [600m asl] on the Penang hill", Malaysia.
58286		habitat	eng	It is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58286		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58286		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58287		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status needs to be resolved before conservation measures can be recommended for it.
58287		distribution	eng	According to Taylor (1962), this species is known from Pattani, Songkhla and Phatthalung Provinces in southern Thailand, and Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia. Recent records from Thailand come from Toh Daeng peat swamp in Narathiwat Province. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In particular, it is possible that some records of <em>Fejervarya cancrivora</em> in Peninsular Malaysia refer to this species.
58287		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in brackish water and heavily disturbed, impacted environments, and breeds in stagnant water.
58287		population	eng	No clear information is available regarding this species's population status due to the confusion with <em>F. cancrivora</em>.
58287		threats	eng	Populations that could represent this species are harvested for human consumption, which could represent a threat to it.
58288		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas. There are several ongoing field studies into the region's amphibian fauna. It is protected by national legislation.
58288		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,500 m asl.
58288		habitat	eng	It is associated with riparian and forest edge habitats, in open and lightly degraded tropical moist semi-evergreen forest. There is little information on breeding biology or larval development.
58288		population	eng	It is a locally common species. There are no quantitative population data available.
58288		threats	eng	General loss of riparian and forest edge habitat by localized agriculture (small scale farming) is a major threat.   Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agroecosystems in the central <st1:place>Western Ghats</st1:place> (Gurushankara<em> et al. </em>2007).
58289		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomic status.
58289		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Wattekole, Coorg [Mysore], S. India" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India. It was collected at an altitude of around 400m asl.
58289		habitat	eng	It is presumed that this is a moist tropical forest species that breeds in water by larval development.
58289		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is unknown.
58289		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58290		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58290		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the unspecific type locality of "Borneo". It is not possible to map its distribution, since it is not even known which country it was collected in.
58290		habitat	eng	This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.
58290		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58290		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58291		conservation	eng	Given its extensive range it is likely that the species is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58291		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed over much of central northern India and western Peninsular India, southern Nepal, eastern Pakistan (from lower Punjab, Sindh) and Bangladesh. It is found at elevations below 2,000 m asl.
58291		habitat	eng	It is associated with paddy fields and similar wetland habitats. It breeds in paddy fields and other suitable wetlands. Non-breeding individuals may be found hiding in crevices, and under vegetation and other ground cover.
58291		population	eng	It is a common species, especially in paddy fields.
58291		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the pollution of waterbodies with agrochemicals.
58292		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal, Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and Baghmara Reserve Forest in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58292		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Nagaland, India, up to 2,440 m asl, and has recently been confirmed to occur in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura, India. It is also known from southern Nepal, where it is restricted to elevations below 500 m asl, and from south and southeastern Bangladesh. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58292		habitat	eng	It is associated with open grasslands, and is often found close to permanent pools and streams. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools and paddy fields.
58292		population	eng	It is a common species.
58292		threats	eng	Contamination of waterways by agrochemicals, especially pesticides, is a major threat. They are also collected locally for use as meat and for religious purposes.
58293		conservation	eng	None needed for this adaptable species.
58293		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Timor (including East Timor), Wetar, Sumba, Alor and Damar in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. It occurs at low altitudes.
58293		habitat	eng	It occurs in paddy fields, where it also breeds.
58293		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
58293		threats	eng	None are known. It lives in human-modified habitats, and so it is unlikely to be threatened.
58294		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
58294		distribution	eng	This species occurs on all the major islands in the Philippines.
58294		habitat	eng	It is usually found in anthropogenis habitats such as agricultural areas, ditches, artificial ponds and lakes. It breeds in nearly any body of available water.
58294		population	eng	It is abundant and common where present.
58294		threats	eng	Available information indicates that this species is not subject to any significant degree of disturbance, which could threaten its survival at present.
58295		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Tsavo East National Park in Kenya, but does not occur in any protected areas in Somalia.
58295		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Somalia to southern Kenya (as far south as Voi), and in southern Ethiopia. There are very few records, and the map assumes that the species occurs in large areas between known sites.
58295		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species of arid savannah and semi-desert country, and is likely to be found above ground only during seasonal rains. It breeds in temporary pools.
58295		population	eng	There is very little information on the population status of this species.
58295		threats	eng	The most likely threat is drought, but also environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent increase in populations of domestic livestock (perhaps especially impacting breeding sites).
58296		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58296		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in tropical and subtropical Africa from Senegal and Gambia east to Kenya and south to northern Namibia, northern Botswana, southern Mozambique and northern South Africa. It appears not to have been recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries. It is a low-altitude species, occurring up to 1,200 m asl.
58296		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species, only seen above ground during the breeding season. It occurs in dry and more humid savannas, and it is absent from pockets of forest and high rocky terrain within its range. It is able to survive in modified habitats. It is an explosive breeder, and is known to breed in large temporary waters and small mud holes with and without vegetation. These are not common habitats, hence its patchy distribution.
58296		population	eng	It is common in many parts of its range, although it is often of very patchy occurrence. However, it is generally uncommon in West Africa, with small populations at any one locality.
58296		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
58297		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this form, and its relationship to <em>H. ornata</em>, needs to be resolved.
58297		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities in central Angola: Bié, Bingondo, and Bimbe. However, Poynton and Haacke (1993) suggested that Angolan populations of <em>Hildebrandtia ornata</em> approached this species morphologically.
58297		habitat	eng	If this species is similar to <em>H. ornata</em>, it is a fossorial savannah species that breeds explosively in temporary waterbodies.
58297		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
58297		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
58298		conservation	eng	Given the wide range of this frog, it is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58298		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout most of South Asia in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 600m asl.
58298		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of seasonally flooded dry grasslands, open plains and arid areas. Breeding, and presumably larval development, takes place in many different types of waterbodies. Adults are often found in burrows, and are known to aestivate during dry periods. It is present in cultivated areas and around human settlements.
58298		population	eng	It is a locally uncommon species. The total population is widely distributed, and the species is found at many localities.
58298		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the general development of infrastructure within the region, and adult mortality through road kill (in India) are threats to this species. Over collection of adults for subsistence use (in India) might also be a threat, as well as the reclamation of wetlands in Sri Lanka.
58299		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58299		distribution	eng	This species of the African savannah zone ranges from southern Mauritania to Ethiopia, south through East Africa to northern Zambia, southern and western Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and coastal Congo and Gabon. There are isolated populations in southwestern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, southeastern Western Sahara and nearby Mauritania, the Air mountains of Niger, and northern Mali [Adrar de Iforas]).
58299		habitat	eng	It lives in many habitats from dry savannahs to disturbed forest, using logging roads and rivers to penetrate deep into lowland forest. It breeds in small to medium-sized temporary waters, but not in permanent waters, since it cannot compete with fish.
58299		population	eng	It is widespread and common over much of its range, with relict isolated populations in oases and wells in the Sahelian and Saharan regions.
58299		threats	eng	Human consumption is a problem locally, especially in West and Central Africa. However, it is an adaptable species, and overall it is not significantly threatened.
58300		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes many protected areas. This is a Class II state major protected animal in Mainland China and also a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China. Management of the exploitation of wild populations might be needed in certain localities.
58300		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from central, southern and south-western China including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau to Myanmar through Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam and Cambodia south to the Thai-Malay peninsula. Records from further south are attributed here to Limnonectes cancrivora and L. raja. It was introduced and established in Sabah, Borneo in the 1980's (Inger and Tan, 1996). It has also recently been introduced to the Philippines and so far is known from central Luzon and from Puerto Princesa City on Palawan. It occurs up to 700m asl.
58300		habitat	eng	It lives in paddy fields, irrigation infrastructure, fishponds, ditches, floodplain wetlands, forest pools, and other wet areas. The tadpoles live in pools and ponds. The adults are effective predators on other species of frogs and its larvae prey on tadpoles of other species.
58300		population	eng	It is common in appropriate habitat, although the numbers of large animals might be depressed by local exploitation. Captive-bred tadpoles are released by rural people and the Fisheries Department in Thailand and probably elsewhere.
58300		threats	eng	It has probably taken advantage of the conversion of lowland forest to wet rice culture, and has managed to thrive in these conditions, despite exploitation. Agricultural change, pollution, hydrological changes, and competition from exotic bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) represent a potential threat, but the species is unlikely to be seriously impacted throughout most of its range soon.
58301		conservation	eng	It is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Export for commercial purposes from India and Bangladesh is prohibited by appropriate national legislation. It is included in Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (as amended in 1991). Improved identification of specimens exported from Southeast Asia (including those indicated as being of captive-bred origin) is required to determine whether or not they are <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tigerinus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">H. rugulosus</span>. Within India and Bangladesh there is a need to monitor populations of this species over the next five years, to determine current population trends. Protection of this species since the mid-1990's has resulted in a rise in numbers, although populations are still considered to be low. It has been recorded from numerous protected areas throughout its range.
58301		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most wetland areas of India, Bangladesh and much of northern Pakistan, and is recorded from the southern parts of Nepal, and from upper and northern central Myanmar (Smith, 1940; Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It has been reported from Afghanistan close to the Khyber Pass (Kullmann 1974), although this report needs to be reconfirmed. The presence in Bhutan of this species needs to be confirmed. Populations in Sri Lanka are now believed to belong to a separate taxon and have not been included in this account. It has also been introduced to the Maldives and Madagascar, where it is expanding its range at low altitudes in the northwest and on the island of Nosy Be. A principally lowland species, it is found at elevations between 25 and 800m asl, over much of its range, although it might occur up to 2,000m asl in Nepal (Dubois, 1976).
58301		habitat	eng	It is mainly aquatic, inhabiting mostly freshwater wetlands, both natural and artificial (especially paddy fields). It is absent or uncommon in forested areas and coastal regions (Fugler, 1983). It is mostly solitary and nocturnal, inhabiting holes and bushes near permanent water courses and pools (Dutta, 1990). Its diet includes invertebrates, small mammals and birds. Breeding takes place during the monsoon season, when adults congregate at ephemeral rainwater pools. It produces large numbers of eggs (and so has potentially high levels of recruitment), but there are high mortality rates among tadpoles, froglets and adult frogs.
58301		population	eng	At present the species is considered to be locally common throughout much of its South Asian range. However it is predicted that populations might decline in the near future because of habitat loss and water pollution. It is farmed in substantial numbers in Thailand for domestic consumption and export (Pariyanonth and Daorerk, 1995). It is common in Madagascar where it is introduced, and its range is expanding.
58301		threats	eng	It was once heavily collected for the international frog legs trade. Legal export of this species from the range states of India and Bangladesh has been banned since the mid-1990's. Specimens currently traded under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tigerinus </span>are likely to be confused with specimens of the Southeast Asian congenic <span style="font-style: italic;">H. rugulosus</span>. Loss of wetland habitats through infrastructure development, prolonged drought and water pollution by pesticides and other agrochemicals are now the main threats to the species. It is considered a pest in Madagascar, where it was originally introduced as a source of human food, and it is still harvested for this purpose, but not at a level to contain the spread of the species.
58302		conservation	eng	It is known from at least five protected areas. Preservation and protection of large areas of hilly rainforest are needed.
58302		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and northern Borneo. It has a wide altitudinal range of 150-1,600m asl.
58302		habitat	eng	Primary rainforests in hilly terrain is the principal habitat, though the species has also been observed in old secondary growth. Adults are terrestrial and disperse widely through the forest. Tadpoles cling to rocks in the strongest rapids in clear streams and presumably feed on lithophytic algae.
58302		population	eng	Although tadpoles have been seen rather often, adults are seen only rarely. Estimates of subpopulation size do not exist.
58302		threats	eng	Deforestation and subsequent siltation of streams are the main threats to this species.
58303		conservation	eng	It is found in Halimun National Park, Ujong Kulon National Park, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, and Dieng Nature Reserve.
58303		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Java, Indonesia. From current knowledge it occurs only in west and central Java from 50-1,200m asl.
58303		habitat	eng	It is restricted to unpolluted, clear, fast-flowing streams and torrents, in forests and in somewhat more open areas. Breeding takes place in streams.
58303		population	eng	It is a common species in its specialized habitat.
58303		threats	eng	Soil erosion and the sedimentation of streams, as well as agro-chemical pollution, are the main threats to this species. These threats, which result from habitat modification taking place around streams, are leading to a rapid loss of suitable habitats within its range.
58304		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.
58304		distribution	eng	This species is known only from collections at two sites (Si Rambé and Bantjan Batu) in the vicinity of Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia. The Bantjan Batu specimen was collected at 400m asl.
58304		habitat	eng	This is probably a tropical forest species that is associated with streams, in which it presumably breeds by larval development.
58304		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which was described on the basis of museum specimens collected before 1920.
58304		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss due to logging and the creation of plantations.
58305		conservation	eng	The species' range includes numerous protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve what might be a species complex.
58305		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Viet Nam (Bourret, 1941; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; R. Bain pers. comm.), the Annamite mountains of central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), and northern and western Thailand (Yang 1991, in Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Records from northern Vietnam and from Yunnan and Guangxi on China refer to <em>Amolops mengyangensis</em>. Known localities are between 600 and 1,500m asl.
58305		habitat	eng	It has been observed on rock faces, boulders and streamside vegetation in the spray zones of waterfalls, in evergreen forest (Stuart, 1999), as well as in hill streams. It breeds in clear, flowing streams. It has not been found outside forest.
58305		population	eng	It is apparently not uncommon locally, as reasonable series have been collected from Tam Dao (Bourret, 1941; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999) in Viet Nam.
58305		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not certain, but it is believed to be affected by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming,  harvesting of wood and expanding human settlements.
58306		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Gunung Leuser, Kerinci-Seblat, and Barisan-Selatan National Parks.
58306		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of western Sumatra (in Aceh, North Sumatra, West Sumatra, Bengkulu and Lampung Provinces). It occurs from 200 to more than 1,200m asl.
58306		habitat	eng	It lives in clean torrents and fast-flowing streams in forest and open areas near the forest. It breeds in streams.
58306		population	eng	It is abundant in appropriate habitat.
58306		threats	eng	The major threat is siltation of the streams and chemical pollution resulting from deforestation and agriculture (paddy fields).
58307		conservation	eng	Because of taxonomic uncertainty it is not clear as to which protected areas this species occurs in. It is included as part of ongoing field studies by S.D. Biju. It is protected by national legislation.
58307		distribution	eng	This species complex has been described over a wide distribution in the Western Ghats in India. The map shows the range of the species complex only. Taxonomic confusion prevents an accurate estimate of altitudinal range.
58307		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with riparian habitats in wet evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests and swamps. It is not present in cultivated areas. Breeding takes place on wet cliffs and the larvae are found on these surfaces close to streams.
58307		population	eng	Due to taxonomic uncertainty there is no information on the abundance of this species.
58307		threats	eng	It is threatened by the conversion of forest to agricultural use (including coffee, tea and cardamom plantations), the construction of roads, and deforestation for subsistence purposes.
58308		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka), Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu) and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Periyar Tiger Reserve (in Kerala). It has been included in field studies by Ravichandran (1995-1997) and Biju (2000-present). It is protected by national legislation.
58308		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India. Populations occur at Ponmudi, Periyar Tiger Reserve and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (in Kerala), Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu) and Coorg and Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka). It has an altitudinal range of 800-1,200m asl.
58308		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with hill streams in wet evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests and swamps. It may be found at forest edges, but not in agricultural land. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.
58308		population	eng	It is locally common.
58308		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of forested areas following conversion to agricultural land (including coffee, tea and cardamom plantations), and harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes.
58309		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Ghandi National Park (in Tamil Nadu), and Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary (in Kerala). It has been included in field studies by Ravichandran (1995-1997) and Biju (1997-present). It is protected by national legislation.
58309		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India. It is known from Srivilliputhur, Indira Ghandi National Park, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu), and Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary, Ponmudi Hills and Athirimala (all in Kerala). It has an altitudinal range of 600-1,000m asl.
58309		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with hill streams in primary wet evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests and swamps, and is not present in secondary forest or modified habitats. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.
58309		population	eng	It is locally uncommon, and believed to be declining.
58309		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss of forested areas through conversion to agricultural land (including coffee and tea plantations), and the harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes. Road construction, especially in Ponmudi and surroundings, is an additional threat to the habitat of this species.
58310		conservation	eng	It is not known to be present in any protected areas. Further surveys are required at the type locality, and within suitable nearby forests, to determine the range and population status of this species. It is protected by national legislation.
58310		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "Gundia, forêt de Kemphole, à l'ouest de Sakleshpur, Karnataka, Inde" in the Western Ghats of India. The type locality is at an elevation of around 200m asl.
58310		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of moist tropical forest. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.
58310		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58310		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss caused by intensive livestock production, harvesting of wood and timber by local people, road construction, and the development of tourism facilities.
58311		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the following Wildlife Sanctuaries of Maharashtra State: Bhimashankar, Chandoli, Kalsubai Harishchandra, Koyna National Park, and Phansad. It is protected by national legislation
58311		distribution	eng	This taxon is known with certainty only from the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State in India. All additional records are believed to refer to other taxa. Further taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the precise identity of specimens currently assigned to this species collected outside Maharashtra State. It has an altitudinal range of 400-1,200m asl.
58311		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with leaf-litter of moist, tropical, semi-evergreen forest. It is also found in degraded forest. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on moist surfaces next to streams.
58311		population	eng	It is locally common, even in degraded forest areas.
58311		threats	eng	It is mostly threatened by the conversion of forested land to intensive agricultural use. Harvesting of wood for subsistence use by local people and road construction are also threats. The type locality (Matheran) is threatened by tourism development.
58312		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Athirimala Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulam National Park (all in Kerala), and Indira Gandhi National Park and Kalakkad-Mundanthuai Wildlife Sanctuary (both in Tamil Nadu). It is protected by national legislation.
58312		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It is known from the Agasthyamala Hills, Kalakkad-Mundanthuai, Athirimala, Periyar Tiger Reserve (a recent collection by S.D. Biju) and Eravikulam National Park (in Kerala) and the Anamalai Hills of Parambikulam and Indira Ghandi National Park (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu). It occurs at elevations above 800m asl.
58312		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with the leaf-litter substrate of moist tropical semi-evergreen forest, and it is not known from modified habitats. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.
58312		population	eng	It is locally uncommon.
58312		threats	eng	The major threat is clearance of forested land for agricultural use (including tea plantations), timber plantations, and the harvesting of wood by local people for subsistence use.
58313		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation.
58313		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 200m asl.
58313		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species that presumably breeds like other members of the genus, with larvae being found on wet rocks next to streams.
58313		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is unknown.
58313		threats	eng	The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use.
58314		conservation	eng	The species is present in Indira Ghandi National Park. It is included as part of field studies by Biju (1997) and Vijaykumar (1999 and ongoing). It is protected by national legislation.
58314		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a restricted area in the Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats in India. It is found at an elevation of around 500m asl. It has also been reported from Maharashtra, but this record requires further investigation and is not included in this account.
58314		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species associated with leaf-litter in tropical moist forest. It presumably breeds like other members of the genus, with larvae being found on wet rocks next to streams.
58314		population	eng	It is very rare and is known to be declining at its only known site.
58314		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to subsistence wood collecting.
58315		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas. It is included as part of ongoing field studies by Addoor (1995 and onwards) and Biju (1997 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.
58315		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has a wide altitudinal range of between 200 and 1,100m asl.
58315		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with riparian vegetation and leaf-litter in wet evergreen, and semi-evergreen, tropical forests and swamps. It has been recorded in coffee plantations and disturbed forest. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.
58315		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
58315		threats	eng	Conversion of land to commercial agricultural use (including coffee plantations) appears to be the main threat to this species. Harvesting of wood and timber for subsistence use, and the development of mining and tourism in the Western Ghats region are also threats.
58316		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation.
58316		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Kemphole Ghats, Hassan, Mysore, South India" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 400m asl.
58316		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species that presumably breeds like other members of the genus, with larvae being found on wet rocks next to streams.
58316		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58316		threats	eng	The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use, road construction and the development of tourism facilities.
58317		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.
58317		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Dayangdong, in Medog County, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, where it is found at 3,100m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.
58317		habitat	eng	It lives under moss in forest and probably breeds on land, and is probably a species that breeds by direct development.
58317		population	eng	It has a low population size.
58317		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
58318		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least five protected areas. More needs to be learned of breeding habits and subpopulation sizes.
58318		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern and western Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at altitudes of 100-900m asl.
58318		habitat	eng	It is known only from lowland and mid-elevation primary rainforests where it has been found in the floor litter and along stream banks. It probably breeds on land by direct development, like other members of its genus.
58318		population	eng	No subpopulation size estimates have been made. At one or two localities it seems to be relatively common.
58318		threats	eng	Deforestation is the most serious threat to this species.
58319		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Xishuagbanna National Nature Reserve and in the Xishuangbanna Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
58319		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Yunnan Province (Mengla, Jinghong and Cangyuan Counties) in China. It is expected to occur in adjacent Lao People's Democratic Republic and Myanmar, but due to lack of survey effort and taxonomic problems it has not yet been recorded. It occurs at elevations of 550-760m asl.
58319		habitat	eng	It occurs in or near streams in forested areas. It uses soft, muddy soil for its nests. The eggs are laid in a hole in the ground covered with leaves, and are guarded by the male. It breeds by direct development.
58319		population	eng	This is a rare species that is very difficult to find.
58319		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation is the major threat to this species, in particular due to agriculture, and infrastructure development for tourism.
58320		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is not within any protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.
58320		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Medog County in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at around 1,500m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.
58320		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests at the edge of a lake, where it lives under moss and probably breeds on land. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.
58320		population	eng	It has a small population size.
58320		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58321		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is not with any protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.
58321		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Medog County, in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at around 890m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.
58321		habitat	eng	It lives under moss in forest and probably breeds on land by direct development, like other species of the genus.
58321		population	eng	It has a small population size.
58321		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58322		conservation	eng	Safeguarding the existing protected areas of Peninsular Thailand, and ideally adding Ulu Muda to the protected areas of Peninsular Malaysia, should safeguard the species' survival. Status surveys and conservation biology studies would be welcome.
58322		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Tenasserim, Myanmar, and the Nakhon Sri Thammarat mountains (Smith, 1930) and the Trang mountains in Thailand. Its distinctive calls have also been heard in the forest of the Thai-Malay border region hills. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded at altitudes of about 300-600m asl (Smith, 1930).
58322		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor near, yet above streams in closed-canopy rainforest. Distinctive calls are also heard in old rubber plantations. It is suspected to breed by direct development (Dubois, 1987) analogous to Taylorana hascheana.
58322		population	eng	Where this species occurs it tends to be rather common, but individuals are very difficult to find.
58322		threats	eng	A primary conservation concern would be the loss of closed-canopy rainforest habitat.
58323		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is not with any protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.
58323		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Yi'ong, in Bomi County in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, where it has been recorded at around 2,300m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.
58323		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mixed forests, and lives under moss. It calls far from water in the breeding season, and probably breeds on land by direct development, like other species of the genus.
58323		population	eng	It has a small population size.
58323		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58324		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Knuckles Forest Reserve, Udawattakele Forest Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, Thangamale Sanctuary, Peak Wilderness Forest Reserve, Kitulgala Forest Reserve and Labugama-Kalatuwana Forest Reserve.
58324		distribution	eng	This is a widespread endemic of western, southern and central Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations of between 60 and 1,525m asl.
58324		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species found in many forested and shaded wetland habitats, including shaded stream banks and under grass tussocks in marshes. It may also be found in home gardens. Larvae are wholly aquatic. It is not present in polluted waters.
58324		population	eng	It is considered to be a common species, but little else is known about the population size or trends.
58324		threats	eng	Agrochemical pollution, and drainage of wetlands (wetland reclamation for housing and vegetable farms) are the main threats to this species.
58325		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
58325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Somalia. Most records are from the south of the country in Bakool and Bay Provinces. It has also been recorded near the coast, north of Mogadishu, at Bud Bud in Galguduud Province, and near Garoowe in Nugaal Province. Recorded localities are the general vicinity of Garoowe, Bud Bud, El Ure (Uegit), Sciù Manàs (Baidoa), Dinsor, Rahole, Afgoi, and Showli Berdi (Bardera). It has been recorded up to 500m asl.
58325		habitat	eng	Its habitat preferences when it is not breeding are not well known, though it is presumably a species of dry savannahs and semi-arid habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and small reservoirs.
58325		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
58325		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species. It might be affected by livestock grazing, and perhaps fire and droughts, but otherwise it does not appear to be significantly threatened at present.
58326		conservation	eng	There remains a need for much improved protection of the remaining rainforest habitats on Palawan, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides. Human exploitation of this species needs to be investigated to determine if this activity needs to be regulated.
58326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippine islands of Balabac, Busuanga, Culion and Palawan. At present, the population on Mindoro is also attributed to this species. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites on Palawan.
58326		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams, rivers and pools in lower montane and lowland forests. Eggs are deposited on rocks or vegetation beside rivers and streams usually above water. It is somewhat adaptable, especially to modified wetland habitats.
58326		population	eng	It is a common species.
58326		threats	eng	Threats include deforestation due to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and mine-tailings. Harvesting for human subsistence is a possible threat.
58327		conservation	eng	It is found in the Gunung Latimojong Nature Reserve and Gunung Lompobatang Protection Forest. There is a need for improved habitat protection throughout its range.
58327		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Lompobatang and Mount Latimojong, in south-western Sulawesi, Indonesia, above 1,200m asl.
58327		habitat	eng	It lives in undisturbed highland forest, usually close to small rivers and streams, and breeds on land. The eggs are laid on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. The larvae hatch on land and slide and tumble downhill into slow- to medium-flowing streams, where they develop further.
58327		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58327		threats	eng	The main threat is forest clearance for smallholder farming, which has resulted in extensive forest loss on mountain slopes within its range, and the drying up of the streams on which the species depends.
58328		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Effective preservation of lowland forest in Kalimantan is essential for the conservation of this species.
58328		distribution	eng	This species has been found only in central and southern Kalimantan in Borneo, Indonesia, below 300m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.
58328		habitat	eng	It is known only from the floor of lowland rainforests, where it is associated with slow-flowing streams in which it is likely to breed by larval development.
58328		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
58328		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging.
58329		conservation	eng	This species inhabits a great number of protected areas throughout much of its range, and is protected by the Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA), 1992, in Thailand. There is a need to ensure that the harvesting of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner (this species could benefit from commercial farming). Clarification of the taxonomy of the <em>blythii</em> complex is necessary to identify cryptic species of conservation concern.
58329		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in south-east Asia, from Viet Nam and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, to Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra, the Anambas Islands and the Natuna Islands (Indonesia). It is also present on the islands of Phuket, Langkawi, Penang and Tioman. It has not been recorded from the Cardamom Mountains in Cambodia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
58329		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams with gravel and boulders in primary and secondary evergreen forest. Males build a nesting hollow in a sandy streambed area, and the larvae develop in streams.
58329		population	eng	The population status of this species is locally variable, ranging from uncommon in western Thailand to very common in areas where harvesting does not occur in Peninsular Malaysia. It is generally less common in easily accessible areas near human habitation than in similar inaccessible areas, indicative of depleted populations due to harvesting. Cessation of harvesting leads to population recovery in five to 10 years (P. van Dijk pers. comm.).
58329		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is intensive collection for consumption at subsistence levels, and for local, national and international trade. Some populations have also probably been eliminated locally due to forest clearance.
58330		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to confirm the identity of some of the specimens recently attributed to this species.
58330		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from Da Ban, Lam Dong Province, southern Viet Nam (Smith 1922, in Bourret 1942). It has also been recorded from Moray (Kon Tum), Soklang (Gia Lai) and Phu Quoc Island (Kien Giang) by Sang and Cuc (1996), but there is some doubt associated with these identifications (although they are included in this account, and have been used when mapping its distribution). It has been recorded at about 200m asl.
58330		habitat	eng	It is found in swampy riverside floodplain areas in lowland forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it probably reproduces by larval development in water.
58330		population	eng	It is known from a single collection from the 1920s. Subsequent records from scattered locations are associated with some doubt, so this species' population status is not known.
58330		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58331		conservation	eng	It presumably lives in Gunung Rinjani Nature Reserve on Lombok, but there is probably less protection for the populations on Sumbawa and Flores. Surveys are needed to collect up-to-date information regarding the species' range, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.
58331		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia, where it occurs up to at least 1,200m asl. There is little recent information on this species generally due to the lack of research in the area over the last 30 years. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58331		habitat	eng	It is thought to live near forested streams like other members of the genus, and the larvae presumably develop in streams.
58331		population	eng	It is believed to be a common species.
58331		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species, although forest loss might be a problem.
58332		conservation	eng	It is likely to inhabit several of the protected areas in peninsular Thailand, while referred specimens have been recorded from a number of Malaysian protected areas (Berry 1975). On Indian territory, where this species is protected by national legislation, it has been recorded from Mount Harriet Island National Park and Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Taxonomic clarification of the <em>L. macrognathus</em> species group is needed.
58332		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Tenasserim in Myanmar, and adjoining Prachuab and Chumphon Provinces of Thailand (Taylor 1962), in addition to a referred specimen recorded from Phuket (Frith 1977), localized occurrences in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Taylor 1962). The distribution in Peninsular Malaysia is questionable. Available records range from foothills up to 1,100m asl in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975).
58332		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found in primary tropical forest. Breeding and larval development take place in forest streams.
58332		population	eng	No reliable data on its population status are available for this species, due to possible confusion with the sympatric <em>Limnonectes macrognathus</em> and <em>L. plicatella</em>.
58332		threats	eng	Over most of its range there are no specific threats to it. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, agricultural expansion, selective logging and road construction are believed to constitute threats.
58333		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Borneo, and the Sulawesi population is in a protected area, although confirmation is required that the forest at the Sulawesi site has not been logged.
58333		distribution	eng	This species is mostly known from lowland forests in northeastern and eastern Borneo. There has been one record from Sulawesi in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations below 650m asl.
58333		habitat	eng	It lives in the litter stratum of pristine lowland forests, but also in old secondary forest. Males guard small clutches of eggs under dead leaves and carry tadpoles to small rain pools on the forest floor where the larvae then develop.
58333		population	eng	It might be an uncommon species, although there are no population size estimates available.
58333		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of forests to establish oil palm plantations is the main threat to the species.
58334		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas on the island.
58334		distribution	eng	This species is known from hilly areas in central and south-western Hainan, China, from 290-1,000m asl.
58334		habitat	eng	It inhabits small, low-gradient streams, seepages and marshes in forested areas, and breeds in streams.
58334		population	eng	It is not a common species.
58334		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, in particular due to agriculture and infrastructure development.
58335		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species.
58335		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern China, including from Taiwan, Province of China, and Hong Kong. It has been recorded from 150-1,100m asl.
58335		habitat	eng	It inhabits seepages, low-gradient streams, ditches, pools and marshes in forested areas. It can also be found in human-modified habitats such as roadside ditches in forested areas.
58335		population	eng	In mainland China and Taiwan, Province of China, it is very common, but in Hong Kong, it is considered to be rare.
58335		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular agriculture and the construction of dams.
58336		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Raua Aopa Nature Reserve and several protected areas in New Guinea. The taxonomy of this species requires clarification to determine whether or not it harbours one or more sibling species with potentially restricted ranges.
58336		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern peninsula and southeastern peninsula of Sulawesi, and on Muna, Buton, Wowoni and Kabaena Islands, in Indonesia, where it occurs up to 600m asl. It also occurs in the Maluku Islands (Halmahera, Seram, Ambon, Haluku, Saparua, Buru, and some other smaller islands) and is widespread on the New Guinea mainland in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It ranges up to 1,600m asl in New Guinea.
58336		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic species living and breeding along side and in small and large streams, swamps and pools in tropical rainforest. It is also found in rural gardens, large pools, and degraded forest.
58336		population	eng	It is an abundant species, although it is only considered reasonably common in New Guinea.
58336		threats	eng	The main threat is exploitation for human food, since the animals on Sulawesi, which represent an undescribed species, are very large. It is also eaten in New Guinea.
58337		conservation	eng	It is known or suspected to inhabit most protected areas, in mainland Thailand and adjacent Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia, which contain streams in evergreen or mixed deciduous forest in hill or mountain areas.
58337		distribution	eng	This species is known from most of mainland Thailand and Cambodia, and from northern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Taylor, 1962; Stuart, 1999; Ohler, et. al, 2002). It has been recorded at altitudes ranging from 200 (Inger and Colwell, 1977) to 800m asl, although Taylor (1962) recorded the species at 2,200m asl.
58337		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams in evergreen or dense deciduous forest. It breeds in streams by larval development.
58337		population	eng	It is generally a relatively common species in appropriate habitat.
58337		threats	eng	The main threats involve forest degradation processes, which open up the canopy and interfere with the hydrological cycle, for example agricultural encroachment, logging and fires.
58338		conservation	eng	It inhabits a number of protected areas in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. A study of the taxonomic variability of this single widespread taxon would be interesting to compare to the great radiation that the direct-developing frogs of Sri Lanka show.
58338		distribution	eng	Nearly all records of this species are from the hill and mountain areas of Myanmar, west Thailand and the Thai-Malay Peninsula (Smith, 1940, Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975 and Kiew, 1987), with outliers in northern Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bourret, 1941 and Stuart, 1999). It is also known from Phuket Island in Thailand, Natuna Besar Island in Indonesia, Penang, Pulau Langkawi and Tioman Islands in Malaysia, but surprisingly not from China. It has not been recorded in surveys in Cambodia or southern Viet Nam. It is not present in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India (I. Das pers. comm.). It occurs between 50 and 1,000m asl.
58338		habitat	eng	It characteristically lives on fairly steep slopes in evergreen forest (rainforest or monsoon forest, primary or regenerated) with a fairly dense leaf-litter layer on soil, sloping to small streams. Males make an eggcup under forest floor leaf-litter, and the eggs develop directly without an aquatic larval stage (Taylor, 1962).
58338		population	eng	In appropriate habitat the species is not uncommon, based on distinctive calls. The animals are very rarely seen and are quite difficult to locate and catch.
58338		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the whole population at present. Populations persist in abandoned rubber plantations within the Kuala Lumpur metropolis, indicating the robustness of populations (P. van Dijk pers. comm.).
58339		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species, and the degree to which it is being harvested for food.
58339		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the province of North Sulawesi, in Indonesia. It is a lowland species occurring below 600m asl.
58339		habitat	eng	It lives near medium- to fast-flowing streams in forest. It can survive in secondary forest provided there is suitable canopy cover. It breeds in streams.
58339		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, and only a few specimens have been collected.
58339		threats	eng	The primary threat is forest clearance due to smallholder farming activities. It is also occasionally harvested for food.
58340		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas, although more effective protection of areas of hilly, lowland rainforest in Sarawak and Kalimantan is needed.
58340		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central hilly regions of Borneo, below 500m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.
58340		habitat	eng	It is known only from the banks of clear, rocky streams in hilly lowland primary rainforest. Juveniles and adults do not disperse from the immediate vicinity of such streams and the larvae develop in pools along those streams.
58340		population	eng	It is considered to be locally abundant. A density of 20-60 individuals per 600m of stream length was estimated at one site in Sarawak surveyed in 1962-63.
58340		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation arising from clear-cutting. As it is quite large, local people often hunt this species for food, and its long life cycle and small clutch size make it particularly vulnerable to overharvesting.
58341		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Danum Valley National Park. Survival of this species will depend on the preservation of areas of lowland rainforest.
58341		distribution	eng	This species has been found at a number of scattered locations in the northern half of Borneo, below 300m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
58341		habitat	eng	It is usually seen along slow-flowing, sandy-bottomed or slightly silty streams in primary or disturbed lowland rainforest. It sometimes also occurs in swampy areas. Adults feed on large prey, including other frogs and small reptiles. Larvae develop in quiet side pools of streams.
58341		population	eng	Its overall population status is unknown, but a density of 20-50 individuals per 600m of rainforest stream was estimated at one site surveyed.
58341		threats	eng	This species is probably being seriously affected by the extensive logging that is taking place within much of its range. Localized over-harvesting for food might also be impacting some populations.
58342		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gunung Rinjani Natural Reserve on Lombok.
58342		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Adonara and Lembata in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
58342		habitat	eng	It lives around forested streams in primary and secondary wet and dry forest where a good canopy remains. It breeds in streams.
58342		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
58342		threats	eng	The most serious threats are the exploitation for food and water pollution from agriculture. Any forest clearance would also be detrimental to the species.
58343		conservation	eng	It is present in Sumasan National Park in Kalimantan.
58343		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two small areas in western Borneo: Merkata, in the Kenepai Mountains, in western Kalimantan (Indonesia); and extreme western Sarawak (Malaysia) near Sematan. Records from Sabah (Malaysia) in northern Borneo are not confirmed. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58343		habitat	eng	It is known only from lowland peat swamp forest. Breeding is presumably by larval development in water.
58343		population	eng	There are no estimates of population status available.
58343		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of lowland forest habitat is the main threat to this species.
58344		conservation	eng	The type locality is on the edge of Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
58344		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nape, on the Khammon Plateau, in the Nakai-Nam Theun area of Lao People's Democratic Republic near the Vietnamese border (Bourret 1942). It probably occurs more widely.
58344		habitat	eng	This species is thought likely to live in forest and to breed by larval development in water.
58344		population	eng	It has not been recorded again since a single specimen was collected in 1926-27, despite herpetofaunal surveys in the general area (Stuart 1999), so there is no information regarding its population status.
58344		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58345		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
58345		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya State, India.
58345		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat type is not known, although it is presumed to breed in freshwater and to have a larval development breeding strategy.
58345		population	eng	It is known only from the lost type specimen.
58345		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58346		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, and the priority is to safeguard these. Clarification of its taxonomic status and studies of its conservation biology and harvest levels are needed. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58346		distribution	eng	This is a very wide-ranging species. It is found in southern Yunnan and Guangxi provinces, China, in two small areas of northeastern India (in Arunachal Pradesh), and throughout Southeast Asia south to Java, Borneo, the Anambas Islands and the Natunas Islands, but it has not been recorded from Cambodia or Singapore. It occurs from 200-1,800m asl.
58346		habitat	eng	It is found in small, clear streams in evergreen forest in hilly areas. It breeds in small tributary streams and the larvae develop in quiet pools along these streams. It does not wander from the vicinity of streams. In China it has also been found in still-water ponds and streams among fields.
58346		population	eng	It is a common and locally abundant frog.
58346		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation, and although the species complex as a whole is not at risk, some of its component cryptic taxa might be threatened by local threatening processes. It is locally collected for consumption and in China this might be threatening the species' survival.
58347		conservation	eng	The species is well represented in protected areas and watershed protection forests in Peninsular Malaysia. In India it has been reported from Pakhui Wild Life Sanctuary and the Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh. In Borneo, effective preservation of hilly lowland rainforest, especially in Kalimantan, is needed, although it has been recorded for Kubah National Park (Das <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Verification of the taxonomic status and variability across its wide and apparently disjunctive distribution is needed. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58347		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh), Myanmar (the Dawna Hills, Schwe Settaw on the Shan/Mandalay border, and Kachin Hkakabo National Park), the Chumphon area of Thailand, extreme southern Thailand, throughout Peninsular Malaysia, and central and western Sarawak, central Kalimantan and Brunei in Borneo, and in Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The altitudinal range is from 50-1,400 m asl.
58347		habitat	eng	It inhabits small shallow streams in closed-canopy rainforest, and is associated with sand, gravel and rocks. In Borneo this species occurs along the banks of small streams, in pools in swampy streams, in seepage areas near streams in hilly primary forest, and in road-side rainwater drains.
58347		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat in Peninsular Malaysia. It is either localized in occurrence or rare in most of Thailand. It is locally abundant in Sumatra, and occurs patchily in Borneo, although a recent study found it to be the most abundant anuran species in the Matang Range (Das <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
58347		threats	eng	Deforestation is the major threat to this species, leading to range constriction and fragmentation.
58348		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas.
58348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo. It is found in most hilly, lowland areas and is present at elevations up to 700m asl.
58348		habitat	eng	It lives along the banks of small to large, rocky streams in hilly rainforest. It also survives in secondary habitats. Larvae develop in quiet side pools of such streams. Adults do not wander from the vicinity of stream banks.
58348		population	eng	Estimates of subpopulation size at one locality were 80-180 individuals per 600m of stream.
58348		threats	eng	Deforestation by severe clear-cutting, with consequent constriction and fragmentation of the range, is the greatest threat. Localized over-hunting is a potential threat because of the long life cycle and small clutch size of this species.
58349		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not the range of this species includes any protected areas. Surveys in this area of Myanmar are needed to determine the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species.
58349		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of Tenasserim, in southern Myanmar. As a result of this lack of specificity, it is not possible to create a distribution map for this species.
58349		habitat	eng	It is thought likely to live in forest and to breed by larval development in water.
58349		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58349		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58350		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Levels of human exploitation of this species need to be investigated to determine if harvesting from the wild needs to be managed more sustainably.
58350		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from many localities on Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque and Polillo Islands, in the northern Philippines.
58350		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests, and is also found in forest edge and agricultural areas near intact natural forests.
58350		population	eng	It is common in appropriate habitats, but has declined in places due to over-harvesting.
58350		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include habitat loss, due to expanding agriculture, logging and human settlements, and the pollution of streams and rivers. Harvesting by local people is also a threat.
58351		conservation	eng	It occurs in Ujung Kulon National Park on Java. The harvest of this species from the wild needs to be managed in a sustainable manner.
58351		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Java and Lampung Province in the south of Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs up to at least 700m asl.
58351		habitat	eng	It inhabits forested areas near streams. It can survive in secondary forest where suitable canopy cover remains. Breeding takes place in streams.
58351		population	eng	Although formerly common, this species is now generally considered to be uncommon, though not rare.
58351		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction (due to agriculture and subsistence wood collection), and water pollution. It is highly exploited as a food source, and animals from eastern Java are found in international trade.
58352		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in several protected areas in peninsular Thailand and beyond. The absence of records from protected areas is more an issue of identification difficulties rather than the absence of survey efforts. Clarification of the taxonomy of this species is therefore needed. Safeguarding protected areas in the Thai-Malay peninsula should be the main objective for the conservation of this species.
58352		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bagu Yoma hills of Myanmar through peninsular Thailand, Phuket Island, and perhaps also to northern Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia (Bourret 1942; Taylor 1962; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also present on Langkawi Island (Malaysia), and the Thai islands of Terutao, Rawi and Ladang. Its range largely overlaps with that of <em>Limnonectes doriae</em>. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58352		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species has not been recorded, but it presumably lives in streams in evergreen forest.
58352		population	eng	No reliable data are available regarding its population status, due to possible confusion with <em>L. doriae</em> and <em>L. pileata</em>.
58352		threats	eng	No specific threats are known for this species, although it could presumably be affected by forest degradation and hydrological changes due to smallholder farming and logging.
58353		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. It apparently coexists parapatrically with its sibling species in Lore Lindu National Park, and it extends to Poso and Tanah Toraja. Conservation measures for this species must include the protection of remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Levels of human exploitation need to be investigated to determine if this needs to be managed more sustainably.
58353		distribution	eng	This species complex is found on Mindanao, Basilan, Bohol, Camiguin, Samar and Leyte Islands in the Philippines, from 1,200-1,800m asl, as well as on Sulawesi, Indonesia.
58353		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and deposits egg clutches in quiet side pools of forested riverine habitats.
58353		population	eng	It is common to very common where its habitat remains intact, although some populations are in decline because of over-exploitation.
58353		threats	eng	On Sulawesi, the major threat to the populations of this species is human exploitation for both local consumption and international trade. In the Philippines, threats include habitat loss due to agriculture and logging, and pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and mine-tailings, as well as harvesting for human subsistence and for international export.
58354		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, although more effective conservation of peat swamps and low alluvial rainforests is needed.
58354		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme southern Peninsular Thailand, peninsular Malaysia (and Sarawak) and Singapore to Indonesia (including Sumatra and Kalimantan), up to 150m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
58354		habitat	eng	It inhabits shallow, gentle streams and nearby swampy areas including peat swamps, very flat alluvial forests (both primary forest and mature secondary growth), and overgrown plantations. The eggs are laid in sandy streambeds but no nest is constructed (Kiew 1984c).
58354		population	eng	It is generally not rare, but it is also not an abundant frog (Lim and Lim 1992); it is considered rare in Thailand.
58354		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation. It is also collected for subsistence use and trade (Lim and Lim 1992; P. van Dijk pers. comm.), but most collection pressure is deflected from it by the sympatric occurrence of the larger and more common <em>Limnonectes blythii</em>.
58355		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.
58355		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya State, India, at 1,500m asl.
58355		habitat	eng	There is no available information on its habitat requirements, though it is likely to live in montane forest and presumably breeds by larval development in water.
58355		population	eng	There is no available information on population status.
58355		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58356		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation.
58356		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern India, where it is found below 1,100m asl in the states of West Bengal, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland.
58356		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic species found near streams in tropical moist forest.
58356		population	eng	There is no information on population status.
58356		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58357		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to determine the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species before conservation measures can be determined.
58357		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Basilan Island in the Philippines. A record from western Mindanao is believed to be a misidentification.
58357		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests.
58357		population	eng	There is no available information on population status.
58357		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species include deforestation through logging, habitat conversion to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers. However, updated information on the status of this species and its habitat on Basilan Island are not available from which to make definitive conclusions.
58358		conservation	eng	It occurs in Ujung Kulon, Gunung Halimun, Gunung Gede Pangerango National Parks, and Gunung Tangkuban Perahu Natural Reserve.
58358		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Java and the Lampung Province in the south of Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs from near sea level up to above 1,200m asl.
58358		habitat	eng	It is a species of the forest floor. It lives only in undisturbed forest. Reproduction is unknown, but the eggs might be laid on the ground near streams. The tadpoles develop in streams.
58358		population	eng	It has declined due to forest loss, but it is still common in suitable habitat.
58358		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss for smallholder farming.
58359		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gunung Lompobatang Natural Reserve.
58359		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Lompobatang in south-west Sulawesi, Indonesia. It lives above 1,000m asl.
58359		habitat	eng	It lives in and around streams in montane forest, and it is not known whether or not it can live in disturbed forest. Breeding takes place in streams.
58359		population	eng	It is a common species within its restricted range.
58359		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest loss caused by the expansion of smallholder farming.
58360		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved. The distribution among the Maluku Islands needs to be documented, and an assessment of the taxonomic status of the island populations needs to be undertaken. It is not known from any protected areas.
58360		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Sulawesi, Togian, Peleng, Seram, Buru, Ambon, Obi, Bacan, Batudaka, Togian and Talatakoh and Halmahera in Indonesia, up to 1,200m asl. It might also occur on Salayar, Sangihe and Talaud, but these are not yet confirmed, and so are not mapped here. However, when this complex is resolved, Limnonectes modestus will probably be confined to Bolaang Mongondow and Gorontalo, in northern Sulawesi (the remainder of the complex belonging to undescribed species) (D. Iskandar pers. comm.).
58360		habitat	eng	It is found near small streams and water pits in many habitats from forest to human habitation to mangrove forests. It can tolerate brackish water. It breeds in streams.
58360		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58360		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58361		conservation	eng	Although montane forest in this part of Peninsular Malaysia is relatively secure in some places, there is still a need for improved protection of montane forest habitats. Surveys are needed to determine whether <em>L. nitidus</em> is genuinely restricted to the Cameron Highlands and the Fraser's Hills.
58361		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hills of Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia. Other records are attributable to <em>L. tweediei</em> (Dring 1979). The altitudinal range is 900-1,500m asl.
58361		habitat	eng	It is known from montane rainforest and congregates and breeds in permanently wet seepage areas (Dring 1979; Manthey and Grossmann 1997; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999; Leong Tzi Ming pers. comm.).
58361		population	eng	It can be locally common within its small range (Leong Tzi Ming pers. comm.).
58361		threats	eng	Development of the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hills for agriculture (tea and vegetables) and tourism, and plans for industrial estates, pose real threats to this species.
58362		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. The most important conservation measure is to ensure protection of the remaining rainforests of Palawan and Borneo.
58362		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout western to northern Borneo, and from only two localities on Palawan Island (the type locality) in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found from about 100-1,200m asl.
58362		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It wanders through the forest and is confined to the floor stratum. Males guard small clutches of eggs under dead leaves and carry the tadpoles to small rain pools where they develop.
58362		population	eng	It is patchily distributed but can be locally abundant.
58362		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is generally protected on the island of Palawan and in Borneo. However, deforestation remains a threat.
58363		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas in Borneo and the Malay Peninsula (such as Pasoh Forest Reserve and Tasek Bera). Effective preservation of the remaining lowland swamp forest is the main conservation measure recommended for this species.
58363		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975; Dring 1979) and Borneo, and it has been recorded from Singapore (Lim and Lim 1992), southern Thailand (Chan-ard pers. comm.) and Natuna Besar and Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It occurs at altitudes below 200m asl.
58363		habitat	eng	It generally inhabits lowland swamp forest areas with small rivers and streams. Adults are found along clay and gravel stream banks, and breeding takes place in these streams. It appears to be able to tolerate selective logging, but does not adapt to more heavily modified habitats.
58363		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
58363		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are destruction of forests through clear-cutting, conversion to non-timber plantations, urbanization, fire and water extraction.
58364		conservation	eng	The species is confirmed from enough protected areas and watershed protection areas to expect that viable populations will persist for the foreseeable future.
58364		distribution	eng	This species occurs from far southern Thailand (Yala and Narathiwat provinces, Taylor, 1962), through most of Peninsular Malaysia and Penang Island (Berry, 1975) to Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992 and Ming, 2000). There is also a record from the Khao Pra Bangkram Wildlife Sanctuary further to the north in Peninsular Thailand. It occurs from lowlands up to about 1,200m asl.
58364		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams and is associated with swampy puddles in primary and degraded rainforest. It lays its eggs in small-excavated holes on the edge of streams. The tadpoles develop in streams.
58364		population	eng	This is not a rare frog in appropriate habitat, but it is never abundant. It is considered uncommon in Singapore and Thailand.
58364		threats	eng	Some habitat loss is taking place, which is detrimental to local populations, but overall the species seems secure.
58365		conservation	eng	It is present in Kayanmantran Protected Area. More effective preservation of areas of lowland rainforest in Kalimantan is essential for the conservation of this species.
58365		distribution	eng	This species has been seen at localities in northern and central Kalimantan, Borneo. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is unclear, but it is believed that this species only occurs below 500m asl.
58365		habitat	eng	It lives in primary lowland rainforest. Very little is known of the ecology of this species, although it is known to have a very small clutch size, and it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
58365		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58365		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is presumably deforestation.
58366		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas in Indonesia and Singapore and in Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58366		distribution	eng	This species is known from lowland coastal areas of northern and western Sumatra (in Bengkulu, West Sumatra, North Sumatra and Aceh Provinces, all along coastal area to about 200km inland), the Mentawai Islands (Enggano, Siberut, Sipora, Batu Islands (Pini, Tanah Masa and probably in Tanah Bala), Nias and Simeulue), and Natuna in Indonesia; and from Great Nicobar Island (India), Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. It probably also occurs on Banyak and Pagai islands in Indonesia.
58366		habitat	eng	It occurs in low areas along rivers in tropical forest and forest edges in leaf-litter. It breeds in rivers.
58366		population	eng	It is common in Indonesia and abundant in the Nicobar Islands.
58366		threats	eng	It is probably threatened to some extent by habitat loss and pollution from agriculture. Animals are harvested for food and traded within Indonesia and are probably exported to Singapore.
58367		conservation	eng	Two of the three known localities are within protected areas. The Ta Dung locality is not in a protected area. More information on the species' population status, habitat requirements and threats are required before conservation actions can be determined.
58367		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Cambodia and the neighbouring area of Viet Nam in Ta Dung Mountains, Lam Dong Province (B. Stuart, R. Bain and T. Nguyen pers. comm.). It is found up to 900m asl.
58367		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams in dry evergreen forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumably by larval development in forest streams.
58367		population	eng	This species was originally known only from a single specimen collected in 1941 (Bourret 1942), but it has recently been rediscovered at the type locality and in other localities.
58367		threats	eng	The major threat is forest loss and degradation as a result of fire, logging, and agricultural clearing; hydrological changes also might be a threat to this species.
58368		conservation	eng	It occurs in Templer's Park and a number of forest reserves and watershed protection areas (Berry 1975; P. van Dijk pers. comm.; D. Iskandar pers. comm.), but no population appears to be entirely secure. Surveys of existing protected areas might be appropriate, as would improved protection measures to safeguard the ecological integrity of Templer's Park and the Gombak Valley in Malaysia and Lembah Anai Natural Reserve in Sumatra.
58368		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Trengganu and Pahang States in Peninsular Malaysia, from 200-900m asl (Dring 1979; Berry 1975; Y. Norsham pers. comm.). A population occurring in one tributary in western Sumatra, Indonesia, has been provisionally assigned to this species. Its reported occurrence on Tioman Island, Malaysia, was probably based on a misidentification (Leong Tzi Ming pers. comm.).
58368		habitat	eng	This species is known from muddy pools in rainforest near small streams and seepages in which it makes holes for breeding. It appears not to occur in disturbed areas.
58368		population	eng	In appropriate habitat in Malaysia this species is fairly common. In Sumatra it is considered to be rare.
58368		threats	eng	The most likely significant threats to this species are pollution, and extensive habitat degradation through clear cutting and conversion of forest to plantations.
58369		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Taman Negara National Park, and the Crocker Range. Expansion of effective protection of submontane and montane forests is essential.
58369		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Borneo in Sabah and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia), and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It possibly occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-2,000m asl.
58369		habitat	eng	It has been observed only along the banks of clear, rocky streams in montane forests. Larvae cling to rocks in the rapids of clear streams and feed on lithophytes.
58369		population	eng	It can be locally abundant.
58369		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging is a major threat to this species.
58370		conservation	eng	It is known only from Matang Forest Reserve, in Sarawak. Directed surveys in adjacent areas of suitable habitat are needed to determine whether or not the species ranges more widely.
58370		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Matang in western Sarawak (Malaysia), Borneo. The type locality is below 700m asl.
58370		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest and breeds along small, clear, rocky streams. Larvae cling to the rocks in rapids and probably feed on lithophytic algae.
58370		population	eng	It has been recorded as abundant at the type locality.
58370		threats	eng	The only known locality of this species is within a protected area, and its habitat is not currently threatened. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
58371		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park, Gunung Mulu and the Crocker Range.
58371		distribution	eng	This species is known only from mountainous areas of northern Borneo, in Sabah and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia), and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia), from 750-1,700 m asl.
58371		habitat	eng	It has been found only in submontane and montane forests, where it breeds in small, clear, rocky streams. The larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and probably feed on lithophytic algae. It does not adapt to modified habitats.
58371		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58371		threats	eng	The major threat to this species' habitat is clear-cutting.
58372		conservation	eng	Its habitat requires effective preservation, and its taxonomy also needs clarification.
58372		distribution	eng	This species has been reported only from Sungai Metallum, in Bintulu District, central Sarawak (Malaysia), Borneo, although it might occur more widely.
58372		habitat	eng	It is found in primary, hilly, lowland rainforest, where it breeds in streams.
58372		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58372		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is clear-cutting.
58373		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas. Continued effective protection of large areas of rainforest is needed.
58373		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northern Borneo, in Sabah and northeastern Sarawak (Malaysia) and northeastern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It occurs from 200-1,200m asl.
58373		habitat	eng	It occurs in hilly lowland rainforest, and slightly disturbed forest. Larvae cling to rocks in strong currents in clear, rocky streams in forests and feed on lithophytic plants.
58373		population	eng	It appears to be locally very abundant.
58373		threats	eng	Siltation of streams as a result of deforestation eliminates the larval feeding microhabitat of this species.
58374		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, but more effective protection of lowland rainforest is needed.
58374		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Sarawak and adjacent Kalimantan, Borneo, below 300m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
58374		habitat	eng	It lives in hilly lowland rainforest and breeds along small, clear, rocky streams. Larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.
58374		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58374		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.
58375		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and Betung-Kerikum National Park. More effective protection of large areas of rainforest is needed.
58375		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Sarawak (Malaysia) and central Kalimantan (Indonesia), Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58375		habitat	eng	It lives in hilly lowland rainforest and breeds along small, clear, rocky streams. Larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae.
58375		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58375		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.
58376		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Gunung Kinabalu, the Crocker Range and Kayanmantaran National Park.
58376		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western Sabah (Malaysia) and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia), Borneo, below 1,300m asl.
58376		habitat	eng	It has been found only in hilly rainforests. Breeding occurs in clear, rocky streams, and larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae.
58376		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58376		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.
58377		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation.
58377		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 200m asl.
58377		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species. It presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other species of <em>Micrixalus</em>.
58377		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the lost holotype.
58377		threats	eng	The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use (including coffee cultivation).
58378		conservation	eng	This species complex has been recorded from many protected areas and is protected by national legislation. Given that this is a species complex further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.
58378		distribution	eng	This is a species complex endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India, where it occurs from 200-1,000m asl.
58378		habitat	eng	This species complex is associated with hill streams and riparian habitats in moist tropical evergreen forest, and is commonly found at the forest edge, but not outside the forest. Breeding takes place in streams.
58378		population	eng	It is common.
58378		threats	eng	The major threats to its habitat are the conversion of forest to cultivated areas (including coffee and tea plantations), subsistence harvesting of wood and timber, modification of waterways (through dam construction), and infrastructure development.
58379		conservation	eng	Its range includes the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, and it is protected by national legislation. Further surveys are required to better determine the population status and range of this species.
58379		distribution	eng	This species is known from three sites: Ponmudi and Sabarigiri in Kerala, and Siruvani in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 300-750m asl.
58379		habitat	eng	This is a forest species associated with hill streams, riparian habitats and leaf-litter in moist tropical evergreen forest, and so far not known from modified habitats. It has aquatic larvae and breeds in streams.
58379		population	eng	It is locally uncommon.
58379		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is the loss of forest habitat through the localized harvesting of wood and timber for subsistence use. Siltation of streams resulting from deforestation is also a threat.
58380		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species and the limits of its distribution range. It is protected by national legislation.
58380		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality "Kottigehar, Kadur", and from a recently discovered population at Bhadrea, in Chicamangalore District, Karnataka, in the Western Ghats of India. The altitude of the type locality is not known, but it was most recently collected at an altitude of approximately 1,000m asl. It appears to have a very small distribution.
58380		habitat	eng	Presumably a forest species, it was recently collected close to a road and a stream. Like other members of the genus, it probably has aquatic larvae in streams.
58380		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58380		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is general habitat loss as a result of agriculture, including paddy fields and cash crops such as coconut and cashew.
58381		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation.
58381		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Kottigehar, Kadur" (Rao 1937), in Karnataka, in the Western Ghats in India.
58381		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species. It presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other members of its genus.
58381		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype which is now lost, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58381		threats	eng	Assuming this species still exists, it is likely to have been threatened by changes in land use, as the area where it was collected from has been completely deforested.
58382		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, and Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. It is included as part of ongoing field studies by Biju (1999 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.
58382		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, in India. The range map shows the distribution of specimens currently assigned to <em>M. nudis</em>; however, there is a need for further clarification of the range of this species. It has been collected at 800m asl.
58382		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with hill streams (but not in the streams) in moist tropical forests. It may be found in lightly degraded forest. Breeding takes place in streams by larval development.
58382		population	eng	It is a common species at the type locality and in the surrounding area (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).
58382		threats	eng	It is largely threatened by the clearance of forested land for agricultural use, and subsistence wood collection by local people within Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.
58383		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mukurthi National Park, and from Eravikulam National Park, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, in Tamil Nadu. The species is included as part of ongoing field studies by Biju (1998 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.
58383		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu), the Eravikulam National Park (in Kerala) and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu) in the southern Western Ghats of India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,400m asl.
58383		habitat	eng	It is associated with hill streams in moist tropical forests. It is found in areas of the forest floor with high humus levels. It is not present in modified habitats. Breeding takes place in streams by larval development.
58383		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
58383		threats	eng	It is mostly threatened by the clearance of forested land for agricultural use, and the subsistence harvesting of wood and timber by local people.
58384		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu), and Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka). The species is included as part of ongoing field studies by Addoor in Karnataka (1997 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.
58384		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 400-1,400 m asl.
58384		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky streams within moist evergreen tropical forest, and it can be found at forest edges and in slightly disturbed forest. Individuals are diurnal and are often found attached to vertical surfaces of wet rocks in fast flowing streams (<st1:place>Krishna</st1:place> and Krishna 2006).  Breeding takes place in streams by larval development.
58384		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species (<st1:place>Krishna</st1:place> and Krishna 2006).
58384		threats	eng	It is threatened by commercial deforestation (clear-cutting) of its forest habitat, the modification of waterways (through dam construction), and the construction of human settlements. It is possible that these threats, especially deforestation, have significantly increased levels of stream sedimentation.
58385		conservation	eng	Specimens attributed to this species have been recorded from Silent Valley National Park and Muthenge National Park, both in Kerala, and from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and it is protected by national legislation. It is included as part of ongoing studies by Biju (pers. comm.). Possible misidentifications of this species need to be resolved.
58385		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. Mapping of its distribution has included where specimens attributed to it have been recorded. However, there are considerable difficulties with misidentifications of this taxon, and therefore confirmation of the true <em>Micrixalus silvaticus</em> at these sites is required.
58385		habitat	eng	This species is associated with hill streams and riparian habitats in moist tropical evergreen forest. It has aquatic larvae that live in streams.
58385		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
58385		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58386		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation.
58386		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 200m asl.
58386		habitat	eng	It is presumed that this is a moist tropical forest species that presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other species of <em>Micrixalus</em>.
58386		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the lost holotype.
58386		threats	eng	The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use (including plantations).
58387		conservation	eng	It is only known from the well-protected Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, and it is also protected by national legislation. This species is subject to ongoing studies by Biju (pers. comm.).
58387		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Silent Valley National Park, in the Western Ghats in India at approximately 900m asl. It possibly occurs a little more widely.
58387		habitat	eng	It is associated with hill streams and riparian habitats in moist evergreen tropical forest. The type specimen was collected on the forest floor. This species presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other species of <em>Micrixalus</em>.
58387		population	eng	It is currently known only from two specimens.
58387		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58388		conservation	eng	Although protected by national legislation, it is not known from any protected areas and there is an urgent need for improved habitat protection. It was recently the subject of field studies by Biju (1996 -2001). Further research is required to investigate the breeding biology of this species.
58388		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Gundia in Karnataka, and Calicut and adjoining areas in Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. Other surveys in the vicinity of the two known sites have not revealed any additional populations. The altitudinal range of this lowland species is between 40 and 200m asl.
58388		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic, terrestrial species recorded from grassy areas adjacent to paddy fields, disturbed (open) moist tropical forest, stream banks and abandoned quarries. There is no information on the breeding biology or larval ecology of this species.
58388		population	eng	It is common where it occurs.
58388		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation as a result of the expansion of commercial, intensive agriculture is the major threat to the species.
58389		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in many protected areas. Measures are needed to regulate and ensure the proper use and disposal of pesticides and herbicides.
58389		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central, western and southern Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of 60-1,200m asl.
58389		habitat	eng	It is a largely aquatic species, found mostly in rocky cascades, on wet rock surfaces and under boulders, in lowland and sub-montane tropical moist forest. Tadpoles are found on wet rock surfaces. It may also be found in disturbed areas provided there is suitable aquatic habitat for breeding.
58389		population	eng	It is a common species.
58389		threats	eng	Water pollution due to agrochemicals, and the desiccation of habitats during periods of drought, are the main threats to this species.
58390		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58390		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka). It is not possible to produce a meaningful distribution map for the species.
58390		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat requirements of this species. It presumably bred on wet rock surfaces near streams, like other members of the genus.
58390		population	eng	Known only from the type series collected more than a 100 years ago. It has not been recorded since it was originally described. Recent and extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have been unable to relocate this frog, and it is now believed to be extinct.
58390		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction of this species are not known.
58391		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but improved protection and maintenance of existing habitat is needed.
58391		distribution	eng	This species, a Sri Lankan endemic, is restricted to the Knuckles Mountain range at 200-1,220m asl.
58391		habitat	eng	It is largely aquatic, and adults are found in crevices, under boulders, and on other flat, wet surfaces in rocky hill streams of montane forest. Tadpoles are found on wet rock surfaces.
58391		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species.
58391		threats	eng	The main threats to this species include habitat loss due to the grazing of livestock and disturbance by local tourism, and water pollution (agrochemicals) from tea and cardamom estates.
58392		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within the range of this species.
58392		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and eastern Xizang, China and the Tibetan Plateau of Nepal. It has recently been reported from Kashmir by Dutta (1997), but the distribution within this region requires clarification. It occurs at elevations between 2,850-5,000m asl.
58392		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-altitude grassland, forest, shrubs, lakes, ponds, marshes, streams and rivers in the Tibetan Plateau. It breeds explosively in suitable streams and marshes.
58392		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58392		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Overgrazing is potentially a threat, but is thought to have minimal impact.
58393		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within the range of this species. Chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a cause of the recent decline, and this should be investigated.
58393		distribution	eng	This species is known from Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan Provinces in China, from 3,300-4,500m asl. Specimens originally reported from Pakistan and the Kashmir region have been allocated to other taxa.
58393		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in alpine marshes, pools, ponds and streams in open high-altitude habitats.
58393		population	eng	It is thought to be quite common, although one population has undergone a decline over the past five years in apparently suitable habitat.
58393		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused by over-grazing by livestock. The reasons for the recent rapid decline of one population in an apparently suitable habitat are not known. Climate change might be a factor and can be considered a threat now and in the future.
58394		conservation	eng	A few protected areas are present within the range of this species, including the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve.
58394		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Yunnan province in China, from 3,120-4,100m asl.
58394		habitat	eng	It inhabits lakes, pools and ponds in alpine areas, occurring near streams and rivers in open, high-elevation habitats. It breeds in still-water pools and ponds.
58394		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
58394		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58395		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Kerala, and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. It is included as part of ongoing studies by Biju (1997-present) and Addoor (1997-present). It is protected by national legislation.
58395		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from the Ponmudi Hills, Athirimala and Wayanad in Kerala, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and Kudremukh National Park within the Western Ghats of India. Records from Kudremukh require further investigation to confirm that they belong to this species. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,000m asl.
58395		habitat	eng	It occurs in riparian habitats and hill streams in tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, and may also be present in slightly degraded habitats. There is little information on its breeding biology or larval development, though breeding presumably takes place by larval development in streams.
58395		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58395		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of forest habitat as a result of the harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes.
58396		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Periyar Tiger Reserve, Silent Valley National Park, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary, all in Kerala, and from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Ghandi National Park, both in Tamil Nadu. It is protected by national legislation.
58396		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern region of the Western Ghats in India at 400-1,800m asl.
58396		habitat	eng	It is associated with evergreen and semi-evergreen moist and deciduous forest, and is not found in agricultural areas. It is a semi-terrestrial frog that is largely found in the leaf-litter and also under rocks and logs. There is little information on its breeding biology, though breeding is presumably by larval development in streams.
58396		population	eng	The population is fragmented, and its status varies between localities.
58396		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is being cleared for conversion to agricultural land (including tea plantations), and it is being exploited for timber and wood by local people. The construction of dams is also threat.
58397		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, all in Kerala, and from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Indira Ghandi National Park, and Nilgiris State Forests all in Tamil Nadu, and from Kudremukh National Park and its surroundings in Karnataka. The species is included as part of ongoing studies by S.D. Biju. It is protected by national legislation.
58397		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern parts of the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 500-2,000m asl.
58397		habitat	eng	It occurs in riparian habitats and streams of tropical moist evergreen forest; it is not present in degraded areas. There is little information on breeding, though it presumably takes place by larval development in streams.
58397		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
58397		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of habitat following conversion to both non-timber (tea) and timber plantations (pine and eucalyptus), and exploitation for timber and wood by local people.
58398		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Koyna and Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuaries in Maharashtra State. It is protected by national legislation.
58398		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State in India. It has been recorded from Konya Valley, Bhimashankar, and Amboli. Records outside Maharashtra need further confirmation. It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,200m asl.
58398		habitat	eng	It occurs in torrential hill streams in riparian habitat of tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. It has also been collected from disturbed forest edge habitats. They are often found inhabiting crevices between rocks in the streams. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
58398		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
58398		threats	eng	The conversion of forest to agricultural areas, water pollution by agrochemicals, the siltation of streams resulting from deforestation, and the construction of roads and the development of tourism in the region, are all considered threats to this species.
58399		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation, and is included as part of ongoing field studies by Addoor (1997-present).
58399		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India in Karnataka State, where it is currently only known from Kudremukh National Park (though it might occur a little more widely). It is found at around 900m asl.
58399		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from torrential hill streams in riparian habitat in tropical evergreen forest, and is not known from disturbed habitats. The species inhabits caves beneath boulders in the riffle zone of water. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
58399		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58399		threats	eng	The Kudremukh National Park is threatened by mining activities, and the harvesting of wood and timber by the local people. The development of recreation activities in the area is also considered a threat.
58400		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation.
58400		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of the "Hills of Kempholey Ghats, Hassan, Mysore, S. India" (Rao 1937) in the southern Western Ghats of Karnataka State in India. It was collected at around 400m asl.
58400		habitat	eng	It was collected from under rocks close to waterfalls in tropical evergreen forest (Rao 1937). It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
58400		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58400		threats	eng	The habitat used by this species is generally threatened by the conversion of native forest to cultivated areas and the subsistence harvesting of wood and timber.
58401		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several protected areas throughout the Western Ghats. There is an urgent need for a taxonomic revision of this species, since it almost certainly represents a complex of several distinct and isolated forms. It is protected by national legislation.
58401		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from elevations up to 1,000m asl in Kerala.
58401		habitat	eng	It inhabits torrential streams in evergreen, moist deciduous forest. Although it may be found in forest edge, it does not occur in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.
58401		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, partly hindered by the large degree of intraspecific variation evident in this species.
58401		threats	eng	The conversion of forested land to agricultural use (including tea, coffee, and paddy fields), and the harvesting of wood and timber by local people are threats to this species. The construction of roads and the development of tourism in the region are leading to further loss and degradation of the species' habitat.
58402		conservation	eng	It has been reported from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, and is protected by national legislation.
58402		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern region of the Western Ghats of India, where it has been recorded from the Ponmudi Hills and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Kerala. Unpublished reports of this species outside Kerala require confirmation and hence are not mapped here, although it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,150m asl.
58402		habitat	eng	It is semi-aquatic and has been recorded from riparian habitats and hill streams in tropical moist evergreen forest; it may be found at the forest edge, but not in heavily cultivated land. There is little information on its breeding habitats, though breeding presumably takes place by larval development in streams.
58402		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58402		threats	eng	The major threat is the conversion of forest habitat to agricultural land and plantations (tea and coffee).
58403		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, although the other localities are apparently unprotected. It is included in national legislation.
58403		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from three locations: Kudremukh National Park, and Jog (Shimoga) and Kemphole Ghats, all in Karnataka, in the Western Ghats of India (though it may occur a little more widely). It has been collected at an elevation of 1,200m asl.
58403		habitat	eng	It is semi-aquatic and inhabits marshes within moist tropical forest (and is not present in very disturbed forest). There is little information available on the species' ecology or breeding habitats, though it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
58403		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
58403		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation as a result of logging, agriculture, and mining (in Kudremukh) is the major threat to this species.
58404		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation.
58404		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality of "Forests of Kempholey, Saklespur, Hassan, Mysore" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 400m asl.
58404		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It is possibly a forest species that presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
58404		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58404		threats	eng	The area from where this species was collected is threatened by agricultural development, road construction and the development of tourism facilities.
58405		conservation	eng	It is currently known only from the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and it is included in national legislation. There is a need for further survey work to determine whether the species might occur outside the type locality.
58405		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality within Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India, at an elevation of 700m asl.
58405		habitat	eng	The original collection took place in shallow water within disturbed tropical moist forest, close to a cardamom plantation. It is also believed to occur within undisturbed forest. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
58405		population	eng	It is a recently described frog that has only been recorded twice, and is reportedly not a common species (Ravichandran pers. comm.).
58405		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the cultivation of cardamom and tea in the buffer zone of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
58406		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas in Borneo, and the Sumatran specimens were collected in a protected area. The preservation of lowland tropical moist forest in Borneo is recommended as a conservation measure for this species.
58406		distribution	eng	This species has been found at many localities in north-western Borneo, from 65-1,200m asl. It was also recorded once in Lampung, Sumatra, but its distribution here is still questionable. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
58406		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species, most often seen in seepage areas in primary lowland rainforest. Larvae also develop in these thin films of water. This species appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.
58406		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58406		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.
58407		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Mouling, Aru, and Nameri National Parks and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58407		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-eastern India and Bhutan, although its distribution in Bhutan is not clear. It has also been recorded from Rangamati Hill-district in Bangladesh. Recent field studies indicate a wider distribution range than previously recorded in north-east India (A. Ohler pers. comm.). It is a lowland species that occurs below 400m asl.
58407		habitat	eng	It is associated with small, still waters and slow-moving waters in tropical moist forest. Reproduction takes place in small ponds and ditches.
58407		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species.
58407		threats	eng	Water pollution due to agrochemicals is the principal threat to this species, although habitat loss and degradation due to small-scale agriculture and wood collection is also a threat.
58408		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed at present for this widespread, abundant and adaptable species.
58408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
58408		habitat	eng	It lives in paddy fields and other disturbed habitats, and breeds in paddy fields and slow-moving streams.
58408		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58408		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
58409		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the conservation needs of this species.
58409		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Flores Island in the Lesser Sunda Islands, in Indonesia.
58409		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in swampy areas and perhaps paddy fields, but data to confirm this are lacking. It is likely to breed in water by larval development.
58409		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been a few recent records.
58409		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
58410		conservation	eng	In the Philippines, based on present information, no conservation measures are needed for this species in the immediate future. In Peninsular Southeast Asia it is widespread and confirmed from several protected areas (Kiew, 1987, Manthey and Grossmann, 1997) in Thailand and Malaysia, and no conservation action appears warranted at present. In Borneo the protection of lowland forests in Sabah and parts of Sarawak now provide stable habitats for this species.
58410		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peninsular Thailand including Phuket (Taylor, 1962, Frith, 1977), Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975, Dring, 1979, Kiew, 1987 and Manthey and Grossmann, 1997), Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992), Borneo, Pulau Bajau, Anambas Islands and Natuna Besar (Indonesia) and all the major islands in the Philippines. Records from mainland Southeast Asia (Viet Nam, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, monsoon Thailand) are attributed to Occidozyga martensii for this assessment. However taxonomic questions regarding this species might alter this distribution. It is not known from high altitudes (Dring, 1979).
58410		habitat	eng	In Peninsular Southeast Asia this species inhabits shallow muddy puddles and pools near small forest streams, and is occasionally found in gentle stream sections and is apparently purely aquatic. It is a species of the forest edge, but not a human commensal of strongly disturbed or dynamic areas. In the Philippines it is found in anthropogenic habitats in the lowlands and occasionally in undisturbed lower montane and lowland forests. In Borneo this species is most often seen in marshy areas, small puddles and small streams in lowland rainforest. Tadpoles have been seen most often in marshes on the peninsula and in any standing body of available water in the Philippines.
58410		population	eng	In Peninsular Southeast Asia this is generally a common to abundant species in appropriate habitat. In the Philippines it is also abundant and common.
58410		threats	eng	In the Philippines, available information indicates that this species is not subjected to any significant degree of disturbance, which could threaten its survival. In Peninsular Southeast Asia the species could potentially be threatened by major forest impacts, or canopy opening drying out the forest floor. In Borneo, deforestation, with the resultant restriction and fragmentation of habitat, is probably the main threat to this species.
58411		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58411		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species that is found in southern China (including Hong Kong), India (West Bengal) and much of Bangladesh, and throughout the lowland plains of Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam, northern Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra and Java in Indonesia (Bourret 1942, Taylor 1962, Berry 1975, Inger and Colwell 1977, Iskandar 1998, Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1998 and Stuart 1999). It occurs up to 750 m asl.
58411		habitat	eng	It inhabits grasslands, forest edges, dry forests and lowland wetlands with dense aquatic vegetation, including pools, ponds, marshes, shallow reservoir margins, ditches, paddy fields and slow-flowing creeks. It breeds in the same habitats.
58411		population	eng	It is abundant in appropriate habitat. In Hong Kong, the population has recently declined very quickly.
58411		threats	eng	There are no significant threats seriously impacting this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
58412		conservation	eng	Animals fitting the description and reputed range of magnapustulosus occur within adequately protected areas (Pha Taem National Park, Mae Yom National Park, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Kradung National Park). A thorough taxonomic re-evaluation of O. magnapustulosus is needed.
58412		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (A. Ohler pers. comm.) and is wholly within the range of O. martensii. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58412		habitat	eng	Animals fitting the description of magnapustulosus occur in seepages, puddles and other shallow waters along streams and rivers, where they also breed. It has also been recorded from disturbed habitats such as gardens.
58412		population	eng	Any population data on magnapustulosus, if a recognisable species, is drowned in the population data of the sympatric and abundant O. martensii.
58412		threats	eng	Water pollution might be a threat to this species.
58413		conservation	eng	The range of this species is known or expected to overlap with several protected areas. Maintaining existing protected areas will safeguard the species under present conditions. Taxonomic revision, in particular with regards to the possible synonymy of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. magnapustulosus</span>, is needed.
58413		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and is known from southern and southwestern China (Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan Provinces), from throughout Thailand (Taylor, 1962) including Phuket (Frith, 1977), Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), Cambodia (Bourret, 1941, Swan, pers comm. 2001), and Viet Nam (Bourret, 1941, Nguyen and Ho, 1996, as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynoglossus laevis</span>, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is also known from the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia (P. van Dijk pers. comm.). Surprisingly, it is not recorded from Myanmar, though it almost certainly occurs in the eastern hills. It is known from between 10-1,000m asl.
58413		habitat	eng	It primarily occurs in streamside puddles, seepages, lowland plains and other damp patches along streams and rivers, as well as rain puddles and small pools, in areas of forest on slight to moderate slopes, in areas of seasonal rainfall (Stuart, 1999, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Tadpoles apparently live largely buried in soft puddle substrate. It is not known from level lowland plains (where <span style="font-style: italic;">O. lima</span> occurs). In China it has also been recorded from paddy fields.
58413		population	eng	It is generally abundant in appropriate habitat.
58413		threats	eng	It is probably not threatened by anything less than the complete loss of forest cover.
58414		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Gunung Lombobatang Natural Reserve and Lore Lindu and Bogani-Nani-Wartbone National Parks.
58414		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western and northern parts of Sulawesi, in Indonesia. It ranges from 200-1,200m asl.
58414		habitat	eng	It lives in stony, highland streams in closed-canopy forest. It presumably breeds in streams.
58414		population	eng	It appears to be common in suitable habitat.
58414		threats	eng	Forest loss is taking place, which impacts on the species, but it is still widely distributed and relatively common.
58415		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58415		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely through Sumatra and Java, Indonesia, up to 700m asl. It is present on Sipura and Simeulue islands in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia.
58415		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist forest, where it is always close to water. It can survive in secondary forest, providing that it is not too seriously degraded. It breeds in puddles, ditches and slow-flowing streams.
58415		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58415		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of lowland forests.
58416		conservation	eng	Taxonomic reassessment of this species is needed.
58416		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type localities, Da Lat (Lam Dong Province, Lang Bian Plateau) and Thua Thien (Hue), in Viet Nam. These two type localities are so imprecisely known that they might be anything between a coastal lagoon to mountain areas over 1,500m asl.
58416		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58416		population	eng	This species has not been recorded again since it was first described.
58416		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58417		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas, although it is protected by national legislation in India. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Bordoloi in India in 2001 and by Shresthra in Nepal in 2001. Surveys are needed to determine more accurately its distribution (especially its probably occurrence in Bhutan), ecological requirements and conservation needs.
58417		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Nepa and from north-eastern India in West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh Provinces, between 1,500 and 3,000m asl. It is presumed to occur in Bhutan.
58417		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky streams and brooks in montane forests, and with pools in forest clearings. It needs moderate temperatures and high humidity. The tadpoles develop in streams.
58417		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58417		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat destruction as a result of localized deforestation and changes in waterway management (such as dam construction).
58418		conservation	eng	A few protected areas are present within the range of this species, including Hkakabo Razi National Park in Myanmar (which is the type locality), and Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve in China. Further herpetological surveys of northern Myanmar are needed to determine the range of this species in this country. Further research is also needed to resolve the confusion relating to the nomenclature and taxonomy of this species.
58418		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Pangnamdim, in northern Myanmar, which is 910m asl (Dubois 1975), and from adjacent Xizang Autonomous Region and north-western Yunnan Province, China, from 1,000-2,080m asl. It probably ranges slightly more widely, especially in Myanmar.
58418		habitat	eng	In China this species is known from medium and small streams in forested areas, and sometimes also from springs near paddy fields. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones. There is no information on its recorded habitat in Myanmar.
58418		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon in China. In Myanmar, it has not been collected again since the type series was collected in the 1930s. Results from recent surveys of the area are not yet available (G. Wogan pers. comm.).
58418		threats	eng	The main threat in Myanmar to this species and most of the species in its genus is local consumption. In China it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to agricultural development and the subsistence collection of wood.
58419		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Yadong National Nature Reserve in China. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58419		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Nepal to West Bengal, India and Yadong, in southern Xizang province, China. It probably ranges at least a little more widely, perhaps into Bhutan. It is present at elevations of 2,600-3,400m asl.
58419		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams and the surrounding grassland and temperate forest. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58419		population	eng	It is considered to be rare in China. There is no population information available for India and Nepal.
58419		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
58420		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, but many are in need of improved and strengthened management. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably.
58420		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southern China, and occurs from 300-1,900m asl.
58420		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and nearby ponds, and breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58420		population	eng	It is a very common species, although there has been an observed decline.
58420		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are over-exploitation for human consumption, habitat destruction and degradation (mainly due to wood collecting), and water pollution.
58421		conservation	eng	In Viet Nam this species is within Hoang Lien Son National Park, and in Thailand records are from Doi Pa Hom Pole National Park in Chiang Mai.
58421		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sa Pa region of northern Viet Nam (Dubois 1987) and Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (Khonsue and Thirakhupt 2001). It presumably occurs more widely, and can be expected to occur in eastern Myanmar, southern China, and northern Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has been recorded from 1,570-2,090m asl.
58421		habitat	eng	It inhabits small and large streams in montane forest and scrub vegetation. Specimens are usually found in or beside these streams, in which they breed.
58421		population	eng	It was observed to be common in suitable habitat in northern Viet Nam (Swan pers. comm.), although its population status in Thailand is not known.
58421		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agricultural development and infrastructure development for human settlements. Most of the species in the genus <em>Paa</em> are consumed locally to a varying degree within their range.
58422		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur within any protected areas.
58422		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mama, in Cona County, southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, and has been recorded from 2,900-3,400m asl. It might occur a little more widely, perhaps in neighbouring India and Bhutan.
58422		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams in forested and shrubby areas, and breeds in these streams, laying its eggs under stones.
58422		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58422		threats	eng	This species is known only from a remote area where there are few, if any, threats.
58423		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and Royal Chitwan National Park.
58423		distribution	eng	This species is known only from western Nepal, from 2,200-2,600m asl.
58423		habitat	eng	It is associated with stream habitats in upland temperate rainforests. There is little information on larval habitats, although it is presumed that larvae also occur in stream habitats.
58423		population	eng	It has a restricted range and is considered to be rare.
58423		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the degradation and destruction of its habitat as a result of small-scale agricultural development, and wood extraction.
58424		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in the region.
58424		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southern China and is found in Fujian, Hunan, Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, including Hong Kong. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from just above sea level to 1,400m asl.
58424		habitat	eng	It inhabits small, hill streams in forests or shrublands. It sometimes also occurs in seepages, stream-fed marshes, and forests. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58424		population	eng	It is a very common species, although it is believed to be in decline.
58424		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is over-collecting for human consumption, and habitat destruction and degradation.
58425		conservation	eng	Its known locality in Myanmar is just outside Hkakabo Razi National Park. Clarification of its taxonomic identity and the distribution of <em>Paa</em> frogs in the Himalayan foothills, eastern Myanmar and China, is also necessary to aid this species' conservation.
58425		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from the Kakhien Hills of eastern Myanmar. There is an old record from western Yunnan Province, China, but there are insufficient details to enable it to be included in attempts to map this species' range. A record from northern Myanmar (Smith 1940) refers to <em>Paa arnoldi</em>.
58425		habitat	eng	This species probably inhabits, and breeds in, hill streams in forested areas.
58425		population	eng	This species' population status is not known. It has not been recorded in Myanmar since it was discovered over a century ago, and results from recent surveys of the area are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.). There is no population status information available for China.
58425		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
58426		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur within any protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58426		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few sites in the fast flowing streams of Rush Valley in Hazara Division, North West Frontier, Pakistan and in Jammu and Kashmir. It might also occur in Nepal and Bhutan although further surveys are needed to confirm this. It has been recorded from elevations of 1,200-1,500m asl.
58426		habitat	eng	It is associated with torrential streams and nearby pools, and also frequents quieter and clear water pools in the beds of torrents or waterfalls. It feeds on water-visiting insects. It breeds in torrent pools from March to May. The call is low-pitched, and is barely heard away from the torrent. Large eggs are laid singly and are enclosed in a double jelly capsule. The tadpoles live in fast-moving aquatic habitats, and feed on algal growths on the surface of submerged stones. During the rainy season, to avoid the fast flow of water, the tadpoles either migrate into crevices under stones where the force of the flow is at a minimum, or hold on to the surface of rocks with the oral disc which acts as an effective sucker giving them a very firm hold. The species is not able to adapt to disturbed habitats.
58426		population	eng	The population is considered to be stable at present.
58426		threats	eng	Prolonged drought is the only known threat to this species. Its habitat is not currently under threat.
58427		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes three small sub-national protected areas: Ruoliaojian, Daiyunshan, and Jiulongshan.
58427		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces in central China, and occurs above 800m asl.
58427		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams in forests, and breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58427		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58427		threats	eng	Over-collecting for human consumption is a major threat to this species. Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to logging and infrastructure development, is also a threat.
58428		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is covered by the Yadong National Nature Reserve in China. In India it is known from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh State. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Shrestra (2001). It is protected by national legislation in India.
58428		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of Nepal, Bhutan, and northern India and is also present in southern Xizang province (Yadong and Nielamu) in China. It has been recorded at elevations of 1,500-3,500m asl.
58428		habitat	eng	It is associated with streams in high-altitude shrubland. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58428		population	eng	It is reported to be a common species in South Asia, but is considered rare in China.
58428		threats	eng	Some decrease in available habitat due to the localized clearance of shrubland is occurring within the species' range. It is also threatened by changes in waterway management, for example dam construction.
58429		conservation	eng	The location in Yunnan is in the Lugu Lake Nature Reserve.
58429		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Ninglang, Jingdong and Shuangbai counties, in Yunnan, Yanyuan, and Sichuan provinces in China. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs from 2,100-2,650m asl.
58429		habitat	eng	It inhabits the quiet shores of lakes, and small islands in the lakes. Breeding takes place in the lakes, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58429		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58429		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is the negative impact of tourism on the habitat around the lakes in which this species occurs. It is also subject to over-harvesting for food.
58430		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserves. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably.
58430		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Yunnan Province (Jingdong and Shuangbai Counties) in China, and occurs from 1,800-2,600m asl.
58430		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in forest streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58430		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58430		threats	eng	The major threat is overharvesting by the local people for food.
58431		conservation	eng	Its type locality is probably within Motuo National Nature Reserve.
58431		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Medog, in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, where it has been recorded from 1,000-1,100m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, perhaps ranging into neighbouring India.
58431		habitat	eng	It inhabits forested streams, and sometimes also occurs at the edges of pools and ponds. It breeds in streams and the eggs are laid in water under stones.
58431		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
58431		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.
58432		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas, though there are several within its range. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58432		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Nepal and northern India (Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal). It is present at elevations of 1,000-2,400m asl.
58432		habitat	eng	It is associated with montane subtropical forests and streams. Breeding takes place in streams; however, there is no information available on larval ecology.
58432		population	eng	It is reportedly a fairly common species.
58432		threats	eng	Loss of available habitat through the localized clearance of forest is a major threat. It is also threatened by changes in waterway management, for example, following dam construction.
58433		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation.
58433		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality of Mokokchung (26° 20'N; 94° 30'E), in Nagaland, north-east India, at 1200m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.
58433		habitat	eng	It is believed to occur in stream habitats, in which it presumably breeds, in upland tropical forests.
58433		population	eng	There is very little information regarding its population status. Recent herpetological surveys in Nagaland have not located a second population.
58433		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58434		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Lantang National Park in Nepal.
58434		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Nepal at elevations of 2,600-3,900m asl, and also in Nielamu County in Xizang province, China around 3,400m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely, perhaps ranging into India and Bhutan.
58434		habitat	eng	It is associated with stream habitats in montane forest. It breeds in streams and the eggs are laid in water under stones.
58434		population	eng	In Nepal it is fairly common at higher elevations, however in China it is considered very rare.
58434		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present.
58435		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Rara National Park, and possibly also within Royal Chitwan National Park. It has recently been studied by Shrestha (2001).
58435		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Lake Rara in Nepal, at 3,000m asl. Reports from Royal Chitwan National Park (Schleich 1993) require confirmation.
58435		habitat	eng	There is little information known regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is known to occur in Lake Rara, and also to be associated with tropical montane forest.
58435		population	eng	There is no information available on population numbers or trends.
58435		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
58436		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Changling Nature Reserve. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably.
58436		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Hejiang County, in south-eastern Sichuan Province, China, from 650-1,500m asl.
58436		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and surrounding riparian habitat. Breeding takes place in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.
58436		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58436		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is over-harvesting for human consumption.
58437		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Royal Chitwan National Park.
58437		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nepal. It is known from Lac-Kutsab-Terna Tal (the type locality) and Royal Chitwan National Park. It has been recorded at elevations between 2,500 and 3,500m asl.
58437		habitat	eng	It is associated with high-altitude streams, springs, and other running waterbodies within forest and grassland habitats. There is no information available on larval habitat and ecology.
58437		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a rare species.
58437		threats	eng	The main threat is loss of habitat due to subsistence wood collecting.
58438		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in the region.
58438		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central China and is known from Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan and Guangxi provinces. It has been recorded from 510-1,500m asl.
58438		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in streams in forested regions; the eggs are laid in water under stones.
58438		population	eng	This species is currently believed to be in decline.
58438		threats	eng	Over-collecting for human consumption is a threat to this species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, in particular dam construction and logging.
58439		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in China. One location in Viet Nam is within Tay Con Linh II Nature Reserve. Harvest management or cessation, and the safeguarding of suitable habitat are priorities for the conservation of this species. Clarification of the taxonomic identity and the distribution of <em>Paa</em> frogs in this region are necessary.
58439		distribution	eng	This species is found in central, south-western and southern China, including Hong Kong. Its range in Viet Nam is difficult to define since many older records of <em>P. spinosa</em> probably refer to other <em>Paa</em> taxa, including <em>P. verrucospina</em> and <em>P. yunnanensis</em>. Bourret (1942:291) stated that he encountered <em>P. spinosa</em> only from Mao Son and Bac-Kan. It has been recorded from 200-1,500m asl.
58439		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in rocky streams in evergreen forest and open countryside on hills and mountains. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are laid in water under stones.
58439		population	eng	This species is believed to have undergone a dramatic decline in China. Bourret (1942) encountered rather large numbers in Mao Son, but also noted intensive collection. It was recorded to be common in Ha Giang Province, Viet Nam (R. Bain pers. comm.).
58439		threats	eng	It has been collected for consumption throughout its range for many decades and such harvesting still continues; even in the 1930s it was traded from Mao Son as far as Hanoi (Bourret 1942). It is presumably also impacted by extensive habitat degradation, due to agriculture and the construction of dams (the latter involving changes in hydrology).
58440		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Hazar Ganji protected area in Pakistan.
58440		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan (especially around Quetta and Mastung). This species might occur in India, further confirmation is required. It is reported at altitudes of 1,800-2,000m asl in Afghanistan (Kullmann 1974).
58440		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species, it inhabits clear pools with flowing stream (karez) water. When disturbed it jumps into the depths of the water and hides under gravel at the bottom or under dense marginal vegetation and thick floating algal cover. The frog never leaves the water; even in freezing winter when the upper water surface is frozen, it remains sluggishly active beneath in the unfrozen water. In summer it usually sits in the marginal vegetation or under undercut rocks along sides of streams (Khan and Ahmed 1987). Reproductive activity in this species is at its peak from April to June. Males call from the margin of flowing water at sunset. The call is a low-pitched melodious "Taroon, taroon, taroon" uttered three to four times rapidly. One has to wait for 5-10 minutes to hear the next outburst of calls. The eggs are large (2.6-3 mm) and laid in groups enclosed in jelly coats, which soon are attached to the submerged vegetation. Abortive interspecific amplectic pairing is common between Paa sternosignata and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Khan and Ahmed 1987). The frog feeds on insects, crabs, small fishes, dragonflies, and a host of other water-visiting arthropods. The tadpole feeds on algal vegetation. This is a specialized amphibian that does not occur in modified habitats.
58440		population	eng	It is a generally common species.
58440		threats	eng	In Pakistan the species is threatened by aquatic pollution from agrochemicals and washing detergents; it might also be threatened by over harvesting for science research in schools and colleges. There are no known threats to the species in Afghanistan.
58441		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. The type locality is not within a protected area.
58441		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality on Taihang Mountain, near Jiyuan city, in Henan Province, central China, where it has been recorded from 728-1,230m asl. The limits of its distribution are not yet known.
58441		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams, in which it probably breeds, and the surrounding hill forest.
58441		population	eng	There is only one known population and it seems to be a rare species.
58441		threats	eng	Threats to this newly described species are not yet known.
58442		conservation	eng	Significant areas of appropriate habitat appear to be covered by the collective protected areas of Viet Nam and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, but harvesting is still a problem in these areas (BirdLife International 2001), and so needs to be managed more sustainably. Clarification of the taxonomic identity and the distribution of <em>Paa</em> frogs in this region is also necessary.
58442		distribution	eng	Allowing for the uncertainty associated with the attribution of various <em>Paa</em> populations to various names, this appears to be a taxon ranging from south of the Chinese border through the Annamite Mountains to southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bourret 1942; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999; Ohler et. al. 2000; B. Stuart pers. comm.), and has been recorded from 500-1,700m asl.
58442		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in and around streams, in which it breeds, in hill and lower montane evergreen forest.
58442		population	eng	It is thought to be common throughout most of its range.
58442		threats	eng	The major threat is collection for consumption, and presumably also degradation of forest habitat and stream sedimentation, as a result of logging.
58443		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58443		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northern Pakistan and northwestern India. It is a high-altitude species found at elevations of 2,000-3,000m asl.
58443		habitat	eng	It is associated with high-altitude streams, springs, fountains and other running water within open forest and grassland habitats. There is little information available on larval habitat or ecology.
58443		population	eng	It is regarded as uncommon, but not rare.
58443		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known, but its habitat is reasonably secure.
58444		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Jingangshan Nature Reserve, but this needs to be confirmed. It is important to carry out surveys to determine the distribution, threats and conservation needs of this very distinctive species.
58444		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality near Jiyuan city, in Shengcheng County, Henan Province, China, where it was collected at an altitude of 424m asl. As details of the only collection site were not provided in the original description, the distribution map is approximate. The species might occur more widely.
58444		habitat	eng	It lives in streams, in which it probably breeds, and in the surrounding forest areas.
58444		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. Only one small population has so far been found.
58444		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, the area in which it occurs has in the bast been impacted by clear-felling of forest, and selective logging still continues.
58445		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in China. The two localities in Viet Nam are within Hoang Lien Son National Park and Tam Dao National Park. Studies of the intensity of harvesting of this species are required, and there is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of populations in Southeast Asia, and there is also a need for further taxonomic work to clarify the taxonomic status of frogs in the genus present in mainland Southeast Asia and the Himalayan foothills.
58445		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western and central China in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan and possibly also Hubei Provinces. The only reasonably reliable records from mainland Southeast Asia are from Sa Pa (Bourret 1942, as <em>Rana yunnanensis</em> and <em>R. phrynoides</em>). Records from the Kakhien Hills of Myanmar may be a consequence of Bourret (1942) considering <em>Paa feae</em> a synonym. However, <em>P. yunnanensis</em> is recorded from most of Yunnan Province adjoining eastern Myanmar (Fei and Ye 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. In China it is known from elevations of 1,500-2,950m asl, and in Viet Nam from 800-1,000m asl (Bourret 1942).
58445		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from rocky streams in high mountains in closed-canopy forest and grassland, and has also been found in ditches. The eggs are laid under stones in streams.
58445		population	eng	Although there are no available data on the population status of Southeast Asian populations, in China it is a common species (though it has declined significantly).
58445		threats	eng	Over-collecting for human consumption is the major threat to this species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation (caused by agricultural expansion), and water pollution.
58446		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Given the increasing rate of forest loss within the Solomon Islands, especially at lower elevations, there is a definite need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.
58446		distribution	eng	This species is known from several large islands in the Solomon archipelago, including Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea. Recent studies (S. Richards, unpubl.) suggest that this species might have a wide distribution in the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from 700-1,500m asl on Bougainville, but in the Solomons it has been recorded only up to 250m asl.
58446		habitat	eng	It is found on low vegetation and trees in tropical rainforest, and also in good quality secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.
58446		population	eng	It is a very uncommon species.
58446		threats	eng	Logging might be impacting some populations, particularly in the Solomons.
58447		conservation	eng	Its distribution on islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago needs to be documented, in addition to the impacts of logging needing to be assessed.
58447		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bougainville Island in Papua New Guinea, and has also recently been recorded from Choiseul and Isabel Islands in the Solomon Islands (Richards pers. comm.). It has been found at 700-1,500m asl on Bougainville, and at 100-200m asl, possibly higher, on Choiseul and Isabel.
58447		habitat	eng	On Choiseul and Isabel, this species is active at night on the floor in tropical rainforest. On Bougainville, it lives on cliffs in steep mountains, and in cracks and fissures in the ground. It is a species that breeds by direct development, laying its eggs in fissures.
58447		population	eng	It is rare on Choiseul and Isabel, and very uncommon and hard to find on Bougainville.
58447		threats	eng	Logging has possibly impacted some populations.
58448		conservation	eng	The distribution of the species on islands in the Solomon's Archipelago needs to be documented and the impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
58448		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea and Choiseul and Isabel Islands, Solomon Islands. It has been recorded up to 500m asl.
58448		habitat	eng	This species occurs in leaf-litter on the forest floor in lowland rainforest. It is apparently also able to persist in regrowth forest (S. Richards pers. obs). It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs on the ground.
58448		population	eng	This species was abundant on Choiseul and Isabel Islands during May 2000 (S. Richards pers. obs.), but was not considered common on Bougainville Island. It is likely a common species, and probably numbers in the millions.
58448		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be threatened, but logging will probably impact some populations.
58449		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed to assess the population status, distribution and habitat requirements of this species.
58449		distribution	eng	This species is known from three regions of New Britain, Papua New Guinea: the Whiteman, Range; the Nakanai Mountains; and the Baining Mountains (Kraus and Allison, 2007). It has been recorded from sea-level up to 865m asl.
58449		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and advanced secondary rainforest, but has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Animals are typically found while calling hidden in burrows under limestone rocks, crevices in such rocks, or under leaves, but they can also found wandering on the forest floor during the day (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Males call from within leaf-litter on the forest floor in lowland and foothill rainforest (Kraus and Allison, 2007). It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58449		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
58449		threats	eng	It is believed to be threatened by the extensive logging currently taking place on New Britain, as the species does not adapt well to seriously modified habitats.
58450		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58450		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Batanta and Waigeo Islands off the western coast of Papua, Indonesia. Recent records from Yapen and Gag Islands require confirmation.
58450		habitat	eng	It is presumably a lowland forest species. The animals from Gag Island were found in a sago swamp; those from Yapen Island were in hilly forest. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58450		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58450		threats	eng	This species is threatened on Waigeo Island by logging.
58451		conservation	eng	Its range includes Wandamen Nature Reserve.
58451		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Wondiwoi Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, from 400-800m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
58451		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary rainforest and breeds by direct development. The males call from the forest floor, and its eggs are also laid on the ground.
58451		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
58451		threats	eng	Some populations of this species might be threatened by selective logging.
58452		conservation	eng	The impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in some.
58452		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Its distribution on New Britain is poorly documented. It occurs up to 400m asl, probably higher.
58452		habitat	eng	The adults occur on the floor of lowland and foothill rainforest, and juveniles climb up to 1m above ground on low vegetation. It is a direct developing species that lays its eggs on the ground. It also occurs in agricultural areas.
58452		population	eng	It is a low-density species. It was last recorded in 2000, but there have been very few records.
58452		threats	eng	Serious logging might be a threat to this species, but further research into the effects of logging is required.
58453		conservation	eng	Additional data on the Extent of Occurrence of this species are urgently required. It is not known from any protected areas.
58453		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Weitin Valley, southern New Ireland, and from the Wanui area, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea. It might have a broader distribution on these islands (and on other islands). It has been recorded from 100-1,300m asl.
58453		habitat	eng	This species is found under litter in lowland and foothill rainforest and in heavily disturbed rainforest vegetation and rural gardens. Males call from elevated perches at night. It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs on the ground.
58453		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58453		threats	eng	There are no known threats, and it appears able to withstand selective logging, although clear felling might be a threat.
58454		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in the Bawa River Watershed Forest Reserve (and Palaui Island is a marine reserve), but there is clearly a need for further protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests, especially adjacent to protected forested parks.
58454		distribution	eng	This species is known thus far from several localities along the north coast of Luzon Island and on Palaui Island, in the Philippines, at elevations from sea level up to perhaps 200m asl.
58454		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, occasionally being found in human-controlled environments beside the forest. It breeds by direct development, and is presumed to breed and nest in the leaf-litter of the forest.
58454		population	eng	It is known to be common to very common.
58454		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and logging of the lowland rainforest (which is the primary habitat of this species).
58455		conservation	eng	Its range includes Cyclops Mountains Nature Reserve.
58455		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Cyclops Mountains in north-eastern Papua, Indonesia.
58455		habitat	eng	This species is probably restricted to hilly tropical rainforests. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58455		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It has not been recorded for many years, and recent surveys of the foothills of the Cyclops Mountains found no individuals.
58455		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Most of the Cyclops Mountains are included in a protected area, but fires and illegal removal of vegetation are encroaching on this habitat.
58456		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. The protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests is recommended.
58456		distribution	eng	This species is known from the rainforests of Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte, Samar, Siquijor, Bohol, Cebu, Negros, Panay, and Mindanao in the Philippines.
58456		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, and is occasionally found in anthropogenic habitats beside the forest. It breeds and lays its eggs in leaf-litter, and it breeds by direct development.
58456		population	eng	It is a common to very common species.
58456		threats	eng	This is one of the most common forest species in the Philippines; however, some populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, especially of the lowland rainforest.
58457		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58457		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas northeast of the "birds-neck" in Papua, Indonesia: about 100-120km southeast of Nabire; and around Siewa, about 80km north-east of the first site. Its altitudinal range is 80-700m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
58457		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed primary forest, secondary forest and small-scale subsistence farms around villages. It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs on the ground.
58457		population	eng	It is exceptionally abundant around Siewa, and is also abundant in its type locality.
58457		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable.
58458		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. The protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests is recommended.
58458		distribution	eng	This species is known from the rainforests of western and southern Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes, Tablas, Romblon, Marinduque, Cebu, Negros, and Panay in the Philippines.
58458		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, and is occasionally found in human-controlled environments beside the forest. It breeds and breeds by direct development in the leaf-litter of the forest.
58458		population	eng	It is often a common to very common species.
58458		threats	eng	This is one of the most common forest species in the Philippines; however, some populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, especially of the lowland rainforest.
58459		conservation	eng	Surveys are needs to clarify the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements and conservations needs of this species. It is not known from any protected areas.
58459		distribution	eng	This species is known only from New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea. It is probably a foothill species, but this is not entirely clear, and more work is needed to clarify its distribution.
58459		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs in rainforest habitats. It is not known whewther or not it can tolerate disturbance to its habitat. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.
58459		population	eng	Little information is available regarding its population status.
58459		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species, but very extensive logging is taking place within its range.
58460		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo Natural Park. The designation of the remaining rainforests on the islands of Mindanao, Leyte, Bohol, and Dinagat as protected areas is needed.
58460		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of Bohol, Leyte, Biliran, Maripipi, Dinagat, Panglao, and Mindanao Islands in the Philippines, from sea level to 700m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58460		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests; it also survives in disturbed habitats adjacent to forested areas. It breeds by direct development and is believed to deposit its eggs in leaf axils, epiphytes, and aerial ferns.
58460		population	eng	It is common to very common in humid forest.
58460		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of habitat due to shifting agriculture and the logging of lowland rainforest.
58461		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58461		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Solomon Islands from Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) in the north to at least Malaita in the south. It ranges up to 700m asl.
58461		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed-canopy rainforest and old regrowth forest. These frogs live in the trees, between about 2m and 20m above the ground. It is a species that breeds by direct development that lays its eggs in trees.
58461		population	eng	It is a very common and abundant species.
58461		threats	eng	It might be threatened by logging. However, the observation that this species can persist in regrowth forest suggests that it might be resilient to a degree of habitat disturbance.
58462		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.
58462		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mid-montane rainforests (600-1,400m asl) of Mount Banahaw, on southern Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
58462		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum and herb layer vegetation in mossy and montane rainforest. It lays its eggs in terrestrial nests and breeds by direct development.
58462		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
58462		threats	eng	It is currently known to occur in a generally well-protected locality on Luzon Island, and existing threats (shifting agriculture and logging) are not presently significant.
58463		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure needed at present is the designation of the remaining rainforests of the islands of Romblon and Tablas as protected areas. The population on Sibuyan Island is generally well protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species on the three islands.
58463		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of Romblon, Tablas, and Sibuyan Islands in the Philippines at elevations between 800 and 1,200 m asl.
58463		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and breeds by direct development.
58463		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species.
58463		threats	eng	The populations on the smaller islands of Tablas and Romblon are particularly threatened by continuing habitat loss due to small-scale logging and conversion of lowland rainforest to agricultural land.
58464		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in four generally well-protected localities on Luzon Island, and so the most important conservation measure is the continued designation of three of these (Mount Banahaw, Mount Makiling and Mount Bulusan) as protected areas. This species is also very common on Mount Malinao, which is not a formally protected area.
58464		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of south-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines, at around 600m asl.
58464		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, where it deposits its eggs (which undergo direct development) in tree holes, pandans and tree ferns. This species also lives in disturbed, secondary habitats.
58464		population	eng	It is common in forested areas and disturbed areas adjacent to forests.
58464		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened due to shifting agriculture and logging, but not to a significant degree at present.
58465		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be more fully documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58465		distribution	eng	This species is known only from mountains in the Aresi area near Kunua, on Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, at 700-1,000m asl. It might possibly occur more widely in the Solomon Islands.
58465		habitat	eng	It is found on steep mountain slopes in dense forest and along streams, but not on ridge tops. It breeds by direct development, laying its eggs on the ground.
58465		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58465		threats	eng	There are probably no threats to this species at present.
58466		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and current population status of the species need to be documented. It is not known from a protected area.
58466		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Ti, in the Nakanai Mountains in West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, at around 900m asl.
58466		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforest on low vegetation, and breeds by direct development, laying its eggs in trees.
58466		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It was last recorded in 1999 and is known only from three specimens.
58466		threats	eng	It is not clear whether or not there are any threats to it. There is a large amount of logging occurring on New Britain Island, but it is uncertain whether or not it is occurring within the range of this species.
58467		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species on New Britain needs to be documented, and the impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
58467		distribution	eng	This species is known from New Ireland Island and from New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea. It might be widespread on New Britain. It occurs up to 1,200 m asl.
58467		habitat	eng	On New Ireland, this species was found in rural gardens and plantations at night and in caves during the day. On New Britain, this species was found in primary rainforest and in disturbed forest adjacent to small rural gardens, and also in streams and wet gulleys. Here, it was found on the forest floor or on logs, 20–50 cm high (  Foufopoulos<span class="A1"> and Richards<span class="A1"> 2007). It presumably breeds by direct development.</span>
58467		population	eng	The population in New Britain appears to be common. It is more common at lower altitudes.
58467		threats	eng	No threats are known to this species, although logging might impact on some populations.
58468		conservation	eng	Additional data on distribution and habitat requirements are needed. It is not known to occur in any protected area.
58468		distribution	eng	This species is known from localities across much of New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea.
58468		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from plantations, indicating perhaps some degree of tolerance to habitat modification, where it was calling from beneath coconut husks and leaves. It presumably also occurs in rainforest.
58468		population	eng	The population status is unknown. It is not known whether or not it has been collected since it was first described.
58468		threats	eng	None known.
58469		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in several well-protected areas on Luzon Island, including Mount Makiling National Park.
58469		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Makiling and its immediate vicinity, on southern Luzon Island, in the Philippines, at around 400m asl.
58469		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, and is occasionally found in anthropogenic habitats beside the forest. It deposits its eggs in leaf-litter nests and breeds by direct development.
58469		population	eng	It is common to very common in forest and disturbed areas.
58469		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened due to shifting agriculture and logging, but not to a significant degree at present.
58470		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.
58470		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Banahaw, on Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
58470		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It deposits its eggs in shrub layer vegetation, in tree ferns, aerial ferns, and pandanus. It breeds by direct development.
58470		population	eng	It is very common above 800m asl on Mount Banahaw, and populations appear to be stable.
58470		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present since it occurs in the high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less subjected to deforestation and other human disturbance. However, its restricted range makes it vulnerable to these threatening processes.
58471		conservation	eng	The species' distribution on other islands (if present) and on Bougainville needs to be documented. The species' habitat preferences and population status also need to be assessed. It is not known to occur within any protected area.
58471		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded between 700 and 1,500m asl.
58471		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial inhabitant of rainforest, which breeds by direct development. As its known range is within a pristine area, its adaptability to degraded habitats is unknown.
58471		population	eng	It is a very uncommon species that is difficult to find.
58471		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and it is at a high enough altitude that logging is unlikely to be a threat.
58472		conservation	eng	Its Extent of Occurrence needs to be documented further and the impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.
58472		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bougainville Island, North Solomons Province, Papua New Guinea and has recently been found on Choiseul and Isabel Islands, Solomon Islands (Richards, unpublished data). It has been recorded up to 1,000m asl.
58472		habitat	eng	This species is found in trees about 2-10m above ground in lowland tropical rainforest or old regrowth forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs in trees.
58472		population	eng	This species is common where it occurs.
58472		threats	eng	None are known, but some populations might be impacted by logging.
58473		conservation	eng	The distribution, habitat requirements and current population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58473		distribution	eng	This species is known only from New Britain, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from three locations (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006): St. Paul in the Baining Mountains, Gazelle Peninsula, East New Britain Province, at 100–400m asl;  the ridge between the Ivule and Sigole Rivers, in the Nakanai Mountains, West New Britain Province, at 900–1,200m asl; and Wanui Camp, Wanui River Valley (near Wide Bay), East New Britain Province, at 310m asl. It probably occurs more widely on New Britain in montane areas.
58473		habitat	eng	This species has been found in primary rainforest, and in disturbed habitat and regrowth forest. Males typically perch 3–5 m above the ground on leaves or thin twigs and branches of understory forest trees (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). Across the local landscape in the Nakanai Mountain, calling <em>P. nexipus</em> were more common in<br/>deep ravines and cloud-shrouded valleys (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in trees.
58473		population	eng	In the Nakanai Mountains calling males were subjectively classified as ‘‘widely spaced,’’ with as much as 200m of forest between vocalizing individuals (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006), suggesting that is might be a low-density species.
58473		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, but very serious logging is taking place on New Britain Island, and this might impact some populations.
58474		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.
58474		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Sangihe, Talaud, Seram, Halmahera, Ambon, Sula, Banggai and is widespread throughout the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, and across northern mainland New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and on several major islands off the north and west coasts of New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). It is a lowland species, occurring below 1,200m asl.
58474		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of habitats, from closed forest to secondary regrowth, gardens and other heavily disturbed habitats. It can survive in brackish water. It breeds by direct-development, laying its eggs on the ground, and so is not dependent upon water.
58474		population	eng	It is an exceptionally abundant species through most of its range.
58474		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58475		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
58475		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern end of Bougainville Island and from Buka Island, North Solomons Province, Papua New Guinea. It occurs below 100m asl, but only on uplifted coral. It certainly does not occur further south in Bougainville due to the lack of uplifted coral landscapes.
58475		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in lowland rainforest and regrowth forest, rural gardens, villages, and other anthropogenic habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.
58475		population	eng	Its abundance is very hard to determine, since it is a diminutive species and very hard to find.
58475		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, but might be at risk from stochastic threatening processes, owing to its very small distribution.
58476		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Seventy Islands Reserve, and in a proposed reserve on Babeldaop.
58476		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Palau Archipelago, except in the Southwest Islands, from the Kayangel Atoll in the north, south to Angaur in the south, Republic of Palau.
58476		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in all kinds of habitats, including pandan savannah, forest, agricultural areas, and urban areas. It is found even on tiny, rocky islands, and on the edges of mangrove swamps, and it might be somewhat tolerant of saline conditions. Females congregate in very large numbers in natural caves, and in old bunkers (both concrete and dug-out bunkers) left from the Second World War. It breeds by direct development, though the nests are very hard to find.
58476		population	eng	It is very abundant.
58476		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
58477		conservation	eng	The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.
58477		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Banahaw and Mount San Cristobal, on Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It ranges from 1,350-1,500m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).
58477		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development with breeding presumably taking place in leaf-litter and eggs laid in terrestrial nests.
58477		population	eng	It is characterized as uncommon at the type locality, but its population is apparently stable.
58477		threats	eng	This species is not likely to be threatened at present since it occurs in the middle- to high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less subjected to deforestation and other human disturbances. However, its restricted range makes it more vulnerable to these threatening processes.
58478		conservation	eng	Additional data on the Extent of Occurrence and abundance of this species are required. The range of the species includes Wandamen Nature Reserve and Batanta Nature Reserve.
58478		distribution	eng	This species is known from Batanta and Waigeo Islands and the Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, and southeast of Nabire, and the Fakfak Mountains of Papua, Indonesia. It has been recorded up to 600m asl.
58478		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rainforest, and is usually found near streams (Günther, 1999). It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from degraded habitat.
58478		population	eng	It is not a common species.
58478		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species overall. There is some logging, taking place on Waigeu Island.
58479		conservation	eng	The Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. There are no confirmed records from protected areas.
58479		distribution	eng	This species is known only from New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea, where its distribution is poorly documented.
58479		habitat	eng	Its habitat is unknown, but it is presumably found in lowland and foothill rainforest. Reproduction is by direct development.
58479		population	eng	The population is unknown.
58479		threats	eng	Logging is potentially a threat to this species.
58480		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, though this is not confirmed.
58480		distribution	eng	This species occurs on New Britain and New Ireland, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. Reports from Manus Island, in the Admiralty Archipelago, seem to represent a different, undescribed species. It is presumably a low altitude species.
58480		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rainforest, disturbed forest, plantations and gardens. They are often associated with coconut husk piles. It breeds by direct development.
58480		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58480		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that appears not to be threatened.
58481		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Aurora National Park, but there remains a need for improved protection of the remaining forests in the Sierra Madres.
58481		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sierra Madres, on north-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines, at 600-1,200m asl.
58481		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. Breeding is by direct development.
58481		population	eng	It is common in intact and lightly disturbed lowland forests, but is uncommon at higher elevations.
58481		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest due to small-scale logging and conversion to agricultural land.
58482		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58482		distribution	eng	This species occurs through most the Solomons Archipelago (in both the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea), from sea level up to 500m asl.
58482		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and hill forest, including disturbed regrowth forest, rural gardens, coconut plantations, and open areas. It breeds by direct development, laying its eggs on the ground.
58482		population	eng	It is an abundant species
58482		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, and appears not to be facing any threats.
58483		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few vast protected areas in the Sierra Madres. Intensive public education campaigns are needed to supplement current efforts to protect the remaining forests in these areas.
58483		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sierra Madres, on north-eastern Luzon Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded from 100-400m asl.
58483		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest floor stratum in lower montane and lowland forests, breeding and making its nests in leaf-litter. Breeding takes place by direct development.
58483		population	eng	It is common and widespread.
58483		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and logging of the lowland rainforest, which is the primary habitat of this species.
58484		conservation	eng	It has been confirmed as occurring in Tomaniivi Nature Reserve, Colo-I-Suva Forest Park, Garrick Memorial Park, Bouma Forest Reserve, and Savura Forest Reserve. The main priority conservation measure for this species is the conservation of mature forest, especially along streams.
58484		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Fiji on the islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Ovalau and Taveuni, occurring at approximately 50-800m asl.
58484		habitat	eng	It is naturally a forest species, living especially along streams in giant <em>Pandanus</em>, bird's nest ferns and the common lily (<em>Colospermum montanum</em>). It is also found, though at much lower densities, in rural gardens, plantations, and in pandans in pastureland. It breeds by direct development, the eggs being laid in leaf axils. The clutch size is less than 30 eggs.
58484		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable areas, in particular in mature, wet forest along streams, but is much less common in secondary and degraded habitats.
58484		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is probably forest loss due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction, and logging.
58485		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58485		distribution	eng	This species is found on all the major islands of the Solomons Archipelago (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands) and on many smaller islands as well. It has been recorded up to 500m asl.
58485		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed rainforest and disturbed forest habitats, and is also found in gardens, villages and plantations.
58485		population	eng	This is an exceptionally abundant species where it occurs and the total population is likely to be many millions.
58485		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and it appears to be resilient to even severe levels of habitat modification.
58486		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas support this species.
58486		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to higher altitudes in the Central Mountain Range of Taiwan, Province of China. It has been recorded from 1,100-3,300m asl.
58486		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and breeds in streams.
58486		population	eng	It is a common species, and its populations are stable.
58486		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species, although usually natural habitats by mountain streams are protected for preserving water resources even in disturbed areas. This species is not thought to be significantly threatened.
58487		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of low-altitude hill forests within its range.
58487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to lowland areas in western Taiwan, Province of China, from 170 to about 500m asl.
58487		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-altitude hill forests and the associated streams. Breeding normally takes place in streams and ditches with running water, but has also been observed occasionally in still-water pools.
58487		population	eng	It is a common species.
58487		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and infrastructure development.
58488		conservation	eng	The species has been reported from Nameri National Park and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Sengupta at Nameri and Pakhui (from 2000 to 2001), and by Bardoloi and Ao at Sanuoru, Rukhrona and Jakhama, in Nagaland (from 2000 to 2002). It is protected by national legislation.
58488		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from disjunct areas in north-east India. The main part of the distribution appears to be within central and western Nagaland; a second population has been reported from the Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and nearby Nameri National Park in Assam. Reports of this species from Manipur by Dutta (1997) require further investigation and are not mapped here. It is likely to occur somewhat more widely. It is present at elevations of 200-1,600m asl.
58488		habitat	eng	It is largely aquatic and associated with hill streams in wet tropical evergreen forest. Breeding occurs in streams, and the males guard the developing tadpoles.
58488		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species.
58488		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the pollution of streams by toxins used to capture fish.
58489		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58489		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Guinea and Liberia east to the Central African Republic, and south to extreme western Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its eastern distributional limits in Central African Republic, Congo and Democratic Republic of the Congo are not known. It is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). The apparent distribution gaps between Benin and Nigeria are possibly real. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, although there appear to be no confirmed records from this country.
58489		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist forest. It generally requires a forest canopy, but it can tolerate some disturbance of its habitat, although there are some records from heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in temporary small pools and marshy depressions in stream valleys, and starts breeding the moment the pools start filling up with water. In West Africa, it spawns terrestrially, before the rains fill up the pools.
58489		population	eng	It is a common species.
58489		threats	eng	Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58490		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58490		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia, south through East Africa to South Africa and Botswana, and west to Angola and southern Congo. It occurs up to 1,800m asl in Ethiopia. There do not appear to be confirmed records from Burundi and Rwanda, though it is likely to occur in these countries.
58490		habitat	eng	It is a species of open country in woodland, savannah, grassland, and agricultural and suburban areas, but also found in forest clearings. It is usually (but not always) found in close proximity to permanent water. It breeds in shallow temporary ponds.
58490		population	eng	It is abundant in many parts of its range..
58490		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is only likely to be facing localized threats. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Kenya.
58491		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) and presumably also in several other protected areas.
58491		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Angola, through Shaba Province in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, to northern Zambia and southern Malawi. There are few recorded localities through its wide range. It presumably occurs also in western Mozambique and it is possibly also present in Tanzania.
58491		habitat	eng	It is apparently associated with humid savannah and forests. Its ability to adapt to altered habitats is not known. The males call from concealed positions in dense vegetation in swamps or slow-flowing streams. Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably takes place in swamps and streams.
58491		population	eng	It is a poorly known species, and there is no information on its abundance.
58491		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
58492		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, though it is likely to occur in some.
58492		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been recorded only from southern Senegal (Casamance), Guinea, Sierra Leone, and southern Côte d’Ivoire (at Lamto). It presumably occurs in Guinea-Bissau and Liberia, though there are no confirmed records from these countries.
58492		habitat	eng	It lives in humid savannah, secondary forest, and gallery forest. Animals have also been found in a ditch near degraded former forest (farm bush), indicating that this species is reasonably adaptable to secondary habitats. It breeds in temporary marshes and permanent pools.
58492		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status. It was described from museum specimens collected many years previously, and since it was described it has not yet been related to any species in the wild, though it appears to be taxonomically valid (Rödel pers. comm.).
58492		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species.
58493		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58493		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely from Senegal and Gambia, east to northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Garamba National Park). There appear to be no records from Guinea-Bissau and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.
58493		habitat	eng	It is most common in humid wooded savannas, but it is also present in dry savannas and disturbed areas in forest zone (farm bush). It breeds in small, stagnant temporary pools.
58493		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58493		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58494		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain and Zomba Mountain Forest Reserves. Additional survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and to better understand the immediate threats.
58494		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mulanje Mountain and the Zomba Plateau in southern Malawi. Its altitudinal range is unclear, although it presumably occurs above 1,000m asl.
58494		habitat	eng	It is a rupicolous species, associated with open rock faces, often hiding in clumps of vegetation growing out of cracks in the rock. The surrounding environment is usually moist savannah or montane forest. The larvae develop on rock faces covered by a film of water, where they feed on algae.
58494		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58494		threats	eng	Little direct information is available on its threats, but presumably the ongoing loss of forest and woodland habitat might result in a reduction of water seeping over rocks, thus destroying its breeding habitat.
58495		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it is presumably present in some.
58495		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Angola to northwestern Zambia. It is presumed to occur in adjacent southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo, but there do not appear to be any records from this country.
58495		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid savannah where it is associated with flooded grassland, in which it presumably breeds. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known.
58495		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; this species is very poorly known.
58495		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
58496		conservation	eng	As this species is very poorly known, further research is required to resolve its taxonomy, and all claimed specimens should be examined to determine whether or not they refer to the same species (Largen pers. comm.).
58496		distribution	eng	This species was described from Medje in the rainforest of north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo on the basis of specimens that seem to represent a distinct species. There are old records from Boyulu and Kisangani (Noble 1924), which is also in the forest zone of north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and there are more recent records from Budongo Forest and Bwamba Forest in western Uganda. Records from Faradje and Garamba in the savannah zone of north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo are probably in error, partly for ecological reasons, and partly because Inger (1968) did not record this species from Garamba National Park.
58496		habitat	eng	This is a species found in lowland rainforest. The specimens from Boyulu were found in temporary pools formed in the road through the forest, and which contained large masses of spawn.
58496		population	eng	$Exxclude$The population status of this species is unknown.
58496		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
58497		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kibale National Park and Bwindi National Park (both in Uganda), as well as a recent record in Serengeti National Park in Tanzania.
58497		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kivu Province), Rwanda, Burundi, and southwestern Uganda. There is also an isolated, recent record at Schaller's Spring in the Serengeti, Tanzania, at 1,799m asl (Channing, <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Its altitudinal range is from 1,200-1,600m asl, although it probably ranges higher than this.
58497		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial forest species of swampy areas on the forest edge, also occurring in disturbed habitats, including ditches alongside roads. It breeds in streams.
58497		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat, especially at higher elevations.
58497		threats	eng	There are probably no threats to this species in view of its adaptability.
58498		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park.
58498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of central Ethiopia west of the Rift Valley, and southern Ethiopia east of the Rift Valley, occurring at 2,500-3,100m asl. It is probably more widespread than current records suggest.
58498		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane grassland and occasionally forest-edge habitats. It is also found in disturbed habitats, for example around Addis Ababa. It breeds in permanent pools, temporary rain-fed pools and flooded fields in montane grassland.
58498		population	eng	It is locally common in suitable habitat, and can sometimes be found in large numbers.
58498		threats	eng	The main threats are associated with environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent exploitation of natural resources for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
58499		conservation	eng	The best-known population of this species is found in Bale Mountains National Park. Conservation of montane forests is the highest priority conservation measure for this species.
58499		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, and in the highlands on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is generally found at 1,500-2,500m asl, though it possibly extends as low as 1,300m asl near the shore of Lake Abaya (the type locality). Its distribution is severely fragmented although it probably occurs more widely than current records show.
58499		habitat	eng	It seems to be particularly associated with long grasses and similar coarse herbaceous vegetation in forest clearings, not necessarily very close to permanent water. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it presumably takes place in pools in forest clearings and at forest margins.
58499		population	eng	It appears to be a rather rare species (though this might be due in part to the difficulty in distinguishing between this species and <em>Ptychadena neumanni</em>).
58499		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are related to environmental degradation resulting from encroaching human settlements, with the consequent exploitation of forest resources for both subsistence and commercial purposes, including activities such as logging and agricultural development.
58500		conservation	eng	Awash National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
58500		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two closely adjacent sites at 800-1,000m asl in the northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Further survey work might show it to occur in neighbouring northern Somalia, Djibouti, and southern Eritrea.
58500		habitat	eng	This species is associated with permanent water (in which it breeds), which is provided at one site by pools deep amongst lava boulders, and by effluent streams from a hot spring at the other, in a sub desert steppe of volcanic rubble, xerophilous grasses and dense <em>Acacia</em> thickets.
58500		population	eng	It appeared to be fairly numerous at its type locality in 1970. The absence of subsequent records is due to a lack of survey work.
58500		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are probably related to environmental degradation resulting from expanding human settlements, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock (a hazard which exists even within Awash National Park, where it occurs). Assuming that it is more widespread than current records indicate, drought might be expected to pose a threat to some populations.
58501		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
58501		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Somalia, particularly, but not entirely, in the floodplains on the Jubba and Webi Shabeelle Rivers.
58501		habitat	eng	Its habitat preferences when it is not breeding are not well known, though it presumably a species of dry savannahs and semi-arid habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and gheltas (permanent pools at the foot of cliffs or in the mouth of caves).
58501		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
58501		threats	eng	There is little information. It might be impacted by livestock grazing, and perhaps fire and droughts, but otherwise it does not appear to be significantly threatened at the moment.
58502		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and it is certainly present in Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
58502		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Angola, through western and northern Zambia and southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Rwanda and the Udzungwa Mountains in southeastern Tanzania. It is presumed to occur in Burundi, but there do not appear to be any records from this country. It appears to be mainly an upland species, and it occurs up to 1,900m asl in Tanzania, and probably higher elsewhere. Records from Cameroon refer to Ptychadena straeleni.
58502		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist upland savannah and montane grassland. Its adaptability to modified habitats is not known. It has been found in grassland bogs, and the males call from flooded grassland, where it presumably breeds.
58502		population	eng	It is believed to be a common species.
58502		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58503		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and it is certainly present in Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).
58503		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern and eastern Angola, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, and northern Botswana, to southern Democratic Republic of Congo, most of Zambia, northwestern and eastern Zimbabwe, Malawi and northern Mozambique. It is generally in upland areas, though it is found on the coast in Mozambique.
58503		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist grassland and savannah, and is sometimes common in dambos. Its ability to adapt to altered habitats is not known. The males call from concealed positions close to water. It breeds in shallow temporary pans and pools.
58503		population	eng	It is a common species.
58503		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58504		conservation	eng	Bale Mountains National Park is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
58504		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia, at 1,550m asl.
58504		habitat	eng	It has been found in <em>Podocarpus</em> forest amongst herbaceous vegetation on the forest floor, and in a shallow, stagnant pool, devoid of aquatic vegetation, close to the edge of a fast-flowing river.
58504		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58504		threats	eng	The habitat at the type locality is reasonably secure. Other populations of this species (that are yet to be discovered) might be expected to be threatened by environmental degradation resulting from increasing human settlement, with the consequent exploitation of resources (particularly forest resources) for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
58505		conservation	eng	Garamba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
58505		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Garamba National Park, Ulele, in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It presumably occurs more widely, and is likely to be present in southern Sudan.
58505		habitat	eng	This is a species of open and wooded humid savannah. It is associated with marshes and temporary and permanent waterbodies, and is also found along the sides of streams. Its breeding habits are unknown, but breeding presumably takes place in water.
58505		population	eng	It is apparently common in Garamba National Park, although there have been no records since its discovery in 1959, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58505		threats	eng	It occurs in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be facing any major threats.
58506		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, although it might occur in some.
58506		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern and eastern Angola to northwestern Zambia, and adjacent southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
58506		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid savannah woodlands that has been found in dambos and flooded grassland, where it presumably breeds. The males call from damp ground in the open. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known.
58506		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it is a very poorly known species.
58506		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58507		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58507		distribution	eng	This West African species ranges through the forest zone from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea and Liberia, to Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. There do not appear to be records from Benin and Togo, but it presumably occurs in these countries. Records from Agwarra in western Nigeria, and from central Benin, require verification, since they comes from well north of the forest zone, and are not mapped here. They perhaps refer to Ptychadena tellini. There is a possible record from southern Senegal that also requires confirmation, and is not mapped.
58507		habitat	eng	It lives in primary rainforest, and especially in secondary forest, but not in open habitats outside forest. It breeds in ditches along forest roads, and in temporary ponds.
58507		population	eng	It is a very common species, especially in secondary forest.
58507		threats	eng	Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.
58508		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks.
58508		distribution	eng	This species is known only the mountains of Kenya on both sides of the Rift Valley, north of Nairobi. It is known from Mount Elgon, Tambach, Njoro, the Aberdare Mountains, Mount Kenya and the Nyambeni Hills. It has been recorded between 1,900 and 2,550m asl.
58508		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid montane grasslands, fields and forest clearings. It breeds in herbaceous marshes and permanent ponds.
58508		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58508		threats	eng	Little information is available, but it is probably adaptable and not facing many threats. Local populations might be impacted by overgrazing by livestock, and smallholder agriculture.
58509		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it is likely to occur in some.
58509		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from Katima Mulilo and the surrounding areas in the eastern Caprivi Strip of north-eastern Namibia. It almost certainly occurs more widely, especially in south-western Zambia, south-eastern Angola, and northern Botswana.
58509		habitat	eng	This species is known from dry wooded savannah, where the males call from concealed positions under vegetation while sitting in shallow water. Breeding is believed to take place in shallow, muddy, temporary pools.
58509		population	eng	It is apparently not uncommon at its only known site.
58509		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it is likely to occur widely in an area of limited human impact.
58510		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58510		distribution	eng	This very widely but patchily distributed species occurs from Mauritania and Senegal, west to Ethiopia, south to South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Angola. It occurs on Mafia Island (Tanzania). In West African it occurs mainly in the forest zone, but in most of the rest of the continent it is more closely tied to the humid savannah zone. There appear not to be published records from Benin, Togo, Chad, Burundi, Uganda, and Congo, though it presumably occurs in these countries. Earlier reports from Eritrea have proved to be incorrect. There are additional populations in the Nile regions of Egypt and Sudan; on Madagascar; on the Seychelles; and on the Mascarene Islands. In Egypt it occurs along the Nile Valley and throughout the Nile Delta, east to Port Said and Suez, and west to Alexandria. It is widely distributed through the whole of Madagascar. On the Seychelles, where it is probably introduced (Vences <em>et al.</em> (2004), it has the widest distribution of all amphibian species known from those islands, being recorded from: Cerf, Curieuse, Félicité, Fregate, Grand Souer, La Digue, Mahé, Praslin, and Silhouette. Populations on the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius and Réunion) are introduced. It has a very wide altitudinal range, occurring from sea level to over 2,000 m asl.
58510		habitat	eng	In Africa it lives in agricultural areas, rice fields, secondary vegetation with tall herbaceous vegetation and marshy areas, and is often found near large lakes, rivers and other wetland habitats (including irrigation canals). It does not normally live in forest (although it has been recorded in a gallery forest of the Sahel savanna; Padial and De la Riva 2004), but spreads rapidly along roads in forested areas. It breeds in puddles, ditches and ruts, and in West Africa it is found mainly in rice fields and savanna. In Madagascar and the Seychelles, it lives in extremely varied habitats, including rainforest (marginally), dry forest, fields, savannas, grassland, and urban areas. It breeds in all still and slow-flowing water types.
58510		population	eng	It is patchily distributed in many parts of Africa, but is often hugely abundant where it does occur. It is a very abundant species on Madagascar and the Seychelles, and is said to be numerous throughout the Nile Delta and nearby areas in Egypt.
58510		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58511		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58511		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Kenya, through Tanzania, to Malawi, Zambia, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, northern and eastern Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, northern and northeastern South Africa, and Swaziland. It is presumed to occur in southeastern Angola, but there do not yet appear to be any records from this country. It occurs at 200-1,200m asl in South Africa, and might occur higher elsewhere.
58511		habitat	eng	It usually lives in dry savannah, bush land, and grassland, but it has also been found in humid savannah and forest. It can survive in altered habitats. It breeds in temporary and semi-permanent water, pans, vleis, dams, and inundated grassland.
58511		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species with large breeding assemblages.
58511		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58512		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58512		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Didda, in the Arrussi Mountains east of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, at 2,000-3,000m asl. There is a second possible record, from south of Ketama, west of the Rift Valley. It is likely to occur more widely on the Ethiopian plateau.
58512		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably breeds in water.
58512		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it was described on the basis of specimens collected many years earlier. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
58512		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species, although the habitat in the type locality is unprotected.
58513		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, where it occurs widely on both sides of the Rift Valley, but appears to be absent from the northernmost parts of the country. Its altitudinal range is 820-3,800m asl.
58513		habitat	eng	It occupies an exceptionally wide variety of habitats, including clearings in both lowland and montane forest, open grassland at moderate to high elevations, and even penetrates well into the Afro-alpine moorland zone. It is, however, clearly intolerant of even mild aridity, and is conspicuously absent from all types of savannah. It breeds in large numbers in inundated land, as well as pools, streamlets and water-filled ditches, both temporary and permanent.
58513		population	eng	Within its range, it is probably the commonest amphibian species in Ethiopia.
58513		threats	eng	Although not generally threatened, certain populations are probably impacted by environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent exploitation of natural resources for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
58514		conservation	eng	It is not recorded from any protected areas (though it may be present in the proposed Obo National Park).
58514		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of São Tomé, in São Tomé and Príncipe, in the Gulf of Guinea. It is a lowland species, occurring from sea level up to approximately 600m asl. Some of the localities listed in Loumont (1992) may not be accurate, but the lowland records are more likely to be accurate than the higher elevation records. Many of the localities are in the vicinity of São Tomé town but also include Diogo Vaz, to the north. A recent survey (Drewes and Stoelting 2004) collected adults in São Tomé town in a vacant lot, several in a riverine situation also in the town, and larvae from a place called Java. The two São Tomé town sites are not far apart, but Java is nearly 600m asl.
58514		habitat	eng	It has been found in marshy areas on the outskirts of town, and in banana plantations and cultivated land close to small bodies of water. It is associated with still water, including ponds, drainage ditches and puddles, but generally appears to require permanent water. It is believed to breed in ponds, and is not thought to breed in streams.
58514		population	eng	It was once considered a common species, but many sites have now dried up and populations have disappeared. It was previously reported from marshy places in urban areas but now appears to be absent from many previously recorded sites. It has been recently collected at a few sites but the number of sites where it can still be found is diminishing.
58514		threats	eng	The primary threat is drainage of wetland habitat and ponds for agriculture and urban expansion.
58515		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and presumably in several other protected areas.
58515		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Shaba Province in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and in northern Zambia, above 750m asl. It is likely to occur in eastern Angola and southwestern Tanzania.
58515		habitat	eng	Very little is known, but it has been found in moist savannah woodland, grassland, and on the grassy wet verge of a lake. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. It apparently breeds in the rainy season, but few details are available.
58515		population	eng	There is very little information on this species, though it is likely to be common in suitable habitat.
58515		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58516		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58516		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in sub-Saharan Africa in the savannah zone surrounding the forest belt, from Senegal and Gambia east to Kenya and south to Angola, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe, northern and eastern South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique. It does not appear to have been recorded from Burkina Faso, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, but is presumably present in these countries, and it might also occur in Niger. It occurs from sea level up to over 2,000m.
58516		habitat	eng	It lives in savannah, agricultural areas, secondary vegetation with tall herbaceous vegetation, and marshy areas. It does not normally live in forest, but spreads rapidly along roads in forested areas in Central Africa, but not in West Africa. It breeds in puddles, ditches and ruts, preferring very small, temporary waterbodies, and it is not generally found large ponds.
58516		population	eng	It is a common species.
58516		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58517		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it probably occurs in some.
58517		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Angola to northeastern Zambia. It presumably occurs in the intervening region of southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are very few records of this species, and its distribution is very imperfectly known, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.
58517		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumably a species of humid savannah, and, if it is similar other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools.
58517		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58517		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but it is probably widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58518		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58518		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Cameroon and Gabon south to southwestern Congo, east through southwestern Central African Republic to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and perhaps also the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there have not so far been any records from these countries.
58518		habitat	eng	It lives in agricultural areas, degraded forest, secondary vegetation with tall herbaceous vegetation (farm bush), and marshy areas. It does not normally live in closed forest, but it spreads rapidly along roads in forested areas. It breeds in puddles, ditches and ruts.
58518		population	eng	It is a common species.
58518		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
58519		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58519		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern and northern South Africa, north to Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda and Kenya, with an apparently isolated population south of Lake Tana, at 1,900m asl in Ethiopia. It has not been recorded from Burundi, but it is likely to occur in this country. Isolated records in Kenya from Katera south of Mount Kenya, and from Nyahururu north of the Aberdare Mountains require confirmation. It occurs mostly in cooler regions, and is generally found above 1,200m asl in the tropical parts of its range.
58519		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist grassland, savannah and forest, often at higher altitudes. It is an adaptable species that can survive in altered habitats. The Ethiopian locality is in an area of montane grassland and lakeshore habitats. The eggs are laid in shallow grassy, temporary pools.
58519		population	eng	It is generally common where it occurs. Its status in Ethiopia is unclear, since there have been no records since 1902.
58519		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58520		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.
58520		distribution	eng	This species from hilly areas in west Africa is known from Sukurela in Sierra Leone, Macenta and Seredou in Guinea, and Mount Nimba in Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire.
58520		habitat	eng	Very little is known about its habitat and ecological requirements. It has been collected in swamps in savannah and grassland, so it might not be a forest-dependent species. If it is similar to other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools.
58520		population	eng	There is very little information regarding its population status. It was described from museum specimens collected many years previously, and since it was described it has not yet been related to any species in the wild, though it appears to be taxonomically valid (Rödel pers. comm.).
58520		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is correct that this is not a forest-dependent species, it might not be facing any serious threats.
58521		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58521		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Ethiopia. Records from coastal Gabon and southern Congo are provisionally assigned here to Ptychadena taenioscelis, though they could belong to this species. The boundary between this species and Ptychadena taenioscelis is imperfectly understood (especially in Uganda, from where neither species has been recorded, but both probably occur). There to not appear to be records from Mauritania, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Niger, Chad, Sudan and Uganda, but it is likely to occur in these countries. It occurs up to 1,900m asl in Ethiopia.
58521		habitat	eng	It lives in dense, low grassland throughout the humid and dry savannah zone, and also in dry forests, gallery forests, montane grassland, and in some disturbed habitats in the forest zone. It is often found close to water, and especially on the banks of rivers and pools. It breeds in shallow ponds and ditches, both permanent and temporary.
58521		population	eng	It is a very common and abundant species.
58521		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58522		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.
58522		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Loma Mountains at 400m asl in Sierra Leone, and from Mount Nimba (at 500-800m asl) in Guinea and Liberia. It presumably also occurs on the Côte d’Ivoire side of Mount Nimba, and probably also on other mountains in west Africa.
58522		habitat	eng	Very little is known about its habitat and ecology. It has been found in savannah and grass steppe. Breeding probably takes place in shallow puddles.
58522		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
58522		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, although it is likely to be threatened by mining activities on Mount Nimba.
58523		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58523		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal, east to southwestern Ethiopia and southern Somalia, south to Malawi, central Mozambique, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Angola. Although this species is reported from a very wide area in Africa, there are very few records from most of its range, and it has not been recorded from many countries where it is likely to occur. The distribution map is based on the assumption that it occurs in areas between the recorded localities. There are records from Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Cameroon, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola. The populations in northern Eritrea and Egypt (localities in the Nile Delta and at Fayoum) appear to be genuinely isolated. It is presumed to occur in Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Niger, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Chad, Uganda, and Zambia.
58523		habitat	eng	It is a savannah species, including in quite arid habitats, and has also been found in grassland, partially flooded rice fields and dry yam fields. It is often seen near rivers and lakes, and it breeds in flooded grasslands, rice fields, and temporary pools. It is known to feed on other frogs and large terrestrial animals (Baha El Din 2005).
58523		population	eng	It is apparently common where it occurs, but it is patchily distributed. It is a rare species in Egypt, where it is currently only known from two specimens (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
58523		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58524		conservation	eng	It is present in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, and it presumably occurs in several other protected areas.
58524		distribution	eng	This range of this species is very imperfectly known. There are definite records from Entebbe in Uganda (the type locality), central Cameroon, and Mount Nimba in Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea. There are published records in addition from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Angola, but it is not certain that these refer to this species. If its distribution is not fragmented, it presumably occurs widely in West African savannahs, in southern Chad, the Central African Republic, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and southern Sudan. The distribution map is very provisional, and it has been assumed that the range is fragmented. There have been no recent records from Uganda and Mount Nimba, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work in these areas.
58524		habitat	eng	In Cameroon it lives in savannahs and grasslands, including flooded grassland, avoiding areas with tall grass and other vegetation. It breeds in temporary marshes. On Mount Nimba it is said to live in both forest and savannah.
58524		population	eng	In Cameroon, its abundance is hard to determine, since the species is difficult to capture.
58524		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be facing serious threats, at least in Cameroon, where it seems to be an adaptable species. There is no direct information from elsewhere in its range.
58525		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Garamba National Park, and presumably in other protected areas.
58525		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Parc National de la Garamba), northern Central African Republic, and the Adamawa Plateau in central Cameroon (where it occurs up to 1,100m asl). It is presumed to occur widely in this vast, poorly explored area, including in southern Chad and southwestern Sudan.
58525		habitat	eng	This is a savannah species, and it has been found breeding in large numbers in a lake with herbaceous margins on the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon. Its adaptability to modified habitats is not known.
58525		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance.
58525		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but it is probably widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58526		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.
58526		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Loma Mountains in Sierra Leone and Mount Nimba in Guinea, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire. It might occur on other mountains in west Africa.
58526		habitat	eng	It has been found in savannah and grass steppe, and breeds in shallow puddles.
58526		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.
58526		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, although it is likely to be threatened by mining activities on Mount Nimba.
58527		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58527		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, through western Zambia and Angola, to the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, northern Botswana, and northwestern Zimbabwe.
58527		habitat	eng	It is associated with deep, permanent waters in savannahs, including pools, swamps and river backwaters. The eggs are laid in shallow water. It adaptability to altered habitats is not known.
58527		population	eng	It is common along the upper Zambezi and along the rivers of the Okavango system.
58527		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58528		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire), Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), and possibly also other protected areas.
58528		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea and Liberia, to southern Côte d’Ivoire and south-western Ghana.
58528		habitat	eng	This is a lowland rainforest species, and its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. The details of its breeding biology are also unknown, but if it is similar to other members of its genus then it probably breeds in temporary pools.
58528		population	eng	It is rare in Taï National Park (south-western Côte d’Ivoire), but perhaps more common in coastal forest in Côte d’Ivoire; it is locally common in Sierra Leone.
58528		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the loss and degradation of forest due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.
58529		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58529		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Gabon, southern Congo, Angola, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia and northern Botswana east through Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Malawi, northern Mozambique, Tanzania and southeastern Kenya. Records from Gabon and southern Congo have been assigned here to this species, but they could belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ptychadena pumilio</span>. The boundary between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pumilio</span> is uncertain (especially in Uganda, from where neither species has been recorded, but both probably occur). There is an apparently isolated population in eastern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), possibly also occurring in southern Mozambique.
58529		habitat	eng	It is a species of grasslands and savanna woodlands, including in miombo woodlands. It can survive in altered habitats. The eggs are laid in shallow water, including flooded grassland, temporary pools and seepages.
58529		population	eng	It is a common species that can have dense breeding aggregations. However, the isolated South African population is uncommon and sparsely distributed.
58529		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations. However, the South African population is losing habitat to commercial agriculture and plantations.
58530		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58530		distribution	eng	This West African species occurs in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Côte d’Ivoire. However, its range is very imperfectly known, and it is unlikely that all published records actually refer to this species.
58530		habitat	eng	It lives in the humid savannah zone, not in forest zone. It can survive in altered habitats, and has been found in partly flooded rice fields. It reproduces in small, stagnant, temporary waters in savannah, and also in flooded fields and pans.
58530		population	eng	It is uncommon in Comoé National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), and its abundance elsewhere is not clear.
58530		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58531		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58531		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Mauritania and Senegal, east to Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Garamba National Park). There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Burkina Faso, Niger and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.
58531		habitat	eng	It lives in dry savannas, and is also present in humid savannas, but prefers the former. It breeds in very small temporary waters, not in large ponds. It can survive in altered habitats.
58531		population	eng	It has a low population density, and is distributed patchily within its wide range. In northern Benin it was found to be common after the first rains of the season (Nago<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).
58531		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58532		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Upemba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
58532		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, and western Mozambique. A record from Mahenge in southeastern Tanzania requires confirmation. It is generally associated with upland areas.
58532		habitat	eng	There is little information. It is presumably associated with moist savannah. The males call from the base of grass tussocks in deeply flooded areas. It presumably breeds in flooded grassland and temporary pools. It adaptability to altered habitats is not known.
58532		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it is a poorly known species.
58532		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58533		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, including the Upemba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
58533		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Rwanda and Burundi, through eastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southern Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, central Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Angola. There is an isolated population at Soutpansberg in northern South Africa. It is an upland species, occurring at 800-2,300m asl.
58533		habitat	eng	It is a species of medium- to high-altitude grasslands, in the vicinity of pools, seepages, dambos and permanent sponges, where it presumably breeds. The males call from shallow water. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known.
58533		population	eng	It is believed to be reasonably common in suitable habitat. There are no recent confirmed records from South Africa, and the continued existence of this isolated population should be investigated.
58533		threats	eng	There is very little information, but it is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58534		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58534		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area south-east of Lake Tana in Ethiopia, along the road from Bahar Dar to the Tisist Falls of the Blue Nile River, at 1,800-1,850m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
58534		habitat	eng	It lives in montane grassland and shrubland, and it has been found breeding in temporary pools and streamlets in montane grassland bordering the upper reaches of the Blue Nile River.
58534		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58534		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural development, expanding human settlements and overgrazing by livestock.
58535		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58535		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in South Africa, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, extending north to southern Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya. It distribution needs re-examination in light of recent separation of Pyxicephalus edulus from P. adspersus. Many specimens have not been clearly assigned between these two species. It is presumed to occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, but there have not been any confirmed records from this country.
58535		habitat	eng	It is a species of drier savannahs. It is fossorial for most of the year, remaining buried in cocoons. They emerge at the start of the rains, and breed in shallow, temporary waters in pools, pans and ditches. They are active by day during the breeding season. They can tolerate habitat alteration, but not urbanization.
58535		population	eng	It is common in many of the southern parts of its range, it has apparently declined in South Africa, especially in Gauteng Province, but it is still locally common in some places. Boycott (2001) declared the species to be extinct in Swaziland. It seems to be very uncommon in the northern parts of its range, with very few confirmed records from Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and Kenya (though this might in part be due to identification problems).
58535		threats	eng	The major threat through most of its range is harvesting of frogs for local consumption, which is believed to be responsible for some population declines. In South Africa, breeding habitat has been lost due to urbanization. This species is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
58536		conservation	eng	There are large populations in many protected areas.
58536		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania, south to Mozambique, southern Malawi, southern Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, northern and eastern South Africa and Swaziland. There are also populations currently assigned to this species in northern Benin, northern Nigeria and northern Cameroon, and in Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia. There are no records in the poorly explored regions between Cameroon and Somalia, nor between Nigeria and Senegal, and so its occurrence in these areas is not indicated on the distribution map. However, it might occur in the intervening areas in the Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, and also in Togo, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Guinea. Its distribution in eastern and southern Africa needs re-examination in light of recent separation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyxicephalus edulis</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. adspersus</span>. Many specimens have not been clearly assigned between these two species, and so the distribution map should be regarded as provisional. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl in South Africa.
58536		habitat	eng	It inhabits flat areas in open grassy woodland and marshy areas in eastern and southern Africa, and in very dry savannah in West Africa. It has been recorded from riverine and woodland habitats in western Tanzania (Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is fossorial, only coming to the surface at the beginning of the rainy season. It breeds in shallow, well-vegetated seasonal pans (although it has also been found at a puddle without vegetation in northern Benin; Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), as well as many man-made small waterbodies. It has been found in rice paddies in Mozambique. It is active at night during the breeding season. The males guard the tadpoles, protecting them from predation.
58536		population	eng	It is a common species in East Africa and is quite common in South Africa.
58536		threats	eng	The major threat through most of its range is harvesting of frogs for local consumption. This species is sometimes also found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat. In western Tanzania, much of the miombo woodland area is increasingly threatened by habitat degradation following conversion to agriculture or overharvesting (see Gardner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
58537		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
58537		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Somalia, ranging from Galguduud Province in the south, north to Bari Province. Most records are from Mudug Province in the vicinity of Hobyo (Obbia), and between Hobyo and Gaalkacyo (Galcaio).
58537		habitat	eng	Its habitat preferences when it is not breeding are not well known, though it presumably a species of dry savannahs and semi-arid habitats, living fossoially outside the breeding season. It breeds in temporary pools.
58537		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58537		threats	eng	There is little information. It might be impacted by livestock grazing, and perhaps fire and droughts, but otherwise it does not appear to be significantly threatened at the moment.
58538		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species.
58538		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern China in Guizhou, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces, and also Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs from 30-1,800m asl.
58538		habitat	eng	It inhabits paddy fields, marshes, ditches, ponds and hydrophytes-filled lakes. It breeds in still-water habitats.
58538		population	eng	This is a common species.
58538		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are probably threats to this species, in particular infrastructure development for human settlement and water pollution from agriculture.
58539		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected in national parks, although more protected areas need to be established on Leyte to protect the remaining forest on this island.
58539		distribution	eng	This species is known only from very few localities on Leyte, Samar, and Mindanao Islands in the Philippines.
58539		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests.
58539		population	eng	Moderately-sized numbers of samples in museums suggest that it might be common in preferred high-altitude stream habitats. However, there is very little field information regarding this species' population status.
58539		threats	eng	The most important threats to this species include deforestation through logging, habitat conversion to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers due to agricultural run-off.
58540		conservation	eng	The species is known to inhabit a number of protected areas in Peninsular Thailand, as well as several informally protected waterfall recreation areas. It has also been recorded from Madhupur National Park in Bangladesh and Mouling National Park and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58540		distribution	eng	This species is present in northern Bangladesh, northeastern India (Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), Myanmar and Peninsular Thailand (Bourret, 1941, Taylor, 1962). A record from Mao Son, in northern Viet Nam, was based on a misidentified Huia nasica (Bourret, 1941: 350). It occurs at elevations below 1,000m asl.
58540		habitat	eng	In South Asia this species is associated with riparian grasses and shrubs. Known occurrences in Southeast Asia are in evergreen forest near large streams in hill areas, usually within the vicinity of waterfalls. Tadpoles inhabit these large streams with boulders and sandy bottoms.
58540		population	eng	Adults are only occasionally encountered, but the distinctive tadpoles are impossible to overlook. Indications are that the species is not uncommon in areas where it occurs (P. van Dijk pers. comm). In Bangladesh the species is observed to be declining.
58540		threats	eng	The species would be threatened by major impacts on forest streams such as clear cutting of forests or water diversion, but seems able to tolerate modest impacts from tourism in Southeast Asia.
58541		conservation	eng	It might occur in some protected areas, but this requires confirmation. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
58541		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, being only on Amamioshima and Tokunoshima of the central Ryukyu Islands.
58541		habitat	eng	It only inhabits streams surrounded by primary or well recovered secondary broad-leaved evergreen forest.
58541		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58541		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and the construction of roads, and on Tokunoshima the range of the species is particularly limited and presently very fragmented. Other threats include alteration of rivers, pollution from pesticides, and predation by invasive mongooses.
58542		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within the range of this species. It is listed in the Red Data Books of the Middle Urals (Permskaya and Sverdlovskaya provinces, Russia) and the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous County (Russia). Further information on the possible farming of this species is needed.
58542		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in West and East Siberia (northwards to 58-72°N, southwards to 52-55°N), the Russian Far East, northern and central Mongolia and northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Neimenggu [Inner Mongolia] and possibly in Shaanxi). The boundary between this species and <em>Rana coreana</em> is unclear. For the purpose of this assessment, we have arbitarily assumed the boundary between the two species to be 40ºN on the Korean Peninsula, south of which <em>R. coreana</em> occurs. This means that <em>R. amurensis</em> occurs in the northern part of the Democratic Peoples' Republic of Korea, but not in the Republic of Korea. This is mostly a lowland species occurring up to 600m asl.
58542		habitat	eng	The species is present in coniferous (fir, spruce, larch etc.), mixed and deciduous forests (through which it penetrates the tundra and forest steppe zones), shrublands and grasslands. It is found most frequently in open, wet places such as wet meadows and forest glades, swamps, overgrown lakeshores, riverbanks, and floodplains. On Sakhalin Island, the species is present in tussock tundra like bogs. Reproduction and larval development takes place in shallow lakes, ponds, ditches, large puddles and marshes with stagnant water. Large numbers of this frog may be found hibernating in the bottom mud of ponds and pools. It may be found in slightly modified habitats.
58542		population	eng	It is common and widespread in Siberia, the Far East of Russia, northern Mongolia and China. There have been some local population declines in urban and industrial areas.
58542		threats	eng	The species is mostly threatened by general habitat loss (such as the construction of dams on large rivers in Siberia), and the drainage and pollution of breeding pools. There is significant over harvesting of this species for food, especially in Russia where illegal collection has increased since the 1990s.
58543		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. It is listed as 'Threatened' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992).
58543		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces in southwestern China, northeastern India (Sarkar and Ray 2006), northern and northeastern Myanmar (Smith 1940), northern and central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999), north-west Viet Nam (Bourret 1941, Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al. </span>2000) and northern Thailand (Nabhitabhata 1989). It is found at elevations between 200-2,060 m asl.
58543		habitat	eng	It is found in low tree branches and on rocks along shaded rocky streams and large rivers with boulders, in evergreen forest and agricultural areas. It breeds in streams. The generation length of this species is estimated to be five years.
58543		population	eng	In China this species was formerly common, but it is now rare. There has been a population decline estimated to be more than 30% over the last three generations, inferred from over-collecting and information on habitat destruction and degradation. However Bourret (1942) found the species to be rather common at Sa Pa in Viet Nam. Recent (late 1990's) records are available from two sites in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999) and two sites in Viet Nam (S. Swan pers. comm.). It is considered to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh based on collections made up until 1993 (Sarkar and Ray 2006).Where it has been collected recently in Southeast Asia it has been common (S. Swan pers. comm. and B. Stuart pers. comm.).
58543		threats	eng	Over-collecting for food is a threat to this species. Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation and the impacts of power plants are also threats.
58544		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas.
58544		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Longtou, in Anlong County, Guizhou Province, China, where it has been recorded from 1,480-1,550m asl. It might occur more widely.
58544		habitat	eng	It inhabits shaded hill streams 2-3m wide in forested areas, and breeds in these streams.
58544		population	eng	It is rare at its single known locality.
58544		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58545		conservation	eng	Doi Inthanon is one of Thailand's flagship National Parks, which has some constraints but is essentially secure. The one known location in Lao People's Democratic Republic is within Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. More surveys are likely to find more populations of this species in the future.
58545		distribution	eng	This species is known from Doi Inthanon and the Mae Sruay District, in Chiang Rai Province in northern Thailand (Inger and Cha-nard, 1997), and the Annamite mountains of central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999). Further surveys are likely to discover this cryptic species (which looks like a small Rana livida) in other areas, especially in areas between known sites. In Thailand it has been recorded from 1,100-1,800m asl, and in Lao People's Democratic Republic from 600-700m asl.
58545		habitat	eng	It is known from rocky streams in evergreen forest in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), and from near small waterfalls from 1,100-1,800m asl at Doi Inthanon (Inger and Cha-nard, 1997; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999), and from Chiang Rai Province at 1,200m asl in small waterfalls.
58545		population	eng	The abundance of records since its taxonomic recognition (four locations reported within three years) suggests that the species is not rare in suitable habitat. It was recorded as common within its range in Lao People's Democratic Republic.
58545		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular agriculture, infrastructure development and water pollution.
58546		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. Better information on current population status and trends is needed to aid its conservation.
58546		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and central Mississippi, north-central Louisiana, and eastern Texas north through eastern Oklahoma, north-central Arkansas, western Tennessee, and western Kentucky through southern Indiana and Illinois, across Missouri, northern Iowa, and eastern Kansas, USA (Altig and Lohoefener 1983; Conant and Collins 1991).
58546		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist meadows, pasturelands, river flood plains, pine scrub, and golf courses. It hides in crayfish, reptile, or rodent burrows when inactive, and also under logs and in sewers. Eggs are laid and larvae usually develop in temporary water such as in flooded fields, ditches, farm ponds, and small lakes.
58546		population	eng	It can be locally common in remnant habitat patches, but much of its native habitat has been lost. It is secretive but not uncommon in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In Illinois, it is uncommon and declining in some areas where breeding habitats have been drained or stocked with predatory fish (Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999). The species was locally plentiful in western Indiana until about 1970, when it declined markedly and disappeared from many sites for reasons that are not well understood, including some in which the habitat did not change in any obvious way (Minton 2001). It might no longer occur in southern Iowa (Johnson 2000). It has been found repeatedly and in large numbers in the Ouachita River bottomlands in Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989).
58546		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation particuarly through drainage of its breeding habitat. It is also threatened by the stocking of breeding waters with predatory fish (Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999).
58547		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58547		distribution	eng	This species is found widely on New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and from Waigeo and Aru Islands (Indonesia). It occurs up to 1,500m asl.
58547		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and, to a lesser extent, streams, in lowland rainforest, usually in mature forest. It breeds in rivers and streams.
58547		population	eng	It is a common species.
58547		threats	eng	It is extensively eaten by local communities.
58548		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries and has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is presumed to be present in a many protected areas. In parts of the species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58548		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries and has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is presumed to be present in a many protected areas. In parts of the species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58548		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of the northern, central and eastern parts of Europe, eastwards to Siberia (Yakutia and Baikal Lake), Russia and Xinjiang Province, China. It is no longer believed to be present in Serbia and the original records were probably in error (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). It is typically a lowland species, but can occur at altitudes close to 1,500m asl. (Altai Mountains).
58548		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats including tundra, forest tundra, forest, forest steppe, steppe, forest edges and glades, semi-desert, swamps, peatlands, moorlands, meadows, fields, bush lands, gardens. It has a breeding season, and spawning and larval development takes place in various stagnant water bodies of low acidity, including lakes, ponds, swamps, puddles and ditches. There is some evidence that the species can occur in agricultural landscapes, and in some areas it appears to be adapting to urban conditions (e.g.. Vershinin, 1997).
58548		population	eng	It is generally common, and is abundant in central-eastern Europe. It is extinct in Switzerland in the extreme southwestern part of its wide range. It is considered to be rare and declining in China.
58548		threats	eng	It is threatened by the destruction and pollution of breeding ponds (including acidification) and adjacent wetland and terrestrial habitats, especially through urbanization, recreation, tourism, industry and overstocking of cattle. Additional threats are prolonged drought and predation of spawn by waterfowl. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Berlin, Germany - however the extent to which this is a threat is unknown.
58549		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from two protected areas in Kirgizia, and is listed in the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan. International cooperation for research towards the conservation of this species needs to be established.
58549		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Kazakhstan, northern Kirgizia and western China (north-western Xinjiang). The geographic range of this species is highly fragmented. There are other isolated historic records in Kazakhstan, but there have been no surveys of these areas to confirm whether or not the species still exists there. It is a montane species recorded from elevations of between 700 and 1,000m asl.
58549		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in wooded areas of river valleys in mountains, steppe and desert. It may be present in swampy areas, meadows, bush lands, ponds, streams, ditches and other wetlands. The inhabited waterbodies are often temporary and are only present after the spring floods; after these wetlands dry up, the frogs migrate to other waterbodies. Suitable wetland habitats are often scarce within the distribution range of the species. This species breeds and larval development takes place in the various waterbodies. In China, the species is reported to be present in suburban ponds.
58549		population	eng	It is a relatively common species in China. It is widespread in Kyrgyzstan, but has a small and declining range in Kazakhstan.
58549		threats	eng	The isolated populations of this species in arid zones makes them very sensitive to anthropogenic changes in the environment including drainage of wetlands, urbanization, flooding, destruction of riparian groves and pollution of waterbodies. Prolonged droughts in arid areas are also a threat to this species. It is regularly used in traditional Chinese and Uigur medicine, although the impacts of this on populations needs further research. The continuing dispersal of the large predatory frog <em>Rana ridibunda</em> into the range of <em>Rana asiatica</em> might represent another threat.
58550		conservation	eng	One location in Viet Nam is within Kon Chan Ran Nature Reserve and the whole population in Lao People's Democratic Republic is within the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Establishing a secure protected area on the Tay Nguyen Plateau is a high conservation priority (Kon Cha Ran is decreed as a Nature Reserve, but no conservation action has been implemented; BirdLife International 2001).
58550		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Annamite Mountains of Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999; Stuart 1999). It has been recorded between 700 and 1,200m asl, and is so far known from only four localities.
58550		habitat	eng	All records of this species are from streams in wet evergreen forest. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
58550		population	eng	The species can be locally common, a series of 33 and 17 specimens were collected in a single night each (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It was regularly encountered when collected in Lao People's Democratic Republic (B. Stuart pers. comm.), but was considered not to be common when collected in some areas of Viet Nam (Nguyen pers. comm.).
58550		threats	eng	The species' habitat is under threat from forest degradation due to clearance for agriculture and logging (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999, BirdLife International 2001). Long-term changes to hydrology might also be a threat.
58551		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in Sri Lanka, and might occur in Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, India. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58551		distribution	eng	Specimens currently assigned to this species have been collected in the southern Western Ghats of India and in Sri Lanka. Reports of this species from other parts of the Western Ghats appear to be misidentifications. It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,400m asl in India, and from 5-660m asl in Sri Lanka.
58551		habitat	eng	It is a semi-arboreal, and semi aquatic frog, associated with wetlands in tropical moist forest, swamp forest, and coastal regions. Adults are frequently found on rocks in waterbodies. In India, the larvae are reported to occur in streams and other running waters; they can also be found in tea and coffee plantations, but only at the forest edge.
58551		population	eng	It is locally abundant at confirmed localities in the southern Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka.
58551		threats	eng	There is continuing loss of the habitat of this species largely caused by the conversion of land for agricultural use (including the drainage of wetlands) and the development of mining. Agrochemical pollution is also a threat.
58552		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures for this species.
58552		distribution	eng	The type series of this recently described species was collected in the foothills within 1km of the former Biological Station of Pusppenssat, 54km along the Nabire-Mapia road, about 30km in a direct line from Nabire, in Papua, Indonesia. Specimens that possibly also belong to the same species (although this has not yet been confirmed) have also been collected from Wapoga Alpha Camp, 120km east-north-east in a direct line from Nabire. The type series was collected between 650 and 850m asl.
58552		habitat	eng	It has been located in a mixture of primary and secondary rainforest, where adults were mainly found close to mountain streams, but were also found close to two permanent pools that had through-flowing water. Most of the specimens were found perched on vegetation 0.5-1.5m above the ground, although some were also observed on rocks in the waterbodies. Larvae were found in small pools alongside slow-running sections of the streams. This species can tolerate habitat disturbance: specimens were collected close to a road and in rural villages.
58552		population	eng	There is no information on the overall population status of this species, which is only known from the type series.
58552		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58553		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana aurora</span> occurs in many protected areas, including several small wildlife refuges in Oregon and Washington managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and in some state refuges. Most of its range is within actively managed agricultural and forestry matrix (under the control of private owners, the Bureau of Land Management, or the U.S.  Forest Service).
58553		distribution	eng	Range extends from southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island in Canada, south along the coast of the United States (primarily west of Cascade-Sierran crest), to northwestern California (Shaffer et al. 2004). The species has been introduced and is well established and widely distributed on Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii), British Columbia; it is unclear whether the species is native there or introduced many years ago (Ovaska et al. 2002). Rana aurora also is introduced and established on Chichagof Island, Alaska; the source of the frogs was Oregon (Hodge 2004).
58553		habitat	eng	Habitat includes the vicinity of quiet permanent waters of streams, marshes, or (less often) ponds and other quiet bodies of water. The frogs are sometimes found in damp woods and meadows some distance from water, especially during wet weather. This species occurs in sites with dense vegetation (e.g., willows) close to water and some shading. Red-legged frogs may occupy ephemeral pools if the water remains until late spring or early summer (Biosystems Analysis 1989). Estivation sites include small mammal burrows and moist leaf litter in dense riparian vegetation up to 26 meters from water (Rathbun et al. 1993, cited by USFWS 1994). Desiccation cracks in dry pond bottoms may be used as refuges (Alvarez, 2004, Herpetol. Rev. 35:162-163). Breeding sites most often are in permanent water; eggs are attached to stiff submerged stems at the surface of the water.
58553		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This species is relatively widespread and common over most of its range (McAllister and Leonard, in Jones et al. 2005; Pearl in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>Over the long term, extent of occurrence, area of occurrence, number/condition of subpoppulations, and population size have declined, but the amount of decline is uncertain. Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, though the magnitude of the decline is uncertain.
58553		threats	eng	Factors contributing to local declines include wetland destruction and degradation/fragmentation, urbanization, residential development, reservoir construction, stream channelization, livestock grazing of riparian vegetation, off-road vehicle activity, drought, overharvesting, and exotic fishes (bass, mosquitofish) and possibly bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998; USFWS 1994, 1996, 2000; Adams 1999, 2000; Lawler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999; Cook and Jennings 2001; Kiesecker, Blaustein and Miller 2001a; Cook 2002). An important threat is the loss of wetlands in the Willamette Valley (Oregon) and Puget Lowlands (Washington), but populations remain in some urbanized areas (see Pearl, in Lannoo 2005). Conversion of habitat to more permanent ponds is an important threat (as this allows breeding waters to be invaded by non-native predators). Habitat characteristics and good leaping ability may render <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana aurora</span> less vulnerable to bullfrog predation than is <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana pretiosa</span> (Pearl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). McAllister and Leonard (in Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) noted that in many areas red-legged frogs coexist with bullfrogs.<br/><br/>Declines in the red-legged frog complex (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana draytonii</span>) also have been attributed to global warming, UV-B radiation (Belden and Blaustein 2002), airborne contaminants (pesticide drift), and disease (see Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) found support for the negative impact of wind-borne agrochemicals and weaker evidence for the widespread impact of habitat destruction and UV-B radiation; evidence did not support the hypothesis that declines have been caused by climate change.
58554		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Ba Be Lake National Park, Na Hang Nature Reserve and Pu Mat Nature Reserve.
58554		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known from forested montane river systems in a few localities across northern Viet Nam. Specimens have been collected from 178m up to at least 300m asl (the upper altitudinal range limit of this species is not currently known). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58554		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested montane river systems that vary from shallow and slow-moving, to torrential and deep. Animals may be observed on boulders and logs in and around the water and in the adjacent forest. It is presumed that this species breeds in streams.
58554		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58554		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss arising from logging, smallholder agriculture and expanding human settlements.
58555		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
58555		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Tay Nguyen plateau of the central highlands in Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam, and might occur more widely. It has been collected at altitudes of between 700 and 900m asl.
58555		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested montane river systems on or near rapids or waterfalls in primary and disturbed secondary growth. It is presumed that this species breeds in streams.
58555		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58555		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss arising from logging, smallholder agriculture and expanding human settlements.
58556		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary of Thailand, and the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary of Peninsular Malaysia. It might also be present in other protected areas of the Banjaran Bintang and the Banjaran Titi Wangsa mountains.
58556		distribution	eng	This montane species has been recorded from the Banjaran Bintang mountain range of Peninsular Malaysia and the Banjaran Titi Wangsa mountain range of Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. It might also be present in the mountain ranges of Banjaran Benom, Banjaran Gunong Tahan and Banjaran Timur, all in Peninsular Malaysia, and might also occur in the highlands of the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It has an altitudinal range of at least 700-1,300m asl.
58556		habitat	eng	It does not occur in modified habitats, but it appears to be a strict inhabitant of undisturbed streams in highland and montane tropical forests. Adult males have been observed calling from the sides of forest streams while perched low on fallen branches or live vegetation, or on sandy banks or leaf-litter. The larvae inhabit well-shaded streams with clear, slow-flowing water and a sandy substrate.
58556		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58556		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened, at least locally, by logging and smallholder agricultural development.
58558		conservation	eng	It is confirmed from a number of protected areas (Templer's Park-Berry, 1975) and can be expected in other protected areas that contain swampy habitat.
58558		distribution	eng	This species is known from Johor and Selangor States, in Peninsular Malaysia, from the island of Singapore, and from a number of localities on Borneo in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is also present on Natuna Besar Island, Pini and Tanah Masa islands in the Mentawai Islands, and on the islands of Sumatra, Bangka and Java, all in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 600m asl.
58558		habitat	eng	It is known from a variety of lowland floodplain situations, including peat swamp forest and swampy flatland primary forest at low elevations, usually in swampy areas. It breeds in water, but its breeding habits are very poorly known.
58558		population	eng	It is commonly heard but seldom seen. It is considered uncommon in Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992).
58558		threats	eng	Further loss of swampy habitat is the main threat to this species.
58559		conservation	eng	Further surveys are needed to accurately determine this species range. It is protected by national legislation in Israel, and it is present in the Azraq Wetland Reserve, Dana Wildlife Reserve and Al Maujib Wildlife Reserves of Jordan and the Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden, Ammiq marshes and Sandy Beach of Sour protected areas in Lebanon.  It is found several protected areas in Turkey.
58559		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in the eastern Mediterranean. In Turkey this species is widespread along the Aegean coast and the southern part of the Anatolian highlands. It is also found on the Greek islands close to the coast of Turkey including the island of Rhodes (Arnold, 2002), and ranges through much of Cyprus. It is present in eastern Syrian Arab Republic (with isolated populations in the north and east), most of Lebanon (where it is a common species), northeastern Jordan (with an isolated population known from the Azraq Oasis), Lebanon (a common species), much of Israel (except the extreme south), and Egypt (Nile Delta and northeastern Sinai (Disi <em>et al.</em>, 2001; S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It might range more widely, and records from Iraq (not mapped) require confirmation; this will be determined by ongoing taxonomic work. In Jordan the species has been collected from sea level to 1,500m asl.
58559		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species of permanent wetlands with rich aquatic vegetation. The species' habitats include permanent ponds, rain pools, streams, rivers, irrigation channels, reservoirs, marshes, springs and fishponds, being sometimes found in surrounding terrestrial habitats. It is able to survive in areas with organic pollution and tributaries from hot mineral springs. It is a seasonal breeder, with breeding taking place in permanent waterbodies. This species can occur in modified habitats where suitable wetlands exist.
58559		population	eng	It is generally common to abundant in humid areas. In Lebanon it is very abundant in the lowlands and is also common at higher elevations. It is common, but localized in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
58559		threats	eng	It is threatened by a localized loss of habitat through the drainage of wetlands, pollution, excessive drought and the development of coastal areas. It is caught and exported from Turkey to western Europe for food which represents a significant threat. It is exported in large numbers from Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There are no threats to the species in Lebanon. On the smaller islands in Greece where this species is present, it is sometimes threatened by water abstraction by local people.
58560		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Italy. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as part of <em>Rana</em> (=<em>Pelophylax</em>)<em> lessonae</em>). It is present in some protected areas.
58560		distribution	eng	This species is present in peninsular Italy (south of Genoa and Rimini), the islands of Elba and Sicily (Italy) and on the island of Corsica (France). There is probably at least one introduced population in the UK (it is not known if it persists) (not mapped here). It has also been introduced to Sardinia, Italy. It has an altitudinal range of at least up to 1,800m asl.
58560		habitat	eng	It is associated with still and slow moving waters, where it breeds, and the surrounding terrestrial habitats. It may occasionally be found in modified habitats
58560		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
58560		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the localized loss of suitable wetland habitat (presumably through drainage for agriculture and urbanization). <em>Pelophylax</em> species have been widely translocated (they are eaten by people), and different species within the genus hybridize readily; consequently hybridization presents a threat to the genetic integrity of the species.
58561		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic studies are needed. This species occurs in several protected areas and is considered (probably incorrectly) under the Special Protection category by the Red Data Book of the Mexican Government.
58561		distribution	eng	This species can be found in extreme southern New Mexico (Eddy County) and central and western Texas (north to Collin County), USA, south through eastern and southern Mexico through the Yucatán peninsula, Belize, northern Guatemala to northeastern Nicaragua. Introduced and well established at numerous sites along the lower Colorado River from the Mexican border north to Yuma, Arizona, and east 265km along the Gila River, to approximately Buckeye, Maricopa County, replacing native <i>L. yavapaiensis</i> (Platz <i>et al.</i> 1990, Clarkson and Rorabauch 1989, Platz 1991). A dichopatric population is present in western Chihuahua, Mexico (Smith and Chizar, 2003). It has a elevational range of sea level to 2,595m asl (western Chihuahua).
58561		habitat	eng	This species can be found along streams and rivers, springs, stock ponds, backwaters, canals, drainage ditches, and arroyo pools in grassland, shrubland, savannah, desert, and woodland areas; chiefly a stream dweller. It utilizes both temporary and permanent water. Eggs and larvae develop in flowing or non-flowing water (mostly the former).
58561		population	eng	This is one of the most widespread species of the genus. In some areas it has been detected that it can survive even under anthropogenic disturbed circumstances.
58561		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
58562		conservation	eng	Many populations are in preserves of various types, but this does not ensure adequate protection from exotic species.
58562		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the United States in the southern edge of South Dakota to central Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), west to eastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and central New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996), east in the Prairie Peninsula to Indiana, south along the Mississippi River to southeastern Missouri (Johnson 1987). Disjunctive populations occur in southeastern Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabauch 1989), and an apparently introduced population at Ashurst Lake, Coconino County, north-central Arizona (not mapped here) (Brown 1992). It occurs to elevations of around 1,800m asl in Arizona and Colorado, 1,000-2,250m asl in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Stebbins (1985) reported the elevational range as 110-2,590m asl.
58562		habitat	eng	It is usually found in the vicinity of streams, ponds, creek pools, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, and marshes in areas of prairie and desert grassland, farmland, and prairie canyons. Stebbins (1985) also mentioned oak and oak-pine woodland as habitat. It is generally found in or near water, but it may range into surrounding terrestrial habitat in wet weather. When disturbed, it often seeks refuge in vegetation surrounding bodies of water. It burrows into mud and leaves of pond and stream bottoms in winter. It has been found in caves in Oklahoma. See Brown (1992) for further details for various states. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary or permanent pools, ponds, flooded areas, sloughs, and marshes, commonly in muddy water. Males frequently call while floating at the water surface (Brown 1992).
58562		population	eng	There are hundreds of occurrences (Brown 1992) of this species. Most state accounts do not distinguish between historical and recent occurrences. Recorded from virtually every county within its range in Texas (Dixon 2000). Documented in every one of several dozen counties in Kansas (Collins 1993). Recorded in nearly every county (about 47) within the range in Missouri (Johnson 1987). Lynch (1978) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Nebraska. Recently recorded from about 25 counties in Illinois; 17 additional counties have pre-1980 records; widespread but not abundant in peripheral prairie remnants and south along the Mississippi River bottomlands (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999). Hammerson (1999) mapped approximately 100 collection/observation sites in Colorado. Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> (1996) recorded 100+ locations in New Mexico. It is "locally common" and "commonly seen" in suitable habitat in north central Texas and the Texas Panhandle (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000). It is common throughout Kansas, found in every aquatic situation (Collins 1993). It is widespread and locally common throughout historical range in Colorado (Hammerson 1999). Declines or extirpations of local populations have been noted in Iowa (Christiansen and Bailey 1991), Illinois (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999), Arizona (Frost and Bagnara 1977, Frost 1983, Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989), Colorado (Hammerson 1982, 1999), and Texas (Platz 1981); see also Hayes and Jennings (1986). However, these declines have been noted primarily around the margins of the range; the species apparently remains common and relatively stable in the range core.
58562		threats	eng	Suggested causes of declines or extirpations of local populations include water pollution; groundwater pumping; introduction of exotic fishes and amphibians; agricultural development; increased aridity/drought; habitat loss or alteration; toxicants; competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana berlandieri</span>; and predation by, competition with, and/or larval inhibition by bullfrogs (see Brown 1992 and Hammerson 1999). In Illinois, most of original habitat has been rendered unsuitable by agriculture (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999).
58563		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute in Ecuador, and might also occur in Zona Reservada de Tumbes, Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape, and Coto de Caza El Angolo in Peru.
58563		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific versant of the Huancabamba Depression, in tributaries of the Río Chira, in the departments of Piura and Tumbes, Peru, and the provinces of El Oro and Loja, Ecuador, at elevations of 300-700m asl.
58563		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical forest, but has also been found in disturbed habitats. It occurs near fast-flowing rivers and reproduces in pools of water near rivers.
58563		population	eng	It is locally common in permanent waterbodies.
58563		threats	eng	The major threat is ongoing habitat loss, mainly as a result of agricultural expansion and human settlement.
58564		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas occur on various public lands throughout the species' range. The most abundant populations are on federal lands, including Conecuh National Forest (Alabama), Eglin Air Force Base (Florida), and Fort Benning (Georgia). These areas receive at least some protection relevant to the needs of this frog. Elsewhere, existing regulatory mechanisms probably are insufficient for adequate protection of breeding and non-breeding habitat. It is listed as a species of special concern in Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and is protected in Alabama. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is currently evaluating the range-wide status of this frog to determine if it warrants federal recommendation as a threatened species (L.V. LaClaire pers. comm.).
58564		distribution	eng	This species is found in the USA from the Coastal Plain from the southern half of North Carolina (Beaufort County) to southern Florida (Collier County on the west coast, Broward County on the east coast), west to the Tombigbee River of Alabama. There are isolated populations in central Alabama (with a historical record from Shelby County) and central Tennessee (Atlig and Lohoefener 1983; Bailey 1991; Conant and Collins 1991; Godley 1992; Redmond and Scott 1996; Miller and Campbell 1996). Most of its range is contained within the range of the gopher tortoise <em>Gopherus polyphemus</em> (Conant and Collins 1991).
58564		habitat	eng	Its primary habitat is native xeric upland habitats, particularly longleaf pine-turkey oak sand hill associations; also xeric to mesic longleaf pine flat woods, sand pine scrub, xeric oak hammocks, and ruderal successional stages of these habitats. It is absent from most coastal islands and dunes (Godley 1992). Burrows of the gopher tortoise or rodents are used for shelter (Gentry and Smith 1968; Lee 1968; Franz 1986), and it also hides under logs and under or in stumps (Wright and Wright 1949). Breeding occurs in ephemeral to semi-permanent graminoid-dominated wetlands that lack large predatory fish (Bailey 1991; Moler and Franz 1987; J.G. Palis unpubl.). This species does not adapt well to habitat degradation or the introduction of predators to its breeding habitat.
58564		population	eng	In Alabama, this frog occurs at six breeding sites (M.A. Bailey pers. comm.). In Florida, it is extant at 79 sites east of the Apalachicola River (R. Franz unpubl.) and it breeds in at least 25 sites west of the Apalachicola River (J.G. Palis pers. comm.). It is known from two specimens in Tennessee (Redmond and Scott 1996; M.A. Bailey pers. comm.), and it is known to occur at seven sites at least in Georgia, including Fort Benning (where 60-110 breeding adults were recorded in a two acre pond; Andrews pers. comm.), Fort Stewart (18 breeding sites recorded; D.J. Stevenson pers. comm.), McIntosh County, Baker County (at least five sites), Charlton County (C.W. Seyle unpubl.), Taylor County (three breeding sites), and Marion County. It is known from two sites (Savannah River Ecology Lab and Santee Coastal Reserve) in South Carolina. In North Carolina, it breeds at 11 sites (A.L. Braswell unpubl.). Though few data are available concerning changes in the species’ population status, much information exists on the reduction of its habitat and breeding sites. The longleaf pine (<em>Pinus palustris</em>) community, the ecosystem primarily inhabited by this species, has been reduced to less than 5% of its historical range (Frost 1993; Outcalt and Sheffield 1996). Bailey (1994) reported that eight of 14 known breeding sites in Alabama are considered historic and of the six extant ponds, only three supported substantial populations. However, since that study, one historic site has been reconfirmed as extant, two additional breeding ponds have been discovered, and one previously known breeding site has been extirpated due to the introduction of predatory fish (M.A. Bailey pers. comm.; J.B. Jensen pers. comm.). Although a few new North Carolina sites have been documented in recent years (Beane and Hoffman 1995, 1997), Braswell (1993) found only 11 of 32 previously known breeding sites to be active in North Carolina. Twelve sites are known from South Carolina, though only four remain extant (S.H. Bennett pers. comm.). Of 23 historic breeding sites in Georgia investigated by Seyle (1994) 12 were judged suitable, eight were considered degraded but marginally suitable, and three were judged unsuitable. Only one site was found to contain the frogs during two extensive surveys of Georgia's coastal plain in late winter and early spring of 1995. However, heavy rains during the autumn of the previous year might have contributed to early breeding, and therefore low detectability during the survey period (Moulis 1995a,b). Extensive surveys are lacking for Florida. The total population size of this species is not known but it is apparently declining in many areas.
58564		threats	eng	Threats to this species are many and include loss of longleaf pine habitat through maximum-yield timber management (for example, through establishment of pine monocultures) and decreased frequency of fire; introduction of predatory fish into breeding ponds; road construction near breeding sites; and declining populations of gopher tortoises whose burrows are used extensively by gopher frogs (Bailey 1991; Godley 1992). Mechanical site preparation techniques (such as roller chopping) destroy burrow openings, which may trap inhabitants. Routine pine straw harvest and associated removal of herbaceous vegetation also degrades the habitat quality (A.L. Braswell pers. comm.). Introduction of predatory game fishes (<em>Lepomis</em> spp. and <em>Micropterus</em> spp.) is detrimental as these species feed upon gopher frog tadpoles and possibly eggs. In some instances, introduction of mosquito fish (<em>Gambusia</em> spp.) can also be detrimental to gopher frogs and other larval amphibians (A.L. Braswell pers. comm.). Breeding sites are often degraded by off-road recreational vehicle (ORV) use or by sand roads that pass through or adjacent to the ponds as vehicular traffic disrupts pond floor micro-topography and eliminates herbaceous vegetation (J.G. Palis pers. comm.). More specifically, large tires of ORVs may break the organic hardpan that lies below the pond floor. This hardpan prevents water from draining into the sand below the wetland (LaClaire and Franz 1991), so breaking the hardpan could result in a shorter hydroperiod and thus make some wetlands unsuitable for gopher frog reproduction. Loss of herbaceous vegetation from ORV use could also discourage gopher frog reproduction since egg masses are attached to stems of herbaceous vegetation (Bailey 1990; J.G. Palis pers. comm.). Erosion of unpaved roads lying adjacent to breeding sites may result in sedimentation into the ponds. Introduction of sediment is exacerbated by the placement of wing ditches that divert water from roads into ponds. Heavy grazing by cattle in summer in dried pond basins might reduce or eliminate frog oviposition sites and/or alter pond nutrient cycling.
58565		conservation	eng	There are no measures required to conserve this species. Instead, eradication of this species from its introduced range is a conservation priority. In Asia, this species is believed to have a negative impact on the native amphibian fauna. It should be monitored and controlled. Farming activities should concentrate on native Rana rugulosa. Farming of Rana catesbeiana should at least be strictly contained, including water discharges from farms that should be carefully controlled or prevented. Ideally, the farming of the species outside its range should be prohibited. Studies of actual and potential ecological impacts should be conducted, perhaps leading to an elimination programme. Awareness of the potential threat posed by this species to native biodiversity must be raised.<br/>The Venezuelan government has taken actions to avoid the spread of this species. There has been an eradication program, with participants from the University of Los Andes at Mérida, the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research (IVIC) and the Ministry of Environment, instated at the beginning of 2002.
58565		conservation	eng	There are no measures required to conserve this species. Instead, eradication of this species from its introduced range is a conservation priority. In Asia, this species is believed to have a negative impact on the native amphibian fauna. It should be monitored and controlled. Farming activities should concentrate on native <span style="font-style: italic;">Hoplobatrachus rugulosus</span>. Farming of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lithobates catesbeianus </span>should at least be strictly contained, including water discharges from farms that should be carefully controlled or prevented. Ideally, the farming of the species outside its range should be prohibited. Studies of actual and potential ecological impacts should be conducted, perhaps leading to an elimination programme. Awareness of the potential threat posed by this species to native biodiversity must be raised. The Venezuelan government has taken actions to avoid the spread of this species. There has been an eradication program, with participants from the University of Los Andes at Mérida, the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research (IVIC) and the Ministry of Environment, instated at the beginning of 2002.
58565		distribution	eng	This is a very wide-ranging species. Its native range is from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, southern Quebec, Canada, south to eastern North America, except southern Florida, USA, then southward through Veracruz, Mexico. It is also found in Sinaloa, and probably other areas in Mexico, as well (these are not shown on the map). This species was introduced to Mexico at the beginning of last century. It was introduced to 'La Garita' in Costa Rica, but now appears to be extinct in this country (G.&#160; Chaves pers. comm.). It is also introduced in Cuba, Puerto Rico (introduced 1935), Hawaii (introduced mid- to late 1800s, now on all main islands), Isla de la Juventud, Hispaniola (only confirmed in northern and eastern Dominican Republic, not in Haiti) and Jamaica. Its range is increasing in some areas. It is introduced to South America. In Venezuela, there is an expanding population near La Azulita, in Mérida state, at the Andean versants facing Lake Maracaibo basin. In Colombia it is known from the Middle Magdalena Valley, north to the lowlands on the Caribbean coast. It has also been found in Bogotá, although it is not known whether it has established a population there. In Peru it has become established around Iquitos in central Loreto Department in the Amazon Basin, and also around Lima on the Pacific coast. There are also a number of populations established in Ecuador and Brazil. It has been introduced in Rincón de Pando, Canelones, Uruguay, and in Misiones, Argentina. In Europe, where it is introduced, the largest population occurs within the Po River Valley (Italy) where formal introductions continued at least until 1937. Other populations have been reported from Belgium (recorded from several sites in Wallonia and at least one population is known in Flanders), the Netherlands, central and southwestern France, Germany (in the vicinity of Bonn and also in Baden-Wuttemburg), Greece (Crete), Spain (Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here], Villasbuenas de Gata in Cacerés [not recently observed and not mapped here] and Sierra de Collserola, Cataluña Province [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here]) and the United Kingdom (possibly now eradicated). It has possibly been introduced to Switzerland, although this requires further confirmation. In Asia, where it is also introduced, it is found in several localities in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand [not mapped here] and Singapore [not mapped here]. It has been introduced to mainland China and Taiwan, Province of China, for raising in farms for human consumption. Feral populations have become established in Taiwan, Province of China, Kunming in Yunnan province, Sichuan, Xinjiang and possibly other places in China as a result of escape or deliberate release. Individuals have been found in the wild in Hong Kong probably from releases of market animals. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this species is now established in Hong Kong. It is found widely from southern Hokkaido to Ishigakijima in Japan.
58565		distribution	eng	This is a very wide-ranging species. Its native range is from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, southern Quebec, Canada, south to eastern North America, except southern Florida, USA, then southward through Veracruz, Mexico. It is also found in Sinaloa, and probably other areas in Mexico, as well (these are not shown on the map). This species was introduced to Mexico at the beginning of last century. It was introduced to 'La Garita' in Costa Rica, but now appears to be extinct in this country (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). It is also introduced in Cuba, Puerto Rico (introduced 1935), Hawaii (introduced mid- to late 1800s, now on all main islands), Isla de la Juventud, Hispaniola (only confirmed in northern and eastern Dominican Republic, not in Haiti) and Jamaica. Its range is increasing in some areas. It is introduced to South America. In Venezuela, there is an expanding population near La Azulita, in Mérida state, at the Andean versants facing Lake Maracaibo basin. In Colombia it is known from the Middle Magdalena Valley, north to the lowlands on the Caribbean coast. It has also been found in Bogotá, although it is not known whether it has established a population there. In Peru it has become established around Iquitos in central Loreto Department in the Amazon Basin, and also around Lima on the Pacific coast. There are also a number of populations established in Ecuador and Brazil. It has been introduced in Rincón de Pando, Canelones, Uruguay, and in Misiones, Argentina. In Europe, where it is introduced, the largest population occurs within the Po River Valley (Italy) where formal introductions continued at least until 1937. Other populations have been reported from Belgium (recorded from several sites in Wallonia and at least one population is known in Flanders), the Netherlands, central and southwestern France, Germany (in the vicinity of Bonn and also in Baden-Wuttemburg), Greece (Crete), Spain (Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here], Villasbuenas de Gata in Cacerés [not recently observed and not mapped here] and Sierra de Collserola, Cataluña Province [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here]) and the United Kingdom (possibly now eradicated). It has possibly been introduced to Switzerland, although this requires further confirmation. In Asia, where it is also introduced, it is found in several localities in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand [not mapped here] and Singapore [not mapped here]. It has been introduced to mainland China and Taiwan, Province of China, for raising in farms for human consumption. Feral populations have become established in Taiwan, Province of China, Kunming in Yunnan province, Sichuan, Xinjiang and possibly other places in China as a result of escape or deliberate release. Individuals have been found in the wild in Hong Kong probably from releases of market animals. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this species is now established in Hong Kong. It is found widely from southern Hokkaido to Ishigakijima in Japan.
58565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ponds, swamps, lakes, reservoirs, marshes, brackish ponds (in Hawaii), stream margins and irrigation ditches. It is sometimes found in temporary waters hundreds of metres from permanent water. It winters at the bottom of pools. It may disperse from water in wet weather. Eggs and larvae develop in permanent slow or non-flowing bodies of water.
58565		population	eng	There are thousands of occurrences of this species. It is highly abundant and its global population is increasing. Although some of the populations in Europe of this species are increasing, other introductions not have become fully established. In Asia, it is only present in isolated pockets. Animals have been deliberately introduced to northern Thailand in the hope of augmenting native frog production. Farmed animals are exported alive to East Asia (Pariyanonth and Daorerk 1995, Lim and Lim 1992) and can escape or be released to become established. A growing population is now established in the Venezuelan Andes (C. Gottberg and A. Diaz pers. comm.), near the town of Jají, in Mérida State.
58565		population	eng	There are thousands of occurrences of this species. It is highly abundant and its global population is increasing. Although some of the populations in Europe of this species are increasing, other introductions not have become fully established. In Asia, it is only present in isolated pockets. Animals have been deliberately introduced to northern Thailand in the hope of augmenting native frog production. Farmed animals are exported alive to East Asia (Pariyanonth and Daorerk, 1995; Lim and Lim, 1992) and can escape or be released to become established. A growing population is now established in the Venezuelan Andes (C. Gottberg and A. Diaz pers. comm.), near the town of Jají, in Mérida State.
58565		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species. Outside its native range, this species is considered a pest. It has been observed predating on native species in Puerto Rico, including on <em>Leptodactylus albilabris</em>, and is a potential predator of other native species throughout its introduced range. It is a possible vector of pathogens.
58566		conservation	eng	It occurs in Lore Lindu National Park, where it is abundant.
58566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. It occurs below 700m asl.
58566		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland forest, including heavily disturbed forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams and perhaps ponds and marshes.
58566		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58566		threats	eng	It is presumably impacted by the loss of its habitat.
58567		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It probably occurs in a protected area on Karpathos, but there is a need for further research into the range and low population of this species. Monitoring and effective protection and appropriate management of the single site at which it is known to occur is needed.
58567		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Karpathos Island, Greece. It is currently only known with certainty from a single river, near Olimbos in the mountains on the north side of the island, and it does not appear to range more widely.
58567		habitat	eng	It is a mostly aquatic species, largely restricted to permanent still or slow-running waters and apparently sensitive to habitat change. Breeding and larval development presumably take place in these waterbodies.
58567		population	eng	The known population on Karpathos is reported to be 'modest' (Beerli <em>et al.</em> 1994). Earlier literature sources from the 1960s have indicated that water frogs were abundant on the island, but around 1992 they were difficult to find (with very few adults being observed, but several juveniles) (P. Beerli pers. comm.). Recent reports indicate that it is quite common in its single site on Karpathos. Current population trend has not been quantified, but there certainly was a decline from the 1960s to the present.
58567		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation of suitable aquatic habitats. Although the site from which the species is known is fairly remote, freshwater habitats are subject to a number of threats such as excessive water abstraction and climate change. Fires are an additional potential threat, and the species may be vulnerable to climate change.
58568		conservation	eng	Provided existing protected areas and watershed forests remain reasonably intact, and that there isn't an epidemic event of chytridiomycosis, the species appears reasonably secure.   It is important to assess the presence and extent of the impact of the chytrid fungus on frog populations in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kusrini <em>et al. </em>2008).
58568		distribution	eng	We restrict this species to southern Sumatra, Java and Bali (Indonesia). Specimens from outside this range are referred to in the accounts for <span style="font-style: italic;">H. raniceps and H. mocquardi</span> (Sulawesi only). It is present below 1,571 m asl.
58568		habitat	eng	It is typically seen on rocks and vegetation along small lowland forest streams, but is also seen away from streams in forest, or in highland areas. Primary and degraded forests are equally favoured, but a reasonably closed canopy and gently flowing water are essential. Adults disperse widely in the forest and may even be found in wooded gardens. Breeding occurs at quiet side pools of forest streams or in temporary ponds at the edges of forests. On Sumatra it also breeds in ponds and in paddy fields. The maximum clutch size of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. chalconota</span> is 2,207  eggs and it breeds year round (Premo 1985). Tadpoles live inside pools and quiet, deeper sections of streams (Grandison 1972, Dring 1979).
58568		population	eng	It is generally common in lowland forest streams, and is less common but still present in highland areas.
58568		threats	eng	It has recently tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</span>, although there are currently no reports of population declines for this species (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
58569		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.
58569		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern China in Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, from 1,100 up to 3,000m asl. It presumably occurs in neighbouring countries, in particular Viet Nam and Myanmar, but there have not so far been any records.
58569		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, shrubland, alpine meadows and lakeshores. It breeds in marshes, ponds, ditches and backwaters in rivers.
58569		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58569		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular agriculture and water pollution.
58570		conservation	eng	The population in Thailand inhabits Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary. In Viet Nam it is known from Hoang Lien Son National Park and Kon Ka Kinh Nature Reserve. In Lao People's Democratic Republic it is known from Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Detailed survey data is needed, based on which further conservation measures can be formulated. Taxonomic re-evaluation of this species is needed, in particular with regards to similar species recorded from China and with specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Babina lini</span> from Viet Nam and Thailand.
58570		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sa Pa area of north and central Viet Nam (Bourret 1942) as well as from a single location in northern north-east Thailand (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999; as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. adenopleura</span>) and from Xieng Khouang and Salavan provinces in Lao People's Democratic Republic. In Thailand it has been recorded at about 1,400-1,500 m asl, and in Viet Nam from 500-1,900 m asl, while in Lao People's Democratic Republic it is known from 1,220 m asl.
58570		habitat	eng	In Thailand it was observed at pools and small streams surrounded by dense grassy and shrubby vegetation in montane scrub forest on peat and sand. Tadpoles inhabit the same streams. In Viet Nam it is known from pools in scrubby vegetation, evergreen forest and grazing areas. It was reported from the vicinity of a brick factory at Sa Pa (Bourret 1942). In Lao People's Democratic Republic it was reported from a slow-moving muddy stream with palm trees (Stuart 2005).
58570		population	eng	Locally, it was apparently common in 1937 (Bourret 1942). It is frequently encountered during the breeding season and is considered to be locally common (S. Swan and T. Nguyen pers. comm.). It is not uncommon at the single known location in Thailand (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.).
58570		threats	eng	It is adaptable to habitat degradation, but habitat impacts at Sa Pa have accelerated recently (BirdLife International 2001) which might pose a threat. It is consumed locally in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005).
58571		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park and Saddle Peak National Park, and is protected by national legislation in India.
58571		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to small parts of South Andaman and North Andaman in the Andaman Islands of India, below 500m asl, where it is currently known only from Mount Harriet and Saddle Peak.
58571		habitat	eng	It is thought to be an arboreal species of tropical moist forest. Breeding takes place in tree holes by larval development.
58571		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species.
58571		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is forest loss due to clear-cutting.
58572		conservation	eng	There are many protected areas within its range. It can be successfully reproduced in captivity; farming of this frog takes place in north and northeastern China. It is listed on the Red Data Book of Mongolia.
58572		distribution	eng	This complex species is widespread in central and northeastern China, and is also considered to be present in eastern and southeastern Mongolia (a distinct isolated population at Ganga-Nuur Lake, Dariganga Sum, Sukhbaatar Aimag). It occurs at elevations of 600-4,000m asl.
58572		habitat	eng	It is associated with hill forests, particularly those near streams, rivers and ponds. It also occurs in cultivated fields, marshes and lakeshores. It breeds in small pools close to rivers and other wetlands, and it hibernates underwater in streams and rivers.
58572		population	eng	It is very widespread and common in China; in Mongolia it is more sporadically distributed.
58572		threats	eng	In northeastern China, the main threat is over-exploitation for food and traditional Chinese medicine. Throughout its Chinese range, it is also threatened by general habitat destruction and degradation. The threats to Mongolian populations are not known.
58573		conservation	eng	The only known location for this species is inside the Mount Emei Scenic Area World Heritage Site. However, further survey work is required on Mount Emei to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild.
58573		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Mount Emei, in Sichuan Province, China. It has been recorded from 1,600-1,800m asl.
58573		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of mixed forests, and breeds in still-water pools and ponds.
58573		population	eng	It is known from only one location, and has not been seen since 1983, despite many searches.
58573		threats	eng	Small-scale agriculture is continuing on parts of Mount Emei, and atmospheric pollution is leading to the acidification of streams.
58574		conservation	eng	The species is not present in any protected areas, and maintenance of the vegetation surrounding the lake should be a priority conservation action. The population status of this species requires careful monitoring.
58574		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Lago de Las Minas, about 6km southeast of San José Alchichica, Puebla, Mexico. Lago de Las Minas is approximately 1km long by 0.5km wide. It might be found in other similar habitats within the same valley, although this has yet to be determined. Nevertheless, its range is likely to be very restricted. It occurs at approximately 2,324m asl.
58574		habitat	eng	It is known only from the vegetation (bullrushes) surrounding the eastern shore of Lago de Las Minas, and presumably breeds in the lakes' waters. It is not known if this species can adapt to modified habitats.
58574		population	eng	This species is known to be quite scarce.
58574		threats	eng	The water-level in the lake has dropped approximately 2m since the 1950s, principally through extensive groundwater pumping for agricultural development. There is also continued deterioration in the quality of habitat surrounding the lake.
58575		conservation	eng	It occurs in Coconino, Tonto, Apache, Sitgreaves, Gila, and Coronado national forests (Jennings 1995; Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Both the northern and southern populations of <em>R. chiricahuensis</em> are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 2002, and a recovery team was established in 2003. Conservation actions will include both short-term interim actions to prevent further deterioration of the species’ status, and longer-term planning for eventual recovery of the species. Arizona Game and Fish Commission Order 41 prohibit the collection of this species from the wild in Arizona. It is included as Wildlife of Special Concern in Arizona (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1996). Priority research topics include identification of the importance of disease, pesticides and other contaminants, climate change, UV radiation, fire management, and possibly other threats to the status and recovery potential of the Chiricahua Leopard Frog. Also, research is needed on key aspects of the frog’s status, distribution, and ecology.
58575		distribution	eng	This species is known from Arizona and New Mexico in the United States, and from Mexico (Platz and Mecham 1979). The range of this species is divided into two areas. The first includes northern montane populations along the southern edge of the Colorado Plateau (= Mogollon Rim) in central and eastern Arizona and west-central New Mexico. The second includes southern populations located in the mountains and valleys south of the Gila River in south-eastern Arizona and south-western New Mexico, and extends into Mexico along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental (Platz and Mecham 1979). Populations in the northern portion of the range might soon be described as a new species (Platz pers. comm.). Elevations of Chiricahua Leopard Frog localities range from 1,000-2,710m asl (Platz and Mecham 1979; Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997; Smith and Chiszar 2003).
58575		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of permanent and semi-permanent aquatic systems in oak, mixed oak and pine woodlands, chaparral, grassland, and even desert habitats (Stebbins 1985b). The perennial or near-perennial habitats from which they are known or likely to have occurred and reproduced include springs, cienegas, earthen cattle tanks, small creeks, and slack water of main-stem rivers (Sredl and Jennings 2005). Many habitats are modified or artificial aquatic systems (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997; Sredl and Saylor 1998). Deep areas, root masses, and undercut banks are used when escaping capture. Habitat heterogeneity is likely important. The frogs will move into newly created suitable habitat rapidly, if near to occupied habitat (Sredl and Jennings 2005).
58575		population	eng	It is rare in suitable habitat. It is known from several dozen locations in Arizona and New Mexico, in addition to others elsewhere in the range. Local abundance appears to fluctuate greatly. Populations in stock tanks generally include fewer than 100 individuals. Historically, it occurred at 212 sites in Arizona, 170 in New Mexico, and 12-13 in Mexico (USFWS 2000). These numbers pertain to both <em>R. chiricahuensis</em> and the undescribed new species from the northern portion of the range. It is now absent from many historical localities and numerous mountain ranges, valleys, and drainages within its former range (USFWS 2000). Where still present, populations often are few, small, and widely scattered (USFWS 2000). Possibly some disappearances from historical sites represent natural fluctuations rather than long-term declines caused by human impacts, but in most areas disappearances appear to reflect real, on-going declines (USFWS 2000).
58575		threats	eng	The most important threats are disease (chytridiomycosis, documented in this species as early as 1992), non-native predators and competitors (bullfrogs, sport fish, crayfish), effects of small, isolated populations, loss of aquatic habitat through drying, damming, diverting, or siltation, and heavy grazing (USFWS 2002).
58576		conservation	eng	Existing protected areas seem to secure viable populations throughout the range of the taxon, and their maintenance is of prime importance. Further taxonomic work is urgently needed, as this might be a species complex containing a number of highly threatened species. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58576		distribution	eng	This taxon ranges from northeastern India (West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram), possibly Bangladesh (its presence in this country requires confirmation) through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic and much of Viet Nam to central and southern China (Shannxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan and Hong Kong). The southern limit in Peninsular Thailand is uncertain [Smith (1930) noted specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. chloronota</span> (as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. livida</span>) from Nakhon Si Thammarat and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hosii</span> from Chumphon, indicating a substantial overlap]. Taylor (1962) ignored any peninsular occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. chloronota</span> (as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. livida</span>). It ranges from 100-1,900 m asl.
58576		habitat	eng	It inhabits forested montane river. The rivers can vary from shallow and slow moving to torrential and deep. Animals can be found on boulders and logs, both in and around the water. It is presumed to breed in streams, but its breeding habits are unknown.
58576		population	eng	In South Asia this is regarded as a common frog with a stable population. In Southeast Asia it is not a rare frog but it is rarely common, never reaching the densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hosii</span> in comparable habitat.
58576		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation, the pollution of waterways (often with agrochemicals), and hydrological changes. These frogs are harvested for food by some ethnic groups in Viet Nam and farmers in China (Yunnan and Hainan). Often, only the females are harvested, as these are thought to be 'adult' frogs (Bain <em>et al.</em> 2003).
58577		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas. It is currently included in legislation by the Ministry of the Environment of the Republic of Korea.
58577		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea.
58577		habitat	eng	It inhabits rice paddies and ponds.
58577		population	eng	It is greatly reduced in numbers, and has recently been recorded from only four locations.
58577		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are the major threats to this species, in particular due to changes in agricultural land use from rice to other crops, which is greatly reducing the habitat available to the species. Infrastructure development and water pollution pose additional threats.
58578		conservation	eng	No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58578		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout eastern USA and adjacent southeastern Canada (Conant and Collins 1991). Introduced in Newfoundland, British Columbia (not mapped here), Washington, Utah, and probably elsewhere.
58578		habitat	eng	It can be found on the margins of virtually any body of permanent or semi-permanent water; young may use temporary pools. It may disperse from water in wet weather, especially at night. It seeks cover under objects on land, underground, or in water when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow, slow- or non-flowing water.
58578		population	eng	Thousands of populations are abundant and stable.
58578		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
58579		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58579		distribution	eng	This taxon is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Cordofan", which is in modern-day Sudan, and not in Egypt (Baha El Din pers. comm.).
58579		habitat	eng	This is presumably an aquatic species that breeds by larval development.
58579		population	eng	Its population is not known.
58579		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58580		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Kerinci Seblat National Park.
58580		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities (Barisan, Kerinci, Batang, Tarusan and Solok) in west Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is probably at around 1,200m asl.
58580		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest, and the type specimen had unpigmented eggs, suggesting that the eggs are hidden in streams. The specimens collected recently in Solok were found along the banks of streams in forested habitat.
58580		population	eng	A very large series was recently collected from a new locality near Solok, and this is believed to be the first collection of this species since the original description. There has been very little surveying of this area so its population status is still unknown.
58580		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58581		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Although it occurs in many protected areas, several are not well protected or managed for biodiversity conservation. Further research into the population status and distribution of this species is urgently needed.
58581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece, where it is patchily distributed in the lowlands over a wide area generally below 100m asl.
58581		habitat	eng	It is associated with wetlands including slow-moving rivers and streams, lakes and marshes. Breeding and larval development presumably take place in these waterbodies.
58581		population	eng	It does not appear to be particularly abundant, and is especially difficult to find in dry years.
58581		threats	eng	The loss of aquatic habitats is the principal threat to this species. Extraction of stream water in the uplands for agricultural irrigation (for bananas) leaves many lowland reaches dry during the summer months. Additional habitat loss may be occurring through infrastructure and tourism development. It might be impacted by the introduction of <em>Lithobates catesbeiana</em>.
58582		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Safeguarding the ecological integrity of its forest habitat, particularly with regard to fire containment within protected areas, should be a priority. Research is needed to determine the geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
58582		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities through Thailand, eastern Myanmar, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and southern China (Smith, 1930; Taylor, 1962; Yang, 1991; Zhang and Wen, 2000; Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Through most of this area it is known from very few records. In southern China it is so far known from southern Yunnan, Guangxi, Gaungdong and Hainan provinces. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, for example in northern viet Nam. It is found at about 500-760m asl.
58582		habitat	eng	It is a poorly known species that has been recorded from monsoon evergreen forest and rainforest, usually on the forest floor in the vicinity of fast-flowing streams, creeks and rivers. It probably breeds in streams.
58582		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon species, and is only occasionally encountered through most of its range.
58582		threats	eng	It is apparently restricted to closed-canopy evergreen forest, and is probably threatened by logging, agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements and fire.
58583		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Goa, and it is protected by national legislation.
58583		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Western Ghats of India, from 500-2,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58583		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial leaf-litter frog, found in a number of tropical forest types (evergreen to semi-evergreen moist forest, and into dry deciduous forest). It is also found in lightly degraded areas. It breeds in natural and artificial waterbodies (in both ponds and large lakes).
58583		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
58583		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is general habitat loss through conversion to agricultural land and plantations (including eucalyptus, coffee and tea), and exploitation of its habitat for timber and wood by local people. Road kill during migration to breeding habitats is also a problem. The larvae of this species are collected for local consumption.
58584		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II the Bern Convention and on Appendix IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is protected by national legislation in many countries and is recorded in several national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in Turkey is needed. Conservation initiatives involving head-starting have been undertaken for the small Jersey population which have been remarkably successful. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.  In Spain, it is an endangered species and there are habitat restoration and population monitoring efforts ongoing.  In some parts of its range, there have been successful efforts to restore pond habitats.
58584		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in much of Europe and northern Turkey. Within Europe it is widespread, but it is restricted to Álava, Burgos and Navarra Provinces in Spain, the southeast coastline of Sweden and the islands of Denmark, and it is absent from Portugal, the British Isles (except the island of Jersey, where a small population is present). In addition, there is a need to confirm the presence of this species in Poland, where it is supposed to occur in the southeast. In the former Soviet Union, it is known only from the Transcarpathian Plain (including adjacent foothills and mountain slopes) of the Ukraine. In Turkey this species is found in Turkish Thrace and northern parts of Anatolia; further studies are needed to determine the distributions of Rana dalmatina and Rana macrocnemis along the southern Black Sea coastline. It occurs from sea level to elevations approaching 1,700m asl.
58584		habitat	eng	It is found in glades and open sites within light deciduous woodland (oak, beech, hornbeam etc.), and less frequent in meadows and thickets. It generally it does not occur in pasture, arable areas or coniferous forests. In Spain the species is restricted to <em>Quercus pedunculata</em> oak forest, and is associated with wet meadows. It spawns in small wetlands (pools, fens and marshes, ditches) within forests and at their edges. High levels of larval mortality have been recorded.
58584		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species. The species is common in much of central and eastern Europe (e.g.. Hungary and Romania). In Turkey it is patchily distributed. It is scarce to uncommon in northern Europe (e.g.. Sweden, Denmark). In Spain, it is extremely rare.
58584		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by the drainage and eutrophication of breeding sites, development (and logging) of suitable habitat, and replacement of deciduous forest habitat with unsuitable coniferous species. It is locally threatened by road mortality during breeding migrations. Grossenbacher (in Krone <em>et al.</em>, 1997) reported skin diseases (possibly associated with viral infection) in populations from Switzerland and northern Italy that are potentially related to declines and may be related to polluted water. It is experiencing localized declines in southwestern Europe.
58586		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. It is currently protected in many provinces of China.
58586		distribution	eng	This species is known from central China in southeastern Sichuan, northeastern Yunnan and western Guizhou provinces, from 1,000-1,800m asl.
58586		habitat	eng	It inhabits marshes, pools, ponds and the surrounding habitats in hilly areas. It lives in still water ponds. It nests and breeds around the ponds in May.
58586		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58586		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
58587		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status needs to be resolved.
58587		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bandar Bharu in north Sumatra, Indonesia. It is presumably a lowland species.
58587		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecological preferences of this species, which presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58587		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, which is now lost, so its population status is not known.
58587		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
58588		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. The effect of the local trade on the population status of the species in the Lake Pátzcuaro area needs to be evaluated, and there is a need to manage the offtake of this species for human consumption in a sustainable manner. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58588		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Pátzcuaro, Lake Cuitzeo and the surrounding streams in Río de Morelia, central Michoacán, Mexico.
58588		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that lives in deep water with abundant nutrients; eggs are laid in the streams.
58588		population	eng	It used to be common but over harvesting has greatly reduced the population.
58588		threats	eng	This species is locally exploited for human consumption, particularly around the Lake Pátzcuaro area where it is considered a delicious dish. However, no data are available regarding the number of individuals in the local trade.
58589		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
58589		distribution	eng	This species is considered here to occur in the Russian Far East from near the confluence of the Zeya River into the Amur River eastwards to the Pacific coast and northwards to the southeast of East Siberia (Yakutia), the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and Tushima Island in Japan. It might also occur in northern China, however further taxonomic studies are needed to confirm this. The altitudinal range of this species is sea level to at least 900m asl.
58589		habitat	eng	Although this species is generally associated with areas of broadleaf, coniferous and mixed woodland, it may also be found at the forest edge, in valleys, in wet lowland meadows and in paddy fields. It breeds in stagnant and slow-flowing waterbodies such as lakes, ponds, ditches, pools at stream edges and puddles. Animals may hibernate underwater in streams. It can be found close to human habitations.
58589		population	eng	It is a widespread and common frog. Some localized population declines caused by habitat loss have been observed.
58589		threats	eng	Some populations of this species have declined because of industrial pollution, urbanization and the construction of reservoirs. In the 1990s, mass collecting of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dybowskii</span>, mainly in the Primorye Region of Russia, for the trade in traditional Asian medicine led to population declines at a number of sites. Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.
58590		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine the status of this species.
58590		distribution	eng	This species is known from Flores, Sumba, Timor (including East Timor), Wetar, Babar and Tanimbar in Indonesia. It is a lowland species.
58590		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland dry forest and savannahs in wet areas, such as marshes and streams. It presumably breeds in water by larval development but there is currently no information.
58590		population	eng	It is probably uncommon, but there is little information. There are a few recent records.
58590		threats	eng	There is no information regarding threats to this species.
58591		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.
58591		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning Provinces) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea. The species is not present in southern Primorye, Russia (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.). The suggestion that the species occurs in Russia (eg. by Bannikov, 1977) is based on the description of Rana emeljanovi Nikolsky, 1913, from Yimianpo, Shangzhi County, Heilongjiang Province, China ("Imienpo Station, Chinese Eastern Railway, Manchuria"), later considered as Rana rugosa emeljanovi (Nikolsky, 1913). A subsequent record eastwards from that locality is close to the border with Russia, and it was expected that the species would occur in the southern Primorye Region based on its existence in Democratic People's Republic of Korea (in close proximity to the Russian border). However, all specimens from Primorye attributed to R. emeljanovi have proven to be other amphibian species, including the frog Rana nigromaculata and even the toad Bufo gargarizans. Special searches for this species in the southernmost part of the Primorye have yet to discover Rana emeljanovi. It has been recorded from 100-300m asl.
58591		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slow-flowing rivers, streams, artificial ponds, paddy fields, wetlands and ditches.. It forages on the banks of watercourses and even in paddy fields, and breeds in the water back area of the streams and rivers and in ponds, paddy fields, ditches, pools and streams.
58591		population	eng	It is a common species.
58591		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular changes of land use from paddy fields to other crops are reducing the species' available habitat.
58592		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas, though it might occur in Amvrakikos Gulf. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
58592		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Greece (including the island of Kerkyra), and southern Albania. It seems likely that populations of this species are fragmented because there are extensive areas of unsuitable habitat within its range. It occurs from sea level to around 500m asl.
58592		habitat	eng	This species is mostly aquatic and is commonly associated with still waters, slow-moving rivers, canals, and marshes, often with rich vegetation at their edges. Breeding and larval development takes place in these waterbodies. It is not known if the species can adapt to changes in habitat.
58592		population	eng	This species has been described as quite abundant throughout much of its range (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997), although some populations are believed to be in decline.
58592		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are general loss of wetland habitat (through drainage for urbanization, tourism and agricultural intensification), water pollution, and large-scale commercial collection for food (it is harvested in enormous numbers in Albania).
58593		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas within its range.
58593		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Asia from Myanmar, east through Mainland Southeast Asia, and then south to Peninsular Southeast Asia including Singapore, and Indonesia and Borneo. It has been introduced to Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippines. It occurs at elevations up to 1,200 m asl.
58593		habitat	eng	It is characteristic of vegetated floodplain ponds and is also frequently associated with rice fields. It breeds only in stagnant waterbodies.
58593		population	eng	It is abundant in appropriate habitats.
58593		threats	eng	The only threats to this species are water pollution by agrochemicals and over-harvesting of populations for food, although these threats are only impacting some populations. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
58594		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive and is protected by national legislation in many countries. It is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58594		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout most of western, central and eastern Europe; populations are largely sympatric with populations of the parental species. It is absent from much of Scandinavia (although present in Denmark and southern most Sweden [it is unclear as to whether or not the Swedish populations are relicts or introductions]). In Italy it is present only with certainty in the River Po plain. The species has been introduced to the United Kingdom [not mapped here] and to Spain at Villasbuenas de Gata, Cáceres and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana. It is generally a lowland taxon which might occur up to approximately 1,550m asl.
58594		habitat	eng	It is a largely aquatic species associated with wetlands such as ponds, channels, ditches and slow moving rivers and streams. It is generally absent from forests, very large pools and strongly flowing waterbodies. The species spawns and larval development takes place within wetland habitats. It can occur in artificial waterbodies, and has spread in parts of its range through the irrigation of formerly unsuitable habitat (e.g.. in parts of Romania).
58594		population	eng	It is generally stable with large populations in Eastern Europe. There have been population declines reported in parts of Western Europe.
58594		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by aquatic pollution (often by agrochemicals) and drainage of wetland habitats. The frog-leg trade and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations of the former Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003). Declines in the parent species <em>R. lessonae</em> can directly affect dependant populations of <em>R. esculenta</em>.
58595		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, although more protected areas need to be established on Mindanao and Negros Islands, to protect the remaining forest on these islands. This species is in need of taxonomic revision.
58595		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from several localities on Mindanao Island in the southern Philippines. Populations on Negros, Panay and Masbate Islands in the Philippines have also been attributed to this species, but might be considered a separate taxon in the future. Until this taxonomic revision is in place, they are still considered here as being part of this species. A population from Lore Lindu National Park in central Sulawesi, Indonesia, has also been attributed to this species but this is most likely in error (Brown pers. comm.) and hence it is not included here.
58595		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in cool mountain streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forest.
58595		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, even in its preferred habitats.
58595		threats	eng	The most significant threat to this species is deforestation due to smallholder agriculture and logging.
58596		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
58596		distribution	eng	This species is known only from China where it has been recorded from Jianyang, Chongan and Dehua of Fujian Province, Longquan and Jiande of Zhejiang Province and Huangshan of Anhui Province. It is found at elevations of 600-1,525m asl.
58596		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountain forest streams. The species breeds in the streams and has a larval development breeding strategy.
58596		population	eng	It is quite common in suitable habitat.
58596		threats	eng	It is threatened by clear-cutting of forest habitat.
58597		conservation	eng	The species is present in Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary and is presumed to occur in other protected areas within the Cardamom Mountain range.
58597		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Cardamom Mountains of western Cambodia. The holotype of this species was collected at 710m asl.
58597		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from a variety of habitat types including dry dipterocarp, lowland dry evergreen and hill evergreen forests, moorland areas on the top of the central range, and flooded forest in the Veal Veng wetland. The species is typically found close to permanent watercourses, often slower moving sections of mountain streams; it is presumed to breed in these streams. It has been recorded from both heavily disturbed areas as well as near-pristine forests.
58597		population	eng	This species is common and widespread in the Cardamom Mountains.
58597		threats	eng	In view of its wide range and adaptability there are presumed to be no major threats to this species.
58598		conservation	eng	It has not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
58598		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores in Indonesia. It is a lowland species.
58598		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland dry forest and savannahs in wet areas, such as marshes and streams. It presumably breeds in water but there is no information.
58598		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but there is only a little information known. There are a few recent records.
58598		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
58599		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58599		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Pacific versant of Mexico, from southwestern Sonora to northwestern Costa Rica, at elevations of 0-1,300m asl.
58599		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland tropical forest and seasonal tropical forest, as other species of frogs it requires the presence of permanent pools and lagoons for reproduction. It has adapted to survive under anthropogenic conditions such as flooded agricultural lands and other water content systems.
58599		population	eng	It is widespread and common.
58599		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is used for human consumption and research, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
58600		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas.
58600		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces in central China and Taiwan, Province of China. It has been recorded below 1,200m asl.
58600		habitat	eng	It inhabits paddy fields, lotus ponds, ponds, marshes and ditches. It breeds in still water.
58600		population	eng	The population in Taiwan, Province of China, is declining, but the population in Mainland China appears to be stable.
58600		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular infrastructure development and water pollution. It is also consumed locally.
58601		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. It is protected by national legislation.
58601		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, in northeastern India. Reports of the species from Manipur by Dutta (1997) require verification. It has an altitudinal range of 40-1,000m asl.
58601		habitat	eng	It is associated with tropical forest, shrubland and grasses of hilly areas. It is believed to breed in streams, although this requires verification. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.
58601		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species, however the population is believed to be declining.
58601		threats	eng	The general threats to this species are ongoing localized deforestation for subsistence use and the development of tourism facilities in areas such as the Garo Hills.
58602		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58602		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across mainland New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and on Waigeo Island (Indonesia) and Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea). It ranges up to 1,000m asl.
58602		habitat	eng	This species is associated with, and breeds in, rainforest streams. It can be found on the forest floor, and perched on vegetation near streams. It does not occur in degraded habitats.
58602		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58602		threats	eng	It is not threatened, except locally by forest loss. It is captured for food by local human communities, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
58603		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas throughout much of its range. Effective preservation of suitable forest habitat is the main conservation measure needed for this species.
58603		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Thailand from Chumphon southwards throughout much of Peninsular Malaysia and the islands of Penang and Pulau Tiga. It is not reported from Singapore. It is also present in swampy areas of Sumatra, Natuna Besar (both Indonesia) and Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found from lowlands up to 700m asl.
58603		habitat	eng	It is known mainly from near pools, swamps, small lakes and slow-flowing rivers enclosed by rainforest, mature rubber plantations and swampy areas. It has also been recorded from a cave habitat (Boulenger, 1912). Breeding takes place in still waters.
58603		population	eng	It is generally not uncommon where it occurs, but it is well camouflaged and its presence is best confirmed by its distinctive call.
58603		threats	eng	In mainland Southeast Asia there are no specific threats recorded for the species. The loss of swamplands is a concern (caused by logging, plantations or wetland drainage) for some populations.
58604		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58604		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread Sri Lankan endemic. It has been recorded from sea level up to 600m asl.
58604		habitat	eng	It is a lowland species of marshes, agricultural land, and grassland and bush forests. It is not present in primary forest. Adults are semi-arboreal and semi-aquatic, and are generally found in marshy areas, and often found on small bushes, under logs, leaf-litter and other ground cover. Tadpoles are found in stagnant waters.
58604		population	eng	It is a common species.
58604		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of habitat through wetland reclamation (for building developments), urbanization and aquatic agrochemical pollution.
58605		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is protected by national legislation in former Yugoslavian countries (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58605		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Balkans, ranging from southeastern Bosnia Herzegovina in the northwest, through western, central and southern Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, most of Greece and southwestern and southern Bulgaria. It occurs at altitudes of 200-2,000m asl.
58605		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic, montane species associated with cold small clear rivers, streams and springs often located in shady deciduous and mixed forest. It may also occur in moors and meadows, and around glacial pools in lakes. Breeding and larval development takes place in these waterbodies. It is presumed that the species can tolerate some slight habitat modification.
58605		population	eng	It is reported to be generally abundant in medium to high-altitude areas (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997), and remains relatively widespread in the Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001).
58605		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of suitable habitat, resulting from forest fires, wetland drainage, construction of dams, etc. It is also affected in some places by pollution.
58606		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, and is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Monitoring of the population is necessary to determine the degree of decline as a result of invasive species.
58606		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern France and north-eastern Spain (Catalonia, Aragon, Navarra and the Basque Country) (Crochet <em>et al.</em> 1995; Dubois and Ohler 1994). It is also present in the southern Rhone Valley (Pagano, Joly and Hotz 1997). It is difficult to determine the distribution limits of this species because of hybridization.
58606		habitat	eng	<em>Rana grafi</em> occurs in mixed colonies with <em>R. perezi</em>, and lives in similar habitat, being found in a wide variety of temporary and permanent waterbodies (such as pools, streams, ditches, and irrigation canals), where it breeds. Terrestrial habitats include forests, scrubland, agricultural areas and coastal marshes.
58606		population	eng	The species' population has been greatly affected by the introduction of <em>P. ridibundus</em>, and in many areas where it was previously found only the invasive species remains.
58606		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is displacement by the invasive species <em>P. ridibundus</em>. It is possibly also threatened by the drainage of suitable wetlands for agricultural, urban and tourism development. Agrochemical pollution of breeding waterbodies is also presumed to be a threat.
58607		conservation	eng	Some protected areas are present within the range of this species in China. The one known location in Viet Nam is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.
58607		distribution	eng	This species is known from hilly areas in south-western China in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and possibly Hunan Provinces, and from one location, Hoang Lien Son National Park, in northern Viet Nam (Ohler <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has been recorded from 1,150-3,200m asl.
58607		habitat	eng	It inhabits medium and small hill streams in montane forest, and sometimes also occurs near still-water pools. It may on occasion leave water to live in forest, shrubland and grassland, but it returns to breed in streams.
58607		population	eng	In China this species was formerly common, but it is now uncommon. In Viet Nam it was found to be relatively common in appropriate habitat (S. Swan pers. comm.)
58607		threats	eng	The main threats to this species in China are over-collecting for local consumption, and habitat destruction and degradation due to shifting agriculture and smallholder farming (which might also be a threat in Viet Nam).
58608		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.
58608		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mao Son Mountains in Tonkin, northern Viet Nam, as well as from Five Finger Mountain on Hainan Island (China), and Ch'ungan Hsien and Yeping, Fujian Province, China. Attempts to map this species' distribution show the approximate localities from where it has been collected. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58608		habitat	eng	This species occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and is believed to breed in these streams.
58608		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58608		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, though it is presumably affected by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming, logging and increasing human settlement.
58609		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. The most important conservation measure needed at present is the designation of the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest on Mindanao as protected areas.
58609		distribution	eng	This species is known from Basilan, Bohol, Camiguin Sur, Dinagat, Samar, and many parts of Mindanao Island, in the southern Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58609		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and lays its eggs in mountain streams, and the tadpoles develop in water.
58609		population	eng	It is common in unpolluted rivers and streams and is also at times common in disturbed habitats, lakes and waterways in deforested areas.
58609		threats	eng	Important threats to this species are the loss of the lowland rainforest and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers especially due to agricultural effluents.
58610		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range and ecological requirements of this species. It is not known from any protected areas.
58610		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known from with certainty only from the Went Mountains, Papua Province, Indonesia, at around 1,300m asl. It might occur more widely. Records from other partos of New Guinea and Seram Island (Indonesia) may refer to other species.
58610		habitat	eng	It presumably inhabits streams in rainforest and breeds in quiet pools on the edge of streams, but there is no direct information.
58610		population	eng	There is no information. It is known from just two specimens collected in the early part of the 20th Century.
58610		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58611		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58611		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern South Carolina to southern Florida, west to southeastern Texas, United States (Conant and Collins 1991). It is introduced on the Great Bahamas Bank (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), in northern Puerto Rico where it is well established (Rios-Lopez and Joglar 2000).
58611		habitat	eng	This species occurs in permanent lakes, ponds, swamps, marshes, and streams; especially those with abundant emergent or floating herbaceous vegetation; old rice fields and rice field reservoirs. Occurs in mangroves in the Bahamas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Eggs and larvae develop in permanent bodies of water. In South Carolina, males moved from cypress-hardwood zone to grass-herb zone 40-50m asl from shore during breeding period; females in grass-herb zone were ready to ovulate (Lamb 1984). When calling, males float in water.
58611		population	eng	Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) stated that this species, though still readily found, does not seem to be as common as in the past (Florida). Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) indicated that populations decline during droughts and "erupt" in wet years (Texas).
58611		threats	eng	Local populations are presumably impacted by urbanization and other forms of infrastructure development. It is a possible threat to native species in Puerto Rico, and it might be a vector of pathogens.
58612		conservation	eng	Many protected areas support this species. No active conservation intervention appears necessary at present. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China. Monitoring of the population status appears warranted, especially where it appears to have declined and where it has been introduced and continues to expand its range (Guam).
58612		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Viet Nam, north to southern and central China in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. It has been introduced to Guam, where it has established an expanding breeding population (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It has been recorded up to 1,100 m asl.
58612		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits pools, paddy fields, marshes, ditches and slow-moving streams and the surrounding habitat in lowlands and low plateaus. It breeds in pools and slow moving streams. It is tolerant of habitat modification and has also been observed breeding in artificial pools and rice fields.
58612		population	eng	Available data indicate that the species is relatively common in Viet Nam (Bourret 1941; S. Swan pers. comm.) and is able to survive in good numbers in disturbed habitats. In China it has declined significantly in some parts of its range because of habitat loss and degradation, and over-consumption. It seems to be expanding its range rapidly in Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
58612		threats	eng	While the species is consumed and traded, it has also taken advantage of the habitat provided by wet rice culture, and survives in disturbed habitats. In China, however, its decline in some parts of its range has been associated to habitat loss and degradation.
58613		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species is within protected areas.
58613		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and south-western Hainan, where it is known from Jiangfenglian, Diaoluoshan, Wuzhishan, Yinggeling and Wanning counties, China. It has been recorded from 200-900m asl. It is likely to be found in other locations.
58613		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits large to medium streams and the surrounding forests. Breeding takes place in streams.
58613		population	eng	It is a very rare species (Lu Sunqing pers. comm.).
58613		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation caused by shifting agriculture, past logging in the area, and the construction of hydroelectric power plants.
58614		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58614		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from southern North Carolina (at least formerly) to northern Florida, west to southeastern Mississippi (Conant and Collins 1991).
58614		habitat	eng	It occurs in swamps along streams and edges of shallow ponds and impoundments (including beaver ponds). Eggs and larvae develop in permanent swamp waters.
58614		population	eng	In Florida, it can be quite common in proper habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
58614		threats	eng	Local populations are presumably impacted by urbanization and other forms of infrastructure development.
58615		conservation	eng	Part of its range is within Cenwanglaoshan Nature Reserve.
58615		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hejiang and Gulan Counties in Sichuan Province, and Cenwanglaoshan in Guangxi Province, China, where it has been recorded from 450-1,540m asl.
58615		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits shaded hill streams and the surrounding riparian forests, and breeds in the streams.
58615		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58615		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58616		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Italy. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58616		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the island of Sicily (Italy) and on the Italian mainland, south of a line from Genoa to Rimini. It is also present on the Italian islands of Elba and Giglio. It is found at least up to 1,000m asl.
58616		habitat	eng	It is associated with still and slow moving waters and is found in nearby terrestrial habitats. This species is usually found in mixed colonies with <em>Pelophylax bergeri</em>. It can occur in slightly modified habitats.
58616		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species that does not appear to be declining.
58616		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the localized loss of suitable wetland habitat (presumably through drainage for agriculture and urbanization). It might also be threatened through predation by introduced fish. <em>Pelophylax</em> species have been widely translocated (they are eaten by people), and different species within the genus hybridize readily; consequently hybridization presents a threat to the genetic integrity of the species.
58618		conservation	eng	Ensuring that the existing protected areas where the species occurs remain intact should secure its survival in mainland Southeast Asia.
58618		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the Thai-Malay Peninsula from about Chumphon southwards (Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975), including Phuket (Frith, 1977), Tioman (Berry, 1975) and smaller islands. It is also widespread in Borneo (in hilly terrain), and in the Mentawai Islands (Tanahmasa, Tanahbala and Pini), Sumatra, Bangka, Belitung and Java in Indonesia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,700m asl.
58618		habitat	eng	It is mainly associated with clear, swift-flowing boulder streams in evergreen primary rainforest in hilly areas, and is sometimes found in the forest at modest distances from streams. It is occasionally found in old secondary forest that has streams of the appropriate type. It breeds in streams.
58618		population	eng	It is generally a common frog in suitable habitat. It is still abundant in forest with slightly polluted water. In such situations it can still be found where most other species have disappeared.
58618		threats	eng	While individual populations might suffer from the impacts of deforestation and water pollution, these are not significant threats across the species' range.
58619		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Laotudingzi Nature Reserve.
58619		distribution	eng	This species was originally thought to occur only in Huanren County, in Liaoning Province, China. It is now also found in the Republic of Korea and presumably also occurs in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. It has been recorded around 520m asl.
58619		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers in hilly areas and the surrounding forests and grasslands. It breeds in streams and rivers.
58619		population	eng	It is now known from over 10 locations. The Korean population is not believed to be in decline but it might be declining in China, but not at a particularly fast rate.
58619		threats	eng	This species is used for food and in traditional Chinese medicine.
58620		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas.
58620		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central China, and is found in Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui and probably Jiangxi provinces. It has been recorded from 60-1,070m asl.
58620		habitat	eng	It inhabits paddy fields, lotus ponds and other ponds filled by water plants.
58620		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58620		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by infrastructure development and water pollution are threats to this species.
58621		conservation	eng	The range of this species is most likely just outside the Hkakabo Razi National Park in Myanmar. It is likely to occur in several protected areas in India, and Nepal, but this is not yet confirmed. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58621		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Myanmar (Bhamo and Teinzo, upper Ayeyarwady valley towards the Yunnan border), eastern Bangladesh (Khabongpuria in Khagrachari Hill-district), eastern Nepal, and also northeast India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The record from Bangladesh was originally incorrectly identified as Rana tytleri, but has subsequently been assigned to this species. It is found at elevations below 500m asl.
58621		habitat	eng	This frog is associated with riparian forest habitats. Breeding takes place in forest streams. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.
58621		population	eng	It is a very poorly know species, and there are not many recent records. It is considered to be rare in Nepal. It has not been recorded in Myanmar since the type series was first collected over 100 years ago. Results from recent surveys in Myanmar are not yet available (G. Wogan pers. comm.).
58621		threats	eng	Deforestation and infrastructure development are the main threats to this species.
58622		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Natural del Gorbea and Parque Natural de Izki in Spain, where it is also protected by national legislation and listed in the national Red Data Book as vulnerable. This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. There have been some recent reintroductions of captive-bred individuals in central Spain.
58622		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal and north-western and central Spain. It mostly occurs in montane areas up to 2,425m asl (such as the Sierra de Béjar, central Spain). Isolated populations of this species are present in the Basque Country, Central System Mountains, Extremadura in Spain and Marinha Grande and Serra de Sao Mamede in Portugal.
58622		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species usually found in shady habitats (with abundant vegetation) close to rivers, streams, lakes and marshes. The species' terrestrial habitats include woods, moors, meadows and areas of low scrub. In the north of its range it can occur down to sea level along slower flowing rivers. Breeding and larval development takes place within various shallow stagnant waterbodies.
58622		population	eng	It is reasonably common in northern Portugal and north-western Spain. Populations in the Central System Mountains and Extremadura of Spain are declining very seriously. There is also evidence of population declines in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid, Spain).
58622		threats	eng	Threats to this species include pressure from tourism development, urbanization of the lowland range, habitat loss through intensification of agriculture and deforestation and re-afforestation with non-native monocultures, introduction of non-native predatory fishes (salmonids) and mammals such as <em>Neovison vison</em> (American mink), desertification in southern Portugal, and habitat loss through hydroelectric projects. Recreational use by people of its habitats may cause disturbance to the species.
58623		conservation	eng	There is a need for improved protection of the remaining forests in the Cordilleras on Luzon.
58623		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Central Cordilleras, on northern Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It has been recorded approximately between 850 and 950m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).
58623		habitat	eng	It inhabits cool streams and rivers in montane rainforest, and is able to tolerate a small amount of disturbance. It presumably breeds in streams and lays its eggs in water.
58623		population	eng	It usually occurs in fairly good numbers in suitable habitat.
58623		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is the deforestation of lower montane and lowland forests in the Cordilleras. Montane forests are either being converted to vegetable farms or are being developed into real estate.
58624		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and it is protected by national legislation. It occurs in several protected areas.
58624		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Apennine Mountains and other hilly areas of Italy south of the Po Valley. It is generally found at elevations ranging between 30 and 1,400m asl.
58624		habitat	eng	It is a mostly montane species associated with fast flowing streams that have a rocky substrate. It may also be found in small ponds or mountain peat bogs. It also occurs in some man-made habitats such as water troughs.
58624		population	eng	It is quite common.
58624		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the loss of stream habitats and aquatic pollution presumably through agriculture and urbanization, and also predation by introduced salmonid fishes.
58625		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
58625		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Oki Island, Osumi Islands and is introduced to Hachijojima.
58625		habitat	eng	It occurs widely in grasslands from lowland to montane areas. It breeds in paddy fields and wetlands. They breed from January to March; females deposit 500-3,000 eggs in sunny and shallow pools of rice fields or swamps. The larvae metamorphose from May to June; half of them mature in autumn, and then the others mature the following year.
58625		population	eng	The population is decreasing, but it is not in significant decline.
58625		threats	eng	There are no threats to this adaptable species.
58626		conservation	eng	The distribution and population status of this species need to be documented. It occurs in the Jimi River Wildlife Management Area.
58626		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of central and western New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), but is severely under-recorded. Known localities include: the Wapoga River headwaters in West Papua; the Jimi River in Papua New Guinea; the Baliem Valley in West Papua; and 30km southeast of Nabire (West Papua). Its altitudinal range is 700-1,700m asl.
58626		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams in rainforest. It breeds in large mountain streams. It has been found in degraded habitats, including rural gardens.
58626		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58626		threats	eng	There is little information, though it is eaten locally. This probably does not constitute a threat, but would become so if this becomes part of an international trade for food.
58627		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species. There is a need to ensure that offtake from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. Surveys are needed to establish the range of this species, and to determine its conservation needs.
58627		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China and northern Viet Nam. In China, there are records from southwestern Yunnan Province (Jingdong, Jinping, Luchun, Yongde, Cangyuan and Menglian counties), and in Viet Nam it is currently known only from the vicinity of Mount Fan Si Pan. It can be expected to occur in nearby Laos and Myanmar. It has been recorded from 1,000-1,900m asl.
58627		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane streams in forested areas, in particular in the vicinity of waterfalls. It has also been found along the mossy slopes of a man-made culvert. Breeding takes place in streams by lareval development. It probably does not occur where forest has been removed.
58627		population	eng	This was formerly a common species, but it is now considered to be rare.
58627		threats	eng	In China this species has declined seriously because of over-harvesting for food. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation caused by small-scale subsistence logging and agriculture, expanding human settlements, and the establishment of power plants.
58628		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for immediate protection of the montane forest habitat of this species. A survey of the San Luis Potosí localities is needed to establish the population status of the species in that region. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58628		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-eastern San Luis Potosí and eastern Hidalgo, Mexico, at low to moderate elevations.
58628		habitat	eng	It is found in low and moderate elevation montane forest, and is usually found in or near river systems, and breeds in rivers.
58628		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58628		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and disturbance due to clear-cutting of the forest, which could in turn lead to the disappearance or drying out of permanent water bodies.
58629		conservation	eng	Ensuring that designated protected areas within its range remain ecologically intact is the main conservation objective.
58629		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jinxiu and Dayaoshan in Guangxi province, and Jianfenglian in Hainan province in China, and from the Lang Bian and Kon Tum Highlands of southern Viet Nam through the Annamite mountains of Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (Smith, 1921, Bourret, 1941, Inger, 1999, Stuart, 1999), and also from Thailand in Phu Luang, Loei Province (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In the Annamite mountains it was recorded from 500-700m asl, and in Thailand above 1,000m asl, and in China above 500m asl.
58629		habitat	eng	It has been reported from leaf-litter and on low vegetation near streams in evergreen forest. Breeding aggregations have been observed in paddy fields near forests.
58629		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon frog even in areas where it is confirmed to occur, as indicated by small collection series and late reporting from long-term surveyed areas.
58629		threats	eng	Most records originate from forested areas that are already protected parks or otherwise relatively secure from extensive deforestation, but frequent fires are a source of concern.
58630		conservation	eng	Much of this species' range is afforded a degree of protection, and it is found in Columbia River Forest Reserve, the Reserva Natural Bladen, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Montañas Mayas Chiquibul.
58630		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mayan Mountains in Belize from 100-600m asl.
58630		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland primary wet forest and open parkland pine forest and savannah, and is not found in disturbed habitats. It is associated with streams, in which it breeds.
58630		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
58630		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, although at present this is not serious.
58631		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. There is a need for improved protection of the remaining forested areas within the range of this species.
58631		distribution	eng	This species is known from Junlian County in Sichuan Province and Bijie, Dafang, Hezhang, Nayong and Qianxi in Guizhou Province, China. It has an altitudinal range of 650-1,150m asl.
58631		habitat	eng	It is associated with large streams in forested areas, and breeding takes place in streams. It is not known if this species is adaptable to habitat change.
58631		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58631		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to logging and smallholder farming activities.
58632		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gunung Leuser, Kerinci-Seblat and Barisan-Selatan National Parks.
58632		distribution	eng	This species is known from the entire mountain ridge along the western side of Sumatra, in Indonesia. It was rediscovered in the late 1990s, and has now been recorded widely. It occurs above 700m asl.
58632		habitat	eng	It lives in primary submontane and montane rainforest along streams. It does not appear to tolerate forest disturbance. It breeds in streams.
58632		population	eng	It is a common species, especially around 1,000m asl.
58632		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of its montane forest habitat, though forest loss is less serious at higher altitudes in Sumatra.
58633		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species needs to be documented, and the taxonomy of different populations needs to be assessed. It is within the Makira Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area.
58633		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Solomon Islands, and also occurs on New Ireland and Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 300m asl.
58633		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small, slow streams in lowland rainforest. It has also been recorded from wet grassy areas in disturbed habitats.
58633		population	eng	It has been observed as common, and also not so common in some areas.
58633		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58634		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Guangwushan Nature Reserve, a small nature reserve in Nanjiang County.
58634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nanjiang County in Sichuan Province, China, where it has been recorded around 1,650m asl.
58634		habitat	eng	It inhabits large streams in hill forests, and presumably breeds in streams.
58634		population	eng	It is only known from a single location and has only a small population.
58634		threats	eng	The restricted range of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threatening processes, such as ongoing habitat loss.
58635		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in some protected areas, although this requires confirmation.
58635		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Qinhai, west of Ganshu, northwest of Sichuan and northeast of Xizang, China. It occurs in some alpine areas.
58635		habitat	eng	This species is found in alpine meadows, marshland and grassland. It breeds in small pools close to rivers and other wetlands, and it hibernates underwater in streams and rivers. It probably can adapt to a small degree of habitat change.
58635		population	eng	It is presumably common in suitable habitat.
58635		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overgrazing of grasslands by livestock and by climate change.
58636		conservation	eng	The known range of this species is within Kunyu Mountain National Forest Park.
58636		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from Kunyu Mountain, near Yantai city, in Shandong Province, China, at around 400m asl.
58636		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill forests and grassland near streams and rivers. It breeds in small, still water areas of rivers and hibernates under water.
58636		population	eng	It is considered a rare species.
58636		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58637		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is present in the Lake Skadar protected area, on the border of Montenegro and Albania, and presumably in several other protected areas. Monitoring of commercial collection of this species is needed.
58637		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout much of Greece and Albania. In 1941 the species was also introduced to Imperia province, Liguria, northwestern Italy where it is currently expanding its range (Lanza, 1962; Lanza and Corti, 1993). It has an altitudinal distribution of sea level to a maximum of 1,000m asl.
58637		habitat	eng	It is a largely aquatic species, generally found in areas close to suitable open water wetland habitats. It breeds in various stagnant and slow-moving waterbodies. Introduced populations of this species in Italy do not form hybridogenetic hybrids with native species (T. Uzzell pers. comm.).
58637		population	eng	It was considered by Gasc <em>et al.</em> (1997) to be common throughout its range.
58637		threats	eng	This species is threatened in its native range by drainage of wetland habitats and aquatic pollution of many waterways caused by agrochemical and industrial (including mining) contaminants. In northern parts of its native range (e.g., Lake Skadar) it is significantly threatened by over collection for commercial purposes. The species is additionally threatened by accidental introductions of commercially transported non-native water frogs. However, it remains abundant in many places.
58638		conservation	eng	Large areas of apparently suitable habitat for this species are within the protected area network of all the range countries. Clarification of the taxonomic status of several of the Myanmar endemics resembling&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Pelophylax</span><em> lateralis</em> is needed.
58638		distribution	eng	This species is known from a variety of locations in southern China, Myanmar, mainland Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam (Bourret 1941, Taylor 1962, Inger and Colwell 1977, Yang 1991, Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998, Fei <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stuart 1999). Records from Malaysia refer to <em>Humerana miopus</em> (Taylor 1962). In China it is restricted to to southern Yunnan Province (Jinghong, Mangyang, Mengla, Pingbian and Hekou counties). It has been recorded from 60-1,000 m asl.
58638		habitat	eng	Most records originate from deciduous forest areas, often with shrublands, grasslands or riverbanks as part of the habitat structure (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stuart 1999). It is found in particular in still-water habitats with lush grasses at the edge, such as ponds and paddy fields. Taylor (1962) found the species breeding in a recently flooded rice paddy, and B. Stuart (pers. comm.) found the species in a coffee plantation in Lao People's Democratic Republic at 1,000 m asl. It breeds in standing water such as pools and puddles.
58638		population	eng	It is apparently not an abundant species through much of its range (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998), but it is a common species in southern Yunnan Province, China.
58638		threats	eng	The species' deciduous forest habitat is affected by agricultural encroachment and fires. Water pollution and habitat loss due to human settlement are the main threats to this species in China. However, overall it is not significantly threatened.
58639		conservation	eng	This species is believed to occur in several protected areas.
58639		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded on the island of Borneo from Sadong and Sematan, in Sarawak (Malaysia), the inland swamp forests of Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia, and has been collected as far north as south Thailand (Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary). The species has also been recorded from Natuna Besar Island (Indonesia) in the South China Sea. This is a lowland species.
58639		habitat	eng	The species is predominantly an inhabitant of lowland freshwater and peat swamp forests. Males call from among or on top of leaf-litter of the forest floor, or perched on low vegetation up to one metre above ground. It is presumed that the species breeds in forest streams, although this requires verification. The species can be found in disturbed habitats and secondary forest that are adjacent to good stands of intact forest. It has been recorded from the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur (Peninsular Malaysia) where some forest fragments remain.
58639		population	eng	It is locally abundant where suitable habitat exists. Healthy populations have been recorded within the inland swamp forests of Singapore. It is considered to be uncommon in Thailand.
58639		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being impacted, at least locally, by logging and other forms of forest loss.
58640		conservation	eng	Many protected areas support this species.
58640		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southern China and is known from Guizhou, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Taiwan and Hong Kong. It has been recorded from 30-1,500m asl.
58640		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and breeds in pools, marshes, paddy fields, ditches, ponds and slow-flowing streams.
58640		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58640		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular logging, is a possible threat to this species.
58641		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.
58641		distribution	eng	This species was collected at Lung Tao Shan, in north Kwangtung, China, at 700m asl.
58641		habitat	eng	It probably occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and presumably breeds in the streams.
58641		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58641		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58642		conservation	eng	It is known from Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park in northern Myanmar and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary and Thong Pha Phum National Park in Thailand. Re-evaluation of the taxonomic status and surveys of forest areas in its known range are desirable. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58642		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Assam, northern Mizoram and Meghalaya in northeastern India, from Chittagong and Rangamati Hill-district in Bangladesh, and from the Bago Yoma Mountains and Tenasserim, in Myanmar (Bourret 1942). It is also reported from adjacent western Thailand (Nabhitabhata 1989), in Thong Pha Phum district and Sang Ksla Buri district, Kanchana Bui Province. An old record from central Viet Nam might be based on a misidentified specimen (Bourret 1942: 315) and is not included here. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In Thailand it has been recorded from 600-700 m asl, but in India it is known only from below 500 m asl.
58642		habitat	eng	It is known from streams in evergreen forest, and is presumed to breed in streams.
58642		population	eng	It is reportedly uncommon in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.), and relatively common where collected in Myanmar (G. Wogan pers. comm.). In Mizoram, India, it is considered moderately common during the rainy season (Lalremsanga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
58642		threats	eng	Deforestation, fire impacts and agricultural encroachment might be a threat to this species.
58643		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries and is recorded on a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of the species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58643		distribution	eng	This species is distributed over much of Europe, ranging as far east as the southern Ural Mountains of Russia. It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula (except for introductions to Spain in Cáceres [Villasbuenas de Gata] and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana), much of Scandinavia, central and southern Italy (exact distribution not known but thought to be replaced by <em>P. bergeri</em>) and it is absent from the Balkans. There are two isolated relict populations - one near Oslo (Norway) and Uppland (Sweden) north of Stockholm. It is native (formerly extirpated) to the British Isles and has been recently reintroduced from Sweden. It might occur up to 1,550m asl in southern parts of its range.
58643		habitat	eng	It is present in deciduous and mixed forests, forest steppe, steppe, bush lands (e.g. riparian alder groves), meadows, fields and fens. It may often be found in shallow stagnant waterbodies (usually without fish) such as lakes, ponds, swamps, large puddles, clay and gravel pits, and ditches, often covered with dense herbaceous vegetation. It breeds in these wetlands, but may be found hibernating away from waterbodies. It is not very adaptable, but can occur in slightly modified habitats.
58643		population	eng	Although this species is reported to be declining over much of its European range (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997), it remains widespread and common in Poland, the Baltic Republics, Moldova, Russia and the Ukraine.
58643		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural intensification and urbanization, channelization of waterbodies, drainage and pollution of wetlands, and the introduction of predatory fishes to breeding sites. It is additionally threatened by afforestation (in northern parts of the range) and competition with the larger sympatric R. ridibunda. The frog-leg trade (which is increasing) and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations within Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003).
58644		conservation	eng	It occurs in Huanglianshan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves.
58644		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the mountainous region in Jiangcheng and Luchun Counties, in southern Yunnan Province, China, from 1,400-1,650m asl. It probably occurs more widely, and can be expected to be recorded from neighbouring Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam.
58644		habitat	eng	It inhabits rice paddies, marshes and ponds and the surrounding habitats. It breeds in still water habitats.
58644		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58644		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are local consumption of it for food, water pollution, and habitat loss due to infrastructure development for transport and human settlement.
58645		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.
58645		distribution	eng	This species' range is unclear. The only confirmed locality is that of the neotype, at Thagata Juwa village on the hills south-west of Mount Mooleyit, in the Dawna Mountains, Myanmar, at 400-500m asl, collected by Fea in 1887. Maps showing the distribution of this species do not show the locality of Thagata Juwa village, but the area of Mount Mooleyit (also known as Malayit Taung) instead.
58645		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and presumably breeds in the streams.
58645		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
58645		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58646		conservation	eng	This species is protected within Yangming San National Park.
58646		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern and central Taiwan, Province of China, where it has been recorded below 1,000m asl.
58646		habitat	eng	It inhabits cultivated fields and broadleaf forests. It breeds in marshes, pools, and ponds.
58646		population	eng	It is a rare species that appears to be in decline.
58646		threats	eng	The major threat is extensive habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to infrastructure development. Water pollution is also a threat.
58647		conservation	eng	Maintenance of existing protected areas and watershed protection forests in which the species occurs are the only conservation measures required at present.
58647		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, with a single old record from Nakhon Si Thammarat in southern Thailand (Berry, 1975, Taylor, 1962). It is present on the island of Penang (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Altitudinal records range between 100 and 1,350m asl.
58647		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter frog that has bee recorded from lowland and submontane primary rainforest and from somewhat disturbed habitats. Adults disperse widely through the forest and breed in rain pools of varying size.
58647		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
58647		threats	eng	Severe deforestation is the principal threat, resulting in contraction and fragmentation of its habitat.
58648		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are within its range.
58648		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Guizhou, southern Hunan and northern Guangxi Provinces in central China, from 900-1,500m asl.
58648		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill streams in broadleaf forests, and presumably breeds in streams.
58648		population	eng	It appears to be generally uncommon.
58648		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due mainly to agriculture.
58649		conservation	eng	It is somewhat protected in several federal and state parks and refuges, though management usually ignores this species. A considerable portion of the range of the West Desert population is under management of the US Bureau of Land Management. Wasatch Front population occurs mainly on private land, with some federal ownership along Jordanelle Dam and the Provo River. Great Basin population occurs primarily on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. A conservation agreement for both the Wasatch Front and West Desert populations has been developed by state and federal agencies. Conservation activities implemented for the least chub should also benefit the West Desert population.
58649		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in North America from extreme southeastern Alaska, southwestern Yukon, northern British Columbia, and western Alberta south through Washington east of the Cascades, eastern Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana to Nevada (disjunctive, Mary's, Reese, and Owyhee river systems), southwestern Idaho (disjunctive), Utah (disjunctive, Wasatch Mountains and west desert), and western and north-central (disjunctive) Wyoming (Stebbins 1985; Green <em>et al.</em> 1996, 1997). Disjunctive populations occur on isolated mountains and in arid-land springs. It occurs from sea level to about 3,000m asl (Stebbins 1985).
58649		habitat	eng	It is highly aquatic; rarely found far from permanent quiet water; usually occurs at the grassy/sedgy margins of streams, lakes, ponds, springs, and marshes (Hodge 1976, Licht 1986). Animals may disperse into forest, grassland, and brush land during wet weather. Breeds usually in shallow water in ponds or other quiet waters. See Munger <em>et al.</em> (1998) for quantitative information on habitat in southwestern Idaho.
58649		population	eng	Its widespread, numerous populations (Hodge 1976, Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983), though the disjunctive southern populations are limited in number. It is numerous in many areas in Canada and the Rocky Mountains. Significant declines have occurred in some areas of Utah and Wyoming. It has possibly declined in Idaho, but apparently numbers are still high (Phillips 1990; Groves pers. comm., 1992). Declines have been reported for disjunctive populations in the Wasatch Front in Utah. The West Desert (Bonneville) population has declined in range and abundance. Recent intensive surveys indicate severe declines in the Great Basin populations. See Federal Register, 7 May 1993, 2 April 1998. Northern populations appear to be stable.
58649		threats	eng	Populations in western Utah are limited by scarce habitat (springs) and are potentially threatened by habitat degradation from cattle grazing and agricultural activities. Oil and gas exploration is a increasing threat. Water development could lower water tables and adversely impact spring habitats. Introduced bullfrogs and fishes might have an adverse impact, but the current degree of threat is unknown. Mosquito control agents pose a potential threat. Wasatch Front population is facing serious threats from habitat loss and modification, especially water development associated with the Central Utah Project; current and imminent threats include the Provo River Restoration Project and Wasatch County Efficiency Project; wetlands created as mitigation for the Central Utah Project have contributed only minimally to spotted frog reproduction. Additional threats include continued development along the Wasatch Front, water diversions for irrigation, cattle grazing, timber harvesting, and construction of roads and trails. A recent conservation agreement among the state of Utah and other agencies has significantly reduced the level of threat to the Wasatch Front and West Desert populations (Federal Register, 2 April 1998). Great Basin population has been adversely affected by habitat degradation resulting from mining, livestock grazing, road construction, agriculture, and direct predation by bullfrogs and non-native fishes. Not likely to be at risk from present acidification inputs in the Rocky Mountains (Corn and Vertucci 1992). Possibly global climate changes are a factor (Hayes and Jennings 1986). At the embryonic stage, UV-B radiation currently does not seem to be contributing to population declines (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1999).
58650		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' range are protected in national parks although more protected areas need to be established on Luzon to protect the remaining forest on these islands.
58650		distribution	eng	This species is known from many parts of Luzon Island, in the Philippines, and probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
58650		habitat	eng	It inhabits swift-flowing, cool mountain streams and rivers in montane rainforest. Eggs are laid in streams, where the larvae develop.
58650		population	eng	It is very common in many localities, especially in and around forested habitats, including secondary forest and forest edges.
58650		threats	eng	Some populations in the lowland rainforests are threatened by deforestation, due to processes such as agricultural development, logging, and infrastructure development for human settlements.
58651		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan and has been recorded from protected areas in Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It is found in protected areas in Turkey.  This species was included in the supplement to the Red Data Book in Russia and several regional Red Data Books due to declines because of raccoon predation and habitat loss from deforestation.
58651		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caucasus Mountains and throughout much of Anatolia, Turkey. An isolated population exists on the Strizhament Mountain in the Stavropolskii Region of Russia. It has been recorded from Iraq (Kevork 1972) but further details of this population are needed and it is not mapped here. It has an altitudinal range sea level to 3,000m asl.
58651		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in humid areas included broadleaved, mixed and coniferous forests, swamps, steppes, sub alpine and alpine meadows. In dry areas this species is generally limited to areas close to permanent lakes, rivers, brooks and springs that are often surrounded by dense herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. It breeds in various stagnant and slow-flowing waterbodies. It is presumed to be tolerant of some habitat disturbance such as light grazing.
58651		population	eng	This species is mostly common over its range. There are significant declines in parts of its range.
58651		threats	eng	In the Caucasus of the former USSR destruction and pollution of suitable habitat by cattle has caused some local population declines.  In the western Caucasus, this species is threatened by predation invasive introduced raccoons (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) and deforestation for agriculture and timber.  The species is under pressure from grazing and development for tourism in Turkey. It is possible that deforestation (especially of <em>Juniperus</em> woods) might have contributed to the increasing aridity of the Kopet-Dagh Mountains in Turkmenia, leading to the extinction of the species. Prolonged drought might be a threat to populations in more arid areas.
58652		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
58652		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities throughout mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam and the northern tip of Malaysia and Penang Island) and in to southern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong) and might also occur in southern Jiangxi and Fujian. Its range might be confounded with regard to R. taipehensis and R. erythraea. It has been found up to 1,500m asl.
58652		habitat	eng	It is known from a variety of lowland wetlands including lakes, river floodplains and irrigated agricultural landscapes, but also from damp grassy areas in deciduous forest and open mountaintop habitat.
58652		population	eng	It is very localized in its occurrence, not relating to apparent habitat features, but it is relatively common where it occurs (Smith, in Taylor, 1962). It is considered rare in north-central Myanmar (Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
58652		threats	eng	Threats to populations include wetland drainage, changes in agricultural practices and fires, but overall the species appears secure from most threats at present. Modernisation of agricultural practices is also reducing the amount of suitable habitat available in China.
58653		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas. The taxonomic validity of this species requires further investigation.
58653		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the highlands of western and central Guatemala, from 1,500 up to at least 2,500m asl.
58653		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest, including degraded forest, and grassland. It breeds in streams and small temporary ponds.
58653		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58653		threats	eng	There is ongoing degradation of its habitat due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, human settlement, and water pollution.
58654		conservation	eng	Much of its habitat is protected, and it occurs in Lore Lindu and Bogani-Nani-Wartabone National Parks.
58654		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is a lowland species, found from 900-1,000m asl, but probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58654		habitat	eng	It lives along streams, in which it presumably breeds, in primary and secondary forests with a canopy.
58654		population	eng	It is an uncommon species and only a few specimens have been collected in recent years.
58654		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of its forest habitat due to smallholder farming. Water pollution due to agriculture is also a threat.
58655		conservation	eng	Protection of the forested areas in Oaxaca and Chiapas is the only chance for this species in this area. Otherwise occurs in several protected areas in much of its range.
58655		distribution	eng	This species can be found from Chiapas, Mexico, to central Nicaragua on the Atlantic versant and from eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, to Honduras and El Salvador on the Pacific versant, at elevations of 40-1,980m asl.
58655		habitat	eng	It occurs and reproduces in ponds and streams in lowland moist and wet and premontane moist and wet forests.
58655		population	eng	It is relatively common in Honduras and locally abundant in El Salvador. In Nicaragua, it has disappeared over the last eight years from certain localities, and declines have also been noted in Mexico and Guatemala. It is common in Guatemala.
58655		threats	eng	Declines and disappearances in some areas are probably related to deforestation and water pollution.
58656		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not within any protected area. The creation of protected areas in Sonora or Sinaloa is recommended to protect this species.
58656		distribution	eng	This species is known from east-central Sonora along the Sierra Madre Occidental through western Chihuahua, Sinaloa and Nayarit to central Jalisco, Mexico. It occurs from close to sea level to 470m asl (Smith and Chiszar, 2003).
58656		habitat	eng	This species is predominantly aquatic, dwelling in temporary or permanent pools formed by rainfalls in shrublands and mesquite forests. It breeds in pools. It is a very poorly known species.
58656		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
58656		threats	eng	Severe droughts might affect this species, but this has not been studied.
58657		conservation	eng	It is found in numerous protected areas. It is protected by national legislation.
58657		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout much of the Western Ghats, and also in the Eastern Ghats of India. Reports from northeastern India need verification and are not included here. It has a wide altitudinal range being found from sea level to 1,500m asl.
58657		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species adapted to a wide variety of habitats including semi-evergreen moist deciduous forest, plantations, agricultural fields and rural gardens. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds and other waterbodies.
58657		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
58657		threats	eng	Aquatic pollution (agricultural and domestic), severe droughts and wildfires are the main threats to this species.
58658		conservation	eng	Although recorded from protected areas on Mindoro, there is a need for additional protection of remaining forest habitats in the range of this species.
58658		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of Mindoro and Sibay, from sea level to 600m asl, in the Philippines.
58658		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. Breeding takes place in streams in forested and disturbed areas, and the larvae develop in quiet side-pools in rivers.
58658		population	eng	It is common in several localities on Mindoro.
58658		threats	eng	Important threats to this species are the loss of the lowland rainforest due in particular to agricultural activities (cultivation of crops and livestock farming) and logging, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, due mainly to agricultural effluents.
58659		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes many protected areas.
58659		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam and the Annamite mountains of Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bourret, 1941, Inger, 1999 and Stuart, 1999). It has been recorded from 200-1,300m asl.
58659		habitat	eng	It has been reported from leaf-litter banks and in shallow water along rocky streams in evergreen forest. It has also been found in modified habitats but always near forest. It breeds in pools and slow moving streams in forest. Males have been observed calling from beside the pools.
58659		population	eng	Large series of specimens were collected in the 1930's and 1990's (Bourret, 1941 and Inger et al, 1999), indicating a locally fairly common species. It is quite common where it has been recorded in Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (Stuart, 1999 and R. Bain pers. comm.).
58659		threats	eng	Widespread forest clearance is a threat to this species.
58660		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.
58660		distribution	eng	This species is found in Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Gaungxi and Guangdong Provinces in central China. It has been recorded from 390-1,650m asl.
58660		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits fast-flowing hill streams and creeks surrounded by lush vegetation (normally forests but sometimes cultivated fields). It breeds in the same habitats.
58660		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58660		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this wide-ranging species at present.
58661		conservation	eng	The type locality is just outside Hkakabo Razi National Park in Myanmar. Taxonomic evaluation of this species, including comparison with other montane Chinese species, is needed.
58661		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens collected in 1875 "at a hill stream debouching [= flowing] into the Irrawady at the second defile [= narrow gorge]" (Anderson 1879) in the Myanmar-Yunnan Province (China) border region.
58661		habitat	eng	No further information is known regarding its habitat and ecology, other than that the type specimens came from a montane stream. This species presumably breeds by larval development.
58661		population	eng	It has not been recorded again since it was first described, and results from recent surveys of the type locality are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).
58661		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
58662		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and improved protection and maintenance of forest habitat in the species' range is required. It is also necessary to ensure that offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58662		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Nayarit and western Jalisco, east to northern Michoacán, and southern Guanajuato, Mexico. It occurs from 823-1,520m asl.
58662		habitat	eng	This species is predominantly an aquatic species that inhabits and breeds in permanent lakes, rivers and pools in shrubland and pine-oak forest.
58662		population	eng	It was previously a common species, but there has been a recent decline particularly in the southern part of its distribution.
58662		threats	eng	Water pollution is a major threat to this predominantly aquatic species. It is also harvested for food in parts of its range, in particular in the south, a threat that is thought to be increasing. In addition, there is widespread habitat destruction and degradation through much of its range, primarily as a result of logging of its pine-oak forest habitat.
58664		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas on Little Corn Island. There is a need for regular survey work to closely monitor the poulation status of this species.
58664		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Little Corn Island (3km²) off the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua.
58664		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of tropical moist lowland rainforest. Little Corn Island receives over 4,000mm of precipitation annually. It breeds in small permanent or temporary pools.
58664		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58664		threats	eng	The Corn Islands (Islas del Maiz) are becoming a popular holiday destination; the growing tourism industry will probably lead to an increase in infrastructure development on the islands resulting in unfortunate habitat loss and degradation.
58665		conservation	eng	The species' range includes protected areas in Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and China. Upgrading protected areas to securely encompass the habitats and endemic species of the Tay Nguyen and Lang Bian Plateau regions is a high conservation priority. More information on the species' range, population status and habitat requirements is also needed.
58665		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few widely scattered locations in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern China. There are records from: the Tay Nguyen Plateau and Lang Bian Mountain of southern Viet Nam (Smith, 1921, Bourret 1942 and Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999); Khao Yai National Park in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Ubon Ratchathani Province, and Khao Ang Rui Ni Wildlife Sanctuary in Chachoengsao Province, Thailand (Chuaynkern <em>et al</em>., 2004); Phnom Aural in the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary, Kampong Speu Province, southwest Cambodia (Chuaynkern <em>et al</em>., 2004), and from the Cardomom Mountains, Cambodia (Stuart and Emmett, 2006); and rom Menglun and Mohan in Mengla County, southern Yunnan Province, China (Rao and Yang, 1997). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it might also occur in southern Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has been recorded between 600-1,200m asl.
58665		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from dry evergreen forest. Males have been observed calling from underneath dense vegetation around the edge of ponds and streams. It breeds in streams ponds containing aquatic plants. It probably does not survive where its habitat has been badly degraded.
58665		population	eng	It can be locally common, series of 26 and 21 specimens were collected in a single night each in Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). However, it is thought to be uncommon in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.), and is rare in China (Yang Datong, pers. comm.).
58665		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from forest degradation as a result of clearance for agriculture, human settlement and logging (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, BirdLife International 2001). In China, its habitat is also being impacted by tourists.
58666		conservation	eng	It is not known to be present in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed.
58666		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eastern Fujian province (Fuzhou, Fuqing, Yongtai and Changle, Xianyou), China. It has been recorded from 110-550m asl.
58666		habitat	eng	It inhabits pools, marshes and grassy banks along small streams, but also occurs in the grassy edges of paddy fields. It breeds in still-water habitats.
58666		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is in decline, and the Fuzhou population has entirely disappeared.
58666		threats	eng	The decline of this species is probably related to habitat loss due to infrastructure development and intensification of agriculture, as well as water pollution.
58667		conservation	eng	Safeguarding existing protected areas within the species' range (Khao Luang, Khao Nor Chu Chi, Perlis State Park, Taman Negara) and improving protection for other remaining lowland forest (Belum-Temengor, Ulu Muda, Pasoh) is recommended.
58667		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, below 300m asl (Taylor, 1962, Grandison, 1972 and Berry, 1975).
58667		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forest, including open areas near forest, particularly along rivers, as well as along forest edges and in overgrown rubber plantations in low hill areas. It is tolerant of selective logging. Breeding choruses of about a dozen animals are regularly encountered (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It breeds in pools (Grandison, 1972 and Berry, 1975).
58667		population	eng	It ranges from being abundant in certain localities to being uncommon in others.
58667		threats	eng	It is a lowland forest species; populations are at risk from ongoing loss of their remaining habitat, especially from infrastructure development.
58668		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas.
58668		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sulawesi, Indonesia where it is distributed throughout the island and on several offshore islands. It occurs from sea level to at least 1,000m asl.
58668		habitat	eng	It is assumed that this species has similar ecological requirements to R. chalconota in that it is typically seen on rocks and vegetation along small lowland forest streams, but is also seen away from streams in forest, or in highland areas. Primary and degraded forests are equally favoured, but a reasonably closed canopy and gently flowing water are essential. Adults disperse widely in the forest and may even be found in wooded gardens. Breeding occurs at quiet side pools of forest streams or in temporary ponds at the edges of forests. Tadpoles live in side pools and quiet, deeper sections of streams.
58668		population	eng	Presumably it is common in lowland forest streams, and is less common but still present in highland areas.
58668		threats	eng	There are currently no significant threats to this species.
58669		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. The most important conservation measure is to designate the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest on Palawan as protected areas.
58669		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the Palawan Island group, in the western Philippines, including Palawan, Culion and Busuanga, but is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.
58669		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests, where it breeds and lays its eggs. The larvae develop in quiet side pools in clean rivers.
58669		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58669		threats	eng	Important threats to this species might include the loss of lowland rainforest due to forest clearance, and pollution of mountain streams and rivers especially due to agricultural effluents.
58670		conservation	eng	The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and current conservation status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.
58670		distribution	eng	This species is known from Halmahera and Bacan, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. It ranges up to 700m asl.
58670		habitat	eng	It has been found in water-filled pits in a village, where it presumably breeds. There is no other information.
58670		population	eng	It is believed to be a common species.
58670		threats	eng	No information is available, though there is circumstantial evidence of severe logging on Halmahera.
58671		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58671		distribution	eng	This species occurs from extreme eastern Jalisco and Michoacán, to the east through the State of Mexico, D. F. Morelos and Tlaxcala northward to Hidalgo, Queretaro and southern San Luis Potosi, Mexico.
58671		habitat	eng	This species prefers pine-oak or oak forests above 2,000m asl. It breeds in lakes and big pools. It survives in moderately degraded habitats.
58671		population	eng	In several recent field surveys this frog has commonly been found. It might be in decline is some areas.
58671		threats	eng	Desiccation and alteration of the original ecological conditions can affect populations of this species, however it appears to be resistant to a degree of habitat degradation since it is often found near human settlements. Aquaculture has introduced some invasive predators to parts of the species' range. These predators eat tadpoles and young juveniles. It is harvested for human consumption, and this is probably impacting some populations.
58672		conservation	eng	The species' range includes protected areas in Viet Nam and Thailand. Upgrading protected areas to securely encompass the habitats and endemic species of the Tay Nguyen and Lang Bian Plateau regions is a high conservation priority. Clarification of the taxonomic status of northern Lao and Vietnamese records of this species is needed. This species is included in Thailand's OEPP 1997 Red List.
58672		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from the Lang Bian and Tay Nguyen highlands of southern Viet Nam (Smith, 1921 and Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999), and probably also from Tam Dao (northern Viet Nam). It has also been collected from Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, in Chanta Buri Province, southeastern Thailand. The record from Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999) is in error (B. Stuart pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected from both Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia. It has been recorded between 700 and 1,500m asl in Viet Nam, and from 900m asl in Thailand.
58672		habitat	eng	It is known from streams in evergreen forest. It breeds in streams.
58672		population	eng	Reported collections of this species generally consisted of a single specimen or small series of specimens, indicating a rare or very cryptic frog.
58672		threats	eng	Most of the species' habitat is threatened by forest degradation, clearance for agriculture and logging (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and BirdLife International 2001).
58673		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Huong Son Reserve in Viet Nam and in the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area and the Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Areain Laos (Bain and Stuart, 2005).
58673		distribution	eng	This species is occurs quite widely in the cental highlands of Viet Nam, and in the adjacent mountains of eastern and southern Laos (including the Bolovens Plateau) at 200-1,500m asl (Bain and Stuart, 2005). There are records from:  the Tay Nguyen plateau in the central highlands of Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam; the Tra My Region, in Tra Don Commune, Ngoc Linh Mountain, Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam; the Huong Son Reserve, in Rao An Region, Ha Tinh Province, Vietn Man; the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, in Kaleum District, Xe Kong Province, Laos; and the Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area, on the Bolovens Plateau, in Pakxong District, Champasak Province, Laos (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2003; Teynié <em>et al</em>., 2004; Bain and Stuart, 2005).
58673		habitat	eng	It inhabits forested montane river systems, and may be found on or near rapids or waterfalls, often on rocks and trunks of large trees. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It probably cannot adapt to significant alteration to its habitat.
58673		population	eng	It is apparently common in suitable habitat.
58673		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and increasing human settlement.
58674		conservation	eng	Its range includes Ko Chang National Park, and several protected areas within the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia. Surveys to determine the species' range, habitat requirements and population status are needed.
58674		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, the island of Koh Chang, Trat Province, in south-east Thailand, and is also found in the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Ohler, Swan and Daltry 2002). It has been recorded below 800m asl.
58674		habitat	eng	This species is known from evergreen forest on the lower slopes of the mountains as well as in gallery forest, and also heavily disturbed areas and forest edge habitat. Males were heard calling from near streams where they were concealed in undergrowth. The exact breeding habits are unknown.
58674		population	eng	It is common in Koh Chang (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.) and also in the Cardamom Mountains at lower altitudes (S. Swan pers. comm.).
58674		threats	eng	A threat to this species is probably the clear-cutting of forests although it appears to also inhabit disturbed areas.
58675		conservation	eng	It is unclear whether it occurs in any protected areas, though there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats and improved control of introduced predators on Okinawa.
58675		distribution	eng	This species is found only on the northern part of Okinawajima Island, Japan.
58675		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in streams surrounded by primary or well-recovered secondary broad-leaved evergreen forest.
58675		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58675		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of deforestation and the alteration of rivers arising from the construction of roads and dams. Predation by introduced mongooses is also a threat.
58676		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Wuzhishan and Bawangling Nature Reserves.
58676		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Qiongzhong, Lingshui, and Baisha in Hainan Province, China. It has an altitudinal range of 350-850m asl.
58676		habitat	eng	This species is associated with streams in forested regions. Breeding takes place in streams.
58676		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58676		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, principally due to smallholder farming activities and clear-cutting of forests.
58677		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. It is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
58677		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau in south-eastern Jalisco, northern Michoacán and southern Guanajuato. It is known from 1,500-2,500m asl.
58677		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forests and mesquite grasslands, and requires the presence of lakes, pools or slow-flowing streams.
58677		population	eng	This species is relatively common.
58677		threats	eng	The main factors affecting populations of this frog are general habitat loss (arising from shifting agriculture and clear-cutting), and alteration and desiccation of waterways. There is also disturbance of some populations, caused by poachers of the monarch butterfly (<em>Danaus plexippus</em>).
58679		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas.
58679		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Russian Far East (from Evreiskaya Autonomous Province to the lower reaches of the Amur River), central, northern and north-eastern China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and Japan. In Japan this species is distributed in Honshu (except Sendai Plan, Kanto District and the area along Shinano River), Shikoku and Kyushu. There is a problem with the potential introduction of this species to other areas through the live animal trade. The small distribution in southern Yunnan probably represents an introduced population. This species occurs below 2,200m asl.
58679		habitat	eng	The terrestrial habitats of this species include meadows, leafy and mixed pine and broadleaved forests, bush lands and desert (in Turkmenistan). The species is also present in suitable modified habitats. Within these habitats it inhabits various types of stagnant waterbodies, including river pools, channels, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps, ditches and paddy fields. The female deposits 1,800-3,000 eggs in shallow water. The larvae hatch in five to seven days and usually begin metamorphosis about 45 days later. They reach sexual maturity at three years of age.
58679		population	eng	It is widespread and common in the Far East of Russia (with some localized declines), but it is declining in China (although it remains a common species). The decline is not considered to be so severe in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. In Japan the population is decreasing but it is not in significant decline, and is considered a common species.
58679		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. In some parts of Asia it has declined seriously because of over-exploitation in the live animal trade, water pollution, and changes in land management use from paddy fields to other crops.
58681		conservation	eng	Securing the ecological integrity of existing protected areas that include this species is most likely to secure viable populations of all morphotypes. Taxonomic studies are also needed. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58681		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Yunnan, China, and southern Myanmar through Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam and Cambodia to the northern half of Peninsular Malaysia (Bourret, 1941, Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and Stuart, 1999), and has an island occurrence on Phuket (Frith, 1977). It has been recorded once from North Sumatra, Indonesia, and has also been reported from localities in Assam, Meghalay and Nagaland in India. It usually occurs at mid-altitudes (from 200-600m asl), but ranges as widely as 60-1,200m asl.
58681		habitat	eng	It inhabits gentle streams in evergreen forest (including evergreen galleries in deciduous forest areas) (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and Stuart, 1999). Tadpoles live in quiet stream sections. It is generally not a commensal of humans, though it can be found close to settlements if the streams and surrounding forest are intact. It has occasionally been seen in drains in towns.
58681		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
58681		threats	eng	The main potential threats to this species are the loss of forest canopy over its streams and hydrological changes. Its range in China is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation for agriculture, wood and power plants.
58682		conservation	eng	Taxonomic revision of the species is required. Its range includes several protected areas.
58682		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in lowland tropical savannahs of southern New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 500m asl.
58682		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical flooded savannahs, and also foothill rainforest. It breeds in permanent swamps and temporary grassy flooded ditches. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.
58682		population	eng	This species is abundant where it occurs.
58682		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
58683		conservation	eng	Taxonomic confirmation of this species' status is needed (compared with other species such as <em>Rana macrodactyla</em>, for example).
58683		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimens collected at "Toungoo" (Bourret 1942), in the Bago Yoma Mountains, in Myanmar.
58683		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding the habitat requirements of this species. However, it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58683		population	eng	It has not been reported since it was first collected, despite recent surveys of the type locality (Wogan pers. comm.).
58683		threats	eng	This main threats to the habitat in the Bago Yoma area are extensive wildfires and extensive logging.
58684		conservation	eng	Although approximately 90% of the total range of the species is within Eglin Air Force Base, US national security has priority over wildlife. Fish and Wildlife Service, in concert with the Nature Conservancy and Eglin Air Force Base have recently drafted up a research and management plan for the species. It is protected as a Species of Special Concern by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.
58684		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Yellow and East Bay river drainages in Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton counties, Florida, USA (Moler 1993). Its area of occupancy might be less than 20km². It has an elevation of 3-55m asl.
58684		habitat	eng	Breeding and non-breeding habitat includes: early successional shrub bog communities; in or near shallow, non-stagnant, acid (pH 4.1-5.5) seeps; and along shallow, boggy overflows of larger seepage streams that drain extensive sandy uplands, frequently in association with lush beds of sphagnum moss. It is often associated with black titi and Atlantic white cedar. Eggs are laid in thin films at the water surface of pools. Males typically call from shallow water surrounded by sphagnum (Moler 1993). It apparently tolerates disturbance because some populations occur in heavily silted streams and, in areas where streamside vegetation is more mature hardwood forest, it occurs typically only in disturbed sites (Moler 1992a).
58684		population	eng	It is known from approximately three-dozen localities along tributaries of the East Bay, Shoal and Yellow Rivers in Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton counties, Florida, USA. The number of adult individuals is unknown, but the species is probably uncommon in appropriate habitat. Calling males can make the species seem more abundant than it actually is.
58684		threats	eng	Improper watershed management is a potential threat; at some sites, excessive stream siltation stemming from poor placement of roads or poor forest management in surrounding uplands has degraded habitat, but frog populations often are not negatively affected by this (Moler 1992a). Major threats are stream impoundment and habitat succession (Moler 1992a).
58685		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas. In Japan its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a national park. In Taiwan, Province of China, it was discovered in Lienwachih Experimental Forestry Station, Nantou County. This area, having a small piece of undisturbed subtropical forest, is (or soon will be) protected by law.
58685		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nantou County and Yilan County in Taiwan, Province of China, and also on the Japanese islands of Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima.
58685		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and montane areas, inhabiting forests, marshes, pools and ditches with water plants. It breeds in nests in the mud banks surrounding ponds, pools and swamps. Egg masses are enclosed in a layer of jelly substance and are deposited in round holes constructed on wet muddy ground. Rains are vital because hatched larvae need to be flushed to the nearby waterbodies. The larvae use shallow puddles that receive continuing input from seepage or trickling water.
58685		population	eng	It is a rare species throughout its range, and populations on Ishigakijima and Iriomotojima in Japan are in decline.
58685		threats	eng	The disturbance of natural forests resulting in the failure of nest construction on muddy ground is a major threat to this species. The development of low-lying wetlands is a threat in the Japanese part of the range. It may also be at risk from competition with the introduced <em>Bufo marinus</em> in Japan.
58686		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are within the range of this species.
58686		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central China (southern Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, western Hunan and southwestern Hubei Provinces). It occurs from 520-2,100m asl.
58686		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill forests and grass clumps in forests. It breeds in late summer in ponds, pools, winter flooded fields and backwaters in small streams. Tadpoles over-winter.
58686		population	eng	It is a common species.
58686		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular dam construction and water pollution.
58687		conservation	eng	A survey of the Omiltemi State Park is recommended in order to confirm whether or not the species has indeed disappeared from this area. Another survey of Agua del Obispo is required to check the population status in this locality. If the species still persists in Agua del Obispo, a recovery programme might be needed and perhaps from here individuals could be taken and reintroduced to the Omiltemi area. Protection of the remaining habitat at Agua del Obispo is needed. This species is listed as "Endangered" by the Mexican government.
58687		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two locations in Mexico: Omiltemi State Park, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Guerrero; and Agua del Obispo, in north-western Guerrero. It is a montane species and the type locality is at about 2,400m asl.
58687		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest and requires the presence of slow or moderate streams for breeding.
58687		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since 1978, and it is feared that the species might now be extinct. It seems to be extirpated in the Omiltemi State Park, since a recent one-year survey of this site yielded no individuals; there is no recent information on its status at Agua del Obispo.
58687		threats	eng	Although generally affected by habitat loss, the most likely cause of the extinction of the population in the Omiltemi State Park is the piping of water from streams within the species' range to provide the city of Chilpancingo with water. However, it might also have disappeared due to chytridiomycosis, since other montane stream-breeding amphibians have also disappeared from suitable habitats without any apparent reason.
58688		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
58688		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sado Island, and many other islands. It can occur up to 2,000m asl.
58688		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats including forests and paddy fields from lowland to montane areas. It breeds in shallow ponds, pools and paddy fields.
58688		population	eng	It is a common species.
58688		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present.
58689		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58689		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the Amazon Basin of South America including in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, the Guianas and Brazil. The species also occurs in the northern Atlantic forest (Sergipe to Paraiba, Brazil), and in the Central Range and southeast corner of the island of Trinidad (in Trinidad and Tobago). The species has been recorded from close to sea level to up to 1,000m asl (Venezuela).
58689		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal tropical rainforest species, living terrestrially in and around permanent waterbodies, including slow-flowing watercourses, rivers, and lakes and at the edges of ponds. It also occurs in flooded forest. Their eggs are deposited in the water at the beginning of the dry season, and the tadpoles develop in water. The Atlantic Forest populations breed year round and only in slow-moving streams.
58689		population	eng	It is common in parts of the Brazilian Amazon but uncommon to rare elsewhere.
58689		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In Peru, local populations are threatened by the introduction of <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>. Local populations are probably also impacted by habitat loss.
58690		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58690		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Eastern North America from the Gaspe Peninsula to Wisconsin, south to southern South Carolina, northern Georgia, southern Mississippi, and southeastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from most of far southeastern U.S. and the prairie region of Illinois and vicinity.
58690		habitat	eng	There are various habitats in wooded regions; vicinity of cool clear streams and ponds in north; warm, turbid swamps in parts of south. Disperses from water's edge into fields and woods in some regions. When inactive, hides at bottom of water body or in caves in some areas. Eggs and larvae develop in standing water of woodland ponds, bog ponds, stream pools, sloughs, and flooded ditches; often in sites with few or no fishes (e.g., Holomuzki 1995).
58690		population	eng	There are thousands of populations; it is abundant, and stable.
58690		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Local populations are no doubt impacted by clear-cutting and urbanization.
58691		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
58691		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread across northern New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and a number of offshore islands, including Waigeo, Salawati, Batanta, Biak and Manus, and Fergusson and Normanby in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
58691		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swampy forests and flooded grasslands, including disturbed habitats. It breeds in pools and swamps.
58691		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58691		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any significant threats to this widely distributed species.
58692		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is recorded in the national Red Data Book of Spain, and several regional Red Data Books. It occurs in many protected areas including Doñana and Cabañeros National Parks in Spain. In Portugal it is present in Peneda-Gerês National Park, where the population of Carris Lake has been impacted by disease. Further research into the impacts of disease on this species is needed.
58692		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern France and across the whole of the Iberian Peninsula. It has been introduced to the Balearic Islands, and the Canary Islands (Spain), two sites in the United Kingdom (Sheppey, Kent and Newdigate, Surrey) and Madeira and the Azores (Portugal) (the distribution in the Azores requires further details and is incompletely mapped here). It occurs from sea level up to 2,380m asl (Sierra Nevada, Spain).
58692		habitat	eng	It inhabits a wide variety of temporary and permanent waterbodies (pools, streams, ditches, irrigation canals etc.). The terrestrial habitats of the species include forests, Mediterranean-type scrub, agricultural areas, rocky areas, coastal marshes, gardens and urban parks. It breeds in various aquatic habitats, and is able to tolerate some habitat disturbance.
58692		population	eng	It is generally widespread and common over much of the Iberian Peninsula, while populations in France are reported to be scarce and dispersed (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997). This species appears to be expanding its range to higher elevations, possibly as a result of climate change.
58692		threats	eng	There are generally no major threats to this widespread species. Localized threats include changes in habitat through the loss of traditional agricultural methods, drainage or pollution of wetlands, collection of individuals for human consumption and hybridization with introduced farmed European ranids (<span style="font-style: italic;">R. esculenta</span> complex). Mortality of the species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal. The disease might be non-native and have been transferred to the lake by an introduced predatory North American fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Predation by <em>Lepomis gibbosus</em> and other introduced predatory fish species occurs but is probably not a threat, and it is not greatly threatened in Portugal by the expansion of non-native predatory crayfish (Beja pers. comm.). In France, it is being displaced within some of its range by the introduced species <em>Pelophylax ridibunda</em>.
58693		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though the type locality is close to Gunung Leuser National Park.
58693		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Laut Tadder, in Aceh Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. It is presumably a lowland species.
58693		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected along the edge of a lake, and this species presumably breeds in water.
58693		population	eng	It is known only known from the holotype, which was collected sometime before 1923. The lack of subsequent records is probably due to limited herpetological survey work within its range.
58693		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58694		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas across the region. Effective preservation of lowland rainforests is essential for this species.
58694		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from widely scattered localities throughout Borneo, Sumatra, and possibly the Malay Peninsula. A population also occurs on Tioman Island. In general, there is considerable uncertainty about the identification, and consequently the range of this species (see taxonomic notes for this species and R. signata). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found below 1,000m asl.
58694		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and slightly disturbed rainforests. Breeding takes place in small streams and the tadpoles live in quiet side pools and in accumulations of dead leaves in open pools.
58694		population	eng	It appears to be abundant at most localities.
58694		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat to this species, resulting in the contraction and fragmentation of the habitat.
58695		conservation	eng	Populations exist in dozens or hundreds of protected areas, though management of those areas might not take leopard frogs into consideration. In Panama it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Altos de Campana. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex.
58695		distribution	eng	This species is known from Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay, Canada, south to Kentucky and New Mexico, USA (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991). It has a spotty distribution in the west, where it has been introduced in many localities. It is also known from Panama where it is endemic to the central cordillera and western Pacific lowlands, although this is most likely an undescribed species (see taxonomic note). It occurs at approximately 100-600m asl in the eastern portion of the Panamanian distribution.
58695		habitat	eng	Springs, slow streams, marshes, bogs, ponds, canals, flood plains, reservoirs, and lakes; usually permanent water with rooted aquatic vegetation. In summer, commonly inhabits wet meadows and fields. Takes cover underwater, in damp niches, or in caves when inactive. Over winters usually underwater. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in shallow, still, permanent water (typically), generally in areas well exposed to sunlight. Generally eggs are attached to vegetation just below the surface of the water. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).<br/>In Panama, it is a largely terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest.
58695		population	eng	In North America there are thousands of populations. The total adult population size is probably in the hundreds of thousands or millions. It is still widespread and common in many areas, especially in lowland areas, but many other populations appear to have declined, especially in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, where the species no longer is extant in most localities where historically it occurred (Corn and Fogleman 1984; Corn <em>et al.</em> 1989; Koch and Peterson 1995; J. Reichel, unpublished map, 1996). It has nearly disappeared from the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, though natural wetland habitats remain apparently undisturbed with acceptable water quality (Koch and Peterson 1995). It is apparently extirpated from most of its historical range in Washington (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has not been observed in recent years in the few historical localities in Oregon (Csuti <em>et al.</em> 1997). Local extirpations have been reported for Alberta (Russell and Bauer 1993) and British Columbia (Orchard 1992). In Panama it can be common in some areas but declining in parts of its range.
58695		threats	eng	Threats and degree of threat vary greatly across its range. Threats include habitat loss, commercial over-exploitation, and in some areas, probably competition/predation by bullfrogs or other introduced species. The decline in Rocky Mountains (Corn <em>et al.</em> 1989) is not due to acidification of breeding habitats (Corn and Vertucci 1992). Laboratory results suggest that there might be an interaction between crowding, temperature, and mortality from bacterial infection (e.g., red-leg disease); there was higher mortality when frogs were subjected to crowding and high temperatures (Brodkin <em>et al.</em> 1992). Agricultural chemicals such as atrazine have caused feminisation of frogs in agricultural areas (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Panama it is threatened by general habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests.
58696		conservation	eng	In Japan its range includes several protected areas. The small populations on the Kurile Islands might need conservation attention.
58696		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Hokkaido and its adjacent small island in Japan, and from Sakhalin and the southern Kurile Islands, Russia. It occurs from the coast up to 2,000m asl.
58696		habitat	eng	It is found in broadleaf, coniferous and mixed woodland, in open areas, grasslands shrubland, bamboo groves, swamps, lake shores, flood lands and near to hot springs. It breeds in stagnant and slow-flowing waters. This species can be found in drainage ditches.
58696		population	eng	This is a common species that is not in decline.
58696		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species in Japan. In Russia it might be threatened by habitat loss and pollution of wetlands.
58697		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas fall within the range of this species.
58697		distribution	eng	This species is known from Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and maybe Jiangxi Provinces in eastern China. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.
58697		habitat	eng	It inhabits ponds (especially lotus ponds), paddy fields and ditches in plains and low hills. It breeds in still water.
58697		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58697		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by urbanization and water pollution are major threats to this species. It is also consumed locally and traded within China.
58698		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.
58698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern China and occurs in southwestern Sichuan, western Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, from 1,150-2,300m asl. It can be expected to occur in neighbouring Myanmar, though there are not yet any records.
58698		habitat	eng	It inhabits paddy fields, ditches and ponds, and also breeds in these habitats.
58698		population	eng	It is a common species, although there has been a population decline recently.
58698		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by urbanization and water pollution are major threats to this species. It is also eaten locally by people.
58699		conservation	eng	The species range includes several protected areas. A population recovery programme has been made by an NGO in Hiroshima Prefecture (R.p. brevipoda). R.p. brevipoda is listed in the Japanese Red Data Book.
58699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. The nominate subspecies R.p. porosa is distributed in Kanto District, Sendai Plain and Shinano River, Honshu Island; R.p. brevipoda is distributed in Nagano Prefecture, Tokai District, Kinki District and Setouchi District, in western Honshu and Shikoku islands.
58699		habitat	eng	Both subspecies occur in grassland, paddy fields, rivers, ditches and other wetlands in lowland areas. Rana porosa breeds in paddy fields and wetlands. It is always found near water.
58699		population	eng	More information is needed.
58699		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction, including decreasing numbers of paddy fields, construction of roads and housing, and water pollution.
58701		conservation	eng	Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve and Manantalán Biosphere Reserve are both within its range.
58701		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Mexico from southern Nayarit, northern Aguascalientes, and south through to Colima. <br/><br/>The type locality is at 1,158m asl, but the species in known to occur within an altitudinal range of 876-2,000m asl. It could be at a lower elevation in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).
58701		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tributaries of the Río Grande de Santiago, and the surrounding forest, and breeds in rivers and streams.
58701		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
58701		threats	eng	Its habitat is being impacted by livestock grazing.
58702		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. An extensive search within the known range of this species is needed to determine whether or not it still survives. It is listed as "Endangered" by the Mexican government.
58702		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is known only from the northern state of Puebla, in the vicinity of Huauchinango city and adjacent Río Necaxa.
58702		habitat	eng	The main habitat in Río Necaxa, and the surroundings of Huauchinango, is pine and pine-oak forest. This frog is highly associated with permanent river systems where it breeds.
58702		population	eng	This species has not been seen since it was first collected almost 50 years ago. Several recent field surveys in the Huauchinango area reported no individuals of this frog, and it is probably extinct.
58702		threats	eng	The disappearance of these permanent rivers has contributed to its decline, and perhaps extinction, and the damming of the Nexaca River for hydroelectric power, in particular, is believed to have affected this species.
58703		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes at least three protected areas. Protection of the original habitats will prevent the desiccation of streams inhabited by this frog. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58703		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Sinaloa and Durango, southward to Nayarit, Jalisco and Colima, in Mexico.
58703		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of rocky cascading streams in tropical dry forest, and maybe also coniferous forest at low to moderate elevations. It breeds in streams.
58703		population	eng	This is a very common species.
58703		threats	eng	This species appears very resistant to human impacts on its habitat and other related activities.
58704		conservation	eng	Provided existing protected areas and watershed forests remain reasonably intact, the species appears secure. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58704		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975) and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992, Ming, 2000), including most islands including Phuket (Frith, 1977), Penang (Manthey and Grossmann, 1997) and Tioman (Berry, 1975). It has also been recorded from most of Borneo, the Great Nicobar Islands, in India, as well as from northern and western Sumatra, the Anambas Islands and the Natunas Islands in Indonesia. It occurs up to at least 1,000m asl.
58704		habitat	eng	It is typically seen on rocks and vegetation along small lowland forest streams, but is also seen away from streams in forest, or in highland areas. Primary and degraded forests are equally favoured, but a reasonably closed canopy and gently flowing water are essential. Adults disperse widely in the forest and may even be found in wooded gardens. Breeding occurs at quiet side pools of forest streams or in temporary ponds at the edges of forests. On Sumatra it also breeds in ponds and in paddy fields. Tadpoles live in side pools and quiet, deeper sections of streams (Grandison, 1972, Dring, 1979).
58704		population	eng	It is generally common in lowland forest streams, and is less common but still present in highland areas. In Borneo, because of its explosive breeding, it can appear very abundant or rare locally.
58704		threats	eng	There are currently no significant threats to this species.
58705		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive and on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is listed in a number of national and regional Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas. There is a need to control or eliminate this species where it has been introduced outside its natural range, as it is a threat to native species. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58705		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive and on Appendix III of the Berne Convention, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is listed in a number of national and regional Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas. There is a need to control or eliminate this species where it has been introduced outside its natural range, as it is a threat to native species. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58705		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in western, central and eastern Europe and ranges as far eastwards as eastern Kazakhstan. There are introduced populations in the southeast United Kingdom (where the range is spreading), Switzerland, Belgium (Wallonia), Spain (Villasbuenas de Gata, Cáceres and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana), Siberia and Kamchatka, Russia and northwestern Xinjiang (Yining, Tacheng, Wenquan, Huocheng and Xinyuan), China. It is present throughout Turkey (although this might represent a separate taxon), possibly Syrian Arab Republic, much of Iran, northeastern Iraq and most of northern Afghanistan (absent from Pakistan). Isolated populations are present in Bahrain (it is not known as to whether or not this is an introduction) and within Saudi Arabia (relict populations in the southern Hadramaut, and an introduction at Al Kharj). Further investigations are needed into the range of the species within Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Numerous introductions have expanded the range in Siberia and Kamchatka. In Central Asia, it is often difficult to distinguish between the periphery of natural range and the areas occupied after dispersal and introductions. Numerous populations in Kazakhstan have originated through deliberate introductions from local laboratories and universities. The species was introduced into Siberia and Kamchatka through the accidental introduction of tadpoles with fish into reservoirs with warm discharge waters from electric power stations. It occurs from sea level to altitudes of around 2,500m asl.
58705		habitat	eng	It is a highly opportunistic amphibian, living in mixed and deciduous forests, forest steppe, and steppe and other grasslands, semi-desert and desert zones. Arid areas are largely colonized through river valleys and channels. The frog prefers open, well-warmed areas with abundant herbaceous vegetation. It is a semi-aquatic species, inhabiting (and breeding in) a wide variety of flowing and stagnant water habitats, from shallow puddles and ponds to large lakes, reservoirs, rivers and brooks. It may also be found in slightly saline water; on the northern shore of the Apsheron Peninsula (Caspian Sea), reproduction has been observed in marine water at a distance of 0.5-1m from the shore. It is present in many modified habitats.
58705		population	eng	This is generally a common to abundant species where it occurs.
58705		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Loss of breeding habitats may lead to localized declines, but it is very resistant to environmental pollution and animals may be found in highly polluted waters (such as chemical or metallurgic pollution) where other amphibian species cannot survive. Severe, or prolonged, droughts may lead to localized population declines of this frog in arid areas. The harvesting of this species for educational and medical research, or food, appears to have little effect on some populations, although the frog-leg trade and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations in eastern Asia, in the former Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly also in Romania. In Turkey, the harvesting of frog populations allocated to <em>Pelophylax ridibunda</em> for food appears to be a threat, thus the frog-leg trade and very significant levels of pollution due to some industrial areas might be leading to significant declines in populations in Turkey.
58706		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.
58706		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Sado Island, Oki Island etc.). It is a lowland species found below 300m asl. It was introduced to Hawaii probably in 1895 or 1896 (Oliver and Shaw, 1953) and now occurs on Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai (McKeown, 1996).
58706		habitat	eng	It is widespread in artificial ponds, paddy fields, rivers, streams and wetlands. It breeds in these wetland habitats.
58706		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat.
58706		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
58707		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.
58707		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed (but with fragmented populations due to patchy available habitat) from northwestern Western Sahara, through Morocco, Ceuta and Melilla (Spain), Algeria (south to the Hoggar Massif), Tunisia, northern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and northwestern Egypt (Siwa Oasis only). It has been introduced in Gran Canaria, Spain. The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,670m asl.
58707		habitat	eng	It is mostly confined to montane and wetland areas within its range. The species is largely aquatic, being found in and around streams, oasis pools, irrigation canals, lakes and other waterbodies. Eggs are deposited in water. It is not known whether or not the species can occur in modified habitats.
58707		population	eng	It is abundant where suitable wetland habitat exists, and it is the most common amphibian of the Maghreb region. It is localized and uncommon in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
58707		threats	eng	The species is presumed to have no major threats, although it might be locally threatened by over-exploitation of water resources, pollution and fragmentation of populations. There has been some loss of habitat around Ceuta and Melilla.
58708		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
58708		distribution	eng	This Japanese endemic species is distributed in central Honshu in Kinki District and western Kanto District. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
58708		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests in montane areas, and breeds in streams.
58708		population	eng	More information is needed.
58708		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
58709		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
58709		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Palawan island group (Palawan, Busuanga, Culion, Balabac and Ramos) in the Philippines. A population from Sulawesi, Indonesia, has also been attributed to this species.
58709		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and lower montane rainforests, as well as secondary growth vegetation and anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in streams.
58709		population	eng	In the Philippines, it is common in forested areas and disturbed areas adjacent to forest. In Sulawesi, The population status of this species is unknown.
58709		threats	eng	Logging is a threat to the species' habitat.
58710		conservation	eng	Its two localities are probably within protected areas, one of which is Badagongshang National Nature Reserve.
58710		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Tianping, in Sangzhi County, Hunan Province, and from Dadongshan in Guangdong Province, China, at around 1,350m asl. It might occur more widely.
58710		habitat	eng	It is found in hilly forest areas, where it inhabits and breeds in streams.
58710		population	eng	This might be a very rare species.
58710		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58711		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region support this species.
58711		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central China in Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces. It has been recorded from 200-1,400m asl.
58711		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams of different sizes and the surrounding forests, and breeds in streams.
58711		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58711		threats	eng	Infrastructure development, dam construction, and harvesting for consumption are all major threats to this species. It is also threatened by fisheries related by catch.
58712		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58712		distribution	eng	This taxon was recorded in Thailand from the approximate locality of "Hat Sanuk, Siamese Malaya, near Tenasserim border".
58712		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58712		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
58712		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58713		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58713		distribution	eng	This species occurs in North America from Labrador to southern Manitoba, south to northern New England and northern Wisconsin (Conant and Collins 1991).
58713		habitat	eng	Bogs, cold lakes and ponds, inlets and outlets of ponds and lakes; occupies sphagnum mats and emergent vegetation (e.g., lily pads) in open water. It hibernates underwater. Eggs and larvae develop in permanent lakes and ponds.
58713		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably more than 100,000. It is abundant in suitable habitat in northern Wisconsin (Vogt 1981).
58713		threats	eng	None. There is minimal human impact in much of its range.
58714		conservation	eng	The last known population in the Desoto National Forest, Mississippi, is not entirely protected. In Mississippi, the gopher frog is classified as Endangered by the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks (R. L. Jones, MDWFP pers. comm., 1995). In December 2001, the species was listed as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act, but no critical habitat was designated (USFWS 2001). A Gopher Frog Recovery Team has since overseen conservation strategies that include pond water supplementation in dry years, habitat management, assisting larval survivorship, captive rearing, construction of an alternative-breeding pond, and treating infected larvae. This programme needs to be continued and expanded. Surveys are needed to check the status of the recently discovered populations, and to determine whether or not the species survives elsewhere.
58714		distribution	eng	Historically, this species occurred on the coastal plain of the southern USA from eastern Louisiana and southern Mississippi to the Mobile River delta in Alabama, USA. By 2003 it was only known from Glen's Pond in Desoto National Forest in Harrison County, Mississippi (USFWS 2000h; Young and Crother 2001). However, very recently individuals have been seen at two other sites: one calling male was seen at McCoy's Pond 50 miles east of Glen's Pond, and 50 tadpoles were collected from Mike's Pond, 20 miles west of Glen's Pond (Zippel 2005). It is not known whether or not these are stable breeding populations. It occurs from near sea level to 65m asl.
58714		habitat	eng	Breeding and non-breeding habitat includes both upland sandy habitats historically forested with longleaf pine and isolated temporary wetland breeding sites imbedded within this forested landscape. This frog spends the majority of its life in or near underground refugia and historically used gopher tortoise burrows for this purpose (Allen 1932; Richter <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Glen's Pond population occurs in an area presently lacking gopher tortoises, although tortoises probably occurred historically in the area and do occur nearby. Refugia include abandoned mammal burrows and holes in and under old stumps (L.V. LaClaire pers. obs., 1996; Richter <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species does not adapt to human disturbance of its habitat.
58714		population	eng	Only one extant population was known as of 2000 (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). Historical records exist for three parishes in Louisiana, eight counties in Mississippi, and one county in Alabama. Recent surveys have been unable to document the continued existence of the species in Louisiana (Seigel and Doody 1992; Thomas 1996; J. Pechmann pers. comm. 2003) or Alabama (Bailey 1992b, 1994). The last observation of this gopher frog in Louisiana was made in 1967 (G. Lester, Louisiana Natural Heritage pers. comm., 1991) and in Alabama in 1922 (Löding 1922). In 1987 and 1988, surveys of ponds in six Mississippi counties verified the presence of the species at only four sites in Harrison County (Crawford 1988). At three of the four sites, only one individual was observed. Subsequent to this work, surveys have documented the continued existence of only one population, represented by Crawford's fourth site in Harrison County. Based on census data collected 1996-2001, the population was estimated at 60-100 individuals (Richter and Seigel 2002; Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). The population appears to be declining because of two fungal diseases, one of them chytridiomycosis.
58714		threats	eng	Major threats include population isolation (inbreeding and susceptibility to catastrophic events), urbanization, two diseases, and apparent lack of a nearby suitable habitat. The range has been significantly reduced as a result of habitat destruction, fragmentation, and modification. Pre-settlement longleaf pine forests were the dominant forest type of the south-eastern coastal plain. Today, less than two percent of the original longleaf pine forests remain (Ware, Frost and Doerr 1993). These areas are usually second-growth forests often degraded by turpentine, grazing, and disruption of the natural fire regime (Boyce and Martin 1993; Ware, Frost and Doerr 1993). Many areas have been converted from open longleaf pine sand hill communities to dense monocultures of sand, loblolly, or slash pine (Boyce and Martin 1993; Ware, Frost and Doerr 1993). Land management practices have altered the soil horizon, forest litter, herbaceous community, and the occurrence of fallen trees and stumps used as refugia. Isolated temporary wetlands are required for breeding. Factors affecting quality of breeding ponds include timber site preparation methods that alter existing hydrology, domestic animal grazing, clearing and draining for agricultural or urban uses, ditching, soil disturbance, and fire exclusion. The breeding habitat at Glen's Pond, and most of the surrounding adult habitat, are located in the DeSoto National Forest. Silviculture, including timber sales with associated clear-cutting, is the primary activity in this area. Less than 50 percent of the Forest is maintained as longleaf pine, with the remainder converted to slash pine or loblolly pine. The Mississippi Gulf Coast has experienced a recent upsurge in residential development, largely as a consequence of gambling casinos located in the Biloxi-Gulfport area. The land immediately north and west of the only known breeding site was owned by International Paper and managed for paper production until it was sold in 1999 to a land developer who intends to build a retirement community and golf course. This development will make conducting prescribed burns difficult and increase the chances of further modification to the breeding site and the associated upland habitat. The US Forest Service is negotiating the purchase of a small (30 ha) buffer to facilitate burning. Habitat alteration is likely the primary factor in the loss of gopher frog populations in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi. At least 13 (72 percent) of the 18 historic gopher frog sites have been degraded due to intensive forestry practices. Forests around breeding ponds were clear-cut extensively in the mid-1950s and then again in the 1980s and 1990s. In most cases, these forests were replaced with dense pine plantations. Within these plantations and in the longleaf pine habitats, fire suppression has further has reduced the quality of the terrestrial and aquatic habitat for the Dusky Gopher Frog. Both the forests and the ponds have lost the open, grassy character that is necessary habitat for the species. Canopy closure from fire suppression also alters the forest floor vegetation. Without fire, encroachment of woody vegetation threatens the open, herbaceous character typical of most gopher frog breeding ponds. In addition, fire causes the release of nutrients bound in plant material. This release of nutrients results in a flush of primary productivity that is important to the herbivorous gopher frog tadpoles. Fire suppression has negatively impacted at least 13 (72 percent) of the 18 historical sites, but controlled burns conducted 1987-2003 have improved conditions at Glen's Pond. Expanding urbanization has been a factor in the degradation of at least three (17 percent) other sites. One of these historic breeding ponds is in a residential backyard and has been altered to hold water permanently (Thomas 1996). Forestry practices and expanding urbanization are also threats to the single remaining population. For example, a four-lane highway is being constructed that will further subdivide available habitat. Direct take for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes is not currently considered to be a threat. An unidentified fungal disease has caused >90% mortality of tadpoles. Chytridiomycosis has also been detected in other species of frog at the breeding site, but its effects on Dusky Gopher Frogs are currently unknown. Temporary ponds altered to form more permanent bodies of water and stocked with fishes are no longer suitable breeding sites. The Dusky Gopher Frog is adapted to temporary wetlands and its larvae cannot survive the heavy predation of bass and sunfish commonly used to stock ponds. Introduction of predatory fishes into ponds for recreational use has caused declines in Gopher Frog (<em>Rana capito</em>) populations in Alabama (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1995). Construction of drainage ditches and firebreaks into ponds might also provide avenues for introduction of fish into breeding sites. High annual variation (5-37%) in intensity of egg mass mortality occurred during a three-year study (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional undetermined amount of the egg mortality was due to predation by caddisfly larvae (Order Trichoptera, Family Phryganeidae) on the egg masses (Richter 2000). Gopher frog breeding sites have been degraded by roads that pass through or are adjacent to ponds. Erosion of unpaved roads adjacent to breeding sites may result in an influx of sedimentation from surrounding uplands during rainstorms. Off-road recreational vehicle (ORV) use can cause direct mortality of tadpoles and adults (J. Jensen, Georgia Department of Natural Resources pers. comm., 1996) and alter the quality of a breeding site. Vehicular traffic disrupts the contours of the pond floor, eliminates herbaceous vegetation, and can alter the hydrology of the site (L.V. LaClaire pers. obs., 1995). Loss of herbaceous vegetation from ORV usage could also discourage gopher frog reproduction, since egg masses are attached to stems of herbaceous vegetation (Bailey 1990; Palis 1995). ORV tracks have been documented within the Glen's Pond breeding site (G. Johnson, U.S. Forest Service pers. comm., 1994). Low reproductive potential might also represent a threat to this species' continued existence. Studies at the Mississippi breeding site suggest that females do not breed until two to three years of age and might breed only in alternate years and/or have only a single lifetime breeding event (Richter and Seigel 2002). Both larval and metamorph survival appears to be low (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). Variability in weather events can further reduce reproductive potential. Annual variability in rainfall, which influences how frequently and how long a pond is appropriate breeding habitat, can result in a number of years with complete reproductive failure (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). Studies of other species of ranid frogs (e.g., Berven and Grudzien 1990) suggest that many anuran populations show a strong meta-population structure. In meta-populations, adults are typically faithful to breeding sites but juveniles may disperse to new breeding areas before reaching maturity. As a result, reproductive failure at a single pond can be compensated for by recruitment at another site. Such a strategy also leads to a lower probability of genetic isolation and inbreeding (Stacey, Taper and Johnson 1997). Because there is only one known breeding site (until very recently), this population is highly susceptible to genetic isolation, inbreeding, and catastrophic events. Thus, the probability of extinction is higher than would otherwise be the case. Insecticides and herbicides might pose a threat. The aquatic larvae are likely most vulnerable to chemical changes in their environment. Adult gopher frogs are predaceous and could be affected by pesticides accumulated in their invertebrate prey. If a golf course is built in the drainage area of the breeding pond, as proposed, the chemicals used to maintain the golf course could pose a significant threat to the population.
58715		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. 'Green frogs', including <em>R. shqiperica</em>, are not protected by law in Yugoslavia (Kalezic and Dzukic 2001; Ljubisavljevic, Dzukic and Kalezic 2003). The species is present in the Lake Skadar protected area, on the border of Montenegro and Albania.
58715		distribution	eng	This lowland species is restricted to western Albania and southern Montenegro at elevations below 500m asl.
58715		habitat	eng	It has been reported from heavily vegetated aquatic habitats including ditches, swamps, marshes, the edges of slow-flowing rivers and the shoreline of Lake Skadar. Breeding, and larval development, takes place in these wetland habitats. It is not known if the species can successfully adapt to habitat modification.
58715		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58715		threats	eng	The major threat is drainage of wetland habitats and aquatic pollution of many waterways caused by agrochemical and industrial (including mining) contaminants. In the northern parts of its range (e.g. Lake Skadar) it is significantly threatened by over collection for commercial purposes. An additional threat is the accidental introduction of commercially transported non-native water frogs.
58716		conservation	eng	The species' range is within the Gaoligongshan and Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserves.
58716		distribution	eng	This species is found in Zhaojue County in southwestern Sichuan province, and Gongshan, Zhongdian and Deqin counties in northwestern Yunnan province, China. Within this range it has a very small area of occupancy. However, it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can also be expected from northern Myanmar. It has been recorded from 2,760-3,800m asl.
58716		habitat	eng	It inhabits pools, marshes, slow-flowing streams and the surrounding alpine grasslands and shrublands. It breeds in water.
58716		population	eng	It is a very common species in some places, but uncommon in others.
58716		threats	eng	There are no known threats at present.
58717		conservation	eng	It occurs in Siberut, Gunung Leuser, Kerinci-Seblat and Barisan-Seblat National Parks in Indonesia, and the only known record in Malaysia is from Lakum forest reserve.
58717		distribution	eng	This species is known from areas below 700m asl in Siberut and Sumatra (in Aceh, North Sumatra, Bengkulu, West Sumatra and Lampung Provinces), Indonesia, and from one locality in Peninsular Malaysia; the catchment area of Sungai Temir, within the Lakum forest reserve, Raub, Pahang. In Indonesia, it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it probably also occurs more widely in Peninsular Malaysia.
58717		habitat	eng	In Indonesia it is known to live along streams in lowland forest, and breed in streams. The one specimen found in Peninsular Malaysia was found at the edge of a temporary pool away from streams.
58717		population	eng	There are only very few records, so it is probably uncommon.
58717		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss, especially due to expanding oil palm plantations. There might also be pollution of its breeding habitats.
58718		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection and maintenance of forest habitats in the Sierra Madre del Sur. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
58718		distribution	eng	This species is widespread through the Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico.
58718		habitat	eng	This species inhabits conifer forests at intermediate elevations. It breeds in streams.
58718		population	eng	There are many healthy populations of this species along its range although it is reportedly rare in some parts.
58718		threats	eng	Logging is probably a threat to this species. Tadpoles have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinized mouthparts, which suggests that chytridiomycosis might be a threat.
58719		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas on the Malay Peninsular (e.g. Temengor, Ulu Muda, Pasoh) and in Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak). Protection of lowland tropical forest is the main conservation measure required. The taxonomic status of this species is currently under investigation.
58719		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (and Penang and Tioman Islands) (Taylor, 1962 and Berry, 1975), and large parts of Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Confusion between Rana signata and Rana picturata makes many old Bornean records suspect. It occurs below 700m asl.
58719		habitat	eng	It is abundant in lowland forests, including swamp and heath forest, and is commonly found in the riparian vegetation along stream banks. Metamorphs disperse through the forest, and when they are half grown they return to the stream banks. Tadpoles develop in quiet side-pools at the edge of streams.
58719		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
58719		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat to this species.
58720		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. The most important conservation measure needed is to designate the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest on Luzon as protected areas.
58720		distribution	eng	This species is found in many parts of Luzon including the adjacent smaller islands of Polillo, Palaui, Catanduanes, and Marinduque, in the Philippines. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58720		habitat	eng	This species inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and lays its eggs in clean streams and rivers, and the larvae develop in quiet side pools.
58720		population	eng	It is common in forested areas and disturbed areas near forest.
58720		threats	eng	Important threats to this species are the loss of lowland rainforest (due to agricultural development and logging) and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, especially due to agricultural effluents.
58721		conservation	eng	It requires further research to assess its taxonomic validity.
58721		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected in China. It has not been possible to accurately identify its distribution.
58721		habitat	eng	It probably occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and presumably breeds in the streams.
58721		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status.
58721		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58722		conservation	eng	This species' range overlaps several protected areas. Protection of the forests and water systems along its range protects the main habitat of this species.
58722		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Mexico, from eastern Michoacán eastward to the central State of Mexico and Morelos, north through Tlaxcala to eastern Hidalgo, and south to central Puebla and a small portion of western Veracruz, to the highlands of northwestern Oaxaca.
58722		habitat	eng	This species occurs in oak, pine-oak and fir forests above 1,500m asl. It prefers marshy edges of ponds and lakes but primarily inhabits the edges of mountain streams. It breeds in large ponds and at the lake edge.
58722		population	eng	This is a very common species.
58722		threats	eng	Deforestation, pollution and alteration of water reservoirs can directly affect the populations of this species.
58723		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58723		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands of the southeastern USA, southern New York to Florida Keys, west to eastern Kansas and eastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991). It is introduced on Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991).
58723		habitat	eng	It occurs in the vicinity of virtually any freshwater habitat; also slightly brackish marshes. In summer disperses from water into moist vegetation. Occupies bottoms of pools and caves when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in still, shallow waters of many kinds. Males call from water.
58723		population	eng	This is the most abundant frog in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is abundant in eastern Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and widespread and locally abundant in Illinois range (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999). Populations in Indiana have not undergone the drastic decline in numbers that has occurred in Rana pipiens (Minton 2001).
58723		threats	eng	Traffic on roads near ponds might be a local threat. Palis (1994) reported large numbers of road-killed individuals adjacent to a pond in Florida. Within a single population, families of leopard frogs vary in their tolerance to the insecticide carbaryl (Bridges and Semlitsch 2001). Local populations are no doubt impacted by urbanization.
58724		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas on the island, including Wuzhishan Nature Reserve.
58724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and south-western Hainan, China. It has been recorded from 80-840m asl.
58724		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical forests, and breeds in pools and slow-flowing streams.
58724		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58724		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by shifting agriculture, logging, and the construction of hydroelectric plants are major threats to this species.
58725		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this species needs to be assessed. It occurs in some protected areas.
58725		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the mountains of New Guinea from the Vogelkop Peninsula in the west (Indonesia) to the southeast peninsula of Papua New Guinea. It has also been recorded from Yapen Island (Indonesia) and Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby Island in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea). It occurs from about 100m up to 1,800m asl.
58725		habitat	eng	This species inhabits and breeds in fast- or moderately flowing streams in tropical rainforest, rural gardens, villages, and degraded habitats.
58725		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58725		threats	eng	It is not threatened, though it is captured for food by local human communities.
58726		conservation	eng	In Japan its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a national park, although there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats in these islands.
58726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Japanese islands of Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima.
58726		habitat	eng	It occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest and streams in mountains, and is also found in coastal areas.
58726		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58726		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, due to logging and human settlement, particularly on Ishigakijima.
58727		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas on the island support this species.
58727		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in hilly areas below 2,000m asl in Taiwan, Province of China.
58727		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams in broadleaf forests, and breeds in small mountainous, shady creeks with quite a lot of rocks. Egg masses are attached under rocks where stream water is present.
58727		population	eng	It is a common species.
58727		threats	eng	Agriculture and infrastructure development are threats to this species, but it is not seriously at risk.
58728		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
58728		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern North America from Alaska to Labrador (Chubbs and Phillips 1998), south to New Jersey, northern Georgia, and northern Idaho; spotty distribution south to northern Colorado in Rocky Mountains; also disjunctive populations in Arkansas-Missouri (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991). Ranges farther north than any other North American amphibian.
58728		habitat	eng	It occurs in various kinds of forest/woodland habitats; edges of ponds and streams; also willow thickets and grass/willow/aspen associations. When inactive, hides in logs, humus, leaf-litter, or under logs and rocks. Eggs are laid and larvae develop usually in small fish-free ponds, temporary or permanent, in wooded (usually) or open areas. In the Shenandoah Mountains, breeding adults were 100% faithful to the ponds in which they first bred; approximately 18% of the juveniles dispersed to breed in ponds other than the one of origin (Berven and Grudzien 1991). Experiments and field observations by Hopey and Petranka (1994) indicate that adults are able to assess the presence of fishes in ponds and may change breeding sites accordingly to avoid those with predatory fishes. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).
58728		population	eng	It is abundant and widespread.
58728		threats	eng	Not threatened overall, but threats to local populations include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Negative impacts of intensive timber harvesting extend at least 25-35m into uncut forest (deMaynadier and Hunter 1998). Not likely to be at risk from present acidification inputs in the Rocky Mountains (Corn and Vertucci 1992).
58729		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
58729		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. Rana tagoi tagoi is found on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, while Rana tagoi yakushimensis is found on Yakushima and Rana tagoi okiensis is found on Oki Island.
58729		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane areas in the leaf-litter of forests close to streams. They are often found underneath the stones in streams. They breed from April to May; females deposit about 40-100 eggs under stones in streams or pools.
58729		population	eng	More information is needed.
58729		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
58730		conservation	eng	The species' range includes several protected areas. No further conservation measures appear necessary at present.
58730		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern China (including Yunnan, Guizhou, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan and Hong Kong), through northern Viet Nam through the Annamite foothills of Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic to southern Viet Nam, Cambodia and northeast Thailand. It is recorded with some degree of doubt from northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940). There is a recent record from Chittagong district in Bangladesh. Range information might be affected by former confusion of Rana taipehensis with Rana macrodactyla and Rana erythraea. It is likely also to be in northern Peninsular Malaysia (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It occurs from lowlands up to about 800m asl.
58730		habitat	eng	It inhabits open, grassy wetland areas, rice paddies, river floodplains and forest ponds and swampy areas in deciduous forest. It breeds in standing water that has any kind of thicket around the edge.
58730		population	eng	It is generally recorded as common.
58730		threats	eng	Given its adaptability to a variety of wetland types including agricultural landscapes, its wide distribution and its small size, the species appears only under potential threat from pesticide pollution. It is also persecuted as a pest in some parts of its range.
58731		conservation	eng	A team of U.S. and Mexican partners are working to re-establish the Tarahumara Frog back into Big Casa Blanca and Sycamore canyons, Arizona (Rorabaugh and Humphrey 2002, Rorabaugh and Hale 2005). The range of the species includes the Mount Wrightson and Pajarita wilderness areas in Arizona, and La Reserva Para Protecíon de Flora y Fauna Sierra de Alamos-Río Cuchujaqui, Sonora.
58731		distribution	eng	This species' historical range included extreme south-central Arizona, USA, (known from Tinaja, Sycamore, and Pena Blanca/Alamo canyons in the Atascosa-Pajarito-Tumacacori Mountains complex; and Gardner, Big Casa Blanca, and Adobe canyons in the Santa Rita Mountains; Rio Altar and Santa Cruz River drainages), south in the Sierra Madre Occidental and adjacent sky island mountain ranges in Sonora and Chihuahua to northern Sinaloa, Mexico, at elevations from 460-2,070m asl (Zweifel 1968c, Hale and May 1983, Hale 2001). Most localities are in the mountains of eastern Sonora. The Tarahumara Frog has been extirpated from the USA since 1983, and more recently, from several sites in northern Sonora (Hale and May 1983, Hale <em>et al.</em> 1995, Hale 2001).
58731		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and plunge pools in canyons located within oak and pine-oak woodland, and the Pacific coast tropical area (foothill thorn scrub and tropical deciduous forest; Hale and May 1983, McCranie and Wilson 1987). Plunge pools in canyons with low mean flows (<0.2 cubic feet per second) and relatively steep gradients (>60m per km of stream) provide the best breeding sites (Hale and May 1983, Hale 2001). Permanent water is necessary for metamorphosis. At Pena Blanca Spring and Tinaja Canyon, Arizona, and Arroyo El Salto, north-eastern Sonora, Tarahumara Frogs inhabited artificial impoundments (Hale and May 1983, Hale 2001, Rorabaugh and Hale 2005).
58731		population	eng	Tarahumara Frogs are known from 63 localities (Rorabaugh and Hale 2005). The status of the species has been closely tracked in Arizona and at selected localities in Sonora. Extirpations from Arizona localities occurred from 1948-1983. The last wild Tarahumara Frog observed in the USA was found dead in Big Casa Blanca Canyon in May 1983. Two northern Mexican populations were recorded as having declined in the early 1980s (Hale and May 1983). Surveys from May 1998 to May 2000 in Sonora yielded Tarahumara Frogs at 6 of 11 historical localities and three new localities (Hale <em>et al.</em> 1998, Hale 2001). The status of the species in Chihuahua and Sinaloa is unknown. Generally, where the species is currently extant, no long-term declines are apparent (Rorabaugh and Hale 2005). However, since chytridiomycosis is confirmed in this species, and populations have been lost, future declines can be expected.
58731		threats	eng	Hale and Jarchow (1988) listed the following possible causal mechanisms in the extirpation of Tarahumara Frog populations: 1) winter cold; 2) flooding or severe drought; 3) competition; 4) predation; 5) disease; and 6) heavy metal poisoning. Airborne pollutants from copper smelters might have been responsible for toxic levels of cadmium in streams inhabited by Tarahumara Frogs (Hale and Jarchow 1988); however, frogs found during die-offs exhibited symptoms that are now associated with chytridiomycosis, a fungal disease known to affect amphibians globally. Histology of frogs collected during die-offs in Arizona and Sonora from 1974-1999 revealed the presence of chytrids (Hale 2001, Rorabaugh and Hale 2005, T.R. Jones and P.J. Fernandez pers. comm.). Cold weather can be a contributing factor in mortality (Hale and Jarchow 1988) and might be associated with chytridiomycosis-related mortality (Hale 2001). Other threats include introduced predatory fishes (e.g. green sunfish and bluegill) and bullfrogs (Hale and Jarchow 1988). The Tarahumara Frog is now apparently replaced by the bullfrog in the Pena Blanca area in Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989). Poor agricultural practices at Arroyo El Cobre in southern Sonora resulted in erosion from slopes and sedimentation of pools inhabited by the Tarahumara Frog. The Tarahumara Frog has apparently been replaced at this site by <em>Rana pustulosa</em> and <em>R. magnaocularis</em> (Hale 2001).
58732		conservation	eng	It is unclear as to whether or not populations assigned to this taxon occur in protected areas. Its taxonomic status requires further research.
58732		distribution	eng	This species is found at scattered localities in the humid Atlantic lowlands of eastern Nicaragua through to south-eastern Costa Rica, and in the humid premontane and lower montane areas of upland Costa Rica, including the Meseta Oriental, the Meseta Occidental and probably also the Cordillera Central, at altitudes of 60-1,862m asl (Savage 2002).
58732		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic species of ponds, swamps, and marshes in lowland wet forest, premontane moist and wet forests, and rainforest. Mating takes place during the wet season; the eggs are attached to aquatic vegetation and the larvae develop in these wetlands.
58732		population	eng	Taxonomic uncertainty precludes attainment of accurate population data.
58732		threats	eng	It is possible that this species is threatened by habitat loss through both deforestation and also water pollution caused by runoff from agricultural pesticides. Highland ranid populations in Costa Rica are considered to perhaps be threatened by chytridiomycosis, although it is not clear if this is one of the species at risk.
58733		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas in Sri Lanka, and in India (where it is protected by national legislation) it has been recorded from Konya Wild Life Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. It is included as part of ongoing studies by Biju (1998 and onwards) and Addoor (1992 and onwards).
58733		distribution	eng	Specimens currently assigned to this species have been collected in Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 60-1,830m asl in Sri Lanka and 200-1,800m asl in the Western Ghats.
58733		habitat	eng	It is a largely terrestrial species (although males can be seen in low vegetation) associated with shaded hill streams and riparian vegetation in semi-evergreen moist tropical forest. It is not found in modified (agricultural) habitats. Adults are often encountered on wet boulders in streams, and breeding takes place in these streams.
58733		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
58733		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the conversion of forested land for agricultural use (for tea, cardamom, and rubber plantations), subsistence harvesting of wood and timber, the development of mining and roads (in India), agrochemical pollution and (again in India) the construction of dams.
58734		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58734		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Berne Convention and on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
58734		distribution	eng	It is widespread throughout most of Europe, ranging from northern Spain to the Urals (absent from southern and central Iberia, much of southern Italy [scattered Appenine populations] and the Caucasus), and eastwards to the western part of West Siberia and northern Kazakhstan through northern Greece and Bulgaria. It has a patchy distribution in the mountainous parts of the Balkans. Recorded from sea level to elevations approaching 2,700m asl (Pyrenees).
58734		habitat	eng	Many terrestrial (associated with woodland) and aquatic habitat types are used. Present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, forested tundra and steppe, bush and shrublands, glades, grasslands, dry and wet meadows, marshes, fields, rural gardens, parks, and urban areas. Aquatic habitats include both temporary and permanent ponds, lakes and rivers; spawning and larval development occurs in these waterbodies. It does well in many modified habitats such as rural gardens.
58734		population	eng	It is generally very common, although localized declines have recently been noted in a number of western European countries (e.g.. Switzerland, Spain).
58734		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The main localized threat is the general pollution and drainage of breeding sites and wetlands. Over collection for medical research, food and commercial purposes is a threat in parts of its range. Deforestation might have led to a gradual "northward retreat" of the species over southern parts of its distribution. Overcollection for medical research has been a threat in the past, however the extent to which it is a current threat is unknown.
58735		conservation	eng	The Shapotou location is within a national nature reserve. There is a need to manage the offtake of this species for human consumption in a sustainable manner.
58735		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Shapotou and Shenjiatan, in Yinnan County, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, along the shores of Huang He (Yellow River) at the edge of the Tengger Desert, China.
58735		habitat	eng	It inhabits pools along the banks of the Yellow River at the edge of desert.
58735		population	eng	It is a common species, but is probably in decline.
58735		threats	eng	The major threat is over-collecting for food; other threats include drought and water pollution.
58736		conservation	eng	<em>Rana terentievi</em> might occur in three nature reserves in Tajikistan.
58736		distribution	eng	This species is known from the plains and mountain areas of southern Tajikistan (south of the Gissar Ridge), from the environs of the settlements of Obi-Garm, Shaartuz, near Dushanbe City, and also from other areas. It probably also occurs near the lower reaches of the Amu-Darya River and in northern Afghanistan.
58736		habitat	eng	In the valley near Obi-Garm, this frog was recorded in puddles and swamps near warm springs. Frogs designated as <em>Rana ridibunda</em> are known to be common in the rivers of southern Tajikistan.
58736		population	eng	More information is needed regarding its population status.
58736		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
58737		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in China, Viet Nam and Laos. In some areas, measures might be needed to manage harvesting of the species to ensure sustainability. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the population on Hainan Island. Further work is also needed to determine its geographic range, threats, and conservation needs.
58737		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China, northern Laos and northern Viet Nam. In China, there are records from southern Yunnan Province (Mangla, Pingbian and Hekou Counties), and from Hainan Island (Bawangling, Jianfengling, Diaoluoshan and Limushan). It has been recorded from a few areas in northern and north-central Viet Nam, and from Phongsaly Province in northern Laos. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and possibly in Myanmar. It has been recorded from 120-1,000m asl.
58737		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane streams and rivers that vary from shallow and slow-moving to torrential and deep. It can be found on boulders, logs, earthy banks and vegetation both in and around the water as well as in the adjacent hilly evergreen forest. It survives near Mount Tay Con Linh II in Viet Nam, where little original habitat occurs due to small-scale livestock farming and cultivation, so it appears able to tolerate some degree of habitat degradation. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds in rivers and streams by larval development.
58737		population	eng	It is an uncommon that appears to be in decline, at least in China.
58737		threats	eng	On Hainan this species is threatened by local people collecting it for consumption. Its habitats are also under threat from deforestation and the construction of hydroelectric power plants. Elsewhere it is presumably affected to some extent by forest loss. For example, small-scale livestock farming, and cultivation (including rice paddies, palms, cinnamon trees, tea, and bamboo), have removed much original habitat around the streams in which this species is found near Mount Tay Con Linh II. At that site, local people also hunt other species of amphibians for food, but it is not known whether or not they collect this species. In Laos, significant areas of forest have been lost due to shifting cultivation and associated fires.
58738		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within its range.
58738		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Anhui and Zhejiang Provinces in central China, where it has been recorded from 100-700m asl.
58738		habitat	eng	It inhabits open, low-gradient large streams and small rivers, and sometimes also occurs in still-water pools close to streams.
58738		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58738		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation caused by infrastructure development and water pollution.
58739		conservation	eng	Its range includes Aurora Memorial National Park. The most important conservation measure required is the protection of the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest in the Sierra Madres of Luzon.
58739		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sierra Madres, on north-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
58739		habitat	eng	It inhabits cool streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and lays its eggs in water, and it is presumed that tadpoles develop in water.
58739		population	eng	It is common in Aurora Memorial National Park in one river drainage, but is known only from two other localities.
58739		threats	eng	The most important threats to this species include logging, conversion of habitat to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers due to agricultural run-off.
58740		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
58740		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the vicinity of Muong Do village, in Phu Yen District, Son La Province, Viet Nam.
58740		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rugged mountainous terrain, where it was collected from a small cascading clear-water forest stream that was flowing through secondary tropical forest. It is presumed that this species breeds in streams.
58740		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens, the holotype and the paratype, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58740		threats	eng	The specific threats to it are not known, though it is presumably affected by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and increasing human settlement.
58741		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
58741		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found only on Tsushima Island.
58741		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests and streams from lowland to hilly areas. It breeds in rice paddies, ditches, swamps, and other wetland habitats.
58741		population	eng	It is a common species.
58741		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present although its restricted range makes it particularly susceptible to threatening processes.
58742		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas including Pakhui Wild Life Sanctuary (Assam) and Nameri National Park (Arunachal Pradesh) both in India.
58742		distribution	eng	This species ranges through southern Nepal, much of northeastern India, and throughout Bangladesh. The species might occur in Myanmar but its presence here requires confirmation. It is a lowland species found up to 300m asl.
58742		habitat	eng	This species is associated with a variety of aquatic habitats such as pools, lakes and marshes. It may be found in bank side vegetation, and within scrubland and tropical forest habitats. The species generally breeds in stagnant waterbodies. The species can be found in artificially flooded agricultural areas.
58742		population	eng	It is a common species.
58742		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are water pollution with agrochemicals and possible localized over collection of the species for food. However, it is probably not very significantly threatened.
58743		conservation	eng	In Japan its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a national park, although there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats in these islands. There is also a need to control invasive toads, especially within protected areas.
58743		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Japanese islands of Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima.
58743		habitat	eng	It inhabits upstream areas surrounded by primary broad-leaved evergreen forest, and breeds in streams.
58743		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, although the populations on Ishigakijima have undergone substantial declines.
58743		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation and competition with increasing populations of the exotic <em>Bufo marinus</em>, particularly on Ishigakijima.
58744		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58744		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south along the Atlantic coastal plain to the Pacific coast in southeastern Oaxaca and northeastern Chiapas, Mexico, to both coasts in Nicaragua, south through Costa Rica and Panama to the Pacific coast of Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. In Colombia it also ranges around the northern edge of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central to the middle and upper Magdalena Valley, where it occurs on both the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central and the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental. There is also an isolated population on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 880m asl.
58744		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in very humid tropical forest and in dry forest, and it also survives in anthropogenically disturbed habitats in more open situations, where it is often more common. It is closely associated with water, preferring ponds and other forms of still water, and generally remains near the edges. Males have been observed calling from floating vegetation or from shores. It breeds in permanent and sometimes temporary pools, and also in streams.
58744		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its range.
58744		threats	eng	It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying. It might possibly suffer from competition with introduced <em>Rana catesbeiana</em>.
58745		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes quite a few protected areas.
58745		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Provinces of Guizhou, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hong Kong in China. It has been recorded from 600-1,525m asl.
58745		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding forests, and breeds in streams.
58745		population	eng	It is a common species, but is in serious decline because of habitat loss.
58745		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation (clear-cutting), infrastructure development and dam construction are major threats to this species.
58746		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. The current status of the surviving populations requires further investigation; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures should consider the establishment of a captive-breeding programme. There is an urgent need to maintain the habitat at the two known Costa Rican localities.
58746		distribution	eng	This species was previously widely distributed in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 1,500-2,700 m asl (Savage 2002). It is now known only with certainty from near Monteverde and the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco (exact locality not mapped here) in Costa Rica, with no recent reports from Panama.
58746		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic frog occurring in lower montane and lower portions of montane rainforest. The species prefers dense woods, but may also be found near bodies of water in clearings or pastures. The recently discovered population close to the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco, was found in an open area close to secondary forest and some shallow ponds of slow moving water, with additional animals found in secondary growth forest (Alberth Rojas C.  pers. comm. 2008). Calling and mating take place at night, with males generally calling from vegetation in water. Breeding sites include shallow ponds, puddles or slow-moving waters. Eggs are attached to vegetation (Savage 2002).
58746		population	eng	It was once very common in Costa Rica but had apparently disappeared from the country by 1990. However, a single individual was reported in 2002 from near Monteverde, and larvae were found and reared in 2003. One small breeding pool is now known near Monteverde in the Monteverde Conservation League Children's Eternal Rainforest (Andrew Gray and Mark Wainwright in litt. To Bruce Young September 2007). This population was reported to be healthy, with several hundred animals, including numerous breeding pairs, juveniles and egg clutches observed (Andrew Gray and Mark Wainwright in litt. To Bruce Young). In November 2007, a second (possibly large) population was discovered close to the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco in Costa Rica, at 1,984m asl (Alberth Rojas C. and Olivier Castro pers. comm. 2008). The status of the population in Panama is unclear (there have been no recent surveys in the area as of September 2007 [Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007]), but it has presumably also declined, and possibly disappeared, from this country.
58746		threats	eng	Chytridiomycosis appears to be the main cause of the decline of this species. It has disappeared from pristine habitat in Costa Rica, and probably also in Panama. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, and individuals have been found with severe chytridiomycosis (Lips 2003; R. Puschendorf unpubl.). Habitat loss, due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement, has presumably also affected this species. Animals from the recently discovered population close to the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco have been found with deformities, and there is some suggestion that agricultural chemicals, possibly applied to the grassy vegetation in the area, might be the cause of the deformities and the lack of larvae recently observed in the nearby stream (Alberth Rojas C.  pers. comm. 2008).
58747		conservation	eng	Monitoring is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
58747		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Coastal Plain in the eastern USA from New Jersey to southeastern Georgia and extreme northern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991). It has a spotty distribution.
58747		habitat	eng	This species can be found in sphagnum bogs and swamps and sphagnum borders of lakes and ponds; tea-coloured, slow moving water with abundant emergent or floating vegetation. Active adults occur at the water's edge or on partly submerged logs or among vegetation and are often in same habitats as Hyla andersonii. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in pools in adult year-around habitat; globular egg masses are attached to underwater vegetation. In southern New Jersey, calling sites had more submerged shrubs than did control sites (Given 1988).
58747		population	eng	It has a localized distribution but can be common where it does occur (Gosner and Black 1968). It is uncommon at the southern extent of the range in northern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Gosner and Black (1968) mapped 33 sites in New Jersey and 31 locations elsewhere throughout the range. Tobey (1985) mapped only about a half dozen locations in Virginia (about the same as Gosner and Black 1968).
58747		threats	eng	Threatened by loss or degradation of habitat (e.g., through ditching) at the periphery of the range in Virginia (Mitchell 1991). Local populations are presumably impacted by urbanization.
58748		conservation	eng	It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.
58748		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from two populations, one that ranges from 250-700m asl on the eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula, and a second population from the northern and southern slopes of the Fakfak Mountains, north of Fakfak town, at around 250-900m asl, in Papua, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58748		habitat	eng	This species is associated with slow-flowing streams in closed-canopy primary rainforest. Adults are often found perched on the leaves of low vegetation 0.5-2m above the ground, and larvae have been collected in streams and from a roadside ditch.
58748		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58748		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58749		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, this species has been recorded from many protected areas. It should be monitored carefully to establish whether or not the disappearances at higher altitudes was due to chytridiomycosis, and how the species is recolonising these sites.
58749		distribution	eng	This species is found in humid lowlands on the Atlantic versant from north-eastern Honduras to central Panama, both slopes of the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, the lowlands of south-western Costa Rica and eastern Panama, and gallery forests in non-peninsular north-western Costa Rica, from sea level up to 1,740m asl (Savage, 2002).
58749		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species associated with small streams in humid lowland, montane and gallery forest. It is found wherever patches of forest remain, even within urban areas. Larvae are found in small streams.
58749		population	eng	Once a common species, it initially declined in many montane areas of Costa Rica. It disappeared from Tapantí and the higher regions of Monteverde by the late 1980s, and disappeared at the same time from San Ramón Reserve but reappeared in 1994. It also appears to have declined at La Selva, a lowland site (Whitfield et al., 2007). It is still abundant in Tinamascas (along the road from San Isidro to Dominical), Parque Nacional Corcovado, and Ciudad Colón. It remained generally common at low elevations, and as of August 2007, the species was recolonising areas from which it had previously declined.
58749		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) resulting from agricultural development, logging, and development of human infrastructure. The disappearances at higher altitudes may have been due to chytridiomycosis, however animals are now recolonising these sites. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).
58750		conservation	eng	Its range includes two small provincial protected areas, Fangshan and Luojishan, and Panzhihuasutie National Nature Reserves.
58750		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western Sichuan, north-eastern Yunnan and western Guizhou provinces in south-western China. It occurs from 1,700-2,950m asl.
58750		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding riparian habitats. Breeding takes place in small streams.
58750		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58750		threats	eng	Agricultural development and water pollution are the major threats to this species.
58751		conservation	eng	The one known location of this species is not within any protected area, and the establishment of a well-managed protected area for this species is urgent. Given the small population size, this species requires close monitoring.
58751		distribution	eng	This species is found in only one cave in Baicun, Wuchuan County, in Guizhou province, China, at about 700m asl. Attempts to locate the species at other localities have been unsuccessful.
58751		habitat	eng	Frogs at the type locality were found in a stream some 30m inside a limestone cave. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
58751		population	eng	The population is known to be very small.
58751		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range and specific habitat requirements, which make it particularly vulnerable to disturbance, particularly since touristic activities in the area are becoming an increasing problem.
58752		conservation	eng	Its one known locality is within Wawushan National Forest Park.
58752		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Zhangcun Village, Hongya County, in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,300m asl.
58752		habitat	eng	It inhabits hilly areas, and probably lives in forests. Breeding takes place in slow-flowing streams and stagnant pools.
58752		population	eng	There is no information regarding this species' population status.
58752		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58753		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species.
58753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southern China (Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Gaungdong, Guangxi and maybe Henan Provinces). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,400m asl.
58753		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and sometimes grasslands. It breeds in paddy fields, ponds and temporary pools with some herbaceous plants.
58753		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58753		threats	eng	Infrastructure development and water pollution are major threats to this species.
58754		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Protection of the original tropical forest is needed.
58754		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southern Jalisco and Colima southeast along the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán, State of Mexico and Morelos southward to Guerrero and northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58754		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical seasonal forest at low elevations. It is highly associated with water systems such as streams, rivers and permanent and temporary ponds where it also breeds.
58754		population	eng	This is an abundant species throughout most of its range.
58754		threats	eng	Disturbance and desiccation of the water systems as a consequence of the alteration of the forest coverage is a threat to this species.
58755		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas within its range. There are no conservation measures needed based on the current understanding of its distribution, taxonomy and population status. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58755		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout South Asia from Pakistan in the west, through India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, to Chitten Wildlife Sanctuary, Sagaing in central Myanmar (Zug, 1998). It possibly also occurs in Bangladesh. It is probably more widely distributed through the Irrawady plains but no specific records are available. It has been reported at elevations from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
58755		habitat	eng	It has been reported from many habitats including seasonal, deciduous forest, arid plains and scrubland, grassland, areas of human habitation, plantations, and temporary stagnant wetlands in the breeding season (ponds). Adults are often found under ground cover.
58755		population	eng	It is a generally common species through most of its range. It is locally common at Sagaing Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, but is strongly seasonal (Zug, 1998). It is regarded to be common in Sri Lanka outside the central hills.
58755		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of infrastructure development is the main threat to this frog. It is also threatened by agrochemical pollution and wetland reclamation in Sri Lanka.
58756		conservation	eng	Given the species' wide range it is likely to occur in numerous protected areas. It is protected by national legislation.
58756		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern and Western Ghats of India in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. It has been recorded from elevations of 600-1,000m asl.
58756		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species of scrubland, forest (moist and dry deciduous), and forest edge habitat. It is generally only encountered during the wet season. It breeds in temporary pools by larval development.
58756		population	eng	It is locally abundant in some areas, but might be showing an overall population decline.
58756		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the conversion of its habitat to agricultural land and road construction.
58757		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation. A more detailed taxonomic study of the possible second specimen is required.
58757		distribution	eng	This species is currently known with certainty only from the type locality of "Wattakole, Coorg" (Rao 1937) in India. A second site (Gumta, Karnataka) recently recorded by Padhye (pers. comm.), requires further confirmation and is not included in this assessment. Only the type locality has so far been used in attempts to map this species' distribution.
58757		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known, but it presumably breeds in temporary pools.
58757		population	eng	It is currently known with certainty only from the type specimen, which is recorded as lost by Dutta (1997), so there is no information regarding its population status.
58757		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58758		conservation	eng	The species is known from the Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal. A recent field study was undertaken by Shrestha (2001).
58758		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central and eastern Himalayan foothills of Nepal. Its distribution is still very poorly known, and it can be expected to occur more widely, including in India and Bhutan. It has been recorded at elevations of 100-500m asl.
58758		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that breeds in pools and marshes. There is little information known about egg deposition or larval ecology.
58758		population	eng	It is generally considered to be rare, although this might be a reflection of the collection methods used for this cryptic species.
58758		threats	eng	Water pollution from agrochemicals is the only identified threat to this species.
58759		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas in India and Sri Lanka. It is protected by national legislation in India.
58759		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed over much of India and Sri Lanka. It is present from sea level up to 200m asl.
58759		habitat	eng	It is a largely sub-fossorial species found in loose soil within dry forest, scrubland and agricultural areas. Adults can be found in cracks in mud and inside sand heaps. It is an explosive breeder in temporary monsoon pools.
58759		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58759		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the loss of suitable habitat through infrastructure development and urbanization, agrochemical pollution, the desiccation of the habitat and wetlands reclamation (for housing in Sri Lanka).
58760		conservation	eng	Further work is required to resolve the taxonomic issues surrounding this species' genus, including whether or not this is a valid species. It has been recorded from Kashitapo Wildlife Sanctuary.
58760		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Dharan, and its immediate vicinity, in Nepal, where it has been recorded from 100-300m asl.
58760		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species associated with sandy marshland.
58760		population	eng	It is common within its known restricted range.
58760		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the pollution of marshland by agrochemicals.
58761		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes Kinabalu, Tawau Hills, and Gunung Mulu National Parks. Expansion of effective preservation of lowland rainforest in hilly terrain in Kalimantan is needed
58761		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of Borneo; it is widely distributed in Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei Darussalam, and northern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is known from elevations between 150 and 1,000m asl.
58761		habitat	eng	It is most common in primary lowland rainforest where it perches on vertical rock faces alongside or in the midstream of rapids in clear, swift, rocky streams. It can occur in disturbed areas close to primary forest.
58761		population	eng	At some localities it is very abundant.
58761		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat to this species.
58762		conservation	eng	In Borneo, a number of well-protected national parks provide refuge for the species, and it is found in a few protected areas in the Philippines. Conservation measures must include the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests in the Philippines, and increased protection of the lowland forests of Kalimantan.
58762		distribution	eng	This species is found in Palawan, Mindanao, Leyte, Bohol, Basilan, Busuanga, Culion, and Samar Islands in the Philippines, and has been observed at many sites in Borneo (in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. All records are from between 150-1,000m asl.
58762		habitat	eng	It is found along clear, small, rocky streams in primary forest in hilly terrain. Adults perch on twigs of vegetation overhanging streams or on rocks lining the banks. It breeds, lays its eggs and undergoes larval development in water. Tadpoles have been found in masses of dead leaves submerged in water.
58762		population	eng	It is very common where it occurs.
58762		threats	eng	This species occupies a wide geographic and elevational distribution. Nevertheless, some populations are subject to the threats of deforestation, and the pollution of streams and rivers.
58763		conservation	eng	It is present in at least four protected areas, including Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks. Improved protection of hilly forests in Kalimantan is needed.
58763		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is known from most of the hilly forests of Sabah (Malaysia) and Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei Darussalam, and from north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 150-1,800m asl, but it is rare below 500m asl.
58763		habitat	eng	It lives along the banks of clear, small, rocky streams in primary forests, and can be found perching on rocks either along banks or mid-stream, usually near rapids. Breeding takes place in streams, but the larvae have yet to be recorded.
58763		population	eng	This species can be very common along some rocky streams.
58763		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by logging, and the associated sedimentation of streams, are the principal threats to this species.
58764		conservation	eng	Most of its range is within protected areas.
58764		distribution	eng	This species is almost entirely restricted to the mountain ranges of the Western Cape Province of South Africa, extending north as far as Hoogvertoon in the Cederberg, and from the Cape Peninsula east as far as Witelsbos Forest Reserve in the Tsitsikamma Mountains, in the Eastern Cape Province. It occurs up to 1,670m asl.
58764		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain fynbos heath land and it is sometimes found on the margins of forest. It breeds during the winter in shallow, seasonal, well-vegetated marshy areas and seepages in high rainfall areas. The eggs are laid out of water on waterlogged earth. Once they have developed to a certain stage the rains sweep them down to streams where the larvae complete their development.
58764		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
58764		threats	eng	The main threats are the spread of invasive alien vegetation, afforestation, fires taking place too frequently, and urban development in certain coastal areas. However, most of its range is in protected areas, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
58765		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58765		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern South Africa along the south and east coast, from Bonnievale in Western Cape Province eastwards through the Eastern Cape Province to coastal KwaZulu-Natal Province, and inland to the borders of Lesotho, and the Drakensberg escarpment of Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces and Swaziland, then northwards to Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, and southwestern Zambia. It most likely occurs throughout Lesotho but more sampling is required to confirm this. It is sporadically distributed in the high-altitude grasslands of the eastern Free State, Guateng, North West and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa. It occurs from sea level to 1,100m asl.
58765		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest, fynbos heath land, thickets, grassland and savannah. The eggs are laid singly in shallow water on the edges of streams or other bodies of water with grassy margins. It can also be found in well-vegetated human-maded dams, ponds and irrigation canals. It can tolerate disturbance and has been found in urban gardens and plots, and in dams in forestry plantations.
58765		population	eng	It is a common species.
58765		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58766		conservation	eng	It occurs in Arusha National Park (Tanzania), Kililmanjaro National Park (Tanzania), Nyika National Park (Malawi), and probably several other protected areas.
58766		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Tanzania (Mount Meru, Mount Kilimanjaro, West Usambaras, Ulugurus, Rubehos, Udzungwas, Southern Highlands (including Mount Rungwe), and Ufipa Plateau), Malawi (Misuku Hills, Nyika Plateau, Zomba Plateau, Shire Highlands and Mount Mulanje), and northeastern Zambia (Nyika Plateau). It is a montane species, probably generally found above 1,500m asl, and ranging up to 3,000m asl.
58766		habitat	eng	It is a montane grassland species, and it can be found far from water, except when it is breeding. The males call from flooded grass. The eggs are laid in cluster just above streams underneath dense vegetation. The larvae develop in streams.
58766		population	eng	It is a common species.
58766		threats	eng	Its montane grassland habitat is threatened in parts of its range due to afforestation, overgrazing, agriculture, human settlement and invasive spread of eucalyptus and other trees, all of which can lead to siltation of its breeding streams.
58767		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within its range.
58767		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. It is widely distributed, except in the drier areas, in the Western Cape Province, east through the Eastern Cape Province, to Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal Province, and northwards through western Swaziland to Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces. There are isolated populations in South Africa on the borders with Botswana and Namibia, and it presumably occurs in these two countries, although there have not so far been any records. It is introduced on St. Helena. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl.
58767		habitat	eng	It inhabits all biomes of South Africa, excluding the arid areas, such as forest, fynbos heath land, thicket, savannah and grassland, as well as modified habitats. It breeds in almost any well vegetated shallow body of water, such as pools, dams, ponds, ditches, and brackish pools along the coast within the spray zone, and shallow seeps. It can also tolerate polluted waters. It lays its eggs out of the water in moist situations, and the tadpoles enter the water to complete their development.
58767		population	eng	It is a common species.
58767		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Western Cape, South Africa.
58768		conservation	eng	Its range includes uKhahlamba-Drakensburg Park. More surveying within the species' range is needed, especially monitoring for any chytridiomycosis impacts.
58768		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the high slopes of the Drakensberg Mountains and Lesotho Highlands, in South Africa and Lesotho. It occurs at 1,800-3,000m asl.
58768		habitat	eng	It lives in high-altitude riverine grassland. It breeds in seepage areas on the rocky banks of slow-flowing streams, or near the edges of pools. It lays its eggs in water.
58768		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. There have only been two records since 1975, but this is probably a result of limited survey effort.
58768		threats	eng	Despite its rarity, it faces few threats due to the remoteness of its habitat. However, being a high-altitude stream-breeder, it is a candidate species for chytridiomycosis.
58769		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kitumbeine Forest Reserve.
58769		distribution	eng	This recently discovered species is known only from Mount Kitumbeine, an extinct volcano in northern Tanzania, from 2,180-2,800m asl. Its range is likely to be very restricted, since most other sites where it could occur have already been surveyed without success. However, it is possible that it might be found on the poorly surveyed peaks of Monduli, Longido and Gelai.
58769		habitat	eng	It has been found along semi-permanent and seasonal streams, and around temporary pools in montane <em>Juniperus</em> forest, and tussock montane grassland. It is able to survive in heavily disturbed forest. It presumably breeds in pools or streams by larval development, but this is not confirmed. Males have been heard calling in April.
58769		population	eng	It is apparently common in its small range.
58769		threats	eng	The habitats on Mount Kitumbeine are threatened by livestock grazing, human settlement, and fire.
58770		conservation	eng	Its entire known range is within the Arusha National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
58770		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the high elevations of Mount Meru in northern Tanzania at around 3,000m asl (although it apparently also occurs at somewhat lower elevations than this).
58770		habitat	eng	It is presumably associated with streams both in upper montane forest and in afro-alpine heath land. Breeding takes place in streams at the beginning of the year, with juveniles present by April.
58770		population	eng	There is little direct information on the population status of this species, although there are recent records.
58770		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58771		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Nyanga National Park, the Chimanimani National Park, and the Gungunyana Nature Reserve (all in Zimbabwe).
58771		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and on Mount Gorongoza in Mozambique. It is a montane species, probably occurring well above 1,000m asl.
58771		habitat	eng	It lives in montane grassland and forest, and also in bracken heath land. It is associated with streams and small rivers in which it presumably breeds.
58771		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
58771		threats	eng	Its high-altitude habitat has been relatively intact up until now, but it might be at risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.
58772		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently prioritized for this species.&#160;It occurs in the Richtersveld National Park.
58772		distribution	eng	This species lives in mountainous areas of Namaqualand, north of the Knersvlakte and south of the Orange River, in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. It has not so far been recorded from Namibia, although it is likely to occur there. It is found at 200-1,600 m asl. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated as 9,000 km<sup>2</sup> with an area of occupancy (AOO) of approximately 5% of the EOO, estimated based on availability of appropriate habitat (a variety of water bodies) within the EOO, and it is known from around 15 locations.
58772		habitat	eng	It lives in springs and streams in rocky hills and mountains in the Succulent Karoo and Fynbos (heath land) biomes. It breeds in springs and streams, small permanent and temporary ponds, as well as small artificial dams. It lays its eggs out of water under rocks or in rock crevices, tunnels in vegetation, or rodent burrows. Development is arrested after the tadpole's eyes and tail are formed, and it awaits the rains that hatch the eggs and sweep the tadpoles into water.
58772		population	eng	<p>This species is not uncommon in proximity to water sources in its habitat.</p>
58772		threats	eng	Although its habitat is degraded by grazing pressure (including trampling at watering points), and siltation and pollution of the streams, these threats are acting on a minority of subpopulations and so are not currently considered to be very severe.
58773		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species.&#160;This species does occurs in a few protected areas (such as Entumeni Nature Reserve and Ngome Forest Reserve).
58773		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Weza Forest in KwaZulu-Natal northwards along the foothills of the Drakensberg mountain range in South Africa. Isolated populations exist further to the east in Qudeni Forest, Entumeni Nature Reserve, and Ngome Forest Reserve, and along the southern boundary of Mpumalanga Province. It has an extent of occurrence (EOO) estimated to be 6,800 km<sup>2</sup>, and an area of occupancy (AOO) assumed to be about 10% of the EOO based on the species' use of habitat.&#160;It occurs from low altitudes up to 2,000 m asl. It might occur in Lesotho, but it has not so far been found there.
58773		habitat	eng	At lower altitudes it inhabits mist-belt forest, and at higher altitudes up to 2,000 m asl it occurs in montane grassland. This species appears to be quite sensitive to habitat degradation. It breeds in quiet pools in clear streams. The eggs are laid on vegetation dangling into the water or on rocks, and the larvae develop in the water.
58773		population	eng	<p>This species can be abundant at sites where it occurs.</p>
58773		threats	eng	This species is threatened by afforestation, and by the introduction of exotic trout that prey on the larvae.&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">However, these threats are currently thought not to be sufficiently intense and are being well managed within the protected areas in which this species occurs.
58774		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58774		distribution	eng	This widespread species from the savannah zone of sub-Saharan Africa occurs in xeric regions from Senegal, Mauritania (Adrar and presumably the extreme south), and east to Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, southwards to southern Angola, northeastern Namibia, and South Africa. There is probably a disjunction in its range in southern Tanzania, northern Zambia and northern Mozambique due to lack of suitable habitats. Records appear to be lacking from Burkina Faso, Chad, and Central African Republic, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It is very hard to identify with certainty without calls, so the distribution map is provisional, and many of the records might refer to Tomopterna tandyi.
58774		habitat	eng	It is a species of sandy soils along drainage lines in dry savannah, grassland and in semi-desert conditions. At higher altitudes it is found in montane grassland. It breeds in temporary pools in dry areas, and in roadside puddles and oases.
58774		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitats.
58774		threats	eng	It is a very resilient species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58775		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58775		distribution	eng	This recently discovered species is known only from its type locality, Khorixas, in north-western Namibia. It almost certainly occurs more widely in the Kaokoveld area, and some previous records of other <em>Tomopterna</em> species, in particular <em>T. tandyi</em>, might refer to this species.
58775		habitat	eng	It has been found in arid wooded savannah. There is no information regarding its breeding biology, although reproduction presumably takes place in temporary waterbodies, as with other species of <em>Tomopterna</em>.
58775		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from five specimens.
58775		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58776		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58776		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa, where it ranges from Namaqualand, southward in sandy areas to the Western Cape, and eastwards along the coast to Port Alfred. It occurs in low-lying areas.
58776		habitat	eng	It lives in fynbos heath land and succulent karroo shrubland, and also in agricultural land. It breeds in both temporary and semi-permanent water in pans, pools, vleis and dams, in flat, sandy areas.
58776		population	eng	It is a very abundant species with large populations.
58776		threats	eng	Local populations are probably impacted by the spread of alien vegetation (leading to a lowering of water table), and by agricultural and urban expansion, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.
58777		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58777		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Angola, through northern Namibia and Botswana, to southern Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Swaziland, and southern Mozambique. It occurs from sea level to 1,500m asl. It is indistinguishable morphologically from Tomopterna cryptotis and T. tandyi, but it has a distinct call. Records based on morphology might be assigned to the wrong species.
58777		habitat	eng	It is a savannah, seeming to prefer sandy soils. It also survives on disturbed areas. It breeds in large and small temporary waterbodies, such as pans, vleis and flooded grassland.
58777		population	eng	It has very large populations in Mozambique, Kruger National Park and northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), but it appears to be rare elsewhere.
58777		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58778		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58778		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern South Africa, eastern Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern Zambia, southern and western Mozambique and southern Malawi. It might occur in Swaziland. It is also known from a few localities in Kenya, which suggests that it is also present in Tanzania. A record from Namibia was a misidentification. It occurs mainly below 1,000m asl.
58778		habitat	eng	It is a savannah, associated with sandy soils. It also survives on disturbed areas. It breeds in still regions of rivers or streams, isolated pools, pans and dams, generally favouring temporary waterbodies.
58778		population	eng	It is less common than some other Tomopterna species.
58778		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58779		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58779		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in northern and eastern South Africa, extending into Swaziland and southern Mozambique. It is likely to occur in Lesotho. It ranges from sea level to 2,000m asl.
58779		habitat	eng	It lives in grassland and savannah, and it can also be found in agricultural habitats. It breeds in shallow temporary, semi-permanent and permanent streams, furrows or vleis, also in still water (but it favours slow-flowing water).
58779		population	eng	It is a somewhat uncommon species.
58779		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58780		conservation	eng	It is likely to be found in many protected areas.
58780		distribution	eng	This species is known from South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and southwestern Angola, and from the interior of Tanzania and Kenya. For the most part distributional records have not been separated between this species and Tomopterna cryptotis. The distribution map is therefore incomplete and provisional, and is based on confirmed records only in South Africa, Tanzania and Kenya. There are no definite records from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland, although it almost certainly occurs in these countries. It occurs from sea level to over 1,800m asl.
58780		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry savannah, bush land and grassland, and it is often found in agricultural areas. It is particularly associated with loose sandy soils where temporary pans form. It breeds in temporary shallow water, ditches, streams and dams, and is commonly found in farm dams.
58780		population	eng	Its abundance is unclear, due to widespread confusion with related species. However, it is locally abundant in South Africa.
58780		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.
58781		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58781		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northwestern Namibia and western Angola, through Zambia, Zimbabwe and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, to northern Tanzania. It is likely to be found in Mozambique and Malawi.
58781		habitat	eng	It is a species of open savannah woodland. The males call from the edge of water, often camouflaged among pebbles. It breeds in shallow pools and pits. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not clear.
58781		population	eng	There is little information, although it is believed to be common in suitable situations.
58781		threats	eng	It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.
58782		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
58782		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.
58782		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests along montane rivers. It is common in rivers and forests in montane areas.
58782		population	eng	It is a common species.
58782		threats	eng	Dam construction, in particular the construction of artificial concrete riverbanks, is a localized threat to this species.
58783		conservation	eng	Several protected areas in the region support this species.
58783		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Taiwan, Province of China, and is also distributed in the Ryukyu Archipelago in Japan. It has been recorded below 1,800m asl, but it is more common at lower altitudes.
58783		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats. It inhabits streams and hot springs, and breeds in slow-flowing waters such as streams, ditches, rivers, paddy fields, springs, pools and seepages.
58783		population	eng	It is a common species.
58783		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to this species, in particular agriculture and infrastructure development.
58784		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas on the island.
58784		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the hilly areas (80-800m asl) in central and south-western Hainan, China.
58784		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in medium and large streams, usually in forested regions, including in heavily disturbed forest.
58784		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58784		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, due to smallholder farming activities and dam construction, is a localized threat. Over-exploitation for human consumption might also be a threat.
58785		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas on the island. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.
58785		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Taiwan, Province of China, below 1,800m asl.
58785		habitat	eng	It is found at low to medium altitude, in unpolluted hill streams. It breeds in mountain streams or rivers in relatively open areas. Egg masses are deposited directly in water, and no foam nests are produced.
58785		population	eng	It is a common species.
58785		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to this species, in particular agriculture and infrastructure development. It is also collected for consumption locally.
58786		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
58786		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two widely separated localities in north-eastern India: close to Cherrapunji town in Meghalaya State, and Namdapha Biosphere Reserve in the state of Arunchal Pradesh. It was collected at the type locality at around 1,330m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular between the currently known sites.
58786		habitat	eng	There is little information available regarding its habitat and ecological requirements. It is said to be a bush frog, and probably occurs in montane forest. The original description mentions that it has a free-living larval stage, although this requires confirmation.
58786		population	eng	It is still known only from the type collection.
58786		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58787		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range, including Daweishan, Huangliangshan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves in China, Namdhapa National Park (Arunachal Pradesh) in India, and Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic. The maintenance of these protected areas and the expansion/improvement of their management is necessary.
58787		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh), Myanmar, isolated locations in northern Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, northern and southern Viet Nam and the Cardamom mountains of Cambodia as well as southwestern Yunnan and Hainan in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. All confirmed records of this species from Southeast Asia are at altitudes between 250 and 1,500 m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999; Stuart 1999 and Stuart 2005), but in India it is only known from below 100 m asl. In China it occurs up to 1,630 m asl.
58787		habitat	eng	It inhabits open grassy areas that may be surrounded by slope or montane evergreen forest or scrub. It is also found in paddy fields. It breeds in swampy, grassy pools where it makes foam nests above the water.
58787		population	eng	It is reportedly common in China, not common in Southeast Asia, and rare in India.
58787		threats	eng	Habitat impacts, including clearing for agriculture, water pollution and wildfires, are presumably localized threats to this species.
58788		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic studies of this species are recommended. Its only known locality is Dudhwa National Park.
58788		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality of Dudhwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh, India, where it was collected below 100m asl, although it is expected to occur more widely.
58788		habitat	eng	This is a semi-arboreal species that is mostly associated with scrub forest, grassland and rural areas. Breeding takes place in permanent pools, although there is little other information available on its egg deposition or larval ecology.
58788		population	eng	It is considered to be rare.
58788		threats	eng	Since it is known only from within a protected area, there are no known threats to its habitat at present.
58789		conservation	eng	Taxonomic validation is needed for this species. It has been reported from Phu Kradung National Park in northern Thailand.
58789		distribution	eng	Although this species has been reported from parts of northern and south-eastern Thailand, it appears that many records might be confusions with other <em>Chirixalus</em> species. Until its range can be better confirmed, its distribution has been considered here as being the area of the type locality of Nong Khor in Chonburi Province, south-eastern Thailand. This species has been recorded up to about 900m asl, although the identity of these specimens requires confirmation.
58789		habitat	eng	It is reported to be known from "small rain pools or ponds chiefly in lowland forest" (Taylor 1962).
58789		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58789		threats	eng	The most likely threats to it are large scale forest clearance and fire.
58790		conservation	eng	Establishing the taxonomic validity of this species is required before further conservation measures can be considered.
58790		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sui Kat, in the Lang Bian plateau in southern Viet Nam, where it was collected at 1,000m asl.
58790		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species were not reported beyond that the collection locality was at 1,000m asl. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, like other members of the genus.
58790		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1918 and it has not been recorded since, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58790		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58791		conservation	eng	It inhabits a significant number of protected areas in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam. No measures beyond safeguarding the integrity of these protected areas are considered required at present.
58791		distribution	eng	This species is known from Myanmar (Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998), Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), Cambodia and Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 1,700m asl.
58791		habitat	eng	It breeds at grassy rain pools in deciduous forest in lowlands, up to lower montane evergreen forest. It has also been recorded from forest edge and scrubland. It has not been reported or encountered away from breeding pools.
58791		population	eng	It is generally relatively common where it occurs at breeding aggregations, but it is rarely as numerous as syntopic C. vittatus.
58791		threats	eng	Clear cutting of forests is a threat to this species.
58792		conservation	eng	It occurs in Daweishan National Nature Reserve in China, and in Kon Cha Ran Nature Reserve and Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). Further efforts are needed to establish protected areas at Buon Luoi and elsewhere in the An Khe District, Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam.
58792		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hekou and Pingbian in Yunnan, China, from Tam Dao in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen Quong Truong pers. comm.), and from the higher altitudes of the Lang Bian plateau of southern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 700-2,000m asl.
58792		habitat	eng	This species is known from pools and swampy riparian areas in forest, although the non-breeding habitat is poorly known. Single eggs are laid on plant stems above water.
58792		population	eng	It is considered common in China. In Viet Nam it is known from a single specimen collected in 1918, and then large series were collected from 1993 to 1995 (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It was also recorded from a few specimens in Tam Dao in 2000.
58792		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are forest degradation and water pollution arising from agricultural activities.
58793		conservation	eng	It has been collected at the headquarters of Rakhine Yoma Elephant Wildlife Sanctuary, but apparently not within the protected area itself.
58793		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the south-western foothills of Rakhine Yoma, Gwa Township, in Rakhine State in western Myanmar, at close to sea level.
58793		habitat	eng	Individuals were found in disturbed habitat between mountain evergreen forests and agricultural land, 1-2m above the ground in bushes. This species may be restricted to remaining secondary habitat in Rakhine as remnant populations, or (as with other <em>Chirixalus</em> species in Myanmar) they might prefer degraded habitats. Animals were not found in evergreen forests (Wilkinson <em>et al.</em> 2003). The eggs are deposited in foam nests, in particular on plants of the genus <em>Arum</em>, hanging over standing water. The larvae presumably develop in the water.
58793		population	eng	The animals were collected in a seasonal breeding chorus, so it was difficult to determine its abundance, and its population status remains unknown.
58793		threats	eng	Given its adaptability to agricultural land, this species is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
58794		conservation	eng	Some major strongholds for this species are listed as Sites of Special Scientific Interest, and all translocated populations have been released into protected areas. This species is also protected in Hong Kong. There was a successful collaborative breeding and release programme involving Melbourne Zoo, WWF Hong Kong, the University of Hong Kong and the Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Gardens. Monitoring of wild populations is ongoing.
58794		distribution	eng	This natural distribution of this species is restricted four islands (Lantau, Lamma, Chek Lap Kok and Po Toi) in Hong Kong. As mitigation of the effects of airport construction on Chek Lap Kok, the Chek Lap Kok population was translocated to suitable sites on Hong Kong Island and the New Territories (including Tsiu Hang Special Area, Tai Lam Country Park and Tai Po Kau Nature Reserve). It occurs from sea level to 650m asl.
58794		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, old plantations and nearby streams and marshes, but does not occur in open areas. Breeding takes place in shaded temporary pools, marshes, seepages, slow-flowing stream pools, ponds and water-filled small containers.
58794		population	eng	Of the eight new sites to which populations were translocated, only seven still hold breeding populations.
58794		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for human settlement and the construction of an airport are the major threats to the species' habitat.
58795		conservation	eng	Namdapha National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
58795		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Namdapha National Park, in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India, although it is likely to occur more widely. It is a lowland species that was recorded at an altitude of 500m asl.
58795		habitat	eng	This is a little-known inhabitant of tropical forest and shrubland that presumably breeds by larval development, but this has not been confirmed.
58795		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58795		threats	eng	This species might be experiencing detrimental effects of the current management plan of Namdapha National Park, which is largely determined by the requirements of the large mammal fauna. It might also possibly be threatened by invasive alien plant species (<em>Mikania</em> sp. and <em>Lantana camara</em>).
58796		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Nameri National Park and Orang National Park.
58796		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast India (West Bengal and Assam) and south-eastern Bangladesh (Chittagong and Rangamati Hill-district), and might occur more widely. It is generally a lowland species found at elevations below 100m asl.
58796		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that is mostly associated with scrub forest habitats. Breeding takes place in pools, with eggs deposited on vegetation.
58796		population	eng	It is generally believed to be a reasonably abundant species.
58796		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58797		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species. There are no conservation measures considered necessary beyond maintaining the existing protected areas, where the species is well established.
58797		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution in southern and southwestern China (Fujian, Xizang, Yunnan, Guangxi and Hainan) and ranges from northeastern India (West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh) through eastern Myanmar, mainland Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Cambodia to Viet Nam. It occurs from sea level up to about 1,500m asl.
58797		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of open grassy areas in tropical forest and forest edge. It breeds in forest ponds and rain-pools (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and Stuart, 1999). It is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification and has been found in paddy fields.
58797		population	eng	It is generally considered common, and has been reported as common at breeding aggregations, hundreds of animals often assembling (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
58797		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is able to adapt to some disturbed habitats.
58798		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas, for example the Omo and Mago National Parks in southern Ethiopia. It does not occur in any protected areas in Somalia.
58798		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lowland eastern and southern Ethiopia, most of Somalia, and in northern and northeastern Kenya. It is likely to occur in extreme southeastern Sudan. It appears to be sympatric with Chiromantis petersii in parts of northern Kenya.
58798		habitat	eng	It is a species of arid savannahs and shrubland, breeding in foam nest above temporary pools.
58798		population	eng	It does not appear to be unduly rare, but still unresolved taxonomic problems make assessment difficult.
58798		threats	eng	The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock. However, this species is likely to be reasonably adaptable.
58799		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
58799		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kenya and Tanzania where it ranges through much of the inland areas of both countries, generally in areas experiencing less than 800mm mean annual rainfall. It appears to be sympatric with Chiromantis kelleri in parts of northern Kenya.
58799		habitat	eng	It is a species of dry savannah woodland that also occurs in agricultural and suburban situations. It breeds in temporary pools, using foam nests.
58799		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
58799		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except perhaps locally by overgrazing by domestic livestock.
58800		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58800		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sierra Leone east to Uganda, including on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Togo, Benin, and the Cabinda enclave of Angola, though it is likely to occur in these countries.
58800		habitat	eng	It is a species of the forest belt, and is found in primary rainforest, secondary forest, and the transition zone between forest and savannah. It does not survive in heavily degraded former forest (i.e., farm bush). It can survive in quite dry habitats. It always uses temporary stagnant water for breeding, ranging from small ponds to huge temporary lakes. It breeds using foam nests above the water.
58800		population	eng	It is a common species.
58800		threats	eng	It is not seriously threatened, but is locally impacted by very severe deforestation.
58801		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
58801		distribution	eng	This species ranges from coastal Kenya south to northern KwaZulu Natal in South Africa, and inland as far west as eastern Botswana and west-central Angola. It is present on the island of Zanzibar in Tanzania. It might occur in extreme southern Democratic Republic of Congo and extreme southern Somalia, but apparently has not been recorded yet been recorded in these countries. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
58801		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable species living in all types of savannah, shrubland, disturbed forests, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and suburban areas. It breeds in temporary pools using foam nests.
58801		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
58801		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
58802		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas in Taiwan, Province of China.
58802		distribution	eng	This species is found in Taiwan, Province of China, and is also distributed in Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima in Japan. In Taiwan, Province of China, it has been recorded from 300-2,000m asl.
58802		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forests, mixed forests and bamboo forests. It breeds in cut bamboo stems and tree hole by larval development.
58802		population	eng	It is a common species; however there has been a decline due to habitat loss.
58802		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species. Any action to reduce the number of tree holes will certainly disturb the population. Previous deforestation and forest modification have greatly reduced the species' numbers. However, bamboo plantations in certain areas have had a positive impact on the population because bamboo stumps are ideal breeding sites. In recent years, deforestation has slowed significantly.
58803		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas in Taiwan, Province of China.
58803		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China, and occurs below 2,000m asl.
58803		habitat	eng	It inhabits shrubland, grassland, paddy fields and nearby pools. It usually breeds in shallow, still waterbodies.
58803		population	eng	It is a common species.
58803		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species, in particular infrastructure development for human settlement.
58804		conservation	eng	It occurs in Halimun and Gunung Gede Pangrango National Parks.
58804		distribution	eng	This species occurs in at least three areas of the island of Java, Indonesia, above 700m asl. It was rediscovered in 1997 after a long absence of records.
58804		habitat	eng	It lives in undisturbed highland forest. It presumably breeds in tree holes by larval development, but its breeding habits have not been recorded.
58804		population	eng	It is a rare species, and fewer than ten specimens are known.
58804		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of its forest habitat due to smallholder farming and subsistence wood collection.
58805		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary and Mouling National Park in Assam, and Nameri National Park in Arunachal Pradesh.
58805		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented range in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, India. It probably occurs somewhat more widely, and might be present in Bhutan, although this requires confirmation. It has been recorded at elevations of 300-1,500m asl.
58805		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species associated with tropical forest and shrubland. Breeding is believed to take place in ponds surrounded by shrubs.
58805		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58805		threats	eng	Subsistence wood collection is a threat to the species' habitat.
58806		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, but more effective protection of lowland rainforest is critical to ensure the persistence of this species.
58806		distribution	eng	This species is found from Yala in extreme southern Thailand (Taylor 1962) through Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975), Singapore (Lim and Lim 1992), Sumatra (including Siberut in the Mentawai Islands) in Indonesia, northern parts of Borneo (both Malaysia and Indonesia), and Palawan in the Philippines. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 50-700m asl.
58806		habitat	eng	Adults live in the shrub and lower tree strata in primary and secondary forests. This species breeds by larval development in arboreal water-filled cavities and in rotting logs.
58806		population	eng	It is widespread but nowhere is it common.
58806		threats	eng	The major threat is forest clearance due to agriculture and logging.
58807		conservation	eng	Its known range is not within any protected area. Further surveys to locate additional populations are needed. In the absence of adequate information on threats, no conservation measures can be suggested beyond the recommendation that the type locality be conserved.
58807		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Buon Luoi, An Khe, in Gia Lai Province in southern Viet Nam. It is uncertain whether or not it is restricted to a small range, or whether or not it is more widespread but has not been recognized as distinct because of its similarity to other <em>Philautus</em> species (which are a very difficult group to distinguish between). It has been recorded from 700-750m asl.
58807		habitat	eng	All the known specimens were collected from shrubs and grassy vegetation along a steep rocky stream in evergreen forest. This species is presumed to breed by direct development, although this has not been confirmed.
58807		population	eng	Only a single population is known, from which eleven animals were collected in 1995 (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).
58807		threats	eng	It might be threatened by the substantial forest and stream degradation occurring on the Kon Tum plateau (Darevsky and Orlov 1997; Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).
58808		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Labugama and Dediyagala Forest Reserves.
58808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwest lowlands of Sri Lanka, where it occurs at elevations of 78-150m asl. There are records from Labugama, Dediyagala and Kanneliya. Its predicted Area of Occupancy is 500km2.
58808		habitat	eng	It is a habitat generalist, living in a wide variety of open, closed and disturbed habitats, including forest, forest edge, bush land, plantations and home gardens. It is very adaptable. It breeds by direct development
58808		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
58808		threats	eng	Apart from the possible impacts of agro-chemicals, this species is probably not significantly threatened.
58809		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, although there remains a need for improved protection of remaining forested habitats on Mindanao.
58809		distribution	eng	This species is found in Jolo, Basilan, and in many parts of Mindanao, in the Philippines.
58809		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal and occasionally terrestrial microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests and disturbed areas adjacent to forests. It breeds by direct development.
58809		population	eng	It is a common species.
58809		threats	eng	The major threat is the continued loss of the lower montane and lowland rainforest due to agriculture (crops and plantations), logging, and human settlement.
58810		conservation	eng	The only known population is within Gunung Mulu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. There is a need for targeted surveys to determine and monitor the population status of this species.
58810		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park, in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia. It is present at elevations of around 1,300m asl.
58810		habitat	eng	It lives in the shrub stratum of submontane and montane forests. Males call in groups, and breeding takes place by direct development.
58810		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
58810		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present; however, its restricted range makes it especially vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
58811		conservation	eng	It is not known to have occurred in any protected areas.
58811		distribution	eng	This extinct Sri Lankan species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ceylon" (not "Peradeniya" as sometimes stated) and from Nuwara Eliya, a resort town among mountains at 1,700-2,500m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Only the site of Nuwara Eliya has been mapped here. Reports of this frog occurring in India (Krishnamurthy and Sakunthala 1993) are believed to be erroneous (S.K. Dutta pers. comm. 2002).
58811		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58811		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens, and was last collected around 1886. It is now thought to be extinct since recent extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.
58811		threats	eng	The threats that led to the extinction of this species are not known, though habitat loss through conversion of land to agricultural use seems the most likely cause.
58812		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic research is required to clarify whether or not this is a valid species. Its range includes Dayaoshan and Dalaoshan National Nature Reserves.
58812		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Dayaoshan and Dalaoshan in Guangxi Province, and from Medog in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 850-1,350m asl.
58812		habitat	eng	It inhabits mid-altitude and montane moist forests, and breeds in pools by larval development.
58812		population	eng	It is rare in its known localities.
58812		threats	eng	The main potential threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to agricultural development.
58813		conservation	eng	It is found in Horton Plains National Park, but there is need for strengthened protection of habitat in the Central Hills of Sri Lanka.
58813		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Horton Plains and Pattipola, in the Central Hill Country, in Sri Lanka, and occurs from 1,890-2,135m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58813		habitat	eng	It hs been found mostly on shrubs (usually less than 0.3-2m above ground) in montane tropical forest, forest edge (bordering tea plantations) and anthropogenic habitats. It is active by day and night, and at night adult males perch on branches and leaves and vocalize (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The  female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58813		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
58813		threats	eng	The Pattipola population is threatened by timber harvesting of a plantation near the Horton Plains National Park.
58814		conservation	eng	The only known site for this species is within Gunung Kinabalu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. There is a need for targeted surveys to determine and monitor the population status of this species.
58814		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu in northern Borneo, Malaysia. It is present at elevations of 900-3,000m asl.
58814		habitat	eng	It is confined to submontane and montane forests and breeds by direct development. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.
58814		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58814		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present; however, its restricted range makes it especially vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
58815		conservation	eng	The known locality of this species in Myanmar is just outside Hkakabo Razi National Park. It has also been recorded from Nameri National Park in India. Recent field studies have been done by Sengupta in Nameri National Park in India (2001 to 2002).
58815		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast India (Assam and Meghalaya) and southern Xizang (probably in the China-India disputed zone), in China. It is also known from a single location in northern Myanmar, close to the Yunnan, China border. It has been recorded at elevations below 1,400m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in intervening areas between currently known sites.
58815		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of tropical forest edge and marshes, that breeds in small, temporary water pools by larval development. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.
58815		population	eng	In India this species is considered to be uncommon, but not rare. It is known from only one location in China. In Myanmar it has not been collected again since it was first recorded. Results from recent surveys of the Myanmar location are not yet available (G. Wogan pers. comm.).
58815		threats	eng	The restricted range of this species makes it especially susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation.
58816		conservation	eng	It occurs in Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary and Dibang Wildlife Reserve.
58816		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern Nepal, northeast India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya and Nagaland), and possibly Bhutan. It is present at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000m asl.
58816		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species associated with montane tropical forest and shrubland. It is a direct developer. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.
58816		population	eng	It is considered to be a naturally rare species.
58816		threats	eng	Agricultural pollution from tea plantation pesticides is the only recognized threat to this species, but this is only considered to be a problem in parts of its range.
58817		conservation	eng	It is found in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.
58817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 810-1,830m asl. There are records from Moray, Agra Bopath and Dayagama (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58817		habitat	eng	It occurs in the open canopy of montane forest and anthropgenic habitats. It is a cryptic species; calling adult males are most often seen at night perched high on shrubs, 1.5-3m above the ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58817		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58817		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to wood extraction, the expansion of tea cultivation, and human settlement; agro-chemical pollution represents an additional threat.
58818		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Kinabalu National Park and the Crocker Range. Strengthened and expanded protection of submontane and montane forests is essential for the long-term survival of this species.
58818		distribution	eng	This endemic is known only from western Sabah, in Borneo, Malaysia, at elevations of 750-1,800m asl.
58818		habitat	eng	It has been found in primary and selectively logged forests, where it calls from shrubs and small trees 2-4m above the ground. Breeding takes place by direct development.
58818		population	eng	It is locally abundant in suitable habitat.
58818		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss in lowland areas due to clear-cutting, and the forests at one locality, Mount Trus Madi, have already been severely damaged.
58819		conservation	eng	It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests), and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site. There is a need for continued population monitoring of this species.
58819		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the general region of the Sinharaja World Heritage site of south-western Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 513-1,270m asl. There are records from Morningside Forest Reserve, the nearby Handapan Ella Plains and western Sinharaja near Kudawa (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58819		habitat	eng	It is found only in closed-canopy rainforest and cloud forests and cardamom plantations within cloud forests, close to streams and marshy areas. Adult males are usually perched about 1m above ground, on understorey shrubs (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not dependent upon water.
58819		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
58819		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment (especially for tea), human settlement and illegal logging. It is also at risk from agro-chemical pollution.
58820		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
58820		distribution	eng	This species occurs above 900m asl on Java and Sumatra in Indonesia.
58820		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary submontane and montane forests, and is not found outside forests. Adults are often found on shrubs. It breeds by direct development, laying eggs in tree holes.
58820		population	eng	It is a common species.
58820		threats	eng	It is affected by forest loss locally but remains common through most of its range.
58821		conservation	eng	It might occur in Ba Na-Nui Chua Nature Reserve, but surveys are needed to establish this. Strengthening of the protected status of the area is also required.
58821		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ba Na area, Thua Thien-Hue Province, in Viet Nam (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001). Ba Na Mountain is isolated by lowlands from the rest of the Annamite mountain chain.
58821		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown. It presumably breeds by direct development, although this has not been confirmed.
58821		population	eng	This species was common in the 1930s but has not been reported from the field since. It is unclear whether or not it has disappeared or if no surveys have been conducted for it, and if no findings of any such surveys have then been published.
58821		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are unknown. Habitat impacts at Ba Na have been very extensive in some areas, including the use of defoliants during the Viet Nam War, logging, and tourism developments (BirdLife International 2001), but it is unclear to what extent these have impacted this species.
58822		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Recent field studies including this species have been undertaken by S.D. Biju (from 1998 to 2001).
58822		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the tropical forests of Agasthyamala Hills in the southern Western Ghats of India. Specimens previously reported from northern Kerala belong to <em>Philautus glandulosus</em> (S.D. Biju pers. comm.). The type specimen was collected at Athirimala at around 1,250m asl.
58822		habitat	eng	It is associated with the understorey of undisturbed tropical moist evergreen forest, and is believed to reproduce by direct development.
58822		population	eng	This species is common where it occurs.
58822		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote area, which is not presently threatened by habitat modification, although this could possibly change in the future.
58823		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Dajipur Wildlife Sanctuary, Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhimasankar Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mahabaleshwar Reserve Forest, all in Maharashtra State. A taxonomic revision of this species is urgently required (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).
58823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. It was recently reported from Chikmagalur in Karnataka (Bossuyt <em>et al.</em> 2001). It has been recorded from elevations of between 400 and 1,300 m asl.
58823		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species associated with the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest and shrubland. It is also present in secondary forest disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development.
58823		population	eng	It can be a common species, but is reported to have declined in the vicinity of Pune town.
58823		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of logging, infrastructure development, and disturbance due to touristic activities, is believed to be the main threat to this species.
58824		conservation	eng	It is present in Gunung Kinabalu National Park and the Crocker Range.
58824		distribution	eng	This species has been reported only from the mountains of western Sabah and from a hill in eastern Sabah in Borneo, Malaysia. It is present at elevations between 640 and 1,800m asl.
58824		habitat	eng	It has been seen in lowland, submontane and montane forests, and can occur in slightly disturbed forest. It perches in tall shrubs and small trees 2-5m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.
58824		population	eng	It is often locally abundant.
58824		threats	eng	Clear cutting of forests is a major threat to this species.
58825		conservation	eng	It is found in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.
58825		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Peak Wilderness and the Central Hill Country of south-western Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 810-1,370m asl. It is currently known from only two sites, but is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58825		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, and has been observed in closed-canopy habitats, both in disturbed and undisturbed forests. Adults are strictly nocturnal; males have been observed perching on branches of low shrubs 20-50cm above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58825		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58825		threats	eng	There is some encroachment of the forest habitat of this species, mainly for tea cultivation and firewood collection, and it is potentially at risk from agro-chemicals. The area is also subject to disturbance by visiting pilgrims.
58826		conservation	eng	The only protected area from which it is currently known is Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary.
58826		distribution	eng	This species has been recently described from Phnom Samkos and Phnom Tumpor, in the western Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, from 1,250-1,650m asl. It might occur more widely within these mountains.
58826		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in montane evergreen forest, where the holotype and the paratypes were found on the leaves of bushes. The holotype was collected hundreds of metres from any water source, while the paratypes were collected approximately 2.5m from a mountain stream. It is presumed that this species has a direct development mode of reproduction.
58826		population	eng	The population status of the species is not known.
58826		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
58827		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand, and from Hoang Lien Son National Park in Viet Nam.
58827		distribution	eng	This species is known from three nearby localities in Karen State in eastern Myanmar (Bourret 1942; Bossuyt and Dubois 2001), but it has not been recorded in Myanmar since it was first described. It was recorded twenty years ago in Thailand from Doi Inthanon National Park in Chiang Mai Province, and was recently confirmed from Fan Si Pan in northern Viet Nam (Ohler <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Thailand this species has been recorded at 1,300m asl, and in Viet Nam it was recorded from 1,250-2,000m asl.
58827		habitat	eng	In Thailand this species was collected from tropical moist submontane forest. In Viet Nam it was recorded in lower and upper montane forest. It breeds beside small streams, presumably by larval development.
58827		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It has not been recorded from the type locality in Myanmar since it was first described, and there have been no recent herpetological surveys of the area.
58827		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation arising from agricultural development.
58828		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Haycock Forest Reserve, Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve and Knuckles Forest Reserve.
58828		distribution	eng	This species is known from isolated populations in the south-western region of Sri Lanka, and has been recorded at elevations of 200-1,100m asl. Specific records come from Haycock, Weddagala, Kitugala, Kosmulla, Pathanegala, Kadugannawa and Pussellawa.
58828		habitat	eng	It is a canopy species of lowland and montane tropical moist forest. Adults have been observed perched 0.3-2m above the ground on branches, mossy logs and sometimes on mossy rock surfaces (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development.
58828		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
58828		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of the conversion of forest habitat to cultivation (tea, cardamom and shifting cultivation) and urban areas, and the extraction of timber; agrochemical pollution is also a threat to this species.
58829		conservation	eng	It is not known with certainty from any protected areas, and improved protection of remaining habitat in the range of this species is recommended. Field studies including this species are ongoing (Biju 2001 and onwards).
58829		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Munnar, Kerala, on the south-western slopes of the Cardamom Hills, Kerala (S.D. Biju pers. comm.), in India. The exact location of the type locality of Travancore is non-specific. It was collected at an altitude of 1,400m asl. Because of difficulties with identification, there is a need to reconfirm records of this species from outside the Cardomom Hills area. This includes records from the Parambikulum Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, and from the Anaimalai Hills in Tamil Nadu, all of which appear to be doubtful (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).
58829		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species associated with the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest; it can also occur in secondary or disturbed habitat. It is believed to breed by direct development.
58829		population	eng	This species was rediscovered after 125 years (Biju and Bossuyt 2003), and is considered to be locally common at its only known locality.
58829		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the conversion of natural forest to intensively cultivated areas (including non-timber plantations).
58830		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas, though it may occur in Kudremukh National Park. It is part of ongoing regional field studies by S.D. Biju.
58830		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Chikmalagur (where it is known from three localities), in Karnataka State, in the southern Western Ghats of India. The altitudinal range is between 800 and 1,200m asl.
58830		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, occurring in tropical moist evergreen forest, though it may also be found in secondary forest close to primary forest edge. It is believed to breed by direct development.
58830		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58830		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to the conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas.
58831		conservation	eng	Examination of the type specimens is needed, to confirm this species' taxonomic validity. The type locality is close to the Western Forest Complex of Thailand, which is the largest surviving forest tract of Thailand, and which is comprised of a number of individual protected areas.
58831		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Ataran River, in Tenasserim, Myanmar.
58831		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds by direct development.
58831		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status, as it is known only from the two or four type specimens collected in, or before, 1870 (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001).
58831		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58832		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Kerinci Seblat National Park.
58832		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Kerinci, in West Sumatra, Indonesia, and is presumably a montane species.
58832		habitat	eng	There is no direct information on its habitat and ecological preferences, but the type locality is in montane forest. Reproduction is presumably by direct development.
58832		population	eng	It is known only from the type series and another old specimen, so nothing is known regarding its population status.
58832		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by the habitat loss that is taking place on the lower slopes of the mountain, as a result of smallholder farming and subsistence-level extraction of wood. If it is actually restricted to Mount Kerinci, it could also be at risk from volcanic eruptions.
58833		conservation	eng	It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, which was inscribed in 1988.
58833		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the general Sinharaja region of south-western Sri Lanka from 150-660m asl. There are records from Sinharaja, Morawaka and Deniyaya (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58833		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in leaf-litter, in damp shaded closed-canopy rainforest habitats. At night, males perch and vocalize from branches and leaves around 0.3m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is a direct developer and is not dependent on water.
58833		population	eng	It is a common species.
58833		threats	eng	It is largely restricted to protected forests, and hence its habitat is generally well protected at present. However, it is probably impacted by firewood collecting and illegal gemstone mining.
58834		conservation	eng	Specimens have been collected from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests), and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site.
58834		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two locations in south-western Sri Lanka: Morningside (at 1,060m asl), near Rakwana in the Sinharaja area; and Pituwala (at 60m asl) (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58834		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy forests and cardamom plantations within forests, usually close to water. Adult males have been observed at night, vocalizing while perched on low shrubs, 0.3-2m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58834		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58834		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of habitat due to firewood collection, the encroachment of tea cultivation, and expanding human settlements; agro-chemical pollution is an additional threat.
58835		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58835		distribution	eng	This species is a Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Queenwood Estate, Dimbulla, Ceylon", at 1,500m, where it was collected in 1933 (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58835		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58835		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype. There have been no records since its original collection and the species is now believed to be extinct because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have not rediscovered this frog.
58835		threats	eng	The threats that resulted in the extinction of this species are not known, although presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58836		conservation	eng	Although it has been recorded in Danum Valley National Park, more effective protection of remaining lowland forests in Borneo is essential.
58836		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites, one in Sabah (Danum Valley) and one in Sarawak (Sungei Pesu), in Borneo, Malaysia. It has been recorded at elevations up to 300m asl.
58836		habitat	eng	It has been recorded only in primary, lowland rainforest. Breeding is by direct development.
58836		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58836		threats	eng	The clear-cutting of lowland forest is the most serious threat to this species at present.
58837		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
58837		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in north-eastern India, although there is confusion over whether or not this refers to Darjeeling in West Bengal State, or Khasis in Meghalaya State. It is therefore not possible to attempt to produce a distribution map for this species until this confusion is resolved. This species was reportedly recorded from 1,000-1,500m asl.
58837		habitat	eng	Nothing conclusive is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. Its breeding is unknown, and could be by either larval development or direct development.
58837		population	eng	Nothing is known regarding its population status, except that the type specimen is reported to have come from a very restricted locality.
58837		threats	eng	Threats to this species remain unknown.
58838		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas, although the area where it was collected is within a proposed transboundary nature reserve. The establishment of effectively protected areas in the mountains around the type locality is essential. Directed surveys are recommended to establish the current population status of this species.
58838		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single mountain (Muruk Miau) in south-western Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. The single specimen was collected at 1,550m asl. It is thought likely to have a very limited distribution.
58838		habitat	eng	The specimen was found in recently logged oak forest, although it is probable that the usual habitat is primary montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.
58838		population	eng	Although it is presently known from only a single specimen, it might not be a rare species.
58838		threats	eng	The species' habitat is potentially threatened in future by logging, although there is less logging at higher elevations, where the timber is less valuable.
58839		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58839		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the type locality of "Queenwood Estate, Dimbulla, Ceylon", at 1,500m asl, where it was collected in 1933 (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58839		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58839		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype. There have been no sightings since 1933 and the species is believed to now be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have not rediscovered this frog.
58839		threats	eng	The threats that resulted in the extinction of the species are not known, although presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58840		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58840		distribution	eng	This recently described species was originally collected in 1882 from an unspecified locality on Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a meaningful distribution map for this species.
58840		habitat	eng	There is no information about the habitat requirements of this species. It presumably bred by direct development.
58840		population	eng	There have been no records since 1882, and it is presumed to be extinct, because extensive searches have failed to rediscover this species.
58840		threats	eng	The threats that led to the extinction of this species are not known, though habitat loss seems the most likely cause.
58841		conservation	eng	It is present in the Knuckles Forest Reserve, Horton Plain National Park and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site.
58841		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to tropical montane forests in central and southern Sri Lanka between 1,060 and 2,135m asl. There are records from Horton Plains, Agra Bopath, Corbett's Gap (southern Knuckles Range), Handapan Ella Plains and Morningside (see Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005; Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It is likely to occur more widely, especially in intervening areas between known sites.
58841		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, and associated with the understorey of tropical moist montane evergreen forest. Individuals are found on, or under, leaves. It is very sensitive to any disturbance of its habitat. Breeding takes place via direct development, with the eggs attached to the underside of leaves.
58841		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58841		threats	eng	The major threat is the conversion of native forest to cultivated areas (including tea and cardamom estates), dieback of mature trees, fires, and droughts (especially in Horton Plains); land pollution from agrochemicals is an additional threat.
58842		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Knuckles Forest Reserve, Gannoruwe Forest Reserve and Sinharaja World Heritage Site.
58842		distribution	eng	This species is known from widely scattered localities across central, eastern and southern Sri Lanka. It has been recorded from elevations between 305 and 700m asl. There are records from Monaragala, Knuckles, Gannoruwa and Hantana, and it probably occurs more contiguously than has been mapped.
58842		habitat	eng	It is a mostly arboreal species, generally found in riparian habitats in moist tropical forest. It has also been reported from home gardens, and edges of tea, rubber and cardamom plantations, and is generally very adaptable. Adults are found on twigs, leaves and wet rocks. It breeds by direct development.
58842		population	eng	It is fairly common where it occurs.
58842		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural land (principally tea, cardamom and rubber estates) and agrochemical pollution are the main threats to this species.
58843		conservation	eng	Surveys are urgently needed to locate populations of this species.
58843		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Malabar" (Boulenger 1882) in the Western Ghats of India.
58843		habitat	eng	It was collected in 'hill forest', although nothing else is known about its biology or ecology. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
58843		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, collected in 1882, so its current population status is unknown.
58843		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species, although there is possibly some habitat loss taking place, as a result of the conversion of forest to agricultural land, that could be a threat.
58844		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gilimale Nature Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Kottawa Forest Reserve and Haycock Hill Forest Reserve.
58844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-western lowlands of Sri Lanka, and is found from 60-660m asl. It has been recorded from Kottawa, Haycock, Gilimale and Induruwa (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58844		habitat	eng	It occurs in shaded places including rainforests and anthropogenic habitats, and is usually observed 0.3-2m above ground, perched on branches or leaves. Calling males are sometimes found concealed in dried, curled leaves, although in Gilimale males were always observed vocalizing while on leaves (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development.
58844		population	eng	It is common.
58844		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and the expansion of tea cultivation. It might be adversely affected by agricultural chemicals that are used heavily in its range.
58845		conservation	eng	It is found in the Knuckles Forest Reserve.
58845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern Knuckles Range in central Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 450-1,220m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58845		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in closed-canopy habitats that include natural forest, anthropogenic habitats, secondary forests, and cardamom plantations. Adults have been observed at night perched 2-4m above ground on branches, tree trunks, and moss-covered rocks (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is a direct developer, and is not dependent on water.
58845		population	eng	It is a common species.
58845		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction (including the extraction of wood for subsistence use, and infrastructure development for human settlement) and agro-chemical pollution.
58846		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas, but it might occur in Puliebadze Wildlife Sanctuary. Improved habitat protection at sites at which this species is known to occur is needed.
58846		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Garo Hills in Assam and Meghalaya, and from Dzulake in Nagaland, India. It is a lowland species found at elevations of 90-500m asl. It probably occurs more widely, in particular in areas between known sites.
58846		habitat	eng	It is associated with bushy areas close to perennial streams, in moist tropical forest. Breeding presumably takes place by direct development, although this requires confirmation.
58846		population	eng	It is considered to be rare within its restricted range.
58846		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to commercial logging (clear-cutting).
58847		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in many protected areas including the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (which includes Silent Valley National Park and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary), Parambikulum Wildlife Sanctuary, Ponmudi Wildlife Sanctuary, and Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, and Indira Gandhi National Park and Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Tamil Nadu.
58847		distribution	eng	This Indian species has been recorded from the Nilgiris, Anamalai Hills, and Agasthyamala Hill ranges, Kudremukh National Park, and from several localities in Maharashtra State. Records from Maharashtra require further investigation to confirm that they belong to this species. It has an altitudinal range of between 400 and 2,000m asl.
58847		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species associated with the understorey of tropical moist forest. It can also occur in modified habitats such as coffee, tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations. It is a direct developer, and deposits its eggs (20-45 eggs) on leaves (Biju 2003).
58847		population	eng	It is relatively common where it occurs.
58847		threats	eng	It is threatened by the conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas (including tea and coffee plantations) and timber plantations.
58848		conservation	eng	All the known localities of this species in Southeast Asia are within protected areas. In China part of its range is within protected areas, including the Daweishan National Nature Reserve. Clarification of the species' taxonomy is needed.
58848		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Yunnan (Hekou) and Central Guangxi (Damingshan) provinces in China, and from northern Viet Nam, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Doi Inthanon in Thailand. It has an estimated altitudinal range of 600-1,800m asl. It probably occurs much more widely, in particular in areas between known sites.
58848		habitat	eng	It is known from evergreen and bamboo forest. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging temporary pools in the forest. The larvae then drop in to the water where they continue to develop. It has not been found outside forest.
58848		population	eng	In China this species is considered uncommon. There is no reliable information from Southeast Asia regarding the status of populations from recent surveys.
58848		threats	eng	It is dependent on primary forest so it is particularly susceptible to forest clearance and degradation. Water pollution might also be a threat.
58849		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required.
58849		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to one locality: Munnar, in the southern Western Ghats of India, where it has been recorded from 1,500m asl.
58849		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, found commonly in montane forest, and in secondary growth close to shola forest, but can also be found in tea plantations (although it is doubtful that populations can persist in these areas). It breeds by direct development.
58849		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
58849		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat fragmentation due to tea and eucalyptus plantations, and it is unlikely to be able to survive in the face of extensive habitat loss.
58850		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this and other similar species needs to be conclusively determined, and requires further research. Populations that might represent this taxon occur in Viet Nam in Tam Dao National Park, Cuc Phuong National Park, and some other protected areas (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).
58850		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Lang Bian peaks in southern Viet Nam, at around 2,000m asl. Bourret (1942) referred additional material from throughout Viet Nam to this species, which might or might not have been correct. For this assessment, attempts to map its range consider just the restricted range of the type series. Uncertain taxonomy precludes drawing a map of the greater range of this taxon, which might be synonymous with other taxa reported from Viet Nam, Thailand and Myanmar.
58850		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from shrubby vegetation (Smith 1924; in Bourret 1942), and presumably breeds by direct development (although this has not been confirmed).
58850		population	eng	Populations tentatively referred to <em>Rhacophorus verrucosus</em> (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999) but matching the description of <em>Philautus gryllus</em> given by Bourret (1942), are widespread and common.
58850		threats	eng	It is presumably affected by impacts on the habitat in the Lang Bian area, such as agricultural development and fires.
58851		conservation	eng	The known populations of this species are all within Gunung Kinabalu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. There is a need for further survey work to determine and monitor the population status of this species.
58851		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the area of Sg. Silau-Silau and Sg. Liwago on Gunung Kinabalu in the Province of Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. It has been recorded at 1,400-1,500m asl.
58851		habitat	eng	It is a montane forest species. Males call from perches on the leaves of shrubs and bushes above the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
58851		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58851		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present, especially since its range is within a protected area; however, its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes, and if it ranges outside the protected area then it might be susceptible to ongoing habitat loss.
58852		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the type locality of "Pattipola, Ceylon [= Sri Lanka]", where it was collected in 1899 (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58852		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of the species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58852		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, and there have been no sightings since 1899. The species is believed to now be extinct, because recent extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.
58852		threats	eng	The causes of the extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58853		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gannoruwa Forest Reserve.
58853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southwestern Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of 15-684m asl.
58853		habitat	eng	It lives at 1-4 metres above the ground in mixed agro forestry ecosystems in formerly forested land, including home gardens, agricultural land and forest edges. It lives on the upper surface of leaves. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
58853		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58853		threats	eng	In local situations it might be impacted by expanding intensive, commercial agriculture, in particular tea plantations. It is possibly also affected by agricultural chemicals. However, it is very adaptable and is not believed to be threatened.
58854		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas, but more effective preservation of lowland forests is necessary.
58854		distribution	eng	This species has been found in southern Sabah (Malaysia), central Sarawak (Malaysia), and western Kalimantan (Indonesia), on Borneo. It is a lowland species found up to 350m asl.
58854		habitat	eng	This species has not been found outside lowland rainforests, where males call from small trees along riverbanks. Its breeding details are not known, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.
58854		population	eng	It is assumed to be relatively abundant.
58854		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of the forest is a major threat to this species.
58855		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58855		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the imprecise type locality of "Ceylon [=Sri Lanka]" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to map this species because the exact type locality is not known.
58855		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of the species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58855		population	eng	It is known only from the type series. There have been no sightings of the species since it was described in 1876, and it is now believed to be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.
58855		threats	eng	The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58856		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas including Gunung Mulu National Park and Gunung Kinabalu National Park, both of which are World Heritage Sites. Continued effective protection of forests above 1,000m asl is essential for the conservation of this species.
58856		distribution	eng	This species is known from three areas within submontane or montane sites in north-western Borneo (in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and in Brunei). It is present at elevations of 1,300-1,600m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely.
58856		habitat	eng	All three localities are within mossy montane forest. It is active at night, when temperatures are below 20°C, and males call from shrubs 1-4m above the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
58856		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58856		threats	eng	The known habitat of the species is fragmented and clear-cutting of the forest is a major threat.
58857		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild.
58857		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Ungaran, Central Java, Indonesia.
58857		habitat	eng	It presumably inhabits montane forest, and is believed to be a direct-developer, not dependent upon water.
58857		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, and has not been recorded for over 90 years, so it might already be extinct (particularly if genuinely confined to the type locality).
58857		threats	eng	Forest loss at the type locality has been so severe that almost no habitat remains.
58858		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
58858		distribution	eng	This species was collected in Darjeeling, in West Bengal State, India. Attempts to map its distribution for this assessment show the general area of Darjeeling.
58858		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is not known if it has a direct development breeding strategy.
58858		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection, so there is no current information regarding its population status.
58858		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although there has been a significant anthropic impact on the natural habitat in the Darjeeling area since it was described.
58859		conservation	eng	The species' range in China includes a few protected areas, including the Dayaoshan Nature Reserve, and in Viet Nam it occurs in Hoang Lien Son National Park.
58859		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Guangxi (Dayaoshan in Jinxiu County and Huaping in Longsheng County) and southern Hunan (Yizhang County) provinces in China, and from one location, Fan Si Pan Mountain, in northern Viet Nam. In China it has been recorded around 1,080 m asl, and in Viet Nam it has been recorded from 1,850-2,050 m asl.
58859		habitat	eng	In China this species is known from forests, and in Viet Nam it was reported from upper montane forest, secondary growth, forest edge and near streams. Breeding was observed in July and August in a pool, with larval development.
58859		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations in China. Only three specimens were collected in Viet Nam.
58859		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and fires is a major threat to this species.
58860		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
58860		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Tura" (Boulenger 1919) in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya State, in north-east India.
58860		habitat	eng	It is believed to be associated with the undergrowth of moist evergreen forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development (although this has not been confirmed).
58860		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58860		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
58861		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Gunung Mulu National Park, but there is a need for more effective protection of peat swamp forest habitats in Sarawak.
58861		distribution	eng	This species is known from two widely separated areas in Sarawak, Borneo (Malaysia), where it has been collected at 200m asl.
58861		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found in heath forest. It is closely associated with <em>Nepenthes</em> plants. and eggs are deposited in their pitchers. Breeding is by direct development.
58861		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown.
58861		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to the deforestation and fragmentation of peat swamps is the major threat to this species.
58862		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58862		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka) (Dutta and Manmendra-Arachchi 1996). The type locality is too general to allow the production of a meaningful map for this species.
58862		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58862		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen (collected before description in 1856), and it is now believed to be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.
58862		threats	eng	The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58863		conservation	eng	It occurs in Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve; however, this reserve requires better management to ensure the persistence of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the precise population status of this species.
58863		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen from Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve (06° 20' N; 80° 18' E), at 560m asl, in south-western Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It seems to be restricted to the type locality.
58863		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected from a low (50cm above the ground) branch on the border of forest, beside a tea garden. It presumably breeds by direct development and it is not dependent upon water.
58863		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, and is presumed to be very rare.
58863		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of smallholder farming, in particular tea plantations. It is also potentially affected by pollution from agricultural chemicals and run-off.
58864		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Daweishan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves.
58864		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from southwestern and southern Yunnan (Longchuan, Yingjiang, Pingbian, Luchun and Hekou Counties), in China. It has been recorded from 1,150-1,600m asl. It might have a wider distribution than is currently known, and must occur in neighbouring countries.
58864		habitat	eng	It inhabits shrubland in river valleys. Its breeding habitats are not known, and could be by either larval or direct development.
58864		population	eng	It is a common species, but it is very small and easily overlooked.
58864		threats	eng	Agriculture and small-scale collecting of wood are major threats to the species' habitat.
58865		conservation	eng	Some of the remaining patches of this species' habitat are currently within protected areas.
58865		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and northern Borneo (both Malaysia and Indonesia), and the islands of Balabac and Palawan in the Philippines. In Borneo it has been recorded from 700-2,900m asl, but in the Philippines it is known from much lower altitudes of 30-1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58865		habitat	eng	It occurs in submontane and montane forests, where it is usually seen in the low shrub layer, and has not been found outside forests. It breeds by direct development.
58865		population	eng	Large sample sizes at one locality in central Palawan indicate that this species might have been common at the time.
58865		threats	eng	In the Philippines some populations of this species are threatened by habitat conversion to agricultural land. In Borneo, deforestation is a major threat.
58866		conservation	eng	It occurs in the eastern part of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, and inscribed in 1988.
58866		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Handapan Ella Plains, near Suriyakanda, at 1,270m asl, in the eastern part of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site in south-western Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is probably restricted to this area.
58866		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected perched on the leaf of a cardamom plant, about one metre above ground, in the early evening. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
58866		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, and is thought to be a very rare species.
58866		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, particularly the loss of canopy trees in part due to illegal gemstone mining. It is probably also adversely affected by agro-chemical run-off.
58867		conservation	eng	It is possible that this species occurs in Kudrumkh National Park, as the collection site coordinates indicate that its range falls within this protected area.
58867		distribution	eng	This species has been collected at Madenadu (12° 27'N; 75° 38'E), and from Kirundadu (12° 29'N; 75° 47'E), which are both near Madikeri in Kodagu District. It has also been collected from Malleshwaram in Kudrumukh, in Chikmagalur District (13° 12'N; 75° 16'E). All these three known sites are in the Western Ghats of the southern part of Karnataka State, India. The altitudinal range of this species is 920-1,120m asl.
58867		habitat	eng	Its description does not contain any details of the habitat in which the specimens were collected. It is presumed that the animals were collected in tropical forest, and it is further presumed that this species has a direct development mode of reproduction.
58867		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
58867		threats	eng	The threats to this species at the specific collection localities are not known. There is an ongoing loss of natural habitats due to anthropic disturbance over much of the Western Ghats, and this might be a threat.
58868		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Knuckles Forest Reserve, which has been declared as a National Man and Biosphere Reserve and has also been nominated for declaration as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve and a natural World Heritage Site.
58868		distribution	eng	This species was previously reported from several locations in Sri Lanka (Dutta and Manamendra-Arachchi 1996). However, recent information indicates that it is limited to a small area of the Knuckles Range of central Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005), where it has been recorded at elevations of 603-760m asl.
58868		habitat	eng	It is associated with submontane tropical moist forest, but is also found in cardamom plantations (provided there is no agrochemical use). Animals are usually found on wet rock surfaces, crevices and boulders that are very close to or actually in streams, and in moist leaf-litter. It breeds by direct development, with eggs laid in the riparian zone close to streams.
58868		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58868		threats	eng	The main threats to this restricted-range species are conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land (cardamom), firewood collection, and agrochemical pollution of land and water (specifically by insecticides).
58869		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58869		distribution	eng	This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the type locality is too imprecise.
58869		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58869		population	eng	The species is known only from the holotype specimen. There have been no sightings for over 70 years and the species is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.
58869		threats	eng	The cause of the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor to its demise.
58870		conservation	eng	Resolving the taxonomy of the <em>R. verrucosus</em> and <em>P. gryllus</em> species groups is a priority requirement before conservation actions can be formulated for this species. The population in Tam Dao is within a protected area.
58870		distribution	eng	This species was described from Mao Son in northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942). A specimen from Tam Dao was subsequently also attributed to it (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has also recently been found on Mount Tay Con Linh II, in Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen District, Ha Giang Province (Bain and Truong 2004). Clarification of its relationship with <em>Philautus gryllus</em> and <em>Rhacophorus verrucosus</em> might alter its known range. It has been recorded from 700-1,200m asl.
58870		habitat	eng	Specimens attributed with certainty to this taxon originate from forested mountain areas. This is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
58870		population	eng	It is either a rare, localized species, known from two animals collected at Mao Son in 1937 and one at Tam Dao in 1995 or 1996, or it is part of a widely distributed abundant species that is not currently recognized.
58870		threats	eng	Its type locality has now been reduced to grassland and some secondary forest, which has presumably affected it, as a result of smallholder farming and clear-cutting logging.
58871		conservation	eng	Its one known location is within a national nature reserve.
58871		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Medog County in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at 1,500m asl.
58871		habitat	eng	This species was collected from the leaf of a shrub at the edge of a lake, in which it might possibly breed.
58871		population	eng	Only one specimen has ever been collected.
58871		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58872		conservation	eng	It occurs in the buffer zone of Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve.
58872		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Zhushihe, in Mengla County in southern Yunnan Province, China, where it has been recorded from about 900m asl.
58872		habitat	eng	It inhabits streamside shrublands.
58872		population	eng	It is a very rare species, and fewer than ten specimens are known.
58872		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction, which is ongoing in the region as a result of agricultural development and subsistence collection of wood.
58873		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
58873		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Abor Hills in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in India. The exact area within the Arbor Hills is not known, and so attempts to map its distribution can only be considered as approximate. This is a lowland species present at altitudes below 100m asl.
58873		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species associated with tropical moist forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like most other species in the genus, but this requires confirmation.
58873		population	eng	Its population status is unknown, and there have been no records since it was first described.
58873		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58874		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park, Agra Bopath Forest Reserve and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve.
58874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Hills of Sri Lanka at elevations of 1,555-2,135m asl. There are records from Agra Bopath and Horton Plains (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58874		habitat	eng	It inhabits both closed and open canopy habitats, including grasslands. Most sub-adults and juveniles were found in grassland and disturbed habitats, while mature males and larger females were usually found in closed-canopy habitats. Adults have been observed perched on branches 0.5-3.5m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited in humus.
58874		population	eng	Anslem de Silva (pers. comm.) reports that the population in the Horton Plains National Park may occur at a density of around 62,000 individuals per km², which suggests that the species is abundant where it occurs.
58874		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss, through the commercial harvesting of timber (clear-cutting) and firewood collection, agrochemical pollution, and the desiccation of habitat through periods of drought. In Horton Plains National Park, forest fires and dieback of mature trees are also threats.
58875		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least three national parks, including Gunung Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks.
58875		distribution	eng	This species is known from montane forests in north-western Borneo, from 1,500-3,000m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
58875		habitat	eng	It is a montane species of oak-chestnut forest. Males call from the shrub layer 0.5-3m above the ground. It breeds by direct development and eggs may be deposited in pitcher plants (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).
58875		population	eng	Estimates of the population from the calls of isolated males suggest that it is locally abundant.
58875		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species at present as most of the logging in Borneo is occurring at lower altitudes.
58876		conservation	eng	One of its known localities is within Namdapha National Park.
58876		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India: Tirap District, and Namdapha National Park. It is a lowland species that was collected at an altitude of 350m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known.
58876		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical moist forest and shrubland, where it might breed by direct development, like other species of the genus (but this has not been confirmed).
58876		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58876		threats	eng	This species might be experiencing detrimental effects of the current management plan of Namdapha National Park, which is largely determined by the requirements of the large mammal fauna. It might also possibly be threatened by invasive alien plant species (<em>Mikania</em> sp. and <em>Lantana camara</em>).
58877		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58877		distribution	eng	This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "southern Ceylon [=Sri Lanka]" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known.
58877		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58877		population	eng	It is known only from the lectotype. There have been no records since the species was described in 1869, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.
58877		threats	eng	The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58878		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58878		distribution	eng	This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon [=Sri Lanka]" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known. Specimens previously attributed to this species from India (Krishnamurthi and Shakunthala 1993) are now believed to be a separate taxon (Biju 2001), and specimens reported by Karunaratne (1998) are believed to belong to a different species (K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.)
58878		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58878		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype. There have been no records since the species was described in 1869, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.
58878		threats	eng	The cause for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58879		conservation	eng	It occurs in Haycock Hill-Hiniduma Forest Reserve; however, this reserve is in need of better management to ensure the persistence of this species.
58879		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve (06° 20'N; 80° 18'E) in south-western Sri Lanka, at 660m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It seems to be restricted to the type locality.
58879		habitat	eng	The type specimen was found in closed-canopy forest on a wet rock. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
58879		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen and is believed to be a very rare species.
58879		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to the encroachment of tea plantations. It is probably also affected by agro-chemicals.
58880		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in several protected areas across the region.
58880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the hilly areas in southern Hainan Province, China, where it has been recorded from 320-1,080m asl.
58880		habitat	eng	It inhabits rainforests and bamboo forests, and breeds in rain-filled bamboo stems by larval development. It has not been recorded outside forest.
58880		population	eng	It is known from less than 10 locations.
58880		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to infrastructure development for tourism and logging.
58881		conservation	eng	It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, and which was inscribed in 1988) and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site.
58881		distribution	eng	This species is recorded only from Morningside and Handapan Ella Plains, on the eastern side of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site in south-western Sri Lanka, from 1,060-1,270m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58881		habitat	eng	It is found only in closed-canopy forests and cardamom plantations within cloud forests. All specimens were collected from a cardamom plantation, from 1-2m above the ground, while perched on shade trees (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
58881		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58881		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of the forest canopy for firewood, expansion of cardamom plantations (at the expense of cloud forest habitat), clearing of undergrowth, and human settlement. Changing agricultural practices within cardamom plantations could also negatively affect this species, particularly the increased use of agro-chemicals.
58882		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in the region supports this species.
58882		distribution	eng	This species is known from 250-1,500 m altitude in southern and southwestern China in Xizang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, as well as in Lao Cai and Ha Giang Provinces, Viet Nam. It presumably occurs in other neighbouring countries.
58882		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and shrublands. It breeds in ditches and temporary pools.
58882		population	eng	It is very common in Hainan (Lu Shunqin pers. comm.)
58882		threats	eng	Agriculture and logging are probably impacting its habitat when these are carried out too intensively.
58883		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58883		distribution	eng	This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Peradeniya is not the correct type locality (K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.). It is not possible to produce a meaningful distribution map for this species.
58883		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58883		population	eng	The species is known only from the lectotype. There have been no sightings since the species was described in 1872, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.
58883		threats	eng	The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58884		conservation	eng	It occurs in Gunung Haliman National Park and Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park.
58884		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three specimens from West Java, Indonesia. The type locality is Gunung Pangrango, from where there have been no recent records. It was rediscovered in Gunung Halimun National Park in 1998. It lives above 1,000m asl.
58884		habitat	eng	It lives in pristine montane forest, and has not been found outside forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
58884		population	eng	It is very rare, and only three specimens are known.
58884		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by subsistence wood collection.
58885		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the eastern part of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, and inscribed in 1988.
58885		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Handapan Ella Plains, near Suriyakanda, at 1,270m asl, in south-western Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is probably restricted to this area.
58885		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected from a branch about two metres above ground in a cardamom plantation. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
58885		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype and it is believed to be a very rare species.
58885		threats	eng	The quality of the habitat is deteriorating due to the loss of canopy trees, in part due to illegal gemstone mining. It is probably also adversely affected by agro-chemicals.
58886		conservation	eng	Many of the protected areas of Thailand (e.g., Doi Suthep, Doi Chiang Dao, Phu Luang, Khao Yai), Cambodia (Bokor) and Viet Nam (Tam Dao) contain good populations of this species. It is also found in Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005). Provided protected areas remain intact, no further conservation action appears necessary for the species at present.
58886		distribution	eng	This species is known from Myanmar, northern Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999), northeastern and southeastern Thailand, Cambodia and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005). It has been recorded from 50-1,400 m asl.
58886		habitat	eng	It inhabits primarily open habitats, including forest edge, open stunted scrub forest and tall reed patches. Eggs are presumably laid away from water in damp vegetation axils, and have direct development.
58886		population	eng	It is a species that is difficult to find in the field, but its distinctive call is widely heard, indicating abundant populations at suitable locations.
58886		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present.
58887		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in a number of protected areas in the Malay Peninsular, and in Borneo it occurs in Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks.
58887		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975 and Dring, 1987), and from Borneo (both Malaysia and Indonesia), where it is known from a number of scattered montane localities. The taxonomic status of populations on Natuna Islands is unclear (Dring, 1987). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,600m asl.
58887		habitat	eng	It is generally found in submontane and montane forests, but can also occur in disturbed forest edges. During the day, they rest under dead leaves in the floor litter. It is thought to have direct-developing eggs.
58887		population	eng	It is generally common where it occurs.
58887		threats	eng	Small-scale farming is increasingly threatening populations surrounding Gunung Kinabalu in Borneo.
58888		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve.
58888		distribution	eng	This species was until recently known only from the lost type specimen that was collected from Kandy in central Sri Lanka. However, there are doubts as to whether or not this is the correct collection site. In recent years, additional specimens have been collected that appear to be this species in the Kandy area, from Nawalapitiya and Gannoruwa at around 684m asl.
58888		habitat	eng	Its habitat requirements are poorly known, but it has been collected perched on a <em>Syzygium</em> bush about 2m above ground, at the edge of moist evergreen forest. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, though it is unlikely to occur in severely disturbed habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.
58888		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
58888		threats	eng	It is probably affected by habitat loss due to farming, collection of firewood, timber extraction, and expanding human settlements, as well as pollution by agro-chemicals.
58889		conservation	eng	Its range includes Labugama-Kalatuwawa Forest Reserve.
58889		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in southwestern Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 15-700m asl. There are records from Perediniya, Galle, Kitugale and Pussellawe.
58889		habitat	eng	It lives up to 1 metre above the ground on leaves and twigs in lowland moist forest, degraded forest, small farms, and urban gardens in the lowland wet zone. It is very adaptable. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
58889		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58889		threats	eng	Agro-chemical pollution and intensive urbanization is a major threat to this species, although these are mainly localized at present.
58890		conservation	eng	It is found only in Morningside Forest Reserve; however, while Morningside itself belongs to the Forest Department, it has not yet been assured a permanent conservation status.
58890		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to Morningside Forest Reserve in the Rakwana Hills, in the Sinharaja area of south-western Sri Lanka, at 1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58890		habitat	eng	It is a habitat specialist, found near streams and marshy areas in closed-canopy cloud forest, including forests disturbed by cardamom plantations. At night, males perch up to about two metres above ground, on leaves, from which they vocalize (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
58890		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
58890		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by the expansion of tea and cardamom plantations, the collection of wood, expanding human settlements, and agro-chemical pollution.
58891		conservation	eng	The type locality is within the Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, but the effectiveness of this protection is unclear. There is a need to closely monitor the population status of this species.
58891		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a single locality in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia, at 850m asl.
58891		habitat	eng	It was collected in submontane mossy forest, and has so far not been found outside forest. Frogs were found perched on the leaves of shrubs at night. It breeds by direct development.
58891		population	eng	More than 20 individuals were seen in two nights at the type locality indicating that the species was locally abundant.
58891		threats	eng	Although present within a formally gazetted protected area, its restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
58892		conservation	eng	It occurs outside the Maduru Oya National Park and may also occur in Wasgomuwa National Park. To preserve its habitat as a way of aiding its conservation, cooperative habitat management with the local human communities is urgently needed.
58892		distribution	eng	This species is known from the following four localities: Angammadilla, near Polonnaruwa, in North Central province, Nilgala forest and Maragala Kanda, both in Monaragala district, Uva province, and from Maduru Oya, Ampara district, Sri Lanka. It is believed that it might also occur in Wasgomuwa National Park, which is very close to Angammadilla. It probably has a significantly wider distribution than is currently known. It occurs between 90-218 m asl.
58892		habitat	eng	It lives less than two metres above the ground on leaves in hedges and dry shrubby habitats alongside paddy fields. It breeds by direct development, depositing ca 17 eggs in a self-made nesting chamber and mixing the eggs with soil and leaf litter (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2007).
58892		population	eng	Recent surveys in Monaragala, Nilgala and Maduru Oya have recorded 2-3 individuals in ca 100 m² of forested areas (S. Karunarathna pers. comm. September 2009).
58892		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are man-made forest fires,  pollution of its habitat by agro-chemicals, and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification (i.e., chena, tea, cocoa, mahogany and teak plantations; S. Karunarathna pers. comm. September 2009) and expanding human settlements. Some road kills have also been identified (S. Karunarathna pers. comm. September 2009), although they are likely to be minor threats.
58893		conservation	eng	It is present in Dediyagala Forest Reserve, Yagirala Forest Reserve, Haycock Forest Reserve and Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve.
58893		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and south-western parts of Sri Lanka at elevations of 30-900m asl. There are records from Kosmulla, Dediyagala, Yagirala, Induruwa, Norton Bridge and Haycock (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58893		habitat	eng	It is largely arboreal, and is associated with the upper storey of closed-canopy forest habitats, but has also been observed perched on tall shrubs and occasionally on the forest floor, where it is assumed to have descended to breed. It calls from the forest canopy (10-20m above the ground), even during the daytime (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding presumably takes place by direct development.
58893		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58893		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss as a result of commercial extraction of timber (selective logging) and clearance of habitat for tea plantations; agrochemical pollution from tea estates is an additional threat.
58894		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within the range of this species.
58894		distribution	eng	This species is known from 830-1,350m asl in Guangxi (Nanning, Dayaoshan and Huaping), Guangdong (Nanling) and Fujian (Chongan) Provinces in central China, as well as one record at 1,400m asl on Mount Tay Con Linh II, Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen District, north-eastern Viet Nam (Bain and Truong 2004).
58894		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and breeds in tree holes, bamboo stems, small pools and ponds.
58894		population	eng	There is no information available about the population status of this species.
58894		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development and logging.
58895		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58895		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ceylon (Farmlands)" or "Taralanda" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known.
58895		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58895		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype specimen. There have been no sightings since the species was described in 1927, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.
58895		threats	eng	The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58896		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
58896		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Kandy and Peredeniya, from 500-800m asl, in central Sri Lanka, although it might occur more widely (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58896		habitat	eng	It lives up to two metres above the ground on leaves in the understorey of moist evergreen forest; it also occurs in heavily degraded forest and even in rural gardens in the suburbs of Kandy. This species breeds by direct development.
58896		population	eng	It is very common in a variety of habitats.
58896		threats	eng	It is potentially at risk from agro-chemical pollution, and perhaps also very severe habitat clearance.
58897		conservation	eng	The type locality is a sacred grove, which is relatively small and does not guarantee protection. Improved protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is needed, in addition to survey work to determine the species' current population status.
58897		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: "Kapildhara Falls, Amarkantak (23° 10'N; 81° 70'E), ca. 190km southeast of Jabalpur City, Shahdol, Jabalpur District, Madhya Pradesh, central India."
58897		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal, associated with old growth, tropical, moist, semi-evergreen and mesic forest, and does not occur outside forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
58897		population	eng	There are no details about the population status of this species.
58897		threats	eng	The main threat is believed to be the loss of suitable habitat due to harvesting of wood for subsistence purposes, infrastructure development for tourism, and fires.
58898		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Knuckles Forest Reserve and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.
58898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Sri Lanka, and occurs in two disjunctive populations, one in the Central Hill Country, and the other in the Knuckles Range. It has been recorded at 1,250-1,300m asl. There are records from Perediniya, Agra-Bopath, Bogowantalawa, and the Knuckles Range (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58898		habitat	eng	It lives in both closed and open canopy rainforest, where it has been found at night on boulders and branches near streams. During the day, it hides in rock crevices on the margins of streams. It has not been found away from forest (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding presumably is by direct development. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58898		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
58898		threats	eng	It is probably affected by habitat loss due to farming (cultivation of cardamom and tea), collection of firewood, timber extraction and plantations (pine), and expanding human settlements, as well as pollution by agro-chemicals (resulting in deterioration of water quality).
58899		conservation	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu National Park. The population status of this species requires close monitoring given its very limited range.
58899		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the montane forest between Layang Layang and Pakka Cave on the south-western slopes of Gunung Kinabalu, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,200-3,050m asl. It is likely to be very restricted in its distribution.
58899		habitat	eng	This is a montane forest species occurring in mossy forest at the lower elevation parts of its range (below 2,600m asl). The eggs and larvae of this species have been found in pitcher plants (<em>Nephenthes</em> sp.). This species breeds by direct development.
58899		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58899		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, since its habitat is well protected. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
58900		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and the Horton Plains National Park.
58900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka at 810-2,300m asl. There are records from the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Agra Bopath, Horton Plains and Pedro (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58900		habitat	eng	It appears to be largely restricted to closed-canopy cloud forests, though it has also been found in the understorey of a pine plantation and more rarely in abandoned tea plantations. At night, adults have been observed perched on leaves 1-2m above ground. During the day, juveniles have been observed on the forest floor, on wet, marshy ground, and adults on lichen and moss-covered branches and tree trunks. Adult males are group callers (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). This species breeds by direct development. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58900		population	eng	It is a common species.
58900		threats	eng	Although much of its range is in protected areas, the quality of much of its habitat is being threatened by illegal firewood collection, clear-cutting for timber, and conversion to agricultural land (tea estates). Forest fires and dieback of mature trees in Horton Plains National Park are also threats, and pollution by agro-chemicals might also be a problem.
58901		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
58901		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, collected at Pattipola at 1,829m asl in central Sri Lanka.
58901		habitat	eng	This species presumably breeds by direct development.
58901		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; the only known specimen was collected sometime before 1913.
58901		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
58902		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas, but habitat protection and maintenance are urgent priorities for this species, and additional survey work is necessary to assess its current population status.
58902		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area of forest, in and around Shilong, Meghalaya, in north-eastern India. It has been recorded from elevations below 1,400m asl.
58902		habitat	eng	It is associated with tropical moist forest, and probably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.
58902		population	eng	The population is believed to have declined significantly. While it was considered to be abundant in the 1970s, it is now difficult to find specimens of this frog. Recent ongoing (post 1993) vocalization surveys in and around Malki Forest (the type locality) have failed to record this species (D. Roy pers. comm.).
58902		threats	eng	Selective logging, the collection of wood for subsistence use, and urbanization, are all major threats to the species' habitat.
58903		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The species was recently included in field studies by Biju (1998-2001).
58903		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Nilgiri Hills of the southern Western Ghats of India. It is a highland species occurring up to 2,000m asl.
58903		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species associated with tropical moist evergreen forest, although it can occur in modified areas. Breeding is by direct development.
58903		population	eng	It is commonly seen in the Nilgiri Hills (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001), but is believed to be declining.
58903		threats	eng	The major threat is the conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas (including timber and non-timber plantations).
58904		conservation	eng	It is found in the Tangamalai Sanctuary and Agra Bopath Forest Reserve.
58904		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in the lower Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka, at 1,550-1,600m asl, on either side of the Horton Plains Plateau, near Agarapatana and Haputale. Specific records come from Agra Bopath and the Tangamalai Sanctuary (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58904		habitat	eng	It occurs in both closed-canopy forests and open, anthropogenic habitats. Adults have been observed at night on stream banks and perched on branches 1-4m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development and the species is not dependent on water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58904		population	eng	It is uncommon.
58904		threats	eng	It is threatened by the encroachment of tea cultivation, the removal of firewood, expanding human settlements, and agro-chemical pollution.
58905		conservation	eng	The species is found in the Morningside Forest Reserve; however, while Morningside itself belongs to the Forest Department, it has not yet been assured a permanent conservation status.
58905		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sinharaja area of south-western Sri Lanka, where it appears to be restricted to the Morningside Forest Reserve, near Rakwana, on the eastern side of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, at an elevation of 1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58905		habitat	eng	It is essentially a ground-dwelling, leaf-litter species, found in closed-canopy montane forest, and forest fragments within cardamom plantations. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
58905		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
58905		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the encroachment of cardamom plantations, removal of wood for subsistence use, and illegal gem mining. It is probably also adversely affected by agro-chemical pollution.
58906		conservation	eng	It is known only from the proposed Similipal Biosphere Reserve.
58906		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from Orissa State, at the northern tip of the Eastern Ghats in eastern India. It has been collected at altitudes of around 770m asl.
58906		habitat	eng	It has been found underneath rotten sal leaves, and in loose leaf-covered soil and inside rotten logs sometimes close to riverbanks. The habitat type in which this species was collected is unclear, though it is likely to be tropical dry forest. This is presumed to be a direct developing species.
58906		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
58906		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, though its habitat might be under pressure.
58907		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to establish whether or not this species still survives, particularly at the type locality, but also on the nearby Mount Marapi.
58907		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Talakmau, in West Sumatra, Indonesia, at 1,200m asl.
58907		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in montane forest, and, like other species of the genus, breeds by direct development.
58907		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown; it is known only from the holotype.
58907		threats	eng	The type locality has already been completely cleared of forest for smallholder farming, and there is also the risk of volcanic eruption.
58908		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas including Hiniduma Forest Reserve, Sinharaja Forest Reserve (World Heritage Site), Labugama Forest Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, and Haycock Forest Reserve. There is an ongoing captive-breeding programme for this species.
58908		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in south-western and central Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 80-1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58908		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland rainforest up to three metres above the ground in vegetation, on wet rocks in cascades, leaves and tree trunks. It can also be found on wet rocks in streams in home gardens, among cardamom, in rubber plantations and along the edge of tea estates, providing that the area around the stream remains well vegetated. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
58908		population	eng	It is a common species.
58908		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the clearing of the forest and other vegetation around streams for cultivation of tea and other crops, the collection of wood, expanding human settlements and agro-chemical pollution. However, it is very common and adaptable, and so is not currently considered to be seriously threatened.
58909		conservation	eng	It occurs within an area protected by the State Forest Department. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
58909		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the area of Ponmudi Hill in the northern part of the Agasthyamala Hill range (formerly Ashambu Hills), Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,030m asl.
58909		habitat	eng	It is primarily an open grassland species, but it is also associated with grassland shrubs. It breeds by direct development and eggs are deposited at the base of grass clumps or in rock crevices.
58909		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
58909		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of grassland and forest that is generally reasonably well protected. However, the expansion of the surrounding tea plantations might be considered a threat in the future.
58910		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection an urgent priority.
58910		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in the vicinity of the Amboli forest in Sawantwadi District, Maharashtra, in the northern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded at an elevation of approximately 750m asl.
58910		habitat	eng	It was collected in extremely disturbed areas close to evergreen forest patches, although it is not known whether or not it occurs in primary evergreen forest. It breeds by direct development.
58910		population	eng	It is very rare in its known localities.
58910		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss and fragmentation due to urbanization and tourism development.
58912		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close montoring of the population status of this species.
58912		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kodaikanal in Dindigal Anna District, Tamil Nadu State, in the southern Western Ghats of India, at elevations of 1,900-2,300m asl.
58912		habitat	eng	It inhabits grassland, and associated fringes of shola forest. The original series was collected during a rainy night from leaves, about 1m above ground in shrubs near the roadside. It breeds by direct development.
58912		population	eng	It is a very common to abundant species.
58912		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present, given its apparent adaptability to significantly altered habitats. However, its very limited range could render it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
58913		conservation	eng	This species is known from the Wayanad Sanctuary.
58913		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed at 1,000-1,150 m altitude in Wayanad District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of India.
58913		habitat	eng	This species has been commonly found in roadside vegetation and gardens, even right near human habitation. Individuals were found at 1-2 m above the ground on roadside vegetation and coffee plants. The species breeds by direct development.
58913		population	eng	The species is abundant.
58913		threats	eng	There are no significant threats known to this species, given its apparent adaptability to significantly altered habitats.
58914		conservation	eng	The range of the species is not within any protected area, and protection of the remaining habitat at the species' only known locality is an urgent priority.
58914		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality close to Munnar, Kerala, along the Ghat road to Devikulam, in the southern Western Ghats of India, where it was collected at 1,500m asl.
58914		habitat	eng	It is known only from a small area (less than 20km²) of secondary vegetation, adjoining the forest along the Ghat road. Specimens were found close to a tea plantation, but not inside the plantation. It breeds by direct development.
58914		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58914		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat clearance for tea and eucalyptus plantations, all the more concerning since there are no other areas of suitable habitat known in the surrounding region.
58916		conservation	eng	It might be present in Shenduruny Sanctuary and Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary. Strengthening the existing protected areas network and maintenance of remaining habitat in the range of the species are recommended conservation actions. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.
58916		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 1,000 m asl on Ponmudi Hill, part of the Agasthyamala Hill range (=Ashambu Hills) in the Western Ghats of India. It might possibly occur more widely in Wynaad District.
58916		habitat	eng	This species is known from a patch of evergreen forest surrounded by grassland. Individuals were found calling in the late evening at 8-15m above the ground in the forest canopy. It breeds by direct development.
58916		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known, but it could be common within its very limited range.
58916		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is known to be declining, and the expansion of surrounding tea plantations is likely to exacerbate the rate of forest loss.
58917		conservation	eng	It occurs within an area protected by the State Forest Department. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
58917		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the area of Ponmudi Hill in the northern part of the Agasthyamala Hill range (formerly Ashambu Hills), Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,030m asl.
58917		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, recorded from both primary and old secondary tropical moist deciduous forest. It breeds by direct development.
58917		population	eng	It is a common species at its known locality.
58917		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of forest that is currently protected. Restricted logging and tourism are minor threats. However, the expansion of the surrounding tea plantations might be considered a threat for the future.
58919		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58919		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Nuwara Eliya (06º 57'N, 80º 47'E) [Newera-Elllia], in Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58919		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58919		population	eng	It is known only from the lost holotype. There have been no records since the species was described in 1853, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have failed to rediscover this frog.
58919		threats	eng	The threats that resulted in the extinction of this species are not known, although presumably habitat loss was a major factor.
58920		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve (World Heritage Site), Kanneliya Forest Reserve and Kottawa Forest Reserve.
58920		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the lowland wet zone of south-western Sri Lanka, occurring from 60-515m asl. There are records from Kottawa, Kanneliya, Sinharaja and Kosmulla (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58920		habitat	eng	It is a habitat generalist, living both in closed-canopy rainforest, and in open, anthropogenic, habitats. It is typically found in shrubs about one metre above the ground, and presumably breeds by direct development.
58920		population	eng	This is a common species.
58920		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by agro-chemical pollution, and also very severe habitat clearance for cultivation of tea, cardamom and other crops, leading to large-scale opening up of the vegetation.
58921		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Conservation measures needed for this species include the protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the restoration of degraded forests.
58921		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Luzon, Leyte, Samar, Mindanao, and Siquijor, in the Philippines.
58921		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It lays its eggs on leaves, and is a direct developer.
58921		population	eng	It is common to very common in forested areas, even in some disturbed areas adjacent to forests. It is one of the most common forest species of Philippine frog and it inhabits a considerably wide geographic and elevational distribution.
58921		threats	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It lays its eggs on leaves, and breeds by direct development.
58922		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mount Malindang National Park, but there is a need for improved protection of the remaining montane rainforest of Mindanao. This species may potentially be declining significantly at the type locality and so immediate surveys are needed to assess its population status.
58922		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few mountains on north-western Mindanao Island, in the Philippines.
58922		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and has not been found outside forest. It breeds by direct development.
58922		population	eng	It was uncommon on Mount Malindang, the type locality, at the time of the original collection and no recent field studies of this area have been conducted. Specimens from two mountains east of Mount Malindang (Mount Kitanglad and Mount Lumot) may refer to this species.
58922		threats	eng	It inhabits high-elevation forests, which are generally less threatened by habitat conversion, agriculture, and human encroachment. Nonetheless, these threats remain an issue for some populations of this species.
58923		conservation	eng	It is known from Gunung Mulu National Park, Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (in Malaysia), and Ulu Temburong National Park (in Brunei). Continued effective protection of areas of lowland rainforest is essential for the species' conservation.
58923		distribution	eng	This species is known only from scattered localities in north-western and western Borneo (Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam). It is present at elevations below 700m asl.
58923		habitat	eng	It has been found in a variety of lowland rainforest environments. Most individuals have been seen on low shrubs. Breeding takes place by direct development.
58923		population	eng	In general, only a few individuals have been seen at any one locality. It is considered common in Ulu Temburong National Park, Brunei.
58923		threats	eng	The major threat is logging of the lowland forest habitat, and much of its habitat has already been lost.
58924		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58924		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known.
58924		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58924		population	eng	It is known only from the lectotype and type series, and has not been recorded since the original description in 1864. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog and it is now considered to be extinct.
58924		threats	eng	The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58925		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further field studies in the area of collection are urgently required to learn more about this little-known frog, and determine its range, population status and habitat requirements.
58925		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the region of the type locality, which is "Peddavalasa (17° 47'N; 82° 16'E), ca. 1,000m altitude [asl], Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh State, south-eastern India" (Das and Chanda 1998) in the Eastern Ghats of India.
58925		habitat	eng	It presumably breeds by direct development.
58925		population	eng	It is known only from museum specimens, and there are currently no known populations of this species.
58925		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58926		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in the Nilgiri Hills, including Mukkurthi National Park.
58926		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ooty and its surroundings in the Nilgiri Hills in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India, where it has been recorded at an elevation of between 1,700 and 2,000m asl.
58926		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species associated with montane tropical moist evergreen forest, but it can also be found in grasslands and modified areas close to the forest; however, it is not clear whether populations can persist in these areas. In forests it is found in leaf-litter and under ground cover. It reproduces through direct development, and the eggs are deposited under stones (Dubois 1986; Bossuyt and Dubois 2001).
58926		population	eng	The range is continuous and it is one of the most common species in the Nilgiri hills (Biju 2001). However, the population is generally believed to be declining.
58926		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss through the conversion of forest to plantations and the development of regional infrastructure.
58927		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected area.
58927		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Bodanaikanur, Travancore, at the foot of the hills on the eastern side" in the Western Ghats of India. The altitudinal range is reported to be up to 400m asl.
58927		habitat	eng	It is believed to have been an arboreal species of tropical moist evergreen forest. It is presumed to have been a direct developing species, like other species of the genus.
58927		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype specimen, and was described in 1891. Extensive recent field surveys of the area, and surrounding suitable habitat, have not relocated this species, and it is now considered to be extinct.
58927		threats	eng	The extinction of the species was caused by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use and urban development.
58928		conservation	eng	It is not known with certainty if this species is present in any protected areas, although it is possible that it occurs in Kudrumkh National Park as the collection site coordinates indicate that its ranges falls within this protected area.
58928		distribution	eng	This species has been collected at Kirundadu (near Madikeri: 12° 29'N; 75° 47'E), in Kodagu District, and also from Malleshwaram in Kudrumukh in Chikmagalur District (13° 12'N; 75° 16'E). Both known sites are in the Western Ghats of the southern part of Karnataka State, India. It has been collected at altitudes between 920 and 940m asl.
58928		habitat	eng	The description of this species does not contain any details of the habitat in which the specimens were collected. It is presumed that the animals were collected in tropical forest, and it is further presumed that this species has a direct development mode of reproduction.
58928		population	eng	The population status of the species is not known.
58928		threats	eng	The threats to it at the specific collection localities are not known. There is an ongoing loss of natural habitats over much of the Western Ghats due to anthropic activities, and this might be a threat.
58929		conservation	eng	Its one known locality is within Hkakabo Razi National Park.
58929		distribution	eng	This species is known from Htingnan in northern Myanmar, and possibly from the Hkamti Plain. Attempts to create a distribution map for it for this assessment should be considered as approximate.
58929		habitat	eng	This is presumed to be a species that breeds by direct development, although this has not yet been confirmed.
58929		population	eng	It has not been recorded since it was first described from two specimens collected in the 1930s, and results from recent herpetological surveys of the area are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).
58929		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58930		conservation	eng	Its known range is wholly within Gunung Mulu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. Directed surveys are needed to determine and monitor the population status of this species.
58930		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park in northern Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia, at elevations of 900-1,300m asl.
58930		habitat	eng	The original series was found in submontane forest. Males were calling from near ground level up to 2m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.
58930		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
58930		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species since its habitat is relatively well protected. However, its restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
58931		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58931		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type collection is not known (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58931		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this frog are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58931		population	eng	This species is known only from the lectotype. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not relocated this species and it is now believed to be extinct.
58931		threats	eng	The cause of the species' extinction is not known, but habitat loss seeems likely to have been a contributing factor.
58932		conservation	eng	It is known from the Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand. In Malaysia, it is also known to occur in a number of semi-protected areas such as Fraser's Hill, Larut Hill and Genting Highlands, but it has not been confirmed from Taman Negara National Park.
58932		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme southern Thailand (Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary) and Peninsular Malaysia. It has been recorded from 500-1,600m asl.
58932		habitat	eng	It lives in submontane and montane forest and forest edge. It has not been found outside forest. It is presumed to be a species that breeds by direct development, like most other species of the genus.
58932		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon, but not a rare, species.
58932		threats	eng	It is presumably being impacted by ongoing forest loss in Peninsular Malaysia as a result of tourism, industry and forestry.
58933		conservation	eng	It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests), and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site.
58933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the general Sinharaja region of south-western Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 510-1,270m asl. There are records from Morningside, Handapan Ella Plains and Sinharaja (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58933		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy rainforest habitats and cardamom plantations within the forest. Adult males have been observed calling at night while perched on ferns, 0.3-1m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.
58933		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
58933		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss, due to habitat encroachment for tea and cardamom plantations, and human settlement; agro-chemical pollution is an additional threat.
58934		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas, making the protection of its forest habitat an urgent priority.
58934		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small part of the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from Agra Bopath (at 1,555m asl) and Ambewela (at 1,830m asl) (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It might occur more widely than current records suggest.
58934		habitat	eng	It occurs in both open and closed-canopy vegetation, including cloud forests and adjacent anthropogenic habitats. They have been observed 1-5m above ground, perched on leaves and twigs on shrubs, in the forest understorey. In closed-canopy habitats, it inhabits the top stratum (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58934		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
58934		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is gradually declining due to encroachment by tea cultivation and human settlements, and it is particularly sensitive to the removal of the humus layer where it lays its eggs. It is probably also threatened by agro-chemicals.
58935		conservation	eng	It is found in some very small protected areas around Bandung; in addition, the forest surrounding the Chevron Geothermal Concession has a protected status, and Cikaniki also occurs within a National Park (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).
58935		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains near Bandung, above 1,000 m asl, from Cikaniki in Mount Halimun and from Chevron Geothermal Concession (950 m asl) in Mount Salak, in   Mount Halimun Salak National Park, West Java, Indonesia. The type locality is Pangalengan, at 1,000 m asl.
58935		habitat	eng	This species can be found in ponds in montane forest. It breeds all year long in Chevron; however, it seems that the highest number of breeding events occur during high rainfall (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009). Contrary to the characteristic reproduction mode of this genus, this species has a free-living tadpole stage, and females attend to their eggs until they hatch (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009). Mean clutch size is 52 eggs (n = 12; range: 37–66 eggs, SD= 8.25; M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).
58935		population	eng	This species is relatively common in ponds in the Chevron Geothermal Concession area and in Cikaniki, with up to 11 individuals reported for one pond in the Chevron Geothermal Concession (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).
58935		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to small-scale farming.
58936		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park. Improved protection of the remaining rainforests on the island of Mindanao is necessary.
58936		distribution	eng	This species is found in various montane regions of Mindanao, in the Philippines.
58936		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and has also been found in slightly disturbed habitats (but only at the forest edge). It breeds by direct development.
58936		population	eng	It is common in forested habitats and disturbed habitats adjacent to forest.
58936		threats	eng	The major threat is the continued loss of the lower montane and lowland rainforest, due to logging, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
58937		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, given that there have been no recent field studies.
58937		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to tropical forests in the vicinity of Coorg in Karnataka, and Wayanad and the Ponmudi Hills in Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded at elevations between 900 and 1,200m asl.
58937		habitat	eng	It is nocturnal and arboreal, and associated with the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest and shrubland. It is present in secondary forest and cultivated land (including tea and coffee plantations), provided that these are not managed too intensively. Breeding is believed to take place by direct development.
58937		population	eng	The current population status is unknown, but the species is known from very few localities.
58937		threats	eng	The major threat is conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas (including tea, coffee and other non-timber plantations).
58938		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58938		distribution	eng	This recently described species is a Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type collection is not known.
58938		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58938		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype and two paratypes. There have been no records since the type collection (sometime before 1947) and the species is now believed to be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.
58938		threats	eng	The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.
58939		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
58939		distribution	eng	This is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Point de Galle, Ceylon".
58939		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.
58939		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype specimen described in 1927. There have been no records since this time and the species is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have not rediscovered this frog.
58939		threats	eng	The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss contributed to its demise as the town of Galle is heavily urbanized.
58940		conservation	eng	It is present in the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve.
58940		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Sri Lanka at 500-800m asl, where it has been recorded from Gannoruwa Forest and gardens around Tiverton Estate, and it has also been observed at Hantana and Udawattakelle Forest Reserves near Kandy (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).
58940		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy rainforest habitats with little understorey, and also occurs in residential gardens with plenty of leaf-litter. It is active by both day and night. Specimens collected during the day were on the ground in leaf-litter. At night males have been recorded calling from branches and leaves 0.3-1.5m above the ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). This species breeds by direct development. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
58940		population	eng	It is a rare species.
58940		threats	eng	It is losing its forest habitat to expanding human settlements, and small-scale wood extraction. Agrochemical pollution from areas surrounding the forest is also a threat.
58941		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.
58941		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central China and is known from Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, Jiangxi and Fujian Provinces. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 700-1,300m asl.
58941		habitat	eng	It inhabits creeks, ponds, paddy fields and the surrounding habitats (such as shrublands and forests) in hilly areas. It breeds in still water habitats such as ponds, pools and paddy fields.
58941		population	eng	It is a very common species.
58941		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for tourism and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species.
58942		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Effective preservation of lowland forests is essential for this species.
58942		distribution	eng	This species is found from extreme southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962) throughout Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975), and from scattered localities across Borneo and Sumatra and Natuna in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It ranges up to 600m asl.
58942		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland marshy evergreen rainforest areas, mainly in flat terrain. It can be found in primary and in mildly disturbed selectively logged forest. It forms breeding aggregations around temporary rain pools.
58942		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon to rare species where it occurs in mainland Southeast Asia and Sumatra (low numbers collected by, for example, Grandison, 1972 and Dring, 1979). In Borneo, it appears to be common in flat, swampy rainforests.
58942		threats	eng	It is not known to be specifically threatened, though ongoing deforestation throughout its range is a concern.
58943		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from many protected areas including the Udawattakele Sanctuary in Kandy, and Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary and Singharaja World Heritage Reserve.
58943		distribution	eng	This species is a widely distributed Sri Lankan endemic. Specimens previously attributed to this species from the Western Ghats of India have now been assigned to Polypedates pseudocruciger (Das and Ravichandran, 1998). It has been recorded at elevations of between 15 and 1,525m asl.
58943		habitat	eng	It is a tree frog of the wet and dry zones of Sri Lanka. It is generally an arboreal species of secondary forest habitats (including degraded forest), but can also occur in banana groves, home gardens, houses and other buildings. It is not present in primary forest. Larvae may be found in semi-permanent pools, stock tanks, and in stagnant water, including man-made habitats.
58943		population	eng	It is a common species.
58943		threats	eng	This species is mostly threatened by agrochemical pollution of land and water.
58944		conservation	eng	Its one known location is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.
58944		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Fan Si Pan, in northern Viet Nam, from 1,600-2,100m asl.
58944		habitat	eng	It was recorded from lower and upper montane evergreen forest, and was also observed breeding around a buffalo wallow in heavily degraded forest.
58944		population	eng	It is reportedly common during breeding, although it has only been recorded once since it was first described over sixty years ago.
58944		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are presumably encroachment of agriculture, and forest clearance through subsistence collection of wood.
58945		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species. In Viet Nam the known range is within Hoang Lien Son National Park and Tay Con Linh II National Park.
58945		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern and central China in Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces, and from extreme northern Viet Nam near the border with China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 1,400-3,200m asl.
58945		habitat	eng	It inhabits upper montane forest, and breeds in pools and ponds, sometimes being found in disturbed areas close to human habitation. Males were heard calling from beside temporary pools.
58945		population	eng	It is very common in China. It was first discovered in Viet Nam in 2000, and is reportedly uncommon there.
58945		threats	eng	Logging and agriculture are major threats to the species.
58946		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.
58946		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka at elevations of 1,200-2,135m asl.
58946		habitat	eng	It is arboreal and terrestrial; adults are found in the canopy and on tree trunks of montane tropical moist forest, and also in grasses at the edge of ponds. Larvae are found in both permanent and seasonal ponds in grasslands. It is not present in modified habitats.
58946		population	eng	It is a common species.
58946		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to the conversion of forest to cultivated land (tea and vegetables), commercial harvesting of timber (clear cutting), fire (in the Horton Plains), and the development of infrastructure for tourism. Agrochemical pollution, drought, and die-back of mature trees are additional threats.
58947		conservation	eng	It is present in Morningside Forest Reserve; however, while Morningside itself belongs to the Forest Department, it has not yet been assured a permanent conservation status.
58947		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a single locality in the Morningside Estate in south-western Sri Lanka, and was collected at an elevation of 1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2001).
58947		habitat	eng	It is arboreal known only from montane tropical moist forest. Adults are generally found up to two metres above the ground, on twigs and leaves in bushes close to stagnant pools. Breeding occurs in these pools.
58947		population	eng	It is generally a rare species.
58947		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to canopy removal and the clearance of undergrowth, expanding timber plantations, subsistence collection of wood, encroaching tea and cardamom plantations, and urbanization. It might also be impacted by the adverse effects of agro-chemical pollution.
58948		conservation	eng	In China this species occurs in the Daweishan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves. Maintaining and improving the protection of this species within existing protected areas is recommended. It is listed as 'Vulnerable' in the 1997 OEPP Thai Red List. The rating of 'Threatened' for <span style="font-style: italic;">R. nigropalmatus</span> in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em>, 1992) might refer in part to <span style="font-style: italic;">R. feae</span>.
58948		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Yunnan (Mengla, Hekou and Pingbian Counties) in China, the Karen Hills of Myanmar (Boulenger, 1893), Doi Inthanon (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999) and Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999-records from central Lao People's Democratic Republic refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dennysii</span>), and Viet Nam (Bourret, 1942). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded between 600 and 1,900m asl.
58948		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in closed-canopy evergreen rainforest. Bourret (1942) reported it as a commensal at Sa Pa resort town. It breeds in streams, ponds and paddy fields and holes in trees. It seems to require large trees.
58948		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, generally only isolated individuals are recorded. An exception was when it was recorded as 'extremely abundant' at Sa Pa (Bourret1942) in Viet Nam.
58948		threats	eng	It was reportedly heavily collected for consumption in the past and is still collected (S. Swan pers. comm.). It is restricted to primary forest so is particularly susceptible to habitat loss and degradation. Water pollution is also a threat.
58949		conservation	eng	Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve is within the range of this species.
58949		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slope and southern part of Gaoligongshan (Gongshan, Tengchong and Baoshan Counties), in western Yunnan Province, China, and it has also recently been recorded from Puliebadze, in Nagaland, India. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar, but it has not yet been recorded from there.
58949		habitat	eng	It inhabits agricultural land in hilly areas, and often occurs near streams, ponds and pools, and in the surrounding bamboo clumps, trees, shrubs and grasses. It lays eggs on leaves above water, and the larvae then develop in the water below.
58949		population	eng	It is a common species.
58949		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural development and subsistence wood collecting.
58950		conservation	eng	Additional specimens need to be collected to confirm its taxonomic validity.
58950		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality on Samar Island, in the Philippines. Its distribution cannot be mapped, as its precise range is not known.
58950		habitat	eng	It reportedly inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58950		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It has not been recorded for 150 years, presumably because of a lack of herpetological work within its range.
58950		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species include small-scale logging and the conversion of its major habitat, the lowland rainforest, to agricultural land.
58951		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within Dayaoshan National Nature Reserve and Dujiangyan Natural and Historical Heritage Reserve.
58951		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Hongfoshan, in Dujiangyan Shi, Sichuan Province, and from Dayaoshan in Jinxiu County, Guangxi Province, China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 800-1,100m asl.
58951		habitat	eng	It is found in hilly forested and shrubland areas, and breeds in stream-fed ponds.
58951		population	eng	It is known from only two locations.
58951		threats	eng	The major threats to it are agricultural development and logging, which lead to habitat loss and degradation.
58952		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Galathea Biosphere Reserve on Great Nicobar Island. Survey work is needed to obtain a better understanding of the current population status of this species.
58952		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Great Nicobar Island (of the southern portion of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), India, where it has been recorded from at least three separate localities at elevations up to 500m asl.
58952		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of tropical moist forest. Specimens have been collected in low shrubs and in puddles away from riparian vegetation. It is presumed to breed in temporary pools.
58952		population	eng	Reports from 1994-1997 indicate that the species appears to be reasonably abundant on the island (R. Daniels pers. comm.), although there are no quantitative data to support this.
58952		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to intensive crop production and human settlement.
58953		conservation	eng	The main conservation issue is the cryptic diversity within the species complex as some of the hidden taxa might be of conservation concern, but reliable recognition needs to be established before conservation strategies can be formulated.
58953		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout northeast India and Bangladesh, it is marginal in Nepal, and possibly occurs in Bhutan (although this requires confirmation). It is considered here to be present in western Yunnan, China. It also occurs throughout most of mainland southeast Asia, including islands large (e.g. Phuket (Frith, 1977) and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992 and Ming, 2000)) and small (e.g. vegetated rocks off Tioman and Redang), and is widespread (and introduced) throughout the Philippines, and is present in Borneo, Mentawai, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Bali, Lombok, Natuna Islands, Anambas Islands, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Timor and is introduced to Papua (not mapped here). It also is found in China. It is introduced to Japan and is found in Okinawajima, Tonakijima, Kurimajima, Miyakojima, Iejima, Iheyajima, Izenajima, Sesokojima and Yabuchijima. It is found up to 1,500m asl.
58953		habitat	eng	It is a very adaptable opportunist and commensal, occurring from beach vegetation through all manner of human habitats (such as agricultural areas, ditches, artificial ponds and lakes, gardens, even in houses) and natural edge habitats to closed primary forest. It appears to be dependent on human activities to create suitable habitats. There might be separation among habitat axes among the component species in the <em>leucomystax</em> complex.
58953		population	eng	It is abundant and common throughout its range.
58953		threats	eng	It is not subjected to any significant degree of disturbance, which could threaten its survival. Presumably heavy application of pesticides around houses might pose threats to local subpopulations. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
58954		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, which was inscribed in 1988.
58954		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and south-western Sri Lanka, where it has been recorded at elevations of between 150 and 1,300m asl.
58954		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in lowland, submontane and montane tropical moist forests. Adults can be found on moss, bushes and tree trunks up to 2m above the ground. It is rarely found outside primary habitat. It can be found close to stagnant water, and breeding takes place in rocky pools in streams.
58954		population	eng	It is rare.
58954		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence wood extraction, and conversion to tea and cardamom plantations; agrochemical pollution (of both land and water) is an additional threat.
58955		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
58955		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra (including Mentawai and Natunas), most of Borneo, and southwestern Philippines. It has been recorded up to 1,250m asl.
58955		habitat	eng	It generally inhabits primary forest and edge areas. It breeds in rain pools, ditches, and builds foam nests.
58955		population	eng	It is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.
58955		threats	eng	It is not subject to any significant threat.
58956		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in numerous protected areas in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
58956		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of India, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, as well as western Bangladesh and Chittagong district in south-eastern Bangladesh. It has been reported from sea level up to at least 1,500m asl.
58956		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from a wide variety of habitat types including tropical dry and moist forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas and close to human habitations. It is largely arboreal, although it can be found on walls and hidden under rocks and leaves. Males have been reported calling from the ground. It breeds in temporary pools and paddy fields.
58956		population	eng	It is widely distributed, common and a human commensal. Population fluctuations in the species need to be investigated.
58956		threats	eng	In Sri Lanka, habitat pollution by agrochemicals is the main threat to the species. Otherwise, this species is not facing any significant threats.
58957		conservation	eng	Many protected areas in China support this species. In India it is known from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve.
58957		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central, southern and south-western China, including Taiwan, Province of China, Hainan, Hong Kong and Macau. It has also recently been recorded from northern West Siang District, in Arunachal Pradesh, and from Watiyem, in Nagaland, in India. It has recently become established in Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
58957		habitat	eng	It inhabits various kinds of habitats including cultivated fields, grasslands, shrublands, plantations, forests, ponds, and marshes and near streams. It breeds in still water. Foam nests have been found to contain 300–400 eggs each and are often found in shallow, still water, typically attached to emergent vegetation (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
58957		population	eng	It is widely distributed and breeds well in artificial, still waterbodies.
58957		threats	eng	Habitat destruction such as urban development and habitat degradation such as water pollution might potentially threaten some populations of this species, but overall there are no major threats.
58958		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas throughout its range.
58958		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from Yunnan, Guizhou, Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces in central, southern and southwestern China, and from northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940) and northern Viet Nam. It is suspected to range into northern Thailand and beyond (P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It occurs from 50-1,100m asl.
58958		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and the surrounding areas. It breeds in still-water habitats such as pools, ponds, marshes and paddy fields. It makes foam nests over pools when breeding.
58958		population	eng	Due to confusion with other species, the population status of this species is not known.
58958		threats	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, which is the most threatened habitat in this region; therefore forest clearance and degradation are likely threats to this species.
58959		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and Mouling National Park in Arunachal Pradesh. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Borah and Dutta (2001) and Bardoloi (2001). Its taxonomic status requires further investigation.
58959		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India, where it has been recorded between 1,100 and 1,500m asl.
58959		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species associated with tropical forest, shrubland and grasslands. Breeding takes place in small, temporary water pools.
58959		population	eng	Its population size is believed to be small.
58959		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation, by both subsistence and commercial means.
58960		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
58960		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several widely scattered subpopulations in central and south-western China: Yuexi County in Anhui Province; Longling and Pingbian Counties in Yunnan Province; Weining and Leishan Counties in Guizhou Province; and Sangzhi and Chengbu Counties in Hunan Province. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 600-2,100m asl.
58960		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest edges, shrubland, paddy fields, stream banks and creeks in hilly areas, and breeds in pools, ponds and ditches near paddy fields.
58960		population	eng	It is very rare.
58960		threats	eng	The major threat to this species' habitat is the development of human settlements and associated infrastructure.
58961		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are within the range of this species.
58961		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, Hubei and Guangxi Provinces in central and southern China. It has been recorded from 700-2,000m asl.
58961		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and sometimes farmland, and breeds in still-water habitats such as pools and ponds.
58961		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
58961		threats	eng	Agriculture and logging are major threats to this species.
58962		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra. Preservation of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.
58962		distribution	eng	This species has been found at many sites in Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and on Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations below 1,000m asl.
58962		habitat	eng	This arboreal species lives in lowland forests, in flat and hilly terrain. It uses the shrub and tree strata and breeds in temporary rain pools. It has been recorded in disturbed habitats, such as logged areas at the forest edge.
58962		population	eng	It is a common species.
58962		threats	eng	Clear cutting of forests is the main threat to this species. Regulated selective logging does not seem to pose a threat. The species was previously included in the pet trade, but was found to be unsuitable (most specimens died shortly after capture).
58963		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.
58963		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the southern Western Ghats of India. It is reported from elevations of between 200 and 950m asl.
58963		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal edge habitat species generally associated with the understorey of tropical, moist evergreen forest. Specimens have been collected close to marshes and streams, in forest grassland and also in disturbed habitats close to human habitations. Breeding takes place in small temporary ponds, and eggs are laid on a leaf over the pond.
58963		population	eng	It is a common species.
58963		threats	eng	Severe degradation of the species habitat as a result of agro-industry farming is a major threat.
58964		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in Songshan Nature Reserve, although this requires confirmation.
58964		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Banshan, in Puer County, Yunnan Province, China, where it occurs between 1,990 and 2,000m asl.
58964		habitat	eng	It lives in meadows in montane forest. The eggs are laid in foam nests in grasses, presumably close to stagnant waterbodies in which the larvae develop.
58964		population	eng	There is nothing known.
58964		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although there is clear-cutting of forest and agrochemical pollution occurring within the general area.
58965		conservation	eng	It is reportedly present in Orang National Park in India.
58965		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the southern Himalayan foothills of Nepal, India, and possibly Bhutan, and is marginal in northern Bangladesh. It is a lowland species present at elevations below 500m asl.
58965		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species associated with tropical forest and shrubland. Reproduction and egg deposition take place in branches overhanging small pools, and hatching larvae drop into the pools.
58965		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
58965		threats	eng	Deforestation for local subsistence and urbanization are the main threats to the species.
58966		conservation	eng	The only known location is within Dayaoshan Nature Reserve. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.
58966		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Dayaoshan, Jinxiu County, in Guangxi Province, China. It has been recorded from 800-1,500m asl.
58966		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of forest habitats. Its breeding habits are unknown, though it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
58966		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58966		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, especially for wood extraction and farming.
58967		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Royal Chitwan National Park. Recent fieldwork has been undertaken by Shresthra (2001).
58967		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Himalayan foothills of eastern Nepal, and has been recorded from 100-300m asl.
58967		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal tropical forest inhabitant. Amplexus, breeding and egg deposition take place on branches and leaves close to ponds.
58967		population	eng	It is considered to be rare when compared to other Nepalese <em>Polypedates</em> species.
58967		threats	eng	There are no known threats to its habitat at present.
58968		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
58968		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Sichuan Province and Lichuan County in Hubei Province, China. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 2,000-3,150m asl.
58968		habitat	eng	It inhabits hilly areas, and probably lives in forests and breeds in still water habitats such as pools and ponds.
58968		population	eng	It is a very common species within its restricted range.
58968		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, in particular due to farming of livestock.
58969		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58969		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Bukit Kaba, Bengkulu, and from the south-eastern slope of Gunung Dempo, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatra, Indonesia. It was collected at altitudes of between 1,415 and 1,575m asl.
58969		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in secondary growth tropical forest, in overhanging vegetation close to pools and slow-flowing streams. It presumably makes foam nests with the larvae then developing in the freshwater below.
58969		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58969		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by forest loss as a result of smallholder farming and subsistence collection of wood.
58970		conservation	eng	Besides Gunung Kinabalu National Park, it is also present in the Crocker Range, in Malaysian Borneo; however, the Sumatran locality lies outside any protected areas.
58970		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Borneo (Malaysia) and from one locality in Sumatra, Indonesia. It has an altitudinal range of 700-1,800m asl.
58970		habitat	eng	It has been found only in primary submontane and montane forests. Males call from trees overhanging small, clear, rocky streams where the larvae develop.
58970		population	eng	It appears to be abundant in Gunung Kinabalu National Park in Borneo.
58970		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of clear-cutting is the major threat to this species, and logging has already severely damaged the habitat at one known locality, Mount Trus Madi, in Borneo.
58971		conservation	eng	The only known location in Cambodia is within Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary. Herpetological surveys of existing protected areas on the Kon Tum Plateau are needed to determine the presence of this species in existing protected areas. Protected areas in the Buen Luoi-Tram Lap-Kon Cha Ran area are in need of improved management.
58971		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Kon Tum-Da Lat Plateau, of the southern Annamite Mountains, in Viet Nam and the extreme east of Cambodia. It was originally known from a single specimen collected at 200m asl (Smith 1924), but has subsequently been collected from 700-1,200m asl (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).
58971		habitat	eng	It is found in substantial numbers in rainforest. It makes foam nests in trees above quiet parts of streams and swampy floodplain (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).
58971		population	eng	In Viet Nam it was the most locally common tree frog (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).
58971		threats	eng	Deforestation of the Kon Tum-Da Lat Plateau (Darevsky and Orlov 1997; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999) and other systemic impacts are prime concerns for this species. The amount of available habitat within its range is very limited.
58972		conservation	eng	Clarification of the taxonomy of the R. appendiculatus complex is required before meaningful conservation measures can be implemented. In the Philippines, the remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest on the islands where this species occurs should be designated as protected areas. In Borneo, several well-protected parks in Sabah and Sarawak provide refuges for this species, and elsewhere in its range it also occurs in protected areas. Effective preservation of lowland forests in Kalimantan is essential.
58972		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sumatra, Siberut, Borneo (where it has been recorded from many scattered localities), the Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia and India (Arunachal Pradesh State). Records from northern monsoon areas (Thailand, Viet Nam) are probably referable to Rhacophorus verrucosus and Rhacophorus bisacculus (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). In the Philippines, it is known from a few mountain localities on Luzon, Leyte, Polillo, Negros, Bohol, Mindanao and Basilan. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58972		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of tropical forest and shrubland. Breeding choruses have been observed at lower elevations in swampy areas and small quiet mountain streams. The tadpoles develop in puddles or small pools of stagnant water.
58972		population	eng	It is only occasionally encountered, but it can then be found in substantial numbers (Dring 1979). In Borneo, rather large breeding choruses have been observed at a number of sites; hence it appears to be abundant. It is uncommon in Sumatra and Siberut in Indonesia. In the Philippines there have been very few records of this species and it is still known from less than five localities.
58972		threats	eng	Deforestation of lowland areas is the major threat to this species.
58973		conservation	eng	Breeding sites of this species are designated as a natural monument by many local authorities. Its range includes several protected areas.
58973		distribution	eng	This Japanese species is found on Honshu except Ibaragi Prefecture. It is also found on Sado Island. It is introduced to Izu Oshima and Niijima.
58973		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest from lowland to montane areas. It breeds on trees adjacent to ponds, paddy fields and other wetland areas.
58973		population	eng	More information is needed.
58973		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
58974		conservation	eng	It is only found in disturbed farmland areas. Presently there are about 20 landowners who have agreed to maintain the traditional farming practices for the forseeable future in the Yulin area in the central part of Taiwan, Province of China.
58974		distribution	eng	This species is known from agricultural areas in Chiayi, Yunlin and Tainan Counties, in south-western Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.
58974		habitat	eng	It is associated with disturbed areas with traditional farming practices, and inhabits bamboo forests, orchards, sugar-cane fields, scrubland and cultivated fields in the lowlands. It breeds in temporary rain water pools in orchards.
58974		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58974		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for industry and human settlement, and agricultural pollution, are its major threats.
58975		conservation	eng	It is protected within Fu-shan Nature Reserve and Li-chia Wildlife Refuge. Further research is needed to investigate the reasons for the decline in this species, and close population monitoring is required.
58975		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in Ilan, Taitung, Taichung, Hualien, Kaohsiung and Kenting in Taiwan, Province of China. It has been recorded from low to mid altitudes.
58975		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary broadleaf forests, and breeds in tree holes and buckets placed in forests.
58975		population	eng	It is a rare species that is believed to be in decline.
58975		threats	eng	The cause of the decline in this species is not clear, since its habitat is not believed to be currently threatened.
58976		conservation	eng	The population in Lao People's Democratic Republic is within Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. There is a need for improved protection of forest habitats in Viet Nam.
58976		distribution	eng	This species is known from the An Khe District, in Gia lai Province, Viet Nam (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999) and from the southern Annamite mountains of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999). The type locality is at 700-750m asl, but it has also been recorded around 1,000m asl.
58976		habitat	eng	It is known from wet evergreen forest. Animals have been found on the banks of forest streams, perched on grassy vegetation 20-50cm above the surface and about 3m from the water. Tadpoles were found in a swampy forest pond (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).
58976		population	eng	It was reportedly common at the one known location in Lao People's Democratic Republic (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.).
58976		threats	eng	No specific threats have been indicated for the species, but the An Khe District site is known to be impacted by forest clearance for agriculture (Darevsky and Orlov 1997).
58977		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks and the Crocker Range. Preservation of montane forests is the main conservation measure needed for this species.
58977		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the mountainous ridge of north-western Borneo, Malaysia, from 1,200-2,200m asl.
58977		habitat	eng	It has been seen only in submontane and montane forests. Males gather at small ponds in which the larvae develop, in or at the edge of these forests.
58977		population	eng	It can be locally abundant.
58977		threats	eng	A possible future threat to the species' habitat is logging of upland forests, although at the moment its forest habitat is well protected in its only known localities.
58978		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58978		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Bukit Kaba, Bengkulu, in Sumatra, Indonesia, at 1,440m asl.
58978		habitat	eng	The type series was found along a stream trickling through tall upper montane forest. Adults were found calling from vegetation 1.3-2.0m above deep pools where the stream flowed down a steep basaltic slope, Foam nests were found floating on the water.
58978		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58978		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss caused by smallholder farming, small-scale subsistence collection of wood, and increasing human settlement.
58979		conservation	eng	It occurs in Barisan-Selatan, Kerinci-Seblat and Gunung Leuser National Parks.
58979		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Kerinci, Barisan-Selatan, Bengkulu, Jambi and Aceh in Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58979		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland and submontane forest, and presumably breeds in water, probably in streams.
58979		population	eng	It seems to be uncommon.
58979		threats	eng	The main threat is localized forest loss due to agricultural development (including for non-timber plantations).
58980		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo Natural Park. There is a need for improved protection of remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the islands where this species occurs.
58980		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Luzon, Bohol, and Mindanao in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
58980		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats, usually beside water (streams, ponds, rivers) in undisturbed lower montane and lowland forests.
58980		population	eng	It is locally common, but patchily distributed.
58980		threats	eng	Important threats are the loss of the lowland rainforest due to agriculture and logging, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers especially due to agricultural effluents.
58981		conservation	eng	Provided the existing protected areas of the region remain intact the survival of this species appears secure. Surveys are needed to clarify its distribution more accurately.
58981		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from northeastern India (Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur) and Bangladesh, through Myanmar (Boulenger, 1893), western and southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962; Inger and Colwell, 1977), southern China (southern Xizang Province) (Fei <em>et al</em>., 1999), to Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975; Manthey and Grossmann, 1997). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded at altitudes of 100-900m asl in Thailand and southern Viet Nam, but up to 1,800m asl in Peninsular Malaysia (Dring, 1979; Manthey and Grossmann, 1997), 2,100m asl in China and 2,200m asl in India. Records from southern Yunnan Province, Guangxi Province and Hainan Province in China, and from eastern Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, and central Viet Nam refer to <em>Rhacophorus rhodopus</em>.
58981		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species known from closed-canopy evergreen forest, forest edge, and bamboo in lowland and montane rainforest areas. It breeds by larval development in rain pools and standing water in streams in forest. Foam nests are created on tree branches overhanging shallow moving water. It sometimes also occurs in orchards and cultivated areas.
58981		population	eng	It is generally a common species. It can be absent, however, from apparently suitable areas near to where it occurs.
58981		threats	eng	It is probably impacted by degradation of its forest habitat through logging, agricultural encroachment, and human-induced wildfires, but it is able to adapt to some anthropogenic habitats, so it is probably not seriously threatened. It is consumed locally in India as food and medicine, but probably not at a level sufficient to constitute a threat to the species.
58982		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy of the R. appendiculatus group is needed.
58982		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nagaland, in northeast India, and from Phu Kradung and Phu Luang in northern northeastern Thailand to southeastern Thailand and the Cardamom mountains of Cambodia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and can be expected from Myanmar. It is a highland species found at elevations of 1,450-2,000m asl.
58982		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species that inhabits scrubby vegetation, evergreen forest and forest edge. It has also been recorded from a rubber plantation. Breeding takes place in shallow forest ponds. During the breeding season the males have been observed calling from the banks of streams and pools.
58982		population	eng	It is a common species.
58982		threats	eng	While the known populations occur well inside protected areas, some of these remain under some threat from human-induced wildfires.
58983		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Gandhi National Park, both in Tamil Nadu, and Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Recent investigations into the ecology and breeding biology of this species have been undertaken by S.D. Biju (1999-2001).
58983		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southern Western Ghats of India in Kerala (Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Munnar) and Tamil Nadu (Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Gandhi National Park). It is reported from elevations of 900-1,400m asl.
58983		habitat	eng	It is generally found along streams in montane tropical moist forest, and is not present in degraded habitats. An arboreal species, it may be found in both the canopy and understorey levels of the forest (3-5m above the ground). It breeds on vegetation overhanging streams, and the larvae develop in the streams.
58983		population	eng	It is a rare species and is difficult to locate.
58983		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss following the conversion of forest to agricultural land (including tea plantations).
58984		conservation	eng	Its range includes a number of protected areas.
58984		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Kon Tum Plateau of southern and central Viet Nam, the limestone region of central Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and the Annamite mountain region and Tam Dao (from referred juveniles), northern Viet Nam (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Stuart 1999). It is unclear whether or not the patchy distribution represents actual patchy occurrence, habitat specialization or limited survey effort. It has been recorded at altitudes between 700 and 1,250 m asl in Viet Nam, and from 220-1,300 m asl in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999, 2005).
58984		habitat	eng	It is restricted to undisturbed evergreen rainforest, and is generally observed on streamside vegetation (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
58984		population	eng	This is a localized but presumably relatively common species in appropriate habitat, as evidenced by fairly large series in museums (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
58984		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to smallholder and shifting agriculture, fires, and wood collection from the forest.
58985		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
58985		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Gunung Dempo, Sumatera Selatan, from Bukit Kaba, Bengkulu, from the Bukit Barisan range near Kepahiang, Bengkulu, and from about 24km (by road) west of Sungaipenuh, Jambi, all in Sumatra, Indonesia. It has been collected at altitudes between 600 and 1,630m asl.
58985		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest of the Bukit Barisan range. Males call from low vegetation near to streams, and it is presumed that this species has a foam nest and that the larvae develop in freshwater.
58985		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.
58985		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss caused by smallholder farming, small-scale subsistence collection of wood, and increasing human settlement.
58986		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Protection of tropical moist forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.
58986		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Thai-Malay Peninsula south of Chumphon in Thailand (Smith, 1930, Taylor, 1962, Dring, 1979, Kiew, 1987 and Manthey and Steiof, 1998), and is also present in Singapore (Leong, 2000). There is a single record from Buen Luoy, in southern Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is also found in Sumatra, Indonesia and has been reported from a few localities in Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia), but these are scattered over a large portion of the island. It has an altitudinal range of 150-1,600m asl.
58986		habitat	eng	All known records originate from primary rainforest, mostly in close vicinity to flowing forest streams. Males have been seen calling from trees overhanging streams, and the larvae are presumed to live in these streams.
58986		population	eng	This is generally an uncommon to rare species in areas where it is known to occur, also indicated by the scarcity of museum series of more than a single specimen (Dring, 1979, Manthey and Steiof, 1998, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
58986		threats	eng	Deforestation of moist tropical forest is the only substantial threat to this species.
58987		conservation	eng	Its range includes many protected areas. The rating of ‘Threatened’ for R. nigropalmatus in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em>, 1992) might refer in part to R. dennysii.
58987		distribution	eng	This species is known historically from northern Myanmar and China (Zhao and Adler, 1993). It is also known from northern Viet Nam and central Lao People's Democratic Republic. The type locality 'Singapore' is clearly based on a traded specimen (Bourret, 1941). It is known from altitudes up to 900m asl.
58987		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and riparian forests in hilly areas. It breeds in still waters such as paddy fields, pools, ditches, marshes and ponds. It is mostly restricted to primary forest. The call of this species is exceptionally loud.
58987		population	eng	It is a rarely encountered species that is uncommon when encountered.
58987		threats	eng	Its known areas of occurrence in Viet Nam continue to suffer from persistent processes degrading the forest, such as non-timber forest products collection, plantations, wildfires and changes to hydrology (BirdLife International 2001). Small numbers are also exported for the international pet trade.
58988		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity and locality of origin need to be determined.
58988		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and one paratype, and is said to come from Java, Indonesia. However, examination of the holotype has cast doubt as to the likelihood of it having an Asian origin (Iskandar pers. comm.).
58988		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It is likely to breed in water by larval development, like other members of the genus.
58988		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype and one paratype.
58988		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58989		conservation	eng	It occurs in Daweishan National Nature Reserve in China, and in Hoang Lien Son National Park in Viet Nam.
58989		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality in Viet Nam (Mount Fan Si Pan, at 1,900m asl), and from one locality in China (in Pingbian County, south-eastern Yunnan Province, at around 1,950m asl). It is likely to occur more widely.
58989		habitat	eng	In China, this species is a forest inhabitant that congregates around a stream-fed pond for breeding. In Viet Nam it was observed breeding around a buffalo wallow in heavily degraded forest.
58989		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species in China. In Viet Nam it is known only from one breeding event.
58989		threats	eng	There are various threats to this species across its known range. Only one breeding pond in China is known and this is subject to disturbance by tourism development. Much of the vegetation around the pond was cleared in 1995 and a footpath was built around the pond in 1996. A breeding congregation still occurred in 1996, and it is not known how this modification will affect the breeding success of this species. In Viet Nam, the encroachment of agriculture, and forest clearance, are presumably threats to it.
58990		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas in Borneo, but more effective protection of lowland forests in other parts of Borneo is necessary.
58990		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the northern half of Borneo, including Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Brunei Darussalam. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded below 250m asl.
58990		habitat	eng	It occurs in flat or hilly rainforests, and forms breeding aggregations around forest rain pools and swampy ground. Spawning sites are on the forest floor (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).
58990		population	eng	This species forms rather large breeding aggregations, suggesting that it is locally abundant.
58990		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is clear-cutting of lowland forest.
58991		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic status and validity need to be determined.
58991		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Totoiya, in the Bulawa Mountains, in Sulawesi, Indonesia. The location of the type locality has not been determined, and so its range cannot be mapped.
58991		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds in water, like most other species of the genus.
58991		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
58991		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
58992		conservation	eng	In Borneo and Palawan, several totally protected areas provide refuge for this species.
58992		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in Borneo in the mountainous area from Gunung Kinabalu National Park in Sabah to Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, Malaysia, including Brunei. In the Philippines, it occurs only on the island of Palawan. It has mainly been recorded from 750-1,800m asl, although in the Philippines several records have come from lowland forests at 300m asl.
58992		habitat	eng	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats, usually beside water (such as streams, ponds and rivers) in lower montane and lowland forests. Most individuals have been seen perched on moss-covered logs.
58992		population	eng	In Borneo, the fact that it has been seen at almost every submontane site where sampling has been intense, despite its cryptic form, suggests that it is common.
58992		threats	eng	The major threat to this species in Borneo is deforestation by clear-cutting; in the Philippines, some populations of this species are also threatened by habitat loss.
58993		conservation	eng	In Lao People's Democratic Republic this species is known from Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. There is a need for improved protection of forest habitat on the Kon Tum plateau.
58993		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tram Lap, An Khe district, in Gia Lai Province and Ngoc Linh mountain, in Quang Nam Province, both on the Kon Tum Plateau of southern Viet Nam (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999), and from the Annamite mountains of southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999). It has been recorded between 800 and 1,400m asl. It has only a small area of occupancy within its overall range due to limited suitable habitat.
58993		habitat	eng	It is found on vegetation on swampy banks of forest streams in undisturbed, wet evergreen rainforest. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.
58993		population	eng	It was observed to be common during the breeding season (T. Nguyen pers. comm.).
58993		threats	eng	Forest degradation is an issue at the type locality (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999) and generally throughout the Kon Tum Plateau, mainly due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
58994		conservation	eng	It is known from at least three protected areas in Borneo (including Gunung Mulu and Kayan Mentarang National Parks). Improved protection of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.
58994		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Borneo, in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present below 200m asl.
58994		habitat	eng	It has been recorded only in primary lowland rainforest. It is presumed to breed in temporary water pools, like most other species of the genus.
58994		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
58994		threats	eng	The rapid pace of logging of lowland rainforests is a major threat to the species' habitat.
58995		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. Preservation of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.
58995		distribution	eng	This species is known from across Sabah (Malaysia), central Sarawak (Malaysia), and western and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia) in Borneo, from 750-980m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
58995		habitat	eng	This species is confined to primary and old secondary hilly rainforests, where it lives in the vegetation lining the banks of small, clear, rocky streams. Foam nests are placed in branches overhanging these streams and the larvae live in the rocky bottoms of riffles.
58995		population	eng	In some areas it appears to be locally abundant.
58995		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation through clear-cutting and the resulting stream siltation (which deprives larvae of feeding sites).
58996		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in Rawa Aopa Natural Reserve on Sulawesi.
58996		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Tua Palutal, in Sulawesi, Indonesia, but this place cannot be located. Recent collections come from Buton Island in Indonesia. This species is confined to altitudes below 700 m asl.
58996		habitat	eng	It is confined to lowland forest, and can probably also live in somewhat disturbed forest. Females have been found to contain 29–108 eggs (Gillespie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Foamy egg masses are attached to the trunks of trees, 1–3 cm above water-filled tree cavities and tadpoles have been found in these water-filled cavities (Gillespie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
58996		population	eng	It has been recorded as recently as 2002, and is considered rare on Buton Island.
58996		threats	eng	There is little information on direct threats to this species, but it is likely to be affected by habitat loss arising from smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence collection of wood.
58997		conservation	eng	It has been reported from many protected areas including Kinabalu, Tawau Hills, Lanjak Entimau and Gunung Mulu National Parks.
58997		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from numerous localities in northern Borneo, below 250m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.
58997		habitat	eng	It lives in primary or secondary lowland rainforests, in flat and hilly terrain. Males call singly at breeding sites, which are water-containing holes in the trunks of very large trees.
58997		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
58997		threats	eng	The major threat to the species' habitat is the rapid pace of clear-cutting of the forest.
58998		conservation	eng	This species' type locality is within Hoang Lien Son National Park. Protection of the small section of forest in the Ha Giang location is needed.
58998		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality of Fan Si Pan mountain, at 1,900 m asl, Van Ban District, Lao Cai Province, at 1,400 m asl, and also from Ha Giang Province, at 1,100 m asl, in Viet Nam (Bain and Truong 2004, Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
58998		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from evergreen forest close to a stream.
58998		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens, so its population status cannot be determined.
58998		threats	eng	The Ha Giang location is only in a small section of forest that is likely to be destroyed or degraded in the near future by agricultural encroachment and logging.
58999		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of isolated protected areas including Tawau Hills and Gunung Mulu National Park. Expansion of effective preservation of lowland forest in central Sarawak and Kalimantan is recommended.
58999		distribution	eng	This species has been found below 700m asl in northern and western Borneo, where there are records from Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia).
58999		habitat	eng	It has been found in primary and slightly disturbed lowland rainforests in flat and hilly terrain, where it perches on low vegetation overhanging small, rocky streams or swampy pools, in which it is presumed that the larvae also develop.
58999		population	eng	There is no information on current population status.
58999		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of logging.
59000		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, but remains unprotected in the remainder of its range. Further surveys to determine the full range of this recently rediscovered tree frog are urgently required.
59000		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to two small areas of the southern Western Ghats of India in Kerala (Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and its surroundings) and Karnataka (Coorg and its surroundings) at an elevation of approximately 800m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
59000		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical moist evergreen forest and deciduous forest, and has been recorded from secondary (disturbed) forest and coffee plantations (though this is not suitable habitat). An arboreal species, it is believed to occur in the lower canopy and understorey levels of the forest. Breeding takes place on vegetation overhanging small pools, and the larvae develop in these pools.
59000		population	eng	It is locally common.
59000		threats	eng	It is threatened by the conversion of forest areas to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations).
59001		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from numerous protected areas including Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, all in Kerala, and Kudremukh National Park and Nagarhole Wild Life Sanctuary, both in Karnataka.
59001		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,200m asl.
59001		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species of tropical moist evergreen forest, deciduous forest, secondary (disturbed) forest and coffee plantations. It is present in the lower canopy and understorey levels of the forest. It breeds in vegetation overhanging ponds, and the tadpoles develop in the pools.
59001		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
59001		threats	eng	Conversion of forest habitat for use as intensively farmed agricultural land (coffee plantations) is a major threat.
59002		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mount Merapi, Gunung Halimun and Gunung Gede Pangrango National Parks, as well as in the Taman Safari Park. It is important to assess the presence and extent of the impact of the chytrid fungus on frog populations in Indonesia (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
59002		distribution	eng	This species is known from several areas in Java, including two areas in Jawa Barat, one area in Jawa Tengah, one area in Jawa Timur, seven sites within  Gede Pangrango National Park, six sites within Halimun Salak National Park,   the forest around the Taman Safari Indonesia Zoo in Cisarua, West Java, Cibodas Botanical Garden, Telaga Warna and Mount Merapi National Park, Java, Indonesia (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009). It is known to occur from 100-1,795 m asl (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).
59002		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland and montane forest, including in disturbed forest. It breeds in streams. One female was found to contain 180 eggs (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).
59002		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
59002		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of forest habitat due to smallholder farming and subsistence wood collecting. More recently, this species has tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</span> (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), although there are no reports of associated declines in this species.
59003		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kaeng Kra Chan National Park in Thailand, and in the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve in China. In northeastern India the species is present in Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and it presumably occurs in a number of other protected areas.
59003		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Nepal, it is presumed to be in southern Bhutan, it is known from northern Bangladesh, India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal and Manipur), northern Myanmar, western Thailand and southern Xizang (Medog) and southern Yunnan (Jinghong, Mengla and Rui Li counties) provinces in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 500-2,000m asl.
59003		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland to submontane moist evergreen forest. It makes foam nests above pools and ponds. outside the breeding season it lives high in the canopy.
59003		population	eng	In China it is probably common, but it is easy to find only in the breeding season. There is no information on the population status of this species elsewhere in its range.
59003		threats	eng	Deforestation and degradation of the species' habitat as a result of agriculture, logging and water pollution are threats to the species.
59004		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Kerinci Seblat National Park.
59004		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kerinci, on Sumatra, Indonesia. It is presumably a montane species, and occurs above 700m asl.
59004		habitat	eng	The type locality is montane forest, and this species is likely to breed in slow-flowing streams.
59004		population	eng	There have been no records since it was first described from five specimens, so its population status is unknown.
59004		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to it, although habitat loss is taking place on the lower montane slopes as a result of smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence collection of wood.
59005		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species. It is also a protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.
59005		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in hilly areas in Taiwan, Province of China, below 2,500m asl.
59005		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, orchards and tea plantations, and breeds in still-water habitats such as ponds, pools, and cisterns and blocked roadside ditches. It occasionally breeds in pools of intermittent streams, potholes and streamside pools.
59005		population	eng	It is a common species.
59005		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species at present.
59006		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Gunung Lombobatang Natural Reserve.
59006		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-western and central Sulawesi, in Indonesia, where it is found above 1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
59006		habitat	eng	It lives in montane forest, including disturbed forest, and breeds in streams.
59006		population	eng	It is relatively common.
59006		threats	eng	The principal threat to its habitat is encroaching smallholder farming.
59008		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Safeguarding the integrity of protected areas is a primary objective.
59008		distribution	eng	This species is known from mainland Southeast Asia with certainty from the Thai-Malay Peninsula from Ranong south to Endau-Rompin (Taylor, 1962 and Berry, 1975), from Borneo from eastern Sabah south to southeastern Kalimantan and west to central Sarawak, and also from Sumatra, in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs up to 600m asl.
59008		habitat	eng	It is found typically in primary evergreen rainforest, but it has also been found in old shifting cultivation, but not in open areas. Breeding aggregations form in vegetation near forest pools, descending from higher strata in the forest to breed at rain pools, and also animal wallows, and usually egg masses are attached to low vegetation overhanging these pools.
59008		population	eng	It is generally a rarely encountered species; this is because it is only seen when it comes down from the trees to its breeding aggregations where it can be locally common (Grandison, 1972 and Dring, 1979).
59008		threats	eng	Deforestation and further degradation of rainforest habitat constitute the most significant threats. There is small-scale pet trade of this species, but this is not considered a threat.
59009		conservation	eng	This species requires a taxonomic reassessment.
59009		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Daban, at 200m asl, on the Lang Bian plateau of southern Viet Nam (Smith 1924; Bourret 1942).
59009		habitat	eng	This is presumably a rainforest inhabitant, like most <em>Rhacophorus</em> species, breeding in water by larval development.
59009		population	eng	There are no known records of it since it was first collected in 1918, so its population status is not known.
59009		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, but forest degradation in the Lang Bian region is likely to be a cause for concern.
59010		conservation	eng	In Viet Nam it occurs in Cuc Phuong National Park, Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Ke Go Nature Reserve, Pu Mat National Park and Huong Hoa Nature Reserve. In Lao People's Democratic Republic, it is found in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Stuart 2005).
59010		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Cuc Phuong National Park in Nin Binh Province, in northern Viet Nam, south to Phong Nha-Ke Bang in Quang Binh Province and Huong Hoa Nature Reserve in Quang Tri Province, in central Viet Nam. Additional localities in northern and central Viet Nam include Ke Go Nature Reserve (in Ky Anh District, Ha Tinh Province), Huong Son Forest (in Huong Son District, also in Ha Tinh Province), and Pu Mat National Park (in Con Cuong District, Nghe An Province; Truong pers. comm.). It is also present in nearby eastern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005), and in Amnat-Charoen Province, north of Ubon, close to the Mekong River, in eastern Thailand (Chan-ard pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been found up to 850 m asl.
59010		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary forest and close to streams, and presumably breeds in water by larval development, like most other members of its genus.
59010		population	eng	The number of records suggests that it is probably not uncommon in suitable habitat.
59010		threats	eng	This species is threatened by small scale logging, and probably also by agricultural expansion and increasing human settlement.
59011		conservation	eng	Its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a National Park.
59011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima. The highest peak on Iriomotejima is 469m asl.
59011		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, and breeds in grassland and wetland areas. It is mainly arboreal, but in the breeding season mainly from December to March it comes down to the forest floor. It is occasionally found in agricultural areas but is mainly a forest species.
59011		population	eng	It is not a common species on Iriomote Island, although its arboreal habits make it hard to find.
59011		threats	eng	The Ryukyu archipelago has been largely transformed from forest as a result of cultivation and damage during World War II. The Island of Iriomote is where some of the last remaining forest is, and it is currently protected as a National Park. The species' restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to threatening processes.
59012		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Prevention of further deforestation is the most important conservation measure.
59012		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in Peninsular Malaysia (and Pulau Tiga Island) and is widespread in Sumatra (including Siberut and Sipora), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines (Mindanao, Negros, Bohol and Luzon). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 1,015m asl.
59012		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary rainforest. It breeds at swampy forest pools. It is widely distributed through the forest, probably in higher strata, and descends to the shrub layer and forms breeding aggregations around rain pools, even at the edge of forest.
59012		population	eng	It is locally common in intact forest and forest edge but patchily distributed and activity patterns are temporally variable. It can form moderate-sized breeding aggregations.
59012		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is logging.
59013		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in Kerinci Seblat National Park.
59013		distribution	eng	This species is known only from West Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is Kerinci.
59013		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary montane forest, and breeds in streams.
59013		population	eng	This seems to be a rare species, and until recently there were no records at the type locality since its discovery. It was rediscovered 200km to the north near Padang, above 1,000m asl, in 2001.
59013		threats	eng	It might well be threatened by the clearance of its habitats for paddy fields, tea cultivation, and vegetable gardens.
59014		conservation	eng	Several protected areas occur within the range of this species, and it is also a nationally protected species.
59014		distribution	eng	This species is known from Taipei, Ilan and Taoyuan in northern Taiwan, Province of China, from 400-600m asl.
59014		habitat	eng	It inhabits orchards, tea plantations, bamboo forests, shrublands and forests in hilly areas, where these habitats are stable. It breeds in tree holes or, in marginal habitats, in cisterns, buckets or water tanks in orchards.
59014		population	eng	It is a common species.
59014		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation arising from the creation of plantations and the development of infrastructure for human settlement. Some populations have also disappeared because orchards were changed to tea plantations, which generally need frequent pesticide application.
59015		conservation	eng	Safeguarding the intact survival of substantial areas of forest, covering the full altitudinal gradient, in Malaysia's Main Range would be the main conservation priority for the species and the peninsular herpetofauna. It has been recorded (as R. tunkui) in the Endau-Rompin National Park and Taman Negara National Park, of Peninsular Malaysia, and it is present in protected areas on Sumatra.
59015		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the foothills and mountains of the Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia at 250-1,100m asl, extending to Pattani, southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962 and Berry, 1975). From Taman Negara and Endau-Rompin (as the synonym R. tunkui Kiew, 1987). It has been recorded from several localities in Sumatra (often under R. dulitensis), Indonesia. There are questionable records from Nias (Grandison, 1972), Indonesia (D. Iskandar pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
59015		habitat	eng	All records of this species are from closed-canopy rainforest at low to medium altitudes. It makes foam nests and breeds in small forest rain pools and puddles, including the beds of intermittent streams.
59015		population	eng	It is encountered in diffuse concentrations in most areas of intact rainforest that have been surveyed in Peninsular Malaysia. However, known historic populations in Malaysia (e.g. Gombak-Berry, 1975) have apparently disappeared (P.P. van Dijk pers. obs. 2000 to 2001). It is reported to be uncommon in Sumatra (as R. dulitensis).
59015		threats	eng	Relatively large areas of appropriate forest habitat remain in the species' range, but few of these areas are truly secure from future logging options and pervasive impacts such as fragmentation (and habitat drying) by roads, drains along roads, power line clearings and reservoirs.
59016		conservation	eng	While known to be present in the Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu, further habitat protection is needed.
59016		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Indira Gandhi National Park and surroundings in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,300m asl.
59016		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, occurring in the lower canopy and understorey levels of tropical moist evergreen forest. It is not present in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place on vegetation overhanging temporary pools, and tadpoles develop in these pools.
59016		population	eng	The species is locally common where it occurs.
59016		threats	eng	The main threat is conversion of forested areas to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations) outside the Indira Gandhi National Park, and the extraction of wood and timber by local people.
59017		conservation	eng	None of the six known populations in Peninsular Malaysia inhabit an adequately protected area. Surveys are needed to verify its occurrence in adequately protected areas (particularly the Malaysian and Indonesian populations), and to identify any undiscovered populations (for example in Brunei and Kalimantan). The conservation of mature lowland rainforest is essentail for this species.
59017		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Thailand, Malaysia (on the Peninsula and in Sarawak and Sabah in Borneo), and Indonesia (Sumatra and Java). There are no records from Brunei or Kalimantan (Indonesia) but its occurrence is expected in the places. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and although fragmentation of its lowland forest habitat has probably reduced its range (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It occurs up to about 1,400m asl, though it occurs mainly at lower elevations.
59017		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary evergreen rainforest. It has also been observed in forest edge near villages. It is a canopy species that makes foam nests above pools and ponds inside forests. Adults probably spend most of the time in the upper forest strata. It has been seen in Bogor Botanic Garden on Java. It is an explosive breeder that apparently descends from the canopy only occasionally to congregate at breeding pools, attracting about a dozen animals, suggesting that it might be abundant locally.
59017		population	eng	It is generally considered to be rare, but this is probably in part an artefact of the difficulty in locating it.  A few tens of animals can be seen at breeding sites.
59017		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss of its rainforest habitat and potentially water pollution. Removal of mature lowland forest through logging, agricultural expansion and human settlements has probably reduced the available habitat significantly for this species (Ohler and Delorme, 2006).
59018		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
59018		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sangihe Island in Sulawesi, Indonesia.
59018		habitat	eng	This species presumably occurs in lowland forest and breeds in water, but these details require confirmation.
59018		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.
59018		threats	eng	The specific threats to it are unknown, although it might be suffering from habitat loss.
59019		conservation	eng	Surveys to confirm the continuing existence of this species, starting in the lowlands of southern Taman Negara National Park, are needed before conservation measures can be developed. Kuala Teku (the exact location of which is somewhat uncertain) might be part of Taman Negara.
59019		distribution	eng	This species was for a long time known only from a specimen from Bukit Besar, Pattani, Thailand, collected in 1903, and from another from Kuala Teku, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia, collected in 1906 (Taylor 1962; Berry 1975). It was rediscovered in 1977 in Gombak in Selangor Province, Peninsular Malaysia, and was recorded there again in 1996.
59019		habitat	eng	The Bukit Besar specimen originated from "thick jungle" at 750m asl, while the Kuala Teku specimen was collected at 200m asl, indicating that this is an inhabitant of closed-canopy rainforest (Taylor 1962; Berry 1975). The habitat at Gombak, at 300m asl, is similar. This species presumably breeds in pools.
59019		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59019		threats	eng	The specific threats to it are unknown, although forest clearance and degradation can be assumed to be threats. These arise from the creation of large-scale non-timber plantations, selective logging, and infrastructure development for transport and human settlement.
59020		conservation	eng	It has been reported from three protected areas including Danum Conservation Area and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. Expansion of effective preservation of lowland rainforest is essential for the conservation of this species.
59020		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities across Borneo in Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia), and Kalimantan (Indonesia), below 250m asl.
59020		habitat	eng	It has been seen only in primary lowland rainforest. The breeding habitat has yet to be recorded, though it presumably breeds in water by larval development.
59020		population	eng	It is locally abundant at some sites.
59020		threats	eng	The major threat to the species' habitat is clear-cutting logging of the rainforest.
59021		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
59021		distribution	eng	This species is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and other small islands in Japan.
59021		habitat	eng	It occurs in wetlands from hilly areas to lowland areas, especially in paddy fields. It breeds mainly in paddy fields.
59021		population	eng	It is a common species.
59021		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this very widespread species.
59022		conservation	eng	Several protected areas are present within its range and it is also a nationally protected species.
59022		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nantou County, northern Taiwan, Province of China, where it has been recorded below 1,500m asl.
59022		habitat	eng	It inhabits orchards, forests and arable lands in hilly areas. It breeds in still-water habitats such as blocked ditches, rain pools, paddy fields, ponds and marshes. Paddy fields in the hilly areas are its major breeding habitat.
59022		population	eng	It is a common species.
59022		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the decreasing area of paddy fields for breeding in as a result of market-based decisions on what crops will be cultivated in the fields.
59023		conservation	eng	Its type locality is within Hkakabo Razi National Park. Further research might be required to resolve its taxonomic status.
59023		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen from Patsarlandam, northern Myanmar, close to the Chinese border (Smith 1940).
59023		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, like most other members of its genus.
59023		population	eng	It has not been recorded since it was first collected in 1937-39, so its population status is unknown. Results from recent surveys of the type locality are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).
59023		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
59024		conservation	eng	Its one known location in China is probably within Motuo National Nature Reserve, and the location in India is within Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve.
59024		distribution	eng	This species is known from Medog County in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 1,200-1,500m asl, and from northern West Siang District, in Arunachal Pradesh, India. It presumably occurs more widely.
59024		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, and has been found on banana leaves. It breeds in still-water habitats such as lakes.
59024		population	eng	This is a common species.
59024		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59025		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59025		distribution	eng	This species is known from Shangluolong, in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, and from two small populations in the states of West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh in India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 100-2,000m asl in India.
59025		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in India as being arboreal and associated with tropical moist forest. Breeding has been recorded from bushes near to small forest ponds. In China it is known from bamboo forests, where it hides in the stems of the bamboo during the day.
59025		population	eng	It has not been recorded in China for 90 years, while in India the population is small and is believed to be in decline.
59025		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are deforestation for subsistence use, and infrastructure development for industrial purposes and as part of urbanization processes.
59026		conservation	eng	Its type locality is within Hkakabo Razi National Park. It would be worthwhile to assess this species' taxonomic relationship with <em>Rhacophorus verrucopus</em>.
59026		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Htingnam in upper Myanmar (Smith 1940).
59026		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, like most other members of its genus.
59026		population	eng	There are no data available regarding its population status, beyond the observation that Kaulback collected 13 specimens (Smith 1940). This species has not been recorded since it was first collected in 1937-39, and results from recent surveys of the type locality are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).
59026		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
59027		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, in Tamil Nadu. More surveys are required to better circumscribe its distribution and its population trends (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).
59027		distribution	eng	This species is known from at least five highland localities (1,900 to 2,630 m asl)  in the Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu District, Tamil Nadu, India. It is believed to be restricted to high altitudes in the Western Ghats of India (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
59027		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species, it seems to be restricted to disturbed evergreen sholas (isolated montane forest patches)(Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Individuals were always found in the direct proximity of mountain streams and close to the ground, e.g. leaf litter, rock patches, tall grass clumps and the undergrowth of shrub vegetation (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Foam nests are suspended 3 m above the water surface and can contain around 208 eggs (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
59027		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant, although it is not uniformly common throughout its range (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).
59027		threats	eng	This species' forest habitat is subject to severe fragmentation due to the scale of agricultural, livestock farming and logging activities, and rural and/or urban development (S.D. Biju pers comm. October 2009).
59028		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species overlaps with a nature reserve.
59028		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Beibeng, Medog, in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China. It probably occurs more widely, and in particular in nearby India. It has been recorded from 800-1,500m asl.
59028		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests, and has been found in shrubs near a lake. It is active at night and is often found in the undergrowth (shrubs and grass) of forests. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.
59028		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
59028		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59029		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy of the R. appendiculatus complex is required before meaningful conservation assessment can be made.
59029		distribution	eng	Species limits within the R. appendiculatus-verrucosus group are unclear, and thus the distribution of R. verrucosus sensu strictu. It is known with certainty from the Karen Hills and northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940). Referred populations are known from the Kon Tum Plateau of southern Viet Nam. Populations from northern Viet Nam, northern and central Lao People's Democratic Republic and northern and southeastern Thailand are provisionally included for the purpose of this assessment (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999, Stuart, 1999, S. Swan pers. comm. and P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It has been recorded from 200-1,200m asl.
59029		habitat	eng	The animals are most commonly observed in shrubs and other vegetation at close to distant proximity to forest streams (at 3-100m distance), in rainforest.
59029		population	eng	Populations of the species are generally common where they occur (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
59029		threats	eng	Populations might be under impact from forest degradation and clearance, but the species is not known to be acutely threatened.
59030		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
59030		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. Rhacophorus viridis viridis is found in Okinawajima, Iheyajima, Kumejima, and Rhacophorus viridis amamiensis is found in Amamioshima, Tokunoshima, Kakeromajima, Ukejima and Yorojima.
59030		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest close to paddy fields and wetlands. It breeds in wetlands and paddyfields by larval development.
59030		population	eng	It is a common species.
59030		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Its habitat appears to be secure.
59031		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
59031		distribution	eng	This species is known from Longrui and Diwangling in Guangxi, China, and from a thin strip of forest along the border of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam States in India, to Myanmar through Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), Viet Nam (Orlov, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975), the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Ohler <em>et al.</em>, 2002) and Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,400m asl.
59031		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical and subtropical forests. It is usually encountered on low vegetation or tree stumps but may spend most of its life in water-filled tree cavities (Orlov, 1997). It breeds in tree holes, small rainwater pools or water-filled containers.
59031		population	eng	It is rarely encountered, probably because of its cryptic lifestyle. Occasional small accumulations occur at breeding sites.
59031		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the loss of its forest habitat.
59032		conservation	eng	Its range is within Hoang Lien Son National Park. Safeguarding the integrity of Fan Si Pan mountain and the Sa Pa vicinity is of prime importance for the conservation of this species.
59032		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Sa Pa, in northern Viet Nam, from 1,200-1,900 m asl (Bourret 1942, Orlov 1997).
59032		habitat	eng	It is known from a karst canyon in montane evergreen forest (Orlov 1997). In captivity, small clutches of about 4-15 eggs are deposited a few cm above water level. The tadpoles eventually drop into the water where they develop (K. Kunz pers. comm. 2009).
59032		population	eng	It has been collected only on a few occasions in small numbers in a very limited area (Bourret 1942, Orlov 1997).
59032		threats	eng	The most likely potential major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, selective logging, fires, and the development of infrastructure for tourist activities.
59033		conservation	eng	Improving protection at Tam Dao National Park and establishing a protected area conserving the remaining natural habitats at Mao Son is recommended for this species' conservation. It has been bred in captivity (Orlov 1997).
59033		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mao Son and Tam Dao mountain ranges of northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942; Orlov 1997; Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999), and it can be expected to occur more widely. It has been recorded from 800-1,300m asl.
59033		habitat	eng	It is known from steep rocky cliffs in primary evergreen rainforest. It breeds by larval development in rock cavities containing water (Orlov 1997), and also in tree holes.
59033		population	eng	One of the sites from which it is known was only reported in the 1930s, and the other has only recently been discovered. It has not been recorded at the type locality since it was first collected. It is a cryptic and localized species, but large series of specimens have been observed and collected at Tam Dao (Orlov 1997), suggesting that this is a species that might be locally common.
59033		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest damage in Tam Dao, which continues to be significant (BirdLife International 2001). Clear-cutting at Mao Son has also reduced the available habitat for this species. This is one of the few regional frog species for which there is a specific demand in the global pet trade.
59034		conservation	eng	It is known to inhabit three protected areas.
59034		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Thailand (Taylor, 1962) and northern and southern Viet Nam (Orlov, 1997 and Inger et al, 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 700-1,300m asl.
59034		habitat	eng	It is known from evergreen forest, mainly in monsoon areas. It breeds in water pools in cavities in Karst (Orlov, 1997). It is evidently a microhabitat specialist. It presumably also breeds in tree holes.
59034		population	eng	It is presumably a rare species, as it is known only from single or small numbers of encounters at known localities (Taylor, 1962, OEPP, 1997 and Orlov, 1997).
59034		threats	eng	Deforestation and other habitat impacts on non-protected areas of occurrence, and to some extent within the protected areas where the species occurs, are of concern.
59035		conservation	eng	Of the two known occurrences in protected areas in mainland Southeast Asia (Bukit Timah, Singapore, and Templer's Park, Malaysia), only one protected area is reasonably free from degradation. Securing the integrity of Templer's Park, designating Gunung Lawit as a protected area if suitable forest remains, and surveys and biological studies are all recommended. In Borneo, the known locality is in the Danum Conservation Area.
59035		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Peninsular Malaysia (and Tioman Island) (Dring, 1979, Manthey and Grossmann, 1997), Singapore (Leong 2000), from two localities in Borneo (Malaysia) and from three localities in Sumatra, Indonesia and Siberut in the Mentawais. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species occurring between 100 and 800m asl.
59035		habitat	eng	The few known specimens were encountered in lowland rainforest. Eggs are placed above water-filled cavities in trees. One group of tadpoles was found in a water-containing hole in the trunk of a large tree. It is a microhabitat specialist of old-growth primary forest.
59035		population	eng	It is a difficult to find species, evidenced by the small number of records, and its discovery in well-surveyed Singapore as late as the year 2000 (Leong, 2000).
59035		threats	eng	The main impacts have been the extensive logging and clearing of lowland rainforest throughout the species' known range.
59036		conservation	eng	Its range includes Dayaoshan Nature Reserve.
59036		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Dayaoshan in eastern Guangxi Province, China, at around 1,350m asl. It might occur more widely.
59036		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical forests, and all the specimens were found inside pools of water in hollowed logs that the local villagers had put out. It probably breeds in small waterbodies such as water-filled receptacles.
59036		population	eng	It is known from only one locality, where it has only been found on two occasions.
59036		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59037		conservation	eng	It might occur in Taman Negara (Kiew, 1990) but it is not known from other protected areas in Malaysia. Surveys of remaining suitable habitat and natural history studies are recommended. It might occur in the Lembah Anai Nature Reserve in Sumatra.
59037		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia at low to medium altitudes. There are only a few records from widely scattered locations, none of them very recent, and the map gives only a very general indication of its distribution. It has been recorded up to 1,200m asl.
59037		habitat	eng	It is known from evergreen rainforest. It is probably arboreal, breeding in tree holes, but there is no information on this.
59037		population	eng	Most observations and collections have consisted of only single animals, indicating an uncommon to rare or very secretive species.
59037		threats	eng	Ongoing logging of hill forest is the primary threat to this species.
59038		conservation	eng	Basic biological information about the species (taxonomic re-assessment, distribution, habitat, abundance) is needed before realistic conservation measures can be contemplated.
59038		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Thao, in central Myanmar (Bourret 1942).
59038		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements and breeding biology of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds by larval development.
59038		population	eng	It has not been recorded since the two type specimens were collected sometime before 1927, so its current population status is unknown. The lack of subsequent records is probably related to an absence of herpetological work within its range.
59038		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
59039		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Thailand and Viet Nam (in Khao Sebab and Cat Tien National Parks, respectively), but ensuring that suitable habitat in Gia Lai Province, southern Viet Nam, becomes effectively protected would benefit this species.
59039		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-eastern Thailand (Taylor 1962) with certainty, and there are referred populations from southern Viet Nam (Orlov 1997b; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it is expected to occur in Cambodia. It has been recorded at altitudes between 50 and 1,200m asl.
59039		habitat	eng	It is known from evergreen forest, and has also been recorded from a rubber plantation. It has been heard calling from high in the canopy, and it breeds in water-filled tree holes, particularly in fallen rotting tree trunks.
59039		population	eng	It is generally a rare or uncommon species, and only small series have been collected.
59039		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is clearance or damage to remaining evergreen forests in its range due to smallholder farming and selective logging.
59040		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59040		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal lowlands from southern Texas, USA to northwestern Honduras in Atlantic drainage, Río Balsas (Mexico) to Costa Rica in Pacific drainage. It is found at elevations of sea level to above 500m asl.
59040		habitat	eng	It is a lowlands inhabitant of tropical dry and moist forest. Generally associated with seasonal flooded areas where it remains under the ground in the dry season. It can be found in forest, thorn scrub, savannah, and cultivated areas with friable soils. It is fossorial except after heavy rains. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains.
59040		population	eng	It is rare and local in Texas, common widespread in Mexico and northern Central America (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999, Lee, 2000).
59040		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
59041		conservation	eng	Several populations of this species occur in natural protected areas in the USA and Mexico. The populations occurring outside these reserves have been identified as healthy in most of cases.
59041		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern California, southeastern Colorado, and central Oklahoma in the USA, to the tip of Baja California, northern Nayarit, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi and northern Veracruz in Mexico.
59041		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in arid and semi-arid shrublands, short grass plains, mesquite savannah, creosote bush desert, thorn forest, cultivated areas, and tropical deciduous forest (Mexico). Like other Pelobatid species it is considered opportunistic since it appears only when rainfalls form temporary pools. Eggs and larvae develop in these temporary pools. It burrows underground or occupies rodent burrows when inactive.
59041		population	eng	In the USA there are hundreds of occurrences of this species, and it is locally common. Large populations still occur in northern Mexico and even in central Mexico where more human populations exist.
59041		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
59042		conservation	eng	Research needed on population status. It occurs in many protected areas.
59042		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA from Southern New England across the southern Great Lakes states to southeastern Missouri, south to the Gulf Coast, from eastern Louisiana to southern Florida (absent at higher elevations in Appalachians) (Conant and Collins 1991).
59042		habitat	eng	Areas of sandy, gravelly, or soft, light soils in wooded or unwooded terrain. Burrows underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains.
59042		population	eng	Many populations known. Probably there are many undiscovered populations; evades detection via erratic nocturnal activity. Secretive; usually more abundant than is apparent. Overall, probably relatively stable.
59042		threats	eng	Urbanization is a known threat in the northeastern USA (Klemens 1993). Pesticide use in conjunction with forest pest management is a potential threat.
59043		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59043		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Oklahoma, western and central Arkansas, eastern and southern Texas, and northwestern Louisiana, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
59043		habitat	eng	It can be found in areas of sandy, gravelly, or soft, light soils in wooded or unwooded terrain; sandy open woodland and savannah, mesquite scrub (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Burrows underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains.
59043		population	eng	It is represented by many and/or large populations throughout much of the range. Probably there are many undiscovered populations; evades detection via erratic nocturnal activity. Total adult population size is unknown; surely more than 10,000, perhaps more than 100,000. It is secretive, often more numerous than is apparent; locally common to abundant (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Overall, probably relatively stable. Over the long term, probably relatively stable in extent of occurrence but has experienced an unknown level of decline in population size, inhabited area, and number/condition of populations.
59043		threats	eng	It is subject to localized extirpation as a result of urbanization, intensive agricultural development, and other severe habitat alterations. Pesticide use in conjunction with pest management is a potential threat. Overall, not very threatened. Rated as secure in Texas (A. Price pers. comm., 2004), which encompasses most of the range of the species.
59044		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in part of its range in the USA and Canada, but not in Mexico.
59044		distribution	eng	This wide ranging species occurs from south-central Canada (north to near Outlook, Saskatchewan; Can. Field-Nat. 106:311-315) to north-central Mexico, west to western Montana, eastern Colorado, eastern Arizona, east to western Iowa, eastern Missouri, and central Arkansas in the USA (Herp. Rev. 20:12). There are disjunctive populations in southern Texas and in Arkansas, and in adjacent Mexico (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991) in northern Chihuahua eastward to Tamaulipas.
59044		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shrublands, grasslands and semi-desert areas. It is almost always found around temporary pools formed by rainfall. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded areas such as these temporary pools, but they also breed in permanent waters, especially those that fluctuate greatly in water level. It is usually found in areas with friable soils. It burrows underground or occupies rodent burrows when inactive.
59044		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally abundant.
59044		threats	eng	This species is very resistant to climate changes and modification of original habitats.
59045		conservation	eng	This species is protected in a few small Nature Conservancy preserves, some US Department of Defence, Department of Energy, and Bureau of Land Management lands, some National Monuments, and some National Wildlife Refuges. It also occurs within the University of California's Natural Reserve System. This species is also covered in some US federal Habitat Conservation Plans, but is is not listed by US state or federal agencies.
59045		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Central Valley and bordering foothills of California and along the Coast Ranges (south of San Francisco Bay) in the USA, southward into north-western Baja California, Mexico. It is found from near sea level to 1,363m asl (Zeiner <em>et al.</em> (eds.) 1988, cited by Jennings and Hayes 1994), but usually below 910m asl (Stebbins 1985b).
59045		habitat	eng	It lives in a wide range of habitats, from lowlands to foothills, in grasslands, open chaparral and pine-oak woodlands. It is fossorial, and breeds in temporary rain pools and slow-moving streams (for example, in areas flooded by intermittent streams). It also breeds in stock tanks and other artificial water bodies as long as the surrounding habitat is not developed for human settlement or irrigated agriculture.
59045		population	eng	Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped several dozen localities with extant populations. The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least many thousands. Since the 1950s, substantial declines have been noted in the Central Valley and southern California. In southern California, more than 80% of the previously occupied habitat has been developed or converted to incompatible uses; more than 30% has been similarly affected in northern and central California (Jennings and Hayes 1994). In both the US and Mexican portions of its range, this species is still common where appropriate habitat exists.
59045		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the development and conversion of habitat to incompatible uses such as human settlement and irrigated agriculture, which destroy the terrestrial habitat and change the hydroperiod of temporary pools. Recruitment may be unsuccessful in pools with bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) or introduced fish (for example, at least historically, those containing mosquitofish (<em>Gambusia</em>) used for mosquito abatement).
59046		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59046		distribution	eng	This species can be in Southern British Columbia, Canada (Cannings 1999) southward in the USA through central and eastern Washington and Oregon, southern Idaho, eastern California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, and northwestern Colorado to northwestern Arizona (Hall 1998). It can be found from the edge of Cascade-Sierra axis east to the Rockies. It is found at elevations of about 850m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59046		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in sagebrush flats, semi-desert shrublands, pinyon-juniper woodland. Digs its own burrow in loose soil or uses those of small mammals. Breeds in temporary or permanent water, including rain pools, pools in intermittent streams, and flooded areas along streams. Eggs are attached to vegetation in water or placed on bottom of pool.
59046		population	eng	It is widespread and locally abundant. Range size and population levels are relatively stable.
59046		threats	eng	Most of its habitat is not subject to incompatible uses or major threats.
59047		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species. The species' range in Mexico and the USA includes several protected areas.
59047		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Utah, southern Colorado, and northern Oklahoma south through Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas in the USA, to Guerrero and Oaxaca (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991) in Mexico. It is found up to about 2,470m asl in some areas.
59047		habitat	eng	This species is frequently found in desert grassland, short grass plains, creosote bush, sagebrush, and semi-desert shrublands, mixed grassland/chaparral, pinyon-juniper and pine-oak woodland and open pine forest. Similar to other Scaphiopodid species, this species is considered opportunistic. It burrows underground or occupies rodent burrows when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools and ponds formed by heavy rains.
59047		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally common. It is the most widespread species of Spea in Mexico with numerous populations in Central Mexico, even adjacent to human settlements and urbanised areas.
59047		threats	eng	In some areas, local populations have been eliminated or reduced by agricultural development, urbanization, and other habitat alterations, but most of its habitat is not significantly threatened.
59048		conservation	eng	The forest areas in which this species lives are managed for conservation by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles-Islands Development Company Silhouette Conservation Project. However, the forests have no formal legal protection. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59048		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Silhouette Island, in the Seychelles, occurring above 250m asl. It has an area of occupancy of 665ha.
59048		habitat	eng	It is restricted to high forest over 250m asl, and is closely associated with the palm <em>Phoenicophorium borsigianum</em>, most individuals being found in axils of the palm. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it probably takes place by direct development, with the eggs being laid on the ground, or in leaf axils, or both.
59048		population	eng	It is common in its small range, with a maximum population density of 30 animals per hectare, and a total population estimate of fewer than 20,000 animals.
59048		threats	eng	There are no major current threats, other than the inherent risks associated with having a very small range.
59049		conservation	eng	This species occurs, or used to occur, in three national parks: Lagunas de Zempoala, Ajusco Mountain, and Desierto de los Leones. However, surveys conducted in the 1970s and 1980s recorded the species as present in Ajusco and Desierto de los Leones, but absent from Lagunas de Zempoala. There is an urgent need for more effective conservation of the forest and streams of this species, including the control of introduced predatory fishes, and for new field surveys to assess declines that may have occurred in the last 15 years. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59049		distribution	eng	This species occurs in isolated populations to the west and south of the valley of Mexico, in the states of Morelos and Mexico and the Distrito Federal. The known populations include Lagunas de Zempoala, Ajusco Mountain and Desierto de los Leones, although it has also been found in some additional sites. Its altitudinal range is 2,700-3,200m asl.
59049		habitat	eng	The species lives and breeds in small, permanent streams flowing through high-elevation pine or pine-oak woodland forests. It has also been found in streams in cleared pastures. Although metamorphosis is complete, in the wild some adults as well as larvae remain in the stream year-round.
59049		population	eng	The species was formerly common, with larvae present in most small streams within its range. It appears now to be greatly reduced.
59049		threats	eng	The forest and stream habitat in the vicinity of Mexico City where the species lives has been severely altered, leading to greatly degraded habitat. Illegal logging in national parks, very heavy recreational tourism, stream pollution and sedimentation, and stream diversion have all had negative impacts. Introduced predatory fishes (trout and others) have eliminated the species from many streams, and local consumption for food may be an issue.
59050		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. The conservation and restoration of the natural habitats for this species is urgent, and new field surveys are required to assess the population status of this species. It might be possible to breed this species in captivity and reintroduce it in the wild. It is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59050		distribution	eng	This species is found in a small area around Tacicuaro, north-western Michoacan, to the west of Morelia City in Mexico. It occurs at about 2,000m asl.
59050		habitat	eng	This is a metamorphosing species spending most of the time on land in a mosaic of natural grasslands and pine-oak forests. It requires ponds of moderate depth in which to breed, and is able to survive in somewhat modified landscapes, taking advantage of cattle ponds for larval development.
59050		population	eng	There is no information on current population status; there has been limited fieldwork carried out on this species since the early 1980s.
59050		threats	eng	The desiccation, pollution, and conversion of former ponds, small reservoirs, and open habitats to grow crops, represent the main threats to this species, coupled with the urban expansion of Morelia and Uruapan. Introduced predatory fish are also a major concern, both in ponds and small streams.
59051		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. However, this is a species that could recover its numbers if the lake can be kept clean and restored. Conservation and restoration of its habitat is therefore urgent. This species can be bred in laboratory conditions, and so captive animals could be a source of new individuals to repopulate the natural habitats. Studies are needed to evaluate the sustainability of the harvest as well as the impacts of introduced predatory fishes. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59051		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one lake (Lago Zacapu) and its surrounding streams, in north-western Michoacan, Mexico, at 2,000m asl.
59051		habitat	eng	This species is paedomorphic, and requires a clean, cool aquatic habitat. It is found only in Lago Zacapu and the spring-fed streams and canals associated with the lake. They do not metamorphose in nature, and individuals that have been artificially induced to metamorphose with thyroid hormone in the laboratory do not thrive. Their diet consists largely of snails and crawfish.
59051		population	eng	Although it is not rare, it is probably declining.
59051		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the pollution of the lake, although the animals are also heavily harvested for food, and predatory fish have been introduced into the lake, which might well pose a major problem for the species.
59052		conservation	eng	Wetlands protection is needed.
59052		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Ozark Plateau and Ouachita Mountains of southern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and western Arkansas, United States.
59052		habitat	eng	It is found in forested areas in vicinity of breeding pools, usually under objects or underground. Lays eggs on submerged plant material or on bottom of shallow ponds or temporary pools. Some eggs may survive temporary periods without standing water (Hutcherson <em>et al.</em> 1989).
59052		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It appears to be stable.
59052		threats	eng	Threats include: draining or filling of breeding ponds; introduction of predatory fishes in conjunction with deepening of breeding ponds; loss and degradation of forest habitat surrounding breeding ponds. However, the species is apparently secure in a major portion of its range and because major threats tend to be localized occurrences, significant population declines have not been reported.
59053		conservation	eng	Additional protection of forested ravines is needed as a conservation measure for this species in the Bluegrass region of Kentucky, which is undergoing rapid urbanization.
59053		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA in central Kentucky, south-western Ohio, south-eastern Indiana, and also Tennessee (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1997). There are isolated populations in Livingston County, Kentucky, and westernmost West Virginia. Kraus and Petranka (1989) and Kraus (1996) provide further information on this species' range.
59053		habitat	eng	This species can be found in upland deciduous forest in regions of undulating topography, mostly in areas with limestone bedrock, although some are found in non-calcareous regions with sandstone and shale (Kraus and Petranka 1989). Adults are usually found underground, under rocks, leaves, and logs. This species breeds most frequently in first and second order streams, and typically deposits eggs singly on undersides of flat rocks in pools and (less often) in faster-flowing regions. It less frequently breeds in ponds. Its breeding is most successful in streams that are seasonally ephemeral, have natural barriers (such as cascades and waterfalls) that prevent the upstream movement of predatory fish, and that have large flat rocks for oviposition (Kraus and Petranka 1989). This species might be restricted to upper portions of breeding streams because of fish predation (Petranka 1983). Larvae in stream pools in Kentucky were most abundant among filamentous green alga (<em>Cladophora</em>), which provides protection from predators and supports prey organisms (Holomuzki 1989).
59053		population	eng	Its total adult population size is unknown.
59053		threats	eng	The main threats to this species have been destruction of native forests and their replacement with pastureland or residential areas (Petranka 1998). Stream drying, flooding, and predation were observed to be important sources of mortality in Kentucky by Petranka (1984b).
59054		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, making the conservation and restoration of the natural habitats for this species urgent. It might be possible to breed this species in captivity, in which case captive animals could be a source of new individuals to repopulate natural habitats. It is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59054		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, San Martin, in north-western State of Mexico, at 2,500m asl.
59054		habitat	eng	This is a metamorphosing species spending most of its time on land in a mosaic of natural grasslands and pine-oak forests, living in somewhat more open habitats than <em>Ambystoma amblycephalum</em>. It requires ponds and small streams in which to breed.
59054		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59054		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat from agriculture, in particular from commercial wheat farming, leading to the desiccation and pollution of its breeding lakes and water reservoirs within its small range. However, survival of this species appears to be compatible with cattle grazing, particularly if stock ponds are available for breeding. Introduced predatory fish also pose a serious threat to this species.
59055		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area, and conservation of its remaining habitat is urgent. This species has been bred in captivity, and so captive animals could be a source of new individuals to repopulate natural habitats. Studies are needed to evaluate the sustainability of the current harvest, as well as the impacts of introduced predatory fishes. This latter information is particularly important since <em>A. dumerilii</em> is unique among aquatic ambystomatids in its apparent long-term coexistence with introduced largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) for the last 60 years. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
59055		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lago Pátzcuaro in north-western Michoacan, Mexico, at 1,920m asl, and has not been recorded from other localities.
59055		habitat	eng	This species does not metamorphose and lives permanently in water. It has a winter breeding season. No field studies of any other aspect of the ecology of the species have been conducted.
59055		population	eng	The species is believed to be in very serious decline, and might be close to extinction. Recent declines in the catch by local fishermen seem to indicate a severe population crash (information from 2003).
59055		threats	eng	The filling and pollution of the only lake that the species inhabits is the major threat to its survival. The lake is an important area for local fisheries. Predatory fish have been introduced into the lake, which might be a major problem for the species, although it has been able to co-exist with such species for a long time. The animals are harvested both for human consumption and for medicinal purposes (they are supposed to be a cure for respiratory problems).
59056		conservation	eng	Fieldwork in the Santa Cruz area is required in order to confirm the presence of this species in the wild, and to draw up plans for the conservation of its habitat. It is protected under the category 'Pr' (special protection) by the government of Mexico.
59056		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area around Santa Cruz, south-west of Guadalajara, in south-central Jalisco, Mexico, at approximately 1,494.5-1,586m asl. A population in the Guadalajara area requires taxonomic confirmation. This species' range is not well understood.
59056		habitat	eng	This is a metamorphosing species that spends most of its time on land in desert shrubland and thorn forest. However, a larval stage could persist in water bodies around Guadalajara. It has been found on roads at night, and larvae have been collected in small pools and artificial ponds. Individual animals can live for 25 years.
59056		population	eng	There is very little information on this species.
59056		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the general destruction and fragmentation of its habitat as a result of smallholder farming. It is also adversely affected by water pollution, and construction of roads and human settlements. Introduced predatory fish are another serious problem.
59057		conservation	eng	Needed conservation measures include maintaining forested conditions in areas within at least 200-250m of breeding sites. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation.
59057		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Pacific coast of North America from extreme southeastern Alaska south through western Canada and northwestern U.S. to the Gualala River, California. It occurs from sea level to about 3,110m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59057		habitat	eng	It occurs in open grassland, woodland, and forest near breeding ponds. Non-paedomorphic adults are underground most of the year. During the breeding season, they often are found under rocks and logs. Larvae have been reported to be restricted to shallow areas in lakes with fishes. Adult and larval northwestern salamanders are distasteful to fishes and bullfrogs, allowing coexistence (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993). Eggs are laid in ponds, lakes, and slow-moving streams; usually attached to vegetation in shallows (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1995) or deeper water (e.g., 0.5-1.0m below water surface) (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).
59057		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and possibly exceeds 100,000. Its' populations appear to be stable.
59057		threats	eng	A major threat is probably the removal of forest surrounding ponds and small lakes. Ambient ultraviolet radiation causes increased mortality of eggs (compared to UV-B-shielded eggs) (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1995), but natural oviposition sites often might not be subject to damaging levels of UV. Experimental data indicate that larvae are negatively impacted by the presence of trout (Tyler <em>et al.</em> 1998), yet salamanders and trout coexist in some areas (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).
59058		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area, and the conservation and restoration of its habitats is urgent. It might be possible to breed this species in captivity. A survey is urgently needed to determine the current status of this species. Protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59058		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area on the north-western periphery of Toluca city, central State of Mexico, Mexico, at 3,000m asl.
59058		habitat	eng	This is a metamorphosing species spending most of its time on land in grassland habitat. It breeds in small pools and ponds, both artificial and natural.
59058		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
59058		threats	eng	Introduced predatory fishes are the major threat to this species, but the habitat also has been heavily impacted due to extensive urban and agricultural expansion (leading to the desiccation and pollution of its breeding habitat).
59059		conservation	eng	Needed conservation measures include protection of seasonal ponds and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m asl from the ponds. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation. Conservation goals and better status information need to be developed with respect to pure and hybridised populations; should they be assessed separately? If so, what is the status of unhybridised populations?
59059		distribution	eng	This species' range was mapped by Conant and Collins (1991) as encompassing an area in the USA from southeastern New York through Pennsylvania and eastern and southern Ohio to southern Indiana, and southward to south-central Kentucky and northern Virginia, with an extensive area of hybridisation with A. laterale northward of this range to eastern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Upper Peninsula of Michigan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and eastward to Nova Scotia. However, for most of this range, karyological and electrophoretic data are unavailable, so the precise range of pure jeffersonianum populations is uncertain (Bogart and Klemens 1997). The core of the range of pure A. jeffersonianum populations likely extends from Pennsylvania southwestward to Kentucky. The jeffersonianum genome is widely distributed in eastern North America but exists primarily in hybrids (Bogart and Klemens 1997). Individuals that have solely the A. jeffersonianum genome occur in many hybridised populations. Although Klemens (1993) mapped distinct ranges for A. jeffersonianum and A. laterale in Connecticut and adjacent regions, he included in the range of each species populations that were dominated by the pertinent genome, including hybrids. Data presented by Bogart and Klemens (1997) indicate that the few populations in New England and New York represented by only the A. jeffersonianum genome had sample sizes of only 1-3 individuals, so these actually might have been hybrid populations. Phillips (1991) extended the range of A. jeffersonianum into east central Illinois, based on one juvenile raised from a larva, but since only one specimen was examined (and he did not indicate what identification criteria were used), it is unclear whether or not the population represents pure A. jeffersonianum or a hybrid population. Phillips <em>et al.</em> (1999) indicated the occurrence of both pure A. jeffersonianum and hybridised A. jeffersonianum ("A. platineum") in east central Illinois, and they stated that the hybrids use A. texanum sperm to activate egg development. In northern New Jersey, Nyman <em>et al.</em> (1988) found that triploid hybrids apparently occur wherever A. jeffersonianum is found. In Indiana and Ohio, jeffersonianum genomes exist in hybridised individuals that also contain A. texanum and/or A. tigrinum genomes (Morris 1985, Morris and Brandon 1984,Selander <em>et al.</em> 1993, Selander 1994).
59059		habitat	eng	It hides in rodent burrows and beneath leaf-litter, logs, and other surface objects. It also hibernates underground or in rotting logs. In some areas it can be found in caves in (e.g., West Virginia) (Green and Pauley 1987). Eggs are attached to sticks and plant stems in ponds and pools with adjacent forest. Presence of fishes and newts reduces reproductive success. Not found in floodplains, swamps or marshes in New Jersey (Nyman <em>et al.</em> 1988). In central Pennsylvania, embryonic mortality was high in ponds below pH 4.5, though this was affected by the availability of other larval amphibians as prey (Sadinski and Dunson 1992).
59059		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely is greater than 10,000 for unhybridised populations. In an extensive survey of New England and New York, Bogart and Klemens (1997) did not find any "sizable" populations. The only populations represented by only the <span style="font-style: italic;">jeffersonianum </span>genome were a few from which only 1-3 specimens were obtained; these might have yielded hybrid individuals if they had been adequately sampled. In Kentucky, where most populations might (but not certainly) represent pure <span style="font-style: italic;">A. jeffersonianum</span>, the species appears to be uncommon, based on the poorly known distribution (Barbour 1971). Similarly, in West Virginia, another area likely represent by pure populations (though this is uncertain), the species is believed to occur state-wide but has been documented only from a minority (14) of the state's counties (Green and Pauley 1987), suggesting that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. jeffersonianum</span> is uncommon there.
59059		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to detrimental alteration of vernal pool breeding sites, especially as a result of residential development. Threats to local populations likely include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Some local populations incur heavy road mortality during migrations to and from breeding sites (Klemens 1993). Increased acid deposition is a potential threat.
59060		conservation	eng	The species would benefit from increased protection of lowland forested wetlands.
59060		distribution	eng	This species is found in North America from southeastern Quebec to Lake Winnipeg, south through Great Lakes region and New England to northern Indiana and New Jersey. Several apparently disjunctive populations occur around the periphery of the range (e.g., see Brownlie [1988] for Nova Scotia record). Hybridises with A. jeffersonianum over a large area south of this range.
59060		habitat	eng	In New England and New Jersey, generally associated with lowland swamps and marshes and surrounding uplands with sandy or loamy soils (Nyman <em>et al.</em> 1988, Klemens 1993). Can occur in overgrown pastures. Adults usually under are objects or underground. Eggs are attached to submerged sticks or bottom of shallow forest ponds and pools. At Isle Royale, Michigan, breeds in splash pools on exposed rocky shorelines (Van Buskirk and Smith 1991). In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).
59060		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown, but it likely exceeds 100,000.
59060		threats	eng	The biggest threat is loss and degradation of habitat as a result of conversion to agricultural and urban use. Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Increased acid deposition is a potential threat.
59061		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Río Frio, but there is huge recreational disturbance in this protected area, including forest clearance. Forest and stream restoration, and the protection of key sites around Río Frio, are the key priorities. Captive breeding is very difficult for coldwater-adapted <em>Ambystoma</em> species, although it is possible, and should be considered. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59061		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around Río Frio town, in the State of Mexico close to the borderline with Puebla, in central Mexico, at around 3,000m asl. It has not been found at the type locality for over 30 years, since this area is extremely polluted from the town of Río Frio. However, in 1983 it was still found in three sites in small streams at 9 and 15km to the north-east of Río Frio.
59061		habitat	eng	This species requires the presence of shallow water in streams and humid pine forest areas for breeding; one breeding site is in a stream next to a major road. It metamorphoses, but the adults stay in the water.
59061		population	eng	Formerly relatively common, there appears not to have been any reports of this species for the last 20 years, probably because of the lack of herpetological work within its range.
59061		threats	eng	The pollution and desiccation of the breeding streams in the vicinity of Río Frio town, as well as the clearance of pine forests (for grazing and other economic activities), are the major threats to this species. It is probably caught locally for food, and introduced predatory fish are also a threat.
59062		conservation	eng	It is listed as Threatened by the Commonwealth of Virginia. Research is needed on movement ecology and demography.
59062		distribution	eng	This species is known from lower elevations of the Coastal Plain of the Carolinas and Virginia, USA (Conant and Collins 1991). Details of distribution are not especially well known; probably additional populations remain to be discovered.
59062		habitat	eng	It can be found in tupelo and cypress bottoms in pinewoods, open fields, and lowland deciduous forest (Behler and King 1979). Pine savannahs, low wet woods, and swamps (Martof <em>et al.</em> 1980). It usually burrows near breeding ponds. Eggs are attached to submerged plant material or bottom debris of acidic, fishless ponds in or near pine stands (Behler and King 1979). In Virginia, breeds in fish-free vernal pond in a large clear-cut area and in ephemeral sinkhole ponds up to 1.5m deep, within bottomland hardwood forest mixed with pine (Mitchell 1991). Larvae develop in the ponds. Distances moved into terrestrial habitat unknown but likely greater than 150 meters.
59062		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably is at least 10,000.
59062		threats	eng	Threats include drainage of breeding sites, other hydrological alterations that might affect breeding sites, and urbanization and forestry practices that destroy or degrade non-breeding habitat (Mitchell 1991). Many breeding sites have been lost through draining of wetlands and conversion of forests into croplands (Petranka 1998).
59063		conservation	eng	Fisheries management could improve the status of salamander populations by not introducing fishes into salamander habitats where fishes are not native. Removal of non-native fishes from otherwise favourable salamander habitat is appropriate in many locations.
59063		distribution	eng	This species can be found in North America from southeastern Alaska southward to Tuolumne County, California, east to Rocky Mountains (east to east-central British Columbia, west-central Alberta, western Montana, and central Idaho). There are isolated populations in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties, California (Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). It occurs from sea level to about 3,050m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59063		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of habitats, from semiarid sagebrush deserts to sub alpine meadows, including dry woodlands, humid forests, and rocky shores of mountain lakes. Adults are subterranean except during the breeding season. It breeds in temporary or permanent ponds or in quiet water at the edge of lakes and streams. During the breeding season adults may be found under logs, rocks, and other debris near water. Eggs are attached to vegetation or loose on bottom.
59063		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown, but it surely exceeds 10,000.
59063		threats	eng	In the Cascades of northern Washington, larval abundance was related to both lake productivity and the presence of introduced trouts (reduced larval abundance when trout present) (Tyler <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Montana, introduced trout populations clearly excluded salamanders from lakes (Funk and Dunlap 1999).
59064		conservation	eng	Needed conservation measures include protection of vernal pools and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m asl from the pools. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation. The species could benefit from regulations that minimize acid deposition.
59064		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout most of the eastern USA and adjacent southern Canada; west to eastern Iowa and eastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991).
59064		habitat	eng	This species can be found in hardwood and mixed forests, vicinity of swamps and vernal pools; usually underground or under soil surface objects except during breeding period. In New York, distribution apparently is influenced by soil pH (Wyman 1988). Eggs usually are attached to submerged stems or other objects in vernal pools and semi permanent or permanent ponds in or adjacent to forest. In many areas, the species breeds mainly in ponds inaccessible to predatory fishes; however on the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the southeastern USA, spotted salamanders breed in sloughs or backwater lowland areas along streams that frequently contain or are easily colonized by predatory fishes that opportunistically feed on amphibian larvae (Semlitsch 1988). Eggs may be laid in ponds when they are ice-covered if salamanders already are present in the pond (States <em>et al.</em> 1988). Egg masses often exhibit an aggregated dispersion pattern.
59064		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely is greater than 100,000 and might exceed 1,000,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.
59064		threats	eng	Threats to local populations include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Negative impacts of intensive timber harvesting extend at least 25-35m into uncut forest (deMaynadier and Hunter 1998). Many populations are becoming increasing isolated as deforestation and loss of vernal pools reduce gene flow among demes (Petranka 1998). This might result in inbreeding depression and reduce the probability of re-establishment of extirpated populations. Local populations might be heavily impacted by excessive mortality of adults caused by vehicles on roads near breeding sites. Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat and might serve as partial barriers to movement (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Embryo mortality generally decreases as pH deceases below 6.0, though in some areas successful reproduction has occurred at a relatively low pH (Cook 1983, Blem and Blem 1989). In central Pennsylvania, low pH was associated with deleterious sub lethal effects on larvae (Sadinski and Dunson 1992). High concentrations of various chemical elements, unfavourable temperatures, or low oxygen content might result in reproductive failure; see Blem and Blem (1991) and Albers and Prouty (1987). De-icing salts that contaminate roadside vernal pools result in reduced embryonic survival (Turtle 2000).
59065		conservation	eng	Needed conservation measures include protection of vernal pools and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m from the pools. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation.
59065		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern USA from New Hampshire southward to northern Florida, west through southeastern New York to Lake Michigan region, south to eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas. It is absent from most of the Appalachian Mountains.
59065		habitat	eng	It can be found in various wooded habitats, vicinity of swamps and vernal pools. More tolerant of dry habitats than are most salamanders; can be found on rocky bluffs and slopes and wooded sand dunes. Adults are entirely terrestrial and are usually found under surface objects or underground. Eggs are laid in forest depressions such as vernal pool basins and sometimes at the edges of permanent ponds, swamps, and slow-moving streams; in areas likely to be flooded by fall rain. Oviposition sites typically are in bare mineral soil beneath protective cover of leaf-litter, log, detritus, or rock.
59065		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.
59065		threats	eng	Threats to local populations likely include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Breeding sites are vulnerable to destruction and degradation through draining and filling, and many are being isolated by habitat fragmentation, which could eventually result in deleterious levels of inbreeding and reduced chances of re-establishment of locally extirpated populations. Thousands of local populations already have been eliminated by habitat loss, and more will be lost in the future (Petranka 1998). This species is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
59066		conservation	eng	It occurs in Bosencheve National Park. There is a need for forest restoration surrounding the city of Morelia and in the vicinity of Patzcuaro. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59066		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-eastern parts of the state of Michoacan, from Morelia to the south and east to El Mirador and nearby localities, Mexico, at altitudes above 2,200m asl.
59066		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams in pastureland, as well as in forests, so it appears not to be forest-dependent. They appear to favour clear water, but they have been found in very cloudy water, and behind small dams constructed for livestock. Most individuals do not metamorphose, but local people report that some do. Most of the animals spend most of their time in streams, where they can be found all year long. Those individuals that do metamorphose probably spend most of their time on land in pine and fir forests.
59066		population	eng	Although confined to a small area, in 1999 it was found to be abundant in several localities, with many populations appearing to be stable.
59066		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation, due to smallholder farming, infrastructure development, and groundwater extraction (resulting in desication of its breeding streams), and pollution. Introduced predatory fishes might also be a problem.
59067		conservation	eng	It is said to occur in Nevado de Toluca Volcano National Park (though this might refer to <em>A. altamirani</em>), but this area lacks effective protection. The population in the Special Reserve of the Monarch Butterfly has been studied recently, and is considered to be secure. More effective conservation of its habitat, and mitigation of pollution, is needed, as are field studies to verify its status. This species is considered as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the government of Mexico.
59067		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Mexico, in the Ajusco region of Distrito Federal and the adjoining state of Mexico, with a disjunctive population in the north-east of the state of Guerrero between Taxco and Tetipac. The type locality is 13km west of Villa Victoria. This species is found above 2,800m asl. Its distribution is very unclear, and it seems possible that some records are confused with those for <em>Ambystoma altamirani</em> (Shafer pers. comm.). Attempts to map its distribution should be considered highly provisional.
59067		habitat	eng	This species is associated with slow-flowing streams in pine or pine-oak forests. It does metamorphose, but the adults stay in water.
59067		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, except in the Special Reserve of the Monarch Butterfly, where a well-studied population appears to be stable.
59067		threats	eng	There has been very serious disturbance of the forest and stream habitats of this species since 1980 with the disappearance of streams required for its survival. Much of the habitat loss is due to illegal logging in national parks, and the very heavy and poorly managed impact of recreational tourism in the parks. There has also been pollution of streams, and this species is probably caught locally for food. Introduced predatory fish might also be a problem.
59068		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas. Improved habitat protection is needed throughout its range. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59068		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental from northeastern Sonora to the south in western Chihuahua, east Sinaloa to Durango and Zacatecas, and south to Jalisco, Mexico, at 1,675-3,100m asl.
59068		habitat	eng	This species occurs only at high elevations in pine and pine-oak forest with slow-flowing, shallow streams. It occurs in both streams (its presumed natural habitat) and artificial ponds for livestock (in which it can reach very high larval densities). The species is variable with respect to metamorphosis; it can breed as a metamorph or as a paedomorph. The adults live in farmland, ranch land, and forest.
59068		population	eng	This species is often common throughout its range.
59068		threats	eng	Introduced predatory fishes are a problem. Expansion of agriculture might pose a threat to this species. However, the species does fine in cattle areas, at least as long as breeding habitat is available. Overall, this species is probably not seriously threatened.
59069		conservation	eng	Needed conservation measures include protection of seasonal ponds and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m asl from the ponds. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation.
59069		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the south-eastern USA from the Coastal Plain of South Carolina through northern Florida, west to eastern Texas and southeastern Oklahoma; north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois; disjunctive populations in occur Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1991).
59069		habitat	eng	It is usually found near breeding ponds--in pine flatwoods, floodplains, and bottomland hardwood forests. In South Carolina, avoided clear cuts and open fields, occurred in all types of forest (Semlitsch 1981). Terrestrial adults live in underground burrows; sometimes found under logs or other objects in damp places. Breeds in shallow ponds and flooded depressions that are free of fishes and that often have abundant emergent and/or submerged vegetation. Eggs are attached to stems or sticks or to the substrate. Reproductive success positively correlated with duration of standing water in breeding pond, but not with number of breeding females or number of eggs laid (Semlitsch 1987).
59069		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.
59069		threats	eng	Threats include: draining or filling of breeding ponds; introduction of predatory fishes in conjunction with deepening of breeding ponds; loss and degradation of forest habitat surrounding breeding ponds. Many local populations have been lost, as native forests with seasonal pools have been converted to agricultural and urban uses. In Louisiana, a clear-cut near a breeding pond apparently affected the salamander population by (1) lowering the survival of adults immigrating from the clear-cut side of the pond, and (2) displacing adults to a less suitable terrestrial habitat (Raymond and Hardy 1991).
59070		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area, and the protection of the Alchichica lake is an urgent priority. In addition, consideration should be given to establishing a captive-breeding programme. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59070		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Laguna Alchichica, a saline crater lake in eastern Puebla, eastern-central Mexico, at 2,290m asl.
59070		habitat	eng	It usually does not metamorphose, and most individuals live permanently in water. It breeds in the lake, and is usually found in very deep water, often more than 30m below the surface.
59070		population	eng	It is a rare species, having formerly been quite common. However, it has been seen recently by divers deep in Laguna Alchichica. In addition, in June 2005 the species was found to be numerous amongst the deeper edges of the tufa outcrops at the lake's edge (T. Burkhardt pers. comm. 2006).
59070		threats	eng	The most serious threat is water extraction and diversion, leading to the lake becoming even more saline; the water level has dropped many metres over the last two decades. Continued transformation and pollution of the lake will result in the disappearance of this species. Attempts to introduce fish in the lake have failed because it is too saline.
59071		conservation	eng	Needed conservation measures include protection of bottomland forest habitat that includes vernal ponds (Petranka 1998).
59071		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA. It can be found in Southern Michigan, southwestern Ontario (Pelee Island), Ohio, western West Virginia, western Kentucky, central Tennessee, and Alabama west to southern Iowa, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas, south to Gulf Coast.
59071		habitat	eng	It tolerates a wide range of ecological conditions: tall grass prairie, moist pine woodland, flood plain forest, oak woodland, dense hardwood forest, and intensely farmed areas. Adults are usually found underground, under rocks, leaves, logs, in crayfish burrows, etc. Breeding sites variable, include forest ponds, temporary pools, ditches, spring-fed pools, and slow upper portions of streams. Typically breeds in ponds or other lentic habitats; attaches small clumps of eggs to vegetation or detritus in exposed sites; sometimes breeds in streams (recorded in Kentucky and Indiana); sometimes lays eggs cryptically as in A. barbouri; sometimes lays eggs singly (Kraus and Petranka 1989).
59071		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.
59071		threats	eng	The biggest threat is conversion of bottomland habitat to agricultural uses (Petranka 1998).
59072		conservation	eng	Needed measures include basic habitat protection and policies/regulations that discourage/prohibit the introduction of predatory fishes into habitats where they are not native. Further research on phylogeographic patterns and taxonomic status of major population segments is needed. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59072		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout much of the USA, southern Canada to northern Mexico in the Sierra Madre Occidental. It is absent from most of the Great Basin, New England, and the Appalachian mountains. From sea level to around 3,660m asl in the Rocky mountains. Introduced populations occur in central California [not mapped here], where they hybridise with A. californiense (Riley <em>et al.</em>, 2003); in the western U.S. populations are sometimes moved in association with the fish bait industry. In Mexico, the species apparently has a limited distribution in the northwest, where its interactions with A. velasci require additional investigation.
59072		habitat	eng	It can be found in virtually any habitat, providing there is a terrestrial substrate suitable for burrowing and a body of water nearby suitable for breeding. Terrestrial adults usually are underground, in self-made burrows or in those made by rodents, shrews, or other animals. In New York, adults on land used wooded areas and avoided grassy areas (Madison and Farrand 1998). At high elevations in the Rocky Mountains, metamorphosed adults commonly occur in ponds throughout the summer. Eggs are attached to submerged objects or pond bottom. Breeds in a wide range of environments, ranging from clear mountain ponds to temporary, manure-polluted pools in the lowlands. Always breeds in sites where predatory fishes are absent. In the mountains of western Colorado, associated with ponds that have silty bottoms, low alkalinity, and no fishes (Geraghty and Willey 1992). In the southeastern U.S., requires relatively flatwoods ponds that do not contain fishes.
59072		population	eng	This is one of the most abundant Ambystoma species. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 1,000,000. Tiger salamanders occur throughout their historical range in the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains of Colorado and adjacent states. They remain easy to find and locally abundant in suitable habitat statewide. Ponds often contain up to several thousand larvae. Recent surveys found no evidence of significant declines in distribution or abundance (Corn, Stoltzberg, and Bury 1989; Hammerson 1989a, 1992; Corn, Jennings, and Muths 1997). In the Rocky Mountains, a local decline in numbers over several years, reported by Harte and Hoffman (1989), turned out to be a temporary fluctuation from which the population subsequently recovered (Wissinger and Whiteman 1992). Hovingh (1986) reported that tiger salamanders remain quite common in aquatic systems in glaciated portions of the Uinta Mountains in northeastern Utah. The widespread creation of small, fishless artificial bodies of water has provided much suitable habitat where previously there were little, and these salamanders have been quick to colonize it (Norris 1973; pers. obs.). Populations east of the Appalachians are highly patchy in distribution with several local extirpations having been documented over the past 20 years. Remaining eastern populations are small in size and several are in decline (Church 2003, Semlitsch <em>et al.</em> 1996, Zappalorti 1994). In Mexico this species is generally not uncommon.
59072		threats	eng	In Mexico it has been observed that in some localities this species can resist conditions of pollution and other kinds of alteration of the environment. Many mountain lakes formerly inhabited by tiger salamanders now have few or none of these amphibians due to the stocking of trout, which easily consume and deplete the larval populations (e.g., Blair 1951; pers. obs.). Geraghty and Willey (1992) found that fish absence was the most important factor influencing tiger salamander presence in Gunnison County and vicinity, and Corn, Jennings, and Muths (1997) reported that trout and tiger salamanders rarely occur together in Rocky Mountain National Park. Trout and tiger salamanders do occasionally coexist in some lakes (Dartt 1879; Blair 1951), but only where vegetated shallows provide habitat not easily accessible to the fishes. Some have suggested that breeding-pond acidification related to atmospheric pollution might cause periodic failure of tiger salamander reproduction in the mountains of Colorado (Harte and Hoffman 1989, 1994). Low pH, even if not fatal to salamander larvae, might result in reduced growth rates and ultimately could diminish salamander populations through decreased survival or feeding success (Kiesecker 1996). However, recent water chemistry data, together with information on acid tolerances of salamander larvae, suggest that eggs and embryos in the wild do not experience harmful levels of acidification (Corn, Stoltzenburg, and Bury 1989; Corn and Vertucci 1992; Wissinger and Whiteman 1992; Vertucci and Corn 1994). Under certain conditions, larval populations might be vulnerable to bacterial infections associated with livestock grazing. In the mountains of Utah, Worthylake and Hovingh (1989) observed recurrent mass mortality of larvae associated a bacterial infection and suggested that increased nitrogen levels due in part to sheep grazing might have been involved. Bryant (1995) observed a mass mortality event in the summer of 1993 that appeared to be associated with an opportunistically pathogenic bacterium. In Arizona, similar die-offs, apparently associated with bacterial pathogens, have been reported (Pfennig, Loeb, and Collins 1991). Cannibal morphs seemed particularly vulnerable, probably due to their feeding on diseased larvae. Again, fecal contamination of ponds by introduced livestock was suggested as a possible cause of the fatal outbreaks. In contrast to these reports, larvae sometimes do thrive in large numbers in manure-laden ponds in Colorado (Hammerson 1999). Nevertheless, die-offs of larvae, apparently associated with pathogenic bacteria, have been observed in Colorado (Hammerson 1999). Populations in the southeastern USA have been detrimentally affected by deforestation and loss of wetland habitats and appear to be declining (Petranka 1998). Population viability analyses of populations in the eastern USA have shown that demographically isolated populations are highly susceptible to extinction, particularly under conditions of high weather variability (Church 2003).<br/>This species is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
59073		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in a few protected areas. Increased efforts at habitat conservation are urgent. Populations from the volcanic lakes of western Puebla are morphologically distinct and might be recognizable as distinct species, although they are identical based on DNA (Shaffer and McKnight, 1996). Captive breeding for these populations might be needed to protect them from decimation by introduced predatory fishes. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.
59073		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in Mexico from the Sierra Madre Occidental (close to the border with the USA [New Mexico]), south to Michoacan (close to Patzcuaro Lake), Toluca City, the State of Mexico, and Puebla, thence north through the Sierra Madre Oriental to the vicinity of Saltillo in Coahuila.
59073		habitat	eng	Its ecology is similar to that of <i>Ambystoma tigrinum</i>. It breeds in deep volcanic lakes, shallow vernal pools, artificial cattle ponds, and intermittent, fish-free stream pools. This is primarily a grassland species that occurs in sparse forest and semi-arid grasslands, above about 1,800m asl. It may breed as either as metamorphic or paedomorphic individuals.
59073		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance, probably owing to taxonomic confusions.
59073		threats	eng	Many populations of this widely distributed species are secure, but some are at serious risk. Increased urbanization, especially near Mexico City, in combination with other threats such as forest clearance, water extraction, pollution and the introduction of fishes, including trout, catfish and centrarchids (sunfishes and bass), carp (<em>Cyprinus carpius</em>) and mosquitofish (<em>Gambusia</em>), and frogs (<em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>) for exploitation have caused a decline in some populations of this species.
59074		conservation	eng	Protection of coastal plain wetlands is the major conservation need.
59074		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Coastal Plain of southeastern North America from southeastern Virginia to Florida and eastern Louisiana.
59074		habitat	eng	This species can be found in swamps, bayous, margins of muddy sloughs, cypress heads, drainage ditches, sluggish streams, wet meadows, muddy lakes; soft substrate for burrowing or thick aquatic vegetation important for shelter. Often uses crayfish burrows. It may leave water, especially on rainy nights; sometimes found under objects at water's edge. Eggs are laid under objects in damp place near water's edge or possibly in shallow water, or underground.
59074		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and might exceed 100,000.
59074		threats	eng	Widespread loss of wetlands undoubtedly has eliminated many local populations, but the species remains common in many other areas (Petranka 1998).
59075		conservation	eng	To assist its conservation, further work is needed to verify extant occurrences and field-check the type locality (Levy County). Surveys for this species in managed areas within its range need to be conducted, and potential sites should be identified from topographic maps. Entire drainage basins (including uplands) need to be preserved, and occurrences in at least 10 different drainages, preferably including at least one occurrence each in Georgia and Alabama, should be protected. Direct exploitation of this species needs to be monitored, and state limits on collecting should be established if exploitation is extensive. Pollution of its habitat also needs to be prevented.
59075		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the lower Gulf coastal plain of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, USA. It is nearly endemic to the Florida panhandle and adjacent Alabama (west to the western side of Mobile Bay) and Georgia (with two known localities), but with occurrences extending southward along the Gulf Coast of peninsular Florida to Levy and Hernando Counties. It appears not to range more than 80-120km inland from the coast (Means 1996).
59075		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep, organic, liquid muck in alluvial swamps of low-gradient second or third order streams, spring runs, and occasionally swampy terrace streams in floodplains. It is very habitat-dependent, so maintenance of non-polluted muck is essential for its survival.
59075		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown.
59075		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species include exploitation and degradation of surrounding habitat (for logging and mining activities, and for the disposal of power plant sludge, for example). Stream pollution (for example by agricultural runoff), and groundwater disturbance are also potential threats. It occurs in very few protected areas, so its habitats are at significant risk.
59076		conservation	eng	No major threats currently exist, and no specific conservation measures are needed at this time.
59076		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern USA in western Alabama through eastern Texas, north through Mississippi, Arkansas and western Tennessee to southeastern Missouri and adjacent Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998).
59076		habitat	eng	Common habitats include wooded alluvial swamps, calcareous streams, marshes and lakes in flood lands, seepy pools and swampy banks of bayous and cypress sloughs. Extensive networks of crayfish burrows are a common feature of habitat. It usually lays eggs under logs in or near water; terrestrial development of larvae might be typical (Salthe 1973).
59076		population	eng	The number of occurrences is unknown but probably is at least a few hundred. Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.
59076		threats	eng	Loss of natural wetland habitat has been offset by the creation of canals and permanent ponds, which serve as suitable habitat because this amphiuma can coexist with fishes (Petranka 1998).
59077		conservation	eng	Many of the presently known populations are in national or state forests, national parks, and other public lands, where there is good potential for protecting habitat. The St. Louis Zoo maintains a captive-breeding programme for this species.
59077		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA from southern Illinois (with a recent record from Wabash River; Smith 1961; Brandon and Ballard 1994; Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999), southern Indiana (Minton 1972), Ohio (Pfingsten and Downs 1989), Pennsylvania (McCoy 1982), and south-western and south-central New York (Bishop 1941), to central and south-central Missouri (Johnson 1987), northern Arkansas (the Black River system and north fork of White River, and Eleven Point River, Randolph County; Trauth, Wilhide and Daniel 1992), northern Mississippi, Alabama (Tennessee River drainage; Mount 1975), northern Georgia, the western Carolinas (Martof <em>et al.</em> 1980), western Virginia (Tobey 1985), West Virginia (throughout, west of the Allegheny Front; Green and Pauley 1987), and extreme western Maryland. In Kentucky, near the centre of the range, Barbour (1971) regarded the species "most common in the upper reaches of the Cumberland, Kentucky, and Licking river systems". In Tennessee, no records exist for locations west of the Tennessee River (Redmond and Scott 1996). Collections are known from south-eastern Kansas (Neosha River), but these are likely to have been from introduced individuals and not from a naturally occurring population (Collins 1982, 1993; W.H. Busby pers. comm.). There are early reports, of uncertain validity, of Hellbenders in Iowa (Nickerson and Mays 1973b). Old records from the Great Lakes (Lake Erie) drainage, New Jersey, and Louisiana are probably erroneous (Pfingsten and Downs 1989; Harding 1997).
59077		habitat	eng	It can be found in rocky, clear creeks and rivers, usually where there are large rocks for shelter. It usually avoids water warmer than 20°C. Males prepare nests and attend eggs beneath large flat rocks or submerged logs.
59077		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown, but the population is in overall decline (although there are secure populations in many areas).
59077		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is degradation of habitat, since it is a habitat specialist with little tolerance of environmental change (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1981). It breathes primarily (approximately 90%) through the skin (Guimond 1970) and is therefore dependent on cool, well-oxygenated, flowing water. Construction of dams stops swift water flow and submerges riffles. Logging, mining, road construction and maintenance, and other activities, can cause extensive sedimentation that covers the loose rock and gravel important as nest sites, and for shelter and food production. In Illinois, "most former rocky habitat has been buried under silt" (Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999). Chemical pollutants and acid mine drainage are probably destructive, especially to eggs and larvae. Thermal pollution of water with a consequent oxygen loss would also be detrimental. Several streams in Alabama "have been polluted, impounded, or otherwise modified to the extent that they are, from all indications, incapable of supporting hellbender populations" (Mount 1975). Injuries and deaths sometimes also result when the salamanders are hooked by anglers, and some fishermen still believe that Hellbenders are dangerously poisonous and also destroy game fish and their eggs (both beliefs are false), and therefore kill them at every opportunity. In the past, there were even attempts by organized sportsmen’s groups in West Virginia to eradicate them. There is some collecting of Hellbenders for sale as live animals or as preserved specimens. Over-collecting has been considered a serious threat in some parts; a decline was noted in the early 1990s, apparently due to collecting. Nickerson and Mays (1973b) noted additional factors they suspected might affect local populations, such as gigging (hunting of the species at night), heavy canoe traffic, dynamiting of large boulders to enhance commercial canoe traffic, and riverside cattle and pig pens. Hellbenders generally are intolerant of heavy recreational use of habitat.
59078		conservation	eng	It occurs on several large designated wilderness areas.
59078		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA in northern Idaho and a small adjoining portion of extreme western Montana (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983, Petranka 1998); disjunctive populations in the Salmon River drainage near Warm Lake, Idaho (Petranka 1998). This species is known from two locations in western Montana (Reichel and Flath 1995). Occurs in over 250 miles of stream (C. Peterson pers. comm., 1997).
59078		habitat	eng	Larvae usually inhabit clear, cold streams, but are also found in mountain lakes and ponds. Adults are found in humid forests under rocks and logs, etc, near mountain streams or rocky shores of mountain lakes (Stebbins 1985). Eggs usually are laid in headwaters of mountain streams. Breeding typically occurs in water-filled nest chambers under logs and rocks or in rock crevices.
59078		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but might exceed 10,000. Historical information is poorly documented, but probably declined due to loss of habitat. Currently, stable in undisturbed areas and readily reinvades disturbed areas as they improve (C. Peterson pers. comm., 1997).
59078		threats	eng	It is threatened by loss of habitat and habitat degradation due to logging, road construction, and siltation. Readily reinvades disturbed areas as they are restored. The Potlatch Timber Company (owns approximately 400,000-600,000 acres) is currently developing a management plan with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to leave buffer zones along streams (C. Peterson pers. comm., 1997).
59079		conservation	eng	Numerous sites are protected in Washington.
59079		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, south through the southern Cascades and Willapa Hills to streams that drain into the Columbia River Gorge in northwestern Oregon, USA (Stebbins 1985). It can be found from near sea level to about 975m asl (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).
59079		habitat	eng	It can be found in streams and rivers in moist coniferous forests (water temperatures usually range from 8-14 C) (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). It is sometimes found in clear, cold mountain lakes and ponds, and sometimes occurs on land along water courses (Jones and Corn 1989). It lays eggs in nest chambers under stones, cutbanks, or logs (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).
59079		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but it probably exceeds a few thousand. Trend is poorly known. Declining to stable in Oregon (M. Stern pers. comm., 1997). Probably stable for the past 20 years in Washington where at least 100 localities are known (J. Fleckenstein pers. comm., 1997).
59079		threats	eng	Logging is the biggest threat to this species; logging could increase water temperatures to unsuitably high levels and result in siltation, which might detrimentally affect food resources. Overall, it is considered to be only locally threatened.
59080		conservation	eng	<em>Dicamptodon ensatus</em> occurs in numerous protected areas, and is therefore probably only moderately threatened, even though its range is small and close to urban areas.
59080		distribution	eng	This species can be found in west-central California, USA (Good 1989). It also occurs from Sonoma and Napa Counties south to Santa Cruz County and to Monterey County (Petranka 1998). It is found from 0-900m asl.
59080		habitat	eng	Larvae of this species usually inhabit clear, cold streams, but are also found in mountain lakes and ponds. Adults are found in humid forests under rocks and logs, for example, near mountain streams or rocky shores of mountain lakes (Stebbins 1985b). Eggs are usually laid in the headwaters of mountain streams. Breeding typically occurs in water-filled nest chambers under logs and rocks or in rock crevices.
59080		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least several thousand. It is locally abundant (J.W. Petranka pers. comm.), but terrestrial adults are far less abundant than the aquatic larvae (Petranka 1998). No population data are available to determine trends in its population status (D.B. Wake pers. comm.).
59080		threats	eng	The greatest threats to this species are stream siltation and urban development (Petranka 1998; D.B. Wake pers. comm.), and it is also threatened by habitat fragmentation due to land use changes, including urbanization, agricultural development, and logging (H.H. Welsh pers. comm.). In the related Pacific giant salamander (<em>D. tenebrosus</em>), larvae may be reduced in numbers where there has been clear-cut logging (Corn and Bury 1989) or siltation from roads (Welsh and Ollivier 1998). However, opening of forest canopies over streams might lead temporarily to higher primary productivity that in turn increases the body sizes of larval <em>D. tenebrosus</em> (Murphy and Hall 1981).
59081		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is needed.
59081		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Western North America from southern British Columbia (Chilliwack River drainage) south through western Washington and western Oregon to northwestern California (Good 1989; Farr, 1989 COSEWIC report; Petranka 1998).
59081		habitat	eng	Larvae and paedomorphic adults usually inhabit clear, cool or cold, well-oxygenated streams and often take cover under stones (Parker 1991); aquatic stages also occur in some mountain lakes and ponds. Metamorphosed adults are found in humid forests under rocks and logs, etc., near mountain streams or rocky shores of mountain lakes (Stebbins 1985). Eggs are attached to logs or rocks in creeks (Nussbaum and Clothier 1973, Jones <em>et al.</em> 1990).
59081		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. Larvae are often abundant and are far more common than the adults.
59081		threats	eng	Logging and associated water temperature increases and siltation are a potential threat. Abundance is much greater in old growth and mature forests than in young forests (see Petranka 1998). However, overall, this species is not significantly threatened at present.
59083		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner.
59083		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from Xinduqiao County, Sichuan Province, China. A second population from Zhendoushan might belong to this species. In general, this species might be more widespread, but further investigation is needed to confirm the identity of populations other than the Xinduqiao County population reported by Fu <em>et al.</em> (2001). It can be found at elevations of 1,800 to around 4,000m asl.
59083		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species associated with slow-flowing streams in grassland areas. Animals can occasionally be found on the stream bank. The female lays a pair of egg sacs and attaches these below stones in the stream. It is unlikely to be adaptable to habitat modification.
59083		population	eng	This species is common within its restricted range.
59083		threats	eng	The species is threatened by overgrazing of habitat by livestock (presumably the vegetation surrounding streams), and the local use of the species for traditional medicine.
59084		conservation	eng	The only known locality is within a protected scenic site, Emeishan Mountain Nature and Historical Heritage Site. There remains a need to monitor and control levels of offtake of this species from the wild.
59084		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Longdong River, Mount Emei, in Sichuan Province, China, from 1,300-1,800m asl. However, it might occur a little more widely.
59084		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower section of rivers and springs in forested areas and requires cool water for breeding and stones for the eggs to adhere to. Breeding is not possible in disturbed habitats.
59084		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
59084		threats	eng	Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and food is a major threat to this species. In the past, stones were collected from the riverbed as construction materials, which impacted on the species' breeding success (although this is now controlled).
59085		conservation	eng	Most of the range of this species falls within several protected areas. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably. Further research is needed to determine the impact of the recent disease outbreak.
59085		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Sichuan and north-western Yunnan provinces in China. It was previously found in south-eastern Guizhou, China, but it has not been seen there for over 60 years. It was previously thought to be in southern Shaanxi, but this is now considered a distinct species. It has been recorded from 1,500-3,900m asl.
59085		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of high-altitude streams and lakes, and also the surrounding forests (broadleaf and coniferous), and sometimes occurs in marshy grassland. Breeding occurs in the streams and lakes.
59085		population	eng	This species is common within its range, but it has declined significantly in recent years due to over-harvesting.
59085		threats	eng	Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and for food is a major threat to this species; harvesting methods include poisoning and electrocution. There are also reports of a recent outbreak of disease. Water pollution from mining is also a threat.
59086		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in Laoxiancheng and Taibashan Nature Reserves.
59086		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality of the upper stream of the Heihe River, near Hua Er Ping village, in Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi Province, China, at 1,260m asl. It is believed to range throughout the area of Taibeishan Mountain in Shanxi Province, although the limits of its distribution are still not clear.
59086		habitat	eng	This species is aquatic and inhabits fast-flowing streams. It has been found under rocks in the stream and under rocks on the banks of the streams. The collection site, which has steep slopes, is well shaded by the canopy of the vegatation on the banks of both sides of the river. It is presumed that this species breeds in the streams and has a larval development breeding strategy.
59086		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.
59086		threats	eng	The main threats to it are the loss of forest habitat surrounding the streams, as a result of clear-cutting, and the harvesting of animals for medicinal use.
59087		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species falls within protected areas. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.
59087		distribution	eng	This species is found in central China from 1,500-4,250m asl.
59087		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in streams and seepages in high mountains or plateaux. Some populations hibernate on land in winter. This species has a low reproductive rate.
59087		population	eng	An observed population decline has resulted in the species becoming increasingly difficult to find in several of its past strongholds.
59087		threats	eng	Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and food is a major threat to this species. Habitat loss, and water pollution resulting from mining activities, are also threats.
59088		conservation	eng	Part of the species' range is within Luojishan Nature Reserve. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.
59088		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-western Sichuan Province (Yanyuan, Xichang, Mianning, and Puxiong counties) in China, from 2,900-4,400m asl.
59088		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in streams and lakes surrounded by dense vegetation.
59088		population	eng	This species is uncommon and the population is believed to be small.
59088		threats	eng	Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and food is a major threat to this species.
59089		conservation	eng	Although the species is present in the small Longwangshan Nature Reserve, stricter management of the breeding sites is needed. A captive-breeding programme should also be established.
59089		distribution	eng	This species is known only from five small pools at the top of Mount Longwangshan, in the small Longwangshan Nature Reserve, Anji county, north-western Zhejiang, China, at about 1,300m asl.
59089		habitat	eng	Breeding takes place only in the five small pools, with the breeding season running from end November to mid-March, which is the only time that adults can be found. Each female deposits 140-174 eggs, and the larvae develop in the pools; larvae take three years to reach sexual maturity.
59089		population	eng	This species is considered rare and the population is believed to comprise only 250-300 breeding females.
59089		threats	eng	The very small range and very limited number of breeding sites makes this species especially susceptible to habitat alteration, which is increasingly a problem due to the growing threat of human disturbance at the site, especially from touristic activities.
59090		conservation	eng	The species is protected within Yu-san National Park and the Tawushan Nature Preserve.
59090		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Ali Shan, Yu Shan, and Pei Ta Wu Shan in Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs above 1,800m asl.
59090		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary conifer forests and broadleaf forests close to streams. It probably breeds in streams, and the larvae most likely develop in streams.
59090		population	eng	This species is considered to be very rare.
59090		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, due in particular to infrastructure development for tourism.
59091		conservation	eng	It is protected in Nara Prefecture, Oita Prefecture, and Mie Prefecture as a natural monument.
59091		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is distributed in the Kinki district of Honshu, Shikoku, and the Sobo area of Kyushu.
59091		habitat	eng	It occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forest, broad-leaved evergreen forest, and mixed forest. It breeds in montane streams, where the larvae develop.
59091		population	eng	The populations of Kyushu and Honshu are declining, but it seems that the population of Shikoku is abundant and stable.
59091		threats	eng	In Honshu and Kyushu, the major threat is habitat loss due to the construction of roads and dams, and logging. This species is also common in the pet trade.
59092		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Wuyishan National Nature Reserve, Fujian Province.
59092		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hubei Province (the city of Yichang) and Fujian Province (at Chongan), China. There have been no records from the type locality in Hubei Province for the last 70 years. Records from Zheijian Province refer to <em>H. yiwuensis</em>. It ranges up to 1,400m asl, and probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
59092		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and arable fields in hilly areas. It breeds in pools and small streams where the larvae also develop.
59092		population	eng	It is generally considered rare, although outside the breeding season they are difficult to find. Populations at several localities are believed to be declining.
59092		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to infrastructure development for human settlement.
59093		conservation	eng	This is a protected species in Taiwan, Province of China. It is present in Ray-yuan Nature Reserve and Taroko National Park.
59093		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the high mountain ranges of Taiwan, Province of China, at around 2,100m asl.
59093		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forests. Breeding takes place in headwater streams and underground seepages where the larvae also develop.
59093		population	eng	It is known to be rare, and is seldom encountered.
59093		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to the development of infrastructure for tourism.
59094		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in some protected areas, but this requires confirmation.
59094		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in montane areas in Kanto, Chubu, Hokuriku, Kinki and Chugoku Districts.
59094		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forest, mixed forest and conifer forest. It breeds in narrow streams or ravines where the larvae also develop.
59094		population	eng	More information is needed.
59094		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats to this species at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and all threats are localized.
59095		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species.
59095		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast China (Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang Provinces), the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. It occurs from 100-800m asl.
59095		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill forests and breeds in stream pools and nearby still-water pools where the larvae also develop.
59095		population	eng	It is a common species.
59095		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation and water pollution are major threats.
59096		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
59096		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Tohoku District and Niigata Prefecture, Tochigi Prefecture and Ibaragi Prefecture. It occurs from coastal areas up to 1,500m asl.
59096		habitat	eng	It is a forest species that breeds in streams where the larvae also develop. It is not able to adapt to disturbed habitats.
59096		population	eng	More information is needed.
59096		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats to this species at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.
59097		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
59097		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in montane areas of Chugoku and Kyushu Districts. It is found between   300-1,000 m asl (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).
59097		habitat	eng	It occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forests and mixed forests. It breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.
59097		population	eng	This species is common in its range (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).
59097		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.
59098		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
59098		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is widely distributed in the western region including Kinki, Chugoku, Shikoku and Kyushu Districts. It is known from coastal to hilly areas up to 300m asl.
59098		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forests. It breeds in paddy fields, ditches and springs where the larvae also develop.
59098		population	eng	The populations in Kyoto and Osaka Prefectures are threatened.
59098		threats	eng	This species is threatened by housing and road construction, water pollution, invasive species and drying out of its habitat. It is also collected for the pet trade.
59099		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
59099		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Tohoku, Kanto and Hokuriku Districts. It is also found on Sado Island. It occurs from sea level up to around 2,500m asl.
59099		habitat	eng	This species occurs from coastal areas to alpine zones in forests and montane grasslands. It breeds in lakes, ponds, pools, paddies, and ditches.
59099		population	eng	More information is needed.
59099		threats	eng	There are no significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.
59100		conservation	eng	Further research is required to fully resolve its taxonomic status.
59100		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south of the Republic of Korea. It has been recorded from the mainland and has also been found on Keoje, Namhae, Chindo and Cheju Islands. However, its distribution is still very poorly known. This is a lowland species.
59100		habitat	eng	It is presumed to inhabit forests and to breed in streams and nearby pools.
59100		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
59100		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
59101		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
59101		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is only found in Hokkaido.
59101		habitat	eng	This species occurs from lowland to alpine zones in forests and grassland. It breeds in lakes, marshes, ponds, pools, and ditches by larval development.
59101		population	eng	More information is needed.
59101		threats	eng	There are no significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.
59102		conservation	eng	This is a protected species in Taiwan, Province of China, and it is present in Taroko National Park.
59102		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central mountain range and Nau Kou in Taiwan, Province of China, above 2,750m asl.
59102		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed conifer forests at high elevations. Breeding takes place in streams where the larvae also develop.
59102		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
59102		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to the development of infrastructure for tourism.
59103		conservation	eng	There are currently no known conservation measures in place.
59103		distribution	eng	This is a Japanese endemic that is mainly distributed in Kanto District on Honshu Island. It occurs up to 300m asl.
59103		habitat	eng	It occurs in forests from coastal areas to hilly areas. It breeds in paddy fields, ditches, and springs where the larvae also develop.
59103		population	eng	Most populations of this species are currently believed to be in decline.
59103		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to infrastructure development (housing and road construction), water pollution, invasive species, and the drying out of its habitat. It is also collected for the pet trade.
59104		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
59104		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found only on Tsushima Island.
59104		habitat	eng	It occurs from lowland to montane areas. It breeds in narrow streams where the larvae also develop.
59104		population	eng	More information is needed.
59104		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.
59105		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. It is an urgent priority to re-locate this species, and determine its conservation needs.
59105		distribution	eng	This species was described from the area "between Pamir and Samarkand", which is possibly in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, although the exact collection localities are not known. There have been no more records of this species since the collection of the type series, so attempts to map its distribution have been based on the area most suitable for salamanders within the expedition route of the collector of the type series.
59105		habitat	eng	It is possibly associated with rivers in humid mountain valleys. It is presumed to breed in water and to have a larval development breeding strategy.
59105		population	eng	As this species is known only from the type series, there is no information regarding its current population status.
59105		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
59106		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species, and there is a need for improved protection and maintenance of existing forest habitat in its range.
59106		distribution	eng	This species is present in Zheijian Province (Zhenhai, Xiaoshan, Wenling, Yiwu, Beilun and Zhoushan [including Zhoushan Dao Island]), China. It is present at elevations of 50-200m asl.
59106		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and arable fields in hilly areas. It breeds in pools and small streams where the larvae also develop.
59106		population	eng	It is common in most of its localities.
59106		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, due to clear-cutting, and water pollution (presumably by agrochemicals).
59107		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species may lie within Jinggangtai Nature Reserve, although there is still a need for improved habitat protection.
59107		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of Shancheng, Henan Province in central China, from 400-910m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.
59107		habitat	eng	It inhabits small, slow-flowing streams in plantation forests. The breeding biology is not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
59107		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this newly described species. It is rare, and hard to find.
59107		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to small-scale subsistence agriculture and infrastructure development.
59108		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
59108		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in montane areas in Honshu and Shikoku.
59108		habitat	eng	It occurs small streams and in the adjacent forested habitats in montane areas. It breeds in streams by larval development.
59108		population	eng	More information is needed.
59108		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.
59109		conservation	eng	Several protected areas occur within the species' range. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner. This salamander is included in several captive breeding programmes in Europe.
59109		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Dabieshan area (Hubei, Henan, and Anhui Provinces) in central China, from 380-1,100m asl.
59109		habitat	eng	It inhabits slow-flowing hill streams in forested areas. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
59109		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59109		threats	eng	Over-collecting for human consumption is a major threat to this species. It is also probably threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, due to human settlement and smallholder farming activities.
59110		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in protected areas.
59110		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality of Puxiong, Yuexi City, Sichuan Province, China, where it was collected at 2,900m asl.
59110		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected in an artificial cave used for food storage. However, this is suspected to be a temperate forest species.
59110		population	eng	Its population status is not known, and only one specimen has been recorded, probably as a result of a lack of survey effort in the area.
59110		threats	eng	It is threatened by clear-cutting of forest.
59111		conservation	eng	Part of the species' range overlaps with Badagongshan and Xingdoushan National Nature Reserves.
59111		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Nanchuan, Sichuan, Suiyang, Guizhou, Lichuan, Hubei, Sangzhi, and Hunan provinces in China.
59111		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial, normally hiding under the roots of bamboo or in burrows under mosses and soil. It breeds in small streams in April; the larvae develop in these streams.
59111		population	eng	It is a rare species.
59111		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and destruction is the main threat, due in particular to smallholder farming activities, clear cutting of forest, and infrastructure development for tourism.
59112		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with several protected areas.
59112		distribution	eng	This species is known from central China including Henan, Shaanxi, Sichuan and Hubei Provinces, from 900-2,350m asl.
59112		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species that inhabits small, low-gradient streams in forested areas. Eggs are laid in sacs that are then attached to the underside of rocks in the streams.
59112		population	eng	It is common within its range.
59112		threats	eng	The most significant threat to this species is over-exploitation as a food source, although habitat destruction and degradation (including for the construction of dams) are also affecting its habitat.
59113		conservation	eng	Taibaishan National Nature Reserve and Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve are within the range of this species. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner.
59113		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern Shaanxi (Zhouzhi and Ningshaan Counties) and north-eastern Sichuan (Wanyuan County), China, from 1,600-1,860m asl. It is known from only three locations.
59113		habitat	eng	It inhabits small hill streams and riparian habitats, usually in forested areas. It breeds in the mouth of the springs and larval development takes place in the water.
59113		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59113		threats	eng	It is threatened by exploitation for food and traditional Chinese medicine, as well as by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture.
59114		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of the Middle Urals (Perm and Sverdlovsk provinces of Russia) and the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous County (Russia), Altaiskii Region (Russia), as well as the Red Data Book of Mongolia. The species is protected in Heilongjiang Province, China and is designated a natural monument by Kushiro City and Shibecha Town, Japan.
59114		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the north of European Russia (Arkhangelskaya Province) through the Polar Urals and Siberia to Chukotka Peninsula, then southwards along the Pacific coast to northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoling and Inner Mongolia Provinces), northern Democratic People's Republic of Korea, central Mongolia, southern Siberia, and through northern Kazakhstan to Nizhegorodskaya Province in European Russia. The species is also present in Kushiro marshland in Hokkaido, Japan, and the disputed island of Kunashiri.
59114		habitat	eng	It is found in wet coniferous, mixed, deciduous forests in the taiga zone and riparian groves in tundra and forest steppe. In forests, it is mostly found in glades and along the edges of woods not far from stagnant or semi-flowing waters. It is more rarely found in meadows, willow stands, fields, suburban and urban areas. In the Polar Urals and the north of West Siberia, the species is found on the shores of small lakes surrounded with swamps in shrubby and sedge-shrubby tundras. In the forest steppe region it is found in marshes in meadows, meadow steppes and small-leafed forests. The species breeds in ditches, pools and slow-flowing streams.
59114		population	eng	In general this species is common over its wide range. There are some localized declines in parts of its range, in Mongolia (the southern margin of the species' range), there are small isolated populations, some of which are declining and are considered to be threatened.
59114		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The species is locally threatened by desiccation of wetlands, loss of terrestrial habitat, pollution and increased urbanization.
59115		conservation	eng	Protection of mature and old growth forests is the most important long-term conservation need for this species. The trend for increasing scarcity of required coarse woody debris on the forest floor might be counteracted to some degree by existing and proposed forest management plans for the Spotted Owl (<em>Strix occidentalis</em>) and Marbled Murrelet (<em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em>; Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993).
59115		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution from Del Norte and Siskiyou Counties, California, north through western Oregon to the Columbia River, USA (Jackman 1998).
59115		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist coniferous forests (such as redwood, Douglas fir, western hemlock, and Port Orford cedar forests), in forest edges, forest clearings, talus, and burned-over areas. It is usually found under bark, in rotten logs, or in rock crevices, and it may aggregate in decayed logs in summer. The downed logs that it inhabits are large (greater than 50cm in diameter), and of mid-decay classes with sloughing bark (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). This species also sometimes climbs high into trees. It lays its direct-developing eggs in cavities in rotten logs, in rock crevices, under bark, or among vegetation. Welsh and Wilson (1995) reported a clutch of <em>Aneides ferreus</em> or <em>A.vagrans</em> eggs that had been deposited in a fern clump at the base of a limb 30-40m above the ground in a large redwood tree.
59115		population	eng	It is generally scarce, but locally common. However, current forest management practices are causing declines.
59115		threats	eng	This species is threatened by intensive, short-rotation logging practices that result in increasing scarcity of coarse woody debris on the forest floor (Corn and Bury 1991). These salamanders may thrive initially after logging but then decline as stumps and logs decay and critical microhabitats are eliminated (Petranka 1998).
59116		conservation	eng	Better information is needed concerning the threats to this species and its population trends. The unexplained causes of recent declines also need to be determined.
59116		distribution	eng	This species can be found from extreme south-western Oregon south through north-western California, USA (as far south as central Santa Cruz and western Santa Clara Counties). It occurs from sea level to over 1,700m asl (Stebbins 1985b).
59116		habitat	eng	It can be found in forests, woodlands and grasslands. Southern populations prefer moist woodlands along streams and seepages, while northern populations are found in grassy areas, and far northern populations in moss-covered rockslides (Behler and King 1979). It is primarily terrestrial and is found under surface cover. A nest found in Santa Clara County, California, was located about 38cm below the surface of the ground in a soil cavity (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).
59116		population	eng	No quantitative data are available on the population status of this salamander, but it is uncommon or rare in many areas where formerly it was common (Wake, cited by Petranka 1998).
59116		threats	eng	The most well understood threat to this species is habitat destruction (clear-cutting logging), but declines also appear to have taken place as a result of unexplained causes.
59117		conservation	eng	Maintenance of mature forest conditions with downed logs is the most important conservation need.
59117		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Sacramento Mountains, Capitan Mountains, and Sierra Blanca in Lincoln and Otero counties of southern New Mexico, United States. It is found largely within Lincoln National Forest; at elevations of 2,438 (possibly 2,380) to 3,600m asl (Ramotnik 1997).
59117		habitat	eng	It can be found in Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and white fir forests. Typically found on north- and east-facing slopes; often found in canyons in rotting logs, rock crevices, or under forest litter. Spends much of its life underground. Females with eggs have been found in cavities in Douglas-fir logs (Stebbins 1985).
59117		population	eng	Ramotnik (1997) mapped slightly more than 100 collection/observation sites in 3 highly localized areas in 2 counties of New Mexico. Total adult population size is unknown but probably is at least several thousand. Appears to be numerous in several restricted areas (New Mexico Department of Fish and Game 1985). Densities of 6/100m2 were found in occupied areas (Ramotnik and Scott 1988, cited by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996).
59117		threats	eng	Threats include logging, overgrazing, and forest fires. It is highly vulnerable to desiccation and exposure due to habitat alteration. Negatively impacted by opening up of shady mature forest and by destruction or removal of downed logs (Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). Intensive logging, slash removal, and burning probably are detrimental (Ramotnik and Scott 1988, Ramotnik 1997). Populations may persist through the first intensive logging of an area, but may not survive a repeated 10-year logging cycle (Ramotnik and Scott 1988, cited by Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently relatively secure under current management practices (Ramotnik 1997).
59118		conservation	eng	The most important conservation need is protection of oak and sycamore woodland habitat and especially large old oak and sycamore trees. It occurs in several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59118		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Coast Ranges of California from Humboldt County, USA, to northwest Baja California Norte, Mexico. It also occurs in the central Sierra Nevada foothills; South Farallon, Santa Catalina, and Isla Coronado Norte (Behler and King 1979). It lives from sea level to about 1,500m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59118		habitat	eng	It inhabits coastal live-oak woodlands; yellow pine and black oak forests in the foothills. It is found on ground under leaf-litter, rocks, logs, etc.; it also climbs trees. It retreats to tree cavities, rodent burrows, caves, and mine shafts in summer. Lays eggs in hollow trees or logs and in cavities in the earth (Behler and King 1979). In Baja California it lives in sycamore woodland. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
59118		population	eng	It appears to have declined in some areas since the 1970s (D. B. Wake, cited by Petranka 1998), but remains common in many places.
59118		threats	eng	It is a major threat is loss of large oaks and sycamores used for nesting and estivation.
59119		conservation	eng	Protection of mature and old growth forests is the most important long-term conservation need for this species. The trend for increasing scarcity of required coarse woody debris on the forest floor may be counteracted to some degree by existing and proposed forest management plans for the Spotted Owl (<em>Strix occidentalis</em>) and Marbled Murrelet (<em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em>; Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993).
59119		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA from northern Del Norte and Siskiyou Counties, California, south through extreme western Trinity, Humboldt, and Mendocino Counties in an increasingly narrow, forested coastal strip to the vicinity of Stewart's Point, north-western Sonoma County, California. It is widespread on Vancouver Island and neighbouring islands in British Columbia, Canada, but reports from mainland British Columbia are unreliable. All Canadian populations might be derived from human-mediated introductions that occurred in conjunction with shipments of tan oak bark from California (Wake and Jackman, in Jackman 1998). The type locality in Humbold County is at 500m asl.
59119		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist coniferous forests, in forest edges, forest clearings, talus, and burned-over areas. It is usually found under bark or in rotten logs (in which it may aggregate in summer), and it requires large (greater than 50cm in diameter) downed logs of mid-decay classes with sloughing bark (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). It often occurs high in trees, and some individuals or populations may rarely descend to ground level. It lays its eggs in cavities in rotten logs, under bark, or among vegetation. Welsh and Wilson (1995) reported a clutch of <em>Aneides vagrans</em> or <em>A. ferreus</em> eggs that had been deposited in a fern clump at the base of a limb 30-40m above the ground in a large redwood tree.
59119		population	eng	The total adult population size of this species is unknown but is likely to be at least several thousand.
59119		threats	eng	This species is threatened by intensive, short-rotation logging practices that result in increasing scarcity of coarse woody debris on the forest floor (Corn and Bury 1991). These salamanders may thrive initially after logging but then decline as stumps and logs decay and critical microhabitats are eliminated (Petranka 1998).
59120		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59120		distribution	eng	Boundy (2000) provided the most up-to-date description of the range, which has changed in recent years as a result of taxonomic revisions: in the USA from coastal southwestern Oregon south through north coastal California to the vicinity of the Russian River, thence southward along the coast and through the Coast Ranges and valleys to the northern edge of the Monterey Bay lowlands and the vicinity of Tres Pinos Creek in Santa Cruz and San Benito counties; distributed in the inner Coast Ranges from just north of Newville in Tehama County to the San Luis Reservoir drainage in Merced County; isolated populations occur in the Sacramento Valley at Sutter Buttes, Sutter County, and in riparian zones near the Sacramento River, and near Shasta Reservoir in Shasta County; distribution in the Sierra Nevada foothills extends from near Paradise, Butte County, south to Fiddletown, Amador County.
59120		habitat	eng	Grasslands with scattered trees, chaparral, woodlands, redwood forests; occurs under leaf-litter, rotten logs, and surface debris when the surface is moist; retreats to rodent burrows and other cavities in the soil during the dry season. Lays eggs under bark (or other litter) on the ground or in cavities in rotten logs or in the soil (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). Tolerates considerable habitat alteration.
59120		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. It is common in many areas. Its populations appear to be stable.
59120		threats	eng	None are known.
59121		conservation	eng	Better information is needed on abundance, trends, and threats.
59121		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Merced River drainage through to the American River drainage, at altitudes below 300m asl, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its distribution remains largely unknown.
59121		habitat	eng	It is generally found in open, brushy areas on the margins of often dense chaparral. Scattered pine (<em>Pinus sabiniana</em> and <em>P. ponderosa</em>), <em>Quercus</em>, and <em>Aesculus</em> species may be present (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).
59121		population	eng	Its total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least a few thousand.
59121		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
59122		conservation	eng	Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.
59122		distribution	eng	This species is known from 11 localities ranging from 1,050-1,500m asl in the San Gabriel Mountains, California, USA (Wake 1996; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1998), although its distribution is poorly known.
59122		habitat	eng	It has been found under rocks, wood, or fern fronds on a steep north-west-facing talus slope shaded by <em>Quercus chrysolepis</em> and <em>Pseudotsuga macrocarpa</em>, on soil along Soldier Creek at the base of the talus slope, and under rocks and logs 10-15m from a stream in Rockbound Canyon (Wake 1996).
59122		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000.
59122		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
59123		conservation	eng	Research on population status and threats needed. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
59123		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central coastal California, USA, from Santa Cruz southward to near the junction of Monterey, San Luis Obispo, and Kern counties (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59123		habitat	eng	Habitats range from deeply shaded, moist redwood and mixed evergreen forests through oak woodlands and chaparral to oak savannah (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59123		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.
59123		threats	eng	None known. Its habitat appears to be secure.
59124		conservation	eng	Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in Yosemite National Park.
59124		distribution	eng	This species occurs in California, USA, from the southern boundary of Yosemite National Park south nearly to the Kern River on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada and Greenhorn Mountains; ranges north to Feliciana Mountain and Jerseydale Ranger Station, Mariposa County; in the northern part of the range, occurs from near the eastern margin of the Central Valley up to about 1,800m asl (Dinkey Creek drainage, Fresno County); appears to occur only at low elevations on the eastern margins of the Central Valley in the southern part of the range (below 300m asl in the White River drainage, Kern-Tulare county line) (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).
59124		habitat	eng	It can be found in a wide range of habitats, from mixed Sierran coniferous forests (Pinus, Abies, Calcocedrus, Sequoia, Quercus) at high elevation, to open woodlands, to open grasslands at low elevation (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).
59124		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but likely is at least a few thousand.
59124		threats	eng	Other than outright habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.
59125		conservation	eng	Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.
59125		distribution	eng	This species can be found in California, USA, in the Santa Lucia Range in extreme south-western Monterey County and northern San Luis Obispo County, from near sea level up to nearly 1,000m asl on Pine Mountain and Rocky Butte in northern San Luis Obispo County (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its distribution is probably still poorly known.
59125		habitat	eng	Its habitats range from closed-canopy forest at higher altitudes to rather open oak woodlands near the coast, including open yellow pine forest and the leaf-litter of laurel and sycamore woodland (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59125		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but probably is at least a few thousand and possibly many 10,000s.
59125		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
59126		conservation	eng	Better information is needed on trends and threats.
59126		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the drainage of the Kaweah River system from relatively low altitudes (below 500m asl) up to high altitudes (2,200m asl) in Tulare County, California, USA (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998), although its distribution is probably still incompletely known.
59126		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of scattered trees. The type locality is relatively damp, and is shaded by oaks, sycamore, white alder, buckeye, cottonwood, and redbud. This species is also found in mixed coniferous forest at higher altitudes (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).
59126		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown.
59126		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
59127		conservation	eng	Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed. Its habitat is in protected areas.
59127		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in the northern Santa Lucia Mountains, Monterey County, California, USA, from the Monterey Peninsula to near the Monterey-San Luis Obispo county line (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59127		habitat	eng	Primary habitat is mesic redwood and mixed evergreen forests; inland, also inhabits wooded north-facing slopes with tan oak and maples; when surface moisture is present, can be found under cover in open, disturbed habitats (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59127		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but probably is at least 10,000. Species has been found abundantly at only a few sites (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59127		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown. Its habitat appears not to be threatened.
59128		conservation	eng	It occurs in Sierra San Pedro Mártir National Park.
59128		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern California, USA, from the base of the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains south to the vicinity of El Rosario, Mexico. There is an isolated population in the San Pedro Mártir Mountains, Baja California, Mexico; and on Catalina, Los Coronados, and Isla Todos Santos Sur (USA) (Stebbins 1985, Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001). The San Pedro Mártir population might be a distinct species. The subspecies <em>B. m. aridus</em> is known only from Hidden Palm Canyon, Riverside County, California, USA. The species has been recorded at elevations of 300-1,000m asl.
59128		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that lives in chaparral, coastal live-oak woodlands, canyons, washes at the base of grass-covered hills, rural gardens, urban areas, and in trash. It retreats to burrows or underground crevices in sandy or gravelly soil during cold or dry weather. It can be found under rocks and litter in the wet season. It species reproduces by development.
59128		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is generally common within its range.
59128		threats	eng	The only known significant threat is intensive habitat alteration. These salamanders can co-exist with low intensity suburbanization (Petranka 1998).
59129		conservation	eng	Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.
59129		distribution	eng	This species can be found in California, USA. It has a restricted distribution in the southern Santa Lucia Range of north-central San Luis Obispo County, where it is generally found above 400m asl. Populations west of Atascadero on Highway 41 and in the Cuesta Ridge Botanical Area might represent this species, but have not been examined for differences in DNA sequences or allozymes (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its distribution is probably still very poorly known.
59129		habitat	eng	It inhabits deeply shaded slopes with abundant leaf-litter in mesic canyons wooded with tanbark oak, coast live oak, sycamore, laurel, and poison oak. It is also found in less shaded areas with blue oaks and coast live oaks (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59129		population	eng	This species' total adult population size is unknown, but it might be declining. It was formerly common, and has recently become difficult to find (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59129		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
59130		conservation	eng	Better information is needed on abundance, trends, and threats. It occurs in some protected areas.
59130		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Santa Cruz Island and southern coastal mountains of California, USA, from around San Simeon in Monterey County southward to the Palos Verdes Hills and Santa Ana Mountains (Petranka 1998); Sierra Nevada populations formerly included in this species are now assigned to B. gregarius (Stebbins 1985, Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).
59130		habitat	eng	Primarily oak-woodland; ranges into mixed oak-pine forests, streamside areas, and dry grassland. Occurs under rocks and logs, under bark, and in termite channels in damp locations (Stebbins 1985).
59130		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds a few thousand. Its population appears to be stable.
59130		threats	eng	None known. Its habitat appears to be well protected.
59131		conservation	eng	All islands are protected within either the Channel Islands National Park or by The Nature Conservancy.
59131		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Anacapa, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel islands, off the coast of Santa Barbara, California, USA (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2001; Wake and Jockusch 2000).
59131		habitat	eng	It can be found in oak woodland, chaparral, and grassland, under stones and wood. It is a terrestrial breeder.
59131		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown, but the species is extremely abundant throughout the limited range.
59131		threats	eng	Unthreatened if present land ownership is maintained.
59132		conservation	eng	All known localities where this species has been recorded are on public lands administered by the USDA Forest Service or National Park Service (specifically, Kings Canyon National Park).
59132		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas in Fresno County, California: the vicinity of the type locality in the lower drainage of the Kings River system, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of 335-340m asl (Jockusch, Wake and Yanev 1998); and Summit Meadow, at an elevation of 2,470m asl, in Kings Canyon National Park and about 37 kilometers east-south-east of the lower elevation sites (Stebbins 2003). Additional populations might occur in between known sites. Salamanders discovered in the Middle Fork Kaweah River drainage (610m asl, Sequoia National Park) have been referred to this species (Jockusch and Wake 2002).
59132		habitat	eng	It is known from a well-shaded, north-facing slope in an area of mixed chaparral with <em>Aesculus</em>, <em>Umbellularia</em>, and <em>Quercus wislizenii</em> and scattered <em>Pinus sabiniana</em>, <em>P. ponderosa</em>, and <em>Q. douglasii</em>; found under rocks in areas of talus near the roadside (Jockusch, Wake and Yanev 1998).
59132		population	eng	The small cluster of sites at lower elevations appear to be stable; salamanders have been found here intermittently for the last 25 years. A total of seven specimens have been found at the single high-elevation site on two occasions over a 45-year period (Hansen and Wake 2005).
59132		threats	eng	Threats are unknown. Its habitat does not appear to be threatened, although the lower Kings River sites are located immediately adjacent to a road and probably would be affected by road construction.
59133		conservation	eng	The Kern Plateau and Scodie Mountain populations are on United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service land, but the level of protection might be inadequate.
59133		distribution	eng	This species is known from about three dozen sites from 1,615-2,800m asl in the southern Sierra Nevada, California, USA: in Kern Plateau, Tulare County, the western margin of the Owens Valley, Inyo County, and the Scodie Mountains, Kern County (Wake, Yanev and Hansen 2002).
59133		habitat	eng	It can be found along small permanent creeks and springs with riparian vegetation in arid wooded mountains, typically under stones and wood (Wake, Yanev and Hansen 2002). It breeds terrestrially by direct development.
59133		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least several thousand. Extensive fieldwork by Wake, Yanev and Hansen (2002) yielded more than 350 specimens. The habitat is of limited extent, especially the springs of the Kern Plateau and Scodie Mountains. Its population trend is unknown, but very likely to be relatively stable. Wake, Yanev and Hansen (2002) mentioned no evidence of any declines.
59133		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to habitat degradation through capping of springs by man, or other alterations of spring water habitat. Its habitat is easily altered by intrusion by man. Flash floods also pose a natural threat. These threats tend to be very localized, however, and overall this species is not significantly threatened under current conditions.
59134		conservation	eng	Mature and old-growth forest with large rotting logs might be necessary for maintaining viable populations. Several populations might occur in Mount Hood and Mount Jefferson Wilderness Areas, but are not yet documented. In the Oregon Cascade Mountains, steep terrain is often not subject to intensive timber harvest, so populations are somewhat protected in these areas.
59134		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-central Oregon: it occurs on the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains in Lane, Linn, Marion, Clackamas, and Multnomah counties; the Columbia River Gorge in Multnomah and Hood River counties; and several sites on the eastern slopes of the Cascades in Hood River and Wasco counties (Kirk 1991). It usually occurs at elevations of 600-1,300m asl, but to 15m asl in Columbia River gorge. It is generally scarce, occurring in scattered and often widely separated colonies, but sometimes locally common (Stebbins 1985b). See Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm (1983) and Kirk (1991) for spot maps.
59134		habitat	eng	It can be found in moist Douglas fir and mixed maple, hemlock and red cedar woodlands; it is dependent on mature and old-growth stands, commonly in large downed logs. Bury and Corn (1988a) found that fewer numbers occurred in logged than in mature forests. This species also occurs in the recent lava flows near the crest of the Cascades and in second-growth forest (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983). It is found under rocks, log, bark and moss; also found in rotting logs, in holes and crevices in the ground, and in termite burrows. Nests that have been located were found under bark and in rotten logs (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983). It probably also lays eggs underground (Stebbins 1985b).
59134		population	eng	This species is known to be common in suitable habitat. Results of time-constrained searches (Gilbert and Allwine 1991) showed that Oregon Slender Salamanders were second only to ensatinas in abundance in naturally regenerated stands.
59134		threats	eng	It is moderately threatened and declining due to logging of old-growth Douglas-fir forest; managed forests do not provide ideal habitat. It can be extirpated by clear cutting or even thinning, and is common only in stable, old-growth forests with many large, old logs. Timber harvest might result in slow, long-term decline, which might not be evident during surveys done soon after timber harvest.
59135		conservation	eng	Its range includes Sumapaz and Chigaza National Natural Parks, and the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.
59135		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands of the Oriental Cordillera in the Eastern Andes, and occurs north of Bogotá to the Páramo de La Rusia, and south of Bogotá to Aguadita, near Fusagasuga, in Colombia, in the departments of Boyaca and Cundinamarca. It has been recorded from 1,750-3,650m asl.
59135		habitat	eng	It occurs in undisturbed or slightly disturbed cloud forests, among fallen leaves on slopes, or on bushes and herbaceous vegetation. It also occurs in páramo and secondary disturbed forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
59135		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
59135		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused mainly by agriculture is a major threat.
59136		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Los Tuxtlas National Park and the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve.
59136		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico in the Los Tuxtlas area southern Veracruz, the Los Chimalapas area of extreme eastern Oaxaca, and Caribbean slopes of western and central Chiapas. It generally lives below 1,000m asl.
59136		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical lowland forest and along the edges of clearings. It can also survive in well-shaded plantations. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water.
59136		population	eng	It seems to be fairly common.
59136		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement.
59137		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
59137		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern and lower slopes of the Andes from the amazonian slopes of Táchira state in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador to Bolivia, and also in the Amazon Basin in Brazil. It occurs up to elevations of 1,500m asl in Bolivia. A record from the Magdalena valley in Colombia is a mis-identification of another species (see Lynch, 2006).
59137		habitat	eng	It occurs on low vegetation in lowland rainforest. Its breeding habits are unknown, though it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.
59137		population	eng	It is locally common throughout its range.
59137		threats	eng	Forest conversion for agriculture and timber is a localized threat to this species.
59138		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. There is a need for additional survey work to better understand the population status of this poorly known species.
59138		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of Costa Rica at 15-1,116m asl (Savage 2002).
59138		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist and wet forests and premontane rainforest, and does not occur in degraded habitats. It is nocturnal and arboreal, living especially in bromeliads, and being found on leaves of trees at night. It is usually reported in the axils of palm trees that are being harvested for 'heart of palm' (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Breeding takes place by direct development, and the species is not dependent on water.
59138		population	eng	There is very little information on the population status of this species; it is rarely seen, and known from one specimen from each of its localities.
59138		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and wood extraction.
59139		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad.
59139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Cordillera Central in Panama, adjacent to Costa Rica, at 1,200-1,600m asl.
59139		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, and climbs on low vegetation, although it is not fully arboreal. It presumably breeds by direct development.
59139		population	eng	It is known from three specimens and is probably a rare species. It was last recorded in the early 1990s.
59139		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, especially as a result of expanding livestock farming at lower altitudes.
59140		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the following protected areas: Nusagandi, Darien, Chegres, Palo Seco. Much of its known range is protected in Panama. In Colombia it is found within Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M. , 2003).
59140		distribution	eng	This species lives in the Atlantic lowlands of Panama below 500m asl. It ranges from western Panama adjacent to southeastern Costa Rica, through central Panama and the eastern lowlands, into western Colombia (south to Department of Cauca), and at San Luis, Río Claro, in the Magdalena Valley, Antioquia Department, at 470m asl. It also occurs on Gorgona Island, Colombia, and Colón Island, Panama.
59140		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, and is arboreal, living in bromeliads and bananas (heliconias). It can survive in secondary forest, provided that it is not very degraded. It is presumed to breed by direct development, not dependent upon water.
59140		population	eng	It is a fairly common species in Panama, uncommon in Colombia.
59140		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
59141		conservation	eng	Its range includes protected areas such as Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Parque Nacional San Esteban.
59141		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central part of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range in Aragua, Carabobo and Yaracuy States, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 800-1,300m asl.
59141		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane cloud forest and breeds by direct development (the eggs are laid in bromeliads).
59141		population	eng	It is naturally rare.
59141		threats	eng	There are minimal threats to its habitat at present.
59142		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent protection of the remaining native habitat at the type locality. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species.
59142		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Hacienda La Victoria (La Granja Infantil-an orphanage, 6km north of Albán on the Albánto Sasaima Road) between Albán and Sasaima...", in the Cordillera Oriental about 50km north-west of Bogotá, in the department of Cundinamarca, in Colombia, at around 1,780m asl.
59142		habitat	eng	It occurs in undisturbed or slightly disturbed montane cloud forest, among fallen leaves on slopes, and on bushes and herbaceous vegetation. It breeds by direct development.
59142		population	eng	It is known from only six specimens, and is thought to be a rare species; no specimens have been found recently despite surveys at the type locality.
59142		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, primarily due to agriculture, is the major threat, and the habitat in which the species occurs is now severely fragmented.
59143		conservation	eng	The remaining habitat is a watershed reserve, but this is not managed for biodiversity conservation, and the habitat is subject to high rates of disturbance. Improved management and protection of this area is urgently needed.
59143		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one hillside at 1,840-2,070m asl on Cerro Cantagallo in Honduras. There is no other suitable habitat nearby, and so the species is unlikely to occur elsewhere.
59143		habitat	eng	It is arboreal, living in bromeliads in a tiny patch of cloud forest in an agricultural area. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59143		population	eng	It is relatively abundant in a tiny area of not much more than 100ha. Searches in the only known locality during July 2007 failed to locate the species, although this does not necessarily mean that the species was absent (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59143		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is clearance of its remaining forest habitat for subsistence farming, and the collection of bromeliads. Some habitat was still at the site in July 2007, however this has been reduced further since the previous conservation assessment (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59144		conservation	eng	Four of the five sites from which this species is reported are within protected areas: Parque Nacional Cerro Celaque, Reserva Biológica de Guajiquiro, Reserva Biológica de Opalaca and Reserva Biológica de Montecillos.
59144		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Montana de Celaque, the Sierra de Opalaca and the Sierra de Montecillos in the departaments of Lempira and Intibuca y La Paz in the south-west of Honduras. It is found between 1,900 and 2,620m asl.
59144		habitat	eng	It has been found in lower montane moist forest in arboreal bromeliads, on wet mosses on the ground, and along the sides of streams; there is little information on its adaptability to habitat degradation. Breeding is by direct development, with the species laying its eggs in low bromeliads and in mosses.
59144		population	eng	In Montana de Celaque, it is abundant in suitable habitat. The species was collected at Reserva Biológica de Opalaca in October 2006 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59144		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to subsistence agriculture and frequent forest fires.
59145		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Cerro Vueltas Biological Reserve.
59145		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the humid montane zone of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, from 2,530-2,990m asl.
59145		habitat	eng	It lives in montane rainforest in talus on steep slopes. While it is more common in forest, it can be found in heavily disturbed areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). It is a species that breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59145		population	eng	It is a common species. Field surveys continue to register this species within its range with no sign of any change in abundance.
59145		threats	eng	Local populations might be affected by forest destruction, in particular for extracting wood (partly for charcoal). However, the species lives in a generally inaccessible area, and its habitat is not thought to be significantly threatened.
59146		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi Cayapas and Mache Chindul.
59146		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (the vicinity of Santo Domingo de los Colorados), and from the lower part of the Río Bolaniguas and Bilsa Reserve, in Provincia de Pichincha, in Ecuador. It has been recorded from 250-600m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, but is currently known only from four localities.
59146		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist forest in the western tropical altitude zone. The holotype was captured on a broad-leafed fern at night (Brame and Wake 1963b). It breeds by direct development.
59146		population	eng	It is considered to be quite rare.
59146		threats	eng	Livestock farming and logging are threats to the species' habitat.
59147		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Braulio Carrillo and Tortuguero (among others) in Costa Rica, and Chagres, Palo Seco, and Fortuna in Panama.
59147		distribution	eng	This species is found in the humid lowlands and premontane slopes of the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica and western Panama, and the Pacific versant of southwestern Costa Rica and Cerro Campana, Panama, at 40-1,245m asl.
59147		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest. It is mainly arboreal (in bromeliads), but can be found on the ground. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water. It can tolerate a limited degree of habitat modification.
59147		population	eng	This species seems to have experienced some recent declines at places in the lowlands (such as at La Selva), however at other lowland sites it remains common (Federico Bolaños Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).
59147		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss caused by expanding smallholder farming, extraction of wood, and human settlement.
59148		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad on the border of Costa Rica and Panama.
59148		distribution	eng	This species is found in the humid lower montane areas on or near the Costa Rica-Panama border, on the Pacific versant of Costa Rica at 1,650-1,980m asl, and the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of western Panama at 1,810-2,780m asl.
59148		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, living on the ground and in low vegetation; there is little information on its adaptability to disturbed habitats. This species breeds by direct development (Hanken 1979)
59148		population	eng	This is a naturally rare species.
59148		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss caused by expanding smallholder farming activities and logging.
59149		conservation	eng	In Honduras, two of the four populations are within protected areas, namely Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco, Parque Nacional Cerro Azul, and a watershed reserve at Río Santa Ana. In Guatemala, it is not found within a protected area.
59149		distribution	eng	This species is known from Honduras and Guatemala. In Honduras it is found in four small isolated areas in the west of Honduras: El Chaguitón and El Portillo in the department of Ocotepeque; Quebrada Grande in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in the department of Copán; and in Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco in the department of Cortez. In Guatemala it is found in the area of La Unión, Department of Zacapa, and in the mountains above the city of Zacapa. It ranges from 1,370-2,000m asl. Records from the Sierra de Metapán in Santa Ana Department, north-west El Salvador, refer to an undescribed species (E. Greenbaum, pers. comm.).
59149		habitat	eng	It is found in arboreal bromeliads and on the ground in lower montane wet forest. In Guatemala an animal has been found within a banana plant in a coffee plantation (Sean Rovito and Carlos Vásquez, pers. comm. 2007). It presumably breeds by direct development and lays eggs in bromeliads and on the ground.
59149		population	eng	In Honduras, it is generally uncommon and may be declining in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007). In Guatemala, it appears to be relatively common at its known sites (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito, pers. comm. 2007).
59149		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to subsistence and smallholder agriculture and forest fires. In Guatemala, a specimen of this species has been recorded infected with the chytrid fungus. Chytrid infection has also been detected in this species in Honduras (J. Kolby, pers. comm. 2008).
59150		conservation	eng	Much of its range is included in the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatán. Surveys are needed to gather more information on its current population status, distribution, and threat status.
59150		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the departments of El Quiché and Huehuetenango, Guatemala, in the Cordillera de los Cuchumatanes at 1,200-2,500m asl.
59150		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest and can survive in degraded habitats. Individuals have been found on the ground, under bark, and in arboreal bromeliads. Breeding is by direct development.
59150		population	eng	It is quite common but there is little recent information on its population status, although at least eight populations are known. Searches in 2005 did not encounter this species in the Cuchumatanes but further work in this area is needed (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).
59150		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is loss of its habitat through agricultural encroachment. Although it can tolerate some habitat degradation, it does not live in open agricultural habitats.
59151		conservation	eng	Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.
59151		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern lowlands of San Blas in Panama, adjacent to Colombia, where it occurs up to 50m asl.
59151		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, and is arboreal. Breeding is by direct development.
59151		population	eng	It is very poorly known, and has been collected only twice, with no records of it for 30 years.
59151		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is likely to be habitat loss due to smallholder farming, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.
59152		conservation	eng	The only known site is in the Parque Nacional La Muralla, which was declared as a protected area in 1987, but this area is poorly protected, and habitat loss is continuing. Improved protection and management of this area is urgently needed.
59152		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Monte Escondido on the Atlantic versant in the north-western portion of the Department of Olancho, north-central Honduras, at 1,430-1,550m asl.
59152		habitat	eng	It is found on low vegetation, on the ground, and on arboreal bromeliads in lower montane wet forest. It is not known whether or not it can withstand habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59152		population	eng	It is a moderately common species within its tiny range.
59152		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to encroaching coffee cultivation, subsistence agriculture, and livestock ranching activities.
59153		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional El Cusuco, and while the protection of this area has been improved in recent years, there is still a need for additional protection of the remaining habitat in the area is needed. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species as well as the possible impact of chytrid fungus.
59153		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra de Omoa on the Atlantic versant of north-western Honduras at 1,470-2,200 m asl.
59153		habitat	eng	It has been found on low vegetation and on the ground of lower montane wet forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59153		population	eng	Fewer than 30 specimens are known, and it is believed to be an uncommon species.
59153		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by encroaching subsistence agriculture and forest fires. Chytrid infection has been reported in this species (J. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).
59154		conservation	eng	None known. Further research into this species is required.
59154		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality along the Río Santa Rosa, a few kilometres upstream from the Río Apurimac, between Pataccocha and San Jose, in Ayacucho Department, Peru. It might range more widely, but further investigations of the region are needed to confirm this. Its altitudinal range is incompletely known; it has been collected at 1,000m asl.
59154		habitat	eng	This species was collected in coffee groves, which perhaps indicates a degree of adaptability to anthropogenic habitats. It is likely to occur mainly in mid-altitude forest, where it presumably lays terrestrial eggs and breeds by direct development.
59154		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. At the time of its discovery, extensive searches over the period of a week yielded a total of 10 specimens.
59154		threats	eng	There is very little information. It appears to be somewhat adaptable, since it was found in a coffee grove.
59155		conservation	eng	The area where this species was collected is now within the Parque Nacional Tapantí. There is a need for additional survey work to determine and monitor the population status of this species.
59155		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, near Quebrada Valverde, near Tapantí, Cartago Province, Atlantic versant, Costa Rica, at 1,555-1,650m asl (Savage 2002).
59155		habitat	eng	It lives in arboreal vegetation (mosses and liverworts) in lower montane rainforest. It does not occur in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59155		population	eng	Only two specimens plus some egg clutches are known. It has not been recorded in recent surveys, however it occurs in arboreal vegetation and is difficult to find (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
59155		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. However, its small range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
59156		conservation	eng	In Honduras this species is found in the Cerro Azul National Park, Texiguat Wildlife Refuge, and at the edge of Parque Nacional Cusuco, and in Guatemala it occurs in Parque Nacional Laguna Lachuá and the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico. Given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis populations of this species should be monitored carefully.
59156		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme northern Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, and Cayo District in southern Belize, to north-central Honduras. In Honduras it is known from Quebrada Grande in Copán Department, Sierra de Merendón west of San Pedro Sula, Cortés Department, and Portillo Grande in Yoro Department. It occurs from 50-1,450m asl, and probably occurs more widely within the general distribution than currently recorded.
59156		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane wet forest, and also successfully in disturbed habitats such as cardamom plantations. The females tend to live on the ground under logs, while the males are arboreal. It breeds by direct development.
59156		population	eng	It is extremely common in some places within its restricted range.
59156		threats	eng	This species is potentially threated by the international pet trade, in which it features significantly, and since this species takes 10-12 years to mature such trade could easily be locally unsustainable. Chytrid infection has been recently reported for this species (J. Kolby, pers. comm. 2008). It has also recently been reported in animals that were imported into Belgium. However, the origin of this infection (whether from the wild, or from other captive animals) is not known.
59157		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco and the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras, but there is a need for improved protection of forest habitats elsewhere in the range of the species. In Guatemala the Sierra de Caral is a proposed protected area.
59157		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern mountains of the Atlantic versant of Guatemala (mountains of Sierra de Caral) and from the western mountains of Honduras. In Honduras it is known from Quebrada Grande in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Copán Department, and from Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco and the Merendón Mountains (a watershed protected area) west of San Pedro Sula in Cortés Department. It occurs at 1,200-1,600m asl.
59157		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane and lower montane moist forest, and is found in arboreal bromeliads, on low vegetation, and under rotten trees in the ground. It prefers intact forest, and can be found on forest edge, but not in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development, and the species is not dependent upon water.
59157		population	eng	In Honduras this species appears to have declined in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul.
59157		threats	eng	The main threat is loss of habitat for subsistence and small-scale agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
59158		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the 'Quetzal Reserve' close to Finca Insula in Chiapas, Mexico (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm., 2007), and from the proposed protected area of Volcán Atitlán. Surveys are urgently needed to establish the current population status of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59158		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme south-eastern Chiapas, Mexico, along the Pacific versant to Volcán Atitlán, south-western Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is 1,500-2,100m asl.
59158		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, inhabiting pristine cloud forest habitats, and is often found in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59158		population	eng	Although it used to be common, it appears to have undergone declines and is now uncommon. It was common on Volcan Tacana in the 1970's, but no recent surveys have been made. It was rare, but still present in Departamento San Marcos in 2005.
59158		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of cloud forest due to extensive agricultural activities (including agro-industry crop farming), logging, and human settlement.
59159		conservation	eng	One site where this species was collected is now protected as Parque Nacional Tapantí. However, extensive work in recent years has failed to locate it in this locality, and in any case it needs to be determined whether or not the Tapantí population belongs to this species, or whether or not the two populations belong to different species.
59159		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Río Chitiria (near Turrialba) and Tapantí, in Cartago Province, Costa Rica, from 775-1,550m asl. Both localities are on the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica.
59159		habitat	eng	This species lives in premontane wet forest and rainforest, where it forages on elevated logs and leaf surfaces within a metre of the ground. It appears not to be able to survive in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
59159		population	eng	It is known from only ten specimens, and there is very little information on its population status, although it appears to be rare. Extensive work in Tapantí has failed to find it again, and it has probably almost disappeared from the Río Chataria, due to habitat loss.
59159		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss. Its habitat at the type locality (Río Chitiria) has almost disappeared due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction.
59160		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within its range, including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Yasuni, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, and Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Cuyabeno.
59160		distribution	eng	This species occurs north from Río Curaray in Amazonian Ecuador, and in a single site in Colombia. It has been recorded below 700m asl. It is very likely to occur more widely.
59160		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found in primary and old secondary forest. At Yasuní National Park, it has been found in Terra Firme forest and seasonally flooded forest on bushes and branches of trees, up to 2 metres above the ground. It is nocturnal, and oviparous with direct development. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.
59160		population	eng	It is locally common, but it appears to experience population fluctuations (being more abundant at some times of the year than at others).
59160		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.
59161		conservation	eng	It might be found in the Biosphere Reserve of La Encrucijada, Chiapas, Mexico, but is not otherwise known from any protected area. In Guatemala there is a small reserve of cloud forest in San Marcos. The Instituto de Historia Natural of Chiapas is conducting a conservation project in this area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59161		distribution	eng	This species is known from the slopes of the Tacana volcano in Chiapas, Mexico, and from the mountains along the south-western Guatemalan Plateau (in particular the Atitlán, Tajumulco and Tacana volcanoes). Its altitudinal range is 1,800-2,200m asl.
59161		habitat	eng	It occurs on mountain slopes covered by pine-oak and cloud forests, living in the vegetation, and under the bark of logs, rarely in bromeliads; it is not commonly found on the ground, and does not occur in disturbed habitats. Breeding is by direct development, and the species is not dependent upon water.
59161		population	eng	It appears to have always been a relatively uncommon species.
59161		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural expansion, logging, and conversion to urban lands, activities that have been very severe throughout its range.
59162		conservation	eng	A survey to evaluate the population status of this species is required.
59162		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Pacific slopes of southern Chiapas, Mexico, to south-western Guatemala, from sea level to 700m asl. It is likely to occur more widely in Guatemala than has so far been recorded, but still appears to have a relatively limited range.
59162		habitat	eng	It occurs in subtropical lowland areas of mixed forest, and also in banana plantations and the edges of cane fields in riparian areas. Breeding is by direct development.
59162		population	eng	It is not uncommon, but has probably declined through habitat loss.
59162		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss arising from increasing urbanization, settlement by refugees, and expanding agricultural cultivation and livestock gazing. Although it is tolerant of modified habitats, the level of habitat disturbance is extremely severe throughout most of its range, and it probably cannot survive in very open areas.
59163		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo in Chiapas, which includes some areas that still have pristine habitat. In Guatemala it is found within the protected volcans. It has been recorded from the 'Quetzal Reserve' in Departamento San Marcos, Guatemala (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm., 2007). There is a need for improved protection of the forest habitat of this species in the remainder of its range. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59163		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific border of Chiapas, Mexico, south-east to the Pacific slopes of Guatemala as far as Volcán Atitlán. Its altitudinal range is 1,800-2,500m asl.
59163		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane cloud forest and pine-oak forests, and requires pristine habitat. It is semi-arboreal, but can also be found under bark or under logs. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59163		population	eng	This species appears to be still relatively common (Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).
59163		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss following the transformation of forest habitats to agricultural lands and for human settlement. Habitat loss through its range has been quite extensive. When forest is cleared, a close relative, <em>Bolitoglossa lincolni</em>, colonizes the range of, and hybridizes with, <em>Bolitoglossa franklini</em>.
59164		conservation	eng	One of the sites where this species has been collected is now protected in Parque Nacional Tapantí. All suitable habitat has been lost at the type locality (Río Quirí).
59164		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in the vicinity of Tapantí, Cartago Province, central Costa Rica, at 1,225-1,280m asl (Savage 2002).
59164		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane rainforest and does not appear to be able to adapt to secondary habitats. One individual was collected from a moss mat 10cm above the ground on a tree (Savage 2002). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59164		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status, but it is probably very rare.
59164		threats	eng	The habitat outside the Parque Nacional Tapantí has been lost to large-scale coffee plantations; the remaining habitat in the park is relatively secure.
59165		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Guaramacal. Further survey work is needed to determine the threats to this species, and to monitor its population status.
59165		distribution	eng	This species is known from Macizo de Guaramacal, in the Cordillera de Merida in Trujillo state, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,400m asl.
59165		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found on rocks in cloud forest. It breeds by direct development.
59165		population	eng	It is a common species.
59165		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unclear; its small range probably makes it more susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
59166		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Huitepec run by Pronatura near San Cristobal, Chiapas, Mexico. It is not known from Parque Nacional de las Cuchumatanes in Guatemala.
59166		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cerro Zontehuitz, San Cristobal de las Casas, and Chamula Districts, north-central Chiapas, Mexico, and from several populations in the Cordillera de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, from 1,200-2,800m asl.
59166		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous and oak forest often associated with limestone outcrops. It is a crevice-dweller sometimes found beneath flakes of rock on ledges, or under the bark of logs on the ground and less frequently in arboreal bromeliads. This species can persist in degraded habitats, and it breeds by direct development.
59166		population	eng	It is a common species.
59166		threats	eng	The main threats to this reasonably adaptable species are the alteration and clear-cutting of its habitat due to increasing settlement, and expanding cultivation and livestock grazing.
59167		conservation	eng	It occurs in Biotopo del Quetzal, the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas and several private reserves.
59167		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the mountainous regions of south-eastern Guatemala, from 1,000-2,290m asl.
59167		habitat	eng	This species lives in cloud forests and also in coffee plantations shaded by bananas. It tends to be arboreal, occurring under bark and in bromeliads, and it breeds by direct development.
59167		population	eng	It can be locally common. It was still found to be a locally common species in 2007 (Ted Papenfuss pers.c omm. 2007).
59167		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in agricultural practices since although it can persist in shade-grown coffee plantations, it cannot survive in more open areas (which tend to lose humidity and become too dry), and there is now a tendency to halt coffee farming in favour of other agricultural activities, most of which are resulting in more open situations unsuitable for this species.
59168		conservation	eng	Because more than 20 years have passed since it was discovered, a survey is needed to evaluate the status of this species and its habitats in the Filo de Caballos-Atoyac area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59168		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero at the Río Atoyac drainage, in the northern areas of Puerto del Gallo, Mexico. It occurs from 765-2,800m asl, although this upper limit is uncertain.
59168		habitat	eng	It it a terrestrial species that lives in tropical semi-deciduous forest and premontane cloud forest, but can also survive in shaded coffee plantations. The species was associated with red bananas, although this is perhaps a habitat where it was easiest to locate. The type series was found in bromeliads in forest and in leaf-litter in coffee plantations. This species reproduces by direct development.
59168		population	eng	It has not been collected since it was first described, but it was fairly common when first found.
59168		threats	eng	Because the species persists in highly modified habitat (e.g., red bananas in regions of shade grown coffee), the conversion to yellow bananas is the greatest known threat to the species.
59169		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. There is a need for close monitoring to determine if climate change is having any effect on the population, particularly given its confined range.
59169		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Páramo del Duende, Cerro Calina, municipality of Río Frio, in the department of Valle del Cauca, in Colombia, from 3,000-3,600 m asl.
59169		habitat	eng	It occurs in páramo areas, on low vegetation and in bryophytes. It has not been recorded from other habitats. There is no information on its breeding biology, but it presumably takes place by direct development like other species of the genus.
59169		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status; it is only known from five specimens.
59169		threats	eng	The type locality is pristine páramo, and is relatively inaccessible at present which affords it some protection. Climate change poses a potential future threat.
59170		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. The species has recently been reported for Reserva Natural Colibrí del Sol (Fundación ProAves 2008).There is a need for close monitoring to determine if climate change is having any effect on the population, particularly given its confined range.
59170		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality and Puente Largo, in the Municipality of Frontino in Antioquia department, on the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 3,600-3,700 m asl.
59170		habitat	eng	It is restricted to páramo areas, among fallen leaves and fallen trunks and on the low strata of vegetation. Its breeding habits are unknown.
59170		population	eng	It is restricted to the Páramo Frontino, and is not common. It was seen as recently as 2008 (Fundación ProAves 2008).
59170		threats	eng	The type locality is pristine páramo, and is relatively inaccessible at present which affords it some protection. Climate change poses a potential future threat.
59171		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas near where this species has been found. Surveys are urgently needed to establish its current range and population status in the wild.
59171		distribution	eng	This species has only been found within 1km of the type locality on the Caribbean escarpment of the western Cuchumatanes, Departamento Huehuetenango, western Guatemala. The exact locality is the Las Nubes sector of Finca Chiblac, approximately 12km north-northeast of Santa Cruz Barillas, at about 1,400m asl. There has been little nearby sampling and the species may range more widely within the escarpment.
59171		habitat	eng	The only two individuals known were taken from under bark from felled logs in a clearing in very wet (approximately 6,000mm annual precipitation) montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59171		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it has not been collected since its discovery, despite recent searches.
59171		threats	eng	Severe habitat loss is known to have taken place at its only known site due to the settlement of refugees and expanding agriculture, and more broadly throughout the range.
59172		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Coiba in Panama and in Parque Nacional Corcovada in Costa Rica.
59172		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, and on the Azuero Peninsula and the Isla Coiba, Panama. It occurs up to 880m asl.
59172		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and premontane forest, where it requires pristine habitat. It is nocturnal and arboreal and lives in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59172		population	eng	In Costa Rica, this species turns up occasionally on surveys, but it is uncommon. There is very little information from Panama, where it might be declining.
59172		threats	eng	There is some habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and clear cutting.
59173		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Huitepec Ecological Reserve in Chiapas.
59173		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the central plateau of Chiapas, Mexico, and in several mountainous areas in western Guatemala, including the upper slopes of the Guatemalan Plateau close to the Mexican border, Vulcan Tajumulco, Montanas de Quilco, and the south-western and eastern Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. Its altitudinal range is 2,200-3,000m asl.
59173		habitat	eng	This species is largely terrestrial, living in low vegetation, under bark, and in bromeliads. It seems to be more of a generalist than other nearby congeners, and it can survive to some degree in degraded vegetation. Breeding is by direct development.
59173		population	eng	It is locally common, for example at Quilco and San Cristobal. Unlike most species of salamanders in the department of San Marcos in Guatemala this species remains abundant and has not declined.
59173		threats	eng	A serious threat to this species is the complete clearance of forest due to logging, and expanding agricultural cultivation, livestock grazing, and human settlement. Although it is reasonably adaptable, it does not survive when habitats become very open.
59174		conservation	eng	Although the species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Agalta, improved management of this area is required (particularly to control frequent fires).
59174		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Parque Nacional Sierra de Agalta, in the Departamento de Olancho, east-central Honduras, from 1,840-2,240m asl. It may be present in nearby elfin and cloud forest within the same mountain range, however this requires confirmation.
59174		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane wet forest (cloud and elfin forest) where it can be found in bromeliads near the ground, on low moss-covered branches of trees, and on the ground under moss and leaves. It is not known whether or not it can withstand habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development.
59174		population	eng	It is a locally common species in the elfin forest, but is uncommon in cloud forest (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59174		threats	eng	The main threats to the species stem from forest fires and extended dry seasons. The fires are generally in the surrounding area, however, these still represent a threat to the species. There is continuing habitat loss in the area, through high pressure for conversion of land to subsistence agricultural use and coffee plantations.
59175		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.
59175		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central on the border of the municipalities of La Victoria and Norcasia, in the valley of La Miela River, at exactly 500m asl, in Caldas Department, Colombia. It might occur more widely in suitable habitats in nearby sites.
59175		habitat	eng	Assuming that this species still survives, it is an inhabitant of the understorey of tropical moist forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development.
59175		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species, although more information is needed to confirm its population status.
59175		threats	eng	The type locality has now been lost due to the construction of a dam.
59176		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved maintenance and protection of pine-oak forests in the Sierra Madre del Sur. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59176		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca between San Gabriel Mixtepec and Pochutla, Mexico. It is known from an altitude of about 1,000-1,500m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
59176		habitat	eng	It terrestrial and lives in pine-oak forests and in shaded coffee plantations. In the forest it is possible to find individuals inside logs and in rock rubble. In mix-use shade-coffee plantations the species can be found in the leaf axils of red banana plants. It reproduces by direct development.
59176		population	eng	It is a locally common species where there are red bananas.
59176		threats	eng	Although this species can survive outside its original forest habitat, it does not tolerate the transformation of landscape into very open, and hence less humid, habitats. Such habitat modification is taking place because of increased human settlement and the abandonment of coffee plantations in favour of other forms of agriculture.
59177		conservation	eng	It occurs in two protected areas: Parque Nacional Volcán Barú in Panama, and Parque Internacional La Amistad in Panama and Costa Rica. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species in the wild.
59177		distribution	eng	This species is found on the lower montane and montane slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca-Baru of eastern Costa Rica and western Panama. Its altitudinal range is 1,920-3,444m asl.
59177		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, and seems to spend the day under rocks, while at night it is found on mossy trunks and limbs of trees. It survives in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development and the species is not dependent upon water.
59177		population	eng	Although known to be common, there have been no records of this species for over ten years, although there has been a lack of survey work.
59177		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, severe habitat loss due to smallholder agricultural activities, and probably also fire, is a threat.
59178		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.
59178		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Río Arquia area in Antioquia Department in the Chocó region of Colombia, south to Quibdo in Chocó Department. Specimens have been referred to this species from the Darién and San Blas regions of central and eastern Panama. It occurs below 600m asl. It is presumably found in intervening areas between the mapped localities.
59178		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species in humid lowland forest, and does not occur in disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59178		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
59178		threats	eng	There are very few threats within its range in Panama, though there is a small amount of shifting cultivation. In Colombia, the major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
59179		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de la Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal. Field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution and population status of the species.
59179		distribution	eng	This species is known from six localities, spanning approximately 160km, in the mountains of central Guatemala, including the Sierra de Chuacús and the Sierra de la Minas, at an altitude of 1,550-2,730m asl.
59179		habitat	eng	It lives in both cloud forest and less humid oak-pine forest and forest edge, but not in degraded habitats. It can be found beneath logs, under bark of fallen logs, or in bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development and it is not dependent upon water.
59179		population	eng	It is a rare species and hard to find.
59179		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlement.
59180		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Reserva de la Biosfera Maya in Guatemala and the Reserva del Hombre y Biosfera del Rio Platano in Honduras.
59180		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Atlantic slope of Chiapas, Mexico, through southern and central Belize and northern Guatemala to southern and northern and central Honduras. There is an isolated population in the Yucatan Peninsula, at northwestern Quintana Roo and adjacent Yucatan. It occurs up to 1,500m asl.
59180		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland tropical forest and premontane forest where it requires the presence of bromeliads and other epiphytes as a refuge during the dry season. It is probably most common in banana groves on the forest edge, and it also lives in selectively logged forest and shaded coffee plantations (in this last habitat it occurs mainly in the lowlands). It breeds by direct development.
59180		population	eng	It is much less common than it was because of habitat loss and fragmentation. It can however be locally common, and has been found at rather high densities recently (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).
59180		threats	eng	The main threat is conversion of forest and well-shaded anthropogenic habitat to open countryside and pastureland. The lowland area of Guatemala and Chiapas (Mexico) where this species occurs is being converted to cattle pasture and human settlements (Gustavo Ruanco pers. comm. 2007).
59181		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad on the Costa Rica-Panama border.
59181		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid lower montane zone on both slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca of western Panama and eastern Costa Rica, at 1,670-2,660m asl. There is a question as to how far east it extends in Panama, since the specimen from near Volcán Barú is taxonomically questionable.
59181		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, being scansorial, foraging in vegetation up to 1m above the ground, and sometimes hiding in bromeliads during the day; it does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59181		population	eng	This is quite a common species, and its population in Costa Rica is apparently stable (at least through 1996) at Las Tablas.
59181		threats	eng	The major threat is destruction of natural forests due to expanding agriculture, logging, and human settlements.
59182		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Natural Volcán Mombacho. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
59182		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Volcán Mombacho, Departamento de Granada, Nicaragua, at 950-1,250m asl. It might occur on other volcanoes in south-western Nicaragua.
59182		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and elfin forest, but is also somewhat tolerant of habitat degradation and can live in introduced tall grass. It is arboreal and breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59182		population	eng	It is very abundant within its small range.
59182		threats	eng	This species is known from an isolated volcano in south-western Nicaragua where severe habitat degradation has occurred except for a small area of cloud forest where the species lives, and which is currently well protected.
59183		conservation	eng	Its range includes several small reserves surrounding the Pacific slope volcanoes. Surveys are needed to determine its abundance and threat status.
59183		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of southwestern and southeastern Guatemala, including the Pacific versant, being known from much of the plateau region of Guatemala, several of the Pacific volcanoes, and the Las Nubes highland block east of Guatemala City. The idnetification of the population recorded from the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes needs confirmation. Its elevational distribution is from about 1,300-3,000m asl. Recent surveys are finding this salamander at higher elevations than they ever were in the 1970s (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).
59183		habitat	eng	It lives in drier subtropical forests (oak-pine forests on the plateau) and also in secondary habitats. Individuals have been found under logs, in logs, and in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development.
59183		population	eng	It is quite a common species. It is abundant on the Volcan Pacaya National Park (Carlos Vasquez pers. comm. 2007).
59183		threats	eng	It is probably suffering from general habitat encroachment, although it is somewhat adaptable.
59184		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of pine-oak forest habitats in the range of this species.
59184		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of the Atlantic slopes of eastern Chiapas (Mexico) and northern Guatemala. In Guatemala, it occurs in the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes, Alta Verapaz highlands, and the Sierra de Santa Cruz. Its altitudinal range is 140-1,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely in this range than current records suggest.
59184		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest and pine-oak broadleaf forests, but is somewhat adaptable and has been found under rocks in gardens and in coffee plantations. During dry periods it hides in arboreal bromeliads up to 5m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.
59184		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59184		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture (livestock), wood extraction, and human settlement, which results in the opening up, and hence drying out, of its habitat.
59185		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59185		distribution	eng	This species is known from elevated areas in the department of Santander on the Occidental slope of the Occidental Cordillera, in Colombia. It was also found in a coffee plantation in Socorro. It has been recorded from 1,400-1,700m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
59185		habitat	eng	It is found inside highly humid forests, usually among fallen leaves or herbaceous vegetation (epiphytic). It has also been recorded from a coffee plantation. It can also live in disturbed forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.
59185		population	eng	It is a common species.
59185		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture is a major threat.
59186		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Zona Protectora Cerros de Escazu and from the Reserva Forestal Los Santos.
59186		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the humid lower montane and montane zones of the northern Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica, at 1,650-3,000m asl.
59186		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid montane forest, and has been found in somewhat degraded habitats. It is terrestrial, living in holes and under logs and rocks, and it breeds by direct development.
59186		population	eng	It is extremely rare, and only a very small number of specimens are known. It has not been recorded in the last 20 years.
59186		threats	eng	Outside of protected areas the main threat to it is habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests for agricultural development, wood extraction, and human settlement. However, since it lives in a relatively cold region the pressure on its habitats is not very severe.
59187		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need for further research into the impact of logging operations on this species. It has been recorded from degraded pine forest, and details are needed on whether populations can persist in this modified habitat.
59187		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the slopes of the interior of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Mexico, from 1,800-1,920m asl. It might occur more widely.
59187		habitat	eng	The species now occurs in degraded pine forests, and was probably originally found in mature pine forests. It reproduces by direct development.
59187		population	eng	It is poorly known, only from a handful of specimens, and it appears to be very uncommon.
59187		threats	eng	The main threat to its survival is logging of its pine forest habitat.
59188		conservation	eng	It occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura and Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, Mexico, but not in any protected areas in Guatemala or Honduras. This species is protected by the Mexican Government under the category Pr. Further research is needed to determine the impact of the disease chytridiomycosis on this species.
59188		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific versant of Meso America from Cerro Baul in extreme eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, to Vulcan Atitlan in central southern Guatemala. There are isolated populations in the continental divide region of western Chiapas (Mexico), and at Barranca de Trincheras (on the edge of the Montesillos Biological Reserve), Comayagua, in south-central Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 10-1,600m asl. It is doubtful that it still occurs at the only known locality in Honduras (the only known specimen from this site was collected in 1951).
59188		habitat	eng	It lives in subtropical moist forest, pine and pine-oak forests, as well as in shaded coffee and banana plantations. It is arboreal. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59188		population	eng	It is a very common species in Guatemala and Mexico. In Honduras it is known from a single specimen.
59188		threats	eng	The main threat is disturbance and transformation of shaded habitat to pasture or other very open habitats. The Honduran population might have disappeared due to regular burning of the pine-oak forests. Some specimens collected in 2006 in Guatemala tested positive for the chytrid fungus, although the impact of the pathogen on this salamander si currently not known (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).
59189		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is included in Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas. There is a need for close population monitoring.
59189		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Atlantic slopes of Alta Verapaz to the Montañas del Mico, Guatemala, at 100-1,200m asl. It definitely occurs in Honduras, and it might be widespread in this country, but the exact localities are not yet clear due to recent taxonomic changes, and so it is not currently mapped in this country.
59189		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforests and cloud forests, usually in disturbed habitats, and can be found at night on low vegetation near streams and also under leaf sheaths of banana plants. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59189		population	eng	This species was formerly common, but has undergone declines and is now rare.
59189		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to encroachment of agricultural activity and human settlement, and the loss of bromeliads.
59190		conservation	eng	It is found in Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. It is listed as an endangered species in the Venezuelan Red Data Book.
59190		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to cloud forests in the vicinity of Mérida city, in Mérida state, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 2,000-3,500m asl (Brame and Wake 1962).
59190		habitat	eng	It is restricted to cloud forests, and breeds by direct development.
59190		population	eng	It is not a common species.
59190		threats	eng	Some populations might be affected by logging and agriculture; however, much of its habitat is conserved in protected areas.
59191		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Sangay, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.
59191		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador. It has been recorded from 1,600-2,200m asl.
59191		habitat	eng	It is a montane forest species; it is not known whether or not it can persist in altered habitats. It breeds by direct development.
59191		population	eng	It is a rare species.
59191		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining, and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species’ habitat. Agricultural pollution is also a threat.
59192		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within its range, and there is an urgent need to protect the habitat at its only known locality. Further research is needed to help document the full range of this species.
59192		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality: Municipio de Pandi, in the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, at 1,300m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than is currently known.
59192		habitat	eng	It is found in low vegetation in riverine forest areas, and breeds by direct development.
59192		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59192		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (involving the cultivation of crops and livestock farrming) is the major threat, and the habitat is now severely fragmented.
59193		conservation	eng	Based on its known habitat and distribution, this species might occur in Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo, and Santiago Comaina and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones in Peru. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.
59193		distribution	eng	This species can be found along the Amazonian slopes of Departamento San Martin (Moyobamba) and Departamento Loreto, northern Peru and eastern lowlands of Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 200-800m asl.
59193		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal bush species of premontane and lowland rainforests. At Puerto Libre and Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, most of the specimens were found in secondary forest at night, although some were in primary forest (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, individuals have been collected in Terra Firme forest and seasonal flooded forest (Ron, 2001). Individuals can be found in modified areas such as shade grown coffee plantations and selectively logged forest. It is an ovoviviparous species.
59193		population	eng	It can be abundant where it occurs.
59193		threats	eng	The species survives in modified habitats and there are no major threats other than extreme forest clearance.
59194		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several national parks along the Cordillera de Talamanca, such as Parque Nacional Chiripó, Parque Nacional Tapantí and Reserva Biológica Cerro las Vueltas. Further research is needed to better understand the reasons for the declines observed in this species.
59194		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica at 1,870-3,620m asl. Populations in the southern Talamanca probably represent a different species.
59194		habitat	eng	It lives in humid lower montane, montane, and sub-alpine zones, occurring in forest as well as disturbed areas such as road sides and garbage dumps. The species appears to be more frequently found at road edges, with this observation not linked to limited sampling effort (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59194		population	eng	It still occurs in many places within its range, but has drastically declined in many sites where it was formerly abundant. Some populations have declined by more than 90% while others appear to be stable. There are, however, reports that the species is now recovering at some localities where it had formerly declined (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Further details on this recovery are needed.
59194		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation are ongoing within its range, but probably do not account for the level of decline that has been observed. The declines have been very patchy, and might be linked to subtle, as yet unknown, habitat disturbance (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Animals can be found in open areas, and it is possible that the declines are linked to specific microhabitat loss - for instance the availability of particular logs, rocks or other ground cover (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Declines in suitable habitat could also be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis). The well-studied population of Cerro de la Muerte has undergone a enigmatic decline, with no animals recorded during surveys in 2005 (Lips and Donnelly, 2005; Karen Lipps pers. comm., 2007). Declines have also take place on Cerro Cuericí (Karen Lipps pers. comm., 2007).
59195		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, but is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomic status.
59195		distribution	eng	This species occurs at Medellin in the department of Antioquia, Colombia, at 1,540m asl. Specimens from the eastern lowlands in the south-west of Darién Province in Panama have also been referred to this species, but this is probably incorrect.
59195		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest in Colombia, and humid lowland forest in Panama, and is arboreal. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
59195		population	eng	This appears to be an extremely rare species; fewer than five specimens have been collected in its entire range.
59195		threats	eng	There is no information available on specific threats to this species, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss arising from activities such as logging and smallholder farming.
59196		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas and is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59196		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely from southern San Luis Potosi southward through southern Veracruz to north-western Chiapas, Mexico, where it occurs below 1,100m asl.
59196		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical forests and savannahs, and can survive in modified habitats such as cities, farmland, banana plantations and areas of coffee cultivation. Breeding is by direct development.
59196		population	eng	It was formerly quite common, but is now hard to find.
59196		threats	eng	Although it is generally adaptable, the transformation of the landscape into very open habitats probably causes a general drying of microhabitats to the detriment of this species.
59197		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito, Parque Nacional Pico Pijol, and it might be present in the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge. Further research is needed into the enigmatic population declines of this species, especially at the localities of Quebrada de Oro and Texiguat.
59197		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Montana de Pijol (department of Yoro), Quebrada de Oro, Cerro Bufalo, and Cerro San Francisco (department of Atlantida), all in north-central Honduras, at elevations of 980-1,920m asl.
59197		habitat	eng	It lives in arboreal bromeliads, on low vegetation, and on the ground under rotten plant material, in premontane and montane wet forests. It can survive in degraded habitats close to forest, especially on banana plants. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59197		population	eng	It was previously considered to be a fairly common species. However, it has not been found in the Quebrada de Oro during expeditions in 2003 and 2005, and declines of anurans have recently been reported from this same area (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007). Two specimens were found at Texiguat during September 2003 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59197		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding subsistence and small-scale agriculture (involving the cultivation of crops and livestock farming), forest fires, and logging.
59198		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas.
59198		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Oriental slope of the Central Cordillera (Antioquia, Caldas, Tolima and Huila departments) in Colombia, from 1,200-2,000m asl.
59198		habitat	eng	It occurs in premontane forest, on low herbaceous vegetation, in primary and good secondary forests and bromeliads, as well as in bushes along side streams. Breeding habits are not known. It also occurs in pastureland and near urban areas.
59198		population	eng	It is a common species and thrives in disturbed habitats.
59198		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
59199		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area, making the protection of forest habitat for this species a priority. Efforts should be made to encourage red banana cultivation. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59199		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a very restricted area to the north and south of Putla town in extreme western Oaxaca, Mexico, at 800-1,400m asl. Extensive surveys for the species have not been conducted and it might occur more widely.
59199		habitat	eng	It lives in secondary tropical semi-deciduous forest, as well as in shaded banana and coffee plantations. It is arboreal, and most specimens have been collected in the leaf axils of red banana trees and other large-leaved plants. It reproduces by direct development.
59199		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59199		threats	eng	This species appears to be relatively resistant to habitat modification (taking place across the range due to logging and agriculture) and occurs in shaded plantations, though even these habitats are threatened as a result of shifting agricultural practices - specifically the change from red bananas to yellow bananas as a crop of choice.
59200		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Montverde Biological Reserve, Volcán Irazu National Park, Volcán Poas National Park, Braulio Caurillo National Park, and Guanacaste National Park, all in Costa Rica. In Panama it occurs in Fortuna National Park. It is also found in La Amistad National Park in both countries.
59200		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid premontane and lower montane areas in the cordilleras of Costa Rica, at 500-2,048m asl, and adjacent western Panama, at 830-2,050m asl.
59200		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, also occurring in slightly degraded habitats. It is largely terrestrial, but has been found climbing vegetation. This species breeds by direct development.
59200		population	eng	It is less common at some sites, however the rate of decline is not known, and animals are still regularly found (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
59200		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and extraction of wood. However, much of its range is protected, and it is probably only threatened in localized situations.
59201		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Urgent protection of the forests on Volcán Tzontehuitz and the San Marcos area is needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59201		distribution	eng	This species is known in Mexico from Volcán Tzontehuitz, north-east of San Cristobal de las Casas, central Chiapas. In Guatemala, it occurs in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, the highlands associated with Volcán Tajamulco, and in Zunil and the heights above Totonicapan. Its altitudinal range is 2,400-3,300m asl. It probably occurs in intervening areas between the mapped localities.
59201		habitat	eng	It inhabits high elevations in areas of cloud forest and pine-oak forests. It is largely terrestrial, being found occasionally in bromeliads or under bark. It can tolerate, and perhaps even benefit from, some disturbance of its habitat, but it avoids grasslands. It breeds by direct development.
59201		population	eng	It appears to be still relatively common in Mexico and is still common in the Cuchumatanes and Totonicapan in Guatemala. However, it appears to have declined substantially in San Marcos in Guatemala, and has not been found in recent surveys (2005 and 2007) on Cerro Tecpan and high areas near Nahuala (Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).
59201		threats	eng	Although this species does well with moderate habitat disturbance, the very serious deforestation on Volcán Tzontehuitz is a major threat. Grazing by sheep is the main threat in this area, and any form of habitat management that leads to the encroachment of grassland is detrimental for the species. Habitat still seems to be intact where the species has not been found recently (Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).
59202		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo and Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura, in Chiapas, Mexico. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59202		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of Meso America from San Luis Potosi and Veracruz to northern Chiapas, Mexico southwards to Guatemala and Belize, reaching northern Honduras. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl, but generally favours low altitudes.
59202		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in bromeliads in tropical and subtropical wet forests, as well as in citrus orchards, banana plantations, and pine plantations. It breeds by direct development.
59202		population	eng	It is one of the more common lowland salamanders.
59202		threats	eng	The main threat is conversion of forest and well-shaded anthropogenic habitat to open countryside and pastureland.
59203		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas in Guatemala, although protected areas are proposed within the species range. It might occur in Parque Nacional El Imposible in El Salvador (though this is not confirmed). The maintenance of shaded habitats is important to ensure the long-term persistence of this species.
59203		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper coastal plain at moderate elevations (600-1,250m asl) on the Pacific slopes of southern Guatemala and from one locality in El Salvador (at the Instituto Tropical de Investigaciones Científicas in San Salvador).
59203		habitat	eng	Originally an inhabitant of forest environs, these habitats have largely disappeared within its range, and it is now found mainly in shaded coffee plantations (under bananas) and in sugar-cane fields. In El Salvador, it is reported from dry forest at around 700m asl (Köhler et al., 2006). In Guatemala, it has been recorded in lowland wet forests (<1600m asl) (Wake and Lynch, 1976). It breeds by direct development.
59203		population	eng	It used to be reasonably common in suitable habitat, but is now uncommon.
59203		threats	eng	The major threat in the past has been habitat loss, due mainly to subsistence agricultural activities and wood extraction. The clearance of shaded habitats to open, drier landscapes will be severely detrimental to this species.
59204		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
59204		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in northern Colombia, at 1,000-2,140m asl.
59204		habitat	eng	It is a montane forest species, living principally in bromeliads (in which it breeds by direct development). It has also been found in decaying logs and stumps and under decaying leaves.
59204		population	eng	It is an uncommon species and there have been no recent sightings (although this is most likely due to a lack of survey effort).
59204		threats	eng	The main threat to it is deforestation due to small-scale agriculture.
59205		conservation	eng	In occurs in several protected areas.
59205		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the humid lowlands and premontane slopes of the Atlantic versant from southeastern Costa Rica (at 780m asl) to Central Panama (from 1-750m asl) (including Isla Colón); also from the Pacific slope at El Valle de Anton, Cocle Province, and La Campana, Panama Province, Panama (from 300-850m asl).
59205		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
59205		population	eng	It is a common species in Panama. In Costa Rica, it is known only from a single specimen collected in 1984; there have been no new records as of August, 2007.
59205		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the destruction of natural forests for agriculture, livestock, human settlements, and industry.
59206		conservation	eng	The record from the department of Cordoba is in the Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. Improved habitat protection at sites at which the species is known to occur is necessary.
59206		distribution	eng	This species from north-western Colombia is known from the Pacific lowlands in the departments of Chocó and Valle del Cauca, and from a single locality in the department of Cordoba. Its altitudinal range is 20-400m asl. It probably occurs more widely between the confirmed localities.
59206		habitat	eng	It occurs in very humid tropical forest, and can be found on low herbaceous vegetation, fallen leaves and epiphytes. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
59206		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
59206		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (including planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
59207		conservation	eng	Its range includes Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.
59207		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-western lowlands of Ecuador, below 1,000m asl. It is likely to have a slightly larger range than currently known.
59207		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found in dense wet forest, as well as in a grassy field, cleared for cattle grazing (Brame and Wake 1963b). However, this does not necessarily suggest that the species adapts well to human-modified landscapes, and they might prefer regenerated forests. It breeds by direct development.
59207		population	eng	The current population status of this species is not known.
59207		threats	eng	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.
59208		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it might occur in Parque Nacional Chirripo. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, and research is also necessary to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.
59208		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica, at 2,355-3,000m asl. It might extend into western Panama.
59208		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane and montane rainforests, being found in talus on steep slopes, and on road cuts, but generally not in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59208		population	eng	This species was formerly rare, and has now decreased even further. There has been a fair amount of survey work on this species, and it is rarely seen.
59208		threats	eng	Habitat loss has been taking place throughout the range, but this probably is not sufficient to explain the levels of decline observed in the species. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water).
59209		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas (except if its presence is confirmed in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada), but it occurs very close to Parque Nacional Sierra la Culata. Universidad de los Andes has a private reserve where this species was collected. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species.
59209		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to cloud forests in the vicinity of La Carbonera, Campo Elías Municipality, in Mérida State, Venezuela. In the original description, Barrio-Amorós and Fuentes-Ramos (1999) indicate that it is also present in Quebrada La Mucuy (in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada), but no museum numbers are given, and the only specimen coming from this place, listed by them, is a <em>Bolitoglossa orestes</em>. It has been recorded from 2,000-2,800m asl.
59209		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial inhabitant of mossy terrain in cloud forests, and even in drier sub-páramo shrubland. It has been collected in rotting tree trunks and beneath logs and stones, but never in bromeliads or epiphytes on trees. It breeds by direct development.
59209		population	eng	Recent fieldwork indicates that, although secretive, it is not rare in the La Carbonera region.
59209		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to smallholder agricultural activities. The recent introduction of <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> in the vicinity of the type locality may pose a problem in the near future.
59210		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need for urgent habitat protection within the species Honduran range (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.).
59210		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes from northeastern Honduras, through the eastern half of Nicaragua, to southeastern Costa Rica and on the Pacific slope in passes between volcanoes in Guanacaste and Río Barranca. Its altitudinal range is 2-1,052m asl.
59210		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland moist and wet forests, ranging marginally into premontane wet forest and rainforest. It tends to forage near ponds, and is somewhat adaptable, being found in plantations and on grasses. It has been found in rice plantations in eastern Honduras (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.). It breeds by direct development.
59210		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species, though there have been local disappearances due to habitat loss.
59210		threats	eng	It parts of its range it is threatened locally by habitat loss, especially due to expanding human settlements and agriculture, and wood extraction. In Honduras, rapid habitat loss is currently taking place in Rus-Rus, one of the best localities for this species in Honduras (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.). In Costa Rica, it is not threatened by habitat loss and is frequently seen in open areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
59211		conservation	eng	It is found in the Lagunas de Montebello Nature Reserve, Mexico, on the border with Guatemala. There is a need for fieldwork to determine the current population status of this species. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59211		distribution	eng	This species is found in the interior valley of southern Chiapas, Mexico, extending into extreme western Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-2,000m asl. The range map is based on the only two confirmed specimens of the species known, and the habitat between the two sites seems suitable, however no field work has been done in this area (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).
59211		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of tropical deciduous forest, in a dry valley with a limestone substrate. It is not known whether or not it occurs in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
59211		population	eng	It is only known from very few specimens, and there is no information on its population status.
59211		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species over its range. The area is generally unsuitable for agricultural use.
59212		conservation	eng	Much of its range is protected by numerous national parks and private reserves, such as Parque Nacional Guanacaste. Further research is needed to determine the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.
59212		distribution	eng	This species occurs on both slopes of the Cordillera de Guanacaste, the Cordillera de Tilarán, and the Cordillera Central and their outliers in central and northern Costa Rica, at 1,245-2,900m asl.
59212		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane wet forest and rainforest, and marginally in the upper portion of premontane rainforest. It is frequently found in bromeliads and under fallen trees, logs, or rocks. It can occur in secondary growth, isolated trees in pastures, and other anthropogenic habitats, provided that there are trees and adequate cover. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59212		population	eng	The current population status of the species is not known, but it appears to have declined (although it is still recorded on a regular basis).
59212		threats	eng	The species seems have become extremely rare at Monteverde, and declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis). Earlier reports suggested that this salamander seemed to have disappeared from Parque Nacional Poas, however populations are still present here (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). The species does not appear to be significantly threatened by habitat loss, as animals can be found in open areas, amongst rocks and observed crossing roads (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
59213		conservation	eng	Cerro El Pital, which is the highest point in El Salvador, was declared a Biological Reserve in 1987, but on the Honduran side of the border only. Expansion of this protected area to include all of the Cerro El Pital is urgently needed.
59213		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Cerro El Pital in the Department of Ocotepeque in south-west Honduras, and in adjacent north-western El Salvador, at 2,150 m asl.
59213		habitat	eng	It lives on low vegetation in lower montane moist forest, and in nearby degraded areas where there is good cover. Animals have been recorded from bromeliads, a tree fern, on tree trunks, under ground cover, and close to streams in cloud forest (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It breeds by direct development.
59213		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59213		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the impacts of forest fires, and encroachment by subsistence farming.
59214		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Serrania de Pirre in Parque Nacional Darién.
59214		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama in the Darién region, adjacent to Colombia, at 800-1,400m asl.
59214		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, where it is arboreal, and breeds by direct development.
59214		population	eng	Very little is known regarding its population status. It was rediscovered recently when two specimens were collected. These were the first records in many years.
59214		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
59215		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.
59215		distribution	eng	This species is known from high elevations of the central Andes (Cordillera Central) in the departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Quindio, Risoralda and Tolima, in Colombia, between 2,210-3,000m asl.
59215		habitat	eng	The species occurs in premontane forest and sub-páramo among fallen leaves on the ground, and in low bromeliads. It has also been recorded from disturbed habitats such as pastureland and heavily degraded forest.
59215		population	eng	It is a very common species.
59215		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by deforestation, agriculture, illegal harvesting and chemical aspersion are localized threats but there are no major threats to the species overall.
59216		conservation	eng	It occurs in Los Chimalapas, which is poorly protected. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59216		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities, all in southern Mexico in the western part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec: in extreme southern Veracruz; extreme north-eastern Oaxaca; and extreme north-western Chiapas. It is found up to 500m asl.
59216		habitat	eng	It lives in tropical lowland forest, but it has been found in disturbed habitats, presumably due to the level of human impact on natural habitats within its range. The species has been collected at night on low vegetation. It is possible that the species is confined to limestone outcrops, the habitat in which it was first recorded. It reproduces by direct development.
59216		population	eng	There is little recent information concerning its population status, though it was abundant when first found. It was recorded in 1999 for the first time in many years.
59216		threats	eng	The main threat to it is further opening up of its habitat due to expanding agriculture and increasing wood extraction.
59217		conservation	eng	Some of its populations are within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.
59217		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the department of Valle del Cauca, extending to the department of Cauca (Munchique), on the Oriental slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,980-2,050m asl.
59217		habitat	eng	It occurs on herbaceous vegetation, epiphytes and fallen leaves, inside cloud forests with high humidity, and it has also been recorded from disturbed forest edges such as roadsides in forest. The details of its breeding habits are not known.
59217		population	eng	It is a very common species.
59217		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
59218		conservation	eng	In Mexico it is found in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, and in Belize it occurs in the Shipstern Nature Reserve and in the Fireburn Nature Reserve. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59218		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs in northern and central Yucatan and Quintana Roo Mexico. There are two isolated populations: one in south-central Campeche, Mexico, and the other in northeastern Belize. All populations are below 150m asl.
59218		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland tropical forest and thorn forest and in disturbed habitat around villages. It is mainly terrestrial, living beneath surface debris on the forest floor, and in sink holes. It is also arboreal, being found in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59218		population	eng	This is an uncommon, low-density species, but it can be found from time to time.
59218		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, transformation of the original habitats is the major threat.
59219		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59219		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern part of the Sierra Madre del Sur near Quiogolani, Mexico, at around 1,875m asl.
59219		habitat	eng	This species lives in pine-oak forest, which in is now severely degraded, and reproduces by direct development.
59219		population	eng	It is known from fewer than ten specimens, and was only described in 2002. Specimens, however, have been known for a considerable time (since early in the 20th century). The species has appeared to persist through periods of disturbance mainly from logging.
59219		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by the clearance of the forest within its tiny range for smallholder farming; although this threat may have lessened in recent years.
59220		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to establish its current population status.
59220		distribution	eng	This extremely distinctive species is known only from the immediate vicinity of the type locality in extreme north-western Guatemala, on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, at 1,310m asl. There has been little nearby sampling and the species may range more widely within the escarpment.
59220		habitat	eng	It has been collected in both disturbed and undisturbed wet forest (approximately 6,000mm annual precipitation). The animals were found under pieces of wood and logs. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59220		population	eng	The species is known only from 12 specimens collected at the type locality. It has not been seen since 1976, despite recent searches.
59220		threats	eng	There is severe habitat loss taking place at the type locality due to the settlement of refugees and expanding agriculture.
59221		conservation	eng	This species occurs on private land. It is not found in any protected areas, and protection of the forests in the Husteca region is urgently required. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59221		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small patch of forest around Tianguistengo in north-eastern Hidalgo, Mexico, from 1,900-2,100m asl.
59221		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid pine-oak or cloud forests, where it lives in bromeliads and reproduces by direct development.
59221		population	eng	The species has not been found since the early 1980s, despite recent attempts to locate it.
59221		threats	eng	Since this species is dependent upon bromeliads in trees, the major threat to it is deforestation and fragmentation, which is taking place in its only known locality due to expanding agricultural development and extraction of wood.
59222		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr). Considerable doubts remain as to its taxonomic status, and further research is required to resolve this issue.
59222		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Veracruz, near Huatusco, Mexico, at 1,000-1,200m asl.
59222		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads and moss in cloud forests, and is not found in degraded habitats. It reproduces by direct development.
59222		population	eng	This species was once abundant, but it has not been found since the early 1980s despite repeated attempts.
59222		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation of its cloud forest habitat.
59223		conservation	eng	It is possibly found in Parque Nacional Los Marmoles and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra Gorda, and is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59223		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tamualipas, San Luis Potosi, north-western Hidalgo, eastern Queretaro and Puebla, Mexico, at 2,000-2,300m asl.
59223		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species inhabiting only pristine pine-oak forests. It breeds by direct development.
59223		population	eng	It generally an uncommon species.
59223		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is under severe pressure from expanding agriculture, and from wood extraction.
59224		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Rancho del Cielo. Further research is necessary to understand the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.
59224		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Reserva de la Biósfera Rancho del Cielo in Tamaulipas in north-eastern Mexico, at 1,500-2,000m asl.
59224		habitat	eng	It lives in bromeliads in cloud forest, occurring only in undisturbed habitat. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59224		population	eng	It is probably uncommon and decreasing, but can still be found.
59224		threats	eng	Declines are taking place in suitable habitat, and these could be the result of threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water).
59225		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional El Chico, but improved management of this area is urgently needed to reduce the heavy impacts of tourism, including more fires, and the cutting of forest for recreational facilities. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59225		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area of southern Hidalgo, Mexico, at 2,500-2,700m asl.
59225		habitat	eng	It inhabits only pristine pine-oak and fir forests, where it is found under bark or logs. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59225		population	eng	It used to be abundant, but its numbers are now severely reduced.
59225		threats	eng	Most of the forests where this species has been recorded have been severely transformed through the activities of smallholder farmers, logging, and human settlement. It has disappeared even from areas where the habitat has been only slightly degraded.
59226		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and maintenance and protection of the La Joya forests is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59226		distribution	eng	This species is known only from La Joya, central-western Veracruz, Mexico, at 1,200 m asl.
59226		habitat	eng	The species lives in bromeliads in pine-oak and cloud forests. It breeds by direct development.
59226		population	eng	It was abundant in its tiny range, but severe habitat degradation has taken place to the extent that the species has not been detected despite recent attempts.
59226		threats	eng	All areas surrounding La Joya are highly disturbed by extensive logging and mining: between 2003 and 2004, the area of forest habitat available for this species was halved due to the expansion of mining activities; the remaining available habitat was only about 15ha in 2004.
59227		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area. A survey is needed to evaluate the status of this species, and protection of the original habitat (both of the caves and the surrounding forest) is urgent. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59227		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-eastern San Luis Potosi and eastern Queretaro, Mexico, at around 2,400m asl.
59227		habitat	eng	It lives in caves and crevices in pine-oak forest, and has also been found in a tunnel under a church. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development.
59227		population	eng	Although it has never been common, it used to be seen regularly. However, the species has not been located in recent years, despite searches.
59227		threats	eng	The removal of the forest habitat from above the caves has caused the caves to dry out, resulting in the apparent disappearance of this species.
59228		conservation	eng	The type locality is on the edge of the Parque Nacional Los Mármoles, but it is not certain that the species still occurs here, or anywhere else, and additional survey work is required to ascertain whether or not this species survives in the wild. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59228		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a cave near Durango town, in northern Hidalgo, Mexico, at 2,160 m asl. However, the exact location of the cave has not been recorded, and the range map shows the approximate area of collection.
59228		habitat	eng	It is a crevice-dweller that apparently requires humid caverns in pine-oak forest in order to survive. It breeds by direct development and is terrestrial.
59228		population	eng	It has not been seen since it was first described, despite subsequent cave searches in the region where it was first found.
59228		threats	eng	The forest habitat surrounding the caves is under severe pressure from expanding agriculture, and from wood extraction. Like <em>Chiropterotriton magnipes</em>, this species might have disappeared due to the drying of its caves following the removal of forest.
59229		conservation	eng	It is recorded from Parque Nacional El Chico (where it is now extremely rare, but these records might refer to a different species) and from the Reserva de la Biósfera El Cielo (where it is also very rare). Further research is necessary to understand the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59229		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern San Luis Potosi, southern Tamaulipas, and southern Hidalgo, Mexico, at 2,000-2,900m asl. The Hidalgo population might belong to an undescribed species.
59229		habitat	eng	It lives in pine and pine-oak forests, only in undisturbed habitat, where it lives in arboreal bromeliads (and is also a crevice-dweller). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59229		population	eng	It used to be abundant in Parque Nacional El Chico (Hidalgo), but in the early 1980s it largely disappeared, although a few individuals have been found there in recent years. It can no longer be found at its type locality in San Luis Potosi.
59229		threats	eng	The cause of its decline is not clear, although it could be very sensitive to even minor modifications of its forest habitat. Most of the forests where this species has been recorded have been severely transformed by agricultural activities and logging. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water).
59230		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Cumbres del Ajusco and Parque Nacional Iztaccíhuatl-Popocatépetl.
59230		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the southern and eastern margins of the Mexican Plateau, Mexico, above 2,500m asl.
59230		habitat	eng	It lives in pine-oak forest and fir forest and can survive in slightly disturbed habitats. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59230		population	eng	It is quite a common species.
59230		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to logging and human settlement.
59231		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, although it is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59231		distribution	eng	This species is known from several locations around Cerro Potosi near Ojo de Agua, north-west to Galeana town, Nuevo Leon, north-eastern Mexico, above 3,000m asl.
59231		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in pine and pine-fir forest, and its preferred microhabitats are under fallen logs and under bark. It can also live in somewhat disturbed habitat. Breeding is by direct development.
59231		population	eng	The most recent surveys indicate that this species is still present and abundant.
59231		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is probably relatively secure, although it is at risk from logging.
59232		conservation	eng	In Hidalgo it occurs on private land, and not in any protected areas. The record from Querétaro is from Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve (Gillingwater and Patrikeev 2004). Protection of the forests in the Husteca region is urgently required. Further research is also needed to clarify its taxonomic status.
59232		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area around Tianguistengo in north-eastern Hidalgo, Mexico, at altitudes of 1,640m asl and slightly higher. A record from Querétaro may also pertain to this species (Gillingwater and Patrikeev 2004).
59232		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid pine-oak or cloud forests, living in low vegetation and on the ground. It reproduces by direct development.
59232		population	eng	It can be found but is uncommon.
59232		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is widespread deforestation, which is taking place in its only known locality due to expanding agricultural development and the extraction of wood.
59233		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas, making formal protection of its remaining cloud forest habitat an urgent priority.
59233		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, Pena Verde, and at Sierra de Mazateca on the Guelatao-Vista Hermosa transect, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is 1,530-2,050m asl. The species is presumed to occur between the known localities in appropriate habitat, but further data are required.
59233		habitat	eng	The species inhabits undisturbed cloud forests, being found in bromeliads and other epiphytic plants, and in leaf-litter, and does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59233		population	eng	It is still occasionally recorded but considered to be very rare.
59233		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is loss of habitat due to logging, expanding agricultural activity, and human settlements.
59234		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is therefore an urgent need for the protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species. Survey work is necessary to determine its current population status.
59234		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in northern Jitotol, north-central Chiapas, Mexico, at 1,200-1,550m asl. It is presumed to occur between the known localities in appropriate habitat, but further data are required.
59234		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest, and seems to require microclimates with very high humidity. It has been found at roadsides, but it is not known whether or not it can live in disturbed habitats. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59234		population	eng	It is likely to be very rare; only 3-4 specimens of this species are known and recent surveys have failed to record any specimens.
59234		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, and also logging.
59235		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional El Cusuco.
59235		distribution	eng	This species occurs at middle and high elevations in Parque Nacional El Cusuco, in the Sierra de Omoa in Cortés Department, in extreme north-western Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 1,220-2,200m asl. It probably also occurs in nearby eastern Guatemala, although these records might involve <i>Cryptotriton wakei</i>.
59235		habitat	eng	It lives in pre-montane and lower montane wet forest and cloud forest, and is able to withstand some habitat degradation, providing this is not severe. It is an arboreal species, living in bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59235		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species. It was recorded from Parque Nacional El Cusuco in 2004-2006 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007, Townsend et al., 2006).
59235		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to expanding subsistence agriculture, in particular the creation of coffee farms. It might also be adversely affected by prolonged periods of drought.
59236		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Biotopo del Quetzal where its habitat is well protected.
59236		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the vicinity of Purulhá in the Biotopo del Quetzal (upwards of 1,660m elevation) and nearby mountains, Guatemala. The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptotriton</span> at Finca Volcán may belong to this species, but requires further investigation.
59236		habitat	eng	It lives in humid cloud forest in lower montane wet forest, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It is typically found in arboreal bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59236		population	eng	It was formerly a common species, but now appears to be rare (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).
59236		threats	eng	There is extensive habitat loss through much of its range due in particular to expanding subsistence farming, and the cultivation of ferns for floral arrangements, which are then exported to Japan.
59237		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the 'Quetzal Reserve' close to Finca Insula in Chiapas, Mexico (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). This species is in need of improved habitat protection and close population monitoring.
59237		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to south-western Guatemala, being known only from the southern slopes of Volcán Tajumulco and adjacent volcanic highlands in San Marcos, Guatemala. It occurs at elevations of 1,700-2,700m asl.
59237		habitat	eng	It lives in humid montane forest and forest edges, surviving only in mature old-growth forest. It is a bromeliad specialist. Breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59237		population	eng	It used to be extremely common, but seems to have undergone declines: when it was discovered in the 1930s, nearly 60 specimens were collected just by searching bromeliads at the type locality. Forty years later, they could be found in around half of all bromeliads inspected. It is now even less common (2005) than it was in the 1970s (Carlos Vásquez pers. comm. 2007).
59237		threats	eng	Much of its forest habitat has been cleared for livestock, cultivation of crops, and wood extraction. The reasons behind the decline in density of this species is not known.
59238		conservation	eng	The type locality is inside a proposed semi-protected area (multi-use forest), but it is not known if the species still survives at the type locality and further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild.
59238		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single site south-west of San Juan Ixcoy, in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, at about 2,860m asl. There is a probable recent record from Villa Alicia San Martin Cuchumatanes, but this needs to be confirmed.
59238		habitat	eng	It lives in high-elevation, very humid oak forest. Individuals have been found under moss and bark on large fallen trees; it has also been found in moss, but not in bromeliads. It presumably breeds by direct development.
59238		population	eng	There is no information on current population status.
59238		threats	eng	Although there has been extensive forest clearance for timber around the type locality, a small patch of oak forest (less than 10km2) is known to remain in the area.
59239		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59239		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on Cerro Pres Picos in extreme south-western Chiapas, Mexico, above 2,000m asl.
59239		habitat	eng	It is a bromeliad dweller in cloud forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59239		population	eng	There is no recent information on the population status of this species, but it was common in its very small range in the 1970s.
59239		threats	eng	It lives in a very remote area, and its habitat remains largely intact. Its small range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
59240		conservation	eng	The Montañas de Cuilco are not protected, and habitat protection is an urgent priority for this salamander's conservation. Adoption of organic coffee practices is also encouraged so as to put less pressure on the remaining forest (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.
59240		distribution	eng	This species is  known from two localities in the Montañas de Cuilco, western Guatemala: Montañas de Peña Blanca, 17.1 km W (by road) from the Colotenango-Cuilco road, past San Francisco El Retiro, at 3,000 m asl, and La Cumbre, 14.1 km (by road) from CA-1 on the El Paraíso-Oja Blanca road, at&#160; 2,100 m asl (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). These localities are separated by 10 km, and on the basis of forested areas surrounding the known localities, this species' range is estimated to be at least 90 km<sup>2</sup> (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). The range could potentially be larger, perhaps also occurring in Mexico close to the border (about 1 km) with Guatemala (where the elevational range of the Montañas de Cuilco on the Mexican side is comparable to that of Guatemala), but so far no records are known from Mexico and additional field work is required to verify whether it occurs elsewhere other than its known localities (S. Rovito pers. comm March 2011).
59240		habitat	eng	It occurs in bromeliads or under bark on logs and stumps in forest at the subtropical-temperate forest transition zone. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59240		population	eng	It is considered to be a locally common species, and has been found in large numbers in the past (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). It was last seen January 2009 (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). The population is considered to be severely fragmented given that it is known from only two sites which are considered to be heavily impacted by human activities and that the species' biology may not be conducive to dispersal between suitable habitat patches.
59240		threats	eng	Forest clearance continues at the type locality, mainly as a result of wood extraction and expanding small-holder farming (i.e. coffee farms; C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). Habitat degradation is considered to affect a majority of the species' known range, as the two localities where the species is known from are heavily impacted by human activity (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011).
59241		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species is within the 12,000-ha Parque Nacional Montaña Santa Bárbara.
59241		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Parque Nacional Montaña Santa Bárbara, in western Honduras, at 1,829-2,744m asl.
59241		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane wet forest and montane rainforest, being found in arboreal, and sometimes terrestrial, bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59241		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat. Recent surveys found many salamanders, with little indication of decline in numbers in recent years (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).
59241		threats	eng	Earlier reports suggested that there was continued forest loss in the range of this species due to expanding subsistence agriculture and forest fires. However, recent surveys have found that there are large areas of suitable habitat without roads or people, and logging operations or significant expansion of agriculture into the park is considered unlikely (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).
59242		conservation	eng	It might occur in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, which is close to Cerro Ovando, but it has not so far been found there, despite searches. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59242		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality: Cerro Ovando, south-western Chiapas, Mexico, at 2,000m asl.
59242		habitat	eng	It lives in pine-oak forest, and is found only in bromeliads. It is not found in disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59242		population	eng	It is probably common in its very small range; on one occasion, 34 individuals were found in a single bromeliad.
59242		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is potentially threatened by expanding agriculture and wood extraction, but fortunately this species occurs in an area where anthropogenic impacts on its habitat have been minimal.
59243		conservation	eng	This species does occur in several protected areas, but to assist its conservation forest buffers should also be left around seepages and headwater streams in areas scheduled for logging (Petranka 1998).
59243		distribution	eng	This species occurs in relatively isolated, localized populations in south-western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, and north-central Alabama, USA. In Alabama, an apparent hiatus exists between western populations in the Fall Line Hills region and eastern populations in the Blue Ridge and adjacent piedmont regions, and an apparently disjunctive population is also present in the piedmont of north-eastern Georgia (Harrison 1992). This species occurs at up to 210-1,340m asl in the east, and as low as 30m asl in west-central Alabama. A record from Transylvania County, North Carolina, is based on a misidentified <em>Desmognathus wrighti</em>. There are an estimated 21-100 extant locations in North Carolina (H.W. LeGrand pers. comm.), while Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped 14 collection sites in Tennessee. Williamson and Moulis (1994) mapped 52 collection locations in Georgia. There are possibly 6-20 extant occurrences in Alabama (J.R. Bailey pers. comm.). It was recently discovered at two locations in South Carolina (Livingston, Spencer and Stuart 1995), where the conditions of the occurrences were considered good, although these occurences have not been extensively surveyed (S.H. Bennett pers. comm.).
59243		habitat	eng	It can be found beneath leaf-litter or surface debris on the ground in mixed hardwood forests near small creeks, springs, and seepage areas, and also occurs in damp shaded ravines. Females usually oviposit beneath clumps of moss or other objects within or near seepages or in the vicinity of small streams. Development is direct, so there are no aquatic larvae. Outside the breeding season these salamanders are usually found beneath leaf-litter on the banks of small streams or in the vicinity of seepage areas. They are seldom active on the surface and are probably not very adaptable to habitat degradation.
59243		population	eng	The total adult population size of this species is unknown. Overall, it is common to sometimes very common in undisturbed, suitable habitat. However, it is sometimes not present in what seems to be suitable habitat. It was not considered rare by the Scientific Council on Reptiles and Amphibians in North Carolina during the late 1980s (H.E. LeGrand pers. comm.). In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993). This species is declining in Alabama (J.R. Bailey pers. comm.), and possibly also in North Carolina (A.L. Braswell pers. comm.). It is listed in Tennessee as in need of management (Redmond and Scott 1996), and is believed to be stable in South Carolina (S.H. Bennett pers. comm.).
59243		threats	eng	A significant threat to this species is logging, which has evidently extirpated some Alabama populations (Folkerts 1968). Southern populations are also vulnerable to intensive forest management practices such as clear-cutting. It is moderately threatened in Alabama by conversion of hardwood forest to pine plantations (J.R. Bailey pers. comm.).
59244		conservation	eng	Occurs in several managed areas; one third of known occurrences are protected. Additional ravines within the range of the species should be surveyed, and the upstream and downstream extent of each occurrence should be determined. The following measures are needed: prevent pollution, siltation, and impoundment; maintain forested slopes above streams; eliminate feral hogs, when present; protect via acquisition or easement any occurrences not yet within managed areas.
59244		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to lower south-eastern USA (Alabama, Florida, Georgia). This species is known from watersheds of upper Choctawhatchee River in Alabama; upper Apalachicola River, upper Ochlockonee River and lower Chipola River in Florida; and Chattahoochee River and lower Flint River in Georgia. Lower Chattahoochee River drainage basin from the Fall Line at Columbus, Georgia, south to the northern edge of the Dougherty Plain physiographic region of Georgia and Alabama to about the Miller-Early county line in Georgia; abundant in ravines along the eastern valley wall of the Apalachicola River downriver from the town of Chattahoochee, Florida, to Outside Lake near the town of Estiffanulga; ranges to about 50km upstream from Chattahoochee along the Pelham Escarpment; common in ravines along the Ochlockonee River and its two major tributaries, Little River and Telogia Creek, in the Tallahassee Red Hills of Florida; a few populations are known from the lower Chipola River in ravines above its confluence with the Apalachicola River (Means 1993). Populations probably occur in most/all suitable microhabitats within the range. See Means and Karlin (1989) for further details and map.
59244		habitat	eng	It can be found within and adjacent to seepage streams within steep-sided ravines in slope forests; sometimes also in mucky floodplain and bottomland forests. Undisturbed, pristine ravines and seepage streams are ideal. Uses logs, rocks, leaf-litter, and leaf packs for cover, also takes refuge in friable stream banks (Means and Karlin 1989). Eggs are attached in cluster to under surface of twig or small log or rock, and are immersed in trickling water; larvae found in very shallow water trickling through decomposing litter on saturated sites adjacent to larger brooks, on sandy or organic substrates (Means and Karlin 1989).
59244		population	eng	No concrete information regarding abundance, but probably abundant throughout range. Local populations can be very large.
59244		threats	eng	In general it is not currently significantly threatened. Relies on good water quality. Potential future threats include: impoundment and/or pollution of streams; possible siltation from logging uplands/ravines; disturbance by hogs. Tolerates some degradation of habitat.
59245		conservation	eng	Important conservation measures include protection and maintenance of mature bottomland hardwood forests.
59245		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Coastal Plain, USA, from southeastern Virginia to central Florida, west to eastern Texas (Means 1999).
59245		habitat	eng	Mucky areas near springs, swamps, cypress heads, mud-bottomed streams, floodplain pools, and ravine streams where pockets of organic debris collect; usually in or near moving water. Its environment is usually acidic. Hides under leaves, logs, or debris or in burrows during day. Eggs are laid under or in logs or in depressions under moss or other cover near water. The larvae develop in water.
59245		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.
59245		threats	eng	Loss of mature bottomland hardwood forest is the major potential threat.
59246		conservation	eng	Maintenance of wooded buffers along small streams is needed (Petranka 1998). Occurs in Queen Wilhelmine State Park, Arkansas (A. Karlin pers. comm., 1997). Probably occurs in Ouachita State Park and the Hot Springs area; has not been collected there (S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997).
59246		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Ouachita Mountains in southeastern Oklahoma and westcentral Arkansas, United States (Means 1999); elevational range 120-790m asl (Petranka 1998). In Oklahoma, 19 sites were documented from 1993-1995 (M. Lomolino pers. comm., 1997). Karlin <em>et al.</em> (1993) documented 49 collection sites from 1977-1984, including 11 locations in Oklahoma and 38 locations in Arkansas. Karlin (pers. comm., 1997) recently documented two additional locations near Little Rock, Arkansas, in the Arkansas River.
59246		habitat	eng	It can be found in rocky, gravelly streams. Adults are usually found in water under rocks, juveniles and larvae usually under rocks in shallow water or in wet gravel or rock rubble of seepages. Egg clutches were found chambers in mud in seepage areas at depth of about 0.5m near permanent water table (Trauth 1988). The larval period lasts about one year.
59246		population	eng	Fewer than 1000 individuals probably occur at most collection locations; at western end of range abundance drops to fewer than 100 individuals per location; most abundant in central Ouachita Mountains (A. Karlin pers. comm., 1997). Probably over 10,000 individuals range wide; numbers decrease toward eastern end of range (S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997). No hard abundance information is available. It is probably slightly declining; during annual collections with herpetology classes, getting harder to find; no hard population data available to determine trends (A. Karlin pers. comm. 1997). Its population is generally stable. There might have slight declines in timbered areas due to stream clogging from siltation, but the species recolonises after the stream recovers (S. Trauth pers. comm. 1997).
59246		threats	eng	The greatest potential threat is stream siltation resulting from timbering activities (A. Karlin pers. comm., 1997; S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997; Petranka 1998). Populations near Little Rock and Hot Springs, Arkansas, might be threatened by future urban development (A. Karlin and S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997). However, most populations are basically secure, and it is not significantly threatened.
59247		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
59247		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Southwestern Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, USA, from somewhere between Linville Falls and McKinney Gap (Burke and McDowell counties, North Carolina) on the Blue Ridge Divide and Iron Mountain Gap on the North Carolina-Tennessee boundary (Mitchell-Unicoi counties, North Carolina-Tennessee) to the valley of the Pigeon River (Haywood and Buncombe counties, North Carolina); this area includes the Blue Ridge, Black, Bald, and Unaka mountains (Tilley and Mahoney 1996).
59247		habitat	eng	It is usually found at lower elevations and in winter usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs, and small streams; animals may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations, characteristic inhabitant of floor of spruce-fir forests. It is often abundant on wet rock faces. Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams. The larvae develop in water. Clear-cutting of dry sites strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993), but the species is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998). However, much of the range of the species is well protected, and it is not significantly threatened.
59247		population	eng	It is one of the most common species in the southern Appalachian Mountains (Petranka 1998).
59247		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of dry sites strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993), but the species is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998). However, much of the range of the species is well protected, and it is not significantly threatened.
59248		conservation	eng	Research is needed to clarify distribution, population, and threat status.
59248		distribution	eng	This species is known from tributaries of the west fork of Wolf Creek and Helton Creek, in Union County, Georgia, USA. These streams flow independently into the Nottely River, which is a tributary of the Hiwassee River, in the Tennessee River drainage. This species might be more widespread in the Nottely River watershed.
59248		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic species found along small streams, and which has aquatic larvae (Camp <em>et al.</em> 2002).
59248		population	eng	Its total adult population size and trends are unknown, although it has been observed to be abundant where collected.
59248		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
59249		conservation	eng	None are needed.
59249		distribution	eng	This species occurs in North America from southern New Brunswick, southeastern Quebec, and southern Ontario (Kamstra 1991) southwest to eastern Ohio, southern Illinois, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana; disjunctive populations in northeastern Arkansas and southern Arkansas-northern Louisiana; southeast to western and central Carolinas, northern and central Georgia, and the Florida panhandle. Populations in the southern part of the range were proposed as a distinct species (D. conanti) by Titus and Larson (1996), but the proposed split is premature without further data from the contact zone (Petranka 1998).
59249		habitat	eng	It can be found in rock-strewn woodland streams, seepages, and springs in north; floodplains, sloughs, and mucky sites along upland streams in south. Usually near running or trickling water. It hides under leaves, rocks, or other objects in or near water, or in burrows. Eggs are laid near water under moss (e.g., in Tennessee; see Hom 1988) or rocks, in logs, and in stream-bank cavities. Its larval stage usually aquatic.
59249		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. There are numerous stable populations throughout the range.
59249		threats	eng	No major widespread threats. Locally, populations are reduced by water pollution from mining runoff and urbanization impacts (Petranka 1998).
59250		conservation	eng	It occurs almost entirely within national park boundaries; most populations are protected (Petranka 1998).
59250		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Great Smoky Mountains, Balsam Mountains, and Plott Balsam Mountains, 900-2,024m asl, western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, USA (Petranka 1998). Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped 24 locations in Tennessee. Estimated 21-100 sites in North Carolina (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1997); condition of sites estimated to be 100% good; no historical information available (K. Langdon pers. comm., 1997).
59250		habitat	eng	It can be found in small streams and seepage areas, in leaf-litter, and under surface objects on floor of cool, moist, red spruce-Fraser fir and hardwood forests. It can also be found on wet rock faces. The larvae develop in water.
59250		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown. Numbers believed stable, but not adequately surveyed (K. Langdon pers. comm., 1997). Common; populations have been stable over time (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997).
59250		threats	eng	There is no reason to consider it threatened (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997). It might be detrimentally affected by acid rain, but there is no hard evidence. The highest deposition rates of nitrogen and sulfate in North America occur on the highest peaks of the Great Smoky Mountains (K. Langdon pers. comm., 1997). Due to a highly restricted range and proximity to a major road, a small population on the edge of the range on Waterrock Knob along the Blue Ridge Parkway, North Carolina, is very vulnerable to extirpation (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997).
59251		conservation	eng	Prevention of stream siltation and impoundment are the primary conservation needs. It occurs in several protected areas.
59251		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Southern Appalachian Mountains, USA, from southwestern Virginia (Whitetop area, Grayson and Washington counties) though eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina to northeastern Georgia and northwestern South Carolina; elevations of 305-1,676m asl (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998). Also reported from Patrick and Floyd counties, Virginia. Extralimital records might represent introductions via discarded fish bait; further study is needed.
59251		habitat	eng	It can be found in small to medium-sized, cool upland streams or spring runs. It hides under rocks in shallow water, most commonly in riffles. It is intolerant of siltation. It attaches eggs to undersides of rocks or logs in main current of stream.
59251		population	eng	Total adult population size and trends are unknown.
59251		threats	eng	Dams have eliminated many populations (Petranka 1998). Forestry and agricultural practices that result in stream siltation are a threat (Martof 1962, Petranka 1998). Deforestation or forest fires might render streams unsuitable (see Mitchell 1991). However, much of its habitat is protected, and so threats tend to be localized.
59252		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59252		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the eastern USA from southwestern Pennsylvania southwest in uplands through West Virginia, western Maryland, western and northern Virginia, eastern Kentucky, western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, western South Carolina, and northern Georgia to central Alabama and disjunctive to southern Alabama and the extreme western tip of the Florida panhandle (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998). Evidently it does not occur north or west of the Ohio River in the northern part of the range.
59252		habitat	eng	It can be found in mountain streams, small rocky spring-fed brooks in hardwood-shaded ravines, seepages, muddy section of streams. Hides under rocks or moss, and in burrows in mud banks. Sometimes perches on wet rocks. Eggs are laid on undersides of rocks or leaves in water or seepages; also under or in logs near water.
59252		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).
59252		threats	eng	No major pervasive threats are known.
59253		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59253		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA. Ridges of the Ridge and Valley Physiographic Province, including Brumley, Clinch, Walker, and Potts mountains of southwestern Virginia; Cumberland Mountains and Plateau of southeastern Kentucky, and the Allegheny Mountains and Plateau of West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York through the Adirondack Mountains to southern Quebec (Tilley and Mahoney 1996). Populations in the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee have recently been described as a new species; D. ochrophaeus (Anderson and Tilley, 2003).
59253		habitat	eng	It can be found at lower elevations and in winter it usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs, and small streams. Animals may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations, characteristic inhabitant of floor of spruce-fir forests. It is often abundant on wet rock faces. Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams. The larvae develop in water.
59253		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 100,000.
59253		threats	eng	No major threats of widespread significance.
59254		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59254		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the United States. Two allopatric units: (1) Appalachian Plateau of northeastern Alabama and (2) southwestern Blue Ridge Physiographic Province south of the Pigeon River (the latter including the Balsam, Blue Ridge, Cowee, Great Smoky, Nanatahala, Snowbird, Tusquitee, and Unicoi mountains and low-elevation populations in the gorges of the Hiwassee, Ocoee, and Tugaloo rivers), Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee; at least some of the populations in the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee might represent this species (Tilley and Mahoney 1996).
59254		habitat	eng	Habitat ranges from low gorges to the highest mountaintops in the Great Smoky Mountains (Petranka 1998). The species often is abundant on wet rock faces. At lower elevations and in winter, this salamander usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs, and small streams; it may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations and is a characteristic inhabitant of the floor of spruce-fir forests. Individuals frequently climb plants on rainy nights (Petranka 1998). Adults and juveniles congregate in seepages and underground retreats in winter (Shealy 1975). Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams, usually at or slightly above the water surface (Pope 1924, Martof and Rose 1963, Forester 1977, Bruce 1990, Petranka 1998). The larvae develop in water.
59254		population	eng	This is one of the most common salamander species in the southern Appalachian Mountains (Petranka 1998).
59254		threats	eng	There are no major pervasive threats.
59255		conservation	eng	It is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998). It occurs in several protected areas.
59255		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, USA, from Floyd County, Virginia, to somewhere between Linville Falls and McKinney Gap on the Blue Ridge Divide (Burke and McDowell counties, North Carolina) and to the headwaters of Toms and Clark creeks about 1.5km northeast of Iron Mountain Gap on the North Carolina-Tennessee boundary (Tilley and Mahoney 1996) (this headwaters area is in Mitchell and Unicoi counties, according to Tilley and Mahoney 1996, or in Avery and Carter counties, according to Petranka 1998).
59255		habitat	eng	It can be found at lower elevations and in winter usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs and small streams. Animals may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations, characteristic inhabitant of floor of spruce-fir forests. It is often abundant on wet rock faces. Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams. The larvae develop in water.
59255		population	eng	It is common at higher elevations throughout its range (Petranka 1998).
59255		threats	eng	"Local populations are often severely depressed after clear-cutting, and low-elevation populations might take many decades to recover following intensive timbering" (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1994, Petranka 1998).
59256		conservation	eng	Regulation of collection for use as fish bait might be appropriate in some areas.
59256		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Southern West Virginia through mountains to northern Georgia, USA. Scattered populations in South Carolina and Georgia Piedmont, possibly due to use as fish bait. Generally found at elevations above 500m asl to at least 1,646m asl, but it might occur at lower elevations if the conditions are suitable (Petranka 1998).
59256		habitat	eng	It can be found in or along swift, boulder-strewn mountain streams. Also near waterfalls and places where cold water drips or seeps. Refuges are in rock crevices or in burrows (Camp and Lee 1996). It is usually under rocks in daytime. Sometimes basks in sun on wet rocks. Eggs are laid on undersides of rocks or on tree roots in streambed, apparently in headwater tributaries in North Carolina (Bruce 1985). The larvae develop in water.
59256		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).
59256		threats	eng	Locally populations might be depleted through use as fish bait, and streams exposed to acidic leachate from mining could experience negative impacts (Petranka 1998).
59257		conservation	eng	Most occur on federal land including national forests, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and the Blue Ridge Parkway (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1997).
59257		distribution	eng	This species can be found in higher elevations of the Unicoi, Cheoah, Great Smoky, and Great Balsam mountain ranges of the southwestern Blue Ridge Physiographic Province in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, United States (Tilley 2000); found at elevations of 640-1,805m asl, usually above 1,000m asl (Conant and Collins 1991, Tilley 2000).
59257		habitat	eng	It can be found in stream headwaters and seepage areas, where ground water percolates to surface through muck, mossy rocks, Impatiens, and nettles. It can also be found under rocks in a few mm of water at margins of seeps, among gravel and cobble where water percolates. Eggs are laid mostly beneath mosses growing on rocks, on logs, or on soil surface. Nest sites 16-83 cm from nearest open water, commonly beneath mosses on logs lying in and around seepage areas (Jones 1986). The larvae develop in water.
59257		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown. Tilley (2000) mapped more than 100 collection sites; these represent at least a few dozen distinct populations (assuming a separation gap of 1km between populations). (S. Tilley pers. comm., 1997).
59257		threats	eng	Not threatened (S. Tilley pers. comm., 1997). The major threat is probably acid rain, but there is no hard evidence (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1997). Potential threats: sensitive to stream pollution and siltation (such as in coal mining areas) (Petranka 1998).
59258		conservation	eng	Population monitoring needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
59258		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Eastern Kentucky and adjacent southwestern Virginia, southward to eastern Tennessee, USA (Barbour 1971, Conant and Collins 1991, Redmond and Scott 1996). It can be found at elevations of 300-1,220m asl.
59258		habitat	eng	It can be found in mountain brooks, spring runs, and roadside puddles in wooded mountainous terrain; Adults hide under rocks or logs in water, or in splash zone crevices. Larvae and juveniles occupy smaller seeps. Eggs are laid under rocks or in or under logs at streamside.
59258		population	eng	Total adult population size and trends are unknown.
59258		threats	eng	Threats include habitat degradation by siltation and pollution. However, it is not significantly threatened through most of its range.
59259		conservation	eng	Virginia populations are well protected, occurring entirely within the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area and national forest lands (Pague 1991; S. Roble pers. comm., 1997). However, logging activities and recreational development potentially threaten some parts of this range (Pague 1991). Mitchell (1991) recommended that trail development not include increased access to high-elevation spruce-fir forests (to discourage over collecting).
59259		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the United States. Southern Appalachians from southwestern Virginia into eastern Tennessee and southwestern North Carolina, primarily in high-elevation forests (Harrison 2000): Mount Rogers, Whitetop, Grandfather, and Roan mountains, Black Mountains, Great Smoky, Plott Balsam, and Great Balsam mountains, Wayah Bals, and Standing Indian Mountain. It can be found at elevations of 762-2,082m asl (Harrison 2000).
59259		habitat	eng	It is found chiefly in spruce-fir forests, also (in lower abundance) hardwood forests at lower elevations (Harrison 2000), though Petranka (1998) stated that these salamanders often occur at relatively high densities in mature mesophytic cove forests lower elevations. Hides under moss, leaf-litter, logs, bark on stumps, and rocks. Ascends trees to about 2m in wet or foggy weather. Spends winter in underground seepages. Eggs are laid in underground cavities among rocks of spring seeps, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59259		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown. It is common in old-growth forests, but uncommon in young forest stands (Petranka 1998). It is rare throughout its range (Pague 1991). Populations appear to be viable within the Virginia portion of the range (Mitchell 1991). Virginia population appears to be stable (J. Organ pers. comm., 1997). Populations across range are stable, common, and healthy; no reason to consider threatened (S. Tilly pers., comm., 1997). In Tennessee, listed as in need of management (Redmond and Scott 1996).
59259		threats	eng	Threats include fragmentation of spruce-fir forest through logging and increased recreational development, factors that open the forest canopy (e.g., acid rain, spruce budworm, etc.), and (locally) over collecting (Pague 1991; J. Organ pers. comm., 1997). Occurs at high elevation; much of spruce-fir forest in this area has been destroyed by acid rain and Balsam woolly aphid (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997). Red spruce-Fraser fir forests are declining in many high-elevation sites of the southern Appalachians. The extent to which local populations are being affected as these forests disappear is not known (Petranka 1998). Any loss of habitat would be a serious threat to populations in Virginia (Pague 1991).
59260		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas. E. e. klauberi occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59260		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern British Columbia in Canada, south through the Coastal Ranges of the USA to extreme northwestern Baja California and the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California in Mexico (Mahrdt <em>et al.</em> 1998); and along the western slopes of Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada in California in the USA. It is absent from Sacramento-San Joaquin valley, California. It occurs as a large number of separate subspecies. The subspecies E. e. klauberi occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California, Mexico, above 2,000m asl. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of about 2,350m asl (Stebbins 1985). See Moritz <em>et al.</em> (1992) for a general but up-to-date distribution map.
59260		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the north: Douglas-fir/maple forests, forest clearings. In coastal areas, redwood forest, chaparral, oak woodland, canyons. Sierra Nevada: pine-oak-incense cedar forests. In dry or cold weather: in caves, underground, in rotting logs. Eggs are laid underground, or under the bark of or within rotting logs (Stebbins 1985), where they develop directly without a larval stage. E. e. klauberi lives in mixed conifer forest and lays its eggs on the ground.
59260		population	eng	In the USA and Canada the total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Its population appears to be stable. It is a rare species in Mexico, there have been only a few observations, but they are still found.
59260		threats	eng	In moist climates, ensatinas tolerate intensive forestry practices fairly well, but in drier climates recently logged areas have lower population densities than do old growth forests, presumably reflecting moisture differences (see Petranka 1998). In Mexico the nominate subspecies is probably heavily impacted by the loss of habitat as a result of the development and expansion of vineyards.
59261		conservation	eng	In minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998).
59261		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Eastern North America. It is also found in Southern Quebec and eastern Ontario south to northern Virginia, eastern West Virginia, and central Ohio; isolated populations in southern Labrador (Jacobs 1987, Conant and Collins 1991, Sever 1999).
59261		habitat	eng	It can be found in rocky brooks, springs, and seepages; animals may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet warm weather. Bahret (1996) documented a breeding population in an acidic, fish-free lake in New York; occurred to depths of 19.5m. Adults hide under objects in or near water. In New York, rarely found on soils of low pH (Wyman 1988, Wyman and Jancola 1992). Eggs typically are laid on underside of submerged rocks, logs, or aquatic plants. Bahret (1996) found eggs in a lake at depths of 9.0-13.5 m, on the topmost leaves of water moss, far from shore and from surface drainage inlets.
59261		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Many stable populations.
59261		threats	eng	No major pervasive threats. Often common in and along streams in semi-cleared areas and in second-growth woods surrounded by suburban areas (G. Hammerson pers. obs), though Petranka (1998) stated that the species is often absent from urban areas or highly disturbed landscapes such as result from intensive timbering, land clearing, stream pollution, and stream siltation.
59262		conservation	eng	Research on species and range limits, population status, and threats needed.
59262		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is incompletely known. Harrison and Guttman (2003) stated that it is known from portions of the piedmont in both North and South Carolina, the upper coastal plain in South Carolina, and portions of the central coastal plain in North Carolina, USA. Additionally, it has been collected in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida (Jensen pers. comm.). This species corresponds in part with the previously recognized "yellow morph" of <em>Eurycea quadridigitata</em>. Harrison and Guttman (2003) reported that populations of the yellow morph from South Carolina and Louisiana appear to comprise two species, based on genetic differences. Thus further study is needed before the range of <em>E. chamberlaini</em> can be precisely described.
59262		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats but seems to prefer seepage areas near streams or ponds, particularly in piedmont and upper coastal plain areas. The larvae develop in water.
59262		population	eng	Harrison and Guttman (2003) mapped 21 occupied sites in North Carolina and South Carolina, managing to list 50 paratypes, and to observe 1-8 specimens per site. This species is therefore considered not particularly rare nor abundant. It is known from populations in other states too.
59262		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
59263		conservation	eng	The type locality for this species is located in a municipal park. Salado salamanders are listed as a Candidate species for Federal listing. Habitat protection and population monitoring of this species is needed.
59263		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Big Boiling (= Main, Salado, or Siren) Springs and Robertson Springs at Salado, Bell County, Texas, United States (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Salamanders that might represent this species have been found in springs of nearby Buttermilk Creek (G. Longley pers. comm. to Chippindale; Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is known from 2-3 sites, though additional occurrences might remain undetected (these salamanders are elusive and difficult to find) (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59263		habitat	eng	It is an entirely aquatic species, known only from the immediate vicinity of spring outflows, under rocks, and in gravel substrate (Chippindale 2005). Breeding takes place in water.
59263		population	eng	Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (2000) collected most specimens in 1989-1991, when several could sometimes be found on a single visit. Between 1991 and 1998, no additional animals were located despite more than 20 visits to the type locality; one specimen was found in August 1998.
59263		threats	eng	Most spring outlets at Salado have been altered to some degree, and several groundwater contamination incidents have occurred recently (and more may occur in the future) (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59264		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
59264		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA. It occurs in Illinois, Indiana, southern Ohio, western West Virginia, and central Virginia south to northern Florida, southern Alabama, southern Mississippi, and southeastern Louisiana (Jacobs 1987, Conant and Collins 1991, Sever 1999). An old record for Michigan needs verification (Sever 1999).
59264		habitat	eng	It can be found on rocky brooks, springs, seepages, river swamps (e.g., tupelo-cypress), forested floodplains with stagnant pools; it may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet warm weather. Adults hide under objects in or near flowing water. It is often found crossing roads in rainy weather during breeding season. Eggs are laid on/under submerged rocks, logs, or aquatic plants.
59264		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.
59264		threats	eng	Like many salamanders, this species is sensitive to intensive timbering, land clearing, and stream pollution and siltation, and it is often absent from urban areas and highly disturbed landscapes (Petranka 1998), but overall the species is unthreatened.
59265		conservation	eng	Forested buffers should be retained along streams and associated wetlands (Petranka 1998).
59265		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the eastern USA from Virginia and Tennessee south though the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the Gulf Coast, including eastern Louisiana and western Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Carlin 1997).
59265		habitat	eng	It can be found in forested floodplains, ditches, damp streamsides, seepage springs. It may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet weather. It hides in rock crevices, crayfish burrows, and under rocks, logs, and other debris. Eggs are laid in underground crevices associated with springs, temporary pools, and slow-moving streams; under rocks in streams; in bogs; or in woodland ponds. The larvae develop in water.
59265		population	eng	No quantitative data available but apparently regularly recorded in appropriate habitat.
59265		threats	eng	It is basically unthreatened, but widespread loss of bottomland hardwood forests likely has resulted in the loss of many populations (Petranka 1998).
59266		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park (USFWS 1999). Most of the North Carolina populations are on Nantahala National Forest lands. <em>E. junaluska</em> is a species of special concern in North Carolina and it is listed as a species in need of management in Tennessee.
59266		distribution	eng	This species is known from a portion of the Blue Ridge Mountains in south-western North Carolina and south-eastern Tennessee, USA (Conant and Collins 1991; Redmond and Scott 1996; Ryan 1997; USFWS 1999). It is extant in 17 streams (USFWS 1999).
59266		habitat	eng	Its non-breeding habitat is unknown. Adults have been found hiding under objects in or along streams where reproduction and larval development take place. They may be found on roads near creeks on rainy nights, suggesting movement between a terrestrial habitat (possibly forest) and breeding sites along streams. It does not tolerate alterations to stream habitats.
59266		population	eng	A reliable estimate of population size cannot be made (Bruce and Ryan 1995). It is rare, even where known to be present (Ryan 1997). Richard Bruce (pers. comm., 1998) rated it as the rarest salamander in North America. Natural heritage programs estimated abundance at less than 1,000 individuals in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park (Dana Soehn pers. comm., 1998) and occupied habitat in North Carolina at 10-15 miles of stream (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1998). Sever (1983) collected fewer than 50 transformed individuals in more than 10 years of fieldwork. Bruce (1982) collected only five adults during a survey period lasting over a year. A 1994-1995 survey of 63 locations yielded seven transformed individuals and no more than two adults; the remaining observations were of larvae and eggs (Bruce and Ryan 1995). There is no direct evidence of any population declines; no populations are known to have been lost since the species was described (USFWS 1999). It is possibly stable in some areas, but specific range wide information on population trends is not available. One of three populations identified during a 1994-1995 survey appeared to be stable (Bruce and Ryan 1995). The Tennessee Valley and North Carolina populations probably are stable (H. LeGrand and R. Smith pers. comm., 1998).
59266		threats	eng	This species currently appears to be unthreatened. Potential threats include siltation due to logging, road construction for logging activities, urban development, and other activities that would negatively impact water quality (Braswell 1989; H. LeGrand and R. Smith pers. comm., 1998). Due to a widely disjunctive distribution, it is quite unlikely that migration will be sufficient for recolonization of populations that experience declines or local extinctions (Ryan 1998). Reckless sampling and site disruption during spring may cause undue stress to brooding females and result in the abandonment of clutches (Bruce and Ryan 1995).
59267		conservation	eng	Its range includes Guadeloupe River State Park. It is listed as Threatened by the state of Texas, but has no special recognition by the Federal Government.
59267		distribution	eng	This species is described by Chippindale, Hillis and Price (2000) and is included in the <em>E. latitans</em> complex populations from Cascade Caverns, Bear Creek Spring, Cibolo Creek Spring, Kneedeep Cave Spring, Honey Creek Cave Spring, Less Ranch Spring, Cherry Creek Spring, Cloud Hollow Springs, and Rebecca Creek Spring, in Comal, Kerr, Kendall, and Hays counties, in the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, USA. Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (1994) noted that these populations might comprise multiple species.
59267		habitat	eng	It can be found in springs and caves containing water in limestones. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose.
59267		population	eng	No detailed population surveys have been conducted; the abundance of salamanders appears to vary considerably among localities, but actual numbers are difficult to assess.
59267		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by declining water quantity and quality.
59268		conservation	eng	Although strip mining and acid drainage from coal mining likely have impacted many populations, this species remains widely distributed and is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998).
59268		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA from southern New York to Missouri, south to Arkansas, Tennessee, extreme northeastern Mississippi, northern Alabama, extreme northwestern Georgia, western North Carolina, and northwestern Virginia (Carlin 1997).
59268		habitat	eng	It can be found in streamsides, spring runs, cave mouths, abandoned mines; also ponds in northern New Jersey (Conant and Collins 1991). Animals may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet weather. Hides in rock crevices and under rocks, logs, and other debris. Eggs are laid in underground crevices associated with springs, temporary pools, and streams; under rocks in streams; in woodland ponds; or are attached to objects in or above water in caves.
59268		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.
59268		threats	eng	It is not generally threatened.
59269		conservation	eng	Better information is needed on abundance and trends.
59269		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Eastern Oklahoma to northern Virginia, north to central Indiana, south to central Alabama, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
59269		habitat	eng	It can be found in caves (usually limestone); also rocky streams and springs, and wooded areas and fields, usually near caves or limestone outcrops. It hides under objects during day in non-cave areas, except in wet weather when it may be found in the open. Eggs are laid in cave streams or pools, springs, or in rocky streams outside caves. Larvae remain in cave pools until winter or early spring when pools begin to overflow; larvae washed into larger streams, where they remain until metamorphosis.
59269		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown.
59269		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
59270		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
59270		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA from southern Missouri to central Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma; also (at least formerly) southeastern Kansas (Conant and Collins 1991, Collins 1993, Petranka 1998).
59270		habitat	eng	It can be found in cave springs and their runs; cold, clear streams. Disperses into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet weather. It hides under rocks, logs, and other objects in or out of water. Eggs are laid on undersides of rocks in cave streams and springs.
59270		population	eng	It apparently has sizable populations although supporting evidence is sparse.
59270		threats	eng	Due to its close association with water, this species is less affected by land clearing and deforestation than are many other salamanders (Petranka 1998).
59271		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of its habitat. It is a candidate for both state and federal listing.
59271		distribution	eng	This species can be found in springs and possibly one cave associated with drainages of the south, middle, and north forks of the San Gabriel River, Williamson County, in the northern Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, USA; populations from the Cowan Creek drainage and from Bat Well in the Berry Creek drainage are provisionally assigned to this species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Cowan Creek drains into Berry Creek, which drains into the San Gabriel River below the city of Georgetown (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59271		habitat	eng	It is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. They are known only from the immediate vicinity of spring outflows, under rocks and leaves and in gravel substrate, and from two water-containing caves. Nothing is known of its breeding biology, though some other spring-dwelling species of central Texas <em>Eurycea</em> are thought to deposit eggs in gravel substrates.
59271		population	eng	The population of this species is apparently declining.
59271		threats	eng	Populations within the city of Georgetown proper probably are on the brink of extinction (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Development of retirement and leisure communities (Sun City Georgetown), and quarrying (Middle Fork San Gabriel River), are taking place near some salamander populations, but currently these do not appear to be a major threat to salamander habitat (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59272		conservation	eng	It does not appear to occur in any protected areas. They receive no protection by either the state of Texas or by the Federal Government. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59272		distribution	eng	This species is formerly thought to be a wide-ranging species (Sweet 1984). Recent genetic data indicate restriction to Helotes Creek Spring (Bexar County), Leon Springs (Bexar County), and Mueller's Spring (Kendall County), in the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, USA (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59272		habitat	eng	It occurs in springs in limestones, under rocks and leaves, and in gravel substrate. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown in the wild, but closely related species are thought to deposit eggs in gravel substrates. Bogart (1967) described courtship and oviposition in this species; in the laboratory, eggs were deposited on a variety of substrates.
59272		population	eng	No detailed population surveys have been conducted; they can be common at spring outflows, but their abundance appears to vary considerably among localities, and actual numbers are difficult to assess.
59272		threats	eng	It is poorly known, but presumably vulnerable to water quality degradation and aquifer loss.
59273		conservation	eng	Further research is needed to resolve its taxonomic status.
59273		distribution	eng	According to Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (1994, 2000) this species is assigned to the following populations of <em>Eurycea pterophila</em>: Fern Bank Spring, Peavey's Springs, Boardhouse Springs, Zercher Spring, Grapevine Cave, and T Cave, in Blanco, Hays, and Kendall Counties, Blanco River drainage, Texas, USA.
59273		habitat	eng	It can probably be found in springs.
59273		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
59273		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
59274		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic study is needed to define the valid taxa in this complex.
59274		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA on the Coastal Plain, North Carolina to Lake Okeechobee, Florida, west to eastern Texas; disjunctive population in western South Carolina (Conant and Collins 1991). Record from Barry County, Missouri, reported in 1945, has not been substantiated by more recent collections; Johnson (1987) did not include this species as a part of the Missouri herpetofauna.
59274		habitat	eng	It can be found in low swampy areas, margins of pine savannah ponds, and bottomland forests. It hides under logs or other debris during day. In Alabama, peaks in terrestrial activity coincided with late fall-early winter rains (Trauth 1983). It lays eggs in seepage areas or near the edge of shallow ponds on undersides of logs or leaves, under or on sphagnum or pine needles, or on rootlets beneath logs.
59274		population	eng	It is moderately abundant throughout the range (Petranka 1998).
59274		threats	eng	In minimal need of protection, though many populations likely have been eliminated through loss of wetlands (Petranka 1998).
59275		conservation	eng	Some populations occur within city of Austin preserves, while a population that may represent this species exists on the Travis County Audubon Sanctuary (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59275		distribution	eng	This species occurs in springs of the Jollyville Plateau region north-west of Austin in Travis and Williamson counties, Texas, USA, and in springs of nearby Brushy Creek; the known range includes the Brushy Creek, Bull Creek, Cypress Creek, Long Hollow Creek, and Walnut Creek drainages; the Shoal Creek drainage includes a population provisionally assigned to this species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Also provisionally assigned to this species are populations from Kretschmarr Salamander Cave (Travis County), Testudo Tube (Williamson County), and caves of the Buttercup Creek system, Williamson County, though some of these cave forms may represent distinct species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59275		habitat	eng	Although most populations occur in springs, certain cave-dwelling populations have been provisionally assigned to this species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose.
59275		population	eng	Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (2000) mapped 4-5 population clusters. Although they may be common at some spring outflows, the species is apparently declining in population size and number/condition of occurrences (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000; and see update by Davis <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59275		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to ongoing rapid urbanization (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000; Davis <em>et al.</em> 2001). For example, an office building was recently built directly above one location. Large amounts of foam have been observed at the type locality (Still House Hollow Springs), and some individuals recently examined from this location exhibited spinal deformations (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). The aquifers that this species depends upon are small and localized and thus susceptible to pollution, drying, or draining (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).
59276		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the status of this species.
59276		distribution	eng	This complex includes populations from a number of discrete localities in Texas in the USA. There are records from the following counties: north-western Medina (although this population has possibly been extirpated), Real, Kerr, Bandera, Edwards, Uvalde, and Gillespie (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Some or all of these locations eventually might be recognized as having distinct species.
59276		habitat	eng	This species occurs in springs.
59276		population	eng	The current population is unknown.
59276		threats	eng	The Valdina Farms Sinkhole population from north-western Medina County might be extinct due to flooding of its only known habitat.
59277		conservation	eng	This species requires habitat protection and more research on its population status and trends.
59277		distribution	eng	According to Bury, Dodd and Fellers (1980), the range of this species includes the drainages of the Neosho and Illinois Rivers, the Springfield Plateau section of the Ozark plateaus of south-western Missouri (McDonald County), north-western Arkansas (Benton, Washington, and Carroll Counties), and north-eastern Oklahoma (Adair, Cherokee, Delaware, Mayes, and Ottawa Counties), USA, at elevations below 305m asl. Petranka (1998) also indicated that the range includes eastern Oklahoma, south-western Missouri, and north-western Arkansas (but see Taxonomy).
59277		habitat	eng	Its habitat is small, clear, spring-fed streams with temperatures normally under 24°C, with a coarse substrate of sand, gravel, or bedrock, where it hides under or among rocks or in submerged vegetation (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). It is most commonly found in shallow (less than 10mm deep), slowly moving water with medium-sized rocks and with high densities of aquatic invertebrates (Tumlison, Cline and Zwank 1990b,c). It lives below the substrate surface during droughts, and it may use karst systems to move within or between stream systems (Tumlison, Cline and Zwank 1990c). Eggs are laid on the undersides of rocks.
59277		population	eng	Its total adult population size is unknown, but it has been found at 50 of 213 sites examined in three states.
59277		threats	eng	This species is threatened by direct habitat destruction (for example by flooding by impoundments), and by activities (such as agriculture, urbanization, stream channeling, and gravel removal) that result in silting or pollution of the aquatic habitat (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980).
59278		conservation	eng	Spring outlets are appropriately managed, but the aquifer recharge zone is not (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). It occurs within Critical Habitat designated for Barton Springs Salamander. Austin Blind Salamanders are currently listed by the Federal Government as a Candidate species; they receive no special protection in Texas.
59278		distribution	eng	The extent of the species' subterranean range is unknown; it was observed in three of the four spring outlets at Barton Springs, Zilker Park, Austin, Texas, USA (typically only juveniles) (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59278		habitat	eng	It has been observed at spring outlets, but is probably mostly restricted to subterranean cavities of the Edwards Aquifer (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown.
59278		population	eng	Monthly censuses at Barton Springs from July 1998 to December 2000 yielded 1,518 observations of Barton Springs Salamander <em>E. sosorum</em> and only 17 of Austin Blind Salamander (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, the Austin Blind Salamander appears to be primarily subterranean, and so its abundance is unknown.
59278		threats	eng	Former management of Barton Springs outlets probably was detrimental, but now management there is favourable (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). The biggest threat currently comes from development of the recharge zone of the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer, which has resulted in increased siltation of the aquifer and springs (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001).
59279		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
59279		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southern Appalachian Mountains in the USA (mainly the southern Blue Ridge Mountains physiographic province), from western Virginia southward through eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina to western South Carolina and northern Georgia, possibly also northern Alabama (but apparently records there represent E. cirrigera) and north-central South Carolina (Sever 1999).
59279		habitat	eng	It can be found in rocky brooks, springs, and seepages; animals may disperse into terrestrial habitats in wet warm weather. Adults hide under objects in or near water. Eggs are laid in water on underside of rock, log, etc.
59279		population	eng	Many populations are known.
59279		threats	eng	Basically unthreatened, but clear cutting strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993).
59280		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from the protection of watersheds that drain into sinkhole systems (Petranka 1998).
59280		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Ridge and Valley Province of Roane, Knox, and McMinn Counties, eastern Tennessee, USA (Petranka 1998; Frost 2002). Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped five locations within the range of this taxon.
59280		habitat	eng	It is a peadomorphic species than can be found in aquatic habitats and is restricted to caves. Based on what is known about egg deposition sites in spring salamanders (<em>G. porphyriticus</em>), clutches will be attached as a single mass to the underside of large stones.
59280		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species, but the population in Berry Cave appears to be declining (Caldwell and Copeland 1992).
59280		threats	eng	It may be threatened by the destruction of watersheds where inhabited caves are located.
59281		conservation	eng	It occurs in Russell Cave National Monument (Godwin 1995b). This species is listed as Threatened by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency. This species would benefit from protection of watersheds that drain into sinkhole systems (Petranka 1998).
59281		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the southern Cumberland Plateau of south-central Tennessee and north-eastern Alabama, in the Nashville Basin south-east of Nashville, Tennessee, and north-western Alabama and north-western Georgia, USA. Godwin (1995b) regarded Jess Elliot Cave as the most significant site in Alabama. Cave Cove Cave supports the largest population in Tennessee (Caldwell and Copeland 1992).
59281		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams in caves that contain amphipods and other aquatic organisms that can serve as food; individuals may be found in rimstone pools, stream runs and pools, and pools isolated by receding waters. Water tends to be clear and free of sediment; substrates include rock, gravel, sand, and mud (Godwin 1995b). Sinkholes are an important habitat component, allowing for detritus inflow (Caldwell and Copeland 1992). Occasionally, it occurs in epigean environments; probably these individuals have been washed out of caves (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). The habitats for breeding and non-breeding are likely to be the same, but courtship has never been observed in this species. This species is unlikely to tolerate habitat disturbance.
59281		population	eng	There are approximately two-dozen known populations, though others probably exist (Godwin 1995b). Godwin (1995b) reported this species in 6 of 14 Alabama sites surveyed in 1994-1995. Abundance is difficult to determine. Information available suggests populations contain small numbers of individuals, with densities ranging from 0.06-0.15 animals/m² (Petranka 1998). The population in Custard Hollow Cave, Tennessee, appears to be declining (Caldwell and Copeland 1992).
59281		threats	eng	Threats include: flooding following dam construction; water pollutants in runoff from agricultural and residential areas; increased water flow and siltation resulting from deforestation, mining, and urbanization; and deposition of fill and trash in sinkholes (Caldwell and Copeland 1992; Godwin 1995b; Petranka 1998).
59282		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59282		distribution	eng	This species can be found in eastern North America from southern Quebec and southern Maine to northern Georgia, Alabama, and northeastern Mississippi (Conant and Colins 1991).
59282		habitat	eng	Small, clear upland streams; clear springs; caves; shaded seepages; occasionally in swamps and lake margins. Sometimes also in forested wet areas away from streams, especially during rainy periods. Often under rocks, logs, leaves, or moss in or near water. Eggs usually are attached to undersides of rocks in running water.
59282		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000.
59282		threats	eng	Deforestation and its impacts on stream conditions are the primary potential threats, but in general this species is secure throughout most of its range.
59283		conservation	eng	The Nature Conservancy owns an easement on the cave system and has title to one entrance; but another entrance and the entire watershed remain unprotected. Additional taxonomic work is probably necessary to clarify the taxonomic status of this species using both morphometric and molecular analyses.
59283		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to one relatively small cave system: General Davis Cave, Greenbrier County, south-eastern West Virginia, USA (Petranka 1998; Beachy 2005). Cave explorers have observed West Virginia spring salamanders almost 2km beyond the cave entrance.
59283		habitat	eng	It occurs during breeding and non-breeding periods in limestone cave stream passages with large amounts of decaying organic matter; it is present in the streams and on mud banks along the streams. It is undoubtedly dependent on high-quality water and the availability of organic material flushed into the cave from outside sources.
59283		population	eng	Reports typically are of 10 to fewer than 100 individuals per survey; the population size varies but probably totals fewer than 300 individuals.
59283		threats	eng	No immediate threats are known, but logging has been proposed by the current owner of the watershed, an activity that would lower water quality in the cave where the species occurs. The same owner almost broke through into the cave system during a recent pond construction project.
59284		conservation	eng	Caves in the Marianna Caverns State Park are protected. Conservation measures include: monitoring known populations and water quality; limiting human intrusion into caves by means of signs, fences, or gates as appropriate; protecting associated bat populations; and limiting pollution and water table fluctuations. Populations cannot be considered adequately protected just because cave mouths are protected.
59284		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout the Marianna Lowlands-Dougherty Plain physiographic region, in the states of Florida and Georgia, USA. It is known from several caves in Jackson County, Florida; also occurs in Dougherty and Decatur counties, Georgia. It occurs in at least two sites in Georgia and at least 11 sites in Jackson County, Florida.
59284		habitat	eng	It is a resident of the Marianna Lowlands (Dougherty Plain) karst aquifer; it is found in subterranean streams and clear pools in caves and deep wells. It may sometimes leave water and climb limestone walls of caves. It may ultimately depend on guano from associated bat populations.
59284		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown, and the current trend is also unknown. In the period 1969-1992, populations seemed fairly abundant, in spite of heavy collecting in one or two localities (Means 2005).
59284		threats	eng	Threats include pollution from agricultural runoff and fluctuations in the water table due to impoundments and human use. Over-collecting for science or by herp enthusiasts is a potential threat.
59285		conservation	eng	Many populations are adequately protected.
59285		distribution	eng	This species is discontinuously distributed in the US and Canada from Nova Scotia (Friet and MacDonald 1995), New Brunswick, southern Quebec (e.g., Sharbel 1990), southern Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin (Vogt 1981), and Minnesota (Dorff 1995, Hall <em>et al.</em> 2000) south to southeastern Oklahoma, Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989), Mississippi, Alabama (Mount 1975), Florida panhandle, and Georgia (Conant and Collins 1991). Distribution is fairly continuous in the northeastern part of the range, spotty in the southwestern part.
59285		habitat	eng	Adults live under objects or among mosses in swamps, boggy streams, and wet, wooded or open areas near ponds or quiet, mossy or grassy/sedgy pools (the larval habitat). Sphagnum moss is commonly abundant in suitable habitat. Eggs are laid in moss or other protected sites immediately above or next to a pool, into which the larvae drop or wriggle after hatching. Does not require pristine habitat; Phillips <em>et al.</em> (1999) noted that in Illinois "several localities are second-growth woods in soggy soils below dams of man-made lakes."
59285		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and might exceed 100,000. The species is more abundant than available records indicate, being relatively difficult to find. Its population is probably relatively stable overall.
59285		threats	eng	Primary potential threat is loss/degradation of habitat, but this is ameliorated in some areas by wetland protection regulations. However, colonies might be more or less isolated by the species' relatively restricted habitat preferences, and development of intervening uplands might inhibit dispersal and colonization of new habitats (Harding 1997). Populations may flourish in many moderately developed and semi-rural areas in southern New England (Klemens 1993). Road mortality does not appear substantial when compared to many species of frogs and Ambystoma salamanders (Klemens 1993). Impoundments likely have reduced the range in some areas (Means 1992). It is tolerant of non-destructive intrusion.
59286		conservation	eng	Entire or most of distribution is public land, some of which is protected (e.g., in national parks).
59286		distribution	eng	This species can be found in High Sierra Nevada, California, USA, from Sonora Pass, Alpine County, to Franklin Pass area, Tulare County; low elevation records are from the south side of Yosemite Valley (Stebbins 1985). It has an isolated population at Smith Lake, Desolation Wilderness, El Dorado County. Its distribution might be more continuous than present records indicate. It can be found at an elevation of 1,220-3,660m asl.
59286		habitat	eng	It can be found among Granite rock exposures, talus, and rock fissures, near seepages from streams or melting snow, also in spray zone of waterfalls. Apparently prefers north-facing slopes. It can also be found under rocks or in caves or crevices during daylight hours. It is a terrestrial breeder.
59286		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is likely to be stable.
59286		threats	eng	No present threats, due especially to remoteness of habitat.
59287		conservation	eng	The only known population of the species is found within La Pera conservation area, which is a state level protected area established in 2006. As of August 2007, no management practices have been implemented in La Pera. Securing and restoring forest at La Pera is essential. This species is listed as "Endangered" by the Mexican government.
59287		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-western Chiapas, Mexico, north of Berriozabal town close to the airport, at around 1,200m asl.
59287		habitat	eng	It lives in moist evergreen forest and montane rainforest. This species seems to prefer the trunks of mature large and medium-sized trees, but can also be found on the leaves of understorey forbs, or crawling on limestone. Its habitat is in a karstic area. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59287		population	eng	It was thought to be extinct until ten individuals were recorded in December 2000 (A. Muñoz Alonso pers. comm.). Surveys in 2006 and 2007 failed to locate the species. However, it is noted that these surveys occurred on much wetter nights then in 2000 and it is thought that in such conditions the animals move further up in the trees (T. Papenfuss and A. Muñoz Alonso pers. comm.). It is extremely rare.
59287		threats	eng	The last few decades have seen extensive transformation of the northern forests of Chiapas, with serious forest loss and fragmentation taking place due to logging and expanding agriculture (including coffee plantations). Around the newly gazetted La Pera conservation area many of these coffee plantations have been abandoned. Habitat within La Pera is of mixed quality, but is somewhat protected by boulders in the karstic landscape.
59288		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. Preservation and restoration of the mountain forests on Cerro Baul is essential.
59288		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Baul, above 1,600m asl, in extreme eastern Oaxaca, Mexico.
59288		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forests at high elevations, being found in bromeliads, and cannot survive in disturbed forest. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59288		population	eng	A single individual was located in a recent survey (2007) (T. Papenfuss pers. comm.).
59288		threats	eng	The forests on Cerro Baul are now extremely disturbed and much reduced in extent, in part due to a large fire occuring in the late 1990s.
59289		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection for this species an urgent priority. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59289		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Oriental around Cuautlapan, in east-central Veracruz, Mexico, at 800-1,250m asl.
59289		habitat	eng	The species inhabits pine-oak forest where it can be found beneath stones, logs and other debris, and in subterranean situations. It is somewhat adaptable, and can also survive in shaded coffee plantations, but it does not tolerate the opening up of the landscape (which leads to the drying out of its microhabitat). It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59289		population	eng	The species is uncommon, and is hard to find. It was recorded from two localities as recently as 2007.
59289		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat from expanding agriculture and human settlements, and extraction of wood.
59290		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas, which affords a degree of protection, although there remains a need for more effective management of this area.
59290		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the San Martín and Santo Marta volcanoes, Los Tuxtlas, in coastal Veracruz, Mexico, occurring from 100 up to 1,300m asl.
59290		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and fossorial living in leaf-litter in lowland wet forest, and is not very tolerant of habitat disturbance. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59290		population	eng	It is still quite an abundant species.
59290		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation, as a result of expanding subsistence farming and human settlements, and also logging. Much of the lowere forest on San Martin has been denuded (Joseph Mendelson pers. comm., 2007).
59291		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection a priority to ensure the long-term survival of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine its current population status.
59291		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,100m asl.
59291		habitat	eng	It lives in cloud forest, where it is terrestrial and fossorial, and does not survive in seriously disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59291		population	eng	It is very poorly known, and only a few specimens have ever been recorded, despite much fieldwork having been carried out in its range.
59291		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, and expanding agriculture.
59292		conservation	eng	Virtually all of the range of this species is within well-managed protected areas. A significant portion of its range is protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.
59292		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the subhumid and humid premontane and montane areas of the Cordillera de Tilaran and the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, from 1,010-2,500m asl (Savage 2002).
59292		habitat	eng	It is found in terrestrial and arboreal moss mats in premontane moist and wet forest and rainforest and lower montane rainforest. It can also survive alongside roads where there are moss mats, and has been recorded from pastures, but it does not survive in heavily degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
59292		population	eng	It can be locally common, and is regularly recorded within its range as of August 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
59292		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
59293		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito, the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge, Parque Nacional Pico Pijol and the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul. The management and protection of Parque Nacional Cerro Azul has improved over the last five years (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59293		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities in north-central Honduras, in the departments of Atlantida, Yoro, and Cortes, at 860-1,990m asl.
59293		habitat	eng	It lives in low vegetation, moss, and on the ground and tree trunks in premontane wet and lower montane forest. It is not a bromeliad specialist, but is occasionally found in them. It can survive in lightly degraded habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development. Clutch sizes range from 5-19 eggs.
59293		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, and in general, no population changes have been observed (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007). A single specimen was collected in the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge in 2003; two specimens were collected in June 2007 from the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).
59293		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss due to expanding agriculture.
59294		conservation	eng	Much of the known range is protected in the Reserva Biológica Monteverde. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59294		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area around the type locality: Reserva Biológica Monteverde, Alajuela Province, in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Costa Rica, at 1,550-1,650m asl.
59294		habitat	eng	It lives in terrestrial and arboreal moss banks and in bromeliads in premontane and lower montane rainforest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59294		population	eng	Individuals occasionally are found in Monteverde.
59294		threats	eng	There are no major threats known, and its habitat is well protected. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
59295		conservation	eng	The entire known range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Guanacaste. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59295		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Volcán Orosí and Volcán Cacao, these being the north-western most mountains of the Cordillera de Guanacaste, Province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, 1,400-1,580m asl (Savage 2002).
59295		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, usually found in moss mats and bromeliads in lower montane forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water. There is no indication that the females attend the eggs.
59295		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59295		threats	eng	There are no major threats known, and its habitat is well protected. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
59296		conservation	eng	The only known site is in the Parque Nacional La Muralla, which was declared as a protected area in 1987. However, this area is poorly protected, and habitat loss is continuing. Improved management of this protected area and additional protection of the remaining habitat is urgently needed.
59296		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro de En Medio, Department of Olancho, north-central Honduras, at 1,760-1,780m asl.
59296		habitat	eng	It has been found inside rotten logs on the floor of lower montane wet forest. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development.
59296		population	eng	It is generally uncommon, although it can be found in reasonable numbers in suitable habitat.
59296		threats	eng	The only remaining habitat of this species is threatened by encroaching coffee cultivation, subsistence agriculture, and livestock.
59297		conservation	eng	It occurs in the 12,000-ha Parque Nacional Montana de Santa Barbara.
59297		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Montana de Santa Barbara, in the department of Santa Barbara, west-central Honduras, at 1,640-1,980m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.
59297		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground in leaf-litter, and on low vegetation, in lower montane wet forest. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to secondary habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59297		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59297		threats	eng	The major threat is continued forest loss due to expanding subsistence agriculture and forest fires. Prolonged dry seasons are an increasing problem.
59298		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas, but does occur in the Reserva Indígena Chirripó.
59298		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the north-facing premontane slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca, near Moravia de Chirripó, in Cartago Province in eastern Costa Rica, at 1,100-1,200m asl. Its distribution is not well understood, and it might occur more widely.
59298		habitat	eng	It lives in premontane rainforest, probably in moss mats, and presumably breeds by direct development.
59298		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from one specimen only, and is likely to be rare.
59298		threats	eng	The major threat is loss of habitat due to increased urbanization, and expanding smallholder farming and cattle ranching activities.
59299		conservation	eng	Part of its range is protected in Parque Nacional Tapantí.
59299		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern end of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, from 1,200-2,200m asl (Savage 2002).
59299		habitat	eng	It lives in moss mats and bromeliads in premontane rainforest and lower montane wet forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.
59299		population	eng	It is not uncommon, and is probably the commonest salamander in Parque Nacional Tapantí.
59299		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is forest loss and fragmentation, as a result of encroaching agricultural cultivation and livestock grazing.
59300		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.
59300		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, from 1,370-1,800m asl (Savage 2002).
59300		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter and moss banks in lower montane rainforest and marginally in higher altitude portions of premontane rainforest. It can be found in pastures under moss mats. Breeding is by direct development.
59300		population	eng	It has been found to be more common than was once thought, but there are still few records.
59300		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is forest loss and fragmentation, as a result of encroaching agricultural cultivation and livestock grazing.
59301		conservation	eng	The entire known range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Saslaya. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59301		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Sasalya and Cerro El Torro in Parque Nacional Saslaya, north-central Nicaragua, at 1,280-1,370m asl (Köhler <em>et al</em>., 2004).
59301		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane wet (cloud) forest, and is arboreal, hiding in thick moss. It is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59301		population	eng	It is reasonably common in its small range.
59301		threats	eng	There are no major threats known, and its habitat is well protected. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.
59302		conservation	eng	Its type locality is in the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico.
59302		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Montañas del Mico, in Izabal Department in eastern Guatemala, at 744m asl.
59302		habitat	eng	The single known individual of this species was found inside a log in very wet forest (experiencing more than 4,000mm of annual precipitation). This species presumably breeds by direct development.
59302		population	eng	No data are available regarding its population status. Only a single specimen is known.
59302		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it since it occurs in a protected area.
59303		conservation	eng	The only known locality for this species is close to Parque Nacional Tapantí, in which this species might occur (although it has not so far been discovered there, despite being searched for).
59303		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in the Orosi River Valley at the north end of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica, at 1,300m asl. It might occur more widely.
59303		habitat	eng	It was found in leaf-litter in premontane rainforest. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
59303		population	eng	Only one specimen is known.
59303		threats	eng	The main threat to it is forest clearance for cattle ranching. A hotel has been built on the site of the type locality, however there is apparently suitable habitat remaining in the area (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
59304		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, the Biotopo del Quetzal in Baja Verapaz, and in a private reserve in Alta Verapaz, as well as in the proposed Parque Nacional Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59304		distribution	eng	This highly distinctive species is known from just four localities: Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, in southern Chiapas, Mexico; the north-eastern slopes of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, western Guatemala; the mountains of Alta Verapaz in central Guatemala; and the mountains of Baja Verapaz, also in central Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-1,610m asl.
59304		habitat	eng	It lives in humid pine-oak forest and cloud forest, with specimens having been found under moss and bark; it is not found in disturbed habitat. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59304		population	eng	It is a very uncommon species: there is only a single record from Mexico.
59304		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, together with logging.
59305		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Palo Seco Forest Reserve in Panama, but not currently recorded from any protected areas in Costa Rica. Further studies are needed into populations declines in this species.
59305		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica and extreme north-western Panama, at 19-850m asl (Savage, 2002).
59305		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, and old banana plantations, living in leaf litter. It cannot survive in open habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59305		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59305		threats	eng	The main threat is opening up of its forest habitat for agriculture, livestock, logging and human settlement.
59306		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Manuel Antonio, Corcovado Golfito, Equines, and Baru National Parks, and perhaps in other protected areas.
59306		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of southwestern Costa Rica and extreme western Panama from sea level to 880m asl. Some previous records from Panama were previously confused with <em>Oedipina parvipes</em>.
59306		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter in lowland moist and wet forest and rainforest. It also survives in old banana plantations, and somewhat degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
59306		population	eng	It is a common species.
59306		threats	eng	The main threat is opening up of its forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlement.
59307		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area, and protection of the remaining habitat within the range is urgently required. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of this species.
59307		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, El Empalme, and another nearby site to the west, on the Pan-American Highway south of Cartago in the northern end of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, at 2,286-2,320m asl.
59307		habitat	eng	It lives in lower montane rainforest. One individual (the holotype) was collected under moss and another was discovered at the edge of degraded forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59307		population	eng	Only three individuals have ever been collected, and none since 1985.
59307		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to increased urbanization, and expanding smallholder farming and cattle ranching activities.
59308		conservation	eng	It has been recently recorded from two private reserves (Pocora and Reserva las Brisas le Alegria) (Eric Berlin pers. comm.).
59308		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities, Finca Los Diamantes (Guapilles), Pocora (a private reserve), Reserva las Brisas le Alegria, Alto Guayacan, on the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica, from 60-750m asl. Its distribution is not well understood, and it is suspected to occur more widely.
59308		habitat	eng	This species lives inside rotten logs or under bark on fallen trees in banana plantations and degraded habitats, and it might also be arboreal. Animals have recently been found within logs in scrubby areas, and appear to very specifically favour young secondary growth forest (Eric Berlin pers. comm.). It presumably lived originally in lowland moist forest. Breeding is by direct development.
59308		population	eng	This species is presumably very rare, perhaps because most of the lowland forest has been cleared within its range. Only three specimens were collected between 1959 and 2001. Four additional specimens have recently been collected (Eric Berlin pers. comm.).
59308		threats	eng	It might have declined as a result of the clearance of its forest habitat for agricultural development (pinappleas and other crops), livestock rearing and human settlement. Although this salamander is found in secondary habitat, this modified habitat is itself now being cleared from within the species range (Eric Berlin and Brian Kubicki pers. comm).
59309		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve the taxonomic relationships between the specimens from the different known localities.
59309		distribution	eng	This species occurs very sparsely in the humid Atlantic lowlands from eastern Nicaragua, through Costa Rica to central Panama, up to 600m asl. If it is a single species, it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.
59309		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest and presumably breeds by direct development.
59309		population	eng	This is a rare species with a wide range, with one specimen recorded from each of its known localities. There are no recent records from Costa Rica.
59309		threats	eng	This species has most likely been affected by the destruction of its natural forest habitat for logging, agricultural development, livestock rearing, and human settlement.
59310		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. In Panama it occurs in the following protected areas: Cerro Campana National Park; Soberania National Park; Chagres National Park; and Isla Barro del Colorado National Monument.
59310		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Panama lowlands eastwards to San Blas, below 800m asl. It also occurs through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northwestern Ecuador. It is also found on Gorgona Island in Colombia. It occurs here at very low altitude, many specimens being collected at 70-90m asl.
59310		habitat	eng	It lives on the ground, and on bushy vegetation, logs and rocks in humid tropical lowland forest. It does not survive in degraded areas, but is found on forest edges. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59310		population	eng	It is a common species in Colombia, but is very rare in Ecuador. It is generally somewhat uncommon but is not rare in Panama.
59310		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
59311		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
59311		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme northeastern Panama, through the Atlantic versants of Costa Rica and Nicaragua to north-central Honduras. It occurs generally below 600m asl. Records up to 1,780m asl in Honduras might refer to another species.
59311		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, where it is terrestrial and semi-fossorial. It can survive in somewhat disturbed forest where there are still tall trees. In Honduras, it has been recorded from shaded coffee plantations (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59311		population	eng	It is uncommon but present widely. In Honduras it is fairly common, with between five and seven specimens recorded in 2006 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.).
59311		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the drying of the soil resulting from the loss of trees. This is happening through much of its range due to the expansion of agriculture and human settlements, as well as logging. The conversion of shaded coffee plantations to open plantations is likely to lead to a decline in this species (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.).
59312		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Columbia River Forest Reserve in Belize, and in the Montanas del Mico Catchment Reserve in Guatemala. It was collected from a private protected area in Honduras. Most of its habitat is poorly protected. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59312		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Chiapas, Mexico, central and southern Belize, and central and eastern Guatemala with three recent records from northwestern Honduras. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 1,035m asl in Honduras.
59312		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical and subtropical wet forest, and tolerates modest disturbance of its habitat. It lives in the channels of fallen logs, in termite nests on the ground, in leaf-litter, in holes, and in tree stumps. It has been found in coffee plantations in Honduras. It has even been found in a parking lot. However, it is generally associated with moist microhabitats where there are abundant logs on the ground. It breeds by direct development.
59312		population	eng	It is generally uncommon, but occasionally significant numbers can be found.
59312		threats	eng	Deforestation and other disturbances to the forest are clearly threats to this species when they lead to the desiccation of the soil, as is the case in most areas that have been cleared for commercial agriculture and livestock. Conversion of shaded coffee plantations to open areas or open coffee plantations would likely lead to a decline in this species.
59313		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and in the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge, but protection of these areas is very poor and there is a need for improved management.
59313		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Bufalo in the department of Atlantida, and from near La Fortuna in the department of Yoro, north-central Honduras, at 1,580-1,810m asl.
59313		habitat	eng	It lives inside rotten logs on the ground, and probably also in the soil, in lower montane wet forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59313		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59313		threats	eng	The main threats are expanding subsistence agriculture, forest fires, and small-scale cattle ranching.
59314		conservation	eng	It occurs in the La Selva Biological Station and Reserve in Costa Rica, but there are otherwise very few protected areas within its range. The species is in need of close population monitoring.
59314		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica and extreme north-western Panama, at 3-710m asl.
59314		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest, where it can be found in leaf-litter, under rotten logs, moss or rocks, on tree trunks or on the ground. It can tolerate very limited habitat degradation. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59314		population	eng	It was formerly common, but is now very rare, though still surviving at several sites, including La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica.
59314		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to expanding agriculture, logging and human settlements is probably the main cause of the decline.
59315		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad on the border of Costa Rica and Panama.
59315		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera de Talamanca in extreme southern Costa Rica and immediately adjacent western Panama, at 1,810-1,950m asl.
59315		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species inhabiting humid lower montane forest areas, and it is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.
59315		population	eng	It used to be common, but has undergone considerable declines across its range.
59315		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss caused by expanding smallholder farming, and logging.
59316		conservation	eng	Its taxonomy needs further investigation. There are no definate records from protected areas, it has been collected close to Trifinio National Park and is likely to be present in Opalaca Biological Reserve.
59316		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific versant of south-central and south-eastern Guatemala and south-western Honduras, at 1,000 ­ 2,000m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known, and is probably further confounded by taxonomic confusion. Attempts to map its distribution at this stage should be regarded as provisional.
59316		habitat	eng	It lives in mesic broad-leaf forest and pine-oak forest, and can tolerate some habitat degradation, provided the soil does not dry out. Two specimens were collected in coffee plantations in the area of Marcala La Paz (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.) A single animal has been recorded from a corn field adjacent to primary tropical forest, however it is not known if the species can persist in this habitat. It breeds by direct development.
59316		population	eng	It is a very poorly known species, and is probably uncommon.
59316		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is any form of land management that leads to the drying out of the soil, such as annual burning, cattle ranching, road building, clear felling, and many forms of agriculture. Such damaging forms of habitat loss are very extensive within its range.
59317		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area, and some form of habitat protection is urgently needed on the Isla Escudo de Veraguas.
59317		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Isla Escudo de Veraguas in the Bocas del Toro Province, Panama. If it is restricted to this island, it is the only tropical salamander that is endemic to an island. It is found close to sea level.
59317		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest and mangrove forest. Salamanders were collected in decaying fronds and associated moist litter near a fallen palm in a coconut palm grove in late March in 1991. The eggs were found inside a pile of coconut trash at the base of a tree (<em>Terminalia</em>) on the beach at Guayami Settlement. The eggs belonged to two clutches, each containing six embryos. The embryos began hatching on the way back to camp from the field. One newly hatched embryo measured 11.8 mm in total length and retained gills. The species breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59317		population	eng	It is known from only eight adult specimens and two clutches of eggs.
59317		threats	eng	Forest clearance is taking place on the Isla Escudo de Veraguas, mainly due to people visiting the island to cut wood.
59318		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Manuel Antonio, Carara and Corcovado Golfito National Parks in Costa Rica. None of its range in Panama is protected.
59318		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slope of southern Costa Rica and in a small area of adjacent southwestern Panama. Its altitudinal range is 5-1200m asl.
59318		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter, often near tree buttresses, in Lowland Moist and Wet Forests and Premontane Rainforest. It is adaptable, being found in old plantations and in highly disturbed areas. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59318		population	eng	It is a common species.
59318		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by very serious habitat destruction, but generally it faces few threats.
59319		conservation	eng	It occurs in the following protected areas: Cerro Campana National Park; Soberania National Park; Chagres National Park; Isla Barro del Colorado National Monument; and close to Utria Natural National Park in Colombia.
59319		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Panama in the Pacific and Atlantic lowlands and cordilleras, and in the eastern cordilleras adjacent to central Panama, extending into the Choco region and the Lower Cauca Valley in Antioquia Department of northwestern Colombia. It is found below 700m asl.
59319		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, living in leaf-litter. It is not found in degraded habitats, but it can tolerate slight disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59319		population	eng	It is slightly more common than the sympatric Oedipina complex. There is no recent information from Colombia.
59319		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.
59320		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area, and habitat protection is urgently needed. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of this species and whether or not it survives in the wild.
59320		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, near El Empalme (along the Pan-American Highway, south of Cartago) at the northern end of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, at about 2,286m asl (Savage 2002).
59320		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane rainforest, and possibly lives below the ground. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59320		population	eng	There is no information on current population status; no individuals have been collected since 1952 (Savage 2002; Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007), and it is possible that it is now extinct.
59320		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be loss of habitat due to increased urbanization, and expanding smallholder farming and cattle ranching activities.
59321		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Monteverde and in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. The species is in need of close population monitoring.
59321		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the humid lower montane and premontane zones of the Cordillera de Tilarán, the Cordillera Central, and the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica, at 775-2,050m asl.
59321		habitat	eng	It lives in moss mats near streams and under rocks and logs in premontane and lower montane rainforest. It is relatively aquatic, and is usually found close to streams, although it is not dependent upon water for breeding. It also occurs in road cuts and quarries, and in secondary habitat, provided that it is not too degraded and desiccated. Breeding takes place by direct development.
59321		population	eng	It used to be common, but appears to have undergone recent declines of potentially greater than 50% (although individuals continue to turn up in surveys conducted in appropriate habitat).
59321		threats	eng	The causes of the extensive population decline in this species are currently not understood. Chytrid fungus has been recorded within the range of the species, however further research is needed, as it is not certain that the disease chytridiomycosis is responsible for the populations declines (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The species is additionally threatened by habitat loss due to smallholder farming activites (including livestock farming), wood collection, and human settlement. Some of its habitat might be at risk of flooding due to the construction of a dam.
59322		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Saslaya (in Nicaragua) and in Parque Nacional Arenal and several catchment forest reserves in Costa Rica. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the rate of population decline, and to identify remaining populations.
59322		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. It can be found on the Atlantic and Pacific slopes in northern Costa Rica and on the Atlantic slope of central Costa Rica, at 19-1,253m asl. In Nicaragua, it is known from two localities: Hacienda la Cumplida (north-east of Matagalpa) at 730m asl; and Parque Nacional Saslaya, at 945m asl (Köhler <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
59322		habitat	eng	It lives in moss banks and under logs in lowland and premontane wet forest, and can survive in somewhat degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59322		population	eng	It was formerly very common, but has undergone serious declines (although individuals continue to turn up in surveys conducted in appropriate habitat). The reasons for the declines of this species and the rate of decline are not known, and while the last specimen was collected in 1996, the species may still persist (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
59322		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities, wood collection, and human settlement.
59323		conservation	eng	A small part of its range is protected at the Estación Biológica Las Cruces. The forest where this species has been collected is severely fragmented. Incentives for private forest protection need to be continued and strengthened.
59323		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the humid premontane Pacific versant in extreme south-western Costa Rica and adjacent Panama, from 1,200-1,400m asl, although its distribution is poorly known.
59323		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter in premontane rainforest and breeds by direct development.
59323		population	eng	There are no population data and the range is still incompletely known for this recently described species (as of August 2007).
59323		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat clearance, and much of its habitat has been cleared for coffee in the last 30 years, with only small forest fragments remaining. It is also threatened by increasing human settlement.
59324		conservation	eng	It is not known from any formal protected areas, and any remaining suitable habitat in the range of the species requires urgent protection. Further survey work is needed to better determine the current population status of the species.
59324		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific slope of south-western Guatemala in the departments of San Marcos and Quezaltenango, from 1,400 ­ 1,500m asl.
59324		habitat	eng	It presumably once occurred in subtropical and lower montane wet forest, but this has largely been cleared within its range. Animals have been found under rotting logs and piles of dead vegetation, and in soil banks in recently cleared agricultural plantations, and in other disturbed areas (including shade-grown coffee habitats). It breeds by direct development.
59324		population	eng	It is very uncommon, although it is probably difficult to find given its subterranean habits.
59324		threats	eng	The major threat is the conversion of areas of shade-grown coffee, and other shaded habitats, to more open environments.
59325		conservation	eng	Isla de Amapala has been declared a multiple-use zone, but this affords no real protection for this species.
59325		distribution	eng	This species was first described from Isla de Amapala in Valle Department, off the Pacific coast of southern Honduras, near sea level, and this remains the only confirmed location. It has also been recorded from the city of Tegucigalpa at 1,000m asl, but the authenticity of this record has been questioned.
59325		habitat	eng	There is very little information regarding its habitat and ecological requirements. It was recorded in a mineshaft on Isla de Amapala, but it is not now known where the (presumably long-abandoned) mine is. This species is most likely to breed by direct development.
59325		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no records since before 1904. It is known from three specimens: two from the island, and one that is said to come from Tegucigalpa. Attempts to relocate this species on the island have not been successful.
59325		threats	eng	So little is known about this species that the threats cannot be defined.
59326		conservation	eng	In El Salvador, it occurs in Parque Nacional El Imposible and probably also in Parque Natural Cerro Verde. It is not known from any protected areas in Guatemala or Honduras. Further research is required to clarify its taxonomic status.
59326		distribution	eng	This species ranges from south-eastern Guatemala to central El Salvador, and is also known from the lower Motagua Valley in the vicinity of Doña María in eastern El Salvador. Records from southern Honduras provisionally assigned to this species will probably be shown to refer to another species (D. Wake, pers. comm.). Overall, there is very little information on its distribution, probably in part because of taxonomic confusion. Its altitudinal range is 140 ­ 1,140m asl (upper elevation recorded in Köhler et al., 2006).
59326		habitat	eng	This species presumably originally inhabited lowland and mid-altitude forest. It has been collected from beneath a rotting log in open forest and from the rubble of a collapsed shack. It has also been found underground near a small river. The only Honduran specimen was found in the patio of a house in a small town (Franklin Castañeda, pers. comm. 2007). However, very little is known of its ecological requirements. Köhler <i>et al.</i> (2006), recently indicate that the species is found in dry forest, evergreen forest and subtropical humid forest; and that it appears to do well in distrubed areas with a number of records from urban areas and modified habitats (including coffee plantations and scrub pasture). Breeding is by direct development in this species.
59326		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59326		threats	eng	It was previously considered to be presumably threatened by the ongoing loss of forest habitat as a result of smallholder farming and rearing of livestock, small-scale subsistence wood extraction, and increasing human settlement. However, this species appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat modification (see Köhler <i>et al.</i>, 2006).
59327		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Volcán Irazú, Volcán Turrialba, Parque Nacional Tapantí, Volcán Poás, Monteverde (at least formerly), and Volcán Tenorio. Further research is needed to determine the causes of the decline in undisturbed habitats, such as at Monteverde.
59327		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Volcán Tenorio, south through the cordilleras and Meseta Central to the Panama frontier, at 750-2,150m asl, in Costa Rica (Savage 2002). Its presence in Panama has not been confirmed.
59327		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid premontane and lower montane forest. It has been found living in leaf-litter, under decaying logs, and in moss banks. It has also been found in pastures, gardens and even cities and can withstand significant habitat modification. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59327		population	eng	It is still a regularly seen species. However, population declines have been noted in parts of the species range including Monteverde and Cascajal; although reduced populations remain at these localities. The reasons for these declines is unclear.
59327		threats	eng	The species is generally not threatened by habitat loss. The reasons behind the population decline in some populations are not known.
59328		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making habitat protection an urgent priority for this species. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. Further studies are needed into the reasons for the decline of this species.
59328		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Sierra Madre Oriental from around Cuautlapan north to Teocelo in east-central Veracruz, Mexico, at 800-1,500 m asl.
59328		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud and oak forest, and is usually found living in bromeliads or on the ground in terrestrial microhabitats. This species is somewhat adaptable, and can survive in shaded coffee plantations provided that humidity levels are maintained, but it does not tolerate the opening up of the landscape (which leads to the drying out of its microhabitat). It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59328		population	eng	It used to be uncommon, but has undergone significant population declines. The species has only been observed once since 1997 despite many attempts to locate it.
59328		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, and extraction of wood.
59329		conservation	eng	None needed.
59329		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central USA in southern Missouri, the highlands of northern and western Arkansas, the northern and central portions of eastern Oklahoma, and the Balcones Escarpment area of south-central Texas; also assigned to this species are populations from Independence, Johnson, Logan, Polk, Scott, and Van Buren counties, Arkansas; and Warren County, Missouri (north of the Missouri River) (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989).
59329		habitat	eng	It is commonly under rocks or logs in damp ravines and moist wooded hillsides; it may retreat underground or burrow into piles of leaf-litter in dry summer weather; it sometimes occurs in the twilight zone of caves (Missouri, Johnson 1987, 2000). Wooded ravines and floodplains, along shale banks of rivers and streams, and cave entrances are also suitable habitats (Texas, Garrett and Barker 1987). Eggs are laid in damp protected locations underground, under rotten logs, or in other damp vegetative debris. There is no aquatic larval stage.
59329		population	eng	It is known from many populations throughout range.
59329		threats	eng	It is apparently unthreatened and is locally impacted by deforestation.
59330		conservation	eng	It probably occurs within several protected areas (e.g., Bat Cave) and probably also receives some protection on lands in the Pisgah National Forest where the forest cover is maintained (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003). Conservation activities that promote mature closed-canopy forests should benefit this species. It is not listed on state or federal endangered species lists. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59330		distribution	eng	The range has not yet been clearly delineated for this recently split species, but as currently understood it occurs in Blue Ridge Mountains in the north-eastern part of the Blue Ridge isolate of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex, Buncombe, Rutherford, and Henderson counties, North Carolina, USA; elevations range at least 1,109-1,116m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59330		habitat	eng	It can be found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder that breeds by direct development.
59330		population	eng	Because this species was recently described, there are no specific population data available. Highton and Peabody (2000) listed two sampling localities. Based on the proximity of these localities to the transects worked by Petranka (1999), this salamander might have been sampled in the latter study, in which it was the second most abundant salamander in the study.
59330		threats	eng	Clear cutting has been reported as a cause of the declines of local populations of the <em>P. jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993; Petranka 1999). Data presented by Petranka might or might not apply specifically to <em>P. amplus</em>.
59331		conservation	eng	None needed.
59331		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Ozark region of southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, and eastern Oklahoma, United States (Conant and Collins 1991, Highton 1997).
59331		habitat	eng	Vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines, canyons, rubble, seepages, caves, and wooded slopes. It occurs under rocks, logs, or leaves during day. It breeds by direct development.
59331		population	eng	Many populations are known, and the populations appear to be stable.
59331		threats	eng	Apparently none. Locally impacted by deforestation.
59332		conservation	eng	Studies needed on population status and natural history.
59332		distribution	eng	This species can be found between the Little Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers on the western slopes of the Unicoi Mountains and nearby lowlands in north-eastern Polk and eastern Monroe Counties, Tennessee, and also in north-western Graham and north-western Cherokee counties, North Carolina, USA (Highton 1986). Its range is still poorly known.
59332		habitat	eng	It can be found in mountainous and lowland forested habitats (Highton 1983), and it breeds terrestrially by direct development.
59332		population	eng	Highton (1986) mapped 26 collection sites for this species, though these do not all necessarily represent distinct occurrences. Its overall population status is not known.
59332		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
59333		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within the Nantahala Game Lands, which offer some measure of protection because the forest is typically left intact. There is also an effort to declare much of the range as Wilderness, which, if successful, would further protect the species. The species does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59333		distribution	eng	This species occurs in an area of approximately 15 square kilometres in Cheoah Bald, Graham and Swain counties, North Carolina, USA; its elevational range is at least 975-1,524m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59333		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder. Most of the species range includes second growth forest, so it must be somewhat tolerant of disturbance.
59333		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (six or more specimens can be found within a 1-2 hour search). The population is probably stable.
59333		threats	eng	Clear cutting strongly depletes local populations of other members of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993); the time required for recovery is debatable, but is at least a few decades (Ash 1997; Petranka 1999; Ash and Pollock 1999).
59334		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59334		distribution	eng	This species can be found in North America in Minnesota and western Ontario to southern Quebec and Newfoundland, south to North Carolina and northeastern Tennessee (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998).
59334		habitat	eng	It can be found in damp microhabitats in wooded areas; inside logs, under leaf-litter, or under surface objects during day. Goes underground during freezing or hot, dry weather. In New York, tended to be absent where soil pH was less than 3.8; much more abundant in beech forest than in hemlock forest (Wyman 1988, Wyman and Jancola 1992, Frisbie and Wyman 1992). It occurs in altered habitats where damp microhabitats remain, such as in urban and suburban gardens. Lays eggs in cavity in log or stump or under rock or other objects on ground, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59334		population	eng	This is an extremely abundant species. Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds many millions of individuals. Thousands of localities are known.
59334		threats	eng	Intensive timber harvest causes major declines in abundance (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995). Negative impacts of intensive timber harvesting extend at least 25-35m into uncut forest (deMaynadier and Hunter 1998). Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat and might serve as partial barriers to movement (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Animals have been exported from the United States to Canada as part of the international pet trade. However, none of these factors pose serious threats to the global population, and the species can adapt to certain modified habitats.
59335		conservation	eng	Maintenance of mature hardwood forest habitat is key to the long-term persistence of viable populations of this species (Petranka 1998). Taxonomic study needed to clarify systematic status.
59335		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern USA, in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces of Virginia and North Carolina west to the French Broad River and south to the northern Piedmont of South Carolina, and parts of the Valley and Ridge physiographic province in western Virginia and extreme eastern West Virginia and in a small area of the Coastal Plain of eastern Virginia (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989); also probably the Blue Ridge Mountains and Valley and Ridge provinces in northeastern Tennessee (Redmond and Scott 1996).
59335		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be the same as Plethodon glutinosus: Wooded slopes, ravines, floodplains, shalebanks, and cave entrances, most often in hardwood forest, sometimes in pinelands. It is generally under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf-litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59335		population	eng	It is widespread and common.
59335		threats	eng	Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999). However, logging does not constitute a major threat to the security of the global population.
59336		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59336		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the central United States from Illinois and Indiana southward through western and central Kentucky to central Tennessee (Conant and Collins 1991, Highton 1997).
59336		habitat	eng	It can be found in the vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines, canyons, rubble, seepages, caves, and wooded slopes. Under rocks, logs, or leaves during day. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
59336		population	eng	Many unthreatened populations persist.
59336		threats	eng	None known. Local populations are impacted by deforestation.
59337		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species. It occurs in many protected areas.
59337		distribution	eng	This species is found in extreme southwestern Washington south to extreme northwestern California, USA (Petranka 1998). It is found from sea level to about 1,000m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59337		habitat	eng	It is found along shady streams or stream seepages in wet rocky areas; talus slopes, moss-covered outcrops, often under rocks, logs, moss and leaf-litter. Animals may enter water to escape predators. Eggs are laid on land in moist crevices or cavities, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59337		population	eng	Many unthreatened populations are known.
59337		threats	eng	It is not strongly tied to old growth forest; it can be abundant in forests of all ages, though it is more likely present in logged forests when mature timber is present upstream (Corn and Bury 1991); hence logging is not a major threat to this species
59338		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59338		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA in southeastern Indiana, Ohio (except northwestern part of the state), northern Kentucky, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northwestern West Virginia (Highton 1999, Regester 2000).
59338		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and found under logs, stumps, rocks, or leaf-litter on moist wooded slopes of valleys and ravines; high densities on wooded talus; sometimes along stream margins; rarely on dry ridge crests, hilltops, or valley floors (Regester 2000). Generally underground in mid-winter and summer. Lays eggs under rocks or in underground cavity, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59338		population	eng	There are many occurrences; well over 100 widely distributed collection sites (e.g., Pfingsten and Downs 1989).
59338		threats	eng	None known. Local populations are impacted by deforestation.
59339		conservation	eng	It occurs in Redwood National Park and associated state redwood parks in Humboldt and Del Norte Counties, California.
59339		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the vicinity of Port Orford, south-western Oregon, south to central Humboldt County, north-western California, USA (Petranka 1998). It occurs from sea level up to about 1,600m asl (Ollivier and Welsh 1999).
59339		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with moist talus and rocky substrates in redwood or Douglas fir forests, including in riparian zones. It is usually found among moss-covered rocks, under associated bark and other forest litter, but usually not in seeps or other very wet areas. It is associated with older forests with closed, multi-storied canopy (composed of both conifers and hardwoods), with a cool, moist microclimate, and rocky substrates dominated by cobble-sized fragments, and these conditions may be optimal throughout most of the range (Welsh 1990; Welsh and Lind 1995). In coastal regions it may be common in recently harvested forest areas with no associated older forests (Diller and Wallace 1994). The eggs are laid in concealed terrestrial sites where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59339		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but it is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.
59339		threats	eng	It is declining due to clear-cutting logging of old-growth forest habitat, especially in drier inland locations.
59340		conservation	eng	Maintenance of mature hardwood forest habitat is key to the long-term persistence of viable populations of this species (Petranka 1998).
59340		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA. Plethodon glutinosus complex: southern New Hampshire (disjunctive), western Connecticut, and New York south to central Florida, west to Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and south-central Texas (disjunctive) (Petranka 1998). Plethodon glutinosus sensu Highton <em>et al.</em> (1989): northeastern USA to central Illinois, south to central Alabama, central Georgia, western Virginia, northern Maryland, and central New Jersey.
59340		habitat	eng	There are wooded slopes, ravines, floodplains, shalebanks, and cave entrances; most often in hardwood forest, sometimes in pinelands. It is generally under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf-litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59340		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. There are hundreds of occurrences. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).
59340		threats	eng	Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999). However, logging does not constitute a major threat to the security of the global population.
59341		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
59341		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the eastern USA in the Susquehanna River Valley, Pennsylvania, to New River, northwestern Virginia, including eastern West Virginia and western Maryland (Highton 1999).
59341		habitat	eng	It is found in valley and ridge physiography, generally in mature hardwood forests with well-drained soils. It lays eggs in moist cavity, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59341		population	eng	Stable populations occur throughout the range
59341		threats	eng	None. Local populations are no doubt impacted by deforestation.
59342		conservation	eng	Most known U.S. sites (87%) occur on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, but these data are biased by the fact that most surveys have been conducted on National Forest lands. Sites located off Forest Service land receive little, if any, protection from land management activities. Both Idaho and Montana have stream protection zones (voluntary in Montana), as do most forests. However, the seeps and small, high gradient and intermittent streams that provide most of the known habitat receive minimal protection under these guidelines that are based primarily on protecting downstream water quality, rather than on maintaining high quality on-site habitat in these areas (Cassirer <em>et al.</em> 1994).
59342		distribution	eng	This species is a remnant of a once diverse plethodontid salamander fauna in the central Rocky Mountains, North America, that was likely reduced by climatic changes over the last 10-14 million years (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983, Tihen and Wake 1983). The species maintains a disjunctive distribution at elevations up to 1,524m asl in northern Idaho, western Montana, and southeastern British Columbia (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1997). Recent surveys have found this species to be more widely distributed than previously known, particularly in British Columbia. The North Fork of the Clearwater and the St. Joe drainages in Idaho, and the lower Clark Fork and Kootenai Rivers in Montana, comprise the core of the species U.S. distribution (Wilson and Simon 1987, Genter <em>et al.</em> 1988, Groves 1988). The Selway drainage comprises the southern limit of known range in Idaho (Wilson 1990) and Copper Creek and the Moyie River drainage the northern limit (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1989). In Montana, the southern limit of known distribution is Sweathouse Creek in the Bitterroot River drainage (Wilson and Simon 1987) and the northernmost population is along the South Fork of the Yaak River. Recent surveys have expanded the known range in British Columbia. Prior to 1999, these salamanders were known only from along watercourses (streams, waterfalls and seepages) that drain into the Moyie River, Duck Lake and Kootenay Lake (Holmberg <em>et al.</em> 1984; Orchard 1990; Charland 1992; Ohanjanian 1997a, 1997b, 1998). Work carried out in 1999 by Dulisse (1999), however, showed that they also occur in the Columbia River drainage; they were found near Lower Arrow Lake at Tulip Falls, in Syringa Creek Provincial Park, west of Castlegar. In 2000, they were found north of Nakusp at a falls that flows into Upper Arrow Lake, on Mark Creek (a tributary of the St. Mary's River near the town of Kimberley), along the east shore of the Duncan Reservoir, in low-elevation (950m asl) avalanche paths along Howser Creek (east of the Duncan Reservoir), and at additional sites along the east side of Kootenay Lake (Ohanjanian 1999, 2000, Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2000, Ohanjanian et. al 2001). In 2001, Coeur d'Alene Salamanders were found 95km north of Revelstoke, the most northerly location to date. Although not all localities of occurrence have been identified, the southern, eastern and western edges of the distribution are likely limited by lack of moisture, discontinuous geological formations, and high temperatures (Wilson 1993). The northern limit of current distribution probably represents the extent of successful recolonization of suitable habitat (Lynch 1984).
59342		habitat	eng	Primary habitats are seepages and streamside talus; also inhabits talus far from free water (deep talus mixed with moist soil on well-shaded north-facing slopes); in wet weather, occurs also in leaf-litter and under bark and logs in coniferous forest. Terrestrial breeders with direct development; eggs presumably are laid in underground rock crevices, although no nest sites have been found in the wild.
59342		population	eng	There are 97-192 documented U.S. sites: 164 in northern Idaho and 28 in Montana (Cassirer <em>et al.</em> 1994). In British Columbia, as of 2001, there were 44 confirmed sites on 42 distinct watercourses (Ohanjanian 1997a, 1997b, 1998, 1999, 2000; Dulisse 1999; Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2000; Ohanjanian et. al 2001). Total number of adults is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000.<br/><br/>Trend unknown. Most occurrences have been found since 1985. Of the 192 currently mapped occurrences in the U.S., only nine (5%) are of unknown status (no salamanders found in the most recent survey, possibly due to sub optimal survey conditions or difficulty in locating historical sites).
59342		threats	eng	Timber harvest, road and trail construction, water diversion projects, pollution, introduction of exotic species, fire, illegal collecting, and potential deleterious genetic effects due to small isolated populations are threats to this species. Restricted mobility and increasing habitat fragmentation make it susceptible to local extirpation as well (Cassirer <em>et al.</em> 1994).
59343		conservation	eng	This species is protected from the detrimental effects of clear-cutting (Ash 1997, Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993, Petranka 1998, Ash and Pollock 1999) by occurring completely within the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. It does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species.
59343		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Gregory Bald and Great Smoky isolates, and the extreme northern part of the Balsam isolate, in North Carolina and Tennessee, USA, from 768-1,780m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59343		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist dense hardwood, coniferous, and mixed forests with mossy logs and slabs of rock. It is found in burrows, leaf-litter, or in spaces under rocks and logs during the day. It tolerates some level of disturbance, and much of its range occurs in secondary growth forest. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are probably laid in underground cavities.
59343		population	eng	Dodd (2004) mapped more than 100 collection or observation sites in the Great Smokies, and reported that this species is generally abundant.
59343		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are factors that negatively affect spruce fir forests such as global warming, acid rain, and balsam woolly adelgid (<em>Adelges piceae</em>) infestations.
59344		conservation	eng	There are several occurrences in Cumberland Gap National Historic Park, Jefferson National Forest, and Beaks Interstate Park. Maintaining the availability of mature hardwood forest habitat is important to the long-term persistence of viable populations.
59344		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Eastern Kentucky, northeastern Tennessee, southern West Virginia, and southwestern Virginia, USA (Petranka 1998). Primarily in the Cumberland Plateau, but extending into the Valley and Ridge of Russell and Washington counties, Virginia.
59344		habitat	eng	Optimal conditions include mature hardwood forests (Petranka 1998). Generally they are found under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf-litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices. It is a terrestrial breeder.
59344		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. There are probably reduced populations in past; expanded with current trend to reforestation.
59344		threats	eng	Deforestation, agriculture, and strip-mining constitute potential threats. However, the general trend within its range is reforestation.
59345		conservation	eng	Research needed on taxonomic and threat status.
59345		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Round and Kiamichi Mountains in Polk County, Arkansas, and LeFlore County, Oklahoma, USA (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989), although its range is poorly known.
59345		habitat	eng	It is a forest species that breeds terrestrially by direct development.
59345		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59345		threats	eng	Deforestation is presumably a local threat for some populations.
59346		conservation	eng	Population monitoring is needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas.
59346		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the northern half of Louisiana and south-central Arkansas, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
59346		habitat	eng	Its' typical habitat is hardwood forest; when inactive, occurs under logs, leaf-litter, and other cover, in mammal burrows, or in various holes or crevices. Eggs are laid probably in or under logs. It has no aquatic stage.
59346		population	eng	It appears to be relatively common within range.
59346		threats	eng	There is little information on its status but it is evidently not threatened. Local populations are probably impacted by deforestation.
59347		conservation	eng	Portions of the species' range are protected in South Mountain State Park. The species also occurs in South Mountain Game Lands where the forest is generally maintained intact (D. Beamer pers. comm.). The species does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59347		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the South Mountains, in Burke, Cleveland, and Rutherford counties, in the Piedmont Province of North Carolina, USA; its elevational range is at least 543-823m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59347		habitat	eng	It is found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development in the same habitat. It tolerates some level of disturbance because much of its range occurs in second growth forest.
59347		population	eng	It is common and relatively easily found even in areas that are not prime habitat (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003).
59347		threats	eng	Clear cutting has been reported to strongly deplete local populations of the <em>P. jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993); the time required for recovery is debatable but is at least a few decades (Ash 1997, Petranka 1999, Ash and Pollock 1999). <em>Plethodon meridianus</em> appears to be somewhat tolerant of habitat degradation, since much of its range has been logged and is now covered in second-growth forest (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003). Some areas in the South Mountains are being used for residential development, so habitat destruction is a threat (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003).
59348		conservation	eng	Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in some protected areas.
59348		distribution	eng	This species can be found in cowee isolate, Balsam isolate (except the extreme northern part), and the Blue Ridge isolate (except the extreme northeastern part) of the Plethodon jordani complex, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, USA; it has an elevational range at least 256-1,295m asl (usually above 800m asl) (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59348		habitat	eng	It can be found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development. It is fairly tolerant of timber cutting. Seven hours of search effort over four nights in each of two sites yielded 50 individuals in an area that had been clear-cut 10 years earlier and 65 individuals in a forested site (Ash <em>et al.</em> 2003).
59348		population	eng	Highton and Peabody (2000) listed 13 sampling locations. It is locally a fairly common species.
59348		threats	eng	Although clear-cutting probably causes initial declines, this species shows a good ability to recover population densities, and it is probably not significantly threatened.
59349		conservation	eng	Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in some protected areas.
59349		distribution	eng	This species can be found from eastern USA. Six isolates (Flat Top, Buckhorn, Burkes Garden, Knob, Clinch, Brumley) in the Valley and Ridge Province of Virginia and five isolates (Roan, Bald, Black, Max Patch, Sandy mush) in the Blue Ridge Province of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee; elevational range at least 1,036-1,420m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59349		habitat	eng	It is often found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
59349		population	eng	Eleven populations are known. No other population data available.
59349		threats	eng	Although clear-cutting probably causes initial declines, on the assumption that it is similar to the closely related P. metcalfi, this species shows a good ability to recover population densities, and it is probably not significantly threatened.
59350		conservation	eng	Most of the species' potential habitat is in the Crockford-Pigeon Mountain Wildlife Management Area. A request to list the species as "threatened" under the federal Endangered Species Act was submitted by John Jensen to the USFWS-Athens, GA Field Office. Private land within the range of the species should be considered for acquisition or the establishment of conservation easements. Timber harvest should be avoided in occupied habitats; if timber harvest does occur, it is important to retain a forested canopy surrounding significant rock-outcroppings and caves, as well as to retain a suitable amount of coarse woody debris. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59350		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Cumberland Plateau of extreme north-western Georgia, USA. All known populations occur on the eastern slope of Pigeon Mountain in Walker and Chattooga counties (Wynn, Highton and Jacobs 1988, Jensen 1999, Buhlmann 2001, Jensen, Camp and Marshall 2002). Sites occur at altitudes ranging from 220-570m asl (Wynn, Highton and Jacobs 1988).
59350		habitat	eng	Pigeon Mountain Salamanders are associated with limestone outcroppings, boulder fields, and caves (Wynn, Highton and Jacobs 1988). Those found in caves are rarely deeper than the twilight zone. Individuals are most often found in and around cracks and crevices within rocks. These microhabitats are embedded within mesic deciduous forests consisting of an over-storey comprised primarily of oak and hickory (Jensen 1999). However, Pigeon Mountain Salamanders are rarely encountered away from rock outcrops or caves (Jensen, Camp and Marshall 2002).
59350		population	eng	Wynn, Highton and Jacobs (1988) reported the species as very abundant, far outnumbering other syntopic salamander species. Recent surveys at two of the known sites indicated no detectable change in their abundance (J.B. Jensen pers. obs.); however, Pigeon Mountain salamanders have become uncommon at one locality, possibly due to disturbance created by increased cave visitation and/or perhaps scientific over-collecting (Jensen 1999).
59350		threats	eng	The restricted distribution of Pigeon Mountain Salamanders makes them especially vulnerable to threats. Mineral rights to a portion of this property are leased to a mining company that has proposed quarrying operations, which might threaten both this species and Green Salamanders, another rare amphibian. Over-collection for scientific study and possibly the illegal pet trade, as well as disturbance from recreational cavers, might threaten populations. Loss or reduction of moisture-trapping canopy covers as a result of timber removal on private lands could pose a future threat. However, at present the species appears to be stable and the impacts of these threats is probably relatively limited.
59351		conservation	eng	Much of its habitat is now protected, and its populations are likely to be stable. Most occurrences are within George Washington National Forest, where many sites are classified as roadless areas or unforestable. The United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service is aware of the populations of this species and its sensitivity.
59351		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Shenandoah, North, and Great North mountains, George Washington National Forest, Virginia (Augusta, Rockingham, and Shenandoah Counties) and West Virginia, USA (Green and Pauley 1987; Conant and Collins 1991; Petranka 1998), from 735-1,200m asl (but mainly from 900-1,200m asl).
59351		habitat	eng	This species occurs in ridge and valley areas in mixed deciduous forest interspersed with Virginia pine and hemlock and numerous rock outcrops (Green and Pauley 1987). It is most abundant in old-growth forests with many downed logs and in areas with an abundance of surface rocks (Mitchell 1991), including talus. It tends to be most abundant on north-facing slopes. During the day it is found under rocks and logs or in burrows. Breeding is terrestrial by direct development.
59351		population	eng	Its total adult population size is unknown but deforestation has probably reduced its distribution and abundance compared with historical levels.
59351		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species include deforestation through logging, and defoliation by gypsy moths (<em>Lymantria dispar</em>); the effect of spraying pesticides to control gypsy moths is unknown (Mitchell 1991). Firewood collection and over-collection of individuals are also potential threats.
59352		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
59352		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Eastern Kentucky, southern West Virginia (west of the New and Kanawha rivers and south of the Teays River valley), western Virginia, northwestern North Carolina, and northeastern Tennessee, United States (Highton 1999).
59352		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial. It can be found under logs, stumps, rocks, or leaf-litter on moist wooded slopes of valleys and ravines; high densities on wooded talus; rarely on dry ridge crests, hilltops, or valley floors (Regester 2000). Generally underground in mid-winter and summer. Lays eggs under rocks or in underground cavity, which develop directly without a larval stage.
59352		population	eng	It is common in many areas. Populations are presumed to be relatively stable.
59352		threats	eng	Deforestation and urbanization have eliminated local populations (Petranka 1998), but overall the species appears to be secure in most of its range.
59353		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this nominal species warrants further study. Its type locality is in Beavers Bend State Park.
59353		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in McCurtain County, Oklahoma, and from a single locality in north-western Sevier County, Arkansas, USA (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989; Huntington <em>et al.</em> 1993). Its distribution is not well known, and it purportedly occurs more widely in Arkansas.
59353		habitat	eng	Its primary habitat is presumably hardwood or mixed forest. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
59353		population	eng	Its population is unknown.
59353		threats	eng	The threats are unknown. The only known site is a protected area.
59354		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59354		distribution	eng	This species can be found in four widely separated geographic isolates in the USA: eastern Oklahoma-Arkansas; southeastern quarter of Missouri; eastern Tennessee-western North Carolina-Georgia-eastern Alabama and central Louisiana (Petranka 1998).
59354		habitat	eng	It is found under rocks, rotten logs, and mosses in forested areas. In dry summer months it occurs in and near damp areas. Uncommonly found in twilight zone of caves. Eggs are laid in moss or rotten log, or under a rock or log, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59354		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is locally common.
59354		threats	eng	It is unthreatened overall. Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999).
59355		conservation	eng	Much of the range occurs in the Nantahala National Forest, although some clear cutting occurs there. Conservation activities that promote mature closed-canopy forests should benefit this species. The species does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species.
59355		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Standing Indian, Wayah, Tusquitee, and Unicoi isolates of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex, North Carolina and Tennessee, USA; it has an elevational range of at least 853-1,494m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).
59355		habitat	eng	It can be found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is at least somewhat tolerant of disturbance, because it is common in second growth forests that were at one time uprooted by wild pigs (Bishop 1928). It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
59355		population	eng	This species can be very common in portions of its range. It is probably stable at present.
59355		threats	eng	Clear cutting strongly depletes local populations of other members of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993); the time required for recovery is debatable, but is at least on the order of a few decades (Ash 1997, Petranka 1999, Ash and Pollock 1999).
59356		conservation	eng	Majority of range occurs in Blue Ridge Parkway National Park, Great Smoky National Park, and U.S. Forest Service lands (J. Petranka pers. comm., 1997); many of these populations receive some degree of protection (Petranka 1998).
59356		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA. It can also be found in the Blue Ridge physiographic province of southwestern North Carolina west of French Broad River, and immediately adjacent Tennessee; also northern Rabun County, Georgia, and Oconee, Pickens, Abbeville and Anderson counties, South Carolina (Highton 1983, Petranka 1998). Tennessee: Unicoi Mountains in Monroe and Polk counties and the Great Smoky Mountains in Sevier and Cocke counties (Redmond and Scott 1996). It can be found at elevations up to 1,550m asl (Petranka 1998).
59356		habitat	eng	Birch-beech-hemlock forest with witch hazel, mountain laurel, and rhododendron understorey; home range typically includes a retreat hole (Nishikawa 1990). Highest densities occur in mature, mesic hardwood forests (Petranka 1998). It is a terrestrial breeder, with direct development.
59356		population	eng	Overall populations are stable. Hairston and Wiley (1993) monitored populations in mature forests in western North Carolina for nearly two decades and found no evidence of long-term population declines (cited by Petranka 1998). Estimated 5 or less extant sites in Georgia (R. Mac Beth pers. comm., 1997). It is common in main portion of range in North Carolina (J. Petranka pers. comm., 1997). Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped 21 collection localities in Tennessee.
59356		threats	eng	Historical populations are threatened by clear cutting, currently believed to be stable (J. Petranka pers. comm., 1997).
59357		conservation	eng	Adequately protected in Mount St. Helens National Monument and Olympic National Park.
59357		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Willapa Hills, and Olympic and Cascade mountains, Washington, USA; disjunctive centres in the Willapa Hills, on the Olympic Peninsula, and in the southern Cascade Ranges are separated by glacial and alluvial deposits that might limit the regional distribution (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995). Coexists with Dunn salamander southeast of South Bend, Pacific County, Washington (Stebbins 1985). It generally occurs in small isolated populations.
59357		habitat	eng	Moist coniferous forests and open areas. Found on wet soil near seepages, streams, lakes, and rivers, also found on talus slopes (especially well-shaded, north-facing slopes). It can also be found under bark, in and under logs, and in leaf-litter in wet weather. Two clutches have been found in nature. One nest was under a moss covered stone; eggs were in the usual grape-like cluster and attached to the stone by a single gelatinous thread, as in other Plethodon (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). The other clutch was in a moist, partially rotted log along a stream in old-growth forest (western red-cedar/Douglas-fir/western hemlock/grand fir) in Washington (Herp. Rev. 20:48). The eggs develop directly without a larval stage.
59357		population	eng	About 80 populations are known (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995), 70% in excellent to good condition (J. Fleckenstein pers. comm., 1997). Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds several thousand. It is generally uncommon. Stable to slight decline over past 20 years (J. Flackenstein pers. comm., 1997). Probably was more widespread 200 years ago.
59357		threats	eng	It is currently not very threatened; perhaps extirpated by logging in lowland sites in late 1800s (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995; J. Fleckenstein pers. comm., 1997). Managed forests generally do not provide the woody debris needed for shelter and nesting (Welsh 1990, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is sedentary, with narrow ecological tolerance; limited ability to survive in or colonize disturbed habitats.
59358		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species. It occurs in many protected areas.
59358		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Western North America from southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island, south through western Washington to southwestern Oregon (Petranka 1998). It occurs from sea level to about 1,250m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59358		habitat	eng	It can be found in humid coniferous forests; damp talus slopes and shaded ravines. Found under rocks, logs, leaf-litter, and other forest debris. On Vancouver Island, small individuals were found under small rocks and away from discrete cover objects in leaf-litter and under moss more frequently than were larger individuals (Ovaska and Gregory 1989). Lays eggs on land in moist retreats, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59358		population	eng	It is one of the most commonly encountered terrestrial salamanders throughout its range (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).
59358		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Logging is not a major threat because this species maintains thriving populations in young forests.
59359		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and population monitoring needed. It occurs in several protected areas, including the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
59359		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA. Southeastern Kentucky, southwestern Virginia as far east as Hayters Gap in Washington County, eastern Tennessee, the French Broad River valley of western North Carolina, extreme northwestern Georgia, northern Alabama, and extreme northeastern Mississippi (Highton 1997). Its distribution is highly fragmented.
59359		habitat	eng	It can be found in the vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines, canyons, rubble, seepages, caves, and wooded slopes. It is mostly found under rocks, logs, or leaves during day. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
59359		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat. Mount (1975) mapped more than 50 collection sites in Alabama. Highton (1997) reported large numbers in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
59359		threats	eng	urbanization and conversion of forest into cropland have eliminated many populations, but the species remains common in suitable habitat (Petranka 1998). Most of the habitat loss was not recent. It is probably now stable and not seriously threatened.
59360		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas. Additional research is needed on its population status and the threats that it faces.
59360		distribution	eng	This species can be found in eastern West Virginia and adjacent north-western Virginia, USA, from 1,100-1,200m asl. Highton (1999) mapped 28 collection sites, and six sites where hybrids with <em>Plethodon hoffmani</em> occur.
59360		habitat	eng	It is often found under objects in wooded areas. Eggs are laid in moist cavities, where they develop directly without a larval stage.
59360		population	eng	This species' population status is not known but it is presumed to be stable.
59360		threats	eng	It is not known what threats there are to this species, which is unlikely to be seriously threatened, although some populations are probably affected locally by clear-cutting logging.
59361		conservation	eng	It occurs in scattered protected areas (state parks, nature preserves, and national forest). This species is listed as an endangered species in South Carolina and as a species of special concern in Louisiana.
59361		distribution	eng	This species can be found in east-central Alabama and adjacent Georgia, with scattered, isolated populations in western South Carolina (Greenwood, Edgefield, and McCormick counties), southwestern Alabama, southern Louisiana, and Mississippi, USA (Conant and Collins 1991, Highton 1986, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Herp Rev. 22:62; Petranka 1998). Occupies less than 4 hectares in Louisiana (S. Shively pers. comm., 1997). One documented site in excellent condition in Louisiana (S. Shively pers. comm., 1997). Four sites mapped in Georgia, based on publication "Distribution of Amphibians and Reptiles in Georgia" (R. MacBeth pers. comm., 1997). In Alabama, an estimated 101+ extant occurrences; difficult to distinguish from P. ventralis (formerly a form of P. dorsalis) and the two species' distributions overlap; this might result in an overestimate of population numbers; condition of populations estimated to be 30% excellent, 20% good, 20% fair, and 30% poor (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997). Thirty-nine occurrences from 1980-1995 documented in South Carolina; estimated 21-100 extant occurrences; extensively surveyed in the mid-1980s (S. Bennett pers. comm., 1997).
59361		habitat	eng	It can be found in the mesophytic forest (maple, hickory, oak, poplar, and elm) bordering rocky feeder streams; under logs, bark, and leaf-litter on forest floor and along rocky streambeds. It is also found in moist forest on steep north-facing slopes with rock outcrops. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development in the same habitats. It tolerates some level of disturbance because it persists in second growth forest throughout much of its range.
59361		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but probably greatly exceeds 10,000. Possibly extremely abundant in Alabama; it might be confused with <em>P. ventralis</em> (formerly a form of <em>P. dorsalis</em>), resulting in an overestimate of abundance (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997). It is stable in Louisiana and South Carolina (S. Bennett and S. Shively pers. comm., 1997). Possibly declining due to loss of habitat in Alabama (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997).
59361		threats	eng	Deforestation and the conversion of deciduous forest to pine monocultures maintained on short harvesting cycles have adversely impacted many populations (Petranka 1998). Moderately threatened by development and silviculture in Alabama (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997).
59362		conservation	eng	Yellow-spotted isolates, whose systematic affinities have not been determined, occur in Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia; these populations should receive high priority for protection (Petranka 1998). It occurs in several protected areas.
59362		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Appalachian Plateau of the eastern USA from southwestern New York to northeastern Tennessee and northwestern North Carolina (Petranka 1998).
59362		habitat	eng	It can be found in upland forests and woodlands (e.g., red spruce-yellow birch, mixed deciduous). Found in rock crevices, under rocks, logs, and leaves, and in twilight zone of caves (at lower elevations). Eggs are laid in damp logs, moss, cave crevices, and other protected sites.
59362		population	eng	Populations are secure in a broad portion of range.
59362		threats	eng	No major threats. Local populations are likely to be impacted by deforestation.
59363		conservation	eng	In Virginia, much of the range occurs in the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area, primarily in zones designated as protected. However, fragmentation could threaten this population (Pague 1991). The Grandfather Mountain population currently receives adequate protection by the current landowner. Due to the generally small and isolated populations of this species, all populations are vulnerable to accidents or policy changes in land management (Braswell 1989). It is listed as a species of special concern in North Carolina and Virginia and as Wildlife in Need of Management in Tennessee.
59363		distribution	eng	This species is found in Whitetop, Mount Rogers, and Pine Mountain, Virginia, south-westward to Yancy County, North Carolina, extreme eastern Tennessee, and eastward to Grandfather Mountain, Caldwell County, North Carolina, USA (Pague 1991). Populations are apparently isolated from each other (Pague 1991). It occurs at elevations of 760m asl or more, but chiefly in spruce forests above 1,500m asl (Conant and Collins 1991).
59363		habitat	eng	It inhabits spruce-fir, birch-hemlock, and primarily deciduous forests, and is also found in grassy spots and boulder fields. It is usually found under rocks or logs, or in leaf-litter, during the day, and tends to be associated with rocky substrates. Breeding and non-breeding habitats are the same. The eggs are laid in small cavities in rotting conifer logs or beneath moss mats. It is apparently not tolerant of habitat disturbance.
59363		population	eng	Populations in North Carolina and Virginia are believed to be declining (H. LeGrand and S. Roble pers. comm. 1997). Grandfather Mountain (North Carolina) and Mount Rogers (Virginia) populations are large and probably stable (W. Van Devender pers. comm. 1997; D.A. Beamer pers. comm. 2003).
59363		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to development and logging (Braswell 1989). Forest fragmentation, catastrophic fires, or forest die-off resulting from acid rain or spruce budworm could have significant adverse effects on the relatively small isolated populations (see Pague 1991). Most populations are protected to some degree by their occurrence at high elevations (Petranka 1998).
59364		conservation	eng	Less intensive timber harvesting practices would benefit this species (Petranka 1998). It occurs in some protected areas.
59364		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southern Blue Ridge Mountains in Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia, USA (Petranka 1998).
59364		habitat	eng	This species can be found in wooded hillsides and ravines where rock slides are covered with mosses and ferns; areas with old windfalls; damp, shaded, cracked rock outcrops; grassy areas near woodlands. Found in and under rotting logs and other cover by day. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.
59364		population	eng	It is locally abundant in many parts of the range (Petranka 1998).
59364		threats	eng	Not threatened overall. Clear cutting strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993).
59365		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected areas.
59365		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Teotepec, in the Sierra de Atoyac in south-central Guerrero, Mexico, above 2,000m asl. Its range is not well understood, and it could occur more widely.
59365		habitat	eng	This species is known from open fir-pine-oak forest with bunchgrass. It apparently needs the presence of fallen logs as daytime refuges. It reproduces by direct development.
59365		population	eng	It is known from only one collection, and has not been seen for many years (since the 1960s). Recent attempts to locate it have not been successful.
59365		threats	eng	Even though it lives in a remote area, it is threatened by logging that has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and there is also pressure on its habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.
59366		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala, but habitat loss is ongoing within this protected area and there is a need for improved management. The species is also in need of close population monitoring. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59366		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central Mexico, in the extreme east of Mexico State, in southern Federal District, and in Morelos, at around 3,000m asl.
59366		habitat	eng	It lives in pine, pine-oak and fir forests, and is terrestrial, being found under the bark of logs and stumps; it does not tolerate serious habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59366		population	eng	It used to be abundant, but it has recently disappeared from parts of its range.
59366		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, due to the heavy transformation and logging of forested areas along the transvolcanic belt of Mexico.
59367		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas. Further studies are needed within the Sierra Madre del Sur region.
59367		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the east and north-east of Cerro Pico del Aguila in the Sierra de Malinaltepec, Guerrero, Mexico. The limits of its distribution are not known. It has an altitudinal range of 1,645-1,740m asl.
59367		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mixed montane forest, where it is found under rocks, in holes, and under the bark of trees. It reproduces by direct development.
59367		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
59367		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction.
59368		conservation	eng	Urgent protection of any remaining forest near the type locality area is required, but security problems in the area make it difficult to implement conservation measures for this species. It is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. The taxonomic validity of this species is not clear and needs to be investigated.
59368		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of San Vicente Lachixio town, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,100m asl.
59368		habitat	eng	It is known from pine-oak forest, where it lives in sinkholes, crevices and caves, always in moist places. Reproduction is by direct development.
59368		population	eng	There have been no records of it for 15 years, but it was never common. Recent searches for it have been unsuccessful, and it might already be extinct.
59368		threats	eng	Its habitat around San Vicente Lachixio town has largely disappeared, with almost all the trees having been cut down. As a result, the habitat has dried out, which is to the detriment of this species.
59369		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to establish whether or not this species might survive in the wild outside its only known locality.
59369		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Totontepec, at 2,500m asl, in central-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico.
59369		habitat	eng	This is the only known aquatic plethodontid salamander in Mesoamerica, occurring in streams in cloud forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59369		population	eng	It is known from only three specimens collected in 1978. There have been many subsequent, unsuccessful searches for it, and it is likely to be extinct.
59369		threats	eng	The cloud forest habitat of this species has been completely destroyed at the type locality due to wood extraction, farming, and human settlement. The resulting degradation of streams due to burned debris has probably also contributed to the species' disappearance.
59370		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59370		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of 4km west of Peña Verde, the northern-most peak in the Sierra de Juárez, Oaxaca, Mexico. The type series was collected at 2,805m asl. This species is believed to be a montane specialist with a restricted distribution, though the limits of its distribution are not known.
59370		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine cloud forest (and in barren open lands at higher altitudes) where it is found under rocks, under the bark of logs, and in or under decaying wood. Reproduction is by direct development; one collected female was found guarding a clutch of 22 eggs under the bark of a log.
59370		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
59370		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat from small-scale farming and large-scale timber extraction.
59371		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59371		distribution	eng	This species' main distribution is along the western and southern margins of the Mexican plateau, with numerous isolated populations from the border area of central Sonora and Chihuahua, and from central Tamaulipas, to the mountains of central Guerrero. Its altitudinal range is 750-3,300m asl.
59371		habitat	eng	The species inhabits pine and pine-oak forests at high elevation, as well as forest edges and grazed areas. It also occurs in degraded forest, coffee plantations, rural gardens, and very close to urbanized and highly disturbed areas. It is terrestrial, commonly found beneath logs, rocks, waste timber, brush piles and within leaf litter.  It reproduces by direct development.
59371		population	eng	It was once common at numerous localities, but has become increasingly rare, and has disappeared from many places from which it was formerly known. It was the most common salamander species encountered at the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda in Querétaro (Gillingwater and Patrikeev, 2004).
59371		threats	eng	The cause of its decline is unclear. Forest clearance for farming, urbanization and wood extraction are taking place in many parts of its range, but these do not seem to explain the level of decline that has been observed.
59372		conservation	eng	It has been previously recorded from the Volcán Chicabal Reserve in Guatemala, but was not found on a recent visit (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). Habitat protection is an urgent priority. The species is in need of close population monitoring, and research is urgently needed into the enigmatic population decline. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59372		distribution	eng	This species is known from Volcán Tacaná (in extreme eastern Chiapas, Mexico), discontinuously eastwards as far as Volcán Chicabal (in south-western Guatemala), at 2,400-2,800m asl.
59372		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak and upper cloud forest, where it is strictly terrestrial, and can tolerate only very limited habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59372		population	eng	It was formerly extremely abundant, but has undergone extensive declines. Recent surveys (2005 and 2006) at Volcán Chicabal and at San Marcos, in Guatemala, have not revealed any specimens (Sean Rovito and Carlos Vásquez pers. comm. 2007), despite it once being one of the most abundant species at those same localities (collected many times in consistently large numbers). The declines in population do not seem to be linked to habitat modification, and are not a result of overcollection of specimens.
59372		threats	eng	The decline in the population of this species is enigmatic, with further research needed to determine the cause. The species is additionally threatened by habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forest, urbanization, human settlement, and expanding agriculture (including livestock farming).
59373		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, and is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59373		distribution	eng	This species can be found in central Mexico in the states of Estado de Mexico, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla and Morelos. It might be more widespread than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is between 1,100 and 3,000m asl.
59373		habitat	eng	This species lives in pine, pine-oak, fir, and cloud forests, and in the upper extent of lowland forest. It is commonly found beneath rocks, logs and other debris on the ground. It also occurs in somewhat disturbed habitats, such as forest edges, rural gardens, and small patches of forest in urban areas. Breeding is by direct development.
59373		population	eng	This species used to be common, although it has undergone declines. The subspecies <i>Pseudoeurycea cephalica rubrimembris</i> remains not uncommon in the outskirts of Tianguistengo village in north-eastern Hidalgo State.
59373		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by agricultural expansion, expanding human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range.
59374		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of forest habitats of the Sierra de Juarez. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59374		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the highlands of central and west-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,200-2,700m asl.
59374		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and inhabits pine and pine-oak forests hiding under bark and in leaf-litter. It can tolerate limited habitat disturbance, and is sometimes found in rural gardens and selectively logged lots. It reproduces by direct development.
59374		population	eng	It is fairly common, although it has not been seen at the type locality (Cerro San Felipe) for many years.
59374		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to extensive agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging.
59375		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to confirm whether or not and where this species might survive in order to plan for its conservation. It is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59375		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pluma Hidalgo town, Sola de Vega, and close to Municipio Putla Villa de Guerrero all in south-western Oaxaca, Mexico, from 900-2,500m asl.
59375		habitat	eng	It presumably originally lived in undisturbed forest, but all records have been from disturbed forest and coffee plantations, which might explain its present rarity. Reproduction is by direct development.
59375		population	eng	It appears to be a very rare species, with fewer than ten specimens known.
59375		threats	eng	The heavy disturbance and transformation of the original habitat of this species for agricultural development, logging, and human settlement has probably led to its decline and possible disappearance.
59376		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required.
59376		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Miramundo in the highlands to the south-west of Jalapa, Departamento de Jalapa, Guatemala, at 2,530m asl. It might occur more widely on some of the isolated volcanic peaks of south-eastern Guatemala.
59376		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf forest, and has been collected from inside and beneath rotting logs, and in bromeliads. It is now found only in severely degraded forest edges. It breeds by direct development.
59376		population	eng	It used to be relatively common, but is now much less so in its tiny range. It has not been recorded since the 1970s and visits to the range in 2005 and 2007 have not revealed any animals (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).
59376		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is continuing forest loss due to extensive smallholder farming activities (including cattle grazing) and logging.
59377		conservation	eng	It may occur in Parque Nacional Canon del Río Blanco, although this requires confirmation. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59377		distribution	eng	This species is known from Acultzingo town along the Puebla-Veracruz border to the Sierra Zongolica, Veracruz, Mexico, at 1,900-2,200m asl.
59377		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak forest to lower cloud forest, apparently requiring the presence of abundant bromeliads in mature trees and does not survive in heavily degraded habitats (though it is found at forest edge). It reproduces by direct development.
59377		population	eng	The species is rare, but consistently located in small numbers from known localities.
59377		threats	eng	The major threat is the loss of large bromeliad-covered trees, particularly as habitat is being lost due to expanding agriculture, human settlements, and wood extraction.
59378		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Pico de Ozizaba. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59378		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two localities in Mexico: on and around Volcán Pico de Orizaba, east-central Veracruz; and from the slopes of Volcán La Malinche on the Tlaxcala-Puebla border. It occurs at higher elevations than any other salamander, up to 5,000m asl, with a lower altitudinal limit of around 2,800m asl.
59378		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in pine-oak forest and in bunch grass above the timberline, and does tolerate some level of habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59378		population	eng	Although this has never been a common species, it has become increasingly rare in recent years.
59378		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been heavily disturbed at lower elevations, especially due to logging. It might be more secure at higher elevations, where human impacts are less severe.
59379		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but it is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59379		distribution	eng	This species is known from the areas surrounding Galeana and Iturbide towns, in southern Nuevo Leon, Mexico, from 1,800-2,800m asl.
59379		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-open oak forest with thorny scrub. This terrestrial species can be found under stones, and it can also tolerate considerable habitat modification and has been found in agave plantations and scrubby open country. Breeding is by direct development.
59379		population	eng	It is not common but is still recorded regularly.
59379		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is complete clearance of its habitats, due to clear-cutting and the development of human settlements.
59380		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, making habitat protection for this species an urgent priority.
59380		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern margins Sierra Madre Oriental of Hidalgo, Mexico, where it has been recorded from northern Puebla and Veracruz at 1,000-2,000m asl (though it mainly occurs at higher elevations within its range).
59380		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that inhabits the pine-oak-cloud forest interface, and is able to live in somewhat disturbed habitats. It reproduces by direct development.
59380		population	eng	Formerly quite abundant, this species has become very hard to find in recent years. For example, a visit to the known locality of Cerro Loma Alta in 2003 yielded no records of this species (last found there in 1999). It also used to be common at La Joya, but was last recorded there in 1997.
59380		threats	eng	Serious habitat destruction is taking place within its range as a result of logging, mining, agriculture, and human settlement. All areas surrounding La Joya have been highly disturbed as a result of extensive logging and mining, and the remaining available habitat at this locality was only about 15 ha in 2004. Another known locality, Cerro Loma Alta, which was visited in 2003, was found to have been virtually destroyed as a result of logging and invasive plants.
59381		conservation	eng	It has been previously recorded from the Volcán Chicabal Reserve in Guatemala, but was not found on a recent visit (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). Habitat protection is an urgent priority. The species is in need of close population monitoring, and research is urgently needed into the population decline. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59381		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Soconusco area, in Chiapas, Mexico, eastward to the Volcán Chicabal in Guatemala, at an altitude of 2,400-2,900m asl.
59381		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak and upper cloud forest, where it is strictly terrestrial and can tolerate only very limited habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59381		population	eng	It was formerly a common species, but has undergone declines in recent years. Recent surveys (2005 and 2006) at Volcán Chicabal and at San Marcos revealed a single specimen from Volcán Chicabal, and no specimens from San Marcos (Sean Rovito and Carlos Vásquez pers. comm. 2007), despite it being once one of the most abundant species at those same localities in Guatemala (collected many times in consistently large numbers). The declines in population do not seem to be linked to habitat modification.
59381		threats	eng	The decline in the population of this species is enigmatic, with further research needed to determine the cause. The species is additionally threatened by the alteration and clear-cutting of its habitat, due to urbanization, human settlement (refugees), and agricultural expansion (including livestock farming).
59382		conservation	eng	The type locality falls within a local conservation management area administered by the town of Santiago Comaltepec. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59382		distribution	eng	This species occurs between Cerro Pelón and Vista Hermosa in the Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at an altitude of 2,400-3,000m asl.
59382		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and inhabits pristine moist forest habitats, and has been found under loose bark or fallen trees, or under moss on rocks and logs. It reproduces by direct development.
59382		population	eng	It used to be very common, but has undergone dramatic declines and is now uncommon. Only one individual has been located in recent years (c. 2000).
59382		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due primarily to logging, as well as agricultural expansion and human settlement. The reasons for the dramatic recent declines in this species require further investigation.
59383		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Cumbres del Ajusco, though many of these are in need of improved management for the benefit of biodiversity conservation. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59383		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Puebla and western Veracruz to Plaxcala, Estado de Mexico and Distrito Federal, Mexico. There is an isolated population in northern Hidalgo. Its altitudinal range is 2,500-3,200m asl.
59383		habitat	eng	It lives at high elevations in pine and pine-oak forests. It is terrestrial, and can withstand only limited disturbance to its habitat. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59383		population	eng	It used to be the commonest salamander on the Mexican Plateau. It is still present, but is far less abundant, although not uncommon.
59383		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by agriculture, forestry, and human settlement, as well as touristic activities within national parks.
59384		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and improved protection of the forest habitat of this species in the trans-Mexican volcanic belt is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59384		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the volcanic belt of central-western Mexico at 2,850-3,000m asl. Two allopatric populations are known, one in north-eastern Michoacan and the other in north-western Mexico State.
59384		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting highland coniferous forests, and living beneath logs, the bark of logs, rocks and other debris. It does not tolerate much disturbance of its habitat. Breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59384		population	eng	This has never been a common species. Several animals were recently found at the type locality, following several years without any sightings.
59384		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss, mainly due to logging.
59385		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, such that the most important conservation measure required for this species is the protection and maintenance of its remaining native habitat.
59385		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico: Cerro San Pedro Chiconquiaco, near La Joya, central Veracruz; and Quetzalan, Puebla. It ranges from 1,200-1,500m asl.
59385		habitat	eng	The species inhabits cloud forest, being found in decaying wood, under bark of logs, under moss, and under pine logs. Although not arboreal, it is often recovered off the ground. It survives in degraded forest, and rural gardens and has even been found in garbage. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59385		population	eng	In the past it was not considered to be rare, and could be reliably found, but it appears to have declined. A brief search of Cerro San Pedro Chiconquiaco in 2003 was not successful in locating the species.
59385		threats	eng	Despite its ability to tolerate some habitat degradation, extensive forest loss due to agriculture, logging, and mining are adversely affecting this species. All areas surrounding the type locality of La Joya are highly disturbed by extensive logging and mining. Between 2003 and 2004, the area of forest habitat available for this species was halved due to the expansion of mining activities. The remaining available habitat at this locality was only about 15ha in 2004. Another known locality, Cerro Loma Alta, was visited in 2003 and was found to be virtually destroyed by logging and invasive plants.
59386		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for improved protection of the forest habitat of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59386		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upper slopes of Cofre de Perote and nearby mountains, in the general vicinity of Antonio Limon town, west-central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,400-4,000m asl. The total range of this species seems likely to be under 5,000km2 but greater than 100km2.
59386		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine forest and bunch grass above the timberline; usually being found under rocks and logs on moist soils. It can tolerate some level of habitat disturbance, provided that this is not too serious. It reproduces by direct development.
59386		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. An individual was observed on two separate occasions in 2003.
59386		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been heavily disturbed at lower elevations, especially due to logging, agriculture, and human settlement. It might be more secure at higher elevations, where human impacts have been less severe. In 2003, pine forest at both the upper and lower elevations on Cofre de Perote were found to have been extensively cut for pastures for cattle, and as a result of logging.
59387		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area. Further detailed studies are urgently needed to finally determine whether this species is still extant, and to understand if there are any threats to it.
59387		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur, Mexico, and specifically from the vicinity of Asoleadero and Carrizal de Bravo towns in north-eastern Guerrero, at around 2,600m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.
59387		habitat	eng	It lives in moist oak-pine-fir cloud forest dominated by large bromeliad-covered oaks. It apparently needs the presence of fallen logs as daytime refuges. Reproduction is by direct development.
59387		population	eng	There is very little information; it is known from a few specimens. The species has not been recorded since its discovery in the 1960s despite repeated attempts to locate it.
59387		threats	eng	Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place in its range, which could represent a threat to it. There is also pressure on its habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture, and in particular from fruit orchards.
59388		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of forested areas near Ayutla. This species is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by Mexican law.
59388		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near Ayutla, east-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,100m asl.
59388		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial inhabitat of pine-oak forest and madroño (arbutus forest). It can tolerate some habitat disturbance, as evidenced by the fact that a handful of small populations survive in several tiny fragments of remaining habitat. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59388		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
59388		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the extensive loss of habitat that has taken place due to agriculture, logging and human settlement, and only small fragments of original habitat remain.
59389		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and protection of the forested areas that still remain in the Cofre de Perote area is a priority. Further survey work is also required to determine the current population status of the species, and whether or not it survives in the wild.
59389		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cofre de Perote and Cerro Volcancillo, two mountains located in the Sierra Madre Oriental, central Veracruz, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is from 2,500-3,000m asl.
59389		habitat	eng	It lives in pine-oak forests with abundant bunch grass. Its remaining habitat is very degraded, which might explain why it can no longer be found. The species is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59389		population	eng	There is very little information on population status. It is known from five specimens, and has not been seen for 20 years, despite searches (including very thorough surveys in 2003 and 2004), such that the species might already be extinct.
59389		threats	eng	Much of the original habitat of this species has been lost due to extensive logging, farming (especially potatoes), and expanding human settlements.
59390		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat at the two known sites is urgently needed. Survey work is also needed to ascertain whether or not the species survives in the wild at either site. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59390		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two sites in southern Veracruz, Mexico: the peak of Cerro Chicahuaxtla, Cuatlalpan, at 1,600m asl; and at 1,200-1,300m asl on Volcán San Martín. It is likely that the taxon consists of two separate species, one in each site.
59390		habitat	eng	It is arboreal in montane tropical forest (cloud forest) living in bromeliads, an unusual habitat for a salamander in this genus. It reproduces by direct development.
59390		population	eng	Once relatively common, it is now very rare; a single specimen was recorded at Cerro Chicahuaxtla in 2007 after not having been seen since the mid-1980s.
59390		threats	eng	Most of the habitat of this species has disappeared or has been severely degraded as a result of logging, agriculture, and expanding human settlements.
59391		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected area. Urgent fieldwork is needed in the vicinity of Córdoba to locate any habitats where this species might survive. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59391		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hacienda El Potrero, near the city of Córdoba, west-central Veracruz, Mexico.
59391		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in tropical humid forest, and it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. It is terrestrial and presumably reproduces by direct development.
59391		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
59391		threats	eng	It is doubtful that any suitable habitat for this species survives. In the last 50 years since it was discovered, Córdoba has undergone massive development and there has also been extensive agricultural expansion.
59392		conservation	eng	Its range includes the proposed Cuchumatanes National Park and several protected areas on the Pacific slope volcanoes. It has been previously recorded from the Volcán Chicabal Reserve in Guatemala, but was not found on a recent visit (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). The species is in need of close population monitoring, and research is urgently needed into the population decline. There is a need to establish insurance colonies for this and similar salamander species that have undergone dramatic recent population declines. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59392		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the southwestern highlands of Guatemala, including the higher volcanoes. On Volcán Tacana, it also occurs on the Mexican side of the Guatemalan-Mexican border. Its altitudinal range is 2,450 to above 4,000m asl; it is usually found above 2,800m asl.
59392		habitat	eng	It occurs in the temperate forest zone (pine, fir and cypress forest), par-like forest, and above tree line in open bunchgrass communities. It also survives in degraded forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59392		population	eng	This was previously an extremely abundant species, occurring at higher densities than any other salamander in Guatemala. It is now extremely rare, with very few specimens recorded during recent surveys (2005 and 2006) (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). The declines in population do not seem to be linked to habitat modification. A small population was recently found high in the mountains of the San Marcos transect (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. October 2007); however no animals were encountered at a site in the Cuchumatanes where about 100 had been collecetd in a single day in the 1970s (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. October 2007). Gustavo Ruanco recently located a population of this salamander in the Cuchumatanes at 3,400m asl (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. October 2007).
59392		threats	eng	The drastic decline in the population of this species is enigmatic, with further research needed to determine the cause. The species is additionally threatened by habitat loss due to overgrazing by livestock, clear-cutting of forest, and human settlement.
59393		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Nevado de Toluca. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
59393		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area in Parque Nacional Nevado de Toluca, near Toluca, Mexico, at 3,200-3,500m asl.
59393		habitat	eng	It lives in pine-fir forest, where it is terrestrial. It is not found in severely disturbed habitats, and can tolerate only very slight selective logging. It reproduces by direct development.
59393		population	eng	It is relatively common, but has probably undergone declines.
59393		threats	eng	The main threat to this species in the past has been logging. Although now confined to Parque Nacional Nevado de Toluca, this protected area is not well managed, and is subject to negative impacts from tourism.
59394		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Further field work is needed to better determine the possible range of this species, and to understand if there are any threats to the species.
59394		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from two general localities in the western portion of the Sierra Mazateca, Oaxaca, Mexico, although the limits of its distribution are not known. It has been collected at altitudes of between 2,235 and 2,290m asl. The Sierra Mazateca mountain range lies within the Sierra Madre Oriental, north of the Río Grande.
59394		habitat	eng	This is generally an arboreal species of high-altitude, moist, mixed pine and oak forest. Animals have been collected under the bark of logs, in epiphytes, and in stone crevices. This is presumed to be a direct developing species.
59394		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
59394		threats	eng	Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction.
59395		conservation	eng	The type locality falls within a local conservation management area administered by the town of Santiago Comaltepec. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59395		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, above Vista Hermosa, Oaxaca, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is 1,500-2,000m asl.
59395		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen cloud forests, and, although an arboreal bromeliad dweller, it is sometimes possible to find this species on the ground or under logs and bark. It is not found in degraded habitats. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59395		population	eng	It is uncommon but still can be observed.
59395		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of expanding agriculture (including livestock farming) and logging.
59396		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Reserve de la Biósfera Rancho El Cielo which is quite well protected. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59396		distribution	eng	This species is known only from caves in the Reserve de la Biósfera El Cielo in Tamaulipas in north-eastern Mexico, at about 1,050-1,800m asl.
59396		habitat	eng	It is a cave-dwelling species. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.
59396		population	eng	It was formerly fairly common. It was last seen in the mid-1980s, and one search in the late 1990s did not locate it. It is not known whether or not it has declined, or whether or not the lack of records is a reflection of the lack of observer effort.
59396		threats	eng	This species would be at risk if there is disturbance of its cave micro-habitat, where it presumably relies on high humidity levels. However, the area where it occurs is currently well protected.
59397		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in the Parque Nacional Benito Juarez. While continued and strengthened protection of the species' remaining habitat is required, additional research is required into the reasons for its dramatic decline. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59397		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on the Sierra de Juarez at Cerro San Felipe and Llanos de las Flores, north-western Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,500-3,000m asl. It may also occur in Sierra de Cuatro Venados, but the specimens have not been validated. Species may be extinct at the type locality; however, it was found at Llanos de las Flores in 1999 (the last known record).
59397		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine forests, living under the bark of logs, and is able to persist in somewhat disturbed habitat. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59397		population	eng	It used to be very abundant, but is now extremely rare suggesting that a massive decline has taken place.
59397		threats	eng	The cause for declines remain a mystery. It is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places.
59398		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the population declines of this species.
59398		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Filo de Caballos, in the Cerro Teotepec area of the Sierra Madre del Sur in north-eastern Guerrero, Mexico, at 2,650m asl.
59398		habitat	eng	It lives in pine-oak forests, and is terrestrial, hiding in logs and other debris. Reproduction is by direct development.
59398		population	eng	There is little information; it is known from very few collecting events. Last recorded in 2000 (T. Papenfuss, M. García-París, G. Parra-Olea, pers. comm., 2007). There is suspected to have been a significant decline in this species.
59398		threats	eng	Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and this might constitute a threat to it. There is also pressure on this species' habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.
59399		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas.
59399		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-east of Puerto del Gallo town, on the slopes of Cerro Teotepec in south-central Guerrero, Mexico, at 3,425m asl.
59399		habitat	eng	It lives in moist areas with abundant moss in pine-fir forests. Reproduction is by direct development.
59399		population	eng	There is very little information; it is known from few specimens. The species has not been recorded since its discovery in the 1960s despite repeated attempts to locate it. It appears to have undergone population declines.
59399		threats	eng	Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and this might constitute a threat to it. There is also pressure on this species' habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.
59400		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. Further field surveys are urgently needed to locate remaining populations of this species, and to better understand the causes of the presumed dramatic population decline.
59400		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern approaches to Cerro Teotepec, in the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, Mexico, at about 3,000m asl.
59400		habitat	eng	It is known only from wet oak-pine-fir forests, where it is usually found under the bark of logs in moist areas. It is terrestrial, and reproduces by direct development.
59400		population	eng	There is very little information; it is known from a few specimens. The species has not been recorded since its discovery in the 1960s despite repeated attempts to locate it.
59400		threats	eng	Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and this might constitute a threat to it. There is also pressure on this species' habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.
59401		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Benito Juarez. There is a need for further research to establish the cause of the declines observed in this species in suitable habitat. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.
59401		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cerro San Felipe / Cerro San Luis (the type locality) in north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. Elevation 2,600-2,800 m asl. Taxonomic status of specimens provisionally assigned to this species found in Llano de las Flores and Cerro Machin remain to be validated.
59401		habitat	eng	This is a semi-arboreal species that inhabits pine-oak and fir forests, and has commonly been found under logs. It can live in somewhat disturbed forest. It reproduces by direct development.
59401		population	eng	Formerly common, this species was not found in the 1960s and the early 1970s, and, although it was recorded briefly, there have been no records since 1976 at the type locality.
59401		threats	eng	The cause for declines remain a mystery. It is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places. Possible explanations include climate change, and disease (such as chytridiomycosis).
59402		conservation	eng	It occurs in the San Martin and Santa Marta National Parks. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59402		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Cerro Cangrejo, and from the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez in the vicinity of Vista Hermosa, northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs up to 1,500m asl.
59402		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits tropical rainforest and cloud forest habitats, and lives in moss mats. It can survive in somewhat disturbed forest, provided there is plenty of shade. It reproduces by direct development.
59402		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, possibly because it is very hard to find.
59402		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, logging, and human settlement.
59403		conservation	eng	Population monitoring is needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA on the Coastal Plain and Piedmont of eastern Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia, and in the Coastal Plain only of Maryland and southern New Jersey; west of the Appalachians, occurs in eastern Tennessee, Kentucky, western West Virginia, western Virginia, and southern Ohio; isolated populations in east-central Mississippi and south-central Pennsylvania (Petranka 1998).
59403		habitat	eng	It can be found in muddy springs, slow floodplain streams, and swamps along slow streams; backwater ponds and marshes created by beaver activity. Non-larval forms usually occur beneath logs and rocks, in decaying vegetation, and in muddy stream-bank burrows. Occasionally disperses from wet muddy areas. It is secretive and sometimes difficult to detect. Eggs are attached separately to objects in water (e.g., undersides of leaves in quiet pool, Green and Pauley 1987).
59403		population	eng	There are many occurrences, probably stable distribution and abundance but few data are available.
59403		threats	eng	It is not threatened. Can probably tolerate habitat disturbance (e.g., siltation) better than can many eastern salamanders (Petranka 1998). However, clear-cutting and urbanization can no doubt impact local populations.
59404		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas,
59404		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the eastern United States from southern New York to southern Indiana and south to the Gulf Coast; absent from most of Atlantic coastal plain south of Virginia and from peninsular Florida (Petranka 1998).
59404		habitat	eng	It can be found in cold, clear, rocky streams and springs in wooded or open areas. Adults occur in or near water in leaf-litter and under rocks, and in crevices and burrows near water. Adults sometimes disperse into woods. Eggs are attached to underside of rocks in water. Larvae occur in still pools.
59404		population	eng	It is widespread and secure.
59404		threats	eng	Deforestation, acid drainage from coalmines, and stream siltation and pollution undoubtedly has resulted in the loss of many populations (Petranka 1998). However, the species is secure on a global scale.
59405		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas. Prior to being considered a separate species <em>Speleomantes strinatii</em> was listed on both Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, under <em>S. italicus</em>. Although this species is not considered to be declining in Italy, further information is needed on the status of the populations in France.
59405		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to south-eastern France and north-western Italy, from 80 to 2,400 m asl.
59405		habitat	eng	It is found in the vicinity of streams and seepages, and amongst rocky outcrops and caves in mountainous areas. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.
59405		population	eng	Although there is little available information on the population status of this species, it is not considered to be declining in Italy. In some parts of its range it is a common species.
59405		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified other than localized loss of habitat and illegal collection.
59406		conservation	eng	Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59406		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to Georgia and extreme northeastern Florida, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).
59406		habitat	eng	It can be found in the cypress and gum swamps, small ponds in pine forests, large drainage ditches, and sluggish streams. Adults occur in moss or under leaf debris in water, or under objects at water's edge. It is primarily aquatic. Eggs are laid in or under logs or attached to plants in or near water.
59406		population	eng	It occurs in scattered populations throughout the historical range (Petranka 1998). Not much is known about the conservation status of this species (Petranka 1998), but it appears to be secure throughout most of the range.
59406		threats	eng	Local populations likely have been eliminated or reduced as a result of drainage of wetlands (Petranka 1998), especially for agriculture, urbanization and other forms of infrastructure development.
59407		conservation	eng	The type locality falls within a local conservation management area administered by the town of Santiago Comaltepec.
59407		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez above Vista Hermosa, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,500-2,200m asl.
59407		habitat	eng	It is confined to cloud forests, where it is arboreal, typically found in the leaf axils of bromeliads. It can tolerate a small amount of habitat disturbance provided that there is plenty of shade. It reproduces by direct development.
59407		population	eng	This has always been a rare species.
59407		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the encroachment of agriculture (particularly livestock farming) and logging.
59408		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. While protection of the species' remaining habitat is obviously required, research is also needed into the reasons for its dramatic decline.
59408		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highest peak of Cerro Pelón, and surrounding areas on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,600-3,000m asl.
59408		habitat	eng	It is restricted to terrestrial situations in montane pine-oak-fir forests and upper cloud forest habitat, living under stones and logs; it does not adapt to secondary habitats. It reproduces by direct development.
59408		population	eng	It used to be common, but now seems to have largely disappeared, despite several attempts to locate a population (there has been just one observation in the last few years).
59408		threats	eng	The reasons for the dramatic decline of this species remains a mystery. The species is probably being negatively impacted by logging, which is taking place within its range. However, this threat is not sufficient to explain the level of decline that has been observed.
59409		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, making the protection of the remaining habitat within the range of this species an urgent priority. There is also a need for further research to investigate the reasons for the decline of the species in good habitat.
59409		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Pelon and Llano de las Flores in the Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,800-3,000m asl.
59409		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial inhabitant of pine-oak and fir forests often at forest edges. It reproduces by direct development.
59409		population	eng	It used to be moderately common, but has undergone declines, especially on Cerro Pelon.
59409		threats	eng	The reason for the dramatic decline in the species remains a mystery. Although logging is certainly taking place, this is not sufficient to explain the extent of the declines that have taken place.
59410		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, though it may occur in Parque Nacional Canon del Río Blanco (but this requires confirmation). Protection of habitat around the type locality is an urgent priority. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59410		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality near Puerto del Aire, which is around 3km west of the village of Acultzingo, in central Veracruz, adjacent to the border with Puebla, Mexico, at 2,475-2,800m asl; it is also found east along the escarpment 2300-2500 m asl to the town of Huitzila in Puebla (2003).
59410		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak cloud forest, being found under wood chips, under and inside logs, under the bark of logs, and under rocks. It reproduces by direct development.
59410		population	eng	It has never been common, and appears to have undergone declines.
59410		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation, due to the impacts of logging, livestock, and subsistence agriculture.
59411		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for forest protection along the Milpillas-Atoyac transect.
59411		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Puerto del Gallo, in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, north-east of Atoyac de Alvarez, central Guerrero, Mexico, at 2,800-3,000m asl.
59411		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-fir and pine-oak-fir forests, and is usually found under logs or under the bark of fallen rotting logs. It can live in somewhat degraded forest. It reproduces by direct development.
59411		population	eng	Recent observations show that the species still exists.
59411		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss as a result of logging and expanding agriculture.
59412		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected area, and forest conservation along the Milpillas-Atoyac transect is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild.
59412		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single site near Atoyac, in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, central Guerrero, Mexico, at 1,400m asl.
59412		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found in riparian vegetation along hillsides, presumably in forest. The species seems to be terrestrial, living under logs and bark. It is not known whether or not it can withstand habitat degradation. It reproduces by direct development.
59412		population	eng	Only two specimens are known, and it was probably never common. It has not been seen since the early 1980s, despite searches.
59412		threats	eng	Most of the potential habitat is now under coffee cultivation, and the remaining forest is under severe pressure from expanding agriculture and human settlements.
59413		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, threats and conservation status of this little-known species.
59413		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from a single site near Vista Hermosa, in the Sierra de Juarez in north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,500m asl.
59413		habitat	eng	The single specimen was collected under a log in forest. This species presumably reproduces by direct development.
59413		population	eng	The only known specimen was collected in 1961. The species is considered to be very rare.
59413		threats	eng	The main threat to it is most likely the loss of its original forest habitat as a result of logging and expanding agricultural development.
59414		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Volcán Pico de Orizaba.
59414		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities on the southern and south-eastern flanks of the Volcán Pico de Orizaba, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,800-3,200m asl.
59414		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak forest, living under the bark of stumps and fallen logs, in leaf-litter and in piles of wood chips. Specimens from Texmola were collected from within a small patch of pine-oak forest that was surrounded by cleared agricultural fields. It reproduces by direct development.
59414		population	eng	It was formerly very abundant, but has undergone massive declines and is now very rare.
59414		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss as a result of logging and expanding agriculture.
59415		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of pine-oak forest habitat in the Sierra de Juarez. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59415		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively wide distribution in the Sierra de Juarez and the mountains above Totontepec, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,300-3,000m asl.
59415		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak forests. It also occurs in degraded habitats. It reproduces by direct development.
59415		population	eng	It was formerly very abundant, but underwent major declines since the 1970s, and is now uncommon.
59415		threats	eng	There is some forest loss in its range due to clear-cutting and livestock grazing.
59416		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, and habitat protection and maintenance is an urgent priority.
59416		distribution	eng	This species occurs above Acultzingo, in central Veracruz, adjacent to the border with Puebla, Mexico, at 2,450-2,800m asl.
59416		habitat	eng	It inhabits pine-oak forest, living in bromeliads, having been found in leaf axils and on the ground, under rocks and leaf-litter, and inside piles of wood chips. It is not found in degraded habitats. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59416		population	eng	It has always been rare, but seems to have declined further. Six individuals were collected in 2003 after not having been seen for 20 years, despite repeated searches (J. Hanken pers. comm. 2007).
59416		threats	eng	The main threat is alteration of the original forest habitat, due to logging, livestock, and subsistence agriculture.
59417		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is the most urgently needed conservation action for this species, since it is not known from any protected areas. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59417		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one site near Santo Tomás Tecpan, in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Oaxaca, south-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,458m asl.
59417		habitat	eng	It lives terrestrially in pine-oak forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59417		population	eng	Observed only twice in 60 years. Recently rediscovered (two specimens found at the type locality in 2001); this species is extremely rare, and very few specimens are known (Hanken and Wake pers. comm. 2007).
59417		threats	eng	The forests where it is found have been severely altered as a result of logging, agriculture, and human settlement, and very little good habitat remains.
59418		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, and habitat protection for this species is urgently needed.
59418		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the mountains north and west of Jalapa City, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,100-2,300 m asl.
59418		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and pine-oak forest, with an abundance of bromeliads (especially in the oaks). It is terrestrial and can survive in somewhat degraded forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59418		population	eng	It has apparently always been rare, although a very small number of specimens were found recently at Cerro Loma Alta (c. 1999) after intensive searching. A visit to the known locality of Cerro Loma Alta in 2003 yielded no salamanders, and researchers noted serious habitat degradation had taken place since the previous visit.
59418		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation and alteration of the original forest habitats as a result of logging, mining, agriculture, livestock ranching, and human settlement. One of the known localities, Cerro Loma Alta, was visited in 2003 and was found to be virtually destroyed as a result of logging and invasive plants. Similarly, all areas surrounding La Joya are highly disturbed by extensive logging and mining. Between 2003 and 2004, the area of forest habitat available at this locality was halved due to the expansion of mining activities; the remaining available habitat was only about 15ha in 2004.
59419		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded in any protected areas, though it may be present in Parque Nacional Cofre de Perote (this requires confirmation). Certainly, remaining habitat in the range of this species is in urgent need of protection.
59419		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location consisting of a few sites above Las Vigas, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,400-2,600 m asl.
59419		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species and inhabits pine-oak and pine forest, woodlands, and madrone (arbutus forest) with abundant shrubby and ericaceous plants. It is generally found under bark and fallen logs, and in leaf-litter. It reproduces by direct development.
59419		population	eng	The population of this species has declined, it was abundant in the past but has not been seen since 1997. Surveys in 2003, 2004, and 2006 by multiple researchers were unsuccessful in finding any animals in suitable habitat.
59419		threats	eng	The main threat is severe habitat loss and degradation as a result of logging, agriculture (including livestock farming), and human settlement.
59420		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional San Martín and may be present in the Parque Nacional Santa Marta. While continued protection and maintenance of the species' remaining habitat is obviously required, research is also needed into the reasons for its dramatic decline.
59420		distribution	eng	This species is known only with certainty from Volcán San Martín in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Mexico, at 500-1,200m asl. It may be present on the adjacent Santa Marta, however this requires confirmation.
59420		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits lowland and intermediate tropical forest, being found under rotten logs and among leaf-litter, and especially under fallen bromeliads. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59420		population	eng	This species appears to have undergone a population collapse. It was never common, and was last seen in the 1980s despite repeated attempts to find it.
59420		threats	eng	Serious habitat loss is taking place in the range of this species due to subsistence agriculture, logging, and human settlement. However, this might not be sufficient to explain its apparent disappearance.
59421		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Benito Suarez, but there is still an urgent need to conserve the cloud forest remnants that remain in the Sierra de Juarez. Research is also needed to establish the reasons for the dramatic population decline; especially to see if this is related to a disease event. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59421		distribution	eng	This species appears to have the largest geographic range of any species in the genus. It is known from Cerro San Felipe and adjacent upland areas in the Sierra Alaopaneca, from the Sierra de Cuatro Venados, and from the Sierra de Coicoyán, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,590-3,185m asl.
59421		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and mixed forests, living under bark or under fallen trees. It does not adapt well to significant degradation of its habitat. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.
59421		population	eng	The species was once common on Cerro San Felipe (the type locality), but it is now only found in small numbers there. It is consistently observed at two sites in the Sierra de Cuatro Venados, but again at small numbers.
59421		threats	eng	The reasons for the dramatic and enigmatic decline of this species is not known. The species is also being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, since the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places.
59422		conservation	eng	The Parque Ecológico Estatal Omiltemi, where this species occurs, has been degazetted leaving the species unprotected throughout its range. Protection of remaining pine-oak forest habitat in the Filo de Caballos is needed.
59422		distribution	eng	This species is known from Filo de Caballos and the former Parque Ecológico Estatal Omiltemi in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, Guerrero, Mexico, at 2,500-2,950m asl.
59422		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak-fir cloud forest and pine-oak forest, living under the bark of fallen logs. It can survive in slightly degraded habitats, but has disappeared where the forest has been lost. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59422		population	eng	The species was relatively common as of 2006 (MesoAmerican Salamander Workshop 2007).
59422		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, logging, and human settlement. All suitable habitat below 2,800m asl is now gone.
59423		conservation	eng	The species has not been found in any protected areas. There remains a large area of unsurveyed potential habitat where this species is likely to occur, and so it is possibly not as threatened as other members of this genus. Further survey work is needed to better ascertain the limits of its distribution and its current population status.
59423		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Concepción Papalo in the northern Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,500m asl.
59423		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine forest and cloud forest, living under logs and stones, and in leaf-litter. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59423		population	eng	It is a rare species.
59423		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, and cultivation of crops.
59424		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, and habitat protection and maintenance is urgently required; suitable closed habitat could be maintained through, for example, the use of more biodiversity-friendly agricultural practices, such as shade-grown coffee. Research is also needed to establish the reasons for the population decline. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59424		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central western Veracruz, Mexico; from near the town of Progreso in the south to Teocel in the north, generally 1,000-1,200m asl (although it is known from as high as 2,000m asl).
59424		habitat	eng	<em>Thorius pennatulus</em> inhabits cloud forest and forest at lower altitudes. It requires moist situations such as crevices, and has been found under rocks, in leaf-litter and in and under rotting logs. The species also occurs in shade coffee plantations where humidity is maintained. It is a terrestrial species that reproduces by direct development.
59424		population	eng	Once very common, the species appears to have undergone a massive decline by the mid 1970s (it was perhaps the first <em>Thorius</em> to undergo large, inexplicable declines). There was one individual recorded in the late 1990s, one again in 2004, and another in 2006.
59424		threats	eng	The reasons for the dramatic decline in this species remains a mystery. This species is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, shifting agricultural practices, human settlements, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places.
59425		conservation	eng	It might occur in Parque Nacional Benito Juarez, but there are, as yet, no confirmed records from this protected area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59425		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from the Cerro San Felipe region, central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,100-2,500m asl.
59425		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits deciduous forest, including forest with some pines, living on the ground where it is usually found beneath leaves and bark. The species can survive in degraded forest (in fact, this is all that remains within its known range). It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59425		population	eng	It used to be relatively common, but it appears to have undergone declines and is now quite rare.
59425		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock farming), logging, and human settlement. The remaining habitat in its range is already severely degraded.
59426		conservation	eng	The species has not been found in any protected areas, and the remaining pristine forests in southern Puebla are in urgent need of protection. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59426		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the mountains surrounding the village of Zoquitlán, southern Puebla, Mexico, at 2,560-2,760m asl.
59426		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial inhabitant of dense pine-oak forest, and occurs in leaf-litter. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59426		population	eng	It is a relatively uncommon species.
59426		threats	eng	The forests near Zoquitlán are at risk from expanding agriculture and human settlements, as well as from logging.
59427		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas.
59427		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-west of Vista Hermosa and Metates towns, in the Sierra de Juarez in north central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 800-1,500m asl. It might occur more widely than is currently known.
59427		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and tropical forest at moderate altitudes, where it lives on the ground under rocks and logs. Reproduction is presumably by direct development.
59427		population	eng	The is very rare, having only been recorded twice at two different locations despite numerous attempts to find it.
59427		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is presumably the loss of its original forest habitat as a result of logging and expanding agricultural development.
59428		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico de Orizaba. There is a need for further survey work to establish the current population status of this species.
59428		distribution	eng	This species is known from near the villages of El Berro and Xometla, south and south-east to the Volcán Pico de Orizaba, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,500-2,725m asl. Additionally, a single specimen has been provisionally assigned to this species from Puerto del Aire.
59428		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak forest, living under the bark of stumps or fallen logs, or within piles of wood chips and shavings. At Xometla, individuals were found in partially cut-over pine forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59428		population	eng	This species was very common in the past, but has undergone massive declines. After some 15 years without a record, a single specimen was collected in 2000 near Coiyachapa Veracruz, en route to Pico de Orizaba; surveys undertaken at the same time at other known localities (such as El Berro) failed to locate the species.
59428		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of logging, expanding agriculture, and increasing tourist development.
59429		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected areas, though it may occur in Parque Nacional Canon del Río Blanco (but this requires confirmation). Improved protection of the remaining pine-oak forest habitat of this species is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59429		distribution	eng	This species is known only from mountains near the village of Acultzingo, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,380-3,000m asl.
59429		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak forest living under bark, logs, in wood chips, and under rocks. The species can survive in somewhat degraded forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.
59429		population	eng	It was formerly extremely common, but has recently undergone declines.
59429		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, due to logging, livestock farming, and subsistence agriculture.
59430		conservation	eng	The state of Alabama provides no protection for the species (J. Godwin, Alabama Natural Heritage Program pers. comm. 1999). The Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 and the Clean Water Act of 1972 have been ineffective in preventing the continued decline of species in the Black Warrior basin (Dodd, Enge and Stuart 1986; Mettee <em>et al.</em> 1989; Hartfield 1990; Bailey and Guyer 1998; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998).
59430		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the upper (Appalachian) portions of the Black Warrior River drainage, Alabama, USA (Bart <em>et al.</em> 1997). Populations are known to occur in the Sipsey Fork and Brushy Creek, Winston County; Mulberry Fork, Blackwater Creek, and Lost Creek in Walker County; North River and Yellow Creek, Tuscaloosa County; and Locust Fork and Blackburn Fork in Blount County (Bailey 2005). This species can be expected to potentially inhabit the same streams as the threatened flattened musk turtle (<em>Sternotherus depressus</em>), which is also restricted to permanent streams above the fall line in the Black Warrior River basin (Mount 1975). More than 120 sites have been sampled for waterdogs since 1990 (Guyer 1997), and the species has been reported from only ten sites (equal to an eight per cent success rate) in four counties, despite surveys in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, and 1998 (Bailey 1995; Guyer 1997, 1998). Sites surveyed included all stream localities within the range of the species that approached or intersected roads and had appropriate habitat. Guyer (1997) did a statistical analysis of all waterdog field survey data. He concluded that waterdogs were unlikely to have been missed if they were present, especially at sites visited more than once. The data indicated that 200 additional surveys would be needed to discover a single new locality for the species.
59430		habitat	eng	It can be found in medium to large streams that have logs, submerged ledges, rocks, and other hiding places on the bottom (Ashton and Peavy 1986). Their historical range is thought to have included streams 10m wide or greater, with moderate flows and alternating pools and rapids (Ashton and Peavy 1986; Bailey 1992). Semi-permanent leaf beds (where they exist) are likely to be visited frequently (Ashton and Peavy 1986). Guyer (1997) analysed habitat to distinguish sites with waterdogs from those lacking the species. He found waterdogs to be associated with: clay substrates lacking silt, wide and/or shallow stream morphology; increased snail and <em>Desmognathus</em> (dusky salamander) abundance; and decreased <em>Corbicula</em> (Asiatic mussel) occurrence. Eggs are attached to the underside of objects in water.
59430		population	eng	It is rare with sporadic occurrences within the presumed geographic range (Guyer 1997). A 1990-1992 survey found only a few individuals in four localities. Collections included six adults and one larva in the Sipsey Fork, one adult in Lost Creek, one larva in North River, and one sub-adult in Yellow Creek (Bailey 1992). During a 1996-1997 survey a total of 18 individuals were collected from Sipsey Fork and 11 individuals from Brushy Creek (Guyer 1997). Even though it was extensively surveyed from 1990-1997, numbers collected are too low to determine population trends. Bailey (1992) stated that habitat degradation might have resulted in reductions or extirpations over much of the historical range.
59430		threats	eng	Water quality degradation due to industrial, mining, agricultural, and urban pollution are probably the primary reasons for the extirpation of this species over much of its historic range in the upper Black Warrior River system. The remaining Black Warrior waterdog populations are isolated from each other by unsuitable habitat created by impoundments, pollution, or other factors. The fragmentation of habitat renders populations vulnerable to catastrophic events such as flood, drought, or chemical spills. In addition, if stream quality improves within areas of the basin, impoundments and polluted reaches will act as barriers to the re-establishment of waterdog populations. Direct take for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes are not currently considered to be a threat. Disease and predation are not known to be factors in the decline. This information is based on a 1999 "Candidate and Listing Priority Assignment Form" by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Bailey (1995).
59431		conservation	eng	Research on threats and population status are needed.
59431		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Lower Coastal Plain from Texas eastward to the Mobile Bay drainage in Alabama, USA (Bart <em>et al.</em> 1997).
59431		habitat	eng	It can be found in spring-fed streams with sandy bottom. It is a bottom dweller. In Louisiana, it is closely associated with leaf-litter deposits in streams, and animals may burrow into bottom during warm season (Bart and Holzenthal 1985). Probably attaches eggs to objects in water.
59431		population	eng	Populations in the core of the range are apparently secure.
59431		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by stream siltation and pollution, but the important of this factor is unknown (Petranka 1998).
59432		conservation	eng	There are no specifically protected populations of this species. It is state-listed as a species of special concern in North Carolina. State water quality designations and permitting systems do address stream conditions (the 'Outstanding Resource Water' designation for Swift Creek in the Tar River basin is the best example of this).
59432		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Neuse and Tar-Pamlico River basins of the piedmont and Coastal Plain, North Carolina, USA (Petranka 1998). It is known from over 140 locations (Braswell and Ashton 1985), but these are not necessarily all distinct populations (H.E. LeGrand pers. comm.). It occurs from near sea level to about 116m asl.
59432		habitat	eng	It occupies most clean, moderate to swift-flowing streams within its range. It is more common in streams greater than 15m wide and 1m deep (Braswell and Ashton 1985). It requires relatively high oxygen levels and water quality (Ashton 1985). Breeding and non-breeding habitats are the same except for late fall and winter when it exploits large accumulations of submerged leaves in eddies, or backwaters of streams. It more frequently occupies burrows and spaces under rocks (Ashton 1985; Braswell and Ashton 1985). Eggs are attached to the underside of objects in low silt moderate-flow areas of streams. No migrations have been documented. Home ranges reported by Ashton (1985) are relatively small (mean 17m² for females and 73m² for males). It is not found in reservoirs and areas below large municipal waste outfalls (Braswell and Ashton 1985).
59432		population	eng	It can be locally common. The healthiest populations in the Neuse system appear to be in the Little River and Trent River. The Tar River system populations appear healthy except for areas impacted by reservoirs and municipal effluents (Braswell and Ashton 1985). It might be declining due to declining water quality, but data are inadequate for quantitative trend estimatation.
59432		threats	eng	The major threats to this species arise from water development projects (such as construction of impoundments and stream channelization), pollution from agricultural runoff (including pig farm wastes and pesticides), and industrial and urban development (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980; Braswell and Ashton 1985; Braswell 1989; H.E. LeGrand pers. comm.). These activities all cause loss of in-stream habitat (for example, due to siltation) and loss of water quality. A significant portion of the habitat in the upper Neuse drainage has been destroyed or degraded (Braswell 1989), and continued development threatens additional habitat.
59433		conservation	eng	Despite widespread pollution and siltation of streams in eastern North America, this species appears to be in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998).
59433		distribution	eng	This species can be found in North America from southern Manitoba to southern Quebec, south to Oklahoma, northern Louisiana, northern Mississippi, northern Alabama, and northern Georgia (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from Coastal Plain. Introduced in New England Rivers. See Cochran (1991) for information on distribution in the north-central U.S. in relation to postglacial events.
59433		habitat	eng	It can be found in permanent lakes, ponds, impoundments, streams, and rivers of all sorts. It is a bottom dweller that is often under rock, debris, bank overhang, etc., during daylight. Animals may move into slack water shallows in late fall and early winter. Eggs are attached to undersides of objects in water. Animals may move upstream to spawn (Green and Pauley 1987). It apparently tolerates some water pollution and siltation.
59433		population	eng	Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. It is still abundant in many northern lakes and rivers (Petranka 1998).
59433		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
59434		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.
59434		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the USA on the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to at least central Georgia, and Fall Line and Piedmont from North Carolina to Georgia; populations westward to Mobile appear to be related to N. beyeri or possibly represent an undescribed species (see Dundee 1998).
59434		habitat	eng	It is found in the bottoms of slow, sand- or mud-bottomed streams and connected ditches, cypress swamps; also stream-fed rice fields and mill ponds. It favours bottoms with leaf-litter and detritus. Juveniles burrow into bottom while adults congregate in leaf beds in winter. Eggs probably are attached to undersides of objects in water.
59434		population	eng	Viable populations occur in most areas of the range (see Petranka 1998).
59434		threats	eng	The major threats are unknown.
59435		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas. Its conservation needs include retention of old-growth forest buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998).
59435		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains from just north of Mount Saint Helens, Skamania County, Washington, south to north-eastern Lane County, Oregon, USA (Good and Wake 1992).
59435		habitat	eng	It can be found in coniferous forests in small, cold mountain streams and spring seepages. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or the streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in the splash zone. This species is found primarily in older forest sites since the required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990). Two <em>Rhyacotriton</em> nests were found in deep, narrow rock crevices, and the eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).
59435		population	eng	McAllister (1995) mapped approximately 53 collections or verified sighting locations in Washington. It is fairly common in appropriate habitat (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993), and its population is stable in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm.).
59435		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation, such as may result from logging or road construction for logging access. Timber harvesting negatively affects <em>Rhyacotriton</em> salamanders more than it does other amphibians in the same area (Bury and Corn 1988b; Corn and Bury 1989). Some populations are isolated by intervening areas of unsuitable habitat, and these are then vulnerable to extirpation through natural processes exacerbated by timber harvest (especially of old growth stands on north-facing slopes). This species is moderately threatened in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm.).
59436		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas. Its conservation needs include retention of old-growth forest buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998).
59436		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Coast Ranges of the western USA from the vicinity of the Chehalis River in Grays Harbor County, Washington, south to the zone of contact with <em>Rhyacotriton variegatus</em> along the Little Nestucca River and the Grande Ronde Valley in Polk, Tillamook, and Yamhill Counties, Oregon (Good and Wake 1992).
59436		habitat	eng	It can be found in coastal coniferous forests in small, cold mountain streams and spring seepages. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in the splash zone. This species is found primarily in older forest sites since the required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990). Two <em>Rhyacotriton</em> nests were found in deep, narrow rock crevices, and the eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).
59436		population	eng	McAllister (1995) mapped approximately 43 collections or verified sighting locations in Washington, and this species is apparently stable in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm.).
59436		threats	eng	Torrent salamanders in general are sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation, such as may result from logging or road construction for logging access (Bury and Corn 1988b; Corn and Bury 1989). However, preliminary data suggest that <em>R. kezeri</em> tolerates habitat alteration better than do other torrent salamander species, and that increases in sedimentation that might be particularly problematic for other <em>Rhyacotriton</em> species might be less problematic for this species (Hallock and McAllister 2002).
59437		conservation	eng	They are protected in Olympic National Park. Conservation needs include retention of old-growth buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998). Population trends data are needed.
59437		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Olympic Peninsula in Clallam, Grays Harbor, Jefferson, and Mason counties, Washington, United States (Good and Wake 1992).
59437		habitat	eng	It can be found in coastal coniferous forests in small, cold mountain streams and spring seepages. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in splash zone. Primarily in older forest sites, required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990). Two <em>Rhyacotriton</em> were found in deep, narrow rock crevices; eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).
59437		population	eng	Recent surveys of Olympic National Park (Bury and Adams 2000) showed the species to be widespread, occurring in 41% of 168 streams and 47% of 235 seeps surveyed. They were more abundant in streams with northerly aspects and steep gradients.
59437		threats	eng	It is sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation. Timber harvest negatively affects <em>Rhyacotriton</em> salamanders more than any other sympatric amphibians (Bury and Corn 1988b; Corn and Bury 1989); however, lower-gradient, higher-order streams, which might intrinsically provide poor habitat for this species are more often disturbed by timber harvest. Hence, the effects of timber harvest <em>per se</em> on torrent salamanders has probably been confounded with natural variation in habitat quality (Hayes and Jones 2005). Some populations are isolated by intervening areas of unsuitable habitat.
59438		conservation	eng	Conservation needs include retention of old-growth buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998). See USFWS (2000) for information on federal and state regulations that provide protection for torrent salamander habitat.
59438		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the western USA. It occurs from southern Mendocino County, California, north through the Coast Ranges to the Little Nestucca River and the Grande Ronde Valley in Polk, Tillamook, and Yamhill counties, Oregon, where the range abuts that of R. kezeri; an apparently isolated population exists on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains in the vicinity of Steamboat, Douglas County, Oregon (south of the range of Rhyacotriton cascadae) (Good and Wake 1992). It has patchy distribution in headwaters and low order tributaries (Welsh and Lind 1996).
59438		habitat	eng	It can be found in coastal coniferous forests in small, cold (usually 5.8-12.0 C), clear, high-gradient mountain streams and spring seepages, especially in gravel-dominated riffles with low sedimentation. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in splash zone. Typically occurs in older forest sites with large conifers, abundant moss, and > 80% canopy closure; required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990, Welsh and Lind 1996). Young, managed forests may be occupied as long as the required microhabitats are present (Diller and Wallace 1996). Two Rhyacotriton nests were found in deep, narrow rock crevices; eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).
59438		population	eng	There is little historical information. It is widespread in many headwater streams in north-coastal California (Diller and Wallace 1996). Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped 65 verified records in California. Forty documented sites in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm., 1997). It is still present throughout historical range, but localized extirpations and reductions in abundance are evident, due to past forest management activities (USFWS, Federal Register, 29 June 1995; USFWS 2000). Habitat declining, recent estimates place the amount of remaining coastal old-growth redwood forest in California, which comprises a significant portion of California coastal old-growth forest, at 12% (see Jennings and Hayes 1994). But the trend of habitat loss is lessening across much of the range with a reduction in clear cutting and with some increased awareness and protection of headwater habitats (USFWS 2000). In Oregon, believed declining (E. Gaines pers. comm., 1997); state species of special concern.
59438		threats	eng	It is sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation. Timber harvest negatively affects Rhyacotriton salamanders more than any other amphibian in the Oregon Coast Range (Bury and Corn 1988, Corn and Bury 1989). Logging activities may destroy habitat and increase siltation; the Oregon range coincides with areas of intense logging practices (E. Gaines pers. comm., 1997). However, the species can persist in habitats after habitat alteration, including logging (see USFWS 2000). Some populations are isolated by intervening areas of unsuitable habitat; these are vulnerable to extirpation through natural processes exacerbated by timber harvest (especially old growth stands on north-facing slopes). Much of the range has undergone large-scale timber harvesting or is harvestable, and there is concern that adequate protection of habitat is lacking (Federal Register, 29 June 1995). However, current timber harvest regulations provide more protection for habitat than did those of the unregulated past (Diller and Wallace 1996). USFWS (2000) concluded that current regulatory practices do not constitute a threat. USFWS (2000) determined that the species currently is not threatened by logging or other habitat alterations but noted that the most vulnerable populations are those at the southern and eastern edges of the range.
59439		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas.
59439		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Shuitan in Chenggong County, Yunnan Province, China, although the limits of its distribution are not known. It was collected at 1,940m asl.
59439		habitat	eng	It is found in small ponds or rice fields, and its larvae develop in water.
59439		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
59439		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of its wetland habitats (presumably by drainage) and water pollution from the use of agrochemicals.
59440		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kunming Lake National Reserve, and possibly in other protected areas.
59440		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guizhou and Yunnan in southwest China, from 1,790-2,400m asl.
59440		habitat	eng	It inhabits pools in mixed forest and paddy fields. It breeds in irrigated rice paddies and in ponds in the forest, including artificial ponds close to Kunming. Larvae develop in the water.
59440		population	eng	It is a very common and easy to find species on the Yunnan Plateau, although it is uncommon elsewhere.
59440		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, water pollution, chemicals and pesticides are all major threats to this species. Small numbers have been seen in the international pet trade in recent years.
59441		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in some protected areas, but this requires confirmation. It is necessary to ensure that trade in this species is closely monitored and regulated.
59441		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to twelve islands in the Amami and Okinawa island groups, in the Ryukyus, Japan.
59441		habitat	eng	It occurs on wet forest floors and in grassland, and breeds in pools and streams, where the larvae also develop.
59441		population	eng	Its population is decreasing. In a site in southern Okinawajima, the number of animals recorded in the breeding season has decreased by 75% in 15 years.
59441		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat degradation and loss, due mainly to clear-cutting and human settlement. Other threats include reclamation of ponds, and construction of artificial concrete ditches. The species is also in the pet trade in Japan and is used for medicinal purposes in Taiwan, Province of China. It has further been affected by the introduction of invasive fish species.
59442		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas in the region.
59442		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south of China, from 30-1,000m asl.
59442		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in pools, ponds, seepages and paddy fields in hilly areas, in both forest and degraded habitats. The larvae develop in water.
59442		population	eng	It is a common species.
59442		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species. It is also being traded in the domestic and international pet markets.
59443		conservation	eng	There are no known protected areas within the species' range, making habitat protection for this species an urgent priority.
59443		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Jiexi County in north-eastern Guangdong Province, China, above 600m asl.
59443		habitat	eng	It inhabits and breeds in pools and small lakes, with the larvae developing in water. During hibernation it lives in terrestrial habitats, including forest and lightly degraded areas.
59443		population	eng	It is a rare species, and appears to be in decline.
59443		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, particularly due to infrastructure development for tourist activities.
59444		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. It is known to breed in captivity in zoos in Australia.
59444		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and other small islands.
59444		habitat	eng	It is a grassland and forest species. It occurs in paddy fields, ponds, pools, brooks and streams where it breeds and larvae develop.
59444		population	eng	It is a common and reasonably adaptable species.
59444		threats	eng	It is affected by the conversion from small to large-scale paddy fields. It is also affected by the abandonment of paddy fields. Roadside gutters kill the animals, working as a trap. It is collected and exported to Europe as a pet, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59445		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed; this species is extinct.
59445		distribution	eng	This species was restricted to Kunming Lake and the surrounding areas in Yunnan, China.
59445		habitat	eng	The species formerly inhabited shallow lake waters and the adjacent irrigation channels, ponds and marshes. Breeding and larval development took place in these aquatic habitats.
59445		population	eng	No animals can now be found and this species is considered to be extinct.
59445		threats	eng	The extinction of this species was related to habitat destruction and degradation resulting from general pollution, land reclamation, domestic duck farming and the introduction of exotic fish and frog species.
59446		conservation	eng	It is designated as a natural monument by Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures.
59446		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on six Japanese islands: Amamioshima, Tokuonoshima, Yorojima, Okinawajima, Sesokojima and Tokasikijima. There are old records (three museum specimens) from Mount Kuanyinshan, just north of Taipei, in Taiwan, Province of China (Zhao and Adler 1993), where the species is presumed to be extinct (Zhao 1998).
59446		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest, secondary forest, grassland and swamps. It inhabits vegetated areas with constantly humid substrates, and breeds in shaded still waters such as ponds and temporary pools in forests. On Tokunoshima the species occurs in and near sugar cane fields, at altitudes of 100-200m asl (Utsonomiya, Utsonomiya and Kawachi 1978). It is terrestrial, and while eggs are laid on land in one or several clutches, the larvae develop in water.
59446		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, and it is difficult to observe outside the breeding season. It is considered to be rare on Okinawa (Hayashi <em>et al.</em> 1992).
59446		threats	eng	Recent deforestation and other forms of land development, as well as road and drainage ditch construction, have been causing population declines on each island. It is also collected illegally for the pet trade.
59447		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a Class II state major protected wildlife since 1988. The largest subpopulation is within the Ruiyansi Forest Park, which does not yet constitute an effective protected area for the species, but which has been relatively well monitored. There is a small captive-breeding programme, and some young individuals have been reintroduced to the wild.
59447		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Beilun area, east of Ningbo City in Zhejiang Province, China, from 100-200m asl. It is known from only three subpopulations, one of which has been extirpated already.
59447		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests in low hills. They lay small clumps of eggs on land close to small, sheltered pools and ponds. When hatched, larvae travel over land into water. They move onto land after metamorphosis, and never return to water again (courtship behaviour and fertilization all taking place on land). The species is very long-lived and slow breeding. Preliminary information from captive animals suggests that they do not become mature until they are at least 10 years old, and they are likely to live for at least 20 years, or probably even longer.
59447		population	eng	The population consists of about 300 mature individuals.
59447		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, especially as a result of forestry activities and human settlement, and pollution of the breeding habitat is a serious threat. An additional potential threat is the over-collection of individuals for scientific collections.
59448		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido and Parque Nacional de Aigües Tortes y Lago San Mauricio, Spain, and presumably occurs in several other protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and it is protected by national legislation in Spain.
59448		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of the Pyrenean mountain range of France and Spain, where it occurs at a wide range of altitudes from 175m to over 3,000m asl (on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees), although the average range is 700-2,500m asl. It has recently been found in the Corbieres Mountains, 20km south-east of Carcassonne, in south-eastern France, which represents a range extension northwards.
59448		habitat	eng	It is a largely aquatic montane species that inhabits cold mountain lakes, torrents, streams, and occasionally cave systems, that are ice-free for at least four months of the year (Griffiths 1996). The eggs are deposited individually under rocks and stones in well-oxygenated, cold streams with rocky bottoms, and the larvae then develop in these streams. This species has a small clutch size of 20-40 eggs (Griffiths 1996).
59448		population	eng	It is abundant or common in parts of its restricted range, although several peripheral populations have disappeared largely through loss of habitat. It is more common in the west of its range.
59448		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are loss and damage of its aquatic habitats. Infrastructure development and tourism lead to over-exploitation of water resources, including from skiing facilities. The introduction of predatory trout (salmonids) and other fish is also a threat, leading to population extinctions, especially in mountain lakes. Pesticides are readily accumulated in the body tissues of this largely insectivorous species, and several populations demonstrate contamination by these chemicals (Gasc <em>et al.</em> (eds.) 1997). It is considered likely to be vulnerable to climate change.
59449		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and is also protected by national legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas (Natura 2000 sites).
59449		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Corsica, France. It ranges from the tip of Capo Corso in the north to Montagne de Cagna in the south, and from San Guillano in the east to Golfe de Girolata in the west. It occurs from near sea level to 2,260m asl.
59449		habitat	eng	The aquatic habitats of this species are exclusively unpolluted small rivers, mountain rivers and lakes; it is most often found in calm sections where there is a high-water level. The terrestrial habitats of the species are generally open riverine macchia or woodland. It breeds in water, with approximately 70 eggs laid in groups under rocks. It is not considered to be very adaptable to changes in habitat.
59449		population	eng	It is very common in suitable habitat, mostly between 600 and 1,500m asl.
59449		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat fragmentation, the introduction of predatory fishes (e.g.. trout) to streams, water pollution and the over extraction of water for both agriculture and tourism. However, it is not believed to be significantly threatened at present.
59450		conservation	eng	The species is protected by Iranian national legislation. The area that the species is known from is close to the Zagros Oak Forest protected area. Actions need to be taken immediately to prevent the illegal export of this species for the international pet trade (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). This species was recently added to Appendix I of CITES. A captive-breeding programme almost certainly needs to be established.
59450		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to four streams (in a single catchment area) within a restricted area of the southern Zagros Mountains of Lorestan (Shahbazan region), Iran (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500-2,000m asl.
59450		habitat	eng	The species leaves water outside the breeding season, and is found in oak-pistachio open woodlands dominated by <em>Quercus brantti</em> and <em>Pistachio</em> spp. The streams are mostly surrounded by open patches of woodland with rock outcrops.
59450		population	eng	This is now a relatively rare species, with a dramatic decline within the previous ten years (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). The population is estimated to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.
59450		threats	eng	Of great concern is the current growing trade in the species for the pet trade. At present it appears that individuals caught in the wild are being illegally exported out of Iran. Some of the individuals in the trade are reportedly captive-bred but this requires confirmation. A few animals have been observed for sale in the Tehran market, presumably for local use in aquaria (T. Papenfuss pers. comm.). Habitat loss as a result of firewood collection for small-scale subsistence use, coupled with the effects of recent severe droughts, are also major threats to the species (N. Rastegar-Pouyani pers. comm.). Damming of the few known inhabited streams is a serious potential threat to the species. Non-native cyrpinid are additionally spreading into the streams from lower elevations and present a threat to the larvae and eggs of this species (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008).
59451		conservation	eng	It occurs within the Zagrosian Oak Forest, which is generally protected. It is protected by national legislation in Iran, but this requires better enforcement. Actions need to be taken immediately to prevent the illegal export of this species for the pet trade. Captive breeding may have an important role to play in the conservation of this species. It has been successfully bred in captivity (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008). The establishment of reintroduction programmes for captive-bred stock would be desirable (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). It would be useful to determine if this species is susceptible to infection with the chytrid fungus (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). It is recommended that the possible inclusion of this species on CITES should be considered (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
59451		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Avroman Mountains on the Iraq-Iran-Turkey border, however it has currently only been recorded from Iran (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 1992; Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008) where it was known from five streams, but is now restricted to only four (now extinct at the type locality of Ghorighaleh). Many of the known localities are easy to access by people. Within Iran it is found in Kermenshah Province; it has not been confirmed from Turkey or Iraq. It has an altitudinal range of 1,300-1,400m asl.
59451		habitat	eng	It is known only from small streams and its terrestrial habitat is unknown. The area surrounding the streams is a dry canyon, with open oak forest and grassland. The mass migration of animals has been observed only as far as river banks to streams. The species breeds, and larval development takes place, in streams. It is considered to be susceptible to habitat disturbance.
59451		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species in suitable habitat. A number of populations have become extirpated, presumably through recent severe drought or illegal harvesting for the pet trade.
59451		threats	eng	The breeding habitat of this species in the Zagros Mountains has recently been impacted by severe droughts which has led to the extirpation of some populations. Extraction of stream water into nearby orchards and some areas of wheat is a major threat to this species. Water contamination close to villages and small townships (largely by agrochemicals) (for example at Ghorighaleh) is leading to a decline in nearby populations. It is regularly seen in the illegal pet trade, both nationally (it has been regularly recorded in the pet shops of Kermanshah [Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008] and Kerman [Soheila Shafti pers. comm., September 2008]) and internationally (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008), and this is considered to be an increasing threat to the species.
59452		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas in Mexico, but these are needed where the species is still found to survive. The species has been reported from the Laguna Atascosa and Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuges, and from the Audubon Sabal Palm Grove Sanctuary in Texas, and may occur in other protected areas. This species is listed as threatened by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and endangered by the Mexican government. Research is needed on its demography, the water quality requirements of aquatic stages, what its terrestrial habitat requirements are, and its diet. Potential habitat needs to be surveyed for specimens at optimal times of the year (early spring or after rains).
59452		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Gulf Coastal Plain, from south of the San Antonio River in Texas, USA, southward along the Atlantic versant to Tamaulipas, northern Veracruz and south-eastern San Luis Potosi, Mexico. It has never been found more than 130km inland. It occurs from sea level up to 800m asl. Many historical occurrences are no longer extant. The USFWS survey in the mid-1980s reported five localities, two in Texas and three in Mexico, of 221 surveyed. The localities in Mexico are few and far between, and it now seems to be absent from two of the three known localities in Mexico. It still exists in Siberia in northern Veracruz.
59452		habitat	eng	Adults, juveniles, and larvae inhabit permanent and temporary ponds, roadside ditches, and quiet stream pools, habitats that are relatively uncommon in at least the northern part of the range. It is usually found among submerged vegetation, and it is found under rocks and other shelter when ponds dry up. The eggs are attached to submerged vegetation in shallow water (Garrett and Barker 1987). The species is generally intolerant of habitat disturbance except that it has been found in ditches along railroad rights-of-way.
59452		population	eng	The species has never been found to be abundant at any locality. A maximum of 25 individuals has been found at one site. It was once rather common in Texas, but is now seldom seen (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is apparently still declining in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), but much of the range includes private land where herpetological surveys have not been conducted. The populations of this species in Mexico also seem to be very small and declining, but more fieldwork is needed to verify the status of the species in the country.
59452		threats	eng	Extensive habitat alteration for agriculture and infrastructure development in Texas and north-eastern Mexico has had a severe impact on this newt. It has also become endangered in Texas due to insecticide and herbicide use (Dixon 1987), and water pollution is also a major problem in Mexico.
59453		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59453		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout the eastern USA and adjacent southern Canada; west to Minnesota, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas (Petranka 1998). There are thousands of occurrences.
59453		habitat	eng	Adults and larvae inhabit ponds, swamps, and quiet stream pools. Animals may burrow into mud if pond dries. Efts and sometimes adults (i.e., over wintering ones) inhabit wooded areas (terrestrial eft stage lasts 2-7 years). The adults are generally permanently aquatic in northeastern USA, but may leave pond in summer or fall in some areas (e.g., montane Virginia). Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.
59453		population	eng	It is widespread and abundant. It might have increased as creation of farm ponds augmented available habitat (Petranka 1998). Could be increasing with increasing beaver populations (Petranka 1998).
59453		threats	eng	Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat and might serve as partial barriers to movement (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Introduced bluegill sunfish might cause declines in larval abundance (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999). However, the species is unthreatened overall.
59454		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species. Captive breeding is occurring in Europe.
59454		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and southern China in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hunan Provinces, from 600-1,900m asl.
59454		habitat	eng	It lives and breeds in streams of varying sizes, where the larvae also develop. In winter it hibernates on land.
59454		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
59454		threats	eng	It is collected for human consumption in certain parts of its range. It is also exported for the international pet trade. Habitat destruction and degradation are also an ongoing threat.
59455		conservation	eng	A number of protected areas in the region support this species. Captive breeding is occurring in Europe.
59455		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and southern China in Guizhou, Anhui, Zhejiang, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, from 50-1,800m asl.
59455		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-gradient, hill streams of varying sizes. It breeds in the same habitats and the larvae develop in the water.
59455		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
59455		threats	eng	Over-exploitation for use as traditional Chinese medicine and for the international pet trade is a major threat to this species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.
59456		conservation	eng	Several protected areas in the region fall within the species' range.
59456		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-eastern Chongqing, south-western Hunan, eastern Guizhou, and Fuchuan in eastern Guangxi in central China, from 500-1,800m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.
59456		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams of varying sizes and the surrounding habitats in forested areas, and sometimes also occurs in streamside pools. It breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.
59456		population	eng	It is a very common species.
59456		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction and degradation for dam construction and subsistence wood collecting, and also by harvesting for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Small numbers are exported for the international pet trade, though probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59457		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region. It is bred in captivity in Europe.
59457		distribution	eng	This species is known from central China in Chongqing, Hunan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, from 200-1,200m asl.
59457		habitat	eng	It inhabits large streams and creeks and nearby habitat in the foothills. It breeds in streams and creeks where the larvae also develop.
59457		population	eng	It is a very common species.
59457		threats	eng	It is susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation. Small numbers of this species are exported for the international pet trade, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59458		conservation	eng	A few protected areas are present within the range of this species. Some European herpetologists have successfully bred the species in captivity.
59458		distribution	eng	This species is only known from north-eastern Guangxi Province (Zhongshan, Fuchuan and Gongchen Counties) in China, from 400-1,200m asl.
59458		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-gradient streams in broadleaf forests. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.
59458		population	eng	It is a rare species.
59458		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include habitat loss due to subsistence wood collection, and over-harvesting for the pet trade.
59459		conservation	eng	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and habitat protection for this species is urgently needed.
59459		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Paiyangshan, Ningming County, in Guangxi Province, China, at around 470m asl.
59459		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-gradient streams and surrounding habitats. It probably breeds in streams.
59459		population	eng	It is known from only a handful of localities.
59459		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture.
59460		conservation	eng	Its main distribution range falls within protected areas, and the Hong Kong population is protected by local legislation. This species has been widely bred in captivity.
59460		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal Guangdong, including Hong Kong, in China, from 30-940m asl.
59460		habitat	eng	It inhabits low- to medium-gradient hill streams and the surrounding forests. Breeding takes place in slow-flowing stream pools where the larvae also develop.
59460		population	eng	It is a very common species.
59460		threats	eng	A particular threat to this species is the collection of significant numbers for the pet trade.
59461		conservation	eng	Addressing the lack of data would be the first step towards ensuring the species' conservation.
59461		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the type locality in the Saysomboun Special Zone, as well as from Phoukhout District in Xiangkhouang Province, in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2002). There is some evidence that it might occur more widely than this.
59461		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species found in streams in dry shrubland, and that presumably breeds in streams by larval development.
59461		population	eng	The information regarding its population status is still very incomplete, but it seems to be relatively common where it is known.
59461		threats	eng	The main threat is local harvesting of it for medicine and food. It will potentially be collected for the pet trade in the future.
59462		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas. This species is in urgent need of further survey work to establish its current population status.
59462		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is recorded only from Edough Peninsula in northern Algeria. Its altitudinal range is not known.
59462		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be largely aquatic and dependent upon cisterns, ponds, swamps and other wetlands. It is not clear if this salamander uses terrestrial habitats. It presumably has a similar breeding strategy to <em>P. nebulosus</em>, depositing its eggs, and completing larval development, within water.
59462		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status.
59462		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to the species. However, if the threats are similar to those facing <em>P. nebulosus</em>, then it is probably threatened by pollution of natural breeding ponds (dayas), as a result of the expansion and intensification of agriculture (livestock farming).
59463		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in Iberia, but there is a need to monitor vulnerable populations in northern and eastern Spain and Portugal. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Spain, where captive breeding of the species and habitat restoration projects are in place in some regions.
59463		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas in Iberia, but there is a need to monitor vulnerable populations in northern and eastern Spain and Portugal. It is listed on Appendix III of the Berne Convention and is protected by national legislation in Spain, where captive breeding of the species and habitat restoration projects are in place in some regions.
59463		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in central and southern Iberia, and in the coastal plain of northern Morocco. It is essentially a lowland species becoming rare above 900m asl, although it might be found at 1,565m asl in the Sierra de Loja, Granada, Spain.
59463		habitat	eng	This is a highly aquatic species of Mediterranean-type habitats including scrub, open woodland and cultivated land. It is generally found in ponds, dayas, wadis, lakes, ditches and slow-moving streams (often temporary in nature) with plenty of vegetation cover. The adults are mostly found under stones or in mud in their aquatic habitats, or sheltering under cover on land if the wetland dries up. It may be present in slightly modified aquatic and terrestrial habitats. The female deposits around 800-1,500 eggs on plants and stones in ponds.
59463		population	eng	It is not abundant over most of its distribution, with populations being more scattered and fragmented in the east and north of the Iberian Peninsula. Some population declines in this species have been observed, especially in eastern Spain. It appears to be in decline in Morocco (although it is common in the north), and the southernmost populations in Morocco might be extinct (T. Slimani and El Hassan El Mouden pers. comm.).
59463		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened through loss of aquatic habitats through drainage, agrochemical pollution, the impacts of livestock (in North African dayas), eutrophication, domestic and industrial contamination, and infrastructure development. It has largely disappeared from coastal areas in Iberia and Morocco close to concentrations of tourism and highly populated areas (such as Madrid). Introduced fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) are known to prey on the eggs and larvae of this species, and are implicated in its decline. Mortality on roads has been reported to be a serious threat to some populations.
59464		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Spain. It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.
59464		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to north-west Africa, with a fragmented range in parts of northern Morocco (Rif and Moyen Atlas), Ceuta (Spain), and northern Algeria (coastal mountain ranges). There is an uncertain record (based on a museum voucher specimen) of this species from northern Tunisia; the presence of <em>Salamandra algira</em> in Tunisia requires further verification. The species has an altitudinal range of approximately 80-2,450m asl.
59464		habitat	eng	It is generally restricted to humid montane forests where it is found under stones and beneath roots in Cedar (<em>Cedrus</em>) and Oak (<em>Quercus</em>) woodland. It has also been observed in caves in parts of its range. This salamander appears to be ovoviviparous over most of its distribution (8-50 eggs are produced), but viviparous in the Tangitana region of Morocco. In general, the females produce 15-16 larvae; the larvae may be deposited in either cisterns or small streams.
59464		population	eng	This is generally a very rare species, especially in Algeria. However, it is locally common in the central and western Rif Mountains in Morocco. It is possibly extinct on Beni Snassen Mountain in north-eastern Morocco.
59464		threats	eng	The species occurs in small relict populations that are heavily threatened by deforestation, overgrazing by domestic livestock, and channelization of water sources for irrigation. The species is locally threatened by mortality on roads, and there is some collection of this species in small numbers for the international pet trade; further investigations are needed to determine the impact of trade on populations.
59465		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.
59465		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Corsica, France, where it is found throughout the island. It is found at altitudes of 50-1,750m, but is commonest from 500-1,300m asl.
59465		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of habitats particularly mixed and deciduous woodland (Beech, Sweet Chestnut and Pine). This species gives birth to well developed larvae that complete metamorphosis in streams, ponds and other waters; fully metamorphosed young are occasionally produced.
59465		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
59465		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are loss of woodland habitat (especially as a result of forest fires). However, it is not believed to be significantly at risk.
59466		conservation	eng	Further fieldwork into its biology, habitat and distribution over much of its range is needed. It is unclear which species of <em>Salamandra</em> have been recorded from western Anatolia, and further investigation to identify these populations (which are not included here) is needed.  In Turkey, this species is found in a few protected areas.  It is present in the Mount Hermon, Mount Carmel and Tel Dan Natur protected areas in Israel and has been recorded in the Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden and Ammiq Marshes protected areas of Lebanon. The active creation of breeding habitat is taking place in the nature reserve within Mount Carmel, Israel. This species is protected by national legislation in Israel.
59466		distribution	eng	This species is present in south-eastern and eastern parts of Anatolia, Turkey; a small area north-western Iran; northern Iraq; Lebanon; and northern Israel (Tel Dan, upper and western Galilee, and Mount Carmel). There is little information available on the distribution of this species in Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq. The altitudinal range in the south of this species' range is known to be approximately 180-2,000m asl (in the Taurus Mountains).
59466		habitat	eng	The terrestrial habitat of this species varies across its range. In Iran it is known from an area of arid sparse cork forest. In Turkey and Lebanon it has been found to inhabit damp forests and groves in mountainous or hilly regions, and to shelter under leaves, roots or stones not far from water. This species may persist in formerly forested habitats, although further studies are needed. Isolated populations of this salamander are found around pools (often temporary in nature) and slow-flowing spring-fed streams which the adults inhabit during the breeding season (winter through to early spring). It forages nocturnally, but may be seen in the daytime during wet weather. It produces live young (larvae with gills that undergo metamorphosis; Degani 1996).
59466		population	eng	In Iran this species is considered to be rare, and populations in Israel are small but generally stable. In Lebanon it is considered to be widespread, but localized and probably not abundant. In Turkey this species is rare.
59466		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range, such as Israel and Lebanon (and possibly Syrian Arab Republic), by infrastructure development and aquatic pollution by pesticides. In Lebanon introduced fish are also a problem. In Israel and eastern Turkey, large numbers of this salamander are killed on roads. This species is probably in decline in Turkey (as in other parts of the Middle East) as a result of damming of breeding streams, aquatic pollution, and an increase in ground water extraction resulting from the rapid expansion of irrigation schemes for agriculture, particularly in the eastern part of its range.  Its habitat is being fragmented by habitat conversion throughout its range.  This species may be subjected to collection for the pet trade.
59467		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation over much of its range. It occurs in many protected areas, and is listed in a number of national and sub national Red Data Books and Lists. Some populations of this salamander are being monitored (e.g., central Spain; Zlote Mountains [southwestern Poland, East Sudety Mountains]). Further research into the impacts of chytridiomycosis on this salamander is urgently needed.
59467		distribution	eng	This species is present across much of central, eastern and southern Europe. In the former Soviet Union, it is known only from the mountains and foothills of the Ukrainian Carpathians. The populations of this species in Iberia are very fragmented (there is a small Area of Occupancy within the wider Extent of Occurrence). The populations of <em>Salamandra</em> species reported from western Anatolia, Turkey, require further investigation into the species involved and are not evaluated in this account. It occurs from lowland areas up to 2,500m asl (in central Spain).
59467		habitat	eng	It is associated with wet cool deciduous, mixed, or rarely, coniferous forests with well shaded brooks and small rivers. Within the mountain forest belt, the species can be found in woodlands, glades and forest edges, rocky slopes, dense bush, and herbaceous vegetation. It is possible, that the occurrence of <em>S. salamandra</em> on woodless mountain pastures and within hayfields indicates the past existence of forests. In the Iberian Peninsula the species may be found in upland Mediterranean type forest and associated habitats. The species prefers microhabitats covered with dense leaf-litter and moss. In general, the female gives birth to well-developed larvae, that complete metamorphosis in streams, ponds and still waters. However, the subspecies, <em>S.s. bernardezi</em> and <em>S.s. fastusa</em> may give birth to two to eight fully metamorphosed young on land. The species does tolerate some habitat modification, and has even been found in gardens.
59467		population	eng	A number of large, stable populations of this salamander exist in Central Europe. Some local populations declines have been observed over parts of its range (e.g., through habitat loss, introduced predatory fish, and increased aridity in Spain). A severe decline has been reported in the Netherlands. Some local populations have disappeared, and its population density has also been reduced in parts of Spain.
59467		threats	eng	The principal threats include localized general habitat destruction, unsympathetic forest management, and pollution of breeding sites by agrochemicals, collection for commercial purposes (i.e., the pet trade), introduction of predatory species (salmonids and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>)) and population fragmentation. The mortality of adults on roads is a localized threat in some parts of its range. The presence of chytridiomycosis has been reported in some Spanish populations.
59468		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in several provinces in Italy, and it is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas, including the Pollino National Park.
59468		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern peninsular Italy in the Apennine Mountains (where it is widespread) and other hilly areas, south of Caserta province (Campania region). North of this it is replaced by <em>Salamandrina perspicillata</em>. It is usually found at elevations between 200 and 900m asl, but can occur between 50m and 1,500m asl.
59468		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in forests with dense undergrowth in hilly and mountainous areas. Only females of this species are aquatic during the short oviposition phase, for which well-oxygenated waters, slow-running streams (usually with rocky beds), drinking troughs and ponds are used. It appears to avoid seriously modified habitats. Little information is available on the ecology and reproductive biology of this species.
59468		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
59468		threats	eng	In parts of the species range there are some localized declines through habitat loss and aquatic pollution. But overall, it is not significantly threatened.
59469		conservation	eng	Undeveloped buffers should be maintained around breeding sites. It occurs in many protected areas.
59469		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Pacific coast of North America from southeastern Alaska to Santa Cruz County, California (Stebbins 1985, Petranka 1998). Records from the Rocky Mountains, including populations in Latah County, Idaho, could represent introductions, though Monello and Wright (1997) recorded three small populations in Latah County in 1997. It can be found at sea level to about 2,800m asl (Stebbins 1985).
59469		habitat	eng	It can be found in forests, woodlands, grasslands, open valleys, and ranch land. Found on land (in open or under rocks, logs, etc.) or in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and slow-moving streams. It is the most aquatic western newt. It breeds in ponds, lakes, reservoirs and slow-moving streams. Lays eggs singly on aquatic plants or submerged twigs (Behler and King 1979).
59469		population	eng	It is widespread and common. Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000.
59469		threats	eng	None known.
59470		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
59470		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Coast from Honeydew, Humboldt County, south to the Russian River area, Sonoma County, California, United States (Stebbins 1985).
59470		habitat	eng	It can be found in mountain streams and rivers in coastal woodlands and redwood forest. When inactive, occurs under rocks, logs, other forest debris, and in rodent burrows and subterranean crevices. Usually breeds in flowing water. Lays eggs on undersides or rocks in foothill/mountain streams.
59470		population	eng	It is common in many streams (Petranka 1998). Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000; Twitty (1966) marked 20,000+ in one study area.
59470		threats	eng	None known. Local populations might be impacted by deforestation, but it is not significantly threatened.
59471		conservation	eng	None needed. Many occurrences are in protected areas.
59471		distribution	eng	Range includes the coast ranges of California, from Mendocino County southward to Los Angeles County and disjunctly south to the Cayumaca Mountains in San Diego County; also the southern Sierra Nevada from Tulare County to Kern County (Kuchta and Tan 2006). Taricha sierrae hybridizes with T. torosa in the southern Sierra Nevada (Kaweah River area) (Kuchta 2007).
59471		habitat	eng	Breeding occurs in ponds, reservoirs, and streams, and terrestrial individuals occupy various adjacent upland habitats such as grassland, woodland, and forest (Storer 1925, Petranka 1998, Stebbins 2003, Kuchta 2005). Eggs are attached to sticks, undersides of stones, or vegetation in flowing or nonflowing water; fast-moving streams and rivers are used more often in Sierra Nevada foothills and in southern California mountains than elsewhere in the range.
59471		population	eng	This species is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range. Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. This species is common in many parts of its range. Over the long term, likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, probably less than 25% decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Many historical occurrences in San Diego County appear to be extirpated. Currently relatively stable in extent of occurrence; probably relatively stable to slowly declining in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences.
59471		threats	eng	Under natural conditions, solar UV-B radiation reduces embryo survival; effects at the population level remain to be determined (Anzalone et al. 1998). <br/><br/>Introduced crayfish and mosquitofish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia</span>) prey on eggs and larvae and have caused local population declines in southern California (Gamradt and Kats 1996). Introduced fishes likely have a negative impact in some bodies of water.<br/><br/>Locally, population have been reduced or eliminated as a result of habitat degradation or loss caused by conversion of habitat to human uses and to a much lesser degree by large-scale commercial exploitation (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Increased stream sedimentation resulting from erosion caused by human activities and wildlfires (Gamradt and Kats 1997, Kerby and Kats 1998) has degraded breeding habitat in some areas (Jennings and Hayes 1994).<br/><br/>Many are killed on roads as they move between uplands and aquatic breeding sites.
59472		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas, and protected by national legislation over much of its range. The species is recorded in a number of many national and sub national Red Data Books and Lists. New breeding sites for the species have been created in parts of its range (e.g., Hungary). Conservation measures needed include the removal of predatory fishes in mountain lakes, reduction of overgrazing in mountain pastures, and the restoration of traditional livestock troughs as breeding sites. There is an urgent need to conserve the unique paedomorphic mountain isolates of <em>M. alpestris</em>. In parts of the species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
59472		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe, ranging from the French Atlantic coastline north to Denmark and eastwards to the Ukrainian Carpathians, Romania, and Bulgaria. It is widely distributed in the Balkans. Isolated populations are present in southern Italy and northern Spain (not present in Portugal). The distribution map is based largely on Denoël <em>et al.</em> (2001). It has been successfully introduced in the United Kingdom [distribution not mapped here], and in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid Province, central Spain). The species occurs from sea level to around 2,500m asl (Switzerland and French Alps).
59472		habitat	eng	This is a very aquatic species generally found close to water. It is widespread in both alpine and lowland habitats including wet, shaded coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, sub alpine meadows and pastureland. The species breeds, and larval development takes place, in all stagnant waters including shallow ponds, temporary pools, lakes, and ditches, drinking troughs, ruts and sometimes slow-moving streams. The generation time is between 2 and 10 years depending on the locality. The species life expectancy might be more than 20 years, but is usually around 7 years. Several dozens to hundreds of eggs are deposited per female each year. Neotenous populations occur in some areas, for example mountain lakes of Slovenia, Bosnia and Montenegro. The species can be found in slightly modified habitats, although it is less common in large cultivated fields.
59472		population	eng	It is generally common in suitable habitat. The species is considered to be rare in Hungary and Bulgaria; threatened in Austria and Denmark; vulnerable in Spain (<em>M.a. cyreni</em>) and endangered in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Greece (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Denoël pers. comm.).
59472		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to fish introduction and breeding habitat destruction (drainage of wetlands and aquatic pollution) throughout its range. Following fish introductions, most populations rapidly become extinct (particularly alternative paedomorphic populations); some taxa (if taxonomy justified) have disappeared following fish introductions (e.g., <em>M.a. lacustris</em>: M. Denoël pers. comm.). In some areas there is over collection of the species for use in education and science (this has led to the extinction of the species from some Ukrainian localities). It is also collected in small numbers for the commercial pet trade (especially <em>M.a. inexpectatus</em> of Calabria). Populations in the Pelopenese and southeastern continental Greece are facing severe habitat loss. At least one of the introduced populations in the UK harbours chytridiomycosis, threatening native amphibian populations in the area.
59473		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in Spain. It is present in Parque Nacional de las Islas Atlánticas de Galicia, Parque Nacional de Doñana and Parque Nacional de Cabañeros in Spain. In Portugal, it has been recorded from Peneda-Gerês National Park.
59473		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs from sea level to elevations approaching 1,870m asl, but is mostly present between 400 and 1,000m asl.
59473		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species, with vegetated shallow ponds and streams being the preferred habitat. It may also be found in cattle troughs, lagoons, streams and deep still waters, and is frequently found in temporary ponds. Animals have also been recorded from irrigation channels and other human-made ephemeral or permanent structures (C. Ayres, pers. comm.). The species occupies a diverse range of terrestrial habitats including eucalyptus plantations, pine groves, open Oak (<em>Quercus</em>) woodland, scrub and sandy coastal areas. The species may be found in traditionally farmed areas.
59473		population	eng	The species is relatively common in suitable habitat, although populations in a small part of central Spain (especially in the Province of Madrid) are reported to be rapidly decreasing. It is more common towards the west of its range.
59473		threats	eng	The species is mostly threatened by the loss of breeding pools caused by drainage for agriculture and urbanization. Some mortality in this species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal. This disease might be non-native and is thought to have been transferred to the lake by an introduced predatory fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Predation by introduced fish and other introduced species (such as crayfish [<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>] and mink [<em>Mustela vison</em>]) is also a threat to <em>L. boscai</em>. However, in much of its range, the species is resistant and its populations are stable.
59474		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Protected by national legislation in several countries. It is present in a number of protected areas over its range.
59474		distribution	eng	This species occurs through most of Italy, southern Switzerland, Slovenia, northern Croatia, and northern Bosnia-Herzegovina, with an apparently disjunct population on the Adriatic side of the Balkan Peninsula in eastern Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, south to central Greece. There are populations north of the Alps in Austria, southeast Bavaria (Germany), western Hungary, and southern Czech Republic. There are a number of introduced populations in western Switzerland (Geneva), Germany (not mapped), Portugal (São Miguel Island in the Azores), the Netherlands (not mapped) and the UK (not mapped). Recorded from sea level to elevations approaching 2,000m asl (Greece).
59474		habitat	eng	There are a wide variety of terrestrial habitats from beech woodlands to arid Mediterranean climates. Its breeding and larval development take place in various stagnant permanent and temporary aquatic habitats. This species can be found in modified habitats such as quarries and artificial water bodies such as stony wells, tanks and drinking troughs. In central and southern Italy, artificial water bodies can be the commonest breeding sites (e.g. Romano <em>et al</em>. 2007; Corsetti and Romano 2007)
59474		population	eng	There are large populations in the south of its range, with the species becoming less abundant in the north. It is still locally very abundant in Italy, but several populations on the River Po plain are known to have become extinct. It is known to be dramatically decreasing through habitat loss in Montenegro (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001), and populations are declining generally in the Balkans.
59474		threats	eng	It is sensitive to changes in water quality. The principal threats to the species are loss of aquatic habitats, especially breeding sites, through agricultural intensification and agrochemical pollution, and introduction of predatory fishes. In the Balkans, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change, and presumed mortality of individuals because of predation by introduced fishes.
59475		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in most parts of its range. The species is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas.
59475		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Europe. It occurs in northern Spain and Portugal (where populations are often very fragmented), much of the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg, also the extreme western Czech Republic and northern Switzerland. The subspecies <em>L. h. punctillatus</em> is known from a single locality, Pozo Negro, in Burgos province, Spain; the validity of this subspecies is disputed. An isolated population in extreme southeastern France is extinct. This species has an altitudinal range from sea level up to at least 2,400m asl (Pyrenees Mountains).
59475		habitat	eng	It is present in a variety of habitats including marshes, heathlands, moorlands, forests (where it may be very common), pastures and agricultural land. Breeding and larval development takes place in a wide variety of small stagnant waters (including very small and acidic ponds, ditches and ruts), or (rarely) slow-moving waters. The species is generally less abundant in cultivated areas, but it can survive in some anthropogenic habitats such as gardens. Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its range.
59475		population	eng	The species is very common in suitable habitats over much of its range. It is endangered in the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997), and uncommon (with a fragmented range) in northern Portugal and declining in parts of Spain (especially the southern populations of Aragón and Castilla-León Provinces and the Ebro River populations of Zaragoza and Tarragona Provinces).
59475		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by general drainage, pollution and eutrophication of breeding pools, abandonment of traditional farming practices and the introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) (and possibly non-native vegetation). Desertification is a threat in southern parts of the range. However, through most of its range, populations are stable and abundant.
59476		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. This species is present in several protected areas.
59476		distribution	eng	This species is found through most of central and southern Italy, with higher concentrations at lower altitudes. It has been recorded up to 2,000m asl.
59476		habitat	eng	This species is often associated with woodland and agricultural habitats. It breeds in a variety of temporary ponds, ditches, slow-moving streams and lakes. It is also found in modified habitats such as wells and water tanks.
59476		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. It is more common in southern areas, and it is somewhat rarer at the northern edge of its range in central Italy, especially around the Italian Apennines. Some local declines have been observed in Calabria, and Abruzzo Mountains.
59476		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is localized drainage of wetlands. Pollution and eutrophication of aquatic habitats (especially breeding ponds), and the introduction of predatory fishes, may also be a problem. However, the species is not considered seriously threatened at present.
59477		conservation	eng	Protected by national legislation throughout its range (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. Present in a number of protected areas. In Portugal it is present in Peneda-Gerês National Park where the population of Carris Lake has been severely impacted by disease. Further research into the impacts of disease on this species is needed. Re-introductions and/or translocations of this species have been made in the area of Madrid, Spain.
59477		distribution	eng	This species can be found in much of northern Iberia, and central, southern and western France. This species was introduced to the area of Turin, Italy but is now presumed to be extinct here (J.W. Arntzen pers. comm.). Present from sea level to elevations approaching 2,100m asl.
59477		habitat	eng	Aquatic habitats include well-vegetated ponds, pools, ditches and streams generally within dry woodlands, heath land, fields and rough grassland. Breeding and larval development take place in many different types of permanent and temporary water sources, usually with aquatic vegetation for reproduction. It can occur in slightly modified habitats such as traditional farmland.
59477		population	eng	It is locally abundant in suitable habitat. It is locally endangered in central France, less threatened in southern France, and not particularly threatened in Spain and Portugal.
59477		threats	eng	Major threats are agricultural intensification, drainage, pollution, and eutrophication of aquatic habitats through intensive agricultural. Mass mortality of the species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal. The disease might be non-native and have been transferred to the lake by an introduced predatory fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Predation by <em>L. gibbosus</em> and other introduced predatory fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) species is also a threat to <em>T. marmoratus</em> in parts of its range. There is some illegal collection of the species for the pet trade.
59478		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Protected by national legislation in Poland. Listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Ukraine. It is present in a number of protected areas.
59478		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the east Carpathian and easternmost Sudetes Mountains. Introduced into the Bayrischen Wald, Bavaria, Germany. It has an altitudinal range from 120 to a maximum of 2,000m asl.
59478		habitat	eng	It can be found in wet and shaded coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (consisting of beech, alder, pine, oak etc.), their edges and meadow glades; also sub alpine areas. Reproduction and larval development in almost all temporary and permanent water sources in the Carpathians including lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, puddles, ditches, overgrown stream pools and even wheel ruts in country roads. It may be present in modified habitats, even polluted waters (Arnold 2002).
59478		population	eng	It is generally common and locally abundant in the Carpathian Mountains. However, it is declining throughout its range.
59478		threats	eng	Some populations have declined due to habitat destruction (logging and infrastructure development), introduction of predatory fish species and pollution of habitats by domestic sewage. Collection of newts for education, science and the pet trade has negatively impacted some populations. It is affected by hybridization with <em>L. vulgaris</em>, as the range of <em>L. vulgaris</em> is generally spreading in the region with ongoing deforestation.
59479		conservation	eng	It is present in Parque Nacional de Cabañeros and Parque Nacional de Doñana, Spain, and is presumed to occur in some Portuguese protected areas. Re-introductions and/or translocations of this species have been made in the area of Madrid, Spain. This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national and sub-national legislation in Spain. It is considered Vulnerable on the Spanish Red List.
59479		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula where it is distributed in central and southern Portugal and the southern half of Spain, from sea level to 1,450m asl.
59479		habitat	eng	This species inhabits broadleaf (<em>Quercus</em> oak) woodland in meso-Mediterranean and thermo-Mediterranean climates. Aquatic habitats used for breeding and larval development include temporary or permanent ponds, lagoons, abandoned quarries and wells, drinking troughs, irrigation ponds, ditches and other areas of stagnant or slow-moving water. It is found in traditional farmland areas and other slightly modified habitats.
59479		population	eng	It is common in areas where suitable siliceous substrate habitat exists. There has been a significant decline in the populations of southern and eastern Spain (those found on a calcareous substrate).
59479		threats	eng	The most significant threat to this species overall is habitat loss, especially the loss of temporary ponds. In the west of Spain and southern Portugal populations are affected by predation by non-native crayfish and predatory fish. Increasing urbanization surrounding Madrid has also led to the elimination of many populations. In southern and eastern Spain, over-exploitation of groundwater resources, agrochemical pollution, loss of traditional breeding sites and the introduction of predatory non-native fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) has led to a serious population decline. In Portugal this species is also affected by the drainage of temporary ponds, associated with the intensification of agriculture.
59480		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Red Data Book of Israel, and is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is present in some protected areas in Turkey, and might be present (marginally) in a protected areas in Israel.
59480		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Turkey, western Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, northwestern Jordan, Israel (the southern limit being the southern Coastal Plain [Ashkelon]) and parts of the Palestine Territories. It has been recorded from 200m below sea level (Tabbaria Lake) to around 2,750m asl (in Turkey). Records from northern Iraq require confirmation.
59480		habitat	eng	It is found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of birch, oaks, eastern hornbeams, alders, chestnuts, beach and rhododendrons) up to sub alpine meadows. Reproduction occurs in lakes, ponds (including temporary pools), large puddles, drainage canals, roadside ditches in meadows, slow-flowing streams and stream pools in open areas near or within forests. The number of eggs varies between 50 and 100. It can occur in some slightly modified habitats, but is rather sensitive to habitat change in the southernmost parts of its range.
59480		population	eng	The species is sporadically distributed over much of its range (although common in suitable habitats). It is generally more rare in the south because of restricted habitat availability.
59480		threats	eng	Throughout its range this species is very sensitive to habitat loss through forest destruction, destruction of wetlands, overgrazing by cattle, urbanization, industrial and agrochemical pollution. In Israel it is threatened by collection for the pet trade. The southern population is more threatened by the loss of suitable breeding habitats. In Israel it is additionally threatened by spraying of pesticides to combat mosquitoes.
59481		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in numerous protected areas. It is listed in a number of Red Data Books and Lists and is both listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and protected by national legislation in parts of its range. In parts of this species range mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. Several of the recognized subspecies may qualify for a higher threat listing and should be assessed in the future following taxonomic clarification.
59481		conservation	eng	It is presumed to occur in numerous protected areas. It is listed in a number of Red Data Books and Lists and is both listed on Appendix III of the Berne Convention and protected by national legislation in parts of its range. In parts of this species range mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. Several of the recognized subspecies may qualify for a higher threat listing and should be assessed in the future following taxonomic clarification.
59481		distribution	eng	This species is widespread through most of Europe (with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula from which it is absent). It ranges from Ireland and Great Britain, through west and central Europe and Scandinavia, south to Italy, the Balkans and northern and western Turkey, and east through much of the steppes of Ukraine and Russia. There is an isolated population in the Caucasus. The species occurs at elevations from sea level up to 2,150m asl (Austria).
59481		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with woodland habitats, including deciduous, coniferous, mixed forests and dry forests and woodlands. This is an adaptable species also present in meadows, bushlands, parks, fruit gardens, many damp habitats and rural and urban areas. The species breeds in still and slow moving shallow waters and irrigation ditches; females lay 200-300 eggs. It is often recorded from modified habitats. Several hybrids with <em>L. helveticus</em> have been reported while hybridization with<em> L. montandoni</em> is quite common in syntopic populations
59481		population	eng	It is very common or numerous over much of its range.
59481		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats to the species include general drainage, pollution and eutrophication of breeding sites, logging of forest surrounding breeding pools and the introduction of predatory fishes. In the former Soviet Union there is mass commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. Within Turkey, construction and building along the Black Sea coastline might be impacting northern Turkish populations.
59482		conservation	eng	In China the range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. It is listed as a class II protected species under China's wild animal protection law. Determination of the occurrence, distribution and population status of this species in Viet Nam is required, as well as the effective protection of the remaining forest habitat.
59482		distribution	eng	This species ranges mainly in central and southern China (Guangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hunan and Anhui Provinces), from about 400-1,700m asl. There are also records from Lao Cai and Ha Giang Provinces in northern Viet Nam (these are still considered to belong to <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em>, though it is possible that they might refer to an undescribed species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Other Vietnamese records (i.e., Fleck, 2003; Nguyen and Ho, 1996; Nguyen <em>et al</em>, 2005) from Bac Giang and Cao Bang Provinces, and probably also those from Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phu Province, in Viet Nam, refer to <em>T. vietnamensis</em> (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005; Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.).
59482		habitat	eng	It inhabits small temporary shallow pools in bamboo and primary forest in hilly areas. Eggs are found in leaf-litter beside the pools, and the larvae develop in the water.
59482		population	eng	This was formerly a common species, but it is now in decline.
59482		threats	eng	The major threat to this species in China is harvesting for its use in traditional medicine (it is a substitute for <em>Gecko gecko</em>, which is a widely used medicine). Habitat loss and degradation, arising from small holder agriculture and subsistence wood collecting, is also a threat to this species.
59483		conservation	eng	All three known locations of this species are within protected areas: Wuzhishan, Jiangfenling and Diaoluoshan National Nature Reserves.
59483		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Wuzhishan, Diaoluoshan, and Jianfengling in Hainan Province, China, from 770-950m asl. However, it is possible that some previous records of <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em> from Vietnam (i.e., Nguyen and Ho, 1996) refer to this species (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005), but this requires verification.
59483		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and breeds in pools and seepage pools. The larvae develop in water.
59483		population	eng	It is uncommon.
59483		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, clear-cutting and infrastructure development for tourist activities.
59484		conservation	eng	This species is a Class II State Major Protected Wildlife in China. Its range overlaps with a few small protected areas. It is bred in captivity in both China and Europe.
59484		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Guizhou and north-eastern Yunnan provinces, China, from 1,500-2,400m asl.
59484		habitat	eng	It inhabits low shrub and grass covered hills. Breeding and larval development take place in pools and ponds.
59484		population	eng	There is little information on the population of this species, but it is probably common in its known localities. However, it is believed to be in decline.
59484		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation caused by industry (brick factories) and mining are major threats to this species. It is also collected for use in traditional Chinese medicine. A small number of individuals are also traded in the international pet markets.
59485		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region, and it is bred in captivity in Europe and North America.
59485		distribution	eng	This species is known from central, western and southern Yunnan, China, from 1,000-2,500m asl. The boundary between this species and <em>Tylototriton verrucosus</em> is not clear, and it is possible that <em>T. shanjing</em> occurs in Myanmar.
59485		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill forests and secondary forest, where it breeds by larval development in pools, ponds and ditches, including some artificial waterbodies.
59485		population	eng	It is very common in central, western and southern Yunnan, but is less common in the northern part of its range.
59485		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is over-collecting for traditional medicine. Small numbers are also exported for the international pet trade, and its habitats are also being threatened by infrastructure development for human settlement.
59486		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with a small number of protected areas in the region. It is listed as a class II protected species under China's wild animal protection law. Captive breeding is currently being undertaken in Germany and the Netherlands.
59486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Sichuan, China, from 1,300-2,700m asl.
59486		habitat	eng	It inhabits densely vegetated forested valleys, where it breeds by larval development in pools, ponds and paddy fields.
59486		population	eng	It is a common species within its narrow range.
59486		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is over-collection for traditional Chinese medicine as a substitute for the Sichuan salamander (<em>Batrachuperus pinchonii</em>). Small numbers are also exported to supply the international pet trade.
59487		conservation	eng	It is protected by legislation in Nepal, India, China and Thailand. Its range overlaps at least five protected areas in Thailand, one in China, one in India (Namttingpokkdi Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal) and one (Kanchanjanga Conservation Area) in Nepal. It has been bred in captivity in Europe.
59487		distribution	eng	This species ranges from India (West Bengal and Sikkim and smaller, isolated populations in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh) and eastern Nepal through the Kachin and Shan Hills of Myanmar to western Yunnan (Longchuan county and its vicinity), China and scattered mountains in northern Thailand. It has recently been recorded from Lai Chau and Lao Cai Provinces in northwestern Viet Nam. It most likely also occurs in Lao People's Democratic Republic and Bhutan, although at present there are no known records. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The boundary between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylototriton shanjing</span> is not clear. In the southern part of its range it is generally an upland species occurring at elevations between 1,000-3,000 m asl. In the northern part of its range it is reported from low hills below 1,000 m asl.
59487		habitat	eng	Its terrestrial habitat is largely moist forest, with the animals generally remaining close to water. Aquatic habitats include various freshwater sources, including permanent pools, forest streams and even small waterbodies. Breeding occurs in the shallow areas of these waterbodies; there is little information on egg deposition although the larval stage is known to be relatively short. During the dry summer period animals may go into aestivation.
59487		population	eng	It is an uncommon species through most of its range, although it was reported locally common in Myanmar (Gyi 1969). Reports from different sites in northern West Bengal varied from less than 10 salamanders to hundreds of individuals per site (Hedge and Deuti 2007). It might be extinct in Viet Nam.
59487		threats	eng	Habitat loss from infrastructure development and regular human-induced forest fires (in Southeast Asia) are a threat to this species. Water pollution from agrochemicals and domestic detergents, and the extraction of water for irrigation are also degrading its habitat. The species is considered a bad omen and thus killed in Myanmar in certain areas (Gyi 1969). It is used as bait for fishing in Myanmar and is in demand in the domestic and international pet trade. It is also harvested for use as a traditional medicine in India. In northern West Bengal, the flatlands in the Darjeeling Hills are being converted to housing and tourist complexes, while the slopes are being converted to tea estates. This region also suffers from livestock grazing, siltation and pollution (from pesticide runoff and domestic waste) of waterbodies and introduced carp (Hedge and Deuti 2007).
59488		conservation	eng	Much of the range of this species is within protected areas.
59488		distribution	eng	This species is found in Wenxian in southern Gansu, Pingwu and Qingchuan in northern Sichuan, Leishan in eastern Guizhou, Zhongxian, Yunyang, Fengjie counties of Chongqing municipality and Shangzhi county of Hunan Province, China, from 650-2,500m asl.
59488		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests near streams and pools in hilly areas. It probably breeds in pools.
59488		population	eng	It is not a common species, and is known from only four locations.
59488		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood collection.
59489		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59489		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in peninsular Florida, USA; Moler and Kezer (1993) did not encounter it north of the St. Johns River drainage in Alachua and Putnam counties, though they stated that it might follow the St. Johns River north along the east coast. Reported occurrence in the Okefenokee Swamp requires confirmation (Moler and Kezer 1993).
59489		habitat	eng	It can be found in open marsh and open prairie ponds; low gradient streams and lake tributaries; most easily collected from mats of floating water hyacinths (Moler and Kezer 1993). Eggs are attached to or scattered among submerged vegetation.
59489		population	eng	It is often locally abundant where suitable habitat remains (Petranka 1998).
59489		threats	eng	It is not threatened overall but many local populations undoubtedly have been eliminated by destruction of wetlands (Petranka 1998), especially due to urbanization.
59490		conservation	eng	None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.
59490		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Coastal Plain in southern South Carolina, southern Georgia, and the northern half of Florida, USA (Moler and Kezer 1993).
59490		habitat	eng	It inhabits cypress domes, cypress strands, marshes, lime-sink ponds, ditches, Carolina bays, and other shallow freshwater habitats, including both permanent and temporary waters. In the area of sympatry with <em>P. axanthus</em>, <em>P. striatus</em> occurs in cypress ponds in areas of acid pine flatwoods (Moler and Kezer 1993). It is usually found in thick vegetation (e.g., floating mats of frog's bit, <em>Linobium spongia</em>) or in bottom mud and debris. It burrows into and estivates in the mud bottom when ponds dry up. The subspecies <em>lustricolus</em> may be essentially restricted to wetlands within the narrow strip of hydric hardwood hammock along the Gulf Coast (Moler 1992); stagnant ponds associated with cypress and flat wood ponds, drainage ditches, and smaller floodplain lakes (Neill 1951). Eggs are attached to or scattered among submerged vegetation.
59490		population	eng	It is widespread with apparently stable populations
59490		threats	eng	It is not threatened range wide, but many local populations are no doubt affected by urbanization and other infrastructure development.
59491		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59491		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal plain from Virginia to central Florida and eastern Texas in the USA, and adjacent Mexico in northern Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz, and northward in the Mississippi Valley to southern Michigan in the USA.
59491		habitat	eng	It inhabits shallow, warm, quiet, sometimes turbid waters with abundant vegetation: swamps, sloughs, ponds, lakes, ditches, and to a lesser degree rivers and streams. It hides among plants and debris by day and burrows into bottom mud if water dries up. The eggs are laid in water in a small pocket or debris-covered cavity in bottom mud.
59491		population	eng	Field studies are needed to assess the status of this species in Mexico and confirm its existence in northern Veracruz, from where there have been only a few records. It is a common and secure species in many areas in the USA.
59491		threats	eng	It is unthreatened overall, but many local populations have been reduced or extirpated by loss of wetlands (Petranka 1998). The extent to which flood control has reduced opportunities for dispersal among local populations is unknown (Petranka 1998). Disturbance and alteration of the original habitat is a consequence of the industrial activities and urbanization also a threat to local populations.
59492		conservation	eng	Protection of the species' aquatic habitats is needed. It occurs in several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59492		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal plain from the District of Columbia through Florida and southern Alabama, USA (Conant and Collins 1991). Large sirens occurring in the Rio Grande Valley (from Upson, Maverick county to Brownsville, Texas, and Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico) were tentatively assigned to this species by Flores-Villela and Brandon (1992).
59492		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow, muddy, weed-choked water: swamps, ponds, lakes, streams, ditches. It is found among thick vegetation, under rocks and logs, or burrowed in bottom mud by day. It burrows into bottom mud if water dries up. The eggs are laid in water in small clusters on bottom.
59492		population	eng	It is common in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), Georgia, and South Carolina; its status elsewhere is not well known (Petranka 1998). There is no information on its abundance in Mexico.
59492		threats	eng	It is unthreatened overall, but many local populations have been reduced or extirpated by loss of wetlands (Petranka 1998). The extent to which flood control has reduced opportunities for dispersal among local populations is unknown (Petranka 1998). Disturbance and alteration of the original habitat is a consequence of the industrial activities and urbanization also a threat to local populations.
59493		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59493		distribution	eng	This species is extremely poorly known. One specimen comes from an unspecified location in South America, and a second specimen comes from an unspecified location in Brazil.
59493		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic, presumably viviparous species, possibly associated with cold, fast-flowing, well-oxygenated streams. It is the only lungless caecilian.
59493		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens.
59493		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59494		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve and in the Mazumbai Natural Forest Reserve.
59494		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania. Within the Usambaras, it occurs on both the West and East Usambaras, and on the Magrotto ridge. It occurs down to 300m asl in the Usambara foothills, up to 1,200m asl in East Usambaras, and up to at least 1,500m asl in West Usambaras.
59494		habitat	eng	It lives primarily in montane, submontane and lowland forests, but also survives well in secondary habitats, including cultivated land, perhaps avoiding eucalyptus and tea plantations. It is subterranean, and has even been found in dry earth. It is oviparous with direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
59494		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
59494		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability, no threats are known, despite its small range. However, it is possible that eucalyptus and tea cultivation might be a threat.
59495		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in Shimba Hills National Park.
59495		distribution	eng	This species is known only from coastal Kenya (at Changamwe and the Shimba Hills), and from southern Malawi (where one specimen has been recorded from either the Shire Highlands or Mount Mulanje, and so both localities have been used when mapping its range since it is likely to occur in both). It occurs below 300m asl in Kenya, but presumably occurs at higher altitudes in Malawi. If this is one species, it is likely that populations will be found in intervening areas in Tanzania, although records from this country have not yet been confirmed.
59495		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species of lowland dry forest in Kenya, and of montane forest in Malawi. It has also been found in cultivated land at Changamwe (Kenya). On the assumption that its breeding biology is similar to that of other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it is oviparous with direct development.
59495		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens, and until recently had not been reported for 20 years, and from the type locality for seventy years (from where it was last recorded in 1933-34). However in January 2004, another specimen was collected in the vicinity of the type locality (Malonza and Müller 2004).
59495		threats	eng	In Kenya, it might be threatened by the spread of large-scale cattle ranching. The forest around the type locality (Changamwe) has been cleared, and the area is threatened by expanding light industry.
59496		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
59496		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Tana River area in Kenya. Specific details of the only locality in which it was collected are not known, and so it is not possible to map its range.
59496		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences. Like other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it probably lives mainly in the soil, and might be adaptable to secondary habitats. On the assumption that its breeding biology is similar to that of other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it is oviparous with direct development.
59496		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen, collected prior to 1912.
59496		threats	eng	It might be threatened by ongoing forest loss in the Tana River area, but more information is needed before this can be confirmed.
59497		conservation	eng	It might occur in Nyungwe Forest Reserve, but it has not been found there yet.
59497		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen from Cyangugu Prefecture, Rwanda, at 2,000m asl. The location of the type locality is known only very approximately, and the range of this species is very unclear.
59497		habitat	eng	This species was said to be collected in a five hectare patch of primary montane forest that is an outlying fragment from the large Nyungwe Forest, which is 20km to the north-east. No other information is available concerning this species' habitat and ecological requirements, although it is presumably a subterranean species. On the assumption that its breeding biology is similar to that of other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it is oviparous with direct development.
59497		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and only one specimen is known.
59497		threats	eng	No information is available.
59498		conservation	eng	The forest fragments on the Taita Hills are protected by the Kenya Forest Department.
59498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Taita Hills region, including Mount Kasigau, in southeastern Kenya. It certainly occurs between 1,430 and 1,910 m asl, and probably occurs as low as 1,000 m asl, perhaps even lower in river valleys.
59498		habitat	eng	It is subterranean, living in montane forest and in secondary habitats, including cultivated land. It is oviparous with direct development, and is not dependent upon water. Developing offspring actively feed on their mother's skin (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It perhaps does not occur in eucalyptus plantations.
59498		population	eng	It is a very common species within its small range, and is able to thrive in land cleared of forest.
59498		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat in the vicinity of the type locality. There are also inherent risks associated with a small distribution. It is in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59499		conservation	eng	It occurs in several forest reserves, though the primary purposes of these are not for biodiversity conservation.
59499		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Nguu, Nguru and Uluguru Mountains, in eastern Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, but most, if not all, records are probably from above 400m asl.
59499		habitat	eng	It is subterranean, living in submontane and montane forest, and also in secondary habitats, including cultivated land. On the assumption that its breeding habits are similar to other species of Boulengerula, it is oviparous with direct development, and is not dependent upon water.
59499		population	eng	It appears to be abundant.
59499		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, but the possible impact of the spread of bracken in the Ulugurus might need to be investigated.
59500		conservation	eng	It occurs in several national parks and indigenous reserves.
59500		distribution	eng	This species is known to exist in Amazonian Brazil in Amazonas, Roraima, Para and Amapá states.
59500		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species living in rainforest. The extent to which it can adapt to secondary habitats is not known. Its breeding habits are unknown.
59500		population	eng	There is very little; the species was last seen in 1997, but very little work is being carried out within the range.
59500		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but it is possibly threatened by clear-cutting of forest for timber.
59501		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is in Parque Nacional Llanganates, and it also occurs in Parque Nacional Sangay. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59501		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the Ecuadorian Andes: Abitagua, near Banos, on the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, at around 1,400-1,600m asl (this is the type locality); and from the Cordillera del Condór in Morona Santiago Province.
59501		habitat	eng	It is subterranean and lives in primary and secondary forest, where it makes nests under tree trunks or rocks, where the conditions are humid. It probably lays eggs that develop directly, without a larval stage.
59501		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59501		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59502		conservation	eng	It is a poorly circumscribed species in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59502		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Surinam" (Daudin 1803). Specimens recently collected in French Guiana might prove to be this species, but further taxonomic work is needed to confirm their identification.
59502		habitat	eng	This is presumably a subterranean inhabitant of rainforest, and possibly also secondary habitats.
59502		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59502		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59503		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59503		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, on the northern Cordillera Central, at Valdivia, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at around 1,100m asl. It might occur more widely.
59503		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, occurring in humid tropical forest.
59503		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from a few specimens.
59503		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information to confirm this.
59504		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59504		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an unspecified type locality, presumed to be in Brazil.
59504		habitat	eng	It is presumably subterranean, like other members of its genus.
59504		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59504		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59505		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59505		distribution	eng	This species was described from the non-specific type locality of "Peru", but its presence in Loreto Department, Peru, requires further investigation and has not been confirmed. It is believed to occur at Santa Rosa, Napo, Ecuador, where it might have been collected at 200-1,000m asl.
59505		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, occurring in humid tropical forest.
59505		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59505		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to it in Ecuador, although not enough is known to confirm this.
59506		conservation	eng	The Colombian locality is in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59506		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities: Chirota in Amazonian Ecuador; and Amacayacu in Amazonian Colombia. Both localities are below 200m asl. It probably occurs more widely, especially in suitable habitats between these two confirmed localities.
59506		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species of primary lowland tropical forest.
59506		population	eng	There is no information regarding this species' conservation status; it is not regularly encountered.
59506		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to it, but it occurs in an area of low human impact, and so is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59507		conservation	eng	This species' range might include a private reserve. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59507		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, around the southern part of Samana River, in the municipality of Pensilvania, Caldas Department, Colombia, from 600-1,000m asl. It might occur more widely.
59507		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, occurring in humid tropical forest.
59507		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens, so its overall population status is not known.
59507		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by deforestation as a result of cattle grazing and smallholder farming, but not enough is known to confirm this.
59508		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59508		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities on the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia: Garagoa, in Boyacá Department; Virolín, in the municipality of Charalá, Santander Department; and Fómenque, in Cundinamarca Department. It has been recorded at 1,750m asl, but it presumably has a broader altitudinal range than this.
59508		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in montane forest, and it was also found once near a swamp.
59508		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status; it is known from only a few specimens.
59508		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of smallholder farming is a potential threat, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59509		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sangay. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomic status (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59509		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, "Normandia, Zunia, Rio Upana" (Taylor 1968), at 1,400-1,800m asl on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador.
59509		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species in montane forest.
59509		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen.
59509		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of smallholder farming is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information to confirm this.
59510		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.), and the conspecificity of the populations on the two slopes of the Cordillera Oriental needs to be examined.
59510		distribution	eng	This species occurs on both the western and eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the Colombian Andes, in the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Santander, at 800-2,100m asl.
59510		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in montane forest. Although its breeding biology is unknown, it is thought likely to breed by direct development.
59510		population	eng	It is apparently common in parts of its range.
59510		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59511		conservation	eng	It is believed to be present within a number of protected areas in Ecuador. In Peru it might be protected within the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone.
59511		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonian Peru and Ecuador, and ranges from the mouth of the Río Santiago, Peru, through the Cordillera del Cóndor to the Napo River in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is incompletely known; it has been recorded from lowland areas around 300m asl.
59511		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in primary tropical rainforest and in cleared habitats (Duellman, 1978), sometimes being found in clearings after heavy rains. There is no information on its breeding.
59511		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species.
59511		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of low human impact, and has been found in cleared areas, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59512		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59512		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Ecuador: from 800-1,100m asl between Archidona and Tena in Napo Province; and from Shell, in Pastaza Province. It is likely to occur more widely.
59512		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in submontane forests.
59512		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59512		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to this species, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59513		conservation	eng	This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59513		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Albarico, below 1,000m asl in Yaracuy State in northern Venezuela.
59513		habitat	eng	It is believed to be a subterranean inhabitant in tropical forest.
59513		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of fieldwork within its range.
59513		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59514		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
59514		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern French Guiana, Suriname; the State of Pará in Brazil and northeastern Peru. It presumably occurs between these areas.
59514		habitat	eng	It is subterranean species, occurring in old growth forest and savannah (in Suriname). It is likely to be reasonably adaptable to secondary habitats. Its breeding habits are unknown.
59514		population	eng	Its population status is unclear.
59514		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of low human impact, and has been found in open areas, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59515		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, such as the Reserva Natural La Planada in Colombia, and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas in Ecuador. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59515		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia and northern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-1,800m asl. It is likely to be more continuously distributed between the known localities
59515		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, found in old growth and disturbed evergreen submontane forest and cloud forest.
59515		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
59515		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59516		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59516		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Fundo Sinchona, in Loreto Department in Amazonian Peru. It is likely to occur more widely.
59516		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species recorded from lowland moist tropical forest.
59516		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status; it is known only from the type specimen.
59516		threats	eng	The area around the type locality has probably been degraded by agricultural activities and urbanization in the vicinity of Iquitos.
59517		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it is likely to occur in some. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59517		distribution	eng	This species ranges from San Blas on the eastern side of the isthmus of Darién in Panama, south through the Pacific lowlands of western Colombia, probably at least as far as northern Valle del Cauca Department. It certainly occurs at low altitudes, and probably ranges up to medium altitudes, although details on its altitudinal range are lacking.
59517		habitat	eng	There is no information concerning its habitat and ecological preferences, though it is presumably subterranean, living in primary forest and probably also secondary forest.
59517		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59517		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threa to this species, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59518		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and is probably present in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador. In Panama it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darien.
59518		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northwestern Ecuador. A record from "Central Brasil" is erroneous, and the specimen with this locality data is probably from a locality on the Pacific drainage of Colombia. It is apparently a low-altitude species.
59518		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, also occurring within the moist leaf-litter, in humid tropical lowland and foothill forests. It has also been collected in secondary forest, but is not known whether or not it occurs in more open areas. There is no information available on reproduction or breeding habitats.
59518		population	eng	It appears to be a rarely encountered species.
59518		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.
59519		conservation	eng	It occurs in Carrasco, Madidi and Amboro National Parks.
59519		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andean foothills in the southwestern portion of the Amazon basin, in Bolivia. It is known from Yacuma, Beni, Cochabamba, Chapara and Santa Cruz, and is likely to occur more widely. It has been recorded from below 400m asl.
59519		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in lowland tropical rainforest. It is adaptable to secondary habitats, and its breeding habits are unknown.
59519		population	eng	It was once thought to be extinct (Wake, 1993), but there have been some records from forests since then confirming its continued survival.
59519		threats	eng	The type locality has been converted to agricultural fields, but elsewhere in its range the habitat remains relatively undisturbed.
59520		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
59520		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, but the location of the type locality is not clear. This species was presumably collected in South America.
59520		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecological preferences are not known, although it probably lays eggs that develop directly.
59520		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59520		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
59521		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and is known from Parque Nacional Darien in Panama.
59521		distribution	eng	This species ranges only from the eastern lowlands of southeastern Darien Province, Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to extreme northwestern Ecuador. It has also been reported from Gorgona Island, Colombia (Dunn, 1942; Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003). It is known to occur up to 923m asl.
59521		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, also living in the moist leaf-litter, in humid tropical lowland and foothill forests. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. There is no information on its breeding habitats.
59521		population	eng	It is a common species in Colombia, but is rare in Ecuador. There is no information from Panama, where it is known only from a single locality.
59521		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.
59522		conservation	eng	Some populations are known from areas of Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59522		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Colombian Andes, being found mainly along the Cordillera Central, and also in the Cordillera Occidental in the Puracé area (Cauca Department), with an isolated record from south-western Cali (Valle Department). It has been recorded from 1,500-1,800m asl.
59522		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean inhabitant of cloud forests and lower montane forests. It has also been recorded within the city limits of Popayán, and so is perhaps tolerant of some habitat disturbance.
59522		population	eng	There is very little information regarding the population status of this species.
59522		threats	eng	At present the major threats to this species are unknown. Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture, and urbanisation are potential threats, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59523		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe Coca and some other protected areas. It is not confirmed from any protected areas in Colombia.
59523		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes in Colombia (Putumayo department) and Ecuador (Sucumbios and Napo provinces). It can be found between 600-2,410m asl. Specimens from another two localities in the Western and Central Cordilleras of Colombia have also been assigned to this species.
59523		habitat	eng	It lives in foothill and cloud forests, and also in secondary habitats and pastures near the edge of cloud forest. During the rainy season it can be found in very humid places and under stones in unflooded areas (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). It lays eggs in holes in the ground in very humid areas. The adults guard the eggs, and the larvae move into water to complete their development.
59523		population	eng	The abundance of this species is poorly known.
59523		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this, especially since it has been recorded from secondary habitats.
59524		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.
59524		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific versant of the Andes in Ecuador (from Imbabura south to Eloro), at 1,500-1,800m asl. Specimens from the northern part of the Cordillera Central in Colombia are currently assigned to this species, but almost certainly belong to an undescribed species.
59524		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, living in old growth and disturbed forests. It has been found along roads, streams and rivers, but it is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas.
59524		population	eng	This species is common in Colombia and uncommon in Ecuador.
59524		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59525		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Utria National Natural Park. A number of conservation projects are operating in the Colombian Choco, which could benefit this species.
59525		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of northwestern Colombia in the drainages of the Atrato and San Juan rivers at 70-300m asl.
59525		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in lowland tropical forests, also living in secondary growth forest, but it has not so far been found outside forest. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. Its breeding is unknown.
59525		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
59525		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.
59526		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59526		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the Marudi Mountains, in Rupununi, Guyana, and it might occur more widely. The type locality is at 250m asl.
59526		habitat	eng	The habitat at the type locality is primary forest, and this is presumably a subterranean species.
59526		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of fieldwork within its range.
59526		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to it, although it is known to occur in an area of very limited human impact.
59527		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas, such as the Farallones National Natural Park.
59527		distribution	eng	This species is known from several areas in the Western and Central Cordilleras of the Colombian Andes at 1,290-2,320m asl.
59527		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, and is adaptable, living in both forests and open areas. There is no information on its breeding.
59527		population	eng	It is a common species.
59527		threats	eng	It appears to be an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
59528		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in some protected areas in Colombia and Venezuela.
59528		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific coast of western Colombia in the Choco region, from close to the Ecuador border, north to the lower Magdalena River basin in Colombia, east to the Maracaibo Lake basin in Venezuela, and from Barinas and Táchira States in Venezuela. It occurs below 1,040m asl.
59528		habitat	eng	It is found in seasonal and moist tropical lowland forests, and has not so far been found outside forest. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. Its breeding system is unknown.
59528		population	eng	No information is available on its abundance.
59528		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.
59529		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59529		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ecuador" (Taylor 1968).
59529		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although it is presumably a subterranean species.
59529		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species.
59529		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59530		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
59530		distribution	eng	This species occurs very widely through the Amazon basin of South America. It is known from below 1,000m asl in Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. There have been no records from Guyana, though it presumably occurs in this country, and it might also occur in northern Bolivia.
59530		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, and specimens have been found in primary forest and secondary forest. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. Its breeding system is unknown.
59530		population	eng	It is said to be uncommon throughout its range, but there is little information on its abundance.
59530		threats	eng	It occurs widely in an area of very limited human impact, and so is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
59531		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59531		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities: Guayaquil in western Ecuador, and extreme south-western coastal Colombia. It occurs at very low altitudes, close to sea level, and presumably occurs more widely than has been so far recorded, in particular between the known localities.
59531		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species living in lowland tropical forest.
59531		population	eng	There is no information on its current population status, and it is known only from two specimens.
59531		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59532		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59532		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Middle Magdalena Valley in Colombia, in the departments of Tolima, Cauca, Cundinamarca, and Boyacá, at 300-1,300m asl.
59532		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, living in forested areas and in open areas inside the forest.
59532		population	eng	There is little information available regarding its population status, as it is a very difficult species to collect.
59532		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture and intensive livestock farming is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59533		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Altos de Campana, Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. Further research is needed into the declines of this species at Fortuna, Panama.
59533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western cordilleras and Atlantic lowlands of Panama, where its altitudinal range is 550-1,180m asl.
59533		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, also occurring within the moist leaf-litter of humid tropical forest.
59533		population	eng	At Fortuna, Panama, this may be one of the most abundant but unrecognised or unsurveyed species; with 10 to 15 animals seen dead on road in a mornings drive (Karen Lips pers. comm., 2007). Further studies are needed to confirm whether there has been a recent decline in this speices at Fortuna and Cope (Karen Lips pers. comm., 2007).
59533		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
59534		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59534		distribution	eng	This species is known so far only from the type locality, Limoeiro do Norte, at 250m asl in the state of Ceará in north-eastern Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely within the river systems of the Caatinga vegetation system.
59534		habitat	eng	The only records of this species are from shallow water where there is a muddy bottom and much aquatic vegetation, in temporary pools, lagoons and rivers, in dry Caatinga savannah areas. It might well be that this is a semi-aquatic species. It is presumed to be viviparous.
59534		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59534		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59535		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59535		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Brazil" (Taylor 1968).
59535		habitat	eng	There is no information available in the literature about its biology or ecology, although it might be similar to <em>Chthonerpeton indistinctum</em>, and be viviparous, with breeding taking place in water.
59535		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the holotype.
59535		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59536		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59536		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a non-specific type locality in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil.
59536		habitat	eng	This species is presumably subterranean, and possibly occurs in lowland moist forest. It might be similar in ecology to <em>Chthonerpeton indistinctum</em>, and be viviparous, with breeding taking place in water.
59536		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; only one specimen is known.
59536		threats	eng	No information is available.
59537		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in Itapuá State Park.
59537		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Uruguay (Canelones, Colonia, Durazno, Maldonado, Montevideo, Rocha and San Jose Departments), Paraguay (Itapua Department), east-central Argentina (principally along the Parana River system), and southern Brazil (Santa Catarina State). It occurs from 20-1,000m asl. It is suspected to be more widespread within its general mapped range.
59537		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species of lentic habitats that also lives terrestrially, probably undergoing annual migrations between these habitats. It is often found at the interface of soil water, and can also be found in pastures far from water. Animals get washed down the Rio de la Plata and other rivers in floating mats of vegetation, and are frequently washed out to sea. Some of these animals have been found in pools around the estuary of the Rio de la Plata, where they probably do not breed. In terms of breeding habits, it is a viviparous species giving birth to three to eleven young at a time.
59537		population	eng	It is a common species, and very large populations have been found. It might experience strong population fluctuations. It is thought to have declined or perhaps even become locally extinct in Arroyo Carrasco in Uruguay.
59537		threats	eng	One of the threats is probably water pollution from agricultural and industrial sources, but this is probably a local threat. Drainage, hydroelectric development and urbanization are also local threats, but some forms of drainage might be beneficial. Overall, this is probably not a significantly threatened species.
59538		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59538		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known only from the type locality, Sitio, at sea level in the municipality of Conde, in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.
59538		habitat	eng	It is known only from a large marsh, fed by the Itapicuru River, almost 10km from the river mouth. The marsh includes a permanent swamp and seasonally flooded pastureland. This species is possibly like other members of the genus, being subterranean and aquatic, and it is assumed to be viviparous with breeding taking place in water.
59538		population	eng	It was common when it was discovered in 1989.
59538		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59539		conservation	eng	The type locality is in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.
59539		distribution	eng	This species is known only from El Reventador, on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, above 1,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely.
59539		habitat	eng	It is possibly like other members of the genus, in which case it is a subterranean and aquatic species, which would also presumably be viviparous with breeding taking place in water.
59539		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens.
59539		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59540		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59540		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the imprecise type locality of Rio Pandeiros, in north-west Minas Gerais State, Brazil.
59540		habitat	eng	The locality where the specimens were collected is unknown, and no information about the species' habitat is available. It is presumed to be an aquatic species, and to be viviparous.
59540		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and only three specimens are known.
59540		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
59541		conservation	eng	It is not confirmed as occurring in any protected areas, although it might occur in some. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59541		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the vicinity of Joinville in eastern Santa Catarina State, Brazil, from approximately 0-400m asl. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known.
59541		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species in lentic habitats that is known to be viviparous.
59541		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status, and there have been few recent specimens collected.
59541		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to it, although water pollution from agricultural and industrial sources is possibly a threat.
59542		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo and Parque Nacional Tapantí in Costa Rica, and it is in need of taxonomic review (Mark Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59542		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the premontane Atlantic slopes of Costa Rica at altitudes of 1,000-1,300m asl. It is known from the Tilarán, Central and Talamanca Cordilleras.
59542		habitat	eng	It is subterranean, and is usually found under logs and surface debris in premontane rainforest. This is a viviparous species.
59542		population	eng	There are no data on its population status. Due to its subterranean habits, this species is rarely seen.
59542		threats	eng	The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.
59543		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad (Panama), Parque Nacional Darién (Panama), and the Estación Biológica Las Cruces (Costa Rica). It is in need of taxonomic review (Mark Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59543		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. In Costa Rica, it is known from the southern Pacific versant. In Panama, this species is found in the western part of the Cordillera Central, adjacent to Costa Rica, and in the eastern cordilleras in the south-east in Darién Province, adjacent to Colombia. It has also been recorded from two localities in Antioquia Department in north-western Colombia. It occurs in both lowland and montane areas.
59543		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid montane and lowland forest, where it is mainly subterranean, but is sometimes also found under logs and in leaf-litter. It is presumed to be a terrestrial viviparous species, like other species of <em>Dermophis</em>.
59543		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. Only a few specimens are known. A specimen of this species was collected in 2005 at Uvita (at 10m) close to the Pacific coast in Costa Rica (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.)
59543		threats	eng	The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.
59544		conservation	eng	It has been found at the Estación Biológica Las Cruces (Costa Rica) and in Parque Internacional La Amistad (Panama).
59544		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific versant of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Panama and Costa Rica at altitudes of 404-2,000m asl, and has also been recorded from the central Pacific area of Costa Rica (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).
59544		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species that inhabits humid lowland, premontane and montane forest. It is presumed to be viviparous, like other species of <em>Dermophis</em>.
59544		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from three specimens.
59544		threats	eng	The extent to which deforestation is a threat to this species is unknown, although some general habitat loss is known to be occurring in parts of its range.
59545		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).
59545		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Atlantic slope of southeastern Mexico and disjunctive in eastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras. It also occurs patchily on the Pacific slope from Oaxaca, Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras to central Nicaragua. It ranges from near sea level to 1200m asl.
59545		habitat	eng	This species lives in humid to dry soils beneath leaf-litter, logs, banana or coffee leaves and hulls or similar ground cover. In El Salvador it is present in dry forest and savanna between sea level and 900m asl (Köhler et al., 2006). It is adaptable to secondary habitats. It is a viviparous species.
59545		population	eng	This species was once common in parts of its range, it is now much diminished in areas of previous abundance (such as near San Marcos, Guatemala) (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). It is possible that this species may have declined considereably more than 30% over the past ten years or three generation, this is likley to be a conservative estimate (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). There have been no new records for in Veracruz and Tabasco since around the 1950s, although there has been limited collecting in these areas (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007).
59545		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species but threatened by habitat loss, and changes in agricultural methods (such as the transformation of shaded coffee plantations to open plantations). It is confused with snakes in some areas, and so it persecuted locally. It sometimes appears in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59546		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr). Research is needed into the population, range and ecological requirements of this little-known species.
59546		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the southern coast of Mexico from Michoacán and Jalisco to Chiapas. There is a new state record from the municipality of Ixtlahuacan in Colima (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007).
59546		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species found in semi-deciduous tropical forest. It is presumed to be a viviparous species, like other species of <em>Dermophis</em>.
59546		population	eng	Its population status is not known. It has only been collected a few times. The recent record from Colima is the first record in 30 years (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007).
59546		threats	eng	The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.
59547		conservation	eng	Its range includes Parque Nacional Corcovado and other national parks. It is in need of taxonomic review (Mark Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59547		distribution	eng	This species is found from the lowlands and premontane slopes of south-western Costa Rica extending to the western portion of the Meseta Central (the central valley), at altitudes of 365-970m asl.
59547		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, found under logs and in leaf-litter in lowland and submontane rainforest. This is a viviparous species that is not dependent on water.
59547		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59547		threats	eng	The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.
59548		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas of Panama and Costa Rica.
59548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to both the Atlantic slopes and lowlands of Costa Rica and Panama, and also occurs in parts of central Panama. It is present on Isla Popa, in the Bocas del Toro, Panama. It has an altitudinal range of 40-1,200m asl.
59548		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species that inhabits humid montane and lowland forest, and it can sometimes be found under logs or in leaf-litter. It is present in saturated, but not flooded areas (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). Its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown. It is presumed to be a viviparous species that is not dependent on water.
59548		population	eng	The population status of this species is poorly known. It has been found at reasonably high densities in some localities; six individuals were found when digging a small pond within sedge peat (Eric Berlin pers. comm. 2007).
59548		threats	eng	The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.
59549		conservation	eng	It was recently reported from Cariappa Biodiversity Park (Malathesh <em>et al.</em> 2002), though this requires confirmation. Further specimens attributed to this species have been recorded from Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka. It is in need of taxonomic review (M. Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59549		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Periya Peak, at 800 m asl in Wynad District, Kerala State, India. More recently, the species has been reported from estate plantations at about 1,525 m asl near Mercera town, Karnataka State, India (Venu and Venkatachalaiah 2006). Records from southern Kerala are erroneous, and refer to <em>Gegeneophis ramaswamii</em>.
59549		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species that lives in humid evergreen forest, within which it may be found under rocks in porous, moist soil, and is also found in areas of low and moderate intensity agriculture. It has been found in mixed plantations of arecanut, coffee, pepper, banana and cardamom (Venu and Venkatachalaiah 2006). It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.
59549		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59549		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It has been suggested that it is threatened by a decrease in habitat availability and quality through conversion of land to agricultural use, harvesting of timber and wood for subsistence use, mining, and collection of non-woody forest materials. However, in view of its adaptability to secondary habitats, it is not clear that these threats are significant.
59550		conservation	eng	Further work is required to further establish the characterisation of both this species and <em>Gegeneophis nadkarni</em> (Gower pers. comm.).
59550		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is near Amboli, in Sinhurug District in the Western Ghats of southern Maharashtra, India, at approximately 850m asl.
59550		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found under a rock in an open patch of grassland within semi-evergreen forest, suggesting that it might be at least somewhat adaptable to habitat modification. This is presumably a subterranean species, which is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly.
59550		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the holotype, collected in June 2002.
59550		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59551		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59551		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (Kuttal) in north-east India, six miles south-west of Silchar in Cachar, Assam. It was collected at an altitude of approximately 100m asl.
59551		habitat	eng	This is presumably a subterranean species in evergreen or semi-evergreen tropical forest. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.
59551		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the holotype, which was collected in or before 1904.
59551		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that the development of infrastructure, particularly urbanization, is threatening its type locality.
59552		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59552		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Krishna Farms, Gurpur, near Mangalore, in Karnataka State, India. It is known only from altitudes below 100m asl.
59552		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in loose, humus-rich soil, that is known only from anthropogenic habitats, and its original habitat is unknown. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.
59552		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59552		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known at present.
59553		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from protected forests of Ponmudi and Tenmalai, and it probably occurs in some other protected areas.
59553		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of locations in the southern portion of the Western Ghats in India: in the Thiruvanathapuram and Kollam Districts of Kerala, and the Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu. It probably occurs more widely than has been mapped. This species has been recorded at elevations from sea level up to 900m asl.
59553		habitat	eng	It is a largely subterranean species found in soil. Specimens have been recorded in wet evergreen forest, plantations (including rubber, tea and coconut), in low intensity agricultural land, at forest fringes and along streams and rivers. It is an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and it does not have a larval stage.
59553		population	eng	This species is highly abundant at some localities (Oommen <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
59553		threats	eng	The species is adaptable to cultivated areas, does not seem to be dependent on forested areas and appears not to have any known major threats (Oommen et al, 2000).
59554		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59554		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Dorle Village in Ratnagiri District, in the state of Maharashtra in the Western Ghats of India.
59554		habitat	eng	This is presumably a subterranean species. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.
59554		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the holotype, collected in 1967.
59554		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59555		conservation	eng	No information is available; it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59555		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities: Labe (the type locality) and Beyla, Guinea, and the Tingi Hills, Sierra Leone. There has been very little herpetological work carried out within its range, and it is probably more widespread. The exact location of Labe, the type locality, is uncertain, since more than one place in Guinea has this name. The northernmost locality on attempts to map its range in this assessment marks the most likely location of the type locality.
59555		habitat	eng	It presumably lives underground, probably in forest. On the assumption that its breeding habits are similar to <em>Geotrypetes seraphini</em>, it is viviparous, and is not dependent on water for breeding.
59555		population	eng	No information is available on its population status.
59555		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
59556		conservation	eng	No information is available; it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59556		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two localities: Sanokwelle near Ganta in Liberia, and Beyla in Guinea. There has been very little herpetological work carried out within its range, and it is probably more widespread.
59556		habitat	eng	It presumably lives underground, probably in forest. On the assumption that its breeding habits are similar to <em>Geotrypetes seraphini</em>, it is viviparous, and is not dependent on water for breeding.
59556		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59556		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
59557		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from Taï National Park and Haute Dodo Classified Forest in Côte d?Ivoire, Korup National Park in Cameroon, and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.
59557		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, Gabon and western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also known from Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Congo and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but it is likely to occur in these countries. The eastern limit of its distribution is unknown, and it could extend further east.
59557		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forest, living mainly underground. It also lives in heavily degraded habitats, including in villages, and close to rice fields. It is viviparous, giving birth to young on land, and is not dependent upon water for breeding.
59557		population	eng	It is likely to be common in at least some parts of its range. It was recorded as rare at Mount Nlonako.
59557		threats	eng	It is clearly adaptable to habitat modification, and so is unlikely to be very seriously threatened. It occasionally appears in the international pet trade, but this is unlikely to constitute a threat.
59558		conservation	eng	It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park and the Praslin National Park.
59558		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in seven granitic islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Frégate, Félicité, and Ste. Anne. It occurs from sea level up to at least 400m asl.
59558		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest, coconut plantations, and other anthropogenically disturbed sites. It burrows in wet soil, litter, and trash heaps. It breeds by larval development in streams and pools.
59558		population	eng	It is locally common, even in anthropogenically disturbed sites.
59558		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
59559		conservation	eng	It occurs in one protected area on Mahé and at the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.
59559		distribution	eng	This species from the Seychelles occurs in a few scattered localities on Mahé Island, where it seems to be restricted to higher elevations (above 400m asl), and on Silhouette Island (where it is widespread above 100m asl).
59559		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest, where it burrows in moist soil and leaf-litter. It is not encountered in highly disturbed sites, so appears not to be very adaptable to habitat change. It probably breeds by larval development in streams and pools, but this has not been confirmed.
59559		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon, and is only rarely collected.
59559		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species.
59560		conservation	eng	It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.
59560		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, occurring on six islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Félitité, Sainte Anne, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue. It occurs from sea level (in disturbed sites) well up into the rainforest.
59560		habitat	eng	It lives in disturbed sites on the coastal plateaux and more pristine rainforest in the hills. It burrows in soil, leaf-litter, and trash piles. It breeds by larval development in streams and pools.
59560		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
59560		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
59561		conservation	eng	It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.
59561		distribution	eng	This species occurs on three islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette.
59561		habitat	eng	It lives in coastal plateaux (disturbed sites with plantations and buildings), in degraded forest at higher elevations (along streams), and in relatively undisturbed forest. It burrows in wet soil, litter, and trash piles. It probably breeds by larval development in streams and pools, but this is not confirmed.
59561		population	eng	It is common in both anthropogenically modified and undisturbed areas.
59561		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
59562		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Sierra el Caral in Guatemala. There is a particular need to conserve remaining areas of lowland tropical forest for this species. There is a need for further research into the population dynamics of this species.
59562		distribution	eng	This species from Central America is found in the western cordilleras and western Atlantic lowlands from eastern Guatemala to northwestern Panama, and on the Pacific versant on premontane slopes and in the lowlands in northwestern Costa Rica and on the lowlands of southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent Panama. In Panama it has been recorded from Isla Cristóbal, Isla Escudo de Veraguas and Isla Colon (Marvalee Wake pers. comm.) in the Bocas del Toro. In Costa Rica it has been recorded from Isla del Caño. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,400m asl.
59562		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species of humid lowland and montane forest, lowland dry forest, gallery forest, meadows, pastures, saturated sedge peat, and secondary habitats. It is a viviparous species, and development of young takes place in the female oviduct.
59562		population	eng	This is a low density, fairly common species.
59562		threats	eng	Although the species can be found in modified areas, it persists at considerably reduced densities than in primary and secondary tropical forest. Suitable forest within the species range is being extensively converted to agricultural use including banana and coffee plantations.
59563		conservation	eng	This species' range might includes the Sierra Santa Cruz and may include the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. Its range also includes reserves of the Mayan Mountains in Belize.
59563		distribution	eng	This species is found at low and moderate altitudes (from 440-1,000m asl) in central Guatemala, and in the Mayan Mountains of southern Belize. It might occur more widely.
59563		habitat	eng	It lives below ground in tropical wet forest, and may also occur in secondary forest, although very little is known about the persistance of this species in disturbed habitats. It is a viviparous species that does not require water for breeding.
59563		population	eng	It is rarely seen due to its subterranean habits, although many were seen at a site in Chichipate in the Sierra de Santa Cruz, Guatemala, where a bulldozer was working; these specimens are deposited at the University of Texas (Manuel Acevedo pers. comm., 2007). This species' overall population status is not known.
59563		threats	eng	There is little information on specific threats to it. A hydroelectric project might inundate substantial habitat in the upper reaches of the Raspacula Macal River complex in Belize.
59564		conservation	eng	No information is available; it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59564		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is traditionally given as Limbe and Ndikinimeki, Cameroon, but this has been shown to be erroneous (LeBreton 1999). It is known only from its type locality, Mundame am Mungo, north-east of Mount Cameroon in south-western Cameroon.
59564		habitat	eng	It presumably lives in the soil in lowland rainforest, but no specific details are known regarding its habitat and ecological preferences.
59564		population	eng	There is no information on this species' population status. It is known only from the type specimen, which has been lost, and it has not been recorded since 1912 or before.
59564		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
59565		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon.
59565		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria, Cameroon, southwestern Central African Republic, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, western Democratic Republic of Congo, and Bioko Island (in Equatorial Guinea). It has not been recorded from the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but presumably occurs there. The eastern limit of its distribution is unknown, and it could occur further east.
59565		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forest, presumably generally living underground. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It seems to be associated with sandy soils adjacent to watercourses. Its breeding is unknown.
59565		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. It was recorded as rare at Mount Nlonako.
59565		threats	eng	No information is available, especially on its adaptability to habitat change. It occurs in small numbers in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59566		conservation	eng	It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, Curieuse National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.
59566		distribution	eng	This species occurs on ten islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Félicité, Frégate, Sainte Anne, Cerf, Curieuse, and Grand Soeur islands. It ranges from sea level to the highest mountains.
59566		habitat	eng	It lives in all habitats, including disturbed coastal plateaux (anthropogenic sites), disturbed rainforest, and relatively undisturbed forest. It burrows in soil, leaf-litter, and trash piles. It breeds by larval development in streams and pools.
59566		population	eng	It is very common at many localities.
59566		threats	eng	It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.
59567		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic work is required to determine whether or not the specimens from the two known localities refer to the same species.
59567		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in south-western Cameroon: Makamunu Assumbo in Mamfe Division, and Ndikinimeki. It presumably occurs between these two localities, and also more widely.
59567		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences. It presumably lives in the soil in lowland rainforest. It is oviparous, probably with direct development of its eggs.
59567		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59567		threats	eng	No information is available; especially since its adaptability to habitat change is unknown.
59568		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, and has been reported from Konya Wild Life Sanctuary and Phansad Wild Life Sanctuary (Maharashtra). It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59568		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the vicinity of the type locality, Khandala, in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, India, and from localities near Mumbai. Records from further south in Maharashtra, and from Okha in southern Gujarat, require confirmation. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,300m asl.
59568		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species in humus-rich soil and leaf-litter. Specimens have been collected under rocks on grassy hillsides and also in cultivated areas, and possibly in associated dry forest. Although its reproductive mode is not known, that of its closest suspected relatives (<em>Gegeneophis</em> spp.) is oviparity with terrestrial eggs that develop directly.
59568		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59568		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown and require further investigation, especially as this species has been recorded from agricultural areas. Potential threats include the conversion of forest to agricultural land, harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes, road construction, agrochemical soil pollution and fires.
59569		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas. A review of its taxonomy is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59569		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Brazil from Sao Paulo State east to Missiones Province in Argentina, and south to Rio Grande do Sul State (Brazil), at altitudes of 0-500m asl.
59569		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species with poorly known habitat preferences, though it probably occurs in forest. It has been found in urban gardens, suggesting that it is adaptable to some degree of habitat modification.
59569		population	eng	Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in Brazil in 2001, and it is known in Argentina only from one collection in 1947.
59569		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59570		conservation	eng	In Colombia the species is not known from any protected areas. In Ecuador the species has been recorded from Jatun Sachure Nature Reserve.
59570		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (in Napo Province) and Colombia (Departments of Caquetá and Meta). It occurs between 300 and 800m asl.
59570		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found underground in primary forest. At Lago Agrio, in Ecuador, most specimens were obtained by following bulldozers clearing primary forest (Duellman, 1978). It has also been recorded from degraded forest but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown.
59570		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59570		threats	eng	The threats are unknown, since it is not known whether or not it can adapt to degraded habitats. Agriculture and livestock are most likely localized threats to the habitat of this species, but it occurs in a region of relatively low human impact.
59571		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas in Suriname, Guyana and Venezuela. The conspecificity of the specimens from Venezuela and Suriname needs to be evaluated.
59571		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Venezuela (in Bolívar State), east to central Suriname. It is presumed to occur in Guyana, but this has not been confirmed. It has been recorded from 100-400m asl.
59571		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species in tropical moist environments, especially lowland rainforest. It has also been found in secondary habitats.
59571		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species; it is known only from isolated records.
59571		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of low human impact, and since it is also somewhat adaptable it is unlikely to be facing any significant threats. Mining and associated water pollution might be local threats.
59572		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59572		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of São Paulo State, Brazil.
59572		habitat	eng	All that is known about its biology and ecological preferences is that it is a subterranean species.
59572		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status, and it is known only from the type specimen.
59572		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59573		conservation	eng	Its range includes Sipaliwini Nature Reserve.
59573		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Suriname. It has been recorded around 300m asl.
59573		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species that can also be found under logs in primary tropical rainforest. It has also been found in naturally occurring forest islands in the savannah in the southern parts of its range. Its adaptability to secondary habitats, and its breeding habits, are unknown.
59573		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59573		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. It occurs in an area of low human impact, and is somewhat adaptable, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59574		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas in French Guiana.
59574		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from French Guiana, including Ilet le Père and llet La Mère. Records from Suriname and Guyana are misidentified (M. Wilkinson pers. comm.). A dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). This species occurs up to 500m asl.
59574		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary forest. It has also been found in urban areas and rural gardens. Its breeding is unknown.
59574		population	eng	This caecilian can be quite easy to find suggesting that it is a common species in French Guiana.
59574		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, since it is adaptable to habitat change.
59575		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59575		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, collected in 1878 from "Brasilia". This locality almost certainly does not refer to the modern city of Brasilia (which did not exist in 1878), but rather more generally to Brazil. The range of this species is therefore unknown, though it is assumed to occur in eastern Brazil.
59575		habitat	eng	Its life history and habitat preferences might be similar to those of <em>Siphonops annulatus</em>, and so it might be oviparous with direct development.
59575		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen.
59575		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59576		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59576		distribution	eng	There are only confirmed records of this species from Teresópolis, in Rio de Janeiro State in southern Brazil, at around 800m asl. It can be expected to occur more widely.
59576		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species that has been found under bark, logs and stones in moist forest. It is likely to be oviparous, with eggs that develop directly.
59576		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, but it is a very difficult species to find.
59576		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59577		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Neblina National Park, Venezuela.
59577		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the general vicinity of Cerro Yapacana at around 100m asl in Amazonas state, southern Venezuela. The type specimen comes from the non-specific location of "Upper Amazon". It presumably occurs in adjacent Colombia and Brazil, and is likely to occur much more widely.
59577		habitat	eng	It is a large, semi-aquatic species of tropical lowland rainforests. It lives at edge of rivers, where it burrows. It is a viviparous species, probably in water. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, but there is very little human impact within its range.
59577		population	eng	It is very common in certain localities within its Venezuelan distribution.
59577		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be significantly threatened, but mining activities in the Yapacana area might affect population there.
59578		conservation	eng	In Ecuador this species has been recorded from Yasuni National Park, and it possibly also occurs in Limoncocha Reserva Biológica.
59578		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Amazon basin and on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes at 100-800m asl. It has been recorded from Ecuador (Napo and Pastaza States) and eastern Peru (Departaments of Amazonas and Madre de Dios). It possibly occurs in the Putumayo and Amazonas Departments of Colombia (Lynch, 1999; Acosta-Galvis, 2000) and it is suspected to occur in Bolivia (De la Riva <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
59578		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species of primary tropical rainforest. At Lago Agrio, Ecuador, specimens were obtained during clearing of primary forest by bulldozers (Duellman, 1978). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to modified habitats. Its breeding habits are unknown.
59578		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59578		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. It occurs in an area of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59579		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
59579		distribution	eng	This species is known only with certainty from the type locality within the area of Yaviza (a town that has grown significantly since the initial collection), in Darién Province, Panama. It presumably occurs more widely. The known locality is at approximately 50m asl.
59579		habitat	eng	This is presumably a subterranean species, also sometimes occurring within the moist leaf-litter of humid tropical lowland forest.
59579		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens.
59579		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59580		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
59580		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of Pichincha Province, in north-western Ecuador, where it was found below 800m asl.
59580		habitat	eng	This is probably a subterranean species in moist rainforest.
59580		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59580		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59581		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59581		distribution	eng	This species is known for certain only from the type locality, Joinville, in Santa Catarina Province in southern Brazil, at approximately 300m asl. Taylor (1968) had some doubt as to whether or not the type specimen had actually come from the stated type locality. A second specimen, also from an unknown locality, was reported by Taylor (1970).
59581		habitat	eng	This species is presumably subterranean, given the ecological preferences of other members of the genus, and occurs in lowland rainforest.
59581		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens collected before 1968, so its overall population status is not known.
59581		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to it, although the rainforest where it was collected has been converted to an industrial zone.
59582		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59582		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Quistococha, an oxbow of the Río Itaya, 15km south-west of Iquitos, in Loreto Department, Amazonian Peru, at an altitude of approximately 200m asl. It presumably occurs much more widely.
59582		habitat	eng	This species is presumably subterranean, given the ecological preferences of other members of the genus, and occurs in lowland rainforest.
59582		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59582		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to it, although it is known that the rainforest where it was collected has been cleared to make way for a tourist lodge.
59583		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. In Panama the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Parque Nacional Altos de Campana and Parque Nacional Soberania, and also from Barro Colorado Island.
59583		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Panama and northwestern Colombia. In Panama it has been recorded from central Pacific lowlands, Isla Saboga in the Archipelago de las Perlas, and cordilleras in the southeast of Darien Province. In Colombia it is known from only one specimen from Turbo in Antioquia Department. It is thought to be mainly a lowland species.
59583		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, also sometimes occurring in moist leaf-litter in humid tropical montane and lowland forest. It appears to be tolerant of some anthropogenic habitats, and has been encountered on a number of occasions in urban areas (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). It has beenn collected as deep as 10m down during building construction (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). Its breeding habits are unknown.
59583		population	eng	In Panama, it is a widely distributed species existing at low densities (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). It has not been recorded from Colombia since the 1940s.
59583		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, since its susceptibility to habitat alteration is not known.
59584		conservation	eng	It is found in Parque Nacional Corcovado.
59584		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Península de Osa in south-western Costa Rica, at an altitude of sea level-240m asl (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.).
59584		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species that occurs in lowland rainforest (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). An animal has been observed in forest vegetation at the edge of a beach; the animal was washed onto the beach by a wave (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).
59584		population	eng	It was formerly known from only a few specimens, however more have been collected recently (as of 2006) (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).
59584		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this species which is currently known only from within a well-protected area.
59585		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios.
59585		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of north-western Colombia in the departments of Antioquia and Choco, between 0 and 50m asl.
59585		habitat	eng	This species is subterranean, living in lowland tropical forest.
59585		population	eng	There is little information regarding its population status, but there are recent records of it.
59585		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59586		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59586		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "a small creek tributary to Río Mazaruni" (Taylor 1968) in Guyana, but the precise locality is not known. Another specimen without precise locality data also exists from Cayenne City, French Guiana (Lescure and Marty 2001). Due to these uncertainties a map of this species' distribution has not been drawn for this assessment.
59586		habitat	eng	This is presumably a subterranean species, living in lowland tropical forest.
59586		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59586		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59587		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within its known distribution.
59587		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central part of the Magdalena River Valley, between Honda (Tolima), Girardot (Cundinamarca), Santander, and northeast Antioquia at 225-400m asl.
59587		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species found in humid soils, especially in disturbed forests. It is even found in areas heavily impacted by agriculture. Its breeding habits are unknown.
59587		population	eng	It appears to be a common species and quite easy to find, even in disturbed habitats.
59587		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species.
59588		conservation	eng	Its range probably overlaps a few protected areas.
59588		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Colombia and is known from the high part of the Cauca River Valley, in the Department of Quindio, from the eastern part of the Department of Antioquia (Río Claro), and also from the Department of Santander (El Centro). It occurs at 200-2,000m asl.
59588		habitat	eng	The subterranean species is known from open areas and pastures. It also occurs in forest. It seems to be adaptable to disturbed areas such as pastureland. Its breeding habits are unknown.
59588		population	eng	There is very little information.
59588		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
59589		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
59589		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon and Orinoco drainage systems of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil, below 500m asl. The southern limit of the distribution is poorly known, and it probably ranges further south than is mapped here.
59589		habitat	eng	It is a predominately, if not completely, aquatic species that lives in rivers, streams, large and small lakes, and flooded plains. It is viviparous in water.
59589		population	eng	It is poorly known but it is occasionally seen in good numbers.
59589		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
59590		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.
59590		distribution	eng	This species from the granitic Seychelles occurs on Mahé and Silhouette Islands. An old record for Praslin might be erroneous, and is not mapped. On Mahé and Silhouette, it has been found only above 280m asl and usually higher in areas that are relatively undisturbed. It is known from only ten localities (excluding Praslin). The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 20km².
59590		habitat	eng	It lives in relatively undisturbed, usually forested, sites. It burrows in damp soil and leaf-litter. It is not recorded from near urban areas or houses. It probably breeds by larval development in streams and pools, but this is not confirmed.
59590		population	eng	It is not a common species and it is rarely found.
59590		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species.
59591		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59591		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal Kenya and Tanzania. In Kenya it is known only from the Tana River area. In Tanzania it is known from Bagamoyo, south of the Rufiji River. It is not known whether or not it occurs between the Tana River and Bagamoyo, but attempts to locate it in this area have not been successful.
59591		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from open areas and deciduous and strongly seasonal scrub and woodland. It was found in black mud in an open area near the Ruvu River at Bagamoyo, and is perhaps dependent on estuarine muddy areas, but it is clearly not a forest-dependent species. It is probably a viviparous species, not dependent on water for breeding. It has also been reported as abundant in agricultural habitats with suitable crops that provide shade and maintain the top soil.
59591		population	eng	There is little information, but it was found to be very common in Bagamoyo in 2002. It has not been collected in Kenya since 1934. It has been reported as abundant in agricultural cropland.
59591		threats	eng	Large-scale mechanical rice farming is a possible future threat.
59592		conservation	eng	It occurs in Obo National Park.
59592		distribution	eng	This species is known only from São Tomé and Rolas Island, in São Tomé and Príncipe. It occurs from sea level to at least 1,300m asl. It appears to be absent from the drier northern part of the island. There is an unconfirmed report of this species from "Upper Zire", which is likely to refer to another species.
59592		habitat	eng	It lives in soil in all habitats on São Tomé (except dry areas in the north), including coconut plantations, forests, trash piles, sugar cane, degraded areas, rocky areas, and totally denuded land coastal. It is a viviparous species, and is not dependent on water for breeding.
59592		population	eng	Recent information suggests that it is an abundant species.
59592		threats	eng	It appears not to be a threatened species. It has appeared in the pet trade in the 1990s, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59593		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
59593		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed through tropical South America east of the Andes from northern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela (Barinas and Portuguesa states) and the Guianas, south through most of Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina. In Argentina, this species is found in the southern part of Misiones. In Bolivia, it is found in Beni, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz. It is generally found below 800m asl.
59593		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species and can be found in humid soils in forested and open environments (including dry Caatinga savannah). It also occurs in rural gardens, plantations and other anthropogenic habitats. Reproduction is probably on the ground with parental care. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and not dependent on water for breeding.
59593		population	eng	It appears to be common in some parts of its range.
59593		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species.
59594		conservation	eng	The range of the species in Espírito Santo State overlaps with the Parque Nacional da Jijuca and Parque Estadual da Pedra Branca. In Rio de Janeiro State it overlaps with the Reserva Biólogica Augusto Ruschi, Estacão Biólogica Santa Lucia and Parque Nacional Serra de Orgãos-Teresópolis.
59594		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas in southeastern Brazil, from the vicinity of the city of Rio de Janeiro and Teresópolis in Rio de Janeiro State, and from the general vicinity of Santa Teresa (in Espírito Santo State) in southeastern Brazil. It is presumably more widespread, at least in the intervening regions. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 800m asl, perhaps higher.
59594		habitat	eng	This species is found in soil, or under the forest leaf-litter or under stones in primary forest, and also in plantations and rural gardens. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and not dependent on water for breeding.
59594		population	eng	This species is frequently encountered and is relatively easy to find.
59594		threats	eng	Infrastructure development might be a localized threat, but it is adaptable is not generally at risk.
59595		conservation	eng	This species' range includes a few protected areas. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59595		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in São Paulo State, Brazil: Victoria, São Sebastião Island, and Ubatuba Municipality. The extent of its occurrence on the mainland is not clear.
59595		habitat	eng	It is presumably a subterranean species, living in soil in forest. It is also assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.
59595		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59595		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59596		conservation	eng	A taxonomic review is needed for this species (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59596		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a non-specific type locality in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil. It has been suggested that the type locality is at the city of Salvador, but this is not certain.
59596		habitat	eng	It is likely to be subterranean, possibly in lowland moist forest. It is also assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.
59596		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens.
59596		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59597		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
59597		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern, central, western and southern Brazil, northern Argentina (only in southern Misiones and northeastern Corrientes), northeastern Paraguay and southeastern Bolivia. It might be present in southern Tarija, Bolivia and adjacent Salta, Argentina and this requires further investigation. It is found at elevations of 0-450m asl.
59597		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species living in forest, savannahs, shrublands and grassland. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance, and has even been found in urban gardens. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and not dependent on water for breeding.
59597		population	eng	It is known to be common in parts of Brazil, but there are few records from Paraguay and Argentina (where it has not been collected since 1993).
59597		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable species.
59598		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas.
59598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the forests of south-western Ethiopia, where it is known from four sites in the provinces of Willega, Kaffa, and Illubabor, spanning an altitudinal range of 1,500-2,150m asl.
59598		habitat	eng	It is known only from tropical deciduous forest. The adults live beneath leaf-litter and humus on the forest floor, breeding in small springs and streamlets where the larvae can burrow in soft, water-saturated mud.
59598		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59598		threats	eng	There is ongoing degradation and destruction of its forest habitat as a result of human settlement, agricultural encroachment and commercial exploitation. However, it is not known whether or not this constitutes a threat.
59599		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
59599		distribution	eng	This species is known from Amazon basin of Colombia, Venezuela and Peru, east to the eastern coast of Brazil, and also in the rivers of the Guyana Shield region of Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana. It ranges from 0-200m asl. It is presumed to occur in Suriname, but there are no records.
59599		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, inhabiting permanent rivers and marshes, mainly in the lowland forest zone. It is a viviparous species, giving birth in water.
59599		population	eng	It is a common species.
59599		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
59600		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59600		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near Manaus, in the state of Amazonas, Brazil.
59600		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species, probably occurring in rivers and lakes, like <em>Typhlonectes compressicauda</em>. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is presumably viviparous in water.
59600		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status, and it is known only from the type specimen.
59600		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59601		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
59601		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the drainage systems of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers in western and northern Colombia to the general vicinity of Lake Maracaibo Basin in Venezuela. It occurs up to 1,000m asl. Suggestions of its occurrence in the Orinoco River, and from Trinidad require confirmation, and are not included here.
59601		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic species, living in rivers, marshes and lakes, usually in open areas, and is only rarely found on land. It is thrives in polluted water, and is resilient to major degradation of water quality. It is oviviparous, giving birth to young in water.
59601		population	eng	It is a very common species.
59601		threats	eng	It is extremely resilient to habitat and degradation and pollution, both of which are extensive within its range. It is popular in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59602		conservation	eng	Matang Hunting Reserve is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
59602		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainly only from Boven, on the Mahakam River, and from Matang Hunting Reserve, both in Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo. Records from southern Thailand (collected in Laboo mine in Yala Province) and Peninsular Malaysia require verification. Attempts to map this species' distribution for this assessment only show Matang Hunting Reserve, since the type locality is too unspecific to map and the records from Thailand require verification.
59602		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, and the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59602		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59602		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59603		conservation	eng	The specimen from Thailand was collected in the Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59603		distribution	eng	This species is known from two 19th century records and one recent record in the border area of Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, from the following localities: Bukit Larut, near Taiping, Perak State, Malaysia; Maxwell's Hill, Perak State, Malaysia; and in 2001 from Narathiwat, Sukhirin, Thailand (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> in press). Its altitudinal range is from 500-over 1,000m asl.
59603		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland evergreen forest, and the most recently recorded specimen was collected close to a forest stream. Adults of this species are likely to be subterranean. It is assumed to reproduce by ovipary with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59603		population	eng	This species' population status is unknown. The most recent record (from Thailand) concerned the collection of a single specimen.
59603		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are unknown, although the type locality is known to now be a tourist resort.
59604		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59604		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainly only from the non-specific type locality near Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia. Scattered records from Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo (from Boven, on the Mahakam River in Sarawak, and from Brunei) are of uncertain validity due to misidentifications.
59604		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59604		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59604		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59605		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).
59605		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kepahiang, in Bengkulu Province, Sumatra, Indonesia.
59605		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59605		population	eng	It is known only from the type specimen and there are no recent records of it.
59605		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. Illegal logging is taking place at the only known locality, as is gold mining, leading to water pollution. However, the adaptability of this species to disturbed habitats is very unclear, and so the significance of these potential threats is not known.
59606		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in some of the remaining lowland forest protected areas on Palawan, but this has not been confirmed. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59606		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the Malatgang (also known as the Malatgao) River in Iwahig, on Palawan Island in the Philippines. It has thus far been found only in one or two localities on Palawan but it is assumed to be more widespread.
59606		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59606		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
59606		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although the type locality is generally well protected.
59607		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59607		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mae Wang Valley in Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand.
59607		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is known to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59607		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
59607		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the type locality has been deforested (but it is not known if this has had any impact on the species).
59608		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59608		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a non-specific type locality in Borneo: Boven, on the Mahakam River in Sarawak, Malaysia.
59608		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59608		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from the type series.
59608		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59609		conservation	eng	Several protected areas in the region support this species including the Xishuangbanna National Reserve.
59609		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in southern China, with populations recorded from Yunnan, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. A number of new populations have been found in recent years, suggesting that the species occurs more widely than has been mapped, especially in intervening areas between known populations. It has been recorded at 100-600m asl.
59609		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, secondary habitats, streams, creeks and the nearby-cultivated fields. The adults are subterranean. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59609		population	eng	It is more common than was once thought, and it has been found to be common in certain localities, for example the Xishuangbanna National Reserve.
59609		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be significantly threatened.
59610		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in several protected areas.
59610		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats in India. The range map shows the distribution of specimens currently identified as Ichthyophis beddomei; further investigation of these specimens is required to determine the range of this species more accurately. In particular, records south of the Palghat Gap (which are not mapped) need to be confirmed. It is present at elevations up to 1,000m asl.
59610		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species, and is naturally associated with leaf-litter, humus and soil substrates of wet evergreen tropical forest. It also occurs in low-intensity agricultural areas, and plantations. It is an oviparous species with an aquatic larval stage in streams and mud.
59610		population	eng	At places within its range it appears to be locally abundant.
59610		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is said to be a potential threat to local populations, but this species appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not significantly threatened. Many additional potential threats have been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, change in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people; all these require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed at present.
59611		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).
59611		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Java, Indonesia, from an unspecified type locality.
59611		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59611		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status, and it is known only from the type specimen.
59611		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59612		conservation	eng	A taxonomic review of this species is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59612		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality on the island of Borneo: Matang, in Sarawak, Malaysia, although it presumably occurs more widely.
59612		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59612		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the holotype.
59612		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59613		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).
59613		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Belitung Island, Indonesia.
59613		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59613		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, and there have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
59613		threats	eng	There has been severe habitat conversion on Belitung Island due to opencast tin mining, although it is not known to what extent this is threatening this species.
59614		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Vansda National Park and Purna Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Gujarat, Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala. Further research is required to determine its population status and to assess the potential impact of the different threat factors observed in its areas of occurrence.
59614		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Western Ghats region in India (Gower<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It has been recorded between 250 and 650 m asl.
59614		habitat	eng	The adults are subterranean and possibly partially aquatic, and are associated with the humus and decaying wood substrate of tropical wet evergreen forests, although they are also known to occur in several different disturbed and agricultural habitats (Vyas 2004; Gower<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007 and references therein), such as teak plantations and garbage pits. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae. A female from Koyana was found in a burrow near a rivulet with wet soil with an egg cluster containing 144 eggs. Once hatched the larvae move to water (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
59614		population	eng	There is little direct information regarding its population status.
59614		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is a localized threat to some subpopulations of this species, but in view of the species' apparent adaptability to modified habitats and its large range it is thought that it does not affect the species as a whole (Vyas 2003, 2004). Many additional potential threats have been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, collection of humus by local people, and adult mortality on roads. All of these require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being significant threats at present.
59615		conservation	eng	A taxonomic review of this species is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59615		distribution	eng	This species from Borneo is known only from Mount Dulit in Sarawak, Malaysia.
59615		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59615		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It has not recently been collected, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.
59615		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59616		conservation	eng	It has been found in Lumbah Anai Natural Reserve. A taxonomic review of this species is required (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59616		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from West Sumatra Province in Indonesia on the mainland of Sumatra. Specimens from Pagai, Siberut, Pini and Tanah Masa, in the Mentawai Islands, might belong to this species (and these records have been mapped in this assessment), but this has not yet been confirmed (Iskandar pers. comm.). Recent records from the mainland are from 500-600m asl.
59616		habitat	eng	Two of the most recently collected specimens were found in lowland forest and a third was found in an open area in a very wet location in a ravine near degraded forest. It therefore seems that this species can tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59616		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known. The most recent records concern three specimens collected in the late 1990s.
59616		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. The main potential threat is habitat conversion for subsistence farming and commercial logging, but given this species' apparent degree of adaptability it is not clear to what extent it is impacted by these pressures.
59617		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59617		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to north-east India in the states of Assam and Meghalaya. It is known with certainty from the Garo Hills in Meghalaya (at Anogiri Lake and Tura), and specimens have also been reported from Assam at around 100m asl.
59617		habitat	eng	This subterranean caecilian lives in the moist leaf-litter substrate of tropical forests, and has been found close to streams and other waterbodies. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59617		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two recently collected specimens and a few other recent reports.
59617		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59618		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the well-protected areas of Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Dellawa Forest Reserve, Knuckles Range Forest Reserve and the Udawattakele Forest Reserve.
59618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and southwestern Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations of 50-1,355m asl. A record from northeastern India has been disputed, and is highly improbable.
59618		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species present in evergreen forests, paddy fields, rubber plantations, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy areas), and cattle pastureland. Adults are often found in humus, dung and rotten vegetation; the eggs are laid on land and the larvae live in flowing water.
59618		population	eng	At places within its range it appears to be locally abundant.
59618		threats	eng	The species might be threatened locally by extreme habitat loss and agro-chemical pollution (both land and water based). However, overall it is a very adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.
59619		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59619		distribution	eng	This species' geographic range is unknown. The type locality is unspecified, but is presumably in tropical Asia.
59619		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59619		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single larva.
59619		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59620		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59620		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Garo Hills in the state of Meghalaya, north-eastern India, where it has been recorded at altitudes of 500-800m asl.
59620		habitat	eng	This subterranean caecilian lives in the moist leaf-litter substrate of tropical forests, and is generally found close to streams and other waterbodies. It has also been recorded in coffee plantations, indicating that it is at least somewhat adaptable to habitat modification. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59620		population	eng	It is known with certainty only from the type specimen, although there have been other reported observations.
59620		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known.
59621		conservation	eng	All known localities are close to protected areas, and so this species might occur in Ranca Danau and Dieng Plateau National Reserves, as well as in Mount Gede Pangrango National Park. It is in need of taxonomic review (M. Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59621		distribution	eng	This species is known from three sites on Java, Indonesia. The type locality is Banten in West Java Province, from where there are no recent records. In 2000 the species was rediscovered, this time in a second locality in Pekalongan, in Central Java Province, at 600 m asl. It was recently reported from Bodogol (703-814 m asl), on the outskirts of Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, West Java Province (Kusrini 2007).
59621		habitat	eng	Some recent specimens attributed to this species were from cultivated areas, but another recent record comes from lowland forest edge (Kusrini 2007). It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59621		population	eng	There is very little information regarding this species' current population status. For a long time it was known only from the type specimen, and it was only recently rediscovered.
59621		threats	eng	Although it can survive in transformed habitats it might be at risk from chemical pollutants from agriculture.
59622		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).
59622		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Java, Indonesia, from a non-specific type locality.
59622		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59622		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
59622		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59623		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
59623		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Kohtao Island, Thailand. However, the tradition has become to assign most striped caecilians from mainland Southeast Asia to this name, as mapped. The attributed range of this species is Peninsular and Mainland Thailand, southeastern Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam. However, this requires further examination, and the taxonomy might be faulty. Specimens from Yunnan in China are attributed here to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ichthyophis bannanicus</span>.
59623		habitat	eng	It is known to inhabit evergreen forest and streamside gallery forest, as well as agricultural lands and urban areas. A population of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ichthyophis</span> cf. <span style="font-style: italic;">kohtaoensis</span> from the Mekong valley, northeastern Thailand, was found in various terrestrial macrohabitats including open scrubs, gallery forests and open secondary forests. In the dry season, individuals of this population were found mainly in soil but in the rainy season they were also detected in leaf litter or rotten vegetation (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). This is an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae in forest streams and pools. The clutch size for the population from the Mekong Valley ranges from 32-58 eggs (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is considered to be an adaptable species.
59623		population	eng	There are places within its range where it appears to be locally abundant. In the Mekong Valley, Thailand, individuals have been recorded at low densities (median 0.08 individuals/m²) (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
59623		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
59624		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59624		distribution	eng	This species is known from the non-specific type locality of "Upper Laos [Lao People's Democratic Republic]" (Taylor 1969).
59624		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59624		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen
59624		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59625		conservation	eng	This species is known from Silent Valley National Park (Kerala) and has been reported (but not yet confirmed) as occurring in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu). It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59625		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Silent Valley in Kerala, north of the Palghat Gap, in the Western Ghats of India. Records from elsewhere in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra, between 400 and 1,000m asl, require verification.
59625		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species associated with humus, decaying leaf-litter and moist soil in wet evergreen forest, and possibly also in plantations. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59625		population	eng	Its population status is unknown.
59625		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction is said to be a potential threat to this species, but there are no data on its adaptability to habitat change, and since many other species of <em>Ichthyophis</em> have been shown to be very adaptable, habitat destruction might not be a significant threat to this species. Many additional potential threats have been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, collection of humus by local people, and mortality on roads. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being significant threats at present.
59627		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59627		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities on Borneo: Lawas in north-eastern Sarawak, Malaysia; Kota Samarahan in western Sarawak, Malaysia; and Sinkawang in western Kalimantan, Indonesia.
59627		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59627		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens. There have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.
59627		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59628		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Namunakula Reserve Forest and Horton Plains National Park.
59628		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains of south-central Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations between 460 and 1,800m asl.
59628		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species present in evergreen forests, rubber plantations, tea plantations, paddy fields, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy areas), and cattle pastureland. However, it appears to be less adaptable than <em>Ichthyophis glutinosus</em>. The adults are often found in humus. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59628		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, but it does not appear to be common.
59628		threats	eng	The species might be threatened locally by extreme habitat loss, due to agroindustry and clear cutting, and agro-chemical pollution (land and water-based).
59629		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in Indonesia, but the unconfirmed record from Singapore is from a protected area. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)
59629		distribution	eng	This species has been found in two localities in northern Sumatra, and it has also been found in the southern part of Aceh, also in Sumatra, Indonesia. There are also records from Nias Island, but a record from Singapore needs to be verified.
59629		habitat	eng	The recent records of this species have been from lowland selectively logged rainforest and swamp forest. It is presumably a subterranean species, with terrestrial eggs and larvae that live in streams.
59629		population	eng	There is very little information on the population status of this species. A very small number of specimens have been collected since 2000, and there have been records from Sumatra in 2000 and 2001 (Iskandar pers. comm.).
59629		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59631		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Peak Wilderness Forest Reserve and Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which is a World Heritage Site.
59631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-western Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations of 20-1,525m asl.
59631		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species present in forests, rubber plantation areas, paddy fields, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy and muddy areas), and pastureland. Adults are often found in humus and other rotten vegetation. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae in streams.
59631		population	eng	It appears to be less common that <em>Ichthyophis glutinosus</em>. It is not known from many specimens.
59631		threats	eng	The species might be threatened locally by extreme habitat loss, due to agroindustry, and agro-chemical pollution (land and water based).
59632		conservation	eng	It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59632		distribution	eng	This caecilian occurs in northern India (in the states of Sikkim and West Bengal), and also in extreme eastern Nepal in Dabugaun, in Ilam District. It has been recorded at altitudes of 1,000-1,550m asl. Reports from the Western Ghats in southern India are in need of verification and have not been used in this assessment when mapping its range.
59632		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species believed to inhabit tropical, semi-evergreen forest, and also rural gardens and probably other secondary habitats. It is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59632		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59632		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but given that it seems to be somewhat adaptable to altered habitats, it might not be significantly threatened.
59633		conservation	eng	This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59633		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from a single specimen collected in Singapore. Specimens assigned to this species from Peninsular Malaysia need to be re-evaluated.
59633		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected in a rural garden, and adults of this species are generally likely to be subterranean in forest and various degraded habitats. The eggs are probably laid on land, and the larvae presumably develop in stream habitats.
59633		population	eng	Its populations status is unknown, and it is known with certainty only from a single specimen, though a few <em>Ichthyophis</em> larvae have been found on Singapore that might refer to this species.
59633		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species.
59635		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic studies are needed to determine whether or not or not this is is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.; Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59635		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, with records from western Sumatra (Iskandar pers. comm.), including old records from the following west Sumatran localities: Kepahiang, Bengkulu Province; Padang, West Sumatra Province; and Kaba Wetan (although the exact locality here is not known).
59635		habitat	eng	It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59635		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59635		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is likely to be the illegal logging that is taking place at its only known locality. There is also gold mining taking place, leading to water pollution.
59636		conservation	eng	It was recently reported from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, and it is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59636		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from several areas in southern Peninsular Thailand, where it might occur more widely than is currently known. It is generally found at low altitudes.
59636		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species known only from montane and lowland evergreen forests, where recently recorded specimens were found moving over ground following heavy rain. The larvae inhabit forest streams.
59636		population	eng	There is little information on its population status, but recent surveys found this species easily.
59636		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is urbanization of its known localities.
59637		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the following protected areas: Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala); Idukki Wild Life Sanctuary (Kerala), Indira Gandhi National Park (Tamil Nadu).
59637		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats region of southern India, south of the Palghat Gap, in the States of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It has been recorded from a wide elevational range from near sea level up to 1,200m asl.
59637		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species associated with soil in wet semi-evergreen tropical forest, also occurring agricultural areas and rubber plantations (Oommen <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It is known to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59637		population	eng	At places within its range it appears not to be uncommon.
59637		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats.
59638		conservation	eng	A taxonomic review of this species is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59638		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Doi Suthep Mountain, near Chiang Mai, in northern Thailand, at 1,000-1,200m asl.
59638		habitat	eng	There is no information regarding its habitat and ecological preferences, other than that it occurs in evergreen hill forest. The adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59638		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from the type series.
59638		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown.
59639		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas and Reserva Biológica Tapichalaca. In Peru, it is present in the montane region of Parque Nacional Manu.
59639		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Colombia (department of Valle del Cauca) and Ecuador (provinces of Cotopaxi and El Oro), and the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province) and southern Perú (regions of Junín and Cusco). It has been found at elevations of 1,750-2,000m asl in Colombia.
59639		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in cloud forests, submontane forest and foothill forests. It is associated with streams. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known. It is presumed to lay eggs on land, with the larvae developing in streams.
59639		population	eng	There is very little information, but large collections have been made on a few occasions.
59639		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of the species to adapt to change.
59640		conservation	eng	Neither of the two known localities is in a protected area. However, there are several national parks between the two localities, in which the species might occur.
59640		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the Cordillera Occidental of the Colombian Andes: the municipality of El Tambo in Cauca Department; and Alto del Oso in Choco Department. It has been recorded at 1,000-1,550m asl. It probably occurs in suitable areas in between the known localities.
59640		habitat	eng	This species occurs underground or among fallen leaves within montane forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.
59640		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from one specimen from each locality.
59640		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to changed habitats.
59641		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59641		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "eastern Peru" (Taylor 1968).
59641		habitat	eng	It is presumably associated with forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.
59641		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
59641		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59642		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this species needs to be reviewed. It occurs in the protected area formed by the Mindo-Nambillo Protected Forest.
59642		distribution	eng	This species is known from Santo Domingo de los Colorados (the type locality), and from near to Mindo, in Pichincha Province in north-western Ecuador. It occurs at around 1,500m asl.
59642		habitat	eng	It is known to be associated with montane forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.
59642		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59642		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to habitat change.
59643		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
59643		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Guyana and south-eastern Venezuela at between 100 and 1,700m asl. It probably ranges more widely than is currently known.
59643		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forests, seasonally dry forests, and marshland areas. The females guard the eggs, which are laid terrestrially under cover, such as rocks. The larvae presumably develop in streams. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known.
59643		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It is currently known only from four specimens (Marvalee Wake pers. comm.).
59643		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of very limited human impact, and it is therefore unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59644		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59644		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities on the northern part of the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes in Antioquia Department: Medellin, and Vereda El Jardin in the municipality of Amalfi. It has been recorded from around 1,000m asl.
59644		habitat	eng	It is presumably associated with montane cloud forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development. A larva was collected recently.
59644		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens, one from each locality.
59644		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to habitat change.
59645		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59645		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Marcapata Valley, in Cusco Department in south-eastern Peru. Its altitudinal range is approximately 2,000-2,500m asl.
59645		habitat	eng	This is a montane, subterranean species, for which little further information is available. It is presumed to live in montane forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.
59645		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59645		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to habitat change.
59646		conservation	eng	In Ecuador the species occurs in, or might occur in, the Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe Coca, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It has also been collected in the buffer zone of the Reserva Ecológica Antisana. In Peru it might occur in the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park.
59646		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from several localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, and it has also been found on the Amazonian slopes in Perú in the Departments of Loreto and Puno. It has been collected up to 2,000m asl.
59646		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species of montane cloud forest and tropical moist forest. It has aquatic larvae in streams and presumably has terrestrial eggs. Specimens have been collected in remnants of primary forest, but it is not known whether or not they can adapt to modified habitats.
59646		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59646		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of the species to adapt to change.
59647		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
59647		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana and Brazil. A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 150m asl.
59647		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species in lowland rainforest. It is presumed that courtship, mating and fertilisation take place on land and following brooding by the female, the larvae hatch and drop into streams, like other members of its family. It is not known if this species can occur in degraded habitats.
59647		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59647		threats	eng	It occurs in an area of very limited human impact, and it is therefore unlikely to be significantly threatened.
59648		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59648		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Limbe in south-western Cameroon. It has been suggested that it is a high-altitude species, perhaps occurring on the slopes of Mount Cameroon above Limbe.
59648		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat or ecological preferences of this species, and its breeding biology is also unknown (although it is suspected to be oviparous with direct development).
59648		population	eng	There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from a single specimen collected in 1893.
59648		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to it. There has been extensive forest loss in its only known locality, but it is likely to occur more widely, and, if it is like some other African caecilians, it might be adaptable to habitat change, making it less threatened than it would otherwise be.
59649		conservation	eng	A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving the local villages in community management of the area. This project needs to also take into account the conservation needs of this species.
59649		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Cameroon on Mount Oku, in the Bamenda Highlands, at 2,300m asl.
59649		habitat	eng	It is presumed to live in the soil in montane forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it has been speculated that it is oviparous with direct development.
59649		population	eng	There is no information regarding its population status, and only four specimens are known.
59649		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species. If it is being adversely affected by habitat loss and is endemic to Mount Oku, it could be seriously threatened.
59650		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, though one has been recommended for Tchabal Mbabo.
59650		distribution	eng	This recently discovered species is known only from the northern face of Mount Tchabal Mbabo, at 1,950-2,000m asl, in Adamawa Province in western Cameroon.
59650		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found on steep forested slopes. The only other habitat in the area is heavily grazed pastureland, the suitability of which is unknown for this species.
59650		population	eng	The three known specimens were all collected in about an hour from the same location, and despite a week's work in the area, no others were encountered.
59650		threats	eng	It could be threatened by habitat loss as the remaining forest habitat on Tchabal Mbabo is confined to galleries and steep slopes because of clearing for pasture land. However, most of the habitat that can be removed has now been cleared, although the forest is also threatened by fire.
59651		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park, Tanzania.
59651		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of southern Malawi east of the Shire Valley (with no records yet from Mount Mulanje, although it is likely to occur there), and in Tanzania from the Nguru, Rubeho, Uluguru, Mahenge and Udzungwa Mountains, and the Southern Highland (Ubena). There has been a recent possible record (not mapped) from northern Mozambique, close to known Malawian sites. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, though it is generally montane, but occurs at lower elevations in some places (down to around 500m asl).
59651		habitat	eng	It is a species that lives in the soil in montane, submontane and lowland forest, but which also survives in cultivated areas and villages. There are records from Iringa town in the Udzungwa Mountains. If its breeding is similar to that of other species of Scolecomorphus, it is a viviparous species, not dependent on water.
59651		population	eng	There is no direct information.
59651		threats	eng	It appears not to be a threatened species. It appears in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
59652		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59652		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, though it seems to occur at higher elevations than the other caecilians occurring in the Uluguru Mountains.
59652		habitat	eng	It lives in the soil in montane forest. It probably also survives in cultivated areas. It is a viviparous species that is not dependent upon water for breeding.
59652		population	eng	There is no information, but it has been recently recorded.
59652		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species at the higher elevations of the Ulugurus, where there is very limited human impact.
59653		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains, and in the University of Dar es Salaam Forest Reserve at Mazumbai in the West Usambara Mountains.
59653		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from North and South Pare Mountains, the East and West Usambara Mountains, and the Nguu, Nguru, Ukaguru and Uluguru Mountains in eastern and northeastern Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is from at least 400-1,500m asl.
59653		habitat	eng	It lives in the soil as well as often being found above soil, in montane, submontane and lowland forest, and in cultivated areas. It is a viviparous species that is not dependent upon water.
59653		population	eng	It appears to be common, at least in some localities, but it is uncommon in other places.
59653		threats	eng	It appears not to be a threatened species.
59654		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
59654		distribution	eng	This recently discovered species is known only from a single locality, Chengalam Village, at around 400m asl in the state of Keralasa in southern India.
59654		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species associated with loose soil. The type series was collected in a rubber plantation, although this species' natural habitat is presumably moist evergreen forest. It is probably an oviparous species with an aquatic larval stage in streams.
59654		population	eng	There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the type series.
59654		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, although it is clearly somewhat adaptable to habitat change and so might not be facing any significant threats.
59655		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be reviewed (Gower pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu.
59655		distribution	eng	This is a poorly known species endemic to the Western Ghats in southern India. It is known with certainty only from the vicinity of Ooty in the state of Tamil Nadu. All other records are from the non-specific locality of "Malabar", and so attempts to draw a map of its distribution for this assessment should be considered provisional. It has been recorded between 600 and 1,200m asl.
59655		habitat	eng	This species' habitat and ecological preferences are not well known, but it has been collected in evergreen tropical forest. The adults are presumably subterranean, and it is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59655		population	eng	There is very little information on the population status of this species.
59655		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
59656		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
59656		distribution	eng	This species has been reported throughout much of the Western Ghats of India in the state of Kerala, but in the absence of verified voucher specimens its distribution is uncertain, and attempts to map its range for this assessment should be considered approximate and preliminary. It has been recorded below 500m asl.
59656		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species associated with humus-rich, loose, moist soil. It has been reported from both tropical moist forest and agricultural land, and it is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59656		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59656		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction has been said to be a potential threat to local populations, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not severely threatened. Many additional potential threats have also been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being serious threats at present.
59657		conservation	eng	It has been reported from Kudremukh National Park in the state of Karnataka, but this has not yet been confirmed.
59657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern India, where it is known with certainty only from the Western Ghats in central Kerala State, north of the Palghat Gap. It has been recorded at altitudes of 100-700m asl. Reported specimens of this species from the state of Karnataka are unverified (Wilkinson pers. comm.).
59657		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species associated with humus-rich, loose, moist soil, and it has been reported from moist evergreen forest, agricultural land and rural gardens. It is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59657		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species, but it is not uncommon at some localities.
59657		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction has been said to be a potential threat to local populations, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not severely threatened. Many additional potential threats have also been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being serious threats at present.
59658		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in Wynad Wildife Sanctuary in the state of Kerala.
59658		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of southern India, apparently south of the Palghat Gap. The non-specific type locality is "[the] Malabar coast" (probably in the state of Kerala). Other reports come from the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka, but have not been verified, partly because of great taxonomic confusion. Populations that might be of this species occur from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
59658		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species associated with humus-rich, loose, moist soil, and it has been reported from moist evergreen forest, agricultural land and rural gardens. It is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
59658		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
59658		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction has been said to be a potential threat to local populations, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not severely threatened. Many additional potential threats have also been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being serious threats at present.
59659		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the species' range.
59659		distribution	eng	This species is known to be from the Guianan region, from Venezuela through Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana to north central Brazil, (Rondonia, Amapa, Para, Amazonas, North Matto Grosso and Roraima). It can occur up to 300m asl.
59659		habitat	eng	It is associated with ponds, creeks and rivers, although it prefers forests that are not too dense. It is mostly terrestrial, and has been found in terrestrial bromeliads and on vegetation 1-3m above the ground or water. It is an explosive breeder, and lays its eggs in temporary ponds in the forest. It appears to be restricted to primary forest.
59659		population	eng	It is a common species, but can be difficult to find because of its explosive breeding habits.
59659		threats	eng	There is some localized habitat loss occurring in the species' range, but it is found in an area of relatively low human impacts, and hence its habitat is not currently significantly threatened.
59660		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
59660		distribution	eng	This species is known to be from the forests of southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. It probably occurs more widely in, and is likely to occur in, southwestern central African Republic and northern Congo. It is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). The southern and eastern limits of the distribution are unclear.
59660		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of lowland forest, avoiding marshy areas. It requires tall forest with a closed canopy. Eggs are laid on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development and there is no free-swimming tadpole.
59660		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
59660		threats	eng	It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, wood and human settlement.
59662		conservation	eng	Occurs within a protected area.
59662		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Known from a single locality, Ngome Forest. The species has a patchy distribution in Ngome Forest, with area of occupancy less than 20 km².
59662		habitat	eng	A forest species. Based on studies of other large-bodied African spirostreptids, maturation can take a minimum of two years to reach.
59662		population	eng	Habitat or population not fragmented. There are no data on population size or trends.
59662		threats	eng	The forest may have declined in area and quality, but not severely.
59663		distribution	eng	South Africa: Mpumalanga (Mariepskop, and between Nelspruit and Machadadorp); Limpopo province (Soutpansberg, Ratambo forest). Forest distribution patchy, and known populations are disjunct.
59663		habitat	eng	The Mariepskop and Ratambo localities are Afromontane forest habitat, and it is likely that the third locality is also a forest patch. This species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.
59663		population	eng	Population densities are unknown, and a single species was recorded from each locality. A recent invertebrate survey of the Soutpansberg and the northern most part of the Drakensberg mountains (the Magoebaskloof) only yielded one specimen from Ratambo, and no additional localities (Swaye 2003).
59663		threats	eng	Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are likely to have declined through the loss and degradation of suitable habitats, particularly in areas not protected.
59664		distribution	eng	South Africa. Mpumalanga. This species is known only from a small part of Mpumalanga, covering an area of considerably less than 5,000 km². Most recently it was collected from a small patch of Afromontane forest near Badplaas, and it was previously collected from the same area in 1939, but the habitat and exact location were not recorded. Area of occupancy is likley to be small. Since this species is associated with forests which have a patchy distribution, the distribution is fragmented. Dispersal ability poor.
59664		habitat	eng	The growth and maturation rates are likely to be slow, with at least two years required to reach maturity.
59664		population	eng	Population densities are unknown but both collections have only provided a single specimen, suggesting low densities.
59665		distribution	eng	South Africa: Limpopo province. This species is confined to Afromontane forests in the Phiphidi Waterfall area, the Soutpansberg (Woodbush)  and the Magoebaskloof / Drakensberg (Swartbos, Baccarat and Forest Glens forests). Area of occurrence estimated to be a maximum of 10 000 km², and the area of occupancy less than 1,000 km². These have probably decreased over the past 50 years as smaller forest patches have disappeared, and the quality of the habitats has decreased.
59665		habitat	eng	Likely to require two years to reach maturity.
59665		population	eng	Surveys revealed few specimens: population densities cannot be considered to be high. The population is highly fragmented – the forests in the Soutpansberg are almost 100 km away from the Magoebaskloof forests. Within each area, although the forests are less than 20 km apart, the matrix is generally transformed by plantations or other forms of agriculture.
59666		distribution	eng	South Africa. KwaZulu-Natal. Known only from scarp forest near Hilltops Camp, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, and Ngome Forest. This species has not been collected from other forests in the area between Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and Ngome. It is unlikely that individuals are able to disperse between the two localities where this species has been collected. In total, the area of occupancy is less than 20 km².
59666		habitat	eng	Found at the edge of Afromontane forest, in bracken dominated grassland. It is likely that this species takes at least two years to reach maturity.
59666		population	eng	No population data are available, but within Hluhluwe-Umfolozi individuals are easily found in the forest.
59667		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. This species is known only from Gwaliweni Forest in northern KwaZulu-Natal. These are the same/similar since it is presumed that the population is spread throughout the forest. The forest area is 11 km².
59667		habitat	eng	This species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.
59667		population	eng	The population density is likely to be low, considering the small number of specimens collected even though R.F. Lawrence visited Gwaliweni on several occasions. This species is especially large-bodied and conspicuous, and is unlikely to be easily overlooked.
59668		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Southern KwaZulu-Natal, from the Mkomazi River area in the north, to Mzimkulwana River in the south: Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve; Richmond, Hella Hella area; road from Umzinto to Ixopo, Farm Glen Rosa. The area of occupancy is unknown, since the region between the known localities is not well sampled. The estimated maximum area of occurrence is 3,250 km², which covers the entire area between the known localities.
59668		habitat	eng	This species requires at least two years to reach maturity.
59668		population	eng	Degree of fragmentation is unknown, but the population is suspected to be fragmented through the loss of habitat. There are no population data available.
59669		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Drakensberg. Known from Royal Natal National Park; Cathkin Peak and Injasuti. Extent of occurrence estimated to be 1,100 km². Area of occupancy unknown. At Royal Natal National Park and Cathkin Peak this species was collected from Afromontane forest, but the habitat at Injasuthi is unknown. If this species is associated with forest, the area of occupancy is likely to be less than 500 km².
59669		habitat	eng	This species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.
59669		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but appears relatively low. Single specimens were collected from all sites (but there was repeated collecting at two of the sites). The population is unlikely to be severely fragmented, apart from within the communal land outside of the protected area, where forest patches and grassland may have been lost at the altitudes where this species has been collected.
59670		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Along the road between Vryheid and Newcastle in north-western KwaZulu-Natal. The habitat in this part of KwaZulu-Natal is poorly sampled, but measurements of the area of similar habitat to where <em>D. minor</em> was collected indicate that the area of occurrence is likely to be less than 3,000 km².
59670		habitat	eng	Likely to take two years to reach maturity.
59670		population	eng	This species is likely to occur at low population densities, since only a single specimen has been collected. Degree of fragmentation is unknown. The grassland species of the genus <em>Doratogonus</em> may disperse more easily than the forest species, but they may still be confined in distribution by appropriate habitat. Intensive agriculture may have resulted in the fragmentation of natural grasslands.
59671		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Howick area, Karkloof Forest; Kranzkop; Ngoye Forest. Extent of occurrence is approximately 8–12,000 km², and the area of occurrence 2,000–5,000 km².
59671		habitat	eng	Likely to take two years to reach maturity.
59671		population	eng	Population densities are likely to be low based on unquantified sampling in Ngoye and the Karkloof, which produced small numbers of specimens. There are at least three subpopulations that are widely separated. In addition, the Karkloof forest is fragmented.
59672		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal; Mpumalnaga. Wakkerstroom (southern Mpumalanga); Pongola Bush Nature Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal). May occur more widely than just two localities, and modelling of habitat suggests a maximum area of occurrence less than 20,000 km², and an area of occupancy less than 500 km².
59672		habitat	eng	Adults occur in grassland, but it is likely that the juveniles are restricted to Afromontane forest patches. As in other species of the genus <em>Doraogonus</em>, this species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.
59672		population	eng	Population densities are likely to be low, since few specimens were collected at the two localities. Most likely dependent on forest – which is a fragmented habitat. Dispersal ability limited.
59673		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Kloof area; Kranzkloof Nature Reserve; Eston area. Extent of occurrence is approximately 3,000 km², and area of occupancy is less than 200 km². The three known localities are separated by highly developed and transformed land.
59673		habitat	eng	Likely to take over two years to reach maturation.
59673		population	eng	The population density at the Mcintosh Falls locality was relatively high, with approximately one individual per 25 m² being counted.
59674		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Northern part of the Drakensberg mountain range, with localities at Van Reenen, Normandien and Ncandu Nature Reserve. Uncertain, but even if additional localities are found, the maximum area of occurrence is certain to be less than 5,000 km², and the area of occurrence less than 500 km². The forests have a naturally patchy distribution, but the grassland habitat between them is still relatively undisturbed in most areas.
59674		habitat	eng	Occurs in small patches of Afromontane forest. Maturation probably takes at least two years to reach.
59674		population	eng	The density of juveniles in the two Normandien forests sampled was exceptionally high, with approximately 50 individuals per m² being counted.
59675		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Coastal dune forests along the Maputaland coast of KwaZulu-Natal, from just north of Empangeni (Kwambonambi, Richards Bay area, and Mapelane) in the south to Cape Vidal in the north. The extent of the coastal dune forest inside the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park where <em>D. zuluensis</em> occurs is approximately 11 km². When habitats outside are also added this area increases to a maximum of 100 km². The extent of occurrence will be similar since it is thought that the population is spread throughout the dune forest.
59675		habitat	eng	Coastal dune forest. Probably takes at least two years to reach maturity.
59675		population	eng	Population densities have not been measured, but appear to be fairly low. The habitat is relatively unfragmented north of Richards Bay mining area.
59693		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status would be valuable.
59693		distribution	eng	The species is known only from single locality in the Democratic Republic of Congo and northwest Zambia (Dijkstra 2007), and the synonym from Brazzaville, Congo (and single locality outside the region in Zambia).
59693		habitat	eng	No information, probably occurs in swamp forests.
59693		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59693		threats	eng	No information available.
59694		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59694		distribution	eng	To date, this species has been recorded from only two sites in the Chimanimani Mountains, Zimbabwe. It may also occur in Mozambique, however more data are required to confirm this. It has not been recorded since 1966 (Pinhey 1969). The area has been revisited since then (most recently in 1999), however not for targeted surveys.
59694		habitat	eng	A montane species (Pinhey 1969). Specific habitat details are unknown, even to Pinhey who described the species. However it is inferred to be a forest species based on the habitat in the collection area.
59694		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
59694		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species are deforestation, alien invasive trees, and alien invasive fish (e.g., trout). Deforestation is inferred to be a threat to the species, based on general deforestation occurring in the region. Since this is a montane species, the main threat may be fragmentation and, potentially, small populations.
59695		conservation	eng	Protection of forest areas is required.
59695		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from south the Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga Province, Mitwaba Escarpment) and Libuli (possibly within the protected area of Upemba). Its area of occupancy is likely to be of less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is probably constrained to higher altitudes.
59695		habitat	eng	Forest streams and rivers.
59695		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59695		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by wood extraction is the main threat to the taxon.
59696		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines, no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out. <br/> <br/>As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned, the South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregion is judged as vulnerable (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59696		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. The species is known only from the type locality (Rambukpath Oya, Hatton, Central Province).
59696		habitat	eng	Habitat is described as stream in deep ravine between tea and rubber estates.
59696		population	eng	Current population size is unknown, although it is suspected that the species may already be Extinct.
59696		threats	eng	The habitat type is under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threats for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna on the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59697		conservation	eng	Protection and re-plantation of forest, and conservation of the watershed are required.
59697		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Ethiopia. Occurs between 1,300 and 2,400 m asl in the highlands south of Addis Ababa. There is little available habitat left in the known range area, and much of this is fragmented.
59697		habitat	eng	This species requires clear montane streams and rivers with forest. There is not much forest left in Ethiopia, and the remaining fragments are being exploited rapidly (pers. obs., Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society 2001)
59697		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59697		threats	eng	Forest destruction, water pollution and habitat degradation are the main threats to the species.
59698		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality in North East Queensland, Australia (near Tinaroo Dam).
59698		habitat	eng	Streams.
59698		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59698		threats	eng	Unknown.
59699		conservation	eng	No information available.
59699		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to central Africa, being present in Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Zambia.
59699		habitat	eng	Probably swamps or streams in forest.
59699		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59699		threats	eng	None known at present.
59700		conservation	eng	Current conservation actions in place are not known. A strong population was recorded in a protected area in Israel, but recent records have not been checked.
59700		conservation	eng	The exact locality and status of the European populations are unknown and information on the habitat requirements of the species is scant. Habitat destruction can therefore easily cause the extinction of this species on any of the three islands where it occurs. The foremost conservation measure is therefore identifying the current locations and disclosing this information to the local authorities and conservation officers. Based on more adequate habitat information it must be seen if local conservation measures are possible to counterbalance the impact of climate change.<br/><br/>Several records of unidentified specimens of <em>Ceriagrion</em> are known from Lesvos and from continental Greece. These localities should be revisited and the identity of the species should be confirmed.<br/><br/>This species could easily become extinct in Europe in the next decade. Immediate action is needed.
59700		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion georgifreyi</em> has a relatively small range and occurs along a narrow coastal strip in the northern half of Israel, West Syria, southern Turkey and three Greek islands. Records of <em>Ceriagrion</em> from Lesvos and from continental Greece published as <em>C. tenellum</em> may refer to <em>C. georgifrey</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>. No voucher specimens are available for these records and new fieldwork needs to be undertaken to establish the identity of these populations. A record of <em>C. georgifreyi</em> from Niksar in north Turkey was reported by Schneider (1986) based on a series from the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. This population belongs to the northern limit of the species and may tentatively be recognized as valid, although a label error or a problem of homonymy in the locality name cannot be ruled out. In Europe the species is only known from three Greek islands. From each of these islands only a single record is available:  Kerkyra (1971), Thasos (1997) and Zakynthos (1998) (Kalkman 2005).
59700		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion georgifreyi</em> occurs in the Greek islands (Thásos, Zákintos and Corfu), southern Turkey and Israel (occurring in a narrow strip along the Mediterranean coast). It has not yet been found in Lebanon, but is almost certain to occur there.
59700		habitat	eng	Seepages and small streams. This species is also recorded in swamp and marsh habitats.
59700		habitat	eng	The species is poorly known and there are no detailed accounts on the habitats where the species is found. The habitat is described as small and shallow, both standing and slowly running waters (Kalkman <em><em>et al.</em> </em>2004). The habitat where breeding is assumed is heavily vegetated with spike-rush (<em>Eleocharis</em>) and lesser water-parsnip (<em>Berula erecta</em>). In Hope (2007) it is stated that 'It is found in small muddy brooks and larger brooks'. Based on the above and unpublished records the habitat can best be described as brooks, small runnels and seepages with rich aquatic vegetation.
59700		population	eng	In Europe the species is only known from three Greek islands were only a small number of specimens were collected. Information on the actual size of these populations is lacking. In Turkey the species is generally found in low densities in relatively small habitats. It is therefore likely that the European populations are small to very small.
59700		population	eng	Population size is not known. It is very scarce (after Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In the Middle East part of its range the population is known to have declined (W. Schneider pers. comm.).
59700		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species. Potentially increased drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change is a future threat. <em>Ceriagrion georgifreyi</em> is extremely localized, therefore increasing drought conditions can be a serious threat.
59700		threats	eng	The reproduction sites occupied by the species are generally small and easily destroyed by agricultural practises and building activities. Climate change resulting in the desiccation of the habitats is the main present and future threat, which will affect the species over its whole range. Presently only three European localities are known for this species. Information on these sites is very poor but probably all of them are very small. All of these sites can probably be destroyed by a single small event such as the construction of a house, increased intake of water or a very dry year. In order to prevent this species from becoming extinct immediate action is needed.
59701		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mauritius.
59701		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59702		conservation	eng	Fieldwork is needed in order to establish the exact limits of its range and the status within its range.
59702		distribution	eng	Found along the Caspian coast in Azerbaijan and Iran (Dumont 2004, Dumont and Heidari 1996). Extension of range ill-known.
59702		habitat	eng	Habitat includes shallow stagnant lakes and wetlands, as well as streamlets with abundant littoral vegetation.
59702		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59702		threats	eng	Only a small number of localities are known and might be threatened by developments of wetland along the Caspian coast.
59703		conservation	eng	Fieldwork is needed in order to establish the exact limits of its range and the status within its range.
59703		distribution	eng	Lohmann (1993) described this species from specimens from Iran (Istgah-e-Ezna, some 100 km east of Khorramabad). The western part of Iran has hardly been investigated odonatologically and it is likely that it is far more widespread than known. Might occur in East-Turkey and North-Iraq.
59703		habitat	eng	Habitat is largely unknown. At the type location a larva was caught in standing, well-vegetated water.
59703		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59703		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59704		conservation	eng	Taxonomic status should be clarified. No direct conservation measures seem needed at present. Fieldwork is needed to establish the range of the species.
59704		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion vanbrinkae</em> was described on the basis of specimens from Turkey and Iran and was recently published for Armenia and Syria (Heideri and Dumont 2002, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Lohmann 1993, Schneider 2004, Tailly <em>et al</em>. 2004).
59704		habitat	eng	Well-vegetated seepages and small streams.
59704		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59704		threats	eng	Probably declining due to habitat destruction.
59705		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59705		conservation	eng	No information available.
59705		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon) <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, may be expected in south east Nigeria as record of Porpacithemis sp. from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon) pertains to this species.
59705		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, may be expected in south east Nigeria as record of <span style="font-style: italic;">Porpacithemis </span>sp. from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon) pertains to this species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species is endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu); Eala; Flandria (Boteka); Kabongo; Bambesa; Busu Moto; Kisantu.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon). Record requires confirmation.
59705		habitat	eng	Unknown but&#160; possibly present in swamp forest.
59705		habitat	eng	Unknown — possibly swamp forest.
59705		population	eng	No information available.
59705		threats	eng	No information available.
59706		conservation	eng	Forest preservation and control of water use are needed. At Delphi, a good understanding of the water pathway in karst-type mountain is required. The area of the Kastalian spring and brook should be efficiently closed. Any cleaning-out of the spring/brook should be discarded.
59706		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster helladica</em> is endemic to southernmost parts of northern Greece, Peloponnesus Peninsula and Cyclades islands. Three weakly differentiated subspecies have been described, namely <em>Cordulegaster helladica helladica</em> from the Peloponnesus to Euboea island (an additional locality at Mount Olympus is doubtful), <em>C. h. buccholzi</em> from Naxos, Tinos and Andros islands, and <em>C. h. kastalia</em> from the Delphi archeological site. The area of occupancy is thought to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
59706		habitat	eng	Mountain brooks and spring areas.
59706		population	eng	A number of populations are still flourishing but some of the Cycades islands populations seem to now be extinct due to springs drying up. The population is severely fragmented.
59706		threats	eng	Water harnessing for human use as well as forest fires. Cleaning-out of the sacred Kastalian spring at Delphi, the single known locality of the most yellow form. Over collection by Odonatologists in Delphi and the Cycades.
59707		conservation	eng	Most known sites are publicly owned. In Florida, the species occurs in two state parks, a state preserve, two state forests, and a military base. In Georgia occurs in a state park and a military reservation.
59707		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from 20 populations in Florida and southeastern Georgia comprising a total of 14 county counties.
59707		habitat	eng	Silt-bottomed trickles in hardwood forest with weedy fields nearby (Dunkle and Westfall 1982).
59707		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59707		threats	eng	Housing and urban development.
59708		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. There are currently no conservation measures targeting this species, but there is a need to preserve forests and control the water use.
59708		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster trinacriae</em> is endemic to Sicily and southern Italy (Campania, Calabria and Basilicata); its northern limit is in Lazio where the species contacts or overlaps with <em>C. b. boltonii</em>. The northern limit of the species is still unclear (Boudot 2001, Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Utzeri and d'Antonio 2005).
59708		habitat	eng	The species is found in running waters from mountain brooks to large rivers.
59708		population	eng	About 60 localities have been reported for this species, some of which have been published under the closely related <em>C. boltonii</em>. Within its area of distribution it seems to be common and sometimes abundant on mainland Italy but it seems scarce on Sicily. However, some ancient localities have been obviously destroyed due to urbanization and water caption for human needs.
59708		threats	eng	This species has been extirpated from some of its localities due to habitat destruction through deforestation and water extraction for human use. Global warming may lead to a strong reduction of the species in the future. The species occurs often in larger brooks and rivers. This fact decreases its vulnerability to desiccation due to climate change compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Cordulegaster</span> species from southeast Europe.
59709		conservation	eng	A true knowledge of this species in the field is urgently needed.
59709		distribution	eng	South Caspian mountains (Elburz range) in Iran.
59709		habitat	eng	Mountain brooks.
59709		population	eng	A single specimen in the NHMB collection is known (1971). No living animal is known.
59709		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59710		conservation	eng	Research required into population numbers and range. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.
59710		distribution	eng	The species is only present in the highlands of north-east Ethiopia.
59710		habitat	eng	No information available but wetlands assumed.
59710		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59710		threats	eng	Declining water quality and habitat degradation are threats to the species.
59711		conservation	eng	None known. Research required into the population numbers and range of this species, and habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.
59711		distribution	eng	The species is only present in the highlands of north-east Ethiopia.
59711		habitat	eng	Not currently known.
59711		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59711		threats	eng	Declining water quality and habitat degradation are threats to the species.
59712		conservation	eng	Studies needed to confirm range of distribution, establish population trends and possible threats to the species.
59712		distribution	eng	Endemic to Jamaica.
59712		habitat	eng	Areas with bromeliads. Larvae breed in water of bromeliad leaf axils and tolerate a wide range of physico-chemical conditions (Laessle 1961). Commonest in moist upland areas (Westfall and May 1996).
59712		threats	eng	Deforestation.
59713		distribution	eng	La Vega and Monseñor Nouel provinces in Dominican Republic.
59713		habitat	eng	Larvae breed in water of bromeliad leaf axils. Commonest at middle-elevation areas (Westfall and May 1996), e.g., 1,000 m (Garrison 1986). Adults perch on bromeliads growing high on steep cliffs (Daigle 1993).
59713		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59713		threats	eng	Forest clearing.
59714		conservation	eng	Further surveying away from the river is much needed all along the known extent of its occurrence to establish habitat preference and population status.
59714		distribution	eng	Along lower Amazon River, Brazil. Much more restricted in distribution than the widespread <em>Heliocharis amazona</em>, the other species in this small and unusual family.
59714		habitat	eng	Presumably rain-forest streams (more likely than Amazon itself).
59714		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59714		threats	eng	Deforestation.
59715		conservation	eng	Conservation of the watershed is needed.
59715		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, between 1,630 and 1,650 m asl. It is only known from three sites. It was previously only known  from three specimens collected at the “cascate del Piccolo Ghibiè  [waterfall of the small Gibe]” east of Jima. It was recently found by  Clausnitzer and Dijkstra (2005) in the Baro River (a broad, shallow and  clear river with a rocky bottom, some grassy and reedy borders and dense  gallery forest) and at a small muddy river in open farmland near  Bulbul. <em></em>
59715		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with grassy banks. <em>Elattoneura pasquinii</em> does not appear to have a narrow  ecological niche: it seems to avoid rocky streams, and may require some  grassy banks, but does not need forest cover. The altitude of all three  sites lies between 1,630 and 1,650 m asl.
59715		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59715		threats	eng	Water pollution, degradation of rivers and streams are threats to the species.
59716		conservation	eng	Fresh data is urgently needed on this species; searches should be made in the Maldives.
59716		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma maldivensi</em> is known only from the type series collected on the islands of Mahlos and Hulule, Maldives (Laidlaw 1902).
59716		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
59716		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series (five specimens); there is no information on current populations, but given the amount of development that has occurred in the Maldives, very small land area and high human population density (<em>ca</em> 1,105 persons per square kilometre), it can be inferred that the species is in decline; it may already be extinct.
59716		threats	eng	Habitat loss. A potential major threat to this species is from rising sea levels due to climate change, as the maximum natural elevation in the Maldives is 2.5 m. Development is another major threat; much (or possibly most) of the surface of the larger islands has already been covered with buildings and it is questionable whether any suitable habitat remains for this species.
59717		conservation	eng	The species has not been documented in any protected reserves and studies are needed in all aspects of its life history.
59717		distribution	eng	The species is found in Cuba (Isla de Juventud, Oriente, Pinar del Rio) and Jamaica (Manchester, St. Thomas, Trelawney); the following locations include collection notes:<br/>Jamaica: St. Thomas Parish, Bath (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Jamaica: Trelawney Parish, Windsor Estate, "ca 12 mi S Falmouth" (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Jamaica: Manchester Parish, Christiana, "1 mi S Villa Bella" (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Jamaica: St. Thomas Parish, Corn Puss Gap (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Pinar del Rio Province, San Diego de los Baños (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Pinar del Rio Province, Las Animas (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Isla de Pinos, Nueva Gerona (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Oriente, Santiago de Cuba (D. R. Paulson collection, ex University Michigan Museum of Zoology)
59717		habitat	eng	<em>E. bromeliicola</em> occurs in tropical forest although the size of forest stand is really not known. Breeds in standing water in bromeliads.
59717		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. bromeliicola</em> is unknown but suspected to be small and scattered. Bormeliad breeders are always quite rare in comparison with species that have their larval stage in open water. On the other hand, they may be more generally distributed if in habitats with abundant bromeliads.
59717		threats	eng	Due to the nature of <em>E. bromeliicola</em> breeding requirements (standing water in bromeliads), deforestation of this special habitat is always going to be a threat but it is unknown as to what level this threat is affecting the species.
59718		distribution	eng	United States (two counties in Texas), and Mexico (south to San Luis Potosi).
59718		habitat	eng	Muddy canal-like channels and clear, spring fed deep rivers.
59718		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59719		conservation	eng	Fieldwork is needed in order to establish the exact limits of its range and the status within its range.
59719		distribution	eng	The holotype of this species is a male collected at Khanagin, Alwand River, Iraq. The only other known record is a male from about 50 km South East of Khoramabad, Iran (Lohmann 1992). The accessory genitalia of a male <em>G. davidi</em> from Dohok, N Iraq, as reported by Asahina (1973), are similar to those of <em>G. kinzelbachi</em>, which led Schneider (1984) to conclude that this specimen in fact pertains to this species. If this is true, <em>G. kinzelbachi</em> is likely also to occur in the mountainous area of South East Turkey (Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2003).
59719		habitat	eng	Found at large rivers.
59719		population	eng	Known only from two records.
59719		threats	eng	Range could be fairly limited and species could be threatened by activities such as grind mining or damming projects (Kalkman 2004).
59720		conservation	eng	The type locality is protected in the frame of Horton Plains National Park but  no exhaustive faunistic surveys have been made in order to evaluate the species' conservation status. <br/> <br/>General guidelines for protection of endemic dragonfly fauna in mountain regions of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas; and (3) renaturation/conversion of alochthonous forests in the wider surroundings of streams. <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential area of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka montane rain forests (IM0155)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59720		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka.
59720		habitat	eng	The type specimen originates from wet and dense low forest. The species most probably inhabits small streams in dense montane forests.
59720		population	eng	Only known from the type locality (Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya District). The species may already be extinct.
59720		threats	eng	Available habitat is under great pressure due to water extraction, pollution and destruction of natural montane forest. The appropriate natural habitats in Nuwara Eliya region were heavily damaged and fragmented recent decades. <br/> <br/>Destruction of primary montane forests, planting of alochthonous tree species forest plantations, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution, water extraction and other pressures on streams and upper courses of rivers in the montane central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for endemic dragonfly fauna of the region.
59721		conservation	eng	Apart of general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential area of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59721		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka. Known only from the type locality (Madugoda near Urugalla, Kandy District).
59721		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.
59721		population	eng	The species may already be extinct.
59721		threats	eng	Available habitat is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are major threats for the exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59722		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to  work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential area of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in  WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59722		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Only known from the type locality (Passara, Uva Province).
59722		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small streams and springs in primary rainforest.
59722		population	eng	The species may already be extinct.
59722		threats	eng	Available habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Even at the time of its description the appropriate habitats in the wider surroundings of Passara were very scarce and fragmented. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threat for the exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59723		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59723		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka. Known from type locality (Rambode, Nuwara Eliya District) and Balangoda (Ratnapura District).
59723		habitat	eng	As the rest of the congeners the species inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.  Larval form unknown.
59723		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct. Only two males and one female are known.
59723		threats	eng	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. The wider area of type locality was completely changed in last century, but the species is also known from Ratnapura District so its original area of occurrence has obviously not been so small.<br/>Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).
59724		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in  WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59724		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
59724		habitat	eng	As for the genus, the species probably inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.
59724		population	eng	The type locality is unknown (described only as "Ceylon"), however it has been recorded from Haputale, Uva Province. The species has not been recorded for over 70 years and may already be extinct.
59724		threats	eng	Available habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. <br/> <br/>Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59725		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines, no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59725		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
59725		habitat	eng	As for the genus, the species probably inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.
59725		population	eng	Known only from the type locality (Kandy, Kandy District). The species may already be extinct.
59725		threats	eng	Available habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59726		conservation	eng	General guidelines for protection of endemic dragonfly fauna in mountain regions of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors, (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas and (3) renaturation/conversion of alochthonous (foreign) forests in the wider surroundings of streams (Bedjanic 2004).<br/><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka montane rain forests (IM0155)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59726		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Only type locality known (Nuwara Eliya, Nuwara Eliya District). Not present in any of the large odonatological collections from the island made by entomologist (not odonatologists!) in last 50 years (Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland), National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA), Lund University (Sweden) and University of Vienna (Austria)) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also not found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).
59726		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small streams in dense montane forests.  Larval form unknown.
59726		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct.
59726		threats	eng	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure due to water extraction, pollution and destruction of natural montane forest. The appropriate natural habitats in Nuwara Eliya region were heavily damaged and fragmented in the last decades.&#160; Destruction of primary montane forests, planting of alochthonous (foreign) tree species for forest plantations, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution, water extraction and other pressures on streams and upper courses of rivers in mountainous central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for endemic dragonfly fauna of the region.
59727		distribution	eng	United States (known from two counties in New Mexico and Texas) and Mexico (Chihuahua).
59727		habitat	eng	Rivers with mixed rock and sand substrate, generally at elevations above 1,000 m (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59727		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59727		threats	eng	Unknown.
59728		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Control of water quality throughout the species' range and the establishment of reserves is needed.
59728		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from the southwest of Europe, where it occurs in France, Spain and Portugal. This species is known from an area of about 140,000 km² in France and is scattered over 372,000 km² in Iberia (and mostly over 172,000 km², the other 200,000 km² bearing only two localities). In Iberia, the species remains rare despite its recent discovery at several sites in Portugal (Malkmus 2002, Lohr 2005) and Valencia in 2006 (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009).
59728		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of this species are slow-flowing streams.
59728		population	eng	The species is endemic to Spain, Portugal and France. In south and west France, the species is rather common in eight departments only, rare in 12, and extinct in four. It is scattered and very rare in Spain and Portugal. The species is rather common only over 51,000 km² in France, from the lower Rhone river to the Charente-Maritime department via the southern edge of the Massif Central.  It is rare to extinct elsewhere in France and in the west of central France it is much more scarce than one century ago, due to pollution and river management. In these areas the species is threatened with extinction or already extinct. Strong variations in densities are noticed from year to year.
59728		threats	eng	Its main problems with respect to its survival lies in water pollution and stream structure changes, and also in summer drought, which occurred more and more frequently and durably in recent years, with drying of many rivers and relative increase in pollution. Good populations in France occur in three riverine systems. In Iberia there are no records of large populations.
59729		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously, the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59729		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka; only the type locality is known (Rambode, Nuwara Eliya District). The species might be already extinct. Not present in any of the large odonatological collections from the island made by entomologist (not odonatologists!) in last 50 years (Naturhistorischen Museum Basle, Switzerland, National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution, USA Lund University, Sweden and University of Vienna, Austria - museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also not found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).
59729		habitat	eng	Exact habitat unknown, as for the genus it probably inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest (known habitat of related <em>H. walli</em>).  Male and larval form undescribed.
59729		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct. Described from a single female, 130 years ago.
59729		threats	eng	The wider area of the type locality was completely changed in last century. Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under treat.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.
59730		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to  work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59730		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Known only from the type locality (Haldummulla).
59730		habitat	eng	Exact habitat is unknown, but, as for the genus, it probably inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest (known habitat of related <em>H. walli</em>).
59730		population	eng	The species may already be extinct.
59730		threats	eng	Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59731		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to  work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59731		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. The type locality is unknown (described only as "Ceylon").
59731		habitat	eng	Exact habitat is unknown, but, as for the genus, it probably inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest (known habitat of related <em>H. walli</em>).
59731		population	eng	The species may already be extinct.
59731		threats	eng	Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threats for exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59732		conservation	eng	Efforts should be made to relocate this species, which was collected in 1957, and to determine its preferred habitat. Presumably it also occurs in adjacent Colombia, but this must be confirmed.
59732		distribution	eng	Southern Venezuela.
59732		habitat	eng	Unknown, but probably lowland rain forest.
59732		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59732		threats	eng	Unknown. Perhaps deforestation, but much forest remains intact in this region.
59733		conservation	eng	Studies needed to establish area of distribution, habitat, biology, population trends and possible threats
59733		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas state in Venezuela (Rácenis 1968, de Marmels 1997).
59733		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small rivers and backwater creeks in lowland forest (Rácenis 1968). Larva unknown.
59733		population	eng	No data is available on this species due to lack of sampling effort.
59733		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
59734		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution range, habitat preferences, biology, trends, and analyse threats.
59734		distribution	eng	Occurs in Valle del Cauca department in Colombia (Ris 1918, R.W. Garrison 2006).
59734		habitat	eng	Type collected on 'rushing mountain brook' (Ris 1918), no further information on habitat available; female and larva unknown.
59734		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations (none being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
59734		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
59735		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
59735		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia.
59735		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59735		population	eng	Known only from one specimen collected from Mount Lewis, North East Queensland.
59735		threats	eng	Forest clearing.
59736		conservation	eng	The species is present in several preserves in south Texas although the status of the Mexican populations are unknown; research regarding population numbers and range are needed.
59736		distribution	eng	The species occurs in two provinces in Mexico and one state in the United States of America.<br/>More detail on locations as follows:<br/>Texas: Kleberg County, King Ranch, Santa Gertrudis Creek (Abbott 2004)<br/>Texas: Hidalgo County, Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge (M. Reid, pers. comm. 2005)<br/>Texas: Hidalgo County, McAllen Nature Center (M. Reid, pers. comm., 2005)<br/>Mexico: Jalisco, Estación Biología Chamela (Gonzalez-Soriano 2002)<br/>Mexico: Oaxaca, N of La Soledad (Gonzalez-Soriano 2002)<br/>Records lie on both sides of the Mexican cordillera.
59736		habitat	eng	This species is found in shaded pools in slow-flowing streams or forested ponds, all with herbaceous vegetation, especially tall grasses. Not obviously present when these areas dry up but presumably adapted to seasonal wetlands as are its congeners.
59736		population	eng	Small populations of <em>L. melinogaster</em> are found in Texas and it probably occurs at more locations than are known. Thought to occurs at more locations than the two in Oaxaca and Jalisco in Mexico.
59736		threats	eng	Drought could be the biggest threat, yet its breeding habitats dried completely one year and it did not disappear from its known location at the King Ranch in Texas. Another breeding habitat dried out in Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge, yet a population was found the following season when the pond refilled. The adults are likely a relatively long-lived dispersal stage.
59737		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is required through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, and trends and monitoring of the species would also be valuable.
59737		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes numidicus</em> is a recently described species from eastern Algeria (Samraoui and Corbet 2000a). It is possible that it may be found in Tunisia, but it has not been recorded there so far.
59737		habitat	eng	The species aestivates at high altitude refuge sites (cork oak forests) before moving down to breed in October (Samraoui and Corbet 2000b).
59737		population	eng	Locally abundant but with an apparent restricted range.
59737		threats	eng	Forest fires, and degradation and drainage of wetland areas are known threats to the species.
59738		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out.  <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregion is judged as vulnerable (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59738		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
59738		habitat	eng	As for the genus the species probably inhabits rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills.
59738		population	eng	Known only from the type locality (Uggalkaltota, Ratnapura District). The species may already be extinct.
59738		threats	eng	Type of habitat under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59739		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to establish population trends and evaluate threats.
59739		distribution	eng	Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina states in Brazil.
59739		habitat	eng	Atlantic rain forest. The species breeds in small pools of water in tree holes (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2004).
59739		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59739		threats	eng	Deforestation.
59740		conservation	eng	Protection of forest by state and federal management.
59740		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands.
59740		habitat	eng	Upland ridges and wet forest.
59740		threats	eng	Feral ungulates, ants.
59741		conservation	eng	Protection of forest by state management.
59741		distribution	eng	Known from the islands of Maui and Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.
59741		habitat	eng	Upland ridges and wet forest.
59741		threats	eng	Feral ungulates; ants; drought.
59742		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
59742		distribution	eng	The species is known from western Angola and Mwinilunga district of northwest Zambia. In Zambia, only two females have been recorded (Pinhey 1984a) but these have been re-identified as <em>Aethiothemis basilewskyi</em> (Dijkstra and Vick 2006).
59742		habitat	eng	The species is known from wooded plateaus in Angola but no exact description of the aquatic habitat is available.
59742		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59742		threats	eng	Unknown.
59743		conservation	eng	Some populations are presumably protected in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park in the northeast, but no formal protection is given in the Cockpit Country to the west, where an isolated population occurs. Search for the species in all mountainous areas are urgent, as well as estimates of population size and trends; also extent of appropriate habitat needs to be established. Finally, possibility of occurrence on Hispaniola needs to be confirmed or refuted. All single-island endemics in West Indies are considered at risk.
59743		distribution	eng	This species was previously found in the Blue Mountains in Jamaica but has since been found in the Blake Mountains after an investigation through museum collections.  Range now includes: Portland, St. Andrew, St. Mary, St. Thomas, Trelawney.<br/>From the collection notes on a 1960s specimen in D. Paulson collection: "Trelawney Par., Windsor Estate, 12 mi S Falmouth".
59743		habitat	eng	Known habitat is lowland to mid-elevation forest for this species.
59743		population	eng	There is no information available for <em>H. clara</em>.
59743		threats	eng	Continued threats include deforestation and ground-water extraction, both very likely to negatively impact <em>H. clara</em> on a relatively small island with a high population density, plus much of known range has already been deforested. However, threats may be alleviated recently by establishment of a national park protecting essential watershed for lowland communities including around Kingston, Jamaica.
59744		conservation	eng	Searches for the species in other parts of Cuba and estimates of population size and trends are urgent. Also, the extent of appropriate habitat needs to be established. Extensive distribution in Sierra Maestra probably affords protection at this time. Finally, the possibility of occurrence on Hispaniola needs to be confirmed. All single-island endemics in West Indies probably at risk.
59744		distribution	eng	Central and eastern Cuba, but perhaps also occurs in Hispaniola.
59744		habitat	eng	Forested streams of mountains and adjacent lowlands (50–1,250 m).
59744		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59744		threats	eng	Deforestation.
59745		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
59745		distribution	eng	<em>Neoneura carnatica</em> has been found in the following locations in Cuba:<br/>- Pinar del Rio, Sora (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Pinar del Rio, Rangel (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Habana, Güines (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Habana, Marianao (Westfall 1964)
59745		habitat	eng	Species found at small forest streams with pools and clean water (Alayo 1968).
59745		population	eng	Population numbers and trend are unknown for <em>N. carnatica</em>.
59745		threats	eng	Deforestation is a serious environmental threat throughout the West Indies and is affecting this species also. Extent of recent deforestation on Cuba remains unknown but is thought to be substantial. The Cuban environment has been severely altered in the almost 50 years of the present regime (http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/enviromental.crisis.html).<br/><br/>There is an indication that no primary forest remains but there is much modified natural forest (presumably selectively logged; http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Cuba.htm)
59746		conservation	eng	Estimates of population size and trends are urgent. Extent of appropriate habitat also needs to be established.
59746		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cuba.
59746		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59746		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59746		threats	eng	Deforestation.
59747		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to estimate population density and trends, and to confirm the species' presence in protected areas and establish category of threat.
59747		distribution	eng	Metropolitana, Bío-Bío, Araucanía and De Los Lagos Regions in Chile, and western strip of Neuquen province in Argentina.
59747		habitat	eng	Spring seeps, silt-bottomed pools of small forest streams and seepage areas.
59747		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59747		threats	eng	Habitat modification through introduced deforestation, dams, water pollution, for livestock and domestic use.
59748		distribution	eng	Mwali (Comoro Islands).
59748		habitat	eng	Unknown.
59748		threats	eng	Unknown.
59749		conservation	eng	Unknown.
59749		distribution	eng	<em>Nesolestes pauliani</em> is known from Mwali, Comoro Archipelago.
59749		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.
59749		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59749		threats	eng	Unknown.
59750		distribution	eng	Canada (New Brunswick, and three occurrences in Ontario), and the United States (Maine).
59750		habitat	eng	Clean medium to large forested rivers (Dunkle 2000).
59750		population	eng	Current population size is unknown. It is a widespread species and appears to be abundant in Maine and New Brunswick (P.M. Brunelle, pers. comm. 2008).
59750		threats	eng	Unknown.
59751		distribution	eng	East coastal region of Suriname.
59751		habitat	eng	Gallery forests, adults occasionally flying down to low bank vegetation of sand-bottomed streams.
59751		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59751		threats	eng	Unknown.
59752		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
59752		distribution	eng	The species is occurs in north west Zambia and neighbouring regions of Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola are likely.<br/><br/>No current records from within the central Africa assessment region are available. Neighbouring regions of Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola are poorly explored. Therefore the species may prove to be more widespread than currently known. More data are needed to be able to assess the true status of the species.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known only from five records in two localities from Mwinilunga district, north-west Zambia, at fast streams of the upper Zambezi catchment (Pinhey 1984a).
59752		habitat	eng	Fast streams or waterfalls.
59752		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59752		threats	eng	No information available.
59753		conservation	eng	Since the species appears to be a specialist of rapids and cataracts, these habitats should be protected from destruction. More data should also be gathered on range and current population status.
59753		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Zambezi River, from Katima Mulilo (Namibia) to the rapids downstream Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe, Zambia), and one Zambezi River tributary (Pinhey 1984, Suhling <em>et al</em>. in press). Also from the Okavango River at Popa Falls in Namibia, and from the Kunene River at Epupa Falls in Namibia (Suhling <em>et al</em>. in press), and therefore is most likely also occur in Angola. The majority of the global range falls within the southern Africa region, however there is also one locality recorded from the Congo River basin in northern Zambia (Pinhey 1984a). All known localities are from rapids or waterfalls.
59753		habitat	eng	Large river cataracts and rapids. The larval stage occurs in sandy patches in rapids.
59753		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, but records are only of single specimens at one time and place, therefore the species may be rare.
59753		threats	eng	Human-induced habitat loss is the main inferred threat. Plans for dam construction for hydroelectric power plans at cataracts are a potential threat (e.g., at Epupa Falls and Popa Falls).
59754		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable
59754		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities from the middle Zambezi River, Zambia: Victoria Falls and Chirundu Bridge. The only known records are both old, with the species last being seen in 1962. At least one record is below Lake Kariba.
59754		habitat	eng	Found in and around rivers.
59754		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59754		threats	eng	No information available but the species may be threatened by the impoundment of large parts of the Zambezi River system (Lake Kariba).
59755		conservation	eng	No information available.
59755		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59755		conservation	eng	No information is available.
59755		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Uganda and Malawi no precise locality is known.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to western Africa.
59755		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Malawi to South Africa and Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon; for Equatorial Guinea and Zambia is assumed.
59755		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to Senegal.
59755		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia; the record from Cameroon (Tsuda) needs confirmation, and for Equatorial Guinea presence is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi; for Uganda and Malawi no precise locality is known. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in the tropical north and not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. So far it has not been recorded from Angola or Mozambique. This is most probably due to the species' crepuscular behaviour. In South Africa it is a highly localised species known only from Richards Bay (Pinhey 1985) and Sodwana Bay, but it is also likely to occur at Kosi Bay (Samways pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.
59755		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species occurs in the tropical north and not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. So far it has not been recorded from Angola or Mozambique. This is most probably due to the species' crepuscular behaviour. In South Africa it is a highly localised species known only from Richards Bay (Pinhey 1985) and Sodwana Bay, but it is also likely to also occur at Kosi Bay (Samways 2006). Globally, the species has been recorded from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to West Africa.
59755		habitat	eng	Standing water in or near forest.
59755		habitat	eng	Standing water in or near forest. In South Africa the species is confined to coastal swap (Samways 2006).
59755		habitat	eng	Standing water in or near trees, often forest.
59755		habitat	eng	The species is know from standing waters in or near forest. In South Africa it is confined to coastal swamp (Samways pers. comm.).
59755		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
59755		population	eng	No information available.
59755		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59755		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59755		threats	eng	Forest destruction is inferred to be a threat in parts of the species' range. Tree removal through urbanisation at Richards Bay and from small-farmer agriculture at Sodwana Bay threaten the population in South Africa (Samways 2006).
59755		threats	eng	None.
59755		threats	eng	The main threats to the to the population in South Africa are forest destruction in central and eastern Africa, and tree removal through urbanisation at Richards Bay and from small-farmer agriculture at Sodwana Bay&#160; (Samways pers. comm.). No information is available about threats outside this region.
59756		conservation	eng	Urgent studies are needed to evaluate the threats and determine the species' biology and population trends.
59756		distribution	eng	Central Chile, in the Metropolitana Region.
59756		habitat	eng	Streams, springs, and steep-sloped and spring seeps where females oviposit.
59756		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59756		threats	eng	Destruction of habitat by diversion of streams and springs for irrigation, mining, grazing, and recreational development.
59757		conservation	eng	Urgent studies are needed to evaluate the threats, determine distribution area, presence in protected areas, biology, and population densities and trends.
59757		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Chile, in the Metropolitana and Maule Regions.
59757		habitat	eng	Streams, springs, and steep-sloped and spring seeps where females oviposit.
59757		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59757		threats	eng	Destruction of habitat by diversion of streams and springs for irrigation, mining, grazing, and recreational development.
59758		conservation	eng	Populations in northern and western parts of range very likely threatened by human activity; eastern and southern populations protected by presence in natural parks (i.e. Parques Nacionales Tolhuaca, Lanín, Nahuel Huapi, Los Alerces; Muzón and von Ellenrieder 1999).
59758		distribution	eng	Occurs in central third of Chile, in Metropolitana, Bío-Bío, Araucania, and De Los Lagos regions, and western portion of Neuquen, Rio Negro and Chubut provinces in Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2005).
59758		habitat	eng	Upper end of small forested stream valleys. Carle (1996) indicated that larvae are typically found in streams less than 50 cm wide, under rocks and logs, wet or submerged. Larvae remain undescribed. Carle (1996) also reported that the majority of specimens of this species were collected while flying in a slightly undulating fashion at 0.3-1.5 m along forest paths near the upper end of small forested stream valleys. According to G. Fleck (pers. comm. 2004) the species flies only while the sun is shining; he observed male flight as linear, somewhat undulating vertically, rather fast and unidirectional over small rapid mountain streams, and one female flying rather fast, with some zigzags, 2-2.5 m above the stream, in a circular path returning to the same point after a few seconds. Known flight period extends from November to February (von Ellenrieder 2005).
59758		population	eng	The species appears to be common as it is found in over 20 locations.
59758		threats	eng	Mining, grazing, recreational development, diversion of streams and springs for irrigation, and deforestation (Carle 2005).
59759		conservation	eng	Likely present in at least one natural protected area (Parque Nacional Chiloé); surveys necessary to establish current distribution, trends and threats, and confirm presence within protected areas.
59759		distribution	eng	Occurs in central third of Chile, from Valparaiso Region south through Metropolitana, Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucania to De Los Lagos Region (von Ellenrieder 2005).
59759		habitat	eng	Small forest streams; flight recorded as slow and close to water surface, following narrow streams within forest (Jurzitza 1989); feeding flight observed during late afternoon over pasture lands (Dunkle 1985). Flight period extends from October to February based on collection data. The description of the larva by Schmidt (1941), so far the only one known for the genus, was based on specimens collected at "Comudes", and was presumed to belong to that species by association with adults collected at the same locality. I was unable to find out the exact location of Comudes in Chile, but I still consider the identity of the described larvae as tentative, since <em>Phyllopetalia apollo</em>, <em>P. pudu</em> and <em>P. stictica</em> are sympatric and the described larvae could belong to any of these three species (von Ellenrieder 2005).
59759		population	eng	Although known from ten locations, the habitat of this species is fragmented and further research is needed to understand the global population.
59759		threats	eng	Habitat alteration by fish introduction, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use (Carle 1996).
59760		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
59760		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59760		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from 2 localities in north west  Zambia (near Ikelenge, Isombo River in Mwinilunga province; both outside the central Africa region) and 1 locality from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo.
59760		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three specimens from two localities in the Upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia, and one from one locality from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga).
59760		habitat	eng	Unknown, probably riverine.
59760		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59760		threats	eng	Unknown.
59760		threats	eng	Unknown but deforestation may be a potential threat.
59761		conservation	eng	Confirmation of population size and trends is needed. Also, the stability of available habitat should be monitored.
59761		distribution	eng	Hispaniola.
59761		habitat	eng	Open rocky streams and rivers.
59761		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59761		threats	eng	Diversion of water for human use.
59762		conservation	eng	Confirmation of population size and trends is needed. Also, the stability of habitat should be monitored and more subpopulations should be sought.
59762		distribution	eng	Hispaniola.
59762		habitat	eng	Streams, perhaps restricted to higher elevations (680 m).
59762		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59762		threats	eng	Diversion of water for human uses.
59763		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to rediscover species, to establish its distribution range, habitat preferences, describe its biology and trends and evaluate threats.
59763		distribution	eng	The species is known only from male holotype, from Loreto department, Peru (Selys 1889).
59763		habitat	eng	No information is available; habitat, female and larva are unknown.
59763		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
59763		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
59764		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
59764		distribution	eng	<em>Protoneura capillaris</em> has been recorded from Cuba:<br/>- Oriente, Maffo (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Santiago de Cuba, Cuabitas (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Santiago de Cuba, Puerto de Boniato (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Pinar del Rio, Sora (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Las Villas, near Cienfuegos (Westfall 1964)
59764		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences are ponds and pools in woodland stream (Westfall 1964)
59764		population	eng	<em>P. capillaris</em> population numbers are not known.
59764		threats	eng	Deforestation, a serious environmental threat throughout the West Indies, is a continuing threat; the extent of recent deforestation on Cuba is unknown but is thought to be substantial. The Cuban environment has been severely altered in the almost 50 years of the present regime (http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/enviromental.crisis.html).  There is an indication that no primary forest remaining but the majority is modified natural forest, presumably selectively logged (http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Cuba.htm).
59765		conservation	eng	<em>P. sanguinipes</em> is not known to occur in any protected area. Further monitoring of known populations and the search for new ones is advised.
59765		distribution	eng	The species is found in Dominican Republic and has been recorded from Dajabón, Distrito Nacional and Maria Trinidad Sánchez.
59765		habitat	eng	The species has been found on one lowland stream, details not known. It is known to have a habit of ovipositing in sedges, rather than floating detritus (Westfall 1987), which is very unusual behaviour for <em>Protoneura</em>.
59765		population	eng	<em>P. sanguinipes</em> has been found in numbers in at least one location.
59765		threats	eng	Continued threats include deforestation in all of its forms and crop farming, including wood plantations.  There is no evidence in the literature to indicate whether forest is an essential habitat to this species, but it seems to be for most protoneurids.
59766		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality running waters.
59766		distribution	eng	Endemic of southwestern Arabia in the high costal mountains of the Red Sea, and in western Yemen.
59766		habitat	eng	High mountain streams.
59766		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59766		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution).
59767		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
59767		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59767		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from two localities in east Angola (Lutchigena River, east of Caianda) and southwest Zambia (Luapala River at Kasomeno), both in the Zambezi River catchment.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Gabon, and Kasomeno on the Middle Luapula River in Democratic Republic of Congo, close to the border with Zambia. Potentially present within the central Africa part of Angola.
59767		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Kasomeno, on the Middle Luapula River, in Zambia close to the border with the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from records from two widely spread localities in east Angola (Lutchigena River, east of Caianda) and southwest Zambia (Luapala River at Kasomeno), both in the Zambezi River catchment. It may have a wider distribution, but there are no data available to confirm this at present. It is a species that is easily overlooked.
59767		habitat	eng	Both records are from forested swamps.
59767		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59767		threats	eng	Unknown.
59768		conservation	eng	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, and watershed protection is needed, as well as research into the species population numbers and range.
59768		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, southern highlands, from former Kaffa province to the Bale Mountains, ranging between 1,700 and 2,600 m asl.
59768		habitat	eng	Forested, rocky streams with some open stretches.
59768		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59768		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a threat to this species.
59769		conservation	eng	Protection of forest habitat is needed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59769		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Vumba Mountains, eastern Zimbabwe. It has been recorded only from two sites (cf. Pinhey 1984a). It has not been collected again since 1957 (Pinhey 1984a). However, at least the Vumba mountains have been surveyed since then by Odonata specialists (most recently in 1997 by Paulson) and it has not been recorded.
59769		habitat	eng	Streams in montane bush or forest (Pinhey 1984a).
59769		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59769		threats	eng	Potential threats are deforestation, alien invasive trees, and alien invasive predatory fish (e.g., trout). Deforestation is inferred to be a threat to the species, based on general deforestation occurring in the region.
59770		conservation	eng	There is no national conservation effort directed to species at this time. A local group is currently engaged in the conservation of the species’ habitat. Unfortunately, there is no evidence that the species is still present at the site where it was originally discovered. It is extremely important to protect the remaining habitat at the only other site where this species occurs (Kawasan River) and to monitor the population there.
59770		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Risiocnemis seidenschwarzi</span> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Cebu Island. Previously the species was known only from a small section of a woody stream in Tabunan Forest, central Cebu, but that population may now be extinct. However, another population has been identified in the southern part of Cebu island (Kawasan  River), on a very small rivulet beside Kawasan  River, in a maximum area of 30x30 m on this 12 km river (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009). Searches of other areas on the island have not revealed this species, despite the presence of suitable habitat (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).
59770		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from a stream and a small rivulet, both in forested areas.
59770		population	eng	The species was last recorded in Tabunan Forest in March 2001, and since then no further sighting has been noted there. The population beside Kawasan  River appears to be stable (although further population studies are required to confirm this), with a usual count of 5–15 individuals per day for five days observation during November 2007, March 2009, and August 2009 (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).
59770		threats	eng	Forest clearance occurred at the Tabunan Forest site in 2000 and since then the only known habitat for the species in this area has deteriorated. Habitat deterioration is also occurring in Kawasan area. Almost all the forests on Cebu have been cleared and many brooks are now degraded. Human settlement is the main factor that has resulted in at least one population of <em>Risiocnemis seidenschwarzi</em> becoming extinct.
59771		distribution	eng	Central coastal cordillera in Venezuela.
59771		habitat	eng	Rocky, dark canyons in cloud forest. Found on steep rocks, with dense cover of <em>Dicranopygium</em> species (Cyclanthaceae), kept wet by seeping water.
59771		population	eng	Current population trend is unknown.
59771		threats	eng	Habitat retreat by clearing of forest for coffee and citrus plantations, forest fires, seeps and small streams disappearing (De Marmels 1999).
59772		conservation	eng	Known localities situated in a protected area (Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria). Surveys needed to establish biology and monitor trends and threats.
59772		distribution	eng	Occurs in eastern coastal cordillera in the Paria Peninsula of Venezuela (de Marmels 1994).
59772		habitat	eng	Habitat includes sombre, steep slopes which border rocky streams in cloud forest, larvae between rocks and leaf litter (de Marmels 1994).
59772		population	eng	The species occurs in a very small area and further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.
59772		threats	eng	Habitat is retreating by clearing of forest for coffee and citrus plantations; forest fires; seeps and small streams disappearing (de Marmels 1999).
59773		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.<br/>As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59773		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Only type locality is known: Rambode, Nuwara Eliya District.&#160; The species might be already extinct. Not present in any of the large odonatological collections from the island made by entomologist (not odonatologists!) in last 50 years (Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland), National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA), Lund University (Sweden) and University of Vienna (Austria)) Museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009. Also not found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).
59773		habitat	eng	Habitat unknown.  Only type male and female are known, larval form unknown.
59773		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct.
59773		threats	eng	The wider area of type locality was completely changed in last century. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).
59774		conservation	eng	Necessary conservation actions are the control of water pollution, removal of conifer plantations and restoration of deciduous forests combined with the creation or maintenance of non-wooded sunny areas, particularly in the bottom of valleys. Conservation of clear riparian forests, traditionally induced by extensive rearing of goats and sheep, is required, as well as conservation of riverine trees. Two rivers inhabited by this species are included in the Greek national Dadia Protected Area buffer zone.
59774		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora borisi</em> is a recently discovered species. Based on current knowledge of the species (Marinov 2001, Grebe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Boudot <em>et al</em>. 2004, Lopau 2005, Fleck <em>et al</em>. 2007) it is a strict endemic of the eastern Balkans occurring in the area that crosses the borders of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey. All 17 known inhabited stream systems fall within a 13,750 km² area within both the Eastern Rhodopes and the northern and southern foot-slopes of the Istranca range, the latter being an eastern continuity of the Rhodopes range. This area has a hot and humid climate and has much forest cover, which is used both for wood production and traditional extensive rearing of goats and sheep. A number of valleys, when not planted with conifers, are well preserved and have a great entomological and botanical richness.
59774		habitat	eng	The main habitat are forest rivers at places with low current and below 300 m above sea level. Larvae are able to survive the drought summer period in disconnected residual pools in river beds. However, the species does not reproduce in standing water.
59774		population	eng	Seventeen stream systems are presently known to be inhabited by this species. Based on exuviae collections, counting and extrapolation during and after emergence of adults, the species seems relatively abundant in some places (100-500), and relatively reduced in others (less than 50). A rough extrapolation estimates less than 10,000 adults per year.
59774		threats	eng	Most of the forest areas where this species occurs are currently extensively used for traditional rearing of goats and sheep, which result in a number of clearing areas. However, intensive conifer plantations have been grown in the past and such monospecific forest areas seem to be unfavourable for <em>S. borisi</em>. Monospecific plantations of <em>Robinia pseudacacia</em> are now developed on abandoned agricultural fields, which may reduce the availability of maturation and foraging areas. Additional conifer plantations, water pollution and stream drying in relation to global warming and abnormal summer drought may be a threat for this species in the future. As early as end July 2008, Greek localities visited showed only disconnected residual pools with no flowing water at all. With drought periods increasing in intensity, length and frequency, the species is at risk of extinction.
59775		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution area, habitat preferences, biology and trends, and to determine threats.
59775		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andean forest in Napo Pastaza province in Ecuador and Junin department in Peru (Kennedy 1940).
59775		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in forest; habitat requirements and larva unknown.
59775		population	eng	The species is known from three localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
59775		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
59776		conservation	eng	More research into taxonomy of this species would be valuable.
59776		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Equatorial Guinea.
59776		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
59776		population	eng	No information available.
59776		threats	eng	No major threats known.
59777		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, threats, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59777		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo only, listing for Nigeria must pertain to <em>P. serrulatum</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Bambesa (Uele).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species has only been recorded from Nigeria but this record is thought to belong to <em>P. serrulatum</em>.
59777		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59777		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
59777		threats	eng	None known at present.
59778		conservation	eng	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor. In future, special attention should be devoted to work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
59778		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka. Rare species. Recently known from only few localities in southwestern and central part of the island.
59778		habitat	eng	It inhabits small jungle pools along rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills.
59778		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but believed to be small and fragmented.
59778		threats	eng	Available habitat is under treat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
59779		conservation	eng	No information available.
59779		conservation	eng	No information available. Further searches for the species would help to confirm its range.
59779		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59779		distribution	eng	At global level, the species is present from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and West Africa; though has not been recorded yet, it is assumed to occur in Tanzania as well.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is recorded from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, there are records in Kenya, Tanzania (assumed), Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkatha Bay, Lake Malawi (Malawi); Budongo Forest or Murchinson National Park and Mabamba Bay, Lake Victoria (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it is known from the north-east (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). <br/><br/>In western Africa, it was recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria and Cameroon. It was listed for Senegal by Legrand (2003).
59779		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkatha Bay, L. Malawi (Malawi); Budongo Forest or Murchinson National Park and  Mabamba Bay, L. Victoria (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and western Africa; though not recorded yet, it is assumed to occur in Tanzania as well.
59779		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and Guinea-Bissau. Listed for Senegal by Legrand (2003). Although not recorded there yet, it is assumed that the species also occurs in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia.
59779		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria and Cameroon. Listed for Senegal by Legrand (2003).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and Guinea-Bissau.
59779		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, the species is known from the northeast (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). Globally, it is recorded from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and West Africa. It is assumed to occur in Tanzania.
59779		habitat	eng	It lives in swampy streams and pools in bush and woodland.
59779		habitat	eng	Reedy or grassy swamp, or swampy  pools in bush and woodland.
59779		habitat	eng	Swampy streams and pools in bush and woodland.
59779		habitat	eng	Swampy streams and pools in bush, woodland and forest.
59779		population	eng	Its population size is unknown.
59779		population	eng	Like most <em>Aciagrion</em>, this species seems to be very local.
59779		population	eng	No information available.
59779		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59779		threats	eng	No information available.
59779		threats	eng	No information available from much of its range.
59779		threats	eng	Unknown.
59781		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59781		conservation	eng	No information available.
59781		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population and range is required.
59781		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Burundi, and various records from Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique, likely to occur in Kenya as well.
59781		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Most records are from eastern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique), but from western Africa (west to Guinea) as well: confusion with <em>A. hamoni</em> must be resolved.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> There are no records from Central Africa, but occurrence in appropriate habitats likely.
59781		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Most records are from eastern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mocambique), but from western Africa (west to Gambia) as well: confusion with <em>A. hamoni</em> must be resolved.
59781		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique, likely to occur in Kenya as well. Most records are from eastern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Burundi), but a few are from western Africa (west to Guinea) as well. Confusion with <em>A. hamoni</em> must be resolved.<br/><br/>Within southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north. It may occur in the Caprivi, but it has not yet been recorded here. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present from Gambia, Cote D'Ivoire and Nigeria.<br/><br/>It has not been found in central Africa, but occurrence in appropriate habitats likely.
59781		distribution	eng	Within southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north. It may occur in the Caprivi, but it has not yet been recorded here. Globally, it has been recorded from north Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique. It is likely to also occur in Kenya.
59781		habitat	eng	Swampy streams and pools.
59781		population	eng	Current population size or trends are unknown.
59781		population	eng	No information available.
59781		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59781		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown, although drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are potential threats.
59781		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59781		threats	eng	None.
59781		threats	eng	Threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59782		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59782		conservation	eng	No information available.
59782		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59782		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and L. Nabugabo (both Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda to Ivory Coast.
59782		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described from a female holotype from western Cote d'Ivoire and its association with a male from north-east Congo-Kinshasa is dubious. western African records of this and the similar <em>A. gracile</em> must be reviewed as they may pertain to the same species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The records for Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo need confirmation.
59782		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cote d'Ivoire, Benin and Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The holotype from Cote d'Ivoire is associated with male from north east Democratic Republic of Congo: similar males seen by assessor from Benin. It is also reported from Ghana.
59782		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Recorded from western Africa (Benin and Cote d'Ivoire) and Uganda. Record from Ghana likely. Records for Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo need confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is described from a female holotype from western Cote d'Ivoire and its association with a male from north-east Congo-Kinshasa is dubious.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and Lake Nabugabo (both Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cote d'Ivoire, Benin and Ghana. However, western African records of this and the similar <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracile</span> must be reviewed as they may pertain to the  same species.
59782		habitat	eng	Swamps.
59782		population	eng	No information available.
59782		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59782		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59782		threats	eng	Threats identified are agriculture, wood extraction, groundwater abstraction and destruction of swampy habitats, and water pollution.
59782		threats	eng	Unknown.
59783		conservation	eng	No information available.
59783		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59783		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least one protected area (Kafue National Park). More research is required to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.
59783		conservation	eng	The species inhabits some protected areas and information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59783		distribution	eng	For unknown reasons, most species of the genus <em>Aciagrion</em> are rarely recorded. <em>A. heterostica</em> is known from only very few records in southern Africa; from northwest Zambia, with one single specimen recorded from Namibia (Zambezi River). Globally, it is recorded from Zambia, Namibia, south the Democratic Republic of Congo (most in the Zambezi River Basin) and Uganda. Outside of the southern Africa region, the species is also irregularly recorded.
59783		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Labwor Hills (Aremo, Karamoja District, north Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.
59783		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> A wider distribution in appropriate habitats are assumed, currently recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, occurrence in between and in Zambia and Angola most likely.
59783		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, a wider distribution in appropriate habitats is assumed. It has been currently recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Uganda, and it is likely to occur in between and in Angola.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Labwor Hills (Aremo, Karamoja District, north Uganda).<br/><br/>For unknown reasons, most species of the genus <em>Aciagrion</em> are rarely recorded in southern Africa. <em>A. heterostica</em> is known from only very few records in Southern Africa; from northwest Zambia, with one single specimen recorded from Namibia (Zambezi River).
59783		habitat	eng	Swamps.
59783		habitat	eng	Swamps (Pinhey 1984). Other than this, specific habitat is unknown.
59783		population	eng	No information available.
59783		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59783		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59783		threats	eng	Current specific threats are unknown.
59783		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59783		threats	eng	Threats identified are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution.
59784		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59784		conservation	eng	No information available.
59784		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59784		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kande, south of Nkathe Bay (Malawi), assumed to occur in Tanzania (Pinhey 1972).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi.
59784		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has  been recorded from Zambia, Botswana, Angola, Malawi, it is assumed to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania as well.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia; record southern Democratic Republic of Congo is likely, but needs confirmation. Probably also present in Angola.
59784		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi, and Tanzania assumed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in northern Zambia and north Angola, record from southern Democratic Republic of Congo is likely, but needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kande, south of Nkathe Bay (Malawi), and it is assumed to occur in Tanzania (Pinhey 1972).<br/><br/>Within southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Botswana (Okavango Delta).
59784		distribution	eng	Within southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Botswana (Okavango Delta). Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia, DRC, Botswana, Angola, and Malawi.
59784		habitat	eng	Swamps and reedy pools.
59784		habitat	eng	Swamps, reedy pools.
59784		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59784		population	eng	No information available.
59784		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59784		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59784		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59784		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59785		conservation	eng	Communication and education of awareness and capacity-building/training should be developed. Research required into the population numbers and range, and conservation measures for this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.
59785		conservation	eng	Conservation of the existing habitat for this species within North Africa is required.
59785		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place but policy-based actions, such as management plans, legislation on development and livelihood alternatives, would be valuable. Communication and education would be useful to increase awareness and research into population ecology and habitat maintenance is also needed.
59785		conservation	eng	No information available.
59785		conservation	eng	No information available. Awareness raising and capacity building is needed. Further research into the species population range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends and habitat conservation measures.
59785		distribution	eng	<em>Acisoma panorpoides</em> is widespread in Africa (except dense rain forest),  southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.
59785		distribution	eng	<em>Acisoma paorpoides</em> has a wide global range (sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands). In northern Africa it is an Afrotropical relict restricted to a few coastal wetlands in northeastern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menaï 1999). It is probably now extinct in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and there are no available data on populations in Egypt.
59785		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense rainforest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.
59785		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense rain forest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Uganda and Somalia assumed.
59785		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>The species is widespread in Africa (except dense rainforest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon; reported from Angola and Zambia, and expected in appropriate habitats in the Central African Republic and Gabon as well.
59785		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Cameroon, Central Africa and Chad<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (except deep in rainforest and desert) and Asia; isolated presence in north east Algeria.
59785		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Africa (except from dense rainforests), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia, and it is expected to occur in appropriate habitats in Congo, Central African Republic and Gabon as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where the species is considered common and widespread (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, this Afrotropical relict is restricted to a few coastal wetlands in northeastern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menaï 1999). It is probably now extinct in Libya, and there are no available data on populations in Egypt.<br/><br/>In the northeastern Africa region, the species has been recorded from Egypt and Ethiopia, and its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread. It is very rare in the arid southwest, and does not occur in the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Senegal and Gambia to Cameroon, Central African Republic and Chad.
59785		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread. It is very rare in the arid southwest, and does not occur in the Cape. Globally, the species has a very wide range in Africa (except dense rain forest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands. In Africa, only the subspecies <em>Acisoma panorpoides ascalaphoides</em> Rambur, 1842 occurs.
59785		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater marshes and dune slacks (Samraoui and Corbet 2000a).
59785		habitat	eng	Swampy and well-vegetated open habitats.
59785		habitat	eng	Swampy open habitats.
59785		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known. However, this species is very widespread and is not believed to be threatened.
59785		population	eng	In northern Africa, this species has never been abundant and has a restricted range.
59785		population	eng	No information available.
59785		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59785		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a cause of threat to the species.
59785		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a potential threat in some parts of its range.
59785		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a threat
59785		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a threat.
59785		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a threat in parts of its range. However, this is not a serious threat across its whole range.
59785		threats	eng	None.
59785		threats	eng	Water extraction and habitat modifications: pollution, fish introduction, overgrazing (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1992, Belair and Samraoui 1994).
59786		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59786		conservation	eng	No information available.
59786		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59786		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Okavango and Zambia basins in south Angola and northwest Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Uganda to West Africa. Records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not yet confirmed.
59786		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread and common in Uganda, occurrence in Burundi assumed, west Tanzania (records not confirmed), and likely in west Kenya (records not confirmed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Uganda to western Africa, records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.
59786		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Zambia, Uganda to western Africa, records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from entire region and all countries.
59786		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Gambia; records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.
59786		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Uganda to West Africa, records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species has been recorded from all the countries.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is widespread and common in Uganda, and its occurrence in Burundi is assumed. Records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Okavango and Zambia basins in south Angola and northwest Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it was found in Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria.
59786		habitat	eng	Swamp areas in bush and forest.
59786		habitat	eng	Swamps in bush and forest.
59786		habitat	eng	Swamps in bush, forest.
59786		population	eng	No information available.
59786		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59786		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59786		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59786		threats	eng	No information available.
59786		threats	eng	None.
59786		threats	eng	Threats to the species are agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.
59788		conservation	eng	No information available.
59788		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
59788		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends should be monitored.
59788		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, the species is recorded from Zimbabwe and Angola to Kenya and Uganda.
59788		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda.
59788		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Africa: Uganda and Kenya southwards (Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Tanzania) to South Africa (occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba province) and expected in eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo because of records from Bwindi National Park in western Uganda. (Also present within Angola and Zambia).
59788		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda and Kenya southwards (Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Tanzania) to South Africa (occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed). It has also been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba province) and expected to be present in eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo due to records from Bwindi National Park in western Uganda.
59788		habitat	eng	Highland streams, often in forest.
59788		habitat	eng	Recorded from highland streams, often in forest.
59788		population	eng	No information available.
59788		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
59788		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59788		threats	eng	Forest destruction and river pollution.
59788		threats	eng	Forest destruction and river pollution are inferred threats.
59788		threats	eng	Forest destruction, river pollution.
59788		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are forest destruction, dams and river pollution.
59789		conservation	eng	No information available.
59789		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
59789		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59789		conservation	eng	The species is not known from protected areas. More data are required on range, population status and specific threats.
59789		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is known from two collections in northwest Zambia. Globally, the species occurs in Uganda and north-west Zambia to south-east Nigeria.
59789		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Budongo Forest and forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Nigeria.
59789		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda west to Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (e.g., as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. wittei</span> from Mwene Ditu and Elisabethville) and Cameroon.
59789		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from mount Kupe in Cameroon and south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, western Tanzania, north Zambia, Katanga, Cameroon and south-east Nigeria (Vick 1996; Chelmick 2001; Dijkstra unpubl.).
59789		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda and north Zambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (e.g., as <em>A. wittei</em> from Mwene Ditu and Elisabethville) and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Budongo Forest and forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is known from two collections in north-west Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is only known from mount Kupe in Cameroon and south east Nigeria.
59789		habitat	eng	Forest streams and rivers bordered by dense vegetation.
59789		habitat	eng	Forest streams and rivers bordered by dense vegetation (Pinhey 1984a).
59789		habitat	eng	Forest streams deeply shaded by dense vegetation.
59789		population	eng	No information available.
59789		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59789		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59789		threats	eng	Deforestation and water pollution.
59789		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat. Water pollution is not considered a threat within the known range in southern Africa at present.
59789		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59789		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are deforestation and water pollution.
59790		conservation	eng	No information available.
59790		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and potential threats.
59790		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status and potential threats, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59790		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi (lack of confirmed records, nevertheless, the species seems to be common).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and likely in Mozambique.
59790		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it is recorded from Zambia (upper Zambezi and Congo basin), Angola, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and may also occur in Mozambique (to be confirmed here). The record from Nigeria (Medler 1980) requires confirmation too.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records from Angola, northern Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.
59790		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from unknown location in Nigeria, probably Jos Plateau (Dijkstra pers comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola, Malawi and Katanga; isolated records from Nigeria.
59790		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia (upper Zambezi and Congo basin), Angola, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and may also occur in Mozambique, where is occurrence needs to be confirmed. It is widespread in eastern and southern Africa. The record from Nigeria (Medler 1980) requires confirmation too.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in northern Zambia, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it known from records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is relatively widespread. It is known from Zambia (upper and middle Zambezi catchment) and Angola (upper Zambezi). It may also occur in Mozambique, although this has to be confirmed. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is reported from an unknown location in Nigeria, probably Jos Plateau (Dijkstra pers. Comm.).
59790		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zambia (upper and middle Zambesi catchment) and Angola (upper Zambesi). It may also occur in Mozambique, but this has to be confirmed. Globally, it is recorded from Zambia (upper Zambesi and Congo basin), Angola, Malawi, DRC, and may also occur in Mozambique.
59790		habitat	eng	Probably open swamps on the savannah.
59790		habitat	eng	Swamps and reedy pools (Pinhey 1984).
59790		habitat	eng	Swamps and reedy pools (Pinhey 1984a).
59790		habitat	eng	Swamps, reedy pools.
59790		population	eng	No information available.
59790		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, but noted as locally common (Pinhey 1984).
59790		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, but noted as locally common (Pinhey 1984a).
59790		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59790		threats	eng	No information available.
59790		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown but water pollution is an inferred threat.
59790		threats	eng	The area of the plateau has a lot of vegetable farming with the use of agrochemicals. However the impacts of this upon the species is unknown.
59790		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations as well as human settlement and water pollution.
59791		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59791		conservation	eng	No information available.
59791		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from  Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record for Uganda (see Pinhey 1961), the systematics of the genus <em>Aethiothemis</em> are yet to be solved.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is belived to be in Uganda, Nigeria and westwards.
59791		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the savannah belt from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria, also recorded from Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record in Congo. Since the northern areas of Cameroon and the Central African Republic have hardly been surveyed, this species is likely to occur in the area as well.
59791		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Savannah belt from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria, possibly further east.
59791		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Savannah belt from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria and Uganda, also recorded from Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, since the northern areas of Cameroon and Central African Republic have hardly been surveyed, this species is likely to occur in the area as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record for Uganda (see Pinhey 1961), the systematics of the genus <em>Aethiothemis</em> are yet to be solved.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from an old record from Ethiopia is uncertain. Listed NA until presence or absence is confirmed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad.
59791		habitat	eng	No information available.
59791		habitat	eng	Probably open swamps, e.g. in savannah.
59791		habitat	eng	Probably open swamps, e.g., in savannah.
59791		population	eng	No information available.
59791		threats	eng	No information available.
59792		conservation	eng	No information available.
59792		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59792		conservation	eng	Research actions in place and needed.
59792		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango River basins in Angola, Botswana, Namibia and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola (Congo and Zambezi Rivers), Botswana, Namibia, Zambia (Congo and Zambezi Rivers), DRC, and Uganda. It may also occur in Tanzania and Malawi.
59792		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: confirmed record only from Ajai (nw Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Angola, Zambia, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, and likely in Tanzania and Malawi.
59792		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Angola (Congo and Zambezi),  Botswana, Namibia,  Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River), Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Uganda<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and northern Zambia.
59792		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Uganda and Botswana.
59792		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola (Congo and Zambezi River), Botswana, Namibia, Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River), Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Malawi and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known from records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (confirmed record only from Ajai in north west Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango River basins in Angola, Botswana, Namibia and Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad.
59792		habitat	eng	Open swamps.
59792		habitat	eng	Reedy swamps.
59792		habitat	eng	Reedy swamps often along rivers.
59792		habitat	eng	Reedy swamps often found along rivers.
59792		population	eng	No information available.
59792		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59792		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown.
59792		threats	eng	No information available.
59792		threats	eng	None.
59792		threats	eng	Unknown.
59793		conservation	eng	Communication and education about this species is needed, as is research into trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also required.
59793		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59793		conservation	eng	No information available.
59793		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of population trends is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59793		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas, and Madagascar. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
59793		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region southwards to coastal Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa (except in rain forest areas) and in Madagascar.
59793		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas, Madagascar.
59793		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, and Zambia.
59793		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas, and Madagascar.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from one locality in Kenya in the region. A wider occurrence in the region is likely.
59793		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Benin and possibly to Cameroon and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert.
59793		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in rainforest areas. Also present on Madagascar.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia, and expected to be present in Congo and Cameroon as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (Burundi presence needs to be confirmed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is expected to have a wider occurrence.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region southwards to coastal Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Benin, and possibly also present in Cameroon and Chad.
59793		habitat	eng	Pools, slow streams and rivers, lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.
59793		habitat	eng	Reedy pools, slow streams and rivers, and lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.
59793		population	eng	No information available.
59793		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59793		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59793		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown.
59793		threats	eng	No information available.
59793		threats	eng	None.
59793		threats	eng	None known.
59793		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations, and water pollution.
59794		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59794		conservation	eng	No information available.
59794		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, and population range, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59794		conservation	eng	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, and habitat status.
59794		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola through Zimbabwe and Zambia to Mozambique and eastern South Africa. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, this is a common and widespread in eastern and southern Africa.
59794		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Burundi, Somalia and Rwanda is assumed. The southern records are assumed to belong to <em>A. fractum</em>, which was erroneously synonymized earlier (Dijkstra and May, unpublished): Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Mozambiqe, Malawi, Angola. <br/><br/>There is wide distribution in the given range and there is also confusion with <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> (see also May 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia; likely to be present in Democratic Republic of Congo.
59794		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Somalia, though the latter needs confirmation. For southern Sudan presence is assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Burundi, Somalia and Rwanda assumed. The southern records are assumed to belong to A. Fractum, which was erroneously synonymised earlier (Dijkstra and May, unpublished): Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern southern Africa, Mozambique, Malawi, Angola.
59794		distribution	eng	The Slender Bluet (<em>Africallagma elongatum</em>) is common and widespread in Uganda, northern Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya; its occurrence in Burundi, Somalia and Rwanda is assumed. The southern records are assumed to belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fractum</span>, which previously was erroneously synonymised (Dijkstra and May unpub. data): Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Mozambique, Malawi, and Angola. There is wide distribution in the given range and there is also confusion with <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> (see also May 1997).
59794		habitat	eng	Swamps, reedy streams, pools and lake shores, often in highlands.
59794		habitat	eng	The Slender Bluet occurs in swamps, reedy streams, pools and lake shores, often in highlands.
59794		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59794		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59794		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59794		threats	eng	No information available.
59794		threats	eng	None known.
59794		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and groundwater extractions, and water pollution.
59795		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59795		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into population range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59795		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place and none are recommended at present.
59795		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
59795		conservation	eng	Research required into the species population trends and range, and habitat status.
59795		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but is not yet recorded from Angola. Globally, it is widespread in Africa.
59795		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
59795		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This is one of the commonest species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa. In western Africa only recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria. The species has not been recorded yet from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo, but occurrence likely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records of Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence in Angola and other central Africa countries is likely.
59795		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Mt. Kenya in the northeastern Africa assessment region, and a wider distribution in northern Kenya and southern Sudan is likely.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species one of the commonest species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa. In West Africa only recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria. Not yet recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo, but occurrence likely.
59795		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria, but this must be confirmed. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is one of the commonest Odonata species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa.
59795		distribution	eng	The species is one of the commonest species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa. In western Africa, it has only been recorded from the north of Ghana and listed in Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo yet, but it is likely to occur there too.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species is recorded from Zambia, and assumed in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Ghana and Liberia need confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Mount Kenya in the northeastern Africa assessment region, and a wider distribution in northern Kenya and southern Sudan is suspected, hence the species is listed as Data Deficient until more surveys are available.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in southern Africa, however, it has not been recorded from Angola yet.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it has only been recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria, although this information must be confirmed.
59795		habitat	eng	Pools and streams in bush in open and often arid country.
59795		habitat	eng	Pools, marsh and streams in open country.
59795		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown. However, this is a very widespread species.
59795		population	eng	Not applicable.
59795		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59795		threats	eng	No current threats are known to be affecting the species.
59795		threats	eng	No information available.
59795		threats	eng	None.
59795		threats	eng	None known.
59795		threats	eng	Not applicable.
59795		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations, groundwater extraction, and water pollution.
59796		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59796		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59796		distribution	eng	<em>Africallagma pseudelongatum</em> is a common and widespread in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda. Its occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed. Records in Tanzania need confirmation due to erroneously treating <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> as a synonym of <em>A. elongatum</em> for a long time.<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from central and north-eastern Africa yet, but it is likely to occur in the eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo and the northern slopes of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares in Kenya.
59796		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda. Its occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed. Records in Tanzania need confirmation due to erroneously treating <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> as a synonym of <em>A. elongatum</em> for a long time.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo.
59796		habitat	eng	Swampy areas, often in forest and highlands.
59796		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59796		threats	eng	No information available.
59796		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.
59797		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59797		conservation	eng	No information available.
59797		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population, range and threats is required.
59797		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in Zambia and Zimbabwe. There are few records from South Africa. Globally, it is known from South Africa through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Tanzania and south DRC.
59797		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Ufipa Plateau (s.Tanzania), Malawi. Malawi specimen, described as Africallagma sinuatum f. fugax (Pinhey, 1962) differ significantly from A. sinuatum (Ris, 1921) and will become a good species (May and Dijkstra in prep.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania and south Democratic Republic of Congo.
59797		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania and south Democratic Republic of Congo, also recorded from Ethiopia, occurrence in Kenya and Mozambique likely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.
59797		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Tanzania and south Democratic Republic of Congo, also recorded from Ethiopia. It is likely to occurs in Kenya and Mozambique.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it was found in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Ufipa Plateau (south Tanzania).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Ethiopia by Dumont (1983), but later specimens were re-identified as <em>A. elongatum</em>. <br/><br/>There are few records from South Africa, where this species is widespread in Zambia and Zimbabwe.
59797		habitat	eng	Swampy streams, rivers, and pools.
59797		habitat	eng	Swampy streams, rivers, pools.
59797		habitat	eng	Swampy streams, rivers, pools. A highland/upland species.
59797		population	eng	No information available.
59797		population	eng	No information is available on population size and trends.
59797		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59797		threats	eng	No information available.
59797		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to agriculture, groundwater extraction, and water pollution.
59797		threats	eng	There is no information available on current threats to the species.
59798		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59798		conservation	eng	No information available.
59798		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, population, range and threats is required.
59798		conservation	eng	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, and habitat status.
59798		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern tropical parts of the region. It has not yet been recorded from Angola, but is very likely to be there since the Namibian records are from the Angolan border. Globally, this species has been recorded from Botswana and Namibia through Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal.
59798		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (occurrence in Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal.
59798		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal. Occurrence in Angola likely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia. Occurrence in Angola and Congo likely.
59798		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal. Occurrence in Angola likely.
59798		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known west to Senegal. Probably the only widespread Africallagma in the west (numerous species in eastern Africa).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal.
59798		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia, west to Senegal and east to Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known to be widespread and common in Kenya, Tanzania, Ugandaand Malawi. Occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern tropical parts of the region. It has not yet been recorded from Angola, but is very likely to be there since the Namibian records are from the Angolan border.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from West to Senegal.
59798		habitat	eng	Streams, pools (including temporary), and swampy rivers.
59798		habitat	eng	Streams, pools, swampy rivers.
59798		habitat	eng	Streams, pools, swampy rivers, but absent from dense rainforest areas such as the Congo Basin.
59798		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
59798		population	eng	No information available.
59798		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59798		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59798		threats	eng	No information available.
59798		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, dam construction, and water pollution.
59799		conservation	eng	No information available.
59799		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59799		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
59799		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is known only from one record in northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). The percentage of the global population occurring within southern Africa is not known, but is estimated to be below 5% of the global range based on current knowledge. Globally, the species is known from Zambia, DRC, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya.
59799		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various forest localities in Uganda, west Kenya, reocord form Tanzania only from literature (Pinhey 1984), occurrence in Burundi assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya.
59799		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> northwest Zambia, occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Only known from northwest Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.
59799		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from the upper Zambesi catchment, and its occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it was recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various forest localities in Uganda, west Kenya; record form Tanzania only from literature (Pinhey 1984). Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from one record in northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). The percentage of the global population occurring within southern Africa is not known, but is estimated to be below 5% of the global range based on current knowledge.
59799		habitat	eng	?forest.
59799		habitat	eng	Forest.
59799		habitat	eng	Grassy verges of streams, lakes or pools (Pinhey 1984).
59799		habitat	eng	This species is likely to inhabit forested areas.
59799		population	eng	No information available.
59799		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59799		population	eng	Population size or trends are unknown.
59799		threats	eng	Current specific threats are unknown.
59799		threats	eng	No information available.
59799		threats	eng	The known threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.
59800		conservation	eng	If new records of this species appear, the corresponding localities should be put under integral protection.
59800		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat maintenance and the establishment of protected areas is also required.
59800		conservation	eng	No information available.
59800		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place, and none are recommended at present.
59800		distribution	eng	<em>Agriocnemis exilis</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, with its northernmost range recorded in northern Africa. It has been recorded only once in northern Egypt in 1911-1912 (Port-Said, Martin, 1915). If this record is valid, the occurrence of this Afrotropical species, of which the nearest published localities are in the upper Nile system in southern Sudan, underline once more the well known role of the Nile in the penetration of Afrotropical aquatic animals in the Palearctic up to the African Mediterranean coast. On the other hand, either a label error or a confusion with the Levantine species <em>Agriocnemis sania</em> Nielsen, 1959 cannot be excluded.
59800		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries, but is not found in the Cape, western parts of South Africa and southernmost parts of Namibia. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest regions.
59800		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Regional distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is widespread except in rainforest regions.
59800		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa widespread except rainforest regions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia. In respect of the overall wide distribution in Africa, its occurrence in other central Africa countries is assumed.
59800		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, occurrence for Sudan assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in sub-Saharan Africa widespread except rainforest regions.
59800		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from senegal to Nigeria and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except deep in rainforest or desert, known throughout west Africa.
59800		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from sub-Saharan Africa, where it is widespread except from rainforest regions.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia. In respect of the overall wide distribution in Africa, its occurrence in other central African countries assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its distribution in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/><em>Agriocnemis exilis</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, with its northernmost range recorded in northern Africa. It has been recorded only once in northern Egypt in 1911-1912 (Port-Said, Martin, 1915). If this record is valid, the occurrence of this Afrotropical species, of which the nearest published localities are in the upper Nile system in southern Sudan, underline once more the well known role of the Nile in the penetration of Afrotropical aquatic animals in the Palearctic up to the African Mediterranean coast. On the other hand, either a label error or a confusion with the Levantine species <em>Agriocnemis sania</em> Nielsen, 1959 cannot be excluded.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. Its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in all countries of southern Africa, but it is not found in the Cape, western parts of South Africa and southernmost parts of Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Senegal to Nigeria and Chad.
59800		habitat	eng	Grassy pools and swamps.
59800		habitat	eng	Swamps, swampy pools and rivers.
59800		habitat	eng	Swampy areas, grassy fringes of ponds, pools, and backwaters of slow-flowing streams.
59800		population	eng	No information available.
59800		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59800		population	eng	Only a single record is known from the Palearctic, on the eastern side of the Nile delta. This record was never renewed nor confirmed. If it existed in northern Africa, it is possibly now extinct there.
59800		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59800		threats	eng	Agriculture expansion and intensification in the Nile delta, with increase in pollution and habitat destruction.
59800		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59800		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to pollution are threats to the species.
59800		threats	eng	None.
59800		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species.
59801		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into threats and population trends would be valuable.
59801		conservation	eng	No information available.
59801		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known at present.
59801		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Angola and Natal.
59801		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Angola, Natal. Namibia, South Africa, and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it was found in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, presence in Angola assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is considered common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from northern Kenya, and a record from Sudan (Tsuda) that needs verification. It is likely to be present in southern Sudan and Uganda. <br/><br/>This species occurs in humid tropical parts of the southern Africa region. Recorded from northwestern Angola and eastern coastal South Africa. In South Africa, it currently is known only from two populations: Mtunzini and Umbogavango, in coastal Kwazulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press).
59801		distribution	eng	This species occurs in humid tropical parts of the southern Africa region. It has not yet been recorded from Angola, but is likely to be there. In South Africa, it currently is known only from two populations: Mtunzini and Umbogavango, in coastal KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species is recorded from Kenya to Namibia and South Africa, and Madagascar.
59801		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats.
59801		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, particularly fringes of rivers and in river floodplains.
59801		population	eng	No information available.
59801		population	eng	No information is available on current population size or trends. In South Africa (its southernmost range) the only two known populations are both small (Samways 2006 in press).
59801		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59801		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59801		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59801		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are main threats to the species.
59802		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but population trend monitoring would be valuable.
59802		conservation	eng	No information available.
59802		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59802		conservation	eng	Research needed for trends/monitoring for this species.
59802		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in west Kenya and Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan.
59802		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Djibouti to Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo only.
59802		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Djibouti to Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, listed for Djibouti by Tsuda (needs verification) and assumed for Sudan and Uganda.
59802		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan. Recorded from eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Djibouti to Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda, and Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in west Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, listed for Djibouti by Tsuda (needs verification) and assumed for Sudan and Uganda.
59802		habitat	eng	Swamps, swampy lakes and rivers
59802		habitat	eng	Swamps, swampy lakes and rivers.
59802		population	eng	No information available.
59802		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59802		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59802		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are main threats to the species.
59803		conservation	eng	No information available.
59803		conservation	eng	No information available. Further information on the species ecology, habitats, distribution and threats are required.
59803		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59803		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59803		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread in the forested parts of Africa, from Uganda to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea.
59803		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known West to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in forested part of Africa, from Uganda to Senegal.
59803		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in forested parts of Africa, from Uganda to Senegal. In central Africa, recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. Recorded from a number of forest localities in Uganda, and present in western Africa west to Senegal.
59803		habitat	eng	Swampy forests.
59803		habitat	eng	Swampy spots in forests.
59803		population	eng	No information available.
59803		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59803		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
59803		threats	eng	Deforestation, but is thought to be tolerant to disturbance.
59803		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59803		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats, and deforestation.
59803		threats	eng	The known threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations, water pollution, and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59804		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, range and population is required.
59804		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Bwindi, western Uganda (Papyrus swamps in Victoria basin). It has not been recorded from the central Africa region, but it is likely to be found in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
59804		habitat	eng	A specialist of papyrus swamps.
59804		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59804		threats	eng	At present the habitat is not threatened. However, drainage (e.g., for agriculture or industry), urbanization and fire are potential threats to the habitat and therefore could affect the species. Water pollution is known to be a threat to the species.
59805		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59805		conservation	eng	No information available.
59805		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59805		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the eastern part of the region, from Natal to Zambia and Mozambique. Globally, it is recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Tanzania. It has not been recorded in Malawi.
59805		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy highlands around Sao Hill (Tanzania), (occurrence assumed in Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania, not recorded in Malawi.
59805		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania, not recorded in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is present in northern Zambia and south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
59805		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Tanzania, not recorded in Malawi but assumed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia and south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>Records in eastern Africa are in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy highlands around Sao Hill (Tanzania), although occurrence assumed in Malawi.<br/><br/>This species occurs in the eastern part of the southern African region, from Natal to Zambia and Mozambique.
59805		habitat	eng	Swamps.
59805		population	eng	No information available.
59805		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59805		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59805		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59805		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats through agriculture and wood plantations. Water pollution is also a threat.
59805		threats	eng	Unknown.
59806		conservation	eng	If new records of this species reappears in northern Africa, the corresponding localities should be put under integral protection.
59806		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable, as well as sited management.
59806		conservation	eng	No information available.
59806		conservation	eng	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also required.
59806		distribution	eng	<em>Agriocnemis sania</em> has a global range that extends from East Africa to the Levant and southwest Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. In Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, the species is regarded as an early holocene pluvial relict.
59806		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Kenya to Ethiopia and middle East. In east Africa the species has been recorded from the shores of Lake Turkana and springs at Lake Bogoria (both in Kenya).
59806		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: shores of L. Turkana and springs at L. Bogoria (both Kenya).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Ethiopia and middle East.
59806		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Ethiopia and middle East.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from the shores of Lake Turkana and springs at Lake Bogoria (both in Kenya), from Ethiopia and Egypt.
59806		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Ethiopia and the Middle East.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is found in Kenya (shores of Lake Turkana and springs at Lake Bogoria),Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In the northern African region in Libya, the species is regarded as an early holocene pluvial relict; regarded as extinct from former range in Libya (Boudot pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was also recorded from Ethiopia and Egypt.<br/><br/>The species is not currently known from western Africa, but it may be present in oases of north of Chad and Niger.
59806		habitat	eng	Lake shores and pools in arid areas.
59806		habitat	eng	Oases, pools and streams
59806		population	eng	No information available.
59806		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59806		population	eng	The single population from Palearctic Africa was recorded in the Ghat Oasis (southwest Libyan Arab Jamahiriya); this is the type locality for the species. It is now extinct in this region due to the introduction of American mosquitofish <em>Gambusia</em> species as a tool against paludism (the fish predates on the larvae of the <em>Anopheles</em> mosquitoes).
59806		threats	eng	Drainage.
59806		threats	eng	The primary threat that cause the extinction of <em>A. affinis</em> in the region was the introduction of the predatory <em>Gambusia</em> fish. Pollution and destruction of habitat also contributed to population declines.
59806		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to drainage of its habitat.
59807		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59807		conservation	eng	No information available.
59807		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Botswana though the Caprivi to eastern Angola and northern Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda to Botswana and West Africa.
59807		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various records from swampy habitats in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Botswana and west Africa.
59807		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in Uganda to Botswana and Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is present in Angola, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia.
59807		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Botswana and Senegal.
59807		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Botswana and west Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is know from Uganda to Botswana and Senegal.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been reported from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (various records from swampy habitats), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>The record by Tsuda for Sudan (northeastern Africa) needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Botswana though the Caprivi to eastern Angola and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present from Cameroon to Senegal.
59807		habitat	eng	Swamps.
59807		population	eng	No information available.
59807		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59807		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59807		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59807		threats	eng	None.
59807		threats	eng	The species is threatened by drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and infrastructure development. Water pollution is also a threat.
59807		threats	eng	Unknown.
59808		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59808		conservation	eng	No information available.
59808		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59808		conservation	eng	Research required into the species population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation also required.
59808		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Murchinson National Park and near Laropi Ferry, Albert Nile (both northern Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Uganda and Sudan to Senegal.
59808		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north-west Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia: a larger Sahelian range, i.e. in more arid zone than other African Agriocnemis. Record from Angola unlikely.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species was listed by Tsuda for Sudan. This record needs confirmation. May also occur in Kenya as well.
59808		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in north-west Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia: a larger Sahelian range, i.e. in more arid zone than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis</span>. Record from Angola unlikely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species has only recorded from the northern arid areas in central Africa (Cameroon and the Central African Republic); occurrence in northern Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.
59808		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Niger to Mauritania: a larger Sahelian range, i.e., in more arid zone than other western African <em>Agriocnemis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from North-west Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia.
59808		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northwest Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia: a larger Sahelian range, i.e., in more arid zone than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis</span>. Record from Angola unlikely. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from the northern arid areas in central Africa, occurrence in northern Democratic Republic of Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Murchinson National Park and near Laropi Ferry, Albert Nile (both northern Uganda)<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan. This record needs confirmation and the species is listed NA for the time being. Might occur in Kenya as well.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Niger to Mauritania: a larger Sahelian range, i.e. in more arid zone than other western African <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis</span>.
59808		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools in arid country.
59808		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools in open, often dry, country.
59808		population	eng	No information available.
59808		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59808		threats	eng	Drainage.
59808		threats	eng	None.
59808		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, urban development and drainage, as well as water pollution.
59809		conservation	eng	No information available.
59809		conservation	eng	No information available, but research and site management are needed.
59809		conservation	eng	None in place. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed.
59809		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Its inferred occurrence in Angola is currently unproven (no localities are known). Globally, the species is recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia and Madagascar.
59809		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread but uncommon in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar.
59809		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread in the Afrotropical realm: South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar and west to Sierra Leone and Nigeria. Never common and likely to occur in all countries in between the mentioned countries.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species present in Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
59809		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in the afrotropical realm: South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar and west to Sierra Leone and Nigeria. Never common and likely to occur in all countries in between the mentioned countries.
59809		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Presence in west Africa uncertain, with uncertain listings for Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar.
59809		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar, and west to Sierra Leone and Nigeria. Never common but likely to occur in all countries in between the mentioned countries.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is widespread but uncommon in Kenya, Tanzania (Rufiji Delta in Tanzania, according to Clausnitzer pers. comm.), Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (distribution assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is known from Ethiopia and Kenya. Its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Its inferred occurrence in Angola is currently unproven (no localities are known). <br/><br/>Its presence in western Africa (listed for Sierra Leona and Nigeria) is uncertain.
59809		habitat	eng	Adults are encountered in savannah, bush or forest. Nothing is known about the larval habitat, perhaps streams and rivers and/or swamps in woodland or forest.
59809		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the larval habitat. Either streams and rivers and/or swamps in woodland or forest.
59809		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the larval habitat, most likely streams and rivers.
59809		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the larval habitat. Occurs in either streams and rivers and/or swamps in woodland or forest.
59809		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59809		population	eng	No information available.
59809		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59809		threats	eng	Agriculture and water pollution.
59809		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
59809		threats	eng	No information.
59809		threats	eng	No information available.
59809		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and water pollution.
59810		conservation	eng	No information available.
59810		conservation	eng	None in place. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed.
59810		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is known only from two records from central Mozambique. It is expected to be more widespread in the region than currently known. Globally, it is known from Mozambique, Malawi, northern Zambia (outside the southern Africa region), Uganda, westwards to Sierra Leone.
59810		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkatha Bay (Malawi), unknown locality in Uganda (assumed from Kampala area), occurrence in Tanzania assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda to Sierra Leone.
59810		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda to Sierra Leone. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
59810		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong>  The species is only reported for Sierra Leone (Green 1979; specimen identified by Gambles), Cote d'Ivoire (Lindley 1974) and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records throughout Africa (Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria).
59810		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and from Uganda to Sierra Leone. Records are extremely scattered from southwestern Africa to Mozambique, including the Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>Records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (unknown locally, assumed from Kampala area), Malawi (Nkatha Bay) and Burundi. Its occurrence in Tanzania is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is known only from two records from central Mozambique. It is expected to be more widespread in the region than currently known. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it has only been reported for Sierra Leone (Green 1979; specimen identified by Gambles), Cote d'Ivoire (Lindley 1974) and Nigeria.
59810		habitat	eng	Not much is known about larval habitats: possibly rivers and lakes.
59810		habitat	eng	Not much is known on larval habitats. Possibly rivers and lakes.
59810		habitat	eng	Not much is known on larval habitats, ?rivers and ?lakes.
59810		habitat	eng	Probably swamps.
59810		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59810		population	eng	No information available.
59810		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59810		threats	eng	Agriculture, logging and pollution.
59810		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
59810		threats	eng	No information available.
59810		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.
59811		conservation	eng	Managing and conserving seasonal ponds which are somewhat neglected in North Africa. The temporary ponds house a rich fauna (zooplankton, large branchiopods, insects, amphibians, etc.) adapted to dessication periods of several months o even years.
59811		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or needed.
59811		conservation	eng	No information available.
59811		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place and none are needed at present.
59811		conservation	eng	Not needed.
59811		conservation	eng	This common widespread species does not require immediate conservation attention.
59811		conservation	eng	This species is relatively save and probably will benefit from climate change. Preventing development of coastal Mediterranean wetlands is of importance to this species.
59811		distribution	eng	<em>Anax ephippiger</em> has a very wide range, including large parts of Africa extending eastwards to India. Occasionally the species reaches southern and even western and central Europe (Dumont 1991). It has been recorded as far north as Iceland.
59811		distribution	eng	<em>Anax ephippiger</em> has a very wide range, including large parts of Africa extending over Arabia eastwards to India where it typically occurs in arid and semiarid areas. It shows very strong migratory behaviour and is sometimes found migrating in enormous numbers and huge distances. The species reproduces in fluctuating numbers in southern Europe. Yearly these migration waves from Africa and Arabia reach Europe but the numbers of individuals arriving vary strongly from year to year. This migration rarely reached central and north Europe and in these years it can turn up anywhere in Europe even reaching as far as Iceland (Tuxen 1976). The most notable of these influxes took place in 1995 when the species was found all over the continent (Burbach and Winterholler 1998). In Central Europe specimens arriving in spring might successfully reproduce resulting in emergence in late summer of the same year. The most northern cases of reproduction are from the south of Germany and western Poland (Burbach and Winterholler 1997, Bernard and Musiał 1995). Larvae are however not capable of surviving the winter in Central Europe.
59811		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, occurring in all countries. Globally, it is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.
59811		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.
59811		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia; occurrence in Central African Republic, Gabon and Congo is assumed. Common except in dense forest
59811		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Sudan, Egypt and Somalia, occurrence in is Djibouti assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.
59811		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species must occur in all west African states.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.
59811		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia and eastwards to India, but it is absent from the southern parts of South Africa. Occasionally, the species reaches southern and even western and central Europe (Dumont 1991). It has been recorded as far north as Iceland.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia. Its occurrence in Central African Republic, Gabon and Congo is assumed. It is common except in dense forests.<br/><br/>Records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi are common and widespread in eastern Africa. common and widespread. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern African region, it was recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, Sudan, and Somalia, and its occurrence in is Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>It is thought to occur in all western African states
59811		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide geographic distribution in Africa, southern Europe, central and south Asia.
59811		habitat	eng	In northern Africa, the species breeds at the end of winter in seasonal wetlands where its rapid development allows it to emerge in late spring. Extensive details of its life history is provided by Corbet (1999).
59811		habitat	eng	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes.
59811		habitat	eng	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. Migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g. up to Iceland. Regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <em>et al.</em> 2003).
59811		habitat	eng	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. Migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g. up to Iceland. Regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <em>et al. </em>2003).
59811		habitat	eng	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. Migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g., up to Iceland. Regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <em>et al.</em> 2003).
59811		habitat	eng	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. The species migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g., up to Iceland. It regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
59811		habitat	eng	The biology of the species is strongly adapted to breeding in seasonal habitats. In its main range migrating individuals travel with rain bearing winds which lead them to areas with rain. Here the species lays eggs, often at the end of the winter, in standing waters created by the rainfall (Corbet 1999, Dumont and Desmet 1990, Dumont 1977). The larvae have a rapid growth completing their development in two to three months allowing them to emerge before the habitat dries out. Like in its main range the European breeding sites also consist mainly of standing, shallow and often seasonal waters. Due to the seasonality of the water the amount of vegetation is often very limited. The low water table and the lack of vegetation make that the temperature of the water is high allowing a rapid growth of the larvae. As can be expected for a species living mainly in seasonal waters the larvae tolerate high salinity. Most reproduction sites in Europe are found in coastal wetlands.
59811		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds and lakes covered with weeds.
59811		population	eng	A common species, though population information is available.
59811		population	eng	A very abundant species that undergoes extensive migrations (Corbet 2000).
59811		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known. However, it is widespread and the population both within and outside the region is expected to be large.
59811		population	eng	In its main range, from Africa to India, it is one of the most common and widespread species present. In southern Europe, the species is scarce although it can be found in large numbers. In the remainder of Europe, it is rare and in many countries it is only known from migrants (only one or two individuals). The numbers of emerging individuals can be however large at reproduction sites (Corbet 2000).
59811		population	eng	No information available.
59811		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59811		threats	eng	Drainage of wetland habitat.
59811		threats	eng	Large scale development of coastal Mediterranean wetlands is a threat for this species.
59811		threats	eng	No major threats to the species are known.
59811		threats	eng	None.
59811		threats	eng	No threats.
59811		threats	eng	No threats known.
59811		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, dam construction, urban development, water extraction and water pollution. An increasing impact of droughts is expected to be affecting the species in the future.
59811		threats	eng	There are no know current threats to the species.
59812		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or are recommended.
59812		conservation	eng	No information available.
59812		conservation	eng	None, common in and outside protected areas.
59812		conservation	eng	None; common in and outside protected areas.
59812		conservation	eng	None needed.
59812		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
59812		distribution	eng	<em>Anax imperator</em> is common in large parts of Africa and western Eurasia. In Europe, it is only absent from the northern areas. The species has considerably expanded its range northwards in recent decades.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya(where it is generally rare in the desert areas and is possibly now extinct), Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. It is also present in Egypt, Syria, Israel and Palestine.
59812		distribution	eng	<em>Anax imperator</em> is common in large parts of Africa and western Eurasia. In Europe, it is only absent from the northern parts Finland, Norway and Sweden. The species has considerably expanded its range northwards in recent decades. It is common and widespread across the Mediterranean region.
59812		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common in all countries. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and Eurasia.
59812		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Eurasia.
59812		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and western Eurasia. Has expanded northwards considerably in the last decades (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome, Zambia; occurrence in Central African Republic and Congo is assumed. Common in various habitats.
59812		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Somalia and Kenya, assumed for Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and western Eurasia. Has expanded northwards considerably in the last decades (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
59812		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known must occur in all west African states.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.
59812		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa and Eurasia. It is present in the whole of Africa. Its distribution has expanded northwards considerably in the last decades (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome, Zambia. Its occurrence in Central African Republic and Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>It is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>Within the northern Africa assessment region, the species is present in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (where it is generally rare in the desert areas and possibly extinct now), Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. Outside the African region, it is also present in Egypt, Syria, Israel and Occupied Palestinian Territory.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, Sudan and Somalia, and assumed for Djibouti.
59812		distribution	eng	This species is known from the British Isles to Europe to central Asia, southwards to central and North Africa, in North Moracco. Within India it is present in West Bengal (Kolkata district), Uttarakhand, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
59812		habitat	eng	Open swamps, lakes and pools.
59812		habitat	eng	Standing or slightly running waters, often large and well-vegetated. Adults are strong fliers and can frequently be seen away from waterbodies.
59812		habitat	eng	Standing waters, often large and well-vegetated (swamps, lakes and pools), but also slow flowing waters.
59812		habitat	eng	Swamps, lakes and pools.
59812		habitat	eng	The species is found at standing or slightly running waters, often large and well-vegetated. Adults are strong fliers and can frequently be seen away from waterbodies.
59812		habitat	eng	This is a very adaptable species, occurring in all kinds of freshwater habitats.
59812		habitat	eng	This species breeds in small weedy pools and lakes. They are familiar insects on all open waters. These are restless species hawking round the border of pools. Male accompany the female during oviposition.
59812		population	eng	Abundant.
59812		population	eng	Common accross its range, has expanded northwards over the last decades. Actual population size is unknown.
59812		population	eng	Common across its range, has expanded northwards over the last decades. Actual population size is unknown.
59812		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known. However, it is widespread and the population both within and outside the region is expected to be large.
59812		population	eng	No information available.
59812		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant.
59812		threats	eng	Its habitat, large standing waters, is not under any specific threat.
59812		threats	eng	No information available.
59812		threats	eng	None identified at present.
59812		threats	eng	None known.
59812		threats	eng	No threats are currently known.
59812		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water pollution.
59813		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable, as well as site management.
59813		conservation	eng	No information available.
59813		conservation	eng	None.
59813		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread South Africa to southern Arabia and West Africa. In East Africa there are records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is a common and widespread species in all five countries (its occurrence in Burundi is assumed).
59813		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread along the escarpment areas and in mountain regions. It does not occur in the Kalahari sands. Confirmed occurrence in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. Globally, the species is widespread from South Africa to southern Arabia and western Africa.
59813		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread South Africa to southern Arabia and western Africa.
59813		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in South Africa to southern Arabia and central Africa (west to Nigeria and Ghana).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, occurrence in other central Africa countries is assumed.
59813		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Sudan; the record from Somalia (Tsuda) needs confirmation.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread South Africa to southern Arabia and central Africa (west to Nigeria and Ghana).
59813		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scarce in western Africa, probably only regular in (open, higher) parts of Nigeria. No recent records further west, perhaps present in Togo hills, Loma mts, Fouta Djallon and similar more open hill areas.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and southern Arabia, especially in highlands of east and south.
59813		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in South Africa, western Africa and southern Arabia . In Africa it is found all the way to the Cape.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia. Its occurrence in other central Africa countries is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan; the record from Somalia needs confirmation.<br/><br/>This species is widespread along the escarpment areas and in mountain regions of southern Africa. It does not occur in the Kalahari sands. Its presence has been confirmed in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. <br/><br/>Records are scarce in western Africa, probably only regular in (open, higher) parts of Nigeria. No recent records further west are known, perhaps present in Togo hills, Loma Mts., Fouta Djallon and similar more open hill areas.
59813		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers, often in hills or mountains.
59813		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
59813		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59813		population	eng	No information available.
59813		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59813		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to groundwater extraction and water pollution are major threats to the species.
59813		threats	eng	No information.
59813		threats	eng	No information available.
59813		threats	eng	Water extraction from stream habitats occurs.
59813		threats	eng	Water pollution.
59814		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59814		conservation	eng	No information available.
59814		conservation	eng	None.
59814		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is common and widespread in the tropical parts of all countries. There are no records from southern parts of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. Globally, it is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.
59814		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.
59814		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Gabon, Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, likely to occur in the other central Africa countries as well.
59814		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Chad and Sudan, assumed in Ethiopia as well (common in northern Kenya).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.
59814		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species should be present in all western African nations.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.
59814		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Zambia, Gabon, Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, likely to occur in the other central African countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is present in Kenya, Chad and Sudan, and assumed from Ethiopia as well.<br/><br/>This species is common and widespread in the tropical parts of all southern African countries. There are no records from the southern parts of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. There is a single record from western Cape, but it is likely to belong to a vagrant specimen.
59814		habitat	eng	Open pools and swamps.
59814		habitat	eng	Open pools and swamps. Often found in temporary rainpools.
59814		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59814		population	eng	No information available.
59814		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59814		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59814		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats through agriculture and wood plantations are, together with water pollution, major threats to the species.
59814		threats	eng	None.
59814		threats	eng	There are no current threats known or expected.
59815		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59815		conservation	eng	No information available.
59815		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59815		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from montane streams in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from southern Kenya to Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe
59815		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded fromKenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Taita Hills (south east Kenya), various localities from Mountains and highlands in Tanzania and Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Kenya to Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
59815		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The first Kenyan record is from the Taita Hills, ranges further from Mt Kilimanjaro and the Usambara Mts in Tanzania to Katanga (Democratic Republic of Congo), Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Pinhey’s (1984) Zambian records probably all pertain to <em>A. pseudeudoxia.</em> An old and poorly labelled male, already examined by Ris (1912), may indicate an isolated presence of<em> A. biordinata</em> in the Cameroon highlands. However, it is the only specimen seen from the region, and clusters with males from Zimbabwe<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; possibly present within Cameroon.
59815		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Kenya to Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe. The first Kenyan record is from the Taita Hills, ranges further from Mt Kilimanjaro and the Usambara Mts in Tanzania to Katanga (Democratic Republic of Congo), Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Pinhey’s (1984) Zambian records probably all pertain to <em>A. pseudeudoxia</em>. An old and poorly labelled male, already examined by Ris (1912), may indicate an isolated presence of <em>A. biordinata</em> in the Cameroon highlands. However, it is the only specimen seen from the region, and clusters with males from Zimbabwe. This is a highland species absent from lowland and coast areas. The southern Zambian records are likely to belong to <em>A. eudoxia</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and assumed from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it was recorded from Kenya (Taita Hills in south east Kenya), Uganda, Burundi, and various localities from Mountains and highlands in Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/>This species is known from montane streams in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe, in southern Africa.
59815		habitat	eng	Montane and highland forest streams.
59815		population	eng	No information available.
59815		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59815		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59815		threats	eng	No information available.
59815		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown, although forest degradation is an inferred threat.
59815		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
59816		conservation	eng	More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species. Habitat based management is also required.
59816		distribution	eng	Most records for <em>Atoconeura eudoxia</em> are from South and West Uganda at 1,400 to 2,600 m asl, (e.g., Ruwenzori Mts and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park). The Burundi record also lies within the Albertine Rift and suggests the species' presence in Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa). Rather isolated populations occur in Mabira Forest near Kampala at 1,100 to 1,300 m and Kakamega Forest, West Kenya.
59816		habitat	eng	Sluggish rainforest streams.
59816		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59816		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are forest destruction due to wood extraction and agriculture, and water pollution.
59817		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are proposed but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59817		conservation	eng	Research required into the species' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation and restoration is also needed.
59817		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kilimanjaro (north Tanzania), central Mountains and Mt. Elgon (Kenya), Mt. Elgon, Bwindi National Park and Ruwenzori Mts (Uganda) and Imatong Mts (Sudan).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan and Kenya. Its presence in Uganda is assumed.
59817		distribution	eng	The species has been found in Kilimanjaro (north Tanzania), Central Mountains and Mount Elgon (Kenya), Mount Elgon, Bwindi National Park and Ruwenzori Mts. (Uganda) and Imatong Mts. (Sudan). It was recorded also from the Sudd in Sudan (Bailey and Litterick 1993, not confirmed) and Kenya. Its presence in Uganda is confirmed (Mount Elgin).
59817		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams.
59817		population	eng	No information available.
59817		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59817		threats	eng	Forest destruction and water pollution.
59817		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood extraction, dam construction, and water pollution.
59818		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59818		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59818		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described from south and west Uganda, from where it extends into east Congo-Kinshasa and through Katanga to north Zambia, occurring at 700-2300 m.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from east and south Democratic Republic of Congo; records for north Zambia are outside the region, but presence might be expected.
59818		distribution	eng	The species has been described from South and West Uganda (Bwindi National Park, Ruwenzori Mts.), from where it extends into east Congo-Kinshasa and through Katanga to north Zambia , occurring at 700-2300 m.
59818		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams.
59818		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59818		threats	eng	Forest destruction, water pollution, agriculture and dams construction are known threats to the species.
59818		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution and habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, human settlement and dam construction.
59819		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59819		conservation	eng	No information available.
59819		conservation	eng	None.
59819		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries. It is common in the tropical north, but not in the arid southwest or the Cape. Globally, it is recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia and to Cameroon.
59819		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in appropriate habitats in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and to Cameroon.
59819		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Uganda. western African records (Niger, Mali, Guinea-Bissau) most likely to pertain to A. vansomereni (Bissau record is illustrated and clearly pertains to that species).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, though the latter record needs confirmation.
59819		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Ethiopia and Uganda. western African records (Niger, Mali, Guinea-Bissau) most likely to pertain to <em>A. vansomereni</em> (Bissau record is illustrated and clearly pertains to that species).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.
59819		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia, Cameroon and Uganda. Western African records (Niger, Mali, Guinea-Bissau) most likely to pertain to <em>A. vansomereni</em> (Bissau record is illustrated and clearly belong to that species). Likely to be under-recorded in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, though the latter record needs confirmation<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is common in the tropical north, but not in the arid southwest. Also present in the Cape (Samways, pers. comm.).
59819		habitat	eng	Swamps in arid country.
59819		habitat	eng	Swamps, pools and rivers in arid country.
59819		habitat	eng	Swampy or reedy verges of pools, lakes or slow streams
59819		population	eng	No information available.
59819		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59819		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59819		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59819		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture.
59819		threats	eng	Unknown.
59820		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59820		conservation	eng	No information available.
59820		distribution	eng	Global distribution: North Uganda to Senegal and Arabia. In East Africa the species has been recorded from northern Uganda. No detailed locality data are available.
59820		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: northern Uganda, no detailed locality data.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Uganda to Senegal and Arabia.
59820		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has a sahelian distribution range, from north Uganda across to Senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Cameroon, likely to be found in northern Central African Republic and northern Congo and northern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.
59820		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has a sahelian range, from north Uganda across to Senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan (the latter needs confirmation), occurrence in northern Kenya and Egypt assumed.
59820		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sahelian range west to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from sahelian range, from north Uganda across to The species is known from senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia.
59820		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north Uganda to Senegal and Arabia. Its sahelian range goes from north Uganda across to Senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia. It is also present in a broad band from western Africa to the east, to Red Sea Coast.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Cameroon, likely to be found in northern Central African Republic and northern Congo and north Democratic Republic of Congo as well<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, northern Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan (the latter needs confirmation).Its occurrence in northern Egypt is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from its sahelian range west to Senegal.
59820		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in dry country.
59820		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in open, often dry, country.
59820		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps in dry country.
59820		population	eng	No information available.
59820		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59820		threats	eng	Drainage.
59820		threats	eng	None.
59820		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and habitat loss due to agriculture and groundwater extraction.
59821		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59821		conservation	eng	No information available.
59821		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored and habitat conservation may be required.
59821		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59821		conservation	eng	Research required for trends/monitoring this species, and habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.
59821		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is common along perennial river systems in the tropical north. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.
59821		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.
59821		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; expected in appropriate habitats in Angola and Equatorial Guinea.
59821		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Sudan. No Somalia or Ugandan records fall within the region ofnortheastern Africa, but occurrence there is assumed.
59821		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert.
59821		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except from rainforest areas.<br/><br/>IN central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Equatorial Guinea, and expected to be present in appropriate habitats in Central African Republic, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Its occurrence in Uganda and Somalia is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is common along perennial river systems in the tropical north of southern Africa. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.
59821		habitat	eng	Open rivers and streams.
59821		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in savanna, bush and woodland.
59821		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in savannah, bush and woodland.
59821		population	eng	Locally very high population densities.
59821		population	eng	No information available.
59821		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59821		threats	eng	No information available.
59821		threats	eng	None known.
59821		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and dam construction. It is also threatened by water pollution.
59821		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59822		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
59822		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
59822		conservation	eng	No information available.
59822		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59822		conservation	eng	Not needed.
59822		conservation	eng	Not needed although research into population trends would be valuable.
59822		conservation	eng	Research into trends/monitoring required.
59822		distribution	eng	<em>Brachythemis leucosticta</em> is abundant all over tropical Africa. In Northern Africa it is known from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Outside of Africa it is known from western Saudi Arabia and the Levant, Israel, Jordan, and Syria. There are only four records from Turkey. Records from Europe, where the species has expanded northwards in recent decades, are from Portugal, Spain, and Italy (Sicily, Sardinia). All literature used for this assessment are listed in the bibliography section.
59822		distribution	eng	<em>Brachythemis leucosticta</em> is one of the most abundant and widespread species of tropical Africa. The species is fairly common in the Maghreb, along the Nile in Egypt and in the Levant. The species seems to be increasing in Turkey were it is still uncommon and limited to the south. In Europe, it is found in Cyprus (first recorded in 2006, Cottle 2007), Sicily, Sardinia and the south of Portugal and Spain. It has been expanding its European range in the last two decades (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is likely that an increase of temperature in the next decade will enable the species to extend its range further north to mainland Italy, for instance.
59822		distribution	eng	<em>Brachythemis leucosticta</em> is widespread in Africa (except in forest areas), southern Europe, and the Middle East.
59822		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, particularly along rivers. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in forest), southern Europe, the Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.
59822		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, south Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.
59822		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest. Extends to southern Europe and Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon, Zambia and the Central African Republic; assumed in appropriate habitats within the region as well.
59822		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest. Extends to  southern Europe and Middle East.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Eritrea and Djibouti is assumed.
59822		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from every country in western Africa except Sierra Leone and Liberia, where likely to be scarce be probably present.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert, extending to southern Europe and Middle East.
59822		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa except from forests, south Europe, Middle East, southern Asia and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, and assumed in appropriate habitats within the region as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread  in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. It is assumed to be present also in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is known from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Its occurrence in Eritrea and Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern African region, particularly along rivers, but not present in the Cape in South Africa (Samways pers. comm.)
59822		habitat	eng	Lakes, pools and rivers. The species is usually found in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.
59822		habitat	eng	Lakes, pools, and rivers. The species usually occurs in swarms above thinly vegetated shorelines.
59822		habitat	eng	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.
59822		habitat	eng	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually with bare shores.
59822		habitat	eng	Readily breeds in any type of stagnant water body, from larger lakes to small pools, where it flies low over bare and open ground. Occurs often in large numbers, perching close to one another on the ground. The species has migratory tendencies.
59822		habitat	eng	The species breeds in a wide range of stagnant water bodies, from larger lakes to small pools, where it flies low over bare and open ground. It occurs often in large numbers, perching close to one another on the ground. It shows migratory tendencies and easily occupies newly created waters.
59822		population	eng	Locally very high population densities.
59822		population	eng	Locally very high population density
59822		population	eng	Locally very high population density.
59822		population	eng	No information available.
59822		population	eng	No information is available for this species.
59822		population	eng	The species is often common when found and is probably increasing in most of its European range due to climate change.
59822		threats	eng	No information available.
59822		threats	eng	No major threats known.
59822		threats	eng	None known.
59822		threats	eng	No threats are known at present.
59822		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, as well as water pollution.
59822		threats	eng	There are no serious threats affecting this species across its global range.
59822		threats	eng	This species is not under any specific threat.
59823		conservation	eng	No information available.
59823		conservation	eng	Three records are from within wildlife management areas, but outside National Park areas. Only one record falls outside the management area. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status, and threats.
59823		conservation	eng	Three records are from within wildlife management areas, but outside National Park areas. Only one record falls outside the management area. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status and threats, as well as monitorin gof population trends.
59823		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is only known from the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This population is far from other populations outside the region and there may be some taxonomic investigation required to determine whether this is a separate species. Globally, it has a disjunct distribution, occurring in Sudan to Nigeria, and in Botswana.
59823		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Laropi, West Nile (Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sudan to Botswana and Nigeria.
59823		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is much scarcer than other <em>Brachythemis</em>. Principally in savannah belt, with records from Bukina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Isolated but confirmed presence in Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, for Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Congo is assumed.
59823		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is much scarcer than other Brachythemis. Principally in savannah belt, with records from Bukina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan and Uganda. Isolated but confirmed presence in Botswana.
59823		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sudan to Botswana and Nigeria. It is much scarcer than other <em>Brachythemis</em>. Principally, it is found in the savannah belt, with records from Bukina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Its presence in Botswana is isolated but confirmed. Also known from a narrow band across the southern Sahel, with an isolated population in the Okavango, which requires further investigation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is recorded from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and assumed from Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Laropi, West Nile), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, although this record needs confirmation. Occurrence in northern Kenya is likely to be valid too.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is only known from the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This population is far from other populations outside the region and there may be some taxonomic investigation required to determine whether this is a separate species.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo and Nigeria.
59823		habitat	eng	Ponds and shallow muddy or sandy streams in open country.
59823		habitat	eng	Swampy streams and rivers in bush (Pinhey 1976, J. Kipping, pers. comm).
59823		habitat	eng	Swampy streams and rivers in bush (Pinhey 1976; Kipping, pers. comm.).
59823		habitat	eng	Swampy streams in bush.
59823		population	eng	No information available.
59823		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59823		threats	eng	Current specific threats are unknown, but drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are potential threats.
59823		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59823		threats	eng	No information.
59823		threats	eng	Potentially drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59823		threats	eng	Potentially drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are major threats to the species.
59824		conservation	eng	No information available.
59824		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59824		conservation	eng	Not needed.
59824		conservation	eng	Research into population trends would be valuable.
59824		conservation	eng	Research into trends/monitoring this species is recommended.
59824		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in appropriate habitats in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.
59824		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya and Uganda; occurrence in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia likely.
59824		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.
59824		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was recorded from northern Kenya. Its is likely to occur also in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern Africa region.
59824		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.
59824		habitat	eng	Rock pools in open habitats.
59824		population	eng	It is probably common but likely often overseen due to camouflage colours.
59824		population	eng	No information available.
59824		threats	eng	No information available.
59824		threats	eng	None known.
59824		threats	eng	No serious threats are known at present.
59824		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water pollution.
59825		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59825		conservation	eng	No information available.
59825		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59825		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Uganda and Kenya, not further specified record from Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to western Africa, one unconfirmed record from Tanzania.
59825		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in western Kenya to Guinea and Mali and probably to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea.
59825		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread across the western Africa region, known from Guinea to Benin, probably from Gambia to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Guinea and Mali and probably to Gambia.
59825		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Guinea and Mali and probably to Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Uganda and Kenya, not further specified record from Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda from Sudan, record requires verification. Historic record lists "Abyssinia", which might be Ethiopia, but is too imprecise.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread across the western Africa region, known from Guinea to Benin, probably from Gambia to Cameroon.
59825		habitat	eng	Rock pools and similar small, hard-bottomed water bodies (e.g. tanks) in open habitats.
59825		habitat	eng	Rock pools in open habitats.
59825		population	eng	No information available.
59825		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59825		threats	eng	No information available.
59825		threats	eng	None.
59825		threats	eng	Pollution.
59826		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59826		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59826		conservation	eng	No information available.
59826		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59826		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi River). It has also been mentioned for Angola (Pinhey 1984a) but there are no confirmed records there to date. Globally, it is known from Uganda to Nigeria, and Zambia.
59826		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: localities in the arid north as far south as Murchinson National Park (Uganda), unconirmed records from north Kenya (likely).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Nigeria and Angola.
59826		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present from Uganda to Liberia and north west  Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and northwest Zambia. Occurrence in northwestern Angola, Congo and Cameroon most likely.
59826		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from west to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Liberia and north west Zambia
59826		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Nigeria and Angola, south western Africa to Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, north-west Zambia, occurrence in northwestern Angola, Congo and Cameroon most likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: localities in the arid north as far south as Murchinson National Park (Uganda), unconfirmed records from north Kenya (likely).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from north west Zambia (upper Zambezi River). It has also been mentioned for Angola (Pinhey 1984a) but there are no confirmed records there to date.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present west to Liberia.
59826		habitat	eng	In gallery forest.
59826		habitat	eng	Rock pools in arid country.
59826		habitat	eng	Standing waters, often in gallery forest.
59826		habitat	eng	The species is found in pools in forest areas.
59826		population	eng	No information available.
59826		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59826		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59826		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59826		threats	eng	Deforestation.
59826		threats	eng	Drainage.
59826		threats	eng	Drainage and water abstraction, and deforestation.
59826		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction caused by drainage for agriculture and wood extraction.
59827		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59827		conservation	eng	No information available.
59827		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59827		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region, mainly in the Zambezi River catchment (eastern Angola, northwestern Zambia, Caprivi) and Botswana. Globally, it is recorded from Uganda, south Sudan and northern Botswana to West Africa.
59827		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nabamba Bay, Nabugabo Wetlands, Lake Bisina (Uganda) - occurrence assumed for most appropriate habitats in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, south Sudan and northern Botswana to western Africa.
59827		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present Uganda, southern Sudan west to Guinea-Bissau and south to Namibia. Generally in forest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, north Angola, Gabon and Cameroon; presence in Congo is assumed.
59827		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from West to Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea-Bissau. Generally in forest areas, records from south Sudan and northern Botswana thus require confirmation.
59827		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, southern Sudan west to Guinea-Bissau and south to Namibia. Generally in forest areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, northern Angola, Gabon, Cameroon, Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nabamba Bay, Nabugabo Wetlands, Lake Bisina (Uganda) - occurrence assumed for most appropriate habitats in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region, mainly in the Zambezi River catchment (eastern Angola, northwestern Zambia, Caprivi) and Botswana. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species was found west to Guinea-Bissau.
59827		habitat	eng	Swamps in or near forest.
59827		habitat	eng	Swamps located in or near forest.
59827		population	eng	No information available.
59827		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59827		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59827		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59827		threats	eng	None.
59827		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, and water pollution.
59827		threats	eng	Unknown.
59828		conservation	eng	Conservation of good quality water bodies and streams.
59828		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59828		conservation	eng	No current conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59828		conservation	eng	No information available.
59828		conservation	eng	None.
59828		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion glabrum</em> is widespread over nearly all of Afrotropical Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula. It as been recorded once in Mediterranean Egypt, near Cairo (El Ma'adi), as well as further south (Kharga Oasis) (Andres 1928).
59828		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries, but so far not in the Orange system. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and Arabia.
59828		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Arabia.
59828		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.
59828		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59828		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread, commonest damselfly in western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, including oceanic islands
59828		distribution	eng	The Common Pond Damsel (<em>Ceriagrion glabrum</em>) is widespread in Africa and Arabia.
59828		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia and Sao Tome. Occurrence in central Africa is assumed<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi (where it is common and widespread), and assumed to be present in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it has been recorded once in Mediterranean Egypt, near Cairo (El Ma'adi), as well as further south (Kharga Oasis) (Andres 1928).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia, and assumed to occur in Djibouti and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries, but so far not in the Orange system.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread and considered to be the commonest damselfly within the region.
59828		habitat	eng	Any standing or slow-flowing water with some vegetation.
59828		habitat	eng	Any standing water.
59828		habitat	eng	Any standing water; absent from drier areas such as the Kalahari.
59828		habitat	eng	Most types of freshwater habitats.
59828		habitat	eng	Streams, springs, oases, pools, swampy areas.
59828		habitat	eng	This species occupies most types of freshwater habitats.
59828		population	eng	No information available.
59828		population	eng	No information is available on population size and trends.
59828		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread and adaptable species.
59828		population	eng	No information is available regarding the population of this species in Egypt. It is likely to now be extinct in Cairo.
59828		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59828		threats	eng	No current threats.
59828		threats	eng	No information available.
59828		threats	eng	None.
59828		threats	eng	None known.
59828		threats	eng	Pollution, drought, over-irrigation, destruction of habitat
59828		threats	eng	The Common Pond Damsel is not under any serious threats across its global range.
59828		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and ground water extraction, water pollution, and drought.
59829		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59829		conservation	eng	No information available.
59829		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi River Basin) and Mozambique. Globally, it is recorded from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia.
59829		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia.
59829		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from north-west Zambia; occurrence in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo is likely.
59829		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia. This is an easily overlooked species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from north west Zambia and from western Uganda, occurrence in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan. This record needs confirmation and the species is listed NA for the time being.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from north-west Zambia (upper Zambezi River Basin) and Mozambique. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia, may occur in southern Chad but there are no records to confirm this.
59829		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, preferably with floating water plants.
59829		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, preferrably with floating water plants.
59829		population	eng	No information available.
59829		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59829		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59829		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59829		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture, and water pollution.
59829		threats	eng	Unknown.
59830		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59830		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to western Africa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kenya, Uganda, (exact distribution unclear due to confusion with <em>C. suave</em>).
59830		habitat	eng	Pools and streams in open savannah and bush.
59830		population	eng	No information available.
59830		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, and water pollution.
59832		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59832		conservation	eng	No information available.
59832		conservation	eng	Unknown.
59832		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwestern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin). It is known from only three records here and it is estimated that <5% of the global range falls within the region. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola (Congo Basin) to western Kenya and southern Nigeria.
59832		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: near Kisumu (west Kenya), several forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia and western Kenya to western Africa.
59832		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Zambia and western Kenya to southern Nigeria and south west Cameroon. Further records from western Africa dubious due to taxonomic mix-ups and possible mislabelling.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Angola. Probably present in southwestern Cameroon.
59832		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong>  The species has been recorded from south Nigeria and south west Cameroon. Further records from western Africa dubious due to taxonomic mix-ups and possible mislabelling.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Zambia and west Kenya to south Nigeria.
59832		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia and Angola (Congo Basin) to western Kenya and southern Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia and western Kenya to southern Nigeria and south west Cameroon. In western Africa, it is found in south Nigeria and south west Cameroon, however further records are dubious due to taxonomic uncertainty and possible mislabelling.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwestern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin). It is known from only three records here and it is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, this species has been recorded (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion platystigma</span>) from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: near Kisumu (west Kenya), several forests in Uganda.
59832		habitat	eng	Forested swamp (Pinhey 1984a).
59832		habitat	eng	Swampy forests.
59832		population	eng	No information available.
59832		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59832		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59832		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59832		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59832		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59832		threats	eng	Unknown.
59833		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59833		conservation	eng	No information at present.
59833		conservation	eng	No information available.
59833		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59833		conservation	eng	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures and threats/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.
59833		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed),  (exact distribution difficult, since records often mixed up with <em>moorei</em>).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa and Ghana.
59833		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and Gambia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species was listed for Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.
59833		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Ethiopia to South Africa and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo - assumed in Angola and other countries as well.
59833		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread across western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa and Senegal.
59833		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa and Ghana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. It is assumed to be in the other countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed), (exact distribution difficult, since records often mixed up with <span style="font-style: italic;">moorei</span>).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, southwards to northern Natal. It does not occur in the arid areas and southern parts of South Africa (where it has not been seen since 1951 despite ongoing intensive searches in recent years), Botswana and Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread across western Africa.
59833		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread in the tropical north, southwards to northern Natal. It does not occur in the arid areas and southern parts of South Africa (where it has not been seen since 1951 despite ongoing intensive searches in recent years), Botswana and Namibia.<br/><br/>Globally, the species is recorded from South Africa, north to Ethiopia and Gambia.
59833		habitat	eng	Pools and streams in open and arid savanna and bush.
59833		habitat	eng	Pools and streams in open and arid savannah and bush.
59833		habitat	eng	Pools and streams in open savannah and bush, may be found in drier areas than most other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion</span>.
59833		habitat	eng	Pools (including rainpools) and streams in open and arid savanna and bush. Pools with grassy margins, and marshes (Samways 2006 in press).
59833		population	eng	No information available.
59833		population	eng	No information is available on population size and trends. Considered Regionally Extinct in South Africa.
59833		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59833		threats	eng	No information
59833		threats	eng	No information available.
59833		threats	eng	None known at present. Although the species is Regionally Extinct in South Africa, this is attributed to natural (particularly vulnerability to drought) rather than anthropogenic reasons (Samways 2006 in press).
59833		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, and water pollution.
59834		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59834		conservation	eng	No information available.
59834		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya to Sierra Leone, north to Tanzania, and Botswana.
59834		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scarce but seems widespread, scattered records from appropiate habitats in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and also assumed to occur in Malawi and Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Sierra Leone, north to Tanzania and Botswana.
59834		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to Sierra Leone and Guinea, south to Botswana, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia. Possibly present in the Central African Republic.
59834		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cote d'Ivoire<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Sierra Leone, Guinea and northern Botswana.
59834		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Sierra Leone and Guinea, south to Botswana, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: scarce but seems widespread, scattered records from appropriate habitats in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, also assumed to occur in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Cote d'Ivoire.
59834		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats.
59834		population	eng	No information available.
59834		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59834		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59834		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59834		threats	eng	None.
59834		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
59834		threats	eng	Unknown.
59835		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59835		conservation	eng	No information available.
59835		conservation	eng	None known. Research required into trends/monitoring of this species, and habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.
59835		conservation	eng	The species should be monitored, and habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.
59835		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid, tropical north of the region, south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.
59835		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.
59835		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, and Congo.
59835		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan, occurrence in Kenya assumed.
59835		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59835		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, in Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid, tropical north of the region, south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
59835		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats in savanna and bush.
59835		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats in savannah and bush.
59835		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and forest.
59835		population	eng	No information available.
59835		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59835		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59835		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown, although drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59835		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59835		threats	eng	None.
59835		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture.
59836		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59836		distribution	eng	Known only from the Taita Hills (Kenya), Eastern Arc and Pare Mts, Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania).
59836		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams, spring sources.
59836		population	eng	No information available.
59836		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are forest destruction caused by agriculture, human settlement, and wood extraction.
59837		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59837		conservation	eng	No information available.
59837		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as conservation measures and monitoring.
59837		distribution	eng	Globally, it has been recorded from north Botswana and Mozambique to Angola (Congo Basin) and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in perennial tropical rivers. It has not been found in South Africa or in the western part of the region.
59837		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in perennial tropical rivers. It is not found in South Africa or in the western part of the region so far. Globally, it has been recorded from north Botswana and Mozambique to Angola (Congo Basin) and Tanzania.
59837		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded (as <em>Elattoneura tropicalis</em>) from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Botswana to Mozambique.
59837		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia
59837		habitat	eng	It occurs in perennial tropical rivers and probably forest streams.
59837		habitat	eng	Perennial tropical rivers.
59837		habitat	eng	Probable forest streams.
59837		habitat	eng	Shady streams in bush and woodland.
59837		population	eng	No information available.
59837		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59837		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59837		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59837		threats	eng	No information available.
59839		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation and the development of management plans are also required.
59839		conservation	eng	No information available.
59839		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. This species would also benefit from targeted management plans and habitat restoration and conservation.
59839		conservation	eng	The species occurs within protected areas (e.g., Inyanga National Park, Chimanimani National Park, Chirinda Forest Reserve). <br/><br/>Riparian forest habitat should be protected. Alien invasive plants should be removed from the species' habitat.
59839		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Area of occupancy is unknown, but is not likely to be less than 2,000 km². Global distribution: Malawi,  Zimbabwe,  Mozambique and Zambia.
59839		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Zomba Plateau, Mkuwadzi Forest (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Malawi,  Zimbabwe,  Zambia.
59839		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Area of occupancy is unknown, but is not likely to be less than 2,000 km². <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Record from Democratic Republic of Congo (Tsuda) needs confirmation.
59839		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Area of occupancy is unknown, but is not likely to be less than 2,000 km².<br/><br/>In central Africa, the known record from Democratic Republic of Congo by Tsuda needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In Malawi, it is known from the Zomba Plateau, Mkuwadzi Forest.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
59839		habitat	eng	Streams in forest or thick bush.
59839		habitat	eng	Streams in forest or thick bush. Appears to be partly montane; it is most widespread in montane areas.
59839		population	eng	No information available.
59839		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size or trends. There are a number of records in the eastern Zimbabwe mountains.
59839		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59839		threats	eng	Deforestation and invasive alien trees (e.g., pine) and alien predatory fish (e.g., trout) are current threats, but are not thought to be seriously affecting the population at present.
59839		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59839		threats	eng	Forest destruction, particularly for agriculture. This species also shows limited dispersal and has a restricted range.
59839		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction.Invasive species are also a threat.
59840		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59840		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mughese Forest in Misuku Hills, (north Malawi), Matengo Highlands (southern Tanzania).
59840		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams.
59840		population	eng	No information available.
59840		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
59841		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59841		conservation	eng	No information available.
59841		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. This species would also benefit from targeted management plans and habitat restoration and conservation.
59841		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to south-east Nigeria.
59841		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda to south-east Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon
59841		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to south-east Nigeria.
59841		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to south east Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (appropriate habitats), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
59841		habitat	eng	Forest trickles, dense swamp forest.
59841		habitat	eng	Very small streams and seepages in rainforest and dense swamp forest.
59841		population	eng	No information available.
59841		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59841		threats	eng	Forest destruction, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59841		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59841		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59842		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59842		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population numbers and range, as well as potential conservation measures and monitoring is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59842		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in west Kenya, Uganda, and east Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo
59842		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from west Kenya (Kakamega Forest), all rainforests in Uganda and east Democratic Republic of Congo.
59842		habitat	eng	Small rain forest streams.
59842		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
59842		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59842		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59842		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are destruction of forest habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
59843		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59843		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Tanzania, and east Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also present in Kenya, Malawi and Burundi. There are appropriate habitats in west and south-central Uganda (Bwindi, Kibale, Mabira) and Zambia (Ntale River).
59843		habitat	eng	Small forest streams.
59843		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59843		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are destruction of forest habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
59844		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59844		conservation	eng	No information available.
59844		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59844		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwindi National Park, Semliki National Park (both west Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.
59844		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea.
59844		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is listed for Nigeria but this needs confirmation. Species may also be expected to occurs in Takamanda Forest of Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda to Cameroon and west Democratic Republic of Congo.
59844		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Nigeria. Population disjunct because of unsuitable habitat in between the two collection areas; not expected from the unsuitable lowland area between the coastal and the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwindi National Park, Semliki National Park (both west Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria but this needs confirmation. Species may also be expected to occurs in Takamanda Forest of Cameroon.
59844		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59844		population	eng	No information available.
59844		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59844		threats	eng	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
59844		threats	eng	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
59844		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59844		threats	eng	The major threats to the species is destruction of rainforests, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
59845		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59845		conservation	eng	No information available.
59845		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59845		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are known to be in place at present. In South Africa, searches for further localities are needed (Samways 2006).
59845		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, west Tanzania (lack of detailed localities).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Tanzania to Angola and north South Africa, records to Nigeria doubtful.
59845		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Tanzania to Angola and north South Africa; records to Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Zambia.
59845		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from west Tanzania to Angola and north South Africa. The records from Nigeria are doubtful.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, west Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded from Mozambique, South Africa, north-west Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It may occur in eastern Angola in the upper Zambezi River catchment. In South Africa, it is known from only one specimen caught in northern KwaZulu-Natal prior to 1952 (Pinhey 1984a).
59845		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded from Mozambique, South Africa, northwest Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It may occur in eastern Angola in the upper Zambezi River catchment. In South Africa, it is known from only one specimen caught in northern KwaZulu-Natal prior to 1952 (Pinhey 1984a). Globally, the species occurs from west Tanzania to Angola and northern South Africa; records from Nigeria are doubtful.
59845		habitat	eng	Streams in forest and bush.
59845		habitat	eng	Streams in forest and bush. In South Africa the species was recorded from clear, rocky, montane streams (Pinhey 1984b).
59845		population	eng	No information available.
59845		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59845		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59845		threats	eng	Deforestation, especially from mining activities.
59845		threats	eng	No information available.
59845		threats	eng	No information on current threats is available across most of its range, however it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across the whole range. In South Africa, stream disturbance and shading of habitat from invasive alien trees are the main threats (Samways 2006).
59845		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation due to agriculture and water pollution.
59846		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59846		conservation	eng	No information available.
59846		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59846		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species population trends, and conservation of the species' habitat is required.
59846		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), appropriate habitats (forests) in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya, Uganda to western Africa.
59846		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya, Uganda to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea.
59846		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has only been recorded from one locality in Sudan.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from West Kenya, Uganda to Liberia.
59846		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. Not confined to forest and therefore more widespread than other <em>Chlorocypha</em> species, e.g., should occur in Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya and Uganda to western Africa.
59846		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Kenya, Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), appropriate habitats (forests) in Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from one confirmed locality in Sudan.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. Not confined to forest and therefore more widespread than other Chlorocypha species, e.g. should occur in Senegal.
59846		habitat	eng	Open or half-open streams and rivers. Unlike other <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorocypha</span> seldom in forest.
59846		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in rainforest.
59846		population	eng	No information available.
59846		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59846		threats	eng	Destruction of rainforests, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams, drainage and destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution are known threats to this species.
59846		threats	eng	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
59846		threats	eng	No information available.
59847		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59847		distribution	eng	All the records are around the Mahale Mountains along the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/>It is not found in the central Africa region, but this might be due to sampling deficiency around Lake Tanzania. More sampling is also needed to check, whether<em> C. tenuis</em> and <em>C. hasta </em>are two species or synonyms (see Dijkstra 2007).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from "Lumbugwe River, Kasangazi", eastern shores of Lake Tanganyica (Tanzania).
59847		habitat	eng	Perhaps lacustrine and/or in forest streams.
59847		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59847		threats	eng	No information available but most likely to be affected by deforestation.
59848		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59848		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59848		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorocypha jacksoni</em> has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi (Bwindi) and South-west Uganda (Bwindi and Rutenga Forests), east Democratic Republic of Congo: Haut Kambekulo (2,450 m Leleup) and Kivu, south side of Mount Kahuzi (2,200 m) (Ross and Leech 1957). This montane species has a restricted range.
59848		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Uganda (Bwindi and Rutenga Forests), east Democratic Republic of Congo (Haut Kambekulo (2450m, leg. Leleup); Kivu, south side of Mt Kahuzi, 2200 m (Ross and Leech, ix-5-1957, History Museum of Zimbabwe)). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kivu, south side of Mt. Kahuzi and Haut Kamekulo).
59848		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams.
59848		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59848		threats	eng	Destruction of montane forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams. The area in southwest Uganda and neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo are densely populated and have intense agriculture. The human population is growing drastically and further declines in appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.
59848		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is destruction of montane forests due to clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams. The area in south-west Uganda and neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo is densely populated and have intense agriculture. Human population is growing drastically and further declines in appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.
59849		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59849		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59849		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south-west Uganda (e.g., Mafuga Forest) and Molindi River, Democratic Republic of Congo. Burundi (unconfirmed), Rwanda listed, Pinhey (1967). An Albertine Rift endemic. Its global EOO c.3500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> In the central Africa region, the species is known from northeast Democratic Republic of Congo (Beni and Irangi). Available habitat (and hence the population) is fragmented.
59849		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Burundi and Rwanda (though both uncertain), south-west Uganda, north-east Democratic Republic of Congo (though again some records are uncertain in Kakinga and Iringi))<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Molindi River, Democratic Republic of Congo. In the central Africa region, the species is known from north-east Democratic Republic of Congo (Beni and Irangi). Available habitat (and hence the population) is fragmented. An Albertine Rift endemic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from South-west Uganda (three sites, including the Mafuga Forest), Burundi and Rwanda.
59849		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59849		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59849		threats	eng	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams. The area in southwest Uganda and neighbouring areas in Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi are densely populated and have an intense agriculture. The human population is growing drastically and further declines of appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.
59849		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are destruction of rainforests due to clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams. South-west Uganda and neighbouring areas in Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi are densely populated and hence are intensely impacted due to agriculture. The human population is growing drastically and further declines of appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.
59850		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59850		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, east Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri, Kivu), Congo (Bunia; "Urwald" Beni, "Urwald" Morea and Irangi, Ituri), Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi and north-west Tanzania. The record from Tanzania is a misinterpretation by Pinhey of Schmidt's side description: “Urwald (Primeval forest) behind the bordering mountains of north-west Tanganyaka[sic]-Sees” (Dijkstra 2007; Dijkstra, pers. comm.). Though not to be present in eastern Africa.
59850		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59850		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59850		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are destruction of rainforests, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59851		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59851		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59851		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Tanzania, if <em>C. hastata</em> proves to be a synonym (Dijkstra, 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo.
59851		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Tanzania, if <em>C. hastata</em> proves to be a synonym (Dijkstra 2007). In Uganda, it is found in Kakamega Forest (Uganda). There are appropriate forests for the species' presence in Uganda and Burundi.
59851		habitat	eng	Rain forest streams.
59851		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59851		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59851		threats	eng	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams, and intensive agriculture.
59851		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution, destruction and clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59852		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59852		conservation	eng	No information available. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors, and monitoring of population trends.
59852		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, east Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly in south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> It is common in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (east of Lokutu).
59852		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, east Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly in south Sudan. All records west of Ubangi (Democratic Republic of Congo) should be ignored; (probably a confusion with <em>C. cyanifrons</em>).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is common in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (east of Lokutu).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Uganda.
59852		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59852		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59852		threats	eng	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams, and intensive agriculture.
59852		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution, destruction and clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59853		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59853		conservation	eng	No information available.
59853		conservation	eng	No information available. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors, and monitoring of population trends.
59853		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.
59853		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common in western and central Uganda and eastern and north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records of <em>C. victoriae</em> from Cameroon and the Central African Republic by Carletti and Terzani (1998), and D'Andrea and Carfì (1997) may follow confusion and could pertain to another species, perhaps <em>C. cyanifrons.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northeastern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly present within Angola.
59853		distribution	eng	This species is common in western and central Uganda and eastern and north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records of <em>C. victoriae</em> from Cameroon and the Central African Republic by (Carletti and Terzani 1998, D'Andrea and Carfì 1997) may follow foregoing confusion and could pertain to another species, perhaps <em>C. cyanifrons</em>. Southern Democratic Republic of Congo records are probably mis-identifications.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from north eastern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.
59853		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59853		population	eng	No information available.
59853		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59853		threats	eng	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
59853		threats	eng	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams, and intensive agriculture.
59853		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution, destruction and clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59854		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59854		conservation	eng	No information available.
59854		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mt Mulanje (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from North South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi, north Mozambique.
59854		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi (Mt Mulanje), northern Mozambique. It is a southern African endemic.<br/><br/>Less than a 5% of its range occurs within Malawi, in the eastern Africa region
59854		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams.
59854		population	eng	No information available.
59854		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59854		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59855		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59855		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from coastal forests and lower slopes of Eastern Arc mountains in Kenya and Tanzania, for exact location of remaining coastal forests, refer to Burgess and Clarke (2000).
59855		habitat	eng	It inhabits coastal forests, depends on phytotelmata for breeding and needs dense forest understory.
59855		population	eng	No information available.
59855		threats	eng	Destruction of coastal forest and coastal thicket caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species. It is though to be affected by drought due to climate change too.
59856		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59856		conservation	eng	No information available.
59856		conservation	eng	None.
59856		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, its range extends from South Africa to DRC and Kenya.
59856		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.
59856		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>: The species is known from Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo; probably present within Angola.
59856		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.
59856		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia, Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania (probably present from throughout the country), Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, this species has to be listed as Data Deficient for the region, as it is only recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
59856		habitat	eng	Lakes, pools, rivers and streams in savannah and thornbush.
59856		habitat	eng	Lakes, pools, rivers and streams in savannah and thornbush. Easy to find, but very seasonal.
59856		population	eng	No information available.
59856		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59856		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59856		threats	eng	No information available.
59856		threats	eng	No information is available on threats within the region, but it is thought that pollution is degrading the habitat.
59856		threats	eng	None known.
59856		threats	eng	The species is affected by water pollution.
59857		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59857		conservation	eng	No information available.
59857		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, occurrence in Malawi assumed, but not confirmed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-saharan central Africa except forest.
59857		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda except forest and to west Africa, where scarce records are from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali. Occurrence in Malawi is assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo, though the latter needs confirmation. Occurrence in Central African Republic is assumed.
59857		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scarce records from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda to west Africa.
59857		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea to Lake Victoria. Widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda except forest and to west Africa, where scarce records are from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali. Occurrence in Malawi is assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo, though the latter needs confirmation. Occurrence in Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, occurrence in Malawi assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from the northeastern Africa region, but occurrence in northern Kenya and southern Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from scarce records from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali.
59857		habitat	eng	Lakes and open rivers.
59857		habitat	eng	Lakes and slow rivers in savanna and thornbush.
59857		habitat	eng	Lakes and slow rivers in savannah and thornbush.
59857		population	eng	No information available.
59857		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59857		threats	eng	No information available.
59857		threats	eng	The species is threatened by water and land pollution.
59858		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59858		conservation	eng	No information available.
59858		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north. There is only one record in Namibia and South Africa respectively. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.
59858		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.
59858		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; expected in the Central African Republic.
59858		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria, possibly to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in more open parts of tropical Africa.
59858		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, in Central African Republic expected.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, this record needs confirmation. Occurrence in northern Kenya likely as well. Listed Not Applicable for the region for the time being.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north. There is only one record in Namibia (on high mountain) and South Africa respectively.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria, possibly to Cameroon.
59858		habitat	eng	Pools and streams in bush or woodland.
59858		habitat	eng	Pools, streams in bush or woodland.
59858		population	eng	No information available.
59858		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59858		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59858		threats	eng	No information available.
59858		threats	eng	No information is available on threats in the region. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59858		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to agriculture.
59859		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
59859		conservation	eng	No information available.
59859		conservation	eng	None needed
59859		conservation	eng	None needed.
59859		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59859		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
59859		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
59859		distribution	eng	<em>Crocothemis erythraea</em> is common and widespread in the whole of Africa, western Asia and southern Europe (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa, it is common and widespread.
59859		distribution	eng	<em>Crocothemis erythraea</em> is one of the most common and widespread species of Africa, western Asia and southern Europe. It is common and widespread in the southern half of Europe (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009) and in the south of Ukraine (Dyatlova 2006). In the last two decades it has been strongly expanding its range in the north being now indigenous to many areas were it previously did not occur (Ott 2007).
59859		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, souther Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Australia.
59859		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. Currently expanding northwards in Europe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia; expected for Congo.
59859		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. Currently expanding northwards in Europe.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Eritrea, and Chad assumed.
59859		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Europe, Middle East and extends to Nepal in Asia.
59859		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. Currently expanding northwards in Europe. Present across the entire continent of Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,Centra African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia, Expected for Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is common and widespread.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Eritrea, Chad and Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over southern Africa. It is probably the most widespread species in the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in Senegal and Gambia to Chad.
59859		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, and west Asia, extending as far east as Yunnan in China. It is absent from southeast Asia; its Asian distribution is essentially Himalayan (Nepal (Asahina 1965, Mahato 1988), and northern India (with records from Assam (Schneider 1995) and West Bengal (Peters 1981)). It is currently expanding northwards in Europe, and is known or expected to occur in every country south of the Sahara in Africa (K.-D. Dijkstra pers. comm. 2011). Known records from Central Africa are from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central  African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, and Zambia, and it expected to be present in Congo; in eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya,  Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five  countries (Burundi assumed); in northern Africa, it is common and widespread; in  northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt,  Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia, and occurrence in Djibouti, Eritrea, Chad and  Uganda is assumed; the species is widespread  all over southern Africa; in western Africa, the species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/>It is common and  widespread in the southern half of Europe (Boudot<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009)  and in the south of Ukraine. In the last two decades it  has been strongly expanding its range in the north being now indigenous  to many areas were it previously did not occur (Ott 2007).
59859		distribution	eng	This species is widespread all over southern Africa. It is probably the most widespread species in the region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, and southern Asia.
59859		habitat	eng	Almost any open stagnant water, including brackish lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
59859		habitat	eng	It uses a wide variety of habitats except dense forest. The species prefers stagnant water.
59859		habitat	eng	The species occurs at a wide range of running and standing, unshaded  waters including rice paddies and brackish lagoons. In the northern part of  its range it is mostly found at not too shallow, well vegetated waters. Various terrestrial habitats except dense forest, and prefers stagnant water.
59859		habitat	eng	The species occurs at a wide range of running and standing, unshaded waters including rice paddies and brackish lagoons. In the north part of its range it is mostly found at not too shallow, well vegetated waters.
59859		habitat	eng	Various habitats except dense forest, prefers stagnant water.
59859		population	eng	No information available.
59859		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59859		population	eng	The species has large populations all across its range.
59859		population	eng	The species is common in most of its range, and in Europe it is steadily expanding its range northwards.
59859		population	eng	The species is common in most of its range and is steadily expanding its range northwards.
59859		population	eng	The species is widespread and very common within the region.
59859		threats	eng	No information available.
59859		threats	eng	No known threats.
59859		threats	eng	None.
59859		threats	eng	None known.
59859		threats	eng	Not known at present.
59859		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction and water pollution.
59859		threats	eng	The species is not under any specific threat.
59860		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59860		conservation	eng	No information available.
59860		conservation	eng	None.
59860		conservation	eng	Unknown. More research is required to confirm the existence of this species in northern Africa, and the status of the population if it occurs there.
59860		distribution	eng	<em>Crocothemis sanguinolenta</em> is very common in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar (e.g., Suhling and Martens 2007) and is also found in Arabia (Al-Safadi 1990, Dumont and Al-Safadi 1991, Schneider and Dumont 1997, Schneider and Parr 1998, Waterston 1985, Waterston and Pittaway 1991). In Northern Africa, there is only one record from Libyan Arab Jamahiriya(Neilsen 1935), and this record is difficult to confirm.
59860		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread all over Africa, Middle East, and southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
59860		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. It is less common in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread all over Africa, the Middle East, and southern Asia.
59860		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread all over Africa, Middle East, southern Asia.
59860		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated presence in Near East and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been reported from Angola, Cameroon, Zambia Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic; expected to be present in Gabon.
59860		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated presence in Near East and Arabia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia. A Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, occurrence in Egypt, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59860		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Chad.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated presence in Near East and Arabia.
59860		distribution	eng	The species is widespread all over Africa south of the Sahel, Middle East and southern Asia. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia, Expected for Congo, Centra African Republic, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa,there is only one record from Libya (Neilsen 1935), and this record is difficult to confirm.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Somalia. Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. It is less common in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Chad.
59860		habitat	eng	Open streams in bush, woodland and forest.
59860		habitat	eng	Small, swift running waters, often with waterfalls. Often found sitting on rocks near the water.
59860		habitat	eng	Suhling and Martens (2007) describe the species' typical habitat in Namibia as permanent springs in arid parts of mountain ranges, characterized by small, rocky and swift-flowing waters. In the Levant the species is found in exactly the same type of habitat. Larval development is said to take about 60 days which excludes the species to breed in temporary waters (Suhling and Martens 2007).
59860		habitat	eng	Various habitats in bush, woodland and forest.
59860		population	eng	No information available.
59860		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends, however the species is widespread throughout the region.
59860		population	eng	Only one record is known from northern Africa; there is no population information for the species in this region.
59860		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59860		threats	eng	In the arid parts it is threatened by water extraction from springsbrooks. Elsewhere in its range there are no serious threats known.
59860		threats	eng	No information available.
59860		threats	eng	None.
59860		threats	eng	None known.
59860		threats	eng	Nothing is known about the population or specific threats to the species in northern Africa. In general, <em>Crocothemis sanguinolenta</em> is a species occupying tropical freshwater habitats with relict populations in an arid region. Poor water management (irrigation, tourism, human consumption) and drought are therefore always possible threats.
59860		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution.
59861		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59861		conservation	eng	No information available.
59861		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59861		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Mozambique to Zambia. There is a record from Liberia, but this is doubtful.
59861		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique; Sierra Leonian records are erroneous and the Liberian ones unverified.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from nw Zambia; presence in northern Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.
59861		distribution	eng	This species is known from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique; Sierra Leonian records are erroneous and the Liberian ones unverified. Only present in the eastern countries.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from north west Zambia, presence in northern Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
59861		habitat	eng	Rocky pools and streams.
59861		habitat	eng	Rocky pools, streams.
59861		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59861		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59861		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown.
59861		threats	eng	Intensive agriculture, drainage and pollution.
59861		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and pollution resulting from habitat destruction due to agriculture.
59863		conservation	eng	No information available.
59863		conservation	eng	No widespread measures are known or recommended at present. Research on the full effects of insecticide spraying in the Botswana part of the would be useful. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59863		conservation	eng	No widespread measures known or recommended at present. Research on the full effects of insecticide spraying in the Botswana part of the would be useful.
59863		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in swamps in the Okavango and Zambezi River catchments. May also occur in Angola, but taxonomic identification of the records here is unclear. Due to these uncertainties it is difficult to draw a complete range map for the species. Confirmed records within the region are widespread. Globally, it is known from Botswana, Zambia, Namibia to north Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.
59863		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy habitats in Tanzanian and Malawian highlands (confusion of records with <em>D. okavangoensis</em>).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Zambia, Tanzania.
59863		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Botswana to north Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda; isolated records (confirmed) from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Albertville (also known as Kalemie); Bambesa; Bomboma; Eala; Garamba National Park; Lubumbashi), and Zambia; also reported from Angola.
59863		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from 2 locations in Nigeria (Lagos and Jos Plateau).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana to north Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda; isolated records (confirmed) from Nigeria.
59863		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Zambia and to extreme western Tanzania. Southern records are likely to belong to another species and there are also new records from Nigeria. It is now merged with <em>D. okavangoensis</em> as these are the same species (Dijkstra 2007). It has a very patchy distribution in most areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo (Albertville-Kalemie; Bambesa; Bomboma; Eala; Garamba National Park; Lubumbashi) and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy habitats in Tanzanian and Malawian highlands.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in swamps in the Okavango and Zambezi River catchments. It may also occur in Angola, but taxonomic identification of the records here is unclear. Confirmed records within the region are widespread. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is only known from two locations in Nigeria (Lagos and Jos Plateau).
59863		habitat	eng	Swamps.
59863		population	eng	No information available.
59863		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known, but it is locally common.
59863		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59863		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59863		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are known threats to the species. Insecticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana is also affecting to the species.
59863		threats	eng	No information available.
59863		threats	eng	Potentially, destruction of swampy habitats and insecticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana. Otherwise, threats are unknown.
59863		threats	eng	Unknown.
59864		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
59864		conservation	eng	No information available.
59864		conservation	eng	None in place but policy-based actions, communication and education, and research into habitat status and population trends would all be valuable.
59864		conservation	eng	None known.
59864		conservation	eng	None required for this widespread species.
59864		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59864		conservation	eng	The species is not theatened and its conservation does not have priority. However information on its distribution and habitat is scant.
59864		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacodes lefebvrii</em> is a very widespread and common species in Africa, accross the Indian Ocean and into Eurasia and Europe. In Africa it is found nearly everywhere outside forest areas. It is found from the  Indian subcontinent to southwest Asia and Arabia. In the Mediterranean  it is fairly common on the south and east coast. Its European range is  confined to Cyprus, the Greek island of Rhodes and the southern half of  the Iberian Peninsula.
59864		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacodes lefebvrii</em> is a very widespread and common species in especially the non-forested parts of Africa. It is found from the Indian subcontinent to southwest Asia and Arabia. In the Mediterranean it is fairly common on the south and east coast. Its European range is confined to Cyprus, the Greek island of Rhodes and the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. Its range in Europe seems limited by climatological circumstances and the species might benefit from climate change.
59864		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacodes lefebvrii</em> is common throughout Africa, and extends across the Indian Ocean into Eurasia. In North Africa, the species has a scattered distribution across the whole of the region.
59864		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.
59864		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.
59864		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Gabon, Congo, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; presence is assumed from the Central African Republic.
59864		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59864		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East, extending to Turkey and Iberia.
59864		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, including Madagascar, and the Middle East.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, in Centra African Republic and Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species has a scattered distribution across the whole of the region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Chad to Senegal and Gambia
59864		habitat	eng	Almost all kinds of well-vegetated freshwater habitats, including  seasonal.
59864		habitat	eng	Almost all kinds of well-vegetated freshwater habitats, including seasonal.
59864		habitat	eng	Freshwater marshes and dunary slacks. The species is an ecologically flexible and resilient species.
59864		habitat	eng	Open swampy habitats.
59864		habitat	eng	Open swampy habitats, freshwater marshes and dunary slacks. The species is an ecologically flexible and resilient species.
59864		habitat	eng	The species inhabits standing, unshaded waters. In Europe it is always found at low altitudes often in coastal waters in dunes or coastal wetlands at the marshy edges of pools and lakes. In Cyprus, it was found at a dam lake with a vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Typha</span> spp. (Lopau and Adena 2002).
59864		population	eng	Locally abundant.
59864		population	eng	No information available.
59864		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59864		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59864		population	eng	Population size is unknown, although it is known to be locally abundant in northern Africa.
59864		population	eng	<p>  Population size is unknown.</p>
59864		population	eng	Within its distribution area the species can be locally common.
59864		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59864		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture, ground water extraction, human settlement and pollution.
59864		threats	eng	Habitat modifications.
59864		threats	eng	None.
59864		threats	eng	None at present.
59864		threats	eng	No serious threats are currently known to be affecting the species.
59866		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59866		conservation	eng	No information available.
59866		conservation	eng	None.
59866		distribution	eng	<br/>The species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Burundi.  <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from a record from Tsuda in Somalia but this requires confirmation. It is assumed to be present in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in perennial rivers in most of the region.
59866		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in perennial rivers in most of the region. Globally, it is widespread in Eastern and Southern Africa.
59866		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Eastern and Southern Africa.
59866		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in eastern and Southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.
59866		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Eastern and Southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia; a record from Somalia record (Tsuda) requires confirmation. Uganda assumed.
59866		habitat	eng	Shady rivers and streams, occasionally shorelines of lakes.
59866		population	eng	No information available.
59866		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
59866		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59866		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59866		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution are threats to the species.
59866		threats	eng	No information available.
59866		threats	eng	None known.
59866		threats	eng	Unknown. There may be no threats seriously affecting the species at present.
59867		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59867		conservation	eng	No information available.
59867		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, and monitoring is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and the creation of corridors.
59867		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Mali and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Central African Republic. Its presence in Congo is assumed.
59867		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59867		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Mali and Gambia.
59867		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Mali and Gambia<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic It is assumed to be also present in Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
59867		habitat	eng	It is known from woodland streams, open streams and rivers.
59867		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers.
59867		habitat	eng	Woodland streams and rivers.
59867		population	eng	No information available.
59867		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59867		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59867		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction and water pollution are threats to this species.
59867		threats	eng	None.
59869		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59869		conservation	eng	No information available.
59869		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59869		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from streams in Angola (Congo Basin and coastal rivers), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Zambezi System). It is also very likely to occur in Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda to West Africa. The subspecies <em>quadrigutta</em> occurs in Zimbabwe.
59869		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Turiani Forest (Tanzania), Uganda record (Bwamba Forest) not confirmed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda west to western Africa, subspecies quadrigutta from Zimbabwe.
59869		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda west to western Africa, subspecies <em>quadrigutta</em> from Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon and Zambia; it is assumed for Equatorial Guinea and Democratic Republic of Congo.
59869		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Tanzania to Guinea-Bissau.
59869		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda west to West Africa, subspecies quadrigutta from Zimbabwe. Likely to be present within the Eastern Arcs in Tanzania (based on a siblge record from Turiani, Tanzania).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Turiani Forest (Tanzania), Uganda record (Bwamba Forest) not confirmed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from streams in Angola (Congo Basin and coastal rivers), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Zambezi System). It is also very likely to occur in Mozambique.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria
59869		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams with shade.
59869		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams with shade. Mostly a lowland forest species.
59869		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams with shade, usually in forest.
59869		population	eng	No information available.
59869		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59869		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59869		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution are inferred threats.
59869		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution is a major threat.
59869		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59870		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59870		conservation	eng	No information available.
59870		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59870		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.
59870		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda across to northern Cote d'Ivoire and also into the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.
59870		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from savannah in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  western Uganda across to northern Cote d'Ivoire and also into the Democratic Republic of Congo.
59870		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Uganda across to northern Cote d'Ivoire and also into the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, record from Angola needs confirmation. Dundo (Angola) record dubious; uncertain locality. If the latter proves to be true, a wider distribution in the Congo Basin can be anticipated.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species was only recorded from savannah in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. Most likely extends to Sierra Leone (Dijkstra, pers. comm.).
59870		habitat	eng	Forest rivers.
59870		habitat	eng	Forest rivers in Congo Basin, but probably only savannah in western Africa.
59870		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers, in forest in Congo Basin, but probably only savannah in western Africa.
59870		population	eng	No information available.
59870		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59870		population	eng	Population size is unkown.
59870		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59870		threats	eng	Forest destruction, pollution and intensive agriculture.
59870		threats	eng	None.
59870		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
59871		conservation	eng	No information available.
59871		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. No conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present.
59871		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. No conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59871		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in central and western Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo,  north east Angola.
59871		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, the species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the Republic of Congo, Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence in Zambia reported.
59871		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.
59871		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia, Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in central and western Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, this species has to be listed as Data Deficient for the region, as it is only recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. In South Africa, only three specimens are known, from Skukuza, Kruger National Park (Samways 2006 in press).
59871		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is known from all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. In South Africa, only three specimens are known, from Skukuza, Kruger National Park (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, DRC, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.
59871		habitat	eng	In central, eastern and northeastern Africa, the species is present in streams and rivers in forest and woodlands.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it occurs in streams and rivers in forest and woodland as well as in wet savannah regions. Locally abundant along the Kwando River in Namibia, where it flows through high reeds.
59871		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.
59871		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland as well as in wet savanna regions. Locally abundant along the Kwando River in Namibia, where it flows through high reeds.
59871		population	eng	Locally abundant.
59871		population	eng	No information available.
59871		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59871		population	eng	Population size is unkown.
59871		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59871		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and water pollution due to agriculture are major threats to the species. In southern Africa, there are no threats known across most of its range.
59871		threats	eng	There are no major threats known across most of its range.
59872		conservation	eng	No information available.
59872		conservation	eng	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed.
59872		conservation	eng	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59872		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59872		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from central Africa, west Uganda to Nigeria, and Angola to the Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.
59872		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to central and western Africa.
59872		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from central Africa, west Uganda to Nigeria, and Angola to Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire.
59872		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59872		habitat	eng	Rainforest, probably in temporary pools.
59872		habitat	eng	Swampy rainforest.
59872		population	eng	No information available.
59872		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59872		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59872		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59873		conservation	eng	No information available.
59873		conservation	eng	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59873		conservation	eng	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirments is needed. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59873		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in appropriate habitats except coastal areas.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> West Kenya to north Malawi and to western Africa.
59873		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to north Malawi and to Nigeria and Togo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except Angola and Zambia.
59873		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is present in all forested areas in the region. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to north Malawi and to western Africa.
59873		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Kenya to north Malawi and to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries except Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in appropriate habitats except coastal areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in all forested areas in the region.
59873		habitat	eng	Forest.
59873		habitat	eng	Rainforest in temporary pools.
59873		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59873		population	eng	No information available.
59873		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59873		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59873		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59874		conservation	eng	No information available.
59874		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59874		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is also needed.
59874		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59874		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea.
59874		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is probably present in all forested areas in the region. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59874		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Somalia by Carfi (1974) citing Nielsen (1935). This record must be erroneous, as this tropical species is unlikely to occur in Somalia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is probably present in all forested areas in the region
59874		habitat	eng	Forest in temporary pools.
59874		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59874		population	eng	No information available.
59874		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59874		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59874		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59875		conservation	eng	No information available.
59875		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
59875		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kichi Hills, Tongwe Forest (both coastal forests of Tanzania), Nkatha Bay (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Democratic Republic of Congo, east Tanzania, Malawi.
59875		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Tanzania, and Malawi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbashi).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kichi Hills, Tongwe Forest (both coastal forests of Tanzania), Nkatha Bay (Malawi).
59875		habitat	eng	Dense forest.
59875		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59875		population	eng	No information available.
59875		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59875		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59875		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction.
59876		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59876		conservation	eng	No information available.
59876		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of population trends is needed.
59876		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. Globally, it is known from South Africa to Sudan and West Africa.
59876		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Sudan and western Africa.
59876		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and western Africa (Benin). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is has only been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.
59876		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Somalia within the region, occurrence in northern Kenya, southern Ethiopia and Sudan is assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and West Africa (Benin).
59876		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Sudan and Guinea-Bissau, probably present wherever there is open forest or thick bush.
59876		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from eastern coast of South Africa, then northwards and west to Sudan and West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has only been recorded from southern, eastern, and northwestern (these specimens are a dark form) Democratic Republic of Congo (absent from central Congo basin), and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Somalia within the region, occurrence in northern Kenya, southern Ethiopia and Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.
59876		habitat	eng	Bush and open woodland, in drier habitats than other African <em>Gynacantha</em> species.
59876		habitat	eng	Bush- and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha</span> species.
59876		habitat	eng	Forest and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <em>Gynacantha</em> species.
59876		habitat	eng	Forest and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <em>Gynacantha</em> species. Along swampy rivers. A crepuscular species.
59876		habitat	eng	Forest and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha </span>species.
59876		population	eng	No information available.
59876		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
59876		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59876		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59876		threats	eng	None.
59876		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59877		conservation	eng	More research is needed.
59877		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59877		conservation	eng	No information available.
59877		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59877		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the species is known from only eight collections in two localities in northwest Zambia (as <em>G. sevastopuli</em>) (Pinhey 1984). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally, the species is recorded from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.
59877		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, Mabira Forest, Kyambura Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.
59877		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia, Ethiopia to Benin and Sierra Leone in western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Congo, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, but most likely found in the Central African Republic and Gabon as well.
59877		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia, Ethiopia to Benin and Sierra Leone in West Africa.
59877		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria; probably occurs in all forested countries.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It ranges from Ethiopia, Uganda and north Zambia into western Africa.
59877		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has only been recorded from Congo, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, but most likely found in Central African Republic and Gabon as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, Mabira Forest, Kyambura Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from southern Ethiopia (remnant from earlier connection to the western populations; Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from only eight collections in two localities in northwest Zambia (as <em>G. sevastopuli</em>) (Pinhey 1984). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria; probably occurs in all forested countries.
59877		habitat	eng	A crepuscular species that occurs in forest habitat.
59877		habitat	eng	Forest.
59877		habitat	eng	This crepuscular species is found in forested habitat.
59877		population	eng	No information available.
59877		population	eng	No information available on population size or trends.
59877		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59877		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59877		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59877		threats	eng	Unknown. It is inferred that forest destruction may be a threat.
59878		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59878		conservation	eng	No information available.
59878		conservation	eng	Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59878		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the species is recorded from Angola and northwest Zambia. Globally it occurs in northwest Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa.
59878		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north west Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa.
59878		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north west Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.
59878		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria; may occur in all forested countries.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north-west Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa,
59878		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northwest Zambia and west Uganda to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is recorded from Angola and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria; may occur in all forested countries.
59878		habitat	eng	Forest.
59878		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest habitats. A crepuscular species.
59878		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59878		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
59878		population	eng	No information available.
59878		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59878		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59878		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59879		conservation	eng	No information available.
59879		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Protection of coastal forest habitat and conservation education of communities would be of some benefit to the species. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59879		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Protection of coastal forest habitat would be of some benefit to the species. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59879		distribution	eng	Globally, it occurs in coastal forest areas of eastern and southern Africa (Kenya to South Africa, Malawi).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests and Eastern Arc forests of Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique and South Africa (as <em>Gynacantha zuluensis</em>) (Pinhey 1981, Tarboton and Tarboton 2002). It may have a much wider range than currently known because it is difficult to record due its habits.
59879		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique and South Africa (as <em>Gynacantha zuluensis</em>) (Pinhey 1981, Tarbotaon and Tarboton 2002). It may have a much wider range than currently known because it is difficult to record because of its habits. Globally, it occurs in coastal forest areas of eastern and southern Africa (Kenya to South Africa, Malawi).
59879		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests and Eastern Arc forests of Kenya,Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa, Malawi.
59879		habitat	eng	Mainly coastal forests.
59879		habitat	eng	Mainly coastal forests (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002).
59879		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59879		population	eng	No information available.
59879		threats	eng	Destruction of coastal forest and coastal thicket.
59879		threats	eng	Destruction of coastal forest and thicket due to agriculture and wood extraction is a threat to the species.
59880		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59880		conservation	eng	No information available.
59880		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59880		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the range (particularly within Angola).
59880		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species taxonomy and population trends, and conservation of the species' habitat is required.
59880		distribution	eng	In southern Africa the species occurs in Mozambique and Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). It is also recorded in Angola, but may often be confused with <em>G. villosa</em> here therefore its range in this area is uncertain. It also occurs outside the southern Africa region in Zambia. Globally, it is recorded from Ethiopia, north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to western Africa.
59880		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in area of occurrence, often confused with G. villosa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from North Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to western Africa.
59880		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone. The species has often been confused with <em>G. villosa</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia.
59880		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone. The species has often been confused with <em>G. Villosa</em>.
59880		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone.
59880		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone. The species has often been confused with <em>G. villosa</em>. Eastern Tanzania, Mozambican records erroneous; southern Democratic Republic of Congo records require checking. Ethiopian record identification is correct; isolated population.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in area of occurrence, often confused with <em>G. villosa</em>.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in Mozambique and Zambia (upper Zambesi catchment). It is also recorded in Angola, but may often be confused with <em>G. villosa</em> here therefore its range in this area is uncertain. It also occurs outside the southern Africa region in Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in Cameroon to Sierra Leone.
59880		habitat	eng	Forest.
59880		habitat	eng	Forest (possibly in temporary pools).
59880		habitat	eng	Forest. This is a crepuscular species.
59880		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59880		population	eng	No information available.
59880		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59880		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59880		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59880		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59880		threats	eng	Unknown, but forest destruction is inferred.
59881		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59881		conservation	eng	No information available.
59881		conservation	eng	No information is available on conservation measures in place throughout most of the species' range.  In South Africa, no specific measures are in place and none are envisaged. However, it is important to continue to monitor overall conservation of coastal swamp forest (Samways 2006).
59881		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species' taxonomy and population trends, and conservation of the species' habitat is needed.
59881		distribution	eng	<em>Northeastern Africa region:</em> Recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/><em>Global distribution:</em> Ethiopia and Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, south to Natal and northern
59881		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from east Kenya to Uganda, Natal and north Botswana.
59881		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia and Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, south to Natal and northern Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Central African Republic.
59881		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, south to Natal and northern Botswana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done. Currently not applicable for the region, because less than 5% of the populations occurs in the assessment region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded from Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Namibia (east Caprivi). It is found only in the tropical parts of these countries. In South Africa, it is known only from swamp forest in coastal KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press). <br/><br/>All previous records from western Africa are considered erroneous (Dijkstra 2005) as it is not present within the region.
59881		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is recorded from Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Namibia (East Caprivi). It is found only in the tropical parts of these countries. In South Africa, it is known only from swamp forest in coastal KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species occurs from eastern Kenya to Uganda, Natal (South Africa) and northern Botswana.
59881		habitat	eng	Forest and thick bush. Streams in swamp forest (Samways 2006). This is a crepuscular species.
59881		habitat	eng	Forest, thick bush.
59881		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59881		population	eng	No information available.
59881		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59881		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59881		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a threat to the species. Loss of habitat through tree removal, agriculture and the construction of infrastructures for ecotourism (Samways 2006 in press).
59881		threats	eng	Forest destruction. Loss of habitat through tree removal and the construction of infrastructures for ecotourism (Samways 2006).
59882		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59882		conservation	eng	No information available.
59882		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59882		conservation	eng	Research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59882		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), rainforests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Angola and western Africa.
59882		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Angola and western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, the Central African Republic, Congo, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia.
59882		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species' range extends from Congo Basin to western Kenya, north Zambia and Guinea.
59882		distribution	eng	There has so far been only one record of this species known in the southern Africa region; in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. Its occurrence in east Angola is very likely, but not yet confirmed. It is estimated that the region holds less than 5% of the global population. Globally, it has been recorded from west Kenya to Angola (Congo River basin) and West Africa.
59882		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Kenya to Angola and West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, in Congo and Angola assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), rainforests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is only know from one record in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. Its occurrence in east Angola is very likely, but not yet confirmed. It is estimated that the region holds less than 5% of the global population.
59882		habitat	eng	Rainforest, breeds in phytothelmata (tree-holes etc.).
59882		habitat	eng	Rainforest, reproduction in phytothelmata.
59882		population	eng	No information available.
59882		population	eng	Population size and trends unknown.
59882		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59882		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59882		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59882		threats	eng	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.
59883		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59883		conservation	eng	No information available.
59883		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rainforests in central and west Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59883		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea; Angola record unlikely, needs confirmation.
59883		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea.
59883		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo (southern records (southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo, Elizabethville) are unlikely), Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon; Angola record unlikely, needs confirmation<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rainforests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.
59883		habitat	eng	Forest pools and puddles.
59883		habitat	eng	Pools and puddles in rainforest.
59883		population	eng	No information available.
59883		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59883		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59883		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59884		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.
59884		conservation	eng	No information available.
59884		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59884		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only from five records from two localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It is likely to also be found in east Angola. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda, Angola (Congo basin), and Zambia to West Africa.
59884		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi, and swampy forests in central and west Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.
59884		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia and Gabon.
59884		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Guinea-Bissau.
59884		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Zambia to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, assumed in Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from five records from two localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It is likely to also be found in east Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.
59884		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59884		habitat	eng	Rainforest pools.
59884		population	eng	No information available.
59884		population	eng	Nothing known about population size or trends.
59884		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59884		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59884		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59884		threats	eng	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.
59885		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59885		conservation	eng	No information available.
59885		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59885		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda to western Africa.
59885		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon
59885		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea and Sierra Leone.
59885		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa. Northern and western Kenya records are erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.
59885		habitat	eng	Pools in rainforest.
59885		population	eng	No information available.
59885		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59885		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59885		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59886		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.
59886		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59886		conservation	eng	No information available.
59886		conservation	eng	Research is needed into possible conservation measures, and monitoring of this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and corridors are also required.
59886		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from seven records from six localities in the region; in Mozambique, eastern border of Zimbabwe and upper Zambezi rapids in northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya to Mozambique, and Malawi.
59886		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, Malawi.
59886		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, Malawi and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbashi; Kapanga).
59886		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Mozambique, Malawi, and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbash and Kapanga)<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from seven records from six localities in the region; in Mozambique, eastern border of Zimbabwe and upper Zambezi rapids in north west Zambia.
59886		habitat	eng	Coastal and other forests, reproduction in phytothelmata.
59886		habitat	eng	Coastal forests, reproduction in phytothelmata.
59886		population	eng	No information available.
59886		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59886		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59886		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59886		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59886		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59886		threats	eng	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.
59887		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.
59887		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59887		conservation	eng	No information available.
59887		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59887		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is known from ten records in four localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It possibly also occurs in east Angola and DRC. Globally, it  has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa and Zambia.
59887		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: 1 record labelled:  "north west shore Lake Victoria, Uganda".<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
59887		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Zambia and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia
59887		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Zambia and Guinea.
59887		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: one record labelled: "north west shore Lake Victoria, Uganda".<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from ten records in four localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It possibly also occurs in east Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria
59887		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59887		habitat	eng	Rainforest pools.
59887		population	eng	No information available.
59887		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size or trend.
59887		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59887		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59887		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59887		threats	eng	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.
59888		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population, threats and ecology.
59888		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59888		conservation	eng	No information available.
59888		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59888		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, only three collections are known, all from the same locality in the upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa. Globally, it is recorded from Uganda, and north Zambia to Cameroon.
59888		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, north Zambia to Cameroon.
59888		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, north Zambia to Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia
59888		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species may occur in the Cameroon section of the western Africa region. Possible record from Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Cameroon.
59888		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, north Zambia to Cameroon, and along the southern coast of western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species occurs in the Cameroon section of the Western Africa region, and found westwards along the coast.
59888		habitat	eng	A forest species.
59888		habitat	eng	Forest.
59888		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59888		population	eng	No information available.
59888		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59888		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59888		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59888		threats	eng	Forest destruction is likely to be the main threat.
59888		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59888		threats	eng	Unknown.
59889		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59889		conservation	eng	No information available.
59889		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59889		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Africa to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon
59889		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> all <em>Heliaeschna</em> records are considered to pertain to this species. Probably present in all forested areas, Gambia record therefore deserves confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda to western Africa,
59889		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Western Africa to Uganda, and south to southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>All <em>Heliaeschna</em> records in western Africa are considered to belong to this species. It is probably present in all forested areas.
59889		habitat	eng	Forest.
59889		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59889		population	eng	No information available.
59889		threats	eng	Deforestation and intensive agriculture.
59889		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction is a threat to the species.
59889		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59890		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59890		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59890		conservation	eng	No information available.
59890		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59890		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is known from one collection in Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Mozambique on the east coast of Lake Malawi. It is estimated that less than 5% of the known global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally it is known from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia, possibly to Nigeria.
59890		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda, west Tanzania and north Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia, possibly to Nigeria.
59890		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, north Malawi and north-west Zambia, and possibly to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.
59890		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from Nigeria (in the national list) where the identification of the specimens is questioned (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia, listed for Nigeria but this is doubtful.
59890		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda, west Tanzania and north Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from one collection in Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Mozambique on the east coast of Lake Malawi. It is estimated that less than 5% of the known global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only recorded from Nigeria (in the national list) where the identification of the specimens is questioned (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Highly unlikely from western Africa.
59890		habitat	eng	A forest species.
59890		habitat	eng	Forest.
59890		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59890		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59890		population	eng	No information available.
59890		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59890		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59890		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59890		threats	eng	Unknown.
59890		threats	eng	Unknown, but it is potentially affected by destruction of forest.
59891		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59891		conservation	eng	No information available.
59891		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in  Uganda to Cameroon.
59891		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo
59891		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.
59891		habitat	eng	Forest.
59891		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59891		population	eng	No information available.
59891		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59891		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59891		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59892		conservation	eng	Research into biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59892		distribution	eng	At global level, it is only known from eastern Africa, where it has been in forests of Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Burundi.
59892		habitat	eng	Found in forested habitats.
59892		population	eng	No information available.
59892		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59893		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59893		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59893		conservation	eng	No information available.
59893		conservation	eng	None known.
59893		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical parts of the region, ranging south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.
59893		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.
59893		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Gabon and Congo.
59893		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded Ethiopia, Uganda and Sudan within the region; for northern Kenya assumed in appropriate habitats.
59893		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59893		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa to northern southern Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, for Gabon and Congo assumed<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Ethiopia within the region, for northern Kenya and Uganda and southern Sudan assumed in appropriate habitats. Listed as Data Deficient, since scarcity of records mirror most likely the lack of surveys.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical parts of the region, ranging south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Chad.
59893		habitat	eng	Open swampy habitats.
59893		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland or forest.
59893		population	eng	No information available.
59893		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59893		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59893		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59893		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution, are threats to the species.<br/>In southern Africa, locally introduced sticky grasses (<em>Setaria</em>) may affect the population.
59893		threats	eng	No information available.
59893		threats	eng	No major threats; locally introduced sticky grasses (<em>Setaria</em>) may affect the population.
59893		threats	eng	None.
59893		threats	eng	None known.
59894		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59894		conservation	eng	No information available.
59894		conservation	eng	None known.
59894		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59894		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species has been recorded in all countries except for Swaziland and Lesotho. Globally, the species is widespread in Africa.
59894		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
59894		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic. Assumed in appropriate habitats in the entire region, including Angola.
59894		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya and Somalia, for Sudan and Ethiopia assumed.
59894		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Guinea<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.
59894		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Central African Republic. Assumed in appropriate habitats in the entire region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation. Present in Ethiopia, but probably only from a single record.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded in all countries except for Swaziland and Lesotho.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Guinea
59894		habitat	eng	Any open stagnant or slow-flowing water.
59894		habitat	eng	Various habitats, lakes, rivers, stream in savannah, bush and forest.
59894		habitat	eng	Various habitats, lakes, rivers, stream in savannah, bush, forest.
59894		population	eng	A fairly common species that is not in decline.
59894		population	eng	No information available.
59894		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59894		population	eng	This is a fairly common species that is not in decline.
59894		threats	eng	None.
59894		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and water pollution in the vicinity of cities.
59894		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting the species at present.
59894		threats	eng	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities.
59895		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59895		conservation	eng	No information available.
59895		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59895		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east Angola to west Uganda and north east Democratic Republic of Congo(?).
59895		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin species, recorded from Angola and north Zambia, west Uganda (Semliki) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia and the Central African Republic.
59895		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north-east Angola to west Uganda and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>Central Africa: it is a Congo Basin species, recorded from Angola and north Zambia, west Uganda (Semliki) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu). There is also a sight record from Kinshasa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>So far, this species has not been recorded within the southern Africa region. It is a Congo species, recorded from Angola and north Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from north-east Angola (Congo Basin) and north Zambia, to west Uganda and possibly north-east Democratic Republic of Congo.
59895		habitat	eng	Forest.
59895		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59895		population	eng	No information available.
59895		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59895		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59895		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59895		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.
59896		conservation	eng	Research on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends are needed. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59896		distribution	eng	At global level, the species is only known from Bwindi National Park in Uganda.
59896		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59896		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59896		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59897		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
59897		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59897		conservation	eng	No information available.
59897		conservation	eng	None.
59897		conservation	eng	None needed in the Mediterranean as a whole. More data are required on the species' range and population status in northern Africa.
59897		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59897		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura senegalensis</em> has an enormous distribution area ranging from Japan, southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and the Indian Ocean Islands (including Madagascar and Soqotra) to Africa. In Africa it is very common south of the Sahara, reaching the north of the continent only in Egypt (Nile valley) (Andres 1928, Geene 1994) and via the Sinai the southern Levant (Schneider 1986, Dumont 1991). Within the Northern Africa region, <em>I. senegalensis</em> is known only from Egypt and one unconfirmed record from Mauritania.
59897		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread across the whole region. Globally, this is a very widespread species in warm regions of the Old World, but is absent from densely forested areas.
59897		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura senegalensis</span> is extremely widespread in tropical and subtropical parts of the old world, extending from Africa to Japan and south to western New Guinea, but is absent from areas with intact forest cover.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
59897		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.
59897		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia and Equatorial Guinea.
59897		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, for Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti assumed.
59897		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is the most widespread damselfly in western Africa, although probably beaten by Ceriagrion glabrum in abundance.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.
59897		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread in warm regions of Old World, but absent from densely forested areas and the Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Principe. Assumed in the other central African countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is known only from Egypt and one unconfirmed record from Mauritania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. Its presence in Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread across the entire region. <br/><br/>It is one of the most widespread damselfly species in western Africa, although probably less abundant than <em>Ceriagrion glabrum</em>.
59897		habitat	eng	Prefers stagnant water bodies like dams, pools, lakes and slow flowing rivers with emergent riparian vegetation (grass, reeds, sedges). As <em>Ischnura evansi</em> it tolerates saline/brackish waters (Schneider 1981b). According to Suhling and Martens (2007) the adults are vagrants that may colonize even very isolated habitats.
59897		habitat	eng	This species occupies a variety of stagnant and slowly flowing waterbodies, and is salt and pollution tolerant.
59897		habitat	eng	Various habitats, especially open stagnant waters, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).
59897		habitat	eng	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g. near hot springs).
59897		habitat	eng	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).
59897		population	eng	No information available.
59897		population	eng	No information is available for this species. Where it occurs it is common.
59897		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However this is a very widespread and adaptable species and population size is expected to be high.
59897		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59897		population	eng	This is an extremely common species over much of its range.
59897		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59897		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.
59897		threats	eng	No current threats.
59897		threats	eng	No known threats to this species in the Mediterranean as a whole. More data are required from the Northern Africa region.
59897		threats	eng	None.
59897		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
59898		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59898		conservation	eng	No information available.
59898		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is recorded from Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola to Mozambique, southern Tanzania, Malawi, and possibly also Congo and DRC.
59898		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi and southern Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to southernTanzania and Angola.
59898		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to southern Tanzania and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
59898		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to southern Tanzania and Angola. In central Africa recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo; Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi in eastern Africa (Malawi and southern Tanzania, not all records with locality); in southern Africa this species is recorded from Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
59898		habitat	eng	Streams, pools in forest and bush.
59898		population	eng	No information available.
59898		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59898		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59898		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59898		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.
59898		threats	eng	Specific threats within the region are unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59899		conservation	eng	In southern Africa, the species occurs within protected areas across its range.
59899		conservation	eng	No information available.
59899		conservation	eng	None.
59899		conservation	eng	The species occurs within protected areas across its range.
59899		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa and western Africa.
59899		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to north-east South Africa and Senegal; record from Chad must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia; is assumed to be present in Angola.
59899		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to north-east South Africa and Senegal; record from Chad must be confirmed.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from two sites in the region (L. Baringo, Kenya, and Uganda). A wider distribution is assumed.
59899		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad (record from Chad must be confirmed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to north-east South Africa and Senegal.
59899		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to northeastern South Africa and Senegal; record from Chad and Senegal must be confirmed.<br/> <br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In all five is considered common and widespread (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from one site in the region (L. Baringo, Kenya). A wider distribution is assumed.<br/><br/>Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded in all countries except Angola. In South Africa, the species is very rare (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad (record from both must be confirmed)
59899		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded in all countries except Angola (so far). In South Africa, the species is very rare (Samways 2006). Globally, the species occurs from Kenya to South Africa and West Africa.
59899		habitat	eng	Recorded from swamps, grassy pools, and quiet streams.
59899		habitat	eng	Swamps, grassy pools.
59899		habitat	eng	Swamps, grassy pools, quiet streams.
59899		population	eng	No information available.
59899		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59899		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59899		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59899		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are the main plausible threats to the species. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range
59899		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are the main plausible threats to the species. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range.
59899		threats	eng	No information available.
59899		threats	eng	None.
59899		threats	eng	None known.
59900		conservation	eng	Information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Some of the species distribution occurs in protected areas.
59900		conservation	eng	No information available.
59900		conservation	eng	None.
59900		conservation	eng	Occurs within protected areas in parts of its range.
59900		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Africa to Kenya and South Africa.
59900		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to north east South Africa and Cote d'Ivoire and probably to Senegal.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Sudan in the region, but assumed for northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia as well.
59900		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Cote d'Ivoire and probably Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to north east South Africa and probably to Senegal.
59900		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to northeast South Africa and Cote d'Ivoire and probably to Senegal.<br/><br/>The species has not yet recorded from central Africa, but occurrence likely in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Sudan in the region, but assumed for northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia as well.<br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa (from a limited area in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006)), Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Cote d'Ivoire and probably Senegal
59900		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa (from a limited area in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006)), Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it occurs in West Africa, east to Kenya and south to South Africa.
59900		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools.
59900		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools in savannah areas; not found within forested areas.
59900		population	eng	No information available.
59900		population	eng	No information is available on population size or threats.
59900		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59900		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59900		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are the main plausible threats. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range.
59900		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are the main plausible threats. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range.
59900		threats	eng	None.
59900		threats	eng	None known.
59901		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59901		conservation	eng	No information available.
59901		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from West Africa to Kenya and Zimbabwe.
59901		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Africa to Kenya and Zimbabwe.
59901		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Kenya and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo; likely to be present in the Central African Republic and Congo.
59901		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Kenya and Zimbabwe.
59901		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Africa to Kenya and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo, in northern Democratic Republic of Congo; assumed present in Central African Republic and Congo. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. <br/><br/>The species is known from South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe in southern Africa. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Gambia. <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, which needs confirmation; considered not present in northeastern Africa for the region until more surveys confirm presence (or absence) in the region.<br/><br/>Records require careful scrutiny as often confused with other <em>Lestes</em> species.
59901		habitat	eng	Open pools and slow streams.
59901		habitat	eng	Open pools, slow streams.
59901		habitat	eng	Open pools, slow streams in open and savannah areas; avoids forested areas.
59901		population	eng	No information available.
59901		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59901		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59901		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59901		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred potential threats. However, it is thought unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.
59901		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred potential threats. However, it is thought unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.
59901		threats	eng	No information available.
59901		threats	eng	None.
59902		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population trends would be valuable.
59902		conservation	eng	No information available.
59902		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59902		conservation	eng	None in place. Research required into trends/monitoring.
59902		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59902		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa and Arabia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
59902		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread. It has been recorded from all countries in the region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and Arabia.
59902		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.
59902		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Zambia; assumed in the northern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic.
59902		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. The species is common and widespread.
59902		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread across the region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).
59902		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it assumed in the northern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Centra African Republic<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Common and widespread.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread. It has been recorded from all countries in the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread across the region.
59902		habitat	eng	Open, often temporary, pools; may occur in very arid areas.
59902		habitat	eng	Open pools and streams, often in seasonal habitats.
59902		population	eng	No information available.
59902		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
59902		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59902		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59902		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species..
59902		threats	eng	No information available.
59902		threats	eng	None.
59902		threats	eng	None known.
59902		threats	eng	Unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59903		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59903		conservation	eng	No information available.
59903		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It most likely also occurs in Angola. Globally, it has been recorded from Tanzania to Botswana, and also Nigeria.
59903		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Malawi, southern Tanzania (see also Pinhey 1980), no precise locality for the Uganda record (in NMK, Nairobi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania to Botswana and Angola, also Nigeria.
59903		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania to Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Nigeria and Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia. Expected from northern Angola, northern Congo and northern the Central African Republic as well.
59903		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been reported for Nigeria, and recently found in northern Ghana (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Globa distribution: The species is known from Tanzania to Botswana and Angola and Nigeria and Ghana.
59903		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania to Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Nigeria and Ghana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, expected from northern Democratic Republic of Congo, n. Congo and north Central African Republic as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Malawi, southern Tanzania (see also Pinhey 1980), no precise locality for the Uganda record (in NMK, Nairobi).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It most likely also occurs in Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is reported for Nigeria, and recently found in northern Ghana (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
59903		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps.
59903		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps, often along perennial rivers.
59903		population	eng	No information available.
59903		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59903		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59903		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59903		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59903		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59903		threats	eng	No information available.
59903		threats	eng	Unknown.
59904		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59904		conservation	eng	No information available.
59904		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59904		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59904		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59904		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Southern  Democratic Republic of Congo; presence within Zambia and Angola is likely.
59904		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/>Globa distribution: The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59904		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, which needs confirmation. Listed NA for the region, until more surveys confirm presence (or absence) in the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria
59904		habitat	eng	Slow streams, pools and swamps. The species favours streams more than other <em>Lestes</em> species.
59904		habitat	eng	Slow streams, pools, swamps (favours streams more than other <em>Lestes</em> species).
59904		habitat	eng	Slow streams, pools, swamps (favours streams more than other Lestes species).
59904		habitat	eng	Streams and associated pools and swamps (favours streams more than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes</span> species).
59904		population	eng	No information available.
59904		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59904		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59904		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59904		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59904		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59904		threats	eng	No information available.
59904		threats	eng	None.
59905		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59905		conservation	eng	No information available.
59905		conservation	eng	None.
59905		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Angola, Lesotho and Swaziland. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59905		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59905		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kundelengu Plateau), Angola, Zambia, Gabon and Congo.
59905		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution</strong>: The species is present in Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia, for Kenya and Sudan assumed.
59905		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/>Globa distribution: The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.
59905		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kundelengu Plateau)<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, for Sudan assumed<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Angola, Lesotho and Swaziland.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.
59905		habitat	eng	Swamps and lake shores.
59905		habitat	eng	Swamps, lake shores.
59905		population	eng	No information available.
59905		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59905		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59905		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59905		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59905		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59905		threats	eng	No information available.
59905		threats	eng	None known.
59906		conservation	eng	No information available.
59906		conservation	eng	No information available. Further information on the species ecology, habitats, distribution and threats are required.
59906		conservation	eng	None.
59906		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59906		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59906		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon; occurrence in northern the Central African Republic and northern Congo is assumed
59906		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from one locality in Somalia. A wider distribution (northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia) is assumed.
59906		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.
59906		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, occurrence in northern Central African Republic and n. Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only known from one locality in Somalia, thus listed NA for the region. A wider distribution (northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia) is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria
59906		habitat	eng	Swamps and slow streams.
59906		habitat	eng	Swamps, slow streams.
59906		habitat	eng	Swamps, slow streams; found in forested areas in Botswana.
59906		population	eng	No information available.
59906		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59906		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59906		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59906		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, it is unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.
59906		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are the inferred threats. However, it is unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.
59906		threats	eng	No information available.
59906		threats	eng	None.
59906		threats	eng	None known.
59907		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59907		conservation	eng	No information available.
59907		conservation	eng	None.
59907		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.
59907		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.
59907		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, occurrence in Congo, Angola and the Central African Republic is assumed.
59907		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia in the region, but assumed in appropriate habitats in southern Sudan as well.
59907		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.
59907		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and South Africa. Possibly present further west to highland areas in Nigeria and Cameroon, but not known.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, occurrence in Congo and Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Ethiopia in the region, but assumed in appropriate habitats in northern Kenya and southern Sudan as well.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Ethiopia and southern Africa.
59907		habitat	eng	A highly seasonal species (Clausnitzer pers. comm.). Pools, swamps in forest or woodland. Mainly a highland species.
59907		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in forest or woodland.
59907		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps in forest or woodland.
59907		population	eng	No information available.
59907		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59907		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59907		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59907		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59907		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction. Water pollution is also a threat to this species. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range
59907		threats	eng	No information available.
59907		threats	eng	None known.
59908		conservation	eng	In South Africa, further searches for this species are needed, especially in the Waterberg and in KwaZulu-Natal, where it has not been recorded since 1960 (Samways 2006 in press). Monitoring of the Sabie River population is also required (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available on conservation measures in place or planned elsewhere in its range.
59908		conservation	eng	No information available.
59908		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is required.
59908		conservation	eng	No precise information is available.<br/><br/>In South Africa, further searches for this species are needed, especially in the Waterberg and in KwaZulu-Natal, where it has not been recorded since 1960 (Samways 2006 in press). Monitoring of the Sabie River population is also required (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available on conservation measures in place or planned elsewhere in its range.
59908		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya.
59908		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.
59908		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo. Type record likely from Kenya. Records from Mali and Cameroon considered dubious and require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from northeastern Africa region, but likely from northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in rivers, except for in the arid south-west (Kalahari and Namibia) and the Cape. In South Africa, the species is known from less than ten, widespread, locations; it has been recorded from the southern Kruger National Park, coastal, northern KwaZula-Natal, Gauteng, and the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>The only record from western Africa, from Cote d'Ivoire, probably originates from confusion with other species. Therefore does not occur within the region.
59908		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread at rivers, except for in the arid southwest (Kalahari and Namibia) and the Cape. In South Africa, the species is known from less than ten, widespread, locations; it has been recorded from the southern Kruger National Park, coastal, northern KwaZula-Natal, Gauteng, and the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006). Globally, the species occurs from South Africa to Kenya.
59908		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, woodland and forest.
59908		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, woodland and forest. The adults usually perch and mate in the shade of trees. Only the female comes to the river for oviposition.
59908		population	eng	Few records in South Africa. No information is available from elsewhere in its range.
59908		population	eng	No information available.
59908		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59908		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59908		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution. In South Africa, natural catastrophes appear synergistic with urbanisation in northern KwaZulu-Natal, and invasive alien trees may also be a threat alongside water extraction for agricultural purposes (Samways 2006).
59908		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest, groundwater abstraction and pollution are threats to the species.<br/><br/>In South Africa, natural catastrophes appear synergistic with urbanisation in northern KwaZulu-Natal, and invasive alien trees may also be a threat alongside water extraction for agricultural purposes (Samways 2006 in press).
59909		conservation	eng	No information available.
59909		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59909		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> This unnamed species appears to range from northern Uganda through the savannah belt to Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.
59909		distribution	eng	There are records of this species from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed. Distribution is uncertain because the taxonomy of this species is not yet solved.
59909		habitat	eng	Probably open streams and rivers.
59909		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in savannah and bush.
59909		population	eng	No information available.
59909		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest caused by agriculture and wood extraction and water pollution are threats to the species.
59909		threats	eng	No information available.
59910		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59910		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, distribution, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59910		distribution	eng	<em>Lokia coryndoni</em> is known only from Zika Forest and Budongo Forest (both in Uganda), Bambesa (northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo). An unconfirmed record from Inga (Lower Congo, Marconi and Terzani 2008) is unlikely.
59910		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Zika Forest and Budongo Forest (both in Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from 2 locations in Democratic Republic of Congo.
59910		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59910		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59910		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59910		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59911		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59911		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
59911		conservation	eng	No information available.
59911		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is known from two localities nearby each other in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Angola, but this has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa. Globally, it is recorded from DRC to Uganda, and Zambia.
59911		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and Budongo Forest (both Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Zambia.
59911		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda, and west to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; Equatorial Guinea is assumed.
59911		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from south east Guinea, east Liberia and south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Uganda and north Zambia.
59911		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and Budongo Forest (both Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from two localities nearby each other in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Angola, but this has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only recorded from south east Guinea, east Liberia and south east Nigeria.
59911		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59911		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59911		population	eng	No information available.
59911		population	eng	Population and trends are unknown.
59911		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59911		threats	eng	No information available. Potential threats to the species are forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
59911		threats	eng	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction.
59911		threats	eng	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59912		conservation	eng	Monitoring of this species is needed.
59912		conservation	eng	No information available.
59912		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59912		conservation	eng	None. Monitoring of this species is needed.
59912		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in large perennial rivers in the region. It is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
59912		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
59912		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is known from sub-Saharan Africa widespread<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records in the Central African Republic, Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Zambia; for Equatorial Guinea is assumed
59912		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> No confirmed record from the region. Records from Sudan (Tsuda) and Ethiopia need confirmation, and possibly present in Uganda.
59912		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59912		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. The record from Gambia is unlikely, and that for Ethiopia is probably a georeference error.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia, for Equatorial Guinea and Congo assumed.<br/><br/>    <p>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi.<br/></p>Records from the northeastern Africa region (Tsuda from Sudan and Ethiopia) have not been confirmed. For the time being, it is listed as Data Deficient in the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in large perennial rivers in the region, through the Orange River basin to the Western Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.
59912		habitat	eng	Rivers, streams and large lakes in savanna, bush or forest.
59912		habitat	eng	Rivers, streams and large lakes in savannah, bush or forest.
59912		habitat	eng	Sunny rivers and streams in savanna, bush or forest, preferably with large rocks. Also inhabits rocky shores of large lakes.
59912		habitat	eng	Sunny rivers and streams in savannah, bush or forest, preferably with large rocks. Also inhabits rocky shores of large lakes.
59912		population	eng	No information available.
59912		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
59912		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59912		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
59912		threats	eng	No information available.
59912		threats	eng	None known.
59912		threats	eng	Pollution.
59912		threats	eng	Water pollution and agriculture are considered to be potential threat to the species.
59913		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59913		conservation	eng	No information available.
59913		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from rivers and streams in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicus </em>is easily overlooked. Only recently, an exuviae found in Natal in the 1980s has been identified as <em>Microgomphus</em> (Martens and Suhling 2005). Globally, its range extends from Kenya to South Africa.
59913		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rivers and streams in coastal Kenya and Tanzania, a wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicus</em> is easily overlooked.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to Zimbabwe and north Zambia.
59913		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Zimbabwe and north Zambia. Records in the database from southern Africa are likely to be another species<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rivers and streams in coastal Kenya and Tanzania, a wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicu</em>s is easily overlooked.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from rivers and streams in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicus </em>is easily overlooked. Only recently, an <em>exuviae</em> found in Natal in the 1980s has been identified as <em>Microgomphus</em> (Martens and Suhling 2005).
59913		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, thicket and forest.
59913		population	eng	No information available.
59913		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59913		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59913		threats	eng	Unknown. Destruction of gallery forest and pollution are inferred threats.
59913		threats	eng	Water pollution and destruction of gallery forest and pollution due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59914		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59914		conservation	eng	No information available.
59914		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59914		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and various forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo.
59914		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya (Kakamega Forest), Uganda (various forests) to Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga, Bambesa).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga, Bambesa); because the species is easily overlooked a wider distribution is anticipated.
59914		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo. Likely to be merged with <em>M. nyassicus</em>, which will become the nominate species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga, Bambesa); because the species is easily overlooked a wider distribution is anticipated.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and various forests in Uganda.
59914		habitat	eng	Rivers in rainforest.
59914		population	eng	No information available.
59914		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59914		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59914		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59915		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59915		conservation	eng	No information available.
59915		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59915		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and various forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> West Kenya to western Africa.
59915		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Nigeria, and also in Liberia, but other west African records must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon
59915		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria and Liberia, but other west African records must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Nigeria, and also in Liberia.
59915		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Nigeria, and also in Liberia, but other west African records must be confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, for Congo assumed
59915		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59915		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59915		population	eng	No information available.
59915		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59915		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59915		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59916		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59916		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two, fragmented localities in the Amani Forest in the east Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, with extent of occurrence far below 100 km² and area of occupancy of less than 10 km².
59916		habitat	eng	Streams in dense forest of the Eastern Arc Mountains.
59916		population	eng	No information available.
59916		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59917		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59917		conservation	eng	No information available.
59917		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59917		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon, presence in Nigeria needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and the Central African Republic.
59917		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Presence in south east Nigeria must be confirmed: at least a similar but unnamed species is present in the south east of that country.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda to Cameroon.
59917		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Uganda to Cameroon. Record from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Elizabethville) requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, its presence in south east Nigeria must be confirmed: at least a similar but unnamed species is present in the south east of that country. It is present within Cameroon.
59917		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59917		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and seepage.
59917		population	eng	No information available.
59917		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59917		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59917		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59917		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59919		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59919		conservation	eng	No information available.
59919		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59919		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (Ikelenge Province). Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Uganda, and west to Nigeria.
59919		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwamba Forest (Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, west to Nigeria.
59919		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, west to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Zambia.
59919		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Uganda and Nigeria.
59919		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia to Uganda, west to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwamba Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from northwest Zambia (Ikelenge Province).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
59919		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59919		population	eng	No information available.
59919		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59919		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59919		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59919		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59919		threats	eng	Forest destruction is an inferred threat. Otherwise, specific threats are unknown.
59919		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59920		conservation	eng	No information available.
59920		conservation	eng	Research into conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59920		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Eastern Arc Mts (eastern Tanzania), Mt Mulanje and Mt. Thyolo (both south Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique.
59920		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique.
59920		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59920		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams.
59920		population	eng	No information available.
59920		threats	eng	Further destruction of Eastern Arc forests.
59920		threats	eng	Further destruction of Eastern Arc forests caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59921		conservation	eng	No information available.
59921		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into trends/monitoring of this species.
59921		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59921		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.
59921		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems through policy-based actions. More research is needed into trends/monitoring of this species.
59921		distribution	eng	<em>Nesciothemis farinosa</em> is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59921		distribution	eng	<em>Nesciothemis farinosa</em> ranges from southern and eastern afrotropical Africa to southern Arabia and deltaic Egypt. Its occurrence in West Africa is uncertain as there is possible confusion with <em>Nesciothemis pujoli</em> (Suhling <em>et al</em>. 2003).
59921		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, except for the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59921		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59921		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, but assumed from appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.
59921		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Egypt, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59921		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in eastern continental sub-Saharan Africa from northern Egypt to South Africa (present along the Ornage River basin, but absent from the Kalahari and other drier areas). A record from Mali is considered unlikely. Also found in southern Arabia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, but assumed from appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species ranges from southern and eastern Afrotropical Africa to southern Arabia and deltaic Egypt.  In northern Africa seven localities have been recorded for this species in middle and lower Egypt, among which two are relatively recent (1990). All the others are dated before 1929. The nearest populations outside the region are on the Nile river 1,500 km further South, in Sudan.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread, except for the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, all records of <span style="font-style: italic;">farinosa </span>that have been checked from the region have been reidentified as <em>N. pujoli.</em> All unspecified records of '<span style="font-style: italic;">farinosa</span>' in western Africa are listed as possible under <span style="font-style: italic;">pujoli</span>.
59921		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savanna, and woodland.
59921		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, and woodland.
59921		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, woodland.
59921		habitat	eng	The species reproduce in lakes, pool and stretch with low current in rivers as well as in small brooks.
59921		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown. However, this is a widespread species.
59921		population	eng	Generally unknown.
59921		population	eng	No information available.
59921		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59921		population	eng	Seven localities have been recorded for this species in middle and lower Egypt, among which two are relatively recent (1990). All the others are dated before 1929. The nearest populations outside the region are on the Nile river 1,500 km further South, in Sudan.
59921		population	eng	Unknown.
59921		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range
59921		threats	eng	No information available.
59921		threats	eng	Water pollution, drought, stream management, over-irrigation.
59921		threats	eng	Water pollution, drought, stream management, over-irrigation, wood extraction and agriculture are threats to the species.
59922		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy (Okavango record), range, population status, habitat and threats.
59922		conservation	eng	No information available.
59922		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mt. Mulanje (southern Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi (subspecies malawiensis on Mt. Mulanje).
59922		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi (subspecies malawiensis on Mount Mulanje).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mount Mulanje (southern Malawi).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the Zambezi River in Zimbabwe and Zambia, and subspecies <em>malawiensis</em> on Mount Mulanje, Malawi (the Malawi record falls within the southern Africa region as defined by river basin areas for the purpose of this project). There is also a record of larvae of the subgenus (genus) <em>Mastigogomphus</em> from the Okavango River. These may belong to <em>dissimilis</em> (or be a new species).
59922		habitat	eng	Rivers in woodland.
59922		population	eng	No information available.
59922		threats	eng	No information available.
59922		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to water abstraction for agriculture are threats to the species.
59923		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59923		conservation	eng	No information available.
59923		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Migori (western Kenya), Uganda (no detailed records).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to western Africa (along guinea-savanna zone).
59923		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad and Nigeria to Gambia: probably throughout the Guinea savannah zone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya though to Gambia
59923		distribution	eng	This species has a Sahelian distribution. west Kenya through Chad and Nigeria to Gambia: probably throughout the Guinea savannah zone.<br/><br/>Not recorded in central Africa, but likely to occur in the northern parts of Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo. In eastern Africa there are records from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Migori (western Kenya), and Uganda. Present in western Africa from Chad and Nigeria to Gambia: probably throughout the Guinea savannah zone.
59923		habitat	eng	Probably open rivers.
59923		habitat	eng	Woodland, savanna, bush.
59923		habitat	eng	Woodland, savannah and bush.
59923		population	eng	No information available.
59923		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59923		threats	eng	No information available.
59923		threats	eng	No information available, but probably none.
59924		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59924		distribution	eng	Known only from Kakamega Forest in western Kenya.
59924		habitat	eng	Found in and around rivers in forested areas.
59924		population	eng	No information available.
59924		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59925		conservation	eng	In South Africa, further searches for the species are required (Samways 2006). No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present.
59925		conservation	eng	No information available.
59925		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record from southern Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Transvaal to Mozambique, Zambia, and likely in Tanzania.
59925		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Transvaal to Mozambique, Zambia, and probably Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record from southern Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species may be endemic to the southern Africa region. It occurs in the river catchments of the Zambezi and the Limpopo (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa (Transvaal), Zambia, and Zimbabwe). However, there is also an unconfirmed record from Tanzania. In South Africa, there are only two records: Pafuri, Kruger National Park, and Ndumo, KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006).
59925		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush, woodland, savanna. Tall grass and other low vegetation near wide, meandering rivers (Samways 2006).
59925		habitat	eng	Rrivers in bush, woodland, savanna.
59925		population	eng	No information available.
59925		population	eng	No information is available on overall population size or trends. It appears to be a localised species throughout its range (Samways 2006).
59925		threats	eng	In South Africa, major changes to the river systems of the Kruger National Park as a result of the floods of February 2000 may have altered its habitat, particularly that of the larvae (Samways 2006). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.
59925		threats	eng	No information available.
59926		conservation	eng	Further research into the species distribution is needed, as well as trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration, and corridors are required.
59926		conservation	eng	No information available.
59926		conservation	eng	None known. Research into trends/monitoring of this species is required, and habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and creation of corridors is needed.
59926		conservation	eng	Research into trends/monitoring of this species is required, and habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and creation of corridors is needed.
59926		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It does not occur in the arid southwest. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.
59926		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.
59926		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from one record from Tsuda for Democratic Republic of Congo, which needs confirmation. It is assumed for Democratic Republic of Congo because of occurrence in western Uganda and northern Zambia.
59926		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Kenya and Uganda<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has only been recorded from northern Kenya (Mt. Marsabit) in the region. A wider distribution (southern Ethiopia, southern Sudan and more localities in northern Kenya and Uganda) assumed.
59926		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the record from Tsuda for Democratic Republic of Congo needs confirmation, assumed for Democratic Republic of Congo because of occurrence in western Uganda and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from northern Kenya (Mount Marsabit) in the region. A wider distribution (southern Ethiopia, southern Sudan and more localities in northern Kenya and Uganda) assumed. Until more surveys have confirmed this, it has to be listed Data Deficient for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It does not occur in the arid south west.
59926		habitat	eng	Forest pools and swamps.
59926		habitat	eng	Forest pools and swamps; not found in lowland areas.
59926		population	eng	No information available.
59926		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59926		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59926		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59926		threats	eng	Forest destruction is an inferred threat.
59926		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59927		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59927		conservation	eng	No information available.
59927		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59927		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia. Globally, this species occurs from west Kenya to Nigeria.
59927		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Nigeria.
59927		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya and northern Zambia to Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Zambia, occurrence in Equatorial Guinea is assumed.
59927		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya and northern Zambia to Guinea.
59927		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from west Kenya and northern Zambia to Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Zambia, occurrence in Equatorial Guinea is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia.
59927		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in rainforest.
59927		population	eng	No information available.
59927		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59927		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59927		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59927		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
59927		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59928		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
59928		conservation	eng	No information available.
59928		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is known from three records in two localities the mountain regions in the eastern escarpment along the borders between Zimbabwe and Mozambique and Malawi and Mozambique, respectively. Globally, it is  known from Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique.
59928		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: fast forest streams in Tanzania (east Usambara, Uluguru Mts and Turiani) and Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi.
59928		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from fast forest streams in Tanzania (east Usambara, Uluguru Mts. and Turiani) and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from three records in two localities the mountain regions in the eastern escarpment along the borders between Zimbabwe and Mozambique and Malawi and Mozambique, respectively.
59928		habitat	eng	Broad montane forest streams (Pinhey 1981). Fast flowing streams (Pinhey 1984a).
59928		habitat	eng	It is known to occur in streams in broad montane forest streams (Pinhey 1981) and fast flowing streams (Pinhey 1984a).
59928		habitat	eng	Streams in forest.
59928		population	eng	No information available.
59928		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59928		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59928		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59928		threats	eng	Unknown. Forest destruction is a potential threat, as well as potential invasive alien plants and invasive predatory fish species (e.g., trout).
59929		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59929		conservation	eng	No information available.
59929		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya, forests in Uganda, Arusha (northern Tanzania).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo.
59929		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi, Iswa).
59929		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, assumed in northern Kenya and southern Sudan as well.
59929		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from eastern Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and assumed in southern Sudan.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi, Iswa).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya, forests in Uganda, Arusha (northern Tanzania).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, assumed in northern Kenya and southern Sudan as well.
59929		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in woodland and forest.
59929		population	eng	No information available.
59929		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59929		threats	eng	No information available.
59929		threats	eng	None known.
59929		threats	eng	Pollution.
59929		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat destruction caused by agriculture are main threats to the species.
59930		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59930		distribution	eng	The species is present in few localities in forests of south-west Uganda and possibly Democratic Republic of Congo (DCR). Previous records from Kenya refer to <em>N. maathaiae</em>.
59930		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
59930		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59930		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59931		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59931		distribution	eng	<em>Notogomphus kilimandjaricus</em> occurs in northern Tanzania and central Kenya.
59931		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in woodland.
59931		population	eng	No information available.
59931		threats	eng	There are no serious threats affecting this species across its global range. However, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution are affecting its population.
59933		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59933		conservation	eng	No information available.
59933		conservation	eng	None in place. Research required into the species population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and corridors are also needed.
59933		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Ethiopia, west Kenya.
59933		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Ethiopia and western Kenya.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya.
59933		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya
59933		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush- or woodland.
59933		population	eng	No information available.
59933		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59933		threats	eng	No information available.
59933		threats	eng	None known.
59933		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.
59934		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59934		conservation	eng	No information available.
59934		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59934		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania (no detailed locality info) and Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, west Tanzania to Democratic Republic of Congo.
59934		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, west Tanzania to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; presence possible in Congo.
59934		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya, west Tanzania to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania and Uganda.
59934		habitat	eng	Rivers in rainforest.
59934		population	eng	No information available.
59934		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59934		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59934		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59935		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59935		conservation	eng	No information available.
59935		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59935		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania (no detailed locality info) and Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, west Tanzania.
59935		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, west Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; presence in Congo is possible.
59935		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, west Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo record needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania and Uganda.
59935		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in rainforest.
59935		population	eng	No information available.
59935		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59935		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59935		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59937		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59937		conservation	eng	No information available.
59937		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended at present.
59937		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in almost all countries except for Botswana. There is one old and unproven record from southern Namibia, otherwise there are no records from the arid southwest of the region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south DRC, and Malawi.
59937		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, no precise records.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo and Malawi.
59937		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; a record from Congo needs confirmation.
59937		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, no precise records.
59937		habitat	eng	Grassy streams or rivers in open or bush country.
59937		habitat	eng	Grassy streams or rivers in wooded or bush country.
59937		population	eng	No information available.
59937		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59937		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59937		threats	eng	No information available.
59937		threats	eng	The species is not threatened at present.
59937		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59938		conservation	eng	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, and watershed protection are needed.
59938		distribution	eng	Kenya, Mt. Elgon forest, Katamayu Forest, Marioshoni Forest.
59938		habitat	eng	Montane forested streams.
59938		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59938		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59939		conservation	eng	More research is urgently needed on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends.
59939		conservation	eng	More research is urgently needed to gather data on range, population status, threats, etc.
59939		conservation	eng	No information available.
59939		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is mainly found in the mountains in Zimbabwe. There are no records from Mozambique so far but it is very likely to occur there. Most records are from within the southern Africa region (Zimbabwe), with some occurring just outside the region. Globally, it has been recorded from east Zimbabwe, Malawi and south Tanzania.
59939		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: southern Tanzania, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe to south Tanzania.
59939		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from east Zimbabwe, Malawi and south Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: southern Tanzania, Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is mainly found in the mountains in Zimbabwe. There are no records from Mozambique so far but it is very likely to occur there. Most records are from within the southern Africa region (Zimbabwe), with some occurring just outside the region.
59939		habitat	eng	Montane streams in bush country.
59939		habitat	eng	Montane streams in bush country (Pinhey 1984a).
59939		population	eng	No information available.
59939		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59939		threats	eng	Deforestation, alien trees, and alien predatory fish (e.g., trout) occur in the main part of the known range (Zimbabwe), but the effects of these on the population are not known at present.
59939		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agriculture, alien trees, and alien predatory fish (e.g. trout) occur in the main part of the known range (Zimbabwe), but the effects of these on the population are not known at present.
59939		threats	eng	No information available.
59940		conservation	eng	No information available.
59940		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59940		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Aswa River (north Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north Uganda, Ghana.
59940		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north Uganda (Aswa River in north Uganda), Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi.
59940		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush and savanna.
59940		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush and savannah.
59940		population	eng	No information available.
59940		threats	eng	No information available.
59941		conservation	eng	No information available.
59941		conservation	eng	None.
59941		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59941		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except far west.
59941		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except the far west<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from two sites in northern Kenya within the region, and listed by Tsuda for Sudan. Nevertheless a wider occurrence in northern Kenya and the occurrence in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia is assumed.
59941		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except the far west.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has only been recorded from an especimen listed by Tsuda for Sudan. Nevertheless a wider occurrence in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia are assumed. For the time being, the species is listed Data Deficient for the northern Africa region.<br/><br/>It is widespread along large rivers in the southern Africa region.
59941		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along large rivers in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in West Africa.
59941		habitat	eng	Large rivers with swift flow.
59941		habitat	eng	Rivers, streams and large lakes.
59941		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rivers, streams and large lakes.
59941		population	eng	No information available.
59941		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
59941		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59941		population	eng	Population size is unknown. However, this is a widespread species.
59941		threats	eng	No information available.
59941		threats	eng	None known.
59942		conservation	eng	No information available.
59942		conservation	eng	No information is available from much of its range.
59942		conservation	eng	None.
59942		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species is needed.
59942		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
59942		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.
59942		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. For southern Ethiopia the occurrence is assumed, the Sudan record needs confirmation.
59942		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and possibly Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59942		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. For southern Ethiopia the occurrence is assumed, the Sudan record needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread along perennial tropical rivers, occasional vicariant in arid Namibia. It does not occur in the Cape or indeed in most of South Africa (known only from three specimens from the Kruger National Park and one recent record from the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press)<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and possibly Chad.
59942		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread along perennial tropical rivers, occasional vicariant in arid Namibia. It does not occur in the Cape or indeed in most of South Africa (known only from three specimens from the Kruger National Park and one recent record from the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006). Globally, the species is widespread in Africa.
59942		habitat	eng	Open rivers, but also streams and lakes.
59942		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59942		population	eng	No information available.
59942		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59942		threats	eng	No information available.
59942		threats	eng	No information available from much of its range.
59942		threats	eng	None known.
59942		threats	eng	Water pollution and destruction of habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.
59944		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59944		distribution	eng	The only record of this species is from an undefined type locality in Tanzania.
59944		habitat	eng	No information available.
59944		population	eng	No information available. Population size is unknown.
59944		threats	eng	No information available.
59945		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
59945		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya (Kakamega Forest), forests in Uganda (Semliki) and western Tanzania, and occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.
59945		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59945		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59945		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59946		conservation	eng	No information available.
59946		conservation	eng	Some taxonomic work is required to determine the true extent of this species' range.
59946		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Kenya, Kilimanjaro area (Tanzania), unconfirmed records from Uganda and Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya, Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique, Tanzania, and likely in Malawi, ?Uganda.
59946		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <em>Onychogomphus</em> similar to <em>O. supinus</em> have been found in Senegal (holotype <em>O. s. xerophilus</em>), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994) and Guinea (Legrand 2003). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is similar forms are known from throughout tropical Africa. True <em>O. supinus</em> if from southern Africa.
59946		distribution	eng	The species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Onychogomphus </span>similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. supinus</span> have been found throughout Africa, e.g., Senegal (holotype <em>O. s. xerophilus</em>), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994) and Guinea (Legrand 2003). True <em>O. supinus</em> is known from southern Africa only. Records from Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, and possibly also Malawi and Uganda need confirmation.<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from central Africa yet, though likely to occur, if all records mentioned above do really belong to one species.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Kenya, Kilimanjaro area (Tanzania), unconfirmed records from Uganda and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the range of this species is unclear due to taxonomic problems. It may only occur in South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and hence be endemic to the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, <em>Onychogomphus</em> similar to <em>O. supinus</em> have been found in Senegal (holotype <span style="font-style: italic;">O. s. xerophilus</span>), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994) and Guinea (Legrand 2003).
59946		habitat	eng	Streams or rivers in bush or woodland.
59946		habitat	eng	Streams or rivers in bush, woodland and forest.
59946		population	eng	No information available.
59946		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59946		threats	eng	No information available.
59946		threats	eng	Water pollution and destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.
59947		conservation	eng	No information available but research into conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Enforcement of habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59947		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Mulanje, 1 ,800 to 2,200 m asl,&#160; in south Malawi.
59947		habitat	eng	Montane streams (1,800 to 2,200 m asl).
59947		population	eng	No information available.
59947		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats. Mt Mulanje was gazetted as a  forest reserve in 1927. However, serious cases of encroachment and  overexploitation of forest resources have become a problem and available  resources are currently inadequate for its protection. Mining is also considered a threat.
59948		conservation	eng	No information available.
59948		conservation	eng	None.
59948		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59948		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread except for in the Cape and the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in continental Africa except in dense forest.
59948		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.
59948		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon, and Zambia; expected in the other countries as well in appropriate habitats.
59948		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.<br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Uganda, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Kenya, Egypt, Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59948		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated population in Near East.
59948		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, expected in the other countries as well in appropriate habitats.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread except for in the Cape and the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.
59948		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools in bush and savanna.
59948		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools in bush and savannah.
59948		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools in bush, savannah and disturbed forest.
59948		population	eng	No information available.
59948		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends
59948		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59948		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59948		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are inferred threats.
59948		threats	eng	No information available.
59948		threats	eng	None.
59948		threats	eng	None known.
59948		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59949		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59949		conservation	eng	No information available.
59949		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwest Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola to Uganda and West Africa.
59949		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kenya, Uganda, unconfirmed records from Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in  Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa, and likely in Tanzania.
59949		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo; a wider distribution is assumed, including Congo and the Central African Republic.
59949		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sehnegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Senegal and Zambia.
59949		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa. Western Tanzanian and southern Democratic Republic of Congo/Zambia records are erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kenya, Uganda, unconfirmed records from Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, this record needs confirmation. Listed Not Applicable for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwest Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.
59949		habitat	eng	It occurs in woodlands and gallery forest, as well as swampy pools in savannah and woodlands.
59949		habitat	eng	Swampy pools in savannah, woodlands.
59949		habitat	eng	Woodlands, gallery forest.
59949		population	eng	No information available.
59949		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59949		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59949		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown.
59949		threats	eng	No information available.
59949		threats	eng	None.
59950		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
59950		conservation	eng	No information available.
59950		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
59950		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only from Angola and northwest Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola to Uganda and West Africa.
59950		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.
59950		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; the Central African Republic is assumed.
59950		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Uganda and Guinea.
59950		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia. Its presence in Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (various localities), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from Angola and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.
59950		habitat	eng	Forest.
59950		habitat	eng	Large ponds, swamp or slow sections of streams, often near forest.
59950		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
59950		population	eng	No information available.
59950		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59950		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59950		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59950		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture is a threat to the species.
59950		threats	eng	None.
59950		threats	eng	Specific threats are not known. Forest destruction is an inferred threat.
59951		conservation	eng	No information available.
59951		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59951		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59951		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59951		conservation	eng	Research into trends/monitoring needed.
59951		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, but not in southern Namibia or southern Botswana. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, except in dense rain forest.
59951		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except dense rainforest.
59951		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except dense rainforest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from entire area (all countries), only record from Sao Tome/Pincipe needs confirmation.
59951		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except dense rain forest.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Chad, Egypt, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59951		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. It is probably present in all western African nations, but many records must be confirmed after confusion with <em>O. stemmale</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
59951		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa except&#160; from dense rainforest. However, there are no records known from southern Africa and the Egyptian records should  be ignored.<br/><br/>It is known from the entire central Africa (all countries), and the only  record from Sao Tome/Principe needs confirmation. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is known to be common and widespread (Burundi assumed). Eastern African coastal records most likely pertain to <em>O.  stemmale</em>.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Chad, Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, but not in southern Namibia or southern Botswana.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. Probably present in all West African nations, but many records must be confirmed after confusion with <em>O. stemmale</em>.
59951		habitat	eng	Any permanent or temporary pools and streams in savanna, bush and woodland.
59951		habitat	eng	Lentic and lotic waters in savannah, bush and woodland.
59951		habitat	eng	Savanna, bush and woodland.
59951		habitat	eng	Savannah, bush and woodland.
59951		habitat	eng	Still and moving waters in savannah, bush and woodland.
59951		population	eng	No information available.
59951		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59951		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59951		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59951		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.
59951		threats	eng	No information available.
59951		threats	eng	None.
59951		threats	eng	None known.
59951		threats	eng	No threats are known to be affecting the species at present.
59952		conservation	eng	No information available.
59952		conservation	eng	No information available. More research into the population and range of this species is required, and should be monitored.
59952		conservation	eng	No information available. Research required into the species population numbers and range, as well as trends/monitoring.
59952		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum caffrum</em> has a range that extends from the Cape to southern Arabia.
59952		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, except for in major parts of Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Cape) to south Arabia.
59952		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape to south Arabia.
59952		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape to South Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, and Democratic Republic of Congo; likely to be present in Zambia.
59952		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape to south Arabia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan.
59952		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Cape to South Arabia. The central Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo) records are valid, but likely to be isolated; those records from further north and west are likely to be either mis-identifications or erroneous georeferences.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread, except for in major parts of Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, records are scattered and old. This is largely a eastern highland species and therefore most of these records are very dubious, although the species may penetrate into Chad from Sudan.
59952		habitat	eng	Highland swamps.
59952		habitat	eng	Swamps.
59952		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats
59952		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats.
59952		population	eng	No information available.
59952		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59952		threats	eng	Destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59952		threats	eng	No information available.
59952		threats	eng	None known.
59952		threats	eng	There are no serious threats affecting this species across its global range.
59953		conservation	eng	No information available.
59953		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59953		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Kenya and Uganda, unconfirmed record from Tanzania, often confused with <em>O. caffrum</em>.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Nigeria.
59953		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in western Kenya to south-east Nigeria, unconfirmed record from Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, unconfirmed record from the Central African Republic (Tsuda), in Congo is assumed.
59953		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south-east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to south-east Nigeria, unconfirmed record from Tanzania.
59953		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to south-east Nigeria, unconfirmed record from Tanzania. There is an isolated population in the Cameroonian highlands; and a second larger range to the east from Uganda to southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, unconfirmed record from Central African Republic (Tsuda), in Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Kenya and Uganda, unconfirmed record from Tanzania, often confused with <em>O. caffrum</em>.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from southeast Nigeria.
59953		habitat	eng	Highland swamps.
59953		habitat	eng	Montane and highland streams.
59953		habitat	eng	Montane and highland streams and swamps.
59953		population	eng	No information available.
59953		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59953		threats	eng	Destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59953		threats	eng	No information available.
59953		threats	eng	None.
59954		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are required.
59954		conservation	eng	No information available.
59954		conservation	eng	None known.
59954		conservation	eng	None required
59954		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59954		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59954		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum chrysostigma</em> is a very widespread and common species on the African continent and in Arabia. It is common in the Levant and from there reaches the southern coast of Turkey, Cyprus and the Greek Islands of Rhodes, Lesbos and Crete (two records only). In West Europe it is found in parts of Portugal and Spain where it reaches north as far as the Ebro delta. The species is likely to benefit from climate change and should be expected to colonise the south of France, Sicily and Sardinia.
59954		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum chrysostigma</em> occurs across all of Africa and the Middle East. It also occurs in southern Spain and on some Mediterranean islands. In northern Africa, it is present in the whole of the region.
59954		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in continental Africa except dense forest, southern Europe, middle East, and southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
59954		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries. Globally, it is widespread in continental Africa (except in dense forest), southern Europe, the middle East, and southern Asia.
59954		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest, southern Europe, middle East, southern Asia.
59954		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except in dense forest, extends to southern Europe and the Middle East. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia. Assumed in Gabon.
59954		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except in dense forest, extends to southern Europe and the Middle East. <br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Chad and Egypt assumed.
59954		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except in dense forest, extends to southern Europe and the Middle East.
59954		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest, southern Europe, Middle East and southern Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, assumed in Congo and Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species occurs across all of Africa and the Middle East. It also occurs in southern Spain and on some Mediterranean islands. In northern Africa, it is present in the whole of the region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Chad and Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all western African countries.
59954		habitat	eng	Any open water.
59954		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide range of lentic and lotic habitats.
59954		habitat	eng	Pools, swampy habitats in savanna, bush, woodlands.
59954		habitat	eng	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, bush, woodlands.
59954		habitat	eng	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, bush, woodlands, but not likely within dense rainforest areas (such as the Congo Basin).
59954		habitat	eng	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, temporary waters, bush and woodlands.
59954		habitat	eng	The species is found at both running and standing waters with a strong preference for those which are sunny and shallow.
59954		population	eng	Abundant and always occurs in large numbers.
59954		population	eng	Large populations all over the species' range. No declines are expected.
59954		population	eng	No information available.
59954		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59954		population	eng	The species has a limited range in Europe but is often common when found.
59954		threats	eng	No information available.
59954		threats	eng	None.
59954		threats	eng	None at present.
59954		threats	eng	None known.
59954		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction due to agriculture.
59954		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting the species at present.
59955		conservation	eng	No information available.
59955		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59955		conservation	eng	No information available. Research into trends/monitoring this species is needed.
59955		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59955		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest, Botswana or at the Cape. There is only one historic record in northern Namibia. Globally, it is widespread sub-Saharan Africa.
59955		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread sub-Saharan Africa.
59955		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia
59955		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia within the region. Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation. Occurrence in northern Kenya, Uganda and Somalia assumed.
59955		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59955		distribution	eng	The species is widespread sub-Saharan Africa. Records from eastern coastal South Africa and Mozambique are unlikely, as are two records from southern Angola/northern Namibia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia within the region and assumed from Somalia.. Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest, Botswana or at the Cape. There is only one historic record in northern Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.
59955		habitat	eng	Open streams.
59955		population	eng	No information available.
59955		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59955		threats	eng	No information available.
59955		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is destruction of its habitat due to agriculture, as well as water pollution.
59956		conservation	eng	No information available.
59956		conservation	eng	None.
59956		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59956		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but there have been no records in the arid southwest, Botswana or the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59956		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59956		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Cameroon and Gabon.
59956		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, northern Kenya and Uganda; southern Sudan assumed.
59956		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59956		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, for Cameroon and Gabon assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, occurrence in northern Kenya and Uganda, and southern Sudan assumed.
59956		habitat	eng	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest.
59956		habitat	eng	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest. Often found at altitude.
59956		population	eng	No information available.
59956		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59956		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59956		threats	eng	No information available.
59956		threats	eng	None known.
59956		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction due to agriculture.
59957		conservation	eng	No information available.
59957		conservation	eng	None.
59957		conservation	eng	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59957		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, and Madagascar.
59957		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar.
59957		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon and Zambia; also reported from Angola, record from Cameroon (Tsuda) needs confirmation. Presence in the Central African Republic is assumed.
59957		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from two sites in Sudan.
59957		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59957		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, record from Cameroon (Tsuda) needs confirmation, for Congo and Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed from Tsuda as present in the region. This record is likely, but needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Senegal.
59957		habitat	eng	Swamps and floodplains in woodland or bush.
59957		habitat	eng	Swamps, streams, floodplains in woodland or bush.
59957		population	eng	No information available.
59957		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59957		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59957		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59957		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.
59957		threats	eng	No information available.
59957		threats	eng	None.
59957		threats	eng	None known.
59957		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59958		conservation	eng	No information available.
59958		conservation	eng	None.
59958		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place across the region or are recommended at present.
59958		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
59958		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending west to Guinea, but presence further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal, etc.)<br>unconfirmed.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Sudan; for Somalia and Uganda assumed.
59958		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending west to Guinea, but presence further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal etc.) unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries within the Central African region.
59958		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. It is thought to be extending further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal etc.) but this information is unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59958		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending west to Guinea, but presence further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal) is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries within the central African region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Sudan; for Somalia and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. Extending further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal, etc.) is unconfirmed.
59958		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
59958		habitat	eng	Streams in forest and dense woodland.
59958		habitat	eng	Streams in forest and dense woodland. In the arid southwest of southern Africa the species is limited to perennial springs.
59958		habitat	eng	Streams in forest and dense woodland. In the arid southwest the species is limited to perennial springs.
59958		population	eng	No information available.
59958		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59958		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59958		threats	eng	In parts of the region destruction of springs is a local threat. However it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59958		threats	eng	In parts of the southern Africa region the destruction of springs is a local threat. It is know to be affected by wood extraction, agriculture and water pollution. However it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.
59958		threats	eng	No information available.
59958		threats	eng	None known.
59959		conservation	eng	No information available.
59959		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59959		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of the population is required.
59959		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59959		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid parts of the region, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59959		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.
59959		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.
59959		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya. For Sudan and Uganda, assumed.
59959		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa. The Cameroonian records are erroneous. South African record left isolated.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, and assumed for Sudan and Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid parts of the region, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from western Africa aside from mention of specimens from Sierra Leone and Ghana (most likely misidentifications) in the original description.
59959		habitat	eng	Swamps, streams in bush or woodland.
59959		population	eng	No information available.
59959		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59959		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59959		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are major threats to this species.
59959		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are unknown. Furthermore, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59960		conservation	eng	No information available.
59960		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59960		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59960		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: specimen in London labeled "Kambole, Tanganyika", the locality is unclear (Kambole was only found in Zambia).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique to Democratic Republic of Congo.
59960		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo; a record assigned for Tanzania was wrongly labelled and a Zambia record instead.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo; also reported from Angola and Congo.
59960		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and Democratic Republic of Congo. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo; a record assigned for Tanzania was wrongly labelled and a Zambia record instead.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: specimen in London labelled "Kambole, Tanganyika" is unclear.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the southern Africa region in Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>Records from western Africa are incorrect.
59960		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern part of the southern Africa region: Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and DCR.
59960		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools in bush and woodland.
59960		population	eng	No information available.
59960		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59960		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59960		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are major threats to this species.
59960		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59961		conservation	eng	No information available.
59961		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59961		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola and Zambia. Globally, it is recorded from Zambia and Angola to Kenya, and west to Mali.
59961		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Kenya, west to Mali.
59961		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Kenya and Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries in the region except for Sao Tome and Principe.
59961		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Kenya and Guinea-Bissau.
59961		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola to Kenya and west to Mali.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from all countries in the central African region except for Sao Tome and Principe.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In addition, appropriate habitats are known in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, although this record needs confirmation. No other records are available from region, thus listed Not Applicable.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.
59961		habitat	eng	Pools, swamp or slow streams, often near forest.
59961		habitat	eng	Strongly associated with forest, including swamp forest.
59961		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
59961		population	eng	No information available.
59961		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59961		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59961		threats	eng	Current threats within the region are unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59961		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59961		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
59961		threats	eng	No information available.
59961		threats	eng	None.
59962		conservation	eng	No information available.
59962		conservation	eng	None known.
59962		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Kenya and Guinea Bissau.
59962		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya and Guinea-Bissau.
59962		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Zambia; presence is assumed from Congo and Cameroon.
59962		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea Bissau<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> So far the species is only recorded from Ethiopia within the region, for northern Kenya and southern Sudan assumed as well.
59962		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea-Bissau.
59962		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea Bissau.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo and Zambia.
59962		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
59962		habitat	eng	Swampy areas within savannah and woodland.
59962		habitat	eng	Temporary marshes and pools in savannah.
59962		population	eng	No information available.
59962		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59962		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59962		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but&#160; populations are potentially disjunct.
59962		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59962		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59962		threats	eng	No information available.
59962		threats	eng	None known.
59963		conservation	eng	No information available.
59963		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59963		conservation	eng	Research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59963		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is known from only one record in northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Gambia, Togo and Zambia)
59963		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamp forests in central and west Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo.
59963		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Ghana, Togo, Zambia).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia; likely to be present in Cameroon and the Central African Republic.
59963		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recently recorded from Atewa in Ghana and reports from Gambia and Togo highly questionable (only females recorded and in Gambia there is no suitable habitat).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Cameroon.
59963		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Ghana, Togo, Zambia).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Burundi and swamp forests of central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is known from only one record in northwest Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is recently recorded from Atewa in Ghana and reports from Gambia and Togo highly questionable (only females recorded and in Gambia there is no suitable habitat).
59963		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
59963		habitat	eng	Swampy forest.
59963		habitat	eng	Swampy spots in forest, these areas may be associated with streams.
59963		population	eng	No information available.
59963		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59963		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59963		threats	eng	Habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction is a potential threat.
59963		threats	eng	Habitat loss through drainage and destruction of swampy habitats is a potential threat.
59963		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59963		threats	eng	Unknown. Habitat loss through drainage and destruction of swampy habitats is a potential threat.
59964		conservation	eng	No information available.
59964		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59964		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59964		conservation	eng	No information available. Research of trends/monitoring this species needed.
59964		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the humid north. It also ranges south into South Africa. Globally, it is widespread in tropical Africa.
59964		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59964		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Zambia.
59964		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The species was for Sudan by Tsuda - this record need confirmation.
59964		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
59964		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical Africa. All the records need to be checked as are often confused with <em>O. brachiale</em> and the ones from Somalia are known to be erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Principe and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known to be common and widespread in all five countries (assumed in Burundi).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Sudan by Tsuda, although this record needs confirmation. It is also likely to occur in southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the humid north. It also ranges south into South Africa.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
59964		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.
59964		population	eng	No information available.
59964		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59964		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59964		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture is a threat.
59964		threats	eng	No information available.
59964		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59965		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation is needed.
59965		conservation	eng	No information available.
59965		conservation	eng	None.
59965		conservation	eng	No specific action for this species is needed.
59965		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59965		conservation	eng	Policy-based actions and communication/education to increase awareness are needed. Research into habitat status, conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.  Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59965		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum trinacria</em> is a common and widespread Afrotropical species which extends north up to the Ebro Valley in Spain and to the Middle East (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Records from Turkey have never been confirmed and are considered doubtful. In Europe, the species is known from the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and the Italian island of Pantelleria. Although now not uncommon in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula the first record only dates back to 1983 (Belle 1984). This makes it likely that the species has shown an increase in the last decades. The only European record in the east of the Mediterranean is old (prior to 1929) and comes from Rhodos. The species is likely to benefit from climate change.
59965		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum trinacria</em> occurs in Africa and the Middle East, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. In northern Africa, the species is present across the entire region.
59965		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
59965		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, south Europe, Middle East.
59965		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; it is assumed for Angola, Congo and the Central African Republic.
59965		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded for Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence in Egypt and Uganda assumed.
59965		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Niger and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe and the Middle East.
59965		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest areas such as the Congo Basin), south Europe and Middle East.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, at least for Congo and Centra African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present across the entire region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded for Egypt, Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Sudan and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common all over the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Niger and Nigeria.
59965		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common all over the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East.
59965		habitat	eng	The species is found in standing waters such as large lakes.
59965		habitat	eng	The species is found in standing waters, such as large lakes and dunary slacks.
59965		habitat	eng	Uses a wide variety of habitats, including lakes and large rivers.
59965		habitat	eng	Various habitats, also lakes and large rivers.
59965		habitat	eng	Various habitats, espcially larger lakes and swamps.
59965		population	eng	Never abundant but widespread.
59965		population	eng	No information available.
59965		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, the species is widespread throughout the region.
59965		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59965		population	eng	Within its European range the species is fairly common but seldom abundant.
59965		threats	eng	Habitat modifications.
59965		threats	eng	No information available.
59965		threats	eng	None.
59965		threats	eng	None known.
59965		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat modification caused by agriculture and water pollution.
59965		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting the species.
59965		threats	eng	The species is not under any specific threat.
59966		conservation	eng	No information available.
59966		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59966		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59966		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Ivory Coast.
59966		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo; presence in Equatorial Guinea is assumed
59966		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.
59966		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Ivory Coast.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, records from Congo and Gabon need confirmation, but are likely, for Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
59966		habitat	eng	Pools, swampy spots and calm stream sections in forest.
59966		habitat	eng	Rainforest pools, floodplains and swamps.
59966		population	eng	No information available.
59966		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59966		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59966		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59967		conservation	eng	No information available.
59967		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59967		conservation	eng	None.
59967		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa and also in south-west Arabia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
59967		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, and in south-west Arabia.
59967		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, also in south-west Arabia.
59967		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and also in south-west Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and the Central African Republic; is assumed for Congo and Angola.
59967		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and also in south-west Arabia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Somalia and Ethiopia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is most likely correct.
59967		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, also in south-west Arabia.
59967		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, also in south-west Arabia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, assumed for Congo, Angola and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is most likely correct. Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and Chad.
59967		habitat	eng	Temporary swamps and pools.
59967		population	eng	No information available.
59967		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59967		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59967		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59967		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, and water pollution are threats to the species.
59967		threats	eng	No information available.
59967		threats	eng	None.
59967		threats	eng	None known.
59967		threats	eng	No threats are known to be seriously affecting the species across its whole range.
59968		conservation	eng	No information available.
59968		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59968		conservation	eng	None.
59968		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59968		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread and locally common all over the region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.
59968		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.
59968		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; presence is assumed from Angola, Congo, Cameroon and the Central African Republic.
59968		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas. <br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Sudan. Somalia and Djibouti assumed.
59968		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone so far.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa outside forest areas.
59968		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except from rainforest areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, from Congo, Cameroon and Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan, and assumed to be present also in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread and locally common all over the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone so far.
59968		habitat	eng	Open swampy habitats.
59968		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats.
59968		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, well-vegetated perennial streams.
59968		population	eng	Locally common all across the southern Africa region.
59968		population	eng	No information available.
59968		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59968		population	eng	Population size is unknown. The species is locally common all across the southern Africa region.
59968		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59968		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture.
59968		threats	eng	No information available.
59968		threats	eng	None.
59968		threats	eng	None known.
59968		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the population at present.
59969		conservation	eng	No information available.
59969		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59969		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of this species is needed.
59969		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59969		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar.
59969		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar. <em>P.portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, and Congo.
59969		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rain forest, Madagascar. <em> P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of<em> P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Somalia. Chad and Sudan assumed.
59969		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. <em>P. portia</em> has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest or desert.
59969		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar. <em>P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as a form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled. It is assessed as Least Concern.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, expected for Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. Chad and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the southern Africa region and locally common, not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. portia</span> has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.
59969		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region and locally common, not in the arid southwest and at the Cape. Globally, this species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (except in dense rain forest) and Madagascar.
59969		habitat	eng	Pools and swampy habitats in bush, savannah, woodland and forest.
59969		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland and forest.
59969		population	eng	No information available.
59969		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, the species is widespread in the region.
59969		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59969		threats	eng	No information available.
59969		threats	eng	None.
59969		threats	eng	None known.
59969		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
59969		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
59970		conservation	eng	No information available.
59970		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59970		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of this species is needed.
59970		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59970		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59970		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <em>P. portia </em>was formerly regarded as a form of <em>P. lucia</em>. As a result, distribution information for the two is sometimes pooled together. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (except in dense rain forest) and Madagascar.
59970		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar.
59970		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rain forest, Madagascar.  <em>P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Sudan and Somalia assumed.
59970		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar.<em> P.portia </em>has formerly been regarded as form of P. lucia. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, Congo and Cameroon.
59970		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and probably Chad. <em>P. portia</em> has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest or desert.
59970		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar. <em>P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, For Congo and Cameroon expected.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record is from Tsuda and needs confirmation, but seems likely. Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and probably Chad. P. portia has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.
59970		habitat	eng	Pools and swampy habitats in bush, savannah, woodland and forest.
59970		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and woodland.
59970		population	eng	No information available.
59970		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, the species is widespread in the region.
59970		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
59970		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.
59970		threats	eng	No information available.
59970		threats	eng	None.
59970		threats	eng	There are no current threats known to be seriously affecting the species.
59971		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or are needed for this species at present.
59971		conservation	eng	No information available.
59971		conservation	eng	None needed.
59971		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59971		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
59971		distribution	eng	<em>Pantala flavescens</em> is a well-known circumtropical migrant which is common in Australia, Asia, Africa and North and South America. The species is remarkably rare in North Africa and Europe. It probably reproduces regularly in the Levant and maybe also in Cyprus and Turkey. Within Europe, records have been published from Montenegro (Ober 2008), the Greek island Rhodos (Laister 2005) the European part of Turkey (Hacet and Aktaç 2004, 2006) and mainland Greece. The species has been mentioned from France and Spain; which is probably based on a misinterpretation of French literature by Jurzitza (1967). Records from Britain are either dubious or refer to ship-assisted specimens. There are presently no indications that it reproduces within Europe but it is not unlikely that it will increase in the next decades and will become indigenous for the European fauna.
59971		distribution	eng	<em>Pantala flavescens</em> is a widespread and common migrant occurring worldwide  in all tropical and subtropical regions.
59971		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Pantala flavescens</em> is a very widespread species, with a circumtropical in distribution. In northern Africa it is a vagrant species.
59971		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.
59971		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries of the region.
59971		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence for Chad, Egypt, Eritrea and Djibouti assumed.
59971		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western African states.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions as well as North America.
59971		distribution	eng	The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from all countries of the cental Africa region except for Congo, but expected there as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>It is a vagrant species in northern Africa.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence for Chad, Uganda, Eritrea and Djibouti assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is very widespread and common all over the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all West African states.
59971		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread and common all over the southern Africa region. Globally, it is a widespread and common migrant worldwide, occurring in all tropical and subtropical regions.
59971		habitat	eng	No information available.
59971		habitat	eng	Occupies a variety of habitats, especially temporary pools. It also occurs deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rainsfronts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
59971		habitat	eng	The species is found in all kinds of standing waters.
59971		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitats, especially temporary pools. It is also found deep into arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rainfronts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
59971		habitat	eng	Various habitats, especially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. Strong migrant.
59971		habitat	eng	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas, migrant.
59971		habitat	eng	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rainfronts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
59971		habitat	eng	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rain fronts of the ITCZ.
59971		habitat	eng	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rains fronts of the ITCZ.
59971		population	eng	A very widespread and common species.
59971		population	eng	No data are available, however this is a very widespread species and the population size certainly exceeds the IUCN Red List criteria thresholds. The global population trend is unknown.
59971		population	eng	No information available.
59971		population	eng	Only a handfull of individuals have been recorded in Europe. The species is however common and extremely abundant in most of its range outside of Europe.
59971		population	eng	The species is very widespread and common in southern Africa.
59971		threats	eng	No information available.
59971		threats	eng	None.
59971		threats	eng	None present threats known.
59971		threats	eng	Not applicable.
59971		threats	eng	Not threatened.
59971		threats	eng	There are no know threats affecting this species at present.
59971		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
59972		conservation	eng	Taxonomic revision is urgently needed as well as research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59972		conservation	eng	Taxonomic revision is urgently needed, as well as research into the population and range of this species.
59972		conservation	eng	Taxonomic revision is urgently needed, as well as research into the population numbers and range.
59972		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, is listed by Tsuda for Angola (needs confirmation) and there are records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Nevertheless the entire "cognatus"-group of <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragomphus </span>is in urgent need of revision, hence a clear statement of the real distribution cannot be made.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Dundo, Angola; also reported from Democratic Republic of Congo.
59972		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, is listed by Tsuda for Angola (needs confirmation) and there are records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra pers. com.). Nevertheless the entire "cognatus"-group of Paragomphus is in urgent need of revision, therefore a clear statement of the real distribution cannot be made.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, for northern Kenya and southern Sudan assumed.
59972		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, northern Kenya and Tanzania; it is listed by Tsuda for Angola (needs confirmation) and there are records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra pers. comm.) and assumed in southern Sudan. Nevertheless the entire "<em>cognatus</em>"-group of <em>Paragomphus</em> is in urgent need of revision, hence a clear statement of the real distribution cannot be made.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known from streams in the Rift Valley region of the Kenya-Tanzania border (L. Natron, Nguruman escarpment), Nairobi area (often confusion with other <em>Paragomphus</em> species).
59972		habitat	eng	Streams in bush country
59972		habitat	eng	Streams in bush country.
59972		habitat	eng	Streams in shrublands.
59972		population	eng	No information available.
59972		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59972		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture.
59972		threats	eng	No information.
59972		threats	eng	No information available.
59973		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59973		distribution	eng	The type locality of <em>Paragomphus bredoi</em> is Bambesa in northeast Democratic Republic of Congo. Males from the Mughese Forest, northern Malawi (RM, 14 Nov 2001) and Lake Albert, Uganda (Hale Carpenter, 10 Dec 1929, BMNH) do not belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bredoi</span> (Dijkstra unpub. data). As <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bredoi</span> is most likely a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. serrulatus</span> (Dijkstra unpub.), the species is likely to be common in western Africa.
59973		habitat	eng	The species occurs around forest streams.
59973		population	eng	No information available.
59973		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to drainage, destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
59974		conservation	eng	No information available.
59974		conservation	eng	No information available. Taxonomic revision is needed.
59974		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present. Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range.
59974		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present. Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. Research into the taxonomy of this group is urgently needed.
59974		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread, Cape to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.
59974		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Cape to Ethiopia; Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence in west Africa (where listed for Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone) is doubted, probably referring to confusion with similar species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded for Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi), Cameroon, Zambia, and the Central African Republic. Likely to be present in northern Angola.
59974		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from the Cape in South Africa to Ethiopia; Kenya, and Democratic Republic of Congo. The species is not present in western Africa (where it has been confused with other species). <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi) and northern Angola. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread; assumed to be present in Burundi. <br/><br/>No northeastern Africa confirmed records. Undetermined larvae may pertain to the species. The taxonomy of the <em>P. cognatur</em> group is difficult and surveys and taxonomic work are urgently needed. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has records from rivers in all countries except Botswana.
59974		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species has records from rivers in all countries except Botswana. Globally, it is a widespread African species, occurring from the Cape region (South Africa) to Ethiopia, and west to Nigeria.
59974		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush and forest.
59974		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
59974		population	eng	No information available.
59974		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59974		threats	eng	No information available.
59974		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present.
59974		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
59975		conservation	eng	No information.
59975		conservation	eng	No information available.
59975		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59975		conservation	eng	None.
59975		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread along the tropical rivers in all countries except Lesotho (its occurrence in Angola is assumed). Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and DRC.
59975		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.
59975		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly present in Angola and Zambia.
59975		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya, occurrence in Somalia, southern Ethiopia and Sudan assumed.
59975		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from northern Kenya, occurrence in Somalia, southern Ethiopia and Sudan assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread along the tropical rivers in all countries except Lesotho (its occurrence in Angola is assumed).
59975		habitat	eng	It is  widespread and common occurs in streams, rivers, rarely pools in savannah or woodland, widespread and common.
59975		habitat	eng	Open streams, rivers or pools, continental.
59975		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers, in savanna or woodland, widespread and common.
59975		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers, rarely pools in savanna or woodland, widespread and common.
59975		population	eng	No information available.
59975		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59975		population	eng	The species seems to have stable populations at most rivers.
59975		population	eng	The species seems to have stable populations at most south African rivers.
59975		threats	eng	No information available.
59975		threats	eng	None.
59975		threats	eng	There are no major threats known at present.
59975		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are known to be affecting to the species.
59976		conservation	eng	Halting habitat degradation.
59976		conservation	eng	No information available.
59976		conservation	eng	None.
59976		conservation	eng	None needed.
59976		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59976		conservation	eng	Policy-based actions needed as well as formal education and the raising of awareness. Research into taxonomy, conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the speices would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59976		conservation	eng	Recommended conservation measures are the preservation of water quality and control of water use for agriculture and urbanized areas. The maintenance of cattle ponds even if they are not used for agricultural purposes anymore, would benefit the species.
59976		distribution	eng	<em>Paragomphus genei</em> is widespread in Africa (except in forest areas and western Africa) and adjacent Eurasia.
59976		distribution	eng	<em>Paragomphus genei</em> occurs in the whole of Africa and parts of the Middle East. There are scattered localities in southern Europe and scattered localities in the whole of the northern Africa region. There are no records for Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, but it is likely to be present there.
59976		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common in all countries. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and adjacent Eurasia.
59976		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and adjacent Eurasia.
59976		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest) and adjacent Eurasia, probably occurs in most African states, although records from many are still wanting.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and Zambia, but occurrence in appropriate forests is assumed for at least Congo as well.
59976		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest) and adjacent Eurasia, probably occurs in most African states, although records from many are still wanting.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
59976		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It probably occurs in all western African states, although records from many are still wanting. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and adjacent Eurasia
59976		distribution	eng	The African <em>Paragomphus genei</em> shows only scattered localities in southern Europe and its European records are limited to southwest Iberia, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily and the south of Calabria in mainland Italy.
59976		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest) and adjacent Eurasia, probably occurs in most African states, although records from many are still wanting. Occurs in the whole of Africa and parts of the Middle East. There are scattered localities in southern Europe and scattered localities in the whole of the northern Africa region. There are no records for Libya, but it is likely to be present there.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia, but occurrence in appropriate forests assumed for at least Central African Republic and Congo as well. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (assumed); common and widespread.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia; occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread and common in all countries of southern Africa. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species probably occurs in all western African states, although records from many are still wanting.
59976		habitat	eng	Mainly residual pools in large, seasonal rivers.
59976		habitat	eng	Open streams, and rivers or pools. The species is even found in temporary waters. This is one of the few Gomphidae that is able to complete larval development in less than a year (about two months). It is assumed to be multivoltine.
59976		habitat	eng	Open streams, rivers or pools, continental.
59976		habitat	eng	Open streams, rivers or pools; even temporary waters. This is one of the few Gomphidae that is able to complete larval development in less than a year (about two months); assumed to be multivoltine (Suhling <em>et al</em>. 2004)
59976		habitat	eng	Open streams, rivers or pools; unlike other gomphids can probably breed in temporary water.
59976		habitat	eng	The species is found at standing waters, both small (e.g. cattle ponds) and large lakes, and running waters like permanent rivers and intermittent rivers with residual pools.
59976		population	eng	In central, eastern and southern Africa, the species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square metre in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is locally abundant but uncommon in parts of its range.
59976		population	eng	Locally abundant but uncommon in parts of its range.
59976		population	eng	No information available.
59976		population	eng	Often there are enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square metre in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers. But there are also large populations in, for example, the lower Orange and lower Kunene Rivers.
59976		population	eng	The African species is restricted to south Europe, where it can be locally common.
59976		population	eng	The species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square m in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers.
59976		population	eng	The species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square m in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers. But also large populations e.g., in lower Orange and lower Kunene River.
59976		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to pollution and desiccation due to water extraction are the main threats.
59976		threats	eng	Habitat modifications (pollution, dams, water extraction).
59976		threats	eng	No information available.
59976		threats	eng	None known.
59976		threats	eng	No threats.
59976		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat modifications (pollution, dams, water extraction, agriculture) and water pollution.
59976		threats	eng	There are no threats currently affecting this species.
59977		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
59977		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
59977		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Tanzania (lake shores of L. Tanganyika) and two localities in the Congo Basin (Bambesa and Kapanga), and an unconfirmed record from Uganda (uncertain).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species was recoded only from 2 locations in Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa and Kapanga).
59977		distribution	eng	The species is known only from various forests in Malawi, the shores of Tanzania and Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, as well as from two localities in the Congo Basin (Bambesa and Kapanga).
59977		habitat	eng	Lake shores.
59977		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59977		threats	eng	No information available.
59978		conservation	eng	No information available.
59978		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59978		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from rivers in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, at low elevations. Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Tanzania.
59978		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: fast streams of coastal Tanzania (lower East Usambara Mts and Rufiji floodplain) and southern Kenya.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania.
59978		distribution	eng	The species is present in Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: fast streams of coastal Tanzania (lower East Usambara Mts. and Rufiji floodplain) and southern Kenya. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from rivers in Zimbabwe and Mozambique at low elevations.
59978		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in bush country at low elevations.
59978		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in bush country, low elevations.
59978		population	eng	No information available.
59978		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59978		threats	eng	No information available.
59978		threats	eng	No information is available on current threats in the region.
59978		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
59979		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
59979		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the shores of Lake Malawi.
59979		habitat	eng	Margins of Lake Malawi.
59979		population	eng	No information available.
59979		threats	eng	Water pollution is a major threat to this species and aquaculture may threat it in the future.
59980		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
59980		conservation	eng	Research into the population numbers and range for this species, as well as trends/monitoring is required.
59980		conservation	eng	Research required into the population numbers and range for this species, as well as trends/monitoring.
59980		distribution	eng	<em>Paragomphus pumilio</em> has been recorded from Kenya to Egypt with unconfirmed records in Algeria and Ethiopia. In fact, this little known gomphid seems to be a true Nilotic species (Dumont and Martens 1984).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known from the shores of Lake Turkana (north Kenya).<br/><br/>The type locality of <em>Paragomphus pumilio</em> is Egypt. The only known country in the northern Africa region, where its presence is confirmed (Andres 1928, Dumont 1980, Ober unpub. data). Records from Algeria (e.g., Pinhey 1962) are very doubtful and even records for Ethiopia are now questioned (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), but there are old records for Kenya (Buxton 1936) and Sudan (Ris 1912, 1924). <br/><br/>In north-eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Egypt and Sudan. The record from Ethiopia needs confirmation, but is most likely.
59980		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt. In East Africa, the species is known only from the shores of Lake Turkana (north Kenya).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Egypt and Sudan. The record from Ethiopia needs confirmation, but is most likely.
59980		distribution	eng	Terra typica of <em>Paragomphus pumilio</em> is Egypt, the only known country in the Northern Africa region where its presence is confirmed (Andres 1928, Dumont 1980, Ober unpub. data). Records from Algeria (e.g., Pinhey 1962) are very doubtful and even records for Ethiopia are now questioned (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), but there are old records for Kenya (Buxton 1936) and Sudan (Ris 1912, 1924). In fact this little known gomphid seems to be a true Nilotic species (Dumont and Martens 1984).
59980		habitat	eng	According to Dumont and Martens (1984) <em>P. pumilio</em> occurs in riverine conditions as well as in stagnant waters (Wadi Halfa, Lake Nubia, both Sudan).
59980		habitat	eng	Arid country, lakes and rivers.
59980		habitat	eng	In eastern and northeastern Africa, it inhabits lakes and rivers. According to Dumont and Martens (1984),  in northern Africa <em>P. pumilio</em> occurs in riverine conditions as well as in stagnant waters (Wadi Halfa, Lake Nubia, both Sudan).
59980		population	eng	In northern Africa, there is no exact information available, but the species is considered to be common wherever it occurs. According to Dumont and Martens (1984), it was the species they collected in greatest numbers, both as adults and larvae. They counted an average of one exuvium per meter of shore in Wadi Halfa (Sudan). Information on populations for this species for eastern and northeastern Africa is not available.
59980		population	eng	No exact information available, but the species is said to be common wherever it occurs. According to Dumont and Martens (1984) it was the species they collected in greatest numbers, both as adults and larvae. They counted an average of one exuvium per meter shore in Wadi Halfa (Sudan).
59980		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59980		threats	eng	No information available.
59980		threats	eng	None.
59980		threats	eng	None known.
59981		conservation	eng	No information available.
59981		conservation	eng	No information available. Research required into the population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of population.
59981		conservation	eng	None. Research required into the population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of population.
59981		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from the large tropical rivers: Zambezi, Okavango and Limpopo Rivers. Globally, it is recorded from Namibia and Botswana, to Tanzania and Kenya.
59981		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Rufiji Delta (Tanzania), Shimba Hills and Ewaso Nyiro River and tributaries (Kenya), Nkatha Bay and near Mt. Mulanje (Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania.
59981		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi. In East Africa the species is known from Rufiji Delta (Tanzania), Shimba Hills and Ewaso Nyiro River and tributaries (Kenya), Nkatha Bay and near Mt. Mulanje (Malawi).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from one locality in Kenya (Morun River) in the region. Since the species is very seasonal and large parts of northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia have not been surveyed at all, the species is assumed to be wider distributed in the region than currently known.
59981		distribution	eng	The species is known from Zambia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Malawi (Nkatha Bay and near Mount Mulanje). <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Rufiji Delta (Tanzania), Shimba Hills and Ewaso Nyiro River and tributaries (Kenya), Nkatha Bay and near Mount Mulanje (Malawi).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from one locality in Kenya (Morun River) in the northeastern Africa region. The species is very seasonal and large parts of northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia have not been surveyed at all, hence the species is assumed to be wider distributed in the region than currently known. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the larger tropical rivers: Zambezi, Okavango and Limpopo Rivers.
59981		habitat	eng	Rivers or large streams, woodland.
59981		habitat	eng	Rivers or large streams, woodland. Larvae burrow in sandy patches of the river bottom.
59981		habitat	eng	Rivers or large streams, woodland. Larvae burrow in sandy patches of the riverground
59981		population	eng	In southern Africa, locally common with large populations, as typical for most <em>Paragomphus</em> species.
59981		population	eng	Locally common with large populations, as typical for most <em>Paragomphus</em> species.
59981		population	eng	No information available.
59981		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59981		threats	eng	No information available.
59981		threats	eng	No information is available on threats within the region.
59981		threats	eng	None known.
59981		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
59982		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59982		conservation	eng	Research required into the population numbers and range, potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring for this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and corridor creation are also needed.
59982		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from forests in western Kenya, Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia).
59982		distribution	eng	The species is known from forests in western Kenya, Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia). Listed by Tsuda for Sudan; his record needs confirmation. Not otherwise present within northeastern Africa.
59982		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams (also montane).
59982		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59982		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59982		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59983		conservation	eng	No information available.
59983		conservation	eng	No information available but research into habitat status and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59983		conservation	eng	None.
59983		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in most countries, except Lesotho. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in rain forest regions.
59983		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is widespread except rainforest regions.
59983		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest regions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from entire region except Sao Tome/Principe.
59983		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia; occurrence in Sudan likely.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest regions.
59983		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Guinea eastwards.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest and (semi-) desert, wherever there is flowing water.
59983		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest regions.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from the entire central African region except Sao Tome and Principe. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, where it is considered common and widespread. It is assumed to be present in Burundi. <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia; occurrence in Sudan is likely. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in most countries in southern Africa except Lesotho.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal and Guinea eastwards in western Africa.
59983		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers, usually with gallery forest, in savanna, bush- and woodland.
59983		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savanna, bush- and woodland.
59983		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savannah, bush and woodland.
59983		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savannah, bush- and woodland.
59983		population	eng	No information available.
59983		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59983		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59983		threats	eng	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.
59983		threats	eng	No information available.
59983		threats	eng	Water pollution and destruction of gallery forest caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59985		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59985		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59985		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri, Lokutu).
59985		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri, Lokutu) and Angola.
59985		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams (also montane).
59985		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59985		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59985		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is forest destruction.
59986		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
59986		conservation	eng	No information available.
59986		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is recorded as <em>P. brunneus</em>. It is known from rivers in all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. There are only a few records from South Africa. Zambezi, Okavango, Limpopo and Kunene River basins. Globally, it occurs along large rivers from Kenya to DRC, Angola, Namibia and South Africa.
59986		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi.
59986		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and south to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, and Angola.
59986		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo in central Africa. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (assumed): common and widespread. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded as <em>P. brunneus</em>. It is known from rivers in all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. There are only a few records from South Africa. Zambezi, Okavango, Limpopo and Kunene River basins.
59986		habitat	eng	Savannah streams and rivers with gallery forest. Larvae bury in muddy sediments. Adults are rarely recorded, but exuviae are conspicuous and allow easy recording of the species.
59986		habitat	eng	The species is known from woodland or forest streams and rivers. In southern Africa it is found in savannah streams and rivers with gallery forest. Larvae bury in muddy sediments. Adults are rarely recorded, but exuviae are conspicuous and allow easy recording of the species.
59986		habitat	eng	Woodland or forest streams and rivers.
59986		population	eng	No information available.
59986		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
59986		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59986		threats	eng	No information available.
59986		threats	eng	No information is available on threats in the region.
59986		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.
59987		conservation	eng	No information available.
59987		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species.
59987		conservation	eng	None known. Research required into the population numbers and range for this species.
59987		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59987		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda, unconfirmed record in Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Sudan to western Africa.
59987		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, and Ghana and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; presence reported in Republic of Congo as well.
59987		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, and Ghana and possibly Senegal.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>All records from the region (Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia) need confirmation.
59987		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ghana and possibly also Senegal and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, and Ghana and possibly Senegal.
59987		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, Ghana and Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania,  forests in Uganda, Burundi and an unconfirmed record in Malawi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, all records from the region (Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia) need confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Ghana and possibly also Senegal and Nigeria.
59987		habitat	eng	It occurs in rivers in forest and woodland and savannah.
59987		habitat	eng	Rivers in forest and woodland.
59987		habitat	eng	Savannah and woodland.
59987		population	eng	No information available.
59987		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59987		threats	eng	No information available.
59987		threats	eng	None known.
59987		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.
59988		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
59988		conservation	eng	No information available.
59988		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is required.
59988		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would&#160; be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59988		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda, DRC, Congo and Zambia.
59988		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region.
59988		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.
59988		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Congo<br><br><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo.
59988		habitat	eng	Rivers in forest.
59988		population	eng	No information available.
59988		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59988		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59988		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59988		threats	eng	Unknown. Potential threat from forest destruction is inferred.
59988		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59989		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
59989		conservation	eng	No information available.
59989		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59989		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. So far it is only known from one record here. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda, Zambia, DRC and Congo.
59989		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Burundi; Congo record needs clarification.<br><br><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia; likely to be present in Republic of Congo.
59989		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Burundi. Its record from Congo needs clarification.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Semliki in the west), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. So far it is only known from one record here. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region.
59989		habitat	eng	Forest streams/ rivers.
59989		habitat	eng	Forest streams/rivers.
59989		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in forest.
59989		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
59989		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59989		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59989		threats	eng	Unknown. Forest destruction is inferred to be a potential threat.
59989		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59990		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
59990		conservation	eng	No information available.
59990		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species.
59990		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only in the Zambezi River system so far, at Victoria Falls and a tributary below the falls (Zimbabwe). It is expected that this species is more widespread in the region than currently known. Globally it has been recorded from Zimbabwe, Malawi and DRC.
59990		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkhorongo, Chimaliro Forest (both Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe, Malawi to Democratic Republic of Congo.
59990		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species ranges from Zimbabwe and Malawi to Katanga, occurrence in Zambia is assumed, Guinean record must be erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo; occurrence in Zambia is assumed.
59990		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Zimbabwe and Malawi to Katanga. Guinean record must be erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and its occurrence in Zambia is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi (Nkhorongo, Chimaliro Forest) and Burundi<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only in the Zambezi River system so far, at Victoria Falls and a tributary below the falls (Zimbabwe). It is expected that this species is more widespread in the region than currently known.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea but this record is erroneous due to probable misidentification (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
59990		habitat	eng	Bush country.
59990		habitat	eng	Bush country, streams/rivers.
59990		habitat	eng	Dense forest or riverine forest (Pinhey 1984a).
59990		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense forest or riverine forest (Pinhey 1984a), bush country, streams/rivers and woodland.
59990		population	eng	No information available.
59990		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
59990		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59990		threats	eng	No information available.
59991		conservation	eng	No information available.
59991		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59991		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59991		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: "Aswa River" Uganda, no detailed locality data.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.
59991		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north Uganda and east Democratic Republic of Congo, Schmidt (1951) illustrated a male from 'Neu-Kamerun' under the name <em>P. picta.</em> Apparently not in west Africa. Records from Central African Republic and Congo (Tsuda) need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic. Records from Congo and Cameroon need confirmation.
59991		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from north Uganda and east Democratic Republic of Congo, Schmidt (1951) illustrated a male from 'Neu-Kamerun' under the name <em>P. picta</em>. Records in Central African Republic and Congo need confirmation. Apparently, it is not present in western Africa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In is though to be present in the "Aswa River" in Uganda but no detailed locality data is available.
59991		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
59991		population	eng	No information available.
59991		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59991		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59991		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
59991		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59993		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
59993		conservation	eng	No information available.
59993		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
59993		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59993		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is known from the upper Zambezi River catchment (last recorded here in 1960) and Okavango Delta (last recorded in the delta in 1975). It may be more widespread e.g., in the swamps along the Zambezi River and in the Caprivi, but it has not yet recorded. Globally, it is recorded from Uganda, Kenya, Zambia and Botswana.
59993		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) Madi Opei, Tororo (Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda, Kenya to western Africa.
59993		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from cattered records from Sierra Leone to Kenya and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Zambia (upper Zambesi catchement) and the Central African Republic; occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Cameroon is assumed.
59993		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Scattered records from Sierra Leone to Kenya and Botswana.
59993		distribution	eng	The species is known from scattered records from Sierra Leone to Kenya and Botswana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchement) and Uganda (Madi Obei). Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known from Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and Madi Opei, Tororo (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Upper Zambezi River catchment (last recorded here in 1960) and Okavango Delta (last recorded in the delta in 1975). It may be more widespread e.g., in the swamps along the Zambezi River and in the Caprivi, but it has not yet recorded.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire.
59993		habitat	eng	Probably rivers in in savannah and woodland.
59993		habitat	eng	Probably rivers in savannah and woodland.
59993		habitat	eng	Probably savannah and woodland.
59993		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush and forest.
59993		population	eng	No information available.
59993		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
59993		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59993		threats	eng	No information available.
59993		threats	eng	Potential threats in the Okavango may be pesticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana.
59993		threats	eng	Unknown. Potential threats in the Okavango may be pesticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana.
59994		conservation	eng	No information available.
59994		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
59994		conservation	eng	None.
59994		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
59994		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa (Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. Likely to be present within Zambia.
59994		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa (Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. com.).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from an unconfirmed record from Sudan, and may be present in Kenya and Uganda.
59994		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa.
59994		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from west Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in western Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa. It is known from Cameroon and probably present in Nigeria. The records from Guinea and Liberia are most likely to be correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its distribution in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, It has been recorded from Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
59994		habitat	eng	Rainforest rivers and lakes.
59994		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
59994		population	eng	No information available.
59994		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59994		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59994		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
59994		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
59995		conservation	eng	No information available.
59995		conservation	eng	No information is available from much of its range. In South Africa, no specific measures are in place or are planned at present. However, conservation of catchments in general, removal of alien trees, and cessation of trout introductions are all beneficial to the species (Samways 2006).
59995		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, populations, population size and trends, threats, ecology and taxonomy are proposed. Site management would be also valuable. In South Africa, no specific measures are in place or are planned at present. However, conservation of catchments in general, removal of alien trees, and cessation of trout introductions are all beneficial to the species (Samways 2006 in press).
59995		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: recorded from Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (occurrence in Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Transvaal to Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo.
59995		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is only recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within Zambia.
59995		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. It is assumed to be also present in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Somalia, the record is most likely erroneous (see Carfi 1974). Thus listed as Not Applicable in this region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in river systems in the eastern part of the southern Africa region (Zambezi and Limpopo catchments). It has recently been rediscovered in South Africa.
59995		distribution	eng	This species occurs in river systems in the eastern part of the southern Africa region (Zambezi and Limpopo catchments). It has recently been rediscovered in South Africa. Globally it has a wide distribution from South Africa to Kenya and DRC.
59995		habitat	eng	Bush and forest, often in montane areas. Montane streams and rivers in hot, bushy savanna (Samways 2006).
59995		habitat	eng	Bush and forest, often montane.
59995		habitat	eng	Bush and forest, often montane. Montane streams and rivers in hot, bushy savannah (Samways 2006 in press).
59995		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
59995		population	eng	No information available.
59995		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59995		threats	eng	No information available.
59995		threats	eng	No information available for its entire range, although habitat loss due to agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution, are known to be affecting to the species. <br/><br/>In South Africa, threats include invasive alien vegetation, mine effluent and possibly agricultural run-off and alien fish (Samways 2006 in press).
59995		threats	eng	No information is available from much of its range. In South Africa, threats include invasive alien vegetation, mine effluent and possibly agricultural run-off and alien fish (Samways 2006).
59996		conservation	eng	No information available.
59996		conservation	eng	Research into trends/monitoring for this species and habitat maintenance/conservation are needed.
59996		conservation	eng	Research required into trends/monitoring for this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation also needed.
59996		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Ethiopia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Ethiopia, the record for Somalia (Tsuda) is a misinterpretation of Förster's locality by Pinhey (see Carfi 1974). Nevertheless, an occurrence in Somalia and southern Sudan is likely.
59996		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from several localities in Kenya, Ethiopia.
59996		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from several localities in Kenya and Ethiopia. The record for Somalia (Tsuda) is a misinterpretation of Förster's locality by Pinhey (see Carfi 1974). Nevertheless, an occurrence in Somalia and southern Sudan is likely.
59996		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush.
59996		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush. It has only been recorded above 1000 m, but in a limited number of localities.
59996		population	eng	No information available.
59996		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59996		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water pollution.
59996		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.
59996		threats	eng	No information available.
59997		conservation	eng	No information available.
59997		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
59997		conservation	eng	None. Research into trends and monitoring for this species required.
59997		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
59997		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.
59997		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems through policy-based actions and increasing awareness are proposed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59997		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllomacrmia picta</em> is a widespread species from southern and tropical Africa to southern Sahel and the whole Nile system.
59997		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even occurring in the arid southwest (lower Orange River). Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in forest.
59997		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-saharan Africa except forest.
59997		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The most widespread <em>Phyllomacromia</em> species in eastern and southern Africa, especially outside forest, but present only in Nigeria in western Africa (a report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within Angola.
59997		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The most widespread Phyllomacromia species in eastern and southern Africa, especially outside forest, but present only in Nigeria in West Africa (a report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya. Occurrence in Sudan assumed.
59997		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria. The report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The most widespread <em>Phyllomacromia</em> species in eastern and southern Africa, especially outside forest, but present only in Nigeria in western Africa.
59997		distribution	eng	The most widespread <em>Phyllomacromia</em> species in eastern and southern Africa (especially outside forest), but present only in Nigeria in western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is widespread from southern and tropical Africa to southern Sahel and the whole Nile system.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even occurring in the arid southwest (lower Orange River).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria. The report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet.
59997		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush and even desert, common and widespread.
59997		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush, common and widespread.
59997		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in savannah and even desert. Also found in large impoundments.
59997		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and lakes in forest, savannah and woodland.
59997		habitat	eng	Streamwater.
59997		population	eng	In northern Africa, only two old records (1928) are known, both in Egypt on the Nile (Cairo and Luxor). The nearest current locality outside of the region is more than 1,100 km south in Sudan, near Khartoum (dated 1984).
59997		population	eng	No information available.
59997		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59997		population	eng	Population size is unknown.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, only two old records (1928) are known, both in Egypt on the Nile (Cairo and Luxor). The nearest current locality outside of the region is more than 1,100 km south in Sudan, near Khartoum (dated 1984).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species seems to have stable populations and is common and widespread.
59997		population	eng	The species seems to have stable populations. It is common and widespread.
59997		threats	eng	No information available.
59997		threats	eng	None known.
59997		threats	eng	There are no major threats known.
59997		threats	eng	Water pollution, drought, stream management, over-irrigation.
59997		threats	eng	Water pollution, groundwater abstraction, stream management, over-irrigation, dam construction, and urbanization are threats to the species. Drought is an inferred future threat.
59998		conservation	eng	No information available.
59998		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59998		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Aswa River (northern Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Nigeria.
59998		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali to Guinea-Bissau (latter published as <em>P. africana</em> by Schmidt (1951).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species occurs in savannah belt from northern Uganda, through Nigeria to Guinea-Bissau.
59998		distribution	eng	The species is occurs in savannah belt from northern Uganda, through Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali to Guinea-Bissau (latter published as <em>P. africana</em> by Schmidt in 1951).<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from central Africa, but it is most likely to occur in northern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Central African Republic .<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Aswa River), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali to Guinea-Bissau.
59998		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush.
59998		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.
59998		habitat	eng	Rivers in savannah and woodland.
59998		population	eng	No information available.
59998		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59998		threats	eng	No information available.
59998		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
59999		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
59999		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
59999		distribution	eng	At global level, this species is present in west Kenya ( Kakamega Forest), Tanzania, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.
59999		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from west Kenya, west Tanzania, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record from Democratic Republic of Congo.
59999		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest streams and this species hunts along forest margins.
59999		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams, hunts along forest margins.
59999		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
59999		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
59999		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60000		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60000		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60000		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon.
60000		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.
60000		habitat	eng	Streams in dense rainforest.
60000		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60000		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60000		threats	eng	No information available.
60001		conservation	eng	No information available.
60001		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60001		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Uganda, locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. xanthopus</em>) is probably wrong.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
60001		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic; likely present in Congo and Cameroon as well.
60001		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.
60001		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Gambia in western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Central African Republic,and&#160; likely to be present in northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. The records from the locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. xanthopus</em>) are probably wrong.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
60001		habitat	eng	Open rivers, often with some forest.
60001		habitat	eng	Open rivers with forest.
60001		population	eng	No information available.
60001		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60001		threats	eng	No information available.
60001		threats	eng	None.
60001		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60002		conservation	eng	The Ngezi Forest attained Forest Reserve status in 1959; today’s gazetted area is about 1,500 ha (Dijkstra <em>et al</em>. 2007).
60002		distribution	eng	Known only from Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island (Tanzania). Ngezi Forest is the only remaining large patch of tropical moist forest that once covered most of Pemba (Dijkstra <em>et al</em>. 2007).
60002		habitat	eng	Sluggish stream in dense forest. Ngezi is coastal swamp forest; a rare forest type in the coastal forest belt that is very distinct from other vegetation types (Clarke and Robertson 2000). The small sluggish stream that supported <em>P. pembipes</em> is the only permanent one in the area (Dijkstra <em>et al</em>. 2007).
60002		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60002		threats	eng	Destruction of the Ngezi forest. This is not thought to be an immediate threat since the forest is gazetted and looked good during a visit in 2001. Until recently Pemba was entirely covered with forest; clearing for cash crop plantations (cloves, cardamom) began in 1830 (Clarke and Karoma 2000). Now just a few square kilometres of forest are left and endemic forest species are already thought to be extinct (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60003		conservation	eng	The species requires better protection of it's habitat, especially within protected areas, and the development of a management plan.
60003		conservation	eng	The species requires better protection of its habitat, especially within protected areas, and the development of a management plan, as well as research on the streams draining north from the Aberdare Mounts and Mount Kenya need to be surveyed since the species might occur there.
60003		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has not been recorded from the area, but streams draining north from the Aberdare Mts and Mt. Kenya need to be surveyed first, since the species might occur there.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is endemic to montane forest streams of Aberdare Mts and Mt. Kenya (central Kenya). Extent of occurrence is far below 100 km² and the area of occupancy less than 10 km². The population is severely fragmented as a result of hardly any forest remaining in the known range area.
60003		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to montane forest streams of Aberdare Mounts and Mount Kenya (central Kenya). Its extent of occurrence is far below 100 km² and the area of occupancy less than 10 km². The population is severely fragmented as a result of hardly any forest remaining in the known range area. It has not been recorded from northeastern Africa, but streams draining north from the Aberdare Mounts and Mount Kenya need to be surveyed first, since the species might occur there.
60003		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams, 1,600–2,000 asl.
60003		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams, 1,600 to 2,000 m asl.
60003		population	eng	No information available.
60003		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60003		threats	eng	Destruction of montane forests, hardly any forest is left in the altitude range inhabited by this species. Though the remaining forests are gazetted, illegal charcoal burning and logging continues to a large extent.
60003		threats	eng	Destruction of montane forests is a major threat. Hardly any forest is left in the altitude range inhabited by this species, though the remaining forests are gazetted, illegal charcoal burning and logging continues to a large extent.
60004		conservation	eng	No information available but research into conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60004		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains (eastern Arc Mountains) in Tanzania. Remaining forest habitat (and hence the population) is fragmented across the known range area.
60004		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams.
60004		population	eng	No information available.
60004		threats	eng	Forest destruction, as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, in the Eastern Arc Mountains means that often only forests on hill-tops remain, where no suitable breeding habitats exist.
60005		conservation	eng	No information available.
60005		conservation	eng	None.
60005		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from all countries, but not in the southwestern (arid) parts of the region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rain forest.
60005		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is widespread except in dense rainforest.
60005		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> In eastern sub-Saharan Africa widespread except dense rainforest. Old reference from Guinea must be erroneous (Dijkstra <em>pers. comm.</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Zambia.
60005		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan likely.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from eastern sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforests. Old reference from Guinea must be erroneous (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
60005		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa except in dense rainforest, from Ethiopia to Angola and South Africa. Old reference from Guinea must be erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan likely.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from all countries, but not in the southwestern (arid) parts of the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from an old reference from Guinea must be erroneous (Dijlkstra pers. comm.).
60005		habitat	eng	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, and shorelines of large lakes
60005		habitat	eng	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, shorelines of large lakes
60005		habitat	eng	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, shorelines of large lakes.
60005		population	eng	No information available.
60005		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60005		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60005		threats	eng	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities.
60005		threats	eng	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities and habitat loss due to agriculture are threats to the species.
60005		threats	eng	Water pollution is likely to be the main threat in parts of the range falling within the vicinity of cities.
60006		conservation	eng	In northeastern and southern Africa, research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60006		conservation	eng	More research is needed on range, population status, etc.
60006		conservation	eng	No information available.
60006		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60006		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species population trends, distribution and conservation requirements.
60006		distribution	eng	At global level, the species has been recorded from Uganda, western Kenya (Kakamega Forest) , eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, north-west Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment), South West Cameroon (isolated) and may be found in South east Nigeria. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.
60006		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambesi catchment). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally it is known from west Kenya to north Zambia and Cameroon.
60006		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, western Kenya, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Tanzania, south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon.
60006		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>The species is not known to be present within the northeastern Africa assessment region.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda (no detailed map given).
60006		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species occurs within the western Africa region in the south west Cameroon and may be found in south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya through Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda to north Zambia. It is solated in Cameroon and may be found in south east Nigeria.
60006		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
60006		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and rivers.
60006		population	eng	No information available.
60006		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60006		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60006		threats	eng	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
60006		threats	eng	Intensive agriculture and destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
60006		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
60006		threats	eng	The main known threats to the species are water pollution, destruction of rainforests caused by agriculture and wood extraction, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams.
60006		threats	eng	Unknown. Potential forest destruction is inferred.
60007		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60007		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern shores of Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania/Democratic Republic of Congo). As all species of the genus <em>Platycypha</em> are very showy and difficult to be missed, it cannot have a much wider distribution than currently known, otherwise it is likely to have appeared in material from general collection expeditions in the Congo and/or Tanzania. Endemic to eastern Africa region.<br/><br/>Only seven male specimens of <em>P. pinheyi </em>appear to be known, all from the northern end of Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania/Democratic Republic of Congo); Pinhey (1966a) reported a male from “15 miles S. of Uvira, 800 m, Congo, 21 August, 1957 (Ross)”, which is in NMBZ, Pinhey (1967) referred to a specimen in MRAC labelled “Makobola, Lac Tanganyika, ii-1953, G. Marlier”, two males, with two females, in NMBZ from “Pondogoro, Mpanda, Mpanda District, Lake Tanganyika” were collected by J. Kielland.
60007		habitat	eng	Likely to breed in streams or rivers, and perhaps endemic to the mountains around Lake Tanganyika; likely to be a forest species rather than a lake species, but there is limited information.
60007		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60007		threats	eng	The whole border region of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo has been subject to extreme population pressure. The environment and wildlife in that area has suffered tremendously. Though dragonflies are not directly exploited by locals, the effects of deforestation and water pollution are immense and can be inferred for the range area of this species.
60008		conservation	eng	No information available.
60008		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60008		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species, and trends should be monitored.
60008		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi.
60008		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nyika Plateau (north Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Mozambique.
60008		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo; reported from Angola.
60008		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nyika Plateau (north Malawi).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
60008		habitat	eng	Found in swamps.
60008		habitat	eng	Swamps.
60008		population	eng	No information available.
60008		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60008		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60008		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60008		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60008		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
60009		conservation	eng	In South Africa, further searches for the species are required. No conservation measures are known to be in place at present.
60009		conservation	eng	No information available.
60009		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60009		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
60009		conservation	eng	Research into trends/monitoring of this species is required.
60009		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.
60009		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 1955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded for Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan assumed.
60009		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon; presence expected in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.
60009		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.
60009		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon, expected in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan assumed<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread mainly in Zimbabwe, with a localised distribution in South Africa and Zambia. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa (Samways 2006 in press). <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria
60009		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread mainly in Zimbabwe, with a localised distribution in South Africa and Zambia. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia, and west to Nigeria.
60009		habitat	eng	Highlands swamps and pools.
60009		habitat	eng	Swamps and reedy streams in montane forest.
60009		habitat	eng	Swamps and reedy streams in montane forest.  In South Africa, the species was also recorded from grass-fringed pools and streams in bush or forest (Samways 2006 in press).
60009		habitat	eng	Swamps and reedy streams in montane regions. In South Africa, the species was recorded from grass-fringed pools and streams in bush or forest (Samways).
60009		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
60009		population	eng	No information available.
60009		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60009		threats	eng	Current threats are not known. However, it is unlikely that the species is threatened across the whole of its range.
60009		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60009		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.
60009		threats	eng	Unknown.
60010		conservation	eng	No information available.
60010		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60010		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60010		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, ranging southwards to Natal. It is not found in the Cape or the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, and DRC.
60010		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in Malawi and Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo.
60010		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Angola, likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.
60010		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species has been recorded from Zambia and Angola, and likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, It was found in Kenya, Uganda and Burundi. It is common and widespread in Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, this species was [previously confused with <em>P. niloticum</em>, which is the reason why this species is listed for Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia erroneously.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, ranging southwards to Natal. It is not found in the Cape or the arid south-west.
60010		habitat	eng	Rivers and floodplains.
60010		population	eng	No information available.
60010		population	eng	No information is available on population or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
60010		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60010		threats	eng	Currently no threats.
60010		threats	eng	No information available.
60010		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are water pollution, habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture.
60011		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60011		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is required, along with monitoring of population trends.
60011		conservation	eng	No information is available at present.
60011		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and north Botswana to Zambia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia; might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
60011		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa and north Botswana to Zambia and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in northern Zambia, might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Lake Opeta (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs from northern Zambia via the Caprivi, Botswana and Zimbabwe to the Waterberg Plateau in South Africa.
60011		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, the species occurs from northern Zambia via the Caprivi, Botswana and Zimbabwe to the Waterberg Plateau in South Africa. Globally, the species occurs in South Africa and north Botswana to Zambia, and has also been recorded from Uganda.
60011		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools.
60011		habitat	eng	Swamps and pools. Grassy-fringed pools with lilies and partial shade (Samways 2006 in press).
60011		habitat	eng	Swamps, pools, and oxbows. Grassy-fringed pools with lilies and partial shade (Samways 2006).
60011		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. In South Africa, the species is rare (Samways 2006).
60011		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60011		threats	eng	Agriculture.
60011		threats	eng	Destruction of habitats caused by agriculture and groundwater extraction are threats to the species.
60011		threats	eng	In South Africa, overextraction of water from its habitat is a problem (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.
60012		conservation	eng	No information available. Research needed into trends/monitoring for this species.
60012		distribution	eng	At global level, the species has been recorded from montane areas above 2,000 m asl in Kenya (Mount Kenya, Aberdare Mounts, Mau Range, Mount Elgon), Uganda (Mount Elgon) and Tanzania (Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru). The subspecies <em>P. bicoerulans</em> occurs in central Kenya, <em>P. elgonensi</em> in western Kenya and eastern Uganda, and <em>P. kilimanjaricus</em> in northern Tanzania.
60012		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution</strong>: The species is known from Mt. Kenya, Aberdare Mts, Mau Range, Mt. Elgon (Kenya), Mt. Elgon (Uganda), Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru (Tanzania) montane areas above 2,000 m asl.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong> The species is known from the northern slopes of Mt. Kenya.
60012		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams in forest, heather and afroalpine moorlands, above 2,000 m asl.
60012		habitat	eng	Montane forest streams in forest, heather and afroalpine moorlands, above 2000 m asl.
60012		population	eng	No information available.
60012		threats	eng	Pollution and drainage of montane streams.
60012		threats	eng	Pollution and drainage of montane streams caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60013		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas. No specific conservation measures are necessary for the species as a whole. However, further sites need to be located and some protection of known habitat would be beneficial (Samways 2006).
60013		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas. No specific conservation measures are necessary for the species as a whole. However, further sites need to be located and some protection of known habitat would be beneficial (Samways 2006 in press).
60013		conservation	eng	No information available.
60013		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is a common species along rivers in the tropical north. The southern limits are the Okavango and Limpopo Rivers, with only very few records occurring southwards in South Africa (where the southern form, subspecies <em>umsingaziense</em>, is endemic). It has not yet been recorded from Mozambique, but is expected to occur in southern Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana to Chad, and possibly Tanzania (but this record needs to be confirmed).
60013		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Malawi (no detailed records).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana to Chad, and likely in Tanzania.
60013		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and possibly Tanzania, southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Mozambique. A record from Chad is dubious.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia. Likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
60013		distribution	eng	The species has been reported from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and probably Tanzania. Only west African record (Chad) is dubious.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from northern Zambia, Angola. Likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a common species along rivers in the tropical north. The southern limits are the Okavango and Limpopo Rivers, with only very few records occurring southwards in South Africa (where the southern form, subspecies <em>umsingaziense</em>, is endemic). It has not yet been recorded from Mozambique, but is expected to occur in southern Mozambique.<br/><br/>The only west African record from Chad is considered dubious (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
60013		habitat	eng	Found in swamps.
60013		habitat	eng	Swamps.
60013		habitat	eng	Swampy river courses.
60013		population	eng	Locally common.
60013		population	eng	No information available.
60013		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60013		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but it is considered locally common en southern Africa.
60013		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60013		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the taxon. The South African subspecies (<em>P. c. umsingaziense</em>) is threatened by urban development.
60013		threats	eng	No serious threats to the species are known at present. The South African subspecies (<em>P. c. umsingaziense</em>) is threatened by urban development.
60014		conservation	eng	No information available.
60014		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60014		conservation	eng	No information is available.
60014		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs along perennial rivers in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is recorded from Zimbabwe to Kenya.
60014		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Zimbabwe to Kenya.
60014		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia to Kenya, likely in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record in southern Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly also present in Zambia and Angola.
60014		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia to Kenya, likely in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species was listed by Tsuda for Somalia - this record needs verification. The species was by Förster (1902) for Eritrea, which needs confirmation as well. Occurrence in northern Kenya likely but unconfirmed.
60014		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia to Kenya, likely in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has not been recorded from the area, but might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Somalia - this record needs verification. Listed by Förster (1902) for Eritrea, which needs confirmation as well. Occurrence in northern Kenya likely. More surveys are needed, for the time being the species is listed as NA for the region<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs along perennial rivers in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It is not found in the arid south-west or at the Cape.
60014		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in savanna, bush and woodland.
60014		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.
60014		population	eng	No information available.
60014		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60014		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60014		threats	eng	No information available.
60014		threats	eng	Unknown.
60014		threats	eng	Water pollution and destruction/deforestation of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60015		conservation	eng	No information available.
60015		conservation	eng	None.
60015		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60015		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Natal through Zimbabwe, to northern Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Kenya.
60015		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Kenya.
60015		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia. The Angola record needs confirmation, but is likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.
60015		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, occurrence in Sudan assumed.
60015		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Natal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, the Angola record needs confirmation, likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, occurrence in Sudan assumed.
60015		habitat	eng	Reedy streams and rivers.
60015		habitat	eng	Reedy verges of fast streams and rivers.
60015		population	eng	No information available.
60015		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60015		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60015		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
60015		threats	eng	No information available.
60015		threats	eng	None known.
60015		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60016		conservation	eng	No information available.
60016		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60016		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the tropical north. It does not occur in South Africa or in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>Globally, it has been recorded from Botswana to Mozambique, Kenya, and Uganda.
60016		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana to Mozambique, Kenya, Uganda.
60016		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Senegal, presence in Burkina Faso and Chad is unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Angola, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia. Assumed in Central African Republic.
60016		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in west Africa, presence in Burkina Faso and Chad unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Senegal.
60016		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Senegal, presence in Burkina Faso and Chad unconfirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from Angola and Cameroon, but assumed in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Central African Republic as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the tropical north. It does not occur in South Africa or in the arid south-west.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread, although its presence in Burkina Faso and Chad unconfirmed.
60016		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps and calm section of streams and rivers in bush and savannah.
60016		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush and savannah.
60016		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush and savannah, pools, swamps and calm section of streams and rivers.
60016		population	eng	No information available.
60016		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60016		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60016		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
60016		threats	eng	No information available.
60016		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60017		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60017		conservation	eng	No information available.
60017		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
60017		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.
60017		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon; occurrence in Cameroon is assumed.
60017		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda to Liberia.
60017		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, occurrence in Cameroon assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria to Liberia.
60017		habitat	eng	Forest rivers.
60017		habitat	eng	Open, standing or slow-flowing waters in or near forest.
60017		population	eng	No information available.
60017		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60017		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60017		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60018		conservation	eng	No information available.
60018		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60018		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs from Angola through Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and along the Indian Ocean coast to the Cape. It is not found in Namibia or in the Kalahari. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
60018		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
60018		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from South Africa to Kenya and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, likely to occur in southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and in Angola.
60018		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from South Africa to Kenya and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, likely to occur in southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs from Angola through Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and along the Indian Ocean coast to the Cape. It is not found in Namibia or in the Kalahari.
60018		habitat	eng	Shady streams in forest, thicket and bush.
60018		population	eng	No information available.
60018		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60018		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60018		threats	eng	No information available.
60018		threats	eng	No information is available on threats in the region.
60018		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.
60019		conservation	eng	No information available.
60019		conservation	eng	None.
60019		conservation	eng	The area is poorly inhabited since the middle of the Holocene and the present aridity and exhaustion of water resources is a natural climatic event.
60019		conservation	eng	The area is poorly inhabited since the middle of the Holocene and the present aridity and exhaustion of water resources is a natural climatic event. Policy-based actions are needed as well as increasing awareness. Research into biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, uses and harvest levels, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions such as the identification, establishment and management of protected areas are also needed.
60019		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion hamoni</em> is an Afrotropical species that is widespread from western to southern Africa and to the southwestern Arabian peninsula. A string of relictual localities dating from the Early Holocene pluvial period survive in Mauritania, southeastern Algeria and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
60019		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion hamoni</em> occurs from South Africa and Namibia, north to Sudan, and west to Senegal, except in forest areas.
60019		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the northern part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, is has been recorded from South Africa and Namibia, north to Sudan, and west to Senegal (except in forest).
60019		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique north to Sudan, west to Senegal except forest.
60019		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known throughout tropical Africa except in dense rainforest, also isolated at permanent water in the Sahara: recorded from most countries in sub-Saharan Africa and likely to occur in the others as well (e.g.,  Guinea-Bissau: records of<em> P. sjoestedti </em>from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Records are confirmed for Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Zambia.
60019		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known throughout tropical Africa except in dense rainforest, also isolated at permanent water in the Sahara: recorded from most countries in subsaharan Africa and likely to occur in the others as well (e.g.  Guinea-Bissau: records of <em>P. sjoestedti</em> from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya and Sudan, occurrence in Ethiopia assumed.
60019		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries in western Africa except Liberia (rainforest) and Guinea-Bissau (but records of P. sjoestedti from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known throughout tropical Africa except in dense rainforest, also isolated at permanent water in the Sahara.
60019		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mozambique, north to Sudan and west to Senegal (except forest).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi, where it is common and widespread. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>This Afrotropical species is widespread from western to southern Africa and to the southwestern Arabian peninsula. A string of relictual localities dating from the Early Holocene pluvial period survive in Mauritania, southeastern Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt and Sudan, and assumed to occur in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the northern part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all countries except Liberia (rainforest) and Guinea-Bissau (but records of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sjoestedti</span> from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it).
60019		habitat	eng	In northern Africa, the species occurs in wadis and gueltas in the Sahara.
60019		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and ponds in savannah, bush or even desert.
60019		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in savanna and bush.
60019		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in savannah and bush.
60019		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in savannah and bush. In northern Africa, the species occurs in wadis and gueltas in the Sahara.
60019		population	eng	In the northern African region, seven relictual localities of unspecified importance have been published from Mauritania to southeastern Algeria and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. There is no information available on population size or trends.
60019		population	eng	No information available.
60019		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60019		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60019		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. In the northern African region, seven relictual localities of unspecified importance have been published from Mauritania to southeastern Algeria and Libya.
60019		threats	eng	Drought and drying up of the relictual wadis in the Saharian belt.
60019		threats	eng	Drought and drying up of the relictual wadis in the Saharian belt, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture and groundwater extraction and water pollution are threat to the species.
60019		threats	eng	Habitat degradation.
60019		threats	eng	No current threats are known.
60019		threats	eng	No information available.
60019		threats	eng	None known.
60020		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
60020		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60020		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is needed, and should be monitored.
60020		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only from the Okavango Delta, Botswana and the upper Zambesi catchment in Zambia. Its distribution in the region appears to be disjunct, however it may be more widespread than currently known. Globally, it is known from northern Zambia (Congo and Zambesi catchments), Malawi and Botswana (Okavango Delta).
60020		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia (Congo and Zambezi catchments), Malawi and Botswana (Okavango Delta).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia. Democratic Republic of Congo most likely.
60020		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Zambia (Congo and Zambezi catchments), Malawi and Botswana (Okavango Delta).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo most likely<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from the Okavango Delta, Botswana and the upper Zambezi catchment in Zambia. Its distribution in the region appears to be disjunct, however it may be more widespread than currently known.
60020		habitat	eng	Swamps.
60020		habitat	eng	Swamps (Pinhey 1984a).
60020		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60020		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60020		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for tsetse fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.
60020		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats, particularly for agriculture.
60020		threats	eng	Unknown. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.
60021		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60021		conservation	eng	No information available.
60021		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zambia and south DRC. Records from South Africa belong to <em>P. draconis</em> (see <em>P. draconis</em> species account).
60021		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: montane swamps (Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Malawi, Angola and south Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa, and likely in Tanzania.
60021		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly Tanzania. Records from South Africa belong to <em>P. draconis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, north Angola, and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
60021		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from South Africa belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. draconis</span>. Possibly also occurs in Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, n. Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: montane swamps (Malawi).
60021		habitat	eng	Montane swamps, shady streams and rivers.
60021		population	eng	No information available.
60021		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60021		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60021		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60021		threats	eng	No information available.
60021		threats	eng	No information is available on threats within the region.
60022		conservation	eng	No information available.
60022		conservation	eng	None.
60022		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60022		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in most of the region, but is very scattered in the arid areas. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except dense rain forest.
60022		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest.
60022		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. Often common in eastern in southern Africa and probably so in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy,<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.
60022		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. Often common in eastern in southern Africa and probably so in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia.
60022		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and probably common in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy, e.g., not recorded from sufficiently researched countries like Gambia and Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. It is often common in eastern in southern Africa.
60022		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. Often common in eastern in southern Africa and probably so in open parts of western Africa, but is distribution patchy.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in most of the region, but is very scattered in the arid areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread and probably common in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy, e.g., not recorded from sufficiently researched countries like Gambia and Liberia.
60022		habitat	eng	Almost any open or half-open stream or river.
60022		habitat	eng	It occurs in shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m asl.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it occurs in almost any open or half-open stream or river.
60022		habitat	eng	Shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m a.s.l.
60022		habitat	eng	Shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m asl.
60022		population	eng	No information available.
60022		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.
60022		population	eng	No precise information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.
60022		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60022		threats	eng	In Namibia, the widely isolated populations are threatened by intrinsic factors (i.e., small subpopulation size and isolation). Threats elsewhere in the region are unknown.
60022		threats	eng	No information available.
60022		threats	eng	None.
60022		threats	eng	None known.
60022		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown in the region.
60023		conservation	eng	No information available.
60023		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60023		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60023		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi River Basin) and western Angola (coastal rivers). Globally, it has been recorded from DRC to western Kenya, eastern Angola (Congo Basin) and northern Zambia.
60023		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), various forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to west Kenya and north Zimbabwe.
60023		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to west Kenya, north Zimbabwe, northwest Zambia and western Angola (coastal rivers).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Angola, northern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and possibly Gabon (record needs confirmation).
60023		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to west Kenya and Uganda, north Zimbabwe, north-west Zambia and western Angola (coastal rivers).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Angola, northern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and possibly Gabon (record needs confirmation)<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), various forests in Uganda.
60023		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60023		population	eng	No information available.
60023		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60023		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60023		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60023		threats	eng	Land pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60023		threats	eng	Threats within the region are unknown, although forest destruction is an inferred threat.
60024		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
60024		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60024		conservation	eng	No information available.
60024		conservation	eng	Research required on trends/monitoring this species.
60024		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the species is known only from one collection (in 1969) from Mozambique. It should be more widespread then currently known, but Mozambique is not well surveyed. Globally, it is recorded from Somalia to Mozambique, in coastal areas.
60024		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from  Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal plain of Kenya and Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, coastal areas.
60024		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, coastal areas. In East Africa the species has been recorded from coastal plains of Kenya and Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya and Somalia.
60024		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Somalia and Kenya to Mozambique, coastal areas.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal plain of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya and Somalia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known only from one collection (in 1969) from Mozambique. It should be more widespread then currently known, but Mozambique is not well surveyed.
60024		habitat	eng	Often inhabits swampy areas, especially floodplains, but also found along streams and rivers.
60024		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, especially floodplains, but also along streams and rivers.
60024		habitat	eng	Swampy, often habitats, specially floodplains, but also along streams and rivers.
60024		population	eng	No information available.
60024		population	eng	No precise information available.
60024		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
60024		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60024		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60024		threats	eng	No information available.
60024		threats	eng	None known.
60024		threats	eng	There is no information available on current threats.
60025		conservation	eng	No information available.
60025		conservation	eng	None.
60025		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are needed at present.
60025		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Cape), north to Somalia, and west to Ghana.
60025		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape north to Somalia, west to Ghana.
60025		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Ethiopia, records from west and central Africa (e.g., Guinea) seem erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, northern Zambia - occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo is possible.
60025		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Ethiopia, records from west and central Africa (e.g. Guinea) seem erroneous.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, common and widespread.
60025		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Somalia and Ethiopia, records from west and central Africa (e.g. Guinea) seem erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, northern Zambia, west Uganda - occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo possible.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, common and widespread.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. <br/><br/>The records from western Africa are considered dubious (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
60025		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in savanna and bush.
60025		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in savannah and bush.
60025		habitat	eng	Streams,  rivers and pools in savannah and bush.
60025		population	eng	Its specific population size is unknown but the species is locally common in southern Africa.
60025		population	eng	Locally common.
60025		population	eng	No information available.
60025		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60025		threats	eng	No current threats are known to be affecting the species.
60025		threats	eng	No information available.
60025		threats	eng	None known.
60025		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60026		conservation	eng	No information available.
60026		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60026		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Uganda, and west to Senegal.
60026		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, west to Senegal.
60026		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to west Kenya, west to Senegal. Often the dominant <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion </span>in forests.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the entire region except Sao Tome and Principe and Gabon, though it likely occurs in the latter.
60026		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known from north Zambia to west Kenya, west to Senegal. Often the dominant <em>Pseudagrion</em> in forests.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from western Sudan (forests in the Jebel Marra Mts) by Dumont (1988). Occurrence in forest habitats in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia possible - more surveys are needed.
60026		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Senegal. The dominant Pseudagrion in somewhat forested parts of western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> north Zambia to west Kenya, west to Senegal.
60026		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia to western Kenya, and west to Senegal. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from the entire region except São Tomé and Principe and Gabon, though it likely occurs in the latter.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from western Sudan (forests in the Jebel Marra Mts) by Dumont (1988). Occurrence in forest habitats in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia possible - more surveys are needed. Currently listed as NA for the region as less than 5% of the global population occur in the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.
60026		habitat	eng	Fairly open forest streams and rivers.
60026		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60026		habitat	eng	Forest streams. Often the dominant <em>Pseudagrion</em> species in forests.
60026		population	eng	No information available.
60026		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60026		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60026		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown, although forest destruction is inferred.
60026		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60026		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60027		conservation	eng	Control of urbanization as well as of water consumption and pollution.
60027		conservation	eng	Control of urbanization as well as of water consumption and pollution through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60027		conservation	eng	No information available.
60027		conservation	eng	Research required into the population and range of this species, and trends/monitoring.
60027		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Pseudagrion niloticum</em> has a range that extends from East Africa, and Somalia to the Nile delta in Egypt via the whole Nile system, through Ethiopia and Sudan. In Northern Africa, it is known only from Egypt.
60027		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is widespread and common in streams and rivers in Kenya.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia.
60027		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
60027		distribution	eng	The species has a range that extends from eastern Africa, and Somalia to the Nile delta in Egypt via the whole Nile system, through Ethiopia and Sudan.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread and common in streams and rivers in Kenya.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is known only from Egypt.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
60027		habitat	eng	In eastern and northeastern Africa, it is present in rivers and streams in savannah and bush.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species occurs in stream waters, from large rivers to small brooks in desert to semi-desert environment.
60027		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in savannah and bush.
60027		habitat	eng	Stream waters, from large rivers to small brooks in desert to semi-desert environment
60027		population	eng	Although the species was said to be common in Egypt (Dumont 1973), only eight old records have been traced in this country (the last one was published in 1936). Five of these localities are near Cairo and are probably now lost due to urbanization and water pollution. The three other localities are in irrigated agricultural area and no indication of their survival is available. The species was not recorded during a recent short study on the Nile system (Dumont and Fossati 1990). Sudan records are more recent (1982) (Dumont and Martens 1984).
60027		population	eng	In northern Africa, although the species was said to be common in Egypt (Dumont 1973), only eight old records have been traced in this country (the last one was published in 1936). Five of these localities are near Cairo and are probably now lost due to urbanization and water pollution. The three other localities are in irrigated agricultural area and no indication of their survival is available. The species was not recorded during a recent short study on the Nile system (Dumont and Fossati 1990). Sudan records are more recent (1982) (Dumont and Martens 1984).
60027		population	eng	No information available.
60027		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60027		threats	eng	No information available.
60027		threats	eng	None known.
60027		threats	eng	Urbanization, water pollution, over-irrigation, drought and desiccation of rivers are the main threats to the species.
60027		threats	eng	Urbanization, water pollution, over-irrigation, drought and drying up of rivers
60028		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves.
60028		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60028		conservation	eng	No information available.
60028		conservation	eng	None.
60028		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion nubicum</em> occurs in tropical and equatorial Africa, reaching the Mediterranean coast in Egypt via to the Nile system.
60028		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known mainly from Zambia and Zimbabwe, with scattered occurrences in Botswana and Namibia (even in desert areas). Globally, it has been recorded from Zimbabwe, north to Egypt, and west to Sierra Leone.
60028		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Zimbabwe north to Sudan, west to Sierra Leone.
60028		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe north to Sudan, west to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, but likely in appropriate habitats in other countries of the region as well.
60028		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe north to Sudan, west to Sierra Leone.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. The Sudan record needs confirmation (Tsuda listing only).
60028		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in open parts of western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe north to Egypt, west to Senegal.
60028		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zimbabwe north to Sudan and Egypt, west to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, but likely in appropriate habitats in other countries of the region as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, occurs in tropical and equatorial Africa, reaching the Mediterranean coast in Egypt via to the Nile system.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. The Sudan record needs confirmation (Tsuda listing only).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known mainly from Zambia and Zimbabwe, with scattered occurrences in Botswana and Namibia (even in desert areas)<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread in open parts of West Africa.
60028		habitat	eng	Brooks, rivers and oases.
60028		habitat	eng	It inhabits swampy and reedy lakes and rivers, brooks and oases.
60028		habitat	eng	Reedy lake, streams and rivers.
60028		habitat	eng	Swampy and grassy shores of lakes and rivers.
60028		habitat	eng	Swampy and reedy lakes and rivers.
60028		population	eng	Although the species is believed to be common or rather common in Egypt, only eight localities are available in this country, mostly in the delta area. The four most recent localities date from 1988; nine older localities were recorded in the Nile system in Sudan, all dated before 1924.
60028		population	eng	In northern Africa,  although the species is believed to be common or rather common in Egypt, only eight localities are available in this country, mostly in the delta area. The four most recent localities date from 1988; nine older localities were recorded in the Nile system in Sudan, all dated before 1924.
60028		population	eng	No information available.
60028		population	eng	No information is available on population size and trends.
60028		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60028		threats	eng	No information available.
60028		threats	eng	No information is available on threats in the region.
60028		threats	eng	None known.
60028		threats	eng	Water pollution, over-irrigation, water harnessing, drought, urbanization.
60028		threats	eng	Water pollution, over-irrigation, water management, drought and urbanization are the main threats to the species.
60029		conservation	eng	No information available.
60029		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60029		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60029		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira, Bwindi (Uganda), Kambisa (Tanzania).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.
60029		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from a single location in Ituri Forest in Democratic Republic of Congo.
60029		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Ituri Forest in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira, Bwindi (Uganda), Kambisa (Tanzania).
60029		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60029		population	eng	No information available.
60029		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60029		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60029		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60029		threats	eng	Intensive agriculture and forest destruction.
60030		conservation	eng	No information available.
60030		conservation	eng	None.
60030		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60030		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is generally widespread in the region. It is not found at the Cape or in northern Namibia. Globally, it is recorded from South Africa (Cape) to Ethiopia.
60030		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Cape to Ethiopia.
60030		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa (Cape) and Namibia to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo; presence within Zambia is possible.
60030		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa (Cape) and Namibia to Ethiopia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya and listed by Tsuda for Somalia. The latter needs confirmation and an old record from Ethiopia remains uncertain as well.
60030		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa (Cape) and Namibia to Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo possible.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from northern Kenya and listed by Tsuda for Somalia. The latter needs confirmation and an old record from Ethiopia remains uncertain as well. The species is assumed to occur in southern Sudan as well. For the time being it is listed Data Deficient for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is generally widespread in the region. It is not found at the Cape or in northern Namibia.
60030		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers in bush and savannah.
60030		population	eng	No information available.
60030		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species in the region.
60030		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60030		population	eng	Population size is unknown but it is very widespread in South Africa.
60030		threats	eng	No information available.
60030		threats	eng	No information is available on threats within the region.
60030		threats	eng	None known.
60031		conservation	eng	No information available.
60031		conservation	eng	No information from most of the range is available at present. In South Africa, further surveys for subspecies <em>pseudosjoestedti</em> are required and monitoring to determine whether the species re-establishes (Samways 2006).
60031		conservation	eng	Species occurs in some protected areas but no other conservation measures known so research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60031		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique to Kenya, west to Liberia.
60031		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa and Botswana to Kenya, west to Liberia. Common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, Zambia, it is assumed from the other central African countries as well.
60031		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique and Botsana to Kenya, west to Liberia.
60031		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern South Africa and Botswana to Kenya, and west to Liberia. Common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo; Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, Zambia, assumed from the other central African countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded from in the tropical north, but does not occur in the arid south-west or in the Cape. There is only one record of subspecies <em>pseudosjoestedti</em> from South Africa; in lower reaches of the Sabie River in the Kruger National Park (Clark and Samways 1994) and it has not been recorded at that site after the floods of February 2000 (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.
60031		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species is recorded from in the tropical north, but does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape. There is only one record of subspecies <em>pseudosjoestedti</em> from South Africa; in lower reaches of the Sabie River in the Kruger National Park (Clark and Samways 1994) and it has not been recorded at that site after the floods of February 2000 (Samways 2006 in press). The species' global distribution is from South Africa to Kenya, and west to Liberia.
60031		habitat	eng	Half open streams, rivers often in forest but also in savannah.
60031		habitat	eng	Pools, streams, and rivers in bush and forest. Tree-covered pools of savannah rivers (Samways 2006).
60031		habitat	eng	Pools, streams, rivers in bush and forest.
60031		habitat	eng	Pools, streams, rivers in bush and forest. Tree-covered pools of savannah rivers (Samways 2006 in press).
60031		population	eng	No information available.
60031		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60031		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60031		threats	eng	In South Africa, the species appears to be principally natural, although these may be exacerbated by unknown human impacts (Samways 2006 in press). Habitat destruction caused by agriculture and water pollution may threaten the species. No information is available from elsewhere in the range, however it is unlikely to be facing more serious threats across its entire range.
60031		threats	eng	In South Africa, threats appear to be principally natural, although these may be exacerbated by unknown human impacts (Samways 2006). No information is available from elsewhere in the range, however it is unlikely that there are serious threats across the entire range.
60031		threats	eng	No information available.
60032		conservation	eng	No information available.
60032		conservation	eng	None.
60032		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60032		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, except for Botswana and Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zimbabwe to Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia.
60032		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Zimbabwe to Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia.
60032		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Uganda and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Angola and northern Zambia and from Democratic Republic of Congo.
60032		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Uganda and Ethiopia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Kenya, assumed from Sudan.
60032		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa and Angola to Uganda and Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Angola and northern Zambia and from western Uganda. Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Kenya, assumed from Sudan.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, except for Botswana and Namibia.
60032		habitat	eng	Montane streams or rivers.
60032		population	eng	No information available.
60032		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60032		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60032		threats	eng	No information available.
60032		threats	eng	No information is available on threats in the region.
60032		threats	eng	None known.
60032		threats	eng	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60033		conservation	eng	No information available.
60033		conservation	eng	None.
60033		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.
60033		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60033		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion sublacteum</em> has a range that extends from northern South Africa to West and North Africa, and the Middle East.
60033		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion sublacteum</em> is an Afrotropical species that is widespread over tropical Africa and south of the Arabian Peninsula. Its range includes two distinct, isolated relictual areas in the Palearctic: one in northern Morocco and one in the Middle East (Israel and Jordan). These are both separated from the main part of the species' range by a gap of 1,800 to 2,200 km, in which the species is believed to be absent.<br/><br/>Both isolates may be regarded as relicts from the Early Holocene pluvial epoch (8,000-10,000 years ago), during which the Saharan belt was more humid than it is now and had gallery forests growing around streams and savanna areas. Although the Moroccan isolate cannot be reliably distinguished from the nominal subspecies, the Levantine isolate shows a slight differentiation in colour (but not in structure) and is regarded as a distinct subspecies, <em>Pseudagrion sublacteum mortoni</em> Ris and Schmidt, 1936.
60033		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even in the arid parts, but is not found at the Cape. Globally, it has been recorded from northern South Africa to West and North Africa, and in the Middle East.
60033		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Transvaal to Somalia, west to Togo.
60033		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern South Africa to West and North Africa, and in the Middle East (there also subspecies <em>P. S. mortoni</em>).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, assumed for Eritrea and Djibouti.
60033		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern South Africa to west and northern Africa, and in the Middle East (there also subspecies<em> P.s.mortoni</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon; occurrence in the other countries of the central Africa region is assumed.
60033		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north South Africa to Senegal and Ethiopia, isolated populations in Morocco, Arabia and Near East.
60033		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern South Africa to western and northern Africa, and in the Middle East (there is also subspecies <em>P.s.morton</em>i).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon, occurrence in the other countries of the central Africa region assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, its range includes two distinct, isolated relictual areas in the Palearctic: one in northern Morocco and one in the Middle East (Israel and Jordan). These are both separated from the main part of the species' range by a gap of 1,800 to 2,200 km, in which the species is believed to be absent. Both isolates may be regarded as relicts from the Early Holocene pluvial epoch (8,000-10,000 years ago), during which the Saharan belt was more humid than it is now and had gallery forests growing around streams and savannah areas. Although the Moroccan isolate cannot be reliably distinguished from the nominal subspecies, the Levantine isolate shows a slight differentiation in colour (but not in structure) and is regarded as a distinct subspecies, <em>Pseudagrion sublacteum mortoni</em> Ris and Schmidt, 1936.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, assumed for Eritrea and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even in the arid parts, but is not found at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.
60033		habitat	eng	Large and small rivers.
60033		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers, sometimes found in lakes.
60033		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers, sometimes lakes
60033		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers, sometimes lakes.
60033		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
60033		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers.
60033		population	eng	Five subpopulations have been found in Morocco. All are relatively recent findings but were small subpopulations.
60033		population	eng	No information available.
60033		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60033		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60033		threats	eng	All dragonflies, particularly Zygoptera, are threatened in the Maghreb, due to periodic drought events, over consumption of water resources and pollution, as well as urbanization and agriculture expansion in the lowlands and the lower reaches of streams.
60033		threats	eng	Althought this is a widespread species, all dragonflies, particularly Zygoptera, are threatened in the Maghreb due to periodic drought events, over consumption of water resources and pollution, as well as urbanization and agriculture expansion in the lowlands and the lower reaches of streams.
60033		threats	eng	No information available.
60033		threats	eng	No information is available on threats within the region. However, this is a very widespread species.
60033		threats	eng	None known.
60034		conservation	eng	No information available.
60034		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. In South Africa, monitoring of its range area is required (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.
60034		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. In South Africa, monitoring of its range area is required (Samways 2006). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.
60034		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: arid areas in north Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north Uganda and Sudan to western Africa.
60034		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga) and Angola, northern Uganda, Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga); likely to occur in northern Central African Republic as well.
60034		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga) and Angola, northern Uganda, Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Sudan in the region (type locality Bhar el Ghaza, southern Sudan and from Khartoum area (El Rayah, El Zubeir, 1984). Though the records are sparse, the records cover a great distance and mirror the missing surveys in Sudan, thus the species is listed LC, since a wider distribution is assumed.
60034		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa and Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.
60034		distribution	eng	The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga) and Angola, northern Uganda, Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga), likely to occur in northern Central African Republic as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (arid areas in the north of the country), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Sudan in the region (type locality Bhar el Ghaza, southern Sudan and from Khartoum area (El Rayah, El Zubeir, 1984). Though the records are sparse, the records cover a great distance and mirror the missing surveys in Sudan, thus the species is listed Least Concern, since a wider distribution is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. In South Africa, it currently is known only from the Kruger National Park (Shingwedzi and Lower Sabie areas and the northwestern region of the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia.
60034		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species occurs in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. In South Africa, it currently is known only from the Kruger National Park (Shingwedzi and Lower Sabie areas and the northwestern region of the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, it has been recorded from Natal and Namibia to northern Uganda and Sudan, and to West Africa.
60034		habitat	eng	Arid areas.
60034		habitat	eng	Fast flowing rivers or streams. In South Africa, it has been recorded from tall reeds and grasses fringing sluggish reaches of savannah rivers (Samways 2006).
60034		habitat	eng	Open marsh in dry areas
60034		habitat	eng	Open marsh in dry areas.
60034		habitat	eng	Open marsh in dry areas. In southern Africa, the species is present in fast flowing rivers or streams. In South Africa, it has been recorded from tall reeds and grasses fringing sluggish reaches of savannah rivers (Samways 2006 in press).
60034		habitat	eng	Open swamps.
60034		population	eng	No information available.
60034		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, it is unlikely to be declining at a fast rate across its whole range.
60034		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60034		population	eng	Population size is unknown. However, it is unlikely to be declining at a fast rate across its whole range.
60034		threats	eng	No information
60034		threats	eng	No information available.
60034		threats	eng	No information is available on threats in most parts of its range. In South Africa, poor catchment management which exacerbates floods is the most important threat (Samways 2006).
60034		threats	eng	None.
60034		threats	eng	No precise information is available on threats in most parts of its range. In South Africa, poor catchment management, which exacerbates floods, is the most important threat (Samways 2006 in press).
60035		conservation	eng	No information available.
60035		conservation	eng	None.
60035		conservation	eng	The species is widely distributed with strong populations in its African range and no conservation measures are needed there at present.
60035		conservation	eng	The species is widely distributed with strong populations in its African range and no conservation measures are needed there at present. But research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60035		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion torridum</em> is distributed in Africa south of the Sahara, the whole Nile Valley with relict populations in a few oases in the Sinai Peninsula and in the upper Jordan Valley between Lake Hula and Lake Tiberias (Andres 1928; De Marmels 1995; Dumont 1974, 1991; Schneider 1986, 1987). Within the Northern Africa assessment area the species is recorded only from Egypt.
60035		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Kenya west to Senegal, south to Zambia. In East Africa the species has been recorded from lakes in Uganda and Tanzania.
60035		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: lakes in Uganda and Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya west to Senegal, south to Zambia.
60035		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Uganda west to Senegal, north to Egypt and Israel. Records from Zambia and Tanzania not confirmed.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. For Eritrea and Somalia assumed.
60035		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Uganda west to Senegal, north to Egypt and Israel.
60035		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya and Uganda west to Senegal, north to Egypt and Israel. Records from Zambia and Tanzania not confirmed.<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from the central Africa region, but likely in northern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: lakes in Uganda and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is recorded only from Egypt.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. For Eritrea and Somalia assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Chad to Senegal.
60035		habitat	eng	Reedy lake shores.
60035		habitat	eng	Swamps, pools, lakeshores in open (often arid) areas.
60035		habitat	eng	The species occurs in reedy lake shores.In northern Africa, it prefers still water bodies like lakes, ponds and slow-running rivers with rich aquatic vegetation for endophytic oviposition (Andres 1928, Dumont 1974).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it was found in swamps, pools, and lakeshores in open (often arid) areas.
60035		habitat	eng	The species prefers still water bodies like lakes, ponds and slow-running rivers with rich aquatic vegetation for endophytic oviposition (Andres 1928, Dumont 1974).
60035		population	eng	Locally very abundant; it is one of the most common damselflies along the Nile River in Egypt.
60035		population	eng	No information available.
60035		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60035		population	eng	The species is locally very abundant in northern Africa; it is one of the most common damselflies along the Nile River in Egypt.
60035		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to water extraction or water pollution are major threats to the species.
60035		threats	eng	Habitat degradation like water extraction or water pollution are major threats.
60035		threats	eng	No information available.
60035		threats	eng	None known.
60036		conservation	eng	No information available.
60036		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60036		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in the tropical north and southwards to the Okavango delta. Globally, it is widespread in Africa.
60036		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
60036		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Its precise range in western Africa is poorly known, as most references do not separate R. fenestrina from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria and Ghana and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.
60036		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa and it is not facing mayor threats. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Zambia, assumed for Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in the tropical north and southwards to the Okavango Delta.<br/><br/>Precise range for western Africa is poor, as most references do not separate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fenestrina</span> from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria and Ghana, and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.
60036		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, precise range in western Africa poorly known, as most references do not separate R. fenestrina from <em>R. notata</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Zambia, and reported in Angola and Congo; assumed for Equatorial Guinea.
60036		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats.
60036		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, including well-vegetated lentic waters in the  floodplain.
60036		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, including well-vegetated lentic waters of floodplains.
60036		population	eng	No information available.
60036		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60036		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60036		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60036		threats	eng	No information available.
60036		threats	eng	None.
60036		threats	eng	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.
60037		conservation	eng	Formal educations, increasing awareness, capacity-building and training would be beneficial. Species-based actions such as re-introductions are also needed.
60037		conservation	eng	No information available.
60037		conservation	eng	None.
60037		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60037		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
60037		distribution	eng	In the northern Africa region, <em>Rhyothemis semihyalina</em> was restricted to one locality in northeasern Algeria, in the 19th century.
60037		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.
60037		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Indian Ocean Islands. Isolated populations in north east Algeria and N Israel now deemed extinct.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda and Egypt assumed.
60037		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Indian Ocean Islands. Isolated populations in north east Algeria and northIsrael now deemed extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; presence is assumed from Angola.
60037		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Indian Ocean Islands. Isolated populations in north east Algeria and north Israel now deemed extinct.
60037		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is restricted to one locality in northeastern Algeria, in the 19th century.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda and Sudan assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest (except for few single records). <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
60037		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest (except for few single records). Globally, it has a widespread range in Africa, the Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.
60037		habitat	eng	It occurs in pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. It is a migrant species with strong dispersal.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species prefers large clearings in forested areas.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is present in well-vegetated habitats, including pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. The species seems to be migratory at least in parts of its range.
60037		habitat	eng	Pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats, migrant.
60037		habitat	eng	Pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. Strong dispersal.
60037		habitat	eng	The species was found in Lac Oubeira. It preferred large clearings in forested areas.
60037		habitat	eng	Well-vegetated habitats, including pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. The species seems to be migratory at least in parts of its range.
60037		population	eng	No information available.
60037		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.
60037		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60037		population	eng	Population size is unknown but it is a widespread species.
60037		population	eng	Unknown. It is believed to now be exticnt in the region.
60037		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60037		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture is a threat to the species.
60037		threats	eng	No information available.
60037		threats	eng	None.
60037		threats	eng	None known.
60037		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.
60038		conservation	eng	Communication and education through increasing awareness is needed as well as research into trends/monitoring of the species.
60038		conservation	eng	No information available.
60038		conservation	eng	None.
60038		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60038		conservation	eng	Not needed.
60038		conservation	eng	Not required at present.
60038		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Sympetrum fonscolombii</em> is a widespread and common species found  throughout Africa, southern Europe and eastwards to the Middle East, the Indian  Subcontinent and the Indian Ocean Islands. The species becomes scarcer towards the north but has expanded its range considerably in the last two decades and is now common in most of Central Europe. The species shows a strong tendency to migrate and has been found northwards as for as Scotland, the Swedish island of Öland and Latvia. It is likely that climate change will facilitate a further northwards expansion in the next years.
60038		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii</em> is a widespread and common species found throughout Africa, southern Europe and eastwards to the Indian Subcontinent. The species is common and widespread in the southern half of Europe. The species becomes scarcer towards the north but has expanded its range considerably in the last two decades and is now common in most of Central Europe. The species shows a strong tendency to migrate and has been found northwards as for as Scotland, the Swedish island of Öland and Latvia. It is likely that climate change will facilitate a further northwards expansion in the next years.
60038		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii</em> is resident and is often common throughout the Mediterranean region (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). It is widespread in Africa, large parts of Europe and southwest Asia.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is fairly common and widespread. The species is migratory and can be found in the whole North Africa region.
60038		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, the species is widespread in Africa except forest, southern Europe, southern Asia, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands.
60038		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread migrant of open parts of Africa and Eurasia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and reported from Zambia, might be found in other areas as well.
60038		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread migrant of open parts of Africa and Eurasia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia. Kenya, Chad and Uganda assumed.
60038		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from Northern Chad, Northern Niger<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread migrant of open parts of Africa and Eurasia.
60038		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa except forest. Also occurs in southern Europe, southern Asia, Middle East, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Zambia, might be found in other areas as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species is fairly common and widespread in northern Africa. It is migratory and can be found in the whole northern Africa region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia. Chad and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only recorded from northern Chad, northern Niger.
60038		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in forest), southern Europe, southern Asia, the Middle East, and Indian Ocean Islands.
60038		habitat	eng	Breeds in a large variety of habitats with a preference to  temporary pools. The species is an obligate seasonal migrant to the deserts.
60038		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii </em>is found mostly at sunny, often shallow, standing waters (including man-made barrage lakes), it also occurs in running water. The species is in the Mediterranean especially abundant at coastal wetlands and rice fields. Especially in the north of its range it is mostly found at bare, warm and shallow habitats such as quarry lakes, sand pits and newly created ponds.
60038		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii </em>is found mostly at sunny, often shallow, standing waters (including man-made barrage lakes, tanks and ponds), it also occurs in running water.
60038		habitat	eng	It occurs in swampy pools in bush, savannah.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in warm, still waters, often open, bare and shallow, such as quarry lakes, sand pits, newly created ponds and coastal lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species breeds in a large variety of habitats with a preference to  temporary pools. The species is an obligate seasonal migrant to the deserts.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in open shallow waters.
60038		habitat	eng	Open shallow waters.
60038		habitat	eng	Swampy pools in bush, savannah.
60038		habitat	eng	Warm, still waters, often open, bare and shallow, such as quarry lakes, sand pits, newly created ponds and coastal lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
60038		population	eng	No information available.
60038		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.
60038		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60038		population	eng	Population size is unknown but it is a very abundant and widespread species.
60038		population	eng	The species is common and widespread throughout most of its range.
60038		population	eng	The species is common and widespread throughout most of its range and is among the most common dragonflies of southern Europe. It can occur in high densities.
60038		population	eng	This species is abundant and widespread.
60038		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60038		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60038		threats	eng	No information available.
60038		threats	eng	None at present.
60038		threats	eng	None known.
60038		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.
60038		threats	eng	The species is not threatened.
60038		threats	eng	Unknown.
60039		conservation	eng	No information available.
60039		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the range and population of this species, which should be monitored. Habitat conservation is also required.
60039		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60039		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north (Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe). It is expected to also occur in Angola and Mozambique. Globally, the species is widespread from Botswana in the south to Uganda and West Africa.
60039		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, occurrence in Tanzania and Burundi assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, the species is present in Botswana, Malawi, Kenya to western Africa.
60039		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from Botswana in the south to Uganda and western Africa<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has not been recorded yet from Democratic Republic of Congo, but likely; recorded from northern Zambia (Congo Basin) wider distribution in the area is assumed.
60039		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Botswana, Malawi and Kenya to Gambia.
60039		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from Botswana in the south to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from northern Zambia (Congo Basin) and a wider distribution in the area is assumed, likely to be present in Democratic Republic of Congo.
60039		habitat	eng	Grassy verges of rivers and ponds.
60039		habitat	eng	Reedy backwaters of large rivers.
60039		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats.
60039		population	eng	No information available.
60039		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60039		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
60039		threats	eng	No information available.
60039		threats	eng	None.
60041		conservation	eng	No information available.
60041		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60041		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60041		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: Outside of the eastern Africa assessment region, it is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
60041		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon; for Congo is assumed.
60041		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Uganda.
60041		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Gambia to Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and assumed from Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (forest), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
60041		habitat	eng	Forested pools and slow streams.
60041		habitat	eng	Pools and slow streams in rain forest.
60041		habitat	eng	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.
60041		population	eng	No information available.
60041		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60041		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60041		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60042		conservation	eng	No information available.
60042		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into habitat conservation measures for this species is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60042		conservation	eng	Research into conservation measures is needed as well as habitat and site-based actions.
60042		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), rainforests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: Outside of the eastern Africa assessment region, it is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
60042		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is only recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Rutshuru).
60042		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Burundi and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from&#160; Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi, the Kakamega Forest in west Kenya and rainforests in Uganda.
60042		habitat	eng	Pools and slow streams in rain forest.
60042		habitat	eng	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.
60042		population	eng	No information available.
60042		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60042		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60042		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and non-woody vegetation collection are threats to the species..
60043		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60043		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats. Conservation measures and threats/monitoring are also needed, along with habitat maintenance/conservation and restoration.
60043		distribution	eng	<em>Tetrathemis denticauda</em> is only known from two records: the type locality in Uganda (Fort Portal) and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa). It is expected to be more common in appropriate habitats in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
60043		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the type locality in Uganda (Fort Portal) and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa), and expected to be more common in appropriate habitats in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
60043		habitat	eng	Pools and slow streams in rain forest.
60043		habitat	eng	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.
60043		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60043		threats	eng	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.
60043		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60044		conservation	eng	&#160;No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.
60044		conservation	eng	No information available.
60044		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of this species is needed, as is habitat maintenance/conservation.
60044		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance/conservation is required.
60044		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, it is found from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.
60044		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo; it is assumed in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well, including Congo and Zambia.
60044		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence for southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia assumed.
60044		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from few records in western Africa, recently found in Gambia (Parr pers. comm.) and Liberia (Dijkstra unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia.
60044		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Zambia, and assumed in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Somalia. Occurrence for southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in forested areas in the north and east of the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from few records in western Africa, recently found in Gambia (Parr pers. comm.) and Liberia (Dijkstra unpubl.).
60044		distribution	eng	This species occurs in forested areas in the north and east of the southern Africa region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.
60044		habitat	eng	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.
60044		population	eng	No information available.
60044		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60044		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60044		threats	eng	No information available.
60044		threats	eng	No information is available on current threats within the region.
60044		threats	eng	None known.
60045		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60045		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Mutwanga Forest in the Ruwenzori Mts., Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality of <em>T. ruwensoriensis</em> is unspecified, but the Natural History Museum in London has a male from Mutwanga and a damaged male from the “Bwamba Valley near Kidongo”. More populations may occur on the western slopes of the Ruwenzori Mounts.
60045		habitat	eng	Thought to occur near montane forest streams.
60045		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60045		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60046		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
60046		conservation	eng	No information available.
60046		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60046		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia (upper Zambesi). It may also occur in Angola and Mozambique, but this is not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally, it is known from Mozambique to Zambia and Malawi, Uganda to West Africa, and possibly Tanzania.
60046		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forest sites in Malawi and Uganda, unconfirmed record in Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Uganda to western Africa, and likely in Tanzania.
60046		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Uganda to western Africa, and possibly Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the Central African Republic, Congo, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.
60046		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea and Sierra Leone.
60046		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mozambique, Malawi, Uganda to western Africa, and possibly Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forest sites in Malawi and Uganda, unconfirmed record in Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia (upper Zambezi). It may also occur in Angola and Mozambique, but this is not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.
60046		habitat	eng	Forest and woodland, with breeding habitats unknown.
60046		habitat	eng	Forest, woodland.
60046		habitat	eng	Forest, woodland and swamp forests.
60046		habitat	eng	Inundated areas in forest.
60046		population	eng	No information available.
60046		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60046		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60046		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60046		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60046		threats	eng	No information available.
60046		threats	eng	The is no information available on current threats.
60047		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species biology, ecology, population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60047		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60047		distribution	eng	At global level, the species is present in Tanzania and Kenya (coastal). Previously, it was known only from Burundi, the Buda Forest (south-east Kenya), Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island, Turiani and Rufiji Delta (Tanzania). However, records from Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and western Tanzania previously recorded under <em>T. equivocata</em> actually refer to <em>T. jeanneli</em>.
60047		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Previously, the species was known only from Buda Forest (south-east Kenya), Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island, Turiani and Rufiji Delta (Tanzania). However, records from Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and western Tanzania previously recorded under <em>T. equivocata</em> actually refer to <em>T. jeanneli</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; also reported from Zambia.
60047		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
60047		habitat	eng	Swamp forest, coastal areas.
60047		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60047		threats	eng	Destruction of swamp forest. On the African mainland coastal areas most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.
60047		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is destruction of swamp forest. On the African mainland coastal areas most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.
60048		conservation	eng	No information available.
60048		conservation	eng	None.
60048		conservation	eng	None required.
60048		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60048		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended at present.
60048		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread. There are no records from Angola so far but it is very likely to occur there. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Indian Ocean Islands.
60048		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Asian, Australia, Indian Ocean Islands
60048		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except Angola, where presence is assumed.
60048		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is likely. Uganda assumed.
60048		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Australasia, including Indian Ocean Islands.
60048		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in all parts of the world except Europe and the Americas: widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Indian  Ocean Islands (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra in press).<br/><br/>The species is known or expected to occur in every country south of the Sahara (K.-D. Dijkstra pers. comm. 2011) in Africa. <br/><br/>In Asia the species extends throughout India, eastwards to southern China and Japan and southwards throughout southeast Asia to Australia, New Guinea and Micronesia (Lieftinck 1962) and Samoa (Fraser 1925).
60048		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, Asian, Australia and the Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries except Angola and Congo, from where it is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is likely. Its presence in Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread. There are no records from Angola so far but it is very likely to occur there.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad.
60048		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland and forest. This seems to be a migratory species, entering desert areas.
60048		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest.
60048		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest. In Africa it seems to be a migratory species, entering desert areas.
60048		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest. This seems to be a migratory species, entering desert areas.
60048		population	eng	Locally very common, but the species is sometimes overseen due to its crepuscular behaviour.
60048		population	eng	No information available.
60048		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60048		population	eng	Population size is unknown. The species is locally very common in southern Africa, although it is sometimes overlooked due to its crepuscular behaviour.
60048		population	eng	The species is very common across much of southeast Asia and locally very common in southern Africa; moreover it is under-recorded due to its crepuscular behaviour.
60048		threats	eng	No information available.
60048		threats	eng	None known.
60048		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
60048		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.
60048		threats	eng	This widespread and disturbance-tolerant species is not under any major threats.
60049		conservation	eng	Beyond the need for monitoring, no specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this widespread species.
60049		conservation	eng	No information available.
60049		conservation	eng	None.
60049		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60049		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60049		distribution	eng	<em>Tramea basilaris</em> is an extremely widespread species, occurring throughout Africa, and extending into Iran, India and Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar and Thailand.
60049		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from widespread in Africa, Middle East southern Asia.
60049		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from all countries within the region.
60049		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence in Eritrea, Djibouti, Chad, Uganda, Sudan and Egypt assumed.
60049		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.
60049		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries within the region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Eritrea, Djibouti, Chad, Uganda, Sudan and Egypt is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the southern Africa region. It does not occur at the Cape or in the arid southwest. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad.
60049		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. It does not occur at the Cape or in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, the Middle East, and southern Asia.
60049		habitat	eng	Occurs in pools, swamps, and lake margins. This is a migrant species .
60049		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps and lake margins. An obligatory seasonal migrant.
60049		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps, lake margins, migrant.
60049		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps, lake margins. Strong dispersal.
60049		habitat	eng	The species is known to breed in ponds and marshes.
60049		population	eng	A common species.
60049		population	eng	No information available.
60049		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60049		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its large range.
60049		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60049		threats	eng	No information available.
60049		threats	eng	None known.
60049		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant global threats to this species at present although it may be under threat from habitat loss in the future.
60049		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.
60050		conservation	eng	No information available.
60050		conservation	eng	None.
60050		conservation	eng	None required for this species.
60050		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60050		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60050		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the eastern parts along the coast and, in part, down to the Cape. It is scattered in the arid regions. To date, it has not been recorded in Angola. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, and common along the East African coast. It also occurs in the Middle East and Asia.
60050		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, common along East African coast, Middle East, Asia.
60050		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, common along East African coast, Middle East, and Asia.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Kenya, Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan, Uganda and Egypt assumed.
60050		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, common along east African coast, Middle East, Asia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; also present in Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome/Principe, and Zambia, and likely to be found in the other countries as well.
60050		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending into Asia.
60050		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, common along eastern African coast, in the Middle East, and Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome/Principe, Zambia, likely to be found in the other countries as well<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan, Uganda and Egypt is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the eastern parts along the coast and, in part, down to the Cape. It is scattered in the arid regions. To date, it has not been recorded in Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria.
60050		distribution	eng	Widespread in Africa, common along East African coast, Middle East, and much of Asia.
60050		habitat	eng	Found in pools and swamps.
60050		habitat	eng	Pools and swamps. This is a migratory species.
60050		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps.
60050		habitat	eng	Pools, swamps. Strong dispersal.
60050		population	eng	No information available.
60050		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known. However, this is a very widespread species.
60050		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60050		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60050		threats	eng	No information available.
60050		threats	eng	None known.
60050		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.
60050		threats	eng	This species has no widespread threats.
60051		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the species, and habitat conservation is required.
60051		conservation	eng	No information available.
60051		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of the species, and habitat conservation is required.
60051		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
60051		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs at perennial rivers in the humid north and northeast. It is expected to also occur in Angola. It is not present in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Kenya, and west to the Ivory Coast.
60051		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Kenya, west to Ivory Coast.
60051		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Natal to Kenya, west to Ivory Coast.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, the Central African Republic and Congo; it is assumed for Angola.
60051		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Kenya, west to Ivory Coast.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from two sites in Ethiopia within the region. For northern Kenya and Uganda, and southern Sudan assumed in appropriate habitats.
60051		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east South Africa to Ethiopia, Guinea and Sierra Leone.
60051		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Natal to Kenya,and west to Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, assumed for central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from two sites in Ethiopia within the region. It is assumed to be present in appropriate habitats of southern Sudan. For the time being, it is listed as Data Deficient for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs at perennial rivers in the humid north and north east. It is expected to also occur in Angola. It is not present in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and from Guinea to Nigeria.
60051		habitat	eng	Found near streams and rivers in forest and woodland.
60051		habitat	eng	Half-open streams and rivers in forest, woodland and savannah.
60051		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.
60051		population	eng	No information available.
60051		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60051		threats	eng	Agriculture and degradation of gallery forest.
60051		threats	eng	Degradation of gallery forest.
60051		threats	eng	No information available.
60051		threats	eng	Unknown. Degradation of gallery forest is the most likely threat.
60051		threats	eng	Water pollution and degradation of gallery forest caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60052		conservation	eng	No information available.
60052		conservation	eng	None.
60052		conservation	eng	None needed.
60052		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place at present or are recommended at present.
60052		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
60052		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis annulata</em> is a wide ranging Afrotropical species that has expanded its range in southwestern Europe rapidly in recent decades. It expanded over the whole of the Iberian Peninsula from 1978 onwards and was found in southwestern France for the first time in 1994 (Ferreras Romero 1981, Grand 1994). It is now regularly recorded from the Garonne estuary to the Rhône delta (Grand and Boudot 2006). The same expansion has been noted in Italy and to a lesser extent in the Balkan Peninsula. Recently the species was found at Fuerteventura, Canary Islands (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Climate change seems to be the main driver of this expansion.
60052		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis annulata</em> is one of the most abundant dragonflies of tropical Africa. It extends into Europe along the Mediterranean, where it is expanding its range. The first records of the species in Spain date from late 1970s, Corsica in the late 1980s, and the French and Italian mainland in the early 1990s (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is fairly widespread, but is lacking some parts of Egypt and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
60052		distribution	eng	Global distribution: widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
60052		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.
60052		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; it is assumed in all other countries in the region
60052		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Islands.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad and Djibouti, assumed.
60052		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western African countries except Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Islands.
60052		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, assumed in all other countries in the region<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species is fairly widespread in northern Africa, but is lacking in some parts of Egypt and Libya.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. Its presence is assumed for Chad, Uganda and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all western African countries except Mauritania.
60052		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, southern Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands.
60052		habitat	eng	Any sunny water in Africa, favouring warm spots in the periphery of its range, such as shallow gravel pits, open lakes or lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
60052		habitat	eng	Most standing or slow-flowing waters in an open landscape.
60052		habitat	eng	Occupies a variety of habitats in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current. This is among the most common species at larger perennial rivers.
60052		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a wide range of mostly standing and unshaded waters. It favours warm conditions and is often found in ditches, gravel pits and small lakes.
60052		habitat	eng	The species is found in various habitats: in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current.<br/><br/>In northern Africa,  any sunny water in Africa, favouring warm spots in the periphery of its range, such as shallow gravel pits, open lakes or lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in standing or slow-flowing waters in open landscapes.
60052		habitat	eng	Various habitats in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current.
60052		population	eng	No information available.
60052		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60052		population	eng	The species is common within its range and is often abundant. Its populations are increasing all over its European range.
60052		population	eng	The species is widespread and very abundant in northern Africa, where suitable habitat exists.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a widespread species and among the most common species found at larger perennial rivers.
60052		population	eng	The species is widespread and very abundant where suitable habitat exists.
60052		population	eng	This is a widespread species and is among the most common species found at larger perennial rivers.
60052		threats	eng	No information available.
60052		threats	eng	None.
60052		threats	eng	None known.
60052		threats	eng	Not known at present.
60052		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
60052		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.
60052		threats	eng	This species is not under any specific threat.
60053		conservation	eng	Habitat and site-based actions are required.
60053		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
60053		conservation	eng	No information available.
60053		conservation	eng	None.
60053		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60053		conservation	eng	Not applicable in Europe.
60053		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis arteriosa</em> is an Afrotropical species that is found across much of North Africa (Morocco to Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and the Middle East, as well as the southern parts of Turkey. Present in all parts of the northern African region.
60053		distribution	eng	Global distribution: widespread and common in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
60053		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common in Africa, southern Europe and Middle East.
60053		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all central Africa countries, except Sao Tome/Principe, from where it is assumed.
60053		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Uganda, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad and Djibouti, assumed.
60053		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western Africa nations.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands.
60053		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries, except Congo and Sao Tome/Principe, from where it is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>This Afrotropical species is found across much of northern Africa (Morocco to Libya) and the Middle East.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad, Uganda and Djibouti, assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from  all western African nations.
60053		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread and common in Africa, southern Europe, and the Middle East.
60053		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in North Africa, the Levant and Asia. In Europe, this species is only present in Cyprus. A single female  of <em>Trithemis arteriosa</em> has been recorded from Malta in 2002 (Ejeber <em>et al.</em> 2008). This record was subsequently questioned (Sciberras 2008), then proved to be erroneous from photographies and not validated (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). There was also one old record from Rhodos which needs to be confirmed.
60053		habitat	eng	Almost any habitat outside rainforest, often with a slight water current.
60053		habitat	eng	At the moment we have no indication that the species is reproducing in Europe, therefore the exact habitat where it is reproducing in Europe is not known.
60053		habitat	eng	Freshwater ponds and lakes. May also be found near large rivers.
60053		habitat	eng	The species occurs in freshwater ponds and lakes. May also be found near large rivers.
60053		habitat	eng	Various habitats except rain forest, usually with at least a little water current.
60053		habitat	eng	Various habitats except rain forest, usually with at least a little water current, often with higher reeds at the water.
60053		population	eng	No information available.
60053		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
60053		population	eng	Often evident in large parts of its African range, but less abundant in its North African distribution countries.
60053		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60053		population	eng	The only known populations for Europe are in Cyprus.
60053		population	eng	The species is often evident in large parts of its African range, but less abundant in its northern African distribution countries.
60053		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and water pollution are known to be affecting to the species.
60053		threats	eng	Habitat modifications.
60053		threats	eng	No information available.
60053		threats	eng	None.
60053		threats	eng	None known.
60053		threats	eng	Not applicable in Europe.
60053		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.
60054		conservation	eng	No information available.
60054		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60054		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60054		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: confirmed records only from Shimba Hills (south-east Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo
60054		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> <em>T. bifida</em> is known from the type locality in north west  Zambia, Upemba National Park in adjacent Katanga Democratic Republic of Congo, Shimba Hills of S Kenya, Turiani in north east Tanzania, Fume in south east Ghana and Dindefello near Kedougou in south east Senegal. <em>T. bifida</em> reported from Côte d’Ivoire by Pinhey (1978) needs verification.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from north west  Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon; it is assumed from Angola, Congo, the Central African Republic and Cameroon as well, due to records from west Africa.
60054		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone pertains to be <em>T. aconita</em> and listing for Cote d'Ivoire (Tsuda 2000) not traced by assessor. However, assessor has seen specimens that may pertain to be this species from Senegal in Paris museum. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, northern Zambia, Katanga and possibly Tanzania.
60054		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northwest Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, but assumed from Angola, Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon as well, due to records from western Africa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, and confirmed records only from Shimba Hills (southeast Kenya).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Zambia and Zimbabwe (Chimanimani Mountains).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone pertains to be <em>T. aconita</em> and listing for Cote d'Ivoire (Tsuda 2000) not traced by assessor. However, assessor has seen specimens that may pertain to be this species from Senegal in the Museum of Natural History of Paris.
60054		habitat	eng	Streams in forest or dense bush.
60054		population	eng	No information available.
60054		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60054		threats	eng	No information available.
60054		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
60055		conservation	eng	No information available.
60055		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
60055		conservation	eng	None.
60055		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60055		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the most northern parts; east Angola and north Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia, Uganda, and Sudan to West Africa.
60055		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Uganda Sudan to western Africa
60055		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, and Congo; Gabon is assumed.
60055		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Sudan (Karranga, Kurra, Killing in West Dafur), a wider distribution assumed.
60055		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Mali to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.
60055		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, for Gabon and Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Sudan (Karranga, Kurra, Killing in West Dafur), a wider distribution assumed, hence listed as Least Concern.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the most northern parts of east Angola and north Zambia.
60055		habitat	eng	Streams and pools in forest or bush.
60055		population	eng	No information available.
60055		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60055		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60055		threats	eng	No information
60055		threats	eng	No information available.
60055		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
60056		conservation	eng	No information available.
60056		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
60056		conservation	eng	No information available. Research needed on the population numbers and range, and monitoring of this species.
60056		conservation	eng	Research needed on the population numbers and range, and monitoring of this species.
60056		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the northern parts of the region. In Namibia it colonises some artificial lakes, otherwise it is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa.
60056		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, no confirmed records from Malawi and Burundi, but occurrence there assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa.
60056		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and westwards to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.
60056		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and westwards to Nigeria<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia (type locality), and Eritrea in the region. A record for Sudan (Tsuda) needs confirmation. The occurrence in northern Kenya and Uganda is assumed.
60056		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa and westwards to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola and western Rwanda, occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia (type locality), Eritrea and Sudan in the region. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation. The occurrence in northern Kenya and Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the northern parts of the region. In Namibia it colonises some artificial lakes, otherwise it is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all west African records are now listed under <em>T. dejoux</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>.
60056		habitat	eng	It is present in rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodlands, and sometimes also in reservoirs.
60056		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodland.
60056		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodland, and sometimes reservoirs.
60056		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodland; sometimes reservoirs.
60056		population	eng	No information available.
60056		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60056		threats	eng	No information available.
60056		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
60057		conservation	eng	No information available.
60057		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60057		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the north and northeast of the region, as well as at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest (Namibia and Botswana). Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and DRC.
60057		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, no confirmed records from Malawi and Burundi, but occurrence there assumed.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo
60057		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Sierra Leone and Guinea are considered erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; it is assumed from Angola.
60057		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Sierra Leone and Guinea are considered erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,  Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to  occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the north and northeast of the region, as well as at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest (Namibia and Botswana).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea are considered erroneous.
60057		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and pools in bush or savannah.
60057		population	eng	No information available.
60057		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60057		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60057		threats	eng	No information available.
60057		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60058		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60058		conservation	eng	No information available.
60058		conservation	eng	No information available. The taxonomy of this species is in need of revision.
60058		conservation	eng	None. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is required.
60058		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas
60058		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia, Records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, it is assumed for Congo.
60058		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia. Records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia. Chad, Djibouti and Uganda, assumed.
60058		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia,
60058		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia, records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, and assumed to be present in Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia, and assumed from Chad and Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria and possibly Chad, although presence further west (from Guinea) need to be confirmed.
60058		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.
60058		habitat	eng	Streams or rivers in savannah, bush or woodland.
60058		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savanna, bush or woodland.
60058		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savannah, bush or woodland.
60058		population	eng	No information available.
60058		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60058		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60058		threats	eng	No information available.
60058		threats	eng	None known.
60058		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60059		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats.
60059		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats. Habitat conservation is also required.
60059		conservation	eng	No information available.
60059		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the species is recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambesi catchment). The last records of the species date back to 1960. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the southern Africa region. Globally, it is more widespread, with subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon; and the nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.
60059		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon, nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo.
60059		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it is more widespread, with subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon; and the nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa assessment region:</strong>  The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, records from Angola and Congo are likely but need confirmation.
60059		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Gambia.
60059		distribution	eng	The species is very widespread, with subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon, and the nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, records from Angola and Congo are likely but need confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (forest), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is recorded from northwest Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). The last records of the species date back to 1960. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
60059		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60059		habitat	eng	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984).
60059		habitat	eng	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984a).
60059		habitat	eng	Streams and pools often in or near forest.
60059		population	eng	No information available.
60059		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
60059		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60059		threats	eng	None.
60059		threats	eng	Unknown, but forest destruction is inferred.
60059		threats	eng	Water pollution is a major threat. Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are inferred.
60060		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60060		conservation	eng	No information available.
60060		conservation	eng	No information available. Taxonomic revision of this species is required.
60060		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread mainly along the northern perennial rivers. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in forest areas.
60060		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except forest areas.
60060		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa outside forest areas, but records in western Africa few and scattered, requiring confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; it is assumed for Angola.
60060		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been records in western Africa few and scattered, requiring confirmation. Recorded from Senegal and Mali to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It appears widespread in tropical Africa outside forest areas.
60060		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa outside forest areas, but records in western Africa are few and scattered, requiring confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Angola.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread mainly along the northern perennial rivers.<br/><br/>Records from west Africa are few and scattered, requiring confirmation. Recorded from Senegal and Mali to Liberia.
60060		habitat	eng	Swamps, slow streams in savannah or woodland.
60060		population	eng	No information available.
60060		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
60060		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60060		population	eng	Population size is unknown. However, this is a widespread species.
60060		threats	eng	No information available.
60060		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60061		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable
60061		conservation	eng	No information available.
60061		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: L. Opeta (eastern Uganda), Tororo and Busia (Kenya-Uganda border).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo
60061		distribution	eng	The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Lake Opeta in eastern Uganda, Tororo and Busia, in the Kenya-Uganda border, Malawi and Burundi.
60061		habitat	eng	Found in swamps.
60061		habitat	eng	Swamps.
60061		population	eng	No information available.
60061		threats	eng	No information available.
60061		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60062		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed at the moment.
60062		conservation	eng	No information available.
60062		conservation	eng	None.
60062		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
60062		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis kirbyi</em> is a wide ranging African species, also occuring in the Arabian Peninsular and Indian Peninsular. In northern Africa, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Chad and Egypt. It is likely also to be present in Niger, Mauritania, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mali and Sudan.
60062		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis kirbyi </em>is widespread in Africa and the Indian Subcontinent and reaches the southern Mediterranean coast. Recently the species has been found in Sardinia in 2003 (Holuša 2008) and in southern Spain in 2008 (Chelmick and Pickess 2008). In the province of Malaga, it was found breeding in 2008 (Cano-Villegas and Conesa Garcia 2009). It is not unlikely that this is a prelude to an expansion of its range to southern Europe as it has happened with other African species like <em>Trithemis annulata</em> and <em>Brachytremis leucosticta</em>.
60062		distribution	eng	Global distribution: widespread in Africa except rain forest areas, southern Europe, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
60062		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except rainforest areas, southern Europe, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, southern Asia.
60062		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except deep in rainforest areas, extends to Middle East and India.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo. Assumed present in Angola, Zambia, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic.
60062		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except deep in rainforest areas, extends to Middle East and India.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad, Uganda and Djibouti, assumed.
60062		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except deep in rainforest areas, extends to Middle East and India.
60062		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa (except rainforest areas), southern Europe, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, and southern Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, expected at least in Cameroon, Central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Chad and Egypt. It is likely also to be present in Niger, Mauritania, Libya, Mali and Sudan.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. It is assumed to be present in Chad, Uganda and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread and common in most of the region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad.
60062		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common in most of the region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in rain forest areas), southern Europe, the Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, and southern Asia.
60062		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush. This is the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwaters.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in small hard-bottomed water bodies, rocky stream beds, irrigation canals and water tanks.
60062		habitat	eng	Rocky streams, rivers and associated pools in open landscapes.
60062		habitat	eng	Small hard-bottomed water bodies, rocky stream beds, irrigation canals, water tanks etc.
60062		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush.
60062		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush. This is the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwaters.
60062		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and pools in savanna, woodland or bush.
60062		habitat	eng	The species has only recently been found reproducing within Europe. Outside Europe, the species breeds in open, largely unshaded streams and runnels with a bare, stony or rocky bottom. The species is often found in open, arid landscapes but is also often present near settlements where it breeds in concrete ditches, and drink water basins for cattle and fountains.
60062		population	eng	Common.
60062		population	eng	Common in large parts of its African range, less so in northern Africa.
60062		population	eng	No information available.
60062		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60062		population	eng	The species is common in large parts of its African range, less so in northern Africa.
60062		population	eng	The species is not uncommon within its range in the Maghreb and often fairly abundant when found. It is likely that the same will be true for Europe if the species proofs to become a stable part of the European fauna.
60062		threats	eng	No information available.
60062		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
60062		threats	eng	None.
60062		threats	eng	None at present.
60062		threats	eng	None known.
60062		threats	eng	No serious threats are known to be affecting the species at present.
60062		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60063		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60063		conservation	eng	No information available.
60063		conservation	eng	Research is required into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology and habitat status. Monitoring of this species is also needed.
60063		conservation	eng	Research required into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and monitoring.
60063		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries along larger rivers, except for South Africa and the arid southwest. Globally, it has been recorded from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and DRC.
60063		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Marich Pass (western Kenya),  Nkhata Bay (Malawi).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Mozambique to Angola.
60063		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Zambia, Cameroon and Gabon.
60063		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia (as <em>T. imitata</em>), Sudan, and Kenya; Uganda assumed.
60063		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Gambia.
60063		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia, records from Cameroon and Gabon need confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In western Kenya, it is known from Marich Pass and in Malawi from Nkhata Bay.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia (as <em>T. imitata</em>) and Kenya. It is assumed to be present in Sudan and Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries along larger rivers, except for South Africa and the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
60063		habitat	eng	Swampy pools and rivers in bush and woodland.
60063		population	eng	No information available.
60063		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60063		threats	eng	No information available.
60063		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60064		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
60064		conservation	eng	No information available.
60064		conservation	eng	No information available. Taxonomic revision of this species is required.
60064		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60064		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia and Angola. It is a marginal species, with an estimated less than 5% of the global range within the region. Its global distribution is Zambia to Uganda, to Cameroon and Nigeria.
60064		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, to Cameroon and Nigeria
60064		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required). Records from western Africa probably follow confusion with <em>T. grout</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except for Sao Tome and Principe.
60064		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required).Records from further west probably follow confusion with <em>T. grouti</em> (confirmed by assessor for Sierra Leonian records).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Cameroon.
60064		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Uganda to Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required). Records from western Africa probably follow confusion with <em>T. grout</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries except for Sao Tome and Principe.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia and Angola. It is a marginal species, with an estimated less than 5% of the global range within the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south western Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required). Records from further west probably follow confusion with <em>T. grouti</em> (confirmed by assessor for Sierra Leonian records).
60064		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60064		habitat	eng	Streams in or near forest.
60064		habitat	eng	The species is known from forest streams. In southern Africa, it was found in thick bush and riparian forest (Pinhey 1984a).
60064		habitat	eng	Thick bush and riparian forest (Pinhey 1984a).
60064		population	eng	No information available.
60064		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60064		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60064		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60064		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
60064		threats	eng	Unknown, but forest degradation is inferred.
60064		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60065		conservation	eng	No information available.
60065		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60065		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the more humid north and northeast, and also at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest or in Botswana. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya.
60065		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, widespread along forest streams in the coastal region of Kenya and Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa and Kenya.
60065		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and west to Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; it is assumed for Congo, the Central African Republic and Cameroon.
60065		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and west to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, and assumed to be present in the Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is considered widespread along forest streamsMalawi and in the coastal region of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the more humid north and northeast, and also at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest or in Botswana.
60065		habitat	eng	Streams in forest or bush.
60065		population	eng	No information available.
60065		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60065		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60065		threats	eng	No information available.
60065		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60066		conservation	eng	More research is available on range, population status, and threats.
60066		conservation	eng	No information available.
60066		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60066		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known only from the upper Zambesi River catchment, northwest Zambia. It may also occur in east Angola, but his has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region: only four records are known from two localities (last recorded in 1962). Globally, the species is known from Zambia to Uganda, and west to Guinea.
60066		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: local species, records from western Kenya, northern Uganda and Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, to Uganda, west to Guinea
60066		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from nothern Zambia and western Uganda to Guinea and probably Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Congo, Zambia; for Angola and Equatorial Guinea expected
60066		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and probably Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from nothern Zambia and western Uganda to Guinea.
60066		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and western Uganda to Guinea and probably Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon (although this record needs confirmation), Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia. It is expected to be also present in Angola, Congo and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: local species, records from western Kenya, northern Uganda and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from the upper Zambezi River catchment, north west Zambia. It may also occur in east Angola, but his has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region, and only four records are known from two localities, the last recorded in 1962.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and probably Senegal to Nigeria.
60066		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush or forest.
60066		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush or forest (Pinhey 1984a).
60066		population	eng	According to Pinhey (1984a) this is a rare species.
60066		population	eng	No information available.
60066		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60066		population	eng	Population size is unknown. According to Pinhey (1984a) this is a rare species.
60066		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction can be inferred as a potential threat.
60066		threats	eng	No information available.
60066		threats	eng	No information is available on current threats. Forest destruction can be inferred as a potential threat.
60067		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
60067		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Okavango and Kwando River catchments in Botswana, Namibia and most likely also in Angola. Its range to the east is unknown because it has only recently been identified as separate species, historic records of <em>Trithemis stictica</em> from Zambia or even Zimbabwe may well belong to this species.
60067		habitat	eng	Found in and around rivers with swampy fringes, Okavango Delta and Linyanti swamps.
60067		population	eng	The species has locally large populations, particularly in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle.
60067		threats	eng	No information available.
60068		conservation	eng	No information available.
60068		conservation	eng	None.
60068		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60068		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in most countries, particularly in regions with mountain streams. Its range in the central part of the region is not clear because populations in the Okavango Basin and at the Kwando River have been identified as separate species, which may also occur more to the east (cf. <em>Trithemis </em>sp. n). Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Ethiopia, and west to the Ivory Coast.
60068		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Ethiopia, west to Ivory Coast
60068		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Cameroon (record (Tsuda) needs confirmation); reported from Angola, and possibly also in the other countries.
60068		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. Uganda assumed.
60068		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.
60068		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon, although this record from Tsuda needs confirmation. It is assumed to be present in Congo, and possibly also in the other countries.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in most countries, particularly in regions with mountain streams. Its range in the central part of the region is not clear because populations in the Okavango Basin and at the Kwando River have been identified as separate species, which may also occur more to the east (cf. <em>Trithemis </em>sp. nov.).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.
60068		habitat	eng	Streams, swamps and pools in bush or forest.
60068		habitat	eng	Streams, swamps, and pools in bush or forest.
60068		habitat	eng	Streams, swamps, pools in bush or forest.
60068		population	eng	No information available.
60068		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60068		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60068		threats	eng	No information available.
60068		threats	eng	None known.
60068		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
60068		threats	eng	The species is not threatened in most of its range.  A local relict subpopulation occurs in the central Namibian Naukluft and Tsaris Mountains (Suhling <em>et al</em>. 2006), which is separated from all other subpopulations. This subpopulation may be threatened and it should be monitored.
60069		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60069		conservation	eng	No information available.
60069		conservation	eng	None.
60069		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and south Sudan south to Transvaal and Angola.
60069		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Kenya, south Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, south to Transvaal and Angola, record from Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from a single record fron Democratic Republic of Congo, but also reported from Angola, Congo, Zambia, and assumed from the Central African Republic.
60069		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, south Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, south to Transvaal and Angola, record from Nigeria doubtful.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from northern Kenya and Sudan in the region. Assumed for southern Ethiopia and northern Uganda.
60069		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Kenya, south Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, south to Transvaal and Angola, record from Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from northern Sudan assumed to be present in southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs along perennial rivers in the north of the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is reported from Nigeria (unknown location). Its presence in Nigeria is doubtful.
60069		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of the southern Africa region, along perennial rivers. Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya and south Sudan, south to South Africa (Transvaal) and Namibia.
60069		habitat	eng	Rivers in bush or savannah.
60069		population	eng	No information available.
60069		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60069		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60069		threats	eng	No information available.
60069		threats	eng	None known.
60069		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60070		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60070		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Malawi, Eastern Arc Mts and southwards continuing mountain chains. In East Africa, the species occurs in east Usambara, Uluguru und Udzungwa Mts, Kimboza, Turiani, possibly Kilosa (all in Tanzania), and the Chisarsira Forest (Malawi). The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy well below 2,000 km².
60070		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
60070		population	eng	No information available.
60070		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Eastern Arc Mountains, often only forests on hill-tops remain, where no suitable breeding habitats exist.
60071		conservation	eng	No information available.
60071		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends should be monitored.
60071		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60071		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Nigeria.
60071		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic - records from Cameroon unclear due to confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.
60071		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is possibly found in Cameroon and east Nigeria but there is potential confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Cameroon and east Nigeria.
60071		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic - records from Cameroon unclear due to confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is possibly found in Cameroon and east Nigeria but there is potential confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.
60071		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams
60071		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
60071		population	eng	No information available.
60071		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60071		threats	eng	Destruction of rainforests as a consequence of agriculture and wood extraction, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams and water pollution are threats to the species.
60071		threats	eng	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.
60071		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
60072		conservation	eng	No information available.
60072		conservation	eng	None.
60072		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into threats and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60072		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, except forest.
60072		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; it is assumed from the Central African Republic and Gabon.
60072		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. For Uganda assumed.
60072		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria and Niger.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except in deep in forest or desert.
60072		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa except in forested areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, and assumed from Central African Republic, Congo and Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopiavand Somalia, and its presence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region. There are scattered occurrences in the arid southwest, and it is not found at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria and Niger.
60072		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region. There are scattered occurrences in the arid southwest, and it is not found at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, except in forest areas.
60072		habitat	eng	Pools, lakes or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.
60072		population	eng	No information available.
60072		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60072		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60072		threats	eng	No information available.
60072		threats	eng	None.
60072		threats	eng	None known.
60073		conservation	eng	No information available.
60073		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
60073		conservation	eng	Unless urgent, immediate and effective measures are taken to protect Lac Bleu from human impact (pollution, drainage), the last known (topotypical) population of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> will probably cease to exist (Samraoui and Corbet 2000).
60073		distribution	eng	<em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> is widespread in Africa (except in forest) and the Middle East.
60073		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.
60073		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,Congo, Gabon and Zambia; it is assumed from Central African Republic.
60073		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Uganda; from Egypt, Eritrea, Chad, Somalia and Djibouti assumed.
60073		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western Afican nations except Togo, where certainly present.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa. Isolated populations in north east Algeria (threatened) and north Israel (extinct).
60073		distribution	eng	The main range of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> lies south of the Sahara, encompassing most of tropical Africa (Dijkstra 2006, Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993). Regional records for Northern Africa are restricted to three localities in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993), and one sighting in Tunisia (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000). Of the three Algerian populations, two became extinct within the last two decades; the last one, Lac Bleu (a lake of only 2 ha size) had not more than forty (40) individuals restricted to a small sector of the lake.<br/><br/>Type locality Algeria.
60073		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, assumed in Central African Republic, Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the main range of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> lies south of the Sahara, encompassing most of tropical Africa (Dijkstra 2006, Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993). Regional records for northern Africa are restricted to three localities in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993), and one sighting in Tunisia (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000). Of the three Algerian populations, two became extinct within the last two decades; the last one, Lac Bleu (a lake of only 2 ha size) had not more than forty (40) individuals restricted to a small sector of the lake. Type locality in Algeria.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Sudan and Somalia. Its presence is assumed for Ethiopia, Eritrea, Chad, Uganda and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all west African nations except Togo, where certainly present.
60073		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in forest areas) and the Middle East.
60073		habitat	eng	Marshy verges of lakes and nearly stagnant sections of rivers and wadis.
60073		habitat	eng	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savanna, bush and woodland.
60073		habitat	eng	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.
60073		population	eng	In 1992 not more than forty (40) individuals were counted from the last known regional population at Lac Bleu in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000). It is extinct in Israel.
60073		population	eng	No information available.
60073		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
60073		population	eng	This is a widespread species.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, in 1992 not more than forty individuals were counted from the last known regional population at Lac Bleu in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000).
60073		threats	eng	Eutrophication, destruction of riparian vegetation, and water extraction. Fire is also a threat.
60073		threats	eng	Eutrophication, destruction of riparian vegetation, water extraction and fire are threats to the species.
60073		threats	eng	No information available.
60073		threats	eng	None.
60075		conservation	eng	No information available.
60075		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60075		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60075		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Uganda, (taxonomic confusion with <em>Zygonys fallax</em>).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is though to be present from Uganda to Sierra Leone.
60075		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia; it is assumed for the Central African Republic and Congo.
60075		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Sierra Leone and Guinea.
60075		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, assumed for Central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>This species occurs in the northern parts of the southern Africa region (Angola and Zambia).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria.
60075		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern parts of the southern Africa region (Angola and Zambia). Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Angola and Zaire, across to Sierra Leone. It may also occur in Uganda.
60075		habitat	eng	Fast running streams in rain forest.
60075		habitat	eng	Forested rivers and streams.
60075		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams in rainforests.
60075		habitat	eng	Streams in rain forest.
60075		habitat	eng	Streams in rainforest.
60075		population	eng	No information available.
60075		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60075		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60075		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60075		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
60075		threats	eng	Unknown. Forest degradation is a potential threat.
60075		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60076		conservation	eng	No information available.
60076		conservation	eng	None.
60076		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
60076		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
60076		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and the Central African Republic; presence is assumed for Angola, Congo and Cameroon.
60076		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya; for Sudan and Uganda assumed.
60076		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is fairly local in western Africa, Nigeria west to Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa west to Guinea and Mali.
60076		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia,&#160; and assumed to be present in Central African Republic and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi. <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and assumed to be present in Sudan.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region, along perennial running waters. It is not found in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species fairly local, present in Nigeria west to Guinea and Mali.
60076		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, along perennial running waters. It is not found in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.
60076		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.
60076		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland; especially near rapids and waterfalls.
60076		population	eng	No information available.
60076		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60076		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60076		threats	eng	No information available.
60076		threats	eng	None.
60076		threats	eng	None known.
60076		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.
60076		threats	eng	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.
60077		conservation	eng	No information available.
60077		conservation	eng	No information available. More research and monitoring of the population and range of this species is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60077		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60077		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in western Uganda, Tanzania (no precise locality for is known).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.
60077		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo.
60077		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Cong. A record from Congo by Tsuda needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, forest in western Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi.
60077		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60077		habitat	eng	Found near forest streams.
60077		population	eng	No information available.
60077		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60077		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60077		threats	eng	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
60078		conservation	eng	A regulation of water use and pollution levels in its distribution range is needed and the present breeding habitats should be preserved.
60078		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution, and conservation of habitats.
60078		conservation	eng	No information available.
60078		conservation	eng	None.
60078		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable. Control of water pollution, and conservation of habitats are also needed.
60078		distribution	eng	<em>Zygonyx torridus</em> is a regular and widespread inhabitant of the Palaearctic. Its known distribution shows a patchy belt with records stretching from the Atlantic islands, along the Mediterranean Sea, to western Asia, with Iran as the easternmost record within the Palaearctic. All localities are situated within a range characterized by a subtropical or Mediterranean climate. There are four centres of settlements: the Canary Islands, the northwestern Africa (Morocco and Tunisia), the southern Iberian Peninsula and the Jordan Valley, plus single records from southern Tunisia, Sicily, southern Turkey and southern Iran (Kunz <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large population on the Canaries, including Madeira, but these are outside the Mediterranean region. It is potentially present in southern countries of the north African region (Mauritania and Mali), but, to date, there are no records for these countries.
60078		distribution	eng	<em>Zygonyx torridus</em> is a widespread African and oriental species with a range extending in the northwest to the Canary Islands, South Iberia, and Turkey and Iran in the east (Bemmerle 2005, Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). Its distribution in Europe shows a patchy belt with either aggregated or isolated localities stretching from the Canary Islands to South Spain and Sicily (Italy).
60078		distribution	eng	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, and southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.
60078		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia.
60078		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and India.<br><br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan. Uganda and Egypt assumed.
60078		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and India.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, and Zambia.
60078		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and India.
60078		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East and southern Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species is potentially present in the southern countries of the northern African region (Mauritania and Mali), but, to date, there are no records for these countries.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. Its presence in Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region, except for in the Kalahari.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from  Nigeria to Gambia.
60078		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, except for in the Kalahari. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, and southern Asia.
60078		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and rivers in bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.<br/><br/>In northern Africa,typical habitats of the species are waterfalls and rapids of permanent rivers and brooks in the steppe and arid regions. Suitable sites are frequently successfully settled, even if they are extremely isolated, as in tropical rainforest or in desert (Kunz <em>et al.</em> 2006).
60078		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.
60078		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in bush, savanna, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.
60078		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in desert, bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.
60078		habitat	eng	Typical habitats of <em>Z. torridus</em> in Europe are waterfalls and rapid stretches of permanent rivers and brooks which are partly shaded in the warmer parts of Europe. This is a very mobile species which may be met as groups of vagrant adults elsewhere than in their true reproducing habitats. This species has a good dispersal ability.
60078		habitat	eng	Typical habitats of the species are waterfalls and rapids of permanent rivers and brooks in the steppe and arid regions. Suitable sites are frequently successfully settled, even if there are extremely isolated, as in tropical rainforest or in desert (Kunz <em>et al.</em> 2006).
60078		population	eng	In Europe, the species is rare, localised and sometimes incidental, though occasionally it is locally common. Although there is only one record in Sicily and in Portugal, the species is much more common and well established in the Canary Islands and in some Spanish localities.
60078		population	eng	In Morocco this is a vagrant species with several potential and recorded breeding sites. There is probably an exchange between populations in Iberian and those in central, western and northern Africa. Very small numbers of exuvia have been collected, to a maximum of 50 adults and 11 exuvia at one location.<br/><br/>The species forms migrant clouds that may move from location to location.
60078		population	eng	No information available.
60078		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.
60078		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60078		population	eng	This is a widespread species. In northern Africa, the species is a vagrant with several potential and recorded breeding sites in Morocco. There is probably an exchange between populations in Iberian and those in central, western and northern Africa. Very small numbers of exuvia have been collected, to a maximum of 50 adults and 11 exuvia at one location. The species forms migrant clouds that may move from location to location.
60078		threats	eng	In Iberia and the Canary Islands, human impacts on the natural freshwater resources are the main threat (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). The destruction of Mediterranean running water systems as a result of human consumption for agriculture, urbanization and tourism increase rapidly. Water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water-table and stream drying up, river damming and spring capture are also key threats. Together with climate change with increased drought periods this may result in the loss of breeding habitat.
60078		threats	eng	In the Canary Islands, human impacts on the natural freshwater resources are the main threat (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>In northwestern Africa, there is no information available on specific threats; the available data give no indication of a decline of the species in this region (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). In northern Africa, water pollution, abstraction and river damming are the key threats.<br/><br/>In southern Europe, the extensive destruction of Mediterranean running water systems as a result of human consumption for agriculture and tourism are the main threats (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In southwestern Asia, although there are some recent records of the species from Jordan, the water supply in the whole region dramatically decreased due to agricultural consumption. Sections with permanent running water become continuously more restricted (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006).
60078		threats	eng	No information available.
60078		threats	eng	None.
60078		threats	eng	None known.
60078		threats	eng	There are no known threats seriously affecting the species at present.
60078		threats	eng	There is no much information available on specific threats and the available data give no indication of a decline of the species in this region (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). Water pollution, abstraction and river damming are the key threats. In the Canary Islands, human impacts on the natural freshwater resources are the main threat to the species (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006).
60079		conservation	eng	No information available.
60079		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60079		conservation	eng	Research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as conservation measures and monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration, and corridors are needed.
60079		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs along the Indian Ocean Coast in South Africa and Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa and Mozambique to Uganda and to Cameroon.
60079		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Budongo Forest, Zika Forest, Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.
60079		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east South Africa to Uganda, Liberia and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon
60079		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Liberia and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east South Africa to Uganda and Liberia.
60079		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northeastern South Africa to Uganda, Liberia and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known from the Budongo Forest, Zika Forest, Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs along the Indian Ocean coast in South Africa and Mozambique.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria to Liberia and possibly Senegal.
60079		habitat	eng	Swamp forest.
60079		habitat	eng	Swamp forest, ponds and swamps in forest.
60079		population	eng	No information available.
60079		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
60079		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60079		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60079		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
60079		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
60079		threats	eng	Unknown. Forest destruction is a potential threat.
60080		conservation	eng	Relationships between the three shovelnose stingaree species first need to be defined before conservation measures can be determined.<br/><br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60080		distribution	eng	As presently defined, restricted to a narrow area off Western Australia, Abrolhos Islands to Shark Bay (Last and Stevens 1994).
60080		habitat	eng	Found at about 200 m depth at the edge of the continental shelf (Last and Stevens 1994). Biology unknown.
60080		population	eng	No details available.
60080		threats	eng	The area and depth from which <em>Trygonoptera galba</em> is presently known receives little fishing effort, being too deep for inshore prawn trawl fisheries and at the edge of the small-scale Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery.
60081		conservation	eng	Victoria has a recently declared system of small Marine Protected Areas and these together with commercial fishing restrictions on the inshore environment will provide the species? with a level of protection. A lack of trawling in Bass Strait provides reasonable protection for the species across a large portion of its range.  <br/> <br/>Further information is required on habitat requirements given the patchy nature of the species? occurrence. The level of catches by recreational fishers also needs to be determined. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60081		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Bass Strait Province and adjacent transition zones of southeastern Australia: from Beachport (SA) through Victoria to Bermagui (NSW), excluding Tasmania. Primary distribution off Victoria.
60081		habitat	eng	<em>Trygonoptera</em> sp. B is an inshore demersal species of sheltered coastal areas over soft substrates but is also recorded to depths of at least 120 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Females reach a larger maximum size than males. Ageing studies using whole and sectioned vertebrae indicate that females and males reach at least 12 years and 10 years, respectively (Trinnie 2003). The species exhibits aplacental viviparity but demonstrates extreme atrophy of the left ovary, with embryos developing from both internal and external yolk sacs. Litter size varies 1 to 5, though abortion of pups can occur at all sizes of pregnant animals when handled or caught in fishing gear. Size at which 50% are mature was ~46.1 cm TL for females and ~49.1 cm TL for males. The maximum size of <em>in utero</em> embryos was 25.0 cm TL for males and 24.0 cm TL for females. Their diet mainly consists of polycheate worms. Life history information from Trinnie (2003) unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  ~ 4.5 years at 50% maturity (female); ~ 5.0 years at 50% maturity (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  ~ 50% mature at 46.1 cm TL  based on ovarian development (female); ~ 50% mature at 49.1 cm TL based on seminal vesicle development (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  12+ years (females); 10+ years (males) based on sectioned vertebrae ageing technique. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  80 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Largest <em>in utero</em> embryo 25.0 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown maternity pattern. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 5 pups per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60081		population	eng	Common in Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Bay, Victoria. Patchy in more exposed areas throughout its range. Aggregates in some locations.
60081		threats	eng	Main threats are inshore commercial fishing, specifically beach and Danish seine and inshore trawl, particularly in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), which operates off southeastern Australia. Taken as bycatch and usually discarded. Reasonably robust after discard as usually caught in shallow water in small catches. Mechanical damage problematic in some locations using heavy trawl gear where catches become more substantial. Partial protection offered in the inshore extremities of embayments where fishing activities are not permitted. Rapid assessment of the species? ?catch susceptability? defined from ?availability?, ?selectivity?, ?encounterability? and ?post-capture mortality?, rates this species as low to all fishing methods in the SESSF (Walker 2004). However, both its ?availability? and ?encounterability? to otter trawl gear are high. Of animals caught and released, the high rate of abortion in pregnant urolophids when caught and handled is of concern. <br/> <br/>In Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, long-term assessments of the abundance of <em>Trygonoptera</em> sp. B indicate that there has been a steady decline over a 10 year period (Hobday and Parry 1999). The species is possibly subject to environmental degradation in areas of main human habitation and the increasing level of recreational water use and development in shallow embayments around southern Australia may represent a threat to the suitable habitat of this species. <br/> <br/>A substantial number of introduced marine organisms are well established in many estuaries in southern Australia (for example, Port Phillip Bay in Victoria) and these are altering the natural structure of these ecosystems. The exact impact upon benthic predators (through habitat alteration and changes to prey abundance and distribution) is not well documented.
60082		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of this species and other elasmobranchs caught as bycatch in southwestern Australia should be conducted to establish whether the population sizes are stable or declining. A follow-up trawl survey, identical to that conducted in the early 1990s, on the lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to determine any trends in population sizes of such species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60082		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Indian across southwestern Australia: from Glenelg, South Australia (138°30?E) west to at least Dongara, Western Australia (29°15?S) (Last and Stevens 1994).
60082		habitat	eng	<em>Trygonoptera mucosa</em> is a common species found over sand and seagrass habitats in depths of 1 to 35 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <br/> <br/>Aplacental viviparous species with ovulation and conception occurring in June and parturition occurring 12 months later, i.e., June (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Litter size ranges from one to two and females reproduce each year. Females and males are mature at 25 and 22 cm DW, respectively, and attain maximum sizes of 36.9 and 28.3 cm DW, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Females and males are mature by the end of their fifth and second years of life, respectively, and reach maximum ages of 17 and 13 years, respectively (White <em>et al</em>., 2002). Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for both sexes were: DWinf = 30.8 cm (F) and 26.1 cm (M), t<sub>0</sub> = -2.52 (F) and -1.36 (M) years, k = 0.24 (F) and 0.49 (M).  <br/> <br/>Diet consists primarily of polychaete worms (errant and sedentary) (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> (from White <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  5 years (female); 2 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  25 cm DW (female); 22 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  17 years (females); 12 years (males).  <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  37 cm DW (females); 28 cm DW (males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  11.3 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 young per annum.  <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60082		population	eng	Common in shallow water over sandy substrates or near seagrass.
60082		threats	eng	This species forms a considerable component of the biomass of bycatch in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah (northernmost part of their range). A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>T. mucosa</em> constituted 4.9% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). The South Australian Prawn Fisheries operate at the eastern extremity of the species? range and possibly take this species as bycatch, although it was not reported in a preliminary survey of bycatch in the Spencer Gulf component of the fishery by Carrick (1997). <br/> <br/>Overall, only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and large parts of its distribution are unfished or have extremely low fishing pressure, particularly inshore areas of the Great Australian Bight. <br/> <br/>This species is of no commercial value and all those caught by trawlers are returned alive. The only real concern for this species and other urolophids is that a large percentage of pregnant females landed abort their young before they are returned (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since the fecundity of this species is so low (one to two) and gestation is relatively long (12 months), any additional fishing pressure could have a significant effect on populations of this species. <br/> <br/>This species is generally not caught by recreational fisherman. There are no real threats from pollution within the range of this species.
60083		conservation	eng	None in place. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60083		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Indian off southwestern Australia: found only off the southwestern coast of Australia from Eucla (128°53?E) to the Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia (28°43?S) (Last and Stevens 1994).
60083		habitat	eng	<em>Trygonoptera ovalis</em> is a common species found over rocky and reefy areas and some seagrass beds in depths of 1 to 43 m (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White pers. obs). Aplacental viviparous species. Attains 61 cm TL and males mature at 35 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>Dietary composition has not yet been examined for this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life History Parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 35 cm TL (male) (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  61 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60083		population	eng	Common over shallow rocky and reefy areas within its range.
60083		threats	eng	Very few threats. Only a negligible component of prawn and scallop trawl bycatch, for which there is only a small number of boats operating within this fishery. Not known to be caught by other fisheries within its range. Preference of this species for rocky and reefy areas provides refuge from trawling activities.
60084		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of this species and other elasmobranchs caught as bycatch off the central and lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to establish whether the population sizes are stable or declining. A follow-up trawl survey, identical to that conducted in the early 1990s, on the lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to determine any trends in population sizes of such species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60084		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Indian off Western Australia: found off the lower west coast of Western Australia from Geographe Bay (34°10?S) north to Shark Bay (25°S) (Last and Stevens 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999).
60084		habitat	eng	<em>Trygonoptera personata</em> is a relatively common species found over sand and seagrass habitats on the upper continental shelf in depths to 70 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Aplacental viviparous species with ovulation and conception occurring in July and parturition occurring 10 months later, i.e., April/May (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Litter size ranges from one to two and females reproduce each year. Females and males are mature at 23 and 22 cm DW, respectively, and attain maximum sizes of 31 and 27 cm DW, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Females and males are mature by the end of their fourth year of life and reach maximum ages of 16 and 10 years, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for both sexes were: DWinf = 30.3 cm (F) and 26.9 cm (M), t0 = -3.9 (F) and -3.1 (M) years, k = 0.14 (F) and 0.20 (M). Diet consists primarily of polychaetes (errant and sedentary) and crustaceans (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> (from White <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  4 years (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  23 cm DW (female); 22 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  16 years (females); 10 years (males). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  31 cm DW (females); 27 cm DW (males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.8 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 young per annum. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown
60084		population	eng	Relatively common over scallop and prawn trawl grounds on the upper continental shelf off the central and lower west coast of Australia. Appears to be more common in the southern part of its range.
60084		threats	eng	<em>Trygonoptera personata</em> forms a considerable component of the biomass of bycatch in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah. A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>T. personata</em> constituted 2.6% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Only a small number of trawlers operate in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah, and while some small-scale trawl operations exist in the northern part of the species range (i.e., Abrolhos Islands and Shark Bay) which may potentially take the species as bycatch, the overall trawl fishing pressure across the species? range is low. <br/> <br/>This species is of no commercial value and all those caught by trawlers are typically returned alive. The only real concern for this species and other urolophids is that a large percentage of pregnant females landed abort their young before they are returned (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since the fecundity of this species is so low (one to two) and gestation is relatively long (10 months), any additional fishing pressure could have a significant effect on populations of this species. <br/> <br/>This species is generally not caught by recreational fisherman. There are no real threats from pollution within the range of this species.
60085		conservation	eng	Life history studies are ongoing and bycatch monitoring is recommended into the future. However, the abundant nature of this species means that conservation measures are not a priority for this species when compared with other inshore elasmobranchs in the region. <br/> <br/>The species is afforded protection in numerous, mostly small, inshore marine protected areas in southern Queensland (i.e., Green Zones of Moreton Bay Marine Park) and NSW (various small marine parks and reserves). <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60085		distribution	eng	Restricted geographic range off eastern Australia: from southern Queensland to Cape Howe, New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994).
60085		habitat	eng	<em>Trygonoptera testacea</em> is found inshore on the continental shelf from the intertidal zone to 135 m (more commonly to 60 m) (Last and Stevens 1994). Prefers soft substrates and is often associated with rocky reefs, the surf zone, as well as estuaries. Relatively little known of its biology, but has a small litter size (12 young) (P. Kyne unpublished data) and probably shares other reproductive characteristics with similar urolophids, such as a gestation period of or approaching, one year (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2002), which would results in an annual fecundity of 1 to 2 young. <br/> <br/>Diet of adult <em>T. testacea</em> consists primarily of polychaete worms with an ontogenetic shift in diet from primarily carid decapods in smaller size classes (Marshall <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters </u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>:  Unknown (female); 31 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994), 21 to 26 cm TL (P. Kyne unpublished data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  47 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60085		population	eng	Abundant across range, but with the main part of the population north of Jervis Bay, NSW. This is the dominant inshore ray in terms of abundance where it occurs along the east coast of Australia.
60085		threats	eng	The geographic and bathymetric range of <em>T. testacea</em> is under relatively significant pressure from inshore trawling activities from both beam (estuarine) and otter (estuarine, inshore and offshore) trawlers. In southern Queensland, the northern extent of the species? range, it is taken as bycatch in the Eastern King Prawn (EKP) and Moreton Bay sectors of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF). This is one of the most common elasmobranch bycatch species in the EKP sector of the fishery and catch data indicates that the species aggregates with nursery areas overlapping with trawling grounds (P. Kyne unpublished data). In NSW the species is a bycatch of the NSW Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery as well as a minor bycatch in inshore and estuarine trawl fisheries (Gray <em>et al</em>. 1990) and estuarine prawn seine fishing (Gray <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Trygonoptera testacea</em> is also a minor bycatch in beach seine fisheries. In the Lake Macquarie beach seine fishery in NSW <em>T. testacea</em> was amongst the top 25 most numerically abundant species captured and all were discarded (Gray and Kennelly 2003). Survivorship <em>should</em> be high if individuals are removed without persecution (the practice of ?spiking? is undertaken in some Australian fisheries whereby unwanted rays are removed from fishing nets using a metal spike through the cranium). <br/> <br/>This species is often taken by recreational beach fishers in southern Queensland and northern NSW (P. Kyne pers. obs.). Utilization is unknown, but the species is often discarded on the beach and not returned to the sea (P. Kyne pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Trygonoptera testacea</em> is considered to have a low catch susceptibility to all gear types (Walker 2004). Catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality? (Walker 2004). When these parameters are considered separately it is shown that ?availability? results in the assignment of a low catch susceptibility for otter trawl gear. The SESSF operates at the southern end of the distribution of <em>T. testacea</em> and the species is considered to be sparse in the fishery?s area of operation. The stingaree is thus not available to the majority of the fishery as activities are centred further to the south and west. <br/> <br/>Of concern to this species, and all urolophids, is the high rate of abortion by gravid females upon capture and handling. For <em>T. testacea</em>, this not only relates to trawl capture specimens, but also to line captured individuals (P. Kyne unpublished data). In effect, even if these individuals are returned to the water, annual individual reproductive output may be lost for that year. <br/> <br/>The effects of inshore and coastal habitat degradation on this species are unknown but it may be less affected through habitat modification than other species (for example, the estuary stingray <em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em>) as it is still common in relatively degraded areas (i.e., areas around Sydney).
60086		conservation	eng	Urgent need to evaluate habitat requirements and distribution to establish accurate levels of threat. Given the morphological uniqueness of this species there is a need to establish its phylogenetic position within the family.
60086		distribution	eng	Known only from New Ireland in the Bismark Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. Possibly has discrete habitat requirements within a very narrow geographic range. Surveys adjacent to the region have failed to locate additional material.
60086		habitat	eng	Nothing known of habitat, depth distribution or biology. Known only from one specimen, a 17.4 cm TL immature male, caught in New Ireland (Bismark Archipelago, PNG) (Séret and Last 2003). Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>The type locality is amongst one of the most poorly surveyed regions on earth and this species may be an indicator of restricted evolutionary processes and the existence of a discrete faunal unit in this area. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60086		population	eng	Unknown. Biodiversity surveys are needed in this region to evaluate habitat requirements and population size. Potentially at risk by its restricted nature.
60086		threats	eng	Limited based on the lack of fishing activity in this region. The absence of information on habitat requirements makes it difficult to predict where threats may come from, however oil and gold exploration in the general region could result in degraded habitat, the effects of which (for example, chemicals used in processing and potentially released in the environment) would need to be evaluated.
60087		conservation	eng	Research into habitat requirements and life history together with bycatch and market monitoring, is necessary. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60087		distribution	eng	Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam (Kuiter and Debelius 1997), and possibly Korea. Range is not well defined. Possibly disjunct. Sporadic distribution in Japan, only found in suitable habitat (i.e., rocky areas).
60087		habitat	eng	Found in rocky habitat over the continental shelf. Kuiter and Debelius (1997) report that the species is found at depths of 10 to 200 m and Nakaya and Shirai (1992) report it at 155 to 205 m in the Okinawa trough off Japan. Biology is little known. Michael (1993) reports a litter size of up to four and a gestation period of about one year. Urolophids generally have low fecundity and a gestation period around or approaching a year, so Michael?s observations seem consistent with published reports (see White <em>et al</em>. 2001, White <em>et al</em>. 2002), although fecundity is probably generally lower (i.e., 1 to 2 pups/litter). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  40 cm TL (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~8 cm TL (Michael 1993). <br/><>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  ~12 months (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (Michael 1993) (probably generally less, i.e., 1 to 2). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60087		population	eng	Common but not abundant. Only found in small numbers where it occurs.
60087		threats	eng	Its preference for rocky habitat limits its susceptibility to trawling, however gillnet, set net and longline fishing activities in parts of its range are likely to take this species as bycatch. No information is available on such bycatch. Longline fisheries in areas such as Taiwan often employ gear that would regularly take this species (similar sized demersal batoids taken on bottom set lines are a commonly marketed product). Fisheries in the Asian region are generally unmanaged and unregulated and pressure on the continental shelf is intense. <br/> <br/>This species? occurrence in deeper water was shown by Nakaya and Shirai (1992) in the Okinawa Trough, south of Japan. Bycatch through any expansion of deepwater demersal fishing activities will likely increase pressure on deeper subpopulations in those areas.  <br/> <br/>Habitat alteration in inshore areas may indirectly impact the species.
60088		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species? biology and habitat preferences given that its distribution appears to be patchy. Bycatch monitoring is required in all fisheries within the species? range. Effort reduction and/or bycatch minimization in southeastern Australian fisheries is required to allow recovery and this and other depleted chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Reduced trawling pressure in Bass Strait and off the west coast of Tasmania minimize threats in those areas. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60088		distribution	eng	Southeastern Australian warm temperate endemic: from Beachport (South Australia) to Stradbroke Island (Queensland), including Victoria and NSW, and south to the Hippolyte Rocks (Tasmania). Replacement species for <em>U. flavomosaicus</em> in temperate Australia.
60088		habitat	eng	Continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 100 to 230 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Most common on the outer continental shelf presumably mainly on soft substrates. No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Large size relative to other urolophids suggests slower growth rates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>: All mature above 60cm TL (Trinnie 2003) (female); 40cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  80 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60088		population	eng	Captured in small quantities only, suggesting that it does not occur in large aggregations and that its distribution is patchy.
60088		threats	eng	Fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996?97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. When broken down by individual survey grounds, reductions in urolophid catch rates were 45.0% off Sydney, 81.2% off Ulladulla and 90.5% off Eden. <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> was taken on all survey grounds (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fishing pressure on these trawl grounds as part of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) remains high. <br/> <br/>This species has a high ?availability? to shark gillnet gear in the SESSF. However, the species has a low ?catch susceptibility? to all gear types (including shark gillnet and otter trawl) used in the fishery (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004).  <br/> <br/>State-managed fisheries also operate in the area of occurrence and depth range of <em>U. bucculentus</em>, for example the NSW Oceanic Prawn Trawl Fishery and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Eastern King Prawn Deepwater Sector). <br/> <br/>Bycatch is not appreciated by fishers because of its size and capacity to inflict painful wounds/difficult to handle. This may result in the persecution of bycatch. Of further concern is the high rate of abortion amongst urolophids when caught and handled, particularly given their low fecundity.
60089		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research on life history parameters is required. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60089		distribution	eng	Restricted geographic range, endemic to southwestern Australia: southwestern Australia from Rottnest Island (32°00’S) to Esperance (121°53’E), Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).
60089		habitat	eng	Found over rocky and reefy areas and amongst kelp inshore to 120 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Aplacental viviparous species, presumably with reproductive characters similar to other <em>Urolophus</em> species, for example <>U. lobatus</em> which has a low fecundity of 1 to 2 young per year with a gestation period of 10 months (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Attains 60 cm TL. Maturity has not been documented, but the smallest mature male so far examined was 53 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Dietary composition has not yet been examined for this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>:  Unknown (female); Unknown but <53 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  60 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60089		population	eng	Reported to be uncommon (Last and Stevens 1994) and is rarely recorded in fishing operations (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999).
60089		threats	eng	There are no perceivable threats to this species. Only a negligible component of prawn and scallop trawl bycatch (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999), for which there is only a small number of boats operating within this fishery. Not known to be caught by other fisheries within its range. The preference of this species for rocky, reefy and kelp areas provides refuge from trawling activities.
60090		conservation	eng	Continued monitoring of bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery. No information seems to be available on bycatch in Tasmanian State fisheries (for example the Tasmanian Commercial Scalefish Fishery) and an effort needs to be made to investigate bycatch levels of this and all chondrichthyan species in these fisheries. Similarly, the level of interaction with recreational fishers around Tasmania needs to be determined, although this is probably limited. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60090		distribution	eng	Endemic to southeastern Australia: from Tathra (New South Wales) to Beachport (South Australia), including Victoria, Bass Strait and Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994). Large estuaries, such as the Derwent River are important for pupping in Tasmania (Last 2002).
60090		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf on soft bottoms but exhibiting different habitat preferences in the north and the south of its range. In Tasmania found on shallow muddy bottoms in very shallow waters and in Victoria rarely seen in waters less than 25 m, probably more common >100 m depth. Recorded to 160 m by Last and Stevens (1994), but also occurs onto the upper continental slope as documented by Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001). Little is known of the species? biology, but is aplacental viviparous and likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Both sexes mature at 6 years of age and maximum age is at least 11 years (Treloar and Laurenson in press). <br/> <br/>Diet is dominated by isopods and polychaetes (Treloar and Laurenson in press). Life history parameters from Treloar and Laurenson (in press), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity </strong>:  6 years (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>:  30 cm TL (Trinnie 2003), 32 cm TL (female); 25 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994), 24 cm TL (Trinnie 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>: At least 9 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  50 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  10 to 11cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60090		population	eng	No information is available, although this is an abundant urolophid.
60090		threats	eng	This species is taken as a bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) by otter trawl and gillnet. However, its ?catch susceptibility? to trawling, gillnet and indeed all gear types used in the fishery is considered to be low (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). The species actually has a high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? and a medium ?post-capture mortality? to otter trawl gear in the fishery, however its ?availability? is low as it is mostly distributed outside trawling effort. In contrast its ?availability? to gillnet is high, but ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? are low (Walker 2004).  <br/> <br/><em>Urolophus cruciatus</em> was documented in fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996?97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. <em>Urolophus cruciatus</em> was taken off Ulladulla and Eden trawl grounds where the urolophid catch rate declined by 81.2% and 90.5%, respectively (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). These areas represent only the northern most part of the species? range and the species remains common across the majority of its range.  <br/> <br/>The lack of trawling in Bass Strait and off the west coast of Tasmania benefits this species. <br/> <br/>Survivorship is likely to be low if taken at depth in the northern part of the species? range. Furthermore, gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon handling and capture.
60091		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species.
60091		distribution	eng	Narrow ranging endemic: known only from New Caledonia, adjacent to the Chesterfield Islands.
60091		habitat	eng	Continental slope at 203 to 330 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Biology largely unknown, probably on soft substrate. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>:  Unknown (female); 28.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  34.2 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60091		population	eng	Population size unknown but taken in reasonable quantities in some trawl stations suggesting it is locally abundant and probably aggregates.
60091		threats	eng	Limited as no commercial trawling in this region. However, any major increase in fishing effort could result in rapid decline of this species, which appears to be reasonably range restricted.
60092		conservation	eng	Continued monitoring of bycatch to species-specific level in both the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector and the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60092		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Indian off southern Australia: southwestern Australia and the Great Australian Bight, from Perth (Western Australia) to Port Lincoln (South Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994).
60092		habitat	eng	Found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope on sandy bottoms in depths of 140 to 420 m, but mainly 200 to 300 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Little is known of the species? biology, but is aplacental viviparous and likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White et al. 2001). Males mature at seven years of age and live to at least 11 years (Treloar and Laurenson in press). Age data are not available for females. <br/> <br/>Its preferred prey is isopods and polychaetes (Treloar and Laurenson in press). Life history parameters from Treloar and Laurenson (in press), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Unknown (female); 7 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  All mature above 40 cm TL (Trinnie 2003) (female); 50% maturity: 37.5 cm TL (Trinnie 2003), 36 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  At least 11 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 47.6cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60092		population	eng	May be some segregation by sex and ontogeny (Treloar and Laurenson in press).
60092		threats	eng	This species is taken as a frequent bycatch in the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) by otter trawl. Its ?catch susceptibility? to trawling in the fishery is considered to be medium (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). This is a result of high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? and medium ?availability? and post-capture mortality?. Catch susceptibility to SESSF gillnet fishing is low as the species is mostly distributed to the west of gillnet effort. Large parts of the Great Australian Bight receive little or no fishing effort and so otter trawling activities affect only portions of the species? range across the Bight. <br/> <br/>The western most range of the species is subject to demersal trawling from the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDWTF) (part of the Commonwealth-managed Western Trawl Fisheries). This is small-scale limited entry seasonal fishery with 11 fishing permits currently issued (AFMA 2003). The geographical area of the fishery is extensive and the area of occurrence of U. expansus off southwestern Australia represents only a small portion of this. It is unlikely that fishing effort in the Western Trawl Fisheries will significantly increase in the future as the fisheries are presently considered to be ?economically marginal? as a result of low product value, high operating costs and weather conditions (Edwards 2004). <br/> <br/>Any urolopids taken from such depths as that of <em>U. expansus</em> are likely to have low survivorship. Furthermore, gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon handling and capture.
60093		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of population needed over longer time scale including monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60093		distribution	eng	Known from two disjunct localities off tropical Australia, one off Western Australia (Abrolhos Islands to Port Hedland) and the other off Queensland (Caloundra to Townsville). Replacement species for <em>U. bucculatus</em> in tropical Australia.
60093		habitat	eng	Tropical, at 60 to 300 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Most common on the outer continental shelf, presumably mainly on soft substrates. No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 38 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  59 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60093		population	eng	Captured in small quantities only, suggesting it does not occur in large aggregations and that its distribution is patchy.
60093		threats	eng	This species? area of occurrence receives only small amounts of trawling, generally being too deep for inshore prawn and scallop trawling, while deeper water trawl fisheries off Queensland (Coral Sea Fishery; CSF) and off Western Australia (Western Trawl Fisheries; WTF) are small-scale. The WTF is managed by limited entry with only 18 fishing permits issued on a five yearly basis, operating over a large geographical area. Bycatch ?is composed of small volumes of a diverse range of species? (AFMA 2003a) and it is likely that <em>U. flavomosaicus</em> forms only a negligible bycatch in this fishery. This fishery fishes from 200 m depth and so over half of the patchwork stingaree?s depth range would not be affected. There are only two operators in the trawl sector of the Coral Sea Fishery, exerting a very low effort (AFMA 2003b). These would have little impact on <em>U. flavomosaicus</em>. <br/> <br/>Of concern is the common practice of gravid female urolophids often aborting embryos upon handling and capture. Any expansion of trawling activities in the area could impact detrimentally on the population; however expansion in the WTF and CSF seems unlikely at this time.
60094		conservation	eng	Given the apparent patchiness of the species, close monitoring of catches is required. Research should aim to document specific habitat requirements and life history characteristics. <br/> <br/>The extensive network of (small) Marine Protected Areas in southern Australia will provide conservation benefits to this and other elasmobranch species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60094		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread across southern Australia: from Albany (Western Australia) to Lakes Entrance (eastern Victoria), including South Australia and the northern coast of Tasmania.
60094		habitat	eng	Continental shelf in depths to 50 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Most regularly encountered in the vicinity of seagrass and on shallow rocky reefs. Biology unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 55 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  70 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60094		population	eng	Patchy and not aggregating. Clustering across a relatively broad geographical area, possibly due to the existence of suitable habitat. Appears to be naturally uncommon.
60094		threats	eng	Sometimes caught in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery which operates off southeastern Australia by otter trawl and gillnet, however its ?catch susceptibility? to trawling, gillnet and indeed all gear types used in the fishery is considered to be low (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). Overall, catches by trawl and gillnet are likely to be small. There is a lack of trawling in Bass Strait and occurrence around rocky reefs will also provide refuge from trawling. <br/> <br/>There is very little demersal fishing activity in habitat through the Great Australian Bight and in the west of the species? range. There is little effort in the South Australian Prawn Trawl Fisheries outside of Spencer Gulf and Gulf Saint Vincent and the species was not recorded in a preliminary study of the bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery (Carrick 1997). <br/> <br/>Coastal degradation can impact on shallow inshore habitats, particularity seagrass beds. <br/> <br/>Catches by recreational fishers are a possibility given the species? inshore nature.
60095		conservation	eng	There are ongoing market surveys around Java and there is an urgent need to re-survey the region to define population remnants and introduce appropriate management where possible. Given locality of species, management and enforcement of any regulations will be difficult.
60095		distribution	eng	Known only from off Java (probably near Jakarta), Indonesia. Actual range is unspecified but certainly very restricted and has possibly reduced due to intensive fishing pressure.
60095		habitat	eng	Biology unknown. The holotype is a 33.3 cm TL female. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  At least 33 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60095		population	eng	Unknown but as known only from the type specimen in an area that is heavily fished and despite survey work, has not been recognized in 150 years, this species is likely very rare.
60095		threats	eng	Not recognized since its discovery over 150 years ago and possibly extinct, on the verge of extinction or at least has suffered extreme range restriction and/or population decline. Extensive fishing, particularity in the form of trawling, in the region is of major concern regarding the conservation of the species. Similarly the type locality is near major human population centres and has suffered high levels of degradation over the last century. May have been captured in the past but without being recognised. If the population of this species remained healthy it should have resurfaced particularly given the various surveys conducted in the region.
60096		conservation	eng	Patterns of exploitation in Indonesia will need to be closely monitored and the conservation status of this species will need to be reassessed regularly as fisheries develop in deeper water in eastern Indonesia. Fisheries-independent surveys are also urgently required to investigate the fauna of the area surrounding the type locality and to compare with observations made during the <em>Challenger</em> surveys of the 1870s from which the only known specimens of this species were collected.
60096		distribution	eng	Occurs off the Kai islands, eastern Indonesia. Range unspecified, but possibly restricted as only known from type locality in deepwater off eastern Indonesia.
60096		habitat	eng	A deepwater stingaree species recorded at a depth of 236 m on a blue mud bottom. Largest of the two known specimens is a 23 cm TL immature male. Maximum size of the species is thus unknown. Biology unknown but likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); >23 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60096		population	eng	Unknown but this appears to be an extremely rare species given that is it known only from the type specimens.
60096		threats	eng	At present there is little fishing pressure at the depth where the type specimens of the species were collected. There is currently no trawling at depths >200 m around Indonesia. However, it is only a matter of time until fishing activities move into these depths in a region where fishing pressure on the marine environment is generally intense and unregulated. As inshore resources are depleted and as gear advancements allow, fishers will relocate effort to the potential habitat of this species and this raises concern for a batoid species which may have both a restricted geographical distribution and a narrow bathymetrical occurrence. <br/> <br/>When fishing pressure moves into its depth range, and if the population is confirmed to be limited, the species may rapidly fall into a threatened category. Indeed, the species may already be threatened, but there is no information to support this ascertain.
60097		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of this species and other elasmobranchs caught as bycatch in southwestern Australia should be conducted to establish whether the population sizes are stable or declining. A follow-up trawl survey, identical to that conducted in the early 1990s, on the lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to determine any trends in population sizes of such species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60097		distribution	eng	Found only on the continental shelf off southern Western Australia between Esperance (121°53?E) and Rottnest Island (32°00?S) (Last and Stevens 1994).
60097		habitat	eng	<em>Urolophus lobatus</em> is a common species found over sand and seagrass habitats on the upper continental shelf in depths of 1 to 30 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Aplacental viviparous species with ovulation and conception occurring in January and parturition occurring 10 months later, i.e., October/November (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Litter size ranges from one to two and females reproduce each year. Females and males are mature at 20 cm DW and 16 cm DW, respectively, and attain maximum sizes of 27.7 cm DW and 23.7 cm DW, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Females and males are mature by the end of their third and second years of life, respectively, and reach maximum ages of 14 and 12 years, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for both sexes were: DWinf = 24.9 cm (F) and 21.1 cm (M), t<sub>0</sub> = -1.35 (F) and -1.18 (M) years, k = 0.37 (F) and 0.51 (M).  <br/> <br/>Diet consists primarily of crustaceans, in particular mysids, carid decapods and amphipods (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). Life history parameters from White <em>et al</em>. (2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  3 years (female); 2 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  20 cm DW (female); 16 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  14 years (females); 12 years (males). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  27.7 cm DW females; 23.7 cm DW males. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  10.5 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 young per annum. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60097		population	eng	Very common over scallop and prawn trawl grounds on the upper continental shelf off the lower west coast of Australia.
60097		threats	eng	This species forms a considerable component of the biomass of bycatch in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah (northernmost part of their range). A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>U. lobatus</em> constituted 4.8% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and no other fisheries catch urolophids.  <br/> <br/>This species is of no commercial value and all those caught by trawlers are returned alive. The only real concern for this species and other urolophids is that a large percentage of pregnant females landed abort their young before they are returned (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since the fecundity of this species is so low (one to two) and gestation is relatively long (10 months), any additional fishing pressure could have a significant effect on populations of this species. <br/> <br/>This species is not generally caught by recreational fisherman. There are no real threats from pollution within the range of this species.
60098		conservation	eng	Observer programs within the NWSTF need to be made aware of this species and bycatch data from the fishery needs to be analysed to examine if <em>U. mitosis</em> is being taken in the shallower areas of the fishery.  <br/> <br/>Any changes to current fishing practices need to ensure that they do not detrimentally affect the population of <em>U. mitosis</em>. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60098		distribution	eng	Known only from off Port Hedland, Western Australia. Further data has not extended the range from the original description suggesting that it is extremely restricted.
60098		habitat	eng	Occurs in depths of about 200 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Probably restricted to bathymetric range near the shelf break on soft substrates. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 25 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  29 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60098		population	eng	Reasonably abundant through known range, but population size unknown.
60098		threats	eng	The range of this species overlaps with the management area of the North West Slope Trawl Fishery (part of the Commonwealth-managed Western Trawl Fisheries). This is a limited entry fishery with seven fishing permits granted on a five-yearly basis with fishing occurring from 200 m and deeper over a wide geographical area (AFMA 2003). Fishing is undertaken mainly on a part-time or opportunistic basis by trawlers from the Northern Prawn Fishery during closures in that fishery (Lynch and Garvey 2005). Although the area of the fishery is large, fishing for the main target species is confined to relatively small areas, principally centred around the Rowley Shoals and Scott and Ashmore Reefs (Lynch and Garvey 2005). The Rowley Shoals are close to the known area of occurrence of <em>U. mitsis</em>, but the shoals lie further to the east. The NWSTF targets three main species of deepwater scampi (Metanephropidae), which are distributed at depths of 260?500 m (Fowler and McLoughlin 1996). Of these three species, Metanephrops boschmai is taken at the shallowest depths (300?380 m) but represents the lowest volume of the three main scampi species (Lynch and Garvey 2005). <em>Metanephrops velutinus</em> is taken at 370?440 m and <em>M. australiensis</em> at 430?500 m (Lynch and Garvey 2005). Deepwater penaeid and carid prawns are an important byproduct of the NWSTF. Six species constitute 70% of the deepwater prawn catch in the fishery and these are caught at depths of 300?600 m (AFMA 2003). <br/> <br/>It is therefore evident, that despite the range of <em>U. mitosis</em> overlapping with the area of the NWSTF there is little fishing activity on the shelf edge where the species has been recorded. Some fishing is likely to occur at potential depths of <em>U. mitosis</em>, but the vast majority of effort takes place in deeper waters and outside the geographical range of the species.  <br/> <br/>It is unlikely that fishing effort in the Western Trawl Fisheries will significantly increase in the future as the fisheries are presently considered to be ?economically marginal? as a result of low product value, high operating costs and weather conditions (Edwards 2004). <br/> <br/>Any urolopids taken from such depths as that of <em>U. mitosis</em> are likely to have low survivorship. Furthermore, gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon handling and capture.
60099		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species.
60099		distribution	eng	A narrow ranging endemic: Chesterfield Islands, New Caledonia and the northern part of the Norfolk Ridge.
60099		habitat	eng	Continental slope at 229 to 428 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Biology unknown but likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 30.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  36.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.5 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60099		population	eng	Unknown.
60099		threats	eng	Limited as no commercial trawling in this region. However, any major increase in fishing effort could result in rapid decline of this species which appears to be reasonably range restricted.
60100		conservation	eng	Better iteration of population size, habitat requirements and distribution. Monitoring of habitat change and bycatch in all trawl fisheries within the species range. <br/> <br/>South Australian prawn trawl fisheries are managed by traditional measures such as limited entry, vessel and gear restrictions as well as seasonal closures and rotation of trawling grounds. Other measures have also been implemented in order to reduce effects on non-target species such as gear modifications and improvements aimed at bycatch reduction and reduced sorting times. These measures need to be monitored to assess their effectiveness (Baker in prep). <br/> <br/>An assessment of the conservation status of <em>Urolophus orarius</em> is underway for the South Australian Government (Baker in prep). <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60100		distribution	eng	Known only from the eastern Great Australian Bight, between Ceduna and Beachport (South Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994). Narrow ranging endemic and key indicator of the Gulfs Province of southern Australia. Not known in waters less than 20 m deep, however, further surveys of South Australian waters <20m deep is required. Extent of occurrence estimated to be <5,000 km².
60100		habitat	eng	Inner continental shelf in depths of 20 to 50 m (narrow habitat band) (Last and Stevens 1994). Presumably on soft substrates. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female; 23 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  31 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60100		population	eng	Abundance is ?sparse? (Walker 2004). Population size is likely to be small based on low abundance within the narrow range.
60100		threats	eng	Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Urolophus oroarius</em> is considered to have a low catch susceptibility to all gear types (Walker 2004). Catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality? (Walker 2004). When these parameters are considered separately it is shown that ?availability? results in the assignment of a low catch susceptibility for otter trawl gear. The species is restricted to SA waters and given this range is thus not available to the majority of the fishery as activities are centred further to the east. <em>Urolophus orarius</em> has a high encounterability, a high selectivity and a medium post-capture mortality to otter trawl gear.  <br/> <br/>The South Australian Prawn Fisheries operate over the remainder of the range of <em>U. orarius</em>. There are presently 10 licences for the Gulf St. Vincent Prawn Fishery, 39 in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery and three in the West Coast Prawn Fishery (PIRSA 2004). Data on bycatch of this species in SA Prawn Fisheries is not available, but given the species area of occurrence it is certainly interacting with this fishery. Carrick (1997) did not report <em>U. orarius</em> as bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery in 219 trawls (mostly of 30 minutes duration) possibly indicating the apparent rarity of the species. Historically, fishing pressure has been intense in parts of this fishery, particularly in the Spencer Gulf. <br/> <br/>The species? reliance on invertebrate-rich benthic habitats is unknown, and so there is a potential risk of habitat alteration through trawling activities. Prawn trawling in Gulf St. Vincent has been shown to have a considerable impact on epifaunal assemblages (Tanner 2003), although changes in infauna consistent with the effects of trawling were not detected (Drabsch <em>et al</em>. 2001). These authors concluded that prawn trawling in South Australia does not have consistent effects on infaunal assemblages given the high amount of spatial and temporal variability they observed (Drabsch <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon capture and handling, so even it bycatch is returned alive to the water, reproductive output can be lost.
60101		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species.
60101		distribution	eng	Narrow ranging endemic. Known only from New Caledonia, adjacent to the Chesterfield Islands.
60101		habitat	eng	Known from the continental slope at 330 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Biology unknown but likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 31.3 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  >40.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~14.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60101		population	eng	Unknown.
60101		threats	eng	Limited as no commercial trawling in this region. However, any major increase in fishing effort could result in rapid decline of this species, which appears to be range restricted.
60102		conservation	eng	Current monitoring of several areas in SE Australia is being conducted to better understand its population dynamics and to determine its life history characteristics. Research is required to determine if eastern and western populations are distinct.  <br/> <br/>The extensive network of (small) Marine Protected Areas in southern Australia will provide conservation benefits to this and other elasmobranch species.  <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60102		distribution	eng	<em>Urolophus paucimaculatus</em> is known to inhabit most southern Australian continental waters where it is distributed widely across a variety of soft substrates, from shallow bays and inlets to the open continental shelf: from northern New South Wales (31°50?S) to Lancelin in Western Australia (31°00?S) including Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). The species has undergone a southward range expansion in recent decades.
60102		habitat	eng	This species is demersal on the inner continental shelf over sandy and seagrass substrates from the shore to 150 m depth or more, including shallow bays and inlets (Last and Stevens 1994). In SE Australia it is generally found <80 m depth and occurs deeper in the Great Australian Bight. The species exhibits aplacental viviparity with uterine trophonemata and histotroph but demonstrates extreme atrophy of the left ovary and uterus. Ovulation occurs between spring and early summer in SE Australia. Litter size 1 to 2 in SW Australia and varies 1 to 6 in SE Australia, with larger mothers carrying more young than smaller mothers. Spontaneous abortion occurs at all sizes of pregnant animals when handled or caught in fishing gear. The sex ratio of embryos in SE Australia is 1:1. <br/> <br/>Diet consists primarily of crustaceans, in particular mysids, carid decapods and amphipods (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/>Life history parameters for both SE Australia (Trinnie 2003) and SW Australia (White and Potter in prep) are given in the table below. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  SE Aust: ~3 years at 50% maturity, SW Aust: 5 years (female); SE Aust: ~2.5 years at 50% maturity, SW Aust: 3 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length/dic width):  SE Aust: 50% mature at 27 cm TL, SW Aust: 50% mature at 22.3 cm DW (female); SE Aust: 50% mature at 27.8 cm TL, SW Aust: 50% mature at 20.7 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  SE Aust: 9+ years (females); 8+ years (males); SW Aust: 14 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length/disc width):  SE Aust: 50 cm TL (females); 42 cm TL (males); SW Aust: 27.2 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  SE Aust: ~15.0 to 15.5 cm TL; SW Aust: 12.6 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  SE Aust: ~1 year; SW Aust: 10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  SE Aust: 1?6 dependant on maternal size; SW Aust: 1 to 2. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60102		population	eng	This species is one of the most abundant and widely distributed benthic chondrichthyans found in southern Australian waters, but little is not known about whether subpopulations or fragmentation occur. However, the southwestern population and the southeastern populations appear to be separated. <br/> <br/>In Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, local abundances can be correlated with the catch of recreational and commercial benthic fish species and increases in the abundance of <em>U. paucimaculatus</em> were recorded from 1970 to 1991, probably due to a reduction in the abundance of competitors (Hobday <em>et al</em>. 1999).
60102		threats	eng	SE Australia: <em>Urolophus paucimaculatus</em> is commonly taken as bycatch in Danish and inshore beach seines in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF). The demersal monofilament gillnets and longlines of the shark fishery in southern Australia catch only small numbers and have no effect on the abundance of this species (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2002). Rapid risk assessment of the catch susceptibility defined from ?availability?, ?selectivity?, ?encounterability? and ?post-capture mortality?, rates this species as low to all fishing methods in the SESSF (T.I. Walker, unpublished data). Of animals caught and released, there would be some loss of aborting embryos in pregnant animals from the effects of capture and handling. Although encounterability and selectivity are high for demersal trawl, availability is low because most of the population is distributed outside the range of this fishery. <br/> <br/>SW Australia: A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of SW Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>U. paucimaculatus</em> constituted 5.2% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and no other fisheries catch urolophids in the SW portion of its range. Although females often abort embryos after capture, the low level of fishing pressure in SW Australia appears to be sustainable with respect to this species. <br/> <br/>South Australia/Great Australian Bight: The species was reported as a negligible component of bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn fishery by Carrick (1997). This fishery is part of the South Australian Prawn Fisheries and effort outside of Spencer Gulf and Gulf Saint Vincent is low. Indeed, a large portion of the range of <em>U. paucimaculatus</em> receives little fishing, i.e. large parts of inshore areas of the Great Australian Bight. The Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector of the SESSF operates at depths exceeding that of <em>U. paucimaculatus</em>.
60103		conservation	eng	Monitoring of fishing effort in the region and research into the life history of the species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) should help facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in Australia.
60103		distribution	eng	Narrow ranging, northeastern Australian endemic: Northern Queensland from Mackay to Cairns, including the Saumarez and Marion Reefs (Last and Stevens 1994, Séret and Last 2003).
60103		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental shelf edge and upper slope at 171 to 370 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Nothing known of its biology. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  <27.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (female); 22.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  48.4 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.1 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60103		population	eng	Unknown.
60103		threats	eng	Area of occurrence receives very little fishing pressure from the Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (CSF). There are only two operators in the trawl sector of the CSF, which fish a maximum of 20 days per year, thereby exerting a very low effort (AFMA 2003). If fisheries expanded in the Coral Sea, <em>U. piperatus</em> could be potentially threatened given its narrow range.
60104		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species? biology and habitat preferences. Bycatch monitoring is required in all fisheries within the species? range. Effort reduction and/or bycatch minimization in southeastern Australia fisheries is required to allow recovery and this and other depleted chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Areas of habitat closed to trawling activities will be necessary to conserve the species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60104		distribution	eng	New South Wales near-endemic, only marginally entering southern Queensland waters. Broadly distributed throughout its geographic range.
60104		habitat	eng	Occurs on soft substrates on the continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 45 to 300 m (mainly on the outer continental shelf in 100 to 160 m) (Last and Stevens 1994). No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 23 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  42 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60104		population	eng	Once very common and abundant, the species appears to have suffered depletion from fishing activities.
60104		threats	eng	Fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996-97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. <em>Urolophus sufflavus</em> was taken off Sydney survey grounds where the urolophid catch rate declined by 45.0% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fishing pressure on these trawl grounds as part of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) remains high. <br/> <br/>This species has a high ?availability? to shark gillnet gear and a high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? to otter trawl gear in the SESSF. However, the species has a low ?catch susceptibility? to all gear types (including shark gillnet and otter trawl) used in the fishery (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). <br/> <br/>State-managed fisheries also operate in the area of occurrence and depth range of <em>U. sufflavus</em>, for example the NSW Oceanic Prawn Trawl Fishery and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Eastern King Prawn Sector). <br/> <br/>Of concern is the high rate of abortion amongst urolophids when caught and handled, particularly given their low fecundity.
60105		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species? biology. Bycatch monitoring is required in all fisheries within the species? range. Effort reduction and/or bycatch minimization in southeastern Australia fisheries is required to allow recovery and this and other depleted chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Reduced trawling pressure in Bass Strait and off the west coast of Tasmania minimize threats in those areas. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60105		distribution	eng	Southeastern Australian warm temperate endemic: from Portland (Victoria) to Stradbroke Island (Queensland), including NSW and Tasmania.
60105		habitat	eng	Demersal on soft substrates on the continental shelf. Recorded in depths of 20 to 200 m (mainly 80 to 180 m) by Last and Stevens (1994), but also occurs onto the upper continental slope as documented by Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001). No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female; 27 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  44 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60105		population	eng	Formerly common throughout its range but impacted at least off NSW.
60105		threats	eng	Fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996?97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. When broken down by individual survey grounds, reductions in urolophid catch rates were 45.0% off Sydney, 81.2% off Ulladulla and 90.5% off Eden. <em>Urolophus viridis</em> was taken on all survey grounds (Graham et al. 2001). Fishing pressure on these trawl grounds as part of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) remains high. <br/> <br/>This species has a high ?availability? to shark gillnet gear and a high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? to otter trawl gear in the SESSF. However, the species has a low ?catch susceptibility? to all gear types (including shark gillnet and otter trawl) used in the fishery (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004).  <br/> <br/>State-managed fisheries also operate in the area of occurrence and depth range of <em>U. viridis</em>, for example the NSW Oceanic Prawn Trawl Fishery and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Eastern King Prawn Sector). <br/> <br/>Of concern is the high rate of abortion amongst urolophids when caught and handled, particularly given their low fecundity.
60106		conservation	eng	Life history data is required. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA–Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60106		distribution	eng	Restricted area of distribution off northwestern Australia: between Dampier and Buccaneer Archipelago, Western Australia.
60106		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 60 to 210 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Biology is essentially unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); <24 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  36 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  10 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60106		population	eng	Unknown.
60106		threats	eng	Bathymetric range of species is too deep for Western Australian inshore trawl fisheries and is at the very edge of the North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF). The NWSTF (part of the Western Trawl Fisheries) is a limited entry fishery with seven fishing permits granted on a five-yearly basis with fishing occurring from 200 m and deeper (AFMA 2003). <br/> <br/>The effect of historical trawl pressure from foreign fleets operating from 1959 to 1990 on the Northwest Shelf upon this species is unknown. Trawl effort was high at times during that period and is known to have caused a shift in community structure (Sainsbury <em>et al</em>. 1992).
60107		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Mexico. At the time of writing, Mexico had developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA) but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anonymous 2004).
60107		distribution	eng	Restricted to Mexico from Islas Cedros and off Rocas Chester (27°53'N, 115°04'W), central Baja California, through the Gulf of California and to Bahia Huatulco, Oaxaca, southern Mexico (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995, Amezcua-Linares 1996, M. Love, pers. comm.).
60107		habitat	eng	Extremely limited biological or life history information is available for this species, if it is indeed valid. It occurs benthically in coastal waters, bays, lagoons, and estuaries and also on sand bottoms near reefs. Maximum size is 28.3 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width/total length cm):  28.3 cm DW, 47.5 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60107		population	eng	No information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from anywhere within its range.
60107		threats	eng	No directed commercial or artisanal fisheries. Artisanal or commercial fisheries in Mexico do not typically utilize urotrygonid rays as their small size generally precludes their use as a viable food item for market purposes.  <em>Urobatis concentricus</em> is reportedly taken in nets and with spears, but this practice is not common, except as bycatch in bottomset gillnet fisheries (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Bizzarro, pers. obs.).  When it is captured in gillnets, the tail is severed before it is returned to the sea, which may result in high mortality of discards (Bizzarro, pers. obs.). This species is also likely taken incidentally by shrimp trawlers, but the extent of this practice is not well known and no species-specific information is documented.
60108		conservation	eng	None in place. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>U. halleri</em>.
60108		distribution	eng	The species ranges from Humboldt Bay in northern California to Panama in Central America, but appears to be most common between southern California and Baja California. Individuals identified as this species from Central America should be examined carefully as the genus is poorly known in this region.
60108		habitat	eng	<em>Urobatis halleri</em> is a benthic warm-temperate to tropical round stingray usually found in nearshore waters less than 15 m deep, but may occur down to 91 m depth (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995, Ebert 2003). These stingrays prefer soft bottoms composed of mud or sand, often in areas where eelgrass, used for camouflage, is quite abundant. Water temperature plays an important role in the distribution of these stingrays since they prefer temperatures above a minimum of 10°C (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Has a biannual reproductive cycle with two litters of 1 to 6 pups (on average 2 to 3) following a short gestation period of three months (Babel 1967, Ebert 2003). Life history parameters taken from Babel (1967), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  2.6 years (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  14.5 cm DW (female); 14.6 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  31 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  6 to 8 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  3 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biannual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size: range 1 to 6, but average 2 to 3 (Ebert 2003). Two cycles per year. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60108		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population status of this species, although it is quite abundant in those areas where it occurs.
60108		threats	eng	This species is not fished commercially, but is occasionally taken by recreational fishers and by artisanal gillnet fisheries. When caught in artisanal fisheries it is generally discarded. Before being returned to the sea, its tail is commonly severed, which may lead to increased levels of mortality (J. Bizzarro, pers. comm.). Its small size and large tail spine make it an undesirable target species. <br/> <br/>In Mexico, artisanal or commercial fisheries do not typically utilize urobatid rays as their small size generally precludes their sale as a viable food item for market purposes (J. Bizzarro, pers comm.). This species is also likely taken incidentally by shrimp trawlers, but the extent of this practice is not well known and no species-specific information is documented.   <br/> <br/>Little information is available concerning bycatch levels in the southern portion of the species? range, although the situation is likely similar to that in Mexico, where the species is not targeted and discarded when caught.
60109		conservation	eng	None in place at present. The extent of the trade in this species for the aquarium requires examination. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>U. jamaicensis</em>.
60109		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic: from Cape Lookout, North Carolina around Florida into and throughout the Gulf of Mexico and throughout the Caribbean (including the Greater and Lesser Antilles), Central America and the northern coast of South America.
60109		habitat	eng	Habitats include bays and estuaries and low-energy surf zones, especially in hard, live-bottom insular habitats, also sandy, muddy and grassy bottoms (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, McEachran and Carvalho 2002, Snelson pers. obs.). Reported in a salinity range of 26 to 40 ppt in Mexico (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996). Parturition takes place in seagrass beds (<em>Thallassis testudinum</em>) June through August in the Bahamas (Grubbs unpublished data). Aplacental viviparous with litters of 2 to 5 (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  20 cm TL (Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979) (female); 15 to 16 cm DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), 20 cm TL (Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  36 cm DW; 70 cm TL (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  6 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Range 2 to 5 (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60109		population	eng	This ray is common in the Florida Keys (Snelson, pers. obs.) and parts of the Antilles but in not thought to be abundant in most of its range (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). It is reported that Terminos Lagoon, Bahía de Campeche, Mexico is a breeding and nursery area (Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979).
60109		threats	eng	The yellow stingray is not targeted by commercial fisheries, but is likely taken as bycatch in nearshore fisheries throughout its range. Inshore fishing in some parts of its southern range may be intensive, but the extent of bycatch of this species is not known. It is, however, targeted for the aquarium trade. The extent of this fishery requires examination. Given their inshore occurrence, habitat loss may become an issue in the future for this species. This issue will become particularly relevant if seagrass habitats became degraded or lost, due to their importance for parturition.
60110		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Mexico. At the time of writing, Mexico had developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA) but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anonymous 2004).
60110		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Mexican Pacific, ranging from Lagunas Ojo de Liebre-Guerrero Negro, central Baja California (de la Cruz Agüero <em>et al</em>. 1996), through the Gulf of California (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995).
60110		habitat	eng	Extremely limited biological or life history information is available for this species, if it is indeed valid. It occurs benthically in coastal waters, especially in sheltered areas near islands and in bays, lagoons, and estuaries. Maximum size is 25.7 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width/total length):  25.7 cm DW, 42 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60110		population	eng	No information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.
60110		threats	eng	No directed commercial or artisanal fisheries. Artisanal or commercial fisheries in Mexico do not typically utilize urotrygonid rays as their small size generally precludes their sale as a viable food item for market purposes.  <em>Urobatis maculates</em> is reportedly taken in bottomset nets and with spears (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995), but spearing is extremely uncommon (Bizzarro pers. obs.). It is captured in bottomset gillnets but not typically retained. When it is caught, the tail is usually severed before it is returned to the sea, which may result in high mortality of discards (Bizzarro pers. obs.). This species is also likely taken incidentally by shrimp trawlers, but the extent of this practice is not well known and no species-specific information is documented.
60111		conservation	eng	Further information is required from catches of this species in order to better define its distribution and obtain life history data. Bycatch in globally expanding deepwater fisheries needs to be documented and monitored. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>P. daviesi</em>.
60111		distribution	eng	Sporadic distribution in the Indo-Pacific. The species has mainly been collected from tropical Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).
60111		habitat	eng	The largest and most widespread stingaree which lives in deeper water than any of its relatives in the family Urolophidae (Last and Stevens 1994). An upper continental slope species on soft substrates, generally at depths of 275 to 680 m (350 to 680 m in Australia), however there is a single record from 44 m on the continental shelf off Mozambique (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>Like most other deepwater batoids, the biology of <em>Plesiobatis daviesi</em> is poorly known. Probably viviparous but details of reproduction unknown. Its large size and deepwater occurrence suggests a probable small litter size and long gestation period, resulting in a slow biology (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). Ebert <em>et al</em>. (2002) report a juvenile female at 189 cm TL and an adolescent female at 201 cm TL. Smallest examined mature male was 130 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Maximum size at least 200 cm TL in Australia and elsewhere reported to 270 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Consistent with geographic variability in maximum size, size at maturity probably also varies regionally. Size at birth is unknown, however Compagno and Last (1999) report that a 50 cm TL freeliving individual had an umbilical scar. <br/> <br/>Diet consists of fishes (including mesopelagic species suggesting that this species may migrate into the water column to feed), crustaceans (crabs, penaeid prawns, lobsters) and cephalopods (Compagno and Last 1999, Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length/disc width):  201 cm TL (116 cm DW) or more (Southern Africa; Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2002) (female); 130 cm TL or less (Australia; Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 200 cm TL (Australia); 270 cm TL elsewhere (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  Less than 50 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60111		population	eng	It is reported to be locally common (Compagno and Last 1999), which may be the case off tropical Australia, however the generally low numbers of records elsewhere may indicate rarity.
60111		threats	eng	Available specific data are lacking, the species is known to be taken in deepwater benthic trawls and on deepset longlines. Not targeted and not known to be taken in any considerable numbers in any one region within its range, although it can be taken regularly by longliners off KwaZulu-Natal (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). In Indonesia, only a small deepwater longline fishery operates between 300?600 m and the species is thus not taken in any great quantities compared to other elasmobranch species (W. White, pers. obs). Similarly the deepwater fishery in Taiwan only catches low numbers of this species (D Ebert pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In Australian waters, there is minimal fishing pressure on the species? range off Western Australia and Queensland. The Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fisheries (continental slope off Western Australia) is comprised of two small-scale demersal trawl fisheries managed by limited entry with a total of 18 permits (over a wide geographical area) (AFMA 2003a). The Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (off the Queensland continental shelf) is a small-scale fishery with a demersal line sector (nine permits) and a trawl sector (two permits). The fishery is managed by limited entry and catch and effort by these sectors is very low (most operators fish a maximum of 20 days per year) (AFMA 2003b).
60112		conservation	eng	None currently in place. This ray is common in some areas but very little is known about it, so basic research still needs to be conducted in order to learn more about its biology, ecology, and population dynamics.  The population in Mexico needs to be monitored for its importance in fisheries.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anon. 2004).
60112		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern USA and northern Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific: Tomales Bay, California, U.S.A. to Bahía Magdalena/Bahía Las Almejas, Baja California, with isolated populations in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Miller and Lea 1972, Plant 1989, Cruz-Aguero <em>et al</em>. 1994, McEachran 1995, Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996).
60112		habitat	eng	An inshore species usually found in water less than 6 m deep, but which have been recorded to 137 m depth. Primarily found on the mud and sand bottoms of bays and sloughs, lagoons, coastal beaches, and in and around kelp forests. They are known to concentrate in large numbers in certain coastal bays and sloughs (Limbaugh 1955, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Larson and DeMartini 1984, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Aplacental yolksac viviparous. Litter sizes range from one to 15 pups that are produced in an annual reproductive cycle. Mating occurs in summer with birthing the following summer (usually in August). Maximum size is 91 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Diet consists of polychaetes, crabs, shrimp, squid, and small teleosts such as anchovies, gobies, sardines, sculpins, and surfperch (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Van Blaricom 1982, Love 1996, Ebert 2003). Life history parameters taken from Ebert (2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  48 cm TL (female); 37 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  91 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  11 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 15. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60112		population	eng	Uncommon north of Monterey Bay, California, U.S.A. (Ebert 2003). The species is very common in some bays and sloughs in California including Elkhorn Slough (D. Ebert, pers comm. 15/9/04). Reported to occur in isolated populations in the Gulf of California (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996) and is not as common there as in other parts of its range (J. Bizzarro pers. comm.). Miller and Lea (1972) report the species as common off Baja California, but this would relate to cooler northern waters. Its southern extent of occurrence off Baja California is Bahía Magdalena/Bahía Las Almejas (Cruz-Aguero <em>et al</em>. 1994).
60112		threats	eng	Thornbacks are not targeted but are known to be occasionally caught in commercial and recreational fisheries in US waters. Little information available on catches in Mexico, but likely to be taken by inshore fisheries in lagoons on the Baja Pacific coast and probably by shrimp trawls in the Gulf of California. Further information is urgently required given the species restricted range in Mexico.
60113		conservation	eng	None in place. Careful monitoring of catches of this species throughout its range need to be carried out into the future due to this high level of exploitation that occurs in its known range.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. zonura</em>.
60113		distribution	eng	Disjunct distribution in the Eastern Indian and Western Central Pacific: off the coasts of India, Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999).
60113		habitat	eng	An inshore gymnurid occurring to depths of about 40 m over soft substrates. <em>A. zonura</em> is aplacental viviparous, attaining a maximum size of 95 cm DW and males mature at about 48 cm DW (W. White unpubl. data). One pregnant female possessed four embryos, size at birth not known. <br/> <br/>Age and growth and diets have not been determined for this species. Gut samples from several specimens caught off Bali in Indonesia had mostly benthic crustaceans and unidentified teleosts in their guts (W. White unpubl. data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); 48 cm DW (W. White unpubl. data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length/disc width):  65 cm TL, 85 cm DW (Last and Compagno 1999), 95 cm DW (W. White. unpubl. data). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4 in one pregnant female (W. White unpubl. data). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60113		population	eng	Caught in relatively high numbers in the demersal gillnet fisheries in Indonesia, particularly off central Java and southern Bali. Reported as locally common (Compagno and Last 1999).
60113		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to a variety of gear types and is commonly caught by demersal gillnet, trawl and trammel net fisheries throughout its range.  <br/> <br/>In Indonesia, large numbers of juveniles are caught in the demersal gillnet, trawl and trammel net fisheries, particularly around Java. Larger specimens are also caught in the tangle net fisheries that target rhynchobatids in the region. In southern Bali, small batoids are targeted by inshore gillnets and this species forms a substantial component to the catch of this fishery (W. White, unpubl. data). All caught are retained. Intensive demersal fisheries occur in India, in the species? known distribution (Hanfee 1999) and fishing is intense in the coastal waters of Thailand. There is a very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its entire range.
60115		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. Catches in artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its Central and South American and West African distributions need to be documented. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. micrura</em>.
60115		distribution	eng	Reasonably widespread in the Eastern (Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Western Atlantic (from Chesapeake Bay, US through the Gulf of Mexico to Brazil; not recorded from the Greater or Lesser Antilles).
60115		habitat	eng	Prefers neritic waters of the continental shelf to 40m depth and usually found on soft bottoms. Enters brackish estuaries or hyper-saline lagoons. Aplacental viviparous, but little information available on its biology. Reported litter sizes of 6 to 8 pups. Parturition is known to occur in Chesapeake Bay and seaside lagoons along Virginia?s eastern shore (Grubbs, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Food consists of bivalve molluscs, crustaceans including mysids, shrimps, crabs, and ray-finned fishes (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, Schmid <em>et al</em>. 1988). Also feeds on sedentary polychaetes in soft sediments (Grubbs, unpubl. data). Life history parameters taken from McEachran and de Carvalho (2002), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50 cm DW (female); 42 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  120 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  16 to 22 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  6 to 8 per litter based on 4 females (Grubbs, unpubl data). <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60115		population	eng	No estimates of population size exits. Can be locally common in estuaries and nearshore waters along the Atlantic coast of the US and in the Gulf of Mexico.
60115		threats	eng	There are no directed fisheries for this species in the USA. However, <em>G. micrura</em> is commonly taken as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. It is also likely taken as bycatch in various inshore fisheries throughout its Central and South American and West African ranges. Gymnurids are susceptible to a variety of fishing gear and are commonly taken in inshore fisheries, although no specific data is available on catches of <em>G. micrura</em> in the region. Heavy fishing pressure appears to be impacting populations of some Indo-West Pacific gymnurids (i.e., <em>G. poecilura</em> and <em>Aetoplatea zonura</em>) and so this raises concerns for <em>G. micrura</em> in parts of its Central and South American and West African ranges where inshore fishing can be intensive. <br/> <br/>Individuals taken by shrimp trawl in the USA are typically released and post-release survivorship is probably high.
60116		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place. These rays are released if alive when caught in the NSB nets, and are generally released alive when taken by anglers (but not all the time, so this should be encouraged further). Effort reduction in the NSB nets is a conservation action recommended for KZN marine species in general. <br/> <br/>Bycatch in all fisheries which interact with this species should be monitored, and the situation outside of South Africa examined (Namibia and Mozambique). The species? occurrence and distribution in Kenya and Tanzania requires examination. Effort has decreased in the Tugela Bank prawn trawl fishery and a 4 month closed season has been put in place. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>G. natalensis</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. natalensis</em>.
60116		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa from Southern Namibia through South Africa to southern Mozambique (Wallace 1967, van der Elst 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Fisher <em>et al</em>. 1990, Smith 1991, Lamberth <em>et al</em>. 1994, Heemstra 1995, Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Gymnura</em> occurs in Tanzania but there is uncertainty regarding which species (Bianchi 1985). Species presence in Kenya is also uncertain.
60116		habitat	eng	<u>Habitat </u> <br/>This species occurs close inshore, especially off sandy beaches as well as on offshore banks down to 75 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991). Fennessy (1994) found that the species occurs more frequently in the deeper trawls (33 to 45 m) on the Tugela Bank. He observed no diel pattern for this species. <em>Gymnura natalensis</em> is also found in river estuaries (Wallace 1967, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991) and lagoons (Wallace 1967). <br/> <br/><u>Behaviour</u> <br/>Although normally solitary, large shoals have been spotted, often comprising animals of one sex (van der Elst 1988). Single rays tend to be found on the seabed, whereas shoals are often found in the midwater region (van der Elst 1988). Young (2001) found, between 1981 and 2001, 37 occurrences of three or more diamond rays caught in the same Natal Sharks Board (NSB) net installation in one or two days. The majority was of mixed sex and 19 groups were caught off Durban. Most of these multiple catches took place in October and November. <br/> <br/><u>Seasonality</u> <br/><em>Gymnura natalensis</em> occurs year round (common in Natal throughout the whole year; Wallace 1967) with a peak abundance in December/January (van der Elst 1988). Fennessy (1994) also found that in trawl catches diamond rays occurred more frequently during summer. This differs from the findings of Young (2001), who examined NSB net captures between 1981 and 2000. She found that catches occurred throughout the year, but peaked in October and November (40.5% of total catch) and declined sharply in December. Despite a slight increase during June and July, catches remained low for the rest of the year. Females outnumbered males during warmer months (December to May), while males were more numerous during the cooler period. However, overall both sexes were more common in catches during the cooler months and this association was significant (Young 2001). The sex ratio of NSB catches between 1981 and 2000 was 1:0.92 (m:f) (Young 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Reproduction and Maturity</u> <br/>Wallace (1967) examined a shoal of 28 male specimens caught in Durban nets October 1964. Animals ranged between 109.7and 131.4 cm DW and appeared to be sexually mature. Gravid females (146.2 and 188.0 cm DW) with 5 to 9 embryos were recorded in Durban Bay during January, February, March, June and August. The largest embryo was 38.2 cm DW/453.6 g. A number of the glandular villi, which clothe the uterine walls of the mother, are always found inserted into the spiracular openings of the embryos, suggesting that some of the uterine ?milk? is absorbed this way (Wallace 1967). Van der Elst (1988) states gestation period is one year. The smallest mature male dissected at the NSB was 96.4 cm DW and the smallest mature female was 166.9 cm DW (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>According to the length-age curve of van der Elst (1988), diamond rays are ~24 years old at ~250 cm DW /120 kg. Using the above maturity lengths from Wallace (1967), males mature at approximately two years (~100 cm DW/10 kg) and females at approximately six years (~150 cm DW/25 kg). <br/> <br/>Smallest free-swimming specimen: 46.8 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 37 to 39 cm field length (NSB unpubl. data). <br/>Largest embryo: 38.2 cm DW (Wallace 1967). <br/>Maximum reported size: 250 cm DW (Smith 1991). <br/>Largest observed animal: 182 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 250 cm DW, 200 cm field length (dubious!) (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/>South Africa angling record: 89.8 kg (Wallace 1967, van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/>Tagged by NSB between 1996 and 2002: 25 animals, no recaptures to date (NSB, unpubl. data). Tagged by shore anglers between 1984 and 2002: 1,766 animals, 10 recaptures (0.57% recapture rate), which includes washed-up tags. Maximum distance moved: 151 km, maximum time at liberty: 330 days (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Diet:  flat-fish, sardine, gurnard, mole crabs, worms, crabs and squid (van der Elst 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991, Smale <em>et al</em>. 2001).
60116		population	eng	Population size and number and size of subpopulations (if any) are unknown. The species was regarded as common in the 1940?60?s (Wallace 1967, Smith 1991), but this needs to be re-examined.
60116		threats	eng	<strong>South Africa</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Prawn Trawl Bycatch</u> <br/>According to Fennessy (1994), <em>G. natalensis</em> is a significant bycatch of prawn trawlers. In 169 prawn trawls, 12.9% of the elasmobranch bycatch consisted of this species (= 118 specimens). He stated that the Tugela Bank may be a nursery area due to the small size of the specimens caught. The species showed 46.4% mortality. Assuming this mortality rate and using the derived estimates of catches of <em>G. natalensis</em> from Tugela Bank commercial prawn trawlers for the years 1989 to 1992 given by Fennessy (1994), the number of individuals killed by this fishery was 870 in 1989, 560 in 1990, 548 in 1991 and 461 in 1992. This could be considered low. The mean catch rate for 1989?1992 from Tugela Bank commercial prawn trawlers was 0.15±0.02 individuals/hour. In September 2002, during 46 surveyed trawls a total of 139 specimens were caught and in April/May 2003 a total of 44 animals were caught (46 trawls) (MCM unpubl. data). Effort in the Tugela Bank fishery has been decreasing and as of May 2004, only three operators remain in the fishery. <br/> <br/><u>Beach Seine Bycatch</u> <br/>A small number are caught in the beach seine fisheries in the Western Cape, e.g., between January 1991 and December 1992 (311 beach seine hauls) 18 immature diamond rays (0.002% of total catch) were caught and retained (Lamberth <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/><u>Recreational Angling</u> <br/>The species is also caught by anglers, mainly shore-based. Based on shore angling competition data (all areas in South Africa) only, catches (metric tons) and effort (mt/1,000 hours) fluctuated between 1.42?38.4 and 0.29?0.58, respectively (1990?1994) (Smale 1997). Pradervand and Govender (2003) report the capture of 132 animals (0.7% of total catch) in the border region based on competitive shore angling catches between 1982 and 1998. For the Transkei region Pradervand (2004) reports 121 animals (0.7% of total catch) based on Natal Coast Anglers Union competition data between 1977 and 2000. In KwaZulu-Natal, Pradervand (1999) gives a total of 1,197 diamond rays caught between 1995 and 1998, based on catch cards, competitions and inspections of shore, skiboat and estuarine anglers. In the KwaZulu-Natal shore-based competition fishery between 1977 and 2000, 2% of the total catch by number and 19% by mass was <em>G. natalensis</em> (Pradervand 2003). CPUE varied between 0.0012?0.011 diamond rays per angler per hour. There was a significant increase in CPUE over the time period (Pradervand 2003). This is likely to be the result of increased catch card returns and inspection frequency over the time period. CPUE by mass followed the same pattern as above with a significant increase (Pradervand 2003). With the above data one has to keep in mind that this does not represent total angling catch, but only reported catch. In addition, anglers only report when they have caught fish, thus CPUE is always slightly exaggerated. This affects mainly the catch card portion of the data. <br/> <br/>Although the majority of angling catches is released, release mortality is unknown and could be substantial due to the angling practices of gaffing, weighing etc. (Wintner pers. obs.). It is interesting to note that the recapture rate of <em>G. natalensis</em> tagged in the South African National Tagging program is only 0.57% (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><u>NSB Shark Nets</u> <br/>According to Young (2001) diamond rays (mainly juveniles) were caught on a regular basis between 1981 and 2000 in the NSB nets. During this period, <em>G. natalensis</em> catches represented the second highest batoid catch (12.6% of total batoid catch, 890 animals). The mean annual catch was 44.5 individuals; the mean catch rate (no. animals/km net/yr) was 1.08. No significant trend in catch was found for this species. There was, however, a significant increasing trend in size caught during the period. Mortality levels were low (21.6%, mean = 9.6 animals per year). <br/> <br/>Begg (1993) considered diamond ray catches in the NSB nets at a level too high relative to stock size to be sustainable, as this species is also caught by anglers and by prawn trawlers (Fennessey 1994). His annual mortality estimates, however, seem to be an overestimate when compared to the results of Young (2001) and Fennessy?s data (1994). <br/> <br/><strong>Outside South Africa</strong> <br/> <br/>Information on threats is required from the other countries in this species? range: Namibia, Mozambique, possibly also Tanzania and Kenya where the species may occur. It is likely that, where it occurs, the species would be taken by artisanal fisheries in the East African countries.
60117		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. Direct and indirect catches in artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its distribution need to be documented. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. poecilura</em>.
60117		distribution	eng	Found in shallow, inshore waters of the Red Sea, Somalia and Oman and from Pakistan through the eastern Indian Ocean and north from Indonesia to southern Japan in the western Pacific, as well as an isolated population in French Polynesia (Compagno and Last 1999). May occur between Oman and Pakistan as well, but not reported.
60117		habitat	eng	Extremely limited biological or life history information is available for this species. It is known to occur in shallow, inshore waters throughout its range (to ~30 m depth), typically on sand or mud substrate (James 1966, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>James (1966) published all the available reproductive information on <em>G. poecilura</em> from fishery-derived specimens taken in India. This species is aplacental viviparous, with two functional ovaries. Maximum fecundity was determined to be seven and there is no apparent relationship between fecundity and size of gravid females. Spontaneous abortion is, however, common in this species upon capture, which may confound these determinations. It is thought to breed nearly year-round, with a peak in parturition between April and October (James 1966).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size reported as either 91.5 cm DW or 98.5 cm DW. This confusion is a result of conflicting information listed in James (1966). Since a later publication (James 1973) referred to the former value, it is considered to be the valid maximum size. No age and growth studies have been conducted. Based on limited observations in India, the diet includes fishes (especially <em>Leiognathus</em> spp.), molluscs and crustaceans (James 1966). No other published literature is available for this species throughout its range. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  41.0 cm DW (assumed first maturity), 66.0 cm DW (smallest gravid female recorded) (James 1966) (female); Unknown (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  91.5 cm DW (verified: James 1966, 1973), 98.5 cm DW (questionable; James 1966). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  23.7 to 25.6 cm DW (James 1966). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Year-round or nearly year-round (James 1966). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Fecundity reported to seven, but females may pup more than once per year and fecundity is likely underestimated as a result of spontaneous abortion (James 1966).. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60117		population	eng	No other information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.
60117		threats	eng	Considerable parts of this species? range are subject to intensive inshore fisheries (for example Indonesia and Thailand both with high pressure on their marine resources, which is only likely to increase in the future). Directed artisanal and commercial trawl and bottomset gillnet fisheries have been historically reported in Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, India, but no recent published literature is available to document current fishing trends (James 1966). Based on historic information, G. poecilura occurred in landings year-round, with a peak of abundance between January and May. The dominant size range in this fishery ranged from 35 to 70 cm DW (James 1966). It is also currently targeted in Thailand and Indonesia for human consumption by artisanal fisheries and is also caught as bycatch in other artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Although no specific information is available, habitat loss and degradation may also be affecting this species given its inshore coastal occurrence.
60118		conservation	eng	Recommendation: further research required to determine the species? distribution and gain information on population size and life history. The careful monitoring of regional fishing activities is also required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Madagascar. At the time of writing Madagascar had not taken any action towards implementing a National Plan of Action (Anonymous 2004).
60118		distribution	eng	At present, known from a restricted area in the Western Indian Ocean, Madagascar: off Nosy Be, northwestern coast and off Tulear, southwestern coast (Séret 1989).
60118		habitat	eng	Benthic on the continental slope at depths of 300 to 850 m. A relatively small <em>Dipturus</em> species, with the largest known specimen a 61 cm TL female. Largest immature male was 48.1 cm TL and males 55.4 to 59.7 cm TL were mature. Largest immature female examined was 41.4 cm TL and two females 57.5 and 61.0 cm TL were mature (Séret 1989). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, but nothing else known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  <57 cm TL (Séret 1989) (female); <55 cm TL (Séret 1989) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  to at least 61 cm TL (Séret 1989). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60118		population	eng	No specific information available. A rare species, presently known only from the type series.
60118		threats	eng	Although its depth range precludes it from capture in most of the industrial trawl fleet targeting shrimp off the west coast of Madagascar, there are presently two boats targeting deepwater shrimp (<em>Heterocarpus</em> spp.) operating out of Nosy Be in NW Madagascar. Although bycatch data are not available, this fishery is likely capturing this species. With no market value this small skate is likely discarded with survivorship from capture at such depths being extremely low. Deepsea demersal resources off Madagascar are considered under utilised at present (Anon. 1999) and as such there is a high likelihood that deepwater fisheries will develop and expand in the Mozambique Channel, following the global trend in expanding deepwater fisheries, particularly as inshore resources are depleted. The collapse of upper slope chondrichthyan populations after exploitation of these habitats for valuable finfish and/or crustacean resources is well documented (for example off New South Wales, Australia; Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Habitat damage from heavy trawling gear may also indirectly impact upon the species. <br/> <br/>The future development of deepsea fishing activities in the area poses a considerable threat to <em>D. crosnieri</em> given its restricted range, limited available habitat and rarity.
60119		conservation	eng	None at present. Careful monitoring of catches of this species throughout its range need to be carried out into the future due to this high level of exploitation that occurs in its known range.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. flagellum</em>.
60119		distribution	eng	Disjunct distribution in the Western and Eastern Indian, Western Central and Northwest Pacific.
60119		habitat	eng	Occurs primarily inshore on the inner continental shelf. Reproductive biology, age and growth and dietary compositions are unknown for this species. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  126 cm TL; 47 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (based on similar species) <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60119		population	eng	Appears to be naturally uncommon. Little known species.
60119		threats	eng	Highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls, gillnets and trammel nets. All individuals caught are retained in most areas. Irregularly landed in the fish markets of Jakarta by trawlers (W. White, unpublished data). This species is recorded off Indian coastal waters in the intensive demersal fisheries that occur in that region (Hanfee 1999). There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its entire range.
60120		conservation	eng	None in place. Market surveys are currently being conducted for elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. maculates</em>.
60120		distribution	eng	Sporadic distribution in the Eastern Indian, Western Central Pacific and Northwest Pacific.
60120		habitat	eng	A little known species. Occurs on the inner continental shelf to depths of about 60 m over soft sandy substrate (Compagno and Last 1999). Reproductive biology, age and growth and dietary compositions are unknown for this species. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); 55 cm DW not yet mature (mature by 71 cm DW) (W. White, unpubl. data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  78 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (based in similar species). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60120		population	eng	Appears to be naturally uncommon, observed in low numbers in fish markets in SE Asia.
60120		threats	eng	Highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls, gillnets and trammel nets which operate intensively throughout its range (e.g., India, Thailand, Taiwan and Indonesia). All caught are retained in most areas. Local eagle ray species are marketed in considerable numbers in Thailand and Malaysia (Compagno and Last 1999) and <em>A. maculates</em> is regularly landed in low numbers in the fish markets of Jakarta (Indonesia) by trawlers (W. White, unpublished data). Even though once common, eagle rays are now rare in the Gulf of Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999), where <em>A. maculates</em> has been locally extirpated (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). Intensive demersal fisheries occur in India, in the species? known distribution (Hanfee 1999). There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its entire range.
60121		conservation	eng	None in place. Market surveys are currently being conducted for elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. vespertilio</em>.
60121		distribution	eng	Sporadic distribution in the Western and Eastern Indian, Western Central and Northwest Pacific.
60121		habitat	eng	Little known species. Occurs on the inner continental shelf to depths of 110 m over soft sandy substrate (Compagno and Last 1999). Reproductive biology, age and growth and dietary compositions are unknown for this species. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length/disc width):  240 cm DW (W. White, unpubl. data) 160 cm DW, 385 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (based on similar species). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60121		population	eng	Appears to be naturally uncommon, rarely observed.
60121		threats	eng	Highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls, gillnets and trammel nets which operate intensively throughout its range (e.g., India, Thailand, Taiwan and Indonesia). All individuals caught are retained in most areas. Local eagle ray species are marketed in considerable numbers in Thailand and Malaysia (Compagno and Last 1999). <em>A. maculates</em> is occasionally landed in low numbers in the fish markets of Jakarta (Indonesia) by trawlers and is occasionally caught by the rhynchobatid gillnet fishery that operates in SE Asia (W. White, unpublished data). Even though once common, eagle rays are now rare in the Gulf of Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999). Intensive demersal fisheries occur in India, in the species? known distribution (Hanfee 1999). There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its range.
60122		conservation	eng	There are currently no management or conservation measures specifically in place for this species. Monitoring of marketed catches will be necessary to ensure any increase in landings in the future does not adversely affect the species. <br/> <br/>The Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60122		distribution	eng	<em>Myliobatus australis</em> is an abundant species endemic to Australia?s temperate waters (Last and Stevens 1994). The distribution ranges from Moreton Bay (Queensland) to Jurien Bay (Western Australia) including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994, Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002).
60122		habitat	eng	<em>Myliobatis australis</em> occurs on the inner continental shelf, typically in shallow water regions, and is commonly observed in shallow seagrass embayments and over sandflats at depths of 0 to 85 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002). Individuals of this species are often observed in very shallow waters around dusk where they appear to move in to feed, including large embayments such as Geographe Bay (WA) and Swan Bay (Vic) and rivers such as the Barwon River (Vic) (W. White pers. obs., D. Phillips pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>In Victoria, <em>M. australis</em> appears to move into shallow waters of bays and inlets over spring/summer, possibly for mating and/or parturition (D. Phillips unpublished data). <em>M. australis</em> is a matrotrophic vivparous species with 2 to 15 (average six) young produced per breeding cycle. Full term embryos and free-swimming neonates have been observed in February in Port Phillip Bay and Corner Inlet (Vic). This species attains maturity at disc widths of 65 cm (males) and 80 cm (females), although pregnant females have not been observed below 100 cm DW. Attains a maximum size of at least 160 cm DW. Size at birth is 20?30 cm DW. (Life history data: A. Jones unpublished data, D. Phillips unpublished data). Reproductive periodicity is unknown, but may range from one to three years (current research will answer this question in the near future). <br/> <br/>The diet of this species consists primarily of crustaceans (hermit and swimmer crabs, shrimp) molluscs, echiurid worms and polychaetes (D. Phillips unpublished data). Life history parameters taken from Jones (unpublished data) and Phillips (unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width/length):  ~80 cm DW, 45 cm DL (female); ~65 cm DW, ~40 cm DL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  ~160 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~20 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average 6 per litter; range 2 to 15. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60122		population	eng	Although population numbers are not presently known, the southern eagle ray is widespread across southern Australia and appears to be common throughout most of its range. It is uncommon in Moreton Bay, Queensland, the northern extent of its range on the Australian east coast (Johnson 1999) and is similarly uncommon off northern NSW.
60122		threats	eng	<em>Myliobatis australis</em> is not currently directly targeted by commercial fisherman. It is, however, a regular bycatch of commercial demersal gillnet, setline, longline, beach and danish seine fishers, and commercial prawn and scallop trawlers that operate within its range. A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>M. australis</em> constituted 6.5% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Incidentally captured <em>M. australis</em> are increasingly being retained and marketed as ?skate wings?, ?ray flaps? or ?eagle ray flaps?. In WA retention is a recent occurrence within the last five years, while previously animals were returned to the water. It is generally only larger individuals that are retained while the smallest individuals are returned alive (A. Jones pers. obs., W. White pers. obs). Survivability of the returned catch has not yet been documented, although research is in progress. <br/> <br/>The total commercial landings of ?skate wings? from Victorian state waters was ~16t in 2003 (Anon. 2003), most of which is likely to be <em>M. australis</em>. The catch of ?skate wings? from gillnets and longlines from the Southern Shark Fishery (now the Gillnet Hook and Trap Fishery) rose from 1?2t in the mid 1990s, to 16t by 2002 (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2003). Catch Per Unit Effort data from trawlers off the coast of New South Wales suggest that numbers of <em>M. australis</em> may have been declining since 1999, although this fishery occurs only on the fringe of the species range and data is relatively deficient (T.I. Walker pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In general, eagle ray is becoming a more popular marketable seafood product and landings are only likely to increase in the future. This raises concern for <em>M. australis</em> as any easily accessible inshore batoid. Constant monitoring of catches/landings will be required to ensure that any change in current practices does not adversely affect populations of this species. <br/> <br/>The increasing level of recreational water use and development in shallow embayments around southern Australia may represent a threat to the suitable habitat of this species. Recreational fishers often catch this species but it is rarely retained and normally returned alive. Tail removal does occur often when they are caught, but they appear to survive without any obvious ill-effects (W. White pers. obs., A. Jones pers. obs., D. Phillips pers. obs.). Large individuals of <em>M. australis</em> often linger around boat moorings scavenging for food. <br/> <br/>A substantial number of introduced marine organisms are well established in many estuaries in southern Australia (for example Port Phillip Bay in Victoria) and these are altering the natural structure of these ecosystems. The exact impact upon higher level predators (through habitat alteration and changes to prey abundance and distribution) is not well documented.
60123		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority, as is an examination of catches in subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries occurring in its range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans are required (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks).
60123		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Southeast Pacific from Callao (Peru) to Valdivia (Chile).
60123		habitat	eng	Inshore on the continental shelf. A benthic feeder, but also swims in midwater. Depth distribution not clear (although reported to depths of 100 m) and essentially nothing known of its biology. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  200 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60123		population	eng	Number and size of subpopulations unknown.
60123		threats	eng	Myliobatids are generally highly susceptible to a variety of fishing gear. There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although local subsistence fisheries for the species probably exist in Peru and northern Chile. Furthermore, it is almost certainly taken as bycatch in various fisheries (including artisanal, line and seine net fisheries) throughout its range, although shrimp trawl fisheries operate outside the area of occurrence of this species. In northern Chile carcasses frequently appear on beaches from discards.
60124		conservation	eng	Any captures of this rare species need to be documented. In the first instance State fisheries authorities and fishers need to be made aware of this species and its precarious situation. Education for safe release of the species after recording of basic information (location, depth, size, sex, maturity) is a priority. <br/> <br/>The use of Turtle Exclusion Devices in the Queensland ECTF may assist in limiting catches in that part of the species? range. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60124		distribution	eng	Restricted to eastern Australia. References to the species off Western Australia represent a separate species. Available habitat may be small, as its presently known area of occurrence on the outer shelf and upper slope is not a broad area.
60124		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope, recorded from depths of 117 to 330 m (museum records and K. Graham, pers. comm.). Attains at least 48 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). Swains Reef specimen is 44 cm DW and was taken at a depth of 210 to 220 m (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nothing known of its biology, however, it is suspected to have low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 48 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60124		population	eng	Known from only a handful of specimens (15 individuals). Population sizes unknown but this species appears to be extremely rare. If it was more common it would certainly have been taken more regularly as much of its area or occurrence is heavily fished. Given the high levels of fishing on the NSW outer shelf and upper slope and off southern Queensland it is possible that this species was affected early on by fishing activities and now we are seeing only a depleted population. This is however, speculation but in any instance this is a naturally rare species. Of 13 specimens taken by the NSW Fisheries research vessel <em>Kapala</em>, nine were collected at the beginning of surveying (1976 to 79) while four were collected in the later years of surveying (up until 1997) (K. Graham pers. comm). <br/> <br/><em>Myliobatis australis</em> (and other congeners) are aggregating species, where multiple individuals are taken in single trawls. This is not the case with <em>M. hamlyni</em>, so it appears that it is individually dispersed and not an aggregating species.
60124		threats	eng	Appears to be an extremely rare species. Area off Cape Moreton where holotype found receives relatively significant levels of trawling for eastern king prawn by the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF). Second Queensland specimen (Swains Reef, Coral Sea) collected from champagne lobster trawl bycatch. This area is subject to only very low fishing pressure. Area of occurrence off NSW is subject to heavy trawling activity and has been for a considerable number of years. <br/> <br/>Despite many decades of survey work along the east coast of Australia, <em>M. hamlyni</em> has rarely been observed. This suggests a low population size and that the species is naturally rare or that it is somewhat avoiding fishing gear. Given experience from inshore congeneric species, <em>Myliobatis</em> species are susceptible to trawling and so it can be inferred that the first option is likely.
60125		conservation	eng	<em>Myliobatis longirostris</em> fisheries and bycatch are unmanaged throughout the species range. In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has yet been implemented. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management and this should be implemented as a matter of urgency. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Some countries in the potential range of this species (e.g., Costa Rica, El Salvador and Ecuador) were working towards their NPOA?Sharks development and implementation at the time of writing (Anonymous 2004), action is required throughout the region without further delay. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México are poorly reported and generally lack species-specific details. Typically batoids are grouped as ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential and lacking basis for detecting fishery trends. Improved monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México is necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and expand our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. Improved catch records from Central America are necessary to confirm the assumption that this species indeed ranges throughout the tropical eastern Pacific. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, biological information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, diet, habitat use, and further reproductive studies are necessary. Additional information on the range of the species is also necessary.
60125		distribution	eng	Ranges from Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino, central Baja California (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa Peréz 1996) through the Gulf of California, México (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995b) and likely south to Sechura, Peru (Chirichigno and Vélez 1998, M. Love pers. comm).
60125		habitat	eng	<em>Myliobatis longirostris</em> is a distinctive eagle ray reported from the surface to depths of at least 64m (Fitch and Schultz 1978). It is often landed in areas with sand or soft bottoms (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). Information on the biology and distribution of this ray is sparse. As in other myliobatid rays, the reproductive mode is aplacental viviparity, and fecundities are generally low. Reaches a maximum size of 95 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). Villavicencio-Garyazar (1996) estimated the size at maturity to be ~74 cm DW and ~54 cm DW for males and females, respectively. These observations are based on a sample size of less than 70 individuals and no other details on the ecology of this ray are available. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  ~74 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Villavicencio-Garyazar 1996 (female); ~54 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Villavicencio-Garyazar 1996) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  95 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60125		population	eng	Unknown.
60125		threats	eng	This species is a minor component of directed artisanal elasmobranch fishery landings in Bahía Almejas (Bizzarro 2005) and Sonora (Márquez-Farías unpub. data), México. <br/> <br/>Myliobatids are highly susceptible to capture by a variety of fishing gear and as such <em>M. longirostris</em> is taken as incidental catch among trawl and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets and longlines. Mexican shrimp trawlers have long been known to take this species, among others (Fitch and Schultz 1978). <br/> <br/>Although <em>M. longirostris</em> are not directly targeted, they are landed in artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout their Mexican range and likely in other areas. Fishery surveys conducted in the Gulf of California (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Hueter et al. unpubl. data) and Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Bizzarro and Smith unpubl. data) indicate that this species is not a common component of artisanal landings. Fitch and Schultz (1978) reported <em>M. longirostris</em> taken annually by shrimp trawlers, the majority of which were discarded. When landed, the meat is sold fresh, or dried and salted for local or regional resale or subsistence use.
60126		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority, as is an examination of catches in subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries occurring in its range.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans are required (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks).
60126		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Southeast Pacific from Paita (Peru) to Curiñanco, Valdivia (Chile).
60126		habitat	eng	Presently only recorded in the open ocean over the continental shelf and slope, and not yet recorded on the benthos. It is, however, likely to be a benthic feeder. Its depth distribution not clear and essentially nothing known of its biology. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 131 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60126		population	eng	Number and size of subpopulations unknown.
60126		threats	eng	Myliobatids are generally highly susceptible to a variety of fishing gear. There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although it is almost certainly taken by subsistence fisheries in the north of Chile (and probably Peru) and as bycatch in various fisheries (including artisanal, line and seine net fisheries) throughout its range. Probably also taken as bycatch in pelagic (purse seine) fisheries for mackerel and anchovies, although shrimp trawl fisheries operate outside the area of occurrence of this species.
60127		conservation	eng	Artisanal fisheries operating in west and east Africa are generally unregulated and attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, further ecological information (including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, reproductive studies) is required. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations throughout the species? range. <br/> <br/>A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>P. bovines</em>. Effort in the Tugela Bank fishery has been decreasing and as of May 2004, only three operators remain in the fishery. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>P. bovines</em>.
60127		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is uncertain and may be disjunct in the eastern Atlantic. While Fishbase.org lists the species as occurring in all countries of West Africa, its occurrence in many of these has not be conclusively verified and its complete distribution needs to be determined. It is however, confirmed from Morocco, Western Sahara, Senegal, Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, Mauritania, Gambia, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 06.09.03) and probably others. <br/> <br/>In southern Africa, <em>P. bovines</em> is found from the southwestern Cape to Zanzibar and is apparently absent from cold waters off the western Cape coast and Namibia (Smith 1991). In Namibia it is possibly present only along the northern coast (absent in the cold upwelling waters) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). Van der Elst (1988) provides the range as north of Saldhana Bay along the whole South African coast into Mozambique (as far as Maputo Bay Wallace (1967)). The species is also caught in Kenya (Ochumba 1988).
60127		habitat	eng	Little information on habitat and ecology is available from outside South Africa and most of the following comes from that country (excepting some data from Senegal and Kenya): <br/> <br/>This tropical to warm-temperate species (Smith 1991) frequents coastal waters between the surf zone and 30 m (Van der Elst 1988) and down to 65m in the eastern Cape (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). It tolerates greatly reduced salinities (Van der Elst 1988) and frequently enters estuaries and lagoons (Wallace 1967). It was regarded as common in the 1940 to 1960s (Wallace 1967, Smith 1991), but this needs to be re-examined. <br/> <br/><em>P. bovines</em> is not confined to the bottom, and is often seen on the surface (Van der Elst 1988), sometimes leaping from the water (Van der Elst 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991). It is sometimes found in small groups (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Between 1981 and 2001, Young (2001) found 26 occurrences of three or more bullrays caught in the same Natal Sharks Board (NSB) net installation in one or two days. Of those 10 were of mixed sex, seven comprised females only, five males only, and the rest were unknown. There was no distinct seasonal pattern, but most occurred in December, March and April. <br/> <br/>The species is recorded throughout the year and is most common during summer months (Wallace 1967). Examining NSB net captures between 1981 and 2000, Young (2001) found that bullrays were caught throughout the year with peaks in November and December. Catch declined sharply in January then rose again in February and April. Minimum catches were observed in August and catches were generally lowest between July and September, with only 15.9% of the catch occurring during this period of the year. Significantly more males were caught during December-May, whereas the opposite was the case for females, which dominated catches in June-November. Bullray catch displayed a distinct pattern geographically related to the difference in water temperature with main catches in Richards Bay and Zinkwazi, as well as Winkelspruit and Park Rynie. Catches dropped dramatically south of Park Rynie. The sex ratio of NSB catches between 1981 and 2000 was 1:1.03 (m:f) (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002 found that in catches in Senegal, males were significantly more numerous than females and that females were significantly heavier than males. In their sample, both adult males and females were more abundant than juveniles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Young (2001) examined NSB net captures between 1981 and 2000 and found that when using field length (FL, disc width), females were significantly bigger than males (median male: 81 cm FL, median female: 90 cm FL). The median for sexes combined was 83.4 cm (mode 70.1 to 80 cm FL, mean 87.7 cm FL). Lengths measured in the laboratory were generally larger than FL. The laboratory length mode was larger than FL at 100.1 to 110.0 cm. Female bullrays were larger than males, but not significantly so when using laboratory length (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Wallace (1967) examined 38 animals caught in the NSB nets ranging from 71.1  to 149.5 cm DW (2.72 to 56.2 kg) and three embryos (22 to 22.5 cm DW). He reported that males mature at 95 cm DW/13.6 kg and examined a gravid female of 119.4 cm DW/28.35 kg that contained three embryos (22 to 22.5 cm DW) in advanced development. Van der Elst (1988) gives a gestation period of one year after which 3 to 4 young are born, each at 50 cm DW. The smallest mature male dissected at the NSB was 104 cm DW and the smallest mature female was 105.5 cm DW (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Off Senegal, Capapé <em>et al</em>. (1995) reports sexual maturity as 90 to 100 cm DW for females and 83 to 100 cm DW for males. Also off Senegal, Seck <em>et al</em>. (2002) found that adult males and females were over 82 cm DW and 90 cm DW, respectively. Eight fully developed fetuses ranged from 25 to 27 cm DW / 310 to 345 g. The smallest free-living specimen was 35.5 cm DW/460 g. Gestation lasted between five and six months. A block of oocytes appeared at the beginning of gestation and there was an inability to ovulate soon after parturition. Vitellogenesis recommenced when the embryos were practically at the end of their development. The reproductive cycle lasted one year at least. <em>P. bovines</em> is a pure matrotrophic species. Ovarian fecundity (6 to 8) is higher than uterine fecundity (3 to 4) and there was no relationship between size and both categories of fecundity. <br/> <br/>According to the length-age curve of Van der Elst (1988), bullrays are ~14 years old at ~180 cm DW/100 kg. Using above local maturity lengths, both sexes mature at ~100 cm DW/10 kg, just over one year of age. <br/> <br/>Smallest free-swimming individual: 71.1 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 35.5 cm DW/460 g (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002); 30 cm NSB field length (25 cm dubious) (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Largest observed embryos: 22.5 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 27 cm DW (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Maximum reported size: 175 cm DW (Smith 1991); 152 cm DW (Wallace 1976). <br/> <br/>Largest observed animal: 149.5 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 115 cm DW/29.8 kg male, 148 cm DW/47.9 kg female (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002); 190 cm DW (Ochumba 1988) (dubious?); 350 cm, 220 cm, 194 cm NSB field length (all dubious), 185 cm FL, 170 cm FL, 165 cm FL (78 kg) (NSB unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>South Africa angling record: 100.2 kg. <br/> <br/>Tagged by NSB between 1996 and 2002: 13 animals, no recaptures to date (NSB unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Tagged by shore anglers between 1984 and 2002: 594 animals, nine recaptures (1.01% recapture rate), which include washed up tags. Maximum distance moved: 34 km, maximum time at liberty: 1,427 days (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Diet: crabs, hermit crabs, gastropod molluscs, mussels, bivalves, squid and prawns (Wallace 1967, Ochumba 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  ~1.2 years (male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  100 cm DW (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  175 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~35 cm DW? <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  5 to 6 months (Senegal); 12 months (Southern Africa). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size: 3 to 4. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60127		population	eng	The population size and number, and the size of subpopulations, if any, are unknown.
60127		threats	eng	<strong>South Africa:</strong> <br/>Wallace (1967) reported that this species is seine netted in Durban and Richards Bay, South Africa. Fennessy (1994) reported that a small number (just six in a three year period) are taken by prawn trawlers operating on the Tugela Bank. The species is also sometimes caught by offshore trawlers (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989) and more recent data from prawn trawlers operating on the Tugela Bank again showed low levels of bycatch in that fishery: one animal in 46 trawls in September 2002 and six animals in 46 trawls in April/May 2003 (MCM, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>The species is caught by shore anglers (Van der Elst 1988, Smith 1991) but due to identification problems (species often confused with <em>M. aquila</em>) it is difficult to obtain accurate angling catch figures. Pradervand and Govender (2003) examined the competitive shore angling catch in the border region (Great Fish river ? Kei river) between 1982 and 1998 and combined <em>P. bovines</em> and <em>M. aquila</em>. They found that during the study period 531 animals (2.7% of the total catch, total mass 4,020.8 kg) were caught. Pradervand (2004), again combining the two species, reported 58 animals (0.3% of total catch, 419.5 kg) being caught between 1977 and 2000 during Natal Coast Anglers Union?s angling competitions in the former Transkei. Although most anglers prefer to return bullrays to the water alive (Van der Elst 1988, S. Wintner pers. obs.), release mortality is unknown and could be substantial due to the angling practices of gaffing, weighing etc. (S. Wintner pers. obs.). It is interesting to note that the recapture rate of <em>P. bovines</em> tagged in the South African National Tagging program is only 0.57% (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Between 1981 and 2000, 798 animals (11.31% of total batoid catch), consisting mainly of juveniles, were caught in the NSB nets (Young 2001). Mean annual catch was 39.9 and mean catch rate was 0.98 (no animals/km net/yr). During the study period there was considerable variation in catch rate (0.47-1.78) and no significant trend was apparent. There was, however, a significant increasing trend in size caught. Mortality levels were moderate (44.2%, mean = 17.65 animals per year) and there was no significant trend in mortality over the time period. The highest catches occurred at Richards Bay, Zinkwazi and Durban, the highest catch rates were observed at Zinkwazi, Winkelspruit and Park Rynie. Overall, it is difficult to determine the impact of NSB nets on the population, but it is likely to be localized, as this species is not exploited anywhere else to a great extend (Young 2001). <br/> <br/><strong>Elsewhere:</strong> <br/>Little information is available on catches outside of South Africa, but given the species? inshore occurrence it is likely taken in coastal artisanal fisheries across much of its range. It is known to be caught in small numbers in Kenya. Nine specimens (71?190 cm DW, 4.0?20.5 kg) were taken from commercial trawlers and local fishermen during a two year survey period (Ochumba 1988). The species is also commonly caught off the coast of Senegal (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002), and as mentioned above, likely in other parts of its distribution. <br/> <br/>Habitat degradation where human pressure on the coastal zone is high (i.e., through development, pollution etc.) is another threat likely affecting this species. Activities on the coastal zone and adjacent waterfront may impact upon important nursery area habitat.
60128		conservation	eng	There is no existing legislation involving this species. Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central and South America. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. bonasus</em> and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch in Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. Due to the transient nature of this schooling ray, coordinated national and international efforts are necessary to adequately assess movements, abundance, and fishery impacts. <br/> <br/>Further research required includes an extensive tracking study to better estimate population size and movement patterns, and a focus on obtaining improved life history data from across the species? range, and the characterization of habitat use and potential nursery areas. Furthermore, direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. bonasus</em>.
60128		distribution	eng	This species is found along continental shelves in warm temperate and tropical waters of the western Atlantic, from southern New England, USA to southern Brazil, including coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico and parts of the Caribbean (whilst recorded from Cuba, apparently not confirmed from Jamaica, Hispaniola or the Lesser Antilles). It is known to frequent bays and estuaries of these areas, and has been reported as especially abundant in the Chesapeake Bay during summer months (Schwartz 1965, Smith and Merriner 1987). The exact southern limit of range in Brazil is uncertain due to confusion with the very similar <em>R. brasiliensis</em>.
60128		habitat	eng	These rays occur in marine and brackish waters, often swimming into estuaries and bays. They have been reported in river portions of estuaries, at salinities as low as eight parts per thousand (Smith and Merriner 1987, A. Barker unpublished data). They are assumed to make mass schooling migrations, triggered at least in part by water temperature (Smith and Merriner 1985). <br/> <br/>They are pelagic swimmers, benthic feeders, and are found at depths between 0 to 22 m (Fishbase.org). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with mature females giving birth usually to only one pup (although up to six embryos have been reported) (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Smith and Merriner 1986, Neer and Thompson 2005). There is confusion as to whether there are one or two annual reproductive events (Smith and Merriner 1986), although Neer and Thompson (2005) support a single annual reproductive event. <br/> <br/>Primary prey includes benthic invertebrates, especially bivalve molluscs (Smith and Merriner 1985). Feeding activities by schooling rays have been implicated in extensive damage to seagrass (Orth 1975) and commercial shellfish beds (Smith and Merriner 1985, Peterson 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  7 to 8 years (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1987), 4 to 5 years (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005) (female); 5 to 6 years (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1987), 4 to 5 years (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  85 to 90 cm DW (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1986), 65 to 70 cm DW (Gulf of Mexico; A. Barker unpublished data, Neer and Thompson 2005) (female); 75 to 85 cm DW (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1986), 64 to 70 cm DW (Gulf of Mexico, A. Barker unpublished data, Neer and Thompson 2005) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  ~13 years (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1987); 18+ years (females), 16+ years (males) (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  107 cm DW (Smith and Merriner 1987). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  25 to 40 cm DW (Smith and Merriner 1986, A. Barker unpublished data, Neer and Thompson 2005). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  There is still speculation regarding gestation time, but it is 11 to 12 months if there is a single annual reproductive event, or 5 to 6 months if there are two (Chesapeake Bay, Smith and Merriner 1986). 11 to 12 months (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005) (supporting a single annual reproductive event). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Females ovulate immediately after parturition, so periodicity is annual or biannual, depending on the resolution of the above issue.. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Typically gravid females have only 1 embryo, but there have been reports of up to 6 embryos within one female. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60128		population	eng	There are no existing population size estimates for this species, but they are common in parts of their range at certain times of the year. During suspected seasonal migrations, they often occur in groups of thousands of individuals (Clark 1963, Schwartz 1965, Smith and Merriner 1985, 1986, 1987, Rogers 1990). According to Schwartz (1990), the populations in the Western Atlantic (Southern New England to Brazil) and the Gulf of Mexico (Florida to the Yucatan Peninsula) are separate, but insufficient data exist to support this idea.
60128		threats	eng	There is currently no commercial fishery for this species in the Northwestern Atlantic, but there have been suggestions to establish one (Blankenship 1998) because of the damage that large feeding schools can do to shellfish and seagrass beds. <br/> <br/>In the USA, present commercial fisheries for other species can pose a threat to cownose rays, which are caught as bycatch within pound nets, haul seines and shrimp trawls (J. Musick personal communication, G. Burgess personal communication). This species is quite hardy and is likely to survive netting and short amounts of time on the deck of fishing vessels. However, a venomous spine makes handling difficult and their reputation as a nuisance species may encourage persecution. <br/> <br/>Although no information is currently available on its presence or contribution to artisanal fisheries throughout the species? Central and South American range, given its inshore habitat and the occurrence of fishing activities in coastal zones throughout its range it is most certainly commonly taken. In many regions of the species? southern range inshore fishing is intense and generally unregulated. For example, in parts of Brazil there is intensive fishing pressure by beach seine and benthic pair trawl fisheries and in southern Brazil these have had detrimental effects on the population of the congener <em>R. brasiliensis</em> which appears to be been extirpated from some areas. <br/> <br/>Its inshore habitat, schooling behaviour and low productivity makes <em>R. bonasus</em> highly susceptible to overexploitation. Heavy (generally) fishing pressure on the inshore environment throughout large parts of Central and South America will most certainly be having an effect on <em>R. bonasus</em>, thus resulting in its global Near Threatened assessment. <br/> <br/>Specific information on directed and/or bycatch levels are not available from Central and South America and the attainment of such data, as well as investigation into the current population status is of priority.
60129		conservation	eng	There is no existing legislation specifically for this species. Fisheries taking <em>R. javanica</em> (directed or bycatch) are generally unmanaged throughout the species? range. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch across the Indo-West Pacific are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, and further reproductive studies are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>R. javanica</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations throughout the species? range, as well as the resolution of its phylogenetic relationship to other <em>Rhinoptera</em> spp. <br/> <br/>A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. javanica</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. javanica</em>.
60129		distribution	eng	Complete geographic range is not well defined, but the species is widespread throughout the Indo-West Pacific from South Africa to Japan.
60129		habitat	eng	Inshore over continental and insular shelves. Recorded in muddy areas and shallow estuaries (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), and in coastal bays and mangroves (Hennemann 2001). A schooling species; reportedly forms large schools of as many as 500 individuals (Michael 1993). Aplacental viviparous with breeding reported in Japan in late summer and autumn (Michael 1993). Attains 150 cm DW with the largest recorded embryo 63 cm DW (W. White unpubl. data). Although rhinopterids are documented as having 1 to 6 young, this species most likely has 1 to 2 young per litter due to the large size at birth. Rhinopterids are generally highly migratory. <br/> <br/>Catches taken in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, peak from March to June (65% of the total annual catch), although the species is caught throughout the year (Young 2001). Overall sex ratio 1:0.39 (M:F) (which differs from unity), modal size 70.1 to 80 cm DW, median male size 75 cm DW and female 70 cm DW (Young 2001). Catches are rare in the southern part of the netted region, which is probably a consequence of lower water temperatures (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Thought to make daily inshore migrations to feed (Last 1997) and food includes clams, oysters and crustaceans (Michael 1993). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); >100 cm DW, males at 97 cm DW not yet fully mature (W. White, unpubl. data) (Indonesia). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (Compagno 1988). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  one late term embryo was 63 cm DW (W. White, unpubl. data) (Indonesia). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 6 pups/litter (Last 1997), but probably mostly 1 to 2. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60129		population	eng	There is no information available on abundance or population structure.
60129		threats	eng	Details of catches of this species throughout its range are scant. Nevertheless its small litter size, its tendency to form large schools, its inshore habitat and hence availability to a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl etc.), its marketability and the generally intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across most of the species? range warrant a global listing of Vulnerable. <br/> <br/>This species occurs in coastal inshore waters in depths of less than 30 m where fishing pressure is typically very heavy, especially in SE Asian waters. The strong swimming nature of this species makes it quite susceptible to a range of fisheries, especially inshore gill net fisheries which are extremely intensive in some regions (for example, Kalimantan in Indonesia). Rhinopterids are also known to inhabit estuarine areas where fishing pressure is also extremely high and where (in SE Asia at least) pollution is also a major factor for all marine life. <br/> <br/>The species is likely to contribute substantially to numerous inshore artisanal fisheries across its range. Rhinopterids are regularly landed where they are taken. In Southeast Asia, <em>Rhinoptera javanica</em> is known to be landed in Indonesia (W. White unpublished data), Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002), the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), Taiwan (P. Kyne pers. obs.) and Sabah, Malaysia (Manjaji 2002), all of which are countries where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is intense and generally unregulated. The species is probably widely utilized across its range (Compagno and Last 1999) due to its availability to fisheries. Fishing pressure on the inshore environment across most of the species? range is only likely to increase in the future. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, <em>Rhinoptera javanica</em> contributed 8.9% to the total batoid catch taken between 1981 and 2000 in the protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Young 2001). Of the mean annual catch of 31 animals, 59% were released alive. Catches peaked between 1988 and 1990 but there was no overall trend in catch or catch rate. <em>Rhinoptera javanica</em> is taken as bycatch in the shallow-water trawls (20?30 m) of a prawn trawl fishery that operates off central KwaZulu-Natal (Marine and Coastal Management, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>The species is not common in Tanzanian fisheries but is caught in artisanal beach seines, bottom set gillnets and demersal trawls (Bianchi 1985). It has not been recorded in Madagascan fisheries (Andrew Cooke, Madagascar Sharks Group, Antananarivo and Lyn Robinson, WWF Madagascar, Antsiranana, pers. comm., September 2003).
60130		conservation	eng	<em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout the species range. In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central and South America. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in the eastern tropical Pacific would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. steindachneri</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings reported from México and Central America typically lack species specific details. Most often, all batoids are often simply termed ?manta raya? collectively.  Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are much needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch in México, Central, and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. Due to the transient nature of this schooling ray, coordinated national and international efforts are necessary to adequately assess movements, abundance, and fishery impacts. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, and further reproductive studies are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>R. steindachneri</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations throughout the species? range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. steindachneri</em>.
60130		distribution	eng	The range of <em>R. steindachneri</em> has been reported from Bahía de Sebastian Vizcaino, central Baja California, México, (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa-Peréz 1996), through the Gulf of California (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995), and south to Peru (Chirichigno 1974) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
60130		habitat	eng	<em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> is widely distributed throughout shallow inshore waters of the eastern subtropical and tropical Pacific. It is typically found in waters ranging from intertidal depths to 25 m, but has been recorded to 65 m (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). It is usually associated with sandy bottoms but also occurs near rock or coral reefs, often near the reef dropoffs (Michael 1993). A transient, highly mobile species it often forms large schools or moves in loose aggregations. Its movements may be related to water temperature, as it tends to migrate northward in the Gulf of California during the spring and south in the autumn (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). The reproductive mode of this species is aplacental viviparity. Females nourish young initially by means of a yolksac and later supplement this energy source with protein-rich uterine excretions termed hisotrophe. Only a single ovary is functional. In the northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of México?s Baja peninsula males and females reach maturity at similar sizes. Median size at 50% maturity is estimated as 70.0 cm disc width (DW) in females and 69.9 cm DW in males (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). The smallest female reported as mature was 65cm DW and the largest immature specimen measured 72 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). Maturity among males ranges 64 to 78 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). Females give birth to a single pup during late June and July following an estimated gestation period of 10 to 12 months (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). Courtship and fertilization follows shortly after parturition (Bizzarro et al. submitted). <em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> possess plate-like teeth that are highly specialized for crushing and grinding hard-bodied prey items such as molluscs. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Median size at 50% maturity: 70.0 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted) (female); Median size at 50% maturity: 69.9 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  104 cm DW (female); 96 cm DW (male) (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  39 to 43 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 to 12 (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60130		population	eng	No information on population estimates, subpopulations, degree of fragmentation, or general abundance are available for this transient species.
60130		threats	eng	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries. <em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> is one of the most common batoid species landed in both the northern Gulf of California (GOC) and Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, México, where it is taken almost exclusively with bottom set gillnets, but may be landed in nearshore surface gillnets and longlines as well (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted, Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987). In the northern GOC from 1998?1999, <em>R. steindachneri</em> was most frequently observed in summer landings (11.4% of catch, CPUE=8.0 individuals/vessel/trip) and was rarely noted in winter (0.1%, CPUE=0.1). In Bahía Almejas from 1998?2000, it was more abundant in August (5.15%) than in June landings (0.30%), a trend also evident in CPUE (August=1.13, June=0.13). The mean size of female <em>R. steindachneri</em> captured in the GOC was 64.4 + 11.8 cm DW (mean and SD) whereas males averaged 64.2 + 14.0 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/> <br/>Also taken as incidental catch among trawl (especially shrimp trawlers) and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets and longlines in México. No information is currently available on its presence or contribution to artisanal fisheries throughout the rest of its range, however, given its inshore habitat and the occurrence of fishing activities in coastal zones throughout its range it is most certainly commonly taken. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in north-west Pacific México are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since this species uses these areas for feeding and reproduction, this could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.
60131		conservation	eng	Surveying to determine population status and distribution is required, as is an analysis of the threat from shrimp trawling. Regulation of shrimp trawling, particularly closed areas may be a necessary conservation measure given its likely endemism. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in Yemen.
60131		distribution	eng	<em>Torpedo adenensis</em> has been collected from three distinct but adjacent localities from the eastern Gulf of Aden, close to the Yemen coastline (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002). The distribution is thought to be limited and <em>T. adenensis</em> may possibly be endemic to the eastern Gulf of Aden.
60131		habitat	eng	<em>Torpedo adenensis</em> has been found in depths of 26 to 140 m. Little known of its biology. Reaches sexual maturity between 28.0 and 39.5 cm TL in both males and females. A subadult male was recorded at 27.7 cm TL and a mature male was recorded at 39.7 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Between 28.0 and 39.5 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002) (female); Between 28.0 and 39.5 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  41 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60131		population	eng	Unknown, but the limited distribution may indicate that population numbers are low.
60131		threats	eng	Commercial shrimp trawling occurs across the known range of this species. If this species is endemic to the Gulf of Aden, it may be at high risk due to being taken as bycatch in these fisheries. Its benthic nature makes this species, as with other sluggish torpedo rays, susceptible to capture in trawl gear. It is extremely unlikely that shrimp trawl fisheries in that area will decrease or cease in the future, and the population is likely to become depleted through bycatch mortality (indeed declines may have already occurred but there are no data to consider this possibility). Presumably discarded when taken as bycatch, but survivorship is not known (although thought to be low).
60132		conservation	eng	None in place for this species. Its occurrence and distribution needs to be better defined, as does interactions with any fisheries in the area. <br/> <br/>Coral reef habitat around Grand Cayman is managed under a Marine Protected Area zoning plan (Burke and Maidens 2004). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region.
60132		distribution	eng	Known from only two isolated locations in the Western Central Atlantic (Grand Bahama Bank and Grand Cayman Island).
60132		habitat	eng	Demersal species with one individual observed at 11 m around coral in Grand Cayman and two specimens (16 and 22 cm TL) taken from the upper slope on the western edge of the Grand Bahama Bank at a depth of 229 m (Bullis 1962, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 22 cm TL (Bullis 1962) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  31 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60132		population	eng	Unknown (presently known only from two specimens and a photographic record). Apparently rare.
60132		threats	eng	No information available, but may be a limited bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries.  <br/> <br/>Heavy development and tourism pressure exists on coral reef habitats around Grand Cayman Island (Burke and Maidens 2004).
60133		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority, as is monitoring of potential bycatch in the orange roughy fishery.
60133		distribution	eng	Recorded only in its original description from the junction of the Nazca and Sala y Gomes Ridges west of Chile in the Southeast Pacific.
60133		habitat	eng	Open ocean on seamounts. Holotype (male, 28.4 cm TL) was taken by bottom trawl at a depth of 180 to 280 m; paratype (male, 36.6 cm TL) was taken by midwater trawl. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 36.6 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60133		population	eng	Number and size of subpopulations unknown.
60133		threats	eng	There is no information on the catch of this species throughout its range. Chilean orange roughy fisheries probably operate in the species? area of occurrence, although no specific details are available. Given the species narrow known distribution, bycatch in these fisheries may be of concern, particularly if their operations increase.
60134		conservation	eng	Surveying to determine population status and distribution is required. Of priority is an analysis of the threat from shrimp trawling. Subsequent regulation of shrimp trawling may be necessary. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. panthera</em>.
60134		distribution	eng	As presently known, a patchily known range in the Western Indian Ocean. The species probably occurs from the Red Sea through the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea, and the Gulf of Oman to the Bay of Bengal. <br/> <br/>Reports from Eastern Africa (south of Somalia) and from the Persian Gulf are missidentifications (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002).
60134		habitat	eng	Recorded on muddy and sandy bottoms of the continental shelf to depths of ~110 m. Very little known of the habitat and biology of this species. Reaches ~110 cm TL. Male <em>T. panthera</em> reaches sexual maturity before 28.1 cm TL when its claspers become completely calcified. No information is known from female <em>T. panthera</em> (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); at least before 28.1 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~110 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60134		population	eng	As presently documented the range is disjunct, but it may be continuous from the Red Sea to the Bay of Bengal.
60134		threats	eng	Parts of the species? known distribution are under severe fishing pressure, particularly from shrimp trawls. Its benthic nature makes this species, as with other sluggish torpedo rays, susceptible to capture in trawl gear. It is extremely unlikely that shrimp trawl fisheries in that area will decrease or cease in the future, and populations are likely to become depleted through bycatch mortality (indeed declines may have already occurred but there are no data to consider this possibility). Presumably discarded when taken as bycatch, but survivorship is not known (although is probably low).
60135		conservation	eng	Surveying to determine population status and distribution is required, as is an analysis of the catch from trawl fisheries. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. puelcha</em>.
60135		distribution	eng	Patchy distribution from 35°S off northern Argentina to southeastern Brazil, although the exact northern limit is unclear. This seems to be predominately a Brazilian species, occurring more commonly north of Argentina.
60135		habitat	eng	Benthic in continental shelf and slope waters. Reported inshore to 600 m depth, apparently generally in deeper water in Argentina than in Brazil (Menni and Stehmann 2000). A moderately large species (to at least 104 cm TL), viviparous like other electric rays, but nothing else known of its biology.  <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  From ~65 cm TL (female); From ~60 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 104 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60135		population	eng	Known from only a very few published records and considered moderately rare. Eventual subpopulations to be clarified.
60135		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in shelf trawl fisheries where it is commonly caught and discarded at sea. However, specific catch data is lacking. It is considered a menace by fishers and post-capture survivorship is probably low.
60136		conservation	eng	Review when taxonomic status known, but catches will need to be monitored in fisheries when taken. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. sinuspersici</em>.
60136		distribution	eng	Currently understood to be a single species distributed along the east coast of southern Africa from the Eastern Cape of South Africa to Mozambique, Madagascar, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and India. However, work in progress may reveal that this is a species complex of highly localized endemic species.
60136		habitat	eng	Found in shallow waters on sandy areas and near reefs and also well offshore to 200 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Little known of the species? biology or ecology. Viviparous, like other electric rays, and reported to have litters of 9 to 22 young (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Reaches ~130 cm TL, but mostly less than 100 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~130 cm TL (if single species). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  9 to 22 young per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60136		population	eng	Distribution is at present patchy and fragmented, however, this may represent the distributions of several localized endemic species.
60136		threats	eng	Impacts from fisheries will need review if this species turns out to represent a species complex of restricted endemics. Sluggish electric rays are susceptible to capture in trawl fisheries where they are a discarded bycatch. Trawl fisheries operate across parts of the species? present range. Post-capture survivorship is thought to be low. <br/> <br/>Habitat degradation may be affecting this species, where development pressure is high or where coral reef systems are being impacted upon through pollution, destructive fishing practices or other human activities.
60137		conservation	eng	There are currently no management measures in place for this species.  Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. tremens</em>.
60137		distribution	eng	As presently known, range is disjunct in the Eastern Pacific, however, the species? distribution needs to be better defined.
60137		habitat	eng	FishBase (Froese and Pauly 2004) reports this species occurring on the continental shelf, usually in very shallow waters. In Peru, however, it is reported to 700 m depth. In Chile it is reported from 20 to 60 m depth. This species is viviparous and feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. Nothing else is known of its biology. To a maximum size of 80 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  80 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60137		population	eng	Unknown.
60137		threats	eng	There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although it is almost certainly taken as bycatch in various fisheries throughout its range.
60138		conservation	eng	In South Africa, gillnets used in the St. Joseph fishery are permitted as ?shark nets? and are comprised of 178 mm stretched mesh with a fall of 3 m and length not exceeding 150 m. No person may hold more than four net permits. Nets are set in daylight for a period of about 30 minutes and may not be set within 500 m of the high-water mark (Freer and Griffiths 1993a). Continued management and monitoring practices should remain in place for this species to prevent overfishing. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>C. capensis</em>. <br/> <br/>There is no specific management in place for this species in Namibia (H. Holtzhausen, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of national management plans (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia adopted its National Plan of Action (NPOA) in 2004. South Africa?s NPOA is drafted and at the time of writing is still awaiting government approval: it is a matter of urgency to adopt and implement this NPOA.
60138		distribution	eng	<em>C. capensis</em> is abundant off the west and south coasts of South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991) but rare off KwaZulu-Natal. Range may extend north of Namibia, but there are no confirmed records from Angola or more northerly regions.
60138		habitat	eng	Demersal and found close inshore to a depth of 374 m, although rarely caught in depths greater than 150 m and only females have been collected below 250 m. <br/> <br/><em>C. capensis</em> appears to have a relatively high fecundity and early onset of sexual maturity compared to other chondrichthyan fishes. Sexual maturity is calculated at about 4.2 years for females and 3.3 years for males (Freer and Griffiths 1993a, 1993b). <em>C. capensis</em> is oviparous producing one egg per oviduct. Their eggcases are large, spindle-shaped with broad lateral flanges. Embryos probably take 9 to 12 months to hatch. Breeding occurs throughout the year with distinct peaks in summer. During the breeding season, females move closer to shore to lay eggs and juveniles remain inshore for a period of 3 to 4 years. The majority of <em>C. capensis</em> caught by fishermen are in depths less than 100 m. Maximum size is 120 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Most life history data are from Freer and Griffiths (1993a, 1993b). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  4.2 years (female); 3.3 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (fork length):  50% maturity: 49.6 cm FL (female); 50% maturity: 43.5 cm FL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  10+ years (females); 7+ years (males) (from graphs in Freer and Griffiths 1993b). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  120 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~13 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Incubation time of 9 to 12 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Active throughout the year but with a distinctive peak in summer. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60138		population	eng	Population size and structure is poorly understood.
60138		threats	eng	Caught primarily via a directed gillnet fishery off the south and west coasts of South Africa. Also commonly caught by bottom trawlers, and line-fishing boats, as well as sports anglers. The species occurs in shallow waters and very close inshore where fishing activities are often very intensive. <br/> <br/>The St Joseph fishery in South Africa is based primarily on the west coast in the St Helena Bay area, where approximately 650 tons are caught annually using bottom set gillnets. Fishing effort is regulated by the number of nets a permit holder can have. Overall, the annual catch (directed gillnet fishery and demersal trawl byproduct) appears to have stabilised at 700?900 tons. <br/> <br/>In Namibia, the species is not commercially targeted but is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fishing, although not in large numbers. It is also irregularly taken by shore anglers (H. Holtzhausen, pers. comm.).
60139		conservation	eng	None are known to be in place. It is recommended that additional information on this species be collected. In particular, careful reporting of all captures will aid in understanding the geographic distribution of this species, and deposition of specimens in museum collections will enable further biological and molecular studies of the species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>H. haeckeli</em>.
60139		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Northwest Atlantic off Greenland, the Eastern Central Atlantic off the Canary Islands, and the Southwest Pacific from New Zealand. Capture records from the Atlantic are rare, but recent deepwater trawling around New Zealand has revealed a number of specimens from that region. Capture records indicate this species occurs at depths greater than 1,000 m and may be more abundant in deeper waters where surveys are presently more limited.  In particular, it is possible the range of this species is more continuous throughout the North Atlantic but has not been captured due to the dearth of fishery operations in waters deeper than 1,000 m. <br/> <br/>This species has also been reported from the Northwest Atlantic off New York (Krefft 1990) however, this report has not been confirmed.
60139		habitat	eng	Benthic, on deepwater slopes and troughs, at depths of 1,114 to 2,002 m around New Zealand and 1,970 to 2,603 m in the Atlantic. <br/> <br/>Like all chimaeroids this species is oviparous, however no egg capsules or embryos have been collected for this species. It is assumed reproductive biology in this species is similar to that of other chimaeroids. Diet is unknown, but likely consists primarily of a variety of benthic invertebrates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total body length):  ~60 cm TL; ~25 cm BDL (female); ~45 cm TL; ~20 cm BDL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~72 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60139		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or structure. May occur more widely in the North Atlantic than presently known, particularly at depths near the deeper part of their range (2,000 m or greater). <br/> <br/>It is likely that <em>H. haeckeli</em> in the North Atlantic is a single subpopulation with a separate subpopulation in the Southwest Pacific off New Zealand.
60139		threats	eng	Not known to be commercially fished but may be caught in deepwater bottom trawls. Current evidence suggests this is a rare species and populations may be threatened by deepwater fishing operations, particularly if they continue to expand globally.
60140		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are known to be in place. Data from specimens collected incidentally would be helpful in understanding population structure and life history of this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>H. raleighana</em>.
60140		distribution	eng	Range appears to be widespread and worldwide (although not widely recorded in the Indian Ocean at present), with the largest numbers recorded from the western Pacific and northern Atlantic. Nothing is known of population structure, although molecular evidence may support regional populations. Other species of chimaeroids appear to have wide ranges (e.g., <em>R. atlantica</em> and <em>R. pacifica</em>), but <em>H. raleighana</em> is the only chimaeroid that may be global in its distribution.  <br/> <br/><em>Harriotta raleighana</em> has been recorded from the Canary Islands, however it should be noted that references to the species from that location by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) may in fact be referred to as <em>H. haeckeli</em>.
60140		habitat	eng	Occur primarily in deep waters of continental slopes at depths at 380 to 2,600 m. <br/> <br/>Oviparous but nothing is known of spawning and reproduction and very few juveniles have been collected. As with many other chimaeroids adults and juveniles may occupy different habitats. Diet may consist of a variety of benthic invertebrates and fish. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~35 cm BDL (estimate) (female); ~25 to 30 cm BDL (estimate) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  120 cm TL (females larger than males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60140		population	eng	Appears to be fairly abundant in areas where they are known to occur.
60140		threats	eng	Not known to be targeted in any commercial fishery but caught as bycatch in commercial deepwater bottom trawls, although the only such data on bycatch available is from the South Tasman Rise Trawl Fishery (STRF). The STRF targets orange roughy and other deepwater teleost species south of Tasmania as a straddling stock between Australia and New Zealand. <em>Harriotta raleighana</em> was a negligible component of bycatch with an estimated catch of 0.31t in 545 tows between November 1998 and September 2000 (<0.1 of total catch) of which 8% was retained (Anderson and Clark 2003). <br/> <br/>Seem to be relatively common in deepwater survey trawls. Increased deepwater trawl fisheries could pose a potential threat to habitats and populations in the future and monitoring would be required.
60141		conservation	eng	No management or conservations measures are known to be in place. It is recommended that information including depth, size and sex, be obtained from all incidental captures of this species in an effort to obtain a better indication of population structure and life history. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60141		distribution	eng	Upper and mid continental slopes in the Southern Caribbean.
60141		habitat	eng	Occupies the upper and mid continental slopes, generally occurring at depths of 240 to 600 m, probably on rocky or rubble bottoms. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproduction and spawning. Maximum size reported for this species is 80 cm TL, but may be slightly greater than that (up to 90 or 95 cm TL, but probably less than 100 cm TL). Size at sexual maturity for males is unknown but probably occurs at 60 cm TL or greater (a male just shy of 60 cm TL was near sexual maturity; Bullis and Carpenter 1966). Size at sexual maturity for females is probably similar to males and is estimated at 65 cm TL or greater. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  65 cm TL (estimated) (female); >60 cm TL (estimated) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  80 cm TL, but estimated up to 95 cm TL but <100 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60141		population	eng	Nothing is known of population structure. Most captures reported thus far consist primarily of juveniles and it is possible sexually mature adults occupy deeper waters, or exist outside of the known range (Didier and Stehmann 1996, Didier 2002).
60141		threats	eng	Not known to be commercially fished but may on rare occasions be caught as bycatch, probably in deepwater trawls and possibly also deepwater longlines, although this species may occur at or below the current limit of deepwater fisheries in the region. Currently known from a relatively small number of specimens, <em>N. carri</em> may be restricted to a relatively limited range in the Southern Caribbean. Possible threats in the future include habitat degradation due to deepwater trawling and decline in population if increased deepwater fishing in the region results in increased capture as bycatch.
60142		conservation	eng	None are known to be in place. Further study of this species is recommended, in particular, data collection (locality, size, sex, reproductive state) from each capture. Additional specimens are also needed for further biological and molecular studies. <br/> <br/>The effect of deepsea fishing vessels operating off West Africa on this species in unknown, but is a cause of potential concern. Information on the bycatch of this species (and other chondrichthyans) by these vessels is urgently required and the conservation status of this species should be reassessed without delay when such information is obtained.
60142		distribution	eng	Range appears to be restricted to the eastern Atlantic off the western coast of Africa from Spanish Sahara to Namibia.
60142		habitat	eng	Very poorly known species. Occupies a relatively shallower shelf and slope habitat than other rhinochimaerids at depths of 200 to 470 m. Few adult specimens have been collected, but males and females appear to reach sexual maturity at about 50 to 60 cm body length (BDL), as all specimens greater than 60 cm BDL are sexually mature. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, likely exhibiting similar reproductive patterns to other chimaeroids. Diet is unknown but probably consists primarily of a variety of benthic invertebrates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  50 or 60 cm BDL (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  127 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60142		population	eng	Does not appear to be common. Nothing is known of population structure, although it is likely that the species is represented by a single continuous population off western Africa.
60142		threats	eng	Not known to be targeted in any commercial fishery but is probably collected at bycatch in deep water trawling operations in the region. Faces the potential threat of capture and habitat destruction due to increased deep water fishing in the region.
60143		conservation	eng	None are in place at present. More specimens are needed in order to conduct additional research and collect much needed data on biology, ecology and distribution of this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>N. pumila</em>.
60143		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the northwestern Indian Ocean. Known range is restricted to the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden off Somalia and Socotra Island (Yemen). This species may also occur off southwest India and may have a wider distribution in the Indian Ocean, particularly at depths of 1,000 m or more.
60143		habitat	eng	Benthic slope dweller, probably preferring rocky, muddy or silty bottoms of the shelf edge and upper to middle slope at depths of 100 to 1,120 m. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproduction or spawning. Diet probably consists primarily of benthic invertebrates, particularly bivalves and polychaetes. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  Probably 50 to 55 cm TL; 20 cm BDL (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~65 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60143		population	eng	At present this species is known only from a single population with a range restricted to the northwest Indian Ocean. Very few specimens have been collected and no other data with regard to population structure are available.
60143		threats	eng	There is no evidence to suggest immediate threats at present; however there is the potential threat of habitat degradation and/or increased capture due to alterations of the local environment and in particular increased fishing effort in deeper water which may result in capture of this species primarily as bycatch but also possibly as a target fishery. <br/> <br/>Current capture records indicate this may be a rare species with only a small, localised population, and as such any potential threats could have a severe impact.
60144		conservation	eng	None known to exist. Study of this species is recommended, particularly with regard to geographic distribution, biology, and population structure. In particular, accurate reporting of all captures will aid in understanding the species range and distribution. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. Africana</em>.
60144		distribution	eng	The known distribution is spotty with confirmed reports from the southwestern Indian Ocean off Southern Africa and the Mozambique Channel. Also known from the East China Sea from Taiwan to Hokkaido, Japan including the Okinawa Trough.
60144		habitat	eng	Deepwater and benthic, generally occurring on deepwater slopes and seamounts at depths of 500 to 1,500 m. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~50 cm BDL (female); ~40 to 50 cm BDL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/ body length):  ~150 cm TL (65 cm BDL; females generally larger than males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60144		population	eng	Nothing is known of population structure although populations from the northwestern Pacific and Indian ocean may be separate. It is also possible that this species forms a continuous widespread population throughout the Indian Ocean and northwestern Pacific.
60144		threats	eng	In Taiwan, this species is taken as bycatch when encountered, and is landed in fish markets (W. White, pers. comm.). Not known to be taken elsewhere, but likely forms a component of bycatch where deepwater trawling overlaps with its range. Landing of this species in Taiwan appears to be a more recent occurrence, suggesting that fishers are moving into deeper waters, probably as a result of the depletion of shallower water resources. As such, there is a potential threat to populations and habitats due to deepwater trawl fishery operations as well as increased attention toward new deepwater target species as more lucrative species are overfished.
60145		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are in place. Increased data collection from any and all captures is recommended in order to obtain additional information on population size and structure and life history. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. atlantica</em>.
60145		distribution	eng	Based on capture records this species appears to be widespread in deep waters throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Almost all specimens known are adults or subadult juveniles, rarely if ever are small juveniles captured. This may be due to fishing methods or more likely the aggregation of adults and juveniles in separate habitats and/or depths.
60145		habitat	eng	Occurs on deep slopes, probably widely distributed throughout the Atlantic at recorded depths of ~500 to 1,500 m. This species may be more abundant in even deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, a few egg capsules and at least one hatchling have been collected; however nothing is known of reproduction in this species. It is likely this species occurs on muddy or rubble/rock bottoms and eats a variety of benthic invertebrates and fish. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  130 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60145		threats	eng	No data exists at the present time with regard to possible bycatch of this species, although known to be occasionally caught in deepwater research trawls. In South Africa this species may occur in the deepwater hake trawl fishery but is primarily known from research trawl catches. It is likely the species mostly occurs beyond the maximum depth range of the fishery. Potentially threatened by the extension of deepwater demersal trawl fisheries into the habitat of this species. As fishing pressure increases in deepwater environments, bycatch of this species may increase as well as the possible destruction of habitat due to trawling methods.
60146		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are known to be in place. It is recommended that at least minimal data on size, sex, and distribution be collected on all incidental catches of this species in an effort to obtain baseline population and life history information. Monitoring of any bycatch is also required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. pacifica</em>.
60146		distribution	eng	Most commonly known from the north and southwestern Pacific, primarily from the Japanese Archipelago and the East China Sea, and off southern New Zealand and Southern Australia (Inada and Garrick 1979, Last and Stevens 1994, Didier and Nakaya 1999). Reported only from Peru in the eastern Pacific but may occur more widely in deepwater troughs and plateaus throughout the entire Pacific Ocean.
60146		habitat	eng	Habitat appears to be primarily deepwater troughs and plateaus at depths of 191 to 1,290 m, although most commonly found below 700 m. Off southern Australia reported from 760 to 1,290 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Maximum size is about 130 cm TL (62 cm BDL) with females generally larger than males. It appears that sexual maturity in males and females is reached at ~50 cm BDL. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproductive biology. Probably shares similar life history traits with <em>R. atlantica</em> and diet may consist of a variety of invertebrates and fish. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~50 cm BDL (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  130 cm TL; 62 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60146		population	eng	Nothing is known of population structure, but capture records consist only of adults or subadult juveniles indicating possible aggregation of adults and juveniles in different habitats.
60146		threats	eng	Not known to be commercially targeted. Occasionally captured in deepwater surveys and may also be caught as bycatch in deepwater commercial trawls but bycatch data are unavailable. Off southern Australia mostly recorded deeper than the depth range of most fisheries. As such, a study of the bycatch of the South Tasman Rise Trawl Fishery (STRF) did not record this species in 545 tows between November 1998 and September 2000 (Anderson and Clark 2003). The STRF targets orange roughy and other deepwater teleost species south of Tasmania as a straddling stock between Australia and New Zealand and operates in the known area of occurrence of <em>R. pacifica</em>. <br/> <br/>Potential threat to habitat and populations due to increased deepwater trawling throughout the species range.
60147		conservation	eng	Catch levels need to be documented and careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected. Information on the species? biology is required to inform management decisions. <br/> <br/>Effective implementation of the Japanese National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (under the FAO International Plan of Action: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Japan.
60147		distribution	eng	Limited known distribution in the East China Sea and southern Japanese waters (Nishida and Nakaya 1988).
60147		habitat	eng	Known from only a few specimens collected from the East China Sea and southern Japanese waters. Holotype was caught by trawl net at a depth of 53 to 142 m. <br/> <br/>Biology is virtually unknown. However, one 72.5 cm DW male was found mature whilst a 35.4 cm DW male was still immature with soft and small claspers. <br/> <br/>Dasyatidae are mostly demersal in inshore waters, although several species range offshore and a few large species occur along the upper continental slopes as deep as 480 m. Several species are euryhaline while some others are confined to freshwater. All are aplacental viviparous. Litter varies between two to six young with gestation periods which may take as long as 12 months (Last and Compagno 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); unknown, immature at 35.4 cm DW, mature at 72.5 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  72.5 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60147		population	eng	Unknown.
60147		threats	eng	Most likely taken as bycatch in the Japanese coastal bottom trawl fishery and to a lesser extent by set nets (H. Ishihara pers. com.). Care should be taken as any fishing impact on this species might have greater effects due to its narrow geographical distribution. An increase of fishing pressure in this location would have dramatic effects on this narrow ranging species. <br/> <br/>Stingrays are amongst the dominant ray components of landings in Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia and elsewhere in Asia. However, the relative importance of species on a regional basis is poorly known and species-specific landing data are virtually non-existent.
60148		conservation	eng	Data need to be collected in order to accurately assess the population status and to document catch levels. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. akajei</em>.
60148		distribution	eng	Probable Northwest Pacific endemic. In Japan, commonly distributed in shallow coastal waters and bays from Hokkaido to Okinawa (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993).
60148		habitat	eng	<em>Dasyatis akajei</em> plays an important role as an apex predator in the demersal food network of coastal areas (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993). However, very little is known of its life-history traits. It is found in coastal areas and on the continental shelf. <br/> <br/>Males attain maturity at ~35 cm DW and almost all the males become mature at >40 cm DW.  Females attain first maturity between 50 and 55 cm DW and most females >60 cm DW may be mature (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993). <br/> <br/><em>D. akajei</em> feeds predominantly on crustaceans and osteichthyes. Annelida was also reported in their stomachs whilst Bivalvia and Cephalopoda were seldom found (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993). <br/> <br/>Dasyatidae are mostly demersal in inshore waters, although several species range offshore and a few large species occur along the upper continental slopes as deep as 480 m. Several species are euryhaline while some others are confined to freshwater. All are aplacental viviparous. Litter varies between two to six young with gestation periods, which may take as long as 12 months (Last and Compagno 1999). <em>Dasyatis akajei</em> appears to have a lower fecundity with gravid females bearing one pup/litter (H. Ishihara, unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50?55 cm DW (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993) (female); 35?40 cm DW (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 66 cm DW (Last and Compagno 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (H. Ishihara, unpublished data). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60148		population	eng	Declines have reported to have occurred where the species is fished.
60148		threats	eng	<em>Dasyatis akajei</em> is caught in commercial quantities in coastal and even brackish waters. It is taken as bycatch in the bottom trawl fishery, gillnet, set net and hook and line fishery targeting demersal bottom fishes such as flounders, and this bycatch is utilized. Landings are reported to be declining. Population is therefore strongly affected by present level of fishing.
60149		conservation	eng	None. The impact of increased harvests on populations in Brazil and Venezuela should be monitored and population studies undertaken. Protection of breeding and nursery areas in parts of South America may be necessary for the long-term survival of the species. The species has been considered Vulnerable in Rio de Janeiro Municipality, Brazil (Buckup <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. Americana</em>.
60149		distribution	eng	A coastal species that is widely distributed from New Jersey to Florida (USA), throughout the Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and bordering the northern coast of South America to southeastern Brazil. It is abundant in nearshore waters in the northeast Gulf of Mexico, especially along the west coast of Florida and is common during summer months in estuaries and coastal areas along the east coast of the U.S. It is common throughout most of the Greater and Lesser Antilles. <br/> <br/>In Brazil known from Santos, São Paulo, Bahia, northward from Paraíba, Ceará, and Pará and Amapá (Figueiredo 1977, Rosa 1987, Cunningham 1989, Gadig and Rosa 1993, Queiroz <em>et al</em>. 1993a, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2000, Menni and Stehmann 2000). Also reported from the Brazilian oceanic islands of Atol das Rocas (Rosa and Moura 1997) and Fernando de Noronha (Mendes and Moura 1999), and from the reefs of Parcel Manuel Luiz in Maranhão (Rocha and Rosa 2001).
60149		habitat	eng	A coastal marine and estuarine benthic species associated with sand flats, seagrass beds, and coral reefs at depths of 0 to 53 m. Commonly buries in soft sediments. <br/> <br/>Litters of 2 to 10 pups are born at 17 to 34 cm disc width (DW), after a gestation of 4.5 to 7.5 months, and maturity is reached at 51 and 75 to 80 cm DW (males and females, respectively). Reproduction is biannual in captivity, annual in the wild. Maximum size is 150 cm DW (Henningsen 2000, McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, D. Grubbs and J. Musick unpublished data). <br/> <br/>The diet of this species has been studied in the Bahamas (Randall 1967, Gilliam and Sullivan 1993), Brazil (Queiroz <em>et al</em>. 1993) and the eastern USA (D. Grubbs, unpublished data) and consists of benthic and infaunal invertebrates and demersal teleosts. The most common prey are decapod crustaceans such as alphaeid, penaeid and callianasid shrimp and brachyuran crabs. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  75 to 80 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) (female); 51 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  17 to 19 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, D. Grubbs and J. Musick unpublished data); mean 23.8 cm DW, range 20 to 34 cm DW (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Mean 5.8 months; range 4.5 to 7.5 months (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biannual (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000); Annual (Florida and Virginia, USA) (D. Grubbs unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2?7 (D. Grubbs and J. Musick unpublished data); mean 4.2, maximum 10 (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60149		population	eng	The species is taken occasionally in the VIMS (Virginia Institute of Marine Science) longline survey off the USA, near the northern edge of its range, but no population trends are evident from 1996 to 2003 (J. Musick <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).
60149		threats	eng	Caught as incidental bycatch with trammel nets, bottom trawls, and bottom longlines along the east coast of the USA. Most are released and mortality is probably low. Southern stingrays are harvested in parts of South America and fisheries exist in Venezuela, Colombia, and Brazil. Increased artisanal fishing pressure in some regions of Brazil may warrant concern, including in the states of Ceará and Bahia (Buckup 2000, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2000). In recent years, tours allowing tourists to swim with this species in shallow water have increased in popularity throughout the Caribbean. The impacts these operations may have (behavioral, ecological, etc.) are largely unknown. Indirect threats from impacts on reef areas.
60150		conservation	eng	There is a need to monitor changes in pressure on this species (particularly if there is an increased fishing effort etc). No take zones need to be implemented on Northwest Shelf, which would benefit this and other species. A shift from discarding to retention through increased landings (as the market for ray products increases) could alter the present situation and would need monitoring. <br/> <br/>Further investigation is needed into the life history traits of this species, particularly reproductive biology. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60150		distribution	eng	Northern Australia, from the Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland) through the Northern Territory to at least the Bonaparte Archipelago, Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Possibly also off the southern coast of Papua New Guinea, although not yet verified. Primary part of range is the Northwest Shelf, Western Australia. There appears to be no obvious depth partitioning between the <em>D. kuhlii</em> species complex members, although <em>D. annotata</em> is rarely taken in the coastal zone, generally occurring further offshore.
60150		habitat	eng	Continental shelf on soft substrates in depths of 12 to 62 m (generally not regular at the shallower end of this range). Reaches a maximum size of 45 cm DW (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002), though more commonly at smaller sizes. Fecundity is low at 1 to 2 pups per litter (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). Life history parameters taken from Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  First maturity: 23.3 cm DW (female); First maturity: 20.0 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  45.2 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown
60150		population	eng	Less abundant than other members of the <em>D. kuhlii</em> species-complex (<em>D. kuhlii</em> and <em>D. leylandi</em>).
60150		threats	eng	As with other stingrays, <em>D. annotata</em> is highly susceptible to capture due to its bottom-dwelling nature. The geographic distribution and limited depth range of this species occurs within the area of the vast Northern Prawn Fishery where it is a discarded bycatch species. Also, the effect of fishing on the macrobenthos, which is the primary habitat of this species, is another concern. <br/> <br/>Survivorship after capture of this species is thought to be low. This is a finer body species than other members of the <em>D. kuhlii</em> complex (<em>D. kuhlii</em> and <em>D. leylandi</em>) and as such its robustness to capture by trawl gear appears limited. <br/> <br/>The Northwest Shelf and the Timor Sea (centre of abundance of this species) has been the focus of a number of demersal trawl fisheries since 1959, including by Japanese, Taiwanese and Chinese fleets. Intensive trawling on the NW shelf, particularly by Taiwanese pair trawlers during the 1970s and up until 1990 is likely to have impacted on the batoid community in the area, although no data are available. <br/> <br/>Foreign vessels (Indonesian) operate illegally in northern Australian waters.
60151		conservation	eng	Research actions are urgently needed for this species. Preliminary baseline studies have just started and are in progress to obtain further data on the biology, ecology, habitat status, uses and fishery data of this species. Studies are also needed to better define the distribution of <em>D. colarensis</em>. <br/> <br/>Captures should also be quantified and closely monitored. An effective management plan would also help manage the industrial fishery/exportation of this species. In the future a catch or export quota system may be required. <br/> <br/>Habitat conservation, including the future creation of protected areas, is recommended since within its area of occurrence the industrial fishery is increasing. <br/> <br/>Education and public awareness could also contribute to the understanding that fisheries must be carried out within sustainable yield levels. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Brazil. At the time of writing, Brazil was in the progress of preparing a National Plan of Action (Anonymous 2004), which is in urgent need of implementation.
60151		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively restricted geographical range and is found mainly in the region of influence of the Amazon River discharge. During the dry season it is commonly found in the Marajó Bay region. It is probably present in a few other neighboring areas but further observations and documentation are required.
60151		habitat	eng	Very limited information is available concerning the habitat and ecology of this estuarine species that seems to inhabit shallow costal waters. <br/> <br/>Little known of the species? biology. Reaches at least 165 cm DW. Examined females have had only 1 to 4 pups per litter and the species is thought to produce only a single litter per year. <br/> <br/>This species presents annual movements (migration?) that are influenced by seasonal salinity variations. It moves closer to the coast and enters bays during the dry season and during the rainy season it is not present in bays and moves farther from the coast. These movements seem to be somehow related to the reproductive cycle since most females caught closer to the coast and in bays had embryos in early stages of development. This movement pattern is similar to what has been observed for the freshwater stingray <em>Plesiotrygon iwamae</em> (Charvet-Almeida 2001), however, pregnancy development stages differ between those two species when they are caught closer to the coast and inside bays (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 165 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown but preliminary information indicates once a year. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Observed litters of 1 to 4 pups. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown
60151		population	eng	This species in common in the Marajó Bay region during the dry season of the year (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.). Other population trends and dynamics are completely unknown for this species.
60151		threats	eng	This stingray is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear and is caught mainly as bycatch (hooking, netting and entanglement) in both artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the Amazon estuary. However, recently a directed fishery has commenced and the local industrial fleet started capturing this species to be exported. It is now being currently exported to European countries by a few fishing industries located in the State of Pará (Brazil). <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998).
60152		conservation	eng	<em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> fisheries and bycatch are unmanaged throughout the species range. In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central and South America. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in the eastern tropical Pacific would greatly improve conservation of <em>D. dipterura</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings reported from México and Central America typically lack species-specific details. Large sharks are generally grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while batoids are often simply termed ?manta raya? collectively. Mexican federal fisheries agencies recently began providing slightly more taxonomic resolution of ray landings by listing several new categories. Landings of <em>D. dipterura</em>, however, may still be unknown as they are grouped in the modified category of ?manta raya? that may include dasyatid as well as urotrygonid and mobulid species. Additional monitoring of artisanal elasmobranch fisheries and commercial trawl bycatch on a species-specific basis is critical for detecting trends in effort, abundance, and catch of elasmobranchs. Concise guides to species identification for both fishermen and fisheries biologists would be a valuable aid for improving the monitoring of these landings. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, diet, and further reproductive studies from other portions of the species range are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>D. dipterura</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing the impact of fisheries on a species and would greatly improve population models of this vulnerable species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. dipterura</em>.
60152		distribution	eng	Reports of this stingray from British Columbia, Canada (Hart 1973) are questionable and have not been verified. If accurate, they represent anomalies, as <em>D. dipterura</em> is typically a subtropical to tropical species. The confirmed range is from southern California, USA to Chile (where it is occasional only); including the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983, Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 1995).
60152		habitat	eng	<em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> is a demersal stingray known primarily from relatively shallow, inshore waters over sand and mud bottoms or near rocky outcrops and kelp beds (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). Off southern California, the species has been reported to occupy shallow waters (intertidal to 7 m) in the summer and moves to depths of 13 to 17.7 m during the late fall and winter months (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974). In Chile the species has been reported at depths of 3 to 30 m. However, Chave and Mundy (1994) reported <em>D. dipterura</em> from depths of 52 to 150 m over sand bottoms in the Hawaiian archipelago. The Hawaiian records may represent a misidentification or indicate that a much broader depth range may be potentially utilized by this species. <br/> <br/>The limited biological information available for <em>D. dipterura</em> is derived primarily from the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, Baja California Sur, México. These parameters may differ markedly throughout the species? range. In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, courtship and insemination is thought to occur in the late summer during July and August (Mariano-Melendez 1997). Sperm storage or diapause may contribute to delayed development of embryos and gestation is suggested to occur over 2 to 2.5 months with pupping taking place the following summer (July-September) in shallow estuaries (Mariano-Melendez 1997). Reproduction appears to be annual and litter sizes range from one to four pups (Mariano-Melendez 1997, Smith 2004). Reproductive mode is aplacental viviparity in which embryos are nourished by a combination of a small yolk-sac and histotrophe secreted from the uterus (as with all myliobatoid rays). Only a single ovary is functional. Maximum size is ~100 cm disc width (DW) (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995) and size at birth ranges 18 to 23 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997, Smith 2004). The median size at maturity is estimated to be 58.5 cm DW (males) and 43.4 cm DW (females). Growth estimates based on vertebral ageing indicate that these sizes correspond to ages of 10 years in females and seven years in males (see life history parameters below for other maturity estimates). Age analysis indicates slow growth rates and maximum observed ages up to 28 years. Von Bertalanffy models estimate growth coefficients of 0.55 y<sup>-1</sup> for females and 0.10 y<sup>-1</sup> for males (Smith 2004). Females attain greater sizes and ages than males.  Catch records suggest that the species may segregate by size and sex (Mathews and Druck-Gonzalez 1975, Smith 2004). <br/> <br/>Diet is comprised primarily of infaunal organisms and large feeding pits are excavated by jetting water and through movements of the pectoral fins. Some epibenthic species are also taken. In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, pea crabs (Pinnotheridae), razor clams (<em>Solyema valvulus</em>) and polychaetes are the primary prey items, in order of decreasing importance (Bizzarro 2005). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  10 years (50% maturity) (Smith 2004) (female); 7 years (50% maturity) (Smith 2004) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50% Maturity: 58.5 cm DW (Smith 2004), 65.5 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997), 1st Maturity: 57 cm DW (Smith 2004) (female); 50% Maturity: 43.3 cm DW (Smith 2004), 45.5 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997), 1st Maturity: 47 cm DW (Smith 2004) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  at least 28 years (maximum observed) (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  ~100 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  18 to 23 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997, Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong>:  14.6 years (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  ~2.5 to 3 months (Mariano-Melendez 1997). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Mariano-Melendez 1997). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Maximum observed: 4 (Mariano-Melendez 1997); Mean litter size: 2.7 (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Mean ? = 1.06 per year (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  General indirect estimates: 0.07 to 0.15 per year (range; multiple methods of estimation) (Smith 2004); Age-specific indirect estimates: 0.03?0.35 per year (range; Peterson and Wroblewski and Chen and Watanabe approaches) (Smith 2004).
60152		population	eng	Rough estimates of <em>D. dipterura</em> abundance were calculated by Mathews and Druck-Gonzalez (1975) from the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, Baja California Sur, México based on trawl surveys. These authors noted a distinct seasonal trend in abundance within the lagoon complex and estimated 112,000 individuals present in February, increasing to 378,000 in August. Species identifications were problematic and these estimates may include <em>D. longa</em> or urotrygonid rays. In the Gulf of California, exploratory trawl surveys indicated that <em>D. dipterura</em> comprised 26% of the total demersal catch weight (Flores <em>et al</em>. 1995). No details on the abundance of this species outside of México are available. <br/> <br/>In Chile, the southern extent of the species? distribution, and southern California, the northern extent of its distribution, this species is rare.  In Chile, it is known only from three specimens taken in the north (Antofagasta). Its occurrence in these extremities of its range appears to be linked to suitable climatic conditions due to El Niño (Lamilla, <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ebert, 2003). <br/> <br/>No information on subpopulations or fragmentation is available.
60152		threats	eng	Directed artisanal fisheries and incidental catch among trawl fisheries and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets, longlines, or traps. <br/> <br/><em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> represents a primary component of artisanal elasmobranch fishery catches of the Pacific coast of México and the Gulf of California (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Smith 2004, Bizzarro 2005). Its contribution to the fishery is likely underestimated due to the lack of species-specific landing information and potential misidentification. Although present in artisanal landings throughout the year, catches of this stingray are highest during the summer and fall (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987; Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000). <em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> is the second most abundant batoid landed in coastal waters of Sonora, México, comprising ~19% of all batoid landings in seasonal surveys conducted in 1998 and 1999 (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>., unpublished data, Márquez-Farías 2002). This species is targeted during primarily summer months in Bahía Almejas, located in the southern portion of the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, Baja California Sur, México. In this embayment, it is most abundant batoid species landed in August (~43%) and the fourth most abundant batoid in June landings (~8%) (Bizzarro 2005). Individuals are primarily captured in demersal gillnets in which their tail spines are entangled. This method of entanglement allows a wide range of mesh sizes to be effective for capturing juveniles as well as adults. Juveniles comprised the majority of individuals landed in the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex artisanal elasmobranch fishery during 1998?2000 (Smith 2004, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro and Smith in preparation). <br/> <br/>Based on records from exploratory fishing surveys, it is likely that this species represents a significant component of trawl bycatch fisheries (especially shrimp trawl bycatch) in the Mexican Pacific (Mathews and Druck-Gonzalez 1975, Flores <em>et al</em>. 1995). No information is available on the species? actual contribution to bycatch in other artisanal or trawl fisheries in México, or through its Central and South American range. <br/> <br/>Many coastal embayments and mangrove lagoons in north Pacific México, which serve as habitat for <em>D. dipterura</em>, are being altered for the purpose of shrimp farming. Although these activities are presently limited, their expected increase could detrimentally alter suitable habitat for this species (Bizzarro pers. obs.).
60153		conservation	eng	Research actions are required for this species. Preliminary base-line studies are in progress to obtain further data on the biology, ecology, uses and fishery data of this species. <br/> <br/>Captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range and to verify if there are tendencies of increase. Industries that recently began processing minced fish products are very likely to show an interest for this species as for other dasyatids. <br/> <br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation are desired for most coastal species that are likely to be susceptible to environmental changes. <br/> <br/>Education and public awareness could also contribute to the understanding that future increases in catches should be carefully studied and monitored. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. geijskesi</em>.
60153		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively restricted geographic range (northern Atlantic coast of South America), ranging from northern Brazil to the Venezuelan coast, including French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1992, Uyeno <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is found mainly in the region of influence of the Amazon River discharge. During the dry season it is found closer to the shore and is present in the Marajó Bay region (authors? observations).
60153		habitat	eng	It is considered a shallow water species (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1992) but Uyeno <em>et al</em>. (1983) have reported that it was found at greater depths (810 m). The authors have observed it at depths of 8 to 20 m. <br/> <br/>Very little data is available about the habitat and ecology of this marine/estuarine species that seems to inhabit mainly shallow costal waters. <br/> <br/>As for other dasyatids found in the North region of South America, this species exhibits movements (migrations?) associated with seasonal salinity variations. It moves closer to the coast and enters bays during the dry season and during the rainy season it moves farther from the coast. These movements might be related to the reproductive cycle, since most females caught close to the coast and in bays had embryos in early stages of development as observed in <em>Dasyatis colarensis</em>. This movement pattern is also similar to that observed for the freshwater stingray <em>Plesiotrygon iwamae</em> (Charvet-Almeida 2001), however, pregnancy development stages differ between <em>D. geijskesi</em> and <em>P. iwamae</em> when these two species are found close to the coast (authors? information). <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of this species is currently under study. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 150 cm DW (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Preliminary data indicates once a year (authors? observation). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Observed litters of 1 to 3 pups (authors? observation). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60153		population	eng	This species is not very common as other dasyatid species throughout its distribution range. Population size, trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species.
60153		threats	eng	This stingray is caught as a bycatch (hooking, netting and entanglement) in artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the Amazon estuary. This species is also taken regionally as a secondary option subsistence food source. Fishery industries tend to show an interest in large dasyatids as a source of minced fish products, implying that exploitation pressure and population depletion may increase in the future. <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998), particularly given this species? large size and low fecundity.
60154		conservation	eng	Base-line research actions are required to obtain further life history data about this species including population data and trends. There are already studies in progress on some biological aspects. <br/> <br/>Monitoring of the bycatch is needed to verify if this activity is sustainable or if it represents a significant threat for <em>D. hypostigma</em>. Management plans are also recommended for this species, particularly given its inshore occurrence in fished areas. <br/> <br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation should also ensure coastal protected areas. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Brazil. At the time of writing, Brazil was in the progress of preparing a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004), which is in urgent need of implementation.
60154		distribution	eng	Presently recognised from the southeastern and southern coasts of Brazil. Both the northern and southernmost limits of the species? range are not well defined and it may occur through Uruguay to Argentina as far as Mar del Plata (Santos and Carvalho 2004).
60154		habitat	eng	This coastal species has been captured in shallow waters, in depths that range from 5 to 80 m but commonly within 5 to 40 m (Santos and Carvalho 2004). It is also found in estuaries. <br/> <br/>Since this species has been misidentified with at least one other dasyatid species, it is uncertain if any of the ecology data available truly corresponds to <em>D. hypostigma</em> or not. Life history parameters must be collected considering now the correct identification of this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  58 cm is the maximum DW indicated in the original description (Santos and Carvalho 2004). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60154		population	eng	This is a very common species in southern and southeastern Brazil.
60154		threats	eng	Bottom trawl nets used in the artisanal and industrial shrimp fisheries are probably the biggest threat for this species. It is taken as bycatch in fisheries that take place mainly in the States of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). <br/> <br/>This species is also subject to threats caused by habitat loss/degradation and infrastructure development (mainly industry and human settlement) in regions near or around the bigger coastal cities where mangroves areas are being removed. Water pollution may also represent a threat for this species in some areas. <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, at present, little information is available on the biology of this species, partly due to misidentifications in the past.
60155		conservation	eng	Catch levels need to be documented and careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected. Information on the species? biology is required to inform management decisions. <br/> <br/>Effective implementation of the Japanese National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (under the FAO International Plan of Action: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Japan.
60155		distribution	eng	Found only from shallow coastal waters of the Izu Peninsula, Pacific coast of Japan (Nishida and Nakaya 1990).
60155		habitat	eng	Known from less than 10 specimens. Limited depth range on the continental shelf at 10 to 20 m. Biology is virtually unknown. It is a relatively small stingray maturing at ~37 cm DW and reaching at least 42 cm DW (Nishida and Nakaya 1988). <br/> <br/>Dasyatidae are mostly demersal in inshore waters, although several species range offshore and a few large species occur along the upper continental slopes as deep as 480 m. Several species are euryhaline while some others are confined to freshwater. All are aplacental viviparous. Litter varies between two to six young with gestation periods, which may take as long as 12 months (Last and Compagno 1999). Life history parameters taken from Nishida and Nakaya (1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  ~37 cm DW (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  41.8 cm DW (holotype). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60155		population	eng	Population size possibly small given limited range.
60155		threats	eng	<em>Dasyatis izuensis</em> can be collected by gillnets in shallow coastal waters in Japan (Nishida and Nakaya 1990). Probably taken as bycatch by the Japanese coastal bottom trawl fishery and to a lesser extent by set nets (H. Ishihara pers. com.). Care should be taken as any fishing impact on this species might have greater effects due to its narrow geographical and bathymetrical distribution. An increase of fishing pressure in this location would have dramatic effects on this endemic species.
60156		conservation	eng	<p>Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and various bycatch reduction devices are mandatory within all tropical Australian prawn trawl fisheries, although the Painted Maskray is unlikely to be effectively excluded by current devices due to its small size (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 2006). Generally, evaluation of the Painted Maskray’s conservation status would be facilitated by improved monitoring of bycatch species, in terms of both the absolute numbers caught and trends in abundance. </p>
60156		distribution	eng	The Painted Maskray occurs in northwestern Australia between Shark Bay and Eighty Mile Beach (Western Australia) (Last and Stevens 2009).
60156		habitat	eng	<p>The Painted Maskray is most common in depths of 15–90 m (Last and Stevens 2009), but has been caught in trawl surveys between 100 and 200 m (Rose and Shark Advisory Group 2001). It is a small maskray species, reaching a maximum size of approximately 27 cm disc width. It is viviparous (aplacental) with litters of 1–3 pups (Last and Stevens 2009). Diet consists of small invertebrates including crustaceans (particularly shrimps) and polychaete worms (Last and Stevens 2009). </p>
60156		population	eng	<p>There is no information on populations of the Painted Maskray.</p>
60156		threats	eng	<p>Demersal trawl fisheries are likely to pose the greatest threat to Painted Maskray populations. The species is a likely bycatch of state managed Northern Prawn Managed Fisheries (NPMF), Shark Bay Prawn and Scallop Managed Fisheries, Exmouth Gulf Prawn Managed Fishery and North Coast Demersal Fisheries (NCDF) within its range in Western Australia (Fletcher and Santoro 2009). The Painted Maskray is apparently not present as a bycatch within the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf region of the Commonwealth managed Northern Prawn Fishery (Tonks <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>    <p>While the Painted Maskray is a known bycatch within many of these areas, little information is available. Recent effort levels and spatial coverage of fishing within the NPMF and NCDF on the northern coast of Western Australia are low (Fletcher and Santoro 2009) and are unlikely to have broad-scale impacts on the species. Fishing effort within Shark Bay and surrounds is concentrated on a relatively small section of the total available area (Fletcher and Santoro 2009). Although the impacts of these fisheries on the Painted Maskray are difficult to assess, it appears that effects are likely to be mitigated by the large areas of habitat that are either not available, through seasonal or area closures in managed fisheries or other protection, or not utilized by existing fisheries. </p>
60157		conservation	eng	In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>D. longa</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management, but progress has been seriously delayed. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>D. longa</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. Large sharks are typically grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while all batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Mexican federal fisheries agencies began providing slightly more taxonomic resolution of ray landings by recently listing several new categories. Landings of <em>D. longa</em>, however, may still not be determined as they are grouped as ?manta raya? which may include dasyatid as well as urotrygonid and mobulid species.  Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends.  Expanded monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and improve our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition to the much needed species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range.  Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. longa</em>.
60157		distribution	eng	Reported from the central Pacific coast of Baja California, México to Colombia including the Galapágos Islands, and possibly north to San Diego, California, USA (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Acero and Franke 1995, Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995). Limited records of the species occurrence are available.
60157		habitat	eng	<em>Dasyatis longa</em> occurs to depths of at least 90 m over sandy bottoms or near reefs (Michael 1993, Acero and Franke 1995). Biological information on the species is sparse. Villavicencio-Garayzar <em>et al</em>. (1994) provided details on the reproductive biology of the species based on 23 female and 28 male specimens from Bahía Alemejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur, México. Males greater than 82 cm disc width (DW) were determined to be mature and females were found to be mature at ~110 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayazar <em>et al</em>. 1994). As in other myliobatoid rays, females possess a single functional ovary. The number of offspring per litter ranges from one to five and size at birth is approximately 40 cm DW (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Villavicencio-Garayazar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Gravid females have been captured containing near term embryos in shallow estuaries and tidal creeks in the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex during late summer months. It is possible that these areas are used as pupping or nursery grounds with females returning to deeper water following parturition (W. Smith personal observation). Mating may occur in the summer shortly after pupping. The gestation period is estimated 10 to 11 months (Villavicencio-Garayazar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Diet is reported to consist primarily of crustaceans (Beebe and TeeVan 1941). Life history parameters below are taken from Villavicencio-Garayzar <em>et al</em>. (1994). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: ~110 cm DW; Male: ~80 cm DW. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  at least 156 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 to 11 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 5 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60157		population	eng	No information is available on the abundance, population structure, or population dynamics of this species.
60157		threats	eng	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries and indirect landings by unregulated demersal trawl, longline, and gillnet fisheries throughout the species? range. <br/> <br/>The species is highly vulnerable to demersal gillnets. Tail spines are the source of entanglement in netting, making a wide range of mesh sizes effective for capturing juveniles as well as adults. <br/> <br/>In addition to landings reported from the Gulf of California and the Mexican Pacific, the species is described as a component of the artisanal fisheries of Isla Gorgona, Colombia (Acero and Franke 1995). It is likely to contribute to artisanal fisheries throughout Central America, but no specific information is available.
60158		conservation	eng	The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anonymous 2004).
60158		distribution	eng	This Atlantic coast species ranges from the Chesapeake Bay (U.S.A.) through the Gulf of Mexico to Campeche, Mexico (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Thornson 1983).
60158		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in coastal and estuarine waters as well as freshwater lakes in central Florida. This ray is also found in the Mississippi river (USA) and Lake Pontchartran (Louisiana, USA) (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). Coastal populations of <em>D. Sabina</em> seem to prefer sandy substrates (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and are not typically seen at depths greater than 25 m (Funicelli 1975). Aplacental viviparous with mean range of litter size of 2.3 to 2.6 and a gestation period of four months (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988, Johnson and Snelson 1996). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: Coastal Florida: 23?25 cm DW (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988), St. Johns River: 22 cm DW (Johnson and Snelson 1996); Male: Coastal Florida: 20 cm DW (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988), St. Johns River: 21 cm DW (Johnson and Snelson 1996). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  Female: 45 cm DW (Lewis 1982); Male: 33 cm DW (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  Coastal Florida: 10 to 13 cm DW; St. Johns River: 10 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  4 months (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Mean range 2.3 to 2.6 (Johnson and Snelson 1996). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60158		population	eng	<em>Dasyatis Sabina</em> is common in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida (U.S.A.) (Snelson and Williams 1981). Anecdotal evidence indicates that <em>D. Sabina</em> populations are high in Florida coastal waters. These rays are also common in the freshwater St. Johns River and associated lakes in central Florida (McLane 1955, Tagatz 1968, Johnson and Snelson 1996). Data from Texas Parks and Wildlife Department show a decline in catch per unit effort in one of three Texas bays from 1975 to 2001. However, these data are not judged to be significant (R2 <0.20).
60158		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in nearshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. Incidental bycatch of <em>D. Sabina</em> in the shark drift net fishery is low (Trent <em>et al</em>. 1997) and considered insignificant. Thorpe <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported large numbers of Atlantic stingrays caught as bycatch in the commercial gillnet fishery targeting flounder and a small number as bycatch in small-meshed, recreational gillnets and commercial gillnets targeting trout in North Carolina. Most are released, however, and mortality is probably low. No information on catches or population trends in Mexico, where it is probably retained when taken.
60159		conservation	eng	Collection of data on bycatch of the species and use in southern parts of its range is required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. say</em>.
60159		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic. Recorded from Massachusetts and New Jersey in the north (rare) to Florida Keys, eastern, northern and western Gulf of Mexico west to Texas and south to Mexico (rare), Greater and Lesser Antilles, eastern Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago. It has not been recorded from the southern Gulf of Mexico or the Caribbean coast of Central America. Records from Brazil and northern Argentina probably based on misidentifications of the recently described species <em>Dasyatis hypostigma</em> (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996, McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, Santos and de Carvalho 2004).
60159		habitat	eng	Benthic in bays, estuaries, lagoons and coastal waters, usually at depths <10 m, and rarely to 20 m. No permanent freshwater populations known. <br/> <br/>Reaches a maximum size of 78 cm DW. Viviparous with litters of 1 to 6 annually after a gestation period of 10 to 11 months (including a period of embryonic diapause). <br/> <br/>Diet consists of benthic and infaunal invertebrates and demersal teleosts. Stomachs of three bluntnose stingrays in Chesapeake Bay contained the stomatopod <em>Squilla empusa</em> and the paralichthid flounder <em>Etropus crossotus</em> (D. Grubbs unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 50 to 54 cm DW; Male: 30 to 36cm DW. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  78 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  15 to 17 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 to 11 months (including a period of embryonic diapause). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 6, mean 3.5, mode 3 young per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60159		population	eng	Centre of distribution and abundance is the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Species becomes rare and patchy further south. <br/> <br/>The species is common in Delaware Bay (Hess 1959), Chesapeake Bay (Murdy <em>et al</em>. 1997), the Indian River Lagoon system on the east coast of Florida (Snelson and Williams 1981), and the northern Gulf of Mexico (Funicelli 1975). Snelson <em>et al</em>. (1989) give tangle net CPUE data for the Indian River Lagoon system in Florida. CPUE varied seasonally and regionally with salinity, but no population trends were evident over three years. The species is taken occasionally in the VIMS (Virginia Institute of Marine Science) longline survey, but no population trends are evident from 1996?2003 (J. Musick <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).
60159		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in nearshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. In US waters, most are released, however, and mortality is probably low. Thorpe <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported bluntnose stingrays as minor bycatch in small-meshed, recreational gillnets and commercial gillnets targeting flounder in North Carolina. <br/> <br/>Little information available on catches and utilization in the Caribbean and southern parts of the species? range. Probably taken as bycatch in these areas, however the species becomes rare and patchy further south and so any directed or incidental catches would pose little threat to the species as a whole, although may affect local populations.
60160		conservation	eng	Collection of catch data required across range. Harvest management needed in near future. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. zugei</em>.
60160		distribution	eng	Reasonably wide Indo-West Pacific range.
60160		habitat	eng	<em>Dasyatis zugei</em> occurs on the inner continental shelf in depths of typically less than 100 m and usually shallower, over flat, sandy substratum.  <br/> <br/>Attains maturity at ~19 cm DW (females) and ~18 cm DW (males) and attains maximum sizes of 29 cm DW, but more frequently to 24 cm DW (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White unpublished data). This species is aplacental viviparous, giving birth to 1 to 3 young after an unknown gestation period at a size of approximately 8 to 10 cm DW. In Indonesia this species does not appear to follow an annual reproductive cycle with embryos of varying sizes observed in most months sampled (W. White unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Diet not well known but preliminary examination reveals they prey predominantly on small crustaceans (mostly prawns) (W. White unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 19.1 cm DW (W. White unpublished data); Male: 17.8 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width/total length):  29 cm DW; 75 cm TL (Last and Compagno 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  8 to 10 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 3 young/litter (?? Litters/year) (W. White unpublished data) . <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60160		population	eng	Nothing known of population structure or size, although taken in large numbers by fisheries in some parts of its range (i.e., Gulf of Thailand and the Java Sea).
60160		threats	eng	<em>Dasyatis zugei</em> is a significant component of the elasmobranch bycatch from fish and prawn trawlers operating within its range, for example in the Gulf of Thailand and the Java Sea (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs.). This species is also commonly caught off Indian coastal waters in intensive demersal fisheries that occur in that region (Hanfee 1999). There are very high levels of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its range and since it is caught in such large numbers (in all size ranges) by trawlers, it is under a severe level of threat within most of its range. <br/> <br/>Typically all are retained and survivability of any discards would presumably be low due to their morphology.
60161		conservation	eng	Research actions are urgently needed for this species. Preliminary base-line studies are required to obtain data on the biology, ecology, uses and fishery data of this species, and in the first instance taxonomic status. <br/> <br/>Captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range. <br/> <br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation should also be considered as conservation actions for this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>H. schmardae</em>.
60161		distribution	eng	This tropical species is reportedly found on sandy bottoms and occasionally near coral reefs (Michael 1983) in the Gulf of Campeche (Mexico) to Brazil including the Lesser and Greater Antilles (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 1978, Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1992, Claro 1994, Almeida <em>et al</em>. in press). It has rarely been observed in the Amazon estuary region (Almeida et al. in press).
60161		habitat	eng	No information was found on the habitat and ecology of this species. Most citations refer only to its presence in species lists. Probably occurs inshore including estuarine areas. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  200 cm DW (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60161		population	eng	This species is not very common within its range. Population size, trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species.
60161		threats	eng	This species is reportedly caught as bycatch in artisanal and industrial fisheries (hooking and netting). This species is also taken as a subsistence food source. <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998).
60162		conservation	eng	<em>Taeniura meyeni</em> is afforded protection in some regions in marine protected areas. These include the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia and in marine reserves created around diving sites in the Maldives in recognition of the high value of sharks and rays to tourism (Anderson and Waheed 2001). <br/> <br/>The Maldives banned the export of rays on 1995 and the export of ray skins in 1996. Again, this was to protect the tourism resource (Anderson and Waheed 2001). <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>T. meyeni</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. meyeni</em>.
60162		distribution	eng	Wide Indo-West Pacific distribution.
60162		habitat	eng	Benthic around coral reef habitats and on sand substrates from the surf zone offshore to 439 m depth (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Compagno 1999). Very little is known of its biology. Aplacental viviparous with reported litter sizes of up to seven young (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Feeds on bivalves, crabs, shrimp and benthic fishes (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: unknown; Male: 100 to 110 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  180 cm DW; ~330 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~35 cm DW; 67 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994); 33 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter sizes up to 7 (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60162		population	eng	Relationships between populations across its wide distribution not known.
60162		threats	eng	The species is caught by line gear and trawl throughout its range. Throughout Southeast Asia there is significant fishing pressure on large batoids, and whether targeted or taken as bycatch, all are landed and utilised. For example, in Indonesia <em>Taeniura meyeni</em> is regularly taken in low numbers by tangle netters operating out of Jakarta (Java), Bali and Merauke (West Papua), while demersal longliners that operate out of Lombok and large pair trawlers operating out of Merauke irregularly take adults. The latter fishery consists of some 650 vessels and pressure is intense where the vessels operate in the Arafura Sea. Low numbers of juveniles are also taken by prawn and fish trawlers around Indonesia, particularly in the Java Sea. <br/> <br/>Overall, fishing pressure is significant over most of the species? range throughout Asia and across its Indian Ocean range (India, East Africa etc.). Additional pressure exists on its habitat in that region due to destructive fishing practices (dynamite fishing) and run-off impacting coral reef systems, the main habitat of the species. <br/> <br/>In Australia, the species is a discarded bycatch in demersal prawn trawl fisheries. In the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), <em>Taeniura meyeni</em> had a mean catch rate of 0.4 individuals/km2 and was classified as amongst the least sustainable elasmobranch bycatch species in the fishery (this assessment combines the species? susceptibility to capture and mortality due to trawling and the capacity of the species to recover after depletion by trawling) (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). The mandatory use of Turtle Exclusions Devices in prawn trawl fisheries operating off northern Australia (including the NPF and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery) should limit the catch of this species in these fisheries. <br/> <br/>Taken by recreational surf and skiboat anglers off South Africa, but is apparently released unharmed (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Also a bycatch of offshore trawlers off southern Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).
60163		conservation	eng	Monitoring of bycatch levels in various fisheries (recreational, commercial beach seine, gillnet and trawl) in all parts of the species? range is required. Investigation into potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities warrants consideration. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, the species? habitat is afforded some protection in a number of smaller Marine Protected Areas (MPA) including the West Coast National Park which encompasses Laangebaan Lagoon, Pondoland MPA, Table Mountain National Park and others. The declaration of the proposed Namaqualand MPA, which would protect 9,700 km² between the Spoeg and Groen Rivers, would provide further protection for the habitat of this and other species occurring off southwestern Africa. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one per species per person per day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. annulatus</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia?s National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) has been approved by the government, South Africa?s is stalled, still awaiting government approval and this process should occur as a matter of urgency. At the time of writing Angola had expressed its intention to begin to develop an NPOA (Anon. 2004).
60163		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa from southern Angola to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
60163		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters from the shoreline to 50 to 100 m depth, including estuaries, the surf zone and enclosed bays, where it burrows beneath the sand. Sandy areas are used as nursery areas (Rossouw 1983). Possible offshore migration during winter and longshore migration of juveniles is also an unverified possibility (Rossouw 1983, Buxton <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>Copulation occurs in shallow inshore waters off sandy beaches. Aplacental viviparous, with females bearing litters of 2 to 10 young (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), which in South Africa, are born in the late summer (March-April). Offspring remain in shallows for at least one year. Maximum documented age is seven years and reaches 140 cm TL (Rossouw 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Consumes infaunal invertebrates such as swimming crabs, mole crabs, small fishes, polychaete annelid worms, amphipods, and isopods. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  50% maturity: 3 years (male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 50% maturity: 61.5 to 65 cm TL; Male: 50% maturity: 58 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  7 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  140 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  23 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong>:  2 to 3 years. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 10 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60163		population	eng	A common species, the most abundant rhinobatid in southern African waters. Stocks of the species are not characterized, but there are possibly two separate stocks, one in the Western Cape area, South Africa and northward into southern Angolan waters, and the other along the southeastern African coast.
60163		threats	eng	This guitarfish is subject to fishing mortality from recreational beach anglers and commercial fisheries, being commonly caught during shore angling tournaments, and being taken as bycatch in commercial gillnet, beach seine and trawl fisheries in South Africa and Namibia. No information is available on catches in Angola. <br/> <br/>Gillnet and beach seine fisheries in the Western Cape of South Africa report bycatch of <em>R. annulatus</em>, but overall these catches are not significant (Freer and Griffiths 1993, Hutchings and Lamberth 2002). Some beach seine fishers have reported substantial landings of <em>R. annulatus</em> (up to 10t per year, likely also including <em>R. blochii</em> due to identification issues), but surveying suggests that this is uncommon and overall effort from this fishery is small (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002). Bycatch of <em>R. annulatus</em> in the gillnet fishery appears to be negligible (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002) with Freer and Griffiths (1993) reporting that <em>R. annulatus</em> are returned live to the water. <em>Rhinobatos annulatus</em> forms an irregular component of the bycatch of commercial prawn trawlers on the Tugela Bank, KwaZulu-Natal, occurring in 2.4% of trawls surveyed (Fennessy 1994). Those recorded in that fishery were primarily immature (Fennessy 1994). <br/> <br/>Potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities also warrants consideration.
60164		conservation	eng	Monitoring of catch records from local fisheries is required and investigation into potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities warrants consideration. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, the species? habitat is afforded some protection in the small West Coast National Park, which encompasses Laangebaan Lagoon. Fishing is prohibited in two management zones of the park. The declaration of the proposed Namaqualand Marine Protected Area (MPA), which would protect 9,700 km² between the Spoeg and Groen Rivers, would greatly benefit this and other species occurring off southwestern Africa. Given the fiddlefish?s apparent rarity and endemism this MPA would be of high conservation value for this species. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a by a bag limit of one per species per person per day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. blochii</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia?s National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) has been approved by the government, South Africa?s is stalled, still awaiting government approval and this process should occur as a matter of urgency.
60164		distribution	eng	Narrow range limited to ~1,000 km of the western coast of Southern Africa in Namibia and South Africa.
60164		habitat	eng	A little known species, <em>R. blochii</em> occurs in shallow bays and off sandy beaches. Aplacental viviparous, but its biology is unknown. Maximum recorded size 96 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  96 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60164		population	eng	Reported to be a rare species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), however there is no knowledge of the species? population size or structure. Approximately 15?20% of rhinobatid species caught in light tackle ski boat competitions in Laangebaan Lagoon were <em>R. blochii</em> (D. Ebert, pers. comm.).
60164		threats	eng	Restricted range, apparent rarity, unknown population size, and occurrence in relatively shallow depths make this species potentially vulnerable to fishing activities. There is however minimal fishing pressure in the species area of occurrence and it is not being taken in any local fisheries with any regularity. Gillnet and beach seine fisheries in the Western Cape report bycatch of <em>R. annulatus</em> (Freer and Griffiths 1993, Hutchings and Lamberth 2002) and it is most likely that <em>R. blochii</em> forms a small component of this bycatch, but overall catches of <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. are not significant. Some beach seine fishers have reported substantial landing of <em>R. annulatus</em> (up to 10t per year, likely including <em>R. blochii</em> due to identification issues), but surveying suggests that this is uncommon and overall effort from this fishery is small (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002). Bycatch of <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. in the gillnet fishery appears to be negligible (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002) with Freer and Griffiths (1993) reporting that <em>R. annulatus</em> are returned live to the water. <br/> <br/>Recreational fishermen along the Namibia coast catch this species but they are not targeted nor are they used, with most individuals being released. The inaccessibility of parts of this species range due both to remoteness and diamond mine leases puts areas of the coast beyond recreational fishers. However, catch records from local fisheries should continue to be monitored. <br/> <br/>Potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities also warrants consideration.
60165		conservation	eng	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries where this species is taken and landed around Taiwan. The species? occurrence in the Philippines requires validation. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. At the time of writing, Taiwan had not made progress towards implementing a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004).
60165		distribution	eng	Restricted distribution in the Western Pacific off Taiwan and possibly a small area of the Philippines, off the mouth of Manila Bay, Luzon, although this occurrence is uncertain (Compagno and Last 1999, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
60165		habitat	eng	Inshore (from the intertidal zone to unknown depth) in warm temperate to tropical waters. Unconfirmed occurrence off northern Philippines is in 119 m depth, so also possibly an offshore species. <br/> <br/>Little known of biology. Aplacental viviparous. Examination of a single gravid female <em>R. formosensis</em> at Makung fish market in the Penghu Islands, Taiwan in late May 2005 revealed a litter of 14 near-term pups ranging in size 196 to 207 mm TL (average: 201 mm TL). Sex ratio of embryos was 1:0.75 (F:M). Large follicles of ~25 mm diameter were present in the ovaries, indicating that ovulation may occur soon after parturition (P. Kyne pers. comm.). Reproductive periodicity is annual in examined <em>Rhinobatos</em> species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 99.7 cm TL (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~20 to 21 cm TL (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Probably annual (based on other <em>Rhinobatos</em> species). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  14 pups/litter (based on one female) (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60165		population	eng	Suspected to be decreasing throughout its narrow range where it is fished both directly and indirectly.
60165		threats	eng	The restricted range, biology and inshore habitat of this species make it highly susceptible to population depletion. This rhinobatid is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and its occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. The species is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure and landed where the flesh is utilised. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos</em> species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. <br/> <br/>The entire known area of occurrence of <em>R. formosensis</em> is impacted by intense and generally unregulated and unmonitored fisheries. In the Penghu Islands in the Taiwan Strait, the species appears to be a regular part of elasmobranch landings and observed catches of gravid females with near-term embryos, suggesting that the species is actively being fished in potential nursery areas is of concern (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Although exact catch data are not available, declines of greater than 30% are expected to have already occurred given the intensity of pressure on the inshore marine environment around Taiwan. Furthermore, fishing pressure continues unabated over this species? range and habitat.
60166		conservation	eng	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution and to confirm presence in certain areas where it might have been previously been misidentified. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>R. granulosus</em>.
60166		distribution	eng	Indo-West Pacific but range not accurately defined. Occurrence in the Western Indian needs better documentation. Possibly occurs off China, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Australia, but confusion with <em>Rhinobatos typus</em> confounds accurate mapping of range, particularly in the Western Pacific.
60166		habitat	eng	Inshore and offshore to mid-continental shelf down to 119 m. Benthic on soft substrates. <br/> <br/>Little known of biology. Aplacental viviparous. Prasad (1951) documented litter sizes of 6 to 10 pups. Reproductive periodicity is annual in examined <em>Rhinobatos</em> species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  215 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Probably annual (based on other <em>Rhinobatos</em> species). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  6 to 10 pups/litter (Prasad 1951). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60166		population	eng	Was most abundant off India and Sri Lanka. Once moderately abundant but now irregularly caught in fisheries.
60166		threats	eng	<em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em> is fished throughout its range, both directly and indirectly. It was once moderately abundant but is now irregularly caught in local fisheries. <br/> <br/>This large rhinobatid is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and its occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. The species is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure where the flesh is utilised and the demand for fins for the international fin trade could be a factor in the switch from subsistence fisheries to more directed, commercial export fisheries of especially the larger guitarfish in areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos</em> species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. <br/> <br/>The entire known area of occurrence of <em>R. granulatus</em> is impacted by often intense and generally unregulated and unmonitored fisheries. The centre of abundance for this species, off India and Sri Lanka, is impacted upon by a high level of resource utilisation, as is most of the Southeast Asian region. Fishing pressure is consistently increasing in these areas and the demand for fins for the international fin trade is helping drive landings of large guitarfish. Although exact catch data are not available this species is seen less regularly than it was previously and declines of greater than 30% are expected to have already occurred, while fishing pressure continues unabated over this species? range and habitat.
60167		conservation	eng	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>R. hynnicephalus</em>.
60167		distribution	eng	Tropical and warm temperate waters in the Northwest Pacific.
60167		habitat	eng	Inshore over the continental shelf. Benthic. Aplacental viviparous. Reproductive biology was studied off Xiamen, Fujian Province, China by Wenbin and Shuyuan (1993). Parturition of 2 to 9 pups takes place in June/July after a gestation period of 12 months with ovulation occurring soon after parturition (Wenbin and Shuyuan 1993). Number of embryos was related to maternal size with larger females more fecund (Wenbin and Shuyuan 1993). Life history parameters taken from Wenbin and Shuyuan (1993). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 39 to 44 cm TL; Male: 38 to 40 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  62.2 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  16 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months . <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 9 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60167		population	eng	Unknown.
60167		threats	eng	This species? biology and inshore habitat make it highly susceptible to population depletion. This rhinobatid is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and its occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. <em>Rhinobatos hynnicephalus</em> is known to be taken by year-round commercial trawl and gillnet fisheries off Fujian, China and net and line fisheries operate over much of the coastal range of this species. The species is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure and landed where the flesh is utilised. Pressure along the Chinese coast is only likely to increase and this species will continue to be impacted upon. This is, however, a small species of rhinobatid (to 62.2 cm TL) and so may be slightly more resilient than larger, slower growing species. That said, it is still unlikely to withstand the present level of fishing pressure across its range and habitat. <br/> <br/>Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos</em> species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution.
60168		conservation	eng	In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>R. leucorhynchus</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management, but progress has been seriously delayed. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. leucorhynchus</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends. Expanded monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and improve our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition to the much-needed species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range.  Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. leucorhynchus</em>.
60168		distribution	eng	Ranges from Lagunas Ojo de Liebre-Guerrero Negro, central Baja California (Arellano Martinez et al. 1997), to Ecuador (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995) including Gulf of California (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa Peréz 1996, Robertson and Allen 2002, Bizzarro, pers. obs.) Also reported from Galapagos Islands and to Peru, but source unverified (Robertson and Allen 2002). Rare in northern Gulf of California and Baja Pacific (Bizzarro pers. obs., Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). Because it can be confused with other rhinobatid species in this region, it is possible that reports of this species off the Baja Pacific coast and perhaps in the northern Gulf of California are misidenfications or else this species likely only reaches these areas during periods of elevated water temperatures.  Most common south of Mazatlan, México (Bizzarro pers. obs).
60168		habitat	eng	Demersal, benthic in shallow marine coastal waters and embayments, especially on sandy substrates (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, J. Bizzarro pers. obs). Reported in intertidal waters and (questionably) to 50 m (Robertson and Allen 2002), verified to only 8 m (Arrellano Martinez <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Biology is unknown. Aplacental viviparous like other rhinobatids. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  62.5 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60168		population	eng	Population structure unknown.
60168		threats	eng	The species is taken in directed artisanal elasmobranch landings. Taken in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery in México with bottomset gillnets, especially off Sinaloa and south of Mazatlan (R. Hueter et al. unpublished data, A. Torres pers. comm.). Likely landed in southern portion of range as well, but can?t be verified as no information is available for this region. <br/> <br/>Indirect landings by commercial trawl and gillnets. Reported as common bycatch in shrimp trawling operations in the southern Gulf of California and southern Mexican Pacific (L. Castillo-Geniz pers. comm., A. Torres pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in Sinaloa, México are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming.  Since <em>R. leucorhynchus</em> is thought to frequent these areas, this activity could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas. This practice may also be occurring in the southern portion of its range, but no data is available.
60169		conservation	eng	Further specimens are required to document the species? range and biology. The Russian collected specimen needs to be compared to the holotype of <em>R. nudidorsalis</em> to see if it represents a second specimen of the species (M. Stehmann pers. comm.). Further survey work should focus on the Saya de Malha Bank as well as other banks along the Mascarene Ridge (Seychelles Bank, Nazareth Bank and Mauritius Bank). <br/> <br/>High seas benthic trawling activities are impacting poorly known oceanic environments on a global basis (Gianni 2004). High seas fishing activities require international regulation to ensure endemic fauna is not adversely impacted when taken in directed fisheries or as bycatch.
60169		distribution	eng	Possibly endemic to the Mascarene Ridge (central Indian Ocean) and as presently known has a very restricted range. Available habitat on the entire Saya de Malha Bank is calculated to be 22,000 km² based on the area between the 50 and 200 m isobaths (L.J.V. Compagno unpublished data). Further survey work may show that the species has a wider distribution, for example on the other banks of the Mascarene Ridge (Seychelles Bank, Nazareth Bank and Mauritius Bank), and these areas are where survey work should attempt to locate the species.
60169		habitat	eng	Single known specimen (the holotype) is a 50.1 cm TL mature male taken at a depth of 125 m on an oceanic ridge (Last <em>et al</em>. 2004). Likely to be a small to moderate sized species of rhinobatid given that the holotype was mature at 50 cm TL (Last <em>et al</em>. 2004). Nothing known of the species? biology, but <em>Rhinobatos</em> species are aplacental viviparous with litter sizes ranging 2 to 16 and an annual reproductive cycle. <br/> <br/>A second <em>Rhinobatos</em> specimen collected by Russian surveys from the Saya de Malha Bank in 1989 is likely to be this species, although this has not been confirmed. This specimen was taken in similar depths as the holotype (87 to 110 m) (M. Stehmann pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: holotype mature at 50.1 cm TL (Last <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 50 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60169		population	eng	Population is inferred to be small based on potentially limited area of available habitat.
60169		threats	eng	There is no specific information available neither on fishing activities in the species? area of occurrence nor on catches of this ray. However, Saya de Malha Bank is a large, relatively shallow, easily accessible oceanic feature likely to be presently targeted by high seas fishing vessels. <br/> <br/>There is an increasing trend for fishing vessels operating out of African ports to target such oceanic features for high value teleosts including wreck bass and toothfish. The fact that this bank is remote and beyond any national Economic Exclusion Zone, and therefore is not governed by fishing regulations or subject to fisheries patrols makes it an appealing fishing zone. High seas fishing is likely to continue to grow in the future as resources within national jurisdiction are depleted and/or as restrictions are placed on resources/fisheries under national jurisdiction (Gianni 2004). <br/> <br/>Even despite any available catch data, unregulated and unmonitored fishing activities pose a real threat to <em>R. nudidorsalis</em> whose available habitat on the Saya de Malha Bank (calculated as the area between the 50 and 200 m isobaths) is limited to just over 20,000 km². This is an unusual rhinobatid as most other species have a coastal occurrence. The central Western Indian Ocean is not well surveyed and further survey work is required. <br/> <br/>A precautionary approach is taken to this assessment, factoring in present trends of unregulated and unmonitored fisheries on the high seas targeting high value teleost products, the accessibility of the type locality, the low reproductive potential of rhinobatids and the small area of available habitat (inferring a low population size).
60170		conservation	eng	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>R. obtusus</em>.
60170		distribution	eng	Primarily an Eastern Indian species.
60170		habitat	eng	Inshore and offshore distribution along coastal shelves. Benthic. Nothing known of the species? biology, but <em>Rhinobatos</em> species are aplacental viviparous with litter sizes ranging 2 to 16 and an annual reproductive cycle. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  93 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60170		population	eng	Population trends not clear but <em>Rhinobatos obtusus</em> was once moderately abundant throughout its relatively wide range but is now only irregularly caught in local fisheries.
60170		threats	eng	<em>Rhinobatos obtusus</em> was once moderately abundant throughout its relatively wide range but is now only irregularly caught in local fisheries. Coastal rhinobatids are susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and their occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. Target fisheries for guitarfish currently exist in several countries particularly in the Indo-West Pacific (including Malaysia and Indonesia) and declines in some species have been documented. For example, <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> has been significantly impacted by heavy inshore fishing pressure where it occurs in Brazil. Similarly declines are now been observed in species in Southeast Asia, for example <em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em> and others. Species are impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure where the flesh is utilised and the demand for fins for the international fin trade could be a factor in the switch from subsistence fisheries to more directed, commercial export fisheries of especially the larger guitarfish in areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. Reproductive biology of rhinobatids is reasonably well studied compared with other batoid groups. <em>Rhinobatos</em> species tend to have an annual reproductive cycle producing a single litter per year of between two and 16 pups. Landings of aggregations of gravid females which was a factor in the decline of <em>R. horkelii</em> in Brazil and which has been observed for <em>R. formosensis</em> in Taiwan is cause for great concern. These observations likely mirror trends elsewhere where inshore rhinobatids are fished. <br/> <br/>The entire range of <em>R. obtusus</em> is subject to generally unregulated, unmonitored and often intense inshore fisheries and fishing pressure is consistently increasing in these areas. Although exact catch data are not available this species is seen less regularly than it was previously and declines of greater than 30% are expected to have already occurred, while fishing pressure continues unabated over this species? range and habitat.
60171		conservation	eng	There are currently no specific conservation measures in place for this species in US or Mexican waters. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>R. productus</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are also necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anon. 2004).
60171		distribution	eng	This species is reported from San Francisco Bay, California to the southern Gulf of California, Mexico (Miller and Lea 1972, Eschmeyer 1983). Occurrence of this species north of Point Conception, CA, has become rare in recent years, however, and the current range does not extend beyond Elkhorn Slough, central CA. This is likely a result of changing oceanic conditions and not overfishing.
60171		habitat	eng	The shovelnose commonly inhabits sandy or muddy shallow waters of bays, sloughs, and estuaries, typically in waters shallower than 12 m, but also to depths of 91.5 m (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Love 1996). <br/> <br/>Considerable information on reproductive biology and age-growth has been gathered for this species from both the west coast of Baja California Sur (BCS) in Mexico (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, González-García 1998, Downton-Hoffmann 2001, Márquez-Farías unpublished data) and from US Californian waters (Miller and Lea 1972, Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983, Timmons and Bray 1997). This species is aplacental viviparous. <br/> <br/>Fecundity has been reported as 1 to 10 pups/litter (average five) (Márquez-Farías unpublished data) and 6 to 16 pups/litter (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). Gestation takes 4 to 5 months (Márquez-Farías unpublished data). The species has a continuous reproductive cycle. Pregnant females may contain uterine capsules and large ripe ova in both ovaries at the same time, but the reproductive cycle is annual with a single litter per year (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates (i.e., molluscs, crustaceans, worms) and fishes (Ferguson and Cailliet 1990). In Bahía Almejas, its diet consists primarily of crustaceans, including pea crabs, benthic shrimp and swimming crabs and occasional takes small razor clams and fishes (Bizzarro 2005). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 7 years (Timmons and Bray 1997); Male: 7 to 8.4 years (Timmons and Bray 1997). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 99 cm TL (Timmons and Bray 1997), 66 cm TL (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993), 87 cm TL (Dowton-Hoffman, 1996); Male: 91 to 100 cm TL (Timmons and Bray 1997), <63 cm TL (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993), 80 cm TL (Dowton-Hoffman 1996), 92 cm TL (Dubois 1981), 110 cm TL (Talent 1985). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  11 years (Timmons and Bray 1997). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Females: 156 cm TL (Baxter 1966); Males: 114 cm TL (Dowton-Hoffman 1996). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>):  20 to 24 cm TL in San Quintin Bay, Baja California, Mexico (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993), 15 cm TL in Almejas Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Eschmeyer et al. 1983), 17.5 cm TL in Sonora, Mexico (Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  4 to 5 months in Sonora, Mexico (Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 10 pups/litter (average 5) (Márquez-Farías unpublished data), 6?16 pups/litter (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60171		population	eng	In the northwest of Mexico, the shovelnose guitarfish is abundant in spring and summer close to the shore. <br/> <br/>No other information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.
60171		threats	eng	Taken in directed artisanal fisheries in Mexico. Pregnant females are frequently caught in the artisanal gillnet fishery on the west coast of Baja California (Salazar-Hermoso and Villavicencio 1999, Bizzarro 2005) and the coast of Sonora, Gulf of California, Mexico (Márquez-Farias 2002). Gillnet selectivity analysis reveled a tendency to catch mature individuals by the fishery (Márquez-Farias in press). Neonates and small juveniles are not present in the directed fishery. Also taken as indirect landings by demersal trawls (especially shrimp trawlers), and gillnets in Mexican waters. The impact of high catches of mature individuals either by the directed artisanal fishery or in indirect landings is unknown. In the Bahía Almejas summer batoid fishery, this species is the most abundant in June landings (ca. 51% of catch, CPUE (#/vessel/day)=21.8) landings and third most abundant in August landings (ca. 13%, CPUE=2.8). The fishery in Bahía Almejas, Baja California has severely declined after greatly increased effort in the mid to late 1990?s and its abundance has almost surely declined in this region as a result of fishing pressure. In Sonora, Mexico, it is the most abundant batoid landed in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Márquez-Farías 2002). <br/> <br/>Taken by anglers to a limited extent in US waters and occasionally sold in Asian markets in southern California. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in northwest Pacific Mexico are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since this species uses these areas for feeding and reproduction, this could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.
60172		conservation	eng	In the first instance there is a requirement to obtain further specimens of this species in order to accurately document its distribution and occurrence in local fisheries. Information is also required on the species? biology. A better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is also required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. At the time of writing, Oman had shown an intention to develop a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004).
60172		distribution	eng	Coastal shelf of Oman ? Arabian Sea.
60172		habitat	eng	Presumably bottom dwelling like other similar species of guitarfish. Nothing known of the species? biology but rhinobatids are aplacental viviparous. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 54 cm TL (Randall and Compagno 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60172		population	eng	Only known from a single specimen collected at a fish market in Salalah, western Oman. Extent of range is unknown but may be very restricted in the Arabian Sea.
60172		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown because of the lack of information on distribution and fisheries data. However, coastal rhinobatids are susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and their occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. Target fisheries for guitarfish currently exist in several countries particularly in the Indo-West Pacific and declines in some species have been documented. For example, <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> has been significantly impacted by heavy inshore fishing pressure where it occurs in Brazil. Similarly declines are now been observed in species in Southeast Asia, for example <em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em> and others. Species are impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure where the flesh is utilised and the demand for fins for the international fin trade could be a factor in the switch from subsistence fisheries to more directed, commercial export fisheries of especially the larger guitarfish in areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. Reproductive biology of rhinobatids is reasonably well studied compared with other batoid groups. <em>Rhinobatos</em> species tend to have an annual reproductive cycle producing a single litter per year of between 2?16 pups. While catch numbers are not readily available, regional populations are expected to be decreasing in areas where these susceptible species are fished. <br/> <br/>Further fish market surveys in Oman failed to produce any other specimens of this species, so it is not known to what extent the species is being landed in Oman.
60175		conservation	eng	Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of <em>Rhinobatos thouin</em> is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, particularly in relation to finning, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. thouin</em>. <br/> <br/>Future management may involve difficult decisions affecting communities adjacent to these areas.
60175		distribution	eng	Widespread Indo-West Pacific distribution. Possibly Suriname and the Mediterranean (Compagno and Last 1999).
60175		habitat	eng	Benthic ray found in inshore waters, typically less than 60 m depth over soft sandy substrate. <br/> <br/>Aplacental viviparous, attaining at least 300 cm TL but nothing known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  >300 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60175		population	eng	No information available.
60175		threats	eng	Taken by multiple artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range as a target species and as bycatch. Fished using nets, line and hook, and trawls throughout its range. Large species, extremely powerful but still vulnerable to gillnets and to a lesser extent inshore trawl fisheries and lines. The fins from <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. are widely considered as being amongst the most valuable of elasmobranchs (i.e., white-fin) and there is a significant incentive for fishers to remove the fins from large individuals when they are taken as either target catch or bycatch. <em>R. thouin</em> is commonly landed as bycatch in fisheries in Indonesia (Chen 1996, White unpublished data). Fisheries targeting the rhynchobatids in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Aru Islands and Merauke (Papua), often catch this species but generally in low numbers. Also recorded as trawl bycatch in Sabah and Sarawak (R. Cavanagh, pers.com). <br/> <br/>Since juveniles of this species inhabit shallow sand flats and mangrove estuaries (White, unpubl. data), intensive fishing pressures, e.g., gill, trap and seine nets, in such inshore areas throughout Indonesia (e.g., Merauke, Papua) are most likely having a high level of impact on this species. <br/> <br/>Not known to have specific habitat requirements but young may require specific inshore nursery areas that have been affected by human activities resulting in habitat degradation, as destructive fishing practices and pollution are significant factors affecting marine resources in parts of this species? range. <br/> <br/>Local population depletion can be inferred from Indonesia where the target gillnet fishery fleet declined from a maximum of 500 boats in 1987 to 100 in 1996 due to declining catch rates (Chen 1996).
60176		conservation	eng	Further research (including continued market and fishing surveys) is required to document habitat, distribution and to locate any remnant populations. Elasmobranch catches in Zanzibar artisanal fisheries need documenting, including the degree of finning. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Tanzania. At the time of writing, Tanzania had not made progress towards developing a National Plan of Action.
60176		distribution	eng	Extremely limited range in the Western Indian, only reported off Zanzibar Island, Tanzania. Narrow range supported by the fact that efforts to find additional specimens in fish markets and in underwater surveys in other areas have failed to produce any other individuals.
60176		habitat	eng	A rare, little known coastal species. A large species, Norman (1926) reporting a female of 205 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Like other rhinobatids, aplacental viviparous, but biology is unknown. Studied <em>Rhinobatos</em> species have an annual reproductive cycle with litter sizes of 2 to 16 pups. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  205 cm TL (Norman 1926). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60176		population	eng	As presently known, an extremely rare species, known only from a few specimens. Survey work has failed to locate other individuals in and around Zanzibar, the adjacent Tanzanian coast and the wider East African region. There is no knowledge of population size or structure.
60176		threats	eng	Coastal rhinobatids are susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and their occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. Target fisheries for guitarfish currently exist in several countries particularly in the Indo-West Pacific and declines in some species have been documented. When taken flesh is utilized and the fins of larger species enter the international fin trade for the Asian market. It is probable that the fins of <em>R. zanzibarensis</em> enter the international market, as the large wedgefish <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> is commercially exploited for its fins in Tanzanian waters in bottom-set gillnets, when taken in prawn trawls and possibly also by spearfishermen (Barnett 1997), suggesting that <em>R. zanzibarensis</em>, as a large guitarfish, is also a desirable catch. <br/> <br/>Coastal waters of Zanzibar are consistently fished by artisanal fishers mostly using traditional vessels (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). A wide variety of gear is employed including drag nets, spear, handline, seine nets and fish traps (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). Rays are known to be caught and retained and shark fin is marketed (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). If <em>R. zanzibarensis</em> is restricted to the inshore continental shelf around Zanzibar, the majority of its available habitat would be fished by a variety of gear. Various regulations govern gear use in Zanzibar, but there are issues with enforcement and so illegal and sometimes destructive fishing activities still occur (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). The present level of fishing in coastal areas of Zanzibar is of concern for this large, rare and limited range guitarfish. If however, the species is found to have a wider range into deeper waters, it may presently persist due to the limited range of traditional fishing vessels. Fishing pressure outside coastal areas is minimal at present in Tanzania (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002).
60177		conservation	eng	In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Z. exasperate</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management, but progress has been seriously delayed. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>Z. exasperata</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends. Expanded monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and improve our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition to the much-needed species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range.  Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>Z. exasperata</em>.
60177		distribution	eng	Southern extent of range is not well defined. Known to occur at least to Mazatlán, México with records further south (through Central and South America to Peru) probably the closely-related <em>Z. xyster</em>. May therefore have a relatively restricted range.
60177		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky reefs, shallow, sandy lagoons and nearshore waters, from the intertidal zone down to 200 m depth, but mostly at depths of 2.5 to 10 m (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, de la Cruz-Aguero <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Reaches a maximum size of 97 cm TL (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). Very little information is available for this species outside of its breeding grounds. Aplacental yolksac viviparous with litter sizes of 4 to 11 young produced annually. Gestation is 3 to 4 months and birthing occurs during July and August after mating at the end of March and beginning of April (Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, México). Other than during the mating period, sexes may be segregated (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). Females congregate in shallow bays and lagoons (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, Ebert 2003). In Bahía Almeja, México, females are resident from January to August, after which they migrate, likely to deeper waters. However, almost no information exists on this species outside its breeding/pupping cycle and its whereabouts and possible sexual segregation during these times is purely speculative. Males are present in embayments and probably nearshore waters during early spring for copulation, then emigrate while females remain until parturition during July or August (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). No specific age and growth or feeding studies have been conducted and only limited reproductive information is available. Larger females may produce larger litters (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). <br/> <br/>Benthic invertebrates, including crabs and shrimp, have been noted among stomach contents (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 57 to 77 cm TL (Ebert 2003); Male: 64 to 70 cm TL (Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  97 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  15 to 18 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  3 to 4 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4 to 11 young per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60177		population	eng	There are several lagoons along the Pacific coast of Baja California, which likely serve as important nursery grounds (Ebert 2003). Neonates were recorded at San Ignacio Lagoon, Baja California Sur, but only gravid females have been noted in other embayments (though their function as nursery grounds is almost assured) (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995).  Near-term embryos were spontaneously aborted from landings taken in shallow, nearshore waters off central Sonora during late May (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>The population size is completely unknown and it is not known if this is a relatively uncommon species, as landings would suggest, or (other than during breeding aggregations) it simply occupies areas that are not heavily fished.
60177		threats	eng	This species is taken in artisanal fisheries in the Gulf of California and Bahia Almejas, Baja California, México. In the directed batoid fishery in Bahía Almejas, Baja California fishermen target aggregations of primarily gravid females during late spring and early summer months in nearshore and inshore nursery grounds (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, Bizzarro and Smith in press, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). Within the Gulf of California (GOC), landings information is scarce outside of Sonora (Marquez-Farias 2002). It is not a primary fishery target, however, and is rarely taken in the GOC. Exceptions may be during reproductive aggregations and possible large catches by shrimp trawlers. Information on indirect landings by commercial trawls and gillnets is lacking. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in Sinaloa, México are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. This practice may also be occurring in the southern portion of its range, but no data is available.
60178		conservation	eng	Research required to identify its importance in fisheries and to provide information on life-history.
60178		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: poorly-defined distribution; known from Mazatlán, México southwards to at least Panama and Columbia, and probably Ecuador and Perú.<br/><br/>Examination of specimens previously identified as <em>Z. exasperata</em> from Colombia has shown these to be <em>Z. xyster </em>(D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). References to the occurrence of the closely-related <em>Z. exasperata</em> south to Caleta la Cruz, Perú (i.e. Chirichigno and Vélez (1998) for Perú, and Béarez (1996) for Ecuador) may in fact represent records of <em>Z. xyster</em>. Indeed, Ebert (2003) questions the occurrence of <em>Z. exasperata</em> south of Mazatlán, México (23.15°N), noting possible confusion with <em>Z. xyster</em>, which is a more tropically distributed species. The Mazatlán area is a major faunal break region, and to date, <em>Zapteryx</em> specimens examined from north of Mazatlán have been attributable to <em>Z. exasperata</em> and those from south of Mazatlán (to Colombia) to <em>Z. xyster</em> (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). As such, <em>Z. exasperata</em> is not treated in this report.
60178		habitat	eng	The habitat, biology and ecology of this tropical species are very poorly known. Occurs inshore to depths of at least 90m (considerably deeper than the closely-related <em>Z. exasperata</em>) (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). It is possibly associated with reefs. Males are adult at 50.5cm TL and the smallest free-swimming specimens have measured 17.5–17.8cm TL (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). Like other rhinobatids is apacental yolksac viviparous, but details of reproduction are lacking.
60178		threats	eng	Probable bycatch from bottom trawls and gillnet fisheries, but no data available. The benthic nature and usual inshore occurrence of rhinobatid rays make them susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear (trawl net, line, seine net, gillnet etc.) and these rays often form a large component of catches. Rhinobatids are consistently landed in México, where they are the most important component of directed artisanal elasmobranch landings.
60179		conservation	eng	Surveys in the Timor and Arafura Seas need to be continued in order to record any future records of the species, and therefore, better document the species? distribution, to determine the extent of occurrence (and any degree of patchiness in the range) and the population size. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60179		distribution	eng	Presently limited in the Timor Sea off northern Australia. Presumably restricted to the east of its presently known location as ridges would stop the spread of the species to the west.
60179		habitat	eng	Single known specimen (58.2 cm TL female) was recorded from the continental shelf at 124 m. Nothing known of the life history characteristics of the species. Presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous and feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates like other members of the genus. Recorded litter sizes of congeneric species are 14 to 16 for <em>A. vincentiana</em> (Haake 1885) and 4 to 18 for <em>A. rostrata</em> (Kyne and Bennett 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 58 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60179		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen. Population size is estimated to be very small as considerable survey work has failed to find any other specimens.
60179		threats	eng	The potential area of occurrence of this species faces unregulated fishing and this is of particular concern due to its apparent rarity, inferred small population size and limited distribution. <br/> <br/>The area where the only known specimen was collected is near the edge of the Australian fishing zone. The area adjacent is a ?free for all? for fishing vessels operating out of eastern Indonesia and there appears to be more activity in this area than was previously thought. About 650 large Thai pair trawlers operate in the Arafura Sea from the port of Merauke in West Papua. This fishery is unregulated and batoids compose a substantial portion of the catch, all of which is retained and marketed. <br/> <br/>The species may also enter the bycatch of northern Australian prawn trawl fisheries, but this is likely to be negligible based on the depth at which the type specimen was taken.
60180		conservation	eng	No direct conservation actions in place although Marine Reserves in part of its range might provide some relief from fishing pressures in that immediate area. In December 2003, an agreement was signed halting all forms of target fisheries for sharks and rays in the Banc d?Arguin National Park (PNBA) in Mauritania. The future management of the sciaenid fishery will tend to reduce the elasmobranch bycatch by identifying and closing the fishery during those periods and in those zones where the highest levels of such bycatch occurs. The sub-regional plan of action for the conservation and the management of sharks (Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands) proposes that all their MPAs should become non-fishing zones for elasmobranchs in future years. Indeed, shark fishing is already prohibited in some small sub-regional MPAs: João-Vieira Poilão Marine Turtles National Park (NP), Orango NP, Cacheu Mangal NP and Urok Islands Community Management Area in Guinea-Bissau; Sine Saloum NP, Bamboung Bolon Marine Reserve and Madeleine Islands NP in Senegal (Ducrocq 2004). <br/> <br/>Monitoring and documentation of direct and indirect artisanal and commercial catches is required where the species is being fished. Harvest and trade management is needed, including monitoring and control of fin trading activities. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Members of the west African Commission Sous-Regionale des Peches (CSRP) (Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands) have produced a sub-regional shark plan, endorsed by the Sub-Region?s Fisheries Ministers and has since proceeded to encourage its Member States to develop their own National Plans in cooperation within the group and progress with this is underway (Anon. 2004).
60180		distribution	eng	West coast of Africa from Mauritania through the Gulf of Guinea south to Angola.
60180		habitat	eng	Restricted inshore coastal habitat. Benthic on soft mud or sand from the intertidal zone to 70 m, but generally not deeper than 35 m. Aplacental viviparous, but no details available of its biology. Given their size, rhynchobatids are suspected to have low fecundity and slow growth rates characteristic of large elasmobranchs. <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> from the Western Indian Ocean is reported to bear litters of four pups (van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  300 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  52 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60180		population	eng	This species was historically moderately abundant in the 1960?s but populations are declining markedly in areas throughout its range that are heavily fished.
60180		threats	eng	The restricted coastal habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. <br/> <br/>Target fisheries for guitarfish and indirect fisheries catching guitarfish as bycatch currently exist in several countries, and given their inshore habitat and large size they are an easily accessible resource. Actual exploitation levels of the marine environment are intense in some parts of coastal West Africa, and there is the potential for increased exploitation as the human population continues to rise in the region, and as the demand for the international fin trade only increases. <em>Rhynchobatus luebberti</em> was once moderately abundant in some areas of its distribution but is now taken much less frequently. Observed declines have included those from specialized guitarfish fisheries in Gambia in the 1980?s, marked declines in guitarfish populations in Guinnea-Bissau since the 1990?s, and dramatic declines in Mauritania. These regional declines have resulted from often intensive direct and indirect fishing pressure, from coastal commercial and artisanal fisheries including benthic trawling, trammel netting, gill netting, longlining, and hook and line fishing. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) may be affecting this species given its inshore range.
60181		conservation	eng	No direct conservation actions in place, although the banning of trawling around the island and territorial waters of Singapore is affording this species a limited amount of protection within this immediate area from this type of fishing. It is still, however heavily fished with other methods in that region. <br/> <br/>Needs better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Harvest and trade management is needed, including control of fin trading activities. Livelihood alternatives may need to be sought for fishing communities. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for progress made by Indonesia towards a National Plan of Action and towards a regional plan of action involving both Indonesia and Singapore.
60181		distribution	eng	Narrow geographic range with a fragmented distribution off northwestern Java (Indonesia) and Singapore in the Western Central Pacific.
60181		habitat	eng	An inshore species, benthic in coastal waters. This is a ?dwarf? species of <em>Rhynchobatus</em>, reaching 82 cm TL (whereas other members of the genus reach 300 cm TL). Aplacental viviparous, but little is known of the species? biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: >69 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999); Male: Adolescent 65 cm TL, adult 71 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  82 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  21 to 24cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60181		population	eng	An uncommon species (Compagno and Last 1999). Observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines. Additional catch data and observations need to be made.
60181		threats	eng	The restricted inshore habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. The situation is heightened with respect to <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. A which has a restricted and fragmented distribution. <br/> <br/>This species is irregularly caught as bycatch in local fisheries throughout its range but there are also reportedly directed fisheries for this species in both Indonesia and Singapore. Coastal rhynchobatid species, including <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. A are highly susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including inshore trawl nets, gill nets and line gear. Its flesh is highly sought after as are its fins, which are sold into the international fin trade. Fishing is intense and generally unregulated throughout the species? range and direct observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines of this naturally uncommon species. In particular, Indonesia has an extremely high level of exploitation on its marine resources, and this is only likely to increase into the future. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) are likely affecting this species given its inshore range, particularly off Java, where human pressure on the coastal and marine environment is high.
60182		conservation	eng	No direct conservation actions in place, although the banning of trawling around the island and territorial waters of Singapore is affording this species a limited amount of protection within this immediate area from this type of fishing. It is still, however heavily fished with other methods in that region. <br/> <br/>There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution and confirm presence in certain areas where it might have been previously been misidentified as other <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species. Needs better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Harvest and trade management is needed, including control of fin trading activities. Livelihood alternatives may need to be sought for fishing communities. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for progress made countries in the range of <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B towards National Plans of Action and towards a regional plan of action involving Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and other nations.
60182		distribution	eng	Narrow geographic range with a fragmented distribution off northwestern Java (Indonesia), peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines in the Western Central Pacific.
60182		habitat	eng	An inshore species, benthic in coastal waters. One of the larger species of <em>Rhynchobatus</em>, probably reaching 250 to 300 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). Aplacental viviparous, but little is known of the species? biology. Given their size, rhynchobatids are suspected to have low fecundity and slow growth rates characteristic of large elasmobranchs. <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> from the Western Indian Ocean is reported to bear litters of four pups (van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 125 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Verified to 213 cm TL, but probably up to 250 to 300 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  <37 cm (L.J.V. Compagno unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60182		population	eng	A historically moderately abundant species. Observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines. Additional catch data and observations need to be made.
60182		threats	eng	The restricted inshore habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. The situation is heightened with respect to <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B which has a fragmented distribution and a relatively small distribution. <br/> <br/>This species is irregularly caught as bycatch in local fisheries throughout its range but there are also reportedly directed fisheries for this species in Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. They are generally retained and utilized when taken as bycatch. Coastal rhynchobatid species, including <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B are highly susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including inshore trawl nets, gill nets and line gear. Its flesh is highly sought after as are its fins, which are sold into the international fin trade. Fishing is intense and generally unregulated throughout the species? range and direct observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines of this naturally uncommon species (it was once moderately abundant but is now only irregularly taken). In particular, Indonesia has an extremely high level of exploitation on its marine resources, and this is only likely to increase into the future. Local extirpations of elasmobranch species (for example some eagle ray species; L.J.V. Compagno unpublished data) have occurred in the Gulf of Thailand and this raises immediate concern for <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B, a large coastal batoid with a significant proportion of its historical range in and around the Gulf of Thailand. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) are likely affecting this species given its inshore range, particularly off Java and in the Gulf of Thailand, where human pressure on the coastal and marine environment is high.
60183		conservation	eng	Not currently managed in any part of the range. Currently any incidental bycatch is released and not reported. A record of all captures including basic data on sex, size, and depth is recommended in order to obtain initial basic data on population and life history trends. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60183		distribution	eng	May be more widespread in deep waters throughout the Caribbean and recent captures from Columbia seem to support the hypothesis that this species may be more widespread off northern South America. Based on the current known range it is also possible this species occurs off Central America; however, no captures have been reported. May occur in deeper waters but as very little deepwater fishing occurs in this region at present there is no information available on possible distribution of this species below the known depth range.
60183		habitat	eng	A deepwater species, known to occur at depths of 270 to 450 m (including at 234 to 360 m off Colombia). May be more abundant at greater depths (Didier 2002). Off Columbia this species is collected from steep rocky slopes indicating this may be a unique habitat for aggregation of this species (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/> <br/>Maximum length ~80 cm TL. Sexual maturity in males and females probably reached at ~40 cm body length (BDL). Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproductive biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~40 cm BDL (estimate) (both male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~80 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60183		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Adult males are rarely captured indicating that they may occur in deeper waters or outside the currently known range. The recent collection of several specimens from Quitasueño Bank off Columbia indicates that this species may occur in large aggregations in specific habitats (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep).
60183		threats	eng	Not currently known to be commercially fished, but is caught as bycatch in the bottom longline snapper/grouper fishery off Columbia. Deepsea fishing by longline poses a potential threat throughout its range due to capture of this species as bycatch; however at present this species occurs at the limit or just beyond the depth range of most deepwater fisheries in the area. At present benthic trawling does not appear to pose a large threat as it is not a common fishing method in the region; however, in the future habitat destruction and threats to the population may occur due to benthic trawling in some parts of the Caribbean if effort increases. Other steep rocky slopes may be untrawlable and thus serve as refugia for the species.
60184		conservation	eng	No conservation or management measures are in place. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60184		distribution	eng	Known reliably from only a very few specimens collected off eastern Honshu, Japan and off Madagascar and Mozambique. Range needs to be better defined.
60184		habitat	eng	The few specimens collected indicate a deepwater habitat on continental and insular slopes from 383 to at least 1,600 m. It is possible this species is more widespread in deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, but nothing else is known of reproductive biology. Of the roughly six specimens known all are adults or near mature subadults. No other information on biology of this species is known. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  76 cm TL (estimated) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  To 93 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60184		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size and structure and this appears to be one of the rarest chimaeroid species.
60184		threats	eng	Not currently known to be collected by any commercial or research fishery method. Potentially threatened by expansion of deepwater trawl and longline fisheries in areas where this species is known to occur. <br/> <br/>In subequatorial Africa the species reported as <em>C. jordani</em> is mostly below the operating depths of the demersal hake trawl and other fisheries although this could change with development of deepwater trawl fisheries for orange roughies, oreo dories, macrourids, and other valuable teleosts.
60185		conservation	eng	Not known to be subject to any management or conservation measures. More information from commercial fisheries with regard to bycatch of this species is needed. It is recommended that this species be monitored with regard to emergence of deepwater fisheries in the future that might target this large species for human consumption.
60185		distribution	eng	Currently known only from around New Zealand and Tasmania. It is unknown if this species is restricted to specific deepwater slopes or if it?s possible the species is widespread in deep waters throughout the Southern Ocean.
60185		habitat	eng	Benthic on deepwater slopes and plateaus at depths of 400 to 1,800 m, but most commonly found at depths greater than 800 m (Didier 2002). Nothing is known of the biology of this species, but given its large size it may be slow-growing with low fecundity. Maximum size 142 cm TL (may be around 150 cm TL). Males and females appear to reach sexual maturity at about 60 to 70cm body length (BDL). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  60 to 70 cm BDL (estimate) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  142 to 150 cm TL (estimate). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60185		population	eng	A significant number of adults and some juveniles have been collected from deepwater research and commercial trawls indicating a diverse population in the areas where these fish are known to occur, but otherwise nothing is known of population size or structure.
60185		threats	eng	Not currently known to be commercially fished, the major threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls targeting teleost species on the fishing grounds around New Zealand and Tasmania where <em>C. lignaria</em> is most commonly found. Bycatch details are not available and a study of the bycatch of the South Tasman Rise Trawl Fishery (STRF) did not record this species in 545 tows between November 1998 and September 2000 (Anderson and Clark 2003). The STRF targets orange roughy and other deepwater teleost species south of Tasmania as a straddling stock between Australia and New Zealand and operates in the known area of occurrence and depth of <em>C. lignaria</em>.  <br/> <br/>Anderson and Clark (2003) did however report negligible bycatch of ?<em>Chimaera</em> spp.?, which would probably have included <em>Chimaera lignaria</em> together with the southern chimaera <em>Chimaera</em> sp. A [Last & Stevens, 1994], both of which are known from the area of the fishery. The estimated catch of ?<em>Chimaera</em> spp.? in 545 tows was 0.1t, representing <0.1% of the total catch (Anderson and Clark 2003).
60186		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are known. More specimens are needed in order to obtain any additional information on this species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of a national management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the country. Japan?s National Plan Of Action was available in 2001.
60186		distribution	eng	Range appears to be restricted to the eastern coast of Honshu, Japan (Tanaka 1905, Didier 1998). It may, however, be more widespread throughout the Japanese archipelago, particularly in deeper waters.
60186		habitat	eng	Recorded at depths of 500 to 1,200 m (Tanaka 1905, Didier 1998). Oviparous but nothing is known of its reproductive biology. No small juveniles or hatchlings have ever been observed. Maximum size is ~80 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~80 cm TL (estimated). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60186		population	eng	Appears to be uncommon, but may be more abundant at greater depths.
60186		threats	eng	Not reported to be targeted or caught as bycatch. This may be because the species is more abundant in deeper waters, which are at the limit or beyond the range of the local commercial fishery. This appears to be a rare species with a restricted range so any increased effort in longline or deepwater trawl fisheries within the species range could potentially have a great impact on the known population.
60187		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are in place. At present the fishery for this species does not appear to be collecting large numbers of specimens or impacting the population; however, monitoring and reporting of local small-scale fishery landings throughout the Northwest Pacific is recommended. More data on this species from New Caledonia and the Eastern Indian is needed. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the regions where this species occurs.
60187		distribution	eng	Most common and widespread throughout the Northwest Pacific where it appears to be fairly abundant and mostly occurs at depths less than 500 m. Rare off New Caledonia, where it is captured in deeper waters. The species may be more common in deeper waters in the southern parts of its range.
60187		habitat	eng	Relatively shallow water shelf and upper slope dweller, reported from depths of 20 to 550 m in the Northwest Pacific. Occurs in deeper slope waters (486 to 962 m) off New Caledonia and at depths of 440 to 520 m off Western Australia. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, nothing is known of reproduction or spawning, but may spawn in relatively shallow water in the Northwest Pacific. Maximum length, including tail filament, is 110 cm TL; sexual maturity in males and females is reached at ~50 cm body length (BDL) (generally >65 cm TL). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  >50 cm BDL (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  110 cm TL (includes long tail filament). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60187		population	eng	Nothing is known of population structure and size; however, collections of this species from the Northwest Pacific consist of large numbers of hatchlings, small juveniles and adults which seems to indicate that all ontogenetic stages of this species are widespread and fairly abundant throughout this portion of the species? range. Only adults and subadult juveniles have been captured from off New Caledonia, and it is reported as being abundant off Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).
60187		threats	eng	<em>Chimaera phantasma</em> is taken in local small scale and subsistence trawl fisheries as well as commercial fisheries in parts of Asia. It is commonly landed and utilised for human consumption in Taiwan and, given the intensity of fishing operations in large parts of its Asian range, likely other parts of the NW Pacific. The effects of fishing practices throughout the NW Pacific are unknown for this species although its abundance in some regions may suggest that current fishing practices may not be significantly impacting the population at this time. Landing of this species in Taiwan appears to be a more recent occurrence, suggesting that fishers are moving into deeper waters, probably as a result of the depletion of shallower water resources. <br/> <br/>It is not known to be commercially fished or collected as bycatch in trawl fisheries off New Caledonia, perhaps due to its depth range which may be at or below the limit of many, if not most, trawl fishery operations in that region. <br/> <br/>The species? occurrence off WA overlaps with the area of operation of the Australian Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fisheries, which are small-scale, limited permit demersal fish and crustacean trawl fisheries (AFMA 2003). The species is likely taken as bycatch by these fisheries, but overall, effort is low and any impact upon this species would be minimal. <br/> <br/>Any expansion of commercial trawling may pose a threat to the species in the future and data is required on abundance and catches/landings, particularly in the NW Pacific, to be able to accurately assess the species? conservation status.
60188		conservation	eng	None are known to be in place. It is recommended that more data on catch and life history characteristics be collected. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of national management plans (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia adopted its National Plan of Action (NPOA) in 2004. South Africa?s NPOA is drafted and at the time of writing is still awaiting government approval: it is a matter of urgency to adopt and implement this NPOA. NPOAs have not yet been developed for Mozambique or Kenya.
60188		distribution	eng	Southern Africa regional endemic known from the Western Indian off Mozambique, Kenya and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and most probably also the Southeast Atlantic off South Africa and Namibia.
60188		habitat	eng	Little known, soft bottom dweller on the continental slope, reported from depths of 303 to 1,300 m but most commonly found at depths of 421 to 750 m. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body/total length):  Probably sexually mature at ~35 to 40 cm BDL; ~50 to 55 cm TL (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  To at least 98 cm TL (including tail filament); 47 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60188		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Appears to be relatively uncommon, but further examination of catch records from research trawls may help in understanding relative abundance of this species. It is possible there may be separate populations in the Western Indian and Southeast Atlantic.
60188		threats	eng	Not known to be commercially targeted; however, the depth range of this species broadly overlaps with the operating depths of the demersal hake trawl and other fisheries off the Western Cape coast of South Africa, and <em>H. africanus</em> is presumably taken as discarded bycatch. This species could be threatened by expansion of the South Africa deepwater hake trawl fishery and any extension of other fisheries into the deepwater range of <em>Hydrolagus africanus</em>.
60189		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. It is recommended that data on sex, size, and depth be recorded for all incidental catches in an effort to increase knowledge of population structure, size and life history. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60189		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean (range is roughly 29° to 07°N and 54° to 92°W). Reported as far south as Suriname, but these records need to be confirmed (Bigelow and Schroeder 1951, 1953, McEachran and Fechelm 1989, Krefft 1990, Didier 2002). Museum specimens and accompanying capture records of this species from the Northwest Shelf, Western Australia (Indian Ocean) are most probably a misidentification.
60189		habitat	eng	Found in deep waters of the continental slopes at depths of 348 to 1,100 m. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproductive biology. Maximum recorded size 96 cm TL (42 cm BDL); both males and females appear to reach sexual maturity at ~35 cm BDL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~35 cm BDL (estimate) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  96 cm TL; 42 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60189		population	eng	No information exists on population structure; however, most collections are of juveniles indicating that adults may aggregate separately from juveniles in different habitats or deeper waters.
60189		threats	eng	Not known to be targeted in any fishery but is occasionally caught in research trawls and is likely to be caught as bycatch in commercial fisheries on some occasions. At present this species does not appear to be commonly caught probably due to its habitat outside the range of most fisheries in the region. However, it may face the threat of capture in the future as bycatch in longline and trawl fisheries, if effort is increased in deeper waters within the region.
60190		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures known to be in place. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of a national management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the country. Japan?s National Plan Of Action was available in 2001.
60190		distribution	eng	Known only from the eastern coast of Japan from Hokkaido to Tokyo. This species appears to be a regional endemic, most abundant in the northern and southern areas off Tohoku.
60190		habitat	eng	Deepwater edge of shelf and upper slope dweller reported from depths of 250 to 1,100 m, but seems to be most common at 600 to 800 m. Size range 18 to 86 cm TL; 8 to 48 cm body length (BDL). <br/> <br/>Oviparous. A recent study of the distribution and reproductive biology indicates that this species appears to produce eggs all year round with no detectable spawning season. Populations appear to be partly segregated (Kokohu <em>et al</em>. 2003).  <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (precaudal length):  Female: 55 cm PCL; Male: 48 cm PCL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  86 cm TL; 48 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~18 cm TL; 8 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60190		population	eng	Very little is known of population size and structure although the species appears to be somewhat abundant with captures including a wide range of juveniles and adults.
60190		threats	eng	Known to occur in fair numbers in deepwater research trawls. Not known to be targeted, but may be utilized when caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries, although probably not often caught as this species is most abundant in the deeper part of its range and may be at, or beyond the usual depths of the local trawl fishery. Potentially threatened as bycatch and possibly as a target species if local commercial trawl fishing effort increases in this region in the future.
60191		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are currently known to be in place, except in Oregon where trawlers utilize gear to avoid ratfish and other unwanted bycatch. This species is generally avoided as much as possible as the spiny frontal tenaculum and dorsal spine tangles in nets. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60191		distribution	eng	Widespread off the western coast of North America from Southwestern Alaska to Baja and the Gulf of California, being most abundant between British Columbia, Canada and southern California, USA.
60191		habitat	eng	Prefers muddy, soft bottoms. One of the few chimaeroids that occurs in nearshore waters and has been observed at the surface, but generally occurs at depths of 100 to 913 m. The species also occurs into the intertidal zone in the northern parts of its range. In southern California it has been reported as common on some reef slopes, particularly off Malibu and Redondo Beach below depths of 30 m. In the Gulf of California they are rare in water less than 183 m deep. Prefers water temperatures of 45 to 48°F (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Oviparous with peak spawning seasons in the spring and fall. Eggs are laid in pairs every 10 to 14 days over a period of several months. The incubation period within the eggcase is about 12 months, with newborns emerging at about 14 cm TL (Didier and Rosenberger 2002). The spine is known to be venomous in this species (Halstead and Bunker 1952). Johnson and Horton (1972) reported that attempts at age determination based on length-frequency distributions were inconclusive and that the use of hard body parts for ageing was unsuccessful. Diet consists of a wide range of bottom dwelling invertebrates and fishes. They are known to be cannibalistic, feeding on both free-swimming individuals and on their own eggcases (Johnson and Horton 1972). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  Female: 24 to 25 cm BDL; Male: 18.5?20.0 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  60 cm TL; 36 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  14 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60191		population	eng	Very little is known about their movement patterns other than they seem to be seasonally abundant in some areas. Populations appear to segregate by sex and size with larger fish moving into shallower waters while juveniles aggregate in deeper waters (Mathews 1975, Quinn <em>et al</em>. 1980).
60191		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by inshore commercial trawling activities. A fishery for this species has been suggested, but has never proven commercially viable; however, there is the potential this ?trash? species may become targeted as other more valuable species are depleted. <br/> <br/>Available fishery data from the Northeast Pacific indicates this species comprises a large proportion of the vertebrate biomass in Puget Sound (Quinnell and Schmitt 1991), although reported catches from California, Oregon and Washington are very small. For example, State of Washington Department of Fisheries reported only 8 round pounds for 1992?1993 (Keith Wolf, pers. comm.) and Oregon landings in 1992 and 1993 were 250 pounds and 98 pounds, respectively (John Griffith, pers. comm.). This species is not a targeted species and appears to be collected and utilized only locally in the Northeast Pacific and is taken as a bycatch in commercial trawl fisheries. This species is rarely landed from the Gulf of California and appears to inhabit waters at depths greater than 180 m. Evidence does not suggest that the small local fishery and/or bycatch are impacting the population in the Gulf of California.
60192		conservation	eng	None are known. More data are required to determine levels of bycatch of this species.  Additional data on life history and biology are also needed. Reevaluation of this species is recommended pending outcome of ongoing taxonomic study. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60192		distribution	eng	Widespread on the Australian continental slope, with nearly continuous distribution from Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia, but excluding Tasmania and Bass Strait. Not known from off the northern coasts of Australia, but reported from off Darwin.
60192		habitat	eng	Continental shelf and upper slope dweller, occurring at or near the bottom. Reported from depths of 190 to 825 m, but apparently most common at 200?510 m. Little else is known of biology and habits, although probably shares similar biology and life history traits with other smaller-bodied shelf and upper slope dwellers such as <em>Hydrolagus colliei</em>. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  Female: ~55 to 60 cm TL (~30 to 35 cm BDL); Male: ~50 cm TL (~30 to 35 cm BDL). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  ~90 to 100 cm TL (~40 cm BDL) with filament; 58 cm TL without filament. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60192		population	eng	Apparently relatively common throughout its range. Nothing is known of population size or structure, but this species is likely represented by a single population from Australia.
60192		threats	eng	A number of demersal fisheries operate in this species? area of occurrence and this species is likely taken as bycatch in these fisheries, however little information is available on bycatch levels. Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Hydrolagus lemurs</em> is considered to have a high catch susceptibility to otter trawl, a medium catch susceptibility to auto hook gear and a low susceptibility to shark gillnet, shark hook and trap/pot gear (Walker 2004) (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). Both the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDWTF) and the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS) of the SESSF have relatively low effort. The WDWTF is managed by limited entry with only 11 fishing permits issued on a five yearly basis. Bycatch ?is composed of small volumes of a diverse range of species? (AFMA 2003) and it is likely that <em>H. lemurs</em> forms a negligible bycatch in this fishery. The GABTS operates over a large geographical area and is also managed by limited entry with 10 fishing concessions and while overall effort is low, there is a trend of increasing effort (Lynch and Garvey 2003). Holocephalans are not reported in the top 40 species/species groups recorded in the fishery (Lynch and Garvey 2003), but are likely to form negligible bycatch. Observer and Fisheries-Independent surveys have shown the species to be a very rare discarded bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (deepwater component of the eastern king prawn sector). This fishery does not operate beyond 200 m depth and so is at the upper limit of the depth range of <em>H. lemurs</em> (P. Kyne, unpublished data). There is very little fishing pressure over the species? geographical and bathymetrical depth range off Queensland. <br/> <br/>Significant declines in the catch of ?silver ghostsharks? from 1976?77 to 1996?97 from the upper slope trawl fishery off NSW have been documented by fishery-independent surveys (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001) stated that ?silver ghostsharks? were identified as <em>H. ogilbyi</em>. Sampling for this study occurred in 200?605 m and so it is likely both <em>H. ogilbyi</em> (which occurs at 40?524 m) and <em>H. lemurs</em> (which occurs at 190?825 m) were captured, however the bulk of catches did appear to be <em>H. ogilbyi</em> (K. Graham pers. comm.). The aggregated data does not allow species-specific declines to be elucidated, however, overall ?silver ghostshark? declined from a mean catch rate of 8.3 kg/hour to 0.3 kg/hour in the twenty year period, equating to a decline of 96.4%. Reductions are even more striking when data are broken down into region, with the mean catch rate off Eden-Gabo Island (northern NSW/southern Victoria) declining from 17.4 kg/hour in 1976?77 to <0.1 kg/hour in 1996?97, equating to a decline of greater than 99.4%. Even if these catches are mostly <em>H. ogilbyi</em>, these data do indicate the vulnerability of <em>Hydrolagus</em> species, including <em>H. lemurs</em>, to trawl operations, showing that large declines from heavy fishing pressure are possible. The relatively narrow continental slope off northern/central NSW, including most of the depth range of <em>H. lemurs</em>, is intensively fished and there would be continued pressure on <em>Hydrolagus</em> species in this area. <br/> <br/>A continued effort should be made to gain bycatch information in fisheries within the range of this species.
60193		conservation	eng	Further specimens are required to define the species? range, biology and potential fisheries impacts. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60193		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific: known only from the preabyssal zone off Valparaiso, Central Chile (Type locality). Probably occurs as far south as Valdivia and might occur north to the Galapagos and Central America (e.g., Nicaragua and Guatemala) and as such could be more widespread than presently known.
60193		habitat	eng	Nothing is known. No data are available on depth range. Probably a deepwater species with a life history similar to other members of the genus <em>Hydrolagus</em>. The only two known specimens (the type specimens) were 63 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):   <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  At least 63 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown
60193		population	eng	Nothing is known, the only two specimens that have ever been reported are the types.
60193		threats	eng	There are no other reports of capture of this species other than the types; however it is possible this species is potentially threatened by commercial deepwater fishing operations, which may catch this species as bycatch. However, information is presently unavailable
60194		conservation	eng	Additional specimens, particularly from parts of the range outside Japan are needed for research. In addition, it is recommended that life history data be collected from all captured specimens. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60194		distribution	eng	Known primarily from Japan, off Honshu from Sagami and Suruga Bays, also reported from the Philippines, Taiwan, Korea and the East China Sea. Probably also occurs in the South China Sea and off Indonesia and may be relatively widespread throughout the Northwest and North Central Pacific.
60194		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species occurring in deepwater bays and troughs and on upper to middle slopes. Recorded depth range is 325 to 710 m, but probably occurs in deeper waters. This is a small-bodied species, similar to <em>Hydrolagus mirabilis</em>. Oviparous, very little is known of reproductive biology although a few eggs and small juveniles have been collected. Diet probably consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  ~65 to 70 cm TL (~30 to 35 cm BDL) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  79 cm TL (37 cm BDL). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60194		population	eng	Apparently a relatively rare species based on capture records; however, this may be due to the fact that most fishing in the region occurs at depths shallower than the preferred depth for this species; hence it is rarely collected rather than actually being rare in terms of actual numbers. Further data will be needed to verify actual abundance of the species. Likely a single population occurring throughout its range.
60194		threats	eng	Overall, the species is presently considered rare, but more information is needed with regard to capture levels as well as geographic range of this species. <br/> <br/>Fairly commonly landed in some fish markets in Taiwan (W. White, pers. comm.) and probably caught as bycatch in deepwater trawls elsewhere (for example in Suruga Bay, Japan). Landing of this species in Taiwan appears to be a more recent occurrence, suggesting that fishers are moving into deeper waters, probably as a result of the depletion of shallower water resources. <br/> <br/>Potentially faces threat of habitat destruction and/or capture as bycatch should deepwater fishing efforts increase in the region.
60195		conservation	eng	None are known. Detailed comparative study of <em>H. ogilbyi</em> and <em>H. lemurs</em> is recommended to verify the distinction between these two species. Additional study of life history characteristics as well as geographic and depth range parameters is also recommended. Additional data on bycatch levels and landings is needed. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.
60195		distribution	eng	Last and Stevens (1994) reported <em>H. ogilbyi</em> as apparently restricted to New South Wales, Tasmania and eastern South Australia, but it appears to be more widespread based on surveys and data from voucher specimens in museum collections. To the west these indicate a much wider range extending into the Great Australian Bight and parts of Western Australia. Along the east coast it has been recorded north of Coffs Harbour to the Queensland border (K. Graham pers. comm.).
60195		habitat	eng	Continental shelf and upper slope dweller occurring in depths of 40 to 524 m on or near the bottom. May share similar ecology and life history characteristics of other shelf and upper slope dwellers such as <em>H. lemurs</em> and <em>H. colliei</em>. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~40 cm BDL (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  ~102 cm TL (with filament); 85 cm (without filament); ~55 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60195		population	eng	A single endemic population restricted to southeastern Australia. Reported to be fairly common and relatively abundant, particularly off Tasmania.
60195		threats	eng	A large proportion of the known range of <em>H. ogilbyi</em> has been subject to considerable trawling pressure. Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Hydrolagus ogilbyi</em> is considered to have a high catch susceptibility to otter trawl, a medium catch susceptibility to auto hook gear and a low susceptibility to shark gillnet, shark hook and trap/pot gear (Walker 2004) (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). If the species is found to occur into the Great Australian Bight it is likely taken as bycatch in the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS) of the SESSF. The GABTS operates over a large geographical area and is managed by limited entry with 10 fishing concessions and while overall effort is low, there is a trend of increasing effort (Lynch and Garvey 2003). Holocephalans are not reported in the top 40 species/species groups recorded in the fishery (Lynch and Garvey 2003), but are likely to form negligible bycatch. <br/> <br/>Significant declines in the catch of ?silver ghostsharks? from 1976?77 to 1996?97 from the upper slope trawl fishery off NSW have been documented by fishery-independent surveys (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001) stated that ?silver ghostsharks? were identified as <em>H. ogilbyi</em>. Sampling for this study occurred in 200?605 m and so it is likely both <em>H. ogilbyi</em> (which occurs at 40?524 m) and <em>H. lemurs</em> (which occurs at 190?825 m) were captured, however the bulk of catches did appear to be H. ogilbyi (K. Graham pers. comm.). The aggregated data does not allow species-specific declines to be elucidated, however, overall ?silver ghostshark? declined from a mean catch rate of 8.3 kg/hour to 0.3 kg/hour in the twenty year period, equating to a decline of 96.4%. Reductions are even more striking when data are broken down into region, with the mean catch rate off Eden-Gabo Island (northern NSW/southern Victoria) declining from 17.4 kg/hour in 1976?77 to <0.1 kg/hour in 1996?97, equating to a decline of greater than 99.4%. If, as it appears, the majority of the catch was <em>H. ogilbyi</em>, this represents significant local declines of the species and indicates the vulnerability of <em>Hydrolagus</em> species off eastern and southeastern Australia to population reduction. The relatively narrow continental slope off central/southern NSW, including most of the depth range of <em>H. ogilbyi</em>, is intensively fished and there would be continued pressure on <em>Hydrolagus</em> species in this area. <br/> <br/>There are regions of the species? range, however, that receive little fishing pressure. If the species extends into southern Queensland, fishing is not as intense on the slope there and off northern NSW. Indeed, there is little outer shelf/upper slope trawling north of Port Stephens, NSW (K. Graham pers. comm.). Furthermore, there are significant areas of the outer shelf off western Victoria, which may serve as a refuge from trawling due to rough bottoms. Some areas off Tasmania also receive little fishing pressure. <br/> <br/>A continued effort should be made to gain bycatch information in fisheries within the range of this species.
60196		conservation	eng	None are known to be in place. It is recommended that data on life history characteristics be collected from all specimens captured. Collection of voucher specimens from the Davison Seamount, as well as collection and study of specimens of all large purple and purple-black <em>Hydrolagus</em> from the Pacific will be important for determining if the known range of <em>Hydrolagus purpurescens</em> does extend throughout the Pacific. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the regions where this species occurs.
60196		distribution	eng	At present known from deep seamounts and troughs off Japan from Hokkaido and the Okhotsk Sea to the Okinawa Trough, although may be more widespread in deep waters throughout the Pacific. The type specimen from Hawaii is the only record of <em>H. purpurescens</em> outside of Japan. <br/> <br/>Recent submersible observations of a large purplish species from the eastern Pacific (Davison Seamount) have not conclusively been referred to this species; however, it is possible that <em>H. purpurescens</em> is more widespread throughout the Pacific.
60196		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic species that lives on the upper to middle slope and deep seamounts and troughs. Occurs at depths of 920 to 1,130 m off Japan, with the type specimen collected from 1,750 to 1,951 m off Hawaii. May be more widespread in deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, although nothing is known of reproductive biology. Eggs, hatchlings and small juveniles are rarely if ever collected. Diet probably consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates.  Like other large chimaeroids, this may be a slow-growing species with low fecundity. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  ~100 cm TL (~55 to 60 cm BDL). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  138 cm TL; 89 cm BDL (probably reaches ~150 cm TL). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60196		population	eng	May be widespread throughout the Pacific and represented by more than one distinct population. Nothing is known of population structure.
60196		threats	eng	Possible threat due to bycatch in deepwater commercial trawl and longline fisheries. Not known to be targeted or caught in any numbers at present, but there is the possibility this large species may be targeted in deepwater fisheries as nearshore fisheries are depleted and deepwater fisheries expand.
60197		conservation	eng	More information is required of bycatch levels from the teleost fisheries impacting this species. More specimens, particularly juveniles are needed, as is life history data. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60197		distribution	eng	Originally described from deep waters off New Zealand and New Caledonia. More recently, there have been infrequent captures of this species from deepwater seamounts in the Southern Ocean. This species is apparently wide ranging throughout the Southern Ocean and probably has a circumglobal distribution.
60197		habitat	eng	A large chimaera of the deep continental and insular slopes, in depths of 750 to 1,719 m off South Africa and 650 to 1,707 m off New Zealand and New Caledonia, but mostly collected below 1,000 m depth. <br/> <br/>Oviparous. No eggs, embryos or small juveniles are known to have been collected. Nothing is known of reproductive biology. Diet likely consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates, with dominant prey species varying based on habitat. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  Female: ~55 cm BDL; Male: ~60 to 65 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  Recorded at 111 cm TL (91 cm BDL); maximum probably ~120 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60197		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Appears to be more common around New Zealand and rarer in other parts of its range, but this may only be a reflection of fishing effort. Future research may provide evidence that separate populations exist across the range of this species.
60197		threats	eng	Common from deepwater fishing grounds off New Zealand where it is threatened by deepwater benthic trawls. Off South Africa <em>H. trolli</em> is threatened by capture as bycatch in deep-slope longline and trawl fisheries for valuable bony fishes including toothfish, roughies and dories. Illegal fishing activities, particularly for Patagonian toothfish, are likely taking this species, and given the scope of these practices may be impacting upon its population. <br/> <br/>A re-evaluation of the species? conservation status is recommended after additional bycatch information is obtained, which is a priority.
60198		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Most current information is derived from the Gulf of California, México, but this represents a very small portion of the overall range of <em>M. munkiana</em>. Because of its moderate to large size, schooling and migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is likely highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula munkiana</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate fisheries in Central America would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. munkiana</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America lack species-specific details with batoids broadly grouped as ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Central America. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing demand/catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.
60198		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California, México to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands (Robertson and Allen 2002).
60198		habitat	eng	<em>Mobula munkiana</em> is a recently described schooling species typically of shallow coastal waters, known to form large, highly mobile aggregations (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987, 1988). Specifics of its migratory patterns are largely unknown or speculative (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, J. Bizzarro pers. obs). <br/> <br/>Most of the fragmentary information available on the species is derived from the work of Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1987, 1988) in the southern Gulf of California, México, though this species has been recently observed during artisanal fishing camp surveys throughout the Gulf of California (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Bizzarro 2001). Migrations are likely driven by temporal changes in water temperature with local movements presumed to be associated with the distribution and abundance of planktonic crustaceans, especially mysid shrimp (<em>Mysidium</em> spp.). Mysids are believed to be the dominant prey item of this species, at least during winter months. However, these conclusions are drawn from a very limited sample size (n=3) and through inference with a closely related, similar-sized mobulid from Africa (<em>M. rochebrunei</em>) and as such should be considered speculative (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, J. Bizzarro pers. obs).  Gastropod shells and coral fragments have been found in stomach contents (presumed taken incidentally), indicating that unlike other eastern Pacific mobulids, benthic foraging may be common (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). This species may live in large aggregations consisting of several schools that move locally or regionally between prey patches. Occurrence of large schools in the northern Gulf of California are likely confined to summer months, though it has been reported in low numbers throughout the year in the southern Gulf of California (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Bizzarro 2001, J. Bizzarro unpublished data). <em>Mobula munkiana</em> is not thought to segregate by gender, but may segregate by size (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Observations and catches of the species often occur in pulses as it may be abundant in an area for only a few days and then not be observed locally for weeks or months (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991, J. Bizzarro pers. obs). These movements have likely influenced the contrasting conclusions of <em>M. munkiana</em> abundance in the southern Gulf of California (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). Frequent benthic association of this species would also account for its irregularity in pelagic gillnet landings. <br/> <br/>Location of copulation is unknown, but partruition has been reported in Bahía de La Paz during May and June (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). Although data is limited, sexual maturity of males is thought to occur at ~87cm DW based on an increase in clasper size and hardening of the clasper cartilage (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988), with females maturing at 97cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). The reproductive mode is aplacental viviparity and embryos feed initially on yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and reports indicate that a maximum of one pup is estimated to be produced (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). Reproductive periodicity is unknown and there is no information on age and growth for this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 97 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991); Male: ~87 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  110 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  35 to 36 cm DW (estimated from related species by Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988), verified by Villavicencio-Garayzar (1991). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60198		population	eng	No information is available on its population biology.
60198		threats	eng	<em>Mobula munkiana</em> is highly susceptible to demersal and pelagic gillnets due to its consistent schooling nature and benthic feeding ability. Juveniles could also be incidentally captured in trawl fisheries. The species is landed in directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in the Gulf of California and it is possibly taken as bycatch in many nearshore gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout its range. The relatively recent description of this species and similarity of morphology among mobulids may account for common misidentifications of this ray making it underrepresented among available records. <br/> <br/>In northern Gulf of California artisanal fishery surveys during 1998 and 1999, <em>M. munkiana</em> were observed to be landed in large numbers at several camps. As catches in the more southerly camps decreased, those in the north increased, suggesting that large portions of the schools may be taken during the unknown movement patterns of this highly mobile species. The species was directly targeted during these times and dominated the elasmobranch landings (J. Bizzarro and W. Smith unpublished data, Bizzarro 2001). However, although catches consist of hundreds of individuals per day when the species is present, artisanal fishermen indicate that the presence of the ray is somewhat unpredictable. <br/> <br/>Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988) described an active mobulid fishery operating from several artisanal fishing camps in and around Bahía la Ventana, Baja California Sur, México. <em>Mobula munkiana</em>, though taken, was not an abundant species in landings (9% of observed mobulid catches). Recent fieldwork in this region (June 2001), however, showed that this fishery is still active and that <em>M. munkiana</em> was the dominant mobulid landed, at least at the time of surveys (J. Bizzarro unpublished data). This species was landed with gillnets of 10?12?, typically set at the surface, but also throughout the water column. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula munkiana</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing demand for mobulid products in Asia, which may result in increased targeting in Central America, is of great concern.
60199		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species and to determine if they pose a serious threat to the species. Available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula taracapana</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in generally lack species-specific details (for example in México, batoids are broadly grouped as ?manta raya?). Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>In the Philippines, fishing for mobulids was banned in 1998, however it was lifted in 1999 to study the fishery. The ban was put back in place in 2002, and currently it is illegal to fish for any <em>Manta</em> or <em>Mobula</em> in Philippine waters. However, enforcement is insufficient and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America and Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. taracapana</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.
60199		distribution	eng	Probably circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters but at present known from scattered locations in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Compagno and Last 1999). Mostly oceanic, but occasionally in coastal waters.
60199		habitat	eng	Mostly oceanic, but occasionally in coastal waters. Extremely limited information is available for this broadly distributed ray. Mode of reproduction is aplacental viviparity. Embryos feed initially on yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and litter size is one pup (Wourms 1977, Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Females of 270 cm DW were found to be transitional or mature in the southern Gulf of California, México (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). It is observed only in the summer and fall months in this region and is usually solitary, but sometimes seen in small groups (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>Limited evidence pertaining to the feeding ecology is available, but it has been suggested that the species may be a more general feeder than other mobulids or possibly ichthyophagous (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). This possibility is supported by occasional catches of this species on pelagic longlines. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age and growth of this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 270?280 cm DW (Gulf of California; Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988); Male: 240 to 250 cm DW (Indonesia; W. White pers. comm.), 240 to 250cm DW (Gulf of California; Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  370 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >105 cm (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60199		population	eng	Reported to be uncommon (Compagno and Last 1999).
60199		threats	eng	The threat from coastal fisheries in México, Indonesia, the Philippines and elsewhere where mobulids are captured is more limited for this species given its apparent offshore habitat. <em>Mobula taracapana</em> is however, susceptible to pelagic gillnets together with purse seines and longline. It has been shown to be only minor components of catches in the Gulf of California and the Philippines, but is more regularly taken in Indonesia. Although information is lacking it is likely taken elsewhere in its Asian range (for example Taiwan) and probably in West Africa. Its pelagic occurrence and apparent ichthyophagous diet, raises concern for its capture on longlines and this requires investigation. The affect of the long-term use of high-seas gillnet and longline fisheries is not known for this species. The deleterious impacts of such fishing practices on populations of other large elasmobranchs are well known. <br/> <br/>The species is landed in Indonesia where the catch of mobulids is increasing due to the high value of gill rakers for the Asian medicinal market. Apart from being taken as bycatch of the inshore pelagic tuna gillnet fisheries and purse seine fisheries in Indonesia, mobulids are increasingly being targeted. During the shark fishing off-season (December to March) fishers are landing more mobulids as an alternative (W. White pers. comm.). Apart from gill rakers which are dried and exported, the flesh is also utilized both for human consumption and as bait and chum for longlines. <br/> <br/>During a study on the mobulid catch in the Gulf of California by artisanal fisheries, <em>M. taracapana</em> was the rarest species observed, comprising 3% of the observed mobulid catch (seven individuals captured over a four-month period) (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). There is still an active mobulid fishery in the southwest Gulf of California, south of La Paz and devil rays are also landed in nearshore artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California. <br/> <br/>In a study of the mixed <em>Manta</em>/<em>Mobula</em> fishery in the Philippines, <em>M. tarapacana</em> comprised 2% of the total catch in 2002 (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, unpublished study). There is currently a ban on fishing for manta rays in the Philippines, but the effectiveness of this ban is questionable due to limited enforcement ability and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula taracapana</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing catches of mobulids in Indonesia, which may mirror increases elsewhere, is of great concern.
60200		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Because of its large size, migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is likely highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. Current landings in the Gulf of California need to be documented and compared with catch rates observed in the 1980?s (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula thurstoni</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in most parts of the world generally lack species-specific details (for example in México, batoids are broadly grouped as ?manta raya?). Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>In the Philippines, fishing for mobulids was banned in 1998, however it was lifted in 1999 to study the fishery. The ban was put back in place in 2002, and currently it is illegal to fish for any <em>Manta</em> or <em>Mobula</em> in Philippine waters. However, enforcement is insufficient and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America and Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. thurstoni</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.
60200		distribution	eng	Probably circumglobal in tropical and subtropical waters, but thus far confirmed from scattered locations in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
60200		habitat	eng	The species is usually pelagic in shallow, neritic waters (<100 m) (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>The mode of reproduction in the species is aplacental viviparity. Embryos obtain nutrients initially by yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and litter size is one pup (Wourms 1977, Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Size at birth is estimated at 65?85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Both females and males from the Gulf of California, México are estimated to mature at 150 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Mating, parturition, and early life history are reported to take place in the shallow water during summer and perhaps early fall (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). The southern Gulf of California is apparently an important feeding and mating ground. Segregation by size and sex is seasonal, with all size classes and sexes appearing together during the summer months (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987). Observed either solitarily or in small groups (2?6); not a schooling species (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>Diet is highly specialized with the euphausid <em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em> accounting for the vast majority of observed prey items but mysids (<em>Mysidium</em> spp.) are also common. Diet varied with season with mysids dominant from December through March and euphausids during the warmer months (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  180 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  65 to 85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months (estimated) (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60200		population	eng	Reported to be uncommon (Compagno and Last 1999).
60200		threats	eng	<em>Mobula thurstoni</em> is vulnerable to pelagic and demersal gillnets together with purse seines and juveniles could be incidentally captured in trawl fisheries. It is taken, either as bycatch or as a target species in Indonesia, México and the Philippines. Catches have also been reported from Brazil (Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2003). While information is available on these areas it is likely to be landed in other countries also, such as in West Africa and particularly in Southeast Asia where pressure on the marine environment is considerable and where mobulid gill rakers are a high value product. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula thustoni</em> is a caught in the inshore pelagic tuna gillnet fisheries of Indonesia and is also taken by purse seine in that country. The high value of gill rakers in some areas, e.g., Pelabuhanratu in West Java (W. White pers. comm.), is driving a dramatic increase in the catch of mobulids in Indonesia where some fishers are now targeting devil rays. When shark catches are lower (off-season, December to March) fishers are landing more mobulids as an alternative (W. White pers. comm.). The flesh is also utilized both for human consumption and as bait and chum for longlines. <br/> <br/>The species is caught in artisanal drift and demersal gillnet fisheries and directly targeted using harpoons in the Gulf of California.  Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988) reported fishery data from a mixed mobulid fishery with M. thurstoni making up 58% of the catch. Mean daily capture of <em>M. thurstoni</em> from 20 fishing vessels (?pangas?) in Bahia de la Ventana from March to July, 1983 was: March: 0.38, April: 0.69, May: 5.00, June: 5.10, July: 0.56. One <em>M. thrustoni</em> was observed among 129 mobulids landed at Punta Arena de la Ventana, Baja California Sur, México in June 2001 (J. Bizzarro pers. obs.). There is still an active mobulid fishery in the southwest Gulf of California, south of La Paz and devil rays are also landed in nearshore artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California. Although available published research is centered around the southern Gulf of California, these rays are landed by artisanal fisheries throughout the region. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula thurstoni</em> comprised 54% of the Philippine mobulid fishery from March 2001 to March 2002 (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, unpublished study), which may reflect its relative importance in other target fisheries in the Southeast Asia region. There is currently a ban on fishing for manta rays in the Philippines, but the effectiveness of this ban is questionable due to limited enforcement ability and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Gadig <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported <em>M. thurstoni</em> taken by artisanal fishers employing gillnets on the southern coast of São Paulo of Brazil, noting that the small size of artisanal fishing boats precludes the landing of large mobulids and individuals are usually discarded. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula thurstoni</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing catches of mobulids in Indonesia, which may mirror increases elsewhere, is of great concern.
60201		conservation	eng	An investigation into the extent the species is captured and marketed, as well as information on its ecology and life history are required.
60201		distribution	eng	Central and northern South America in both the Eastern Pacific and Western Atlantic (including the southern Caribbean Sea).
60201		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental shelf. Viviparous reproductive pattern but little is known of the general biology of <em>S. media</em>. Reaches a maximum size of ~150 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 100 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b); Male: 90 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~150 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ?34 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60201		population	eng	Eastern Pacific and Western Atlantic populations likely distinct.
60201		threats	eng	Presumably taken with bottom longlines, gillnets and hook and line throughout its coastal range, but no information is available as to the extent of capture and fishing practices. It is however known to be a common bycatch in the mackerel gillnet fishery off Trinidad.
60202		conservation	eng	None currently in place. <br/> <br/>It is recommended that collection of quantitative artisanal catch data on this little known species is initiated. This should be combined with an investigation into the commercial value and utilization of its flesh and fins to enable a strategy for protection and management to be developed. Protection of shallow inshore habitat is certainly necessary for this and many other marine species.
60202		distribution	eng	Original records from the Mediterranean by Valenciennes (1822) may be incorrect and may be based on <em>Sphyrna couardi</em> (Cadenat and Blache 1981, Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Observations that the species has been recorded off the western Florida, USA, Mexico and Panama require verification (records off Mississippi, USA probably incorrect; Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Key inshore muddy beach habitats along the north east coast of South America, Trinidad and Tobago and Northern Brazilian Coast to the State of Maranhão, are identified as pupping and nursery grounds for this species and adults are known from the continental shelf over its range from the southern Gulf of Mexico to Uruguay.
60202		habitat	eng	<em>Sphyrna tudes</em> is a small, inshore hammerhead shark. Newborn and juveniles occupy inshore muddy beach nursery areas, and adults to a maximum size of 150 cm TL are found in depths of 5 to 40 m over muddy substrates. <br/> <br/>Geographic variation in maturity and aspects of reproductive biology are apparent: <br/> <br/>Off Trinidad, males mature at ~80 cm TL; females at ~98 cm TL and are reported to ovulate and mate during August. Following a ten month gestation the young are born in shallow water from late May to June. Size at birth is ~30 cm TL. The annual reproductive cycle of this species results from gestation running concurrently with the ovarian cycle, and females are fertilized soon after parturition. Litter size 5 to 12 pups (Castro 1989). <br/> <br/>Off northern Brazil (Maranhão state) the smallest pregnant female observed was 101 cm TL, however, the estimated size at 50% maturity for females was 114 cm TL. The estimated size of first maturity for males in northern Brazil was 92.1 cm TL, considerably higher than off Trinidad. Pregnant females are observed from June to October and also from January to April. The highest gonadal indices where observed in males from May to November and in March. Uterine eggs and embryos measuring 34 mm TL were observed in June. Embryos measuring 90, 150, 190 and 237 mm TL were observed in January. The number of embryos in females 101 to 132 cm TL ranged between 5?19. There is a strong relationship between the fecundity and the size of females (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/>The characteristic golden colour of live specimens results from a pigment present in their penaeid shrimp and ariid catfish diet.
60202		threats	eng	In experimental fisheries using gillnets with different meshes (1990/91/92) the species was the second most important in shallow waters off northern Brazil (Maranhao State), yielding a maximal CPUE in May of 20 kg/km/hr. In other periods of the year the CPUE was below 5 kg/km/hr. Using 20?25 cm mesh size gillnets, the species represented 25% of the total catch in 1991 and 15% in 1992 (Stride <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Multi-species gillnet fisheries over this species? range are reported to catch individuals of all sizes from newborns to adults. In Brazil, the species is reported to be of interest only to artisanal fisheries. A marked decline in such artisanal catches around Trinidad reported anecdotally between observations in 1985?86 and 1995?96 suggests the population has been impacted significantly in that region (Castro and Woodley 1998, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). The same decreasing trend in catches has been observed in recent years in northern Brazil (Almeida, unpublished data). Inshore coastal fishing is intense (and increasing in many areas) across this species? range and there is every reason to suspect that declines have occurred across its entire distribution.
60203		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at present for the species, except the Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. Although the MPC was reduced annually for the last four years, landings of <em>M. schmitti</em> have continued to decline. Understanding the migrations of the populations of the species is necessary for conservation. The migratory populations should be conserved through international management of the fishery involving Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. The local population in south Brazil (if it still remains) should be conserved through marine protected areas in the shallow coastal zone. Marine protected areas in nursery areas throughout its range are necessary to protect breeding females and juveniles.
60203		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic, from southwest Brazil to the coast of central Argentina, between latitudes 22°S (Rio de Janeiro) and 48°S (Patagonia) according to Figueiredo (1977) and Chiaramonte and Pettovello (1998).
60203		habitat	eng	In south Brazil, the species occurs mostly at depths of 10 to 140 m, at bottom temperatures of 12 to 20°C on the wintering grounds from April to November (Vooren 1997, Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1996). Winter migrants include juveniles, adult males and gravid adult females. Winter migrants arrive in large numbers in April and stay until November, then presumably migrate southward to Uruguay and/or Argentina. A small population was known to give birth in south Brazil in November and remain during January and February, but this population appears to have been extirpated (Vooren unpublished data). The species feeds mostly on crabs (Capitoli <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Argentina, the species occurs from coastal waters to 120 m, at temperatures of 5.5 to 11.0°C (Menni 1985). <br/> <br/>Population parameters of the Brazilian winter migrants (Souto 1986, Batista 1988) and from Argentinean waters (Menni <em>et al</em>. 1986, Menni 1985, Diaz de Astarloa <em>et al</em>. 1997, Chiaramonte and Pettovello 2000) are as follows: <br/> <br/><strong>Maximum Total Length</strong>:  Argentina: 90 cm (males), 108.5 cm (females); Brazil: 78.0 cm (males), 96.0 cm (females). <br/><strong>Modal Total Length</strong>:  Brazil: 60.0 cm (males), 72.0 cm (females). <br/><strong>Maximum age</strong>:  Brazil: 9 years (males), 16 years (females). <br/><strong>Total Length at first breeding</strong>:  Brazil (50% maturity): 57.0 cm (females), 55.0 cm (males). North Argentina: 54.9 to 60.0 cm (males), 60.5 to 62.6 cm (females). Patagonia: 70.8 to 75.9 cm (males), 79.1 to 79.5 cm (females). <br/><strong>Age at first breeding</strong>:  Brazil: 4 years (females), 3 years (males) (from growth curve with observed TL); Argentina (age of first maturity, preliminary): 6.5 years (females), 5.7 years (males) (Massa and Hozbor, unpublished data). <br/><strong>Total Length at birth</strong>:  Brazil: 24 to 28 cm, modal size 24 cm. <br/><strong>Gestation period</strong>:  11 months. <br/><strong>Duration of female breeding cycle</strong>:  12 months. <br/><strong>Litter size</strong>:  2 to 14, modal value 8. <br/><strong>Individual annual fecundity</strong>:  Average 8. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Brazil: 1.058 in the years 1980 to 1994.
60203		population	eng	Pupping occurs inshore in spring throughout the range from south Brazil to Patagonia, and body size of the adults increases with latitude in Argentina (Cousseau 1982, 1986, Chiaramonte and Pettovello 1998, Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data, Domingo unpublished data). This is evidence of the existence of several populations of the species. One large population migrates to south Brazil in autumn and leaves that area in spring, presumably in a southward migration with unknown route. A locally breeding smaller population existed in south Brazil but may have been extirpated by the fishery. Important nursery areas exist in Argentina off Buenos Aires Province in Cabo San Antonioand El Rincón (Cousseau 1986). Another two nursery areas probably of lesser importance occur in north (Bahía Engaño, 43°20´S) and south (Puerto Deseado, 48°S) Patagonia (Van der Molen <em>et al</em>. 1998, Chiaramonte and Pettovello 2000).
60203		threats	eng	The species is subject to intensive fishing in its entire area of distribution, including its nursery grounds. <br/> <br/>From the observed decline in abundance under intensive fishing, it is concluded that in Brazil the fishery causes recruitment overfishing. In winter, the species is fished in south Brazil as a component of a mixed-species fishery and also by directed fishing. Bottom trawl fishery CPUE in south Brazil are evidence that since intensive fishing has occurred from 1985 onwards, the abundance of the winter migrant population of the species had decreased by 85% by 1997, and the fishery continues without restraint (Miranda and Vooren 2003). In south Brazil a small local population reproduced in spring, and remained during the summer. Neonates used to be commonly caught by beach seine and bottom trawl in the 1980s. In a recent summer shore fishery survey (2003) the species was not recorded. This population seems to have disappeared and this is attributed to fishing in its inshore pupping and nursery areas (Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data). <br/> <br/>In Argentina, this species has been an important fishery resource since 1988 (Chiaramonte 1998) and market demands have increased over the last eight years. Intensive fishing in coastal nursery areas threatens recruitment while fishing for adults is increasing. In the main fishing area off Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and Uruguay (the Bonaerensean region), biomass has decreased by 22%, while national landings in Argentina decreased by 30% between 1998 and 2002 (Massa and Hozbor unpublished data). Fisheries statistics may underestimate the actual volume landed, however reductions in landings are an indication that the resource cannot withstand the current level of exploitation. The most recent data (2003) indicate a continuing decline in the stock. This area appears to have the greatest abundance of the species. <br/> <br/>In industrial and artisanal fisheries in Uruguay this species is not targeted but taken as bycatch. Together with <em>M. fasciatus</em>, estimated capture for the period 2000?2002 was 900t per year (<em>M. schmitti</em> was the main species taken).
60204		conservation	eng	Required: Monitoring of fisheries and community-based initiatives regarding habitat management. Data are specifically required from outside of Brazil, however, catch monitoring should also be undertaken in that country.
60204		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic: Northern Gulf of Mexico between Florida and the Mississippi River Delta (USA). Venezuela (Curaçao), Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and south to southern Brazil (Sao Paulo State). In Brazil, occurs off Cabo Orange, near Cabo Norte, Mucuripe, Fortaleza, Recife, Maceio, Salvador, Vitoria, Santos, Espirito Santo and Sao Paulo (Compagno in prep. b)
60204		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf on muddy, sandy and calcareous bottoms. Also occurs in shallow brackish water, and estuarine areas. In northern Brazil, caught in depths of 47 to 78 m (Bezerra <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gadig 1994). Compagno (in preparation b) reports occurrence from close inshore to 130 m depth. However, has also been recorded at depths of at least 1,281 m on the continental slope in the Gulf of Mexico. <br/> <br/>Compagno (in prep. b) reports a maximum size of 64 cm TL (does not specify locality). Maximum length (northern Rio de Janeiro State): female 61.3 cm TL; male 58 cm TL. Females attain maturity around 42.5 cm TL in Brazil (Gadig 1994, Faria 2001) and males mature at 4 cm TL in northern Brazil (Gadig 1994) and at 47.5 cm TL in Rio de Janeiro State (southern Brazil) (Faria 2001). Size at birth: in Rio de Janeiro State, the largest embryo was 22.9 cm TL, and the smallest captured individual was 21.6 cm TL. Viviparous (with yolksac placenta), with 1 to 7 young per litter, with an average of four in southern Rio de Janeiro State (Faria 2001), and most commonly 3 to 5 (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Feeds mainly on crustaceans and occasionally on bony fishes, squids, and coelenterates.
60204		population	eng	This species is locally common to abundant where it occurs (Compagno in preparation b). <br/> <br/><strong>Brazil</strong>:  <br/>Described as very abundant off the northern coast of Brazil (Amapá State) based on samples in 1987 (Bezerra 1993) although there is no information available for this area today. At the present time it is known to be abundant off northern Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil (possibly the largest population is at its southern range limit) (Faria and Di Beneditto 2000, Faria 2001). The distribution of this species along the northeastern coast of Brazil is unclear. <br/> <br/>Possible nursery area in northern Rio de Janeiro in shallow estuarine waters (5?9 m). Birth occurs in summer months (December to February) and juveniles are present year-round (Faria 2001). <br/> <br/>Season of abundance: off the northern Rio de Janeiro coast this species peaks in abundance (both males and females) in summer (December to February). Adult females have been sampled in shallow estuarine waters only in summer months, suggesting a seasonal reproductive and/or feeding migration (Faria 2001).
60204		threats	eng	Shrimp trawl fisheries in northern Brazil (Amapá State) (Bezerra <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gadig 1994) and southern Brazil: northern Rio de Janeiro (bycatch). Caught in gillnets in northern Rio de Janeiro (more selective for adults) (Faria and Di Beneditto 2000, Faria 2001). Species-specific catch data are not available for these fisheries. <br/> <br/>There is no information available on catches in other parts of the species? range. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong>: <br/>In Amapá State, the bycatch is discarded. In northern Rio de Janeiro State it is retained, but has low value.
60205		conservation	eng	An adequate conservation program for the Colombian Guajira peninsula is required. This area supports an extraordinary richness of species, including several southern Caribbean endemics.  Plans for developing and exploiting mineral resources in the Guajira continental shelf and slope must incorporate environmental assessments and conservation actions (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
60205		distribution	eng	Endemic to a small region of the Western Central Atlantic where it is known only from Colombia and Venezuela.
60205		habitat	eng	This species has been found offshore at depths of 71 to 183 m on the outer continental shelf. Known only from nine specimens therefore little known of its biology. Reaches a maximum size of 57 cm TL; near term fetuses 21 to 22 cm TL; males mature at 47 cm TL with the largest collected male 48 cm TL; a pregnant female was 57 cm TL and had five fetuses (Heemstra 1997, Compagno in prep b). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 47 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  57 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  21 to 22 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  one pregnant female had a litter size of 5. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60205		population	eng	According to Compagno (in prep b) this species is possibly rare or uncommon as it is known from only nine specimens in a limited area of distribution.
60205		threats	eng	Medina (2002) conducted a study on bycatch from the shrimp trawl fishery in the La Guajira area (Colombia) with an evaluation of 20 sets in Cape La Vela but had limited species records. The only record of a <em>Mustelus</em> species was for <em>M. norrisi</em> with low abundance (eight specimens), biomass (10 kg) and occurrence (3.9%). However, it is likely that <em>M. minicanis</em> is taken (irregularly) by this fishery and also by longline fisheries in the area.
60206		conservation	eng	None currently in place. This is a newly described species and as a result virtually nothing is known about it. It is important to conduct basic research on it in order to learn more about its biology, ecology, and population dynamics.
60206		distribution	eng	Panama City, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas, USA, also Bay of Campeche, Mexico (Compagno in prep b).
60206		habitat	eng	Found in offshore continental shelf and uppermost slope at depths of 36 to 229 m, with most records between 42 to 91 m. Very little known about its biology and ecology. Apparently it is viviparous (placental viviparous), and has a litter size of eight. Maximum total length is about 140 cm, and size at birth is about 39 to 43 cm.  Males are immature at 70 cm and mature at about 80 cm, with an 83 cm male being mature; females at 118 to 140 cm were mature (Compagno in prep b). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: female specimens of 118 to 140 cm were mature (Compagno in prep b); Male: ~80 cm (Heemstra 1997). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  140 cm (Heemstra 1997). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  39 to 43 cm (Heemstra 1997). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  8 (Compagno in prep b). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60206		population	eng	Unknown.
60206		threats	eng	Interest to fisheries limited. Probably a bycatch of offshore line and trawl fisheries for sharks, bony fishes, and crustaceans, but utilization uncertain (Compagno in prep. b).
60207		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place. <br/> <br/>Deepwater squaloids are highly susceptible to population depletion from localized fishing activities. This situation has been well documented with <em>Centrophorus</em> species off the east coast of Australia (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997). There is thus an urgent need for appraisal of catches of this species where it is landed in Japan and Taiwan, and the development of appropriate management given the apparent limited life-history characteristics of the species.
60207		distribution	eng	Known from the Northwest and Western Central Pacific. Nominal from the Western Central Atlantic.
60207		habitat	eng	Inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 150 to 950 m, mostly below 200 m and possibly found as deep as 1,786 m in the Philippines. Nominal <em>C. acus</em> in the Western Central Atlantic have been recorded at 630 to 915 m (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/>Little known of this species biology as few adults have been collected. This is a large species of Centrophorus reaching at least 161 cm TL. Yano and Tanaka (1986) described a 161 cm TL mature specimen with five enlarged (5.5 cm diameter) (ovarian) eggs and enlarged uteri. While exact litter sizes are unknown, the small number of eggs in this specimen suggests a small litter size (Compagno in prep a). This species appears to mature late with females maturing at possibly >20 years (Tanaka 1990). Estimated sizes and ages at maturity are given in the life history parameters (below). <br/> <br/>Based on stomach fullness, <em>C. acus</em> appears to feed more actively at night (Compagno in prep a). A tracking study in Suruga Bay, Japan showed that tagged sharks exhibited little horizontal movements in the short term and remained mostly at 10 to 50 m above the seabed with peaks in swimming depths at 300 to 400 m and 580 to 620 m (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: possibly >20 yrs. Females still immature at 17 to 18 yrs (Tanaka 1990); Male: ~10 yrs (Tanaka 1990) <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: Females immature to 154 cm TL, mature at 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986); Male: 50% maturity: 100 to 105 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Females: >20 yrs; Male: Males: 17 yrs (dorsal spine rings), possibly up to 20 yrs (extrapolated from growth curve) (Tanaka 1990). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60207		population	eng	Locally common in several locations in the western Pacific, including in Suruga Bay, southeastern Honshu, Japan.
60207		threats	eng	The vulnerability of <em>Centrophorus</em> species to population depletion from localized fishing has been well documented off the east coast of Australia where trawl fishing has depleted the stocks of several species (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus acus</em> may be highly susceptible to overfishing as with other deepwater dogfish with similar life-history strategies. In the waters off Honshu, Japan, <em>C. acus</em> is caught in localized bottom longline, dropline, and gillnet fisheries and trawls that target deepwater sharks for squalene (liver) oil. This species is also caught off Taiwan, as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, and probably in targeted fisheries for deepwater squaloids (Yano and Tanaka 1983, Compagno, in prep a). <br/> <br/>Part of the species' known depth range is beyond that of present fisheries. Presently unexploited depths may serve as a refuge for the species, although the extent of this is unknown given the lack of information on any difference in movement patterns, habitat use and depth segregation between sexes/maturity stages, etc. <br/> <br/>Threats in the Western Central Atlantic are unknown, but may include bycatch in demersal longline fisheries.
60208		conservation	eng	Taxonomic resolution of the species and associated nominal records is the highest priority.
60208		distribution	eng	Uncertain. Type locality is southeastern Japan in the Northwest Pacific, but other records are considered to be provisional only: Western Central Atlantic: Gulf of Mexico; Western Indian: Southern Madagascar Ridge, Comoro Islands, Error seamount off the Gulf of Aden, east of Somalia; Southwest Pacific: New Zealand (Wanganella Bank); Central Pacific: Hawaiian Islands (Compagno in prep. a).  <br/>  <br/>May be a wide-ranging species or alternatively, consist of one or more other nominal species.
60208		habitat	eng	Records as known at present are associated with insular slopes at depths of 260 to 732 m (Compagno in prep. a). Biology is unknown. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  89 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60208		population	eng	Unknown but apparently a rare species (if valid) (Compagno in prep. a).
60208		threats	eng	Uncertain. <em>Centrophorus</em> species are often taken as bycatch in the deepwater fisheries and are susceptible to population decline given their presumed ?slow? life-history, a characteristic of many deepwater elasmobranchs. For example, intensive trawl fishing on the slope off New South Wales, Australia, rapidly depleted stocks of similar species there (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). The resolution of the true distribution of <em>C. tessellatus</em> will elucidate its level of interaction with deepwater fisheries, which are expanding globally.
60209		conservation	eng	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
60209		distribution	eng	May be more widespread than presently documented. As well as those localities it has been documented from, Myagkov and Kondyurin (1986) suggested that it is also found off the east and west coasts of India and on ridges and seamounts in the Indian and South Atlantic. However, without exact locality data these records are not properly documented (Compagno in prep. a).
60209		habitat	eng	Associated with outer continental shelves and upper continental and insular slopes of warm temperate to tropical seas. Wide bathymetric range from 73 to 600 m, which includes records from off bays and river mouths in South Africa. Biology is poorly known, although it is reported as being aplacental yolksac viviparous with a litter size of 18 to 22 young (Compagno in prep. a), but probably has a long gestation period like that of other squalid and deepwater sharks. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 89 to 118 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a); Male: 85 to 90 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Female: 118 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  25 to 28 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  18 to 22 pups (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60209		population	eng	Relatively common where it occurs off the Atlantic coast of the USA, but reported as rare to uncommon elsewhere (Robins <em>et al</em>. 1991, Compagno in prep. a).
60209		threats	eng	Compagno (in prep. a) reports that this species is probably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl and deepwater longline fisheries in some parts of its range, including in the Western Atlantic and Western Indian Oceans. Though, like the bycatch of most other deepwater chondrichthyans, specific data is not available. Also reported to be occasionally caught by inshore line fisheries in the Eastern Cape, South Africa (Compagno in prep. a).
60210		conservation	eng	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess its status and any future conservation needs.
60210		distribution	eng	Widespread in central ocean basins of warm-temperate and subtropical oceans, including those off Australia, New Zealand, southern Africa, Madagascar, Brazil, and Island nations in the north and south central Pacific.
60210		habitat	eng	A meso- and epipelagic (depths of capture: surface to 300 m) oceanic (over 1,829 to 9,938 m depth) species. A bioluminescent vertical migratory species that ascends to or near the water surface by night, descending into midwater (and possibly all the way to the bottom) by day. Reproduction aplacental viviparous, but no details of biology available. One of the smallest shark species, reaching a maximum size of 26.5 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno in prep a). Consumes fishes, bathypelagic squid, and crustaceans. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 22 to 23 cm TL; Male: 17–19 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  26.5 cm TL (females), 22.0 cm TL (males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >6.0 cm TL, <9.9 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  8. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60210		population	eng	No information on stock size or structure.
60210		threats	eng	None apparent. Small size and epipelagic/mesopelagic nature may preclude it from capture in most fisheries.
60211		conservation	eng	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess its status and any future conservation needs.
60211		distribution	eng	Possibly circumglobal in cold Sub-Antarctic waters of the Southern Hemisphere: Southeast Atlantic near Walvis Ridge; Western Indian, off the east coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; and Southeast Pacific off Chile.
60211		habitat	eng	Oceanic, pelagic in depths of 45 to 502 m over 830 to 4,000 m. Little known of its life history or ecology. Presumably aplacental viviparous. Known only from six specimens, the largest of which was 36.5 cm TL. A 12.8 cm TL specimen had an umbilical scar, suggesting recent birth. An adult female recorded at 33.3 cm TL and two adult males measured at 36.0 and 36.5 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 33.3 cm TL; Male: 36.0 to 36.5 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  36.5 cm or longer. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~12.8 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60211		population	eng	No knowledge of population size or structure.
60211		threats	eng	None apparent. Small size and pelagic nature may preclude it from capture in most fisheries.
60212		conservation	eng	Further specimens are required to better define distribution and obtain information on biology.
60212		distribution	eng	Possibly circumglobal, but at present known from scattered locations in the Pacific and Atlantic (Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Compagno in prep. a.).
60212		habitat	eng	Little information available on the species? biology as it is presently known only from 10 specimens. Epibenthic (~100 m depth over the continental shelf) and epipelagic (depths of 60 to 120 m over continental slopes with bottom depths of 815-2,060m; and, 200m over the Riu-Kyu Trench with bottom depth of 6,440 m) with all known specimens collected close to land (Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Suggested to be a weaker, less active swimmer than <em>I. brasiliensis</em> (Compagno in prep. a). This species is a facultative ectoparasite, like <em>I. brasiliensis</em>, but with a probable different biting/cutting action (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 42 cm TL (Garrick and Springer 1964, Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Compagno in prep. a.).. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60212		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered compared to <em>Isistius brasiliensis</em> (the cookiecutter shark). Compagno (in prep. a.) suggests that this may be due to more localized or limited distribution of <em>I. plutodus</em>, its occurrence in deeper water or its lower abundance.
60212		threats	eng	Rarely caught in trawl (pelagic and benthic) and longline fisheries. The Australian specimen was probably taken by otter trawl targeting prawns (not known if taken on/near the bottom or in midwater) (McGrouther 2001). The Azores specimen was taken by pelagic trawl (Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004) and the Brazilian specimens were collected from longline fisheries operating out of Santos in the south of the country. One specimen was retrieved attached to a hooked blue shark <em>Prionace glauca</em> (Sadowsky <em>et al</em>. 1988, Amorin <em>et al</em>. 1998).
60213		conservation	eng	There is a need to research the historical catch data if available, to determine any population declines as a result of the fisheries. Bycatch rates in various fisheries around the Artic and north Atlantic need to be determined and monitored.
60213		distribution	eng	Restricted to Northern Atlantic and Artic regions. Reports of <em>S. microcephalus</em> from the Southern Hemisphere are <em>S. antarcticus</em>.
60213		habitat	eng	Littoral and epibenthic, ranging from river mouths and bays to continental shelf and slope waters. Usually found in depths of 0 to 1,200 m, but one shark was observed at 2,200 m off North Carolina (Herdendorf and Berra 1995, Compagno in prep. a). During winter months in the Arctic and boreal Atlantic, the species occurs in the intertidal zone and at the surface in shallow bays and river mouths, moving into depths of 180 to 550 m during warmer months. At lower latitudes (Gulf of Maine and North Sea) the species occurs on the continental shelves with possible movements into shallower water during spring and summer (Compagno in prep. a). Short term tracking studies of the Greenland sharks under ice off Baffin Island during late Spring suggest that individuals remained at deeper depths during the morning, gradually moving into shallower depths in the afternoon and at night (Skomal and Benz 2004). The species has been recorded in water temperatures of 0.6 to 12°C (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Maximum size is uncertain, but is at least 640 cm TL, possibly to 730 cm TL, however most adults are between 244 and 427 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). Aplacental viviparous with one observed female carrying 10 young (Compagno in prep. a). Tagging studies have shown the species to be very slow growing with medium size sharks appearing to grow at a rate of 1 cm per year (Hansen 1957, Castro 1983, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Although reportedly sluggish, feeds on a variety of prey including invertebrates, fish, seabirds, seals as well as offal (see Compagno in prep. a for more details). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  640?730 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~37 to 38 cm TL (Bjerkan and Koefoed 1957, Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  10. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60213		population	eng	Unknown.
60213		threats	eng	The Greenland shark was historically targeted by shark liver fisheries in Norway, Iceland, and Greenland waters. These fisheries may have had a significant impact on this species. The Greenland fishery commenced in the very early nineteenth century. In 1857 the estimated catch was 2,000?3,000 sharks/year, but in the 1910s this had grown to 32,000 sharks/year (Jensen 1914). Commercial fishing of the Greenland shark for liver oil ceased in 1960 (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). During the 1970s the species was perceived as a problem for other fisheries in western Norway and the government subsidized a fishery in order to reduce the stock of the species (Catro <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Currently the species is taken as bycatch in Greenland halibut and shrimp trawl fisheries (D. Kulka, pers. comm.) and fish traps and gillnets. It is also caught by artisanal fisheries in the Arctic (Compagno in prep. a).
60214		conservation	eng	No specific conservation requirements, although distribution needs to be better defined with the collection and documentation of further specimens during oceanic survey work. Research into life history is also required.
60214		distribution	eng	A widespread oceanic species recorded from many warm-temperate and tropical regions. Range will likely increase as further specimens are recognized. Not recorded from Australian waters, but given its nearly circumtropical distribution, may be recorded there in the future (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005).
60214		habitat	eng	An oceanic species, occurring near landmasses and apparently avoiding central ocean basins. Primarily found over the continental slope at 200–500 m, but can also occur over continental shelves. Avoids the surface. Vertically migrates on a diel cycle from depth during the day to about 200 m at night, probably related to prey movement (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Little known of its biology, although it is suspected to be yolksac viviparous. Litter size unknown but 12 well-developed eggs have been found in the ovary of a mature female (ovarian fecundity does not always accurately represent actual fecundity and <em>Squaliolus</em> spp. probably have a small litter size) (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>This is one of the world’s smallest shark species, reaching a maximum size of 27.5 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 17–20 cm TL; Male: 15 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  27.5 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  <9 cm TL (smallest specimen reported by Sasaki and Uyeno 1987).. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60214		population	eng	No knowledge of stock structure or population size. Compagno (in prep. a) reports that <em>Squaliolus</em> species may occur in aggregations as well as single individuals.
60214		threats	eng	This species is generally too small to be captured in fisheries and there are no identifiable threats to the species. Specimens have been irregularly taken as bycatch in commercial trawl fisheries, i.e., deepwater shrimp in Suruga Bay, Japan (Abe 1962).
60215		conservation	eng	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs.
60215		distribution	eng	Widespread and sporadic in most oceans, but not yet recorded from the Eastern Pacific (Compagno in prep. a).
60215		habitat	eng	Continental and insular slopes at depths of 550 to 1,450 m. Generally on or near the bottom, but also epipelagic and oceanic off Brazil at depths of 0 to 580 m in waters 2,000 m deep (Compagno in prep. a). Little known of its biology. Probably aplacental viviparous. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 59 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a); Male: 49 cm TL (Compagno in prep a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~69 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60215		population	eng	Probably rare in its deepwater habitat. Less commonly encountered in the Western North Atlantic than other areas.
60215		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch by deepwater benthic trawl, longline and set net gear (Compagno in prep. a). Specific information is not available.
60216		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place. <br/> <br/>Deepwater squaloids are highly susceptible to population depletion from localized fishing activities. This situation has been well documented with <em>Centrophorus</em> species off the east coast of Australia (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997). There is thus an urgent need for appraisal of catches of this species where it is landed in Japan and Taiwan, and the development of appropriate management given the apparent limited life-history characteristics of the species.
60216		distribution	eng	Nominal from the Western Central Atlantic.
60216		habitat	eng	Inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 150 to 950 m, mostly below 200 m . Nominal <em>C. acus</em> in the Western Central Atlantic have been recorded at 630 to 915 m (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/>Little known of this species biology as few adults have been collected. This is a large species of <em>Centrophorus</em> reaching at least 161 cm TL. Yano and Tanaka (1986) described a 161 cm TL mature specimen with five enlarged (5.5 cm diameter) (ovarian) eggs and enlarged uteri. While exact litter sizes are unknown, the small number of eggs in this specimen suggests a small litter size (Compagno in prep a). This species appears to mature late with females maturing at possibly >20 years (Tanaka 1990). Estimated sizes and ages at maturity are given in the life history parameters (below). <br/> <br/>Based on stomach fullness, <em>C. acus</em> appears to feed more actively at night (Compagno in prep a). A tracking study in Suruga Bay, Japan showed that tagged sharks exhibited little horizontal movements in the short term and remained mostly at 10 to 50 m above the seabed with peaks in swimming depths at 300 to 400 m and 580 to 620 m (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: possibly >20 yrs. Females still immature at 17 to 18 yrs (Tanaka 1990); Male: ~10 yrs (Tanaka 1990) <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: Females immature to 154 cm TL, mature at 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986); Male: 50% maturity: 100 to 105 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Females: >20 yrs; Male: Males: 17 yrs (dorsal spine rings), possibly up to 20 yrs (extrapolated from growth curve) (Tanaka 1990). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60216		population	eng	Unknown.
60216		threats	eng	The vulnerability of <em>Centrophorus</em> species to population depletion from localized fishing has been well documented off the east coast of Australia where trawl fishing has depleted the stocks of several species (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus acus</em> may be highly susceptible to overfishing as with other deepwater dogfish with similar life-history strategies.  <br/> <br/>Threats in the Western Central Atlantic are unknown, but may include bycatch in demersal longline fisheries.
60217		conservation	eng	Although this species is protected in a number of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Brazil (see Range and Population section) increased law enforcement against illegal fishing in protected areas is required. Establishment of additional protected areas (no fishing zones) on the outer banks off northern coast of Brazil is also recommended, as are MPAs in other parts of its range to protect this and other species. Shark fishing is illegal in Cuba?s Jardines de la Reina Marine Reserve and local guides have noted an increase in sightings of many species of reef-associated sharks including <em>C. perezi</em> since 1997 when the reserve was declared and enforcement of fishing regulations began. There are currently no conservation measures protecting sharks throughout Belize territorial waters. Despite no-take restrictions in marine reserves, illegal fishing continues to take place and reef sharks are known to be caught. As such, increased enforcement is required in Belize?s 13 marine reserves to specifically protect shark species against illegal fishing. Most sharks caught as bycatch in the hook and line fisheries could be released live but are usually landed.
60217		distribution	eng	Caribbean reef sharks range throughout the tropical western Atlantic and Caribbean from North Carolina to Brazil and are the most common reef shark in the Caribbean. They are found near reefs in southern Florida, however surveys using longline gear off the east coast of Florida reveal that <em>C. perezi</em> are extremely rare north of the Florida Keys (<a href="www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/CReefShark/CReefShark.htm">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>). <br/> <br/>In Belize, recorded throughout the Belize Barrier Reef including the marine reserves of Half Moon Caye and Blue Hole (Lighthouse Reef Atoll) (Graham <em>et al</em>. in prep), Gladden Spit (Graham and Burgess 2004) and Glover?s Reef Atoll (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted). Neonate, juvenile and adult reef sharks are found at several sites throughout the Barrier Reef (Glover?s Reef Atoll, Lighthouse Reef Atoll, Gladden Spit). <br/> <br/>In Cuba, recorded in the Jardines de la Reina Archipelago and marine reserve (Graham and Pina 2004). Neonate, juvenile and adult reef sharks are commonly encountered in the Jardines de la Reina Archipelago. All sites studied in Belize and Cuba are partially or entirely encompassed in marine protected areas. However only Jardines de la Reina bans shark fishing within its borders. <br/> <br/>In Venezuela it is one of the most frequent and abundant shark species at oceanic islands such as Los Roques (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). It is also one of the most abundant sharks around the Bahamas and the Antilles. <br/> <br/>In Colombia, recorded from Rosario islands, Tayrona park, La Guajira and San Andrés Archipelago (Acero and Santos-Martínez 1992, Caldas 2002, Rey and Acero in press). <br/> <br/>In Brazil, recorded from the States of Amapá, Pará, Maranhão, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Paraná and Santa Catarina, and from the oceanic islands of Atol das Rocas, Fernando de Noronha and Trindade, and from the reef formations of Parcel Manuel Luiz and Abrolhos (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sampaio et al. 2000, Garla and Amorim 2000, Rocha and Rosa 2001, Soto 2001). This species is protected at the Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve, at Fernando de Noronha and Abrolhos national marine parks, and at the Parcel Manuel Luiz state marine park. <br/> <br/>Glover?s Reef (Belize), Gladden Spit (Belize), Jardines de la Reina (Cuba), Atol das Rocas (Brazil) and Fernando de Noronha (Brazil) archipelagos all appear to encompass breeding, pupping  and nursery grounds, based on catches of neonate, juvenile and adult sharks. Parcel Manoel Luiz, Abrolhos and Trindade are possibly other nursery areas in Brazil (Garla <em>et al</em>., in prep).
60217		habitat	eng	The Caribbean reef shark is the most common shark on or near coral reefs in the Caribbean, often found close to drop-offs on the outer edges of the reefs. It is a tropical inshore, bottom-dwelling species of the continental and insular shelves. While generally reported from depths to at least 30 m (Compagno in prep. b), in San Andrés Archipelago, Colombia it is reported from depths of 45 to 22 5m (Caldas 2002) and through satellite telemetry is now known to dive to 378 m (E. Pikitch and D. Chapman, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Caribbean reef sharks are caught mostly in forereef and deeper lagoonal areas and rarely in the shallow lagoons in Belizes Glover?s Reef (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), Lighthouse Reef (Graham <em>et al</em>. in prep) and Cuba?s Jardines de la Reina (Graham and Pina in prep). Although intraspecific variation in reef use exists between juveniles and adults at Glover?s Reef (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), and between males and females at Jardines de la Reina (Graham and Pina in prep), neonate, juvenile and adult habitat overlap at Belize?s Glover?s Reef Atoll (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), Gladden Spit (Graham and Burgess 2004) and in Cuba?s Jardines de la Reina Archipelago (Graham and Pina in prep) where all three size classes have been caught in forereef sites. Although adults are rarely found in shallow lagoons and juveniles are found in both lagoons and forereef areas, acoustic taqging supports overall species preference for forereef areas at Glover?s Reef (Chapman <em>et al</em>. submitted). In Jardines de la Reina, preliminary results further suggest sexual segregation between adults along two forereef sites located within <10 km of of each other and separated by a broad reef pass (Graham and Pina in prep). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is from 60 to 75 cm TL (Castro 1983). Maximum size about 295 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Reproduction is placental viviparous. Difference in the size at maturity exist with 150 to 170 cm TL at Glover?s Reef (Belize) recorded by Pikitch et al. (submitted) and 170 cm TL (males) and ~200 cm TL (females) noted by Compagno (in prep b). Litter size is 3 to 6 pups and gestation period is ~1 year (Compagno in prep. b). Reproductive periodicity is biennial (Castro et al. 1999). Sex ratios from 102 sharks captured at Glover?s Reef Atoll were even from May to July (2000?2004). <br/> <br/>Diet appears to include a wide range of reef fishes and some elasmobranchs. Stomach contents analysis in several sites reveals consumption of bony fishes (scarids, carangids and serranids) and elasmobranchs such as <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Urobatis jamaicensis</em> (D. Chapman pers. comm.). In Fernando de Noronha archipelago, Brazil, specimens of the teleosts <em>Caranx latus</em>, <em>Sparisoma</em> spp. and <em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> were observed in stomach contents (R. Garla pers. comm). In Manoel Luis reefs, remains of Scaridae and cephalopods were found in stomach contents (Motta <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Movement is more extensive than previously thought on both the horizontal and vertical planes. Using acoustic telemetry, Chapman <em>et al</em>. (submitted) determined that one animal traveled 30 km over deep (>400 m) waters from Glover?s Reef Atoll to neighboring Lighthouse Reef Atoll. Within 30 hours the same individual returned to a site at Glover?s at least 50 km from the Lighthouse receiver site. On the other hand, 14 sharks fitted with acoustic transmitters in Fernando de Noronha archipelago (Brazil) showed little movement and high site fidelity, half of them remaining within areas of 0.7 km² and the other half traveling less than 3.3 km, mainly during the night (Garla <em>et al</em>. submitted for publication).
60217		population	eng	Population studies are underway using tag and recapture methods at three sites in Belize: Glover?s Reef Atoll (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. 2001, Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), Lighthouse Reef (Graham <em>et al</em>. in prep.) and Gladden Spit (Graham and Burgess 2004) as well as the Jardines de la Reina Marine Reserve in Cuba (Graham and Pina, in prep.) and Fernando de Noronha in Brazil (Garla <em>et al</em>., in prep). No population size estimates are currently available.
60217		threats	eng	While specific information is unavailable, it is most certainly taken as bycatch in artisanal and commercial longline and gillnet fisheries (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). In some regions (i.e., parts of Brazil and the Caribbean) fishing pressure in its area of occurrence is potentially significant. For example, in parts of its range off Brazil it is known to be captured in longline and gillnet fisheries (Sadowsky and Amorim 1977, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 1989, Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998), although there is no information available on its population status. The species is protected in a number of marine protected areas in Brazil, but enforcement to prevent illegal fishing is required. <br/> <br/>In Belize, reef sharks are caught on hook and line primarily as bycatch in the artisanal snapper or grouper fisheries. Pressure is maintained on these populations through local, national and international trade: Asian buyers purchase dried fins for up to USD 37.5/lb and meat is sold in Belize and adjoining Mexico and Guatemala for USD 1.25?1.75/lb to make ?panades? (tortilla-like confection). A dedicated shark fishery operated from several points throughout Belize (San Pedro, Sarteneja, Punta Gorda, Placencia, Dangriga) existed from the mid-1900s to the early 1990s. Dramatic declines in catches of all shark species including reef sharks led many dedicated shark fishers to switch effort to other species, change occupation or retire (Graham, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>In Cuba, shark landings peaked in 1981 at 3,076t and have declined since. Although landings of Caribbean reef sharks are not disaggregated from all shark landings, catches of coastal shark species including reef-associated sharks predominated between 1986?1990 (1,187t or 54.2% of landings). Despite a decrease in the total landings for all species between 1981?2003, coastal shark species accounted for 82% of all captures between 1994?2003. <br/> <br/>In Colombia, it is frequently captured in the bottom longline fishery of San Andrés Archipelago where it is the most common shark species, representing 39% of the catch by occurrence. Sizes of ~90?180 cm TL are taken in this fishery (Caldas 2002). <br/> <br/>Additionally, coral reef ecosystems in the Caribbean are suffering damage from bleaching, disease and physical impacts (see for example, Garzón-Ferreira and Rodriguez-Ramírez 2001), which may affect <em>Carcharhinus perezi</em> through habitat degradation and loss. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Utilized for human consumption, leather (skin), oil (livers) and fishmeal (from carcasses) (Compagno in prep. b). In the San Andrés Archipelago bottom longline fishery in Colombia the fins, jaws (for ornamental purposes) and liver (for oil) are utilized, while the meat is only occasionally used as it is not easily marketed. A gallon of liver oil is sold for USD 40?50, jaws for USD 50?60 (specimen >150 cm TL) and a pound of fins for US$45?55 (Caldas 2002). In Belize dried fins are sold to Asian buyers for USD 37.50/lb and meat if sold to Belizeans, Mexicans, Guatemalans and Hondurans for ~USD 1.25-1.75/lb (Graham, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>This species forms the basis of several shark feeding tour operations throughout the Caribbean including Belize, Bahamas and Cuba. Although known to be lucrative ? prompting the activity and strong opposition to feeding bans - the Caribbean reef shark feeding industry has not yet been quantitatively valued.
60218		conservation	eng	The following measures are recommended for this species: <br/> <br/>It is suggested that the conservation area of Reentrâncias Maranhenses (Brazil) and adjacent regions is extended to encompass marine areas and seamounts where this species spends part of its life cycle. <br/> <br/>Monitoring of the fishing efforts of vessels that use gillnets in the area of occurrence is also recommended. Encourage the release of live specimens landed. <br/> <br/>Inclusion of this species in the Brazilian National list of Endangered Species (IBAMA). Creation and enforcement of specific laws/restrictions in the number of landings with the aim of conserving the species. <br/> <br/>Studies and monitoring of this species in the other countries in its range outside Brazil.
60218		distribution	eng	Compagno (1984) mentions the occurrence of the Daggernose Shark off the eastern (central) Brazilian coast (Valenca, Bahia, 13°S). However, this species has never been collected in fishery surveys and, is unknown to local fishermen in this area. In surveys carried out from 1998 to 2000 by the REVIZEE Program (Brazilian national program for the assessment of living resources of the exclusive economic zone) this species was also not recorded.
60218		habitat	eng	The whole area where the Daggernose Shark occurs is characterized by a humid, tropical climate, coasts covered by extensive mangrove systems, wide continental shelves, intense draining by numerous rivers (including the Amazon), muddy bottoms and highly turbid waters. This species is found mainly in a deeply indented coastline with a large number of rivers, islands, estuaries and some beaches. Tidal amplitude in this region reaches up to 7 m and salinity ranges from 20 to 34 ppt (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). Depth is shallow waters to 40 m (Lessa 1986, Lessa and Menni 1994). <br/> <br/>The elasmobranch fish fauna in the area is made up of two dominant-resident species, <em>Carcharhinus porosus</em> and <em>Sphyrna tiburo</em> and 11 other common species. The daggernose shark spends most of its life cycle within the same area and no long distance movements have been recorded, however some local seasonal movements possibly occur (Lessa and Menni 1994). <br/> <br/>Off the northern Brazilian coast, females mature at an age of 6 to 7 years (115 cm TL) and males at 5 to 6 years (103 cm TL) (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 2000). Placental viviparous with the litter size varying between two and eight pups. The gestation period is 12 months and reproductive periodicity is possibly biennial (Lessa 1987, Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stride <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species recruits to fisheries at 8.6 years (Marcante and Lessa 2002). Von Bertalanffy parameters obtained from vertebral analysis are: L? = 171.4 cm TL; k = 0.12 yr <sup>-1</sup>; t<sub>0</sub> = -2.61. The oldest female specimen that had vertebrae analyzed was 12 years and the oldest male was seven years old. In the length frequency sample, the maximum size of 160 cm TL would correspond to a 20 year-old female and the maximum size of 144 cm TL would correspond to a 12 year-old male. Size at birth ~42 cm TL (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 6?7 years; Male: 5?6 years. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 115 cm TL; Male: 103 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Female: 20 years; Male: 12 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Female: 160 cm TL; Male: 144 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~42 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Possibly biennial. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2?8 pups/litter, therefore average annual fecundity may equal 1?4 young if reproductive periodicity is biennial. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60218		population	eng	Nursery areas have been observed in shallow areas such as estuaries and shallow coastal areas. Pregnant females were caught during the Amazonian summer (July-December) (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999).
60218		threats	eng	The Daggernose Shark is caught incidentally in artisanal floating gillnets targeting both Spanish mackerel <em>Scomberomorus brasiliensis</em> and King Weakfish <em>Cynoscium acoupa</em> inside or near estuary mouths mainly during the dry season, representing about 10% of the catch in the State of Maranhao, Brazil (Lessa 1986, Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). Stride <em>et al</em>. (1992) recorded a CPUE of 71 kg/km/h for the Daggernose Shark, however, fishing efforts for target bony fish have increased in recent years due to the increase of the price of byproducts, mainly swim bladders. Observations have indicated that a commercial fishery targeting sharks is also presently taking place in this area (P. Charvet-Almeida, personal observation). Recent demographic analyses suggest that the population has been decreasing at 18.4% per year and very large population declines (>90%) have been observed over the past 10 years (Santana and Lessa 2002). <br/> <br/>This species does not compensate for the high natural and fishing mortality due to its limited biological characteristics, including intrinsic population growth rate. The high mortality rates for such a biologically limited species are resulting in it not being able to support sustained fishing pressure (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Santana and Lessa 2002). This entire situation indicates a high risk of extinction for this species particularly given that it is an endemic species with a restricted range, and that fishing pressure is still increasing. <br/> <br/>Data are lacking for the other countries in its range, but because the species is taken primarily in artisanal fisheries, which are intense throughout its range there is no reason to believe that a similar decline has not occurred there as well. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>The Daggernose Shark is commercialised as human food but fins have a low price.
60219		conservation	eng	<strong>Brazil</strong>: There are controls on the number of vessels in the fishery and the use of drift nets is prohibited, but there needs to be enforcement of existing laws that ban the transport of shark fins without corresponding carcasses, better monitoring of landings, and declaration of closed fishing areas over some of the seamounts off northeastern Brazil. The Brazilian National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) is in urgent need of implementation under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks). <br/> <br/><strong>US</strong>: In US waters, under the Fishery Management Plan of the Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks (NMFS 1999), the Night Shark, <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em>, is currently listed as a Prohibited Species but was originally petitioned and added to the Candidate Species List under the Endangered Species Act in 1997.  Recent time/area closures off the Florida Straits and the Charleston Bump should help to reduce any further increases in bycatch (L. Beerkircher, NOAA Fisheries, pers. comm).
60219		distribution	eng	Studies on the species have been carried out at several localities along the Brazilian coast during the past five years. Whether or not specimens examined from the different localities belong to the same population or whether there is exchange between the animals off Brazil with those in other parts of its range is unknown. Pregnant females are observed in northeastern Brazil, although full-term embryos and new-born specimens are never caught, perhaps due to size-selectivity of gear used. On the shelf break in the southern region of its distribution (latitude ~34° South) (Hellebrandt and Vooren 2000) the animals are predominantly juveniles, and the area is thought to be an important nursery area. <br/> <br/>The night shark makes up 90% of elasmobranchs caught by longline over seamounts off northeastern Brazil (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). About 89% of individuals in landings are below age-at-50%-maturity. Recruitment to the seamount longline fisheries occurs at five years. Demographic analysis carried out using data collected over seamounts off northeastern Brazil indicates declines due to a high fishing mortality rate (F=0.117) and early recruitment causing an annual loss of 4.4% (Santana da Silva 2001). Fishing mortality is double that required to maintain population equilibrium (Z?=0.287). Estimates of total mortality (Z), natural mortality (M), initial natural mortality (Z0) and equilibrium fishing mortality (F?) are 0.355, 0.238, 0.362 and 0.049, respectively. Further, the reproductive net rate (R0) is estimated to be 0.59 and generation time (G) 11.71. Average fecundity is 9.5 embryos and the sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 (Santana da Silva 2001).
60219		habitat	eng	Castro (1983) reports that this species is usually found at depths between 275 and 366 m during the day and <183 m at night. Compagno (in prep b) reports that the species prefers waters 50 to 100 m deep, but that it ranges from the surface to at least 600 m depth. In northeastern Brazil <em>C. signatus</em> is caught in commercial landings on deep (Aracati, Dois Irmaos Fundo, Sirius) and shallow (Pequeno, Leste and Sueste) seamounts at depths of 38 to 370 m on the summits. In these areas mating occurs throughout the austral summer; embryos measuring 10 to 40 cm TL were collected in February, whereas 31 to 37 cm TL embryos were found in June. Parturition occurs during several months in a protracted birthing season. Size-at-birth is estimated to be 66.8 cm TL. The gestation period is assumed to be about one year. Whether or not there is a resting break between two reproductive seasons is unclear. Gravid females have between 4 and 15 pups. Peak gonadosomatic index (GSI) occurs in spring and ovulation occurs shortly after that. Copulation is assumed to occur in summer. Average fecundity is 9.5 embryos and the sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 (Santana da Silva 2001). <br/> <br/>As mentioned above, about 89% of individuals in landings in the seamount fishery are below age-at-50%-maturity (eight years for males and 10 years for females). Recruitment to the seamount longline fisheries occurs at five years (157 cm TL for males and 202 cm TL for females). Maximum size in the area is 260 cm TL, and size-at-50%-maturity is 185 cm TL for males and 202 cm TL for females. Maximum age in this area is 17 years (Santana and Lessa 2004). <br/> <br/>Age and growth were determined for the northeastern Brazil region from vertebral sections from 317 animals. Von Bertalanffy growth functions showed no significant differences between sexes. Growth parameter estimates were L<sub>?</sub> = 270 cm TL, k = 0.11 yr<sup>?1</sup>; t<sub>0</sub> = -2.71 yr (Santana and Lessa 2004).
60219		population	eng	Formerly common in Caribbean fisheries, this species is now apparently rare (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
60219		threats	eng	<em>Carcharhinus signatus</em> is a target species and is regularly caught in commercial landings on deep (Aracati, Dois Irmaos Fundo, Sirius) and shallow (Pequeno, Leste and Sueste) seamounts off northeastern Brazil (Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte), at depths of 38?370 m on the summits. Exploitation started in 1991 for the highly prized fins, the increasing value of shark meat in the local market, and the species? accessibility to fisheries. <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em> is the most abundant elasmobranch species in the seamount fisheries where it makes up 90% of catches in number over shallow banks (CPUE, in number 2.94/100 hooks) but only 15% of catches on the surrounding deep areas (CPUE 0.04/100 hooks) using the traditional Japanese-style multifilament longline (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). Estimates of age composition for the whole sample indicated that 89.2% of individuals were below age-at-50%-maturity (eight years for males and 10 years for females). Recruitment to the fisheries is at five years of age. The population is highly aggregated over the seamounts and shelf break and, thus, highly ?available? to fisheries. It is likely that there are no natural refuges for the species and that there is little or no exchange with other populations of <em>C. signatus</em>. One possible respite for the population is re-targeting away from <em>C. signatus</em> to Swordfish <em>Xiphias gladius</em> and Bigeye Tuna <em>Thunnus obesus</em>. <br/> <br/>Historically, Night Sharks comprised a significant proportion of the artisanal Cuban shark fishery, making up to 60?75% of the catch from 1937?1941 (Martinez 1947).  However, beginning in the 1970?s with the development of the swordfish fishery, anecdotal evidence has demonstrated a substantial decline in the abundance of this species. Guitart-Manday (1975) documented a decline in the mean weight per unit of effort for night sharks from 53.4 kg in 1971 to 21.1 kg in 1973. <br/> <br/>Night sharks comprised 26.1% of the shark catch in the pelagic U.S. longline fishery from 1981-1983 (Berkeley and Campos 1988), but this declined to 0.3% and 3.3% of the shark catch in 1993 and 1994 based on observer data (L. Beerkircher, unpublished data). Further, photographic evidence from marlin tournaments in south Florida in the 1970?s shows that large night sharks were caught daily but today they are rarely captured (J.I. Castro, personal observation).  However, recent trends in catch rates from the pelagic logbook data indicate that the trend has stabilized since 1992 (Brown and Cramer 2002). Night sharks are still caught incidentally as bycatch in the US Longline Fishery although the species currently makes up only 2% of the shark catch. Recent time/area closures off the Florida Straits and the Charleston Bump should help to reduce any further increases in bycatch because most night shark catches occur in these areas (L. Beerkircher, NOAA Fisheries, pers. comm.).
60220		conservation	eng	<strong>BRAZIL</strong>: No effective measures in place at the present. The species was assessed as Vulnerable and included in the Official List of Endangered Animals in Brazil (published 26/05/2004); according to this status no captures are allowed. There have been recommendations from the Brazilian Society for the Study of Elasmobranchs (SBEEL) to the Brazilian Ministry of Environment to expand conservation areas along the Maranhão State in order to include coastal areas.  <br/> <br/><strong>CENTRAL AMERICA</strong>: Other than steps being taken to ban finning in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, there are no regulations for shark species in particular, and where they are in place the monitoring, control and surveillance system is deficient. Studies are required to investigate population size and threats. <br/> <br/><strong>GENERAL</strong>: Development and effective implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required in order to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
60220		distribution	eng	Not known to occur in high numbers elsewhere throughout its range, Northern Brazil is in fact considered to be the centre of abundance for this species, with the highest abundance occurring in shallow waters off the Maranhão Coast, between Tubarão and Turiacu Bays (44° to 45°W) in gillnet fisheries targeting Spanish Mackerel <em>Scomberomorus brasiliensis </em> (in 8 to 32 m). Overall salinity in the area ranges from 13.96 ppm during the rainy season to 33.6 ppm during the dry season; temperature ranges from 25.1?31.5°C. The most important feature in this area is the tidal range that reaches up to 7 m bringing about tidal currents that attain speeds of 7.5 knots (Lessa 1997). The abundance of the species apparently decreases gradually easterly to this area. However, some specimens are still taken in gillnet fisheries targeting Spanish mackerel off Ceara (4°S) and Pernambuco States (8°S). The species is considered rare in the southern part of its Brazilian range. <br/> <br/>Pregnant females, adult males and new-born sharks of this species have been observed in studies off northern Brazil (Lessa and Menni 1994). Of 1,128 Smalltail Sharks collected from June 1984 to November 1987 in gillnets from coastal waters, about 78% of females and 82% of males were immature in catches (Lessa and Santana 1998, Lessa <em>et al</em>.1999). Neonate males and females are commonly caught (30 to 35 cm TL /150 to 235 g). The coastline has mangroves and is deeply indented because of the large number of islands, rivers, estuaries, sandy beaches and cliffs, called ?Reentrancias?, which encompasses the coast of Para and Maranhão States. The area is considered a nursery area for this species as well as for other elasmobranchs, providing shelter and abundant food for initial phases of development.
60220		habitat	eng	Common in waters over continental shelves, the Smalltail Shark prefers muddy bottoms in estuarine habitats. It swims along the bottom to depths of 36 m. <br/> <br/><strong>BRAZIL</strong>: The largest specimen ever caught in northern Brazil was a 128.5 cm TL female. However, the largest specimen analyzed in the literature cited here was a female measuring 120.5 cm TL and the smallest a 29.4 cm TL male (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). The modal class in samples was 50 to 60 cm TL for both sexes. Age ranged from zero (newborns) to 12 years for individuals between 30 and 101 cm TL. Developed embryos of 28.5 cm TL were observed in the area; the average size at birth is 30 cm TL. The average fecundity is six embryos per female (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). A resting break is suggested between successive pregnancies, implying a biennial cycle. The length- weight relationship did not differ significantly between the sexes. Diameter of ovarian follicles, presence of eggs/embryos and nidamental gland traits in female point to a major physiological change toward maturity at about 70.0 cm. Vitellogenesis was first observed at 63.0 cm, and the smallest of the six pregnant females was 70.0 cm; there was a significant relationship between the number of embryos and female size (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999) The size at 50% of maturity is 71 cm TL (males) and 70 cm TL (females) (Lessa <em>et al</em>.1999). Age and growth were estimated from vertebral analysis for individuals ranging from zero to twelve years. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters were: L<sub>?</sub> = 136.4 cm TL, K= 0.077 year<sup>-1</sup> and t<sub>0</sub> = -3.27 year. <br/> <br/>The Smalltail Shark is an opportunistic predator, feeding primarily on small fishes including sea catfish, croakers, jacks and grunts, it also consumes aquatic invertebrates including crabs and shrimps. Adults may prey upon elasmobranchs, whereas juveniles show a wider food spectrum. Ontogenetic differences in diet were observed for both males and females. There is evidence of size selection of prey related to predator size (Lessa and Almeida 1997). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Male & Female: 6 years (Lessa and Santana 1998). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 70 cm (Lessa and Santana 1988), 72 to 78 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005); Male: 71 cm (Lessa and Santana 1998), 84 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005) <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  12 years (Lessa and Santana 1998). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  128.5 cm (Maranhão - Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999); 134 cm (São Paulo - Sadowsky 1967); <150 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  30 cm (observed) and 31.1 cm (back-calculated) (Lessa and Santana 1998); 31-40 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong>:  6 years (Lessa and Santana 1998). <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  ~12 months (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biannual cycle (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average 6 embryos; maximum 9 (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stride <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  0.20 (Hoening´s Model); 0.23 (Pauly´s Model) (Santana da Silva 2001)..
60220		population	eng	<strong>BRAZIL</strong>: Analyses of the catch in northern Brazil indicate that the age of recruitment to the fisheries is two years (45 cm TL for males and 50 cm TL for females). Maturity length (50%) corresponds to six year-old individuals. The estimated mortality rate (Z) is 0.41; natural mortality is 0.217 and fishing mortality 0.193. Although the exploitation rate is 0.47, there are a high number of juveniles (88%, both sexes) and the estimated equilibrium fishing mortality (F?) is 0.051.
60220		threats	eng	<strong>BRAZIL</strong>: The species is a bycatch in gillnet fisheries directed at Spanish Mackerel <em>Scomberomorus brasiliensis</em>. Declines in populations have been observed in Maranhão Coast (northern Brazil ? the centre of abundance for this species) from comparing the species abundance in catches in the 1980?s to the present. The species represented about 43% of elasmobranch catches in the 1980?s. These catches were mainly composed of juveniles (88%). The proportion of the species in catches today using the same gear (recent National Research Program on EEZ Living Resources, REVIZEE Program) is about 17% of the total elasmobranch catch in numbers (Almeida 1998, Santana da Silva 2001). Ongoing research is being undertaken by Zafira Almeida. <br/> <br/><strong>PERU</strong>: Information on <em>C. porosus</em> in Peru is extremely scarce, other than reports of its presence off the north coast (to Chimbote, 09° 04.4´S) and occasionally rare off the south coast (Callao 12° 00´S and Ilo 17° 38.4´S). Landings of this species are not specifically reported in Peru (M. Romero, Unidad de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad, Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE) pers.comm.). <br/> <br/>No information for the rest of its range, for example, although a known bycatch component of artisanal gillnet fisheries in Central America, there is no data on catch or effort for this species. Information on <em>C. porosus</em> in the Gulf of Mexico is also scarce. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>: <br/><strong>CENTRAL AMERICA</strong>: in general, sharks are utilized for human consumption (fillets), medicine (cartilages, liver oil) and dried fins are exported. <br/> <br/>The Smalltail Shark is of little commercial importance, primarily caught as incidental bycatch in the gillnets of other fisheries. The flesh is marketed fresh for human consumption while the fins are valuable for use in soup fin soup. This shark is also processed into fishmeal and the oil is extracted from the liver (<a href="http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu">http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu</a>).
60221		conservation	eng	Further research and enquiries in this region are needed.
60221		distribution	eng	From Senegal to Ivory Coast, from Ghana to Cameroon, and off Zaire and Angola.
60221		habitat	eng	See species-level account for <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em>.
60221		population	eng	Population size and trends for this subpopulation are unknown.
60221		threats	eng	Threats in the Eastern Atlantic are unknown. For threats elsewhere in the range, see species-level account for <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em>.
60222		conservation	eng	Harvest and trade management is required where this species is taken and marketed. The extent to which the species is exploited from the wild for the marine aquarium trade needs to be investigated and the industry should be encouraged to be self-regulated, ensuring stock is drawn from sustainable sources. <em>Chiloscyllium</em> species breed well in captivity and captive reared individuals rather than wild animals should be used to supply the expanding market. <br/> <br/>Any measures to protect, maintain and restore coral reef habitats in Asia will benefit this and other species of reef-dwelling elasmobranchs. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. At the time of writing, development of a regional Plan of Action (under the IPOA-Sharks) was underway by Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. In addition, Malaysia has a separate draft National Plan of Action (NPOA) available, and the Philippines and Indonesia are also taking steps towards developing their separate NPOAs. India stated its intention to prepare a NPOA in the near future; China stated it was working towards development and implementation; and Taiwan and Sri Lanka had not yet stated any intention to develop NPOAs. In developing these management plans, it is vital for countries not to overlook the main aims of the IPOA-Sharks: to improve species-specific catch and landings data collection, and the monitoring and management of shark fisheries. This will not be achieved if the plans do not include adequate data collection, monitoring and management measures. Improved management of shark fisheries will not occur if even the most detailed of the management plans are simply not implemented once prepared (Anon. 2004).
60222		distribution	eng	Indo-West Pacific: India to southern Japan. Has not been confirmed between India and Thailand (e.g., Bangladesh and Myanmar).
60222		habitat	eng	A shallow water tropical reef-dwelling species. Biology is poorly known. A nocturnal feeder, resting by day in reef crevices (Compagno 2001). Reaches a maximum size of 95 cm TL; adolescent males to 64 cm TL and adult males 50 to 83 cm TL; smallest free-living individuals 9.8 to 12.5 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Oviparous. Information on reproduction and growth is only available from captivity (Masuda and Teshima 1994, Miki 1994, Masuda 1998). Females deposit two egg capsules at a time, on average every 6 to 7 days from spring to summer (Masuda 1998), or about every six days from winter to spring (Miki 1994). Hatching period: range 110 to 135 days (Miki 1994); average 128.2 days (Masuda 1998); and, average 126 ± 9.2 days, range 116 to 144 days (Tullis and Peterson 2000). Average length at birth was 16.6 cm TL (Miki 1994, Masuda 1998). The maximum laying season reported by Miki (1994) of 87 days yielded 26 eggs from an individual, 11 of which failed to develop. <br/> <br/>In captivity, some variation in growth rates have been reported. Masuda (1998) reported individuals reaching 30 cm TL after one year, while Miki (1994) reported 42.1 cm TL after five months! The species has been reported to live in captivity for 25 years (Michael 1993). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 50 to 64 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Uncertain, but reported to 25 years in captivity (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  95 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  9.8 cm TL or smaller (Compagno 2001); 16.6 cm TL (average in captivity; Miki 1994, Masuda 1998). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Hatching period (in captivity): range 110 to 135 days (Miki 1994); average 128.2 days (Masuda 1998); and, average 126 ± 9.2 days, range 116 to 144 days (Tullis and Peterson 2000). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  In captivity: maximum of 26 eggs per laying season (Miki 1994). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60222		population	eng	No knowledge of population size or structure.
60222		threats	eng	The majority of the distribution of the Whitespotted Bamboo Shark is under substantial, generally unregulated and unmanaged fishing pressure. The species is landed and utilised for human consumption in nearly all countries within its range. The species is known to be taken regularly in India, Thailand and China (Compagno 2001) and is landed in Borneo (Manjaji 2002), Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), Taiwan (both on the mainland and the Penghu Islands) (P. Kyne pers. obs., D. Ebert pers. comm.) and irregularly in Indonesia (W. White pers. comm.). It is also prized for the aquarium trade as it is hardy in captivity and known to survive for long periods in aquaria (Michael 1993, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Pressure on coral reef systems is high over much of the species? range with the amount of available habitat being reduced in recent history due to the degradation/destruction of coral reefs through such practices as dynamite fishing (e.g., Indonesia and elsewhere) and terrestrial runoff (e.g., through logging in Philippines). <br/> <br/>Given human population increases in the Asian region and continued and increasing exploitation of marine resources the conservation status of this coral reef species is of concern.
60223		conservation	eng	Nurse Sharks are managed as part of the Large Coastal Species complex in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters of the United States. <br/> <br/>The Colombian government is considering a ban on the <em>G. cirratum</em> fishery together with an extensive habitat protection campaign (Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The species was listed as Vulnerable in São Paulo State (Brazil) by participants at a workshop organized by the State Secretary of the Environment (SEMA/SP) using IUCN criteria. (São Paulo 1998), and later assessed as Vulnerable in Brazil by a commission of the Brazilian Society for the Study of Elasmobranchs (SBEEL) in 2002, also using IUCN Red List criteria. Its inclusion in the Official List of Endangered Animals in Brazil as a Vulnerable species was recommended to the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment in 2003. <br/> <br/>Conservation measures should include: <br/> <br/>Establishment of no fishing marine conservation units, encompassing reef formations, which include mating and breeding grounds; regulation of spear-fishing activity, both commercial and sporting, with restriction of capture; regulation of the marine ornamental fish trade, with restriction of capture; bycatch control, with mandatory release of live by-caught individuals; and, development and effective implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) in order to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. cirratum</em>.
60223		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: Rhode Island, USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and the Antilles.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Cape Verde to Gabon; accidental to France.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: Gulf of California and southern Baja California, Mexico to Peru. <br/> <br/>Extreme population reduction (and in some cases localized extinction) of the species from the southern portion of its range in the Western Atlantic has been reported (Rosa 2002). The species is no longer found in the southern portion of its Brazilian range, being declared locally extinct in Rio de Janeiro Municipality (Rio de Janeiro 2000).
60223		habitat	eng	A coastal shark found in tropical and subtropical waters of continental and insular shelves, often near patch reefs, both coralline and rocky, where it hides and rests during day hours (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999, Compagno 2001). Found from depths of 1m or less down to 130 m (Compagno 2001). Activity is more intense at night (Compagno 2001), but strong swimming in adults also occurs during the day (R. Rosa pers. obs. in Atol das Rocas). Fidelity to day resting sites such as caves and crevices, has been reported in the literature, as well as an aggregation behavior in such sites (Castro 2000a, Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Group behavior related to sexual activity is also reported in the literature (Carrier <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is from 27 to 30 cm TL. Females attain maturity at 223 to 231 cm TL (Castro 2000b) or 230 to 240 cm TL (Compagno 2001) and males mature at 210 cm TL (Compagno 2001) or 214 cm TL (Castro 2000b). Maximum cited total lengths exceeding 450 cm TL are possibly greatly exaggerated (Castro 2000b). The largest reliably reported specimen was 308 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, the retained eggs possessing a large amount of yolk (Compagno 2001). Number of intrauterine eggs 20 to 30, gestation period from five to six months, and reproduction occurs every other year (Compagno 2001). Brood sizes up to 50 young were reported by Castro (2000b), with a mean number of 34. Age at maturity estimated to be 10 to 15 years (males) and 15 to 20 years (females) (Carrier 1991, Carrier and Luer 1999, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Diet studies based on examination of stomach contents indicate small teleosts, cephalopods, gastropods, bivalves, sea urchins and crustaceans as the main prey items. Pieces of coral debris and algae occasionally occur in the stomachs (Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Such data indicate that the nurse shark is an opportunistic benthic predator. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 15 to 20 years; Male: 10 to 15 years. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 223 to 231 cm TL or 230 to 240 cm TL; Male: 210 to 214 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  450 cm TL? Reliably 308 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  27 to 30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  5 to 6 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biennial. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average: 34 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60223		population	eng	Population size in Atol das Rocas, Brazil was estimated in 368 individuals (SD = 68), with Petersen-Bailey estimator, and 339 individuals (SD = 95) with Jolly-Seber estimator (Castro 2000a, Castro and Rosa 2005). This population is protected in a biological reserve. Other protected populations in Brazil include those of Marine State Park of Parcel Manuel Luiz (Maranhão State), Marine State Park of Risca do Meio (Ceará State), National Marine Park of Fernando de Noronha (Pernambuco State) and National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Bahia State). <br/> <br/>Glover?s Atol, Belize:  Nurse Sharks are the most common elasmobranch on this offshore atol.  They made up 68% of the elasmobranch catch in a fishery independent shark survey conducted in 2000 (Grubbs <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60223		threats	eng	Although edible, the nurse shark is not usually prized as market food. In Brazil the Nurse Shark is consumed locally by fishermen, who incidentally or actively capture the species. In Venezuela it is marketed salt dried (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). Major threats include incidental and deliberate capture in coastal fisheries, spear fishing and capture for the ornamental fish trade, and indirectly, the impacts on the coastal zone, particularly on reef areas which constitute its preferred habitat. Human impacts (including pollution), increases in nutrient loading as a result of run-off after deforestation, and disturbance from tourism are all detrimental to this species' shallow reef habitat. Actively targeted by Panamanian artisanal fishers with lines and gillnets. Fished by artisanal fishers along the Colombian coast with nets and lines. Nurse sharks are also harvested in parts of the Caribbean for their skin. <br/> <br/>In the United States, they are occasionally captured in the bottom longline fishery, however, nearly all are released and post-release survivorship is high. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Nurse Sharks are fished in Panama for their fins and meat (US$ 0.75 per Lb) (Monzini 2004). In Colombia nurse sharks are mostly targetted for the skin while meat is usually transformed into animal food (Cervigon <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Panama, juveniles are also collected for public and private aquarium (Monzini 2004). <br/> <br/>Information on trade and utilization is lacking from other parts of the species? range.
60224		conservation	eng	Nurse Sharks are managed as part of the Large Coastal Species complex in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters of the United States. <br/> <br/>The Colombian government is considering a ban on the <em>G. cirratum</em> fishery together with an extensive habitat protection campaign (Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The species was listed as Vulnerable in São Paulo State (Brazil) by participants at a workshop organized by the State Secretary of the Environment (SEMA/SP) using IUCN criteria. (São Paulo 1998), and later assessed as Vulnerable in Brazil by a commission of the Brazilian Society for the Study of Elasmobranchs (SBEEL) in 2002, also using IUCN Red List criteria. Its inclusion in the Official List of Endangered Animals in Brazil as a Vulnerable species was recommended to the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment in 2003. <br/> <br/>Conservation measures should include: <br/> <br/>Establishment of no fishing marine conservation units, encompassing reef formations, which include mating and breeding grounds; regulation of spear-fishing activity, both commercial and sporting, with restriction of capture; regulation of the marine ornamental fish trade, with restriction of capture; bycatch control, with mandatory release of live by-caught individuals; and, development and effective implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) in order to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. cirratum</em>.
60224		distribution	eng	Rhode Island, USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and the Antilles. <br/> <br/>Extreme population reduction (and in some cases localized extinction) of the species from the southern portion of its range in the Western Atlantic has been reported (Rosa 2002). The species is no longer found in the southern portion of its Brazilian range, being declared locally extinct in Rio de Janeiro Municipality (Rio de Janeiro 2000).
60224		habitat	eng	A coastal shark found in tropical and subtropical waters of continental and insular shelves, often near patch reefs, both coralline and rocky, where it hides and rests during day hours (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999, Compagno 2001). Found from depths of 1m or less down to 130 m (Compagno 2001). Activity is more intense at night (Compagno 2001), but strong swimming in adults also occurs during the day (R. Rosa pers. obs. in Atol das Rocas). Fidelity to day resting sites such as caves and crevices, has been reported in the literature, as well as an aggregation behavior in such sites (Castro 2000a, Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Group behavior related to sexual activity is also reported in the literature (Carrier <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is from 27 to 30 cm TL. Females attain maturity at 223 to 231 cm TL (Castro 2000b) or 230 to 240 cm TL (Compagno 2001) and males mature at 210 cm TL (Compagno 2001) or 214 cm TL (Castro 2000b). Maximum cited total lengths exceeding 450 cm TL are possibly greatly exaggerated (Castro 2000b). The largest reliably reported specimen was 308 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, the retained eggs possessing a large amount of yolk (Compagno 2001). Number of intrauterine eggs 20 to 30, gestation period from five to six months, and reproduction occurs every other year (Compagno 2001). Brood sizes up to 50 young were reported by Castro (2000b), with a mean number of 34. Age at maturity estimated to be 10 to 15 years (males) and 15 to 20 years (females) (Carrier 1991, Carrier and Luer 1999, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Diet studies based on examination of stomach contents indicate small teleosts, cephalopods, gastropods, bivalves, sea urchins and crustaceans as the main prey items. Pieces of coral debris and algae occasionally occur in the stomachs (Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Such data indicate that the nurse shark is an opportunistic benthic predator. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 15 to 20 years; Male: 10 to 15 years. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 223 to 231 cm TL or 230 to 240 cm TL; Male: 210 to 214 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  450 cm TL? Reliably 308 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  27 to 30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  5 to 6 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biennial. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average: 34 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60224		population	eng	Population size in Atol das Rocas, Brazil was estimated in 368 individuals (SD = 68), with Petersen-Bailey estimator, and 339 individuals (SD = 95) with Jolly-Seber estimator (Castro 2000a, Castro and Rosa 2005). This population is protected in a biological reserve. Other protected populations in Brazil include those of Marine State Park of Parcel Manuel Luiz (Maranhão State), Marine State Park of Risca do Meio (Ceará State), National Marine Park of Fernando de Noronha (Pernambuco State) and National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Bahia State). <br/> <br/>Glover’s Atol, Belize:  Nurse Sharks are the most common elasmobranch on this offshore atol.  They made up 68% of the elasmobranch catch in a fishery independent shark survey conducted in 2000 (Grubbs <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60224		threats	eng	Although edible, the nurse shark is not usually prized as market food. In Brazil the Nurse Shark is consumed locally by fishermen, who incidentally or actively capture the species. In Venezuela it is marketed salt dried (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). Major threats include incidental and deliberate capture in coastal fisheries, spear fishing and capture for the ornamental fish trade, and indirectly, the impacts on the coastal zone, particularly on reef areas which constitute its preferred habitat. Actively targeted by Panamanian artisanal fishers with lines and gillnets. Fished by artisanal fishers along the Colombian coast with nets and lines. Nurse sharks are also harvested in parts of the Caribbean for their skin. <br/> <br/>In the United States, they are occasionally captured in the bottom longline fishery, however, nearly all are released and post-release survivorship is high. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>: <br/>Nurse sharks are fished in Panama for their fins and meat (US$ 0.75 per Lb) (Monzini 2004). In Colombia nurse sharks are mostly targetted for the skin while meat is usually transformed into animal food (Cervigon <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Panama, juveniles are also collected for public and private aquarium (Monzini 2004).
60225		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species yet these are much needed. Specifically, fishing pressure on this species must be considerably decreased through reduction in fishing effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture and possibly also through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Effective conservation of this species will require international cooperation. <br/> <br/>The Longfin Mako is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard (see <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA?Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for pelagic sharks such as <em>I. paucus</em> whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning, to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines (R. Cavanagh, pers.comm). <br/> <br/>The recent ICCAT shark stock assessment workshop (ICCAT 2005) reported that the current situation on submission of shark statistics indicates that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals of these sharks and the data are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. It is noted that improvements in the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment into monitoring the overall catch composition and disposition of the overall catch of sharks and other by-catch species. Therefore, the workshop group recommended that larger monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular, and other by-catch species in general, need to be made by the Parties. Above and beyond this main recommendation, the group identified a number of research activities that could provide for improved advice on the status of these species, if implemented. See ICCAT (2005) for further details. This situation applies to all RFOs and is included here as a standard that needs to apply internationally for fisheries that capture pelagic sharks such as <em>I. paucus</em>.
60225		distribution	eng	This species appears to be cosmopolitan in tropical and warm temperate waters. However, at present records are sporadic and the complete distribution remains unclear. This is in part due to confusion with the more common Shortfin Mako <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em> (Compagno 2001).
60225		habitat	eng	A little-known epipelagic, tropical and warm-temperate shark. The species is apparently a deep-dwelling shark, although both sightings on the ocean surface and the species? diet suggest a much greater depth range (Compagno 2001, Castro in prep). <br/> <br/>Very little is known of the biology of <em>I. paucus</em>. It is aplacental viviparous with oophagy and uterine cannibalism, and a pregnant female may have 2 to 8 embryos at one time. Parturition size is recorded at 97 to 120 cm TL; females males have been reported as mature at >245 cm TL; the smallest mature male observed has been 229 cm TL; maximum size is around 425 cm TL (Gilmore 1993, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999, Compagno 2001, Castro in prep). It has been suggested that females may approach land to pup (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: >245 cm TL (Compagno 2001); Male: Smallest reported mature male: 229 cm TL (Castro in prep). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. . <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 426.7 cm TL (Castro in prep.). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  97 to 120 cm (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 8 young in a litter (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999, Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60225		population	eng	Seasonally common off central and southern Florida and occurs off of the Bahamas throughout the year (Castro in prep). Common in the Western Atlantic and possibly the Central Pacific, but apparently reported to be rare elsewhere (Compagno 2001). In some areas of its range its occurrence is very poorly known, for example in Australian waters (Stevens and Scott 1995). <br/> <br/>Subpopulation structure is unknown but it is possible that Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations may be isolated.
60225		threats	eng	<em>Isurus paucus</em> is of conservation concern due to its apparent rarity or uncommonness, large maximum size, low fecundity (shown to be 2?8 pups/litter), and bycatch in intensive oceanic fisheries (Compagno 2001), (including retention of fins for the international fin trade (Clarke et al. in press). It is probably taken regularly as bycatch in tropical pelagic longline fisheries for tuna, swordfish and shark and in other oceanic fisheries which operate throughout its range, for example, it is also known to be caught with hook and line and anchored gillnets (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>The Longfin Mako is often caught in the same fishing gear as that of the Shortfin Mako, but in much lower ratios (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.). Baum <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported that Shortfin Makos had declined approximately 40% in the Northwest Atlantic over the past 15 years. A recent ICCAT stock assessment workshop reported that stock depletions for North Atlantic Shortfin Mako are likely to have occurred based on CPUE declines of 50% or more.  Model results varied widely suggesting, according to one model, that stock size lies between the carrying capacity and the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) threshold, and in another model, that biomass has declined approximately 50% since 1950s levels.  In the South Atlantic the magnitude of decline appears less than in the North Atlantic, and the stock size appears to lie above MSY. However, for both stocks, uncertainties about demographic parameters and catches, and the uninformative nature of available data, indicate that further analysis is necessary.  If in fact historical Shortfin Mako catch is higher than the estimates in this report, the likelihood of the stock being below the biomass at MSY will surely increase (ICCAT 2005). Longfin Makos have not been identified correctly in the past and could be a component of these trends. They are less abundant, less fecund and therefore more vulnerable to fisheries than Shortfin Mako and thus may have been similarly depleted by longline fisheries. <br/> <br/>Analysis of longline data from the EEZ of Mexico?s Pacific coast (1986?2001) shows that <em>I. paucus</em> was recorded at a low frequency in the catches (F. Marquez pers. comm.). Similarly, this species is caught in low numbers by longliners in Indonesian waters, and given the high level of exploitation in this area, if Longfin Makos were abundant here, this would likely be reflected in the fisheries catch (W. White pers.comm.). Between 1971?1972 it accounted for about six percent of the total number of sharks caught off the north coast of Cuba (Castro in prep), but was infrequently caught between 1974?1997 by longliners off southern Brazil, with only a few samples taken. Similarly, sampling of Spanish fishing ports showed only 0.1% of makos were <em>I. paucus</em> (Moreno and Morón 1992 reported in Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>For the period of 1989?1994 the US reported catch statistics to FAO ranging from 2?12 t per year, but landings do not accurately reflect the numbers of Longfin Mako that are discarded because of poor markets for the meat (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). The meat is of low quality and these animals are often finned and discarded at sea. <br/> <br/>Overall, the severity and extent of threats to this species need urgent appraisal because of the extent of current oceanic fishing practices, the rarity and biology of the species, and because the more resilient member of the genus is known to have undergone significant declines. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>: <br/>There is no commercial market for this species in the U.S. The meat is not usually landed in the eastern US because it is of poor quality (Castro in prep.). When taken the species is usually finned and discarded at sea. Longfin Mako fins are not of the highest value (for example if compared with hammerheads, guitarfish, etc), however, they are still of high relative value compared to the carcass, and are known to enter the international fin trade (Clarke <em>et al</em>. in press).
60226		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to better determine the species? distribution and to provide information on biology. A management plan is required to ensure that any future deepwater fisheries exploration and exploitation are carefully monitored and regulated.
60226		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: Bahamas territorial waters, between Cuba, Florida and the Bahamas. This is a deepwater, tropical endemic species of the Bahamas region, known from a few specimens collected from the slope of the Say Cal Bank and an isolated specimen on the northern Bahamas slope. Area of occupancy is a relatively narrow 200 m depth band (~440 to 640 m) estimated in the region of 2,000 km² (Compagno in prep. a, L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm).
60226		habitat	eng	Recorded on the insular slope, on or near the bottom, at depths of 438 to ~641 m. The biology of this species is virtually unknown and it is only recorded from a limited number of specimens. Probably aplacental yolksac viviparous with young measuring 30 cm TL at birth (Castro 1983). Adults to at least 81 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 81 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60226		population	eng	Unknown. Unrecorded and presumed absent from adjacent North American continental slope. Population (or possibly two subpopulations) likely isolated by unsuitable deeper water habitat.
60226		threats	eng	There are no known fisheries presently operating at the species? known depth of occurrence (J. Castro, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not utilised.
60227		conservation	eng	General life history information and catch data (the latter particularly for the Chile subpopulation) are required. The extent to which the species enters the marine aquaria trade needs to be determined.
60227		distribution	eng	An Eastern Pacific species with a disjunct range. Known from California, USA to southern Mexico including the Gulf of California and off central Chile. The absence of records from between these regions, that is, the tropical Eastern Pacific suggests that this species is not suited to tropical waters or that there has been a lack of surveys in the area (Ebert 2003).
60227		habitat	eng	Benthic and epibenthic on the continental shelf and upper slope inshore to 457m, but is most common at 5 to 40 m (Ebert 2003, Compagno in prep b). The Swell Shark ?prefers rocky, algal-covered areas of kelp beds, but also occurs on algal-covered bottom without kelp (Compagno in prep. b). Primarily nocturnal, resting in caves and crevices during the day, often in aggregations. <br/> <br/>Oviparous with eggs hatching after 7.5 to 10 months, depending on water temperature (Compagno in prep b). One eggcase per oviduct at a time (Ebert 2003), however, egg-laying rates and seasonality and therefore annual egg production is not known. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 70 cm TL (Grover 1972b); Male: 73 cm TL (Grover 1972b) adult males 82 to 85 (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  110 cm TL (Castro 1983). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  13 to 15 cm TL (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  7.5 to 10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60227		population	eng	Californian, Gulf of California and Chilean populations could be isolated populations. Ebert (2003) notes that the species is very common in Californian waters south of Point Conception. <br/> <br/>The Swell Shark population at Catalina Island, California decreased over a 20 year period, attributed to an increase in the surface water temperatures (Ebert 2003).
60227		threats	eng	This species is not targeted commercially. It may be taken as a minor bycatch in gillnets and trawls, however, its habitat is generally unsuitable for trawling and so the species is afforded protection in its rocky reef and kelp habitat. <br/> <br/>Occasionally taken by recreational anglers and spearfishers (Compagno in prep. b), but this will not be significant. <br/> <br/>Captured for the marine aquaria trade, although the extent of this fishery is not known at present (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Possibly used for fishmeal when taken as bycatch (Compagno in prep. b).
60228		conservation	eng	None.
60228		distribution	eng	Restricted geographical range in the northern Gulf of California. North of the city of Guaymas, Sonora (Mathews 1975, Compagno 1984) and deeper waters of the vicinity of Isla Tiburon (F. Marquez, unpublished data).
60228		habitat	eng	<em>Galeus piperatus</em> is a deepwater species recorded from depths of 130 to 1,326m, with specimens most commonly caught at 170 to 420 m (Mathews 1975). It is primarily a demersal species but has been taken up to 100 m off the bottom at night (Mathews 1975). <br/> <br/>Little is known about the biology of this species. Development is reported to be oviparous with females producing eggcases of ~35 mm in length. Sexual maturity in females is reached at ~18 cm TL with a maximum size of 37 cm TL. Pups hatch at a size of ~7 to 8 cm TL (Mathews 1975). Data on its size/sex structure and maturity is currently being processed (F. Marquez, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>It is thought to undergo seasonal migrations related to breeding and although details are not known these may involve movements into deeper waters during winter, which would also involve geographical movement out of the extreme northern Gulf of California (Mathews 1975). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 18 cm TL (Mathews 1975); Male: unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  37 cm TL (O. Sosa, unpublished data). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~7 to 8 cm TL (Hubbs and Taylor 1969, Compagno 1984). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60228		population	eng	Unknown, but reported to be abundant within the Gulf of California. Appears to be more abundant in summer months (June to August) compared to sampling in winter months (February to March) (Mathews 1975).
60228		threats	eng	Its deepwater habitat generally precludes it from capture in fisheries operating in the Gulf of California. Future expansion of deepwater demersal trawling in the northern Gulf of California would require monitoring. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not utilised.
60229		conservation	eng	None. Its restricted range, as is currently known, dictates that if deepwater fisheries are developed, the situation regarding this species must be monitored.
60229		distribution	eng	Tanzania (including Zanzibar) and Kenya, found at depths of 607 to 658 m.
60229		habitat	eng	Virtually unknown. Known to attain at least 38.4 cm TL. Males are immature at 26.7 cm TL, adolescent at 33.0 cm TL and 33.5 cm TL, and mature at 38.4 cm TL Other members of this genus have a single egg case per uterus, which is assumed to be the case for this species. There are currently no female specimens (Human 2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: At least 38.4 cm. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 38.4 cm. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Eggs presumably laid in pairs, annual fecundity unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60229		population	eng	Unknown. Likely to be a single population.
60229		threats	eng	Unknown. Not utilised.
60230		conservation	eng	Further specimens are required.
60230		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype, collected in the northwestern Bay of Campeche, Gulf of Mexico, 21°33’N, 96°48’W (Springer 1979).
60230		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species, type specimen was a 15.7 cm TL immature female collected at 1,097 m depth (Springer 1979). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  >16 cm TL (from immature holotype). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60230		population	eng	At present only a single specimen known.
60230		threats	eng	Depth of capture of the single specimen beyond that of current and probably future fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Unlikely to be of interest to fisheries.
60231		conservation	eng	None. There is a need for species-specific recording of bycatch data from the fisheries, which capture this species, (although catsharks are notoriously difficult to identify and misidentification is common). However, the viability of this in the near future is doubtful due to limitations with observers and resources.
60231		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Pacific from the USA and Northern Mexico. No known geographic areas of importance.
60231		habitat	eng	Adults are epibenthic and usually found near areas of rocky vertical relief over soft mud bottoms on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 91 to 1,251 m; juveniles (<32 cm TL) are mesopelagic, found up to around 500 m off the bottom in waters over 1,000 m deep (Lee 1969, Ebeling <em>et al</em>. 1970, Cross 1988, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>This is an oviparous species, producing one egg case per oviduct at a time. Females deposit egg cases throughout the year with the greatest oviposition occurring July through September (Cross 1988, Flammang 2005), thus indicating relatively high fecundity, although gestation may take up to 24 months. These sharks show site-fidelity in their egg case deposition sites, and these sites are in different locations than where the adults are typically found. The egg case nursery areas are areas of rocky vertical relief in 300 to 400 m depth. <br/> <br/>Males mature between 37.5 to 42.5 cm TL and females at 42.5 to 47.5 cm TL (Cross 1988). Hatchlings are 7 to 9 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Reaches a maximum of 61 cm TL (Cross 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 42.5 to 47.5 cm TL (Cross 1988); Male: 37.5 to 42.5 cm TL (Cross 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  61 cm TL (Cross 1988). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  7 to 10 cm TL (Cross 1988, Flammang 2005). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Unknown, although may be up to 24 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Mating: April through June, Egg case deposition year-round, with greatest oviposition July through September. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60231		population	eng	Nothing is known on the abundance or population structure of this species, but it is reported to be fairly common (Ebert 2003).
60231		threats	eng	This species is not presently targeted by commercial fisheries or utilized for human consumption, but is caught as incidental catch in sablefish trap, longline and bottom trawl fisheries. Specific catch data are not available. The adults primarily inhabit areas of rocky vertical relief, mostly in depths of 300?600 m. Trawl fisheries do not catch this species in large numbers, because of the rocky habitat in which they are found. Longlines, which are laid over the rocky areas, are far more likely to catch adults of this species on a regular basis. The longline fisheries in this area generally operate anywhere from 50?550 m, and trawls have been conducted between 20?2,000 m depth. Juveniles occur mostly midwater, using this area as a nursery ground. The only fishery that may be of any impact is that for the market squid <em>Loligo opalescens</em>, which seines in a midwater environment, however, there are no reports of <em>P. xaniurus</em> bycatch in this fishery. Egg cases are susceptible to predation by Thornyhead Rockfishes (<em>Sebastolobus</em> spp.), sea stars, and boring gastropods, however, it is very rare that egg cases are caught by trawl fishing activity, because of the rocky areas in which they are deposited. <br/> <br/>Increased fishing pressure in US waters is thought to be unlikely in the near future. Most of the trawling operations are being limited and heavily restricted. As long as there are limits on rockfish fisheries, there will be limited ground fishing in these waters. The situation in Mexico needs to be monitored. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not utilised.
60232		conservation	eng	Specimens are scarce and further information is required to better define the species? distribution, habitat and life history.
60232		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Western Central Atlantic: North Carolina to Florida (USA) and south to Santaren Channel between Cuba and Bahamas Bank (Springer 1979, Compagno in prep. b), Cayman Trench, off northern Jamaica (McLaughlin and Morrissey 2004), Mexico (Gulf of Mexico and northern Yucatan Peninsula) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
60232		habitat	eng	Known from the upper continental slope at depths of 329 to 548 m (Springer 1979, Compagno in prep. b). Biology is very poorly known. Believed to be oviparous based on enlarged oviducal glands although no egg cases have been observed (Compagno in prep. b). Largest observed specimen is a 49 cm TL immature male and Springer (1979) predicts a relatively large size for this <em>Scyliorhinus</em> species. <br/> <br/>Stomach contents include cephalopods, shrimp and bony fishes (Parsons 1985). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: >43 cm TL (Parsons 1985); Male: >49 cm TL (Springer 1979, Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60232		population	eng	Reported to be rare (Parsons 1985, Compagno in prep. b).
60232		threats	eng	May be taken as bycatch in demersal deepwater trawl fisheries, but this species is very rarely caught (J. Castro, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None.
60233		conservation	eng	None.
60233		distribution	eng	Northwest and Western Central Atlantic: Atlantic coast of the USA (Georges Bank to Florida and Texas) and the northern Gulf of Mexico to Nicaragua (including Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras), Barbados, area between Jamaica and Honduras (Gilhen <em>et al</em>. 2003, Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/> <br/>Relatively high concentrations of young near Cape Hatteras (North Carolina, USA) suggest a possible nursery area (Compagno in prep. b).
60233		habitat	eng	Benthic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 73 to 754 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, there is geographic variation in its bathymetric distribution: in the north it occurs on the outer continental shelf, but in its southern range it is generally found below 450 m on the continental slope. Adults prefer rough rocky bottom habitats (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988, Able and Flescher 1991, Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>This shark is sluggish and only occasionally leaves the bottom. Development is oviparous. Reproduction and development in captivity were studied by Castro <em>et al</em>. (1988) and data are summarised here. Eggs are deposited in pairs with an interval of a few minutes to eight days between the laying of successive eggcases. Three females were used to study the interval between laying of successive pairs of eggcases. The results were: female one, 70 pairs in 991 days at an average of one pair per 14.1 days; female two, 60 pairs in 991 days at an average of one pair per 16.7 days; female three, 40 pairs in 626 days at an average of one pair per 15.2 days. Egg laying can continue in isolation from males with sperm storage documented for periods of up to 843 days (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/> <br/>Stomach contents include polychaetes, squid, bony fish and crustaceans (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 35 cm TL (Mid-Atlantic Bight) (Compagno in prep. b), 52 cm TL (South Carolina & Florida) (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988); Male: 38 cm TL (Mid-Atlantic Bight) (Compagno in prep. b), 50 cm TL (South Carolina & Florida) (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  9+ years (captivity; unknown in wild) (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  59 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  10 to 11 cm TL (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Young hatch from laid eggcases after 7?12 months (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  44 to 52 eggs/year (in captivity) (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988, Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  5% (northern part of range) (R.A. Myers, unpublished data).. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60233		population	eng	The NMFS Northeast Trawl Survey covers the northern range of this species. After standardizing for depth and strata, a negative binomial generalized linear model suggests an average annual increase of five percent number per year for the last 30 years (R.A. Myers, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Distribution appears patchy and irregular ?with areas where it is common being interspersed with those where it is rare or absent? (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Juveniles are caught more frequently than adults suggesting age segregation where adults prefer rough habitat that is difficult to trawl (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988).
60233		threats	eng	This catshark is caught occasionally in bottom longline grouper/snapper fisheries and deep-water trawls. Juvenile <em>S. retifer</em> are caught as bycatch off the Mid-Atlantic Bight by trawls in waters deeper than 73 m. Adults are sometimes caught by trap and longline off South Carolina and Florida (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988, Compagno, in prep. b). Individuals are collected for the aquarium trade. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Collected for the aquarium trade, not utilized for consumption.
60234		conservation	eng	Need to obtain and monitor trawl fisheries bycatch data in the species? range.
60234		distribution	eng	Endemic to waters of the southeastern Atlantic Ocean from Mauritania to Angola.
60234		habitat	eng	Inhabits outer continental shelf and upper continental slope in depths of 45 to 500 m, on or near bottom.  Little life history information currently available. Consumes bony fishes.  Likely oviparous, egg cases thought to be of this species measured 7 to 8 cm x 3 cm.  Maximum size at least 76 cm, smallest mature male ~65 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: ~65 cm. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 76 cm. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60234		population	eng	No knowledge of population size or structure.
60234		threats	eng	Some trawl fishing mortality is likely.
60235		conservation	eng	Like other hornsharks, <em>Heterodontus mexicanus</em> is a hardy species and can survive capture in drift and trawl nets. Individuals should be returned to the water if alive after capture and education is required to end the practice of leaving large numbers to die on the beach. <br/> <br/>Further information on distribution, population structure (to determine if separate subpopulations exist across the species? disjunct range) and biology is required. <br/> <br/>The development and/or implementation of National Shark Plans under the FAO IPOA-Sharks, where necessary.
60235		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific from Mexico to Colombia and probably also Ecuador and Peru (Compagno 2001). Known to be a common species in Magdalena Bay (Mexican Pacific), and also in the upper part of the Gulf of California.
60235		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf from close inshore to 50 m depth, in rocky habitats including reefs and seamounts, as well as coral reefs, and sandy areas (Compagno 2001). Eggs are laid in rocky areas that would unlikely be impacted by fisheries (W. Smith pers. comm). <br/> <br/>No detailed information on the species? biology, but like other hornsharks, is oviparous. <br/> <br/>Feeds on demersal crabs and fishes. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 40 to 50 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~70 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~14 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60235		population	eng	The species? distribution is disjunct and there may be several populations within its Mexican and Central American range. The southern America population could also be distinct. <br/> <br/>No other information available on population sizes or structure.
60235		threats	eng	The Mexican Hornshark is not of commercial value, but is taken as bycatch in bottom gillnets and shrimp trawling operations in the Gulf of California and Mexican coastal lagoons (artisanal and larger scale industrial fisheries). Márquez-Farías (2002) documents <em>H. mexicanus</em> as comprising 1.53% of the catch of Sonora artisanal shark fishery in the northern Gulf of California. Large numbers (up to a thousand individuals) may be caught in a single gillnet set and are often left to die on the beach (Villavicencio Garayzar pers. obs). It should be noted that the species is hard to identify and some of these may be <em>H. francisci</em> given that the two species co-occur (W. Smith pers.comm.). Catches are discarded or sometimes used for human consumption, fishmeal or for their skins. No information is available on catches in other parts of the species? range, but it may be affected by artisanal and commercial fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>The meat is sometimes used for human consumption, fishmeal and the skin is also sometimes utilized.
60236		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Deepwater fisheries need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60236		distribution	eng	Widespread distribution throughout various localities in the Eastern and Western Atlantic, Eastern and Western Indian, and Eastern, Western and Northern Pacific Oceans. Probably occurs at more locations than presently recorded.
60236		habitat	eng	Distributed in diverse habitats, being found on the continental shelves and slopes, island slopes, and submarine ridges and seamounts, at depths of 163 to 1,000 m+. Also partially epipelagic, occurring near the surface in open waters of 110 to 700 m depth (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/>Presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous, but biology is virtually unknown. Reaches at least 67 cm TL (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: probably immature at 19 to 50 cm TL and adult at 50 to 65 cm TL; Male: Immature at 16 to 40 cm TL and adult at 40 to 67 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 67 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  Uncertain, probably below 16 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60236		population	eng	Unknown.
60236		threats	eng	This species is not targeted, but is probably a discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal and pelagic fisheries, particularly trawls (Compagno in prep a). Specific information is not available. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60237		conservation	eng	None at present. <br/> <br/>Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60237		distribution	eng	<em>Etmopterus bullisi</em> has been collected in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic Ocean, including along the East Coast of the US (North Carolina, south to Florida including the Florida Straits); the north and south coasts of Cuba; and in locations within the Caribbean Sea (between Jamaica, Nicaragua and Honduras; Colombia; and, the lesser Antilles east of the Virgin Islands) (Compagno in prep. a).
60237		habitat	eng	Continental slopes at depths of 275 to 824 m (mostly below 350 m) (Compagno in prep a). Reaches at least 27 cm TL, however, adult specimens have not been collected. Very little is known of the biology or life history of this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: immature females 15.4 to 26.0 cm TL, adults have not been collected; Male: immature males 16.2 to 26.2 cm TL, adults have not been collected. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 27 cm TL (immature, adults have not been collected). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~15 cm TL. Free-living young with open umbilical scars 15.4 to 16.2 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60237		population	eng	Unknown.
60237		threats	eng	Taken irregularly as discarded bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60238		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60238		distribution	eng	As presently known, restricted to a small area of the Caribbean Sea off Colombia. More research is required to better define geographic range, but probably a naturally restricted species.
60238		habitat	eng	A poorly known small deepwater shark recorded from the upper continental slopes at depths of 283 to 356 m (Springer and Burgess 1985, Compagno in prep a). It is possibly also epipelagic. Essentially nothing known of its biology. Development is probably ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparous) (Compagno in prep a). Maximum known size 21.2 cm total length (TL). Size at birth is unknown. Adults of both sexes recorded at sizes 18 to 21 cm TL (Springer and Burgess 1985). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Adults known from 18 to 21 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  21.2 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60238		population	eng	Not known, but apparently a rare deepwater species. Substantial exploratory trawling in the southern Caribbean Sea has revealed only a limited number of specimens (Springer and Burgess 1985).
60238		threats	eng	None known. Of no importance for fisheries because of its extremely small size. Probably encountered only very infrequently by fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60239		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60239		distribution	eng	Relatively narrow geographic range in the Western Central Atlantic (only recorded in the southern most part of the Northwest Atlantic).
60239		habitat	eng	Associated with the benthos and found on the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 311 to 695 m (Compagno in prep. a). Found on sandy bottoms (Claro 1994). <br/> <br/>Aplacental yolksac viviparous with litters of 4 to 5 (Compagno in prep. a), but generally little known of its biology. Reported maximum sizes to 50 cm TL probably due to confusion with <em>E. robinsi</em>, otherwise known to ~28 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: ~20 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Uncertain but possibility ~28 cm TL as reports of 50 cm TL are probably confusions with <em>E. robinsi</em> (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~9 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4?5 (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60239		population	eng	Unknown.
60239		threats	eng	Not targeted and no threats apparent. It is known to be irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries, including some Cuban hook and line fisheries (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/> None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60240		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60240		distribution	eng	As presently known, restricted to a small area of the Caribbean Sea off Colombia and Venezuela. More research is required to better define geographic range, but probably a naturally restricted species.
60240		habitat	eng	Recorded from the upper continental slope at depths of 283 to 439 m (Springer and Burgess 1985, Compagno, in prep. a). Ovoviviparous. Maximum size is about 21 cm total length (TL). Males maturing at about 16 to 17.5 cm TL, adult females from 15.5 cm TL and gravid females observed at 19 to 20 cm TL. Fetuses 5.5 to 6.0 cm TL (possibly near term) (Springer and Burgess 1985, Compagno, in preparation a). Springer and Burgess (1985) report gravid females with 2 to 3 eggs or embryos. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: from 15.5 cm TL; Male: ~16.0 to 17.5 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  21.2  cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >6.0 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter sizes of 2 to 3 embryos observed. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60240		population	eng	Not known, but apparently a rare deepwater species.
60240		threats	eng	None known. Of no importance for fisheries because of its extremely small size. Probably encountered only very infrequently by fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60241		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more  information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are  required. Deepwater fisheries in the region need to be carefully  monitored and managed.
60241		distribution	eng	Endemic to upper continental slope waters of the southeastern Atlantic Ocean off Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Angola. No knowledge of population size or structure.
60241		habitat	eng	Deepwater trawling down to 2,000 m occurs throughout most of the west African range of this species (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60241		population	eng	Inhabits upper continental slope in depths of 300 to 1,000 m (most commonly 350 to 380 m), on or near bottom. Little life history information currently available. Consumes cephalopods, fishes and decapod crustaceans. Ovoviviparous, with 2 to 4 embryos in each uterus. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  24.1 cm females, 22.9 cm males. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2?4. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60241		threats	eng	Deepwater trawling down to 2,000 m occurs throughout most of the west  African range of this species (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>  <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60242		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Deepwater fisheries in the region need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60242		distribution	eng	There have been unconfirmed reports from the Western Pacific, however, best available evidence indicates that this is an Atlantic endemic.
60242		habitat	eng	Associated with the continental slope on or near the bottom generally at depths of 350 to 2,213 m, but also found on the Lower Rise of the Northeast Atlantic at 3,750 to 4,500 m (Compagno in preparation a). Like other etmopterids, little known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 55 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  75 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60242		population	eng	Unknown.
60242		threats	eng	Deepwater trawling in much of range is expanding and there is some concern about the effect on this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60243		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60243		distribution	eng	Endemic to areas of the Western Central Atlantic: Florida (USA), Florida Straits, northern Cuba, south from Cuba to Nicaragua, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), northern Lesser Antilles and San Andres archipelago (Columbia).
60243		habitat	eng	Associated with continental and insular slopes at depths of 412 to 787 m, but mostly below 549 m (Compagno in prep. a). Like other etmopterids, little known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 26 cm TL (Schofield and Burgess 1997). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  33.8 cm TL (Schofield and Burgess 1997). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60243		population	eng	Unknown.
60243		threats	eng	Not targeted. It is known to be irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60244		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60244		distribution	eng	Endemic to southwestern Indian Ocean: east coast of Natal, Mozambique, Madagascar, Kenya and Tanzania. It has been reported as relatively common off Mozambique.
60244		habitat	eng	Inhabits upper continental slope in depths of 200 to 500 m, on or near bottom. Little life history information currently available. Maximum length unknown. Size at birth unknown but a near term fetus reported 5.7 cm. Immature males recorded at 22 to 27 cm and adults at 22 to 27 cm. Immature females recorded at 22 to 26 cm and adult at 25 to 27 cm. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 25 to 27 cm; Male: 22 to 27 cm. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  27 cm or longer. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >5.7 cm. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60244		population	eng	No knowledge of population size or structure; limited range suggests single population (no subpopulations).
60244		threats	eng	Of no importance for fisheries because of its small size. No apparent threats, some deepwater fishing mortality from bycatch but this is known to be limited off South Africa and the situation is assumed to be similar throughout the rest of its range although further study is required. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60245		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60245		distribution	eng	<em>Etmopterus virens</em> is endemic to the Western Central Atlantic.
60245		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal species, occupying waters of the upper continental slope at depths of 196 to 915 m, mostly below 350 m (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Fairly little is known of the biology/life history of this species. Reaches ~26 cm TL. May occur in aggregations or schools as the species is occasionally caught in considerable numbers. Pieces of large cephalopods in the stomach contents of this species indicates that the species may feed communally, with a school attacking prey normally too large for a single individual (Springer 1967,Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: immature females 17.9 to 21.4 cm TL; adult females 22.0 to 25.7 cm TL; Male: adult males 18.3 to 23.6 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~ 26 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60245		population	eng	Reported to be a relatively common species (Compagno in prep. a).
60245		threats	eng	Not targeted. Is irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60246		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.
60246		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread (compared to many other <em>Etmopterus</em> species) in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea.
60246		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found below 350 m, with a depth range of 220 to 915 m, on or near the bottom of the upper continental slopes (Compagno in prep. a). Appears primarily over mud bottom (G. Burgess, personal observation). Like other etmopterids, little known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 28 to 30 cm TL; Male: 27cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60246		population	eng	Most common <em>Etmopterus</em> species in the Northern Gulf of Mexico.
60246		threats	eng	Not targeted. It is known to be irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).
60247		conservation	eng	There is a lack of species-specific data (identification is problematic) and catches should be monitored, preferably by onboard observers. Information is also required on its biological productivity. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one per species per person per day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia?s National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) has been approved by the government, South Africa?s is stalled, still awaiting government approval and this process should occur as a matter of urgency. At the time of writing Mozambique had not yet begun to develop an NPOA (Anon 2004).
60247		distribution	eng	Off South Africa this species is taken mainly from Agulhas Banks to west of Cape Town.
60247		habitat	eng	Occurs from shallow subtidal sandy beaches to 611 m. Most records from trawls at 25 to 286 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991, Compagno pers.comm.) This species is found over sandy bottoms. It is also found near reefs, but seems mainly a soft-substrate species. Viviparous with a litter size of 3 to 15 (average 6.9). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 80 to 100 cm TL; Male: 75 to 85 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  113 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  27.5 to 31cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size 3 to 15, average 6.9. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60247		population	eng	Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) describe this species as common offshore.
60247		threats	eng	Caught rarely by shore-based line fishers in shallow subtidal areas and usually discarded. Caught in trawl fisheries on both the south and west coasts of South Africa. Quantities taken by trawl are unknown and unrecorded. It is not being monitored in detail: this species is grouped together with <em>M. mustelus</em>, and data are very limited. However, recent data from South Africa suggests that trawl catches of <em>Mustelus</em> spp. taken by demersal fish biomass assessment cruises are declining. It should also be noted that although there are large areas of its range which are untrawlable (such as the Agulhas Bank, South Africa), there are changes occurring in fishing methods now being used in areas that used not to be trawled - i.e., hake longlining, and, together with demersal targeted shark fishing (mainly for <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>), <em>M. palumbes</em> are likely to also be taken but probably not recorded. Indeed much of its habitat is the subject of various fisheries including demersal trawlers, shark longliners and recreational anglers.
60248		conservation	eng	In Atlantic US waters, angel sharks are currently listed as prohibited under the Federal Management for Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks, as a precautionary management measure.
60248		distribution	eng	Found along the Atlantic coast of the United States from southern New England to Florida (Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, south to the Florida Keys) and the Gulf of Mexico (Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas and the Mexican coast). Reported but unconfirmed from Cuba, Nicaragua, Jamaica and Venezuela (Castro 1983, Compagno in prep. a).
60248		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species. It is found seasonally in shallower water. Off the eastern United States it appears to move inshore in the spring and summer, and disappears, apparently into deeper water in other seasons. <br/> <br/>Maturity is probably reached around 90 to 107 cm TL. Reproductive mode is aplacental viviparous with only the left ovary functional. Pupping occurs in June or July with pups measuring 28 to 30 cm TL at birth. Litters contain up to 25 pups. Birth usually occurs at depth (~20 to 30 m). <br/> <br/>Eats small bottom fishes (flounders, skates and other bottom fishes), crustaceans and bivalves. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 90 to 105 cm TL, median length 83.5 cm FL (Baremore and Carlson 2004); Male: 92 to 107 cm TL, median length 88.7 cm FL (Baremore and Carlson 2004). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  152 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  28 to 30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 25/litter (Compagno in prep. a); 8 (+/- 1.82) pups (Baremore and Carlson 2004). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.
60248		population	eng	An apparently common but largely unknown species of temperate and subtropical waters of the Western North Atlantic continental shelf and slope. Typically found on or near the bottom from close inshore down to depths of 1,290 m, however, most records are from 40 to 250 m.
60248		threats	eng	Accidental bycatch in trawl fisheries. In the Gulf of Mexico, Angel Sharks occur with relative frequency as bycatch in trawl fisheries targeting butterfish (Carlson, pers obs.) and it is possible they occur as bycatch in other fisheries. Note that <em>S. dumeril</em> is often found in deeper waters where shrimp trawling effort is low. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not known to be utilised.
60249		conservation	eng	Species present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Canaima, Bolivar state, and Duida Marahuaca, Amazonas state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1988, 1990).
60249		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Guyana shield in Bolivar state, Venezuela (Rácenis 1968; de Marmels 1988, 1990).
60249		habitat	eng	Small rivers and backwater creeks in forest and tepuian (table-top mountain) shrubbery; larvae, described by de Marmels (1988), found under stones in fast running portions of streams.
60249		population	eng	The species is common and also present in protected areas.
60249		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
60250		conservation	eng	All single-island endemics in West Indies probably are at risk. It is important that searches be carried out for this species in other parts of Cuba, along with estimates of population size and trends. Extent of appropriate habitat available needs to be established. Cienega de Zapata nominally protected as part of the Cuban National System of Protected Areas, also a protected wetland under the Ramsar Convention, but effects of widespread illegal logging in this “protected area” on the wetlands that are important to Odonata need to be understood. The recent discovery of this species far away from Ciénaga de Zapata (Trapero and Naranjo 2003) may be an indicator of how poorly the Cuban fauna has been surveyed.
60250		distribution	eng	Known only from central and eastern Cuba.
60250		habitat	eng	Lentic wetlands, often associated with water lilies.
60250		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60250		threats	eng	Drainage for agriculture and other uses, and possibly drought from global warming.
60251		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with confirming the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
60251		distribution	eng	Known only from the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.
60251		habitat	eng	Lowland rainforest streams (60 m).
60251		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60251		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60252		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with determining the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
60252		distribution	eng	Tuxtlas of southern Veracruz, Mexico.
60252		habitat	eng	Lowland rain-forest streams.
60252		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60252		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60253		conservation	eng	Two known populations of <em>E. echeverrii</em> lie within protected areas in Guanacaste National Park and Reserva Forestal El Rodeo. Searches for other populations are needed, along with a study of its biology.
60253		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica in the following places (with collection notes):<br/>Guanacaste: "Volcán Cacao, Estación Mengo, 1,100 m" (Brooks 1989)<br/>Guanacaste: "Volcán Orosi, Estación Maritza, 600 m" (Brooks 1989, Ramírez 1996)                                                                     <br/>San José: Colón, El Rodeo (R. W. Garrison personal collection 1989)<br/>Alajuela:  "8 km E Monteverde, 850 m" (W. Haber collection)<br/>Guanacaste: "16 km NNE Liberia on road to Rincón de la Vieja" (W. Haber personal collection after 2000)<br/>Guanacaste: "7 km NNE Monteverde, 1,150 m"
60253		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes small, shallow, semi-shaded rocky streams in primary or secondary forest with an elevation range of 600 - 1,150 m.
60253		population	eng	The population size and trend for <em>E. echeverrii</em> is not known. Where it is found, it is usually in small numbers.
60253		threats	eng	Although there are no known threats at present to <em>E. echeverrii</em>, there is a possibility of deforestation occurring in the future.
60254		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.
60254		distribution	eng	This species is found in one state in Mexico; "8 km South Valle Nacional" (Donnelly 1989).
60254		habitat	eng	Habitat is assumed to be like other <em>Erpetogomphus</em>; a dweller in rocky streams. Found in cloud-forest belt, so probably associated with forest.
60254		population	eng	There is no information available to assess <em>E. flinti</em> population size or trend.
60254		threats	eng	Presumably deforestation is a continuing threat to this species, constricting its assumed limited habitat preferences.
60255		conservation	eng	No protection or conservation actions are known and further research is needed.
60255		distribution	eng	This species is found in Guanacaste, Costa Rica.
60255		habitat	eng	The habitat for <em>E. houghtoni</em> is not clearly known but it is thought to be affected by deforestation; therefore woodland type water ways are presumed.
60255		population	eng	There is no information available to assess <em>E. houghtoni</em> population size or trend.
60255		threats	eng	Since it is only known from the type specimen it is hard to record the threats to <em>E. houghtoni</em>, but much of the area that is was found in has already been cleared through deforestation.
60256		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with determination of the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
60256		distribution	eng	Mountain Pine Ridge of Belize.
60256		habitat	eng	Clear streams in pine forest (500–600 m).
60256		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60256		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60257		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with determining the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.
60257		distribution	eng	Tuxtlas in Veracruz, Mexico.
60257		habitat	eng	Streams in lowland rain forest.
60257		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60257		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60258		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.
60258		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nicaragua in the following places: <br/>Matagalpa: 10 km SE San Ramón, 700 m (Donnelly 1986) and Hotel Selva Negra, near Matagalpa, 1,000 m (Abbott <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/>Jinotega: Cerro Kilambé, 1,250 m (Abbott <em>et al</em>. 2002)
60258		habitat	eng	<em>E. westfalli</em> is found at rain forest streams; known from both large forest tracts and forest remnants, elevation range 700 - 1,250 m.
60258		population	eng	There is no information available to assess <em>E. westfalli</em> population size or trend; however it is known from three locations.
60258		threats	eng	Deforestation at all levels (local collection and large-scale logging), mostly at lower altitudes, continues to be a severe threat.  There is also the concern of possible overgrazing of the watershed.
60259		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to estimate population density, ecology and habitat preferences, along with confirmation of the species' presence in protected areas.
60259		distribution	eng	Central third of Chile, from Metropolitana region south through Maule, Bío-Bío, and Araucanía to De Los Lagos regions.
60259		habitat	eng	Rivers in forested valleys at 600–800 m, and foothill streams at 1,328–1,402 m.
60259		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. However, the species is common.
60259		threats	eng	Habitat modification through introduced fish, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use.
60260		conservation	eng	Searches for the species in other parts of Cuba are urgent, along with estimating population size and trends. The extent of appropriate habitat available also needs to be established. Phylogenetic analysis is needed to understand relationship to other protoneurid genera.
60260		distribution	eng	West-central Cuba.
60260		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60260		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60260		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60261		conservation	eng	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored. The species possibly is present in Parque Nacional Guanacaste.
60261		distribution	eng	Pacific slope of Costa Rica.
60261		habitat	eng	Streams in mid-elevation rain forest (1,100 m).
60261		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60261		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60262		conservation	eng	Searches for additional subpopulations are needed, along with an assessment of the stability of preferred habitat.
60262		distribution	eng	Currently known from four locations in the Dominican Republic. The species may be more widespread than currently known.
60262		habitat	eng	Headwaters of small, forested montane streams (Daigle 1993a)
60262		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60262		threats	eng	Diversion of water for human use.
60263		conservation	eng	<em>P. dunklei</em> is not known to occur in any protected area. Further monitoring of known populations and the search for new ones is advised.
60263		distribution	eng	<em>Protoneura dunklei</em> is found in Dominican Republic and has been recorded from Azua, Dajabón and La Vega.
60263		habitat	eng	The species prefers seepage headwaters of small, forested montane streams (Daigle 1990).
60263		population	eng	<em>P. dunklei</em> has been found to be common at a few locations.
60263		threats	eng	Deforestation and crop farming in all its forms (small to large scale) are having a continued affect on the viable habitat for this species.
60264		distribution	eng	Tepuis (Guyana shield) in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname.
60264		habitat	eng	Mountain streams above 800 m.
60264		population	eng	Population size and trends are unkown. However it is common.
60264		threats	eng	None known at present.
60265		conservation	eng	<strong>Policy-based actions:</strong> Legislation – necessary classifying to the FFH-Directive and the Bern Convention. <br/> <br/><strong>Research actions:</strong> range, number and size of local populations, monitoring and assessment of trends. <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat and site-based actions:</strong> full protection of primary habitats; no deforestation, establishment of wide buffer zones directly around localities, best of forest type; management of overgrowing secondary habitats (creation of new habitats in vicinity of existing populations); bog regeneration <br/> <br/><strong>Species-based actions</strong> local reintroductions.
60265		conservation	eng	The species has a very specific habitat choice and a limited dispersal ability. Many of the remaining European localities are isolated and local extinction at these places will be definite. Actions to be undertaken for this species are:<br/>- Mapping the distribution of the remaining populations by checking all suitable locations. <br/>- Eliminating direct local threats like impact by livestock and tourism.<br/>- Downgrading the local impact of pollution by nitrate and desiccation. This can be done by creating forest surrounding the locality, which will shield areas from pollution by nitrate from adjacent farmland (but mind the impact on the hydrology).<br/><br/>There is little experience with creating suitable habitat for this species. Given the specific habitat choice this is probably not easy. However a recent experiment with this in Niedersachsen in 2005 resulted in successful reproduction in 2008 (Clausnitzer 2009) showing that it is possible to create new habitats for the species. In areas where there are only small and isolated populations left, experiments like the one mentioned for Niedersachsen are needed in order to find ways to secure populations in the long term.<br/><br/>This species is severely threatened in large parts of its northern European range and should be legally protected at European and national level where not in place already.
60265		distribution	eng	A Eurasian species. Distribution is severely fragmented from west Germany to Japan in a narrow latitudinal zone of a few to 14 degrees. In Europe, the species currently occurs between south Germany, Austria, southeast Poland, northern Ukraine in the South, and southern Sweden and southern Finland in the north. In Asia, it currently occurs in southwest Siberia, from the Southern Ural Mountains and the Konda River up to the north Altai Mountains, and in the Far East (Russia (Amurskaia oblast, Khabarovskii Krai and Primorskii Krai), northern and central Japan, north Korea).
60265		distribution	eng	<em>Nehalennia speciosa</em> has a wide, partly fragmented, range from west Europe over northern Asia to Japan. The westernmost records are from Belgium and the Netherlands while in the north the species occurs to the southern parts of Sweden and Finland. Its southern limits are found in north Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, northern Romania and western and northern Ukraine. There are two old records known from the south of Ukraine: Crimea and Kherson (the latter seems to be doubtful) (Bernard and Wildermut 2005). The species has severely declined and went extinct in the Netherlands (last record 1912), Belgium (1960), Luxembourg (1960), Romania (1953), Slovakia (1960), and France (19th century). In most of the countries with recent records the species has declined and in several countries only isolated populations remain, e.g. Italy with five populations (T. Fiorenza and I. Pecile pers comm.) and Denmark with two populations.
60265		habitat	eng	<em>Nehalennia speciosa </em>occurs in pools, bogs, fens and marshes and is most often found in shallow borders of acidic, nutrient-poor water bodies and wet depressions of bogs and fens. The habitat is largely unshaded but almost always lies in woodland of, in most cases, Pine (<em>Pinus</em>) or Spruce (<em>Picea</em>). The species is confined to specifically structured vegetation with uniform growth of narrow-leaved plants spaced densely enough to provide protection, but loosely enough to allow free movement. Slender Sedge (<em>Carex lasiocarpa</em>) and Bog-sedge (<em>C. limosa</em>) form at most European locations the dominant vegetation. Other plants, which can form a dominant part of the vegetation, include Beaked Sedge (<em>C. rostrata</em>), Tufted Sedge (<em>C. elata</em>), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinia caerulea</em>) and Water Horsetail (<em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>). A crucial factor for the species microhabitat is the low depth of the water. This allows the water to warm up fast, favouring a fast development of the larvae, and makes the habitat unsuitable for predators like fish. <em>N. speciosa</em> is one of the few European dragonfly species that still mainly occur at primary (not altered by humans) habitats.
60265		habitat	eng	Primary habitat: small mire lakes and pools bordered by Sphagnum, transition-mires, fens. <br/> <br/>Secondary habitat: peat excavations, rarely wet meadows. <br/> <br/>Microhabitat: border zones of small lakes and <em>Sphagnum</em> mats, flooded depressions in <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs and fens. Generally stagnant, permanent, shallow, mostly acid waters of low trophy, overgrown with specific vegetation predominated by narrow-leaved helophytes, especially <em>Carex limosa</em> and <em>C. lasiocarpa</em>. Stenotopic species.
60265		population	eng	As a rule, localities are rare, scattered or in small, local concentrations. The number of current localities is slightly higher only locally: e.g., in the Bavarian Prealpine region, northern Poland, the Baltic States, and the Russian Far East. The number of large populations at individual localities is low: at most 25–30 are currently known in Europe.
60265		population	eng	At many localities suitable habitat is often of limited size and less than a few hectars large. The species however occurs often in high numbers and many populations count several hundreds to several thousand individuals.
60265		threats	eng	At many European localities the species went extinct due to habitat destruction caused by drainage and land reclamation. From the 1960s onwards pollution by nitrate became a dominant factor in the decline of the species. This resulted in the alteration of the vegetation due to which the needed vegetation structure disappeared. Pollution by nitrate is still an important factor but seems to have become less intensive. A relatively new factor is prolonged spells of hot and dry weather resulting in the desiccation of the habitats. Local threats are degradation of habitats by livestock and tourism.
60265		threats	eng	Drying out of habitats as result of drainage, extreme weather events and climatic changes (global warming). Changes in the species composition and structure of vegetation caused by an increased load of nutrients from deforested or agriculturally used surroundings, aerial influx and recreational activities (e.g., angling). Overgrowth of habitats, especially secondary ones.
60266		conservation	eng	Conservation of the watershed is needed, as well as research into the population numbers and range.
60266		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Highlands (2,000 m asl) in north east (Lake Alemaya) and in central (highland meadow near, Adis Alem) Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is endemic to the Ethiopian highlands.
60266		habitat	eng	Grassy lake shores and stream-pools in highlands.
60266		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60266		threats	eng	Water pollution and degradation of lakes, rivers and streams are main threats to the species.
60267		conservation	eng	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, watershed protection are all needed.
60267		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, southwestern highlands (recorded altitude range between 1,800 and 1,850 m).
60267		habitat	eng	Clear, rocky forest streams.
60267		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60267		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a major threat.
60268		conservation	eng	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, and watershed protection are needed.
60268		distribution	eng	The species is known from Ethiopia, where it has been recorded at an altitude range from 2,300 to 2,400 m.
60268		habitat	eng	Found in and around montane forested streams.
60268		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60268		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a major threat.
60269		conservation	eng	Protection of wetlands. Research into the habitat status, and trends/monitoring for this species.
60269		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the central Ethiopian highlands, between 1,700 and 3,200 metres of altitude.
60269		habitat	eng	Swampy areas and slow open grassy streams.
60269		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60269		threats	eng	Pollution and destruction of wetlands are major threats to this species.
60270		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60270		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis agrioides</em> is known from Mayotte, Comoro Archipelago.
60270		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60270		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60270		threats	eng	Pollution from detergents, tree removal and replacement growth.
60271		conservation	eng	Wetland conservation is needed, as well as research into the species population numbers and range.
60271		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, southwestern highlands (recorded at an altitude range between 1,600 and 1,800 m).
60271		habitat	eng	Small streams to wide rivers, slow–flowing waters in open country with muddy and grassy verges.
60271		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. It is described as numerous in at least three known sites.
60271		threats	eng	Water pollution is a threat to this species.
60272		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place. Fieldwork should be carried out to confirm whether the species still occurs west of the Adana delta. The species occurs in several areas that have been denoted as Turkish Key Biodiversity Areas (Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006).
60272		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion syriacum</em> occurs in a small fringe along the Mediterranean. It is distributed in the western Levant: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, and coastal areas of southern Turkey. It has been found as far west as Antalya (1959, 1972) but has not been found since then west of the Adana delta; it may now have become extinct in the western part of its range.
60272		habitat	eng	Stagnant (lakes, ponds, swamps) and slow-flowing waters with rich aquatic vegetation (Dijkstra 2006). This species easily occupies man-made water systems.
60272		population	eng	No information on population size is available for this species. It is locally common, often occurring in high densities.
60272		threats	eng	Most of its range area lies along the Mediterranean where pressures from building activity and agricultural practices are high. Water extraction for agriculture and human consumption is a major threat. Potentially drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change.
60273		conservation	eng	Inclusion of at least some populations in protected areas is highly desirable.
60273		distribution	eng	Sparsely distributed in Turkey, Armenia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordania, Syria and Kirgizistan. In all countries only known from a small number of sites (Dumont 1992, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Schneider 1986, Schneider 2004, Schoorl 2000).
60273		habitat	eng	Mainly found in slowly flowing, well-vegetated waters often with extensive vegetation of reed or large rushes.
60273		population	eng	No detailed information present.
60273		threats	eng	Vulnerable to local extinction as the species is scarce and localised across large areas of its distribution. Suitable habitat is uncommon and will often coincide with agricultural areas and is therefore vulnerable to eutrophication and pollution.
60274		conservation	eng	This is one of the most threatened European dragonflies and conservation actions are needed immediately. First action to be undertaken is to visit all known localities to establish if the species survives, to gather detailed information on its habitat and to map local threats. Based on this information locations can be selected where the species might occur for further fieldwork. For the known populations a species action plan needs to be created. This needs to be done on population level and in close co-operation with local authorities and landowners. It is mandatory that several of the locations should be included in nature reserves.
60274		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhosoma elisabethae</em> is endemic to the southern Balkans. It is known from eight localities from Peloponnese, Kérkira and southern Albania (Kalkman and Lopau 2006) and from one record in northwest Greece (Muranyi 2007).
60274		habitat	eng	Information on habitat requirements is poor. The following notes on the habitat are available:<br/>- Corfu: a ditch and along a slow flowing river in the coastal plains<br/>- Peloponnese: brooklets with clear, cool water and rich vegetation and a well-vegetated brook  <br/><br/>Based on this and on some pictures of the habitat it can be concluded that the species mainly occurs in brooks and sometimes in rivers with abundant aquatic vegetation. It is likely that the species cannot survive in habitats that fall dry during hot summers.  It is not clear if the species can reproduce in standing waters.
60274		population	eng	Most localities have been visited only once or twice and information on the size of the populations is scarce. The limited information suggest that the species occurs in low to very low densities and some of the known populations might have less than a hundred adult individuals per year.
60274		threats	eng	The management of brooks in Albania and Greece is very poor. The natural situation of brooks is, in many cases, destroyed for irrigation purposes and concrete channels often replace brooks. Further threats are water pollution and too intensive management (e.g. the clearing of all riparian vegetation). In recent years climate change has become one of the main threats and during recent hot and dry summers several brooks in Greece where found to be dry. Information on this for the sites where the species occurs is lacking, it is however likely that at least some of its populations were affected by the dry periods. Two known populations were visited in 2007: one population was found extinct and at the other site the habitat was degraded and only one male was found.
60275		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions such as the protection of wetlands are also needed.
60275		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Ethiopian highlands (1,600 to 2,600 m asl) and recorded for Eritrea as well.
60275		habitat	eng	Open, slow–flowing waters (small streams to broad rivers) with muddy and grassy banks.
60275		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60275		threats	eng	Pollution and destruction of wetlands threaten the species.
60276		conservation	eng	Forest conservation is needed.
60276		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mauritius.
60276		habitat	eng	Rocky mountain forest streams and rivers.
60276		population	eng	Population size is unkonwn. Inferred to be declining.
60276		threats	eng	Deforestation for tea and sugar plantations.
60277		conservation	eng	Apart of general conservation guidelines no site-specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research on biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential area of occurrence, the South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregion is judged as vulnerable (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60277		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka. Recently known from only few localities in central and southwestern part of the island.
60277		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rivers in lowlands and mid-hills, occasionaly also artificial lakes and irrigation channels.
60277		population	eng	Unknown, small and fragmented. A rare species.
60277		threats	eng	Primary habitat is under threat, but apparently the species inhabits broader spectrum of habitats. <br/> <br/>Pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).
60278		conservation	eng	Additional exhaustive faunistic survey made by odonatologists and covering appropriate localities in different seasons is urgently needed.<br/><br/>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60278		distribution	eng	A rare species that is endemic to Sri Lanka.  Known from more than twelve localities in southwestern and central part of the island (Ratnapura, Matara, Badulla, Kandy, Colombo and Nuwara Eliya Districts).&#160; Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by Naturhistorisches Museum Basel (Switzerland), National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) and Lund University (Sweden) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).
60278		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small streams and springs in primary rainforest.  Female and larval form undescribed.
60278		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.
60278		threats	eng	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forest. Many potential habitats in southwestern and central part of the island were completely destroyed in last decades.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).
60279		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60279		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka and seems to be rare. Found on only few localities during recent fieldwork and seems to be limited to the southwestern and central part of the island.
60279		habitat	eng	The species inhabits pools of moderately fast to slow flowing streams and rivers in the mid-hill primary rainforest.  Female and larval form undescribed.
60279		population	eng	Detailed population numbers and trends are unknown although they are known to be small and fragmented.
60279		threats	eng	Type of habitat under treat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.
60280		conservation	eng	Apart of general conservation guidelines, no site specific ?single-species-oriented? conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.&#160; As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF?s global 200 list of the earth?s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
60280		distribution	eng	Rare Sri Lankan endemic species. Known only from type locality (Belihul Oya) and Sinharaja Forest Biosphere Reserve in south-western part of the island.
60280		habitat	eng	The species breeds in seepages from marshes along the banks of streams in sub-montane areas.&#160; Larval form unknown.
60280		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.
60280		threats	eng	Type of habitat under treat from logging. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.
60281		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented? conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).</p>
60281		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka. Apparently quite rare species. Known from only few localities, but in different parts of the island. Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2007-2009). Not found during the author?s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).
60281		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rivers, bigger streams and occasionally also irrigation channels in lowlands and mid-hills.  Larval form undescribed.
60281		population	eng	Unknown size and trend; apparently small and fragmented.
60281		threats	eng	Type of habitat seems not to be especially threatened.  Pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for the exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.
60282		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60282		distribution	eng	The species is found in Sri Lanka and is a rare endemic species. Recently known from only few localities in southwestern and central part of the island. <br/>Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland) and National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (2001, 2003).
60282		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills.
60282		population	eng	Detailed population numbers and trend are unknown but thought to be small and fragmented.
60282		threats	eng	Rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills are the type of habitat under treat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.
60283		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.
60283		distribution	eng	Endemic to southwest Yemen in SW Arabia.
60283		habitat	eng	High mountains streams (> 2,000 m).
60283		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60283		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, watertable pumping, pollution). Drought.
60284		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.
60284		distribution	eng	Southern Arabia, in Yemen, northeast Oman and the north of the United Arab Emirates.
60284		habitat	eng	Irrigation ditches in agricultural landscapes and oases, wadis, in shallow and slow-flowing sections with aquatic vegetation.
60284		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60284		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.
60285		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.
60285		distribution	eng	Southeast Arabia, in northern Oman and the United Arab Emirates.
60285		habitat	eng	Fast-running waters with aquatic vegetation.
60285		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60285		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.
60286		conservation	eng	Perennial management of good quality waters is needed.
60286		distribution	eng	Endemic to Soqotra Island (Yemen) (3,580 km²).
60286		habitat	eng	Running and standing waters.
60286		population	eng	Seems fairly common. In many places in great numbers.
60286		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Wood cutting. Unplanned infrastructural development on Socotra. Increase in population of goats (and cattle). Drought.
60287		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60287		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx exul</em> is a north Maghrebian endemic.
60287		habitat	eng	Fast-flowing mountain streams.
60287		population	eng	At least 32 subpopulations are known. Seven of these occur in Algeria, are based on old records, and are most probably extinct. However, new subpopulations were discovered in Algeria in 2007.
60287		threats	eng	Water pollution, drying up of streams due to water extraction for irrigation, overgrazing and drought are major threats to the species.
60288		conservation	eng	Maintenance of habitat and action-based conservation are needed to protect the habitat.
60288		distribution	eng	Occurs along the eastern Black sea coast and extents east to Armenia and Azerbaijan.
60288		habitat	eng	<em>Coenagrion ponticum</em> prefers mountain lakes (especially with <em>Equisetum</em>) and slow running waters in the lowlands.
60288		population	eng	<em>Coenagrion ponticum</em> is not seldom found in high densities.
60288		threats	eng	Pollution of water-ways through agricultural farming is likely to have a negative impact on this species.  Also the projected extensive water usage (in the form of groundwater extraction and small-scale fisheries) is likely going to cause unknown levels of habitat degradation and loss in the future.
60289		conservation	eng	Preservation and restoration of forests, spring and brooks; preservation of water quality; control of irrigation through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60289		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster principes</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco, occurring from the High to the Middle Atlas Mountains.
60289		habitat	eng	Mountain brooks from 700 to 2,500 m asl.
60289		population	eng	Apparently rather small populations are known from only 17 locations.
60289		threats	eng	Forest destruction, water pollution and water management are threats to the species. Overgrazing and drought are also potential threats to this species.
60290		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves through policy-based actions. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60290		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus lucasii</em> is a Maghrebian endemic, occurring in the Tell Atlas in Algeria and Tunisia. Records from Morocco are uncertain.
60290		habitat	eng	Streams in hilly and low mountainous areas, with up to 2.8 g of natural sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
60290		population	eng	Thirty localities have been reported to be inhabited by this species, of which 11 records (from western and central Algeria) are very old and perhaps are now extinct.
60290		threats	eng	Water management for human use, water pollution, desiccation of streams due water extraction for irrigation, deforestation, overgrazing, and drought.
60291		conservation	eng	Conservation of natural dynamics of running waters, control of pollution, conservation of natural structure of streams and rivers, are necessary conservation measures.
60291		conservation	eng	Perennial management of running waters and control of pollution are needed.
60291		conservation	eng	Perennial management of running waters and control of pollution through policy-based actions and increasing awareness are needed.  Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
60291		conservation	eng	Perennial management of running waters; control of pollution.
60291		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus costae</em> is an endemic Ibero-Maghrebian species. In Europe its EOO extends presently over 250,000km<sup>2</sup> although its AOO is much smaller as it is known from only 23 localities in Spain and south Portugal. Eight populations are presently considered extinct.
60291		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus costae</em> occurs in the Maghreb region and the southeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula.
60291		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat are larger, slowly flowing waters in a hot environment. In North Africa, it is found in naturally salted waters up to 4g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
60291		habitat	eng	Running waters, even naturally salted up to 4 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
60291		habitat	eng	Running waters, even naturally salted up to 4 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO<sub>4</sub>).
60291		population	eng	The species is most often found in low numers but can be locally abundant.
60291		population	eng	The species is not rare in some localities, but is extinct in others.
60291		threats	eng	The main threats are use of water by humans (drainage, over-irrigation, pollution, etc.), stream management, dam construction, and drought due to ongoing climate change.
60291		threats	eng	Use of water by humans (drainage, over-irrigation, pollution, etc.), overgrazing, and drought.
60291		threats	eng	Water use by locals (drainage, over-irrigation, and pollution), overgrazing, and drought are major threats to the species.
60292		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
60292		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Canary Islands and to Madeira.
60292		habitat	eng	It is found mostly in running waters but also occurs in standing waters.
60292		population	eng	The populations are widespread and flourishing on some of those island (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009).
60292		threats	eng	The populations do not seem to be in decline at the moment. Water use for tourism is the main possible threat to this species.
60293		distribution	eng	Jalisco and Oaxaca in Mexico.
60293		habitat	eng	Larvae found among rough gravel in sites of rapid water flow of small, shallow creeks running through mountain cloud forest in Oaxaca.
60293		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60293		threats	eng	Deforestation.
60294		distribution	eng	Andes in Colombia (in Antioquía, Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Meta departments).
60294		habitat	eng	Forest streams: Williamson (1918) found it on a rock face with water dripping from a mountain stream.
60294		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60294		threats	eng	Although not yet confirmed at present, ongoing forest clearing may be a potential threat to the species.
60295		conservation	eng	Known from protected areas (Mahangu Game Reserve and West Caprivi National Park). More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats.
60295		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
60295		conservation	eng	Use of aerial spraying with pesticides for Tsetse fly, with short-term impacts on larvae. More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.
60295		distribution	eng	In southern Africa it is known from 10 records: Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango delta). From current knowledge it has a disjunct distribution, and it is difficult to assess the extent of occurrence from these data. Globally, it occurs in northeastern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu), Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango swamps) (four records from outside of southern Africa).
60295		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in Zambia: Lake Bangweulu, Botswana: Okavango swamps.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo basin within the central Africa region (Bangweulu). Seen at the site (Cotterill pers. comm.).
60295		distribution	eng	The species occurs in northeastern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu; Cotterill, pers. comm.), Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango swamps). Four records in total from outside of southern Africa. In southern Africa it is known from 10 records in Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango delta). From current knowledge, it has a disjunct distribution, and it is difficult to assess the extent of occurrence from the available data.
60295		habitat	eng	Swamps along large rivers and lakes.
60295		habitat	eng	Swampy channels and rivers (Kipping, pers. comm.).
60295		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60295		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60295		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. In the Okavango Delta, water extraction is a potential future threat.
60295		threats	eng	No information available. Impacts to the habitat of this species could arise due to swamp drainage for agriculture and groundwater extraction.
60295		threats	eng	Use of aeiral spraying with pesticides for Tstse fly, with short-term impacts on larvae.
60296		conservation	eng	Protection of montane forests is needed.
60296		distribution	eng	Southwest Angola: Serra da Chela.
60296		habitat	eng	Running waters.
60296		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60296		threats	eng	Unknown.
60297		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
60297		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60297		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Bangweulu (Zambia), the Okavango Delta and panhandle (Botswana - last record from 1993), and a short stretch of the Okavango River (Namibia). Most, but not all, of the known range falls within the southern Africa region. It is likely that the species also occurs in Zambia, but there are no records from there yet.<br/><br/>There are new records from the Okavango Delta (although from a small area within a protected area), and the total number sites is estimated at three. The distribution is considered fragmented. It is present at Quando (Namibia) (Kipping pers. comm.), the distribution seems to be fragmented. Presence between the two sites is expected but not confirmed.
60297		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Bangweulu (Zambia), the Okavango Delta and panhandle (Botswana - last record from 1993, from the panhandle), and a short stretch of the Okavango River (Namibia). Most, but not all, of the known range falls within the southern Africa region.
60297		habitat	eng	Only information of the adult habitat (savannah) is known. It may breed in large swamps and rivers. The two records from rivers in Namibia are sites with diverse habitat types, including river with rapids and swampy areas. Sites in the Okavango are swampy river with woodland and grassland.
60297		habitat	eng	Only information of the adult habitat (savannah) is known. It may breed in swamps and rivers. The two records from rivers in Namibia are sites with diverse habitat types, including river with rapids and swampy areas. Sites in the Okavango are swampy river with woodland and grassland.
60297		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60297		threats	eng	Current threats are not known. In the Okavango Delta, potential threats are wetland habitat degradation, and pesticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana.
60297		threats	eng	Current threats are not known. In the Okavango Delta, potential threats are wetland habitat degradation, and pesticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana.
60298		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population size and threats.
60298		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
60298		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
60298		distribution	eng	Only two localities are known so far: a 1969 records from Kasama, northern Zambia (outside the southern Africa region), and four records recorded in 1975 (from Four Rivers) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. It may be more widespread than currently known. It is likely to occur in swamps in Zambia (one sight record is known), but this needs to be confirmed.
60298		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is only two localities are known so far: Kasama, northern Zambia and Four Rivers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. An unconfirmed sight-record exists from Lake Bangweulu, Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The record from L. Bangweulu would be within the region.The Kasama record is also within the region. Possibly present within Democratic Republic of Congo.
60298		distribution	eng	The species is currently known from two localities within Zambia and found in Botswana, but further populations can be expected in suitable swamp habitat. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the only two localities are known so far are Kasama, northern Zambia and Four Rivers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. An unconfirmed sight-record exists from Lake Bangweulu, Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the record from Lake Bangweulu would be within the region. The Kasama record is also within the region.
60298		habitat	eng	Bush-fringed streams or pools in forests.
60298		population	eng	No information available.
60298		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
60298		population	eng	Unknown.
60298		threats	eng	Potential threats in the Okavango Delta are wetland degradation and insecticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana.
60298		threats	eng	Unknown.
60298		threats	eng	Unknown. Potential threats in the Okavango Delta are wetland degradation and insecticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana.
60299		conservation	eng	Protection of montane forests is needed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
60299		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from three collections in south and central Angola (Longfield (1947). Collections from 1932 and 1933; and Pinhey (1975); collection year unknown. The species has not been recorded since, however the area is under-surveyed.
60299		habitat	eng	Shady mountain streams, inferred from the general ecology of the genus.
60299		population	eng	No information available.
60299		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. However, it is inferred to be threatened by deforestation.<br/><br/>In Angola, the area of the only known collections has seen the fastest human population growth, and clear cutting is evident here.
60300		conservation	eng	No special or specific measures needed.
60300		distribution	eng	Although <em>Gomphus davidi</em> has a very restricted range, confined to Turkey (around Gulf of Iskenderun), Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and Palestine, the number of localities and number of records suggests that it is locally common.
60300		habitat	eng	Frequents slow flowing rivers and also nearly stagnant irrigation canals/ditches. The flight period starts as early as March (Schmidt 1938, Schneider 1984b), but most data are from April/May. There are records for Turkey until August (Dumont 1977). The larva was described by Schneider (1984b).
60300		population	eng	No exact data on population structure and size are available for this species. But the frequency of records (especially in the northern Jordan Valley and along the Orontes) suggest that the population is stable.
60300		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species at global level. In Turkey, mining may be a threat to populations there.
60301		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60301		distribution	eng	Lake Rukwa drainage and possibly the Malagarasi (Seegers 1996).
60301		habitat	eng	Found in a wide range of habitats including flowing water to stagnant pools (Seegers 1996). Thought to migrate up the rivers to spawn when water levels rise in the rainy season (Seegers 1996).
60301		population	eng	Uncommon (Seegers 1996).
60301		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
60302		conservation	eng	Research into the species population and ecological habits are needed, as are habitat protection actions if the species current decreasing trend is going to be reversed.
60302		distribution	eng	The Mangrove Skipper (<em>Orthetrum poecilops</em>) is known from China and Japan. The type locality is in Guangdong (China). Asahina (1970) recorded the nominate subspecies from Foochow, Fujian (China), and Wilson (2001) recorded it from four sites in northeast Hong Kong representing two locations: one at Starling Inlet, including Nam Chung, Ho Pui Leng, Yin Tso Ha, and the second Shuen Wan. A population was discovered on a small isolated island at Wong Wan during 2002, at a site reported in Wilson (2003) as 'Double Haven'. The subspecies <em>O. p. miyajimanense</em> is known from a handful of sites at Miyajima Island, near Hiroshima (Japan). Sugimura <em>et al</em>. (2001) described the distribution for <em>O. p. miyajimanense</em> as Itsukushima (= Miyajima) in the Seto Sea.
60302		habitat	eng	The Mangrove Skipper can be found on inter-tidal mudflats amongst <em>Kandelia</em> mangroves in northeast Hong Kong. It must be considered as a marine dragonfly. It is only found in Hong Kong at sites below the high water mark. Although these sites are influenced by small freshwater trickles and seepages at low tide, at high tide, all the Hong Kong sites are fully covered by seawater. During the wet season salinities of surface seawater at Starling Inlet drop to as low as 18 g/L (0/00), or less, but during the winter dry season, surface water salinities are typically fully saline at 33 g/L (0/00). Very little is known of the Mangrove Skipper's biology apart from its preference for intertidal mudflats amongst <em>Kandelia</em> mangroves. In Japan the only known sites are coastal marshes. In Hong Kong males can be found holding territories throughout the day; typically perching on <em>Kandelia</em> mangroves or <em>Phragmites australis</em> reed stems. Females appear at the breeding sites during the early morning and late afternoon. The larvae have been described by Sawano (1966) who discovered the species in coastal marsh habitat in Miyajima.
60302		population	eng	The population is known to be decreasing due to housing developments around its specific habitat preferences.
60302		threats	eng	All sites in Hong Kong, with the exception of Wong Wan ('Double Haven'), are located in unprotected, coastal sites. One site at Shuen Wan, east Hong Kong, has already been compromised by housing development and several others at Starling Inlet are vulnerable to housing development. In Guangdong much of the coastal environment, including reed marsh and mangrove habitats, have been damaged by development of aquaculture industries and only a fraction of the original mangrove community remains.
60303		conservation	eng	None.
60303		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout Lakes Malawi and Malombe.
60303		habitat	eng	Mainly a zooplankton feeder. Breeds throughout the year. Constructs a cave crater nest in steeper sloping areas. In the northern part of the southwestern arm of Lake Malawi it is one of the most abundant species in the shallow water mainly (comprised 10–30 % in weight of demersal trawl catches).
60303		population	eng	Unknown but an abundant species.
60303		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60304		conservation	eng	No information available.
60304		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60304		distribution	eng	Stream and rivers affluent to Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi basins. Also present in the Lake Edward basin.
60304		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus pellegrini</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika, Kivu, Edward and their effluents. It has also been recorded from the Kivu region, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
60304		habitat	eng	Prefers stream and river conditions (Poll 1953). Feeds mainly on insects.
60304		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
60304		population	eng	No information available.
60304		population	eng	Not known, but very common in the upper Malagarasi.
60304		threats	eng	No information available.
60304		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
60305		conservation	eng	No information available.
60305		distribution	eng	Lower Rufiji, Ruvu, Mbezi and Wami river drainages (Wildekamp 1995).
60305		habitat	eng	Small rivers, brooks and swamps in the forested savannah of eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).
60305		population	eng	No information available.
60305		threats	eng	No information available.
60306		conservation	eng	None known.
60306		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika basin where it is found in shallow waters in the lake and in its affluent rivers, including the Malagarasi.
60306		habitat	eng	In the lake found in shallow inshore waters down to 25 m deep. Very common in rivers where it migrates in the rainy season for reproduction. Feeds on varied food items collected on the bottom including crustaceans, sponges, insects, plant debris, etc. (Poll 1953).
60306		population	eng	Very common in fisheries catches in inshore shallow waters of the lake and deltas of major affluent rivers.
60306		threats	eng	Fishing pressure and water turbidity due to watershed erosion and agriculture.
60307		conservation	eng	Control of water use and preservation of gallery forest are required. The extractions of water from springs and headwaters should be absolutely prohibited, whereas this kind of alteration is clearly increasing throughout Greece as a response to climate change. Erection of natural reserves involving the upper course of Cretan brooks is necessary. Mapping of populations is also needed, as current records are limited (only 21 from 1980 onwards). The establishment of protected areas is necessary.
60307		distribution	eng	<em>Boyeria cretensis</em> is endemic to the island of Crete (Greece). Most individuals are found in small subpopulations isolated by high mountain systems and dry areas: a first aggregate of five river systems is known west of the Lefka Ori mountains in the westernmost part of Crete, another of 11 river systems lies between the Lefka Ori and the Psiloritis (Mount Idi) mountains and north of the latter in Central Crete, whereas one single isolated locality was found east of the Dikti mountains in the easternmost part of Crete (Battin 1989, Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Lopau 2000, Schneider and Müller 2006).
60307		habitat	eng	The species is highly specific in its habitat, being associated with the upper courses of permanent shady brooks with moderate current and rock pools. The distribution of this endemic dragonfly is restricted to rivulets with permanent water and pronounced gallery vegetation in a narrow belt between 50 and 600 m above sea level belonging to the thermo-Mediterranean and meso-Mediterranean zone of Crete.
60307		population	eng	The species occurs generally in small populations, but a population of more than 110 adults has been recorded in one place. It is known that the species is extinct in the type locality and it is believed to be extinct in four other localities.
60307		threats	eng	<em>B. cretensis</em> has presumably declined as a result of rapid habitat destruction and degradation, human exploitation of water, water pollution, eutrophication and forest destruction. <em>B. cretensis</em> is threatened due to its very restricted distribution, its low number of known localities (26 places on 17 streamlets) and its high level of stenotopy (adapted to a specific environment). The current agricultural policy favours the decrease of <em>B. cretensis</em> by allowing for and favouring the cultivation and irrigation of olive trees, the change of water regime of streams and streamlets and the destruction of their gallery vegetation. Many populations are small and relatively isolated. Climatic change alone will also have a negative impact on breeding sites in the future, but this is already exacerbated by the increased water demand for agriculture and urbanized areas.
60308		conservation	eng	No information available.
60308		distribution	eng	Mafia Island, eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60308		habitat	eng	Endemic to pools, swamps, ditches and small streams (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60308		population	eng	No information available.
60308		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60309		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60309		distribution	eng	Upper Pangani drainage, Athi and Tana River systems (Upper and middle courses) and the northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). A record by Copley (1941) of <em>B. gregorii</em> (non Boulenger) from the Tana River is a misidentification for </em>'B.' oxyrhynchus</em> (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60309		habitat	eng	Can be found in any part of the river, but moves upstream in April to the fast-running waters to spawn. The eggs are large and are deposited in and about stony gravel where they lodge in the crevices between the stones. After spawning the fish keep in the fast water to clean themselves and then moving downstream spread all over the river (Copley 1958). The limit of upward movement in the river is 5,000 feet where the cooler water temperature acts as a deterrent (Copley 1958). It is found in shoals in the big pools and runs (Copley 1952). It is onmivorous. Max. size: 40.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60309		population	eng	The most abundant species of large <em>Barbus</em> within both rivers (Copley 1952).
60309		threats	eng	Commercial fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60310		conservation	eng	More research on population numbers and range and the biology and ecology as well as possible threats is needed. Appropriate conservation measures should be applied thereafter.
60310		conservation	eng	None taken.
60310		distribution	eng	A holarctic species.
60310		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora sahlbergi</em> is a northern holarctic species, distributed from the extreme north of Norway, Sweden, and Finland to the Russian Far East, including Kamchatka, and to Alaska. More to the south, the species is known from five disjunct localities within a mountain area (800 - 2,000 m) ranging from the Altaï Mountains to the southwest of east Siberia. Most localities fall within the so-called "treeline area": tundra and mountain birch or dwarf pine forest above the Taiga.
60310		habitat	eng	Bog pools and small tarns at or above the arctic tree-line.
60310		habitat	eng	In Europe, <em>Somatochlora sahlbergi</em> reproduces north of 67° N only. It favours both peaty pools with emergent vegetation of sedges, <em>Myrica gale</em>, and pools in <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs, within the tundra and the open stunted subarctic mountain birch forest belt (<em>Betula pubescens tortuosa</em>). It is often found in areas with permafrost. Little is otherwise known about its ecology.
60310		population	eng	In Europe, <em>Somatochlora sahlbergi</em> is one of the most elusive Odonata, as its range corresponds to the most cloudy and rainy area of Fennoscandia and northwest Russia. It has been scarcely observed, less than 25 records of single specimens or small populations are available. Larvae have been found in the Kevo area in several peaty pools showing more than 50 cm water depth and bordered with sedges according to Butler (1992). This kind of habitat is omnipresent in the subarctic birch belt and the tundra, so that the species is probably more widespread than believed, although not common.
60310		population	eng	Large, but little is known of its status.
60310		threats	eng	A part of the European area of the species is under the influence of the atmospheric pollution issued from Russian industry at the north Kola Peninsula (acid deposition and heavy metals). As not much information is available about this species, it is not sure whether this poses a threat. It is also not clear how climate change would affect the species.
60310		threats	eng	No known threats, but it is likely to decline from the effects of global warming.
60312		conservation	eng	Additional fieldwork is needed in Lithuania and Latvia in order to find additional populations. The range of the species in the European part of Russia is very poorly known. Fieldwork in the whole northern part of Russia is needed. Based on this an assessment should be made of the conservation status of this species in these countries. It should be determined whether or not this species is sufficiently present in protected areas. If not then newly protected areas should be identified.
60312		conservation	eng	None.
60312		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna crenata</em> occurs from northeast Europe east to Kamchatka, Sakhalin and North Korea. The majority of its range lies in Russia. It occurs mostly in areas with a temperate climate but is locally present north of the Polar Circle. In Europe it is known from scattered localities in the southern quarter of Finland (10 to 15 localities), from c. ten localities in Northeast Lithuania, one locality in southeast Latvia, one locality in northern Belarus and it is not rare in northern Russia (e.g., Bernard 2002, 2003; Buczyński <em>et al.</em> 2006; Mauersberger 2000; Valtonen 1988; Peter 1997). The area of distribution bends south in the Ural and the species is reasonably common in the southern parts of this mountain range (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). From the Ural on the species range continues into temperate Asia. Over 90% of its European range lies in Russia, an area for which only poor data is available.
60312		distribution	eng	Siberia, northern Russia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus.
60312		habitat	eng	In Finland and the Baltic states <em>Aeshna crenata</em> is mostly found at pools and small to medium sized forest lakes which are acid and poor in nutrients. In most cases the banks are covered with a vegetation of peat moss (<em>Sphagnum</em>) and sedges (<em>Carex</em>) and mature forest is found in the direct vicinity. In the northern and eastern parts of European Russia, the habitat spectrum is larger comprising also river valleys, larger lakes and dead river arms with vegetation of Water Horsetail (<em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>) and sedges (<em>Carex</em>).
60312		habitat	eng	Oligotrophic lakes in forested areas.
60312		population	eng	The species seems to be common in large parts of temperate Asia. In the European part of its range it seems to be scarce in the west. Most of its European range lies in Russia and for this area poor information on its presence and abundance is available but it seems to be common in northern Russia. Based on limited information it seems that densities in suitable habitat normally vary from tens to several hundreds of specimens.
60312		population	eng	Unknown, but probably very large in Russia and Siberia.
60312		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance/change.
60312		threats	eng	Most European populations are found in areas with relatively little human pressure. The most important threat is probably large scale logging of forest.
60313		conservation	eng	Protection/conservation schemes have been implemented in some West European countries.
60313		conservation	eng	Water quality should be preserved, fish farming restricted and the natural vegetation maintained, restored or managed in the most favourable places.
60313		distribution	eng	North, Central and East Europe and Siberia. In Western Europe only rare populations occur. In July 2006, the species was recorded for the first time in Armenia (M. Tailly pers. comm.).
60313		distribution	eng	The species has a wide range from west Europe to Kamchatka in the east. The species has isolated populations in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and Denmark, and a more continuous range in northeast Europe including the south of Scandinavia and Finland, eastern Poland and northern Ukraine. By far the largest number of populations is found in southern Fennoscandia and northeast Europe. The species is absent from the south of the Ukraine and the south of Russia although populations are known from the southern Caucasus countries (Georgia, Armenia). It is extinct in the United Kingdom.
60313		habitat	eng	Many different kinds of waters, often with abundant emergent vegetation.
60313		habitat	eng	This species has a very specialized habitat and is mainly met in fields of sedges (<em>Carex</em>), Water Horsetail (<em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>) and reeds bordering shallow mesotrophic and weakly eutrophic pools and lakes. The density of the vegetation should be moderate, neither too low nor too high a density, in order to provide both shelter and space to move.
60313		population	eng	In the west of its range, the species is very local and has been extirpated from large parts of its initial range. It is presently very rare to rare in the Netherlands, north Germany, Poland (probably extinct in most of the country), uncommon in southern Scandinavia but fairly common in parts of Finland and Russia.
60313		population	eng	Very large.
60313		threats	eng	Habitat change/disturbance.
60313		threats	eng	Water pollution and significant eutrophication, fish farming, natural succession of the vegetation leading to the closure of the habitat are the main threat for this species. Dessication due to climate change is a present and future threat to this boreal species.
60314		conservation	eng	No information
60314		conservation	eng	No information available.
60314		distribution	eng	Previously known only from the Juba system in Somalia, this species was recently rediscovered in the Lower Tana (De Vos 2001).
60314		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong> Previously only known from the Juba system in Somalia, this species was recently rediscovered in the Lower Tana (De Vos 2001).
60314		habitat	eng	Max. size: 640 mm TL (Risch in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60314		habitat	eng	No information available.
60314		population	eng	No information
60314		population	eng	No information available.
60314		threats	eng	No information
60314		threats	eng	No information available.
60315		conservation	eng	None known.
60315		distribution	eng	Estonia, Finland and Sweden, with a possible sighting in Norway. This is a trans-Baltic Sea endemic.
60315		habitat	eng	Most subpoulations are found in saline, brackish or alkaline pools. In Sweden, the species is found in lakes and feshwater marshes/pools.
60315		population	eng	>100,000 (at least very large if all subpopulations are taken together).
60315		threats	eng	None known.
60316		conservation	eng	None known.
60316		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60316		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria basin, Lake Kanyaboli, Amboseli swamps, Athi River system (including Mzima springs, Tsavo drainage) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Lake Kivu and Rusizi drainage; Upper and Middle Akagera system; Malagarasi river; Lake Rukwa system; and various localities in the coastal region near Dares salaam. Lakes Edward, George and Albert systems. Lake Nabugabo and the Aswa River (Upper Nile)
60316		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, the species is known from Chad River basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:  </strong></strong>Widely distributed in Uganda (Lakes Victoria and Edward), in the neighbouring areas.
60316		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species that feeds mainly on animals. Occurs in pools near papyrus vegetation .
60316		habitat	eng	Inhabit inshore waters of lakes and rivers, including fast-flowing waters. Varied food, including aquatic vegetation, mollusc and fishes (Welcomme 1969). Common in temporary and permanent streams. It occurs in water lily swamps on the edge of lakes (Okedi 1971).
60316		population	eng	No available data.
60316		population	eng	Not known, but very common is streams and rivers.
60316		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to water pollution
60316		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed.
60317		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
60317		conservation	eng	No information available.
60317		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
60317		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed.
60317		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (as <em>D. selysii</em>), upper Zambesi catchment. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa; only seven records are known, all from one locality. Globally, it has been recorded from west Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola to Equatorial Guinea. It is also inferred to occur in the Congo.
60317		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded (as <em>Diastatomma selysi</em>) from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (west Uganda).<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola to Equatorial Guinea.
60317		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola, Equatorial Guinea. In western Africa from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south west Cameroon. It is inferred that is more widespread in central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record from Dundo, Angola, but has also been reported from Cameroon, and presence elsewhere within the region is suspected, including Equatorial Guinea.
60317		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species was described from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south west Cameroon. It is inferred that is more widespread in the forest in this area.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
60317		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Uganda, north Zambia, north-east Angola, Equatorial Guinea. In West Africa from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south west Cameroon. Only two records; that from Angola the locality is uncertain, and that for eastern Democratic Republic of Congo is erroneous identification.<br/><br/>It is inferred to be more widespread in central Africa.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from north-west Zambia (as <em>D. selysii</em>), upper Zambezi catchment. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa; only seven records are known, all from one locality.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is described from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south-west Cameroon. It is inferred that is more widespread in the forest in this area.
60317		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
60317		habitat	eng	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984a).
60317		population	eng	No information available.
60317		population	eng	No information is available on population size and trends.
60317		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
60317		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
60317		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be affecting to the species.
60317		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
60317		threats	eng	Unknown. It is inferred that forest destruction may be a threat.
60318		conservation	eng	Usually, bays and gulfs with affluent rivers are legislated as closed areas for fishing from 1st January to 30th June each year in order to protect spawners and juveniles.
60318		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004) where, since the introduction of the Nile Perch (<em>Lates niloticus</em>) extent of occurrence (EOO) has decreased from a 20 m depth range observed during the 1969–71 survey (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974) to a 10 m range during the 1997–99 surveys (Okaranon <em>et al</em>. 1999, Getabu and Nyaundi 1999, Mkumbo and Ezekiel 1999). It is now very rare being occasionally encountered in the shallow inshore close to affluent rivers and streams. Its estimated EOO in Lake Victoria is 12,580 km². The species is also distributed in Lake Katwe (EOO=2.5 km²), Lake Kubigena (EOO <1 km²), and Lake Kyoga. Also distributed throughout the upper and middle Akagera system and the Victoria Nile.
60318		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow inshore waters and influent rivers (Witte and Winter 1995). Spends most of its life span in lakes, but spawns in flooded grassland beside both permanent and temporary streams. Feeds on detritus and algae (Fermon 1997) and rotifers growing on the bodies of other fishes (Witte and Winter 1995) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).Max. size: 41.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60318		population	eng	During the pre-Nile Perch era the species supported semi-commercial/artisanal fisheries. During 1969/71 surveys catch rates of up to 0.4 kg/haul/hour were observed. In recent surveys the catch rate has slightly increased to 0.7 kg/haul/hour. Increase in the population size was reported by Bayona <em>et al</em>. (2001) and Chande and Mhitu (2001). Common in commercial fish catches in upper and middle Akagera lakes. Wide extent of occurrence but very rarely encountered;
60318		threats	eng	Fishing with small meshed nets across rivers or river mouths during the spawning migration; predation impact by the Nile perch; silting and destruction of spawning/nursery grounds; competitive displacement by introduced fish species; and loss of marginal vegetation around lakes and rivers due to agriculture extension.
60319		conservation	eng	No information available.
60319		distribution	eng	Endemic to the lake Natron basin where it inhabits some southern and southeastern springs and affluents of the southern Lagoon. In addition, it was collected from one of two springs and the adjacent relatively wide stream between the Moinik River and the southwestern lagoon (Seegers and Tichy 1999).
60319		habitat	eng	IT has been collected in springs and the effluent streams which flow to Lake Natron (Seegers and Tichy 1999). An omnivorous species but is mainly herbivorous living on the bluegreen algae covering the substrate (Seegers and Tichy 1999). It is a maternal mouthbrooder (Seegers and Tichy 1999).
60319		population	eng	No information available.
60319		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60320		conservation	eng	None known.
60320		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Athi River system (Seeges <em>et al</em>. 2004).
60320		habitat	eng	Max. size: 19.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60320		population	eng	No information available.
60320		threats	eng	Fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60321		conservation	eng	No information available.
60321		distribution	eng	Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996).
60321		habitat	eng	The collection sites were small rivers with fast flowing water and a rock and pebble substrate. The water is soft, cool and rich in oxygen with a pH of about 7.0 to 7.2 (Seegers 1996).
60321		population	eng	No information available.
60321		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60322		conservation	eng	Not known.
60322		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to the Upper Pangani drainage: N'joro Springs, Lumi River system (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60322		habitat	eng	Not known.
60322		population	eng	Not known.
60322		threats	eng	Not known.
60323		conservation	eng	No information available.
60323		distribution	eng	Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996).
60323		habitat	eng	Collected from a stretch of river with a gravely substrate and fast flowing current. The water temperature was below 20°C, soft, neutral and with a low content of salts (Seegers 1996).
60323		population	eng	No information available.
60323		threats	eng	No information available.
60325		distribution	eng	Lake Baringo drainage (possibly endemic).
60326		conservation	eng	No information available.
60326		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ruvu and Rufiji Rivers (Eccles 1992).
60326		habitat	eng	No information available.
60326		population	eng	No information available.
60326		threats	eng	No information available.
60327		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60327		distribution	eng	Northern Ewaso Nyiro and Tana River systems (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60327		habitat	eng	Max. size: 5.5 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60327		population	eng	Unknown.
60327		threats	eng	Unknown.
60328		conservation	eng	No information available.
60328		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lower Rufiji drainage (Wildekemp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60328		habitat	eng	Temporary pools and swamps (Wildekemp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60328		population	eng	No information available.
60328		threats	eng	No information available.
60329		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
60329		distribution	eng	The species is occurs in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Records of <em>Neodythemis scalarum</em> from Guinea by Legrand (2003) may pertain to this species (Dijkstra and Vick 2006).
60329		habitat	eng	Found in and around small rivers in rainforest.
60329		population	eng	No information available.
60329		threats	eng	Forest destruction is a major threat.
60330		conservation	eng	No information available.
60330		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kingani River (Ruvu System), the Rufiji-Great Ruaha Basin (including Kilombero), and the Wami River (De Vos 1995)
60330		habitat	eng	No information available.
60330		population	eng	No information available.
60330		threats	eng	No information available.
60331		conservation	eng	No information available.
60331		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996). Recorded from the northeastern shore of the lake, the Luika River, above and below the falls. It is probably spread throughout the whole lake (Seegers 1996).
60331		habitat	eng	No information available.
60331		population	eng	No information available.
60331		threats	eng	No information available.
60332		conservation	eng	No information available.
60332		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
60332		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Pangani River (Gosse 1986).
60332		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Tanzania, though is likely to also be found in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Pangani River (Gosse 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Wabishebelle, Ethiopia. Also recorded in a second locality, Uebi Shebeli (Somalia).
60332		habitat	eng	No information available.
60332		population	eng	No information available.
60332		threats	eng	No information available.
60333		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Surveys are required to examine habitat and determine whether this species still exists or not.
60333		distribution	eng	Known from the River Quwaiq only. This is a very small river.
60333		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
60333		population	eng	No data available on population size or trends. The species is known only from a few specimens.
60333		threats	eng	Drought is the main threat. Possibly also extraction and pollution.
60334		conservation	eng	None.
60334		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Vardar (Axios) River in the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM). Potentially it may also be present in the lower reaches of the river in Greece.
60334		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers. Nothing else known, but based on the habits of other species in the genus, it requires turbulent water.
60334		population	eng	No data. It is only known from a few museum specimens. The last specimen was collected in 1986 but no real efforts have been made to collect it since then.
60334		threats	eng	Any modification to river morphology may have a potential negative impact.
60335		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60335		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to springs and widyan in the southern Dead Sea area in Jordan and Israel (south of Mujib River to Wadi Fifa).
60335		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits shallow fast and clear waters with stony beds. It is small size fish (<120 mm total length).
60335		population	eng	Small population. Almost extinct in Israel. Population in Jordan declining.
60335		threats	eng	Construction of dams, changes to water courses, water extraction for domestic uses and irrigation for agriculture. Another potential threat is the introduction of invasive alien fish species, such as <em>Oreochromis aureus</em> in Jordan and mosquito fish, <em>Gambusia affinis</em> is probably the cause of its extinction in most sites located in Israel. Pollution is also a problem.
60336		conservation	eng	No information available.
60336		distribution	eng	Only known from the Mbezi River, under the rood bridge to Kibiti, about 40 km south of Dar es Salaam (Seegers 1984).
60336		habitat	eng	Temporary pools (Seegers 1984).
60336		population	eng	No information available.
60336		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60337		conservation	eng	None.
60337		distribution	eng	Restricted to Louros, Acheron and Arachthos river basins in western Greece. Also known from Kalamas, Corfu, and Butrino Lagoon in southern Albania .
60337		habitat	eng	Lives in slow flowing rivers, marshes, and swamps.
60337		population	eng	No data.
60337		threats	eng	Water abstraction and pollution.
60338		conservation	eng	None known.
60338		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Wami River.
60338		habitat	eng	No information available.
60338		population	eng	No information available.
60338		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60339		conservation	eng	Lakes that are wholly or partly within National Parks are protected from exploitation of fishery resources. In Lake Manyara, both the southern and eastern portions of the lake, which remain outside the National Park, are over-exploited. The section of the lake within the park might act as a potential seed stock for replenishing the heavily exploited unprotected areas.
60339		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout the waters of Lake Natron (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 855 km²), Lake Manyara (EOO = 413 km²) and Lake Eyas (EOO = 1,160 km²). The total estimated EOO is less than 5,000 km².
60339		habitat	eng	The species flourishes well in highly alkaline rift-lakes. Beadle (1981) observed that the species developed tolerance to 30–40 ppt salinity and pH 8–9. The species is distributed in the entire waters of the lakes but information on maturity and mature spawners is not known. These are a small species, hardly growing beyond 9 cm.
60339		population	eng	In Lake Manyara the annual fish catches for all species declined from 1,800 tons in 1970 to about 0.5 tons in 1990 (Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the other rift lakes, a similar rate of decline has been observed.
60339		threats	eng	Over-exploitation due to use of small meshed nets for fishing, beach-seines in particular and intensive fishing effort; environmental disasters like draught, leading to a decrease in water level; and sedimentation, which is a major problem.
60340		conservation	eng	None known, but more information is needed on the range, biology and threats to this species, and the population trend should continue to be monitored.
60340		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya.
60340		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
60340		population	eng	No data available.
60340		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60341		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60341		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Lake Kinneret (Tiberias) in Israel.
60341		habitat	eng	This pelagic, lacustrine species is small (less than 250 total length). Its spawning season last six months and peak in winter (January-February). It spawns in the shallow littoral zone on algae-free stones. Breeding success depends on the extent of rise of water level in winter. It is a zooplankton feeder. It is a fishery species.
60341		population	eng	A very abundant species.
60341		threats	eng	No serious threats known at present.
60342		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60342		distribution	eng	Introduced to Lake Chala (Pangani drainage). Probably originates from Lake Bahati, Tanzania.
60342		habitat	eng	Unknown.
60342		population	eng	Unknown.
60342		threats	eng	Unknown.
60343		conservation	eng	None.
60343		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Robledillo and Fresnada rivers (both are small tributaries of the Jandula river in the Guadalquivir basin).
60343		habitat	eng	Inhabits clear waters with sandy to rocky bottoms and prefers slow flowing stretches with abundant macrophyte and riparian cover.
60343		population	eng	Small and declining. Drastically reduced.
60343		threats	eng	A dam has been built having serious impacts on the Robledillo river. Two small reservoirs contain introduced fish, which have affected the rivers. Industrial pollution.
60344		conservation	eng	Glass eel fishing is banned in most northern Africa. In Morocco, glass eel fishing is not banned but, the fishing of glass eels is permitted only to institutions that have made infrastructure rearing. However the price is very high and this stage is still fished (Spain, Morocco and south France).
60344		conservation	eng	The majority of conservation actions historically in place for the European Eel were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels and sustainable income for fishing communities and not to increase recruitment. <br/><br/>However, in 2007 two major multi-lateral bodies recognized the state of the European Eel and have acted upon it.<br/><br/>The European Council (EC) Regulation No 1100/2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European Eel was published in September 2007. The Regulation required, by 1 July 2009, all member states that contain natural habitats of the European Eel to establish eel management plans at a river basin scale. The objective of these plans was to permit the escapement to the sea of at least 40% of the silver eel biomass [relative to the estimated stock levels in the absence of human influences], through various measures including reducing commercial and recreational fisheries, restocking, measures to improve habitats and make rivers passable, transportation of silver eels to the sea and monitor eel status in each basin. The Regulation also requires that by 31 July 2013, 60% of eels less than 12 cm in length caught annually should be reserved for restocking [and not aquaculture], also that over a 5 year period starting from 1 July 2009 catches or fishing effort of eels in coastal and sea waters [i.e. beyond river basin plan] should be reduced by at least 50% [of average between 2004-2006], and that a control and monitoring system be set up by each member state.<br/><br/>The European Eel was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in June 2007. The listing came into effect on 13 March 2009, after which time all Parties to the Convention will be required to issue permits for all exports of the species. An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. In the European Union, which includes 24 eel range States, CITES is implemented through Council Regulation 338/97 and Commission Regulation 865/2006 which require both import and export permits to be issued for species listed in Annex B of the Regulation (Annex B contains most CITES Appendix II species). In the case of specimens introduced from the sea, a certificate has to be issued by the Management Authority of the State into which the specimens are being brought, for species listed in Appendix I or II.
60344		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Anguilla anguilla</em> is present in Morocco (especially Oum Er-Biâ, Sebou, Loukkos and Moulouya Rivers, Merja Zerga lagoon), Algeria, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Tunisia and Egypt (along the River Nile especially the Delta region and coastal lagoons).<br/><br/>At global level, it is present at the Atlantic coasts of Europe; northwards to British coasts, Ireland and Norway, and also entering in the Mediterranean and Black seas and Sea of Azov; southwards to Canaries Islands and African coast at about 25°N.
60344		distribution	eng	<p><em>Anguilla anguilla</em> is found in all European rivers draining to the Mediterranean, North and Baltic seas, in the Atlantic south to Canary Islands and parts of Mediterranean north Africa and Asia. It very rarely enters the White and Barents seas, but is recorded eastward to the Pechora River in northwest Russia. The species occurs in low abundance in the Black Sea where it migrates east to the Kuban drainage (occasional individuals reach the Volga drainage through canals), in northern Scandinavia and eastern Europe, but 'trap-and-transport' stocking is interfering with natural population numbers (W. Dekker pers. comm. 2007). Large parts of the population remain at sea particularly in the north western Atlantic and Mediterranean. It is also widely stocked in most inland waters of Europe.&#160;</p><p>The species is thought to breed in the Sargasso Sea in the West Central Atlantic, migrating across the Atlantic from Europe.</p>
60344		habitat	eng	Females of this catadromous species deposit eggs in Sargasso Sea. The larvae migrate into rivers Sebou, Loukkos, Mpilpita and Nile, and mature silver eels begin downstream spawning migration usually from late springs to winter and mainly in dark, moonless stormy nights. At this stage eyes become enlarged, and the snout becomes narrower and more pointed. It feeds on crustaceans (decapods, amphipods), insect larvae and fish. It ceases feeding on spawning migration. In relation to its size, it reaches to over 58 cm (females) and 38 cm (males); silver or yellowish white a white belly.
60344		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat: </span><br/>The species is found in all types of benthic habitats from small streams to shores of large rivers and lakes. Naturally it only occurs in water bodies that are connected to the sea; it is stocked elsewhere. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Biology: </span><br/>The species is catadromous, living in fresh water but migrating to marine waters to breed. While its life in freshwaters are well understood, relatively little is known about its life history at sea. The spawning peaks at the beginning of March continuing until July, and the adults probably die after spawning. There are no concrete data about specific spawning, however, it is assumed that spawning takes place only in an elliptic zone, about 2,000  km wide in the Sargasso Sea, in the West Central  Atlantic (about 26°N 60°W). The mechanisms by which leptocephali reach the European coasts are not also well understood. By the time the leptocephali reach the continental slope they are about 70 mm in size and metamorphose into glass-eels which are almost adult in appearance, but have a transparent body, and enter estuaries. These glass-eels are observed in the autumn on Portuguese coasts, and in winter and spring in the North Sea. The generation length of the species varies greatly and ranges from 2 to 50 years, and having a typical mean of 20 years with females being twice the size and age of males (W. Dekker pers. comm. 2007).
60344		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Glass eels</span>:<br/>Since the early 1980s, a steady and almost continent wide decline of 90% has been observed in the recruitment of glass (juvenile) eels (Dekker 2003). According to an ICES and FAO report (2006) European Eel recruitment levels reached an historical low in 2001 of 1 to 2% of the pre-1980 level, this has not improved and is an indication that the reproduction is seriously impaired and that the stock is severely depleted. In recent years, no substantial recovery in recruitment has been observed (Dekker 2007). This recent decline in recruitment will translate into a future decline in adult stock, at least for the coming two decades (ICES 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Yellow/silver eels</span>:<br/>Even though there is no analytical assessment of the state of the [continental] European Eel stock, all available information indicates that the stock is at an historical minimum in most of the distribution area and continues to decline (ICES and FAO 2006). Unfortunately, a total continental stock assessment cannot be made as it is hard to monitor, being scattered over millions of rivers, lakes, estuaries, etc. (Dekker 2000). However, even though catch effort can be variable and under reporting of landings is a serious problem in most European countries, trends in the reported catch data will to some extent reflect true changes in fishing yields. According to FAO global capture statistics (exploited at all stages of their freshwater life), capture peaked in 1968 with 20,278 tonnes, in 1975 this had dropped to 16,110 tonnes, in 1985 it was 12,665 tonnes, 1995 8,706 tonnes and the most recent available figure in 2005 was 5,059 tonnes a decline of 76% since the peak in 1968. This is supported by the possibly only long-term scientific data [from Lake Ijsselmeer in the Netherlands] where there has been a gradual decline since 1960 (Dekker 2004a). However, there is also evidence that in Norway catches seem to be stable over this period (ICES 2002).&#160;<br/><br/>The overall population is continuing to decline as the older eels disappear from the stock and recruitment rate is so low and declining. Noting the longevity of the species, and the extremely depleted state, restoration of the stock is expected to take several generations from 60 to 200 years depending on the protection level (Astrom and Dekker 2007). Temporary increases (over 10-15 years) in abundance following the implementation of protective measures thus do not guarantee ultimate recovery, if not severely protecting the stock (W. Dekker pers. comm.).
60344		population	eng	Total northern African catches have declined by an estimated 10% to 25% per year since 1980, but recruitment has declined by an estimated 50% in the past 10 years (Kraïem, M. pers. comm.). The decline in northern Africa is probably less than in Europe.<br/><br/><em>Anguilla anguilla</em> has an estimated generation length of 15 years. Figures for a decline over the past 45 years (3 generations) are not available. Catches have decreased severely from just before 1980. Even though recorded catches increased between the 1960s and 1970s, this is a reflection on increased effort and technology and not on real population increase.<br/><br/>For example, Egypt catches for eel in 1996 were 193 tonnes and in 2004 this had declined to about 80 tonnes (Kraïem, M. pers. comm.)
60344		threats	eng	Over-exploitation  of glass eels and pollution of estuaries have contributed to the decline, Hydraulic managements (construction of dams, embankment, pumping and derivation of rivers, extraction of gravel), Groundwater extraction, Drought, Pollution (domestic), apparition in the continental waters of Morocco, since 1990, of the hematophagy parasite, <em>Anguillicola crassus</em>: The infestation rates varied from 12.79% to 83% and showed seasonal variations (Chetto <em>et al</em>. 2001; El-Hilali <em>et al</em>. 2004-2005).<br/><br/>The main threats to this species are dams, water management (canalisation), pollution, water abstraction and drought. Overfishing of glass eels started in the 1960s and 1970s, but the impacts of the threats weren't reflected in recruitment until the 1980s. Overfishing occurs on glass eels in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean (Spanish) and also in the south of France. Overfishing also occurs on silver eels in deltas, estuaries and lagoons within northern Africa (live eels are often exported to Japan and Europe).
60344		threats	eng	The causes of the declining recruitment rates are still unclear (Dekker 2007), but there are many hypotheses:<br/><br/>The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) may have reduced larval survival and/or growth rate (Castonguay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). However, Dekker (2004b) shows that the NAO index correlation is strong for growth rate but weak for glass eel numbers as in 2000 the NAO index returned to normal but recruitment still declined.<br/><br/>Overfishing for glass eels (mainly in France, Spain, Portugal and UK) and downstream migrating eels (silver eels) across Europe (W. Dekker pers. comm.) is also a threat to the species. The demand from Asia and Europe for glass eels is huge and the price is increasing (750 Euro per kilo in 2006 from around 100 Euro in 1990.). According to ICES (2006) <em>Anguilla anguilla</em> fisheries are currently not sustainable, and a recovery plan urgently needs to be developed for the whole stock. <br/><br/>There is also a parasite nematode <em>(Anguillicola crassus</em>), from introduced eels from Japan which is suspected to impact the ability of the European Eels to reach their spawning grounds. <br/><br/>Dams (for hydropower and water management) are also a threat to the species by blocking migration routes and also through causing high mortality rate as the downstream migrating eels are killed by turbines. <br/><br/>Climate change may be having an impact on the suspected breeding grounds (Sargasso Sea). <br/><br/>Increasing numbers of predators, in particular cormorants, across Europe may also have a negative impact on this species.
60345		conservation	eng	None known.
60345		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.), the Middle and lower Akagera, Kyoga and smaller associated Lakes. Also in Lake Nabugabo and the Victoria Nile (Greenwood 1966). Originally abundant in or near water-lily swamps of Lake Kyoga (Greenwood 1966). Also in Lake Tanganyika (Gosse 1984) and the Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).
60345		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow waters over both sandy and rocky habitats and appearing seasonally over muddy bottoms adjacent to extensive Papyrus swamps. Also found in deep water near rocky islands. Feeds on large libellulid nymphs and other large prey (Okedi 1971) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Originally common in shallow inshore waters over both sand and rock (Lake Victoria), and in or near water lilies (Lake Kyoga), before introduction of Nile perch and Nile tilapia became fully established in the two lakes. Now rarely encountered. Max. size: 36.0 cm SL.
60345		population	eng	Not known, but common in fisheries catches in middle Akagera. Large extent of occurrence but rarely encountered. Nowhere considered common (Greenwood 1966).
60345		threats	eng	Competitive displacement by introduced fishes. The species has become rare since the introduction of <em>Lates niloticus</em>.
60346		conservation	eng	No information available.
60346		distribution	eng	Only known from the Mbezi River under the bridge of the road to Kibiti, about 40 km south of Dar es Salaam (Seegers 1986).
60346		habitat	eng	Collected at the edge of rice fields and in the Mbezi River (Seegers 1986).
60346		population	eng	No information available.
60346		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60347		conservation	eng	None.
60347		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Arrago river basin within the Tagus river basin in western Spain.
60347		habitat	eng	No data.
60347		population	eng	Decreasing.
60347		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, drought. Introduction of exotic fish species.
60348		conservation	eng	No information available.
60348		distribution	eng	Upper Ruvu, Mpiji and lower Rufiji drainage, Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60348		habitat	eng	Probably temporary pools (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60348		population	eng	No information available.
60348		threats	eng	Its restricted distribution makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60349		conservation	eng	None known.
60349		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
60349		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is widely distributed in Lakes Tanganyika and Basuto (Kenya, Uganda), Rwanda, Lake Victoria and its tributaries and Semliki River (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). Records have been made from the Muwe River, terr. de Kasongo (Lualaba system) and from the Luila and Kiilwe Rivers (Lukuga basin).
60349		distribution	eng	This species is known from DRC to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is widely distributed in Lakes Tanganyika and Basuto (Kenya, Uganda), Lake Victoria and its tributaries and Semliki River (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Widely distributed in Kenya and Tanzania. Recorded from the Northern and southern Ewaso Nyiro drainge, Athi and Tana River systems, Lake Victoria basin Lake Turkana system. Also recorded from affluents of Lake Bogoria drainage (Mann, 1971) (see Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished), the Rusizi system, Lakes Bulera and Luhondo (This species is known from upper Akagera drainage), Lakes Albert and Edward and affluent streams, affluents streams of the Semliki River. Recorded from the affluent streams and rivers to lakes Tanganyika and Kivu.
60349		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds principally on insect larvae and aquatic plants.
60349		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds principally on insect larvae and aquatic plants. It is found in permanent and seasonal fast flowing streams (Greenwood 1966), and probably also occurs in shallow zones of the lakes.
60349		population	eng	No information available.
60349		threats	eng	No major threats are known, though water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension could cause localised problems.
60349		threats	eng	None known.
60350		conservation	eng	No information available.
60350		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.); Lakes Nabugabo and Kyoga; the Kiruni River (Semuliki valley); upper and middle Akagera. Malagarasi drainage.
60350		habitat	eng	Favours shallow soft bottom habitats near fringing vegetation such as papyrus and <em>Vossia</em> (Okedi 1971). Feeds on insects, particularly chironomid larvae, caridina and caenid larvae (Okedi 1971). A male/female ratio of 1:10.5 has been noted in this species (Okedi 1969). Max. size: 10.0 cm SL.
60350		population	eng	Rarely encountered but may be locally very abundant.
60350		threats	eng	Introduced fish species have possibly contributed to the decline of the species; loss of <em>Papyrus</em> swamps and other vegetated wetlands around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension.
60351		conservation	eng	No information available.
60351		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus urostigma</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika effluents and Lualaba River system.
60351		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, known from stream and riverine habitats.
60351		population	eng	No information available.
60351		threats	eng	No major threats are known, however water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension could be threatening localised populations.
60352		conservation	eng	No information available.
60352		distribution	eng	Known only from a few small affluents of the Luiche River (western tanzania) (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60352		habitat	eng	Found in small and moderately swift running waters (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Intestines of a few specimens contained mud and plant debris suggesting a benthic feeding habit (De Vos and Seegers 1998). It is a mouthbrooder (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60352		population	eng	No information available.
60352		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60353		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60353		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60353		habitat	eng	7.1 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60353		population	eng	Unknown
60353		threats	eng	Unknown
60354		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60354		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Orontes and Nahr al-Kabir river basins in Turkey and Syria. In the systems of Orontes including Amik Golu and its tributary Karasu and Quwaiq. Krupp (1985) reported this species also from coastal rivers in Northern Syria and the Upper Ceyhan at Elbistan in Turkey (Bogutskaya 1997).
60354		habitat	eng	No data available.
60354		population	eng	No data available.
60354		threats	eng	No data available.
60355		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60355		distribution	eng	Malagarasi River, Rusizi basin, Upper and middle Akagera. Also found in Ruwenzori streams (Nile basin).
60355		habitat	eng	Restricted to mountain stream ecosystems. Inhabits the headwaters of rivers at high altitudes (Eccles 1992).
60355		population	eng	Not known, but rare.
60355		threats	eng	1. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
60357		conservation	eng	None known.
60357		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.) and its affluent rivers, including the Akagera (up to middle Akagera), Lake Kyoga and associated rivers, and the Victoria Nile system.
60357		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow coastal waters over sand/plant habitats. Originally common in areas overgrown with water lilies in Lake Kyoga. Feeds on a wide range of prey, including the larvae of <em>Chaoborus</em>, and chironomid larvae (Okedi 1971). Max. size: 25.0 cm SL.
60357		population	eng	Not known, but fairly common (Greenwood 1966).
60357		threats	eng	Minor commercial fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003) (see also Mahy 1977); regression of wetlands due to agriculture extension; and competitive displacement by introduced species.
60358		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60358		distribution	eng	Only known from the Kenyan part of Lake Victoria (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60358		habitat	eng	Apparently confined to streams and rivers. There are probably two breeding seasons coinciding with the rains, as ripe females have been recorded during December, January and February and again in April and May. Spent fishes were caught at the Luambwa fishing barrier in February. The presence of small juveniles in the floodwater pools of the middle and lower reaches, and also in shallow pools in lake-side streams, suggests that these are the spawning grounds (Whitehead 1960) (see Greenwood 1966). Maz Size: 5.6 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60358		population	eng	Unknown.
60358		threats	eng	Unknown.
60359		conservation	eng	No information available.
60359		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and possible threats.
60359		conservation	eng	None known.
60359		distribution	eng	<em>Clarotes laticeps</em> is a wide ranging species with a distribution spreading form Senegal to Somalia, and throughout the Nile basin and as far south as Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is known in Northern Ewaso Nyiro, Dawa River (Juba system) and Tsavo drainage, Lower Tana. Maybe more widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Its type locality is near Cairo, but it is now only found in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Juba, Somalia, and the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and the Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from all Nilo-Sudanese basins (Chad, Benue, Niger, Senegal, Volta).
60359		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, its type locality is near Cairo, and it is now only found in Lake Nasser in Egypt (outside the region). <br/><br/>At global level, it is present in the White and Blue Niles, Niger, Senegal, Lake Chad, Tanzania, Kenya, East Africa: tama River, Tsavo River, Ghana: Lake Volta (Bishai and Khalil, 1997).
60359		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from all Nilo-Sudanese basins (Chad, Benue, Niger, Senegal, Volta). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in the Nile River basin.
60359		habitat	eng	Found in shallow water. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, insects and plant material. Spawning season extends from April to November. Its maximum length is 80 cm.
60359		habitat	eng	It inhabits shallow water of rivers and lakes (Risch in Daget <em>et al.</em> 1986) where it feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs, plant material and fish (Bailey1994). Spawning season extends from April to November.
60359		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish that inhabits rivers. Feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs and fish.
60359		population	eng	No data on population trends.
60359		population	eng	No information available.
60359		threats	eng	No information available.
60359		threats	eng	None known
60359		threats	eng	The major threats to the specieas are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
60360		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60360		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60360		habitat	eng	Inhabits shallow waters or sandy banks (Copley 1958) and marginal water-lily swamps (Greenwood 1962). During the biannual floods specimens are found some distance up lakeside streams. This migration may be connected with breeding (Greenwood 1962).
60360		population	eng	Nowhere common (Greenwood 1962).
60360		threats	eng	Unknown.
60361		conservation	eng	No information available.
60361		distribution	eng	Upper Great Ruaha drainage on the southern Usangu flats (Wildekamp 1995).
60361		habitat	eng	Inhabits swamps, pools and small streams (Wildekamp 1995).
60361		population	eng	No information available.
60361		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60362		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60362		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Orontes river basin in Syria and Turkey.
60362		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
60362		population	eng	No data available.
60362		threats	eng	No data available.
60363		conservation	eng	No information available.
60363		distribution	eng	Tana River drainage (Middle and Lower courses) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60363		habitat	eng	No information.
60363		population	eng	Unknown.
60363		threats	eng	No information available.
60364		conservation	eng	None.
60364		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Oum Er Rbia river in Morocco. Specimens have been found in this river in surveys over the last 10 years (Doadrio, I. pers com).
60364		habitat	eng	No data.
60364		population	eng	No data.
60364		threats	eng	Agricultural pollution is affecting the species in the lower reaches of the river (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).
60365		conservation	eng	No information available.
60365		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it is restricted to bays associated with rivers (e.g., Rubafu/Kagera; Mori bay/river; and Mara bay/river). Also found in Lake Katwe, a satellite lake in Lake Victoria basin, the middle and lower Akagera, Lake Kyoga, Lake Nabugabo and associated smaller lakes. Present in the Victoria Nile.
60365		habitat	eng	Found in shallow inshore waters near river mouths on both soft and rocky bottoms, in or near marginal plants. Originally abundant near water lily swamps in Lake Kyoga. Feeds on aquatic insect larvae (especially Chironomidae, Polymitrarcidae and Odonata), crustaceans, gastropods, fish eggs and detritus (Okedi 1971).
60365		population	eng	Information on relative abundance is scanty. It has a large extent of occurrence but the population size in lakes has been reduced by competition from introduced fish species (Ogutu-Ohwayo 1990, Ogutu-Ohwayo 1995, Twongo, pers. comm.). It is common in fisheries catches in Akagera associated lakes.
60365		threats	eng	Domestic pollution; illegal fishing methods; fisheries pressure; loss of wetland habitats due to agricultural expansion; and competitive displacement by introduced species.
60366		conservation	eng	No information available.
60366		distribution	eng	Kalambo River drainage.
60366		habitat	eng	Collected in swift waterflows over rocks and boulders (Seegers 1996). Probably omnivorous (Seegers 1996).
60366		population	eng	No information available.
60366		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences make the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60367		conservation	eng	None.
60367		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
60367		habitat	eng	It lives at depths of 60 to 80 m within the lake. Spawning season is in January-February and spawns in tributaries around the lakes.
60367		population	eng	Rare.
60367		threats	eng	Destruction of spawning areas, water pollution, overfishing.
60368		conservation	eng	No information available.
60368		distribution	eng	Floodplains of the Ruvu and Rufiji Rivers, eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60368		habitat	eng	Small pools and swamps in the floodplains, living near the water surface (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60368		population	eng	No information available.
60368		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60369		conservation	eng	No information available.
60369		distribution	eng	Only known from the upper Rufugu river system (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60369		habitat	eng	Collected among vegetation, roots and wood at the edge of a small brook with a relatively gentle waterflow crossing a woodland area (De Vos and Seegers 1998). No data were obtained on diet or reproduction (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60369		population	eng	No information available.
60369		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences make the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60370		conservation	eng	None.
60370		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Morocco, however its distribution is unknown.
60370		habitat	eng	No data.
60370		population	eng	Not abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
60370		threats	eng	No data.
60371		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60371		distribution	eng	Mukungwa River (upper Akagera, Rwanda)
60371		habitat	eng	Fast-flowing rivers. Feeds on varied food items including invertebrates and plant debris.
60371		population	eng	Thought to be declining.
60371		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension
60372		conservation	eng	No information available.
60372		conservation	eng	No information available. Research should be conducted into population trends, and habitat maintenance in localised areas may be required.
60372		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus oligogrammus</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika and effluents, the Ruzizi, the Lualaba and the Lukuga system.
60372		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Lake Tanganyika and surrounding rivers, in Tanzania, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus oligogrammus</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika and affluents, the Ruzizi, the Lualaba and the Lukuga system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is present in affluent streams and rivers to Lake Tanganyika, incuding the Malagarasi river and Lake Rukwa system (Seegers 1996). Its distribution also includes Burundi.
60372		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
60372		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species found in fast-flowing streams and rivers habitats. In the Lake Rukwa drainage it seems to prefer the smaller rivers and creeks with clear flowing water (Seegers 1996). It feeds on invertebrates, mostly insects.
60372		population	eng	No information available.
60372		threats	eng	No information available.
60372		threats	eng	No information on major threats is known. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension may cause localised problems in eastern Africa.
60373		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60373		distribution	eng	Lake Rukwa Drainage and Kalambo River (Seegers 1996).
60373		habitat	eng	Prefers or is confined to the cooler waters of 15°C or lower. Not present in Lake Rukwa itself (Seegers 1996).
60373		population	eng	No information available.
60373		threats	eng	No information available.
60374		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60374		distribution	eng	<em>B. samantica</em> is found only in the Zamanti Stream of the Seyhan River, Turkey.
60374		habitat	eng	Riverine species.
60374		population	eng	No published data on trends, but the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat degradation.
60374		threats	eng	Water pollution (Canli <em>et al</em>. 1998), water extraction, drought and the construction of a fuel pipeline are the main threats to the species.
60375		conservation	eng	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.
60375		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Guadalquivir river basin in Spain. It includes the river Guadalquivir and tributaries Rumblar and Jandula.
60375		habitat	eng	It lives in mountainous and middle reaches of rivers with moderate flow and abundant submerged plants.
60375		population	eng	It has not been collected by surveys in the past ten years.
60375		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species.
60376		conservation	eng	None known.
60376		conservation	eng	The species is protected in several reserves over its wide distribution range.
60376		conservation	eng	The species is protected in several reserves over its wide distribution range. More research is required into this species taxonomy, biology and ecology, and population trends.
60376		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> The distribution of <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> ranges from Ethiopia in the north, through eastern and Central Africa, extending westwards into Angola and reaching the southern-most limits of its distribution in Natal.
60376		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> ranges from Ethiopia in the north, through East and Central Africa, extending westwards into Angola and reaching the southern-most limits of its distribution in Natal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the headwaters of the Lualaba and Sankuru Rivers in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Lake Victoria basin, Athi and Tana River systems, northern and southern Ewaso Nyiro basins, This species is known from upper Pangani system, Amboseli swamps, Lake Naivasha and affluents (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also reported from the affluent streams and rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Malagarasi River, and the Middle Akagera system. Widespread in Lake Malawi and its affluents, the Shire River and Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Awash basin and rift lakes, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Widespread in east coastal rivers from East Africa south to KwaZulu-Natal and from southern Congo tributaries and the Quanza in Angola to the Orange (Skelton 2001).
60376		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in east coastal rivers from East Africa south to KwaZulu-Natal and from southern Congo tributaries and the Quanza in Angola to the Orange (Skelton 2001).
60376		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occupies a wide range of habitats, including large rivers, both vegetated and rocky, lagoons both connected to and isolated from main river channels, and small and large streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), and impoundments both large and small. The species does not occur in the more densely-vegetated swamps, preferring larger open pools and pools with relatively high plant diversity. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> feeds on a wide variety of small organisms including insects, small snails and crustaceans, algae, diatoms, and detritus. It is preyed upon by the sharptooth catfish, tigerfish, largemouth breams (<em>Serranochromis</em> species) and birds. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> spawns amongst vegetation during summer (Skelton 1993). Spawning takes place up the influent rivers during the rainy season (January-February). Migration appears to correspond to periods of heavy rainfall or flushing. They are multiple spawners laying from 250 to 2,500 eggs.
60376		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers quiet, well-vegetated waters in lakes, swamps, and marshes or marginal areas of larger rivers and slow-flowing streams. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> feeds on a wide variety of small organisms including insects, small snails and crustaceans, algae, diatoms, and detritus. It is preyed upon by the sharptooth catfish, tigerfish, largemouth breams (<em>Serranochromis</em> species) and birds. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> spawns amongst vegetation during summer (Skelton 1993).
60376		habitat	eng	Occupies a wide range of habitats, including large rivers, both vegetated and rocky, lagoons both connected to and isolated from main river channels, and small and large streams (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004), and impoundments both large and small. The species does not occur in the more densely-vegetated swamps, preferring larger open pools and pools with relatively high plant diversity. A hardy species, feeding on a wide variety of small organisms including insects, snails, crustaceans, algae, diatoms and detritus (Skelton 2001). Spawns amongst vegetation in summer. Multiple spawners laying from 250 to 2,500 eggs.
60376		population	eng	It is assumed that this taxon has multiple spawning per year.
60376		population	eng	The species is abundant and widespread.
60376		threats	eng	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is commercially used for food.
60376		threats	eng	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is commercially used for food. In eastern Africa it is also threatened by fishing across rivers and in lakes using under-sized nets and illegal fishing methods, siltation of the spawning substrate and pollution.
60376		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
60377		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60377		distribution	eng	Migori River (endemic to Lake Victoria drainage).
60377		habitat	eng	Migori River.
60377		population	eng	Unknown.
60377		threats	eng	Unknown.
60378		conservation	eng	None
60378		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Ohrid Lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and to Skadar lake basin in Montenegro.
60378		habitat	eng	It is a lacustrine species.
60378		population	eng	Abundant.
60378		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species.
60379		conservation	eng	No information available.
60379		distribution	eng	Lake Kibiti in the Luhute River drainage and the Mbezi River system (Wildekamp 1995).
60379		habitat	eng	Bodies of water with dense bordering vegetation (Wildekamp 1995).
60379		population	eng	No information available.
60379		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences make the species more vulnerable to habitat degradation.
60380		conservation	eng	No information available.
60380		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Victoria drainage. Goudswaard and Witte (1997) report that this species may have become extinct due to predation by Nile perch and other recent ecological impacts.
60380		habitat	eng	Inhabits deeper water, 12–20 m (Eccles 1992). Max. size: 200 mm SL (Teugels in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60380		population	eng	Possibly extinct.
60380		threats	eng	Intense predation by the Nile Perch (<em>Lates niloticus</em>); increased eutrophication of the lake; and possibly Over-fishing.
60381		conservation	eng	No information available.
60381		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Malagarasi River, Tanzania (Taverne and De Vos 1997).
60381		habitat	eng	Found in well-aerated open flowing water where it feeds on planktonic crustacea and surface insects.
60381		population	eng	Unknown, but it is rare in fisheries catches.
60381		threats	eng	Sedimentation due to agricultural extension.
60382		conservation	eng	No information available.
60382		distribution	eng	Ruvu River drainage, Mgeta River and pools near Kwaraza, Tanzania (Wildekamp, Watters and Sainthouse 1998).
60382		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1998).
60382		population	eng	No information available.
60382		threats	eng	A restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
60383		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60383		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60383		habitat	eng	Confined to deeper waters below 10 m. Feeds chiefly on benthic invertebrates including ostracods, caradina, naucorids, chironomid larvae and gastropods. Matures at about 3 cm FL and spawns within the lake (Hopson 1982).
60383		population	eng	No estimates available.
60383		threats	eng	Little information but not fished commercially.
60384		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.
60384		distribution	eng	Restricted to western Greece from the Peloponnese (Pinios River) to Epirus.
60384		habitat	eng	Found in streams and is pretty ubiquitous throughout its habitat.
60384		population	eng	Stable.
60384		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution.
60385		conservation	eng	No information available.
60385		conservation	eng	None known.
60385		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
60385		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is moderately common in whole River Nile in Egypt From Nile Delta to Lake Nasser.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Lake Nubia, Senegal, Congo, Lake Victoria, eastern rivers, inland drainage, water of Tanzania, Chad basin, Congo and Zambia.
60385		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is known from the Cross, Wouri and Sanaga basins. Elsewhere it is known from the Nile,and Zambezi system, Lake Albert and the Semliki River, and from throughout western Africa in the Tchad, Senegal, Corubal, Geba, Scarcies Great, Mano, Loffa, Moa, St. Paul, Volta, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and Niger Rivers.
60385		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe mystus </span>is largely widespread in Africa found in the Chad, of Senegal, of Corubal, Geba, Great Scarcies, the mano, Loffa, Moa, the St-Paul, of Volta, of Mono, of Ouémé, Ogun, of Niger, and Cross-country race (Paugy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Africa: including the Nile and the Zambesi River system.
60385		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, from Senegal to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is known from the Cross Wouri and Sanaga basins. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Semliki River, Lake Albert and Albert Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is moderately common in whole River Nile in Egypt From Nile Delta to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia, as well as Lake Roseires on the Blue Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad, Senegal, Corubal, Geba, Great Scarcies, the mano, Loffa, Moa, the St-Paul, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Niger, and Cross-country race (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60385		habitat	eng	Demersal, potamodromous species. Occasionally in sandy streams, occasionally on rocky streams, common in standing deep water, abundant in shallow swamps, and occasionally in shallow flood plains. Essentially a carnivore and very voracious, feeding on other fish and invertebrates. Reproduces during the period of high waters. Species adapts to running and stagnant waters.
60385		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species. It shoals in standing or slowly flowing open water with emergent or submerged vegetation. <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is generally more active at night or in subdued light. It feeds from mid-water and surface waters on a wide variety of foods including fish, insects, shrimps, snails, plant seeds, and fruit. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). <em>Schilbe mystus</em> breeds during the rainy season and may be either a single or multiple spawner in different localities, laying eggs on vegetation.  May live up to 6-7 years (Skelton 1993). Its preferred habitats are streams, lakes and mangroves,
60385		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species. It shoals in standing or slowly flowing open water with emergent or submerged vegetation. Occasionally in sandy streams, occasionally on rocky streams, common in standing deep water, abundant in shallow swamps, and occasionally in shallow flood plains. The species adapts to running and stagnant waters. <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is generally more active at night or in subdued light. It feeds from mid-water and surface waters on a wide variety of foods including fish, insects, shrimps, snails, plant seeds, and fruit. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). <em>Schilbe mystus</em> migrates into the tributaries of rivers and streams during the rainy season to breed and may be either a single or multiple spawner in different localities, laying eggs on vegetation. Spawning occurs during September and October. May live up to 6-7 years (Skelton 1993).
60385		habitat	eng	Found mainly is shallow inshore waters. It feeds on diatoms, arthropods, insects and small fish including bottom-living and planktonic organisms. Mature gonads are seen in summer. Male and females reach maturity at the length of 14 and 16.5 cm respectively. Spawning occurs during September and October. It is generally more active at night or in subdued light. It lives for 6 to 7 years, and grows to a length of 34 cm.
60385		population	eng	No available data.
60385		population	eng	No information available.
60385		threats	eng	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is an important food fish. It is also used as an aquarium fish.
60385		threats	eng	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is an important food fish. It is also used as an aquarium fish. In eastern Africa in particular there is potential decline through overfishing and exploitation. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
60385		threats	eng	Overfishing and exploitation
60385		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
60386		conservation	eng	None known.
60386		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
60386		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is known from shore regions of lake Edward and inflowing rivers, from the Semliki River above the Semliki falls and from the upper Ituri River system at its closest point to the Semliki River, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda.
60386		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is known from shore regions of Lake Edward and inflowing rivers, from the Semliki River above the Semliki falls and from the upper Ituri River system at its closest point to the Semliki River.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in rivers flowing into Lakes Edward and George.
60386		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in the shore regions of lakes and inflowing rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
60386		population	eng	No information available.
60386		threats	eng	None known.
60387		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60387		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60387		habitat	eng	Rocky zones in coastal waters. Nothing is known about their predatory behaviour or cycle of activity. Poll (1953) mentioned the rocky shores of the Lake up to a depth of 10 m as the habitat of <em>M. albomaculatus</em>. Subsequent authors suggest the following as suitable habitats: rocky shores (Brichard 1978) of the inshore waters (Travers <em>et al</em>. 1986, Coulter 1991, Eccles 1992) gravels, rubbles, boulders and rock (larger than 1 m diameter) (Kuwamura and Hori 1985); inshore rocky bottom or rock and sand intermingled or transitional (Kuwamura 1987). <em>Mastacembelus albomaculatus</em> was recorded from 5?15 m depth by Kuwamura and Hori (1985) and Kuwamura (1987).
60387		population	eng	According to Poll (1953) <em>M. albomaculatus</em> is quite common. Brichard (1978) on the contrary reported it as rare at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia). Brichard (1989) also referred to <em>M. albomaculatus</em> as rare in general. However, according to Kuwamura (1987) it is a common species at Myako (Tanzania).
60387		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60388		conservation	eng	None known.
60388		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. <em>Mastacembelus cunningtoni</em> is especially plentiful around the Rusizi river delta.
60388		habitat	eng	Inhabits the littoral zones in lake Tanganyika with rocky, sandy or muddy substrates. Diet: omnivorous, the diet includes insects, molluscs and fish. Spawning has not been observed, but it is thought to spawn in rivers. Reproduction seems to involve large congregations of adults. Pearce (1985b) reports huge spawning schools of <em>Mastacembelus cunningtoni</em> in a deep rocky area of the southeast arm of the lake. This species is caught at greater depth than other mastacembelids (Coulter 1991). Poll (1953) collected specimens from 6 to 100 m depth, nevertheless most of them were collected above 20 m depth and on muddy bottoms. Coulter (1966) collected specimens from 20 to 119 m depth and Lowe-Mc Connell (1975) mentioned the presence of <em>M. cunningtoni</em> down to 50 m. Although found in inshore habitats it is most abundant offshore (Coulter 1991). A typical sand-dweller (Brichard 1989) it is also reported as a benthic species sometimes encountered in swamp habitats (Phiri 1993).
60388		population	eng	A common species (Poll 1953), especially plentiful around the Ruzizi delta (Brichard 1989).
60388		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60389		conservation	eng	None known.
60389		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60389		habitat	eng	Inhabits coastal waters (Poll 1953, Travers <em>et al</em>. 1986, Coulter 1991, Eccles 1992) over sandy, rocky (Brichard 1978) or muddy habitats (Travers <em>et al</em>. 1986, Eccles 1992). Recorded to depths of up to 50 m (Poll 1953).
60389		population	eng	The population size is unknown but it is rarely collected (Poll 1953, Brichard 1978).
60389		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60390		conservation	eng	None known.
60390		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60390		habitat	eng	Found in the rocky littoral to depths of 1–6 m (Eccles 1992, Matthes 1962).
60390		population	eng	<em>Mastacembelus flavidus</em> was reported as very rare by Matthes (1962).
60390		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60391		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60391		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60391		habitat	eng	Shallow coastal waters with rocky bottom. <em>Mastacembelus micropectus</em>, the third dwarf species, has involved along entirely different lines than the seahorse eel. The swimming ability of <em>Mastacembelus micropectus</em> is thus very poor, contrary to <em>Mastacembelus platysoma</em>, and the fish probably is more used to crawling around the rocks in the obscurity of it dwelling deep in the labyrinths, than to swimming. Its colour pattern reflects the habitat pale purple with pinkish underparts. The depigmentation of the skin is reminiscent of the similar colour of several spiny eels living under the sandstone slabs of the kinshasa rapids. Apparently <em>Mastacembelus micropectis</em> has gone a long way from the standard <em>Mastacembelus</em> anatomy to adapt to a very constraining ecological niche. Because of these specializations the fish does very poorly in captivity and usually dies after a few days. It inhabits the rocky littoral at depths of 0.5 to 4 m with preference for the zones with rocky slides and crevices (Matthes 1962). Coulter (1991) and Eccles (1992) recorded the species in shallow inshore waters with rocky bottoms. Brichard (1978, 1989) also describes <em>M. micropectus</em> as a rock dweller.
60391		population	eng	Unknown, but their density of occupation of the rocky recesses can be phenomenal (there are on average approximately 30 to 50 spiny eels, all species and size put together, per 100 m² of substrate). In other habitats, however, it is said to be rare (Matthes 1962) or "present without being common" at Cape Chipimbi (Zambia) (Brichard 1978).
60391		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, over exploitation and other human activities around the lake.
60392		conservation	eng	None known.
60392		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60392		habitat	eng	Inhabits sandy shores Abe (1997). <em>Mastacembelus ophidium</em> is one of the spiny eels in the lake with a very peculiar shape. It looks very much like a snake. It reaches a maximum size of 60 cm. Its slender pale grey or pale beige body with faint markings provides excellent camouflage. This is the only spiny eel in the lake for which concentrations of thousands of young fry a few cm long have been observed in quiet bays during some months of the year. It appears that the spiny eels might migrate and have synchronous spawns, but as yet this observation applies only to <em>Mastacembelus ophidium</em> and not to the other species. It is well known that sand-dwelling fluviatile species of spiny eels bury themselves in the sand to lay in ambush waiting for prey to pass by, or to do so as a protection against predators. The sand-dwelling species in the lake have not been reported to have the same behaviour, but it seems likely that they also bury themselves in the sand.
60392		population	eng	Reported as rare by Poll (1953). Otherwise there is little information on population status although vast numbers of fry have been noted periodically near the shore at the north of the lake indicating mass spawning.
60392		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60393		conservation	eng	None known.
60393		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika
60393		habitat	eng	Found in shallow coastal waters with a rocky bottom at depths of 1 to 4 m (Coulter 1991, Eccles 1992), with preference for rocky pebbles near sandy areas (Matthes 1962).
60393		population	eng	Matthes (1962) mentioned <em>M. plagiostomus</em> as a very rare species. However, according to Brichard (1978) it is widespread although not common. Uncommon in museum collections (Vreven, pers. obs.).
60393		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60394		conservation	eng	None known.
60394		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60394		habitat	eng	Inhabits coastal regions with a rocky bottom to a depth of 30 m (Ave 1998, Brichard 1989, Eccles 1992, Coulter 1991). Its diet consists mainly of microorganisms and probably fish fry. Also feeds on small shrimp (Poll and Matthes 1962). Max. size 15 cm.
60394		population	eng	According to Poll and Matthes (1962) and Brichard (1989) <em>M. platysoma</em> is a very rare species. Brichard (1978) mentioned it to be present without being common at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia).
60394		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60395		conservation	eng	None known.
60395		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60395		habitat	eng	<em>M. tanganicae</em> is found on rocky coasts (Poll 1953, Matthes 1962, Brichard 1989, Eccles 1992) with debris, flag stones, pebbles and sand, of small depth, 0.20 to 0.30 m. It is rarely encountered below 5 m depth (Brichard 1989). It remains close to the shore (Brichard 1989) and prefers coasts with weak slopes with good plant cover (Matthes 1962). Its diet mainly includes crustaceans, insect larvae, and fish fry. In the surf zone of the shoreline they are the main predators on fry from rock-grazers.
60395		population	eng	Recorded by Matthes (1962) as a rather common species. According to Brichard (1978) it is common if not abundant at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia). Further, Brichard (1989) mentioned that <em>M. tanganicae</em> is probably the most common spiny eel along the rocky shores of Lake Tanganyika.
60395		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration and sedimentation, and over-exploitation.
60396		conservation	eng	None known.
60396		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60396		habitat	eng	Shallow coastal waters of the lake.
60396		population	eng	Unknown.
60396		threats	eng	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.
60397		conservation	eng	The southern part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.
60397		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus taeniopleuro</em> is known from Tanzania, Zambia, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo, in waterways around Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and from Kanonga and the Kufira River. The data of these two latter locations are identified by Poll, M. but have never been published.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the tributaries of Lake Tanganyika but never recorded from the lake itself.
60397		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus taeniopleuro</em> is known from tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and from Kanonga and the Kufira River. The data of these two latter locations are identified by Poll, M. but have never been published.
60397		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus taeniopleura</em> is a benthopelagic species.
60397		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus taeniopleura</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rivers. Its diet consists of weed and algae (Worthington and Ricardo 1936), larvae and insects (Poll 1953).
60397		population	eng	No information available.
60397		threats	eng	None known.
60398		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60398		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60398		habitat	eng	<em>Chelaethiops minutus</em> is the only one of the 34 cyprinids known from the Tanganyika basin which can be said to live in deep water. Its juvenile stages (up to a length of about 75 mm) occupy the littoral zone. Poll found that adults live in the pelagic zone and reach 106 mm. Adults are commonly caught together with clupeids and under fishing lamps they are readily distinguishable from each other by their behaviour. The clupeids form dense schools a metre or so below the surface whereas <em>Chelaethiops minutus</em> swim as individuals just below the surface and do not school. <em>C. minutus</em> is specialized in surface feeding on insects that have been carried offshore by wind. Although many cyprinid species occur within the basin, and 10 are endemic, only <em>C. minutus</em> has entered the lake proper from the littoral habitat. All the other cyprinids in the basin have retained the riverine habitats although nine of them have also been recorded in the lake littoral. It seems a reasonable hypothesis that <em>C. minutus</em>, having developed the ability to exploit insect at the surface as its major food, has then extended its range into the open lake as the only specialist in that trophic niche.
60398		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60398		threats	eng	Water pollution.
60399		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60399		distribution	eng	Restricted to western Anatolia, Turkey.
60399		habitat	eng	It lives in relatively cool running waters.
60399		population	eng	Decreasing.
60399		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction.
60400		conservation	eng	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
60400		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the southwest of the Iberian peninsula in Portugal and Spain.
60400		habitat	eng	It lives in all river sections, but mainly middle reaches.
60400		population	eng	Abundant.
60400		threats	eng	Introduced species (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>, <em>Esox lucius</em>, <em>Sander lucioperca</em>), dam construction and agriculture water extraction.
60401		conservation	eng	None
60401		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in northern Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
60401		habitat	eng	It is a large lacustrine species that completes its full life cycle within the lakes.
60401		population	eng	Increasing.
60401		threats	eng	Overfishing, water extraction and pollution. Water levels are vulnerable to decline due to the karstic nature of these lakes.
60403		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60403		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southwestern Anatolia in Turkey. It includes the upper part of Menderes River, and neighbouring lakes and their tributaries: Lakes Sogût, Salda, Burdur and Bahceözû.
60403		habitat	eng	Lives in rivers and lakes.
60403		population	eng	No data available.
60403		threats	eng	Dams, water pollution, and water extraction are the main threats.
60404		conservation	eng	No information available.
60404		distribution	eng	Restricted to the affluent streams of Lake Malawi and tributaries of Middle and Lower Shire River.
60404		habitat	eng	Found in clear fast flowing waters in rocky reaches over clean sand. Mature sexually ripe individuals have been collected in October and November. It is therefore assumed that this species breeds from early summer following onset of rains (Skelton 1993). It feeds on insects and other invertebrates.
60404		population	eng	It is widespread in the lower reaches of the Lake Malawi affluent rivers but not within the lake itself. The population is thought to be declining.
60404		threats	eng	Deterioration of riverine habitat due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers); and fish poisoning of riverine habitats.
60405		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60405		distribution	eng	It is restricted to streams and lakes of the Jordan watershed in Israel, Syria and Jordan. A species recorded in the Orontes river basin area (Turkey) may be <em>B. longiceps</em>, but this needs further investigation (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.).
60405		habitat	eng	It is a large size barbel (<700 mm). It feeds on invertebrates and molluscs. It migrates upstream in winter (January–March) to spawn in small streams.
60405		population	eng	Decreasing
60405		threats	eng	Reclamation of rivers and rivulets which once flowed into Lake Kinneret and were previously used as spawning grounds. Drought and pollution are also threats.
60406		conservation	eng	None.
60406		distribution	eng	It is present in northern Algeria.
60406		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers, reservoirs and in irrigation systems. It is a large size barbel (<700–800 mm total length).
60406		population	eng	Abundant.
60406		threats	eng	No data.
60407		conservation	eng	None.
60407		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
60407		habitat	eng	No data.
60407		population	eng	No data.
60407		threats	eng	No data.
60408		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60408		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Orontes River watershed and to coastal rivers of Syria and Lebanon, north of the southern Nahr al-Kabir.
60408		habitat	eng	Lives in rivers.
60408		population	eng	Currently stable in Turkey. Population status in Syria and Lebanon currently are unknown.
60408		threats	eng	In Turkey, water extraction, drought, dams and pollution are future threats to the species. Threats in Syria and Lebanon are not currently known.
60409		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60409		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi basin (Banister and Clarck 1980).
60409		habitat	eng	Within the lake, adults form shoals in open waters, moving about in search of food (Banister and Clarke 1980). Young fishes concentrate over sandy areas (Banister and Clarke 1980). <em>Barbus litamba</em> is a predatory, fish-eating minnow . It feeds on insects in addition to fishes (see Jackson 1961, Konings 1990). It can be found all round the lake though seldom very far from shore as well as in the lower reaches of rivers (Jackson 1961). Large recorded length is 44 cm, usually smaller (Jackson 1961). It is presumed to migrate up feeder streams to spawn (Banister and Clarke 1980).
60409		population	eng	Not uncommon but of insufficient abundance to be of economic importance (Jackson 1961).
60409		threats	eng	Possibly Over-fishing.
60410		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60410		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and large affluent rivers (where in some areas it occurs even in headwater reaches). Also known to occur in Shire river and its tributaries (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).
60410		habitat	eng	Occurs in all habitat types, usually found in small groups (Konings 1990). Omnivorous species. Predatory when adult, taking small fish. Migratory swimming up rivers to spawn during the rainy season (Eccles 1992) (it can stay in the river for several weeks into the dry season while breeding). <em>Barbus johnstonii</em> attains at least 32 cm SL and may weight in excess of 4.5 kg (10 pounds) ( up to 4 kg; see Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).
60410		population	eng	Unknown.
60410		threats	eng	Over-fishing of adults causes extremely high mortalities during spawning runs. Fish poisoning is widely practised although illegal. Suspected to be decreasing due to Over-fishing. Fisheries commercial Froese and Pauly 2003). Also collection for the commercial aquarium trade (Froese and Pauly 2003).
60411		conservation	eng	Occurs in Azraq Wetland Reserve. Some research is going on.
60411		distribution	eng	Restricted to Azraq Oasis in Jordan.
60411		habitat	eng	The species still lives in pools of the Azraq Wetland Reserve.
60411		population	eng	Decreasing.
60411		threats	eng	Water extraction for irrigation. The water level dropped to 12 m below ground from surface level and in 1992 the marshland dried up totally, because water pumping from the Azraq oasis in the last 30 years.According to Bianco (pers. obs.), who visited the Oasis in 2000 and observed the species, the water area in the Oasis Reserve is very scarce, about less than one hectare, and maintained by artificially spilling of water. The species is nearly disappeared mainly as result of introduced tilapia, <em>Sarotherodon galileus</em>, which dominate in the Oasis. The species was maintained in the Reserve by captive breeding and tentatively reintroduced in the wild. It is now probably extinct in the wild, and for a success restocking, aliens species should be previously eradicated.
60412		conservation	eng	No information available.
60412		distribution	eng	Pangani drainage (including Lake Jipe).
60412		habitat	eng	No information.
60412		population	eng	No information.
60412		threats	eng	No information available.
60413		conservation	eng	In the Mwabvi river, the pool where this species occurs is well within the boundaries of Mwabvi game reserve.
60413		distribution	eng	Endemic to the tributaries of the Lower Shire River, Lower Zambezi system, Malawi (Skelton 1993). Mwabvi River, Ruo River (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979) and Nswadzi river (eastern side of Thyolo escarpment). It is quite common in the Ruo River above the Zoa falls, but has not been found below the falls, which constitute a major environmental and ecological barrier between the Upper Ruo and the Shire system (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).
60413		habitat	eng	Prefers running water and rocky habitats (Skelton 1993).
60413		population	eng	No information available.
60413		threats	eng	The species may be exposed to Over-fishing, and may be susceptible to fish poisoning in rivers, and deterioration of riverine habitat due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers).
60414		conservation	eng	No information available.
60414		conservation	eng	None known.
60414		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
60414		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
60414		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is widely distributed in the southern half of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the catchment of Lake Malawi, (never recorded in the Lake Malawi itself). It has not been recorded south of Nkhotakota streams. It is also known from the Lufubu basin, Lake Tanganyika. Isolated populations occur in Malawi and on the eastern shores of Lake St. Lucia in Natal. (Skelton 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi, including several northern tributaries of the Zambezi (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Also widespread in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, Zambian Congo and Limpopo systems and northern Lake Malawi streams (Skelton 2001).
60414		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo system. Elsewhere, it is widespread over northern parts of southern Africa including the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi, Kafue and Limpopo systems. It is also known from the Lufubu basin, Lake Tanganyika. Isolated populations occur in Malawi and on the eastern shores of Lake St. Lucia in Natal. (Skelton 1993). In Malawi, the species occurs in the catchment of Lake Malawi, it has never been recorded in the lake itself. It may be confused with the bowstriped barb, <em>Barbus viviparous</em>.
60414		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the catchment of Lake Malawi, (never recorded in the L. Malawi itself). It has not been recorded south of Nkhotakota streams.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Upper Zambezi River, through the Okavango, Kafue, and Zambian Congo, to the Cunene River on the Atlantic coast. It also occurs, however, in several disjunct eastern populations, some of which are in Malawi. It is widespread over northern parts of southern Africa including the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi, Kafue, Zambian Congo and Limpopo systems. Isolated populations occur in Malawi and on the eastern shores of Lake St. Lucia in Natal (Froese and Pauly 2003)..
60414		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi, including several northern tributaries of the Zambezi (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).  Also widespread in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, Zambian Congo and Limpopo systems and northern Lake Malawi streams (Skelton 2001).
60414		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in floodplains, pools and shallow streams with vegetation. <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> feeds on detritus, algae, seeds, small invertebrates (Skelton 1993) and aquatic insect larvae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It migrates upriver to breed after heavy rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
60414		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in floodplains, pools and shallow streams with vegetation (Skelton 1993) and not in strongly flowing rivers. <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> feeds on detritus, algae, seeds, small invertebrates (Skelton 1993) and aquatic insect larvae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It migrates upriver to breed after heavy rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It breeds in summer, breeding pairs lay eggs on submerged roots and vegetation. Reaches maturity within a year (Skelton 2001).
60414		habitat	eng	This species is found in floodplains, pools and shallow streams with vegetation (Skelton 1993) and not in strongly flowing rivers.  It is common in the lower reaches of rivers particularly in Nkhata bay and Songwe river delta.  It seems to prefer clear running water.  It feeds on detritus, algae, seeds, small invertebrates (Skelton 2001) as well as aquatic insect larvae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  It migrates upriver to breed after heavy rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
60414		habitat	eng	Vegetated pools and banks of flowing streams and rivers, primarily in small, flowing tributaries and less common in the main river channel or on floodplains. Feeds on aquatic insects and other small organisms. Breeds in summer, breeding pairs lay eggs on submerged roots and vegetation. Reaches maturity within a year (Skelton 2001).
60414		population	eng	Common to abundant in most streams where it is found.
60414		population	eng	No information available.
60414		population	eng	Thought to be common to abundant in most streams where it is found.
60414		threats	eng	Although this is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993), given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.
60414		threats	eng	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.
60414		threats	eng	Human disturbance.
60414		threats	eng	None known.
60415		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in terrestrial reserves.
60415		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus atkinsonii</em> is found in a region encompassing parts of Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the streams around Lake Malawi but does not occur in the lake itself. Also occurs in the Middle Shire River as well as Lakes Chiuta and streams of Lake Chilwa (Skelton 1994). Also found in the Rufiji system and Ruaha tributary (Lévêque and Daget, 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>This species is found in the Rovuma system (R. Bills, unpublished), including Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa on the Mozambique/Malawi border (Tweddle 1979, 1983), also lower reaches of Lake Malawi inflowing streams and the outflowing Shire River (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 1979). In the Lower Zambezi system, recorded in tributaries of the Lower Shire tributary in Malawi (Tweddle unpublished).
60415		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Rovuma system (Bills unpublished), including Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa on the Mozambique/Malawi border (Tweddle 1979; 1983), also lower reaches of Lake Malawi inflowing streams and the outflowing Shire River (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>1979). In the Lower Zambezi system, recorded in tributaries of the Lower Shire tributary in Malawi (Tweddle, unpublished).
60415		habitat	eng	Occurs in vegetated fringes of streams and rivers.
60415		habitat	eng	This is a small species, not exceeding 5 cm in length. It occurs in sheltered weedy areas of streams and pools on the lakeshore plain. In Lake Chiuta it prefers weedy sheltered areas bordering fast flowing clear well oxygenated waters. This species is known especially in the northern streams of the lake (not recorded south of Linthipe river in Lake Malawi catchment).
60415		population	eng	Fairly common with a wide distribution.
60415		population	eng	Population information is unknown but the species is very common in the Lake Malawi affluent streams (Tweddle 1983).
60415		threats	eng	None known.
60415		threats	eng	Sedimentation that is taking place in many streams in Malawi which may negatively affect this species. Overfishing (using small meshed seines in shallow waters) may also pose a threat.
60416		conservation	eng	No information available.
60416		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi (Lévêque and Daget 1984) and its catchment.
60416		habitat	eng	Occurs in the lake itself along the entire lakeshore as well as in streams and rivers. It is found in the shallows on sandy beaches as well as rocky shores in sheltered areas. In streams it is found in flowing stretches as well as exposed sandy banks.  This species reaches 7 cm in length.
60416		population	eng	No information available.
60416		threats	eng	No information available.
60417		conservation	eng	Fully enclosed with Tsavo National Park.
60417		distribution	eng	Tsavo basin (Mzima springs).
60417		habitat	eng	No information.
60417		population	eng	No information.
60417		threats	eng	Unknown.
60418		conservation	eng	None.
60418		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Nyasa (see Eccles 1992), upper Shire River (Froese and Pauly 2003) and Lake Malombe.
60418		habitat	eng	A pelagic species that occurs in shoals both near the shore and far out in the lake. It feeds on zooplankton. It reproduces throughout the year. Its larvae have been caught in the open lake near the surface. It is a very important fish in the lake being highly valued both for food and for bait. It also forms one of the chief food sources for other open water predatory species, such as <em>Phamphochromis</em> spp. Populations fluctuate greatly in tune with the supply of zooplankton. The spawning site of this species is still not known but is no longer believed to be in the offshore pelagic zone due to the absence of early stage eggs in the pelagic zone.Max. size: total length of 13.0 cm (Eccles 1992), though it rarely exceeds 10 cm.
60418		population	eng	No information available.
60418		threats	eng	Potential introduction of competing species. In the past it was hypothesised that this species is an inefficient planktivore compared with clupeids occupying similar niches in Lake Tanganyika (i.e., "kapenta"), It was therefore suggested that "kapenta" be introduced into Lake Malawi to utilise this food resource in the lake. This hypothesis has however been rejected by the majority of the scientific community working on African fishes.
60419		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.
60419		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus lornae</em> is only known from the Chambezi River, upper Congo River basin, Zambia.
60419		habitat	eng	No specific information available.
60419		population	eng	No information available.
60419		threats	eng	None known.
60420		conservation	eng	None known.
60420		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Malagarasi River, Tanzania.
60420		habitat	eng	Occurs in streams and rivers where it feeds on insects.
60420		population	eng	Unknown, but rare.
60420		threats	eng	Sedimentation due to land clearance for agriculture.
60421		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60421		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to streams and rivers of south-western Anatolia, Turkey. In Turkey, it is known for certain from only two localities: Izmir and Gulluk. Recently discovered also occurring on Lesbos, Greece (Kottelat and Barbieri 2004).
60421		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to streams and rivers of south-western Anatolia, Turkey. Recently discovered also occurring on Lesbos, Greece (Kottelat and Barbieri 2004).
60421		habitat	eng	No data available.
60421		population	eng	Described as rare (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). However, on Lesbos it is described as quite abundant.
60421		threats	eng	Water pollution is the main current threat to the species. Drought caused by water extraction and climate change are also a future threat to the species.
60421		threats	eng	Water pollution is the main threat to the species.
60422		conservation	eng	No information available.
60422		distribution	eng	Middle Akagera river and associated lakes, Malagarasi drainage, Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Rukwa system (Seegers 1996).
60422		habitat	eng	Inhabits flooded woodlands, shallow pools with many reeds, papyrus and ceratophyllum, also found in the open water (Seegers 1996).
60422		population	eng	Not known, but never abundant in fisheries catches.
60422		threats	eng	Regression of vegetated wetlands around rivers due to agriculture extension.
60423		conservation	eng	No information.
60423		distribution	eng	Lake Rukwa drainage (Wildekamp 1995). Also Malagarasi drainage, Ugalla and Wembere system, possibly reached Victoria system (Seegers 1996). Lakes Victoria and Kyoga systems. The taxonomic status of subpopulations in Kenya is, however, uncertain.
60423		habitat	eng	Shallow and swampy parts of Lake Rukwa and inflowing rivers, usually near or amongst bordering vegetation (Wildekamp 1995). Small ditches in the surface layer of the water, prefer smaller and quieter waters, but can be found in fast flowing water as well (Seegers 1996). Feeds on small insects that fall into the water, on water insects and their larvae and other small animals like crustaceans and others (Seegers 1996). Breeds the whole year round, deposit eggs between plants and roots (Seegers 1996).
60423		population	eng	Abundant in Lake Rukwa (Seegers 1996), otherwise little information.
60423		threats	eng	Loss of marginal vegetation in wetlands around streams and rivers. Water turbidity due to agriculture extension.
60424		conservation	eng	No information available.
60424		distribution	eng	Possibly endemic to the Lower Tana system (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60424		habitat	eng	No information.
60424		population	eng	No information.
60424		threats	eng	No information available.
60425		conservation	eng	None in place.
60425		distribution	eng	Lake Turkana.
60425		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow, quiet and weedy parts around the lake. Matures at app. 2.5 cm TL. Spawns in the littoral region and feeds on zooplankton and insects (Hopson 1982).
60425		population	eng	No estimates available.
60425		threats	eng	Not targeted by commercial fisheries. No noticeable threats identified.
60426		conservation	eng	No information.
60426		distribution	eng	Lakes Edward, George and Victoria systems, and the Upper Semliki River. An isolated population occurs in the Mbuga creek near the Niansimbi (or Buranga) hot springs at the western edge of the Ruwenzori Mountains. A population showing affinities with this species is also present in the Lake Kyoga drainage systems (Wildekamp 1995).
60426		habitat	eng	No specific information but probably occurs in marginal pools of lakes, and in permanent and temporary streams.
60426		population	eng	No information available.
60426		threats	eng	No major threat identified.
60427		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place.
60427		distribution	eng	Shallow parts of papyrus swamps around Lake Victoria. Also found in river mouths, rice fields and ditches connected to Lake Victoria, in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. In Uganda this species also occupies similar habitat as associated with Lake Kyoga, Lake George, Lake Edward, Lake Albert, Lake Nakavali and Lake Mamala, and the adjacent river systems. Also found in the Victoria Nile, and the Kafu and Katonga rivers (Wildekamp 1995).
60427		habitat	eng	Shallow parts of papyrus swamps, river mouths, rice fields, ditches. Distributed in swampy areas or stagnant waters of ponds or Lakes (Wildekamp 1995).
60427		population	eng	Widely distributed but likely to be declining due to agricultural encroachment of wetlands.
60427		threats	eng	Encroachment of wetlands for agriculture; deforestation, erosion and silting; and landbased pollution.
60428		conservation	eng	None known
60428		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Edward.
60428		habitat	eng	Surface waters of the central part of the lake.
60428		population	eng	No information available.
60428		threats	eng	No information available.
60429		conservation	eng	None known
60429		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Enters the delta of Malagarasi River.
60429		habitat	eng	Shallow rocky and mixed substrates in littoral zone of the lake. Feeds on insects and crustaceans.
60429		population	eng	Not known, but sometimes significant numbers are caught in nets.
60429		threats	eng	Fishing; sedimentation; and pollution.
60430		conservation	eng	No information available.
60430		distribution	eng	Seasonal ponds and waters of the southeastern coastal area of Kenya, from the Umba northwards to the Ramisi drainage. Reported from the Lower Pangani and Umba river drainages in eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60430		habitat	eng	Occurs in temporary pools in floodplains, swamps and temporary ditches (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a bottom spawner and the eggs have a 2–4 months incubation period.Max. size: 50 mm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60430		population	eng	No information available.
60430		threats	eng	No information available.
60431		conservation	eng	No information available.
60431		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northern Ewaso Nyiro drainage where it is found in seasonal waters of the Boji Plains northeast of Merti in Kenya.
60431		habitat	eng	Inhabits temporary waterholes in a flat, rather dry savannah area (Wildekamp and Haas 1992). Max. size: 48.2 mm SL (Wildekamp and Haas 1992).
60431		population	eng	No information available.
60431		threats	eng	No information available.
60432		conservation	eng	No information available.
60432		distribution	eng	Only known from seasonal pools and waters of the southeastern coastal drainage near Kikambala, about 15 km north of Mombasa, Kenya.
60432		habitat	eng	Occurs in swamps and temporary pools in the floodplains (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is a bottom spawner with a 2–4 months incubation period (Froese and Pauly 2003). Max. size: 56.8 mm SL (Wildekamp and Berkenkamp 1979).
60432		population	eng	No information available.
60432		threats	eng	No information available.
60433		conservation	eng	No information available.
60433		distribution	eng	Seasonal pools in the Sio River floodplain near Busia and the Lake Victoria, Kyoga and Albert systems.
60433		habitat	eng	Inhabits swamps, roadside and drainage ditches, pools and depressions downstream of culverts. It is always found in temporary water bodies that only contain water during the wet season and for a short period afterwards. The water is usually turbid to very turbid and usually lacks any aquatic vegetation (Wildekamp 1994). Max. size: 50 mm SL (Wildekamp 1994).
60433		population	eng	No information available.
60433		threats	eng	No information available.
60434		conservation	eng	No information available.
60434		distribution	eng	Known from seasonal pools of the Lake Victoria drainage near Ahero, and in the Sio River floodplain near Busia, Uganda and Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It appears to be widespread but more information is needed to determine the full distribution.
60434		habitat	eng	Frequently found in more permanent waters such as horseshoe lake, and in flowing creeks in papyrus swamps or forest streams. It usually inhabits the shallower, quiet areas amongst the bordering vegetation. Occasionally it is also found in temporary pools, often close to, or connected to, streams (Wildekamp 1994). Aquarium observations have demonstrated that it has an annual mode of reproduction and that the eggs undergo diapause (Wildekamp 1994). Max. size: 40 mm SL (Wildekamp 1994).
60434		population	eng	Unknown.
60434		threats	eng	No information available.
60435		conservation	eng	No information available.
60435		distribution	eng	Seasonal ponds and waters of the southeastern coastal area of Kenya at Umba and northwards to the Ramisi drainage including the Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Ruhoi and Rufiji rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60435		habitat	eng	Occurs in temporary pools and floodplains, ricefields, swamps, ditches and small streams (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>., 1986). It is a bottom spawner with a four-month incubation period.Max. size: 70 mm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986)
60435		population	eng	Unknown.
60435		threats	eng	No information available.
60436		conservation	eng	No information available.
60436		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in temporary pools, floodplains and swamps in the Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Kyoga and Aswa River drainages in southern Uganda, and the Malagarasi and Bubu River drainages in central Tanzania. It has been introduced to several localities in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania for mosquito control (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60436		habitat	eng	Temporary pools, floodplains and swamps where it thought to feed on insect larvae and crustaceans.
60436		population	eng	Unknown.
60436		threats	eng	Biotope changes in streams and rivers due to agricultural pressure.
60437		conservation	eng	No information available.
60437		distribution	eng	The full distribution of the species remains unknown. It was originally only known from holotype (Bubu (Buhu) River drainage, Central Tanzania) (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). More recent records have extened the know range to include pools along the Babati-Arusha road, Tanzania, and the Malagarasi basin (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).
60437		habitat	eng	Permanent and seasonal, pools, streams and rivers. Probably feeds on insect larvae and crustaceans.
60437		population	eng	Unknown.
60437		threats	eng	Biotope changes in streams and rivers due to agricultural pressure.
60438		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
60438		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in seasonal pools of the lower to middle Tana drainage, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Dekta, Warfa, Hogay, Kaisany and Durbane of Somalia, and the Wabishebelle system, Ethiopia.
60438		habitat	eng	It is a typical annual fish, inhabiting temporary bodies of water. The eggs are deposited in the bottom substrate where they survive the dry season with diapauses of varying length. Their diet mainly consists of small plankton crustaceans (Copepoda) and naupili and less frequently also of larvae of mosquitoes (Culicines, Anophelines) (Wildekamp and Haas 1992)
60438		population	eng	No information available.
60438		threats	eng	No information available.
60439		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
60439		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa</strong> It is found in seasonal pools northwards of Malindi and in the lower Tana drainage, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa</strong> It occurs near Dur e Kalin, Whar near Kaisany, near Shalanbod, Somalia, as well as the Wabishebelle system, Ethiopia
60439		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pools and swamps and rivulets (Radda 1981).
60439		population	eng	No information available.
60439		threats	eng	No information available.
60440		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60440		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in seasonal pools in the Lower Tana, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Wabishebelle system, in Somalia and Ethiopia.
60440		habitat	eng	This species is found in running water.
60440		population	eng	No information available.
60440		threats	eng	Unknown.
60441		conservation	eng	No information available.
60441		distribution	eng	Only known from the Lower Tana River system in the coastal plains of eastern Kenya.
60441		habitat	eng	Inhabits ephemeral water bodies in the floodplain or connected streams located in open as well as in forested savannah. The water is usually turbid and lacking vegetation (Wildekamp 1992). Max. size: 27.2 mm SL (Wildekamp 1992).
60441		population	eng	No information available.
60441		threats	eng	No information available.
60442		conservation	eng	No information available.
60442		distribution	eng	Seasonal waters of the southeastern coastal drainage to the northwest of Mombasa near Kaloleni, Kenya.
60442		habitat	eng	Occurs in swamps and temporary pools in the floodplains (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is a bottom spawner with a 2–4 months incubation period (Froese and Pauly 2003).
60442		population	eng	No information available.
60442		threats	eng	No information available.
60443		conservation	eng	No information available.
60443		distribution	eng	Lower reaches of rivers and brooks of the east coast drainage close to the sea, including salt pans.
60443		habitat	eng	Prefered habitat not known (Wildekamp 1995). Max. size: 18 mm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60443		population	eng	No information available.
60443		threats	eng	No information available.
60445		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60445		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Kidatu dam, Mtera dam and rivers Wami, Malagarasi, Ruaha, and Rufiji.
60445		habitat	eng	Inhabits shallow lakes with long riverine systems. The species is the biggest of the genus. It is highly migratory, spawning upstream around December–January (ALWM 1981). It is highly vulnerable due to its extended migration route. Feeds mainly on insects.
60445		population	eng	CPUE has declined significantly in the Mtera dam but the information is not species specific. Otherwise little information.
60445		threats	eng	Heavy fishing pressure with small meshed nets, especially across rivers; silt loading; and land based pollution, water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
60446		conservation	eng	None.
60446		distribution	eng	It is restricted to one karstic spring (Modro Oko) in the Krbavsko Polje in Croatia. It has disappeared from karstic streams.
60446		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers, springs and caves. It prefers slow current and clear water.
60446		population	eng	No data.
60446		threats	eng	Drought, alien species and water extraction and road construction. Also there is a possibility that war in the region has damaged the karstic system. (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).
60447		conservation	eng	A better understanding of this species ecological range and population numbers is required. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine if Malawi and Rovuma populations are in fact the same species. Levels of exploitation and the impacts of this needs to be studied.
60447		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Lake Malawi and the Rovuma River system, where it is not particularly common.
60447		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tanzania, Malawi, and northern Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed in Kidatu dam, Mtera dam, and the Great Ruaha, Rufiji, Wami and Ruvuma rivers. It occurs throughout Lake Malawi and its catchment, the Middle Shire and the affluent streams of Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Rovuma River system.
60447		habitat	eng	In the Rovuma system it occurs in main river channels, in Lake Malawi it is present in both the lake and affluent rivers. Habitats are not well known.
60447		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow quiet waters in rivers, swamps, lagoons and sheltered estuaries, usually moving upstream in floodplains to spawn (Eccles 1992). A nocturnal feeder, feeding on invertebrates and weeds. It has been observed under the shelter of floating islands, a possible vector for dispersal, in Lake Malawi.
60447		population	eng	Catch compositions in Kidatu and Mtera dams have declined from 1.5% in 1987 to 0.01% in 1996 (Fish. Div. 1987,1996, Tamatamah 1996).
60447		population	eng	No information available.
60447		threats	eng	The Rovuma system is heavily fished by artisanal gill net fishermen. Braids and pools in the Rovuma system are also poisoned with traditional plant poisons. Elsewhere, this species is suffering negative impacts from commercial and illegal overfishing, pollution and siltation of the waterways, and habitat degradation from deforestation and agricultural encroachment.
60447		threats	eng	The Rovuma system is heavily fishes by artisanal gill net fishermen. Braids and pools in the Rovuma system are also poisoned with traditional plant poisons.
60448		conservation	eng	No information.
60448		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the Lake Kivu systems linked by the Rusizi. It is found in the streams and rivers flowing into these lakes, including the Malagarasi. Also found in Lake Rukwa.
60448		habitat	eng	Found in sandy bays of lakes and rivers (Eccles 1992) where it feeds on smaller fishes and insects. In the Rukwa drainage it is found in lake itself and in the rivers entering the lake, but prefers the latter habitat (Seegers 1996). It migrates up the rivers to spawn (Seegers 1996). Feeds on small fish fry and, in the rivers, probably also on insects and other small animals (Seegers 1996).
60448		population	eng	This species contribution to the fisheries catch compositions in Lake Rukwa declined from 1.77% in 1977 (Bernacsek 1980) to less than 0.3% by 1994 (Fish. Div. 1994). Similarly CPUE has declined from 0.2 tons/vessel in 1977 to less than 0.1 tons/vessel in 1994 (Fish. Div. 1994, 1977). The Lake Rukwa population has therefore declined by about 50%. It is still common in fishery catches in inshore waters of lakes Tanganyika and Kivu and in the lower parts of rivers Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60448		threats	eng	Land based pollution; illegal fishing practice; and erosion and siltation.
60449		conservation	eng	No information.
60449		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Rufiji River system, Tanzania.
60449		habitat	eng	Prefers flowing water (Eccles 1992).
60449		population	eng	No information available.
60449		threats	eng	Environmental stress/disasters; land based pollution; siltation; and illegal fishing methods.
60450		conservation	eng	None known.
60450		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Rukwa.
60450		habitat	eng	Pelagic species supporting a lucrative fishery (Eccles 1992).
60450		population	eng	Assumed to be declining.
60450		threats	eng	Silt loading is a serious problem. Fishing with illegal gears; environmental changes; and water pollution.
60451		conservation	eng	None known.
60451		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Lake Rukwa and its tributaries, Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi.
60451		habitat	eng	A deep water species. It migrates upstream to spawn during the rainy season (Eccles 1992). In the rivers it is found in deep waters and rapids where it grazes algae on firm surfaces.
60451		population	eng	The species is being exploited commercially. Catch compositions in Lake Tanganyika were 11.89% in 1977 (Bernascek 1980) declining significantly to 1.24% in 1996 (Fish. Div. 1996). The index of abundance declined from 1.3 tons/vessel in 1977 to 0.1 tons/vessel in 1996. The decline is close to 90% over a 20 yr period.
60451		threats	eng	Spawning substrate and habitats are being degraded due to silting and pollution (water turbidity due to erosion on river basins). Illegal fishing methods with small meshed nets, especially across rivers during the spawning migration.
60452		conservation	eng	None in place.
60452		distribution	eng	Lake Natron drainage and Shombole swamps (Seegers andTichy 1999). Also in Lake Magardi.
60452		habitat	eng	Found in springs and spring-fed streams, rarely observed in the open water of some lagoons of the lake (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Inhabits waters rich in sodium and chlorides and temperature ranges between 16–40°C (Reite <em>et al</em>. 1974). Omnivorous. They take algae from stones as well as live food. The basic natural diet is blue-green algae. Sometimes insects are gulped from the water surface. Bacteria are also taken from the water surface (Seegers and Tichy 1999). The juveniles are carnivores feeding on invertebrates, eggs and larvae. There seems to be no distinct breeding period, although there may be a breeding maximum in December/January, which coincides with the hottest period of the year. Male builds nests (pits), which are not aggregated nor grouped in large numbers (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Max. size: 115.7 mm TL (Seegers and Tichy 1999).
60452		population	eng	Not certain but thought to be declining.
60452		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Reduction in lake level.
60453		conservation	eng	None known.
60453		distribution	eng	Lake Magadi. Introduced in Lake Nakuru in 1953, 1959 and 1962 (Vareschi 1979). Possibly also introduced in Lake Elmenteita. Lake Natron in Tanzania (Lever 1996).
60453		habitat	eng	Lives in springs and lagoons around the edge of the lake. Occurs in generally unfavourable environmental conditions for fishes (water temperature, chemical composition) (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Primary food sources are blue-green algae (90%), Crustacea (Copepods) and dipteran larvae. Has no marked breeding season. The male has a breeding territory and constructs a pit of about 15 cm in diameter where he tries to attract females to spawn. No firm pair bond relationship. Female is a mouthbrooder, brooding period two weeks (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Max. size: 69.0 mm SL (Seegers and Tichy 1999).
60453		population	eng	No information available.
60453		threats	eng	Not certain but population thought to be declining.
60454		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures in place for this species.
60454		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widespread in the lake.
60454		habitat	eng	This is the one of the specialized species, being strictly specialised to a given type of rocky habitat, namely rubble with very few patches of sand. This is borne out by the fact that <em>Altolamprologus compressiceps</em> is not found on isolated rock outposts that it could have reached by crossing sand barriers that other rock-dwelling fishes could pass. This is also supported by the fact that is often absent from areas where the rocks are smooth and support only a sparse biocover is covered by slit. In fact, <em>Altolamprologus</em> is among the first to disappear when the conditions are not up its requirements. Although common in its habitat, it is never found in large quantities, and when an area has been fished for this species it takes several months, perhaps a year, before they make their comeback. This is probably due to a low fertility rate. The spawns, very difficult to discover in the recesses, never appear to involve more than a few dozen eggs. Feeding on crustaceans hidden among the narrow cracks and tiny gullies of the rubble surface, this fish has a very narrow and pointed mouth that can be inserted between the anfractuosities of the rock walls. Their highest density, once adult, is found below 10 meters. Young fish though, are found in quiet covers in water about 1 m deep.
60454		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is widespread but rare.
60454		threats	eng	Water pollution; disturbance of habitat, landslide, and sedimentation.
60455		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently in place.
60455		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern part of Lake Tanganyika.
60455		habitat	eng	It lives in the southern part of Lake Tanganyika where it is a specialist feeder on zoobiocover.
60455		population	eng	No information available.
60455		threats	eng	Degradation of habitat; water pollution; landslide, sedimentation; and collection for the aquarium trade
60456		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60456		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is thought to be widely distributed along all shores of the lake.
60456		habitat	eng	They usually hang head down on the sides of rocks. They also appear to move up from deeper water when breeding to provide increased oxygen for their broods. This species is a rocky grazer.
60456		population	eng	Unknown.
60456		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation.
60457		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60457		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Victoria. It is also found in other lakes than Lake Victoria; for instance Lake George, Lake Edward, Lake Nakavali, Lake Rugwiro, Lake Mugeresa, Lake Ihema, Lake Nabugabo, Lake Kachira, Lake Cyohoha, Lake Kivu and rivers and streams associated with these lakes.
60457		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.
60457		population	eng	No information available.
60457		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat).
60458		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place for the species.
60458		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout the affluent rivers of the Lake Tanganyika catchment , in particular the Malagarazi river and swamps and the Lukuga and Rusizi rivers.
60458		habitat	eng	Riverine species. Thought to be a carnivore.
60458		population	eng	Little information but rarely found in fishery catches.
60458		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion following agricultural extension.
60459		conservation	eng	No information available.
60459		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lukuga and Ruzizi Rivers of lake Tanganyika (van Oijen and Snoeks 1991).
60459		habitat	eng	Riverine habitat. The short gut suggests it is a carnivorous species.
60459		population	eng	Not known, but rarely encountered in fisheries catches.
60459		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
60460		conservation	eng	Recommend extension of the Malagarasi Ramsar site to include the delta.
60460		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Malagarasi River basin.
60460		habitat	eng	Found in slow-flowing streams, rivers and deltas. Feeds on varied food items including insect larvae, plant debris, etc.
60460		population	eng	No information available.
60460		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
60462		conservation	eng	No information.
60462		distribution	eng	Reported to be restricted to Lake Tanganyika and associated rivers; however, it is currently very common in upper and middle Akagera river and associated lakes, where most likely it has been introduced.
60462		habitat	eng	Found in slow-flowing stream and rivers, deltas, ponds, lagoons, and shallow inshore waters in lakes. Feeds on varied food item including small fishes, insect larvae, diatoms, algae, and plant debris.
60462		population	eng	No information available.
60462		threats	eng	No threats identified.
60463		conservation	eng	No information available.
60463		distribution	eng	Streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika (van Oijen <em>et al</em>. 1991), but not recorded in the Malagarasi (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).
60463		habitat	eng	Found in slow-flowing stream and rivers, and swampy areas. Feeds mainly on insect larvae.
60463		population	eng	No information available.
60463		threats	eng	Loss of wetland habitats adjacent to rivers and streams.
60464		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place for this species.
60464		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed. It is also found in the associated Rusizi and the Rukuga Rivers.
60464		habitat	eng	<em>Aulonocranus dewindti</em> is not a deep-water fish and is always found over sand, even if only sandy patches between rocks, or sandy shallows. Schools of <em>Aulonocranus dewindti</em> occur in coastal and offshore waters over sandy bottoms. The species is omnivorous, feeding on drifting mater. Reproduction: mouthbrooder.
60464		population	eng	The species is very common along the lakeshore.
60464		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/ deterioration.
60465		conservation	eng	No information
60465		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is rare but widespread in the southern part of the lake. Possibly present in the northern part of the lake.
60465		habitat	eng	Unknown.
60465		population	eng	Unknown.
60465		threats	eng	No information available.
60466		conservation	eng	None in place.
60466		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60466		habitat	eng	Mainly caught in the pelagic zone. Little available information but it seems to be quite rare. Usually found in the deep water during daytime and inshore at night.
60466		population	eng	Quite rare in commercial fish catches.
60466		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance and alteration; water pollution; and commercial over exploitation.
60467		conservation	eng	None in place.
60467		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread and abundant.
60467		habitat	eng	Benthic species mainly preying on the large variety of small benthic cichlids. It is thought to prefer a shallow inshore habitat (<70 m).
60467		population	eng	The population size of the species is not known but is very abundant throughout its habitat.
60467		threats	eng	Water pollution; over exploitation; and habitat disturbance.
60468		conservation	eng	None known.
60468		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and very widespread and abundant.
60468		habitat	eng	Benthic species.
60468		population	eng	Widespread and very abundant.
60468		threats	eng	Water pollution; over exploitation; and habitat disturbance.
60469		conservation	eng	No known, targeted conservation measures in place.
60469		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is very widespread.
60469		habitat	eng	A benthic fish, feeding mainly on clupeids. Also reported to be pelagic.
60469		population	eng	Unknown, but this species is rare.
60469		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat deterioration.
60470		conservation	eng	No information available.
60470		distribution	eng	Endemic species to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the deltas of major slow affluent rivers, including the Malagarasi.
60470		habitat	eng	Bentho-pelagic species caught between 3–100 m of depth but mostly between 10–30 m. Feeds on small fishes, predominantly <em>Stolothrissa tanganicae</em>.
60470		population	eng	Common in fisheries catches in the northern end of Lake Tanganyika.
60470		threats	eng	Over-fishing and inshore pollution.
60471		conservation	eng	None known.
60471		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Widespread throughout the lake.
60471		habitat	eng	The species is probably pelagic feeding mainly on clupeids.
60471		population	eng	Population size unknown.
60471		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance and alteration; water pollution; and commercial over-exploitation.
60472		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60472		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60472		habitat	eng	This species is bathypelagic.
60472		population	eng	The population size is not known but few <em>Bathybates vittatus</em> are observed in fishing catches.
60472		threats	eng	Water pollution.
60473		conservation	eng	None known.
60473		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60473		habitat	eng	Deep-water species living below 40 m.
60473		population	eng	Unknown.
60473		threats	eng	Unknown.
60474		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60474		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60474		habitat	eng	Lives in varied habitats, often rock substrates. Known to occur down to 100 m depth.
60474		population	eng	Unknown.
60474		threats	eng	Water pollution and disturbance of habitat.
60475		conservation	eng	None.
60475		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. <em>B. microlepis</em> is a prominent species, well known to the lake shore people on account of its large size and desirability as food.
60475		habitat	eng	A large predatory species that appears to live in small schools, probably only a few hundred strong, that roam the coastal areas down to depths of 100 m or more. Adults reproduce in the littoral zone. Maturity is reached usually around 400 mm length or 2.5 years. Juveniles are omnivorous and adults mainly piscivorous. This species is one of this most powerful and ubiquitous piscivore in the sublittoral and littoral zones.
60475		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is thought to be common throughout its habitat.
60475		threats	eng	Sedimentation and potential Over-fishing.
60476		conservation	eng	No information available.
60476		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Found all around the lake. Enters the delta of the Malagarasi River.
60476		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters, mainly over sandy bottoms. Feeds on varied food items collected on sandy bottoms including small molluscs, ostracods, insect larvae, fish larvae, etc.
60476		population	eng	Common and may be abundant in inshore fisheries catches.
60476		threats	eng	Over-fishing in shallow waters, mostly beach seining.
60477		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in places for this species.
60477		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is distributed in the northern part of Nyanza-lac and in the south of the Ubwari.
60477		habitat	eng	Found over sand bottoms near rocks in the littoral zone where they feed on invertebrates.
60477		population	eng	The species is thought to be very common in its habitat.
60477		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; over exploitation.
60478		conservation	eng	No information available.
60478		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Found all around the lake. Enters the delta of the Malagarasi River.
60478		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters, mainly over sandy bottoms. Feeds on varied food items collected on sandy bottoms including small molloscs, ostracods, insect larvae, etc.
60478		population	eng	Common and abundant in inshore fisheries catches.
60478		threats	eng	Over-fishing in shallow waters, mostly by beach seining, and inshore siltation.
60479		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60479		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60479		habitat	eng	Sandy shore species.
60479		population	eng	Unknown.
60479		threats	eng	Unknown: potentially sedimentation.
60480		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60480		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60480		habitat	eng	It lives in the littoral zone at 3–15 m depth over sand and mud substrates. It is semi-pelagic roaming in schools of several hundred individuals and feeds on plankton such as copepods.
60480		population	eng	Fishery statistics show that species is very abundant.
60480		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; and over-exploitation.
60481		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in places for this species.
60481		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60481		habitat	eng	<em>Chalinochromis brichardi</em> lives among rubble in which they nest and feed on invertebrates. A substrate breeder producing 200–300 eggs. A popular fish for the aquarium trade.
60481		population	eng	Unknown.
60481		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; over-exploitation (subsistence and aquarium trade).
60482		conservation	eng	No information available.
60482		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and its slow-flowing affluent streams and rivers, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60482		habitat	eng	Ubiquitous species found over both rock and sand substrates, but is most frequently observed over soft bottoms habitats covered with aquatic grass. It is a shallow water species found along the lakeshore and in the lower reaches of the inflowing rivers. Omnivourous, but adults feed predominantly on fish.
60482		population	eng	Very common in fisheries catches.
60482		threats	eng	Water turbidity and siltation in shallows; and over-fishing by beach seines.
60483		conservation	eng	None.
60483		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is mainly distributed in the northern part of the lake.
60483		habitat	eng	Little information but is known to be a deep-water species.
60483		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60483		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60484		conservation	eng	None in place.
60484		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is mainly restricted to the southern part of the lake.
60484		habitat	eng	A gregarious species found on both rock and sand habitats along the lakeshore.
60484		population	eng	The population size is not known, but the species is relatively rare in its preferred habitat.
60484		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; and over-exploitation (a popular fish for the aquarium trade).
60485		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60485		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is very widespread.
60485		habitat	eng	This species lives in schools near the rocky slopes down to 20–25 m. It eats plankton and is gregarious. There are several geographic races of this species.
60485		population	eng	A very common and abundant species.
60485		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; and over-exploitation (a popular species in the aquarium trade).
60486		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any specific legislation.
60486		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Widespread throughout the lake.
60486		habitat	eng	<em>Cyphotilapia frontosa</em> prefers a rocky bottom habitat extending into deep water. It is a generalized predator on fish and macro-invertbrates. Fragments of mollusc shells have also been found in the gut. Gill net catches show that <em>Cyphotilapia frontosa</em> is most abundant between 60–120 m (Pearce 1958). However, large schools of up to about 1,000 individuals have been observed underwater by Brichard (1978) at 30 to 40 m depth. Individual size seems to increase with depth, ranging commonly between 250 and 300 mm, making this species one of the larger rock dwellers.
60486		population	eng	No information available.
60486		threats	eng	Sedimentation, and over-exploitation for the aquarium trade. A specific threat in Burundi is the road construction from Bujumbura to Rumonge, which results in increased sedimentation, deforestation, water pollution, and risk of landslides.
60487		conservation	eng	There are no conservations measures in place.
60487		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is localised to the northern part of the lake. Specimens have also been observed along the Tanzanian coast.
60487		habitat	eng	A pelagic species. A pelagic or bathypelagic species feeding on copepods. Their presence in fairly shallow water seems related to inshore breeding migrations. It has been observed in shallow rocky habitats, but is thought to normally occur at a much greater depth. <em>Cyprichromis microlepidotus</em> and the other members of the genus are rarely are seen shallower than 10 m depth.
60487		population	eng	The population size is not known but the species is very rarely captured.
60487		threats	eng	Sedimentation; over-exploitation by the aquarium trade; and water pollution.
60488		conservation	eng	The species is not protected by any specific legislation.
60488		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and known only from the southern end.
60488		habitat	eng	This species lives in relatively deep water having been caught at 80 m. It is known to be a mouthbrooder and is adapted to life at considerable depths off rocky slopes. Possibly localised to the southern end of lake. A protrusable mouth forms a suction tube as an adaptation for feeding on pelagic zooplankton. Spawns on a rocky surface.
60488		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60488		threats	eng	Sedimentation; over-exploitation by the aquarium trade; and water pollution.
60489		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60489		distribution	eng	<em>Ectodus descampsi</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widespread throughout the lake.
60489		habitat	eng	Found over coarse sandy substrates. A semi-pelagic diatom feeder. Little is known about the ecology and behaviour of this gregarious species.
60489		population	eng	The species is very abundant throughout its preferred habitat.
60489		threats	eng	Sedimentation; over-exploitation by the aquarium trade; and water pollution.
60490		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60490		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60490		habitat	eng	A sand dwelling species of the littoral zone.
60490		population	eng	Unknown.
60490		threats	eng	Water pollution and over-exploitation.
60491		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60491		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Two races are present. The first is restricted to the southern part of the lake. Its range covers the coastlines between Kalemie and the Ubwari. A second race exist on the Ubwari Peninsula and might eventually be considered a subspecies.
60491		habitat	eng	Lives in very shallow turbulent, highly oxygenated waters of the surf zone, amid rubble and large pebbles down to a maximum of 5–6 m. Their heavy body and small swim bladder provide the negative buoyancy required in such habitats. Their ecology in the lake and their breeding behaviour are poorly documented. They are solitary and somewhat territorial.
60491		population	eng	A fairly common species.
60491		threats	eng	Water pollution; land agriculture; and sedimentation.
60492		conservation	eng	No information available.
60492		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and its slow-flowing affluent streams and rivers, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60492		habitat	eng	Found most frequently over soft bottoms covered with aquatic grass, in shallow waters of the Lake or in the lower reaches of rivers. Feeds mainly on invertebrates and plant debris.
60492		population	eng	Very common.
60492		threats	eng	Over-fishing in shallow waters, mostly by beach seines.
60493		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60493		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60493		habitat	eng	<em>Gnathochromis permaxillaris</em> is caught in deep water, is a zooplankton feeder and has developed a strikingly protractile mouth apparatus. Moreover, it possesses quite strong conical teeth on the outer tooth row of both jaws, which is unusual in a zooplanktivore. On account of its copepod diet, it may be supposed that <em>G. permaxillaris</em> lives to a large extent above the bottom and can be classified as bathypelagic. The depth of its habitat is linked to the availability of plankton, which varies according to the time of day. Unlike many zooplankton feeders this species does not appear to school.
60493		population	eng	The population size is not known, but the species is rare.
60493		threats	eng	Water pollution, organic pollution and other contamination from industrial. Sedimentation.
60494		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60494		distribution	eng	Endemic to, and widespread in, Lake Tanganyika.
60494		habitat	eng	Semi-pelagic roamer over sand. Observed down to at least 30 m.
60494		population	eng	The population size is not known, but the species is very common and abundant.
60494		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.
60495		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60495		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is distributed in the southern part of lake.
60495		habitat	eng	Lives in the open waters, Semi-pelagic, rather deep.
60495		population	eng	The population size is not known. But this species is very rare.
60495		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.
60496		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60496		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is largely restricted to the southern part of the lake.
60496		habitat	eng	This is an open-water, semi-pelagic species. It has relatively few large eggs (100 to 200).
60496		population	eng	Unknown. This species is rare, only a few gill-netted specimens are known from deep water in the south-east arm.
60496		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.
60497		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60497		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60497		habitat	eng	Mostly observed in inshore habitats over sand and mud substrates. Little is known about its distribution in Lake George. Virtually nothing is known about the biology of the species.
60497		population	eng	No information available.
60497		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60498		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60498		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake George and the Kazinga Channel.
60498		habitat	eng	Common near papyrus fringes but is rare elsewhere in the inshore zone. Apparently never occurs offshore. A maternal mouth brooder.
60498		population	eng	No information available.
60498		threats	eng	No particular threats are known but the species has a restricted range.
60499		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60499		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake George and the Kazinga Channel.
60499		habitat	eng	Apparently confined to offshore areas. Appears to feed mainly on phytoplankton. This information is based on only a few specimens.
60499		population	eng	No information available.
60499		threats	eng	No particular threat known.
60500		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60500		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60500		habitat	eng	Lake shore species.
60500		population	eng	Unknown.
60500		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60501		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60501		distribution	eng	Endemic to lake Kivu.
60501		habitat	eng	Lake shore species.
60501		population	eng	Unknown.
60501		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60502		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60502		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60502		habitat	eng	Lake shore species.
60502		population	eng	No information available.
60502		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60503		conservation	eng	No information available.
60503		distribution	eng	Apparently endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60503		habitat	eng	An inshore species found near papyrus fringes or where the bottom is sandy. Rarely encountered in the open lake or in shallow waters where the substrate is muddy. Food: predominantly chironomids and emerging aquatic diptera when available. A maternal mouth-brooder.
60503		population	eng	No information available.
60503		threats	eng	No clear threats known.
60504		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
60504		distribution	eng	<em>P. vittatus</em> is endemic to Lake Kivu on the border of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species is present throughout the lake.
60504		habitat	eng	<em>P. vittatus</em> is piscivorous. A lake shore species.
60504		population	eng	Unknown.
60504		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60505		conservation	eng	None.
60505		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60505		habitat	eng	Unknown.
60505		population	eng	Unknown.
60505		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60506		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60506		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana.
60506		habitat	eng	Feeds on ostracods (Greenwood 1981). Breeds within the lake (Hopson 1982). Max. size: 86.0 mm SL (Greenwood 1981).
60506		population	eng	Unknown.
60506		threats	eng	Unknown.
60507		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60507		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George.
60507		habitat	eng	Information not available.
60507		population	eng	No information available.
60507		threats	eng	No serious current threats identified. Potential for future pollution from mining activities.
60508		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60508		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60508		habitat	eng	Probably offshore, confined to the upper waters (few species recovered).
60508		population	eng	Rather restricted extent of occurrence.
60508		threats	eng	No particular threat identified.
60509		conservation	eng	No information available.
60509		distribution	eng	Only known from Lakes Bulera and Luhondo and the Mukungwa River (Upper Akagera system in North Rwanda) where it may have been introduced along with young <em>Tilapias</em> from Lake Bunyoni, Edward or George.
60509		habitat	eng	Shallow water in riverine and lacustrine habitat. Feeds mainly on aquatic insects.
60509		population	eng	Declining, but common where found.
60509		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed, and over-fishing.
60510		conservation	eng	No information available.
60510		distribution	eng	Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel where it is widely distributed.
60510		habitat	eng	An offshore species that occurs mainly over sandy substrates and less commonly over mud/silt habitats. Feed on plankton and benthic invertebrates. Sexually dimorphic, at least in Lake George.
60510		population	eng	No information available.
60510		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60511		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60511		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60511		habitat	eng	Inhabits near-shore mud, mud/sand substrates. Feeds mainly on gastropods, particularly <em>Melanoides tuberculata</em>.
60511		population	eng	No information available.
60511		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60512		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60512		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George.
60512		habitat	eng	Inhabits lake areas with emergent rooted vegetation and areas suitable for the growth of aufwuch. Feeds on aufwuch and bottom deposits. A maternal mouth brooder
60512		population	eng	No information available.
60512		threats	eng	Potential for water pollution from mining activities, and over-fishing.
60513		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60513		distribution	eng	Recorded from Lake George and the Kazinga Channel. Probably also occurs in Lake Edward but this is not confirmed.
60513		habitat	eng	Little information. Maternal mouth brooder.
60513		population	eng	No information available.
60513		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60514		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60514		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60514		habitat	eng	Shoreline of the lake.
60514		population	eng	Unknown.
60514		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60515		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60515		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60515		habitat	eng	Lakeshore species.
60515		population	eng	Unknown.
60515		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60516		conservation	eng	None.
60516		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60516		habitat	eng	No information
60516		population	eng	Unknown.
60516		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60517		conservation	eng	None.
60517		distribution	eng	Lake Turkana (endemic).
60517		habitat	eng	Apparently confined to the shallow and protected inshore areas of the lake. One sub-population inhabits a crater lake on the central island (Greenwood 1981). Feeds on zooplankton, ostracods and insects. Spawns in sheltered marginal areas of the lake (Hopson 1982). Max. size: 58.0 mm SL (Greenwood 1981).
60517		population	eng	Unknown.
60517		threats	eng	Not fished commercially – no threats are known.
60518		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60518		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60518		habitat	eng	Lakeshore species.
60518		population	eng	Unknown.
60518		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60519		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60519		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60519		habitat	eng	Predominantly an offshore species found in the central zone of the open water. Feeds primarily on pelagic algae. Maternal mouth brooder.
60519		population	eng	No information available.
60519		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60520		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60520		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60520		habitat	eng	Lakeshore species.
60520		population	eng	Unknown.
60520		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60521		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60521		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake George and the Kazinga Channel. Probably occurs in Lake Edward but this is not confirmed.
60521		habitat	eng	Widely distributed in Lake George where it is particularly common in muddy bays and near papyrus fringes. It is rarely encountered in the open water of the mid-lake region. There is little information on food and feeding habits but it thought to be a bottom substrate feeder. No data were available on reproductive biology.
60521		population	eng	No information available.
60521		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60522		conservation	eng	None.
60522		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana.
60522		habitat	eng	Is confined to water more than 20 m deep and is probably most abundant in deeper water (i.e., at depths of 50–70 m) (Greenwood 1981). Feeds on prawns, insects, gastropods and small fish. Spawns in deep waters of the main lake. Females mature at about 5 cm. (Hopson 1982)
60522		population	eng	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
60522		threats	eng	The fish is not commercially important and therefore is not over-fished.
60523		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60523		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George and the Kazinga Channel.
60523		habitat	eng	Apparently confined to the inshore zones of the lake along papyrus fringes and over sandy substrates. The highly extensible mouth is specialised for a diet of fish embryos and larvae (cf. similar species from Lake Victoria).
60523		population	eng	No information available.
60523		threats	eng	No particular threats are known.
60524		conservation	eng	No information available.
60524		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60524		habitat	eng	A predominantly inshore species found over mud and sand sediments in both sheltered and exposed environments.
60524		population	eng	No information available.
60524		threats	eng	No serious threats are known.
60525		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60525		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake George.
60525		habitat	eng	Almost entirely restricted to rocky bays in the vicinity of the fishing village of Kashaka. Occasionally caught over a mud bottom along papyrus fringes or over a sandy substrate inshore along exposed shores. Feeds on larval and adult aquatic insects (information was from a small sample of 20 fishes)
60525		population	eng	No information available.
60525		threats	eng	Confinement to a single lake ecosystem.
60526		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60526		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.
60526		habitat	eng	Adults occur in all the lakes' habitats, but are especially common in the offshore open water areas. Juveniles may, however, be restricted to the inshore zones of the lake. Insects contribute to the diet of small fishes whereas adults are predominantly piscivorous, preying mainly on other haplochromines. The species is a female mouth brooder.
60526		population	eng	No information available.
60526		threats	eng	No serious threats have been identified.
60527		conservation	eng	None in place
60527		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60527		habitat	eng	Shoreline of Lake Kivu.
60527		population	eng	Unknown.
60527		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60528		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60528		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu.
60528		habitat	eng	Inshore species.
60528		population	eng	No information available.
60528		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60529		conservation	eng	None.
60529		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Kivu and the Rusizi River.
60529		habitat	eng	Unknown.
60529		population	eng	Unknown.
60529		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
60530		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
60530		distribution	eng	This freshwater species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60530		habitat	eng	An offshore, gregarous roamer. Occasionally found schooling in coastal waters along rocky coast. Exported only sporadically. Ecology still very poorly documented. Females are mouthbrooders that come to coastal areas to release their fry, if not for mating purposes.
60530		population	eng	The population size is not known, but thought to be common.
60530		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.
60531		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60531		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60531		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60531		population	eng	No information available.
60531		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60532		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60532		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60532		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60532		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95.
60532		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60533		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60533		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60533		population	eng	No information available.
60533		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat).
60534		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60534		distribution	eng	This species is found only in Lake Victoria. It has been found in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania (see Greenwood 1962). It has been found by the <em>Haplochromis</em> Ecology Survey Team in the Speke Gulf, Maisome Channel (near Maisome Island) and Kome Channel.
60534		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60534		population	eng	No information available.
60534		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60535		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60535		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
60535		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores in the littoral zone. <em>H. howesi</em> is the only species in the lake known to feed regularly on crabs.
60535		population	eng	Although the frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, it dropped to 0% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 3/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).
60535		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60536		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60536		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60536		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60536		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s, and has not been seen since 1985.
60536		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60537		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60537		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60537		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60537		population	eng	No information available.
60537		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60538		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60538		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral and sub-littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60538		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 46% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
60538		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60539		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60539		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60539		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60539		population	eng	No information available.
60539		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60540		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60540		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60540		habitat	eng	A benthic deepwater species occurring over mud/silt and rocky shelf substrates. It feeds mainly upon fish and shrimps. It is one of the three most abundant benthic species on the southern shelves of the lake, the others being <em>Lates mariae</em> and <em>Chrysichcthys stappersii</em>. Pearce, in 1985, found that <em>Hemibates stenosoma</em> is the most common fish on the deep bottom, perhaps because <em>Lates mariae</em> had by then reduced by commercial fishing. He obtained peak catches at about 120 m, whereas the earlier survey results showed it to be most numerous at 180–200 m depth. He makes the point that the majority of the population may be more deep-dwelling than its extensive range indicates because many are caught during seasonal inshore migrations. Lack of oxygen in deep water may dictate the lower depth range of the species.
60540		population	eng	No information available.
60540		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation.
60541		conservation	eng	In order for this species to survive, it is necessary to rehabilitate some of the natural landscapes in this area and regularly manage and monitor them. The impact of groundwater pumping on the flow of Enot Zuqim, Enot Samar and Enot Qaneh should be monitored.
60541		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Dead Sea region. The species inhabits streams and springs west and south of the lake, from Enot Zuqim (En Fashkha) in the north to Ne'ot Ha'Kikar in the south. Also found in some streams in the Jordanian side.
60541		habitat	eng	Streams and pools on a variety of foundations.
60541		population	eng	In the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar region, the population is in the thousands, but is given to extreme fluctuations due to human activity. At Enot Zuqim, population is also in the thousands. In other sites, dozens are present. Population size has decreased drastically in Israel in the past 50 years. There is no connection between populations of the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar springs close to those in the northern Dead Sea area springs. There is no continuous link between the Enot Zuqim population and that of Enot Qaneh and Enot Samar, but there is a possibility that at times of strong floods, a temporary layer of fresh water is formed in the Dead Sea that allows fish passage between populations via the Dead Sea.
60541		threats	eng	Exploitation of spring waters. In the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar region where natural habitats were destroyed, the species only survives in the drainage channels of cultivated areas and in the Dead Sea Works collecting channel. Increased water exploitation may lead to complete extinction of this fish in the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar region. The situation in the area of Enot Zuqim is unclear. Intensified water pumping from the aquifer could be detrimental to the springs and the fish inhabiting them. Introduction of invasive species such as <em>Gambusia</em>, Cichlids and other exotic species also pose a threat to the species.
60542		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60542		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60542		habitat	eng	Lives in the open and often ventures over sand in the shallows.
60542		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known.
60542		threats	eng	Siltation.
60543		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60543		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in south west, north of Sumbu National Park in Zambia.
60543		habitat	eng	Found on rocks and rubble, often on sandstone slabs along sand beaches. It can occur down to 35 m, perhaps more. A very sedentary and territorial species. Mainly feeds upon crustaceans.
60543		population	eng	Unknown.
60543		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; fishing activities; and over-exploitation for aquarium trade.
60544		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60544		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika along the north west shore between Luhanga and Makabola.
60544		habitat	eng	Lives on rocky substrate.
60544		population	eng	Unknown.
60544		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; over-exploitation for the aquarium fishes.
60545		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60545		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of lake. A second geographic race occurs in the southern part of the lake near Mpulungu. It is also distributed from Lunangwa Bay to Mpala.
60545		habitat	eng	<em>Julidochromis ornatus</em> lives on rocky substrate. Very popular species for the aquarium trade.
60545		population	eng	The population size and extent of occurrence is not known.
60545		threats	eng	Water pollution; insecticides; and over-exploitation for aquarium trade.
60546		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60546		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Distributed in the northwestern part of lake. Has three races, one is found below the shallow habitat of <em>Julidochromis dickfeldi</em> around cape Chipimbi, also in the south, and posses a much more elongate body than the usual type of <em>marlieri</em> found in the north. Another geographic race has been found on the western shores.
60546		habitat	eng	<em>J. merlieri</em> do venture into the open, but never far from the rock cover. Breed in crevices and caves. The behaviour of the fry is not standardized. Sometimes they are spread outside of the cave as soon as they are 15 mm long. When threatened, they do not hide in the nearby breeding cave but flee along the boulder wall. At other times the fry remain inside of the cave and apparently do not venture out until they are much larger.
60546		population	eng	The population size is not known, thought to be rare.
60546		threats	eng	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; fishing activities; over exploitation for aquarium trade – since its first exportation in 1971 it has reached worldwide popularity among aquarists.
60547		conservation	eng	None known.
60547		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. <em>Lamprologus ocellatus</em> is found on appropriate grounds all around the lake and as yet no distinct geographic races have been found.
60547		habitat	eng	Lives in <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> shells or at least breeds in them. It has only been observed in small schools and is often mixed with <em>Lamprologus brevis</em> with which perhaps the species competes for possession of the shell piles. It is a microfeeder on invertebrates like so many <em>Lamprologus</em> species. It is exported sporadically and has been successfully spawned in captivity.
60547		population	eng	The population size is not known but it is considered very rare.
60547		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation.
60548		conservation	eng	None known.
60548		distribution	eng	This species is known in Uvira, Lake Tanganyika. It is only known by its holotype.
60548		habitat	eng	No information.
60548		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60548		threats	eng	Sedimentation
60549		conservation	eng	None known.
60549		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is very common and widely spread. Also found in the Malagarasi river delta.
60549		habitat	eng	Ubiquitous around the Lake, over hard and soft bottoms, including in snail shells, from 0–50 m deep (average depth 7 m). It is a predator mostly feeding on crustaceans and other invertebrates.
60549		population	eng	No information available.
60549		threats	eng	Siltation in the inshore zone due to erosion on the watershed and beach seining.
60550		conservation	eng	None known.
60550		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. where it is distributed in Kungwe bay, on the north-eastern shore of the lake.
60550		habitat	eng	The species is shell dweller. More probably than not the fish uses its tweezer-like teeth to grab drifting zooplankton, but not much is known about the habitat, behaviour, and ecological niche of this rare species.
60550		population	eng	The population size is not known, but this species is very are.
60550		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60551		conservation	eng	None known.
60551		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60551		habitat	eng	The species is carnivorous feeding exclusively on fish. It is an ambush predator very often seen near rocks, sometimes lying on the lakebed in the open, motionless. They are highly solitary, and pairs are seldom seen. The female lays its eggs in rock recesses and the fry are taken care of by the female only.
60551		population	eng	Population size is not known, this species is very widespread but is not abundant.
60551		threats	eng	Water pollution; habitat deterioration; and over-exploitation.
60552		conservation	eng	None known.
60552		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread in inshore habitats.
60552		habitat	eng	It is not definitely a shell dweller because of its size (8–9 cm ). It is found swimming off the sand bottom and sometimes over rock. It spawns in rock crevices. <em>L. ornatipinnis</em> is usually found in deep water, which explains why the fish is seldom exported.
60552		population	eng	The population size is not known, but is not commonly in their habitat.
60552		threats	eng	Sedimentation and other human activities around the lake.
60553		conservation	eng	None known.
60553		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is restricted to the central shores of the lake.
60553		habitat	eng	The habitat is reported to be deep water on soft, mud substrates. Feeds on small shrimp. The maximum size of collected specimens was 53 mm at which size the fish were mature. Nothing else is known of this species other than it belongs to the shell-dweller group.
60553		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is very rare.
60553		threats	eng	The deterioration of their habitat and sedimentation.
60554		conservation	eng	None known.
60554		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. A ubiquitous species throughout the lake littoral zone.
60554		habitat	eng	Its lives among rocks in the littoral zone down to 20 m depth.
60554		population	eng	No information available but it is extremely common throughout it's preferred habitat. It is considered the most common of the six species of <em>Lepidiolamprologus</em> in the lake.
60554		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60555		conservation	eng	None known.
60555		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed only in the southern part of the lake.
60555		habitat	eng	Prefers rocky substrates and does not roam the wide open sandy bottoms. It breeds in rubble, but the fry do not remain hidden for long, and as soon as they become free swimming they emerge from the hole in which they were born. By that time they are between 3–4 mm long.
60555		population	eng	Unknown.
60555		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60556		conservation	eng	None known.
60556		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southern end of the lake.
60556		habitat	eng	This species lives inshore.
60556		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60556		threats	eng	Water pollution.
60557		conservation	eng	None known.
60557		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60557		habitat	eng	Lives in deep water (>40 m) and is seldom found near the surface. It lives on rocks in the sub-littoral zone. Thought to be a rare species.
60557		population	eng	No information available.
60557		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60558		conservation	eng	None known.
60558		distribution	eng	Endemic to, and widely distributed throughout, Lake Tanganyika.
60558		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences are variable including sand, mud or rocky substrates in the littoral zone.
60558		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is very common in its preferred habitat.
60558		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60559		conservation	eng	None known.
60559		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread throughout the littoral zone.
60559		habitat	eng	The species is littoral or sub-littoral in sand habitats.
60559		population	eng	The population size is not known, but is very common in their habitat.
60559		threats	eng	Sedimentation and heavy fishing pressure.
60560		conservation	eng	None known.
60560		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is restricted to the northern part of the lake.
60560		habitat	eng	Lives in shallow water over sand substrates where it feeds upon microorganisms. It is a mouthbreeder providing buccal incubation for more than 20 eggs about 2 mm in diameter.
60560		population	eng	The species is very common in its preferred habitat.
60560		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60561		conservation	eng	None known.
60561		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southern part of the lake.
60561		habitat	eng	The species live in shallow water, over a sandy bottom where it feeds on microorganisms.
60561		population	eng	The species is very common in its preferred habitat.
60561		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60562		conservation	eng	None known.
60562		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is a rare with a limited distribution in the southern part of the lake.
60562		habitat	eng	The species lives in mud/silt habitats in deeper water.
60562		population	eng	The population size is not known, but the species is very rare.
60562		threats	eng	There is no threat known to this species.
60563		conservation	eng	None known.
60563		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the Malagarasi river delta. It has a lake-wide distribution.
60563		habitat	eng	Found over soft bottoms, from 2–125 m deep (average: 36 m) where it feeds on molluscs, worms, crustaceans and other invertebrates.
60563		population	eng	Common all around the lake, but never abundant in fisheries catches.
60563		threats	eng	Over-fishing (mostly beach seining), and siltation.
60564		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60564		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika in the southern part of the lake.
60564		habitat	eng	It lives on mud at between 20–100 meters depth.
60564		population	eng	Unknown.
60564		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
60565		conservation	eng	None known.
60565		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it also found in the Malagarasi river delta.
60565		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters (max. depth: 30 m; average depth: 6 m), over rocky or sandy substrates. Grazes on filamentous algae, aquatic plants, and occasionally on worms and fish eggs.
60565		population	eng	Common all around the lake and locally abundant in fisheries catches.
60565		threats	eng	Over-fishing (mostly beach seining); and sedimentation in the inshore zone due to erosion on the watershed.
60566		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60566		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
60566		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 60% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 72% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
60566		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60567		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
60567		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate and between rocks in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
60567		population	eng	Although the frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as less than 10% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, it dropped to 0% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 1/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).
60567		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60568		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60568		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral and sub-littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
60568		population	eng	No information available.
60568		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60569		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mwanza Gulf in southern Lake Victoria. It is abundant at all rocky outcrops between Marumbi Island in the south and Shadi Rocks in the North. It is less abundant at Python Islands and Ngoma Point at the northern distribution limit of the species, and poorly studied in the Smith Sound, the south-western extension of the Mwanza Gulf (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60569		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. It lives inshore, on gentle, as well as on steep slopes. It has hardly ever been collected at depths beyond 4 m. It feeds on benthic invertebrates (insect larvae, tiny snails).
60569		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 10/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is locally abundant.
60569		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60570		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.
60570		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the steeply sloping eastern side of the northern Mwanza Gulf in southern Lake Victoria. It is abundant there at all rocky outcrops between the Gabalema Islands in the north and Butimba Point in the south. It is less abundant at the Nyegezi Rocks at the southern distribution limit of the species (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60570		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. The species is restricted to places with large, very steeply sloping boulders, where it inhabits the immediately inshore slope between 0.5 and at least 5 m water depth, and lives in crevices between the boulders, including rock pools within emerged rocky reefs. It is an insectivore/zooplanktivore, and its diet consists of benthic invertebrates, periphyton and fish.
60570		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, increasing to more than 50% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however reported at 9/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be locally abundant.
60570		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60571		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mwanza Gulf in southern Lake Victoria. It is abundant at all rocky outcrops between Marumbi Island in the South and Python Island in the North (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60571		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates. It is one of the least cryptically living mbipi species, and is only very exceptionally found in crevices between rocks. The species lives between 1 (rarely) and at least 8 m depth, (littoral and sub-littoral zone). It is an insectivore/zooplanktivore.
60571		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 10/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be abundant where found.
60571		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60572		conservation	eng	None known.
60572		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the Malagarasi river delta.
60572		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters (max dept: 40 m; average depth: 3.5 m), over rocky substrates. It isomnivorous feeding mostly on varied invertebrates, insect larvae, crabs, diatoms, molluscs, and plant debris.
60572		population	eng	Common all around the lake, although not abundant in fisheries catches.
60572		threats	eng	Over-fishing; sedimentation in the inshore zone due to erosion on the watershed.
60573		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60573		distribution	eng	This species is known from most of south-eastern Lake Victoria: islands in the open lake, Sengerema region, Mwanza Gulf north of Python Island, Speke Gulf, southern Ukerewe shore (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). Similar populations from the southern Mwanza Gulf could not yet be unambiguously identified. It is probably distributed more widely. Similar fishes have been collected in Kenya and Uganda (Seehausen 1996; L. Kaufman, pers. comm.; Kaufman and Seehausen 1995).
60573		habitat	eng	<em>Mbipia mbipi</em> inhabits various stony and rocky habitats , including stone-sand mixed substrates, and was found at  almost all localities sampled. It lives between 0 and 6 m (littoral zone) (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). <em>M. mbipi</em> is an epilithic omnivore, its diet consists of periphhyton, detritus and benthic invertebrates.
60573		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 13/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be reasonably common within its range.
60573		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60574		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.
60574		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western Speke Gulf and the Sengerema region of Lake Victoria (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60574		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores. It inhabits exclusively the shallow waters (0-2 m, littoral zone) of gently sloping small rock boulder shores, in particular somewhat surf protected habitats like small bays. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60574		population	eng	Usually rare; collected at six localities in the western Speke Gulf and the Sengerema region (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998), but then only 1/22 catch localities within the Mwanze and Speke Gulfs between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al</em>. 2008).
60574		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60575		conservation	eng	None known.
60575		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the western shores of the Republic of Democratic of Congo.
60575		habitat	eng	This species is found in the littoral zone.
60575		population	eng	Unknown.
60575		threats	eng	Habitat deterioration, particularly sedimentation.
60576		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60576		distribution	eng	This species is known from clear water areas in south-eastern Lake Victoria: islands in the open lake along the western shores of Ukerewe Island, the Sengerema region, and in the western half of the Speke Gulf. It is likely that the species is more widely distributed (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60576		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores where it lives at depths ranging from 1 to 6 m (littoral zone) and inhabits steeply sloping large boulder shores. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60576		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 3/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), but is thought to be relatively common within its range.
60576		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60577		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60577		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Mwanza Gulf, Speke Gulf and Sengerema Region. However, fishes have been collected by Greenwood at Godziba Island in the central part of Lake Victoria (Greenwood 1956), that in scale and squamination characters resemble <em>Neochromis rufocaudalis</em> closely. Similar fishes have also Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998: been reported from Uganda and Kenya (L. Kaufman, pers. comm.) (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60577		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores. It inhabits the shallow waters of most rocky areas within its geographical range but can be absent from large steeply sloping rocks and islands dominated by such rocks. Maximum population densities are found between 1 and 2 m depth (littoral zone). The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60577		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded greater than 50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was reported at 13/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be common within its range.
60577		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60578		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60578		distribution	eng	With certainty only known from the type locality (Entebbe, Uganda). The specimens from other localities that Greenwood (1956) assigned to <em>N. nigricans</em> need to be re-examined (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60578		habitat	eng	The species is most likely restricted to rocky shores (Greenwood 1956) in the littoral zone. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60578		population	eng	No information available.
60578		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60579		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60579		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Lake Victoria where it is restricted to mainland shores and inshore islands. It is replaced by the ecologically similar <em>N. omnicaeruleus</em> at islands in the open lake and in the western half of the Speke Gulf, and along the western shore of Ukerewe Island. It is very likely that the species is more widely distributed (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60579		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores where it lives at depth from 0 to 4 m (littoral zone) and inhabits predominantly steeply sloping large boulder shores but is found also on gently sloping shores if the boulder size is large enough to provide interstices. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60579		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded greater than 50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was reported at 15/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be common within its range.
60579		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60580		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60580		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Speke Gulf (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, a similar <em>Neochromis</em> that was common in the Mwanza Gulf (<em>Haplochromis 'kruising'</em>; Witte <em>et al.</em>, 1992, Seehausen 1994) and has strongly declined in the last ten years may be conspecific with <em>N. gigas</em>. A population with large black males resembling the black <em>N. gigas</em> from the steep slopes in the Southern Speke Gulf, is known from Bihiru Island in the Sengerema region (Seehausen 1996).
60580		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores where it is more abundant at gently sloping shores than at steeply sloping shores. Absent from very steep slopes. The species is found to 4 m depth (littoral zone). The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60580		population	eng	No information available.
60580		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60581		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60581		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (Kakindu) and from Ripon Falls, both at the Victoria Nile near Jinja (Uganda). However, the material from Ripon Falls should, hence, be considered with caution as a record for <em>N. simotes</em> until all material in the BMNH is examined (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60581		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.
60581		population	eng	No information available.
60581		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60582		conservation	eng	No information available.
60582		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake wide distribution.
60582		habitat	eng	A cave-dweller. This is a highly prized fish in the aquarium trade. It is one of the very few species that have adapted to life in darkness and deep caves.
60582		population	eng	Unknown, but this species is very rare.
60582		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60583		conservation	eng	No information available.
60583		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widely distributed throughout the lake.
60583		habitat	eng	A shell-dweller probably spawning in <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> shells. Otherwise it roams the empty sand habitat in schools. Its breeding behaviour is entirely unknown. Max. size: relatively small (80 mm maximum).
60583		population	eng	Very common.
60583		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60584		conservation	eng	No information available.
60584		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread along the northern and eastern shores of the lake.
60584		habitat	eng	<em>Neolamprologus falcicula</em> lives in pairs at the interface between rock and sand habitats and chooses a piece of rock under which to dig a nest. They tend to shoal above the bottom as <em>Neolamprologus brichardi</em> does. They are territorial and vigorously defend their offspring.
60584		population	eng	Unknown.
60584		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60585		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60585		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed throughout the southwestern sector of the lake, in particular, in and around the Bay of Ruhanga on the western coast of the lake.
60585		habitat	eng	Lives over a rocky substrate and is sympatric with <em>Neolamprologus olivaceous</em>. It is usually lives in pairs.
60585		population	eng	Unknown.
60585		threats	eng	Small-scale fishing, and sedimentation.
60586		conservation	eng	None known.
60586		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where is widely recorded throughout the Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia sectors of the lake. It is possibly also present in the DCR sector, which has been less thoroughly surveyed.
60586		habitat	eng	According to Poll (1956) this fish lives on sand in the littoral zone. Little is known about its behaviour but it is thought to be spawn in empty shells.
60586		population	eng	Unknown.
60586		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60587		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60587		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika where it has been recorded throughout the northern basin and along a small section of coastline south of Mahale.
60587		habitat	eng	A rock-dweller feeding on shells and aquatic insect larvae. It is also reported to eat bivalves. It is a popular aquarium species, which is now farmed commercially.
60587		population	eng	Unknown, but it is not abundant.
60587		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60588		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60588		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from the area around Cape Kapampa on the west coast and from the coastal strip below the Mahale Mountains on the east coast.
60588		habitat	eng	Lives on rocky substrates, singly or in small groups, and is relatively large, reaching 8 to 9 cm in total length.
60588		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
60588		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60589		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60589		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread along the northern and central parts of the lakeshore.
60589		habitat	eng	No information available. The collection sites tend be rocky shore habitats.
60589		population	eng	Unknown.
60589		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60590		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60590		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern shores of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Bulu Point in Tanzania.
60590		habitat	eng	Its lives in rocky shores, where it can be very abundant. In these areas several other rubble-dwellers are also abundant. It appears to share the same ecological niche as <em>Neolamprologus leleupi</em>.
60590		population	eng	Unknown, but this species is very rare.
60590		threats	eng	Sedimentation and other human impact along the coast of the lake appear to have altered community structure and reduced biodiversity in adjacent sub-littoral areas.
60591		conservation	eng	No information available.
60591		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where is occurs along the Zambian shores of the lake. It has not been found in the northern half of the lake.
60591		habitat	eng	A moderately gregarious species found over rocky substrates.
60591		population	eng	Unknown.
60591		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60592		conservation	eng	No information available.
60592		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the coastline below the Mahali Mountains (East Coast) and on a few occasions has been recorded on the south western shores in DCR.
60592		habitat	eng	The ecology and ethology are unknown.
60592		population	eng	Unknown, but this species is very rare in its preferred habitat
60592		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60593		conservation	eng	No information available.
60593		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Widely distributed throughout the lake where it is most common in the south and much more rare in the northern basin. It has not been observed on the northeastern coast in Burundi.
60593		habitat	eng	The species lives above a rocky substrate.
60593		population	eng	Unknown.
60593		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60594		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60594		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika with a lake wide distribution.
60594		habitat	eng	This is one of the least specialized forms of <em>Neolamprologus</em>. It is ubiquitous over sand habitats all around the lake. It shows very little geographic variation. An omnivore.
60594		population	eng	A common species.
60594		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60595		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60595		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from an area on the western shores in DCR, near Kalemie.
60595		habitat	eng	The species is a shell-dweller, and is a dwarf species.
60595		population	eng	No information.
60595		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60596		conservation	eng	No information available.
60596		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the northern parts of the lake.
60596		habitat	eng	Prefers soft bottom sand/mud habitats.
60596		population	eng	No information available.
60596		threats	eng	No information available.
60597		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60597		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the southern parts of the lake.
60597		habitat	eng	It is rock-dweller, often seen in the open. It feeds predominantly on snails for which the pharyngeal bone and teeth are specifically adapted to allow it to break open the thick shells of some of the more heavily protected species.
60597		population	eng	No information available.
60597		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60598		conservation	eng	No information available.
60598		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southwestern shores of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
60598		habitat	eng	The name <em>petricola</em> means "living on the rocks" so presumably this is its preferred habitat.
60598		population	eng	Unknown.
60598		threats	eng	No information available.
60599		conservation	eng	No information available.
60599		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widely distributed in the southwestern parts of lake.
60599		habitat	eng	<em>Neolamprologus obscurus</em> is a cave-dweller that seldom leaves the shelter of the rubble. In many ways it has a similar ecology to <em>Neolamprologus niger</em>.
60599		population	eng	Unknown.
60599		threats	eng	No information available.
60600		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60600		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika with a lake wide distribution.
60600		habitat	eng	The species is the rock-dweller, living in open water near the shore. There are commercial farms for this species, which is popular in the aquarium trade.
60600		population	eng	Unknown.
60600		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60601		conservation	eng	No information available.
60601		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it has been recorded in and around Ruhanga Bay on the western coast of the lake.
60601		habitat	eng	No information available.
60601		population	eng	Unknown.
60601		threats	eng	No information available.
60602		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60602		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution.
60602		habitat	eng	A shell dweller. Its lives in <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> shell piles at the foot of rocky slopes. It is always found in rather deep water were the shell piles are not rolled about by the surf.
60602		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is rare.
60602		threats	eng	Sedimentation is the greatest threat because this species lives on, and eats the algae, which are found on, the rocky slopes.
60603		conservation	eng	No information available.
60603		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southern part of the lake in the Zambian sector.
60603		habitat	eng	Lives in a rubble substrate in caves. The fish does not appear to be very prolific.
60603		population	eng	No information available.
60603		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60604		conservation	eng	No information available.
60604		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution throughout the southern part of the lake.
60604		habitat	eng	A rock-dweller and is probably microphagous. Little else is known about its ecology.
60604		population	eng	Unknown.
60604		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60605		conservation	eng	No information available.
60605		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.
60605		habitat	eng	The fry and the adults hide in the rocky rubble and are rarely seen in the open. Spawns in deep, dark recesses with a few fry being hatched in each spawn. This species is not prolific and doesn't normally produce more than a dozen fry in a single batch.
60605		population	eng	No information available.
60605		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60606		conservation	eng	No information available.
60606		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the lake, except in the south where the niche is occupied by <em>Neolamprologus modestus</em>.
60606		habitat	eng	One of the most common and ubiquitous fish in the lake. It is seen over sand as well as on rocks, but usually near the surface and near the shore.
60606		population	eng	Unknown.
60606		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60607		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60607		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of the lake along the Tanzanian coast (north of Kigoma).
60607		habitat	eng	This species lives on the rocky substrate in the littoral zone.
60607		population	eng	Unknown.
60607		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60608		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60608		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the southern part of the lake.
60608		habitat	eng	One of the most common and ubiquitous fish in the lake. It is seen over sand as well as on rocks, but usually near the surface and near the shore.
60608		population	eng	Unknown, but this species is very common.
60608		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60609		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60609		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This is a relatively new species discovered by Mr. Buscher during a trip to the southern shores of the lake in August, 1982, and in February of 1984 by Brichard's son on the Ubwari Peninsula.
60609		habitat	eng	A bentho-pelagic species living close to the lake bed, at between 15–25 m.
60609		population	eng	Unknown.
60609		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60610		conservation	eng	No information available.
60610		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of the lake.
60610		habitat	eng	At least in the northern part of the lake its depth range extends from 3 meters below the surface to 25 or 30 m. It is a popular species for the aquarium trade but is protected from over-collection in the deeper waters due to problems of decompression associated with bringing fish to the surface from depth.
60610		population	eng	Unknown.
60610		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60611		conservation	eng	No information available.
60611		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known on the southern shores of the lake, especially in Cameron bay.
60611		habitat	eng	A typical rubble-dweller. It is not rare in its preferred habitat around Cape Chipimbi. Like the other species in this group, the fish has been exported for the aquarium trade and has been bred in captivity. The ethology of this species is poorly documented.
60611		population	eng	Unknown.
60611		threats	eng	Sedimentation and other human impact along the coast of the lake appear to have altered community structure and reduced biodiversity in adjacent sub-littoral areas.
60612		conservation	eng	No information available.
60612		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it has been recorded throughout the entire east coast.
60612		habitat	eng	It is normally found at around 40 meters depth where it is relatively abundant.
60612		population	eng	Abundant at approximately 40 m depth.
60612		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60613		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60613		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed in the southern half of lake. It has not been recorded in the northern part of the lake.
60613		habitat	eng	A ubiquitous fish. Little is known about its ecology or ethology.
60613		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is very rare.
60613		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60614		conservation	eng	No information available.
60614		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the eastern shores of Burundi.
60614		habitat	eng	<em>Neolamprologus schreyeni</em> lives inside deep rock crevices and is rarely, if ever, seen in the open. It produces about 20 fry in each batch and they are watched over by both parents. The nests appear to be very narrow slit in the rocks, out of reach of any other fish except young mastacembelid eels or <em>Telmatochromis bifrenatus</em>.
60614		population	eng	No information available.
60614		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60615		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60615		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from the area around Cape Kongwe on the western shores in DCR.
60615		habitat	eng	A cave-dweller found near Cape Kongwe. It is gregarious and often seen in small schools.
60615		population	eng	Unknown.
60615		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60616		conservation	eng	No information available.
60616		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from a strip along the central eastern Tanzanian shoreline.
60616		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology, or the behaviour of this elusive species.
60616		population	eng	Unknown.
60616		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60617		conservation	eng	No information available.
60617		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is widespread within the lake but its full lakewide distribution range is unclear.
60617		habitat	eng	A schooling species that is known to live in dead <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> snails shells in shallow waters. If <em>Neothauma</em> shells are not available, Burgundy snail shells provide an acceptable substitute. It feeds on microorganisms.
60617		population	eng	Quite abundant at those locations where it has been observed.
60617		threats	eng	Shoreline sedimentation.
60618		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60618		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the northern end of lake.
60618		habitat	eng	Normally encountered in 2–10 m of water, a little way off the lakebed, feeding on microorganisms drifting by in plankton clouds. It is a mouthbrooder brooding an estimated 20–25 eggs of 4 mm in diameter in each batch. Fry are released close to shore near the surface. The male build a crater nest on sand, most often between the rocks. It is gregarious.
60618		population	eng	Unknown.
60618		threats	eng	Water pollution.
60619		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60619		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60619		habitat	eng	Encountered in the water column above the bottom along rocky slopes. This is a strongly sexually dimorphic species.
60619		population	eng	Unknown.
60619		threats	eng	Water pollution.
60620		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60620		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed along the southern shores of the lake.
60620		habitat	eng	Prefers a rocky habitat (occasionally sand) in the littoral zone.
60620		population	eng	No information available but it is thought to be a rare species.
60620		threats	eng	Deterioration of the habitat; water pollution and other human activities along coastline of the lake.
60621		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60621		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is thought to be restricted to the southern end of lake.
60621		habitat	eng	This species lives on the rocky substrate in the littoral zone and is not thought to go below 5 m depth.
60621		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is very common in its preferred habitat.
60621		threats	eng	Water pollution.
60622		conservation	eng	No information available.
60622		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Zigi and Pangani rivers in Tanzania. It might also be present in the Kenyan part of the Pangani system. It is possibly also introduced in Lake Chala, but this needs confirmation.
60622		habitat	eng	Lives in rivers and lakes where it feeds on insects and algae (Lowe 1955).  Max. size: 161 mm SL (Trewavas and Teugels 1991).
60622		population	eng	No information.
60622		threats	eng	Not known.
60623		conservation	eng	Nile tilapia should be urgently removed from ponds in the Upper Zambezi system in northern Zambia and replaced by <em>O. andersonii</em>. Attempts should be made to prevent the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> and establish refuges for <em>O. andersonii</em> and other species.
60623		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Zambezi, as well as the Kafue, Okavango and Cunene Rivers. Occasionally also recorded from the Middle Zambezi (Skelton 2001). <br/> <br/>In East Africa, the species was introduced in Kenya in 1980 from Botswana (Motiti Pan, Okavango drainage) by I. Parker for aquaculture purposes. It was introduced to a dam near Nairobi and it is possible that some specimens found their way into the Nairobi River system.
60623		habitat	eng	Adults are found mainly in deeper pools and main river channels. Juveniles and sub-adults are found in a variety of habitats in rivers and floodplain lagoons, large open swamps, and, more rarely small tributaries of the rivers. Feeds on detritus, diatoms and zooplankton. Males excavate large, saucer-shaped nests, females mouthbrood the eggs and fry. Multiple broods are raised during the warmer months. Lives for up to 11 years.
60623		population	eng	Fairly common and widespread in the Okavango and Upper Zambezi Rivers, although depleted by fishing in some areas such as the Barotse floodplain.
60623		threats	eng	The spread of alien <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> (L.) as a result of aquaculture introductions in the Kafue and Upper Zambezi catchments is a major threat to the survival of <em>O. andersonii</em> throughout its range (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> has caused the extinction of <em>O. esculentus</em> (Graham) and <em>O. variabilis</em> (Boulenger) in Lake Victoria. It has also replaced <em>O. mortimeri</em> (Trewavas) in Lake Kariba, has spread throughout the Kafue Flats in Zambia and  is rapidly replacing <em>O. mossambicus</em> (Peters) in the Limpopo system in southern Africa. <br/> <br/>Increasing fishing effort and increasingly widespread use of small-meshed fishing nets has depleted stocks in many areas, such as the heavily-populated areas of the Barotse Floodplain on the Upper Zambezi River in Zambia. Floodplain lagoons no longer provide refugia as they are all intensively seine netted. <br/> <br/>A commercial gillnet fishery in the Panhandle area of the Okavango Delta also targets this species.
60624		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance is required.
60624		distribution	eng	<em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the swamps and saline lakes in Mweru-wa-Ntipa, and from the Lower Luapula River system and possibly from the Lufira River. It has also been recorded from Lake Kivu. Part of the distribution area of <em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> caused by introduction could be <em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> due to wrong identifications. Its distribution could thus be larger than currently known.
60624		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. Young of <em>O. mweruensis</em> feed on epiphytic filamentous algae in swampy areas. This species is found in quiet waters along river margins and backwaters, in floodplain habitat and impoundments. This species spawns along the banks of lakes/rivers at an average depth of 12 to 13 m. The mating territory is largely occupied by a low mound with 6-12 grooves or crests radiating from the small central concave area (star-shaped nest). Males build the star-shaped nests on a sandy substrates. In any fisheries where <em>O. macrochir</em> is reported, its might be a combination of the 2 species.
60624		population	eng	No information available.
60624		threats	eng	<em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> is used for aquaculture in an experimental stage in central Africa. It is also threatened by the regression of wetland habitats around rivers, lakes and floodplains.
60625		conservation	eng	No information available.
60625		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it also enters the deltas and lower reaches of its major affluent rivers, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60625		habitat	eng	Found in the coastal areas around lake Tanganyika (max depth: 10 m) over sand habitats, and in river mouths and lagoons. Feeds on diatoms, filamentous blue-green algae and detritus grazed from submerged surfaces.
60625		population	eng	This species represent one of the most common inshore species found in the markets in the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. There has been a reported decline in the catches over the last 10 years.
60625		threats	eng	Siltation; and over-fishing, mostly at the northern end of the lake.
60626		conservation	eng	No information available.
60626		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Chungruru, a crater lake north of Lake Malawi, which has no water outlet (extent of occurrence <100 km²).
60626		habitat	eng	Crater lake waters.
60626		population	eng	Declining due to human intervention and environmental perturbation.
60626		threats	eng	Fluctuation in water level and siltation.
60627		conservation	eng	No specific information.
60627		distribution	eng	Native to: Lakes Albert, Edward and George. Introduced to: Lakes Kyoga, Victoria, Naivasha, and the Lower Ruzizi Basin and upper/middle parts of the Kagera river system (Welcomme 1967, 1988).
60627		habitat	eng	This is essentially a species of lagoons, especially closed or nearly closed lagoons. It is tolerant to the fluctuating physical conditions in these shallow lagoons and tolerates low oxygen conditions and high temperatures up to 38°C (Trewavas 1983). It prefers shallow channels and lagoons on a vegetated lake-shore (Eccles 1992). Its preferred depth range is 0-10 m, mainly in lagoons and near the papyrus fringe, in shallow muddy bays and inlets of lakes (Witte and de Winter 1995). It feeds mainly on phytoplankton, filimentous algae and has sometimes been reported to feed from bottom deposits (Trewavas 1983; Witte and de Winter 1995). It is a maternal mouth brooder with no evidence of a restricted breeding season or a peak in the reproductive period. However, gonadal development seems to be favoured by periods of high temperatures and sunshine, actual spawning probably being triggered by the onset of rains following such periods (Hyder 1970).  Max. size: 232 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).
60627		population	eng	No information available.
60627		threats	eng	No serious threats identified.
60628		conservation	eng	The lake fishery was closed in 1960 to allow recovery and only very few artisanal fishermen exploit Lake Jipe. On the Kenyan side of the lake there is no exploitation because the lake falls within Tsavo National Park.
60628		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Jipe, which is approximately 16 km², in the Pangani drainage (Mugisha <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has since managed to colonise Nyumba ya Mungu (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 56 km²) via the river Ruvu. The total estimated EOO is therefore 72 km² (i.e., less than 100 km²).
60628		habitat	eng	This species prefers riverine habitats or inshore areas of the reservoir for grazing and refuge (Bailey <em>et al</em>.1999). It feeds mainly on microscopic algae, mostly periphyton, although the presence of inorganic particles and organic debris in the stomach indicates that food is also taken from the bottom (Trewavas 1983). There is no peak breeding season (Trewavas 1983). Max. size: 345 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).
60628		population	eng	In Lake Jipe the fishery for this species declined towards 1958, following the introduction of <em>O. esculentus</em>. Combined with the problems of infestation by <em>Typha dominingensis</em> and <em>Cyperus papyrus</em>, the fishery was closed in 1960. Samples collected by De Vos in the Kenyan waters of the lake (about 5% by area) in 1998 indicated the existence of the species but at very low abundance. Observations by Bwathondi (2000) indicate that the species declined to less than 9% of the community. In the Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir the population was reported to decline to less than 10% of the community in 2000 as compared to 1974 when the species made up approximately 46.2% of the catch (Denny and Bailey 1976). The mean catch within the reservoir 1973 and 1978 was 3,412 tons for a fishing effort of 755 canoes (Nhwani 1988). By 2000, the annual reported catch had declined to 521 tons with 534 canoes (Horril 2000). The population decline is estimated at 95.5% in 28 yrs.
60628		threats	eng	Over-fishing of juveniles and destruction of habitats by use of small meshed nets e.g., beach-seines of 49 mm in mesh size. Infestation by <em>Typha dominingensis, Cyperus papyrus</em> and <em>Phragmites mauritianus</em>. High levels of siltation. Competition for space/habitat between this species and <em>O. esculentus</em>. Increased salinity due to reduction in lake level.
60629		conservation	eng	Parts of Lake Manyara and Tarangire fall within the National Park where exploitation is prohibited. Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported that fish populations from the protected park areas of Lake Manyara and Tarangire river form an important seed stock for the replenishment of the heavily fished populations in the two areas.
60629		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the alkaline Rift Valley Lakes (Trewavas 1983). It is distributed in Lake Manyara (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 413 km²), Lake Eyas, the Yaeda basin (EOO = 1,160 km²), Lake Kitangiri (115 km²) and Lake Singida (EOO = 105 km²). The estimated EOO is 1,800 km².
60629		habitat	eng	The species is distributed throughout the waters of the occupied lakes. It grows to about 13 cm maximum size and size at first maturity varies with sites. Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported 9.5 cm and 10.5 cm for size at maturity in Oltukai and Parkside of Lake Manyara, respectively.
60629		population	eng	The species is reported as declining in all alkaline rift valley lakes. In Lake Manyara, catch records for all fishes show a decline from 1,800 tons in 1970 to about 0.5 tons in 1990. The drought of 1982 almost wiped-out the population of <em>O. amphimelas</em> (Mugisha <em>et al</em>.1993). Latest sampling, however, indicates that the species still exists in the lake at a much lower level (Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. 2000). The current status of fish populations in Lakes Kitangiri, Singida and Eyas is not available.
60629		threats	eng	Drought: severe drought has often killed large numbers of fish in these shallow lakes (5–6 m deep). Over-fishing: fishing with small meshed nets captures all fish including the juveniles, leading to problems of growth over-fishing.
60630		conservation	eng	No information available.
60630		distribution	eng	Endemic in the River Pangani, the outflow of Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir, which has also been colonized. The current estimated surface area of Nyumba ya Mungu is 56 km² (Bwathondi and Ngatunga2001), hence the estimated EOO is less than 100 km², including the Pangani River.
60630		habitat	eng	The species prefers riverine habitats and the inshore areas of the reservoir (Bailey <em>et al</em>. 1999).
60630		population	eng	The species supported a lucrative fishery between 1969–1971 (Bailey <em>et al</em>. 1999), but later declined to low levels due to pest infection reported by Horril (2000). For example, in 1974 the species composed 32.2% of the catches in the reservoir (Denny and Bailey 1976) but Nhwani (1988) and Bailey <em>et al</em>. (1999) failed to catch any individuals in their subsequent surveys even though it was still occasionally observed in some local markets. Currently (2003) it makes up less than 5% of the total catch. In terms of total production in the early seventies reservoir production was 3,412 tons for a fishing effort of 755 canoes which declining to a current production of less than 510 tons caught by 534 vessels. This equates to a population decline of 96.7% during the last 30 yrs.
60630		threats	eng	Clearing of macrophytes, which provide essential refuges and feeding areas. Disease outbreaks as reported in 1969 when the population was almost lost. Over-fishing and use of illegal fishing gears and methods. Increased siltation and pollution from domestic and agricultural effluents.
60631		conservation	eng	No information available.
60631		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa catchment
60631		habitat	eng	Found in both lakes and rivers.
60631		population	eng	The species is commercially exploited and composed 34.17% of the total annual catch in 1977 (Bernascek 1980) rising to 70% in 1996 (Fish. Div. 1996). Catch per vessel as a measure of relative abundance declined slightly: 3.7 tons per vessel was landed in 1997 compared to 3.2 tons per vessel in 1996. The decline is only 13.5%.
60631		threats	eng	Over-fishing: exploitation by small meshed nets (illegal fishing gears). Siltation and land based pollution.
60632		conservation	eng	No information available.
60632		distribution	eng	Endemic to the lower Malagarasi River and its delta.
60632		habitat	eng	Found in shallow standing or slow-flowing waters, mainly in marginal vegetation and swamps around the main river, lagoons, ponds and its delta. Mostly planktivorous.
60632		population	eng	No information available.
60632		threats	eng	Over-fishing and agriculture extension into the wetlands around the main river and the delta. Common in fisheries catches - this species is of economic importance.
60633		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Monitoring and control of pollution levels is needed to help protect this species.
60633		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Orontes River basin in Syria and Turkey.
60633		habitat	eng	A benthic, riverine species feeding and spawning in slow-moving rivers.
60633		population	eng	No published data are available on population trends or decline rates. The species is believed to be declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.).
60633		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are changes in water level caused by natural drying out of rivers as a result of drought, and water extraction during dry seasons. Domestic and sewage pollution of waterways also threaten the species. <em>Acanthobrama</em> species are highly sensitive to ammonia concentrations therefore are highly sensitive to pollution (Elron <em>et al</em>. in press).
60634		conservation	eng	No information available.
60634		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Chala (extent of occurrence < 2 km²) on the eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro.
60634		habitat	eng	Lives in Lake Chala, which is a deep, clear lake (Trewavas 1983). Young feed on algae and debris from the bottom between the rocks near the shore. No information was obtained on the food preference of adults (Trewavas 1983).  Max. size: 253 mm SL (Trewavas and Teugels 1991).
60634		population	eng	Declining.
60634		threats	eng	Siltation and erosion; Seasonal drought; and weed-infestation.
60635		conservation	eng	None.
60635		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the catchment rivers for Lakes Yliki and Paralimni [now totally drained] and the rivers Assopos and Kifissos in Greece.
60635		habitat	eng	Lives in running water with aquatic plants.
60635		population	eng	Local declines are reported but the sub-population is stable within Livadia city (a large system of springs).
60635		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, and drought.
60636		conservation	eng	No information available.
60636		distribution	eng	Only known from the upper Ruchugu drainage near Kasulu, in the Malagarasi River basin.
60636		habitat	eng	Slow running water of the Mgandazi and Ruchugu rivers. In the Mgandazi it was found in a section bordered with dense vegetation (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Most likely a detritus eater (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60636		population	eng	Never abundant.
60636		threats	eng	Water turbidity as a consequence of erosion on watershed due to agriculture extension.
60637		conservation	eng	No information available.
60637		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality at Uvinza (Middle Malagarasi River drainage, Tanzania) (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60637		habitat	eng	Rheophilic species, confined to swift running waters (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Stomach contents included numerous algae species (De Vos and Seegers 1998). A mouthbrooding species (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60637		population	eng	A low-density species.
60637		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
60638		conservation	eng	No information available.
60638		distribution	eng	Known from the upper and middle courses of the Malagarasi drainage (Burundi and Tanzania).
60638		habitat	eng	Found in the main river where it lives near the reeds and vegetation fringing the river in places with a moderate current. It is also common in several small and moderate flowing affluents sometimes with stronger currents (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Stomach contents contained very small eggs, plant and insect debris and small crustaceans. The gut of a larger specimen (75 mm SL) contained a few slender parasitic nematodes about 10 mm long (De Vos and Seegers 1998). It is probably a female mouthbrooder with rather large eggs (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60638		population	eng	No information available.
60638		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
60639		conservation	eng	No information available.
60639		distribution	eng	Only known from the Mazimero and Nanganga Rivers (Upper Malagarasi River, Burundi) (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60639		habitat	eng	Found in two clear water rivulets with sandy and stony bottoms, draining their fast running waters from the hilly area of the Kumoso region to the Upper Malagarasi (De Vos and Seegers 1998). In several specimens the gut was filled with sand, plant debris and algae (De Vos and Seegers 1998).It is a mouthbrooder (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60639		population	eng	No information available.
60639		threats	eng	Water turbidity as a consequence of erosion on watershed due to agriculture extension.
60640		conservation	eng	No information available.
60640		distribution	eng	Only known from the Majamazi River (= Milowesi River), a western tributary of the Ugalla River (Malagarasi System, Tanzania).
60640		habitat	eng	Rocky habitats in relatively clear, swift and shallow water (De Vos and Seegers 1998). No data were obtained on its diet in natural conditions (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Reproduction has not been studied but it is probably a mouthbrooding species (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60640		population	eng	Found at low densities.
60640		threats	eng	Increased water turbidity due to land erosion.
60641		conservation	eng	No information available.
60641		distribution	eng	Only known from the Upper Malagarasi river drainage in Burundi (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60641		habitat	eng	Often found in swift running waters, but occasionally also in quiet rivulets (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Numerous algae were found in the gut (De Vos and Seegers 1998). A mouthbrooder with low fecundity (De Vos and Seegers 1998).
60641		population	eng	Found at low densities.
60641		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to land degradation.
60642		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60642		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika (north of Ubwari).
60642		habitat	eng	Occurs down to 40 m depth, and maybe deeper, above rocky habitats where they appear to prefer towering rock pinnacles held together by calcite landmarks around which the school swims. It is a mouth brooder and a popular aquarium species.
60642		population	eng	The population status is not known.
60642		threats	eng	Water pollution and over-exploitation.
60643		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60643		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is confined to the extreme north (north of Ubwari).
60643		habitat	eng	Lives on rocky substrates in the littoral zone.
60643		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60643		threats	eng	Water pollution. Over exploitation for the aquarium trade and other human activities.
60644		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60644		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in clear water areas of south eastern Lake Victoria. The most widely distributed species of the 'rockpicker' lineage. Abundance is very variable between localities. At most places this is a rare species but at the geographically isolated island complexes Mabibi Islands and Vesi Archipelago it is abundant or even one of the numerically dominant species in appropriate habitats (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60644		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. It feeds on a diet consisting of benthic invertebrates, periphyton and macrophytes.
60644		population	eng	No information available.
60644		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60645		conservation	eng	No information available.
60645		distribution	eng	Distributed across three islands in south eastern Lake Victoria: Chamagati (Sengerema Region), Makobe (South Western Speke gulf), and Nansio (Ukerewe). Thought to be absent from other areas of the lake.
60645		habitat	eng	Restricted to rocky substrates. It lives and feeds exclusively on the surface of rocky substrates (Seehausen <em>et al</em>. 1998). It feeds on Chironomid larvae with filamentous algae, diatoms and insects. It is a mouth brooder with parental care.
60645		population	eng	Declining but with no recent data to quantify the rate of population decline
60645		threats	eng	Predation by Nile perch and other predators; illegal fishing practice; and water turbidity/pollution.
60646		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60646		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60646		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.
60646		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, dropping to less than 10% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 8/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, and is assumed to be still relatively common (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).
60646		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60647		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60647		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60647		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.
60647		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 63% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased due to recent range extensions, as the species is adapting to new conditions in the lake.
60647		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60648		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60648		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60648		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.
60648		population	eng	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes decrease from less than 2 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, but increases again to 0.9 for 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased to more than 2, especially as the habitat has considerably extended.
60648		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60649		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60649		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60649		habitat	eng	This species belongs to the deep benthic community. It feed upon the scales of a variety of benthic species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periodsof reproduction. Young <em>P. microlepis</em> have been only been seen close to the shore. Its diet shifts from a variety of micro-organisms and algae when young to an adult diet of mainly fish scales. Little is known about its reproduction although it is known to reproduce inshore among rocks and is remarkable for showing features both of mouth-brooding and substrate-guarding, the two major patterns of parental shown in cichlids
60649		population	eng	Unknown, but large schools of thousands of juvenile <em>P. microlepis</em> are often seen at sites not far from brooding pairs. This species is very common throughout its habitat, but is never abundant.
60649		threats	eng	No known.
60650		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60650		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from Zambia at Musende Bay, Chituta and off Mwela.
60650		habitat	eng	<em>Perissodus eccentricus</em> has only been caught at depths of between 60 and 100 m and it is thought to belong to the deepwater benthic community. They feed upon scales of a variety of benthic fish species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periods of reproduction.
60650		population	eng	Unknown.
60650		threats	eng	No known.
60651		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60651		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is restricted to the area around Cape Chipimbi and northwards near to Kapamba.
60651		habitat	eng	Always found over rocks. Feeds on rock biocover.
60651		population	eng	Unknown.
60651		threats	eng	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.
60652		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60652		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a number of geographic races.
60652		habitat	eng	It is only found on rocks in the littoral zone in a few meters of water over rocks.
60652		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60652		threats	eng	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.
60653		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60653		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60653		habitat	eng	It is only found on rocks in the littoral zone in a few meters of water.
60653		population	eng	Unknown.
60653		threats	eng	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.
60654		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60654		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread.
60654		habitat	eng	It only found on rocky substrate, upon which it grazes, in the littoral zone.
60654		population	eng	This species is common but its distribution is very sporadic.
60654		threats	eng	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.
60655		conservation	eng	No information available.
60655		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60655		habitat	eng	No information available.
60655		population	eng	Population size is not known.
60655		threats	eng	No information available.
60656		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60656		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60656		habitat	eng	This species is one of the main members of the rocky-shore grazers in the lake. Their brush-like pads of tricuspid teeth on a long stem hinged at their base scrape algae from the rocks.
60656		population	eng	Unknown.
60656		threats	eng	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.
60657		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60657		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60657		habitat	eng	This species belong to the deep-water benthic community where it feeds upon the scales of a variety of benthic species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periods of reproduction. It seems to be confined to rocky habitats.
60657		population	eng	A rare species.
60657		threats	eng	Water pollution; and habitat deterioration due to agricultural development and deforestation around the lake.
60658		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60658		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60658		habitat	eng	This species belong to the deepwater benthic community. They feed upon scales of a variety of benthic species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periods of reproduction.
60658		population	eng	No information available.
60658		threats	eng	Water pollution; and habitat deterioration due to agricultural development and deforestation.
60659		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60659		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60659		habitat	eng	A rare benthic predominantly deepwater species.
60659		population	eng	No information available.
60659		threats	eng	Water pollution; and habitat deterioration through agricultural development and deforestation around the lake.
60660		conservation	eng	No information available.
60660		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in Malagarasi River delta. It is common throughout the lake.
60660		habitat	eng	Found at a wide range of depths (5 to 100 m deep) where it tends to be in schools off the bottom. Feeds on scales and skin grazed off other fish.
60660		population	eng	Rare in the fisheries catches.
60660		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing; and pollution and increased water turbidity in the inshore zone.
60661		conservation	eng	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.
60661		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60661		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.
60661		population	eng	No information available.
60661		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60662		conservation	eng	This species has not been reported since the 1980s. More studies are needed to establish if it is still extant.
60662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60662		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.
60662		population	eng	No data are available, however the species appears to have declined since the 1970s, and has not been reported since 1985.
60662		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60663		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60663		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60663		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore. It is morphologically and ecologically partly molluscivore.
60663		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 63% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased due to recent range extensions, as the species is adapting to new conditions in the lake.
60663		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat).
60664		conservation	eng	No information available.
60664		distribution	eng	Lakes Albert, Victoria, Kyoga, George, Nabugabo, and the swamp lakes Kachira, Kijanebola and Nakavali which lie between Lakes Edward and Victoria (Skelton in Daget <em>et. al</em>. 1991).
60664		habitat	eng	Probably occurs among submerged plants and in open water zones enclosed by papyrus swamps.
60664		population	eng	No information.
60664		threats	eng	Conversion of swamps for various purposes might endanger members of the species in those habitats. Agriculture may lead to erosion and increase water turbidity. No serous threats identified in the lake habitats.
60665		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60665		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed but is largely absent in the north.
60665		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively in rocky areas near the shore.
60665		population	eng	Unknown.
60665		threats	eng	Deterioration of the habitat through sedimentation and water pollution.
60666		conservation	eng	None known.
60666		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60666		habitat	eng	The species has been found in the littoral zone, the sub-littoral zone and off shore, over sand and mud. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.
60666		population	eng	This species appears to be increasing in numbers. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes increase from zero in 1979/80 and 1987/88, to 0.7 in 1993/95 and more than four for 2006/08.
60666		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60667		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60667		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60667		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
60667		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as less than 10% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and less than 10% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 17/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008) but the population is thought to have decreased since the 1970s.
60667		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60668		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
60668		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores in the littoral zone, where it feeds on insects and zooplankton.
60668		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded greater than 50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was reported at 11/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be common within its range.
60668		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60669		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60669		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mwanza Gulf, Speke Gulf, Ukerewe and Sengerema. Geographically isolated places such as the Miandere Island northeast of Kome Island (Tanzania), are inhabited by morphologically aberrant populations that are probably derived from this species (Seehausen 1996a). Populations similar to <em>P. pundamilia</em> have also been reported from Kenyan shores (L. Kaufman, pers. comm.) and the species may have a circumlacustrine distribution (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60669		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates (littoral zone). It is one of the most cryptically living mbipi species. It inhabits moderately steep  and steep shores  with medium to large boulders, where it lives in large crevices  between rocks, predominantly in shallow waters, and in rockpools within emerged rocky reefs. It is an insectivore, and its diet consists of benthic invertebrates.
60669		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 11/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be abundant where found.
60669		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60670		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60670		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three localities at the south-western shores of the Speke Gulf (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). <em>Pundamilia</em> with similar male coloration are known also from the shores of Ukerewe Island and from the Sengerema region where they live in habitats very similar to those of <em>P. igneopinnis</em>. They differ morpholmetrically considerably from <em>P. igneopinnis</em>, differ also in their vertical bar patterns, and in details of male coloration, and are likely belonging to separate species (Seehausen 1996a: 114-118).
60670		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates (littoral zone). It inhabits moderately steep and steep rocky shores with medium sized to very big boulders. On moderately steep slopes, it is confined to slightly offshore areas beyond 2 m depth. On steep slopes it inhabits already  immediately inshore waters where it lives in deep and wide gaps between big boulders, sharing this habitat with <em>P. pundamilia</em>. Phytoplanktivore/detritivore.
60670		population	eng	Although sampling within its known range, recent surveys in the Speke Gulf did not record this species (Mizoiri <em>et al</em>. 2008)
60670		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
60671		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.
60671		distribution	eng	This species is known mainly from the Mwanza Gulf, where Python Islands harbour the most southern population. It is also known from three islands in the Speke Gulf, while it is almost certainly absent from the many other islands and mainland rock shores in the Speke Gulf region (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
60671		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky shores at depths between 2 and at least 10 m (littoral and sub-littoral zone). It appears that it does, however, not occur in inshore rock crevices and pools where these are inhabited by <em>P. pundamilia</em> (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). Insectivore/Zooplanktivore. Diet consists of benthic invertebrates and zooplankton.
60671		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 13/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), but appears to be rare.
60671		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60672		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60672		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika it is widely distributed throughout the lake.
60672		habitat	eng	A benthic species favouring sand habitats.
60672		population	eng	Unknown.
60672		threats	eng	Water pollution
60673		conservation	eng	No information available.
60673		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Malagarasi river.
60673		habitat	eng	Found in marginal vegetation of the main river, lagoons and floodplain channels. Preys mainly on insects and small fish.
60673		population	eng	Not known, but never abundant in fisheries catches
60673		threats	eng	Regression of the swamps in the wetlands around the main river due to agriculture and human settlement.
60674		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60674		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it thought to be restricted to the Ubwari Peninsula.
60674		habitat	eng	Lives in the rocky inshore areas.
60674		population	eng	Unknown
60674		threats	eng	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.
60675		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60675		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Distributed in the southwestern part of the lake.
60675		habitat	eng	Found in the rocky inshore habitats. Seldom found below 5 m.
60675		population	eng	Unknown.
60675		threats	eng	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.
60676		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60676		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widely distributed in the lake.
60676		habitat	eng	This species lives in the rocky substrate inshore. Not often encountered below 5 meters.
60676		population	eng	Unknown.
60676		threats	eng	Sedimentation following deforestation, erosion, etc.
60677		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60677		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread.
60677		habitat	eng	Lives on rocky substrates in 2–3 m of water.
60677		population	eng	Unknown but very rare.
60677		threats	eng	The greatest threats to the species are water pollution and habitat deterioration, and agricultural development.
60678		conservation	eng	No information available.
60678		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River delta. Common throughout the lake.
60678		habitat	eng	Prefers inshore waters (0–10 m) over rocky or mixed substrates where it feeds on filamentous algae, diatoms and bacteria.
60678		population	eng	Unknown though not abundant in fisheries catches
60678		threats	eng	Fisheries, and water turbidity and siltation in the inshore zone
60679		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60679		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Only known from the Kigoma area
60679		habitat	eng	Lives in rubble habitats in shallow water not exceeding 5 m and never exceeding 10 m. Feeds on biocover.
60679		population	eng	Unknown.
60679		threats	eng	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.
60680		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60680		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It has a wide distribution but is not known from the southern parts of the lake.
60680		habitat	eng	Lives in the very shallow pebble shore surf zones.
60680		population	eng	A rare species.
60680		threats	eng	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.
60681		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60681		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in northern the part of lake.
60681		habitat	eng	Lives in the very shallow pebble shore surf zones.
60681		population	eng	No information available.
60681		threats	eng	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.
60682		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60682		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60682		habitat	eng	A benthic species found on mud/silt habitats at variable depths down to 70 m.
60682		population	eng	Rare throughout its area of distribution.
60682		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60683		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60683		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of lake.
60683		habitat	eng	Found in shallow water over rocky substrates.
60683		population	eng	The species is rare throughout its area of distribution.
60683		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Agricultural developments, dams, the construction of the Bujumbura-Rumonge road in Burundi and deforestation have transformed the environment. This has led to increasing siltation and loss of habitat.
60684		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60684		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60684		habitat	eng	Lives in the littoral zone in rocky substrate.
60684		population	eng	Unknown but the species is rare.
60684		threats	eng	The aquarium trade heavily exploits this species. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat.
60685		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60685		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60685		habitat	eng	Lives in the rocky substrate of the littoral zone.
60685		population	eng	Rare.
60685		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60686		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tangnyika with a widespread distribution.
60686		habitat	eng	Known from many types of rock substrate even in very turbid waters. It is among the most common and ubiquitous fishes of the lake. It is also among the first fish to be exported from the lake.
60686		population	eng	Very common species.
60686		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat following forest clearance for agriculture.
60687		conservation	eng	No information available.
60687		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60687		habitat	eng	No information available.
60687		population	eng	No information available.
60687		threats	eng	No information available.
60688		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60688		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.
60688		habitat	eng	Lives in the rocky substrate in the littoral zone.
60688		population	eng	No information available.
60688		threats	eng	The aquarium trade heavily exploits this species. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat.
60689		conservation	eng	No information available.
60689		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is thought to be restricted to the southern half of the lake.
60689		habitat	eng	No information available.
60689		population	eng	A rare species.
60689		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat.
60690		conservation	eng	No information available.
60690		conservation	eng	None known.
60690		conservation	eng	Occurs in many reserves over its wide range.
60690		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many reserves over its wide range.
60690		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Senegal and Niger River, Congo River system, Zambezi River system, Lake Tanganyika and Malagarazi. Also known from Shaba, upper Kasaï, Lualaba system, Lake Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene.
60690		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia rendalli</span> is known from the Senegal and Niger Rivers, the Congo to Kenya, and much of southern Africa. It has been introduced elsewhere, usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong><em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is naturally known from the Katanga region and in the Lualaba River up to Kisangani (Stanleyville) – Isangi in the Democratic Republic of Congo. . <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has been introduced as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, for aquacultural purposes, in 1949, from Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé, Cameroon. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), who observed a few specimens of <em>T. rendalli</em> at the fisheries station of Melen near Yaoundé, the specimens from Yangambi originated from Katanga. Its use for aquaculture in Cameroon has been abandoned.  It has also been introduced, for aquacultural purposes, in 1953, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to the fisheries station of Djoumouna, Congo, Congo River basin. According to Moreau <em>et al.</em> (1988) its use in aquaculture was abandoned, but the species probably established in the country. The introduction of <em>T. rendalli</em> into the Lower Guinean part of Congo is confirmed by a museum record originating from a pond at the station of Dimonika. <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has also been introduced as <em>T. melanopleura</em>, around 1950, from Katanga but originating from the fisheries station of Kinshasa (Leopoldville), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Libreville, Makokou, Lebamba, Franceville and maybe other places in Gabon. Its presence in Gabon is confirmed by museum records from the Ogowe River basin.<br/><br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is native to the Lake Tanganyika and Malawi Basins and Lakes Chilwa, Chuita and the Shire River (Malawi). It has been introduced in Lake Victoria and many dams and water systems all over the region, e.g. Pangani drainage (including Lake Jipe), Lake Chala and Athi/Sabaki drainage. Also introduced in the Tana River system (Mann, 1966; 1968) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). According to Welcomme (1988) and Lever (1996) it was introduced from an unrecorded source into Kenya in 1955 for stocking (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has also been introduced and is now well settled in This species is known from upper and middle Akagera system.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>This species is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi system including Lake Malawi, and east coastal rivers south to the Phongolo and coastal lakes to Lake Sibaya (Skelton 2001), as well as estuaries in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. It is found in all Zimbabwean rivers although it was probably absent originally from the upper Save-Runde and scarce on the highveld (Junor 1969). Its distribution has been extended by translocations, especially into small farm dams, in an attempt to control plant growth.
60690		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Tilapia rendalli is known from the Senegal and Niger rivers, the Congo (upper Kasai and from the Yangambi region upstream to the Zambian Congo system) and Zambezi River systems, Lake Tanganyika and Malagarasi.  It is  also known from Shaba, Lake Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1991). It has been introduced elsewhere  usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.<br/><br/><em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is naturally known from the Katanga region and in the Lualaba River up to Kisangani (Stanleyville) – Isangi in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also known from Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi, the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi River basins, and the coastal rivers and lakes in eastern Africa from the Zambezi delta south to the Pongolo River basin. <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has been introduced as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, for aquacultural purposes, in 1949, from Yangambi (0°47’N-24°28’E), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), who observed a few specimens of <em>T. rendalli</em> at the fisheries station of Melen (3°52’N-11°29’E) near Yaoundé, the specimens from Yangambi originated from Katanga. Its use for aquaculture in Cameroon has been abandoned. FAO (2005) reported the species not to be established in the country. However, according to Moreau <em>et al.</em> (1988) it acclimatized in the Djerem (5°20’N-13°24’E) and Noum (Noun?) Rivers (4°55’N-11°06’E), part of the Sanaga River basin. Its presence in Cameroon is confirmed by museum records. It has also been introduced, for aquacultural purposes, in 1953, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to the fisheries station of Djoumouna (4°23’S-15°10’E), Congo-Brazzaville, Congo River basin. According to Moreau <em>et al.</em> (1988) its use in aquaculture was abandoned, but the species probably established in the country. The introduction of <em>T. rendalli</em> into the Lower Guinean part of Congo-Brazzaville is confirmed by a museum record originating from a pond at the station of Dimonika (4°14’S-12°25’E). <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has also been introduced as <em>T. melanopleura</em>, around 1950, from Katanga but originating from the fisheries station of Kinshasa (Leopoldville), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Libreville, Makokou, Lebamba, Franceville and maybe other places in Gabon. Its presence in Gabon is confirmed by museum records from the Ogowe River basin.
60690		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia rendalli</span> is known from Senegal and Niger River.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also known from Congo River system, Zambezi River system, Lake Tanganyika and Malagarazi,  Shaba, upper Kasaï, Lualaba system, Lake Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene.  Introduced elsewhere usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.
60690		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi system including Lake Malawi, and east coastal rivers south to the Phongolo and coastal lakes to Lake Sibaya (Skelton 2001). Estuaries in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. Eastern Congo (Lualaba) system, including Lake Tanganyika. It has been introduced to various places north of its range in West and East Africa, including Lake Victoria. It is found in all Zimbabwean rivers although it was probably absent originally from the upper Save-Runde and scarce on the highveld (Junor 1969). Its distribution has been extended by translocations, especially into small farm dams, in an attempt to control plant growth.
60690		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is a benthopelagic species that prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters,  floodplains and swamps. It is has a wide range of temperature tolerance (8-41°C) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982) and salinity to 19  ppt (Skelton 1993). It forms schools and is mainly diurnal. The juveniles feed on plankton, while adults mainly feed on higher  plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans. This species prefers a sloping spawning ground near the marginal fringe of  vegetation (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). It builds nest in shallow water where both parents guard the eggs and young.
60690		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is a benthopelagic species that prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters, floodplains and swamps. It is has a wide range of temperature tolerance (8-41°C) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982) and salinity to 19 ppt (Skelton 1993). It forms schools and is mainly diurnal. The juveniles feed on plankton, while adults mainly feed on higher  plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans. This species prefers a sloping spawning ground near the marginal fringe of  vegetation (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). It builds nest in shallow water where both parents guard the eggs and young.
60690		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic fish. It prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters, floodplains and swamps.  Tolerant of a wide range of temperature (8-41°C) and salinity to 19 ppt.  Forms schools; is mainly diurnal.  Juveniles feed on plankton.  Adults feed mainly on higher plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans.
60690		habitat	eng	It prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters, floodplains and swamps. Tolerant of a wide range of temperature (8-41°C) and salinity to 19 ppt. Form schools and is mainly diurnal. Juveniles feed on plankton. Adults feed mainly on higher plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans.
60690		habitat	eng	Tolerant of a wide range of temperatures (11-37 C) and salinity to 19 parts per thousand. Prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river edges, backwaters, floodplains and swamps. Feeds mainly on waterplants and algae, but also takes aquatic invertebrates and small fish. Breeding pairs clear the vegetation in shallow water to form a nest 0.5-1.2 m across and excavate several tunnel-like brood chambers in which the eggs and larvae are protected. Juveniles remain within the brood chambers. Several broods are raised each summer.
60690		population	eng	No available data.
60690		population	eng	No information available.
60690		population	eng	The species has a minimum population doubling time between 1.4 to 4.4 years.
60690		population	eng	This species is thought to be widespread and abundant.
60690		population	eng	Widespread and abundant.
60690		threats	eng	No information available.
60690		threats	eng	None known
60690		threats	eng	None known.
60690		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries, aquaculture, gamefish and its capture for aquariums.
60690		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are increased fishing pressure, and loss of vegetated margins and floodplains around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension.
60691		conservation	eng	The population occurs within a small nature reserve.
60691		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Jordan river basin. Only known from one location: Bet Sh'an Valley.
60691		habitat	eng	A riverine species occurring on stony and soft bed substrates.
60691		population	eng	Very small population.
60691		threats	eng	Small population size and restricted range.
60692		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60692		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60692		habitat	eng	A pelagic species.
60692		population	eng	Unknown, but rare when compared to other <em>Trematocara</em> spp.
60692		threats	eng	None known.
60693		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60693		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60693		habitat	eng	A benthic species.
60693		population	eng	Unknown, but common in its habitat.
60693		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60694		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60694		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika
60694		habitat	eng	A benthic species.
60694		population	eng	The population size is not known but the species is very abundant in its habitat.
60694		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60695		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60695		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60695		habitat	eng	A benthic species.
60695		population	eng	Unknown but very abundant.
60695		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60696		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60696		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60696		habitat	eng	A benthic species.
60696		population	eng	Very abundant in some parts of its known habitat.
60696		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60697		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60697		distribution	eng	Endemic to lLke Tanganyika.
60697		habitat	eng	A benthic species.
60697		population	eng	Abundant in some localities.
60697		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60698		conservation	eng	No information available.
60698		distribution	eng	<em>Trematocara zebra</em> is a newly described cichlid from the north west coast of Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from the sublittoral and benthic zone of the rocky shore at Luhanga and Pemba between 12 and 26 km South of Uvira (Congo).
60698		habitat	eng	Sublittoral and benthic zone of the rocky shore.
60698		population	eng	Unknown.
60698		threats	eng	No information available.
60699		conservation	eng	No information available.
60699		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika, with a widespread distribution, and the lower reaches of Malagarasi River.
60699		habitat	eng	<em>Trematocar variabile</em> inhabits the shallowest habitat of all the <em>Trematocara</em> species where it feeds on crustaceans and insect larvae.
60699		population	eng	A common species.
60699		threats	eng	Beach seining. Siltation and water turbidity in the inshore zone.
60700		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60700		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution.
60700		habitat	eng	<em>Triglachromis otostigma</em> live mainly over mud bottoms but can also be found over sand near the shore from 2 m to greater than 50 m. A well-established species within the aquarium trade. It may have tactile sensors for use in a turbid environment where visibility is perhaps poor.
60700		population	eng	The population size is unknown but this species is commonly observed when diving.
60700		threats	eng	None known.
60701		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60701		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the central east coast of the lake (around Bulu Point). A single distinct race of this species has been found along the Kungwe Mountain range.
60701		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>Tropheus</em> is solid rock, either anchored and part of the hard core of the coast interlocking rubble, or even the sandstone slabs lining a sand beach. Loose pebbles rolling about in the surf and silted-over habitats are avoided. The vertical depth range depends on the depth to which the epiphytic algae are growing and this varies from one species to another and from one part of the lake to another.
60701		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60701		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.
60702		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60702		distribution	eng	Endemic to, and widespread in, Lake Tanganyika.
60702		habitat	eng	This species live in the littoral zone on rocky shores.
60702		population	eng	No information but is rare and difficult to catch.
60702		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.
60703		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60703		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the south end of lake. The southernmost shorelines of the lake, between the borders of Zambia with Congo and Tanzania have yielded a set of local <em>Tropheus</em> races that have been described by Nelissen as the subspecies <em>Tropheus moori</em> Kasabae.
60703		habitat	eng	It lives on rocky substrate in the littoral zone
60703		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60703		threats	eng	The aquarium trade heavily exploits this species. Sedimentation.
60704		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60704		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is recorded from the northern part of lake where only three subpopulations have been found, namely: 1) "Bemba" which cohabits with the orange morph of <em>Tropheus moorii morii</em> on a very narrow stretch of coastline, less than 1 km long, around Cape Munene (the village of Bemba no longer exists). This relict population, more than 160 km from the next one in Tanzania on the east coast, involves a few thousand fish at most; 2) "Kigoma": This is the largest known population of <em>T. duboisi</em>, stretching from the border between Tanzania and Burundi, south of Nyanza Lac, to the Malagarazi River. Distributed along nearly 100 km of coastline, this population involves tens of thousands of fish. It shares its habitat with <em>Tropheus brichardi</em>. Broad yellow band. 3) "Malagarazi duboisi": The broad-banded <em>T. duboisi</em> has been found around the Malagarazi River delta but its full range is as yet unknown. By the mid-1983 a new very broad-banded yellow variety, whose whereabouts have not been identified, has been exported from Tanzania. It doesn't appear to be significantly different from the specimens previously exported.
60704		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>Tropheus</em> is solid rock, either anchored and part of the hard core of the coast interlocking rubble, or even the sandstone slabs lining a sand beach. Loose pebbles rolling about in the surf and silted-over habitats are avoided. The vertical depth range depends on the depth to which the epiphytic algae are growing and this varies from one species to another and from one part of the lake to another.
60704		population	eng	The population is thought to be no more than a few thousand individuals but no accurate count has been made.
60704		threats	eng	Heavily exploited by the aquarium trade. Sedimentation.
60705		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60705		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the central parts of the lake but is absent in the far north and south. There are several varieties/races of this species. The main distribution appears to be north of Kigoma to the south of Rumonge. The northernmost habitat appears to be "corniche" of Nyanza Lac from which the first "shoko" were identified and exported.
60705		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>Tropheus</em> is solid rock, either anchored and part of the hard core of the coast interlocking rubble, or even the sandstone slabs lining a sand beach. Loose pebbles rolling about in the surf and silted-over habitats are avoided. The vertical depth range depends on the depth to which the epiphytic algae are growing and this varies from one species to another and from one part of the lake to another.
60705		population	eng	No information available.
60705		threats	eng	Heavily exploited by the aquarium trade. Their habitat has also been impacted by deforestation which results in erosion, sedimentation, etc.
60706		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60706		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed along the west central coast of the lake mainly along the rocky coast south of the Ubwari peninsula. On the northwestern coastline there are three different species of <em>Tropheus</em> sharing the same habitat. As the Ubwari Peninsula was once an island separated from the mainland by a stretch of shallow water it has been proposed that <em>Tropheus annectens</em> might have migrated to the north before the shallow water link between Ubwari Island (or Muzimu Island as it was called 100 years ago) and mainland dried up. The populations of both <em>Tropheus duboisi</em> and <em>Tropheus annectens</em> north of the Ubwari could thus well be relics from a past occupation now facing strong competition from <em>Tropeus moorii</em>.
60706		habitat	eng	Lives on the shallow rocky shore.
60706		population	eng	No information obtained.
60706		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.
60707		conservation	eng	No information available.
60707		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and also the lower reaches of major inflowing rivers, including The Malagarasi and Rusizi.
60707		habitat	eng	Found in very shallow inshore waters (0–1 m deep) on soft bottoms along the lakeshore and in river deltas and lagoons. Feeds mostly on plant debris.
60707		population	eng	Common in fisheries catches, although not abundant.
60707		threats	eng	Beach seining. Siltation and water turbidity in the inshore zone.
60708		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60708		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60708		habitat	eng	A benthic fish living on mud/silt.
60708		population	eng	A rare species with a very fragmented population.
60708		threats	eng	None known.
60709		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60709		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution.
60709		habitat	eng	A pelagic species found in relatively deep water.
60709		population	eng	Unknown, but abundant.
60709		threats	eng	No known threats.
60710		conservation	eng	No information available.
60710		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from the northern part of the lake in Burundi and Congo.
60710		habitat	eng	Found in sandy inshore habitats.
60710		population	eng	Unknown.
60710		threats	eng	No information available.
60711		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60711		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60711		habitat	eng	This species is always found over sand in shallow water.
60711		population	eng	Population size is not known.
60711		threats	eng	Water pollution; habitat deterioration; and over-exploitation.
60712		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60712		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60712		habitat	eng	Lives in the littoral zone on the sandy bottom down to 20 m.
60712		population	eng	The population size is not known but the species seems to be very common.
60712		threats	eng	Over exploitation. Sedimentation, erosion. etc.
60713		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60713		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.
60713		habitat	eng	This species lives on sand.
60713		population	eng	A very common species.
60713		threats	eng	Sedimentation, erosion. etc.
60714		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60714		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60714		habitat	eng	It is occasionally seen over sand patches near the rocky slopes.
60714		population	eng	The population size is not known.
60714		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60715		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60715		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.
60715		habitat	eng	Lives in mud/silt habitats.
60715		population	eng	Unknown, but the species is common.
60715		threats	eng	No known threats.
60716		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60716		distribution	eng	Endemic to Burton Bay in Lake Tanganyika.
60716		habitat	eng	Lives on mud/silt substrates.
60716		population	eng	Considered as fairly rare.
60716		threats	eng	Water pollution; over-exploitation; and habitat disturbance.
60717		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60717		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the lake.
60717		habitat	eng	A benthic fish, living near the shore.
60717		population	eng	Considered a rare species.
60717		threats	eng	Siltation.
60718		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60718		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widespread throughout the lake.
60718		habitat	eng	Lives on sand or mud and occasionally in the rocks.
60718		population	eng	Very abundant.
60718		threats	eng	Siltation of the near shore rocky habitat.
60719		conservation	eng	No information available.
60719		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and also found in the Malagarasi River delta.
60719		habitat	eng	Found on sandy and muddy bottoms from the surface down to more than 100 m. It feeds on copepods, ostracods and insects larvae.
60719		population	eng	Not known but it is one of the most common small fish in the sandy shore habitats around the lake.
60719		threats	eng	Beach seining; and siltation and increased water turbidity in the inshore zone.
60720		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
60720		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread throughout the lake.
60720		habitat	eng	<em>Xenotilapia sima</em> lives at the bottom, preferring mud or sand habitats where it is extremely well camouflaged.
60720		population	eng	Unknown, but is very abundant.
60720		threats	eng	Water pollution. Habitat deterioration.
60721		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60721		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. This species is thought to be a plant-eater.
60721		population	eng	No information available.
60721		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60722		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
60722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
60722		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
60722		population	eng	No information available.
60722		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
60723		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
60723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
60723		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the sub-littoral and off shore zone. The species has mainly been found over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
60723		population	eng	This species appears to be increasing in abundance. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 30 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, but then increased again to 20 in 1993/95 and more than 200 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a decrease from a mean of 16,000 caught per hour in 1978 to 0.6 in 1987. However, between 1999 - 2008, although exact figures are not given, it was reported to be an abundant species.
60723		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60724		conservation	eng	No information available.
60724		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria. Recovering from a previous decline in most bays and gulfs, including Mwanza gulf, Mori Bay, Emin pasha and Speke Gulf (Bayona <em>et al</em>. submitted, Witte <em>et al</em>. 2000).
60724		habitat	eng	It is a deep water zooplanktivore which has moved to shallow waters due to the upsurge of Nile perch (Witte and Witte-Maas 1987).
60724		population	eng	Observed to be increasing in some locations.
60724		threats	eng	Predation by Nile perch and others; illegal fishing practice; over-fishing; and turbidity and water pollution.
60725		conservation	eng	This species has not been reported since 1985. More studies are needed to establish if it is still extant.
60725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
60725		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species has mainly been found over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
60725		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 27 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a drop from a mean of 218,000 caught per hour in 1978 to 0.1 in 1987. Between 1999 - 2008, no specimens were collected by the large trawl.
60725		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60726		conservation	eng	No information available.
60726		conservation	eng	None known.
60726		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
60726		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus caschive</em> is rare in Egyptian Upper Nile. It has been recorded in Lake Nubia, which is part of High Dam Lake.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in the Lower Nile and Bahr-el-Jebel, Lakes Edward, George and Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles near the delta and Lake Nesser.
60726		distribution	eng	The species has a widespread distribution including Lakes Edward, George and  Albert, the Albert and Albert Nile and the Aswa River (Upper Nile system).
60726		distribution	eng	This species is found the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has a widespread distribution including Lakes Edward, George and  Albert, the Albert and Albert Nile and the Aswa River (This species is known from upper Nile system).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Egyptian This species is known from upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, and Blue Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), as well as the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia
60726		habitat	eng	Expected to be similar to that of Mormyrus kannume which prefers both inshore and offshore waters of lakes. Feeds on insects, particularly Chironomid larvae (Bailey 1994).
60726		habitat	eng	The food consists mainly of aquatic insects, particularly chironomid larvae and small shrimps, worms and vegetation. It is active mainly at night, and favoured by quite deep water with a soft muddy bottom. It breeds in summer. It reaches a maximum length of 75 cm.
60726		habitat	eng	This species is expected to be similar to that of <em>Mormyrus kannume</em> which prefers both inshore and offshore waters of lakes. Its diet consists mainly of aquatic insects, particularly chironomid larvae and small shrimps, worms and vegetation. It is active mainly at night, and favours quite deep water with a soft muddy bottom. It breeds in summer.
60726		population	eng	A rare species.
60726		population	eng	No information available.
60726		population	eng	This species is believed to be rare in eastern and northern Africa, however in north eastern Africa it is relatively common.
60726		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
60726		threats	eng	No particular threats identified.
60726		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
60727		conservation	eng	None known.
60727		distribution	eng	Only known only from Lakes Kyoga and Kwania (Uganda) and the Victoria Nile and Aswa River (Worthington 1928a). Present in and above dams in the Teso District.
60727		habitat	eng	No information available
60727		population	eng	Widespread but rarely encountered.
60727		threats	eng	No specific threat identified.
60728		conservation	eng	No information.
60728		distribution	eng	Western Greece, from Kalamas to Mornos (except Acheron) and Pinios drainages (Peloponnese), including Lakes Trichonis, Amvrakia and Pamvotis.
60728		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes and lower course of rivers, with mud to sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years, lives up to 14 years. Spawns in May-July. Fractional spawner. Spawns in both lakes and their tributaries. Individual females spawn with 3-7 males on sandy beaches, especially near estuaries of tributaries. Eggs are non-adhesive. Larvae and juveniles form small monospecific schools in bays and harbours. Feeds on algae, plant material, insect larvae and detritus.
60728		population	eng	Abundant.
60728		threats	eng	No major threats known.
60729		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60729		distribution	eng	Streams of the eastern flank of the Ruwenzori mountain. Ruimi, Mubuku and Sibwe rivers. Very limited extent of occurrence.
60729		habitat	eng	No information available.
60729		population	eng	No information available.
60729		threats	eng	No particular threat identified.
60730		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60730		distribution	eng	East Africa: known only from the type locality (Zega on the Vuda River, Lake Albert/Lake Mobutu Sese Seko) (see Froese and Pauly 2003). Restricted to a single lake ecosystem.
60730		habitat	eng	Information not available.
60730		population	eng	No information available.
60730		threats	eng	Information not available.
60731		conservation	eng	None.
60731		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the artesian well of the Chott el Djerid in southern Tunisia, and is extinct from the type locality. However 14 individuals collected at Fatnassa en Nefaoua a few metres from the type locality in 1989 now in the Natural History Museum of Madrid (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
60731		habitat	eng	It lived in artesian wells in Chotts.
60731		population	eng	Last specimens recorded in 1989.
60731		threats	eng	Water extraction.
60732		conservation	eng	The Lake Beysehir area is a national park.
60732		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Beysehir basin in Central Anatolia. It may also occur in Aksehir lake, but this is to be confirmed (the record may be referring to a different species) (Erk'akan and Tatlidil 2003).
60732		habitat	eng	It is lacustrine species and also riverine. Active predator, feeding on fish. Spawns in rivers.
60732		population	eng	Found in one location for certain (possibly two, but this has to be confirmed). The population in Lake Beysehir is reported as abundant.
60732		threats	eng	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted however, there are introduced zander <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in the lake and associated tributaries. There is likely to be competition between these two predatory species.
60733		conservation	eng	No information available.
60733		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ruwenzori area in the Mubuku and Sibwe River Systems (Froese and Pauly 2003).
60733		habitat	eng	Occurs in fast turbulent water with many boulders behind which the fishes take shelter (Banister 1972, Lévêque and Daget 1984). Max. size: 23.1 cm TL (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
60733		population	eng	No information available.
60733		threats	eng	No information available.
60734		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60734		distribution	eng	<em>C. kurui</em> is restricted to western Anatolia streams and rivers down to the Menderes river, Turkey.
60734		habitat	eng	A riverine species
60734		population	eng	Abundant.
60734		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species (Cyprinids, e.g., <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>).
60736		conservation	eng	Listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and Annex III of the Berne Convention as <em>C. polylepis</em>.
60736		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the northwestern Iberian peninsula. The main rivers basins include: Eo, Masma, Oro, Eume, Allones, Donas, Tambre, Ulla, Umia, Minho, Limia, Ave and Douro rivers.
60736		habitat	eng	Lives in rivers with strong current.
60736		population	eng	Abundant.
60736		threats	eng	Water extraction, dam construction, and canal building of rivers have recently begun and there are plans to do more (Carmona, J. pers. comm). Introduced predators are also a potential threat.
60737		conservation	eng	No information available.
60737		distribution	eng	Lower Tana drainage.
60737		habitat	eng	No information.
60737		population	eng	No information.
60737		threats	eng	No information available.
60738		conservation	eng	None.
60738		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Evrotas River in south-eastern Peloponnese in Greece. The Evrotas is inclined to become a seasonal stream.
60738		habitat	eng	It is a strongly rheophilic species, confined to open sites within rivers with a fast flow and relatively cool waters. It has a maximum length of 150 mm. It spawns in May.
60738		population	eng	Decreasing.
60738		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution (agriculture), and drought.
60739		conservation	eng	No information available.
60739		distribution	eng	Lakes Victoria and Kyoga systems.
60739		habitat	eng	No information available.
60739		population	eng	No information available.
60739		threats	eng	No information available.
60740		conservation	eng	No information
60740		conservation	eng	No information available.
60740		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Management plans for this species are also needed.
60740		conservation	eng	None known.
60740		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Bagrus bajad</em> is common in the whole River Nile. In Egypt, it is found also in Wadi El Rayan Lake in addition to Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in Lake Nasser, Sudan (Blue and White Niles), Chad basin, Senegal, Nigeria, Cameroon, West Africa, Niger River, East Africa, Uganda (Lakes Albert and Rudolf) and Ghana (Lake and River Volta).
60740		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lakes Albert and Turkana, Nile River, L. Chad, Niger and Senegal River
60740		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Ouémé basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Nile River, Lakes Mobutu (Lake Albert) and Turkana. Reported from Sanaga River basin.
60740		distribution	eng	This demersal species is found in lakes, swamps and rivers across much of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile River, Lake Chad, and Niger and Senegal Rivers<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is common in the whole River Nile. In Egypt, it is found also in Wadi El Rayan Lake in addition to Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea and the Nile in Sudan. It is also present in Baro, Blue Nile and Tekeze basins, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Ouémé basins.
60740		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus bajad</em> is found in lakes, swamps and rivers. It spends nearly the whole of the daylight hours in crevices of rocks and is therefore seldom seen. Lives and feeds on or near the bottom. Adults are piscivorous and also feed on insects, crustaceans, molluscs and vegetable matter. There is some indication that the species comes to shallower water to breed. Spawning season extends from April to July. Parents build and guard the nest, which is like a flat disc with a central hole where is located the eggs area. Males live up to 7 years old, and females 8 years. It is reputed to reach 100000 g.
60740		habitat	eng	Occurs in water less than 12 m deep. Preys on small fish, but also on insects, crustacea, molluscs, vegetable matter and detritus. Breeding ecology unknown
60740		habitat	eng	The species occurs in streams. It is a demersal fish that occurs in water less than 12 m depth. Preys on small fish, particularly <em>Alestes </em>spp, also feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, vegetable matter. An important food fish. Reputed to reach 100,000 g.
60740		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species found in lakes, swamps and rivers in water less than 12 m deep. Preys on small fish, but also on insects, crustacea, molluscs, vegetable matter and detritus. It spends nearly the whole of the daylight hours in crevices of rocks and is therefore seldom seen. Lives and feeds on or near the bottom. Adults are piscivorous, particularly <em>Alestes</em> spp, and also feed on insects, crustaceans, molluscs and vegetable matter. There is some indication that the species comes to shallower water to breed. Spawning season extends from April to July. Parents build and guard the nest, which is like a flat disc with a central hole where the eggs area. Males live up to 7 years old, females 8 years. Reputed to reach 100,000 g.
60740		population	eng	Although there is no population estimate, Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana. In Egypt, the catch gradually increased from 840 tonnes in 1995 to 19,026 tonnes in 2002 and then decreased to 10,228 tones in 2004. For the rest of this species range there is no data on population trends.
60740		population	eng	In Egypt, the catch has gradually increased from 840 tones in 1995 to 19026 tones in 2002 and then decreased to 10228 tones in 2004.
60740		population	eng	No data on population trends.
60740		population	eng	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
60740		threats	eng	None known
60740		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
60740		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure in L. Albert; not in L. Turkana
60740		threats	eng	This species is under heavy fishing pressure in Lake Albert. In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this species. Throughout the rest of its range there are no major threats known.
60741		conservation	eng	No information available.
60741		distribution	eng	Only known from a single locality on the Soroti–Moroto road (North-eastern Uganda).
60741		habitat	eng	No specific information on habitat type and ecology available.
60741		population	eng	No information available.
60741		threats	eng	Restricted extent of occurrence (only known from one location so far).
60742		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Sustainable management of riverine fisheries is also needed.
60742		conservation	eng	Sustainable management of riverine fisheries in needed.
60742		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Rovuma River system, Mozambique-Tanzanian border north to the Pangani system in Tanzania. Also present in Lake Chiuta, Malawi which is tenuously linked to the Rovuma system.
60742		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Africa: <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Within Tanzania, this species is distributed in Mtera dam , Kidatu dam, Rivers Pangani, Ruvuma and Rufiji.  In Malawi, it is reported to occur in Lake Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is present in the Rovuma River system, from the Mozambique-Tanzanian border north to the Pangani system in Tanzania. Also present in Lake Chiuta, Malawi which is tenuously linked to the Rovuma system.
60742		habitat	eng	It is distributed in deep waters of large rivers and lakes. It is a predator, that feeds sometimes on shrimp.
60742		habitat	eng	Main channels of larger rivers.
60742		population	eng	Little information is known on the population trends of this species, however it is reported to be declining in Tanzania.
60742		population	eng	No information available.
60742		threats	eng	The species is possibly impacted by unregulated gill-net fishermen.
60742		threats	eng	Threats to this species include:<br/><ul><li>­Mass kills due to asphyxiation. A serious event was observed in Tanzania in 1984.</li><li>­Illegal fishing practice, especially by use of under meshed gill-nets and other illegal techniques.</li><li>­Weed infestation and high turbidity.</li></ul>
60743		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60743		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the deltas of its major affluent rivers including the. Malagarasi and Rusizi Rivers.
60743		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters down to depths of 120 m in the lake on soft substrates. Feeds on detritus, insect larvae and small fishes.
60743		population	eng	Not known, but very common in fisheries catches.
60743		threats	eng	Fishing pressure.
60744		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60744		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Zambian part of Lake Tanganyika.
60744		habitat	eng	Depth range is from 10 to 80 m and it appears most abundant between 40–80 m. Little is known of its ecology. Max. size: The species is small (maximum length known 138 mm).
60744		population	eng	Unknown but rather rare in fisheries catches.
60744		threats	eng	Siltation. Over-fishing.
60745		conservation	eng	No information available.
60745		distribution	eng	Distributed in Ruaha-Rufiji system: Kidatu dam (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 10 km²), Mtera dam (EOO = 585 km²), Mindu dam (EOO = 4 km²) and rivers Ruaha, Pangani, Wami, and Rufiji. Total EOO <20,000 km².
60745		habitat	eng	The species occupies open waters or the pelagic environment. It migrates up the rivers for spawning during the rainy season. It is carnivorous, feeding on invertebrates, especially zooplankton, snails and insect larvae.
60745		population	eng	Observed declining in Mtera dam (Chale and Mwaya 1984, Tamatamah 1996). Similarly a decline in population was reported for Mindu dam (Bwathondi and Kulekana 1986). The species composed less than 0.14% of fishery catches in the systems where present (Fish. Div. 1994, 1996).
60745		threats	eng	Fishing across rivers during the migration using illegal small mesh nets and other methods. Siltation. Land based pollution.
60746		conservation	eng	None
60746		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
60746		habitat	eng	Occurs in the mid and open water but spawns in the open water. Feeds on prawns, zooplankton, insects and small fish (Hopson 1982). Matures at 6?8 cm FL.
60746		population	eng	Unknown.
60746		threats	eng	Not known.
60747		conservation	eng	Occurs in a protected area.
60747		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Lake Beysehir, in Central Anatolia, Turkey.
60747		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species, but currently mainly occurs in springs rather than in the lake itself.
60747		population	eng	No data available on population size. However, predation from introduced Zander is a problem and if the species does still occur in the lake the population is likely to be small and declining.
60747		threats	eng	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted. However, there are introduced <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in the lake and associated tributaries. Zander is a predatory fish.
60748		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60748		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria system and associated smaller lakes, including middle Akagera, Lake Nabugabo, Lake Katwe and Victoria Nile (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Notable absence in Lake Kyoga. Reported from Lake Victoria as <em>A. nurse</em> by Copley (1941), a misidentification (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
60748		habitat	eng	Found in shallow inshore areas of lakes and quiet parts of rivers. Feeds on small fishes and invertebrates including snails and chironomid pupae and plants. Breeding biology not well known. Max. size: 27 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003)
60748		population	eng	Suffered a significant decline in Lake Victoria after invasion of the Nile Perch. Now very rare being restricted to small populations in the gulfs and bays along the lakeshore.
60748		threats	eng	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds. In Lake Victoria: Competitive displacement and predation by Nile perch. Illegal fishing practices such as undersized nets.
60749		conservation	eng	No information available.
60749		conservation	eng	None known.
60749		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic revision is required.
60749		conservation	eng	The species has protection in some reserves.
60749		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is widely distributed from Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania, to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  This species is present in the Kasai system and the upper reaches of the upper Congo River basin, as well as Cubango and Luapula River (Congo system) (Skelton 2001)<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Zambezi system,  Okavango,  Cunene and Kafue Rivers, also lower Buzi in Mozambique and the St Lucia catchment in Kwazulu-Natal. It is apparently absent from northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi in northern Zambia, but was found in the headwaters of the Kafue system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
60749		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is known from the Kasai system and from the upper reaches of the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the upper to Lower Zambezi, Kafue, Cubango, Okovango, Lake Kariba of the Zambezi basin; north of Tugela to south of Pongola, Natal.
60749		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> In the Lower Shire River, Malawi. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Zambezi and Okavango systems, Cunene and Busi rivers, St Lucia catchment in Natal (RSA).
60749		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Zambezi system,  Okavango,  Cunene and KafueRivers, also Lower Buzi in Mozambique and the St Lucia catchment in Kwazulu-Natal. It also occurs in the Luapula River (Congo system) (Skelton 2001). Apparently absent from northern tributaries of the Upper Zambezi in northern Zambia, but was found in the headwaters of the Kafue system (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>
60749		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits shallow, sandy or marshy areas (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Shoals are formed in clear, slow-flowing or quiet, well-vegetated waters. <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is often found together with the dashtail and the threespot barb and the close similarity of these species suggests mimicry between them. It feeds on small aquatic and terrestrial organisms and is preyed upon by tigerfish and observed to be eaten by a small crocodile during an upriver migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> moves upstream during rains, possibly to breed. Ovarian egg counts from a large ripe female reach up to 12,000 eggs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Used as bait for tigerfish and largemouth bream (Skelton 1993). It prefers tropical mangroves in tropical climate
60749		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits shallow, sandy or marshy areas (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Shoals are formed in clear, slow-flowing or quiet, well-vegetated waters. It is most commonly found in the main stream of rivers but moves onto floodplains during flood periods (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is often found together with the dashtail and the threespot barb and the close similarity of these species suggests mimicry between them. It feeds on small aquatic and terrestrial organisms and is preyed upon by tigerfish and observed to be eaten by a small crocodile during an upriver migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> moves upstream during rains, possibly to breed. Ovarian egg counts from a large ripe female reach up to 12,000 eggs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Used as bait for tigerfish and largemouth bream (Skelton 1993).
60749		habitat	eng	Rivers and inshore waters of large impoundments. Most commonly found in the main stream of rivers but moves onto floodplains during flood periods (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). A shoaling species that feeds on small aquatic and terrestrial organisms (Skelton 2001). Moves upstream or laterally on to floodplains to breed when waters are rising.
60749		habitat	eng	Shoals in clear well vegetated waters. Feeds on small aquatic organisms. Migrates upstream during the rainy season probably to breed.
60749		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats throughout its range. It was once the most numerous inshore species in Lake Kariba (Balon 1971) although numbers decreased after the introduction of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Limnothrissa miodon</span> from Lake Tanganyika (Huddart 1994).
60749		population	eng	No information available.
60749		population	eng	Thought to be abundant in suitable habitats throughout its range. It was once the most numerous inshore species in Lake Kariba (Balon 1971) although numbers decreased after the introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Limnothrissa miodon</span> from Lake Tanganyika (Huddart 1994).
60749		population	eng	Unknown
60749		threats	eng	For the majority of its distribution there are no known threats to this species, however sedimentation in rivers poses a threat to populations in Lower Shire River in Malawi.
60749		threats	eng	None known.
60749		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is sedimentation in rivers.
60750		conservation	eng	No information.
60750		distribution	eng	Endemic and widespread throughout the Lake Victoria basin, and Lake Kanyaboli. Introduced into the Upper Athi and Upper Tana systems.
60750		habitat	eng	Occurs in swamps and small rivulets, often beneath overhanging grass along the shore. Avoids open water, and remains close to the bottom (Seegers, 1990). Max Size: 130.5 mm SL (Seegers, 1990).
60750		population	eng	No information.
60750		threats	eng	Unknown.
60751		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60751		distribution	eng	Occurs in tributaries of Lake Tuz, to the region of Aksaray and Nigde in Central Anatolia, in Turkey. Also in Insuyu stream, Cihanbeyli and Saz Lake, Haymana.
60751		habitat	eng	It lives in streams and lakes.
60751		population	eng	Decreasing.
60751		threats	eng	Water pollution, drought, and overfishing are the main threats.
60752		conservation	eng	No information available.
60752		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganika with a widespread distribution in the pelagic zone.
60752		habitat	eng	Adults are strictly pelagic, but the larvae are found in shallow calm inshore waters. It is a zooplanctivore and forms the most important commercial fish in Lake Tanganyika.
60752		population	eng	No information available.
60752		threats	eng	Over-fishing. Pollution in the northern end of Lake Tanganyika.
60753		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60753		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Orontes river basin in Syria and Turkey.
60753		habitat	eng	A riverine species. Feeds on algae from rock surfaces. The species need well-oxygenated water for spawning (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). Separate feeding and spawning areas (migratory, but not to a great extent).
60753		population	eng	No data on population size, but a survey of the river found the species in only three locations.
60753		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution are the main threats. The species is sensitive to chemical (ammonia) pollution. Drought is also a problem, particularly in Amik Lake. The range is fragmented due to dam construction.
60754		conservation	eng	None known.
60754		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the lower Malagarasi. It has been introduced to Lake Kivu and the man-made lakes Kariba and Cabora Bassa.
60754		habitat	eng	Adults inhabit the pelagic zone, but reproducing populations and juveniles are found in bays and inshore waters and even in river deltas. It is a major commercial fish in Lake Tanganyika (the second after <em>Stolothrissa tanganicae</em>), Lake Kivu and Lake Kariba.
60754		population	eng	No information available.
60754		threats	eng	Over-fishing in pelagic zone (on adults) and in inshore (on larvae).
60755		conservation	eng	No information available. Habitat maintenance is required to protect this species.
60755		conservation	eng	None known.
60755		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> The <em>Amphilius cf. jacksonii</em> is the name used for the populations of the Chambezi, Luongo, Luapula and near Lubumbashi. The "real" <em>Amphilius jacksoni</em> occurs along the eastern border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. It has also been found in an affluent river of the Lake Victoria drainage, Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).
60755		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Africa. It is found in the Malagarasi (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Rugufu River, Lake Tanganyika drainage, Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996), Ruaha and Wami drainages (Seegers 1996). It has also been recorded in the Lake Victoria drainage.
60755		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius jacksonii</em> is a demersal that occurs in flowing, well-oxygenated waters Skelton 1993). It feeds predominantly on benthic aquatic insects (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is iteroparous, with asynchronous ovarian development (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000).
60755		habitat	eng	This species prefers fast flowing streams and brooks, mostly in the upper drainages of rivers, in water that is clear and well-aerated with a high content of oxygen (Seegers 1996). It is carnivorous, mainly feeding on insect larvae, worms and other small invertebrates (Seegers 1996). Nothing is known about breeding behaviour, and it can only be speculated that the fish migrate up the rivers to spawn during the rainy season (Seegers 1996).
60755		population	eng	No information available.
60755		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity which affects to this species. Fishing with grenades and sabotage have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand are other threats to the species.
60755		threats	eng	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension threaten the habitat of this species.
60756		conservation	eng	None.
60756		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
60756		habitat	eng	Occurs in the mid and open water but spawns in the open water. Breeds at 2.5–3.0 cm FL. Feeds on zooplankton and occasionally small insects
60756		population	eng	No population estimates
60756		threats	eng	Not known.
60757		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60757		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Enters deltas of streams and rivers, including Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers.
60757		habitat	eng	Found in shallow coastal areas of the lake and deltas of rivers. Feed mainly on small fishes, and also on invertebrates and plants.
60757		population	eng	Common, although never abundant
60757		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure. Pollution in the littoral zones and rivers deltas.
60758		conservation	eng	No information available.
60758		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria and associated rivers including middle Akagera River, Victoria Nile, Aswa River (Upper Nile system) and associated lakes, Kyoga and Nabugabo.
60758		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters of lakes (less than 4 m deep) and amongst the marginal vegetation. Feeds on insects, mostly chironomid larvae. Max. size: 13.8 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
60758		population	eng	Used to be abundant in the shallow inshore waters of Lake Victoria but the population is reported to be declining since the Nile perch has been established.
60758		threats	eng	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds.  In Lake Victoria: Competitive displacement and predation by Nile perch, use of illegal fishing practices.
60759		conservation	eng	None
60759		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the endoreihic Jadova river in Croatia.
60759		habitat	eng	It lives in reaches with slow current and clear water.
60759		population	eng	Declining. In 1997, 1998 and 1999 the species was collected at only two sites, and in 2003 it was not collected at either site but was found to exist at another site.
60759		threats	eng	Primarily invasive species <em>Lepomis</em> spp and <em>Squalius cephalus</em> (Bogutskaya pers comm). Pollution, droughts.
60760		conservation	eng	No information available.
60760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. Also found in Lake Malombe and the Shire River as far down as the Lower Shire.
60760		habitat	eng	This is one of the three 'Chambo' species endemic to Lake Malawi. Like other species of the subgenus <em>Nyasalapia</em>, males develop long branched genital 'tassels' that serve as egg dummies. It feeds on algae, detritus and zooplankton. The breeding season is in the rainy season running from December to April. Like other <em>Oreochromis</em>, they are maternal mouthbrooders. Males dig large spawning pits in the sand at depths of 2–20 m.  Max. size: 36 cm TL.
60760		population	eng	During the 1950s over 3,000 tonnes of Chambo per year (chiefly <em>O. squamipinnis</em>) were being taken from Lake Malawi's southeast arm alone. However, the total catch for chambo in this part of the lake has shown a steady decline since early 1990s. CPUE in the main harvesting fisheries has also declined dramatically due to over-fishing.In Lake Malombe chambo catches were around 4,000 tons in the late 1970s, increasing to over 6000 tons in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s a drastic decline was observed with catches falling to less than 600 tons per year by the early 1990’s and to less than 200 tons in the late 1990’s. This decline in total catch in Lake Malombe is directly matched by severe declines in CPUE in the two main fisheries harvesting the stock, namely gill nets and chambo seines. The Chambo stocks in Lake Malombe are considered to have been in a state of collapse or near collapse since the early 1990s.
60760		threats	eng	The chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s as a result of over-fishing.
60761		conservation	eng	None
60761		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the upper reaches of the Krka river basin in the Vrba Creek on the Cikola tributary in Croatia.
60761		habitat	eng	Only caught in places with slow and stagnant waters.
60761		population	eng	Not abundant (Mrakovcic, M. pers com).
60761		threats	eng	Water extraction, droughts and domestic pollution (Freyhof, J. and Bogutskaya, N. pers comm)
60762		conservation	eng	None.
60762		distribution	eng	It is restricted to northern Tunisia (not present in the cap Bon) and to northern Algeria.
60762		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers and lakes. It is small size fish (<100 mm total length).
60762		population	eng	No data.
60762		threats	eng	No data.
60763		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southeastern Turkey, and was known to live in Lake Amik, presently drained.
60763		habitat	eng	Lakes and rivers.
60763		population	eng	No current data, possibly extinct.
60763		threats	eng	Drainage of Lake Amik in the 1960s may have resulted in some endemic species being extirpated, including <em>H. caudomaculata</em>.
60764		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
60764		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
60764		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Salaria fluviatilis</em> is present in Morocoo and Algeria. It is present in several lakes either naturally or introduced.
60764		distribution	eng	It is present from drainages around northern Mediterranean from Israel to Portugal, and in Morocoo and Algeria . It is present in several lakes either naturally or introduced. Present in Corsica, Sardinia and CretE islands. Present also within the Jordan river basin.
60764		distribution	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">The species occurs across the Mediterranean basin in Europe, Turkey, Israel, Morocco and Algeria. In the Iberian Peninsula it is found in the Fluvia, Ebro, Jucar, Segura, Guadiana and Guadalquivir drainages. In France in the Aude, Rhône (including Lake Bourget; introduced to Lake Annecy around 1980) and Var drainages (presence in Garonne drainage possibly due to invasion through Canal du Midi), Corsica. In Italy it is present in most streams with stone bottom, Lakes Garda, Maggiore, Lugano and Mergozzo, Sicily, Sardinia. It is present also in Croatia, Montenegro, Albania and Greece where it occurs in the Kalamas, Acheron, Acheloos and Aliakmon drainages, in Crete in most drainages of Peloponnese, Lakes Doiran, Koronia, Volvi and Vistonis. Sometimes listed as a recent invader of subalpine lakes of Apennine Peninsula, but in fact recorded from Lake Maggiore as early as 1836.</span></p>
60764		habitat	eng	It is mainly a riverine species that can be found also in lakes. It likes rubble and gravel substrate with moderate to high current velocity and stay in the deepest part. The male makes a nest under large stones. Larvae are pelagic. It is a short-lived species.
60764		habitat	eng	<p>Lakes and streams with moderate current and stone bottom. In streams, the deepest and fastest microhabitats are preferred; sometimes in coastal lagoons with low salinity. It is Territorial and lives under stones. Lives up to 5 years. Spawns for first time at end of first yea and spawns up to 3 years, but most females die at end of first spawning year. Reproduces in May – August in France, April – July in Spain and Italy, at temperatures above 18°C. Female spawns up to 1200 eggs (usually 200–300) in a single layer under a large stone; spawns several egg portions during a spawning season. Male cleans, fans and defends eggs until hatching. Several females may spawn with one male, which may guard eggs at different stages of development. Eggs hatch in about a week. Larvae are planktonic until about 15 mm, are drifted to and remain in quite pools or side arms of rivers. Larvae are capable to exist under full marine conditions and might spread through the sea. Feeds on insects, crustaceans and fry.</p>
60764		population	eng	Few data to no data. In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The population is very fragmented.
60764		population	eng	Few data to no data. In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The populations are very fragmented.
60764		population	eng	In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The population is very fragmented.
60764		threats	eng	Gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization that fragment rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction.
60764		threats	eng	Gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization that fragment rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction. Most riverine populations have declined in recent years because of habitat alteration (especially siltation and alteration of stream morphology) and predation by exotic species. The presence of habitat suitable for the larval 'pelagic' stage downstream of spawning sites is a limiting factor. Lacustrine populations are apparently safer.
60764		threats	eng	Threats to this species are gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization have fragmented rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction.
60765		conservation	eng	None.
60765		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the lower courses of the Ksih Tensift river in Morocco. (Doadrio, I. pers com).
60765		habitat	eng	No data.
60765		population	eng	No data.
60765		threats	eng	Water extraction and domestic pollution.
60766		conservation	eng	None known.
60766		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the ecology of this species, and population trends should be monitored.
60766		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, reaching into Burundi, Tanzania and northern Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Tanganyika's affluent streams and rivers, including the Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers.
60766		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is also present in Lake Tanganyika (Eccles 1992), the Ruzizi River and the Malagarasi River.
60766		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad. More information is needed on the exact distribution of the species.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Congo basin, Chad, Ituri. Also present in Tanzania.
60766		habitat	eng	<em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits lakes (Eccles 1992).
60766		habitat	eng	<em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits lakes (Eccles 1992) but is most often found in the lower reaches of streams and rivers.
60766		habitat	eng	Pelagic species.
60766		population	eng	No information available
60766		population	eng	No information available.
60766		threats	eng	Locally threatened by agricultural development.
60766		threats	eng	None known.
60766		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water turbidity due to erosion on river basins - a consequence of agriculture extension.
60767		conservation	eng	No information available.
60767		distribution	eng	Endemic to Nyumba ya Mungu and its outlet to the Pangani River. The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².
60767		habitat	eng	Recorded in both inshore and off-shore open waters. Juveniles can only be collected in shallow waters along the shoreline.
60767		population	eng	Prior to 1974 the species was of secondary importance in the fishery. The reported composition of this species in the fishery catches was 48.2% in 1974 (2,200 tons for assorted species). By 1994, however, the population had declined to alarming levels such that Alestiids composed only 0.6% of the total catch.
60767		threats	eng	Over-fishing accompanied by use of illegal gears and methods. Increased siltation due to deforestation and agricultural practice. Land-based pollution especially from domestic and agricultural activities.
60768		conservation	eng	No information available.
60768		distribution	eng	Turkwell River (Turkana drainage) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpublished).
60768		habitat	eng	No information.
60768		population	eng	No information.
60768		threats	eng	No information available.
60769		conservation	eng	None.
60769		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Om Er Rbia basin in central Morocco.
60769		habitat	eng	No data.
60769		population	eng	Considered to be declining (>30% over the past 10 years) based upon fishing surveys over the last 15 years done by Doadrio (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
60769		threats	eng	Urban, agricultural and industrial pollution.
60770		conservation	eng	No information available.
60770		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Malagarasi River.
60770		habitat	eng	Found in marginal water reeds and swamps and slow flowing and standing shallow waters.Omnivorous, but mainly a predator of small fishes, molluscs and other invertebrates.
60770		population	eng	Unknown, but rather rare in fisheries catches.
60770		threats	eng	Fisheries. Extension of agriculture in wetlands around rivers.
60771		conservation	eng	No information available. Monitoring of population trends is needed, as is habitat maintenance and conservation.
60771		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern African lakes from Sudan to Tanzania<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward, George, and their affluent streams, rivers and associated satellite lakes (Kachira, Nakivali, Kijanebalora, Katwe, Kirumi). Also in the Victoria Nile, Malagarasi River and the Lake Tanzania and Rukwa systems (Seegers 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> A rare and small species reported from Sudan by Bianco (1981 cited by Bailey 1994).
60771		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas with marginal macrophytes, water lilies and papyrus. Common in smaller streams or swamps in basins outside Lake Rukwa (Seegers, 1996). No information was available on feeding and breeding biology. Max Size: 350 mm TL (Teugels in Daget <em>et al.</em> 1986)
60771		population	eng	Information on population structure and abundance is lacking, but it has a fragmented distribution and is rarely found in artisanal fish catches.
60771		threats	eng	Threats to this species include: <br/>- Regression of swamps and other wetlands around lakes and rivers due to agriculture extension.<br/>- Illegal fishing practice.<br/>- Bait fishery where juveniles are used as bait.
60772		conservation	eng	No information available.
60772		distribution	eng	Only known from the Mzima springs (Tsavo River system) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
60772		habitat	eng	No information.
60772		population	eng	No information.
60772		threats	eng	No information available.
60773		conservation	eng	None
60773		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Lake Ohrid and Drim river system in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM), and the Moraca river and Lake Skadar system in Serbia-Montenegro.
60773		habitat	eng	Found in the lower part of the Moraca river where the water current is low, and there is a sandy substrate with submerged vegetation. It is also found in the lakeshore.
60773		population	eng	Very abundant.
60773		threats	eng	Gravel extraction, water pollution, habitat destruction
60774		conservation	eng	No information available.
60774		distribution	eng	Northern Ewaso Nyiro (below Chandler Falls).
60774		habitat	eng	No information.
60774		population	eng	No information.
60774		threats	eng	No information available.
60775		conservation	eng	None known.
60775		distribution	eng	Sabaki River drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
60775		habitat	eng	No information.
60775		population	eng	No information.
60775		threats	eng	Unknown.
60776		conservation	eng	None.
60776		distribution	eng	It is restricted northern Algeria. Not collected since 1990 (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
60776		habitat	eng	No data.
60776		population	eng	No data.
60776		threats	eng	No data.
60777		conservation	eng	None.
60777		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Neretva river drainage area (Lakes: Matica, Norin, Bacina, Tributaries: Tihaljina, Trebizat, Jasenica, Bregava, Buna, Hutovo blato.- both left and right-hand tributaries of Neretva.). It seems it is not very common in the Neretva itself. Prolosko and Ricice lakes, Vrljika drainage, Imotsko Polje in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (N. Bogutskaya and P. Zupancic pers comm.).
60777		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes and rivers.
60777		population	eng	No data.
60777		threats	eng	No data.
60778		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends need monitoring, and habitat maintenance and conservation my be required.
60778		distribution	eng	This species is found from Sudan to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and George. It is also present in Victoria Nile and their affluent streams and rivers such as Nabugabo, Kachera, Nakivali and Kijanebarola. Also in Malagarasi river (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Rusizi River.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Bahr el Jebel, Sudan
60778		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and rivers (Teugels 1986), marginal swamps marginal grass areas and papyrus swamps (Eccles 1992). It is mainly insectivorous (larval and adult aquatic Coleptera, terrestrial insects, Povilla, chironomid larvae). Other food items included ostracoda, gastropods, plants, copepoda and Hydracarina (Teugels 1986).
60778		population	eng	Population not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.
60778		threats	eng	Loss of swamps and other wetlands around lakes and rivers due to farming extension is a threat to this species in eastern Africa. Further threats are unknown.
60779		conservation	eng	None.
60779		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika
60779		habitat	eng	Lives on sub-littoral zones with rocky habitat between 10–120 m. Omnivorous, with a preference for fish. Migrates from the bottom at night to feed on clupeids near the surface. Nothing known about reproduction, but reproduction probably occurs in coastal rather than deep water.
60779		population	eng	Population size not known. Common in fisheries catches although never abundant.
60779		threats	eng	Very heavily exploited by the fishermen.
60780		conservation	eng	No information available.
60780		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60780		habitat	eng	A rock dwelling clariid living deep in the crevices. Probably omnivorous but mainly piscivorous like other clariids. Biology not known.
60780		population	eng	Rare in fisheries catches.
60780		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
60781		conservation	eng	No information available.
60781		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60781		habitat	eng	Lives in the littoral zone in lake Tanganyika among rock, sand or silt substrates. Not found below 30 m.
60781		population	eng	Population size not known, but common in fisheries catches.
60781		threats	eng	Fishing pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.
60782		conservation	eng	No information available.
60782		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60782		habitat	eng	Lacustrine and benthic. Found over mud/silt substrates at between 20–50 m depth but has been recorded down to 100 m.
60782		population	eng	Population size not known, but rare in fisheries catches
60782		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.
60783		conservation	eng	No information available.
60783		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is more abundant in the northern than the southern end of the Lake.
60783		habitat	eng	Lacustrine benthic species. Lives in mud/silt habitats at between 30–60 m deep. Seems to co-habit with <em>Chrysichthys sianenna</em>. Is a voracious scale-eater but feeds mostly on shrimps.
60783		population	eng	Population size not known.
60783		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.
60784		conservation	eng	No information available.
60784		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60784		habitat	eng	A benthic species mainly restricted to the coastal shallow rocky areas.
60784		population	eng	Population size not known, but it is very rare in fisheries catches.
60784		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.
60785		conservation	eng	No information available.
60785		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is the most abundant benthic fish in the south. It does not appear to be equally distributed around the lake.
60785		habitat	eng	A lacustrine benthic species found on muddy substrates between 20–50 m but it has been recorded at depths of up to 100 m.
60785		population	eng	Population size not known.
60785		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.
60786		conservation	eng	None known.
60786		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60786		habitat	eng	Lives on rocky substrates. Its biology is not known
60786		population	eng	Largely unknown but it is too rare and too small to be seen in fisheries catches
60786		threats	eng	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.
60787		conservation	eng	None known.
60787		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60787		habitat	eng	Lives on rocky substrates.
60787		population	eng	Largely unknown. It is too rare and too small to be seen in fisheries catches.
60787		threats	eng	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.
60788		conservation	eng	None known.
60788		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60788		habitat	eng	It lives on rocky zones in coastal water to the lake and is a voracious predator.
60788		population	eng	Unknown. Too rare and too small to be seen in fisheries catches.
60788		threats	eng	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.
60789		conservation	eng	No information available.
60789		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60789		habitat	eng	Lives on the rocky slopes where it hides in crevices only coming out at night. Biology poorly documented.
60789		population	eng	Unknown. Too rare and too small to be noted in fisheries catches.
60789		threats	eng	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.
60790		conservation	eng	No information available.
60790		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60790		habitat	eng	Lives on the rocky shore littoral where it hides in crevices only coming out at night. Biology poorly documented.
60790		population	eng	Unknown. Too rare and too small to be noted in fisheries catches.
60790		threats	eng	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.
60791		conservation	eng	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
60791		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the western tributaries of the Tejo basin, and in some small occidental (Sado and Samarra rivers) and southern (Mira and Arade rivers) Portuguese basins.
60791		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow streams of medium flow, with vegetation on the banks.
60791		population	eng	Decreasing.
60791		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat destruction (dams). Introduction of exotic fish species.
60792		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60792		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Lake Hula.
60792		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species.
60792		population	eng	Now extinct.
60792		threats	eng	Lake Hula has now been drained.
60793		conservation	eng	None.
60793		distribution	eng	Ruaha-Rufiji system, Ruvu and Ruvuma Rivers.
60793		habitat	eng	Usually riverine, but may colonize dams. They are highly migratory, often going to the upper reaches of Great Ruaha to spawn around January/February. Tend to feed on epiphytic algae, coarse vegetation/detritus and aquatic invertebrates.
60793		population	eng	Composition of <em>Distichodus</em> in the catches was 1.5% in 1987, gradually declining to less than 0.9% in 1996. CPUE as an index of relative abundance has declined at the same time.
60793		threats	eng	Silt loading, chocking substrate for spawning. Over-fishing especially using illegal gears and methods. Land based pollution. High BOD in Mtera during windy periods, leading to fish kills.
60794		conservation	eng	None.
60794		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Zrmanja river basin and Krka river basin in Dalmatia, Croatia. It is introduced into the Ricica Polje in Croatia.
60794		habitat	eng	Riverine.
60794		population	eng	Locally abundant and stable (Freyhof, J. & Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).
60794		threats	eng	There is one dam on the Zrmanja but this does not seem to have adversely affected the species (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).
60795		conservation	eng	None.
60795		distribution	eng	Distributed in Kidatu Dam, Mtera Dam and the Wami, Rufiji-Ruaha and Ruvuma Rivers.
60795		habitat	eng	Mostly found in rivers but may colonize dams. Migrates upstream to spawn.
60795		population	eng	In Mtera dam the index of relative abundance (CPUE) declined from 0.008 m tons/vessel in 1994 to 0.002 m tons/vessel in 1996 (Fish. Div. Stat. 1994, 1996). Catches in Kidatu dam are comparatively small.
60795		threats	eng	Illegal fishing across rivers. Siltation and choking the spawning substrate. Land based pollution.
60796		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60796		distribution	eng	This species may be restricted to the Jordan and Litani river systems in Lebanon, Israel, Syria and Jordan.
60796		habitat	eng	No data available.
60796		population	eng	No data available.
60796		threats	eng	No data available.
60797		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60797		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Anatolia, Turkey including Menderes, Karadere, Kocaçay, Mürvetler river basins (stream flows into Lake Manyas), Bakir stream and lake Manyas.
60797		habitat	eng	Lives in rivers, lakes and lake tributaries.
60797		population	eng	No data.
60797		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction. Introduction of exotic fish species in Manyas Lake. Sand extraction.
60798		conservation	eng	Listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive, and in Appendix III and II of the Bern Convention. In Slovenia the species has been effectively protected since the mid-1990s.
60798		distribution	eng	Restricted to the upper adriatic river drainages, including northern Italy, the Adriatic basin of Slovenia and Croatia (Neretva and Matica rivers). Two sub-populations have been found also in Central Italy in the Esino and Potenza river basins. Presence in Switzerland not formally established, but records of <em>L. planeri</em> from the Po drainage are most likely <em>L. zanandreai</em>.
60798		habitat	eng	Lives in cold-water brooks near springs. It is a non-parasitic lamprey as adult does not feed. It requires a gravel substrate. The larvae remain hidden in the gravel for 3-5 years then the adult emerges and spawns over a one-month period in summer. It is important to conduct surveys at times when the adults have emerged in the summer.
60798		population	eng	Extensive survey in Italy has found many sub-populations in restricted areas.
60798		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution and drought.
60799		conservation	eng	No information available.
60799		distribution	eng	Rusizi River and Luiche River (close to Malagarasi River).
60799		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky fast- flowing rivers and streams. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
60799		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.
60799		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed, and agricultural expansion.
60800		conservation	eng	No information available.
60800		distribution	eng	Mtera dam, Kidatu dam, Lake Jipe and the Pangani and Rufiji-Ruaha Rivers.
60800		habitat	eng	Usually prefers rapidly flowing waters.
60800		population	eng	No information available.
60800		threats	eng	Illegal fishing practice. Land based pollution. Erosion and silting.
60801		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Upemba National Park.
60801		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis lufirae</em> is only known from the Muye river, affluent of the Lufira River, Upemba National Park, This species is known from upper Congo River basin (type locality, Eschemeyer 1998).
60801		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis lufirae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1996).
60801		population	eng	No information available.
60801		threats	eng	There is no major threat for <em>Chiloglanis lufirae</em> because it is known from the Upemba National Park.
60802		conservation	eng	None known to be in place at present.
60802		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Jordan River basin, where it is widely distributed in lakes and most tributaries of the Jordan River (Israel, Jordan). In the coastal plain of Israel, it occurs only in the Qishon River.
60802		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes and rivers. A small species (less than 140 mm). Spawns from February to April.
60802		population	eng	The population within the Lake Kinneret is stable at present. Populations in the riverine part of the species' range are declining.
60802		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution and drought are the main threats, but are not believed to be threatening the whole population.
60803		conservation	eng	No information available.
60803		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it only known from around Likoma Island.
60803		habitat	eng	No information available.
60803		population	eng	No information available.
60803		threats	eng	Restricted range and localised overfishing.
60804		conservation	eng	No information available.
60804		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Rusizi River.
60804		habitat	eng	Found in rapidly flowing rocky streams and rivers. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
60804		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.
60804		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and farming extension.
60805		conservation	eng	A special Greek law protects it, but this is not enforced.
60805		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Sperchios river basin and to the Lake Yliki in eastern Greece. Previously present in Lake Paralimni, which has since been drained. Also in the Kifisos river.
60805		habitat	eng	It is a large size, predominantly lacustrine, barbel (<700 mm). Reproduction is in June on sandy substrate.
60805		population	eng	No data.
60805		threats	eng	Restricted range, overfishing, water extraction, water pollution and agriculture.
60806		conservation	eng	No information available.
60806		distribution	eng	Lakes Victoria, Nabubabo, and Kyoga, the Victoria Nile and affluent rivers. Rivers Akagera, Pangani and associated small lakes; Lakes Karumi, Nyumba ya Mungu and the Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001). Dubious records of <em>Synodontis afrofischeri</em> from the Tana and Athi Rivers are thought to be based on misidentifications of <em>S. serpentis</em>.
60806		habitat	eng	A benthic dweller in lakes and major rivers in and marginal vegetation down to70m but most common at depths of less than 30 m (Witte and de Winter 1995). Feeds on insects and molluscs, (Witte and de Winter 1995). At any one time an estimated 65 % of the stock is ready to spawn (Witte and de Winter 1995). Max. size: 177 mm TL (Gosse in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60806		population	eng	Not known, but the sub-population in Lake Victoria has shown a 67% decline in population due to shrinkage in extent of occurrence between 1969 and 1999.
60806		threats	eng	Illegal undersize nets for fishing. Land-based pollution and siltation.
60807		conservation	eng	No information available.
60807		distribution	eng	Endemic to, and widespread throughout, Lake Tanganyika.
60807		habitat	eng	Found mainly on coastal rocky habitats where it feeds mainly on invertebrates.
60807		population	eng	Population size not known.
60807		threats	eng	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.
60808		conservation	eng	None.
60808		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the wadi Sous and Massa basins in Morocco.
60808		habitat	eng	No data.
60808		population	eng	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
60808		threats	eng	Ground water extraction. Water pollution from agricultural sources.
60809		conservation	eng	No information available.
60809		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60809		habitat	eng	Lives in areas of shells, sand and mud/silt, over a wide depth range, but more often between 20–40 m. Thought to feed on invertebrates.
60809		population	eng	Very rare in fisheries catches.
60809		threats	eng	Siltation and fisheries.
60810		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60810		distribution	eng	This species was restricted to the Lakes Beysehir and Akgöl basins in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Now extinct in Lake Beysehir. However, it has recently been discovered as occurring in Eregli marshes and in Saz Lake and associated tributaries (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.).
60810		habitat	eng	It is a pelagic lacustrine species. Grows to 220 mm.
60810		population	eng	Decreasing.
60810		threats	eng	Water pollution, fishing pressure, drought, restricted water levels (Ergili marsh), and restricted range are the main threats to the species.
60811		conservation	eng	No information available.
60811		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60811		habitat	eng	Caught over a wide depth range but is most common between 20–40 m. It has been recorded down to 130 m. Feeds on invertebrates and molluscs.
60811		population	eng	No population estimates, but is very rare in fisheries catches.
60811		threats	eng	Fisheries and siltation in the lake's littotal zone.
60812		conservation	eng	No information available.
60812		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Upper Nile system (Aswa River drainage). Known only from a tributary of a single river in the Teso District.
60812		habitat	eng	Riverine species. No other information was found.
60812		population	eng	No quantitative information but it is thought to be highly restricted in a single location.
60812		threats	eng	No information available.
60813		conservation	eng	No information available.
60813		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa basin, Mtera dam, Kidatu dam, and the rivers Rufiji and Wami.
60813		habitat	eng	A demersal species occupying both shallow and deep water parts of the lake. Their breeding behaviour is not well known.
60813		population	eng	In Mtera dam, this species contribution to the catch composition has been increasing from 0.9% in 1987 to 9.6% in 1996. In Lake Rukwa it is among the four most important commercial species/groups.
60813		threats	eng	Illegal fishing, across rivers; siltation; and land based pollution.
60814		conservation	eng	No information available.
60814		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Ruaha-Rufiji river system and the associated reservoirs at Mtera dam, Kidatu dam.
60814		habitat	eng	Demersal riverine habitat most often feeding on molluscs and insects.
60814		population	eng	In the Mtera and Kidatu dams the population is reported to be increasing as determined from fishery catch records.
60814		threats	eng	Illegal fishing. Land based pollution.
60815		conservation	eng	No information available.
60815		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60815		habitat	eng	Caught over a wide depth range but is most common between 10 to 30 m. Feeds on invertebrates and molluscs.
60815		population	eng	No population estimates, but common in fisheries catches.
60815		threats	eng	Fisheries and siltation.
60816		conservation	eng	No information available.
60816		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
60816		conservation	eng	None known.
60816		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991)<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in Chad, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Geba, Kolente and Volta basins; coastal rivers from Ghana to Nigeria, Nile basin, including the Bénoué.
60816		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis nigrita</span> is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Géba, Ouémé and Casamance. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside our area, it occurs in the Nile River.
60816		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is known from the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Géba, and Casamance. This species has also been reported from Lake Nokoué in Southern Benin. Outside our area, it occurs in the Nile. It has been recorded from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin as well.
60816		distribution	eng	This is a wide ranging species from Senegal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert. Additional record of this species from Lake Kyoga by Copley in 1958 are not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991) but this record is doubtful and needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile from Khartoum into the Jebel and Ghazal systems, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Géba, Ouémé and Casamance.
60816		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic, freshwater, potamodromous species that lives in tropical climate.
60816		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic, potamodromous species.
60816		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
60816		population	eng	No available data.
60816		population	eng	No information available.
60816		threats	eng	No information available.
60816		threats	eng	None known
60817		conservation	eng	It is included on Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and Annex III of the Berne Convention as <em>C. toxostoma</em>.
60817		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Ebro, Llobregat, Nervias, Butron, Oca, Artibay, Deba, Uro - la, Bidasoa, Urumea and Oria river basins in Spain.
60817		habitat	eng	It lives in all river sections.
60817		population	eng	Abundant.
60817		threats	eng	None.
60818		conservation	eng	No information available.
60818		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60818		habitat	eng	Found exclusively on rocky bottoms where it feeds on invertebrates.
60818		population	eng	The population size not known but it is common in fisheries catches.
60818		threats	eng	Fisheries, and siltation in coastal zones.
60819		conservation	eng	No information available.
60819		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
60819		habitat	eng	Found exclusively on rocky bottoms where it feeds on invertebrates.
60819		population	eng	The population size is not known but it is common in fisheries catches.
60819		threats	eng	Fisheries, and siltation in coastal zones.
60820		conservation	eng	No information available.
60820		distribution	eng	Endemic to upper and middle Akagera.
60820		habitat	eng	Shallow waters and marginal vegetation in rivers where it feeds on mainly on molluscs and insect larvae.
60820		population	eng	Not known, but common in fisheries catches though not very abundant.
60820		threats	eng	Fisheries. Loss of marginal reeds along rivers due to agriculture extension.
60821		conservation	eng	No information available.
60821		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lower Malagarasi (Ugalla), Lake Rukwa drainage, and rivers Wami, Ruvu, and Rufiji-Ruaha (Seegers 1996).
60821		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species ecology. In the Lake Rukwa drainage it prefers the lake to rivers where it is very numerous (Seegers 1996). It lives in shallow waters in the marginal vegetation feeding on a wide range of food items including plant matter, odonata larvae, chironomid larvae, terrestrial insects, gastropod molluscs, fish scales, zooplankton, and phytoplankton (Seegers 1996). In the Ruvu River the species seems to spawn in the rainy season when they migrate into smaller steams (Seegers 1996).
60821		population	eng	Unknown.
60821		threats	eng	Regression of marginal reeds around lakes and rivers due to farming extension.
60822		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60822		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to streams and lakes of the Jordan watershed in Israel, Syria and Jordan. Introduced in the Azraq Oasis.
60822		habitat	eng	It is a large size barbel (<660 mm total length). Spawns in summer on gravel. Feeds on invertebrates and fish. In Lake Kinneret it is a commercial species.
60822		population	eng	Very common in Lake Kinneret, less common in associated rivers.
60822		threats	eng	No serious threats in the lake, but the riverine part of the population is threatened by pollution, water extraction, drought and fragmentation (through dam construction).
60823		conservation	eng	No information available.
60823		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Victoria and the Victoria Nile and associated rivers and smaller lakes. Also known from the Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).Records of <em>Synodontis victoriae</em> from the Tana River (Copley 1941, Mann 1966, 1968) are probably misidentifications and probably refer to <em>S. zanzibaricus</em>.
60823		habitat	eng	Found in shallow waters of lakes and rivers, most often at around 20 m, although it has been recorded down to 80 m. It occurs over both hard and soft substrates, but is more common over soft bottoms (Witte and de Winter 1995). It feeds mainly on small gastropod molluscs, as it is able to extract the flesh of the snails without crushing their shells. It also feeds on insects, among which chironomid larvae predominate (Witte and de Winter 1995). About 45 % of the stock is in spawning state at any one time (Witte and de Winter 1995). Max. size: 290 mm TL (Gosse in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).
60823		population	eng	Population not known, but a decline in abundance and extent of occurrence is reported in Lake Victoria.
60823		threats	eng	Regression of marginal reeds around rivers and lakes due to extension of agriculture; undersized fishing nets; siltation and water pollution; and predation and competition in Lake Victoria.
60824		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60824		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Marmara in western Anatolia.
60824		habitat	eng	It lives in the shallow lake of Marmara (3,400 ha).
60824		population	eng	No data available.
60824		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water extraction and pollution.
60825		conservation	eng	None known.
60825		conservation	eng	Part of the population is within the Lake Chilwa Ramsar sites. Population trends should be monitored.
60825		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Rovuma River, in Mozambique north to the Pangani River in Tanzania.
60825		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa in Malawi and the Ruvuma river system in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Mozambique its range extends south to Rovuma River.
60825		habitat	eng	Collected in non-flowing pools in upper catchment stream beds through to eddies in the main Rovuma channel. Appears to be associated with calmer flows at the edges of flowing waters and where present marginal vegetation. Abundant where encountered.
60825		habitat	eng	This species is found in standing or slowly moving open water with emergent or submerged vegetation. Collected in non-flowing pools in upper catchment stream beds through to eddies in the main Rovuma channel. Appears to be associated with calmer flows at the edges of flowing waters and where present marginal vegetation. Abundant where encountered. Feeds in the mid- and surface waters on a wide variety of food.
60825		population	eng	No information available.
60825		population	eng	Occurs in small numbers in fisheries catches.
60825		threats	eng	None known.
60826		conservation	eng	It is thought that a nature reserve may have been established in this area (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).
60826		distribution	eng	It is restricted to a single stream 10 km long in the Mostarsko blato (Freyhof, J. pers com), an extensive wetland adjacent to Mostar in Bosnia-Hercegovina. The species is probably spread more widely in the Neretva basin.
60826		habitat	eng	It lives in streams with current and clear water.
60826		population	eng	No data.
60826		threats	eng	No obvious threats (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).
60827		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and Appendix III of the Berne Convention as <em>C. toxostoma</em>.
60827		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Turia and Mijares river basins in Spain.
60827		habitat	eng	It lives in the middle reaches of rivers, rich in submerged vegetation.
60827		population	eng	Decreasing.
60827		threats	eng	Water pollution, extraction and drought. Introduction of exotic fish predators.
60828		conservation	eng	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
60828		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Tuscany-Latium district of Italy where it is present in the Tibern, Arno, Ombrone and Serchio river basins with 10–12 subpopulations.
60828		habitat	eng	It is a warm-water obligate riverine species living mainly in small brooks.
60828		population	eng	Declining.
60828		threats	eng	Water extraction, and competition with introduced <em>Chondrostoma genei</em>.
60829		conservation	eng	None.
60829		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Cetina River basin in Croatia
60829		habitat	eng	Rivers, streams, and lakes.
60829		population	eng	No data.
60829		threats	eng	Habitat destruction. Introduction of exotic fish species.
60831		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60831		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Central Anatolia wetlands in Turkey.
60831		habitat	eng	Lives in marshes, lakes and rivers.
60831		population	eng	The population is split into five separate locations. Total population size not known.
60831		threats	eng	Drought and water pollution are the main threats. Invasive species are a problem in Egridir (<em>Sander lucioperca</em>).
60832		conservation	eng	None known.
60832		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Albert and Edward systems.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>no information obtained.
60832		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Lakes Albert and Edward systems.
60832		habitat	eng	Apparently more common in rivers and in the vicinity of river mouths
60832		habitat	eng	This species is apparently more common in rivers and in the vicinity of river mouths.
60832		population	eng	No population estimates
60832		population	eng	No population estimates available.
60832		threats	eng	No specific threats known
60832		threats	eng	No specific threats known.
60833		conservation	eng	None known.
60833		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and also enters the deltas of its major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60833		habitat	eng	Adults inhabit the bentho-pelagic and littoral zones of the lake whereas juveniles are only found in the littoral zone, marginal macrophyte beds and river deltas. Piscivorous.
60833		population	eng	Common, but fisheries catches have declined dramatically in the last 15 years.
60833		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure in pelagic and littoral zones.
60834		conservation	eng	None known.
60834		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana.
60834		habitat	eng	Occurs both in mid-waters and in deep waters. Feeds chiefly on prawns and small characins. Spawns in the open lake. Eggs and embryos probably pelagic. Matures at 25–30 cm FL.
60834		population	eng	No population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
60834		threats	eng	No serious threats identified.
60835		conservation	eng	None known.
60835		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Albert.
60835		habitat	eng	Said to be confined to waters deeper than 60 feet deep. No precise data on feeding habits and breeding behaviour available. Probably takes macro-invertebrates while young and converts to a fish diet at juvenile and adult stages.
60835		population	eng	No information available.
60835		threats	eng	Eutrophication and anoxia in the deep-water habitat. Heavy fishing pressure.
60836		conservation	eng	None known.
60836		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it also enters the deltas of major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60836		habitat	eng	Adults found in bentho-pelagic and littoral zones in the lake. Juveniles are found in lake's littoral zone, marginal macrophytes beds and lower parts of rivers.
60836		population	eng	Common, but fisheries catches have declined dramatically in the last 15 years.
60836		threats	eng	Heavy fishing in pelagic and littoral zones.
60837		conservation	eng	None known.
60837		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Juveniles enter the deltas of major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
60837		habitat	eng	Adults strictly pelagic. Juveniles found in lake's littoral zone among marginal macrophyte beds and river deltas. Piscivorous.
60837		population	eng	Common, but fisheries catches have declined dramatically in the last 15 years.
60837		threats	eng	Heavy fishing in pelagic and littoral zones.
60838		conservation	eng	None.
60838		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Aggitis stream, a tributary of the Strymon river basin in northern Greece.
60838		habitat	eng	Streams, channels and springs with stagnant to moderately flowing waters. Appears quite resilient to pollution.
60838		population	eng	No data.
60838		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, channelisation of creeks, water pollution and extraction.
60839		conservation	eng	None known.
60839		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread in the pelagic zone.
60839		habitat	eng	A deep-water fish, which migrates into nearshore regions in its second year. Juveniles are zooplanctivorous whereas the adults and subadults are piscivorous.
60839		population	eng	Abundant in its habitat and very common in fisheries catches.
60839		threats	eng	Fishing. Water turbidity due to erosion from the watershed.
60840		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60840		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Orontes river basin (Syria and Turkey), to the Litani river (Lebanon) and in the central and northern part of the Jordan river basin (Israel, Jordan).
60840		habitat	eng	It lives in slow-flowing water among stone and vegetation. Also found in littoral zone of Lake Kinneret (although rare). It spawns from February to April. Small species (no more than 8 cm).
60840		population	eng	Not abundant, but not rare. The population has been stable over the last 10 years in Israel. No population size information is available from Turkey, Syria, or Lebanon. It may be absent from Turkey, but this needs to be confirmed (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.).
60840		threats	eng	Water extraction, drought and pollution are the main threats throughout the range.
60841		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for <em>H. desfontaini</em>i.
60841		distribution	eng	The type locality of <em>H. desfontainii</em> is Gafsa in central Tunisia north of Chott El Jerid. In Gafsa it has been recorded from the interconnected ground water fed ponds used to irrigate nearby palm plantations (10 in 1953 (Kirchshofer 1953) and 3 in 1964, the rest had been converted to concrete wells (Weish 1964)), and a Roman swimming pool. In 1979 the species was only found in one small irrigation channel and the Roman swimming pool (Eggers 1980) and in the 1980s the species could only be found here after exhaustive surveys (Schmidt 1982). However, Van der Zee and Vonk (1992) stated the species was very common in Gafsa. A survey in 2006 in Gafsa found the Roman pools to be totally devoid of any fish and the remaining natural ponds and irrigation channels could not be found (possibly drained) (Schraml pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>H. desfontaini</em>i has also been recorded from other sites around Chott El Jerid; near Tozeur (Van der Zee and Vonk 1992, Schöpfel 1997, Schraml pers. comm.) and Nefta oasis (Schmidt 1982), at the oasis En Nemlet (Eggers 1980) and from Algeria (Paulo 1983). Unfortunately the specific details of the sites in Algeria were not identified but Fishbase lists Biskra. In 2006 in Tozeur, where Schraml previously recorded the species in 1996, the water channels/creeks had been concreted and most were drained. Schraml found <em>H. desfontainii</em> in one of these channels, which had very low levels of water (1 or 2 cm), very little suitable substrate and high levels of waste. At one location in this channel, the only individuals of the species that could be seen were almost paralysed by the low temperatures due to the low levels of water and cool air temperature, which made them easy prey for herons and cats. Schraml's 2006 survey also covered many potential sites including near Nefta, El Hamma, le Nefzaoua, Douz, El Faouar, Nouil and Blidet and no <em>H. desfontainii</em> were found.<br/><br/>There are also museum collections of <em>H. desfontainii</em> from Lalla (south of Gafsa), El Hamma and a questionable record from the coastal town of Sfax (Schraml pers. comm., Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/><br/>More survey work is required as not all of the previously recorded sites or potential sites (e.g. Algeria or South of Chott el Jerid) for<em>H. desfontainii</em> were fully surveyed by Schraml in his 2006 survey.
60841		habitat	eng	Its natural habitats are freshwater springs, irrigated lands, and canals and ditches. It prefers warm water. Van der Zee and Vonk (1992) found <em>H. desfontainii</em> particularly numerous in waters which were fed by a water source of 60 degrees Celsius. It is a small size fish (smaller than 200 mm total length).
60841		population	eng	No information available.
60841		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are groundwater extraction for date plantations, habitat loss due to channelization of natural and artificial water courses and drought.
60842		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60842		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Jordan river basin. Only known from one area: Golan and upper Galilee.
60842		habitat	eng	A riverine species occurring on stony and soft bed substrates.
60842		population	eng	Decreasing.
60842		threats	eng	Pollution, water extraction, and habitat destruction are the main threats.
60843		conservation	eng	No information available.
60843		distribution	eng	Endemic to Malawi. Widely spread and abundant throughout the lake. Also occurs in the larger rivers flowing into the lake, such as the Bua.
60843		habitat	eng	Mostly found among rocks and it hides in crevices during the daytime. It can also be found off sandy shores down to the limits of dissolved oxygen (as deep as 220 m). It is reported to be more abundant in the northern part of the lake but is common throughout. It migrates up the larger ephemeral rivers to spawn when they are in spate. It is thought to breed in during October to December. During this time most individuals are caught over sandy and muddy bottoms in shallow water. It is not known whether this species breeds in the main lake. It is an omnivorous scavenger, mainly feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, and other invertebrates. Few individuals less than 10 cm are caught from the offshore water. Average size at first maturity is estimated at 11 cm TL and by 14 cm TL. This species shows a distinct upwards, vertical movement that may be dependent upon the phase of the moon. It has been observed that on nights without moonlight this species is distributed equally between the surface and deep-water layers whereas on moonlit nights almost all individuals were caught in the surface waters.
60843		population	eng	No quantitative information but it is very abundant in demersal trawl catches and bottom set gillnets.
60843		threats	eng	None known.
60844		conservation	eng	One major river where this species breeds is the Bua river, which runs through the Nkhota Kota game reserve (Central Malawi). This is the only river where the spawning grounds are protected (as the surrounding woodlands are protected from deforestation). The headwaters of the North Rukuru river are also protected within the Nyika National Park — there is however increasing land clearance between the park and the spawning grounds. The Linthipe river, a major spawning river, is unprotected, receiving untreated effluent from Lilongwe. The status of 'mpasa' rivers in Tanzania and Mozambique is Unknown.
60844		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its affluent streams.
60844		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species, living in the pelagic zone of the lake. Juveniles remain close inshore and near the river mouths. The adults are piscivourous, feeding on small pelagic fishes. Young fish feed on plankton, insects and other small organic matter. It migrates up rivers from the lake to spawn during the rainy season. Spawning mainly takes place at night and requires well-oxygenated flowing waters and silt free gravel. Spawning takes place in very shallow water and occurs over an extended period during and after the rains.
60844		population	eng	Declining due to overfishing and habitat degradation.
60844		threats	eng	Over-fishing: extremely high mortalities of adults during spawning runs due to total blocking of rivers with gill nets and weirs as well as drifting gillnets. This prevents upstream migration in low rainfall years. Fish poisoning is widely practised although illegal. Deterioration of spawning grounds due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers). Water abstraction for irrigation purposes during dry season hampers downstream movement of young fish.
60845		conservation	eng	None at present.
60845		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its catchment area
60845		habitat	eng	Adults are found in shallow water in the lake over sand habitats. Juveniles occur in streams and near river outlets in the lake. It feeds on small zooplanktivorous fish, which move in shoals along the shoreline. It migrates upstream into large rivers to spawn in the cool waters of mountain streams. It spawns in a gravel substratum, often in very shallow water.
60845		population	eng	Declining due to overfishing and habitat degradation.
60845		threats	eng	Over-fishing of adults causes extremely high mortalities during spawning runs. Fish poisoning is widely practised although illegal. Deterioration of spawning grounds due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers).
60846		conservation	eng	None.
60846		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire river and its streams.
60846		habitat	eng	A benthic species, which lives in shoals over sandy bottoms in relatively sheltered shallow waters. In some area (e.g., off Nkotakota) large shoals were reported to be seen a mile or more offshore). It feeds from the sediment and biocover on the sand. The species migrates upstream in rivers to spawn with the first flood, and after spawning returns quickly to the lake. This species breeds only once when the rivers are in full spate and very turbid. Both the adults and juveniles spend an extremely short time in the rivers where spawning occurs. The young fish can survive being carried downstream at an early age.A maximum size of about 40 cm is reported from Lake Malawi for this species. This species was formerly very abundant in Malawi, but now rare.
60846		population	eng	Declined by at least 50% over the past 20 years.
60846		threats	eng	Over-exploitation: in the past decades, <em>L. mesops</em> was abundant in Lake Malawi, however due to over-fishing of adults, a population decline occurred. It was formerly one of the most important commercial species in Lake Malawi but is now rarely caught. Basket traps, fish weirs, seine nets and gill nets are used to catch this fish. The fishery collapsed despite mesh size regulations for gill nets. Fish poisoning in some of the rivers is also a threat.
60847		conservation	eng	No information available.
60847		distribution	eng	Endemic to Malawi and Mozambique. Occurs in Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa and associated rivers (i.e., Likangala river).
60847		habitat	eng	Inhabits swampy vegetated water, with sandy substrate overlain with decaying plant material at depths not more than 3 metres. Feeds on detritus and insects.
60847		population	eng	No information available.
60847		threats	eng	Over-fishing. Drought - for example Lake Chilwa sometimes dries out completely.
60848		conservation	eng	No information available.
60848		distribution	eng	This fish occurs in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. Reports from Ghana and Tanzania need confirmation. It is also known from the Senegal, Niger, Gambia, Corubal, Konkouré and Little Scarcies Rivers.
60848		habitat	eng	This species is common in fast flowing, rocky stretches of streams, in water of low conductivity. It is a carnivore, that lays eggs under stones.
60848		population	eng	No information available.
60848		threats	eng	None known.
60849		conservation	eng	None.
60849		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.
60849		habitat	eng	It feeds on zooplankton (larger fish) as well as fish (smaller fish). The smaller fishes occur inshore. This species is frequently caught at depths of up to 250 m but also occurs in shallow water (from 8 m). Sexual maturity is reached at about 50 cm total length and spawning occurs in November. It is the most abundant and economically important species in the endemic clariid flock in Lake Malawi. It is usually caught in gill nets. Max. size: Attains a maximum total length of 107 cm.
60849		population	eng	No information available.
60849		threats	eng	Over-fishing in the southern arms of the lake.
60850		conservation	eng	None.
60850		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widespread throughout the lake.
60850		habitat	eng	Frequently caught in deep water (of more than 50 m). Piscivorous.
60850		population	eng	No information available.
60850		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60851		conservation	eng	None.
60851		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake
60851		habitat	eng	Mostly abundant in deep water (more than 50 m). It occurs in the intermediate zone (rocky with sand patches). Piscivorous.
60851		population	eng	No information available.
60851		threats	eng	Over-fishing in the southern arm of the Lake.
60852		conservation	eng	None.
60852		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Types collected from Nkhata bay and Nkhotakota. Also occurs in the southeast and southwest arms of the lake.
60852		habitat	eng	Uncommon catfish. Occurs in relatively deep water (over 50 m). Piscivorous.
60852		population	eng	Unknown.
60852		threats	eng	None known.
60853		conservation	eng	None.
60853		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Nkhata Bay and the southeast and southwest arms of the lake.
60853		habitat	eng	Caught in deep water (more than 50 m). This species may frequent shallow water (unlike other <em>Bathyclarias</em> species). Feeds on fishes and crustaceans.
60853		population	eng	Very rare species.
60853		threats	eng	None known.
60854		conservation	eng	None.
60854		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widespread with records from Nkhata bay, Likoma Island and elsewhere. Also recorded in the southeastern and western arms of the lake.
60854		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky areas in shallow water (less than 50 m). It feeds mainly on crabs.
60854		population	eng	Reported to be numerous and widespread at Nkhata bay and Likoma Island.
60854		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing in southern arms of the lake.
60855		conservation	eng	None.
60855		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected three miles north of Monkey Bay and in the south-east & south west arms of the lake.
60855		habitat	eng	Common in deep water (more than 50 m). Large individuals were mostly caught in waters more than 100 m deep. Predatory mainly feeding on fish and oligochaete worms.
60855		population	eng	Never caught in large quantities.
60855		threats	eng	None.
60856		conservation	eng	No targeted conservation.
60856		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its catchment, the Upper Shire River, and Lake Malombe
60856		habitat	eng	One of the most common and widely distributed species in lake Malawi. Mainly found in rocky habitats in shallow and deep water. It is a member of the demersal fish community and it appears to be confined to the region of the lake that has an oxygenated benthic zone. It is a piscivore that mainly hunts cichlids at night. It breeds throughout the year with a breeding peak from December to March. It migrates for breeding from deep to shallow water. Eggs are deposited in shallow depressions among large rocks. The young are guarded and feed on invertebrates and unfertilised ova. The young remain in the nest and are guarded until they reach about 12 cm in length. This species has developed a mutualistic relationship with some cichlid fishes in defence of the young from predators. The parental catfish guards its young as well as the young of the cichlids, which have been deposited into the nest. The adult cichilds that deposit their young into the catfish nest defend the outer perimeter from predators. This species matures at three years of age (others estimate four years of age). Max. size: 100 cm in total length.
60856		population	eng	Declining in the southern part of Lake Malawi.
60856		threats	eng	Capture by gill nets and longlines. Declining catfish catch rates from gill nets and longlines have also been reported in the southern part of the lake. Demersal trawling in the southern part of the lake. Diminishing catches have been reported in the demersal trawl catches of the southern part of the lake (due to catching immature fish as well as heavy fishing by artisanal fishers).
60857		conservation	eng	None.
60857		distribution	eng	It is restricted to one river basin in southern Portugal, the Mira river basin.
60857		habitat	eng	No data.
60857		population	eng	Not very abundant.
60857		threats	eng	Water extraction, drought and introduction of exotic fish species.
60858		conservation	eng	None.
60858		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Volturno river basin in Central Italy. Also present in Lake Fondi (possibly introduced) and possibly in a number of other associated lagoons (also likely to have been introduced).
60858		habitat	eng	Rivers, lakes and canals where it prefers sand/mud substrates near vegetation.
60858		population	eng	Decreasing in the Volturno river but it is also abundant in the lake and canal systems. In surveys on 2004 carried on Volturno river, loaches were very seldom, and the few collected fish were <em>C. bilineata</em> (Bianco, P.G. pers comm).
60858		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (in the river), water extraction, alien species (predation).Introduction of congeneric <em>Cobitis bilineata</em> and <em>Pseudorasbora parva</em>, <em>Ictalurus melas</em>, <em>Lepomis gibbosus</em> and others, all found during a survey in 2004 (P.G. Bianco, pers. obs).
60859		conservation	eng	None.
60859		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake. Observed at Mbenje island, Nkhomo reef, Chimwalani reef and around the Malari islands.
60859		habitat	eng	This species prefers sandy parts of intermediate habitats. Occurs at depths below 10m. Females and non-breeding males gather in small foraging groups while feeding on plankton. Males have been seen feeding on detritus on the bottom. Breeding occurs throughout the year and slows during the rainy season. Males build caves in the intermediate habitat at depths greater than 17 m. Very popular among aquarists. Aquarium trade name - (<em>Haplochromis crysonotus</em>).
60859		population	eng	No information available.
60859		threats	eng	Restricted range; aquarium trade collection; and sedimentation following land clearance.
60860		conservation	eng	No information available.
60860		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A widespread species reportedly seen at nearly every rocky shore habitat except Likoma and Chizumulu Islands.
60860		habitat	eng	Usually found at an average depth of 10 m in small numbers. Prefers moderately widespread, near-shore rocky habitats (sedentary behaviour). Breeding males are seen all year round. Territorial males defend spawning sites alongside large boulders and spawning usually occurs against the vertical surface. Sometimes spawning occurs upside down under an overhanging rock.
60860		population	eng	No information available.
60860		threats	eng	Near shore sedimentation
60861		conservation	eng	None.
60861		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe.
60861		habitat	eng	A shoaling species, which mainly feeds on zooplankton. Found in rocky areas but prefers open water. Large schools of breeding males congregate near rocks, or floating objects i.e. logs and boats. Widespread but confined to near shore waters. Courtship and mating occurs in the water column (unlike other species within this genus). Juveniles are found inshore over sandy substrates. Breeding ceases during the rainy season. Popular species in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12.5 cm SL.
60861		population	eng	No information available.
60861		threats	eng	Potentially, aquarium collection.
60862		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park.
60862		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Nankhumba Peninsula (southern part of the lake). May be more widespread.
60862		habitat	eng	Forages in the water column where it feeds primarily on zooplankton. Spawns throughout the year with two peaks in January to March and August to September. Males build cone shaped bowers in breeding arenas over sand at depths of 3–7 m.
60862		population	eng	No information available.
60862		threats	eng	Over-fishing, and inshore sedimentation.
60863		conservation	eng	None.
60863		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A common species with lake-wide distribution along the inshore littoral zone.
60863		habitat	eng	A zooplanktivorous feeder. Common over white washed sandy beaches close to the shore. Territorial males found throughout the year. Mainly taken in beach seines and chilimira nets.Populations can be very dense with males building nests in large arena.
60863		population	eng	No information available.
60863		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing. Sedimentation.
60864		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park.
60864		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Thumbi West Island
60864		habitat	eng	<em>Copadichromis atripinnis</em> breeding males build sand bowers with a stone in it.
60864		population	eng	No information available.
60864		threats	eng	Restricted range. Fishing.
60865		conservation	eng	None.
60865		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Found along the eastern coast of Lake Malawi between Nsinje river and the rocky shore north of Gome village. Also observed at Thundu much further north in Mozambique. Not yet observed in the areas between these two localities
60865		habitat	eng	Occurs in intermediate habitats at depths ranging between 25–50 m. Rarely found in shallower waters. Females sometimes observed foraging in groups in the open water and single individuals can be found in between males' territories. Feeds on particulate matter taken from the water column. Males build cave crater nests in the intermediate habitat at depths greater than 25 m. Mouthbrooding females swim to shallow water where they release their offspring among the schools of juvenile utaka commonly found above nests of kampango (<em>Bagrus meridionalis</em>). Known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. 'Virginalis Blotch' in the aquarium trade.
60865		population	eng	No information available.
60865		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing. Sedimentation.
60866		conservation	eng	No information available.
60866		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution. Observed at Gome, Likoma Island, Mbowe Island, Cape Maclear (Malawi), Nkanda, Kirondo, Makonde and Cape Kaizer (Tanzania).
60866		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at depths between 10–30 m. Males build spawning sites at depths of approximately 25 m or deeper. The nest is constructed under and against a rock or small groups of rocks. Feeds on particulate matter from the water column. Known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. "Virginalis Kajose" in the aquarium trade.
60866		population	eng	No information available.
60866		threats	eng	No information available.
60867		conservation	eng	None.
60867		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from two museum specimens (cotypes) with TL of 9.5 cm (could be juveniles). The collection site is unknown and it is therefore unlikely to be recognised in the field. If it is a valid species it probably has a very limited occurrence.
60867		habitat	eng	Unknown.
60867		population	eng	No information available.
60867		threats	eng	Unknown.
60868		conservation	eng	None.
60868		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake wide distribution.
60868		habitat	eng	An inshore rock associated species. Its breeding grounds are found in clear water along steep rocky shores. Breeding probably occurs all year round. Males defend their territories above large boulders protruding from the rocky bottom. Occasionally appears above rocky outcrops in shoals. Usually recorded in gill net catches.
60868		population	eng	No information available.
60868		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60869		conservation	eng	None.
60869		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from one location at Mbenji Island.
60869		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at a depth range of 8–30 m. Females and non-breeding males forage in mid-water for plankton. Breeding occurs throughout the year (low activity during the rainy season). Mature males build cave crater nests in the intermediate habitat. Known as "Quads" or "<em>Haplochromis quadrimaculatus</em>" in the aquarium trade (previously thought to be a form of <em>Copadichromis quadrimaculatus</em>).
60869		population	eng	No information available.
60869		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60870		conservation	eng	No information available.
60870		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Observed at Nkhata bay and Senga Point and caught in trawls in the southern part of the lake.
60870		habitat	eng	This species is considered a truly pelagic utaka as it can be found far out in the lake. However, it has also been observed over sandy habitat and has been recorded from both beach seine catches and offshore trawling surveys.
60870		population	eng	A rare species.
60870		threats	eng	No information available.
60871		conservation	eng	None.
60871		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It has a lake-wide distribution (initially it was thought to occur only in the northern part of the lake). Observed at: Chilumba, Chiwanga Bay (Mozambique), Khande, northern end of the south east and south western arm, Domira bay, Maleri (46 m) and Namiasi, Chembe and Chintheche (Malawi).
60871		habitat	eng	Feeds on zooplankton although the pharyngeal jaws and dentition suggests it feeds on algae.Found over sandy and intermediate habitats. It appears that it does not guard its offspring after release. Mouth brooding females have been observed releasing their fry among small schools of other utaka (<em>Copadichromis</em> spp) juveniles found above kampango (<em>Bagrus meridionalis</em>) nests.
60871		population	eng	No information.
60871		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing.
60872		conservation	eng	None.
60872		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution. Described from Nkhata bay but also observed at Metangula and Masimbwe Islands (Mozambique) and from the southern part of the lake (from trawl catches).
60872		habitat	eng	An inshore dwelling species that occurs in both rocky and sandy areas. Breeds from April to August. Males defend spawning sites on top of flat rocks at depths between 20–40 m in sediment rich intermediate habitats.
60872		population	eng	No information available.
60872		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing.
60873		conservation	eng	None.
60873		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded from the northwestern coast but also observed on the east coast near Masinje.
60873		habitat	eng	It prefers shallow water and is rarely seen in large numbers at depths of more than 10 m. Breeds from August to December. It constructs sand castle nests on the sand. A zooplanktivorous feeder.
60873		population	eng	Little information but it is known to be common at some sites.
60873		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing.
60874		conservation	eng	No information available.
60874		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake wide distribution.
60874		habitat	eng	Mainly a rock dwelling species, found at depths down to 75 m. Common in shallower water of about 18 m. Breeding adults are caught inshore close to rocks. Breeding males hold territories on rocks at depths varying between 20–50 m. It is mainly zooplanktivorous although it is reported to sometimes feed on small fishes. Females spawn only once during the breeding season gathering in separate schools after spawning and moving closer inshore in rocky habitat. The fry are released in very shallow water. This species has been recorded in the middle of the lake off Nkhata Bay. It is the only utaka that is a true open water species for part of its life history. The adults, when at least three years old, are reported to leave the pelagic school in May and breed inshore until August. It is one of the most economically important 'utaka' in the lake. In the northern part of the lake it is the basis of a seasonal fishery from April to July. Caught in chilimira nets, gill nets and in trawls.
60874		population	eng	This is the most abundant 'utaka' in the lake.
60874		threats	eng	None known.
60875		conservation	eng	None.
60875		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Found along the rocky shores of Likoma Island and Chizumulu Island. May also occur between Msisi and Manda (Tanzania). A small subpopulation is found at Cobwe (Mozambique). The shoreline between Cobwe and Manda, a stretch of more than 200 km, does not seem to harbour this species.
60875		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at depths of 10–30 m. Frequently found in sediment rich areas with muddy deposits covering the substrate. Feeds on particulate matter from the water column. This species constructs a cave crater nest under and against a small rock. This species is known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. "Mloto Likoma" in the aquarium trade and is very popular among aquarists.
60875		population	eng	No information available.
60875		threats	eng	Potential Over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60876		conservation	eng	None.
60876		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60876		habitat	eng	A shallow water species mainly found over rocky habitats. Some individuals have been observed over sandy areas. Trawls rarely catch this species. Mainly feeds on phytoplankton but also ingests zooplankton. Males defend spawning sites over/near large boulders at an average depth of 30 m. Males in breeding colour sometimes join females in the open water feeding on plankton. Caught in chilimira nets and gillnets and occasionally in bottom trawls. Known as "<em>Haplochromis</em> Borleyi Large" in the aquarium trade (exported from Mbenji Island).
60876		population	eng	No information available.
60876		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing.
60877		conservation	eng	None.
60877		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the east coast at Fort Maguire, north of Makanjila Point (Malawi). Also occurs on the coast between the Nsinje River outlet and the Mozambican border. May have wider distribution along the Mozambican coast.
60877		habitat	eng	Common in rocky and intermediate habitats at depths between 7–40 m. North of Nsinje river most individuals are found at an average depth of 15 m. Females and breeding males are found in large schools feeding on plankton in the mid-water. This species also feeds from rocky and sandy substrates. Males do not construct a nest but rather defend territories over rock and sand. Breeding occurs throughout the year. Known as "<em>Haplochromis</em> Borleyi Eastern" in the aquarium trade (exported regularly from Ntekete and Masinje in Malawi).
60877		population	eng	No information available.
60877		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60878		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park.
60878		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Observed and collected from Nankhumba Peninsula.
60878		habitat	eng	Feeds on zooplankton. Spawning occurs sporadically throughout the year with peaks between January and March. Males build cone shaped bowers in breeding areas in intermediate habitat at water depths of 15–25 m.
60878		population	eng	No information available.
60878		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing.
60879		conservation	eng	None.
60879		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe. Lake wide distributions.
60879		habitat	eng	Mainly a zooplankton feeder. Breeds throughout the year. Constructs a cave crater nest in steeper sloping areas. In the northern part of the southwestern arm of Lake Malawi it is one of the most abundant species in the shallow water (it comprised 10–30 % in weight of the trawl catches). Known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. 'Fire Crest Mloto' in the aquarium trade
60879		population	eng	A common species.
60879		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing.
60880		conservation	eng	None known.
60880		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Found in the southern part of the lake.
60880		habitat	eng	Occurs in deep water at between 60 to 128 m. The breeding season is from November to May, with increased activity in January-February. Fecundity ranges have recorded as 38–181 eggs for females weighing between 7–44 g. Max. size: 16 cm.
60880		population	eng	No information available.
60880		threats	eng	None known although there is potential for future over-fishing by the commercial trawling fleet in the southern part of the lake.
60881		conservation	eng	No information available.
60881		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A rare, deep-water species, observed in the north of the south east arm of the lake.
60881		habitat	eng	Inhabits deep waters, about 75 m. Mainly found in areas with muddy bottoms covered with layers of diatoms. Probably feeds on the diatoms. Attains about 15 cm TL
60881		population	eng	No information available.
60881		threats	eng	No information available.
60882		conservation	eng	No information available.
60882		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Reported from depths of 35–125 m in the south of the lake, common from 90–128 m.
60882		habitat	eng	Deep-water species (70 m) living over muddy habitats. A benthic invertebrate feeder, taking insect larvae, insects, diatoms and small fish. The breeding season may be between March to September and spawning may occur at great depths i.e., 100 m. Fecundity for this species in the south western arm ranged from 96–304 for females weighing between 26–76 g. Reaches maximum size of 18 cm TL.
60882		population	eng	No information available.
60882		threats	eng	Over-exploitation by demersal trawl fishery.
60883		conservation	eng	No information available.
60883		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A rare, deep-water species. Found in the southern part of the lake as well as Nkhotakota.
60883		habitat	eng	Found in deep water at 55–125 m. It has been recorded from 159 m from Nkhotakota). Max. Size: 15 cm TL
60883		population	eng	No information available.
60883		threats	eng	No information available.
60884		conservation	eng	No information available.
60884		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed in the lake.
60884		habitat	eng	Common in the intermediate habitat and over sand. Mainly occurs in the shallow waters, not deeper than 8 m. It has fleshy lips that it uses to seal crevices between rocks when it sucks out small organisms hiding within the rock. Males in breeding colouration observed in the rocky areas of the intermediate habitat. Mouthbrooding females hide among rocks and stay solitary. Known as "Haplochromis Euchilus" in the aquarium trade.
60884		population	eng	No information available.
60884		threats	eng	No information available.
60885		conservation	eng	None.
60885		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60885		habitat	eng	Found over mud/silt substrates normally in water deeper than 5 m but can penetrate to up to 100 m depth. Specimens caught at great depths are very large (with a maximum total length of 30 cm) occurring singly or in small groups. Feeds mainly on snails. It occurs in schools (a school may contain more than 100 fish) where there is only one male in breeding colouration. Each group has a large feeding territory. Spawning occurs at any site within the foraging territory of the school. This species may become territorial when more than one breeding male is present in a small area. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
60885		population	eng	No information available.
60885		threats	eng	Over-fishing
60886		conservation	eng	None.
60886		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi (lake-wide distribution), the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.
60886		habitat	eng	Common at small rocky areas bordering large sandy coasts. Occasionally also observed over sand. Breeding occurs near rocks in the intermediate habitat. Prefers shallow water but has been caught in trawls at 22–60 m depths. Feeds on small scales from the fins and caudal peduncle of sand dwelling haplochromines. Breeding males are seen throughout the year and they aggressively defend territories on top of rocks. Mouth brooding females gather in small groups. Known as "Haplochromis Jacksoni" in the aquarium trade.
60886		population	eng	No information available.
60886		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60887		conservation	eng	None.
60887		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed throughout the lake but more common to the south.
60887		habitat	eng	Occurs in very shallow waters that are densely vegetated (like its prey <em>Oreochromis shiranus</em>). It may also occur over sandy areas or near rocks or in the open water. Specialised feeder biting small scales from tail fins of all <em>Oreochromis</em> species. Breeding males observed defending sand castle nests. Max. size: 20 cm TL
60887		population	eng	No information available.
60887		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60888		conservation	eng	No information available.
60888		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread throughout the rocky shore habitat.
60888		habitat	eng	Found mainly in rocky places, though it can sometimes be seen in the intermediate habitats. An ambush predator that feeds on small rock dwelling cichlids hiding under rocks. When feeding it has been observed to remain motionless upright resting on top of a rock before striking downwards under the rock. It has also been reported that individuals play dead by lying on the bottom waiting for unsuspecting prey.
60888		population	eng	No information available.
60888		threats	eng	No information available.
60889		conservation	eng	No information available.
60889		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe.
60889		habitat	eng	Prefers the intermediate habitat but is also frequently found in vegetated areas no deeper than 15 m. It is a predator feeding on small fishes. Territorial males only defend territories when spawning. Females guard the fry. Known as '<em>Haplochromis fusco'</em> in the aquarium trade.
60889		population	eng	No information available.
60889		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60890		conservation	eng	No information available.
60890		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60890		habitat	eng	Most common in intermediate habitats or in vegetated habitats. A piscivore that may hunt as an individual or as part of a group. Territorial males defend spawning sites among the rocks of the intermediate habitat They may spawn on rock or sand substrates. Females guard the fry. Known as '<em>Haplochromis polystigma</em>’ in the aquarium trade.
60890		population	eng	No information available.
60890		threats	eng	No information available.
60891		conservation	eng	No information available.
60891		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe where it is widely distributed over sand habitats in both lakes.
60891		habitat	eng	Observed over sandy substrates at depths of 15–20 m although the juveniles are found in shallow waters near rocks. Individuals can also be seen among macrophyte beds in shallow water. Breeding occurs on the sand. It is an ambush predator feeding on other fish and invertebrates. Known as ‘<em>Haplochromis venustus</em>’ in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 22.5 cm TL.
60891		population	eng	No information available.
60891		threats	eng	No information available.
60892		conservation	eng	None.
60892		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Malawi and Malombe.
60892		habitat	eng	Frequently found in shallow water. A predator feeding on small fish. Breeding individuals have been observed in both sandy and rocky habitats. Mouthbrooding females stay in mid-water and release the fry there.
60892		population	eng	No information available.
60892		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60893		conservation	eng	None.
60893		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.
60893		habitat	eng	Occurs in vegetated areas in shallow water. Sometimes also observed in rocky habitats. It is an ambush predator feeding on other small fishes. Known as "Haplochromis Compressiceps" in the aquarium trade.
60893		population	eng	No information available.
60893		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing: Over-collection for the aquarium trade.
60894		conservation	eng	None.
60894		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution but more common in the north.
60894		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water in sandy or vegetated habitats. A predator, feeding on small fishes and invertebrates. May be confined to inshore waters. Max. size: 20 cm.
60894		population	eng	No information available.
60894		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60895		conservation	eng	None.
60895		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper and Middle Shire River, and Lake Malombe as well as the surrounding lagoons and mouths of associated large rivers.
60895		habitat	eng	Frequently observed in shallow water in vegetated sand habitats. A predator feeding on small fishes as well as invertebrates. Territorial males defend a small nest among the vegetation or in the open sand. Known as "Haplochromis Sunset" in the aquarium trade.
60895		population	eng	No information available.
60895		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60896		conservation	eng	None.
60896		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed throughout the lake.
60896		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment rich areas of both rock and sand substrates. Also occurs in the open water. Feeds on plankton. Territorial males build shallow sand nests in the sand or on top of a rock.
60896		population	eng	No information available.
60896		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60897		conservation	eng	None.
60897		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60897		habitat	eng	Prefers shallow areas of sandy shores or habitats with a mud/silt substrate. It can also be found below 30 m. Feeds on plankton. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling in the area. Known as "Haplochromis Nitidus" in the aquarium trade
60897		population	eng	No information available.
60897		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
60898		conservation	eng	None.
60898		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60898		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment rich, rocky habitats at depths between 7–30 m. Feeds on small invertebrates found in the sediment. Known as "Haplochromis Pictus" or "Haplochromis Nitidus" in the aquarium trade.
60898		population	eng	No information available.
60898		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60899		conservation	eng	No information available.
60899		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe. Widespread throughout the lake.
60899		habitat	eng	Common over sand and mud substrates. Larger individuals found to depths of 20 m whereas the juveniles and sub adults are encountered in shallow water. Piscivore. Substrate spawner. Known as "Haplochromis Mbwanae" in the aquarium trade.
60899		population	eng	No information available.
60899		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60900		conservation	eng	None.
60900		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed along the coast of lake Malawi.
60900		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow waters in the intermediate zone of 1–2 m. Seldom occurs at depths more than 5 m. Frequently found in vegetation rich waters. Males are aggressively territorial and dig pits among the vegetation or under rocks. Females are solitary or in small groups. Feeds on algae from the surface of rocks and macrophytes. Also feeds on small invertebrates as well as plankton. Exported in the aquarium trade under its scientific name. Max. size: reaches a maximum total length of 13 cm.
60900		population	eng	No information available.
60900		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60901		conservation	eng	None.
60901		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Upper Shire and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed in Lake Malawi.
60901		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat as well as over sandy bottoms. It stays frequently in mid water. A paedophage, steals broods from females by ramming the head from below. May also feed on external parasites. Males build sand castle nests.
60901		population	eng	No information available.
60901		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
60902		conservation	eng	None.
60902		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed in Lake Malawi.
60902		habitat	eng	Most of the individuals observed occurred over sandy beaches at about 15 m depth. Can also occur over rocks and the intermediate habitat. A specialised predator: a paedophage, which steals broods from females by ramming the head from below.
60902		population	eng	No information available.
60902		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60903		conservation	eng	None.
60903		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is known from the southern part of the lake up to Domira Bay.
60903		habitat	eng	Occurs in the open water down to 65 m A piscivore feeding mainly on "usipa" (<em>E. sardinella</em>) or on plankton.
60903		population	eng	No information available.
60903		threats	eng	Unknown
60904		conservation	eng	None.
60904		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread.
60904		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded throughout the pelagic zone from the surface to 220 m. In the southwestern arm it was mostly abundant between 75 and 100 m. Males in breeding colouration were caught throughout the year and ripe females are also known to occur throughout the year thus indicating that this species may breed all year round. Females mouthbrood young of large sizes (up to 2.3 cm SL). Its size at maturity for females was 10.5 cm SL. It has an average fecundity of 15 eggs for females of 14-18 cm TL. It feeds on plankton and crustaceans occasionally taking insect larvae, cichlid fry as well as diatoms and other algae. It mainly occurs in the mid-water trawl catches as well as the catches of deep water bottom trawls and pair trawls. It also occurs in catches of chilimira nets. It has been reported that in the offshore waters most individuals caught were either larger than 11 cm or small fry while intermediate sizes occurred in the trawl catches in the south eastern arm of the lake. This species is probably the most important commercial species in the southeast arm of the lake. It probably has the highest biomass of any cichlid in the lake (with an estimated total biomass of 87,000 tons in the pelagic zone).
60904		population	eng	No information available.
60904		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60905		conservation	eng	None.
60905		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is most common in the southern part of the lake.
60905		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths of 50–200 m. Most of the ripe individuals occur at depths of 75 m or more. Fecundity ranges from 9–34 for females weighing between 16–39 g. Average size at maturity for females is 8.8 cm SL.
60905		population	eng	No information available.
60905		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60906		conservation	eng	None.
60906		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It occurs in the central and northern parts of the lake where it is considered to be rare. Also known at Domira Bay further south.
60906		habitat	eng	Found between 25–160 m depth.
60906		population	eng	No information available.
60906		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60907		conservation	eng	None.
60907		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is common in the southern part of the lake although found throughout.
60907		habitat	eng	This species occurs in trawl catches from 34–114 m throughout the southeastern arm of the lake and from 50-125m in the southwestern arm of the lake. It may be a mid-water spawner, in the south western arm 60% of breeding males were caught at 75 m while ripe females were caught between 75-125 m. In the southwestern arm fecundity for this species ranged from 25–53 for females weighing between 55–139 g and the average size at maturity was 14 cm SL. It occurs as bycatch in the mid water trawl catches and also occurs in the catches of deep-water demersal trawls as well as chilimira nets and handlines. Max. size: 20 cm TL.
60907		population	eng	No information available.
60907		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60908		conservation	eng	None.
60908		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is widely distributed in the southern part of the lake and has been reported near Nkhata bay and at Chizumulu.
60908		habitat	eng	It occurs in the open water and can be found in some areas as down to 150 m but has been mostly captured in trawls in small numbers at around 50 m. It was thought to be a paedophage, which steals eggs and fry from the mouths of brooding females but is a piscivore. It occurs in catches of deep-water demersal trawls and is also exploited by the artisanal fishery using hand lines as well as deep-set gill nets. Max. size: 30 cm TL.
60908		population	eng	No information available.
60908		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60909		conservation	eng	None.
60909		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Upper Shire River.
60909		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy and muddy bottoms. Feeds on the fins of clariid catfishes. Ripe males have been caught from a depth of 18 m in the southeastern arm. Also recorded in trawls up to 46 m in the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi.
60909		population	eng	Uncommon species.
60909		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60910		conservation	eng	No information available.
60910		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.It is distributed throughout lake Malawi but is most common in the southern half.
60910		habitat	eng	Occurs in all kinds of habitats but is most often seen in the intermediate habitat. It has been recorded from a wide range of depths from the shallow lakeshore to 114 m. Males in breeding colouration usually defend a territory at the edge of the rocky habitat. It is an ambush predator of small fish. It lies on its side partly buried on the sand or muddy bottom shamming death waiting for its prey. Known as "<em>Haplochromis livingstoni</em>" in the aquarium trade.
60910		population	eng	No information available.
60910		threats	eng	No information available.
60911		conservation	eng	No information available.
60911		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widely distributed. Regularly seen at Chizumila Island, on the coast near Chewe and in the eastern coast near Masinje.
60911		habitat	eng	Normally occurs in the intermediate or rocky habitats. Feeds on cichlid fry or larvae. A male has been observed building a sand castle nest under an overhanging rock on top of a pile of rubble. It has been caught as deep as 92 m off Monkey Bay as well as being caught in shallower water in seine nets. Known as "Haplochromis Jack Dempsey" in the aquarium trade
60911		population	eng	No information available
60911		threats	eng	No information available
60912		conservation	eng	None.
60912		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widely distributed along the rocky shore.
60912		habitat	eng	Occurs frequently over rocks, but can also be observed over the intermediate habitat. Rarely observed over sandy habitats. Occurs in depths of 5–50 m. A predator that hunts other cichlids by catching them with a sideways strike. This species may not be territorial as the males even hunt in breeding colouration. Known as "Haplochromis Pholidophorus" or "Haplochromis Torpedo Three Spot" in the aquarium trade.
60912		population	eng	No information available.
60912		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60913		conservation	eng	None.
60913		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe where it is uncommon but widespread.
60913		habitat	eng	Shallow species of the intermediate habitat or sheltered soft bottom areas. A predator feeding on invertebrates and small cichlids. Territorial males usually occur in small groups and defend a cave between the rocks. Known as 'Haplochromis Flavimanus' or 'Haplochromis Maleri Thicklip' in the aquarium trade.
60913		population	eng	No information available.
60913		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. and collection for the aquarium trade.
60914		conservation	eng	None.
60914		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60914		habitat	eng	Occurs along rocky shores and occasionally in the intermediate sand/rock zone. Prefers depths of 5–15 m. Feeds on insects and their larvae and other invertebrates that hide in the biocover. Breeding males defend a cave in the rocky habitat. Females guard fry after they have been released. Known as 'Haplochromis Hertae' in the aquarium trade.
60914		population	eng	No information available.
60914		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60915		conservation	eng	None.
60915		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread.
60915		habitat	eng	Most often occurs in the rocky habitat, but can also be found in the intermediate habitat. Found in the extreme shallows to depths of 42 m. Juveniles feed on parasites and fungus. Adults feed on pieces of skin from catfish as well as scales from larger fishes.
60915		population	eng	No information available.
60915		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60916		conservation	eng	None.
60916		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe, Upper and Middle Shire River. Common throughout the Lake Malawi.
60916		habitat	eng	Common in sandy shallow habitats where it prefers quiet water and sheltered bays. Sometimes also observed in rocky shore habitats. Feeds on invertebrates and has also been observed hunting cichlids. Males do not construct nests. Usually occurs in small foraging groups. This species is known to burrow into the sand and hide in order to avoid being caught especially by seine nets. Juveniles use this same behaviour to escape predators. Known as ' Haplochromis Rostratus' in the aquarium trade.
60916		population	eng	No information available.
60916		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60917		conservation	eng	No information available.
60917		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60917		habitat	eng	Observed to be numerous in deep water rocky reefs surrounded by sand. It has been recorded as deep as 22–26 m. It is a piscivore feeding on small cichlids. Territorial males construct sand castle nests near rocks. Females guard juveniles in the rocky habitats at depths of 6–11 m. Known as "Haplochromis Gaisi" in the aquarium trade.
60917		population	eng	No information available.
60917		threats	eng	None identified.
60918		conservation	eng	No information available.
60918		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Upper Shire and Lake Malombe with a widespread distribution throughout Lake Malawi but it is less common in Lake Malombe.
60918		habitat	eng	Prefers shallow vegetated regions of sheltered bays. Always found in association with higher plants. Feeds from loose algae that grow on leaves of plants. Males clear a circular area of 15 cm diameter among the weeds. Mouth brooding females hide among the vegetation and are rarely seen. They also guard free-swimming fry. Known by its species name in the aquarium trade.
60918		population	eng	No information available.
60918		threats	eng	Seine nets with small meshes
60919		conservation	eng	None.
60919		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs throughout the lake.
60919		habitat	eng	Prefers the intermediate habitat and mostly occurs in shallow water not deeper than 10 m. It is a rare predatory species feeding on small fishes and soft invertebrates. It searches for hiding prey by inserting its narrow snout between rocks. Known as "Malawi Gar" in the aquarium trade.
60919		population	eng	No information available.
60919		threats	eng	Sedimentation; over-fishing; and collection for the aquarium trade.
60920		conservation	eng	None.
60920		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Widespread throughout Lake Malawi where it is particularly common in the south.
60920		habitat	eng	Lives over sandy areas in shallow water (prefers depths ranging from 3–15 m). Feeds on small benthic invertebrates disturbed by other large sand dwelling species (e.g., <em>Taeniolethrinops</em> spp.) with which it is normally associated. Reproduction occurs whenever ripe females and males meet as the males do not build nests nor defend territories. Known as '<em>Haplochromis moorii</em>' in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 23 cm total length (TL).
60920		population	eng	No information available.
60920		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60921		conservation	eng	None.
60921		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi
60921		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the intermediate or sandy habitat. Adults are caught at depths ranging from 10–40 m. Predator, hunts small sand dwelling haplochromines. Breeding males build sand castle nests on steeply sloping sandy shores. Breeding males are seen in colonies at depths of about 30 m. Known as <em>Haplochromis mbowe</em> in the aquarium trade.
60921		population	eng	No information available.
60921		threats	eng	Fisheries.
60922		conservation	eng	None.
60922		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Distributed throughout the lake.
60922		habitat	eng	Occurs near shallow rocky areas. A predator (piscivorous) hunting in packs. Breeding males have been observed below 10 m. Breeding males defend their territories on rocks. Mouth brooding females ascend to shallower waters where they release the fry. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
60922		population	eng	No information available.
60922		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
60923		conservation	eng	No information available.
60923		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Occurs throughout these lakes.
60923		habitat	eng	A shallow water species preferring sandy habitats. Juveniles are common in shallow water close to the shore. Adults occur at deeper levels and have been observed at 20–30 m. It is piscivorous. In the southwestern arm of the lake, ripe individuals were caught at 10 m depth suggesting a rather shallow spawning. Sexual maturity for females in this species was reached at 16 cm standard length and fecundity ranged from 267–627 for females weighing between 294-588 g. Known as "Haplochromis Lepturus Green" in the aquarium trade.
60923		population	eng	No information available.
60923		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60924		conservation	eng	None.
60924		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake.
60924		habitat	eng	Inhabits sandy and swampy shores. Can be caught at depths of 18 m.
60924		population	eng	No information available.
60924		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60925		conservation	eng	None.
60925		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed in Lake Malawi.
60925		habitat	eng	Regularly found over muddy bottoms in shallow sheltered bays. Can also be found over sandy areas off beaches. Juveniles inhabit very shallow sandy shores. Known as "Haplochromis Lepturus" in the aquarium trade
60925		population	eng	No information available.
60925		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60926		conservation	eng	No information available.
60926		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi.
60926		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water near sandy shores. Adults can be caught in water less than 18 m.
60926		population	eng	Widespread in the north, rare in the south.
60926		threats	eng	Potential localised over-fishing.
60927		conservation	eng	No information available.
60927		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe.
60927		habitat	eng	Occur in offshore sandy beaches at an average depth of about 10 m. Can occur as deep as 50 m. In the south western arm of Lake Malawi it is frequently encountered at 30 m. Fecundity ranges from 100–315 for females weighing between 40–250 g. Known as "Haplochromis Lepturus Line" in the aquarium trade.
60927		population	eng	No information available.
60927		threats	eng	Commercial trawling in the southern arms of Lake Malawi (South of Boadzulu island and in Lake Malombe).
60928		conservation	eng	No information available.
60928		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.
60928		habitat	eng	Inhabits the open water over rocky and sandy habitats. It has not been recorded in the pelagic zone surveys. Piscivorous, hunting small pelagic fish preferring <em>Engraulicypris sardella</em>. Territorial males clear the spawning site by circling over the sand. Juveniles stay in small schools in shallow water. Known as "Trout Cichlid” or “Haplochromis Thola" in the aquarim trade.
60928		population	eng	Common in the southwest arm of Lake Malawi at depths of 15–55 m. Found less often in the shallow water in the southeastern arm.
60928		threats	eng	No information available.
60929		conservation	eng	No information available.
60929		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is fairly uncommon and is mainly distributed in the southern part of the lake. More survey is required to determine the full lake-wide distribution.
60929		habitat	eng	Occurs at great depths (50–125 m) and is most common at 125 m. Females attain an average size at maturity of 13.5 cm. It is a piscivore feeding on other small cichlids.
60929		population	eng	No information available.
60929		threats	eng	No information available.
60930		conservation	eng	Part of range within the Lake Malawi National Park.
60930		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Possibly restricted to the southern arms of the lake.
60930		habitat	eng	Most frequently observed over sand, but also occurs in the intermediate and sometimes rocky habitats. Feeds on small fishes and invertebrates by scooping its prey from the sand. Breeding males defend spawning sites of either a shallow sand castle nest or a cleared site in intermediate habitat. Breeding males have been observed at a depth of about 20 m in small colonies. Known as "Haplochromis Yellow Black Line" in the aquarium trade
60930		population	eng	No information available.
60930		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60931		conservation	eng	No information available.
60931		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread throughout the lake, although rare.
60931		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat over sand and rock between 10-20 m depth. A piscivore that hunts juvenile cichlids but also feeds on invertebrates. Males construct shallow spawning sites in the sand usually close to or underneath a rock. Common in the catches of shallow water trawls of down to 64 m in the southeast arm. Has been exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm.
60931		population	eng	No information available.
60931		threats	eng	No information available.
60932		conservation	eng	No information available.
60932		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi.
60932		habitat	eng	Observed over rocky areas as well as in vegetated intermediate habitats. Occurs from surface waters down to 20 m depths. Feeds on fish fry as well as plant material. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
60932		population	eng	Uncommon to rare species, with lake wide distribution.
60932		threats	eng	Over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60933		conservation	eng	None.
60933		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a wide distribution.
60933		habitat	eng	Commonly inhabits rocky areas and intermediate biotopes. This species is most numerous over large rocks and boulders. Occurs in the extreme shallows to at least 40 m depths but is most common at 3–12 m. It is well known for its fin biting as well as scale eating habits (an opportunistic lepidophage). It is mainly attracted to displaying males in the rocky habitat and strikes them when they are preoccupied in defending their territories. It has been observed mimicking another species (<em>P. longior</em>) in Mbamba Bay so that it is able to approach its prey (<em>P. longior</em>) much closer for attack. It is likely that it mimics other species in other areas of the lake for the same purpose. It can also feed on plankton and aufwuchs. It is rarely observed over open sand. It is not territorial, and individuals are normally solitary. It can, however, be aggressive when it meets conspecifics. Due to its aggressive nature, this species is rarely exported for the aquarium trade. It is a polymorphic cichlid.
60933		population	eng	No information available.
60933		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation.
60934		conservation	eng	No information available.
60934		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution. Observed at Senga Bay, from Monkey Bay to Zimbawe rocks, Maleri Island, Domira bay, Ngara, South rukuru river as well as Ruarwe.
60934		habitat	eng	Occurs in intermediate habitats from 6–25 m deep. Feeds on loose sediment. Males do not have fixed territories but chase other males from their feeding places. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade
60934		population	eng	No information available.
60934		threats	eng	No information available.
60935		conservation	eng	None.
60935		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the northwestern coast from Ngara to Nkhata bay. Also observed at Liuli & Mbamba Bay.
60935		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment rich intermediate zones (at Nkhata bay occurs at 8–25 m and at Chitimba bay 4–5 m). Occurs on the outer fringe of the rocky shore. Population density is low in deeper water. Feeds mainly on loose aufwuchs. Males are weakly territorial, chasing away intruders, and females are solitary.
60935		population	eng	No information available.
60935		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60936		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park
60936		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60936		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky shore zone. It is rarely encountered at greater depths. Feeds primarily on aufwuchs scraped off the rock surface. Males are territorial; females are solitary. It is a polymorphic cichlid. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
60936		population	eng	No information available.
60936		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade; sedimentation; and potential over-fishing.
60937		conservation	eng	None.
60937		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs along most coastal sections of the lake.
60937		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky shore habitats. Females and sub adults are solitary. Males are mostly territorial but not very aggressive. Feeds on aufwuchs. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. It is a polymorphic cichlid.
60937		population	eng	No information but it is a common species.
60937		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and potential over-fishing.
60938		conservation	eng	Unknown.
60938		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed in the northern part of the lake, North of Chilumba, Likoma and Chisumulu Islands, Usisya, Chitande, Mara Point, Ikombe to Hai Reef (Mozambique border), Cobue, Wikihi (Mozambique), Undu Reef (Tanzania), Ikombe to Hai Reef (Mozambique border).
60938		habitat	eng	Occurs over rocky and stony substrates in shallow water to a depth of 40 m. Most abundant between 5 and 20 m. Feeds primarily on plankton although territorial males feed on aufwuchs. Males hold their territories in front of rocks or between stones. Females are solitary or live in groups. Known as 'Redtop Afra' or ' Whitetop Afra' in the aquarium trade.
60938		population	eng	No information available.
60938		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60939		conservation	eng	None.
60939		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded from Mundola Point, south of Nkhata Bay, Chilombo Bay and Lions Cove.
60939		habitat	eng	Occurs over a sand substrate but may also occur in the intermediate zone. Most numerous in 4–10 m depth but can occur as deep as 20 m. Feeds on plankton as well as from sandy and rocky substrata. Males dig saucer shaped spawning sites where they aggressively defend their territories. Non-territorial individuals of both sexes form schools numbering between 20–150 members, which usually remain in the water column 1–2 m above the sand substratum. Known as " Pseudotropheus Kingsizei" in the aquarium trade.
60939		population	eng	No information available.
60939		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation.
60940		conservation	eng	None in place.
60940		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at a single location, Likoma Island.
60940		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky habitats in shallow water. It excavates tunnels in the substratum and carries pebbles to guard the entrance of these tunnels. Known as "Mini-zebra" in the aquarium trade.
60940		population	eng	No information available.
60940		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60941		conservation	eng	No information available.
60941		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lakewide distribution.
60941		habitat	eng	Prefers rocky habitats in sediment rich areas. Adults are more common below 10 m. A piscivore that primarily hunts "mbuna" (rocky shore cichlids). Breeding males are observed throughout the year and defend a temporary spawning site between rocks. Females carrying fry can be seen amongst the rocks in shallower water. The fry are abandoned when they reach about 3 cm in size. Known as "Haplochromis Macrostoma" in the aquarium trade.
60941		population	eng	Relatively uncommon.
60941		threats	eng	No known threats.
60942		conservation	eng	No information available.
60942		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a widespread distribution.
60942		habitat	eng	Occurs among mixed rock/sand habitats in shallow water to a depth of 30 m. It is a piscivore and ambushes its prey. Solitary. Breeding males sometimes construct crater shaped spawning pits and control territories during the breeding season. Females guard their fry (for as long as five or six weeks after first release) while staying close to male's territory and the fry are released among the rocks. Known as "Haplochromis Macrostoma" in the aquarium trade.
60942		population	eng	No information available.
60942		threats	eng	No known threats.
60943		conservation	eng	None known.
60943		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the rocky reefs in the southeast arm of the lake at Boadzulu Island and Makokola reef.
60943		habitat	eng	Known from rocky reef habitats and is most abundant below 10 m.
60943		population	eng	No information available.
60943		threats	eng	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.
60944		conservation	eng	None.
60944		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at Boadzulu Island, Chinyamwezi Island, Chinyankhwazi Island and Makokola reef.
60944		habitat	eng	Found over large rocks and slabs where detritus and organic matter accumulate in pockets among rocks. Most numerous between 3–15 m depth but can occur from the surface to at least 40 m. Feeds on aufwuchs, insect larvae, benthic crustaceans and macrophytes. Spawning occurs at any location in the rocky habitat. Known as "Rusty Cichlid”, “Petrotilapia Tridentiger” and “<em>Lodotropheus prengerae</em>”" in the aquarium trade.
60944		population	eng	No information available.
60944		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade.
60945		conservation	eng	None.
60945		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at the Nsinje River border on the eastern coast of Lake Malawi.
60945		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky and intermediate habitat, mostly in the upper 5 m. Feeds predominantly on aufwuchs. Males defend territories and spawning takes place at any site in the habitat. Known as "Labidochromis Pearl Type" in the aquarium trade.
60945		population	eng	No information available.
60945		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Sedimentation. Potential Over-fishing.
60946		conservation	eng	No information available.
60946		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River, and Lake Malombe. It has a lake-wide distribution in Lakes Malawi and Malombe.
60946		habitat	eng	Thought to inhabit shallow water over sand habitats where it primarily feeds on plankton. The shape and structure of its mouth suggest that it may also be a paedophage (stealing larvae out of the mouths of brooding females).  Max. size: 23 cm TL.
60946		population	eng	No information available.
60946		threats	eng	No information available.
60947		conservation	eng	No information available.
60947		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60947		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow and muddy bays and vegetated areas between 4–20 m where it feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans and small snails. It is regularly caught in beach seine nets in the southern part of the lake. Known as "Haplochromis Placodon Pointed Head". Max. size: 25 cm.
60947		population	eng	No information available.
60947		threats	eng	None known.
60948		conservation	eng	No information available.
60948		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe as well as the Shire River. It has a wide distribution in both lakes and extends downstream in the Shire River as far as the Majete rapids.
60948		habitat	eng	Most common at around 5 m, often amongst Vallisneria beds, but also recorded down to 31 m. Feeds on small snails. Males defend large crater nests and the breeding season is from July to September. This species may be useful in controlling snails, which act as vectors for human schistosomiasis (bilharzia). Caught in seines, gill nets and trawls. Known as "Hpalochromis placodon" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 23 cm TL.
60948		population	eng	No information available.
60948		threats	eng	Localised over-fishing.
60949		conservation	eng	No information available.
60949		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A common species widespread throughout the lake.
60949		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat. Pisivorous, ambushing its prey. It breeds throughout the year, spawning in the rocky habitats where territorial males congregate in small groups each defending a spawning site, either a cave or beneath an overhanging rock. Known as "Haplochromis Modestus" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm TL.
60949		population	eng	No information available.
60949		threats	eng	No information available.
60950		conservation	eng	No information available.
60950		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widespread, especially along the eastern shore.
60950		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat over sand at an average depth of about 7 m. A predator, mainly feeding on small fish close to the surface of the sand. At around April the breeding males are seen at a depth of about 20 m. Known as "Haplochromis Tropedo and Haplochromis Torpedo Kambiri" in the aquarium trade where it has been exported infrequently. Max. size: 18 cm.
60950		population	eng	No information available.
60950		threats	eng	No information available.
60951		conservation	eng	No information available.
60951		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake wide distribution.
60951		habitat	eng	Mainly occurs in the intermediate habitat and sandy shores near rocks. It is a piscivoroe, hunting its prey over the sand. Breeding males are observed throughout the year preferring sandy regions at depths of 20-40 m. Territorial males dig sand castle nests on the sand floor. Mouthbrooding females ascend to shallower intermediate habitats where they release their fry. Known as "<em>Haplochromis woodi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 25 cm TL.
60951		population	eng	No information available.
60951		threats	eng	No information available.
60952		conservation	eng	No information available.
60952		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread along the littoral zone. Occurs throughout the lake.
60952		habitat	eng	Breeding groups occur over sand or mixed intermediate habitats at a depth of about 15 m. Otherwise it prefers mud/silt habitats from where it feeds on worms and other soft invertebrates. Breeding occurs all year round and males construct cave crater nests. Females move in small groups or alone. Known as "<em>Lethrinops variabilis</em>” and “<em>Lethrinops chizumulu</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 14 cm TL.
60952		population	eng	No information available.
60952		threats	eng	No information available.
60953		conservation	eng	No information available.
60953		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60953		habitat	eng	Commonly occurs at 20–30 m depth either singly or in small groups foraging in shallow water over sediment covered sand. The diet consists of insect larvae or other soft invertebrates. Breeding males defend territories consisting of small pits in the sand or mud. Max. size: 14 cm.
60953		population	eng	No information available.
60953		threats	eng	No information available.
60954		conservation	eng	No information available.
60954		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake where it has been observed at Mdoka. May have a lake-wide distribution.
60954		habitat	eng	Occurs at 7–15 m depths where it feeds on insect larvae and other invertebrates. Territorial males construct a cave crater nest.
60954		population	eng	No information available.
60954		threats	eng	Potential threat of localised over-fishing.
60955		conservation	eng	No information available.
60955		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded from the southern part of the lake.
60955		habitat	eng	Occurs in the shallow water over sand at a depth of 7 m where it feeds on invertebrates by sifting sand through its gills.
60955		population	eng	No information available.
60955		threats	eng	No information available.
60956		conservation	eng	No information available.
60956		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60956		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat where it takes soft invertebrates from the sand by sifting the sand through its gills. Females are found in groups or alone. A breeding colony has been observed at a depth of about 10 m. Males construct shallow nests in the intermediate habitat. Max. size: 18 cm TL.
60956		population	eng	No information available.
60956		threats	eng	No information available.
60957		conservation	eng	No information available.
60957		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60957		habitat	eng	No information available.
60957		population	eng	No information available.
60957		threats	eng	No information available.
60958		conservation	eng	No information available.
60958		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake. It is thought that it may have a lake-wide distribution.
60958		habitat	eng	Occurs over open sandy areas between 5–40 m. Benthic feeder, preying on chironomid larvae and copepods along with sand detritus and some algal material from the sand. Often found in demersal trawl catches but it is also caught in gill nets and occasionally by seines. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling in the area. Known as "<em>Lethrinops furcifer</em>" in the aquarium trade.
60958		population	eng	No information available.
60958		threats	eng	Over-fishing by the demersal trawl fleet in the southeast arm of the lake.
60959		conservation	eng	No information available.
60959		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is confined to the eastern coast north of Chapola Shoal south to the area from Nkhudzi to the Nankhumba Peninsula. Also found at Domira Bay.
60959		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy habitats where it feeds on chironomid larvae, detritus and algal remains. A female guarding fry has been observed off Thumbi East Island. Often caught in pair trawls, gill nets and seine nets.
60959		population	eng	No information available.
60959		threats	eng	No information available.
60960		conservation	eng	No information available.
60960		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire River. Widespread throughout Lake Malawi.
60960		habitat	eng	Occurs in open sandy areas in shallow water as well as in intermediate areas at depths of 5–40 m. Feeds on benthic invertebrates by digging deep into the sand with its snout and sifting material through its opercula. Males construct huge sand castle nests. Adults usually occur singly and are frequently followed by other cichlids or juvenile <em>Taeniolethrinops</em> that shift through and feed from the sediment that has been disturbed by the digging behaviour of this fish. Common in trawl catches from 9-37 m. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling. Known as "<em>Lethrinops furcifer</em>”, “<em>Lethrinops furcicauda</em>” or “<em>Haplochromis lateristriga</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 30 cm TL.
60960		population	eng	No information available.
60960		threats	eng	Localised impacts of demersal trawling.
60961		conservation	eng	No information available.
60961		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded from the southern part of the lake at Monkey Bay, Domwe Island, Otter Point and Thumbi West Island.
60961		habitat	eng	Prefers the rocky habitat where it has been observed in the extreme shallows down to 35 m depth. Males are common between 6-10 m while females are more numerous in the extreme shallows. Feeds on aufwuchs and benthic invertebrates as well as plankton. Reported not yet to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).
60961		population	eng	No information available.
60961		threats	eng	Potential localised over-fishing. Sedimentation.
60962		conservation	eng	No information available.
60962		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a wide distribution occurring mainly on the western shores of the lake.
60962		habitat	eng	Most common in the wavewashed rocky habitat preferring areas with medium sized to large rocks in water less than 8 m deep, but it has been recorded down to 18 m at Boadzulu Island. Males defend territories against conspecific males. Females and non-territorial males are usually solitary. Feeds on epilithic algae as well as plankton. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).
60962		population	eng	No information available.
60962		threats	eng	Sedimentation.
60963		conservation	eng	No information available.
60963		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake at Chinyamwezi and Chinyankhwazi Islands
60963		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat and forages in the water column feeding on plankton. Territorial males occur below 3 m depth whereas the non-territorial males are observed in shallower water. Exported in the aquarium trade.
60963		population	eng	No information available.
60963		threats	eng	Potentially, localised over-fishing.
60964		conservation	eng	No information available.
60964		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Common in shallow water on most rocky shores south of Ruarwe on the western side of the lake and as far as Makanjila on the eastern side.
60964		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky areas preferring habitats with medium to large sized rocks. Usually occurs in shallow water and does not usually go below 8 m, although it has been recorded at 20 m depth at Boadzulu Island. Females are more abundant in the extreme shallows while males are most abundant at about 3 m depth. Adults feed on aufwuchs on rock surfaces whereas the juveniles primarily feed on plankton. Males defend territories against conspecifics. Females and non-territorial males may be solitary or hover in the water column in groups of up to 200 individuals. Exported in the aquarium trade.
60964		population	eng	No information available.
60964		threats	eng	Potentially, localised over-fishing.
60965		conservation	eng	No information available.
60965		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.
60965		habitat	eng	Found in intermediate or rocky habitat. Breeding males are seen throughout the year. A piscivore usually found singly in caves and cracks of the rocky habitat. Known as "Haplochromis Electra Blue" or " Haplochromis Jackson" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 20 cm TL.
60965		population	eng	No information available.
60965		threats	eng	No information available.
60966		conservation	eng	No information available.
60966		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.
60966		habitat	eng	A deep-water species that also breeds in the deep water. Recorded in trawl catches of semi pelagic trawls as well as deep-water trawls. Commonly caught at 44–100 m in the southeastern arm. Max. size: 15 cm TL
60966		population	eng	No information available.
60966		threats	eng	No information available.
60967		conservation	eng	No information available.
60967		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. This is a rare cichlid found throughout the lake.
60967		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat or along rocky coasts including remote islets and reefs at water depths of up to 25 m. Spawning occurs usually beneath rocks. Max. size: 11.5 cm SL
60967		population	eng	No information available.
60967		threats	eng	No information available.
60968		conservation	eng	No information available.
60968		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake.
60968		habitat	eng	Observed over sandy habitats where it feeds on small fishes and invertebrates. Known as "Haplochromis Torpedo Stripe" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 22 cm TL.
60968		population	eng	No information available.
60968		threats	eng	No information available.
60969		conservation	eng	No information available.
60969		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. An uncommon cichlid, observed around the central western part of the lake (Kande Island) as well as Likoma Island, Masinje, Senga Bay and Mdoka, also occurs in the south eastern arm.
60969		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy habitats at depths of between 5–30 m. It is a solitary hunter, taking small cichlids and invertebrates. Breeding males are territorial defending nests excavated in sand/rock areas. Max. size: 11.6 cm SL.
60969		population	eng	No information available.
60969		threats	eng	No information available.
60970		conservation	eng	No information available.
60970		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern arm of the lake particularly around the Nankhumba Peninsula.
60970		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy substrate at a depth of between 18–70 m. A piscivore.
60970		population	eng	No information available.
60970		threats	eng	No information available.
60971		conservation	eng	No information available.
60971		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake and is thought to be abundant in deep water.
60971		habitat	eng	Piscivore. An important food fish.
60971		population	eng	No information available.
60971		threats	eng	The trawls operating in shallow sandy areas are a threat as this species uses such areas as nursery grounds.
60972		conservation	eng	No information available.
60972		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is never found in large numbers but is widely distributed.
60972		habitat	eng	Widely distributed in the shelf and rocky reef zones in 2-65 m depth. Juvenile fish are found in the littoral zone, in swampy, sandy and rocky habitats. A major piscivor of the pelagic zone. Length at maturity (minimum) males 20.4 cm and females 18.7 cm SL. Fecundity of 117-680 eggs. It is mostly caught using hand lines, gill nets and sometimes chirimila nets. Occasionally it is caught in demersal and mid water trawls. Juveniles are often caught in beach seines. Max. size: 42 cm SL.
60972		population	eng	No information available.
60972		threats	eng	A potential threat is the use of small meshed seines operating in the shallow sandy areas, which this species uses as nursery grounds.
60973		conservation	eng	No information available.
60973		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is very abundant and widely distributed throughout the lake.
60973		habitat	eng	Found in all habitats from inshore reef, shelf and littoral zones to offshore pelagic. It has been recorded at depths of 3–74 m. Breeding grounds have been found in the south east as well as south western arms of the lake, Salima, Nkhotakota, Nkhata bay, Ruarwe, Chisumulu and Karonga. Juveniles are found inshore near the surface in the shelf and littoral zones. It has a fecundity of 27–68 eggs, and the minimum length at maturity for males is: 13.8 cm, and for females 14.3 cm. It is a piscivore. It is caught in large numbers by trawl fisheries and to a lesser degree by the gillnets, seines, chirimila nets and hand lines. Max. size: 42 cm SL.
60973		population	eng	No information available.
60973		threats	eng	A potential threat is the small meshed seines operating in shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.
60974		conservation	eng	No information available.
60974		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution
60974		habitat	eng	Adults regularly frequent the shallows near sandy beaches. Appears to be abundant in very deep water. Piscivorous.
60974		population	eng	No information available.
60974		threats	eng	A potential threat is the small meshed seines operating in shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.
60975		conservation	eng	No information available.
60975		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lakes Malawi and Malombe where it is abundant and widely distributed.
60975		habitat	eng	Observed in shallow water down to 148 m and a range of habitats such as swamps, lagoons, and open sandy beaches throughout the shelf and reef zones and in the open water right into the middle of the lake. Juveniles are found inshore in the surface waters in the shelf and littoral zones. Small fish feed on mainly crustaceans whereas the adults are piscivorous, feeding on usipa larvae and juveniles. It produces 52-76 eggs and the length at maturity for males is 10.9 cm SL and for females 13.0 cm SL. Often caught in mid-water, pair and bottom trawls and to a lesser extent by gill nets, hand lines and chirimila nets off rocky coasts, and by seines in shallow waters. Max. size: 19.5 cm.
60975		population	eng	No information available.
60975		threats	eng	A potential threat is the small meshed seines operating in the shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.
60976		conservation	eng	No information available.
60976		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread throughout the pelagic zone of the lake.
60976		habitat	eng	An open water species abundant in deep waters. A piscivore. Max. size: 40 cm.
60976		population	eng	No information available.
60976		threats	eng	No information available.
60977		conservation	eng	No information available.
60977		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A widespread species.
60977		habitat	eng	This species is most common on shelf zone at 50–100 m, but can also be found between 30–110 m. It can also be found off submerged reefs. Juveniles are found in the same habitats as adults. It has a fecundity of 154–202 eggs. The length of maturity is 19.9 cm for males and 18.6 cm for females. It is commonly caught in bottom and semi pelagic trawl catches in the south as well as by hand line and gillnet catches in the north. Sometimes exported by the aquarium trade and is known as "<em>Rhamphochromis</em>". Max. size: 29.8 cm SL.
60977		population	eng	No information available.
60977		threats	eng	A potential threat is Over-fishing by the commercial trawlers in the southern part of the lake.
60978		conservation	eng	No information available.
60978		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution in both offshore and inshore habitats.
60978		habitat	eng	Piscivorous. The adults feed mainly on <em>Diplotaxodon</em> spp. and "usipa" while the smaller fishes feed mainly on "usipa". Recorded from depths of 8 to 121 m. Length at maturity for males is 16.4 cm SL and females 19.8 cm SL. This species has a fecundity of up to 546 eggs. Juveniles are found in the inshore shelf regions as well as the benthic zone of the southeastern arm of the lake. Max. size: 40.2 cm.Mid water and bottom trawls in the southern part of the lake catch many juveniles and some adults. Also caught by gill nets and hand lines especially in the northern area of the lake.
60978		population	eng	No information available.
60978		threats	eng	A potential threat is the trawl fishery operating in the shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.
60979		conservation	eng	No information available.
60979		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the northern part of the lake and has been observed at Mdoka, Chisese, Chirwa Island and between Selewa and Kasinda and along the eastern coast at Msisi and Lupingu.
60979		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate sand/rock habitat as well as in sandy areas. It has been observed feeding from sediment particles that have been expelled through the gills of larger sand digging species. Not exported in the aquarium trade.
60979		population	eng	No information available.
60979		threats	eng	No information available.
60980		conservation	eng	No information available.
60980		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Common at most locations around the lake.
60980		habitat	eng	Occurs in sandy habitat where it feeds on invertebrates including snails from the bottom. It prefers depths of about 15 m. Breeding males are observed throughout the year and they construct shallow sand castle nests. They form small breeding colonies in the shallow intermediate habitats. Females and non-breeding males live in small groups or are solitary. Known as "Maravichromis Fort Maguire" in the aquarium trade.
60980		population	eng	No information available
60980		threats	eng	No information available
60981		conservation	eng	No information available.
60981		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island as well as Nkhata Bay and on the Mozambican shore from Chiwindi to Lumbauco at Mara Point, and from Lumessi to the Malawi border and further south to Ntekete in Malawi.
60981		habitat	eng	Occurs over sand and is sometimes observed in the intermediate habitat. It is most common at 7 m but can occur at a depth of 15 m. Feeds on invertebrates and algae from the debris that is stirred up by larger digging cichlids such as <em>Lethrinops praeorbitalis</em>. A nest is not constructed as spawning occurs on the sand or rock. Eggs are fertilised inside the female’s mouth. Known as "Deep Water Hap, Haplochromis Jahni" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 17 cm.
60981		population	eng	No information available.
60981		threats	eng	Potential localised over-fishing.
60982		conservation	eng	No information available.
60982		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known between Cape Maclear and Chipoka in the southwestern arm of the lake and also known in southeastern arm.
60982		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths ranging from 75–100 m. Occurs in soft bottom mud/silt habitats with a thick layer of sedimentary diatoms. Feeds on invertebrates and diatoms sifted from the bottom sediments. Max. size: 7 cm TL.
60982		population	eng	A rare species.
60982		threats	eng	Over-fishing by the commercial demersal trawlers.
60983		conservation	eng	No information available.
60983		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution. Also occurs in the Upper Shire River.
60983		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow sheltered areas with patches of vegetation but can also occur over soft bottom mud/silt habitats and over sand in the intermediate habitats. Feeds on small fishes as well as invertebrates from the bottom sediments. It can be observed foraging in mixed species groups or in groups of its own kind. In such groups only a single male exhibits breeding colouration. Mouth brooding females stay together. Known as "Haplochromis Johnstoni or Kachimanga" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm TL.
60983		population	eng	No information available.
60983		threats	eng	No information available.
60984		conservation	eng	No information available.
60984		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Shire River and Lake Malombe. In Lake Malawi it occurs in the southern part of the lake.
60984		habitat	eng	Occurs in vegetated habitats most commonly at depths of 5–18 m. Its long gut indicates a herbivorous diet. Not been exported in the aquarium trade.
60984		population	eng	No information available.
60984		threats	eng	No known threats.
60985		conservation	eng	No information available.
60985		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60985		habitat	eng	Prefers deep rocky habitats at depths of 4–35 m where the rocks usually are covered with a thin layer of sediment. Normally solitary. Feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans and mbuna fry. Males exhibit territoriality, defending a spawning site when another breeding male is in sight. Females guard their offspring. Known as "Haplochromis Super VC 10, Haplochromis Labrosus or Brown White Labrosus" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 20 cm TL.
60985		population	eng	No information available.
60985		threats	eng	No major threats known.
60986		conservation	eng	No information available.
60986		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southeast and southwestern arm of the lake.
60986		habitat	eng	Occurs in deep waters, with mud or sand substrate with sediment layer. It has been trawled from depths ranging between 55–80 m. Feeds on small invertebrates from the sediment. This species has not been exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 6 cm (TL).
60986		population	eng	No information available.
60986		threats	eng	Fishing.
60987		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60987		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the neighbourhood of the town of Elmali in southern Anatolia. Known from a small lake in the area.
60987		habitat	eng	No specific data, but found in area 1,500 m asl.
60987		population	eng	Only known from three specimens caught in 1957.
60987		threats	eng	No data available.
60988		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
60988		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern Anatolia near Antalya in Turkey.
60988		habitat	eng	A riverine species.
60988		population	eng	No data available.
60988		threats	eng	No data available.
60989		conservation	eng	No information available.
60989		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is thought to be restricted to the north western coast of the lake.
60989		habitat	eng	Occurs over gradually sloping sandy bottoms where males build sand castle nests on the open sand. Females and immature males occur in groups in mid-water feeding on plankton.  Max. size: 18 cm.
60989		population	eng	No information available.
60989		threats	eng	No information available.
60990		conservation	eng	No information available.
60990		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60990		habitat	eng	Commonly occurring in shallow waters along steeply sloping sandy shores, sometimes in macrophyte beds. Thought to be confined to shallow waters of less than 15 m where it forms small schools in mid-water feeding on plankton. It is thought to breed throughout the year. Territorial males build sand turret nests in the open sand habitat in shallow water at 1–2 m depth. Its nest is characterised by a slanted spawning dish on top. Reported not to be exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 14 cm.
60990		population	eng	No information available.
60990		threats	eng	No information available.
60991		conservation	eng	No information available.
60991		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A rare species from the southern end of the lake. It has also been observed at Nkhomo reef near Benga.
60991		habitat	eng	Prefers sandy habitats and feeds on plankton, mainly phytoplankton. Males construct their nests beside a rock where the nest is dug forming a cave. Females live in schools in the open water. This species breeds from August to December. It has been observed to a depth of 16 m. Max. size: 14 cm.
60991		population	eng	No information available.
60991		threats	eng	No information available.
60992		conservation	eng	No information available.
60992		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is thought to be restricted to the southern part of the lake.
60992		habitat	eng	Prefers exposed shores and has been observed on the open sand in Senga bay at a depth of about 15 m. It feeds on zooplankton in the mid-water. Breeding males construct sand castle nests on the lake floor and attract females from schools in the open water. Has been sporadically exported, without a trade name. Max. size: 22 cm.
60992		population	eng	No information available.
60992		threats	eng	No information available.
60993		conservation	eng	No information available.
60993		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60993		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow sand habitats at a depth of about 10 m. It occurs in more sheltered areas which are not too exposed to wave action and lives among rubble and small stones on the sand. Breeding males are observed all year round and they defend territories on the sand and rubble bottom. It feeds on small soft benthic invertebrates as well as plankton. Mouth brooding females congregate into groups. Known as "Small Green Utaka" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm.
60993		population	eng	No information available.
60993		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
60994		conservation	eng	No information available.
60994		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been observed along the north western shore of the lake extending as far south as Nkhata Bay. It has also been observed at Mbenji and Likoma Islands.
60994		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat and over open sand living close to the bottom. It feeds on plankton. Breeding males construct shallow sand castle nest. Max. size: 21 cm (TL – males).
60994		population	eng	No information available.
60994		threats	eng	No information available.
60995		conservation	eng	No information available.
60995		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire River. It has a lake wide distribution.
60995		habitat	eng	Occurs over sand in both shallow and deeper waters. It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans sifted from the sand. Territorial males construct sand castle nests on the open sand. Non-breeding individuals congregate in large schools. Mouth brooding schools move in groups to deeper waters. Known as "<em>Haplochromis eucinostomus, Haplochromis longimanus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 15 cm TL.
60995		population	eng	No information available.
60995		threats	eng	No information available.
60996		conservation	eng	No information available.
60996		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire river. It has a lake-wide distribution.
60996		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the sandy habitat at 10 m depth on average. It feeds from the sediment overlying the sand. Territorial males construct large sand castle nests (approximately one metre in diameter) at water depths of between 10–25 m. Mouth brooding females group together and release their offspring in the shallow water. Known as "Haplochromis Margarette Blotch and Haplochromis Big Blotch" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 25cm TL.
60996		population	eng	No information available.
60996		threats	eng	No information available.
60997		conservation	eng	No information available.
60997		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded from the southern part of the lake.
60997		habitat	eng	Observed over sandy areas near rocks. Feeds on small fishes. Breeding males seen in the intermediate habitat at a depth of about 30 m. Can occur at depths varying between 30–100 m and has been caught in demersal trawls at 60–100 m depths. Max. size: 16 cm TL.
60997		population	eng	No information available.
60997		threats	eng	Potentially, localised over-fishing.
60998		conservation	eng	No information available.
60998		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where is uncommon but occurs throughout the lake.
60998		habitat	eng	Occurs primarily over the open sandy bottom of the lake. Juveniles have been observed at Namalenje Island at an average depth of 6 m. Its diet mainly consists of invertebrates sifted from the bottom sediment. It occurs singly or in small groups of around six individuals. Max. size: 18 cm TL.
60998		population	eng	No information available.
60998		threats	eng	No information available.
60999		conservation	eng	No information available.
60999		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
60999		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat, in rocky areas, and the sediment rich deeper regions. It is an opportunistic feeder attracted to stirred-up sediments. Spawning occurs in the sand between rocks or small stones. The male is rarely territorial. Known as "Haplochromis Royal Blue" in the aquarium trade.
60999		population	eng	No information available.
60999		threats	eng	No information available.
61000		conservation	eng	No information available.
61000		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake around the Nankhumba Peninsula and its Islands as well as at Chinyamwezi Island.
61000		habitat	eng	Dwells in caves and has been observed down to 30 m. Breeding males are seen throughout the year. Females are observed near caves foraging on the outside of the rocky habitat. Spawning occurs inside the caves. It is a scavenger feeding on material from the rocky substrate including droppings of other fishes. Known as "Haplochromis Lombardo and Aristochromis Lombardoi" in the aquarium trade, it is no longer exported. Max. size: 16 cm TL.
61000		population	eng	No information available.
61000		threats	eng	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.
61001		conservation	eng	No information available.
61001		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61001		habitat	eng	It is commonly seen in large arenas of breeding cichlids along sandy shores or among rocks where it feeds on the eggs as they are being laid (it is an egg robbing cichlid). It usually steals the eggs soon after the females release them before they are collected into the mouth. Breeding males defend their spawning sites near rocks.
61001		population	eng	No information available.
61001		threats	eng	No information available.
61002		conservation	eng	No information available.
61002		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61002		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy substrates at depths of between 3–20 m. It feeds from the bottom and is attracted to stirred-up sediments (mainly caused by the digging of larger sand dwelling cichlids). Males do not construct nests and spawning takes place on the sand. Known as "Haplochromis Nussae" in the aquarium trade.
61002		population	eng	A fairly rare species.
61002		threats	eng	No information available.
61003		conservation	eng	No information available.
61003		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widepread and common throughout the lake.
61003		habitat	eng	Commonly occurs over sand most common between 35–55 m depth although it can sometimes be found in water as shallow as 18 m and as deep as 100 m. A piscivore. Max. size: 25 cm TL.
61003		population	eng	No information available.
61003		threats	eng	No information available.
61004		conservation	eng	No information available.
61004		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Malombe and Shire River. Only known from the southern part of the lake.
61004		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water of sheltered vegetated bays. Diet consists of algae, pieces of plants and small crustaceans. Caught between 5–18 m depth. Max. size: 16 cm TL.
61004		population	eng	No information available.
61004		threats	eng	No information available.
61005		conservation	eng	No information available.
61005		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Shire River. It occurs throughout Lake Malawi but is most common to the south and in Lake Malombe and the Shire River.
61005		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow vegetated swampy areas at a depth of between 1–7 m. Feeds on invertebrates such as insect larvae and crustaceans from the bottom sediment and sometimes on zooplankton. Breeding mainly occurs in December but the season can be extended over a longer period. Breeding males defend a cleared patch among the vegetation. Max. size: 14 cm TL.
61005		population	eng	No information available.
61005		threats	eng	No information available.
61006		conservation	eng	No information available.
61006		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from Nakatenga Island and the southern part of Maleri Island.
61006		habitat	eng	A cave dwelling cichlid occurring in the rocky habitat at levels below 10 meters. Feeds on invertebrates but has also been observed hunting small fishes. Breeds throughout the year. Known as "Aristochromis Deep or Stigmatochromis sp. Aristochromis Deep"in the aquarium trade.
61006		population	eng	No information available.
61006		threats	eng	Localised over-fishing. Restricted range.
61007		conservation	eng	No information available.
61007		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from two localities, Ngara (in the north) and southeast of Mbenji Island, near Domira Bay (central part of the lake). Although the distribution and abundance of <em>O. pachycheilus</em> in the central and northern parts of Lake Malawi is unknown due to inadequate sampling, it appears to be an uncommon species of little commercial importance where it has been collected. Because it is a very distinctive species, and the fact that it has not been recorded from the relatively shallow southern arms of the lake where most of the mechanized trawling activities and taxonomic efforts have been directed, it is thought to be rare or absent in these regions.
61007		habitat	eng	It is a deep-water demersal species occurring over a hard bottom substrate containing loose cobbles and coarse sand recorded at depths of 78–135 m. It mainly feeds on invertebrates.
61007		population	eng	No information available.
61007		threats	eng	Localised over-fishing. Restricted range.
61008		conservation	eng	None.
61008		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern and western part of the lake. Particularly common in the southeastern arm.
61008		habitat	eng	Sand dwelling species occurring on sandy coasts, commonly found below 10 m depth. A molluscivore, feeding on snails from the silty bottom. Territorial males build their nests on the sand (shallow depressions). Females and non-territorial individuals occur in small groups or occur with other sand dwelling fishes. Max. size: 23 cm (males) and females may reach 15 cm in size. Known as "Maravichromis Anaphyrmus" in the aquarium trade.
61008		population	eng	Relatively common in demersal trawl catches.
61008		threats	eng	None known.
61009		conservation	eng	None.
61009		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur mainly in the northern region of the lake, but also observed in some southern parts of the lake.
61009		habitat	eng	Sand dwelling species, mainly living in shallow water. Feeds on invertebrates from the sand by digging and sifting the sand through its gills. It occurs in small groups or solitary. Reported to be common in beach seine catches in Karonga (northern part of the lake). Reported not to have been exported for the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: Attains a maximum length of 16.4 cm.
61009		population	eng	No information available.
61009		threats	eng	None known.
61010		conservation	eng	None.
61010		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake where it is rare at most locations. Reported to be common at Mbenji Island.
61010		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate as well as rocky habitats from the shallows to as deep as 30 m. Feeds from the sediment on rocks, has been observed feeding on crabs. Males in breeding colouration are observed throughout the year, they are territorial defending sites between rocks. Known as "Haplochromis Amadi" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: males attain a maximum size of 25 cm and females of 20 cm.
61010		population	eng	No information available.
61010		threats	eng	None known.
61011		conservation	eng	None.
61011		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It occurs throughout the lake in shallow waters. It is rare in most areas except at Hai reef (Tanzania) and Chiwindi (Mozambique).
61011		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy substrate, sometimes in the intermediate habitat. Feeds on invertebrates from the sand. Exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Maximum recorded size 20 cm total length (male).
61011		population	eng	No information available
61011		threats	eng	None identified.
61012		conservation	eng	None.
61012		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.
61012		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow waters of sandy or intermediate habitats. Occurs in waters not deeper than 15 m. Feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. Normally found solitary. This species has been exported irregularly, known as "Haplochromis Mbawanae Type" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a maximum total length of about 15 cm.
61012		population	eng	No information available.
61012		threats	eng	None identified.
61013		conservation	eng	None.
61013		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake but is nowhere common.
61013		habitat	eng	Sand dwelling cichlid, sometimes occurring in the intermediate habitat. This species feeds from the sediment layer on sand and rocks in the intermediate habitat. Reported not to have been exported (1990). Max. size: Attains a maximum size of 20 cm (male), females are smaller.
61013		population	eng	No information available.
61013		threats	eng	None identified.
61014		conservation	eng	None.
61014		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.
61014		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in the intermediate or vegetated (Vallisernia) habitats in shallow water. It occurs in groups. Feeds on insects and crustaceans from plants. Males exhibiting breeding colouration have been observed foraging with females. Known as "Haplochromis Golden Mola" from the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains an average size of 15 cm.
61014		population	eng	No information available.
61014		threats	eng	None identified.
61015		conservation	eng	None known.
61015		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe with lake-wide distributions.
61015		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat and in shallow sand areas where the lakebed is partly covered with small rocks. It has been observed down to 20 m. It feeds by turning over rocks or pebbles (which it grabs with its mouth) to check for invertebrates underneath. Usually solitary. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males attain a maximum size of 18 cm and females with an average size of about 11 cm.
61015		population	eng	Unknown.
61015		threats	eng	None known.
61016		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park at Cape MaClear. Otherwise none.
61016		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is restricted to the southern shore of the lake.
61016		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow sandy and vegetated areas, mostly in sheltered bays. Territorial males have been observed in the intermediate habitat. It feeds by digging into the sand with its long snout and filtering food items such as crustaceans and insects. Males build shallow saucer-shaped nests dug in the sand or it may use a flat stone. It often occurs in groups with <em>Hemitilapia oxyrynchus</em>. Known as "Giant Flame <em>Oxyrynchus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a total length of about 22 cm.
61016		population	eng	No information available.
61016		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61017		conservation	eng	Part of range is within the Lake Malawi National Park, otherwise no conservation measures in place.
61017		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it may be restricted to the southern part of the lake.
61017		habitat	eng	Occurs on sandy shores or vegetated areas. Reported not to have been exported (1990).Max. size: Attains a maximum size of 18 cm.
61017		population	eng	No information available.
61017		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61018		conservation	eng	None.
61018		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A common species that occurs all around the lake.
61018		habitat	eng	Occurs in the sandy or intermediate habitat at an average depth of about 10 m. It feeds on molluscs from the sand. Males in breeding colouration occur throughout the year. Territorial males defend a small area in the intermediate habitat among some rocks (it does not construct a nest). Known as "<em>Haplochromis trianodon</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 17 cm.
61018		population	eng	No information available.
61018		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61019		conservation	eng	None.
61019		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake and is common in the northern half.
61019		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water mainly in sediment rich rocky habitats, can also occur in the sandy habitat. Occurs at an average depth of about 10 m. Feeds by scooping sediments from the rocks or sand and sifting it through its gills, retaining any food items found (mainly invertebrates). Territorial males observed throughout the year, they defend a site between some small rocks (males do not construct a nest). Known as "Haplochromis Margrette Diagonal Stripe" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a maximum size of about 17 cm. Females are smaller growing to a length of approximately 13 cm.
61019		population	eng	No information available.
61019		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61020		conservation	eng	Distribution range incorporates the Lake Malawi National Park.
61020		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded in the southern part of Lake Malawi (south eastern arm). Possibly more widespread.
61020		habitat	eng	Sand dwelling cichlid, occurring along sandy shores. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).
61020		population	eng	No information available.
61020		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61021		conservation	eng	Distribution range incorporates the Lake Malawi National Park.
61021		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern arms of the lake.
61021		habitat	eng	Occurs frequently in vegetated habitats of sheltered bays. Feeds on invertebrates. Breeding fish have been seen at 3 m depths. Territorial males build nests by clearing a small area within plant beds exposing the sand underneath. Courting males usually occur in colonies. This species has only been sporadically exported. Max. size: Attains a maximum total length of about 12 cm.
61021		population	eng	No information available.
61021		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61022		conservation	eng	None.
61022		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi
61022		habitat	eng	No information
61022		population	eng	No information available.
61022		threats	eng	No information.
61023		conservation	eng	None.
61023		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.
61023		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow waters along sandy shores from 5–20 m depth. It feeds on snails and crustaceans. Known as "<em>Haplochromis triaenodon</em> Sandy Shore" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: attains a maximum length of about 20 cm.
61023		population	eng	No information available.
61023		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61024		conservation	eng	No information available.
61024		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Abundant in the southern part of the lake at depths between 37–130 m. Also known to occur in the northern part of the lake.
61024		habitat	eng	Prefers sandy and muddy bottoms in relatively deep waters. Piscivorous. At night it may forage in shallow regions. May also feed on invertebrates as well as algae. It breeds throughout the year, with a peak in November and another in January–February. Reported to spawn at depths between 75–125 m. Sexual maturity for females in the south western arm of the lake is reached at an average size of 16 cm for females and the fecundity ranged from 92–356 for females weighing between 49–307 g. Present in demersal trawl catches. Max. size: 20 cm standard length.
61024		population	eng	No decline detected by fishery research trawls.
61024		threats	eng	Over-fishing. Its large size at maturity means puts it at risk from over-fishing fishing should demersal trawling be extended to deeper water.
61025		conservation	eng	None.
61025		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur at Nkhata Bay, Likoma Island & the southeast & southwest arms of the Lake.
61025		habitat	eng	It only occurs in deep water (never shallower than 30 m) where it skulks among the rocks and mud at great depths. It is caught in the bottom few meshes of deep-set gill nets. Max. size: it is reported to grows to 70 cm or more.
61025		population	eng	No information available.
61025		threats	eng	Potential over-exploitation.
61026		conservation	eng	No information available.
61026		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake. Observed at Mbenje island, Nkhomo reef, Eccles reef and around the Malere islands.
61026		habitat	eng	This species prefers sandy parts of intermediate habitats. Occurs at depth below 10 m. Females and non-breeding males gather in small foraging groups while feeding on plankton. Males have been seen feeding on detritus on the bottom. Breeding occurs throughout the year and slows during the rainy season. Males build caves in the intermediate habitat at levels deeper than 17 m. Very popular among aquarists. Aquarium trade name – <em>Haplochromis crysonotus</em>.
61026		population	eng	No information available.
61026		threats	eng	Fishing. Aquarium trade.
61027		conservation	eng	None.
61027		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Nankumba penninsula.
61027		habitat	eng	A plankton feeder, foraging in the water column. Spawning occurs throughout the year but peaks from January to March and August to September. Males build cone-shaped bowers (nests) in large breeding arenas off sand beaches in water 3–10 m deep.
61027		population	eng	No information available.
61027		threats	eng	Restricted range. Inshore sedimentation.
61028		conservation	eng	No information available.
61028		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is found all around the lakeshore including Likoma and Chizumulu Islands (not seen at Taiwan reef).
61028		habitat	eng	A planktivorous species preferring clean clear water over sediment free rocks. Females and non -breeding males congregate in the open water in small foraging schools. Males defend sites on large boulders but they neither mark them nor defend them aggressively. Juveniles are released in shallow parts of the rocky habitat. Known as '<em>Haplochromis munnae'</em> in the aquarium trade.
61028		population	eng	No information available.
61028		threats	eng	No information available.
61029		conservation	eng	None.
61029		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.
61029		habitat	eng	A zooplankton feeder. Remains in shore all year round. Caught most often in rocky habitats. It breeds in the intermediate habitat where males build large sand castles (they do not use any rocks in the construction). Fry are released in very shallow water among rocks and plants.
61029		population	eng	No information available.
61029		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61030		conservation	eng	No information available.
61030		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded only from the Nkhatabay area.
61030		habitat	eng	Occurs in both rocky and sandy areas. Feeds mainly on zooplanton but also ingests phytoplankton. Regularly caught on sandy shores by beach seines (July to September).
61030		population	eng	No information available.
61030		threats	eng	Beach seines - use of small meshes.
61031		conservation	eng	None.
61031		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been observed at Kande, but is thought likely to have a much wider distribution. The Type specimens were collected at an unknown location.
61031		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat where it feeds by sifting silt from the sandy bottom through its gills, mainly finding invertebrates. Territorial males defend a spawning site in the habitat close to rocks (they do not construct nests). Breeding has been observed in May and June. Reported not to have been exported (1990). Max. size: 13 cm.
61031		population	eng	No information available.
61031		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61032		conservation	eng	None.
61032		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake but it may have a lake-wide distribution.
61032		habitat	eng	Occurs commonly over sandy habitats at depths between 20–60 meters. It has also been observed in the intermediate habitat at depths of 12 m. It feeds on soft invertebrates from the sandy bottom by scooping the material. Reported to be caught in trawl catches. Reported never to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm.
61032		population	eng	No information available.
61032		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61033		conservation	eng	None.
61033		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known to occur in the southern part of the lake.
61033		habitat	eng	Occurs over sand and mud bottoms at depths of between 20–40 m. Small pharyngeal teeth indicate that it may feed on soft material such as insect larvae and plankton. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm SL.
61033		population	eng	No information available.
61033		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61034		conservation	eng	None.
61034		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61034		habitat	eng	Occurs commonly in open sandy habitats in shallow water at depths of 7 m. It feeds by sifting silt from the bottom through its gills, taking invertebrates mainly insect larvae. Also feeds on plankton. Breeding males construct sand castle-nests on the sand bottom. Breeding occurs from May to August. This species is regularly caught in beach seines. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Green Face or <em>Lethrinops</em> Rounded Head" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males can grow to a maximum total length of about 20 cm.
61034		population	eng	No information available.
61034		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61035		conservation	eng	None.
61035		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known to occur in the southern part of the lake.
61035		habitat	eng	Commonly occurs in habitats with muddy bottoms, at depths between 90–130 m. It may feed on zooplankton and soft invertebrates. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm.
61035		population	eng	No information available.
61035		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61036		conservation	eng	None.
61036		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Lake-wide distribution.
61036		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow (sometimes vegetated) water preferring waters near river outlets and occurs a little upstream in rivers. It feeds by sifting sand and mud in search of food items. Feeds on crustaceans and insect larvae. This species is regularly caught in beach seines. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade or "<em>Haplochromis similis</em> Type". Max. size: 16 cm SL.
61036		population	eng	No information available.
61036		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61037		conservation	eng	None.
61037		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs in the northern part of the lake (may have a lake-wide distribution).
61037		habitat	eng	Feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans and zooplankton. Breeding may occur at the beginning of the rainy season. This species is caught regularly in beach seines. This species has been exported sporadically for the aquarium trade, unknown trade name. Max. size: 18 cm TL.
61037		population	eng	No information available.
61037		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61038		conservation	eng	None.
61038		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur throughout the southern part of the lake as well as Bandawe (northern region).
61038		habitat	eng	It occurs over sandy regions at depths from 15–45 m and feeds on diatoms and other food items found on the substrate as well as on zooplankton. This species is not known in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 13 cm TL.
61038		population	eng	No information available.
61038		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61039		conservation	eng	None.
61039		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake.
61039		habitat	eng	Occurs over sand and muddy bottoms at depths between 36–75 m. Occurs in trawl catches in the deeper parts of the southern parts of the lake. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm.
61039		population	eng	No information available.
61039		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61040		conservation	eng	None.
61040		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake-wide distribution.
61040		habitat	eng	It occurs in the shallow sandy areas, between 9–63 m depth. It is more abundant in the shallower parts of its range. It feeds on insect larvae and small crustaceans. Occurs in demersal trawl catches. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Red Flush" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm.
61040		population	eng	No information available.
61040		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61041		conservation	eng	None known.
61041		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the Senga Bay area.
61041		habitat	eng	Known from sandy habitats where it is regularly caught in beach seines. Has been exported in the aquarium trade but the trade name is unknown. Max. size: 18 cm.
61041		population	eng	No information available.
61041		threats	eng	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing, especially by beach seines.
61042		conservation	eng	None.
61042		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61042		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow sandy and intermediate habitats mostly in sheltered bays when it is breeding. After breeding season (August to November) it is no longer seen in such areas indicating that this species may migrate to deeper levels when not breeding. Territorial males build large sand castle nests on the sand. Breeding males congregate into colonies (sometimes more than 50 individuals). It feeds by filtering sand through its gills looking for food items (invertebrates). It also feeds on zooplankton from the open water. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Yellow-Black Dorsal or <em>Lethrinops auritus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm TL.
61042		population	eng	No information available.
61042		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61043		conservation	eng	No information available.
61043		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known to occur in the southeastern arm of the lake.
61043		habitat	eng	Occurs over soft bottoms that have a thick layer of sedimentary diatoms at depths of 35–100 m. Its preferred depth is 50 m where it is reported to be abundant. It feeds on the diatoms by scooping them from the substrate. Also feeds in the open water on plankton when available. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 15 cm TL.
61043		population	eng	Declining.
61043		threats	eng	No information available.
61044		conservation	eng	None.
61044		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It has been caught mainly in the south of the lake, but it has also been observed at Bandawe (northern region).
61044		habitat	eng	Occurs over soft bottoms. It feeds on diatoms, which it scoops from the substrate. Also feeds in the open water on plankton when available. The presence of this species in a particular area may be dependant on the availability of the diatoms. Breeding males occur from November to February. These males are territorial, defending a small and shallow nest in the sand close to rocks. Females occur in small groups close to where the males have their territories. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). It attains a length of about 15 cm.
61044		population	eng	Declining (fishery research trawl data).
61044		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61045		conservation	eng	None.
61045		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Type locality was from the northwestern end of the lake. Thought to be widespread.
61045		habitat	eng	Occurs in the sandy habitat in shallow waters. It is frequently caught in beach seines. It feeds on soft invertebrates by sifting the sand in search of food items. Breeding males have been observed in August. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Rounded Head" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm.
61045		population	eng	No information available.
61045		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61046		conservation	eng	None.
61046		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur in Nkhotakota area.
61046		habitat	eng	Occurs in the sandy as well as intermediate habitat. It inhabits sheltered shallow water with vegetation (<em>Vallisneria</em>). In the intermediate habitat it was observed at about 15 m. Feeds on invertebrates and diatoms (by filtering the bottom sediment) as well as plant roots. It has also been observed feeding on plankton. Few individuals are regularly caught in beach seines off sandy shores in quiet bays. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: Total length of 11 cm (males) and about 10 cm (females).
61046		population	eng	No information available.
61046		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61047		conservation	eng	None.
61047		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur in the southern part of the lake.
61047		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water over sandy bottoms. It is common at depths between 10–40 m. Feeds mainly on insect larvae as well as crustaceans and plankton. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 12 cm SL.
61047		population	eng	No information available.
61047		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61048		conservation	eng	No information available.
61048		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known mainly from the southern part of the lake, also known from Nkhata Bay. May have a lake-wide distribution.
61048		habitat	eng	Occurs in habitats with sandy bottoms in waters of 35–65 m deep. Feeds on invertebrates as well as diatoms. In the 1970s this species was reported to have declined in demersal trawl catches but by the early 1990s it was observed that it may have become locally extinct in the south eastern arm south of Boadzulu Island due to over exploitation. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 23 cm TL.
61048		population	eng	No information available.
61048		threats	eng	No information available.
61049		conservation	eng	None.
61049		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known from the southern part of the lake.
61049		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow areas off sandy beaches. Sometimes occurs in beach seine catches. May feed on soft invertebrates. Exported in the aquarium trade, trade name unknown. Max. size: 16 cm TL.
61049		population	eng	No information available.
61049		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61050		conservation	eng	None.
61050		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known from the southern part of the lake.
61050		habitat	eng	Occurs in open sandy areas or areas with soft substrates such as mud and diatomaceous substances at depths between 30–140 m. Feeds on invertebrates. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm TL.
61050		population	eng	No information available.
61050		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61051		conservation	eng	None.
61051		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.
61051		habitat	eng	It occurs in habitats with pure sandy bottoms at depths between 50–70 m. It is abundant at these depths in many parts of the lake. It feeds on insect larvae. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling in the area. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 15 cm TL.
61051		population	eng	No information available.
61051		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61052		conservation	eng	None.
61052		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake but it may have a wider distribution.
61052		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water with muddy bottoms in sheltered bays where it feeds by filtering sediment and mud from the bottom looking for small invertebrates. It also feeds on zooplankton and sometimes diatoms. At Chembe beach males have been observed building nests in the muddy bottom. These nests consist of a circle of 5–10 mud cones, with another cone (made usually out of sand) in the middle and alongside it a spawning pit is dug. Reported to be commonly caught in seine catches in southern part of the lake. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Small Green and <em>Lethrinops macrophthalmus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8 cm TL.
61052		population	eng	No information available.
61052		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61053		conservation	eng	None.
61053		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61053		habitat	eng	Unknown. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 18.5 cm standard length.
61053		population	eng	No information available.
61053		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61054		conservation	eng	None.
61054		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Collected from Lake Malombe and from the southern part of Lake Malawi in the South East and South West Arms and Domira Bay. Abundant in Lake Malombe.
61054		habitat	eng	Usually caught at caught at shallow depths (2–15 m), however it has been caught in a trawl between 20–28 m in the South East Arm. Its size at maturity can sometimes be less than 6 cm total length. Females produce approximately 30 eggs per batch. A generalist feeder taking chironomids, copepods, chaoborus larvae, ostracods, nematodes and diatoms. Algal remains, detritus and sand have also been found in the stomachs along with odonata and cladocerans. Max. size: 12 cm TL.
61054		population	eng	It is the most important food fish in Lake Malombe and it has been estimated that more than 2,500 tonnes of the species were taken by seines in 1990 in the lake with an estimated annual catch from Lake Malombe alone in 1991–92 to be approximately 850 million fish.
61054		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61055		conservation	eng	No information available.
61055		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is restricted to Mdokas in the northern part of the lake.
61055		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths of approximately 20 m. Foraging females and non territorial males congregate in large schools on the sand between or near rocks at depths varying from 12–25 m. Territorial males defend a small patch of sand against conspecific males only. Abundant at the rock sand interfaces near Mdoka in November and December. It has been exported as "<em>Aulonocara</em> Auditor" in the aquarium trade.
61055		population	eng	No information available.
61055		threats	eng	Potentially the aquarium trade.
61056		conservation	eng	No information available.
61056		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from a single location at Vua.
61056		habitat	eng	Sand dwelling cichlid.
61056		population	eng	No information available.
61056		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61057		conservation	eng	No information available.
61057		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is common at Usisya, Chipoka, Maleri Islands, Nkhomo and Benga (south of Chia lagoon).
61057		habitat	eng	Occurs over sand and rocks from 4-6 m deep although it has also been observed in 10-16 m of water. It is a sand sifting species. Breeding males occur over rocks whereas females move over sand in groups. Known in the aquarium trade as: "New Yellow Regal, <em>Aulonocara</em> Benga, Nkhomo-Benga Peacock"
61057		population	eng	No information available.
61057		threats	eng	Fishing.
61058		conservation	eng	No information available.
61058		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Restricted to the east coast of the lake where it has been observed at Masinje, Lupingu and Manda (Tanzania), Wikihi Mara Point & Chiloelo (Mozambique).
61058		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths of about 20 m. Males are territorial and defend shallow spawning pits or sometimes a sandy patch between small stones.
61058		population	eng	No information available.
61058		threats	eng	None known.
61059		conservation	eng	No information available.
61059		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. The species is only known from its type specimens. Type locality "Bar House", near the bar of the Shire river at the tip of the south eastern arm of the lake.
61059		habitat	eng	Two type specimens were collected: Lectotype and Paralectotype. These types were collected in an area of sandy/silt substrate.
61059		population	eng	No information available.
61059		threats	eng	None identified.
61060		conservation	eng	No information available.
61060		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, where it has only been recorded from Chitande Island
61060		habitat	eng	Occurs over rocks and sand. Females and immature males found in schools at 3 m depth. Females can also occur in small groups. Breeding males occur 6–7 m deep. Feeds from the rock and sand substrates. Known as "Northern <em>Alonocara</em> or Chitande <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade
61060		population	eng	No information available.
61060		threats	eng	Potentially the aquarium trade.
61061		conservation	eng	No information available.
61061		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Wide distribution. Occurs on both the western as well as eastern shores of the lake. Most northerly populations occur at Ikombe (Tanzania), most southerly populations occur at Masinje (Malawi) Also observed along entire eastern shoreline of Tanzania and at Mdoka, Msuli and Cape Manulo (Malawi) and also at Lumessi and Mara Point (Mozambique).
61061		habitat	eng	A non-sedentary sand dwelling cichlid. Forages in muddy sediment on sandy bottoms near river outlets. Usually found at depths of more than 15 m. Territorial males dig crater nests in the sand or defend a rocky cave. Females forage in small groups ear territorial males.Known as "<em>Aulonocara</em> Mulitspot" or "<em>Aulonocara</em> Jumbo Blue" in the aquarium trade
61061		population	eng	No information available.
61061		threats	eng	Fishing.
61062		conservation	eng	No information available.
61062		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Common in the southeastern arm occurring at Monkey Bay, Makanjila Point and Kadango. Also observed at Senga bay.
61062		habitat	eng	Common in shallow sandy habitats, normally forages in small groups of about 10 individuals. Observed in waters as shallow as 1.5 m. In Senga Bay, can occur at 10 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61062		population	eng	No information available.
61062		threats	eng	Fishing.
61063		conservation	eng	Partly enclosed within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61063		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from Masinje, Fort Maguire, Mara Point and Thumbi West Island.
61063		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat at 4–6 m where it prefers to dwell near holes and crevices formed in the rocks. Spawning occurs in the caves. Feeds on small invertebrates in the sand.
61063		population	eng	No information available.
61063		threats	eng	Restricted Range. Potential localised over-fishing.
61064		conservation	eng	No information available.
61064		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only recorded from Likoma Island.
61064		habitat	eng	Lives over sand in intermediate habitats. Average depth where it is abundant is 8 m. Females usually occur in groups of up to 100 individuals. Males defend their territories consisting of caves between rocks on the sand. Known as "Night <em>Aulonocara</em>, <em>Aulonocara</em> White Top, <em>Trematocranus</em> Auditor" in the aquarium trade.
61064		population	eng	No information available.
61064		threats	eng	Aquarium trade.
61065		conservation	eng	No information available.
61065		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Common at the southern end of the lake where it has been recorded at Cape Maclear (including Mumbo and Domwe Islands) to Makokola reef, and at Chinyankhwazi and Chinyamwezi rocks. Also seen at Mpanga rocks, Namalenje Island and Mpandikuchsa Island.
61065		habitat	eng	Southern populations occur in intermediate habitats while northern populations inhabit rocky habitats. Breeding males have territories inside caves, which they defend. A nest is not constructed so breeding takes place on a rock or sand. Large caves can hold several breeding males. Females forage on the sandy cave bottoms. Known as "Malawi Butterfly, <em>Trematocranus trevori</em>, <em>Trematocranus jacobfreigbergi</em> and <em>Trematocranus regina</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61065		population	eng	No information available.
61065		threats	eng	Fishing; aquarium trade.
61066		conservation	eng	No information available.
61066		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded at Chisumulu Island.
61066		habitat	eng	Occurs over rocky habitat but it forages over sand where it feeds on invertebrates. It prefers water of 10 m depth. Females congregate in foraging schools that usually number more than 20 individuals. Males defend territories at the edge of sand and rocks. Territories are central around a cave among rocks or at a horizontal space between a suspended rock and the sand. Known as "Blue Orchard <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61066		population	eng	No information available.
61066		threats	eng	Fishing; aquarium trade.
61067		conservation	eng	No information available.
61067		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded at West Reef and Eccles Reef.
61067		habitat	eng	Occur above submerged rocks. Numerous at 10 m depth. A benthic feeder, feeding on molluscs. Females occur in groups over the sand whilst breeding males select small territories in the rocks and sand. Known as "Sulphur Head <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61067		population	eng	No information available.
61067		threats	eng	Fishing; aquarium trade.
61068		conservation	eng	No information available.
61068		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only recorded from Kande Island.
61068		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid. Females forage some distance away from rocks. Broods consist of numerous (sometimes over 100) small fry. Feeds on molluscs. Females known as "Blue Orchid <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61068		population	eng	No information available.
61068		threats	eng	Potentially the aquarium trade. Localised over-fishing.
61069		conservation	eng	No information available.
61069		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at Boadzulu Island and Manzinzi Bay
61069		habitat	eng	Occurs over sandy habitat at depths of more than 20 m. Small groups forage from the substrate. These small groups usually contain one male exhibiting breeding colouration.
61069		population	eng	No information available.
61069		threats	eng	Fishing.
61070		conservation	eng	No information available.
61070		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake-wide distribution. Observed in its natural habitat at Mdoka, Msuli Point, Kande Island and West reef (Malawi); Hongi Island (Tanzania). Also observed at Nkope and collected from Vua.
61070		habitat	eng	Occus over sandy substrate at depths varying from 15-30 m. Breeding males group into various breeding colonies where each male digs a breeding (spawning) crater in the sand and defends it against all intruders. This species is a non-seasonal breeder. Females normally forage in separate groups or are solitary. Has been found in waters deeper than 64m in Monkey bay. Known by its scientific name as well as by the name "<em>Aulonocara macrochir</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61070		population	eng	No information available.
61070		threats	eng	Fishing; aquarium trade.
61071		conservation	eng	No information available.
61071		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Eastern shores of the lake as well as observed at Tsano rocks (Nankhumba peninsula), Likoma Island (Malawi) Undu and Hai reefs (Tanzania).
61071		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at depths varying from 7–40 m. Its diet consists of benthic invertebrates (sand dwelling). Does not seem to have a permanent breeding territory therefore spawning may occur wherever a ripe female meets a male. Known as "<em>Aulonocara</em> Special", "<em>Aulonocara</em> Greenface " and "<em>Aulonocara</em> Green Metalic" in the aquarium trade.
61071		population	eng	No information available.
61071		threats	eng	Fishing; aquarium trade.
61072		conservation	eng	No information available.
61072		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only recorded from Kande Island.
61072		habitat	eng	Occurs at about 10 m depth occurring at the same locations where <em>A. meylandi</em> dwell. Males are territorial while females are solitary, or occur in groups close to male territories. Feeds on small invertebrates from the substrate. Known as "Blue Neon or "Blue Dorsal Flavescent" in the aquarium trade.
61072		population	eng	No information available.
61072		threats	eng	Fishing; aquarium trade.
61073		conservation	eng	No information available.
61073		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the entire northwestern coast between Kande and Ngara and on the eastern shores south of the Ruhuhu River to Ntekete.
61073		habitat	eng	Frequents the rock sand interface feeding from the substrate. Generally occurs at a depth of 8–15 m. Few individuals have been observed in water as shallow as 3 m but others can occur up to 25 m deep. Females occur in groups, males hold territories in caves made of rocks scattered over the sand. Known as " Usisya <em>Aulonocara</em>, Flavascent Peacock, Ngara <em>Aulonocara</em> and Chilumba <em>Aulonocara</em>, <em>Aulonocara</em> Yellow Tanzania, or <em>Aulonocara</em> Blue Neon" in the aquarium trade.
61073		population	eng	No information available.
61073		threats	eng	Fishing.
61074		conservation	eng	No information available.
61074		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi.
61074		habitat	eng	This species is only known from its holotype (ripe male, 72 mm standard length) whose locality was erroneously recorded as from the "north end of Lake Tanganyika" and described as <em>Tilapia trematocephala</em>. It was suggested later, that it belongs to the Malawi cichlid group and was initially included in the genus <em>Trematocranus</em> (Konings 1995). Currently it is not known whether this is a valid species or whether it is conspecific to an already known species.
61074		population	eng	No information available.
61074		threats	eng	No information.
61075		conservation	eng	No information available.
61075		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61075		habitat	eng	Inhabits sandy habitats (rarely intermediate habitats) preferring shallow water. It is an opportunistic feeder being attracted to anything that stirs up the sediments. Eggs are fertilised outside the female’s mouth and are subsequently mouth brooded by the female, which stays in the open sand habitat. It is usually observed as solitary as adults but the juveniles occur in small groups. Known as "<em>Haplochromis annectens</em>" in the aquarium trade.Max. size: 20 cm.
61075		population	eng	Rare species.
61075		threats	eng	No known threats.
61076		conservation	eng	No information available.
61076		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is restricted to Chinyakhwazi and Chinyamwezi Islands in the southeastern arm of the lake.
61076		habitat	eng	Observed feeding on plankton and algae. Males establish breeding territories over rocks. Females guard young in the mouth. It has been collected at depths of 2–10 m.
61076		population	eng	No information available.
61076		threats	eng	Restricted range. Potentially, over-fishing.
61077		conservation	eng	None known.
61077		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61077		habitat	eng	Occurs in the sediment rich rocky habitats where it feeds by blowing into the sediment to reveal its prey of insect larvae and crustaceans hiding in the biocover. Territorial males build shallow nests between small stones and rocks. Females guard their offspring after they have been released. Known as "<em>Haplochromis steveni</em> Thick Bars and <em>Haplochromis steveni</em> eastern" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 18 cm.
61077		population	eng	No information available.
61077		threats	eng	None known.
61078		conservation	eng	None known.
61078		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake=wide distribution.
61078		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky sediment free habitats in the open water 2–3 m above the rocks. It feeds on eggs that it steals from other spawning cichlids. Territorial males have nests alongside or on top of rocks. Known as "Haplochromis One and a Half Stripe" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 18 cm.
61078		population	eng	No information available.
61078		threats	eng	None known.
61079		conservation	eng	No information available.
61079		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Shire River as far as the Kapachira Falls.
61079		habitat	eng	Abundant in shallow sandy shores and shallow sheltered vegetated areas. Feeds primarily on invertebrates and small molluscs. Forages in groups. Breeding occurs in July to September in shallow water (about 2 m depth) where breeding males construct shallow sand castle nests in colonies. Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61079		population	eng	No information available.
61079		threats	eng	Small meshed seines operating along shallow sandy shores that destroy nesting areas.
61080		conservation	eng	No information available.
61080		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Upper Shire and Lake Malombe. It has lake wide distributions in Malawi and Malombe lakes.
61080		habitat	eng	Occurs in relatively shallow, vegetated (<em>Vallisneria</em> spp.) water at an average depth of 4 m. Territorial males clear the vegetation on the bottom in preparing the spawning site. Feeds on invertebrates, including small snails from the base of the vegetation. Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61080		population	eng	No information available.
61080		threats	eng	No information available.
61081		conservation	eng	No information available.
61081		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from two type specimens, one from Nkhotakota (the paratype). The other specimen (holotype) previously included in <em>P. pleurotaenia</em> was erroneously labelled together with all other <em>P. pleurotaenia</em> specimens from "Lake Tanganyika".
61081		habitat	eng	The specimen from Nkhotakota was collected in shallow water with vegetation. Probably feeds on snails that occur among the vegetation.
61081		population	eng	No information available.
61081		threats	eng	No information available.
61082		conservation	eng	No information available.
61082		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs in the southern end of the lake and also at Vua and Chlumba on the north west coast.
61082		habitat	eng	Occurs in the shallow sheltered sandy shores or vegetated areas. Feeds on algae and plant debris. Breeding behaviour unknown.
61082		population	eng	No information available.
61082		threats	eng	No information available.
61083		conservation	eng	No information available.
61083		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.
61083		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate and vegetated habitats ranging in depth from the surface water to about 10 m although it has, on occasion, been reported to occur as deep as 20 m. Males construct saucer shaped nests against a rock in shallow water. Feeds on invertebrates from the sand or mud by blowing into the upper sediment to expose them (especially around the roots of plants). Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 14 cm.
61083		population	eng	No information available.
61083		threats	eng	No information available.
61084		conservation	eng	None known.
61084		distribution	eng	Endemic to, and widespread throughout, Lakes Malawi and Malombe.
61084		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow vegetated (<em>Vallisernia</em>) areas where mouth brooding females hide among the weeds. Herbivorous, feeding on plant material (leaves of higher plants). Territorial males clear a circular area among the weeds exposing the sand below, making a spawning site. Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 17 cm.
61084		population	eng	No information available.
61084		threats	eng	None known.
61085		conservation	eng	No information available.
61085		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Most commonly collected at Mbenji Island. The type locality is at Chilumba and Ruarwe. It also occurs north of Monkey Bay and at Nakatenga Island, Eccles Reef, Nkhungu Reef, Nkhungu Point, Lumessi (Mozambique), and Magunga Reef (Tanzania).
61085		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in sediment free rocky habitats usually in mid water just below the surface, rarely deeper than 5 m. Feeds on invertebrates from the water column. Breeding males are observed throughout the year and spawning occurs among the rocks. Females guard their offspring after they have been released. Known as "<em>Haplochromis ovatus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 25 cm TL.
61085		population	eng	No information available.
61085		threats	eng	Sedimentation of near shore rocky areas.
61086		conservation	eng	No information available.
61086		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61086		habitat	eng	Mostly occurs in intermediate habitat at an average depth of about 10 m. It is a predator, possibly a paedophage (egg stealer). Territorial males build a semicircular nest against a rock or a circular nest among the rubble in the intermediate habitat. Females guard their offspring after they have been released. Known as "<em>Haplochromis gaisi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 23 cm.
61086		population	eng	No information available.
61086		threats	eng	None known.
61087		conservation	eng	No information available.
61087		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is common and widely distributed.
61087		habitat	eng	Occurs in the sediment free rocky habitat in shallow water less than 10 m deep. Herbivorous, mainly feeding on algae sucked from the rock surfaces. Also feeds on plankton when available. Males are territorial throughout the year. They occupy a spawning site on top of rocks. Mouth brooding females hide among the rocks. Known as "<em>Haplochromis steveni, Haplochromis fenestratus, Haplochromis hinderi, Haplochromis boadzulu, Haplochromis</em> Red empress and <em>Haplochromis</em> Fire Blue" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males can attain a length of 19 cm.
61087		population	eng	No information available.
61087		threats	eng	Potential sedimentation of near shore rocky areas.
61088		conservation	eng	No information available.
61088		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River, and Lake Malombe. In Lake Malawi it is a common species in the southern part of the lake as far north as Senga bay on the west coast and Fort Maguire on the east coast.
61088		habitat	eng	Has been caught over sand habitats at depths of between 10 and 18 m. Its diet and reproductive behaviour are unknown. Has been exported in the aquarium trade.Max. size: 18 cm TL.
61088		population	eng	No information available.
61088		threats	eng	None known.
61089		conservation	eng	Part of the population is enclosed with the Lake Malawi National Park.
61089		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Monkey Bay and Nkhomo Reef (near Benga). May also occur at Makanjila point (this needs to be verified).
61089		habitat	eng	At Nkhomo reef it occurs over a sand habitat at a depth of about 16 m. Feeds on plankton, insects and crustaceans. Males in breeding colouration are seen throughout the year. Is not exported in the aquarium trade.
61089		population	eng	No information available.
61089		threats	eng	Restricted range. Subsistence fishing.
61090		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park.
61090		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is observed along the coast between Chirombo Point and Charo. On the western side of the lake it occurs between Cape Kaizer (Tanzania) to Londo (Mozambique).
61090		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid occurring at the greatest depth of all other species in the genus (average depth occurrence of 25 m). It is rarely found in waters less than 10 m. Feeds on other fishes, invertebrates, small crustaceans as well as small snails. Known as "<em>Labidochromis tanganicae, Labidochromis</em> Yellow, <em>Labidochromis</em> White" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm.
61090		population	eng	No information available.
61090		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.
61091		conservation	eng	None.
61091		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at at Chizumulu Island.
61091		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the sediment rich intermediate habitats in depths ranging from 3–20 m. Its diet consists of invertebrates. Spawning occurs at any site in the habitat. Known as "<em>Labidochromis zebroides</em> and <em>Labidochromis chisumulae</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males attain a maximum length of about 8 cm and females approximately 6 cm.
61091		population	eng	No information available.
61091		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.
61092		conservation	eng	None.
61092		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where is recorded from Chizumulu Island. It has been introduced at Likoma Island.
61092		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat in shallow water. Territorial males dig spawning nests underneath small rocks heaping sand in front of the entrance. Females and juveniles move around in small foraging groups or singly. This species feeds on algae from the rock surface. Known as "<em>Labidochromis samueli, Labidochromis textilis, Labidochromis exasperatus</em> and <em>Chisumulae</em> Pearl" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8 cm.
61092		population	eng	No information available.
61092		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.
61093		conservation	eng	None.
61093		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island and has been introduced at Thumbi West Island.
61093		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat, in turbulent waters at depths of between 2–10 m. Feeds on aufwuchs attached to rocks by using its slender long teeth to graze algae. Territorial males occur all year round defending small caves in the rocky habitat. Females and immature males move through the biotope feeding on the aufwuchs from different localities. Known as "<em>Labidochromis ewarti</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 7 cm.
61093		population	eng	No information available.
61093		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.
61094		conservation	eng	No information available.
61094		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma and Chizumulu Islands. Introduced at Thumbi West Island.
61094		habitat	eng	Common in the sediment free rocky habitat preferring depths of 5-20 m. It can, however, occur to depths of 30 m. Feeds from the biocover on algae. Males are territorial, defending small caves among rocks and feeding within their territories. Has been exported, trade name not known.
61094		population	eng	No information available.
61094		threats	eng	No information available.
61095		conservation	eng	None known.
61095		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only occurs at Boadzulu Island.
61095		habitat	eng	Occurs commonly in shallow water in the rocky habitat. Also observed in macrophyte beds at 3 m depth. Feeds on aufwuchs as well as on plant leaves. Males have been observed to defend spawning sites. Non-breeding individuals occur in foraging groups. In 1990 it was reportedly not exported for the aquarium trade.
61095		population	eng	No information available.
61095		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Fishing.
61096		conservation	eng	None known.
61096		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mbenji Island as well as at Nkhoma reef.
61096		habitat	eng	Common in the shallow waters. Occurs in the intermediate habitat. Feeds on invertebrates and from the substrate. Males are not territorial but chase conspecific males from their feeding place. Spawning occurs at any site in the habitat. Reported to be exported sporadically for the aquarium trade but the trade name unknown.
61096		population	eng	No information available.
61096		threats	eng	Sedimentation; aquarium collection; and fishing.
61097		conservation	eng	None known.
61097		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island
61097		habitat	eng	Occurs in the shallow water in the intermediate habitat. A secretive species that feeds on algae from the biocover. Territorial males have been observed throughout the year defending caves among the rocky habitat. Reported not to have been exported for the aquarium trade (1990).
61097		population	eng	No information available.
61097		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Fishing.
61098		conservation	eng	None known.
61098		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs on the northwestern coast north of Kande Island and at all rocky shores north of Mbamba bay on the eastern shore.
61098		habitat	eng	Occurs among rocky habitats as well as the intermediate habitats. Occurs in the shallow water being most numerous between 2–7 m. Feeds on invertebrates. Reported to be exported only sporadically, trade name unknown. Grows to a maximum length of about 7.5 cm.
61098		population	eng	No information available.
61098		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61099		conservation	eng	None known.
61099		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is common in the southern arms of the lake.
61099		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to shallow depths. Large shoals are commonly seen swimming over rocks in less than 1m deep.
61099		population	eng	No information available.
61099		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Fishing.
61100		conservation	eng	None known.
61100		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where is only known from Mbenji Island.
61100		habitat	eng	Occurs in the sediment free rocky habitat mainly in shallow water. Feeds on algae from the rock surface as well as plankton. Males are not territorial. They sometimes move in small groups searching for food. Spawning occurs in caves and mouth brooding females hide among the rocks. Reported not to have been exported (1990).
61100		population	eng	No information available.
61100		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Fishing.
61101		conservation	eng	None known.
61101		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from Mumbo Island.
61101		habitat	eng	Occurs among small rocks in shallow water, it is common at 5 m and not more than 15 m. Can also be found among <em>Vallisneria</em> beds. Feeds on crustaceans and small snails. Known as "<em>Labidochromis fryeri</em>" in the aquarium trade
61101		population	eng	No information available.
61101		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61102		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park.
61102		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs at the Maleri Islands as well as Thumbi west Island.
61102		habitat	eng	Occurs frequently in the shallow water in rocky areas in sediment free habitat as well as the intermediate habitat. It feeds on aufwuchs and arthropods. This species is not territorial but males chase conspecific males from feeding sites. They court females and coax them to into depositing eggs at a nearby sheltered site. Also known as "<em>Labidochromis fryeri</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61102		population	eng	No information available.
61102		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61103		conservation	eng	None known.
61103		distribution	eng	Endemic to Malawi where it occurs in the Upper Shire river and in Lake Malawi along the western coast of the south eastern arm up to Mpandi Island as well as along the eastern coast up to Makanjila Point.
61103		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow water, this species is associated with rocks and pebbles. It can also occur in very turbid and sediment rich waters. Feeds on invertebrates and loose aufwuchs. Spawns on the open sand or in seclusion. It is not territorial but males chase conspecific males from their feeding site. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61103		population	eng	No information available.
61103		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61104		conservation	eng	None known.
61104		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs at Likoma and Chisumulu Islands. It was originally endemic to Chizululu Island and was introduced to Likoma Island.
61104		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid found in shallow turbulent waters. It displays territorial behaviour and is herbivorous. Aquarium trade name unknown.
61104		population	eng	No information available.
61104		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61105		conservation	eng	None known.
61105		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire river. Within the lake it has a wide distribution extending from Undu reef (Tanzania) to Metangula (Mozambique).
61105		habitat	eng	Occurs in the shallow intermediate habitat. Feeds on insects and crustaceans. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade as well as "<em>Labidochromis marineatus, Labidochromis samueli</em> and <em>Labicochromis exasperatus</em>".
61105		population	eng	No information available.
61105		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61106		conservation	eng	None known.
61106		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widely distributed throughout the southern part of the lake.
61106		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow waters, sediment free rocky zones. Occurs singly or in pairs or small groups of not more than five individuals. Feeds on aufwuchs, benthic invertebrates and planktons. Spawning occurs at any place in the habitat. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61106		population	eng	No information available.
61106		threats	eng	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.
61107		conservation	eng	None known.
61107		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from a very small population at Masimbwe Islet, Likoma Island.
61107		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment free habitat, especially the wave beaten upper part. Masimbwe Islet is very exposed to the southerly "mwera" winds. Occurs at a depth of 3 m. Feeds on algae and insects. Males are territorial and defend sites inside caves or cracks. Females are rarely seen: they remain between rocks. Reported not to have been exported (1990).
61107		population	eng	No information available.
61107		threats	eng	Sedimentation; Fishing.
61108		conservation	eng	None.
61108		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Mainly occurs in the southern part of the lake from Jalo reef along the entire western coast down to Crocodile rocks, including all Islands and reefs.
61108		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in rocky habitat. It is most numerous among medium sized rocks but can also occur in intermediate habitat. Recorded from the surface to a depth of at least 40 m (more numerous in the upper 10 m). Males are weakly territorial and seldom stay to defend a particular site for more than a few hours. Spawning occurs inside a cave or alongside a rock. Females and non-territorial males occur singly or in small groups of about 8–10 individuals. Feeds on aufwuchs as well as plankton. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a maximum length of 10 cm for males and 9 cm for females.
61108		population	eng	No information available.
61108		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61109		conservation	eng	None.
61109		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Membe Point, south of Chisumulu Island.
61109		habitat	eng	Occurs at the intermediate depths over the rock sand interface. An opportunistic feeder, eating fishes as well as fish eggs.
61109		population	eng	No information available.
61109		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.
61110		conservation	eng	None.
61110		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island as well as along the northwestern coast between Nkhata bay and Chilumba.
61110		habitat	eng	Typically occurs over the rock sand interface, an opportunistic feeder, mainly feeds on small fishes.
61110		population	eng	No information available.
61110		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing.
61111		conservation	eng	None.
61111		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake at Monkey Bay and along the coast further south as well as at Mumbo, Chinyamwezi and Chinyamwazi islands.
61111		habitat	eng	This species is specially adapted to turbulent water, it is reported to come out from its shelter when the wave action is rough. Shows a very sedentary behaviour. Lives among medium to large rocks in water not deeper than 4 m. Males are territorial, excluding only conspecific males from these territories. During calm weather the males retreat into gaps or caves. They feed on plankton, loose aufwuchs and insects.
61111		population	eng	No information available.
61111		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61112		conservation	eng	Partially included in the Lake Malawi National Park.
61112		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chindunga rocks (near Chipoka), Mumbo, Thumbi West, Mbenji and Nakatenga Islands.
61112		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat. A predator feeding on fish as well as invertebrates. Territorial males have been observed at Chindunga rocks (where this species commonly occurs). The males dig nests between rocks on the sand. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61112		population	eng	No information available.
61112		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.
61113		conservation	eng	None.
61113		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island.
61113		habitat	eng	Observed over small to medium sized rocks at between 5–10 m depth. Feeds on zooplankton and epibenthic invertebrates.
61113		population	eng	No information available.
61113		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.
61114		conservation	eng	None.
61114		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known to occur at Masinje.
61114		habitat	eng	Occurs over the rocky habitat as well as the intermediate zone. Feeds primarily on loose algae.
61114		population	eng	No information available.
61114		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing.
61115		conservation	eng	None.
61115		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chisumulu Island and has been introduced to Madimba bay and Thumbi West Island
61115		habitat	eng	The species occurs over large rocks and slabs at depths ranging from 5–12 m. Feeds on filamentous algae.
61115		population	eng	No information available.
61115		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61116		conservation	eng	None.
61116		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chinyamwezi and Chinyankhwazi islands as well as Mitande rocks, Thumbi West and Domwe Islands.
61116		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky habitat, rare in intermediate habitat. Males are territorial and highly aggressive. Feeds on plankton in the water column as well as seeks food among gaps in the rocks (invertebrates).
61116		population	eng	No information available.
61116		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competitors translocated by the aquarium collectors.
61117		conservation	eng	None.
61117		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chizumulu (south western part) where it is common. Also occurs at Likoma Island (Mbuzi Island) and at Nkhata bay (at the tip of the peninsula). Exporters for the aquarium trade probably introduced these two subpopulations.
61117		habitat	eng	Occurs on rocky habitats. Seen feeding from the surface of rocks.
61117		population	eng	No information available.
61117		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Sedimentation.
61118		conservation	eng	None.
61118		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Originally endemic to Likoma Island but was introduced at Thumbi West Island where it is now common.
61118		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky biotopes preferring the upper 4 m of the rocky habitat. It feeds on invertebrates from the biocover as well as algae. Breeding males occur all year round. The males possess a foraging territory of about 3 m in diameter. Known by its scientific name or by the names: "Pearl of Likoma, <em>Melanochromis exasperatus</em> or <em>Melanochromis textilis</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61118		population	eng	No information available.
61118		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61119		conservation	eng	None.
61119		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Masinje as well as Makanjila Point. Its distribution may, however, extend north beyond the Mozambican border.
61119		habitat	eng	Found in the intermediate habitat mostly near rocks at about 5 m depth. Feeds from both rocky and sand substrate as well as on suspended matter in the water column. Breeding may occur in the coll season (May–July). Males do not show territoriality but chase conspecific males in breeding colouration from the foraging ground. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61119		population	eng	No information available.
61119		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61120		conservation	eng	None.
61120		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs all around the lake, but is a rare cichlid.
61120		habitat	eng	Occurs among small and medium sized rocks in water less than 8m deep. Remains hidden among the rocks and appears to be rare. It moves from rock to rock, sucking benthic invertebrates and loose aufwuchs with its large lips in cracks and grooves. It occurs frequently at islands and along the northeastern shores of the lake. Known as "<em>Haplochromis labrosus</em>" or by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61120		population	eng	No information available.
61120		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61121		conservation	eng	None.
61121		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur naturally only at Makanjila Point
61121		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow intermediate zone. Feeds in packs, primarily on the scales of other fishes.
61121		population	eng	No information available.
61121		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61122		conservation	eng	None.
61122		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs off Chipoka Island (Chidunga rocks).
61122		habitat	eng	No information available.
61122		population	eng	No information available.
61122		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.
61123		conservation	eng	None.
61123		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake wide distribution apart from a few islands where it does not occur such as Chinyankwazi and Chinyamwezi islands.
61123		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat, but sometimes observed in the intermediate zone. Its dark colouration blends well with the dark caves and recesses in which it lives. It is an omnivore feeding on fish, invertebrates as well as aufwuchs and plankton. Adults usually are solitary but sub-adults can occur in small groups of about six individuals. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61123		population	eng	No information available.
61123		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61124		conservation	eng	None.
61124		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs naturally only at Mumbo Island.
61124		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat. It is a rare cichlid.
61124		population	eng	No information available.
61124		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.
61125		conservation	eng	None.
61125		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma and Chizumulu Islands as well as the northwestern coast of the lake. Known to be introduced at Thumbi West Island.
61125		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky habitats ranging from 3–50 m but common between 5–20 m. Males exhibit territoriality when other males in breeding colouration are in the vicinity. Spawning occurs on the rocks or inside caves. Breeding males are rarely seen but they occur throughout the year. This species feeds mainly on invertebrates as well as aufwuchs or plankton from the water column. It has also been observed to pick off fungus from the bodies of wounded fishes. Known as "<em>Melanochrmis</em> White Auratus" or by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61125		population	eng	No information available.
61125		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61126		conservation	eng	None.
61126		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs naturally at Likoma Island. Introduced to Thumbi West Island and Otter point.
61126		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky habitats as well as the intermediate habitat. Feeds on algae growing on substrate as well as on plankton.
61126		population	eng	No information available.
61126		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species. Sedimentation.
61127		conservation	eng	None.
61127		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the northern half of the lake at Likoma Island and on the coast between Nkhata Bay and Mdoka (Malawi) as well as between Lupingu and Ikombe in Tanzania.
61127		habitat	eng	An omnivore, found in rocky habitats usually occurring at depths of more than 20 m.
61127		population	eng	No information available.
61127		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.
61128		conservation	eng	None.
61128		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the coast from Makanjila Point and the Mozambican border. It also occurs further north along the shores of Mozambique up to Nkhungu.
61128		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat in shallow water of about 10 m. It has also been observed occasionally in water of 20 m. Observed feeding from the biocover. This species is non-territorial and the males are usually found solitary, although small groups of females have been observed among rocks. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade
61128		population	eng	No information available.
61128		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.
61129		conservation	eng	None.
61129		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake between Mbenji Island and Monkey Bay (including Maleri Island, Chidunga rocks, Nankhumba peninsula area) as well as Chinyamwezi, Chinyankwazi, Eccles reef and West reef.
61129		habitat	eng	Occurs at all sediment free rocky habitats in shallow water. It is numerous among medium sized rocks but sometimes occurs in the intermediate habitat. Males are territorial at locations where this species is abundant. At locations with low population densities, the males behave aggressively against conspecific males but are hardly territorial. It feeds from the biocover on the rocks as well as from the open water. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61129		population	eng	No information available.
61129		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species. Sedimentation.
61130		conservation	eng	None.
61130		distribution	eng	Endemic to lake Malawi. Occurs only at Masinje.
61130		habitat	eng	Inhabits in crevices and caves at depths of around 20 m. It is an opportunistic feeder.
61130		population	eng	No information available.
61130		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species
61131		conservation	eng	None known.
61131		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island (Malawi) and Mara Point, Mbweca and Tumbi point (Mozambique). Introduced at Thumbi West Island and now occurs at several places around Cape Maclear (e.g., Otter Point, Illala gap and Domwe Island).
61131		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate zone in shallow water and is common along the sand interface. Occasionally found in purely rocky habitat. This species is numerous between 2–5 m depth and has not been recorded below 8 m depth. Males are territorial throughout the year. Male territories consist of a site on the sand near a rock where they dig tunnel nests beneath the rocks where spawning occurs. Females and non-breeding males occur singly or in foraging groups. Diet includes loose algae from the substrata as well as plankton. It is known as "<em>Pseudotropheus pengoldi</em> and <em>Pseudotropheus lucerna</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max recorded size: 11 cm (TL).
61131		population	eng	No information available.
61131		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade, subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.
61132		conservation	eng	Distribution range is included within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61132		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake at Mbenji Island, Maleri Island, Chidunga rocks (Chipoka), around the Nakhumba Peninsula, Thumbi West Island as well as at Eccles and West Reef.
61132		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the sediment rich, intermediate habitat, primarily at depths of about 10 m. It feeds on plankton, invertebrates from the sediment rich substrata, as well as algae. Males are territorial and remain close to the rocks, females occur higher in the water column feeding on the plankton. Territorial males are found throughout the year, their territory consists of a tunnel dug beneath a rock on the sand, where spawning takes place. It is known as "<em>Pseudotropheus fusco</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max recorded length: 10 cm (TL).
61132		population	eng	No information available.
61132		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.
61133		conservation	eng	None.
61133		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs only at Mazinzi reef in the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi.
61133		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid also found in the intermediate habitat. Feeds on plankton as well as aufwuchs from the rock surface and also feeds from the sand stratum. Max. size: 8.1 cm (SL).
61133		population	eng	No information available.
61133		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61134		conservation	eng	None.
61134		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Nkhata bay, introduced at Likoma, Namalenje and Thumbi West Islands.
61134		habitat	eng	Occurs along the rocky shores and rock outcroppings. Feeds on loose algae, which it scrapes from the rocks. It is a polymorphic cichlid known as "Cobalt Zebra" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8.01 cm (SL).
61134		population	eng	No information available.
61134		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61135		conservation	eng	Within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61135		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Mumbo Island.
61135		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid. The largest recorded individual is 8.96 cm in standard length.
61135		population	eng	No information available.
61135		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61136		conservation	eng	None.
61136		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a wide distribution (although rare at most locations), but it does not occur north of Hongi Island on the eastern side or north of Mara rocks on the western side.
61136		habitat	eng	Occurs in all habitat types but most frequently in large caves or near large boulders. It usually occurs in places where the catfish <em>Bagrus meridionalis</em> (locally known as kampango) occurs. It feeds on aufwuchs and plankton but is specialised in cleaning parasites only from kampango. It has also been observed stealing eggs from beneath guarding kampango pairs. Females and non-breeding males school in the open water. It is known as "<em>Pseudotropheus chameleo</em> and <em>Melanochromis crabro</em>" in the aquarium trade. It has been given the name <em>Pseudotropheus chameleo</em> due to its ability to quickly change its characteristic colour pattern of yellow with brown bars to a uniform dull brown. Max. size: 12 cm (TL).
61136		population	eng	No information available.
61136		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61137		conservation	eng	None.
61137		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded from Nkhotakota.
61137		habitat	eng	A rock dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.04 cm (SL).
61137		population	eng	No information available.
61137		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61138		conservation	eng	None.
61138		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs almost throughout the lake although it has not been observed north of Hai reef on the eastern shore.
61138		habitat	eng	Adult males occur in the open sandy areas usually in small groups at depth below 10 m. Females and juveniles remain near rocks or plants. Some juveniles have been observed hiding in empty shells of <em>Lanistes nyassanus</em>. It feeds from the upper silty layer that covers the sand, picking benthic invertebrates. Also known to feed on plankton and algae. Occurs in shallow water trawl catches in the southern part of Lake Malawi and also occurs in seine catches the south eastern arm of Lake Malawi as well as in Lake Malombe. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus elegan</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: males attain a maximum total length of 16 cm.
61138		population	eng	No information available.
61138		threats	eng	Over-fishing.
61139		conservation	eng	None.
61139		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mpanga rocks (Chilumba).
61139		habitat	eng	A rock dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.42 cm (SL).
61139		population	eng	No information available.
61139		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61140		conservation	eng	None.
61140		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the eastern coast of Lake Malawi at Minos reef, Chilucha reef and also the southern tip of Metangula as well as at Nkhungu (Mozambique) and Masinje (Malawi).
61140		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment free rocky habitats, with the highest population density in water less than 10 m deep. Males are territorial and defend areas about 1 m in diameter. Feeds on algae from the rock surface at an angle of 90 degrees with the substrate. It is a polymorphic cichlid known as "Red Zebra" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Largest recorded individual is 9.77 cm in total length.
61140		population	eng	No information available.
61140		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61141		conservation	eng	None
61141		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the eastern coast of the lake covering the entire Tanzanian shore, into Mozambique as far south as Lumbaulo. On the western coast it occurs between Chirwa Island and Usisya and at Mpanga rocks and Nakatenga Island.
61141		habitat	eng	Frequently occurs over rocky habitats in sediment rich areas. Males are territorial and defend territories of about 1 m in diameter. Females occur singly or in small groups. Feeds on aufwuchs. It is a polymorphic cichlid.
61141		population	eng	No information available.
61141		threats	eng	Subsistence fishing.
61142		conservation	eng	None.
61142		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at two reefs south of Boadzulu Island: Makokola reef and Crocodile reef (in the south eastern arm of the lake).
61142		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky habitats at reefs where the rocks are covered with a layer of sediment. Occurs at 15–35 m depth. Females and non-breeding males occur singly or in groups, feeding on plankton in the open water. Territorial males also feed on the biocover on the rocks. Male territories consist of caves between rocks. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus</em> Ice Blue" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: It attains a length of about 10 cm.
61142		population	eng	No information available.
61142		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61143		conservation	eng	None.
61143		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chizumulu Island.
61143		habitat	eng	Occurs in the littoral zone of Chizumulu Island inhabiting the deepest part. Occurs mainly in waters with a sediment rich bottom at depths of 10–30 m. Feeds on plankton and algae. Territorial males defend a small cave among the rocks close to the sand floor. Females occur singly or may form into foraging groups. Known by its scientific name or as "<em>Pseudotropheus greeberi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12 cm (TL).
61143		population	eng	No information available.
61143		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61144		conservation	eng	None.
61144		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Observed at Chizumulu Island.
61144		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate habitat, in sediment free clear water. Females are common in the upper 5–10 m of the intermediate habitat. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus newsi</em>" in the aquarium trade.
61144		population	eng	No information available.
61144		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61145		conservation	eng	None.
61145		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Occurs throughout both lakes.
61145		habitat	eng	Occurs over sand, intermediate and rocky habitats. It occurs over the open sand only if shelter is provided by empty shells (<em>Lanistes nyassanus</em>). Male (and probably females) regard the shells as their territory and defend them. When found away from shells it may be solitary or occur in groups. It has been recorded from 5–60 m depths, but is most commonly found at 25 m depth. It has been caught in trawl catches at 18–35 m and was occasionally recorded as deep as 60 m. It feeds from the sediment by filtering the silt through its gills in search of food (invertebrates or diatoms). Breeding occurs in the rocky habitat. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus livingstonii</em>" or "<em>Pseudotropheus lanisticola</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: It attains a total length of 14 cm. The largest individuals occur in Lake Malombe and the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi. Most populations attain maximum total length of 6 cm.
61145		population	eng	No information available.
61145		threats	eng	No major threats.
61146		conservation	eng	None.
61146		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mbenji Island and Nkhomo reef.
61146		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment rich areas, numerous at the sand rock interface. Occurs from 6–20 m depth, more numerous in waters of about 10 m deep. Males are strongly aggressive against conspecific males. Their territories consist of excavated nests beneath rocks over sand in the intermediate zone. Females, juveniles and non-territorial adults occur singly or in small groups. Feeds on loose algae from the rocky surface as well as on plankton in the open water. Known as " Golden Zebra, <em>Pseudotropheus lilancinius</em> and <em>Pseudotropheus kenyi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm (TL).
61146		population	eng	No information available.
61146		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61147		conservation	eng	None.
61147		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Mbenji Island.
61147		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid, common at sites exposed to wave action. It feeds on loose algae from the substrate. Large schools can also be found foraging in the open water feeding on plankton. Males defend territories against conspecific males. Spawning sites consist of caves among boulders. Known as "Red Top Cobalt" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12.5 cm (TL).
61147		population	eng	No information available.
61147		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61148		conservation	eng	Partly included within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61148		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mitande rocks (Thumbi West Island), Domwe Island, Mumbo Island, Zimbawe rocks and Namalenje Island.
61148		habitat	eng	A rock dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.76 cm SL.
61148		population	eng	No information available.
61148		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61149		conservation	eng	None.
61149		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Cobue (Mozambique) but may have a more extensive distribution along the Mozambique coastline.
61149		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid. Largest recorded individual is 8.65 cm in standard length.
61149		population	eng	No information available.
61149		threats	eng	None known.
61150		conservation	eng	Partly within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61150		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the eastern side of Nankhumba Peninsula.
61150		habitat	eng	Inhabits both sand and intermediate habitats. Males are territorial but females occur singly or in small groups. Feeds on periphyton. It is also a facultative cleaner fish, feeding on parasites found on the fins and skin of other haplochromine cichlids.
61150		population	eng	Unknown.
61150		threats	eng	Restricted range. Potential localised over-fishing.
61151		conservation	eng	None.
61151		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Nakatenga island. It was originally restricted to Nakatenga Island but has since been introduced to Maleri Island.
61151		habitat	eng	A rock dwelling cichlid, occurring in 2–27 m of water over small to medium sized rocks. Territorial males defend their territories against conspecific males only. Feeds mainly on loose aufwuchs and plankton. Max. size: 7.66 cm (SL).
61151		population	eng	No information available.
61151		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61152		conservation	eng	None.
61152		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Kanjedza Island and Chirombo bay as well as Mpanda Island and Nkhudzi bay.
61152		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid. Largest recorded individual is 7.31 cm in standard length.
61152		population	eng	No information available.
61152		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61153		conservation	eng	None.
61153		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Eccles reef.
61153		habitat	eng	Rock dwelling cichlid. Largest recorded individual is 8.64 cm in standard length.
61153		population	eng	No information available.
61153		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61154		conservation	eng	Partly included within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61154		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Maleri Islands and Kanjedza Island.
61154		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow sediment free rocky habitats usually in exposed sites. Feeds on loose algae from rock surfaces. Males are territorial, defending caves as spawning sites. Females occur in small groups or are solitary. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus</em> Yellow chin" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12.5 cm (TL).
61154		population	eng	No information available.
61154		threats	eng	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.
61155		conservation	eng	None.
61155		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake-wide distribution.
61155		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky habitats (can be either sediment free or sediment rich). Feeds at right angles with the substrate combing loose material from the rock surface. It is often observed feeding on plankton from the open water. Male territories consist of caves which they defend and where spawning occurs. Females are found in groups foraging in the water column. It is a polymorphic cichlid. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 13.5 cm (TL).
61155		population	eng	No information available.
61155		threats	eng	No major threats identified.
61156		conservation	eng	Much of the range is within the Lake Malawi National Park
61156		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at the Nankhumba peninsula from Otter point to Nkudzi, and also at Thumbi West and Domwe Island.
61156		habitat	eng	Prefers the sediment rich part of the rocky habitat but is sometimes found in the intermediate zone as well. Its normal depth distribution is between 10–25 m but it may be found in shallower waters. Breeding males are territorial and defend a cave against intruders. Feeds on algae or invertebrates. Exported in the aquarium trade.
61156		population	eng	No information available.
61156		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the inshore rocky habitat. Potential for localised over-fishing (even within the National Park). Restricted range.
61157		conservation	eng	No information available.
61157		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is distributed along the entire Mozambican and Tanzanian coastline of the lake. On the western shore the distribution is restricted to the northwestern coast between Mdoka and Chirwa Island (may also be in Chitimba bay).
61157		habitat	eng	Occurs in the upper layers of the rocky habitat, preferring the upper 10 m.
61157		population	eng	No information available.
61157		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the inshore rocky habitat.
61158		conservation	eng	Much of the population is within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61158		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Records from Monkey Bay to Otter point, Domwe Island, Mumbo and Thumbi West Island.
61158		habitat	eng	Occurs in the intermediate zone at various depths in both sediment rich and sediment free areas. It prefers the calm waters of sheltered bays. At Chembe beach juveniles are observed over the open sand where they hide in empty shells of <em>Lanistes nyassanus</em>. Its diet consists of algae from rock surfaces as well as invertebrates. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.
61158		population	eng	No information available.
61158		threats	eng	Restricted Range. Potential localised over-fishing.
61159		conservation	eng	No information available.
61159		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded from the coast between Monkey Bay and Nkopola, Usisya and Ngara (Malawi), Lundo Island (Tanzania), and Cobue (Mozambique).
61159		habitat	eng	Prefers the upper 4 m in shallow waters in sheltered bays close to small rocks and vegetation. Feeds on loose algae grazed from plant leaves (similar to <em>Cyathochromis obliquidens</em>). Breeding males are territorial and they construct shallow saucer shaped nests in the muddy bottom. Females and non-breeding males form foraging groups moving from one plant bed to another.
61159		population	eng	No information available.
61159		threats	eng	No information available.
61160		conservation	eng	No information available.
61160		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known from Maleri Island, Chemwezi rocks, Chinyankhwazi Island and Chinyamwezi Island.
61160		habitat	eng	Occurs throughout the rocky habitat but mainly in the sediment free upper areas. Feeds on algae as well as plankton when available. Breeding males are seen throughout the year and they defend their territories against intruders. It is a polymorphic cichlid exported in the aquarium trade.
61160		population	eng	No information available.
61160		threats	eng	Restricted Range. Localized over-fishing.
61161		conservation	eng	No information available.
61161		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chinyankwazi and Chinyamwezi Islands.
61161		habitat	eng	Found in rocky habitats inhabiting caves in a sediment free environment at depths of between 3-15 m. Feeds on loose aufwuchs from the rock surface. Also feeds on plankton. Territorial males are observed throughout the year. Females have also been observed defending territories. Spawning occurs inside the male's caves. Not exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 11 cm TL.
61161		population	eng	No information available.
61161		threats	eng	Restricted range. Potential over-fishing.
61162		conservation	eng	No information available.
61162		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known at Chinyamwezi Island.
61162		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat (frequently near small rocks) at depths of about 40 m. Territorial males are seen all year round, their territory consists of a cave among the rocks. Feeds on algae from the rock surface as well as plankton in the open water. Not exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 9 cm TL.
61162		population	eng	No information available.
61162		threats	eng	Restricted range. Potential over-fishing.
61163		conservation	eng	No information available.
61163		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Pombo and Ndumbi reefs in Tanzania (south of the Ruhuhu River delta).
61163		habitat	eng	Inhabits intermediate, stony and rocky substrates in shallow water mainly in the upper 3-4 m. Does not defend territories and is not aggressive to conspecific males. It feeds on aufwuchs.
61163		population	eng	No information available.
61163		threats	eng	Restricted range.
61164		conservation	eng	No information available.
61164		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from Mbamba Bay (Tanzania) where it was first described.
61164		habitat	eng	Occurs in the rocky habitat, preferring areas of rocks mixed with sandy bottoms. It occurs in the shallow water (0.5–6 m depth) but has on occasions been observed at 20 m or more. This species remains very close to the substrate, trying to keep in close contact with the rock surface with its belly (in trying to do so, it sometimes swims upside down). This species leads a reserved, secretive life and it seems to be weakly territorial.
61164		population	eng	No information available.
61164		threats	eng	Restricted range.
61165		conservation	eng	No information available.
61165		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chinyankhwazi and Chinyamwezi Islands.
61165		habitat	eng	Prefers the rocky habitat near small to medium sized rocks, usually between 7-20 m depth. It occurs in schools that have been observed roaming through the habitat. Feeds mainly on plankton from the open water but territorial males also feed from rock surfaces within their territory. These territorial males aggressively defend their territory, which is normally a cave. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus dinghani</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8.5 cm TL.
61165		population	eng	No information available.
61165		threats	eng	Restricted range.
61166		conservation	eng	No information available.
61166		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from Nkhata Bay.
61166		habitat	eng	Inhabits the rocky habitat. Reported to feed on insect larvae.
61166		population	eng	No information available.
61166		threats	eng	Restricted range. Sedimentation of the inshore rocky habitat.
61167		conservation	eng	No information available.
61167		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the northwestern coast between Kande Island and Chilumba.
61167		habitat	eng	Mainly seen in shallow water among rocks in sediment free habitat and occasionally in the intermediate habitat close to rocks. Most numerous in water less than 3 m deep and is not seen below 6 m. Adults are aggressive and both sexes hold feeding territories. They feed on algae on the rock surface. Male territories consist of caves. Not been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 11 cm TL.
61167		population	eng	No information available.
61167		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.
61168		conservation	eng	No information available.
61168		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from Mbenji Island.
61168		habitat	eng	A rocky shore dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.74 cm SL.
61168		population	eng	No information available.
61168		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat. Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.
61169		conservation	eng	No information available.
61169		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mbamba Bay, Tanzania
61169		habitat	eng	A rocky shore dwelling cichlid, most commonly occurring at depths of between 1–8 m. Males are strongly territorial and aggressively defend territories against other fishes. Females seem are also territorial. Territories are most often situated on the horizontal surfaces of large rocks or boulders. It feeds on the small invertebrates living within the aufwuchs.
61169		population	eng	No information available.
61169		threats	eng	Restricted range. Near shore sedimentation of rocky habitats. Localised over-fishing.
61170		conservation	eng	No information available.
61170		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Reported to have a wide distribution along the northwestern shore of the lake where it has been observed at Nkhata bay, Lions Cove and Ruarwe. May also occur at Londo in Mozambique.
61170		habitat	eng	Occurs in the shallow intermediate habitat, restricted to the upper 2–4 m in sheltered bays along rocky shores. Forages from the available substrate such as rocks, sand and plant leaves, feeding on algae. Breeding males are territorial, aggressively defending their territories against conspecific males. Females occur in small groups or solitary. Not been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 11 cm.
61170		population	eng	No information available.
61170		threats	eng	None known.
61171		conservation	eng	No information available.
61171		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Most common in Nkhata Bay, but also known from northern locations such as Chitande Island and between Chilumba and Mara Rocks.
61171		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky shore areas. Males aggressively defend their territories consisting of caves. Feeds on loose aufwuchs and is able to feed on the small pockets of algae that are inaccessible to most other species. Females are largely solitary but congregate over the areas occupied by territorial males. Rarely been exported, trade name unknown. Max. size: It is one of the smallest "mbuna" with a maximum recorded total length of 6.6 cm.
61171		population	eng	No information available.
61171		threats	eng	Sedimentation of inshore rocky habitats.
61172		conservation	eng	Within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61172		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded at the Maleri Islands.
61172		habitat	eng	Occurs in sediment rich rocky habitats where it feeds on algae, which it combs from the rock surfaces. Territorial males are seen throughout the year and they defend their territories vigorously. In shallow waters solitary females may also defend a feeding territory. Spawning occurs inside the male's cave. It has not been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).
61172		population	eng	No information available.
61172		threats	eng	Restricted range. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitats.
61173		conservation	eng	No information available.
61173		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the northwestern coast between Ngara and Cape Manulo.
61173		habitat	eng	Commonly occurs in the shallow habitat staying close to the substrate. They have been observed as deep as 10 m but are most common at 3 m depth. They feed on algae on the rock surfaces within a feeding territory, which males and females aggressively defend. This species has rarely been exported. Max. size: 11 cm TL.
61173		population	eng	No information available.
61173		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.
61174		conservation	eng	Within the Lake Malawi National Park.
61174		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Maleri, Nankhoma and Thumbi West Islands as well as on the shores of Nankhumba Peninsula north of Monkey Bay.
61174		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow rocky habitats where it feeds on algae on the rock surfaces. Males are aggressive towards other fishes when courting. Males and females defend feeding territories throughout the year. Spawning occurs inside the male's cave. It remains close to the substrate.
61174		population	eng	No information available.
61174		threats	eng	Restricted range. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat. Localised over-fishing.
61175		conservation	eng	No information available.
61175		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Taiwan Reef (north of Chizumulu Island).
61175		habitat	eng	Occurs in the surf zone of the sediment free rocky shore habitat. Females are often seen in large feeding groups consisting of more than 50 individuals. Feeds on algae, which it nibbles from the rock surface. Males are aggressive in defending their territories against conspecific males. Not yet exported in the aquarium trade (1990).
61175		population	eng	No information available.
61175		threats	eng	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.
61176		conservation	eng	No information available.
61176		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the eastern shore of the lake from Tumbi Point to Cobue (Mozambique). Introduced at Thumbi West Island and Otter Point (although the introduced populations failed to thrive and may even have become extinct).
61176		habitat	eng	Prefers shallow intermediate habitat between 4-10 m. Feeds on algae from the rock surface. Males are weakly territorial wandering through the habitat like females. This species lacks sexual dichromatism. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus pindani</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: in the wild it attains a total length of about 7 cm (in captivity it can grow up to 16 cm).
61176		population	eng	No information available.
61176		threats	eng	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.
61177		conservation	eng	No information available.
61177		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chisumulu Island.
61177		habitat	eng	Observed in the upper part of the sediment free rocky shore habitat on the more exposed shores at a mean depth of 5 m. Feeds in a horizontal position biting off loose algae from the rock surface. Its pointed snout allows it to penetrate narrow spaces and cracks inaccessible to other fishes. Territorial males are seen throughout the year defending their territories aggressively against all intruders. Some females are solitary while others are territorial. Spawning occurs inside the male's nest, which consists of a shelter between some rocks. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 11 cm.
61177		population	eng	No information available.
61177		threats	eng	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.
61178		conservation	eng	No information available.
61178		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the southern half of the lake and at Chizumulu and Likoma Islands. Its range extends along the western shore from Nkhata Bay to Boadzulu Island, and on the eastern shore from Hai reef (Tanzania) to Makanjila Point (Malawi).
61178		habitat	eng	Observed in very shallow rocky habitat sometimes close to large rocks and usually at exposed turbulent sites. Most individuals are seen in the upper 2 m of water. Feeds predominantly on insects and insect larvae taken from the water column, but also feeds on aufwuchs. Territorial males defend large territories only from conspecific males. Females and non breeding males wander through the habitat searching for food. Known as "Red Top <em>Brevis</em> and Red Top <em>Williamsi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 15 cm TL.
61178		population	eng	No information available.
61178		threats	eng	None known.
61179		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61179		distribution	eng	The species has recently been discovered in the lower Matiza/Evros river in Greece and Turkey. Outside Europe the species is known from   Karadere stream (Kocacay River) at the outlets of Manyas Lake and   also in the outlet of Apolyont Lake, Turkey.
61179		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Karadere stream (Kocacay River) at the outlet of Manyas Lake, Turkey.
61179		habitat	eng	It lives in a rather cold and well-oxygenated stream with muddy bottom with abundant submerged vegetation.
61179		habitat	eng	It lives in a rather well-oxygenated streams with muddy bottom and abundant submerged vegetation.
61179		population	eng	Apparently not rare in appropriate habitats.
61179		population	eng	Apparently rare. A visit to the site in 2004 failed to collect any specimens (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm).
61179		threats	eng	Flow regulation due to water extraction. Heavy industrial and agricultural pollution.
61179		threats	eng	The Matitza/Evros river is impacted by pollution from agriculture and industry and salt water intrusion when flow is reduced.
61180		conservation	eng	Not known.
61180		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to Nzoia River system (Lake Victoria basin, Kenya) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpublished).
61180		habitat	eng	Not known.
61180		population	eng	Not known.
61180		threats	eng	Not known.
61181		conservation	eng	No information available
61181		conservation	eng	None known.
61181		conservation	eng	The species has little protection other than reserves in the Okavango Delta.
61181		conservation	eng	The species has little protection other than reserves in the Okavango Delta. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
61181		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys hutereaui</em> is known from the upper Kwango and Kasai systems, from the Ubangui and Uele River systems and from the Upper Lualaba and Luapula systems. Elsewhere, it is known from lakes and river drainages in Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, northern and western Zambia, southeastern Angola, northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana and from the lower Shiré River in Malawi. It is also known from the Okavango and Pungwe-Buzi systems (Skelton 1993).
61181		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>restricted to the Lower Shire river, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Widespread elsewhere in Africa, including the Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Pungwe-Busi systems(Mozambique).  Also recorded in Luapula ( Zambian Zaire system) and the northern savanna belt in the Zaire system.
61181		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is only known from lakes and river drainages in Chad and northern Central African Republic.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Outside western Africa, the species is widespread in Central African Republic, Sudan, northern and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern and western Zambia, southeastern Angola, northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana and lower Shiré River in Malawi. Okavango and Pungwe-Buzi systems. Zimbabwe, South Africa.
61181		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper and Lower Zambezi (Lower Shire) and Pungwe-Buzi systems near the coast (Skelton 2001). Also in the Zambian Congo and Luapula. In Zimbabwe, it has been also collected in the Middle Zambezi at the head of Lake Kariba (Minshull personal communication).
61181		distribution	eng	This species is known from lakes and river drainages in Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, the Congo, northern and western Zambia, southeastern Angola, northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana and from the lower Shiré River in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys hutereaui</em> is found in the upper Kwango and Kasai systems, from the Ubangui and Uele River systems and from the upper Lualaba and Luapula systems. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In eastern Africa it is restricted to the Lower Shire river, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the White Nile and one or more affluent subsystems.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Okavango, This species is known from upper and Lower Zambezi (lower Shire) and Pungwe-Buzi systems near the coast (Skelton 2001). Also in the Zambian Congo and Luapula. In Zimbabwe, it has been also collected in the Middle Zambezi at the head of Lake Kariba (J.L. Minshull pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa, this species is only known from lakes and river drainages in Chad and northern Central African Republic.
61181		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species, non-migratory. Found in small rivers, brooks, swamps and shallow lake parts among vegetated areas. Strictly a floodplain or marsh-loving species. Not a seasonal killifish. Is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
61181		habitat	eng	Mainly found in quiet habitats, particularly vegetated tributaries and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001; Tweddle and Willoughby 1979; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2003). Rarely found in the main Zambezi channel, although it occurred in flooded habitats along the riverbank at high water. Also found in small forested streams in northern Zambia (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
61181		habitat	eng	Occurs in floodplains as well as marshes.  In the Lower Shire River this species is abundant in the marshes at the end of the rains.
61181		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in small rivers, brooks, swamps and shallow lake parts among vegetated areas (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).  Strictly a floodplain or marsh-loving species (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
61181		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory species. It is found in small rivers, brooks, swamps and shallow lake parts among vegetated areas (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). Strictly a floodplain or marsh-loving species (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996). It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
61181		population	eng	No available data.
61181		population	eng	No information available
61181		population	eng	No information available.
61181		population	eng	Widespread and common.
61181		threats	eng	It is commercially targeted as an aquarium fish. In western Africa, there is possible declining habitat quality due to agricultural pollution and drought.
61181		threats	eng	None known.
61181		threats	eng	Overfishing.
61181		threats	eng	Possible declining habitat quality due to agricultural pollution and drought.
61181		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
61182		conservation	eng	Damage to pans and wetlands should be avoided by road builders. Aerial spraying for tsetse and mosquitos should where possible be replaced with more targeted methods e.g. traps or spraying of insect sources. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
61182		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species extends from Malawi and Mozambiaque, south to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In this region it is only known from the Lower Shire River in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the central Mozambique coastal plain from the Zambezi River south to the lower Mkuze in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It is present in a few pans in the Kruger National Park, South Africa (lower Limpopo system), and extends into the Gona-re-Zhou National Park region of south-eastern Zimbabwe and southern Malawi (Lower Shire River).
61182		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary water pools where it feeds on insects and aquatic invertebrates. It may be present in swamps intermittently connected to floodplains but the species seems to be predated upon or out-competed by riverine species. It lays its eggs in the bottom sediments. Soon after the water in the pool dries up, and the adult fish die. The eggs hatch during the following rainy season when the pan or pool re-fills. The fish grows to maturity in a few weeks followed by spawning for an extended period.
61182		population	eng	No information available.
61182		threats	eng	This species has been impacted by insecticide spraying and road building activities, as well as drainage of wetlands for agriculture, however, these impacts are localised.
61184		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61184		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Zamanti Stream in the Seyhan River watershed in southern Anatolia, Turkey.
61184		habitat	eng	Riverine species.
61184		population	eng	No published data on trends, but the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat degradation.
61184		threats	eng	Water pollution (Canli <em>et al</em>. 1998), water extraction, drought and the construction of a fuel pipeline are the main threats to the species.
61185		conservation	eng	None.
61185		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Sous and Massa basins in Morocco.
61185		habitat	eng	It lives in wadi with sandy substrate with a moderate current.
61185		population	eng	Abundant (Diadrio, I. & Azeroual, A. pers comm).
61185		threats	eng	Climate change is thought to be causing drought in all rivers south of the Oum Er Rbia (Azeroual, A. pers. comm). Intensive groundwater extraction, and pollution from agricultural, industrial and domestic sources are also threat to the species.
61186		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61186		distribution	eng	May be restricted to southern Turkey, but no data are available on its full range.
61186		habitat	eng	No data available.
61186		population	eng	No data available.
61186		threats	eng	Unknown.
61187		conservation	eng	None known.
61187		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its catchment, the upper and lower Shire and Lake Malombe.
61187		habitat	eng	Mainly occurs in shallow water. Observed in rocky habitats but most individuals are caught in sandy areas. Also occurs among macrophytes in lower courses of rivers. Probably feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. This species has also been observed under the shelter of floating islands in Lake Malawi. These islands may assist in the dispersal of this species in the lake.
61187		population	eng	A common species.
61187		threats	eng	No information available.
61188		conservation	eng	None.
61188		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
61188		habitat	eng	It is a lacustrine species.
61188		population	eng	Stable or increasing.
61188		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction. Decreased water level due to karstic nature of these lakes. Introduction of exotic fish species.
61189		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.
61189		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
61189		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species has been found over sand and mud. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
61189		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 122 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88 and 1993/95, and about 0.1 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a drop from a mean of 7,600 caught per hour in 1978 to 0 in 1987. Although there is no information from recent large trawls, it is not expected that this species has been wiped out completely.
61189		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
61190		conservation	eng	None.
61190		distribution	eng	It was restricted to Lake (Aguelmam) Sidi Ali, located at 2,230 m altitude in the Atlas mountains in northern Morocco.
61190		habitat	eng	No data.
61190		population	eng	This species disappeared in the late 1930s, probably due to the introduction of common carp. Only two specimens of this species exist in a Museum.
61190		threats	eng	Introduction of common carp.
61191		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61191		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Menderes river basin in western Anatolia, Turkey. Not confirmed if it occurs in Lake Bafa. Several dams throughout the range have fragmented the population.
61191		habitat	eng	Riverine species. Detritus feeder. Feeds on algae from rock surfaces. Need well-oxygenated water for spawning. Separate feeding and spawning areas (migratory, but not to a great extent).
61191		population	eng	No data available on population size. May be declining as a result of pollution.
61191		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction, dams.
61192		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61192		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Duero river in Portugal and to Ulla, Umia, Marin, Mino, Duero, Tajo rivers (Atlantic drainage) and to Francoli, Ebro, Mijares, Palancia, Jucar and Serpis rivers (Mediterranean drainage).
61192		habitat	eng	It is a riverine species with contrasting life histories between streams.
61192		population	eng	Declining.
61192		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to canal building and construction of dams. Introduced predators and water pollution. (J. Carmona pers. comm).
61193		conservation	eng	None.
61193		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Lake Ohrid basin in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
61193		habitat	eng	Swampy areas (Kottelat, M. pers. comm).
61193		population	eng	Specimens not found in Ohrid Lake in 2002 during a survey by Kottelat. (Kottelat pers. comm). The last specimens were collected in 1973.
61193		threats	eng	No data.
61194		conservation	eng	None known.
61194		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.
61194		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be the largest member of the genus. It is reported to occur in both rocky and intermediate habitats. During the daytime it hides in small caves or sand-scrape nests beneath rocks. It feeds on sleeping cichlids and other fishes during the night. Max. size: 150 cm.
61194		population	eng	No information available.
61194		threats	eng	None known.
61195		conservation	eng	None known.
61195		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where the only records obtained were from Nkhata Bay, but it may be more widespread.
61195		habitat	eng	This species has been caught as deep as 70 m. It is a piscivore feeding mainly on cichlids.
61195		population	eng	No information available.
61195		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing by the commercial bottom trawlers.
61196		conservation	eng	None known.
61196		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the holoytpe collected at Nkhata Bay.
61196		habitat	eng	Unknown.
61196		population	eng	No information available.
61196		threats	eng	Unknown.
61197		conservation	eng	None known.
61197		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from Nkhata Bay (holotype) and the two southern arms of the lake.
61197		habitat	eng	This species is said to live in the deep waters of the central lake where it forages in groups feeding on plankton and insect larvae. It is not abundant, taken in both benthic and pelagic trawls.
61197		population	eng	Unknown.
61197		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing by the commercial trawl fishery.
61198		conservation	eng	Listed in Annex II of European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Protected by a special national law in Greece (not enforced).
61198		distribution	eng	Only known from the Strymon and Louros basins in Greece. In the Strymon basin, it is located only in two brooks (Ayannis spring and Mylopotamos Kefalari). More recent, extensive survey has, however, failed to find the species in the Louros basin.
61198		habitat	eng	It lives in cold water springs and spring-fed streams. Reproduction takes place in December and January. It is a non-parasitic lamprey and it does not feed as an adult.
61198		population	eng	No data.
61198		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water extraction.
61199		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61199		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Orontes River basin in Syria and Turkey.
61199		habitat	eng	A pelagic species, dependent on zooplankton.
61199		population	eng	No information is available on population density.
61199		threats	eng	Water-level changes (both due to natural drying out of rivers during droughts and water extraction by humans during dry seasons), and domestic and sewage pollution. The species is sensitive to oxygen levels in the water (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm).
61200		conservation	eng	No information.
61200		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Monkey Bay, in the southeastern arm.
61200		habitat	eng	Only known from a single specimen: the holotype.
61200		population	eng	No information available.
61200		threats	eng	No information available.
61201		conservation	eng	None.
61201		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a widespread distribution.
61201		habitat	eng	A deep-water species occurring at depths of 75–125 m. Feeds mainly on zooplankton and occasional benthic invertebrates. Ripe individuals occur throughout the year most occurring between 100–125 m suggesting that spawning occurs at these depths. The average size at maturity for females was about 9.8 cm.
61201		population	eng	No information available.
61201		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing.
61202		conservation	eng	Lake Malawi National Park.
61202		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Described from Nkhata bay (on the north western coast of the lake) but also recorded from Chembe beach (south western arm).
61202		habitat	eng	Occurs in inshore waters associated with sandy habitats. It is a plankton feeder. Max. size: Total length of 12 cm.
61202		population	eng	No information available.
61202		threats	eng	Potentially over-fishing. Sedimentation.
61203		conservation	eng	None known.
61203		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe with a widespread distribution in both lakes.
61203		habitat	eng	Occurs in sand habitats where it feeds on invertebrates including snails. It is most common at around 15 m depth. Breeding males are observed throughout the year and they construct shallow sand castle nests and form small breeding colonies in the shallow intermediate habitats. Known as "<em>Maravichromis</em> Fort Maguire" in the aquarium trade.
61203		population	eng	A common species.
61203		threats	eng	None known.
61204		conservation	eng	None known.
61204		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is distributed throughout the southeast and southwestern arm of the lake.
61204		habitat	eng	Occurs in deep waters over mud/silt or sand substrates with sediment layers. It has been trawled from depths ranging between 55–80 m. Feeds on small invertebrates from the sediment. This species has not been exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 6 cm TL.
61204		population	eng	Unknown.
61204		threats	eng	Potential over-fishing by demersal trawlers.
61205		conservation	eng	No information.
61205		distribution	eng	North, Baltic, northern Black, White, Barents and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France), Great Britain north to 56°N, Scandinavia: southern Finland, Sweden north to about Stockholm. Mediterranean basin from Var to Hérault (possibly Aude) (France) drainages. Introduced elsewhere. Naturally absent from Italy and Adriatic basin.
61205		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small rivers and large streams of barbel zone with riffles and pools. Also along shores of slow-flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams. Spawns in fast-flowing water above gravel bottom, rarely among submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles are gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years, females longer than males. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-4 years, females at 4-6. Maturity is influenced by environmental factors and individuals may mature much later. Spawns in May-August, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Females deposit the sticky eggs into the gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with <em>Alburnus alburnus</em>.
61205		population	eng	Abundant.
61205		threats	eng	No major threats known.
61206		conservation	eng	No information available.
61206		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Rufiji Basin (Gosse 1986).
61206		habitat	eng	No information available.
61206		population	eng	No information available.
61206		threats	eng	No information available.
61208		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61208		distribution	eng	Known from a pool on inundated ground near Tanga (Lévêque and Daget 1984). Also reported from Soni and Pangani Rivers, Wami Drainage, Kilombero and Rufiji River systems (Bailey 1969).
61208		habitat	eng	No information available.
61208		population	eng	No information available.
61208		threats	eng	No information available.
61209		conservation	eng	No information available.
61209		distribution	eng	Western and northern affluent streams and rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Rusizi river
61209		habitat	eng	Inhabits stream and river habitats. Little else is known on its biology.
61209		population	eng	Unknown.
61209		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
61210		conservation	eng	Its distribution is partly included within the Amboseli National Park.
61210		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Amboseli swamps, Kenya.
61210		habitat	eng	Swamps. Little other information was available.
61210		population	eng	Unknown.
61210		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to lowered water levels and restricted range.
61212		conservation	eng	No information available.
61212		distribution	eng	Ruvu, Great Ruaha, Kilombero and Rufiji rivers (Wildekamp 1995).
61212		habitat	eng	Inhabits small rivers, brooks, pools and shallow parts of larger streams in the coastal lowlands of eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).
61212		population	eng	No information available.
61212		threats	eng	No information available.
61213		conservation	eng	No information available.
61213		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Africa to Indonesia and the western Pacific. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This is predominantly a marine species which enters the lower reaches of rivers along the Eastern Africa marine coast. It is known from the Lower Sabaki drainage. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa are yet to be obtained.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its African distribution extends southwards to Natal, South Africa.
61213		habitat	eng	This is an inshore marine species which enters lagoons, muddy estuaries and coastal bays and the lower reaches of freshwater rivers. It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Froese and Pauly 2003).
61213		population	eng	No information available.
61213		threats	eng	No information available.
61214		conservation	eng	None.
61214		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Acheloos river system, mainly in the lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia, Ozeros, and Amvrakia in Greece.
61214		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in lakes.
61214		population	eng	Stable.
61214		threats	eng	Overfishing, water extraction and pollution.
61215		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61215		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa drainage where it is restricted to the system of the Katuma River in the northen part of the basin (Seegers 1996).
61215		habitat	eng	Found in small brooks as well as in the large Katuma River. Seems to prefer cooler and swift flowing water, but is also adapted to a large range of ecological conditions (Seegers 1996). Maternal mouthbrooder (Seegers 1996).
61215		population	eng	No information available.
61215		threats	eng	No information available.
61217		conservation	eng	None.
61217		distribution	eng	Only survives in Lake Scano and nowhere else. This location is outside its original natural range. It was introduced to Scano around 100–150 years ago from Lake Fucino. The population in Lake Scano has been confirmed as genetically identical to that from the original type specimens from Lake Fucino.
61217		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes and the lower reaches of rivers rich in aquatic vegetation.
61217		population	eng	Extinct throughout its native range. It now only remains in Lake Scano (outside the native range) where it is well established.
61217		threats	eng	Potential introduction of <em>Scardinius erythropthalmus</em> (as planned by the local authority) which has already been responsible for its extinction throughout its former range.
61218		conservation	eng	No information available.
61218		distribution	eng	Known from a series of pools along the west side of the main road between the ferry on the Rufiji River from Ndundu to Kitonga, in the direction of Nyamwage (Watters, Wildekamp and Cooper 1998).
61218		habitat	eng	No information available.
61218		population	eng	No information available.
61218		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61219		conservation	eng	No information available.
61219		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996).
61219		habitat	eng	Found in both the rivers and lake, but only close to the shore. It is probably not present in the open water (Seegers 1996). Spawns in the lake itself. It is uncertain if a part of the population ascends the rivers to undertake regular spawning migrations. Thought to spawn in April or May (Seegers 1996).
61219		population	eng	No information available.
61219		threats	eng	No information available.
61220		conservation	eng	No information available.
61220		distribution	eng	Recorded in pools alongside the road to Malinyi in the floodplain of the Kilombero River, between Ifakara village and the Kilombero ferry, south of the Kilombero Rivers (Wildekamp, Watters and Sainthouse 2002).
61220		habitat	eng	In turbid waters of seasonal pools, many of them were the result of the excavations for road building or due to erosion by water passing through the culverts (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>.  2002).
61220		population	eng	No information available.
61220		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61221		conservation	eng	No information available.
61221		distribution	eng	Only known from the Upper Wami River drainage, Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
61221		habitat	eng	Temporary pools, swamps and ricefields (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
61221		population	eng	No information available.
61221		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61222		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
61222		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kenya and Somalia, possibly extending into Ethiopia, but the full extent of its ditribution is not yet understood.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It can be found in the Lower Tana system. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa are yet to be obtained.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Juba system, Somalia.
61222		habitat	eng	No information available.
61222		population	eng	No information available.
61222		threats	eng	No information available.
61223		conservation	eng	None.
61223		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
61223		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers, lakes, and marshes.
61223		population	eng	Apparently abundant.
61223		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction. Introduction of exotic fish species. Agriculture.
61224		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61224		distribution	eng	So far, known only in upper Akagera system.
61224		habitat	eng	Inshore waters in lakes and rivers (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). Little is known on its ecology.
61224		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches
61224		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion in the watershed.
61225		conservation	eng	No information available.
61225		distribution	eng	Lake Naivasha. Apparently extinct since the 1970s or 1980s due to competition or predation by introduced fishes.
61225		habitat	eng	No information available.
61225		population	eng	No information available
61225		threats	eng	Competition and predation by introduced species may have led to the extinction of this species.
61226		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61226		distribution	eng	Tanzania, Wami River (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
61226		habitat	eng	No information available.
61226		population	eng	No information available.
61226		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to habitat degradation.
61227		conservation	eng	No information available.
61227		distribution	eng	No information available.
61227		habitat	eng	No information available.
61227		population	eng	No information available.
61227		threats	eng	No information available.
61228		conservation	eng	No information available.
61228		distribution	eng	Lake Rukwa drainage.
61228		habitat	eng	Seegers (1996) collected this species in a small stream bordered by reeds and bushes.
61228		population	eng	No information available.
61228		threats	eng	Ecological conditions changed through ongoing road works and local agricultural practices (Seegers 1996).
61229		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61229		distribution	eng	Athi and Tana River systems (upper courses) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61229		habitat	eng	Found all over the river but prefers to congregate, especially the big ones, in large pools below waterfalls or rapids (Copley 1958). There is a very distinct up-river spawning migration as soon as the first floods come down river. They move downstream after spawning, in about July, a fact very well known to native fisherman who set the mouths of their basket traps in the fish weirs accordingly (Copley 1958). Max. size: 34.2 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61229		population	eng	Unknown.
61229		threats	eng	Gamefish (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Fishing during migration.
61230		conservation	eng	None known.
61230		distribution	eng	It is restricted to eastern Greece, FYROM, Bulgaria and Turkey. It inhabits the following river basins: Aoos, Pinios, Aliakmon, Axios (Vardar), Strymon, Nestos and Evros.
61230		habitat	eng	It lives in all sized rivers in fast to strong currents.
61230		population	eng	Widespread but not abundant within its range.
61230		threats	eng	Water extraction, dam construction, water pollution, and drought.
61231		conservation	eng	Angling is regulated according to the National law. Part of the species range is covered by a National Park.
61231		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Agios Germanos stream in the Prespa Lakes region, north-western Greece. It might be also present in one or two streams in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) part of Lake Megali Prespa.
61231		habitat	eng	Its lives in a mountain stream. The population is present in 24.5 km out of 34.5 km. Habitat is fragmented by some impassable waterfalls.
61231		population	eng	Its population in Agios Germanos stream has been estimated between 3,300 and 6,700 individuals (Crivelli, A. unpublished data).
61231		threats	eng	Water extraction (although it is downstream), erosion within the catchment due to overgrazing, poaching with nets and chlorine, and organic pollution. Small electro-power stations.
61232		conservation	eng	No information.
61232		distribution	eng	Mukungwa River (tributary of the Upper Akagera in Rwanda).
61232		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing major rivers where it feeds on varied benthic food items including, insects, ostracods and worms.
61232		population	eng	Rare in fisheries catches.
61232		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins and farming extension.
61233		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61233		distribution	eng	Occurs in Lake Rukwa and the Wami and Mkata Rivers (Froese and Pauly 2003). Also found in the Malagarasi River and other tributaries of Lake Tanganyika.
61233		habitat	eng	Inhabits inshore waters and riverine conditions where it is found in shallow, sandy and vegetated areas. Little is known on its biology. Feeds on insect, weeds and vegetable debris (Konings 1990).
61233		population	eng	Not known but rare (see Tweddle 1983).
61233		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed.
61234		conservation	eng	No information.
61234		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Athi River system (including the Tsavo drainage and Mzima Springs) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
61234		habitat	eng	No information available.
61234		population	eng	No information available.
61234		threats	eng	No information available.
61235		conservation	eng	Included in Regional Andalucian Law 8/2003 of conservation of flora and fauna.
61235		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the lower Guadalquivir region and in streams located on the southern Atlantic slope of Spain, including Coto Donana National Park.
61235		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater and hypersaline lagoons, tidal channel, and in small streams. It is characterized by a short life span and large fluctuations in population size, as adaptations to a highly variable environment.
61235		population	eng	Decreasing, only 7–8 fragmented populations are known.
61235		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water pollution (mine spill in 1998 in Coto Donana), repeated drought, and introduction of exotic fish species <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> and <em>Fundulus heteroclitus</em> as well as the swamp crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>.
61236		conservation	eng	No information available.
61236		distribution	eng	Wami River.
61236		habitat	eng	Inhabits small fast streams (Eccles 1992).
61236		population	eng	No information available.
61236		threats	eng	No information available.
61238		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61238		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the delta and marshes of the Kucuk Menderes River in western Anatolia, Turkey.
61238		habitat	eng	Occurs in a delta (estuarine system) and marshes. Enters brackish water.
61238		population	eng	No data available.
61238		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution, and habitat destruction are common in the Menderes Delta.
61239		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61239		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61239		habitat	eng	Max. size: 5.6 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61239		population	eng	Unknown.
61239		threats	eng	Unknown.
61240		conservation	eng	No information available.
61240		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61240		habitat	eng	Bathopelagic. Spawns in the open lake. Matures at about 2.2 cm FL. Post-larvae prefer the superficial layer while adults prefer the demersal zone up to 60m. Max. size: 2.3 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61240		population	eng	No available estimates.
61240		threats	eng	No information available
61241		conservation	eng	No information available.
61241		distribution	eng	Endemic to the western drainage of the Lake Rukwa system and the upper Kalambo drainage, and Tanganyika basin (Seegers 1995).
61241		habitat	eng	No information available.
61241		population	eng	No information available.
61241		threats	eng	No information available.
61242		conservation	eng	No information available.
61242		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Africa. It is found in Kingani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji and Kilombero Rivers (Paugy 1984).
61242		habitat	eng	No information available.
61242		population	eng	No information available.
61242		threats	eng	No information available.
61243		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61243		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Also reported from Lake Victoria under several synonymous names: <em>Labeo rueppellii</em> Pfeffer, 1896; <em>Barbus radcliffii</em> Boulenger, 1903; <em>B. lobogenys</em> Boulenger, 1906; <em>B. bayoni</em> Boulenger, 1911; <em>B. pietschmanni</em> Lohberger, 1929; <em>B. hollyi</em> Lohberger, 1929; and <em>B. altianalis radcliffii</em> Boulenger, 1903. Records from the latter species from the Tana (see Mann 1966, 1967) are based on misidentifications (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Also recorded in Lakes Edward, George and Kyoga and in Lake Kivu and the Rusizi River down to the delta with L. Tanganyika, and the upper and middle Akagera.
61243		habitat	eng	Inhabits inshore waters of lakes and rivers, including fast-flowing waters; generalist diet including aquatic vegetation, molluscs and fishes (Eccles 1992). A food fish for humans (Robins <em>et al</em>. 1991). Max. size: 90.0 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61243		population	eng	Not known, but common in fisheries catches in upper and middle Akagera.
61243		threats	eng	Sport fishing (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Water turbidity due to erosion on water basins. Fisheries pressure.
61244		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61244		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Akgol-Eregli marshes in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km².
61244		habitat	eng	Known from Akgol-Eregli marshes. No other data are available at present.
61244		population	eng	No published data on population size or trend. However it is believed to be declining as a result of anthropogenic factors.
61244		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of the water supply to the marsh being restricted by the construction of a dam across the stream inlet. The marsh has been partly drained and water is extracted from the marsh for agricultural purposes. The marshes are also sometimes burned.
61246		conservation	eng	No information available.
61246		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Wami and Ruvu drainages (Seegers 1995).
61246		habitat	eng	Found in quieter and deeper stretches of water, in the middle of the water column, and not on the bottom as other <em>Parakneria</em> species (Seegers 1995). Omnivorous taking algae as well as small insect larvae and crustaceans (Seegers 1995).
61246		population	eng	No information available.
61246		threats	eng	No information available.
61247		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61247		distribution	eng	Lake Luhondo (Upper Akagera).
61247		habitat	eng	Probably inhabited both lakes and rivers. Little is known on its biology.
61247		population	eng	Unknown.
61247		threats	eng	Mortality as a bycatch in fisheries. Introduction of <em>Tilapia</em> and <em>Haplochromis</em> species may have been the reason for extinction of the species in Lake Luhondo (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990).
61249		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place in the wild. Captive population is held in an artificial situation (laboratory) based on stock taken from two rivers (M. Goren, pers. comm).
61249		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the coastal rivers of Israel, excluding Kishon.
61249		habitat	eng	A coastal river species.
61249		population	eng	Fifty years ago, the species was very abundant. There was a sharp decline between 1950 and 1970. Then the population was stable until 1999. In 1999 the population declined almost to extinction. A captive population was bred from individuals taken from two sites. Two populations have since been released back into the wild but it is not confirmed if at least one of these is successfully breeding.
61249		threats	eng	Drought, water extraction and pollution are main threats.
61251		conservation	eng	None.
61251		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the northern and central part of Tunisia and to the Kebir River in Algeria.
61251		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. It is a small size barbel (<250mm)
61251		population	eng	Common.
61251		threats	eng	No data.
61252		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. The taxonomy of some possible populations of this species need to be verified.
61252		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Middle and Lower Zambezi system and the Buzi River to the south. It possibly also occurs in Lake Malawi, but the identity of these specimens needs to be re-examined.
61252		habitat	eng	<em>M. macrolepidotus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous (migrates within fresh water only) species which prefers well-vegetated, muddy bottomed marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains.  This species moves inshore after dark, and has been recorded to move up tributaries in shoals during flood season.
61252		population	eng	This species is very common in suitable habitats.
61252		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. The river systems are large and generally healthy apart from perturbations in flow caused by hydroelectricity generation.
61253		conservation	eng	None.
61253		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the north western Africa, type locality in Algeria.
61253		habitat	eng	No data.
61253		population	eng	No data.
61253		threats	eng	Hybridisation with introduced trout.
61254		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61254		distribution	eng	Northern Ewaso Nyiro, Lake baringo drainage, Lake Bogoria system (affluent rivers), Lake Turkana basin (Turkwell River system, Kerio River system), Suguta drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Records of <em>B. gregori</em> (a junior synonym of <em>B. intermedius</em>) from the Tana system (Boulenger 1911) are based on wrong collection localities (see Mann 1971 and Banister 1973) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). For records in the Mara River and Lake Victoria system De Vos <em>et al</em>. (work in progress) pointed out that <em>B. procatopus</em> is a junior synonym of <em>'B.' altianalis</em> (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61254		habitat	eng	Max. size: 48.9 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61254		population	eng	Unknown.
61254		threats	eng	Unknown.
61255		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61255		distribution	eng	Pangani drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61255		habitat	eng	Max. size: 35 mm TL (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
61255		population	eng	Unknown.
61255		threats	eng	Unknown.
61256		conservation	eng	None.
61256		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Lake Pamvotis in Epiros District in Western Greece. Its presence in the Louros river is very doubtful.
61256		habitat	eng	It is a lacustrine species.
61256		population	eng	The population has been dramatically crashing since the early 1990s.
61256		threats	eng	Water pollution, overfishing (bycatch), and the introduction of alien species (main cause of decline).
61257		conservation	eng	No information available.
61257		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
61257		habitat	eng	Lake-wide pelagic distribution both inshore and offshore (Van Ojien 1995). Mostly observed in the 0-20m depth range but eggs and fry may be found down to 68m (Graham1929, Wannink 1998). Juvenile fish migrate away from the shore after spending their larval stage in shallow waters (Wanink 1999). Adults stay near the bottom during the day and rise to the surface at night (Witte and Winter 1995). Feeds on zooplankton (Fermon 1997) and surface insects (Witte and Winter, 1995). It is believed to spawn inshore (Wanink 1998) with an estimated fecundity of >1,000 eggs. Max. size: 9.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61257		population	eng	Fishing yields indicate a rapid increase in population size. For example, Wanink (1998) reported an increase in yield from 1,000 metric tons in 1968 to over 80,000 metric tons in 1989 and acoustic surveys (1999–2001) have also indicated an increasing biomass (Ogutu Ohwayo <em>et al</em>. 2002).
61257		threats	eng	Fishery exploitation pressure is increasing, leading to reduction in size at first maturity (heavy fishing pressure). The pressure has been intensified by reduction in mesh size from 10 mm to 5 mm seines. Parasite infestation by a cestode <em>Ligula intestenalis</em>.
61258		conservation	eng	No information available.
61258		distribution	eng	Northern Ewaso Nyiro, Lower Tana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61258		habitat	eng	No information
61258		population	eng	No information available.
61258		threats	eng	No information available.
61259		conservation	eng	None.
61259		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Prespa Lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
61259		habitat	eng	It is a small lacustrine species living in the littoral zone.
61259		population	eng	Decreasing.
61259		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction (water level decreases are a problem due to karstic nature of these lakes), and introduction of exotic fish species. Disease and parasites are also reported as a significant threat (Kottelat pers comm).
61261		conservation	eng	None.
61261		distribution	eng	It is restricted to river basins in Spain and Portugal: Lerez, Mino, Limia, Duero, Umia, Tajo and Mondego basins.
61261		habitat	eng	It is particularly common in medium size reaches although it can be found in a wide variety of habitats both upstream and downstream. During summer drought this species is well adapted to live in marginal pools with low levels of dissolved oxygen.
61261		population	eng	Locally abundant.
61261		threats	eng	Water extraction, canal construction and introduction of exotic fish species.
61262		conservation	eng	No information available.
61262		distribution	eng	Endemic to upper and middle Akagera River.
61262		habitat	eng	Inshore waters and the main channels of rivers.
61262		population	eng	Known to have declined by >50% or more (Ntakimazi 1985)
61262		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins. Over-fishing.
61263		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61263		distribution	eng	Streams of the Kilimanjaro region (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
61263		habitat	eng	Max. size: 315 mm (Lévêque and Daget, 1984).
61263		population	eng	No information available.
61263		threats	eng	No information available.
61264		conservation	eng	No information available.
61264		distribution	eng	Endemic to the area between Iringa and a point 15 km southwest of Igunda on the northwestern slopes of the Southern Highlands, southwestern Tanzania. This region includes the upper drainages of the Ndembera and Idodi rivers and the middle and lower reaches of the Little Ruaha River (Seegers 1995).
61264		habitat	eng	Found in the headwaters of the streams of the northwestern slopes of the Southern Highlands, indicating that it prefers a cooler climate (Seegers, 1995). Detritivore (Seegers 1995). Probably a single spawning period (Seegers 1995). Common throughout its distribution area (Seegers 1995). Max. size: 10–20 mm TL.
61264		population	eng	No information available.
61264		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61266		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61266		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to south-west Anatolia in Turkey. Only known in three localities from Bergama (Gediz River system) to Dalaman River.
61266		habitat	eng	No data available.
61266		population	eng	No data available.
61266		threats	eng	None known.
61267		conservation	eng	No information available.
61267		distribution	eng	Currently only known from two tributaries of the upper Ruaha. Most specimens have been collected in the Kimani River, which is the type locality (Seegers 1995).
61267		habitat	eng	No information available.
61267		population	eng	No information available.
61267		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61268		conservation	eng	No information available.
61268		distribution	eng	Only known from two pools along the Dar es Salaam–Ikwiriri road, Tanzania (Watters, Wildekamp & Cooper 1998).
61268		habitat	eng	No information available.
61268		population	eng	No information available.
61268		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61269		conservation	eng	Conservation of critical marginal lagoons by environmental education and law enforcement.
61269		conservation	eng	Conservation of critical marginal lagoons by environmental education and law enforcement is needed.
61269		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from low-veld rivers of the eastern Africa coast from the Ruaha River in Tanzania south the the Mkuze River in South Africa.
61269		distribution	eng	This species is found in low-veld rivers of the east Africa coast from Kenya to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Lower Tana and Sabaki drainages, Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa and the Lower Shire River in Malawi. Also in Ruaha, Tanzania (Skelton 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found from Mozambique to the Mkuze River in South Africa.
61269		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in vegetated, non- or slow flowing sections of rivers and river margins. Also found in marginal lagoons, isolated pans in floodplains. It feeds on small aquatic organisms, and food consists of diatoms, algae and invertebrates (Polling <em>et al.</em> 1992). It breeds in summer, possibly migrating to spawning sites (Skelton 1993).
61269		habitat	eng	Usually found in vegetated, non- or slow flowing sections of rivers and river margins. Also found in marginal lagoons, isolated pans in floodplains.
61269		population	eng	Abundant where encountered.
61269		population	eng	It is common in quiet streams (Tweddle 1983). Otherwise rare (Bell-Cross 1976).
61269		threats	eng	Fisheries pose a possible future threat, although reported to be of no importance in Lake Chiuta (Tweddle 1983). Marginal pools in the Niassa Reserve, Mozambique are routinely poisoned by local fishermen. These pools act as innocula for the main river system and are critical habitats for many species not suited to open water of main river channels.
61269		threats	eng	Marginal pools in the Niassa Reserve, Mozambique are routinely poisoned by local fishermen. These pools act as innocula for the main river system and are critical habitats for many species not suited to open water of main river channels.
61270		conservation	eng	None known.
61270		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Enters the lower reaches of major affluent rivers, including the Malagarasi river.
61270		habitat	eng	Most commonly found in the littoral zone in rocky and mixed substrates (Eccles 1992, Brichard 1978, Kuwamura and Hori 1985) ). Feeds on fish, molluscs and insects.
61270		population	eng	Common but not abundant in fisheries catches Poll (1953). Recorded as common if not abundant at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia) and very abundant, with high densities, at Pointe de Rubiza (Burundi) with one individual recorded for every three meters of substrate (Brichard 1978).
61270		threats	eng	Over-fishing. Sedimentation.
61271		conservation	eng	No information available.
61271		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northern end of lake Tanganyika and the Rusizi River.
61271		habitat	eng	Found in both deep and flowing waters where it feeds on varied benthic food items including, insects, ostracods and worms.
61271		population	eng	A rare species.
61271		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins.
61272		conservation	eng	None.
61272		distribution	eng	Malagarasi and Ruaha rivers and Lake Rukwa system (Seegers 1996).
61272		habitat	eng	Prefers well-aerated open flowing water but can also be collected in pools of stagnant water, usually these pools are remnant parts of rivers which are dried out in the dry season (Seegers 1996). Probably feeds on zooplankton and small insects and crustaceans (Seegers 1996). Probably migrates for spawning (Seegers 1996).
61272		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.
61272		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion in river basins.
61273		conservation	eng	No information available.
61273		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). This species was described from the "Amala River, entering the east side of Lake Baringo" (Boulenger 1916: 245), a doubtful locality probably referring to a tributary of the Mara River in western Kenya, Lake Victoria system (Seegers and De Vos, work in progress) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61273		habitat	eng	Max. size: 6.6 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61273		population	eng	No information available.
61273		threats	eng	No information available.
61274		conservation	eng	No information available.
61274		distribution	eng	Seasonal pools near Lake Victoria between Ahero and Kisumu.
61274		habitat	eng	No information available.
61274		population	eng	No information available.
61274		threats	eng	No information available.
61276		conservation	eng	No information available.
61276		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Shire River.
61276		habitat	eng	This is one of the three 'Chambo' species endemic to Lake Malawi. Like other species of the subgenus <em>Nyasalapia</em>, males develop long branched genital 'tassels' that serve as egg dummies.  <em>Oreochromis lidole</em> is believed to be the chambo species most adapted to deep water and feeding in the water column. It feeds on algae, detritus and zooplankton. The breeding season runs from September to March, peaking from October to February. Like other <em>Oreochromis</em>, they are maternal mouthbrooders. Males dig large spawning pits at depths of 17 m (50 feet) or more. These spawning pits can be up to 3 m in diameter, with central platforms as much as 75 cm wide. Breeding starts at about 28 cm TL at three years old. The spawning areas are located in deeper water than for the other two species, off clean sandy or rocky shores. Max. size: 38 cm TL.
61276		population	eng	During the 1950s over 3,000 tonnes of Chambo per year (chiefly <em>O. squamipinnis</em>) were being taken from Lake Malawi's southeast arm alone. However, the total catch for chambo in this part of the lake has shown a steady decline since early 1990s. CPUE in the main harvesting fisheries has also declined dramatically due to over-fishing.In Lake Malombe chambo catches were around 4,000 tons in the late 1970s, increasing to over 6000 tons in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s a drastic decline was observed with catches falling to less than 600 tons per year by the early 1990’s and to less than 200 tons in the late 1990’s. This decline in total catch in Lake Malombe is directly matched by severe declines in CPUE in the two main fisheries harvesting the stock, namely gill nets and chambo seines. The Chambo stocks in Lake Malombe are considered to have been in a state of collapse or near collapse since the early 1990s.
61276		threats	eng	Over-fishing: the chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s as a result of over-fishing.
61277		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61277		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two freshwater lakes in the Jordan River basin: Lake Hula in Israel and Lake Muzairib in Syria (this may be a misidentification). Its occurrence was also recorded in Lake Kinneret, but this may also be a misidentification (M. Goren, pers. comm.). It is considered as extinct in Israel. Population status in Syria (if it occurred here) is not known.
61277		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species.
61277		population	eng	Extinct in Israel; not known in Syria.
61277		threats	eng	Drainage of Lake Hula resulted in the loss of the species from Israel.
61279		conservation	eng	No information available.
61279		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Galana-Sabaki Rivers, Lower Tana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Might become an important component of communities above dam (Eccles, 1992).
61279		habitat	eng	Max. size: 7.5 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61279		population	eng	No information available.
61279		threats	eng	Fisheries.
61280		conservation	eng	No information available.
61280		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61280		habitat	eng	No information available.
61280		population	eng	No information available.
61280		threats	eng	No information available.
61281		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61281		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Litani river basin in Lebanon.
61281		habitat	eng	Occurs in rivers, but in slow moving or still water.
61281		population	eng	In the late 1980s, the population appeared to be stable.
61281		threats	eng	Water extraction, and the introduction of exotic fish species (<em>Gambusia</em> and <em>Tilapia</em>) are the main threats. Habitat destruction (canalization). The area is urbanized and the river water is utilised by the human population.
61282		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61282		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to Nzoia River system (Lake Victoria basin, Kenya) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61282		habitat	eng	Unknown.
61282		population	eng	Unknown.
61282		threats	eng	Unknown.
61283		conservation	eng	None.
61283		distribution	eng	It is restricted to wadi of south-eastern Morocco and in eastern Algeria.
61283		habitat	eng	No data.
61283		population	eng	Abundant. (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).
61283		threats	eng	No threats.
61284		conservation	eng	No information available.
61284		distribution	eng	Endemic to Zanzibar (Wildekamp 1981).
61284		habitat	eng	Temporary pools, swamps, ditches and small streams (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
61284		population	eng	No information available.
61284		threats	eng	No information available.
61285		conservation	eng	No information available.
61285		distribution	eng	Source of the Little Ruaha River, a tributary of the Great Ruaha River (situated in the range of hills between Mbeya and Iringa) (Wildekamp 1995).
61285		habitat	eng	Inhabits a swampy area with out flowing creeks (Wildekamp 1995).
61285		population	eng	No information available.
61285		threats	eng	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes it vulnerable to habitat degradation.
61286		conservation	eng	No information available.
61286		distribution	eng	No information available.
61286		habitat	eng	No information available.
61286		population	eng	No information available.
61286		threats	eng	No information available.
61287		conservation	eng	Management of fisheries is needed at least within protected areas such as the Niassa Reserve.
61287		conservation	eng	Management of fisheries is needed at least within protected areas such as the Niassa Reserve. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, as well as population range and numbers, biology and ecology, and monitoring of populations.
61287		distribution	eng	Barbus zanzibaricus is found along the east coast of Africa, from Somalia south to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in small numbers in coastal rivers, including Sabaki and Lower Tana, northern Ewaso Nyiro system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Lake Chiuta (Tweddle 1983). It is also present in Lake Chilwa streams.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is present in the River Juba, Somalia<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Rovuma River system on the Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzanian border.
61287		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Rovuma River system on the Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzanian border.
61287		habitat	eng	Main river and stream channels and also in pools in the river beds of seasonal streams. Reasonably common where encountered.
61287		habitat	eng	This species inhabits main river and stream channels and also in pools in the river beds of seasonal streams.
61287		population	eng	It is reasonably common where encountered.
61287		population	eng	No information available.
61287		threats	eng	Fishing of isolated pools by rural fishermen was identified as a problem in the Niassa Reserve by Bills (2003). Pools are easily fished out and they are' innocula' for the main river system when flows return. In some instances pools are poisoned which is an undesirable and illegal activity.
61287		threats	eng	Potentially overfishing could be a threat but this has been reported to have no commercial importance in Lake Chiuta, Malawi (Tweddle 1983). Fishing of isolated pools by rural fishermen was identified as a problem in the Niassa Reserve by Bills (2003). Pools are easily fished out and they are' innocula' for the main river system when flows return. In some instances pools are poisoned which is an undesirable and illegal activity.
61288		conservation	eng	No information available.
61288		distribution	eng	Only known from the floodplain of the Ruvu River, eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
61288		habitat	eng	Temporary pools in the Ruvu River floodplain (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).
61288		population	eng	No information available.
61288		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61289		conservation	eng	No information available.
61289		distribution	eng	Lower Tana River (possibly an endemic).
61289		habitat	eng	Inhabits the main part of the river where it is most abundant in deeper waters near large logs and stranded trees (De Vos, 2001). It may undergo a seasonal breeding migration during the rainy season (De Vos, 2001). Mainly feeds on benthic invertebrates: its tooth patch is probably used as a hoe for grazing invertebrates in the river bed (De Vos, 2001). Max. size: 202 mm SL (De Vos, 2001).
61289		population	eng	No information available.
61289		threats	eng	No information available.
61290		conservation	eng	None.
61290		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Arachthos river basin in western Greece. The river system is, however, now linked in its lowland to the adjacent Louros river basin through canals.
61290		habitat	eng	Riverine species preferring sand or mud substrate.
61290		population	eng	No data.
61290		threats	eng	Habitat destruction. Water pollution and extraction. Potential hybridisation with <em>C. helenica</em> living in the Louros river system since canals now link, in the lowland, the two river basins.
61291		conservation	eng	No information available.
61291		distribution	eng	Only known from the Southern Lagoon of Lake Natron, where it inhabits the springs and effluent stream at Olomotony and some spring-fed creeks entering this lagoon from the southeast and east (Seegers and Tichy 1999).
61291		habitat	eng	Springs and creeks near the southern and southeastern shores of Lake Natron. The water of these springs is usually clean, but the creeks near the main lake carry turbid water and many of the inhabited creeks are also polluted by cattle or game (Seegers and Tichy 1999). They graze stones and gravel, probably taking mainly algae for food but are clearly omnivorous taking insects from the water surface as well (Seegers and Tichy 1999). They are maternal mouthbrooders (Seegers and Tichy 1999).
61291		population	eng	No information available.
61291		threats	eng	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61292		conservation	eng	None known.
61292		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Athi River, Kenya (Froese and Pauly 2003).
61292		habitat	eng	Max. size: 12.5 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61292		population	eng	No information available.
61292		threats	eng	Unknown.
61293		conservation	eng	No information available.
61293		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Upper and Middle Shire river.
61293		habitat	eng	This is one of the three 'Chambo' species endemic to Lake Malawi. Like other species of the subgenus <em>Nyasalapia</em>, males of <em>O. karongae</em> develop long branched genital 'tassels' that serve as egg dummies. Territorial male <em>O. karongae</em> are jet black, with a white dorsal fin margin. <em>O. karongae</em> can be seen in loose shoals in many areas of the lake. They feed by rasping the surfaces of rocks and weeds and by sifting sediment and also feeding in the water column. They eat mainly algae, detritus and zooplankton. The breeding season runs from July to March, peaking around September and again in February. In Lake Malombe there is just a single peak around July to October. Like other <em>Oreochromis</em> they are maternal mouthbrooders. Males dig large spawning platforms in waters ranging from the shallows down to depths of at least 28 m. Like other chambo, they construct a slightly raised bowl-shaped central spawning cone inside the larger pit. Max. size: 37 cm TL.
61293		population	eng	During the 1950s over 3,000 tonnes of Chambo per year (chiefly <em>O. squamipinnis</em>) were being taken from Lake Malawi's southeast arm alone. However, the total catch for chambo in this part of the lake has shown a steady decline since early 1990s. CPUE in the main harvesting fisheries has also declined dramatically due to over-fishing.In Lake Malombe chambo catches were around 4,000 tons in the late 1970s, increasing to over 6,000 tons in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s a drastic decline was observed with catches falling to less than 600 tons per year by the early 1990’s and to less than 200 tons in the late 1990’s. This decline in total catch in Lake Malombe is directly matched by severe declines in CPUE in the two main fisheries harvesting the stock, namely gill nets and chambo seines. The Chambo stocks in Lake Malombe are considered to have been in a state of collapse or near collapse since the early 1990s.
61293		threats	eng	Over-fishing: the chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s as a result of over-fishing.
61296		conservation	eng	No information available.
61296		distribution	eng	Only known from pools alongside the road to Malinyi in the floodplain of the Kilombero River, between Ifakara village and the Kilombero ferry, south of the Kilombero Rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 2002).
61296		habitat	eng	Turbid water in seasonal pools, many of them were the result of the excavations for road building or due to erosion by water passing trough the culverts (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>.  2002).
61296		population	eng	No information available.
61296		threats	eng	A restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61297		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61297		distribution	eng	Orangi River (itself a tributary of the Grumeti River) and some of its tributaries: the Pololeti, Seronera, Ngarenanyuki, and Nyabogati Rivers, all in the center of Serengeti NP (Farm 2000).
61297		habitat	eng	Found in shallow streams and rivers having gravel or sand bottoms. The streams are in open woodland or wooded savannah areas having pronounced wet and dry seasons. Streams were generally highly turbid (Farm 2000).
61297		population	eng	No information available.
61297		threats	eng	No information available.
61298		conservation	eng	No information available.
61298		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Tanga (Paugy 1984) and Pangani River drainages, including Lake Jipe (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Records from of species from the Tana basin are dubious and based on misidentifications (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
61298		habitat	eng	Forms shoals in the shallow margins of streams (Copley 1958). Also inhabits rivers and lagoons (Eccles 1992). Max. size: 6.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61298		population	eng	No information available.
61298		threats	eng	No information available.
61299		conservation	eng	No information available.
61299		distribution	eng	Kerio River system (Lake Turkana drainage).
61299		habitat	eng	No information.
61299		population	eng	No information.
61299		threats	eng	No information available.
61300		conservation	eng	No information available.
61300		distribution	eng	Endemic to the streams and rivers of the upper Ruvu drainage descending from the Uluguru mountains (Seegers 1995).
61300		habitat	eng	Present in stretches with fast current but more numerous in the quieter stretches. It's preferred water conditions are 26.8°C and pH of 7.2 (Seegers 1995). Feeds mainly on algae and aufwuchs which is rasped from stones (Seegers 1995).
61300		population	eng	No information available.
61300		threats	eng	Its restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
61301		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61301		distribution	eng	Eastern drainage of the Lake Rukwa basin and Malagarasi River (Seegers 1996)
61301		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers where the current is not very fast and there is dense vegetation near the banks. In the lake it is found between dense grasses at the shore (Seegers 1996). Feeds on small water animals (Seegers 1996). No marked spawning period (Seegers 1996).Max. size: 55.7 mm TL (Seegers 1996).
61301		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.
61301		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
61302		conservation	eng	No information available.
61302		distribution	eng	Eastern Africa: Pangani drainage, Galana-Sabaki, Lower Tana River, Northern Ewaso Nyiro.Also reported by Whitehead (1959, 1962) and Mann (1966, 1968) from the Tana and Northern Ewaso Nyiro as S. zambezensis Peters, 1852, a misidentification. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa is yet to be obtained.
61302		habitat	eng	Max. size: 131 mm TL (Gosse in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).
61302		population	eng	No information available.
61302		threats	eng	No information available.
61303		conservation	eng	Unknown.
61303		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Pangani drainage (including Lake Jipe) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61303		habitat	eng	In Lake Jipe inhanbits shallow water among open stands of the emergent grass paspalidium geminatum (Bailey 1980). Feeds on cladocerans, insect fragments (including mayfly nymphs and chironomid midge larvae), and plant material. The number of eggs, < 0.8 mm diameter, carried by two ripe females, (27.6 and 30.2 mm SL) were 190 and 170, respectively (Bailey 1980).
61303		population	eng	No estimates available.
61303		threats	eng	Not fished commercially. No known threats.
61304		conservation	eng	No information available.
61304		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Athi River system (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).
61304		habitat	eng	Max. size: 49.0 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61304		population	eng	No information available.
61304		threats	eng	No information available.
61305		conservation	eng	None known.
61305		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika basin.
61305		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and lagoons (Eccles 1992).
61305		population	eng	No information available.
61305		threats	eng	No information available.
61306		conservation	eng	No information available.
61306		distribution	eng	Mukungwa river (Upper Akagera in Rwanda)
61306		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing major rivers where it feeds on varied benthic food items including insects, ostracods and worms.
61306		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches
61306		threats	eng	Predation and competition from introduced <em>Tilapia</em> and Haplochromines (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). Water turbidity due to erosion on river basins and farming extension.
61307		conservation	eng	None known.
61307		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo lineatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.
61307		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo lineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits lakes and larger rivers (Eccles 1992). <em>Labeo lineatus</em> is lives over mud bottoms close to sand banks. The adults are often captured over sandy bottoms in deep water (Tshibwabwa 1997).
61307		population	eng	No information available.
61307		threats	eng	None known.
61308		conservation	eng	No information available.
61308		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the Rusizi River.
61308		habitat	eng	Found in inshore waters of the lake over rocky substrates and in major fast flowing rivers (Eccles 1992). Feeds on varied food items collected on rocky and other firm bottoms: insects, ostracods, diatoms, worms, etc. Also feeds on aufwuchs (Eccles 1992).
61308		population	eng	A very common species that sometimes is significant in inshore fisheries catches from Lake Tanganyika.
61308		threats	eng	Over-fishing. Water turbidity in rivers and lake's inshore waters due to erosion following deforestation in the associated river catchments.
61309		conservation	eng	None known.
61309		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
61309		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
61309		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is widely distributed in the southern half of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the upper Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the upper Pangani drainage (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), as well as Lake Tanganyika and its affluent rivers, including Rusizi and Malagarasi drainage. It also occurs in the upland rivers and streams of northern areas of Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In southern Africa, it occurs throughout the Zambezi system, and in the Cunene, Okavango and Limpopo rivers (Skelton 2001). In the upper Zambezi system, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be common in many northern tributaries but absent from the main river and floodplains, although there are old accurate records from Katombora rapids near Victoria Falls. Similarly, it does not occur in the Okavango Delta system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2003) and is scarce in Caprivi (van der Waal 1976). Also recorded in the Buzi River (R. Bills, unpublished).
61309		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is known from the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi and Limpopo systems, common in Zimbabwe, Zambia and South Africa (Skelton 2001). It is also widespread in eastern Africa (Skelton 2001).
61309		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in central and eastern Africa (Skelton 2001). In southern Africa, occurs throughout the Zambezi system, and in the Cunene, Okavango and Limpopo rivers (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi system, Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it to be common in many northern tributaries but absent from the main river and floodplains, although there are old accurate records from Katombora rapids near Victoria Falls. Similarly, it does not occur in the Okavango Delta system (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) and is scarce in Caprivi (van der Waal 1976). Also recorded in the Buzi River (Bills unpublished).
61309		habitat	eng	A wide range of habitats from small streams to large rivers, moves upstream to spawn in flooded grassy areas (Skelton 2001).
61309		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits a wide range of habitats from small streams to large rivers. <em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> moves upstream to spawn in flooded grassy areas (Skelton 1993).
61309		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits a wide range of habitats from small streams to large rivers. <em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> moves upstream to spawn in flooded grassy areas (Skelton 1993). Feeds mainly on insects.
61309		population	eng	No information available.
61309		population	eng	The species is generally common and widespread although patchily distributed.
61309		threats	eng	None known.
61309		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
61309		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species in central and southern Africa. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension could pose a threat to some populations in eastern Africa.
61310		conservation	eng	None.
61310		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the wadi Zousfana, Ziz down to Beni-Abbès. It is also present in Timimoun in Algeria.
61310		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in subterranean habitats.
61310		population	eng	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).
61310		threats	eng	Climate change and ground water extraction, creating droughts (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).
61311		conservation	eng	No information available.
61311		distribution	eng	Lake Victoria basin, Athi River system, Rukwa system, Malawa river (Uganda), Bubu river (flowing into lake Manyara), Pangani and Ruaha Rivers.
61311		habitat	eng	Found in permanent and even in temporary streams. Feeds on insect larvae and bottom debris (Greenwood 1966).
61311		population	eng	Unknown.
61311		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
61312		conservation	eng	None.
61312		distribution	eng	It is restricted to one karstic spring (Modro Oko) in Krbavsko Polje in Croatia. It disappaered from Krbavsko Polje streams.
61312		habitat	eng	It lives in the springs and pools of the karst region. It enters subterranean waters during winter or summer drought.
61312		population	eng	No data.
61312		threats	eng	Drought, water pollution and extraction. Construction of road close to the site. Introduction of exotic fish species. Also there is a possibility that war in the region has damaged the karstic system (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).
61313		conservation	eng	No information available.
61313		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.), including the middle and lower Akagera river.
61313		habitat	eng	Found both in streams, rivers and lake. Fishes migrate upstream to spawn. The principal spawning grounds appear to be the floodwater pools. Half-grown fishes migrate into the river and down to the lake at the next flood (Whitehead 1960). Feed predominantly on insect larvae. Max. size: 7.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
61313		population	eng	Unknown, but rare.
61313		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.
61314		conservation	eng	1. No legislation has been enacted to specifically protect this species. <br/>2. No Australian Society for Fish Biology listing. <br/>3. This species may occur in the Marmion and Shoalwater Islands Marine Parks, which are located some kilometers from Carnac Island in Western Australia.
61314		distribution	eng	Currently known only from few (i.e., <10) specimens collected from several localities in southern Australian marine waters. Records exist from Cape Jervis and St Vincent’s Gulf in South Australia, and in the vicinity of Carnac Island in south-western Western Australia. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>I. australe</em>.
61314		habitat	eng	<em>Acentronura australe</em>, is thought to camouflage itself against algae and seagrass, like many of its closest relatives (Kuiter 2000). Surveys in the vicinity of Carnac Island in Western Australia found that the abundance of this species was qualitatively low, and near Freemantle WA, Kendrick and Hyndes (2003) found densities of ca. 1.25x10<sup>-4</sup> individuals m<sup>-2</sup> on unvegetated bottom, and densities of 2.5x10<sup>-5</sup> individuals m<sup>-2</sup> in the overall survey area that was largely dominated by seagrasses. These densities are very low, even relative to other syngnathids. In the same study area, densities of another prevalent syngnathid, <em>S. nigra</em>, ranged from 1.3–15 individuals per m² in the various seagrass habitats surveyed (Kendrick and Hyndes 2003). Other syngnathids such as seahorses are known to be rare, but are still found at densities 1–5 orders of magnitude greater than <em>A. australe</em> (from 0.006–1.1 individuals per m² (Foster and Vincent 2004)).  With the exception that it is known to be a pouch brooder, nothing is known of the reproductive biology or diet of <em>A. australe</em>. <br/> <br/>A similar species from eastern Australia, <em>Idiotropiscis lumnitzeri</em> (Syndney’s Pygmy Pipehorse), is known to occupy semi-exposed rocky reefs from 6–30 m, sparsely covered with clumps of Rhodophytes which provide good camouflage for the species (Kuiter 2004). Individual animals have been observed to occupy the same small sections of reef for up to eight months at a time (Kuiter 2004), suggesting that <em>I. lumnitzeri</em>, and perhaps also <em>A. australe</em>, may be site faithful.
61314		population	eng	The current limited knowledge of the species suggests that it naturally occurs in low abundances in specific habitats. The distribution, size, connectivity and number of populations remain unknown.
61314		threats	eng	Not known to be fished. The only known Western Australian locality of <em>A. australe</em>, in the vicinity of Carnac Island, is adjacent to a major coastal residential and industrial area, which includes heavy port and naval infrastructure. Coastal waters in this area are currently subject to channel dredging and marine shell-sand mining, while marine pollution represents a significant potential threat.
61315		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
61315		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is restricted to the departments of Hérault and Gard, where it is widespread in suitable habitats. The records from departments of  Bouche-de-Rhone are currently under review, as they are only based on dry shells.
61315		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater subterranean habitats.
61315		population	eng	The populations are believed to be stable at most sites.
61315		threats	eng	<p>The major threats to this species lie in exploitation of the water source through extraction of groundwater.&#160; There are a variety of purposes in the region, use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies.&#160; A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.</p>
61316		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
61316		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Micronesia, the Marianas Group and the western Caroline Islands (but there is some uncertainty about its precise indigenous range). This species does not extend west into the Philippines.  Plants occur on Palau Island and on Guam and Rota Islands of the Marianas group and on Yap Island of  the Caroline Islands group.
61316		habitat	eng	<em>C. micronesica</em> is an arborescent species that occurs in closed forest on coral limestone or coral sand, or occasionally on volcanic soils on islands where these occur.
61316		population	eng	This species was relatively abundant in the 1990s and recorded as locally common. However, populations on Guam have been devastated by the invasive <em>Aulacaspis</em> scale (CAS). A reference population in northwest Guam has declined from 686 individuals in early 2004 (before CAS reached this habitat) to 87 individuals in January 2007.
61316		threats	eng	All plants were removed from the islands of Saipan and Tinian (Northern Mariana islands) by the Japanese during World War II. There has also been habitat loss on both Guam and Rota (Northern Mariana Islands).<br/><br/>The Cycad <span style="font-style: italic;">Aulacaspis</span> scale (an invasive from SE Asia) has caused substantial mortality. Current mortality is not necessarily a direct result of CAS. The Cycad Blue Butterfly arrived in 2005, and it spread throughout Guam within months. Moreover, several pre-existing arthropod pests that were causing minor damage to the <span style="font-style: italic;">C. micronesica</span> plants have ramped up their damage now that the cycad population is in such poor health. Many of the deaths that are occurring today are a result of epidemic longhorn beetle (<em>Dihammus marianarum</em>) stem damage. Moreover, there is an alien invasive snail (<em>Satsuma mercatorius</em>) that has begun feeding on young leaflets and is now a new threat. This newly learned feeding behaviour by a herbivore may be the result of the compromised ability of the unhealthy cycad plants to adequately synthesize the chemicals that deter herbivory.
61333		conservation	eng	We feel the following measures need to be taken to stem further losses and allow recovery for the species: <br/> <br/>1. We recommend expanding and/or modifying the network of conservation rivers designated by the government in Hokkaido to provide protection to Sakhalin taimen.  The existing network was established originally for protection of commercial species (e.g. <em>Oncorhynchus masu</em> cherry salmon and <em>O. keta</em> chum salmon), and has been expanded in recent years to protect rare salmonids.  However, a recent effort to identify prime habitat for Sakhalin taimen based on habitat modeling suggests the existing protected area network provides little protection for this species (Fukushima and Kameyama 2006).  We strongly encourage the Hokkaido government to consider extending conservation river protection to the rivers identified by Fukushima and Kameyama (2006), particularly those in the Soya peninsula that still support healthy taimen populations. <br/> <br/>2. We recommend new regulations on recreational fishing, particularly during the spawning season.  While the species has been recognized as endangered (“red book species”) in several regions (Primorye, Sakhalin and Hokkaido), the regulations triggered by these listings are not always sufficient or properly enforced (see #3).  While establishing a ban on fishing is clearly needed in some circumstances, we think establishing exemptions in certain basins would be prudent if there is sufficient evidence that the exploited populations are stable or increasing.  A key virtue of these exemptions is that the presence of recreational fishers, particularly in rivers in remote regions in the Russian part of the species range, could help deter illegal fishing practices.  Where recreational fishing is allowed, we feel there should be a set of regulations enforced, including explicit creel limits and gear restrictions to reduce release mortality.  These fish tend to become aggregated and vulnerable to heavy fishing pressure during the spring spawning season, so we feel it is especially important to enact regulations during this critical period in their life history. <br/> <br/>3. We recommend increased enforcement of existing fishing regulations in the Russian part of the species range.  Recent observations by research scientists have revealed illegal fishing operations, and much of the take, beginning in the 1980s and continuing to present, have gone unreported.  Our observations have indicated that fisheries officers that are hired to enforce existing regulations have been ineffectual, largely due to a lack of presence on the rivers, particularly during the critical spawning period.  We recommend increased vigilance to enforce fishing regulations intended to protect the species. <br/> <br/>4. We recommend investigating the role of habitat and population fragmentation, particularly in Japan.  Habitat fragmentation has been most widespread in Hokkaido, and we encourage actions that reduce and minimize further habitat loss, and restore habitat where possible.  We are aware of ten individual, local efforts in Hokkaido to raise awareness of lost and degraded taimen habitat (e.g., Obirame Restoration Group), but we feel much more can be done through a broader scale assessment of salmonid species diversity, threats, and cumulative aquatic habitat loss across Hokkaido.  A formal investigation by key public agencies into how to better balance flood plain development with conservation of rare species is critically important.  A key step has recently been taken to form the Committee of Critically Endangered Species (CCES) by the Hokkaido government, and we encourage this group to focus on habitat related issues involving conservation of Sakhalin taimen. <br/> <br/>5. We recommend formulating and enforcing best practices for infrastructure development, particularly related to resource extractive industries.  While much of the habitat for Sakhalin taimen in Russia is intact, there are a number of threats that exist.  Logging, road construction and pipeline development present threats to spawning habitat, in the form of increased bank instability, leading to accelerated erosion and sedimentation.  Road construction also leads to increased illegal fishing activities by providing easier access to rivers.  Sound best practices (e.g., riparian buffers, pipeline river crossings, culvert designs) need to be established and enforced to reduce erosion and allow unimpeded movement of fish throughout the watershed. <br/> <br/>6. While there has been some preliminary efforts in both Japan and Russia at captive breeding for the species, we feel these activities should proceed with great caution.  Inter-basin transplants could contribute to loss of locally adapted gene complexes.  We encourage basic research on the degree of geneflow that exists between river populations to understand phylogeographic patterns that could help guide future reintroductions.  Although there is some evidence that captive propagation can help reduce short-term extinction risk for critically endangered species, there is virtually no empirical evidence to indicate whether propagation can promote long-term sustainability.  Therefore, captive propagation efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. <br/> <br/>7. Finally, given the myriad threats to the species, it's dramatic rate of decline, and it's cross border, limited distribution,  we feel it is important to establish an intergovernmental working group to consider formally our proposed conservation actions and draft an implementation plan to conserve the species.
61333		distribution	eng	Russia and Japan (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF). Current distribution of Sakhalin taimen extends from approximately 43° N to 53° N latitude and 135° W and 145° W longitude.  The Sakhalin taimen is restricted to the Russian Far East region including Primorye, Khabarovsk, and Sakhalin and Kuril Islands, and in Hokkaido, Japan. <br/> <br/>We conducted a thorough investigation of the natural range of the species through contacts with experts familiar with Sakhalin taimen distribution.  We would particularly like to identify the following individuals for providing input into this process: Dr. Sergei Zolotukhin (TINRO), Dr. Anatoly Semenchenko (TINRO), Mr. Sergei Makeev (Sakhalin Wild Nature Fund), Dr. S. N. Safranov (Sakhalin State University), and Dr. Michio Fukushima (JMOE). <br/> <br/>We relied on the stream network developed in ArcGIS based on the Digital Chart of the World, based on a resolution of 1:1,000,000 (ESRI 1992). We generated a convex polygon that contained all the rivers known to support the species currently.  The estimate of area delineated by this polygon is 332,153 km², excluding marine waters greater than 1 km offshore. We estimated the area of occupancy based on the sum of the individual basin areas that support the species, and marine waters extending 1 km offshore. Our estimate for the area of occupancy is 233,498 km². We assumed in both cases that the area is continuing to decline, but the species does not exhibit extreme fluctuations.
61333		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat for juvenile Sakhalin taimen is low gradient, coastal rivers (Fukushima 2000), and habitat for maturing and mature adults can extend into first and second order tributaries for spawning and lake and estuarine waters for feeding (Kawamura <em>et al</em>. 1983, Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Arai <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Females construct redds (i.e. nests) at the lower ends of pools, where eggs are deposited into discrete egg pockets in benthic gravel (Fukushima 1994, Edo <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Data suggests that the density of Sakhalin taimen redds is positively correlated with channel sinuosity (Fukushima 2000).  Some populations on Hokkaido are thought to be restricted to freshwater, possibly related to their position near the southern limit of their range, as has been observed for <em>Salvelinus</em> spp. (e.g., Maekawa and Nakano 2002, Morita <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The species is known to exhibit both freshwater and anadromous life histories.  The species is long lived, slow growing and exhibits delayed age at maturity relative to other salmonids.  The species is iteroparous (i.e. repeat spawns), and reaches sexual maturity at ages 6–8, and achieves peak fecundity at approximately age 15 (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000).  The species spawns during the spring to early summer, depending on location within their natural range.  Peak spawning occurs during May-June along the Sea of Japan coast (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000), late June in Sakhalin (Gritsenko <em>et al</em>. 1974), and mid-March to late April in eastern to northern Hokkaido (Kimura 1966, Fukushima 1994).  Anadromous life history forms are thought to reside in estuarine waters during the summer growing season, and overwinter in lower reaches of rivers beginning in mid-September to late October (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Diet is dominated by benthic invertebrates during years 1–2, followed by a transition to finfish and crustaceans as they mature.  We fit a von Bertalanffy growth model to size at age data for taimen sampled in the following rivers: Kievka and Samarga in Primorye, Russia, Koppi in Khabarovsk, Russia, and several rivers in eastern Hokkaido, Japan.  Data for Kievka and Samarga are obtained from Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. (2000), data from eastern Hokkaido populations are from Yamashiro (1965), and data for the Koppi was obtained from field collections during 2000-2002 (N = 131 individuals, ranging in age from 1 to 16 yr, S. Zolotukhin, TINRO, unpubl. data).  We fit the equation with Microsoft Excel Solver and estimated best fit parameters for the model (see Figure 2 in the attached PDF).  The parameters fit to the Koppi data set, representing our most comprehensive data set on size at age, are as follows: Linf (asymptotic length) = 227 cm TL (TL = total length), K (growth coefficient) = 0.07.  Data in Figure 2 are plotted as FL (fork length, also known as AC in Russia), and values were converted to TL for model fitting using a length conversion equation of TL = 1.032*FL, Froese and Pauly 2005).  Parameters for the other Russian populations were similar to the results for the Koppi.  Growth for taimen in eastern Hokkaido appeared markedly lower than the Russian populations, and may be related to colder water temperatures characteristic of this region (M. Fukushima, pers. comm., see Figure 2 in the attached PDF).  Growth rates observed for Sakhalin taimen inhabiting a brackish lagoon near the mouth of the Bekanbeushi River in eastern Hokkaido by Kawamura <em>et al</em>. (1983) is relatively low compared to the Russian populations, and is consistent with rates measured by Yamashiro (1965) within the same region.  We compared these growth trajectories qualitatively to size at age based on scale back-calculations for 5 adults from Hokkaido's Shiribetsu River in western Hokkaido (H. Kawamura, Hokkaido Fish Hatchery, unpubl. data).  Although the method used to generate this growth curve is not directly comparable to the methods applied to the other river populations, the general trajectory of growth for Shiribetsu taimen closely approximates growth for the faster growing, Russian populations.  We decided to use the data from the Koppi River as the model for growth dynamics for the species given it is the largest set of data available, while acknowledging that it may not fully represent growth dynamics across the natural range of the species (particularly in eastern Hokkaido, as described above).  Based on the parameter values derived for the Koppi River taimen, and assuming an average annual water temperature in the lower Koppi River of 10° C, we used the model of Pauly (1980) to estimate a rate of natural mortality (M) for the species of 0.11.  We used this estimate of natural mortality to estimate L<sub>opt</sub> (144 cm TL, the length class with the highest biomass for an unfished population) using the model of Beverton (1992).  We then used the estimate of Lopt  and the parameters from the von Bertalanffy growth model in the following formula to estimate generation time: -1.45 - ln(1- L<sub>opt</sub>/L<subinf</sub>)/K.  The resulting estimate for generation time was 14 yr.
61333		population	eng	Very little data exists on absolute population sizes for this species.  Redd surveys have been conducted in a number of river systems in Hokkaido.  This method is prone to error (see Dunham <em>et al</em>. 2001); however, it is the most commonly used method for enumerating adult abundance in this region.  Estimates of total abundance generated from a redd survey by Edo (2001) for a number of Hokkaido rivers are as follows: Sorachi, 211; Uryu, 264; Bekanbeushi, 306; Toikanbetsu, 422; Kushiro, 21; Tokachi, 21; Shiribetsu, 0.  We used data in Fukushima (1994) to estimate total spawner abundance of 153 individuals within two tributaries (Nino and Jyugo Creeks) of the Sarufutsu River in northwestern Hokkaido (assuming 2 redds per female and a 50:50 sex ratio) based on sampling conducted during 1992.  To generate a Hokkaido-wide population estimate, we divided these population estimates by the total river km for each sampled river segment based on our ArcGIS stream coverage.  This generated an average of 2.7 adult taimen km<sup>-1</sup> (see Table 1 in the attached PDF).  This density was used to estimate spawning abundance in river basins where we lack data.  We excluded those rivers whose populations have been extirpated (Kubo 1990; Harako 1991).  We estimated abundance of the regional population by adding the abundance of taimen in those basins where we have quantitative data to the estimated values of  abundance predicted across the rest of the range by multiplying total river km in each basin by the density estimate of 2.7 taimen km<sup>-1</sup>.  This resulted in a value of 5,068 adults for the Hokkaido population (see Table 1 in the attached PDF). <br/> <br/>We relied on best expert judgment, and consideration of the magnitude of bycatch of taimen in the commercial salmon fishery, to gauge levels of abundance for taimen in the Russian portion of the species range.  Ranges of abundance were provided for 10 rivers along the Sea of Japan coast (1-100,101-1000,1001-10000 adults per basin), and 61 rivers on Sakhalin (1-50, 51-100, 101-1000 adults per basin).  Because ranges were provided in this case, we estimated densities by basin (2.9-29.6 taimen km<sup>-1</sup>, see Table 1 in the attached PDF) using the low and high value in each abundance strata.  We assumed the density range estimated for Sakhalin applied to the Kuril Islands portion of the species range.  Populations in five basins on Sakhalin Island are presently considered extirpated.  To arrive at a total population for each region, we summed the population estimates (both low and high values in each strata) for the rivers where we had estimates, and extrapolated abundances based on total stream km in basins where we lack data.  Our estimates for total population by region are as follows: Primorye: 2,796-28,323 adults, Khabarovsk: 3,351-33,520 adults, and Sakhalin (including Kuril Islands): 1,591-12,024 (see Table 1).  The historic peaks of bycatch landings in the time series (Khabarovsk at ~ 4,000 adults yr<sup>-1</sup> and Sakhalin at ~3,000 adults yr<sup>-1</sup>, estimated by converting landed biomass to adult numbers assuming average weight of landed adult at ~ 5kg) fall within the range of abundances estimated here.
61333		threats	eng	Overfishing by various sectors (commercial, recreational, and illegal take) is one of the most important threats to this species.  Although Sakhalin taimen are no longer commercially harvested in Russia, they are still targets of legal and illegal subsistence fishing as they are prized for their large size and good flavor (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000).  While reporting of taimen bycatch in the commercial pink salmon fishery in Russia has declined in recent years, we feel this is a result of under-reporting and a general decline in region-wide abundance of the species in recent years.  These populations are also under threat from dramatic changes to their habitat expected from planned logging operations.  An expanded logging lease in the Samarga River basin, for example, extends now to 85% of the total watershed area, with construction of roads that could greatly impact many key tributaries.  Rapidly expanding oil and gas development on Sakhalin Island, in particular the laying of pipelines across more than 24 rivers known to support Sakhalin taimen, is posing a growing threat to the species.  In Japan, land development (including river channelization, dam construction, agricultural and urban expansion) represents an important threat to critical habitat for the species.  The threat from poaching in Russia, while hard to quantify, may currently be one of the most significant threats to the species.  During a research trip in 2005, two active poaching camps were discovered, and five dead, adult taimen were recovered that had been captured using illegal fishing gear.  Four of these individuals were mature females carrying as many as 15,000 eggs each (P.S. Rand, WSC unpubl. data).  During spring peak flows, spawners tend to aggregate in side channels off the main stem of the river, and become vulnerable to capture by large mesh gill nets.  Our estimate of fishing mortality in the river, although uncertain given the lack of data, suggests a relatively high rate of exploitation (~ two times the rate of natural mortality).  Sustainable fishing rates on wild fish populations rarely exceed the rate of natural mortality.  FAO (1999) recommends a precautionary approach in data poor fisheries by restricting fishing mortality to below the rate of natural mortality.
61334		conservation	eng	There are no known regulations for this species. <br/> <br/>This species was listed as a Grade II State Protected Species in the Peoples Republic of China since 1989. Thus it is protected and its exploitation should be limited and regulated by Chinese authorities under the legislations in China. In 2005, the Chinese government designated a protected area in the Pearl River estuary to help protect this species.
61334		distribution	eng	The species occurs only within China from the Yangtze River southwards to Hong Kong (Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Fowler 1972, Trevwavas 1977, Cheng 1989, Wu 1991). Catches are reported from the mouths of major estuaries that the species enters seasonally to spawn in large aggregations; the Yangtze River, Zhoushan Is., Min River, and the Pearl River from Hong Kong up to Taiping. (For a distribution map see Figure 1 in the attached PDF).
61334		habitat	eng	The Chinese bahaba is one of the largest of all croakers (Sciaenidae) and has a limited geographical distribution. It can attain 2 m and exceed 100 kg (Lin 1939, Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Anderson 1972, Trewavas 1977). Based on catch information, the fish are reported from mouths of major estuaries along its distribution that it enters seasonally to spawn in large aggregations. Greatest catches were taken in the weeks prior to full and new moons with up to 300 fish taken in a season in Hong Kong in the past; now only the occasional small fish is taken. <br/> <br/>The fish feed on shrimp, crab and other crustaceans. Feeding habit has been suggested to be seasonal, with mainly shrimp from December to May, mudskipper from June to August and lizard fish from September to November (Lu and Ye 2002). Sexual maturation occurs at about 13 kg and 35–40 cm total length (Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Wu 1991). Seasonally, the ovary develops from early December with <0.5% body weight, through late December (0– 5%), and become ripe in April (3–11%) when spawning takes place (Lu and Ye 2002).  After spawning, adults move out to deeper waters and juveniles may be found in estuarine and coastal areas. <br/> <br/>In the Pearl River estuary, the Chinese bahaba is suggested to still spawn around Xiqiyang, Dongguan (Lu and Ye 2002). This view is based on the perception of the fishermen, the high rate of spawned individuals and the believed suitable environment around the area (Le and Ye 2002).
61334		population	eng	No abundance, population or official catch data are available or collected. <br/> <br/>Catches were highly seasonal, during summer and autumn to north, and November-April to the south in Guangdong Province especially around rocky islands (Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963). In Hong Kong, estimated annual landing was 50 tonnes in late 1930s. The catch dropped dramatically to approximately 10 tonnes by the 1950s and 1960s, with most fish relatively small (12 to 40 kg) and rare large individuals (>80 kg) were found (Lin 1939). By the 1990s, only small fish (<30 kg) were taken sporadically, and large individuals (>50 kg) had become rare (Sadovy and Cheung 2003). <br/> <br/>In waters around Dongguan at the Pearl River delta, landings in 1950–1960s were estimated around 180–210 tons [<strong>note - this appears to be very high compared to other estimates and trends</strong>] (Lu and Ye 2002). In the 1980s, there is no estimate of landing data available. A trawl fishing survey, however, was conducted in 1981–1982. The Chinese bahaba represented 9% weight of the total catch, and 0.7% in terms of abundance. Size of the catch ranged from 55 to 617 mm (TL), mean 187 mm, showed that the smaller individuals dominated the catch. While in 2000s, the catch was estimated to be around 2.5 tons, based on the survey on illegal fishing and trading. <br/> <br/>Similar patterns were noted in other parts of its geographic distribution after the 1960s; prior to 1980s, total PRC (mainland China) landings (not including Hong Kong) did not exceed 10–20 tonnes annually (Hui 1987), with 5–6 tonnes in Zhejiang Province (Wu 2001) in 1950s and 1960s. Early catch data for Min River were not available but 80 large fish a year were not uncommon (Sadovy and Cheung 2003): this information comes from a review of the Chinese literature and interviews with fishermen.
61334		threats	eng	The species was threatened by heavy fishing pressure due to its vulnerable biological characters, large size, restricted geographic range and aggregating behaviour in and around estuaries often involving sound production that makes individuals particularly easy to find. It was also heavily targeted due to its high value which increased as it became rarer. <br/> <br/>Although listed under Grade II State Protection, the Chinese bahaba is caught and sold illegally. It is estimated that there are about 30 fleets operating around the Pearl River estuary targeting on the species (Lu and Ye 2002), annual catch is over 2,500 kg. Because of the high value of a single fish, fishing continues even though population numbers are very low.
61335		conservation	eng	No known action has been taken.
61335		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Western Pacific: southern Japan, Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, and the China seas (Fishbase 2005, Academia Sinica Institute of Zoology 1962). In Taiwan, the fish is abundant in northern and eastern waters (Shao 2005). <br/> <br/>In the Sea of Japan known from Pusan, Toyama Bay, Sado Island, and the Sanin area. On the Pacific coast of Japan from Tokyo southward China seas. (Lindberg and Orlans 1967). <br/> <br/>See Figure 1 in attached PDF for range map.
61335		habitat	eng	<em>C. azurio</em> generally inhabitats coral or rocky reef areas. The fish has been observed foraging over rocky reefs to depth of 17 m in Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). In China and Japan, the fish was reported to hide in reef crevices, and may inhabit fairly deep coastal waters around the rocky area (Chu 1984, Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1980, Shen 1984). <br/> <br/>Depth range was reported to be minimum 20 m and more common in 35 to 50 m rocky or coral reef in Taiwan (Li 1995), while 10 to 50 m was reported in Japan (Masuda 1994). <br/> <br/>The maximum size of <em>C. azurio</em> is TL 40 cm (Shao <em>et al</em>. 1996), with fork length under 250 mm were all females; but over 250 mm, males became dominant (Shung 1995). The common size is TL 20-30cm (Chu 1984). Age determination was made by means of scale reading. Judging from the deduction of the monthly change of marginal increment, the annulus is formed once a year during the period of October–December. Age length and age growth equation can be found in Shung (1995). <br/> <br/><em>C. azurio</em> is protogynous, i.e. changes sex from female to male when they attain a certain size. Study in Japan showed that fish of 285 mm (SL) and larger were males and those smaller were females (Nakazono and Kusen 1991). Spawning was reported to take place around Jung (Masuda<em> et al</em>. 1980, Lindberg and Orlans 1967). <br/> <br/>It is a carnivore and preys on benthic crustaceans, small fishes and invertebrates, especially small gastropods (Shao <em>et al</em>. 1996, Chu 1984). During feeding, it swallows the whole gastropod, then digests its soft parts and excretes an undamaged shell (Li 1995). <br/> <br/>In Taiwan, <em>C. azurio</em> does not exhibit seasonal dimorphism. There are two different phenotypes, pink is more common while dark red is rear (Li 1995).
61335		population	eng	An otter trawl survey was conducted by Dr Kwang-Tsao Shao (Kwang-Tsao Shao pers comm. 2004.) in which only one specimen of <em>C. azurio</em> was caught from the depth of 30 m off the Miaoli County, northwestern Taiwan. This provided an estimate of density of 0.18 kg per square kilometer, and the specimen was 11.87 gram weight. The above statistics are under estimated because bottom trawl could not harvest in reef areas where these species prefer to stay. <br/> <br/>Records in markets and restaurant are occasional in both Hong Kong and Taiwan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Kwang-Tsao Shao pers. comm. 2004). <br/> <br/>Reasonably abundant in some areas of the Lamma islands (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>As there is no abundance, trend or fisheries data available hence the population status and abundance cannot be inferred from the insufficient data. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time 1.4 – 4.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).
61335		threats	eng	Most probably threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction. This species is a popular target of spearfishers and an excellent food fish (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
61336		conservation	eng	<em>E. awoara</em> occurs in the Cape d’Aguilar Marine Reserve (southeast Hong Kong island), and on no-take artificial reefs in Hong Kong, but these areas are likely to be too small to support viable reproductive populations (A. Cornish pers. comm. 2005), and the artificial reefs are still fished. <br/> <br/>No species-specific management or conservation action has been taken. <br/> <br/>From 1985/6, <em>E. awoara</em> seed was increasingly used and it has become the major species. However, in the last couple of years, less <em>E. awoara</em> is reported and traders suggest that this might be due to enforced closures of the South China Sea fishery (Sadovy 2000). During June and July each year, no trawling is permitted inshore in mainland Chinese waters (these do not include Hong Kong waters). <br/> <br/>Large scale culture (grow out) of captured fry is taking place in South China, including Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang provinces, Hainan and Hong Kong, occasionally in Quang Ninh province, and in Viet Nam. It is an important species of wild seed caught in southern China (mainly Fujian and Xiamen). Some <em>E. awoara</em> seeds are/were also collected in Hong Kong in limited amounts (Sadovy 2000). <br/> <br/>A hatchery in Zhejiang province reported production of <em>E. awoara</em> of at least 80,000 seeds per year and at a Daya Bay facility, NE of Hong Kong, there is active research on <em>E. awoara</em> with natural spawning in 1998. It is not known how much of the seed production comes from hatchery production or from the wild (grow out of wild-caught fish does not count as true mariculture since the juveniles still come form the wild and are, therefore, part of a juvenile fishery) (Sadovy and Lau 2002).
61336		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus awoara</span> is a marine species that occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, including North and South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, Viet Nam, and islands in the South China Sea (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and Indian Ocean (Chen 1997, Zhu 1998).<br/><br/>In China, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. awoara</span> can be found in the South China Sea only, along the Guangdong coastline and Daya Bay (Institute of Oceanology Academia Sinica 1991).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. awoara</span> is rare in the coastal waters of the Pacific but very common in the Sea of Japan (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980), and south of Toyko (Nakabo 2000). In the sea of Japan it is known from Pusan, Toyama Bay, Niigata, and in the Sanin area. On the Pacific coast of Japan it occurs from Tokyo to Nagasaki and also around Ryukyu Island. It can be found all around Taiwan (Lindberg and Orlans 1967, Shao 2005).<br/><br/>The species is caught occasionally in Ha Long Bay and Me Island of Thanh Hoa province (central Viet Nam) (Sadovy 2000).
61336		habitat	eng	<em>E. awoara</em> can be found in rocky areas and sandy-mud bottoms. Juveniles are common in tide pools and adults are caught in depths of 10–50 m. In captivity, <em>E. awoara</em> is an aggressive fish, spending much of its time chasing and biting other fishes, especially conspecifics (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is very common in rocky areas and coral reefs in littoral or sublittoral area of Taiwan (Shen 1984). <br/> <br/><em>E. awoara</em> feeds on shrimp and other fishes (Zhu 1998). Massive <em>E. awoara</em> can be caught in Fujian annually between April and November and live fishes are sold to Hong Kong and Macau. <em>E. awoara</em> has the highest yield among Fujian groupers with high commercial value (Chu 1984). It is also a common commercial fish in Guangdong (China), Taiwan, and  Japan. <br/> <br/>In Hong Kong, <em>E. awoara</em> is categorized as moderately abundant (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The fish is one of the four most common inter-tidal groupers in eastern Hong Kong waters, but in the field it is evidently not frequently seen (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>The fish is cultured in both Hong Kong and Taiwan (Shao <em>et al</em>., 1996). Eggs of <em>E. awoara</em> have been artificially fertilized by Zhang and Li (1988) (as cited by Cheung 1998), and the longest survival time for the larvae was 15 days (Randall and Heemstra 1991). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction:</strong> <br/><em>E. awoara</em> is protogynous, i.e. changes sex from female to male when they grow to certain size. Spawning season lasts from March to May in Hong Kong (Liu 1971) and June to July in Taiwan (Shao 2005). Size of sexual maturation is attained at 160 mm (TL), size at sex change 220–320 mm (TL), maximum size 610 mm (TL), while the mean market size is 155 mm (Y. Sadovy pers. comm. 1999). <br/> <br/>Optimum water temperature for mature individuals to spawn is 23.2 to 23.4° C at salinity 20–34 ppt. <em>E. awoara</em> spawn in Taiwan from June to July during evening 6–8 pm. Fertilized eggs hatch after around 27 hours (Shao 2005). <br/> <br/><em>E. awoara</em> is a determinate spawner with a group-synchronous type of ovarian development pattern. Total annual potential fecundity was estimated to range from 55,200 to 1,146,400 oocytes for a fish of standard length from 161 to 315 mm. Relative fecundity was estimated to range from 432 oocytes to 1,017 oocytes, with body weight ranging from 136 g to 1,479 g. The minimum annual spawning frequency was two. Early yolked oocytes formed would probably be reabsorbed after spawning (Cheung 1998). <br/> <br/>Potential annual fecundity of <em>E. awoara</em> exhibited a logarithmic relationship with standard length: F=22.95L<sup>2.84</sup> where F is potential annual fecundity and L is standard length of <em>E. awoara</em>. A straight-line relationship was also found between potential annual fecundity and fish body weight. The regression equation of this relationship was found to be F= 733.14 W-37260 where F is potential annual fecundity and W is fresh body weight of <em>E. awoara</em>. There was no relationship between relative fecundity and either standard length or body weight (Cheung 1998). <br/> <br/>Local market survey in Hong Kong (2004–2005) showed that live individuals of <em>E. awoara</em> sold in the market ranged from <99.5 mm to >400 mm, with the most common (70%) sizes from 150–250: most of the fish were reported caught from local waters (A. To pers. comm. 2005), although sources could not be determined and wet market data suggest that many <em>E. awoara</em> are not from local Hong Kong waters (Situ and Sadovy 1004). Of the 19 or so groupers sampled in the market, the Yellow Grouper was in the top third in terms of frequency of observation. <br/> <br/>Data on size and age of sexual maturity and on fisheries landings outside Hong Kong, or from non-Hong Kong waters, are not available.
61336		population	eng	An otter trawl survey conducted by Dr. Kwang-Tsao Shao around Taiwan (K.-T. Shao pers comm. 2004) showed that <em>E. awoara</em> was distributed from the 10 to 50 m depth off the Miaoli County, northwestern Taiwan. The density was 1.32 kg per square kilometer in this area. Nine of ten specimens were smaller than 100 g. The above density is an under estimate because the bottom trawl could not harvest in the reef areas which this species prefers to inhabit. <br/> <br/>In Hong Kong, catch data were collected by a questionnaire survey with local fishermen in 1996/97; annual catch of <em>E. awoara</em> by weight was estimated to be 9 metric tons for all fishermen in all Hong Kong waters (AFD 1998); the survey was repeated in 2001/2002 and the annual catch was about 10.5 metric tons (AFCD 2004). About 30% of the local fishermen were interviewed and the total annual catch calculated by factoring up their responses. <br/> <br/>The population status or abundance cannot be inferred from insufficient data. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time 4.5 to 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).
61336		threats	eng	<em>E. awoara</em> is a valuable food fish, which is caught with trawl or hook-and-line (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1980). <br/> <br/>Overfishing of grouper adults and juveniles, habitat damage and loss from bottom trawling, pollution, high demand for food are the main threats to <em>E. awoara</em>.
61337		conservation	eng	<strong>Protection measures taken:</strong> <br/>1). Totally Protected Species in NSW waters (since 1983) (Australia). <br/>2). Listed as a Vulnerable Species in NSW under the NSW Fisheries Management Act 1994 since 1999 (Australia). <br/>3). Listed under section 15 of the Commonwealth Fisheries Management Act 1991, making its take in fishing operations under that Act illegal unless covered by a scientific permit (Australia). <br/>4). Totally Protected Species in the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve (New Zealand). <br/>5). Australian Society for Fish Biology Threatened Fishes Committee Listings: 1988–1989 - Requiring investigation of its status;1990–1999 - Potentially Threatened (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Australian and New Zealand Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002):</strong> <br/>Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (southern section Qld, Australia) <br/>Cook Island Aquatic Reserve (off Tweed Heads, northern NSW, Australia) <br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve (off Byron Bay, northern NSW, Australia) <br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park (northern NSW, Australia) <br/>Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve (Tasman Sea, Australia) <br/>Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Tasman Sea, Australia) <br/>Kermadec Islands and Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserves (New Zealand) <br/> <br/><strong>Reserves within its range where <em>E. daemelii</em> probably occurs:</strong> <br/>Norfolk Island Marine Reserve/Park (Tasman Sea) (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).
61337		distribution	eng	Black Cod are known to occur in warm temperate and subtropical waters of the South-western Pacific Ocean. In Australia, the species' range extends from south Queensland to Kangaroo Island off South Australia (however, the South Australian record probably represents only a straggler or expatriate fish from the east coast). The species has been reported from northern Bass Strait waters but has not been sighted along the coast of Tasmania. Black Cod are found along the entire New South Wales coast and are most common in waters off northern New South Wales. A few individuals have been recorded from southern Queensland waters (e.g., off Flinders Reed), however, they are considered to be uncommon in the waters of Queensland (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Black Cod were found to be common around Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs (near Lord Howe Island), two offshore reefs in Australian Commonwealth waters in the northern Tasman Sea (Leadbitter 1992, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004; Oxley <em>et al</em>. 2004). Black Cod are also found in the northern parts of New Zealand, and Francis (1993) noted this species to be particularly common around Kermadec Island and also common at Three Kings Island, though it is generally rare elsewhere in New Zealand (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Juvenile specimens have been collected as far south as Hawka Bay in Australia, at 0 to10 or 30 m depth. Although immature specimens occasionally range as far south as Cook Strait and one has been recorded from off Westland, they are rare south of East Cape. Juveniles are also known from New South Wales in Australia and Norfolk, Lord Howe and the Kermadec Islands (Paulin and Roberts 1992).
61337		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> <br/>Black Cod are known to occur in caves, gutters and on rocky reefs from near shore to depths of as least 50 metres. In 2003, a commercial fisher incidentally caught a Black Cod at a depth of 100+ metres. Smaller individuals are encountered in estuaries (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004), and recently settled juveniles can be commonly found in coastal rock pools along the NSW coastline (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004; Griffiths 2003). The Black Cod is considered to be a territorial species because each adult individual generally has its own 'hole' (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its cave usually has several alternative exits and the grouper hovers just off the bottom at the entrance, often just the snout and eyes protruding. Usually it shares its quarters with several other reef fishes like Red Moki (Doak 1978). <br/> <br/>Observations by fishermen and divers suggest that this species is slow growing and slow moving (Leadbitter 1992). Ayling and Cox (1982) noted <em>E. daemelii</em> in New Zealand "a single fish can change from one extreme of colour to the other in just a few seconds, depending on its mood and the colour of the background" (McCulloch 1922). <br/> <br/>It is hypothesized that habitat complexity may play a role in habitat selection, presenting a wide variety of structure in which Black Cod both seek refuge from danger and utilize for seeking and ambushing prey. Larger Black Cod were sighted further offshore, with smaller fish appearing to prefer the shallower waters of inshore reefs and islands (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Life history and ecology</strong> <br/>Kuiter (1993) suggested that the species is most active at dusk and during the night, and moves out of its shelter to hunt for prey. Observations by spearfishers and divers suggest that it is an opportunistic carnivore. It is generally considered to be an aggressive territorial species that may occupy a particular cave for life (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Black Cod has maximum 200 cm (TL) and the maximum published weight is 68.0 kg  (Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction</strong> <br/>Protogynous hermaphrodite, changing sex from female to male as it gets older (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Female change sex to become males at around 100–110 cm total length (Paulin and Roberts 1992). Very little research has been conducted on the reproductive biology of the Black Cod in Australian waters (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><em>E. daemelii</em> is not known to form breeding aggregations in the North Island waters of New Zealand (Stewart 1999). Observations of up to twelve fish, with reproductive status unknown in one location at a time could suggest that the Black Cod may be a relatively social fish at particular times of the year. However, it is not known whether it forms spawning aggregations at any point in its range (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Age, Growth and Longevity</strong> <br/>In Australia large adults are known to attain at least 1.5 m in total length and 81 kg (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). They have been recorded as large as 1.8 m in New Zealand, but are more usually seen there at lengths of between 40–80 cm At the Kermadec Islands, north of New Zealand, where the population has not been fished commercially, <em>E. daemelii</em> may reach 2 m in length (Paulin and Roberts 1992). There is no information available on the growth rate or longevity of the Black Cod, though it is thought to be a slow growing species typical of groupers of its size (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Diet</strong> <br/><em>E. daemelii</em> is an opportunistic carnivore (Leadbitter 1992). It is believed that adult black cod probably prey on fishes and crustaceans (McCullich 1922, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004), whilst juveniles feed on smaller crabs and smaller fish species (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Black Cod have been known to take live bait such as small scombrids and carangids where fishers are fishing in their habitats (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004).
61337		population	eng	Black Cod abundance at Elizabeth Reef was estimated at 4 cod/hectare, with no evidence of an increase or decrease in population size between surveys in 1987 and 2003, but mean size of fish showed an increase, possibly due to reduced catch effort since the 1980s. Maximum size recorded in 2003 was 150 cm. <br/> <br/>Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) report that Black Cod is rarely encountered. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/> <br/>The population status cannot be inferred from the data currently available.The species is a target of both sport and commercial fishing. But how the population is affected is not clear and natural abundance, fishing effort and catch data are lacking. Biological studies are also needed.
61337		threats	eng	The main threat to this species appears to be that of illegal fishing activities. Additionally, the Black Cod is likely to be taken in small numbers as a bycatch of commercial and recreational fishing activities in rocky shore and island habitats along the southern Qld, NSW and northern Victorian coastlines (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Impacts on juvenile Black Cod may occur due to the loss or degradation of estuarine nursery habitats (Fishnote 2002). <br/> <br/>There is some evidence that <em>E. daemelii</em> caught in deeper (50–100 m) waters of northern NSW by commercial fishers do not survive after being released at the surface, suffering severely from swim-bladder decompression or "bloat" (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Grant (1982) stated that fishermen in Australia regard this grouper as "top-grade table-fish" (cited in Randall and Heemstra 1991).
61338		conservation	eng	Under Queensland Fisheries Service (QFS) regulations the current size limits for the Greasy Grouper (<em>E. tauvina</em>) are 38 cm minimum and 100 cm maximum, whilst the current recreational in-possession limit is 5 for any <em>Epinephelus</em> species. In practice, this regulation may also apply to <em>E. malabaricus</em> since it looks similar. (See http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/11379.html for new regulations in Queensland). <br/> <br/>While many marine parks have been introduced in areas within the range of <em>E. malabaricus</em> e.g., Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines, most of these are considered to be 'paper parks' and are poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced. Only 8% of the 100,000 km² of coral reefs in SE Asia is included in marine protected areas (MPAs) and only 14% of the 646 MPAs are considered effective, hence the majority of these MPAs probably provide little protection to the species they house (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><em>E. malabaricus</em> can be maricultured and is considered as the easiest for culturing among the main species in the market in the Philippines (Anonymous 1998). Larval rearing of this species has been achieved in Thailand (Tookwinas 1989). Hatchery production of this species occurs in Taiwan. However, it is not known how much of the marketed fish in SE Asia comes from the wild (as adult or as juvenile for grow-out) and how much from hatchery-based culture.
61338		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus malabaricus</em> is found in the Indo-Pacific: Red Sea and East Africa to Tonga, north to Japan, south to Australia. It is not known from the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>A spawning aggregation is known from Prony Bay, New Caledonia (M. Kulbiki pers. comm. 2004).<br/><br/>Area of occupancy equals that of spawning aggregations although the actual area is unknown as there are undoubtedly many spawning aggregations for this species that are presently unknown.
61338		habitat	eng	A common species found in a variety of habitats: coral and rocky reefs, tidepools, estuaries, mangrove swamps and sandy/mud bottom from the shore to depths of 150 m. Juveniles are found nearshore and in estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/><em>E. malabaricus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite with sex change from female to male occurring. Sexual maturity in males does not occur until they are 114 cm length (Lau and Li 2000). This species has a very low resilience to fishing, with a minimum population doubling time more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).
61338		population	eng	All available information on population has been covered above under the Red List justification.
61338		threats	eng	<strong>Fishing pressure</strong> <br/>Fishing threats include commercial and recreational line fishing, and the live reef fish trade, involving the removal of many juveniles for mariculture grow-out. <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat loss</strong> <br/>Significant decreases in mangrove area are known to have occurred in SE Asia. In Malaysia, 12% was lost from 1980 to 1990, in the Philippines mangroves have decreased by 60% (4,000 km² originally to 1,600 km² in 1997), in Viet Nam mangroves decreased by 38% (4,000 km² to 2,525 km² in 1997) while in Thailand the loss has been 54% (5,500 km² in 1961 to 2,470 km² in 1997) (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). These figures represent a loss of some 7,445 km² of mangrove, or about 9% of the SE Asian total. Other countries like Indonesia, which has the most mangroves in the world (42, 550 km²) are also known to have suffered losses (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>The primary area of occurrence is SE Asia where an estimated 56% of all reefs are at high risk due to a variety of human activities. In other areas where <em>E. malabaricus</em> occurs, the risk is not as high but still considerable, 15% in the Middle East and 25% in the Indian Ocean, also 10% in the Pacific where <em>E. malabaricus</em> is only known from a few locations (all figures from Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998).
61339		conservation	eng	Pohnpei (Micronesia): <br/>From the 1980s, the Pohnpei State Government began implementing measures to reduce fishing effort on groupers, including a partial sales ban during spawning season (March to April), but subsistence fishing on aggregations continued during the closed season, with fish being frozen until the end of the ban. Also the ban may have little overall effect since aggregation sites in close proximity to population centers can be targeted outside the ban period. In 1995, the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary was established, but the northwest boundary fell short of covering Camouflage Grouper or Brown-marbled Grouper aggregation, so fishing continued. No foreign fishing vessels are allowed and there are entry restrictions for divers at one site, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (Reef Fish Spawning Aggregations Working Group 2002). <br/> <br/>Palau: <br/>The Marine Protection Act of 1994 prohibits sale or purchase of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> from April 1 through July 31 each year, which is intended to protect spawning aggregations. In 1995 the Act was amended to prohibit any capture of these groupers even for subsistence purposes in the closed period (Johannes 1999). A four-month 'bul' (traditional taboo) is enforced in the state of Ngeremlengui, but this is not completely effective in preventing fishing on the spawning aggregations, which are said by fishermen to be much smaller than they were 10 years ago (Johannes 1999). No foreign fishing vessels are allowed and entry restriction is in place for divers at one site. The species is probably still in fair condition, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (Reef Fish Spawning Aggregations Working Group 2002). <br/> <br/>Australia: <br/>A slot size of 50–100 cm has been in place since December 2003 – see website below for Coral Reef Fin Fish Management Plan in Queensland; minimum size limits proposed for coral reef fin fish are set at a point which allows at least half of the fish in a population to reach reproductive maturity and spawn before they are available for harvest (Queensland Government 2003). <br/> <br/>Solomon Islands: <br/>A management plan for the live reef fish trade was drafted in Honiara, seeking to totally protect the spawning aggregations of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> by placing a ban on aggregation fishing for five days either side of the new moon during the three months of the year when aggregations are known to form (Donnelly 2001). The LRFFT (live reef food-fish trade) interim licence conditions were revised in 2002 (E. Oreihaka pers. comm. 2003), and a recent article in the SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin (Samoilys 2002) stated that the management plan drafted in 2001 was yet to be implemented. The most recent update is that many of the main recommendatoins of the draft plan were incorporated into a 2002 revised version of the LRFFT interim licence conditions (E. Oreihaka pers. comm. 2003): Article 22 of Law – fishing of spawning aggregations is not permitted under the licence to buy and export live fish. <br/> <br/>Saudi Arabia has succeeded in cross breeding two species of groupers, with good grow-out potential for aquaculture: <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion x E.fuscoguttatus</em> (James <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/>New Caledonia has restricted fishing during the spawning months in the area of the known spawning aggregation. This measure aims more <em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> than <em>E. polyphekadion</em> which is not at present a target species for most fishermen due to its local toxicity (M. Kulbicki pers. comm). <br/> <br/>The species has been spawned in captivity in Palau (Tamaru <em>et al</em>. 1996) but there has been no published follow-up work.
61339		distribution	eng	Found in the Indo-Pacific: Red Sea and east coast of Africa to French Polynesia. In the western Pacific it ranges from southern Japan to southern Queensland and Lord Howe Island (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Spawning aggregations are known from Palau, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Mauritius, Cook Islands, Solomon Islands, Seychelles, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, and also outside Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Australia). Aggregations probably also occur off Malaysia. <br/> <br/>For this species, which aggregates to spawn, area of occupancy could be taken as the area of all aggregation sites. This area, which will occupy < 10% extent of occurrence, is not known.
61339		habitat	eng	Usually found in coral-rich areas of lagoon and outer reefs. Most abundant around islands, particularly atolls. Usually in small schools (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It occurs at depths of 2 to 46 m (Myers 1999). <br/> <br/><strong>Biology</strong> <br/>In one study in Palau, mature females were between 301 and 470 mm fork length, mature males between 340 and 500 mm and immature fish between 239 and 286 mm, indicating sexual maturation occurred between about 290 and 300 mm fork length in Palau (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Tamaru <em>et al</em>. (1996) reported a female to male (f:m) sex ratio of 1:4 in Palau, while the female to male ratio was 2.9 in a New Caledonia lagoon (Loubens 1980). Spawning occurs between June and August. <br/> <br/>A study based in Pohnpei on reproductive biology, spawning and genetic structure of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> showed that spawning occurred at night, for several nights during the full moon period during each of several months between February and April (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002a, b). Males entered spawning sites before females and a significant proportion of the fish can be removed during one aggregation period (despite some protection, not all aggregation months are protected). Sexual maturation in 50% of females was about 270 mm SL in Pohnpei and there was no evidence for sex change in the species (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002a, b). It is possible that, in Pohnpei, there is population sub-structuring of this species (Rhodes <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Saudi Arabia has succeeded in cross breeding two species of groupers, with good grow-out potential for aquaculture: <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion x E. fuscoguttatus</em> (James <em>et al</em>. 1998).
61339		population	eng	<strong>Regional Status</strong> <br/> <br/>Pohnpei, Micronesia <br/>Camouflage Grouper has been targeted annually during aggregation periods since pre-recorded history. In 1999, local fishermen were observed to remove an estimated 4,000 pre-spawning Camouflage Grouper from the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary, Pohnpei, site within 7 days, about 20–30% of the estimated size of the total number of aggregated fish (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002a and b). Three years of monitoring <em>E. polyphekadion</em> at one aggregation site in Pohnpei revealed a decrease from about 20,000 fish in 1998 and 1999 to only about 1,000 fish in 2001. Gonadosomatic index of Camouflage grouper showed that the spawning season in 1998 included the months February, March and April, whereas in 1999 the season was a little different, extending from January to March, inclusive: this indicates that temporal closure for commercial catches of grouper from March 1 to April 30 will not necessarily cover the full aggregating period of this species. A total of 620 individuals were recorded during monitoring in three days of March 2001 at the full moon at that site (Pet <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Palau <br/><em>Plectropomus areolatus</em>, <em>Epinephelus fuscoguttatus</em> and <em>E. polyphekadion</em> dominate the commercial catch of groupers in Palau (Kitalong and Dalzell 1994). At least five grouper spawning aggregations have possibly disappeared since the 1970s in Palau according to Noah Idechong, maybe due to overfishing: one of these is mostly of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em>, lost in the 1990s. <em>P. areolatus</em>, <em>E. polyphekadion</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> used to aggregate on either side of Ebiil (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Aggregations of this species were also identified during fisher surveys by the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations with indications from fishers of declines (see newsletters on www.scrfa.org) from surveys taken in early 2000s. <br/> <br/>Indonesia <br/>Of the eight spawning aggregations identified during fishery surveys by the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA), one is stable and the rest in decline according to falling CPUE (see SCRFA database on www.scrfa.org). <br/> <br/>Australia <br/>The species has been assessed using IUCN criteria as 'Lower Risk' in Australia. It is caught with hook-and-line, spears and traps. There are size restrictions on this species in Queensland waters (Queensland Government 2003). It comprises 0.4% of the inspected catch of traditional Indonesian fishing vessels fishing around Scott and Ashmore Reefs in West Australia (Russell and Vail 1988; also see report by Nowara and Newman (2001) at http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/docs/frr/frr125/frr125.pdf). <br/> <br/>British Indian Ocean Territory <br/>Recorded to form spawning aggregations in Peros Banhos. In a nine day fishing program during the aggregation period in 2000, a total of 24,751 kg of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> was taken, during which the highest catch rate was observed in a trip returning with 747 kg of fish (consisting of 85% <em>E. polyphekadion</em>) with a CPUE of 36.4 kg/man hour. Sex ratio in spawning aggregations changes in different locations, sometimes suggesting a dramatic decrease in the number of males caught, maybe due to depletion of aggregating males (MRAG [Marine Resource and Fisheries Consultants – office London UK] observer, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Seychelles <br/><em>E. polyphekadion</em> aggregates in reef passes with <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> in southern Seychelles (see <em>Marine Conservation News</em> Volume 2 no. 2, July 2004). <br/> <br/>Maldives <br/>One of most important species in the Maldivean live fish trade (Johannes and Riepen 1995); heavily targeted in Maldives (Sluka 2001). At least one spawning aggregation site exists but its current status is unknown (Sluka 2000). <br/> <br/>Solomon Islands <br/>Aggregates to spawn. Historical live reef fish trade operations have predominantly been pulse fishing events that target seasonal spawning aggregations of serranids. Existing interviews reveal that historical fishing pressure on reef fish resources has been light, catch rates of <em>Epinephelus</em> show no decline or only slight decline over the past few decades (Hamilton 2003). See also www.scrfa.org fisher survey for PNG and Solomon Is. (For the volume of exports in 1997 see Table 1 in the attached PDF). <br/> <br/>Papua New Guinea <br/>Targeted in Papua New Guinea. Taken by hook and line, spears, traps (Heemstra and Randall 1993). In coral reefs of Milne Bay Province, occasionally recorded at depth 2–45m (Werner and Allen 1998). See also www.scrfa.org fisher survey for PNG and Solomon Is. in early 2000s. <br/> <br/>Malaysia <br/>The one spawning aggregation reported is in decline according to declining CPUE noted in fisher surveys in the early 2000s (see SCRFA database and Malaysia report on www.scrfa.org). <br/> <br/>Fiji <br/>Groupers are among the most intensively fished taxa around Kavadu Island in Fiji, in two of the fishing grounds studied, groupers accounted for 66% and 55% of yield from three families: groupers, snappers and parrotfishes, but its contribution to the biomass was 21% and 23%, indicating that groupers were heavily fished. Abundance of Camouflage Grouper (mean biomass gm<sup>-2</sup>) recorded ranged from 0.15 to 1.84 in 10 fishing grounds around Kavadu Island (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1999). A recent survey by Secretariat for the Pacific Community indicates very low densities (0.0004 fish/m²) for this species over six locations. The average size was 33 cm FL. Of the nine aggregations for this species identified, seven are in decline judging by declining CPUE in SCRFA fisher interviews (see database www.scrfa.org, and newsletter). When one aggregation was first fished in 1985, four fishers got about 300 kg and by mid 1990s, four fishers got about 100 kg and by 2002–3, four fishers got about 12–20 fish between them from the aggregations, as their best catches (this CPUE is catch per trip). <br/> <br/>Tonga <br/>Density of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> was recorded as 0.0006 per m² and biomass of 0.1795 gm<sup>-2</sup> in UVC counts of shallow water reef fishes in Tongatapu Reefs in 1996 (the Secretariat of Pacific Community, pers. comm. 2003). A larger survey in 2002–2003 on Haapai, Vavau and Tongatapu indicated average sizes of 32 cm FL and densities approximatively ten times lower (0.000063 fish/m²) than in 1996. <br/> <br/>Cook Islands <br/>Fishermen target an annual spawning aggregation, with females dominating. About 15 aluminum skiffs regularly fish Taruia Passage in Cook Islands, catch rates are usually in the vicinity of 10 to 12 fish per man hour, fish average around 1.5 kg, and generally range from 1 to 2 kg. Fishermen in general only fish for local consumption, with some minor exports from national urban centers. Anecdotal information does not suggest significant reduction in stocks caused by these fisheries to date (Passfield 1996). <br/> <br/>Tuvalu <br/>Reported to form spawning aggregation on some atolls. Fishermen in general only fish for local consumption, with some minor exports from national urban centers. Anecdotal information does not reveal any perceived significant reduction in stocks caused by these fisheries to date (Passfield 1996). <br/> <br/>American Samoa <br/>Extensive visual census of transects throughout American Samoa in 2002 recorded no <em>E. polyphekadion</em> (Rob Schroeder, Coral Reef Ecosystem Investigation, pers. comm), although the species has been reported to occur here. <br/> <br/>New Caledonia <br/><em>E. polyphekadion</em> is usually not kept by fishermen because it is too often ciguatoxic, but it is often found on the Noumea fish market despite this (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2003). Surveys (2,000 transects) indicate that this species is not common in the 0–10 m depth range (0.00009 fish/m²), but that sizes are large (41 cm FL). This species is known to aggregate for spawning in Dumbea Pass (November–December), mixed with other species of groupers, in particular <em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> (M. Kulbicki, pers. comm.). This species is known to spawn just before full moon with several other grouper species in reef passages; at the end of the spawning period, fish (particularly males) can be quite skinny and weak from not eating (Claude Chauvet pers. comm. 2005). Numbers of fish have dropped from around 4,500 in 1992 to 2,000 in 2002 at the Dumbea Pass site (C. Chauvet and E. Clua unpublished manuscript). <br/> <br/>French Polynesia <br/>A survey (510 transects) in 1996 of 10 atolls indicate that this species had a density of 0.02fish/m² and a biomass of 1.6 g/m² and an average size of 34 cm FL. However, a recent survey of Tikehau atoll (350 km²) shows that this species, which was a major component of the commercial catch in the 1980s, could no longer be observed. The fish used to group for spawning at the entrance of the pass of this atoll. The fish were caught using traditional fishing fences ("parc à poissons"; "aua" in Tahitian) (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Saudi Arabia <br/>One of the commercially important species frequently occurring along the nearest coral reef area on the southern part of the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia (Rasem <em>et al</em>. 1997).
61339		threats	eng	Commercial and recreational fishing, including the life reef fish trade, and also habitat degradation of coral reefs. <br/> <br/>Trade statistics <br/><em>E. polyphekadion</em> is one of the most commonly consumed live reef food fish in Hong Kong, the main countries of origin were the Philippines and Indonesia. A survey of the imports of 39 of the 114 companies that trade live fish with Hong Kong (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999), revealed that <em>E. polyphekadion</em> made up 5% (approx. 1,200 t) of the total annual volume of fish imported into Hong Kong for this trade. Sold in the Hong Kong live reef fish food market, the highest proportion at 35–45 cm length (Lee and Sadovy 1998). In Hong Kong, maturity size range is 31–35cm TL, and common consuming size is 33.57–52.41 cm TL (Lau and Parry- Jones 1999). The amount imported between 1999–2002 into Hong Kong is shown in Table 2 in the attached PDF.
61340		conservation	eng	Of the 19 nearshore species managed under the Nearshore Fishery Management Plan (NFMP), 16 (13 species of nearshore rockfish, California Scorpionfish, Cabezon, and Kelp Greenling) are designated as groundfish and fall under the management authority by the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC). California Sheephead, Monkeyface Prickleback, and Rock Greenling do not have ‘groundfish’ designation, and thus are not managed by the PFMC (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). This lack of PFMC management led to State of California regulations for California Sheephead and few other species (CDFG 2002). Regulations for California Sheephead tend to fall under the general nearshore fishery regulations. The commercial fishery for both trap and hook and line gear is a restricted access fishery. Permits for the live-fish trap fishery began in 1996 in southern California and a statewide Nearshore Fishery Permit began in 1999. These permits are limited to individuals who have participated in the fishery the previous year as well as meeting historical catch criteria. <br/> <br/>The Sheephead trap and hook and line fisheries reached optimal yield (OY) levels and closed early for all years beginning in 2001. According to the NFMP, "Optimum Yield" (OY) is defined in FGC section 97 (see Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004. p. 3) as the amount of fish taken in a fishery that does all of the following: (a) provides the greatest overall benefit to the people of California, particularly with respect to food production and recreational opportunities, and takes into account the protection of marine ecosystems, and (b) is the MSY of the fishery, reduced by relevant economic, social, or ecological factors, and (c) in the case of an overfished fishery, provides for rebuilding to a level consistent with producing MSY in the fishery (CDFG 2002). The 2002 OY was set to half that of total recent catches, and allocated almost 22,727 kgs more to the recreational fishery than the commercial fishery (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Size restrictions on Sheephead were fairly minimal before 1999 for both the recreational and commercial fisheries. In 1999, CDFG set the minimum catch size for the commercial fishery to 12 inches (total length) and followed with the same size limit for the recreational fishery in 2001. To further decrease commercial harvest, the minimum commercial harvest size was increased to 13 inches in 2001. Also in 2001, the 10 fish recreational bag limit was reduced to five (CDFG 2002). <br/> <br/>In 2002, the Sheephead fishery was aligned with the nearshore rockfish fishery for both the commercial and recreational fisheries (CDFG 2002). Sheephead are not to be taken commercially north of Point Conception, Santa Barbara County during March and April, and south of Point Conception during January and February. This essentially represents a seasonal closure because the bulk of landings occur south of Point Conception (CDFG 2002). Other season and area closures affecting the Sheephead fishery result from management of the nearshore fishery. In 2001, taking Sheephead deeper than 20 fathoms in a Cowcod Conservation Area was banned.
61340		distribution	eng	Occurs in the eastern Pacific. Ranges from Point Conception in California, to Guadalupe Island (off northern central Baja California) and the Gulf of California, Mexico. However, the species is rare south of Punta Abreojos, apart from a small population at Isla Santa Margarita, near Bahia Magdalena (Cowen 1985). Water current anomalies may occasionally result in larvae of this species recruiting to reefs as far north as Monterey Bay (Cowen 1985). <br/> <br/>Sheephead are found from Monterey Bay to the Gulf of California (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004) but are uncommon north of Point Conception and are much less common in the Gulf of California than along the Pacific Coast (Miller and Lea 1972). In the Channel Islands, densities of 1,475–1,525 individuals of all sizes per hectare have been observed (Davis and Anderson 1989) while another survey, which covered much of the geographic range of the species (Point Conception to Isla Santa Margarita) (Cowen 1985) reported density range between 16–290 adult fish per hectare. <br/> <br/><strong>Extent of Occurrence and Area of Occupancy Notes</strong>: <br/>Although this species is found from Point Conception (north of Santa Barbara) to Baja California and the Gulf of California, it is rare from Punta Abreojos south with the exception of Isla Santa Margarita (Cowen 1985). Suitable rocky reef area is assumed to extend 1 km offshore from land. The extent of occurrence is assumed to be the rocky reef area from Point Conception to Mazatlan at the mouth of the Gulf of California, and was calculated as 4,770–5,800 km² (5,300 +/- 10% to allow for inaccuracies in the calculations). <br/> <br/>The area of occupancy is assumed to be the rocky reef area from Point Conception to Punta Abreojos (including Isla Santa Margarita) and was calculated as 1,692–2,070 km² (1,880 km²  +/- 10% to allow for inaccuracies in the calculations). <br/> <br/>Decline in extent of occurrence or area of occupancy has not been reported for the species. The California Sheephead inhabits rocky reefs, which are assumed not to fluctuate in size or quality, or be in decline. There is also no evidence of any habitat bottlenecks that could increase the vulnerability of this species although there is a suggestion that kelp beds could be important to part of their life history (Stephens 1992).
61340		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky reefs, especially where there are kelp beds. It occurs from 0–55 m depth (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983) although around Cabo San Lucas (southern tip of Baja California) it occurs only in deeper water, 60–100 m (Cowen 1985). The fish tend to stay in the same reef and do not move around a lot, as shown by tag-recapture research (DeMartini <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Maximum age is at least 50 years (Fitch and Lavenberg 1971); such old individuals are likely to be very rare, however. The oldest fish of 276 collected from 4 unexploited populations throughout the range of the California sheephead was 21 years (Cowen 1990). Furthermore, the oldest individual of 470 fish taken off California and Mexico in the early 1970s was 20 years (Warner 1975). <br/> <br/>Growth parameters vary among populations and studies (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). The value of k ranged from 0.007 to 0.068, while estimated Lsub>inf</sub> ranged from 45.46 to 464.16 (cm fork length). The k = 0.068 and L<sub>inf</sub> = 83.86 cm (maximum length) were the best fit to the observed size and age data (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The age of sexual maturity and age of sex changeover (from female to male) shows great variation depending on location (Cowen 1990). For instance, at Santa Nicholas Island off California, the species becomes sexually mature (as females) at 5–6 years. Males did not predominate until ages 13–14. At the offshore Guadalupe Island, sexual maturity took place at 3–4 years with sexual transformation to males taking place at 5–6 years. Other locations in Mexico to the south of Guadalupe Island have populations that show ages of sexual maturity and changeover intermediate to the 2 aforementioned islands (Cowen 1990). Size of first sexual maturation varied from 12–18 cm SL in females and 18–28 cm SL in males, depending on location (Cowen 1990). <br/> <br/>Size of 50% sexual maturation is approximately 20–30 cm, and sex change occurs roughly between 25 and 35 cm (Warner 1975, Cowen 1990). <br/> <br/>In the area of Catalina Island, California, the Sheephead wrasse spawns from August to October, while sex change occurs during the winter months (Warner 1975, Cowen 1990). Individuals may spawn more than once a season. It has been estimated that females spawn approximately 86 times per year (about once every 1.3 days), batch fecundity of females is 5,755 eggs per spawning event, and there is no significant relationship between the number of eggs released per kilogram of body weight and total female body weight (average 15,000 eggs per kg) (DeMartini <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Generation time was calculated from samples of 4 relatively unexploited populations taken throughout the main area of distribution off California and Baja California (Cowen 1985). This species is protogynous, changing sex from female to male. Observed adult sex ratios in California Sheephead vary from 3:1 mature females to males to 0.8:1 (Cowen 1990). In unexploited populations, it seems likely that the females are limiting, although in exploited populations where males (as the larger animals) are targeted, males may ultimately become the limiting sex. The generation time for each location was calculated using the length frequency data for the females of the 4 populations (Figure 4 in Cowen 1990) and converting this to age frequency using the length-age relationship data (Figure 2 in Cowen 1990). Generation time, as the mean age of mature females varied from 4.1 to 8.5 years across the 4 populations, these are therefore set as the plausible limits of generation time. The mean of the 4 generation times calculated, 6.8, is assumed to be representative of the entire population and was, therefore, used as the point estimate. <br/> <br/>The species is a generalist carnivore (Cowen 1983), feeding on mussels and red sea-urchins and may play an important role in regulating prey density (see citations in Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Natural mortality is likely to be in the order of M=0.2 (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Data needed:</strong> <br/>How effectively protected is this species in designated marine reserves since MPAs are probably an important management measure for this species? <br/> <br/>It would be very useful to have recent fisheries independent data on California Sheephead stocks. At present, landings would have to decrease over a number of years with a constant or increasing fishing effort in order to recognise falling stocks. The obvious way to achieve fisheries independent data and quickly assess the state of fish stocks would be to repeat the underwater visual census work of Cowen (1985, 1990) and compare the data with his pre-intensive exploitation figures. In the meantime, changes in CPUE are likely to offer the best indications of changes in abundance. <br/> <br/>There seems to have been little work on the ecology of this species. It would be important to know if populations of Sheephead were affected by changes in environment, or habitat, such as changes in the extent and quality of kelp beds. <br/> <br/>Data from Mexico on landings and CPUE from 1976 onwards are needed.
61340		population	eng	The recreational catch for 1999 was estimated at 77,226 fish with an estimated mean weight of 2.36 pounds (personal communication from the database of the National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division, Silver Spring, MD, 2001). If it is assumed that the average weight of commercially caught fish is the same, then 54,190 (129/767 pounds / 2.36) fish were caught in 1999 giving a total of 132,136 fish caught in commercial and recreational fisheries in 1999. Since 1999 both commercial and recreational catches have fluctuated although by 2003 the combined (total) catch had declined by 20%. <br/> <br/>The maximum number of fishes in the population was calculated by the highest density of this species recorded for a site by underwater visual census (from Cowen 1985), multiplied by the area of occupancy. This seems reasonable as (1) densities were observed in the early 1980s prior to the recent increase in exploitation and (2) California Sheephead are reportedly rare outside the area of occupancy (see Extent of Occurrence and Area of Occupancy Notes above). <br/> <br/>The highest density recorded was 8.5 mature individuals (calculated from Table 2 in Cowen 1990) per 250 sq. m. The upper estimate for the area of occupancy is 2,070 sq.km. This gives an upper population size of 70,380,000. <br/> <br/>Landings data from Mexico appear to have become severely reduced between 1950 and 1976 – no further data are available. No CPUE data are available so it is not known whether effort changed over this time period. <br/> <br/><strong>Reduction Notes:</strong> <br/>The commercial fishery for California Sheephead has shown distinct phases in fishing effort and only really became a significantly commercially targeted species in the 1980s/90s (Stephens 1992, Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004) as follows: <br/> <br/>1960s: 2,150 - 12,708 kgs per year <br/>1970s: 1,393 - 5,055 kgs per year <br/>1980s: 4,130 - 110,547 kgs per year <br/>1990s: 56,031 - 166,217 kgs per year <br/>2000:  78,680 kgs per year <br/>2001:  68,130 kgs per year <br/>2002:  54,710 kgs per year <br/>2003:  48,000 kgs per year <br/> <br/>Sources: Leet <em>et al</em>. 1992; personal communication from the National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division, Silver Spring, MD, 2001; and Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004. <br/> <br/>Recreational landings data, which can equal or exceed commercial landings (Stephens 1992), are only available in numbers of fish as follows: <br/> <br/>Mean numbers of fish caught per year in recent decades were <br/>1960s: 11,541 - 52,967 fish per year <br/>1970s: 28,512 - 46,234 <br/>1980s: 21,072 - 68,972 <br/>1990s: 18,363 - 43,150 <br/> <br/>Below, recreational landings from Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004 <br/>1960s: 22,500 – 89,490 kgs per year <br/>1970s: 49,940 – 78,600 kgs per year <br/>1980s: 64,640 – 223,300 kgs per year <br/>1990s: 45,500 – 121,120 kgs per year <br/>2000:  100,090 kgs per year <br/>2001:  58,850 kgs per year <br/>2002:  60,260 kgs per year <br/>2003:  68,510 kgs per year <br/> <br/>Note that the above are landings data – there are no indications of fishing effort. <br/> <br/><strong>Population Reduction:</strong> <br/>Although variability in catches could be due to natural recruitment variation and also to changes in fishing effort; indications are that effort is likely to be increasing for commercial use and data from logbooks suggest that CPUE has declined approximately 3-fold since the 1980s (Figure 4.4.d in Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). Exploitation rate is estimated to have increased in recent history regardless of the estimate of natural mortality used (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Given that there is a fishery catching approximately 100,000 individuals of a large reef fish species that occupies a small geographic range, it seems very unlikely that the Sheephead population is expanding. At one extreme then, the population is assumed not to have changed in size (0% reduction). At the other extreme, it seems unlikely the population could have declined more than 50% overall without a marked decrease in landings in the US, something which is not apparent. The value of 50% is intuitive and is intended as an outside estimate.
61340		threats	eng	The fishery for this species, which began in at least the late 1800s (for salted fish), peaked in 1928 with landings of 370,000 pounds. This may have been as the species was easily available close to port, and the species has maintained a presence in the California nearshore fishery (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). From the 1940s to 1980s there was little interest in the Sheephead and catches were usually under 10,000 pounds. Fish are taken by trap, set net, speargun and hook and line (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The fishery greatly increased from the late 1980s to the present. At least some of the new demand is for small and live fish, usually pre-reproductive females kept live in tanks in Asian seafood restaurants, prior to being eaten (Stephens 1992). While the Sheephead population was considered stable up until the early 1990s, the targetting of these juvenile animals gives some cause for concern (Stephens 1992) as some fish, mostly females, are being taken before they have had a chance to reproduce. Such fish will be up to 12–18 cm SL, depending on where they were caught (see size of sexual maturity in Cowen 1990), and are desired as they are small enough for the restaurant tanks. The live fish fishery resulted in considerably increased landing, reaching a peak of 166,364 kgs in 1997. During this time period, the prices (adjusted for the effects of inflation) increased from 0.10US$/lb in the 1940s to over $9.00/lb in the 1990s for live fish (Stephens 2001). <br/> <br/>Recreational fish landings were higher than commercial landings in the 1980s and in 2002, the Sheephead was 13th in the recreational fishery in southern California. Large and old individuals are vulnerable to depletion by spearing since they are readily speared (CDFG 2003). <br/> <br/>As an example of growth of the high value live fish (trap and hook and line) fishery for this species, between 1989 and 1992, increased from 2–27 boats landing over 23,636 kgs of live fish (Palmer-Zwahlen <em>et al</em>. 1993 cited in Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Sheephead accounted for more than 88% of live fish landing in the developing live-fish fishery. <br/> <br/>Recruitment in southern regions of the California Sheephead geographic range appears to be primarily from northern regions as this is the primary direction of current flow (Cowen 1985). If fishing were to reduce the numbers of breeding adults in the north (i.e., the US), this could result in decreased recruitment, and therefore numbers of mature adults, in the south (i.e., Mexico).
61341		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61341		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the northern part of the Jordan river drainage area (Golan Heights and Jebel Druse) in Israel and Syria.
61341		habitat	eng	It lives in slow-flowing streams and among stones and vegetation in streams and stream pools. Spawns from April to June.
61341		population	eng	Abundant.
61341		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, dams, and the introduction of exotic fish species (<em>Gambusia</em> and carp).
61342		conservation	eng	None.
61342		distribution	eng	It is restricted to three river basins in Portugal: Arade, Algibre and Bordeira basins.
61342		habitat	eng	No data.
61342		population	eng	Quite abundant.
61342		threats	eng	Water extraction, drought and introduction of exotic fish species.
61343		conservation	eng	None.
61343		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Po river basin and coastal rivers in northern Italy. Introduced into the Arno and Ombrone river basins. It is also present in the Isonzo and Reka river basins in Slovenia. It has disappeared from several basins where it has been replaced by <em>Gobio gobio</em>. Among surveyed basins, the species is still present in few localities as in the Tagliamento river and Ombrone River where is not native, and in the Adriatic watershed of Slovenia (M. Povz pers. comm.).
61343		habitat	eng	It lives in running clear waters with gravel or sand substrates. Adults sometimes enter lakes. The type locality is Lake Garda.
61343		population	eng	Decreasing due to probable competition with the introduced <em>Gobio gobio</em>.
61343		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction, and introduction of alien species, especially <em>Gobio gobio</em>.
61344		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61344		distribution	eng	This species was initially described as being restricted to the Jordan-Dead Sea basins in Israel, Syria and Jordan. However, it may actually only occur in Damascus: the other parts of the range are likely to refer to <em>N. jordanicus</em>, <em>N. dori</em>, <em>N. pantheroides</em> and <em>N. sp.</em> (previously referred to as <em>N. tigris</em> by Banarescu (1982)).
61344		habitat	eng	No data available.
61344		population	eng	No data available.
61344		threats	eng	No data available.
61345		conservation	eng	Not relevant.
61345		distribution	eng	Formerly restricted to the Lake Skadar basin in Albania and Montenegro.
61345		habitat	eng	Lacustrine.
61345		population	eng	Extinct. Recent surveys in Montenegro by Bianco (1999) and Freyhof (2003) have failed to find it.
61345		threats	eng	Not clear.
61346		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61346		distribution	eng	It is found in the Neretva and Trebisnjica drainage in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm).
61346		habitat	eng	It lives in river systems of the karst region.
61346		population	eng	No data.
61346		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species.
61347		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61347		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Simav stream, a tributary of the Gediz River in western Anatolia, Turkey.
61347		habitat	eng	Occurs in streams.
61347		population	eng	No published data on trends, but the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat degradation.
61347		threats	eng	Water pollution (Bakac 2000) and water extraction are the main threats to the species.
61348		conservation	eng	Research is going on at present. No other conservation measures in place at present.
61348		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Jordan river basin where it occurs in the vicinity of Lake Kinneret, the Baisan valley and Lake Muzairib in Israel and Syria.
61348		habitat	eng	It lives in the shallow zone of lakes and in springs and streams where it may be found among stones or vegetation. It reproduces several times between April and July. The species is a maternal mouth-brooder.
61348		population	eng	The riverine part of the population is declining. The lake population fluctuates, depending on water levels in the lake (dependent on climatic conditions).
61348		threats	eng	Lake Kinneret has no serious threats at present. The species occurs in the littoral zone in stony areas and extreme drought conditions may pose a problem because these stony areas would be uncovered. Water extraction, pollution and drought are the main threats to the riverine part of the population and these are thought to be causing population decline in this part of the species' range.
61349		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61349		distribution	eng	Restricted to the upper part of Menderes River and to the Hotamis Lake area in Turkey. The range of this species is poorly known. Currently known from three localities, including Buyuk Menderes. Specimens are known from Hotamis-golu, marshy areas between Aksarah and Nigde.
61349		habitat	eng	No data. This may not be a riverine species, but more information is needed. Area is marshy, with small rivers/streams, pools. Total length up to 10 cm.
61349		population	eng	No data on population size, trends, etc.
61349		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution, and destruction of habitat are affecting the area, but it is not known if these are affecting the species itself. More information needed.
61350		conservation	eng	None in place.
61350		distribution	eng	Endemic to the karst area of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina where it is known from the Zrmanja, Krka and Cetina rivers. It can also establish itself in lakes and has been introduced to Lakes Blidin and Busko Blato. It has also been recorded in some small rivers in Livanjsko Polje. Its presence in Zrmanja has not been confirmed recently (M. Povz pers. comm.).
61350		habitat	eng	This species is suspected to move into the subterranean waters of karst caves in winter. Spawning lasts a month or more when temperatures reaches 20°C.
61350		population	eng	Little data but is locally abundant.
61350		threats	eng	Dams, degradation of the habitat, water pollution and water extraction.
61351		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61351		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Cikola River with extremely limited distribution. The Cikola is a tributary of the Krka river in Croatia.
61351		habitat	eng	Slow and stagnant water (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).
61351		population	eng	No data. The species was thought to be extinct but has recently been found in May 2002 (Freyhof, J. and Bogutskaya, N. pers comm).
61351		threats	eng	Drought, water extraction and pollution. (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).
61352		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61352		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Caysuyu stream, a tributary of Ceyhan river near Kayseri, Turkey.
61352		habitat	eng	Riverine species.
61352		population	eng	No data
61352		threats	eng	Water pollution (Yilmazar and Yaman 1999), water extraction, drought and the construction of a fuel pipeline are the main threats to the species.
61353		conservation	eng	Natura 2000 site.
61353		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lake Trichonis within the Acheloos River basin in western Greece.
61353		habitat	eng	Prefers sand and gravel substrates with submerged vegetation and large stones. Reproduction occurs in May–July. The maximum size for females is 50 mm and for males 61 mm.
61353		population	eng	Distributed throughout the lake.
61353		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through land reclamation, water abstraction, water pollution, and sewage.
61354		conservation	eng	None.
61354		distribution	eng	Restricted to streams and lakes of western Peloponnese, Greece. In Stymphalia lake the species is referred as the subspecies <em>moreoticus</em> (Barbieri pers comm).
61354		habitat	eng	It lives in streams (preference) and in Lake Stymphalia. It is a small size chub (< 220mm).
61354		population	eng	Stable.
61354		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, and drought.
61355		conservation	eng	No information available.
61355		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudophoxinus punicus</em> is restricted to the Wadi Kessab, Ghezala, Lendjas and El Amor in the west-northern mountainous part of Tunisia. It is found also in Algeria in the up stream areas of the Mejerdah River near Souk Ahras near the Tunisian border.
61355		habitat	eng	It is a small size fish (less than 100 mm total length) that lives in freshwater, cold streams.
61355		population	eng	The species was known to be rare in the 1980s. Only two individuals were caught in the 1990s by Doadrio. (Doadrio, I. pers. comm.). In Algeria it has become scarce also since the 1980s and is now practically absent, it is estimated that the population has declined by an estimated 80%.
61355		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are dams, groundwater extraction, drought leaving some rivers dry and agricultural pollution.
61356		conservation	eng	None.
61356		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the wadi in the mountainous Atlas in Morocco.
61356		habitat	eng	No data.
61356		population	eng	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).
61356		threats	eng	Pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.
61357		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61357		distribution	eng	Damascus and Jordan river basins, and Qishon River.
61357		habitat	eng	Found in a variety of habitats such as rivers, lakes, and small ponds. Hides among stones and vegetation. Bottom dweller. Feeds on awfuchs (everything).
61357		population	eng	Decreasing. The lake part of the population is stable, declining in the riverine areas.
61357		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, drought, pollution, and introduced alien invasive species are the main threats.
61358		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to confirm current population size. Lake Beysehir area is a national park.
61358		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one stream leading to Lake Beysehir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. The fish doesn't occur the lake itself anymore because the route is blocked by a waterfall. The stream is small: extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are both less than 10 km²
61358		habitat	eng	Occurs in one stream. An unusually large <em>Cobitis</em> species. Prefers mud and sand substrate.
61358		population	eng	The population is very small. In 1997 and 1998, Erk'akan visited the stream and the population was small. There were estimated to be fewer than 50 mature fish in 1998 (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed to confirm current population size.
61358		threats	eng	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted. There are introduced Zander in the lake and associated tributaries, but these do not enter the stream occupied by <em>C. bilseli</em>. The species is fished locally and this may be causing declines.
61359		conservation	eng	None.
61359		distribution	eng	It is restricted to Morocco, found recently in wadi Tinsift and Oum er-Rbia. It has disappeared from the lower reaches and is now very restricted to the upper area in the Atlas mountains. (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
61359		habitat	eng	No data.
61359		population	eng	No data.
61359		threats	eng	Domestic pollution.
61360		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61360		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Kirkpunar (Körpinar) stream near Tefenni in south-western Turkey.
61360		habitat	eng	A small stream species.
61360		population	eng	No data available.
61360		threats	eng	Pollution is the main threat. Also, water extraction.
61361		conservation	eng	None.
61361		distribution	eng	Restricted to the upper Vardar river basin in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
61361		habitat	eng	No data
61361		population	eng	Probably decreasing but there is no hard data.
61361		threats	eng	Future habitat loss, water abstraction, and water pollution.
61362		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61362		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Kinneret (Tiberias) Lake in Israel. The species may be also in Muzairib, a tributary of the Jordan river in Syria.
61362		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes and rivers. Spawns from March to August. It feeds on phytoplankton. It is a female mouth-brooder.
61362		population	eng	Apparently stable.
61362		threats	eng	None known at present.
61363		conservation	eng	None.
61363		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Jucar river basin in eastern Spain.
61363		habitat	eng	It lives in all river sections, but mainly in the middle reaches.
61363		population	eng	A recent 3-month study found only 10 individuals at one location in the Jucar river basin (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).
61363		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction, introduction of fish exotic predators. And <em>Chondrostoma polylepis</em>, a competitor, has been introduced.
61364		conservation	eng	None except in Slovenia where it is strictly forbidden to catch this species.
61364		distribution	eng	The natural range includes northern Italy and the Slovenian Adriatic basin. It is also present in the Zrmanja river basin in Croatia and is native to southern Switzerland (Po/Ticino drainage). It has been accidentally introduced to peninsular and Italy and Sardinia, Spain and to an area north of the Alps, and south-eastern France.
61364		habitat	eng	It lives in both standing and running waters in the lowland and hill zones with sand or mud substrates rich in vegetation.
61364		population	eng	<p>Decreasing in Slovenia (where it is totally protected) but increasing in other parts of its range. Usually widespread, common and able to exist in heavily modified and moderately polluted waterbodies.</p>
61364		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water pollution and predation by alien species.
61365		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61365		distribution	eng	Known only from Damascus.
61365		habitat	eng	Not known.
61365		population	eng	This fish is likely to now be extinct (M. Goren, pers. comm).
61365		threats	eng	Drought, pollution and water extraction may have resulted in destroying available habitat for this species.
61366		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to confirm current population size. Lake Beysehir area is a national park.
61366		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one stream leading to Lake Beysehir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. The fish doesn't enter the lake itself because the route is blocked by a waterfall. The stream is small: extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are both less than 10 km².
61366		habitat	eng	Occurs in one stream. A detritus feeder, reaching 250 mm in length. It is migratory to an extent (feeds in one area of the stream and migrates upstream to spawn in a spring).
61366		population	eng	The population is very small. In 1997 and 1998, F. Erk'akan visited the stream and the population was small. No data on actual population size, but there may have been fewer than 250 mature fish in 1998.
61366		threats	eng	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted.
61367		conservation	eng	None.
61367		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the lower course of the Orontes river in Syria and Turkey. Extinct in the Amik lake. The main lower courses of the Orontes River (River Asi in Turkey) was poisoined and nearly dried up in 1989. This left the area, once very abundant with fish, completely fishless (personal communication from local fisherman). The fish communities are localised in the tributaries where this species probably still survives (Bianco pers. comm.).
61367		habitat	eng	No data
61367		population	eng	No data.
61367		threats	eng	No data
61368		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61368		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Jordan river basin.
61368		habitat	eng	A riverine species, occurring on stony and soft bed substrates.
61368		population	eng	Decreasing.
61368		threats	eng	Pollution, water extraction, and habitat destruction are the main threats.
61369		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61369		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Orontes River basin in Syria and Turkey.
61369		habitat	eng	It is large size barbel (>500 mm)
61369		population	eng	No published information on population size and trends. However, the population is thought to be declining as a result of pollution, water extraction, dam construction and drought.
61369		threats	eng	Water extraction, pollution and drought are the main threats.
61370		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Further research is needed on range, biology, etc.
61370		distribution	eng	Endemic to one small river (Nahr al Hawaiz) in Syria in the Mediterranean coastal drainage.
61370		habitat	eng	A riverine species, dependent on zooplankton.
61370		population	eng	No data available on population size or trends.
61370		threats	eng	Pollution and water extraction are the main plausible threats to the species.
61371		conservation	eng	None.
61371		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Wadi Ksob in Morocco.
61371		habitat	eng	No data.
61371		population	eng	Locally abundant (Azeroual, A. pers comm).
61371		threats	eng	Climate change is thought to be leading to drought to all rivers south of Oum Er Rbia in Morocco (Azeroual, A. pers. comm). Urbanisation and ground water extraction. (Diadrio, I. pers. comm)
61372		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61372		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Kinneret (Tiberias) Lake in Israel. The genus is endemic to the Levant.
61372		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species. Reproduction occurs in spring (April-July): it is a paternal mouth brooder. The species feeds on zooplankton and small fish.
61372		population	eng	This species may be extinct. It was last seen in 1989/90. Since then, it has not been found (either in the lake or in local markets) in spite of attempts to find it.
61372		threats	eng	Destruction of breeding habitat (marsh area in north part of the lake) may be the reason for its apparent disappearance. The marsh area was dry in 1991, then again in mid 1990s, as a result of droughts.
61373		conservation	eng	None.
61373		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the upper part of the rivers of Morocco.
61373		habitat	eng	No data.
61373		population	eng	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
61373		threats	eng	No data.
61374		conservation	eng	None.
61374		distribution	eng	Restricted to the River Evrotas and the upper part of River Alphios in the Peloponnese in Greece.
61374		habitat	eng	Lives in springs and spring-fed creeks and in the mainstream and headwaters of rivers. It reproduces from mid-March to June
61374		population	eng	Decreasing.
61374		threats	eng	Water extraction and pollution, and habitat destruction.
61375		conservation	eng	None.
61375		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
61375		habitat	eng	No data.
61375		population	eng	No data.
61375		threats	eng	No data.
61376		conservation	eng	None.
61376		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Draa river system in the Sub-Saharan zone in Morocco.
61376		habitat	eng	No data.
61376		population	eng	Found to be locally abundant (Azeroual, A. & Doadrio, I. pers. comm).
61376		threats	eng	Climate change is causing drought in all rivers south of the Oum Er Rbia (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).
61377		conservation	eng	None.
61377		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Moraca and Bijeli Drim river basins in Montenegro. It is also described in Skada lake in Albania (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).
61377		habitat	eng	It survives in rivers and lakes.
61377		population	eng	Apparently safe.
61377		threats	eng	Introduced species. Water extraction and pollution.
61378		conservation	eng	No information.
61378		distribution	eng	From Vardar to Pinios drainages (Greece, Macedonia).
61378		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Main course of large rivers and main tributaries, in relatively deep water, with sand bottom and near riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June, sometimes as late as August.
61378		population	eng	No information.
61378		threats	eng	Pollution, water abstraction, dam construction (reduced flow, reduced current and sedimentation).
61379		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61379		distribution	eng	It is only found at a very small karstic stream, Stanicka Jaruga in Croatia (Cikola River). There are historical records from Zagorska Dreznica, Dobra and Mreznica drainages (not confirmed) (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).
61379		habitat	eng	Lives in karstic streams.
61379		population	eng	No data.
61379		threats	eng	Water extraction, introduced species (trout).
61380		conservation	eng	None apart from the general Greek fishing law which is not enforced.
61380		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Axios and Pinios river basins in Greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and the Loudias and Aliakmon river basins in Greece.
61380		habitat	eng	It is a large size, riverine, barbel (<800 mm).
61380		population	eng	No data.
61380		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water pollution, and overfishing.
61381		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Part of range is included in a National Park.
61381		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Cetina and Krka River basins in Croatia.
61381		habitat	eng	Lives in karstic river. A robust species able to withstand impacts of invasive species (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm).
61381		population	eng	Hasn't declined in the past 10 years (M. Mrakovcic, pers comm).
61381		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (dams), potential introduction of exotic fish species and water pollution.
61382		conservation	eng	None.
61382		distribution	eng	It is restricted to north-western Morocco, on the Atlantic coast.
61382		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers.
61382		population	eng	Locally abundent (Diadrio, I. pers comm).
61382		threats	eng	Water pollution from industry, domestic and agriculture and dam construction (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).
61383		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61383		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lake Kinneret.
61383		habitat	eng	A lacustrine species occurring on stony substrate around the lake's littoral zone.
61383		population	eng	Population size fluctuates, depending on the water level in the lake.
61383		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to low water levels.
61384		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61384		distribution	eng	It is restricted to south-west Anatolia in Turkey.
61384		habitat	eng	No data available.
61384		population	eng	No data available.
61384		threats	eng	None known.
61385		conservation	eng	None.
61385		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Ohrid basin in Albania and FYROM and to Skadar lake basin in Montenegro.
61385		habitat	eng	Lacustrine and riverine species.
61385		population	eng	No data.
61385		threats	eng	Invasive species and pollution affect some of the range of this species.
61386		conservation	eng	None.
61386		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Moulouya River basin in northern Morocco.
61386		habitat	eng	No data.
61386		population	eng	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).
61386		threats	eng	Water pollution and dam construction.
61388		conservation	eng	None.
61388		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Aoos river basin in Epirus, Greece, and is possibly also present in Albania.
61388		habitat	eng	It has been found in small creeks, streams, and rivers.
61388		population	eng	No data
61388		threats	eng	Water abstraction, pollution, and agriculture.
61389		conservation	eng	None.
61389		distribution	eng	It is restricted to northern and Central Italy, to the southern part of Switzerland and to the Bevera stream in south-eastern France. It has been introduced in Liguria.
61389		habitat	eng	Moderately cold-water adapted; obligate riverine; residential; single spawner; reproduction from February-March to June in southern Italy.
61389		population	eng	Abundant. The congeneric <em>Telestes agassizi</em> was introduced in the Soce River (upper course of River Isonzo in Italy), which caused the extinction of <em>T. muticellus</em> in this river. In rivers Volturno and Sele, southern boundary of this species in Campania, only two or three very localised populations exists: main threats to this possibly new species are introduction of trout, heavy pollution and water extraction.
61389		threats	eng	Water pollution and extraction.
61390		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
61390		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Litani river basin in Lebanon and to the Orontes (Asi in Turkey) river basin in Syria and Turkey. Not known to occur in mountainous areas.
61390		habitat	eng	It lives in lowland river and small irrigation canals with silty bottom and few submerged vegetation.
61390		population	eng	The population density in Syria and Lebanon is low (Krupp and Mouyabed 1992). The population across the range is declining.
61390		threats	eng	Water pollution (much pollution from Syria) and extraction. Drought. Changes in water level. For instance in 1990, the water level at a sampling location recorded by State Hydraulic works in February as 119 cm, whereas there was no flow in June (Erk'akan and Ekmekci 2000).
61391		conservation	eng	None.
61391		distribution	eng	Restricted to Lakes Megali and Mikri Prespa in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
61391		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes and reproduces in May-June. It is pelagic visiting the littoral zone only for spawning. In Megali Prespa, it can also spawn in the tributaries of the lake. It is short-lived and is heavily predated upon by fish-eating birds nesting there.
61391		population	eng	Abundant, stable.
61391		threats	eng	Water pollution, overfishing, and water extraction resulting in a reduction in water levels due to karstic nature of these lakes. Formerly, it was commercial exploited but the fishery has now ceased. There is also a potential threat of introduced species.
61392		conservation	eng	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61392		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. Karstic streams in livanjsko polje, Buska and Mandecko lakes near Livno. Introduced (possibly) to the Blidinje lake more than 100 years ago, and Prolosko & Ricice lakes near Imotski, Matica drainage near Vrgorac (Croatia), Tihaljina and possibly Trebizat (a neretva tributary) drainages (Bosnia-Hertzagovina).
61392		habitat	eng	No data.
61392		population	eng	Declining. The subpopulation in the small stream is very restricted; the main population is in three lakes (two native and one introduced) (Mrakovcic, M. and Freyhof, J. pers. comm).
61392		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, water pollution and extraction, introduction of exotic fish species.
61393		conservation	eng	On paper Greek laws on fishery management protect it, but they are rarely enforced.
61393		distribution	eng	It is restricted to coastal Lake Vistonis in northern Greece.
61393		habitat	eng	It mainly occupies the upper part of Lake Vistonis where the water is exclusively fresh. It is probably a non-migratory shad. Reproduction occurs in the spring.
61393		population	eng	According to the available information the species is possibly extinct. A small population is hypothesized to survive in some channels or streams outflow into the lake (Bobori <em>et al</em>. 2001).
61393		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and pollution (organic and industrial). Sewage enters the lake from the nearby town of Xanthi. Water extraction from the inflowing streams is also a serious threat as it may lead to increasing salinity within the lake.
61394		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61394		distribution	eng	It was restricted to the Cetina River basin in Dalmatia, Croatia.
61394		habitat	eng	It lived in a river system in the karst region.
61394		population	eng	The last specimen was recorded in 1988. This area has been surveyed since and the species has not been found again (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).
61394		threats	eng	Introduction of exotic fish species.
61395		conservation	eng	No information.
61395		distribution	eng	Western, northern and eastern Black Sea and Sea of Azov basins, from Bulgaria clockwise to Kizil Irmak drainage in northern-central Turkey (missing in Don); Aegean Sea basin, from Struma drainage eastward in Europe; northwestern Turkey. In lower reaches of rivers and coastal lakes, but in Dniepr up to Seim and Desna systems.
61395		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland rivers, lower reaches of montane rivers, limans, lakes, deltas, backwaters with moderate to no current. Prefers warm water with temperatures up to 30-32°C. Quite resistant to low oxygen concentrations, sometimes in marshes and water bodies with dense vegetation. A freshwater species, but tolerant of the brackish waters of limans. Prefers sand, sand-mud or mud bottom. Prefers shallow places with slow current along banks, in backwaters, in small lakes and similar calm-water sites. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, males may spawn at one year. Forms spawning groups of up to 150 individuals. Spawns in April-June at 12-28°C, in 0.1-1.0 m deep clear water, over sandy or slightly muddy bottom. Females lay 2-3 portions of adhesive eggs on and amidst aquatic plants each spawning period. Usually stays in groups of 5-30 individuals in vegetation at bottom but sometimes near water surface, under floating leaves or other objects. Does not migrate but moves in winter to deeper places. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, also plankton, benthic invertebrates and algae.
61395		population	eng	Abundant, but locally declining.
61395		threats	eng	Locally threatened by drainage of flood-plains and channelization of river beds.
61397		conservation	eng	No information.
61397		distribution	eng	Mediterranean basin, from Aude to Var drainages (France, Switzerland; literature records from Tarn system [Garonne drainage] in fact refers to Hérault [each has a tributary named Dourbie]); Soca drainage (Italy, Slovenia); Cetina drainage (Croatia); uppermost Rhine drainage in Germany and Switzerland; Danube drainage: western tributaries in Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and part of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and upper Tisza system (Romania, Ukraine). Record from Aegean basin in Bulgaria based on misidentification of a possibly unnamed species. Introgression zone with <em>T. muticellus</em> in Var drainage (France).
61397		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Middle reaches of streams and rivers with clear water, moderately swift current and gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in March-May when temperature rises above 12°C, only once in each season. Feeds on insect larvae and algae.
61397		population	eng	Abundant.
61397		threats	eng	Locally threatened by damming of rivers.
61398		conservation	eng	No conservation measures exist in Brazil. In Argentina, the only management strategy for skates is an annual total catch for skates distributed in the coastal waters of Buenos Aires. For 2003 this was 4,000 t. Continued monitoring and species-specific catch data are needed across the species? range.
61398		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina on the continental shelf to 300 m.
61398		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf between shallow waters (50 m in Brazil) and 300 m depth (Vooren 1997, Cousseau and Perrotta 2000). Maximum size in Argentina 68.2 cm TL (male) and 69.5 cm TL (female), in Brazil 64 cm TL (male) and 65 cm TL (female) (Cousseau and Perrotta 2000, Oddone 2003). In Brazil, size at first maturity is 47 cm TL (male) and 53 cm TL (female). Female breeding occurs all year round and is not synchronized throughout the population (Oddone 2003). Eggs and small juveniles are not caught in the Brazilian trawl fishery and are evidently not vulnerable to the types of trawl used (Oddone 2003). <br/> <br/>The diet of this species consists of crustaceans (stiletto shrimp, amphipods, crabs), polychaete worms and teleost fish (mainly <em>Engraulis anchoita</em>).
61398		population	eng	Biomass in the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) was estimated as 697 tons for Spring 1999 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2000). It remains apparently quite common in its usual depth range in Brazil (Vooren, pers. obs).
61398		threats	eng	Many aspects of the life-history of <em>A. cyclophora</em> that are important for management (e.g., fecundity and natural mortality) are still unknown. <br/> <br/>Trawl fishing along the distribution and in the habitat of this species is intense, while demand for skates is increasing in the international market. In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay this has resulted in rising fishing pressure on all skate species. <em>A. cyclophora</em> is taken mainly as bycatch in fisheries for coastal demersal species (multi-species fisheries) and in Argentina the species has been known to be landed since 1994. Since 2000, however, one vessel has been specifically targeting skates. For these fishing activities, species-specific landing statistics are generally unavailable as all species of batoids are recorded as ?unidentified rays and skates?. In the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34°?41°S), biomass estimates fell more than 50% from 1994 to 1999 (Hozbor and Massa unpublished data). In an observer program of the Puerto Quequen coastal benthic trawl fishery in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, A. cyclophora was found to constitute 3.7% by number and 4.0% by mass of the batoids captured, and occurred in 34.2% of trawls (Tamini <em>et al</em>. 2006). Within this fishery, <em>A. cyclophora</em> is either retained and landed for commercial purposes or discarded, depending on size. The majority of specimens captured were immature (Tamini <em>et a</em>l. 2006). <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense across the species? range in southern Brazil, where demersal trawl fisheries operate and skates are landed as part of multi-species fisheries. Species-specific data are required from southern Brazil.
61399		conservation	eng	Further surveys to better define the species? range and careful monitoring of any fishing activities are required.
61399		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality off Peru in the Southeast Pacific. Further surveys are required to better define the species? range.
61399		habitat	eng	A very poorly known skate, known only from a single specimen collected at a depth of 980 m, a 480 mm TL immature female. Oviparous like other skates, but the biology of this species is virtually unknown.
61399		population	eng	Unknown.
61399		threats	eng	Known specimen was taken in an area presently thought to be outside commercial fishing operations. However, as deepwater fisheries worldwide continue to expand, and given the species? potential narrow distribution, any fisheries which operate in the species? area of occurrence in the future will need to be monitored carefully to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
61400		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of bycatch in Chilean fisheries and information on catches in Peru are a priority.
61400		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Pacific South American continental shelf and upper slope.
61400		habitat	eng	A temperate deepwater catshark of the continental shelf and upper slope of Pacific South America, primarily on mud, but also on rocky bottoms at 200 to 700 m depth. Oviparous, lays two egg capsules at a time, one per oviduct (Acuña <em>et al</em>., unpublished data). Feeds on crustaceans (including deep sea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em>) and small fishes (Acuña <em>et al</em>., unpublished data). Maximum size 124 cm TL, males mature at 52 to 55 cm TL, females at 59 cm TL (J. Lamilla, unpublished data).
61400		population	eng	Southeast Pacific endemic. No information available on populations.
61400		threats	eng	Bycatch in the deep sea crustacean fishery for the red squat lobster <em>Pleuroncodes monodon</em>, the yellow squat lobster <em>Cervimunida johni</em> and especially the deep sea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> off Northern and Central Chile (from 25°05? to 35°12? S and 200?498 m) (González 2001, Acuña and Villaroel 2002). Bycatch in the ling <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> deepsea fisheries off southern Chile (Lamilla, unpublished data). The species is discarded and there is no data available on trends in bycatch. There is no information on bycatch of this species in Peruvian fisheries.
61401		conservation	eng	<em>Diplobatis colombiensis</em> occurs in the Tayrona National Natural Park area, a Colombian nature reserve. This area is closed to fishing with trawl nets and only an artisanal fishery exists. However, there are no known documents records of this species from fishermen at Tayrona Park. <br/> <br/>An adequate conservation program for the Colombian Guajira peninsula is needed. This area supports extraordinary species richness, including several southern Caribbean endemics. Plans for developing and exploiting mineral resources in the Guajira continental shelf and slope during the 21<sup>st</sup> century must consider this fact (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
61401		distribution	eng	Known only from the coast of northern Colombia, in the Caribbean Sea.
61401		habitat	eng	This species is benthic on the continental shelf at depths of 30 to 100 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).The region inhabited by <em>D. colombiensis</em> is characterized by hard sand with zones of soft mud and areas with coral reef development. The area has limited fluctuations in salinity.  <br/> <br/>Very little known of the species? biology. Reaches a maximum size of 17 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) and maturity in males is estimated to be 10 cm TL (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
61401		population	eng	This species has a limited distribution. Caldas <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) show evidence of intra-populational variation in coloration patterns and geographical range for specimens collected throughout the northern coast from Colombia. There are shared regions (Tayrona National Natural Park-La Guajira) between <em>D. colombiensis</em> and <em>D. guamachensis</em>, where individuals show color patterns that are intermediate between the characteristics of each species. This intermediate coloration suggests that populations of this species are genetically mixed in some areas, resulting in interactions between individuals with specific characteristics that combine in this region.
61401		threats	eng	Demersal trawl fisheries operate over the species? limited area of occurrence. Medina (2002) reports <em>Diplobatis pictus</em> as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries. These catch surveys were in the geographic range of both <em>D. guamachensis</em> and <em>D. colombiensis</em>, and so specific information on <em>D. colombiensis</em> is not available (<em>D. pictus</em> does not occur in Colombia, being known from southeastern Venezuela to northern Brazil). <br/> <br/>Because of identification problems, the species may be more frequently caught than suspected.
61402		conservation	eng	An adequate conservation program for the Colombian Guajira peninsula is needed. This area supports extraordinary species richness, including several southern Caribbean endemics. Plans for developing and exploiting mineral resources in the Guajira continental shelf and slope during the 21<sup>st</sup> century must consider this fact (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
61402		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Gulf of Venezuela, western Trinidad, and northeastern Colombia.
61402		habitat	eng	This species is benthic on the continental shelf at depths of 30 to 183 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). The region inhabited by <em>D. guamachensis</em> is characterized by hard sand with extensive coral reef development in some areas. This is contrary to reports by Cervigón and Alcalá (1999), who stated that it is very rare to find this species in coral reef areas. The substrate in the region appears to determine the development of the various color patterns (Fechhelm and McEachran 1984).   <br/> <br/>Very little known of the species? biology. Reaches a maximum size of ~20 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) and maturity in males is estimated to be 12 cm TL (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
61402		population	eng	Cervigón and Alcalá (1999) described this species as common in its distribution area. McEachran (1984) reported the highest abundance from the western area of its distribution, where Valdez and Aguilera (1987) reported that it was always captured in research surveys.   <br/> <br/>Caldas <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) show evidence of intra-populational variation in coloration patterns and geographic range for specimens collected throughout the northern coast of Colombia. There are shared areas (Tayrona National Natural Park-La Guajira) for <em>D. colombiensis</em> and <em>D. guamachensis</em>, where individuals show a particular color pattern that is intermediate between its own characteristics and that of the related species. It is important to note the presence of a morph of <em>D. guamachensis</em> in the area of Tayrona National Natural Park, a zone where only <em>D. colombiensis</em> had been previously reported. This supports the idea that populations of this species may be genetically mixed in some areas, resulting in interaction between specimens with specific characteristics that are combined. Similar situations may be possible in other regions shared by <em>D. guamachensis</em> and <em>D. colombiensis</em> (e.g., Trinidad).
61402		threats	eng	Demersal trawl fisheries operate over the species? limited area of occurrence. Medina (2002) reports <em>Diplobatis pictus</em> as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries in Colombia. These catch surveys were in the geographic range of both <em>D. guamachensis</em> and <em>D. colombiensis</em>, and so specific information on <em>D. guamachensis</em> is not available (<em>D. pictus</em> does not occur in Colombia, being known from southeastern Venezuela to northern Brazil). <br/> <br/>Because of identification problems, the species may be more frequently caught than suspected.
61403		conservation	eng	Improved monitoring of bycatch and other fishery impacts required in order to develop appropriate conservation and management strategies for this and other affected bycatch species.   <br/> <br/>Further research is one of the most pressing issues, in order to learn more about this species? biology and quantify its contribution to shrimp bycatch.  This will require species-specific identification or independent sampling. At present there is not enough known to substantiate an estimate on this species population status and quantify the actual impact of perceived threats (Bizzarro pers. comm. Feb 2006).
61403		distribution	eng	Eastern Central Pacific, from Baja California to the mid-Colombian coast.  Countries of occurrence include: Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, USA (Baja, California) (Love <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>From Bahia San Juanico (26°13?N, 112°28W), southern Baja California (de La Cruz  Agüero <em>et al</em>. 1994), to Ecuador (Bearez 1996), including the Gulf of California (McEachran 1995).
61403		habitat	eng	This species is common over sandy substrates, but also over rocky bottoms, in bays and on rock reefs (De la Cruz Agüero <em>et al</em>. 1997, Allen and Robertson 1994 and Michael 1993).  It reportedly lies partially buried in the sand, near rock reefs (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2000).   <br/> <br/>Love <em>et al</em>. (2005) lists 3 m as the shallowest occurrence from an LA County Museum specimen (LACM 49744.002), while Beebe and Tee-Van (1941) report it from 1 fathom (ca. 2 m). The deepest occurrence was 94 m, as reported by A. Linares (1996 cited in Love <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/> <br/>This guitarfish is typically a solitary species, which is inactive during the day and commonly occurs in shallower water at night, utilizing it?s pelvic fins for benthic locomotion (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Michael 1993). <br/> <br/>The maximum reported size for this species, is 25 TL (McEachran 1995), with the first size at maturity for females <18.5 cm (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941).  The size at first maturity for males is unknown.   <br/> <br/>Based on a small sample size, it is known to prey on crustaceans [Amphipoda, Decapoda (small shrimp)] and polychaetes (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941).
61403		population	eng	Unknown.
61403		threats	eng	Within Mexican waters, this species is not commonly taken by artisanal fisheries, however it is taken as bycatch by shrimp trawlers (Bizzarro pers. comm. Feb 2006).   This species itself is not of commercial interest; however its restricted range coincides with that of intense trawling pressure for shrimp.  This considerable pressure from large commercial fishing fleets is likely to go unrecorded as this species caught as unused bycatch.
61404		conservation	eng	Conservation and management strategies should be developed and implemented in order to reduce the impact of shrimp trawl bycatch in this region.
61404		distribution	eng	Recorded from southeastern Venezuela to the mouth of the Amazon.
61404		habitat	eng	Common over soft substrates on the continental shelf between 2 to 130 m in depth (Fechhelm and McEachran 1984). <br/> <br/>The maximum size known for this species is 18 cm TL (Fechhelm and McEachran 1984).
61404		threats	eng	Bycatch in shrimp trawls is the main threat to this species, although habitat degradation may also be a problem.
61405		conservation	eng	Avoid as much is possible fishery activities below 500 m depths (Ungaro pers. comm). Given the low commercial value of skate and the full retention in the cod-end of the currently used gears, that remain unchanged up to unproposeable (for the Mediterranean fisheries) mesh size >60 mm opening (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2001), the only management measure aimed at their sustainable use may be to define the suitable not-trawlable areas and enlarge these ?closed? spots in order to protect a fraction of the population and likely the eggs (often found in the trawl cod-end) (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The global increase of fishing effort and the ensuing depletion of population have been the subject of the debate by the international bodies charged with the management and conservation of marine resources. Relevant is the formulation by FAO of the ?International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of cartilaginous fishes? (IPOA-Sharks). According to the Plan, all the states that capture sharks, rays or chimaeras, either as target species or as bycatch, shall implement a national action plans to ensure suitable use, conservation and recovery of threatened species (Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). In this context the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem proposed a recommendation to activate the necessary tools and regional agreements towards the formulation of a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of Cartilaginous Fishes. A project for record data proceeding from all Mediterranean basin and regarding large elasmobranchs (MEDLEM) has been discussed and adopted at the last SAC meeting held in Rome (FAO 2005). Also the EC prepared a draft proposal for the European Community Plan of Action that encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). Italy must act urgently to establish a plan of action for the conservation and management of its chondrichthyan fauna, in tight coordination with other Mediterranean riparian countries. The Italian National Action Plan (PAN-SHARKS) draft was formulated by a scientific committee coordinated by ICRAM (Central Institute for the Marine Research) and was conceived in order to provide Italy with the necessary tools for the ratification of the SPA protocol, in the respect of the guidelines formulated within the EC Draft Action Plan and the FAO IPOA-Sharks recommendation (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2000, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000).
61405		distribution	eng	This species main range now appears to be restricted to the Sicilian channel, as discussed in the threats section below.
61405		habitat	eng	This benthic skate is endemic to the Mediterranean and can now only be found within the Strait of Sicily, distributed over sandy and sandy-muddy bottoms from a few meters to over 800 m in depth.  It has been recorded at depths of 60 to 800 m, but is more commonly found between 400 to 800 m. The size range of the specimens caught in this area from 1985 to 2001 was 9 to 42 cm (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). The species was reported for this area also by Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2000, Cannavò <em>et al</em>. 1999, Relini 1995, Pipitone <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Breeding occurs throughout the year; however, ovulating females were observed mainly in spring and autumn (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005) and produce 10 to 56 eggs/year (Bauchot 1987). Both males and females have an average size at maturity of 40 cm (Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998), the maximum reported size is ~50 cm (TL) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). Age at maturity, longevity, size at birth, reproductive age, gestation time, fecundity, rate of population increase and mortality are not known.
61405		population	eng	No information available.
61405		threats	eng	This species (one of only four skate species endemic to the Mediterranean) has undergone a serious decline throughout its geographic range. <em>Leucoraja melitensis</em> was previously found over a relatively narrow area (about ¼ of the total area of the Mediterranean) in the depth range where trawl fisheries routinely operate. Historically, this species was moderately common off Tunisia, common around Malta but rare off Algeria and Italy (where it was recorded once) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). However, it is now considered to be quite rare off Malta (Schembri <em>et al</em>. 2003) and rare or absent off Tunisia (Bradai 2000). This species was rarely recorded (in only 20 out of 6,336 hauls) in the Western Central Mediterranean (Thyrrenian, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicilian coasts, with the easternmost record in the Aegean Sea) during the International MEDITS trawl surveys from 1994?1999 (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Bertrand <em>et al</em>. 2000). In this area, the standing stock biomass of this species was 705 t.  If we assume the average weight of an individual is 2 kg, then the estimated population size in the MEDITS survey area was approximately 35,200 individuals (note: that this does not include any remaining population around Malta and North Africa). <br/> <br/>Its main range now appears to be restricted to the Sicilian channel, in the national GRUND (National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation) trawl survey covering all Italian Seas from 1985 to 2000 this species was recorded only in the Sicilian channel (in 59% of hauls operating in this area (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000)). In this area the species was caught with a frequency of 87% referred to 23 surveys performed from 1985 to 2001 by IRMA-CNR (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/>The species was historically reported to be present in the Gulf of Lions (northwestern Mediterranean, France) in the years 1957?60 (shelf) and 1980?84 (slope), but the species was not found in further comparable surveys carried out in 1992?95 (Aldebert 1997). However, caution should be taken with this latter statement because the species could be confused with <em>L. naevus</em> which is widespread in the western part of the Mediterranean.   <br/> <br/>Within the Mediterranean, benthic trawling effort over the continental shelf and slope area has increased both with respect to numerical (effort) and technological advances over the last 50 years. This species is only rarely present in fish markets, however it is believed that while it is only the large individuals that are landed for consumption, most size classes for this species are likely to be taken as bycatch in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean region is approximately 20 mm. Along the Tunisian coast, this species was caught as bycatch in the following gear types; bottom trawl, gillnet and bottom long line (Bauchot 1987), however it now extremely rare or considered absent off the coasts of Tunisia. In the remainder of this species range within the Mediterranean (the Sicilian channel around Malta), it?s depth distribution coincides with that of intensive trawling activity.  The strait of Sicily is the highest exploited region of the Italian coast. It ranks first, with respect to the number of trawl boats and the total number of fishing vessels of all kind, compared to other sectors of the basin. Most of the fleet is composed by multipurpose artisanal vessels using bottom long liners, gill-netters and trammel netters, gear types likely to catch this species. Trawl fishing vessels constitute 11% of the fleet (Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999). For these fisheries skates are bycatch and are in large part discarded (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). The Tunisian and Maltese fisheries operating in the strait use the same gear types as those employed by the Italian fishing fleet. However, their fishing pressure, given by the number of operating fishing vessels, is smaller than the Italian fishery. The Tunisian fisheries are coastal and likely to operate outwith the area of occupancy of the Maltese skate, which in the Gulf of Gabes occurs in grounds deeper than 200 meters (Samira 2002). Bottom long line and bottom trawl fishing can affect the Maltese skate in Malta since these are the only two fishing gear that can go deeper than 200 meters (de Leiva <em>et al</em>. 1998). The other fisheries operating in the Sicilian channel are coastal, thus have little effect of the population of Maltese skate.
61406		conservation	eng	Improved monitoring of bycatch and other fishery impacts are required in order to develop appropriate conservation and management strategies for this species.   <br/> <br/>Further research is one of the most pressing issues with regard to this species, in order to learn more about this species? biology and quantify the contribution of this species to shrimp bycatch.
61406		habitat	eng	<em>N. brevilabiata</em> is found in depths ranging from 41 to 70 m in offshore continental shelf waters. <br/> <br/>Male size at maturity appears to vary with locality. A male from the Gulf of Thailand possessed firm claspers at 23 cm TL while a male from Viet Nam possessed proportionally longer flexible claspers at 25.7 mm TL. smaller size at maturity. Female size at maturity is not known (Carvalho 1999a).
61406		population	eng	No information is available.
61406		threats	eng	Intense fishing pressure occurs throughout its distribution, where it is taken in large numbers by shrimp trawling vessels.
61407		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place. Monitoring of catches and landings are a necessity, particularly given that pressure from coastal fisheries is increasing within the species? range. Stock assessments should be undertaken where the species is fished, thus requiring biological information from outside Brazil.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. At the time of writing, Brazil was in the progress of preparing a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004), which is in urgent need of implementation.
61407		distribution	eng	Wide geographic range from Honduras through Central America, the Caribbean and south to Uruguay in South America.
61407		habitat	eng	The species is abundant on shallow sandy bottoms mostly in coastal areas and around islands, but has also been recorded in deeper areas. Compagno (in preparation b) noted that it has been found in offshore waters down to 500 m, with one exceptional record far offshore near the surface in water 6,036 m deep. Most studies on this species have been carried out in different areas of Brazil, mainly the northeastern region. Along the Brazilian Coast the species is more abundant in the northern and northeastern coasts, in shallow waters.  <br/> <br/>The following biological information on the species from Brazil is drawn from Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2001), Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Montealegre (2002), amongst other references cited in the literature list. Information was obtained from catches taken in shallow coastal waters. <br/> <br/>The species is reported to reach a maximum size of ~110 cm TL (Compagno in preparation b). Sexual maturity is attained for females at 65 cm TL and males at 65?70 cm TL which corresponds to ~2 year-old individuals. Growth analyses based on vertebrae indicated that there is a significant difference between sexes with females growing older and larger than males, but males growing faster. Maximum observed age was five years for males and 8eightyears for females, but Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2002) suggest that the species probably reaches ~10 years longevity. Catches obtained off Pernambuco displayed the following population dynamics: natural mortality, M = 0.499; fishing mortality, F = 0.712; total mortality, Z = 1.211; Z0=1.203; Z? = 0.837. Age at maturity and age of recruitment to fisheries coincide. Productivity, estimated according to the methods of Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) is 0.141, which represents a high resilience to depletion.  <br/> <br/>Reproduction occurs annually with females ready to copulate immediately after parturition. Many females are ready for mating at any time throughout the year, although there is a peak detected from late winter to early summer. Fecundity is 1?8 embryos, increasing with maternal size. Size at birth is 33 to 37 cm TL. Sex ratio of embryos is significantly biased towards females (1:1.79). The overall post partum catch ratio found by Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2001) was also significantly biased towards females (1:1.57), however, significantly greater male than female immature and maturing individuals indicated sexual and size segregation. Segregation, movements and migrations in this species are not well known and require further study, but Mattos et al (2001) note that females may undergo reproductive migrations into coastal areas in their study area (northern Brazil), while Menni and Lessa (1998) suggest that adults migrate to deeper water in summer and gravid female return to coastal areas in autumn.  <br/> <br/>Feeds mainly on small teleost fishes and also squid, crabs and prawns (da Silva and da Silva de Almeida (2001).
61407		population	eng	Abundant. Described as ?one of the commonest, if not the most common, inshore shark where it occurs? (Compagno in preparation b). At the southern end of its distribution in Uruguay, it is more rarely captured (A. Domingo pers. comm).
61407		threats	eng	This species is a common component of landings in directed and incidental fisheries throughout its range, both commercial and artisanal. It is caught with a wide variety of gear including longlines, benthic trawls, trammelnets, gillnets and hook and line. <br/> <br/>In northern Brazil captures include bycatch in coastal fisheries aimed at more economically valuable teleost fishes including <em>Scomberomorus</em> spp., <em>Lutjanus</em> spp., <em>Cynoscion</em> spp. and <em>Mycteroperca</em> spp. (Dias Neto and Dornelles 1996 in Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2001). The species has become the more abundant shark in artisanal landings in this region after the decline in catches of other coastal elasmobranchs (i.e., <em>Carcharhinus porosus</em>). Furthermore, fishing effort is increasing in coastal areas of northern Brazil and with declines in the main target species, coastal elasmobranchs (including <em>R. porosus</em>) have been increasingly targeted directly (Dias Neto and Dornelles 1996 in Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2001). Declines in the sympatric <em>R. lalandii</em> in Brazil demonstrate, even for small relatively productive inshore shark species, the susceptibility to intensive coastal fishing pressure (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>In Panama the species is landed from targeting and the bycatch of coastal commercial and artisanal fisheries using line and gillnets. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay the species is more rarely landed in fisheries, given that it is the southern extent of the species? distribution (A. Domingo, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>No other country specific landing information is available, but it is likely the species is facing increasing fishing pressure in the coastal zone over the majority of its distribution. Furthermore, many coastal fishing activities in the region are generally unregulated and unmonitored.
61408		conservation	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm for skates and rays caught in the inshore waters of various parts of England and Wales, as implemented by Sea Fishery Committee bylaws. Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a total allowable catch (TAC) for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations, effort reduction). Given the low abundance of this species, species-specific management measures may also be warranted. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>For the conservation of chondrichthyans within the Mediterranean region, the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem recommended that all fishing states implement a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of chondrichthyans, in line with IPOA sharks (International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of chondrichthyans). <br/> <br/>The MEDLEM project was adopted at the last SAC meeting (FAO, Rome 2005) for data collection within the Mediterranean basin on large elasmobranches.  The Bern Convention encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of chondrichthyans in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Italy a national action plan (PAN-SHARKS) was co-ordinated by ICCRAM (Central Institute for Marine Research) within the guidelines of the Bern Convention and FAO IPOA-Sharks (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000).   <br/> <br/>The species is listed in the Appendix 3 of the Bern convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats), Appendix 3 of this convention requires ?regulation of species populations to keep them out of danger?. This species is also listed by the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea, this convention concerns specially protected areas and biological diversity within the Mediterranean Sea and lists the white skate on the Annex III, whose exploitation is regulated.
61408		distribution	eng	The overall geographical range of Rostroraja alba covers the Eastern Atlantic coasts from the southern British Isles south to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea, and extending into the southwestern parts of Indian Ocean.  <br/> <br/>This species is listed as occurring in the Northwestern European seas, however no valid records exist in northern areas of the Northeast Atlantic.   <br/>The geographic range of this species is further discussed in the following section, with reference to its decrease in abundance coupled with a decrease in geographic range.
61408		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species of sandy and detrital bottoms from coastal waters to the upper slope region between about 40 to 400 m and exceptionally down to 500 m (Capape 1976, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005). Du Buit 1974 reports this species to be more prevalent in rocky habitats.  Little is known of this species? life history and ecology. <br/> <br/>Estimates of size at maturity are 130 cm (males) and 120 cm (females) (Capape 1976).  Maximum recorded size is 200 cm, even if is common between 60 and 150 cm of total length (Bauchot 1987). Gestation period is 15 months and females produce between 55 to 156 ova per year, egg cases are 160 to 200 cm in length and 130 to 150 cm in width (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005). Age at maturity, longevity, size at birth, average reproductive age, reproductive periodicity, annual rate of population growth and natural mortality are all unknown for this skate.  <br/> <br/>The white skate feeds on all kinds of bottom dwelling animals (Stehmann and Burkel 1984), especially fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Bauchot 1987).
61408		population	eng	Little information is available on the population size of the white skate.  The data does indicate that this species has undergone a reduction in abundance and is now considered rare in the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean.  <br/> <br/>Historically, within the Mediterranean this species was captured frequently off northern coasts of Tunisia in the mid-1970s and the coast of Morocco in the early 1970s (Capape 1976). It was described as being more or less frequent in the Northwestern Mediterranean (1965) and the French coast (1950 to 1960s) and Italian Seas (1972) (Capape 1976).  However, a time series of comparative trawl surveys running from 1957 to 1995 in the Gulf of Lions, in the Eastern basin of the Mediterranean failed to catch any white skate specimens. This consisted of eight separate surveys, conducted by four survey vessels. A total of 1,359 tows were carried out on shelf and slope areas extending from the coast to 800 m in depth (which includes the known depth range of this species) (Aldebert 1997).   <br/> <br/>In the eastern Mediterranean, it was captured in the Adriatic (1963) and the limit of its eastern distribution is Greece (Capape 1976). This species was regularly captured by fisheries in Tunisian waters and was common in all Tunisian coastal waters but captures were more frequent in the north part of the Tunisian coast (Capape 1976). This species is now rare along the Tunisian coast (Bradai 2000).   <br/> <br/>In the Adriatic Sea, comparative trawl surveys indicate that Rostroraja alba was present in 4% of hauls of the ?Hvar? 1948 survey (based on 138 valid hauls in depths of up to 400 m). Since then, two time series of trawl surveys have occurred in the Adriatic Sea. The Italian national trawl survey National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND) began in 1982, and the MEDITS survey began in 1985, both surveys are still ongoing. <em>Rostroraja alba</em> was captured sporadically and infrequently in both of these surveys, typically in <2.6% of hauls in any year. Of the GRUND surveys, it was captured in approximately 1.7% of hauls in the central, northern and southern Adriatic Sea (Marano <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/>In addition to the Adriatic Sea, the MEDITS survey actually operates on the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows were been performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m. This species was not recorded in the central and northern MEDITS surveys, but was captured in the southern MEDITS survey in 1998 and 1999, in 1.4% of the hauls. However, uncertainty exists as to the validity of the identification of this species. It is suspected that earlier surveys may have confused this species with Leucoraja circularis and or Dipturus oxyrhinchus (F. Tinti and N. Ungaro pers. comm. 2003). The white skate was recorded in only nine hauls in the western central area (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/>  <br/>From other regions within the Mediterranean, only one specimen was caught with a bottom trawl net by a commercial vessel in Livorno (the Ligurian Sea) in 2003 (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2003). Also in the Northwestern Ionian sea, only a single individual of this species was reportedly caught in 1997 (Sion <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/>From the data presented it can be inferred that this species is now very rare and also the MEDITS survey suggests a substantial reduction in geographic range. In fact, this species was only recorded from the western area of this survey (Morocco, Spain, France). Evidence from the Gulf of Lions survey suggests its presence along French coast may be in doubt. As described above, Aldebert (1997) reported that the white skate was historically absent from the Gulf of Lions, however the MEDITS survey data casts doubt over the occurrence of this species across the length of the French coast. The current distribution of occurrence for this species represents a small fraction of its former range. From the former frequency of capture of this species in the western Mediterranean it can be inferred that this species has undergone a substantial but currently unquantifiable decline in abundance and extent.
61408		threats	eng	Northeast Atlantic: Rajids are an important component of demersal fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic (Holden 1977) and <em>R. alba</em> would be landed and sold if caught. Targeted fisheries have existed in certain areas, though these fisheries ceased after localised depletion. It may still be taken as by-catch in demersal fisheries off the Iberian Peninsula. Anecdotal information suggests that this species, including localized populations, have declined severely. In 2002, the ICES Study Group on Elasmobranch Fishes was asked to comment on the status of white skate and  ?considered that there was a high probability of population decline, both in the Bay of Biscay and Iberian coast, and in the Celtic Seas. For example, there was a directed long-line fishery in Douarnanez (Brittany) in the 1960s that collapsed (white skate are no longer listed on French fishery statistics), and a similar decline is thought to have occurred in the Irish Sea? (ICES 2002). As discussed in the population section, historical data (early 1900?s) from English surveys suggest that they occurred in UK waters, though no recent records exist (Rogers and Ellis 2000). Their status further south is unclear, though they may be landed around the Iberian Peninsula (ICES 2006), accounting for about 0.3% of skate and ray landings in Portugal. It is also noted that this species may be confused with shagreen ray <em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> and sandy ray <em>L. circularis</em>, and improved market sampling is required to fully ascertain the status of this species in fisheries. Dulvy <em>et al</em>. (2000) also report this species to have undergone a decline and even disappearance from other shelf areas, notably the Irish Sea.   <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/><em>R. alba</em> is captured as bycatch to the multi-species trawl fisheries operating within it?s range. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years.  <br/> <br/>As discussed in the population section, the historical occurrence of the white skate within the Gulf of Lions is unclear, however the change in characteristics of the fisheries operating in this area can provide an insight into the change in Mediterranean fishing effort over time. The Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries, comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), since then effort increased to a total nominal horsepower of 19,940 hp (between 1974 and 1987). Aldebert (1997) reported that half of the fishing effort within the Adriatic Sea to have been displaced to target small pelagic fish, however this Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croation, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). The large body size, slow growth, low fecundity and large size of juveniles of this species makes it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation when compared to other rajids (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets, including the eggs (which are often found in the trawl cod-end, Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003), as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm.
61416		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
61416		distribution	eng	Schools probably present below 100 m in the Portobelo area (Panama, Caribbean Coast, Colon Province) and in the San. Andres archipelago area.
61416		habitat	eng	This warm-temperate and tropical shark inhabits continental shelves and uppermost slopes. Found on or near the bottom in large, dense schools at depths between 60 and 380 m, never found in surface waters. Probably feeds on bottom fishes and invertebrates Ovoviviparous, with about 10 young per litter (Compagno 1984).  Nothing else is known of its biology or life history.
61416		population	eng	Separate catch statistics are not reported for this species and therefore nothing is known of the population.
61416		threats	eng	Mainly caught in the northern Gulf of Mexico (FAO 2002, Rodriguez 1996 ) although separate statistics are not reported for this species. Taken as by-catch in the San Andres Archipelago industrial fishery (Caldas 2002) and Panamanian artisanal fishery (Monzini 2004).  Possible threat from a potential increase of deep sea fishery.
61417		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Squatina</em> is protected within six Balearic Island marine reserves, where fishing for these species is forbidden and accidental captures must be released. There are no known specific conservation measures for this species throughout the rest of its range.
61417		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Morocco and western Sahara coasts, Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea to Nigeria, Gabon to southern Angola and Namibia (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: western and central basins, Ionian Sea and Egyptian coasts. Its occurrence in the Adriatic has not been reported (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998).
61417		habitat	eng	<em>Squatina aculeata </em>is an offshore angel shark of the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope of the warm-temperate and tropical eastern Atlantic. It lives on or near the seabed at depths of 30 to 500 m. It apparently prefers muddy bottoms. <br/> <br/>The biology of <em>S. aculeata</em> is sketchily known. The estimated average length of this shark at maturity is 124 cm (Compagno in prep). Maximum sizes are estimated at around 188 cm (Compagno in prep). Its size at birth, longevity, age at maturity, rate of population increase and mortality are unknown. It is ovoviviparous, but the reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, fecundity and the rate of population increase are also all unknown. <br/> <br/>Diet in the Mediterranean includes small sharks, herring (Clupeidae), jacks (<em>Trachurus</em>, Carangidae), picarels (Centracanthidae), flatfish (<em>Citharus linguatula</em>, Citharidae) sole (<em>Solea solea</em>, Soleidae), cuttlefish (<em>Sepia officinalis</em>), and crustaceans including shrimp, manis shrimp, and crabs (<em>Alpheus dentipes</em>, <em>A. ruber</em>, <em>Peneus keraturus</em>, <em>Squilla mantis</em>, <em>Parapeneus longirostris</em>, <em>Dorippe lanata</em>, <em>Goneplax rhomboides</em>, <em>Liocarcinus</em> sp., <em>Atelecyclus</em> sp.) (Compagno in prep).
61417		population	eng	This species is known to be caught off Tunisia and is possibly a component of catches off other countries throughout the Mediterranean including those that report angel sharks to FAO: Albania, France, Malta, Turkey (Compagno in prep.). <br/> <br/>Vacchi <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the dramatic decline in the elasmobranch catch of a tuna trap operating in Baratti (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1898 and 1922. For the genus <em>Squatina</em>, catches decreased from an average of 134 specimens from the period 1898-1905, to 95 between 1906 and 1913, and down to 15 between 1914 and 1922. This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity. <br/>  <br/>Off the Balearic Islands <em>Squatina</em> spp. were historically documented in checklists (Barceló y Combis 1868, Fage 1907). Captures of <em>Squatina</em> spp. were relatively frequent until the 1970s, becoming increasingly sporadic during the 1980s in coastal artisanal fisheries (trammel nets and gillnets), trawls and bottom longline fisheries. For example, records from a Balearic lobster gillnet fishery show that it was common to capture angel sharks on a daily basis until the mid 1980s (presumably of <em>S. aculeata</em> or <em>S. oculata</em>, judging by the depth and substratum where this fishery operates). But since the mid 1990s no reports of <em>Squatina</em> spp. have been reported in the area (G. Morey pers. comm). Recently, Massutí and Moranta (2003) reported no captures of <em>Squatina</em> ssp. from four bottom trawl fishing surveys (131 hauls, at a depth range of 46-1,800 m) carried out between 1996 and 2001 around the Balearic Islands. In addition, the likely low interaction with stocks from other areas further affects the already low recovery capacity of isolated populations such as those around the Balearics. <br/>  <br/>Relini <em>et al</em>. (2000), did not report any captures of <em>S. aculeata</em> from 9,281 hauls during 22 trawl surveys from 1985-1998 as part of the Italian National Project in the northern Mediterranean. During the MEDITS program (1995-1999), a broad scale survey of the north Mediterranean coastline, spanning from W. Morocco to the Aegean Sea in depths of 10 to 800 m, <em>S. aculeata</em> appeared in only one of a total of 9,095 tows (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, it appears that angel sharks are now absent from most of the northern Mediterranean coastline. <br/> <br/>The species may be more common off the North Africa coastline than in the northern Mediterranean, for example, as reported for the Tunisia (Gulf of Gabès) coast (Quignard and Ben Othaman 1978). However, more recently, Bradai (2000) considered <em>S. aculeata</em> to be a very rare species off Tunisia. <br/> <br/>There are little species specific data from the West African coasts, however, this species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Although reported in Turkish waters (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2002), the species is considered very rare in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and absent in the Black Sea (Serena 2005).
61417		threats	eng	Angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch in trawls as they lie on the bottom. Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency on the shelf and slope area Mediterranean over the last 50 years. The species is also bycaught in trammel nets and bottom longlines throughout its range. Human disturbance by habitat degradation and tourism are also possible threats to its preferred sandy nearshore habitat. <br/> <br/>There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 from 1914 to 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area, to which angel sharks are highly susceptible. A low rate of exchange between <em>Squatina</em> populations makes them prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Mediterranean countries that report 'angelsharks' to FAO with this species as part of the catch include Albania, Turkey, Malta and France. <br/> <br/><em>Squatina aculeata</em> has virtually disappeared from most of its former Mediterranean range where its habitat over the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope (30 to 500 m depth), is subject to intense demersal fisheries, especially off the northern coasts. Declines have also been reported from studies off the Balearic Islands where this species, previously common, may now be absent. A type of fishing net for capturing Angel sharks previously existed in the Balearics called ?escatera' (?escat'  meaning angel shark in Catalan), suggesting that the species used to be common in the area.  Anecdotal evidence from interviews with fishermen in the Balearics indicates that in the last 20 years all species of Squatina have diminished drastically (G. Morey pers. comm.). There are only very few records from the Island of Menorca, where an intensive lobster gillnet fishery exists. Demersal fishing pressure is very high in this area, with bottom trawls operating from very shallow waters to about 800 m for shrimp (G. Morey pers comm). <br/> <br/>Despite the scarcity of ancient numerical data, the species seems to have experienced a dramatic decline in most of its range of distribution, becoming extremely rare in the northern part of the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>Along the West African coasts, there are no directed fisheries for this species but it is taken as bycatch of major international industrial demersal trawl fisheries and inshore bottom set gillnets. <br/> <br/>Portuguese landings data from the fleet operating off Morocco and Mauritania, aggregated for <em>S. aculeata</em>, <em>S. oculata</em> and <em>S. squatina</em> combined indicates a 95% decline in CPUE from 1990-1998, but nothing is known of the level of fishing effort associated with these landings. Landings increased to a peak of 35 t in 1990 and when the fishery was closed in 1998 the total landings were 1.7 t. This represents a decline of 95% in landings in 8 years, however nothing is known of the pattern of effort associated with these landings. <br/> <br/>This species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>In Sierra Leone, Squatina species were periodically caught by demersal trawlers in the 1980s, but are now caught very infrequently in Sierra Leone (M. Seisay pers comm. 2006). Few individuals (19) have been caught in FIAS research surveys (FIAS unpub. data), and none have been captured since 1998. Only one specimen was caught in Guinea (year unknown) and one individual caught in Gambia in 1998. In Senegal at total of 13 individuals were caught from 1970 to 1998 and none have been seen in recent FIAS surveys (FIAS unpub. data). In Mauritania four were caught between 1988 and 1989, and none have been caught since.
61418		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Squatina</em> is protected within six marine reserves of the Balearic Islands, where fishing for these species is forbidden and they must be released if they were captured. There are no known specific conservation measures for this species throughout the rest of its range.
61418		distribution	eng	Historically occurred throughout the Mediterranean, nowadays may be more frequent in the southern regions of the Mediterranean, e.g., off the coast of Tunisia (although it is considered rare in the Gulf of Gabes) (Bradaï 2000). Within the Mediterranean, Fredj and Maurin (1987) and Fischer <em>et al</em>. (1987) stated its occurrence both in the eastern and western basins, whereas Ondrias (1971) and Roux (1986) limited its distribution to the western basin, the Adriatic and the Greek coasts. Nevertheless, Golani (1996) confirmed the occurrence of <em>S. oculata</em> in the Levantine basin, as done for Turkish waters by Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. (2002, and cites therein). Lamboeuf <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported it from Lybia. <br/> <br/>In the Northeast Atlantic the species has been reported off the Iberian Peninsula western coast, and it does not occur northwards. <br/> <br/>Eastern Atlantic: Southern Portugal and Spain to Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sao Tome, Gabon, Congo, Republic of Congo, Angola and Namibia (Compagno in prep).
61418		habitat	eng	A warm-temperate and tropical angelshark of the eastern Atlantic continental shelves and upper slopes from >20 to 500 m, mostly between 50 and 100 m, deeper in the tropics than in temperate seas. Surveys off the West African coast indicate that the species may form aggregations in December (Litvinov 1993). <br/> <br/>Age at maturity, longevity and reproductive age are all unknown. Females are reported to mature at 100 cm TL from Tunisian waters (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990) and 89 cm from Senegal (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 2002), males at 71 cm from Tunisia (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990) and 82 cm from Senegal (Capapé 2002). Reaches a maximum size of 160 cm (Compagno in prep.), which is slightly smaller than that reported for other species of angel shark. <br/> <br/>Ovoviviparous, with both ovaries functional. Gives birth in February-April (after a minimum one month gestation period) to about 3 to 8 young (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990), ranging from 22.6 cm to 27 cm in length. The gestation time, reproductive periodicity, rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown. <br/> <br/>Eats small fishes, including argentines (<em>Argentina sphyraena</em>), horse mackerel (<em>Trachurus</em>, Carangidae), codlets (<em>Gadiculus</em> spp., Gadidae), goatfishes (Mullidae), flatfish (<em>Citharus linguatula</em>, Citharidae), squid (<em>Loligo vulgaris</em>, Loliginidae), octopus (<em>Eledone</em> spp., Octopodidae), and crustaceans including mud shrimp and crabs (<em>Upogebia</em> spp., <em>Dorippe lanata</em>, and <em>Liocarcinus depurator</em>) (Compagno in prep).
61418		population	eng	This species is known to be caught off Tunisia and is possibly a component of catches off other countries throughout the Mediterranean including those that report angel sharks to FAO: Albania, France, Malta, Turkey (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/>Vacchi <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the dramatic decline in the elasmobranch catch of a tuna trap operating in Baratti (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1898 and 1922. For the genus <em>Squatina</em>, catches decreased from an average of 134 specimens from the period 1898 to 1905, to 95 between 1906 and 1913, and down to 15 between 1914 and 1922. This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity. <br/> <br/>Off the Balearic Islands <em>Squatina</em> spp. were historically documented in checklists (Barceló I Combis 1868, Fage 1907). Captures of <em>Squatina</em> spp. were relatively frequent until the 1970s, becoming increasingly sporadic during the 1980s in coastal artisanal fisheries (trammel nets and gillnets), trawls and bottom longline fisheries. For example, records from a Balearic lobster gillnet fishery show that it was common to capture angel sharks on a daily basis until the mid 1980s (presumably of <em>S. aculeata</em> or <em>S. oculata</em>, judging by the depth and substratum where this fishery operates). But since the mid 1990s no reports of <em>Squatina</em> spp. have been reported in the area (G. Morey pers. comm). Recently, Massutí and Moranta (2003) reported no captures of <em>Squatina</em> ssp. from four bottom trawl fishing surveys (131 hauls, at a depth range of 46 to 1,800 m) carried out between 1996 and 2001 around the Balearic Islands. In addition, the likely low interaction with stocks from other areas further affects the already low recovery capacity of isolated populations such as those around the Balearics. <br/> <br/>Relini <em>et al</em>. (2000) did not report captures of <em>S. oculata</em> in any of 9,281 hauls during 22 trawl surveys from 1985-1998 as part of the Italian National Project. During the MEDITS program (1995-1999), a broad scale survey of the north Mediterranean coastline, spanning from west Morocco to the Aegean Sea in depths of 10-800 m, <em>S. oculata</em> did not appear in any of a total of 9,095 tows (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, it appears that angel sharks are now absent from most of the northern Mediterranean coastline. <br/> <br/>The species may be more common off the North Africa coastline than in the northern Mediterranean, for example, as reported for the Tunisia (Gulf of Gabès) coast (Quignard and Ben Othaman 1978). However, more recently, Bradai (2000) considered <em>S. oculata</em> to be a very rare species off Tunisia. <br/> <br/>Data from Southern Portugal also suggest the scarcity of the species in the area, where no specimen of the genus <em>Squatina</em> was recorded from experimental fishery surveys using semi-pelagic longlines and trammel nets (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nevertheless, the genus <em>Squatina</em> is reported in Portuguese fishery statistics, showing a clear decline in the last 20 years (R. Coelho pers. comm). <br/> <br/>There are little species specific data from the West African coasts, however, this species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006).
61418		threats	eng	Angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch in trawls as they lie on the bottom. Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency on the shelf and slope area Mediterranean over the last 50 years. The species is also bycaught in trammel nets and bottom longlines throughout its range. Human disturbance by habitat degradation and tourism are also possible threats to its preferred sandy nearshore habitat. <br/> <br/>There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 between 1914 and 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area, to which angel sharks are highly susceptible. A low rate of exchange between <em>Squatina</em> populations makes them prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Mediterranean countries that report 'angelsharks' to FAO with this species as part of the catch include Albania, Turkey, Malta and France. <br/> <br/>Lozano Rey (1928) reported <em>Squatina oculata</em> as a common species in southern and eastern Iberian coasts. Since then <em>S. oculata</em> has virtually disappeared from most of its former range in the Mediterranean. All species of angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch from benthic trawling as they lay on the bottom. They are also caught as bycatch in fixed bottom nets, on line gear, and occasionally even in pelagic trawls. The habitat of the species over the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope (20-500 m depth) is subject to intense demersal fisheries, especially off the northern coasts of the Mediterranean. There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 between 1914 and 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area. Declines have also been reported from studies off the Balearic Islands where this species, previously common, may now be absent. Catch data for this species in the north Mediterranean exist for the period from 1985 to 1999. Two major trawl surveys were carried out (the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) and the Italian National Project (National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND)). Out of a combined total of 18,376 tows, <em>S. oculata </em>was not caught in any (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001, Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000). Due to increasing fishing effort and capacity throughout the Mediterranean during the last few decades, the absence of the species in any recently recorded catches and its likely limiting life history characteristics, this species is considered Critically Endangered in the Mediterranean. It is possibly extinct from waters off the northern coasts where its former known habitat and area of occurrence continue to face fishing pressure, and although it may be in a less critical situation in southern Mediterranean waters the situation there needs to be established as a matter of great urgency before this species declines beyond recovery. <br/> <br/>Despite the scarcity of historic numerical data, the species seems to have experienced a dramatic decline in most of its range of distribution, becoming extremely rare in the northern part of the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>Along the West African coasts, there are no directed fisheries for this species but it is taken as bycatch of major international industrial demersal trawl fisheries and inshore bottom set gillnets. <br/>   <br/>Portuguese landings data from the fleet operating off Morocco and Mauritania, aggregated for <em>S. aculeata</em>, <em>S. oculata</em> and <em>S. squatina</em> combined indicates a 95% decline in CPUE from 1990-1998, but nothing is known of the level of fishing effort associated with these landings. Landings increased to a peak of 35 t in 1990 and when the fishery was closed in 1998 the total landings were 1.7 t. This represents a decline of 95% in landings in eight years, however nothing is known of the pattern of effort associated with these landings. <br/> <br/>This species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>In Sierra Leone, <em>Squatina</em> species were periodically caught by demersal trawlers in the 1980s, but are now caught very infrequently in Sierra Leone (M. Seisay pers comm. 2006). Only few (62) individuals have been caught in the research surveys held in FIAS database, and none have been captured since 2002. It is suspected that most of these records are of juveniles, based on the weight of the captures.  Only five individuals weighing a total of 7 kg were caught in Guinea between 1986 and 2002 and none were caught in Mauritania. In Senegal at total of 51 individuals weighing 56 kg were caught from 1971 to 2000 and none have been recorded in recent surveys. In Gambia six individuals weighing 6 kg were caught from 1986 to 2000, and none have been caught since (FIAS unpub. data).
61419		conservation	eng	There are no legal restrictions of the fishery for <em>Z. brevirostris</em>. The species survives capture by trawl and can be discarded alive (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, unpublished data). A ban on landings would protect the species.
61419		distribution	eng	<em>Z. brevirostris</em> has been reliably recorded from the coasts of the Southwest Atlantic in southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina, between Rio de Janeiro at lat. 22°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Batista 1987) and Mar del Plata at lat. 38°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Castello 1971, Sadowsky 1973, Batista 1987, Vooren 1997). As the species appears to be an inhabitant of temperate to subtropical waters, an older record from Bahia (lat. 14°S) from the year 1907, cited by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) requires confirmation.
61419		habitat	eng	Off Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) the species occurs on the inner shelf at depths of 10?50m, where it feeds on polychaetes and bottom-dwelling crustaceans. Maximum size of females is 55 cm TL off Rio de Janeiro, 53 cm TL (total weight of 970 g) off São Paulo and 64 cm TL (total weight 1,500 g) off Rio Grande do Sul. Maximum size of males is 52 cm TL off Rio de Janeiro and 63 cm TL off Rio Grande do Sul. The size of 10 specimens (three females and seven males) from Mar del Plata, Argentina measured 42 to 66cm TL. Off Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, size at first breeding is 42 to 48 cm TL (female) and 43 to 45 cm TL (male). Off Rio Grande do Sul, females less than 47 cm TL are sexually immature. Size of full-term embryos is 13 cm TL off São Paulo and 16 cm TL off Rio Grande do Sul. Body size varies with latitude, being smaller near the northern limit of the area of distribution. Birth occurs in autumn, from April to June. The species is aplacental viviparous with uterine fecundities of 4 to 8 (average six) neonates per breeding cycle which is synchronized in the population and which probably has a duration of two years (Nani 1964, Castello 1971, Batista 1987, Louro 1995, Vooren 1997, Gonzalez and Reis 2002, Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Vooren unpublished data).
61419		population	eng	<em>Z. brevirostris</em> has been reliably recorded from the coasts of the Southwest Atlantic between Rio de Janeiro at lat. 22°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Batista 1987) and Mar del Plata at lat. 38°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Castello 1971, Sadowsky 1973, Batista 1987, Vooren 1997). On the continental shelf off Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (lat. 29°S to 34°S) the species is common all year round at depths of 10 to 40 m (Vooren 1997). Since the year 1988 there are records of commercial trawl catches of the species from this area, with landings of 1 to 3 ton per fishing trip (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, unpublished data). This relatively small area, which extends along 700 km of coastline and measures about 50 km in width, appears to be the stronghold of the species in terms of population density and abundance. Nowhere else is <em>Z. brevirostris</em> an important fishery resource. This species is rarely captured in Uruguay (A. Domingo, pers. comm).
61419		threats	eng	On the continental shelf of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (lat. 29°S to 34°S) there are records of commercial trawl catches of <em>Z. brevirostris</em> since 1988, with landings of 1?3 ton per fishing trip (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, unpublished data). In south Brazil the species is not listed separately in the fisheries statistics but included in the categories ?unidentified rays and skates? and/or ?guitarfish? which refers mostly to <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em>. Therefore there are no data on CPUE of <em>Z. brevirostris</em>. In view of the  low reproductive potential of the species (on average three neonates per year per adult female), recruitment overfishing will easily occur, and directed fishing will drive the population soon to extinction on the continental shelf of south Brazil which is the centre of the distribution of the species.  <br/> <br/>In Argentina on the fishing grounds off Buenos Aires province, biomass of the species decreased by 86% from the year 1994 to 1999. Although the species has no commercial value and is discarded in Argentina, fishing mortality is reducing the abundance of the species. The species is rarely captured in Uruguay (A. Domingo, pers. comm.).
61420		conservation	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/>The species is listed on Annex III, ‘Species whose exploitation is regulated’ of the Barcelona Convention Protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological diversity in the Mediterranean, signed in 1995 but not yet ratified. The Mediterranean population of this species was also added in 1997 to Appendix III of the Bern Convention (the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats) as a species whose exploitation must be regulated in order to keep its population out of danger. No management action has yet followed these listings. The draft action plan for the conservation of cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea (Anonymous 2002) has identified porbeagle as a species that urgently needs development of a management programme for sustainable fisheries.
61420		distribution	eng	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1° to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers. comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 to 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm.). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances traveled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nm, with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004).
61420		habitat	eng	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for Lamna nasus (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December-February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8 to 9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen et al. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004).
61420		population	eng	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of sub-populations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground.
61420		threats	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>This species has virtually disappeared from Mediterranean records. In the North Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Sea Serena and Vacchi (1997) reported only 15 specimens of porbeagle during a few decades of observation. Soldo and Jardas reported only nine records of this species in the Eastern Adriatic since the end of 19<sup>th</sup> century until 2000. Recently two new records were reported (A. Soldo unpublished data). Orsi Relini and Garibaldi (2002) reported two newborn porbeagles were caught as bycatch of the swordfish longline fishery in the Western Ligurian Sea. A young porbeagle, considered to be very recently born was reported in the central Adriatic Sea (Orsi Relini and Garibaldi 2002). A young specimen was also caught in the central Adriatic during big-game fishing. On the basis of its length, it is suggested to be of an age 1–17 months (Marconi and De Maddalena 2001). These records indicate a possible nursery area in Central Mediterranean. During research of bycatch in the western Mediterranean swordfish longline fishery no porbeagles were caught (De La Serna <em>et al</em>. 2002). Only 15 specimens were caught during research conducted in 1998–1999 on bycatch of sharks in large pelagic fisheries: catches were reported only in the southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea, mainly by driftnets (Megalofonou <em>et al</em>. 2000). Official statistics for Mediterranean area show that the only landings in the Mediterranean were reported in 1996 by Malta – 1 t (FAO 2002). Porbeagles are also popular as recreational species (big game fishing) in some areas of Mediterranean.
61421		conservation	eng	There is not yet any <em>in-situ </em>conservation activity in place. The habitat of the palm is not covered by any kind of protected area. <br/> <br/><em>Ex-situ</em> conservation is provided by the Bolivian NGO “FAN-Bolivia” who has made efforts for <em>in vitro</em> propagation. Furthermore, seeds of the palm can be purchased on the internet from various ornamental palm dealers. This kind of trade, however, is not legally approved by international and Bolivian national legislation article 15 of the CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) and the Decision 391 of the treaty of Cartagena  (in Bolivia: Decreto supremo 24676, Art. 3). <br/> <br/>Project proposals for <em>in situ</em> conservation are ready (FAN-Bolivia 2003), but lack of financing and the implementation of national legislation are hindering the proceedings. <br/> <br/>In 2008, a second inventory will be carried out in order to re-asses the status of conservation of the species
61421		distribution	eng	<em>Parajubaea sunkha</em> is endemic to only a few inter-Andean valleys in the province of Vallegrande, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Vargas 1994). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for figure 3: extent of occurrence (EOO) for <em>Parajubaea sunkha</em>, and figure 4: area of occupancy (AOO) for <em>Parajubaea sunkha</em>. <br/> <br/>The most important sites for the species are around the villages of “Mataralcito” and “El Palmar”. At these two sites there is to be found a population of up to 17,000 mature individual. On other sites, however, populations are very small (1–100 mature individuals). <br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence: 287,625 km² <br/>Area of occupancy: 56 km²
61421		habitat	eng	<em>Parajubaea sunkha</em> is a montane palm species which grows at an altitude from 1,700 to 2,500 m above sea level. It is endemic to only a few inter-Andean valleys (Vargas 1994). Mean annual precipitation in this region is about 550 mm with a marked dry season of five months between June and October, in some years it lasts even longer. In the wet season frosts can occur at night. This makes the palm suitable for Mediterranean localities with similar climates (Vargas 1994). Loving shadow in the youth and bare sun as an adult it out-competes the accompanying vegetation when closing the canopy. In the dark <em>Parajubaea</em> understorey, a humid and template microclimate can be observed and rotten leaves form a humic topsoil which is ideal for the germination of the palm seeds. After pollination, the fruit ripens for about 20 months. When fallen to ground, the seed is distributed by rodents who feed on the fruit. It is estimated that rodents do not disperse the seed over a larger distance than 100 m from one mother tree. Under natural conditions, the seeds need another 17 months for germination (Vargas 1994), but with the help of in vitro cultivation the germination time of <em>P. sunkha</em> and <em>P. torallyi</em> can be brought down to only several weeks (Ibisch 2004).
61421		population	eng	According to Vargas (1994) (follow the link below for figure 2: location of the <em>Parajubaea sunkha</em> subpopulations according to Vargas (1994)): <br/> <br/>There are 14 locations recorded, most of which show only a few individuals (1–100). The only significant populations are to be found in locations number 11 (Mataralcito) and 12 (El Palmar) with an estimate of up to 17,000 mature individuals.  <br/> <br/>Degree of fragmentation is high. Approximately the half of the populations are fragmented and are estimated to be only little viable.
61421		threats	eng	If the palm remains undisturbed it shows an abundant regeneration in its natural habitat, but overgrazing, land clearing, fires and human use of the palm’s fibres have a strong impact on the regeneration dynamics of this rare species (Vargas 1994). <br/> <br/>On many sites the palm is a direct competitor to agriculture. The custom of felling the tallest trees when their productivity ceases, shows clearly that the palm will not be conserved unless it provides important socio-economic benefits to the farmers. This means that there is a dilemma between the usefulness and the subsequent overexploitation of the species, and the uselessness and clear cutting of the remaining populations. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for figure 1: population structure of four representative palm stands. <br/> <br/>A first inventory was carried out in January 2001. The diagrams of the forest inventory (fig. 1) depict the population structure of four representative palm stands of 1ha in size that belong to four different farmers. The diagrams show clearly that the population structure is unbalanced: while 2–5 years old palm plants are very abundant in all populations, the generation of 0.5 m tall palm trees is missing completely in populations P1 and P2   and is underrepresented in populations P3 and P4. <br/> <br/>The absence of palms around 0.5 m of height (+/-20 years old) can be traced back to the construction of a road that connects the rural area with the town. Before the road was built, farmers transported the fibre with donkeys and on their backs to the local market. This limited them in terms of the quantity they could transport and secured the fructification of adult palms to ensure regeneration. Since the road was build in 1984, it is possible to harvest and transport much larger quantities of palm fibre. Farmers confirm that in this time almost all palms were under exploitation. As a result, regeneration almost came to a halt. This is shown by the absence of the 0.5 m tall palms in the populations 1 and 2 (fig. 1). These palm stands are directly linked to the road and as consequence were exploited heavily.  <br/> <br/>The populations 3 and 4 belong to farmers that live within about an hour walk from the road. As a result, exploitation in these palm stands was not as intensive and regeneration could occur to some degree. This is testified by the presence of more young palms between 0.5–1 m of height compared to population 1 and 2 (fig.1). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>The palm produces a fibre, which grows in its leaf axils and is locally used to make mattresses, ropes and saddle pillows. Apart from subsistence use these products are sporadically sold on local markets. <br/> <br/>The leaves are used to manufacture hats, baskets and fans (Vargas 1994). Leafs and fruits serve as fodder for livestock. Furthermore, the species is internationally traded as ornamental plant.
61422		conservation	eng	<em>X. trivittatus</em> is not known from any marine protected areas in the countries from which it has been recorded.
61422		distribution	eng	Only known from a small number of records from Hong Kong, Taiwan and Viet Nam (Randall and Cornish 2000). Records from Indonesia and Mauritius are questionable (Froese and Pauly 2005)
61422		habitat	eng	As far as is known, this species has never been seen in the wild, at least not by a scientist. In general razorfishes (<em>Xyrichtys</em> spp.) live over open stretches of sand which they dive into when threatened (Randall and Cornish 2000).
61422		population	eng	Apparently rare. At present this species is only known from four specimens, one preserved specimen from Taiwan, another from Viet Nam, and two purchased live from Hong Kong (Randall and Cornish 2000). Within Hong Kong the species is certainly rare as in ten years of intensive diving and visits to local fish markets, only two have been seen (and none since 1999) (A. Cornish pers. obs.). It may be more abundant in other localities than is realized due to taxonomic confusion, e.g. the specimen from Taiwan had been mis-identified as <em>Xyrichtys pavo</em>.
61422		threats	eng	The waters around Hong Kong, and in general in the South China Sea, are intensively bottom-trawled, as well as being fished with other gears such as gill-nets. The soft-bottom benthos inhabited by <em>X. trivittatus</em> is, therefore, subject to great fishing pressure, and this is almost certainly the greatest threat to the species.
61423		distribution	eng	Found on islands of Maui and Oahu and extirpated on Hawaii.
61423		habitat	eng	This species grows only along streams in wet forests, on streambanks or next to waterfalls.
61423		population	eng	Three populations totaling 350–410 individuals.
61423		threats	eng	Threats include feral pigs, goats, weeds and flooding.
61424		distribution	eng	Found on island of Kauai.
61424		habitat	eng	Sheer rock faces at the margins of waterfalls in the spray zone in wet forest regions.
61424		population	eng	2–4 populations totaling 500 individuals.
61424		threats	eng	Threats include drought, weeds and flooding.
61425		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychelles and Praslin National Parks. Forested areas where the main population occurs on Silhouette island should receive legal protection. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.
61425		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin. A historical record from Zanzibar (Tanzania) is erroneous. It occurs from sea level to 550 m.
61425		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species in tropical forest, being present in both primary forest and upland rural gardens. It also occurs in secondary forest but only if there is a high plant diversity. Its reproduction on Mahé is associated with introduced pineapple plants as it lays its eggs in these. These pineapples are not used on Silhouette or Praslin. Its natural nesting sites remain unknown but are assumed to be in the endemic <em>Pandanus</em> and palms.
61425		population	eng	It is not a common species, occurring at low densities. Its population was estimated at 2,055 ± 620 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61425		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation as a result of the invasion by alien plants species, especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>, principally on Mahé and Praslin.
61426		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. The populations on Silhouette and Fregate islands should be included in new protected areas.
61426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, and Frégate, where it occurs at elevations from sea-level up to 430 m.
61426		habitat	eng	It is apparently a forest species. It is a predator of small mammals (introduced rats) and birds. It occurs in a wide range of forest habitats but is most freqently encountered in primary and diverse secondary forest. The species is rarely encountered in degraded habitats. Secondary habitats are suitable if plant diversity is high and regeneration of native trees occurring, but abandoned plantations and severely degraded habitat appear to be unsuitable. Details of reproductive biology are unknown.
61426		population	eng	It is a nocturnal species and correspondingly poorly known; there is no information on its population size.
61426		threats	eng	Ongoing invasion of forests (especially on Mahé and Praslin) by <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> are degrading all forest habitats, and this represents a threat to the species. The species is occasionally killed by humans, but as a nocturnal species it is rarely encountered and this is not a substantial threat.
61427		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride Special Reserve. There is a record from the Cousine Special Reserve but it is not known if this represents an established population. The major populaiton on Silhouette island should be included with a protected area.
61427		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Aride, La Digue and Frégate, where it occurs from sea-level up to 914 m.
61427		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal predator of geckos and skinks, found in forest. It occurs in secondary habitats but is principally found in native vegetation (especially high forest). Secondary habitat is suitable if plant diversity is high and regeneration of native trees occurring, but abandoned plantations and severely degraded habitat appear to be unsuitable. Details of its reproductive biology are largely unknown.
61427		population	eng	Its population was estimated at 10,038 ± 2,449 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61427		threats	eng	It is impacted by predation by introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>) on Mahé and Praslin. Ongoing invasion of forests (especially on Mahé and Praslin) by <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> is degrading all forest habitats, and this represents a threat to the species.
61428		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.
61428		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is widespread on the granitic islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Aride, La Digue, Frégate, Cousin and Cousine. It ranges from sea level up to 500 m.
61428		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in wooded areas. It is particularly abundant in coastal forests on sea-bird islands, palm forest and high forest on Silhouette island. It occurs at lower densities in secondary habitats and coconut plantations. It glues its eggs to trees and rock overhangs, tending to use regular sites which may be used by multiple generations of geckos.
61428		population	eng	It is a low-density species. Its population was estimated at 9,124 ± 670 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61428		threats	eng	There are no known threats; it does occur in disturbed habitats although at reduced densities. It is occassionally found in buildings, although it is vulnerable to domestic cats.
61429		conservation	eng	It is present in Praslin National Park.
61429		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin and La Digue. It is found from sea level to 350 m.
61429		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in low growing vegetation in woodland. It is usually associated with palms, occurring at high densities in native palm forest but also in coconut plantations. As such it is highly adaptable, and it will also live in buildings. It glues its eggs to palm leaves.
61429		population	eng	Its population was estimated at 22,795 ± 1,220 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61429		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, with no known threats.
61430		conservation	eng	It is present in Praslin National Park. Forest habitats on Silhouette island should be included in a new protected area.
61430		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Silhouette and Praslin. Although the type specimen is labeled 'Madagascar' this is believed to be erroneous. It occurs from 150–250 m.
61430		habitat	eng	It is a canopy-dwelling arboreal species found in tropical forest with a canopy over 15 m. It does not occur in degraded habitats. On Praslin island it feeds largely on nectar and pollen from <em>Lodoicea maldivica</em> palms. Its reproductive biology is unknown.
61430		population	eng	It is a low density species, with an estimated population of 3,389 ± 205 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61430		threats	eng	The species has a very restricted range and it will be vulnerable to any degradation of its habitat, for example through the spread of invasive species.
61431		conservation	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. a. abbotti</span> is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve. The species is listed on CITES Appendix II. The subspecies in Madagascar is present in a number of protected areas. The validity of the Madagascan subspecies requires confirmation, and research is needed into the distribution, population status and natural history of this species in Madagascar.
61431		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Madagascar and the southern Seychelles (Aldabra atoll and associated islets, and Assumption). In Madagascar it occurs widely in the northern and northwestern parts of the country. Known localities include   Andavokoera (Rakotondravony 2006), Ankarana (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Ampombofofo (Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Analamerana (Rakotondravony 2006), Bemaraha (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Belambo (Raselimanana 2008), Berara (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), Lokobe (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Loky-Manambato (Rakotondravony 2006),&#160; Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Montage des Français (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Nosy Hara (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Namoroka (Raselimanana 2008), Nosy Mamoko (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Nosy Mitsio (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Nosy Sakatia (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Nosy Tanikely (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and Sahamalaza (Raselimanana 2008). This species has been found from sea level to 320 m (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).  It may also occur in a small forest fragment known as Antsolipa between  Montagne d'Ambre and Ankarana, at 423 m asl., but the identity of this record cannot  be confirmed (Labanowski and Lowin 2011); likewise Durkin <em>et al.</em> (2011) report specimens from the same region as <em>P.</em> cf. <em>abbotti</em>. There is a single record from a site north of Sambava in northeastern Madagascar, supported by a reliable colour photograph (Schmidt and Glaw 1997).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
61431		habitat	eng	Abbott's day gecko is usually found in scrub and woodland on Aldabra and Assumption, generally foraging within vegetation (including coconut trees), but it can also occur on the ground. In Madagascar it is mainly found on large sun-exposed tree trunks outside and at the edge of primary forest patches. On Nosy Be and on the Ampasindava Peninsula the species is also found in the coastal mangroves and mangrove trees along swamps and rivers. In western Madagascar, in the seasonal dry forests near Antsalova, the animals are found in the larger deciduous trees. In urban areas like Antsiranana and southern Nosy Be, they can be found on houses and in gardens. It is an egg-laying species.
61431		population	eng	Based on extrapolating densities per hectare obtained from transects surveys to the area of suitable habitat, the population of <em>Phelsuma a. abbotti</em> on Aldabra was estimated at 269,100 individuals in 2005; and of <em>P. a. sumptio</em> on Assumption at 2,928 in 2005 (Gerlach 2008).
61431		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a threat to the Aldabra and Assumption subspecies: both Aldabra and Assumption are below eight metres in altitude and all <em>P. abbotti</em> habitat is less than two metres above sea level. There has been a low level of exploitation for the international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species. No other threats are known, and the population on Madagascar is not thought to be at risk.
61432		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.
61432		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. The subspecies <em>P. a. astriata</em> occurs on the Mahé group (including Mahé itself, Silhouette, St Anne, Cerf and other nearby islands). The subspecies <em>P. a. semicarinata</em> occurs on the Praslin group (including Praslin itself, and also Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Curieuse, Grande Soeur and La Digue). Animals from Silhouette and Frégate have not been assigned to subspecies. It occurs from sea-level up to 500 m.
61432		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in all vegetated habitats. It is highly adaptable, and is found in plantations, gardens and houses. It is an egg-laying species.
61432		population	eng	The total population was estimated at 51,703 ± 5,705 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep). The population estimates of the subspecies were as follows: <em>P. a. astrata</em> - 22,697 ± 1,114 animals; <em>P.a. semicarinata</em> - 26,816 ± 3,862 animals; and the Frégate population (unidentifed) - 2,190 ± 729 animals.
61432		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species. There has been a small international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species.
61433		conservation	eng	The gold dust day gecko presumably occurs in some protected areas in Madagascar. It is included on Appendix II of CITES. The origin of the Seychelles population requires clarification.
61433		distribution	eng	This species is native to northern Madagascar. The nominate subspecies is also found in Anjouan and the French Department of Mayotte, both within the Comoros archipelago, where it is presumed to represent a recent introduction (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been recorded from the coral islands of Farquhar and Providence in the southern Seychelles; as these are the closest of the Seychelles islands to Madagascar it is unclear whether this represents a natural colonization or a human introduction (Gerlach 2008). It has also been introduced to Réunion (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011), Hawaii (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2007) and French Polynesia (Ota and Ineich 2006), and recently also to Mauritius (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). On Madagascar the nominate subspecies has been recorded from a range of sites including    Ambanja (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Ambilobe (Glaw and Vences 2007), Antalaha (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Antsohiy (Glaw and Vences 2007), Cap Est (Glaw and Vences 2007), Lokobe (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Manongarivo (Raxworthy 1988), Marojejy (Raselimanana et al. 2000), Nosy Faly (Glaw and Vences 2007), Nosy Komba (Glaw and Vences 2007), Nosy Mitsio (Andreone et al. 2003) and Sambava (Glaw and Vences 2007).&#160; The subspecies <em>P. l. angularis</em> occurs along the northwestern  coastal plain of Madagascar.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
61433		habitat	eng	The Gold Dust Day Gecko can be found in a variety of habitats, but is absent from denser forest regions. Palms and banana trees are the preferred vegetation, but they can also be found on traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>), smaller deciduous trees, and often in gardens and on houses. It is an egg-laying species.
61433		population	eng	<p>This species is considered very abundant within its Malagasy range, especially in the Sambirano region of the northwest (Glaw and Vences 2007). There is no recent information on its abundance from other islands.<br/></p>
61433		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species. There has been a low level of collection for the international pet trade but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species, which is both abundant in the wild and bred commercially in captivity.
61434		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois (<em>P. s. longinsulae</em>) and Praslin (<em>P. s. sundbergi</em>) National Parks. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.
61434		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is widespread on several islands. The nominate subspecies occurs on Praslin, Curieuse, Chauve Souris, Round, Denis, and Platte (its presence on Desroches, Marie-Louise and Poivre in the Amirantes Islands is probably due to introductions). The subspecies <em>P. s. longinsulae</em> occurs on Mahé (including St Anne, Cerf, Long Island and several other surrounding islands), Silhouette, North and Frégate Island (with presumably introduced populations on Menai Island within the Cosmoledo atoll and Remire Island in the Amirantes). The subspecies <em>P. s. ladiguensis</em> occurs on La Digue, Curieuse, Félicité, Coco, Petite Soeur, Grande Soeur and Marianne Islands. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 500 m.
61434		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in all wooded habitats, but it is also adaptable and occurs in gardens and houses. It is an egg-laying species.
61434		population	eng	The global population was estimated at 36,310 ± 4,347 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep.). The population estimates of the subspecies were as follows: <em>P. s. sundbergi</em> - 3,663 ± 264 animals; <em>P. s. longinsulae</em> - 19,896 ± 1,703 animals; and <em>P. s. ladiguensis</em> - 12,751 ± 1,002 animals.
61434		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species. There has been a small international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species.
61435		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park and the  Aride Special Reserve.
61435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands, where it has been recorded on Mahé, Silhouette, North, Praslin, Cousin, Cousine,  Aride, Booby, Curieuse, Félicité, Grande Soeur, Cocos and Frégate  islands. It is found from sea level to at least 300 m.
61435		habitat	eng	It is a cryptic species found under bark, in coconut palm axils and in rock crevices. It is occasionally found in buildings (behind batons or in window frames). Recorded locations are in or near coconut plantions, lowland forest and secondary forest. Most details of its ecology are unknown.
61435		population	eng	No population estimates have been made. It appears to be uncommon but is a cryptic species and its occasional presence in buildings suggests that it may be more abundant than has been assumed.
61435		threats	eng	There are no known threats. It appears to be adaptable to habitat change.
61436		conservation	eng	This widespread species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout Madagascar.
61436		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Madagascar, occurring in most parts of the country (even if only as isolated populations), and on the nearby islands of Nosy Be, Nosy Komba, Nosy Sakatia, and Nosy Tanikely. The subspecies <em>Z. m. insulanus</em> is restricted to Cosmoledo Atoll in the southern Seychelles, and to Grande Glorieuse in the Iles Glorieuse (France). It has an estimated extent of occurrence on Madagascar of 114,132 km².
61436		habitat	eng	<p>This diurnal, terrestrial lizard is found in a range of habitat types, including open and degraded humid forest at mid and low altitudes, as well as plantations (Glaw and Vences 2007). It also occurs within relatively intact humid forest vegetation in open patches exposed to the sun  (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is predominantly a ground-dweller that can occasionally be found climbing on cliffs and tree trunks. On Cosmoledo, <em>Z. m. insulanus</em> is found in open shrubland. It is an egg-laying species.</p>
61436		population	eng	It is generally a common species in Madagascar. Based on extrapolation from the results of survey transects to the area of suitable habitat, the Cosmoledo population was estimated at approximately 4,260 ± 154 individuals in 2005 (Gerlach 2008).
61436		threats	eng	Overall there are no threats to this adaptable species. The subspecies <em>Z. m. insulanus</em> is restricted to low coral islands and is threatened by sea level rise. These islands reach a maximum altitude of eight metres, but suitable habitat is restricted to a maximum altitude of only one metre.
61437		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois National Parks. The largest population (84% of the total) is on Silhouette island which is not  protected at present, and should be included in a new protected area.
61437		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé and Silhouette, where it occurs from mid-elevations (about 200 m) up to 800 m. In recent times on Mahé it has only been located at Mont Sebert, though it must once have been more widespread.
61437		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species found in tropical forest. It appears to be intolerant of disturbance to its forest habitat. It is an egg-laying species.
61437		population	eng	The global population was estimated at 36,042 ± 1,513 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61437		threats	eng	Predation by introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>) on Mahé island might be a threat that perhaps accounts for its very restricted distribution on this island. It is dependant on forest habitats so it is probably vulnerable to habitat loss or degradation resulting from the spread of alien plants.
61438		conservation	eng	It is probably present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. The largest population (42% of the total) is on Silhouette island which is not  protected at present, and should be included in a new protected area.
61438		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is recorded from the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Curieuse, Félicité, La Digue and Frégate. It is a lowland species occurring up to 400 m. On Mahé the only recent record is from Mont Sebert, though it must once have been more widespread.
61438		habitat	eng	It is a leaf-litter burrowing species that is found in lowland forest habitats. It appears to be intolerant of disturbance to its forest habitat. It is an egg-laying species.
61438		population	eng	The global population was estimated at 36,042 ± 1,513 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in press).
61438		threats	eng	Introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>) are probably predators of this species on Mahé, accounting for the rarity of the species on that island (and possibly its absence from Praslin where it might once have occurred). It is dependant on forest habitats so it is probably vulnerable to habitat loss or degradation resulting from the spread of alien plants.
61439		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.
61439		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the granitic Seychelles islands of: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Curieuse and La Digue. It is found from sea level up to 500 m.
61439		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing species found in leaf-litter in woodland.  It is mainly restricted to primary and regenerating native forest habitats. It does occur in secondary forest but at reduced densities.
61439		population	eng	Its population was estimated at 170,895 ± 22,059 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in press). It is abundant in most areas.
61439		threats	eng	Populations on Mahé and Praslin are probably at reduced levels as a result of predation by introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>), although these populations appear to be stable now. It is tolerant of current levels of habitat deterioration.
61440		conservation	eng	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.
61440		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is naturally restricted to the granitic islands of Mahé (including St Anne, Cerf and other surrounding islands), Silhouette, Praslin, North, Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Curieuse, La Digue, Grande Soeur, Petite Soeur, Félicité, Frégate, and others. It has also introduced to the Amirantes Islands (Remire, D'Arros, St. Joseph, Farquhar) in the southern Seychelles. It occurs up to 550 m.
61440		habitat	eng	It is a widespread and highly adaptable species, being most abundant in lowland habitats. It is common in forest, shrubland, gardens, plantations, urban areas and degraded habitats, and also occurs in mangroves. It is an egg-laying species.
61440		population	eng	The global population was estimated at 357,566 ± 105,010 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61440		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species.
61441		conservation	eng	It is present in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.
61441		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it occurs only on islands with seabird colonies: Aride, Cousin, Cousine, St. Pierre, Mammelles, Recifs and Frégate. There are records from Bird Island, but it is no longer present at this site (J. Gerlach pers. comm).
61441		habitat	eng	It is found only in seabird colonies in dry forest and shrubland, where it is a generalist scavenger and predator, living both terrestrially and arboreally. It is an egg-laying species.
61441		population	eng	Although restricted to a tiny area, the population was estimated at 376,205 ± 5,409 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).
61441		threats	eng	There are no direct threats, but the species is susceptible to the loss of the seabird colonies on which it depends; these are at risk from human disturbance.
61442		conservation	eng	Belugas, like all marine mammals, are protected in the United States by the MMPA which prohibits all taking.  Exemptions to the taking prohibition are allowed for subsistence hunting by Alaska Natives, scientific research, incidental take in commercial fisheries, and a few other activities.  In February 1999, the Alaska Region of NMFS recommended that the sale of Cook Inlet Beluga products (e.g., skin or muktuk as it is known locally) under the subsistence provisions of the MMPA should be prohibited or that a moratorium on the hunting of Cook Inlet belugas should be imposed.  In May 1999, the U.S. Congress passed legislation that prohibited the taking of Cook Inlet belugas for subsistence unless such taking was authorized by a cooperative agreement between NMFS and the affected Alaska Native organization(s), and as a result there was no legal harvest that year.  In 2000 a harvest of one whale was authorized by a cooperative agreement, but the hunt did not occur (Mahoney and Shelden 2000).  In May 2000, NMFS, having determined that the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation was below its optimum sustainable population level, designated it as depleted under the MMPA (U.S. Federal Register 65:34590).  The depleted listing provided NMFS with the regulatory authority to limit the Alaska Native subsistence harvest.  An interim harvest regime was agreed upon through an Administrative Law Judge hearing, whereby the harvest during 2001?2004 would be limited to six strikes.  Other provisions limited the hunting season, protected calves and adults with calves, prohibited sales of beluga parts and products, and provided for an emergency suspension of the hunt if an unusual number of non-hunting mortalities occurred (NMFS 2003).  Hunting would only be allowed through cooperative agreements between NMFS and Alaska Native organizations. <br/> <br/>In June 1991, NMFS added the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation to the list of taxa considered candidates for listing as threatened or endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) (U.S. Federal Register 56:26797).  An ESA status review was initiated in November 1998 (U.S. Federal Register 63:64228).  NMFS received two petitions in March 1999 requesting that Cook Inlet belugas be listed as endangered under the ESA.  In June 2000, NMFS published a determination that listing the Cook Inlet subpopulation under the ESA was not warranted because they believed that no factor other than harvest had been identified at that time as having a significant adverse effect on the population (U.S. Federal Register 65:38778), and that harvest had been dealt with through the ongoing regulation of subsistence hunting.
61442		distribution	eng	Resident in Cook Inlet (near Anchorage, Alaska; see Figure 2 in the attached PDF) throughout the year with few sightings in the Gulf of Alaska outside of the Inlet (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000).  During the 1970s, the summer distribution included the upper, central, and parts of the lower regions of the inlet, and both coastal and offshore waters (Harrison and Hall 1978, Murray and Fay 1979).  The current summer distribution is restricted to shallow coastal and estuarine areas in the upper inlet (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000, Speckman and Piatt 2000).  Although winter sightings have been rare historically, belugas were presumed to move to the lower (i.e., southern) regions of Cook Inlet in winter to avoid heavy ice conditions in the upper Inlet (Calkins 1986).  However, recent results from aerial surveys (Hansen and Hubbard 1999, Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2004) and satellite-linked tagging studies (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005) indicate that many if not all belugas remain in the upper Inlet throughout the winter.  During 2000?2003 some tagged belugas used Knik and Turnagain  arms during all months of the year, and the tagged animals rarely ranged south of the Forelands.  The area of upper Cook Inlet now most used by belugas (stippled region in Figure 2) covers approximately 3,800 km², and this figure provides an estimate of the minimum size of the area of occupancy.  The portion of central Cook Inlet from the Forelands to Iniskin and Kachemak bays where occasional sightings have been made in recent years (see Figure 2) includes an additional area of approximately 7,500 km².  The current extent of occurrence is therefore on the order of 11,000 km².  A comparison of distributional information across the records of summer surveys in different years revealed a decrease in sightings of whales in both the offshore areas and the lower regions of the inlet, indicating a reduction in the area of occupancy during this season since the mid-1970s (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Population Identity:</strong> <br/>Based on studies of mitochondrial DNA, Cook Inlet belugas are genetically distinct from the other four Beluga subpopulations that occur in western and northern Alaska (O?Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1997, G. O?Corry-Crowe pers. comm.).  There have been only two Beluga sightings recorded in the region between Cook Inlet and the nearest Beluga subpopulation in Bristol Bay (Frost and Lowry 1990, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000), suggesting that the 900 km long Alaska Peninsula is an effective barrier to movement and that the Cook Inlet subpopulation is geographically and reproductively isolated from Beluga subpopulations to the west (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF).  A thorough review of survey effort in the Gulf of Alaska (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000) produced regular sightings of belugas in only two regions, Cook Inlet and Yakutat Bay.  The Beluga group in Yakutat Bay is very small, probably numbering only 10?20 individuals (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000, O'Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 2006).  The demographic and genetic relationships between belugas in Cook Inlet and Yakutat Bay are currently poorly known, but since animals are seen in both areas year round (Hubbard <em>et al</em>. 1999, Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000) and there have been very few sightings in the intervening 700 km long region (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000) it is possible that the Cook Inlet subpopulation is also isolated from the whales in Yakutat Bay.  The occurrence of belugas in Yakutat Bay will not be considered further in this evaluation. <br/> <br/>Dedicated aerial surveys for belugas have been conducted mostly in the summer concentration areas, Yakutat Bay and Cook Inlet.  However, the adjacent and intervening areas of the Gulf of Alaska are frequently surveyed by marine mammal researchers studying other species, and are regularly traversed by fishermen and other coastal residents who commonly report unusual marine mammal sightings.  We consider the lack of reported sightings in these regions to be a reliable indication that the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation is geographically isolated.
61442		habitat	eng	Cook Inlet is a very dynamic environment with large tides, strong currents, and seasonal sea ice cover (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  During aerial surveys flown in June and July 1993?2000 Beluga whales were seen exclusively in shallow, nearshore, low-salinity waters of upper Cook Inlet, especially off the mouths of large rivers and in Knik and Turnagain arms (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Belugas are believed to concentrate in those areas to feed on out-migrating salmon smolt and spawning runs of anadromous fishes (Calkins 1984, 1986; Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000; Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Also, the shallow waters of the upper Inlet and coastal zone may provide refuge from predators and suitable habitat for calving and nursing (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 1999, Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Satellite-linked telemetry studies showed a tendency for belugas to spend more time in deeper offshore waters of the upper Inlet during winter months, although they continued to use Knik and Turnagain arms (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).
61442		population	eng	Aerial counts of belugas in Cook Inlet date to the early 1960s (Klinkhart 1966) but those efforts generally produced only minimum counts and/or rough estimates of abundance.  The best available estimate of historical population size is based on an aerial survey count of 479 whales made in August 1979 (Calkins 1989), and a correction factor for missed animals of 2.7 that was derived from studies of radiotagged belugas in Bristol Bay, Alaska (Frost <em>et al</em>. 1985).  Using those figures NMFS (2003) calculated a minimum abundance estimate of 1,293 whales.  Annual systematic surveys to estimate total abundance began in 1993, and the protocols used have been consistent since 1994. Annual estimates of abundance declined from 653 (CV = 0.43) in 1993 to 435 (CV = 0.23) in 2000 and Monte Carlo simulations indicated a 47% probability that there was a decline of at least 50% over the period 1994?1998 (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Subsequent abundance estimates have been 386 (CV = 0.09) in 2001, 313 (CV = 0.12) in 2002, 357 (CV = 0.11) in 2003, 366 (CV=0.20) in 2004, and 278 (CV=0.18) in 2005 (D. Rugh and R. Hobbs pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Differences in survey design and analytical techniques prior to 1994 rule out a precise statistical assessment of trends using the first available population estimate.  Simply comparing the estimate of 1,293 in 1979 to 278 in 2005 indicates a 78% decline in 26 years, but with unspecified confidence.   <br/> <br/>The 1994-2005 surveys were statistically defined, and allow rigorous evaluation of the decline and the underlying population dynamics during the more recent period.  A Bayesian inference was conducted on the underlying rate of increase, R<sub><em>max</em></sub>, and the true 1994 population size, using the Taylor and DeMaster (1993) model for density dependent population growth with the conventional shape parameter value <em>z</em>=2.3898, an assumed value of <em>K</em>=1,300 (based roughly on the earliest survey estimate), fitting to the 1994 through 2005 time series of population estimates, reported coefficients of variation of the respective estimates, and the harvest estimates (D. Goodman unpublished).  The results of annual estimates of population size from the model are shown in Figure 3 (see the attached PDF).  Comparing the mode of the Bayesian distribution for the 2005 population size (329) to the 1979 estimate indicates a decline of 75% over the 26-year period. <br/> <br/>In the present model, R<sub><em>max</em></sub> represents the growth rate that the population would exhibit in the absence of crowding and the absence of harvest, all other things (including favorability of the environmental state) being equal, as revealed from observed growth in the given data set.  Thus, R<sub><em>max</em></sub> does not necessarily indicate the potential growth rate under optimal conditions.  The Bayesian analysis used broad independent uniform priors for the two unknown parameters, and a normal likelihood for the observation error in the census.  The Bayesian analysis yielded a posterior distribution for Rmax  that is abnormally low (see Figure 4 in attached PDF) compared to the expectation that a small cetacean population should have a value of R<sub><em>max</em></sub> in the range from 2% to 6%, with the average expected to be around 4% (Wade 1999).  Based on this analysis the probability is 99% that R<sub><em>max</em></sub> for the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation is less than the expected average normal value, and the probability is 93% that R<sub><em>max</em></sub> is lower than the expected normal range.  The probability is 71% that R<sub><em>max</em></sub> is actually negative for this population over the period covered by the data (1994?2005). The modal estimate of R<sub><em>max</em></sub> from the Bayesian inference is -1.2, indicating a population that is declining by about 1% per year.  If these underlying dynamics continue, and the future harvest is zero, there is a 22% probability that the population will be further halved from its 2005 abundance within 30 years.   <br/> <br/>To evaluate taxa based on Red List Criteria, IUCN defines population size as the number of mature individuals.  There are no data available on the sex and age composition of the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation or on the age at which animals attain sexual maturity.  Such information is available from other harvested Beluga subpopulations, and although the data may be subject to biases from non-random distribution of sex/age classes and harvest selectivity it can be used to estimate the number of animals that are mature.  Critical to this determination is the ability to accurately determine the age of individuals, which for Beluga whales and other toothed cetaceans is typically done by counting growth layer groups (GLGs) in their teeth.  For Beluga whales it has generally been assumed that two GLGs are deposited each year (Burns and Seaman 1986, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Suydam 1999).  Hohn and Lockyer (1999) questioned that assumption, citing what they regarded as convincing evidence of a one GLG/yr deposition rate.  However, examination of teeth from two known age captive animals has confirmed the two GLG/yr assumption (Goren <em>et al</em>. 1987, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 1994) and we will assume that is the true situation.  For the eastern Bering and eastern Chukchi seas, Burns and Seaman (1986) estimated the first age of sexual maturity to be 4?7 years old for females.  Heide-Jørgensen and Teilmann (1994) produced estimates of 4?7 years old for first age of maturity for females and 6?7 years old for males for West Greenland belugas.  Based on the life table in Burns and Seaman (1986), 63% of belugas in western Alaska would be 6 years old and older.  However, the proportion capable of reproduction may be somewhat less if reproductive senescence occurs in older females (Burns and Seaman 1986, Suydam 1999).  The Bayesian inference procedure described above delivered a posterior distribution for the 2005 population size (see Figure 5 in the attached PDF).  This shows a 95% probability that the population is in the interval 278?388.  Using the mode of the Bayesian distribution of population sizes (329) and the estimate of 63% mature gives an estimate of 207 mature individuals in the population. <br/> <br/><strong>Generation Time:</strong> <br/>Generation time, estimated as the average age of parents of the current cohort, cannot be calculated directly for Cook Inlet belugas because data on reproductive characteristics and age distribution are lacking for that population.  Elsewhere in Alaska, the age of first parenthood for female belugas is 5-8 years (Burns and Seaman 1986).  Males probably are physiologically capable of breeding at about the same age (Heide-Jørgensen and Teilmann 1994). Maximum ages recorded by Burns and Seaman (1986) were 35 years for females and 38 years for males.  These estimates may be biased low due to tooth wear (Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Based on the life table in Burns and Seaman (1986), the average age of belugas 6 years and older was 16.1 years.  We have no way to determine if these vital parameters are similar for Cook Inlet belugas.  Nonetheless, we consider 16 years to be the best available estimate of the average age of parents in the Cook Inlet subpopulation, and the generation time.
61442		threats	eng	Moore <em>et al</em>. (2000) reviewed potential threats to Cook Inlet belugas from natural catastrophes (fires, earthquakes, and vulcanism) and found no reported negative effects on belugas or their habitat.  Availability of prey likely has a strong influence on the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Few data are available on prey abundance except for the commercially harvested salmon species.  Speckman and Piatt (2000) speculated that availability of Beluga prey species may have changed in the lower Inlet as part of a general regime shift in the Gulf of Alaska.  Local residents perceive that there has been a general decline in the abundance of fish in Cook Inlet in recent years (Huntington 2000).  It is also possible, if not likely, that climatic warming may change characteristics of the Cook Inlet environment and fauna in ways that will effect Beluga whales, but currently there are no data that can be used to evaluate this possibility. <br/> <br/>Shelden <em>et al</em>. (2003) reviewed data on Killer Whale predation in Cook Inlet, and although they accounted for 21 belugas killed by killer whales between 1985 and 2002 they concluded that predation was a small contribution to overall mortality.  However, because this population is currently at a very low size, normal fluctuations in prey availability and predation may affect its ability to recover. <br/> <br/>Prior to 1972 there were periodic commercial and sport hunts for Beluga in Cook Inlet (Mahoney and Shelden 2000, NMFS 2003), but those activities ceased with passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA).  Native Alaskans have hunted belugas in Cook Inlet from earliest times (Huntington 2000, Mahoney and Shelden 2000).  During much of the last century, subsistence removals appear to have been modest.  A number of factors, including rapid human population growth and improvements in equipment, resulted in an increase in subsistence hunting in Cook Inlet during the 1980s.  By the mid to late 1990s, the harvest was unsustainable.  It has been estimated that an average of 67 whales were removed each year from 1994-1998, and that level was considered sufficiently high to account for most of the decline in abundance observed during that period (NMFS 2003).  There was no legal harvest allowed in 1999.  Since 2000, NMFS has entered into annual co-management agreements with Alaska Native organizations to allow a limited hunt, and five whales total were harvested during 2000-2005 (Angliss and Lodge 2004, B. Mahoney pers. comm.).  Other factors must be invoked to account for the abnormally low underlying growth rate (R<sub><em>max</em></sub>) exhibited by the population, or to account for the failure to show signs of recovery since the reduction of the harvest to very low levels.  <br/> <br/>Other factors that could have an adverse effect on Cook Inlet belugas include fishery interactions, contaminants and noise associated with oil and gas exploration and production, vessel traffic, and municipal activities such as waste management and urban runoff (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000, NMFS 2003).  In the course of a review of subsistence harvest management, NMFS concluded that the available evidence could not persuasively attribute much past influence to these non-harvest factors and further asserted that they were unlikely to affect the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation in the foreseeable future (NMFS 2003). The NMFS analysis did not recognize that the subpopulation was failing to recover as expected or that the evident R<sub><em>max</em></sub> was abnormally low.  The quality and quantity of data for describing impacts or predicting effects of such factors on belugas vary greatly.  Levels of heavy metals, PCBs, and chlorinated pesticides are much lower in Cook Inlet belugas than in other Beluga stocks in Alaska (Becker <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Observer programs and other reports indicate that current incidental take in commercial fisheries is very low (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000, Angliss and Lodge 2004).  However, evaluating the effects of noise is complicated, determining the impact of municipal discharges may not be possible, and no data are available to describe or predict the effects of an oil spill on belugas.  Nonetheless, the fact remains that Cook Inlet is no longer a remote, pristine area.  Over 350,000 people live in the municipality of Anchorage and the two adjacent boroughs, and there are two large military bases in the area (NMFS 2003).  The analysis by NMFS concluded that: "A significant part of the habitat for this species has been modified by municipal, industrial, and recreational activities in Upper Cook Inlet" (NMFS 2003, p. 88).  A number of other significant habitat modifications are likely to occur in the near future. <br/> <br/>Random demographic, environmental, and genetic factors can accelerate or even cause the extinction of small populations.  Catastrophic events such as mass die-offs due to stranding, disease, or acute exposure to toxic substances (e.g., oil spills) could push depleted populations of belugas to extinction (O?Corry-Crowe and Lowry 1997).  Mass strandings of belugas are relatively common in the shallow tidal areas of upper Cook Inlet.  Although most stranded individuals manage to swim away on the rising tide, some are known to die (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  The viability of small populations is further compromised by the increased risk of inbreeding and the loss of genetic variability through drift, which reduces their ability to cope with disease and environmental change (Lacy 1997, O?Corry-Crowe and Lowry 1997).  Estimates of genetic variation do not, at present, suggest that Cook Inlet belugas are highly inbred or that a critical amount of genetic variation has been lost through drift (O?Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1997, G. O?Corry-Crowe unpublished data), but this subpopulation is already in a size range where eventual loss of genetic variability is expected.
61443		conservation	eng	Much of its range is within a State Forest protected area. There is some public education through a local snake park.
61443		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Troodos massif and foothills of western Cyprus. There are very few known localities. It ranges from around 500 to 1,400m asl.
61443		habitat	eng	This snake can be found in humid areas with dense bushes, close to water or within forests. Irregularly feeds on amphibians, and may be found close to dams and similar areas where prey are often more abundant.
61443		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
61443		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by persecution by local people and tourists, and through ongoing logging of forest habitat in the Troodos Mountains.
61444		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive as a priority species. This species is present in many protected areas.
61444		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Italy (only in Apulia, adjoining Basilicata and Sicily) and Malta, and also ranges from southern Croatia (including the Adriatic islands), through southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, Albania (littoral zone), Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean parts of Macedonia, southern Bulgaria and most Greece (including a number of Ionian and Aegean islands), east to Turkey (western Anatolia) and the Crimea of Ukraine. It has been recorded from Cyprus, but the record requires verification. This species is found from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
61444		habitat	eng	This species is often found in scrubland, macchia, karst habitats, field edges, marshes, stream edges, vineyards, olive groves, on stone walls, and in rural gardens and buildings.  It can be very common in small villages or other modified rural areas. The females lay about two to eight eggs in a clutch.
61444		population	eng	This species is generally common. In the Balkans it is a common to uncommon species. In Italy it is usually rare, but locally it can be a common species. It is said to be declining in Albania. In Turkey, it is generally common.
61444		threats	eng	This species is popular for the pet trade which is a major threat in some areas. It is threatened in some parts of its range (e.g., Albania) by habitat loss through the intensification of agriculture.
61445		conservation	eng	This species is found in the protected areas of Arz Al-Shouf and Horj Ehden in Lebanon, and in the Hermon Reserve in Israeli-occupied Syria.
61445		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from high mountain regions in Lebanon and Syria from about 1,000 to around 2,200 m asl. It is present on the Mount Lebanon Range, the Anti-Lebanon Range and Mount Hermon (in Israeli-occupied Syria), and is also present on Jabel Al Arab (Druz), Syria.
61445		habitat	eng	It is found in cedar forests, alpine grasslands and amongst cushion-type vegetation and rocks. This species gives birth to between two and 18 young.
61445		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat.
61445		threats	eng	This is a restricted range species that is threatened in Lebanon by overgrazing of habitat by sheep and goats, and also through degradation of suitable habitat through the use of off-road vehicles. On Mount Hermon it is threatened by the development of its habitat for use by the military, and is potentially threatened by the development of the skiing industry.
61446		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in Port-Cros National Park, Parc National Corse (Corsica), Reserve Naturelle Scandola (Corsica), RN Lavezzi (Corsica), and RN Iles Marseilles (all in France) and in Parco Naturale dell' Uccelline in Tuscany (Italy). On Pianosa Island (Tuscany), an eradication programme has been carried out against feral cats.
61446		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) and most of the surrounding satellite islets of both Corsica and Sardinia. It is also found on a number of smaller offshore islands of France (Port-Cros and Le Levant in the Iles d'Hyeres, and nine small islands near Marseilles), and Italy (Elba, Gorgona, Capraia, Pianosa, Montecristo, and Giglio). There are also a few coastal mainland colonies in Tuscany and Liguria (Italy) (including at Monte Argentario, Piombino and Genoa), and in extreme southeastern France. It is also present on Cani Island and Galita Island, Tunisia. It can be found up to 1,500m asl, but is less common at high altitudes.
61446		habitat	eng	This strictly nocturnal species is generally found in rocky areas, such as cliffs, boulders and stone walls in agricultural land. It largely avoids areas of maquis vegetation, woodland and urban environments (although it may be encountered in abandoned houses). The females lay two to three clutches of two eggs annually.
61446		population	eng	The species can be relatively abundant within suitable habitat. Mainland populations and those on larger islands are more threatened, but the species tends to be more secure on small islands. It might be more common than is expected because it is easily overlooked.
61446		threats	eng	On Corsica and Sardinia it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from fires and urbanization. The threats to populations on the offshore islands of Tunisia are not known. The mainland Italian population at Genoa, and French mainland populations, are probably threatened. On small islands, populations can be threatened by the introduction of predators (e.g. domestic cats).
61447		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. In Spain it is present in the National Parks of Ordesa-Monte Perdido and Aigüestortes-Estany de Sant Maurici, the Biosphere Reserve of Ordesa-Viñamala, the Natural Park of Posets-Maladeta and a number of other protected areas.
61447		distribution	eng	This species is present in the central Pyrenees Mountains of France and Spain. It ranges from 1,580 to 3,060 m asl.
61447		habitat	eng	This species is found in subalpine and alpine habitats and is most commonly found in rocky slopes, outcrops and similar areas, sometimes close to alpine meadows. It is an egg-laying species.
61447		population	eng	It may be locally common in suitable habitat, being more abundant in subalpine habitats. The populations are fragmented by unsuitable habitat, but are probably stable.
61447		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by cattle, and is inferred to be threatened by future habitat loss through the development of ski resorts, lodges and hotels, the construction of roads and tracks, and the use of all terrain vehicles. It is additionally threatened by the possible development of hydroelectric projects and mining. It is also possible that this species will be significantly impacted by climate change.
61448		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in a number of protected areas in the Cantabrian Mountains. It occurs in the Serra da Estrela Natural Park in Portugal. The development of an action plan has begun in Portugal.
61448		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Cantabrian Mountains and in Galicia in northwestern Spain, and in the Serra da Estrela in central Portugal. Its populations are severely fragmented. It ranges from sea-level in Galicia to 2,000m asl.
61448		habitat	eng	In most places, this is a mountainous species often found close to the tree-line in damp habitats, where it can be found in areas of scrub and boulders. In Galicia it also occurs in lowland forest close to the sea, sometimes close to streams. The females lay three to ten eggs in a clutch and may have one to three clutches annually.
61448		population	eng	It can occur at high densities where the habitat is suitable, but it is very localized. Some populations are in decline.
61448		threats	eng	The populations of this species are highly fragmented and threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, silviculture and tourism. Populations in Galicia have been declining through the habitat loss to fire, and the loss of suitable rocky areas.
61449		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005) and is protected by national legislation.
61449		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Spain; western, southern, eastern and northeastern France; and southern Switzerland, through most of Italy, to southwestern Slovenia and northern Croatia. It is present on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France), Sardinia, Sicily and most other Italian islands, Krk (Croatia), and Malta. The species may occur in Luxembourg, but this requires verification. The species is absent from Austria. It has also been translocated to the island of Gyaros (Greece) in the Aegean Sea where it was previously recognized as a distinct species <em>Hierophis gyarosensis</em>. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.
61449		habitat	eng	It is found in dry, open, well vegetated habitats. It occurs in scrubland, macchia, open woodland (deciduous and mixed), heathland, cultivated areas, dry river beds, rural gardens, road verges, stone walls and ruins. The species lays four to 15 eggs.
61449		population	eng	It can be a very common species.
61449		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by high accidental mortality on roads, especially close to urban or tourist areas, but this is not considered to be a major threat to the species overall.  It is also persecuted throughout its range because people mistakenly believe it to be venomous.  It is not known to be collected in significant numbers. It is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of land to intensive agricultural use in Switzerland (Andreas Meyer pers. comm.).
61450		conservation	eng	In Lebanon it is present in two protected areas, and it is present in protected areas in both Turkey and Cyprus.  More research is needed in to understand the taxonomic diversity of this genus, particularly in southern Turkey.
61450		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Turkey (from eastern part of the Taurus Mountains, the Amanos Mountains and the Mediterraenan coast), in Syria (west of the Orontes River), and throughout Lebanon and Cyprus.
61450		habitat	eng	This species is found in the leaf litter of woodland, forested and shrubby humid areas. It can be found in rural gardens. It is an egg-laying species.
61450		population	eng	It is a common species.
61450		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest fires in Turkey. There appear to be no threats to this species in Cyprus. It is possible that deforestation is a threat to this species in Lebanon.
61451		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas in Jordan, Israel and Egypt. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need for further research into the distribution range and taxonomy of this species (there may be two species present in Jordan).
61451		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern and central Israel, northern and western Jordan, and the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt (population in the southern Sinai Peninsula, and a single record from northeastern Sinai). There is an unconfirmed record from southern Lebanon (not mapped here). There are currently no records from Syria, although it is possible that the species is present in this country. It is found up to around 1,600 m asl (Sinai).
61451		habitat	eng	It is found in the leaf litter of woodland, forested and shrubby humid areas. It is highly localised at specific sites with dense vegetation. In Egypt, it is found in vegetation surrounding oasis and similar microhabitats. It can be found in rural gardens and traditionally cultivated areas. It is an egg-laying species.
61451		population	eng	It is a locally uncommon species.
61451		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some localised habitat loss through general deforestation. On Sinai, the loss of traditionally farmed orchards could have a negative impact.
61452		conservation	eng	It is not believed to occur in any protected areas.
61452		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species from central Jordan. It is believed to have a relatively small range and is thought to be restricted to a specific habitat type.
61452		habitat	eng	It is found on hard clay soils, with small shrubs, in semi-desert. It is an egg-laying species.
61452		population	eng	It is relatively common within suitable habitat. There are substantial fluctuations in population size related to rainfall.
61452		threats	eng	Much of the habitat of this species (in particular the hard crust substrate) is threatened, or has been destroyed, by intensive agriculture, urbanisation and trampling by grazing animals.
61453		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61453		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Algeria where it has a localised and fragmented distribution in the Hauts Plateaux and on the Aureus-Kabili mountains. It is found up to 1,000 m asl.
61453		habitat	eng	This species is found in open, stony ground with sparse plant cover. It is not usually found in dune areas. Its reproduction is largely unknown, but it is presumably an oviparous species.
61453		population	eng	It is locally common on Aureus-Kabili, but it is rare in its western range of the Sersou Plateau. Its population is stable in the Aureus mountains, but its status is unknown elsewhere.
61453		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range with a fragmented habitat.
61454		conservation	eng	A small portion of the former range of this species is within protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Irano-Turanian region of south-central Israel. The map shows the extent of the historic distribution, within which very few fragmented populations remain.
61454		habitat	eng	The species inhabits loess plains with sparse shrub cover. The females may have between three and seven eggs. It is not found in agricultural areas. Animals hide under stones and in holes in the ground, and the species digs burrows under the 'green crust' substrate.
61454		population	eng	It used to be common species, but is now very rare because of habitat loss.
61454		threats	eng	Much of the habitat of this species (especially the 'green crust') has been destroyed by intensive agriculture, urbanisation, and trampling by grazing animals. It is relatively easily caught by birds, such as falcons, egrets and shrikes, and the abundance of these predatory birds in the area is increasing with ongoing tree planting.
61455		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be present in any protected areas.
61455		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal, and some inland, regions of northwestern and northeastern Tunisia, and adjacent northern Algeria. It occurs from sea level up to 900 m asl.
61455		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-arid habitats with open vegetation, at coastal sites, in dunes with plant growth, and in areas of clay substrate with shrubs or sparse <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. It has also been recorded from pine forests. The species generally avoids rocky locations. It is an oviparous species.
61455		population	eng	It is rare throughout most of its range.
61455		threats	eng	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat loss from agriculture, urbanization and coastal tourism. It may also be adversely impacted by competition with a more aggressive lizard species, <em>Acanthodactylus boskianus</em>.
61456		conservation	eng	This species is protected by international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
61456		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern Portugal to central and southern Spain, and from central and northern Morocco through northern Algeria, almost as far as the Tunisian border. There are isolated populations in western and southern Portugal. It may occur up to 1,750m asl in the Sierra Nevada of Spain, and up to 2,800m asl in Morocco, but it is more usually found below 400m asl.
61456		habitat	eng	It is generally found in open, loose sandy areas, with some sparse vegetation. It can also occur in rockier habitats, open woodland, coastal areas and in traditionally cultivated fields. The females lay one or two clutches of one to eight eggs annually.
61456		population	eng	It is a common species.
61456		threats	eng	In view of its wide range with large amounts of suitable habitat, there appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from intensive agriculture (often by irrigation of formerly dry areas), increased urbanization and habitat fragmentation, particularly in northeastern Spain.
61458		conservation	eng	While it is not currently known to occur in any protected areas, it is suspected to be present in some.
61458		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Morocco, through northern Algeria and much of Tunisia (including Kerkennah Island), to northwestern Libya. The population near Marrakesh in western Morocco is isolated from the main range. It occurs at elevations close to sea level up to 2,100 m asl.
61458		habitat	eng	It is found on solid sandy substrate in arid or semi-arid regions, including dry river beds. The females lay between two and four eggs.
61458		population	eng	It is a common species.
61458		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. The isolated population in the Marrakech region inhabits dry river beds where sand is being removed for housing construction.
61459		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the species' range. There is a need to establish a protected area for this species and other localised endemics in the area of the Sidi Mechig beaches.
61459		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from four localities on the Sidi Mechig beaches of northern Tunisia. It occurs only at sea level.
61459		habitat	eng	It lives in the dune systems with shrub and small dry river beds. The habitat of the species includes the only area of peat bog in Tunisia. The female lays a clutch of four to five eggs.
61459		population	eng	It is a locally uncommon species. The two largest populations have declined significantly in the past ten years.
61459		threats	eng	Local people regularly visit and disturb the beaches where this species is found. There is a new port under construction within the range of the species and the population in Sidi Mechig has already considerably decreased. The development of greenhouse cultivation in the region and the building of a dam has also affected some populations.
61460		conservation	eng	It may be present in the El Omayed protected area of Egypt, although this needs to be confirmed. National and possibly international legislation is needed to protect the species. Protected areas are needed to conserve the specific habitat-type in which this species exists.
61460		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean coastal region of northern Egypt and northeastern Libya (Moravec <em>et al</em>. 1999, S. Baha El Din pers. comm). This is a lowland species.
61460		habitat	eng	It is restricted to semi-arid regions, in steppe with hard clay soils, adjacent to saline coastal areas. The females lay between three and seven eggs.
61460		population	eng	It has decreased significantly in recent years due to loss of its habitat (W. Böhme pers. comm). It is now rare and localised (S. Baha El Din pers. comm).
61460		threats	eng	It is threatened over much of its range by habitat loss resulting from the intensification of agricultural practices, overgrazing by livestock, development of tourism, quarrying, collection of firewood and use of off-road vehicles. It is now restricted to a few fragments of suitable habitat. This species is commercially collected for the international pet trade (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
61461		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Chrea National Park in Algeria
61461		distribution	eng	This species is currently considered to be restricted to coastal areas of northern Algeria, although it may possibly also occur in northeastern Morocco. It occurs from sea level up to 500 m asl.
61461		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy coastal areas and other low elevation Mediterranean habitats. The female lays between four and six eggs.
61461		population	eng	It is very poorly known and has only been collected in a few sites.
61461		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by the urbanization and coastal tourism.
61462		conservation	eng	It is present in the Tyr Beach protected area in southern Lebanon (although it is disturbed by tourism at this site), and it is present in a number of protected areas in Cyprus and two protected areas in Israel. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is not found in any protected areas in Turkey. There is a need to further research the range of this species and to prevent additional habitat loss. There is also a need to investigate the possibilities of habitat restoration in coastal dune areas.
61462		distribution	eng	This species is known from certain coastal areas in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is found in the following places: in coastal areas and riverbeds, but not high mountains in Cyprus; southern Turkey (two coastal records from one site in the Hatay Province); is fragmented range in coastal southern Lebanon (near Sidon and Tyrosin) and was also known from Beirut (although it is possibly extirpated from this site); and a narrow, fragmented coastal strip in Israel. The species might also occur in in Egypt, although this requires confirmation.
61462		habitat	eng	It is found on coastal sand dunes (where there are no competing Acanthodactylus) or light soil close to the dunes. It can be found in newly created cultivated areas with sandy soil close to sand dune habitat.  In many areas, it cannot tolerate disturbance.  In Israel it can be found in open orchards with a suitable substrate. The females have a maximum clutch of four eggs.
61462		population	eng	It can be fairly common in suitable fragments of habitat in Cyprus.  In Turkey, it is very rare.
61462		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal urbanization, including the development of tourism facilities. It is also threatened by the extraction of sand from beaches for building, and human disturbance through the high numbers of tourists visiting sites. The population close to Beirut is believed to have been extirpated through loss of habitat through the construction of refugee camps. In Turkey, there is a major petrol pipeline project and industrial activities in its habitat and pollution from petrol and other industries threatens its restricted range.
61463		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
61463		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Algerian Sahara Atlas Mountains and is only known from the oases Arba Tahtani and El Abiod-Sidi-Cheikh. It occurs up to 200 m asl.
61463		habitat	eng	This species is found in open stony and flat sandy places (e.g., not sand dunes). The females lay a clutch of around eight eggs.
61463		population	eng	It is extremely localised and quite rare within this area. The last collections were made in 1901.
61463		threats	eng	The extent and quality of the species habitat is believed to be declining due to known development pressure within the region.
61464		conservation	eng	This species is protected by international legislation and it occurs in several protected areas.
61464		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) and some surrounding islets. It has been recorded from sea level to elevations of 1,800m asl on Corsica.
61464		habitat	eng	It is found in a range of Mediterranean-type habitats. The species can be found in forested areas, places with rich vegetation, scrubland and degraded vegetation, areas of sparse grass and rocky habitats. It may occur in cultivated land, and on dry stone walls. The species generally prefers semi-shaded sites and is often found close to water. Females lay clutches of two to four eggs.
61464		population	eng	It is widespread and rather common in Sardinia, localized and less abundant in Corsica. It might be more common than suspected because it can easily be overlooked.
61464		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest and macchia fires. This species may be locally threatened by agricultural intensification (mainly on Sardinia) including the increased use of pesticides and other agrochemicals.
61465		conservation	eng	It is protected by international and national legislation. The species range includes a few protected areas.
61465		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern mainland Greece (the Peloponnese), the Ionian islands (Cephalonia, Ithaca and Zakynthos) and the Strofades islands. It is found from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
61465		habitat	eng	It is generally found in shaded to semi-shaded areas of open woodland, hedges and on the edges of cultivated land. It is generally associated with damp areas. It hides in ground cover such as brushwood and leaf litter. The females have only a few eggs in each clutch.
61465		population	eng	It is not a common species. It has not been surveyed since the severe fires in the Peloponnese in 2007; this species inhabits leaf litter and may have been affected.
61465		threats	eng	It may be threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from fires, general deforestation, agricultural intensification and the development of tourism facilities. It is also locally persecuted in some places.
61466		conservation	eng	It is protected by international and national legislation (Appendix II of Bern Convention, Annex IV of EU Habitats Directive, national legislation e.g. in Greece). It is present in many protected areas. No immediate conservation actions are needed.
61466		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the eastern Adriatic coastal region from extreme northeastern Italy and southern Slovenia, southwards into coastal Croatia and a few river valleys in Bosnia-Herzegovina, through southern Serbia, Montenegro, Albania (where it is widespread except in the east), Macedonia (two isolated populations in the north and southwest) to western Greece. It is present on some Croatian Adriatic islands and on the Ionian islands of Greece (except Zakinthos). It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl (in Albania).
61466		habitat	eng	This species is found in open woodlands, scrubland, hedges, bushes, on walls and in olive groves. In river valleys it can be found close to water on rocks and cliffs. The species can be found in urban areas. It is most often found in shaded or semi-shaded areas, although animals can be observed basking on rocks and tree trunks. It is an egg-laying species.
61466		population	eng	It can be abundant in suitable habitat.
61466		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, although it appears to be a somewhat adaptable species. It may be locally threatened by habitat loss through fires, deforestation, agricultural intensification and the development of tourism facilities.
61467		conservation	eng	The species range includes a few protected areas.
61467		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern mainland Greece (the Peloponnese) and the Ionian islands of Lefkas, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
61467		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid areas within meadows, scrubland, open forests (both deciduous and coniferous), hedgerows and wooded stream sides. It also occurs in rural gardens and traditionally farmed agricultural areas.
61467		population	eng	It is not a very common species. The species has not been surveyed since the severe Peloponnese fires in 2007, so the impact of this event is not known.
61467		threats	eng	It appears to be a reasonably adaptable species, but is generally killed when it is encountered. Human-caused fires (such as those in the Peloponnese in 2007) may be a threat.
61468		conservation	eng	Populations in Sardinia may be more sensitive to the threats and populations are strictly protected. This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, Annex IV of the EC Habitats Directive, and is protected by national and regional legislation in both countries. It occurs in several protected areas.
61468		distribution	eng	This species occurs in rocky areas on the islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) where it has a very fragmented range. In Sardinia it has a very fragmented range. On these two large islands it occurs mainly from 550 to 2,550 m asl, but there are a few coastal populations, including in northern Sardinia and western and southern Corsica. It occurs on several smaller islands, including Foloca Island (France), the Maddalena Archipelago and the Isola Rossa di Trinita' d'Agulto (Italy). On smaller islands it occurs down to sea-level.
61468		habitat	eng	This is typically a rock dwelling lizard, living on cliffs and open rocky areas (e.g. sparsely vegetated islets). It is also found in open woodland and scrubland. It can occur in semi-shaded areas close to streams. The females lay three to six eggs.
61468		population	eng	This species can be common at higher altitudes, especially in Corsica. At lower elevations and in Sardinia it occurs in very small areas, although large populations can be found locally.
61468		threats	eng	Populations in the lowlands of Corsica are vulnerable because of the genetic isolation of many populations. Populations on both islands are threatened by the development of the tourist industry. Sardinian subspecies are vulnerable because they are severely fragmented and have an extremely small area of occupancy.
61469		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national legislation. It occurs in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the threats, distribution and abundance for this species.
61469		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It is found throughout Portugal and through most of central and southern Spain. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl (in the Sierra Nevada).
61469		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species found in a wide variety of Mediterranean habitats. It is often found in moist, sandy soils that are easy to burrow in and have a high level of humus. It occurs in low intensity agricultural land. The females lay a single egg.
61469		population	eng	It is difficult to determine the abundance of this species, but it appears to be most common in areas of sandy and moist soil.
61469		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known; it might be locally threatened by urbanization. It is known to be eaten by wild boar <em>Sus scrofa</em>, which are expanding their distribution in Spain and Portugal, but the extent to which this constitutes a threat is unclear.
61470		conservation	eng	It is known from certain protected areas in Morocco, including the Dunes d’Essaouira, Jbel Tichoukt, and Jaaba.
61470		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco where it is found on the Atlantic plains north of the Souss Valley, and on the north slope of the Moyen and Haut Atlas. It occurs up to 2,092 m asl.
61470		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in moist, sandy soil under stones. It occurs in woodland, shrubland and in traditionally cultivated land. The females lay a single egg, possibly every year.
61470		population	eng	It is not found often, but it is thought to be common to abundant where it is found.
61470		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It may be threatened by intensification of agricultural practices in parts of its range. It is eaten by Wild boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>), but this is unlikely to constitute a serious threat.
61471		conservation	eng	It is known to exist in some Moroccan protected areas, notably Jbel Moussa, Tidighine, Marais Larache, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Jbel Tizirène, Koudiat Tidighine, Lalla Outka, Bou Iblane, and Bou Naceur.
61471		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco and Ceuta (Spain). It is restricted to the Tingitana Peninsula, the Zebú River basin and the western half of the Rif. It is thought to extend to the edge of the Middle Atlas Mountains. It reaches an altitude of 1,500 m asl.
61471		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that is found in relatively humid soils containing humus. It can be found in woodland, scrub and traditionally cultivated areas.  It is an egg laying species, but the size of the clutch is not known.
61471		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in parts of its range.
61471		threats	eng	It is threatened in local situations by habitat loss through intensification of agriculture, urbanization and soil erosion. It might be disturbed locally by wild boar, although this is unlikely to constitute a serious threat.
61472		conservation	eng	It is protected by international legislation and it occurs in a number of protected areas.
61472		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs widely in Spain (except the north) and Portugal, but is extremely patchy in its distribution, and is absent from many areas. It is found on the Atlantic islands of Islas Cíes, Ilha do Pessegueiro, Isla de Ons, and Isla de Sancti Petri, and is present on the Mediterranean islands of islas del Mar Menor and Isla de Nueva Tabarca. It is found from sea level to 1,750m asl.
61472		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is associated with open, sandy areas with sparse vegetation. The species can also be found in scrubland and areas of open woodland, and can burrow into loose soil. It can live in lightly modified areas. The females give birth to one to four fully formed young.
61472		population	eng	It can be quite abundant in areas of good ground cover, but is believed to be in significant decline, and most of its populations are highly fragmented. Some island populations have undergone significant decline.
61472		threats	eng	Modification of habitat, especially in coastal regions, has led to localized declines in this species. Some of the insular populations are considered to be threatened. Some populations are threatened through intensive afforestation of their habitat with pine trees (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). It is also probably affected by the impact of increasing Wild Boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>) populations.
61473		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
61473		distribution	eng	In Europe this species occurs in Italy (where it is widespread south of the Po river), including the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Elba and on a number of smaller islands. In North Africa it is found in northeastern Algeria, northern Tunisia and northwestern Libya. It can be found from sea level up to 1,270m asl.
61473		habitat	eng	This species is found in sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork-oak forest and the edges of cultivated areas. It can also be found in arid and degraded areas. The females give birth to three to thirteen fully formed young.
61473		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitats.
61473		threats	eng	The species is not considered to be threatened over much of its range, but habitat loss through intensification of agriculture may be the main threat to the species in some areas. It is considered to be threatened in the freshwater/coastal zones of its range, especially as a result of habitat loss due to urbanization and tourism development.
61474		conservation	eng	It is known to exist in protected areas such as Jbel Moussa, Parc National Talassemtane, Trois fourches, Marais Larache, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Brikcha, Jbel Tizirène, Koudiat Tidighine, Lalla Outka, and Azrou Achekar
61474		distribution	eng	This species is endemic in the Maghreb area of North Africa. It is found northern Morocco in the Rif Mountains from Tangier to Melilla. It is also present in Spanish territories of Ceuta, Melilla and on the island Peñón de Tierra (close to the Peñón de Alhucemas). It is found from around 5 up to 1,600m asl.
61474		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-arid, sub-humid and humid scrubland and woodland, piles of stones, in old walls and areas with some grassland. The female gives birth to fully formed young.
61474		population	eng	The general abundance of this species is poorly known. It is not considered to be very common in the eastern parts of its range.
61474		threats	eng	This species has a small geographical distribution and may be impacted by agricultural development (including cannabis crops [Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008]) and the development of tourism in the region. However, it is not believed to be very seriously threatened.
61475		conservation	eng	There is a need to survey more widely for this species. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
61475		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northern Morocco, where it is known from only two locations: between Fez and Djbel Zalagh; and Karia be Mohamed. It has previously been reported from Rafsaï, but this was a confusion with <em>Chalcides colosii</em>.
61475		habitat	eng	This species is presumably found in stony areas, in walls, among grassy ground cover and in traditionally managed fields. It is also presumably a viviparous species.
61475		population	eng	It is a very rare species that has not been seen since 1970.
61475		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range, and is highly threatened by habitat loss principally through intensification of agricultural practices.
61476		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Mount Hermon and Mount Meron protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61476		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Jordan, southwestern Syria, southern Lebanon (a few sites) and northern and central Israel. It ranges up to 1,500 m asl (on Mount Hermon).
61476		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean ecozone. It is typically found in oak woodland or shrubland glades, but can also be found in grassland outside of woods. It does not live in modified habitats. The adults may be found burrowing in grasses, not in sand or soil. The females give birth to an average of three young.
61476		population	eng	It is not rare in suitable habitat.
61476		threats	eng	This species is suffering serious habitat loss within its generally restricted range. Much of this habitat loss results from the area occupied being very suitable for agriculture (vegetable farming and plantations).
61477		conservation	eng	It is known from the following protected areas: Jbel Tichoukt; and Jaaba.
61477		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco, where it occurs up to 2,100 m asl.
61477		habitat	eng	This species is found in cedar forest, fields, meadows and damp areas close to streams. It is a viviparous species.
61477		population	eng	It is considered to be a locally common species.
61477		threats	eng	This species is locally affected by habitat degradation as a result of overgrazing by livestock, but overall it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
61478		conservation	eng	It occurs in Souss-Massa National Park.
61478		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Morocco where it is known from a few sites at the foot of the western slopes of the High Atlas Mountains and the Anti Atlas from Dar Mzoudi to Essaouira and the Sousss Valley and extending south until Sidi Ifni. It is known to occur up to 256 m asl.
61478		habitat	eng	It is known from the coastal sandy or stony plains with endemic Argan Forest (<em>Argania spinosa</em>) and Dahrmouss species (<em>Euphorbia echinus</em> and <em>E. beaumierana</em>). It is viviparous but it is not known how many offspring it bears or how often.
61478		population	eng	It is only known from a few sites (approximately 12 collections, but limited to about six sites), and it is thought to be quite rare within its narrow range.
61478		threats	eng	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of overgrazing, desertification and forest clearance due to human encroachment.
61479		conservation	eng	Further surveys are needed to better determine the range of this species. It is known to exist in the following protected areas: Embouchure Moulouya; Sebkha Bou Areg; and Sebkha Bou Areg.
61479		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a narrow coastal zone of northwestern Algeria, Melilla (Spain) and northeastern coastal Morocco. It appears to have a restricted range. It is mainly a coastal, lowland species that is known up to at least 140m asl (Roberto Sindaco, October 2008).
61479		habitat	eng	This is a coastal species occurring in sandy areas, and in plantations of eucalyptus, acacia and pine. It is not known to exist in severely degraded habitats. It is presumed that the females give birth to fully formed young.
61479		population	eng	It is reported to be common at the mouth of the Moulouya River. However, it is apparently extinct in Melilla (Spain). It is difficult to find because of the removal of driftwood and other ground cover by local people.
61479		threats	eng	Development of coastal areas for tourism and military purposes are major threats to this species. It is possibly threatened by loss of ground cover habitat, such as the collection of driftwood by local people for firewood.
61480		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Algeria (Djurdjura National Park). It is not present in any protected areas in Tunisia.
61480		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean regions of northern Tunisia and northern Algeria. It is known from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
61480		habitat	eng	It lives in forested areas in northern Algeria, and in semi-arid Mediterranean habitats in Algeria and Tunisia. It is found in damp, sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork oak forest, and the edges of cultivated areas. It is also known from grassland prairies with a high cover of herbaceous grasses. The females give birth to formed young.
61480		population	eng	It is rare in Tunisia, but possibly more common in Algeria. However, not much is known about this species.
61480		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss from overgrazing by livestock, and through conversion of land to agricultural and urban use.
61481		conservation	eng	It is currently known to exist in several Moroccan protected areas: Embouchure Moulouya, Sebkha Bou Areg, Bou Iblane, Bou Naceur, Trois fourches, Gourougou, Lalla Outka, Bou Iblane, Jbel Tichoukt, Jaaba. It is also found on Beni Snassen Mountain in Morocco that will soon be classified as a Biological Station.
61481		distribution	eng	This poorly known species occurs in northeastern Morocco, northwestern Algeria and in Melilla (Spain). It is known from the Riff Mountains, northeastern parts of the Middle Atlas Mountains and the Montes de Tlemcén.  It occurs in two isolated areas that are separated by the Moulouya River.
61481		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp, sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork oak forest and the edges of cultivated land. It can also be found in arid and degraded areas. It is a viviparous species.
61481		population	eng	It is thought to be locally common.
61481		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss from overgrazing by livestock, and conversion of land to agricultural and urban use.
61482		conservation	eng	It occurs in Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco
61482		distribution	eng	This species is largely found on the Atlantic coastal area of Morocco. It is a lowland species that is known to occur up to 700 m asl.
61482		habitat	eng	This species is found in open areas of loose, slightly moist sand and soil, where it may be found under rocks and at the base of sparse vegetation. It can be found at the margins of fields, and in courtyards, gardens and parks. It is also known from the Argan Forest. This is an ovoviparous species with litters of three to four young.
61482		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
61482		threats	eng	This species is affected by agricultural intensification, and it might be threatened by coastal development. However, overall it is not believed to be significantly threatened.
61483		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Toubkral National Park.
61483		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco. It is found between 2,300 and 2,830 m asl.
61483		habitat	eng	This species is found in cool montane cedar plantations, juniper forest, bushland, fields, meadows and damp areas close to streams. It hibernates in the winter. It is a viviparous species.
61483		population	eng	It is a rare species that is not thought to be abundant within its narrow range.
61483		threats	eng	Although the species is not believed to be significantly threatened, habitat destruction through removal of firewood is thought to be a local threat to this species in parts of its range.
61484		conservation	eng	It occurs in Chafarine Hunting Reserve in Spain and in the Sebkha Bou Areg and Embouchure Moulouya protected areas in Morocco.
61484		distribution	eng	This species occurs along a narrow coastal strip of approximately 250km between Nador in northeastern Morocco and Cape Carbón in northwestern Algeria. It is also present on the Chafarinas Archipelago (Spain). It is found from sea level to 30m asl.
61484		habitat	eng	This coastal species occurs in sandy areas, overgrown dunes with Mediterranean vegetation and pine and Eucalyptus plantations. This species can be found among and under stones. It is not known to exist in modified habitats. Females give birth to fully formed young.
61484		population	eng	It is not an abundant species and is thought to be rare along its narrow coastal range.
61484		threats	eng	Development of coastal areas for tourism and military purposes are major threats to this species. It is possibly threatened by loss of ground cover habitat, such as the collection of driftwood by local people for firewood.
61485		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Morocco, including Souss-Massa National Park, Marais Larache, Dunes d’Essaouira, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Bou Iblane, Bou Naceur, Jbel Tichoukt, and Jaaba.
61485		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern, western and southern Morocco, and has also been recorded from one or two localities in northwestern Western Sahara. It occurs from sea level to 1,950 m asl.
61485		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, terrestrial species. It is found under rocks and stones and in thickets of dense vegetation (but it is absent from dense woodland). It is also found in Argan forests and in pasture lands. The females give birth to four to seven fully formed young. Montane populations are known to have a period of hibernation.
61485		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
61485		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from ongoing agricultural expansion and urbanization. In coastal areas it is threatened by habitat loss caused by the development of tourism facilities.
61486		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Moulay Bousselham Special Reserve, Jbel Moussa, Marais Larache, Merja Zerga, Perdicaris, Jbel Tizirène, and Koudiat Tidighine.
61486		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Middle Atlas Mountains, and also present along the northern Atlantic coast of Morocco, the Zebú river basin and western part of the Rif mountain range, including the Tingitana Peninsula. It is also present in the Spanish enclave of Ceuta. It was previously found in the High Atlas Mountains.
61486		habitat	eng	It is found in moist, grassy areas. It is a viviparous species.
61486		population	eng	It is becoming increasingly uncommon, but it is still locally common in some localities.
61486		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss caused by overgrazing of livestock, agricultural expansion, conversion of land to Eucalyptus plantations and urbanization.
61487		conservation	eng	This species is protected by national and international (Bern Convention) legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
61487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. It is also present on the small islet of Gando. This species is found from sea level up to elevations approaching 1,950m asl.
61487		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of habitats including, humid meadows and valleys, arid gullies and sandy areas, woodland and plantations (the species is rarer in these habitats), cultivated land, especially stony areas or sites with stone walls. The females give birth to between two and seven fully formed young.
61487		population	eng	It is abundant, but easily overlooked, over most of the island.
61487		threats	eng	There is some collection of this species for the pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species. There is also predation of the species by cats, but this is also unlikely to be a significant threat.
61488		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas.
61488		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Fuerteventura (the central area with an isolated population in the south), Lanzarote (in the north only) and Lobos in the Canary Islands, Spain.
61488		habitat	eng	It lives in fields, orchards, gardens and in rocky areas. It is usually found in areas with well-formed soil. The females give birth to fully-formed young.
61488		population	eng	It is a rare species.
61488		threats	eng	The main threat is fragmentation of populations due to climatic changes (increasing aridity), loss of soil due to erosion. The main population was probably lost in a volcanic eruption in the 18th century. Feral and domestic cats are also a threat.
61489		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Bern Convention and it occurs in many protected areas.
61489		distribution	eng	This species is found in fragmented populations in Portugal and Spain (it appears to be absent from much of eastern Spain), southern France and extreme northwestern Italy (Liguria). It occurs on several islands in northwestern Spain. There is an isolated population near Bordeaux in western France. It can be found from sea level up to 1,800m asl.
61489		habitat	eng	This species is found in sunny meadows, grassland, pastureland, open shrubland, hedges and open abandoned cultivated land. It western parts of its range it is also present in drier scrubby and coastal areas. The females give birth to one to twelve fully formed young.
61489		population	eng	It is a very common species in some places. Extremely isolated, and hence threatened, populations occurs in southeastern Spain and Liguria (Italy).
61489		threats	eng	It is threatened by intensification of agriculture, afforestation with pine trees and the abandonment of traditional meadows (resulting in scrub encroachment). Global warming is considered to be a threat for the southernmost populations (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).This species is persecuted in parts of its range as it is mistakenly believed to be poisonous. Populations of this species are often fragmented by unsuitable habitat.
61490		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
61490		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canary Islands (Spain). It also occurs on the small islets of Roque de Anaga de Fuera and on Roque de Garachico. It has been introduced to the island of La Palma where two individuals have found in the Llanos de Aridane. Records of this species from Madeira (Portugal) and Morocco are believed to be misidentifications. It occurs from sea level to 2,800 m asl.
61490		habitat	eng	It is found in most coastal, arid and moist habitats, being only largely absent from densely wooded areas. It can be found in urban areas on Tenerife. The females give birth to one to six fully formed young.
61490		population	eng	It is a common species that is easily overlooked.
61490		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by predation by cats.
61491		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is present in many protected areas.
61491		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species ranges from Portugal and Spain, through southern France (avoiding parts of the southwest), Monaco and parts of western and central Italy (it is considered to be extinct in northeastern Italy, and is not present in Calabria or Sicily; there is in isolated record in Apulia [Gargano]). In North Africa it ranges from the Rif and Atlas Mountains of Morocco, through the northern parts of Algeria to extreme northwestern Tunisia. It can be found from the lowlands close to sea level up to 2,900m asl (High Atlas, Morocco); it is not present in the Pyrenees and the Alps (with the exception of some dry valleys in northwestern Italy).
61491		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of scrubland, open woodlands, dry hedgerows, grassland, rocky areas, orchards and plantations. The females lay between one and sixteen eggs (mean of 4.8 eggs). This species is a specialist predator of small lizards.
61491		population	eng	In Europe and mountains of the Maghreb it can be common in good habitat, but in general it is not abundant. It is a rather crepuscular and mainly nocturnal species so it is often overlooked.
61491		threats	eng	In Spain it is locally threatened by habitat loss through fire and perhaps disturbance by wild boars (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>). It is also threatened by habitat loss through ongoing agricultural intensification and by accidental mortality of animals on roads. It is considered to be threatened in France and is approaching extinction in Monaco; however in Italy it is not considered to be particularly threatened.
61492		conservation	eng	It is present in the Mount Hermon Nature Reserve. In Lebanon it was collected close to the Arz Al-Shouf protected area, although its presence within the protected area requires confirmation. Further field research is needed to determine whether the species ranges between Mount Hermon and the Mount Lebanon Range. Much of this area is difficult to access, or is covered by minefields. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61492		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to Mount Hermon in southwestern Syria, and from the Mount Lebanon Range in central Lebanon (known from a single, recently collected specimen). It is found above 1,300 m asl on Mount Hermon and up to 2,000 m asl in Lebanon.
61492		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky areas, but not cliffs, with low boulders and small stones in montane areas. The clutch size is most usually a single rather than two eggs.
61492		population	eng	It appears to be quite common on Mount Hermon, but it seems to be a rare species in Lebanon.
61492		threats	eng	On Mount Hermon it is threatened by the development of its habitat for use by the military, and is potentially threatened by the development of the ski industry. The threats to the species in Lebanon are not known.
61493		conservation	eng	It exists in national parks in Tunisia (e.g., Buhedma National Park).
61493		distribution	eng	This North African species ranges in a narrow band from northwestern Algeria, through central Tunisia to northwestern Libya. The distribution is incompletely known and the species may also occur in Morocco. It is found up to 700 m asl.
61493		habitat	eng	This species is generally found on rocky slopes with sparse vegetation. It can also be found in semi-desert, steppe and caves. The female lays up to 20 eggs.
61493		population	eng	It is a rare species that is not known to be common in its range.
61493		threats	eng	There is major international trade in this species for medicinal use (both traditional and international). It is directly persecuted in parts of its range and is commonly used by venom researchers and snake charmers.
61494		conservation	eng	There is a need to develop education programmes for the conservation of this species throughout its range.  It is known from several protected areas in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.
61494		distribution	eng	This North African species ranges from northern Western Sahara, through most of Morocco and northern Algeria to northern Tunisia. It is found up to 2,300 m asl.
61494		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky slopes and other areas in semi-arid and subhumid zones. It can be found in steppes, wadis, hedges and open woodlands. The females lay clutches of up to 21 eggs.
61494		population	eng	It used to be relatively abundant, but it is now declining.
61494		threats	eng	This species is accidentally killed on roads and is persecuted when it is encountered. Animals may be sold as curios to tourists, and are displayed in animal exhibitions and used for snake charming.
61495		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61495		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Syria, through Lebanon and northern and central Israel to northwestern Jordan. This species is not found in Turkey. It can be found up to 1,500m asl.
61495		habitat	eng	This species is present in most types of Mediterranean habitats and may be found in agricultural land and farm buildings. Animals can be found up trees.
61495		population	eng	It can be a common species.
61495		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species; it is generally persecuted as are most snake species. Animals are caught for venom milking for anti-venom production, but this is not a major threat to the species.
61496		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but there are protected areas within its range in Turkey. There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present although further research to determine the species’ population status and range would be desirable.
61496		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a relatively small are in southern Turkey, mainly in Adana and Osmaniye provinces, and has also been recorded from northwestern Syria (Moravec 1998 and Schmidtler and Bischoff 1999).  It has been recorded between sea level and 1,700m asl.
61496		habitat	eng	It is found in dry, stony, upland areas with Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, and Anatolian steppe habitats.  These areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices.  It is an egg-laying species.
61496		population	eng	It is a common species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
61496		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to the species or its habitat at present.
61497		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Turkey, Lebanon, and Israel. It is protected by national legislation in Israel where it is considered to be threatened.
61497		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Turkey (in Mersin, Hatay, Adana, and Osmaniye provinces), through western Syria and Lebanon, to northern Israel. This species is found from sea level up to 1,800m asl.
61497		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of Mediterranean-type habitat such as oak woodland and scrub. It can also be found amongst stones where there are no trees. It can be found in orchards and rural gardens.  Little is known about its about reproductive biology, but it probably lays eggs like other species in the Eirenis genus.
61497		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
61497		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Turkey. The species is threatened in Israel by habitat loss. It is threatened in Lebanon, and presumably other parts of the range, by local persecution.
61498		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas in Jordan, Lebanon and Israel. There are protected areas within its range Turkey, but there are no records from these sites. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. More research is needed to better understand its distribution in Turkey. It is threatened at the periphery of its range in both Turkey and Jordan.
61498		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Turkey, western Syria, throughout Lebanon, to northern Israel and northwestern Jordan. Its range in Syria is poorly known. It is found from 400m asl up to 1,300m asl.
61498		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky or stony areas within wooded landscapes (pine and oak). In Turkey and Jordan it has been found in rural gardens. Little is known about its about reproductive biology, but it probably lays eggs like other species in the <em>Eirenis</em> genus. This species is small (20-30cm in length) and secretive, making it challenging to find and study in the wild.
61498		population	eng	It is common in Lebanon. It is rare in Turkey, and it appears to be declining in Israel and Jordan.
61498		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Israel and Lebanon. In Turkey it is threatened in areas of intensive cultivation and in Jordan it is threatened by deforestation, largely because of urbanization.
61499		conservation	eng	It is known from Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco and in several other Moroccan protected areas: Saghro, Grouz, Trois fourches, Gourougou, and Béni Snassen.
61499		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It ranges from the major part of Mediterranean Morocco, reaching northwestern Algeria. It has been recorded from Melilla (Spain). It is found up to 1,850m asl.
61499		habitat	eng	It can be found in dry grassland, open woodland, coastal areas, forest, and agricultural land with ground cover. It is an egg-laying species.
61499		population	eng	It is common in Morocco, and in some places it is very abundant. In Melilla it is rare.
61499		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is sometimes locally harvested for traditional medicine and there also appears to be a trade for this species for the pet industry. It is also frequently killed by accidental mortality on roads.
61500		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation, and it is present in a number of protected areas. Subspecies <em>laurae</em> is considered vulnerable in the Spanish national Red List.
61500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands (Spain). It has been recorded from the islands of Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Lobos, La Graciosa, Montana Clara and Roque del Este. There is an introduced population (from Lanzarote) in the vicinity of Arinaga in eastern Gran Canaria Island. It is present from sea level to 670m asl on Lanzarote and to 800m asl on Fuerteventura.
61500		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of dry, open habitats. It has been recorded from coastal sandy areas with sparse vegetation, scrubland, open dry forest, cultivated and urban areas. The species is generally only absent from barren lava fields resulting from relatively recent volcanic activity. The females annually lay two to three clutches of one to five eggs.
61500		population	eng	It is generally an abundant species.
61500		threats	eng	In general there are no major threats to this species as a whole. The introduced population of Gran Canaria is declining due to habitat loss through urbanization.. The population on the Roque del Este is very rare but still survives. Populations of this species on small islands and in fragments of habitat remaining in recent lava fields, are considered to be especially vulnerable to habitat loss and introduced predators.
61501		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to verify the identity of animals recently observed; if these are not individual of <em>Gallotia auaritae</em>, it remains probable that these populations will still be of very high conservation concern. There is an urgent need to secure any remaining populations of giant <em>Gallotia</em> lizards on La Palma, including strict protect of areas of suitable habitat and prevention of collection of animals for non-research purposes.
61501		distribution	eng	This possibly extinct species once ranged from sea-level up to 800m asl in the littoral zone of La Palma in the Canary Islands (Spain). Its decline started 2,000 years ago with the arrival of humans on La Palma. Although it was believed to have become extinct in the last 500 years, there are recent sightings and photographs of giant <em>Gallotia</em> lizards from northern La Palma (Mínguez <em>et al</em>. 2007; (Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. comm. 2008). While the identity of these lizards needs to be verified through the capture of an individual, it is probable that there has only ever been a single species of large <em>Gallotia</em> on La Palma (Barahona <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mateo <em>et al</em>. 2003; Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. comm. 2008). Recent observations have been between 40 and 200m asl.
61501		habitat	eng	It apparently previously occurred through the littoral zone of La Palma, living in xerophytic vegetation. It is presumably an egg-laying species.
61501		population	eng	While this species is possibly extinct, recent observations suggest that a small remnant population of these lizards is present in northern La Palma (Mínguez <em>et al</em>. 2007, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. comm. 2008).
61501		threats	eng	The causes of extinction over much of this species range appear to have been introduced cats, consumption by people, and conversion of land to agricultural use. The current threats to any remaining populations need further investigation.
61502		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Rural de Valle Gran Rey. The species is protected by international legislation. A captive breeding programme has been established on La Gomera, and a species recovery plan is in place. There is a need to control cat populations in the vicinity of the remaining animals. Further surveys are needed on La Gomera within other isolated areas to determine if any more remnant populations of this species persist. The implementation of education programmes for local people has been recommended.
61502		distribution	eng	This species, thought to be long extinct, was rediscovered as a living animal in 1999, and is known only from two separate inaccessible cliffs 2 km apart, close to the Valle Gran Rey, in the west of the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands (Spain). The species is thought to have once ranged throughout much of La Gomera, and the present range is less than one hectare.
61502		habitat	eng	This species is once widespread in many habitat types on La Gomera. It is now restricted to dry cliffs with sparse vegetation. The species is generally diurnal and mostly herbivorous. The females lay a single clutch annually of three to seven eggs on average.
61502		population	eng	The population of this species consists of only 90 wild individuals remaining in the wild. There is a captive population of about 44 animals (in 2004).
61502		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are predation by feral cats, and rock falls within its restricted range. The species historically declined through overgrazing, hunting, and predation by feral cats and rats.
61503		conservation	eng	It is protected by international legislation, and occurs in a number of protected areas.
61503		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands of Spain. It is present on the islands of El Hierro, La Gomera, Roque Grande de Salmor, and Roquillo (a small island north of La Gomera). It has been introduced to Los Cristianos in the south of Tenerife Island and may have been introduced to Funchal Botanic Garden the island of Madeira, Portugal. It is found from sea level to 1,500m asl.
61503		habitat	eng	The species is present in a wide variety of habitats, including open areas, shrubland, cultivated and urban areas. It is less common in native laurel and canary pine forest habitats. Females may annually lay three clutches of one to five eggs.
61503		population	eng	It is a very common species.
61503		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
61504		conservation	eng	It is protected by international legislation and is present in a number of protected areas. The subspecies <em>insulanagae</em> is considered Near Threatened on the Spanish Red List.
61504		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands (Spain). It is native to Tenerife, La Palma, and the smaller islands of Roque de Anaga de Dentro, Roque de Anaga de Fuera, Roque de Fasnia and Roque de Garachico. The species has recently been introduced to the island of El Hierro (only one individual known) and also at Morro Jable (large population) on Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands. Reports of this species from the island of Madeira, Portugal, are believed to be erroneous. It occurs from sea level up to 3,000m asl (Tenerife).
61504		habitat	eng	This species is common in various open, rocky and shrubland habitats. It is commonly associated with stone walls in cultivated areas. The species is rarer in forested areas, where it may be confined to pathways and other open areas. Females annually lay one or two clutches of two to nine eggs.
61504		population	eng	It is a common species.
61504		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is sometimes controlled as a pest in agricultural areas.
61505		conservation	eng	Measures to control access by cats to some of the remaining populations, such as fencing, have been implemented. A recovery action plan has been developed for this species. The species may still exist in other inaccessible parts of Tenerife, more field surveys are urgently needed. It occurs in at least one protected area.
61505		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in 1996 in the Macizo de Teno in the extreme northwest of Tenerife island, in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is now know from a small area of coastline in the extreme west of the island, and also from Montana de Guaza in the extreme south. It is believed that the species was once widespread throughout much of Tenerife.
61505		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rugged terrain, with rocks and boulders, often found on small rock ledges with sparse vegetation. The species is presumed to have once occurred in a variety of habitats across Tenerife. The species is largely herbivorous. It is an egg-laying species.
61505		population	eng	There are 40 isolated populations along 9 km of coastline, totaling 500 animals. The population at Montana de Guaza is around 100 animals. It is increasing as a result of the control of introduced mammals.
61505		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by feral cats and, to a lesser degree, by rats. It is presumed that the historical decline in this species was largely due to predation by cats. Several of the smaller populations, consisting of a few individuals, may be threatened by the effects of inbreeding.
61506		conservation	eng	This species is protected by international legislation. It is occurs in a number of protected areas.
61506		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. There are additional introduced populations of the species on Fuerteventura. There are also records of introduced animals from Gomera and La Palma, but it is not clear that these represent established populations, and so they are not mapped. It is present from sea level to over 1,850m asl.
61506		habitat	eng	This species is present in a wide variety of habitats. It occurs in open areas, shrubland, rocky humid gorges. The species is absent from forested areas. In Fuerteventura it is found in agricultural areas. It is an egg-laying species.
61506		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
61506		threats	eng	Although this species is generally still abundant, it is impacted by predation by feral cats and rats.
61507		conservation	eng	It is present within the Elba protected area of southeastern Egypt. Further studies are needed into the range of this species, especially to the south of Gebel Elba in Sudan.
61507		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Gebel Elba region of southeast Egypt, and is believed to also be present further south in Sudan (Baha El Din, 2005). It is found up to an elevation of around 450 m asl.
61507		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from dry Acacia woodlands in semi-arid mountainous regions. It is found in <em>Acacia-Euphorbia</em> scrubland with scattered rocks on mountain slopes. It is not present in any cultivated areas. It is an egg-laying species.
61507		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species at Gebel Elba.
61507		threats	eng	While there are no threats currently known to the species, it is possible that overgrazing by livestock and charcoal production could potentially lead to habitat loss within its currently known limited range.
61508		conservation	eng	The majority of this species known range is within the Saint Katherine protected area. There are no specific conservation measures needed other than further studies on the range, population, ecology and biology of this species.
61508		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of south Sinai, Egypt, where it has been recorded within a radius of 50 km from the highest peak of Gebel Katerine (2,641 m asl). Animals have also been observed at Wadi Gebal and the "Blue Valley" (Baha El Din 2005). The species has been recorded between 600 and around 2,000 m asl.
61508		habitat	eng	It is present on steep rocky mountains with boulders, cliffs and caves. These sites often with a mountain scrub and oasis-type vegetation. Animals retreat into narrow cracks and crevices when disturbed. The species is generally found close to humid habitats, but may also occur in human habitations. It is an egg-laying species.
61508		population	eng	It is a generally uncommon species, with locally dense populations in some areas. It seems likely that the species is expanding its range as more buildings are constructed.
61508		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Potential future threats include habitat loss through overgrazing of vegetation by livestock and also through quarrying operations.
61509		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.
61509		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species is present in central and southern Portugal, southern, central and eastern Spain, southern Sardinia (Italy) and on Pantelleria Island (Italy). In North Africa it is found from Morocco, eastwards through northern Algeria to northern Tunisia. It is found from sea level up to 2,660 m asl. The populations of the Italian islands of Sardinia and Pantellaria are probably introduced in historical times, but this requires verification.
61509		habitat	eng	This slender bodies colubrid snake is adapted to vertical substrates, and occurs in a wide variety of arid, dry and rocky habitats. It is very adaptable to modified habitats, commonly found in scrubland, coastal plains, arable land, pastures, vineyards, almond and olive groves, rural gardens, villages and cities in and around buildings. The females lay clutches of up to 11 eggs.
61509		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat. In Sardinia this species seems rare.
61509		threats	eng	It is also locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads, occasional persecution, and also by accidental poisoning through the use of agrochemicals. In North Africa, it is increasingly captured for use by snake charmers in local markets.
61510		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is present in many protected areas. No further conservation measures are immediately needed for this species.
61510		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania (mostly lowlands) and western and southern Greece. It is present on a number of islands in the Adriatic Sea, and is present on both the Ionian Islands and the islands of Euboa, Kythera, Crete (and adjacent islets) and Karpathos of Greece. The species may be present in extreme northeastern Italy, although records from this area need to be confirmed (Claudia Corti pers. comm.). This species ranges from sea level to 1,400 m asl.
61510		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry, stony areas, scrubland, macchia, open woodland, vineyards, olive groves, generally overgrown areas, rural gardens and ruins. The females lay clutches of four to 10 eggs.
61510		population	eng	It can be very common. It is considered to be declining in Albania.
61510		threats	eng	It is locally threatened in parts of it range by habitat loss to agricultural intensification, fire and pollution. However, in general there appear to be no major threats to this species.
61511		conservation	eng	It is known from the Parc National Toubkral.
61511		distribution	eng	This species ranges from west-central Morocco, through the Atlas Mountains to northwestern Algeria. It is found up to 2,200 m asl in the High Atlas.
61511		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid or damp habitats with vegetation cover. It can be found in grassland, deciduous and coniferous woodland and traditionally managed agricultural land. It is an egg-laying species.
61511		population	eng	At Ifrane in Morocco, the population was estimated at 20 individuals per hectare. It is thought to abundant in suitable forest habitat.
61511		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat loss resulting from general deforestation including the collection of firewood and timber for house construction.
61512		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It does not occur in any protected areas. A recovery plan is in place in Cataluña for <em>I. aranica</em>.
61512		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Central Pyrenean Mountains of France and Spain. It was previously thought to be restricted to an area of about 25 km2 of the Mauberme massif, between the Arán and Ariége valleys, but in 2006 a new population was discovered in Mont Valier (France). It occurs from 1,640 to 2,668 m asl.
61512		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky alpine habitats, such as stony meadows, rock outcrops and gravelly slopes. It is an egg-laying species.
61512		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range. The species occurs in fragmented populations associated with rocky and stony habitats.
61512		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by cattle, collection of specimens, and is inferred to be threatened by future habitat loss through the development of ski resorts, lodges and hotels, the construction of roads and tracks, and the use of all-terrain vehicles. It is additionally threatened by the possible development of hydroelectric projects and mining. It is also possible that this species will be significantly impacted by climate change.
61513		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It does not occur in any protected areas.
61513		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pyrenees Mountains. It is restricted a small part of the border area of Andorra, France and Spain with the majority of the population found in Spain. It is found from 2,100 to 2,940 m asl.
61513		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas in alpine regions. It is generally associated with south-facing, glaciated valleys. It is an egg-laying species.
61513		population	eng	Most populations are small and consist of tens or a few hundreds of individuals.
61513		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by cattle, collection of specimens, and is inferred to be threatened by future habitat loss through the development of ski resorts, lodges and hotels, the construction of roads and tracks, and the use of all terrain vehicles. It is additionally threatened by the possible development of hydroelectric projects and mining. It is possible that this species will be significantly impacted by climate change.
61514		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Sierra de Gredos Natural Park.
61514		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central mountain system of Spain in the Sierra de Bejar, Sierra de Gredos, La Serrota and Sierra del Guadarrama. It occurs from 1,300 to 2,500m.
61514		habitat	eng	It is a montane species found close to the tree line in damp, rocky habitats. The females lay a clutch of three to ten eggs once or twice a year.
61514		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species in several areas.
61514		threats	eng	Its populations are highly fragmented and are threatened by habitat loss, especially due to the construction of ski resorts and roads. It might also be adversely affected in future by climate change.
61515		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as Lacerta horvathi) and is protected by national legislation in a number of its range states. Further general research is needed into the ecology and range of this species. It occurs in some protected areas.
61515		distribution	eng	This species has a very fragmented and relictual range in mountainous areas of southern Austria, northeastern Italy, western Slovenia, and western Croatia. It has been recorded from 200 to 2,000 m asl (Italy) (Lapini <em>et al</em>., 2004). The range of this species is probably underestimated because of the similarity of this species to the widespread and syntopic <em>Podarcis muralis</em>.
61515		habitat	eng	This species is most often found in cliffs and rocky areas such as boulder fields that are generally poor in vegetation. It can also be found in open beech and coniferous forests or above the tree-line in alpine scrubland. It is often found in sheltered places. It is an egg-laying species.
61515		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
61515		threats	eng	The main threat is the vulnerability of the many isolated populations of this species. There appear to be no active threats to this species at present over the majority of its range, but further studies are needed to confirm this.
61516		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parque Natural de las Batuecas y Sierra de Francia, but specific management for the recovery of this species is required. A full-scale recovery programme should be developed, which should probably include captive breeding as part of the overall strategy.
61516		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra de Francia, Salamanca in Spain at between 800 (Batuecas) and 1,723m asl (Peña deFrancia). The main population is at the peak of the mountain, with some observations from nearby at lower elevations.
61516		habitat	eng	It lives in rocky habitats at high altitudes in temperate forest. If its breeding is similar to that of <em>Iberolacerta cyreni</em>, the females lay a clutch of three to ten eggs once or twice a year.
61516		population	eng	It is a very rare species that is in decline. Its population is probably less than 100 mature individuals. Probably 90% of the population is at the peak of the mountain.
61516		threats	eng	It is threatened by the collection of specimens, the construction of roads, the use of all-terrain vehicles and the effects of seasonal tourism. It might be affected in the future by climate change.
61517		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in Turkey and probably occurs in protected areas in Greece.
61517		distribution	eng	This species is present in western Anatolia in the region north of the Büyük Menderes River in Turkey and the island of Samos in Greece. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
61517		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky areas in open woodland and Mediterranean forest. It can also occur in degraded forest that has been grazed by cattle. It lays three to eight eggs.
61517		population	eng	It is a common species.
61517		threats	eng	It threatened by forest fires in parts of Turkey.
61518		conservation	eng	It is known to exist in Toubkal National Park.
61518		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco where it is restricted to High Atlas Mountain range. It is found from 2,400 up to 3,800 m asl.
61518		habitat	eng	This species is found in alpine meadows, in scree and amongst boulders, and in areas of thorn cushion vegetation and thickets. It has a long hibernation period. The female lays three clutches of between one and three eggs per year.
61518		population	eng	Although the species is generally considered to be rare, animals are often well hidden in vegetation and may occur at higher densities than was first assumed. The species can be very common in favourable conditions.
61518		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species, but it does occur in areas that are readily accessible, most especially by hikers.
61519		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as <em>L. viridis</em>) and is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in all range states. This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005)
61519		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southwestern Germany (where its populations are isolated from the main range), southwestern and southern Switzerland, most of France (except parts of the northeast), Monaco, most of Italy, western Slovenia, western Croatia, southern Austria, and northern Spain. It has been introduced to Kansas in the United States. It is present on the islands of Elba and Sicily (Italy) and Jersey in the Channel Islands (United Kingdom) (and is introduced on Guernsey). It is present from sea level up to 2,160m asl.
61519		habitat	eng	It is found in grassy areas with scattered trees and shrubs and damp areas with dense vegetation within scrubland and forests (deciduous and mixed). It is also found at woodland edges, and close to fences and hedges in traditionally cultivated land (including vineyards). It is an egg-laying species.
61519		population	eng	It can be a common species. Populations may be locally declining, especially in the north of the species range and in intensively cultivated areas.
61519		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by habitat loss through the loss of suitable habitat to intensive cultivation, overstocking of cattle, burning of scrubland and groves, and pesticide contamination. The conversion of traditional agricultural habitats (e.g. vineyards) to intensive methods is a threat to populations.
61520		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas in Turkey, it is not known if it occurs in any protected areas in Syria.
61520		distribution	eng	This species is found to the east of the Syrian Rift Valley in northwest Syria and in adjacent southeastern Turkey (Schmidtler and Bischoff, 1999; P.-A. Crochet pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 800 to 1,050m asl.
61520		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky habitats with Mediterranean-type shrub vegetation. It can be found in lightly grazed or cultivated areas. It is an egg-laying species.
61520		population	eng	It has a restricted range, but it is common within this area.
61520		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species; the habitat is generally not under pressure.
61521		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention.
61521		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portuguese islands of La Gartixa de Madeira, the Desertas Islands, Porto Santo Island and the Selvagens Islands. It was introduced to the Azores Islands (where it is widespread) before 1860, and more recently to the harbour area of Lisbon (where it is localised). It is found from sea level up to 1,850m asl.
61521		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in arid areas with sparse vegetation. It may also occur in open woodland, rocky and cultivated areas. The females lay two to three clutches of eggs annually. Animals have been observed being accidentally transported on ships.
61521		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
61521		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is often considered to be a pest species, and is controlled in vineyards as it eats grapes.
61522		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas.
61522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mount Lebanon Range and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in Lebanon, and is believed to occur in adjacent Syria. It is found at between and 1,800 to 2,400 m asl.
61522		habitat	eng	It is found in open alpine habitats with sparse, cushion-type, vegetation. These areas are dry in summer and covered with snow in the winter (Odierna <em>et al</em>. 1995). The species is not found on steep slopes. It can be found in some modified areas, as long as there is some cover for the species to hide in. There are generally few habitations within the range of the species. This species lays a clutch of three to four eggs.
61522		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
61522		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range and is potentially threatened by habitat loss through overgrazing by sheep and goats, by expansion and development of the ski industry and by climate change.
61523		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Its range includes a few protected areas.
61523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Peloponnese region of southern Greece. It ranges from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
61523		habitat	eng	It is generally found close to water sources, or humid areas, in upland and coastal regions.  Animals may be found in shaded parts of rocky areas, scree and light, open woodland. It can also be found on the tree-lined edges of pastureland. The females lay a single clutch of one to six eggs annually.
61523		population	eng	It can be a locally common species in appropriate high humidity habitats, although the populations are usually small. This species has not been surveyed since the Peloponnese fires in 2007 but it may have been affected.
61523		threats	eng	Wildfire and human-caused fires can be a threat to the species' habitat. It is not known to be in the pet trade. Planting of eucalyptus trees is affecting the species' habitat.
61524		conservation	eng	In Lebanon it is present in the Arz-Al Shouf and Horj Ehden protected areas; in Jordan it is found in the Dana Wildlife Reserve; it is also present in the Mount Hermon protected area. It is protected by Israeli national legislation.
61524		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented range in the Levant region. It is known from Mount Hermon (on the border of Lebanon and Israeli-occupied Syria), from the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains (in Lebanon, crossing into Syria on the Anti-Lebanon), from Jabal Al Arab (Druz) in southern Syria, and from western Jordan (from Al Karak in the north to Petra in the south). It is found from 1,350 up to at least 2,000 m asl. On Mount Hermon it occurs above 1,500 m. The total area of occupancy of this species is estimated to be below 500 km².
61524		habitat	eng	This species is very restricted to the fragmented rocky areas in cedar and oak forests. Animals are found on boulders and amongst rocks, and can be found on abandoned buildings and similar modified habitats (although there is generally little human habitation in the range). It is an egg-laying species.
61524		population	eng	It is a common species.
61524		threats	eng	This species has a fragmented recital range. It is threatened by habitat loss through tourism development in southern Jordan. On Mount Hermon, it is threatened by the development of its habitat for use by the military, and is potentially threatened by the development of the ski industry. It is threatened by overgrazing of suitable habitat in parts of its range and is potentially threatened by climate change.
61526		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in some range countries. It is present in a number of protected areas.
61526		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwestern Dinaric mountain range of southern coastal Croatia, southern Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro. It may be present in northern Albania but further surveys are needed to confirm this. It occurs from 450 to 1,900 m asl.
61526		habitat	eng	It is largely found in humid, rocky, montane areas of exposed karst. The species inhabits open woodland and sites with a rich vegetation cover. The females lay a single clutch of four to eight eggs.
61526		population	eng	It is not a common species and has a patchy distribution.
61526		threats	eng	It is threatened by the loss of suitable habitat due to logging, including within protected areas. Collection of animals for the pet-trade was a threat in the past. It is likely that some small-scale illegal trade continues.
61527		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas in both Turkey and Greece.
61527		distribution	eng	This species is present in western and southern Anatolia, Turkey and on the Greek islands of Ikaria, Nisyros, Symi and Rhodes. This species is not present on the island of Nisyros (Petros Lymberakis, pers. comm. 2008).
61527		habitat	eng	This species is found in Mediterranean-type habitats, rocky areas (including coastal sites), traditionally cultivated areas and orchards. It is an egg-laying species.
61527		population	eng	It is common in Turkey. It is declining on the island of Rhodes, but remains common on the surrounding islets.
61527		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest fires in parts of its range. It is declining on Rhodes, although the reasons for this decline are currently unknown.
61528		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is protected in some countries by national legislation. Its range includes several protected areas.
61528		distribution	eng	This species is present in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean habitats in southern Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Montenegro. It possibly also occurs in Albania but this requires confirmation. It has an elevational range of sea level to around 1,600m asl.
61528		habitat	eng	It is a sun-loving species generally found in rocky areas, on cliffs and also on buildings in towns and villages. The females lay clutches of two to four eggs. It is quite an adaptable species.
61528		population	eng	It can occur at high densities in suitable habitat.
61528		threats	eng	It might have been traded in the past, but this is not occurring much anymore. A dam might be built that would affect the northern population of the species. Otherwise it is a relatively unthreatened species at present.
61529		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. In general there appear to be no conservation measures needed for this species. However, there is a need to ensure the survival of distinct isolated populations and to further research threats to this species throughout its range.
61529		distribution	eng	This species is present from coastal Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, east to Bulgaria, southeastern Romania, Albania, Macedonia, Greece (including the Ionian Islands and many Aegean Islands including Crete, Lesvos and Rhodes), and western and central Turkey. It ranges from sea level to at least 1,600 m asl.
61529		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry areas with a Mediterranean climate. It is found on or in bushy areas, sand dunes, boundary walls, orchards, and abandoned cultivated land. It can also be found close to streams and ditches. It is an egg-laying species.
61529		population	eng	It can be a common species (Kumluta? pers. comm. 2008).
61529		population	eng	It can be a common species (Kumlutaş pers. comm. 2008).
61529		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Populations in Romania are threatened through by loss of steppe habitat largely due to agricultural intensification (CoE, 2003). A number of distinct island populations are threatened, such as <em>L. t. citrovittata</em> of Tinos Island, Greece. In Turkey, this species is threatened by forest fires.
61530		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It has been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to conserve genetically isolated populations especially in the north of the species range.  In Germany, this species is listed on the national red data list as Critically Endangered.
61530		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme north-east Italy, eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, eastern Austria, and Slovenia, east to Romania, Moldova and southern Ukraine, southwards into the Balkan Peninsula in Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including some Aegean islands, and excluding the Peloponnese). It is also present in Turkey, where it is largely distributed in the area of Marmara and along the Black Sea coastal region. The species is now extinct in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). It has been introduced to Kansas in the United States. It is found from sea level up to 2,130m asl.
61530		habitat	eng	It is found in bushy vegetation at woodland and field edges, within open woodlands, forested areas and shrubland, hedgerows, and in overgrown areas and cultivated land including orchards. It takes refuge in bushes and burrows. In north-east Germany the species is confined to areas with a mosaic habitats of coniferous forest and sandy open heathlands. The females lay five to 23 eggs in a clutch.
61530		population	eng	It can be a common species. Populations at the north-west edge of the species range may be declining, and the populations are fragmented in that area.
61530		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this wide ranging species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range, especially in the north, by general habitat loss, afforestation of suitable sites and predation by cats. In the northern parts of Turkey, this species is locally threatened by the pesticide use causing the absence of prey and ingestion of pesticide tainted prey.
61531		conservation	eng	It is known from the following protected areas in Morocco: Chekhar, Embouchure Moulouya, and Béni Snassen.
61531		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern Algeria and northeastern Morocco. It also occurs on Habibas Islands (Algeria). The presence in Spain needs to be confirmed, as it is unclear if the specimen cited for Melilla pertained to this species (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).
61531		habitat	eng	It apparently lives in semi-arid and sub-humid Mediterranean habitats, and it is thought to lay eggs every two years like <em>Macroprotodon brevis</em>.
61531		population	eng	There is very little recent information on this species.
61531		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by habitat loss for agriculture and increasing urbanization throughout its range; but the boundaries of the species distribution are still unknown. Two intrinsic threats to the species are its overall small distribution range and poor recruitment capacity (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). It is eaten by wild boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>), although this is unlikely to constitute a significant threat.
61532		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
61532		distribution	eng	This species is present in northern and eastern Morocco, southern and central Portugal and Spain, with very isolated populations in the northern half of these two countries. It occurs from sea level to 2080 msm.
61532		habitat	eng	It is only found in relatively undisturbed habitats such as evergreen temperate forests and scrublands. It lays 3-5 eggs every two years. This species is a specialist predator of amphisbaenians (<em>Blanus</em> sp.) and skinks.
61532		population	eng	The species is only common in some localities of the western and rainy parts of its distribution, both in the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco, however it is a semifosorial, cryptic species that is sometimes difficult to find (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).
61532		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through the intensification of agricultural methods, afforestation with pine plantations and abandonment of traditional pastures, throughout much of its range. It is additionally threatened in Iberia by the ongoing spread of the predatory Wild Boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>).
61533		conservation	eng	It is present in a few protected areas. On Lampedusa, populations of this species require some protection. In Egypt, there is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species and to create new protected areas; this species is significantly threatened and is considered to be Vulnerable (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). The isolated populations of the Hoggar (Algeria) and Western Sahara, are probably threatened (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Further studies to resolve the taxonomy of this species are needed.
61533		distribution	eng	This species ranges through northern Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt to southern Israel, with quite isolated populations in southern Algeria (Hoggar mountains) [not mapped here] and Western Sahara. In Europe, it is present only on the island of Lampedusa (possibly introduced), Italy, although it also occurs in Menorca and Majorca where the species has been introduced (probably around 200 B.C.). It is mainly a lowland species.
61533		habitat	eng	It is found in open, sandy deciduous and evergreen woodland, scrubland, sandy areas, oasis, meadows, plantations, cultivated land and on stone walls and ruins. The females lay two to six eggs and breed every two years.
61533		population	eng	It can be a common species in suitable habitat. In Egypt it is a rare and declining species. The Lampedusa population seems to be in decline.
61533		threats	eng	Although the species does not appear to be globally threatened, it is locally threatened by habitat degradation, including changes in agricultural practices (general intensification). Habitat degradation on the island of Lampedusa is a major threat, as is the expansion of tourism and accidental mortality on roads, and the same seems to occur in the Balearic Islands (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). In Egypt it is threatened by commercial collection for the international pet trade, urbanization and development of tourism, overgrazing, collection of firewood and quarrying.
61534		conservation	eng	It is present in at least two protected areas. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species.
61534		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from Mount Sinai on the southern Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. It occurs from 600 to almost 2,000 m asl.
61534		habitat	eng	It is found in mountainous rocky habitats with sparse vegetation. It can be found in slightly modified areas. It is an egg-laying species.
61534		population	eng	It is a common species.
61534		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing by livestock, firewood collection, development of tourism and quarrying.
61535		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas.
61535		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Atlantic region of Morocco, where it is found from the Western Haut Atlas to the coastal plains. It is found from the lowlands to over 1,000 m asl.
61535		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-arid rocky plateaus with sparse vegetation. It is an egg-laying species.
61535		population	eng	It is relatively common throughout its range.
61535		threats	eng	There are not considered to be any major threats to this species.
61536		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas in Lebanon (Bentael protected area) and is believed to be present in protected areas in Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61536		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Levant region where it has been recorded from western Syria, much of Lebanon (except the northeast), the northern half of Israel and northwestern Jordan
61536		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial snake that is associated with terra rosa soils in the Mediterranean biotope (scrub and pine and oak woods). Animals have been collected in suitable habitat within villages. It is an egg laying species.
61536		population	eng	It is difficult to determine the population abundance of this species.
61536		threats	eng	Although it has a relatively restricted range, there appear to be no immediate major threats to this species.
61537		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.  It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.  It is present in many protected areas in southeast Anatolia, Turkey and in Greece as well.
61537		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Greece and in Turkey (western, southern and central Anatolia). In Greece it is also present on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Patmos, Leipsoi, Leros, Kalymnos, Kos, Symi, Chalki and Oenousses. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.
61537		habitat	eng	This species is found in Mediterranean scrubland and mountain steppe habitats. It can be found in rural gardens, cultivated land, olive groves and among ruins. The females give birth to between two and 15 young.
61537		population	eng	It can be common in upland areas and on islands.
61537		threats	eng	A number populations in western Anatolia, Turkey, appear to be threatened by overcollection for the pet trade. There is some illegal export of this species from Turkey. There is some localized persecution of this species.
61538		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in Switzerland. It is present in many protected areas. This species is categorized as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
61538		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species ranges from Portugal and Spain through much of France, to extreme southwestern Switzerland and northwestern Italy. In North Africa it is present in most of Morocco, northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia and northwestern Libya. This species is also present (probably allochtonous) on the Mediterranean islands of Sardinia (Italy), Corsica (one single record) [not mapped]; natural populations are present on Iles d'Hyéres (France) and La Galite (Tunisia). It has been introduced to the islands of Menorca and Mallorca in the Balearic Islands of Spain. The species can be found from sea level up to 2,600  m asl.
61538		habitat	eng	This species is generally found close to, or within, waterbodies such as streams and ponds. Often these habitats are in meadows and open woodlands. It has also been recorded from areas of brackish water. The species lays between three and 20 eggs.
61538		population	eng	In most of its range it is an extremely common species, but perhaps declining locally in some parts of North Africa.
61538		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by aquatic pollution, especially through the loss of prey species (e.g.. fishes). It is threatened in Switzerland, and presumably other parts of the species range, by channelization of rivers and other waterbodies. As with many snake species, individual animals are occasionally killed by people, as they are often confused with venomous vipers. In Tunisia, desiccated specimens are sold as souvenirs to tourists (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).
61539		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Wadi Al Mawjib Protected area in Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61539		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and northern Israel, southwestern Syria and western Jordan. It has not been recorded from Lebanon but might occur there. In Israel it is suspected that the species possibly occurs as isolated populations, although further field studies are needed to confirm this.
61539		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that occurs in sandy areas, with high humidity, where it can burrow into the substrate and under stones. It is not known if the species can be found in modified habitats.
61539		population	eng	The abundance of this fossorial species is difficult to determine. It is very poorly known.
61539		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It is locally threatened in northern Jordan by agricultural intensification.
61540		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It is listed under Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It has been recorded from a few protected areas in Greece and in Turkey. Further enforcement of protected areas in which this species occurs in Greece is needed. There is a need for more taxonomic studies for both the Greek and Turkish populations. More research is needed to better understand the biology of this species.
61540		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula and on the Greek islands of Kythira in the Aegean Sea and the island of Kastelorizo off of the southwestern Turkish coast, and in parts of southwestern Turkey.  One record from southeastern Greece is doubtful and requires verification. This is a lowland species occurring up to 600m asl.
61540		habitat	eng	This species burrows in soil and can be found hiding under stones. It occurs in open areas of grassland, scrubland, and low vegetation with loose soil. It can be found in olive groves.
61540		population	eng	This species is rare in Turkey and Greece.
61540		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It is unlikely that there are major threats given its habitat preferences, but more research is needed.
61541		conservation	eng	It is known from protected areas in Tunisia and may be present in other protected areas in its range. In Egypt, it is present in the proposed Salum protected area on the Libyan border. Further research is needed to clarify the distribution of this species (eg. in Libya), and to establish the relationship between this species and O. elegans (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
61541		distribution	eng	This North African species ranges from extreme northeastern Morocco, through northern Algeria and northern and central Tunisia, to northern Libya to northwestern Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It is found up to 1,500 m asl.
61541		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of open, solid ground with a covering of grasses, and also in scrubland and in steppe. It can be found in traditionally managed fields. It is not found on rock faces or in areas of mobile sands. In Egypt, it is confined to a very narrow habitat along lightly vegetated calcareous ridges extending parallel to the Mediterranean coast (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). The females lay three or four eggs.
61541		population	eng	It is a common species in most parts of its range. It is very rare on the edge of its range in Morocco. In Egypt it is a rare and declining species.
61541		threats	eng	In the western part of its range there are no known threats to this species; it could perhaps be threatened by expanding agriculture, but this is considered to be unlikely. In Egypt, it is highly threatened by limestone quarrying, tourism resort expansion, agricultural expansion, overgrazing and collection of firewood. In Egypt, as much as 50% of suitable habitat has been lost in the last ten years.
61542		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Research is urgently needed into the taxonomy, range, ecology and biology of this species. This species could benefit from ex-situ conservation measures to prevent the extinction of the species while in-situ conservation measures are developed (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There is a need to create protected areas to protect the species and to develop community based action to conserve the species habitat.
61542		distribution	eng	This relictory species is present in Libya where it is known only from two localities, the Oasis of Elbarkat (Al Barkat) 8km south of Ghat, Fezzan and from near to Ajedabia, in western Cyrenaica, and in Egypt where it is known from Wadi El Natrun (S. Baha El Din pers. comm). Animals in Egypt have previously been misidentified as belonging to <em>P. intermedius</em> (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It is found at sea level and below.
61542		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-desert on the edge of oasis, where it is confined to areas with Halfa grasses on sandy soil. The species is not believed to be adaptable to cultivated land. It is an egg-laying species.
61542		population	eng	It is a very rare species occurring in small populations.
61542		threats	eng	It is a highly localised relict species. In Egypt it is highly endangered if not extinct, the area of occurrence is a less than 5 km2. It is threatened by habitat loss through land reclamation for agriculture and overgrazing. There is some collection for the pet trade or for scientific research.
61543		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. There are no direct conservation actions currently needed for this species as a whole.
61543		distribution	eng	This species ranges from coastal southeastern Bulgaria through parts of Turkey crossing the Bosferous. There are no records from the coast of the Dardanelles, but it is possibly present. It is found in western and southern Anatolia and western Syria to Lebanon, northern Israel, and western Jordan. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
61543		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry, rocky and bushy places. It is generally restricted to the Mediterranean biotope. It sometimes occurs in gardens and cultivated fields. The female lays between three and five eggs in a clutch.
61543		population	eng	In Turkey, this species is uncommon.  In other areas, it is generally a common species. It is uncommon in Bulgaria at the edge of its range.
61543		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. As with many snakes, it is locally persecuted.
61544		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in some protected areas.
61544		distribution	eng	This species is found from northwestern Spain and northern Portugal, south to the River Douro. It occurs from sea level to 1,900m asl.
61544		habitat	eng	This species is found in open deciduous woodland and Atlantic scrubland (<em>Taxus</em> or <em>Erica</em>), on coastal sand dunes and in rural areas including villages. The females may lay two to four clutches of two to nine eggs annually.
61544		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat.
61544		threats	eng	Although the species is not significantly threatened overall, some populations may be threatened by forest fires, conifer agroforestry, degradation of coastal dune habitats, and the development of tourism facilities.
61545		conservation	eng	Many of the southern populations are protected (including in the Coto Doñana National Park). In central Portugal and Spain, some populations are in natural parks.
61545		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in highly fragmented populations in western and central Portugal, occurring more contiguously in Aveiro in central Portugal. In western Portugal it occurs down to sea-level in many fragmented sites, while in central Portugal it occurs in hilly sites above 500m. In Spain it is known from two areas in on the northern slopes of the central mountain system at 500-1,200m. It also occurs at Coto Doñana in southwestern Spain at sea-level, and on the Berlenga Islands in Portugal (as a separate subspecies, <em>P.c. berlengensis</em>).
61545		habitat	eng	In Spain and central Portugal it occurs in oak forest. At sea-level it lives only in sand dunes. It lays one to three egg clutches a year, with one to five eggs in each.
61545		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat. The southern populations are generally very small, but can be abundant in tiny areas. However, many populations are probably in decline, especially in the south of its range.
61545		threats	eng	The southern populations are almost certainly at risk from climate change. Loss of habitat due to touristic developments in the south, and wood plantations (pine) in central Portugal are also serious threats. Fires are an additional threat.
61546		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation over a number of its range countries, but this legislation requires better enforcement. Its range includes several protected areas.
61546		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balkans, and ranges from southern Bulgaria, extreme southern Serbia, Macedonia, Albania, and much of mainland Greece (excluding most of the Peloponnese). It is also present on many of the Aegean Islands (including the Cyclades, Sporades and Astypalaia in the Dodecanese). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl. In many places it is known from isolated localities, rather than a continuous range.
61546		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas of Mediterranean type scrubland. Island populations can occur in more open areas such as sand dune systems. The females lay one to five eggs in a clutch.
61546		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat.
61546		threats	eng	There have been some localized declines of populations caused by habitat loss for tourism developments, but there are no threats to the species overall at present.
61547		conservation	eng	Its range is effectively protected on Piperi island, as there is a Mediterranean Monk Seal (<em>Monachus monachus</em>) population present, and access to the island is restricted.
61547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece where it occurs in the Skyros archipelago and on Piperi Island in the northern Sporades Islands of the Aegean Sea. It is a lowland species.
61547		habitat	eng	It is found in bushy vegetation or bare areas on some of the smaller islands. It is an egg-laying species. On some small islands cases of gigantism in this species have been recorded.
61547		population	eng	It is a common species.
61547		threats	eng	Although the species has a restricted range there appear to be no major threats at present. It is possible that the potential introduction of predators could threaten populations on some of the smaller islands. Human-caused fires (and wildfires) are an additional threat.
61548		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and it is presumed to be present in several protected areas.
61548		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout most of Portugal and much of Spain (excluding parts of the south and the northwest, but including the Columbretes Islands and the Charfarinas Islands), ranging into southern France as far as the Rhone River. The species occurs from sea level up to  3,481m asl.
61548		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in climbing over rocks, in overgrown areas, on stone walls, on rock outcrops in alpine meadows, in bushy vegetation and in rural buildings. The females lay one to five eggs, with several clutches produced in a season.
61548		population	eng	It can be a common species in suitable habitat.
61548		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Habitat loss and the introduction of competitors or predators are potential threats to the subspecies <em>Podarcis hispanica atrata</em>, the populations of which are confined to islands.
61549		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EC Habitats Directive. It is known from the Skadar Lake Protected Area in Montenegro. There are no further conservation actions currently needed.
61549		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean zones from extreme northeastern Italy through southwestern Slovenia, Croatia, southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro to northwestern Albania. It is present on many Adriatic islands. The species ranges from sea level up to 1,400 m asl.
61549		habitat	eng	It is found in dry open woodland, scrub, pastures and overgrown areas. It can be found on cliffs, rocks and stone walls. The females lays two to eight eggs per clutch.
61549		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
61549		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall. Some distinct island populations may be threatened by the introduction of cats and other predators (such as the Indian mongoose on some Adriatic islands [Roberto Sindaco pers. comm., October, 2008]).
61550		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries (e.g.. Switzerland), and occurs in a number of protected areas. The subspecies <em>P. m. rasquinetti</em> is listed as DD on the Spanish National Red List. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
61550		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Europe. It ranges from northern Spain, northwards to northern France, southern Belgium, Luxembourg, west-central Germany, much of Austria, southwestern Czech Republic, central Slovakia and central Hungary, and eastwards to central Romania, Bulgaria, most of the Balkans (excluding most of the Aegean islands) and northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It occurs on Jersey in the Channel Islands (United Kingdom). It is largely absent from Northern Europe (it occurs as small patchy, isolated populations in the north of its range), southern Iberia (though there are fragmented, isolated populations in central Spain), and parts of southern Italy and its larger islands (Sardinia, Sicily, and Apulia). It has been introduced to the United States. Many southern subspecies of <em>P. muralis</em> have been introduced to Switzerland, where they are mostly found along railway lines (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.
61550		habitat	eng	In dry areas, the species is largely found in humid or semi-humid habitats. It the more northern parts of its range it is mostly found in the driest areas. It can be occur in rocky and scree areas, scrubland, deciduous and coniferous woodland, orchards, vineyards, fields, stone walls, and on buildings. It is often found in human settlements including large cities and villages and railway lines which may be a possible method of dispersal. The females lay two to three clutches of two to six eggs per year. This species has been introduced in many places in Germany and the United Kingdom, often presumably by hobbyists (e.g. terrarium owners).
61550		population	eng	It is generally an abundant species in suitable habitat.
61550		threats	eng	There generally appear to be no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species. Populations are locally threatened in parts of its range, including those on islands or in mountains (for example through the development of alpine tourism in the Central Mountains of Spain). Several populations, principally in Northern Europe, are threatened by the loss of suitable habitat to agricultural intensification and overuse of pesticides. This species is frequently encountered in the pet trade, however the overall impact of this is not considered to constitute a major threat. The introduction of non-native subspecies may represent a threat to some localized populations.
61551		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Its range includes several protected areas.
61551		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Peloponnese region of southern Greece. It is also present on the island of Psili in the Gulf of Argolis, Greece. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl.
61551		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry scrubland, rocky areas, olive groves and vineyards, in traditionally cultivated areas and in old buildings. The females lay two clutches of one to six eggs annually.
61551		population	eng	It is a relatively common species. It has not been surveyed since the Peloponnese fires in 2007, which may have caused a decline in this species.
61551		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by habitat loss through fire, and by urbanization.
61552		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is not in any protected areas, though the area is an unprotected World Heritage Site. A recovery programme is urgently needed, probably including captive breeding as a component.
61552		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Aeolian Islands (Italy) where it inhabits a very few isolated places on Vulcano Island, and in tiny areas of three very small rocky islets: Strombolicchio, La Canna and Scoglio Faraglione.
61552		habitat	eng	The species lives in suitable habitats present on the volcanic islands: rocks, macchia, shrublands. It is an egg-laying species.
61552		population	eng	The populations are very small; the estimates are: Strombolicchio and Scoglio Faraglione: 200-400 individuals; La Canna: 20-30 individuals; on Vulcano Island the species is close to extinction (Capula and Lo Cascio 2006).
61552		threats	eng	The main threats are the introduction of alien species (mostly the competitor <em>P. siculus</em>), stochastic events due to the extremely small areas inhabited by the species and its small population size (less than 1,000 individuals overall). Collecting may also be a threat.
61553		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Appendix IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in a number of its range states. It occurs in many protected areas.
61553		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout Italy south of the Alps, including on Sicily, Sardinia, and many other islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, in extrem southern Switzerland, Corsica (France), and along the Adriatic coastal area from southwestern Slovenia, through western and southern Croatia and extreme southern Bosnia-Herzegovina to Kotor, Montenegro. It also occurs as isolated introduced populations in southern France, the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal), Menorca in the Balearic Islands (Spain), on both sides of the Bosphorus in Turkey, Ile La Galite (Tunisia), and Isola di Lampedusa (Italy). It has been introduced to a number of sites in the United States, and might have been introduced to Libya and Tunisia. It ranges from sea level up to 2,200m asl.
61553		habitat	eng	It is found in grassy areas, roadside verges, hedgerows, scrubland, woodland edges, inside pine plantations, vineyards, orchards, meadows, coastal dunes, parkland, urban areas, and on stone walls and buildings. In the northern part of its range, it mainly lives in riparian or coastal areas. It thrives in habitats disturbed by human activities in the southern part of its range. It is an egg-laying species (Sindaco and Romano, pers. comm. 2008).
61553		population	eng	It is a very common species except in the northern part of its range. There are many isolated populations, and in some places it is an aggressive invasive species. Overall, its population is probably increasing.
61553		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.  In the northern part of its range, it is threatened by small scale agricultural conversion of its riverine habitats.  Localized or insular populations may be vulnerable by predation by cats, but generally it is an invasive that can displace native populations of other species in its invasive range (the southern part of its range and in the areas where it has been introduced).  Because it is locally common, this species is collected for use as food for pet snakes.
61554		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive, and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas. No further conservation actions are needed.
61554		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Ukraine (including the Crimean Peninsula), through southern Moldova, and eastern and southern Romania (excluding the Danube Delta), to Bulgaria, Macedonia, eastern and southern Serbia, Albania, mainland Greece and the Ionian Islands, and northwestern Turkey (on both sides of the Bosphorus). There is an isolated population in eastern and central Hungary, ranging into northern Serbia. This mostly lowland species occurs from sea level up to 2,350m asl.
61554		habitat	eng	It is a largely terrestrial species found in open areas of steppe, grassland, meadows, field edges, olive groves, traditionally cultivated land, rural gardens, sparsely vegetated sandy dunes and sometimes in open scrub. The females lay two clutches annually containing between two and ten eggs.
61554		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
61554		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through agricultural intensification and pollution (largely from the use of agrochemicals), but overall it is not at significant risk.
61556		conservation	eng	Its listing on the Bern convention is unknown. It is known to exist in several protected areas.
61556		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Spain, central and northern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m asl.
61556		habitat	eng	It is generally found climbing over rocks, in overgrown areas, on stone walls, on rock outcrops in alpine meadows, in bushy vegetation and in rural buildings. The females lay one to five eggs, with several clutches produced in a season.
61556		population	eng	This species is very common throughout its range.
61556		threats	eng	Local populations might be affected by habitat loss for agriculture, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.
61557		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It presumably occurs in some protected areas. The subspecies <em>P.w. marettimensis</em> is probably seriously threatened.
61557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, occurring on the island of Sicily, where it is absent from the northeastern part of the island, the Egadian Islands (Favignana, Levanzo and Marettimo), and on Isola Grande dello Stagnone and Maraone. It occurs up to 1,600 m asl.
61557		habitat	eng	This is a largely terrestrial species found in areas of scrubland, woodland edges, pasture, cultivated land and rural gardens. The females lay clutches of four to six eggs.
61557		population	eng	It is a relatively common species, and generally has stable populations, except perhaps some populations on smaller islands.
61557		threats	eng	The populations on Sicily appear to be stable, although on small islands it could be threatened by competition and hybridization with <em>P. sicula</em>. A number of insular populations (e.g., that of Marettimo Island) might be threatened or declining, possibly due to invasive predators.
61558		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
61558		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Tunisia, northern Algeria and northern and central Morocco, Conigli islet near Lampedusa island (Italy), and the Spanish North African territories of Ceuta and Melilla. It occurs from sea level up to 2,600m asl.
61558		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense bushes and shrubland, in open or degraded woodland areas, pine forests and eucalyptus plantations, coastal dunes and beaches. It also occurs in rural gardens and in some agricultural areas. Females lay between eight and 11 eggs.
61558		population	eng	It is an abundant species in most of its range. The only European locality (Conigli islet near Lampedusa) is inhabited by a small population, threatened by the degradation of vegetation due to a large colony of gulls.
61558		threats	eng	This main threat to this species appears to be the clearance of ground cover for conversion to agricultural use and urbanization, leading to the fragmentation of local populations, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.
61559		conservation	eng	It occurs in Djurdjura National Park in Algeria.
61559		distribution	eng	This species occurs on humid, isolated plateaus and mountain areas of northeastern Morocco (with an isolated population in the Alhucemas region [Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008]), northern Algeria and northwestern Tunisia. This species may occur in the Spanish North African enclave of Melilla (old unconfirmed records). It generally occurs from 1,000 m to 1,200 m asl.
61559		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of broad-leaved and pine woodland, scrubland, thorn-cushion vegetation, meadows, pastures, open areas and steppes.  The female lays four or five clutches of between two and four eggs per year.
61559		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat in Algeria, but it is very rare in Morocco and Tunisia, where it is at the edge of its range.
61559		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but any change of habitat can favour other species. It is presumably threatened by forest loss for agricultural purposes.
61560		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It has been successfully re-introduced at some former sites in Spain.
61560		distribution	eng	This species is found in much of Portugal and Spain (it is largely absent from the north of Iberian Peninsula), and in the south of France. It may be found up to 1,700m asl.
61560		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of open, loose soil, especially those with a sparse Mediterranean-type scrub. It can be found in coastal dunes and grassland. The females lay two clutches of two to six eggs.
61560		population	eng	It can be a common species. There are strong interannual fluctuations in population size.
61560		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by the loss of scrubland to intensive agriculture and fires, and the urbanization of coastal areas, but overall it is not significantly threatened.
61561		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in protected areas.
61561		distribution	eng	This species is known from relictary isolated populations in the mountains of the Rif, the Moyen and Haut Atlas of northern and central Morocco. It occurs up to 2,250m asl.
61561		habitat	eng	It is found in montane areas where it has been recorded from closely cropped, dense grassland, and areas of dwarf palm in open country. It is an egg-laying species.
61561		population	eng	This is a very rare species with few records.
61561		threats	eng	This species appears to have undergone a significant decline, possibly related to the abandonment of grazing regimes leading to overgrown, unsuitable habitat.
61562		conservation	eng	It is not known to exist in any protected areas anywhere in its range.
61562		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Morocco to northeastern Algeria in the Anti-Atlas and the Atlas Saharien Mountains, and in the regions to the south of the mountains. It occurs up to 2,600 m asl.
61562		habitat	eng	It is found on steep, smooth rock faces, and amongst boulders and rocks in semi-desert. The female lays six clutches of one or two eggs per year.
61562		population	eng	It is a locally common species, and its populations are believed to be stable.
61562		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species
61563		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several National Parks.
61563		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Morocco throughout the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas mountains, Djbel Sagho and Djbel Ouarkziz. It may be present in Western Sahara but its presence here needs to be confirmed. The species ranges up to 4,000 m asl.
61563		habitat	eng	This species is associated with montane rock faces and boulders, often close to water sources. The female lays two to three clutches of a single egg, which are deposited in rock crevices.
61563		population	eng	It is quite a common species through most of its range.
61563		threats	eng	The species is not known to be facing any threats.
61564		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a few protected areas in Morocco.
61564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Morocco where it is generally found in the Toubkal massif and surrounding mountainous areas. It is found at elevations of around 1,200 to 4,000 m asl.
61564		habitat	eng	This species is associated with montane rock faces and boulders, often close to water sources. The female lays two to three clutches of a single egg, which are deposited in rock crevices.
61564		population	eng	It can be a very common species within its limited range.
61564		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
61565		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and it is present in many protected areas.
61565		distribution	eng	This species is found through much of Portugal and Spain (it is absent from much of northernmost Spain) and southern France. There is a record from northwestern Italy, but there is no recent confirmation of its occurrence in this country. It is present on the islands of Ons and Arousa in Galicia (Spain), Minorca (an old introduction) in the Balearic Islands (Spain), and Iles d'Hyères, France. The species ranges from sea level to 2,200 m asl.
61565		habitat	eng	This mainly crepuscular and nocturnal species can be found in sunny and stony Mediterranean-type habitats with good vegetation cover, including riparian habitats. It can also be found in open woodlands and shrubland, at field edges, hedges, vineyards, olive groves, overgrown areas, stone walls and ruins. The females lay between four and 15 eggs that are deposited under ground cover.
61565		population	eng	It is generally an abundant species.
61565		threats	eng	Although there appear to be no overall major threats to this species, it is locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads and loss of vegetation cover due to intensive agricultural methods. Because of the species nocturnal habits, many individuals uses roads, because of the heat retention of the road surface, and are frequently traffic casualties (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).
61566		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas in both Israel and Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
61566		distribution	eng	This species is present in Israel, southwestern Syria and western northwestern Jordan. It has not yet been recorded from Lebanon.
61566		habitat	eng	This fossorial species can be found on both terra rosa soil and sandy soil substrates, often with high humidity, and may be found in areas of marqui woodland vegetation. It is associated with ant and termite nests, and appears on the surface only occasionally.
61566		population	eng	The species is rarely encountered, possibly because of its burrowing habits. It is possible that it might be more common than is generally supposed.
61566		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
61567		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas in Morocco (including Sous Massa National Park).
61567		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern coast of Western Sahara, along the southwestern coast of Morocco, extending inland in Morocco to the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the Dra Valley as far east as Zagora. There are some isolated inland population in northeastern Western Sahara and also north of the Atlas Mountains in Morocco. It might occur in extreme western Algeria although its presence here needs to be confirmed. It occurs from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.
61567		habitat	eng	The species is found in various stony or rocky areas, including degraded agricultural lands (where it can be found under stones). It has also been recorded from semi-forested areas. It is an egg-laying species.
61567		population	eng	It is a locally common species in suitable habitat.
61567		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by habitat loss resulting from agricultural intensification and urbanisation.
61568		conservation	eng	The species is currently unprotected, and there is a need to establish protected areas to conserve important populations.
61568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small area of northern Morocco between the Middle Atlas Mountains, the Rif Mountains and the coast. It appears to have a fragmented distribution
61568		habitat	eng	It is found on a semi-arid plateau that reaches the coast at one point, the foothills of the Middle Atlas Mountains and Rif Mountains, and has also been recorded from forested areas. Females have three clutches per year with two eggs each.
61568		population	eng	It is a rare species.
61568		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being lost through ongoing agricultural intensification and urbanisation in the region.
61569		conservation	eng	It is present in Bades Reserve in Morocco.
61569		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Morocco, northwestern Algeria, and the Spanish territories of Melilla, the Isla de Alborán and the Charfarinas Archipelago. It can range from sea level up to 1,200m asl.
61569		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-arid and arid rocky areas, with a sloping gradient. Animals can be found in piles of stones and sheltering in ground vegetation. The females lay up to eight clutches of a single egg per year in captivity. The egg is deposited in a self-dug tunnel on the ground.
61569		population	eng	It is not a widely distributed species, but is locally abundant.
61569		threats	eng	Although the species is not believed to be globally threatened, it is locally threatened by habitat loss caused by ongoing urbanization and conversion of land to agricultural use.
61570		conservation	eng	It is currently not known from any protected areas. It is present in the soon to be designated Neura Reserve in Morocco.
61570		distribution	eng	This species is present in pre-Saharan and arid zones of southwestern, southern and eastern Morocco, north-central Algeria and western Tunisia. It may also occur in Western Sahara, however there is a need to confirm its presence here. It is found up to 1,000 m asl.
61570		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry and arid, stony or boulder strewn regions, including to some extent areas with low intensity traditional agriculture. It is often found hiding in piles of stones or in burrows. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is probably similar to the related Spalerosophis diadema.
61570		population	eng	It seems to be a very rare species with highly fragmented populations.
61570		threats	eng	The threats to this rare species are poorly known. It may be locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads, and animals are caught both for the international pet trade and by local snake charmers.
61571		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.
61571		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Libya and Egypt (including northern Sinai) east to coastal Israel and the western Negev. There is an isolated population in the Wadi Arabah of southeastern Israel and southwestern Jordan. It is a lowland species.
61571		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy areas and dunes. It can be found in open steppe habitat and bushland with sandy soil, and has been observed close to oases. It swims in the sand below the surface. It is a viviparous species. It is nocturnal in the summer and diurnal in the winter.
61571		population	eng	It is a common species.
61571		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. In Egypt it is threatened by commercial collection, overgrazing of vegetation by livestock and conversion of habitat to agricultural land.
61572		conservation	eng	This species is protected by international legislation and occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
61572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Lobos, Graciosa, Montaña Clara, Alegranza and the Roque del Este in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is found up to 800m asl.
61572		habitat	eng	This species is found in most habitats within its range. It lives in stony and rocky areas, lava fields, stone walls, dunes, salt flats with vegetation, scrubland, cultivated areas and human habitations. The females lay clutches of one or two eggs.
61572		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
61572		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
61573		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.
61573		distribution	eng	This species is present in southwestern Morocco where it is found in Tazzarine, the south Anti-Atlas, the Draa Valley (from Ouarzazate) and Djebel Bani. It is also recently recorded from extreme northern Western Sahara (not mapped here) and is suspected to occur in Algeria.
61573		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and built-up areas such as cliffs, low walls, ruined buildings, towns and villages.
61573		population	eng	It is locally abundant within its relatively restricted range.
61573		threats	eng	It appears to be adaptable to some habitat modification.
61574		conservation	eng	It is protected by international legislation and occurs in several protected areas, including the Ilhas Selvagens Nature Reserve in the Selvages Archipelago.
61574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of El Hierro and Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. It is generally found throughout both islands, but it is rare above 750m asl and absent over 1,000m asl. The subspecies <em>Tarentola boettgeri bischoffi</em> is endemic to the uninhabited Selvages Archipelago where it is present on the islands of Selvagem Grande, Selvagem Pequena and Ilheu de Fora, Madeira, Portugal.
61574		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas, often near to the coast. It is also sometimes found in houses. This species is absent from areas of Canary Pine forest. The subspecies <em>Tarentola boettgeri bischoffi</em> is found in rocky and coastal areas, where it uses the burrows of petrels and other seabirds. The females lay a (presumably repeated) clutch of a single egg.
61574		population	eng	It is a very common species in both the Canary Islands and the Selvages Archipelago.
61574		threats	eng	It is preyed upon by introduced mammal species such as cats and hedgehogs <em>Erinaceus europaeus</em>, but this is not considered to be a major threat.
61575		conservation	eng	This species is protected by international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.
61575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Tenerife (including the Roques de Anaga and Roque de Garachico) and La Palma, in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is present from sea level to 2,300m asl, although it is rare above 1,800m asl.
61575		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It is present in rocky areas, scrubland, stone walls in agricultural areas and it is common in urban environments. The species can be found in forested areas, although it occurs here at lower densities. It is an oviparous species, the eggs have been found deposited under stones.
61575		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
61575		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some habitat loss has occurred through the development of tourism, but the species adapts well to urban environments.
61576		conservation	eng	It is thought to be present in some National Parks in Tunisia, and perhaps elsewhere within its range.
61576		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eastern and southeastern Morocco, through Algeria to central and southern Tunisia. It is suspected to occur in northwestern Libya although its presence here has not been confirmed. It is found up to 1,300 m asl.
61576		habitat	eng	This is an adaptable species that is found in rocky areas, deserts with firm ground (regs), drains under roads, palm oasis, ruins, buildings and is also found close to sandy deserts (ergs) with trees. Animals are found in crevices and fissures. The female lays between four and six clutches of two eggs per year.
61576		population	eng	It is a rare species with a relatively small population.
61576		threats	eng	There are presumed to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
61577		conservation	eng	It is protected by international legislation and in some of protected areas. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
61577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is present from sea level to 850m asl on the northern slope of the island and up to 1,150m asl on the southern slope.
61577		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas, stone walls, disturbed habitats, plantations and urban areas. It is not found in areas of forest. The females lay repeated clutches of one to two eggs.
61577		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
61577		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
61578		conservation	eng	It is protected by international legislation over parts of its range, and it occurs in many protected areas. Further studies into the impact of commercial trade on this species in Egypt is needed. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species.
61578		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout much of the Mediterranean region. Mainland European populations are distributed from Portugal (except the northwest), Spain (absent from most of the north), and southern France, throughout mainly coastal areas of Italy, southern Slovenia, northern coastal Croatia and southwestern parts of Greece. In northern Africa the species ranges from northern Egypt, through northern Libya, northern and central Tunisia, and northern Algeria to most of Morocco and northwestern Western Sahara. There is an isolated introduced population in southern Western Sahara. It is present on many Mediterranean islands including Corsica (France), Sardinia, Sicily, Pantellaria and Lampedusa (all in Italy), the Ionian Islands and Crete (all in Greece). Many of the populations in the northern Mediterranean are likely to have been introduced in ancient times. It has been introduced to a number of areas including the Balearic Islands and Tenerife (Spain), the island of Madeira (Portugal),  Montevideo (Uruguay), Buenos Aires (Argentina) and California (United States). It is found from sea level up to as high as 2,300m asl (in Spain).
61578		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of habitats, and it has been recorded from rocky areas, cliffs, stone walls, ruins, building walls and inside houses. It is generally not present in forested areas although animals can often be found climbing in trees. The females lay clutches of one to two eggs. These may be laid communally, typically under stones, in cracks and in hollow trees.
61578		population	eng	It is sometimes a very common species. Populations may be expanding with increasing urbanization.
61578		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Populations in Egypt are threatened by overcollection for the pet trade and by habitat degradation.
61579		conservation	eng	It is present in the Siwa protected area of Egypt. Further studies are needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.
61579		distribution	eng	This recently described species is found in the periphery of the Quattara Depression and Siwa Oasis of northwestern Egypt and it is has also been recorded from eastern Libya (Jialo Oasis) (S. Baha El Din pers. comm). Further surveys are needed to determine whether the species has a wider range. It has been collected at sea level and slightly below sea level.
61579		habitat	eng	It inhabits vegetated areas in otherwise flat and barren sandy desert. It is largely associated with the microhabitats of bark and wood of Acacia and other trees. It may be able to adapt to cultivated areas.
61579		population	eng	It is uncommon and localised, but found at high densities at specific localities.
61579		threats	eng	Although there appear to be no major threats to the species at present, it is potentially susceptible to habitat loss (especially at Siwa), as the species is restricted to very sparse vegetation (often a few trees). It is not in the pet trade.
61580		conservation	eng	There are a few protected areas within the range of the species.
61580		distribution	eng	This species is found over much of central Algeria and southern Tunisia, and is also possibly present in parts of northwestern Libya, but this requires confirmation.  It has been recorded from sea level up to 300 m asl.
61580		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with trees and bushes in arid areas such as desert, dry river beds and surrounding oases. It can be found in abandoned buildings but has not been recorded from inhabited houses. It is an oviparous species.
61580		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
61580		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Wood collection can be a localised threat to some populations. It is not collected commercially.
61581		conservation	eng	It occurs in Toubkral National Park in Morocco.
61581		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the humid parts of the Atlas Mountains and coastal areas of central and northern Morocco and northwestern Algeria. It has been introduced to the island of Menorca, in the Balearic Islands of Spain and to the Habibas Islands of Algeria. It occurs up to 2,800 m asl.
61581		habitat	eng	This species is found in climbing rocky areas such as mountains and cliffs, in scrubland, on stone walls and in other rural habitats. The females lay one to three eggs.
61581		population	eng	It is common in parts of its range in North Africa, and is abundant in parts of Menorca.
61581		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is not believed to be significantly threatened. In Menorca, it is locally threatened by predation by cats and by isolation of populations.
61582		conservation	eng	It occurs in Dana Wildlife Reserve in Jordan, and in a reserve in the Santa Catarina area of Sinai in Egypt.
61582		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from only four areas: part of the northern Negev Desert (Israel), the area of Petra (Jordan), the Santa Catarina area of the southern Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), and the Gebel Maghara in northern Sinai (Egypt). It occurs at least up to 1,500 m (Sinai).
61582		habitat	eng	The species is found in desert steppe areas, with between 100 and 150 mm annual precipitation. It generally inhabits rocky hills and sandstone cliffs. It is an egg-laying species.
61582		population	eng	It is rare and localised species, and it is not frequently recorded.
61582		threats	eng	Overall, the species is presumably intrinsically at risk because of its fragmented distribution. In Egypt it is threatened by overgrazing, quarrying, collection of firewood, accidental mortality on roads and overcollection for scientific purposes. The threats to this species in Israel are not known.
61583		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed in order to understand the recent population declines of this species better. It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is present in a number of protected areas, though it has nearly disappeared from a number of these.
61583		distribution	eng	This species is widely found in Portugal and Spain; it is found as isolated populations in southern, south-central and western France (north to Oleron Island), and in extreme northwestern Italy. It also occurs on some Atlantic islands along the Spanish and Portuguese coasts. It is present on a few Mediterranean islands. It ranges from sea level up to 2,500m asl. The subspecies <em>T.l. oteroi </em>is endemic to Salvora Island in northwestern Spain.
61583		habitat	eng	This species is found in open and dry areas of woodland, scrubland, olive groves, vineyards, meadows, arable areas and sandy or rocky sites. It is generally present in areas that have refuges such as bushes, stone walls, rabbit burrows and other holes. The females lay clutches of five to twenty two eggs.
61583		population	eng	Although it has been recorded at densities of up to 50 individuals per hectare, populations appear to be strongly declining in many parts of its range. Some insular populations as well as Italian ones are close to extinction. The subspecies <em>T.l. oteroi </em>numbers fewer than 10,000 individuals.
61583		threats	eng	It is generally declining because of ongoing habitat loss, pesticide pollution and poisoning. Predators might also be eating this species more, due to the decline of rabbits. Also reduced livestock grazing might be reducing open areas suitable for this species. Current attempts to revive the former tradition of eating this species would also be very detrimental.
61584		conservation	eng	It is known from protected areas in both Tunisia and Algeria.
61584		distribution	eng	This North Africa species ranges through northern Algeria and northern Tunisia, and is present on Galita Island off the Tunisian coast. It is found up to 2,000 m asl.
61584		habitat	eng	This species is found in Mediterranean forests, open areas, meadows, scrubland, deciduous woodland, coastal areas, rocky sites, on stone walls and in old olive groves. The females lay two to three clutches of between two and twenty eggs.
61584		population	eng	It is a reasonably common species.
61584		threats	eng	This species might be impacted by loss of stone walls and intensification of agricultural methods and general fragmentation because of habitat destruction. It is also threatened by accidental mortality on roads.
61585		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Reserve de Grouka in Morocco.
61585		distribution	eng	This species occurs in much of Morocco (except the southwest, based on current records) and in northwestern Algeria. There is an apparently isolated population in northern Western Sahara, however recent surveys have failed to locate any specimens and it is possible that this population is now extirpated (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). This species may occur in the Spanish North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla (old unconfirmed records). It occurs up to 2,500m asl.
61585		habitat	eng	It occurs in Mediterranean scrubby habitats and middle-elevation mountain forests. It is an egg-laying species.
61585		population	eng	It is a relatively common species, except in Western Sahara.
61585		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction as a result of wood extraction. It is also harvested for local use for traditional medicinal use. In general, these threats are localized and the species is not believed to be significantly threatened.
61586		conservation	eng	It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range. Research into the range and collection of this species in Egypt is needed.
61586		distribution	eng	This species ranges through North Africa from north-central and northeastern Algeria and central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt, central and northern Israel, western Jordan (with an isolated locality in the east), Lebanon, much of Syria, and central and southern Turkey. It also occurs on Cyprus. This species is found from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.  In Turkey, it is found from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
61586		distribution	eng	This species ranges through North Africa from north-central and northeastern Algeria and central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt, central and northern Israel, western Jordan (with an isolated locality in the east), Lebanon, much of Syria, and central and southern Turkey. It also occurs on Cyprus. This species is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.  In Turkey, it is found from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
61586		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It occurs in open areas of sandy or stony soil with sparse grass or bushy vegetation. Animals may also be found at the edge of fields, on the banks of irrigation canals, or in rural gardens. In Egypt is found near to wetlands and in coastal areas. In Tunisia the species is largely restricted to areas of oasis. It is an ovoviviparous species, the females give birth to between three and six young.
61586		population	eng	It can be a common species, particularly in Lebanon, southern Turkey, and Cyprus. In Egypt, it is uncommon to rare.
61586		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. Populations may be locally impacted by conversion of land to agriculture or habitat loss to tourism development. There is some commercial collection of this species in Egypt.
61587		conservation	eng	In Israel it occurs in a few reserves, including Nizzana Sands. In Egypt it is present in the Zaranik protected area. There is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species in Egypt, and possibly it should be protected by international legislation. Protected areas should be established at important localities for the species. Awareness raising and community conservation measures are needed for the conservation of this species.
61587		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western Negev sands of Israel and the Gaza Strip, extending westwards across north Sinai to the eastern margins of the Nile Delta. Populations between the Suez Canal and the Nile Delta are highly fragmented and have almost been extirpated, with an estimate of 80% habitat loss in this region. Populations south of Tel Aviv in Israel are believed to be extinct. It is a lowland species possibly occurring up to 200 m asl.
61587		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy and gravel desert and desert edge habitats, often in small, stabilised valleys between dunes. It can be encountered in open steppe-like areas with a good vegetation cover. It is not present in rocky or stony terrain and is generally not present in cultivated land. It is an egg-laying species.
61587		population	eng	It is moderately common in Israel, but its range is diminishing due to habitat loss. This species was reported to be numerous in Egypt by Flower (1933), it has since declined overall, but it is still locally common in some localities in Sinai (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.)
61587		threats	eng	The threats to this species include a general loss of habitat due to human settlement, overgrazing, large-scale agricultural expansion, land reclamation, quarrying, solid waste dumping and off-road vehicles. The species is also collected for the international pet trade.
61588		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
61588		distribution	eng	This species is found in two separate parts of central Algeria, and is also present in southern Tunisia where it is found in the Erg er Raoui, Grand Erg Occidental and Grand Erg Oriental (Schleich <em>et al</em>. 1996).
61588		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy desert habitats and is generally present in vegetation at the base of dunes. The females lay one clutch of five to seven eggs per year.
61588		population	eng	It is locally common in areas with rich plant growth.
61588		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from both the harvesting of vegetation to feed livestock or for use as fuel, and from overgrazing of vegetation by nomadic herders in some areas.
61589		conservation	eng	It is known to exist in several national parks throughout its range.
61589		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western Morocco (including Ceuta, Melilla and the Chafarinas Islands [Spain]), eastwards through northern Algeria into northwestern Tunisia. It can be found from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.
61589		habitat	eng	This species is generally, though not always found in moist soil that is covered by stones, rocks and other ground cover. It can be found close to roadsides, in traditionally cultivated areas, grassland, in oak forest and oak-juniper forests, in steppe habitat and in sandy patches without vegetation. This species is ovoviviparous, the female gives birth to between two and five young.
61589		population	eng	It can be abundant in suitable habitat.
61589		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is presumed to be impacted in parts of its range by conversion of steppe lands to agricultural land.  It is commonly found under stones, and removal of suitable stones for house construction is thought to be a threat to this species.
61590		conservation	eng	It is listed on appendix II of CITES.  Its range includes Tassili National Park in Algeria.
61590		distribution	eng	This recently described species is restricted to southern Algeria and western Libya. It occurs between 500 and 2,000 m asl.
61590		habitat	eng	It is a herbivorous species, that is associated with rocky habitats in arid and semi-desert habitats.  It is an oviparous species.
61590		population	eng	It is not a common species.
61590		threats	eng	The species is threatened to some degree by overharvesting of animals for food and medicinal use. It is also partly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by livestock.
61591		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range (e.g.. Switzerland). It occurs in many protected areas. The subspecies <em>V. a. aspis</em> is categorized as Critically Endangered in Switzerland; <em>V. a. atra</em> is categorized as Vulnerable; and <em>V. a. francisciredi </em>is categorized as Endangered (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
61591		distribution	eng	This species ranges from north-central and northeastern Spain , through much of France (where it is absent from the north and the Mediterranean coastal area), southwestern Germany (where it is known only from a single locality in the Black Forest), western and central Switzerland, throughout Italy (including the islands of Sicily, Elba and Montecristo; in the latter is very probably introduced), and western Slovenia. The species has not been recorded from Croatia ((Dušan Jelić pers. comm., October 2008). Records of this species outside of the current range need to be confirmed. It can be found up to 3,000 m asl.
61591		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry, rocky areas, open scrubland, open woodlands, closed forest, hedges, pastures and stone walls. It often occurs on the edge of natural habitats, and is characteristic of chestnut woods in Italy. The species is common in mesic habitats. It is rare in suburban areas and arable land. The females give birth to between five and 22 young.
61591		population	eng	It is a common species in much of its range. The species appears to be expanding its range geographically and altitudinally in France, however the extent of this change needs to be determined.
61591		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural intensification, and to a lesser degree loss of habitat resulting from the development of tourist facilities and urbanization. The species is often found in open areas and overgrowth of these sites is an additional threat (for example in the Jura Mountains) (Jaggi and Baur, 1999). The species is persecuted by people, and illegally collected for the pet trade. Some populations are threatened through mortality on roads.
61592		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. The species does occur in protected areas in the Iberian peninsula and Morocco.
61592		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Morocco to northern Algeria, and extreme northwestern Tunisia in North Africa, and it is also present on the Iberian Peninsula where it has a fragmented population in both Portugal and Spain (being absent from the north of Spain). The species has been not recorded in Tunisia during the last 55 years, despite targeted and intensive searches (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Populations of vipers from the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco formerly allocated to <em>V. monticola</em> are now recognized as belonging to <em>V. latastei</em> (Brito <em>et al</em>. 2006). It occurs from sea level up to almost 3,000 m asl.
61592		habitat	eng	This species is found in generally moist, rocky areas, in dry scrubland and woodland, hedgerows, stone walls and sometimes in coastal dunes. The females give birth to between two and 13 young. On average, females give birth only once every three years.
61592		population	eng	It is a species that is increasingly rare and fragmented throughout its range.
61592		threats	eng	This species has declined throughout much of the lowlands and even in the montane areas of Iberia. Threats identified include direct persecution when encountered, coastal urbanization, afforestation with coniferous trees, burning of suitable habitat, intensification of agricultural practices, and accidental mortality (particularly of males) on roads.
61593		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Parc National de Toubkal, Morocco.
61593		distribution	eng	This relictual species is endemic to the High and Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco where is restricted to a few mountain valleys. It is found at elevations of between 1,200 to 4,000 m asl.
61593		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-humid montane areas, and can be found in screes, and areas with stones and cushion-like thorny plants.
61593		population	eng	It is thought to be a rare species.
61593		threats	eng	Habitat destruction resulting from removal of firewood is a major threat to this species.
61594		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.
61594		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to extreme northern Portugal, northwestern and north-central Spain and extreme southwestern France. It occurs from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.
61594		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of low scrubland, woodland edges and open areas. It known also to occur in pastoral and agricultural land. The females give birth to three to 10 young every two years.
61594		population	eng	It can be a common species.
61594		threats	eng	This species is threatened by direct persecution when encountered, loss of habitat through fire, and the intensification of agricultural methods, in particular the destruction of hedges in pastureland.
61595		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and it is known to occur in some protected areas.
61595		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Italy (southern Latium [Corsetti and Romano, in press]) to southernmost Italy including Sicily (but excluding southern Apulia). It ranges from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
61595		habitat	eng	It is found in dry, open woodlands and shrubland, field edges, traditionally cultivated land, stone walls and old buildings. It is an oviparous species.
61595		population	eng	There is little recent information on its abundance.
61595		threats	eng	It is threatened by accidental mortality on roads, especially in areas where the species is relatively common. It is also threatened by fragmentation of habitat through intensification of agricultural practices. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people.
61596		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority taxon on Annex II of the Habitats Directive is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus palmensis</span></a>. In the Spanish national red list it is included as Critically Endangered CR B1ab(iii,iv) (Moreno 2008).  It is included as taxon "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional one for the Canary Islands.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Of the known populations, 16 are in protected areas such as Parque Nacional de Garajonay (SCI),  Parque Rural  de Teno (SCI), Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI), Parque Rural  de Doramas, Reserva Natural  Especial de Guelguén (SCI), Parque Natural  Las Nieves (SCI), Parque Protegido de  las Lagunetas (SCI), de  Campeches, Tigaiga y Ruíz (SCI). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional de Garajonay"><span title="(LIC), P."><span title="Rural de Anaga"><span title="(LIC), P."><span title="Natural Especial"><span title="de Guelguén (LIC), P."><span title="(LIC), P.">Most of the subspecies' range is designated as sites of community interest for the Natura 2000 network<span title="de sus efectivos se encuentran en Hábitat de"><span title="Interés Comunitario.">. There are <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures in place such as the preservation of seeds in a germplasm bank<span title="de Germoplasma.">, however, more efforts are needed in this area. <span title="En el P.">In the Parque Nacional <span title="Nacional de Garajonay">Garajonay a <span title="se desarrolla un programa de recuperación">recovery program has been developed including monitoring and <span title="del taxón5 en virtud del cual se efectúa un seguimiento"><span title="intensivo de su dinámica poblacional y"><span title="labores de reintroducción (El 90% de los efectivos">reintroduction measures. <span title="son fruto de estas actividades)2,3.">The Department of Environment of the Canary Islands <span title="La Viceconsejería">has developed a LIFE project focussing on the subspecies status <span id="result_box" class="long_text">  (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional de Garajonay"><span title="(LIC), P."><span title="Rural de Anaga"><span title="(LIC), P."><span title="Natural Especial"><span title="de Guelguén (LIC), P."><span title="(LIC), P."><span title="de sus efectivos se encuentran en Hábitat de"><span title="Interés Comunitario."><span title="de Germoplasma."><span title="En el P."><span title="Nacional de Garajonay"><span title="se desarrolla un programa de recuperación"><span title="del taxón5 en virtud del cual se efectúa un seguimiento"><span title="intensivo de su dinámica poblacional y"><span title="labores de reintroducción (El 90% de los efectivos"><span title="son fruto de estas actividades)2,3."><span title="La Viceconsejería">.<span title="y conservación sobre la especie."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61596		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain, being present in Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma and Gran Canaria. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del">Despite the large number of populations, the actual area occupied is very low, barely exceeding <span title="1 km2.">1 km² (Marrero Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del"><span title="1 km2.">.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61596		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del"><span title="1 km2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">This tree can reach 4-6 m, is a Hermaphroditic taxon and the f<span title="En determinadas"><span title="poblaciones se ha constatado que la producción"><span title="floral se ve notablemente mermada en ausencia"><span title="de luz, siendo la producción de frutos bastante"><span title="alta en sectores relativamente expuestos."><span title="Dichos"><span title="frutos pueden ser dispersados por aves.">ruits can be dispersed by birds. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It develops between 600 and 1,000 m and <span title="Sus mejores">grows best in <span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion">well preserved areas of "Monteverde" (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ixantho-Laurion </span><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span style="font-style: italic;">azoricae</span>) and heath (<span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya - </span><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span style="font-style: italic;">Ericion arboreae</span>) communities, especially in humid river beds and depressions<span title="muy húmedos.">. <span title="No obstante, buena parte de">However, much of its <span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales">population has developed in marginal areas that are <span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en">under moderate anthropogenic influence, in the vicinity of orchards and in <span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades">enclaves that are deeply disturbed. It is usually found in association with <span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span style="font-style: italic;">Persea indica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea foetens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gesnouinia arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum inodorum, Salix canariensis,</span> etc (Marrero Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más">.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del"><span title="1 km2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En determinadas"><span title="poblaciones se ha constatado que la producción"><span title="floral se ve notablemente mermada en ausencia"><span title="de luz, siendo la producción de frutos bastante"><span title="alta en sectores relativamente expuestos."><span title="Dichos"><span title="frutos pueden ser dispersados por aves."><span title="Existen"><span title="No obstante,"><span title="También"><span title="del tronco.">In some populations in Tenerife, hybrids <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del"><span title="1 km2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En determinadas"><span title="poblaciones se ha constatado que la producción"><span title="floral se ve notablemente mermada en ausencia"><span title="de luz, siendo la producción de frutos bastante"><span title="alta en sectores relativamente expuestos."><span title="Dichos"><span title="frutos pueden ser dispersados por aves."><span title="Existen"><span title="No obstante,"><span title="También"><span title="del tronco.">with the introduced subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">S. nigra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nigra</span> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus mejores"><span title="bien conservados del monteverde (Ixantho-Laurion"><span title="azoricae) y del fayal-brezal (Myrico fayae-"><span title="Ericion arboreae), sobre todo en vaguadas y cauces"><span title="muy húmedos."><span title="No obstante, buena parte de"><span title="sus poblaciones se desarrolla en sectores marginales"><span title="medianamente antropizados o incluso en"><span title="enclaves profundamente alterados y proximidades"><span title="de huertas de cultivo."><span title="Como compañeras más"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por el contrario, en"><span title="A pesar del"><span title="1 km2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En determinadas"><span title="poblaciones se ha constatado que la producción"><span title="floral se ve notablemente mermada en ausencia"><span title="de luz, siendo la producción de frutos bastante"><span title="alta en sectores relativamente expuestos."><span title="Dichos"><span title="frutos pueden ser dispersados por aves."><span title="Existen"><span title="No obstante,"><span title="También"><span title="del tronco.">have been observed .<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hojas compuestas, imparipinnadas"><span title="de mayor tamaño."><span title="diámetro."><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61596		population	eng	There are 23 confirmed subpopulations on the four islands: <br/><ul><li>11 subpopulations on Tenerife with 69 individuals. </li><li>Nine subpopulations on La Gomera with 214 individuals. </li><li>Two subpopulations on La Palma with 55 individuals. </li><li>One subpopulation on Gran Canaria with two individuals.         </li></ul><br/>This adds up to 340 individuals in total    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population is distributed in many small locations, 16 of which are  within protected areas   (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> 2004).<br/>Regressive population trends have been reported for its total population size (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
61596		threats	eng	The main threats to this taxon are habitat degradation caused by trampling, grazing, agricultural activities, modification of the hydrology of water bodies, increasing droughts, collection and hybridisation.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">
61597		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently, local regulations in the Madonie Park as well as a regional law do not exist. Draft rules have been prepared and submitted for the approval of the Government of Sicily. When approved, the collection of <em>P. nebrodensis</em> will be totally forbidden in zone A of the Park which is an integral reserve area. In other zones the collection of unripe mushrooms (i.e., those under 3 cm in diameter) will also be forbidden. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: This species grows in Madonie Park which is a protected area. Experimental tests demonstrate that it is possible to inoculate the roots of the host plant <em>Cachrys ferulacea</em> with the mushroom, thereby increasing mushroom production in the wild. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>:  This species has started to be cultivated in order to reduce collection pressures on the species in the wild. The mushroom is grown in a tunnel made of metal arches varying in length between 20-30m, and covered by a black net that provides 90% shade, and can be grown at various altitudes. Fortunately cultivated <em>Pleurotus</em> mushrooms retain the same characteristic aroma and flavour of the wild varieties, which is not the case with other species such as oyster mushrooms. The <em>ex situ</em> cultivation also provides additional income for local farmers, who can offer a cheaper product than that collected from the wild which reduces the pressure on the wild population. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Legal action and enforcement is needed to stop over-collection and collection of unripe individuals of <em>P. nebrodensis</em> in the wild. At the same time the species needs to be cultivated <em>ex situ</em> to remove pressure on the wild populations. Reinforcement measures by inoculating the roots of its host plant and boosting wild production would also help, provided wild collection is carefully managed.
61597		distribution	eng	This mushroom only occurs in northern Sicily, growing in scattered localities in the Madonie mountains from 1,200-2,000m in altitude.
61597		habitat	eng	It grows on limestone substrates, in pastures containing "Basiliscu" <em> Cachrys ferulacea</em>, a member of the Umbelliferae or celery family.
61597		population	eng	It is estimated that less than 250 individuals reach maturity each year.
61597		threats	eng	<em>P. nebrodensis</em> was first described as <em>Agaricus nebrodensis</em> by Giuseppe Inzenga in 1863 and he called it "the most delicious mushroom of the Sicilian mycological flora". It has been a sought-after species since ancient times, and today remains a prized species. Given its rarity, it is sold in northern Sicily at a price fluctuating between 50-70 Euros per kg. However, as the species is so rare there is no formal market and the species is used in only a few restaurants where it is prepared using a number of traditional recipes. <br/> <br/>The population declines are due to the increasing number of mushroom gatherers, both professional and amateur, who are encouraged by the high price this mushroom commands. In addition to this increasing human pressure on the remaining natural populations, unripe fungi are usually collected.
61598		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: There are no current measures in places. In fact, no species research or monitoring has taken place since the original postgraduate project in 1981. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: <em>A. calamarophilon</em> has been cultivated at the Experimental Botanical Garden of the University of Patras as part of a genetics research project, although due to recent financial constraints the project has stopped and the species is no longer cultivated. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Monitoring is urgently needed to determine if this species still occurs in the wild. If so, its distribution and conservation status should be assessed and a management plan developed.
61598		distribution	eng	This plant is an endemic to Greek islands, specifically to the island of Euboea (or Evia), one of the largest islands in the Aegean Sea.  The only known population was found in the centre of the island north-east of the small town of Kimi, in 1981.
61598		habitat	eng	A geophyte that grows at an altitude of 20-30 m on limestone cliffs that rise almost vertically from the sea.
61598		population	eng	The only known population, comprises just a few individuals. But the inaccessibility of its natural habitat has meant that little is known about its true population size and distribution.
61598		threats	eng	One potential threat to this species is a recent plan to build an access road near the seashore. This illustrates the great importance of undertaking environmental impact assessments before building roads or making other modifications to the environment, as road construction could inadvertently destroy the last remaining habitat of this species.
61599		conservation	eng	A recovery plan has been undertaken in Andalusia<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rouyi</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, seeds from one subpopulation are reported to be stored in the genebank of Andalucía<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
61599		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>A. rouyi </em>is endemic to the south of the Iberian Peninsula (Pastor 2009), to Sierras Béticas, between Estepona (Málaga) and Moratalla (Murcia), occurring in the provinces of Albacete, Córdoba, Granada, Jaén, Málaga and Murcia (Aedo in prep.).
61599		habitat	eng	It grows in Mediterranean shrubland areas on limy substrates, serpentines, pteridotites and loams, between 150 and 1,900 m asl.
61599		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. rouyi</span> is abundant throughout its distribution.
61599		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
61600		conservation	eng	The majority of the population occurs in a Natural Reserve. The species is cultivated <em>ex situ</em> at the University of Castilla-La Mancha.
61600		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mountain range of Alcaraz (Albacete). Two known subpopulations exist. It is possible that the species distribution corresponds to that  of <em>Narcissus longispathus</em> and that it may occur in other localities along Alcaraz.
61600		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows in dense marshes dominated by <em>Carex hispida</em> situated in somewhat inclined areas, near streams with low current or shallow lakes, on a substrate of rich vegetal organic matter. Sometimes, it penetrates the reeds near to water.
61600		population	eng	The two known subpopulations occur in an area of 19,000 m²: <br/>Peñascosa I: 413 individuals <br/>Peñascosa II: 18,150 individuals
61600		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the expansion of intensive pasture and other agricultural activities. The fields are burned to improve grazing and to nitrify the soil. Agricultural activities reduce the habitat of the species because of fragmentation. The pumping of water and water contamination also degrade the habitat. This plant is attractive and its collection can be a threat.
61601		conservation	eng	The subpopulations are encountered in the Natural Zones of the Mountain Ranges of Sub Andalusia and Nieves. The species is also included in the conservation project for the vegetation of the Cordovan Province undertaken by the Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía. Seeds are stocked in the genebank of Vegetal Andaluz.
61601		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iberian Andalusia. It is known from three subpopulations in the Sub Andalusia Cordovan and from one subpopulation in the Nieves mountain range (Málaga).
61601		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows on calcareous soils. It is found in small cleared woods that form part of the meadows associated with water courses and enclosed irrigated land. The species is observed in areas where the herbaceous stratum dominates with some dispersed trees on a rocky substrate.
61601		population	eng	Four confirmed subpopulations: <br/>3 subpopulations in Sub Andalusia: 5,180 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in Nieves mountain range: 632 individuals
61601		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are grazing and trampling by livestock. The change in agricultural activity is crucial for the survival of the species.
61602		conservation	eng	This species is included in various National Parks. Seeds from some populations are stocked at the genebank of Vegetal Andaluz and at the Botanical Garden of Torre del Vinagre (Cazorla, Jaén). The species is cultivated and propagated. A recovery plan for the species has been implemented.
61602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Andalusia and is widely distributed in the mountain ranges of Cazorla, Segura and las Villas. Its known range has diminished because some subpopulations are now considered to be separate species. There are 10 subpopulations, but two of them have not been refound. Also found in the mountain ranges of Castril (Granada), Mágina (Jaén) and in the Jaén Mountains. In this last one the individuals have different characters and may represent a different species.
61602		habitat	eng	This geophyte occurs in permanent waters and fountains. It is found in association with <em>Scirpus holoschoenus, Holcus mollis, Piptatherum veriaean</em>, and <em>Eleocharis nigricans</em>.
61602		population	eng	The populations fluctuate in size from one year to another. <br/> <br/>8 confirmed subpopulations: <br/>2 subpopulations in Sa de Mágina: 5,157 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in Sontes de Jaén: 2,300 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in mountain range of Castri: not estimated <br/>5 subpopulations in mountain range of Cazorl: 12,579 individuals
61602		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to modifications of the water regime induced by natural or artificial causes. Trampling and  grazing by herbivores poses a threat to some subpopulations. There is also some removal of plants by collectors.
61603		conservation	eng	This subspecies is included in the Regional Catalogue for the Protected Silvestre Flora of the Murcia Region, under the endangered category. It is listed in the Annex II of the Habitats Directive of the CE and in the National Catalogue of  threatened species. Genetic studies have been undertaken.
61603		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Villafuerte mountain range of (Moratalla, Murcia). Two subpopulations were known but one disappeared recently.
61603		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows in damp zones, in  Mediterranean shrubland, dominated by reeds and near water courses.
61603		population	eng	In 1998, two subpopulations were found containing 300 individuals. In 1999, one subpopulation (50 individuals) disappeared. A torrential rain storm affected the other one in the autumn of 1999. <br/> <br/>In 2001, the remaining subpopulation on Villafuerte mountain range was estimated to number 120 individuals. Since this subspecies was described, the size of its population has declined about 60%, because of the low reproductive capacity.
61603		threats	eng	The major threats to this subspecies are the restricted range and the small size of the population.Collection and trampling by tourists and botanists are also a threat. Others potential threats are the changes to the habitat caused by the extraction of water for irrigation and grazing by domestic livestock or wild goats.
61604		conservation	eng	The subpopulations of this subspecies are included in National Parks that presumably afford some degree of protection. A recovery plan has been developed. Some propagation experiments have been achieved. Seeds are stored in the genebanks of the National Park of the Nevada Mountain Range and of Vegetal Andaluz.  Monitoring data exists.
61604		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the mountain ranges of Nevada and Baza (Granada).
61604		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows on permanently damp siliceous soils that are seasonally covered with water. It is found beside small streams and springs, preferably on south facing slopes.
61604		population	eng	12 confirmed subpopulations grouped in 4 meta-populations: <br/>Nevada mountain range I: 1,793 individuals <br/>Nevada mountain range II and Vacares-Maitena: 13,420 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Baza: 6 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Baza-Filabres: 8,379 individuals
61604		threats	eng	The threats to this subspecies are the climatic variations and the alterations to the water regime because of its specific and fragile habitat.  Trampling and grazing by livestock threaten this subspecies because it prevents plants from setting seed. Competition from others plants can also be a threat.
61605		conservation	eng	The species is present in the LIC of Muela de Cortes and Caroc” and Valle de Ayora and Sierra del Boqueró”. Three subpopulations have been designated as Flora Micro Reserves. Seeds are stored in the genebank of the Botanical Garden of Valencia and it is also under cultivation.
61605		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Province of Valencia. Its principal area of occurence is in the mountains of Palomera and Macizo del Caroch in the south west of Valencia. It has been cited as occurring in adjoining areas of the Province of Albacete but its presence there has not been confirmed.
61605		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows in damp irrigation ditches, at the bottom of gorges and in damp zones dominated by herbaceous vegetation on a basic substrate. It is found in a mountainous environment more or less characterized by a sub-humid climate. Frequently grows in association with <em>Erica erigena</em>.
61605		population	eng	It has been estimated that the 5 known subpopulations contain 18,514 individuals. <br/> <br/>5 confirmed subpopulations: <br/>Alto de Tona, Caroch: 87 individuals <br/>Umbría del Caroch: 641 individuals <br/>Fuente del Puntalejo: 1,521 individuals <br/>La Unde: 16,257 individuals <br/>Mountain range Palomera: 8 individuals
61605		threats	eng	This species is dependent on maintained humidity and is vulnerable to prolonged drought, and drainage works or water course canalizations that reduce water supply in the habitat. The collection of this plant is also a threat for the subpopulations near human habitation. The enlargement of roads could threaten some subpopulations.
61606		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>1). Legally: On a regional level, the habitat is protected as a Natural Site of Special Interest by law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands. The species itself is listed in the Catalogue of Endangered Species of the Balearic Islands. <br/> <br/>2).<em> In situ</em>: No measures taken yet. <br/> <br/>3).<em> Ex situ</em>: No measures taken yet. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is necessary to undertake a careful search for other subpopulations of <em>B. duvigneaudii</em>, which may be easily overlooked due to its minute size. A substantial increase in monitoring is needed to understand the population dynamics and reproductive behaviour of this species. Agricultural fires that are set to provide grazing for sheep should not be allowed in the area where <em>Brimeura</em> grows. Cultivation of this species in a botanical garden would be useful.
61606		distribution	eng	Endemic to Majorca in the Balearic islands, this species only occurs in very small numbers at three localities.
61606		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows in limestone rock crevices and slopes near the sea at an altitude of approximately 150-250 m. It thrives in sunny, hot places. The above-ground parts of the plant die back in summer when it is hottest and driest. Only one subpopulation has so far been observed producing seeds; all others seem to reproduce asexually by bulb division. <em>B. duvigneaudii</em> is considered to be a relict species, a remainder from a once larger group that, in the course of climatic change, has nearly disappeared over the millennia. These remnant populations may have difficulties coping with today's climate.
61606		population	eng	The population size is <150 mature individuals.
61606		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to extreme natural events, such as fires. The species also faces recruitment problems, possibly due to climate change.
61607		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention (ratified by the Government of Cyprus in 1988), where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a LIFE Third Countries Project, the species is also listed in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. Moreover, it is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, which will be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. The EU adhesion has clearly had a positive effect on species protection as management plans are now rapidly harmonized with European law and strictly enforced. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The two sites where this species is found have been proposed by the LIFE Third Countries Project as Special Protection Areas (SPA) by the Natura 2000 Network. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Small numbers of seeds have been collected from the wild and stored in the seed bank of the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Government of Cyprus should inform landowners of the presence of this rare taxon on their property, and prohibit any action that could threaten these populations. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds representative of the genotype of this species need to be collected and stored in several seedbanks. This species should also be grown in botanical gardens.
61607		distribution	eng	This plant is found only in the north-western part of Cyprus in three locations. Two of them are near the village of Panagia (Vouni and Aghia Moni monastery) and the third is near the Aghios Neophytos monastery.
61607		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows at an altitude of 250-900 m in moist, shaded crevices and banks, often under a closed canopy of old oak trees (<em>Quercus infectoria</em> subsp. <em>veneris</em>) and shrubs (<em>Pistacia terebinthus</em>). This plant is a perennial which overwinters as a bulb, in which nutrients are stored for the next spring. All species in the <em>Scilla</em> genus are known for their toxic properties, which may cause serious digestive disorders.
61607		population	eng	Less than 600 individuals exist in three known subpopulations.
61607		threats	eng	The survival of this species depends on the conservation of the remaining oak forests.These have been considerably reduced by logging for timber, road construction and expansion of farmland. Large old oak trees have become rare and scattered where there used to be a closed forest cover. While <em>S. morrisii</em> does not seem to be declining in numbers of individuals, the extent of its habitat is decreasing due to road construction and increased agricultural land use.
61608		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex I of the Spanish royal decree 439/1990 which grants it protection in its natural site. Internationally, <em>A. bermejoi</em> is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive, where it is listed as a priority species. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Since 2003, the University of the Balearic Islands has started a rehabilitation programme for <em>A. bermejoi</em> in its natural habitat with financial support from the MAVA foundation. A programme to eradicate all species of the introduced and invasive <em>Carpobrotus</em> has been undertaken since 1996 in natural areas of the Balearic Islands, with mixed success. Since 2002, the eradication programme has focussed on sites with rare species such as <em>A. bermejoi</em>. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species are stored in the Sóller Botanical Garden seedbank, located on Majorca, where the plant is also under cultivation. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is essential that the small area where this species grows be protected from trampling and motorbikes. To make conservation actions more effective, studies on population dynamics (recruitment and mortality) and reproductive biology of this species are needed. (Re-)introduction of this species to suitable habitats to increase its number of populations and its survival chances is needed.
61608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands, and occurs in the north-east part of the island of Minorca. Here it is only found in two small areas separated by a rocky zone about 200 m wide.
61608		habitat	eng	<em>A. bermejoi</em> is a herb that grows in stream beds that dry out in summer and occasionally during dry winters. It grows on acidic soil which accumulates in small rock depressions, and requires only moderate sun exposure. <br/> <br/>This perennial plant reproduces from seeds but can also reproduce vegetatively from stolons, which are horizontal stems creeping just above the ground having the capacity to take root and form new plants. There is evidence that the two subpopulations on either side of the rocky zone are genetically different, but the importance of this for the long-term maintenance of the entire population has yet to be assessed. This species benefits from nitrogen provided in seabird droppings.
61608		population	eng	The total population numbers less than 100 individuals in an area of just a few dozen square metres.
61608		threats	eng	The species is threatened both directly and indirectly. Its habitat is extremely unstable with available water and nutrients varying greatly from year to year. <em>A. bermejoi</em> does not support competition from other species very well, including competition from native carpet-forming species as well as introduced alien species such as <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>. It is directly threatened with trampling by fishermen and hikers, as well as motorbikes on the beach. <br/> <br/>Climate change may cause changes in its habitat. For example, several consecutive dry years will weaken this species and favour the development of opportunistic, more competitive species. Any wild collection of <em>A. bermejoi</em> represents a potential threat.
61609		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention (ratified by Italy in 1997).  It is also listed in the Top 50 Mediterranean Island Plants (Montmollin De and Strahm 2005).<br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The whole area of Marettimo Island is included within the SCI (Site of Community Importance) of "Isola di Marettimo" (ITA010002) and within the proposed Marettimo Nature Reserve. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science of Palermo University. Plants are cultivated in the botanic gardens of Florence and Palermo. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The species would benefit from the entire island being designated as a nature reserve, which would help to control grazing and fires. Its collection should be prohibited.
61609		distribution	eng	This small shrub is endemic to the island of Marettimo (part of the Egadi archipelago, just west of Sicily). It grows in 11 localities on the northern side of the island in an area of 7 km². The extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².
61609		habitat	eng	This small, cushion-shaped perennial shrub grows on calcareous cliffs at an altitude of 20-600 m, preferring north-facing slopes and growing in the cracks of limestone rock faces. <br/> <br/>This species is considered to be a paleoendemic, which means that it was once much more widely distributed than today, and probably grew throughout the mountains of the Mediterranean when the region had a tropical climate. The plant reproduces from seeds only, a common characteristic of plants growing in such habitats. Mist is probably its main source of water.
61609		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be 300-500 individuals. The population trend is probably stable.
61609		threats	eng	Despite growing on largely inaccessible cliffs, it is threatened by human disturbance, grazing wild animals, and fire. Given the tiny population and extent of habitat, just one catastrophic event could decimate the remaining population.
61610		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Although this species is included in regional, national and international Red Lists, it is not protected by any law or convention. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The area of occurrence is included entirely in zone A of the Madonie Regional Park. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Botanical Science Department of Palermo University, but no known attempts at cultivation have been made. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>More research and fieldwork is needed to better understand the distribution and reproductive capacity of this species. Cultivation in botanical gardens will allow researchers to better understand the reasons for its decline in the wild. Collection should be prohibited.
61610		distribution	eng	This small shrub is endemic to the Madonie Mountains in the north-central part of Sicily. According to the literature it is found in at least two sites, although only one has been confirmed. The inaccessibility of its habitat makes it difficult to estimate the species true distribution, but it is thought to cover about half a square kilometre.
61610		habitat	eng	The small perennial shrub grows on calcareous inland cliffs in two or three deep valleys at an altitude between 700 and 900 m. It prefers north-facing, shady slopes exposed to cold, wet winds, growing on small amounts of soil in rocky cracks. <br/> <br/><em>B. elatum</em> is considered a relict species that once had a much wider distribution. It reproduces only from seeds. Flowering and fruiting have rarely been observed. As is typical of plants growing in such habitats, exposure to mists is likely to be the main source of water.
61610		population	eng	The confirmed supopulation has an estimated size of about 400-600 individuals.
61610		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not sufficiently understood due to its inaccessible habitat, wildfire may represent a serious threat. Given the small and restricted population size, one fire could destroy the remaining population.
61611		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum kakiskalae</span> is included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ac(iv)+B2ac(iv);D1 in the Red Data Book of Greece (Fournaraki and Thanos in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also protected by the Greek Presidential Decree 67/81. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>: a microserve of 1 ha has been established at Samaria gorge. The plant is included in a Natura 2000 site which gives it indirect protection. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>: the plant is cultivated successfully at the botanical gardens of the Forestry Department of Chania at the nearby village of Poria and at the locality Xylokastro.<br/><strong></strong><br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Studies on the biology and ecology of this species must be continued to properly define the conservation measures needed. Additional fieldwork is required to determine whether any other populations exist, and to identify cliffs with similar properties to those of Kakiskalo as areas where potential introductions might be undertaken. Regular collection of seeds should be made in order to conserve the widest possible spectrum of genetic material. The site must not only be protected from goats, which have access to certain individuals, but also from botanists who may remove individuals for collections.
61611		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Crete, at Kakoskalo in the mountain range of Levka Ori, in the Samaria gorge. A second  location was recently (2007) found at Melindaou Mt (Fournaraki and Thanos in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The plant occurs at only two isolated locations with an area of occupancy of 8 km² and an extent of occurrence below 100 km².
61611		habitat	eng	This perennial herb occurs in crevices of steep limestone rocks. Given that only a small number of individuals remain and the fact that the plant flowers only once during its lifetime, there are very few individuals which flower at the same time (between 0 and 20, depending on the year). Seed production and the establishment of seedlings is therefore extremely variable. It seems to have very strict ecological requirements.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
61611		population	eng	There are only two isolated locations with a small number of mature individuals in each, so the population is most probably fragmented. Fluctuations of the number of mature individuals have been observed. The quality of the habitat is degraded but not under continuous decline. Also, there is no evidence that the population size is under continuous decline. At Samaria gorge, there are 47 mature plants and 41-46 rosettes were counted by telescope in 2005 but it is estimated that the total number of mature plants is larger because only part of the cliff was visible. The exact number of individuals at Melindaou is not known (Fournaraki and Thanos in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)
61611		threats	eng	The main threats facing <em>B. kakiskalae</em> are the low probability of genetic exchange within the population due to the small number of individuals flowering at the same time, and cliff instability, as the substrate on which it grows collapses periodically. Goats may also graze any accessible plant. A further threat is posed by rock climbing that leads to further erosion and habitat degradation.
61612		conservation	eng	The species is classified as Critically Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is listed as Vulnerable in the list of protected species of Murcia.  One of the Algerian localities is located in a Ramsar site (Chott ech Chergui). There are no conservation measures in place in Morocco.<br/>It is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and to study the size and the population dynamics. Habitat conservation is needed and therefore the creation of micro-reserves for endangered plants, including this species' sites, is proposed.
61612		distribution	eng	<em>Carum foetidum</em> is a species endemic to the west of the Mediterranean basin. It is found in Spain, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its extent of occurrence exceeds 30,000 km², the area of occupancy is below 500 km<sup>2</sup> and it is present in 19 locations.
61612		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) of about 60 cm height that inhabits slightly saline marsh prairies that dry in summer, often dominated by <em>Juncus maritimus, J. gerardii </em>or<em> Eleocharis palustris</em>. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.<em></em></p>
61612		population	eng	The species is quite rare in the Mediterranean region, occurring at only 19 locations. The trend of the populations is not known.<br/>In Morocco, it is rare and is found at four locations on the plains of oriental Morocco. In Algeria, it is also rare and known from seven locations distributed between the high plains of Algérois and Oranais, the Constantinois plains, the Saharan Oranais Atlas, the Algérois Atlas and the Constantinois Atlas. In Spain, it is only found at eight locations in the southeast (provinces of Alicante, Granada and Murcia). The Spanish populations are very fragmented and many known populations disappeared as a result of changes in land use.<span lang="EN-GB">
61612		threats	eng	The transformation of the surrounding territory, the expansion of irrigation agriculture, grazing, droughts and the abundance of high vegetation, namely rushes, pose a threat to this species   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).
61613		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures taken. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4330005, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em>: A replanting programme, supported by the MAVA foundation, has been undertaken by the University of Patras and the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (Crete). This institute stores seeds of <em>H. dolinicola</em> in seed banks, but germination has proven to be difficult due to parasites. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is essential to understand this species' ecology better, especially the role of sheep grazing in order to identify the best steps to take for its conservation <em>in situ</em>. It would be reasonable to attempt (re-)introductions of <em>H. dolinicola</em> in other nearby limestone sinks, and to bring this species into cultivation in botanical gardens, as well as store seeds. Finally legal measures for the conservation of this species and its habitat are needed, as well as an awareness campaign for the land-owners and users of this site.
61613		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Mt. Ida (Psiloritis) mountain range of central Crete at about 1500 m altitude in an area of about 3,000 km².
61613		habitat	eng	A perennial herb which grows in a few limestone sinks in a region where many sheep graze during the summer. This species was first described in 1990. It is the only species belonging to the genus <em>Horstrissea</em>, which is closely related to the genus <em>Scaligeria</em>. This means that if this species disappears, the entire genus will disappear as well. <br/> <br/>A great number of species endemic to the mountains of Crete grow in these limestone sinks. All the plants are very small and hug the ground, a strategy which allows them to sustain the grazing pressure of numerous herds of sheep. In the spring, these limestone sinks serve as outlets for melting snow and rain, and are periodically flooded.
61613		population	eng	Its total population numbers just a few dozen individuals.
61613		threats	eng	<em>H. dolinicola</em> is mainly threatened by over-grazing and nutrient addition by sheep, as well as the possible use of fertilizers. It is also threatened by road construction. At the same time, it seems possible that the sheep may also control other plant species that might compete with <em>H. dolinicola</em>.
61614		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: At a regional level, Ligusticum huteri is included as a species sensitive to habitat changes in the Catalogue of Threatened Species of the Balearic Islands, which grants it protection in its natural habitat. Its habitat is protected as a Natural Site of Special Interest by Law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands, and the species occurs in a military zone with limited access. At a national level this species is listed in the Atlas of the Threatened Flora of Spain, and at an international level the site is listed as an Important Bird Area in the EU Birds Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: In 1998 a five-year plan was put into action by the Botanical Garden of Sóller to re-establish the plant in its natural habitat, some aspects of which are still in the process of development. The Government of the Balearic Islands protects part of its population with fencing. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are stored in a seed bank at the Botanical Garden of Sóller and some plants are maintained in culture. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is imperative to control the goat population on the site and ensure that there is no botanical collection. Sheep breeders should be prevented from setting bush fires. Possibilities of introducing this species to other mountainous regions of the island should be investigated.
61614		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Balearic Islands, this species occurs locally in northern Majorca in the Tramuntana mountain range between 1,300-1,400 m altitude. The species is found over an area of less than 0.5 km².
61614		habitat	eng	<em>L. huteri</em> is a perennial herb found growing on limestone cliffs in shaded, slightly moist rock crevices and on rocky ridges. <br/> <br/>The biology of this plant is not well known. The parts above ground disappear during winter and grow up from the base between April and June. The plant only flowers abundantly after several years of favourable conditions. This initial period is probably necessary for the accumulation of energy reserves. <em>L. huteri</em> reproduces from seed only.
61614		population	eng	No more than 100 individuals exist in one locality.
61614		threats	eng	At least 50% of the population has disappeared over the past ten years due to drought and increased grazing pressure from wild goats. Bush fires started by sheep-breeders also pose a threat.
61615		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex I (in danger of extinction) of the Spanish royal decree 439/1990, which grants it protection in its natural habitat. Internationally <em>N. balearica</em> is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive as a priority species.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: In 1997 within the framework of an EU LIFE project entitled "Conservation of natural habitats and plant species in Corsica", several projects were undertaken which included habitat protection, land acquisition, and restoration work for this species. A reintroduction attempt on Corsica using material from the Geneva Botanic Garden was unsuccessful. On the Balearic Islands, a conservation programme undertaken by the Universitat de les Iles Balears and financed by the MAVA foundation has been launched in 2003.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Material collected from the Balearic Islands is being cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Sóller on Majorca (Spain). Corsican material (all of the same provenance) has been cultivated in the botanic gardens of Geneva, Brest and Porquerolles since 1981, the year when the population on Corsica was discovered. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Research is needed to understand the reproductive biology and environmental constraints for this species in order to undertake better management. Permanent plots are needed to monitor population numbers over time and the effect of climate change. Research will also help guide re-introduction attempts to Corsica, where ideally Corsican material should be used. In addition, the management and ownership issues of the sites where it either grows or once grew need to be resolved to guarantee the long-term survival of this species.
61615		distribution	eng	<em>Naufraga balearica</em> occurs only on the island of Mallorca in the Balearic Islands (Spain). Another subpopulation of what is believed to be the same species was discovered in 1981 on the western coast of Corsica (France), between Cargèse and Piana, but this had disappeared by 1983 despite intensive field surveys. Its indigenous status is unclear (Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007).<br/><br/>It has been estimated that its extent of occurrence is 8 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><p> &#160;<br/></p>    <p><br/></p>
61615		habitat	eng	This herbaceous species is found at the base of coastal cliffs to the north of the island. It usually grows in shady cracks in boulders where a little calcareous soil or clay has accumulated, and needs humid conditions. <br/> <br/>This species is the only representative of the genus <em>Naufraga</em>. While the plant can reproduce from seed, it can also form new individuals vegetatively from its lateral shoots. The flowers have been shown to be pollinated by ants, which is very rare in the plant kingdom. By having tiny flowers grouped close together and near the ground means that ants can quickly visit them to seek nectar, and thus transfer pollen from one flower to another.
61615		population	eng	The species is known from less than five localities and the population is severely fragmented. There has been a decline in number of mature individuals of 50% or more in the last years (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
61615		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Naufraga balearica </span>is sensitive to droughts, mainly in spring. Repeated droughts over the last 20 years have resulted in a continuous decline in the numbers of individuals. With climate change, a scenario of a warmer, drier regime puts this species at risk. Some other species living in association with <em>N. balearica</em> are more drought-resistant, thus have benefited from drier conditions and provide increased competition. <br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Naufraga balearica</span> is also threatened by intensive trampling by goats, although grazing may also reduce the competitive pressure from other species. In the 1980s plants were removed by collectors, which may explain the decline in the original population.
61616		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/><em>Legally</em>: Internationally, this species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention (ratified by Italy in 1997) and in Appendix II of the Habitats Directive. In the UNEP list of rare Mediterranean species it is listed as vulnerable, both regionally and globally. In all three documents, the species is listed under its synonym <em>Petagnia saniculifolia</em> Guss. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The known populations are mainly found in protected areas, including the Nebrodi Regional Park; the "Vallone Calagna sopra Tortorici" Nature Reserve; Sites of Community Importance (Torrente Fiumetto e Pizzo D’Ucina - ITA030002, Stretta di Longi - ITA030001); and Special Protection Zones (Serra del Re, Monte Soro e Biviere di Cesarò - ITA030038). <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in a germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science of Palermo. The species is cultivated in the botanic gardens of Palermo, Catania and Messina on Sicily and at the English Gardens ("Giardini inglesi") of the Caserta Royal Palace ("Reggia di Caserta") on the Italian mainland just north of Naples. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>More research is needed to identify all of this species' sites. Mountain water levels should be protected by prohibiting excessive use of mountain spring water. The area of occupancy should be expanded by reintroducing the species in suitable sites within the area of occurrence, following IUCN SSC Guidelines for Re-introductions.
61616		distribution	eng	<em>Petagnaea gussonei</em> grows in the Nebrodi Mts. in the northeastern part of Sicily at an altitude of 240-1,500 m.
61616		habitat	eng	This perennial herbaceous species grows on the lower edge of moisture-loving vegetation belts bordering shaded woodland mountain streams or rivulets which do not dry out in summer. The plant prefers sites where the current is calm and the substrate is soaked with water. <br/> <br/>This species usually reproduces asexually through stolons; these horizontal branches grow out from the base of the plant and produce new plants from buds at their tips. This mechanism allows the plant to colonize the wet edges of streams. Seed production occurs occasionally, but the germination rate is very low.
61616		population	eng	There are only a few subpopulations.
61616		threats	eng	The main threat identified was the reduction of water supply to the habitat by pumping and other human uses. Therefore, despite the fact that it grows in protected areas, if the water is removed this species will decline.
61617		conservation	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and listed in the National Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ac(iv) (Fournaraki and Thanos in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/></strong><strong style="font-weight: bold;">Actions in Place</strong> <br/><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>: a Micro-Reserve of 4.4 ha has been established on Agria Gramvousa islet. There has also been an intensive awareness campaign for the education of the local authorities and the general public. </strong>The plant is included in a Natura 2000 site (GR 4340001) which gives it indirect protection. <br/><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>: Seeds are stored the Seed Bank of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania.<br/><br/></strong><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Given the number of species endemic to Agria Gramvousa, the islet should be designated as a nature reserve, and a management plan put in place to prevent the introduction of herbivores and invasive plants.
61617		distribution	eng	<em>Anthemis glaberrima</em> is endemic to the islets of Agria Gramvousa and Imeri Gramvousa, situated at the extreme northwest tip of the island of Crete. The distribution area is very limited and the area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are both smaller than 10 km².
61617		habitat	eng	An annual species that grows on littoral rocks. <br/> <br/>Rich in endemics, the islet of Agria Gramvousa is one of the few islets that have never been inhabited by domestic or wild ungulates such as goats or sheep. Any introduction of herbivores could threaten the natural balance of this island's vegetation and lead to the extinction of some plant species. <em>A. glaberrima</em> belongs to the taxonomic group <em>Ammanthus</em> which includes several species (such as <em>Anthemis ammanthus</em>, <em>A. filicaulis</em> and <em>A. tomentella</em>) endemic to the southern islands in the Aegean Sea.
61617		population	eng	The population at Agria Gramvousa has 150,000 – 200,000 individuals at an area of 3 ha and the population of Imeri Gramvousa hosts c. 500 individuals at an area of 0.3 ha. The population counts are based on a 2-3 year assessment. It is annual species so extreme fluctuations are possible.
61617		threats	eng	The subpopulation of Imeri Gramvousa is relatively isolated and not  threatened by human impact (tourists visiting the islet in summer). The  subpopulation of Agria Gramvousa is apparently threatened by grazing and  also probably by sea pollution (deposition of tar and waste from the  sea). Invasive species are potentially a serious threat.
61618		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures have been taken to protect the species itself. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Part of the area where this species occurs is situated in the Nature Reserves "Saline di Trapani e Paceco" and "Isole dello Stagnone di Marsala". Here, it is forbidden to collect seeds or any vegetative parts of the plant. These areas are effectively managed (by WWF and the Province of Trapani, respectively), guarded by rangers, and have been subject to scientific monitoring. Construction of roads or houses inside the reserves requires permission. These species-rich reserves are sustainably managed and economic activities such as salt extraction take place within them. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is included in the GENMEDOC project (an inter-regional network of Mediterranean seedbanks), and seeds are being collected in order to propagate this species. It should not be difficult to germinate seeds in cultivation, but may be more difficult to meet the peculiar habitat requirements (nitrogen-rich, sandy and salty soil) of this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species should be added to Appendix I of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EC Habitats Directive to give it protection by international law. A campaign to eradicate the invasive species <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em> in the region needs to be initiated. <em>C. maritima</em>'s classical site needs to be protected by finding alternatives to the planned harbour expansion, limiting access to the site, and careful planning of any construction of new roads and buildings. Inventories need to be made over several years to monitor population trends.
61618		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sicily and some surrounding islets, on the mainland <em>Calendula maritima</em> is only found in the Trapani region in a few coastal sites between Marsala and Mt. Cofano. Elsewhere small subpopulations also occur on two or three islets near the Sicilian coast: Isola Grande dello Stagnone, La Formica, and Favignana (although a recent survey noted that it seems to have disappeared from this site).
61618		habitat	eng	The herbaceous species colonizes open nitrogen-rich areas near the sea, and typically grows on decaying remnants of sea grass (<em>Posidonia oceanica</em>) washed ashore. <br/> <br/>This plant is a perennial, but most individuals (possibly due to drought stress) have an annual life cycle. Like annual plants from colder climatic zones, these individuals die back after flowering and setting seed. The seeds then germinate around October. The hot and dry summer marks the end of this species flowering period rather than a cold winter. Other species from the genus <em>Calendula</em> are often grown as garden plants. This species has the potential to be developed for horticulture if the optimal culture conditions can be found.
61618		population	eng	Unknown.
61618		threats	eng	On the main island of Sicily, its natural habitat is under increasing pressure from urban development. The subpopulation growing in the well-managed nature reserve "Saline di Trapani e Paceco" is threatened by plans to expand the nearby harbour. The loss of this subpopulation would not only diminish the species' gene pool; it would also represent a great loss to science as this locality is where this species was described (its <em>locus classicus</em>). <br/> <br/>In addition, the species is very attractive and may be collected for its beautiful flowers. It is also threatened by competition with an alien invasive species, the iceplant or hottentot fig (<em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>), which grows in part of <em>C. maritima</em>’s habitat and competes aggressively with it.
61619		conservation	eng	Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix I. It is also listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The species is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published in 2005 by the Government of Cyprus. The EU adhesion has had a positive effect on species protection, as management plans are now harmonized with European law. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Forestry Department is responsible for the site where Centaurea akamantis grows and has published a plan aimed at protecting the area. Several other strategies to protect the Akamas peninsula have been proposed, including its designation as a Site of Community Interest (SCI) by the Natura 2000 Network and the establishment of a National Park. In 2002 a detailed <strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>EU/World Bank Action Plan was produced for the proposed park. However, it has not been established due to resistance from local communities. This situation demonstrates the difficulty of reconciling the needs of nature conservation and tourist-based economies, especially in the Mediterranean region. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Small numbers of seeds have been collected from the Avakas Gorge and stored in the seed bank at the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. The species has been successfully cultivated at the Cyprus Agricultural Research Institute. However more studies are needed, particularly because it has the potential to be cultivated as an ornamental. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The National Park project should be approved by the Cyprus Council of Ministers. The species' habitat should be nominated as a Nature Reserve, which according to the Forest Law, will provide complete and permanent protection to this site and reduce grazing pressure. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Wild seeds of a sufficient genetic range need to be collected and stored in the University of Athens seedbank or other seedbanks. The species would also benefit from cultivation in botanical gardens.
61619		distribution	eng	This plant is only found on the Akamas peninsula in the northwestern part of Cyprus.
61619		habitat	eng	This semi-woody herbaceous plant colonizes steep and humid limestone cliffs in the Avakas and Argaki ton Koufon ("Stream of Snakes") Gorges. <em>C. akamantis</em> is characterized by an extremely long flowering and fruiting period.
61619		population	eng	One subpopulation has only 50 individuals and the other approximately 500 individuals.
61619		threats	eng	Increasing visitor numbers to the Akamas peninsula is contributing to a decline in habitat quality, although the number of mature individuals has remained stable since 1993, when the species was first described. Grazing poses a serious threat, even though it is not permitted in these areas and fines are imposed by the Forestry Department.
61620		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the law 56/2000, which is a law guiding biodiversity conservation in the Tuscan region, and is quite similar to the EC Habitats Directive. Under this law, it is forbidden to collect any species in this genus. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Four of the eight known subpopulations occur in the Tuscan Archipelago National Park. The Park includes a protected terrestrial area of just under 18,000 ha, and a marine protected area of approximately 60,000 ha (making it the largest European marine park). The objective of the Tuscan Archipelago National Park is to protect this fragile natural environment, which is very rich in cultural and scientific values.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: The species is cultivated in the Botanical Garden of Florence. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Monitoring of all subpopulations is needed, and a programme to remove invasive alien plants which threaten one of the subpopulations needs to be undertaken. Efforts to ensure that these alien species do not start growing in the other areas where this species is found are also very important. Once the alien species have been eradicated, a re-introduction programme will be planned, using specimens propagated from the threatened population.
61620		distribution	eng	<em>Centaurea gymnocarpa</em> is endemic to the Italian island of Capraia, a small island which is part of the Tuscan Archipelago.
61620		habitat	eng	It is a herbaceous species that colonizes cracks and fissures of rock faces, growing on acid rocks. It is found in association with <em>Linaria capraia</em> and other endemic species such as <em>Silene badaroi</em> and <em>Galium caprarium</em>. <br/> <br/><em>C. gymnocarpa</em> belongs to the group known as the "<em>cineraria</em>" group. This group probably was once a single species when the land masses were united, but as islands were formed, new species evolved on each island. This means that today there are a number of closely related species of <em>Centaurea</em> in the Mediterranean growing on rocky seaward cliffs, all probably related to a common ancestor.
61620		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be less than 250 individuals. Eight subpopulations have been identified. The one threatened subpopulation is composed of less than 20 individuals, while the seven others include more then 20 individuals.
61620		threats	eng	The subpopulation, situated between Paese and Porto, is severely threatened by competition from two invasive plants: <em>Carpobrotus acinaciformis</em> and <em>Senecio angulatus</em>. These two species in the last years have been expanding in Capraia, but do not yet grow in the other areas where <em>C. gymnocarpa</em> occurs, which are for the most part far away from areas of human habitation.
61621		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, this species is listed in Annex II of the Habitats Directive since Malta’s EU adhesion in May 2004. Nationally, it is protected by the Flora and Fauna Protection Regulations of 1993 and the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations of 2003. <br/> <br/>All cliffs of the island of Malta and some cliffs of Gozo are protected locally, either as Sites of Scientific Importance, Areas of Ecological Importance, or Special Areas of Conservation. Fungus Rock (il-Gebla tal_General) is a Strict Nature Reserve. Access is forbidden except for valid scientific reasons. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Management plans are being drafted for a number of sites, including the Qawra-Dwejra Special Area of Conservation (western Gozo).  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: <em>C. crassifolius</em> has been extensively cultivated, especially since its designation as the Maltese National Plant in 1971. It is now frequently encountered in parks and along the centre-strips of main roads. (Note that even if the plant is under cultivation, this does not change its conservation status as the Red List Criteria only apply to wild natural populations). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The most effective conservation measures needed are protection and management of the habitat, which means to better control quarrying, prevent illegal dumping (fly-tipping), avoid the introduction of new invasive alien species, and manage the invasives that exist. More cliffs on Gozo need to be protected by law because of their extreme ecological importance. Law enforcement regarding the protection of this species and its habitat needs to be strengthened. Finally, more research is needed to identify the reasons for this species' apparent population decline and habitat fragmentation.
61621		distribution	eng	<em>Cheirolophus crassifolius</em> has a patchy distribution along the northwestern and southern cliffs of the islands of Malta, southern Gozo and Fungus Rock.
61621		habitat	eng	This perennial shrub is confined to coralline limestone seaside cliffs and scree, growing in full sun. <br/> <br/>The Maltese Rock-centaury is the National Plant of Malta. This species displays some ancient traits in its habitat preference and flower morphology, and is considered to be a paleoendemic, meaning that it speciated in the distant past and may have been much more widely distributed than today. Previously this species had been placed in a genus of its own (<em>Palaeocyanus</em>), but was then grouped with species of the genus <em>Cheirolophus</em>. To fully understand the taxonomy of this species, it is important to study its relationship with species of the similar-looking genera <em>Centaurea</em> and <em>Serratula</em>.
61621		population	eng	The total wild population is estimated at a thousand individuals, but has not been counted.
61621		threats	eng	The species is threatened by a number of factors. First, it is rare to find juvenile plants of this long-lived species, possibly due to the larvae of an unidentified moth observed attacking the developing fruits. Second, the habitat is under threat from quarrying, as fragile boulder cliffs collapse from the pressure wave of nearby dynamite explosions. Dust pollution from quarrying seems to be a minor problem. Third, a number of sites have been affected by human disturbance, especially those most easily accessible. Finally the species, even at inaccessible sites, is threatened by introduced alien plant species, particularly <em>Opuntia ficus-indica</em>, <em>Agave americana</em> and <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>. These species were originally planted on the plateau but now invade the cliffs.
61622		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex I (in danger of extinction) of the Spanish royal decree 439/1990 that guarantees it protection in its natural habitat. Internationally, Femeniasia balearica is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive (in both cases under the name Centaurea balearica). In the context of the Birds Directive, the European Union protects the habitat of this species as an Important Bird Area.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: A re-establishment plan for <em>F. balearica</em> is currently being drafted at the University of the Balearic Islands. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are being stored and individuals are cultivated at the Botanical Garden of Sóller (Majorca). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Research is needed to understand this species' population dynamics (births and deaths per year or per generation) and the effect of competition and herbivory on young plant survival. The re-establishment plan that is being drafted needs to be completed and implemented. It is extremely important that motorized vehicles be prohibited from driving in the area containing this species.
61622		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Balearic Islands, <em>Femeniasia balearica</em> now occurs only in six sites in the north of the island of Minorca.
61622		habitat	eng	This woody perennial shrub or small tree is a typical seashore species that grows in dry sunny places on sandy soils. <br/> <br/>This woody perennial reproduces from seed. Its spines protect it from herbivores and trampling, but unfortunately not from motor vehicles. In some specialist literature the genus <em>Femeniasia</em> is considered to be synonymous with <em>Centaurea</em>. This means that some lists of protected species cite this plant under the name of <em>C. balearica</em>, demonstrating both the practical as well as legal problems that changes of nomenclature can cause.
61622		population	eng	Less than 2,200 individuals are found in six subpopulations.
61622		threats	eng	It is threatened by building and road construction, although these activities may also create opportunities for colonization. This species is often removed from beach paths because of its spines. Several individuals disappeared when a land owner planted pines (<em>Pinus halepensis</em>) in one of its subpopulations. It has been observed that in someyears the activities of wood-eating beetles (<em>Oxythrea funesta</em> and <em>Tropinota hirta</em>) seem to reduce seed germination..
61623		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally this species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive since Malta’s EU adhesion in May 2004. On the national level, it is protected by the Flora and Fauna Protection Regulations of 1993. Part of the cliffs of Gozo is protected locally as Special Areas of Conservation. Fungus Rock ((il-Gebla tal-General) is a Strict Nature Reserve. Access is forbidden, valid scientific reasons excepted. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: An action plan for this species has been drafted by the Environment Protection Directorate of Malta. The species as well as parts of its habitat are locally protected by Malta’s Environment Protection Act and Development Planning Act, which for instance restricts planting of certain alien species in certain zones. A management plan is being drafted for a key site for this species, namely the Qawra-Dwejra Special Area of Conservation on western Gozo. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Some cuttings collected from Dwejra (western Gozo) were planted at the University of Malta’s botanical garden for <em>ex situ</em> conservation and ornamental purposes. <em>H. melitense</em> has been propagated at the Plant Biotechnology Centre, using micropropagation techniques as part of a joint research programme with the Department of Biology of the University of Malta. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Legal protection of all those parts of the cliffs on Gozo supporting the species is desirable. Legal protection (e.g. against illegal dumping) must be strengthened to protect this species and its habitat. A management plan for the western cliffs on Gozo is needed and it should include the requirements of Natura 2000, to attain sustainable tourism in the area. Efforts should be made to re-introduce the species on the main island of Malta, and <em>ex situ</em> propagation for ornamental purposes should be encouraged. More studies are needed to monitor the decline of the specimens on the plateau.
61623		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western cliffs of the island of Gozo and Fungus Rock Nature Reserve. It is probably extinct on the island of Malta.
61623		habitat	eng	<em>H. melitense</em> has a patchy distribution and mainly grows on intact limestone coastal cliffs and scree, preferring full sun. Occasionally it may also be found along the more accessible plateau on top of the cliffs. <br/> <br/>This low shrub is very ornamental and could be cultivated. Several other <em>Helichrysum</em> species are used to cure asthma and rheumatism, but there is no evidence of this species being used for medicinal purposes.
61623		population	eng	Only one subpopulation of a few thousand individuals remains.
61623		threats	eng	Cliff habitats are endangered or have already collapsed due to pressure waves from the explosions of nearby limestone quarrying. To a lesser extent, dust from the quarries may also pose a threat. Regeneration of this species is low, possibly due to insects eating the seeds, which jeopardizes the re-establishment of this species where it was once found. Introduced alien plant species pose serious problems, especially <em>Opuntia ficus-indica</em>, <em>Agave americana</em> and <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>, which are colonizing the cliffs. <br/> <br/>Urbanization and tourism are dramatically increasing in this species' habitat on the plateau. Other threats include wild collection for ornamental purposes as well as the recent construction of kiosks and boat-houses near the shore.
61624		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Though this species is included in the regional and national Red Lists, it is not protected by any particular law or convention. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The population occurs in the "Capo Gallo" Nature Reserve and SIC (Site of Community Importance) of "Capo Gall" (ITA020006). This implies that collection of wild specimens is prohibited, grazing is regulated, and no quarrying is allowed. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science of Palermo University, and plants are cultivated in the botanic gardens of Palermo and Catania. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Fire management is key to the survival of this species and the preservation of the landscape of the nature reserve. Whilst fire is essential for some Mediterranean species which have co-evolved with fire and require it to survive, the increased frequency of human-made fire may pose a problem even to these plants and emphasises the importance of a carefully designed fire management scheme for the area.
61624		distribution	eng	This plant grows exclusively on Mt. Gallo near Palermo, in northwestern Sicily. It is found in only three locations representing just one subpopulation in a tiny area.
61624		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on northern slopes of calcareous maritime cliffs exposed to humid winds. These sites are rich in nitrates from sea bird droppings. <br/> <br/><em>H. lucidum</em> only reproduces from seeds. It is a typical example of a plant which grows in rock crevices and on rock faces. It belongs to a genus containing many very similar-looking species, which presents identification difficulties to the non-botanist (and even many botanists)! The species is very similar to <em>Hieracium cophanense</em>.
61624		population	eng	It is not easy to estimate the number of individuals because of the inaccessibility of its habitat.  There might be 400-500 individuals in the population.
61624		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not sufficiently understood, although in theory its inaccessibility should provide protection. However as the population occurs close to an inhabited area, its close proximity to human activities increases the risk of extinction and fire may also pose a threat.
61625		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: The species is listed as a priority species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Nationally there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>L. microcephala</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However, this law is controversial as it may also increase collecting interest in the species listed. <br/> It is included in the Italian Red List and in the Red List of the Top 50 Mediterranean Island Plants (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, De Montmollin and Strahm 2005).<br/><br/><em>In situ</em>: No action for the moment. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: The species is not under cultivation. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>A management plan to conserve <em>L. microcephala</em> is urgently needed, with habitat restoration a priority. The little-used ski run should be removed, and the local population sensitized to the plight of this rare species.
61625		distribution	eng	<em>Lamyropsis microcephala</em> is endemic to Sardinia, and is found only in the Gennargentu mountains on the slopes of Mount Bruncu Spina. This plant<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has a range of about 3 km² and occurs at two locations (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
61625		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on eroded rock at 1,500-1,700 m altitude, in a band of montane dwarf shrub and steppe vegetation. <br/> <br/>This species has a highly complex branched rhizome system producing many stems, so it is very difficult to distinguish separate individuals. Previously it had been considered possibly Extinct, but was rediscovered shortly before publication of the Italian Red List in 1992.<br/><br/>It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 4090 "Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>Species with chionophiluos, eliophilous and igrophilous behaviour, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. microcephala </span>grows in montane grassland on metamorphic substrate with erosion. these grasslands are characterized by the species of the class <span style="font-style: italic;">Carici-Genistetea lobelii</span> and the order <span style="font-style: italic;">Carici-Genistetalia lobelii</span> (Arrigoni 1974).
61625		population	eng	The whole population probably consists of eight to ten colonies. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. microcephala</span> grows only in two growing sites at the northeastern and southwestern slope of Mount Bruncu Spina, in the Nuoro Province, Sardinia (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The two populations are at the brink of extinction if the current threats will persist.
61625		threats	eng	Just to the east of the small area where this species occurs a ski run has been built, which is a serious threat. This species is also threatened by rooting of wild pigs, soil erosion, landslides and further development of tourist infrastructure, where agricultural land development has already destroyed its natural habitat. Moreover, this plant has a limited reproductive capacity. The few seeds produced have a very low germination rate, and vegetative growth is very slow.<br/>The germination percentage of the seeds of the species is about 20% (Diana-Corrias 1977). Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) referred to of a germination percentage of about 50%.
61626		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Alborán Island is a Natural Park, a Maritime Reserve and an Important area for the Mediterranean and is especially protected by the Barcelona Convention. This species is listed in Appendix I of Bern Convention.   <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds had been stocked in the seedbank of Andalusia.
61626		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Spanish island of Alborán (of 7.1 hectares) situated between Spain and Morocco.
61626		habitat	eng	This small shrub colonizes areas that are not yet stabilized. Occurs in sites where there is an accumulation of volcanic ashes and shelly sand or sites perturbed by natural events or human activities.
61626		population	eng	Unknown.
61626		threats	eng	It is particularly vulnerable to changes because of the restricted size of the island and the rarity of its habitat. This species depends on particular climatic conditions (quantity and distribution of rain, soil salinity, etc.) and human activities, hence there is considerable fluctuation in the numbers of individuals each year. These fluctuations affect not only the number of individuals but also their size and the number of flowers. The decline of this species could be caused by alterations generated by human (military occupancy, artificial environments, etc.) in addition to events like natural changes or biotic threats (competition, parasitism, diseases, etc.).
61627		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in the SCI (Site of Community Interest) of "Penyagolosa" and "Serra d’en Garcerán". Two subpopulations have been proposed for flora micro reserves.  Seeds are stocked in the seedbank of the Botanical Garden of Valencia. The Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias has applied a micro propagation protocol, but the plants obtained present rooting problems.
61627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the province of Castellón in Spain. It is found in the districts of L’Alcalatén, Alt Maestrat and Alto Mijares. Four of the seven known subpopulations have been discovered recently and indicates that the area may not be that well known.
61627		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in rocky places on calcareous or dolomite northwest facing walls. More rarely, it can be found on relatively flat soils on rocky outcrops where the plant grows in thickets of <em>Rosmarinion officinalis</em>.
61627		population	eng	There are seven known subpopulations (fourhave been discovered recently): <br/> <br/>Macizo de Peña Saganta : 0 individual (3 in 2000) <br/>Desfiladero del río Villahermosa: 57 individuals <br/>Salto del Caballo: 324 individuals <br/>Sierra de Espaneguera: 2,307 individuals <br/>3 populations in Vertientes del río Monleón: 110 individuals
61627		threats	eng	Natural or human induced events represent a major threat to the species, because the fragmentation of the area and the limited ecological plasticity make the recovery of the species difficult. An example can be rock landslides or severe droughts. Fire is also a threat for the species. Some subpopulations are found in sites proposed for the installation of eolian parks which may affect the species.
61628		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. Due to bureaucratic problems, it has not even been included in the list of Greek species in the “Natura 2000” list. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: The Botanic Gardens of Copenhagen (Denmark) and of Lund University (Sweden) have some specimens of this plant in cultivation. However, these by no means represent this species' entire gene pool as seeds have only been collected from very few plants. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/> The priority should be to protect the species from grazing. The areas where it grows should be fenced and managed to keep grazing animals out. Both the large northeast facing cliffs of Mt. Kochilas and the north facing cliffs of the island of Skiropoula should be designated as reserves. Stone quarrying in the species habitat and wild collection of this plant should be prohibited. <em>A. retsina</em> is easy to cultivate and has a high potential as an ornamental plant. It should be propagated and planted in other suitable shaded rocky sites, following IUCN SSC re-introduction guidelines which include guidance on benign introductions.
61628		distribution	eng	This species is only known to occur on two Greek islands (the island of Skiros, and the northern part of the much smaller island of Skiropoula, situated just southwest of Skiros). Three subpopulations are known, most notably on the northeast facing cliffs of Mt. Kochilas and some cliffs at Cape Korakia.
61628		habitat	eng	The shrubby perennial is normally found within half a kilometre of the seashore on vertical limestone, 10-200 m above sea level, preferring small crevices and shady habitats. <br/> <br/>This species was not discovered until 1969 and officially described in 1973. It is typical of the specialist plant community adapted to grow in the rocky cracks of seashore cliffs. The plant is fleshy, which is an ecological adaptation to salt spray and common in many seashore plants. Scientists have been undertaking crossbreeding experiments with <em>A. retsina</em> and other members of the same family, including plants of enormous agricultural importance such as cabbage, canola and mustard. Scientists are particularly interested in this species' chromosome set and how it relates to that of the cultivated species. One future application could be to genetically improve closely related cultivated species with properties (e.g., salt tolerance and drought resistance) found in <em>A. retsina</em>.
61628		population	eng	Three subpopulations are known.
61628		threats	eng	There is severe grazing pressure from increasing flocks of goats especially during the flowering and fruiting stages. <br/> <br/>Due to the small size of the islands, shepherds do not need to fence the territory to keep their herds together, and goats have free access to all parts of the islands. All plants without any efficient grazing protection (e.g., spines, etc.) are under pressure. <em>A. retsina</em> is selectively eaten by goats because of its high nutritional value. Another potential threat is limestone quarrying which is very common in the region. This species might easily become extinct at any of the sites where it occurs if stone quarrying starts.
61629		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, Arabis kennedyae has also been included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. Moreover, it is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The entire population of this species occurs in Troodos National Forest Park and Pafos State Forest, which have been proposed by the Life Third Countries project as Sites of Community Interest (SCI) and Special Protection Areas (SPA) in the Natura 2000 Network. Any future construction projects or military exercises will have to consider the presence of this species. Tripylos Mountain, where one subpopulation occurs, is already a Nature Reserve where species protection laws are enforced. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds were collected from cultivated plants at the University of Athens in 1994. They are stored in the seed bank of the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Although the entire population occurs within the Troodos National Forest Park, only one subpopulation grows in a Nature Reserve. The areas where the two other subpopulations occur need to be declared as Nature Reserves by the Cyprus Council of Ministers. According to Cyprus Forest Law, flora and fauna is totally protected within a Nature Reserve. Complementing the current legal protection of this species by Forest Law would help because <em>A. kennedyae</em> would then be prioritized in forest management plans.
61629		distribution	eng	This plant grows from 900-1,350 m altitude on the island of Cyprus on the Tripylos Mountain in the Troodos range.
61629		habitat	eng	This annual or biennial herb colonizes rocky slopes. The species is found in semi-shaded, rocky streamside areas dominated by Golden Oak (<em>Quercus alnifolia</em>) and Calabrian Pine (<em>Pinus brutia</em>). <br/> <br/>It probably depends on the weather conditions whether this plant lives one or two years. In wetter years the plant can survive the summer drought period. The seeds are dispersed either by wind or by floating along water currents. Since this species is annual or sometimes biennial, the number of individuals fluctuates widely from year to year depending on environmental and climatic conditions. These fluctuations make population monitoring difficult.
61629		population	eng	The three known subpopulations only encompass about 100 individuals.
61629		threats	eng	One of the subpopulations is subject to human pressures resulting in habitat destruction. A picnic site is located near this site and military exercises often take place within and around this area. <br/> <br/><em>A. kennedyae</em> is potentially threatened by road construction or widening. Forest fires are also a threat. Contrary to other annual species in this habitat, its seeds are neither hard-shelled nor heat resistant, so fire could negatively affect the soil seedbank.
61630		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is legally protected on Corsica and included in the French Red Book of threatened species. Internationally it is not protected by any conventions. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: <em>B. rotgesii</em> is indirectly protected because most specimens grow within the Défilé de l’Inzecca, which is a Natura 2000 site. A management plan for this site is being developed by the Direction régionale de l’environnement. A conservation programme for this species is being undertaken by the Parc naturel régional de Corse, supported by the MAVA Foundation. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species has been cultivated at the botanic garden of Porquerolles (France) where seeds are also being stored. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/> Land managers need to be made aware of the importance of saving this species. A management plan for the Natura 2000 site "Défilé de l'Inzecca" needs to be drafted and implemented. It is also necessary to reinforce the population at Ponte Leccia by ex situ propagation from seeds collected on-site. This species should also be cultivated and seeds stored at other botanical gardens. Finally, land should be acquired by nature conservation managers in order to protect areas most at threat due to human activity.
61630		distribution	eng	Endemic to Corsica. Only two subpopulations growing at altitudes of between 150 and 250 m remain, one near Ponte Leccia, and the other in the narrow gorge of Inzecca.
61630		habitat	eng	This perennial herb colonizes rocky grasslands and scree on serpentine substrates. Like most species growing on serpentine rock, <em>B. rotgesii</em> can tolerate high concentrations of heavy metals in the soil as well as a limited water supply, conditions which limit competition from other species.
61630		population	eng	Only two subpopulations consisting of at most several hundred individuals exist.
61630		threats	eng	In addition to such small populations vulnerable to catastrophic effects, road construction, urbanization and fires pose major threats to this species. For example, the fire in 1993 destroyed most of the Ponte Leccia subpopulation, that may now even have disappeared. <em>B. rotgesii</em> is also potentially threatened by dam construction and the flooding of gorges in the region.
61631		conservation	eng	<strong></strong>This species is protected at the regional and European level. It is listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is classed as Critically Endangered A1abc; B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish national red list (Moreno 2008). The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>The islet has been declared a Maritime-Terrestrial Reserve and Natural Place Paraje Natural by the Andalusian government, and has been nominated for the European Natura 2000 Network as SCI. Various reintroduction and re-enforcement campaigns were carried out in 1988 and 1999 to present.  <br/> <br/><em></em>Fortunately, before its extinction, some seeds had been collected and multiplied at the seed bank of the Agronomists College (Escuela de Agrónomos) of Madrid. When cultivated in botanic gardens (Jardín Botánico de Córdoba, Conservatoire Botanique de Brest), high germination rates can be achieved. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. siettiana</span> held in European genebanks; however, only one originates from within Europe (Spain). This accession is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>This species should be added to the Spanish National Catalogue of Threatened Species, listed in the highest category (Endangered). Ideally the island should be designated as a strict Nature Reserve. If this is impossible, habitat restoration and on-going management still needs to be carried out indefinitely, including alien species eradication, monitoring, and no new construction of infrastructure. Periodic reinforcement campaigns in order to maintain the population might be necessary. The fact that <em>D. siettian</em><span style="font-style: italic;">a</span> seems to prefer semi-disturbed habitat and competes poorly with dominant species must always be taken into account.
61631		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis siettiana</span> is endemic to the Spanish island of Alborán (Almeria). This species was last seen in 1974, when seeds were fortunately collected before the species disappeared from the island. A reintroduction in 1999 appears to have been successful, although given extreme population fluctuations each year, more time is needed to ensure that the reintroduced population is self-sustaining. For the moment, it is believed to be possibly extinct in the wild.<br/> <br/>Alborán is the top of a volcanic platform situated between Spain and Morocco, around 50 km from the nearest continent. This small island (600 m x 200 m) resembles an aircraft carrier due to its flat surface, reaching 10 m above sea level and surrounded by steep, almost vertical cliffs. The island has a lighthouse and is now used as a military base. In 1974 the plant was found growing in a tiny area around the helicopter platform. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2 km² and the extent of occurrence (EOO) is 0.0712 km² which is the size of the island.
61631		habitat	eng	The weedy nature of <em>D. siettiana</em> (it is an annual herb) makes it fairly tolerant to human disturbance. In fact it does grow in the more stable vegetation dominated by <em>Frankenia pulverulenta</em> and <em>Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum</em>, both apparently tolerant to high concentrations of salt and/or nitrogen. Rainfall is very low, with less than 100 mm per year. <br/> <br/>This species is the only representative of the mustard family in the poor flora of Alborán (10 species). The island has long been inhabited, first by lighthouse keepers and later by the military which built the helicopter platform, widened the former small harbour, and constructed some temporary dwellings near the lighthouse. <br/> <br/>The island is also of global importance as one of the few breeding sites for the threatened Audouin's Gull.
61631		population	eng	The number of individuals observed has varied from year to year, but it has never been less than 300. In 2000 there were more than 1,200 individuals and in 2003 there were 600. Those observations are the result of reintroductions of the species in 1999. The area of real occupation is less than 0.003 km².
61631		threats	eng	The island's very fragile habitat has been completely modified by humans, who introduced domestic cattle to the island, causing soil erosion and nitrification, and even irrigated the area in which the plant was found with salt water to reduce dust to facilitate the landing of helicopters (which may have been a direct cause for the extinction of this species). The construction of a new harbour can destroy the natural ecosystem of the island.
61632		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: The species’ population lies within the Paphos State Forest. Therefore, it is protected from any private interference. Moreover, the species is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005.   <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, Paphos State Forest which encompasses the <em>E. kykkoticum</em> population, has been proposed as a Site of Community Importance (SCI) and a Special Protection Area (SPA) for the Natura 2000 Network, of the Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measure taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>More research is needed to monitor the population dynamics of this species including its biology and ecology, so that better management plans can be drawn up. In addition, the plant should be brought into cultivation into botanical gardens, and seeds collected and stored in seedbanks.
61632		distribution	eng	<em>Erysimum kykkoticum</em> is one of the rarest endemics of Cyprus. It is found in the valley of the Xeros River in the western part of the Troodos Mountain range, in a locality called "Argakin tou Pissokremmou" (the stream of Pissokremmos). It grows
61632		habitat	eng	A woody perennial found growing in fissures of igneous rocks or sometimes on vertical banks of abandoned forest tracks, usually facing east or north, at an altitude of 350-470 m. It is found in association with Calabrian Pine (<em>Pinus brutia</em>), Golden Oak (<em>Quercus alnifolia</em>) and other shrubs, in habitats characterized by steep slopes and vertical cliffs. <br/> <br/>This species is an evolutionarily ancient member of the <em>Erysimum</em> genus, most closely related to the <em>Erysimum cheiri</em> group. It is a large plant that can be confused with some species of <em>Euphorbia</em> or <em>Matthiola</em> which also grow on rock faces. However in comparison its leaves are relatively large and clearly spoon-shaped.
61632		population	eng	Approximately 800 individuals exist in one subpopulation.
61632		threats	eng	Continuous forest fires are the major threat. The species is also potentially threatened by prolonged drought, forestry operations and road construction.
61633		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This plant’s habitat is protected by Law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands as a Natural Site of Special Interest. It is listed as Critically Endangered in the "Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular Española" (Red List of the Spanish Vascular Flora), although this does not confer any specific legal protection.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No particular measures have been taken. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this plant are stored in the seed bank of the Botanic Garden of Sóller, but it is possible that these are hybrids with <em>Arenaria grandiflora</em> subsp. <em>glabrescens</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species merits increased legal protection, such as inclusion in the Annexes of the Bern Convention and the EC Habitats Directive. Public access to the site must be controlled. Urgent conservation measures must be taken which include reinforcing the number of plants that remain at this last site and reintroducing the species into other areas where it was previously known. <br/> <br/>If the seeds stored in seedbanks are found to be hybrids, any re-introduction campaign using this material will be detrimental to conservation. Genetic studies are therefore needed, and seeds should be collected only when it has been established that they belong to this species.
61633		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single site on the island of Majorca in the central part of the Tramuntana mountain range.
61633		habitat	eng	This herbaceous perennial is very sensitive to competition from other species and therefore grows in open areas with little soil cover. It is found above an altitude of 900 m on north-facing slopes.
61633		population	eng	Less than 200 individuals grow in one single site covering approximately one hectare.
61633		threats	eng	Plant collectors seeking botanical rarities directly threaten this species. In addition, it seems to hybridize with a closely related species, <em>Arenaria grandiflora</em> subsp. <em>glabrescens</em>. Other threats include hikers who trampling the plant, fires, and habitat modification as more people use the area for hiking and camping.
61634		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed Critically Endangered (CR) B1ac(iii,iv)+2ac(iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada (SCI). A recovery plan has been drafted and some of its activities are already underway. There are also some seeds stored in the germplasm bank of Sierra Nevada.
61634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in Spain, where it can be found in one single location. Its area of occupancy and extent of occurrence is 2 km² (Gutiérrez and Blanca 2004). It is confirmed that the species does not occur in the Almirez (Almeria's part of Sierra Nevada). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
61634		habitat	eng	This annual herb grows at the most elevated summits, at altitudes between 2,950 and 3,300 m. It grows on earthy sites between pebbles with certain mobility and in sandy level stretch with oligotrophic water supply from melting of the permanent snow of the most elevated summits.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada.">The domain corresponds to the series de <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca clementei </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Erigeronto frigidi-Festuceto </span><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;">clementei S.</span>). Although the community has very low coverage, it can be found in the vicinity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria glacialis, </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;">Viola c</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;">rassiuscula, Galium rosellum, Hormathophylla spinosa, Festuca clementei, Arenaria tetraquetra </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">amabilis, Jasione crispa</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>ssp. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;">amethystina, Saxifraga nevadensis, Coincya monensis</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>ssp. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis,</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;"> Crepis</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span style="font-style: italic;"> oporinoides, </span><span title="Holcus caespitosus, etc."><span style="font-style: italic;">Holcus caespitosus,</span> and so on.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">All individuals flourish at the end of the period of growth. Each flower produces ten seeds, of which between 40-60% fail in pre-fertilization. <span title="Se estima">It is estimated that 69% of the flowers produce viable seeds.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hojas"><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The fact that it is a therophyte is quite exceptional since in the peaks of the Sierra Nevada it is almost exclusively chamaephytes and hemicryptophytes. Its development is in summer, with its growing season vegetation less than 30 days. <span title="Flores hermafroditas">It is pollinated by insects (mainly Hymenoptera and Diptera), the maximum Anthesis occurs in early August, although it can often overlap between different stages of <span title="fenológicos.">phenology. The dispersal of seeds is passive and often falls in the vicinity of the mother plant, caught between the stones. <span title="Sin reproducción">It doesn't reproduce vegetatively and <span title="vegetativa.">plagues or diseases of consideration have not been detected.<span title="enfermedades de consideración."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61634		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span title="Holcus caespitosus, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se estima">There is a single population, comprising 2,533 individuals,<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas de Sierra Nevada."><span title="clementei S.)."><span title="Holcus caespitosus, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se estima"> with five nuclei populations who respond to the presence of water from melting snow. Because of its status as an annual plant, there are significant variations annually <span title="interanuales en el número de individuos.">in the number of individuals.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61634		threats	eng	The principal threats are of natural origin; the fragility of the habitat, the fluctuations of the population due to climate conditions. It is threatened by its strict water supply requirements which make it sensitive to climate changes. Secondly it is threatened by the displacement of soil caused by the possible impact of wild herbivores and livestock and hikers. <br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
61635		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>All the main subpopulatiuons are included in various natural protected sites (LIC). Seeds are stored in the seedbanks of E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos and of the Botanical Garden of Viera and Clavijo.
61635		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Canary Islands. The subpopulations are found on the  islands of Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro.
61635		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on flat areas, mostly on the summits, in moist and shady fissures. It also colonizes moist talus in the fayal-brezal and monteverde forests.
61635		population	eng	There are 12 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>2 subpopulations on the summits of Tenerife: 136 individuals <br/>3 subpopulations on the summits of Hierro: 151 individuals <br/>7 subpopulations on the summits of La Palma: 1,057 individuals
61635		threats	eng	Traditionally, the major threat was grazing from introduced herbivores. Despite attempts to control the herbivores they are still threatening the species. Competition from other plants and the presence of alien species are also threatening this species.
61636		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: One or two specimens are currently cultivated at the University of Patras. These however do not represent the gene pool of the whole population. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species needs to be protected from grazing. Its habitat should be fenced and managed to keep grazing animals out. <em>M. dirphya</em> should be monitored over a longer period of time to assess population changes and stability. It would benefit from <em>ex situ</em> cultivation and its seeds should be collected and stored in seedbanks.
61636		distribution	eng	<em>Minuartia dirphya</em> grows on the northern slopes of the 1,745 m high Mt. Dirphys in the centre of the Greek island of Euboea (Evia). This species has a narrow geographical range, growing between 900 and 1,000 m altitude.
61636		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on serpentine substrates, preferring a thin, infertile soil layer with a high content of rock and gravel and open vegetation coverage (20-40%). <em>M. dirphya</em> was first described in 2000, growing together with <em>Juniperus oxycedrus</em> subsp. <em>oxycedrus</em> and <em>Genista acanthoclada</em>.
61636		population	eng	It is only known from a single subpopulation of less than 250 individuals.
61636		threats	eng	The small number of mature individuals, its limited habitat, and the threats from grazing all indicate that the population will decline. The species is severely threatened by grazing from goats and sheep, and from fires made by shepherds.
61637		conservation	eng	<strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia fontqueri</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The distribution area is included in the Biosphere Reserve and National and Natural Park on the Sierra Nevada mountain range (proposed as a SCI). Seeds are stored in seedbanks.
61637		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in Almeria and is found mainly on the north slopes. It also appears  in the ravine of  Ohanes on the south slopes (Peñas de Giles and Lorite 2004). Its geographic range is 200 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
61637		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It grows in steep areas, developing in cracks and crevices of vertical siliceous rocks, usually in favourable microclimate without direct sunlight. It forms part of the phytocenosis of chasmophytes of the alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifragion nevadensis </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Centrantho nevadensis</span>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedetum brevifolii </span>and communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga nevadensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia fontqueri)</span>.<span title="con ombroclima subhúmedo."> Plants <span title="que conviven con ella se encuentran Androsace">living in similar territory are <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace vandellii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga trabutiana, S. nevadensis, Asplenium septentrionale </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> septentrionale, Centranthus nevadensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cystopteris fragilis.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a Hemicryptophyte that germinates and sprouts in the middle of May.<span title="lo largo de las fisuras."> Flowering begins in early <span title="de junio (en los individuos que se encuentran">June (in individuals who are at lower altitudes) and continues until early <span title="días de agosto (en los que habitan a mayor">August (for those that live at higher <span title="altitud), con un máximo a mediados de julio.">altitudes), with a peak in mid July. <span title="En">In <span title="julio algunos individuos están en fructificación,">some individuals fructification occurs <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="julio algunos individuos están en fructificación,">in July <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="julio algunos individuos están en fructificación,"><span title="pero la mayoría lo hacen en agosto, madurando las">but most do in August, ripening <span title="semillas hacia final de este mes.">towards the end of this month. The dispersal of seeds occurs immediately after fruition, the capsules adopt a mature pendulous, <span title="por lo que las semillas suelen quedar muy próximas">so that seeds often get very close <span title="a la planta madre, permaneciendo con frecuencia">to the parent plant, often remaining on the same <span title="en la misma fisura del roquedo.">cleft or in the same crevice.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61637		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It has been considered a single population, although very large and severely fragmented into 71 subpopulations <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El"><span title="seminales (40%); son pocas las semillas"><span title="germinación del 54% a los 17 días)1.">comprising a total of 115,000 individuals.<span id="result_box" class="long_text">  <span title="El">The actual area of occupancy is less than 2.4 km²<sup></sup>.<br/>Fluctuation was observed in individuals reproductive rate and a high rate of abortion of seeds<span title="seminales (40%); son pocas las semillas"> (40%) is evident, with few seeds apparently viable for flowering<span title="germinación del 54% a los 17 días)1.">.<br/></span></span></span></span>
61637		threats	eng	There are no direct threats to the species. But the extreme fluctuations of the population, low ecological flexibility and the restricted habitat make the species vulnerable to natural disasters like fires, droughts, diseases etc.  Human activities do not threaten  the species directly at present, but some subpopulations are potentially threatened by stock-breeders, roads and trails and reforestation activities.
61638		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in the Natural Park of Tejeda, Alhama and Almijara (proposed as a LIC). Seeds are stored in the seedbank of Vegetal Andaluz. A conservation plan has been prepared by the "Junta de Andalucía".
61638		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Andalusia. It is found exclusively on the north slope of the Tejeda mountain range, Granada.
61638		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in fissures of calcareous rocks. It is found on dolomite vertical walls at an altitude between 1,750 and 1,850 m.
61638		population	eng	There is 1 confirmed subpopulation comprising 723 individuals.
61638		threats	eng	The species is threatened by grazing from domestic and forest herbivores. The habitat is altered by nitrification from domestic livestock. Collection and fires are other threats.
61639		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 2540002, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is being cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Bochum University, Germany. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Since it is probably not feasible to prevent tourists from accessing the beach, cars at least should be forbidden. Ideally, its habitat should not be accessible during the plant's germination from seeds to the completion of the fruit set, which is from early May to early June. It is also essential to conserve this species <em>ex situ</em> by cultivating it in botanical gardens and by storing its seeds in a seedbank.
61639		distribution	eng	<em>Saponaria jagelii</em> grows in the western part of the Greek island of Elafonisos, which is a small island covering about 25 km², located 600 m off the southern coast of the Peloponnese.
61639		habitat	eng	This annual is only known to occur on this island where it grows in two scattered, very restricted localities directly on the sandy sea-shore. <br/> <br/>This species is part of the characteristic plant community growing in disturbed conditions along sandy beaches, together with <em>Ammophila arenaria</em>,<em> Euphorbia paralias</em>, <em>Medicago marina</em>, and <em>Silene sedoides</em>. It is related to <em>Saponaria calabrica</em>, but differs from the latter in a number of characters.
61639		population	eng	Locally common.
61639		threats	eng	Tourism is rapidly developing on the island and human activities on the beach, such as driving motor vehicles and trampling, represent a major threat, especially during <em>S. jagelii</em>'s flowering period. This increase in tourism could result in a decline of the population or even its extinction within a short time. However, the species should be able to tolerate a moderate number of tourists during the main vacation season after the end of May when its seed capsules are already ripe. At that time, some exposure to trampling could even be beneficial for seed dispersal.
61640		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Some subpopulations are included in the micro reserves of "Serra del Castell de Xàtiva" and "Plà de Mora". The populations have been monitored since 1986. Seeds are stored in the seedbank of the Botanical Garden of Valencia. The species is also cultivated.
61640		distribution	eng	This species is a Levantine Iberian endemic. It is found on the south littoral of Valencia.
61640		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in zones dominated by herbaceous plants, on disturbed grounds and in the altered margins of cultivated dry lands. It grows on siliceous and calcareous substrates.
61640		population	eng	There are 5 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Castell de Xàtiva: 102 individuals <br/>Plà de la Mora: 921 individuals <br/>Plà de Suros: 85 individuals <br/>Santa Ana: 62 individuals <br/>Simat de Valldigna: 125 individuals
61640		threats	eng	The major threats are related to the changes in the utilization of the dry lands.  The transformation of the dry lands into irrigated lands and the abandonment of the dry-land culture are not favourable to this species. This species is not competitive and could be replaced by species of the acid Mediterranean thicket . It is also threatened, to a lesser extent, by fires and other changes to its habitat.
61641		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Some subpopulations are included in various natural protected Sites. The species is listed in the Habitats Directive of the CE. A conservation plan has been prepared by "la Junta de Andalucía".
61641		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the peridotite mountain range of Malagueñas in Bética province.
61641		habitat	eng	This perennial herb (suffrutex) grows on rocky talus, in fissures and rocky walls of serpentine nature.
61641		population	eng	There are 13 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Alpujata mountain range: 171 individuals <br/>6 populations in the "Serranía de Ronda": 215 individuals <br/>6 populations in the Bermeja mountain range: 408 individuals
61641		threats	eng	The species is threatened by severe pressure from herbivores. Other threats include the opening of roads, droughts and  fires. Some individuals are eliminated by the action of the foresters during the eradication of thicket.
61642		conservation	eng	No measures taken yet.
61642		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the province of Cádiz in the southwest of Spain..
61642		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on north and northwest facing rocky places, in fissures of calcareous rocks of Jurassic origin.
61642		population	eng	There ais one confirmed subpopulation comprising 63 individuals.
61642		threats	eng	The species is threatened by intense pasture from livestock. The population has been confined to higher places, where it is inaccessible. Competition from other plants is also a threat.
61643		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the European Union 92/43/EEC Habitats Directive. The islets of Alicudi and Panarea are nature reserves at the regional level, where the collection of <em>S. hicesiae</em> is strictly forbidden. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em>: A number of conservation measures have been implemented in the context of the EU LIFE project Conservation of priority species of the Eolian Islands' flora  EOLIFE99: improvement of knowledge on the biology and ecology of <em>S. hicesiae</em>, reinforcement of wild populations with plants propagated <em>ex situ</em>, cultivation in botanic gardens and seed banks, and informing and sensitizing decision makers and the general public. This plant is also included in the GENMEDOC project (an inter-regional network of Mediterranean seedbanks), and seeds are being collected in order to propagate this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>All populations of the Tree of Heaven <em>Ailanthus altissima</em> near to where <em>S. hicesiae</em> grows need to be eliminated. The conservation programme initiated by EOLIFE99 also needs to be continued.
61643		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Aeolian Islands: Panarea and Alicudi, near Sicily. The population covers an area of 3-4 hectares and the area of occupancy is therefore below 10 km². The two subpopulations are situated about 60 km apart and the EOO is less than 100 km².
61643		habitat	eng	A perennial herb which grows on the rocky slopes of small volcanic islets. <br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Silene hicesiae </span>belongs to the "<em>Silene mollissima</em> group", which comprises seven species endemic to the coastal cliffs of the western Mediterranean basin. These different species may have evolved when the Mediterranean became drier during the late Miocene period, about 5 million years ago, and the ancestral species became isolated into several different populations. This is one of numerous examples demonstrating how geographic separation of populations belonging to the same species, for example on islands, can contribute to the formation of new species.<br/><br/>It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1240 "Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium </span>spp." (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
61643		population	eng	Recent information states between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals with a stable population trend (G. Domina and A. Troia pers. comm. 2011). The <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">two subpopulations are severely fragmented.</span>
61643		threats	eng	The main threats that this species faces include wildfires, grazing by herbivores (e.g. rabbits), invasive alien plants (e.g. Tree of Heaven <em>Ailanthus altissima</em>), and incorrect management of protected areas. Any of these threats could wipe out either of the two populations.
61644		conservation	eng	No measures taken yet.
61644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the zone near Figueres, Alto Ampurdán, and north of the Girona province.
61644		habitat	eng	This perennial herb generally grows in primary or secondary habitats dominated by <em>Brachypodietum phoenicoidis</em>.
61644		population	eng	They are three confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Figueres: 3,209 individuals <br/>El Far: 467 individuals <br/>Siurana: 1,124 individuals
61644		threats	eng	The species is threatened by human activities (e.g., urbanization, road construction, transformation of modes of agricultural cultivation, and use of herbicides) and biotic factors (e.g., predation, and competition).
61645		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, this species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and since Malta’s EU adhesion in May 2004 in Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. On the national level, it is protected by the Flora and Fauna Protection Regulations of 1993 and the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations of 2003. <br/> <br/>All cliffs of the island of Malta and several of Gozo are locally protected, either as Sites of Scientific Importance, Areas of Ecological Importance or Special Areas of Conservation. Fungus Rock ((il-Gebla tal-General), which is located slightly off-shore of the western cliffs of Gozo, is also a Strict Nature Reserve. Access is forbidden, valid scientific reasons excepted. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Management plans are being drafted for a number of sites, including the Qawra-Dwejra Special Area of Conservation (western Gozo).  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species has been propagated by laboratory methods with great success and is available to nurseries and gardeners. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is particularly important to protect more cliffs on Gozo because of their ecological importance. The most efficient conservation action needed is habitat protection and management. Law enforcement should be strengthened, especially, over illegal dumping, collection of wild specimens and the introduction of alien species on the easily accessible plateau. More research is needed to identify the factors responsible for this species' population decline and habitat fragmentation.
61645		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of Malta and Gozo (including Fungus Rock). It is rarer than <em>Cheirolophus crassifolius</em> (another listed species) and has a similar, but patchier distribution.
61645		habitat	eng	This woody shrub grows on sheer seaside cliffs along the northwestern and southern cliffs of the islands of Malta and Gozo, including Fungus Rock. <br/> <br/>This species has several traits considered ancient in an evolutionary sense, such as an unusual chromosome number (10), and an ecological preference for rock crevice habitats. Like other Maltese endemics, it probably represents a relict element of the old Tertiary flora. <em>C. lanfrancoi</em> was described in 1987 and is the only species in this genus. It had long been confused with <em>Halimione portulacoides</em>, a plant of saline marshlands and dunes (not cliffs) also found on Malta.
61645		population	eng	The total wild population is estimated at several thousands, but has not been counted. Some subpopulations have probably disappeared, such as those along the cliffs of the San Pawl il-Bahar-Mistra area on north-eastern Malta.
61645		threats	eng	Very low regeneration has been observed, probably due to an insect (<em>Eurytoma</em> sp.) that feeds on the seeds. All wild plants tested were infected by an as yet unidentified fungus that apparently limits reproductive capacity (note that laboratory plants free of the fungus are easy to propagate by cuttings). In its natural habitat, the species is also gradually being replaced by invasive alien plants, particularly <em>Agave americana</em>, <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em> and <em>Opuntia ficus-indica</em>. <br/> <br/>Cliff habitats are endangered or have already collapsed due to pressure waves from the explosions of nearby limestone quarrying. Dust pollution from quarrying seems to be a minor problem. A number of subpopulations are directly threatened by dumping of tar and wastes, a crime difficult to control.
61646		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in a Natural Park and in Sites of Community Interest (SIC). It is listed in the Threatened species Regional Catalogue of  Castilla-La Mancha.
61646		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Andalusia mountain ranges. It is found in the mountain ranges of Segura de Jaén (Hornos y Siles), Albacete (Mesones and Riópar) and North Granada (Huéscar).
61646		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in juncaceous and herbaceous habitats along the margins of streams and mountain springs. The plant grows in light soils composed of organic matter and who are permanently moist.
61646		population	eng	They are 4 confirmed subpopulations with a total of 430 individuals but it is probable that other subpopulations will be found in the Andalusia mountain ranges: <br/> <br/>Padroncillo stream: 75 individuals <br/>Cortijo de la Fuente del Charco: 85 individuals <br/>La Canalica: 95 individuals <br/>Huéscar River: 365 individuals
61646		threats	eng	Grazing pressures from livestock represent a major threat. This species' survival is also dependent on the annual quantity of rain.
61647		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>This species is under cultivation in the Brest National Botanical Garden, and seeds have been sent to the National Botanic Garden at Porquerolles. No  legal or <em>in situ</em> measures have yet been taken since this species was described in 1998.
61647		distribution	eng	<em>Centranthus amazonum</em> is a Sardinian endemic found on Mount Oliena, at about 1,200 m altitude.
61647		habitat	eng	A herbaceous species that grows in gorges in shady crevices in limestone rock.
61647		population	eng	Only a single subpopulation of less than 50 individuals remains.
61647		threats	eng	The small population size makes this species very vulnerable, particularly to grazing by goats, collectors and possibly landslides. Its low genetic diversity may also limit the species' capacity to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Potential tourist development would also lead to road construction that will favour the dispersal of invasive alien species, especially <em>Centranthus ruber</em> which could hybridize with <em>C. amazonum</em>.
61648		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Internationally, it is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and in<a name="OLE_LINK9"> Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. This species is legally protected in La liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Corse complétant la liste nationale&#160;(Journal officiel du 15 août 1986) and listed in La liste des espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire français métropolitain (Annex I). <br/><br/> <em>In situ</em>: This species' habitat is included in the Natura 2000 network, it should be managed in a way that favours the conservation of this species. Climbing equipments on the cliff has been removed, population is  regularly monitored. The Conservatoire du Littoral bought the area where this species is present as a way to keep the population protected.<br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species are preserved in several seed banks (e.g. Porquerolles), and cultivated in the botanical gardens of Brest, Porquerolles and in the Jardin Botanique de Lyon (France) and Geneva (Switzerland). <br/><br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Most urgently, the unique site where this species is found needs to be managed to allow the population to increase. It is essential that the habitat be kept open by clearing competing species such as <em>Smilax aspera</em>, and by eliminating the cultivation of <em>Centranthus ruber</em> and other invasive species grown in the area. Climbing associations as well as the general public need to be made aware about the conservation status of rare plant species in the region. <br/> <br/>More field studies and regular monitoring are needed to understand the effect of vegetation cover and density, fires and storms on this species. A replanting programme from seeds collected <em>in situ</em> and plants grown in botanical gardens should be launched.
61648		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centranthus trinervis</span> is endemic to Corsica, and is<em></em> only known from a single population on the granitic boulders of Trinité near Bonifacio in the southwest of the island.&#160; <br/>It can be found at sea level. The extent of occurrence is 140 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 10 km².<sup><br/></sup>
61648		habitat	eng	This herbaceous species grows in the shade of rock crevices and along cliff terraces. Only the woody base of this plant persists throughout the entire year, as other above-ground parts dry up at the beginning of summer or are broken by autumn storms. The single subpopulation grows on a cliff.<br/><br/>After a fire, partially burned individuals may regenerate from small suckers at the base. The fruits are dispersed by wind, although regeneration has not been observed outside its present location.<br/><br/>It can be found in Habitats Directive listed habitat 8220 "Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
61648		population	eng	The single locality holds 140 individuals. Habitat and population are stable. There was an extreme population fluctuation in 1994 when a fire destroyed 80% of  the population but it regenerated afterwards (Montmollin and Strahm  2005).
61648		threats	eng	Grazing by goats is a minor threat in lower occurrences of the population and it tends to  decrease. In 1994 a fire destroyed 80% of the population but it regenerated afterwards (Montmollin and Strahm 2005). On the other hand, natural fires have been reported to have positive effects on potential competitive species such as <em>Smilax aspera</em>. <br/>Although <em>C. ruber</em> has not yet shown signs of being particularly  invasive on Corsica, it could hybridize with <em>C. trinervis</em> in  the future. A further potential threat could be human disturbance as the population is not far from already developed urban areas. Climbing was reported as a threat in the past as a "via ferrata" was installed at the cliff but this is not the case anymore.
61649		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex II of the Ministerial decree 22112 (1984) as a species of special national interest to be protected in the Balearic Islands. It is illegal to undertake any activity that could damage this plant. <em>E. margalidiana</em> is listed in Annex I (in danger of extinction) of decree 439/90, which guarantees it protection in its native habitat. It is also listed in the Atlas of the Threatened Flora of Spain. Internationally, it is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is in cultivation in several places including the botanic gardens of Sóller (Majorca) and Marimurtra (Barcelona) in Spain. In addition seeds are conserved in seedbanks. Currently studies on the genetic variability of material held <em>ex situ</em> are being undertaken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Access to the site where <em>E. margalidiana</em> grows should be prohibited. The Government of the Balearic Islands is currently conducting a feasibility study to introduce this species to another islet, but to date there is insufficient data to make recommendations for benign introductions to other sites.
61649		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single site, along the rocky shore of the islet of Ses Maragalides, close to the northwestern coast of Ibiza in the Balearic islands.
61649		habitat	eng	A succulent shrub or small tree that grows in the cracks of friable limestone cliffs and boulders. <br/> <br/><em>E. margalidiana</em> is a perennial plant that requires good light and high temperatures. Two other species of <em>Euphorbia</em> are endemic to the Balearic Islands: <em>E. maresii</em> (which is divided into two subspecies, <em>maresii</em> and <em>balearica</em>) is not threatened; however <em>E. fontqueriana</em> is Critically Endangered and only found on the island of Majorca. (Note these additional species are not yet included on the IUCN Red List).
61649		population	eng	Some 200 individuals grow in one single site.
61649		threats	eng	An increasingly dry environment and the risk of the collapse of the cliffs where this plant occurs present a threat. Monitoring this species is difficult because the cliffs are unstable and dangerous.
61650		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in Sites of Community Interest (SIC). It has been proposed to be listed in the Regional Catalogues of Murcia and Castilla-La Mancha.
61650		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountain ranges of Andalusia. It is known from the areas of La Sagra (Granada), north of Almería, Nerpio (Albacete) and the Moratalla mountain ranges (Murcia).
61650		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in thicket  in pine/fir forest gaps on calcareous soils.
61650		population	eng	There are two confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Moratalla: 20 individuals <br/>Las Bojadillas: 50 individuals
61650		threats	eng	Intensive pasture activities are a threat to the species. The proximity of roads related to potential logging of the area is also a threat to the species. The small size of the population makes this taxon more vulnerable to any threats.
61651		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This subspecies is protected by the Bern Convention, where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a LIFE Third Countries Project, it is listed in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: In the context of the above project, three sites with populations of this taxon have been nominated as Sites of Community Importance (SCI) by the Natura 2000 Network.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: A small number of seeds collected from the Lefkara and Asgata populations are stored in the seed bank of the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. Cultivation attempts are urgently needed. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The reproductive success of this taxon must be increased by reducing seed predators through biological control. Moreover, the Government of Cyprus needs to inform landholders about the presence of this rare taxon on their property and encourage its protection. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Since the plants have a very low reproductive capacity, collecting large numbers of seeds from the wild and storing them in a seedbank could affect the recruitment of natural populations. Therefore, any collection for <em>ex situ</em> conservation needs to be carried out carefully and documented in order to conserve the maximum genetic diversity in the collections and create the least damage to the wild populations. Cultivation attempts are urgently needed.
61651		distribution	eng	This subspecies only occurs in Cyprus where there are just four subpopulations found near the villages of Lefkara (after which the subspecies has been named), Asgata, Alaminos and Kelokedara.
61651		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on mountain slopes in the garrigue, which is a low-growing, secondary vegetation derived from the original evergreen mixed forest. It colonizes sunny, dry, calcareous soil. The plant is drought-resistant due to its thick grey-white hairs. The seeds are dispersed when the ripe beans fall off the plant and then roll due to their heavy weight and elliptical shape. No mechanisms for the seeds to be transported uphill are known, but propagation from rhizomes probably prevents the population from gradually being shifted downwards.
61651		population	eng	There are four subpopulations but the number of individuals is unknown.
61651		threats	eng	Since this subspecies produces a very small quantity of seeds, reproduction is mostly vegetative resulting in a very low genetic variability in the four small remaining subpopulations. This may limit its capacity to adapt to environmental changes. <br/> <br/>During springtime, an insect species from the Burchidae family lays its eggs onto the flowers. The larvae hatch in the seeds and feed on their nutritive reserves, consuming 50-75% of the seeds. Seed consumption along with fruit and seed abortion are the main reasons for the low reproductive success of this species. <br/> <br/>Expansion of tourism around Lefkara brings new threats to the subspecies, including urban development and collectors. A tourist website even notes the occurrence and location of <em>A. macrocarpus</em> subsp. <em>lefkarensis</em> along a popular hiking trail.
61652		conservation	eng	Attempts are required to search for this species near Cartagena, especially in the military zone.
61652		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen and is endemic to Cartagena (Murcia). It was discovered in 1909 by Francisco de Paula Jiménez. This species may possibly occur in the military zone near Cartagena, which is closed to the public.
61652		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grew in herbaceous habitats and thicket gaps between 0 and 200 m above sea level.
61652		population	eng	As far as is know the species is Extinct.
61652		threats	eng	The causes of its extinction are unknown.
61653		conservation	eng	<strong></strong>The species is presently listed in Annex I of the Spanish Royal Decree 439/1990, in the category 'sensible to the disturbance of its habitat', which guarantees protection of its natural habitat. Since 1985, it is strictly protected within the region of Valencia by a regional government decree. <br/> <br/><em>In situ </em>on the Columbretes: Here <em>M. citrina</em> occurs within a federally-owned nature reserve. Access to populations on the Islands Ferrara and Foradada is strictly prohibited apart from scientific expeditions. These two islands have now been designated as micro-reserves by the regional government, and a management plan was developed in 1993. The species has been reintroduced to the island of Grossa where it was eradicated by rabbits brought to the island in the 18th and 19th centuries. The rabbits were eliminated by 1987. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> 'Illot de la Mona': The plant micro-reserve, itself within the boundaries of the El Montago Nature Park and established by the regional government of Valencia, now fully protects this small population of approximately 25 plants. An action plan for the micro-reserve has recently been approved. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> on the Balearic Islands: Most of the subpopulations occur within the National Park of Cabrera. The botanical garden of Sóller has put in place a conservation plan on the islets around Cabrera, which includes reintroduction and monitoring of the populations. It is intended that these measures will also be applied to the islets of Ibiza. All the small Balearic islands are protected as Natural Areas of Special Interest under the Parliament of the Balearic Islands law 1/1991. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This plant is cultivated and seeds stored in the botanic garden of Valencia. It is also under cultivation in the botanical garden of Sóller and IMIDA (Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agropecuario) of Murcia. No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/><strong></strong>The priority is to control attacks by the scale insect. It has been noted that the scale insect is a problem in citrus farms on the Spanish mainland, since farmers spray their citrus trees to kill a leaf miner, and in doing so kill a ladybird which is the main predator of the scale insect. If correct, measures are needed to maintain ladybirds in the areas where <em>Medicago</em> grows. A method of controlling <em>Cuscuta</em> also needs to be identified, and invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia maxima</span>) need to be managed. In general, conservation efforts require more information about the population trends of <em>M. citrina</em> over a prolonged period. Reintroduction work needs to be continued.
61653		distribution	eng	This species only grows in small, fragmented subpopulations on the rocky slopes of some Balearic Islands, the Columbretes archipelago (province of Castellón), and on one small islet (the 'Illot de la Mona' or 'Escull del Cap de Sant Antoni') situated just off the coast of the Cape of St Antoni (province of Alicante). There are no known populations on the large Balearic Islands (Ibiza, Cabrera and Majorca) themselves, only on the islets surrounding Ibiza and Cabrera. Plants have been introduced onto one islet of Majorca.  The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km².
61653		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree grows on rocky slopes. The plant grows on several small islands, and is thought to be dispersed by seabirds or other animals. It seems that seed germination improves after passing through an animal's digestive tract.
61653		population	eng	The global population is very fragmented, with very few individuals and the population trend is declining.
61653		threats	eng	In 1997, the subpopulation on the Columbretes decreased by 40% due to an attack of scale insects (<em>Icerya purchasi</em>) introduced from Australia, The same insects were detected on the Balearic Islands in 2001. Other threats include introduced rabbits, alien species such as <em>Opuntia maxima</em> which has invaded parts of its habitat (e.g., on the Illot de la Mona), and periodic, severe attacks of the parasitic plant <em>Cuscuta</em>. Invasive species may be more tolerant of drought than <em>M. citrina</em>, which has considerably reduced fruit set under dry conditions.
61654		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong><br/>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). </a>In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchusa crispa</span> is legally protected in Corsica and included in the national Red List of France. In the Red List of Italy, it is listed as Endangered (Conti <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/>&#160;     <br/><em>In situ</em>: Several conservation projects have started through an EU LIFE project entitled "Conservation of natural habitats and plant species in Corsica", including habitat protection, land acquisition, and restoration work. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/> <br/>Within the framework of the EU Habitats Directive, several sites containing <em>A. crispa</em> are now included in the Natura 2000 network, a measure likely to strengthen conservation efforts. In Corsica, individuals are counted in  every population every year (Plan National d'Action). Certain sites on Corsica are in the process of being restored by l'Antenne Corse du Conservatoire Botanique National Méditerranéen de Porquerolles and the Conservatoire Régional des Sites de Corse, which includes management and replanting.&#160; Reintroduction  attempts have been made, with mitigated results (failure or partial  success). There is a project at Carnella for the reinforcement of the  population started in 2006. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species have been conserved in several seed banks, e.g. at Porquerolles (France), and plants have been cultivated in several botanic gardens, including Sóller (Majorca, Spain), Porquerolles (responsible for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation), and Geneva (Switzerland). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Beach managers as well as the public need to learn about the importance of protecting native coastal species. Barriers should be erected to keep vehicles off the beach. Sites hosting important populations of <em>A. crispa</em> need to be acquired by nature conservation­ managers<br/>Building developments on and near the sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. crispa </span>should be reviewed. More research is required on the number of individuals/distribution and the potential affect of the invasive species.
61654		distribution	eng	This European endemic plant is only found on the upper part of beaches on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia.&#160; <br/><br/>In Corsica, it occurs at sea level at the eastern coast in Canella, Favone, Golfe du Valinco, Cappiciolo, Cala Piscona, Capu Laurosu, Portigliolo and it is introduced to Ajaccio (Gravona, Capo di Feno). There are nine distinct locations and the range of the species is 654 km² whereas the area of occupancy is only 5 ha (0.05 km²). In Sardinia,<span style="background-color: white;"> the area of occupancy is definitely less than 500 km², the spec</span>ies is rare and difficult to find but occurs more or less at sea level.<span style="background-color: yellow;"> </span>
61654		habitat	eng	An annual or short-lived perennial herb that grows on highly saline, sandy soils.  <br/> <br/><em>A. crispa</em> depends on the substrate on which it grows (depth, richness and humidity) in order to accumulate sufficient energy reserves to flower and fruit. Ants disperse its tiny seeds over short distances, and they may be dispersed over longer distances by water. <em>A. crispa</em> is usually found growing on fairly firm sandy substrates at the upper edge of the beach, sometimes associated with Sand Couch Grass (<em>Agropyron junceum</em>) and Marram Grass (<em>Ammophila arenaria</em>). Although <em>A. crispa</em> tolerates occasional trampling, it will disappear if the pressure becomes too severe.<br/><br/>It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2120 "Shifting dunes along the shoreline with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammophila arenaria</span> ("white dunes")" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
61654		population	eng	In Corsica, six populations were reported in five communes with <strong style="font-weight: normal;">10,400 individuals counted in 2008. In 2009, it was found in nine sites in five communes, again with 10,400 individuals<span style="background-color: white;">. </span></strong><span style="background-color: white;">Four out of nine populations are in severe decline and one population in Campitellu has become extinct which happened in 1995. </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background-color: white;">In general, the tendency is increasing, although a decrease has been observed locally. Fluctuations have been observed in the number of mature individuals.</span><br/>In Sardinia, the decline of the populations is suspected and they are fragmented between two main sites.<br/><br/></strong>
61654		threats	eng	The threats to this species can be divided into two groups: those posed by people, and those by natural events. Currently this species is badly affected by human activities, in particular intense trampling, motorbikes, four-wheel drive vehicles and quad bikes, camping, the construction of tracks and roads, mechanical beach cleaning, and the removal of sand. The construction of ditches upstream to the beaches also poses a threat by modifying the amount of water available to the plants. <br/> <br/>On Corsica, strong storms have repeatedly swept large amounts of sand over the area where <em>Anchusa</em> grows. In 1999 and 2002 such events caused substantial declines in several subpopulations of this species. So, three locations out of the nine will probably disappear by future building development.&#160;<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus</span> sp. is a potential threat for the future in Corsica and in Sardinia and may be affecting the whole population but this is only a suspicion and would be a gradual decline (L. Hugot pers. comm. 2010, Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995). <br/><br/>In Sardinia, tourism is the biggest threat, with public access not limited, allowing camping and vehicle access. Another indirect impact is posed by the increased construction of buildings (G. Bacchetta pers. comm. 2010).
61655		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is found in the National Parks of Majona and Garajonay. It’s also included in a Site of Community Interest (SCI). Seeds are stored in various seedbanks. A recovery plan exists for the subpopulation found in the Garanojay National Park.
61655		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands. Three isolated subpopulations are known from the central sector of the island. In the last 15 years, the disappearance of some small subpopulations  has been observed.
61655		habitat	eng	This large shrub grows in thicket dominated by various legume species. It colonizes platforms, enclaves or overhangs.
61655		population	eng	There are three confirmed subpopulations: <br/>El Rejo: 145 individuals <br/>Agando: 300 individuals <br/>Encherada: 65 individuals
61655		threats	eng	This species is threatened by trampling and grazing pressures from domestic livestock, especially during the juvenile phase. Pressure from alien species is another threat. In addition hybridization with <em>Echium aculeatum</em> and <em>E. strictum</em> has been observed.
61656		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species occurs in a range of natural protected sites and LIC. Some of their habitats are listed in the Habitats Directive of the CE. The species is cultivated in the Botanical Gardens of Viera and Calvijo and seeds are stored in the seedbank at Calvijo. A project to investigate the ecology and reproduction of this species has been undertaken.
61656		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands being found only on Gran Canaria. It is distributed in diverse localities in the north and the northwest of the island, in the area influenced by the trade winds. It is considered to be a relict species of what was once a larger and more continuous distribution.
61656		habitat	eng	This large shrub grows in damp and sunny areas, on rocky slopes. It can also be found in abandoned agricultural lands and between volcanic cones.
61656		population	eng	This species is represented by 14 subpopulations containing more than 70,000 individuals. But the majority of  individuals are found in three subpopulations (at Tenteniguada, Fagagesto and Antona).
61656		threats	eng	The major threat is the rapid and intense colonization of the habitat by various alien invasive species (<em>Arundo donax</em>, <em>Rubus</em> sp.).
61657		conservation	eng	The subspecies occurs in the Natural Parks of Jandía, in the Chinijo Archipelago and in the Natural Monument of Cardones Mountain. Its habitat is of Community Interest. This subspecies is cultivated in nurseries of the Cabildos Insulares and at the Botanical Gardens of Viera and Clavijo.  Seeds are stored in the seedbank of the Botanical Garden of Clavijo and at the E.T.S. of Agronomic Engineers of Madrid.
61657		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the Canary Islands. It is found in three subpopulations on Fuerteventura Island. The majority of the individuals grow on the Northwest slopes of Jandíam mountain range. A small relict subpopulation occurs on the Cardones mountain. There are five subpopulations on the island of Lanzarote,  and it is considered rare in the Gorge of Poceta.
61657		habitat	eng	This shrub has a tendency to grow on inaccessible cliffs and steep slopes. Also occurs in secondary habitats, where it colonizes disturbed soils of river beds in gorges, the bottom of cliffs and the borders between croplands and roads.
61657		population	eng	There are 9 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Altos de Cofete: 1,000 individuals <br/>2 subpopulations in the Gorges of Mal Nombre and of Vinamar: 54 individuals <br/>Cardones Mountain: 31 individuals <br/>3 subpopulations El Castillejo, El Bosquecillo, Gorge of Poceta: 39, 116, and 3 individuals <br/>2 subpopulations Mirador del Río, Playa de Famara, Pie del Macizo: 48, and 8 individuals
61657		threats	eng	In Fuerteventura, the major threats are grazing of the habitat by domestic livestocks. Others threats include soil erosion and landslides during the rainy period. There are an increasing number of tourists to the El Bosquecillo area which leads to habitat disturbance and destruction by motor vehicles, trampling, and human waste. Hybridization also occurs.
61658		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <span lang="EN-GB">It is classed Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,v); C2a(ii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><p><span lang="EN-GB">The whole population of this species is within the limits of the protected area Parque Natural de Jandía (SCI) (Scholz 2004), but there are no real conservation measures in place. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.</p><p>Proposed measures include appropriate management of grazing activities in the area (exclusion areas and limitation of the amount of grazing animals), control of other herbivorous predators, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation and storage of seeds, and research about the ecological interactions taking place in the environment where the species occurs.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"></p></span>
61658		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Echium handiense</span> <span lang="EN-GB">is endemic to the island of Fuerteventura, the <st1:place w:st="on">Canary Islands</st1:place>, Spain, where it is found in a very small area of approximately 1 km² on the summit of Jandía mountain range, between the peaks of La Zarza (west) and of El Mocán (east). The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">peak</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">La Zarza</st1:placename></st1:place> is the type locality for the species. Its area of occupancy (AOO) has been estimated in 2 km² (Scholz 2004).<br/></p>
61658		habitat	eng	<p>This small-medium shrub grows within rupicolous communities on north facing crags, influenced by trade wind fogs. In these sites thermophile humid shrublands are formed by species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Heberdenia excelsa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Visnea mocanera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum winteri</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum handiense</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum glandulosum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasminum odoratissimum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nauplius sericeus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ononis christii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnus crenulata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio bollei</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis pumila</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus umbellatus</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Smilax aspera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mauritanica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus bolle</span>i (Scholz 2004). Due to free roaming sheep and goat, the species is restricted to inaccessible cliffs, therefore its available habitat is very restricted. It can also appear in foothills and accessible ledges, but it disappears soon due to grazing pressure.<br/></p><br/><em></em>
61658		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Population in the only known location has been reported to be 145 individuals (Scholz 2004, Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Despite the extremely limited habitat available for this species and the low number of individuals, this habitat is considered to be stable and in an acceptable state of conservation. The number of seeds is variable depending on climatic conditions. Decreasing population trends have been reported (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/></p>
61658		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Grazing by free livestock (goats and sheep) and other herbivores (as rabbits) is the main threat to this species. Due to its highly restricted distribution the species is very vulnerable to possible natural hazards like prolonged drought, landslides and the introduction of competitors and diseases.</p>
61659		conservation	eng	The subspecies is found in the Special Natural Reserve of Güi-Güi and the Rural Park of El Nublo (LIC). It is in cultivation at the Botanical Garden of Viera and Clavijo and seeds (representing the four subpopulations) are stored in the seedbank at the same botanical garden. A project to investigate the ecology and reproduction of the subspecies has been undertaken.
61659		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands. It occurs along the El Cedro-Horgazales massif on the west coast of the island.
61659		habitat	eng	This large shrub grows on banks at the bottom of steep rocky slopes in damp areas where fog accumulates.The vegetation is a mixed succulent thicket characterized by <em>Euphorbia regis-jubae</em>, <em>Sonchus acaulis</em>, <em>Salvia canariensis</em> and <em>Kleinia neriifolia</em>.
61659		population	eng	There are 4 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Mountain of Amurgar: 237 individuals <br/>Mountain of El Cedro: 223 individuals <br/>Aguas Sabinas: 100 individuals <br/>Tasartico: 976 individuals
61659		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the intense colonization of its habitat by various alien invasive species (<em>Arundo donax</em>, <em>Rubus</em> sp. and <em>Opuntia</em> sp.). The impacts of these invasives has certainly lead to a decline in the subspecies. There are also increasing grazing pressures by domestic livestock.
61660		conservation	eng	All the subpopulations are found in Sites of Community Interest (Sierra de la Safor, Sierras del Mondúber i la Marxuquera, Muela de Cortés i Cardoch). The species is present in established micro reserves for the flora. Seeds are stored in the seedbanks of the Botanical Garden of Valencia and at the "Conselleria de Medio Ambiente". Germination protocols exist.
61660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Province of Valencia. It is found in the Caroch mountains in the southwest and the la For mountain range in the south of the province.
61660		habitat	eng	This biennial herb grows on calcareous soils, in  montane grassland. It can be found on the margins of croplands or roads. This species has an affinity for disturbed soils, and avoid areas with compact substrates and areas with high density of trees.
61660		population	eng	There are 5 confirmed subpopulations with a total of between 1,300 and 1,400 mature individuals: <br/> <br/>Simat de Valldigna: 11 individuals <br/>Caroch Peak: 176 individuals <br/>Peñón de los Machos: 163 individuals <br/>Fuente de la Rosa: 33 individuals <br/>Circo de La Safor: 960 individuals
61660		threats	eng	The subpopulation at Mondúber is the only one suffering a severe decline because of the pressure from urbanization and its proximity to a road. The others subpopulations may all be threatened by the changes in the use of soils and fires, that diminish the quality of the habitat.
61661		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
61661		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic. The species was described from Sevilla in 1982. Today, the species is only found in León (Ponferrada).
61661		habitat	eng	This annual herb grows in disturbed herbaceous habitats with a few dispersed trees. It can also be found on the edge of pine forests, in thicket and in forest on free granitic or slate soils with a sandy texture on moderate slopes.
61661		population	eng	Three subpopulations were known, one in Sevilla, one in León and one in Madrid, but today only the subpopulation at León still survives. This comprises only 100 individuals.
61661		threats	eng	The species has a poor reproductive strategy. The development of infrastructure, particularly forestry roads and the construction of railways are major threats to this species. Trampling by humans and the introduction of competitive alien species are additonal threats. Collection for botanical and scientific purposes may also pose a threat.
61662		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lithodora nitida</span> is listed as priority species on the Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The mountain range of Sierra de Mágina is a Natural Park, and the mountain ranges of Horconera and Rute are included in the Natural Park of 'Sierras Subbéticas'; both have been proposed as SCIs. A recovery plan has been proposed by the 'Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía'. Some parts of the subpopulation at Mágina are fenced. The Sierra de Jaén is a surburban park. It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species.
61662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountains ranges of Mágina, Pandera, Horconer<span style="background-color: white;">a and Rute (Spa</span>in) (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It probably also occurs in the mountain range of Almijara (Granada and Málaga).
61662		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="hojas lineares e híspidas"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="cleanprint_content"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="hojas lineares e híspidas"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Presenta"><span title="cortos y estilo largo."><span title="(Hymenoptera,"><span title="Apioidea)."><span title="casos, solamente uno madurará."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fisuras de rocas."><span title="más elevadas el dominio corresponde a la serie"><span title="se presenta en el piso mesomediterráneo."><span title="Las comunidades tienen un extraordinario valor"><span title="biológico por la riqueza en endemismos; está">This small suffrutescent shrub grows in thicket vegetation on poorly developed rocky or sandy soils, on a dolomite substrate. It grows between spiny cushions and in fissures of rock faces. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="hojas lineares e híspidas"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="cleanprint_content"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="hojas lineares e híspidas"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Presenta"><span title="cortos y estilo largo."><span title="(Hymenoptera,"><span title="Apioidea)."><span title="casos, solamente uno madurará."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fisuras de rocas."><span title="más elevadas el dominio corresponde a la serie"><span title="se presenta en el piso mesomediterráneo."><span title="Las comunidades tienen un extraordinario valor"><span title="biológico por la riqueza en endemismos; está">It comes in the domain  of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno myrtifolii-Junipereto phoeniceae</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne oleoidi-Pineto sylvestris</span>. These communities have a special value as biological hotspot. The species is accompanied by species such <span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus  boissieri, Pterocephalus spathulatus, Helianthemum frigidulum,  Hormathophylla lapeyrousiana, Centaurea granatensis, Thymus granatensis,  Sideritis incana, Viola cazorlensis, Erinacea anthyllis, Echinospartum  boissieri, Genista longipes </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Vella spinosa.</span><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="hojas lineares e híspidas"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="cleanprint_content"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="hojas lineares e híspidas"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Presenta"><span title="cortos y estilo largo."><span title="(Hymenoptera,"><span title="Apioidea)."><span title="casos, solamente uno madurará."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fisuras de rocas."><span title="más elevadas el dominio corresponde a la serie"><span title="se presenta en el piso mesomediterráneo."><span title="Las comunidades tienen un extraordinario valor"><span title="biológico por la riqueza en endemismos; está"><br/>The populations are renewed mainly by vegetative reproduction (stolons). It is distylous, with two types of plants, some whose flowers have long stamens and short style and others have flowers with short stamens and long style. The only pollinators are <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthophora </span>spp. (Hymenoptera, Apioidea).<br/><br/>Each flower contains four seminal primordia of usually about three and in the best case, only one is mature. Dispersion is by zoobolocoria, where most of the nuts are dropped in the environment of the parent plant, where some may remain dormant until December.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
61662		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">There are five known populations, whose actual surface area of occupancy is less than 3 km<sup></sup>². <span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="El 80% de los">A percentage of 80% of the individuals are capable of flowering; there have been no saplings detected, probably because the growth occurs within the thorny bushes due to the the influence of cattle.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/>The five known subpopulations include:<span title="Hábitat: Lugares pedregosos"> <br/><ul><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat: Lugares pedregosos">Mountain range of Mágina I: 51 individuals </span></span></span></li><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat: Lugares pedregosos">Mountain range of Mágina II: 251 individuals </span></span></span></li><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat: Lugares pedregosos">Mountain range of the Pandera: 571 individuals </span></span></span></li><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat: Lugares pedregosos">Horconera mountain range: 38 individuals </span></span></span></li><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El 80% de los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat: Lugares pedregosos">Mountain range of Rute: 11 individuals</span></span></span></li></ul></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">There  is continuing decline in its distribution, extent and quality of its  habitat, number of subpopulations and number of mature individuals.</span></span></span></span>
61662		threats	eng	This species is threatened by grazing from domestic livestock and forest herbivores. The majority of individuals <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">shelter between thorny bushes, in rock crevices or on eroded slopes with little plant coverage; the flowering tops are eaten<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> and few examples come to fruition. It has a poor reproductive strategy. Other threats are the planting of conifer plantations,  wild fires and the accessibility of populations.<span id="result_box" class="short_text"></span>
61663		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are included in LIC sites: Costa Ártabra, Costa da Morte and Complexo húmido de Corrubedo.
61663		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the province of Coruña in Spain. Subpopulations are found in the north of Ferrol, the North West Coast of Morte and in the Barbanza peninsula.
61663		habitat	eng	This annual grows on pristine dunes. Sometimes it can be found in exposed areas, where a sandy layer covers a rocky substrate.
61663		population	eng	There are 10 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>3 subpopulations in Ferrol: 43,349 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in North Coast of Morte: 34,465 individuals <br/>2 subpopulations in the Central Coast of Morte: 43,451 individuals <br/>3 subpopulations in South Coast of Morte: 15,304 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in Barbanza: 740 individuals
61663		threats	eng	The transformation of beaches for tourism and other human activities (hiking trails, parking areas, etc.) is a major threat to the taxon. In some localities, the dunes are being degraded as a result of sand extraction, trampling and motorized sports. The subpopulation in the Baldaio area is being fragmented by urban expansion.
61664		conservation	eng	The mountain range of Cabrilla is included in the Natural Park of Cazorla, Segura and Villas. A recovery plan has been developed. The subpopulation is monitored periodically. Seeds are stored in the seedbank of Vegetal Andaluz.
61664		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Cabrilla mountain range (Jaén). Reported occurrence in the Sagra mountain range (Granada) has been discounted.
61664		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in  mountain thickets,ususally in gaps between pines and on calcareous soils.
61664		population	eng	There is only one known subpopulation comprising 62 individuals.
61664		threats	eng	This species is threatened by intense domestic livestock farming, which results in over grazing, trampling and increased nitrification of the soils.
61665		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Part of the area in which this species grows lies within the "Lakkovounara State Forest", which is protected by Forest Law from any private interference, while the rest of the area is private or government land. The species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix 1. Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, Salvia veneris has been included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The species is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Most importantly, the habitat (particularly that outside the State Forest), as well as the species itself deserves legal protection at the local level. The site should be managed in a way that the species is not endangered by the expansion of the nearby village of Kythrea. Though well-adapted to grazing by goats (and probably not able to compete with faster-growing competitors in the absence of grazing), the site should be managed so that it is not over-grazed. Storage of seeds in seedbanks and <em>ex situ</em> cultivation in botanical gardens
61665		distribution	eng	Endemic to northern Cyprus, this species has an extremely local distribution just west of Kythrea. Although previously it was believed to be restricted to two small sites at the summit of limestone hills, more recent fieldwork in Spring 2004 found it growing in a continuous area of 12 km², mostly on a particular soil type called Kythrea Flysch. A small part of the population also grows on lava intrusions.
61665		habitat	eng	A perennial herb found on the summit of limestone hills or in sites composed of alternating beds of greywacke, marl, sandstone and basal conglomerate. <br/> <br/>The arrangement of leaves in a basal rosette is unusual for plants in this family, which normally have leaves in pairs on opposite sides of the stem. The unusual leaf arrangement is thought to be an adaptation to the strong grazing pressure by goats.
61665		population	eng	It is estimated that there are approximately 4,000 individuals.
61665		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by any northward or eastward expansion of the nearby village of Kythrea, which could wipe out the last remaining population. It is also potentially threatened by reafforestation schemes, road construction, military installations and exercises, grazing, burning from the nearby rubbish dump, and dust from nearby limestone quarries.
61666		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Sites of Community Interest (SIC) and the habitat is listed under the Habitats Directive.
61666		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south east of Iberia. It is distributed from the Lisbona to the Almagro mountain ranges in the province of Almería. It is found also in the province of Murcia from the Enmedio (Puerto Lumbreras) to the Oro (Cieza) mountain ranges.
61666		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows in thicket vegetation on gypsum outcrops.
61666		population	eng	There are 14 subpopulations that together contain over 11 million individuals.
61666		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by the opening of illegal gypsum quarries. In the past some subpopulations in Murcia have been affected by pine plantations that transformed the habitat.
61667		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, it is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive as a priority species. At national level, it is included in the French Red Book of threatened flora. It is also included in the Italian Red Book as Critically Endangered   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It is protected by national legislation in France. It occurs <strong style="font-weight: normal;">in Parc Marin des Bouches de Bonifacio, Réserve Naturelle de  l'Etang de Biguglia, Conservatoire du Littoral.</strong><br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Sardinian subpopulation on the island of Capera should be protected as it is found within the Park of the Archipelago of Maddalenna. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: From August 2004 onwards, seeds will be stored at the Conservatoire Botanique de Porquerolles (France). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed<br/></strong>The administrators responsible for managing beach areas need to be made aware of the urgency of conservation issues for this species. The land on which this species grows should be acquired or managed by nature conservation authorities.<strong><br/></strong>
61667		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Corsica and Sardinia. In the northern part of Sardinia this species is only found on the granitic rocks of Punta Rossa on the island of Caprera in the Maddalena Archipelago   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
61667		habitat	eng	This perennial species grows near the sea on a variety of substrates: on sand of various coarseness, as well as on granitic or limestone boulders. This species is capable of producing seeds without the flowers ever being pollinated, which is known as apomixis. This may be one reason why so many <em>Limonium</em> species have evolved. <br/> <br/>It is found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1240 "Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium </span>spp."  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
61667		population	eng	On the island of Caprera  only a few dozen individuals are known, in fact the population has been estimated between 10-50 individuals. On Corsica some 1,200 individuals are known from five sites, forming three subpopulations   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In 2003, there were 11 subpopulations in Corsica, with 14 to 72 specimen in each. Only one population had between 700 and 800 individuals.
61667		threats	eng	This species is threatened by natural factors such as drought and landslides, both along the cliffs and along the little strips of beach where it grows. Various human activities also pose a threat: trampling by tourists threaten all the sites where this species is found, as does the construction of more resorts, especially on the beach of Maora.
61668		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Cultivation from seeds and attempts to transplant this species from the wild into the Botanic Garden of the University of Patras have both failed. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Given that to date <em>ex situ</em> conservation efforts have been unsuccessful, it would seem that the best option to conserve this species is to protect and manage the area where it is known to occur. More fieldwork on Kithira is also needed to see if this species might occur in other areas.
61668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kithira, a small Greek island of 284 km² which lies opposite the eastern tip of the Peloponnese, Cape Malea, in the Ionian Sea. The taxon is known from a population near Kalamos, but it may also occur in other sites on the island. It is difficult to find not only because it is rare, but also because it is rather inconspicuous.
61668		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on sandy soil and rarely occurs in open areas. Usually its slender branches can be seen protruding from spiny cushions composed of other plant species growing in the same vegetation type. <br/> <br/><em>P. helenae</em> has a narrow ecological range. It usually grows in association with Spiny Broom (<em>Genista acanthoclada</em>) and Thorny Burnet (<em>Sarcopoterium spinosum</em>) which typically characterize "phrygana" vegetation. This vegetation type is composed largely of spiny or aromatic dwarf shrubs, growing in lowland areas on dry soils. In Greece there are several types of phrygana, depending upon grazing pressure, the incidence of fires, exposure, soils and geology. A purple tulip, the Greek endemic <em>Tulipa goulimyi</em>, may also be found growing in the same areas as <em>P. helena</em>e. Related species are <em>Polygala venulosa</em> and <em>P. supina</em>, which are Balkan endemics.
61668		population	eng	Known with certainty only from a single subpopulation.
61668		threats	eng	The natural habitat of <em>P. helenae</em> was once cultivated. While the area is no longer used for agriculture, there is an increasing risk that it may be needed for agricultural purposes again. Should this happen then the species would probably disappear. Increased tourism also poses a threat to this plant.
61669		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>P. sinisica</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Although the Italian Red List of 1992 proposed to set up a nature reserve at Capo Mannu and along the coast of the Sinis peninsula, the site is still threatened by deforestation and receives no legal protection. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The conservation measures suggested in the Italian Red List of 1992 need to be implemented. Full habitat protection, <em>ex situ</em> cultivation, and fieldwork to determine the exact size of the population are needed.
61669		distribution	eng	<em>Polygala sinisica</em> occurs only in Sardinia along the coast at Capo Mannu, situated just north of Tharros in the Sinis region. Its entire population is spread over just a few hectares.
61669		habitat	eng	A perennial herb that  grows in a hot and dry region on a stony or sandy limestone hillside in vegetation dominated by spiny or aromatic evergreen dwarf shrubs. <br/> <br/>This species was first described in 1983. It grows in the same community with other Sardinian endemics such as <em>Arum pictum</em>, <em>Genista corsica</em>, <em>Ornithogalum biflorum</em>, <em>Bellium bellidioides</em> and <em>Romulea requienii</em>. It is found with species of great phytogeographic interest which are also very rare throughout Italy, such as <em>Helianthemum caput-felis</em>, V<em>iola arborescens</em>, and <em>Coris monspeliensis</em>.
61669		population	eng	The exact number of individuals is not known.
61669		threats	eng	While the exact number of individuals is not known, the native habitat in which this plant grows has been reduced due to current agricultural practices and changes in land use. The land all the way down to the coastline is now farmed, and the hillsides where this species is found are sometimes over-grazed. Other threats include the development of coastal and access roads to the beach and the construction of secondary homes.
61670		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and listed in the Catalogue of Threatened Species (Catálogo de Especies Amenazadas, CEA). The natural area where it was known from and to where re-introduction attempts have been made (Son Bou i Barranc de Sa Vall) is designated as a Site of Special Natural Interest by the Law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands. It is also included in the European Natura 2000 network. <br/>  <br/><em>In situ</em>: Attempts to re-introduce the species into its native habitat have been undertaken since 1959 but have been unsuccessful. The most recent attempts have re-introduced this species with mycorrhizal fungi in the gorges of Sa Vall, Trebaluger, and Algendar. However, the seeds from these individuals have failed to germinate, thus this species is still considered to be Extinct in the Wild. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species are conserved in numerous seedbanks. It is also cultivated in several botanical gardens using seeds produced by the original specimens. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Most urgently, it is important to understand the reproductive biology of this species, especially the factors that inhibit the germination of seeds in the wild. Second, re-introduction attempts need to be continued. Finally a management plan needs to be developed for the areas where the species has been re-introduced so that the re-introduced populations become self-sustaining.
61670		distribution	eng	Endemic to Menorca in the Balearic Islands, <em>Lysimachia minoricensis</em> was only known from a single location (Barranc de Sa Vall), where it disappeared between 1926 and 1950.
61670		habitat	eng	The only notes made by its discoverer recorded that this herbaceous biennial grew in cool, shady places. This species seems able to produce seeds without pollinators. The number of seeds produced per individual is very high, with up to 3,300 counted for some plants, with an average number of 1,100. Experiments have shown that germination rates are very high, and germination can occur over a wide range of temperature, light, and soil salinity conditions. There is also experimental evidence that this species is well adapted to water stress. The leaves emit a strong odour that may be an adaptation to protect the plant from herbivores.
61670		population	eng	This plant is only found in cultivation.
61670		threats	eng	The reasons for its disappearance in the wild are unknown. It is possible that over-collection and the impact of human activities (such as fire and changes in agricultural practices) may have caused its extinction. On the other hand, it is possible that this species might have benefited from agricultural activities practiced in the past, and that the cessation of these practices may have caused the disappearance of habitat favourable to this species. The most successful re-introduction attempts, where plants survived for up to five years, were in areas previously disturbed by fire, cattle or goats.
61671		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>A. barbaricina</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species listed. <br/>  <br/><em>In situ</em>: None for the moment. <br/>  <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No known cultivation attempts have been made. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The areas in which this species occurs naturally should be protected, and all collection should be prohibited. The species also needs to be cultivated in botanical gardens and seeds stored in seedbanks. Better understanding of its reproductive biology and ecology is needed in order to undertake conservation actions including reinforcement or reintroduction.
61671		distribution	eng	<em>Aquilegia barbaricina</em> grows between 1,300-1,400 m altitude and is found only in Sardinia. The 1992 Italian Red List recorded it as growing in a few localities in the central part of Sardinia on Monte Spada, situated north in the Gennargentu area, and in two other localities near Orgosolo. It is now thought to occur only in a few places in a deep wooded valley, which is an exceptional wetland site, on Monte Spada.
61671		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in alder scrub along water courses. <br/> <br/>First described in 1977, this species is called a "neoendemic", meaning that it is a species that has evolved relatively recently due to geographic isolation. Its close relative, the Common Columbine <em>Aquilegia vulgaris</em> (with pink or purple flowers), is much more widely distributed, but not present in Sardinia.
61671		population	eng	There are less than 50 individuals.
61671		threats	eng	Its rarity and the beauty of its flowers make <em>A. barbaricina</em> attractive for collectors, who can easily access the site. Potential habitat destruction is another threat. Grazing does not seem to be a problem since the plant is toxic.
61672		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and that <em>A. nuragica</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The site is situated in the Gennargentu National Park, but due to the lack of a management committee, no protective measures are in place. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The species is mentioned on several tourist websites, which might attract collectors. Detailed information concerning the exact location of the species should be removed in order to keep people away from the site. An action plan urgently needs to be developed and implemented. Cultivation in botanical gardens is recommended.
61672		distribution	eng	<em>Aquilegia nuragica</em> is endemic to Sardinia and only found in one area of about 50 m² at Gorropu, near Dorgali.
61672		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in a gorge along the seasonal Flumineddu river on the nearly vertical limestone cliffs. Occasionally it occurs in the dry, sandy pebble substrate of the riverbed as a result of seeds dispersed from the overhanging cliff. However only a few individuals grow here, because they are regularly washed away during floods. <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Aquilegia</em> has about 70 species worldwide. Three of these (<em>A. barbaricina, A. nuragica</em> and <em>A. nugorensis</em>) are endemic to Sardinia. These and two more (<em>A. champagnatii</em> and <em>A. magellensis</em>) are on the Italian Red List. <em>A. nuragica</em> was first described in 1978. It is clearly genetically isolated from the other Sardinian <em>Aquilegia</em> species as well as from the Common Columbine,<em> A. vulgaris</em>, which occurs all over Europe but not on Sardinia.
61672		population	eng	Only 10-15 individuals are believed to exist in the this unique population.
61672		threats	eng	The species is certainly facing a high extinction risk due to natural factors rather than human impact. Grazing does not seem to be a problem since the plant is toxic.
61673		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4120003, which gives it indirect protection and <span style="background-color: white;">is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81</span>.<br/><br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Field studies are necessary to update current knowledge of the plant's distribution and threats. Studies should include research into its reproduction biology that has not yet been undertaken. Conservation action should be carefully planned based on the results of this research. Expansion of the existing Mt. Kerkis Reserve to include the scree fields would provide further protection and can be easily justified by the presence of other local endemic and endangered plants. The area is also home to rare cliff plant communities, pastures and forests. This species would also benefit from ex situ cultivation in botanical gardens.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
61673		distribution	eng	<em>Consolida samia</em> is a Greek endemic that has been reduced to only one remaining subpopulation, restricted to the Island of Samos. It grows on the steep limestone scree of Mt. Kerkis at an altitude of 800 m.
61673		habitat	eng	This annual species grows in a very specialized habitat: on a gravel-like substrate, with the largest pebbles measuring about 2 cm in diameter. It has never been found in adjacent rocky areas or neighbouring fields with larger stones. The scree on which it grows has no closed vegetation cover, yet despite growing in the open, this plant is easy to overlook because of its very small size. <br/> <br/>This species is closely related to <em>Consolida hellespontica</em>, but the two species live in distinct habitats and have different ecological requirements. The habitat of <em>C. samia</em> supports only a few species, most of which are endemic to the Aegean Islands, making it of high scientific interest. The presence of this species indicates that environmental conditions on Mt. Kerkis have remained unchanged for a long period of time.
61673		population	eng	In 1975, there were 20 plants at this unique locality and in 1996 their number had reached 100. Recently, however, this species cannot be found anywhere. Since it is an annual and occurs on scree at a rather difficult to  search habitat and also because it has not been searched for  intensively, it should not be declared as extinct yet.
61673		threats	eng	Re-establishment of this species will become increasingly unlikely over time. Only living specimens are able to disperse their minute seeds uphill by wind. Any potential soil seed bank risks being transported downhill by erosion or stone avalanches, into fields of larger stones which is an unsuitable habitat for this species. Its restricted area of occurrence makes this species sensitive to any habitat modification. If the plant is not extinct, it is potentially threatened by collectors and genetic isolation due to its small population size.
61674		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, <em>D. caseyi</em> has been included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is also included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Pentadaktylos mountain range, which encompasses both existing <em>D. caseyi</em> subpopulations, has been proposed by the aforementioned project as a Site of Community Importance (SCI) for the Natura 2000 Network. In addition, one of the subpopulations exists within the Karmi State Forest, which is protected by the Forest Law from any private interference. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measure taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: It is important to undertake research projects to monitor the population dynamics of this species and assess its biology and ecology. Either a re-introduction or benign introduction project in protected areas is needed. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds should be collected and stored in seedbanks. Additionally, the species should be conserved in selected botanical gardens.
61674		distribution	eng	<em>Delphinium caseyi</em> is only found in northern Cyprus where it has been recorded at two sites in the northern Pentadaktylos range, one near the St. Hilarion Peak, and the other at the Kyparissovouno Peak. A recent expedition in May 2004 located about 15 individuals on a peak close to St. Hilarion, most of which had been affected by grazing.
61674		habitat	eng	This perennial shrub prefers full sun and grows at the base of rocky cliffs or in the cracks of limestone boulders. <br/> <br/>The plants may be propagated by seeds or by subdivisions of the rootstock. All species of <em>Delphinium</em> are toxic, like the majority of the buttercup family. The long spur on the flower resembles the beak of a dolphin, the feature that inspired botanists to name the genus <em>Delphinium</em>.
61674		population	eng	Less than 500 individuals exist in the two known subpopulations.
61674		threats	eng	Whilst grazing is the major threat to this species, its violet flowers make this species very attractive for wild collecting. There is also a potential threat to the subpopulations from nearby military activities and the construction of an antenna in the area.
61675		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>R. sardoum</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However, this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species listed. The United Kingdom has included this species in its national legislation [Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 2677. The Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act 1976 (Amendment) Order 1996]. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The local population is now committed to protect the site from fire and grazing. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: <em>R. sardoum</em> has been cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Florence. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The survival of this species in the wild requires developing serious management plans to protect the species from over-grazing, fire, and plant collection. The species should also be cultivated <em>ex situ</em> with the goal of eventually reinforcing the existing population, and perhaps undertaking introductions into similar habitats.
61675		distribution	eng	<em>Ribes sardoum</em> has been recorded from just one site in Sardinia in the Nuoro Province, occurring in a small southeast facing valley at about 900 m altitude. The extent of occurrence is 300 m²-1 km² and the area of occupancy is 1 km² (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). <br/><br/>This species was probably originally distributed throughout the boreal  zone, and moved to warmer areas as the climate changed. It is now  considered a relict species as it is no longer found anywhere else. Its  closest relatives occur in China, Japan, and North America. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
61675		habitat	eng	This small woody shrub grows on limestone substrates  (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008). It has a very low fertility due to the early dropping of ovaries (Valsecchi 1977, 1981).
61675		population	eng	The only growing site for this species is Prados (Oliena) in the Nuoro Province, Sardinia (<span style="font-style: italic;">locus classicus</span>). In 2008, the whole population was estimated in less than 50 individuals, all in one subpopulation (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
61675		threats	eng	This decline is due to low seed viability and grazing by goats and sheep. But despite the grazing pressure, the extent of occurrence seems not to have significantly decreased since <em>R. sardoum</em> was first recorded at the end of the eighteenth century. However, the lack of historical reference data makes it difficult to evaluate the present population dynamics. Nevertheless the species is seriously endangered by extinction, mainly due to the low seed vitality for reasons not yet clearly understood.
61676		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species occurs in Sites of Community Interest (SIC). It is listed in the Regional Catalogues of Murcia and Castilla-La Mancha. Seeds are stored in various seedbanks (ETSA and Valencia). Germination experiments have also been undertaken.
61676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Andalusia mountain ranges. It is located in the province of Albacete, in canyons of the Mundo and Bogarra rivers, in the province of Murcia in Benizar and in the stream of Hondares (Moratalla).
61676		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in calcareous vertical rock fissures, in moderately shady conditions.
61676		population	eng	They are 4 known subpopulations and two of them contain less than 50 individuals: <br/> <br/>Bogarra: 41 individuals <br/>Potiche: 500 individuals <br/>Benizar: 37 individuals <br/>Hondares: 124 individuals
61676		threats	eng	Collection by botanists and the influence of tourism are threats to the species. The intensive pasture by mountain goats is also a threat. Prolonged droughts and  parasitism by some insects may also pose threats to this species.
61677		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, <em>C. argyrothamnos</em>  is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention (on strictly protected plant species) and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4340002, which gives it indirect protection and in <span style="background-color: white;">Greece it is listed by the Presidential Decree 67/81.</span><span style="background-color: green;"></span><br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/>  <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Two plants, propagated by cuttings, are currently being cultivated at the Technological Education Institute of Heraklion (Crete). Although they flower, they do not produce fruit. A programme of seed collection and storage at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (Crete) has also been launched. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The survival of this species is unlikely unless it can be rapidly propagated <em>ex situ</em> by botanical gardens, followed by reinforcement of the current site(s) <em>in situ</em>. It is equally important to protect the site(s) legally, and to undertake effective conservation and management measures.
61677		distribution	eng	<em>Convolvulus argyrothamnos</em> is endemic to Crete, in the region of Ierápetra at an altitude of 450 m.
61677		habitat	eng	The shrubby plants at the confirmed location were growing on a limestone cliff. It is a perennial shrub. <br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus </span><em>argyrothamnos</em> is one of the numerous species endemic to Crete that currently grow only on cliffs. These species, most of which are evolutionarily ancient, use cliffs as their last refuge. Here they are protected not only from more widespread plants better adapted to current conditions, but also from the voracious appetite of the ever-present goats.
61677		population	eng	Currently fewer than five individuals are known (there were eight in 1984, six in 1993 and only four in 1996). A second site with approximately 30 plants may recently have been discovered in western Crete, but its status has not yet been confirmed as of this assessment date.
61677		threats	eng	The extremely small number of individuals at the site near Ierápetra puts this species at a very high risk of extinction. The final blow may be a bush fire, rare plant collectors, or the great difficulty these plants have reproducing from seed.
61678		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The distribution area of this species is fenced in order to prevent grazing. It is entirely situated within an SCI (Site of Community Importance) area, which is part of the Natura 2000 network. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is cultivated at the Botanical Conservatory of Brest, at the Botanical Garden of the University of Catania, and in the Arboretum "Monna Giovannella" of the University of Florence. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>A restoration plan including both <em>ex situ</em> and <em>in situ</em> activities needs to be established. In order to determine the degree of affiliation between all the individuals in the population, a broader genetic study needs to be undertaken.
61678		distribution	eng	This single remote population extends 200 m along the banks of a stream on the northern slopes of the Iblei Mts in southeastern Sicily.
61678		habitat	eng	This small tree grows along the banks of a stream on north facing slopes in a very old Cork Oak (<em>Quercus suber</em>) forest. <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Zelkova</em> only has a few species, of which a few grow in Western and Eastern Asia, plus two in the Mediterranean basin (this species in Sicily and another, <em>Z. abelicea</em>, which is a threatened endemic from Crete). These two species represent relicts that have persisted over a long period of time and may have been more widespread in the past. Both are threatened by habitat change.
61678		population	eng	One subpopulation of 200-250 individuals exists.
61678		threats	eng	The ancient oak forest hosting this species is rather degraded due to overexploitation (logging, grazing, and removal of cork) for several centuries. In addition, over the last few years several major droughts have caused the death of several trees. <em>Z. sicula</em> requires relatively moist conditions. Therefore, if rainfall remains low, this species is almost certain to become extinct. <br/> <br/>Few flowering individuals have been seen in recent years and the fruit produced appears to be sterile. Reproduction is largely vegetative.
61679		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The subspecies is listed in the National Catalogue of Threatened Species and in the Catalogue of the Protected Flora of Murcia. The subspecies occurs in the Regional Parks of Calblanque, Monte de la Cenizas and Peña del Águila. Monitoring of the subpopulations has been undertaken since 1998. Seeds are stored in seedbanks. There are protocols for germination, production and <em>in vitro</em> culture. Attempts to produce seeds to enhance the subpopulation in Valencia from individuals from he subpopulation in Murcia is in process.
61679		distribution	eng	This subspecies is an Iberian-Levantine endemic. It is found in the mountain ranges of Cartagena (Murcia) and of Calderona (Valencia).
61679		habitat	eng	This shrub grows in degraded thicket, in dry and sunny areas. It is also found in areas of herbaceous vegetation dominated by <em>Brachypodium retusum</em>.
61679		population	eng	The subspecies was described at the beginning of the20th century. As it was not seen for a long time after its initial description it was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered again in 1986.  Today, is is known from two subpopulations:  the Cartagena mountain range (26 individuals) and the Calderona mountain range (only 1 individual).
61679		threats	eng	The Calderona subpopulation comprises just one individual so that cannot reproduce. The subspecies is threatened by fires, hikers and expanding urban development. The Cartagena subpopulation is also threatened by fire and other human disurbance. The species  hybridizes with <em>Cistus albidus</em>.
61680		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is protected in most parts of its distribution area. It is listed in the Protection Catalogue of Castilla-La Mancha and Murcia. The majority of the subpopulations are included in Sites of Community Interest and micro reserves. There are plans to establish other micro reserves in the province of Albacete.
61680		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast Iberia, where it is found in the provinces of Albacete, Alicante and Murcia.
61680		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows in thicket characterized by a sandy soil, and on dunes. It is often a pioneer species in abandoned fields or in thicket areas after fire, and on bare sandy soils. It stabilizes the soil and fix it for furthers species that need a better substrate.
61680		population	eng	They are 7 known subpopulations with a total of 3,545 individuals: <br/> <br/>Arenales de Petrer: 80 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Fraile: 500 individuals <br/>Casa de Valentín (Albacete): 500 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Cuchillo: 15 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Enmedio: 1,000 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Molino: 450 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Serral: 1,000 individuals
61680		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is very limited and is decreasing due o human activities. The subpopulation located in the Cuchillomountain range is threatened by grazing and trampling from domestic livestock.
61681		conservation	eng	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is included in Red Lists at different levels (regional, national and international), either as part of the taxon Viola nebrodensis or as a variety of the latter. However, it is not protected by any particular law or convention. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The entire area of occurrence is included in the "Monte Pizzuta, Costa del Carpineto, Moarda" SIC (Site of Community Importance). However only the Mt. Pizzuta site is part of ?Serre della Pizzuta? Nature Reserve. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science, Palermo University, and cultivated in the botanic garden of Palermo. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is important to immediately stop forestry plantations in the species' habitat to limit the ecological transformation of the area. A protection scheme against fire is needed for the relevant sites. Ideally the entire population should be included in the Nature Reserve.
61681		distribution	eng	This perennial plant is only found on Mt. Pizzuta, near Palermo in northwestern Sicily, growing at an altitude of 800-1,300 m. The only known population extends over two localities (Mt. Pizzuta and Mt. Fratantoni), covering a total area of 0.2 km².
61681		habitat	eng	This little herbaceous violet grows on eroded, sunny calcareous mountain slopes where rock outcrops or gravel substrates are sometimes covered by a garrigue vegetation characterized by the heath <em>Erica multiflora</em>, or more steppic vegetation dominated by the tall grass "Diss" (<em>Ampelodesmos mauritanicus</em>). <br/> <br/>This species only reproduces by seed. There are over 400 species of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) in the world, with more than 90 found in Europe. Taxonomic opinion on the species in Sicily has been divided, with some botanists "lumping" this species into the more common species <em>Viola nebrodensis</em>. However it is now generally recognised that <em>V. nebrodensis</em> is divided into three separate species with localized distribution: <em>V. ucriana</em> Erben & Raimondo (Pizzuta Mt.), <em>V. tineorum</em> Erben & Raimondo (Rocca Busambra), and<em> V. nebrodensis</em> Presl (Madonie Mts.).
61681		population	eng	One known subpopulation, but the exact number of individuals is not yet known.
61681		threats	eng	The area where <em>V. ucriana</em> persists is often subject to fire due to human activities, and these periodic sumer fires pose a major threat to the conservation of this species. Forestry plantations of exotic conifers and other species are changing the ecological conditions of its habitat, and any human action could exterminate the one remaining subpopulation.
61682		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species. <br/></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">enemeritoi </span>is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of protected wild flora of Murcia. It is listed as CR B1ab(iii, iv,v)+ 2ab(iii,iv,v); C1+2a(ii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It occurs in the SCI Sierra de Villafuerte. Research about the genetics of <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus</span> spp. in the southeast of Spain. A micro-reserve should be created and visitors should be controlled, as well as grazing species.</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nevadensis </span>is listed EN B1b(iii)c(iv)+2b(iii)c(iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It occurs in protected areas. A species recovery plan has been developed. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada and Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz. Population monitoring has been developed. Herbivores should be controlled. The species is included as "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
61682		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">enemeritoi </span>is endemic to Sierra de Villafuerte (Moratalla, Murcia, Spain) (Sánchez Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it grows from 1,250 to 1,300 m asl. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 2 km². Two populations were described in the past but one of them has not been recently found.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis</span> is endemic to Sierra Nevada and Sierra de Baza (Granada, Spain) (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it grows between 1,400 and 1,950 m asl. It is distributed into four locations, with an area of occupancy of 31 km².
61682		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">enemeritoi </span>grows on sandy dolomitic substrates. It occurs within the riparian vegetation of mountain streams. It can be found in the reeds of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Lysimachio ephemeri-Holoschoenetum vulgaris </span>coexisting with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cirsium pyrenaicum, Iris xyphium, Schoenus nigricans, Scirpus holoschoenus</span>,<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>Dactylorrhiza elata, Festuca arundinacea, Lysimachia ephemerum </em>and <em>Mentha spicata</em><span style="background-color: white;">. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6420 </span>"Mediterranean tall humid grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Holoschoenion</span>"   ((Sánchez Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis</span> grows on moist soils, seasonally flooded (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), mainly on edges of small streams and springs, facing south. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus effusus, Carex camposii, Carex cuprina, Aconitum burnatii, Festuca trichophylla </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scabrescens, Juncus conglomeratus, Juncus inflexus, Nardus stricta, Mentha longifolia, Myosotis decumbens </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> teresiana, Primula elatior </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. lofthousei </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carum verticillatum.</span>
61682		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">enemeritoi</span> had a population of around 120 individuals in 2003 (Sánchez Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Critical regressive population trends have been observed since the taxon was discovered.<br/><br/>Total population size for <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis</span> has been estimated in 23,598 individuals. New subpopulations have been found in the last years (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
61682		threats	eng	Main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">enemeritoi </span>are modifications in hydrological regimes and water courses, trampling, collection, and predation by herbivores (Sánchez Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus nevadensis </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nevadensis </span>occurs in a very specific habitat and this makes it fragile towards anthropogenic influences, climatic and hydrological changes. Grazing is also an important threat as it can reduce fructification due to trampling and plant predation     (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
61688		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>In France, it has national protection and several localities are in Natura 2000, Réserve Naturelle, or Conservatoire du Littoral sites. In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">Omphalodes littoralis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gallaecic</span> is also included in the national and regional legislation. It is considered as Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).
61688		distribution	eng	This species is native to France, where it occurs in Brittany, Pays de la Loire and Poitou-Charantes, and Galicia in Spain. In Spain, only the subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> Omphalodes littoralis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gallaecic </span>is found.<br/><br/>Its range in Spain and France is 2,600 km² across the Atlantic coast of both countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
61688		habitat	eng	<p>This pioneer plant occurs in "grey" dunes (sand mixed with humus) and degraded areas. <br/></p><p>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/></p><ul><li>  2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation ("grey dunes")</li><li>2180 Wooded dunes of the Atlantic, continental and boreal region</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia</span> dune grasslands</li></ul>
61688		population	eng	The species has been recorded in 20 localities in Spain (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and 30 localities in France (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010). In France, several hundreds of thousands (if not millions) of individuals are estimated and the subpopulations are stable. In Spain, the subpopulations are decreasing, with less than 150,000 individuals.
61688		threats	eng	The regular cleaning of beaches, as well as sand extraction are destroying the habitat of this species. Urbanisation, infrastructure development (golf places, roads, etc.), trampling and forest plantations in the dunes pose another threat.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
61690		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.  The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61690		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: endemic to Sri Lanka. This species was only found from three closely-spaced localities. Gannaruwa Forest, Peradeniya and Hantane Forest in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka. Presently it is assumed that the range of this species is 10 km². Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy both <10 km².
61690		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species was found in wet soil (<5 cm deep), under rocks on stream margins, and on moist soil adjacent to streams. The streams were mostly slow-flowing and in heavy shade. It is found in montane habitat.
61690		population	eng	Rare.
61690		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90% of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup>yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61691		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.  The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61691		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: endemic to Sri Lanka, beside Kandy Road. Extent of occurrence 20 km²; area of occupancy <10 km². Known from only two locations.
61691		habitat	eng	Was collected from beneath stones around wet areas and wet soil at a small stream. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61691		population	eng	Locally common.
61691		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61692		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
61692		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Mousakanda, near Gammuduwa, Knuckles Range, Mahaweili Range. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy both <10 km². Known from only one location.
61692		habitat	eng	This species was collected and observed on wet boulders on the margins of a slow-flowing stream. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61692		population	eng	This species is very rare.
61692		threats	eng	Site not protected, area subject to degradation because of direct human impacts
61693		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area.
61693		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Knuckles Mountains (Pathanegala near Puwakpitea, 07.33°N, 80.44°E, 10 km²) (Bahir 1998, Ng and Tay 2001). Conservation assessment of Bahir <em>et al. (2005) indicates that it is present in three localities, other two locations not given.</em>
61693		habitat	eng	Under moist stones and wet soil about 40 cm beneath ground level, at a small waterfall
61693		population	eng	Abundance of the species at site of occurrence: rare
61693		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Found in a protected area administered by Forest Department, but this PA is subject to degradation because of direct human impacts.
61694		conservation	eng	Conservation Measures:  The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61694		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species was recorded from two localities in the northern part of the Knuckles Mountains: Rangini Estate, near Gammaduwa, and near Midlands Estate (Bahir and Ng, 2005). Its range is about 10 km².
61694		habitat	eng	This species was collected from under stones in wet soil (<5 cm deep) next to a stream which runs through a small marshy area. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61694		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
61694		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61695		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61695		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species is known only from its type locality (Corbett's Gap 07°22'N, 080°50'E) in the Knuckles range of mountains. Extent of occurrence 1 km². Known from only one location.
61695		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka in very shallow (<15 cm deep), slow-flowing water in a stream flowing through montane cloud forest and under rocks on stream margins, as well as in wet soil adjacent to a stream or among wet leaf litter in and adjacent to water, always in shaded areas.
61695		population	eng	Not abundant (rare), known only from a single locality.
61695		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61696		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61696		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 1,750 km². Area of occupancy <100 km². Known from five locations.<br/>Near Pituwala waterfall at Elpitiya; Galle District; Matara District; Udugama; Kurutara District (see Bahir 1999).
61696		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Species appears to be entirely aquatic, and restricted to areas above and around 80m above mean sea level. It was observed in shallow water and at the bottom of pools 1-2 m deep, in both well-lit and shaded areas.
61696		population	eng	Abundance of species at each site of occurrence is locally common.
61696		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61697		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.<br/><br/>Currently the range area for this species occurs within a protected area, however the area is subject to degradation because of human impacts.
61697		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location.
61697		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61697		population	eng	Known only from the type locality, not abundant (very rare).
61697		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61698		conservation	eng	No measures in place.<br/><br/>The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61698		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Panagula (06°52'N, 80°10'E).
61698		habitat	eng	Not known
61698		population	eng	This species is very rare.
61698		threats	eng	Site not protected and subject to degradation because of direct human impacts. Current and future threats include human development.<br/><br/>Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61699		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61699		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location.
61699		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61699		population	eng	Not abundant (very rare), known only from a single locality.
61699		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61700		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61700		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.This species is found throughtout the country except in the south-western wet zone, both on the lowlands and in the highlands of Sri Lanka.
61700		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in rocky-sandy streams.
61700		population	eng	Locally Common.
61700		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61701		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61701		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. This species has only been recorded from the type locality, Morningside Estate (06°24'N, 080°38'E) at 1,060 m altitude.
61701		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species occurs under boulders in flowing streams <1 m deep. The diversity of freshwater crabs at the lower montane cloud-forest reserve is higher than any other site in Sri Lanka (six species have been recorded from this locality - Eastern Sinharaja).
61701		population	eng	This species is common and abundant but is known only from a single locality.
61701		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61702		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61702		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Galle District (see Bahir 1999).
61702		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The species inhabits shallow water within streams, and moist parts of stream margins, both in shaded and sunlit places.
61702		population	eng	Locally Common.
61702		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61703		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61703		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location in the Knuckles Range, Mahaweli Basin.
61703		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found under rocks and boulders near small streams and waterfalls, but does not normally occur in the water per se. The substrate was sand or soil. The type locality is basically montane forest and is often very misty.
61703		population	eng	Abundance of the species at each site is rare.
61703		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61704		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61704		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
61704		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species is the first (and only) tree-climbing terrestrial crab known from Sri Lanka.  Specimens originally collected from rainwater-filled tree holes above ground. They have been found dwelling in crevices of a cave wall, up to 3m above ground. Therefore the climbing ability is not restricted to the scaling of trees.
61704		population	eng	Common.
61704		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61705		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61705		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 250 km². Known from three locations.
61705		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Specimens found under stones of a shallow, rocky (water <10 cm) stream
61705		population	eng	Locally common.
61705		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61706		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61706		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This is a lowland species found near a city. Extent of occurrence 100 km². Known from only one location.
61706		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Collected from under wet boulders at a waterfall.
61706		population	eng	This species is not abundant (rare).
61706		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61707		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by Forest Department (although this is subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts).
61707		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Mahaweli Basin, Knuckles, Moneragala. The original description of this species lists six different localities (Ng and Tay 2001).
61707		habitat	eng	This species is found within burrows along paddy field embankments, specimens also obtained from shallow muddy streams. Therefore it may be responding positively to habitat changes that have already been made, such as disturbance from agricultural practices.
61707		population	eng	Frequency at sites: common
61707		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Habitat subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts. However it may not be affected by these.
61708		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61708		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. This species has only been found along the margins of a roadside stream at Kalupahana, on the Colombo - Haputale road, Sri Lanka. Its range is about 5 km².
61708		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species was found only in shallow burrows (<20 cm deep) along the margins of a road side stream.
61708		population	eng	This species is locally common and population levels appear to be high in the sites where it is found.
61708		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61709		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61709		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 100 km². Known from only one location near Dunhinda Falls.
61709		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Small, steep, sandy stream with little water and numerous large boulders.
61709		population	eng	This species is not abundant (rare).
61709		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61710		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61710		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence is 5 km². Known from only one location. This species is only known from the type locality (Galle 06°02'N, 080°23'E) at 30 m altitude and may have a very narrow distributional range.
61710		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The type series was obtained from a deep burrow in a muddy bank of a small pool.
61710		population	eng	This species is not abundant (very rare).  Three attempts to recollect this species between 2000 to 2003 proved to be unsuccessful.
61710		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61711		conservation	eng	Protected sites, administered by the Forest Department.
61711		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Batadomba Cave, Deerwood Tea Estate, Peak Wilderness, Galle, Kanneliya Forest - Galle, Bulutota Pass, Knuckles.
61711		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Non-type specimens obtained from wet sandy-rocky substrate, at or near small streams on a steep and heavily-wooded hill.
61711		population	eng	Common.
61711		threats	eng	unknown
61712		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61712		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species was only found at the type locality (near Pundaluoya 07°01'19.04"N, 080°39'59.4"E).
61712		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species lives in deep burrows in moist areas beside streams
61712		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (common) but is known from only one locality.
61712		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61713		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by the Forest Department and the Department of wildlife Conservation, but the habitat is nevertheless subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts.
61713		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: This species is known from nine localities in the north-western dry zone and the central wet zone around the Kandy Hills.
61713		habitat	eng	Commonly occurs in rice-field embankments. Crabs have been observed from burrows in the margins of streams, irrigation canals, reservoirs and rivers.
61713		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: common
61713		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.  Habitat subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts.
61714		conservation	eng	Conservation Measures:  The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61714		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 1,000 km². Known from two locations. Only known from the type locality (Godakawela, 06°30'N 80°38'E, Walawe River Basin) in the southern foothills of the central highlands of Sri Lanka.
61714		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Lives in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins.
61714		population	eng	Locally common.
61714		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61715		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61715		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species is known from the vicinity of Galle (district), in the south western wet zone of Sri Lanka, in the Gin River basin.
61715		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Lives in deep-burrows in rice-field embankments, adjacent stream margins and the banks of canals.
61715		population	eng	Locally Common.
61715		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61716		conservation	eng	Found in Kumana and Wilpattu National Parks where its habitat is protected. The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61716		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence >220,000 km². Known from five localities (Bahir and Yeo 2005). This species is restricted to the eastern, north-western, north-central and northern lowland dry zone of Sri Lanka, including the Kumana and Wilpattu National Parks, and it is endemic to Sri Lanka. Apart from the type locality also found in Nachchiyama near Wilpattu National Park in North Central Sri Lanka; near Mundel, NW Sri Lanka; Panama, near Kumana National Park, SE Sri Lanka; Jaffna, northern Sri Lanka.
61716		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Semiterrestrial species living in burrows in sandy soil adjacent to rice-fields.
61716		population	eng	Locally Common.
61716		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61717		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61717		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location. Only known from its type locality, close to Kurunegala.
61717		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins, and in the banks of the irrigation canals. Fast flowing stream, semi-forested, gravel bottom, grass banks to water edge.
61717		population	eng	Locally Common.
61717		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61718		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61718		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Known from two localities both in north-central Sri Lanka, Minneriya (near Polonnaruwa) and Anuradhapura.
61718		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species commonly lives in rice-field embankments and margins of streams and irrigation canals.
61718		population	eng	Locally common.
61718		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90% of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation, invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup>yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo lankae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus aral</span>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61719		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is found in a protected area administered by Department of Wildlife Conservation and subject to degradation (direct human impacts).
61719		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Only known from Ritigala and Mundel, in the north central dry zone of Sri Lanka.
61719		habitat	eng	Found in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins and in the banks of the canals and streams.
61719		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: common.
61719		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
61720		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area administered by the Department of Wildlife Conservation that is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impact.
61720		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Found in Bibile; Ruhunu National Park; Monaragala; Puwakpitiya, Knuckles Mountains; Tissa; and Badulla in the south and south-eastern dry zone. These localities range from about sea level up to 600m altitude.
61720		habitat	eng	Lives in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins, and in the banks of reservoirs and rivers.
61720		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: common
61720		threats	eng	Threatened by future human induced habitat loss/degradation due to human population increases and industrial and agrarian development
61721		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61721		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 350 km². Known from three locations. Southern Sri Lanka, Ruhuna Province, Galle District.
61721		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The holotype was collected <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 0.5 m above ground level, on a tree root, <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 2 m from a small stream with muddy banks, at an elevation of 50 m above mean sea level.
61721		population	eng	Rare.
61721		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90% of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation, invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup>yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo lankae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus aral</span>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61722		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61722		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Adams Peak.
61722		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in hill streams.
61722		population	eng	Rare.
61722		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61723		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61723		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location near Avisawella.
61723		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Under rocks and in moist soil beside streams. This species is not montane as others of this genus.
61723		population	eng	Locally common.
61723		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61724		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by Forest Department.
61724		distribution	eng	Only known from the vicinity of Batadomba cave, near Kuruwita (06 47'N, 080 23'E) in Sri Lanka. Range probably 5km².
61724		habitat	eng	This species was found mainly among leaf litter beside small streams, although specimens were found under stones in moist soil as well, up to 5 m from the stream margin.
61724		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: rare
61724		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. This cave is visited by tourists so there is a threat of accidental pollution and disturbance.
61725		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61725		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location.
61725		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61725		population	eng	Very rare.
61725		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61726		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by Department of Wildlife.
61726		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Only found at type locality on a footpath to Adam's Peak, Peak Wilderness (06 24'N, 080 38'E) in Sri Lanka. Range is approx. 1 km². Several attempts to find this species since 1996 have failed.
61726		habitat	eng	Occurs in wet soil under stones in small streams.
61726		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: rare
61726		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution; its habitat is subjected to degradation by direct human impact. There is evidence that there is a decline in the extent and quality of its habitat.
61727		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area administered by Dept. of Wildlife.
61727		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Horton Plains, Walawe Basin.
61727		habitat	eng	Collected under rocks and boulders near small, shallow streams. Specimens were mostly obtained from outside the water <em>per se</em>. Substrate varied from clay to peaty.
61727		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: common
61727		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
61728		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administer by the Forest Department and the Department for Wildlife Conservation, which is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impacts.
61728		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Peak Wilderness between Heramitipana and Linihela.
61728		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from streams (1,650 m a.s.l.) from under stones in shallow water (<10 cm deep).
61728		population	eng	Frequency of species at sites: common
61728		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
61729		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61729		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Moray Estate (06 48'N, 80 31'E).
61729		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61729		population	eng	Very rare.
61729		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61730		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61730		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from three localities in southwestern Sri Lanka in the Bentota and Gin River basins (Bahir, 1999, original description). Found at Pituwala (06°15'N 80°12'E) near Elpitiya and Amugoda near Elpitiya (06°19'N 80°13'30'E); at a streamlet in Kottawa Proposed Forest Reserve, Galle District, southwestern Sri Lanka, in the Bentota and Gin River basins.
61730		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Under moist stones and leaf litter in a small stream. Occurs in very shallow (<5 cm deep) water in small, rainforest streams, under rocks on stream margins, and among wet, fallen leaves among boulders in the stream.
61730		population	eng	Very rare.
61730		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61731		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61731		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 50 km². Known from only one location, Horton Plains, Agara Oya Basin.
61731		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in shallow shaded stream with sand and gravel substrate and swampy adjacent areas.
61731		population	eng	Locally common.
61731		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61732		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61732		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. Morningside (06 24'N, 80 38'E).
61732		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Specimens found under stones and wet soil in and around a small streamlet
61732		population	eng	Rare.
61732		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61733		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61733		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. Known only from the type locality (Morningside, Eastern Sinharaja 06 24'N, 080 38'E at 1,060 m altitude.
61733		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species is found under stones in wet soil (<15 cm deep) in shade within a cardamom plantation.
61733		population	eng	Rare.
61733		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61734		conservation	eng	The conservation value of the Sinharaja lowland rainforest is very significant, with a high diversity and endemicity.  The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61734		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Ratnapura District, Kalu River Basin and Walawe Basin, southern Sri Lanka.
61734		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Some specimen found in rainwater filled tree hollow, about 1m above ground. Others under fallen log. It seems likely that this species is predominantly terrestrial with arboreal tendencies, using phytotelms as a source of fresh water, and perhaps to feed on the animals living inside.
61734		population	eng	Rare.
61734		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61735		conservation	eng	This species is not found in a protected area.
61735		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka: Mahaweli Basin. The two localities are close together: Deltota, 7°10'14”N, 80°41'55”E, 1,071 m asl and Talawakelle (6.57N, 80.38E, 1,160 m asl, type locality).
61735		habitat	eng	A waterfall species.
61735		population	eng	This species is not abundant (rare).
61735		threats	eng	The habitat is subjected to degradation from directed human activities. The flow from St. Clair waterfall may be shut off as the result of a proposed Hydropower Development Project, which would mean a dam across the river just upstream of the type locality.
61737		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61737		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
61737		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.
61737		population	eng	Locally Common.
61737		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61738		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61738		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka.
61738		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka
61738		population	eng	Locally Common.
61738		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61739		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61739		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one locaton. Only recorded from its type locality, Kodagoda, in Galle district, southern Sri Lanka.
61739		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Lives in burrows in rice-field embankments and the banks of canals leading to rice-fields.
61739		population	eng	Common.
61739		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61740		conservation	eng	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.
61740		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 2,000 km². Known from only two locations. The species is restricted to the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. Known only from around Colombo.
61740		habitat	eng	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The type locality is a small waterway <5 cm deep in the Colombo University garden. Other localities include rice field embankments.
61740		population	eng	Common.
61740		threats	eng	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).
61741		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in some range countries (e.g., Switzerland). It occurs in many protected areas.
61741		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in some range countries (e.g.. Switzerland). It occurs in many protected areas.
61741		distribution	eng	This extremely widespread species ranges from much of northern, western, central and eastern Europe, across most of northern Asia to China and Japan (Hokkaido Island). In Europe it occurs as scattered populations throughout Britain and Ireland, and through most of Scandinavia, the southern limit of its main distribution running through central France, southeastern Austria, northern Italy, along the Dinaric Alps (in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania), western Hungary , southern and central Romania, northern Moldova, and central Ukraine. Isolated populations occur in northern Spain and southwestern France, and also in Serbia, western Bulgaria and extreme northeastern and northwestern Macedonia. It can be found from sea level up to 2,900 m asl (Bulgaria).
61741		distribution	eng	This extremely widespread species ranges from much of northern, western, central and eastern Europe, across most of northern Asia to China and Japan (Hokkaido Island). In Europe it ranges as scattered populations throughout Britain and Ireland, and through most of Scandinavia, the southern limit of its main distribution running through central France, southeastern Austria, northern Italy, along the Dinaric Alps (in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania), western Hungary , southern and central Romania, northern Moldova, and central Ukraine. Isolated populations occur in northern Spain and southwestern France, and also in Serbia, western Bulgaria and extreme northeastern and northwestern Macedonia. It can be found from sea level up to 2,900m asl (Bulgaria).
61741		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats including grassland, meadows, humid scrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, woodland edges, peat bogs, stream edges, coastal areas (sea cliffs and sand dunes) and rural gardens. <br/><br/>In most areas the female gives birth to between three and 11 fully formed young. In northern Spain, adjacent France, Austria, Italy and Slovenia, the female lays between one and 13 eggs in a single clutch. In the northern portion of the range and at high altitude it is viviparous, in the southern portion it is oviparous.
61741		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats including grassland, meadows, humid scrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, woodland edges, peat bogs, stream edges, coastal areas (sea cliffs and sand dunes) and rural gardens. In most areas the female gives birth to between three and 11 fully formed young. In northern Spain, adjacent France, Austria, Italy and Slovenia, the female lays between one and 13 eggs in a single clutch. In the northern portion of the range and at high altitude it is viviparous, in the southern portion it is oviparous.
61741		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species. Populations have locally declined in parts of its range (e.g., in the Netherlands) (Council of Europe, 2003). The lowland populations in Italy (Po plain) are almost extinct.
61741		population	eng	This can be a locally abundant species. Populations have locally declined in parts of its range (e.g., in the Netherlands) (Council of Europe 2003). The lowland populations in Italy (Po plain) are almost extinct.
61741		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from agricultural intensification, urbanization and development of tourism facilities (for example in alpine regions). It is suspected that populations have declined in the UK (John Wilkinson, pers. comm.). Some populations of this species that could be specifically distinct might prove to be threatened. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
61741		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from agricultural intensification, urbanization and development of tourism facilities (for example in alpine regions). It is suspected that populations have declined in the U.K. (J. Wilkinson pers. comm.). Some populations of this species that could be specifically distinct might prove to be threatened. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).
61743		conservation	eng	There are currently a number of conservation actions underway on behalf of the pinto abalone. A summary of these initiatives is presented below, separated into initiatives underway in British Columbia, and those underway in the other regions of abalone distribution.  <br/> <br/><strong>Conservation Action in British Columbia</strong> <br/>The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) assessed the pinto abalone as a “threatened” species in 1999. All such designations in Canada require the drafting of a National Recovery Strategy (NRS), followed by the creation of a National Recovery Action Plan (NRAP) (SARA 2002). The recovery strategy was completed in 2002 (Toole <em>et al.</em> 2002), and the latest draft of the action plan was released in August 2003 (NRAP 2003). The NRAP set forth a number of initiatives grouped under four main categories: a proactive protection plan, a communications campaign, proposed research, and a population-rebuilding plan. The actions are aimed at protecting the remaining wild stock of pinto abalone, increasing public support, augmenting the wild population, conducting research, and monitoring the status of the pinto population. Support for the initiatives comes from federal, provincial, private sector, and community partnerships. <br/> <br/>The measures included under the proactive protection plan revolve around the challenge of curtailing illegal harvest; poaching represents one of the largest threats to the species. Efforts involved with increasing the enforcement of current laws include augmenting the number of fishery officers, adding a canine unit to improve detection of illegally harvested abalone at key locations such as ferries and airports, and developing methods for genetically sampling the commercially traded abalone (NRAP 2003). In addition, the NRAP calls for instituting a market analysis to determine the full extent of the illegal pinto abalone trade. Developing a “Coast Watch” program under the lead of First Nations and coastal communities is a further effort to improve monitoring efforts in more remote areas. <br/> <br/>The communications campaign is aimed at increasing public awareness of the decline of the pinto abalone, and the ongoing efforts to engineer its recovery. The NRAP called for the creation of a dedicated abalone home page to act as a clearinghouse for news and knowledge and the production of an anti-poaching poster (both completed as of 2004). Materials and education kits are intended for use in school education sessions, while a whole media relations campaign is designed to support the Coast Watch initiatives, and provide positive feedback for the enhanced enforcement actions (NRAP 2003). <br/> <br/>Research and population rebuilding efforts are closely related parts of the NRAP. The research portion involves feasibility studies aimed at determining the best methods for abalone rebuilding projects, the specifics of pinto abalone recruitment, the actual risks posed by disease as well as the best means of prevention and control, and many other aspects of the biology, physiology and ecology of the pinto abalone that remain unknown or uncertain (NRAP 2003). The population rebuilding efforts are directed at three fronts in British Columbia: the aggregation of reproductive-aged wild adult pinto abalone, the out-planting of hatchery-reared juvenile abalone, and the small scale enhancement of abalone habitat with the aim of improving survivability of juveniles. To date, aggregation experiments have been performed in several locations; however, the results of these studies have yet to be published. Two organizations, the Bamfield Huu-y-aht Community Abalone Project (BHCAP) and the Malcolm Island Shellfish Cooperative (MISC) have both begun rearing pinto abalone. The BHCAP performed Canada’s first out-planting in November of 2003, although to date, any results remain unpublished. MISC intended to perform out-plantings in November of 2003 as well, but the progress of the project remains unknown. <br/> <br/>Monitoring projects are a vital component of any rebuilding effort. Along with continuing to survey the index sites in the Queen Charlotte Islands and the central coast of British Columbia, new baseline sites are proposed in regions across the provincial coastline to determine the effects any and all rebuilding efforts in the future. <br/> <br/><strong>Conservation Action in the other regions</strong> <br/>In 1994, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife closed the pinto abalone fishery but did not initiate any conservation efforts. In 2004, the National Marine Fisheries Service listed the pinto abalone as a “Candidate Species” in the state of Washington for protection under the Endangered Species Act (NMFS 2004a). This designation, however, does not confer any procedural protections under the Endangered Species Act. <br/> <br/>In California, after a series of closures of the various targeted abalone fisheries (of which pinto abalone did not play a significant role), fisheries managers enforced a moratorium on the taking, possessing and landing of all abalone species for commercial or recreational purposes south of San Francisco (CDFG 2003). The same bill, AB 663, mandated the creation of an Abalone Recovery Management Plan (ARMP). Pinto abalone are included in the ARMP only indirectly, as they are insufficient in numbers to support any form of targeted management or harvest (CDFG 2003). The recovery plan calls for a 7-year timeline starting in 2003 for implemented various activities and programs that focus on research, assessment and enforcement of regulations (CDFG 2003) that are similar in focus to those outlined in the British Columbia management and recovery plan. <br/> <br/><strong>Analysis of Current Conservation Efforts and Suggestions for New Efforts</strong> <br/>Supplementation of abalone populations holds promise for accelerating the recovery of pinto abalone numbers. Reintroduction of hatchery-raised juveniles, however, has proved costly and ineffective in the past despite much effort and research (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1998, Tegner 2000). Additionally, there have been numerous examples of juvenile supplementation programs introducing pathogens into wild populations (reviewed in Tegner 2000). In consideration of these two issues, the current enthusiasm for hatchery-based supplementation in the British Columbian plan does not seem to be warranted. In contrast, experiments with transplantation of wild adult brood stock have had some success (Jamieson and Caddy 1986, Tegner 2000), and we recommend that resources be shifted towards this approach. <br/> <br/>In the interests of providing sustainable incomes to the areas most affected by the decline of the pinto abalone, and in the interests of mitigating the impact of poaching upon remaining wild stocks, economic development alternatives should be sponsored in targeted regions. This activity should also be partnered with initiatives to promote community stewardship of remaining wild abalone as the distributed nature of the stock necessitates local support for any rebuilding projects. For this reason, “Coast Watch” and other initiatives that raise stakeholder awareness and participation are a step in the right direction. <br/> <br/><strong>Future Research</strong> <br/>The collection of fisheries independent data for Alaska could provide a much clearer picture of the status of the pinto abalone. The creation of a number of index monitoring sites throughout the Alaskan range would provide a more realistic outlook of the abalone’s status than merely relying on the data available from British Columbia. Furthermore, index sites could provide information as to how the Alaskan abalone populations were coping with the stresses of sea otter expansion, and the overall recovery of the south central Alaskan coast after the crisis of the Exxon Valdez in 1990. <br/> <br/>Further investigations of stock-recruitment relationships are needed to identify a healthy and viable population composition as well as a better understanding of the specific pinto abalone age-length relationship. Many of these research topics, including research into the genetics of the pinto abalone are called for in the various recovery and management plans (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002, CDFG 2003, NRAP 2003). This information would be useful for scientists to estimate if a local cluster can sustain itself, and if not, to promote further action. This research would also aid fishery managers in setting reliable size quotas if the fishery re-opens. In addition, these studies could gather data about the ability of abalone to re-aggregate after exploitation. <br/> <br/>Finally, the capability of Withering Syndrome to infect and spread in pinto abalone populations requires further investigation. Pinto abalone culturing and adult transplantation projects would be efficient vectors to spread the disease into wild populations; such was the case in black abalone populations (Petrovic <em>et al</em>. 2001).
61743		distribution	eng	Follow the link below for Figure 1: map of pinto abalone distribution. <br/> <br/>The range of the pinto abalone extends from Sitka Island, Alaska in the north (Geiger 2000, ABMAP 2003) to Turtle Bay, Baja California in the south (McLean 1966) (Figure 1). In central California, the form merges into the subspecies <em>H. kamtschatkana assimilis</em> (threaded abalone), which occupies the southern part of the range (Cox 1962, McLean 1966, Geiger 2000). The current assessment restricts the discussion to the pinto abalone due to the relative lack of overlap in abundance and to the anecdotally low presence of threaded abalone relative to other abalone species of the south (Cox 1962).
61743		habitat	eng	Pinto abalone are sessile gastropods that exist in patchy distributions (Sloan and Breen 1988). Their preferred habitat is categorized as rocky-shore coastline. At its northern range limit, pinto abalone occur from the intertidal zone to at least 10–20 m depth (Cripps and Campbell 1998), although there are some reports of abalone found at 100 m. In its southern range limit, McLean (1966) described pinto abalone as strictly subtidal, but Cox (1962) claimed that large populations could be found in deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Pinto abalone are herbivores of the intertidal zone, and are prey to a diverse range of predators. Early pinto abalone diet consists of phytoplankton, but at 5 mm (SL) they switch to macro-algae that ranges from minute forms to giant bull kelp (Kawamura <em>et al</em>. 1998). Abalone predators differ depending on the water depth in which they occur. In subtidal waters, their predators include asteroids (<em>Pycnopodia</em> and <em>Astrometis</em>), crabs, fish (<em>Scorpaenichthys</em>, <em>Anarrhichthys</em>, <em>Myliobatis</em>, and <em>Semicossyphus</em>), octopi, and sea otters (<em>Enhydra lutris</em>) (Sloan and Breen 1988, Hobday and Tegner 2000). In intertidal waters, birds, sea otters, and mink are the major predators (Day and Shepherd 1995). The eradication of the sea otter during the 19<sup>th</sup> century led to the increased co-occurrence of sea urchins and abalone. Sea urchins out compete pinto abalone for food resources, which has resulted in "sea urchin barrens"—large areas with high sea urchin populations, no macroalgae and little or no abalone (Jamieson 2001). Nevertheless, sea urchins may provide some enhancement by maintaining encrusting coralline algae cover (Tegner and Levin 1982, McShane 1992) and by affording shelter under their spine canopy to small abalone (Tegner and Dayton 1987).
61743		population	eng	Follow the link below for Tables 1 & 2, and Figures 2, 3 & 4. <br/> <br/>Alaska and British Columbia are the only two regions where targeted commercial fisheries for pinto abalone ever existed. Data from these area consist of catch totals and CPUE values for both regions as well as index site densities from the coast of British Columbia. The percentage of the global population of pinto abalone present in British Columbia and Alaska is not known (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002), however, NMFS (2004b) reported that the pinto distribution predominantly occurs in Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington. Nevertheless, significant populations of pinto abalone are absent south of San Juan, Orcas and Lopez Islands in Washington State (B. Sizemore, Department of Fish and Game, Olympia, WA, pers. comm). Furthermore, Rogers-Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported that pinto abalone are very rare in Northern California, accounting for only <1% of the total abalone population in that region. Due to the scarcity of pinto abalone south of Washington, and since the reported densities in Washington were below the suggested minimum viable density for abalone recruitment in 1996 (Table 1), we made the assumption that Alaska and British Columbia represent the core of the species distribution. <br/> <br/>We estimated the generation time for pinto abalone at about 10 years. This estimate is potentially subjective due to the difficulties in aging and the uncertainties of the stock-recruitment relationships. Breen (1986) speculated that individual pinto abalone could live up to 50 years, but this was an estimate based on a single individual that measured 164 mm (SL). Growth curves suggest that the largest abalone live to be at least 13–15 years of age (Quayle 1971, Sloan and Breen 1988, Shepherd <em>et al</em>. 2000). Furthermore, due to the relationship of increased fecundity with increased size (see Campbell 1997), older abalone contribute more to the total reproductive output of the population than do younger abalone. Considering that reproductive age ranges from approximately 3–4 years old to 13–15 years old, we reached an estimate of 10 years of age for the purpose of this assessment. In order to satisfy the IUCN stipulation for declines observed “over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer” (IUCN 2001), this assessment would require data that extended back 30 years, to about 1974. This is approximately the time period that we used for the assessment, with some limitations due to the data. <br/> <br/><strong>Population in Alaska</strong> <br/>Alaskan fishery CPUE data for the pinto abalone extend back to 1971. A sharp initial increase in both catch as well as CPUE in the early seventies (Fig. 2) was likely an artifact of a developing fishery (Breen 1986). We therefore decided to consider the decline in CPUE from the peak in 1979 to the close of the fishery in 1996. We analyzed the CPUE values against calendar year using a linear regression. The slope of the regression line indicates an observed decline in CPUE of 89.7% between 1979 and 1996 (Table 2). <br/> <br/>The 89.7% decline in CPUE is the only measure of pinto abalone numbers in Alaska, since the region has no abalone index sites. Without index sites, and with the closure of the fishery in 1996, there is no way to determine the current status of Alaskan stocks of pinto abalone. We assume that the patterns in British Columbia reflect the post-closure Alaskan abalone populations as well. <br/> <br/><strong>Population in British Columbia</strong> <br/>There are two types of data from the British Columbia portion of the range: fisheries-dependent and fisheries-independent. The fisheries-dependent data consist of catch and CPUE values that extending back to 1977. Complementing this are fisheries-independent data that consist of densities measured at survey sites throughout the central coast (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1998) and the southeast region of the Queen Charlotte Islands (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2000). Since the fisheries-independent data extend past the 1990 closure of the fishery, they provide a view of the current status of pinto abalone in British Columbia. <br/> <br/>The decline observed in the CPUE data from the British Columbian fishery is less steep that that observed in the Alaskan fishery (Fig. 3). The CPUE values were analyzed against calendar year using a linear regression (Table 2), which demonstrated a 41.4% decline in CPUE between 1977 and 1990. The difference in the percentage decline in CPUE between Alaska and British Columbia is likely a result of different approaches in fisheries management. The initial response to the 1977 expansion in the British Columbia abalone fishery was to establish a limited entry fishery, where managers sought to limited effort (Muse 1998). Limiting the entry, and thus the number of divers in the fishery, served to offset the decreasing catch totals. This reduced the observed decline in CPUE; the opposite of what occurred in the Alaskan fishery where the rapid increase in diver participation in the early 1990s accelerated the decline in CPUE. <br/> <br/>The site index surveys in the southeast Queen Charlotte Islands and in the central coast region demonstrate a much steeper decline in population numbers than do the CPUE data. There was an 88.6% decline between the 1979–80 density of 2.37 abalone/m² and the 2001 density of 0.27 abalone/m² in the central coast of British Columbia (Fig. 4, panel A). Furthermore, there was an 85.5% decline between the 1978 density of 2.75 abalone/m² and the average density of 0.40 abalone/m² in 1990, 1994, 1998, and 2002 in the Queen Charlotte Islands (Fig. 4, panel B). We averaged the densities in the last four surveys of the Queen Charlotte Islands because they represent an apparent levelling out of the decline. There has been no significant increase or decrease in densities observed in that area since the closing of the fishery in 1990 (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The Queen Charlotte Islands index sites are considered accurate estimates of density levels in that region of the pinto abalone distribution. Campbell <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported no significant difference between the density recorded at index sites (0.49 abalone/m²) and the density recorded at other random sites (0.54 abalone/m²) in 1998. Furthermore, these density values are comparable to densities observed in other regions of British Columbia. In a study on Dallain Point and Higgins Pass (central coast of British Columbia), total densities were observed at 0.43 and 0.52 abalone/m², respectively (Cripps and Campbell 1998). Similarly, a survey of abalone populations at Stryker Island, Tribal Group Islands and Simonds Group Islands (also within the central coast of British Columbia) reported densities of 0.71, 0.55 and 0.59 abalone/m², respectively (Campbell and Cripps 1998). Although there are no data that allow for a temporal comparison, the general similarities in observed densities reinforce the findings from the two major studies charting the abalone decline. <br/> <br/>It is important to note that although the above declines are steepest prior to the close of the fishery, and that the index sites indicate very little change over the past decade, there is a great deal of uncertainty involved. So much of pinto abalone biology remains unknown, and despite a number of possible suspects, the reason for the lack of recovery remains a mystery. With densities dangerously close to suggested recruitment thresholds, it is quite possible that the decline, although lessened by the closure of the fishery, may not be recoverable. <br/> <br/><strong>CPUE versus Site Index Densities</strong> <br/>Abalone are vulnerable to serial depletion because they are sessile invertebrates with a moderate ability to aggregate (McShane 1998, Karpov <em>et al</em>. 2000). This characteristic of abalone ecology results in a potential bias when using CPUE data to demonstrate trends in abundance (McShane 1998). CPUE can remain relatively steady despite declining abundance. Due to this bias, the decline in CPUE observed in the Alaskan fishery is possibly an underestimate of the actual drop in abalone numbers—although management decision to leave effort in the fishery unrestricted certainly contributed to increasing the slope of declining CPUE. On the other hand, British Columbian managers successfully limited entry into the latter portion of the fishery, which possibly resulted in the slower observed decline in CPUE. Nonetheless, the British Columbia fishery CPUE trend is also likely an underestimate of the actual decline due to the same bias from harvesting techniques. With the uncertainty attached to both CPUE measures, the best estimate is likely to be the most direct measure available. Since the index sites in British Columbia are direct measurements of abalone density, they likely offer the clearest view of pinto abalone numbers. This view is of a species reduced to dangerously low levels, although levels that appear to be sufficient for persistence given the current conditions.
61743		threats	eng	Follow the link below for figure 5. <br/> <br/><strong>Human Exploitation</strong> <br/>Poaching of pinto abalone is a lucrative enterprise and is likely placing continued stress on the remaining abalone populations (Campbell 1997, Muse 1998, Wallace 1999, Jamieson 2001). This is unsurprising given that the value per diver hour in the British Columbia fishery was over CAD 600 prior to its closure, and continued upwards due to an ever-expanding market demand in Asia (Muse 1998). Wallace (1999) reported that pinto abalone meat could fetch up to CAD 100/kg on the black market in southern British Columbia. Furthermore, recreational divers and First Nations harvesters may also be responsible for a significant amount of illegal abalone collection (Tegner 2000). The combination of this high black-market value and the enforcement problems resulting from a large and uninhabited coastline suggest a major threat to abalone recovery (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>In support of the aforementioned threats, sample data on the size distribution of a seizure of more than 6,700 pinto abalone in British Columbia suggests that poachers are collecting mature abalone with no regard for the legal size limit (Campbell 2000). So in effect, poachers are taking everything that they can find. Maintaining a viable density of reproductive individuals is crucial for recruitment levels and for the survivability of the stock. Extensive poaching effort risks extirpating abalone from local areas, thereby jeopardizing the recovery of the entire population. <br/> <br/>Illegal harvest of pinto abalone is likely to continue to pose a threat to the recovery of the species. The large and mostly uninhabited coastline is a serious hindrance to enforcement efforts (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). Furthermore, the extraordinarily high unit value of pinto abalone makes poaching a very lucrative enterprise (Campbell 2000). The removal of large numbers of mature individuals drastically threatens the reproductive potential of an already depressed population (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). Poachers also represent a major concern to the establishment of protected areas and no-take zones. Such areas are easily flagged as targets for illegal exploitation, which compromises their value as refugia (Tegner 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Recruitment failure</strong> <br/>There is both empirical and theoretical evidence to suggest that abalone are susceptible to recruitment failure at reduced densities (Prince <em>et al</em>. 1988, Shepherd and Partington 1995, Woodby <em>et al</em>. 2000, Jamieson 2001). Shepherd and Partington (1995) reported a minimum recruitment density of 0.15 recruits/m², which renders the population highly susceptible to recruitment over-fishing. Furthermore, there is considerable intra- and inter-annual variation in recruitment and in the production of gametes in individuals (McShane 1998). Reproductive success is also dependent upon the distance between spawners, the number of eggs and sperm released, the speed of water currents as well as other factors (Babcock and Keesing 1999). Because harvesters of abalone tended and still tend to remove all available individuals from each site that they visit, it is expected that the resulting smaller local populations have been, and are currently, at risk of experiencing recruitment failure. <br/> <br/><strong>Predation by Sea Otters</strong> <br/>Sea otters are effective predators of abalone (Wendell 1994, Watson 2000). They currently overlap with pinto abalone in only the northernmost reaches of the pinto distribution (Fig. 5, panel B) (Watson 2000, Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Due to this partial overlap, it is doubtful that sea otters are responsible for the observed decline in abalone populations over the last few decades. Nevertheless, sea otter numbers are increasing as a result of strong conservation efforts (Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Where pinto abalone and sea otters coexist, sea otters are thought to consume abalone in significant numbers (Watson 2000). A study investigating the impact of sea otters on <em>H. rufescens</em> (red abalone) in California reported that the effects of predators on abalone abundance were greater than the effects of recreational harvesting (Fanshawe <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The range of the sea otter historically encompassed the entire range of the pinto abalone (Fig. 5, panel A). Over-exploitation throughout the Western Pacific rim at the end of the 18<sup>th</sup> century led to the extirpation of the sea otter in British Columbia, Washington, most of California, and much of Alaska (Wendell 1994, Watson 2000, Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Following translocations in California, and reintroductions in the 1970s in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Southeast Alaska, the sea otter is rapidly re-establishing itself (Fig. 5, panel B) (Watson 2000, Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). This expansion will likely result in a decrease in pinto abalone populations (Watson 2000). In one location along the California coast, the reintroduction of sea otters to the region resulted in a 93% decline in local red abalone populations (Wendell 1994). Another study reported sea otter predation on red abalone had a larger effect on abalone densities than did recreational harvesting (Fanshawe <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat and Ecological Shifts</strong> <br/>With the localized nature of the abalone stock recruitment relations, pinto populations are very susceptible to development and habitat destruction (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). Furthermore, ecological shifts due to increased urchin densities may also play a factor in current pinto abalone recovery. Abalone growth may be restricted by the presence of sea urchins when food supplies are limited (Tegner and Levin 1982). Researchers in British Columbia monitoring the decline of pinto abalone at index sites, however, have not indicated that urchins are an immediate threat (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1998, Cripps and Campbell 1998). <br/> <br/><strong>Disease</strong> <br/>The large and continuing decline of <em>H. cracherodii</em> (black abalone) in California (Petrovic <em>et al</em>. 2001) is partly a result of Withering Syndrome, and has raised concerns that other species of abalone may also be in danger from contagious pathogens. Laboratory studies of the bacterium responsible for Withering Syndrome, <em>Candidatus xenohaliotis californiensis</em>, indicate that it is capable of infecting other species of abalone (Lafferty and Kuris 1993). Furthermore, the bacterium could be viable in the cooler waters found in Washington and British Columbia (Lafferty and Kuris 1993), especially with the potential for rising sea temperatures due to global warming. Nonetheless, it is important to note that to date there have been no recorded instances of Withering Syndrome in pinto abalone. Furthermore, Tegner (2000) implicated abalone culturing enterprises in the spread of pathogens in some cases. The potential for acting as a vector warrants attention in the event that pinto abalone transplantations are attempted in the core distribution.
61745		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, though one has been recommended for Tchabal Mbabo.    More information is needed on this species'&#160; population status and natural history.
61745		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the southern slopes of Mount Tchabal Mbabo at 1,700-2,100m asl on the Adamawa Plateau in western Cameroon. It is unlikely to occur on the northern slopes, at least not at the altitude of the type locality, because the forest habitat on the northern slopes at this altitude is very different from the gallery forest on the southern slopes.
61745		habitat	eng	It lives in montane gallery forest, and is associated with streams, in which it presumably breeds by larval development. Individuals have been found under large stones around shallow pools adjacent to a creek. They were calling at night during the dry season.
61745		population	eng	There is little information, although it is likely to be common within its small range, since 73 specimens were collected close together, suggesting a high concentration of animals.
61745		threats	eng	The remaining forest habitat on Tchabal Mbabo is now confined to galleries and steep inaccessible slopes, as a result of the clearing of forest for pasture. However, much of the forested habitat that can be easily removed has now been cleared. The forest is also threatened by fire.
61746		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61746		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 1,300-1,600m asl on Pico Caratuva, in Campina Grande do Sul Municipality, Paraná State, Brazil. The limits of its distribution are not yet known.
61746		habitat	eng	This species is found in thick leaf-litter in Atlantic forest. It is active by day, and has been observed from November to April (though it is active mainly from December to February). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61746		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
61746		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the substantial deforestation and fragmentation that the Atlantic forest has been subject to due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61747		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61747		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at around 1,300m asl on Pico Torre da Prata, between the municipalities of Guaratuba and Paranaguá in Paraná State, Brazil. The limits of its distribution are not yet known.
61747		habitat	eng	This species is found in thick leaf-litter in Atlantic forest, where it is active by day, with the males calling from exposed positions in the leaf-litter. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61747		population	eng	It is locally abundant.
61747		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the substantial deforestation and fragmentation that the Atlantic forest has been subject to due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61748		conservation	eng	The species is known from some protected areas (Flavio Baldissera in litt. 2005).
61748		distribution	eng	This species is found at altitudes of less than 1,000 m in the southern Atlantic Forest of Brazil; through eastern Santa Catarina and Paraná States, to northern Rio Grande do Sul State.
61748		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to lowland Atlantic Forest. It presumably reproduces by larval development in backwaters of streams and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.
61748		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61748		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.
61749		conservation	eng	The only known localities for this species are within the Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba, and Parque Nacional Madidi.
61749		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, at 2,820m asl, at Laitique on the banks of the river Pelechuco, around five hours walk downstream from the village of Pelechuco towards Apolo, in Franz Tamayo Province, La Paz Department, Bolivia. It is also likely to occur in other areas of the Cordillera de Apolobamba, including nearby Peru.
61749		habitat	eng	It is known from a steep area in the upper reaches of the cloud forest. Active individuals were found during the day and night on the forest floor and paths. This species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61749		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61749		threats	eng	It is threatened by heavy subsistence agriculture, cattle grazing, and timber collection for house construction and firewood, which has reduced much nearby habitat to secondary forest.
61750		conservation	eng	The species is known from Corcovado, Braulio Carrillo, and Carara National Parks in Costa Rica.
61750		distribution	eng	This species is known from 25-500m asl in far north-western Panama and western Costa Rica, from the Golfo Dulce area, north to the Rio Baru near Dominical.
61750		habitat	eng	Adults seem to be restricted to forested habitats from tree plantations to primary forest, but reproduction can occur in highly degraded habitats (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). They breed in streams and rivers during the dry season (Mid-December to March), being uncommon but still reproductive at the end of the dry period (April) (Savage 2002; O'Neill and Mendelson 2004; Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). The breeding stream requirements appear to be a wide, low-gradient, gravel or rocky stream with small isolated pools with sun exposure.
61750		population	eng	It is a very abundant species (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).
61750		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.)
61751		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in the lower reaches of the Omilterne Reserve. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further research is required to investigate the potential threat posed by chytridiomycosis.
61751		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a relatively narrow altitudinal band around 750-1,000m asl on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca states, Mexico. Most specimens have been collected around the private hacienda of Agua del Obispo, along the old highway between Tierra Colorada and Chilpancingo, Guerrero. One other series is known from Putla de Guerrero, about 150km east on the same slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur, Oaxaca. The distribution is presumed to be continuous between these two localities at mid elevations, and might well continue further east or west as this region is undersampled for amphibians.
61751		habitat	eng	This species is known from the ecotone of scattered small pines and brush between lower altitude tropical deciduous forest and higher altitude pine-oak forest. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61751		population	eng	Field notes and collections by E.H. Taylor, H.M. Smith, and W.E. Duellman in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s indicate that this species was common in the Agua del Obispo area. Approximately five weeks of fieldwork there during 2000 and 2003 resulted in the discovery of just a single individual, indicating a probable serious decline.
61751		threats	eng	Although this species is believed to be tolerant of some degree of habitat alteration, such as selective logging, large-scale agricultural clearance and agrochemicals are likely to cause significant impacts. There is no direct evidence that chytridiomycosis is a threat to this species, but chytrid is known from this locality (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2004) and the drastic population decline is consistent with such an impact.
61752		conservation	eng	The species is known from some protected areas (F. Baldissera in litt. 2005).
61752		distribution	eng	This species is found at altitudes of under 1,000 m in the southern Atlantic Forest of Brazil; in Rio Grande do Sul State and southern Santa Catarina State, north to the west side of the Serra Geral mountains.
61752		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the Atlantic Forest. It presumably reproduces by larval development in backwaters of streams and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.
61752		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61752		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.
61753		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61753		distribution	eng	This species is known from 2,600-3,000m asl in Paucartambo de Pasco Valley in Pasco Department, in the Cordillera Oriental of central Peru. The limits of its distributional range are unknown.
61753		habitat	eng	This species is known from cloud forests, and it is presumed to have a larval development breeding strategy.
61753		population	eng	No information is currently available on its population status.
61753		threats	eng	The main threats to it are intensive agriculture and uncontrolled deforestation.
61754		conservation	eng	This species is known in Brazil from Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, Tinguá and Poço das Antas Biological Reserves, Reserva Florestal de Morro Grande and Parque Estadual do Desengano, and possibly Iguazú National Park in Argentina.
61754		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil; from southern Espírito Santo State, through Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States, to northern Paraná State. It is also possibly found in northeast Argentina, in Misiones and Corrientes Provinces. It can be found from sea level to close to 1,000m asl.
61754		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to lowland Atlantic Forest. Reproduction involves eggs and exotrophic tadpoles in lentic water (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It is found near and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.
61754		population	eng	It is the most abundantly collected species in Reserva Biológica do Morro Grande (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).
61754		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.
61755		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61755		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around 335m asl in Tepalcatepec Valley (the western extension of the Balsas Basin) in Michoacán State, Mexico. However, although it does not occur along the Michoacán coast, it is likely to be widespread in the Balsas Basin (Duellman 1961; Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2005).
61755		habitat	eng	It is known from grassy areas with areas of mesquite shrub, numerous reddish rocks and barren areas. Breeding choruses were noted in muddy ditches and flooded grass fields after heavy rains in June and August (Duellman 1961). This species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61755		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
61755		threats	eng	Although it is believed likely to be quite tolerant of disturbance such as cattle ranching, severe habitat alteration and agricultural chemicals could be detrimental to it.
61756		conservation	eng	This species is known from Caparaó National Park, Peti Biological Reserve and Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça.
61756		distribution	eng	This species is known only from c. 700-1,500 m altitude Minas Gerais State in eastern Brazil, from the Atlantic Forest west to areas of transition with the Cerrado.
61756		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the Atlantic Forest and areas of transition between this and Cerrado habitats. It presumably reproduces by larval development in backwaters of streams and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.
61756		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61756		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.
61757		conservation	eng	It is known from at least one protected area: Parque Nacional La Tigra.
61757		distribution	eng	This species is known from at least 1,584-2,100m asl in the Montañas de Comayagua region in the departments of Comayagua, Francisco Morazán, and La Paz, in Honduras. Accurate knowledge of the range is hindered by the close resemblance of this species to <em>Bufo ibarrai</em>.
61757		habitat	eng	The habitat within the range of this species is moist forest.
61757		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
61757		threats	eng	It is likely to be a candidate for impacts from chytridiomycosis and habitat loss (given the drastic declines of the presumed sister species, <em>B. ibarrai</em>, in Guatemala).
61758		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61758		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific Coast of Panama; in the vicinity of the city of David, and then from the Province of Veraguas eastward towards the Canal Zone.
61758		habitat	eng	The areas that this species is found in correspond to the tropical dry forests of the Pacific coast of Panama. Males have been found calling in a weedy, shallow, muddy roadside pool. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61758		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61758		threats	eng	Although the species is believed likely to be quite tolerant of disturbance such as cattle ranching, severe habitat alteration and agricultural chemicals could be detrimental.
61759		conservation	eng	It is known from Parque Provincial Fachinal and the Reserva Privada Puerto San Juan.
61759		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities in the south of Misiones Province, Argentina, at around 165m asl. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61759		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is found in wet grasslands with rush communities, and in scattered forests. Breeding occurs from March to May, and August to September, in small, shallow, temporary streams running over basaltic beds. Egg masses are attached to submerged rocks or vegetation in the streams.
61759		population	eng	No information is available on its population status.
61759		threats	eng	No information is available on threats that it faces.
61760		conservation	eng	On the Brazilian side, the tepui it was found on is protected within Parque Nacional de Monte Roraima.
61760		distribution	eng	This species is known from one specimen collected at 2,280m asl on Wei-Assipu tepui, Sima de los Guácharos, on the Guyana-Brazil border.
61760		habitat	eng	It was found on moss in a wet forest at the bottom of a large chasm. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61760		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
61760		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, as a result of its remote location.
61761		conservation	eng	Mount Iboundji has been proposed as a Biodiversity Sanctuary, due to its botanical and herpetological values, but no protection status has been granted to date.
61761		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens from the type locality at 560m asl on the east flank of Mount Iboundji, Massif du Chaillu, Offoué-Onoy Department, Ogooué-Lolo Province, Gabon. Searches at a second waterfall on Mount Iboundji and at many other waterfalls in Gabon, revealed no further records of this species. However, it is possible that it occurs at other waterfalls, particularly in the Chaillu Massif, although it must be localized.
61761		habitat	eng	This species is known only from among rocks at the edge of a plunge pool at the base of a large waterfall in lowland forest. It is presumed to be a larval developer.
61761		population	eng	Unlike most congeners, which are often locally very abundant, this species appears to be very rare; only two individuals could be located in 20 person-hours of searching.
61761		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is logging, which is ongoing, but has not yet reached the waterfall basin where the species occurs. Even if logging occurs nearby, it is likely to modify temperature, humidity, and available food, and so have serious consequences for this species which, like its congeners, is dependent on high humidity.
61762		conservation	eng	An ecotourism project has been established at Mount Kupe for some time, and aims to reduce hunting and agricultural expansion. In addition, a Strict Nature Reserve (Réserve Écologique Intégrale) has been proposed for the area. A management plan has been in preparation with the aim of designating most of the Bakossi Mountains as Protection Forest (55,000ha).
61762		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nyasoso on the south-west side of Mount Kupe at 910m asl, and from 800-1,200m asl in the Bakossi Mountains (including the Mwendelengo Mountains), Cameroon. A specimen collected in the vicinity of Nkongsamba (Maholé, 10km north-west of Tombel, Bakossi Forest Reserve, at 300-350m asl), may also belong to this species, as may specimens from Mofako in the Rumpi Hills. However, it is not believed likely to occur much more widely, given its specific habitat preferences and lack of habitat in the general area.
61762		habitat	eng	On Mount Kupe, this species was found in a transition zone between good quality secondary forest and undisturbed primary forest. The species has been found during the day along a stream, under rocks in a partly dried-up river basin, and on stony ground between wet, very low vegetation in the spray zone of a small, artificial waterfall. It is presumed to be a larval developer.
61762		population	eng	This species is often locally abundant.
61762		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being steadily deforested for cultivation (particularly since human populations in the area are growing quickly) and several logging companies hope to start large-scale logging operations soon in the Bakossi/Mwendelengo Mountains. Even if deforestation does not eliminate the habitat of this species, it is likely to significantly alter temperature, humidity, and available food, and so have serious consequences for this species which, like its congeners, is dependent on high humidity. Near Nyassosso, the household use of detergents in rivers is also a potential threat.
61763		conservation	eng	The sole known locality for this species is within a protected area: Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado.
61763		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 300m asl at the north-east base of the Serranía de Huanchaca, Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, in Velasco Province, Santa Cruz State, Bolivia. It might occur more widely, and it probably also occurs in adjacent Brazil.
61763		habitat	eng	This frog probably requires pristine aquatic habitats and closed-canopy, primary rainforest. Individuals have been found perched on vegetation along a sandy stream bed, which was seasonally reduced to pools. It is presumed to be a stream breeder with fossorial larvae.
61763		population	eng	This species appears to be rare, as numerous subsequent visits failed to find any individuals after its original description.
61763		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
61764		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur within the 2,500 ha Reserva Biológica Bilsa, managed by Fundación Jatun Sacha, which, in turn, is located within the Mache Chindul Ecological Reserve, and also within Canandé Biological Reserve.
61764		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Cordillera Mache-Chindul, and is endemic to the seasonal evergreen forest of the West Ecuadorian Region, Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. It is found from 100-510 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
61764		habitat	eng	It is known from seasonal evergreen foothill forest, and individuals have been found at night on vegetation 1-1.6 m above the ground near streams in primary and old secondary forests. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61764		population	eng	It appears to be rare, although this may be due to the fact that the species generally inhabits the forest canopy and may be hard to locate.
61764		threats	eng	The Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve represents the last sizeable block of forest in the northern coastal hills of northwestern Ecuador. Unfortunately, the area is under significant pressure from logging.
61765		conservation	eng	This species is known from Henri Pittier, Yacambú, San Esteban, and Morrocoy National Parks, and might occur in others.
61765		distribution	eng	This species is known from 150-1,700 m altitude in the Coastal Cordillera in Aragua and Carabobo States, the northern portion of the Cordillera de Mérida (Lara State), and the east coast of Falcon State, northwestern Venezuela.
61765		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland to lower montane humid forest, usually very near rivers and streams where it breeds. The reproductive season probably corresponds to the beginning of the rainy season (locally usually from May to June). The species' diet seems to comprise solely arthropods.
61765		population	eng	The species is common in riverine forest but rare in semi-deciduous forest.
61765		threats	eng	The main threat in the Cordillera de Mérida is deforestation for small-scale agriculture, including coffee. This is also a threat lower down (though including cacao, rather than coffee), and in both cases pesticide pollution is increasingly exacerbating habitat degradation. Near coastal parts of its range, threats come more from fire and substantial uncontrolled tourist development in and near protected areas.
61766		conservation	eng	Its known range is protected as all Venezuelan tepuis are designated as national monument protected areas.
61766		distribution	eng	This species is known from 350-685m asl on the slopes and summit of Cerro Santa Rosa, in the Serranía del Supamo, Bolívar State, Venezuela.
61766		habitat	eng	It is known from tall evergeen forest, where it occurs both in forest floor litter along creeks and at quiet pools along small streams. It has only been found in streams that do not have large fish, and that originate from the summit of Cerro Santa Rosa. It is presumed to be a larval developing species.
61766		population	eng	There is no information currently available regarding its population status.
61766		threats	eng	No information is currently available regarding its major threats.
61767		conservation	eng	It is not currently known to occur in any protected areas.
61767		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 150-200m asl at the base of Cerro Sipapo, on the banks of Tobogán del Cuao, Amazonas State, Venezuela. The limits to its range remain unknown.
61767		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is known from medium to tall evergreen forest, where individuals were found on large rocks on the bank of a stream. Larvae were collected from the back of a male, and from a small pool beside a stream.
61767		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61767		threats	eng	No information is currently available regarding threats to this species.
61768		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61768		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, around 5km west of Porto Walter on the Rio Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. The limits of its range remain unknown.
61768		habitat	eng	It is known from primary lowland forest, often in treefall gaps, where individuals were found on logs 5-70cm above the ground, and also in wood shavings on the ground. One was also located resting on a leaf at night. Larvae were found in a pool formed in the trunk of a large fallen tree, and also being transported on the back of an adult male.
61768		population	eng	This species is not common.
61768		threats	eng	This species was presumably greatly impacted by the conversion of the area from which the species was found into cattle pasture.
61769		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
61769		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen, collected at around 7m asl near Rockstone along the Essequibo River, upper Demerara-Berbice (formerly Mazaruni Potaro) District, Guyana. There does not appear to be any reason why this species should not occur more widely, but apparently the species has not been searched for since the original specimen was collected.
61769		habitat	eng	The habitat around the type locality is flooded riparian tall evergreen forest, and this species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61769		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
61769		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
61770		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and improved habitat protection is clearly needed.
61770		distribution	eng	This species is known from sea level to 300m asl along the coasts of north-eastern São Paulo and south-western Rio de Janeiro States, south-east Brazil.
61770		habitat	eng	This species occurs near very straight, flowing streams inside lowland Atlantic forest. During the day, adults can be found in bromeliads in high trees or in coiled leaves of Musaceae and Marantaceae vegetation. Males call at night from similar locations, and bushes or banana trees. Breeding is concentrated from August to January. The larvae are lotic-benthic, hiding between stones and pebbles on the sandy substrate of narrow canopied forest streams.
61770		population	eng	No information is currently available on its population status.
61770		threats	eng	The Atlantic forest in which this species occurs has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Forest is increasingly being cleared for coastal development projects.
61771		conservation	eng	This species has not been confirmed from any protected areas.
61771		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, at 510m asl at Campo de Fruticultura da Bocaina, São José do Barreiro Municipality, in the Serro do Mar of São Paulo State, Brazil. It is believed that it might also occur through the Serra do Mar range from Rio de Janeiro almost to Santa Catarina State.
61771		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in montane forest and is thought to be a larval developing species. However, it has only been described from preserved specimens, so there is no direct information available regarding its habitat and ecology.
61771		population	eng	This species does not appear to be rare.
61771		threats	eng	This species is thought to be threatened due to changing land use practices in the Atlantic forest where it occurs. This region has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale forest clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61772		conservation	eng	This species is known from Parque Municipal Pico do Goiapaba-Açu in Espíritu Santo, and Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Mata do Sossego and Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, Minas Gerais. It is likely to also occur in a number of other protected areas.
61772		distribution	eng	This species is known from 655-850 m altitude and higher in the northern sector of the Serra da Mantiqueira range in Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais States, south-east Brazil. It is ecologically separated from other members of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyla circumdata</span> group by surrounding low-lying rift valleys.
61772		habitat	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic Forest, with individuals most often found near streams, at least sometimes perching at up to 1.8 m above the ground. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61772		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61772		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. The habitat within the range of this species is likely not severely fragmented yet.
61773		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, a state protected area.
61773		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 1,180m asl on the Serra do Ibitipoca, in Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, Conceição do Ibitipoca, Lima Duarte Municipality, in the southern part of the Serra da Mantiqueira in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It is not clear whether or not it occurs more widely in Minas Gerais and Espíritu Santo States.
61773		habitat	eng	This species occurs in gallery forests along creeks surrounded by rocky mountain fields. Individuals were most often found on bushes along the creeks, perched 20-200cm above the ground. Larvae were observed to be nocturnal, and were found in creeks with rocky bottoms and riffles and pools in gallery forest.
61773		population	eng	It is quite common at the type locality.
61773		threats	eng	This species is threatened by substantial deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest in which it is found. This has arisen due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and for crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. The habitat within the likely range of this species is severely fragmented.
61774		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected area, but probably occurs in Parque Nacional Madidi at least.
61774		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities at 550-800 m altitude close to the village of Sapecho on the eastern edge of the Andes in La Paz Departament, Bolivia. It is likely that the species is distributed more widely within the South-West Amazonian ecoregion, and might thus also occur in adjacent Peru.
61774		habitat	eng	This species is known from sub-Andean rainforest. Males were found calling from coffee plants as well as bushes at forest edges and within larger clearings, and the species seems very tolerant to habitat disturbance. The species is presumed to be a larval developer, and to breed in small permanent ponds.
61774		population	eng	At least in some localities, this species is very common during the rainy season.
61774		threats	eng	Much forest in the vicinity of the type locality is being cleared for agriculture. However, as noted above, the species appears to be very tolerant to habitat degradation.
61775		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61775		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 1,200m asl in the Poços de Caldas region of Minas Gerais State, eastern Brazil.
61775		habitat	eng	It is known from montane Atlantic forest. It is presumed to be a larval developer, and to use streams for breeding.
61775		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61775		threats	eng	Its habitat in the Atlantic forest in which it occurs is threatened by substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61776		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
61776		distribution	eng	This species is found in Córdoba and San Luis Provinces, in the highlands of central Argentina.
61776		habitat	eng	There is very little information on its habitat requirements or ecology, although it is presumed to be a larval developing species.
61776		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
61776		threats	eng	There is no direct information on the threats to this species.
61777		conservation	eng	This species' type locality is in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca, a private forest reserve managed by the sugarcane farm and distillation plant Usina Frei Caneca. Given the presence of the chytrid fungus, long-term monitoring of this population is desirable, as are surveys for other populations.
61777		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 700m asl in the Serra do Quengo in Jaqueira Municipality, Pernambuco State, north-east Brazil. However, surveys in Pernambuco have been limited to date and this species might occur more widely.
61777		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is in forest near a small, shallow stream that is about 1m wide and 0.5m deep. Individuals were found on branches 0.5-1m above the ground. Larvae were found in slow-moving parts of the same stream, and a spherical mass of around 30 eggs was found attached to a fallen plant stem under the water.
61777		population	eng	No information on its population status is currently available.
61777		threats	eng	It is not known whether or not this species is impacted by habitat loss. However, most of the larvae collected exhibited oral disk abnormalities, which have been associated with chytrid fungus infection in some stream-dwelling amphibian species. The species in fact tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> (Carnaval et al., 2006).
61778		conservation	eng	One of the two locations from which this species is known is inside Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.
61778		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Minas Gerais State in eastern Brazil: from the vicinity of Itatiaia National Park in the Serra da Mantiqueira at around 2,160m asl, and from Marmelópolis Municipality at around 1,200m asl.
61778		habitat	eng	It is known from montane Atlantic forest, where it is presumed to be a larval developing species, and to use streams for breeding.
61778		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61778		threats	eng	It is threatened by the substantial deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest in which it occurs. This has arisen due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61779		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas, including Parque Nacional Descobrimento, Parque Estadual Serra do Conduru, Reserva Biológica de Sooretama, Reserva Biológica de Una, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural (RPPN) Ecoparque de Una, RPPN Estação Veracruz, and Reserva Sapiranga.
61779		distribution	eng	This species occurs at c. 142 m altitude along the eastern Brazilian coast, from northern Espírito Santo and northeastern Minas Gerais through eastern Bahia to southern Sergipe States.
61779		habitat	eng	This species is known from primary and secondary forest, including forest borders, gallery forest and even some open habitats, within the Atlantic Forest, and appears able to tolerate a degree of habitat degradation. Individuals are usually found on vegetation around temporary ponds or stream pools. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61779		population	eng	This species is common within its range.
61779		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61780		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61780		distribution	eng	This species is known from La Rioja and Catamarca Provinces in north-west Argentina.
61780		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be a larval developer and to breed in water, but there is very little other information on its habitat and ecological requirements.
61780		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61780		threats	eng	There is no information currently available concerning the threats to this species.
61781		conservation	eng	It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, however there are protected areas to the west of the species' current known range which it might occur in.
61781		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Gulf and Western Provinces of Papua New Guinea between the Purari and the Fly rivers, and including Daru Island, off the southern coast of Papua New Guinea. It is found from sea level up to 1,100m asl. Its range might extend further to the west and east, but this requires confirmation.
61781		habitat	eng	Some specimens collected from mainland New Guinea were found in a sago swamp. Specimens on Daru Island were found calling beside roadside ditches on the outskirts of town suggesting that it might be able to tolerate significant levels of habitat disturbance. It is a pond-breeding species with larval development. Further information is needed regards the habitat and ecology of this species.
61781		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
61781		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present.
61782		conservation	eng	Much of the species' range falls within the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and it is also found in Cape Tribulation National Park. Further work is needed to sustainably manage rainforest habitats outside this World Heritage Area.
61782		distribution	eng	This species is found on the east coast of Australia in north-east Queensland, from the Barron River drainage and river drainages flowing east from the Atherton Tablelands, south to the Murray River (around 20km south of Tully), and from an apparently isolated population in the Broken River catchment.
61782		habitat	eng	It is restricted to rainforest where it usually occurs near streams, and it appears to construct water-filled basins for oviposition (Richards and Alford 1992; Richards 1993b).
61782		population	eng	No information is currently available on its population status.
61782		threats	eng	Where this species occurs outside protected areas in the Queensland wet tropics it is threatened by severe deforestation for cattle pastures and cultivation of sugar cane, as well as by logging and infrastructure development.
61783		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas.
61783		distribution	eng	This species is known from a limited area of the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea, above 1,500m asl.
61783		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from vegetation 2-3m above the ground around fishpools. It seems that this species is able to breed anywhere where there are ponds, and it has been found in forest as well as in inhabited areas such as rural gardens.
61783		population	eng	It is a common species.
61783		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it at present.
61784		conservation	eng	Although it is found in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, which might be presumed to afford its habitat some degree of protection, this area is not in fact secure from logging.
61784		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species from Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, is so far only known from the main ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, about 10km west of the Umar Bay coast, at about 950m asl. It might occur more widely.
61784		habitat	eng	It was discovered in undisturbed, mossy rainforest, where it lives on shrubs and trees (in particular <em>Pandanus</em> spp.) at heights of 2-6m above the ground, around a swamp. All animals were within 50m of stagnant water, in which they are presumed to breed. It appears not to be associated with streams.
61784		population	eng	It appears to be reasonably common in its type locality.
61784		threats	eng	The area in which this species occurs is scheduled for logging.
61785		conservation	eng	Nearby, a tree kangaroo-focused conservation project is working with local communities to try to establish a network of conservation areas, which would also safeguard other species such as this frog.
61785		distribution	eng	This species was collected on a ridge above Surim Camp at around 1,280m asl in the eastern Finisterre Mountains of the Huon Peninsula, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
61785		habitat	eng	It was collected in lower montane mossy rainforest. Individuals were found during the day, well camouflaged against the bark of large tree trunks that had been felled to create a small agricultural garden. No free-standing water occurred anywhere on this ridge or in the near vicinity. Its breeding habits are unknown.
61785		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens.
61785		threats	eng	The most likely threat to this species in this region is clearance of forest for smallholder agricultural gardens.
61786		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61786		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species from Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, is so far only known from two populations near the south-western coast of Umar Bay at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, at 5-10m asl. It might occur more widely.
61786		habitat	eng	Both known populations are in periodically flooded forest swamps, one within 500m of the sea, and the other within 2,000m of the sea. It has been found in selectively logged forest with a closed canopy, in dense secondary-growth shrubs near a newly built road, and on the forest margin. Animals have been found 1-2.5m above ground on leaves of bushes in boggy areas, including on <em>Pandanus</em> spp. It probably has larval development, but the embryo might develop in eggs outside water.
61786		population	eng	There is little information on its population status, but it appears to be reasonably common at its only known localities.
61786		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, which is at least somewhat adaptable.
61787		conservation	eng	Although it is found in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, which might be presumed to afford its habitat some degree of protection, this area is not in fact secure from logging.
61787		distribution	eng	This newly discovered species from Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, is so far known only from the eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, about 7km west of the Umar Bay coast, at about 650m asl. It might occur more widely.
61787		habitat	eng	It is known only from primary rainforest, where a pair in amplexus was found in water 40cm deep in a small, temporary swamp, close to an intermittent stream. Calling males were perching on trees and shrubs 2-5m above ground in and around the swamp.
61787		population	eng	There is very little information on its population status. Only four specimens are known.
61787		threats	eng	The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging.
61788		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
61788		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the east coast of Australia, from the Hawkesbury-Nepean River system of the State of New South Wales to the headwaters of the Mitchell River, western tributaries of the Barron River drainage, and east-flowing streams of the Paluma Range in the State of Queensland.
61788		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, usually along rocky streams, including pastoral lands. Males are often found some distance from water. Eggs are laid in streams at the edge of areas of slow water or partly under small rocks on the bottom of the stream. Egg masses adhere to rocks, sedges, or bottom sediment.
61788		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. However, declines have been noted in some areas, including in high-altitude forests of northeastern New South Wales.
61788		threats	eng	This species is fairly resilient to habitat alteration.
61789		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61789		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Fazenda Gravatá, Santo Amaro das Brotas Municipality, Sergipe State, north-east Brazil.
61789		habitat	eng	It is known from an area of white sandy soil with patches of shrubby vegetation, where individuals were collected in bromeliads (in which this species is presumed to breed by larval development).
61789		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
61789		threats	eng	Its threats are unknown.
61790		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, although it might occur within the Reserva Biológica de Una.
61790		distribution	eng	This species is known from just three localities from sea level up to 400m asl in coastal Bahia State, north-eastern Brazil.
61790		habitat	eng	At São José da Vitória, this species was found in a hilly region of primary forest that had been selectively logged to be underplanted with cacao. Individuals were found in bromeliads grouped on trunks of large trees, at 6-8m above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by larval development in bromeliads, and is thus unlikely to be tolerant of habitat alteration.
61790		population	eng	There is no information available on its population status.
61790		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by the pressures on the Atlantic forest in which it occurs. This region has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and for crops such as sugar cane, coffee, cacao and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61791		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and protection and maintenance of remaining habitat in the region is urgently required. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status and whether or not it is still extant; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals would need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme.
61791		distribution	eng	This species is known from 1,100-1,220m asl on Cerro Las Flores, a semi-isolated uplifted area that is part of the fragmented Sierra Mixe, in south-central Oaxaca, Mexico. Many hylids in this region have been found to be localized endemics.
61791		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from cloud forest. One individual was found on vegetation 1.8m above a small stream. Tadpoles were found in pools in this stream, which contained little flowing water at the time, and coursed through large boulders at the bottom of a deep ravine. Tadpoles were found in several similar streams nearby.
61791		population	eng	No information is currently available on the species' population status, but it is possible that is has undergone a serious decline due to chytridiomycosis, and the only known population might already be extinct.
61791		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is habitat loss, and large expanses of forest are being cleared in this region. In addition, many of the tadpoles found at Cerro Las Flores possessed deformed or missing mouthparts, which might indicate infection with chytridiomycosis. Indeed, the specific name of this species is derived from the Greek ephemeros, meaning shortlived, referring to the ominous observation that chytridiomycosis might be present.
61792		conservation	eng	This species is known from at least one protected area: Parque Provincial Piñalito.
61792		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in Misiones Province, Argentina: Campo Anexo INTA "Cuartel Rio Victoria", at 1,272km along Ruta Nacional 14, San Vicente, in Guarany Department; Parque Provincial Piñalito in San Pedro Department; and Villa Cabureí in Iguazu Department. Specimens treated as <em>Scinax cf. berthae</em> by Kwet and Di-Bernardo (1999) and by Kwet (2001) could instead be <em>S. aromothyella</em>, in which case this species is also distributed in some areas of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, but the limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61792		habitat	eng	Although two individuals were collected along a stream in forest, this species is found most commonly in open areas around permanent or semi-permanent water bodies, particularly during or immediately after heavy rains in the months of December, January, and February. Males usually call from emergent vegetation just above the water surface. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.
61792		population	eng	There is no information currently available regarding its population status.
61792		threats	eng	There is no information currently available on threats to it.
61793		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61793		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution within Goiás State, Brazil. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61793		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Cerrado habitat. Reproductive activity was observed between December and March, in permanent ponds in open areas.
61793		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61793		threats	eng	The Cerrado has historically been altered through shifting agriculture, but is now being heavily impacted by large-scale cattle ranching, soy, corn, and irrigated rice.
61794		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas.
61794		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 1,314m asl at Alto Palácio (the type locality), and the nearby Serra do Caraça, both in Santana do Riacho Municipality, Minas Gerais State, south-east Brazil.
61794		habitat	eng	Individuals were found during the day in rocky grasslands sheltered under rocks, moss, fallen logs, arum leaves, and within bromeliad rosettes, close to temporary puddles, ponds and swamps, as well as in backwaters of temporary streams surrounded by vegetation. These varied aquatic habitats comprise the breeding habitat. Males call at night, from shrubby vegetation and occasionally on the ground, throughout the rainy season (October-March), and also during the dry season if there is water available for larval development. Clutches of about 400 eggs are placed on the bottom of water bodies, usually on submerged vegetation. The larvae are diurnal and live in aquatic habitats with abundant aquatic vegetation.
61794		population	eng	Its population status is not known.
61794		threats	eng	No information is currently available on the threats to this species.
61795		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas.
61795		distribution	eng	This species ranges from western and southern Cameroon (where it avoids the coastal plain) south through Gabon and Congo to the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and western Democratic Republic of Congo. In Cameroon is occurs at 500-800m, but it occurs close to sea-level in Congo. The western limits of its distribution are unknown, and the boundary between this species and Hyperolius nasutus in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo are also unknown. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea, but there do not appear to be any records from this country yet.
61795		habitat	eng	It is a species of open secondary habitats in the forest zone that does not occur in closed-canopy forest. It breeds in marshes and pools (often human-made). It is able to colonise open habitats inside undisturbed forest, presumably travelling through unsuitable habitat to do so.
61795		population	eng	There is little information, but it appears to be a common species.
61795		threats	eng	No threats are known, and it is presumably increasing with forest clearance.
61796		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61796		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western and southwestern Cameroon, where it occurs between 450 and 1,200m in the foothills and slower slopes of the "Dorsale Camerounaise", in the Mbam River valley, east to the Bamileke and Bamoun Platueas, extending as far as Makouopnsap. It might extend further north and east than current records suggest, but it is unlikely to occur much further west.
61796		habitat	eng	It is a species of secondary "farmbush" habitats resulting from the degradation on forest, occurring in degraded gallery forests in the east of its range. It is usually found close to streams, and it is probable that it breeds in small pools along streams.
61796		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
61796		threats	eng	Since it is an adaptable species, it is probably not significantly threatened.
61797		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and its habitat in the Bakossi Mountains should be protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
61797		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the Edib Hills in the Bakossi Mountains in south-western Cameroon at an altitude of 1,100-1,250m asl. Surveys in nearby areas, such as Mount Kupe and Mount Nlonako, have not located this species, and it is probably endemic to the Bakossi Mountains.
61797		habitat	eng	All specimens have been found on the outer margins of patches of primary forest. Most specimens were found sitting at night in grassy vegetation in areas with ferns, less than one metre above the ground. It is presumed to breed in water by larval development.
61797		population	eng	There is little information on its current population status.
61797		threats	eng	Although it appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat disturbance (since it has been found on the edges of forest), it occurs in an area where extensive forest clearance for smallholder farming is taking place and it is unlikely to persist in the face of such rampant habitat loss.
61798		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
61798		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Côte d’Ivoire, through Ghana and Nigeria, to north-central Cameroon. It presumably ranges further east, at least into Central African Republic and souther Chad, but the limits between this species and Hyperolius acuticeps (or another member of the Hyperolius nasutus complex) are not yet clear. It is presumed to occur in Benin and Togo, but there do not appear to be any records yet from these countries.
61798		habitat	eng	It is a species of savannas and grassy habitats, avoiding drier areas. In Cameroon it is absent from areas with less than 1,200mm of annual rainfall, or with a dry season of longer than seven months. It breeds around pools and grassy flooded areas, and also uses ditches. The males call from grasses above water.
61798		population	eng	It is probably a common species, but there are few records in many parts of its range, probably because of lack of survey effort. The males sometimes gather in hundreds at breeding sites.
61798		threats	eng	There is little information, but there are unlikely to be significant threats to this species, except locally.
61799		conservation	eng	Its sole known locality is within the recently declared Monts de Cristal National Park.
61799		distribution	eng	This species is known from one specimen collected at 560m asl near the Barrage de Tchimbélé in the Monts de Cristal, Estuaire Province, north-western Gabon. It is believed that this species might be endemic to the Monts de Cristal, and its range probably extends into Equatorial Guinea.
61799		habitat	eng	It was found in altered but good condition standing forest, away from open water sources, where it was observed to be active during the night at 1-3 m above the ground. If it is closely related to <em>Leptopelis brevirostris</em>, it might breed by direct development.
61799		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61799		threats	eng	There are no significant known threats to this species.
61800		conservation	eng	The type locality is just inside Parque Nacional Tolhuaca.
61800		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality on the western slopes of the Andes, at the border of Malleco Lake in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca, around 66km north-east of Victoria City in Malleco Province, southern Chile. The type locality is at 920m asl.
61800		habitat	eng	Adults of this species were found at the edge of a small stream in <em>Nothofagus</em> woodland. Larvae were found among rocks within the stream. The area is covered by snow between July and September.
61800		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61800		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but a major forest fire was averted from the type locality in the summer of 2000.
61801		conservation	eng	The known range of this species is encompassed by the Reserva Nacional Lago Jeinimeni. Studies are urgently needed prior to the approval of the planned road to assess further the ecology and, in particular, the dispersal patterns of this species. At this time, unsupervised public access to the breeding pond should be restricted, in order to remove any potential disturbance.
61801		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of one small pond in the Reserva Nacional Lago Jeinimeni, southern Chile.
61801		habitat	eng	The small pond which forms the only area where this species is known from measures 68.8m by 80m, and around 50cm deep at the deepest point. Most other ponds in the area dry out in summer. In the vicinity are pine plantations and degraded <em>Nothofagus pumilio</em> forest. This species presumably breeds by larval development.
61801		population	eng	It appears to be fairly common within its extremely limited range.
61801		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is a plan to construct a paved road crossing the reserve to improve an existing road that is currently impassable in winter. Unfortunately, the planned route passes close to the only known breeding pond, which will probably cause direct mortality and pollution, and would also isolate it from the Jeinimeni River and lake.
61802		conservation	eng	It is known from the Reserva Protectora de Manantiales Cerro San Gil.
61802		distribution	eng	This species is known from 260-962m asl in the Montañas del Mico, Izabal Department, south-eastern Guatemala.
61802		habitat	eng	It is known from moist tropical forest. Individuals have usually been found at night perched on leaves 0.25-2m above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61802		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61802		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61803		conservation	eng	Its known range is encompassed by the Área de Protección Especial de Sierra Caral.
61803		distribution	eng	This species is known from 800-1,000m asl in the Sierra de Caral, Izabal Department, south-eastern Guatemala, and might also occur in neighbouring Honduras. It appears to be restricted within a very narrow altitudinal band.
61803		habitat	eng	It is known from moist tropical forest, where individuals were found at night perched on vegetation 0.3-2m above the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61803		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61803		threats	eng	There is no current information available on threats to species.
61804		conservation	eng	Further survey work is required to determine the population status and, given the threat of chytridiomycosis, some surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> captive breeding programme. This species is known from two national parks: G. D. Omar Torríjos H. and Chagres.
61804		distribution	eng	This species is known from Coclé Province, west-central Panama (at 600-800 m asl in the Serranía de Tabasará above El Copé), and Colón and Panama Provinces, east-central Panama (730-910 m asl) near Cerro Bruja in the Parque Nacional G. D. Omar Torríjos H. and the Serranía Piedras-Pacora in the Parque Nacional Chagres, respectively.
61804		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from premontane forest, and is not likely to be tolerant of significant habitat alteration. Most individuals have been found at night up to 2m above the ground on vegetation overhanging or near streams, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.
61804		population	eng	There is little information available on population status, but it is quite rare. A population crash took place at El Copé in 2004, and it might now be extinct there.
61804		threats	eng	Selective logging has occurred in the Serranía de Tabasará. It appears that chytrid fungus has caused the loss of this species from El Copé, and it is likely to be similarly lost from other sites as the fungus continues to spread (K. Lips in litt. 2005). The long-term survival of the species in the wild is, therefore, very much in doubt.
61805		conservation	eng	It is known from Parque Estadual Intervales and Reservas Biológica de Paranapiacaba and Morro Grande.
61805		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cotia, Ibiúna, Juquitiba, Piedade, Pilar do Sul, Ribeirão Grande, and São Bernardo do Campo Municipalities, Reserva Biológica de Paranapiacaba, Santo André municipality, and Parque Estadual Intervales, in São Paulo State, south-east Brazil. It is likely to occur throughout the Serra de Paranapiacaba.
61805		habitat	eng	This species is found in Atlantic Forest remnants. Individuals are usually found on the forest floor, far from water bodies. Breeding takes place by larval development, with terrestrial larvae. It seems to prefer pristine areas, but is also present in forest fragments (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).
61805		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat, being the second most abundantly collected species in Reserva Biológica do Morro Grande (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).
61805		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.
61806		conservation	eng	This species is known from Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén.
61806		distribution	eng	This species is known from 2,300-2,600m asl near Oxapampa and Cumbre de Ollón on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Oxapampa Province, Pasco Department, central Peru.
61806		habitat	eng	It is known from cloud forest, where individuals were found under moss on tree trunks and under moss on the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61806		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61806		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61807		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but it presumably occurs in Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén, near the type locality.
61807		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities at 2,060-2,120m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Pasco Department, central Peru. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61807		habitat	eng	Individuals were found under logs along trails. This species breeds by direct development.
61807		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61807		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61808		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas, and effective habitat conservation is needed.
61808		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,229-3,700m asl near El Playón de San Francisco, Sucumbíos Province, and a nearby locality in Carchi Province, in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in northern Ecuador. The proximity of these localities to the Colombian border suggests that it is likely to be known from here also, although the limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61808		habitat	eng	This species is known from montane evergreen forest and, less commonly, from páramo dominated by <em>Espeletia pycnophylla ssp. angelensis</em>. Extensive fieldwork suggests that it does not occur in degraded habitats. Individuals are mainly found at night on terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads, on branches, and on vegetation 30-230cm above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61808		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61808		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation due to smallholder farming, rearing of livestock, and wood extraction.
61809		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Zoológico y Jardín Botánico Nacional Simón Bolívar and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Monitoring of this species started in mid 2005, and there are plans to survey the known localities for at least a year or more (E. La Marca pers. comm.)
61809		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Venezuelan Andes in the state of Mérida from the region of Mucubají, from 2,500-3,395m asl.
61809		habitat	eng	It is a species of sub-páramo bushland and páramo grassland, and presumably breeds by direct development.
61809		population	eng	It appears to be reasonably common within its small range, given the number of specimens that have been collected.
61809		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species.
61810		conservation	eng	No information is currently available.
61810		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities at 1,800-2,760m asl in the Cordillera Oriental of Pasco and Puacartambo Departments, central Peru. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61810		habitat	eng	It is known from the evergreen forests of the Peruvian Yungas, where all the known individuals were found on the ground in open vegetation. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61810		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61810		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61811		conservation	eng	The known range of this species is encompassed by the Parque Nacional Madidi and Pilón-Lajas Biosphere Reserve.
61811		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities separated by 150km, at 900-1,500 m altitude on the Andean slopes of La Paz Departament in northern Bolivia. It probably occurs in most montane forests of La Paz Department.
61811		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid montane forests. It is a terrestrial species that calls around dusk from natural cavities in the ground. It is thus difficult to find. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61811		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61811		threats	eng	There are no significant threats known to this species.
61812		conservation	eng	Much of its known range falls within Paque Nacional La Bayamesa.
61812		distribution	eng	This species is known from 900-1,640m asl in the Sierra Maestra of eastern Cuba. The limits of its range remain unknown.
61812		habitat	eng	It has been found in montane rainforest and patches of pines. Most individuals were found under leaf-litter, although a single frog was caught under a small stone close to the margins of a river. Stomachs that were examined were found to contain a few large prey items including cockroaches, pillbugs and a fire-fly larva. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61812		population	eng	Eleutherodactylus luscombeiNo information is currently available.
61812		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61813		conservation	eng	The only known locality for this species is within the Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca. It is in need of close population monitoring given that it has such a restricted distribution.
61813		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around 2,450m asl on the summit of Cerro Marahuaca, central Amazonas State, Venezuela. It is likely to be confined to the summit of this tepui.
61813		habitat	eng	It is known from tepui shrubland. Individuals were found in the mossy bases of <em>Heliamphora sarraceniaceae</em> plants. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development.
61813		population	eng	The species appears to be common or abundant within its small range.
61813		threats	eng	There are no known threats at present. However, given its small range, it is most likely susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
61814		conservation	eng	Nueva América is near the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and it seems likely that this species occurs within this protected area.
61814		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,264-3,420m asl near El Chamizo in Carchi Province, and from Nueva América in Imbabura Province, in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in northern Ecuador. The limits to its distribution remain unknown, and it is likely to be found in adjacent Colombia.
61814		habitat	eng	It is known from montane evergreen forest and herbaceous páramo, as well as páramo dominated by <em>Espeletia pycnophylla ssp. angelensis</em>. Some individuals were found in secondary montane forest and agricultural land, suggesting at least a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Individuals are mainly found at night in terrestrial bromeliads, or on other plants or on the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61814		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61814		threats	eng	Habitat alteration might be a threat to it, but this species does appear to be tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance.
61815		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Chorro del Indio and Parque Nacional Yacambú, and potentially a number of other protected areas within its range.
61815		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 980-1,700m asl in the Cordillera de Mérida, in Táchira, Barinas, Portuguesa, and Lara (and also presumably Mérida and Trujillo) States in western Venezuela.
61815		habitat	eng	It is known from lower montane cloud forest. Individuals were collected at night on rocks, on the ground, or on leaves of shrubby vegetation at the edge of streams, and on sand under a trunk by a spring. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61815		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61815		threats	eng	The main threat in this region is deforestation for smallholder agriculture, including incursions into protected areas.
61816		conservation	eng	Its entire known range falls within Parque Nacional Darién.
61816		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, at 1,250-1,550m asl around the headwaters of the Cana River, in the Serranía de Pirre, Darién Province, Panama.
61816		habitat	eng	It is known from upper premontane rainforest and from cloud forest, where it has been found at night perched 1-3m above the ground on vegetation or small tree trunks. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61816		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
61816		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any significant threats to it.
61817		conservation	eng	The Permanent Commision on National Parks (of the Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales) has recommended to the Colombian Government that the Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas be expanded in size so as to incorporate the Paramo de Frontino, down to a lower altitudinal limit of 2,400m asl. If the government approves the enlargement, <em>Eleutherodactylus polemistes</em> will benefit by the inclusion of its localities within the expanded park. This species is in need of close population monitoring given its small range.
61817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Colombia, and is known from four specimens collected at 2,300-2,320m asl in the Municipio de Urrao, vereda La Clara, quebrada Cañahonda, and from from quebrada La Penca, very nearby. Both localities are on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in western Antioquia Department, Colombia. It is unlikely to occur more widely due to the presence of a sister species, <em>Eleutherodactylus bellona</em>, in adjacent regions.
61817		habitat	eng	This species is known from patches of primary forest, and is closely associated with streams. It is suspected to be intolerant of habitat disturbance. Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development.
61817		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
61817		threats	eng	No information is currently available on threats, but the presence of armed groups in the area is probably providing additional protection for the species. Nonetheless, its small range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.
61818		conservation	eng	It is known from Parque Nacional de Yanachaga-Chemillén.
61818		distribution	eng	This species is known from 2,600-2,900m asl near Oxapampa and Cillapata on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Oxapampa Province, Pasco Department, central Peru.
61818		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest, where individuals were found perched on leaves at around 0.3m above the ground along a trail. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61818		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61818		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61819		conservation	eng	The sole known locality for this species is within Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén.
61819		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one specimen collected at 2,600m asl near Oxapampa, on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Oxapampa Province, Pasco Department, central Peru.
61819		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected under moss on the ground, in cloud forest. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61819		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61819		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61820		conservation	eng	It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.
61820		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the Mérida cable car at 3,400-3,500m asl in the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, in western Venezuela. It might occur more widely.
61820		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in grassy páramo, which presumably breeds by direct development.
61820		population	eng	There is very little information regarding its population status. It is known from about 20 specimens from a very small area. Recent surveys (conducted in 2005) have failed to detect any specimens at former known localities, but more surveys are needed to confirm whether or not there has been a decline.
61820		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats to this species, but its habitat is probably not significantly threatened since it occurs in a protected area. A noticeable retreat of the glaciers in the nearby Bolivar´s Peak area might reflect some changes in climate parameters, especially a warmer trend in temperatures, and more pronounced and extended dry seasons. Both factors might lead to environmental changes that might negatively affect this species.
61821		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Yacambú, and potentially a number of other protected areas within its range.
61821		distribution	eng	This species occurs at 800-1,600m asl in the Cordillera de Mérida, in Táchira, Apure, and Barinas (and also presumably Mérida, Portuguesa and Trujillo) States of western Venezuela. The limits to its distribution remain unknown.
61821		habitat	eng	It is known from lower montane cloud forest, where individuals were found at night, perched on vegetation 50-150cm above the ground near small and large streams, and on a branch 20cm above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61821		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61821		threats	eng	The main threat in this region is deforestation for smallholder agricultural development, including incursions into protected areas.
61822		conservation	eng	Its range is in a locally protected area.
61822		distribution	eng	This species is known from Pampa Hermosa, at 1,540m asl in Tarma Provincia, Junín Department, in the Río Chanchamayo Valley in the Cordillera Oriental of Peru. It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.
61822		habitat	eng	It was collected in dense, humid montane forest, on the branch of a tree 1.2m above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61822		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, collected in 2003.
61822		threats	eng	There is no information.
61823		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61823		distribution	eng	This species is known from two nearby localities at 3,000-3,100m asl in the vicinity of Lago de Los Cóndores in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in Huallaga Province, San Martín Department, northern Peru. The limits to its distribution remain unknown.
61823		habitat	eng	It is known from Yungas forest. Individuals were found at night in forest on low bushes and in a spiny terrestrial bromeliad, and by day in a pasture, the latter suggesting at least a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. This species is believed to breed by direct development.
61823		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61823		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61824		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61824		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality at 3,435m asl in the vicinity of Lago de Los Cóndores in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in Huallaga Province, San Martín Department, northern Peru.
61824		habitat	eng	It occurs in Yungas forest, where individuals were found during the day in areas of bunch grass and <em>Baccharis</em> species, associated with spiny terrestrial bromeliads and scattered shrubs. Several larvae were found in a small muddy-bottomed pool 40cm deep.
61824		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61824		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61825		conservation	eng	This species is found in Carrasco and Amboró National Parks.
61825		distribution	eng	This species is found at 1,850-2,800 m altitude along the eastern Andean slopes of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz Departments, Bolivia.
61825		habitat	eng	This species is found in perhumid upper montane forests and cloud forests. It appears to tolerate significant habitat degradation, occurring even in cattle ranching areas where a few trees still stand. Individuals are usually found at night perched on vegetation up to 1.5 m above the ground, but calling males have been heard calling from the canopy of small trees. Females brood tadpoles from eggs and, in the rainy season, release tadpoles into small puddles and roadside ditches.
61825		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61825		threats	eng	There are not believed to be any significant current threats to this species, other than complete habitat destruction for cattle pasture. However, it should be noted that the closely related <span style="font-style: italic;">G. marsupiata</span> seems to be declining. Chytrid fungus is potentially a threat.
61826		conservation	eng	There are currently no protected areas in place, making habitat protection and management an urgently needed conservation action. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and current population status of this species.
61826		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cordillera de Carpish, at 2,920m asl, in the Provincia de Huánuco, an outlier of the Cordillera Oriental of the Peruvian Andes. It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.
61826		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found under leaves and under a piece of wood in cloud forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61826		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of the species, and it is known from only two specimens.
61826		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation due to agricultural expansion and firewood collection.
61827		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, but the type locality is near Parque Nacional Madidi and the Reserva de la Biósfera y Terretorio Indígena de Pilón Lajas, in which it might be expected to occur.
61827		distribution	eng	This species is known from around 1,000m asl in the Serranía de Bella Vista, Caranavi Province, La Paz Department, Bolivia. It is likely to occur patchily in suitable habitat more widely along the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia and Peru.
61827		habitat	eng	It is known from deep in rainforest, where individuals were found on the ground near rocky seeps along a densely forested hillside parallel to a large river. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61827		population	eng	It appears to be rare.
61827		threats	eng	Habitat loss from smallholder agriculture is likely to be its main threat.
61828		conservation	eng	The species is known from Parque Nacional Madidi.
61828		distribution	eng	This species is known from 1,300-2,000 m altitude in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes; from several scattered localities in the Yungas of La Paz Department, northwestern Bolivia. The species is likely to also occur in nearby Peru.
61828		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid montane forest and cloud forest, and has been recorded in quite small fragments (c. 3km in length), so appears able to tolerate a degree of habitat fragmentation at least in the short-term, although perhaps not major habitat degradation. Individuals have been found on forest litter or the ground near streams. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61828		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61828		threats	eng	Habitat loss, most likely due to smallholder agriculture, is considered the main threat to this species.
61829		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas, although the Reserva Nacional de Junín is near La Victoria.
61829		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,850-4,100m asl at La Victoria and Laguna Manchay in Pasco Department, Peru.
61829		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-altitude puna grassland, where individuals have been found on moist ground beneath stones. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61829		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61829		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61830		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61830		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,600m asl at Bellavista, in Pasco Department, Peru.
61830		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-altitude puna grassland, where it is presumed to breed by direct development.
61830		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
61830		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61831		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61831		distribution	eng	This species is known from 4,280-4,390m asl on the southern slopes of the Huaguruncho and Tarata peaks, in Huachon District, Pasco Province, Pasco Department, Peru.
61831		habitat	eng	It is known from high-altitude puna grassland, where individuals were found under stones near small ponds. Stomachs that were examined contained beetles and a spider. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61831		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61831		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61832		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
61832		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from southern Bahia, southeastern Brazil. It is also expected to occur in northeastern Minas Gerais and northern Espírito Santo States, due to the proximity and similarity of vegetation types between southern Bahia and these areas.
61832		habitat	eng	This species is known from temporary ponds in cow pastures at the edges of Atlantic Rain Forest fragments, natural forest clearings, and cacao plantations. Males were found calling from the edges of ponds, or floating in shallow water. Females were found near ponds or on forest leaf-litter. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61832		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61832		threats	eng	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Complete loss of forest habitat is likely to adversely affect this species, but some degree of degradation and opening of the forest canopy appears likely to actually benefit it.
61833		conservation	eng	The type locality at Cerro Masvale is a private, protected reserve adjacent to the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute.
61833		distribution	eng	This species is known from 32-92m asl in eastern Guayas Province, western Ecuador.
61833		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry lowland deciduous and semideciduous coastal forest, where the trees are usually under 20m in height and there can be a dense understorey of herbaceous plants. All the individuals were found in open areas where the natural vegetation had been partly or completely removed by humans. Males were found calling from ditches and small ponds (even as small as 10cm in diameter) in pasture, and in a flooded rice field. After mating, floating foam egg masses are deposited at these same sites.
61833		population	eng	It can be locally abundant.
61833		threats	eng	More than half of the land cover in this region has been converted to agriculture or cattle pasture, but this species does appear to be reasonably adaptable.
61834		conservation	eng	No information is currently available.
61834		distribution	eng	This species was found at 1,250m asl near the north dome of the summit of Cerro Autana (Wahari Kuaway), an isolated tepui 85km south of Puerto Ayacucho in Atures Municipality, north-west Amazonas State, Venezuela. It might also occur on the nearby Cuao-Sipapo massif (Serranía de Paraque), of which Cerro Autana seems to be a remnant.
61834		habitat	eng	The summit of Cerro Autana is predominantly an open swamp with submesothermic herbaceous vegetation, dominated by <em>Brocchinia hechtioides</em> and <em>Kunhardtia rhodantha</em> (Steyermark 1974). On the northern part of the summit, there is a central dome that rises 55m above the swampy grassland. Around this, and along crevices that channel water towards the northern and southern cliffs, is a humid dwarf forest of <em>Clusia</em> and many epiphytes. The single known <em>Stefania breweri</em> specimen to date was found in the rolled leaves of a <em>Brocchinia</em> plant here. This frog species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61834		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
61834		threats	eng	There is no information currently available on direct threats to this species, but its habitat is very unlikely to be at risk.
61835		conservation	eng	This species is known from the Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba in Bolivia.
61835		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities at 3,450-3,750m asl: Valle de Tojoloque, Franz Tamayo Province, La Paz Departament, western Bolivia; and two localities close to one another on the north slope of Abra Acanacú pass, 27km north-north-east (by road) of Paucartambo, in Cusco Departament, south-east Peru. The Bolivian and Peruvian localities are some 300km apart.
61835		habitat	eng	This species is known from humid páramo, but it is also suspected to occur in the upper limits of cloud forest. Individuals were found at night in a small pool, 50cm deep, and on rocks in a river, and in páramo on rocks, in crevices, on the ground, and in moss adjacent to streams. Reproduction is presumed to be by larval development in the streams.
61835		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61835		threats	eng	Chytridiomycosis has devastated <em>Telmatobius</em> populations in Ecuador, and has been detected in <em>T. marmoratus</em> near Cusco in Peru (Seimon <em>et al.</em> 2005). Chytridiomycosis is therefore considered a very severe threat to this species, to the extent that such concerns have directed the etymology of its specific name, which means 'frightened', 'scared', or 'alarmed'.
61836		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.
61836		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo in north-western Madagascar at 280m asl, and from forests further east in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana at 1,300m asl (at the Antsahamanara campsite - M. Vences pers. comm.). It might occur more widely in northern Madagascar, but other records of frogs from the Boophis mandraka group within its general range refer to other, undescribed species (M. Vences pers. comm.). It apparently does not occur further east than Tsaratanana, and so its range is genuinely restricted.
61836		habitat	eng	It has been found in a degraded area near a small human settlement not far from areas of relatively undisturbed rainforest. Animals were calling 5-20m from water, along a fast-flowing stream, sitting 2-4m above the ground on shrubs and trees. This species presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
61836		population	eng	It appears to be locally common at its type locality.
61836		threats	eng	There is very little information. Animals have been found at forest edges, but probably depend on nearby unaltered rainforest. Although all records are currently from protected areas, any unprotected populations, which probably exist between the known loactions, could be at risk from forest loss.
61837		conservation	eng	Populations of this frog have been recorded from Manombo Special Reserve and Betampona Strict Nature Reserve (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this somewhat adaptable species as a whole.
61837		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in the eastern lowlands of Madagascar, as well as from the eastern offshore island of Nosy Boraha (Ile Sainte Marie).
61837		habitat	eng	An arboreal species usually found on leaves 1-3 metres above the ground. It has mainly been recorded from secondary vegetation and heavily degraded forest, often far from primary forest, and appears tolerant of a high degree of habitat disturbance. It attaches transparent jelly egg clutches with green eggs to leaves over temporary or permanent pools of water.
61837		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
61837		threats	eng	There are not believed to be any major threats to this species.
61838		conservation	eng	The sole known locality for this species is within the Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
61838		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, from 920-1,250m asl, at Ban Sepian, Paksong District, in the Bolaven Highlands, Champasak Province, in Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
61838		habitat	eng	It has been found under stones in a disturbed area of moist evergreen forest. Although some individuals have also been found in coffee plantations near forest during heavy rain, this species is not believed to be tolerant of habitat degradation. It is presumed to be a larval developing species.
61838		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61838		threats	eng	The major threat is agricultural development: much of the forest on the plateau where this species has been found is being converted to coffee plantations.
61839		conservation	eng	This species is likely to be found in Juheyinyongshuiyuan Nature Reserve, and possibly other protected areas.
61839		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed at around 2,000m altitude in the west of Yunnan Province, China.; at Jingdong, Tengchong , Luchun, Menglian, Mengyang, and Mengla. It is likely to also be found in neighbouring Myanmar and Lao PDR.
61839		habitat	eng	This species is known from forest and breeds in streams.
61839		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61839		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to this species.
61840		conservation	eng	Pulau Tioman is designated as a wildlife reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population of this species, given its apparently extremely restricted range, and further research is needed to determine whether or not there are any major threats to this species.
61840		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from Gua Tengkuk Air cave at the top (1,000m asl) of Gunung Kajang, Pulau Tioman, Pahang, West Malaysia. Larvae matching the morphology, but not coloration, of this species have also been found at 400m asl on this mountain, so either <em>L. kajangensis</em> is not restricted to its highest elevations, or an additional species of <em>Leptolalax</em> might occur lower down. At most, it seems likely that the species is restricted to this island, so has a very small range.
61840		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a subterranean, obliquely oriented cavern, formed from the overhang of a pile of large boulders. The cave contains a small pond (3m by 4m) drained by a small subterranean stream (1-3m in width by 2-4cm in depth) that runs for 3-4m along the cave floor. Tadpoles of this species are found in the pond. Adults have been found sitting on large rocks next to the stream, 10m from the cave entrance and 10m below the external ground level.
61840		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
61840		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
61841		conservation	eng	Its sole known locality is within Huangshanziranhewenhuayichan Nature Reserve.
61841		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 500-1,600m asl on Mount Huangshan, Anhui Province, China.
61841		habitat	eng	It is known from streams in forest, and is presumed to breed by larval development.
61841		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61841		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming is the main threat to this species.
61842		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, but the type locality is only 4km from Kerinci Seblat National Park, in which this species is likely to occur.
61842		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 1,289-1,320m asl, at Batang Sarasah, Lubuk Selasih, near Solok, West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is likely to have similar habits to <em>Megophrys aceras</em> from the Malay Peninsula, so it could be expected to have a wide distribution in montane forest along Sumatra's west coast.
61842		habitat	eng	One individual was found in primary forest, and the others in secondary forest, indicating that this species has at least a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Individuals were found on dead leaves, and on a small log on the bank of a small stream. This species is presumed to breed by larval development in streams.
61842		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61842		threats	eng	The major threats in this region are logging and deforestation for small-scale agriculture or tea plantations. Not only are these a direct threat through loss of habitat, but habitat degradation through loss of humid shaded leaf-litter is also likely to be a problem. Deforestation and agrochemicals will also reduce the number of clear-flowing unpolluted streams available to the larvae.
61843		conservation	eng	It is not currently known from any protected areas.
61843		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two localities: from the vicinity of the type locality on the north-western slopes of Mount Shungol, and from Wagau about 15km east of the type locality on the eastern slope of Mount Shungol, in the Herzog Mountains at the north end of the Owen Stanley Range in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded between 750 and 1,100m asl. It might occur more widely than is<br/>currently known, and there is no reason to believe that it is a restricted range species.
61843		habitat	eng	This inhabitant of lowland hill forest is usually found on the upper surface of leaves between 1 and 3m above the ground. Males call only at night. This is presumably a direct developing species, like other species in the genus.
61843		population	eng	It is moderately common.
61843		threats	eng	There are no known threats to its habitat at present
61844		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
61844		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the vicinity of the type locality, the northern slope of Mount Simpson in the Owen Stanley Range in Milne Bay Province, south-eastern Papua New Guinea., where it has been recorded from 1,400-1,540m asl. It might occur more widely, in particular throughout the lower montane forest of Mount Simpson. However, it is not known whether or not it will range as far as the montane forests of Mount Dayman or Mount Suckling to the north, as there is intervening grassland between these localities.
61844		habitat	eng	It is found perching on leaves and stems 1-3m above the ground in primary lower montane forest. It particularly prefers forest clearings, forest edges and river edge habitat where it can often be seen in abundance. The males call at night. This is presumably a direct developing species, like other species in the genus.
61844		population	eng	This species is abundant at the type locality, but is patchily distributed.
61844		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
61845		conservation	eng	No information is currently available.
61845		distribution	eng	This species is known from above 1,500 m altitude in the central highlands of Tanzania, at sites east of Iringa town, and from Njombe. Northern Tanzanian specimens previously classified as Breviceps mossambicus might possibly be assigned to this species, pending confirmation of calls, namely from: 1,500 m altitude at Nkinto, near Isansu (Issansu-Land); between Njarasa-See (= Lake Eyasi) and Issansu-Land; and the Iramba Plateau.
61845		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high-altitude grasslands, and calls during the day from shallow burrows at the base of dense grass. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61845		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61845		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61846		conservation	eng	Taman Negara National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
61846		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three specimens from the north-west of Taman Negara National Park in Pahang State, Peninsular Malaysia. Two of these were collected at 167m asl.
61846		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland dipterocarp forest, and is presumed to breed by larval development. Large black ants have been found in the stomachs of this species.
61846		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61846		threats	eng	There are no significant known threats to it, given that it occurs in a protected area.
61847		conservation	eng	Three of four known sites for this species are within forest reserves, but even these are subject to threats and there is a need for improved management of all of them.
61847		distribution	eng	This species is known from remnant forest patches in the West Usambara Mountains of Tanzania, namely: Mazumbai Forest Reserve; Ambangula Forest Reserve; Shume-Mugambo Forest Reserve; and Lushoto (=Philipshof). It is likely to occur widely in the West Usambaras, wherever forest remains.
61847		habitat	eng	It is found within forest habitats, and is presumed to be intolerant of habitat degradation. Males call at 0.5-2m above the ground from low bushes and other vegetation during the rainy season. One specimen was found to have relatively large arthropods (Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Diplopoda) in its gut. Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development.
61847		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
61847		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to smallholder agriculture is likely to be a threat to unprotected forests within the range of this species. Habitat degradation may be a threat as a result of both logging activities and extraction of firewood, even in protected areas.
61848		conservation	eng	Most of the known current range of this species is within the Reserva Biológica de Una, where ongoing conservation efforts around the reserve aim to re-establish connectivity through linking of remaining forest patches and promotion of shade cacao as preferable to cattle ranching. These conservation activities are likely to benefit this species. The cabrucas around the reserve have a higher degree of disturbance and lower floristic diversity than primary forests, but they do at least provide some shelter and humidity for this species. Further investigation is needed to assess whether or not this species can persist in cabrucas, or even in secondary forest.
61848		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Reserva Biológica de Una and nearby surrounding areas in the municipality of Una, in Bahia State in north-eastern Brazil.
61848		habitat	eng	It is most common in primary forest with tall trees (up to 40m high), with abundant palms and deep leaf-litter. It is less common in secondary forest, and is present but very uncommon in shaded cacao plantations, locally known as "cabrucas". These are cacao groves in which large emergent trees have been preserved to shade the understory cacao. In these cabrucas, leaf-litter is abundant although formed predominantly of cacao leaves. It is not known if this species can persist in these cabrucas, or even in secondary forest. This species is presumed to be a larval developer, using temporary pools.
61848		population	eng	It appears to be fairly common within suitable habitat.
61848		threats	eng	It may be threatened by the conversion of most of the forest surrounding the Reserva Biológica de Una to cacao plantations and other crops, and the clearance of most of the rest of it for cattle ranching. Only a few fragments of primary forest now remain.
61849		conservation	eng	The peninsula and coastal waters surrounding the type locality of this species have recently been designated as the Réserve de la Biosphère du Sahamalaza-Iles Radama.
61849		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 170 m asl at Berara, within the Anabohazo forest, Sahamalaza Peninsula, north-western Madagascar. Survey work at other sites in northwestern Madagascar (e.g., Manongarivo, Tsaratanana, Benavony) did not locate this species, despite having a distinctive call. It is probably, therefore, restricted to Sahamalaza.
61849		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary transitional forest, where it is arboreal, calling at night from leaves of bushes or trees at heights of 1-2m above the ground. It is believed to breed in tree holes and similar water-filled cavities.
61849		population	eng	It is very common at its only known site.
61849		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by habitat destruction, and it is highly specialised and restricted to ecologically sensitive transitional forest. Some other cophyline species are quite sensitive to habitat alteration. Although a biosphere reserve has recently been designated in the area, the forest was, at least until recently, limited and under strong pressure from slash-and-burn (tavy) and small-holder agriculture.
61850		conservation	eng	It is found in Nameri National Park, Orang National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and Chilapata Range.
61850		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the state of Assam, one in the state of Arunachal Pradesh and one in West Bengal, India. In Assam, it was found at: Majbat; Nameri National Park; in Orang National Park; near Orang National Park (all in Sonitpur District); and in Bongaigaon, western Assam. In Arunachal Pradesh, it was found in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in Kamlang District, and in West Bengal it was found near Bong Basti village, Chilapata Range. Given the availability of its habitat, this species seems likely to occur much more widely, and has probably been under-recorded due to its secretive, burrowing nature outside the breeding season. It is found between 48-141 m asl.
61850		habitat	eng	It is mostly known from the understorey of tropical evergreen forest and alluvial grassland, but has also been found in a field of mustard (<em>Brassica juncea</em>) and near a forest village (Paul <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and so it might be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. It is often found perched up to 1 m above the ground on grasses, ferns, and herbaceous vegetation, but it is also found underground. It is presumed to breed by larval development.
61850		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61850		threats	eng	There are no significant threats known to this species.
61851		conservation	eng	This species is known from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and and Ke Go Nature Reserve in Viet Nam, and Nakai-Nam Theun Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has also been recorded from the Green Corridor Project area in Viet Nam (which is a proposed corridor linking Bach Ma National Park with Phong Dien Nature Reserve). Given that threats to the habitat of this species are ongoing despite current management, there is a need for improved protected area management and law enforcement.
61851		distribution	eng	This species has a very poorly known range in Viet Nam and Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic. In Viet Nam it is known from: Mount Ngoc Linh, Quang Nam Province; the extreme southwest of Thua Thien-Hue Province; and the Northern Truong Son Range (Annamite Highlands) (Ha Tinh and Quang Binh Provinces). In the Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic it is known from Khammouane and Boli Khamxai Provinces. Specific localities include: Po-mu Mountain, Huong Son Reserve (now known as Huong Son Forestry and Service Company), Huong Son District, Rao An Region, Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam; Ky Anh-Ke Go, Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam; Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh Province, Viet Nam; Mount Ngoc Linh, Tra Don Commune, Tra My District, Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam; Navang, Khammouane Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic; Phou Vang Mountain, Nakai-Nam Theun Biodiversity Conservation Area, Nakai District, Khammouane Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic; and Nape border area, Khamkeut District, Boli Khamxai Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic. The species has been found from 170-1,300 m altitude. The overall limits of its distribution remain unknown, but it presumably occurs more widely, in particular in regions between currently known localities.
61851		habitat	eng	All records of this species has been found from lowland or lower montane broad-leaved evergreen forest. The species has most often been found at night close to very slow-flowing streams or still pools. The species is presumed to be a larval developer. At least some individuals were found in fragments of forest that remained in ravines, within areas otherwise heavily disturbed. However, its adaptability to secondary habitats remains unknown.
61851		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61851		threats	eng	Some of the sites at which this species is known to occur have undergone heavy disturbance due to small-scale timber and firewood extraction, and it is not known whether or not the species can persist long-term in the fragmented forest remaining in ravines. It is possibly under threat, therefore, from forest loss, but the small size of the species presumably allows it to thrive in smaller fragments of forest than is often the case larger species of amphibians.
61852		conservation	eng	Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve was decreed on the Kon Tum side of the mountain by the government in 1986, but there is a need to decree a nature reserve on the Quang Nam side and to put in place a management board (Tordoff 2002).
61852		distribution	eng	This species is known from 1,480m asl on Mount Ngoc Linh, in Tra My District, Tra Don Commune, Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61852		habitat	eng	This species was found in montane broad-leaved evergreen forest with small mixed coniferous areas. Streams in the area had beds comprising rock, gravel, sand and mud. Breeding in this species is presumably by larval development.
61852		population	eng	It is known from only a single specimen.
61852		threats	eng	Up to approximately 900m asl on this mountain the potential habitat of this species is heavily disturbed due to clearance of forest for agriculture and timber extraction, with forests persisting only in ravines and steeper slopes. Disturbance is likely to increase if plans go ahead for building a road to Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh communes (Tordoff 2002). At the higher altitudes where this species was actually found, disturbance levels are lower.
61853		conservation	eng	The persistence of this species at or near the type locality needs to be verified, and suitable actions taken to safeguard remaining habitat containing a population of this species.
61853		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 700-750m asl on the Tay Nguyen Plateau, from near Buon Luoi village, 20km north-west of Kannack, in An Khe District, Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61853		habitat	eng	It has been found only in an area of lowland humid evergreen tropical forest, with a closed canopy around 20-30m in height and with some emergent trees above 40m tall. Most individuals were found at night along silty banks of forest ponds and slow-moving streams, or in leaf-litter near such banks. This species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61853		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61853		threats	eng	The area from which it is known has been subject to intensive deforestation and conversion to coffee plantations since specimens were collected in 1995. It is possibly under threat, therefore, from forest loss.
61854		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61854		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,500-3,900m asl at two nearby localities in the central highlands of eastern Papua, Indonesia.
61854		habitat	eng	It is known from subalpine grassland, and is presumed to breed by direct development.
61854		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61854		threats	eng	No significant threats to this species are known.
61855		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61855		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,400-3,500m asl at two widely separated localities, Gunung Mandala (Mount Juliana) and Mount Elit, in the central highlands of eastern Papua, Indonesia.
61855		habitat	eng	It is known from montane grassland, and is presumed to breed by direct development.
61855		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61855		threats	eng	There are no significant threats known to it.
61856		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61856		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 3,080m asl in Dokfuma Meadow south of Mount Capella, in the Star Mountains of West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.
61856		habitat	eng	The type locality is a subalpine meadow in karst terrain that has moss forest at higher altitudes. Many valleys and lower slopes are covered in open herb fields or fern fields of ferns, mosses, and scattered tussock grasses. Stands of tree ferns (<em>Cyathea</em> sp.) dominate the open areas, and large moss mounds (around 1m high and 1-2m wide) are scattered across the landscape, particularly near forest edges. The area also holds many small streams, often disappearing into sinkholes in the limestone rock. Males of this species usually call from the moss mounds or other elevated sites. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61856		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61856		threats	eng	There are no significant known threats to it.
61857		conservation	eng	The sole known locality for this species is within Peta Usulan Batas (Gunung Lorentz) National Park.
61857		distribution	eng	This species is known from 3,000-3,500m asl at Lake Habbema, around 4km south and 32km west of Wamena, in eastern Papua, Indonesia. A specimen from around 30km south and 65km east of Angguruk, at 3,500m asl, also in Papua, might potentially also relate to this species.
61857		habitat	eng	Grassland was the habitat at the type locality, which was probably in a valley surrounded by forested ridges. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61857		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61857		threats	eng	It could be threatened by uncontrolled tourism, which is also likely to increase the incidence of fires (which are a constant threat to the area).
61858		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61858		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at 3,080m asl in Dokfuma Meadow south of Mount Capella, in the Star Mountains of West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.
61858		habitat	eng	The type locality is a subalpine meadow in karst terrain that has moss forest at higher altitudes. Many valleys and lower slopes are covered in open herb fields or fern fields of ferns, mosses, and scattered tussock grasses. Stands of tree ferns (<em>Cyathea</em> sp.) dominate the open areas, and large moss mounds (around 1m high and 1-2m wide) are scattered across the landscape, particularly near forest edges. The area also holds many small streams, often disappearing into sinkholes in the limestone rock. Males of this species usually call from the ground, rather than from elevated sites. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61858		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61858		threats	eng	There are no significant known threats to it.
61859		conservation	eng	This species is known from the privately protected Kirindy Forest Centre de Formation Professionelle Forestière (Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea), which falls within the scope of an ongoing effort in the Menabe region to establish integrated conservation and development activities with local communities. It also occurs in Parc National de Isalo and the Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (which is relatively well protected by its remoteness), and might occur in the Parc National de Namoroka.
61859		distribution	eng	This species is known from western Madagascar at 0-600 m asl. There are records from: the Kirindy Forest Centre de Formation Professionelle Forestière (Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea), in Toliara Province, Morondava District; the Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha; and the Isalo Massif. It might also occur in the Parc National de Namoroka about 200 km further north, but confirmation of its distribution in this area requires further genetic data and it is not mapped here.
61859		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry deciduous forest. Males call at night while floating in forest ponds, and this species breeds explosively after heavy rains, a few times each season. It seems to be specifically restricted while breeding to medium-sized shallow ephemeral pools with very low coverage of aquatic vegetation, inside closed forest.
61859		population	eng	This species is rare wherever it has been found. The number of animals is presumably declining with ongoing habitat degradation.
61859		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are destruction and degradation of its habitat due to legal and illegal logging, as well as slash-and-burn (tavy) agriculture, which is increasing due to expanding human populations. Although it is widely distributed, it is rare, and its habitat is under serious threat.
61860		conservation	eng	Most of the known range of this species falls within a protected area: the Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area. A monitoring programme has been set up to monitor the population near human habitation. Perceived threats and the effects of fire on this and other species of <em>Arthroleptella </em>requires research. More research is required on life history and dispersal of this species. Active management is required, especially with regard to alien invading plants.
61860		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from three locations in the mountains of the Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area, Western Cape Province, South Africa. The known extent of occurrence (EOO) is about 3.3 km<sup>2 </sup>and the area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 10% of this based on how much habitat may be suitable&#160;for&#160;the frogs (although this is likely an overestimate). It has been recorded at altitudes above 900 m asl.
61860		habitat	eng	This species is known from thickly vegetated seeps dominated by restioid vegetation, on gentle mountain slopes within montane fynbos. It breeds by direct development laying between 6-12 eggs annually.
61860		population	eng	One of the three known populations is monitored twice a year. This is the second largest of the three populations and the largest number of calling males is estimated to be less than 50 individuals. Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations (up to approximately a five-fold change in numbers at the monitored site; A. Turner pers. comm. 2009) in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) and species as a whole is threatened due to the small number of locations. The fluctuations experienced by this species are below the typically used 10-fold increase or decrease (IUCN 2001); however, a five-fold reduction in population size has been observed and it is expected that fires have the potential to reduce populations by a factor of ten or more depending&#160;on&#160;the severity and timing of the fire.
61860		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is damage to its habitat which is dependent on permanently available surface water. This habitat is primarily threatened by excessively short fire-return intervals and invasion by alien plants. Although the area has low densities of alien plant species and an acceptable fire-return interval currently, these are ever-present threats. The invasion of alien invasive woody vegetation increases the impact of fires which may lead to more dramatic population fluctuations. An additional threat to this species is the proximity of one population to human residences which may result in water contamination. Active management is required in order to prevent threats escalating.
61861		conservation	eng	The two localities for this species are in the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon (although this does not protect against mining) and Parc National du Haut Niger, although a recent survey here did not record this species (Rödel pers. comm.).
61861		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from two localities in the Simandou Range of south-eastern Guinea: from the type locality close to the village of Morigbadougou, on Dofa River on the north-eastern flank of the Pic de Fon mountain peak; and from Tiyeko near Traorela, a village to the north-west of Pic de Fon, in Parc National du Haut Niger.
61861		habitat	eng	It has been recorded close to rivers in gallery forests at the type locality. There is no habitat information known from the second locality, but it presumably lives in the forest habitats within the park. This species is not believed to be tolerant of habitat degradation. It is presumably a larval developing species, like other members of the genus.
61861		population	eng	There is no detailed information available about the population status of this species, but it appears to be rare or restricted to specific primary habitats.
61861		threats	eng	There are various threats to this species. In the Simandou Range, remaining habitat is fragmented into small patches, and logging to clear land for agriculture as well as for commercial purposes is a major threat, as are bushfires. The type locality is heavily threatened by open cast mining.
61862		conservation	eng	Its sole known locality is within Yaluzangbudaxiagu National Nature Reserve.
61862		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Aniqiao, in Medog County, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at 1,066m asl.
61862		habitat	eng	It is known from a large stream and the surrounding rocks. Breeding presumably takes place by larval development.
61862		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61862		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming.
61863		conservation	eng	Its sole known locality is within Yaluzangbudaxiagu National Nature Reserve.
61863		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Yarang, in Medog County, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at 767m asl.
61863		habitat	eng	It is known from a large stream and the surrounding rocks, and is presumed to breed by larval development.
61863		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61863		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming.
61864		conservation	eng	Its only known localities all fall within Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
61864		distribution	eng	This species is known only from five specimens from 920-1,300m asl in the Annamite Mountains of southern Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Specimens were collected both within Xe Kong Province in Kaleum District and within Saravane Province, Samoy District (the latter near Ban Bee Hi Village). The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61864		habitat	eng	This species is known from wet, hilly, evergreen forest. Individuals have been found both near small, rocky, streams and in forest away from permanent water bodies. It was usually found perching at up to 1m above the ground, on small tree branches or herbaceous vegetation. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.
61864		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61864		threats	eng	No information is currently available.
61865		conservation	eng	The only known localities for this species are all within protected areas: Tham Tarn Lot (Chalerm Rattanakosin) National Park, Kaeng Krachan National Park, and Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary. Given that the threats to the habitat of this species are ongoing despite, or in some cases even because of, current management practices, there is a need for significantly improved protected area management and law enforcement.
61865		distribution	eng	This species is known from around 600m asl at three widely separated localities in western and northern Thailand: Tham Tarn Lot (Chalerm Rattanakosin) National Park in Kanchanaburi Province; Pa-la-u Waterfall in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Hua Hin District, Prachuap Kirikhan Province; and Doi Chiang Dao Mountain, Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chiang Mai Province. The limits of its distributon remain unknown.
61865		habitat	eng	This species is known from near streams and waterfalls in moist lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, where it is presumed to breed by larval development.
61865		population	eng	No information is currently available.
61865		threats	eng	At Doi Chiang Dao, the main threats to it include encroachment by both permanent and shifting agriculture, and also fire and unsustainable tourism development (including plans for construction of a cable car) leading to habitat degradation. The threats at Kaeng Krachan are similar, but also include illegal logging (Bird Conservation Society of Thailand and BirdLife International 2004).
61866		conservation	eng	This species is known from Dandeli and Bheemgadh Wildlife Sanctuaries, and might occur in others.
61866		distribution	eng	This species is known from 75-300 m altitude in the central Western Ghats of Goa and Karnataka States, southwest India, mainly in the Castle Rock-Dudhsagar tract (Kunte 2004).
61866		habitat	eng	This species is known from steep, rocky watercourses with abundant overhanging vegetation and a largely closed canopy, in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest in hilly areas (Kunte 2004). Although the species occurs in secondary forest, it does not appear tolerant of canopy thinning. Individuals were collected in the evening. Males were calling in late September and tadpoles were present, indicating that the species breeds during the southeast monsoon (June to November).
61866		population	eng	The species is common in suitable habitat within its range.
61866		threats	eng	The natural extent of the forests of the Western Ghats has been devastated historically. This loss continues today, primarily due to conversion to cultivated lands, Eucalyptus plantations, and coffee and tea plantations.
61867		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas.
61867		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality at 1,500-1,700m asl in the central Nakanai Mountains, West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea. It is presumed to occur in suitable habitat above 1,200m asl throughout this mountain range, and might possibly also occur in the Whiteman and Baining Mountains.
61867		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary rainforest characterized by epiphyte-covered <em>Nothofagus</em> stands with a relatively open canopy and dense climbing bamboo thickets covering tree fall gaps. At higher altitudes, this species is found in forest with a thick (5-10cm deep) humus and leaf-litter layer, and lots of decaying branches and fallen logs, all covered with thick moss. It is able to climb and prefers perches less than 1m above the ground. It is most often found on shoots and leaves in bamboo thickets in treefall gaps, indicating at least some tolerance to habitat degradation.There is no standing surface water in the known habitat of this species, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.
61867		population	eng	Within its range, it appears to be very common, although it is difficult to locate.
61867		threats	eng	The most likely threats to it are habitat loss coupled with the effects of invasive species, particularly chytrid fungus and other pathogens. Habitat loss, and opening of the habitat to invasive species, are most likely to occur if high altitudes in the Nakanai Mountains are opened up to logging.
61868		conservation	eng	Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area is the only protected area from which it is currently known.
61868		distribution	eng	This species is known from two nearby localities at 1,000-1,200m asl on the Bolaven plateau, in Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Pakxong District, Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic. The limits of its distribution remain unknown, and it might occur more widely.
61868		habitat	eng	This species is known from wet evergreen forest, where individuals were found at night on rocks and vegetation along rocky streams, or occasionally on leaf-litter or tree branches away from streams. Breeding is presumed to be by larval development.
61868		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61868		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is that much of the forest on the plateau is being converted to coffee cultivation.
61870		conservation	eng	The area where this species occurs is within a proposed nature reserve.
61870		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 1,400-1,700m asl on Mount Tay Con Linh II, Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen District, Ha Giang Province, in extreme northern Viet Nam. It is likely to occur more widely than currently reported.
61870		habitat	eng	This species was found in disturbed, primary broad-leaved evergreen forest (with <em>Camellia</em> and <em>Litsea</em> species dominating), on wet mossy rocks or small branches overhanging streams, or in small, rocky-bottomed forest pools. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, but it is unlikely to thrive in heavily altered landscapes. It is presumed to breed by larval development.
61870		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61870		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include clearance of forest for shifting agriculture and rice cultivation (Tordoff 2002). Local people within its range hunt other species of amphibians for food, and so this might be a threat, although this species is not large and so might not actually be targeted for food, unlike the larger but otherwise similar <em>Rana chloronota</em>.
61871		conservation	eng	All records of it to date have been from protected areas, namely Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Bach Ma National Park and Ba Na National Park.
61871		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Lao People's Democratic Republic in Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Xe Kong and Saravane Provinces, and also from central Viet Nam in Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien-Hue Province, and Ba Na National Park, Danang Province. It has been recorded at 1,100-1,600m asl. The limits of its distribution have not been established.
61871		habitat	eng	This species is known from small, steep, rocky streams in hilly wet evergreen forest. Individuals were found at night on the ground or perched on rocks, tree roots, and herbaceous plants, within 7m of streams. Calling males have been found perched on rocks and branches of bushes above or near streams. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.
61871		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding its population status.
61871		threats	eng	No information is currently available regarding threats to this species.
61872		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
61872		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities at 1,900m and 2,313m asl in the Sierra Madre Oriental in the south-west of Chihuahua State, northern Mexico.
61872		habitat	eng	It is found in pine-oak forests, and is presumed to breed by larval development.
61872		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61872		threats	eng	The most significant threats to this species are probably logging, followed by deforestation for agriculture, and the intentional lighting of fires to improve cattle pastures.
61873		conservation	eng	Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.
61873		distribution	eng	This species has been found from 200-700m asl in Lao People's Democratic Republic and neighbouring Viet Nam: in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Nakai District, Khammouan Province, and the Nape border area, Khamkeut District, Bolikhamxay Province, in Lao People's Democratic Republic; and from a tributary of the Rao An River, Rao An Region, Huong Son Reserve, Huong Son District, Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61873		habitat	eng	It is found in evergreen forest, where individuals were located at night on leaf-litter, rocks, logs, and vegetation near to rocky streams. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.
61873		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61873		threats	eng	The major threat to the habitat in this region is clearance of forest for shifting cultivation.
61874		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, although there are several protected areas within the species range in which it may occur.
61874		distribution	eng	This species is found in Mazandaran, Golestan and Gillan Provinces, Iran, at the southern edge of the Caspian Sea (Veith <em>et al.</em> 2003).
61874		habitat	eng	It presumably occurs in both densely wooded and open woodland areas. The breeding habitat is not well known, but it possibly breeds in forest ponds (Theodore Papenfuss and Göran Nilson pers. comm. September, 2008).
61874		population	eng	This appears to be a common to abundant species (Theodore Papenfuss and Göran Nilson pers. comm. September, 2008).
61874		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss arising from urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation), and logging. Some populations might also be affected by extended periods of drought.
61875		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve areas of suitable habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.
61875		distribution	eng	This Turkish endemic species is known only from the area of Akdağ (near Tavas in Vilayet Denizli) and Giredev Gölü and its close vicinity west of Elmali (Max Kasparek pers. comm. November 2008; Franzen <em>et al</em>. 2008). At the Akdağ location, it has been found in streams near the town of Kizilcabölük (Kaska, pers. comm.).
61875		habitat	eng	It occurs close to streams in wooded areas of cedar and pine trees (Kaska, pers. comm.).
61875		population	eng	This species is rare (Kaska, pers. comm.). The population is estimated to have a maximum of 500 mature individuals (Kaska and Avci, pers. comm.)
61875		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the destruction of its forest habitat for small scale commercial harvest within its restricted range. It is also threatened by the general pollution and drainage of breeding sites and wetlands.
61876		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Kilimanjaro National Park.
61876		distribution	eng	This recently described species was collected from Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania, at 3,230m asl.
61876		habitat	eng	This species is presumably associated with cold mountain streams in alpine African moorland, and is assumed to breed by larval development in the streams.
61876		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens collected in 1936. The lack of recent records is probably a reflection of very limited survey effort in the area since then.
61876		threats	eng	It occurs in well-protected habitat and is not currently threatened. However, it could be impacted by the local effects of climate change. For example, if it is cold-water adapted, it could be affected by the ongoing retreat of the ice fields on Mount Kilimanjaro.
61877		conservation	eng	The species is known from Usangu Game Reserve, Ruaha National Park, Tarangire National Park, Serengeti National Park, Ikorongo Game Reserve and Grumeti Game Reserve.
61877		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in central Tanzania from the Usangu Valley and the Udzungwa Plateau (where it occurs up to 1,500m), north to Dodoma, the central plateau of Tanzania and the Serengeti, and west to the Ruaha Valley, and from Kigwembimbi and Kibebe. The northern, eastern and western limits are not well known at present. It might occur in the vicinity of the Rukwa Valley, Lukwati-Muipa, Mlele Hills, Ugalla and Moyowosi Game Reserves and in the Katavi National Park areas, but there are no records yet. Very little collection or sound recording of frogs has taken place in Tanzania, so this species might eventually be found to be even more widespread. The habitat of the central highlands where it is found extends into Kenya, so this species might also occur there.
61877		habitat	eng	It is widespread in moist and drier savanna habitats. Males have been found calling along pool edges and from shallow running streams in a sand river. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.
61877		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species
61877		threats	eng	There have been a few exported from Tanzania for the pet trade but the numbers are too small to be of any impact on the species as a whole. It is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
61878		conservation	eng	The sole known locality for this species is within Vu Quang Nature Reserve. Given that the threats to the habitat of this species are ongoing despite current management practices, there is a need for significantly improved protected area management and law enforcement.
61878		distribution	eng	This species is known from 1,500m asl in Rao Cua District, Ha Tinh Province, central Viet Nam.
61878		habitat	eng	It was found in montane forest, perching on the leaves of bushes at night. It is presumed to reproduce by larval development, and is likely to breed in forest pools.
61878		population	eng	There is no information.
61878		threats	eng	The major threats to the habitat of this species include clearance of forest for agricultural fields, livestock grazing, and timber extraction (both illegal logging and firewood collection). All of these threats might increase following construction of National Highway 2, the proposed route of which runs near to this reserve (Tordoff 2002).
61879		conservation	eng	Its range includes Horton Plains National Park. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
61879		distribution	eng	This Sri Lankan endemic is restricted to the highest elevations of the Central Hills and is currently known only from Horton Plains National Park at 2,135m asl, and Namunukula Peak at 1,850-1,980m asl. It is separated from its sister species, <em>Philautus auratus</em>, by a 1,450m deep valley (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).
61879		habitat	eng	It lives in the sub-canopy of closed-canopy montane forests and cardamom plantations within the forest. Males call from their perches on leaves 1-3m above the ground (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). Breeding is by direct development, and the species is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited. It is dependent on relatively undisturbed closed-canopy cloud forest.
61879		population	eng	The current population status is not known.
61879		threats	eng	The major threat is clearing of the species' forest habitat, due to subsistence agriculture and logging. Drought is also an important threat.
61880		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is within Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve.
61880		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at 710m asl on Mount Diaoluo, in Lingshui County on Hainan Island, China.
61880		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from bushes and bamboo forests in mid-altitude forest, and might breed by direct development.
61880		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
61880		threats	eng	There is very little information on direct threats to this species, but it is likely to be affected by habitat degradation and deforestation arising from smallholder farming and subsistence-level wood extraction.
61881		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Hantane Forest Reserve and the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve near Kandy.
61881		distribution	eng	This Sri Lankan endemic is known from only from two localities: Hanthana range, Kandy (from 510-800m asl), and Tonacombe Estate, Namunukula (around 1,320m asl) (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).
61881		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of closed-canopy forest, where it is usually found on large boulders close to streams. It is unlikely to be tolerant of habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.
61881		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat.
61881		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be water pollution due to agrochemicals.
61882		conservation	eng	Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but Corbett's Gap is not currently known to fall in any protected area, and is in need of urgent habitat protection. Further survey work is needed to better determine the distribution range of this species, and its current population status.
61882		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Corbett's Gap region, in the Knuckles range of central Sri Lanka, at an altitude of 1,245m asl (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.). It may occur in other cloud forests of the Knuckles Hills, but further survey work is needed to confirm this
61882		habitat	eng	It is found in shrubs in gaps within closed-canopy montane cloud forests, as well as cardamom plantations within the forest. However, it has only been observed in or very close to relatively undisturbed forest, though it seems to do well in forest gap areas such as those created by selective logging. Males usually call from vegetation 0.3-1m above the ground. The diurnal resting habitat of these frogs is under a leaf, or on a leaf axil, often in well-illuminated habitats (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It is presumably a direct developer like other species in the genus.
61882		population	eng	It is found in low abundance.
61882		threats	eng	The major threat is clearing of the species' forest habitat, due to subsistence agriculture and logging. Drought is also an important threat.
61883		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kottawa Forest Reserve and the Beraliya Forest Reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.
61883		distribution	eng	This lowland Sri Lankan endemic is only known from two localities: the type locality of Kottawa at 60m asl, and from Beraliya Forest, Elpitiya, at 150m asl, both in the south of the country (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).
61883		habitat	eng	It inhabits the shrub understorey of closed-canopy lowland rainforest. It is not believed to be tolerant of habitat degradation. Males are seen calling at night in chorus from leaves up to 1m above the ground (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It presumably breeds by direct development like other species of the genus.
61883		population	eng	The current population status is not known.
61883		threats	eng	Some parts of its range are impacted by intensive land-use change, due to smallholder farming activities and logging. Drought is also a threat.
61884		conservation	eng	Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but the other localities from which it is known remain unprotected.
61884		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from two localities, Corbett's Gap, and from Hunnasgiriya, in the Knuckles Hills of central Sri Lanka. It has been recorded between 1,100 and 1,245m asl (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.).
61884		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in the understorey and forest sub-canopy of closed-canopy cloud forest, but can also be found in areas with cardamom as the understorey. Males are usually seen calling from their perches on leaves around 1-3m above the ground. They are dependent on environments with high relative humidity for reproduction, and are seen in higher densities in marshy habitats (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It is presumed to be a direct developer like other species of the genus. Its dependence on high humidity makes it particularly vulnerable to any modification of the habitat resulting in the opening up of the forest canopy.
61884		population	eng	It occurs in relatively low abundance.
61884		threats	eng	The major threat is clearance of the species' forest habitat due to logging and subsistence agriculture; drought, and the use of agrochemicals in cardamom cultivation, are additional threats.
61885		conservation	eng	At least part of the range of this species seems to fall inside the Wayanad Sanctuary, but there remains a need for improved protection of remaining tropical forest habitat.
61885		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region between Sultanbathery, Kalpatta, and Mananthavady at an altitude of around 1,000m asl, Wayanad District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of India.
61885		habitat	eng	It occurs in the highest canopy layer (at around 10-20m above the ground) of tropical evergreen forest. Some specimens were collected from trees on the forest fringe and near a coffee plantation, so this species may be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. However, populations appear to be declining in altered habitats.
61885		population	eng	It appears to be common within its limited range.
61885		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to conversion to cultivated lands, plantations (<em>Eucalyptus</em>, coffee, tea), and hydroelectric reservoirs.
61886		conservation	eng	Its sole known locality is within Phou Dendin (sometimes called Phou Dene Din) National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
61886		distribution	eng	This species is known from 600m asl in Phongsaly District in eastern Phongsaly Province, in northern Lao People's Democratic Republic.
61886		habitat	eng	The only known specimen of this species was collected from a bamboo leaf one metre above the ground in hilly evergreen forest mixed with stands of natural bamboo, around 200m from the bank of Nam Ou River. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61886		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen, so its population status cannot be assessed.
61886		threats	eng	There is no information.
61887		conservation	eng	Neither Morningside Forest nor Handapan Ella Plains is legally protected, although since 1989 they have enjoyed "administrative protection" as a result of government policy. However, more formal protection of these sites is an urgent priority. Periodic monitoring of this species is recommended.
61887		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two localities in Sri Lanka: the type locality, Handapan Ella Plains (near Suriyakanda) at 1,270m asl; and Morningside Forest, near Rakwana at 1,060m asl, 10km from the type locality (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).
61887		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found only in closed-canopy cloud forest of the Rakwana Mountains in sub-canopy forest and shrubs. It can also be found in areas with cardamom as the understorey. Males are usually seen calling from their perches on leaves around 1-3m above the ground. They are dependent on environments with high relative humidity for reproduction, and are seen in higher densities in marshy habitats. It is presumed to be a direct developer like other species of the genus. Its dependence on high humidity makes it particularly vulnerable to any modification of the habitat resulting in the opening up of the forest canopy.
61887		population	eng	It occurs in relatively low abundance.
61887		threats	eng	The major threat is the clearance of the species' forest habitat due to smallholder farming activities and logging; drought, and the use of agrochemicals in cardamom cultivation, are additional threats.
61888		conservation	eng	Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but there is still an urgent need for the protection of forest habitat in the Corbett's Gap region. Monitoring of the species' population is recommended.
61888		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Corbett's Gap region, in the Knuckles Range of central Sri Lanka at 1,245m asl. It is separated from <em>Philautus microtympanum</em> by the Mahaweli River valley, which descends to about 500m at Kandy (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak, although this record may represent a distinct species (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.).
61888		habitat	eng	It is restricted to the highest elevations of the Knuckles Range, and is found in both open and closed-canopy habitats, in the leaf-litter, shrubs and trees in the sub-canopy. Males are seen calling from branches 0.3-3m above the ground (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development.
61888		population	eng	It occurs at low abundance.
61888		threats	eng	The major threat is forest clearance due to smallholder agricultural activities and logging.
61889		conservation	eng	Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but there is an urgent need for the protection of forest habitat in the Corbett's Gap region. Monitoring of the species' population is recommended.
61889		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Corbett's Gap region in the southern Knuckles Range of central Sri Lanka at 1,245m asl (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.).
61889		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of closed-canopy montane forests and cardamom plantations within the forest. Males are usually seen calling from leaves 2-3m above the ground. Breeding presumably takes place by direct development, as with other species of the genus.
61889		population	eng	It occurs in low abundance.
61889		threats	eng	The major threat is forest clearance due to smallholder farming activities and logging; drought, and the use of agrochemicals in cardamom cultivation, are additional threats.
61890		conservation	eng	It is known from two protected areas: Bach Ma and Ba Na National Parks.
61890		distribution	eng	This species is known from low altitudes (less than 100m asl) up to 1,300m asl in central Viet Nam. There are records from Bach Ma and Ba Na National Parks in the Hai Van mountain range, and also from localities further to the west closer to the Laotian border, all in Thua Thien-Hue Province. There are also records from further south, in Mang Canh Commune, Kon Plong District, Kon Tum Province. Given the distributions of other Rhacophoridae, Ranidae, and Megophryidae species, this species might also occur at over 1,000m asl in Quang Nam, Kon Tum, and Gia Lai Provinces of southern Viet Nam, and in adjacent regions of Lao People's Democratic Republic. Its distribution remains very poorly known.
61890		habitat	eng	All of the records of this species are from primary or old secondary forest, very close to small cascading forest springs falling from steep mountain slopes. It is usually found under the leaves and branches of trees and bushes at night. Jelly-like clutches of 2-10 eggs were found on the tips of large leaves on the bank of a stream in October, with larvae at different developmental stages and some clutches already deserted by the larvae. An adult male was noted to be guarding one clutch.
61890		population	eng	There is no information.
61890		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats to this species, and it is very unlikely to be the specific target of harvesting for human consumption, since it is so small and cryptic.
61891		conservation	eng	Its known range is encompassed by Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, and Bawangling Nature Reserves.
61891		distribution	eng	This species is known from 630-710m asl in three localities in Hainan Province, China: Mount Diaoluo in Lingshui County; Mount Jianfengling in Ledong County; and Bawangling in Changjiang County.
61891		habitat	eng	It is known from forest, and is presumed to breed by larval development.
61891		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61891		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation arising from smallholder farming.
61893		conservation	eng	There is very little information. Improved habitat protection is likely needed throughout its range.
61893		distribution	eng	This species is said to be characteristic of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the state of Durango, western Mexico, at 2,438-2,469m asl. The limits of its distribution are not clear, but recorded localities include Navios, El Salto and Otinapa, and two new localities have recently been added. One of these is 9km east of Mimbres, while the other is north of Temosachic, and both are in east-central Chihuahua (Webb pers. comm.). This species is sympatric with <em>Ambystoma rosaceum</em>.
61893		habitat	eng	It is believed to be characteristic of the pine-oak forest highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Larvae have been found in man-made ponds, cattle tanks, and shallow lakes. Sexually mature adults have been found in the larval form, but also as fully metamorphosed individuals that occur on land.
61893		population	eng	There is little information on its population status.
61893		threats	eng	There is very little information on direct threats to this species. If the threats are similar to those of the sympatric <em>A. rosaceum</em>, it might be affected by introduced predatory fishes, and possibly by agricultural expansion. The species probably exists, however, without experiencing negative impacts in cattle areas provided that breeding habitat remains available.
61894		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61894		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, at Guabang Shan Tree Farm in Qiyang County, Hunan Province, China, where it has been found from 400-720m asl.
61894		habitat	eng	It is known from forest, and wetlands such as bogs, marshes, permanent pools and paddy lands. Eggs are laid in winter in standing ponds, bogs and rice fields. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.
61894		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61894		threats	eng	The main threat to it is habitat loss and degradation arising from smallholder farming.
61895		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
61895		distribution	eng	This species is known from 500-1,200m asl in montane regions of Chubu District in south-central Japan, and specifically from the north-west of Shizuoka Prefecture (Fujieda-shi, Shizuoka-shi, Misakubo-cho, Honkawane-cho) and the south-east of Nagano Prefecture (Minamishinana-mura), on the Akaishi Mountains and along Oi-gawa and Tenryu-gawa rivers. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61895		habitat	eng	This species is found in an area where frequent landslides occur, suggesting large quantities of underground water. It is presumed to be a larval developer, and to breed in streams. Since its breeding locations have not been found, it is believed to breed in underground streams, as does a morphotype of <em>Hynobius naevius</em>.
61895		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
61895		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
61896		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional General de División Omar Torrijos Herrera.
61896		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected near the summit of Cerro Peña Blanca, in the Cordillera Central of central Panama, at an altitude of approximately 1,315m asl. It might occur more widely (since forested habitat has virtually not been sampled between the Fortuna dam region of western Panama and the type locality of this species), but since this is the highest mountain in the region, and given that many neotropical salamander species are known to have very narrow altitudinal ranges, it is possible that this species has a very restricted extent of occurrence.
61896		habitat	eng	The sole known specimen was found inside an earthen mound in forest. This species is considered unlikely to be tolerant of much habitat degradation, and is presumed to breed by direct development.
61896		population	eng	It appears to be very rare.
61896		threats	eng	Chytridiomycosis is a threat to this species, and has been associated with declines of other species to the north and west of its range. Logging is presumably also a threat to any populations occurring in unprotected areas.
61897		conservation	eng	Only the El Salvador side of the Cerro Montecristo in the Trifinio International Park is well protected, and so further protection of the remaining habitat in the surrounding areas is urgently needed. Additional survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.
61897		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Cerro Montecristo and Cerro Miramundo in the Trifinio International Park of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras; from El Mojanal in Honduras; and from a recent collection on Volcán Quetzaltepeque, in Guatemala (Sean Rovito, pers. comm. 2008). It has been recorded from 1,800-2,300m asl. Further analysis is required to determine whether or not a species recently found on an isolated peak in eastern Guatemala refers to this or another species (D. Wake, pers. comm. 2005).
61897		habitat	eng	It is known from humid montane pine-oak forest and cloud forest. Individuals were found on the ground, on fallen logs, under logs, on <em>Peperomia</em> sp. leaves, in water-filled leaf axils of <em>Heliconia</em> sp., and in bromeliads. Leenders and Watkins-Colwell (2004) suggested that this species might be arboreal at night, but use terrestrial hiding places during the day, however it has been recorded hiding in bromeliads during the day (Franklin Castañeda, pers. comm. 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61897		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of this species.
61897		threats	eng	In Honduras the habitat of this species is being lost through conversion of land to coffee plantations and subsistence agriculture. The threats to this species in Guatemala are not known. The population within El Salvador is known from a well protected area.
61898		conservation	eng	Part of the known range of this species falls within Parque Nacional Volcán Barú. There is a need for further survey work to establish the current population status of this species, particularly given the threat of chytrid.
61898		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in a small area near Volcán Barú on the Pacific slope of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca-Barú range, between Cerro Punta and Boquete, Chiriquí Province, Panama, at 1,250-2,450m asl. Like other species in this genus, the species is likely to have a small range.
61898		habitat	eng	The type series was collected in mossy oak forest with small bromeliads in the forest canopy. The species is considered unlikely to be tolerant of much habitat degradation. Individuals were found under logs and rough-hewn planks or inside rotting stumps, and under a small rock. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61898		population	eng	It has not been collected or observed in over 30 years. It appears to be rare, and the lack of records is perhaps not indicative of a decline.
61898		threats	eng	Chytrid fungus is a threat, and has been associated with declines of other species to the north and west. Habitat loss, due to smallholder agricultural activities and logging, is presumably also a threat; the forest connecting Volcán Barú to La Amistad consists of a network of privately owned farm properties, and has been under sporadic threat from road development and fires.
61899		conservation	eng	Its sole known locality is within Parque Nacional Tapantí.
61899		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Quebrada Valverde, 8km south of Tapantí, in Cartago Province, Costa Rica, at 1,555m asl.
61899		habitat	eng	This species was found in tropical premontane rainforest, where it is presumed to breed by direct development.
61899		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, which was collected in 1969, so its population status is not known.
61899		threats	eng	There are no known threats to it.
61900		conservation	eng	The limited remaining habitat in the range of this species requires urgent protection. An attempt to enthuse local businessmen to purchase the land to safeguard the species was unsuccessful.
61900		distribution	eng	This species is known only from seven specimens collected at 1,880 m on the isolated mountaintop of Cerro El Zarciadero, in the northern part of the department of Comayagua, Honduras. There is approximately one hectare of habitat remaining. The species is presumed to be restricted to this mountain.
61900		habitat	eng	All three specimens were found in cloud forest, inside water-containing arboreal bromeliads before the rainy season had begun in earnest. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61900		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species. Three individuals were recently collected (June 2006) from bromeliads, and two active animals were also found, in a single night (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm., 2007).
61900		threats	eng	Forest on the isolated mountaintop that comprises the only known range for this species has been reduced to less than 1ha in extent, due to forest removal for agricultural crop fields. Such habitat loss is not only a direct threat, but might also indirectly cause degradation of the environment in the species' remaining habitat by drying of the general environment (and the use of pesticides).
61901		conservation	eng	Much of its known range occurs within the Las Tablas Protected Area, which forms part of the adjoining Parque Internacional La Amistad (in the southern part of which this species is also found), in Costa Rica.
61901		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few adjacent localities from 1,500-2,300m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and far western Panama. It is confirmed as occurring from Cerro Frantzius to within Las Tablas Protected Area in Costa Rica, near the Panamanian border, and possibly also occurs near Santa Clara in nearby western Panama. However, the identity of the single specimen from Panama is uncertain.
61901		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense forest on moss-covered tree trunks, on stumps, on mossy tree butresses, and within the leaf axils of bromeliads, at heights of 0.6-1.5m above the ground. It is considered unlikely to be tolerant of much habitat degradation, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.
61901		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61901		threats	eng	Chytridiomycosis is a possible threat to this species, and has been associated with declines of other species to the north and west of its range. Logging is presumably also a threat to any populations that occur in unprotected areas. However, much of its habitat is well protected, and it appears not to be seriously at risk from habitat loss.
61902		conservation	eng	This species is found in two protected areas: Frozen Head State Natural Area Reserve and Obed National Scenic River.
61902		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, USA, at 400-700m asl, from just south of the Cumberland Mountains near Wartburg, Morgan County, south to near Tracy City, Grundy County.
61902		habitat	eng	It is found near streams on this forested plateau. Individuals are most often found on land but within a metre of water, or under rocks along small streams and under moss and debris on vertical rock faces behind cascades.
61902		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61902		threats	eng	A major threat in this area is habitat loss and degradation due to the building of second and retirement homes.
61903		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least three National Parks.
61903		distribution	eng	This species is found at relatively low elevations in southern to midwestern Republic of Korea, where it has been found at more than 20 sites. The type locality is at 210m.
61903		habitat	eng	This species occurs in damp, mossy talus slopes and rockslides of limestone in 15-20 year-old forests of hardwoods and mixed hardwood/pine (dominated by Pinus densiflora and Quercus mongolica). It has even been found in a city park. Most of the forests in which it has been found are young, so it has clearly survived earlier large-scale extraction of timber for foresty. Most individuals were found under small rocks or rock flakes scattered among larger boulders on fine-grained soil. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61903		population	eng	The species is locally common.
61903		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats.
61904		conservation	eng	The known range of this species is encompassed by the Klamath National Forest, and the Scott River is part of the Klamath Wild and Scenic River. A petition was put forward in 2004 that would safeguard this species under the Endangered Species Act, but this has not yet been processed. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
61904		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from 700-1,300m asl at Walker Gultch, and the Muck-a-Muck and Mill Creeks of the Scott River drainage, south of the Klamath River, Siskiyou County, California, USA. The species is not likely to be found much more widely.
61904		habitat	eng	This species is found in old-growth, temperate rainforest near streams. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61904		population	eng	There is no information on its population status.
61904		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is logging of old-growth forest. While the species occurs within a National Forest, this allows logging under certain conditions. The range of this species has been proposed for logging in the past.
61905		conservation	eng	Most of its range is within the George Washington National Forest, but the management of this is not necessarily compatible with the conservation of this species, perhaps especially when logging is permitted. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.
61905		distribution	eng	This recently described species from the Blue Ridge Mountains of the eastern USA is known only from 15 sites in a small area in the vicinity of Big Levels, Augusta County, Virginia, at elevations ranging from 579m asl (Lake Sherando) to 1,091m asl (at the top of Bald Mountain). It overlaps very narrowly with Eastern Red-backed Salamander <em>Plethodon cinereus</em> on the edge of its range.
61905		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and on rocky talus slopes. It breeds by direct development.
61905		population	eng	It is believed to be common within it small range.
61905		threats	eng	Very little is currently known on threats to this species. There is no information on its ability to adapt to logging of its forest habitat.
61906		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to determine the reason for the apparent population declines in suitable habitat.
61906		distribution	eng	This species is known only from north-central Oaxaca, southern Mexico.
61906		habitat	eng	It is a species of pine and pine-oak forests at high elevations. It is terrestrial, found beneath logs and rocks. The species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
61906		population	eng	It was known to be common to very common 30 years ago, but is now rarely found (D. Wake pers. comm., 2005).
61906		threats	eng	Habitat loss does not appear to be at a scale large enough to explain observed declines.
61907		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61907		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an area at around 750-1,030m asl just north and south of Putla de Guerrero in Oaxaca, Mexico. It is likely to be more widespread.
61907		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found in a banana field and a roadside bank, suggesting some degree of tolerance to habitat disturbance. The species is the largest tropical salamander and appears to live in permanent burrows (T. Papenfuss and D. Wake, pers. comm. 2007). Its minimum viable population size may require a larger area of occupancy. This species reproduces by direct development (D. Wake, pers. comm. 2007).
61907		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. It is known only from a few specimens found on several different collection trips to the region.
61907		threats	eng	Urbanization and changed agricultural practice away from shade grown coffee or increased tilling.
61908		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
61908		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities at 1,985-3,080 m altitude in the mountains of the Mixteca region of Oaxaca, southern Mexico, namely: San Pedro Jocotipac; San Juán Bautista Coixtlahuaca; Tlaxiaco; highway San Andrés Chicahuaxtla-Tlaxiaco; and c. 27-30km southeast of Tlaxiaco. It has recently been recorded from Tepanco de López in Puebla (Juan Carlos Windfield Pérez pers. comm., 2007).
61908		habitat	eng	This species is known from oak forest and pine forest, most commonly the former. Individuals have been found at the base of dead agave, in leaf-litter, under logs and in holes in tree trunks, as well as under bricks in the garden of a house. It has also been found under trash in a vacant lot in the city of Tlaxiaco. One individual had a small centipede and a staphylinid beetle in its mouth. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
61908		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
61908		threats	eng	Habitat loss is progressing fast in this area, but does not appear to be a significant threat due to the species' tolerance of degraded habitat.
61909		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed to better determine the species range, and the threats to it.
61909		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality at around 2,150m asl on the mountain pass of Plan de Guadalupe in the Sierra de Mazateca of northern Oaxaca, Mexico. Future work might prove it to be more widespread than current records suggest.
61909		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this species may be cloud forest, consisting mainly of oaks, but the area around the type locality has almost completely been deforested. The fact that individuals were found in such altered habitat might indicate that it has a great tolerance of habitat degradation, but it is unclear for how long it can tolerate such degradation. Individuals were found under small rocks and schist slabs in roadside talus. This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
61909		population	eng	It is only known from a total of five individuals collected on two separate trips at two adjacent localities (within 5km of each other).
61909		threats	eng	It is threatened by the significant deforestation caused by uncontrolled logging around the type locality.
61910		conservation	eng	It is known from the Reserva de la Biósfera Tehuacán-Cuicatlán. Further taxonomic work is necessary to resolve the identity of populations found at lower altitudes.
61910		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de Juárez, from the vicinity of Cerro Pelón and Cerro Humo to Cerro Peña Verde and the Pápalo region, northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded only from 2,800-2,900m asl, and possibly as low as 2,650m asl (exact identification is pending on these records). The species is believed to be endemic to the Sierra de Juárez.
61910		habitat	eng	The species has been found in pine forest and barren rocky slopes at or above the upper limit of cloud forest. It is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
61910		population	eng	There is no clear information available on the population status of the species, although it appears never to have been common.
61910		threats	eng	There has been significant deforestation by uncontrolled logging in this area, but the habitat is now recovering and the species is still present.
61911		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the severity of threats to this species.
61911		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a narrow altitudinal band of 905-1,400m asl in the Sierra Madre Oriental, in the municipality of Cuetzalan del Progreso in Puebla State, Mexico.
61911		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest, under a canopy of <em>Liquidambar</em> plants, oaks, and arborescent ferns, as well as in coffee groves. Individuals have been found under moss in rock walls, inside and under rotten logs, under stones, and in leaf axils. This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
61911		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
61911		threats	eng	It might be at threat from the intense pressure its habitat is under for development of human settlements and tourist development.
61912		conservation	eng	It is known from Parque Nacional Miguel Hidalgo (Lagunas de Cempoala), Parque Nacional Desierto de los Leones, and Parque Nacional Iztaccíhuatl-Popocatépetl. The validity of this taxon needs to be investigated (Wake pers. comm.).
61912		distribution	eng	This species is known from 2,700-3,500m asl in Mexico in the central section of Eje Neovolcánico Transversal in Mexico and Morelos States (and also probably in adjacent Puebla State), the Federal District of central Mexico, and in the Ocuilan, Ajusco, Las Cruces, and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges.
61912		habitat	eng	It seems to prefer open and somewhat dry pine forests with understorey bunchgrass. It is also known from humid fir (<em>Abies religiosa</em>) forests and mixed temperate forests of pine (<em>Pinus hartwegii</em> and <em>Pinus leiophylla</em>), fir (<em>Abies religiosa</em>),<em> Arbutus glandulosa</em>, <em>Alnus jorullensis</em>, and oak species. Individuals were often found under logs during the day, although others were found under a soil mound and under an extrusive volcanic rock. This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
61912		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is much less common than <em>Pseudoeurycea leprosa</em>.
61912		threats	eng	There is no information on threats.
61913		conservation	eng	This species is found within Termessos National Park.
61913		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Turkey where it is restricted to a small area in south-western Anatolia. It has an altitudinal range of 100-650m asl.
61913		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas in pine woodland and maquis scrub habitat. Animals have been found hiding under rock piles on hillsides. It is not present in modified habitats. The species is viviparous, the female giving birth to one or two fully metamorphosed young after a gestation period of around one year.
61913		population	eng	It is locally abundant. There are a total of six adjacent populations (Veith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
61913		threats	eng	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe. Further development within this species' restricted range would lead to declines because it does not tolerate habitat modification.
61914		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. The creation of a protected area for this species could help protect its restricted range from development.
61914		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Anatolia, Turkey, where it has been recorded from Serik, Turbelinaz, Fersin, Dikmen, Manavgat, Gayi, Gollepe and Selge. It is present at altitudes of 190-1,500m asl
61914		habitat	eng	This species is found under stones in humid areas of pine forest. Animals are found in areas of limestone and also close to rivers. It has been recorded close to villages, but does not occur in modified habitats (Avci, pers. comm., September 2008). The species is viviparous, the female giving birth to one or two fully metamorphosed young after a gestation period of around one year.
61914		population	eng	It is common within its limited range (Ǒz, pers. comm., September 2008).
61914		threats	eng	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.
61915		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Çaliticak Protected Area.
61915		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the east slope of the Saricinar Daglari, south-west of Antalya, Turkey. It ranges from sea level to 200m asl.
61915		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in maqui or pine woodlands. The species is live-bearing producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year. The species does not occur in modified habitats.
61915		population	eng	It is common in its restricted range.
61915		threats	eng	There is generally a low human population density and little tourism in the area where it is found, and limited habitat loss is taking place. However, a potential future threat is the loss of habitat due to ongoing development in the region and forest fires, as well as overcollection for scientific purposes.
61916		conservation	eng	It is present in Fethiye gocek Special Protected Area.
61916		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southern Anatolian coast, Turkey, where it is found from north-west of Fethiye to the eastern shore of Koycegiz Golu.  It is also found on the islands of Tersane and Domuz. It ranges from sea level up to 1,000m asl.
61916		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is usually found in marquis scrub or pine woodland (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.
61916		population	eng	It is very common within its restricted range (Avci, pers. comm., September 2008).
61916		threats	eng	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.
61917		conservation	eng	It is present in Gokova Special Protected Area.
61917		distribution	eng	This species ranges between Marmaris and Ula along the south-west Anatolian coast, Turkey, from sea level up to 600m asl.
61917		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in marquis scrub or pine woodlands (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.
61917		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species (Avci, pers. comm., September 2008)
61917		threats	eng	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found.
61918		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas, but currently there is no management or monitoring of these protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.
61918		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it occurs only on the islands of Karpathos, Kasos and Saria in the south-east Aegean Sea.
61918		habitat	eng	It lives in Mediterranean rocky shrubby vegetation. It is viviparous, giving birth to fully developed young on land, and it is not associated with water.
61918		population	eng	It is a fairly common species within its restricted range.
61918		threats	eng	No major threats are known, though local populations might be impacted by loss of habitat. Harvesting for the international pet trade takes place, but not at a level sufficient to threaten the species.
61919		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not the species occurs in any protected areas.
61919		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern Algeria, east to western Tunisia, but is absent from the Edough Peninsula in northern Algeria. The distribution map for this species largely follows the map presented in Veith <em>et al.</em> (2004), but its occurrence within this range is very limited due to fragmented habitat. The altitudinal range of the species is not known.
61919		habitat	eng	This is presumed to be a largely aquatic species dependent upon cisterns, ponds, swamps, and other wetlands. It is not clear if this salamander uses terrestrial habitats. This species has a similar breeding strategy to <em>Pleurodeles waltl</em>, depositing its eggs and completing larval development within water.
61919		population	eng	It is a rare and declining species.
61919		threats	eng	The species is threatened by pollution of natural breeding ponds (dayas), through expansion and intensification of agriculture (livestock) in the region (Schleich, Kästle and Kabisch 1996). There is only limited suitable habitat within its range, suggesting that its populations could be small and severely fragmented.
61920		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. It is an urgent priority to restore the vegetation along stream banks in order to minimize erosion and loss of soil. Plans to remove the eucalyptus plantations in the area might be beneficial for the species, providing that this is done carefully, and does not result in even more widespread soil erosion.
61920		distribution	eng	This species is known only from c. 1,080 m on Sagala Hill, in the Taita Hills, south-eastern Kenya. This mountain block is isolated from other similar habitat by the arid Tsavo plains, and so the range of this species is believed to be restricted to the c. 29km² within this block that are above 1,000 m asl.
61920		habitat	eng	Presumably originally a montane forest species, all specimens found were dug up from shambas (smallholder farms), usually in soil underneath banana plants or under decomposing organic debris. The species thus seems tolerant of small-scale farming activities. However, the density of animals is much higher near streams than in shambas away from streams, so the area of optimal habitat is very small. The species appears to be completely absent from eucalyptus plantations (which cover much of the Sagala Hill area), and is also missing from the small remaining area of natural forest on the ridge of Sagala Hill (perhaps because it is above the elevation level of this species, or because of the absence of suitable streamside habitat). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
61920		population	eng	The species is considered to be common in suitable habitats within its small range. At one site, 16 specimens were dug up in one hour in an area of 30m².
61920		threats	eng	Very little natural forest remains on Sagalla Hill, but it is not clear whether or not these caecilians might sometimes benefit from anthropogenically disturbed habitat. Although tolerant of small-scale farming activities, the continued expansion of these has in recent years lead to the removal of streamside vegetation. This has resulted in severe flooding, and an increase in the erosion of river banks (with serious loss of soil) where this species is known to breed, and occur at its highest densities. Pesticides might also pose a threat.
61921		conservation	eng	This species is likely to occur in Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, which is adjacent to the type locality. It appears to be taxonomically distinct, but very few specimens are available and further work is required to fully characterise it (Gower pers. comm.).
61921		distribution	eng	This species is known from 80m asl at Mudur Village (adjacent to Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary), Kundapura Taluk, in Udupi District, southern Karnataka State, in the Western Ghats of India.
61921		habitat	eng	It was first found in rotting vegetation at the base of saplings at a distance of around 5m from a stream in a betel nut orchard, indicating at least a degree of tolerance to habitat disturbance. It is presumably originally a forest species. Its reproductive biology is unknown, although where known other members of the genus are oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly without a larval stage.
61921		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens and its population status is not known. In two subsequent visits to the type locality, following its discovery, this species could not be relocated.
61921		threats	eng	There is no information on threats.
61922		conservation	eng	The only known locality for this species falls inside Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, potentially affording it some degree of protection. Further work is required to further establish the characterisation of this species and <em>Gegeneophis danieli</em> (Gower pers. comm.).
61922		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary in Goa State, at about 200m asl, in the Western Ghats of India. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61922		habitat	eng	It was collected in a heap of rotting elephant grass at a distance of around 5m from a cement-walled stream inside a mini zoo. The general habitat of the sanctuary is moist deciduous forest. This species' reproductive biology is unknown. Other members of the genus are oviparous with terrestrial eggs that undergo direct development.
61922		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens.
61922		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
61923		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
61923		distribution	eng	This species is known from 12 specimens found at 1,042m asl near Dhanagarwada, at Humbarli village, near Koyna in Satara District, Maharashtra State, in the northern Western Ghats of India. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.
61923		habitat	eng	It was found on a shallow-soiled plateau, under rocks in an open area of grassland surrounded by semi-evergreen forest. The grassland is strongly seasonal, with very dry periods. Small pieces of earthworm were found in the guts of two of the specimens. Although this species' reproductive mode is not known, that of its closest suspected relatives (<em>Gegeneophis</em> spp.) is oviparity with terrestrial eggs that develop directly.
61923		population	eng	It appears to be fairly common at the type locality.
61923		threats	eng	There is no information on threats.
61924		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi </span>has been registered in Parque Nacional Calilegua (76,000 ha) and Parque Nacional El Rey (44,000 ha).
61924		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi</span> is currently known only from Jujuy and Salta provinces, Argentina (Vizcaíno 1995). Its range may extend into Bolivia or Paraguay.
61924		habitat	eng	This armadillo species appears to be tolerant of a variety of ecological conditions from xeric habitats to humid montane forest (Vizcaíno 1995, Vizcaíno and Giallombardo 2001, Aguiar and Fonseca 2008).
61924		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi.</span>
61924		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but it can be assumed that it is used as a protein source and that habitat destruction is affecting it negatively.
61925		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. pygmaeus</span> is endemic to a single island of Panama, which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the Comarca Indigenous Reserve. There is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area, which currently receives little attention from wildlife protection authorities. Conservation of the species could be improved through local awareness programmes, specifically those promoting sloths as conservation flagship species.
61925		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bradypus pygmaeus</span> is known only from Isla Escudo de Veraguas, in the islands of Bocas del Toro, Panama. Sloths on the younger islands of the Bocas del Toro archipelago are conspecific with <em>Bradypus variegatus</em>. Isla Escudo de Veraguas has an area of approximately 4.3 km² and is about 17.6 km from the mainland of Panama.
61925		habitat	eng	This smallest of all sloths, this species has only been recorded in the red mangrove forests surrounding the island, currently estimated at just 1.3–1.5 km² in area. It has not been recorded from forest patches within the island. As far as is known, it primarily, if not exclusively, feeds on mangrove leaves.
61925		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pygmaeus</span>. The population is likely to be relatively small and presumably consists of less than 500 individuals.
61925		threats	eng	Although the island is uninhabited, there are seasonal visitors (fishermen, campesinos, lobster divers and local people) who are known to hunt the sloths opportunistically (B. Voirin pers. comm. 2010). Preliminary studies suggest a low level of genetic diversity among pygmy sloths (Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, N. Moraes-Barros pers. comm. 2010), which could lead to endogamic depression if the (already low) population size decreases any further.<br/><br/>Previously, it was thought that there were potential threats from the development of the island for tourism; it has now been confirmed that this is not likely as the whole island is now a marine reserve and very few tourists visit the island (B. Voirin pers. comm., 18 July 2010). However, cutting of the mangroves by indigenous people continues to reduce the area of available habitat for this species. Over the past five years mangrove coverage has been greatly reduced.
61926		conservation	eng	A project entitled "Conservation and Management of <em>Dimophandra wilsonii</em>" was started in 2003 by the Botanic Garden of the Fundação Zoo-Botânica de Belo Horizonte. Through this project ,extensive surveys for the species have been conducted. The project also includes monitoring in the field; studies on the biological, ecological and genetic apsects of the plant; methods of providing physical protection; and cultivation aspects. The project stimulated the City Mayors of the two municipalities and the State Government to create specific protection laws for <em>D. wilsonii</em>. These  laws were passed in 2004. <br/> <br/>In December 2005 and January 2006, the first reintroduction of the species was carried out: 110 individuals were planted. Another 100 plants are being grown <em>ex situ</em>.  <br/> <br/>The species is in the Red List of Minas Gerais State (Mendonça and Lins 2000) but not in the last Brazilian Red List, because of insufficient data. But the Minas Gerais list in now under revision and the species will most probably be listed as Critically Endangered as there is now enough information available about its conservation status. <br/> <br/>To help the survey work started late in 2004, a leaflet and posters were produced to explain the project to the wider community and to encourage their participation, especially in reporting additional plants or helping to conserve the species. The response has been very good so far. It is hoped that sufficient funds will be raised to continue the conservation work on this species especially the ongoing surveys, monitoring and reintroduction work required.
61926		distribution	eng	Found only in Minas Gerais State in southeast Brazil: Paraopeba and Caetanópolis municipalities. Occurs in a small range between the coordinates 44°25'25,7"W – 19°19'49,2"S and 44°28'23,2"W – 19°12'25,8"S.
61926		habitat	eng	Native to the "Cerradão", the most dense and high physiognomy (typology) of the Cerrado Biome (the Brazilian Savanna), one of the worlds Hot Spots of biodiversity.
61926		population	eng	There are only 10 adults (mature individuals) and six juveniles living in nature in the middle of pastures of <em>Brachiaria</em>, in a very deforested and fragmented region. The species was described in 1969 and was always very rare. The population is decreasing: in 1984, 18 individuals were observed in the wild (Rizzini and Matos 1986); in 2003, 11 adult individuals were observed (F. Fernandes, pers. obs.); in 2004, one adult died (unknown reason). Only 10 mature plants now remain (F.M. Fernandes, pers. obs). <br/> <br/>After months of surveys searching for new individuals or subpopulations,  <br/>only one new mature plant was found (in August 2005). In 2005, one of the previously known individuals died (F.M. Fernandes, pers. comm).
61926		threats	eng	Threatened by deforestation for charcoal production; this is the most important threat to the Cerrado Biome. There is also deforestation for pasture establishment and any seedlings face competition from <em>Brachiaria</em> an alien invasive grass. This species is also deliberately erradicated by people because the seeds of the species can be harmful to pregnant cattle. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/><em>D. wilsonii</em> contains the flavonoid 'rutina' in its fruits. Rutina is widely used to produce medicines for human circulatory diseases and is usually extracted industrially in Brazil from the related species <em>D. mollis</em> and <em>D. gardneriana</em>. <em>D. wilsonii</em> has good exploitation potential but was never used because of its small population size and because the species was so poorly known. Rutina from <em>D. wilsonii</em> does not appear to have been used by the local population. However, the wood of the species has been recorded as being used to make furniture, but this appears to be uncommon.
62004		conservation	eng	None in place.
62004		distribution	eng	Subspecies <em>smithii</em> is found in the central and eastern parts of Soqotra at 400–650 m, whereas the typical subspecies is restricted to a small area at the far western end of Soqotra near Qalansiya at 200–300 m.
62004		habitat	eng	Grows in drought-deciduous woodland on limestone.
62004		population	eng	A common species.
62004		threats	eng	No major threats to the species as a whole (but see the typical subspecies account).
62005		conservation	eng	None in place.
62005		distribution	eng	Known only from two colections from northwestern Soqotra at 200 - 300 m.
62005		habitat	eng	Restricted to drought-deciduous woodland on the limestone escarpments. There are several other local endemics and plants of note on the escarpment above Qaysoh near Qalansiyah escarpment including <em>Boswellia bullata</em>, <em>Dorstenia gigas</em>, <em>Prenanthes amabilis</em>, <em>Aloe squarrosa</em>, and <em>Gaillonia thymoides</em>.
62005		population	eng	Apparently small given its highly restricted range and the low number of collections.
62005		threats	eng	Threatened by climate change which is drying out the habitat.
62006		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are necessary. <em>A. c. corriae</em> occurs in protected areas, including Wilderness National Park, Tsitsikamma National Park, Diepwalle Forest Reserve, Keurboomsrivier Nature Reserve, Kluitjieskraal Nature Reserve, Ruitersbos State Forest, Saasveld State Forest and the Bergplaas Nature Reserve. <em>A. c. devilliersi</em> recorded from the Jonkershoek Conservation Area (Stellenbosch), Hawequas State Forest (Worcester) and the Boosmansbos Wilderness Area (Swellendam), Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve (Heidelberg) and Garcia State Forest (Riversdale). It probably occurs more widely in other conservation areas proclaimed for the preservation of Fynbos.
62006		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. It is found from western Cape Province, from Hawequas Forest (near Worcester) in the north, westwards through Paarl and Stellenbosch to the coastal plain and slopes of the Langeberg mountains in the Riversdale district, then northeastwards along the coastal plain and slopes of the Outeniqua, Kouga and Baviaanskloof mountain ranges from the vicinity of George to Humansdorp (Eastern Cape). Does not cross the Cape Flats, where the Cape Golden Mole (<em>Chrysochloris asiatica</em>) is common.
62006		habitat	eng	Sandy soils and soft loams in lowland and montane Fynbos and forests, possibly with a marginal intrusion into savanna (in the southern parts of the Eastern Cape). Thrives in gardens, cultivated lands, golf courses and livestock paddocks. Present also in exotic plantations, but apparently at lower densities.
62006		population	eng	Common throughout its range, but restricted to specific soils; less common in rocky mountainous habitats.
62006		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat alteration/degradation/loss in areas along the eastern coast of Western Cape owing to tourism developments and increasingly intensive agricultural practices, which could lead to fragmentation and isolation of some populations. More localized threats include: poisoning and persecution by gardeners, greenkeepers, nurserymen and specialized (small-scale) agricultural concerns; and predation by domestic dogs and cats.
62007		conservation	eng	Known to occur in only the Pongola Wilderness Area. Research is needed to search for other populations in intermediate areas, and to quantify threats faced by this species.
62007		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. Known from only two isolated localities (Ubombo and Ingwavuma) on the eastern slopes of Lebombo Mountains in KwaZulu-Natal. Owl pellet remains from Weenen, about 250 km southwest, appear to represent this species, suggesting that it may be more widespread than currently recognized. Possibly extends into southeastern Swaziland along Lebombo Mountains.
62007		habitat	eng	Moist grasslands and indigenous forests in Natal Lowveld Bushveld and Lebombo Arid-Mountain Bushveld of Savanna biome. Does not range below the mountains on the Mozambique plain, where it is replaced by the Yellow Golden Mole (<em>Calcochloris obtusirostris</em>). Also occurs in gardens.
62007		population	eng	Locally common, but no quantitative data.
62007		threats	eng	The single major threat is likely to be habitat degradation, either through overgrazing by cattle, the destruction of vegetation for firewood by local subsistence communities, and urbanization (in the Ubombo district). Predation by domestic pets, and possible pesticide contamination in areas adjoining agricultural estates, are more localized threats.
62008		conservation	eng	Recorded from the provincial Verloren-Vallei Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. Research needed to accurately determine distribution limits of this species, document its basic ecology and reproductive parameters, and to confirm its distinctness from <em>A. hottentotus</em> and <em>A. septentrionalis</em> (possibly using molecular data).
62008		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to South Africa. Known only from the Steenkamps mountains in the Belfast and Dullstroom districts of eastern Mpumalanga, possibly extending southwards to the Ermelo district where <em>A. septentrionalis</em> instead occurs.
62008		habitat	eng	Montane grasslands and marshes in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland in Eastern Mpumalanga, South Africa. Prefers friable soils, from sands to quite heavy clays. Avoid shallow substrates along rocky ridges (which may act as dispersal barriers) and waterlogged areas. Occurs in gardens and farmyards.
62008		population	eng	Common in suitable natural habitats, also in gardens, orchards and cultivated lands; no quantitative data on population sizes or trends.
62008		threats	eng	The highveld grasslands favoured by this species have, and continues to be, altered and degraded by mining of shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations in the region. Although these activities are not currently occurring at the four known localities, the species may nevertheless be impacted if it is more widespread than current records indicate, which seems likely. <br/><br/>Agricultural activities, the development of numerous tourism resorts, and agroforestry have, and continue, to transform the habitat of this species, but it appears to survive (perhaps at lower densities) in such disturbed areas, suggesting that the nature and intensity of this alterations does not yet pose a major threat. Otherwise, predation by domestic pets, and persecution by gardeners in urban areas, likely represent more localized threats.
62009		conservation	eng	Not recorded from any provincial or national nature reserves. Gelderblom <em>et al</em>. (1995) identified the southeastern Mpumalanga highveld as a hotspot of chrysochlorid endemicity, and recommended that urgent action be taken to augment the national protected areas network in this region. Research needed to confirm distinctness from <em>A. h. meesteri, A. robustus</em> and <em>A. h. longiceps</em>, and to determine distributional limits of these taxa.
62009		distribution	eng	The species occurs in South Africa and Swaziland, ranging in the Mpumalanga highveld from Wakkerstroom northwards to Ermelo and Barberton, and westwards through Standerton district to northeastern Free State (Heilbron/Parys) and eastwards to Swaziland (Piggs Peak/Mbabane). A population from the Harrismith area is also provisionally attributed to this form.
62009		habitat	eng	Meadows and edges of marshes in high-altitude grasslands of eastern Mpumalanga. Restricted to friable soils in valleys and on mountainsides, where individuals may co-exist with the Rough-haired Golden mole, <em>Chrysospalax villosus</em>. Common in farmyards, gardens, golf courses, and present also in exotic plantations, though seemingly at lower densities. In the Wakkerstroom district it is found in thickets of Oldwood trees (<em>Leucosidea sericea</em>) on the banks of streams in valleys, but avoid scrubby vegetation in kloofs and along rocky ridges, where it is replaced by Sclater’s Golden Mole <em>Chlorotalpa sclateri</em>.
62009		population	eng	Locally common; trapping data suggest densities of 3 ha<sup>-1</sup> at one locality in the Wakkerstroom district. Based current estimate extent of occurrence, the global population is well over 10,000 individuals.
62009		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is likely to be habitat alteration/degradation associated with mining of coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations in the region. Habitat alteration owing to agriculture could be a more minor threat, but this species thrives in such landscapes and thus is probably not severely impacted; predation by domestic pets, and persecution by gardeners and greenkeepers, could represent a more localized threat.
62010		conservation	eng	Legislation and political will are urgently needed to conserve the Tshwane (Pretoria) population. GDACEL (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Land Affairs) commissioned a Strategic Environmental Assessment to assist in formulating a policy to regulate development and activities in this area (See Pfab 2002). Despite these actions, and a separate EIA tabled by EcoAssessments C.C. on behalf of local landowners, the Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs has re-issued a mining permit to allow mining to continue into the forseeable future. Sustained and concerted efforts, including legal actions, are needed to support GDACEL in implementing their policy and to convince relevant provincial and national regulatory bodies of the dire threat faced by this population. Ongoing public education efforts should be sustained and expanded. Current research on the genetic and systematics status of the Pretoria population should be expanded to incorporate conservation genetics data, and a thorough risk assessment should be done.
62010		distribution	eng	This topotypical population is known from only The Willows (type locality), Shere and Tierpoort on the northern slopes of the Bronberg Ridge in Tshwane (Pretoria), Gauteng.
62010		habitat	eng	Confined to sandy soils, often pockets of weathered sandstone associated with rocky ridges with Rocky Highveld Grassland and Mixed Bushveld vegetation. Also occurs in gardens. Habitat fragmented and altered by urbanization and mining activities.
62010		population	eng	Locally common in remaining patches of suitable habitat, but no quantitative data on population size or trends.
62010		threats	eng	Inferred major threat - habitat alteration and fragmentation. In the former Transvaal Province, this species was given the highest regional priority score for mammals (Freitag and van Jaarsveld 1997). Much of the habitat of this species has been dramatically altered and degraded as a result of urbanization and high-density housing developments along the Bronberg Ridge in Tshwane (Pretoria). Quartzite mining operations threaten to destroy the sole remaining dispersal corridor between eastern and western subpopulations, which could lead to genetic erosion and a reduced population viability. Inferred minor threats - predation by domestic pets, persecution by gardeners.
62011		conservation	eng	This species is known from two protected areas, including Andringitra National Park.
62011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs on the eastern edge of the central highlands in eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 1,200 and 2,350 m asl.
62011		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist primary and secondary forest primarily on the central plateau. It often occurs in agricultural land and gardens. It has been recorded from villages and moderately large towns at a considerable distance from forests (S. M. Goodman pers. comm).
62011		population	eng	It is a common species.
62011		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species adapts to anthropogenic environments. It is sometimes hunted for food.
62012		conservation	eng	Found in several protected areas such as Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Manongarivo, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Zahamena National Park, Mantadia National Park, Andringitra National Park, Manongarivo Special Reserve, and Ivohibe Special Reserve. Further studies are needed into the biology and ecology of this species.
62012		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it ranges from the northern highlands south to Andohahela. The altitudinal range of this species is between 350 and 2,350 m asl.
62012		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species of humid forest. It has been recorded in marshlands close to the forest edge. It is not found in heavily modified habitats.
62012		population	eng	It is abundant in certain suitable habitats (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
62012		threats	eng	In the lower elevations of its range it is threatened by habitat loss through deforestation by conversion to cultivated land, logging and fire. There appear to be no major threats to the species at higher altitudes.
62013		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Ranomafana National Park, Andohahela National Park, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Park, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Zahamena RNI and Andringitra National Park. Further studies into the taxonomy, population numbers, biology and ecology and range of this species.
62013		distribution	eng	This species is known from a range of localities spanning the eastern lowland forests of Madagascar. It occurs between  440 and 1,990 m asl.
62013		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial, forest dependent species that occurs in the eastern humid forests.
62013		population	eng	On the basis of standard trapping techniques with pitfall traps, this species is relatively common.
62013		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by deforestation and degradation of the forest understorey by cattle (at all elevations), and by fires (largely in the lower elevations of its range).
62014		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas including Andringitra National Park, Ranomafana National Park, Andohahela National Park, Marojejy National Park, Anjanaharibe-sud Special Reserve, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, and Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve. Further research is needed into population abundance, distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
62014		distribution	eng	This species ranges through eastern Madagascar where it is associated with humid forest formations. It ranges between 970 and 1,990 m asl.
62014		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid to high altitude eastern humid forests. It has not been recorded from degraded forests. Little is known about its ecology, but similar adaptations to <em>Microgale gracilis</em> suggest that it is a semi-fossorial species.
62014		population	eng	The population abundance is not known. It may be difficult to trap.
62014		threats	eng	At lower elevations in its range it is threatened by pastoral grazing, deforestation and fire.
62015		conservation	eng	It is not currently within a protected area, however, the Mikea Forest is in the process of becoming a protected area. Further research is needed into the population, biology, ecology, range and adaptation to disturbance.
62015		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Mikea Forest in south-western Madagascar. It has not been found at an additional four sites with suitable habitat surveyed in the region during 2002, and it is believed to be geographically restricted. It was collected at 80 m asl.
62015		habitat	eng	It is presumed to be a terrestrial species. It is known from transitional, dry deciduous spiny-bush forest. It has been recorded in slightly disturbed forest.
62015		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens from the type locality.
62015		threats	eng	It is threatened by clearance of forest for agricultural land and by fires.
62016		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas including the Manongarivo, Ambohitantely, and Ambohijanahary Special Reserves; the exterior northern limit of Ivohibe Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; and Parcel 1 of Andohahela National Park. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species. A further review of known specimens of <em>M. majori</em>, <em>M. longicaudata</em> and <em>M. principula</em> is needed to elucidate the range of these three species.
62016		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is widespread and ranges from Manongarivo Special Reserve south to Andohahela National Park in the eastern humid forest, with two potentially disjunct populations occurring in Ambohijanahary Special Reserve and the Analavelona Forest. The known elevational range extends from 785 to 2,000 m asl.
62016		habitat	eng	It is found over the entire latitudinal length of the eastern humid forests and some forests in the west. May be semi-arboreal or scansorial. The occurrence of this species in small, isolated forest blocks suggests that it is an adept disperser (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2004).
62016		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
62016		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
62017		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park, the well-protected sacred forest at Analavelona, and the Kirindy CFPF area. Further research is needed into the population numbers, range, habitat and biology and threats to this species. Further information on distribution may suggest the expansion of protected areas (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
62017		distribution	eng	This species, described in 1999, was originally only known from two sites in south-west Madagascar: Analavelona Massif and Vohibasia, about 70 km apart, and at elevations between 780 and 1,050 m asl. No other records were known until 2006, when two additional specimens were taken in the Menabe region at a notable distance from the sites of the type series and in a different habitat (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007). One specimen was taken in Foret d’Amboropotsy (Kirindy CFPF) and another in the Foret de Lambokely. In February and March 2007, three different sites in the Kirindy-Mitea National Park were surveyed and 198 pit-fall trap days were accrued at each site and no individual of M. nasoloi was captured; further, no sign of this species was found during extensive small mammal surveys in the zone north of the Tsiribihina River (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007).
62017		habitat	eng	It is a scansorial species that is apparently restricted to transitional dry deciduous forests (Vohibasia) and dry sclerophyllous montane forest (Analavelona) (Jenkins and Goodman 1999). The forest habitat where <em>M. nasoloi</em> was captured in the Menabe region is a seasonally dry deciduous habitat and distinctly more mesic than the Zombitse-Vohibasia zone (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007).
62017		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007).
62017		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation through pastoral use and fires.
62018		conservation	eng	It is found in the protected areas of Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Mantadia National Park; Andohahela National Park and Kalambatritra Special Reserve. Further studies into the population abundance and distribution of this species are needed.
62018		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it ranges from the northern highlands, south through the eastern humid forest to Andohahela. It ranges between approximately 750 and 1,990 m asl.
62018		habitat	eng	It is an eastern humid forest species that ranges from lowland to sclerophyllous montane forest. It prefers montane forest areas. It is a forest dependent species.
62018		population	eng	Based on standard trapping techniques this species can be moderately common.
62018		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation (through conversion to agricultural use and logging) and habitat fragmentation at the lower altitudinal part of its range.
62019		conservation	eng	It is found in several protectesd areas including the Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park; Ranomafana National Park; Andringitra National Park and Marojejy National Park. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species.
62019		distribution	eng	This species is known across the eastern humid forest of Madagascar with the exception of the central section. It has an altitudinal range of between 645 and 1,990 m asl.
62019		habitat	eng	This species is present in a range of humid lowland and montane forest habitats. It is generally not found in secondary or degraded forest.
62019		population	eng	It is a common species.
62019		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.
62025		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p><p></p>  <p></p>
62025		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is distributed in Jackson and Madison Counties, Alabama, northward on the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau, Fentress County, Tennessee (Hobbs, Hobbs and Daniel 1977, Buhay and Crandall 2008), and extends west into Morgan County (North Carolina State Museum 2009). In addition, it is the<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> most widespread of the Cumberlandian cave crayfish assemblage (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
62025		habitat	eng	This species is found in subterranean streams and pools.&#160; It is known to occur in open water in caves, and up on the pool banks and cave walls, and does not appear to hide itself away under rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
62025		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;this species.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
62025		threats	eng	Urbanization occurs within the sourtherly portion of this species' range, though there is no information on the impact this is having on this species. Furthermore, in the more northerly reaches of its range on the eastern edge of the Cumberland Plateau, there are no known threats as development in this region is not rapid   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
62026		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes inermis inermis</span>   has been given the heritage rank of G5T4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes inermis testii</span> </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>  has been given the heritage rank of G5T3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em> <em>et al.</em> </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>2007).<br/><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
62026		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from Hart County, Kentucky, northwestward to Crawford, Monroe and Harrison Counties, Indiana (Hobbs 1974, Simon 2001). However, Simon and Thoma (2003) consider the range of this species, particularly the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">O. inermis inermis</span>, to be more restricted than previously thought in the Indiana area. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 7,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
62026		habitat	eng	Both subspecies of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species inhabit subterranean streams (Hobbs 1974).
62026		population	eng	A mark-recapture study of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in a single cave in Indiana gave an estimated population size of 66 ± 9 individuals for the 300 m stretch of river where it was found (Hobbs 1981). Due to the specialized habitat these species inhabit, they are not considered to be particularly common (Simon 2001).
62026		threats	eng	While there maybe localized threats to this species due to the specialized nature of its habitat requirements, due to the sheer number of locations this species is found in, it is difficult to conceive a widespread threat that would impact populations of this species.
62027		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4T4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by AFS (Taylor et al. 2007). Contrary to this, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes meeki brevis</span>, has  been given the heritage rank of G4T3, imperiled, by NatureServe    (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the  American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).<em><br/></em>
62027		distribution	eng	This species is found in the tributaries of the Illinois River and the White River in eastern Oklahoma, and the Arkansas River drainage system in Arkansas (Fetzner 2008, Williams 1954, Williams 1952). The northern most range of one subspecies of this species just reaches into tributaries  of the White River in Missouri (Pflieger 1996).
62027		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found under rocks in rocky streams and is usually asociated with rapids. This species is additionally found under debris or in burrows under  rocks (Fetzner 2008, Williams 1954)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
62027		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is known to be common in suitable habitat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span></p>
62027		threats	eng	There are no known threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>inhabiting a rural area with no known invasive species present<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
62028		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus</span>   has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus alachua</span> has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is needed on the population status at each cave and the main threats to each site. In addition further taxonomic clarification is required to distinguish this species from its congeners occupying similar habitats (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/></p>
62028		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus alachua</span> is found in southwestern Alachua, western Gilchrist, and northern and eastern Levy counties, Florida; intergrading with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. lucifugus lucifugus</span> in Marion County (Franz, Bauer and Morris&#160;1994), and is known to occur in 13 caves (Franz, Bauer and Morris&#160;1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus </span>is found in Citrus and Hernanso counties northward to Marion County, Florida, where it intergrades with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. lucifugus alachua </span>(Franz,&#160;Bauer and Morris&#160;1994), and is known to occur in two caves (Franz, Bauer and Morris&#160;1994).<br/><br/>This species has a severely fragmented distribution as it is found in cave habitats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,508 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>        <p>This species is known from 20-25 occurrences (likely more) in an arc of caves 80 km long in 6 Florida counties (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
62028		habitat	eng	Both <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus alachua </span>are found in subterranean waters (Franz, Bauer and Morris 1994).
62028		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
62028		threats	eng	There are no known major widespread threats to this species, though it is likely locally threatened by habitat degradation. There is no evidence of impact on this species (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). Genetic work indicates that there are reasonable levels of gene flow in the population, and the population appears to be stable (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).
62030		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However the species complex has been awarded the following assessments:<br/></p>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi campestris </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T2T3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi expletus </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T1 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi rogersi </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T1T2 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Tyalor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/>    <p>Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>
62030		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi campestris </span>is known from Leon and Wakulla Counties, Florida (Hobbs 1942).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi expletus</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is only oknown from a seepage slope, Calhoun County, Florida (Hobbs and Hart 1959). <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis</span> is found in the Ochlockonee River basin in Gadsden and Liberty Counties, Florida (Hobbs 1942).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi rogersi</span> is found in eastern Calhoun County, Florida (Hobbs 1942).<br/><br/>  This species has a distribution of approximately 8400 km<sup>2</sup>.
62030		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in flatwoods and seepage areas (Hobbs 1942), and is also known from<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> ponds and streams (Herrig and Shute 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
62030		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
62030		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, it may be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution, but these are unlikely to have an impact at a global level.
62099		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
62099		distribution	eng	This is an East and Southeast African species with several subspecies. The nominate subspecies is found in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region> and northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> through the Rift Valley to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Crater</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> and Usambaras in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Subspecies&#160;<em>littoralis</em> in the coastal forests of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> (with a distinct subspecies on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:city></st1:place>). Finally subspecies&#160;<em>natalica</em> is in KwaZulu Natal and most likely also in southern parts of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Overall, this gives the species a massive extent of occurrence (EOO) in excess of one million km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy is much smaller, as the species has quite a localized distribution within this EOO, but is still far in excess of the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.
62099		habitat	eng	The habitat is woodland and dense savannah country at medium altitudes. The subspecies <em>littoralis</em> occurs in coastal scrub and forest and ssp. <em>zanzibarensis</em> in coastal scrub (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
62099		population	eng	This species is rarely common and usually localized (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
62099		threats	eng	Although often localized and not common, this species can persist in a number of habitats in its large range and so does not face any major threats.
62108		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly at present.
62108		distribution	eng	This is the largest and one of the most numerous of it genus with a&#160;distribution pattern that ranges throughout East Africa, which no other species has. This distribution is spread across three subspecies. The&#160;nominate subspecies stretches from Uganda through western Tanzania south to Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">peuceda</span> is found in the extreme south of Somalia, much of Kenya, and in northern&#160;Tanzania and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">penningtoni</span> is found in Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa (Swanepoel 1953, Kielland 1990, Larsen 1991, Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Libert 2005). This gives a huge extent of occurrence well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and across this the area of occupancy is certainly greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. In Tanzania, the nominate&#160;subspecies occurs at altitudes from 800 to 1,200 m and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">peuceda</span> from sea&#160;level to 1,500 m (Kielland 1990).
62108		habitat	eng	The species occupies riverine vegetation, forest and heavy woodland, but unlike most members of its genus it is less strictly tied to forest of good condition. Specimens keep to shady spots in the&#160;forest; and settle, often in small groups, on exposed twigs and grass&#160;stems (Kielland 1990).&#160;Pringle (1995) noted that individuals tend to occur in colonies of small&#160;extent and are not very active, sitting motionless for long periods of time. Larval food includes&#160;algae (Cyanophyta) on the trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bauhinia thonningii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Khaya nyassica</span>, and&#160;greenish tree lichen (Lichenes) growing on the trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Celtis africana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus&#160;sycomorus</span> (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Pringle 1995).
62108		population	eng	This butterfly is widely distributed&#160;and sometimes locally common.
62108		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species. It also tolerates more habitat disturbance than most other members of its genus.
62162		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
62162		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Southern Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece (including on several Greek islands). 0-1250 m. It is also found in Transcaucasia, Kopet-Dagh, Syria to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
62162		habitat	eng	Krueper’s Small White occurs in warm, dry places on calcareous, rocky slopes with scattered low, herbaceous vegetation. Eggs are laid on the sepals of Golden Alyssum (<em>Alyssum saxatile</em>) and <em>A. montanum</em>. The caterpillars feed on the ovaries. It hibernates as a pupa and has two or more generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).
62162		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
62162		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
62173		conservation	eng	This species has been reported from several protected areas (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984, Wang 2000).
62173		distribution	eng	<em>Planaeschna risi</em> includes two subspecies: <em>P. r. risi</em>, from Taiwan; and <em>P. r. sakishimana</em> recorded from Ishigaki and Iromote Islands in the Yaeyama Islands of the Ryukyus, Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>The type locality of <em>P. r. risi</em> is listed in Steinman (1997) as occurring in Hong Kong, but this is an error promulgated in Hua (2000). Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported the nominate subspecies as widespread throughout the island of Taiwan up to 500 m and lists records from Fengshan, Kiaopanshan, Nanshansi, Shenshan, Taipingshan, Wulai and Yangmingshan within Tawian. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) also reported several specimens in the Leiden Museum of <em>P. r. risi</em> occurring in Fujian. Wilson (2005) recorded <em>Planaeschna risi</em> from Guangxi but recently Wilson and Xu (i2008) have shown that the Guangxi specimens are in fact a new species of <em>Planaeschna</em>, which does not belong to <em>risi</em>.
62173		habitat	eng	Congeners frequent forested mountain streams.
62173		population	eng	The species is widespread in Taiwan.
62173		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known affecting this species.
62174		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data, and for the resolution of taxonomic issues. Beyond this <em>M. basilaris</em> does not appear to need specific conservation measures across most of its range, apart from monitoring of populations to check for any decline.
62174		distribution	eng	As currently recognised <em>Matrona basilaris basilaris</em> occurs at least in north Viet Nam and China (Hämäläinen 2004), where there are records from Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Jiangxi, Guandong, Guangxi, Hainan and Yunnan. The exact distribution of the species is not entirely clear due to taxonomic problems. <em>M. b. japonica</em> occurs in the Ryukyu Islands.
62174		habitat	eng	<em>Matrona basilaris</em> breeds in forest streams.
62174		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitat in much of China at least.
62174		threats	eng	Habitat loss; this species is threatened by deforestation. However <em>M. b. basilaris</em> is still a common species in much of its range, capable of surviving in secondary forest and well represented in protected areas.
62175		conservation	eng	Precautionary conservation measures are needed such as control of water pollution and water regime, and restoration of some water bodies as well as restricted capture by entomologists, except for true scientific research, with control of localities by officers. <em>Coenagrion hylas</em> (ssp. <em>C. hylas freyi</em>) is listed in Annex II of the EC Habitats Directive and is included in Annex II of the Bern Convention. The Austrian localities are included in a Natura 2000 area and in the subsequent "Tiroler Lech" Naturpark.
62175		distribution	eng	A species with a disjunct area. A very large and continuous population occurs in Siberia up to Japan, a first disjunct population occurs in the surroundings of the north Ural (Ob river delta) and a second one is located more to the west in the Austrian Tirol (valley of the Lech river) (Kosterin 2005, Landmann <em>et al.</em> 2005, Müller 2000, Raab <em>et al.</em> 2006). The single German population (lake Zwingsee near Inzell, Bavaria) is now extinct due to habitat management and fish farming. The fragmented area of the species is attributed to post-glacial climate oscillations, the species having immigrated towards the west of Europe during the Atlantic period - post-glacial climatic optimum. Subsequent climate cooling coupled to high habitat specialization led to the fragmentation of the primary range of the species over large areas.
62175		habitat	eng	In Europe, the species is confined to shallow and more or less peaty pools and small lakes with clear oligotrophic water and zones of slow shallow running and seepage water.
62175		population	eng	The species is known from 14 reproducing localities in Austria, but populations show very contrasting density from a place to another and from year to year. Some localities show about 800 to 5,000 exuviae per year, depending on the year. This species is assuredly one of the rarest Odonata in Europe.
62175		threats	eng	At the moment, the populations are stable and the species is not threatened. Potential future threats include water pollution, changes of habitat structure and water regime, eutrophication, introduction of fishes, climate change and collection even at low rate by entomologists. In the west Palearctic, this species is very sensitive to capture by humans. Drought periods in relation to climate change may lead to a serious decrease of the species in Europe.
62178		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species.
62178		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, occurring mainly on the eastern side. According to Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) it is rare but probably widespread in central and southern parts up to about 500 m. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) list Peipu as the type-locality and also list three other record localities from Chihpen, Miaoli and Tuchang. Wang (2000) records this species as endemic to Taiwan with rare populations in the east.
62178		habitat	eng	Frequents forested brooks (Wang 2000).
62178		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
62178		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species due to its protection within protected areas.
62181		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
62181		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and a reasonably common species.  It is known presently from Kyushu, Tanegashima Island, Nakanoshima Island, and Ishigaki Island (each in a different island group south of Japan), South Taiwan, Mindanao and Basilan in the Philippines, and Guam.
62181		habitat	eng	No details on the habitat preference are available for this species, although based on its distribution it is likely to be partly dependent on forest habitats.
62181		population	eng	No details are known on the population size of this species.
62181		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected by human induced degradation and loss of habitat.
62183		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.
62183		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan. Subspecies <em>Asiagomphus amamiensis amamiensis</em> is restricted to the middle and the southern part of Amami island. Subspecies <em>A. amamiensis okinawanus</em> is restricted to the northern part of Okinawa island.
62183		habitat	eng	The species inhabits hill and mountain streams.
62183		population	eng	The global population is thought to be decreasing in the small number of locations the species is found in.
62183		threats	eng	Threats to the species include the logging of suitable habitat for the development of roads, artificial shore protection and water pollution.  The populations have been reduced, especially the Okinawa island population.  If the situation continues, the population will carry on declining.
62188		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed at this time.
62188		distribution	eng	<em>Coeliccia flavicauda</em> is known from Taiwan and Japan. According to Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) <em>C. f. flavicauda</em> is endemic to Taiwan, occurring in the plains and hill region in central and southern Taiwan up to 500 m. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) list records from Fengshan, Hengchun, Kangkow, Kenting, Kiasien, Kwantzeling, Nanwan, Shuisheliao, Taichung, Tainan and Yangmingshan. Wang (2000) records <em>C. flavicauda</em> from central and southern parts up to 1,000 m. Hua (2000) lists <em>C. flavicauda</em> from Guangdong (China) but this record requires confirmation. Asahina (1951) described the subspecies <em>C. f. masakii</em> from Ishigaki-shima, southwestern Ryukyus Islands, Japan.
62188		habitat	eng	According to Wang (2000) this species frequents forest brooks, mountain ditches and pools under small waterfalls.
62188		population	eng	There is no detailed population information available although it is thought to be stable having been found in a variety of locations.
62188		threats	eng	There are no threat currently known to be affecting this species.
62206		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
62206		distribution	eng	<em>R. atremius</em> is found in northern Kyushu Island and the Okayama Plain, Japan.  The species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 13,814 km².
62206		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic fish,<em> R. atremius</em> inhabits small rivers and streams.
62206		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
62206		threats	eng	Development of irrigation systems are causing a decline in habitat quality and threatens populations of <em>R. atremius</em>.<br/><br/>The sub-species <em>R. a. suigensis</em> is further threatened by water pollution and collection for the aquarium trade (Environment Agency of Japan 1999).
62222		conservation	eng	In Japan, juveniles have been extensively stocked in many rivers for several decades. In the Nagara River, most stocked fish are juveniles from the landlocked population in Lake Biwa (70 %), and the rest comprise juveniles of the amphidromous wild population (10%) and hatchery-reared fish (20%) (Otake and Uchida 1998). In China, breeding experiments started at the end of the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Wang 1998).
62222		distribution	eng	<p>The species has a northwest Pacific distribution, with records from along the coast of western Hokkaido in Japan southward to the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan and China (Kim 1997), and northern Viet Nam. A subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Plecoglossus altivelis ryukyuensis</span> occurs in Nansei-shoto, Japan (Nishida 1988).<br/></p>In China, the species is known from coastal areas, in the  Donghai Sea and the Nanhai Sea, as well as in inland mountain streams  of Chekiang in April or May and goes back to the sea in August or  September.  Introduced from its native range to other parts of China for aquaculture.
62222		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader5">Typical amphidromous fish; appears near shore from late autumn to spring (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995 ). Found in lakes and rivers, preferring clean river water and can be found throughout rivers (Chyung 1975). Ascends rivers and adults spawn in the spring in the lower reaches of rivers. <span class="sheader5">After spawning, some adults die while others return to the sea. Newly hatched larvae drift downstream to over-winter in coastal waters, and then they migrate upstream as juveniles (Tsukamoto <em>et al</em>. 1987). <br/></span></p><p><span class="sheader5">Fish (about 6-9 cm) start schooling at the river mouth and are insectivores and eat algae off small pebbles (Chyung 1975); this is assisted by small leaf-like teeth which are loosely attached to the jaw with two ligaments (Adamicka 1984<span class="sheader5">). Those that are ready to spawn (about 20 cm TL) move downstream to the lower reaches of the river. Spawning adults from the sea migrate upstream to the lower reaches as well. Some fish spawn two or three years in succession, others only once (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984, Frimodt 1995<span class="sheader5">).     </span></p><p>Besides the typical amphidromous populations, landlocked population are also know from Lake Biwa (Azuma 1973) and several other lakes in Japan.</p><p></p><p><span class="sheader5">River forms live usually only one year whereas lake forms can live two or three years (Chyung 1975). Reaches maturity at 30-40 cm (Chyung 1975). <br/></span></p><p>Introduced from its native range to other regions in the  country where it is stocked in reservoirs.<br/></p>
62222		population	eng	There are no detailed reports on wild population trends however fishery catch data suggest that wild populations have declined (FAO 2012). Widely cultivated in China and Japan, and perhaps in other parts of its range. <br/><br/>Fishery catches reached a peak of 18,101 tonnes in 1991, then declining rapidly to 3,406 tonnes by 2010 (FAO 2012).
62222		threats	eng	Major threats to the the species are overfishing, river modifications such as dam construction, and soil erosion through large scale felling of the forests in the river sources (Wang 1998).
62223		conservation	eng	No information.
62223		distribution	eng	Lakes and lower course of large rivers of Arctic Ocean basin, from Pechora drainage to eastern Siberia; North America eastward to Bathurst (Canada). <em>C</em>. '<em>albula</em>' from Lakes Mjosa and Osensjoen (Norway) might also belong to this species.
62223		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes, estuaries and large rivers. Semi-anadromous populations forage in estuaries, lower courses of rivers, backwaters and lakes. Spawns on sand and gravel, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and semi-anadromous populations. Lives up to 10 years, exceptional records up to 22 years in Norway. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Semi-anadromous populations migrate upstream in June-September; in Pechora up to 800-1000 km from sea. In Kara, spawns in estuary. In Kara and some Siberian rivers, two spawning runs are known. First run enters rivers in August and spawns in September; second run starts in September and spawns in October soon before or after appearance of ice. Eggs hatch in spring and juveniles remain near spawning site until first autumn, then move downriver. In tundra lakes, spawns under first ice in October. Feeds on zooplankton, crustaceans and small fish. Adults do not feed during spawning migration. An isolated, dwarf stock growing to about 100 mm SL is known from Vashutkiny lakes, in upper Usa drainage, a Pechora tributary. The Pechora population may at least partly result of hybridization between <em>C. albula</em> and <em>C. sardinella</em>.
62223		population	eng	Abundant.
62223		threats	eng	No major threats known.
62227		conservation	eng	Protected habitats exist in California in Asilomar State Beach, Carrizo Plain Preserve, Morro Bay State Park, Point Dume State Park (Jennings and Hayes 1994). The species also receives some protection on Pendleton Marine Corps Base and Vandenberg Air Force Base. In general, its coastal sand dune habitat is now better conserved in the United States.
62227		distribution	eng	This lizard has a spotty distribution in California (United States) and northwestern Baja California (Mexico), extending from near Antioch, California, south in the Coast Ranges, Transverse Mountains, and Peninsular Ranges, and along the coast of southern California, to Arroyo Pabellon, northwestern Baja California (Stebbins 2003), and inland in Baja California to at least La Rumarosa north of the Sierra Juarez (Hunt 1983, Grismer 2002). Scattered occurrences exist elsewhere in California, including the following: San Joaquin Valley; southern Sierra Nevada; Walker Basin; Ninemile Canyon; Paiute, Scodie, and Tehachapi mountains; desert-edge localities at the eastern end of Walker Pass in Kern County, Morongo Valley in San Bernardino County, Little San Bernardino Mountains at Whitewater in Riverside County, and the eastern slope of the Peninsular Ranges; and the Antelope Valley in the extreme western Mojave Desert (Stebbins 2003). The species also occurs on Los Coronados (Norte and Sur) and Todos Santos islands in Baja California. There are old records from Marin County and Palo Alto in the San Francisco Bay Area, California (Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 5,100 feet (1,550 m) (Stebbins 1985). See spot map in Hunt (1983).
62227		habitat	eng	This legless lizard burrows in loose soil, especially in semi-stabilized sand dunes and in other areas with sandy soil, including habitats vegetated with oak or pine-oak woodland, or chaparral; it also occurs along wooded stream edges, and occasionally in desert-scrub (Hunt 1983, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Bush lupine and mock heather often are present in suitable dune habitats (Stebbins 2003). The species is often found in leaf litter or under rocks, logs, or driftwood.
62227		population	eng	Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped several dozen localities in California with extant populations; probably this translates to fewer than 100 distinct occurrences, plus a lesser number in northwestern Baja California. The total adult population size is uncertain but is probably at least 10,000. The species has been eliminated from probably about 20% of its historical range in California  (Jennings and Hayes 1994).
62227		threats	eng	The species has been exterminated from much of southern California as a result of urbanization and agricultural development (Jennings and Hayes 1994). These factors have fragmented the habitat. Excessive human recreational use and invasive alien plants (e.g., ice plant) may degrade the habitat of coastal dune populations. Other activities that have detrimentally affected populations include sand mining, golf course construction, and off-road vehicle use (Stebbins 2003). In parts of California there is now better conservation of the remaining dunes. In Baja California, the population is being negatively impacted by urbanization between Tijuana and Ensenada.
62228		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in national and state parks and other protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
62228		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west of the United States and in southwestern Canada. Its range extends from southern British Columbia south to west-central California, montane southern California (San Bernardino Mountains, San Jacinto Mountains, Tehachapi Mountains, Mt. Pinos, Mt. Abel), central Nevada and southern Utah, from the Pacific coast east to north-central Wyoming and western Montana, from near sea level to about 3,050 m (10,000 feet) (Stewart 1977, Stebbins 2003). Its distribution is spotty in many areas, particularly at the southern and eastern fringes of the range. Disjunct populations in the mountains of southern California have been proposed as a distinct species, <em>C. umbratica</em> (Rodriguez-Robles <em>et al</em>. 2001).
62228		habitat	eng	Habitat includes woodlands, forest clearings, patchy chaparral, meadows, and grassy savannas, generally not far from water; also riparian zones in arid canyons and sagebrush in some areas (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). Generally this snake is found in or under rotting logs or stumps, under rocks or in crevices, or under the bark of dead fallen trees.
62228		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Stewart (1977) mapped over 200 collection sites rangewide. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive, but under appropriate temperature and moisture conditions it becomes evident that it is locally quite common (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The populations in southern California may be declining but few reliable data are available.
62228		threats	eng	The species is not threatened in most of the range. The subspecies <em>C. b. umbratica</em> of southern California is reportedly declining due to habitat loss and degradation (resort development, smog, logging, wood gathering) (California Department of Fish and Game 1990).
62229		conservation	eng	A species survival plan was created for this species in 1990. Captive breeding and reintroduction programmes were first set up and were successful, and so more recently, management of wild populations has been a major focus. Work to erradicate invasive species has also been undertaken. This species is also being studied but population estimates are still not available. Further research into the threats, population trends and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended. The establishment and management of new protected areas is suggested to provide this species with a refuge from habitat loss.
62229		distribution	eng	The two subspecies of this boa both have restricted ranges separate from one another. <em>E. monensis monensis</em> is restricted to Isla Mona, west of Puerto Rico, which has an area of less than 50 km²<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span><em>E. monensis granti</em> is found in the British and US Virgin Islands (areas 150 and 350 km² <sup></sup>respectively) including Cayo Diablo, Tortola, Great Camanoe, Guana, Necker,&#160;and the eastern end of the island of St. Thomas (Mayer and Lazell 1988). This species is also found on the island of Puerto Rico itself, in the foothills of the  Sierra Luquillo and Cayo Diablo, Isla Culebra (Tolson 1996). The snake ranges from sea level to 100 m above sea level.
62229		habitat	eng	Subtropical dry forest is the  primary habitat of this species. It can inhabit woodlands at coastal level or on steep slopes. The population at Río Grande,  Puerto Rico, is found in subtropical moist forest, which is considered a very unusual habitat  for the species (Tolson <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007.). This species has also taken to inhabiting islets and cays.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. m. monensis </span>(but not <span style="font-style: italic;">E. m. granti</span>)  is a major predator of the introduced black rat <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span> (Tolson <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).
62229		population	eng	This species has always been rare, but can be observed at high densities on some small islands (Tolson and Garcia 1997).
62229		threats	eng	This boa's population has been severely reduced due to predation from introduced mammals, particularly feral cats, which are nocturnal (P.J. Tolson pers. comm.) and the black rat <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>. Indian Mongoose are also predating on this species, but are less of a problem because they are a diurnal species (P.J. Tolson pers. comm.). Goats and pigs are also affecting this species (Tolson and Henderson 1993). Inhabiting small islets has led the species to become vulnerable to storms and ocean inundations (Tolson and Nellis 1998). Habitat destruction due to logging, expanding agriculture, and urbanization is also a threat to this species.
62232		conservation	eng	Legislative protection exists for this species in the Australian Capital Territory, Western Australia, and New South Wales (Grigg <em>et al.</em> 1985). This species is also listed on Appendix II of CITES. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas. Monitoring is required to ensure that localized declines do not become more widespread.
62232		distribution	eng	This species is the most widespread Australian python species (Torr 2000). It occurs over the majority of the mainland (except southern Victoria and the central and western desert regions) and many offshore islands. It also has a large distribution in southern New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago and the northern Solomon Islands.
62232		habitat	eng	This species has very flexible habitat preferences. It is found in dense moist lowland forest, shrubland, grassland, rocky areas, and in highly altered environments including agricultural and urban areas.
62232		population	eng	This python is known to be common in many areas, but there have been localized declines (Bush <em>et al.</em> 1995).
62232		threats	eng	Habitat loss has caused a decline in localized populations of this species, but cannot be considered a major threat to the global population. Habitat loss prevents this species from finding suitable hiding places to ambush prey and suitable shelter to brood their eggs (Pearson <em>et al.</em> 2005). Possible reasons for habitat loss include overgrazing by livestock and agricultural expansion (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1993). This species is also part of the pet trade, but collection from the wild is minimal and not likely to be causing significant declines.
62235		conservation	eng	There are many occurrences of this species in protected areas.
62235		distribution	eng	This species' large range extends from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast of the United States; northern California, Nevada, southwestern Utah, eastern Colorado, southwestern Nebraska, Missouri, Kentucky (formerly), and North Carolina, south to southern Baja California, Sinaloa, Queretaro in Mexico, and the Gulf Coast of United States, and southern Florida (Wilson 1973).
62235		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in a wide range of habitats: desert, prairie, scrubland, juniper-grassland, woodland, thornforest, farmland, creek valleys, and sometimes swamps; usually in relatively dry open terrain. It is terrestrial but also climbs into vegetation. It seeks cover in burrows, among rocks, or in vegetation. <br/> <br/>Its diet includes a variety of prey; small vertebrates, mammals, birds and their eggs, and many different reptiles such as small lizards, snakes and turtles, in addition to carrion and invertebrates (Hammerson 1999, Reams <em>et al</em>. 2000, Reams and Aucone 2001, Stebbins 2003, Pough <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is oviparous and lays a clutch of four to 20 eggs, which hatch after a period of six to 11 weeks (Behler and King 1979, Stebbins 2003).
62235		population	eng	This species is represented by very many occurrences or subpopulations. Wilson (1973) mapped hundreds of collection sites over a vast area. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. It is common in Mexico and in many areas of the southern United States. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of much less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
62235		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. It occurs in semi-agricultural areas but generally not in areas with extensive, intensive cultivation (Hammerson 1999).
62236		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
62236		distribution	eng	This species' range extends in the United States from north-central California southward along the coast and the western slope of the Sierra Nevada south through southwestern California to Baja California, Mexico (Jennings 1983, Grismer and Mahrdt 1996, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico, it ranges widely and continuously south to Sierra San Pedro Martir, but in disjunct populations south of this as far as Cañon de los Reyes. Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 2,250 m asl (7,400 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
62236		habitat	eng	Habitats of this species include chaparral foothills, shrublands with scattered grassy patches, rocky canyons and watercourses, oases in drier regions, mixed deciduous and pine woodlands in the mountains, and semi-desert (in Baja California) (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This snake retreats underground or under cover when inactive. It lays eggs probably most often in abandoned rodent burrows, perhaps also in other protected sites underground or under imbedded objects.
62236		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (Jennings 1983). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. It is locally common in suitable habitat in the United States. In Mexico it is common north of Sierra San Pedro Martir, but is less often encountered south of here. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are relatively stable.
62236		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Some local populations are likely to be declining as a result of habitat loss due to urbanization, and the smaller populations in the southernmost part of its range are probably more sensitive to habitat alteration.
62237		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
62237		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to southern Florida, and west to Texas, and extends north in the Mississippi Valley to southeastern Missouri and (at least formerly) southern Illinois (Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Introduced and established in southern Texas (Werler and Dixon 2000) and in Sacramento County, California (Balfour and Stitt 2002).
62237		habitat	eng	Habitat consists primarily of vegetated freshwater ponds, lakes, marshes, wet prairies, sluggish streams and rivers, drainage ditches, and swamps, extending in some areas seawards to the edge of salt water meadows and marshes and mangrove swamps (Barbour 1971; Tennant 1997, 1998; Johnson 2000; Werler and Dixon 2000; Ernst and Ernst 2003; Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This snake basks on banks and in edge vegetation. It shelters in bank-side burrows or under vegetative debris.
62237		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. It is ubiquitous in suitable habitat throughout most of its range (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped more than 200 collection sites in Texas alone; hundreds of additional collection sites in Louisiana, North Carolina, and Arkansas were mapped by Dundee and Rossman (1989), Palmer and Braswell (1995), and Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally abundant or common in much of eastern North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), and it is the most common watersnake in peninsular Florida (Tennant 1997). It is common to uncommon in different parts of its range in Texas (Tennant 1998). It is relatively scarce at the northern periphery of the range in Illinois (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999) and Kentucky (Barbour 1971). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
62237		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, some populations have been reduced or eliminated as a result of drainage of wetlands or removal of aquatic vegetation (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). Many are killed each year by people (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), but this does not constitute a major threat.
62238		conservation	eng	At least some of the habitat appears to be adequately protected.
62238		distribution	eng	The range is limited to the Brazos River drainage in north-central Texas in the south of the United States (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). See Scott <em>et al</em>. (1989) for a detailed distribution map. See Dorcas and Mendelson (1991) for new records from Palo Pinto and Parker counties (Moffitt Bend and Littlefield Bend areas). This snake occupies about 303 km of stream plus about 70 km of two reservoirs (Possum Kingdom Lake and Lake Granbury) (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989).
62238		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of fast-flowing rocky streams free of dense vegetation next to the water's edge (Werler and Dixon 2000); also the shorelines of impoundments (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake takes cover under rocks in water or in vegetation along shore (Conant 1975, Tennant 1984). Juveniles use medium to large, flat rocks on unshaded shores for hiding, rocky shallows for feeding (species may be absent where juvenile habitat lacking); adults inhabit rocky riffles as well as a wider range of habitats in pools and lakes (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989).
62238		population	eng	Scott <em>et al</em>. (1989) mapped about 20 observation sites, some which represented multiple sites in which the species was found. These might represent several distinct occurrences (subpopulations) or they could be regarded as parts of one or a few large occurrences. The adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand. This snake is locally abundant in many localities within the small range (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
62238		threats	eng	Dams have inundated some of the former stream habitat, but this species has survived for decades along the shorelines of reservoirs (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). It appears not to be significantly threatened at present.
62239		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
62239		distribution	eng	The large range of this species encompasses most of the eastern United States and a relatively small portion of adjacent southeastern Canada, from Maine, southern Quebec, and southern Ontario to Minnesota, extreme southern South Dakota, and eastern Colorado, and south to extreme northern Texas, southern Louisiana, the Florida panhandle, western South Carolina, and North Carolina, at elevations from sea level to around 1,675 m (5,500 feet) (Conant and Collins 1991, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).
62239		habitat	eng	Habitats include creeks, rivers, canals, lakes, oxbows, ponds, reservoirs, marshes, bogs, and swamps; this snake usually inhabits freshwater but also occurs in brackish and saltwater habitats in some areas (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). It frequents sunny areas, especially piles of flood-deposited debris, logs, or rocks, at the water's edge. Hibernation sites often are in burrows, among rocks, or in deep crevices, at the water's edge or in uplands near water.
62239		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is abundant in most areas of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
62239		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This snake tolerates a good deal of habitat alteration.
62240		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in areas that afford adequate protection.
62240		distribution	eng	The species' wide range includes much of North America, from southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, southern Northwest Territories, northern Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, Ontario, central Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces of Canada, to southern California, central Utah, northeastern Colorado, New Mexico, and Chihuahua (Mexico) (disjunct), Texas, Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). There is a very small population in northwestern Chihuaha, Mexico.
62240		habitat	eng	Throughout the range, this species inhabits a very wide range of aquatic, wetland, and upland habitats; habitat preference exhibits rather pronounced regional differences (e.g., east vs. west). When inactive, it occurs underground, in or under surface cover, or in other secluded sites.
62240		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Fitch 1980). Many occurrences have good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. Long-term extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably been relatively stable. Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a low rate.
62240		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. The Mexican population is vulnerable to changes in hydrology.
62253		conservation	eng	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
62253		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico south in the Sierra Madre Occidental through north-central and northeastern Sonora to western Chihuahua and (possibly disjunctly) to southern Durango and western Zacatecas, Mexico, at elevations of about 1,460 to 2,750 m (4,790 to 9,020 feet) (Campbell and Lamar 2004).  <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>obscurus</em> occurs locally in the Animas Mountains (New Mexico), Peloncillo Mountains (Arizona and New Mexico), and Sierra de San Luis (Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico) (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Holycross and Smith 1997, Campbell and Lamar 2004). <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>willardi</em> occurs in the Huachuca, Patagonia, Santa Rita, and Whetstone mountains of Arizona and southward into the Sierra de los Ojos, Sierra de Cananea, and Sierra Azul in north-central Sonora (Thirkhill and Starrett, 1992, Campbell and Lamar 2004).
62253		habitat	eng	The species' habitat includes montane areas of pine-oak, oak scrub, oak-juniper, and pine-fir woodland, foothill canyons in pinyon-juniper woodland, and relatively humid canyon bottoms with canopies of sycamore, alder, box elder, and maple, often along stream courses, in areas with rock outcrops or talus, or among downed logs (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). At the southern end of the range, habitats include pine-covered plateaus with scattered open meadows, hillsides with scattered pines, oaks, madrones, and rocks, and brushy hilltops (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). This snake is basically terrestrial but may climb into low vegetation (Rossi and Feldner, 1993). It seeks cover in crevices, among or under rocks, wood, or other debris, in old stumps, or in similar sites.
62253		population	eng	This species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 43 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. This snake appears not to be abundant in most areas in the United States (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986), but it is regarded as fairly common in Mexico. In New Mexico, a population that appeared to be declining in the 1970s was well-protected and stable in the 1990s (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Currently, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
62253		threats	eng	On a range-wide basis, no major threats are known. As of the early 1980s, populations in Arizona were not threatened (Johnson cited by Ernst 1992). Threats in Arizona include illegal collecting, mining, recreational development, and wood cutting (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986).
62255		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It is present in many protected areas. There is a need for further taxonomic studies into the relationship between <em>Vipera ammondytes</em> and <em>V. transcaucasiana</em>.
62255		distribution	eng	This species ranges eastwards from southern Austria and northeastern Italy into the Balkan region and southern and southwestern Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia and Greece (including a number of the Cyclades Islands). It Turkey it ranges to the west of the Bosphorus (east of the Bosphorus is <em>V. transcaucasiana</em>). The species ranges from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.
62255		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky areas but can be opportunistic in other habitats. It can be found in dry, often rocky habitats, including open woodland and scrub, sand dunes, hillsides, screes, stone walls, traditionally cultivated land, gardens and vineyards. The species is ovoviviparous; females give birth to between four and 15 young.
62255		population	eng	It is very common in much of its range.
62255		threats	eng	It is  locally threatened by overcollection in parts of its range (e.g., in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania and isolated populations in the Alps) by collection of animals for venom extraction. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people.
62256		conservation	eng	The taxon is included in CITES Appendix III, pertaining to the population of Ghana. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Population status and trend data from across the range of the species would be desirable. Awareness of the species' ecology may help counteract wanton kiling by fishermen. In Turkey there is an urgent need to protect this species. In Israel the species is artificially maintained in the wild. In Egypt it has been recorded from at least three protected areas (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
62256		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in Africa, north along the Nile to the Eastern Mediterranean. It formerly occurred more widely in the coastal regions of southern Turkey, western Lebanon and in the Mediterranean coastal area of Israel from Tel Aviv northwards. It has not been reported from Syria, although vagrants might occur here. It has been introduced into the Jordan River system in the north including Hula Lake. It occurs in the Nile River basin from Egypt, and in river basins in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, and in coastal and inland river systems from the Senegal (Mauritania-Senegal) river to the Cunene (Namibia) (Iverson 1992; Branch 1988; Boycott and Bourquin 2000; Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). It ranges from below sea-level to possibly over 1,500m (in Africa).
62256		habitat	eng	It inhabits fairly deep water in permanent lakes, rivers, estuaries and coastal lagoons. It is tolerant of full seawater conditions for some time (Branch 1988; Baran and Atatur 1998). In Israel the quality of the habitat, and availability of nesting sites, varies with river fluctuations. It feeds on a variety of animal prey (molluscs, insects, crustaceans, frogs, fish), carrion, and vegetarian items (palm nuts, fruits) (Branch 1988; Gramentz 1993; Boycott and Bourquin 2000). The females produce clutches of 25-100 eggs in exposed sandbanks and banks with heavier soil (in Israel for example) along rivers (Branch 1988; Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002); its age at maturity and clutch frequency are unreported. Captive animals have reached over 42 years of age (Branch 1988).
62256		population	eng	Limited data are available through most of its range, but in the Mediterranean region its populations are now very small and scattered, with some wandering individuals. Turkey is the only country in the Mediterranean that holds a significant population. In Turkey it now occurs only in two main areas: the Çukurova delta (Seyhan River mouth) in the south and the Dalaman delta in the southwest. In addition, reproduction occurs at eight more sites (Dalyan, Aksu/Acisu, Anamur, Göksu, Berdan River, Tuzla Drainage Channel, Karatas Drainage Channel, Ceyhan River), and recent records may indicate small populations exist from at least five more sites (Patara, Fethiye, Köprü Çayi/Acisu, Bozyazi, Orontes (Asi) River). All populations are under serious threat. In Israel it is known from seven rivers in the Hula Basin, with reproduction only taking place in two of these. A good population existed until the early 1990s at Nahal Alexander in coastal Israel, but it declined due to drastic habitat changes after heavy storms and the subsequent intrusion of salt water from the sea. Now the population is much scattered, with mostly single individuals appearing at isolated places along the coast, without having a safe area for reproduction. In Egypt, there are few recent records from north of the Aswan high dam on the Nile, and a survey of the Nile Delta and its lagoons suggests that it might now be extirpated there (with the possible exception of Bardawill Lake) (Nada 2002). South of the dam it is fairly common in Lake Nasser with large specimens frequently caught (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There is a recent record from Lebanon suggesting that nesting still occurs (Demirayak et al., 2002) and one from Greece (where it certainly does not breed). The entire Mediterranean population is thought to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.
62256		threats	eng	It is widely collected for consumption, mainly at local subsistence level (Branch 1988; Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is not clearly recorded in the West African bushmeat trade. Animals caught by fishermen may be killed, and nests destroyed, as perceived competitors (e.g., in Turkey - Gramentz (1990); Baran and Atatur (1998)). Although construction of dams have been detrimental to this species in parts of its range (eg. Turkey), dam construction has been beneficial to the species in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). In the Mediterranean, the chief threats are: habitat destruction (in particular for touristic developments): accidental mortality in fishing nets (killing hundreds of animals annually off the shore of the Çukurova delta (Seyhan, Ceyhan and Berdan rivers) in Turkey; and human disturbance.
62289		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, although part of the range falls into a &#160;Special Protected Area (Laurisilva of Madeira; Ilhas Desertas) and other parts into Sites of Community Importance (Maciço Montanhoso Central da ilha da Madeira, Achadas da Cruz). Further research is required to review the taxonomic status of the three island subspecies, as these are all distinct in shell morphology, and as such merit review to establish whether these maybe distinct species.
62289		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands (Madeira, Porto Santo, Desertas).&#160;Martins (pers. comm., 2010) &#160;also believes that it has been introduced in the Azores: São Miguel island, (Morelet 1860) and Terceira (Simroth 1887).<br/><br/>The four subspecies have different distributions on the Madeiran archipelago, and are listed separately herein, as future research may confirm some of these as distinct species.&#160;<br/><em>Leptaxis</em>&#160;<em>simia</em>&#160;<em>simia</em>&#160; occurs in the Azores (Portugal) and in the Madeiran Islands (Portugal).&#160;<em><br/></em><em>Leptaxis</em>&#160;<em>simia</em>&#160;<em>advenoides</em>&#160; is o<span lang="FR">nly found&#160;<span lang="FR">on&#160;Ilhéu de Chão,&#160;<span lang="FR">Desertas,&#160;Madeiran Islands (Portugal) (area of occupancy of less than 4km<sup>2</sup>) (Cameron and Cook 1999)<em><br/></em><span lang="FR"><em>Leptaxis</em>&#160;<em>simia</em>&#160;<em>hyaena</em> is a larger more globular subspecies, which is only found <span lang="FR">on Bugio, Desertas,&#160;Madeiran Islands (Portugal) (<span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR">area of occupancy<span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"> of less than 20km<sup>2</sup>)&#160;(Cameron and Cook 1999; &#160;Antonio Domingo Abreu, pers. comm., 1995).<em> Leptaxis</em>&#160;<em>simia</em>&#160;<em>portosancti</em>&#160; is a keeled form of this species, which is only known from <span lang="FR">Porto Santo, where it is restricted to the summit of Pico do Facho,&#160;(<span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR">area of occupancy<span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"> of less than 20km<sup>2</sup>) (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Seddon 2008).<p>.</p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
62289		habitat	eng	On Madeira, the species is found in the Laurisilva zone at intermediate elevations as well as in rocky areas (Cliffs, Crags) in deep valleys and along the coast. &#160;On Porto Santo, it is found around small crags on the peak of Pico Facho and on the Desertas on rocky slopes.&#160;<br/>On the Azores<span style="font-style: italic;"> Leptaxis simia</span> was&#160; first found associated with orange orchards, but now it is also found in the secondary forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Accacia</span>.
62289		population	eng	On Madeira, <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis simia</span>&#160;is relatively common, although never found in abundance (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).<br/>On the Azores,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Leptaxis simia</span> is relatively rare; Morelet (1860:154) found it first associated with orange orchards, but without specifying where; however, he also mentions a shell found near Furnas lake. This species was also found in secondary forests near Vila Franca do Campo (400 m) and Água d’Alto (300 m) (Martins, unpublished information, 2010).
62289		threats	eng	<em>L. simia</em>&#160;is common in suitable habitats on the main island, and as such although there are localised threats to the species, from habitat loss related to increased urbanisation and road construction, it is not believed to be threatened over its whole range.
62332		conservation	eng	Any special conservation action has not been reported.
62332		distribution	eng	It is reported from old world tropics, Bhutan, Sri lanka, India, Nepal.
62332		habitat	eng	It grows in moist areas, wet places, but is not exclusive to it. It is also found in dry sandy areas.
62332		population	eng	Detailed data on population has not been reported.
62332		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known.
62333		conservation	eng	There is no information available.
62333		distribution	eng	The species is uncommon and its distribution range is unclear although it seems it is widespread in Eastern Africa. It is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Angola and South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
62333		habitat	eng	Swamp grassland, upland grassland with shrubs.
62333		population	eng	Apparently not very common in Eastern Africa.
62333		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unclear.
62338		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks and in the Curieuse Marine National Park.
62338		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Curieuse and Félicité (Friedmann 1994, Hill 2002, RDLP workshop 2006). Historically known also from Fregate Island (Carlström 1996). The EOO on Mahé is 36 km². The EOO on the other islands could not be determined due to lack of distribution data, but the entire area of the other five islands is 74 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). Therefore the entire EOO (and also the AOO) is at maximum 110 km²<sup></sup>.
62338		habitat	eng	Glabrous shrub or small tree rarely exceeding 10 m in height, not or only sparingly branched. Understory tree of the moist forest at intermediate altitudes. Mostly found between 250 and 500 m elevation.
62338		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but it is possible that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals left of the species. It is unclear if the regeneration of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sechellarum</span> is sufficient or not  (RDLP workshop 2006). On Silhouette, this species occurs in very low densities but is widespread and seems to reproduce well (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006).
62338		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are invasive species causing a decline in the quality of its habitat, and its restricted range. The species occurs mainly in lowland and intermediate altitudes  (Carlström 1996), which are highly affected by invasive species and  anthropogenic land use.
62341		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve, Shagayu Forest Reserve, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, Mkusus Forest Reserve, North Maniwa Kisara Forest Reserve, Pangwe East Forest Reserve, Uluguru North Forest Reserve and Uluguru South Forest Reserve.
62341		distribution	eng	There are three collections from Ngangao in the Taita Hills in southern Kenya; the last collection from here was in 1953 and it has not been recorded again despite intensive surveys of the area. In Tanzania it is found on the South Pare, East Usambara, Uluguru and Nguru mountain ranges.
62341		habitat	eng	Recorded in montane rain forest on rugged escarpment of Basement Complex rocks. Grows in humic ferralitic/humic ferrasol soils. Appears to survive in secondary forest.
62341		population	eng	Unknown, but given the number of collections in Tanzania seems to be locally common.
62341		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities, logging, etc. across most of its range. The subpopulation in the Taita Hills appears to have been lost.
62361		conservation	eng	Unknown.
62361		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mexican state of Durango. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cuencamensis </span>is known only from a single locality near Cuencame whereas the typical subspecies occurs more widely.
62361		habitat	eng	Grows in dry shrubland on the rocky slopes of volcanic hills. Plants branch and form small clumps.
62361		population	eng	&#160;Has a generation length of about ten years.The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cuencamensis </span>has a small population of about 3,000 mature individuals, however, the typical subspecies is much more abundant. However, the population is fragmented because the region is highly industrialized. But many of the subpopulations are large, with some of them containing thousands of plants.
62361		threats	eng	The area is highly industrialized, hence some subpopulations have been impacted by habitat loss due to urban expansion, agricultural activities, etc.
62362		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Huautla Biosphere Reserve.   The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).&#160; This species needs further research on taxonomy and population dynamics.
62362		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico known from the states of Aguascalientes, Guerrero, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, México, Michoacán, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Veracruz and Zacatecas (Dicht and Lüthy 2003, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Hunt 2006). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. e. greenwoodii</span> has a restricted range near Piedras Blancas, Veracruz. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">bumamma </span>is recorded from the states of Oaxaca and Michoacán.
62362		habitat	eng	This species is found in grasslands and xerophyllous scrub (H. Hernández pers. comm. 2009). Grows on deep volcanic soils. Has been recorded in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cereus</span>-forests.<br/><br/>Plants are solitary or may form large clumps.
62362		population	eng	The subpopulations are usually disjunct, occurring within the area of one state or between one or two contiguous states (Hernández and Godínez 1994). It is relatively common where found. In the Huautla Biosphere Reserve, Morelos, populations of&#160; individuals were recorded in conserved areas, while in disturbed areas a total of 68 individuals were found (Arias-Medellín and Martínez-Garza 2007).
62362		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened by habitat clearance for small-holder agriculture and cattle ranching. Some subpopulations have also been impacted by expanding urban development and associated infrastructure. There has also been increased use of fire in grasslands to create grazing.<br/></p>
62364		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
62364		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the USA in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, and in Mexico in the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas.
62364		habitat	eng	The species grows in semi desert among calcareous rock.
62364		population	eng	The species is frequent in the Northern Chihuahuan desert and it tends to occur at high densities.
62364		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and encroachment of agriculture continue, these are a major threats for some subspecies.
62367		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
62367		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas at elevations of 1,400 to 1,800 m. </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>
62367		habitat	eng	The species grows on volcanic rock in semi desert.
62367		population	eng	The estimated population size is over 1 million individuals.
62367		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.</p>
62373		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.   The species appears over a more than 40,000 km<sup>2</sup>, at ca 1,800 m.
62373		habitat	eng	On calcareous rock in semi desert.
62373		population	eng	Estimated population of more than 500,000 individuals
62373		threats	eng	There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.
62582		conservation	eng	Found in a large number of forest reserves and other protected areas.
62582		distribution	eng	Very widespread on the Kenyan and Tanzanian coastal plain and also occurs on the island of Zanzibar. May well be more extensive in Tanzania. The subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">triangularis </span>appears to be more restricted being confined to the East Usambara Mts.
62582		habitat	eng	Found predominantly in coastal dry forest and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland.
62582		population	eng	A common species, but very patchy in its occurrence (does not occur throughout the forest patches where it is found).
62582		threats	eng	Threatened by forest loss due to agriculture, mining, tourist infrastructure, etc.
62584		conservation	eng	This species is probably present in a large number of protected areas across its wide range.
62584		distribution	eng	Widespread in West and Central Africa being recorded from Côte d'Ivoire to Angola (note the list of countries of occurrence is incomplete).
62584		habitat	eng	Grows in tropical rain-forest and lowland forest.
62584		population	eng	Is presumably common given its wide range.
62584		threats	eng	Given the wide range is likely to be impacted in parts of its range by forest clearance through logging for timber, clearance for agriculture, expansion of urban areas. But none of these is considered to be major.
62588		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas, for example Pugu Forest Reserve (almost destroyed), Kimboza Forest Reserve (has very poor protection), Marenji Forest Reserve, several Kaya forests, and Selous Game Reserve.
62588		distribution	eng	Recorded from coastal areas of southern Kenya and Tanzania, but in Tanzania the range extends inland towards the lower slopes of the Eastern Arc mountains.
62588		habitat	eng	A small tree or large shrub found in dry evergreen forest on limestone or coral-rag with <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyrocarpus</span>, in swamp forest, in riverine forest, and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia</span> woodland.
62588		population	eng	Locally common.
62588		threats	eng	Threatened by forest loss and disturbance (e.g., the habitat at Pugu Hills Forest Reserve has been almost completely destroyed), plus exploitation for poles (it is widely used and very popular).
62857		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. lusitanica</span> is listed on Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. lusitanica </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">azorica </span>was reported by Haggar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1989) to be "the most endangered tree in the Azores". Both subspecies that occur in Spain<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> lusitanica </span>and spp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hixa</span>) are<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span>listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the 2008 Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas where it is passively conserved. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <span><span><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. lusitanica</span> which originates from Spain and is stored in the genebank of the <span>Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, <span>Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</span></p><span><span><span><span></span></span></span>
62857		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. lusitanica</span> is native to southwest France, Portugal (including the Azores and Madeira Islands), Spain (including the Canary Islands), and Morocco (USDA ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. lusitanica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">azorica</span> is endemic to the Azores (Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"> <span style="background-color: white;">In France it occurs in the eight southwestern departments of Gironde, Landes, Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne,   Pyrénées-Atlantiques,   Hautes-Pyrénées,   Ariège and Aude. It also occurs in the northwest department of   Côtes d'Armor (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km</span><sup>2</sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span>
62857		habitat	eng	In Macaronesia it is found in riparian areas and laurel forests. Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species throughout the rest of its range.
62857		population	eng	In the Azores the population comprises less than 250 individuals in total, with less than 30 individuals in each subpopulation. It is fragmented and in decline. In Spain and mainland Portugal the population is fragmented, localized and rare. It has a relic distribution in the Canary Islands.
62857		threats	eng	In the Azores, alteration of the water regime, the cutting of trees and invasive alien species are major threats to this species. In Spain, it is threatened by the construction of dams, habitat modification and climate change. A lack of pollinators and dispersal agents threatens the species in Madeira.
63005		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports 937 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. europaea</span> held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from Spain and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of the protected areas in which it is found.<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the effect of hybridization with cultivated olive on the genetic diversity of the wild subpopulations.
63005		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. europaea</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), Macaronesia (Madeira and Canary Islands), other parts of Africa, the western Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Peninsula (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Portugal, the species occurs in the northeast and centre-south of the country, while in Spain it is found all over the country. In France, it occurs in 18 departments to the south and southeast as well as Corsica and Paris (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><p>  </p>
63005		habitat	eng	It grows in secondary habitats, on dry slopes, and in maquis (in rocky areas), from 0–900 m.
63005		population	eng	The plants are scattered; often solitary. The European subpopulation is suspected to be decreasing.
63005		threats	eng	It is threatened by fires, secondary succession and by hybridization with cultivated olive.
63099		conservation	eng	Enforced legal protection of this species' habitat is needed; control mechanisms such as protection laws and their true enforcement are lacking in Uruguay and are urgently needed. Nowadays, aquarists from neighbouring countries and Europe freely collect this species without any legal controls. Due to their extremely limited range and few known localities, the assessors recommend that, with the exception of justified scientific sampling, the collection of this species should be prohibited.
63099		distribution	eng	<em>A. cinereus</em> is known from a temporary pond in the lower Rio Uruguay basin (Department of Colonia). Its total range area is approximately 10,000 m².
63099		habitat	eng	<em>A. cinereus</em> is an annual fish. It has a characteristic annual life cycle with diapausing embryos developed inside drought resistant eggs that inhabit temporary ponds.
63099		population	eng	The total population occurs in one small, temporary freshwater pond. Population size is unknown.
63099		threats	eng	The main known threat to this species is habitat degradation from local industry development (e.g., meat processing plant, golf field), and being located in an area that has high urban pressures. The location is a site for tourist developments, which may cause environmental modification in the near future. Non-regulated collection by aquarists may also be a potential threat to the remaining population.
63100		conservation	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Ungaro (pers. comm.) recommends the avoidance of fishery activities below the depths of 500 m. Potential management efforts to protect this species are hampered by the low commercial value of skate in general and its full retention within the cod end of the gear types currently in use, employing a mesh size with 20 mm opening within the Mediterranean. Baring this in mind, at present the only management measure which could promote the sustainability of the <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> population within the Mediterranean would be to define suitable non-trawling zones and to enlarge these closed areas to encompass a proportion of the <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> population, including this ray's eggs (which are often found in the trawl net cod-end) (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The global increase of fishing effort and the ensuing depletion of populations have been the subject of the debate by the international bodies charged with the management and conservation of marine resources. Relevant is the formulation by FAO of the ?International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of cartilaginous fishes? (IPOA-Sharks). According to the Plan, all the states that capture sharks, rays or chimaeras, either as target species or as bycatch, shall implement a national action plans to ensure suitable use, conservation and recovery of threatened species (Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). In this context the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem proposed a recommendation to activate the necessary tools and regional agreements towards the formulation of a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of Cartilaginous Fishes. A project for record data proceeding from all Mediterranean basin and regarding large elasmobranchs (MEDLEM) has been discussed and adopted at the last SAC meeting held in Rome (FAO 2005). Also the EC prepared a draft proposal for the European Community Plan of Action that encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). Italy must act urgently to establish a plan of action for the conservation and management of its chondrichthyan fauna, in tight coordination with other Mediterranean riparian countries. The Italian National Action Plan (PAN-SHARKS) draft was formulated by a scientific committee coordinated by ICRAM (Central Institute for the Marine Research) and was conceived in order to provide Italy with the necessary tools for the ratification of the SPA protocol, in the respect of the guidelines formulated within the EC Draft Action Plan and the FAO IPOA-Sharks recommendation (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>In England and Wales waters this species has been proposed for protection under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. If this species was scheduled this would prohibit a wide range of activities and practices including the intentional killing, injuring or taking, the possession and the trade in wild animals. At the time of writing the status of this proposal is pending.
63100		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species may have been found on continental shelf areas including the Irish Sea and Northern North Sea and shelf edge habitats in this area from central Norway southwards (Hientz 1962). Long-nose skate was recorded occasionally in the northern North Sea and Celtic sea in waters of 111 to 159 m in the UK groundfish surveys between the late 1960s and 2002. Catch rates of the long-nose skate over this time period were very low ranging between 0.01 and 0.11 individuals captured per hour of trawling (an encounter rate of one individual per 9-100 hours of survey (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>The long-nose skate is inferred to be locally extinct from the Irish Sea (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). This is based on knowledge of the presence of this species in catches of a long-line fishery based in the Isle of Man in the central Irish Sea in the 1880s, and its current absence from recent trawl surveys of the area. There are no further corroborating evidence supporting its former presence in the Irish Sea and the question of uncertain species identification remains.  <br/> <br/>Nothing is known of the status of these species in Iceland and the Faroe islands and the French waters and Iberian waters. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>This species was previously found throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). However, it now appears to be absent from the Gulf of Lions, Eastern Mediterranean. Comparative trawl surveys indicate <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> was historically present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys and is now absent from comparable surveys. <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> was captured in 10% of hauls (n=27) in shelf surveys, occurring between 1959 and 1972 (coast to 150 m depth) and was also present in a survey between 1980-1984. This species was not subsequently recorded from 628 hauls from four trawl surveys spanning 1985-1995 (Aldebert 1997).
63100		habitat	eng	<em>Dipturus oxyrinchus </em>is benthic and found on sandy or muddy bottoms at depths of 90 to 900 m, mainly around 200 m (Stehmann and Burkel 1984), and was most frequently captured at depths of 200 to 500 m in the MEDITS surveys (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Females mature at >90 cm and males between 70 and 80 cm in total length (TL) (N. Ungaro pers. comm). However, in the north Thyrrenian sea, a female and male measuring 83 and 77.5 cm TL respectively, were recorded as immature 77.5 cm in TL were reported (C. Mancusi and F. Serena pers. comm). Within the Italian Seas, the size range recorded was 17 to 112 cm TL in the south Ligurian Sea and north Thyrrenian sea, while in the south part of Italy (Sicily strait) it was 105 to 115 cm (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the northern part of the Thyrrenian sea the disc width (DW) range was 10.5 to 53 cm. From these data it seems that the TL is approximately 1.5 times the DW. Consequently, we inferred that specimens with maximum TLs recorded in the Italian seas, with the maximum total lengths of 112 to 115 cm, had a DW of 74 to 76 cm (C. Mancusi pers. comm). Stehmann and Burkel (1984) recorded a maximum size of 150 cm, therefore as above a DW of 100 cm is inferred (C. Mancusi pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Further details on the size at birth, age at maturity and longevity are unknown for this species. It has a spawning period from February to April (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998), however Serena (2005) reported spawning to occur between February and May, with egg cases measuring between 100 and 150 cm in length. The reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, litter size, rate of population increase and natural mortality are also unknown. <br/> <br/>A study on the feeding habits of rays in the south Ligurian and North Thyrrenian Seas show this species feeds mainly on crustaceans and cephalopods, in particular <em>Cephalopoda decapoda</em> (<em>Sepietta owenian</em> was the only specimen identified to a species level). Crustaceans included in this ray's diet belonged to the Amphida (Gammaridea n.d.), Euphasiacea (<em>Meganyctiphanes norvegica</em>), Isopoda (Isopoda n.d.) Mysidiacea (<em>Lophogaster typicus</em>) and Decapoda (<em>Pasiphea sivado, Pontocaris lacazei, Pontophilus pinosus, Solenocera membranacea, Plesionika</em> spp.) orders. Due to the small number of specimens analysed (n = 14) it was not possible to undergo a more accurate analysis to determine whether there was any difference between the feeding habits of different size classes of this skate. The only difference observed was that females seemed to prefer cephalopods and the males that feed mainly on crustaceans, in particular <em>L. typicus</em> (Vannucci 2005).
63100		population	eng	This is one of the largest-bodied species of skate and it has been found to have undergone declines from other shelf seas, notably the Irish Sea (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000). The large body size (150 cm), and presumably slow growth and later maturation and likely low intrinsic rate of population increase of this species render it especially vulnerable to exploitation such as trawling and at risk of local extinction (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Nothing is known of the population status or trends in its abundance from this area.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/>The MEDITS International trawl surveys cover the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Trawl surveys are carried out each year during the summer period in the coastal areas of four arbitrary, geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows were performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m, including much of the known distribution of this species. The sharpnose skate is the second most abundant skate in the Mediterranean and was recorded in 301 (3%) hauls in this area. The total standing stock biomass has been estimated as 1,899 t using a swept area method, assuming full catchability (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Assuming an average individual weight of either 10 or 5 kg this would represent approximately 189,900 to 379,800 individuals. This species was found between 50 and 800 m, but was caught most frequently between 200 and 500 m and it was most commonly captured in the western central area and in the Aegean Sea (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In the Adriatic Sea, historical trawl survey results from the ?Hvar? survey in 1948 showed <em>D. oxyrinchus</em> present in 3.2% of hauls carried out in the shelf bottoms, while in the comparable (MEDITS) survey in 1998 it did not appear in any shelf hauls (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). The MEDITS surveys of the area began in 1994 while another study of the Adriatic Sea began in 1985: the National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND). During this time <em>D. oxyrinchus</em> has been captured with occurrence lower than 0.1% in the MEDITS surveys in the Adriatic and has been captured in only 1% of hauls in 1994 in the central and northern Adriatic and in 2.6% of hauls in 1995 in the southern Adriatic during GRUND surveys (Marano <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, it should be noted that the MEDITS net is thought to have a low sampling efficiency of truly benthic species (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In the south Ligurian and north Thyrrenian sea this species is distributed across a relatively narrow range (164 to 580 m depth), mostly concentrated on the outside margin of the slope (300 to 400 m). The trend of the relative biomass and density indexes shows some fluctuations characterized by not abundant but constant captures. In the last period the trend for the biomass decrease while the abundance one is nearly stable. This fact suggests a change in the population structure with predominant presence of young individuals. Moreover the ecological aspects and the distribution pattern of this species are very different from the other skate species and there is no competition or overlapping geographical distribution and is supposed to exist from the moment it is confined only in the bathyal area (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).
63100		threats	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/><em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> is captured as bycatch by trawl nets and offshore bottom long lines. Catches are occasional and specimens are sometimes discarded at sea (N. Ungaro pers. comm). Rajids are an important component of the demersal fisheries of Northwest Europe (Holden 1977) and skates have traditionally been landed due to their large size. The situation appears similar in the Mediterranean, where <em>D. oxyrinchus</em> is probably captured as part of the bycatch of multispecies trawl fisheries. Over the last 50 years, benthic trawl effort has increased numerically and technologically in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries composed of 27 small, low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horsepower of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced into targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>There is no data available on threats, however it is inferred that, similar to other large-bodied skates, this species may be captured and retained as bycatch of demersal trawl and long-line fisheries, particularly in deeper water. <br/> <br/>The large body size in combination with the presumably slow growth rate, low fecundity and large size of juveniles of this species makes it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation when compared to other rajids (Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm (knot to knot). <br/> <br/>The potential threat of development of deepwater fisheries within this species range is a possible cause for concern in the future. Although the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), the main intergovernmental decision-making body on fishery management in the Mediterranean, has made the decision to refrain from expanding deep water fishing operations beyond the limit of 1,000 m, this species occurs mostly from 200-500 m and down to 900 m. For more information, see: <a href="iucn.org/places/medoffice/documentos/deepsea_en.pdf">Mediterranean Conservationists and Fishermen Work Together to Protect Deep Seas</a>.
63101		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need to assess the impacts of fishing on this poorly known species. In Argentina, skate landings are managed by a quota system, but this is not species-specific.
63101		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic off Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina.
63101		habitat	eng	Inhabits the continental shelf at depths of 37 to 100 m (McEachran 1983). Like other skates it is oviparous, but this is a poorly known species with little information available on biology and ecology. The maximum size recorded for the species is 30.3 cm total length (TL), with the smallest individual measuring 10.0 cm TL, giving an approximation for size at birth (McEachran 1983).
63101		population	eng	Unknown.
63101		threats	eng	There is no specific information available on catches of this species, however, increasing international demand for skates has resulted in growing fishing pressure on skate species along the coastal and shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay. Skates are taken and landed by multispecies coastal bottom trawlers and by a target skate fishery. Other fisheries, such as those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries also take skate as bycatch. There are no data on specific catches as all species of batoids are registered in fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t in Argentina, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There has been a 31% reduction in overall coastal skate biomass estimates from 1994 (when active exploitation commenced) to 1999/2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). Considerable declines in the biomass of other coastal and shelf skate species have been documented off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) (i.e., <em>Atlantoraja cyclophora</em> and <em>Sympterygia acuta</em>) (Massa and Hozbor 2004, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2006), an area where trawl fishing is intensive. <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense where the species occurs off southern Brazil. While species-specific information for <em>P. rutrum</em> is not available, demersal trawlers in that region land skates as part of multispecies fisheries. <br/> <br/><em>Psammobatis</em> spp. may be less susceptible to population depletion than other skates, given their small size (implying lower age at maturity and faster growth rates), however, both the increase in fishing pressure across much of the range of <em>P. rutrum</em>, and habitat disturbance and degradation (including possible damage to reproductive habitat) due to trawling activities could be placing unsustainable pressure on the species. <br/> <br/>Where the species is discarded, survival rates are unknown, however Mabragaña and Cousseau (2004) note that for <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. (referring specifically to <em>P. normani</em> and <em>P. rudis</em>) they are often dead when discarded at sea.
63102		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>In Argentina, species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew<em> et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licences are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, since 2005, there has been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. caught south of 41°28?S Each year, there is a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season of <em>Dipturus trachydermus</em>. It is unknown whether this measure also protects the reproductive season of <em>B. albomaculata</em>.
63102		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Southwest Atlantic over the southern Patagonian shelf between 52°S and 54°S, around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and the Burdwood Bank (Menni and Stehmann 2000). North of 52°S, it occurs on the outer shelf and upper slope as far north as 41°S, with its northern most record off Uruguay (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the south it is present both in shallower shelf areas and in deeper water, but in the north it is restricted to deeper water, following the Malvinas Current (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Southeast Pacific off Chile from Taltal (26°10?S) (Lamilla unpubl. data) to the Strait of Magellan (56°S) (Pequeño 2000) and off Guamblin Island (45°04?S, 75°27?W) (Lamilla 1986).
63102		habitat	eng	Recorded from a wide depth range from 55 m to 861 m (J. Pompert pers. comm.) in bottom temperatures ranging from 2.8 to 6.8°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>In the Southwest Atlantic, Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) found the depth distribution of the species differed latitudinally. In the north (north of 41°S), the species was found from 65 to 310 m, with higher densities from 250 to 310 m. In the central area of its Southwest Atlantic distribution (41°S and 48°S), the species was found in shallower water from 70 to 140 m with high densities from 100 to 130 m. In the south (south of 48°S), <em>B. albomaculata</em> was found over a broader depth range from 70 to 310 m, with higher densities from 160 to 190 m. <br/> <br/>Age and length at maturity have been estimated at 10 years for females and 11 years for males (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) found sizes at maturity off Argentina of 65.3 cm total length (TL) and 62.8 cm TL for females and males, respectively, whereas the estimates of Henderson<em> et al</em>. (2004) from the Falkland/Malvinas Islands were smaller (around 57.2 cm TL and 59.4 cm TL for females and males, respectively). These studies used the same methods to assess age at maturity and Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggested that different populations might occur within the species range. <br/> <br/>The oldest specimen reported was 17 years and the maximum length has been estimated at 96 cm TL (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/>Like other skates, <em>B. albomaculata</em> is oviparous. Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2004) found ovarian fecundity ranged from four to 32 with a mean of 14 and size at hatching was estimated at 9.8 cm and 10.5 cm DW for females and males, respectively. Gravid and post-partum females were observed all year-round and throughout the species? depth range but there was an increase in the proportion of gravid and post-partum females during autumn and winter (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) also found females carrying eggs in April, September and October suggesting that year-round egg laying may occur. <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>A highly specific feeder on benthopelagic gammarid and polychaetes (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003) and to a lesser extent on isopods.
63102		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown, however, it is the second most common skate caught in the skate fishery north of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggesting that it is abundant, at least in those waters. <br/> <br/>Specimens from the Falkland/Malvinas Islands have been found to mature at a smaller size than those off Argentina despite using the same methods for assessing length at maturity (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggested that there may be separate populations within the species' range, however further research on larger sample sizes is required to test this hypothesis.   <br/> <br/>Ruocco <em>et al.</em> (2006) found that <em>B. albomaculata</em> was most abundant on the outer continental shelf and slope between 36°30? and 45°S. In contrast, it was generally absent between 48°S and 52°S, a region where it was formerly reported as abundant. This could be related to the recent higher fishing pressure around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Ruocco<em> et al</em>. 2006).  <br/> <br/>There have also been reports that the biomass of <em>B. albomaculata</em> south of 45°S declined by 83% between 1998 and 1999 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000), however the second phase of investigations employed gear which likely reduced the capture of rays.
63102		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004).     <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa<em> et al</em>. 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 83% decline in the biomass of <em>B. albomaculata</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).   <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised from around 5 to 10% of <em>B. albomaculata</em> (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific bycatch data are not generally collected for this fishery, however, and remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Although approximately 11 skate species are regularly taken, commercial catches are dominated by four species including <em>B. albomaculata</em>. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000) found that between 1993 and 1997 <em>B. albomaculata</em> replaced <em>B. griseocauda</em> as the dominant species in the catch in the northern fishery area. According to Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000) <em>B. albomaculata</em> (and also <em>B. brachyurops</em>) should be able to sustain higher fishing pressures than <em>B. griseocauda</em> and <em>D. chilensis </em>because it matures earlier and grows faster relative to these other species. However, Henderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) noted that <em>B. albomaculata</em> displays quite a low fecundity compared to other rajid species and combined with its slow growth and late maturity, this species could be susceptible to overfishing if not closely monitored. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has shown little indication of an increasing or decreasing trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Bathyraja albomaculata is currently the second most important species, comprising 28% of the catch (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. As such, pressure will continue on all species, including those less able to sustain heavy fishing pressure, such as <em>B. albomaculata</em>. <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the skate fishery closure. However, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers targeting <em>Micromesistius australis, Macruronus magellanicus, Merluccius hubbsi, M. australis</em> and <em>Salilota australis</em> around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003) and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile </strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em> is also a regular bycatch of the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> longline fishery off Chile. Landings for the fishery comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em> and 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em> with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata, B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskii </em>(Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002). Overall biomass of the target species (<em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>) has declined by 51% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005) and declines are thus also likely to have occurred for bycatch species. There is also an artisanal Patagonian toothfish longline fishery operating at depths of 300 to 2,500 m between Iquique (20°S) to Ladrillero Gulf (49°S) off Chile (Lamilla 2003). This species exists within the area and at the depth range fished and could potentially be caught as bycatch in the fishery.
63103		conservation	eng	None are known. It is recommended that more specimens be collected for research, and in particular, additional life history data needs to be collected.
63103		distribution	eng	Originally described from the Northeast Atlantic from deep slopes and troughs, primarily off Iceland, Greenland and Rockall Trough, but also reported from the Mid-Atlantic ridge and recently reported from the Canary Islands (Brito <em>et al.</em> 2003, D.A. Didier unpub. data). Probably widespread throughout the North Atlantic including the Northwest Atlantic (one confirmed specimen collected by U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) held at The Academy of Natural Sciences (ANS), Philadelphia, USA, Didier unpublished data).
63103		habitat	eng	Benthic, deepwater inhabitant of deepwater slopes and troughs, found at depths of 1,200 to 2,075 m in the Northeast Atlantic and depths of 1,352 to 1,912 m from the Canary Islands. May occur to depths of 2,500 m or greater and may be more common below 2,000 m. <br/> <br/>It is suspected that this is a slow-growing species with low fecundity and likely shares similar habitat and ecology with <em>H. affinis</em>. Oviparous, but no eggs, hatchlings, or small juveniles have been collected. Diet probably consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates.
63103		population	eng	Appears to be most common in the Northeast Atlantic, rare from the Canary Islands and the Northwest Atlantic; however, this may be due in part to differences in fishery effort throughout the region, including gear used and depth fished. This species may be more abundant at depths greater than 2,000 m. Further research will be needed to determine if northwestern and northeastern populations differ.
63103		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch in commercial deepsea trawling and longlining operations. Not known to be targeted at present and it is not considered a likely future target due to its low abundance. It is most often caught by deepwater longline, rather than trawls, and could face a potential threat in the future should deepwater longline efforts increase. However, at present <em>H. pallidus</em> is considered to occur deeper than the main fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic. Furthermore, it may be distributed at greater depths than currently reported offering a deep refuge from fishing pressure. As this species is thought to be slow growing with low fecundity, like its congener <em>H. affinis</em>, even incidental catch could affect populations if fisheries expand throughout more of its depth range.  Monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that this species is not adversely affected. <br/> <br/>There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic. Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area (ICES VIb and XII) at depths between 600 to 2,000 m (Kjerstad <em>et al.</em> 2003). The lower depth limit fished in this region may be about 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm). About 10 to 20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm).
63104		conservation	eng	Not known to be managed or regulated in any way throughout its range. A record of all incidental captures including basic data on sex, size and depth is recommended in order to obtain initial basic data on population size, structure and life history trends.
63104		distribution	eng	Known from deepwater banks of the Northeast Atlantic off Iceland, Ireland, Scotland and the Hebrides (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984) as well as the eastern central Atlantic off Morocco, Sahara Republic, Senegal, and Mauritania (Quero <em>et al.</em> 1990). Examination of two specimens recently collected off Namibia appear to be <em>H. mirabilis</em> (Krefft 1990). The species is likely more widespread throughout the Atlantic than previously reported. However, more specimens are needed to confirm species identification and range off western Africa. Also reported from the Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Fechelm 1998) and off Surinam. It is rare in this region and currently known only known from a few specimens caught at depths from 450 m to over 1,000 m (Didier 2002). Based on these widespread capture records and the observation of a single individual in the Straits of Florida this species is probably widespread throughout the Northern and Central Atlantic.
63104		habitat	eng	A deep-slope species, with a known depth range of 450 to 1,933 m generally occurring at depths greater than 800 m. Reported off Namibia at 545 to 717 m (Krefft 1990). <br/> <br/>Oviparous, although nothing else is known of reproduction or spawning. Probably occupies rock, rubble, or muddy bottoms and feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates and fish and shares similar life history traits with other <em>Hydrolagus</em> such as <em>H. colliei</em>.
63104		population	eng	No information is available on population size and structure, but based on historical capture records and the apparent wide distribution of the species it is probably relatively common in the northeast Atlantic and less common in the western and southern Atlantic.
63104		threats	eng	Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area (ICES VIb and XII) at depths between 600 and 2,000 m (throughout the sampled depth range of this species) (Kjerstad <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic, while regulation is often lagging. Deepwater chimaeroids, like other deepsea chondrichthyans, are potentially at risk from these activities, although little species-specific information is available. Monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that North Atlantic chimaeroid species are not adversely affected. <br/> <br/>This species may be impacted by deepwater bottom fisheries, particularly in the Northeast Atlantic, where it may be caught as bycatch in trawls. Rihan <em>et al</em>. (2005) have also reported this species as a bycatch from bottom gillnets retrieved from 648 nets recovered during a gill net retrieval survey of Rockall and Porcupine Bank at depths of 400 to 1,300 m during August-September 2005. Evidence of significant quantities of lost and abandoned gear in these areas and of excessive discarding in these fisheries due to long soak times lead to serious concerns about the impact of ghost fishing. There is a need for the immediate introduction of effective management measures in these fisheries to control the quantities of gear being fished and soak time (Rihan <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Potentially threatened in the future if increased fishing effort in deepwater results in an increase of bycatch of this species. In the East central Atlantic, this species may also be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries operating along the West African coasts. About 20 to 25 trawl vessels are currently targeting the deepwater crab <em>Geryon maritae</em> along the Mauritanian coast at depths of 500 to 1,200 m and occasionally down to 1,400 m (L. Camara pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Rarely, if ever captured in the Western Central Atlantic, probably due to the lack of deepwater fisheries in this region, which may afford it some protection, although potentially at risk if deepwater fishing effort increases in this area.
63105		conservation	eng	Protection of pristine river sections in nature reserves or protected areas, mainly along the Litani and Orontes rivers.
63105		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx hyalina</em> is an endemic of the Levant with a restricted distribution along the middle and upper course of the Orontes, Litani, Barada and some coastal rivers in Syria and Lebanon (e.g., Nahr al-Abrash, Nahr al-Kabir). An isolated subpopulation (voucher specimens: two males and one female in the Natural History Museum, London) at Lake Hula is now extinct and is the only existing record for the Jordan River drainage.
63105		habitat	eng	The species occurs on lakes, larger ponds and perennial rivers, where it prefers (in contrast to <em>C. syriaca</em>) lotic conditions.
63105		population	eng	No exact information is available for this species. It is not common within its range.
63105		threats	eng	The major threat is water extraction for agriculture and human use. The species lost at least a third of its distribution area due to the drying up of the Barada River in Syria (within the last ten years). Potentially drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change.
63106		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi </em>fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands Patagonian toothfish fishery is managed through a licensing system with two longliners licensed to fish adult Patagonian toothfish around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Longlining activities and catches are monitored and a TAC of 1,500 Mt per annum has recently been set which should reduce effort by approximately 15% (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Early in 2006 there was some successful experimenting with potting for toothfish. With this method, neither skates, nor any other elasmobranchs for that matter are caught. It is therefore likely that there will be a further reduction of fishing by longline in the long term (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Recent changes in legislation (2006) require fishermen to cut snoods and hooks from bycatch skates to reduce mortality. The animals are now hauled aboard and released with no hook lodged in their jaw. This is in line with the same practice in CCAMLR regions (J. Pompert pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licences are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.
63106		distribution	eng	Southwest Atlantic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope off Argentina and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Diaz de Astarloa and Mabragaña 2004).
63106		habitat	eng	Distributed in deep temperate waters of the Southwest Atlantic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope (Diaz de Astarloa and Mabragaña 2004) at depths of 119 to 397 m off Argentina (Diaz de Astarloa and Mabragaña 2004) and 121 to 1,011 m around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been estimated at 97 cm TL for males (Stehmann, et al. unpubl. data) and the maximum size reported is 120 cm TL (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). The smallest known specimen was reported at 12 cm TL (FIFD unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Little else is known about the biology of the species. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).
63106		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
63106		threats	eng	The term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobtaidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004).     <br/> <br/>Skates are directly targeted by a licensed Korean longliner off Argentina. This longliner targets primarily <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> but also takes <em>Bathyraja</em> species (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific catch data for <em>B. cousseauae</em> are however, unavailable. <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja cousseauae</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 89% decline in the biomass of <em>B. cousseauae </em>(reported as <em>Bathyraja</em> spp.) captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>This species is taken in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies directed skate fishery which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Mean disc width of this species decreased from 39.04 cm in 1994 to 31.17 in 1997; however the data were often sparse (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Following declines in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004) showed that this species has declined in CPUE over the period from 1992 to 2001. This species made up 7.2% of catches from the northern region of the fishery between 1993 and 2002 (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions below), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers operating around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja cousseauae</em> is also occasionally caught as bycatch in the <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> longline fishery in a small area northwest of the Burdwood Bank. Fishers are not required to record species-specific bycatch data and catch estimates are fairly restricted. Only some experienced observers assess skate bycatch by species and catch estimates therefore have significant variance (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific bycatch data is required to assess the extent of this fisheries? impact on the species.
63107		conservation	eng	Very little information is currently available with regard to specific regulations and conservation measures although as part of a bycatch fishery <em>C. callorhynchus</em> may not be subject to rigorous regulations. Any regulations and conservation measures will likely vary by country and region. <br/> <br/>Note that management (continued monitoring of CPUE and responding by altering TAC's) of another <em>Callorhinchus</em> species (<em>C. milli</em>) in New Zealand and Australia have resulted in a sustainable fishery.
63107		distribution	eng	Ranges from Southern Brazil to Southern Patagonia in the southwest Atlantic and from Peru and Chile in the southeast Pacific. It has also been reported from the Argentine section of the Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego (López <em>et. al</em>. 2000).
63107		habitat	eng	Depth range is generally from nearshore to about 170 m, however there are reported captures of this species from 481 m off Chile. This may indicate that the species occupies and/or migrates to deeper waters than currently reported, or may occupy different depth ranges in different parts of its range. A coastal and continental shelf dweller that likely occupies a variety of rocky, sandy and/or muddy bottoms throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Maximum recorded size for females is 102 cm total length (TL) and 85 cm TL for males. Like the related species <em>C. millii</em> and <em>C. capensis</em>, <em>C. callorhynchus</em> probably has an early onset of sexual maturity and relatively high fecundity. <em>C. callorhynchus</em> is oviparous with spawning and reproductive behaviors similar to those described for <em>C. milii</em> and <em>C. capensis</em>. Mating and spawning occurs in spring and early summer with a primary spawning season from July to November. In the Gulf of San Mathías, Argentina, where most work on this species has been conducted, spawning migrations into shallow waters have been observed with eggs collected at depths of 20 to 40 m, but also as deep as 104 m (Di Giácomo and Perier 1994). <br/> <br/>The diet (Di Giácomo <em>et al</em>. 1994) consists primarily of shelled invertebrate prey, particularly bivalve molluscs, gastropods and polychaetes. Differences in the diet of males and females and between juveniles and adults are attributed to prey availability and morphology and behavior of predators (e.g., tooth plates of juveniles are not as large or strong as those of adults). <br/> <br/>The following morphometric details are given as standard length (SL) measurements, which refers to the distance from the tip of the snout to the origin of the upper caudal lobe. Females mature at 49 cm SL and males at 40 cm SL (Di Giácomo and Perier 1994). The maximum recorded size for <em>C. callorhynchus</em> is 102 cm total length (TL) (Di Giácomo and Perier 1994). Size at birth is 13 cm TL and gestation time is probably in the region of 6 to 12 months.
63107		population	eng	Very little is known with regard to population size and structure of <em>C. callorhynchus</em> throughout its range. Studies of <em>C. callorhynchus</em> off the coast of Argentina indicate that there may be separate populations which appear to be related to food abundance and availability. Aggregations by sex and size have also been observed. Data are not available for regions outside of the Gulf of San Matías.
63107		threats	eng	<em>C. callorhynchus</em> is exploited locally throughout its range primarily as a component of bottom trawl fisheries, typically fished at depths of 90 to 130 m. Although captured year-round, there does appear to be seasonal migrations to shallower waters in the spring and autumn for spawning with a return to deeper waters during the winter. May be targeted more specifically in some regions. Also caught recreationally using lines. In Argentina this species is primarily caught as bycatch in the hake (<em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>) fishery.  <br/> <br/>Overfishing may potentially threaten this species based on recent declines in numbers landed in Argentina (landings increased from 479 mt in 1992 to a peak in 1999 of 1,979 mt followed by an abrupt fall in the 2000-2002 periods, followed by another increase to 1,712 mt in 2003 followed by a slight decline to 1,554 mt in 2004) (Di Giácomo and Perier 2005). This ?boom and bust' cycle has been observed in other <em>Callorhinchus</em> species that have been sustainably fished (D. Didier pers. obs.) however it should be noted that this was under strict management thus caution must be applied in any such comparisons. Additional data, particularly from other parts of the range, are needed to verify if this is a singular localized event or indicative of a trend in declining numbers of this species throughout its range.  <br/> <br/>In Chile, total landings increased from ~1,000 t to between ~3,000 t and ~4,500 t between 1990 and 1992, followed by a sharp decline to ~1,000 t again in 1995. However, it is thought that this is the result of a shift in effort to targeting Hake. Landings of <em>C. callorhynchus</em> have fluctuated ~1,500 t to ~500 t since 1995. <br/> <br/>In Peru <em>C. callorhynchus</em> is also caught by beach seine in a multi-species fishery. This species is of minor importance to fisheries in Peru and data from landings were not recorded prior to 1996. An average catch of 7.81 mt per year was taken off Peru between 1996 and 2003, ranging from 11.87 mt in 1998 to 4.54 mt in 2000. The landings are unsteady but a slight decline is observed.
63108		conservation	eng	None in place. Any future expansion of deepwater fisheries in the area should be closely-monitored.
63108		distribution	eng	<em>E. gracilispinis</em> has a widespread but disjunct distribution off North and South America and southern Africa.  Widespread in temperate and subtropical western Atlantic Ocean waters and off South Africa.
63108		habitat	eng	Benthic or epibenthic on the outer continental shelf and upper to middle slopes at depths of 100 to 1,000 m, but with captures in midwater trawls at depths of 70 to 480 m over waters of 2,240 m off Argentina and off South Africa also indicating an epipelagic and mesopelagic existence (Compagno in prep. a, G.H. Burgess unpub. data). <br/> <br/>Like most other lanternsharks, biology and ecology is poorly known, but presumed to be aplacental viviparous (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
63108		population	eng	Large disjunctions between northern and southern Atlantic and southern African distributions may suggest distinct subpopulations.
63108		threats	eng	Some mortality from pelagic and deepwater fisheries is likely to occur across the species range. For example, the species has been recorded as rare (very few specimens, representing a little more than 0% of the catch of elasmobranchs) in the bycatch longliners operating out of Santos City, São Paulo, southern Brazil (Amorin <em>et al</em>. 1998). Also, only limited bycatch off the USA. As such, this mortality is of no immediate threat to the viability of the species given the limited catches in these fisheries, and the widespread benthic, epibenthic, epipelagic and mesopelagic occurrence of the species.
63109		conservation	eng	In Argentina, the species is included in the annual maximum permitted catch (MPC) of the fishery for coastal skates, established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. In recent years the landings were higher than the quotas, and at present this is not an adequate management measure. Species-specific catch data are required as at present all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Specific catch information is also required from southern Brazil.
63109		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic, between ~30° and 43°S (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Its absence in Patagonian waters has been confirmed (Menni and Stehmann 2000).
63109		habitat	eng	A coastal and shelf skate, occurring at depths of 10 to 130 m (Figueiredo 1977). Reaches a maximum size of ~71 cm TL (Cousseau <em>et al</em>. 2000) and has an annual reproductive period, with egg-laying from November to July, but with a peak in January and February in south Brazilian waters (Peres and Vooren 1993). There are apparent nearshore movements of adults for reproductive activities during the summer.
63109		population	eng	One of the most abundant skates on the continental shelf off Uruguay-Buenos Aires, Province, Argentina (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2003).
63109		threats	eng	The majority of the species' geographic and bathymetric distribution is subjected to fairly intensive trawl fishing. <br/> <br/>Off Argentina and Uruguay, <em>Rioraja agassizi</em> is taken by the multi-species fleet that exploits the coastal demersal fish assemblage (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2004). Furthermore, since 2000, one vessel has been specifically targeting skates off Argentina. There are no data on specific catches as all species of batoids are registered in fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Increasing international demand for skates has resulted in growing fishing pressure on skate species along the coastal and shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There has been a 31% reduction in overall coastal skate biomass estimates from 1994 (when active exploitation commenced) to 1999/2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). While this data is not species-specific, it highlights the pressure placed on the coastal skate assemblage, of which <em>R. agassizi</em> is a dominant component. Considerable declines in the biomass of other coastal and shelf skate species have been documented off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) (i.e., the similarly sized <em>Atlantoraja cyclophora</em> and the smaller <em>Sympterygia acuta</em>) (Massa and Hozbor 2004, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2006), an area where trawl fishing is intensive. <br/> <br/>In an observer program of the Puerto Quequén coastal benthic trawl fishery in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, <em>R. agassizi</em> was found to constitute only a small component of batoids captured (0.3% by number, 0.1% by mass, 2.7% frequency of occurrence) (Tamini <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense where the species occurs off southern Brazil and demersal trawlers in that region land skates as part of multi-species fisheries. This species is taken as by-catch in artisanal and industrial fisheries in southern Brazil, and composes 5 to 20% of captures (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). Lessa <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that the proportion of this species has declined in captures and there is a risk of a population decline.
63110		conservation	eng	No conservation measures exist in Brazil. In Argentina, the only management strategy for skates is an annual total catch for skates distributed in the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province. For 2003 this was 4,000 MT. Continued monitoring, improved fisheries data collection and species-specific catch data are needed across the species' range. Given the increasing international demand for skate products, and increased exploitation in the Southwest Atlantic, trade management measures are also essential (Perez and Wahrlich 2005).
63110		distribution	eng	A Southwest Atlantic endemic species, distributed from 23°S to 45°S.
63110		habitat	eng	Benthic on clay, mud and sand substrates on the continental shelf at depths of 19 to 181 m (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>Females mature at 45 to 50 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 47 to 53 cm TL (M.F.W. Stehmann pers. obs., unpubl. ISH records ?W. Herwig' expeditions). The maximum recorded size for <em>A. platana</em> is 73.4 cm TL (Zaro 1979). <br/> <br/>Like other skates, this species is oviparous. It has an annual reproductive cycle, with an egg-laying season from January to September, with a peak in January (Peres and Vooren 1993). Food includes fish, penaeid crustaceans and cephalopods (Peres and Vooren 1993).
63110		population	eng	Moderately rare skate (M.F.W. Stehmann pers. obs.) with patchy occurrence across its range. It is rare north of 26°S.
63110		threats	eng	Trawl fishing along the distribution and in the habitat of this species is intense, while demand for skates is increasing in the international market. In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay this has resulted in rising fishing pressure on all skate species. <em>A. platana</em> is taken mainly as bycatch in fisheries for coastal demersal species (multi-species fisheries) and in Argentina the <em>Atlantoraja</em> species has been known to be landed since 1994. There are only seven records of <em>A. plantana</em> from 1993 to 2005 on the Argentine shelf (A. Massa pers. comm.) however species specific data were not previously recorded. Since 2000, however, one vessel has been specifically targeting skates. For these fishing activities, species-specific landing statistics are generally unavailable as all species of batoids are recorded as ?unidentified rays and skates?. In Argentina, declared landings of skates and rays increased significantly during the 1990s from 910 MT in 1993 to 5,701.2 MT in 1994 and to 12,443.7 MT in 1996 (Chiaramonte 1998). Landings continue to rise and were 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense across the species'  range in southern Brazil, where demersal trawl fisheries operate and skates are landed as part of multi-species fisheries. While species-specific data are required from southern Brazil, Amorim <em>et al</em>. (1997) stated that in the pink shrimp fishery off São Paulo, Brazil the catch per unit effort of discarded batoids (4.6 kg per hour) is approximately three times higher than that of the target species (1.4 kg per hour).    <br/> <br/>Perez and Wahrlich (2005) noted an overall discard rate of 69% for skates taken in the deepwater monkfish gillnet fishery off southern Brazil (between 22°´44 and 34°21´S). While, <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> and <em>A. cyclophora</em> were identified amongst these skates, <em>A. platana</em> was not. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) surveyed between depths of 132 to 607 m and so the interaction of <em>A. platana</em> with this fishery is likely minimal. <br/> <br/>Menni and Stehmann (2000) note that the species was historically recorded from Punta Lara, near La Plata in Argentina but that its more recent absence from this locality is likely due to pollution.
63111		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licences are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, since 2005, there has been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. caught south of 41°28?S. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season. It is unknown whether this measure also protects the reproductive season of <em>B. griseocauda</em>.
63111		distribution	eng	<em>B. brachyurops</em> is widely distributed off Argentina from 40°30?S, including the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and occasionally at the coasts of the Buenos Aires Province and southern Brazil (Menni and Stehmann 2000). It is also found off Chile south of Valdivia (40°S) to the Strait of Magellan (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Colonello and Massa (2004) reported that the distribution of <em>B. brachyurops</em> was not uniform, at least over the area surveyed (from 45° to 41°S), with two areas of higher density identified north of 44°S below the 100 m isobath and south of 44°S at around 200 m.
63111		habitat	eng	Reported to depths of 28 to 604 m in a range of bottom temperatures from 3.0°C to 12.5°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>Age at maturity has been estimated at approximately eight years (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Size at maturity is estimated at around 64 cm TL for females and 58 cm TL for males (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data) with maximum and minimum lengths of 125 cm TL (FIFD unpubl. data) and 13 cm TL (Norman 1937) respectively. Like all skates, it is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Smaller individuals feed opportunistically on benthic gammarid amphipods and polychaetes and larger specimens are active predators feeding primarily on fish (e.g., <em>Patagonotothen ramsayi</em>) and cephalopods (e.g., <em>Loligo gahi</em>) (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003).
63111		population	eng	The population size is unknown, however, this species is the third most important in the rajid trawl fishery north of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands forming around 20% of the catch (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <br/> <br/>This fishery initially operated in two areas, one to the north and one to the south of the islands. Following heavy fishing pressure during the early 1990s, Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000), found that the species composition of the catch had changed so that the larger, late-maturing <em>B. griseocauda</em> had been replaced as the dominant species in the catch <em>B. brachyurops</em> to the south of the Islands. The southern area has since been closed to the rajid fishery and there have been no studies on the status of <em>B. brachyurops</em> in this area since. A recent assessment of the ray population in the northern area which is still open to the rajid fleet, showed no significant trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63111		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina/Uruguay</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). Among the species of rays exploited commercially is <em>B. brachyurops</em> (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).   <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland Islands</strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja brachyurops</em> is one of the dominant species in the multi-species skate trawl fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following heavy fishing pressure during the early 1990s, Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000), found that the species composition of the catch had changed so that the larger, late-maturing <em>B. griseocauda</em> had been replaced as the dominant species in the catch by <em>B. albomaculata</em> to the north and <em>B. brachyurops</em> to the south. Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggested that <em>B. brachyurops</em> should be able to sustain higher fishing pressure than the larger and late-maturing species in the fishery. <br/> <br/>In 1996, following these declines, the southern area (south of 52°S) was closed to the fleet and the fishery now operates north of the Islands. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004) indicated that there was no significant increasing or decreasing trend in the CPUE for <em>B. brachyurops</em> over the period from 1992 to 2001. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers operating around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure, targeting <em>Micromesistius australis, Macruronus magellanicus, Merluccius hubbsi, M. australis</em> and <em>Salilota australis</em> (Brickle<em> et al</em>. 2003). While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed and rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja brachyurops</em> is also a regular bycatch of the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> longlining fishery off Chile (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002) which operates mainly at depths from 30 to 300m. Landings for the fishery comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em> and 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em> with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata, B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskii</em> (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002). Overall biomass of the target species (<em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>) has declined by 51% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005) and declines are thus also likely to have occurred for bycatch species. There may be some refuge for <em>B. brachyurops</em> at greater depths where fishing does not occur. However, there is also an artisanal Patagonian toothfish longline fishery operating at depths of 300 to 2,500 m between Iquique (20°S) to Ladrillero Gulf (49°S) off Chile (Lamilla 2003). This species could potentially be caught as bycatch in the fishery.
63112		conservation	eng	The Falkland/Malvinas Islands Patagonian toothfish fishery is managed through a licensing system with two longliners licensed to fish adult Patagonian toothfish around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Longlining activities and catches are monitored (FIG 2006) and a TAC of 1,500 Mt per annum has recently been set which should reduce effort by approximately 15% (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). <br/> <br/>Early in 2006 there was some successful experimenting with potting for toothfish. With this method, neither skates, nor any other elasmobranchs for that matter are caught. It is therefore likely that there will be a further reduction of fishing by longline in the long term (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). <br/> <br/>Recent changes in legislation (2006) require fishermen to cut snoods and hooks from bycatch skates to reduce mortality. The animals are not hauled aboard and released with no hook lodged in their jaw (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). This is in line with the same practice in CCAMLR regions.
63112		distribution	eng	Southwest Atlantic off Argentina and the Falkland Islands.
63112		habitat	eng	Benthic, and at times benthopelagic, on slopes and submarine rises in deepwater off Argentina and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Reported from depths of 637 m to 2,000 m (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Matures at 122 cm total length (TL) and 130 cm TL in females and males, respectively (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data) and reaches at least 150 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Like other skates, <em>B. papilionifera</em> is oviparous. Little else known of the biology of the species.
63112		population	eng	Reported to be relatively abundant (Menni and Stehmann 2000).
63112		threats	eng	This species is a regular bycatch in the Patagonian toothfish longline fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands where there are currently two licensed operators fishing at depths from 600 m but mainly below 800 m (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Based on observer data, the catches of <em>B. papilionifera</em> in the fishery appear to be stable; however the consistency of this data is fairly restricted. This is mainly due to the fact that only some experienced observers assess skate bycatch by species and catch estimates therefore have significant variance (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Furthermore, fishers are not required (and lack the expertise) to report species-specific bycatch figures. Species-specific bycatch data is required to assess the extent of this fisheries? impact on the species. <br/> <br/>The species has also been recorded in catches for the multispecies skate fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands but only very rarely (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). This is largely due to the species occurring outside the depth range of the majority of trawling activities. There may be some refuge offered to the species at depths where fishing does not extend, however if fishing pressure expands into greater depths in the future, close monitoring will be required.
63113		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30?S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, since 2005, there has been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. caught south of 41°28?S. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season. It is unknown whether this measure also protects the reproductive season of this <em>B. griseocauda</em>.
63113		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Southwest Atlantic south of 37°S on the slope and south of 41°S on the shelf off Argentina and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the range of Atlantic Antarctic convergence. The species also occurs in the Southeast Pacific off Chile south of 41°S.
63113		habitat	eng	Marine, benthic species reported from depths of 82 to 941 m in the Southwest Atlantic in bottom temperatures ranging from 3.0°C to 8.0°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000) and at depths of 137 to 595 m off Chile (J. Lamilla pers. comm. 2006). This species shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour, in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>During research trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, <em>B. griseocauda</em> were more abundant in deeper trawls (200 and 350 m) and formed only a small part of the catch in shallow trawls (150 m) (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Length frequency data for individuals captured around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands showed that all sizes of <em>B. griseocauda</em> were present, with smaller individuals found in deeper water (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Unlike some other species, there is no evidence for large spatial or temporal movements and the species may complete its entire life cycle within Falkland Island waters (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Known to be a slow growing, long-lived species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Individuals mature at around 15 years (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Size at maturity has been estimated at around 120cm TL in male specimens (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Individuals have been reported from a minimum of 13 cm (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data.) to a maximum of 157 cm (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Small individuals feed opportunistically on benthic isopods and larger specimens are predominantly piscivorous on <em>Patagonotothen ramsayi</em>. This species is considered to be an active predator (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.  <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006).
63113		population	eng	The population size is unknown. Declines have been detected around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000, Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Length frequency data around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands show <em>B. griseocauda</em> of all sizes to be present (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Unlike some other species, there is no evidence for large spatial or temporal movements and the species may complete its entire life cycle within Falkland Island waters (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63113		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja griseocauda</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 59% decline in the biomass of <em>B. griseaocauda</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised up to around 18% of <em>B. griseocauda</em> (Colonello <em>et al</em>.  2002). Species-specific bycatch data are not generally collected for this fishery, however, and remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>This species is taken in the multispecies skate trawl fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. <br/> <br/>In 1993 (the first year where observer data is available), this species was the dominant species of skate caught by finfish and ray-licensed vessels, especially in a ray ?hot spot? to the south of the Islands where it comprised around 70% of the catch (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). By 1993, however, the proportion of the catch comprising <em>B. griseocauda</em> in this south had fallen to around 5% (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). The proportion of this species in catches north of the islands also fell and <em>B. griseocauda</em> was replaced as the dominant species in the catch by <em>B. albomaculata</em> in the north and <em>B. brachyurops</em> in the south (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Total catches of the species fell from around 1,500 t to around 100 t in 1993 to 1995 in the south and from over 1,000 t to around 250 t in the northern areas between 1993 and 1997 (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/> <br/>The mean disc width of <em>B. griseocauda</em> also decreased from 52.18 cm in 1993 to 38.08 cm in 1997. Following declines in the early 1990s, the southern fishing area (south of 52°S) was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery. A recent assessment of the northern ray population indicated that the CPUE of this species continued to decline from 1992 to 2001 from almost 100 kg/hr to <50 kg/hr (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, the quality of the data was relatively poor and the data had to be grouped into discrete time periods rather than as a continuous variable. This low level of precision should be taken into consideration (D. Wakeford pers. comm. 2006).There have been no studies to determine the abundance of <em>B. griseocauda</em> in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure; however, it is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers that operate around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the closure area. Observer data has indicated that fishing occurs throughout the depth range of the species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). The smallest specimens of <em>B. griseocauda</em> are found in deeper water, beyond the normal fishing depths of the ray fleet, but present as occasional bycatch for these other fleets (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Although no studies have been conducted to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the skate fishery closure, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers. These trawlers target <em>Micromesistius australis, Macruronus magellanicus, Merluccius hubbsi, M. australis</em> and <em>Salilota australis </em>around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Brickle <em>et al. </em>2003) and within the southern rajid closure. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, however a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>This species is also taken in the directed skate fishery off Chile which primarily targets <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> but also lands other skate species. Landings comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em> and 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em> with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata, B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskii </em>(Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002). Overall biomass of the target species (<em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>) has declined by 51% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005) and declines are thus also likely to have occurred for bycatch species. <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja griseocauda</em> is also taken as bycatch in the artisanal Patagonian toothfish longline fishery which operates at depths of 300 to 2,500 m between Iquique (20°S) to Ladrillero Gulf (49°S) (Lamilla 2003).
63114		conservation	eng	The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean. This measure was adopted by all members of the GFCM and came into force in September 2005. <br/> <br/>Continued monitoring of capture and collection of this species is recommended as well as data collection on locality, size, sex, reproductive condition and depth in order to better understand population structure and trends. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
63114		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout the northeastern Atlantic from the southern Arctic to Morocco (about 80°N to 30°N latitude) including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Mediterranean. Common in the western and central Mediterranean, rare in the Eastern Mediterranean, and absent from the North and central Adriatic.
63114		habitat	eng	<em>Chimaera monstrosa</em> is a benthopelagic species that prefers upper to middle continental slope habitats at depths of 300 m to 500 m with a reported maximum depth of 1,663 m. Detailed bathymetrical distribution follows: <br/> <br/>Depth distribution according to (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984) is 50 m to 1,000 m and most abundant between 300 and 500 m. Ehrich (1983) however reports that this species is caught at depths of 173 m to 1,663 m to the west of the British Isles. Highest densities were found between 500 m and 700 m. Hareide <em>et al.</em> (1997) reports collection of this species between 630 m and 825 m from the western slope of the Porcupine Bank. No specimens were found between 825 m and 1,400 m. In the Mediterranean Sea this species is abundant in all areas, from 100 m depth, but it is most abundant between 500 m and 800 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, MEDITS Program). Sion <em>et al</em>. (2004) have also reported several specimens from Balearic Sea at depths of 650 m and from Eastern Ionian Sea at depth of 800 m. <br/> <br/>Information from Norwegian exploratory surveys to Hatton Bank (1998-2000) shows a depth distribution of 590 m to 1,230 m in temperatures between 4.7 and 8°C. Additional information on distribution by depth and area, length distributions and CPUE data can be found from Irish and Norwegian trawl and longline survey data to the west of the British Isles and Hatton Bank. Summer inshore migrations to 40-100 m have been observed in some areas. <br/> <br/>Provisional and unvalidated, age and growth characteristics determined by Calis <em>et al.</em> (2005), suggest that <em>C. monstrosa</em> is a typical "K-selected" species characterized by a slow growth rate, a long life expectancy, low fecundity, and a high age-at-maturity. In this study, the von Bertalanffy growth parameters were: L? = 78.87 (cm), K = 0.0673 per year and t<sub>0</sub> = -0.513 (yr). The maximum age estimates observed were 30 years for male and 26 years for female <em>Chimaera monstrosa</em>. However, these ages probably underestimate the true maximum age of this species, owing to the limited sample size examined. Estimated age at first maturity was 13.4 years for males and 11.2 years for females. <br/> <br/>Oviparous with an apparent spawning season in spring and summer. Nothing is known of early development. Diet consists mainly of bottom-dwelling invertebrates.
63114		population	eng	Appears to aggregate in groups and, like other species of chimaeroids, may be segregated by age and sex. Nothing is known of population structure, but this species may be represented by two or more separate subpopulations (e.g., the Mediterranean population may be separate from that found in the North Sea).
63114		threats	eng	<em>Chimaera montrosa</em> is taken in deepwater trawl fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic and is either landed as byproduct or is a component of discarded bycatch (Crozier in prep.). In a study of discards of the French bottom trawl fleet from the South Rockall Bank to the northerly slopes of the Wyville-Thomson Ridge, <em>C. montrosa</em> had the largest discard biomass of all chondrichthyans (Crozier in prep.). It constitutes 13 to 15% of the discards in deepwater trawlers operating off the West Coast of Ireland (Calis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survival rates of discards are likely low given the depths of capture, the fact that many discards are undersized individuals or are unmarketable individuals (suggesting damage). There is increasing interest in the production of dietary supplements for human consumption derived from the liver oil of this species, and a directed fishery has the potential to develop in areas of occurrence (Calis <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>In ICES Subareas VI and VII the <em>Argentina silus</em> and blue ling landings from directed fisheries increased until 2002, but then declined in 2003. Bycatch species in these areas include bluemouth (<em>Helicolenus actylopterus</em>), greater forkbeard (<em>Phycis blennoides</em>), argentine (<em>Argentina silus</em>), deepwater cardinal fish (<em>Epigonus telescopus</em>), and chimaerids, of which <em>Chimaera monstrosa</em> is the most important (ICES 2005).  <br/> <br/>Rihan <em>et al</em>. (2005) have also reported this species as a bycatch from bottom gillnets retrieved from 648 nets recovered during a gill net retrieval survey of Rockall and Porcupine Bank at depths of 400 to 1,300 m during August-September 2005. Evidence of significant quantities of lost and abandoned gear in these areas and of excessive discarding in these fisheries due to long soak times lead to serious concerns about the impact of ghost fishing. There is a need for the immediate introduction of effective management measures in these fisheries to control the quantities of gear being fished and soak time (Rihan <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic, while regulation is often lagging. Deepwater chimaeroids, like other deepsea chondrichthyans, are potentially at risk from these activities, although little species-specific information is available. Monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that North Atlantic chimaeroid species are not adversely affected. Crozier (in prep.) has shown that high catches of <em>C. montrosa</em> occur between the Rockall Bank to the Wyville-Thomson Ridge, and this likely mirrors catches elsewhere. Further information is required on deepwater fishing activities (including catch and bycatch levels, effort and trend monitoring) in the North Atlantic and the conservation status of this species should be reassessed without delay when such information is available. Both present and future fishing pressure may be shown to be unsustainable for <em>C. montrosa</em>, particularly given its preferred depth range.
63115		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research on biology is required as is monitoring of catches.
63115		distribution	eng	Known from occasional captures in the Northeast Atlantic from Mid-Atlantic ridge to northern Bay of Biscay and Rockall Trough (Forster 1967, 1968; Gordon and Duncan 1987; Clarke 2000; A. Orlov unpubl. data).
63115		habitat	eng	Known from depths 1,879 to 2,952 m (average 2,523 m). Maximum recorded size is 162 cm TL (Clarke 2000). Egg capsule dimensions are 50 cm in length including horns, 30 cm without horns, 15 to 12 cm maximum width (Stehmann and Merrett 2001). Juveniles feed on polychaete worms, amphipods, isopods and copepods (Gordon and Duncan 1989).
63115		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population details for this species.
63115		threats	eng	Potential bycatch in deepwater longline and gillnet fisheries. This species has been recorded in the Rockall Trough (Clarke 2000), where Spanish and UK longline fleets target <em>Merluccius merluccius</em> and Norwegian fleets target <em>Molva molva</em>, <em>M. dyptergia</em> and <em>Brosme brosme</em> (Gordon 2003). The lower depth limit of fisheries in this area may be 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>The range of this species is beyond current deepwater fisheries. This is a large skate which may have unproductive life-history characteristics that would make it vulnerable to fishing pressure.
63116		conservation	eng	In Chile, catches are regulated by annual total quota. Following Lamilla <em>et al</em>. (2001, 2002), in the fishing grounds between 39°15' and 41°28.6' S, quotas were set at 600 t for 2002, 500 t for 2003. Afterwards, quotas have been 425 t for 2004, 400 t for 2005 and 370 t for 2006. Since 2005, there has also been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. south of 41°28.6' S of 2,000 t for that year and 1,430 t for 2006. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect its reproductive season. <br/> <br/>Regulations and management tools utilised also need to be species-specific, due to differing life histories and abundance patterns of <em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em>. <br/> <br/>In Argentina, the assessment of direct and indirect catches is a priority.
63116		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Southwest Atlantic off Argentina. Occurrence off Uruguay and southern Brazil uncertain; previous references to the species off southern Brazil such as those summarised in Menni and Stehmann (2000) probably refer to the recently described <em>D. mennii</em> (Gomes and Paragó 2001). Also occurs in the Southeast Pacific off Chile. Lloris and Rucabado (1991) also recorded the species from the Beagle Channel (54°51' S), and Leible and Stehmann (1987) presumed that it is continuously distributed south through Patagonia in the Atlantic.
63116		habitat	eng	Distributed in deep temperate waters of the continental shelf and upper slope, between 93 m (Menni and Gosztonyi 1977) and 450 m (Leible 1984) depth, but also recorded in 20 to 22 m in the Beagle Channel (Lloris and Rucabado 1991). Inhabits sandy and muddy bottom sediments. <br/> <br/>The following life history data from Chile is drawn from Lamilla <em>et al.</em> (2001, 2002), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/>From examined longline catches off Chile, females were observed between 98.5 and 225 cm TL, and males between 82 and 235 cm TL, with 35.8% of specimens in the size class 160 to 180 cm TL. Sex ratio was 1:1. Maximum size is estimated at 250 cm TL. <br/> <br/>There are no reproductive or aging studies for this species, but ages up to 20 years for males and 21 years for females have been suggested (Gili <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, these may have been derived from a mix of two species (<em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em>) and these figures should thus be viewed with caution (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The feeding habits are mainly piscivorous (<em>Macrouronus magellanicus</em>, <em>Helicolenus lengerichi</em>, <em>Merluccius australis</em> and <em>Merluccius gayi</em>), but also crustaceans (mainly <em>Pterygosquilla armata</em>) in shallower depths. <br/> <br/>An age at maturity for the species was estimated at 12.6 years if A<sub>mat</sub> (age at maturity) is 60% of A<sub>max</sub> (maximum age) based on ages for <em>D. laevis</em> (Gedamke <em>et al.</em> 2005). Average reproductive age for <em>D. trachydermus </em>was estimated using the following calculation: (((21-12.6)/2)+12.6) = 16.8 years. <br/> <br/>No information is available on the biology of the species from Argentina.
63116		population	eng	While the species is documented south to 51°6.8' S in the Atlantic, south to 41°30' S in the Pacific, and in the Beagle Channel (54°51' S) (Lloris and Rucabado 1991), this assessment follows the presumption of Leible and Stehmann (1987) that it is continuously distributed south through Patagonia in the Atlantic and up to Central Chile in the Southeast Pacific. Thus the assessments here are treated as regional assessments and not subpopulation assessments.   <br/> <br/>There are no abundance estimates but the species is apparently not abundant in Argentinean waters.
63116		threats	eng	The vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). The three generation period for the species is 50.4 years (3 x 16.8 years), calculated with published estimated maximum age for females (Gili <em>et al</em>. 1999) and estimated female age at maturity (60% of maximum age based on ages for <em>Dipturus laevis</em> in Gedamke <em>et al</em>. (2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>This species faces both directed and bycatch fishing pressure in Chile. Since 1979 there have been industrial and artisanal landings in Chile of up to >4,000 t/year of<em> D. trachydermus</em> combined with <em>D. chilensis</em>. These two species are not separated in catch landing statistics (Roa and Ernest 1999, 2000). Between 1999 and 2000 there was an important increase in mainly artisanal landings, with a maximum landing of 4,151 t during 2000, which then dropped to 3,000 t in 2001 (SERNAPESCA 1989-2003). In Chile, overall biomass has decreased by 51% and spawning biomass has decreased by 34% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005). <br/> <br/>In the artisanal multi-species longline fishery off Central and Southern Chile (39°15?-41°28.6?S) the catch is regulated by quota for <em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em>. Since 2000, 30% of artisanal landings within this fishery (between IX and X Regions) have been monitored (Lamilla et al. 2001, 2002). Landings comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em>, 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em>, with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em>, <em>B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskyii</em> (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). Anecdotal evidence suggests that larger individuals of <em>D. trachydermus</em> were more abundant in previous years. However, research in 2002 recorded mostly immature specimens, suggesting that larger mature specimens may occur in deeper depths beyond the reach of the artisanal fishery (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>South of the above-mentioned fishing grounds, both <em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em> are taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries for southern hake (<em>Merluccius australis</em>) and in artisanal fisheries for golden kingclip (<em>Genypterus blacodes</em>). Captures were of ~2,000 t for both <em>Dipturus</em> species combined in 2002 and since 2005 there have been quotas put in place in these southern fishing grounds. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina, fishing pressure on all skate species is rising due to increasing demand on the international market. Subsequently, catches have been rising since 1994. Skates, particularly <em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>, are directly targeted by a licensed Korean longliner off Argentina. Species-specific catch data are however, unavailable. <br/> <br/>Similarly, species-specific catch data from multi-species demersal fisheries which operate within the range of <em>D. trachyderma</em> and likely take the species as bycatch are unavailable. Cedrola <em>et al</em>. (2005), however, recorded <em>D. trachydermus</em> as bycatch in the Patagonian red shrimp (<em>Pleoticus muelleri</em>) fishery. This industrial fishery has been operating since 1979, with target catches rising since 1998, and reaching a peak of 79,000 mt in 2001 (Cedrola <em>et al</em>. 2005).
63117		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006).  Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.
63117		distribution	eng	Widely distributed species within the Magellanic Province from 36°10? to 54°30?S and also in the Southeast Pacific off southern Chile (51°S).
63117		habitat	eng	Benthic species reported from 53 m to 514 m (J. Pompert pers. comm.) depth in a bottom temperature range of 3.5 to 7.3°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been estimated at 54.9 cm Total Length (TL) and 53 cm TL for females and males, respectively (Scenna 2003). Maximum size has been estimated at 77cm TL (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). The smallest known specimen was 13 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja macloviana</em> is a specialist feeder on polychaetes and a small proportion of amphipods, isopods and decapods (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).
63117		population	eng	Population size unknown.
63117		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina/Uruguay</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja macloviana</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 67% decline in the biomass of <em>B. macloviana</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The species is also landed very rarely in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50m of depth and along the 100 m isobath (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific bycatch data remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following declines in the early 1990?s, the southern area was closed to the fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area (north of 52°S). A recent assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, indicated no increasing or decreasing trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). There have been no assessments of the population south of the area since the closure however; this species may also be caught as bycatch by trawlers operating in the area.
63118		conservation	eng	None in place. Any future expansion of deepwater fisheries in the area should be closely-monitored.
63118		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern South America off Argentina and Chile. Given its slope occurrence, its available habitat and hence range is relatively restricted.
63118		habitat	eng	Occupies the outermost continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 220 to 637 m. Nothing known of the ecology or biology or the species apart from its size at birth (18 cm TL) and minimum size of male maturity (41 cm TL) (Lamilla 2003). Presumably aplacental viviparous (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
63118		population	eng	The species is recorded in the Strait of Magellan and thus appears to have a continuous distribution between the Southwest Atlantic and the Southeast Pacific, pointing to the existence of a single population between these regions.
63118		threats	eng	This species is taken in minor amounts as bycatch in small-scale artisanal deepwater longline fisheries off Valdivia, Chile, which target pink cusk-eel <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> (Lamilla 2003), in the Chilean deep sea shrimp fishery, which operates down to depths of 500 m (Acuña and Villaroel 2002), and in the orange roughy <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> industrial benthic trawl fishery on the Juan Fernandez Seamounts (33 to 34°S and 77 to 78°W) at depths of 300 to 500 m (Lamilla unpub. data). <br/> <br/>Other fisheries in the region generally operate outside the depth range of <em>E. granulosus</em>. The Patagonian red shrimp fishery fishes shallower than the species occurs (30 to 100 m: A. Pettovello pers. comm). Around the Falkland Islands, trawl fishing occurs in waters down to ~350 to 400 m, but generally less than 325 m, while longlining is restricted to depths greater than 600 m, with the majority occurring at depths greater than 800 m (J. Pompert pers. comm). The species has not been recorded as bycatch in observer programs on commercial vessels operating around the Falkland Islands (J. Pompert pers. comm).
63119		conservation	eng	Research to collect information on the biology, ecology, uses and fishery data of this species should be a priority. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
63119		distribution	eng	Widespread along lower continental slopes. In the Northeast Atlantic, this species is found from the southeastern part of the Barents Sea (Novaya Zemliya Isl.) and Spitsbergen to the Greenland-Iceland-Faroe-Shetland Ridge to northern Norway) and the Svalbard archipelago (Paz 2003) (East Greenland Shelf, Faroe Plateau, Barents Sea). In the Northwest Atlantic, it occurs in Davis Strait between southwestern Greenland and Canada. Recently a small number of records were reported as far south as the Grand Banks in Canadian waters. However, some of these records may be confused with <em>A. jenseni</em>. Also reported from the Davis Strait (D. Kulka pers. comm). In the Southeast Atlantic, it is found along the southern tip of South Africa. In the Eastern Indian Ocean, it is found off southern Australia. In the Southwest Pacific it occurs in New Zealand and in the Eastern Pacific it is found in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.
63119		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep water (260 to 2,500 m). In Canadian waters, average depth observed was 1,200 m (rarely greater than 900 m) where the deepest survey sets occurred only as deep as 1,550 m. Oviparous, depositing eggs (81 to 125 mm long and 50 to 80 mm wide) on the bottom. Length on hatching is 16 to 18 (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953).  Maximum size is reported as 106 cm (Last and Stevens 1994), although the maximum recorded size off Canada is smaller (63 cm TL: D. Kulka pers. obs). <br/> <br/>In Norwegian waters the highest frequency of catches observed was at depths between 1,050 to 1,250 m. In the deepest areas sampled 2,000 to 2,050 m no catches were made, suggesting a lower limit to its depth range (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001). This species appears to live almost exclusively at temperatures below 4ºC (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). There, they were associated with bottom temperatures of about 3.5°C (D. Kulka pers. comm). In the Barents Sea Arctic skate prefers bottom temperatures about 0°C (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005a). They are benthic feeders with a diet consisting primarily of teleost fish, but also including a variety of benthic invertebrates.
63119		population	eng	Bottom trawl surveys in the Barents Sea from October to December 1998-2001 reported annual mean catches of this species of 0.1 to 1.0 fish per hour, and maximum catch of 83 fish per hour (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005a).  It was caught commonly during research cruises conducted on the slope of the eastern Norwegian Sea from 1984 to 1987 and in 1995 (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001). In the Spanish bottom trawl survey carried out on the Svalbard archipelago in 2003 at a depth range of 500 to 1,464 m <em>A. hyperborea</em> is recorded as one of the main species (Paz 2003).
63119		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries. <br/>   <br/>In the Barents Sea it is taken in trawl fisheries targeting Cod and Haddock at depths <300 m and Redfish and Greenland Halibut at depths >300 m, and longline fisheries targeting mainly Blue Catfish (<em>Anarhichas denticulatus</em>) and cod at depths <300 m and Greenland Halibut at depths >300 m (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005b). These long-lines fisheries operate at depths from 130 to 847 m. Average bycatch rates in the longline fishery were 10 to 25 fish (or 35 to 75 kg) per 1,000 hooks, and this species was estimated to constitute approximately 20% of total long-line catches (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005b). However, it should be noted that the uncertainty of the estimates from this method is high (approximately ±45%).   <br/> <br/>Preliminary estimates indicate that total annual skate by-catch in these fisheries is 723 to 1,891 tons, and thorny skate composes the great majority of catches (90 to 95% of the total skate catch). Skate catches are mainly discarded in the Barents Sea, although in 2000, about 200 tons of thorny and arctic skate was landed (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005b) and future trends should be monitored.   <br/> <br/>This is a deepwater species (260 to 2,500 m) that is distributed largely outside of the depth range of current fisheries, offering it refuge. Given the wide depth range this species is currently considered Least Concern. However, continued monitoring of catches and expanding fisheries should be a priority. <br/> <br/>Also reported by fisheries observers have recorded them as an occasional bycatch in the Greenland halibut and shrimp fisheries in the Davis Strait (D. Kulka pers. comm).
63120		conservation	eng	The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. <br/> <br/>Further research and monitoring of the population where it is fished is required to prevent declines in the future.
63120		distribution	eng	The species can probably be considered endemic in the Mediterranean sea (Serena 2005).
63120		habitat	eng	<em>R. asterias</em> is found predominantly on the Italian and Corsica continental shelves between shallow waters and 150 m depth (Baino and Serena 2000). In the eastern Ionian sea, the species is found down to depths of 343 m (Mytilineou <em>et al</em>. 2005). Prefers muddy and sandy bottoms, characterised by <em>Crangon crangon</em>, <em>Goneplax rhomboides</em> and <em>Liocarcinus</em> spp. (Vannucci 2005). <br/> <br/>Juvenile <em>R. asterias</em> move quickly into shallow waters (5 to 7 m depth) soon after birth and then move into deeper waters progressively with growth. Tag and release studies (Catalano <em>et al</em>. 2003) suggest that hatching probably occurs close to the bottom, at about 30 to 40 m depth. The sex-ratio confirms equal presence of both sexes. <br/> <br/>Maximum size is estimated at 72 cm TL for males and of 76 cm TL for females (Bono <em>et al</em>. 2005, Serena and Abella 1999). The growth parameter data obtained using the Von Bertalanffy model were L? = 67.45, K = 0.454, t<sub>0</sub> = -0.23 (Bono <em>et al</em>. 2005). Barone <em>et al</em>. (in press.) and Serena <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimate length at maturity at 51.7 cm TL for males and 56.1 cm TL for females, and Serena and Abella (1999) and Bauchot (1987) reported length at maturity at 45 to 54 cm for males and 60 cm for females. Age at maturity is reported at 3 to 4 years for both males and females (Serena and Abella 1999, Bono <em>et al</em>. 2005). Oviparous, the number of egg cases layed (34 to 112) depends on individual size, and egg cases can reach 45 mm in length and 30 mm width (Bauchot 1987). Juveniles are about 8 cm TL when they emerge from the egg cases in January. The sex ratio is about equal (Minervini <em>et al</em>. 1985, Abella <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Recent preliminary tagging experiments (Catalano <em>et al</em>. 2003) suggest a faster growth rate than described in previous literature (Serena and Abella 1999). As this species reaches maturity relatively early (~3 years) and has a short lifespan (~10 years) it is considered to be relatively productive, even though it is only moderately fecund.  Therefore it is likely to be resilient to fishing pressure.  <br/> <br/>Feeds almost exclusively on benthic species, including decapods crustaceans and teleost fishes of the Gobidi family (<em>Gobidae</em> sp., <em>Leserigobius</em> sp., <em>Leserigobius fresii</em>, <em>Gobius niger</em>), Clupeiformes (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus</em> and other species) and Pleuronectiformes (<em>Citharus linguattola</em>, <em>Arnoglossus laterna</em> and others), but occasionally on pelagic species such as the anchovy <em>Engraulis encrasicolus</em>. Juveniles feed mainly on amphipods, and teleost fish become more important in the diet with growth (Cuoco <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Average reproductive age, the annual rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.
63120		population	eng	This species was captured in both the GRUND (Italian waters) and MEDITS (Mediterranean basin) trawl surveys (Relini 1998, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 1997), which began in 1985 and 1994 respectively. In the south Ligurian and north Tyrrhenian sea this species was captured over muddy bottoms, in restricted coastal areas from 9 to 190 m depth, but mainly concentrated at 100 to 150 m depth. From 1999 to 2004 the Biomass Index is lower than the Density Iindex, which probably indicates a change in the population structure with a predominance of smaller specimens (Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species has a higher relative abundance on the Italian and Corsica continental shelves (Baino and Serena 2000, Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005). Nursery areas are located very close to the coast (at 2 to 15 m depth) (Abella and Serena 2005).
63120		threats	eng	Starry rays are mainly caught by bottom trawl nets and trammel and gill nets. Near the Corsican coast, in particular, fishing pressure is low because only a few Corsican trawlers, as well as a few Italian vessels, operate in this area (Abella and Serena 2002). A reduced number of trawlers belonging to the La Spezia fleet operate on the same grounds northwards to Viareggio harbour (the most important fishing port of the Northern Tyrrhenian- south Ligurian Sea). The Livorno fleet operating in the same area is also relatively small. Trawlers concentrate their effort mainly on the grounds at depths between 100 and 400 m and therefore there is a little overlap with areas in which the Viareggio fleet operate. <br/> <br/>Off Tuscany (Viareggio, Italy) this species is mainly landed as by-catch of beam trawlers, targeting common sole and turbots.  It is the most common species caught by a variant of the beam trawl called a <em>rapido</em>, however very few of these operate in this area (Abella and Serena 2002). Most small individuals of <em>R. asterias</em> caught near shore with trammel and gill nets by these artisanal fisheries are landed. However the ban on trawling within three miles of the coast in this area of the Mediterranean affords protection to this species'  shallow nursery areas (2 to 15 m) (Abella and Serena 2002). Moreover, a general reduction in fishing effort on the grounds traditionally exploited by the Viareggio fleet occurred during the last 15 years because the number of vessels in operation reduced from 107 in 1985, to 78 in 2000 (Abella and Serena 2002). <br/> <br/>Current levels of catch appear to be sustainable among studied stocks (Abella and Serena 2002), however it should be noted that data are lacking throughout the rest of this species'  range in the Mediterranean. Further study is needed to accurately assess the status of populations in the rest of its range. <br/> <br/>Little information is available on the probability of survival of discarded juveniles. Preliminary experiments performed with individuals caught and successively put into pools of marine water have demonstrated high rates of survival for released individuals of <em>R. asterias</em> caught with bottom trawl nets (Catalano <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/> <br/>Although <em>R. asterias</em> is one of the more exploited species in the Ligurian sea, it is apparently relatively resilient to fishing pressure as a result of its life history characteristics. It is relatively productive due to its early age of first maturity (about three years) and relatively short lifespan (about 10 years), even if it is only moderately fecund (Abella and Serena 2002).
63121		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need to assess the impacts of fishing on this poorly known species. In Argentina, skate landings are managed by a quota system, but this is not species-specific.
63121		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic off Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina.
63121		habitat	eng	Inhabits the continental shelf at depths of 30 to 60 m (McEachran 1983, Menni and Stehmann 2000). Off southern Brazil, found at depths of 30 to 70 m on sandy-muddy bottoms (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Like other skates it is oviparous, but this is a poorly known species with little information available on biology and ecology. <em>P. lentiginosa</em> reaches a maximum size of 43.5 cm total length (TL) and the smallest known individual measured 11.9 cm TL, giving an approximation for size at birth (McEachran 1983).
63121		population	eng	Unknown.
63121		threats	eng	There is no specific information available on catches of this species, however, increasing international demand for skates has resulted in growing fishing pressure on skate species along the coastal and shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay. Skates are taken and landed by multispecies coastal bottom trawlers and by a target skate fishery. Other fisheries, such as those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries also take skate as bycatch. There are no data on specific catches as all species of batoids are registered in fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t in Argentina, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There has been a 31% reduction in overall coastal skate biomass estimates from 1994 (when active exploitation commenced) to 1999/2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). Considerable declines in the biomass of other coastal and shelf skate species have been documented off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) (i.e., <em>Atlantoraja cyclophora</em> and <em>Sympterygia acuta</em>) (Massa and Hozbor 2004, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2006), an area where trawl fishing is intensive. <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense where the species occurs off southern Brazil. While species-specific information for <em>P. lentiginosa</em> is not available, demersal trawlers in that region land skates as part of multispecies fisheries. <br/> <br/><em>Psammobatis</em> spp. may be less susceptible to population depletion than other skates, given their small size (implying lower age at maturity and faster growth rates), however, both the increase in fishing pressure across much of the range of <em>P. lentinginosa</em>, and habitat disturbance and degradation (including possible damage to reproductive habitat) due to trawling activities could be placing unsustainable pressure on the species. <br/> <br/>Where the species is discarded, survival rates are unknown, however Mabragaña and Cousseau (2004) note that for <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. (referring specifically to <em>P. normani</em> and <em>P. rudis</em>) they are often dead when discarded at sea.
63122		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al.</em> (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species.  <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds.  <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species.
63122		distribution	eng	Off Argentina from 37°S including the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and the Burdwood Bank, mainly on the shelf edge and slope (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Has also been recorded once off Chile (Bigelow and Schroeder 1965).
63122		habitat	eng	Medium-sized benthic species distributed in deep temperate waters of the continental shelf and slope. Reported at depths from 51 to 642 m in bottom temperatures ranging from 2.5°C to 6.8°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000), and off Punta Arenas, Chile at 185 m depth. Size at birth has been estimated from 9cm TL and the species has been reported to reach a maximum size of 69 cm TL (FIFD unpubl. data).
63122		population	eng	Rather common species in Magellanic waters (Menni and Stehmann 2000).
63122		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/> <br/><em>Amblyraja doellojuradoi</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are no species-specific estimates of bycatch for these trawl fisheries and the quantity of <em>A. doellojuradoi</em> taken is unknown.  <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100m isobath (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002). The processed catch composition varied between trips and usually comprised only a few percent of <em>A. doellojuradoi</em> but one haul was comprised around 8% by the species (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific data on the discarded portion of the catch was not collected and remains a priority for this and the trawl fisheries.   <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. <br/> <br/>Observer data for the species showed no significant trends in abundance between 1993 and 1997 (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Mean disc width gradually decreased from 1993 to 1997 although the data were often sparse (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). A more recent assessment of the northern ray population, based on observer data, has indicated that the CPUE of <em>A. doellojuradoi</em> has increased from 1992 to 2001 (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>Amblyraja doellojuradoi </em>comprised 2.4% of the catch from the northern area of the fishery between 1993 and 2002 (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions below), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al. </em>2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering.  <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed, therefore rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure.
63123		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are known to be in place. Study of population size, and age and growth of this species is recommended prior to initiating any target fishery as this may be a slow-growing species that would be highly threatened by overfishing. Management and monitoring of captures of this species should be a priority.
63123		distribution	eng	Primarily occurring in the central and eastern north Atlantic, but also captured in the western Atlantic. Probably widespread throughout the northern Atlantic with greatest abundance at depths greater than 1,000 m.
63123		habitat	eng	Occurs on deepwater slopes, seamounts, and seaplains of the north Atlantic at depths of 300 to 2,410 m, generally occurring in waters near or below 1,000 m (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Krefft 1990). Size range 32 to 147 cm total length (TL); 14 to 96 cm body length (BDL). <br/> <br/>Nothing is known of biology and ecology of this species. Diet probably consists of a variety of bottom dwelling invertebrates and other fish. Oviparous but nothing is known of reproduction, spawning or growth. It is likely that this is a slow-growing species with low fecundity.
63123		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Almost all captures are large adults or subadult juveniles at or >100 cm TL. Very few small juveniles have ever been collected indicating that juveniles and adults may aggregate separately and occupy different habitats. <br/> <br/><em>H. affinis</em> is only rarely encountered in Canadian waters, in 70 of about 42,000 survey sets most of which occurred at >1,000 m (87% of captures were at >1,000 m) (D. Kulka pers comm).
63123		threats	eng	Not commonly captured except when collected in deepwater research trawls and possibly as a bycatch in some deep water trawls. Not known to be targeted at present and it is not considered a likely future target due to its low abundance. Could face a potential threat in the future if emerging deep water commercial trawl fisheries capture this large species in large numbers, however <em>H. affinis</em> is considered to occur deeper than the main fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic, offering a deep refuge from fishing pressure. As this species is thought to be slow growing with low fecundity, monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that this species is not adversely affected. <br/> <br/>Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area (ICES VIb and XII) at depths between 600 to 2,000 m (Kjerstad <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, the lower depth limit of fisheries in this region may be about 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm.). About 10-20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm). <br/> <br/>This species' wide depth distribution and they are more commonly caught at depths greater than 1,000 m offer refuge from fishing pressure. Not commonly captured except when collected in deepwater research trawls and possibly as a bycatch in some deep water trawls. Could face a potential threat in the future if emerging deep water commercial trawl fisheries capture this large species in large numbers as a target or bycatch fisher.
63124		conservation	eng	A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area and range of <em>D. mennii</em> (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2002, Perez pers. comm). The conservation status of this species will rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels should provide accurate monitoring of trends in the future. <br/> <br/>The restriction of the southern Brazilian deepwater longline fishery to depths of >600 m places it outside the known bathymetric distribution of <em>D. mennii</em>.
63124		distribution	eng	Dipturus mennii is endemic to southern Brazil, between the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro. These states are bounded by latitudes ~22°S to ~34°S. As such, the species is restricted to ~12° of latitude, and given its occurrence on the outer shelf and upper slope, it is restricted to a relatively narrow band of available habitat. Previous references to <em>D. trachydermus</em> off southern Brazil such as those summarised in Menni and Stehmann (2000) probably refer to <em>D. mennii</em> (Gomes and Paragó 2001). Following then, it is likely that references to <em>D. trachydermus</em> in the Brazilian monkfish fishery by Perez and Wahrlich (2005) also refer to <em>D. mennii</em>.
63124		habitat	eng	<em>Dipturus mennii</em> has been found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 133 to 500 m, but is primarily distributed on the upper continental slope. Nothing is known of its ecology and reproductive biology, except that it is oviparous like other skates. Given its large size (maximum ~160 cm total length (TL), 120 cm disk width (DW)) it is likely to exhibit life history characteristics of large chondrichthyans (including large skates) such as slow growth, late size and age at maturity, low fecundity and long lifespan. Ebert (2005) showed that some skates may be restricted to a very small number of spawning seasons, as low as one. The acquisition of such biological data for <em>D. mennii</em> is required. <em>Dipturus mennii</em> has been found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 133 to 500 m, but is primarily distributed on the upper continental slope. Nothing is known of its ecology and reproductive biology, except that it is oviparous like other skates. Given its large size, it is likely to exhibit life history characteristics of large chondrichthyans (including large skates) such as slow growth, late size and age at maturity, low fecundity and long lifespan. Ebert (2005) showed that some skates may be restricted to a very small number of spawning seasons, as low as one. The acquisition of such biological data for <em>D. mennii</em> is required.
63124		population	eng	Nothing known about population structure.
63124		threats	eng	Demand for skates is increasing on the international market, with recent increased exploitation in the southwest Atlantic, resulting in the retention and marketing of skates taken as non-target bycatch in Brazilian deepwater fisheries (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003, Perez and Wahrlich 2005). In addition, the vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). <br/> <br/>In 1998 the Brazilian government initiated a deep-sea fishing program in order to remove some pressure from the shelf environment and explore unexploited resources on the slope (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Fishing activities employing chartered foreign vessels began in 2000 using demersal gear, specifically longlines, otter trawls, gillnets and pots at depths of <200 to 900 m. Longlining was later (2001) restricted to depths >600 m (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003) and as such is outside the depth of <em>D. mennii</em>. The gillnet fishery for monkfish Lophius gastrophysus which was developed as part of this deepwater fishing program, operated over the entire geographical and bathymetrical distribution of <em>Dipturus mennii</em>. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) surveyed bycatch in this fishery between 22°44´S and 34°21´S and at depths of 132-607 m, recording <em>D. mennii</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em> (see note in Geographic Range section) as the abundant elasmobranch bycatch species. Skates are also taken and retained in the deepwater trawl fishery which operates in the same region (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Perez <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported trawlers operating down to depths of 460 m. Foreign vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and a management plan implemented for the fishery (see Conservation Actions section below). These management arrangements should greatly reduce the level of impact on the species, but it will continue to be taken as bycatch.
63125		conservation	eng	Deepwater fisheries need to be monitored and managed. Information on the life-history parameters is needed.
63125		distribution	eng	Only four specimens have been caught so far from inner and outer slopes of Rockall Trough west of Scotland and Ireland at 1,000 to 1,500 m depth, and off Southwest Iceland at 1,100 m (Stehmann 1977, 1993). Probably wider range into Bay of Biscay and to Mid-Atlantic-Ridge (M. Stehmann pers. obs.) although recent expeditions to the mid-Atlantic ridge did not reveal the presence of this species (A. Orlov pers. obs.). The species probably has a wider range to the Bay of Biscay and the mid-Atlantic-Ridge (M. Stehmann pers. obs.), although recent expeditions to the mid-Atlantic ridge failed to record it (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2006).
63125		habitat	eng	Benthic at 1,000 to 1,500 m depth on deep continental slopes and submarine rises. <em>M. kreffti</em> is only known from four individuals. <em>M. kreffti</em> is only known from four individuals so limited information is available about life history parameters. The only female currently known measured 48.8 cm total length (TL) and was thought to be probably mature (Stehmann 1993) and the smallest mature male measured 51.5 cm TL (Stehmann 1977). The largest known individual of the species measured 57 cm TL (Stehmann 1993), although the species probably grows to about 70 cm TL (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). No further data on the species'  ecology and biology are currently available.
63125		population	eng	Very rare deep-water species. No data on population size are available.
63125		threats	eng	Caught occasionally as by-catch in deep-water fisheries only but locally and seasonally.  Very occasionally landed in France by deep-water trawlers from Rockall Trough area (M.H. DuBuit pers. comm.), but considered to exist mainly outside the range of current fisheries (all records >1,000 m). Caught occasionally as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. Potential threat if there is deeper water trawling in the future, but it is not considered threatened by current activities.
63126		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are underway at present. It is recommended that there is further investigation of the life history characteristics of <em>M. spinacidermis</em> (some work on this species off Canada has commenced) and further catch composition data is required for the species. Estimates of bycatches off Canada (Observer Program) indicate small numbers of removals (D. Kulka pers. obs).
63126		distribution	eng	A rare deepwater skate that has an amphitemperate distribution on the North Atlantic slope from the Georges Bank, Grand Banks, Labrador Shelf to the Iceland-Faroes Ridge and off north-central Namibia and Cape Town, South Africa. Occurs in southern African waters off Port Nolloth, south-west of Lambert's Bay, north-west of Cape Town, and south-west of Cape Point at 800 m and deeper (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).
63126		habitat	eng	<em>M. spinacidermis</em> is a poorly known species found on the continental slope at depths of over 800 m to 1,550 m. Twenty two records off Canada indicated a depth range of 450 to 1,550 m (max depth fished) and a narrow range of temperatures, 3 to 4.5°C (D. Kulka pers. obs). Occurs at 100 to 1,350 m (max depth fished) off north-central Namibia and Cape Town, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). <br/> <br/>Size at maturity for males is currently unknown, although a fully mature female found off the coast of Canada measured 52 cm total length (TL) (D. Kulka pers. obs.). <em>M. spinacidermis</em> attains a maximum size of 64 cm TL, with a disk width (DW) of 45 cm (Hulley 1986). Size at birth is unknown, although the smallest known specimen, recorded off the coast of Canada, measured 10 cm TL (D. Kulka pers. obs).
63126		population	eng	A widely distributed species, but apparently not common.
63126		threats	eng	Most records occur at >800 m suggesting that this species occurs primarily deeper than is normally surveyed or fished.  Potential threat if there is deeper water trawling in the future, but it is not considered threatened by current activity. <br/> <br/>In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. obs). Deepwater fishing effort has diminished considerably compared to the 1960s-1980s in the Northwest Atlantic, and presently about 10 to 20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. obs). Estimates of bycatches off Canada (Observer Program) indicate small numbers of removals (D. Kulka pers. obs).
63127		conservation	eng	No regulations exist for this species. To prevent this species from moving out of the Least Concern category deepwater fisheries operating close to its range should be monitored.
63127		distribution	eng	Likely cosmopolitan. In the northwest Atlantic, records of this species occur from the southern Labrador Shelf, Canada to the mid-Atlantic Bight. The first northwest Atlantic records, taken on survey longlines between 1965 and 1967, comprised 18 mature specimens taken at depths between 1,370 and 2,360 m (Scott and Scott 1988). These constituted the only northwest Atlantic records until 2003 when a mature male and a mature female were collected from the slope fishery north of the Grand Banks (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). In the northeast Atlantic, it has been recorded from the northwestern Bay of Biscay to northern Ireland (Stehmann and Merrett 2001). Recently this skate was found off the Azores and in the Mid-Atlantic ridge area (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2006). In the southwest Pacific, there is only a single record known (holotype) off New Zealand (Garrick 1961).
63127		habitat	eng	This marine species is bathydemersal, with records in deep water (1,219 to 2,992 m) on continental slopes, submarine rises and deepsea plains (Ayling and Cox 1982) with a diet consisting primarily of teleost fishes and crustaceans (Templeman 1973). <br/> <br/><em>B. richardsoni </em>reaches a maximum size of 174 cm total length (TL) (Tempelman 1973) and size at birth is 18.2 to 24.5 cm TL. The species is oviparous with egg capsules having a length measurement of 34 to 45.2 cm (including egg horns) or 20 to 20.8 cm (excluding egg horns), and a maximum width of 11.2 to 12 cm (Stehmann and Merrett 2001).
63127		population	eng	Population size and parameters are unknown.
63127		threats	eng	The main human threat to this species is deepwater fisheries. However, much of the range of this species occurs well beyond most deepwater fisheries. <br/> <br/>Potentially a bycatch in deepwater longline and gillnet fisheries in areas of the North Atlantic, where deepwater fishing activities have increased since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm). About 10 to 20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm). However this species is rarely captured, and the majority of its range is considered outside the range of fishing pressure. <br/> <br/>This species' wide depth distribution, relatively wide geographic range and that they are rarely caught at depths less than 800 m (D. Kulka pers. comm.) may offer refuge from fishing pressure. Deepwater fisheries should be monitored and managed.
63128		conservation	eng	A Peruvian legal regulation was put into force in 2001, establishing minimum catch sizes of 60 cm TL for <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em>, <em>Mustelus mento</em> and <em>Triakis maculata</em>. These species are the main commercial sharks caught off Peru. Improved awareness and education regarding these regulations is lacking and are a priority, as is adequate enforcement.
63128		distribution	eng	<em>Mustelus mento</em> is found in the Southeast Pacific from the Isla Lobos de Tierra (Peru) south to the austral tip of Chile, and the Galapagos and Juan Fernández Islands (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001, Compagno in prep).
63128		habitat	eng	This temperate demersal shark is found on the continental and insular shelves at depths of 16 to 50 m. Ovoviviparous, with seven young per litter (Compagno in prep). In Talcahuano (Chile) number of young is also seven per litter (J. Lamilla unpub. data). <br/> <br/>Maximum recorded size 130 cm TL. Males maturing at 65 to 76 cm TL, females maturing at 86 to 90 cm TL. Size at birth about 30 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
63128		population	eng	Unknown.
63128		threats	eng	In Peru, this species is grouped with <em>M. whitneyi</em> and probably also with <em>Triakis maculata</em> under the name of ?tollo''. However, the abundance of <em>M. mento</em> increases towards the south and Peruvian catches of this species are probably small. <br/> <br/>In Chile, highest catches of tollo are taken in the south (Region X) mainly by artisanal gill net fisheries (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2005a, 2005b; J. Lamilla unpub. data). Chilean catch statistics for tollo, reported to FAO as ?smoothhound nei?, are probably mainly <em>M. mento</em>, but may include smaller amounts of <em>M. whitneyi</em> and even Triakis maculata in the north. Tollo landings in Chile peaked at about 1,300 t in 1989 and have since declined steadily to 200 t or less since 1995. Effort in the tollo gillnet fishery may have increased during the late 1980s because of transfer of effort from the hake fishery, and declined during the early 1990s as effort shifted to the ray fishery (E. Acuña pers. comm. 2006). Therefore fluctuations in tollo landings are largely explained by variation in fishing effort, and landings do not provide a good index of population size.
63129		conservation	eng	In order to guarantee chondrichthyan resources in the long term, a Peruvian legal regulation was put into force in 2001, establishing minimum catch sizes of 60 cm TL for <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em>, <em>Mustelus mento</em> and <em>Triakis maculata</em>. These species are the main commercial sharks caught off Peru. Improved awareness and education regarding these regulations is lacking and this is now a priority, as is adequate enforcement. <br/> <br/>The lack of accurate species-specific information on this species not only in Peru, but elsewhere in its range reinforces the need for further research with a focus on <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em> and other tollo species.
63129		distribution	eng	<em>Mustelus whitneyi</em> is found in the Southeast Pacific from Peru to southern Chile (39°52' S). Chirichigno and Cornejo (2001) also report the species from Costa Rica, but this is probably erroneous.
63129		habitat	eng	An offshore bottom-dwelling shark found on the continental shelf. Recorded in depths of 16 to 211 m, but is more common at 70 to 100 m. Prefers rocky bottom around islands. Feeds on crabs, mantis shrimp, and small bony fishes. Viviparous, with 5 to 10 young per litter and a size at birth of 25 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep). Size at maturity is 74 to 87 cm TL for females and the smallest adult male recorded measured 68 cm TL (Compagno in prep). <em>M. whitneyi</em> reaches at least 87 cm TL (Compagno in prep.), with a recorded maximum size of 95 cm TL (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).
63129		population	eng	Unknown.
63129		threats	eng	In Peru this species is probably grouped with <em>M. mento</em> and maybe <em>Triakis maculata</em> under the local name ?tollo''. The Peruvian tollo fishery probably consists mainly of <em>M. whitneyi</em>. The abundance of <em>M. whitneyi</em> decreases towards the south, and consequently the Chilean tollo fishery probably catches mainly <em>M. mento</em>, which has a more southern distribution. Thus the Peruvian fishery constitutes the main threat to <em>M. whitneyi</em>. <br/> <br/>In Peru, landings of tollo were high for a 24-year period between 1966 and 1989, averaging 11,276 t per year and reaching a peak of 25,000 t in 1984 (FAO 2006). From 1990 to 2004, there was a substantial drop in landings to an average of 4,806 t. The sharp decline in 1990 between two periods of relative stability is not a typical response to overfishing, indicating that landings may not be a good index of abundance. However, it is thought that the population did decline by an unknown extent during the 1990s, leading to a shift of fishing effort away from tollo. Furthermore, the implementation of a new minimum size regulation in 2001 may have also reduced catches. The effects of the new regulations are not yet known. <br/> <br/>The Peruvian tollo fishery has shown remarkable productivity over a period of more than 30 years, but is probably now somewhat depleted.
63130		conservation	eng	In order to guarantee chondrichthyan resources in the long term, a Peruvian legal regulation was put into force in 2001, establishing minimum catch sizes of 160 cm TL for <em>Prionace glauca</em>, 170 cm TL for <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>, 150 cm TL for <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp., and 60 cm TL for <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em>, <em>Mustelus mento</em> and <em>Triakis maculata</em>. These species are the main commercial sharks caught off Peru. Improved awareness and education regarding these regulations is lacking and are a priority, as is adequate enforcement. <br/> <br/>The lack of accurate species-specific information on this species not only in Peru, but elsewhere in its range reinforces the need for further research with a focus on <em>Triakis maculata</em> and other tollo species.
63130		distribution	eng	<em>Triakis maculata </em>is found in the Southeast Pacific from Peru, northern Chile and the Galapagos Islands. Mexican records for this species are erroneous (Compagno in prep).
63130		habitat	eng	A temperate inshore species found on the continental shelf. Very little known of its biology but it is probably ovoviviparous (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/><em>Triakis maculata </em>reaches a maximum size of 180 to 240 cm total length (TL), although a confirmed size at maturity is unknown (Compagno in prep). The size at birth for this species is 30 to 40 cm TL and one female was found to have a litter of 14 pups (Compagno in prep).
63130		population	eng	Possibly uncommon (Compagno in prep).
63130		threats	eng	Taken in fisheries off Peru and possibly also off northern Chile. Species-specific catch information is lacking. <em>Triakis maculata</em> is taken in artisanal gill nets, and to a lesser extent in trawls, along with <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em> and <em>M. mento</em>. These three species are collectively known as ?tollo?, which in the geographic range of <em>T. maculata</em> (Peru and northern Chile), consists mainly of <em>M. whitneyi</em>. Tollo has been heavily fished off Peru for over 30 years, but Chilean fisheries have been less intensive. The Peruvian fishery has now shifted away from tollo due to declines of the main species (<em>M. whitneyi</em>) and at present few are captured. The three species are now also subject to minimum size restrictions, however these size limits are low compared with size at sexual maturity and awareness of these regulations is limited, as is enforcement. Populations trends are unknown for <em>T. maculata</em>, and its contribution to tollo landings is unknown; however this is probably the least common of the three species in this mix. <em>Triakis maculata</em> is large and desirable as food. Its naturally low abundance and ongoing fishing pressure, albeit at a lower level than previously, may be causing continuing declines in its abundance. This species should be closely monitored and given high research priority to determine the current status of its population.
63131		conservation	eng	There are no species specific measures currently in place. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>The Mediterranean Action Plan for the conservation of chondrichthyan fishes recognises the urgent need to assess the status of <em>Rhinobatos</em> species, as a species that may be at high risk of threat in the region (Anonymous 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong> <br/><em>Mauritania</em> <br/>This species is protected as part of a ban on directly targeted elasmobranch fishing in the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, which was implemented in December 2003. In this national park, management measures specific to <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> were also introduced (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006). The fishery was closed from February to September, to avoid the parturition period and therefore the capture of pregnant females. After negotiations with local fishermen, gear restrictions were introduced (to stop fishing with bottom gillnets of 1 to 2 m height and 11 to 16 cm (one side) square mesh). <br/> <br/><em>Sierra Leone</em> <br/>There are no species specific regulations for the management of shark and shark fisheries in the Sierra Leone. However, a licensing system for artisanal fishing canoes, both foreign and Sierra Leone owned is payable to the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources and the Local Government Administration (Seisay 2005). A National Action Plan for the conservation and management of sharks is being proposed. Highlights of the recommended management measures include: area and seasonal closure to shark fisheries; effort limitation of shark fishery; return of immature and/or juvenile shark and ray species. <br/> <br/><em>Guinea-Bissau</em> <br/>There are marine protected areas inside the Bijagos archipelago (the Formosa Islands UROK marine reserve), the PNO marine reserve (Orango Islands) and the PNMJVO marine reserve (Joao Vieira and Poilao Islands). Within these areas, trawling and the use of nets is forbidden, the only gear type allowed is fishing with longlines. Furthermore, fishing is only allowed for subsistence purposes, commercial fishing is disallowed (Bucal 2006). <br/> <br/>Recommended measures: <br/><em>Mediterranean</em> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Fishing effort within the region should be monitored and species specific landings should be recorded. Further study on the range of the species and the use of specific critical coastal habitats, in particular reference to the negative impact of trawling.  <br/> <br/><em>East Atlantic</em> <br/>A seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species (A. Mendy pers. comm. 2006). Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure on this species.
63131		distribution	eng	<strong>Global</strong>: the common guitarfish distribution extends between 44°N to 17°S, 19°W to 36°E from the southern Bay of Biscay southwards to Angola (including the Mediterranean), this guitarfish appears to prefer warmer waters (Fredj and Maurin 1987).  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: occurs throughout the Mediterranean coasts, but appears more prevalent in the southern and eastern regions (Capapé 1989, Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984), in particular around the Gulf of Gabes, on the East coast of Tunisia (Quignard and Capapé 1971).  <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong>: Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau southwards possibly to Namibia.
63131		habitat	eng	The common guitarfish is a bottom dwelling species with an aplacental viviparous mode of reproduction mode (the maternal adult gives birth to live young which do not have a yolk sac placenta). It can be found over sandy, muddy, shell and occasionally macro-algal covered substrates (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, De Buen 1935). It inhabits shallow waters in the intertidal zone to waters of up to 180 m in depth. This guitarfish tends to swim slowly along the sea bottom or partially buries itself under the substrate, feeding upon benthic invertebrates and fish (Patokina and Litvinov 2005). Scientific trawl surveys in Moroccan waters recorded the depth range of the common guitarfish as 17 to 80 m in depth (M. Hicham and A. Mouni pers. comm. 2006). Bottom trawl surveys carried out off the coast of Sierra Leone indicate that this is a sublittoral species which occurs between 10 and 100 m in depth. It was only found in waters deeper than 50 m during the summer and autumnal months and during the winter-spring seasons this guitarfish moves northwards (Litvinov 1993). <br/> <br/>Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported the maximum size of the common guitarfish as approximately 100 cm in total length (TL). However, within the Southern Mediterranean (the Gabés Gulf), the maximum reported sizes were slightly larger with 140 cm TL for males and 162 cm TL for females (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1996). Males reach maturity at 75 cm in TL, females at 85 cm TL. The age at maturity is not known for either sex, nor the longevity of this species. The females have between one and two litters per year, with the gestation period spanning four months. Between 4 and 6 pups are produced per litter, measuring 30 cm at birth. <br/> <br/>There is no information available on the natural rate of mortality that this species population experiences, or any further details on its population and reproductive biology.
63131		population	eng	Due to widespread and unregulated fishing throughout the range the population is expected to be declining. <br/> <br/>Little is known of the population sizes of the common guitarfish. However, there has been a marked decline in the abundance of this guitarfish in the Northern regions of the Mediterranean, based on a combination of fisherman' s knowledge and data from the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS). These experimental trawl surveys carried out in the North of the Mediterranean (from the Alboran to the Aegean Sea) between 1994 and 1999 failed to catch any common guitarfish, indicating that they have disappeared from this area (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, Relini and Piccinetti (1991) reported the common guitarfish species extinct within the northern regions of the Mediterranean. Observations from the 1970s and 1980s indicate that the common guitarfish was prevalent within the south and eastern basins of Mediterranean (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, Quignard and Capapé 1971, M.N. Bradai pers. comm.), however the demersal nature of this species and the localized decline within the northern Mediterranean indicate that there are low levels of interconnectivity between the geographical sub-populations. <br/> <br/>No information is available on the population size of this species along the west African coasts.
63131		threats	eng	This species' biology and inshore habitat make it highly susceptible to population depletion. The distribution of this species is fairly wide but it would be subjected to fishing pressures throughout most of its range, as its coastal habitat make this rhinobatid easy target for artisanal fisheries and it is likely to be caught as bycatch of commercial fisheries of all kinds, operating along the majority of the Mediterranean coastline, for example the Egyptian commercial trawl fishery off the coast of Alexandria. <br/> <br/>Guitarfish are vulnerable to fisheries given their life history. There is also little known about their biology or habitat requirements but it is likely that habitat requirements especially for young (nursery grounds) is being influenced by humans causing habitat degradation in many of these areas. <br/> <br/>Other species of guitarfish are now regularly caught as by-catch in local fisheries in the Red Sea and Western Indian Ocean, including much of Africa. They are used for their flesh or fins but often are discarded. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Based on anecdotal evidence, the common guitarfish, along with the blackchin guitarfish <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> is a species which was historically common throughout the Northern Mediterranean. In the late 19<sup>th</sup> century Doderlain (1884) commented on the daily presence of this species in the Palmero fish market, while in the early 20<sup>th</sup> Century it was considered a typical resident over sandy substrates around the Baleric Islands (De Buen 1935). Furthermore, the perception of older fishermen operating this region was that of a relatively high frequency of occurrence in the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, compared to the present apparent local extinction in this area (G. Morey pers. comm. 2003). The absence of this species from MEDITS bottom trawl survey further consolidates the apparent disappearance of this species from the northern regions of the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>In portions of the southern shore (e.g., Gulf of Gabés and potentially elsewhere along the Mediterranean African coast which has be subject to less intensive fishing pressure) both species are still present in the catch, but with a large proportion of immature juveniles. <br/> <br/>The sizes of <em>Rhinobatos rhinobatos</em> individuals fished by bottom trawls vary from 300 to 1,200 mm TL with an average of 736 mm LT. The most common size of individuals landed in the gulf of Gabès is between 500 to 1,000 mm (females) and 600 to 900 mm (males). Of the landing 54.46% of specimens landed were females and 46.72% were immature males (M.N. Bradai and Ennajar pers. comm. 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong> <br/>Rhinobatids are caught as bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries operating in shallow inshore waters. They are also caught in artisanal bottom setnet fisheries and dried for export to Ghana where used for human consumption.  <br/> <br/>In Senegal the landings of guitarfish species have decreased dramatically. Landings peaked in 1997 at 4,218 t and have since gradually decreased to an estimated 821 t in 2005 (Ministry of Maritime Economy and International Marine Transport of Senegal unpub. data).   <br/> <br/>In Guinea-Bissau this species is one of the main targets of specialised shark fishing teams. Preliminary surveys from the IUCN Guinea-Bissau programme in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Research indicate that populations of the common guitarfish and the blackchin guitarfish have diminished substantially (cited in Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). These fisheries use gillnets to target Rhinobatos spp. (mainly <em>Rhinobatus rhinobatus</em> and <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em>), fishing between 1 and 40 m in depth (Bucal 2006). There has been a shift in mesh net size, 15 years ago the gillnet mesh size was reported to be 230 to 280 mm, at present it is 180 to 160 mm. This will increase the number of juveniles caught by this fishery. Also caught as bycatch for fisheries targeting Mujillidae (mullet) also using gillnets.  They are caught by hooks catching Lutjanidae and <em>Dentex</em> (Sparidae, sea breams). Captures have decreased over the last 15 years and the size of specimens landed have decreased (D. Bucal pers. comm. 2006), however it is important to note the change in mesh size. <br/> <br/>No target fishery is in operation off Morocco, however it is caught as bycatch by bottom trawlers (targeting octopus and cephalopods) at 20 to 150 m depth (A. Moumni and M. Hicham pers. comm. 2006). No information is available on the rate of catch or bycatch landings or discard survival rates. <br/> <br/>Reportedly common in Sierra Leone. Caught as bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries operating in shallow inshore waters 14 to 26 m. The bulk (80%) of the international fleet consists of shrimp trawlers (Seisay 2005). The catch rate of a recent discards survey programme indicates a bycatch rate of >1 specimen per two hour tow. The shrimp fishery catches individuals of up to 220 cm (female) and 178 cm (male) in total length. It is also caught in artisanal bottom set net fishery where individuals measuring from 199- ~175 cm are caught (male and female). Specimens are dried and exported to Ghana (M. Seisay pers. comm. 2006). Rhinobatids are the most dominant batoids landed within artisanal fisheries. The common guitarfish accounts for 16.58% of the number of batoids landed and 28.15% of the total batoids landed, by weight (Seisay 2005). On a less specific level, rays are also captured as bycatch to industrial shrimp and finfish fisheries, in Sierre Leone shark and rays bycatch landings make up an estimated 0.8-1.0% of the total reported catch (Seisay 2005) (see figure 1). <br/> <br/>Follow link below for Figure 1: Industrial fishery production (mt) of rays in Sierra Leone waters. Original data (Seisay 2005). <br/> <br/>There is no information available on the fishing effort, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this data, however in the absence of further information, it can be used to provide a preliminary indication for the national bycatch shark landings of Sierra Leone. It is likely that the actual number of sharks landed as bycatch by industrial fisheries is far greater, as this represents only the reported landings of legal fisheries. Although this data is not species specific, it gives an indication of the quantity of sharks landed in this country. Similar fisheries operate throughout the rest of the region.   <br/> <br/>Frequently captured in Gambia (A. Mendy pers. comm. 2006). Along the Mauritanian coast, however it is more abundant within the Banc d'Arguin national park where it is afforded some protection, and where in 2004 it composed 2% of the shark catch. Flesh retained and fins dried and exported to Ghana (L. Camara pers. comm. 2006). Prior to the December 2003 Banc d'Arguin ban on elasmobranch targeted fisheries it was fished for its highly prized fins and caught with specialised nets. Today, it is still caught incidentally as bycatch in teleost gillnet fisheries. It is also bycatch of industrial demersal trawl fisheries targeting cephalops and crustaceans and coastal teleosts (K. Brahim pers. comm. 2006).
63132		conservation	eng	<strong>Mediterranian</strong> <br/>The Mediterranean Action Plan for the conservation of chondirchthyan fishes recognises the urgent need to assess the status of <em>Rhinobatos</em> species, as a species that may be at high risk of threat in the region (Anonymous 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Measures in place: <br/><em>Mauritania</em> <br/>This species is protected as part of a ban on directly targeted elasmobranch fishing in the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, which was implemented in December 2003. In this national park, management measures specific to this species were also introduced (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006). The fishery was closed from February to September, to avoid the partuition period and therefore the capture of pregnant females. After negogiations with local fishermen, gear restrictions were introduced (to stop fishing with bottom gillnets of 1 to 2 m height and 11 to 16 cm (one side) square mesh). Increased abundance have been observed in and around the bank, suggesting the protection was effective (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006).        <br/> <br/><em>Sierra Leone</em> <br/>There are no species specific regulations for the management of shark and shark fisheries in the Sierra Leone. However, a licensing system for artisanal fishing canoes, both foreign and Sierra Leone owned is payable to the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources and the Local Government Administration (Seisay 2005). A National Action Plan for the conservation and management of sharks is being proposed.  Some of the recommended management measures include: Area and seasonal closure to shark fisheries, effort limitation of the shark fishery and discarding of immature and/or juvenile shark and ray species. <br/> <br/><em>Giunea-Bissau</em> <br/>There are marine protected areas inside the Bijagos archipelago (the Formosa Islands UROK marine reserve), the PNO marine reserve (Orango Islands) and the PNMJVO marine reserve (Joao Vieira and Poilao Islands). Within these areas, trawling and the use of nets is forbidden, the only gear type allowed is fishing with longlines. Furthermore, fishing is only allowed for subsistence purposes, commercial fishing is not permitted (Bucal 2006). <br/> <br/>Measures required: <br/><em>East Atlantic</em> <br/>A seasonal ban on the targetted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species. Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure on this species. <br/> <br/><em>Mediterranean</em> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Fishing effort within the region should be monitored and species specific landings should be recorded. Further study on the range of the species and the use of specific critical coastal habitats, in particular reference to the negative impact of trawling.  <br/> <br/>There are no species specific management measures currently in place for this species.
63132		distribution	eng	<strong>Global</strong>: The blackchin guitarfish distribution extends between 42°N to 17°S, 19°W to 36°E. From the Northern coast of Portugal, down the west African coast and including the Mediterranean Sea. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: Throughout the Mediterranean coasts, but it appears more prevalent in the southern and eastern regions (Capapé 1989). Countries of occurrence include; Algeria, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Corsica, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Sardinia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Turkey and Tunisia. <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong>: From the Northern coast of Portugal, southwards to Angola.
63132		habitat	eng	The blackchin guitarfish inhabits marine and brackish waters in subtropical areas. It is a demersal species, living over sandy or muddy substrates, with a depth range that spans from shallow waters to approximately 100 m. This fish tends to swim slowly over the bottom or partially buries itself under the substrate. Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported the maximum total length (TL) of this species as 180 cm, however within the Gabés Gulf in the south of the Mediterranean the maximum reported TL is slightly larger with 192 cm for males and 230 cm for females. The size at maturity is 110 and 100 cm TL for females and males, respectively. <br/> <br/>The blackchin guitarfish is ovoviviparous. Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported that this species produces between 4 to 6 pups per litter, however in the Gabés Gulf an estimated 9 to 16 pups are produced (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1996, M. Bradai and Ennajar pers. comm). The gestation period takes between four to six months, and reproductive females are believed to produce one or two litters per year. <br/> <br/>In Mauritania, IMROP trawl surveys in Aug 2005 to May 2006 recorded a sex ratio of 1:2 females to males and a litter size of seven pups per litter. The size range captured was 84 to 197 cm (IMROP unpub. data). Main prey items were fish (<em>Sardinella</em>) cephalopods, crabs, shrimps, gastropods especially <em>Cybium</em> sp. (IMROP unpub. data). In Guinea-Conakry the maximum reported size was 238 cm TL (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Analysis of gut contents indicate that the blackfin guitarfishes' diet is composed of primarily of prawn (two thirds), crab, other crustacean and fish (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006).
63132		population	eng	Was regarded as common within the southern Mediterranean (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984), in particular around the Gulf of Gabes, on the East coast of Tunisia (Quignard and Capapé 1971). <br/> <br/>Preliminary surveys from IUCN Guinea-Bissau programme in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Research indicate that populations have diminished substantially (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nothing of the population of this species is known from Senegal and Gambia. <br/> <br/>Bottom trawl surveys performed at depths ranging from 10 to 900 m at regular intervals off the coast of Sierra Leone between 1976 and 1983 (Litvinov 1993) reported only nine individuals, all in a single trawl. A similar trawl campaign in Morocco, (totaling four surveys over 150 trawl station between 1972 and 1980) failed to capture any specimens (Litvinov 1993).
63132		threats	eng	Based on anecdotal evidence, the blackchin guitarfish was historically common throughout the Northern Mediterranean. In the late 19<sup>th</sup> century Doderlain (1884), commented on the daily presence of this species on the Palmero fish market, while in the early 20<sup>th</sup> Century it was considered a typical resident over sandy substrates around the Balearic Islands (De Buen 1935). Furthermore, the perception of older fishermen operating this region was that of a relatively high frequency of occurrence in the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, compared to the present apparent local extinction in this area (G. Morey pers. comm). <br/> <br/>In the northern Mediterranean, where both the blackchin and common guitarfishes used to be quite common (see, for example, Doderlein (1884) concerning their daily presence on the Palermo fish market); both disappeared from bottom trawl surveys, from the Alboran to Aegean sea within the MEDITS international program; both disappeared from the landings in Mazzara del Vallo, (M. Vacchi pers. comm.) and they appear to have been extirpated from this area (Relini and Piccinetti 1991). In the Balearic Islands both species were considered as typical inhabitants of unvegetated sandy bottoms (De Buen 1935). Old fishermen reported their relative frequency during the first half of the 20th century, but nowadays they seem to be extinct in the area (G. Morey pers. obs). Given that the two species are demersal, occurring over shelf bottoms at maximum depths of about 100 m, their connection with extra-Balearic populations seems to be very low, so they seem to be extinct in the area. In areas of the southern Mediterranean (e.g., Gulf of Gabés, but perhaps elsewhere along the still underfished Mediterranean African coast) both species are still present in the catch, but with a large fraction of immature individuals. <br/> <br/>In western Africa, the fins of the blackchin guitarfish are highly prized (they can fetch an estimated 100 Euro/kg), and as a result it is a major target species of artisanal fisheries operating along all coasts in this region (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006). A reduction in the size of individuals and a strong decline in this species has been observed throughout its range in West Africa, for example the Ministry of Maritime Economy and International Marine Transport of Senegal indicate that landings have decreased from 4,050 t in 1998 to 821 t in 2005 (unpub. data). This species gives birth between September and October off sandy coastlines, muddy sandy banks and mangrove coastlines. During this period there is an increase in the relative abundance of both pregnant females and mature reproductively active males as mating takes place immediately after females have given birth. The tendency for reproductively active individuals of this species to aggregate around the coastline renders it especially vulnerable to fisheries (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Rhinobatids are caught as bycatch of the shrimp trawl fishery operating in shallow inshore waters. <br/> <br/>A theme common throughout countries in the West Africa region is a paucity of data on reported fish landings.  Without an indication of fishing effort and species specific landings, it is very difficult to quantitatively assess the true threat that fishing poses to a variety of Chondrichythan fish populations in West Africa.  FAO data indicates that elasmobranch landings steadily increased since the mid 1990s. In the late 1990s this decreased and  since appears to have stabilized (see Figure 1). <br/>  <br/>Figure 1. Volume of sharks, rays and chimaeras landed in the West Africa region between 1980 and 2004. (URL: http://www.fao.org/figis. Last accessed on 22nd June 2006). <br/> <br/>Considering the lack of reporting in artisanal fishing and the number of foreign vessels fishing, legally and illegally within this region, the actual landings are likely to be much higher. Laurens <em>et al</em>. (2004) analysed the trophic structure of demersal fish communities in Senegal and Guinea and found the abundance of sharks, skates and rays had decreased in large proportions. The high trophic level which these species characteristically occupy renders them very vulnerable to fisheries exploitation (Roger and Ellis 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Artisanal fisheries</strong> <br/>In Guinea-Bissau it is one of the main targets of specialised fishing teams. During the early 1990s there was an influx of fishermen from Senegal, Guinea-Conakry and the Gambia into Guinea-Bissau, specifically to fish the blackchin guitarfish using bottom set nets. Preliminary surveys from the IUCN Guinea-Bissau programme in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Research indicate that populations have diminished substantially (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). Between 1998-2003 this species was heavily targeted within the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania. Catches of approximately 400 t per year were caught with specialised nets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). During this period of targeted capture, size reduction became apparent. At the beginning of the fishery adults were caught, however now the catch is primarily composed of immature individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Valadou (2003) studied the affect of conservation measures which have been implemented in the Banc d'Arguin. Net size limitations and seasonal limits were introduced in 1998. The fishery was closed from mid-September to the end of January, when the birth and mating events take place along the coastline. This seasonal closure increased in length up until 2003, after which a complete ban on elasmobranch fisheries within the area came into force. Subsequent to enforcement of the management measures in the Banc d'Arguin, the size reduction of specimens was reversed (Valadou 2003). This was in contrast to the southern regions outside of the National Park, where, in the absence of management measures the size reduction continues (Valadou 2003). Today, this species is found along the length of the Mauritanian coast, however it is more abundant in the Banc d'Arguin (K. Brahim pers. comm. 2006). Since the ban it is still caught as incidental bycatch of teleost gillnet fisheries. <br/> <br/>Artisanal landing site surveys in Guinea-Conakry were performed from October 2001 and May 2002. Similar to Guinea-Bissau, the fishermen in Guinea-Conakry were from Ghana and Senegal. The following information was collected from specialised artisanal gillnet fishermen; bottom set and drift gillnets gear types were employed to target sharks and batoids, respectively. The mesh size of gillnets ranged from 120 to 200 mm. During the study period, the number of <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> captured were recorded, size of which in total length ranged from 60-238 cm and 0.5-58.5 kg in weight. This species was previously fished during a six month season from November to April. However, in October 2002 the fishing season increased to eight months, from October to May. Now, the fishing season has increased to all year round. From February to June 2001, 127 specimens were landed at the sites under survey, and from October 2001 to June 2002, 946 individuals were landed (which coincides with the birthing and mating season of this species. During the months of November and December fishermen were landing gravid females, which are specifically targeted for the large size of their fins (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006). Embryos (34 cm TL) were discarded, however finning of embryos has been reported (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Within Sierra Leonese waters, <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> is the most dominant batoid landed within artisanal fisheries. This guitarfish accounts for 40.47% of the number of batoids landed and 39.51% total batoids landed, by weight (Seisay 2005). On a less specific level, rays are also captured as bycatch to industrial shrimp and finfish fisheries, in Sierre Leone shark and rays bycatch landings make up an estimated 0.8 to 1.0% of the total reported catch (Seisay 2005) (see figure 2). <br/>  <br/>Figure 2. Industrial fishery production (mt) of rays in Sierra Leone waters. Original data (Seisay 2005).  <br/> <br/>There is no information available on the fishing effort, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this data, however in the absence of further information, it can be used to provide a preliminary indication for the national bycatch shark landings of Sierra Leone. It is likely that the actual number of sharks landed as bycatch by industrial fisheries is far greater, as this represents only the reported landings of legal fisheries. Although this data is not species specific, it gives an indication of the quantity of sharks landed in this country. Similar fisheries operate throughout the rest of the region.   <br/> <br/>It is also caught as bycatch to industrial demersal trawl fisheries targeting cephalops and crustaceans and coastal teleosts.
63133		conservation	eng	A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage and logbooks. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2002, Perez pers. comm). Given the restricted known distribution of M. obscura and increasing international demand for skate products, the conservation status of this species may rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels provide an opportunity to accurately monitor catch levels and trends in the future.
63133		distribution	eng	Only known from five specimens collected from two localities on the southeastern Brazilian continental slope off the states of Espírito Santo (19°40?S, 38°38?W) and Rio de Janeiro (21°46?S, 39°53?W) (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
63133		habitat	eng	This deepwater skate is recorded from depths of 808 to 1,105 m on the continental slope. Maximum recorded size is 68 cm TL and 43.6 cm DW (female) (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2006). Like other skates, is oviparous, but nothing else is known of its biology.
63133		population	eng	Presently known in the literature from only five specimens as specified in the original description (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2006).
63133		threats	eng	The Brazilian government initiated a deep-sea fishing program in 1998 to reduce some of the fishing effort exerted on the shelf environment and exploit so far unutilized resources on the slope (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Deepwater demersal fishing operations off southern Brazil (20°S to 34°S) have increased in recent years in response to decreasing catch rates of shelf resources and expanding international markets for traditionally discarded or poorly known species (Perez and Wahrlich 2005). Chartered foreign vessels began fishing in 2000 using demersal longlines, otter trawls, gillnets and pots at <200 to 900 m depth, before longlining was later restricted to depths >600 m (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is a potential bycatch of these deepwater fisheries operating in the region. No data are available on catches of this species, as it is only known from a few specimens and recent bycatch studies (e.g., Perez and Wahrlich 2005) have been conducted outside its known range. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) did however document considerable bycatch of other skate species where they sampled. <br/> <br/>Foreign vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and a management plan implemented for the fishery (see Conservation Actions section below). These management arrangements should limit the level of impact on the species, but it may continue to be taken as bycatch. Given the restricted range and possible low reproductive potential of this deepwater species, together with increasing international demand for skate products, any bycatch is of concern and bycatch levels should be monitored. Part of the species? present known range is deeper than current fishing pressure, which may afford it some refuge, but any expansion of fishing activity to greater depths may increase the risk to this species.
63134		conservation	eng	A collaborative research project has been instigated to examine the identification and occurrence of <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (J. Pompert pers. comm). This will better determine which species occur in the region and their distributions. Following the results of this research, it is suggested that Red List assessments for those <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. occurring around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands are revisited, particularly in light of results indicating which species are found to interact with fishing activities in the region.
63134		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality to the north of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the Southwest Atlantic.
63134		habitat	eng	Holotype (a 34.7 cm TL female) was collected at a depth of 120 m (McEachran 1983).
63134		population	eng	Unknown.
63134		threats	eng	No specific information available on threats. A multispecies skate fishery operates around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, consisting of Korean trawl vessels (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). <em>Psammobatis</em> species are recorded in the fishery, but their identification in that region remains problematic and at present they are recorded under a generic code (tentatively, at least <em>P. rudis</em> and <em>P. normani</em> occur) (J. Pompert pers. comm). It is possible that McEachran' s (1983) <em>P. parvacauda</em> is being taken in this fishery, but details are not available.
63135		conservation	eng	Surveys of abundance and distribution are required, as are details on fisheries operating within the species' area of occurrence.
63135		distribution	eng	Known only from Puerto Pizarro, Tumbes, northern Peru.
63135		habitat	eng	Type specimens taken in very shallow (1 to 2 m) estuarine waters (Chirichingo and McEachran 1979), with a further, more recent (2006), specimen taken in shallow waters near mangroves (M. Romero pers. comm). No details available on the biology of the species. Holotype is a 40.4 cm TL male, paratype a 15.7 cm TL male (Chirichingo and McEachran 1979).
63135		population	eng	Unknown.
63135		threats	eng	About 180 fishing vessels were known to be operating in the coastal fishery off Peru in 2003. Most catches are utilized for human consumption and about 750,000 tonnes were taken in 2001 in this fishery (FAO 2003). Given the restricted known range of the species and its occurrence in shallow estuarine waters, details are urgently required on any fishing activities within the area which may be taking this species, including as bycatch.
63136		conservation	eng	Surveys needs to better document the distribution and abundance of the species. Any catches (including as bycatch) of the species in local fisheries needs to be examined.
63136		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the type locality in Ecuador, Southeast Pacific (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941).
63136		habitat	eng	No habitat or depth information can be ascertained for the species. Specimens referred to be Tortonese (1939, cited in Beebe and Tee-Van 1941) are 38.8 and 39.3 cm total length (TL). Like other skates, oviparous, but no other specific details are available.
63136		population	eng	No details.
63136		threats	eng	Exact occurrence of the species is not well defined and as such inferences on fishing activities which may take this species (including as bycatch) can not be made.
63137		conservation	eng	Nothing known.
63137		distribution	eng	Deep slope off Uruguay and Brazil between 35°S and 23°S (Serét and Andreata 1992, Krefft 1968), and one specimen recorded off Talcahuano, Chile (Pequeño 1997).
63137		habitat	eng	Benthic on deep slope and deep sea plains at 800 to 2,380 m depth off Uruguay and Brazil (Serét and Andreata 1992, Krefft 1968) and at 1,000 to 1,500 m off Chile (Pequeño 1997). Oviparous.
63137		population	eng	A rare deep-water skate.
63137		threats	eng	Potentially a bycatch in deep-water trawl and line fisheries, however generally outside the depth range of present fishing activities.
63138		conservation	eng	Creation of protected areas/sites.
63138		distribution	eng	Middle East: Israel, Jordan, Syria.
63138		habitat	eng	Slow to fast running rivers and perennial wadis.
63138		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
63138		threats	eng	Drainage and irrigation, habitat destruction.
63139		conservation	eng	Creation of protected areas.
63139		distribution	eng	Middle East: upper Jordan Valley only.
63139		habitat	eng	Lacustrine waters and slow-flowing section of rivers.
63139		population	eng	Only two populations are known.
63139		threats	eng	Irrigation and drainage.
63140		conservation	eng	Like many other South American skates, further research is required to ascertain the species' biology, ecology and levels of bycatch.
63140		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the Southeast Pacific off Chile. It possible occurrence in the western part of the Falkland Islands requires examination (J. Pompert pers. comm).
63140		habitat	eng	A poorly known sandskate recorded from the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 40 to 450 m (McEachran 1983). Little information available on the biology or ecology of the species. Reaches 49 cm TL (McEachran 1983) and like other skates is oviparous.
63140		population	eng	Unknown.
63140		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in benthic trawl fisheries for kingclipfish <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and southern hake <em>Merluccius australis</em>. In a benthic trawl fishery cruise off Guafo Island, Chile, approximately 10% of total skates captured were <em>Psammobatis</em> species (<em>P. normani, P. rudis</em> and <em>P. scobina</em>). These were all discarded (J. Lamilla unpub. data). <em>Psammobatis scobina</em> is also taken as negligible component of bycatch in deepsea crustacean trawl fisheries for yellow squat lobster <em>Cervimunida johni</em> and deepsea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> (Acuña and Villarroel 2002).
63141		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for the monitoring of landings and bycatch of this species and the collection of distribution and life history data in order to better understand the population structure and trends. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
63141		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean (entire coast from Straits of Gibraltar to Israel, but absent from the Black Sea), down to South Africa. Possibly off Mozambique in the Indian Ocean (Compagno in prep).
63141		habitat	eng	This species is found from 60 to 660 m depth (Serena 2005), but mostly below 100 m. Sion <em>et al.</em> (2004) stated a record of one specimen caught at 800m of depth.  Found on coralline and muddy bottoms, mostly between 100 and 200 m depth in the northern Mediterranean sea. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been reported at between 50 and 70 cm (Serena 2005) and Capapé <em>et al. </em>(1999) reported that a larger size at maturity in females (66 cm) than in males (60 cm). The species reaches a maximum size of 150 cm TL (Serena 2005, Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005) although Compagno (in prep.) notes that most individuals are less than 100 cm. Indeed, Capapé <em>et al. </em>(1999) reported maximum lengths of 64 cm and 78 cm for males and females respectively. <br/> <br/>Ovoviviparous, producing litters of 10 to 12 pups once a year (Capapé <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at birth has been reported between from 21 to 24 cm [or <25 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005)] with an average of 22.83 cm (Capapé<em> et al.</em>1999). <br/> <br/>Feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs (Compagno in prep).
63141		population	eng	Relatively wide ranging. Rare in some parts (e.g., Angola, Atlantic coast of South Africa) and uncommon in others (northern Namibia, Mediterranean Sea) (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Catch data for <em>O. centrina</em> in the Mediterranean exists for the period from 1994 to 1999 (at depths from 10 to 800 m) as part of the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS). During this period, <em>O. centrina</em> was recorded in only 0.6% of tows, with the majority of catches made at between 100 to 200 m depth (STECF 2004). Regional biomass indexes indicate that the species is more common in the western central Mediterranean (Tyrrhenian, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily) with a lower biomass index in the western (Morocco, Spain and France) and eastern (Aegean) Mediterranean areas. During these surveys, it was found to be absent from the Eastern central Mediterranean (Adriatic, Ionian and Albania) (STECF 2004). <br/> <br/>Trawl surveys in 1948 indicated that the species was once present, though uncommon (0.21 % of hauls, 0.25% of surveys, estimated density of 1.15 kg km<sup>-2</sup>) in the Adriatic and the absence of the species in subsequent MEDITS surveys suggests that it may be locally extinct from the area (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, there have been recent records of juveniles caught in the central Adriatic (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2004, A. Soldo pers. comm). Also, data collected during other (DESEAS) surveys of the Balearic Sea and Ionian Sea found one specimen in the western Ionian Sea at 800 m (Sion <em>et al.</em> 2004). Apparently then, <em>O. centrina</em> still exists in the Eastern central Mediterranean in unknown numbers. <br/> <br/>Between 1957 and 1960 <em>O. centrina</em> was captured in approximately 6% of hauls (n=27) in shelf surveys (coast to 150 m) and in approximately 6% of hauls (n=37) in slope surveys (150 to 800 m) in the Gulf of Lions, France (Aldebert 1997). Although it persisted in catches at low abundance up to 1992, it was subsequently absent in 139 hauls made during a trawl survey spanning 1994 to 1995 (Aldebert 1997), suggesting that the species is locally extinct from this area (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2003). MEDITS data for the period from 1994 to 1999 found lower abundances in the west than in other areas of the Mediterranean, although the species was present (STECF 2004).  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species was absent in a recent and intensive study of the deepwater longline fishery for sharks off the Canary Islands, where it was previously present (Hernandez <em>et al.</em> 1997). There is no information on the abundance of this species elsewhere in the region.
63141		threats	eng	Primarily caught in the Mediterranean Sea and the Northeast Atlantic as a minor bycatch by large offshore bottom and pelagic trawl fleets (Compagno in prep). Mediterranean Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries, comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), and more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001). In the southern Mediterranean and off the Tunisian coasts this species is fished at depths of 60 to 100 m, where it reproduces (Bradaï <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is considered rare in Tunisian waters and is taken as bycatch with no economic value (M.N. Bradaï pers. obs). Most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm. Considering the large size at maturity (around 60 cm total body length), the exploitation of juveniles and probability of capture before breeding is likely to be high. The depth range of this species (60 to 660 m) lies entirely within the range of deepwater fisheries in the Mediterranean. Therefore it will not be protected by the ban on bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean, adopted by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) in February 2005. According to Dulvy <em>et al. </em>(2003) the large spiny dorsal fins and relatively large body size, may make this species vulnerable to fishing exploitation, however Serena (pers. obs.) has commented that the species is of no commercial value in the Mediterranean and is usually discarded immediately because fishermen in the region believe that it brings bad luck. Discards have sometimes been observed alive (Serena pers. obs.), however, there are no data on the post release survival of the species and mortality is likely to be high given the depth at capture.  <br/> <br/>It is widely acknowledged that there has been a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities in the Northeast Atlantic with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>Oxynotus centrina</em> is known from depths which are entirely within the range of several longline, trawl and gillnet fisheries operating throughout the Northeast Atlantic distribution of the species. The species has already been shown to be vulnerable to being taken as bycatch in the Mediterranean and is also likely to be subject to bycatch pressure in the Northeast Atlantic. There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the Northeast Atlantic, while regulation is often lagging. Deepwater sharks are potentially at risk from these activities although little species-specific information is available. <em>Oxynotus centrina</em> may also be caught occasionally as bycatch in trawl fisheries off South Africa but there are insufficient data to support this and the taxonomy of specimens caught there remains uncertain.
63142		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures directed at this species. While the implementation of Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices in shrimp trawl fisheries in the Northern Gulf of Mexico has lowed overall bycatch rates (for example see Steele <em>et al.</em> (2002), these mitigation measures are thought to be ineffective for this species due to it size and sluggish swimming ability. Details of bycatch in coastal fisheries throughout the rest of the species' range (i.e., outside of US waters) is required to determine the impact of fishing activities and allow for a more robust global assessment.
63142		distribution	eng	Wide distribution in the western Atlantic from North Carolina through parts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean and along the northern coast of South America. Occurs to at least the state of Maranhão in Brazil, but may also occur off northeastern Brazil. The exact distribution of Narcine species off northeastern Brazil is presently unresolved as <em>N. bancroftii</em> in Brazil was previously referred to as the ?wide-ranging? <em>N. brasiliensis</em>. That species is a Southwest Atlantic endemic occurring off southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina and although its occurrence off northeastern Brazil is documented for the states of Paraíba and Pernambuco (R. Rosa pers. comm.) it is not certain whether records of <em>N. brasiliensis</em> from the State of Ceará truly represent that species or <em>N. bancroftii</em>. It is thought to exist in the Bahamas, however this is not confirmed.
63142		habitat	eng	<em>Narcine bancroftii</em> is a shallow water species found on soft substrates from the intertidal zone to a depth of 35 m. Both oviducts appear to be synchronous in adult females. A 47 cm TL female caught in Maranhão, Brazil, contained embryos which were aborted on landing on the vessel. Oviducts are very thin-walled, transparent and puncture easily. The smallest female containing embryos (aborted) was 36.0 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).
63142		population	eng	Although this species exhibits an extensive distribution, taxonomic revision may result in subdivision of the species in the future, thereby restricting its range (Carvalho 1999a). This will lead to a subsequent decrease in population size.
63142		threats	eng	Electric rays are sluggish swimmers, with small home ranges, highly localized within an area and concentrating in surf zones adjacent to barrier beaches and on offshore sand bars in warm months and moving offshore in winter (Rudloe 1989), making them susceptible to localized population depletion. The species is captured as bycatch by inshore shrimp trawl seining net fisheries. It does not appear to be utilized and is discarded, but survivorship rates are thought to be very low. Furthermore, gravid females of the species have been observed to abort embryos upon capture and so even if discarded individuals survive, reproductive output is reduced. While specific catch data are lacking over most of the species range, declines to 2% (95% confidence intervals 0.5 to 5%) of its baseline abundance in 1972 have been demonstrated in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, most probably caused by shrimp trawling (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Shrimp trawl fishing is intense in that area, particularly in shallow waters (thus coinciding with the bathymetric range of <em>N. bancroftii</em>), with 4 to 5 million trawl hours annually (Shepherd and Myers 2005). While data in Shepherd and Myers (2005) compared the time period 1972 to 2002, the actual severity of declines may have been underestimated as shrimp trawling began in the region during 1912 to 1915 (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Similar high rates of decline are seen in the US coastal areas between Cape Canaveral (Florida) and Cape Hatterus (North Carolina) in US trawl surveys between 1989 and 2001 (a decline to 5% during this period). Furthermore, similar rates of decline are seen between 1994 and 2004 from diver surveys (data from <a href="www.reef.org">Reef Environmental Educational Foundation</a>) in eastern Florida and the Florida Keys. These declines may not be representative of the entire range, but these are the only regions with reliable survey data, and should be representative of regions with similar fishing impact. While specific data are lacking, fishing activities, both artisanal and commercial in nature are generally intense and most often unregulated in shallow inshore waters of the remainder of the species' range. See Fowler <em>et al.</em> (2005) for regional and country overviews. Given that large declines have been documented in US waters where data are available, there is no reason to suspect that similar declines have not also occurred elsewhere across the species' range where fishing activities are intense and unregulated. Pollution and oil exploration may also adversely affect the habitat of <em>N. bancroftii</em>, although no specific information is available.
63143		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority.  <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al.</em> (1999, 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.
63143		distribution	eng	Has a more restricted distribution than other Magellanic species (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Present off Argentina, the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and on the Burdwook bank in the Southwest Atlantic. Also reported in the Southwest Pacific off southern Chile.
63143		habitat	eng	Benthic species known from off Argentina at depths of 51 to 600 m in bottom temperatures ranging from 3.5°C to 11.0°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, it is prevalent mainly in depths of <70 m (J. Pompert pers. comm). Size at maturity has been estimated around 58 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). This species has been reported from a minimum of 14 cm TL (Norman 1937) to a maximum of 105 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Feeds primarily (around 75%) on crustaceans, but also polychaetes and fishes (Sánchez and Mabragaña 2002). Like other skate species, <em>B. magellanica</em> is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).
63143		population	eng	Population size unknown. In the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, the species is only caught very occasionally, and there has previously been uncertainty as to whether these were strays from the South America mainland, or actually breeding there. Since then, there has been one experimental fishing trip with longlines in depths of about 50 to 60 m, and during this trip quite a few adult specimens were caught, thereby showing that a population exists. Subsequently, since 1998 occasional fishing from a research vessel in shallower waters has found local 'hotspots' of this species (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006).
63143		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landing have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/>   <br/><em>B. magellanica</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It was captured during fishing investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported a 41% decline in the biomass of <em>B. magellanica</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S on the off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised very few or up to around 8% of <em>B. magellanica</em> (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002). Species-specific bycatch data are not generally collected for this fishery, however, and remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. <em>Bathyraja magellanica</em> comprises a very small proportion of the catch of in this fishery compared with other species of rays (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004) most likely because this species is prevalent mainly outside the main fishing areas (i.e., generally in depths <70 m), and hence biomass is largely unknown. There are no other fisheries operating at these shallow depths in the area (J. Pompert pers. comm.) and the species may be afforded some refuge there. The multispecies skate fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990's, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. An assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has shown little indication of an increasing or decreasing trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>There is no information on the bycatch of this species in Chilean fisheries.
63144		conservation	eng	<strong>Argentina </strong> <br/>In Argentina there are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs). <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew<em> et al.</em> (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands Patagonian toothfish fishery is managed through a licensing system with two longliners licensed to fish adult Patagonian toothfish around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Longlining activities and catches are monitored and a TAC of 1,500 Mt per annum has recently been set which should reduce effort by approximately 15% (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Early in 2006 there was some successful experimenting with potting for Patagonian toothfish. With this method, neither skates, nor any other elasmobranchs for that matter are caught. It is therefore likely that there will be a further reduction of fishing by longline in the long term (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Recent changes in legislation (2006) require fishermen to cut snoods and hooks from bycatch skates to reduce mortality. The animals are not hauled aboard and released with no hook lodged in their jaw (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). This is in line with the same practice in CCAMLR regions. In Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, the species-specific assessment of direct and indirect catches is a priority.
63144		distribution	eng	Reported from off Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000), Uruguay (Meneses 2003), southern Brazil (Rovedder and Vooren 2003) and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Has also been reported in the Southeast Pacific off southern Chile where its northern limit is 45°22'S, off the Darwin Channel (Pequeño 1997). Has a more restricted distribution than other regional <em>Bathyraja</em> species (Mennni and Stehmann 2000). Also shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 1999).
63144		habitat	eng	Known from depths of 82 to 285 m off Argentina in bottom temperatures between 4°C and 6°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000) but has also been captured at 536 m off southern Brazil (Rovedder and Vooren 2003) and at 740 m off the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Menni and Stehmann 2000). One report at 1,900 m off Uruguay (Meneses 2003) requires confirmation. Shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at maturity has been estimated at 93.4 cm TL in male specimens and the species has been reported to a maximum of 119 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). The smallest specimen was reported at 12.6 cm TL without tail filament (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). This species feeds on decapods (Sánchez and Mabragaña 2002) and like other skates is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm).
63144		population	eng	Apparently rarer than other species (Menni and Stehmann 2000). The species was captured in four of six areas in the Argentine Sea considered by Menni and Lopez (1984), whereas <em>B. albomaculata</em>, <em>B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Amblyraja doellojuradoi</em>, for example, were captured in six areas and in a larger number of stations (Menni and Stehmann 2000).
63144		threats	eng	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Brazil</strong> <br/>Although there are no data indicating the bycatch of this species from fisheries operating off Brazil, the <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> target fishery operates off southern Brazil (at depths of 132 to 607 m), where <em>B. multispinis</em> has been reported. Skate bycatch is often retained in this fishery (Perez and Wahrlich 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina/Uruguay</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja multispinis</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al. </em>(2000) reported a 77% decline in the biomass of <em>B. multispinis</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. <em>Bathyraja multispinis</em> comprise a smaller proportion of the catch in this fishery compared with other species of rays (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004).The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. From 1993 to 1997, Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) documented a decrease in the mean disc width of this species from 60.57 to 48.37 cm. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990's, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. An assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has indicated a declining trend in CPUE for the species from 1992 to 2001 (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004), however, the quality of the data was relatively poor and the data had to be grouped into discrete time periods rather than as a continuous variable (R. Wakeford pers. comm. 2006). Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. As such, pressure will continue on all species, including those less able to sustain heavy fishing pressure. This species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. This species is also a bycatch in the <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> longline fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. There are currently two licensed operators fishing at depths from 600 m but mainly below 800 m (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). The consistency of bycatch data is fairly restricted due to the fact that only some experienced observers assess skate bycatch by species and catch estimates therefore have significant variance (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Furthermore, fishers are not required (and lack the expertise) to report species-specific bycatch figures. Species-specific bycatch data is required to assess the extent of this fisheries' impact on the species. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>Bathyraja multispinis has been reported in the bycatch of the <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> target fishery in the Strait of Magellan and the Chonos Archipelago off southern Chile (Lamilla and Pequeño 1999).
63145		conservation	eng	In Argentina, species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999, 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30'S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds.  <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.
63145		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Southwest Atlantic off Argentina and around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Reported from 45°30'S to 51°30'S and to 59°35'W (Menni and Stehmann 2000).
63145		habitat	eng	Known from depths of 109 to 509 m at bottom temperatures ranging from 4.3 to 7.6°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Most abundant about the centre of the shelf, from 104 to 159 m at bottom temperatures of 4.5 to 6°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at maturity has been estimated around 74.2 cm TL for male specimens and maximum size has been estimated at 111 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). The smallest known specimen is 21 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al. </em>unpubl. data). Like other skates, <em>B. scaphiops</em> is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).
63145		population	eng	Moderately common species of the Magellanic fauna, but population size unknown.
63145		threats	eng	The term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004).     <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja scaphiops</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported a 74% decline in the biomass of <em>B. scaphiops</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised low proportions of <em>B. scaphiops</em> (<5%) (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja scaphiops</em> is taken in the multi-species skate trawl fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. In 1996, following declines in CPUE, the southern area (south of 52°S) was closed to the fleet and the fishery now operates north of the Islands. An assessment of the northern ray population (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004) indicated that there was no significant increasing or decreasing trend in the CPUE for <em>B. scaphiops</em> over the period from 1992 to 2001. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers operating around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed and rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure.
63146		conservation	eng	There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm disc width for skates and rays caught in some of the inshore waters of England and Wales, through local Sea Fishery Committee bylaws. Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., size restriction, effort reduction).
63146		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the Northeast Atlantic, ranging from Morocco in the south to the Shetland Isles and Skagerrak and Kattegat in the north, including the Mediterranean Sea (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Bauchot 1987). Within the Northeastern Atlantic it tends to occur in inshore waters and shallow shelf seas, in depths of 8 to 283 m (Ellis <em>et al.</em>, 2005a), though it is most abundant in waters less than 100 m. Juveniles tend to occur closer inshore on sandy sediments, with adults also common further offshore on sand and coarse sand-gravel substrates.
63146		habitat	eng	<em>Raja montagui</em> is most common on sandy sediments in coastal and shelf seas (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a), though may occur deeper in the southern parts of its range. <em>Raja montagui</em> is found at intermediate depths on the shallow shelf and was captured in the MEDITS surveys at depths between 28 to 530 m, but the bulk of the population appears to exist between 100 to 500 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Adults have an average total length of 60 cm (Bauchot 1987), and the maximum recorded length is 80 cm (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b). Maximum fecundity of approximately 60 to 70 (Holden <em>et al</em>. 1971, Walker 1999). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans (amphipods, natantids), with larger individuals predating on larger crustaceans, and fishes. Basic information on their reproductive biology is available, though better data on fecundity are required.
63146		population	eng	No formal stock assessments have been undertaken for this species. <em>R. monatgui</em> is common in landings and trawl surveys throughout much of its range and although accurate species-specific landings data are not available catch rates in fishery-independent surveys indicate that catches are stable, possibly increasing in certain areas. Catch rates in beam trawl surveys in the English Channel and Irish Sea appear steady in recent times (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b), and IBTS data in the North Sea are also relatively stable (ICES 2006). These catch rates refer to all individuals caught and not just mature fish. This species is common throughout the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the eastern area (Aegean Sea) and the western central area (coasts of Tyrrhenia, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily). The overall biomass index assessed with the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) (0 to 800 m deep) in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was 1.7kg/km² (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species has been captured in 107 out of 6,336 survey tows between 1994 and 1999 and its estimated standing stock biomass throughout the survey region is 882 t (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Historically this species was very rare in the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001, Marano <em>et al</em>. in press).
63146		threats	eng	Rajids are an important component of demersal fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic and <em>R. montagui</em> is landed and sold (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000, Holden 1977). As one of the smaller rays in the Northeast Atlantic, it is not targeted, though larger individuals are landed as by-catch in mixed trawl fisheries. The small body size of <em>R. montagui</em> is likely to mean they have greater resilience fishing impacts compared to larger-bodied skate species. The Mediterranean Sea is intensively trawled for commercial fishing at depths ranging from 50 to 700 m (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>R. montagui</em> is captured in Mediterranean trawl fisheries as bycatch and although temporal fluctuations of the abundance have occurred, populations appear to be stable in most parts of the Mediterranean (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000).
63147		conservation	eng	<strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, catches are regulated by annual total quota. Following Lamilla <em>et al.</em> (2001, 2002), in the fishing grounds between 39°15' and 41°28.6'S, quotas were set at 600 t for 2002, 500 t for 2003. Afterwards, quotas have been 425 t for 2004, 400 t for 2005 and 370 t for 2006. Since 2005, there has also been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. south of 41°28.6'S of 2,000 t for that year and 1,430 t for 2006. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season. Regulations and management tools utilised need to be species-specific, due to differing life histories and abundance patterns of <em>Dipturus trachydermus</em> and <em>Zearaja chilensis.</em> <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>In Argentina, the assessment of direct and indirect catches is a priority. There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. comm).   <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong>  <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al.</em> (1999, 2000) unless otherwise specified.  The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (south of 52°S) was closed to skate fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30' S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting skates, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.
63147		distribution	eng	<strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong>: From southern Brazil (doubtful), Uruguay, Argentina and around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The species occurs with certainty from at least 34°35´S (Uruguay), but occurrence to the north is unconfirmed and as such the reports for Southern Brazil are doubtful as they may correspond to a species complex which is still under study, mainly including <em>Dipturus leptocaudus</em> (Krefft and Stehmann 1975) (J. Soto pers. comm).   <br/> <br/><strong>Southeast Pacific</strong>: Chile from Coquimbo (30°S) to Punta Arenas (56°S).
63147		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf and upper slope. In the Southwest Atlantic it has been recorded at depths of 28 to 435 m at temperatures of 3.5 to 18.8°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000) and in Chile, inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms at depths of 40 to 500 m (Quiroz 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, with a peak in reproductive activity in summer (Mariotti <em>et al</em>. 2003). From examined longline catches off Chile, females were observed between 47 and 126 cm TL, and males between 52 and 109 cm TL, with 42% of specimens in the size range 80 to 90 cm TL with a sex ratio of 1:2 (F:M) (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). Maximum size estimated as 160 cm TL for the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000) and 210 cm TL for Chile (Quiroz 2005), but the species is usually observed much smaller than these reported sizes. For example, the largest individual reported by Licandeo <em>et al.</em> (2006) was 125 cm TL, and by (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002) was 126 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Various maximum ages have been estimated for&#160;<em>Zearaja chilensis</em> from Chile. Gili <em>et al.</em> (1999) provided estimates of maximum ages of 21 years for females and 20 years for males, but these may have been derived from a mix of two species (<em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>Z. chilensis</em>) and these figures should thus be viewed with caution (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2002). Fuentealba (1989) estimated maximum ages of 25 years for females and 26 years for males, and Licandeo <em>et al</em>. (2006) 27 years for females and 23 years for males (these latter figures are taken as the most reliable). Age and size at 50% maturity were estimated by Licandeo <em>et al</em>. (2006) as 14 years and 106 cm TL for females and 11 years and 86 cm TL for males. Other estimates of age and size at maturity from Chile, Argentina and Uruguay are given in the life history table below. Differences in reported sizes at maturity may be attributed to geographical variation, different stocks, different sampling and analytical methodologies or levels of exploitation.
63147		population	eng	Reportedly one of the most abundant skate species of the Southwest Atlantic, however exact details of population size are unknown. <br/> <br/>Wakeford <em>et al.</em> (2004) suggests that the species does not form a resident population in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, but has a broad distribution in the Southwest Atlantic. As such, exploitation off Patagonian Argentina may be impacting upon the abundance and population structure of the species around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). Few small individuals of <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> are found around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and the seasonal movement of the species westward out of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands region towards the end of the year is suggested by Wakeford <em>et al.</em> (2004).
63147		threats	eng	The vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). The three generation period for the species is 61.5 years (3 x 20.5 years), calculated with published estimated maximum age and age at maturity for females (Licandeo <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>This species faces both directed and bycatch fishing pressure in Chile. Since 1979 there have been industrial and artisanal landings in Chile of up to >4,000 t/year of <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em> combined with <em>D. trachydermus</em>. These two species are not separated in catch landing statistics (Roa and Ernest 1999, 2000). Between 1999 and 2000 there was an important increase in mainly artisanal landings, with a maximum landing of 4,151 t during 2000, which then dropped to 3,000 t in 2001 (SERNAPESCA 1989-2003). In Chile, overall biomass has decreased by 51% and spawning biomass has decreased by 34% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005). <br/> <br/>In the artisanal multispecies longline fishery off Central and Southern Chile (39°15' to 41°28.6'S) the catch is regulated by quota for <em>Z. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>. Since 2000, 30% of artisanal landings within this fishery (between IX and X Regions) have been monitored (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). Landings comprise 85% <em>Z. chilensis</em>, 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em>, with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em>, <em>B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskyii</em> (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). <br/> <br/>South of the above-mentioned fishing grounds (that is, south of 41°28.6'S), both <em>Z. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em> are taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries for southern hake <em>Merluccius australis</em> and in artisanal fisheries for golden kingclip <em>Genypterus blacodes</em>. Captures in 2002 were of ~2,000 t for both <em>Dipturus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">trachydermus</span> and <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> combined and since 2005 there have been quotas put in place in these southern fishing grounds.<br/> <br/>Off southern Chile, artisanal fishing activities generally only operate close to small towns such as Chiloé, Aysén and Punta Arenas and as such there may be some refuge for the species in the extensive coastline of southern Chile which consists of many fjords and canals where fishing activities are not operating at present.<br/> <br/><em>Zearaja chilensis</em> is also a minor bycatch of the Chilean deepsea crustacean fisheries for yellow squat lobster <em>Cervimunida johni</em> and deepsea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> (Acuña and Villarroel 2002).<br/> <br/><strong>Argentina and Uruguay</strong> <br/>In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina, fishing pressure on all skate species is rising due to increasing demand on the international market. Subsequently, catches have been rising since 1994. Skates, principally <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em>, are directly targeted by a licensed Korean longliner on the continental shelf off Mar del Plata, Argentina (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002) and are also taken in coastal fisheries (Massa<em> et al.</em> 2004a, b). While, species-specific catch time-series for these fisheries are unavailable, skate landings for Argentina were <1,000 t prior to 1994, rising to >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002, Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004a, b). Skates are exploited over much of the Argentinean continental shelf (i.e., see Figure 4 in García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/> <br/>In the directed <em>Z. chilensis</em> fishery, onboard observation showed that in 2000 and 2001, the single longline vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath (Colonello<em> et al.</em> 2002). <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> accounted for ~50%+ of the catch of skates both in the shallower and deeper fished areas (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/> <br/><em>Zearaja chilensis</em> is a bycatch (often retained) in several multispecies demersal fisheries which operate within its Southwest Atlantic range, however, species-specific catch data are generally unavailable. For example, it is a bycatch of benthic trawl fisheries for Argentine hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>, flounder and white croaker (Cousseau <em>et al.</em> 2000, Koen Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2001, Buratti 2004), of the multispecies coastal benthic trawl fishery operating out of Puerto Quequén (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006), and of the Patagonian red shrimp <em>Pleoticus muelleri</em> fishery (Cedrola <em>et al.</em> 2005). The latter is an industrial fishery which has been operating since 1979, with target catches rising since 1998, and reaching a peak of 79,000 mt in 2001 (Cedrola <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/> <br/>During fishery-independent investigations, García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 53% decline in the biomass of <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during summer surveying in 1999 compared to 1998. It was acknowledged, however, that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays, and as such these estimates should be viewed with caution.<br/> <br/>Colonello <em>et al.</em> (2002) and García de la Rosa (1998) provide detailed accounts of size distributions and sex ratios of <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> in relation to latitude and depth taken in commercial operations (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002) and research cruises (García de la Rosa 1998) off Argentina.  <br/> <br/>In Uruguay, this species, along with <em>Sympterygia bonapartei, S. acuta</em> and <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> are the main target species of a bottom longline fishery (Paesch and Domingo 2003). Species-specific catch data are not available, but captures of this group of skates for the period 1999 to 2002 are estimated at ~1,100 tons per year (A. Domingo pers. comm).<br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, skates have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Although approximately 11 skate species are regularly taken, commercial catches are dominated by four species including <em>Z. chilensis</em> (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000, Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) found that between 1993 and 1996 there was some evidence that <em>Z. chilensis</em> declined in catches (as a proportion of the total catch weight, from 10% in 1993 to 6% in 1996), but in 1997 the proportion increased again. <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> did however, show the greatest decrease in mean and maximum size from 1993 to 1997 of any species. Mean size was 76.76 cm DW in 1993 and 58.49 cm DW in 1997 (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggests that this decline in size may not be the result of fishing pressure in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands alone, but a combination of exploitation there and in Argentina where the species is more abundant. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has shown an increasing trend in the relative abundance of <em>Z. chilensis</em> in catches, with an increasing trend in CPUE from 1992-1993 to 1999-2001 (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions below), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al. </em>2000), this means that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. As such, pressure will continue on all species, including those likely less able to sustain heavy fishing pressure, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em> (inferred from its life history and documented declines in the Southeast Pacific). Furthermore, it should be noted that localised depletions may be masked by overall CPUE trends (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the skate fishery closure. However, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers targeting southern blue whiting <em>Micromesistius australis</em>, hoki <em>Macruronus magellanicus</em>, hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and <em>M. australis</em>, and Patagonian cod <em>Salilota australis</em> around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern skate closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting skates, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so skates to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure (J. Pompert pers. comm).
63148		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort and bycatch levels in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected by any increase in fishing pressure.
63148		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific off Ecuador, Peru and Chile.
63148		habitat	eng	A large deepwater skate, <em>Bathyraja peruana </em>can be found in depths from 600 to 1,060 m and attains at least 110 cm TL. Its biology is virtually unknown as it is presently known from only a limited number of specimens.
63148		population	eng	Unknown.
63148		threats	eng	No details are available on captures in fisheries, but probably taken to some extent in deeper water trawl and longline activities in the region. This skate is large (to 110 cm TL) and the vulnerability of large skates has been well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Any increase in deepwater fishing pressure across its range may prove detrimental to the species, particularly given its narrow depth distribution.
63149		conservation	eng	None currently exist. Given the restricted range of this species and that the fact that all the population is currently suffering fishing pressure (by-catch), this species should start to be monitored. Fishery observers should start separating this species from the very similar <em>G. melastomus</em> and <em>G. polli</em>.
63149		distribution	eng	This species has a very narrow distribution range in all the areas in which it occurs. Some identification problems and possible confusion with <em>G. melastomus</em> and <em>G. polli</em> might mean that the distribution of this species may be larger but unknown at this point. <br/> <br/>This species is presently calculated to have a total extent of occurrence of around 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>, from which 25,000 km<sup>2</sup> are in the Northeast Atlantic and 25,000 km<sup>2</sup> are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is only known from one specimen off west Africa at this time, so the area of occupancy in this region might be very restricted. <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>In the Northeast Atlantic this species is known from the Gibraltar Strait (J. Rey pers. comm.) to the Vicente Cape (Southwest coast of Portugal) (R. Coelho pers. comm.), where it is captured regularly. In this area, most of the records are adult specimens. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>In the Mediterranean it is known only in its western part, in Spanish waters, from Gibraltar Strait to Cape Gata, being especially abundant in the Alboran Sea and becoming gradually less abundant towards the East to the longitude of Cape Gata (Rey <em>et al.</em> in press). High numbers of juveniles have only been reported from the Alboran Sea (J. Rey pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Off West Africa this species is only confirmed from the type specimen captured off Cape Spartel (northwest coast of Morocco) and from one specimen capture off Mauritania (Castilho <em>et al.</em> submitted). There are unconfirmed reports of this species being captured off the coast of Morocco (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006).
63149		habitat	eng	<em>Galeus atlanticus</em> is a demersal species with a reported to occur at depths of 400 to 600 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and extended to 330 to 710 m by Rey <em>et al.</em> (2005). There is one record at depths between 0 and 50 m reported from the MEDITS survey (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Bauchot (1987) measured a mature female of 39.8 cm and a male of 38.4 cm TL. Compagno <em>et al.</em> (2005) report female size at maturity between 40 and 45 cm TL and for males ~38 to 42 cm TL. Maximum size is ~45 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is oviparous, eggs are protected by an horny case 11 to 13 mm by 38 to 40 mm in size (Bauchot 1987), with apparent multiple ovipary (nine eggcases reported in one female) suggesting a short hatching period outside the mother (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005). In the western Mediterranean, where this species is found in the Alboran Sea, it captured from 330 to 790 m depth, but mostly between 500 to 600 m depth, with sizes ranging from 18 to 42 cm TL in males and 20 to 45 cm TL in females (Rey <em>et al.</em> 2005). At present more information is required on its population dynamics parameters.
63149		population	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>Off the Southern Portuguese coast, this species has been regularly captured since 2003 (when it started to be separated from <em>G. melastomus</em>) by deep water commercial longliners, targeting wreck fish, <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and conger eels, <em>Conger conger</em>. Samplings aboard these commercial boats have shown that the species is captured in a fairly narrow depth range (470 to 580 m) with a CPUE of 1.83 specimens/1,000 hooks (s.d.=1.18) (Coelho unpublished data).  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>The MEDITS trawl survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean. Six trawl surveys were carried out in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows were performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m.  Analysis of MEDITS data between 1994 and 1999 show a very low frequency of occurrence of <em>G. atlanticus</em>. Out of the total number of hauls in the Mediterranean this species was captured in only one (0.01%) in the Western area (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, it is likely that this species was still being confused for <em>G. melastomus</em> at this time. <br/> <br/>The Spanish Medits surveys that have annually covered the Spanish waters of the Mediterranean since 1994, up to depths of 800 m, have shown that this species only occurs in the western end of the Mediterranean, from the Straight of Gibraltar to Cape Gata, being abundant only in the Alboran Sea (western part of this range of occurrence) and decreasing gradually in abundance until off Cape Gata longitude (Rey <em>et al. </em>2005).  <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Presently this species in confirmed in this area only from the holotype specimen that was captured off cape Spartel (northwest Morocco) (Vaillant 1888) and from the specimen caught off Mauritania (Castilho <em>et al. </em>submitted). It is unknown if this species is very rare in this area or if is being misidentified with <em>Galeus melastomus</em> or <em>Galeus polli</em> that also occurs in the same area.
63149		threats	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/><em>G. atlanticus</em> is still recorded as <em>G. melastomus</em> for fishery data (due to its external similarity it is very difficult to separate the two species). The species is caught as bycatch by trawl nets and bottom longlines on slope bottoms. Accessory species in the semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries with trawl net, gillnet, longline (Bauchot 1987). Caught as bycatch by bottom trawls and artisanal fisheries (Serena 2005). <br/> <br/>Where this species is most frequent in the Mediterranean Sea (Alboran Sea) is very heavily fished by deep water trawlers targeting crustaceans such as Norway lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>) and red shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>). These trawlers operate throughout the depth range and area of occupancy of this species in this region. Therefore it is probably being captured as by-catch within all its narrow range of occurrence in this region.   <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species is only known to occur from the Straight of Gibraltar to the southwest coast of Portugal in this region. Off the south coast of Portugal (Algarve), it is captured as bycatch of the deep water longline fishery that targets wreck fish <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and conger eels <em>Conger conger</em> and by deep water trawlers targeting crustaceans such as Norway lobster <em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>, red shrimp <em>Aristeus antennatus</em> and pink shrimp <em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>. Most of the specimens are discarded, although the larger specimens have some commercial value and can be sold for human consumption. Most of the discarded specimens are still alive when returned to sea, but usually have severe injuries that are likely to impair their survival (R. Coelho pers. comm. 2006).  In Portuguese fisheries statistics, marketed specimens of this species are mixed with <em>Galeus melastomus</em> and recorded as <em>Galeus melastomus</em>, making it impossible to discriminate trends of commercial captures through time. Currently, all the narrow area of occurrence in the Northeast Atlantic is being heavily fished either by deep water trawlers or deep water longliners, so the entire population in this region is likely suffering fishing mortality. <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Off cape Spartel, in the area where the type specimen has been recorded, there has been a deep water longline fishery since 2001 targeting black scabbardfish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) that is operating in the depth range of this species. In this area, there is also a deep water trawl fishery targeting crustaceans, of around 55 boats that also fishes within this specie?s depth range (M. Hicham pers. comm. 2006). Both these fisheries may be taking this species as by-catch but these data are not recorded.
63150		conservation	eng	Since 1992 there has been a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel shark in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult.    <br/>  <br/>Vooren and Klippel (2005) recommend the protection of the coastal nursery grounds in southern Brazil (waters south of 32°30?S) from fishing as an essential measure for the conservation of this species.
63150		distribution	eng	<em>Squatina punctata</em> is an endemic species of the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 24°S (Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 43°S (northern Patagonia, Argentina). Gosztonyi (1981) recorded specimens of <em>Squatina</em> spp. from 47°S, which may be this species, however this requires confirmation.
63150		habitat	eng	<em>Squatina punctata</em> is a relatively small, bottom-dwelling shark. In Brazil the species occurs mostly at depths of 10 to 80 m at bottom temperatures of 10 to 22°C (Compagno in prep). Cousseau (1973) refers to captures of <em>S. punctata</em> from the coast to 150 m in Argentinean waters, Gosztonyi (1981) at depths of 26 to 135 m, and Menni <em>et al.</em> (1981) at 22 to 121 m.<br/> <br/>Aplacental yolksac viviparous with one functional ovary. Reproduction begins in both males and females at about 70 to 80 cm TL (Cousseau 1973, Vooren and Silva 1991, Compagno in prep). Maximum size is 91 to 92 cm TL (Compagno in prep., Silva 1996). Number of embryos per litter is 3 to 8 (Vooren and Silva 1991, Compagno in prep). The breeding cycle of the female lasts at least two years. <em>S. punctata</em> migrates in spring to shallow coastal waters where the females give birth and where small juveniles occur all year round (Vooren and Silva 1991).
63150		population	eng	Although the species lives in a geographical continuum of about 20 degrees of latitude, the range is probably composed of local populations each with its own inshore-offshore migration pattern within their local temperature regime. One such population exists in southern Brazil. These local populations can be extirpated by fishing activities. Shallow inshore regions are important as nursery grounds throughout the geographical range of the species.
63150		threats	eng	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Gravid angel shark females have been observed to abort embryos easily upon capture, further reducing the reproductive capacity (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between populations also makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. Furthermore, pupping and nursery areas in Brazil occur in shallow inshore waters at depths of <30 m. Intensive fishing by gillnet and trawl in these nursery areas results in additional pressure on gravid females and juveniles of the species (Silva 1996, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>Squatina</em> species combined. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000 t in 1986 to 1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of angel shark has decreased to 15% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005).  <br/> <br/>In Argentina, the shark bycatch from gillnet and bottom trawl fleets targeting species such as school shark, croakers and flatfishes is poorly known. However, Cousseau (1973), based on Nani and Gonzalez Alberdi (1966), estimated Squatina as 6% of the total weight of the catches of the coastal bottom trawling fleet. The predominant size in these catches was about 70 to 80 cm TL; small sizes (25 to 45 cm TL) were uncommon. Cousseau (1973), based on García Cabrejos and Malaret (1969) calculated the total landings of angel shark in Mar del Plata harbour in 1964 to be 1,074 MT and 2,355 MT in 1965. Otero <em>et al.</em> (1982) considered the angel sharks to be species with a low concentration on the Buenos Aires coast, with an annual biomass for 1981/2 estimated at 4,050 tons. However, in 1991 as much as 4,167 MT were taken, and 4,281 MT in 1996. Chiaramonte (1998) stated that the angel sharks were the second most important fish landed by the gillnet fleet of Puerto Quequen. Total captures of angel sharks in Argentina oscillated around 1,000 MT between 1979 and 1984 then increased to maximums of over 4,000 MT in the 1990s. Catches consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. Peaks were reached in 1997 and 1998, before landings dropped in 2002 to >2,000 MT, rising again in 2003 to 3,550 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thus there has been an overall negative trend in landings during the period 1998 to 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, Vooren and Klippel (2005) (citing Massa and Hozbor 2003) suggested a 58% decline in the CPUE of angel shark in the coastal bottom trawl fleet. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm).
63151		conservation	eng	A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Perez pers. comm). Given the restricted known distribution of <em>H. matallanasi</em>, the conservation status of this species may rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels provide an opportunity to accurately monitor catch levels and trends in the future.   <br/> <br/>The restriction of the southern Brazilian deepwater longline fishery to depths of >600 m places reduces its overlap with the known bathymetrical distribution of <em>H. matallanasi</em>.
63151		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic to southern Brazil between Rio de Janeiro state (23°42'S) and Santa Catarina state (30°18'S) (Soto and Vooren 2004).
63151		habitat	eng	Recorded from the upper continental shelf at depths of 416 to 736 m, apparently from deep-reefs (Soto and Vooren 2004). Maximum size 30.2 cm precaudal length (PCL) for males and 37.8 cm PCL for females. Males mature at ~29.6 cm PCL (Soto and Vooren 2004). Nothing else known of its biology.
63151		population	eng	Presently known in the literature from only 21 specimens as specified in the original description (Soto and Vooren 2004).
63151		threats	eng	In 1998 the Brazilian government initiated a deep-sea fishing program in order to remove some pressure from the shelf environment and explore unexploited resources on the slope (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2003). Fishing activities employing chartered foreign vessels began in 2000 using demersal gear, specifically longlines, otter trawls, gillnets and pots at depths of <200 to 900 m. Longlining was later (2001) restricted to depths >600 m (Perez <em>et al. </em>2003). The gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> which was developed as part of this deepwater fishing program, operated over the entire geographical, and much of the bathymetrical distribution of <em>Hydrolagus matallanasi</em>. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) surveyed bycatch in this fishery between 22°44´S and 34°21´S and at depths of 132 to 607 m, recording very low numbers (0.005 per 100 nets) of <em>Hydrolagus</em> sp. (likely <em>H. matallanasi</em>). This was a discarded species. A deepwater trawl fishery also operates in the same region, operating down to depths of 460 m (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2003). Foreign vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and a management plan implemented for the fishery (see Conservation Actions section below). These management arrangements should greatly reduce the level of impact on the species, but it will likely continue to be taken as bycatch.
63152		conservation	eng	Given fishing pressure on inshore environments in the Southwest Atlantic, monitoring needs to document catches of this species, and appropriate management should be implemented if indeed the species has declined from historical levels.
63152		distribution	eng	<strong>East Atlantic</strong>: Southern Bay of Biscay to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea, Madeira, and Canary Islands. <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: Georges Bank and Cape Cod south to Florida and in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico (USA), and in the Bahamas. The species is not recorded from Mexico (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996). <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong>: From Isla Blanca and Cubagua, Venezuela (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999), from Barra de Guaratiba, Rio de Janeiro State (Buckup <em>et al.</em> 2000) and recently in Ceará State, Brazil, as well as locations off Uruguay and Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>A single report from the Indian Ocean (off Quilon, India) is most probably a misidentification (Silas and Selvaraj 1985).
63152		habitat	eng	This species is found over sandy and muddy bottoms, occasionally in brackish water; usually in waters less then 100 m deep, but recorded to 274 m in the Bahamas (McEachran and Fechhem 1998) and usually to 200 m deep in the Mediterranean (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>One of the largest known stingrays, the largest maximum size thus far reported for the species range-wide is 260 cm DW and 290 kg from the southern Adriatic (Dulcic <em>et al</em>. 2003). Maximum size is also reported at 210 to 220 cm disc width (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, Capapé and Desoutter 1990). Size at maturity varies with region, McEachran and de Carvalho (2002) reported size at maturity in males at 130 to 150 cm disc width, and 140 to 160 cm disc width for females, and Capapé (1993) reported 80 cm disc width for males and 66 to 100 cm for females in the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>This species is ovoviviparous. Size at birth is reported as 34 to 37 cm (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) and 8 to 13 cm (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Bini 1967). Capapé (1993) reported that gestation lasts for a minimum of four months and fecundity ranges from 2 to 6 pups per litter. <br/> <br/>The diet consists of fishes and invertebrates, including crabs, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Off Virginia (USA), stomachs from three adult males contained large numbers of a single prey species, the callianassid shrimp <em>Upogebia affinis</em> (Grubbs unpublished data).
63152		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species was reported as most common off Algeria, Sicily and Tunisia (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984). In 6,336 scientific trawls conducted during the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) from 1994 to 1999 at depths of 10 to 800 m, only one record of this species was reported throughout the entire Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). From the 22 Italian GRUND surveys between 1985 and 1998 the percentage presence for this species was one of the lowest registered (0.83%) and it was caught only in the South Ligurian Seas and Sardinian waters (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <br/> <br/>In the western north Atlantic, the species is common and widely distributed. It is taken in groundfish trawl surveys (Struhsaker 1969, J. Musick pers. comm., R. Myers pers. comm). VIMS longline survey data show no population trends in CPUE between 1996 and 2003 (Musick unpublished data). NMFS groundfish trawl survey data show no population trends (stable populations) since 1963 in the mid-Atlantic Bight (R. Myers pers. comm). It is less common in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and becomes increasingly rare in the northern Gulf of Mexico. <br/> <br/>Little information is available on the population in the Southwest Atlantic.
63152		threats	eng	<strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>This stingray is taken by demersal trawl, gillnets, longlines, and hook and line (Stehmann 1981). Fishing pressure is intense throughout the range of this coastal ray and it is considered Vulnerable in Rio de Janeiro Municipality (Buckup <em>et al.</em> 2000). Brazil has reported among the highest capture production of elasmobranchs to FAO in recent years (Bonfil <em>et al. </em>2005). Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic and fishing pressure is intense throughout much of the relatively shallow habitat of this species (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). Skate and ray landings in the artisanal fishery in the Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined significantly since the early 1950s (Klippel <em>et al.</em> 2005). One female specimen was recorded in a year?s sampling of the landings of artisanal fleet at Caicara do Norte in northeastern Brazil (Yokota and Lessa 2006). Like many elasmobranch species, anecdotal evidence from interviews with fishermen (from Caiçara do Norte, Rio grande do Norte State, northeastern Brazil) indicate that the <em>D. centroura</em> is more rarely caught now than previously (L. Yokota pers. comm. 2006).   <br/> <br/>Coastal trawling effort is also intense in Argentina, where batoids are an important resource in most demersal trawl fisheries (Tamini <em>et al. </em>2006). A coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates at Quequén (38°37S, 58°50) down to about 60 m depth, in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total capture (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species is apparently only rarely captured in Uruguay (A. Domingo pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Fishery industries tend to show an interest in large dasyatids as a source of minced fish products, implying that exploitation pressure and population depletion may increase in the future. <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species is not targeted in US waters of the Northwest Atlantic and the available data on population trends suggest stable populations off the east coast of the USA. Although there is some bycatch in shrimp and groundfish trawl and bottom longline fisheries (G. Burgess pers. comm.), the impact is considered to be minimal.     <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>In the Mediterranean this stingray is taken as bycatch of the artisanal fisheries, bottom set longline, gillnet and handline (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Benthic trawl effort has increased both effort and efficiency in the shelf and slope areas of the Mediterranean Sea over the last 50 years. The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are highly exploited, with intensive commercial trawling occurring at depths ranging from 50 to 700-800 m (Colloca <em>et al. </em>2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003). As a result there has been increasing concern about changes in the abundance and diversity of elasmobranchs in this region, and decreases in the abundance and biomass of some species throughout the last decade have been reported in highly exploited areas such as the Gulf of Lions (Aldebert 1997, Massuti and Moranta 2003). Although no species specific data are available, the very large size of <em>D. centroura</em> makes it intrinsically vulnerable to population depletion. Given that this species is rarely captured in the Mediterranean, high exploitation of the continental shelf, its intrinsic vulnerability and evidence for declines where data are available in other elasmobranch species within this region, it is suspected to have declined.
63153		conservation	eng	No species specific management or protection is currently in place for this species, except for in the Banc D?arguin National Park, Mauritania where it is protected.
63153		distribution	eng	Patchily distributed in tropical and warm temperate continental shelf waters on the eastern (Portugal to Ambriz, Angola) and western (from Massachusetts State, USA (42°N) to Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (~38°S)) sides of the Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and the Madeira and Canary Islands (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). Rarely reported from the Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). It has a very patchy distribution in the Northwest and Western Atlantic, where it can be locally abundant and appears to be habitat dependent. Adults are common in the mouths of tidal creeks along the Virginia coast, USA (Musick <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). In the 1980?s <em>Gymnura altavela</em> was common and abundant throughout the year on the continental shelf of southern Brazil at depths of 10 to 150 m, being classified as a breeding resident species (Vooren 1997).
63153		habitat	eng	A large, locally abundant, but overall unabundant, inshore batoid with a patchy and discontinuous distribution, found in shallow coastal waters over sand and mud generally to depths of 50 to 55 m (Bini 1967, McEachran and Felchman 1998), although it has been recorded from depths of 10 to 150 m off southern Brazil (Vooren 1997). <br/> <br/>Little is known of its biology. Maximum size is reported as 220 cm disc width (Musick <em>et al. </em>unpub. data) in the Northwest Atlantic; sizes exceeding 400 cm DW reported off the coast of West Africa (Bini 1967) may be erroneous. Size at maturity is reported as 155 cm DW in males and 102 cm DW in females (Daiber and Booth 1960). Aplacental yolksac viviparous reproduction with litter size varying from 2 to 8 depending on geographic location (four pups/litter reported by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) and Bini (1967); 2-6 by Capapé <em>et al.</em> (1992) and 1-3 by Tortonese (1956) for the Mediterranean; up to five per litter in southern Brazil (Vooren unpub. data); and, up to eight by Musick <em>et. al.</em> (unpub. data) for the Northwest Atlantic). Reproduces annually and gestation time is reported as 4 to 9 months (Capapé <em>et al. </em>1992). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is reported as 38 to 44 cm DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran and Carvalho  2002). Age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age, annual rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown.
63153		population	eng	This species is taken annually in the VIMS longline survey at a single site during the summer months, but no population trends are evident from 1996 to 2003 (Musick <em>et al.</em> unpub. data). Historically, <em>Gymnura altavela</em> was not uncommon in the catch of demersal fisheries (trawl and set nets) throughout the Mediterranean and the southern shores in particular. However, it is absent from the whole of the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) records (i.e., since 1994) and it is only the occasional specimens that have been caught in demersal fisheries that testify the species is not extirpated from the region. In southern Brazil it disappeared from beach-seine catches in 2002 to 2003, where it had been historically observed in the 1980s. Also in southern Brazil at latitudes 29°20?S to 33°40?S and depths 10 to 20 m, trawl survey catch rates standardized for groundrope length, and frequency of occurrence, were 16.0 kg/h and 54% in January 1982 (20 trawl hauls), and 0.2 kg/h and 8% in February 2005 (62 trawl hauls). The catches in 2005 were of small juveniles, indicating that reproduction still takes place in that area (Naves and Vooren 2001, Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). The shallow waters of the Banc D?arguin in Mauritania may be a pupping ground (Camara <em>et. al.</em> in prep).
63153		threats	eng	<strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic and fishing pressure is intense throughout the relatively shallow habitat of <em>G. altavela</em> (Bonfil <em>et. al.</em> 2005). Skate and ray landings in the artisanal fishery of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined dramatically since the early 1950s (Klippel <em>et. al.</em> 2005).   <br/> <br/>This species is taken by demersal multispecies trawl, beach-seine and recreational fisheries in southern Brazil (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is noted as a good food fish Figueiredo (1977) and has been landed commercially in southern Brazil from at least 1986 onwards (Araujo and Vooren 1989). The species was frequently observed in beach-seine catches in the 1980s, but had disappeared from these catches in 2002 and 2003 (Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data), and only occurred sporadically in trawl landings in 2002 and 2003. Also in southern Brazil at latitudes 29°20?S to 33°40?S and depths 10 to 20 m, trawl survey catch rates standardized for groundrope length, and frequency of occurrence, were 16.0 kg/h and 54% in January 1982 (20 trawl hauls), and 0.2 kg/h and 8% in February 2005 (62 trawl hauls) (Naves and Vooren 2001, Vooren<em> et al.</em> 2005). This strong decline in abundance is attributed to intense trawl fishing all year round in coastal waters. The catches in 2005 were of small juveniles, which is evidence that reproduction still takes place in that area (Klippel <em>et al. </em>2005, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Intense coastal fishing pressure is continuing throughout its coastal range and the threat is ongoing. The exposure of its coastal habitat to fisheries and its vulnerable life-history characteristics provide little capacity for recovery. <br/> <br/>Coastal fishing pressure is also known to be intense in Argentina, at the southern limit of this species? distribution. This species has occasionally been reported in catches along the coast of Argentina from Rio de la Plata to Quequén and has been reported as irregular in the demersal catches at Mar del Plata (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Batoids are an important resource in most demersal trawl fisheries in Argentina (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). A coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates out off Quequén (38°37?S, 58°50?S), in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total catch (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not reported in a recent study of the bycatch of this fishery (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006), and a lack of historical information prevents a comparison of temporal trends. <br/> <br/>The disappearance of this species from beach-seine catches in southern Brazil 2002 to 2003, where it was previously captured, and the decline of 99% in abundance since 1982 observed in those coastal waters warrant an assessment of Critically Endangered. Fishing pressure is intense throughout its range and it is likely that similar declines have occurred in areas where data are lacking. <br/> <br/><strong>USA</strong> <br/>This species is rarely taken as bycatch and is not commercially targeted in U.S. waters. Data sets from the coastal bottom longline shark fishery, the drift gillnet fishery, and fishery independent sampling (longline) by Virginia Institute of Marine Biology (VIMS) all show very low catch rates and no population trends are evident (Burgess <em>et al. </em>unpublished data, Carlson pers. comm., Musick <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). The occurrence of <em>G. altavela</em> appears to be habitat dependent, with all of the VIMS specimens caught at one station. This may explain its low abundance. It has a relatively wide occurrence on the US eastern seaboard and is only a minimal capture in fisheries in this region. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Historically this species was not uncommon in the catch of demersal fisheries (trawl and set nets) throughout the Mediterranean and the southern shores in particular. In the 1980s it was quite frequently captured in the Sicilian Channel and landed in Mazzara del Vallo (Trapani, Sicily), but now it is absent from the local catch record (M. Vacchi pers. comm). There are no records of <em>G. altavela</em> from the whole of the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS), i.e., since 1994, indicating that it is perhaps absent from most of its former range in the Mediterranean. Occasional specimens turn up serendipitously in the catch of demersal fisheries, for example one adult male was captured in recent years near Anzio, Italy, now deposited in the collection of the University of Naples (Psomadakis <em>et al.</em> 2005) and one specimen captured in the Southern Adriatic in 2000 (Dul?i? <em>et al.</em> 2003) thus testifying that the species is not extirpated from the region. However, its occurrence today is so rare that it must have massively declined in the past 20 years. <br/> <br/>Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in terms of technology in the shelf and slope areas of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), but more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croation, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001). Coastal development, pollution and anthropogenic disturbance through tourism activities are also a threat to its shallow coastal habitat in the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Formerly common all along the west African coast, this species has suffered from fishing pressure, taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls and in artisanal fisheries. Targeted among other benthic sharks and rays, and caught in large mesh benthic gillnets targeting guitarfishes, shrimp trawls and various other benthic gear such as longlines and handlines. There is heavy fishing pressure throughout this species? inshore and shallow water habitat that is unlikely to be reduced in the coming years (M. Ducrocq pers. obs). Although large individuals are still landed sometimes from Mauritania south to Guinea, artisanal fishers and other observers indicate that the abundance has dropped severely and that the median size has been dramatically reduced as most of the adults have been removed by fishing activities (M. Ducrocq pers. obs). Even in the Banc d?Arguin National Park, Mauritania, where it is normally fully protected, the incidental captures consist of more than 90% juveniles and subadults while large individuals were common in the 1980s (M. Ducrocq pers. obs). Pregnant females have been observed in the landings of artisanal coastal fisheries in Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, suggesting that this species is giving birth in coastal shallow waters, where the fishing pressure is intense and is unlikely to reduce in the coming years (M. Ducrocq pers. obs).
63154		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species, and its range is entirely outside protected areas of the Colombian Pacific. Protected areas or special management areas should be developed as a priority. Bycatch levels should also be defined and monitored.
63154		distribution	eng	Shallow coastal waters off southern Colombia from north of Valle del Cauca (5°N) to Nariño (1.8°N) (Mejía-Falla <em>et al.</em> in press). This species has a limited geographic range, with an extent of occurrence of approximately 166,000 km<sup>2</sup>. A lack of specimens means the degree of fragmentation of the population is unknown.
63154		habitat	eng	Occurs in estuarine and coastal waters, sometimes in mangroves, at depths of 1 to 33 m.  Biology is little known.  Three well-developed embryos (two females and one male, each 4.2 to 4.8 cm) were observed in one female of (23.5 cm TL). Carvalho (2001) observed two small late-term pups (both female, >5.0 cm TL) in a female of 20.0 cm TL. Size at maturity in males has been suggested at around 14 cm TL and 18 cm TL (Carvalho 2001).
63154		population	eng	Very little information is available on the population dynamics of this species because it was only recently described in Colombia (Mejía-Falla <em>et al.</em> in press), and was confused with <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> or <em>Discopyge tschudii</em> until 2004.   <br/>   <br/>Direct observations indicate that it has a low abundance throughout its range when compared to other sympatric benthic elasmobranch species, such as <em>Urotrygon</em> spp., <em>Rhinobatos leucorhynchus</em>, <em>Zapteryx xyster </em>and <em>Narcine entemedor</em>.
63154		threats	eng	All of the below information refers to Fundación SQUALUS unpublished data, unless otherwise stated: <br/> <br/>The majority of the coastal range of this comparatively rare species has suffered intense fishing pressure for more than 20 years. <em>N. leoparda</em>?s nearshore coastal distribution coincides with what was the main area of shrimp trawling in the Colombian Pacific. The industrial shrimp trawl fishery now averages 15 days per month (18 hours per day) and has operated for 20 years at 9 to 60 m depth off the Pacific coast of Colombia. Fishing effort was extremely intense during the 1980s and 1990s, however the active fleet has decreased by up to 80% in the past five years because catches have now declined to such low levels that they no longer support the operation of the vessels. Despite this, artisanal fishing pressure remains intense.   <br/> <br/>This species was previously confused with <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> and <em>Discopyge tschudii</em> because it was only recently described and because no country specific species identification keys are available for Colombia, so keys from other nations, such as Peru and Mexico were used. However, neither of these species occurs off Colombia and therefore all records of <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> and/or <em>Discopyge tschudii</em> prior to 2004 can be assumed to refer to <em>N. leoparda</em>. There is some anecdotal evidence that the species may have decreased in abundance from the industrial fishery, however catches in this fishery have generally been very poorly reported. <br/> <br/>It is also taken by the artisanal coastal fishery, utilizing motor or manual propelled canoes and small nets. At least seven communities with 1,000 to 15,000 inhabitants rely on the artisanal fishery operating within the range of <em>N. leoparda</em>. No information is available yet concerning captures of this species in the artisanal fishery, but a monitoring programme has been initiated this year. <br/> <br/>This species has no commercial value and is usually discarded, although the mortality of discards is unknown.
63155		conservation	eng	Surveys of abundance and distribution are required, as are details on fisheries operating within the species' area of occurrence. Bycatch levels in these fisheries need to be defined and monitored.
63155		distribution	eng	Limited distribution, recorded from northern South America in the west central Atlantic, from Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
63155		habitat	eng	Found at depths of 37 to 174 m along the continental shelf. Maximum known size is 51 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) and males mature by at least 50 cm TL. Disc width has been estimated at 70% of total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Oviparous like other skates, but nothing else known of its biology or ecology.
63155		population	eng	Unknown.
63155		threats	eng	Trawling began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). The main trawling fleet predominantly operates on the continental shelf surrounding the Isla de Margarita and north of the Estado Sucre (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). Demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency; 150 vessels were permitted to operate out of the port by the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture (DGSPAMAC) in 1990, each with between 250 to 650 Horse Power (hp), giving a total nominal horse power of 37,500 to 97,500hp (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). In addition an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus spp.</em>) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/> <br/>Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s, from about 150,000 t/year to over 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. <br/> <br/>Intensive trawling also occurs in Trinidad and Tobago's waters (Mohammed and Shing 2003). Bycatch of the shrimp trawl fleet is considerably higher than the target catches. Total bycatch in these fisheries declined from 13,712 t in 1987 to 4,099 t in 2001 and the species composition of this bycatch has not yet been examined (Mohammed and Shing 2003). Data reporting is poor in these artisanal fisheries and official catches for some species, in some areas or time-periods, may under-represent true catches by 200-500% (Medoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/> <br/>Trawl fisheries are also known to operate off Guyana and Suriname, however details on the current effort and depths fished are not available at the present time.   <br/> <br/>Although there no specific data are available, this species is most probably taken as bycatch in these trawl fisheries, operating throughout much of its range. Given the relatively limited distribution of the species, and trawl fisheries operating throughout its range it is suspected current fishing pressure is unsustainable for <em>R. cervigoni</em>.
63156		conservation	eng	Surveys of abundance and distribution are urgently required, as are further details on fisheries operating within the species' area of occurrence. This assessment will need to be revisited once further data are available, and this may show the species qualifying for a threatened category.
63156		distribution	eng	Restricted range off western Venezuela in the Western Central Atlantic (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
63156		habitat	eng	An inshore coastal species reaching 29 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Nothing else known concerning its biology and ecology.
63156		population	eng	Reportedly not common (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
63156		threats	eng	Demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency in Venezuela; 150 vessels were permitted to operate out of the port by the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture (DGSPAMAC) in 1990, each with between 250 to 650 Horse Power (hp), giving a total nominal horse power of 37,500 to 97,500 hp (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In addition an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al. </em>2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. <br/> <br/>Overall temporal trends in reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s, from about 150,000 t/year to over 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Data reporting is poor in these artisanal fisheries and official catches for some species, in some areas or time-periods, may under-represent true catches by 200 to 500% (Medoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species is of great concern given its restricted known range and its occurrence in shallow inshore waters, where coastal artisanal fishing pressure is intense.
63157		conservation	eng	Research to resolve taxonomic issues and determine distribution, population size and life history is required. Monitoring of artisanal fisheries in which the species is taken as bycatch is also required.
63157		distribution	eng	Confusion concerning the geographic range of <em>N. brasiliensis</em> stems from the species being previously considered as a wide-ranging Western Atlantic species from North Carolina, USA to Argentina. Taxonomic revision (Carvalho 1999) has defined <em>N. bancroftii</em> as occurring from North Carolina south to northern Brazil and <em>N. brasiliensis</em> from Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. In spite of this, Gomes and Carvalho (2003) still cite <em>N. brasiliensis</em> as occurring from North Carolina to Argentina. At present, there remains some uncertainty as to the exact range of the two species in Brazil, particularly off northeastern Brazil (M. Carvalho pers. comm). References to <em>Narcine</em> from the northern states of Amapa, Pará and Maranhão are <em>N. bancroftii</em>, while references from Bahia, São Paulo, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul are <em>N. brasiliensis</em>. <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> is also known from Paraíba and Pernambuco states (R. Rosa pers. obs.), however, it is uncertain to which species records from other parts of northeastern Brazil (including Ceará State) belong, but may represent records of <em>N. brasiliensis</em> (M. Carvalho pers. comm).
63157		habitat	eng	Little information available as previously reported data are for <em>Narcine bancroftii</em> (where reported from the Western Central Atlantic and from northern Brazil). A shallow water coastal species, benthic on soft substrates usually at depths less than 40 m. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous but nothing else is known of the biology.
63157		population	eng	Apparently uncommon in Argentina, the southern extent of its range (A. Massa pers. comm.).
63157		threats	eng	Electric rays are sluggish swimmers, with small home ranges, highly localized within an area and concentrating in surf zones adjacent to barrier beaches and on offshore sand bars in warm months and moving offshore in winter (Rudloe 1989), making them susceptible to localized population depletion. <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> is captured as bycatch in coastal trawl and beach seine fisheries. No quantitative data are available on the capture of this species in Brazil and it does not appear to be utilised for food and is discarded, but survivorship rates are unknown. Captures of <em>Narcine</em> spp. in artisanal beach seines appear to have declined during the past decade in Paraíba, northeastern Brazil (R. Rosa pers. obs.), however it is uncertain whether these are <em>N. brasiliensis</em> or <em>N. bancroftii</em>.   <br/> <br/>Skate and ray landings in the artisanal fishery of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined since the early 1950s (Vooren <em>et al. </em>2005). This species is still recorded in Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil and a scientific trawl survey at 7 to 20 m depth between Torres and Chuí in February 2005 recorded <em>N. brasiliensis</em> at a CPUE of 6.48 number/hour (juveniles and adults) (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005), although the proportion of juveniles and adults is unknown. Further information is required on temporal variations in abundance (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/> <br/>Coastal fishing pressure is also known to be intense in Argentina. Batoids are an important resource in most demersal trawl fisheries in Argentina (Tamini <em>et al. </em>2006). A coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates at Quequén, in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total capture (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not reported in a recent study of the bycatch of this fishery (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006), and a lack of historical information prevents a comparison of temporal trends. No information is available on the population of this species in Argentina, where it is uncommon (A. Massa pers. comm). Declines of 98% (95% Confidence Intervals 0.5 to 5%) since 1972 have been observed for <em>Narcine bancroftii</em> in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Shepherd and Myers 2005), as well as similar rates of decline in US coastal waters, between Florida and North Carolina. <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> has a more limited distribution than <em>N. bancroftii</em>, however there is no data to make an accurate assessment of its status at this time. <br/> <br/>Pollution and human disturbance in the coastal zone may also be detrimental to <em>N. brasiliensis'</em> habitat, although no specific information is available.
63158		conservation	eng	Surveys need to better document the distribution and abundance of the species. Any catches (including as bycatch) of the species in local fisheries, particularly shrimp trawl fisheries, need to be examined.  <br/> <br/>The species' occurrence in the Gorgona National Natural Park, Colombia, should afford it some protection.
63158		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong>: Due to the lack of specimens, distribution is not well defined, but it has been recorded from northwestern Costa Rica (R. Robertson pers. comm.), Panama (Golfo de Chiriquí) (R. Robertson pers. comm., Béarez 2000), Colombia (type locality - Isla de Gorgona) (Acero and Franke 1995), Ecuador (Santa Rosa and Puerto Lopez) (Jimenez-Prado and Béarez 2004, P. Béarez pers. comm.), and northern Peru (Puerto Pizarro, Tumbes) (Béarez 2000).
63158		habitat	eng	Holotype was collected from the Eastern Pacific continental shelf at a depth of 70 m (Acero and Franke 1995). No depth or habitat information provided by Béarez (2000) for the Peruvian specimen. Holotype an adult male of 81 cm TL, Peruvian specimen an adult male of 71 cm TL and Ecuadorian specimen a male of 60 cm TL. No information available on the biology or ecology of the species.
63158		population	eng	Apparently not common (R. Robertson pers. comm).
63158		threats	eng	No information is available on any catches (including bycatch) in local fisheries. Shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Panama, and throughout its range (R. Robertson pers. comm).
63159		conservation	eng	None in place. Like other poorly known deepwater chondrichthyans, further information is required on distribution, habitat and biology.
63159		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific: Nazca and Sala y Gomez Submarine Ridges off Peru and Chile (Kotlyar 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
63159		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species of the continental slope and submarine ridges at depths of 630 to 1,100 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reaches at least 61 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous like other etmopterids. Size at birth is reported as <17 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), but no other details are available concerning the ecology or biology of the species.
63159		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
63159		threats	eng	Etmopterids are generally of no interest to fisheries due to their small size, and are usually discarded when caught. Chilean orange roughy fisheries probably operate in the species? area of occurrence, although at present fisheries are operating mostly outside the depth range of this shark. Given the species' very narrow known distribution, bycatch in any fisheries may be of concern, particularly if their operations increased into its depth range.
63160		conservation	eng	None in place. Like other poorly known deepwater chondrichthyans, further information is required on distribution, habitat and biology. Any bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries needs to be monitored.
63160		distribution	eng	Southeast Pacific: Nazca and Sala y Gomez Submarine Ridges off Peru and Chile (Kotlyar 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
63160		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species of the continental slope and submarine ridges at depths of 330 to 763 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reaches at least 45 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous like other etmopterids, but no other details are available concerning the ecology or biology of the species.
63160		population	eng	Restricted known distribution in the Southeast Pacific on the Nazca and Sala y Gomez Submarine Ridges off Peru and Chile (Kotlyar 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Population size is unknown.
63160		threats	eng	Etmopterids are generally of no interest to fisheries due to their small size, and are usually discarded when caught. There is no specific information available on bycatch of <em>E. pycnolepis</em>, but it is likely to be an incidental capture of Chilean orange roughy trawl fisheries. Given the species' very narrow known distribution and apparently limited depth range, bycatch levels need to be defined.
63161		conservation	eng	Research required into the biology and ecology of the species. Further information on fisheries operating within this species? range is required to make a full assessment of its status.
63161		distribution	eng	A deepwater skate occurring in the Western Central and Southwest Atlantic from Nicaragua to northern Brazil (Hulley 1972, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
63161		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental slope at depths of 247 to 960 m. Maximum known size 49 cm TL, males mature at 42 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Nothing else known of the species? biology, but like other skates it is oviparous.
63161		population	eng	Unknown.
63161		threats	eng	While intense trawl fisheries are reported to operate on the continental shelf off the northern coasts of South America (for example, Venezuelan commercial trawl fleet of ~400 vessels in 2003; Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003), there is little information available on slope fisheries in the region. At present it is uncertain if this skate is being taken as bycatch in any deeper water trawl fisheries operating on the slope off northern South America.
63162		conservation	eng	The Galapagos Archipelago is covered by the Galapagos Marine Reserve which includes protected areas. However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking. <br/> <br/>The species was discovered during surveys using manned submersibles (Long and McCosker 1999) as its habitat is unsuitable for more traditional sampling methods (i.e., trawling). Further sampling would help to better define the distribution and occurrence of the species, which given the isolation of the Galapagos Islands, is likely endemic to the Archipelago.
63162		distribution	eng	Likely endemic to the Galapagos Islands in the Southeast Pacific where it has been documented from two sites as per the original species description (Long and McCosker 1999): off Cabo Rosa (01°04.74?S, 91°11.08?W), Isla Isabella and off James Bay (00°26.46?S, 90°19.04?W), Isla San Salvador, Santiago Island.
63162		habitat	eng	Recorded from steep slopes around the Galapagos Islands at depths of 757 and 907 m (Long and McCosker 1999). The holotype and largest known specimen was an immature male measuring 38.5 cm TL (Long and McCosker 1999). Like other skates is oviparous but nothing else is known of the species? biology.
63162		population	eng	Known only from two records as per the original species description (Long and McCosker 1999).
63162		threats	eng	Fishing activities around the Galapagos Archipelago are mostly limited to the coastal zone, although pelagic longlining also occurs. The habitat of this species (steep rocky volcanic slopes) is unsuitable for trawling, and demersal deepwater fisheries are not presently operating within its range.
63163		conservation	eng	Further studies of the biology and reproduction of this species in the Southwest Atlantic are needed. This species has been listed as a species threatened with over-exploitation on Annex II of the Brazilian federal law of Threatened and Overexploited Aquatic Species since 2004 (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Also the prohibition of trawl fishing within three nautical miles from the coast of southern Brazil is now being enforced satisfactorily. However, the species is still caught as bycatch in the legally permitted coastal gillnet fisheries and offshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. It is recommended that the species is protected throughout its inshore range along the Southwest Atlantic coast of South America, particularly in areas of critical habitat and areas where the adult population still exists. A management plan is being considered for development for this species in the Bahía San Blas Reserve (Anegada Bay, Argentina).
63163		distribution	eng	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> has a broad but disjunct distribution in littoral and sub-littoral waters, primarily in subtropical to warm temperate regions around the main continental landmasses, except in the eastern and central Pacific (Compagno 1984, 2001; Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is not known from deepwater, unlike <em>Odontaspis ferox</em>.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic subpopulation</strong>: in the Southwest Atlantic <em>C. taurus</em> ranges from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (21°S) to San Matías Gulf, Argentina (41°30’S) (Menni 1986, Soto 2001).
63163		habitat	eng	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> generally occurs in warm-temperate and subtropical waters, ranging from the surf zone and shallow bays to approximately 200 m depth on the outer continental shelf. The species is most usually found on or near the bottom in reef areas but may occasionally occur in midwater or at the surface (Compagno 1984). Embryonic oviphagy and intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in this species and only two large pups are produced per litter every second year (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983, Goldman 2002, Goldman <em>et al</em>. in press). As a result, annual rates of population increase are very low, greatly reducing its ability to sustain fishing pressure. Size at birth is about 95 to 105 cm TL (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/> <br/>Maximum size attained is 300 to 320 cm TL (females) and 220 to 270 cm TL (males) (Compagno 2001). Age and size at maturity varies regionally. Age at maturity is reported at 7.7 years (females) and 4.5 years (males) in the Southwest Atlantic by Lucifora (2003). Lucifora (2003) reports size at maturity in the Southwest Atlantic as 218 to 235 cm TL (females) and 193 cm TL (males). Longevity is estimated at 18.3 years in females and 12.8 years in males in the Southwest Atlantic (Lucifora 2003). <br/> <br/>Average reproductive age is 17.1 yrs from demographic analysis (Goldman 2002). Natural mortality is M<sub>Hoenig</sub> = 0.205, M<sub>Jensen</sub> = 0.211 and M<sub>Pauly</sub> = 0.198 from analyses from the Southwest Atlantic (Lucifora 2003).
63163		population	eng	Morphometric and meristic analysis indicate that the Southwest Atlantic subpopulation is a probable “closed group” with common characteristics, but not a distinct species (Sadowsky 1970, Compagno 2001). Although there is no information on the population size of <em>C. taurus</em> in the Southwest Atlantic, past and present fishing pressures have led to significant declines in catches (see Threats section below).
63163		threats	eng	Because this species typically inhabits shallow inshore areas it is rarely, if ever caught by large-scale industrial fisheries operating on the high seas. However, its nearshore distribution makes it susceptible to small-scale multi-species and artisanal fisheries as well as recreational fisherman, spearfishers and shark control programs. As a bycatch in other fisheries it is often reported as unidentified shark or not reported at all and as such the extent of the impact that these fisheries have had on <em>C. taurus</em> is unknown for most of its geographic range. Consequently this species could be at a high risk of unrecognized depletion in many countries. <br/> <br/>The sand tiger is not subjected to directed fishing in South America, but nevertheless does have commercial value (including the jaws) as a non target catch in benthic trawling and gillnet fisheries and is harvested throughout its regional range by commercial, artisanal and recreational (mainly in Argentina) fishing (Chiaramonte 1998, Nion 1999, Lucifora<em> et al.</em> 2002). Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic and coastal fishing pressure is intense in this region (Bonfil <em>et. al. </em>2005). The exposure of its coastal habitat to fisheries and its vulnerable life-history characteristics provide little capacity for recovery. <br/> <br/>Captures of <em>C. taurus</em> from Central-North Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined dramatically throughout the 1980s and 1990s from a CPUE of 11.7 to 0.3 sharks per 1000 meters of net (Soto 2001) (a decline of approximately 97%). In Rio Grande do Sul <em>C. taurus</em> were fished with gillnets during the 1980s, at which time the species was considered abundant and could be captured in aggregations (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). However there are no records of the species from monitoring of the shore based fishery during the summer of 2003, and the species occurred in only 3 of 43 fishing trips (11 individuals captured in total) by the Passo de Torres gillnet fishery monitored during November-March 2005 (Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). Vooren <em>et al</em>. (2005) note that this species is now considered rare in this area and that the scarcity of recent records of neonates is of great concern. Adult <em>C. taurus</em> can still be found inshore along the coast between Tramandaí and Saint Simão (30 to 31°S) (Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). Although no information exists on the population size of <em>C. taurus</em>, fishing pressure is intense and continuing within its coastal habitat off southern Brazil. Large aggregations of <em>C. taurus</em> were also systematically wiped out in Santa Catarina state, Brazil, by spear fishermen in the 1970s and 1980s. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay, this species has been taken for over 50 years by the artisanal fleet. Captures increased in the late 1970s, mainly in summer, reaching a peak in the mid 1980s. Thereafter there was a continued decline, with catches decreasing from 784 kg per fishing day in 1985 to 32 kg per fishing day in 2001 (A. Domingo pers. obs). Only occasional captures are recorded from 2000 to the present. There are also occasional captures in the trawl net and longline fisheries. <br/> <br/>Lucifora (2003) estimated that 889 sharks (CI 95%=625 to 1,140) were captured by anglers during three consecutive summers (1999-2001) in Anegada Bay, Argentina. Out of 175 sharks observed, 153 suffered serious injuries of the internal organs caused by hooks. Crespo and Corcuera (1990) report extensive damage to shark catches in gillnets by marine mammals (sea lions bite out the belly of entangled sharks and eat the liver).
63164		conservation	eng	The Galapagos Archipelago is covered by the 133,000 km² Galapagos Marine Reserve which prohibits industrial fishing but allows artisinal fishing (Wood 2007). However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking. <br/> <br/>The species was discovered during surveys using manned submersibles as its habitat is unsuitable for more traditional sampling methods (i.e., trawling) (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further sampling would assist in better defining the distribution and occurrence of the species, which given its shallow depth range (for a <em>Hydrolagus</em>) and the isolation of the Galapagos Islands, is likely endemic to the Archipelago (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006).
63164		distribution	eng	Likely endemic to the Galapagos Islands in the Southeast Pacific where it has been documented from four sites as per the original species description (Barnett<em> et al.</em> 2006): Cabo Douglas, Fernandina Island (01°17.53'S, 91°38.85W), Isla Española (01°18.53'S, 89°45.40'W), Marchena Island (00°24.00'N, 90°26.50'W) and San Cristóbal Island (01°5.98'S, 89°12.24'W).
63164		habitat	eng	Observed within a few meters of the seafloor on steep slopes around the Galapagos Islands at depths of 396 to 506 m, "within a few meters of the seafloor" (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006). Barnett <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported habitat as igneous boulders, cobbles and pebbles. Largest of the type specimens was an immature female of 38.1 cm TL, 27.4 cm PCL and 21.1 cm body length (BDL) (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006).
63164		population	eng	Known only from nine records as per the original species description (Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2006).
63164		threats	eng	Fishing activities around the Galapagos Archipelago are mostly limited to the coastal zone, although pelagic longlining also occurs. rocky substrate inhabited by this species is unsuitable for trawling, and demersal deepwater fisheries are not presently operating within its range.
63165		conservation	eng	The only known source of exploitation of the Grey Gummy Shark is the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery. This is a limited entry fishery, where fishing effort is regulated by the use of unitized time-gear access.   <br/> <br/>Shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26º30’S) in 1993. This is thought to offer a significant refuge for this species.
63165		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Grey Gummy Shark is known to be wider than previously reported (Last and Stevens 1994, 2009; R. McAuley unpubl. data). Catches have been verified from Perth in Western Australia, north to off Darwin in the Northern Territory (Last and Stevens 2009, R. McAuley unpubl. data). The Townsville (Queensland) occurrence reported as 'possible' in Last and Stevens (2009) is questionable.
63165		habitat	eng	The Grey Gummy Shark occurs at depths of 100–300 m. There is very little information about the life history characteristics of the Grey Gummy Shark available in the published literature. Unpublished research data show that females mature at 83 cm fork length (FL) and grow to at least 101 cm FL. These data indicate that this is likely to be a fairly productive species, with litter sizes of between 6 and 24 (mean=18).
63165		population	eng	No information is available on population size or structure of the Grey Gummy Shark.
63165		threats	eng	The Grey Gummy Shark is a minor component of the bycatch in the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery - probably less than 4 tonnes per year (R. McAuley unpubl. data). It is not targeted in Western Australia and has not been recorded from the Pilbara Fish Trawl (PFT) fishery despite extensive sampling (Stephenson and Chidlow 2003).
63166		conservation	eng	None currently in place. The implementation of the National Plan of Action under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks will assist in enacting measures for the conservation of this and other elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of this species is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary. <br/> <br/>Future management may involve hard decisions affecting communities adjacent to these areas.
63166		distribution	eng	Known only from Sumatra to at least Lombok in eastern Indonesia.
63166		habitat	eng	Caught in water depths of typically <60 m, on relatively soft sandy substratum (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Females attain a larger maximum size (93 cm TL) than males (84 cm TL) and males mature at about 71 cm TL compared to 74 to 76 cm TL for females. The litter size of a number of pregnant females ranged from 4 to 13 with the largest embryos 22 cm TL (W White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Age compositions, growth rates and diet not known. <br/> <br/>Age at maturity unknown. Size at maturity 74 to 76 cm total length (TL) (females), 71 cm TL (males) (White, unpubl. data). Longevity unknown. Maximum size 93 cm TL (female), 84 cm TL (male) (White, unpubl. data). Largest <em>in utero</em> embryos 22 cm TL with no external yolk sac (White, unpubl. data). Average reproductive age unknown. Gestation time unknown. Reproductive periodicity unknown. Average annual fecundity or litter size:  4 to 13 embryos per litter (White, unpubl. data). Annual rate of population increase unknown. Natural mortality unknown.
63166		population	eng	Largest quantities taken in southern Bali.
63166		threats	eng	This species is a common component of the small-scale demersal gillnet fishery for batoids operating out of Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali and also caught in low but regular numbers off Sumatra, Java and Lombok. Approximately 60% of the catches of this species consist of immature individuals, thus a large number of rays that have not had prior opportunity to reproduce are being landed on a regular basis at the landing site of Kedonganan in Jimbaran Bay (Bali) (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Although there are little or no trawling close inshore around Bali and Lombok, trawlers do operate in other parts of its range. The low numbers of this species observed in Java may be a result of overfishing from fishing methods such as trawling in the past, but without past baseline data on species and catch compositions of elasmobranchs in this region this cannot be confirmed. <br/> <br/>The limited extent of occurrence of this species, particularly in the context of the fact that this region has a very high level of exploitation of marine resources (which is only likely to increase), is a major concern for this species and future monitoring is extremely important. Destructive fishing practices and pollution are also significant factors affecting marine resources in the region.
63167		conservation	eng	None currently in place. The implementation of the <em>National Plan of Action</em> under the <em>FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks</em> will assist in enacting measures for the conservation of this and other elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of this species is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary. <br/> <br/>Future management may involve hard decisions affecting communities adjacent to these areas.
63167		distribution	eng	Known only from off Bali and Lombok in eastern Indonesia. Restricted extent of occurrence of <20,000 km². May occur further east into Nusa Tenggara and possibly west into Java with additional sampling.
63167		habitat	eng	Demersal on the upper continental shelf, <60 m depth on relatively sandy substratum (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Females attain a larger maximum size (93 cm TL) than males (82 cm TL) and males mature at about 70 cm TL. The litter size of four pregnant females ranged from 6 to 11 with the largest embryos 12.5 cm TL (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Age compositions, growth rates and diets not known. Age at maturity unknown. Size at maturity ~70 cm total length (TL) (male). Longevity unknown. Maximum size 82 cm TL (males), 93 cm TL (female) (White, unpubl. data). Size at birth unknown. Average reproductive age unknown. Gestation time unknown. Reproductive periodicity unknown. Average annual fecundity or litter size:  four pregnant females had 6 to 11 embryos (White, unpubl. data). Annual rate of population increase unknown. Natural mortality unknown.
63167		population	eng	Common in gillnet catches off Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali. Only several observed in eastern Lombok (White, unpubl. data) and unknown elsewhere.
63167		threats	eng	This species is a common component of the small-scale demersal gillnet fishery for batoids operating out of Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali. Approximately 50% of the catches of this species consist of immature individuals, thus a large number of rays that have not had prior opportunity to reproduce are being landed on a regular basis at the landing site of Kedonganan in Jimbaran Bay (Bali) (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>There is little or no trawling close inshore around Bali and Lombok, thus pressure from this fishing practice is not a factor for this species. However, since the actual extent of occurrence of this species is not fully understood, it may be under more severe fishing pressure in other areas with more heavily fished waters, e.g., east Java. <br/> <br/>The seemingly small geographic range of this species is of concern, particularly in the context of the fact that this region has a very high level of exploitation of marine resources. Destructive fishing practices and pollution are also significant factors affecting marine resources in the region.
63168		conservation	eng	Removal of invasive alien trees is benefiting this species. Avoidance of trout restocking also appears to benefit the species. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63168		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa and confined to the Cape Fold mountains (Western Cape).
63168		habitat	eng	Clear mountain streams with deposition pools. High, rocky, montane streams partially fringed with trees (Samways 2006).
63168		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but the population is apparently stable at present.
63168		threats	eng	Probably the synergistic effects of invasive alien trees, agricultural activity around streams, and introduced trout  are threat to the species (Samways 2006).
63169		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63169		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on population status, range, habitat and threats.
63169		distribution	eng	Endemic to Zambia, but not to the southern Africa region. It has a localised distribution (Pinhey 1984a). It is a conspicuous species and should have been recorded more than it has been so far. Known from nine collections from nine localities, five of these occurring within the region (upper Zambesi catchment).
63169		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has a wide range within and outside the central Africa region.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, but might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola as well. It has a localised distribution (Pinhey 1984a). It is a conspicuous species and should have been recorded more than it has been so far. The species is known from nine collections from nine localities, four of these occurring in the Congo catchment.
63169		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Angola.<br/><br/>It has a wide range both within and outside the central Africa assessment region. It is present in Zambia but might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola as well.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species has a localised distribution (Pinhey 1984a). It is a conspicuous species and should have been recorded more than it has been so far. It is known from nine collections from nine localities, five of these occurring within the region (Upper Zambezi catchment).
63169		habitat	eng	At streams and pools, and in woodland on sandy loam (Pinhey 1984a).
63169		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63169		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
63170		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
63170		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen, collected in 1965 from Teixeira da Sousa (locality is uncertain) in the upper Congo catchment, eastern Angola. Endemic to central African region of Angola.
63170		habitat	eng	Small streams and rivers, based on the biology of the genus.
63170		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
63170		threats	eng	No information available.
63171		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
63171		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region, being present in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
63171		habitat	eng	Clear montane streams with long grass and bushes on the banks (Samways 1999).
63171		population	eng	Locally abundant.
63171		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.
63172		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
63172		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population size, habitats and threats.
63172		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63172		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from the upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia. According to current collection data the entire range falls within the southern Africa region, but all collections are all from the border between Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo and it is inferred that the species also occurs there (outside the region). Therefore not recorded as endemic to southern Africa here. Its global range is Zambia and is also noted for the Shaba province, Democratic Republic of Congo (Pinhey 1984a), but the collection in Shaba is not confirmed.
63172		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Katanga province, southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Pinhey 1984a).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from two locations in Katanga Province in Democratic Republic of Congo.
63172		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia and is also noted for the Shaba province, Democratic Republic of Congo (Pinhey 1984a), but the collection in Shaba is not confirmed. There four new records from southwest Angola (near to Tundavala; Tarboton pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from north west Zambia, Katanga in Democratic Republic of Congo, along both sides of the north west Zambia-Democratic Republic of Congo border.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the upper Zambezi catchment, north-west Zambia. According to current collection data the entire range falls within the southern Africa region, but all collections are all from the border between Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo and it is inferred that the species also occurs there (outside the region). Therefore not recorded as endemic to southern Africa here.
63172		habitat	eng	Reedy streams (Pinhey 1984a).
63172		habitat	eng	Reedy streams (Pinhey 1984a); open swampy grasslands (Tarberton, pers. comm.).
63172		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
63172		threats	eng	Unknown.
63173		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. Currently there are no specific or envisaged conservation measures in place (Samways 2006).
63173		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from a few pans in Ndumo Game reserve, northern Zululand, South Africa (Samways 2006). It is highly likely to occur across the border in Mozambique; its occurrence there has still to be confirmed.
63173		habitat	eng	Pools and pans with an abundance of grasses, reeds and lilies, and with fringing thick bush (Samways 2006).
63173		population	eng	At its only known sites, the species occurs in small numbers (Samways 2006).
63173		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are natural threats, especially drought. Future threats may include agricultural disturbance (Samways 2006).
63174		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63174		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63174		conservation	eng	Unknown.
63174		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin), Okavango and Kwando Rivers in Botswana and Namibia, and is likely to also occur in western Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin) and Democratic Republic of Congo.
63174		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin), Okavango and Kwando Rivers in Botswana and Namibia, and is likely to also occur in western Zambia and Angola. Also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, its range does not extend far outside the region.
63174		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin), Okavango and Kwando Rivers in Botswana and Namibia, and is likely to also occur in western Zambia and Angola. It is not endemic to the southern Africa region as defined for the freshwater species assessment (by basin areas), but its range does not extend far outside the region.
63174		habitat	eng	Swampy rivers with reeds.
63174		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63174		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
63175		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Continued searches for the species are essential.
63175		distribution	eng	This is a South African endemic species known only from a few specimens from two localities in eastern South Africa. Only one female of the species has been rediscovered since 1968, collected from near its type locality (Badplaas, Mpumalanga) in 2002 (Samways 2006).<br/><br/>
63175		habitat	eng	Meandering open rivers and streams, with abundant marginal vegetation.
63175		population	eng	Current population size is unknown (it is known from only a few specimens), but the population may be declining. It appears to have a very localised distribution, with subpopulations probably awaiting discovery (Samways 2006).
63175		threats	eng	It is not clear why this species is so rare. It may be that alien trout species have played a role in this. It has not been rediscovered at the "Drakensberg" locality  since its collection there in 1948 and only one specimen (a female) was found at the type locality in 2002. It is possible that livestock farming, damming of streams, invasive alien trees, and trout together may impact on this species, potentially aggravating its susceptibility to drought and flood (Samways 2006).<br/>    <p> &#160;    </p>
63176		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
63176		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Orange River Basin in South Africa, and most probably also Namibia (but it has not yet been recorded there).
63176		habitat	eng	Found at perennial rivers.
63176		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63176		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
63177		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place at present. Taxonomic work and surveys to identify the extent of the species' range is needed also research into population numbers and range, threats, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
63177		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It has only been encountered along the middle Kavango River on Namibian territory so far, but surely exists also in Angola because the Kavango River is the border between the two countries (Suhling <em>et al</em>. submitted).
63177		habitat	eng	Large river species. Found mainly at sections with reedy or open banks.
63177		population	eng	Very abundant along the river. May have benefited from forest degradation along the banks of the Kavango River.
63177		threats	eng	No major threats to the species are currently known.
63178		conservation	eng	In South Africa, further searches for populations are required. Elsewhere in the species' range, no conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present. Taxonomic research is certainly needed as well as research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63178		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region. Subspecies <em>ruberrima</em> has only been recorded from northern Natal, but it is likely to also occur in Mozambique. Subspecies <em>albifrons</em> occurs in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle in Botswana and Namibia.
63178		habitat	eng	Found in swamps.
63178		population	eng	Current population size or trends are not known.
63178		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. The subspecies <em>albifrons</em> seems to not be threatened at present, however the status of subspecies <em>ruberrima</em> is uncertain and the taxon may be threatened due to habitat loss as a result of urbanisation and drought.
63179		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
63179		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa.
63179		habitat	eng	At well vegetated and shaded streams with pristine or near pristine banks (Samways 1999).
63179		population	eng	Locally abundant.
63179		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the population at present.
63180		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
63180		distribution	eng	This is a widespread South Africa endemic species.
63180		habitat	eng	Found in riverine pools and sluggish reaches of rivers.
63180		population	eng	Locally abundant.
63180		threats	eng	Currently there are no known threats to the species.
63181		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.
63181		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the upper Zambezi catchment (three records) in eastern Angola and northwest Zambia. Listed from Tsuda for Democratic Republic of Congo. More data are required to confirm whether this is more widespread than currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Zambia, and an unconfirmed record for Democratic Republic of Congo by Tsuda. It may be endemic to this region.
63181		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the upper Zambezi catchment (three records) in eastern Angola and north-west Zambia. More data are required to confirm whether this is more widespread than currently known. Presence in Democratic Republic of Congo is unlikely and requires confirmation.
63181		habitat	eng	Swampy forest or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984). No other information on specific habitat is known.
63181		population	eng	No information available.
63181		threats	eng	No information available.
63182		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63182		distribution	eng	This is an South African endemic species, restricted to Kwazulu-Natal, eastern Cape and the Limpopo province.
63182		habitat	eng	Pools and marshes with abundant reeds.
63182		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
63182		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
63183		conservation	eng	None. Population trends should be monitored.
63183		conservation	eng	Not needed although research into population trends would be valuable.
63183		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Democratic Republic of Congo only.
63183		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Democratic Republic of Congo record needs confirmation.
63183		habitat	eng	Edge of large pools and meandering streams. In Namibia mainly at large reservoirs. Benefits from the constructions of dams inoperennial rivers.
63183		habitat	eng	Edge of large pools and meandering streams. In Namibia mainly at large reservoirs. Benefits from the constructions of dams in perennial rivers.
63183		population	eng	Unknown.
63183		threats	eng	No known threats.
63183		threats	eng	No threats known.
63184		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
63184		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South African montane areas.
63184		habitat	eng	Found in well vegetated, small, clear highland streams.
63184		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
63184		threats	eng	No information available.
63185		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
63185		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the South African Cape.
63185		habitat	eng	Well-vegetated stream, river and pool margins at low altitude.
63185		population	eng	Locally abundant.
63185		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
63186		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on population size, range, threats, and habitat status.
63186		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
63186		distribution	eng	Globally, it is recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, north-east Angola (Congo Basin), north west Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and north Zambia (Congo Basin).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Angola, and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from only one record from north-west Zambia, upper Zambezi catchment. However, most records are from outside the region.
63186		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from only one record from northwest Zambia, upper Zambezi catchment. However, most records are from outside the region. Globally, it is recorded from northeast Angola (Congo Basin), northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and north Zambia (Congo Basin). It is also likely to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.
63186		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northeast Angola (Congo Basin), northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and north Zambia (Congo Basin) and southern Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, and likely to be present within northern Angola.
63186		habitat	eng	Swamps near streams (Pinhey 1984a).
63186		population	eng	No information available.
63186		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63186		threats	eng	Current threats are not known.
63186		threats	eng	No information available.
63187		conservation	eng	Known from Popa Falls Reserve, and probably also Victoria Falls National Park. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
63187		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region. Occurs at large rivers in the Zambezi and Okavango River Basins in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Known from 15 records in ten localities, most occurring close to each other.
63187		habitat	eng	Rivers with gallery forest. Adults seen among shrubs and trees (F. Suhling and J. Kipping, pers. comm.)
63187		population	eng	There are only few records of this species so far. It may be rare, but also may be overlooked.
63187		threats	eng	The species may be affected by rainforest degradation, but more information is needed to confirm the effects of this threat on the population.
63188		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
63188		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
63188		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> This species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kambowe) and northern Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Angola but more data are needed to confirm this.
63188		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. May also occur in Angola but this needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kambowe) and northern Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in<br/>Angola but more data are needed to confirm this.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it is known only from north-west Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo but more data are needed to confirm this. The extent of occurrence is well below 20,000 km².
63188		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
63188		population	eng	No information available.
63188		threats	eng	Deforestation.
63188		threats	eng	No information available.
63189		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
63189		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63189		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
63189		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the species is known from the upper Zambezi River Basin (northwest Zambia and eastern Angola) and the Okavango Delta (Botswana). It occurs both within and outside the region. Globally, it is known from northern Zambia, eastern Angola and Botswana. It may also occur in DRC, but this has to be confirmed.
63189		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, eastern Angola (Okavango Delta) and Botswana. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, but this has to be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Zambia, and it may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, but this has to be confirmed.
63189		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola, Botswana. Presence in Democratic Republic of Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species is known from northern Zambia, eastern Angola (Okavango Delta) and Botswana. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, but this has to be confirmed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the upper Zambezi River Basin (north-west Zambia and eastern Angola) and the Okavango Delta (Botswana). Also possibly occurs in Namibia. It occurs both within and outside the region.
63189		habitat	eng	Shaded, swampy streams or reedy channels.
63189		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. Although there have been intense searches, the species has not been seen in Botswana over the last 25 years.
63189		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.
63189		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for tsetse fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.
63189		threats	eng	No information available.
63190		conservation	eng	Known to occur within some protected areas (e.g., west Caprivi Park, Morami Game Reserve). Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63190		conservation	eng	Known to occur within some protected areas (e.g., west Caprivi Park, Morami Game Reserve). More research needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
63190		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, it is known from the Okavango swamps and panhandle and Kwando River in Botswana and Namibia, and also northern Zambia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa. Globally, it is known from the Congo Basin in Angola (Dundo), Lake Bangweulu Basin in Zambia, Botswana, and Namibia.
63190		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from the Congo Basin in Angola (Dundo), southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Bangweulu Basin in Zambia, Botswana, and Namibia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia; also reported  in northern Angola.
63190		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Congo Basin in Angola (Dundo; however, although this is the type locality, the actual locality is uncertain), southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Bangweulu Basin in Zambia, Botswana, and Namibia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Angola and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the Okavango swamps and panhandle and Kwando River in Botswana and Namibia, and also northern Zambia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa.
63190		habitat	eng	Rivers with swampy or reedy fringes.
63190		population	eng	Locally abundant.
63190		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. Water extraction and wetland habitat loss may have some effect, but the effects on the population are not known.
63190		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. Water extraction and wetland habitat loss may have some effect on populations but these are not known.
63191		conservation	eng	The removal of invasive alien trees, especially <em>Acacia</em> species, is proving to be immensely beneficial and this work needs to continue (Samways 2006). Stopping further loss of natural forest is critical and further searches for the species are also required (Samways 2006). The species occurs in several reserves.
63191		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to South Africa. At present, it is known from isolated localities from Franschhoek (Western Cape) to Tsitsikamma Forest (western Cape and eastern Cape). The recent information (February 1999: Franschhoek) is encouraging and the small population there appears to have re-established as a result of removal of alien trees (Samways 2006).
63191		habitat	eng	Clear, forest streams with sunflecks and deposition zones. Indigenous bushes overhanging the water are essential to oviposition sites (Samways 2006).
63191		population	eng	Although its known area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km², the population appears to have stabilised (Samways 2006).
63191		threats	eng	Plantation forestry coupled with loss of natural forest appears, at least historically, to have been a major threat. Today, the impact of invasive alien trees shading out perching and oviposition sites appears to be the most major impact (Samways 2006).
63192		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
63192		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tundavala, southwest Angola, from the type specimens, one male and one female collected in 1973. The area has never been surveyed (collection made opportunistically).
63192		habitat	eng	No information given. Possibly montane running waters.
63192		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63192		threats	eng	No information available.
63193		conservation	eng	Policy-based actions, increasing awareness and research into biology and ecology, conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the species would all be valuable. Habitat protection is also required for this species.
63193		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It occurs in South Africa and Namibia (Samyways 1999, Tarboton and Tarboton 2002, Martens <em>et al</em>. 2003).
63193		habitat	eng	Occurs in small mountain streams with pools. Larvae seem to live mainly in pools and in South Africa the species seems to profit from damming of small streams.
63193		population	eng	The species seems to be split into three subpopulations, two in South Africa (several inhabited localities) and one small subpopulation in Namibia. It is most likely extinct at two out of the three known localities, as it has not been seen there for more than 80 years.
63193		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is the major threat to the species. In Namibia, groundwater extraction was most likely the reason why two subpopulations were lost.
63194		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are currently in place but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
63194		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It occurs in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
63194		habitat	eng	Swift montane streams and rivers with dense bank vegetation and bushes (Samways 1999).
63194		population	eng	No information available.
63194		threats	eng	Currently, no threats to the species are known.
63195		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
63195		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. It occurs in the Highveld grasslands.
63195		habitat	eng	Grassy verges of seeps, ponds and slow-flowing streams.
63195		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63195		threats	eng	No information available.
63196		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat, and threats.
63196		distribution	eng	This species is known from five collections from two sites in northeastern Zambia (one of which is the type locality) and from one site in Democratic Republic of Congo. Localities are close to each other. It might occur in northern Angola as well.
63196		habitat	eng	Remnant swamp forest or riparian bush (Pinhey 1984a).
63196		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63196		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
63197		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63197		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
63197		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63197		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 records and eight localities (all very close together) in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur across the border in Angola. Globally, it is known from Angola (Congo Basin), Congo Kinshasa and Zambia.
63197		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it is known from Angola (Congo Basin), Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.
63197		distribution	eng	The species is known from Angola (Congo Basin), Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 records and eight localities (all very close together) in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur across the border in Angola.
63197		habitat	eng	Streams fringed by bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984).
63197		habitat	eng	Streams fringed by bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984a).
63197		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known. It seems to be locally abundant in the area where it has been recorded.
63197		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. It seems to be locally abundant in the area where it has been recorded.
63197		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown but it may be threatened by forest destruction although no data are available to confirm this.
63197		threats	eng	Unknown. May be threatened by forest destruction, but no data are available to confirm this.
63198		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
63198		distribution	eng	In central Africa, this species is endemic to northern Zambia, but occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola is assumed. It is probably just within central Africa.
63198		habitat	eng	Streams and pools in grassland or scattered bush.
63198		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63198		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
63199		conservation	eng	Further research into the species ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63199		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63199		conservation	eng	Unknown.
63199		distribution	eng	All records are from the upper Zambezi, north west Zambia and Angola and from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, northern Angola.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, all records are from the upper Zambezi River catchment in north-west Zambia. There are a few additional records from northern Angola (outside the region). It is expected to be more common in the Congo system.
63199		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, all records are from the upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia. There are a few additional records from northern Angola (outside the region). It is expected to be more common in the Congo system. Globally, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola.
63199		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> All records are from the upper Zambesi, north west  Zambia and Angola and from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola; those for Zambia are outside the region, but presence within the region might be assumed.
63199		habitat	eng	Forested streams or gallery forest.
63199		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63199		population	eng	Unknown.
63199		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown, but deforestation is a potential threat.
63199		threats	eng	No information available.
63199		threats	eng	Unknown. Potentially deforestation.
63200		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63200		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three records in two localities within the southern Africa region; the Upper Catumbela River and the upper Kunene River catchment in southern Angola. The locality of the species on which the original description is based is unknown; only given as "Angola". This species has often been confused with <em>P. hageni tropicanum</em>.
63200		habitat	eng	Specific habitat is unknown. It is most likely to occur in streams.
63200		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63200		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown. Deforestation is inferred as a potential threat.
63201		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or recommended at present.
63201		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South African, occurring at well-wooded or forest rivers.
63201		habitat	eng	Occurs at well-wooded or forested streams and rivers.
63201		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63201		threats	eng	No serious threats are known to be currently affecting this species.
63202		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or envisaged. However, conservation of catchments through the removal of alien invasive trees is clearly beneficial for this species and research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring would also be valuable.
63202		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. Two populations are known; one in the Western Cape, and one in the eastern Cape. It appears to have disappeared from Kwazulu-Natal, Drakensberg.
63202		habitat	eng	Montane streams and rivers, with undisturbed fynbos margins. Clear, fast, hard-bottomed rivers in treeless river valleys (Samways 2006).
63202		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but the population appears to be stable at present.
63202		threats	eng	Invasive alien trees are the most important threat. Agricultural activities that cause river siltation and pollution and alien fish may also be a threat.
63203		conservation	eng	Although not threatened at present, removal of bank vegetation should be prevented (Samways 1999).
63203		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa.
63203		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in open and wooded country (Tarboton and Tarboton 2005), with well-vegetated banks (Samways 1999).
63203		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trends.
63203		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.
63204		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
63204		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region. It mainly occurs in swampy areas in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia. It may also occur in Mozambique.
63204		habitat	eng	In reedy swamps and woodland close to such swamps.
63204		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
63204		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
63205		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
63205		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable..
63205		conservation	eng	Research needed.
63205		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia. Current range information suggests it is endemic to Zambia, but not to the southern Africa region (as defined by river basin areas); most records fall outside the region. It is known from only four sites, one of which is within the southern Africa region. Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present. Globally, it is known only from north and northwest Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River basins).
63205		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin and upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba). Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo are assumed presence in Angola.
63205		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from north and northwest Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River basins). Katanga and Zambia only.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo Basin and upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba). Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia. Current range information suggests it is endemic to Zambia, but not to the southern Africa region (as defined by river basin areas); most records fall outside the region. It is known from only four sites, one of which is within the southern Africa region. Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present.
63205		habitat	eng	Rivers fringed with bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984a).
63205		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63205		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
63205		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown. It is not known if deforestation would be a problem for this species.
63206		conservation	eng	Details have been relayed to the Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife who are employing conservation measures where possible, and interacting with Richard's Bay municipality. Further sites need to be located, and leaving the margin of Lake Umsingazi intact and avoiding mowing margins of nearby lakes at Richard's Bay would contribute greatly to the conservation of this subspecies (Samways 2006).
63206		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to South Africa. The only known persistent populations are only in the Richard's Bay area, KwaZulu-Natal, with only individual specimens recorded at Cape Vidal and Sodwana Bay (Samways 2006). The record from the Limpopo Province (Pinhey 1984b) appears to be <em>P. coelestis coelestis</em> (Samways 2006).
63206		habitat	eng	Swampy river courses and natural coastal lakes. This subspecies inhabits pools and seeks shade from the midday sun, while the nominate subspecies is present in more open, riverine habitats (Samways 2006).
63206		population	eng	Population size is unknown, however the population appears to now be stable.
63206		threats	eng	<em>Pseuagrion coelestis umsingaziense</em> has been threatened by urban development, including building and drainage, and the mowing of lake margins. It is also subject to El Niño drought/wet cycles (Samways and Taylor 2004).
63207		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place, however further searches for strong populations are urgently needed. The taxon occurs in the Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park. Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63207		distribution	eng	This subspecies has only been encountered in northern Kwazulu-Natal, but it may also occur in Mozambique. The other subspecies, <em>albifrons</em>, occurs in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle in Botswana and Namibia. These may turn out to be separate species and further taxonomic work is required on these taxon.
63207		habitat	eng	Found in swamps, marshes and pans.
63207		population	eng	Population size is unknown, but the subspecies is declining.
63207		threats	eng	The subspecies <em>ruberrima</em> is very susceptible to natural fluctuations in water levels. In addition, it is threatened due to industrial development in the Richard's Bay area. There is circumstantial evidence that it has also suffered from predation from a newcomer to its habitat, the damselfly <em>Aciagrion </em>cf.<em> zambiense</em>.
63208		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
63208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa, known only from South Africa and Zimbabwe.
63208		habitat	eng	Found in and around wooded and forested streams (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002). Open, clear upland rivers  (Samways 1999).
63208		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
63208		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown. Pollution and disturbance of rivers are potential threats.
63209		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63209		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.
63209		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northeast and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> One location in northern Zambia within the central African region, and a single record for Democratic Republic of Congo.
63209		distribution	eng	The species is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo (assumed) and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from one location in northern Zambia within the central Africa region. Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from Zambia, with three records within the southern Africa and one record from outside the region. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known.
63209		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Zambia, with three records within the southern Africa and one record from outside the region. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known.
63209		habitat	eng	In grassy swamps (Pinhey 1984).
63209		habitat	eng	In grassy swamps (Pinhey 1984a).
63209		population	eng	Populations size and trends are unknown.
63209		threats	eng	Current threats are not known. Wetland degradation may be affecting the species, but there are not enough data available to confirm this at present. Pesticide spraying to control <em>Tetse </em>fly occurs around every three years in the Botswana part of the Okavango and this may also affect the species, but again, more data are required to confirm this.
63209		threats	eng	Current threats are not known. Wetland degradation may be affecting the species, but there is not enough information available to confirm this at present. Pesticide spraying to control tsetse fly occurs around every three years in the Botswana part of the Okavango and may also affect the species.
63210		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
63210		distribution	eng	The species occurs in south and coastal Angola, northwestern Zambia (upper Zambezi River) and in the Okavango System in Namibia and Botswana.
63210		habitat	eng	Swampy fringes of streams and rivers.
63210		population	eng	No information available.
63210		threats	eng	No information available.
63211		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, habitat status, population status, conservation measures, trends/monitoring, and threats.
63211		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa region. Most of the known population occurs In the Okavango Delta and Panhandle (most recently recorded in 2006). It also is recorded from one record from the Zambezi River area.
63211		habitat	eng	Found in and around swamps.
63211		population	eng	Can be locally common (Kipping pers. comm.).
63211		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are unknown. Wetland degradation and insecticide spraying for tsetse fly control in the Okavango Delta are potential threats.
63212		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place or planned at present.
63212		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It occurs in Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with only one old record in South Africa (Kruger National Park).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.
63212		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with only one old record in South Africa. Also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it occurs in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with only one old record in South Africa (Kruger National Park).
63212		habitat	eng	Mainly at larger rivers (e.g., Zambezi River, Limpopo River, Okavango River). Savannah rivers with marginal grassland (Samways 2006).
63212		habitat	eng	Mainly at larger rivers (e.g., Zambezi River, Limpopo River, Okavango River). Savanna rivers with marginal grassland (Samways 2006).
63212		population	eng	Locally common (e.g., at the Zambezi River).
63212		threats	eng	None known at present.
63213		conservation	eng	Research is on taxonomy to confirm whether this is a valid species. If it is, then further research will be needed on range, population status, habitat and threats.
63213		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Upper Okavango catchment in Angola.
63213		habitat	eng	Most likely rivers or streams. No detailed information is available.
63213		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
63213		threats	eng	Specific current threats are unknown. Deforestation is quite extensive in the Upper Okavango catchment and this may be a threat.
63214		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are planned at present. Taxonomic research is urgently required. Further research into the species population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is also needed.
63214		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63214		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from west Angola (near the Democratic Republic of Congo border), through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, and northern South Africa (Waterberg and Soutpansberg ranges).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northwest Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.
63214		distribution	eng	This species is apparently endemic to the southern Africa region. It has been recorded from west Angola (near the Democratic Republic of Congo border), through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, and northern South Africa (Waterberg and Soutpansberg ranges).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it has been recorded from west Angola (near the Democratic Republic of Congo border), through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, and northern South Africa (Waterberg and Soutpansberg ranges).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is likely to occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo but there is no data available.
63214		habitat	eng	At streams among rushes and long grasses. Grassy-fringed, slow rivers with partial canopy (Samways 2006).
63214		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. However, throughout its wide range it is unlikely to be declining at a rate that would qualify it for a threatened category.
63214		threats	eng	Current threats are not known.
63214		threats	eng	In South Africa, threats include poor forestry practice of planting into the riparian zone and allowing proliferation of invasive alien bushes and trees (Samways 2006). Elsewhere in the range, current threats are not known.
63215		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Research is required on taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63215		distribution	eng	The subspecies <em>albifrons</em> occurs in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle, and in Linyanti swamps in Botswana and Namibia. Its extent of occurrence is not much larger than 20,000 km².
63215		habitat	eng	Found in swamps and marshes.
63215		population	eng	Actual population size is unknown, but the species is uncommon. Trends are unknown.
63215		threats	eng	Specific threats to this subspecies are unknown. However, potential future threats in the Okavango Delta may be water extraction and wetland habitat loss. More information is needed on specific current threats.
63216		conservation	eng	Occurs within the protected areas of Hottentots-Holland Reserve, Kogelberg Nature Reserve, Cedarberg Nature Reserve and&#160; Table Mountain National Park. Alien invasive trees are being removed from parts of the species' range and this is proving effective. These activities should continue. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63216		distribution	eng	South African western Cape endemic. A record of <em>E. frenulata</em> from southwest Angola belongs to a different, undescribed species (see <em>Elattoneura</em> sp.). Known only from the Hawequas Mountains in the Western Cape. Around half the range occurs outside protected areas and half within protected areas. The range area is restricted.
63216		habitat	eng	Sluggish reaches of rivers with well-vegetated banks.
63216		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown. This is a locally common species.
63216		threats	eng	Alien predatory fish (e.g., trout, bass), alien invasive trees (e.g., <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>) and human encroachment on habitats outside of reserves through urbanization are known threats to the species.
63217		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63217		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63217		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia; mainly Zambezi and Okavango River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.
63217		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia. Likely also to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia. It mainly occurs in the Zambezi and Okavango River systems.
63217		habitat	eng	Swamps and swampy rivers
63217		habitat	eng	Swamps and swampy rivers.
63217		population	eng	No information available.
63217		population	eng	Unknown.
63217		threats	eng	No information available.
63217		threats	eng	Unknown.
63218		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
63218		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa, occurring in highveld grassland areas.
63218		habitat	eng	Lentic waters with floating vegetation such as <em>Myriophyllum</em>, including reservoirs with trout.
63218		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
63218		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
63219		conservation	eng	Further searches are urgently required, but the chances of relocating it appear to be ever slimmer. The removal of alien invasive trees is very beneficial for this species and should continue. Research into habitat status, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
63219		distribution	eng	Previously this species was known only from the type locality (Sevenweeks Port, Western Cape, South Africa), where it was collected between 1932 and 1936; and from one female, which was taken at Franschhoek in 1962 (Pinhey 1984b). Between 1962 and 2003, the species was not rediscovered despite intensive searches throughout the Western Cape between 1993 and 2000. A suggestion that it occurred in the Hermans area was not confirmed, and indeed streams in this area have undergone major disturbance in recent years. In November 2003, the species was rediscovered at a new site (on the Dutoitsriveier near Villiersdorp) where invasive alien trees have been removed.
63219		habitat	eng	Pools in braids of streams with abundance of sedges.
63219		population	eng	Few individuals have been recorded (Pinhey 1984b). The only known extant population has fewer than 50 individuals (Samways <em>et al.</em> 2005).
63219		threats	eng	This species appears to face multiple threats, including loss of habitat due to cattle farming and plantation forestry, overgrowth of riverbanks by alien invasive trees (Samways and Taylor 2004), groundwater abstraction and possibly canalization of streams and predation from an alien trout.
63220		conservation	eng	More research is needed on taxonomy (underway), population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
63220		distribution	eng	This species is known from one collection (the type locality) in the Okavango panhandle (Kipping 2006), and one collection from Victoria Falls (material collected by Pinhey in the 1960s; Djikstra, pers. comm.).
63220		habitat	eng	Large, forest fringed rivers.
63220		population	eng	May be a rare species. It has not been found despite searches. More surveys are required.
63220		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown. Deforestation of riverine forest is a potential threat.
63221		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States, where it is known from 32 counties in six states.
63221		habitat	eng	Small, sandy-bottomed ponds with waterlillies.
63221		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
63221		threats	eng	Beaches and associated human activity along with withdrawal of ground water causing habitat to disappear.
63222		conservation	eng	Two sites in the United States are in National Forest. One canyon probably is well protected, except for the impacts from established exotic species (NatureServe 2006).
63222		distribution	eng	Santa Catalina Mountains of Arizona, United States and apparently Jalisco, Mexico. These areas are about 1,500 km apart and the Mexican specimens are a little different (NatureServe 2006).
63222		habitat	eng	Splash pools with smooth rock linings and areas with large boulders near streams edge in isolated canyons in arid areas.
63222		population	eng	Fluctuating (Westfall and May 1996). Previously only two known U.S. populations. New populations have been found in various areas of Cochise and Santa Cruz counties in Arizona (Garrison pers. comm.).
63222		threats	eng	Varying precipitation conditions (Westfall and May 1996). Substantial habitat has apparently been rendered useless, probably permanently, by exotic crayfish at the best known site and this probably has also happened, or soon will, rangewide. Apparent variation between two known populations in the Santa Catalinas suggests long isolation and possibly small size or severe genetic bottlenecks. Numbers noted as variable from year to year. Probably no gene flow between populations. <br/> <br/>Streams might go dry or be impacted by a tropical storm, etc. It is unclear how serious the ecological sink effect resulting from continued oviposition in formerly suitable downstream habitat is (NatureServe 2006). It is unclear whether habitats at one U.S. canyon site or in Mexico are similarly affected by exotic crayfish (NatureServe 2006).
63223		conservation	eng	Searches for more <em>Ophiogomphus</em> populations in Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia are required (NatureServe 2006).
63223		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States. Known from eastern Louisiana and western Mississippi (Mauffray 1997, Carle 1992).
63223		habitat	eng	Small rivers with gravel substrate.
63223		population	eng	Known from maybe 50 miles of stream, probably thousands in each of the three streams (NatureServe 2006).
63223		threats	eng	Limited range and susceptibility to pollution and perturbation of stream flow.  Gravel mining, siltation, pesticides, and clear cutting/deforestation.
63224		distribution	eng	United States (New Mexico, Texas) and Mexico (Nuevo Leon).
63224		habitat	eng	Small streams and seepages.
63225		conservation	eng	All occurrences of <em>A. rhoadsi</em> in Texas are in protected areas; occurrences in such areas in Mexico have not been documented.
63225		distribution	eng	This species occurs in six states in Mexico and in Texas - McKinney County, Fort Clark Springs and Hidalgo County, McAllen - in the United States of America.
63225		habitat	eng	Species found in dense herbaceous vegetation at border of slow streams, often associated with spring runs. Also found during rainy season in Mexico at isolated rain pools, unusual habitat for <em>Argia</em>.
63225		population	eng	<em>A. rhoadsi</em> is a locally common species found in many populations.
63225		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
63226		conservation	eng	Conservation actions on forest preservation and control of water use are needed.
63226		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to only three of the Cyclades Islands: Andros, Tinos and Naxos (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
63226		habitat	eng	The species is found in mountain brooks (headwaters) and spring areas.
63226		population	eng	Nineteen localities over 15 brooks have been reported from Naxos, Tinos and Andros Islands in Greece. Some of these have recently been found to be dry.
63226		threats	eng	The main threats are drought periods in relation to climate change, water harnessing for human use and forest fires. Another threat posed might be over-collection.
63227		conservation	eng	At Delphi, a good understanding of the water pathway in the karst-type mountain is required. The area of the Kastalian spring is now efficiently closed and collecting is no longer a threat, but a water caption device has been installed in the downstream brook for olive tree irrigation, so that the brook was dry at mid elevation in July 2008. Any large scale cleaning-out of the spring and brook should be prohibited but giving restricted access for the purpose of monitoring is needed.
63227		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from only one locality; the sacred Kastalian spring in the ancient Delphi archaeological site (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
63227		habitat	eng	The subspecies reproduces in the structures of the ancient Kastalian spring, where females were seen during egg deposition and where exuviae (moulted skins) were collected, and possibly in the downstream brooklet, which has only few water.
63227		population	eng	The population of this species is very low - about ten adults have been observed during single visits.
63227		threats	eng	The main threat is cleaning-out of the sacred Kastalian spring at Delphi, the single known locality of <em>C. h. kastalia</em>. The population is so small that collection could be a threat.
63228		conservation	eng	Known populations occur within the Parque Nacional Canaima. Studies are needed to establish population density and trends and to confirm the species' distribution.
63228		distribution	eng	Tepuis (Guyana shield) in Venezuela and Guyana.
63228		habitat	eng	Streams at 1,000 to 2,400 m.
63228		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
63229		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas.
63229		distribution	eng	Tepuis (Guyana shield) in Venezuela and Guyana.
63229		habitat	eng	Streams at 300 to 1,300 m.
63229		population	eng	Unknown.
63229		threats	eng	None at present.
63230		conservation	eng	Known localities are not present within protected areas. Surveys to study biology, trends and evaluate threats are necessary.
63230		distribution	eng	Occurs in Ecuador (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2005).
63230		habitat	eng	Habitat includes spring seeps and streams in Montane rainforest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); breeding habitat and larva unknown.
63230		population	eng	This species is known from only two locations (none being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
63230		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
63231		conservation	eng	Studies are needed to estimate population density, ecology and habitat preferences, as well as to confirm the presence of the species in protected areas.
63231		distribution	eng	Valparaiso, Metropolitana, Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucanía and De Los Lagos regions in Chile, and western strip of Neuquén Province in Argentina.
63231		habitat	eng	Forest streams in canyons.
63231		population	eng	Unknown.
63231		threats	eng	Habitat modification through introduced fish, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use.
63232		conservation	eng	Likely present in protected areas (Parques Nacionales Nahuelbuta, Vicente Perez Rosales and Puyehue).
63232		distribution	eng	Occurs in Medial half of Chile: Atacama, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Metropolitan, Maule, Biobío, Araucania and O’ Higgins regions (von Ellenrieder 2005).
63232		habitat	eng	This seems to be the most common and widespread <em>Phyllopetalia</em> species in Chile, being very abundant in collections. Flight is recorded as close to water surface (Dunkle 1985, Jurzitza 1989), and linear at about 0.5-1 m above the water surface (G. Fleck pers. comm. 2004), following narrow streams within forest and along forest paths and streets. Flight period extends from September to February according to available collection data (von Ellenrieder 2005).
63232		population	eng	A common species found throughout its large range.
63232		threats	eng	Habitat modification through introduced fish, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use (Carle 1996).
63233		conservation	eng	Studies needed to estimate population density, ecology and habitat preferences, as well as possible category of threat and to confirm presence in protected areas.
63233		distribution	eng	Central third of Chile, from Valparaiso Region south through Metropolitana, Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucania to De Los Lagos Region.
63233		habitat	eng	Forest streams and seeps in valleys.
63233		population	eng	Unknown.
63234		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63234		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola and known only from the Kwanza river system (Kwanza River and Lucala River).
63234		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63234		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63234		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
63235		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63235		distribution	eng	Present in Kwanza, Kunene, Okavango river systems. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River and Kunene River (Caculovar River) systems.
63235		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63235		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63235		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
63236		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63236		distribution	eng	Known only from the Kunene river system; the type locality is assumed to be in this system.
63236		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63236		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63236		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63237		conservation	eng	None known.
63237		conservation	eng	The species has little protection.
63237		distribution	eng	<em>Rhabdalestes maunensis</em> is known from the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue river systems (Skelton 2001). Patchily distributed in the upper Zambezi; it is apparently absent from northern tributaries but present in headwaters of the Kafue at Mwekera (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63237		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Rhabdalestes maunensis</em> is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems. A similar, possibly identical species (<em>Rhadalestes rhodesiensis</em>) occurs in the Zambian Congo system (Lakes Bangweulu and Mweru, and Luapula River).
63237		habitat	eng	<em>Rhabdalestes maunensis</em> is a pelagic species. It shoals in shallow, vegetated marginal and floodplain habitats.  It appears to prefer a swampy environment to open water (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on small aquatic insects and other invertebrates. This species is a partial spawner, breeding during high-water periods (Skelton 1993). It is known to migrate up rivers and on to floodplains during flood season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Its preferred habitats are streams and mangroves.
63237		habitat	eng	This species is rarely found in the main channel of the upper Zambezi river, patchily distributed on the floodplain but more common in small streams (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). It feeds on small aquatic insects and other invertebrates. A partial spawner breeding at high water (Skelton 2001).
63237		population	eng	No information available.
63237		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed but locally common.
63237		threats	eng	None known.
63237		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
63238		conservation	eng	No information available.
63238		conservation	eng	None.
63238		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Lake Malawi and its affluent rivers, the Shire River, Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta. also present in the Rufiji basin (Paugy 1984).
63238		distribution	eng	Widespread and common in the lower Zambezi, upper Shire and Lake Malawi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.
63238		habitat	eng	Common in most affluent rivers as well as sheltered inshore weedy areas of the lakes.  Occurs in shoals in the marginal vegetation of rivers and lakes. Feeds on small insects and invertebrates.<br/>It is a small fish species, not exceeding 5 cm in length and ususlly less than 4 cm.
63238		habitat	eng	Margins of larger streams, rivers and lakes. Often associated with the fringes of marginal vegetation.
63238		population	eng	Locally common.
63238		population	eng	No information available.
63238		threats	eng	None.
63238		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is degradation of habitat due to increased sedimentation load.
63239		conservation	eng	None
63239		conservation	eng	None known.
63239		conservation	eng	Surveys to determine conservation status in the middle Zambezi and biological studies aimed at understanding declines are needed.
63239		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Distichodus mossambicus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from Dundo, Luachimo River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Kariba, middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi rivers (Mozambique). The records of the Congo River basin need to be re-examined though.
63239		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Lower Shire River and its tributary Ruo River, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Middle and Lower Zambezi as well as Pungwe and Busi systems
63239		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River and its tributary Ruo River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi river systems.
63239		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus mossambicus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits swift flowing water, rapids or quiet, deep, sandy or rocky pools (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is only found in the mainstream of larger rivers and even in Lake Kariba prefers more riverine habitats.  Omnivorous, feeds on insects, snails, small fish, and aquatic plants.  Breeds in summer, moving upstream to suitable sites (Skelton 2001). It prefers rivers and lakes in tropical climate.
63239		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus mossambicus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits swift flowing water, rapids or quiet, deep, sandy or rocky pools (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is only found in the mainstream of larger rivers and even in Lake Kariba prefers more riverine habitats. Omnivorous, feeds on insects, snails, small fish, and aquatic plants. It breeds in summer, moving upstream to suitable sites (Skelton 2001). It is caught in gill nets in the Shire and Ruo rivers throughout the year in small quantities. Also recorded as a popular angling fish.
63239		habitat	eng	Mainly occurs in the main river channels.  Feeds on a wide variety of food i.e. insects, snails, small fish and aquatic plants.  In the summer, it moves upstream to suitable sites to breed. Caught in gill nets in the Shire and Ruo rivers throughout the year in small quantities.  Also recorded as a popular angling fish.
63239		population	eng	In southern Africa, it is never as common as <em>D. schenga</em> and has declined in the middle Zambezi reaches since the two major dams were constructed.
63239		population	eng	No information available.
63239		population	eng	Unknown
63239		threats	eng	It has minor importance as a commercial species, and is possibly threatened by overfishing. It has declined in parts of the middle Zambezi in Zimbabwe, probably through the effects of damming.
63239		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing.
63239		threats	eng	The species has minor commercial importance.
63240		conservation	eng	No information available.
63240		conservation	eng	Unknown. Population trends should be monitored.
63240		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River and its tributaries Ruo River, Malawi. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Busi systems.
63240		distribution	eng	This species is found in Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the lower Shire River and its tributaries Ruo River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi river systems.
63240		habitat	eng	Normally restricted to main river chanels.
63240		habitat	eng	Normally restricted to main river channels over both rocky and sandy substrates. One of the most abundant species in the lower Zambezi.
63240		population	eng	Population size not known
63240		population	eng	This species is abundant in the lower Zambezi - one of the major species in the artisanal fishery. It has declined in Lake Kariba since early impoundment.
63240		threats	eng	In eastern Africa this species is threatened by overfishing, and siltation and regression of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.
63240		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are overfishing and siltation and regresion of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.
63241		conservation	eng	The species has little protection.
63241		distribution	eng	Known from the Upper Zambezi and Kafue river systems, as well as the Cunene and Okavango Rivers, and recently recorded from the Middle Zambezi above Lake Kariba (Skelton 2001). Absent from northern tributaries of the Zambezi in Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63241		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide variety of shallow habitats including main river channels, flowing tributaries and drying pools, but absent from rocky stretches. In main river channels it is restricted to shallow sites out of the main current such as behind sand bars and in vegetated areas (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63241		population	eng	Fairly common and widely distributed.
63241		threats	eng	None known.
63242		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63242		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kunene River (Kuili River) and Okavango River (Cubango River) systems.
63242		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63242		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63242		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63243		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63243		distribution	eng	Known only from its type locality in the Kunene River system in Angola.
63243		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63243		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63243		threats	eng	Presence of a dam on the main river limiting any migration/movement to upstream.
63244		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63244		distribution	eng	Apparently restricted to the Kataba River and its tributary, the Sianda stream, a small tributary system of the Upper Zambezi, which it joins on the eastern side of the Barotse Floodplain. Thorough sampling in other streams in the area, including another site on the Kataba River and targeting the known habitat, did not yield any specimens.
63244		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams associated with seasonally flooded plains (dambos) bordered by open woodland. Occurs in and under dense floating mats of vegetation adjacent to the stream margin and in dense emergent vegetation. Feeds on tiny aquatic invertebrates.
63244		population	eng	Apparently rare, no estimate of population size is available. The type series has six specimens, while only 19 specimens were caught at the type localities (only two from the Sianda stream) in three surveys in 2003/04 (Winemiller and Kelso-Winemiller 1993, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63244		threats	eng	The Sianda River is canalised, probably to aid drainage for agriculture on the floodplain. Two channels merge at the culvert through the road across the dambo, forming a stream only 1.5 m wide and up to 70 cm deep. The area is lightly inhabited at present but increasing human population, leading to intensification of agriculture, together with deforestation of the woodland bordering the dambos, and possible pollution by fertiliser and herbicides, is likely to threaten the habitat. The Kataba River is larger but is also canalised upstream of the type locality. No <em>N. lozii</em> were found in the canalised section. The river faces the same threats as the Sianda stream.  <br/> <br/>The Kataba flow is sustained by a large headwater swamp. Reduction in flow due to groundwater abstraction is a potential threat, although not in the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>No alien invasive fish species currently occur in the system, but <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> (L.) is considered a major threat and likely to invade from the Zambezi, having been introduced to fish ponds in the catchment.
63245		conservation	eng	River health and water conservation programmes are needed to ensure healthy estuarine conditions.
63245		distribution	eng	South-west to south-east African coastal systems. Ranging from Namibia to at least Maputo, Mozambique.
63245		habitat	eng	Present in open and closed estuaries, lower reaches of some large rivers just above estuary heads and some permanent coastal, freshwater lakes.
63245		threats	eng	High salinities in estuarine systems have resulted in mass mortalities. Salinity increases are often due to over-extraction of water from upper catchments.
63246		conservation	eng	None known.
63246		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is a common benthopelagic species restricted to central and southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Lualaba River, Lake Upemba and the Luapula-Mweru system. Elsewhere, it is known from the upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene and Kafue Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is widespread in the upper Zambezi river system and also in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue and Congo river systems (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63246		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is known from the Lualaba River, Lake Upemba and the Luapula-Mweru system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene and Kafue Rivers.
63246		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in a variety of habitats, including the main Zambezi River channel, swamps, lagoons, pools scoured out below road culverts, and in small tributaries distant from the floodplain. It occurs in quiet, well-vegetated waters where it feeds from the surface or on small invertebrates living on plant surfaces (Skelton 1993, 2001). <em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> requires well oxygenated waters and is usually not found in small or headwater streams (Bell-cross and Minshull 1988). Rarer in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63246		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in quiet, well-vegetated waters where it feeds from the surface or on small invertebrates living on plant surfaces (Skelton 1993). <em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> requires well oxygenated waters and is usually not found in small or headwater streams (Bell-cross and Minshull 1988).
63246		population	eng	A common species wherever it occurs. Total population size is not known.
63246		population	eng	No information available.
63246		threats	eng	Although there are threats of overfishing in the Luapula-Mweru system and mining activities in the Katanga region, given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the Zambezi floodplains, there are no major threats to this species.
63246		threats	eng	None known.
63247		conservation	eng	Needs study
63247		distribution	eng	Kei and Mbashe river systems, Eastern Cape.
63247		habitat	eng	Little known.
63247		population	eng	Not known.
63247		threats	eng	Alien fish and habitat destruction
63248		conservation	eng	None.
63248		distribution	eng	Low-veld regions of larger east-coast rivers from the Zambezi (Mozambique) south to Mkuze in Kwazulu-Natal (South Africa). Inland, the identity of specimens in the middle Zambezi (Zambia and Zimbabwe) and lower Shire (Malawi) needs to be studied.
63248		habitat	eng	Prefers slower flowing, often vegetated sections of rivers and streams. Is also present in marginal, isolated lagoons in floodplains and artificial dams.
63248		threats	eng	None.
63249		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63249		distribution	eng	The species complex has a wide distribution from highveld Limpopo to upland Kwa-Zulu Natal, Transkei, middle and upper Orange River. Also, large coastal rivers in Eastern and Western Cape such as Olifants, Gourits, Gamtoos, Sundays and Great Fish (Skelton 2001).
63249		habitat	eng	Prefers cooler waters, occurring in a wide variety of habitats from small streams to large rivers and lakes. Associates with cover such as fallen logs, brushwood or marginal vegetation. Breeds in summer when rivers are swollen after rain. Lays adhesive eggs in vegetation. Larvae hatch in three days and begin to swim and feed after 6 to 7 days. Omnivorous, feeding on insects, zooplankton, seeds, green algae and diatoms. Preyed on by larger fish and birds (Skelton 2001).
63249		population	eng	Widely distributed and common.
63249		threats	eng	Alien fish and habitat changes.
63250		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63250		distribution	eng	Present in the Kwanza River, Catumbela River (Cuiva River) and Kunene river systems of Angola.
63250		habitat	eng	It inhabits pools and riffles in clear rocky streams. Feeds on aquatic and adult flying insects and takes trout flies.
63250		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63250		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
63251		conservation	eng	In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.
63251		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range for this species is needed, as well as its biology and ecology. In Zambia, its known distribution falls partially within the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.
63251		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is a widespread benthopelagic species within central and southern Africa. <em></em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed but rare in the upper Zambezi floodplains (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), found only in one northern tributary system, the Mwombezhi. It also occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, and southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001).
63251		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from  the Cunene, Okavango, and upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001). <em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is closely related to, possibly the same as <em>Barbus annectens</em>.
63251		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits shallow calm waters amongst vegetation, along the river edge (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Ripe adults were caught undertaking upstream migration on a possible spawning run in mid summer after the first rise in water level (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
63251		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits shallow calm waters amongst vegetation, along the river edge (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ripe adults were caught undertaking upstream migration on a possible spawning run in mid summer after the first rise in water level (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
63251		population	eng	No information available.
63251		population	eng	This species is rare in the main Zambezi channel and not found on the floodplains (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Abundance elsewhere is unrecorded.
63251		threats	eng	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat, there are no major threats to this species.
63251		threats	eng	None known.
63252		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63252		distribution	eng	Type locality is the Upper Zambezi River at Nyakesya, very close to the source of the river. A reported record from the Kabompo River is almost certainly the similar, undescribed species <em>Barbus</em> sp. 'bellcrossi cf.' Reports from other northern Zambezi tributaries need confirmation as museum specimens have been lost.
63252		habitat	eng	The Zambezi at the type locality is a strongly flowing forested stream about 10 m wide with clear, brown-tinged water.
63252		population	eng	Given uncertainties in distribution, the population is unknown.
63252		threats	eng	None at present.
63253		distribution	eng	Present in Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in the Longa River and Kunene River systems. Reported from the Okavango River system (Skelton 2003).
63254		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63254		distribution	eng	Species described from Angola and occurring in the Upper Kwanza river system (Cuemba River).
63254		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in small rivers. Biology is not known.
63254		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63254		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63255		conservation	eng	Improved forestry industry and farming practices through conservancies and law enforcement. Improved water quality / substrate quality is needed for spawning beds.
63255		distribution	eng	Upper catchments of the Blyde, Incomati, Mbuluzi and Phongolo Rivers in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Swaziland. There are many isolated populations.
63255		habitat	eng	Cool water, perennial, rocky mountain streams. May spawn in gravel beds rather than vegetation.
63255		threats	eng	Sedimentation from forestry plantations, effluent spills from paper mills and water extractions.
63256		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63256		distribution	eng	Species present in the Catumbela, Balombo, and Kunene River systems in Angola.
63256		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but it prefers upper reaches. Biology is not known.
63256		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63256		threats	eng	Threats are not known in the Catumbela River system.
63257		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63257		distribution	eng	Species native from Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Lucala River and Cunje River).
63257		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63257		population	eng	Population size is not known..
63257		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63258		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63258		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Catumbela and Kwanza river systems.
63258		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63258		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63258		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
63259		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63259		distribution	eng	Species native from Angola where it occurs in the Lower Kwanza river system (Lucala River).
63259		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
63259		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63259		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63260		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63260		distribution	eng	Known only from Angola, where it occurs in the Upper Kwanza river system (Cuemba River).
63260		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the upper reaches. Biology is not known.
63260		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63260		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63261		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63261		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it is known from its type locality: Lower Kwanza river system.
63261		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63261		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63261		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63262		conservation	eng	The species has liitle protection. Alien fish monitoring and possible control is needed.
63262		distribution	eng	KwaZulu-Natal from Umtamvuna River northwards to the Amatikulu, north of the Tugela basin (Skelton 2001).
63262		habitat	eng	Occurs in clear streams in the sandstone belt. Favours pools, where it is frequently the only fish species present apart from eels. Feeds on aquatic insects and other small invertebrates and falls prey to eels, birds and otters (Skelton 2001).
63262		population	eng	A common species.
63262		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to alien fish predation.
63263		conservation	eng	Unknown.
63263		distribution	eng	Described from the upper Pungwe River. Known only from the type locality. Various other records are considered as dubious identifications and need to be verified.
63263		habitat	eng	Not known.
63263		threats	eng	Unknown.
63265		conservation	eng	Control of the use of fish poisons and mining activities are needed in Mozambique.
63265		distribution	eng	Upper Buzi River system in central-western Mozambique and central-eastern Zimbabwe. Possibly in the adjacent Pungwe River. Surveys are needed to confirm this. Records from AMG and NMZB need to be verified.
63265		habitat	eng	Upper catchment streams, usually rocky substrates with fast water flows.
63265		threats	eng	Poisoning of upper catchments by subsistence fishermen. Gold exploration resulting in high sedimentation and mercury pollution.
63266		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of the populations.
63266		conservation	eng	None known.
63266		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus mattazi</em> is known from Kando, the Nyundeulu River (tributary of the Lualaba) and from the Lualaba River, Upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from the Limpopo system in Zimbabwe and Transvaal and headwater reaches of the Gwai (Zambezi system) in Zimbabwe. It has been recorded once from the Kwando in Angola (upper Zambezi system) and from the Quanza and Cunene, Angola.
63266		distribution	eng	This species is known predominantly from the Congo river basin, extending south to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus mattozi</span> is known from Kando, the Nyundeulu River (tributary of the Lualaba) and from the Lualaba River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River and Cunje River) and Kunene River (Cubangamua River) systems.
63266		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus mattazi</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Naturally it is occurring in large pools of cooler perennial rivers; thrives in man-made impoundments. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> is an active predator which feeds initially on small planktonic crustaceans and insects; later it feeds on small fishes when they are larger. It also feeds on water lily seeds. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> is preyed upon by birds, otters, large catfish and large papermouths. It  migrates upstream with the first summer flood to spawn. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> matures after 3 years (Skelton 1993).
63266		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus mattozi</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Naturally it is occurring in large pools of cooler perennial rivers, it also thrives in man-made impoundments. It is an active predator which feeds initially on small planktonic crustaceans and insects; later it feeds on small fishes. It also feeds on water lily seeds. <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus mattozi</span> is preyed upon by birds, otters, large catfish and large papermouths. It migrates upstream with the first summer flood to spawn.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Barbus mattozi </span>matures after three years (Skelton 1993).
63266		population	eng	No information available.
63266		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63266		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
63266		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Further threats are unknown.
63267		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63267		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Cuvo River and Upper Kwanza river systems.
63267		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the upper reaches. Biology is not known.
63267		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63267		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63268		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63268		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola: Kwanza River (at Cambambe) and Bengo River (at Cabiri and Lake Kilunda).
63268		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
63268		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63268		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63269		conservation	eng	The species has little protection at present although it occurs in some game reserves.
63269		distribution	eng	Coastal streams of the Eastern Cape from Great Fish River to the Krom (Skelton 2001). Also recorded from tributaries of the Vaal, although this population needs taxonomic review.
63269		habitat	eng	Occurs in pools in clear rocky streams, often with emergent marginal vegetation. Feeds on aquatic insects. Breeds in summer, breeding pairs laying eggs in the vegetation.
63269		population	eng	Widespread in the Eastern Cape but very patchily distributed as a result of alien fishes, particularly American bass species.
63269		threats	eng	The species is threatened in some rivers by alien fishes.
63270		conservation	eng	None known.
63270		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some reserves. More research is required into its biology and ecology.
63270		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus poechii</em> is known from the upper Zambezi system and Kafue River; as well as the Cunene and Okavango systems. The taxonomic status of this species is uncertain (Skelton 2001). One record has been made from the Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, identified by Poll, M. in 1965. This record has to be checked though.
63270		distribution	eng	This species is known largely from southern Africa  - Angola, Zambia Botswana and Namibia, possibly extending into Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> One record has been made from the Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, identified by Poll, M. in 1965. This record has to be checked though.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus poechii</em> is known from the Cunene, Okavango and upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001), with few records for Middle Zambezi (Balon 1974).
63270		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus poechii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in riverine and floodplain habitats, frequently in association with the striped robber (<em>Brycinus lateralis</em>), and also caught in gillnets in open waters of main river channels and open lagoons (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Barbus poechii</em> feeds on insects and small organisms. Used as bait for tigerfish (Skelton 1993).
63270		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus poechii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in riverine and floodplain habitats, frequently in association with the striped robber (<em>Brycinus lateralis</em>). <em>Barbus poechii</em> feeds on insects and small organisms.
63270		population	eng	It is very common and widespread.
63270		population	eng	No information available.
63270		threats	eng	Although there are no known immediate threats to this species,<em> Barbus poechii</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.
63270		threats	eng	<em>Barbus poechii</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.
63271		conservation	eng	Habitat improvement through rier health programmes and conservancies. Control of the movement and stocking of alien fishes.
63271		distribution	eng	Upper and middle reaches of the Limpopo river system in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe.
63271		habitat	eng	Broad ecological range - rocky substrates of rivers and pools, also does well in dams.
63271		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, water pollution and alien fishes (<em>Micropterus</em> spp.) are the major threats.
63272		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63272		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Lucala River - Lower Kwanza river system.
63272		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63272		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63272		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63273		conservation	eng	None known.
63273		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63273		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is present in the Nyong River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Quanza and Luculla Rivers, Angola. The localities on the Quanza and Luculla are probably from only two (mainly one) expeditions. Additional locations have been recorded from mid Nyong (add 3°19'N,11°29'E).
63273		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Cameroon and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is found in the Nyong River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Angola where it occurs in the Lower Kwanza river system (Lucala River). However these are dubious accounts.
63273		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (Brummett pers comm.). This species is benthopelagic.
63273		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
63273		population	eng	No information available.
63273		threats	eng	Fishermen have noted that <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is becoming rare (Brummett pers. comm.). It is threatened by siltation from deforestation. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction were to recommence (Mamonekene pers. comm.).
63273		threats	eng	Fishermen have noted that <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is becoming rare (pers. comm., Brummett, R.). It is threatened by siltation from deforestation. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction were to recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
63274		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63274		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Lucala River (Lower Kwanza river system).
63274		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63274		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63274		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63275		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63275		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Longa river system.
63275		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63275		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63275		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63276		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63276		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Okavango and Upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001). Apparently absent from northern tributaries of the Upper Zambezi in Zambia and thus primarily restricted to floodplains and slower flowing streams in the system.
63276		habitat	eng	Most abundant in small, flowing, well-vegetated tributaries and also fairly common in the vegetated margins of main river channels, from which it colonises floodplain habitats during the floods  (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Feeds on insects and periphyton. Breeds in summer, laying eggs on submerged vegetation, breeding males turning golden (Skelton 2001).
63276		population	eng	Common throughout the extensive floodplains of the river systems and thus the populations are healthy.
63276		threats	eng	There are no known immediate threats to this species.
63277		conservation	eng	None known.
63277		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed on this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology.
63277		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is known from the Upper Congo River basin upstream of the Lukuga system. Elsewhere, it is widespread in southern Africa from the Cunene, Okavango, and Zambezi south to the Phongolo. It is absent from lower Zambezi, Buzi, Pungwe, and Save systems. Specimens recently collected from the Inkisi River (AMNH) have tentatively been identified as this species but these need confirmation.
63277		distribution	eng	This species is wide ranging from Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is thought to be present in the upper Congo River basin upstream of the Lukuga system. Specimens recently collected from the Inkisi River (AMNH) have tentatively been identified as this species but these need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed in southern Africa from the Zambian Congo and the Cunene, Okavango and This species is known from upper and middle Zambezi south to the Phongolo (Skelton 2001). Absent from the Lower Zambezi, but present in the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.
63277		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is mainly restricted to areas of medium to strong flow over sandy bottoms in the main river channels, including sandy back eddies bordering rapids. It does not normally occur in vegetated streams or still-water lagoons (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), but it does occur in open dams and lakes (Skelton 2001). <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> feeds on aquatic invertebrates and grass seeds. It breeds after rains during summer months (Skelton 1993, 2001).
63277		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in various habitats including flowing and standing waters; thrives in dams and lakes. <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> feeds on aquatic invertebrates and grass seeds. It breeds after rains during summer months (Skelton 1993).
63277		population	eng	Common and widespread in southern Africa and thus the populations are healthy.
63277		population	eng	No information available.
63277		threats	eng	None known.
63278		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63278		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Cuvo river system.
63278		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the upper reaches. Biology is not known.
63278		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63278		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63279		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63279		distribution	eng	Native from Angola and Namibia. In Angola the species occurs in Bengo River and Lake Kilunda, Kwanza River (Dongwenna swamp, Lucala River, Kwanza River), and Kunene River systems.
63279		habitat	eng	This species occurs in flowing water in rocky streams. Biology is not known.
63279		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63279		threats	eng	No known threats in the Kwanza and Bengo River systems. However, a dam exists in the Kunene River separating the upper reaches populations from the Lower Kunene population(s).
63280		conservation	eng	Pollution from industrial centers and especially sewage overflow needs to be addressed through the South African river health program.
63280		distribution	eng	Natural range is the Orange River system (Skelton 2001). It has been introduced into the Great Fish River system through the Orange-Fish tunnel and there may be other areas where this species have become established because of inter-basin transfer schemes.
63280		habitat	eng	Prefers running water of large rivers, but also occurs in large impoundments. Breeds in summer over shallow rocky rapids where they aggregate in large numbers (Skelton 2001).
63280		population	eng	No information is available on population trends.
63280		threats	eng	Pollution from major industrial centers such as Gauteng Province in South Africa is probably the biggest threat. Especially sewage overflow has caused major fish kills in the Vaal River in recent years.
63281		conservation	eng	None known.
63281		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Fisheries management needs to be implemented in certain riverine fisheres in Mozambique. Fishways should be designed into weirs and dams.
63281		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
63281		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo congoro</em> is known from Katanga and Lake Mweru. Elsewhere, it is known from the middle and lower Zambezi system and east coasal rivers south to the Phongolo system (Skelton 2001). It is also known from Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River basin.
63281		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>distributed throughout the Malagarasi, middle and lower Zambezi, and Rufiji/Ruaha river systems. Also found in the Lower Shire in Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi systems as well as East Africa coastal rivers of the Phongolo system.
63281		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo south to South Africa. Records from Tanzania are questionable, and could be a different species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo congoro</em> is known from Katanga and Lake Mweru. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout the Malagarasi, and Rufiji and Ruaha river systems. Also found in the Lower Shire in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread and fairly common in the middle and lower Zambezi south to the Phongolo River in South Africa.
63281		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo congoro</em> occurs in strong-flowing rocky stretches of larger perennial rivers. It grazes algae and 'aufwuchs' from rocks ad firm surfaces including the backs of hippos, leaving characteristic tracks. The species migrate upstream in swollen rivers to breed (Skelton 1993). It can occur as either sail-fin or normal varieties (Eccles 1992). This species is benthopelagic and potamodromous (Reide 2004).
63281		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo congoro</em> occurs in strong-flowing rocky stretches of larger perennial rivers. It grazes algae and 'aufwuchs' from rocks ad firm surfaces including the backs of hippos, leaving characteristic tracks. The species migrate upstream in swollen rivers to breed (Skelton 1993). It can occur as either sail-fin or normal varieties (Eccles 1992). This species is benthopelagic and potamodromous (Reide 2004). The maximum published weight is 4,308 g (Skelton 1993).
63281		habitat	eng	Inhabits fast-flowing rocky streches of  large rivers where it grazes algae from rocks and firm surfaces. Also inhabits lake margins where it feeds on algae from rocks and firm surfaces (including the backs of hippos). Migrates up rivers during spawning.
63281		population	eng	No information available.
63281		population	eng	Not particularly common although widespread. Rare in the Malagarasi but otherwise population status is largely unknown. General information on <em>Labeo</em> spp.  in Mtera dam indicates a decline in catch composition from 8.5% in 1987 to 4.2% in 1991 (Tamatamah 1996) and in Lake Rukwa the catch composition has declined to about 1.2% (Fish Div.1996). The population is therefore thought likely to be in decline where fishing pressure is high.
63281		population	eng	Rare in the Malagarasi but otherwise population status is largely unknown. General information on Labeo spp.  in Mtera dam indicates a decline in catch composition from 8.5% in 1987 to 4.2% in 1991 (Tamatamah 1996) and in Lake Rukwa the catch composition has declined to about 1.2% (Fish Div.1996). The population is therefore thought likely to be in decline where fishing pressure is high.
63281		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
63281		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and sedimentation of spawning beds, and fishery over-exploitation (at particular risk when nets are set across river mouths during the spawning migrations).
63281		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished in all regions, and is at particular risk when nets are set across river mouths during the spawning migrations. Dams and weirs affect river flows, sediment fluxes and seasonal migrations. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. In eastern Africa populations are also threatened by water turbidity and sedimentation of spawning beds.
63282		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63282		distribution	eng	The upper Zambezi and Okavango systems (Skelton 2001).
63282		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo lunatus</em> coexists with <em>L. cylindricus</em> in some quieter rocky habitats but was generally absent from rocky rapids. Its preferred habitat is the main river channel where it occurs throughout the floodplain system (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Grazes algae and detritus. A shoaling species, breeding in summer, probably in flooded marginal habitats. Young fish are caught in large numbers in fish weirs set across waters draining from floodplains (Skelton 2001).
63282		population	eng	A common species but its abundance fluctuates extensively in relation to the extent of flooding (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63282		threats	eng	Heavy fishing pressure may affect abundance.
63283		conservation	eng	None.
63283		distribution	eng	Middle and lower Zambezi river system south to the Tugela River in southern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
63283		habitat	eng	Rocky habitats of main river channels. Seems to prefer deeper waters than the redeye labeo with which it co-occurs.
63283		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats.
63283		threats	eng	None.
63284		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63284		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Kwanza River and Lucala River).
63284		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63284		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63284		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63285		conservation	eng	Fishways should be incorporated into weirs where possible. Management of riverine fisheries is needed in many areas. Improved land-use management aimed at reducing erosion.
63285		distribution	eng	Most common in lowveld reaches of the Limpopo, Incomati and Phongolo systems in South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland. Described from the upper reaches of the Limpopo system in Botswana.
63285		habitat	eng	Typically found in main river channels over sandy substrates. Does well in dams.
63285		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats.
63285		threats	eng	A migratory species that is particularly susceptible to the impacts of weirs and net fishing. Susceptible to sedimentation.
63286		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. Fishways should be constructed around dams to maintain contiguity in populations.
63286		distribution	eng	Tugela system in KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001).
63286		habitat	eng	Inhabits deep pools and slow moving parts of rivers, but also occurs in rocky rapids. Feeds on algae, diatoms and detritus. Shoals migrate upstream to breed in spring and summer. Large numbers of small eggs are laid and young are found in shallow backwaters (Skelton 2001).
63286		population	eng	Widespread and common in the Tugela system.
63286		threats	eng	None known. Although dams impede upstream movement, the impact is only to fragment populations, and is not a major threat. <br/>Inter-basin water transfers may result in invasion of alien <em>Labeo</em> species and possible hybridisation.
63287		conservation	eng	Land and water use conservation.
63287		distribution	eng	Low-veld sections of the Limpopo and Incomati Rivers (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique). A single record from the lower Mbuluzi River in Swaziland. A northern population is known from the Cunene River on the Angolan-Namibian border.
63287		habitat	eng	Deeper waters in or associated with main river channels and off channel pools. Sand or mud substrates are typical. Particularly common in seasonal river e.g. the Shingwedzi River, Kruger Park, South Africa.
63287		population	eng	Very little information available for this species. Said to be fairly common in the Umzingwane (Limpopo) River, Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). In most other regions it appears to be rare.
63287		threats	eng	Sedimentation and loss of pools in the Kruger Park, South Africa..
63288		conservation	eng	Monitoring by the South African river health program may help to reduce pollution of the Vaal River.
63288		distribution	eng	Gourits, Gamtoos, Sundays, Great Fish, Bushmans and Orange River systems in South Africa. Also occurs in the Orange River system in South Africa, Lesotho and Namibia. Has been translocated to the Keiskamma and Buffalo River systems in the Eastern Cape Province and to the Olifants catchment of the Limpopo River system in Mpumalange Province in South Africa (Skelton 2001). There may be other areas where this species has become established due to inter-basin transfer schemes.
63288		habitat	eng	Prefers slow or gently flowing water and are abundant in shallow impoundments and farm dams. Feeds on soft sediments and detritus. Migratory species that breeds after rains in summer. Breeding grounds are flooded grassy banks or shallow rocky stretches (Skelton 2001).
63288		population	eng	There is no information about population trends.
63288		threats	eng	Hybridisation between potentially historically isolated lineages of this species may have already occurred due to inter-basin transfer schemes. Pollution due to industries and sewage overflow in the Gauteng Province probably lead to short term population fluctuations in sections of the Vaal River. Aliens (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) and habitat deterioration (weirs) threaten the population in the Bushmans River system. Alien fish in the Gourits is also a major problem and the effect of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> in the Gamtoos is not well understood.
63289		conservation	eng	Flow regulation has to be evaluated based on the results of hybridisation investigations and the South African river health program can address pollution problems from Gauteng Province.
63289		distribution	eng	Occurs naturally in the Orange River system. It has been translocated widely in South Africa to the Gourits, Great Fish, Kei and  Limpopo River systems and even to the Matirikwe Dam in Zimbabwe (Skelton 2001).
63289		habitat	eng	It prefers sandy and rocky substrates of clear and flowing water of large rivers, but also tolerates turbid rivers. It does well in large dams. It occurs in sympatry with <em>Labeobarbus kimberleyensis</em> but is more widespread, since it occurs at higher altitudes and in smaller tributary streams than the latter species. Migrates to suitable gravel beds and breeds in spring to midsummer after major summer rains. Omnivorous with benthic invertebrates, bivalve molluscs, vegetation, algae and detritus as major food sources (Skelton 2001).
63289		population	eng	No information is available on population trends.
63289		threats	eng	Potential hybridisation between this species and <em>Labeobarbus kimberleyensis</em> must be investigated further, since it can be caused by river regulation and the destruction of different habitat types. Pollution, especially sewage overflow during floods  is a major threat near industrial centers such as Gauteng Province in South Africa. Major fish kills have occurred in recent years in the Vaal River due to sewage spillage, but there are many rivers where this species is abundant and secure from pollution.
63290		conservation	eng	<em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> has been listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance making catch and release compulsory. The upper reaches of several tributaries (e.g., Rondegat and Driehoeks Rivers) with good <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> populations are situated in the Cederberg Wilderness Area. The Greater Cederberg Biodiversity Corridor (GCBC), which encompasses the majority of the Olifants-Doring catchment, was established in 2004 to enable authorities and private land-owners to jointly manage valuable conservation areas. <br/> <br/>The most important tributaries and mainstem areas for indigenous fish conservation in the Olifants River system have been identified (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). The Clanwilliam Yellowfish Station was established in 1976 by the then Cape Department of Nature Conservation to culture <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em>, then regarded as the most threatened Cederberg fish species, for re-stocking purposes (CDNC 1978/79). The station was never effective because of water quality problems that contributed to regular losses of fish. The station was however instrumental in distributing thousands of <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> to farm dams and to tributaries (CDNC 1981/82), some of which were outside the natural range of yellowfish. For example, in the mid 1980’s <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> was introduced above waterfall barriers on the Twee River, home to the Critically Endangered <em>Barbus erubescens</em>, in a misguided attempt to conserve the species. The station stopped producing fishes in the late 1990’s.   <br/> <br/>The advent of the Cape Action for People and the Environment (CAPE) in 1999, a collaborative programme to more effectively conserve the Cape Floristic Region, has culminated in a dedicated project to eradicate invasive alien fishes from its priority rivers. Included in the project are two rivers in the GCBC that have Clanwilliam yellowfishes (the Krom and Rondegat rivers). The national yellowfish working group, established in 1997, includes in its aims promoting awareness of threatened yellowfishes and increasing research and monitoring effort on such fishes.
63290		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Olifants River System on the West Coast of South Africa (Skelton 2001). Seems to have gone extinct or is very rare in the mainstream areas of the Upper Olifants River above Clanwilliam Dam and below the Olifants Gorge where they were previously plentiful (Harrison 1938). They are still widespread in the Doring River (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 2002) and occurs in several tributaries of the Cederberg Mountains.
63290		habitat	eng	They are found in rivers of variable size, including mountain streams. Adults prefer relatively fast flowing water of variable depth (Gore <em>et al</em>. 1991). Sub-adults are frequently found in riffles, with juveniles smaller than 4 cm in backwaters and slow flowing shallow riffles. Deep permanent pools with good cover provided by rocky reefs or palmiet (<em>Prionium serratum</em>) beds are important refuges for the species in seasonal rivers during the hot dry summers. Adults are light brown, males becoming golden yellow during the breeding season. Juveniles are silvery with irregular dark blotches or vertical bars on the sides (Jubb 1965). Adults are omnivorous, feeding on aquatic macro-invertebrates and algae (van Rensburg 1966). Juveniles feed on zooplankton and small aquatic invertebrates. Breeds in late spring to summer when water temperatures exceed 20°C; then small schools of adults migrate to riffles and glides that are 0.2 to 0.5 m deep to spawn (King <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is a multiple spawner during the breeding season, laying non-adhesive eggs that develop into photophobic embryos (Cambray 1999). Like <em>Barbus andrewi</em>, it can spawn successfully in impoundments in shallow rocky bays.
63290		population	eng	Anecdotal reports indicated very large numbers of <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> were present in suitable habitat before the introduction of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> into the system in the 1940’s (Harrison 1938, Wells 1949). Currently, healthy numbers of <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> are found only in areas free of alien fishes. These areas probably represent less than 10% of its original distribution range. However, as the system is large, the 10% still equates to a population size that could be large.
63290		threats	eng	The major threat to the species has been the predatory impact of invasive alien fish species, especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> (van Rensburg 1966, Gaigher 1973, Bills 1999) and to a lesser extent <em>Lepomis macrochirus, Micropterus salmoides</em> and <em>Micropterus punctalatus</em>. Juvenile <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> also compete with <em>Tilapia sparrmanii, Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> for food. Habitat degradation is another substantial threat as the Olifants catchment and some tributaries are the focus for intensive citrus, deciduous fruit and vineyard development. Two large instream dams (Clanwilliam and Bulshoek) act as barriers to fish migration, and rivers are over-abstracted to fill hundreds of smaller farm dams. The lower reaches of many tributaries have been bulldozed and canalised for flood protection purposes. The excess use of fertilisers and pesticides (many copper based) also poses a substantial threat to indigenous fishes (Bills 1999).
63291		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in the Zambezi National Park above Victoria Falls.
63291		distribution	eng	Upper Zambezi and Okavango river systems, restricted entirely to rapids.
63291		habitat	eng	Found only in rocky rapids (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Omnivorous.
63291		population	eng	Common in rapids in the Upper Zambezi.
63291		threats	eng	None known.
63292		conservation	eng	It is common in the Orange River in the Augrabies and Richtersveld National parks. Catch and release is mandatory in the Free State Province. This species is promoted as a flagship angling species in the Orange River system and most anglers practice catch and release. Appropriate dams (e.g., Sterkfontein Dam) in the distribution range have been stocked.
63292		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Orange River system (Skelton 2001). It is widespread in both the Orange River and its largest tributary the Vaal River. The species is also common in many of the large tributaries of these rivers.
63292		habitat	eng	Favours deeper pools (deeper than 2 m) with an abundance of cover in the form of reefs, weed beds and over hanging vegetation. Primarily a predator with fishes above 30 cm being almost exclusively piscivorous. Breeds in summer in riffles. Fecundity is high with large females producing in excess of 60,000 eggs. Slow grower initially attaining 30 cm (Tail Length) after five years.
63292		population	eng	This species is reasonably common, especially in large deeper pools and in the middle and lower Vaal and Orange rivers respectively. Larger tributaries e.g., Riet River also have good numbers as do weirs and instream dams.
63292		threats	eng	The major threat is poor water quality in the Vaal River below Vaal Dam and from tributaries which receive treated effluent water. Instream dams and weirs are not a problem if suitable spawning habitat is present above the dam. River regulation and destruction of different habitat types may be causing hybridisation between this species and <em>Labeobarbus aeneus</em>, but this possibility has to be investigated further.
63293		conservation	eng	Support for river health programmes. Encourage increased use of fishays in weirs and dams.
63293		distribution	eng	Middle and lower Zambezi systems in Zambia and Zimbabwe south to the Phongolo River in South Africa.
63293		habitat	eng	Typically occurs in flowing waters of larger streams and rivers. It does occur in dams but is not common there. Preferred habitats of larger adults seems to be rocky rapids and deeper pools.
63293		population	eng	Abundant in suitable rocky, fast flowing habitats.
63293		threats	eng	Affected by weirs and dams and habitat degradation.
63294		conservation	eng	The species is not protected.
63294		distribution	eng	KwaZulu-Natal, widespread from Mkuze to Umtamvuna rivers (Skelton 2001). Also translocated to the Save River in Zimbabwe.
63294		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from pools and rapids of clear streams to deep turbid waters of rivers and impoundments. Juveniles shoal in large schools in shallow marginal habitats. Moves upstream in summer and retreats downstream in winter. Feeds on algae, detritus, crabs and aquatic insect nymphs. Breeds in summer over gravel beds after migrating upstream.
63294		population	eng	A common species widespread in KwaZulu-Natal.
63294		threats	eng	Hybridisation following interbasin water transfers is a threat to some populations.
63295		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation and control of alien fish movements is needed. A moratorium on yellowfish movements has been introduced - this should continue with education of angling groups. Fishways should be incorporated into dams and weir designs where possible. Strict control of aquaculture facilities to prevent hybridisation of Labeobarbus species. Enforcement of illegal gill netting activities.
63295		distribution	eng	The upper reaches of southern tributaries of the Limpopo River in South Africa south through Swaziland to the Phongolo River.
63295		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to high-veld regions (above 600 m altitude). Typically occurs in larger streams and rivers, with good flows and rocky substrates although it does occur in slower waters and in some dams. Food includes algae, aquatic invertebrates and small fish.
63295		threats	eng	Degradation of upper catchments, introduced predatory alien fishes e.g., trout. Potential movements of yellowfishes for angling purposes is a major threat; consequences would be hybridisation and homegenisation of stocks. Hybridisation has occurred with <em>Labeobarbus aeneus</em> in regional aquaculture facilities and through introductions into rivers. Populations have been lost through the impacts (migration and breeding) of weirs. Localised gill netting is a serious problem in parts of Mpumalanga.
63296		conservation	eng	Lake Bangweulu is situated in the National Park Kasanka.
63296		conservation	eng	Lake Bangweulu is situated in the National Park Kasanka. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring population trends.
63296		conservation	eng	None.
63296		distribution	eng	<em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Mozambique, south to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lubumbashi River at Lubumbashi, from Lake Bangweulu and from the upper Chambezi River. It is expected to be more widespread in affluents. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and east coast rivers from the Limpopo to the Umfolozi in northern Kwazulu-Natal. An isolated population is found in the Orange River below the Augrabies Falls (Skelton 2001). Also found  in the Ruvuma system in Malawi (Lake Chiuta) and Mozambique (Tweddle 1983, Bills 2004). In the upper Zambezi, it has only been found immediately above Victoria Falls and extensive surveys in 2002/03 failed to find it further upstream (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is a need for taxonomic study of isolated populations, particularly of the Rovuma specimens.
63296		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is known from the Lubumbashi River at Lubumbashi, from Lake Bangweulu and from the upper Chambezi River. It is expected to be more widespread in effluents. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi systems and east coastal rivers from the Limpopo to the Umfolozi in northern KwaZulu-Natal. An isolated population is found in the Orange River below the Augrabies Falls (Skelton 2001).
63296		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene,Okavango and Upper Zambezi systems as well as the east coast rivers from the Limpopo to the Umfolozi in northern Natal.  An isolated population also occurs in the Orange River below the Augrabies falls.
63296		habitat	eng	<em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in shoals. It prefers well-aerated, open water of flowing rivers), although it also occurs in the still water of Lake Chiuta. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> feeds from the water column on planktonic crustaceans and insects such as midges and ants. It is attracted to light at night. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> breeds in early summer (Skelton 1993).
63296		habitat	eng	<em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in shoals. It prefers well-aerated, open water of flowing rivers. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> feeds from the water column on planktonic crustaceans and insects such as midges and ants. It is attracted to light at night. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> breeds in early summer (Skelton 1993).
63296		habitat	eng	Occurs in shoals, it prefers the well aerated open water of flowing rivers.  Feeds on planktonic crustaceans as well as insects.  Breeds in early summer.
63296		population	eng	No information.
63296		population	eng	No information available.
63296		population	eng	No information available, but a widespread species.
63296		threats	eng	No major threats known. It is targeted for subsistence fishing in eastern Africa.
63296		threats	eng	None known.
63296		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is subsistence fishing.
63297		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63297		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Kwanza River).
63297		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63297		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63297		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63298		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63298		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Cunje River in the Upper Kwanza river system.
63298		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63298		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63298		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63299		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63299		distribution	eng	In Angola, the species occurs in the Lower and Upper Kwanza river system (Lucalla River and Cunje River, respectively).
63299		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63299		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63299		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
63300		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63300		distribution	eng	Species native from Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Lucala River).
63300		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
63300		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63300		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63301		conservation	eng	Management of alien fish stocking and habitat improvement is needed for key populations.
63301		distribution	eng	Headwaters of the Incomati and Phongolo Rivers in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Swaziland. Numerous isolated populations in upper catchments. Not recorded from the Mbuluzi in Swaziland.
63301		habitat	eng	Larger escarpment streams where there are good water flows and rocky substrates.
63301		population	eng	Where present, it is usually abundant.
63301		threats	eng	Degradation of upper catchments by poor farming activities and cool-water alien fishes e.g., trout. Illegal gill netting on the Sabie River.
63302		conservation	eng	Conservation of aquatic habitats from degradation. Management of fishing activities by rural people.
63302		conservation	eng	No information available.
63302		distribution	eng	Headwaters of the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers in Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
63302		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Ruo River (Lower Shire tributary), Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Pungwe and Busi rivers in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, below the Pungwe falls  (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
63302		habitat	eng	Clear water, rocky substrate streams and rivers in the headwaters of the Buzi and Pungwe Rivers.
63302		habitat	eng	No information available.
63302		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats.
63302		population	eng	No information available.
63302		threats	eng	Poisoning of streams by local fishermen and gold mining activities increasing sediment loads in Mozambique.
63302		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are fisheries.
63303		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63303		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Specimens of Inkisi (Lower Congo) have been identified as <em>Varicorhinus stenostoma</em> by Getahun, A. in 2000. These findings have never been published though. Further expeditions revealed more specimens identified as <em>V.stenostoma</em> from the Inkisi (Stiassny, pers. obs.).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs from the Lucala River to the Lower Kwanza river system.
63303		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus stenostoma</em> is a benthopelagic species.
63303		population	eng	No information available
63303		threats	eng	None known.
63304		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63304		distribution	eng	Present in Angola where it occurs in the Lucala River - Lower Kwanza river system.
63304		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63304		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63304		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63305		conservation	eng	Protection of key habitats, seasonal water bodies, is needed.
63305		distribution	eng	Ghona-re-Zhou Game Reserve in Zimbabwe south east into the Banhine National Park in Mozambique. The exact limits are not known but they range outside of these two protected areas.
63305		habitat	eng	Typically found in seasonal pans which they share with lungfishes (<em>Protopterus annectens</em>). Occasionally they are also found in pools in seasonal river beds together with a few hardy riverine species such as <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> and <em>Barbus paludinosus</em>. They lay drought resistant eggs. Apparently one of the shortest lived killifishes (4 to 5 months).
63305		threats	eng	In Gon-re-Zhou there has been some insecticide spraying and some pans were damaged by road building activities. These threats are apparently not continuing and the species has recovered from the initial impacts.
63306		conservation	eng	Education of local fishermen and if necessary law enforcement.
63306		distribution	eng	Rovuma system in Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique. New records from north-eastern Zambia result in a major range extension, but these need to be verified.
63306		habitat	eng	In the Rovuma in Mozambique this species was collected in pools within the channels of seasonal streams in upper catchments. They were often collected with various riverine minnows (<em>Barbus</em>), characns, catfishes and cichlids. Waters were typically turbid and shallow.
63306		threats	eng	Poisoning of some isolated pools was noted within the Niassa Reserve. These pools act as 'innocula' for the river system when the rainy season starts and rivers start to flow.
63307		conservation	eng	None.
63307		distribution	eng	Coastal floodplains of the Pungwe River near Beira, central Mozambique. Probably extends south into the lower Buzi floodplains as the lower floodplains of the two rivers connect during peak flooding.
63307		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species but if similar to the other floodplain killifishes found in marginal swamps and seasonal pools within the floodplain area.
63307		threats	eng	None.
63308		distribution	eng	Lower Zambezi floodplains, central Mozambique south to the Kruger Park region of South Africa.
63308		habitat	eng	Seasonal pans and swamps in riverine floodplains.
63308		threats	eng	Damage to pans by road builders has occurred and impacts from insecticide spraying has also occurred. Presently, there don't appear to be major impacts.
63309		conservation	eng	None known.
63309		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63309		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is known from northern Angola, including the upper Kasai River drainage, Central Congo River basin. The record from the Congo basin in Angola is doubtful though. It has also been reported from Namibia.
63309		distribution	eng	This species is known from Angola, and one locality in Namibia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is found in northern Angola, including the upper Kasai River drainage, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in the Kunene River, Kwanza River (Kwanza River, Lake Chipemba) and Okavango River (Cubango River) systems. Also reported from Namibia.
63309		habitat	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers, brooks, shallow parts of larger water bodies and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
63309		population	eng	No information available.
63309		threats	eng	None known.
63310		conservation	eng	Conservation of aquatic habitats and species need to be considered when coastal develoments ae planned.
63310		distribution	eng	Coastal lakes and rivers of Maputaland from the Mhlatuze River near Richards Bay, northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to at least the south of the Rio Maputo (Phongolo River), Mozambique. An odd record from the Umgeni River needs verification.
63310		habitat	eng	Associated with marginal vegetation in rivers, marginal lagoons and coastal lakes of the Maputaland region.
63310		population	eng	In suitable habitats it is abundant.
63310		threats	eng	Coastal dune mining, harbour developments and other tourist related coastal developments are potential threats.
63311		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63311		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola and known from the Lower Kwanza river system (Lucula River).
63311		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63311		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63311		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63312		conservation	eng	None known.
63312		conservation	eng	The use of fish poisons in most central African countries is illegal and people are usually aware of the law. Education concerning the reasoning behind laws is probably desirable, local community conservation education programmes could be a way of achieving this. Law enforcement may be needed. Small scale mining for gold in very damaging to localised river habitats and should be stopped in all areas. Control of alien fish stocking.
63312		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kneria auriculata</em> is known from the Luapula-Chambezi system. Elsewhere, it is known from upland streams of the lower Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi, and Save in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. A relict southern pocket occurs in the Crocodile (Incomati system), Mpumalanga. The identity of specimens from the Kafue and upper Zambezi requires confirmation.
63312		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species lies from southern DRC to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kneria auriculata</em> is known from the Luapula-Chambezi system. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Several isolated populations occur in This species is known from upper catchments of the African east coast. It is present in upper tributaries of the lower Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi and Save rivers.
63312		habitat	eng	<em>Kneria auriculata</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Its shoals occur in pools of small, clear, silt-free, rocky streams. It has been reported to breathe air and to climb over damp rocks and up the sides of waterfalls during migrations. <em>Kneria auriculata</em> scrapes diatoms, algae, and detritus from rock surfaces and also takes small aquatic insects such as mayfly nymphs and midge larvae. It matures after a year. The species breeds in spring and summer, larger females bear up to 600 eggs (Skelton 1993). <em>Kneria auriculata</em> moves on to flooded grasslands during the rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
63312		population	eng	No information available.
63312		threats	eng	Different isolated populations are exposed to different threats. In the Chimanimani Region of Mozambique some upper catchments are exposed to fish poisoning on a regular basis and the impacts of gold mining (sedimentation and the use of mercury). In Zimbabwe introduced trout (<em>O. mykiss</em>) and siltation also threaten populations.
63312		threats	eng	None known.
63313		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63313		distribution	eng	Species only known from the Cunene River system in Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species is present at the Ruacana and Epupa falls.
63313		habitat	eng	Habitat is not known, but specimens are collected from Epupa and Ruacana falls in the Kunene River system. Biology is not known.
63313		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63313		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63314		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63314		distribution	eng	Upper reaches of the Cunene, Okavango and Upper Zambezi, and also headwaters of Angolan coastal rivers (Skelton 2001). Found in most northern Zambian Upper Zambezi tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63314		habitat	eng	Shoals in pools of clear, silt-free rocky streams. Reported to breathe air and climb over damp rocks and up sides of waterfalls in migrations. Scrapes diatoms, algae and detritus from rocks and also takes small aquatic insects (Skelton 2001).
63314		population	eng	Common.
63314		threats	eng	None at present.
63315		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63315		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola and only known from the type locality: Cubal river system.
63315		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but other species of this genus occur in running waters and upper reaches. Biology is not known.
63315		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63315		threats	eng	No threats are known.
63316		conservation	eng	No conservation done.
63316		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality, Cutato River, a tributary of the Okavango in southern Angola.
63316		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat and biology not known.
63316		population	eng	Population size not known.
63316		threats	eng	Threats not known.
63317		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63317		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Cokema River).
63317		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but other species of this genus occur in running waters. Biology is not known.
63317		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63317		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63318		conservation	eng	Environmental education aimed at rural peoples is needed to reduce undesirable actions. If this doesn't succeed enforcment of existing laws is needed.
63318		distribution	eng	Medium sized streams in the Buzi and Pungwe river systems in both Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Nowhere is the species particularly common.
63318		habitat	eng	Medium sized streams. Rocky habitats, riffles and runs.
63318		threats	eng	Fish poisoning and gold mining impact on certain populations.
63319		conservation	eng	The Zambezi National park above Victoria Falls gives some protection.
63319		distribution	eng	Okavango and Upper Zambezi system (Skelton 2001), with some records from the Middle Zambezi.
63319		habitat	eng	Restricted to crevices in rocky rapids. Feeds on insects taken from rocks (Skelton, 2001).
63319		population	eng	Common.
63319		threats	eng	None known. The species is well-protected because of its habitat.
63320		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63320		distribution	eng	Endemic form Angola and only known from its type locality: Bengo river system.
63320		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63320		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63320		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63321		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63321		distribution	eng	Distributed in Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River) and Kunene River (Kunene River) systems.
63321		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63321		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63321		threats	eng	Presence of a dam preventing any movement to upstream.
63322		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63322		distribution	eng	<em>H. szaboi</em> is so far reported only from the Upper Zambezi River at Katimo Mulilo, Namibia. The <em>H. szaboi</em>/<em>H. ansorgii</em> complex is, however, widespread in the Upper Zambezi system and thus <em>H. szaboi</em> is likely to be more widespread.
63322		habitat	eng	<em>Hippopotamyrus szaboi</em> is so far reported from rocky habitat in the main Zambezi river channel. Feeds on small insects. The electric organ discharge is illustrated in Kramer <em>et al</em>. (2004).
63322		population	eng	Unknown as a result of the uncertainty regarding identity and distribution, and also the difficulties in assessing the size of rapid habitat and sampling therein.
63322		threats	eng	The Zambezi River is a large river system in a lightly populated rural area with no immediate anthropogenic threats. There are many small tributaries where the species can survive and restock the main river in the unlikely event of a major pollution event. There are no potential alien invasive fish species that could impact on the species’ habitat.
63323		conservation	eng	None known.
63323		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus angolensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Central Congo basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi in Angola.
63323		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower reaches of Kwanza River in Angola. It is possibly also occuring in other neighbouring Atlantic coastal systems.
63323		habitat	eng	<em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus angolensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.
63323		habitat	eng	Not known but almost certainly found in marginal riverine and floodplain vegetation.
63323		population	eng	No information available.
63323		population	eng	No infromation available.
63323		threats	eng	A series of hydroelectric dams planned for the Kwanza River is likely to disrupt migration patterns and may have impacts on stability of marginal vegetation, but is unlikely to seriously threaten the species.
63323		threats	eng	None known.
63324		conservation	eng	Management of landuse techniques and control of pollution.
63324		distribution	eng	Limpopo River south to the Mhlatuze River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
63324		habitat	eng	Usually in main channels but in lower catchments this species does enter still lagoons and backwaters in the lower floodplains. Morphological variation suggests two species are present in the Phongolo River - an upper catchment main channel form and a lower catchment floodplain, still water form. Often associated with undercut banks, root stocks and vegetation beds.
63324		threats	eng	Upper catchments in Swaziland in particular are threatened by sedimentation caused by poor farming techniques and forestry operations. To the north in South Africa industrial pollution and forestry result in a mixture of chemical and sediment pollution.
63325		conservation	eng	The species is protected in reserves such as Kafue National Park on the Kafue River.
63325		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus lacerda</em> occurs in the Upper Zambezi River system and also in the Kafue system.
63325		habitat	eng	Prefers quiet stretches of river channels and deep pools and floodplain lagoons with aquatic vegetation (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) found it to be restricted to the main river channel and larger tributaries and backwaters, in deeper water than other mormyrids. <br/> <br/>Feeds on insect larvae, other small invertebrates and small fish. Spawns in summer during the rainy season.
63325		population	eng	The populations are healthy, although the species is not as abundant as the other smaller mormyrids in the same area.
63325		threats	eng	The species has no immediate threats, although it is specifically targeted by fishermen using hook and line.
63326		conservation	eng	No protection.
63326		distribution	eng	Longa River, tributary of the upper Zambezi in Angola (Poll 1967).
63326		habitat	eng	No information
63326		population	eng	Only the single type specimen is known.
63326		threats	eng	None known.
63327		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63327		distribution	eng	Endemic from Angola only known from its type locality, at Cunga, in the Lower Kwanza River (Kwanza River).
63327		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63327		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63327		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63328		conservation	eng	Various river health/rehabilitation schemes are in place.
63328		distribution	eng	Limpopo River south to the Phongolo River.
63328		habitat	eng	Margins of major rivers. A nocturnal species which takes refuge in root stocks, aquatic vegetation and rocky crevices during the day.
63328		threats	eng	In South Africa, eastern flowing rivers are generally threatened by over-extraction of water, sedimentation and pollution from varied agricultural and industrial sources.
63329		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63329		distribution	eng	Upper Zambezi River system. Described from the lower part of the Upper Zambezi River, its overall range is uncertain. Photographs in Kramer <em>et al</em>. (2003) show a more slender species than <em>P. castelnaui</em> (Boulenger 1911), and Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) recognised both deep-bodied and slender <em>Pollimyrus</em> species throughout the Upper Zambezi system. Taxonomic study of their collection may help to clarify the distribution.
63329		habitat	eng	So far recorded only from the Upper Zambezi in an area of mixed habitat with rapids, runs and backwaters.
63329		population	eng	Not known.
63329		threats	eng	None known.
63330		conservation	eng	None.
63330		distribution	eng	Described from the middle Buzi River in central Mozambique. Possibly also in the middle and lower Pungwe river as the two rivers connect in their lower floodplains during the summer floods.
63330		habitat	eng	Margins of the main river and larger stream channels. Associated with bank structure and aquatic vegetation beds.
63330		threats	eng	Although captured in the subsistence fishery no major impacts identified.
63331		conservation	eng	None.
63331		distribution	eng	Parts of the Limpopo River system in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe. The species appears to be in certain upper tributaries and has a rather unusual fragmented distribution e.g., in the upper Umzingwane (Zimbabwe), Crocodile, Marico, Mogol, Magalakwena (South Africa). In several dams within these regions e.g., Hartebeespoort, Roodeplaat and Donkerpoort Dams.
63331		habitat	eng	Prefers slow flowing sections and pools in rivers. More common in upper tributaries of perennial and some intermittent rivers, thrives in several dams.
63331		threats	eng	None.
63332		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63332		distribution	eng	Species native from Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in Kunene River (Kuso River) and Okavango River (Cutato River) systems.
63332		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63332		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63332		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63333		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63333		distribution	eng	Endemic from Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) and Catumbela River systems.
63333		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63333		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63333		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
63334		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63334		distribution	eng	Endemic from Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) system.
63334		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63334		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63334		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63335		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63335		distribution	eng	Endemic from Angola where it occurs in the lower reaches of Bengo River (Bengo River, Lake Panguila) and Kwanza River (Kwanza River) systems.
63335		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but the species occurs in rivers. Biology is not known.
63335		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63335		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63336		conservation	eng	Attempts should be made to establish protected areas from which <em>O. niloticus</em> can be excluded and perhaps captive breeding of pure stocks which could be used to restock areas from which this species has disappeared.
63336		conservation	eng	No information available.
63336		distribution	eng	<em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> is naturally known from the Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Ngami region, Cunene basin, Kafue River, Chambezi River and Bangweulu region. It has been introduced, in 1949, for aquaculture purposes, from Yangambi (0°47’N-24°28’E), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966) the specimens from Yangambi originated from Katanga. In Cameroon they were stocked in fisheries stations at Yaoundé and also Loum and Noum. Rivers of the Sanaga River basin. Meanwhile, aquaculture abandoned and the species became rare in the rivers, but was reproducing. However, according to FAO (2005) the species is probably not established. The species has also been introduced, for aquaculture purposes, in 1953, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Congo-Brazzaville (Station of Djoumouna) (4°23’S-15°10’E), which is part of the Congo River basin. According to FAO (2005) the species is not established. It has also been introduced, around 1950, based on specimens originating from Katanga but coming from the fisheries station of Kinshasa (Leopoldville), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Libreville, Makokou, Lebamba, Franceville and maybe other places in Gabon. The species was observed in the wild in Libreville and Franceville. According to FAO (2005) species probably established. Its presence in Lower Guinea is confirmed by museum records from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.
63336		distribution	eng	Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue Rivers, as well as the upper Kasai, Lake Bangweulu and the Chambeshi River. It has also been collected from the Revue River in Mozambique (Buzi system), far to the east of its natural distribution and it is possible that this is a relict population (Bell-Cross 1973b). In Zimbabwe, it has been widely distributed through introductions and translocations into many parts of the country. Its introduction into Lake Kariba in 1959 was not particularly successful (Jackson 2000) but it survives in small numbers. It may have colonised the Limpopo River after escaping from the Shashe Dam in Botswana and they have been collected from the Shashe River at Tuli (Minshull) and from a pool downstream of the Shashe/Limpopo confluence (Kleynhans and Hoffman 1992). Also introduced to Komati system in Swaziland (Bills <em>et al</em>. 2004) and spreading to South Africa.
63336		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> is an engybenthic species. The mating territory has a central volcano-shaped mound with a flat or slightly concave top, surrounded by a ditch and vallum, in contrast to <em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em>. <em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> prefers quiet, deep water associated with aquatic vegetation, but has been collected in other habitats as well. It occasionally forms schools and is mainly diurnal. This species feeds on detritus, (blue-green) algae and diatoms. Juveniles also accept small invertebrates and zooplankton, but lose this tendency with age. It is a maternal mouthbrooder.
63336		habitat	eng	Found in quiet waters along river margins and backwaters, in floodplain habitats and impoundments (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Feeds mainly on microscopic foods such as algae, especially diatoms, and detritus. Females mouth brood eggs and fry. Breeds in summer, nests grouped into arenas.
63336		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
63336		population	eng	No information available.
63336		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries, aquaculture and gamefish.
63336		threats	eng	Threatened by the alien species <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> which is now widely distributed in the Zambezi, Kafue and Limpopo systems.
63337		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are urgently needed and pure stocks should be sought and kept in semi-captivity in areas without <em>O. niloticus</em>.
63337		distribution	eng	The middle Zambezi River and its tributaries from the Cahora Bassa Gorge to the Victoria Falls, the only endemic species in the middle Zambezi.
63337		habitat	eng	A wide range of fluvial environments and flourished in Lake Kariba and quiet waters of the large rivers until the introduction of <em>O. niloticus</em>. Feeds on algae, especially diatoms, and detritus, and plants, insects and zooplankton. Breeds practically all year (Skelton 2001).
63337		population	eng	Rapidly declining because of the introduction of <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em>. Has disappeared completely from parts of Lake Kariba and is decreasing in the river below the Kariba Dam and is likely to disappear from Lake Cahora Bassa since <em>O. niloticus</em> has reached that lake.
63337		threats	eng	The major threat is the exotic species <em>O. niloticus</em> which is displacing it throughout its range, having been introduced by anglers and aquaculturists.
63338		conservation	eng	No information available.
63338		conservation	eng	River systems not yet invaded by Nile tilapia must be protected from deliberate and accidental introductions of that species.
63338		distribution	eng	Lower Zambezi, Lower Shire and coastal plains from Zambezi delta to Algoa Bay. Occurs southwards to the Bushmans River in the eastern Cape and in the Transvaal in the Limpopo system (Skelton 2001). Widely dispersed beyond this range to inland regions and to the south west and west coastal rivers including the lower Orange and rivers of Namibia. Introduced to tropical and warm temperate localities throughout the world.
63338		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>East coast rivers from the Lower Zambezi system south to the Bushmans system, eastern Cape Province.  South of the Phongolo system.  IT is also widely dispersed throughout inland regions and to the south west and west coastal rivers including the lower Orange and rivers of Namibia.  It has been introduced to tropical and warm temperate localities throughout the world.
63338		habitat	eng	Occurs in all but fast-flowing waters; thrives in standing waters. Further south in its range it is most common in blind estuaries and coastal lakes where it tolerates brackish and marine environments. Feeds on algae, especially diatoms, and detritus, large individuals also take insects and other invertebrates. Breeds in summer, females raising multiple broods every 3 to 4 weeks during a season. Males construct a saucer-shaped nest on sandy bottoms: the female mouthbroods the eggs, larvae and small fry. Juveniles shoal in shallow water. Prone to stunting under adverse or crowded conditions (Skelton 2001).
63338		habitat	eng	Tolerates a broad range of temperatures and salinity and is able to survive extreme drought conditions in the water body in which it finds itself during the dry season (Trewavas 1983). Occurs in all but fast-flowing waters and thrives in standing waters. Tolerant of fresh, brackish or marine waters and even higher salinities. Survives low temperatures (below about 15°C) in brackish or marine waters but prefers warmer temperatures (above 22°C). It can tolerate temperatures up to 42 °C (Skelton 1993). It is mainly a bottom feeder with bottom deposits and periphyton providing the bulk of the food (Trewavas 1983). Breeding is seasonal, although for introduced populations in tropical latitudes, breeding occurs throughout the year. Males build spawning pits reaching up to 184 cm in diameter. Eggs hatch after 3-4 days and the female broods the young until about the 22nd day (Trewavas 1983). It breeds in the summer when females may raise multiple broods every 3-4 weeks throughout the season (Skelton 1993).
63338		population	eng	Common and widespread through south eastern Africa.
63338		population	eng	No information available.
63338		threats	eng	No information available.
63338		threats	eng	The Nile tilapia, <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em>, is invading its natural range in the Zambezi and Limpopo systems. Hybridisation is occurring in the Limpopo system and pure <em>O. mossambicus</em> are likely to become extirpated in those systems through competition and hybridisation.
63339		conservation	eng	Possibly maintenance of pure stocks in refuge areas. Control of the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em>.
63339		distribution	eng	Coastal plain rivers of the east African coast from the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal to Lindi, southern Tanzania. In Zimbabwe it occurs in the lower Save-Runde system and lower sections of some Zambezian tributaries e.g., the Mazowe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
63339		habitat	eng	In the lower Zambezi it was collected in slow flowing sections of  main channel habitats and not marginal lagoons. Has been reported only from freshwaters and low altitudes and so its salinity tolerances are probably narrower than <em>O. mossambicus</em>.
63339		threats	eng	The spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> is a potential threat although interbreeding between the two species has not yet been reported.
63340		conservation	eng	Possibly maintenance of pure stocks in refuge areas. Control of the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em>.
63340		distribution	eng	Coastal plain rivers of the east African coast from the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal to Lindi, southern Tanzania. In Zimbabwe it occurs in the lower Save-Runde system and lower sections of some Zambezian tributaries e.g., the Mazowe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
63340		habitat	eng	In the lower Zambezi it was collected in slow flowing sections of  main channel habitats and not marginal lagoons. Has been reported only from freshwaters and low altitudes and so its salinity tolerances are probably narrower than <em>O. mossambicus</em>.
63340		threats	eng	The spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> is a potential threat although interbreeding between the two species has not yet been reported.
63341		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63341		distribution	eng	Species native from Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene river systems (Kunene River).
63341		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. Mouth-brooding females.
63341		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63341		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63342		conservation	eng	The species has little protection other than in Okavango Delta reserves.
63342		distribution	eng	The Upper and Middle Zambezi system, including the Okavango, and in the upper Save-Runde system in Zimbabwe. Specimens from the Mwekera tributary of the Kafue may be a distinct species (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63342		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide range of habitats, including fringes of rapids, lagoons and aquatic vegetation. Not generally found in small tributaries and is thus a species that prefers larger water bodies than other small cichlids in the Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63342		population	eng	Generally abundant in suitable habitat.
63342		threats	eng	May possibly be impacted by competition with invading <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> from fish farms in the catchments.
63343		conservation	eng	The species has little protection other then Okavango Delta reserves.
63343		distribution	eng	The upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems, also in Lake Kariba and introduced to impoundments in the Middle Zambezi catchment (Skelton 2001).
63343		habitat	eng	Deeper permanent floodplain channels and lagoons (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al</em>. found it mainly in vegetation such as reed thickets fringing main river channels in the Upper Zambezi, although Winemiller (1991) classified it as a lagoon-dwelling diurnal insectivore on the Barotse floodplain. It was scarce in a survey of the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2003).
63343		population	eng	Widespread, though never abundant, in permanent floodplain channels.
63343		threats	eng	None known.
63344		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in game reserves.
63344		distribution	eng	Okavango, Kafue, Upper and Middle Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, it occurs in the Zambezi River and Lake Kariba but not in any of their plateau tributaries.
63344		habitat	eng	Prefers deep, quiet water, slow-flowing channels and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001), and has adapted well to Lake Kariba. Winemiller (1991) classified it as a lagoon-dwelling omnivorous digger.
63344		population	eng	Generally sparse in the Zambezi River but has adapted well to Lake Kariba and is one of the most numerous of the larger cichlid species. Uncommon in the Upper Zambezi (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2003).
63344		threats	eng	None known.
63345		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63345		distribution	eng	This species is only present in the Kunene River system.
63345		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63345		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63345		threats	eng	Major threats are not known.
63346		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63346		distribution	eng	Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue Rivers, and Lake Kariba (Skelton 2001).
63346		habitat	eng	Prefers deep main river channels and floodplain lagoons with sandy bottoms (Skelton 2001). Small individuals may be found  in floodplain habitats  (Winemiller 1991). Larger specimens inhabit deep pools in the main river channel (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Feeds primarily on snails, bivalves and insect larva (Winemiller 1991, Skelton 2001).
63346		population	eng	Widespread and apparently the commonest <em>Sargochromis</em> in the Upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), but scarce in the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2003) and in Lake Kariba.
63346		threats	eng	None known.
63347		conservation	eng	The species has little protection, other than in some reserves in the Okavango Delta and Kafue National Park.
63347		distribution	eng	Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001). Not found in Upper Zambezi surveys by Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004).
63347		habitat	eng	Prefers still or slow-flowing water and dense vegetation. Feeds primarily on insects, small snails and other invertebrates (Skelton 2001).
63347		population	eng	Not known.
63347		threats	eng	None known.
63348		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some reserves.
63348		distribution	eng	Headwater reaches of the upper Zambezi, Kafue and Lunagwa systems in Zambia (Skelton, 2001).
63348		habitat	eng	Occurs in a variety of habitats and dams. Feeds on insects, snails and plants. Breeds in spring and early summer.
63348		population	eng	Not known.
63348		threats	eng	None known.
63349		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in the Okavango Delta.
63349		distribution	eng	Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems.
63349		habitat	eng	Restricted almost entirely to the edges of main river channels and deep connected lagoons in fringing vegetation (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Winemiller (1991) classed the species as a river dwelling crepuscular piscivore.
63349		population	eng	Fairly common, though never abundant.
63349		threats	eng	None known.
63350		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63350		distribution	eng	The Okavango Delta and the upper Zambezi floodplains (Skelton 2001).
63350		habitat	eng	Rivers and floodplain habitats.
63350		population	eng	No data but apparently very scarce.
63350		threats	eng	None known.
63351		conservation	eng	None known.
63351		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.
63351		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is known from the Upper Congo River basin, from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu region, from the Chambishi River and from the Upemba basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene River, the Okavango River and swamps, the upper Zambezi River, the  Kafue River and the Luangwa River. It is possibly present in coastal rivers near Mossamedes, Angola. The species has been introduced to the Shashi-Limpopo River.
63351		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin, from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu region, from the Chambishi River and from the Upemba basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi, Kafue,  Cunene and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001). In the upper Zambezi, it occurs only in the lower reaches below Sioma Falls down to Victoria Falls and is apparently absent from the extensive Barotse floodplains (Winemiller 1991, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), although Winemiller assigned two juveniles from the Kabompo River to this species. It was introduced into the Shashe Dam in Botswana and has been collected downstream in the Shashe River in Zimbabwe (Minshull 1987) and it might therefore occur elsewhere in the Limpopo system.
63351		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is a demersal species. The habitat preferences are strongly influenced by the presence or absence of the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em>:  if the tigerfish is absent, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is found in open waters and sometimes in fast-flowing rocky habitats; in areas where the tigerfish occurs, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is relegated to lagoons, backwaters and marshy shallow areas. It feeds on small fish, insects and snails (de Moor and Bruton 1988). This species constructs a sandscrape nest and incubates the eggs in the mouth.
63351		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is a demersal species. The habitat preferences are strongly influenced by the presence or absence of the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em>: if the tigerfish is absent, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is found in open waters and sometimes in fast-flowing rocky habitats; in areas where the tigerfish occurs, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is relegated to lagoons, backwaters and marshy shallow areas. It feeds on small fish, insects, crabs and snails (de Moor and Bruton 1988). This species constructs a sandscrape nest and incubates the eggs in the mouth.
63351		population	eng	No information available.
63351		population	eng	This species has a widespread though patchy distribution, but locally common in suitable habitats.
63351		threats	eng	None known.
63352		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63352		distribution	eng	Species only known from the Kunene river system.
63352		habitat	eng	It prefers rocky habitats. Biology is not known.
63352		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63352		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63353		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63353		distribution	eng	Species only known from the Kunene river system.
63353		habitat	eng	It prefers sandy habitats with vegetation. Biology is not known.
63353		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63353		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63354		conservation	eng	Control of ground water use by water management authorities is essential. The movement of fishes around Namibia in general and introductions into isolated sink holes specifically must be prevented by nature conservation authorities. Programmes for controlling alien fishes should be considered. Possibly additional benign introductions should be considered.
63354		distribution	eng	Naturally occurs only in Lake Guinas, central Namibia. Benign introductions to Lake Otjikoto and several nearby farm dams (Skelton 1987, 2001).
63354		habitat	eng	Sink hole lake, substrate is rocky ledges. Depth range is broad; observed breeding down to 67 m.
63354		threats	eng	Two major threats are extraction of groundwater for farming and the potential for introducing alien tilapiines. <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> is the largest threat as it is presently in Lake Otjikoto and, if introduced, it thought likely to directly compete for food and space and possibly act as a predator. There is also a potential threat of introgression from the introduction of <em>T. sparrmanii</em> which is known to interbreed with <em>T. guinasana</em> and produce fertile offspring.
63355		conservation	eng	Coastal wetland conservation issues need to be considered when coastal developments are planned. The range of this species is protected in some reserves.
63355		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Réunion, Palau and the Ryukyu Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Within Africa it occurs in the Mzimkulu River, central KwaZulu-Natal north to Kosi Bay, northern, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
63355		habitat	eng	This species is found in vegetated margins of small streams entering coastal lake systems and coastal lakes. It appears to be only found in freshwaters.
63355		population	eng	No information available.
63355		threats	eng	Any coastal developments and water abstraction affecting coastal wetlands would threaten this species.
63356		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in small reserves.
63356		distribution	eng	East Coast rivers from Malawi (Lower Shire tributary of the Lower Zambezi) and Mozambique south to the Swartvlei region of Western Cape (Skelton 2001).
63356		habitat	eng	Lives on the bottom of riverine pools amongst cover such as cobbles or vegetation. Feeds on bottom-living  insects  and small invertebrates. Breeds in early summer (Skelton 2001).
63356		population	eng	A common, widespread species.
63356		threats	eng	The species is widespread and thus there are no major threats, although local populations can be affected by water abstraction, pollution or sedimentation.
63357		conservation	eng	Sustainable use of aquatic resources needs to be effected either through enivironmental education of rural communities or law enforcement.
63357		distribution	eng	Buzi River in central Mozambique, possibly in neighbouring Zimbabwe. May also be in the upper reaches of the adjacent Pungwe River.
63357		habitat	eng	Rocky substrates and fast flows in both small headwater streams through to large rivers of the Buzi system.
63357		threats	eng	There are fish poisoning and gold mining (sedimentation) impacts in localised areas of the Buzi system.
63358		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63358		distribution	eng	Species described from Angola ('Interior of Benguella') and also occurring in the Kwanza River (Lucala River).
63358		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but occurs in small rivers with running water. Biology is not known in detail, but species of this genus are adapted to live in rapids.
63358		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63358		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63359		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63359		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola, where the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River at Dondo) and Bengo River (at Cabiri) systems.
63359		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
63359		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63359		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63360		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63360		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Angola, where it occurs in the Lower Kwanza River (Kwanza River) system.
63360		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63360		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63360		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63361		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63361		distribution	eng	In Angola, the species is present at the Cabinda province and Kwanza river system.
63361		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63361		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63361		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
63362		conservation	eng	The species has no protection other than the inaccessibility of much of its habitat.
63362		distribution	eng	Okavango and upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001).
63362		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky rapids of large rivers, sampled by Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) at Sioma rapids and Katombora rapids above Victoria Falls. Feeds on fish (Skelton 2001).
63362		population	eng	Common in its preferred habitat.
63362		threats	eng	None known.
63363		conservation	eng	Control of water extraction. Collections of fishes regulated by permits.
63363		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality: Aigamas Cave, Otavi, Namibia. The pool is 18 m by 2.5 m in area, and 30 to 52 m deep (Proudlove 2006).
63363		habitat	eng	Subterranean waters of the Aigamas cave system. Rocky substrates. Water temperature is around 25°C and the species appears to live over shelves of shallow water up to 15 m in depth (Proudlove 2006).
63363		threats	eng	Depletion of ground water; the cave lake has been used as a water supply in an otherwise very dry area (Proudlove 2006). Pumping of water has reduced the depth of the lake from 70 m to 50 m since 1921 (Skelton 1990, Bruton 1995). Potentially exploitation from aquarists.
63364		conservation	eng	None.
63364		distribution	eng	Lower Buzi River, central Mozambique.
63364		habitat	eng	Rocky areas in the lower Buzi system, associated with aquatic ferns.
63364		threats	eng	Unknown, possibly affected by subsistence fishermen (gill nets and hook and line)
63365		conservation	eng	Conservation of upper catchments. Control of alien fish stocking and forstry operations where possible. Consideration of dam releases for perennial flows.
63365		distribution	eng	Distributed from the Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, through Swaziland north to the Sabie River, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Unusual northern distribution absent from the Crocodile and Nkomati Rivers, present in the Mlumati and Malalotja Rivers. Interspersed with <em>C. pretoriae</em> but does not occur sympatrically with that species.
63365		habitat	eng	Found in upper catchments in fast flows of rocky habitats. Typically in the fastest and often shallowest riffles. A few populations in Mpumalanga are known from low-veld sections of the Sabie and Incomati Rivers.
63365		threats	eng	Sedimentation of upper catchments from forestry and agriculture. Alien predators such as trout. In South Africa flow modification has impacted this species.
63366		conservation	eng	Habitat improvement is needed over a broad area of Mpumalanga and Swaziland. Improved farming and forestry practices should be encouraged. Perhaps this could be achieved by conservancy agreements with riparian owners and conservation authorities.
63366		distribution	eng	Listed in Skelton (2001) as occurring as two distinct populations. The southern population occurs in the Incomati and Phongolo Rivers in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. The northern population occurs around the Pungwe and lower Zambezi Rivers. These two populations are considered as two distinct species here. <em>Chiloglanis emarginatus</em> was described from the Incomati system near Carolina and so the Southern population is assessed as this species.
63366		habitat	eng	Occurs in larger streams and rivers over cobbles and rocks in deeper water compared to <em>C. anoterus</em> and <em>C. pretoriae</em>.
63366		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from water extraction, regular flows from dams, sedimentation from agro-forestry activities. Extinct from its type locality, the Lekkerloop stream, due to excessive water extraction by farmers during the dry season.
63367		conservation	eng	Plans to develop HEP and dam schmes need to consider all species that require seasonal and strong flows.
63367		distribution	eng	Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kwando rivers (Skelton 2001).
63367		habitat	eng	Skelton (2001) reports the species from rocky rapids and fringing vegetation in the mainstream current. In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported it from grounded vegetation mats in the main river channel, and along sandy cliff river banks when the river was overflowing onto the floodplain. Similarly, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported the species from over-topping banks of the Okavango River in the Panhandle area, while the species was not found in the delta region. In rocky southern rapids of the Upper Zambezi a more robust form was recognised that may be distinct, while in northern Zambezi tributaries at least two clearly distinct species were recognised (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Feeds on small invertebrates and algae from the surface of rocks and plants.
63367		population	eng	Common in suitable habitats.
63367		threats	eng	Regulation of water flows are likely to have major impacts on all <em>Chiloglanis</em> species. Plans to develop dams and HEP schemes in the upper Okavango will thus threaten this species.
63368		conservation	eng	River health programmes aimed at improving the conservation of aquatic habitats should be supported. Widespread establishment of conservancies may also help in conserving aquatic habitats.
63368		distribution	eng	Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north into the Limpopo River in southern Zimbabwe.
63368		habitat	eng	Cobble and mixed sand through to large rock habitats of larger streams and rivers. Have been found in non-flowing pools in the Limpopo; possibly the only southern <em>Chiloglanis</em> that does this.
63368		threats	eng	Sedimentation of habitats from varied forestry and agricultural activities affect this and all other <em>Chiloglanis</em> species. Chemical pollution from industries, large towns and agriculture also locally affect <em>Chiloglanis</em>.
63369		conservation	eng	Improved conservation of aquatic habitats through river health programmes and conservancies is perhaps the best way to improve the conservation of these species.
63369		distribution	eng	Incomati River system in Swaziland north to the Limpopo system. Possibly present in the northern Limpopo tributaries in southern Zimbabwe. However, many northern museum records for this species appear to be incorrect.
63369		habitat	eng	Typically occurs in riffle habitats, bases of water falls in fast flowing often shallow water.
63369		threats	eng	Degradation of habitats is the major threat and the species has disappeared from its type locality around Pretoria, South Africa. Threats are however, localised around major settlements and the species is widely distributed.
63370		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63370		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Angola and only known from the Longa River and Caimbambo River systems.
63370		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63370		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63370		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63371		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63371		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Angola and only known from its type locality, Cokema River, in the Kwanza River system.
63371		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63371		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63371		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63372		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63372		distribution	eng	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.
63372		habitat	eng	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.
63372		population	eng	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.
63372		threats	eng	None known.
63373		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63373		distribution	eng	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.
63373		habitat	eng	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.
63373		population	eng	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.
63373		threats	eng	None known.
63374		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63374		distribution	eng	Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene and Kafue systems.
63374		habitat	eng	Favours fast-flowing rocky habitats and is the only <em>Synodontis</em> species found in rapids, where it lives in crevices (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63374		population	eng	Fairly common in fast-flowing rocky stretches of river.
63374		threats	eng	None known.
63375		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63375		distribution	eng	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.
63375		habitat	eng	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.
63375		population	eng	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.
63375		threats	eng	None known.
63376		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63376		distribution	eng	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.
63376		habitat	eng	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.
63376		population	eng	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.
63376		threats	eng	None known.
63377		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
63377		distribution	eng	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.
63377		habitat	eng	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.
63377		population	eng	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.
63377		threats	eng	None known.
63378		conservation	eng	None known.
63378		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
63378		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Paraillia occidentalis</em> is known from Boma, lower Congo River basin. Elsewhere, is known from the Ogowe, Djoungou, Kouilou, Loeme, and Chiloango Rivers in the Lower Guinea region. It is also known from the lower Cuanza (Angola).
63378		distribution	eng	This species is known from Congo to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Paraillia occidentalis</em> is found in Boma, Lower Congo River basin, as well as in the Ogowe, Djoungou, Kouilou, Loeme, and Chiloango Rivers in the Lower Guinea region. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species is present in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River) and Chiloango River (Lukula River, Luali River) systems.
63378		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
63378		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, confined to large and moderate rivers. Sometimes specimens penetrate estuarine waters. Biology is not known.
63378		population	eng	No information available.
63378		threats	eng	None known.
63379		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63379		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza River system (Upper Kwanza).
63379		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63379		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63379		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63380		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63380		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) and Bengo River systems.
63380		habitat	eng	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.
63380		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63380		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
63381		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
63381		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola and only known from the Kwanza River (Cokema River) system.
63381		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but occurs in the upper reaches of the rivers. Biology is not known.
63381		population	eng	Population size is not known.
63381		threats	eng	No threats are known.
63383		conservation	eng	No information available.
63383		conservation	eng	None.
63383		distribution	eng	Low-veld sections of east coast rivers from southern KwaZulu-Natal to northern Mozambique. The identity of specimens from northern Mozambique border and inland up the middle Zambezi need to be verified.
63383		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Shire River and Lake Chuita in Malawi. Also present in the Ruvuma River (Tanzania-Mozambique border). <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>In southern Africa generally confined to coastal rivers and lakes in the lowveld and coastal plain regions (Skelton 1993).
63383		habitat	eng	Occurs in vegetated pools of streams and rivers and lake margins (Skelton 1993).  Favours clear slow-flowing streams and rivers (Bruton <em>et al. 1982). Feeds on aquatic insects and other small organisms (Skelton 1993), and algae (Bruton <em>et al. 1982). Breeds in the summer and the eggs are laid on submerged vegetation. Reaches maturity within a year (Skelton 1993).<br/>Small species, max. size 70 mm (Skelton 1993).</em></em>
63383		habitat	eng	Quiet, usually vegetated sections of rivers and lakes in the low-veld, coastal plains. Usually abundant where encountered.
63383		population	eng	Common in Lake Chiuta (Tweddle 1983). The species in general is rare in the marshes, but is found in small quantities in the main river channel and is common in tributaries (River Mwanza) (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).
63383		threats	eng	None.
63383		threats	eng	There is a potential impact of aquarium trade as the species is suitable for aquariums and garden ponds (Skelton 1993).This species has not commercial importance (Tweddle 1983)  at present.
63384		conservation	eng	Some known habitats are protected in Kafue National Park, others, e.g., in Caprivi Strip, are unprotected.
63384		distribution	eng	Temporary pools, swamps and ditches in the drainage systems and floodplains of the Kafue and Upper Zambezi rivers, Zambia and Namibia (Caprivi Strip) (Skelton 2001, Wildekamp 2004, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63384		habitat	eng	Occupies temporary habitats that dry up annually. Eggs are laid in the mud and hatch when the pools refill in the next rainy season. The fish grow to maturity in a few weeks. Males display to attract females, pair off and spawn, grasping the female by folding over the large dorsal and anal fins. Spawning occurs daily for an extended period, a few eggs being laid at a time. The adults die when the water body dries out. Killifish are aggressive predators on insects and aquatic invertebrates.
63384		population	eng	Found in at least 12 sites (Wildekamp 2004) and common in the pools where it is found.
63384		threats	eng	Habitat destruction by human activities, including pollution, road construction, drainage for agriculture. Collection by aquarists is a threat to populations outside reserves.
63385		conservation	eng	Management of the waters of Banhine National Park and adjacent areas needs to be undertaken so that not all islated pools are fished during the dry season. This will allow some pools to 'innoculate' new systems when the rains arrive in November.
63385		distribution	eng	Only known from a few sites on the south-eastern edge of Banhine National Park, Mozambique. This is the northern-most catchment within the Limpopo River system.
63385		habitat	eng	Found in isolated pools within a single non-flowing river channel. Collected in both vegetated clear water pools through to turbid muddy substrate pools. The river is seasonal and flows in the wet season into the main Banhine wetlands, a large swamp lake system.
63385		threats	eng	The Banhine region is the driest part of Mozambique receiving under 400 mm of rain per year. Isolated pools are also fished by local residents and are extremely vulnerable.
63386		distribution	eng	Only known from a few middle-order streams within the Mozambique section of the Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area.
63386		habitat	eng	The streams of this area are impacted by subsistence fishermen who use local fish poisons and there is gold mining activity. The latter causes increased sediment loads and potentially mercury poisoning from gold extraction methods.
63386		population	eng	Vegetated margins of medium sized rocky streams.
63386		threats	eng	Both fish poisoning and gold mining are illegal activities within the Chimanimani TFCA. Enforcement of laws and education of rural people is needed.
63387		conservation	eng	Improved aquatic habitat conservation is needed - perhaps through river health programmes and the establishment of conservancies.
63387		distribution	eng	Waterberg Mountains (Magalakwena, Mogol, Palala Rivers) form the main range. Isolated records from the Molopo area need to be verified.
63387		habitat	eng	Small streams but out of flows. Typically found associated with banks, root stocks and marginal vegetation.
63387		population	eng	Not abundant where encountered.
63387		threats	eng	Water abstraction, habitat degradation and sedimentation.
63388		conservation	eng	Education of rural fishermen and law enforcement.
63388		distribution	eng	Rovma River system in Mozambique and Tanzania. Only collected in the mainstream of the Lugenda River (southern Rovuma system). Presence in Malawi is uncertain.
63388		habitat	eng	Associated with marginal vegetation of main river channels.
63388		population	eng	Rare where encountered.
63388		threats	eng	Uncertain. Possibly poisoning of isolated pools in the riverine floodplain.
63389		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed urgently to assess the current status for this species. Areas suitable for conservation actions and possible sanctuary areas need to be identified. Possibly some streams need to have alien species removed to allow Kneria to either recover or for restocking with <em>Kneria</em> from adjacent stream populations. As part of this process an assessment of the genetic structuring of Kneria populations would be desirable. Use of water resources by riparian land users needs to be carefully controlled.
63389		distribution	eng	Known only from a few tributary streams in the upper Crocodile (Incomati) system near Lydenburg, Mpumalanga South Africa.
63389		habitat	eng	<em>Kneria</em> occur in small streams, usually in rocky habitats. Associated with marginal vegetation and root stocks in slower flows.
63389		threats	eng	Trout are present in most of the streams where <em>Kneria</em> occur. Some populations have already gone extinct due to predation from trout. Water extraction and weirs have resulted in some streams running dry.
63394		conservation	eng	No conservation plan is in place to assist in the recovery of this species.
63394		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the Tradouw catchment of the Breede River system (Moeras River in Barrydale that continues into the Tradouw River in Tradouw's Pass) (Swartz 2005).
63394		habitat	eng	Not much is known about the ecology of this species. They occur in pools and deep runs in water that is slightly peat stained. There are no other indigenous fish species that occur with them, but they have survived living with <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> thus far in most of its range.
63394		population	eng	The distribution of this taxon can be split into two populations, the one occurring above the town of Barrydale in the Moeras River and the other occurring in Tradouw's Pass. They seem to be isolated from each other at least in the summer months during low flow periods, due to excessive water extraction, the presence of alien fishes and pollution from the town Barrydale.
63394		threats	eng	Alien fish species is a major threat and <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> occur throughout most of the range of this species. <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> has eliminated this taxon from the middle and lower reaches of Tradou's Pass and they have been recorded from above Tradou's pass as well. This situation needs to be monitored and catchment-wide eradication of alien fishes is needed to secure this species. Pollution from the town Barrydale is contributing nutrient enrichment to Tradou's Pass and may have caused the extinction of this taxon just below the town. Just above the town, the Moeras River is being bulldozed and channelised, leaving only a very short section above this area that is relatively unspoilt. However, the town's water extraction point is above the distribution of this species, making their future survival in the Moeras River unsure.
63400		conservation	eng	Two of streams more or less protected and populations thought to be healthy and stable (Daigle pers. comm 1995). Most populations are within a state forest so could be fairly well protected/managed.
63400		distribution	eng	Endemic to the United States and known from only two counties in Florida.
63400		habitat	eng	Clean acidic streams and small lakes of the Blackwater River drainage in northwestern Florida. Also, boggy streams and seepages with muck-bottomed pools (Dunkle 2000).
63400		population	eng	Unknown.
63400		threats	eng	Excessive clear-cutting.
63401		conservation	eng	In Zambia, part of this species distribution falls within Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. Research into this species biology and ecology, and potential threats are needed, as well as monitoring of the populations. Environmental education of rural people and enforcement of laws is needed in certain areas, as well as maintenance of habitat.
63401		conservation	eng	In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.
63401		conservation	eng	No information available.
63401		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is known from lowveld reaches of tropical southeast coast rivers from the lower Zambezi to the Phongolo, and possibly into the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There are unconfirmed records from the upper Zambezi, Kafue, Nata and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu) systems (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In Malawi, this species occurs in the Lower Shire river and its tributaries (Ruo and Thangadzi rivers). Also reported to occur in pools in the Thangadzi river (Lower Shire tributary - this river flows during the rains for a few days therefore this species may have ascended the river during this time) (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Known from low-veld reaches of the larger east-coast rivers, from the Zambezi south to the Phongolo. Unverified records are known from several This species is known from upper Zambezi regions e.g. lower Kafue.
63401		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is known from lowveld reaches of tropical east coast rivers from the lower Zambezi to the Phongolo. There are also unconfirmed records from the upper Zambezi, Kafue, Nata and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu) systems (Skelton 2001).
63401		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Shire river and its tributaries (Ruo and Thangadzi rivers). Also reported to occur in pools in  the Thangadzi river (lower Shire tributary - this river flows during the rains for a few days therefore this species may have ascended the river during this time) (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Low reaches of the tropical east coast rivers from Lower Zambezi to the Phongolo.  Unconfirmed reports from the Upper Zambezi system, Kafue, Nata and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001).
63401		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It favours placid waters such as pans and large pools. <em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> feeds on insects. (Skelton 1993).
63401		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is usually collected in still, vegetated waters associated with main river channels of large rivers, and favours marginal pools and lagoons which may be isolated from the main channel. <em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> feeds on insects. (Skelton 1993, 2001). This species is reported to be common in gill net catches in the Ruo and Shire rivers (Tweddle and Willoughby, 1979).
63401		habitat	eng	Occurs in the main river and is uncommon in the marshes.  It prefers placid waters such as large pools. This species is reported to be common in gill net catches in the Ruo and Shire rivers (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).  Feeds on insects (see Skelton 1993; 2001).
63401		population	eng	Appears to be numerous in certain areas for reasons not yet known (Bell-Cross 1976).
63401		population	eng	For the majority of this species range, no information is available on population trends. In eastern Africa, it appears to be numerous in certain areas for reasons not yet known (Bell-Cross 1976).
63401		population	eng	No information available.
63401		threats	eng	In central and eastern Africa, no major threats are known. In southern Africa, poisoning and netting of isolated pools is practised in some regions.
63401		threats	eng	None known.
63401		threats	eng	Overfishing. This is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993).
63402		conservation	eng	Listed as a Category 1 National Protected Plant in China.
63402		distribution	eng	The species has a very limited distribution in Kyrgyzstan and is known from only a very restricted area in China (Ge <em>et al.</em> 2005). It may occur in Russia (see species distribution map in Flora of China checklist, TROPICOS database http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html).
63402		population	eng	The number of individuals in Kyrgyzstan is 3,000 to 4,000.
63402		threats	eng	Threats include mining, fossil exploration, poor regeneration and natural hazards.
63403		distribution	eng	Endemic to central Asia.
63403		population	eng	The number of trees in Uzbekistan is in decline.
63403		threats	eng	Main threats are grazing, collection of fruit for almond oil and poor regeneration (intermittent fruiting).
63404		distribution	eng	Endemic to east Kazakhstan: Altay Mt range: Kalba range, Narym and Tarbagatai Mts. The Extent of Occurrence is less than <sup>100km</sup>.
63404		habitat	eng	Used for almond oil production.
63404		threats	eng	Threats include cutting, habitat reduction, collection of fruit and flowers (particularly for international women’s day).
63405		distribution	eng	The wild apricot is considered very rare in all four countries where it naturally occurs. In Kazakhstan it is only known from three localities; Talgar, Turgen and Torkulak.
63405		threats	eng	Threats to the species, the origin of all cultivated apricots, include construction, development of tourism resorts, cutting for fuel wood, harvesting of fruit and the collection of germplasm by both national and international plant breeding companies.
63406		distribution	eng	The species has a very restricted range in central Asia (Tien Shan). In Kazakhstan it only occurs between the Kaskelen and Talgar gorges where individuals are sparsely distributed.
63406		habitat	eng	In meadows, on hills, along streams. Shrub, typically 0.50 to 1.0m (sometimes to 1.8m) tall (see <a href="http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/russia/atraphaxis.shtml".</a>).
63406		threats	eng	Expanding tourism and recreational activities threaten the area.
63407		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Ili river basin in Kazakhstan and China. Occurs from 600 to 2,000m in China.
63407		population	eng	The sub-populations are small and fragmented.
63407		threats	eng	Threats include water extraction, cutting and fire.
63408		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
63408		distribution	eng	A narrow endemic restricted to central Kazakhstan in the Kent and Karkaraly mountains.
63408		population	eng	A very scare and sporadic species.
63408		threats	eng	Although it exists in protected areas it is still threatened by tourism, grazing and natural fires.
63409		distribution	eng	A narrow relict endemic restricted to three river basins (Kokpa, Tekes, Bayantol and Narynkol) in one mountain range.
63409		population	eng	Declines in the extent of habitat have been observed, primarily due to fire.
63409		threats	eng	Fire.
63410		distribution	eng	Although known from four localities, including the Siberian lowlands of Kustanai province and the Chingiz Tau mountains in eastern Kazakhstan, the species has a very restricted area of occupancy (<10 km²). The total population is less than 1,000 individual trees and displays poor regeneration.
63410		population	eng	The total population is less than 1,000 individual trees and displays poor regeneration.
63410		threats	eng	Poor regeneration.
63411		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
63411		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Zoutpansberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa.
63411		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63411		population	eng	No information available.
63411		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63412		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63412		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Lakeside, Cape Peninsula, South Africa.&#160;It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63412		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygentated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63412		population	eng	No information available.
63412		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63413		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63413		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at York, North-eastern Cape, South Africa. It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63413		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63413		population	eng	No information available.
63413		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat.
63414		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63414		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Gordon Falls, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63414		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63414		population	eng	No information available.
63414		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63415		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63415		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63415		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia mooiensis</em> is mainly a South African species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the type locality at Mooi River at Potchefsroom, Northwest Province, South Africa.<br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63415		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia mooiensis</em> is mainly a South African species. It also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo at Katanga.
63415		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers.
63415		habitat	eng	No information available.
63415		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63415		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63415		threats	eng	No information available.
63416		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63416		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Karkloof stream northwest of Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout
63416		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63416		population	eng	No information available.
63416		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63417		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63417		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Bishopstowe Road, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63417		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63417		population	eng	No information available.
63417		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63418		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63418		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Umgeni River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63418		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63418		population	eng	No information available.
63418		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63419		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63419		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Ebb en Floed, Port Elizabeth, eastern Cape, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63419		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63419		population	eng	No information available.
63419		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63420		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63420		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Mooi River, Potchefstroom area, Northwest Province, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63420		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63420		population	eng	No information available.
63420		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63421		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63421		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Botswana, subfossil at Witkop. Records by Connolly (1939) include Great Namaqualand (Northern Cape Province, South Africa), Kamanyab in Namibia and Ngamiland in Botswana (Brown 1994). <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63421		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63421		population	eng	No information available.
63421		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat
63422		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63422		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63422		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia verreauxi</em> is mainly a South African species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It occurs in DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the type locality at Constance, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.
63422		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia verreauxi</em> is mainly a South African species. It also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo at Katanga.
63422		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers.
63422		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
63422		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63422		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63422		threats	eng	No information available.
63423		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63423		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Mooi River at Potchefsroom, Northwest Province, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
63423		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).
63423		population	eng	No information available.
63423		threats	eng	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat.
63424		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63424		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species. It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
63424		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia burnupi</em> occurs in South Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo.
63424		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia burnupi</em> occurs in South Africa and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is confirmed only from the type locality at Equeefa River, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because the species are small (Brown 1994).
63424		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams.
63424		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
63424		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63424		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63424		threats	eng	No information available.
63424		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
63425		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species. It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
63425		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia cawstoni</em> is known from South Africa, and possibly DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  There is a record of the species from DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known in the region only from the type locality at Mooi River River at Potchefsroom, Northwest Province, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63425		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
63425		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63425		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
63426		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63426		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Umtwalumi near Port Shepstone, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63426		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.
63426		population	eng	No information available.
63426		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63428		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63428		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Brack Kloof River near Grahamstown, eastern Cape, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63428		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.
63428		population	eng	No information available.
63428		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63429		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63429		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
63429		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia fontinalis</em> is recorded from South Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo (at Katanga).
63429		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia fontinalis</em> is recorded from South Africa and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known in the region only from the type locality at Ranjesfontein, Pretoria district, Gauteng, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63429		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams.
63429		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
63429		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63429		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63429		threats	eng	No information available.
63429		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
63430		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63430		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality near Rikatla, at the mouth of Komati (Incomati) River near present day Maputo, Mozambique. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63430		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.
63430		population	eng	No information available.
63430		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63431		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63431		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Lake Chrissie, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63431		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. Lake Chrissie (type locality) is ephemeral.
63431		population	eng	No information available.
63431		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63432		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63432		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at South Coast Junction, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63432		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.
63432		population	eng	No information available.
63432		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63433		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63433		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Zambezi River near Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63433		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.
63433		population	eng	No information available.
63433		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63434		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63434		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Zambezi River near Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
63434		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.
63434		population	eng	No information available.
63434		threats	eng	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.
63435		conservation	eng	No information available.
63435		distribution	eng	It is known from Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Tunduma in Tanzania (Brown 1994), and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the Mazabuka (research station) near the Kafue river and near Mpika (town) in Zambia. The species distribution is very poorly known and more research is needed.
63435		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia. Detailed mapping of distribution not possible due to lack of data.
63435		habitat	eng	No information available.
63435		population	eng	No information available.
63435		threats	eng	No information available.
63436		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.
63436		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is known from Angola north and south plateau, and Namibia: possibly present in the Cuvelai streams draining into Etosha Pan.
63436		habitat	eng	It is found in permanent and seasonal rivers/streams or pools in streambeds with aquatic vegetation.
63436		population	eng	No information available.
63436		threats	eng	No information available.
63437		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63437		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63437		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus depressus</em> occurs in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa.
63437		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus depressus</em> occurs in southeastern DRC, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is present in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Zambia (Lake Bengweulu region), South Africa (Limpopo Province westwards to the Orange (Gariep) and Vaal River basins. It is also known from Namibia and Botswana (Okavango River and Delta and East Caprivi).
63437		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, pools and lakes, as well as temporary marshes, reservoirs and earth dams.
63437		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, pools and lakes. Also found in temporary marshes, reservoirs and earth dams.
63437		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread. This species is common in the Okavango delta.
63437		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
63437		threats	eng	No information available.
63438		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63438		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern and central highveld plateau, lower half of the Drakensberg escarpment and the eastern Cape, South Africa (Appleton 1996, Brown 1994). It is not found on the lowlands of KwaZulu-Natal and Mpulumanga Provinces.
63438		habitat	eng	This species occurs on vegetation and stones in rivers and streams (Brown 1994).
63438		population	eng	No information available.
63438		threats	eng	No information available.
63439		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63439		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63439		distribution	eng	The species is present in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.
63439		distribution	eng	This species is known from DRC and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present near Kinshasa in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs on the coastal plain of Angola.
63439		habitat	eng	Found among aquatic vegetation in lakes, marshes and rivers.
63439		habitat	eng	It is found among aquatic vegetation in lakes, marshes and rivers.
63439		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63439		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63439		threats	eng	No information available.
63440		conservation	eng	No information available.
63440		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found from Mozambique to South East Transvaal.
63440		distribution	eng	This species is known from Malawi, South Africa and Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Mozambique, southeastern Mpumalanga and the coastal region of north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (where critical separation from <em>Lake junodi</em> is neccessary).
63440		habitat	eng	It is found in slow flowing and standing water with abundant plant growth.
63440		habitat	eng	No information available.
63440		population	eng	No information available.
63440		threats	eng	No information available.
63441		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63441		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63441		distribution	eng	The species is present in South Africa, Namibia. Democratic Republic of Congo at Katanga.
63441		distribution	eng	This species is mostly known from South Africa, but has also been reported from DRC and Namibia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in  DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the coastal areas of southern South Africa from Port St Johns (Eastern Cape) to Mtubatuba (KwaZulu-Natal) (Brown 1994). Outlying records from Ovamboland (Namibia) and Lake Albert (Uganda) are doubtful.
63441		habitat	eng	Found in permanent water bodies.
63441		habitat	eng	Only found in permanent water bodies.
63441		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63441		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63441		threats	eng	No information available.
63442		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of.
63442		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. The type locality for this species is Komati River estuary at Rikatla, Mozambique in 1922. It is not known whether this area has been properly sampled since so the species may still be extant. It may occur in coastal waters further up and down the coast (Appleton pers. comm.).
63442		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the species. The genus is found in fresh and brackish waters.
63442		population	eng	No information available.
63442		threats	eng	No specific threats known. However, habitat degradation is a likely threat.
63443		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63443		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63443		distribution	eng	The species is present in Zambia, Lundazi Tembwe near Chipata.
63443		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from the type locality (in early 1960's), Lundazi Tembwe, near Chipata in Zambia.
63443		habitat	eng	No information available.
63443		habitat	eng	Unknown.
63443		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63443		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63443		threats	eng	No information available.
63443		threats	eng	Only reported from the type locality.
63444		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of.
63444		distribution	eng	This species is known from the original specimens collected near Kokstad in eastern Cape province (South Africa) (last seen in this area before 1939). Davis and Brown have surveyed the area and not found the species; one area of suitable habitat was found to be polluted with oil and the surrounding fields were heavily grazed and the habitat had been trampled (Davis 1981). It was collected again in 1999 in a stream near the coast of eastern Cape province (M. Bursey and D. Herbet, pers. comm.). This habitat is very different from those visited by Davis (1981) and may indicate a wider distribution for the species than is currently known.
63444		habitat	eng	It is found in saline, brackish and freshwaters.
63444		population	eng	No information available.
63444		threats	eng	Oil pollution and trampling of suitable habitat by cattle threaten this species. Species of genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia</span> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.
63445		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and ecology would be valuable.
63445		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Africa (Western Cape Province) at De Kelders and Stilbaai and possibly in-between (this needs to be confirmed).
63445		habitat	eng	This species is amphibious, associated with perennial freshwater streams and small rivers. It is tolerant of low salinity and brief desiccation.
63445		population	eng	No information available.
63445		threats	eng	Species of genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia </span>are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles. In the Stilbaai area there is a potential for pollution and habitat degradation from the the offshore gas-drilling operation. There is also intensive residential and recreational development in this region.
63446		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of.
63446		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Originally collected in the 1930s but was found again in 1978 between the towns of Empangeni and Gingindlovu in three separate rivers (Davis 1981), and also in Umkomaas River (1939 type locality) south of Durban. There is the possibility that the species may occur outside these recorded locations as the region has not been fully surveyed.
63446		habitat	eng	This species is primarily amphibious on damp mud slopes shaded by vegetation and in fresh water streams.
63446		population	eng	No information available.
63446		threats	eng	The Umkomaas River is threatened by a paper mill which is polluting the river. Empangeni is part of one of the fastest developing industrial and mining growth centres of South Africa which is destroying habitat.<br>Species of genus <em>Tomichia</em> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.
63447		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63447		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa; the type locality is from ‘Namaqualand' , northern Cape, South Africa. Davis (1981) found the species again at the type locality, a spring (seepage) at Stinkfontaine, and at a second small spring (23m long, 0.6m wide) at the town of Lekkersiung in 1978. Davis searched other similar springs in the same area and did not find the species anywhere else.
63447		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater-aquatic with some tendency towards being amphibious.
63447		population	eng	Numerous at the two locations cited by Davis (1981).
63447		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to the springs. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia</span> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet sesonal cycles.
63448		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of.
63448		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a limited area of the southern Cape coastal strip west of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. It has been found in two locations, Port Elizabeth (type locality) in 1889 and by Davis in 1978 at Aston Bay (Jeffreys Bay) (Davis 1981). The species may be found in other locations but no survey work has been undertaken since 1978. The species is also possibly extirpated from the type locality due to historical development of the city of Port Elizabeth.
63448		habitat	eng	This species is amphibious and terrestrial, high on shore of saline lagoon.
63448		population	eng	At Aston Bay the species was patchy in distribution but numerous where present at hundreds per square metre (Davis 1981).
63448		threats	eng	Jeffreys Bay is subject to significant residential and recreational development, which could impact the suitable habitat of the species.&#160;Species of the genus <em>Tomichia</em> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.
63449		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63449		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern and southwestern coastal area of Western Cape Province, South Africa. It has been found in different locations between Cape Agulhas and Stompneuspunt with one record from Port Elizabeth (cited by Connolly, 1939) and one record from the Kowie River, Port Alfred in 1978 (Davis, 1981). The Kowie River population is now possibly extirpated as a marina has been built in the locality since the species was collected there. The Port Elizabeth record is also probably extirpated based on the development of the city since the record was made in the 1930s.
63449		habitat	eng	This species can survive periods of desiccation by burrowing below the surface to areas harbouring some moisture, and aestivate until the next rain fills the pans with freshwater. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. ventricosa</span> has adapted to a great range of environmental conditions (freshwater, brackish, hypersaline) (Davis 1981).<br/>The species occurs in rivers, coastal wetlands, estuaries and also in vleis (pans) that dry out seasonally.
63449		population	eng	A locally abundant species, seen at densities of hundreds per square metre (Davis 1981).
63449		threats	eng	Coastal development is a threat to the species along the south-western Cape coast. The Kowie River population is now possibly extirpated as a marina has been built within the tidal lagoon and the estuary has been canalised. Port Elizabeth has undergone major development since the species was last recorded there by Connolly (1939).
63450		conservation	eng	The eastern part of the species known range, De Hoop vleis, lies within a nature reserve.
63450		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Agulhas area of Western Cape Province, South Africa. The eastern part of the species known range, De Hoopvlei, lies within the De Hoop Nature Reserve.
63450		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater (tolerates low salinity) on sedge stems or bottom sediments of permanent lakes, ponds and vleis (pans).
63450		population	eng	The species has been found to be abundant in vleis (pans) and has been recorded at hundreds per square metre (Davis 1981).
63450		threats	eng	The western part of the species distribution is threatened by potential recreational and residential development. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia</span> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.
63451		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
63451		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Zambia, where it is known from eight collection sites. These sites occur in three or four locations (the sampling sites are clumped together). However, it is likely to occur along the Luapula River It is known from Nchelenge to Lake Mweru. It may also occur in southeastern DRC. It has been recorded from tributaries of rivers near Lake Mweru (part of the Congo drainage) and in the south-east near Petauke.
63451		habitat	eng	It inhabits riverine locations. This species probably prefers small streams.
63451		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63451		threats	eng	The species occurs in a region which is subject to rapid development. It is likely to occur in tributaries around Lake Mweru rather than in the lake itself.
63452		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
63452		distribution	eng	The species is present in north Angola, Dande River and Luanda region.
63452		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Dande River and other localities in the Luanda Region of Angola where it has been collected since early 1960s.
63452		habitat	eng	Found in rivers. Perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
63452		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
63452		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
63452		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
63452		threats	eng	Not known, but it has a limited geographical range.
63452		threats	eng	This species has a limited geographical range but no known major widespread threats.
63453		conservation	eng	None known.
63453		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. This species is known from the lower Kunene ( possibly also in upper Kunene in Angola), Okavango River and Delta, middle Zambesi river (Brown 1994) probably excluding lake Kariba and the eastern parts (lowveld) of Limpopo and Mplumalanga provinces of South Africa including the Kruger National Park (Appleton 1996).
63453		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers with sandy or muddy bottoms in the east (Limpopo and Mplumalanga provinces, South Africa) (lowveld); rivers and floodplains in northeast Namibia (Brown 1994).
63453		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
63453		threats	eng	No known threats.
63454		conservation	eng	No information available.
63454		distribution	eng	It has only been recorded from the type locality, Cuanza River near Malanje, Angola in 1963.
63454		habitat	eng	No information available.
63454		population	eng	No information available.
63454		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
63455		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.
63455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is known from Zambesi River above Victoria Falls, and between Kariba and Chirundu (Mandahl-Barth 1988; Graf and Cummings 2006). It is also known from Kunene and Okavango systems and possibly from the Mpumalanga lowveld of South Africa (Appleton 1996, Appleton and Curtis, in press, Graf and Cummings 2006). It is unknown how far downstream the Zambesi the species occurs. The species has also been recorded from Lake Chivero (formally Lake MacIlwaine) (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
63455		habitat	eng	This is a large species, recorded up to 122 mm long (Appleton pers. comm.). This species is found in sand and mud in rivers and artificial lakes. The species has parasitic larvae that need fish mostly cichlids (Kenmuir 1980).
63455		population	eng	This species is recorded at a relatively low density. This species is recorded at less than 1 per square metre. (0.8 per square metre in the Okavango  (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003) and 0.2 to 0.9 per square metre in Lake Chivero (Lake MacIlaine) and in Lake Kariba) (Kenmuir 1980).
63455		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g. mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
63456		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.
63456		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. The type locality is the Kunene River. It is currently found in the Kunene river, Okavango river system and the upper Zambesi above Victoria falls extending into Angola. It is also found in the Kafue river, Zambia.
63456		habitat	eng	This is a riverine species found in sand and mud and seems to favour fine sediments in the 125-180 µm range (Appleton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The species has a parasitic larval stage that depends upon fish for development and distribution.
63456		population	eng	The species is very common, probably the most common bivalve in the Kunene and Okavango systems (Appleton pers .comm.). It has been recorded at mean densities of up to 18 per square metre in the Okavango system (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
63456		threats	eng	The species is thought to have no major threats. Even the proposed dams on the Kunene are believed to pose little threat. However, habitat disturbance, e.g. mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
63457		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.
63457		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa (including Malawi). It is found in river systems across southern Africa apart from those in Angola, the Kunene and Okavango systems in Namibia and Botswana, and the Luapula system and Kafue River in Zambia. It also occurs in some of the coastal lakes of northern KwaZulu-Natal.
63457		habitat	eng	It is found in sand/mud substrate in rivers (both seasonal and perennial), but also known from dams and small lakes. Has a parasitic larval stage that depends upon fish for development and dispersal (little known about this).
63457		population	eng	This species is locally common. However the population in the Western Cape is declining and its range there is decreasing.
63457		threats	eng	The reason for the decrease in range and population is currently unknown, may be related to the fish host. Habitat disturbance e.g. In the form of mining is known to be a threat to bivalves in general.
63458		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63458		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. The species occurs widely across the country from the western Cape (Berg River) and highveld plateau of Free State Province (Rhenoster River) to northern KwaZulu-Natal and the Kruger National Park, Limpopo Province (Kuiper 1964, 1966; Appleton unpubl. data).
63458		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers.
63458		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1,000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
63458		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
63459		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
63459		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. Itis only known from the type locality, Vaal River at Amersfoort in Mpumalanga Province and in the same river at Vereeniging (Gauteng Province) (Kuiper 1964, 1966).
63459		habitat	eng	No information available.
63459		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1,000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
63459		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
63460		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Pamir-Alay range in Tajikistan (possibly also Kyrgyzstan) at altitudes between 2500-3300 m.  Only known from five localities (Darvaz, Vanj, Rushan, Gunt and Shokhdara).
63460		population	eng	The species is scarce and declining.
63461		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Gorno-Badakhshan range in Tajikistan at altitudes between 2000-2500m. Restricted to four localities (Shabdara, Gunt, Rushan and Darvaz).
63461		population	eng	The total population size is less than 250 and declining.
63462		conservation	eng	Some protection is afforded to the Aksu sub-population, as it is located in a protected area.
63462		distribution	eng	Restricted to two localities in Kazakhstan: the Aksu river basin and rivers in the Karatau mountain range.
63462		population	eng	Declines have been observed in the Karatau range.
63463		distribution	eng	Occurs in the river basins and valleys of western Tien Shan (Ugam, Pskem and Chatkal). Found from 1,300 to 2,500m in Xinjiang (China).
63463		population	eng	Populations are fragmented and in decline.
63463		threats	eng	Threats include livestock, avalanches and tourism.
63464		distribution	eng	In Uzbekistan, it is restricted to a narrow ecological niche in the Bukhara province. The species was collected in 2001 in Turkmenistan (see <a href="http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast">TROPICOS</a> database).
63464		threats	eng	Threats are cutting and grazing.
63465		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Bukhara province Uzbekistan.
63465		habitat	eng	Restricted to a narrow ecological niche.
63465		threats	eng	Threats are cutting and grazing.
63466		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Sokh river basin, southern Ferghana (Uzbekistan).
63466		habitat	eng	Restricted to a narrow ecological niche.
63466		threats	eng	Threatened by cutting and grazing.
63467		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Sokh river basin.
63467		habitat	eng	Has a very narrow ecological niche (soil type).
63467		threats	eng	Threatened by overgrazing and cutting. Its timber is highly valued for tandoori cooking.
63468		distribution	eng	Grows on the Uzbekistan/Turkmenistan border.
63468		habitat	eng	Restricted to a narrow ecological niche.
63468		population	eng	Populations are sparsely distributed.
63468		threats	eng	Threatened by grazing and collection for firewood.
63469		distribution	eng	Only found in one locality: Pri-Aral Moyunkum (Kazakhstan).
63469		habitat	eng	A species of arid desert. Occurs on sandy soils.
63469		threats	eng	Threatened by drainage of Aral sea and salination of soils. Decline of habitat quality due to desertification.
63471		distribution	eng	Only found in south west Darvas (Tajikistan).
63471		population	eng	A very rare species restricted to a very small area.
63471		threats	eng	In decline with threats including over grazing and cutting.
63472		distribution	eng	Only in the Darvas range and downstream of the Vange river (Tajikistan). May also occur in neighbouring Afghanistan.
63472		population	eng	The area is declining.
63472		threats	eng	Cutting is the main threat (timber).
63473		distribution	eng	Very limited distribution with only one locality; a ravine in Allay mountains (Kyrgyzstan).
63473		threats	eng	Human disturbance, overgrazing and cutting threaten the species.
63475		threats	eng	Considered to be extremely threatened in all the central Asian countries it occurs. Threats include cattle grazing and tourism.
63476		conservation	eng	The populations occur in a protected area.
63476		distribution	eng	Only known from two localities in the Karkara gorge in Kazakhstan. A recent taxonomic revision in Kyrgyzstan described the Kyrgzystan populations as <em>L. sovetkinae</em>.
63476		population	eng	The total population is between 6-700 individuals.
63476		threats	eng	Although the populations occur in a protected area the species is still threatened by tourism development.
63477		distribution	eng	Central Asia.
63477		habitat	eng	A wild relative of domesticated cultivars and therefore an internationally important genetic resource.
63477		population	eng	A very rare species, with individuals sporadically distributed in fragmented populations.
63477		threats	eng	Threats include loss and degradation of habitat due to agricultural expansion and development, genetic erosion (grafting of commercial varieties and hybridization) and overgrazing.
63478		distribution	eng	Very limited distribution with an area of occupancy <1km².
63478		population	eng	Approximately 2,000 individuals.
63478		threats	eng	Close to a large settlement and threatened by overgrazing.
63479		distribution	eng	Only one locality in the Karatau (Syr-darya) Mountains (Kazakhstan).
63479		habitat	eng	Occurs in mountain gorges and rocky slopes, 1000-1200m.
63479		population	eng	A very narrow endemic with a total population of no more than 50 individuals.
63479		threats	eng	Little is known about rates of decline or threats.
63480		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Pamir; the Alai and Gisar mountains ranges, between 1,800 and 2,000m.
63480		threats	eng	Threats include cutting and agricultural expansion.
63481		distribution	eng	A rare endemic of Gorno-Badakhshan province (Tajikistan).
63481		threats	eng	Agriculture expansion is the main threat.
63482		distribution	eng	Known from only a few fragmented sub-populations.
63482		threats	eng	Threatened by overgrazing, fruit harvesting and collection of saplings for grafting.
63483		distribution	eng	In Darvas between 1,300 and 1,600m.
63483		population	eng	Populations are very small, fragmented and declining. There are only a small number of populations.
63483		threats	eng	In decline due to cutting.
63484		distribution	eng	Very limited distribution with only two known localities.
63484		threats	eng	Threats include fruit collection and livestock grazing.
63485		distribution	eng	Limited and fragmented distribution.
63485		threats	eng	Threatened by overgrazing in some areas.
63487		conservation	eng	Listed in the national Red Data books of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
63487		distribution	eng	The species has a very limited distribution and has not been collected for several years.
63487		threats	eng	Threats include agricultural expansion, tourism and housing developments.
63489		distribution	eng	In Kyrgyzstan the species has not been seen for several years. There are only three known localities for the species in Kazakhstan in the Betpak-Tala desert and the Syrdarga Kara-Tau.
63489		threats	eng	Threats include habitat degradation and cutting.
63490		distribution	eng	Grows on the border of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan with a limited ecological range.
63490		threats	eng	Severely threatened by over-grazing.
63491		distribution	eng	Endemic to Gorno-Badakhshan, in the Dervas range and by Pange river (Tajikistan). Perhaps also in Afghanistan, but current status is not known.
63491		population	eng	Very rare and in decline.
63491		threats	eng	In decline mostly from cutting.
63492		distribution	eng	The species has a limited distribution in central Asia.
63492		threats	eng	Although this species has a small range, there are no immediate threats. It tends to grow on inaccessible cliffs and in both Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan the populations are located in protected areas.
63493		distribution	eng	Restricted to high altitude areas in Kyrgyzstan and China. The extent of occurrence is <10 km².
63493		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats.
63494		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout central Asia, also in China and probably Afghanistan.
63494		threats	eng	Threats include harvesting for timber and changes in water regime.
63495		distribution	eng	Although the species is widely distributed its natural distribution is restricted to central Asia.
63495		threats	eng	It is threatened by fruit collection, livestock grazing and cutting.
63496		distribution	eng	All desert areas in central Asia.
63496		habitat	eng	This species occupies a very specific ecological niche (river banks in arid areas).
63496		threats	eng	It is threatened by changes in water regime (irrigation and hydroelectric power stations), cutting and agricultural conversion.
63498		conservation	eng	Most of the populations in Uzbekistan are in a protected area.
63498		distribution	eng	Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.
63498		threats	eng	No immediate threats.
63499		distribution	eng	Only known from Kyrgyzstan.
63500		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kazakhstan, where it has only been recorded in the Boguta Mountains in the Charyn river basin.
63500		population	eng	No collections of the species have been made in the past 100 years and it may no longer exist in the wild.
63502		distribution	eng	Only occurs in Betpak-dala desert (central Kazakhstan). A very rare relict species, occurring amongst rocks, with a distribution of <100km².
63502		threats	eng	There is no information on declines or threats.
63503		distribution	eng	Occurs in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, China, and possibly Uzbekistan. Elevational range in China (Xinjiang Province): 1,300 to 1,400 m.
63505		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Kazakhstan.
63507		distribution	eng	Occurs in Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, Mongolia, China. Elevational range in China (Xinjiang): ca. 1,000 m
63515		distribution	eng	Has a wide distribution across western Tien Shan.
63516		distribution	eng	Although rare in Kazakhstan with only one locality, the species is widespread and common in Kyrgyzstan.
63517		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
63517		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in Europe, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Himalayas.
63518		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Mediterranean and Central Asia. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63518		habitat	eng	A herbaceous parasite on <em>Juniperus</em>.
63519		distribution	eng	Widespread in Central Asia, the Caucasus and Crimea. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63520		distribution	eng	Widespread in Central Asia and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63521		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
63521		distribution	eng	Widespread in Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63522		distribution	eng	Widespread in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Also occurs in Uzbekistan.
63523		distribution	eng	Widespread in Central Asia, also occurs in the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63524		distribution	eng	Widespread distribution: occurs in Central Asia (not Kazakhstan), the Caucasus, Iran, and the Mediterranean. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63525		distribution	eng	Widespread in west Tien Shan.
63526		distribution	eng	Occurs in Tajikistan, Russia, Eastern Europe. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63527		distribution	eng	Widespread in Central Asia, Iran, and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63528		distribution	eng	Widespread in Central Asia and the Himalayas. The list of countries of occurrence may be incomplete.
63530		distribution	eng	A widespread species; distribution includes Europe and Central Asia. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63531		distribution	eng	Widespread in central Asia, the Caucasus, south-west Asia and the Mediterranean. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63531		threats	eng	In central Asia threatened by livestock grazing.
63532		distribution	eng	Widespread in Europe, Russia, and parts of central Asia (Kazakhstan). The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63533		distribution	eng	Central Asia.
63533		population	eng	Although rare in Kazakhstan and the Gorno-Badakhshan province of Tajikistan the species is widespread in the other central Asian countries.
63534		distribution	eng	Widespread in central Asia, south-west Asia and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63535		distribution	eng	Widespread in Kyrgyzstan  and Kazakhstan. Also found in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
63537		conservation	eng	Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. vinifera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sylvestris </span>is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: Critically endangered (CR) (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).</li><li>Germany: highly endangered—needs conservation action (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (CR) (Holub and Procházka 2000).</li><li>Cyprus: a survey of the distribution of wild grapevines is in progress.</li><li>Hungary: Endangered (EN) (Király 2007) and protected   (under the 3/2005. (VIII. 31.) KvVM decree) according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant  and animal species and the Goverment decree on the Natura 2000 sites  for the restoration of natual habitats and the maintenance of viable  populations of protected species. <br/></li></ul>It occurs in protected areas (e.g., Natura 2000 sites). It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 48 wild accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. vinifera</span> and of these, 32 originate from within Europe: four from Germany (stored in Federal College and Research Institute for Viticulture and Fruit Growing, Austria), 24 from Greece (stored in Greek Genebank, Agricultural Research Center of Macedonia and Thrace, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece), one from Spain (stored in genebank of the scuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain) and three from Ukraine (stored in Institute of Grape and Wine 'Maharach', Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<p>In Portugal, some plants from the population located on the Guadiana  River in the municipalities of  Reguengos de Monsaraz and Mourão that  was recently destroyed  during the  building of the Alqueva dam were  transferred to the National Germplasm Collection in  Braga (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007). In Slovakia, some plants from the subpopulation located in the  ?enkov farmstead on the Danube River basin have been cultivated for <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 25 years in the Botanical Garden of the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (Maglocký 1999, Eliáš Jr. unpublished). </p>
63537		distribution	eng	Originated in central Asia but now occurs in many countries and regions of the world as a result of cultivation. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63537		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vinifera</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of the wild subpopulations (<span style="font-style: italic;">V</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vinifera </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sylvestris</span>) in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Portugal: according to Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009), five subpopulations of wild grapevines (<span style="font-style: italic;">V</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vinifera </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sylvestris</span>) have been identified: (1) at Ribeira Brava near Valverde in the District of Évora (Ocete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995); (2) near the Guadiana River in the municipalities of Reguengos de Monsaraz and Mourão (Ocete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999); (3) in the Sado River basin near Alcácer-do-Sal; (4) in the Almansor River basin, near Santa Sofia, in the surroundings of Montemor-o-Novo; and (5) in the Ponsul River basin, near Malpica do Tejo, in the neighbourhood of Castelo Branco (Coelho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The population located on the Guadiana River was recently destroyed during the building of the Alqueva dam (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</li><li>Slovakia: according to Bertová (1984), ten historical localities were known in the west, southwest and southeast of the country. Recently, seven localities were confirmed: (1) the Danube River near&#160; Bratislava—part Devínska Nová Ves (Ondrá?ek pers. comm. 2010); (2) the Danube River near ?enkov farmstead (west from the ?túrovo town) (Maglocký 1999, Eliáš Jr. unpublished); (3) Ch?aba (Maglocký 1999, Eliáš Jr. unpublished); (4) site Ve?ký les in the flood plains of the Nitra River near the Ú?any nad ?itavou village (Sádovský unpublished); (5) Vojany in the Uh River flood plain, (6) Drah?ov and (7) Zemplín in the Latorica River basin (Maglocký 1999). All subpopulations are stable except for the one at Ch?aba. This micro-population includes only 2–5 individuals.</li><li>Cyprus: a survey of the distribution of wild grapevines is in progress. To date, it has been recorded at five localities: Ayia, Stauros tis Psokas, Potamos tou Limniti, Potamos tou Pyrgou and Platys (A. Kyratzis pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</li><li>Germany: occurs on the Rhine River only<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>Hungary:   <em></em>occurs in the northeast (Sátor mountain), southeast (Visegrádi-, Pilis-, Budai mountains), south Transdanubia (Dráva foodplain) and Great Hungarian Plain   (Soó 1966).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in the majority of departments with the exceptions of 11 departments in the west, four departments to the east and the department of Gard in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></li><li>Czech Republic: it used to be present in flood plain forests of the lower Morava River but is not confirmed at the present time (Koblizek 1997). <br/></li></ul><p>  </p>
63537		habitat	eng	<p><em>V. vinifera </em>ssp. <em>sylvestris </em>grows in riparian woody vegetation alongside rivers and streams. The plants can be found climbing up the stems of pine and other deciduous trees up to 15 m in height. Specifically, in Hungary, the plant&#160; can be found growing in   alluvial forests and alluvial deposition areas—particularly in forest clearings and margins   (Soó  1966).</p>
63537		population	eng	To date, more than 70 individual plants have been recorded in Cyprus (A. Kyratzis pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
63537		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by agricultural activities, urbanization, and natural events such as floods and fire (Lopes <em>et al.</em> 2009). Clearing of riverside vegetation can also destroy wild vine habitat (M.C. Duarte pers. comm. 2010). In Portugal, the subpopulation located on the Guadiana River in the municipalities of Reguengos de Monsaraz and Mourão was recently destroyed  during the building of the Alqueva dam (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Slovakia, the subpopulations located in Ú?any nad ?itavou and ?enkov farmstead were damaged by forest cutting <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. five years ago. However, both subpopulations survived and regenerated (Eliáš Jr. unpublished). Some plants are damaged by forest management in Cyprus and Germany. Fruit is also collected from some plants.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
63537		threats	eng	Threatened by fruit collection in central Asia.
63538		distribution	eng	Widespread in central Asia and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.
63538		habitat	eng	Narrow ecological niche.
63540		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous reserves, mostly small ones and it is considered to be of special concern in some states.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
63540		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma laterale</em> is found in seven states in the United States of America.
63540		habitat	eng	<em>E. laterale</em> prefers acidic, sandy ponds (e.g., coastal plain ponds), bog-bordered ponds, and other ponds with emergent vegetation.
63540		population	eng	<em>E. laterale</em> is a locally common species found in many populations.
63540		threats	eng	Preferred habitats subject to development for private housing and resorts.
63541		conservation	eng	The only effectively protected population is one of about 200 in Awash National Park. There are well-managed captive populations. Overall distribution and numbers of this gazelle will continue to decline unless effective protection and management can be implemented in larger areas of its range than at present.
63541		distribution	eng	Formerly widely distributed throughout most of Djibouti, northern Somalia and the central coastal plain; north-east and central Sudan; lowland areas of Eritrea, the Ogaden and other lowland areas of eastern Ethiopia (Schloeder and Jacobs in press). At one time, this gazelle may have occasionally ventured as far south as extreme north-east Kenya (East 1999) but there is no recent information on its occurrence in this area. The population on Dahlak Kebir Island was probably introduced over 100 years ago (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Uncontrolled hunting and habitat destruction have most probably eliminated this species from its historic range in Sudan (East 1999). It still occupies substantial parts of its historical range in Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia, but at lower densities and as isolated populations; numbers in the Ogaden are greatly reduced due to uncontrolled hunting (Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. 2006).
63541		habitat	eng	Occupies arid coastal plains and mudflats, arid and semi-arid <em>Acacia</em> savannas, and semi-arid grassland plains. Tends to prefer rough hilly country, but also found in open bush savannas, and thinly-wooded grasslands (Schloeder and Jacobs, in press).
63541		population	eng	East (1999) estimated the total population at about 14,000. Numbers have declined in most areas since then, though security concerns have hindered detailed census work.<br/><br/>Current estimates are: <strong>Somalia</strong> <1,000?; <strong>Djibouti</strong> 1,000 to 1,500; <strong>Ethiopia</strong> <3,000; <strong>Eritrea</strong> <1,000?; <strong>Sudan</strong> probably extirpated; <strong>Kenya</strong> no longer occurs. These figures suggest a total current population of <6,000 to 6,500 individuals.<br/><br/>The population in Djibouti can probably be considered stable over recent years or may even be slightly increasing. However, for Ethiopia (Ogaden), Somalia and Sudan the decline must have been drastic over the past 50 years. Detailed estimates of numbers in Eritrea and other parts of Ethiopia are lacking, but there is no indication that they are common anywhere in Ethiopia, especially considering the turmoil in the past 20 years in this region.
63541		threats	eng	Uncontrolled hunting, political instability, civil and military conflicts, and degradation of rangeland by large numbers of livestock.
63542		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
63542		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
63542		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.
63542		population	eng	No information available.
63542		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
63543		conservation	eng	The 'Great Gobi Reserve A' was established in Mongolia in 1982 and in 2000, the 'Arjin Shan Lop Nur Nature Reserve'  was established in China. Although the first phase of Nature Reserve construction is now complete, much more work, including the opening of a second Nature Reserve in China is needed.<br/><br/>The establishment of a captive Wild Bactrian Camel breeding programme in Mongolia has been established by the Wild Camel Protection Foundation. This is an urgent conservation priority. Only fifteen wild Bactrian camels are currently in captivity in China and Mongolia. With so few captive animals, the whole species could be wiped out if their natural habitats in China and Mongolia are destroyed. It is therefore important to breed enough animals in captivity to insure against this possible disaster. As each female camel can have young at most once every two years, relying on natural methods would permit the numbers to rise only very slowly.
63543		distribution	eng	The Bactrian Camel is restricted to four subpopulations in China and Mongolia: Gashun Gobi, Gansu, China; Taklamakan Desert, Xinjiang, China (this population has declined and may now be extinct); the northern slopes of Arjin Shan mountains and adjacent areas in Lop Nur Wild Camel National Reserve, China; and the Great Gobi Section A Strictly Protected Area, Mongolia, and adjacent areas in China (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1999, Mix <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wang <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Mongolia, the species is found in the Trans Altai Govi Desert (Mix <em>et al</em>. 2002), including the foothills of the Edren Range to Shiveet Ulaan, and the Hükh Tömörtei Range to the state border (Mix <em>et al</em>. 2002, Adiya <em>et al</em>. 2004, Adiya and Dovchindorj 2005).<br/><br/>A domestic form, considered under a separate species name (<em>Camelus bactrianus</em>), exists in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China (Grubb 2005).<br/><br/>The range of the wild Bactrian camel in historic times extended from about the great bend of the Yellow River, across the deserts of southern Mongolia and northwestern China to central Kazakhstan. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the species had been extirpated from the western part of its range, and persisted only in remote areas of the Gobi and Taklimakan Deserts. These populations have become increasingly fragmented over the past 150 years (Schaller 1998).
63543		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Gobi and Gashun Gobi deserts of northwest China and Mongolia. While vegetation is sparse, the desert itself varies from rocky mountain massifs, to the flat pavement-like areas of the extremely arid desert; stony "gobi" desert plains; poplar fringed oases; vast washed-out plains and high sand dunes. In some areas, in the absence of fresh water, it has adapted to drinking salt water slush which the domestic camel will not touch.
63543		population	eng	In the year 2004, there were approximately 600 individuals surviving in China and 350 in Mongolia, with numbers continuing to decrease (J. Hare pers. comm.). In 1985 the Mongolian subpopulation numbered 650 animals.
63543		threats	eng	It is estimated from information received from the Protected Area staff and Mongolian scientists working in the 'Great Gobi Reserve A' that in Mongolia, 25 to 30 Wild Bactrian Camels are being killed annually when they migrate across the international border into China on the southernmost boundary of the protected area 'Great Gobi Reserve A'. The hunting is mainly for local subsistence use.<br/><br/>Due to the reduction in water points (oases) because of drought, wolves have increased their predation of Wild Bactrian Camels. This activity is concentrated at the remaining water points in the area. The remaining habitat in Mongolia is also being degraded by domestic livestock.<br/><br/>In China in the new Arjin Shan Lop Nur Nature Sanctuary, up to 20 Wild Bactrian Camels are killed annually by miners and hunters for subsistence use. Economic pressure to use the areas adjoining the Nature Reserve as grazing for domestic Bactrian camels has increased  hybridisation on the southern border and this poses a significant threat to the unique genetic strain of the Wild Bactrian Camel which current scientific DNA research suggests is a separate species.<br/><br/>For 45 years, this area of the Gashun Gobi was the nuclear test site area of China. In spite of this, the Wild Bactrian Camel survived and is apparently breeding naturally. Since the cessation of nuclear tests in China, the Wild Bactrian Camel now faces new threats including highly toxic illegal mining and hunting for food and sport. Parts of the Wild Bactrian Camel's designated habitat are likely to be designated for industrial use (gas pipe line laying, exploitation of minerals).  Domestic Bactrian camels and goats have also been introduced to the designated areas and hence compete for grazing and water.
63544		conservation	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
63544		distribution	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
63544		habitat	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
63544		population	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
63544		threats	eng	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).
63545		distribution	eng	This species is known only from collections made in 1886 and 1898 in one locality: Pulau Betong, Penang Island, Peninsular Malaysia.
63545		habitat	eng	Granite rocks at <em>ca</em>170 m altitude surrounded by dipterocarp forest; the original forest has been cleared for agricultural cultivation.
63545		population	eng	The area has been explored but no specimens of the little herb have been found in the last hundred years.
63545		threats	eng	The following activities probably contributed to the extinction of the species: small-holder farming, selective logging, and clear-cutting.
63546		conservation	eng	This species is not known by its herbarium collections from protected areas, although some collections were made near the Three Parallel Rivers Protected Area in Yunnan and it may occur there, too.
63546		distribution	eng	Probably confined to the higher parts of south-west China, true range may be poorly known due to difficulty of identification and relatively inconspicuous habit. EOO based on herbarium specimens calculated as 225,117 km² and AOO as 93,342 km² but probably larger.
63546		habitat	eng	An understorey shrub or small tree in mixed conifer forests (e.g. <em>Abies</em> spp.) and along mountain streams. Elevation (from G.I.S.) 885 to 2,554 m, from herbarium specimens 1,100 to 3,520 m. An ornamental shrub used in horticulture.
63546		population	eng	Little is known of population sizes; this taxon is uncommon regionally as its known localities are disjunct. Last (western) collection date 1948, but there are more recent collections in Chinese herbaria.
63546		threats	eng	No threats are known.
63547		conservation	eng	Not known to occur within a protected area.
63547		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chihuahua, Sonora. Probably limited to a small area; a further search in the region may reveal other localities.
63547		habitat	eng	Insufficiently known.
63547		population	eng	Insufficiently known.
63547		threats	eng	Insufficiently known.
63548		conservation	eng	This variety is recorded from Qingshui-shan, a protected area in Taiwan.
63548		distribution	eng	Found in Taiwan and southern Japan (Yakushima); may also occur in China. The range of this species remains incompletely known.
63548		habitat	eng	This variety has been found in a few localities in high mountains as a procumbent shrub but little else is known about its ecology. It is apparently a subalpine form of <em>J. chinensis</em>.
63548		population	eng	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.
63549		conservation	eng	This variety is recorded from several protected areas, including Walnut Canyon, Chiricahua, Big Bend National Park, Coconino, Red Rock-Secret Mountain, Cookes Range and Papago Reserves.
63549		distribution	eng	U.S.A., Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, possibly into Mexico. The range map given by Adams (2004) does not agree with his own herbarium collections as it excludes specimens from south-west Texas (in that book considered to belong to var. <em>coahuilensis</em>) which have been seen for the Monograph to belong to var. <em>arizonica</em> as originally determined. Consequently, the EOO is calculated as 221,234 km² and the AOO as 122,710 km² which is probably an underestimate.
63549		habitat	eng	In <em>Bouteloua</em> grassland and on adjacent rocky slopes. Capacity to coppice, considered ‘weedy’ in some areas by sheep and cattlemen. In Arizona it occurs with <em>Juniperus osteosperma</em> in some localities; other associated species are sometimes <em>Opuntia</em> spp. or <em>Yucca</em> spp. but commonly its only associates are grasses. Altitudinal range 980 to 1,600 (to 2200) m (from G.I.S. 396 to 2,616 m).
63549		population	eng	This taxon is common in many localities with sizable populations.
63549		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this species/variety. Junipers in the region were formerly used for fence posts, but metal has replaced this use.
63550		conservation	eng	This variety is not recorded from any protected areas.
63550		distribution	eng	China: Xizang (Tibet), known only from a locality in the upper Zangbo River basin. The range of this variety remains incompletely known, but it is apparently rare.
63550		habitat	eng	Found in juniper dwarf scrub patches in very open alpine steppe on the Tibetan Plateau in the rain/snow shadow of the main crest of the Himalayas.
63550		population	eng	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.
63551		conservation	eng	Herbarium collections are recorded from Enarotali Nature Reserve, Gunung Sibela Reserve and Pegunungan Tamrau Utara Nature Reserve, all in New Guinea.
63551		distribution	eng	Indonesia, New Guinea (Papua), Moluccas (Bacan Island and Obi Island). De Laubenfels (1988) mentions Ternate in the Moluccas, but no specimen has been cited or seen from that small and densely populated island. It is not impossible that it was planted there.
63551		habitat	eng	In primary forest on acid, peaty soils, into peaty heathland, vegetation prone to fire. Also in montane tropical rainforest mixed with angiosperms, but more abundant in mossy cloud forest. Utilization: Timber used for construction of houses in villages, trees are often planted in villages.
63551		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size in the three major areas of its distribution. The latest herbarium collection seen was made in 1974.
63551		threats	eng	Exploitation for timber (local uses only), fire.
63552		conservation	eng	No collections were recorded from protected areas.
63552		distribution	eng	Northeast Mexico: Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi. EOO calculated on the basis of recorded herbarium specimens is 6,710 km². The ranges of the two varieties are separated by a few hundred kilometres.
63552		habitat	eng	This northern variety is mainly found on alkaline soils (pH 7-8) derived from limestone. It is most commonly found scattered in mixed pine-oak forest. Not specifically targeted for timber, but cut with other trees for general use. Rare in cultivation.
63552		population	eng	The size of subpopulations of this variety is generally smaller than of the southern variety <em>australis.</em>
63552		threats	eng	Several populations are subject to wood extraction (general timber cutting), conversion of woodland to farmland, and grazing. Many subpopulations appear to have low regeneration levels.
63553		conservation	eng	Some locations are within protected areas: eight herbarium collections were recorded from the Sierra Gorda, Los Marmoles and Cuenca Hidrografica del Rio Necaxa Reserves.
63553		distribution	eng	East central Mexico: Queretaro, Hidalgo, Puebla. EOO calculated at 21,155 km<sup>2</sup> based on the mapped distribution of herbarium collections.
63553		habitat	eng	This variety is generally growing on acid soils. It is a relatively rare pine that always grows sporadically among other species of pine, or in mixed pine-oak woodland. The serotinous cones indicate adaptation to fire, but no studies on how this affects seed dispersal and germination have been undertaken (or published).
63553		population	eng	Subpopulations of this southern variety are reported to be larger on average than those of the northern variety (var. <em>greggii</em>). Genetic analysis suggests there is often little exchange between these subpopulations.
63553		threats	eng	The main threats are deforestation and conversion of land use to arable fields. Grazing is negatively affecting regeneration from seeds. This small to medium sized tree is not targeted for timber but it may be used when cut for forest clearance with other trees. It is only present in cultivation in some arboreta.
63554		distribution	eng	Northern Morocco, and on the Algerian – Tunisian border near the coast. In two very disjunct areas.
63554		habitat	eng	In Morocco it is reported to occur at elevations up to 2,000 m in the mountains, which is unusual for this species.
63554		threats	eng	Logging and possibly genetic introgression by pollen from other pines where these are planted near this taxon.
63556		distribution	eng	China: Jiangsu, Zhejiang. The range of this variety remains incompletely known.
63556		habitat	eng	Unknown.
63556		population	eng	Unknown.
63556		threats	eng	Unknown.
63557		distribution	eng	Widespread in southern Africa.
63557		habitat	eng	Unlike other members of its genus, this species is capable of coppicing: it resprouts after fire. It is common in fire-prone heathlands.
63557		population	eng	This species is common in at least some parts of its range.
63557		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
63558		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary and Borivali National Park, Maharashtra.
63558		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chilobrachys fimbriatus</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra, this species is found in Borivali in the north and Hosahali in the south at an altitudinal range of 200 to 1,200 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 35,000 km², while the area of occupancy is considerably less although it has not been estimated. In Maharashtra: Khandala in Pune district (Pocock 1899), Panchgani in Satara district (Gravely 1935), Jaoli in Satara district (Pocock 1900), Borivali National Park in Thane district (Varad Giri pers. comm.), Amboli (V. Gour-Broome, S. Thakur & S. Molur pers. comm.), Matheran in Ulhasnagar district (V. Giri pers. comm.); Karnataka: Hoshali in Shimoga district (Pocock 1900), Castle Rock in Uttar Kannada district (Gravely 1935, Varad Giri pers. comm.).
63558		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a dry deciduous forest and moist evergreen forest, usually on flat ground, but also on roadside bunds. The biology of this species is assumed to be similar to <em>Thrigmopoeus</em>, but much work is needed. This species could be easily identified in the wild due to chevron marking on the abdomen. Females are brown in colour whereas males are metallic with bluish tinge.
63558		population	eng	Population information is not available. The species shows patchy distribution due to lack of contiguous habitat. It is more common compared to <em>Thrigmopoeus</em> species, although the same patchy distribution is seen. It is found in about 10 locations with a severe degree of fragmentation.
63558		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation and collection of species for international pet trade are the major threats. These threats in tandem could result in the species’ extinction from known locations in the near future.
63559		conservation	eng	It has been not reported from any protected area so far.
63559		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chilobrachys hardwicki</span> is endemic to eastern India, this species is found in Shahjahanpur in the north and Bilaspur in the south at an altitude of less than 500 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 125,000 km², while the area of occupancy is more than 20,000 km².  In Bihar: Dharhara in Monghyr, Sahibgunge, Chakardharpur in Singbhum in Chota Nagpur, Gmatia in Birbhum (Gravely 1915); Chattisgarh: Bilaspur (Pocock 1900); Jharkhand: Hazaribagh (Gravely 1935); Uttar Pradesh: Shahjahanpur in Burdwan (Pocock 1900); West Bengal: Murshidabad (Gravely 1915)
63559		habitat	eng	The species was found in degraded dry deciduous and moist evergreen forests. There have been reports of its occurrence around coal mine areas (B.K. Biswas pers. comm.). Burrows are on flat ground. There is no information on breeding biology, behaviour and ecology of the spider. No local use is known for this species.  The species is in international pet trade.
63559		population	eng	Population information is not available. The species shows patchy distribution due to lack of contiguous habitat. This is less common compared to <em>Thrigmopoeus truculentus</em>, although the same patchy distribution is seen. It is found in around 10 locations with severe degree of fragmentation.
63559		threats	eng	Habitat loss, fragmentation and mining are primary threats. Due to this the spider have started entering human settlements and often there have been reports of spider bites by this species in some rural areas of West Bengal, hence an increase in persecution of these spiders. Other threats are not known for this species.
63560		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Parambikulam and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in southern India. Further surveys are required to know their presence in other protected areas in southern India. The species requires protection at the national level by being included in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.  It is also important that this species is included under the CITES Appendix II to safeguard it from unsustainable trade.
63560		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Haploclastus kayi</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India, this species is found in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) in the north and Tenmala in the south at an altitude of 200 to 700 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². In Kerala: Parambikulam WLS in Palakkad district (Gravely 1915, 1935; Manju Siliwal and Sanjay Molur pers. obs.), Tenmala in Thiruvananthapuram district (Binu Arthur and Manju Siliwal pers. obs., Molur and Siliwal 2004); in Tamil Nadu: Indira Gandhi WLS (10°26? 2.6?N, 76°50?13.7?E) in Polachi district (Sanjay Molur and Manju Siliwal pers. obs., Molur and Siliwal 2004).
63560		habitat	eng	The species was found in moist deciduous forest and evergreen rainforest. These spiders prepare burrows on roadside bunds and requires vegetation cover over the bund. Nothing is known of its breeding biology.
63560		population	eng	Population information is not available. Its distribution is patchy as seen in the case of other ground theraphosids.  Further surveys are required to understand abundance and population size in various areas. It is found in less than five locations with severe degree of fragmentation.
63560		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. The recent records of the species are only from protected areas. Surveys outside Parambikulam and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuaries did not reveal the presence of this species, which implies its dependence on protection and preservation of habitat. An additional threat to the species is collection by international pet traders, which could have an impact on the population. The two threats in tandem could result in the species? extinction from the known location in the near future.
63561		conservation	eng	This species has not been reported from any protected area. The species requires protection at the national level by being included in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is also important that this species and all other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species from India and Sri Lanka are included under the CITES Appendix II to safeguard them from trade.
63561		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilotheria formosa</span> is endemic to the southern Eastern Ghats between Salem and Tirupathi in southern India; reported only from three locations, altitude of less than 1,000 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² and could be even less than 100 km² due to extensive loss of habitat. In Andhra Pradesh: Renigunta station (Smith and Kirk 2001); in Tamil Nadu: Kadiampatti, Mullapuram in Salem District (Pocock 1900a,b)
63561		habitat	eng	Forests in these areas are of dry deciduous type with few patches of moist forests. No information is available on this species from the wild in last hundred years except for information on trade.
63561		population	eng	Population information is not available. Although reported from three localities these reports are nearly a hundred years old. The locations are severely fragmented. No surveys have been conducted in these areas to establish the status, but considering the species to be closely related to other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species, their behaviours and ecology, we assume that the species has declined due to loss of habitat and degradation in quality of habitat in the Eastern Ghats.
63561		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats in the reported and inferred localities of the species. It is likely that in many localities the species would have gone locally extinct due to complete deforestation, logging of wood, forest fire and development activities. Given the habitat threats and restricted distribution, collection for international pet trade from the few remaining populations is an additional pressure on the extant populations.
63562		conservation	eng	The spiders occur in private plantations only and are not subjected to any protection laws.
63562		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica</span> is endemic to the Ramanthapuram district, southern India. It is reported from Rameshwaram Island and Mandapam area on mainland at an altitude of less than 50 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 100 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 10 km².
63562		habitat	eng	The species was found in plantations like tamarind, palm, coconut and casuarina. They are also frequently seen in human habitations, especially in thatch-roof houses and huts. Mature females have been observed nesting every year and the maximum number of spiderlings seen with a single mother is 52. Mortality rate amongst the spiderlings is high due to cannibalism and natural predation. The male survives for only one breeding season after maturity, rarely up to the second breeding season. Females show nest fidelity as they have been observed in the same tree holes over three years, unless they have been disturbed or physically removed.
63562		population	eng	Eight subpopulations in 13 severely fragmented locations. Subpopulation size varies from four individuals to 78 individuals depending upon the size of the plantation (Manju Siliwal pers. obs.). The densities are high in some tamarind plantations compared to casuarina or palm plantations.
63562		threats	eng	Loss of plantations due to developmental activities, small size of the habitat fragments, small population size, persecution and fragmentation are major threats. Due to increased tourism, in the course of a single year (2006) two plantations were razed of which one was observed to have at least 70 individuals. All the spiders were killed by the loggers while razing the plantation. Due to their skewed sex ratio, and the difference in maturity rates between males and females, small populations with less than 5,000 individuals have a very high probability of extinction within the next three to four decades (S. Molur and B.A. Daniel, pers. comm. from running a simulation model (Vortex)). Although not found extensively in pet trade, a few adult males and females along with subadults and juveniles were taken out of the country.
63563		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in the Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, which is about 20 km from the known location. Surveys and the forest department’s cooperation are needed to establish this.
63563		distribution	eng	The species is found in a single location, which is severely fragmented. The extent of occurrence is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. India: Andhra Pradesh: Reserve forest between Nandyal and Giddalur.  <br/> <br/>The type description stated the species as occurring in Gooty, which is wrong since although the animal was caught in the railway timber yard in Gooty, the specimen could have come from the Eastern Ghats, which is at least 100 km away. Molur <em>et al.</em> (in press) rediscovered the species after 102 years in 2001 in a highly disturbed forest between Nandyal and Giddalur. Other surveys have not indicated the presence of this easily-identifiable species in any other locality. However, traders have put up this spider on sale after collecting some adults from the said area or nearby. Since information on their collection area is not available, it is presumed that they could have collected only from the nearby location and not from the protected Gundlabrahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary.
63563		habitat	eng	The species was found in a degraded dry deciduous forest. Nothing is known of its breeding biology. The lone male in captivity lived for 2 years having matured after 18 months. This seems to be the normal among males of this genus. Longevity of the female is unknown, but if it is similar to other species, then they could survive for 10-12 years reaching maturity at the age of 5-7 years.
63563		population	eng	Population information is not available. Since it has been recorded to date from a single location (despite surveys conducted in adjacent areas by the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department ERM Laboratory in Srisailam), it is likely that the species has a very restricted extent of occurrence, is very rare and in a single location with declining habitat quality.
63563		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. From our understanding, if the habitat is under similar pressure of degradation, the species might be extirpated from the known location in the near future. An additional threat to the species is collection by international pet traders, which could have an impact on the population. The two threats in tandem could result in the species’ extinction from the known location in the near future. An incident of smuggling was recorded in 2002 when two Europeans took a few specimens out of the country and advertised them for sale on the internet. There are also reports available of other such incidents since then.
63564		conservation	eng	It is likely that this species occurs in Simlipal Tiger Reserve but further surveys are required to confirm its occurrence.
63564		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilotheria miranda</span> is endemic to the Chhota Nagpur region of eastern India up to an altitude of 800 m. The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². In West Bengal: Kharagpur Hills (Gravely 1915); in Jharkhand: Near Chaibassa in  Singbhum  (Gravely 1915); Chota Nagpur (Pocock 1900).
63564		habitat	eng	The species is found in mixed deciduous forests.
63564		population	eng	Population information is not available. The species is rare, and is similar to other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species in its patchy distribution. Found in less than 10 locations, some of which are very severely fragmented.
63564		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. Collection for international pet trade in addition to the other threats is of concern for this species.
63565		conservation	eng	It is reported from Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve. No national or international protection legislation is in place although such legislation is very urgently required for this and all the species of genus <em>Poecilotheria</em>.
63565		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Ghats, India. This species is known only from the type locality in Andhra Pradesh: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Prakasam District, Nallamalai hills, Eastern Ghats (Rao <em>et al.</em> 2007). The extent of occurrence could be as big as the entire Tiger Reserve and its surrounding areas of about 8,000 km², but the area of occupancy is not known.
63565		habitat	eng	The forest in this area is of dry deciduous with teak monoculture. Information on ecology and habitat is yet unknown.
63565		population	eng	Population information is not available.
63565		threats	eng	Although specific threat to the species is not known, the area where it occurs is under tremendous pressure from civil unrest (insurgents), habitat degradation, rebel army training camps, and being a pilgrimage and tourist centre. It is also understood that the species has already been smuggled out of the country for the pet market abroad.
63566		conservation	eng	It is reported from Nagarjuna-Srisailam Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
63566		distribution	eng	This species is found widely distributed from Dahanee in the north (Western Ghats) and Cochin in the south at an altitude of less than 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is more than 50,000 km², while the area of occupancy is also likely to be more than 2,000 km². In Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala.
63566		habitat	eng	There is some information on breeding biology from captivity. Males mature between 12 and 18 months and die after the first breeding season or within 24 months (S. Molur, B.A. Daniel & M. Siliwal pers. obs.). Gabriel (2005) reports male maturity after 354 days and survival for up to 344 days after maturity. The Western Ghats males mature faster (12 months) than the Eastern Ghats males (about 18 months) in captivity (S. Molur, B.A. Daniel & M. Siliwal pers. obs.).  However, in the wild the maturity time would probably prolong due to environmental conditions and prey availability.  Females mature between 5-7 years and live up to 10-12 years and produce on an average two clutches per year of 35-70 hatchlings per clutch in the wild.
63566		population	eng	Population information is not available. This species is the most common of all <em>Poecilotheria</em> species and is encountered frequently in different habitats. Its population is healthy in natural vegetation; some individuals have been observed in teak plantations and in some degraded areas. However, the individuals seen in degraded habitats are usually males that are migrating in search of females, hence this cannot be taken as a compatible habitat for this species. The populations are severely fragmented although the species has been found in more than 20 locations.
63566		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats, and collections for pet trade and persecution are additional threats to the species.
63567		conservation	eng	It is reported from in and around Agastyavanam Reserve. It is assumed that it occurs in reserve forest and private plantation near Trivandrum. Captive breeding is not very successful without continuous influx of wild individuals and thus pet trade will continue (Capannini 2003, Ezendam 2003). Therefore, the species requires protection at the national level by being included in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is also important that this species and all other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species from India and Sri Lanka are included under the CITES Appendix II to safeguard them from trade.
63567		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern Western Ghats, this species is found in the Trivandrum area in the south at an altitude of less than 500 m. The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². In Kerala: Trivandrum (Pocock 1899, 1900), Ponmudi, Kallar, Peppara Dam (Smith and Kirk 2001); in Tamil Nadu: Agastyavanam Reserve (Smith and Kirk 2001).
63567		habitat	eng	The species was found in a degraded moist deciduous and evergreen forest. It has been reported from teak plantations and sometimes enters human settlements. Nothing is known of its breeding biology.
63567		population	eng	Population information is not available. The species shows more of the same trends in patch distribution like other species of the genera. Only six subpopulations have been reported from six locations.
63567		threats	eng	Major threats are habitat loss, degradation and pet trade. As the species is highly restricted to the Western Ghats, if the habitat loss continues then it is likely that this species could go extinct. Pet traders collect this spider from forested areas near Trivandrum.
63568		conservation	eng	It is recorded from Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, but is very likely to occur in the adjacent Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary which has similar vegetation and is contiguous with Parambikulam.
63568		distribution	eng	The species is found adjoining the Palghat gap of the Western Ghats at an altitude ranging between 500 and 1,000 m.  One report of the spider is from Trivandrum although the location is not known, and there are reports from Kannur and Calicut districts although the identity needs to be validated. The extent of occurrence from confirmed locations north and south of the Palghat gap is about 12,000 km², with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km² calculated from remaining relatively undisturbed forests. The spider is found in fewer than 10 locations, severely fragmented.
63568		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dry and moist deciduous forests. Although no specific studies have been conducted on the ecology of this species, it closely resembles that of <em>P. regalis</em>.  Both <em>P. striata</em> and <em>P. regalis</em> have been found in teak monocultures, but the densities are very low compared to that of old growth forests (S. Molur and B.A. Daniel pers. obs.).
63568		population	eng	Population information is not available. The species shows the same trends in patchy distribution like other species of the genus. It has been reported from fewer than 10 severely fragmented locations, the abundance varying depending on the habitat. From informal observations, densities in natural forests seem higher than in plantations, but actual studies have not been conducted to establish this. This species is the second most common species encountered after <em>P. regalis</em>. Two distinct populations exist north and south of the Palghat gap.
63568		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation along with collection for international pet trade are major threats. This species is killed by locals when it enters human settlements situated in or close to its habitat. The impacts of each individual threat are not known, but combined the species faces a risk.
63569		conservation	eng	It has not been reported from any Wildlife Sanctuaries but it occurs in reserve forests or wooded areas near Visakhapatnam, Anantagiri, Araku, Jeypur, Rayagada and Jagdalpur. This species has been collected by more than one trader. It is expected to come into the market soon.
63569		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Eastern Ghats, India, this species is found from Jagdalpur in the north and Visakhapatnam area in the south (exact location not known) at an altitude of less than 500 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is more than 20,000 km², while the area of occupancy is not known. In Andhra Pradesh: Jeypore highway between Anantagiri and Araku, Madugula Kondas range in Paderu, Visakhapatnam (Smith 2006); in Chattisgarh: Jagdalpur (Smith 2006); in Orissa: Jeypore, Rayagada (Smith 2006).
63569		habitat	eng	The forest in this area is of dry deciduous type. Information on ecology and habitat needs to be gathered.
63569		population	eng	Population information is not available.
63569		threats	eng	Fragmentation in general is a threat on the Eastern Ghats. Recently, the Andhra Pradesh government has notified Anantagiri as a tourism area. This could be a threat to the habitat in the future.
63570		conservation	eng	A variety of conservation actions are needed from basic research on the species, local legislation and management, protected areas, etc.
63570		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southeast coast of Madagascar. The extent of occurrence is <5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is <500 km².
63570		habitat	eng	Juveniles occur in mangroves and estuaries. Adults are found off sandy beaches, in estuaries, and in shallow water.  This species might migrate and form spawning aggregations. <br/> <br/>It is a benthic carnivore feeding upon fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Both sexes have drumming muscles.
63570		population	eng	The population is estimated to possibly number less than 10,000 mature individuals which are all in a single subpopulation which is undergoing continuing decline (could qualify as Vulnerable under criterion C2a(ii) on the basis of this). Current declines are suspected to be about 10% over the last three generations. Generation length is not known, but similar large members of this family are distinguished by relatively long lifespans and long generation lengths.
63570		threats	eng	Fisheries data and fishery-independent data appears non-existent for this species, however, it is likely to be caught both deliberately and accidentally as bycatch. The species is eaten by local people (primarily subsistence consumption, but there is some trade). <br/> <br/>The inshore area and estuaries are also increasingly being impacted by various pollutants as a result of the expanding human population in the region. This species has a low capacity to tolerate impacts without irreversible change.
63571		conservation	eng	Two marine protected areas (MPAs) ["no-take" zones] were established in Baraulu Village and Nusa Hope Village, Solomon Islands in 2002 to protect <em>B. muricatum</em> and other lagoon species (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>There are no direct protective practices for <em>B. muricatum</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Fiji</strong> <br/>The Fisheries (Restrictions on Use of Breathing (Apparatus) Regulations, 1997 ban the use of underwater breathing apparatus to "collect, take, or dive for fish", except for those with appointment from the Permanent Secretary or any person appointed by him in writing.  And the Sixth Schedule of the Fisheries Regulation establishes minimum sizes for 21 tpes of fish, including many that are often caught by spearfishing (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Besides, traditional fisheries rules (e.g,. a ban on night diving, and a ban on the use of SCUBA for fishing) in most of the 410 traditional fishing areas in Fiji have their own local fishing rules and many of those are applicable to spearfishing (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Samoa</strong> <br/>The Fishing (Scuba Fishing) Regulations 2003 states no person shall scuba fish without a license (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Many different types of traditional rules (e.g., establishing small protected areas, minimun size limits, and restricting the use of underwater torches for spearfishing at night) governing fisheries exist in the 324 villages of Samoa (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Solomon Islands</strong> <br/>Regulations 29 of the Fisheries Act, which enacted in January 2004, states "any person using under-water breathing apparatus for the purpose of harvesting any marine resource shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand dollars or six months imprisonment or both such fine and imprisonment" (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Many villages regulate spearfishing (e.g. bans on night diving) by themselves (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Although traditional leader's ability to manage marine resource was found to be effective in some of the tribes in Solomon Islands, the existence of non-member (e.g., institutional context) and enforcement of harvest restriction rules are crucial so as to enhance management and minimize the public contest over natural resources (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>Russ and Alcala (1998) suggested that the small size of most marine protected areas in heavily fished regions would show little positive effects on parrotfish abundances. <br/> <br/>Aswani and Hamilton (2004) suggested that the prohibition on spearfishing within passage habitats in Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands, would provide a measure of protection the remaining important spawning stocks of <em>B. muricatum</em> in the Indo Pacific region. <br/> <br/>Aswani and Hamilton (2004) recommended that any lunar ban on spearfishing should focus at late full moon quarter during which <em>B. muricatum</em> spawns.
63571		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Red Sea east to the Line Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), north to Taiwan, the Yaeyama Islands (Japan), and Wake Island (United States Minor Outlying Islands), south to northwest Australia, the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1990, Myers 1999).
63571		habitat	eng	This species is gregarious and occurs in aggregations of up to several (> 75) individuals on seaward and clear outer lagoon reefs at depths of 1 to 30m; also enters outer reef flats at low tide to forage. Pelagic spawning on a lunar cycle; utilises resident spawning aggregations sites (Johannes 1981, Gladstone 1986).  Eggs and larvae are pelagic. Primarily a corallivore, but also feeds upon benthic algae; this species uses its large gibbus head to ram corals and break them into pieces that are more easily ingested. Aggregations of this species are important producers of coral sand on reefs and may be important in the maintenance of ecosystem resilience (Bellwood <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Reportedly wary on reefs near human settlement or use.  This species sleeps in large groups, thus rendering them highly vulnerable to exploitation by spearfishers (mainly in the Pacific region) and netters at night (Myers 1999). <br/> <br/>Additional notes, as follows: <br/> <br/>Exposed reef crests are the primary habitat of <em>B. muricatum</em> (J.H. Choat, pers. comm. on 4th Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>In unfished areas, <em>B. muricatum</em> may enter outer reef flats at depths of 1 to at least 30 m (Myers 1991). <br/> <br/>Lieske and Myers (1994) observed that juveniles can be found in lagoons, while adults are in clear outer lagoon and seaward reefs at depths of at least 30 m. <br/> <br/>Very small individuals are restricted to the shallow inner lagoon in Solomon Islands (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>At Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands, juveniles are limited to the shallow inner lagoon environment, while larger individuals occur predominantly in passages (Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/><em>B. muricatum</em> feeds substantially on live coral (Gladstone 1986, Myers 1991, Bellwood <em>et al</em>. 2003) and benthic algae (Randall <em>et al</em> 1990). <br/> <br/>Gladstone (1986) described <em>B. muricatum</em> as generally timid and difficult to approach. <br/> <br/>Bellwood et al (2003) reported that <em>B. muricatum</em> produces significant bioerosion in the Indo-Pacific.  Based on 132 timed transects (20-min long, 5 m wide) at 9 reefs in the Great Barrier Reef, schools of 30 to 50 huge (up to 120 cm TL) specimens with each individual removing 2.33 m³ or 5.69 tonnes of structural reef carbonate each year. <br/> <br/><strong>Spawning</strong> <br/>Spawning behaviour in a tightly packed school of about 100 individuals (pair spawning activities among this mobile group) was observed from the seafloor (15 m deep) to about 2 m below the surface on the morning of January 15, 1985 in Great Barrier Reef (Gladstone 1986).  None of the <em>B. muricatum</em> in the spawning school was smaller than about 60 cm TL (Gladstone 1986). Choat and Randall (1986) recorded a group spawning (40 to 50 fish) on the outer face of Yonge reef in Great Barrier Reef during December 1983. <br/> <br/><strong>Sexual Pattern</strong> <br/>Randall and Bruce (1983) had suggested sex inversion occurs in <em>B. muricatum</em>.  J.H. Choat, pers. comm., 18 September 2006) stated that this species does not appear to be diandric; there is an extended prereproductive period of sexual differentiation from which males are produced. <br/> <br/><strong>Fecundity and Recruitment</strong> <br/>Information not available
63571		population	eng	<em>B. muricatum</em> are locally patchily distributed, adults always found in small shoals (<= 40 individuals) (Donaldson and Dulvy 2004). <br/> <br/>Choat and Randall (1986) stated <em>B. muricatum</em> does not display sex-associated patterns of colour change, maintaining a uniform body colouration in adult females and males. Juvenile shows a distinct colour pattern. <br/> <br/>Hamilton (2003) described <em>B. muricatum</em> is the largest of all parrotfish, reaching over 50 kg and living to an age of at least 40 years. <br/> <br/>Gladstone (1986) revealed that <em>B. muricatum</em> individuals usually occur as part of schools containing 20 to almost 100 fish which often move into shallow waters during feeding around Lizard Island in Great Barrier Reef. <br/> <br/>Based on a histological analysis of gonad collected from 169 females in Solomon Islands in 2000-2001, the size of maturity was found to be 620 mm FL, in which some specimens as small as 610 mm FL showed significant gonad development (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>Hamilton and Adams (unpubl. data) showed that 100% female maturity occurs at 650 mm SL. <br/> <br/>FishBase 2006 (www.fishbase.org) estimates that the minimum population doubling time ranges from 4.5 to 14 years; this estimate is derived from a formula that utilizes length and infinity (Linf), length at maximum yield (Lopt), time at length "0" (t0) and K (= 0.10), and may need to be recalculated given the maximum age of this species (J.H. Choat, pers. comm., 18 September 2006).  FishBase (2006) calculates that the decline threshold equals 0.85; this species is vulnerable to extinction if this threshold value is exceeded over the longer of 10 years or three generations. <br/> <br/><strong>Sex composition</strong> <br/>Information not available <br/> <br/><strong>Length-age relationship</strong> <br/>Information not available.
63571		threats	eng	<em>B. muricatum</em> forms mixed sized schools and is extremely vulnerable to overfishing (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>Shoaling and group resting behaviour render <em>B. muricatum</em> highly vulnerable to spearfishing, particularly at night-time (Donaldson and Dulvy 2004) and mainly in the Pacific region (J.H. Choat pers. comm.). Spearfishing at night has reduced the numbers of <em>B. muricatum</em> (Gladstone 1986, D. Fenner pers. comm. on 27th July 2006). <br/> <br/>In Roviana Lagoon (Solomon Islands), artisanal spear fishers use their sophisticated indigenous knowledge of the spawning behaviour and ecology of <em>B. muricatum</em> to catch as many fish as possible in a night (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>The belief that <em>B. muricatum</em> predominantly aggregate at night around the new moon period and that catch rates are far greater during the new moon was not supported by field survey done in 2000-2001 (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>Dulvy and Polunin (2004) suggested that the decline of <em>B. muricatum</em> in the Lau Group in Fiji was mainly due its nocturnal aggregative behaviour in shallow lagoon water or in reef caves and the daytime foraging of shoals in depth accessible by spearfishermen. <br/> <br/><em>B. muricatum</em> was often captured for ceremonial events, indicating this species has a high cultural significant value in the Lau Island group, Fiji (Dulvy and Polunin 2004). <br/> <br/>Low priority to enforcing legislation related to spearfishing in Fiji (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>In 2001, the Samoa Fisheries Projected reported that SCUBA spearfishing activities at night had been increased rapidly in the past 12 months, in which <em>B. muricatum</em> was one of the target species (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Gillett and Moy (2006) pointed out that sleeping <em>B. muricatum</em> was one of the three main types of fish to be targeted by spearfishing. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Consumed as food. <br/> <br/>Aswani and Hamilton (2004) reported that divers in Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands would selectively target the largest individuals among a school of resting <em>B. muricatum</em> so as to let the remaining fish to flee. <br/> <br/>By the mid 1990s, fillets of <em>B. muricatum</em> were bought at a higher price than any other fish in Solomon Islands (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>With not much market interest for <em>B. muricatum</em> in Palau now (Y. Sadovy pers. comm.; source: unpublished interviews done by the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations). <br/> <br/>Lieske and Myers (1994) described <em>B. muricatum</em> to be vulnerable to overfishing. The habit of sleeping in large groups making <em>B. muricatum</em> highly vulnerable to be caught by commercial spearfishermen (Myers 1991).
63572		conservation	eng	Soon after the Banggai Cardinalfish appeared in the aquarium trade, a breeding programme was developed at the New Jersey State Aquarium (Vagelli 1999). But apparently no concerted effort within the aquarium trade has been made to replace wild-caught fish with captive-bred fish (Vagelli 2002, 2004b). As this fish can be reared through its entire life cycle in captivity (Vagelli 1999), it is strongly recommended that efforts be developed to raise this species in captivity and in the field (it is highly recommended that such efforts be undertaken in partnerships with local communities, preferably in Indonesia, to avoid removing livelihoods from the area). Such initiatives would reduce the need to capture wild specimens to supply the trade and reduce impact on existing populations in the region. <br/> <br/>In order to obtain reliable estimates of trade volumes for this and other marine ornamental species it is recommended that Indonesian government (and other governments) disaggregate the ‘aquarium fish’ category so that trade statistics can be obtained at least for marine versus freshwater species; and ideally by species. <br/> <br/>It is further recommended that a trade monitoring system be established through direct collaboration with exporters. Targeting and inputting trade volumes of the Banggai Cardinalfish into GMAD could help spearhead such a monitoring initiative and allow better estimates of traded numbers to be derived (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Moreover, collectors and traders should be encouraged to gain MAC certification for the Banggai Cardinalfish. <br/> <br/>Additional improvements in the sustainability of the current trade through directed training programmes on holding, packing and shipping, to reduce mortality rates of the species, are also recommended (Lunn and Moreau 2004). The development of environmental education material and programmes to promote public awareness are strongly encouraged and the potential implementation of marine protected areas should also be investigated (Lunn and Moreau 2004). <br/> <br/>In summary, conservation actions required for this species include the development, implementation, and effective enforcement of regulations designed to significantly reduce and regulate the collection and export of this species for the aquarium trade (a proposal to include this species in CITES Appendix II was withdrawn (CoP 14 Prop. 19 ); and to protect and conserve critical habitat. Management actions that would benefit both this species and the fisher communities that harvest it at present could include artificial propagation at the local level with the intention of substituting completely captive-bred fish for wild-caught fish. In addition, a concerted and effective effort should be made to reduce post-capture mortality at all levels of the collection, marketing, and export chain.
63572		distribution	eng	<em>Pterapogon kauderni</em> is a rare example of a marine fish with an extremely limited geographic range. It is endemic to the Banggai Archipelago, which lies in the Banggai-Sula platform in eastern Indonesia. The Banggai Island group is thought to have been a geological entity during the Cenozoic, and is located within the region of Wallacea. The natural geographic range of <em>P. kauderni</em> extends from 01° 24' 57.6" of latitude South (Monsamat, east Peleng) as its northern most distribution point to 02° 0' 53.5" of latitude South (Loisa A), and from 123° 34' 11" of longitude East (Patipakaman, central Peleng) as its westernmost distribution to approximately 124° 23' 30" of longitude East (Kano) and the south-east tip of Taliabu. This distribution covers an area of approximately 5,500 km². However, within this range, the maximum potential available habitat is about 426 km of coastline extending from the shore to about 100 m off the coast, with a maximum available area of about 34 km² (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><em>P. kauderni</em> was found in 74 sites in 30 islands. Four sites were located in the Lembeh Strait (three islands and Sulawesi) in north Sulawesi, where this species was introduced in 2000, and in one site in central Sulawesi (Luwuk). The rest of sites were located within its natural distribution, i.e., the Banggai Archipelago. Here, it was found in 17 of the 20 major islands and in 10 of the 27 minor islands. <br/> <br/>The most isolated subpopulation inhabiting a large island was located in the eastern coast of Tempaus, which is separated from the subpopulation inhabiting Masoni Island by 16 km, and towards the west the closest subpopulation is found in south Bokan, at about 30 km. The second most isolated subpopulations inhabit Bangkulu Island, with its north subpopulation separated by about 13.6 km from south Peleng, and by about 13.5 km from Labobo Kenecil. Then, the subpopulation inhabiting Masoni Island is separated by about 11 km from the subpopulation located in Limbo, and by 16 km from that inhabiting Tempaus. Finally, the subpopulation found in Labobo is separated by about 10 km from the subpopulation located in Bangko and by 13.6 km from the closet subpopulation inhabiting Bangkulu. All other large islands are inhabited by at least one subpopulation of <em>P. kauderni</em> that is separated by no more than (and frequently less) 5 km from another subpopulation inhabiting a different large island. Despite that oceanographic and physiographic conditions, as well as availability of habitats and substrates were similar to those found on big islands inhabited by <em>P. kauderni</em>, no populations of <em>P. kauderni</em> were found in the other 17 minor islands, reefs and atolls located far from the big islands. Furthermore, some of these small islands were separated by very short distances from big islands inhabited by <em>P. kauderni</em>. Thus, no subpopulation of <em>P. kauderni</em> was found in Tanalan (localized at only 3.7 km  from the subpopulation inhabiting Masepe),  Belangan (at 2 km from the population of Bokan), Bongko (at 3.7 km  from the subpopulation of north Bangkulu), Sidula (at 5 km from the subpopulation inhabiting center-east Bangkulu), Togonglantan (separated by 5 km from the subpopulation of Bangkulu and by 6 km from that in habiting Labobo), nor in Tabija, which lays at only 1.5 km from the <em>P. kauderni</em> subpopulation inhabiting the bay localized south of  Keya on the nor-occidental coast of Taliabu. <br/> <br/>The Luwuk subpopulation, whose origin is not clear, is restricted to a very small area inside the harbor and is exposed to high levels of pollution and contaminants. Despite thorough searching from the harbour mouth to as far north as Botok (68 km), and as far south as Luk (46.5 km), no populations of <em>P. kauderni</em> were found outside the harbour, despite that environmental conditions and substrate availability were much better than those inside the harbor. The closest subpopulation of <em>P. kauderni</em> to the one at Luwuk is located about 100 km southeast, in Patipakaman (Peleng Island). <br/> <br/>The Lembeh subpopulation is located about 400 km north of the natural range of <em>P. kauderni</em> natural range; it was first detected in the Lembeh Strait in September 2000 occupying an area of approximately 50 m along the coast of Sarina Kenecil Island. The establishment of this subpopulation is a consequence of accidental or intentional releases from an aquarium fish operation in the area. By November 2000 this subpopulation expanded to the "Police Pier" on the margin of Sulawesi, where by May 2001 about 650 individuals occupied an area of approximately 750 x 250 m. By April 2004, <em>P. kauderni</em> extended its range from the Police Pier to at least 200 m to the south, and at least 500 m to the north. In addition, it was found for the first time in Sarina Island, and in Lembeh Island, where it was introduced in 2002 (Erdmann and Vagelli 2001, Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>See distribution map, and maps in the attached PDF.
63572		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat:</strong> <br/>The Banggai Cardinalfish occurs primarily on shallow sheltered bays and harbors, mainly on silty reef flats with sandy bottoms and sea grass beds. Depth distribution is generally ranges between 0.5 and 6 m, but is most commonly found between 1.5 and 2.5 m. Some populations inhabit very clear waters in coral reef areas, while others inhabit still, murky bays, and some groups are found in sandy patches associates with anemones, and less commonly, in open habitats (low branching corals and rubble). This species inhabits a variety of shallow habitats, including coral reefs (51% of identified groups), seagrass beds (35%), and open areas of sand and rubble (14%). It is most common in calm habitats on the protected side of larger islands; isolated populations also occur in areas affected by strong surge and moderate currents Water temperatures in these habitats range from 28°C to 33°C (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). There is an ontogenetic shift in habitat and microhabitat use between juveniles and adults that occurs within the same area and depth; all size classes, including mating pairs and brooding males, overlap in their distribution; the shift in use is not the consequence of differential feeding habitats nor intraspecific competition (Vagelli 2004a). The processes governing this ontogenetic shift are not clear. No pre-settlement factor is involved, however, because this species lacks a pelagic larval phase and embryos released by brooding males settle into parental habitat directly (Vagelli 1999, 2002, 2004a; Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). <br/> <br/>Juveniles associate with sea grasses, sea urchins, sea stars, sea anemones, soft corals and corals. Adults shelter between the spines of sea urchins but also among anemones, corals, stony hydrozoans, rocks and artificial structures such as jetties (Allen 2000, Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2004a). Sea anemones utilized include <em>Actinodendron</em> sp., <em>Entacmaea quadricolor</em>,  <em>Heteractis crispa</em>, <em>Macrodactyla doreensis</em>, <em>Stichodactyla haddoni</em>, and <em>S. merteensis</em>. Corals include <em>Acropora</em> sp., <em>Anacropora</em> sp., <em>Echinopora horrida</em>, <em>Goniopora</em> sp.,  <em>Heliofungia actiniformis</em>, <em>Montipora digitata</em> and <em>Seriotopora hystrix</em>. Soft corals utilized include <em>Nephthea</em> sp. and stony hydrozoans include <em>Millepora</em> sp.  Sea urchin species utilized include <em>Diadema setosum</em> and <em>Tripneustes</em> sp., while the sea star is <em>Proteaster nodosus</em>. Banggai Cardinalfishes also associate with the submerged roots of mangroves (<em>Rhizophora</em> sp.). Census work showed that 43.7% of the groups were associated with hard corals, 31.9% with urchins <em>Diadema setosum</em>, and 24.4% with anemones (Allen 2000; Vagelli and Erdmann 2002; Vagelli 2004a, 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Ecology:</strong> <br/>When sheltering in anemones and <em>Heliofungia</em> corals, <em>P. kauderni</em> often associates with various species of anemone fishes (<em>Amphiprion</em>) and anemone shrimps (<em>Periclimenes</em>), and with several species of Apogonidae (<em>Apogon, Archamia, Cheilodipterus</em> and <em>Sphaeramia</em> when living among spines of sea urchins. In seagrass beds (predominantly composed of <em>Enhalus acoroides</em>), <em>P. kauderni</em> is associated with anemones, isolated live corals, sea urchins or sea stars forming small fish assemblages, commonly with <em>Abudefduf sexfasciatus</em> and several species of <em>Pomacentrus</em>, <em>Chromis</em> and <em>Halichoeres</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Diet:</strong> <br/>As opposed to other described apogonids, <em>P. kauderni</em> has diurnal trophic habits, and its feeding activity decreases with the day and ceases around sunset time. <em>P. kauderni</em> is a carnivore-planktivore that feeds principally upon copepods, but it is also a generalist opportunistic species that feed upon a variety of taxa, principally planktonic demersal and benthic organisms. Stomach content analysis found prey representing 29 taxa with a taxonomic level of suborder or higher belonging to 6 phyla: Rhyzopoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Chaetognatha, and Chordata. There were no significant differences in diet composition between size classes. Quantitative analysis showed that copepods make up about 79% of <em>P. kauderni</em> diet, and that other important components are decapods and isopods. There was an important variation in diet composition among the sites. Representative food items include ascidian larvae, chaetognaths, post-settled gastropod and bivalve juveniles, polychaetes, acarids, copepods, amphipods, stomatopods, cumaceans, isopods, euphausiids, ostracods, cirriped larvae, mysids, decapod larvae, tanaidaceans, and the larvae of teleost and chironomid insects (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Group Size:</strong> <br/>Within its natural geographic range <em>P. kauderni</em> formed groups with a mean of 9.5 individuals, although the majority of them were composed of fewer individuals. Group size varied with age class, habitat and microhabitat. The mean size of the 448 censed groups (3,672 individuals) was 8.2 individuals, and the group means per site ranged from 3.9 to 19.8 individuals. Most groups (73% of all groups) were composed by few individuals (1 to 6). The largest single group found was about 500 individuals (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005).  <br/> <br/><strong>Breeding Biology:</strong> <br/>Banggai Cardinalfish pairs defend territories jointly and for three likely reasons: 1) spawning site defense (viewed as unlikely because spawning sites do not seem to be limiting), 2) partner defense (females defending brooding males), and 3) to avoid spawning attempts by "sneaker male" (Kolm and Berglund 2004). Contrary to predictions for a sex role-reversed species, and all other apogonids studied to date, males assume the role of the principal aggressor towards intruders in their territories prior to brooding (Kolm and Berglund 2004). For both males and females, however, territorial aggression is greater towards intruders of the same sex. In experimental introductions of larger male intruders into territories held by male-female pairs, the intruding male was unable to replace the resident male even though the resident female may have courted the intruder; as well, males never courted intruding females. Because this species may have roles that are sexually equivalent, male and females likely play different roles in the defense of jointly-held territories (Kolm and Berglund 2004). <br/> <br/>As with other cardinalfishes, the Banggai Cardinalfish is an obligate paternal mouthbrooder (Hayashi 1999). Reproductive behavior was filmed <em>in situ</em> by Dr. Masayoshi Hayashi (Yokusuka City Museum, Yokusuka, Kanagawa, Japan) and the film was broadcast on Japanese television in 1998. Other details on reproductive behavior were obtained from additional laboratory and field studies. Under laboratory conditions, <em>P. kauderni</em> reproduces throughout the year. Single females in captivity can reproduce once per month, whereas males mouth-brood up to six clutches per year. Females, under laboratory conditions can be reproductively active at about 9 months of age and 35 mm SL. The smallest female with signs of advance gonadal maturation found in the wild was 41 mm SL (Vagelli 1999, Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Females initiate courtship and use a variety of different behavioral patterns during courtship interactions (Vagelli 1999, Kolm 2001). Between a few days and up to two weeks prior to courtship and spawning, a pair will separate from the main group of fishes, establish a spawning site, and commence territorial behavior (Vagelli 1999, Kolm and Berglund 2004). A secondary male may be allowed into the territory and be courted by the female although this male did not interfere with courtship of the primary male (Vagelli 1999). Spawning and juvenile release (settlement) in the wild appears to follow a lunar cycle, with a major spawning peak during full moon and a second, smaller peak during the last quarter, although in one geographically-distinct population major spawning activity occurs during the last quarter  (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Courtship occurs during daylight hours and, in laboratory conditions, concludes by mid-afternoon. At the time of spawning and egg transfer, the female exudes an egg mass from her genital papilla that is pulled, fertilized, and then gulped by the male. <em>P. kauderni</em> possesses low fecundity, females produce small egg clutches of up to about 75 eggs of 2.5–3-mm in diameter. The mean clutch size found being incubated by males in the wild was 41 eggs (range=12 to 73) (Vagelli 1999, Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). The male broods an egg clutch for about 20 days; after hatching, the eleutheroembryos (free embryos) remain within the mouth cavity for another 10 days before release. Under laboratory conditions, a female would also court and even spawn with a secondary male (Vagelli 1999).  Following spawning and egg transfer, females defend the brooding male from intruders while males manipulate egg masses within their oral cavities; occasionally, intruders attempt to take eggs from a male’s mouth. The fertility rate under laboratory conditions is about 40 to 60%. Besides normal loss due unfertilized eggs and embryos that do not finish developing, an important percentage of eggs are lost during the clutch transfer (Vagelli 1999). Males do not feed while incubating the eggs; upon hatching some 20 days after spawning, the embryos are held an additional 10 days until their yolk is consumed.  Then, the juveniles, about 5.0 to 6.0 mm SL, are released from the male's oral cavity. A major settlement peak appears to occur during the full moon and a second minor peak during the new moon (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Vagelli (1999, 2004b) and Kolm (2001, 2002) provide laboratory studies of the reproductive biology and early ontogeny of this species, while Vagelli (2004a), Vagelli and Volpedo (2004) and Vagelli, 2005 provide data from field studies. Principal characteristics of the reproductive biology include: 1) parental care of an advanced degree, 2) an elevated level of energy investment per offspring, 3) low fecundity, 4) direct development, 5) a lengthy oral incubation period that includes the retention of free embryos after the eggs hatch, 6) settlement of juveniles within the habitat of their parents (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). <br/> <br/>The sex ratio within groups is approximately equivalent (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Longevity in captivity can reach 4 to 5 years (although reproductive activity decreases substantially after 2 to 3 years). However, in the wild most adult specimens are significantly younger (about 2 years old or less). Growth studies in captivity and using wild specimens show <em>P. kauderni</em> follows von Bertalanffy equation L∞ = 69 ± 1.58 mm, k = 0.21 ± 0.016, t<sub>0</sub> = -0.72 ± 0.15 months (r²= 0.99). At 12 months of age <em>P. kauderni</em> reaches a SL of about 43.5mm (TL of 64.5mm), at 18 months 47mm (70 mm TL). The largest wild specimen encountered was about 58 mm SL (88.5 mm TL) (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007).  <br/> <br/><strong>Resilience:</strong> <br/>This species has a relatively short life span (ca. 2.4 years), matures at an average of 0.8 years (FishBase 2004) and has a generation time of 1.5 years (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007); these are all indications of reasonably good resilience. Unfortunately, this species' small population size, limited distribution, low fecundity, great parental investment, and rate of extraction lower this species resilience with corresponding severe negative effects. The combination of a lack of planktonic dispersal and particular oceanographic characteristics of the Banggai region (deep channels and strong currents) has likely contributed to the extreme philopatry of this species. In addition, its within-parental habitat recruitment, sedentary nature, and shallow habitat preference preclude <em>P. kauderni</em> from dispersing even to nearby islands and have led it to a high degree of genetic structure (Bernardi and Vagelli 2004). <em>P. kauderni</em> is especially susceptible to indiscriminate collecting, e.g., its association with shallow microhabitats greatly facilitates its capture, while the lack of dispersal mechanisms make it almost impossible for this species to re-colonize areas where they have been depleted (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007). <br/> <br/>This species is highly prized in the aquarium trade and thus highly vulnerable to over-fishing, post-capture mortality, and habitat destruction.
63572		population	eng	The earliest known population survey (2001) identified <em>P. kauderni</em> on 16 out of 37 islands searched. Average densities in suitable habitat at three sites within the Banggai Archipelago were approximately 0.03 fishes per m² (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Based on these census data and calculations of the total available habitat, the species was estimated to have a total population size of 1.7 million fish (Vagelli 2002). Additional surveys in 2002 and 2004 covering the entire Archipelago (50 islands, 159 sites) expanded the range to 27 (17 major and 10 minor) islands. Surveys done in 2004 found <em>P. kauderni</em> in most sites at densities of about 200 to 700 individuals/ha. The mean density based on census carried out in seven locations throughout its natural range in 2004 was 0.07 individuals per m², with a total population size estimated at 2.4 million individuals (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><em>P. kauderni</em> exhibits the highest degree of population structure that has been documented for a marine fish (Hoffman <em>et al</em>. 2005). This is a unique case of genetic isolation in populations separated by extremely short distances. Studies utilizing both mt DNA and micro-satellites have already indicated that populations occurring on reefs of the same islands, separated by only a few kilometers, are genetically isolated from one another (Bernardi and Vagelli 2004).  For instance, assignment tests performed in 23 subpopulations from all over the Archipelago, showed that 20 had a significant self-reassignment. When considering all the Bangkulu populations, 94% of the individuals from this island were reassigned back to the island - range 80.0% to 100% (Vagelli <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The lack of suitable habitats between subpopulations coupled with lack of dispersal mechanisms, are the most likely reasons for this isolation. <br/> <br/>Banggai Cardinalfish populations are distinguished for having two monophyletically-distinct clades: a southwestern clade restricted to the southwest of Bangkulu Island, and northern and eastern clades distributed throughout the remainder of its range (Bernardi and Vagelli 2004).  Eleven polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellite loci have been isolated from male fishes; polymorphism ranges from 2 to 15 alleles and expected heterozygosities range from 0.107 to 0.928, thus allowing for genetic studies of this species with very high resolution (Hoffman <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Generation length is estimated at being 1.0 years (FishBase 2004), however more recent estimates place it at 1.5 years (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007).
63572		threats	eng	<strong>Threats to the Habitat:</strong> <br/>Although resident in naturally-silty harbors and bays, this species might experience negative impacts from harbour dredging and associated pollution, as well as sediment from coastal development and use. <br/> <br/>Juveniles may be vulnerable to local population dynamics of anemones and sea urchins that provide mutualistic microhabitat. Threats to these might be from harvest (aquarium trade or food trade) or coral bleaching (anemones).  Adults may be vulnerable to local population dynamics of sea grasses. <br/> <br/><strong>Threats to the Species:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Exploitation</u> <br/>The Banggai Cardinalfish is highly-prized in the aquarium trade (Allen 2000, Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Kolm and Berglund 2003). It has been heavily exploited by the aquarium trade since its rediscovery in 1994. Despite claims that captive breeding has been successful, most aquarium specimens are still captured in the wild. Fishes are collected, mainly with nets, and held in floating nets until purchased by fish buyers who visit individual fishers at least 3 to 4 times a month. Collectors are paid a small sum (ca. US $0.01 to 0.025 in 2001) per fish by buyers who, in turn, sell to exporters for US $ 0.10 to 0.12 a fish (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Since 1999, the fishery has expanded from Banggai Island and Bandang Island to villages in the Bokan area, on Bangkulu Island, Labobo Island, and Peleng Island, with most collection occurring near their own villages. By 2001, at least 17 villages and 230 fishermen were involved in the <em>P. kauderni</em> trade (Lunn and Moreau 2004). An estimated minimum of 600,000 to 700,000 individuals were collected per year by local fishers prior to 2001 (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Lunn and Moreau 2002); current harvest rates are believed to exceed 700,000 to 900,000 fish/yr (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><em>P. kauderni</em> are shipped primarily by boat from the Banggai Archipelago to national exporters via Tumbak and Manado and to a Bali exporter via Palu, and also direct to Bali exporters. An estimated 115,000 fish/month were transported on the Tumbak–Manado route, 3,000/month along the Palu to Bali route, and up to 10,000 fish/month were sent direct to Bali in 2001 (Lunn and Moreau 2004). These numbers are close to earlier estimates of 50,000 to 60,000 fish/month arriving in North Sulawesi for exportation, with total estimated trade for 2000 and 2001 of 700,000 fish (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Transhipment mortality is high because of lengthy travel times, usually 18 to 48 hours by boat (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002); no data on mortality from collecting or holding prior to transhipment appears to be available. The high mortality rate contributes to the disparity in prices paid to fishers and buyers (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). A minimum of four aquarium fish export companies operate in Bali; others exist in Kendary and Manado (Sulawesi).  he majority of <em>P. kauderni</em> captured in the Banggai Archipelago are destined for the international aquarium trade, with most exported to the United States, Europe and Asia. Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. (2003) and Lunn and Moreau (2004) further document the aquarium trade. <br/> <br/>In addition to the estimate of number of individuals collected and shipped reported in the assessment, trade surveys carried out by Lunn and Moreau (2004) suggest that a minimum of 118,000 Banggai Cardinalfish were sold each month by fishers in the Banggai Islands. Trade volumes are in all likelihood greater as this estimate only includes fish bought by Tumbak- and Palu-based buyers, not taking into consideration individuals collected and shipped from alternate locations, or lost to pre-sale mortalities in fishers’ holding cages (Lunn and Moreau 2004). <br/> <br/>A recent study showed that, despite the use of non-destructive fishing methods, the fishery had a negative effect on fish density when sites with high fishing pressure were compared to sites with low fishing levels (Kolm and Berglund 2003). Fishing also had a significant effect on group size (halving of average group size where sites with high and low fishing pressure were compared), which may lead to strong negative impacts on individual fitness in the future (referred to as the Allee effect in the scientific literature) (Stephens <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stephens and Sutherland 1999, Kolm and Berglund 2003). <br/> <br/>In addition to more detailed trade statistics to accurately reflect real trade volumes, regular monitoring of the fishery should be undertaken, particularly as studies seem to indicate that the expansion of the trade to new, previously unexploited areas is underway, moving outwards from Banggai Island to all of the major islands in the area. Lunn and Moreau (2003) also highlight that the pool of potential fishers could be large, particularly given that obstacles to entering the fishery appear to be minimal and alternative livelihood opportunities limited. <br/> <br/>Other Threats: <br/>This species is reportedly parasitised by four main parasite types. Three of them have been already identified, i.e., nematodes (6.6% of all individuals analyzed), digenetic trematodes (7.9%); and 4.8% of individuals were parasited by cestodes (plerocercoid larvae). The last type of parasites found consists of an undescribed isopod which was found encysted in the body cavity and on the external stomach wall of 7.2% of individuals analyzed. These endoparasites are currently being investigated and preliminary results indicate that they belong to a new family of epicaridean isopods with an unknown life cycle (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>Indirect evidence strongly suggests that the Crocodile-fish <em>Cymbacephalus beauforti</em> (Platycephalidae), several species of Lion-fish <em>Pterois</em> (Scorpaenidae) and the grouper <em>Epinephelus merra</em> (Serranidae) prey upon <em>P. kauderni</em>, particularly in areas inhabited by large groups. Other likely predators are the Stonefish <em>Synanceia horrida</em> (Scorpaenidae), several species of moray eels of the genus <em>Gymnothorax</em>, and <em>Echidna nebulosa</em> (Muraenidae) and the sea-snake <em>Laticauda colubrina</em> (Elapidae) (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>The species is thought to suffer high mortality during the first days after settlement due to predation, including cannibalism (Vagelli 2002). For instance, despite that under laboratory conditions the average number of juveniles released was 40, and the average clutch size of brooding males in the wild was 18 embryos, out of 81 groups of new recruits found in the wild during 3 expeditions, most of them consisted of one or two individuals (mean: 2.3 individuals). The three largest groups found consisted of 15, 12, and nine individuals (Vagelli 2004a, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>A newly emerging threat (a viral disease) has been documented in wild-harvested individuals maintained in captivity.  The origin of the iridovirus, as well as the prevalence in and impacts to wild populations, is currently under investigation (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007). <br/> <br/>Frequent earthquakes recently affected several zones within the Banggai Archipelago had a potential detrimental impact on localized <em>P. kauderni</em> subpopulations
63573		conservation	eng	Included in one protected area: Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63573		distribution	eng	<em>Caryophyllia solida</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago; only reported from three locations, southeast of Fernandina Island; north of San Cristóbal (questioned location, see Cairns 1991), and north of Santiago Island (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
63573		habitat	eng	According to Cairns (1991) <em>C. solida</em> occurs at depths of 373 to 488 m (depth range from 488 to 1,160 is questioned in Cairns 1991). Little else is known.
63573		population	eng	Unknown.
63573		threats	eng	Unknown. This species has a limited range and slow growth rates and therefore could be intrinsically at risk from future threats.
63574		conservation	eng	Recorded from one protected area: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63574		distribution	eng	<em>Concentrotheca vaughani</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago; only reported from two locations: off Tagus Cove and Caleta Iguana at Isabela Island (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
63574		habitat	eng	<em>C. vaughani</em> has been reported from a depth range of 313 to 316 m (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.
63574		population	eng	Unknown.
63574		threats	eng	Unknown. This species has a limited range and slow growth rates and therefore could be intrinsically at risk from future threats.
63575		conservation	eng	Present in one protected area: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63575		distribution	eng	<em>Crispatotrochus galapagensis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago. Reported from the southwest side of Fernandina Island; off Tagus Cove, Isabela Island; north of Floreana Island; off Santa Cruz Island, and off Roca Redonda (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
63575		habitat	eng	<em>C. galapagensis</em> occurs at depths of 84 to 806 m (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.
63575		population	eng	Unknown.
63575		threats	eng	Unknown.
63576		conservation	eng	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63576		distribution	eng	<em>Polycyathus isabela</em> is an endemic species for the ETP region, present only around the Galápagos Archipelago. Occurrence known from Punta Albemarle (14 m, holotype); Punta Vicente Roca (10 m), and Caleta Iguana (11 m) at Isabela Island (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Hickman 2005).
63576		habitat	eng	In recesses or caves with subdued light (Hickman 2005), reported at depths of 10 to 23 m (Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005).
63576		population	eng	<em>P. isabela</em> is an uncommon species (Hickman 2005), only recorded from three sites at Isabela Island (viz. Punta Albemarle, Punta Vicente Roca and Caleta Iguana). The population status of the type subpopulation from Punta Albemarle is unknown, although the species has not been sighted in recent searches in that region. <br/> <br/>The subpopulation from Punta Vicente Roca (sighted in 2003), has not been seen subsequently, despite this location having been surveyed seasonally since that time (Chiriboga, Hickamn and Edgar pers. comms.). In addition, another small colony was sighted in 2004 at Caleta Iguana, Isabela during underwater searches (Chiriboga, Hickman and Edgar pers. comms.).
63576		threats	eng	Unknown. Presumably El Niño and climate change.
63577		conservation	eng	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63577		distribution	eng	<em>Dendrophyllia johnsoni</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Archipelago, only recorded from two locations; off Santa Cruz Island and from a seamount to the north of Santiago Island (Cairns 1991).
63577		habitat	eng	<em>D. johnsoni</em> has been reported from depth ranges of 373 to 462 m (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.
63577		population	eng	Unknown.
63577		threats	eng	Unknown.
63578		conservation	eng	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63578		distribution	eng	<em>Endopsammia pourtalesi</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago; known only from the type locality, west of Baltra; depth unknown (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
63578		habitat	eng	Unknown.
63578		population	eng	Unknown.
63578		threats	eng	Unknown.
63579		conservation	eng	Inside one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63579		distribution	eng	<em>Rhizopsammia wellingtoni</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador; only known from Tagus Cove, Isabela; Cousins, Santiago; Daphne Islet and Gordons Rocks, Santa Cruz; Gardner Islet (near Floreana) and Devil's Crown, Floreana (Well 1983, Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Hickman 2005, P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman).
63579		habitat	eng	<em>R. wellingtoni</em> occurs on under rock ledges, overhangs and ceilings of caves; at depths of 2 to 45 m (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005, P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman).
63579		population	eng	Before the 1982-83 ENSO (El Niño) event, Glynn and Wellington (1983) reported <em>R. wellingtoni</em> was most abundant (approx. 13% of mean surface coverage) at 15 m depth at Tagus Cove, Isabela. After the 1982-83 El Niño event most <em>R. wellingtoni</em> colonies were destroyed, except for colonies at Cousins and Gordons Rocks (Hickman 2005). P. Humann (pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman) observed and photographed one colony at Cousins and another one at Gordons Rocks in 1993; and in the late 1990s he took a photograph at the Gordons Rocks' colony. Witman and Smith (2003) reported <em>R. wellingtoni</em> inside their permanent photo quadrats at Gordons Rocks in 1999 and in 2000. Since then, <em>R. wellingtoni</em> has not been observed at Gordons Rocks, Cousins or anywhere else, despite targeted searches.
63579		threats	eng	Despite no specific information on the thermal tolerance limits of <em>R. wellingtoni</em>, the dramatic reduction in its distributional range immediately after the 1982-83 El Niño event suggests that this species is particularly sensitive to thermal anomalies.
63580		conservation	eng	Inside one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63580		distribution	eng	<em>Tubastraea floreana</em> is a rare endemic species to the Galápagos Archipelago, only known from a small number of sites: Playa Prieta, Floreana; Caleta Iguana, Isabela; Gardner Islet, near Floreana; Pinzón Island; Buccaneer Cove, Santiago, and Cousins, near Santiago (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005).
63580		habitat	eng	<em>T. floreana</em> occurs in cryptic habitats; on ceilings of caves, ledges and rocks overhangs (Wells 1983, Hickman 2005). <em>T. floreana</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 2 to 46 m depth (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005, A. Chiriboga pers. comm., P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman).
63580		population	eng	Before 1983 <em>T. floreana</em> was known from Caleta Iguana, Isabela; Buccaneer Cove, Santiago; Cousins near Santiago; Pinzón, Playa Prieta, Floreana, and Gardner Islet near Floreana (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991). However, after the 1982-83 ENSO (El Niño) event, <em>T. floreana</em> was not reported from any site until the early 1990s; when P. Humann observed and photographed three colonies at Cousins, near Santiago (P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman). According to P. Humann (pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman), he observed these colonies yearly until 2001, but has not seen them since. Despite targeted searches throughout the Archipelago, the only colonies found during the past decade were located at Gardner Islet, near Floreana in 2004 (A. Chiriboga pers. comm.).
63580		threats	eng	Despite a lack of information on the thermal tolerances of <em>T. floreana</em>, the dramatic reduction in its distribution immediately after the 1982-83 El Niño event suggests that this mortality resulted from the event. Presumably climate change is an additional threat.
63581		conservation	eng	Present in one protected are in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.
63581		distribution	eng	<em>Flabellum daphnense</em> is known only from one specimen, the holotype; collected at Daphne Mayor, near Santa Cruz, Galápagos, Ecuador (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
63581		habitat	eng	<em>F. daphnense</em> was collected at 101 m depth (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.
63581		population	eng	Unknown.
63581		threats	eng	Unknown.
63582		conservation	eng	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included in CITES Appendix II.
63582		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocyathoceras avis</em> is an endemic species within the ETP region; found only in the Galápagos Archipelago off Española and Floreana Islands (Cairns 1991, Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
63582		habitat	eng	<em>P. avis</em> has been recorded from depths between 91 and 183 m. Little else is known.
63582		population	eng	Unknown.
63582		threats	eng	Unknown.
63583		conservation	eng	<em>E. perforans</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63583		distribution	eng	<em>Ectochaete perforans</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; known only from the type locality, Bahia Cartago, Isabela (Taylor 1945).
63583		habitat	eng	<em>E. perforans</em> is a tiny, endozoic and filamentous species found on dead shells on the intertidal zone (Taylor 1945).
63583		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>E. perforans</em> was abundant on dead shells when he collected it in 1934. Only known from the type locality. However, there have been no subsequent attempts to identify collections that may refer to this species and it could be more widespread.
63583		threats	eng	Unknown.
63584		conservation	eng	Based on historic distribution, <em>R. robustum</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63584		distribution	eng	<em>R. robustum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands only known from the type locality, Seymour Island (Setchell and Gardner 1937).
63584		habitat	eng	<em>R. robustum</em> is only known from intertidal habitats, in association with <em>Bifurcaria galapagensis</em> (Setchell and Gardner 1937).
63584		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
63584		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63585		conservation	eng	Historic records currently within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63585		distribution	eng	<em>Desmarestia tropica</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from two locations: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Second locality: Collected in 1972, Caleta Tagus, Isabela. <br/> <br/>Acleto (1973) reported this species from Peru; however, this report is considered an error. [A. Peters annotated a specimen and indicated that the identification was incorrect, K.A. Miller pers. comm.]
63585		habitat	eng	Collected by dredge from 14 to 60 m depth. Belongs to a cold water order of algae that is rare in the tropics (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). The cryptic gametophyte stage of this species may exist in cooler, deeper waters; however, no recent evidence indicates reproduction to produce the more conspicuous sporophyte stage, which may be seasonal (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63585		population	eng	Unknown. No abundance estimates from type description. This is a conspicuous species that has not been observed since 1972, despite directed surveys in the type locality and other deep, cool locations around the archipelago. It inhabits cool water and has likely been affected by El Niño events in the last three decades, particularly the 1982-83 event, which greatly reduced macro-algal coverage across the archipelago. Since this species was found at two locations historically, and has not been found in recent decades, a 100% reduction in known populations is evident. A cryptic gametophyte stage may exist in deeper waters, but there is no evidence that it has been reproducing to produce the more conspicuous sporophyte stage.
63585		threats	eng	El Niño warming events; the elevated (i.e., up to 5°C above long-term average) and persistent (i.e., >12 months) temperatures that characterize El Niño events are likely to negatively affect this cold water species (Edgar and Garske 2004).
63586		conservation	eng	<em>D. diaphana</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63586		distribution	eng	<em>Dictyopteris diaphana</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; reported from: Santa Cruz: E. side of Caamaño (14 to 27 m) (1972, UC, KAM). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945), Las Cuevas (CDRS record 2001), and Punta Cormorant (Wellington 1975; with doubt). Isabela: Las Marielas (CDRS 2001 record). Fernandina: Cabo Hammond (CDRS 2001 record).
63586		habitat	eng	<em>D. diaphana</em> has been recorded at 55 m depth at Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945), and specimens attributed to this species, but still to be confirmed, collected at 14 m at Las Cuevas on rock at the rock-sand interface (CDRS record 2001).
63586		population	eng	<em>D. diaphana</em> is a rare species, for which there is no information on population trends (K A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63586		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63587		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>G. galapagensis</em> occurs inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63587		distribution	eng	<em>Dictyota galapagensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Isabela: Turtle Point (Farlow 1902: Type locality), Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945) and Caleta Iguana (Wellington 1975). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (1972 UC K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945, Mead <em>et al</em>. 1972) and Champion Island (Wellington 1975). Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Wellington 1975).
63587		habitat	eng	<em>D. galapagensis</em> is a large (35 cm long), conspicuous and easy to identify seaweed (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.). Found on rocky substrata in shallow waters, with records from the lower intertidal to 7 m depth (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63587		population	eng	Historically, <em>D. galapagensis</em> was classified as fairly common. Additionally, Wellington (1975) listed this species as being abundant in the western archipelago. Nevertheless, recent surveys have failed to find this species (K.A Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.), and there have been no other records since 1974.
63587		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63588		conservation	eng	<em>D. major</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63588		distribution	eng	<em>Dictyota major</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; recorded from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Black Beach (2004 NUC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: east side of Caamaño islet (1972 NUC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Punto Moreno (2001 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63588		habitat	eng	<em>D. major</em> was recorded in dredge samples at depths of 13 to 55 m, hence no specific depth records exist, other than one record listed at 33 m (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). <em>D. major</em> is a large species, up to 40 cm long.
63588		population	eng	<em>D. major</em> is uncommon, known only from a few specimens. Taylor (1945) indicated that it was rare in dredge hauls at sites where collected.
63588		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63589		conservation	eng	<em>P. concrescens</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63589		distribution	eng	All known records indicate that <em>Padina concrescens</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; so far reported from: Floreana: Black Beach (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Post Office Bay (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Santa Fé: two localities (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (1973 CDS).
63589		habitat	eng	<em>P. concrescens</em> occurs in a wide range of depths but most commonly in shallow water. It is a warm water species, occurring above the thermocline. Its prostrate habit makes it easy to graze, therefore it may be adversely affected by sea urchin grazing.
63589		population	eng	<em>P. concrescens</em> is not a common species. Because it resembles other, more abundant <em>Padina</em> species, it is difficult to distinguish in the field; hence, its population has not been accurately assessed.
63589		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63590		conservation	eng	<em>S. ecuadoreanum</em> occurs whitin the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63590		distribution	eng	<em>Spatoglossum ecuadoreanum</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; first reported from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (Taylor 1945: type locality; Wellington 1974). The species is also recorded from a number of other localities (Española: Gardner Bay; Floreana: Punta Cormorant; Fernandina: Punta Espinosa – all sites Wellington 1974) around the Archipelago (Taylor 1945, 1974 CDS), however, these identifications need to be verified (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comm.).
63590		habitat	eng	On rocky substrata, presumably in shallow depths (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63590		population	eng	Unknown.
63590		threats	eng	Possibly climate change.
63591		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>S. schmittii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63591		distribution	eng	<em>Spatoglossum schmittii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, and has been reported from: Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: mouth of Academy Bay and midway between Punta Estrada and Caamaño (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.; Wellington 1975). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Española (Taylor 1945). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Specimens have also been collected from Punta Espinosa, Fernandina, and from Floreana by J.N. Norris in 1977 and 1978 (US, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63591		habitat	eng	<em>S. schmittii</em> occurs on rocky substrata at depths of 0 to 37 m, and occasionally at 55 m (Taylor 1945, 1972 collections K.A. Miller pers. comm.). The thallus can exceed 45 cm in height (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63591		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>S. schmittii</em> is 'occasional to infrequent' in dredge collections. A large, conspicuous, historically-widespread species that has not been observed in recent times, despite extensive surveys. Its historical habitat is now widely impacted by ecosystem interactions involving herbivore overgrazing.
63591		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63592		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63592		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterocarpus abyssicolus</em> is an endemic species to Galápagos Islands, known only from its type locality; Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).
63592		habitat	eng	<em>Z. abyssicolus</em> is a small (1 to 2 cm long) and inconspicuous epiphytic species. The holotype was dredged from 55 m depth (Taylor 1945).
63592		population	eng	Unknown, not collected since type.
63592		threats	eng	Unknown, but ocean warming and overgrazing by sea urchins is suspected.
63593		conservation	eng	Based on the historical distribution, <em>B. galapagensis</em> was present insde the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63593		distribution	eng	<em>Bifurcaria galapagensis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from numerous locations before 1983 (Taylor 1945, Hedgpeth 1969, Mead <em>et al</em>. 1972, Cinelli and Colantoni 1974, Wellington 1975, Hessler Expedition): off San Cristóbal (Wreck Bay), Floreana (Punta Cormorant, Black Beach), Pinzón, Rabida, Santa Cruz (opposite Gordon Rocks, Caamaño, Academy Bay), Fernandina (Punta Espinosa), Isabela (Puerto Villamil, Caleta Tagus), Plazas, Seymour, Santa Fé.
63593		habitat	eng	<em>B. galapagensis</em> was reported to occur on intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky bottoms (Taylor 1945), and was very conspicuous with a high biomass. As with other fucoids, spore dispersal is probably local, with embryos tending to settle under the canopies of adults (which are now absent). Additionally, embryos are vulnerable to desiccation during release and settlement. The life cycle of this species does not have a cryptic stage.
63593		population	eng	Prior to 1983, <em>B. galapagensis</em> was considered abundant and widespread throughout the central, south and western Archipelago. According to Taylor (1945), <em>B. galapagensis</em> was common on higher littoral rocks at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana. Additionally, Cinelli and Colantoni (1974) report <em>B. galapagensis</em> at 5 of 8 sites surveyed in 1971-72; Mead <em>et al</em>. (1972) from 5 of 29 SCUBA sites in 1972. Wellington (1975) also emphasizes the species abundance around Santa Cruz and other central and western islands during the 1970s. During February 1983, specimens studied by Robinson (1985), looked unhealthy with thinning haptera, and by March 1983, <em>B. galapagensis</em> disappeared. Since 1984, no specimen has been found, and presumably no source populations exist.
63593		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63594		conservation	eng	<em>S. albemarlense</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63594		distribution	eng	<em>Sargassum albermarlense</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: <br/>Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Taylor 1945, Wellington 1975). Isabela: Punta Albermarle (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Santiago: Bartolome (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1972 CDS), Academy Bay (Wellington 1975). <br/> <br/>After 1983, reported from: <br/>Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (CDRS record 2002), Cabo Douglas, Punta Mangle (1995 CDS) and southern coast of Fernandina (CDRS record 2003). Isabela: Cabo Berkeley, Caleta Iguana (CDRS record 2004), Caleta Tagus (CDRS record 2002), Castles (CDRS record 2004). Floreana: Post Office Bay (CDRS record 2001). Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1994 CDS).
63594		habitat	eng	<em>S. albemarlense</em> has been reported on rocky substrata from the low intertidal to 8 m depth (CDRS record 2001, CDRS record 2002 , Taylor 1945). Frond growth varies seasonally.
63594		population	eng	According to K.A. Miller (pers. comm.), <em>S. albemarlense</em> can be confused with other species (e.g., <em>S. zacae, S. howellii</em>); hence population size and distribution are uncertain. Taylor (1945) categorized this alga as rare at Bartolome, but Wellington (1975) reported it as one of the most abundant brown algal species at two of three sites (Punta Espinosa and Academy Bay). More recent studies indicated that its abundance ranged from abundant at Post Office Bay, Floreana (CDRS record in 2001) to common at Punta Espinosa, Fernandina (CDRS record in 2002). Populations around Academy Bay and the central archipelago are patchy and sparse at present (L. Garske, pers. comm.)
63594		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63595		conservation	eng	<em>S. galapagense</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63595		distribution	eng	<em>Sargassum galapagense</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: <br/>Isabela: Bahia Banks (Taylor 1945) and Caleta Tagus (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975) and Cabo Douglas (Wellington 1975). Floreana: Champion (Wellington 1974). San Cristóbal. Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1974 CDS).  <br/> <br/>After 1983, reported from: Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (CDS record 2001), Cabo Douglas and southern coast of Fernandina (CDRS record 2003). Isabela: Cabo Berkely (1987 CDS), Punta Moreno (CDRS record 2001), Castles and Bahia de los Perros (CDRS record 2001). Floreana: Champion (2003 CDS). Santa Cruz: Punta Nuñez (CDRS record 2002) and Laguna de los Flamingos (1995 CDS).
63595		habitat	eng	<em>S. galapagense</em> occurs from the low intertidal to shallow subtidal (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers comms.).
63595		population	eng	According to Edgar and Garske (unpublished manuscript), populations of this species have declined from a band-forming species prior to 1982 to a few individuals sighted amongst other <em>Sargassum</em> plants in the western region in 2004.  However, abundance records are anecdotal and there is insufficient information to assess population trends in these species over the past three generations.
63595		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63596		conservation	eng	<em>S. setifolium</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63596		distribution	eng	<em>Sargassum setifolium</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm; Wellington 1975). Isabela: Caleta Black (Taylor 1945) and Caleta Tagus (Taylor 1945; also many 1966 UC specimens from 0.5 mile NW of Caleta Tagus and 1 mile N of Caleta Tagus; K.A. Miller, pers. comm.). Floreana: Champion (Wellington 1975), Black Beach Anchorage (1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm). San Cristóbal: (Albatros Espedition); Wreck Bay (1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm). Santiago: Bartolome (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz. After 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1995 CDS). Isabela: Las Marielas (CDRS record 2001).
63596		habitat	eng	<em>S. setifolium</em> has been reported from the low intertidal to 7.2 m depth.
63596		population	eng	There is little information on population trends for <em>S. setifolium</em>, although Wellington (1975) reported it as one of the most prevalent brown algae at Punta Espinosa (along with <em>S. albemarlense</em>). At present, populations are almost exclusively restricted to the western archipelago. Recent surveys (2000 to 2004) have failed to find populations of <em>S. setifolium</em> from San Cristóbal, Bartolome, and Santa Cruz. This represents a contraction of available habitat from about 20,000 km² to one small area; estimated to be substantially less than 500 km² in area of occupancy, and less than 5,000 km² in extent of occurrence. Population trend: unknown over the past decade; declining over the past three decades.
63596		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63597		conservation	eng	<em>S. templetonii</em> is reported to occur within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63597		distribution	eng	<em>Sargassum templetonii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Isabela: Punta Albemarle (Taylor 1945) and Punta Cristopher (Taylor 1945); Floreana; San Cristóbal; Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Wellington 1975). After 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1989 CDS), Punta Carrion and Mosquera; Isabela: Caleta Tagus (CDRS record 2002), Punta Albemarle and Castles; Fernandina: Punta Española; Santa Fé: Roca Pinguina.
63597		habitat	eng	<em>S. templetonii</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 4.5 to 7.5 m on saxicolous subtrata. However, at Santa Fé juveniles were reported at 24 m (UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and juveniles at Punta Albemarle were observed at >28 m.
63597		population	eng	<em>S. templetonii</em> is uncommon throughout its distribution. No data are available on population trends.
63597		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63598		conservation	eng	<em>E. galapagensis</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63598		distribution	eng	<em>Eisenia galapagensis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality), Caamaño and opposite Gordon Rocks (Taylor 1945). Santa Fé. Marchena: North Bay (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa. Isabela: Caleta Iguana (Wellington 1975). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945) and Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945). After 1983, reported from: Fernandina: Cape Douglas (2004 record), several sites on the western coast (2007 records; Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2007; Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
63598		habitat	eng	<em>E. galapagensis</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 27 to 55 m (Taylor 1945). This species is easy to recognize, in part because it has a maximum size of at least 85 cm frond length and is the sole known member of the cold-water order Laminariales occurring in the Galápagos Islands. <em>E. galapagensis</em> typically grow in groups; juveniles through adults were observed at all sites recorded in 2007. Individuals have been found as shallow as 12 m but populations appear to increase in density and size with depth, to at least 60 m when suitable substrata are available (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The conspicuous sporophyte alternates with a microscopic phase.
63598		population	eng	Taylor (1945) reported <em>E. galapagensis</em> as rare and uncommon at Post Office Bay, Floreana, and common at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz. Additionally, Wellington (1975) reported <em>E. galapagensis</em> as especially abundant at depth around Caleta Iguana (Isabela). Since then, it has been collected from several sites off western Fernandina in 2004 and 2007, and at Caleta Iguana in 2007 (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
63598		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63599		conservation	eng	Reported to occur within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63599		distribution	eng	<em>Sporochnus rostratus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality) Española (Taylor 1945). Marchena: North Bay (Taylor 1945). After 1983, reported from: <br/>Floreana: Champion (CDRS record 2001) and Post Office Bay (UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63599		habitat	eng	<em>S. rostratus</em> has been reported at depths of 12.5 to 37 m (Taylor 1945). It is often found at the sand-rock interface (Taylor 1945). <em>S. rostratus</em> is probably a short-lived species (K.A. Miller, pers. comm.).
63599		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>S. rostratus</em> was rare at Post Office Bay. For non-experts, <em>S. rostratum</em> may be difficult to distinguish from <em>Carpomitra luxurians</em> and <em>Sporochnus bolleanus,</em> which are more abundant (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.). There is no information on population trends.
63599		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63600		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution <em>A. svedelii</em> occured inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63600		distribution	eng	<em>Asparagopsis svedelii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; only known from the type locality at Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).
63600		habitat	eng	Dredged from 55 m depth (Taylor 1945).
63600		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. svedelii</em> was rare while dredged from 55 m depth at Post Office Bay, Floreana.
63600		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63601		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>A. veleroae</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63601		distribution	eng	<em>Antithamnion veleroae</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; only known from: south of Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Punta Cristopher, Isabela (Taylor 1945).
63601		habitat	eng	<em>A. veleroae</em> has been recorded from the intertidal, occurring on rocky subtrata (boulders-rocks) or as an epiphyte on <em>Prionitis</em> species (Taylor 1945). Mostly microscopic, but can reach 1 cm length (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63601		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. veleroae</em> was common at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana. There is no current information on relative abundance or population trends.
63601		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño (given that it is an intertidal species, and therefore disproportionately susceptible to anomalous warming events), climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63602		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. ecuadoreanum</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63602		distribution	eng	<em>Callithamnion ecuadoreanum</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, known from: Gardner Bay, Española (Taylor 1945: type locality); Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945), and Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). Caleta Iguana, Elizabeth Bay, I. Isabela (2004, UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63602		habitat	eng	<em>C. ecuadoreanum</em> was reported to occur at depths of 0 to 55 m on fine sand (Taylor 1945, 1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). This species reaches 1 to 2 cm thallus length (K.A  Miller pers. comm.).
63602		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>C. ecuadoreanum</em> was rare at Post Office Bay. No current information is available on abundance or population trends.
63602		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63603		conservation	eng	Type locality is now is within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63603		distribution	eng	<em>Callithamnion epiphyticum</em> is an endemic species for the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality: Gardner Bay, Española (Taylor 1945).
63603		habitat	eng	Reported to occur at depths of 35 to 55 m (dredge) as an epiphyte on larger algae (Taylor 1945).
63603		population	eng	Current abundance and trend unknown.
63603		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63604		conservation	eng	Based on historical locations <em>C. hoodii</em> was present inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63604		distribution	eng	<em>Ceramium hoodii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Island, known only from Gardner Bay, Española (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945). No positive records of this species exist since 1945 (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63604		habitat	eng	Taylor (1945) collected <em>C. hoodii</em> at 27 m, entangled with coarse algae at Post Office Bay, Floreana, and between 37 and 55 m on fine sand at Gardner Bay, Española.
63604		population	eng	Taylor (1945) reported <em>C. hoodii</em> as common at Gardner Bay, Española. However, current information on abundance and population trends is lacking.
63604		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63605		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. howellii</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63605		distribution	eng	<em>Ceramium howellii</em> is an endemic Galápagos species, recorded from the southeast side of Fernandina on two occasions; first (holotype) by Setchell and Gardner (1937) and then by Dawson (1957).
63605		habitat	eng	<em>C. howellii</em> is known to be an epiphyte on <em>Padina</em> species; reported from the low intertidal and shallow subtidal (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63605		population	eng	<em>C. howellii</em> is a small inconspicuous species that is difficult to identify and collect except by specialists (K A. Miller pers. comm.).
63605		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63606		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. prostratum</em> is present inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63606		distribution	eng	<em>Ceramium prostratum</em> is an endemic species for the Galápagos Islands; only known from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz, and Puerto Villamil, Isabela (Dawson 1963).
63606		habitat	eng	<em>C. prostratum</em> is a microscopic species (5 mm in height), which is epiphytic on other seaweeds. It has been reported from the intertidal rocky shore and intertidal turf. (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63606		population	eng	<em>C. prostratum</em> is a very small epiphyte that is difficult to identify, except by specialists. So far, no information is available about its population size or trends.
63606		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63607		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. templetonii</em> occurs inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63607		distribution	eng	<em>Ceramium templetonii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, having been reported from three locations: Post Office Bay, Floreana (Setchel and Gardener 1937); Tagus Cove, Isabela (Dawson 1957), and Punta Suarez, Española (Dawson 1963).
63607		habitat	eng	<em>C. templetonii</em> has been reported from the intertidal on rocky substrata. It is a fine, filamentous creeping turf alga up to 5 to 10 mm high (Dawson 1957). A very small epiphyte.
63607		population	eng	<em>C. prostratum</em> is a very small epiphyte that is difficult to identify, except by specialists. So far, no information is available about its population size or trends.
63607		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63608		conservation	eng	<em>P. complanatum</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63608		distribution	eng	<em>Pleonosporium complanatum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality; 1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm.); Isabela (1975 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). After 1983, reported from: Floreana: Tres Cuevitas (CDRS record 2002) and Post Office Bay (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63608		habitat	eng	<em>P. complanatum</em> is an epiphytic alga up to 3 to 5 cm in length. Compared to other epiphytic species, it is relatively conspicuous and easy to identify. Reported from depths of 14 to 30 m.
63608		population	eng	<em>P. complanatum</em> was reported as uncommon at Tres Cuevitas, Floreana (CDRS record 2002). This species is more conspicuous than other local epiphytic algal species and is seen relatively frequently amongst macroalgal samples.
63608		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63609		conservation	eng	Based on historical records, <em>A. papenfussii</em> was present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63609		distribution	eng	<em>Acrosorium papenfussi</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands; only known from the type locality at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (Taylor 1945).
63609		habitat	eng	<em>A. papenfussii</em> is a subtidal species that was dredged in Academy, Santa Cruz, but with no specific depth record. It is a large species, up to 25 cm tall.
63609		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. papenfussii</em> was infrequent in dredges from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz. However, this species has not been collected since the original description.
63609		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63610		conservation	eng	<em>A. equatorianum </em>occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63610		distribution	eng	<em>Austrofolium equatorianum</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type location at Santa Cruz, intertidal, near Darwin lab, Academy Bay (as <em>Bartoniella ? equatoriana</em> Dawson 1963).
63610		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of habitat other that the species occurs in the intertidal zone.
63610		population	eng	Unknown.
63610		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63611		conservation	eng	<em>A. howellii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63611		distribution	eng	<em>Austrofolium howellii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality). Santa Cruz: Caamaño (1974 CDS, L. Garske and K.A. Miller, pers. comm.). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.)
63611		habitat	eng	<em>A. howellii</em> has been reported from depths ranging from turfs on surf-beaten rocks in the low intertidal to 30 m (Taylor 1945, 1974 CDS, 2004 UC). <em>A. howellii</em> grows to approx. 6 cm (Taylor 1945).
63611		population	eng	Taylor (1945) reported <em>A. howellii</em> as occasional in turfs on surf-beaten rocks. However, there is no information on current abundance or trends.
63611		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63612		conservation	eng	<em>M. kilinii</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63612		distribution	eng	<em>Myriogramme kylinii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; only known from four collections at two locations: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); 2.5 miles E. of Academy Bay by box dredge 40 to 45 m, and 4 miles SE of Academy Bay in 50 m (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63612		habitat	eng	<em>M. kylinii</em> occurs from 3 to 50 m depth  (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63612		population	eng	<em>M. kylinii</em> is considered a rare species, with no information available on population trends.
63612		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63613		conservation	eng	Found within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63613		distribution	eng	<em>Nithophyllum divaricatum</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945); Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). No known further collections since type collections.
63613		habitat	eng	<em>N. divaricatum</em> has been reported at depths of 27 to 36 m at Tagus Cove, Isabela; additionally, it was also reported at 55 m depth at Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945).
63613		population	eng	No population information is available for <em>N. divaricatum</em>.
63613		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions because of increase in sea urchins and other herbivore populations from overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63614		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>P. elegans</em> occured within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63614		distribution	eng	<em>Phycodrina elegans</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands: Prior to 1983, reported from: San Cristóbal: (Setchell and Gardner 1937); Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (1934 MICH Wynne 1985; 1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Isabela: Caleta Tagus (1972 UC, 1977 US, K.A. Miller pers. comm.), Caleta Iguana (1977 US, K.A. Miller pers. comm., Wellington 1975), and Punta Christopher (1934 MICH Wynne 1985); San Cristóbal (A. Stewart 1905, Wynne 1988); Floreana: Post Office Bay (1934 MICH, Wynne 1985), and Devil's Crown (1975 MICH, Wynne 1985). <br/>There are no records of <em>P. elegans</em> after 1977.
63614		habitat	eng	<em>P. elegans</em> is a conspicuous alga, growing to at least 20 cm long (Taylor 1945). This species occurs at depths of 14 to 45 m on rocky substrata (Taylor 1945).
63614		population	eng	Taylor (1945) reported <em>P. elegans</em> (as <em>Phycodrys pulcher</em>) as a rare species at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz, but common at Post Office Bay, Floreana. Wellington (1975) reports it from Caleta Iguana (as <em>Phycodrys elegans</em>) as especially abundant at depth. Prior to 1983, this species was recorded from seven locations in south, central and western Archipelago; nevertheless, <em>P. elegans</em> has not been reported since the last records in 1977 (i.e., Caleta Tagus and Caleta Iguana), despite recent targeted searches at its original locations and more widely through the Galápagos Islands. There is no information on current abundance or trends.
63614		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63615		conservation	eng	<em>P. hancockii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI), but not in protected zones; Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63615		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudolaingia hancockii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Santa Cruz (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.): 2.5 miles E. of Academy Bay (box dredge 40 to 45 m), Santa Cruz, E. side of Caamaño (14 to 27 m).
63615		habitat	eng	At Wreck Bay, San Cristóbal, <em>P. hancockii</em> was collected from 30 m depth on rocky substrata. This species grows to 85 cm long.
63615		population	eng	Taylor (1945) reported <em>P. hancockii</em> as rare. However, current abundance and population trends are unknown.
63615		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. All known collection sites are near human settlement areas, where they could be affected by catchment activities.
63616		conservation	eng	<em>A. pusillum </em>occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63616		distribution	eng	<em>Alsidium pusillum </em>is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands only known from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (Dawson 1963).
63616		habitat	eng	<em>A. pusillum </em>was collected in the low intertidal on algal turf.
63616		population	eng	<em>Al. pusillum</em> has not been collected since original description. <em>A. pusillum </em>is an inconspicuous species that is difficult to recognize except by specialists.  Additionally, not very much work has been done on turf algae in the Galápagos Islands.
63616		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions because of increase in sea urchins and other herbivore populations from overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. In addition human settlements/port activity.
63617		conservation	eng	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63617		distribution	eng	<em>Chondria flexicaulis</em> is an endemic species to the Galapagos Islands, reported from several islands. Prior to 1983: <br/>Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Baltra (Taylor 1945). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). San Cristobal: Wreck Bay (UC 1972, KAM). Isabela: Caleta Iguana, Tagus Cove (UC 1972, KAM). Floreana: Black Beach (UC 1972, KAM). <br/> <br/>Since 1983: Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and Tagus Cove (2004 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (2004 UC; K. A. Miller pers. comm.). San Cristobal: Wreck Bay (2004; K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63617		habitat	eng	<em>C. flexicaulis</em> occurs on stable sand areas (rocks embedded in sand), at depths of 20 to 55 m (Taylor 1945).
63617		population	eng	<em>C. flexicaulis</em> is locally common in the central and western archipelago.  No information is available on population trends, although many fewer sites with living plants are known today compared with prior to the 1980s.  However, because this species is typically found in deep, sandy bottoms, it falls out of the range of most surveys and therefore there is no real evidence of population declines.
63617		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63618		conservation	eng	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63618		distribution	eng	<em>Laurencia congesta</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). However, <em>Laurencia</em> is difficult to identify at the species level.
63618		habitat	eng	<em>L. congesta</em> occurs on rocky substrata in the intertidal zone (Taylor 1945).
63618		population	eng	Unknown.
63618		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, this alga is particularly susceptible to prolonged warming events.
63619		conservation	eng	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63619		distribution	eng	<em>Laurencia densissima</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; reported from: Isabela, Fernandina and Floreana (Setchel and Gardner 1937). Additionally, there are two recent records; one confirmed at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana, and one possible record at Caleta Iguana, Isabela (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63619		habitat	eng	<em>L. densissima</em> was described from the intertidal zone (Setchell and Gardner 1937) and recently collected in the shallow subtidal (3 to 6 m, UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63619		population	eng	This species is only known from a few locations. There is no information on population trends.
63619		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63620		conservation	eng	<em>L. ligulata</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63620		distribution	eng	<em>Laurencia ligulata</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality; one mile east of Darwin Station, Santa Cruz (Dawson 1963).
63620		habitat	eng	<em>L. ligulata</em> is an inconspicuous intertidal species, up to 12 mm in length (Dawson 1963).
63620		population	eng	<em>Laurencia ligulata</em> is only known from the type locality. This is an inconspicuous species. There is no information on population size or trends.
63620		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances
63621		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution <em>L. mediocris</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63621		distribution	eng	<em>Laurencia mediocris</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; so far, only known from its type locality, Isabela (Setchell and Gardner 1937).
63621		habitat	eng	<em>L. mediocris</em> grows 4 to 7 cm high and occurs in the intertidal zone (Setchell and Gardner 1937).
63621		population	eng	<em>L. mediocris</em> is only known from the type locality. There is no information on population sizes and trends.
63621		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63622		conservation	eng	<em>L. oppositocladia</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63622		distribution	eng	<em>Laurencia oppositocladia</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, having been reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality), and Champion (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.); Isabela: Punta Christopher (Taylor 1945); Urvina Bay (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.), and Punta Moreno (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975 ).
63622		habitat	eng	<em>L. oppositocladia</em> occurs on rocky substrata at the intertidal zone and can attain 25 cm length (Taylor 1945). Wellington (1975) lists it as the second-most dominant red alga in the shallow subtidal at Punta Espinosa.
63622		population	eng	<em>L. oppositocladia</em> was reported as infrequent at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana (Taylor 1945), as well as at the point west of Elizabeth Bay, Isabela (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63622		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, it is vulnerable to anomalous warming events.
63623		conservation	eng	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63623		distribution	eng	<em>Pterosiphonia paucicorticata</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Española: Punta Suarez (Dawson 1963). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (1972 UC, 2004 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Fernandina: Islet south of Cabo Douglas (2004 UC; K A. Miller pers. comm.).
63623		habitat	eng	<em>P. paucicorticata</em> is a small epiphyte (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). According to Dawson (1963), this species occurs on seaward shelves with violent surf. It has also been collected at depth ranges of 20 to 30 m (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63623		population	eng	<em>P. paucicorticata</em> is a small filamentous alga that is difficult to identify except under the microscope by specialists (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). It is locally common  at Caleta Iguana (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). No reliable information is available on population numbers or trends.
63623		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63624		conservation	eng	<em>A. compressa</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63624		distribution	eng	<em>Amphiroa compressa</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (Taylor 1945). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Cape Douglas (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63624		habitat	eng	<em>A. compressa occurs</em> on stable rocky substrata at depths of 3.5 to 30 m (Taylor 1945).
63624		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. compressa</em> was abundant at Post Office Bay, Floreana. Nevertheless, the species is currently uncommon (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). <em>A. compressa</em> is patchily distributed with scattered occurrence in the west. Coralline species in the Galápagos are in urgent need of reassessment (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63624		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances
63625		conservation	eng	<em>A. crustiformis</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63625		distribution	eng	<em>Amphiroa crustiformis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, only known from two locations: San Cristóbal (Dawson 1963), and Elizabeth Bay, Isabela (UC 2004, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63625		habitat	eng	<em>A. crustiformis</em> has been reported to occur at shallow water, from the intertidal zone to 5 m depth on rocky substrata (Dawson 1963). The specimens collected at Elizabeth Bay were present in an urchin barren, at 3 to 5 m depth (UC 2004, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63625		population	eng	<em>A. crustiformis</em> is a rare species, only known from two sites. There is no current information on population trends.
63625		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63626		conservation	eng	<em>A. galapagensis</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63626		distribution	eng	<em>Amphiroa galapagensis</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality); Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945), Caleta Iguana (Wellington 1975) and Cabo Berkeley (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975).
63626		habitat	eng	<em>A. galapagensis</em> is the smallest of all the <em>Amphiroa</em> species, growing to 4 cm thallus length (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). It has been reported from the intertidal zone (Taylor 1945) and from the subtidal at 9 m (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63626		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. galapagensis</em> was common on Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana and Wellington (1975) reported it as common at Punta Espinosa (Fernandina). However, there is no current information on population size or trends.
63626		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63627		conservation	eng	Type location within Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63627		distribution	eng	<em>A. crosslandii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from its type locality in Tagus Cove, Isabela (Lemoine 1930, Taylor 1945). No records since the type specimen was collected in 1924.
63627		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63627		population	eng	Unknown. No data are available on recent population size, trends or range.
63627		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63628		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63628		distribution	eng	<em>Goniolithon alternans</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from Santiago and Floreana Island (Lemoine 1930). No records since type collection in 1929.
63628		habitat	eng	Unknown.
63628		population	eng	Unknown.
63628		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63629		conservation	eng	Type locality within Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63629		distribution	eng	<em>Lithophyllum amplostratum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from its type locality at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana (Taylor 1945). There are no records since the type collection.
63629		habitat	eng	<em>L. amplostratum</em> was reported to occur in intertidal pools, forming clumps of several centimeters diameter (Taylor 1945).
63629		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>L. amplostratum</em> was occasionally present at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana. However there is no recent information on distribution or trends for this species.
63629		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63630		conservation	eng	Type locality somewhere within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63630		distribution	eng	<em>Lithophyllum complexum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection; unfortunately its precise locality is unknown (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.
63630		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63630		population	eng	Unknown.
63630		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63631		conservation	eng	Type locality somewhere within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63631		distribution	eng	<em>Lithophyllim mutabile</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection; unfortunately its precise locality is unknown (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.
63631		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63631		population	eng	Unknown.
63631		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63632		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63632		distribution	eng	<em>Lithophyllum rileyi</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality in James Bay, Santiago, 9 to 11 m depth; (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.
63632		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63632		population	eng	Unknown.
63632		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63633		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63633		distribution	eng	<em>Lithophyllum sancti-georgei</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality, Caleta Tagus, Isabela (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since type collection.
63633		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63633		population	eng	Unknown.
63633		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63634		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>T. erecta</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63634		distribution	eng	<em>Tenarea erecta</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, known from the non-specified type locality on Isabela (Taylor 1945) and: Isabela: Caleta Tagus, collected in 1957 (Dawson 1957); San Cristóbal: collected in 1886 by Piconne (Dawson 1957). There are no known records since 1957.
63634		habitat	eng	<em>T. erecta</em> grows as an epiphyte on other algae.
63634		population	eng	No recent information for <em>T. erecta</em> is available on population size, trends or range.
63634		threats	eng	Loss of host species could occur through El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63635		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63635		distribution	eng	<em>Lithothamnion cottonii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection in Tagus Cove, Isabela, Galapagos (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.
63635		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63635		population	eng	Unknown.
63635		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63636		conservation	eng	Type locality somewhere within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63636		distribution	eng	<em>Lithothamnion pocillum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection listed as the Galápagos Islands; unfortunately its precise locality is unknown (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.
63636		habitat	eng	Nothing is known
63636		population	eng	Unknown.
63636		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63637		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63637		distribution	eng	<em>Mesophyllum laxum</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, known only from type locality in James Bay, Santiago (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.
63637		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
63637		population	eng	Unknown.
63637		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63638		conservation	eng	<em>C. albemarlensis</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63638		distribution	eng	<em>Chondrus albemarlensis</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Isabela: Punta Christopher (Taylor 1945: type locality), Caleta Iguana (Wellington 195; 2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and Urvina Bay (1995 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.); Floreana: Las Cuevas (CDRS record 2002).
63638		habitat	eng	This red alga has been reported from the low intertidal (surf-beaten rocks) to 6 m depth on boulders and rocky substrata (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63638		population	eng	<em>C. albemarlensis</em> is not a common seaweed; however it is patchily distributed and can be locally common (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63638		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, is likely to be vulnerable to anomalous prolonged warming events, such as El Niño.
63639		conservation	eng	<em>Ch. hancockii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63639		distribution	eng	<em>Chondrus hancockii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Achorage (Taylor 1945) and Loberia Chiquita (CDRS record 2002); Isabela: Urvina Bay (1974 CDS; 1995 CDS, L. Garke pers. comm.), Cabo Berkeley (1987 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.) and Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm., 2001 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.).
63639		habitat	eng	<em>O. hancockii</em> occurs from the mid-upper intertidal to the shallow subtidal (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63639		population	eng	<em>C. hancockii</em> can be locally common (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comm.).
63639		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, is likely to be vulnerable to anomalous prolonged warming events, such as El Niño event.
63640		conservation	eng	<em>K. multiloba</em> has been reported to occur within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63640		distribution	eng	<em>Kallymenia multiloba</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, known from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Isabela: Caleta Tagus (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Pinzón (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63640		habitat	eng	This red alga has been reported to occur at depths of 7.5 to 30.4 m, (Taylor 1945, 2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63640		population	eng	Unknown.
63640		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63641		conservation	eng	<em>K. setchellii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63641		distribution	eng	<em>Kallymenia setchellii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from Floreana at Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality).
63641		habitat	eng	This red alga has been reported to occur at 27 m depth (Taylor 1945).
63641		population	eng	There is no information on population size, trend or range for this species.
63641		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63642		conservation	eng	<em>P. latiloba</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63642		distribution	eng	<em>Pugetia latiloba</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Floreana: Devil's Crown (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). Additionally, recent records (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.) include Pinzón, Isabela, Floreana, Fernandina and San Cristóbal.
63642		habitat	eng	<em>P. latiloba</em> has been reported to occur in depths of 5.5 to 30.4 m.
63642		population	eng	Poorly known but frequently collected and probably common.
63642		threats	eng	No known serious threats at present.
63643		conservation	eng	<em>G. smithii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63643		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnogongrus smithii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality), Punta Cormorant (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.), Las Cuevas (CDRS record 2002) and Los Barrancos (CDRS record 2002); Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1994 CDS; 1995 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.).
63643		habitat	eng	<em>G. smithii</em> is an intertidal species, occurring from the high intertidal to low intertidal (Taylor 1945, CDRS record 2002).
63643		population	eng	<em>G. smithii</em> has been reported as locally common, but more data are needed to adequately assess population abundance and trends.
63643		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, is likely to be vulnerable to anomalous prolonged warming events, such as El Niño event.
63644		conservation	eng	<em>O. crockeri</em> occurs throughout the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63644		distribution	eng	<em>Ochtodes crockeri</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. It is one of the most widespread seaweed species; reported from many locations in the southern (Floreana), central (Santa Cruz, Baltra, Pinzón), western (Isabela, Fernandina) and northern (Darwin) Archipelago (Taylor 1945; CDRS record 2001, 2003).
63644		habitat	eng	This red alga has been reported with a wide bathymetric range, from the rocky intertidal and tidepools to 15 m depth (Taylor 1945, CDRS records 2001-2003).
63644		population	eng	The relative abundance (both historic and recent) of <em>O. crockeri</em> has been categorized as common and abundant. Populations are apparently stable.
63644		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known.
63645		conservation	eng	Type locality now within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63645		distribution	eng	<em>Gracilaria ecuadoreanus</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality). Dawson (1949) noted that little needed to be added to Taylor's account of this species from the Galápagos Archipelago of which no additional material is available. No confirmed specimens since 1945.
63645		habitat	eng	According to the type collection, <em>G. ecuadoreanus</em> is apparently an intertidal seaweed that was collected from tufts on surf-beaten rocks (Taylor 1945).
63645		population	eng	Unknown.
63645		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63646		conservation	eng	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63646		distribution	eng	<em>Gracilaria skottsbergii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality at Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).
63646		habitat	eng	<em>G. skottsbergii</em> was dredged from 12 to 27 m depth (Taylor 1945).
63646		population	eng	<em>G. skottsbergii</em> has not been collected since the original description.
63646		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63647		conservation	eng	Type locality occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve, but outside fully protected zones.Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63647		distribution	eng	<em>Halymenia santamariae</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; only known from the type location at Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).
63647		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected at 55 m depth, presumably on rocky substrata (Taylor 1945).
63647		population	eng	<em>H. santamariae</em> has not been recorded since the type collection.
63647		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63648		conservation	eng	<em>P. saxicola</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63648		distribution	eng	<em>Pachymenia saxicola</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality); Santa Cruz: Academy Bay, Darwin Station (lowest intertidal) (1964 UC, KAM), Los Corales (CDRS record 2001); Fernandina: Punta Martinez (CDRS record 2003), Cabo Hammond (CDRS record 2001), Central Western Fernandina (CDRS record 2001), islet south of Cabo Douglas (2004 UC, KAM).
63648		habitat	eng	It occurs at a wide range of depths, intertidal to subtidal (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63648		population	eng	<em>P. saxicola</em> is a distinctive seaweed, and can usually be identified by non-specialists. This species is widespread, found within a wide depth range, and relatively common. No information on population trend but persistent in collections.
63648		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63649		conservation	eng	<em>P. galapagensis</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63649		distribution	eng	<em>Prionitis galapagensis</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality); Isabela: Elizabeth Bay (2004), Caleta Iguana (2004) and Punta Moreno (CDRS record 2001); Fernandina: western coast (CDRS record 2001).
63649		habitat	eng	<em>P. galapagensis</em> has been reported to occur from the low tide level (Taylor 1945) to at least 12 m depth (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63649		population	eng	<em>P. galapagensis</em> is uncommon. No information is available on population trends.
63649		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63650		conservation	eng	<em>P. hancockii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63650		distribution	eng	<em>Prionitis hancockii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945); Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.); Fernandina: Cabo Hammond (2001 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.) and western coast of Fernandina (2001 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.).
63650		habitat	eng	<em>P. hancockii</em> has been reported from the intertidal (Taylor 1945) and depths of 5 to 30 m, (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63650		population	eng	<em>P. hancockii</em> is uncommon with a patchy distribution. Population trends are unknown.
63650		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63651		conservation	eng	Based on historical distribution, <em>G. barbata</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63651		distribution	eng	<em>Galaxaura barbata</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from three collections: Floreana: Post Office Bay, collected in 1934 (Taylor 1945: type locality); Santa Cruz: no precise location reported in Taylor (1945); and Tortuga Bay collection from 1962 (Dawson 1963). There are no known records since 1963.
63651		habitat	eng	<em>G. barbata</em> dredged from rocky substrata at depths of 13 to 18 m; plus another record at 37 m depth (Taylor 1945). Shallow water (Dawson 1963).
63651		population	eng	Current population size and trends for <em>G. barbata</em> are not known, but substantial decline in extent of occurrence since 1963. Only known from three collections, with no records since 1963. This alga was historically found at three sites by two different research groups, so once was probably moderately common, but has not been seen since 1963. The historic sites are now unsuitable for survival of this species due to habitat transformation to sea urchin barrens, at least for the shallower zones (13 to 18 m) at which the species was collected.
63651		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63652		conservation	eng	<em>G. intermedia</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63652		distribution	eng	<em>Galaxaura intermedia</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945; 2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Isabela: Caleta Iguana (UC 2001; K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Fernandina: Central West Fernandina (2001 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and West Fernandina (2001 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63652		habitat	eng	<em>G. intermedia</em> has been reported to occur in the low littoral (Taylor 1945), and at depth ranges of 3 to 6 m (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). This red alga can grow to at least 25 cm length.
63652		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>G. intermedia</em> occurred frequently in the lower littoral. However, current abundance and trends are unknown.
63652		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63653		conservation	eng	<em>S. ecuadoreana</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63653		distribution	eng	<em>Schizymenia ecuadoreana</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); Fernandina: Cabo Douglas (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Isabela: Cartago Bay (Abbot 1967), Caleta Iguana (1974 CDS, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63653		habitat	eng	<em>S. ecuadoreana</em> was described from deep water specimens collected on rocky substrata in depths of 27 to 55 m, but was also collected at 6 to 10 m depth in 1974.
63653		population	eng	According to Taylor (1945), <em>S. ecuadoreana</em> was common at Post Office Bay, Floreana. Because this alga is difficult to identify, it may have been collected but not identified. A rare species (K.A. Miller pers. comm.) found so far in relatively deep water, and only from three locations historically. The species apparently no longer occurs at two of those locations.
63653		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63654		conservation	eng	<em>S. rubra</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63654		distribution	eng	<em>Sebdenia rubra</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Pinzon (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63654		habitat	eng	<em>S. rubra</em> is a deep water species, reported from depths of 24 to 30 m on rocky substrata, and sometimes on vertical walls (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.). This red alga can reach approximately 10 cm length (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63654		population	eng	This alga occurs in deeper water, which is not often surveyed. More data are needed to adequately assess population trends (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).
63654		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño, climate change and ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions because of increase in sea urchins and other herbivore populations from overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63655		conservation	eng	<em>B. darwinii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63655		distribution	eng	<em>Botryocladia darwinii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Española: Xarifa Islet, Gardner Bay (Schneider and Lane 2000: type locality). Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63655		habitat	eng	<em>B. darwinii</em> was recorded at 20 to 26 m at the type locality (Schneider and Lane 2000) and 33 m at Floreana (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63655		population	eng	There are no data on the population size or trends. <em>B. darwinii</em> is only known from two collections.
63655		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63656		conservation	eng	<em>R. decumbens</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
63656		distribution	eng	<em>Rhodymenia decumbens</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Baltra (Taylor 1945). Isla Rabida (dredge 55 to 63 m) (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.), and Islet south of Cabo Douglas (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Cabo Berkeley (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.), and Elizabeth Bay, Isabela (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63656		habitat	eng	<em>R. decumbens</em> has been reported from depths of 9 to 33 m on rocky substrata (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).
63656		population	eng	Unknown.
63656		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.
63657		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected area. Further research is needed into the species ecological requirements, its behaviour and the threats. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes for school students and communities about this species. Protection of areas of suitable habitat are needed, as is restoration of degraded areas (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).
63657		distribution	eng	This recently described snake is believed to range widely in Sri Lanka, although it is currently known only from Gannoruwa Forest and Morankanda in Kandy District, Central Province (Samarawickrama <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). In the area of the Gannoruwa Forest, specimens have been collected close to Bulawatha and Warathanna villages (Samarawickrama <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has been recorded at elevations of 520 to 640 m asl.
63657		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected in patches of natural forest, coffee plantations and home gardens (Samarawickrama <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).
63657		population	eng	Very few specimens are known, and presumably the species is naturally rare.
63657		threats	eng	The species is considered to be threatened by habitat disturbance resulting from the seasonal pruning of coffee plantations. It also is reported to be threatened by pesticide contamination within home gardens, and from purposefully set fires (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). It appears that as with many snakes, animals are generally killed when they are encountered.
63658		conservation	eng	The Ambatotsirongorongo forest and two of the fragments at Sainte Luce are being developed and managed as new protected areas. An estimated 80% of this species' population falls within protected areas, but information on the state of these forests and in particular the key plants that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. antanosy </span>requires are lacking. The population of this species is presently being monitored, and small-scale captive breeding programs may be appropriate for this species. The protected population at Sainte Luce may be stable, as this area is subject to a conservation management plan. All species within the genus <em>Phelsuma</em> are included on CITES Appendix II.
63658		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the extreme southeast of the island, at Ambatotsirongorongo (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and Sainte Luce (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). A third population, at Petriky, was extirpated before 1994 as a result of habitat destruction (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). At Sainte Luce, it is known from three forest fragments (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its distribution within its extent of occurrence is discontinuous and it  is absent from Mandena littoral forest, possibly because of the lack of  suitable plant species.It is unlikely to occur outside this area, but may be present in littoral forests further north which have biological affinities to Sainte Luce. It occurs from sea level to 300 m asl. The species is unknown from the adjacent protected areas of Andohahela and Tsitongabarika. It has an extent of occurrence of 16 km². The area of occupancy may be as low as 1 km², and is certainly no greater than 9 km²<sup></sup> as this represents the maximum extent of forest containing suitable plant species within its range.<br/></p>
63658		habitat	eng	<em></em>This day gecko is only known from low altitude littoral and transitional forests in the coastal forests of Tolagnaro, southeastern Madagascar. It can be found in degraded forest with a sufficiently dense canopy, but is absent from deforested areas and those where key plant species are absent. It is thought to have specific habitat requirements for egg-laying and usually uses a single species of <em>Pandanus</em> that is found at Ambatotsirongorongo and Sainte Luce (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). During the night and the day it uses <em>Dypsis</em> palms such as Sainte Luce Dypsis (<em>D. saintelucei</em>) and <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> to forage (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
63658		population	eng	Three subpopulations exist, two of which occur in forest fragments at Saint Luce (40% of the total population), with the remaining 60% in Ambatotsirongorongo. Due to the isolation of these sites from one another, the low dispersal capabilities of these lizards, and the small area of suitable habitat remaining to support each subpopulation (at most 9 km² between the three subpopulations), the population is considered to be severely fragmented. The total population is estimated to include between 5,000 - 10,000 individuals, with an estimated population density of approximately 10 individuals per hectare where suitable<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pandanus</span> plants are found (J.-B. Ramanamanjato<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> pers. comm. January 2011). Due to the loss of the plants on which the species depends throughout its range, the population is in decline.
63658		threats	eng	<em></em>This day gecko is threatened by the destruction of its remaining forest habitat and selective exploitation of <em>Dypsis</em> species by people. The screw <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>palms (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.) on which this species depends are slow-growing, and so loss of these during land clearance represents a threat to this species. Although new protected areas have been created within its range, illegal forest degradation continues. Forest fragments in Sainte Luce where this species occurs are used by local communities for forest resources and although a local management  law (dina) was passed in 2005, the forest remains under heavy pressure. Some areas of forest in Sainte Luce where this species occurs will be destroyed if planned ilmenite mining proceeds, which may result in the loss of up to 20% of the population.
63659		conservation	eng	Of the five known locations where this species occurs<em></em>, only the subpopulation at Berenty Private Reserve is in an established protected area. Two other sites, at Mandena and Sainte Luce, are new protected areas. Part of the 597 ha forest at Petriky will be protected. The Marovony Forest is unprotected. As a species that appears to be naturally rare, or difficult to survey, the best conservation strategy is to protect its remaining habitats and also continue to survey the area, especially near the Marovony Forest, the Tsitongambarika Forest and along the Mandrare River, to search for new populations. A taxonomic assessment of the Bemaraha population is needed.
63659		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to southeastern Madagascar, where it is known only from the following five isolated forest sites, Berenty Private Reserve (256 ha), Petriky (597 ha), Mandena (236 ha), Sainte Luce (244 ha) and Marovony (2,127 ha), a combined area of 32 km² here treated as the area of occupancy. All of its known sites are less than 100 m a.s.l, and as most of the intervening area is deforested the snake's true extent of occurrence is likely to be close to its area of occupancy. A total of 18 sites have been surveyed with pitfall traps in the Anosy Region within or close to the extent of occurrence of <em>P. kely</em>. Whilst the species appears to be rare or difficult to trap, its known distribution is based on significant survey effort over a number of years. There is a recent record from Bemaraha in the west that requires confirmation (Raselimanana 2008), and its distribution within this reserve is unknown.
63659		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of <em>P. kely</em> are poorly known but it has been recorded from gallery forest along the Mandrare River in the dry west of the Anosy region, in dry littoral forest, in humid littoral forest and in lowland humid forest.
63659		population	eng	This snake appears to be naturally rare, or at least difficult to survey. Due to the isolated nature and generally small size of the surviving forest fragments where this species is known to occur, as well as continuing human pressure on these sites, the population is severely fragmented and is presumed to be declining.
63659		threats	eng	At sites where the forest is protected threats include ongoing, low intensity degradation through illegal exploitation of forest resources. Proposed ilmenite mining will remove most of the forest cover from Petriky and one of the small occupied fragments in Mandena. The small fragments of littoral forest that constitute Petriky-Sainte Luce-Mandena are also vulnerable to natural catastrophes or sea-level rise. The Marovony Forest is already relatively degraded and expanding agriculture continues to replace the lowland forest. Pressure on the forest is greatest at lower altitudes.
63660		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Guatemalan and Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed. <br/> <br/>Information on all aspects of the occurrence, status, biology and conservation of the Central American Snapping Turtle is needed. Confirmation of likely occurrence in San Roman Biological Reserve and Sierra de Lacandón N.P. in Guatemala, Cusuco N.P. in Honduras, and Los Tuxtlas and Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserves in Mexico, would be desirable. A conservation breeding programme exists at Nacajuca, Tabasco.
63660		distribution	eng	From Veracruz, Mexico, through southern Belize, central Guatemala to northwestern Honduras; not known from Yucatan (Iverson 1992). <br/> <br/>Smith and Smith (1979: 355) discussed records of <em>Chelydra serpentina serpentina</em> in northern Mexico and concluded that these are unfounded.
63660		habitat	eng	Almost no information specific to <em>C. rossignoni</em> is available. Because it was so recently removed from <em>C. serpentina</em>, much of the information presented in accounts of Central American herpetofauna is presented as <em>Chelydra serpentina</em>, and it is almost impossible to separate what facts pertain to Central American populations and what is extrapolated from the Snapping Turtle's well-studied biology in the US. <br/> <br/>In Guatemala, <em>C. rossignoni</em> prefers quiet oxbows and backwater sloughs, being frequently encountered in the small, slow-moving tributaries that run into large, more open waterbodies, but also occurring in large, deep rivers. It is rarely encountered in clear-water situations, hiding instead in debris or vegetation of rather murky water (Campbell 1998). <br/> <br/>In Central America, <em>Chelydra</em> is apparently predominantly nocturnal and completely aquatic, not emerging to bask (Campbell 1998). <br/> <br/><em>C. rossignoni</em> feeds on a wide variety of food items, including freshwater prawns and shrimp, crabs, clams, frogs, insects, fish, occasionally small vertebrates, algae, water plants, and fallen tree fruits. <br/> <br/>A single nesting female measured in northwestern Honduras in May by Medem (in Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1997) was 37 cm CL, and weighed an estimated 12 kg. In Chiapas, Mexico, nesting occurs in April-June (Alvarez del Toro 1962 in Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1997). Clutch size ranges from 20 to 30 eggs (Alvarez del Toro 1983 in Lee 1996, Vog, in litt. 30 Jan 2007).
63660		population	eng	No specific information is available. Few records are available, and concerted searches for the species have resulted in very few captures, indicating rareness (Vogt in litt. 30 Jan 2007). In southern Belize and Mexico they are not common, but they were thought to be more so in the past (Smith and Smith 1979). Overall the species appears rare and a decline of over 30% over the past 30 years was considered possible or probable by Global Reptile Assessment (GRA) workshop participants.
63660		threats	eng	Smith and Smith (1979) noted this taxon to be eaten for food, but its main cause of potential decline to be gradual habitat destruction. Subsequent observations indicate that exploitation for consumption has been a driving force of decline. It is being commercially farmed in small numbers for the pet trade in southern Veracruz.
63661		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. Status, distribution and natural history studies are urgently required, as is taxonomic examination of the supposed Guerrero population (Legler 1990). Surveys of Meseta de Cacaxtla FFPA (509 sq. km, cat.VI) and other sites in coastal Sinaloa and Nayarit would be desirable, and if it proves not present, establishing a protected area containing a large viable population of this species would be a high priority.
63661		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific coastal region of western Mexico from southern Sinaloa and northern Nayarit (Seidel 2002). A subpopulation in Guerrero attributed to this species by Iverson (1992) was left unassigned by Legler (1990) and Seidel (2002).
63661		habitat	eng	Almost no information specific to <em>T. ornata</em> is available; most information in older literature under <em>T. ornata</em> pertains to <em>T. venusta</em>. By analogy with other MesoAmerican <em>Trachemys</em> species, this is likely an inhabitant of various standing and slow-moving waterbodies with abundant aquatic vegetation, feeding opportunistically, and producing several clutches of about 20 eggs after maturing at 4 to 8 years of age.
63661		population	eng	No information is available.
63661		threats	eng	No specific information available. It occurs in an area of heavy commercial agriculture, and falling water tables due to deep wells, so habitat loss and chemical pollution are likely.
63662		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. <br/> <br/>The entire range of the species falls within the 843 sq. km Cuatro Cienegas Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN Category VI), established in 1994. Provided no further major engineering works impact the ecological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, and the protected area regulations are adhered to, the species and its habitat should be relatively secure; however, recent and ongoing developments as well as plans for further development involve broad-scale ecological processes (water extraction, agriculture, infrastructure development) that will continue to impact the habitat in the foreseeable future. Such development must be managed and their impacts minimized as much as possible. <br/> <br/>More information on the population status, natural history, of the species, and the general conservation situation of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, are urgently needed.  <br/>A study of the effects of intergradation/hybrisdization of <em>taylori</em> with <em>scripta elegans</em> is needed, and insurance colonies of <em>taylori</em> may be contemplated.
63662		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Rio Nadadores and isolated ponds within the Cuatro Cienegas basin of Coahuila, Mexico (Smith and Smith 1979, Legler 1990, Iverson 1992, Seidel 2002).
63662		habitat	eng	The Cuatro Cienegas basin is an hourglass-shaped intermontane basin of about 50 km long and 8 to 24 km wide (about 600 sq. km), its floor being at 720 m altitude. Much of the central part of the basin is marshy, with dry sandy slopes leading up the rocky valley slopes. A number of deep (up to several metres) ponds occur within the marshy area, and retain crystal-clear water throughout the year. About half the bottom is covered by dense submerged aquatic vegetation (mainly <em>Chara</em>), the other half is bare sediment. Waterlilies grow in the shallow parts, and thick stands of cattails (<em>Typha</em>) and <em>Eleocharis</em> fringe the ponds. Water temp is about 27 to 29 degrees C. Ponds may be separated from dry nesting areas on the slopes by substantial distances (several 100 m) of flat marshy grassland. (Webb and Legler 1960). <br/> <br/>Within this basin, <em>T. taylori</em> has only been encountered in the river and clear deep pools, but not in the marshy areas (Legler 1960). <br/>  <br/><em>T. taylori</em> appears to be predominantly vegetarian (Legler 1960).  <br/>Apparently no information is available on reproduction. <br/> <br/><em>T. taylori</em> intertgrades or hybridizes with <em>T. scripta elegans</em> in the Rio Chiquito/Rio Nadadores from it flows out of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, to the degree that the entire population inhabiting the river for over 30 miles outside the basin is intermediate in characteristics (Legler 1960, 1963).
63662		population	eng	In 1960 this was the commonest turtle in the Cuatro Cienegas basin, outnumbering Apalone about five to one (Legler 1960, Webb and Legler 1960).
63662		threats	eng	<em>T. taylori</em> intergrades or hybridizes with <em>T. scripta elegans</em> in the Rio Chiquito/Rio Nadadores from where it flows out of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, to the degree that the entire population inhabiting the river for over 30 miles outside the basin is intermediate in characteristics (Legler 1960, 1963). The advance of this hybridization zone into the Cuatro Cienegas basin could lead to the genetic pollution, dilution and eventual loss of the <em>taylori</em> genotype and taxon. The date of initial contact between the taxa and thus start of hybridization is uncertain, but was probably facilitated by human alteration of the basin’s hydrology before 1920 (Smith and Smith 1979). <br/> <br/>The survival of <em>T. taylori</em> is dependent on the ecological and hydrological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas ecosystem. The Cuatro Cienegas basin has been extensively altered in its hydrology by digging canals and groundwater pumping for local and regional agricultural irrigation, and for drinking water (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007, Flores-Villela in litt. 25 Jan 2007, Hendrickson in litt. 27 Feb 2007). The western side of the basin is experiencing particularly rapid aquatic habitat loss; Laguna Grande was completely dry in 2006 for the first time in at least 50 years (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Roads, railroads, pipelines and other infrastructure for industrial, tourism and recreational purposes have impacted the ecosystem, and farming expansion continues at the expense of natural habitat (Reuters 2007), Roads have created direct-mortality impacts (Groombridge 1982 and references therein).
63663		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. There appear to be no major protected areas within the species' range. Information on population status, natural history and conservation status are urgently needed. Research is needed to determine whether or not recuitment is ongoing in this species, since recent records have tended to be of very large specimens.
63663		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Mexico. It is found in the Rio Mayo, Rio Yaquia and Rio Sonora basins of Sonora and possibly in adjoining Chihuahua (Iverson 1992, Seidel 2002). Historically it would have occurred down to the coast, but no longer does. Its continued occurrence in the upper parts of some of these river basins is in doubt.
63663		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of permanent and temporary waterbodies (Legler and Webb 1970), especially in rivers and backwaters. It grows to 27 cm carapace length (males) and 31 cm (females). There is apparently no information on its breeding behaviour and requirements.
63663		population	eng	There is little recent information. The limited data available suggest that it might have benefited from hydrological engineering projects in the rivers it inhabits (Legler and Webb 1970). While large adults continue to be observed in reservoirs, no small turtles have been recorded in recent times, possibly indicating failure to recruit. Several basking animals were seen at the type locality during repeated visits in the early 1980s, but only a single large animal was seen there in 2002 (Buskirk in litt. 26 Dec 2006).
63663		threats	eng	Populations have probably declined, especially on the coastal plain, because of expanding intensive agriculture. Dams have been constructed in many of the rivers inhabited by the species, leaving river areas below the dams dry for extended periods. Reservoirs might be suitable habitats for adult survival, but might also inhibit breeding due to fluctuating water levels. <br/> <br/>It is likely also harvested for food, as hoop nets have been found in shallow areas of the type locality (Buskirk in litt. 26 Dec 2006).
63664		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Belizean, Guatemalan and Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed. <br/> <br/>Confirmed occurrence in Tikal NP, Guatemala; in Mexico it occurs in a few protected areas; <em>R. areolata</em> probably occurs in many other protected areas. <br/> <br/><em>R. areolata</em> is rarely kept and bred in captivity, but breed well once established. <br/> <br/>Occurrence and population status needs to be documented better, and monitoring of populations would be highly desirable. Data on exploitation, habitat loss and other threats, as well as basic natural history information, are needed.
63664		distribution	eng	From southern Veracruz, Mexico, through the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize and northern and central Guatemala to northwestern Honduras (Iverson 1992). Range includes Cozumel Island (to Mexico) and Turneffe Atoll (to Belize).
63664		habitat	eng	Inhabits closed forest, forest edges and savanna areas, as well as cay littoral forest; the animals occur from near sea level to about 300 m altitude (Lee 1996, Campbell 1998, Platt <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Belize they reach their greatest abundance in pine forests and open pine savannas (S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006). The animals are mainly terrestrial and are rarely found in aquatic habitats, although sometimes found around the periphery of wetlands or in marshy or aquatic situations (Lee 1996, Campbell 1998, S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006). <br/>Feeds predominantly on fruits and young plant shoots, and may also take some insects (Campbell 1998, Platt <em>et al</em>. 1999). Active mainly during the wet season (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). <br/> <br/>Maximum recorded size for females 20.7 cm CL (Platt <em>et al</em>. 2004), males 18.8 cm (Ernst in Smith and Smith 1979). Size and age at maturity have not been reported. Females produce single-egg clutches, rarely two eggs, three or four times during the nesting season of June to August in Guatemala (Campbell 1998). In captivity in Mexico, females produced clutches averaging 3.0 eggs (2 to 4, N=11) during May to July, which hatched after an average of 71 days incubation (range 62 to 78 days, N=11) (Escudero <em>et al</em>. 2006). Longevity has not been reported.
63664		population	eng	Overall considered locally common by 1935, but rare by 1982 (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). In Guatemala, Campbell (1998) noted that the species was formerly quite abundant, but had become scarce by the late 1990s in many areas. He noted that the species was frequently encountered along the trails in Tikal NP until about the mid-1980s, but was much rarer by the late 90s. Considered seemingly rare in Mexico by Smith and Smith (1979). <em>R. areolata</em> was very common in northern Belize in the 1990s; at one study site (of about 100 ha) over 300 animals were marked and not many recaptures were made, indicating a much larger population (S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006).
63664		threats	eng	The species was consumed historically by the Mayas and their descendants, and is now heavily hunted for consumption in some areas. <br/> <br/>Campbell (1998) attributed the overall decline of the species in Guatemala to habitat loss due to farming, and to use of these turtles as food. The decline in Tikal National Park was possibly due to tourists taking animals with them, or increased predation rates by coatis whose populations expanded dramatically within the park due to protection. Dry season fires can be an additional impact on animal survival; many of these turtles spend much time below ground in armadillo burrows in the dry season; Platt <em>et al</em>. (2004) speculated that these burrows are important dry season refugia. Coastal and island populations (Cozumel, Turneffe Atoll) may be significantly impacted by habitat degradation and subsidized predators resulting from tourist resort and fishing camp developments (Platt et al., 1999). Natural predation rates appear low (S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006). <br/> <br/>Road mortality has been reported (Buskirk 1997, S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006) and is currently not considered a significant threat, but may increase in significance. <br/><em>R. areolata</em> is present in the local pet industry but is not traded very often internationally.
63665		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement is probably needed. The species may benefit from cattle ranching through the construction of drinkwater ponds for cattle. <br/> <br/>No conservation measures specific to this species are known to be in place, and it is not known whether or not the species occurs within any protected areas. Sierra de Alamos-Rio Cuchujaqui FFPA (929 sq. km, IUCN Class VI) is located within the species’ range. Further surveys of the species' distribution, status, and conservation requirements, if any, are desirable.
63665		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific coastal lowlands of Mexico from the Rio Sonora southward to at least to Guasave, Sinaloa, from sea level up to slightly over 1,000 m in the Sierras de Alamos (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1992).
63665		habitat	eng	<em>K. alamosae</em> is known only from seasonal aquatic habitats such as wet season pools and reservoirs for cattle, and has not been found in permanent waterbodies (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989). It is thought to be active only or mainly in the wet season (July-September) (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989). Animals can occur in extreme conditions, such as ponds with only 10 cm water depth and water temperature up to 42ºC (Iverson 1989). <em>K. alamosae</em> might be microsympatric with <em>K. integrum</em> when the latter moves from its usual permanent waterbody habitats into seasonal pools during the wet season (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989). <br/> <br/><em>K. alamosae</em> is primarily carnivorous, while considerable plant material is also ingested (Iverson 1989). <br/>  <br/>Males are 9.0 to 13.5 cm carapace length, females 8.9 to 12.6 cm (Berry and Legler 1980). Females mature at about 10 cm carapace length and 5 to 7 years of age (Iverson 1989). Berry and Legler (1980) and Iverson (1989) hypothesized that at least some females lay more than one clutch per nesting season (July-August, late rainy season). Recorded sizes of 9 clutches are 3 to 5 eggs (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989).
63665		population	eng	<em>K. alamosae</em> is locally common in ephemeral pools (Iverson 1989).
63665		threats	eng	No specific threats have been specifically recorded.
63666		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement is probably needed. As an aquatic or semiaquatic species occurring in an extremely austere climatic zone, its persistence can only be considered tenuous. Full protection from all depredation except scientific study should be provided, and sanctuaries should be established where habitat destruction can be prevented (Smith and Smith 1979: 182). <br/> <br/>It occurs in Organ Pipe Natural Monument (IUCN Cat.III, 134 sq. km.) in Arizona, and perhaps in El Pinacante y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve in Sonora, and in Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge (Cat.IV, 3480 sq. km) in Arizona, which are located within the range of the species. <br/> <br/>The species apparently benefits from humans constructing ponds within its range.  <br/>Status surveys and conservation assessments of this species are needed.
63666		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico, ranging into extreme southwestern United States of America. It ranges from central and northern Sonora, northwest to southern Arizona (Smith and Smith 1979, Berry and Berry 1984, Iverson 1992, Serb <em>et al</em>. 2001). Its elevational range is 100 to 1,100m a.s.l. (Iverson 1989, Ernst <em>et al</em>. 1994, Smith and Smith 1979: 181).
63666		habitat	eng	<em>K. arizonense</em> resides in temporary preseas, ponds, tanks and roadside ditches, as well as in some permanent lentic waters. Arizona Mud Turtles seem to avoid permanent streams and rivers (Iverson 1989). <br/> <br/>An activity period during the rains from early July to middle August was reported for the Sonora desert (Iverson 1989); in adverse years, aestivation grades into hibernation without an activity period at all (Schilde 2001). The animals are active mainly during daylight hours, basking when air temperatures approach 45ºC, and can undertake substantial travels on the desert floor (Iverson 1989).  <br/>The species is primarily a carnivorous feeder. <br/> <br/>Females appear to reach maturity at a body size of 12 to 13 cm and 6 to 10 years of age (Iverson 1989). Mating occurs in July, and nesting occurs in July and early August; clutches comprise on average 4.7 eggs (range 1 to 9), and females typically lay two or three clutches. Hatching probably takes place in the next year's rainy season, with an incubation period of about 11 months (Iverson 1989).
63666		population	eng	It can occur locally at very high densities: 45 minutes of trapping in one 0.15 ha pond gathered 25 adult animals (translating to a biomass of 58 kg/ha), and additional trapping would probably have caught more turtles (Iverson 1989). It is locally extremely common, particularly between 200 and 800 m altitude, and human construction of ponds is considered to benefit populations of <em>K. arizonense</em> (Iverson 1989, and in litt. 28 Jan 2007).
63666		threats	eng	The rarity of the species in scientific collections, combined with ongoing extensive modification of the Sonoran desert for ranching, agriculture and flood control, was in the past believed to indicate that the species may be threatened. As a species inhabiting wetlands in an arid region, it is susceptible to climatic impacts and habitat degradation; while adult animals may well be able to survive long periods of adverse conditions, recruitment might only occur in optimal years and as such would be extensively impacted even by minor changes. It is probably locally impacted by road kills. <br/> <br/>However, studies have shown the species to be extremely abundant in suitable habitat throughout a wide area, and the species apparently benefits from pond construction by humans (Iverson 1989). Hence overall it is not considered significantly at risk.
63667		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed.  <br/> <br/>A status assessment of the species would be desirable, including an evaluation of existing and planned hydrological engineering projects. Better distribution data (specifically, clarifying occurrence near Puerto Vallarta) would be welcome. Two IUCN Class VI areas (Chamela-Cuixmala BR [131 sq. km] and Sierra de Manantlan BR [1,396 sq. km]) overlap with the distribution range of <em>K. chimalhuaca</em> and its presence has been confirmed in the lowlands of both these areas; more data on the extent of protection afforded would be desirable.
63667		distribution	eng	<em>Kinosternon chimalhuaca</em> occurs along the Pacific coast of southern Mexico, from the Rio Cihuatlan north and west to the Rio San Nicolas (and possibly to the Rio Tuito). A single record exists from 21 km south of Puerto Vallarta (Pritchard, in Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997, Iverson and Berry 1998). There are additional extralimital records from northern Nayarit (Acaponeta) and northern Jalisco (P. Ponce pers. comm.) that require confirmation.
63667		habitat	eng	Inhabits primarily ponds and pools, with clear or muddy water, with or without submerged and riparian vegetation, including pools in intermittent streams and possible spring-fed pools, but apparently avoiding flowing rivers (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997). The geographic area inhabited by <em>K. chimalhuaca</em> is adjacent but separate from the area inhabited by <em>K. integrum</em>, and the species is broadly sympatric only with two <em>Rhinoclemmys</em> species. <br/> <br/>The species was suggested to be a primarily carnivorous, opportunistic feeder; molluscs, insects and crustaceans, as well as substantial quantities of decaying plant material and inorganic detritus, have been recorded in the diet (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997).  <br/> <br/>Captive observations indicate that the species aestivates (Schilde 2001).  <br/> <br/>Females reach maturity at a CL between 99 and 107 mm, at an estimated age of 7 to 10 years. Males probably reach sexual maturity at CL of about 100 mm and an age of 5 to 7 years. (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997).  <br/> <br/>Females probably produce a single clutch, possibly two clutches, in July or August; three clutches laid in captivity [presumably by recently-collected females] comprised 2, 4 and 5 eggs (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997). Long-term captive animals produce 3 to 4 clutches of up to five eggs from August to January (Schilde 2001).
63667		population	eng	Within suitable habitat, the species is apparently fairly abundant, at least seasonally: trapping in a 4,000 sq. m pond captured 81 individuals in 10 hours, trapping in a 1,200 sq. m pond gathered 26 animals, and a single pool in an intermittent stream course yielded 31 animals caught overnight with five baited traps (Berry <em>et al<</i>. 1997). These densities are likely peak densities as animals were concentrated in remnant waterbodies during the dry season.
63667		threats	eng	No threats are known at present.
63668		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/>The species is confirmed to inhabit several waterbodies in the Mapimi Biosphere Reserve (3,424 sq km, IUCN Cat. VI; core area [Cat.1a] 134 sq. km) (Iverson 1979, Aguirre Leon in litt. 10 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Status information and natural history data would be highly desirable.
63668		distribution	eng	Occurs in the lower Río Nazas and the Bolsón de Mapimí in the Chihuahuan Desert of southern Chihuahua, western Coahuila, and eastern Durango, Mexico (Berry and Berry 1984, Iverson 1992, Serb <em>et al</em>. 2001). The species has only been split out since 2001, and no research has been done on this former subspecies.
63668		habitat	eng	No information apparently available at present; while <em>K. flavescens</em> is relatively well-studied, the only available note on <em>K. durangoense</em> natural history is that its activity periods and reproductive cycles are different from those of <em>flavescens</em> and more similar to those of <em>arizonae</em> (Iverson 1989, Iverson unpubl. data in Serb <em>et al</em>. 2001: 155).
63668		population	eng	No information apparently available at present.
63668		threats	eng	No threats recorded apparently, though this does not mean an absence of threats; hydrological projects and climate change could impact this species quite severely.
63669		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/>Sierra del Abra Tanchipa BR (IUCN Cat.VI; 214 sq. km) is located within the range of K. herrerai, as possibly is Playa de Rancho Nuevo Sanctuary (Cat. Ia, 30 ha.); confirming the presence of viable populations within these areas would be desirable. <br/> <br/>Smith and Smith (1979) suspected that accessible populations would have been severely depleted by exploitation, and called for regulation to be imposed.  <br/>Updated status surveys are urgently needed.
63669		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Atlantic-Carribbean drainage basins of Mexico from southern Tamaulipas to central Veracruz, westward into the eastern lowlands of San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Puebla and possibly Queretaro (Iverson 1992). A 2004 record of the species from Mexico state is in error (Ramirez-Bautista 2004).
63669		habitat	eng	<em>K. herrerai</em> inhabits permanent waterbodies with soft substrate and dense vegetation.. Occurs from sea level up to at least 1,150 m altitude. (Smith and Smith 1979, Aguirre and Aquino 2004). <br/> <br/>These turtles are omnivorous and primarily carnivorous, ingesting a higher proportion of animal food items than plant food items (Aguirreand Aquino 2004). In other populations wild figs are the major plant component in diet; when available, they consume large amounts of <em>Ficus</em> fruits (Carr and Mast 1988). Captive animals may be entirely carnivorous (Poglayen in Schilde 2001). <br/> <br/>The smallest known mature female measured 115 mm (males up to 170 mm, females up to 150 mm). Several clutches of 2 to 4 eggs are produced annually (Carr and Mast 1988).
63669		population	eng	Smith and Smith (1979) suspected that populations in accessible areas were severely depleted by exploitation, but no actual population data appears to be available. It is a very localized species, but common where it occurs.
63669		threats	eng	In the southern part of the range, the species is collected for food and is used for folk medicine. Smith and Smith (1979) reviewed earlier reports of extensive exploitation of this species near Tampico to supply food markets far and wide, and production of tacky souvenirs. <br/> <br/>In the northern part of the range, the main threat is diversion of water for sugarcane plantations. <br/> <br/>Road mortality is considered another source of excess mortality (J.L.Carr in litt. 11 Jan 2007).
63670		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/><em>K. hirtipes</em> occurs in at least in one Mexican protected area: Sierra de Santa Rosa state protected area. Subspecies <em>murrayi</em> probably occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations of the various subspecies in protected areas in Mexico would be desirable.
63670		distribution	eng	Northern and central Mexico, from northern Chihuahua through the Sierra Madre Occidental to the valley of Mexico, Mexico, as well as the Big Bend region of Texas, USA (Iverson 1992).  <br/><em>K. h. hirtipes</em>: Valley of Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. chapalaense</em>: Lago de Chapala and Laguna de Zapotlan basins of Jalisco and Michoacan, Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. magdalense</em>: Magdalena valley of Michoacan, Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. megacephalum</em>: Extinct from the endorrheic basin near Viesca, in southwestern Coahuila, Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. murrayi</em>: Chihuahua, Mexico, and adjacent Big Bend region of Texas, through the Sierra Madre Occidental to Mexico State.  <br/><em>K. h. tarascense</em>: Lago de Patzcuaro basin, Michoacan, Mexico. <br/> <br/>The subpopulation in San Luis Potosi, Mexico is introduced.
63670		habitat	eng	Inhabits creeks, streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, marshes and other permanent water bodies in mesquite grasslands in upland areas between 800 and 2,600 m (Iverson 1985 in Ernst <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Animals are almost exclusively carnivorous, feeding on snails, aquatic insects, crustaceans, worms, fish and frogs (Iverson in Ernst <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Sexual dimorphism varies geographically, males may average 95 mm to 152 mm in different populations, while females average from 82 mm to 140 mm; these average sizes are correlated only weakly between males and females (Iverson 1985). In Chihuahua, females mature at 6 to 8 years of age, at or above 9.7 cm CL  and produce multiple clutches (probably up to 4) during the May-September nesting period. Clutches comprise of 1 to 6 eggs. (Moll and Legler 1971, Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1991).
63670		population	eng	Limited data available; observations and collections of substantial series of <em>murrayi</em> in Mexico suggests a locally common subspecies. <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>megacephalum</em> is Extinct. <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>hirtipes</em> has not been recorded from the Valley of Mexico in years (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>magdalense</em> and <em>tarascense</em> are rare where they occur. <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>chapalaense</em> is apparently doing fine and is not consumed or collected. <br/> <br/>Texas populations are highly localised and common where they occur, yet the Texas population is rated Critically Imperiled (Clausen and Hammerson 1997). Uncommon (maybe threatened) in the southern portion of the species' range (separate subspecies) but more common in the northern part.
63670		threats	eng	Some populations, particularly those near metropolitan areas (ssp. <em>hirtipes</em>, maybe <em>chapalaense</em>, <em>tarascense</em>, and <em>magdalense</em> as well), are under severe pressure from water extraction and other hydrological alterations impacting clean water supplies, and from pollution of remaining waterbodies. Loss of habitat to irrigated agriculture is an ongoing threat. Permanent water bodies in the southern portion of the range have been drying up in recent years. In all of the range pollution has had a detrimental effect on the population as well as the drying of wetlands and human settlements encroaching on the water bodies. <br/> <br/>Incidental mortality from shooting and other destruction as a perceived pest. (Clausen and Hammerson 1997). <br/> <br/>The typical subspecies <em>K. h. hirtipes</em> has apparently disappeared from the Valley of Mexico, which may or may not be correlated with the introduction of <em>K. integrum</em> there which has become very common there; interactions between the two species are not understood (Iverson in litt 28 Jan 2007).
63671		conservation	eng	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/><em>K. integrum</em> occurs in a substantial number of protected areas throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas would be desirable. <br/>Taxonomic studies including DNA or molecular markers to determine whether <em>K. integrum</em> represents a species complex is in progress (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Human transport of these turtles all over Mexico is undesirable (genetic pollution of the <em>integrum</em> complex, possible interactions with native <em>Kinosternon</em> species) and should stop (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007).
63671		distribution	eng	Mexican Plateau and pacific slopes from Sonora and western Tamaulipas south to Oaxaca, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997). Widespread human transport of the species is likely to confuse distribution patterns and lead to extralimital occurrence records.
63671		habitat	eng	Records exist from sea level to 2,200 m altitude (Duellmann 1965 cited in Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1998), but generally this is understood to be a highland plateau species. <br/> <br/>Males are 11. to 18.3 cm CL, females 10.9 to 16.1 cm (Berry and Legler 1980: 2).  <br/>Females produce 1 to 3, exceptionally 4, clutches of on average 5.8 eggs (range 3 to 12) (Iverson 1999). This is a very adaptable species.
63671		population	eng	Considered possibly the most commonly encountered turtle in Mexico (Iverson 1999).
63671		threats	eng	<em>K. integrum</em> is locally consumed in the State of Mexico. No specific threats have been recorded form other parts of the range.
63672		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in Kudremukh National Park (Molur and Siliwal 2004). More surveys are required in other protected and non-protected areas.
63672		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Ghats of Karnataka, this species is found in Castle Rock in the north to Kudremukh in the south at an altitudinal range of 200 to 800 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less then 12,000 km², while the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km².  Recorded locations include: Castle Rock in Uttara Kannada district (Pocock 1899, 1900); Kanara Ghats in Dakshina Kannada district (Pocock 1899, 1900); Karwar (6.5miles from Castle Rock) in Uttara Kannada (Pocock 1899, 1900); and Kudremukh National Park in Chikmagalur and Dakshina Kannada districts (Molur and Siliwal 2004).
63672		habitat	eng	This ground spider is primarily found in moist deciduous and evergreen forests. In observing a closely related species, <em>Thrigmopoeus truculentus</em>, we understand that the species occurs very patchily, with burrows on soil bunds with adequate vegetation cover. Burrows occasionally occur on flat ground. In examining the burrow aggregations, we have found the composition to have one adult female with several juveniles and subadults from different clutches in individual burrows close to the adult female’s burrow. Observation of population dynamics indicates a very high mortality rate in juveniles/subadults, of more than 95 percent in the first two years. Dispersal rates are unknown. Healthy populations of spiders/burrows are usually found in areas with very little disturbance.
63672		population	eng	Population estimates are unknown. This species is relatively commonly found in some areas, but overall it is not so common in its distribution range. It has been recorded from fewer than 10 locations. The locations are severely fragmented due to human interference such as road widening, bund maintenance, fire, soil extraction, and related threats such as soil erosion.
63672		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. Road widening is most common threat for these ground theraphosid spiders (S. Molur &amp; M. Siliwal pers. obs.).  Many spiders get killed and their burrows get destroyed during this process.  Mud bund maintenance in forested areas along with man made fires and soil erosion are other threats. In more open areas, soil extraction and erosion are the reasons for disappearance of these spiders. An additional threat to the species is collection for the international pet trade market. Although the volume of trade is unknown, we have reports of some locals being involved and paid by European traders to collect and supply either personally, or through courier services. This species is advertised on certain internet sites.
63673		conservation	eng	The species has not been reported from protected areas.
63673		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra, this species is found in Amboli in the north and Madikeri in the south at an altitudinal range of 200 to 1,000 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 25,000 km², while the area of occupancy has not been estimated. In Karnataka: Karwar in Uttara Kannada district (Pocock 1899, 1900), Agumbe in Chickamagalur district (B. Arthur and C. Shankar pers. comm.), Madikeri, Somwarpet, Virajpet and Bhagamandala in Coorg district (S. Molur pers. comm.); in Maharashtra: Amboli (15°57?37?N, 73°59'58?E) in Kolhapur district (V. Giri pers. comm.).
63673		habitat	eng	This ground spider is primarily found in moist deciduous and evergreen forests. The species occurs very patchily, with burrows on soil bunds with adequate vegetation cover. Burrows occasionally occur on flat ground. In examining the burrow aggregations, we have found the composition to have one adult female with several juveniles and sub adults from different clutches in individual burrows close to the adult female?s burrow. Observations on population indicates a very high mortality rate in juveniles/subadults, of more than 95% in the first two years. Dispersal rates are unknown. Healthy population of spiders/burrows are usually found in areas with very little disturbance.
63673		population	eng	Population estimates are unknown. However, this species is relatively commonly found in some areas, but overall it is not so common in its distribution range.  It has been recorded from less than 10 locations. The locations are severely fragmented due to human interference such as road widening, bund maintenance, fire, soil extraction, and related threats such as soil erosion.
63673		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. Road widening is most common threat for these ground theraphosid spiders. Many spiders get killed and their burrows get destroyed during this process. Mud bund maintenance in forested areas along with man made fires and soil erosion are other threats. In more open areas, soil extraction and erosion are the reasons for disappearance of these spiders. An additional threat to the species is collection for the international pet trade market. Although the volume of trade is unknown, we have reports of some locals being involved and paid by European traders to collect and supply either personally, or through courier services. This species is advertised on certain internet sites.
63674		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need to protect suitable habitat where it remains. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further research is needed into the range, ecology and threats to this little known species.
63674		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen collected "north of Niltepec, between Cerro Atravesado and Sierra Madre, Oaxaca" Mexico (Tihen 1954). It was probably collected between 762 and 1372 m asl ('2,500 and 4,500 feet'( (Tihen 1954).
63674		habitat	eng	This species appears to be a canopy species of lower montane forest. It is likely to be largely arboreal, and as such populations require forested areas to persist.
63674		population	eng	The species is known only from a single record collected more than 50 years ago.
63674		threats	eng	The species is threatened by ongoing deforestation and degradation of montane forests, principally through conversion of land to agricultural use.
63675		conservation	eng	It is present within the protected area of Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further studies are needed into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species.
63675		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Santa Marta Volcano, on the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Veracruz State, Mexico. It has an altitudinal range of 360 to 800 m asl.
63675		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in the canopy of both cloud forest and rainforest. These lizards are restricted to forest with tall, mature trees. Any loss of such trees will be significantly detrimental to the population. It is not believed to be able to persist in disturbed habitat.
63675		population	eng	While it is rarely seen, the species lives high in the canopy and may be more common than is generally thought. Only three specimens are currently known.
63675		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, principally through the conversion of forested areas to agricultural use, and clear-cutting of forest for timber extraction.
63676		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further general research is needed into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species.
63676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico where it is known from several localities in the mountain ranges north of the balsas basin, from the Sierra de Chichinautzin, Morelos, to Temascaltepec-Real de Arriba. It has an elevational range of 1,850 to 2,600 m asl.
63676		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species that is found in pine-oak forests with epiphytic vegetation. It presumably does not persist in modified habitat. It is a viviparous species.
63676		population	eng	This appears to be a naturally rare species. Although it is uncommon, it can still be found when directly looked for.
63676		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest fragmentation and loss, generally resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use. Animals might be collected for the pet trade, although the impact of this collection on wild populations is unclear.
63677		conservation	eng	While this species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection), it is not known to occur within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable remaining areas of cloud forest within the species recorded range. Further studies into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
63677		distribution	eng	This Mexican species is known only from two specimens collected in the vicinity of the type locality on Cerro Zempoaltepec, three animals from close to Totontepec (including a recent, 2007, specimen), and a single animal from the Sierra Juarez (described as <em>Abronia kalaina</em>) (J. Campbell and D. Church pers. comms.). It was collected between 2,158 and 2,438 m asl.
63677		habitat	eng	This is an canopy species that needs mature trees in cloud forest habitat.
63677		population	eng	A rare species known only from five specimens, two of which were collected in 1985. A dead animal was recently collected about 5 km outside of Totontepec (D. Church pers. comm.).
63677		threats	eng	The species is threatened through conversion of land to agricultural use. Subsequent to the 1985 collections, there has been substantial deforestation within the species range.
63678		conservation	eng	It occurs in two protected areas, in el Cañon Rio Blanco and Pico de Orizaba National Park. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further studies are needed for this little know species, including research into current levels of exploitation.
63678		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of the States of Veracruz and adjacent Puebla, Mexico. It has an elevational range of 1,350 to 2,743 m asl.
63678		habitat	eng	Animals inhabit bromeliads in the canopy of montane pine-oak and cloud forest. It seems unlikely that this species can be found in degraded habitat. This is a viviparous species.
63678		population	eng	It is considered to be moderately common and is regularly recorded.
63678		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation and degradation of habitat, largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use. The pet trade is a potential threat to this species; current levels of exploitation are unclear.
63679		conservation	eng	While this species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection), it has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve and restore remaining areas of suitable cloud forest within the region. Further field surveys are needed to relocate and study this species.
63679		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the imprecise type locality in eastern Chiapas, Mexico. The map for this species shows the general area of collection. It was collected between 1,800 and 2,300 m asl.
63679		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in cloud forest habitat. It seems unlikely that the species can occur in degraded habitat.
63679		population	eng	It is known from a single individual collected in the 1930s. There have been few directed surveys to relocate this species since the initial collection.
63679		threats	eng	As in all the species of the genus <em>Abronia</em>, the principal threat is considered to be habitat loss through both timber and wood extraction, and the conversion of forest to agricultural use.
63680		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in the Lagos de Montebello National Park, and is possibly present in the Huitepec Private Nature Reserve (near San Cristobal, Chiapas) managed by the conservation organization Pronatura. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).
63680		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Meseta central of Chiapas, Mexico, from Nachig to Lagos de Montebello National Park. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 3,000 m asl.
63680		habitat	eng	This is a species of montane pine-oak forest. It appears to be able to survive in areas that have been selectively logged, however it is absent from deforested sites.
63680		population	eng	Occurs in a restricted range, although it is easily found in appropriate habitat. Many individuals were seen during surveys in 2005.
63680		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by ongoing severe habitat loss, largely resulting from the conversion of forests to agricultural land and the extraction of timber and wood.
63681		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the Omiltemi Protected State Park. Further conservation related activities and research are urgently needed to preserve this species and its habitat.
63681		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Omiltemi in the Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero State, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,100 to 2,600 m asl.
63681		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species of montane pine-oak forest. It is suspected that the species does not adapt well to significant levels of deforestation.
63681		population	eng	This species is moderately abundant within its few known localities. It is easily found during surveys and does not appear to be a rare animal.
63681		threats	eng	This species is significantly threatened by the loss of pine-oak forest through logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use. Additionally, populations are threatened by directly set forest fires.
63682		conservation	eng	It is known from within the protected areas of Volcan Tacana Biosphere Reserve. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection); it is not protected in Guatemala.
63682		distribution	eng	This species is present in southwestern Guatemala and southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. In Guatemala, it is known only from two localities on the Pacific versant near San Marcos. In Mexico, this species is known only from Volcan Tacana. It is found at elevations between 1,950 to 2,630 m asl.
63682		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species present within cloud forest and is also found close to the pine-cypress zone. It is an arboreal species, and populations need forest with mature, tall trees to persist. It is unlikely that this species can occur in heavily deforested habitat. The species is known to persist, where tall trees remain, in areas used for shade-grown coffee by indigenous peoples.
63682		population	eng	Owing to the species arboreal habits, it is difficult to determine how common it is. The species was recorded in Mexico during 2004.
63682		threats	eng	There has been large-scale deforestation within the species range, generally through the conversion of land to agricultural use. Populations can however persist where large trees remain.
63683		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). The forest where the species was collected in Cerro Pelon is protecetd by the local Comaltepec community. Further research is needed into the geographic range and ecology of this species.
63683		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen collected on the Cerro Pelon, Sierra de Juarez, Oaxaca State, Mexico. It was collected at 1,750 m asl. It possibly ranges more widely than is currently known.
63683		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species present in the canopy of tropical cloud forest. Populations are expected to need areas with mature, tall trees to persist. It seems unlikely that the species can occur in heavily modified habitat.
63683		population	eng	This species is known only from the type collection; there are no recent records.
63683		threats	eng	The forest from which the type specimen was collected remains intact, and as such there are not considered to be any major threats to the species.
63684		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Biosphere Reserve of Valle de Tehuacan-Cuicatlan. There is a need to conserve suitable forest areas for the species. Additionally, further studies are needed into the collection of this species for the pet trade.
63684		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near de Tecojotes and Mixteca Alta in Oaxaca, and from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero (a single specimen only). It has an elevational range of between 2,134 and 2,400 m asl.
63684		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, associated with bromeliads, found in montane pine-oak forest. It seems unlikely that this forest species would adapt well to severe deforestation.
63684		population	eng	Although animals were formerly abundant at Tecojotes, the population has severely declined through overcollection for the pet trade. It is considered to be relatively common in Mixteca Alta, and there is no data available on the population in Guerrero.
63684		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat loss through from the conversion of land to agricultural use; deforestation resulting from charcoal production; overcollection for the international pet trade; and indirect persecution by local people who believe this harmless species to be venomous.
63685		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain forested areas for this species.
63685		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Variance highlands in central Oaxaca State, Mexico. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,100 to 2,743 m asl.
63685		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in primary pine-oak forest. It has been recorded from moderately disturbed areas.
63685		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
63685		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the conversion of forested areas to agricultural land.
63686		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to study the species ecology, and to better determine the extent of its geographic range.
63686		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the imprecise type locality of "Santa Rosa, Comitan" in eastern Chiapas, Mexico. The exact location of the collection site is not known. It is believed to have been collected between 1,800 and 2,300 m asl.
63686		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species of tropical cloud forest. It is not thought to tolerate much habitat disturbance.
63686		population	eng	This species is known only from two animals collected in the 1930s. There have been no recent surveys within the area of collection.
63686		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation resulting from the harvesting of timber and wood products, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
63687		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas, although it may occur in Chimalapa National Park. Further field surveys are needed to determine the extent of the species geographic range.
63687		distribution	eng	This species is known only from vicinity of the type locality of Cerro Baul, Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded between 1,500 and 1,600 m asl. It seems possible that the species may be more widely distributed than is currently understood.
63687		habitat	eng	This species is found in the canopy of cloud forest dominated by <em>Liquidambar</em> (Sweet Gum) trees. Populations need mature, large trees to persist. It seems likely that this species is unable to adapt to significantly modified habitat.
63687		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens, and was most recently collected around 1985. There have been no surveys to look for this species since the mid-1980s.
63687		threats	eng	Deforestation and transformation of the land in agriculture areas are the main threats. Forest structure changed in some areas due to harvesting of a particular palm ("pacaya") species. The habitat near type locality has been severely altered, although healthy forest remains in nearby areas where this species may persist.
63688		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to determine the full extent of occurrence, to learn more of the species ecology and to identify and serious future threats to populations.
63688		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, western Chiapas, Mexico. It was collected at 800 m asl. It seems possible that the species is more widely distributed than currently recognized.
63688		habitat	eng	This arboreal species was collected in tropical dry forest. Although it is tolerant of some habitat disturbance, populations need large trees to persist.
63688		population	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen collected around 1993. There has been limited recent field surveys in the area of collection, with no new individuals have been found. It seems likely that it is difficult to find this species because of its arboreal habits.
63688		threats	eng	There is general deforestation and transformation of land in areas of agriculture. However, much suitable habitat remains and this is not currently considered to be threatened.
63689		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present within the protected area of Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable forest habitat, and also to undertake additional field surveys to better determine the geographic range of this species.
63689		distribution	eng	This species is known from Volcan San Martín, Sierra de los Tuxtlas, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico, at 1,637 m asl.
63689		habitat	eng	An arboreal species found high in cloud forest and rainforest canopy. Populations need tall trees to persist, hence any degradation of the forest resulting in the removal of these trees will be detrimental.
63689		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens. This species occurs high in the forest canopy and is very difficult to find.
63689		threats	eng	Disturbance of the original forest habitat is a major threat, particularly from clear cutting of the forest for timber and clearance for agriculture. There is illegal logging within the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
63690		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve; this is considered to be a well managed protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
63690		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, in southeastern Chiapas State, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 1,800 to 2,800 m asl.
63690		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species of montane tropical cloud forest. While animals need large trees to persist, populations appear to be able to tolerate some selective logging.
63690		population	eng	This species is considered to be relatively uncommon and it is known from only a few localities. It is generally hard to census populations owing to the species arboreal habits.
63690		threats	eng	It is generally threatened through deforestation, and transformation of land use in agriculture areas.
63691		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in the Parque Nacional El Chico in Hildalgo, and Sierra Gorda, Queretaro and in Rancho El Cielo, Tamaulipas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species. Further studies are needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.
63691		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it ranges from southern Tamaulipas, north Queretaro southwards to south Hidalgo, northeast Veracruz and northern Puebla. It occurs at elevations of around 1,000 to 2,600 m asl.
63691		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species that occurs in primary humid montane forest, cloud forest and humid pine-oak forest and humid fir forest. It is not present in modified areas. It is a viviparous species.
63691		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat.
63691		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat, through conversion of land to agricultural use (corn fields and cattle ranches). It is also illegally collected for the international pet trade.
63692		conservation	eng	The species does not appear to be present in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve suitable areas of habitat, especially in view of ongoing habitat loss within the species limited geographic range. As animals are mistakenly killed in the belief that they are venomous, a local public awareness campaign to dispel this myth is needed.
63692		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to central Mexico, where it has been recorded from a few localities in northern and extreme northeastern Morelos State and parts of Mexico State adjacent to northeastern Morelos (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002). The known localities lie at around 2,350 to 2,500 m asl on the southern slopes of the Transvolcanic Belt (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002).
63692		habitat	eng	Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002) record that the vegetation at the collection localities close to the city of Cuernavaca and at Tetela del Volcan is oak-pine forest. The vegetation at the type-locality of Ocuilan and the Sierra del Chichinautzin locality is cloud forest. Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002) state that the holotype was collected on a branch of a fallen tree, with the remaining specimens found on the ground, usually hiding under logs and leaf litter, in relatively open areas of the forest. It is a viviparous species; captive females have given birth to five and seven young (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002).
63692		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
63692		threats	eng	Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002), report that the range of this species is small, and is threatened by ongoing commercial logging, conversion to agricultural use (pasture and crops) and increasing urbanization. The type locality is in close proximity to Chalma and Cuernavaca and is threatened by active deforestation and increasing human settlement (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002). In addition, individual animals are often killed on sight because of the mistaken belief that they are venomous (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002).
63693		conservation	eng	<em>B. i .imbicata</em>, and presumably the species <em>B. imbricata</em>, is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in a number of protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> has been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this common and widespread animal. <br/> <br/>There are no direct conservation measures in place for <em>B. i. jonesi</em>. It is not known if it is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats. <br/> <br/>The forest in which <em>B. i. planifrons</em> has been recorded, and a portion of the Sierra Juarez, is protected by the local Comaltepec community. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology. <br/> <br/>It is clear that additional taxonomic research is needed to conclusively resolve the <em>B. imbricata</em> species complex.
63693		distribution	eng	This widespread Mexican endemic is currently composed of four distinctive subspecies which may represent several distinct species (see: Smith <em>et al</em>. 2002, Flores-Villela and Canseco-Márquez 2003, Zaldivar-Riveron <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>The nominate subspecies <em>B. i. imbricata</em>, is found along the Transvolcanic belt of central Mexico, including the States of Tlaxacala, Puebla, northern Oaxaca, Veracruz, Jalisco, Cuernovaca, Guanajuato, Distrito Federal, Mexico, Hidalgo and Queretaro. It is found from around 1,800 to 3,000 m asl. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> ranges from the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas; in the Pacific coast it is found with a disjunct distribution between Jalisco and Nayarit; from here to the centre of Mexico in Jalisco, Aguascalientes, northeastern Guanajuato, north of Querétaro to San Luis Potosí and through the Sierra Madre Oriental to southern Nuevo Leon (Taylor 1949, Taylor 1952, Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000, Vázquez and Quintero 1997, McCranie and Wilson 2001, Vazquez and Quintero 2005). It occurs above 1,200 m asl. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. jonesi</em> is endemic to the Sierra de Coalcomán, in northern Michoacan State, Mexico. It is found from 1,500 to at least 2,200 m asl. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. planifrons</em> is known only from the northern slopes of the Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is found at elevations of 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.
63693		habitat	eng	<em>B. i. imbricata</em> occurs in highland pine forest, being usually found in clearings and other more or less open areas (including leaf litter and bunchgrass habitats within the forest). It can be found in bunchgrass habitats outside of forest. It is viviparous. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> may be found under rocks or trunks of fallen trees. Vazquez and Quintero (2005) mention that also they use underground burrows. Animals live in high temperate pine-oak and oak forests, and grasslands from 1,200 m asl (Flores and Gerez 1994, Vázquez and Quintero 1997, McCranie and Wilson 200, Vazquez and Quintero 2005). It is largely insectivorous, although it may occasionally take small vertebrates. It is viviparous with litters of up to eleven young reported (Taylor 1949, Vazquez and Quintero 2005). <br/> <br/><em>B. i. jonesi</em> occurs in temperate forest habitat. It is a terrestrial animal found in leaf litter under rocks and logs, and in holes in the ground. The natural history is practically unknown, and it is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. planifrons</em> is a little-known animal of montane cloud forest. It is not known if it can adapt to habitat modification.
63693		population	eng	<em>B. i. imbricata</em>, <em>B. i. ciliaris</em> and <em>B. i. planifrons</em> are relatively common. <em>B. i. jonesi</em> is considered to be quite rare.
63693		threats	eng	<em>B. i. imbricata</em> appears to be no overall major threats. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by conversion of forest to agricultural land. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, largely through conversion of land to agricultural use. Animals are often killed when encountered by local people as it is mistakenly feared to be venomous. <br/> <br/>The threats to <em>B. i. jonesi</em> are poorly known. There is ongoing habitat loss through deforestation for agriculture in the area, and this is believed to be a threat. More research into actual and potential threats is needed. <br/> <br/>There appear to be no major threats to <em>B. i. planifrons</em>.
63694		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
63694		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges at moderately high elevations in the Sierra Tarahumara and Sierra del Nido of western, northwestern and north central Chihuahua State.
63694		habitat	eng	This species occurs in highland temperate pine and pine-oak forests. Animals are terrestrial and are associated with general forest ground cover and holes. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
63694		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
63694		threats	eng	The threats to this poorly known species are not known.
63695		conservation	eng	As the record from Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala, in Morelos is considered doubtful, the species is not believed to occur in any protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of habitat, especially in view of ongoing habitat loss within the species limited geographic range. As animals are mistakenly killed in the belief that they are venomous, a local public awareness campaign to dispel this myth is needed.
63695		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species is restricted to the volcanic transversal belt in the States of Mexico (at the localities of Hacienda La Gavia, Valle de Bravo, and 6 km north of Sultepec), Michoacán (El Pinal, Municipality of Tuxpan) and possibly from the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala, in Morelos (considered a doubtful record by Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca [2002] and not mapped here). It is a montane species found between 2,000 and 2,550 m asl (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002).
63695		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species, only found in montane cloud or oak-pine forest habitats (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). While previous reports have suggested the species may be arboreal, it is now considered to be a terrestrial species (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). Animals have been recorded by Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002) from 'leaf litter, under pieces of loose bark or fallen trees, or walking on the ground, often in forest openings with piled logs and pieces of loose bark used for firewood'. The species may need pristine habitat, and is not known to occur in secondary habitat. It does not occur in agricultural or disturbed areas. It is a viviparous species.
63695		population	eng	It appears to be a naturally rare species, and is not well represented in museum collections.
63695		threats	eng	The species is threatened by increasing clearance of forest for conversion to agricultural land (pasture and vegetables), and loss of habitat through commercial logging operations (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). The Valle de Bravo region where this species has been recorded is rapidly turning into an important vacation spot (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). In addition, animals are sometimes killed by local people as they are mistakenly believed to be venomous.
63696		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Canon del Rio Blanco in Veracruz.
63696		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic foothills of Mexico, from close to Jalapa and Orizaba in central Veracruz State, to Totontepec in northern Oaxaca State. There is also a single record for the species in southern Puebla. This species ranges from 1,000 m to as high as 1,830 m asl.
63696		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine, pine-oak, oak and cloud forest habitats. It appears to be able to adapt to pastures and in secondary growth.
63696		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.
63696		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species.
63697		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Management of the forest habitat used by this species for sustainable use is ongoing for the Veracruz population. Further field research is needed to confirm that there are no populations present between the two known locations.
63697		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico. It is known from the area of the type locality, near Tepango of Rodríguez, Puebla State, and from a second site at Matiaquiahuitz Mountain, Ixhuatlán del Café, central-western Veracruz State. The species is not thought to occur between these two areas. It is known from 1,210 to 1,715 m asl.
63697		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from montane cloud forest. Animals can be found in habitat disturbed for agricultural use; in these areas they are generally associated with litter and other ground cover. It is not present in large open-areas. This is a viviparous species.
63697		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63697		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species. It may become threatened in the future if severe habitat loss occurs, although this is not taking place at present. Stochastic events such as wildfires could potentially impact the known populations.
63698		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas in Mexico. There is a need to further protect remaining areas of suitable habitat.
63698		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low elevations on the Atlantic slope from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec through the Yucatan Peninsula in northern Chiapas and southern Quinata Roo States in Mexico, through to El Petén in Guatemala and Belize. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,350 m asl.
63698		habitat	eng	All records of this species are from humid forests. It is arboreal, diurnal, and found sometimes at considerable heights, but also on tree trunks near the ground and in thatched roofs on houses in the forest. It is not very tolerant of forest disturbance.
63698		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63698		threats	eng	Commercial logging and conversion of forested areas to agricultural use, particularly in Guatemala, are considered to be major threats to this species,
63699		conservation	eng	The range of this species falls within the Los Tuxlas Biosphere Reserve. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species.
63699		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from near village of Santa Martha on the western slope of Volcan Santa Martha, Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, in the State of Veracruz, Mexico (Werler and Campbell 2004). It has been collected at 1,200 m asl.
63699		habitat	eng	Werler and Campbell (2004), record that this species was 'found near the ground or in trees. Most individuals were discovered under the loose bark of a large, felled tree; two were discovered on tree trunks three and five feet, respectively, above the ground. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
63699		population	eng	There is little known about the population abundance of this species.
63699		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
63700		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the protected area at Valle de los Cirios. Further studies are needed into the ecological requirements of this species.
63700		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico, from 30 km south of El Rosario south to at least 0.8 km north of San Javier, inland as far as Nuevo Rosario. Populations are also present on the island of Isla Cedros. It has been recorded from sea level to 100 m asl.
63700		habitat	eng	Animals are largely found under rocks and general debris in rocky areas. The species can also be found between agave leaves. Although further details are needed, it is suspected that this species is generally tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance, but not of large-scale agriculture.
63700		population	eng	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered, but it is probably common in suitable habitat, like other members of its genus.
63700		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, other than the expansion of large-scale agriculture (but much of its habitat is not suitable for this form of land-use).
63701		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
63701		distribution	eng	This lizard occurs in the west of the United States and in southwestern Canada. It ranges from southern British Columbia (including Vancouver Island) southward through western Washington and western Oregon to west-central coastal California and the central Sierra Nevada (including the east side of Lake Tahoe basin) and Washoe County, Nevada (Vindum and Arnold 1997). It also ranges southward in the Rocky Mountains to northern Idaho and western Montana. Disjunct populations occurs in several areas in south-central Oregon, northeastern California, and northwestern Nevada (Stebbins 2003). The western edge of the distribution includes some small coastal islands (Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from sea level to around 3,200 m (Stebbins 2003).
63701		habitat	eng	Habitat includes open areas in coniferous forest, grassy grown-over areas at margins of woodlands, clearcuts, and areas along streams; along coast this lizard sometimes occurs far from trees or major cover; it is associated with rock outcrops and talus in some areas (Lais 1976).
63701		population	eng	Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped more than 200 locations where this species has been found. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. The species is often fairly common in suitable habitat (St. John 2002). The overall population is probably relatively stable in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance.
63701		threats	eng	The primary threat may be outright destruction of habitat. The species tolerates some habitat disturbances such as logging. Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) stated that the introduction of the cinnabar moth for weed (tansy ragweed) control may have adverse effects on northern alligator lizards. The moths are reported to be highly poisonous to the lizards.
63702		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems possible that it is present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.
63702		distribution	eng	The range extends from central and southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico southward in the Sierra Madre Occidental to Jalisco and Colima, Nayarit, southeast Zacatecas and southwest Aguascalientes, Mexico (Loeza-Corichi and Flores-Villela 1995, Stebbins 2003, Quintero-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 1999, Vázquez and Quintero 2005, Webb 1962, Webb 1970). In Arizona, the species occurs in the Huachuca, Santa Rita, Pajarito, and Chiricahua Mountains (Stebbins 2003). In New Mexico, it occurs throughout the Mogollon Plateau and in several isolated mountain ranges to the south, eastward to Socorro, Sierra, and Dona Ana counties (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The elevational range extends from 2,400 feet to about 9,000 feet (730 to 2,770 m asl) (Stebbins 2003).
63702		habitat	eng	Habitats include pine-oak woodlands, riparian areas of canyon floors in mountain ranges, juniper-grassland, chaparral, high dry grassland, oak woodland, open pine-fir forest, and talus; this is primarily a montane species, but it also occurs along major drainages in desert (e.g., creosote bush) and grassland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). The lizards hide among logs, rocks, dense vegetation, and leaf litter.
63702		population	eng	The species is known from at least several dozen sites (Webb 1970). Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped approximately 40 locations in New Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 (assuming 100 or more populations of at least 100 adults). The species is common on talus slopes of the Animas Mountains in Hidalgo County, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is no evidence that a major decline has occurred or is underway.
63702		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, but habitat destruction does pose a threat in Mexico.
63703		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is suspected to occur in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.
63703		distribution	eng	The range of this species is primarily west of the Cascade-Sierra Nevada crest in the western United States from south-central Washington and north-central Oregon (mainly west of Cascade crest) south through western Oregon and California to northern Baja California in Mexico, including islands off southern California and northern Baja California (though not on the Coronados Islands where <em>Elgaria nana</em> occurs) (Stebbins 2003). Isolated populations exist east of the Sierra Nevada at Grant Lake, Mono County, California; Alabama Hills and Walker Pass, Kern County, California; Walker Creek near Olancha, Inyo County, California, and along the Mojave River, California; there is also an isolated occurrence at Sierra La Asamblea, Baja California (Stebbins 2003). The species was introduced at Las Vegas, Nevada (Stebbins 2003). Unconfirmed sight record at Boulder Beach Campground, Clark County, Nevada (Stebbins 2003). DNA data suggest that the population on San Nicolas Island, California, may have been recently transported there (Mahoney <em>et al</em>. 2003). Elevational range is from sea level to around 5,000 feet (1,524 m asl) (Stebbins 2003).
63703		habitat	eng	Habitats are diverse and include grassland, chaparral, oak woodland, and open pine forest; in drier regions, the species most often occurs along streams or in other moist, vegetated areas (Stebbins 2003). Microhabitats include logs, thickets, rocks, and old woodpiles and trash heaps around houses (Stebbins 2003). This is a basically terrestrial lizard that sometimes climbs bushes and trees. Egg-laying sites include burrows or stable talus (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983).
63703		population	eng	This lizard is known from hundreds of locations. Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped about 90 localities in Washington and Oregon, and Lais (1976) mapped hundreds of collection sites throughout much of California. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The trend in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance is probably relatively stable, with localized declines not posing a threat to the species.
63703		threats	eng	Commercial and residential development have caused localized declines, but many populations exist in remote areas, and the species is tolerant of a modest amount of habitat alteration.
63704		conservation	eng	Both islands are within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
63704		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific islands of Coronado Norte and Coronado Sur off the northern coast of Baja California, Mexico. It appears to be ubiquitous on these two islands.
63704		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from a wide range of habitats on the islands. They are most regularly seen close to rocks or beneath <em>Opuntia</em> cacti.
63704		population	eng	The species is common within its island range.
63704		threats	eng	Although the species generally has a restricted range, there appear to be no major threats operating or anticipated. The islands where this species occurs are uninhabited and not particularly susceptible to natural disasters.
63705		conservation	eng	Populations of this species are present within the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
63705		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southern Cape Region in the State of Baja California Sur, Mexico.
63705		habitat	eng	This is an apparently ubiquitous species inhabiting a wide range of habitats, from arid lands to forest soil with abundant leaf litter. Animals are commonly found under rocks and logs, and in tree hollows.
63705		population	eng	It is a moderately common species within its limited range.
63705		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
63706		conservation	eng	There might be populations of this species within the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, but this needs to be confirmed. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
63706		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Baja California State, Mexico. It occurs at the isolated localities of San Ignacio (at the base of the volcán Las Tres Vírgenes), Sierra Guadalupe, San Jose de Magdalena, San Jose Comondu, and Mision Dolores. The species probably ranges further north than San Ignacio. Because it is a secretive species, it is not known whether or not its distribution is continuous.
63706		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial and saxicolous species, with animals found beneath leaves, and under logs and rocks. It seems possible that the species would be adaptable to habitat modification (though not large-scale agriculture), but its remote localities are unlikely to suffer from significant human distrubance.
63706		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance or size of populations.
63706		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63707		conservation	eng	The species occurs within several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
63707		distribution	eng	Central and southwestern Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico, south to San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo (Mendoza and Good, 1994), with isolated populations along the borders of Chihuahua-Durango and Coahuila-Durango (Good 1994). Other species of <em>Gerrhonotus</em>, formerly regarded as conspecific with Texan <em>G. infernalis</em>, occur farther west and south in Mexico (Good 1994).
63707		habitat	eng	This species occupies various habitats over a large elevational range, from semi-desert regions to pine forest (Good 1988). In Texas, it occurs in rocky, oak or oak-scrub habitats, especially wooded canyons and rocky slopes and rocky areas along streams and springs (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks, although it may be viviparous in parts of its range.
63707		population	eng	Good (1994) mapped several dozen collection sites, well distributed throughout the range. The total adult population size is difficult to estimate, due to this lizard's secretive habits, but it likely is at least several thousand. Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) described this species as "seemingly common nowhere...but rather generally distributed on rocky terrain" throughout the range in Texas. Population trends are uncertain but probably relatively stable in extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.
63707		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, aside from localized habitat degradation. Persecuted because people think they are venomous.
63708		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations are present within the several protected areas including La Sepultura (Chiapas), Canon del Sumidero (Chiapas), Tehuacan (Puebla) and Cutzamala (Oaxaca). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and threats to this species.
63708		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it has been recorded from the States of Puebla, Oaxaca, Hidalgo and central Chiapas. There is a disjunct population in Aguascalientes (Ramírez-Bautista <em>et al</em>. 1998, Vázquez and Quintero 2005) and Jalisco States (Rodríguez and Vázquez 1976), but this may represent an undescribed species. It has been recorded between 200 and 2,450 m asl.
63708		habitat	eng	It is principally a terrestrial species, with animals recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from semi-desert, through scrubland, to pine forest. It is now known if the species can persist well in disturbed habitat. The species has a largely insectivorous diet (Vázquez and Quintero 2005). It is an oviparous species.
63708		population	eng	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.
63708		threats	eng	It is threatened by the conversion of land to small-holder type agricultural use.
63709		conservation	eng	The Cuatro Cienegas basin within which this species occurs is a protected area. Further research is needed on population size, range, habitat status, biology, and threats.
63709		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from the type locality in the Cuatro Cienegas, central Coahuila. The total range is probably less than 1,000 km².
63709		habitat	eng	This is a typical terrestrial, hot desert species found under rocks and bulks on the ground. Little information exists on its natural history, ecology and abundance.
63709		population	eng	In general, this is a rare species. It has been recently sighted within its limited range..
63709		threats	eng	The species appears to be restricted to the Cuatro Cienegas basin. As such, it is considered to occur within a well managed protected area and is not known to have any current threats.
63710		conservation	eng	It may be present in some protected areas within the region. Further research is needed on the ecology, threats and distribution of this species.
63710		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southern San Luis Potosi to Hidalgo, and from Queretaro to northern Puebla. The species may exist as small, distinct, populations but its range is poorly known. It is found from 1,700 m asl, the maximum elevation is not known.
63710		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane cloud forest, tropical semi-deciduous forest, and sometimes in disturbed secondary forest and cropland (local varieties of corn). It is a viviparous species.
63710		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63710		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat fragmentation, through changes in land uses for agriculture and pasture lands. The species is commonly killed by local people because it is mistakenly believed to be venomous.
63711		conservation	eng	Further field surveys are needed to locate additional populations of this species. Further research is needed into the ecology, natural history and to determine if captive-breeding is possible.
63711		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Galeana in central Nuevo Leon State, Mexico. It appears to be a restricted range species. It occurs between 1,600 and 1,650 m asl.
63711		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in dry forest with oaks, agaves, 'sotoles' vegetation and limestone rocks. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.
63711		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63711		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss caused by conversion of natural habitat to agricultural areas, and extraction of limestone for building material.
63712		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed to rediscover this species.
63712		distribution	eng	This species known only from an undefined locality on Mount Orizaba, Veracruz State, Mexico. There have been several attempts to collect the species since its description but it has not been rediscovered. The elevation of collection is not known.
63712		habitat	eng	The exact distribution on the mountain is not known, and the habitat of the species is not known.
63712		population	eng	There is very little information is available. It is known only from two specimens collected in the 1800s.
63712		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
63713		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It have been recorded within Omiltemi State Park. No direct conservation actions are currently needed for this species.
63713		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the highlands of the Sierra Madre del Sur, including Sierra de Quatro Venados and the highlights about Tejocotes, in the States of Guerrero and Oaxaca, México. It is found between 2,000 and 3,000 m asl.
63713		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from highland pine forest, fir forest, and cloud forest. It is usually found in clearings and other more or less open areas. The species does well in areas of secondary growth.
63713		population	eng	This species is locally abundant within its restricted, disjunct range.
63713		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
63714		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
63714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, in the State of Oaxaca, Mexico. Populations have been recorded at elevations from 2,000 to 2,800 m asl. It might occur a little more widely.
63714		habitat	eng	The species is generally associated with tropical montane cloud forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
63714		population	eng	It seems to be moderately common and is regularly recorded.
63714		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by deforestation, resulting from timber extraction and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
63715		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
63715		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico where it is distributed in central Oaxaca State, including both la Sierra Juarez and Sierra Mixe. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,500 to 3,000 m asl.
63715		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from cloud forest and montane fir forest. Although further details are needed, it seems to be moderately adaptable to habitat disturbance.
63715		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
63715		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the conversion of forest habitat to small-holder farming (largely crops).
63716		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
63716		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. The eastern segment of the range (subspecies <em>longicaudus</em>) encompasses the southeastern United States, from Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf Coast and southern Florida, east of the Mississippi River; the western part of the range (subspecies <em>attentuatus</em>) extends from southeastern Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Indiana south to the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana, west of the Mississippi River in the south (Conant and Collins 1991).
63716		habitat	eng	Habitats include open grassland, prairie, woodland edge, open woodland, oak savannas, longleaf pine flatwoods, scrubby areas, fallow fields, and areas near streams and ponds, often in habitats with sandy soil. This species often appears on roads in spring. During inactivity, it occurs in underground burrows. In Kansas, slender glass lizards were scarce in heavily grazed pastures, increased as grass increased with removal of grazing, and declined as brush and trees replaced grass (Fitch 1989). Eggs are laid underground, under cover, or under grass clumps (Ashton and Ashton 1985); in cavities beneath flat rocks or in abandoned tunnels of small mammals (<em>Scalopus</em>, <em>Microtus</em>) (Fitch 1989).
63716		population	eng	This lizard is represented by a large number of populations, and it is locally common in many areas. Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably declined, but the species remains widespread.
63716		threats	eng	Conversion of habitat to human uses, especially intensive agriculture, is probably the major threat, but the species is reasonably secure throughout most of its range.
63717		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance. Habitat maintenance and conservation are urgently needed
63717		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a small area of coastal dunes, close to sea level, in central Veracruz, Mexico.
63717		habitat	eng	This is a little-known, specialised species which has only been recorded burrowing in sand dunes. The breeding habits are not known.
63717		population	eng	The species was formerly considered to be common, although there are only a few specimens in collections, but it has probably declined recently as a result of ongoing coastal development which has damaged its specialised habitat.
63717		threats	eng	The ongoing expansion of the city of Veracruz is threatening the known habitat of the species.
63718		conservation	eng	The range includes the Okeefenokee National Wildlife Refuge and some barrier islands protected as national seashore (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998).
63718		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. It inhabits sandy coastal areas and offshore islands of southeastern South Carolina, southeastern Georgia, and Florida, as well as scrub pine regions and adjacent flatwoods throughout much of peninsular Florida; most of the range is in Florida (Martoff <em>et al</em>. 1980, Ashton and Ashton 1985, Conant and Collins 1991, Stevenson and Crowe 1992, Enge 1994).
63718		habitat	eng	Habitat includes scrub vegetation on old coastal sand dunes (where the species often can be found under tidal wrack), sand pine scrub, longleaf pine-turkey oak, coastal hammocks, and dry pine flatwoods inland (Holman 1971, Ashton and Ashton 1985,  Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The species is most often encountered crossing roads in late afternoon or at dusk (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably in an underground nest.
63718		population	eng	This species is easily overlooked (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), so there are probably many more populations than are now known. As of the late 1990s, the species was known from a few locations in South Carolina (M. Taylor pers. comm. 1998), approximately two dozen locations in about a dozen counties in Georgia (Williamson and Moulis 1994, J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998), and at least 21 counties in Florida (Ashton and Ashton 1985, Enge 1994, Stevenson and Crowe 1992). The total adult population size is uncertain but is probably at least several thousand. The species is considered rare in South Carolina (Martof <em>et al</em>. 1980) and very abundant on Little Saint Simmons Island, Georgia (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998). It is locally common but apparently uncommon overall in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably undergone a long-term decline in mainland areas. J. Jensen (pers. comm. 1998) is familiar with Georgia's barrier island populations and believes these populations are probably stable; in contrast, due to loss of habitat, the mainland populations are probably declining. A similar pattern is likely in Florida.
63718		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss (J. Blanchard and J. Jensen pers. comms. 1998). In Georgia, mainland populations are threatened by habitat loss due to fire suppression and silvicultural practices. J. Jensen (pers. comm. 1998) stated that most island populations are protected by limited use of the islands or as part of the national seashore system. Little Saint Simmons island is a private island with only a small portion used as a resort area. The remainder of the island is avoided by people because it is occupied by a large population of diamondback rattlesnakes (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998).
63719		conservation	eng	The known range does not fall within any protected areas, although the Sierra de Abra-Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve is approximately 30 km northeast from the only known location. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats to this little-known species.
63719		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only southeastern San Luis Potosi State, Mexico. It has a total range area is less than 5,000 km², and fewer than five locations are currently known. However, it might occur more widely.
63719		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species, preferring sandy soil close to river banks often within tropical deciduous forest. The life history has not been studied, but closely related species are known to be oviparous.
63719		population	eng	It is only known from a few road kill specimens. The fossorial behaviour of this species means it is rarely encountered.
63719		threats	eng	Most of the forest habitat of this species has been degraded or converted to sugar cane plantations. Animals are often killed when encountered as they are mistakenly identified as a venomous snakes. It is possible that accidental mortality on roads is a considerable threat to the species; there is a main highway close to the known range.
63720		conservation	eng	Sites with adequate protection include about four in Georgia (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1997) and approximately five in North Carolina (H. LeGrand pers. comm. 1997).
63720		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to the southeastern United States. It has a narrow, elongate distribution along the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains of the southeastern United States, from southeastern North Carolina to northern Florida and westward through the Florida panhandle to Pearl River County, Mississippi (Palmer 1992). A questionable record exists for Lone Pine Key, Florida (Palmer 1987).
63720		habitat	eng	Habitat typically is dominated by pines and includes sandy flatwoods and hillsides with longleaf pine, scattered oaks, ericaceous shrubs, and wiregrass; longleaf pine savanna (Palmer 1987, P. Moler pers. comm. 1998); occasionally within seepage bogs (J. Godwin pers. comm. 1998). In areas of suitable habitat, this lizard can be found in early morning hours along roadways that have wide grassy berms (Ashton and Ashton 1991).
63720		population	eng	Little information exists regarding the occurrences and abundance of this secretive, recently described lizard. Palmer (1987) mapped 35 collection sites across the entire range. Information on population size is not available. Population trend information is not available for most of the range. The species is probably declining in Alabama, as preferred habitat has declined (M. Bailey pers. comm. 1997). Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably undergone a long-term decline.
63720		threats	eng	Threats include habitat loss to development, conversion of habitat to pine plantations, and road mortality (M. Bailey, J. Jensen, and H. LeGrand pers. comms. 1997). It is very threatened in Georgia (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1997), and moderately threatened in North Carolina and Alabama (M. Bailey and H. LeGrand pers. comms. 1997).
63721		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
63721		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to the southeastern United Statesa. Its range includes the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, and west to eastern Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991). The species was once reported from Grand Cayman Island, Cayman Islands, where it is introduced and possibly established (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
63721		habitat	eng	Habitats include moist and dry areas (especially the former), including damp grassy areas, maritime forests, open and scrubby woods (mesic hammock, pine flatwoods), vacant lots in coastal towns (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This lizard can be found under debris in fields and vacant lots near ponds, marshes, and estuaries. It favours areas with sandy friable soils and abundant shelter on ground. It is regarded as semi-fossorial. Eggs are laid under or at base of grass clumps (Ashton and Ashton 1985) or under debris on ground (Mount 1975).
63721		population	eng	This species is represented by many populations. Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 localities in North Carolina alone. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is the most abundant, least habitat specific, and most commonly encountered species of glass lizard in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is locally common in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and is by far the most common glass lizard on the Coastal Plain of Alabama (Mount 1975). Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably declined somewhat over the long-term in regions with intensive urban or agricultural development, but the current rate of decline is probably small.
63721		threats	eng	The major threat is presumably intensive land development. The species is somewhat tolerant of moderate habitat disturbance.
63722		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; the species is not known from any protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Protected areas are urgently needed where the species can survive, away from the threats of expanding human activities and off-road vehicles.
63722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific side of the State of Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002). It ranges from approximately 6 km north of Colonia Guerrero, southwards to just south of Punta Baja at the northern edge of Bahia El Rosario (a narrow strip about 87 km long). It ranges only 4 km inland in the Arroyo Socorro where the inshore breezes have carried the sand inland, but otherwise it is restrcited to the coastal margins. It also occurs on Isla San Gerónimo.
63722		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species which is restricted to areas of fine-grained sand substrates in dunes the coastal region. It is commonly found at the base of brittlebush (<em>Encelia</em> sp.), bursag (<em>Ambrosia</em> sp.) and locoweed (<em>Astragulus</em> sp.) which grow on the dunes.
63722		population	eng	It is a secretive animal that is not often encountered, but is thought to be common in its habitat (Grismer 2002).
63722		threats	eng	Its sand dune habitat is highly threatened by general coastal development for touristic resorts, urbanization, road building, expansion of intensive agriculture, and the impacts of off-road vehicles.
63723		conservation	eng	It is present in the large Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, and in some other protected areas. It is protected by national legislation, with the NOM (2003) listing this species under the Pr category (special protection).
63723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Baja California peninsula of Mexico, where it ranges from extreme southwestern Baja California State through western Baja California Sur, to the Isthmus of La Paz and the western Cape Region.
63723		habitat	eng	This fossorial species requires areas with sandy soils with abundant leaf litter; it is rarely seen on the surface. The general habitat in its area of distribution is dryland and desert, with xeric shrub vegetation. Animals are often collected close to fenceposts, and populations are believed to be able to survive in moderately disturbed landscapes. They construct an elaborate system of burrows just below the surface, usually centered on stands of vegetation.
63723		population	eng	It is probably a relatively abundant species, but it is secretive and is not often encountered. Papenfuss (1982) collected 2,719 specimens in an extensive study of the species.
63723		threats	eng	There appear to be few major threats to the species, but in some places it is probably negatively by expanding intensive agriculture. Animals may be killed when encountered because of misidentification as snakes, and a fear that they attack humans. There is some collecting of animals, possibly for the pet trade, but this is believed to have a minimal impact on populations.
63724		conservation	eng	Although populations of this species are not know to occur in any protected areas, <em>B. caniculatus</em> is protected by Mexican national legislation (listed under the Pr category (special protection). Further research is needed to determine the full extent of the species range.
63724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in the States of Guerrero and Michoacan in Mexico. While it has yet to be recorded from Puebla State or the northeastern limits of the Balsas basin, it is possible that the species occurs throughout the Rio Balsas Basin. The elevational limit is not recorded here.
63724		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is associated with rocky soils and loose gravel, and may be found in rotten logs or under rocks. It seems to be a tropical dry forest species, but as with other members of the genus <em>Bipes</em> it may be present in disturbed areas used for agriculture.
63724		population	eng	It is believed to be reasonably common, although the fossorial habits of this species can make it difficult to find.
63724		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
63725		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Protection of the dry forest habitat within the species limited range is needed, as is further general research into the range, ecology and threats to the species.
63725		distribution	eng	This species appears to be restricted to a small area close to the Rio Tecpan, in coastal Guerrero State, Mexico. It is a lowland species.
63725		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that is present in tropical dry forest and floodplains. Animals have been recorded from disturbed areas of habitat.
63725		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species, that is known from many specimens collected at only a few localities.
63725		threats	eng	Although the species has a generally restricted range, there appear to be no major threats at present. It is possible that loss of the dry forests to agricultural expansion may threaten the species in the future.
63726		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several national parks and monuments, state parks, and other protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
63726		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range extends from southern California and western and southern Arizona, south to the tip of Baja California and to southern Sonora, Mexico, including some islands along the Pacific Coast of Baja California (including Cedros) and in the Gulf of California (including Angel de la Guardia and Tiburón). It occurs at elevations from sea level to 2,070 m (Yingling 1982, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
63726		habitat	eng	The species' habitats are diverse and include desert, arid scrub, brushland, sandy plains, rocky slopes, and chaparral-covered foothills, particularly where moisture is available, as around springs, streams, and canyon floors (but these snakes are not dependent on permanent water). This is a mainly terrestrial species, but it sometimes climbs into shrubs.
63726		population	eng	This species is represented by well over 100 occurrences or subpopulations (Yingling (1982) mapped some of them). The total adult population size of this secretive snake is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. It is common along the western slopes of the Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California (Welsh 1988). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable. Local declines seem to have occurred in some sites that are readily accessible to collectors. For example, populations have been greatly reduced in the vicinity of Route 85 in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (Parizek <em>et al</em>. 1996). However, this snake is still abundant in many remote areas of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument and presumably elsewhere within the range (Parizek <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is less information available on its abundance in Mexico.
63726		threats	eng	Overall, this snake is not very threatened. It often occurs in inaccessible, rugged terrain that affords natural protection from grazing and development, and a great deal of suitable habitat is available. Some local populations are threatened by overcollecting and road mortality (Parizek <em>et al</em>. 1996). This is a popular species in the pet trade (but most are captive-bred), and collectors often target this snake; however, it is difficult to find and collect in quantity, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened by over-collecting.
63727		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Sierra Los Huicholles protected area. It is also protected by Mexican legislation under category Pr (Special Protection).
63727		distribution	eng	This snake has a patchy distribution in west-central Mexico, from western Jalisco to Michoacan, Guanajuato and Hidalgo, and reaching northern Morelos. It occurs from 1,200 to 1,500 m asl.
63727		habitat	eng	It is a semi-aquatic snake, living in highland areas in flooded areas, damp meadows and grassy swamps.
63727		population	eng	It is a very rare species, and very few specimens are known.
63727		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat destruction due to agriculture and urban development.
63728		conservation	eng	It is not to occur in any protected areas. Parts of the area have been reafforested with <em>Pinus durangoensis</em>, as part of forestry operations, but it is not known if the species can exist in these areas. Further research is needed into the distribution and ecology of this species, and to determine whether it is still extant.
63728		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded from the vicinity of the type locality of "4 km E cerca de la localidad Mil Diez, aproximadamente 3.2 km W El Salto", in southwestern Durango, Mexico. It was collected at 2,600 m asl.
63728		habitat	eng	The species occurs in relictual areas of pine and pine-oak forests, more specifically it is found in areas containing <em>Pinus durangoensis</em>. It is not present in agricultural areas. It is an oviparous species.
63728		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens collected at the type locality. It has not been seen in more than thirty years.
63728		threats	eng	Pine forests in western Durango have been extensively logged and habitat has been severely disturbed; it is possible that this species is threatened by these activities, however, it may persist in reafforested areas.
63729		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve and forests protected by the community of Los Chimalapas.
63729		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of the Sierra de los Chimalapas and Cerro Baul in Oaxaca and extreme western Chiapas, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 1,500 to 1,900 m asl.
63729		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter of pine and cloud forest, and has also been found in small agricultural areas near forest.  It is rarely seen due to its secretive habits. It is not known whether this species is able to adapt to disturbance of its habitat.
63729		population	eng	There is no population data available. It was last collected in 2004 in Chiapas.
63729		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest fires and clear cutting of the forest.
63730		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Lagunas de Montebello National Park, Mexico.
63730		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico, from the vicinity of San Cristobal de las Casas southeastward almost to the Guatemalan border. It occurs from 2,200 to 2,500 m asl.
63730		habitat	eng	This species is found in the leaf-litter and along the forest edge in cloud and pine-oak forests. It can also be found in coffee plantations. It is a burrowing snake.
63730		population	eng	This is a moderately common species.
63730		threats	eng	Deforestation, and the extraction of fire wood from the forest is a major threat to this species.
63731		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.
63731		distribution	eng	This species is known from low and moderate elevations in Mexico from Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon, southwards to central Veracruz, and from another population also in Veracruz, as well as an isolated population in Belize.
63731		habitat	eng	This snake is found in tropical and subtropical wet and moist forest. It is presumably an egg layer like other species in the group. It is not known whether it can tolerate habitat disturbance.
63731		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species.
63731		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63732		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas including La Sepultura, El Triunfo and El Tacana Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.
63732		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of Chiapas, Mexico and in adjacent Guatemala. It is found at elevations from 500 to 1,000 m asl.
63732		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical wet montane forest, and can also tolerate disturbance of its habitat.
63732		population	eng	It is a very common species.
63732		threats	eng	This species may be affected by pesticides from coffee plantations, but overall there are no major threats at present.
63733		conservation	eng	In Mexico, the range of this species includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and Ocote Biosphere Reserve and one other reserve in Chiapas.
63733		distribution	eng	This species is known from disjunct populations in northern Oaxaca, southern Veracruz, western Chiapas, northern Chiapas and Tabasco, in Mexico, to El Petén in Guatemala in the Pacific Versant, and Honduras in the Atlantic versant.  It occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m asl.
63733		habitat	eng	This species is known from moist tropical forest. It has fossorial habits and it can be found under the ground, under logs and rocks and in other animal burrows. It has also been recorded in disturbed areas such as plantations and pasturelands.
63733		population	eng	It is very common in Los Tuxtlas in Mexico.
63733		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63734		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in national parks and monuments, state parks, and other protected areas.
63734		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from central California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, southwestern and eastern Colorado, and southern Nebraska south through southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas in the United States, to northern Baja California, south to Sinaloa, Aguascalientes and Tamaulipas in Mexico. It occurs at elevations from below sea level in desert sinks to around 2,200 m asl (7,220 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63734		habitat	eng	The varied habitats include barren to sparse shrubby desert, sagebrush flats, grassland, sandhills, coastal scrub, chaparral slopes, and sometimes oak-hickory woodland, generally in open areas with sandy or loamy soil, though rocks may be present (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This snake takes shelter and lays its eggs underground.
63734		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Dixon and Fleet 1976, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. A perhaps substantial decline may have occurred during historical periods of large expansion of intensive cultivation (Hammerson 1999). Currently, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
63734		threats	eng	Intensive agricultural development and urbanization probably have eliminated or reduced some populations, but in most areas this species does not appear to be very threatened at the present time.
63735		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve. However, there are no protected areas in the southern half of its range.
63735		distribution	eng	This snake ranges along the Pacific coast of the southern two-thirds of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico, from at least the turnoff to Bahia de los Angeles, south to 20km north of La Paz.
63735		habitat	eng	It occurs from the north cool Pacific desert of western Baja California southward, the preferred habitat being open vegetation with loose soil. It is found in the Vizcaíno Desert and Magdalena Plain.
63735		population	eng	It seems to be an abundant species but the animal is secretive and is not often encountered. It is particularly abundant in the Vizcaíno Desert north of Guerrero Negro.
63735		threats	eng	Commercial agriculture is expanding in both the Vizcaíno Desert and the Magdalena Plain.
63736		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.
63736		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from about 3.8 km east of Mount Spring, Imperial County, California, United States, southward through (mostly eastern) Baja California, Mexico, to Cabo San Lucas, including the Gulf island of Danzante (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
63736		habitat	eng	The species' habitat includes rocky hill slopes and arroyos (dry creeks), often near oases, springs, and streams, but also in dry areas of thorn scrub with rock. The species has been found in association with native fan palms, date palms, mesquite, palo verde, and creosote bush (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
63736		population	eng	The number of occurrences or subpopulations is unknown but is probably at least several dozen. The species occurs patchily in the northern part of its range, and it is possibly extinct in the United States. It is more common in the south of its range in Baja California Sur. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000, conservatively assuming at least one adult per sq. km over an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km. The species' extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63736		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species, but it is harvested for the international pet trade, though probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
63737		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Big Bend National Park and in other parks and protected areas. Some populations are protected due to their location in remote areas. It is found in at least two protected areas in Mexico
63737		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern New Mexico and southwestern Texas in the United States, south through Chihuahua and Coahuila to Durango and Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Price 1990). The elevational range is from 450 to 1,600 m asl (1,475 to 5,250 feet) (Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63737		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include dry, rocky terrain, including basins and valleys with mesquite, desert slopes with creosote bush, sotol, lechuguilla, agave, yucca, ocotillo, or acacia, and montane oak-juniper woodland (Werler and Dixon 2000). The type of rock may be granitic, limestone, or lava (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). This snakes spend daylight hours in crevices or other underground retreats.
63737		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several dozen (probably more than 100) occurrences or subpopulations. Doubtless many occurrences have not been documented because of difficult access to the habitat. Worthington (1980) mapped about 66 collection sites rangewide, including 16 in Mexico. The relatively small number in Mexico presumably reflects lesser collecting effort there relative to areas in the United States. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Texas, many clearly along roads through suitable habitat. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 15 collection sites in New Mexico (about twice as many as mapped in New Mexico by Worthington). The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least in the 10,000s (conservatively assuming at least one adult per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). Tennant (1998) rated this species as uncommon but not rare in Texas. Local declines in population size are likely to have occurred along roads in areas targeted by collectors. Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable. The population size may be declining slowly, mainly in localized areas along roads. <br/> <br/>It is a secretive, uncommon species to Mexico.
63737		threats	eng	The collection of gravid females for the pet trade along roads in Trans-Pecos Texas has led to a substantial decline in roadside populations; populations in undeveloped areas are probably little affected if at all (Price 1990).
63738		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in parks and other protected areas.
63738		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, southeastern New York, and Massachusetts south to Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina, west to the Mississippi River and a little west of the Mississippi in the vicinity of eastern Arkansas, and east to the Atlantic coast; old record from west-central Florida (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003). Elevational range extends to at least 1,311 m (4,300 feet) in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995).
63738		habitat	eng	The habitat consists of mesic, wooded or partially wooded areas (hardwood or pine), often along edges or ecotones, such as near wetlands or margins of farm fields, and often in hilly areas but sometimes in flatwoods (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake occurs in loose damp soil, under surface cover or leaf litter, or in rotted logs; it goes deep underground during cold or dry weather. Eggs are laid under rocks, in rotting logs, stumps, or sawdust piles (Mount 1975, Collins 1982).
63738		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (100s) (e.g., see maps in Palmer and Braswell 1995 and Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 and may exceed 1,000,000. Theses snakes are common in many areas. Densities may exceed 200/ha (see Ernst and Ernst 2003). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63738		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, some populations have probably been reduced as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.
63739		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
63739		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range includes southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, western Illinois, eastern Kansas (Collins 1993), Missouri (Johnson 2000), eastern Oklahoma, Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), northern Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989), and northeastern Texas (Werler and Dixon 2000), with an isolated population in southwestern Wisconsin (Vogt 1981); populations in northeastern Louisiana and adjacent southeastern Arkansas appear to be isolated from the main range (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003). Range is west of the Mississippi River except in Illinois and Wisconsin.
63739		habitat	eng	Habitat generally consists of moist, rocky, wooded or partially wooded hillsides, forest or woodland edges, or wooded riparian corridors in prairies (Collins 1993, Johnson 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). These snakes usually are hidden in leaf litter, under rocks, logs, or rotting stumps, or in damp soil (Johnson 2000, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63739		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (100s) (e.g., see maps in Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003 and Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common to abundant in suitable habitat (densities of 60 to 120 individuals per ha were recorded in Kansas; Clark 1970). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over three generations or 10 years.
63739		threats	eng	Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) suggested that some populations in northern Arkansas may be detrimentally affected by alteration of forest floor habitat (removal of rocks for rock gardens), but they stated that the species is not endangered or threatened in Arkansas. Overall, this snake is not significantly threatened.
63740		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
63740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from southern New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, southern Indiana, southern Illinois, and Missouri, and eastern Oklahoma south to southern Texas, most of the Gulf Coast (except in Louisiana), and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).
63740		habitat	eng	This secretive, semi-fossorial snake inhabits hardwood, mixed, or pine forest/woodland and adjacent open areas with sandy or loamy well-drained soils (Behler and King 1979, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). Specific habitats include pine flatwoods, dry or dry prairie, salt grass prairie, maritime hardwood hammock, bottomland forest, sandhills, margins of irrigation canals in sawgrass prairies, borders of swamps and ploughed fields, abandoned fields, and roadsides (Tennant 1984, 1997; Werler and Dixon 2000). Individuals are sometimes found under rocks or in or under logs. Eggs are laid under moist humus (Minton 1972) or in other underground sites.
63740		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Williams 1985). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 collection sites in North Carolina. Mount (1975) mapped more than 50 localities in Alabama. Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped about 40 collection sites in Arkansas. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped 19 collection sites in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but likely is at least in the hundreds of thousands. This snake is common and locally abundant in Florida (Tennant 1997). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63740		threats	eng	This species is not threatened in most of its range. Local declines likely have occurred as a result of habitat alteration.
63741		conservation	eng	There are no populations known to occur in any protected areas.
63741		distribution	eng	There are currently three subpopulations of this species recognized, one in central-western Veracruz, and two in northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It has an elevational range of 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.
63741		habitat	eng	The species dwells under logs and rocks in humid soil in cloud forest, pine-oak forest and tropical rainforest, however, some specimens have also been collected in altered areas such as coffee plantations and corn plantations.  It is probably an egg layer.
63741		population	eng	It is a moderately abundant species locally.
63741		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified for this species.
63742		conservation	eng	There is at least one record of this species from a Biosphere reserve (Sierra Gorda de Queretaro). More information is urgently needed about this species such as population size, range and habitat status.
63742		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three specimens: one from southern San Luis Potosi, and two from adjacent northern Queretaro, Mexico. Its known extent of occurrence is less than 1,000 km², and its area of occupancy is likely to be less than 100 km². It has been collected from 1,650 m asl.
63742		habitat	eng	The species is semi-fossorial and inhabits remnants of tropical montane cloud forest of the region.
63742		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but is presumably rare. It is only known from three specimens, and it has not been recorded over the last 30 years (last recorded in the 1970s).
63742		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, however, there has recently been significant transformation of habitat in the area due to agricultural expansion which presumably has affected this species.
63743		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area.
63743		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cerralvo island, in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where it is known from three localities in the south of the island (with the majority of specimens being collected from a beach area). It might occur more widely on the island (Grismer 2002).
63743		habitat	eng	This snake prefers the sandy or dune areas of the island, as well as leaf litter in the arroyo (dry creek) bottoms. However, Grismer (2002) suggests that further exploration could show the species to occur in rocky areas, and hence more widely on the island.
63743		population	eng	There is little information on population status for this species. In some places they must be common as the tracks cover sand dunes in certain locations.
63743		threats	eng	Although this species has a tiny distribution, there are no threats identified for this species. The island on which the species occurs is not thought to be inhabited by humans and is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes or other natural disasters.
63744		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are in national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.
63744		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. Its range includes central and southwestern Arizona, western Sonora, and most of Baja California (except the far northern and northeastern part), including the Pacific islands of Cedros and Magdalena and several islands in the Gulf of California, including Tiburón (Grismer 2002). Its elevational range extends from sea level to 910 m (Stebbins 2003).
63744		habitat	eng	A fossorial species that generally inhabits sandy, sandy-gravelly, or loamy soils of flats, dunes, hummocks, arroyos (dry creeks), and wash borders, in deserts (e.g., mesquite-crosotebush), uplands with palo verde-saguaro, and thornscrub habitats (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). On dunes, tracks may extend among the bases of shrubs (Grismer 2002). It also occurs on rocky hillsides, including lava flows (Grismer 2002). Sometimes it can be found under rocks or vegetative debris. This species is a sand-swimmer.
63744		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see Grismer <em>et al</em>. 2002). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63744		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, though some local populations have declined, for example as a result of urbanization in the Phoenix area.
63745		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in various types of parks and other protected areas.
63745		distribution	eng	This species' range includes the Mojave and Sonoran deserts from southwestern Nevada and southeastern California east to south-central Arizona, United States, and southward into northeastern Baja California (to near Bahia Santa Maria) and extreme northwestern Sonora, Mexico (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001). Its elevational range extends from below sea level to nearly 1,500 m (4,920 feet) (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001).
63745		habitat	eng	The habitat of this burrowing snake consists of sparsely vegetated (mesquite-creosote bush, desert grasses, cactus) desert; rocky slopes, dunes, washes, and sandy flats (Stebbins 2003).
63745		population	eng	This species is common and is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. (2001) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive but locally common (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63745		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified. Locally, some populations are likely to have declined as a result of conversion of its habitat to human uses, and expanding human settlements are likely to be a future threat.
63746		conservation	eng	The population in the United States occurs almost entirely in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument; however, this affords little protection from the high automobile traffic mortality that occurs on Route 85.
63746		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico, extending into extreme southwestern United States. The known range extends from the vicinity of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, southwestern Arizona, into western Sonora (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001), at elevations from sea level to about 760 m (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001, Stebbins 2003). Its known distribution in Sonora, Mexico, is spotty (Rosen <em>et al</em>. 1996), and the distribution in general reflects the location of roads that traverse suitable habitat (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001), suggesting that the species is under-recorded.
63746		habitat	eng	Its habitat includes gravelly middle bajadas and flat areas in rocky or sandy upland, openly vegetated desert (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001); saguaro-paloverde dominated upland desert in Arizona; arid mesquite-creosote bush-bur sage terrain to the south (Behler and King 1979).
63746		population	eng	Fifteen localities for this species have been documented in Arizona (S. Schwartz pers. comm. 1997), essentially all along one road and constituting one elongate occurrence. It is a difficult species to survey due to its nocturnal and fossorial habits and limited seasonal activity pattern (Rosen <em>et al</em>. 1996). Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. (2001) mapped 38 collection sites in Sonora, with many a part of a linear series of sites along roads. Based on the map in Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. (2001), there appear to be at least a dozen distinct known occurrences, but many more are likely to exist in the large areas of unsurveyed habitat in Sonora. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand and more likely more than 10,000. It is uncommon in Arizona, with a highly restricted known range. Most of the range is in northwestern Mexico (Rosen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001), but much of the range there has not been adequately surveyed. Rangewide, over the long term, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. In the small, US portion of the range in Arizona, the species probably has declined in population size along the highway corridor where most occurrences of this snake have been documented. Away from this area, the distribution of the snake and its trends are unknown. In Mexico, the trend is not documented but is very probably not declining at a rate of more than 30% over three generations or 10 years. Most probably, populations have declined along major highways, but not elsewhere.
63746		threats	eng	The major threat in Arizona is highway mortality along State Route 85; 64% of observations during a 1987-1994 survey were of individuals found dead on the road; highway 85 cuts through the heart of prime US habitat. Due to proposed future development in Mexico, highway traffic is expected to increase substantially in volume and daily duration, significantly increasing the threat of highway mortality in the US and Mexico. However, most of the probably occupied habitat is remote from highways and hence not threatened.
63747		conservation	eng	Several occurrences are in protected areas. Protection needs include the following: 1) identify and protect a large number (perhaps at least 20) of suitable sites throughout the range; 2) do whatever it takes to curtail pet trade exploitation (state legislation); and 3) educate the public about conservation needs.
63747		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the north-central Midwest of the United States. The present range includes disjunct populations in Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. Most recent records for the Great Lakes region are clustered near the southern end of Lake Michigan (Cook County, Illinois; northwestern Indiana; and southwestern Michigan) and in Lucas County, Ohio (Toledo area) (Harding 1997). The Kentucky distribution is along the Ohio River valley (Barbour 1971). Historically, the range included northeastern and central Illinois, most of Indiana and Ohio, north-central Kentucky, southern Michigan, western Pennsylvania, and extreme northeastern Missouri.  Records from southeastern Wisconsin and from eastern Pennsylvania have been regarded as erroneous (Conant 1943). The species was last recorded in Pennsylvania in 1965. Historically, Wisconsin and Missouri were at best extreme peripheral locations; known in Wisconsin from a single unsubstantiated report in 1883 (Hoy 1883, Vogt 1981); known in Missouri from a single record in 1964 (Jones 1967, Johnson 1987). The area of occupancy within its range is small.
63747		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits relict Prairie Peninsula habitats: prairie fens, wet meadows, lakeplain wet prairies and associated open and wooded wetlands, seasonal marshes, open swamps, sparsely wooded hillsides, and the vicinity of ponds and sluggish creeks. In the more recently glaciated parts of the range, occurrences are on gently sloping pitted outwash, till plains, and former glacial lake plains; in the more highly dissected, recently unglaciated areas, the species occupied larger river valley drainages (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). In Illinois and west-central Indiana, it is most often found on mollisols, soils that develop under grasslands and have excellent water retaining abilities (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). <br/> <br/>The current distribution of this snake is centered in metropolitan areas, often in vacant lots associated with streams or wetlands; these are remnants of much larger populations that have been reduced by urbanization and may now be rapidly dying out (Minton <em>et al</em>. 1983). However, this species can be locally abundant in inner city situations (Minton 2001). There are few records of this species from relatively undisturbed habitats (Minton 2001). This species is most readily found in habitats with abundant debris on the ground surface; open grassy habitats may harbour populations that are relatively difficult to detect and document. Individuals are secretive and usually are found under debris, but in general these snakes are likely most often below ground (Harding 1993, pers. comm.). They commonly use Chimney Crayfish (<em>Cambarus diogenes</em>) burrows as cover and underground passageways; the burrows provide moisture, less severe temperature extremes, and food resources (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Fossorial habits allow survival of grassland fire. Hibernation occurs apparently underground, possibly in crayfish burrows, in or near the wetlands that are inhabited the remainder of the year. <br/> <br/>Mating has only been observed on the ground surface under cover in the spring (Sellers pers. comm. 1993).
63747		population	eng	Between 1980 and 1987, 48 extant occurrences were documented in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and Michigan (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). In Illinois, the species is "known from only a few isolated populations" (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). This snake is difficult to detect and all occurrences have probably not been documented. Failure to locate this snake at historical sites does not mean that the populations are extirpated. The uncertainty of site survey results and the ability of this species to survive in small urban and agricultural sites makes it difficult to identify it as extirpated, except where habitat destruction or other disturbances are obvious (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Accordingly, there may be as many as 100 total occurrences in the range. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. Fairly dense local populations exist in scattered locations (Harding 1997). Minton (1972) mentioned that some colonies near suburbs might be quite dense. Minton (2001) reported that 44 individuals were removed from a threatened inner-city site in two days, yet the snakes subsequently remained common there. The species was easiest to find during 1980s rangewide surveys in suburban areas with much litter. The largest number reported recently at a site was 24 found along 20 feet of a state road in Washington County, Indiana (Sellers pers. comm. 1993). This suggests that some sites may have fairly large populations. In general, population size at a site is difficult to determine, even with a mark-and-recapture study, because these snakes are so secretive. In Kentucky, Barbour (1971) stated that this species "now seems nowhere common." Kirtland's snake was once known from more than 100 counties in eight states. Since 1980, it has been observed in only one quarter of those counties (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Many urban populations have disappeared in recent years (Harding 1997). Once common in northern Illinois, it declined before the turn of the century and is now rare in Illinois and most of its present range (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Most records for Illinois are pre-1980 (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species can be regarded as rare and declining across its entire historical range, despite fairly dense local populations (Harding 1997).
63747		threats	eng	Human activities, especially housing development and habitat alteration, are the major threats. Most of the former habitat has been lost to agriculture (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Grassy habitats are subject to succession when surrounding land use patterns change. Conversion of native prairie to agricultural uses is a threat. Many remnant populations inhabit small areas in urban or suburban areas where they are highly vulnerable to extirpation by development; colonies near housing developments may thrive for a time but eventually decline, according to Minton. Activities that negatively impact crayfishes and their burrows are detrimental. Other potential threats to this species are disease, predation, competition, pesticide use, road kills, long-term climatic changes and collecting for the pet trade. Collecting for the pet trade is a threat in urban populations (Harding 1997) where large amounts of litter and debris increase the chances of finding these snakes (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988).
63748		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in national parks and other protected areas.
63748		distribution	eng	This species occurs through most of the United States, and ranges into southern Canada and northern and eastern Mexico, discontinuously southwards to Guatemala and Belize. It extends from southern British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan, Wisconsin, Michigan, southern Ontario, New York, and southern Maine southward in the United States to southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida, and southward through northeastern, central, and southern Mexico to Guatemala and Belize (Wilson 1978, Lee 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from sea level to about 2,550 m (8,300 feet). A record for Durango, Mexico, evidently is erroneous (Webb 2001).
63748		habitat	eng	Habitats encompass a wide range of lowland and montane areas, including deserts, prairies, sandhills, shrublands, woodlands, forests, canyons, streamsides, and semi-agricultural areas. This snake is absent from the driest deserts and highest mountains (subalpine zones and higher). It commonly climbs shrubs and small trees. When inactive, it hides underground, in crevices, or under surface cover. Adults often hibernate communally, sometimes partly submerged in water.  Eggs are laid in an underground tunnel or burrow, rotting stump, sawdust pile, or under a rock. Oviposition sites may be up to at least several hundred metres from the usual home range (Brown and Parker 1976; Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1995, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 26: 147-148).
63748		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (at least several hundred). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is common in most of its very large range in the United States but appears to be rare at the southern extent of the range in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize (Lee 2000). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are very large and probably relatively stable.
63748		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Historically, some populations undoubtedly experienced significant declines, particularly in major agricultural regions of intensive cultivation. Remaining populations are extensive and not threatened in most areas.
63749		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas.
63749		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,012 to 2,134 m asl.
63749		habitat	eng	The highlands where this species occurs are covered by a temperate mesic pine-oak forest with abundant epiphytes. The species is found in the forest or on its edges.
63749		population	eng	It is very rare; very few specimens are known.
63749		threats	eng	Deforestation and small scale agriculture are major threats to this species.
63750		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
63750		distribution	eng	This species' range includes low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from southern Texas, United States, through eastern Mexico, the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize, and northern and eastern Guatemala to Honduras, and locally on the Pacific slope in Oaxaca, Mexico (Campbell 1998, Lee 2000). Its elevational range is from sea level to about 1,000 m asl (1,970 feet) (Campbell 1998).
63750		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include forests (e.g., tropical wet, moist, cloud and dry), savannas, agricultural landscapes, and edges of wet or marshy areas (Campbell 1998, Lee 2000). At the northern end of the range in Texas, this snake inhabits the semi-arid coastal plain, where much of the native thorn-thicket habitat (particularly along arroyos and seasonally filled watercourses and resacas) has been destroyed by agriculture (Tennant 1998); it survives around buildings and in vacant lots in localized suburban areas (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This is a secretive snake that crawls in leaf-litter, burrows into soil, or hides under logs or other vegetative debris or trash when inactive. It is highly tolerant of habitat disturbance and can be found in villages.
63750		population	eng	The number of occurrences or subpopulations of this species is unknown but it is likely that there are many. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). This is a fairly common snake, at least in the southern part of the range. In southern Texas, Irwin (1995) found several individuals within a short time and concluded that the species is "moderately common and in no immediate danger of being extirpated". In Texas, this species was more widespread and common prior to 1945 (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63750		threats	eng	Declines have occurred at the northern end of its range in Texas, but this snake remains and is not uncommon in some areas. It is tolerant of a moderate degree of habitat alteration but not of conversion to intensive agricultural use.
63751		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species is needed.
63751		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sinaloa, Jalisco and Nayarit in Mexico. It may extend northward to southern Sonora and southwards in to Colima, but no specimens are known from there yet. It has been recorded between 16 and 1,589 m asl.
63751		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the habitat of this species, but it is presumably terrestrial.
63751		population	eng	It is a very poorly known species, and it is probably rare. There are 13 known specimens.
63751		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
63752		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species is needed.
63752		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico, where it has only been recorded from Huajintlán, Morelos, 12 miles southwest of Puente de Ixtla (Smith and Taylor, 1945), and Matamoros, Puebla (Smith and Taylor 1950). The specimen collected from Morelos was originally designated as a neotype of <em>Coniophanes lateritius</em>, but was later shown to be <em>C. melanocephalus</em> (Wellman 1959).
63752		habitat	eng	There is no information known about the habitats of this species.
63752		population	eng	It is known only from the two specimens, and the type specimen is lost. It is thought to be a very rare species.
63752		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
63753		conservation	eng	Its range includes a couple of protected areas.
63753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern end of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, where it is known from several localities in Yucatan and northern Campeche and Quintana Roo. It occurs from sea level up to approximately 100 m asl.
63753		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and nocturnal inhabitant of thorn forest and tropical deciduous forest. It is presumably an egg layer like other species of the genus. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats, but very little is known about this species.
63753		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63753		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, although very little is known. It is most likely tolerant to habitat modification since there have been humans living within its habitat for a very long time.
63754		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
63754		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico on the Atlantic versant from southern Tamaulipas, southwards to Veracruz, and on the Pacific Coast from Guerrero through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and Chiapas, Mexico southwards to Costa Rica. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
63754		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical evergreen forest, tropical deciduous forest and savanna. It can also occur in degraded forest but not in agricultural land.
63754		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63754		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63755		conservation	eng	Its range includes at least three protected areas.
63755		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low elevations on the Atlantic slope from southern Veracruz eastward through Tabasco, Mexico, and El Petén in northern Guatemala. The distribution in the Yucatan Peninsula, although very imperfectly known, appears to be highly disjunct. There are records from El Petén, Guatemala, northwestern Yucatan, and northwestern Campeche in Mexico. It occurs from near sea level to around 200 m asl.
63755		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic species inhabits tropical moist forest usually in marshland. It cannot tolerate drainage of the wetland habitat.
63755		population	eng	It is a locally common species in Veracruz and Tabasco, but rare elsewhere in its range.
63755		threats	eng	There are no major threats at present to the wetlands where this species occurs.
63756		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species is needed.
63756		distribution	eng	This species is known from two specimens, one collected at the type locality near Tehuantepec in the municipality of Chinicuila at 1,390 m asl, and one from 12 miles south of Arteaga, at 884 m asl in the municipality of Arteaga, both in the state of Michoacán, Mexico.
63756		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected under a rock in a rocky cattle pasture in partially cleared tropical deciduous forest.
63756		population	eng	This is a very rare species; only two specimens have been collected, one in 1958 (Arteaga) and one in 1999 (Chinicuila).
63756		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
63757		conservation	eng	Its range includes quite a few protected areas.
63757		distribution	eng	This Yucatan endemic occurs from northern Chiapas, Mexico and central El Petén, Guatemala northward including Belize, and is probably pan-peninsular, but is not yet known from western Campeche, Mexico or northwestern El Petén in Guatemala. It is found at elevations between sea level and 300 m asl in Guatemala.
63757		habitat	eng	These terrestrial, nocturnal, rear-fanged snakes inhabit moist and dry forest. They are most often found in forest, and are not encountered in urban or agricultural areas.
63757		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
63757		threats	eng	Some subpopulations are possibly at risk due to deforestation for slash and burn agriculture, but overall the species is not threatened.
63758		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas throughout its range.
63758		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico from central Veracruz on the Gulf slope, and Chiapas on the Pacific slope, south and east through the Yucatan Peninsula and northern Honduras to Costa Rica. It appears to occur more or less continuously through the northern third of the Yucatan Peninsula and isolated populations to the south in El Peten, Guatemala and Belize. In Guatemala, the species occurs from near sea level to about 1,500 m asl.
63758		habitat	eng	These active, fast-moving, diurnal snakes inhabit tropical and subtropical moist and dry forest, and open situations such as savannas and beaches. It can also be found in disturbed areas.
63758		population	eng	It is a common species.
63758		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63759		conservation	eng	The type locality is within Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. Further specimens are needed to verify the taxonomic status of this species. More information on range, ecology, population and threats is also needed.
63759		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality; Ejido Ruiz Cortines on the southeastern slope of the San Martín Tuxtla Volcano, in the Los Tuxtlas region of the state of Veracruz, Mexico, from 1,050 m asl.
63759		habitat	eng	The one specimen was collected in rainforest on the southeastern slope of a volcano.
63759		population	eng	This species is currently known only from one specimen. There is no information known about the population status of this species.
63759		threats	eng	The range of the species is within a protected area so it is unlikely to be experiencing substantial habitat destruction. However, with only one specimen known it is impossible to hypothesize if there are any threats to the species overall.
63760		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. Its range includes a few protected areas.
63760		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific coast of Mexico, from northern Nayarit to the central Chiapas depression, including Balsas Basin and the Oaxacan valley in Morelos and Puebla. It occurs up to 1,000 m asl.
63760		habitat	eng	This is a very adaptable species occurring in a wide variety of habitats: tropical dry forests, semi-deciduous forest, grassland, cultivated land, mangroves, urban areas, etc.
63760		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species.
63760		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
63761		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected area.
63761		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sierra Mixe, southern Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from 1,700 to 3,080 m asl.
63761		habitat	eng	The species is semi fossorial and can be found under rocks and logs in areas of pine and pine-oak forest. It is also recorded from cloud forest. It also persists, possibly in reduced populations in heavily disturbed habitat.
63761		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, but is regularly collected.
63761		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for corn fields.
63762		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is present in at least five protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species.
63762		distribution	eng	This widespread species is endemic to central and southern Mexico. It has been recorded from the States of Distrito Federal, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, Oaxaca and Puebla. It is found between 1,500 and 3,080 m asl.
63762		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical decidous forest, pine forest, oak forest, montane cloud forest and semi-arid habitats such as dry scrubland. It is found in disturbed areas including agricultural land. It is an oviparous species.
63762		population	eng	It is a very common species.
63762		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It adapts well to disturbed areas.
63763		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas (eg. the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve). Further research is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.
63763		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in central and southwestern Mexico from Jalisco, Michoacan, Guanajuato, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Distrito Federal, Estado de Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz and Oaxaca. It ranges between 1,750 and 3,100 m asl.
63763		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species found under rocks and logs in primary and secondary arid tropical scrub and tropical deciduous forest in the north of its range, and pine, pine-oak forest and fir forest, xerophilous vegetation and <em>Opuntia</em> in the south. It is found in disturbed and agricultural areas. It has been collected under rocks and leaf-litter. It is an oviparous species.
63763		population	eng	It is very common and regularly recorded.
63763		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable widespread species.
63764		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in the Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.
63764		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca in Mexico. Its elevational range is from 1,730 to 3,200 m asl.
63764		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species commonly found under rocks and bark and even under trash in pine, pine-oak, and deciduous forests. It can also be found in secondary forest and even in corn fields.
63764		population	eng	There are two parts to the species range, and it is uncommon in both.  It has been collected as recently as 2004 in Oaxaca.
63764		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
63765		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
63765		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Mexico, from Chihuahua south to Guerrero and Oaxaca. It occurs from 1,900 to 2,700 m asl.
63765		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of a diversity of habitats from high aridity tropical scrub and dry grasslands to tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. It is found under rocks or fallen tree trunks, or uses burrows under the ground. It feeds on insects and small vertebrates, including frogs and other snakes, and is a viviparous species.
63765		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its range.
63765		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63766		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63766		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in the west of the United States, extending into extreme southwestern Canada. Its range extends from northern and central California (along the Coast Ranges south to San Luis Obispo County and the Sierra Nevada south to Tulare County) north to the Willamette Valley, Oregon, and also includes the Puget Lowland southwest of Tacoma (at least formerly) and scattered locations on the east side of the Cascades in Washington and north-central Oregon, as well as the southern end of Vancouver Island and the nearby Gulf Islands British Columbia, at elevations from sea level to around 2,010 m (6,600 feet) (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Leonard and Ovaska 1998, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). A record from near McGillivray Lake in south-central British Columbia needs confirmation (Stebbins 2003).
63766		habitat	eng	Habitat includes moist situations in pastures, meadows, oak woodlands, broken chaparral, and the edges of coniferous or hardwood forests (Stebbins 2003); also shrubby rabbitbrush-sagebrush (Weaver 2004, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 35: 176). The long-tailed form appears to be associated with coniferous forest habitats that are relatively cool and humid. This snake generally is found under logs, rocks, fallen branches, or other cover. It retreats underground during dry periods.
63766		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped about 30 collection sites in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Many more sites exist in California. The adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This species is locally common. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably stable.
63766		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
63767		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
63767		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at Sierra de Juarez and Sierra Mazateca. It ranges from elevations of 1,200 to 1,865 m asl.
63767		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of cloud forest. It has not been collected from disturbed areas.
63767		population	eng	It is a rare species, known only from a few specimens.
63767		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
63768		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
63768		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Veracruz eastward through northern Chiapas, Mexico to central El Petén in Guatemala, then discontinuously through Central America to eastern Panama and adjacent Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300 m asl.
63768		habitat	eng	This terrestrial and diurnal snake inhabits lowland tropical wet forest.  It most likely also occurs in degraded forests but not in anthropogenic habitats.
63768		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63768		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
63769		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in national parks or other well-protected areas.
63769		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic coast of North America (Conant and Collins 1991, Stebbins 2003). The northern limit of the more or less continuous portion of the range reaches Nova Scotia, southern Quebec, southern Ontario in Canada, Minnesota, southeastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, southeastern Colorado, and Arizona in the United States. The southern limit extends to San Luis Potosi (Mexico), the Gulf Coast of the United States, and southern Florida. The species also occurs disjunctly in western North America in eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, and it ranges from southern Washington through western Oregon and throughout much of California (except the Central Valley and deserts) into northwestern Baja California, including Islas Todos Santos and San Martin along the Pacific Coast (Grismer 2002). This species has been introduced on Grand Cayman Island (probably via ornamental plants from southern Florida), but it is unknown whether or not the species is established there (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
63769		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in forests, woodlands, grassland, chaparral, and riparian corridors in arid regions (Stebbins 2003). Habitats are moist, at least seasonally. One or multiple individuals often are found near abandoned buildings and in junk piles in wooded areas. During daylight hours, this snake generally hides underground, in or under logs, or under rocks, stumps or other surface cover. Eggs are laid (often communally) underground or under logs or rocks.
63769		population	eng	This species is represented by thousands of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 1,000,000. Local subpopulations may include several thousand individuals (e.g., Fitch 1975, 1982). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are very large and probably relatively stable.
63769		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified. Many local populations have been lost or reduced as a result of habitat destruction (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but these appear to amount to a small minority of the total distribution.
63770		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.
63770		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from eastern Campeche, Mexico and Central Belize northward through Quintana Roo and Yucatan in Mexico. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 300 m asl.
63770		habitat	eng	This species occupies the xeric thorn forest of northwestern Yucatan and the taller, more mesic forest on the east side of the Peninsula. It seems to be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification and can even be found in deforested areas.
63770		population	eng	It is a common and regularly recorded species.
63770		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. They eat snails, so are dependent on the distribution of snails which may be more adversely affected by deforestation.
63771		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least one protected area: the Biosphere Reserve of Chamela-Cuixmala. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).
63771		distribution	eng	This species is known from two areas in western Jalisco, and southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima, Mexico.
63771		habitat	eng	It occurs most commonly on shrubs and trees in areas of tropical decidous forest and tropical semi-decidous forest.
63771		population	eng	Nothing is known about the species' population size. It is possibly rare; there are few specimens in collections.
63771		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (deforestation) is a problem in parts of the species' range, but this is not thought to be a significant threat across the whole range. A dam is in process of being constructed on the Marabasco River which will flood an area of around 10 km². This project may be completed by 2008.
63772		conservation	eng	There is no information.
63772		distribution	eng	It is suspected that the only known specimen of this species originated from South America and not Tabasco, Mexico, as was reported in the original description.
63772		habitat	eng	There is no information.
63772		population	eng	Only one specimen has ever been collected.
63772		threats	eng	There is no information.
63773		conservation	eng	Several occurrences are on managed areas (federal, state, and private), but these are still subject to some unauthorized collection. Many managed areas are too small to support a viable population by themselves.
63773		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its historical range extended throughout the lower Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States, from southern South Carolina through Georgia and Florida to the Florida Keys, and west to southern Alabama and perhaps southeastern Mississippi. Its current range includes southern Georgia (most common in the southeast; see Diemer and Speake 1983) and Florida (widely distributed throughout the state, south to the Keys, though perhaps very localized in the panhandle; Moler 1985, 1992; see also Ballard 1992). The species is apparently very rare or extirpated in Alabama, Mississippi, and South Carolina. Recent reintroductions have been made in Florida, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and Mississippi. One reintroduced population may be thriving in Covington County, Alabama.
63773		habitat	eng	Its habitat includes sandhill regions dominated by mature longleaf pines, turkey oaks, and wiregrass; flatwoods; most types of hammocks; coastal scrub; dry glades; palmetto flats; prairie; brushy riparian and canal corridors; and wet fields (Matthews and Moseley 1990, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Occupied sites are often near wetlands and frequently are in association with Gopher Tortoise burrows. Pineland habitat is maintained by periodic fires. Viable populations of this species require relatively large tracts of suitable habitat. Refuges include tortoise burrows, stump holes, land crab burrows, armadillo burrows, or similar sites. Eggs may be laid in gopher (<em>Geomys</em>) burrows (Ashton and Ashton 1981). See USFWS (1998) for further information.
63773		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations, but many of these may not represent populations with good viability. This species is extant in many sites in southeastern Georgia; Diemer and Speake (1983) mapped well over 100 locations in perhaps several dozen counties. In Florida, the snake is known from about 400 locations, though most records represent single specimens. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least 1 adult per sq. kilometer in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). The number of occurrences and range have been reduced significantly in the past 40 years; the species underwent a population decline in the 1960s and 1970s. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining." Based on current rates of habitat destruction and degradation, USFWS (1998) surmised that the range-wide population is declining, although the rate of decline is uncertain.
63773		threats	eng	Decline is attributed to loss of mature longleaf pine habitat (e.g., conversion to slash and sand pine plantation, urbanization, citrus, mining, etc.), commercial collecting for pet trade (now illegal and has declined), and former widespread gassing of tortoise burrows (to collect rattlesnakes) (USFWS 1998). In northern Florida and adjacent southern Alabama and Georgia, important refugia have been lost with the decline in the Gopher Tortoise population (fewer burrows available) and the removal of stumps by the resinous wood industry; elsewhere, habitat fragmentation is a problem (Moler 1992).
63774		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
63774		distribution	eng	The range extends in the United States from southern Texas and Sonora south through the Gulf Coast of Mexico through the Yucatan peninsula including Guatemala and Belize. On the Pacific slope it extends from Sinaloa, Mexico, southward to lower Central America. The elevational range is from near sea level to around 1,900 m asl (6,230 feet) (Campbell 1998).
63774		habitat	eng	In the southern part of the range, habitat includes tropical and subtropical wet, moist, and dry forests (including secondary growth and often near water), edges of forest clearings, riparian zones through open areas, savannas, and mangroves (Campbell 1998, Lee 2000). In Texas, it occurs primarily along riparian corridors in thorn brush woodland and mesquite savanna of the coastal plain, but also in prairies, coastal sandhills, and limestone desert (Tennant 1998). This is a primarily terrestrial snake that often uses burrows. Eggs may be laid in gopher (<em>Geomys</em>) burrows or similar sites. In Mexico the species occupies a variety of habitats including savannas, mangroves, thorn forests, and taller wetter forests.
63774		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number (probably hundreds) of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in McCranie 1980). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one adult per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 200,000 sq. km). The species has declined in distribution and abundance at the northern end of the range in Texas, but it remains locally common there in some areas (Irwin 1995). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable or at least not declining more than 10% over 10 years or three generations. The species is common in Mexico.
63774		threats	eng	In Texas, threats include habitat destruction and fragmentation, mortality on roads, wanton killing, and, to a lesser degree, collection for the pet trade (Tennant 1984, Ernst and Ernst 2003). However, in most of the range, this species does not appear to be significantly threatened. There are no major threats to the species in Mexico.
63775		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Research on the population status of the species is needed.
63775		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern San Luis Potosí, Mexico south to northwestern Honduras on the Atlantic versant and from south-central Oaxaca, Mexico to northern Nicaragua on the Pacific versant. The elevational range is from 850 to 2,200 m asl.
63775		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lower montane moist forest and cloud forest. It also occurs in cultivated areas and degraded forest.
63775		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63775		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
63776		conservation	eng	The Jalisco record is from an area which is going to become a reserve, in a canyon close to Guadalajara.
63776		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species has been recorded only from western Mexico, in Sinaloa (on the coastal plain near Elota), around San Blas in coastal Nayarit, in Jalisco (close to Guadelajara), and in Carretera Playa Azul-Manzanillo in Michoacán (43 m asl). All records seem to be on the Pacific coastal plain, except the Guadelajara locality. It has been recorded from near sea-level up to 1,189 m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, and it is assumed to occur in suitable habitat between known localities.
63776		habitat	eng	The species seems to be restricted to the tropical deciduous forests and scrub forest covering the lowlands and mid-elevations in Pacific Mexico. It is a secretive, burrowing species, probably living mainly in leaf-litter.
63776		population	eng	There is very little information. It seems to be common near San Blas (P. Ponce-Camps pers. comm.). It is a very secretive species and so has probably been under-recorded.
63776		threats	eng	No threats have been directly identified. If it is dependent on forest leaf-litter, then it might be threatened by habitat loss for agriculture, at least locally, but tropical deciduous forest is still extensive within its range.
63777		conservation	eng	No information is available. It is a priority to determine whether or not this is a valid species.
63777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla San Marcos in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
63777		habitat	eng	It has been found among gypsum boulders on a steep hillside. It presumably lives in xerophylic scrub.
63777		population	eng	There is no information, as it is known from only a few records.
63777		threats	eng	No information is available.
63778		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected areas.
63778		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species ranges from Bahía San Juanico, in the east-central Baja California peninsula, south-east to northern Bahia de los Burros and southward continuously along the peninsula to Cabo San Lucas. It also occurs on the Pacific island of Santa Margarita and on Cerralvo and Danzante islands in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
63778		habitat	eng	This species is mainly associated to rocky areas such as dry stream-beds, lava flows, boulder-strewn hillsides and deep rocky canyons, occurring up to the base of the pine-oak woodland in the Sierra de la Laguna region.
63778		population	eng	It is a secretive animal that is not often encountered.
63778		threats	eng	There are no threats identified for this species.
63779		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63779		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, west to eastern Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois (Conant and Collins 1991, Mitchell 1994, Tennant 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63779		habitat	eng	Habitat includes marshes, swampy weedy lake margins, wetlands along the edges of large rivers, oxbow lakes, beaver ponds, slow mud-bottomed streams, shallow sloughs with rotting logs, floodplains, drainage ditches, and brackish tidal areas (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This fossorial, semi-aquatic snake burrows in soft soil and among wet debris and mats of vegetation along the water's edge. Eggs are laid in earthen cavity, sometimes in alligator nests (<em>Copeia</em> 1993: 219-222). In South Carolina, juveniles entered aquatic habitats in spring (mainly) or in autumn (fall) (Semlitsch <em>et al</em>. 1988).
63779		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and seldom seen by casual observers, but it is nevertheless common in many areas of suitable habitat. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63779		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
63780		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are protected in state parks, wildlife refuges, national seashores, etc.
63780		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range extends along the Coastal Plain from southern Maryland to Florida, west to the Mississippi River (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63780		habitat	eng	This snake lives primarily in or near rivers, creeks, swamps, springs, open marshes, including brackish tidal areas; it burrows into soil, wet debris, and mats of vegetation along the water's edge, and it may shelter among cypress roots, logs, stone piles, or dock pillings; in some areas hibernation occurs in uplands near water (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003). In South Carolina, hatchlings presumably overwintered on land in the vicinity of the nest; in March and April they moved overland to an aquatic site where they remained if conditions remained suitable; they moved to a neighbouring aquatic area if the site became unsuitable (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 1977). Eggs are laid in a cavity in sandy soil.
63780		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and is probably much larger. This snake is secretive but can occur in dense populations (Mount 1975, Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is apparently uncommon in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Tennant (1997) reported it as uncommon to rare in Florida but regularly encountered when conditions are right. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63780		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat alteration (wetlands drainage and urbanization) and collecting for the pet trade have decimated some populations (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but overall it is not significantly threatened.
63781		conservation	eng	It is present in a small part of the Reserva de la Biosfera Meztitlan, Hidalgo. Further research is needed into the distribution, biology and ecology of this species.
63781		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. It is known only from two sites, the type locality of Zoquizoqipan in Hidalgo, and Guadalcazar in San Luis Potosi. It may range between the two known sites, however, there is little additional suitable habitat away from this area and it is believed to be a restricted range species. It occurs between around 1,200 and 1,800 m asl.
63781		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found in the specific ecotone between dry xerophytic vegetation and higher juniper forest. It can be found in primary and secondary vegetation, it has been recorded from cultivated agave fields although this is not especially good habitat. This species lives in tunnels under rocks. It is an oviparous species.
63781		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens and may be naturally rare.
63781		threats	eng	It has a limited distribution that is threatened by road construction and fragmentation (general agricultural development) of suitable xerophytic scrub vegetation. It is not thought to move between habitat fragments.
63782		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not found in any protected areas.
63782		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific drainage of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Niltepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from 500 to 1,000 m asl.
63782		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of dry forest. It is a terrestrial species, and can be found under rocks.
63782		population	eng	This is not a common species.
63782		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63783		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It may not be a valid species; further research is needed to verify its taxonomic status. It is not known from any protected areas.
63783		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type-locality; near Chilpancingo De Los Bravos, in Guerrero, Mexico.
63783		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species occurring in cloud forest and pine-oak forest.
63783		population	eng	There is no data available, probably due to its fossorial habitats.
63783		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
63784		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are recommended.
63784		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern Texas, United States, through northeastern Mexico to Hidalgo, Puebla, and northern Veracruz (Hardy 1976, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to at least 1,500 m (Hardy 1976).
63784		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include thorn brush woodland (e.g., cactus, mesquite, acacia, paloverde; especially near water or along the edges of agricultural fields) and lower Rio Grande floodplain in lowland southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas (also recently irrigated lawns near human habitation in habitats encompassed by towns or suburbs), tropical deciduous forest in Veracruz, Hidalgo and southern Tamaulipas (Hardy 1976, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snakes burrows into soft soil. It is able to adapt to degraded habitats.
63784		population	eng	This species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, although Hardy (1976) mapped only 33 collection sites rangewide (about eight of them in Texas), more recently Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped more than 50 localities in Texas alone. The species is secretive and probably occurs in more locations than is now known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 10,000 km²). This species is considered to be common (but secretive) within its limited range in Texas (Tennant 1998). The population trend is unknown but is likely to be relatively stable. In Mexico, the species is also considered common and relatively stable.
63784		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species.
63785		conservation	eng	Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. More information on range, ecology and threats for this species is needed.
63785		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Gulf of Mexico drainage system of Veracruz and Oaxaca in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico.
63785		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical evergreen forest. It is not known if it is able to adapt to disturbed habitats.
63785		population	eng	It is only known from specimens collected a long time ago, and is considered to be a rare species.
63785		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63786		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
63786		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs at elevations around 100 m asl.
63786		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical deciduous forest. It is not known whether it is able to adapt to disturbed areas.
63786		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
63786		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63787		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not occur in any protected areas.
63787		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of Totontepec on the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Mixe, Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,000 m asl.
63787		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower cloud forest. It can also persist in cleared, wet grassy areas.
63787		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
63787		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
63788		conservation	eng	It is present in the protected areas of Sierra de Manantlan in Jalisco, and the Nedvado de Colima in Colima. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, natural history and threats to this species.
63788		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to the Central Plateau of Mexico. The type specimen was recorded from the neighbourhood of Mexico City in 1868. Populations are currently known from southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima. The species may be more widespread than is currently known. It has been recorded between 1,800 and 2,600 m asl.
63788		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species, generally present in primary pine and fir forests, although it can be found in disturbed habitat close to primary forest. It is an oviparous species.
63788		population	eng	It is difficult to find, but appears to be uncommon.
63788		threats	eng	The species appears to be threatened by deforestation throughout its known range.
63789		conservation	eng	This is a poorly known species, field work is necessary to evaluate the present conservation status of the populations.
63789		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cumbres de Acultzingo, west-central Veracruz, Mexico southeast of Puebla as well as in adjacent northern Oaxaca. Its elevation range is from 1,000 to 2,300 m asl.
63789		habitat	eng	The species has been found in pine forest, oak forest, and cloud forest. The species was collected in a secondary forest (and possibly cultivated) areas.
63789		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the species is thought to be rare. It is known from only four specimens, the last one of which was collected in 2003.
63789		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified. It might be threatened by habitat destruction.
63790		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Tacaná Biosphere Reserve.
63790		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality; about 1,035m asl on the Pacific slope of southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. It is also likely to occur in adjacent Guatemala.
63790		habitat	eng	All records are from intact montane rain forest.
63790		population	eng	There is very little information available due to its fossorial habitats. The most recent record is from 1982. It is likely to have a stable population because much of its habitat remains.
63790		threats	eng	Much of the forest remains in the area where this species is known. It is possibly threatened by deforestation.
63791		conservation	eng	Its range in Mexico includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
63791		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes of Guatemala, and the adjacent Caribbean slopes of Chiapas, the Sierra de los Tuxtlas of Veracruz, and the Sierra Madre Oriental of Puebla in Mexico. It occurs from 150 to 1,500 m asl.
63791		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found in wet forest, pine-oak forest and cloud forest as well as secondary and degraded forest. It has also been recorded from coffee plantations.
63791		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63791		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.
63792		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been collected in the Parque Nacional Cañon del Rio Blanco. Further research is needed into the distribution, threats and ecology of this species.
63792		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mirador and Cerro Aquila, in Veracruz, Mexico. It was collected from about 1,150 to 1,800 m asl.
63792		habitat	eng	It occurs in the transition habitat between cloud forest and pine-oak forest. It has been recorded in primary forest. It is an oviparous species.
63792		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens, one of which (the holotype) has been lost. The second specimen was collected in 1998.
63792		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. It was collected in an area that has been severely fragmented by habitat loss.
63793		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.
63793		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jalapa, Veracruz, and several localities in the highlands of Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from about 1,420 to 2,260 m asl.
63793		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak forest and cloud forest, and can also be found in pastures and coffee plantations.
63793		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, although its apparent rarity is probably due to its secretive habits.
63793		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63794		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is protected in the Comaltepec community forest.
63794		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the northern slopes of the Sierra Juarez, in Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 1,500 to 2,200 m asl.
63794		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud forest, and can also be found on the edges of clearings.
63794		population	eng	It is moderately abundant and regularly seen despite its secretive habits.
63794		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63795		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two protected areas.
63795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico. Its known distribution is patchy: western slope of Sierra Madre Occidental, Chihuahua; Sierra Madre in Durango and Sinaloa; southern edge of the Mexican Plateau in Jalisco, Zacatecas, Nayarit and Aguascalientes; and in Michoacan. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,050 m asl.
63795		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species, occurring in the leaf-litter in oak, pine and fir forests.
63795		population	eng	It is an uncommon species. The genus is fossorial and difficult to find. Although currently the known range is patchy, new population records are reported regularly.
63795		threats	eng	This is a highland species: deforestation for agriculture is occurring in parts of the range and this could be a threat to some subpopulations. However, this is not a threat across the whole range.
63796		conservation	eng	It is found in El Triunfo and Tacana Biosphere Reserve, in Mexico.
63796		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific versant of southeastern Chiapas, Mexico to adjacent Guatemala, from 1,000 to 1,200 m asl.
63796		habitat	eng	It occurs in wet forest and cloud forest. It has not been found in disturbed areas.
63796		population	eng	It is a very secretive snake, so it is difficult to estimate the population size, but it is thought to be abundant.
63796		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
63797		conservation	eng	More information is needed on life history, population, range, habitat status and threats for this species.
63797		distribution	eng	This species is sympatric with <em>Geophis nigrocinctus</em> and <em>Geophis pyburni</em>, occurring in the Sierra de Coalcoman, northern Michoacan, Mexico. It is known from 2,100 m asl.
63797		habitat	eng	A fossorial species, mainly inhabiting limestone outcrops in pine-oak forests.
63797		population	eng	The population size is not known, as it is not a well studied species.
63797		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known. The Sierra de Coalcoman is an extensive area and is difficult to access. However, several human settlements exist there and disturbance caused by human activities is probable.
63798		conservation	eng	Further research is needed to determine the range, population, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.
63798		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the indefinite type locality; Tehuantepec, Mexico. Judging by the habitats of other species, this locality probably refers to the general region rather than to the lowland environs of the city itself. It is not possible to create a range map. The elevational range is not known.
63798		habitat	eng	It probably occurred in tropical deciduous forest.
63798		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species because it is only known from a specimen collected in the 1800s.
63798		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63799		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected area, although the nearby community of Comaltepec protects some forest.
63799		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Metates, Sierra de Juarez, in north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 800 m asl.
63799		habitat	eng	The species occurs only in tropical evergreen forest. It is not known whether the species will persist in secondary forest or coffee plantations, although some other species of <em>Geophis</em> inhabit coffee plantations.
63799		population	eng	It is known from four specimens collected in 1986. There have been no sightings since then. Much of the habitat in the vicinity of the type locality has recently been converted into coffee plantations.
63799		threats	eng	Much of the forest near the type locality has been converted to coffee plantations, but it is not known whether this is a threat to the species.
63800		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
63800		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Los Tuxtlas region in southern Veracruz, Mexico. It occurs from 100 to 600 m asl.
63800		habitat	eng	It occurs beneath rocks and under the ground in areas of tropical rainforest. It has only been recorded from primary forest.
63800		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, possibly rare.
63800		threats	eng	Deforestation for cattle grazing and agriculture is a major threat.
63801		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It probably occurs in Los Chimalapas Biosphere Reserve.
63801		distribution	eng	This species is known from extreme southeastern Oaxaca and the northern slopes of the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It occurs from 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.
63801		habitat	eng	It occurs in wet pine-oak and cloud forest, and is also found along the edges of secondary forest.
63801		population	eng	it is known from only a handful of records, but its apparent rarity is probably due to its secretive habits.
63801		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63802		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population, ecology and threats is needed for this species.
63802		distribution	eng	This species is known from Putla on the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 900 m asl.
63802		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits the lowlands of tropical semidecidous forests. It can also be found in coffee plantations.
63802		population	eng	it is known from very few specimens and has not been seen since before 1965.
63802		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63803		conservation	eng	The area in which the species was collected has been proposed as a Parque Nacional. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, biology and threats to this species.
63803		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it has only been recorded in the Sierra de Alvarez, San Luis Potosi, at an elevation of about 2,400 m asl.
63803		habitat	eng	It is a poorly-known, largely fossorial species that has been recorded from humid montane forest. It is not thought to occur outside of forest habitats. It is presumed to be oviparous. Nothing further is known about the ecology of this species.
63803		population	eng	It is presumed to be a rare species. There have been no recent records.
63803		threats	eng	The area in which this species was collected has been heavily deforested for conversion to cropland and cattle pasture.
63804		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further field studies are needed for this species.
63804		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only from the type locality "Cicio" in extreme eastern Michoacán, Mexico. It has been collected at 1,630 m asl.
63804		habitat	eng	The species is mainly fossorial, it occurs in a volcanic area where the original vegetation is the pine-oak forest in an ecotone with tropical decidous forest. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.
63804		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype collected in 1941.
63804		threats	eng	The threats to this poorly-known species are not known.
63805		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to fully establish the distribution of this species.
63805		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. It has been recorded from the highlands of San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Puebla and Veracruz. It has usually been recorded at more than 1,500 m asl.
63805		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species present in primary and secondary humid montane forest, pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It can also be found in disturbed forest and in cattle ranches. It is an oviparous species.
63805		population	eng	It is a common species where it occurs.
63805		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.
63806		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in El Triundo, and Tacana Biosphere Reserves, in Mexico.
63806		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific versant of Chiapas, Mexico and Guatemala and adjacent parts of the Guatemalan Plateau and Southeastern Highlands in eastern Guatemala. Its elevational range is from 600 to 1,500 m asl.
63806		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of tropical moist forest, it can also be found in disturbed areas including coffee plantations.
63806		population	eng	This is a fossorial species that is frequently encountered. The true population size is unknown.
63806		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
63807		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan, Jalisco. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and natural history of the species.
63807		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico. It has been recorded from Dos Aguas town in the Sierra de Coalcomàn, northern Michoacan, and from Las Joyas, Sierra de Manantlan, Jalisco. It is found between 1,900 and 2,100 m asl.
63807		habitat	eng	The species inhabits pine-oak and cloud forests. It has only been recorded within forest. The species is found on the forest floor and under leaf-litter. It is an oviparous species.
63807		population	eng	The population abundance is not known; it is only known from a few specimens.
63807		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to the species; there is not thought to be any habitat disturbance where it has been recorded.
63808		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Omiltemi protected state park.
63808		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Omilteme, in Guerrero, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,000 m asl.
63808		habitat	eng	This fossorial species occurs In the pine-oak forest. It has also been collected often in altered landscapes (corn fields).
63808		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
63808		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to small-holder farming, wood collection, and human settlement is prevalent in the area but is not currently considered a threat to the species. As long as there are earthworms this species is fine.
63809		conservation	eng	It is present in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan, in Jalisco. Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species.
63809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico. It has been recorded from Patzcuaro, central Michoacan; Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan, Jalisco; and there is a doubtful record from Mexico City. It is found at elevations of between 1,800 and 2,000 m asl.
63809		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species occurring in primary pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is possible that it may occur in secondary forest close to primary forest, but it is not found outside of forest habitats. It is an oviparous species.
63809		population	eng	Although it is generally considered to be uncommon, in Jalisco it is reasonably common in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan.
63809		threats	eng	It is threatened at Patzcuaro by habitat loss through clearance of forest for agricultural land. It is not threatened in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan.
63810		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the range, population, biology, habitat status, and threats for this species. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
63810		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality from Rancho La Pastilla in the Sierra de Coalcoman, in Michoacan, Mexico, at 2,164 m asl.
63810		habitat	eng	Known specimens of this species were found under dead wood and logs on a hillside in semi cleared areas surrounded by oak and pine forests.
63810		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since its description.
63810		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known. The are of the type locality has been impacted by human activities, however, for several years there has been reforestation in the area.
63811		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Tacaná Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.
63811		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Chiapas, Mexico, and across the Guatemalan highlands. It has also been recorded from Volcan Santa Ana in El Salvador. Its elevational range is from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.
63811		habitat	eng	It occurs mostly in pine-oak forests. It also occurs in gardens, coffee groves, and other disturbed habitats including wet pastures.
63811		population	eng	It is an abundant species. For example, this is the most abundant snake occurring near Guatemala City.
63811		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
63812		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in a protected area. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
63812		distribution	eng	This species is known only from outside of Putla, in Oaxaca, Mexico, from 900 m asl. It may occur more widely than is currently known.
63812		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is not known, but it is presumably terrestrial.
63812		population	eng	The species is known only from a single record collected before the mid 1960s. Its current population status is unknown.
63812		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63813		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected area. Further information on range, population, ecology and threats is needed for this species.
63813		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Pluma Hidalgo, in Oaxaca, Mexico, from approximately 1,400 m asl.
63813		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found in a coffee plantation. There is no other habitat information known about this species.
63813		population	eng	It has not been recorded since it was described in 1894.
63813		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
63814		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional del Rio Blanco. Further research is generally needed into the natural history of this species.
63814		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the eastern slopes of the neovolcanic plateau from Misantla southward to the Cordoba-Orizaba region of Veracruz, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of between 500 and 1,400 m asl.
63814		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary pine-oak and cloud forest, shrubland and disturbed habitats including agricultural land and urban areas. It is an oviparous species.
63814		population	eng	It is a fossorial species that is considered to be very common.
63814		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
63815		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies are needed to determine whether this is a valid species.
63815		distribution	eng	The range of this species is still uncertain, some records come from Guerrero and others from Coalcoman, Michoacan, Mexico.
63815		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known.
63815		population	eng	It is known from only a couple of specimens, which are old. There is taxonomic uncertainty with this species.
63815		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63816		conservation	eng	The species occurs inside two protected areas: Colima Volcano and Uruapan. More information is needed on the range, population size and trends, etc. of this species.
63816		distribution	eng	This species is known from two widely separated areas: the slopes of Colima Volcano, Jalisco; and Uruapan in and around, central Michoacan, Mexico. It is not known if the species occurs in between these areas. It occurs at approximately 2,200 m asl.
63816		habitat	eng	A fossorial species, it occurs in pine-oak forest on the slopes of mountains.
63816		population	eng	The species is rare, although more common on Colima Volcano.
63816		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation (deforestation for agriculture and human settlements) occurs outside of Uruapan Park area, but probably not inside the park or on Colima Volcano.
63817		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are in national parks and other protected areas.
63817		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southeastern Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas in the United States, south to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Hardy 1976, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range is around 305 to 2,100 m asl (1,000 to 6,890 feet) (Degenahrdt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
63817		habitat	eng	The habitat of this semi-fossorial snake is primarily grassy foothills (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), but the species also occurs in lower desert communities (e.g., mesquite, mesquite-creosote bush, creosote bush-agave) and in higher elevations with persimmon-shin oak, oak-juniper savanna and woodland, and pinyon-juniper woodland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). At the northern limit of the range at the base of the Texas Panhandle, it occupies flat to rolling prairie grassland with gypsum and limestone outcroppings (Ferguson 1965). This species occurs in areas of loose soil, which may be rocky but may not include much sand or gravel (Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63817		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped more than 50 collection sites in New Mexico. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped several dozen collection sites in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of two adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 68,000 sq km.). This snake is fairly common in Texas (Tennant 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The species is not common in other parts of its range, including Mexico.
63817		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species.
63818		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
63818		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and northwestern Mexico, extending marginally into the southwestern United States. Its range extends from extreme south-central Arizona (Pataginia-Pajarito Mountains area), southward through Sonora and Sinaloa to Nayarit, at elevations from near sea level to about 1,340 m asl (Stebbins 2003).
63818		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat is deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, but it is also found in canyon bottoms, outwash plains, creosote bush desert, mesquite grassland foothills (including partly cultivated sections), thorn woodland, and dry tropical and subtropical forest (Stebbins 2003). This snake burrows into loose soil.
63818		population	eng	In Mexico this species is common in the central and southern parts of its range. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one to 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 10,000 sq. km). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
63818		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species.
63819		conservation	eng	This species probably is effectively protected in at least several areas of federal, state, and private lands (e.g., national parks and grasslands, state wildlife management areas, large cattle ranches).
63819		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Canada, through the United States to northern Mexico. Its range extends from southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba southward through primarily the Great Plains region to southeastern Arizona and central Mexico (San Luis Potosi), discontinuously east to Minnesota, Illinois, Missouri, and eastern Texas, and disjunctly west to central Wyoming; reported occurrence in northwestern Colorado need verification (Conant and Collins 1991, Walley and Eckerman 1999, Stebbins 2003). The single record for Arkansas is based on a misidentified specimen (Irwin 2001). Its elevational range is from near sea level to around 2,440 m asl (8,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63819		habitat	eng	Its habitat consists of areas with sandy or gravelly soils, including prairies, sandhills, wide valleys, river floodplains, bajadas, mesquite grassland, thornscrub, semi-desert areas, creosote bush desert, open montane woodland, semiagricultural areas (but not intensively cultivated land), margins of irrigation ditches, and sometimes mountain canyon bottoms (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Periods of inactivity are spent burrowed in the soil or in existing burrows. Eggs are laid in nests a few inches below the ground surface (Platt 1969).
63819		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, and Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. Historically, local declines probably occurred as a result of habitat destruction. The current trend is probably relatively stable overall, with local declines associated with habitat loss or degradation. Overall, declines are probably less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63819		threats	eng	Conversion of prairie habitat to agricultural use has caused local declines, but overall it is not significantly threatened.
63820		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63820		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the united States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from southern New England through southern Ontario to Minnesota and South Dakota, and south to southern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63820		habitat	eng	Habitats include openly wooded upland hills, forest edges, fields, woodland meadows, prairies, forest-grassland ecotones, sand plains, barrier islands, fire-managed pinelands, river valleys, riparian zones, and various other habitats with loose soils and amphibian prey. This snake crawls on the surface and burrows into soil. It overwinters in burrows (made by mammal or self-dug) or under rocks of talus slopes. Eggs are laid in nests a few inches below the ground surface (Platt 1969) or in rotting wood (DeGraaf and Rudis 1983).
63820		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many parts of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63820		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, some populations have declined as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.
63821		conservation	eng	Probably some occurrences are in protected areas. However, this snake appears to have disappeared in some large protected areas with relatively pristine habitats (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 2000). Conservation needs include the following: 1) protecting large tracts of suitable habitat; 2) limiting pesticide use in preferred habitat types; 3) educating the public regarding snake's harmlessness; and 4) controlling fire ants on certain parcels of important habitat. Research is urgently needed to determine the factor or combination of factors responsible for the precipitous decline. Once the cause(s) is known, appropriate pro-active management measures may be implemented, and activities shown to be deleterious may be avoided. Specific research on the relationship, if any, between the disappearance of this species and the appearance of imported fire ants is needed.
63821		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the southeast of the United States. It occurs on the Coastal Plain from eastern North Carolina to southern Florida (Lake Okeechobee), west to southeastern Mississippi (Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is now very rare (or possibly extirpated) in the western part of the range in Mississippi and Alabama.
63821		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits open, xeric habitats with well-drained, sandy or sandy-loam soils such as sand ridges, stabilized coastal sand dunes, pine flatwoods, mixed oak-pine woodlands and forests, scrub oak woods, and oak hammocks; also old fields and river floodplains (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake spends considerable time burrowed in the soil. <br/> <br/>Based on <em>Heterodon nasicus</em>, females probably mature at two to three years, and some individuals likely live well into their second decade. Hence generation length may be five to ten years.
63821		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of collection sites, but the species appears to be no longer extant at many of these (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped several dozen collection sites in North Carolina. Adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This is a secretive, fossorial snake that is difficult to detect, so it may be more numerous than available observations indicate. Nevertheless, it appears to be uncommon to rare throughout much of the historical range. In Florida, Tennant (1997) rated it as uncommon to rare but occasionally locally common. Different survey methods may yield different impressions of abundance. For example, in west-central Florida, <em>H. simus</em> was locally common and one of the most frequently observed snake species during pedestrian surveys on roads, but it was seldom trapped by drift fences (Enge and Wood 2002, 2003). Population trend cannot be quantified with any confidence, but clearly there has been a substantial decline (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). Most records are based on specimens that were collected/observed a long time ago and probably reflect only historical presence, as recent records for many of these sites are lacking (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). No recent (1983-1998) records are available for Mississippi, Alabama, and much of the historical range within Georgia. The species was considered quite common in southwestern Georgia in the 1940s and 1950s, but only a few occurrences have been noted in this area since 1970 (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000).  In South Carolina, the species has been seen recently (since 1980) in only 10 of the 20 counties from which it was once known. The population is apparently stable at the Savannah River Plant site in South Carolina. This snake apparently has declined in abundance throughout the range. Current trend data are unavailable, but this snake appears to be declining in area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and abundance (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, data on commercial collection for the pet trade indicate that this snake is still locally common in at least three areas of Florida (Enge and Wood 2003). Assuming a generation time of around 5 years, the rate of decline over the past three generations (15 years) is unknown but may exceed 10%.
63821		threats	eng	Significant threats remain poorly understood. Predation of eggs and hatchlings by red imported fire ants (IFA) may be a factor in the decline (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). The snake's disappearance from certain areas is associated with heavy red IFA infestations. Other factors suggested to be of potential importance include loss of habitat to intensive agricultural/silvicultural activities, widespread pesticide application, road mortality, and the general persecution of snakes by humans. This species apparently can persist in areas of fragmented and altered upland habitats, although cumulative road mortality may be a significant factor, especially for hatchlings (Enge and Wood 2003).
63822		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population and threats is needed before an assessment can be completed for this species.
63822		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species is known from two specimens collected in the east of the state of Querétaro, one from the type locality which is 5 km east of Jalpan at 762 m asl, and another from 0.8 km west of Landa de Matamoros at 1,067 m asl. An additional locality is reported from southern San Luis Potosi by Dixon and Dean (1986).
63822		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from arid tropical scrub forest.
63822		population	eng	This species is still known only from a few specimens and there is no further information available on the status of the population.
63822		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63823		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in national parks and other well-protected areas.
63823		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern British Columbia, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and Kansas southward through the southwestern United States to southern Baja California (including Isla Partida Norte, in the Gulf of California) and Guerrero in mainland Mexico, at elevations from near sea level to around 2,650 m asl (8,700 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Reports of occurrences as far south as Costa Rica (e.g., Ernst and Ernst 2003) are incorrect (Savage 2002).
63823		habitat	eng	This snake generally inhabits arid and semi-arid plains, flats, canyons, and hillsides, usually rocky, dissected or hilly terrain with sandy or gravelly soils, including desert (e.g., creosote bush, sagebrush), prairie, foothill grassland, chaparral, thornscrub, thornforest, pinyon-juniper woodland, scrubby oak-juniper savanna, mesquite savanna, pine-hardwood woodland, and sometimes moist mountain meadows (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Periods of inactivity are spent under rocks or other surface cover, in crevices, or underground. In Idaho, individuals can be found under surface rocks in spring, but not in summer. It feeds on small amphibians and reptiles, and is an oviviparous species.
63823		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. The species occupies a wide range and is locally fairly common. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The population in Mexico is stable.
63823		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified. The habitat generally tends to be unsuitable for human settlement.
63824		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in a few protected areas.
63824		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, where it is known from central Campeche, Quintana Roo and northwards to Yucatan. It occurs from sea level up to 220 m asl.
63824		habitat	eng	This nocturnal snake inhabits the deciduous forest of Yucatan and the taller, more mesic forest in the south of its range. It can also be found in degraded forest, but not human habitats.
63824		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63824		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
63825		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are in national and state parks. In the United States, state wildlife regulations prohibit collection without a permit or license.The species occurs in protected areas within Mexico.
63825		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from southeastern New Mexico (Painter <em>et al</em>. 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996) and southwestern Texas (Werler and Dixon 2000) in the United States, southward to northeastern Durango and extreme western Nuevo Leon, central Mexico (Stebbins 2003), at elevations of 670 to 2,286 m asl (1,200 to 7,500 feet) (Werler and Dixon 2000).
63825		habitat	eng	The species' habitat includes dry, rocky (limestone, igneous) dissected desert terrain (including desert flats, rocky hillsides, canyons, escarpments, limestone ledges, roadcuts, and mountain gaps), vegetated primarily by Chuhuahuan Desert plants such as acacia, lechuguilla, desert willow, creosote bush, mesquite, ocotillo, opuntia, or sotol (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). This secretive snake stays in crevices or under cover during daylight hours.
63825		population	eng	This secretive snake probably occurs in many more localities than are currently known, especially in areas away from roads. It is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000. its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable. The population size is probably also relatively stable, although roadside populations perhaps have been depleted in some areas. No population data exist for this species in Mexico.
63825		threats	eng	This species is one of the most desirable and sought-after snakes in the commercial pet trade in North America. Collectors perhaps have depleted roadside populations in some areas (snakes found on roads are mostly adult males; see Werler and Dixon 2000). The threat from collection has been reduced somewhat in recent years. Collection without a permit is illegal in Texas and New Mexico. Captive breeding has generated a good supply of animals for the pet trade. Populations away from roads (the majority of the population) presumably are not significantly threatened. Occasional persecution by humans occurs in Mexico because of confusion with the coral snake.
63826		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63826		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from northern Florida to southern Texas, and north to Nebraska (west to Thayer County, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 20:13), Illinois, Kentucky, and Maryland (Conant and Collins 1991, Tennant 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63826		habitat	eng	Habitats include various open and semi-open areas, including weedy fields, farmland, barnyards, pastures, prairies, rocky hillsides, thickets, open woodland, sandhills, pine flatwoods, landward side of barrier beaches, coastal salt-grass savannas, marsh borders, and residential areas (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive snake (especially females) spends much time underground or under surface cover. Eggs are laid in an underground cavity (Behler and King 1979).
63826		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number (hundreds) of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see dot maps in Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, and Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63826		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This species thrives on many sorts of minor disturbances or habitat alterations that create openings in forested landscapes. Locally, populations have declined as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses. In Missouri, this species incurred a high rate of mortality as a result of prescribed burning of tallgrass prairie in late October (Frese 2003).
63827		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether this is a valid species. Further research is needed to determine the range, population, ecology and threats to this species.
63827		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Santa Catalina in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
63827		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species; the description is based upon one single individual that was dug out of the centre of a cactus plant. A shed skin, possibly of this species, was found near a small spring. The vegetation predominant in the island is cactus and other xerophilic plants. The species is cryptic and nocturnal, and it is not easily studied.
63827		population	eng	It is known with certainty only from a single specimen, and many attempts to find it have been unsuccessful (Grismer 2002), suggesting that is either rare, or very cryptic and secretive.
63827		threats	eng	There are feral cats on the island, which might pose a threat to the species.
63828		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in national parks and other well-protected areas.
63828		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from the Pacific to the Atlantic coast of North America, from southwestern Oregon, Nevada, southern Utah, southern Colorado, southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, West Virginia, and New Jersey in the United States, south to southern Baja California, northern Sinaloa, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Texas, the U.S. Gulf Coast, and southern Florida, at elevations from sea level to around 2,130 m asl (7,000 feet) (Conant and Collins 1991, Stebbins 2003).
63828		habitat	eng	The species' habitats vary geographically and include open coniferous forest, woodland, swamps, coastal marshes, river bottoms, farmland, prairie, chaparral, and desert. This snake is primarily terrestrial. Periods of inactivity are spent in crevices or burrow, or under rocks, logs, stumps, vegetation, or other cover.
63828		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63828		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Local declines probably have occurred in areas where habitat has been intensively developed for human uses, but in most of the range this species is not threatened.
63829		conservation	eng	The southern island of Isla Todos Santos is not formally protected, but access is restricted as it is a military outpost. A management programme is needed to control the collecting of this species for the pet trade.
63829		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the southern island of Isla Todos Santos, on the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico.
63829		habitat	eng	It lives in coastal sage scrub with open, rocky terrain, and in the rocky, scrubby interior of the island.
63829		population	eng	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered. It is probably not abundant, even in its preferred habitat.
63829		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the international pet trade. Mellink (1995) reported widespread snake traps on Isla Todos Santos. The animals that are collected are exported. Its habitat has also been considerably degraded by collectors who break open rock crevices and overturn rocks.
63830		conservation	eng	It range includes Santa Rosa state protected area.
63830		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is found in Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, the western half of San Luis Potosi, extreme northeastern Jalisco, northwestern Guanajuato, extreme western Tamaulipas, southern Nuevo Leon, and extreme southeastern Coahuila. It occurs from 1,300 to 2,400 m asl.
63830		habitat	eng	It is a very secretive species inhabiting mainly desert areas and woodlands, as well as oak forests and grasslands. It hides under rocks and fallen tree trunks, and can also be found close to houses. Its diet includes amphibians, reptiles and small mammals (Ferri 1992, Vázquez and Quintero 2005). It is oviparous, and lays between three to five eggs (Markel 1990).
63830		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63830		threats	eng	The species is commonly killed because it is confused by local people with the venomous coral snakes. Overall, however, there are no major threats to this species at present.
63831		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in the US; it is not present in any protected areas in Mexico. No conservation measures are currently needed for this species. Further taxonomic research is needed to determine the status of the subspecies <em>L. p. knoblochi</em>.
63831		distribution	eng	The species' range extends discontinuously from east-central Nevada, central and western Utah, Arizona, and southwestern New Mexico in the United States, to eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua, Mexico, at elevations of 850 to 2,800 m asl (2,800 to 9,100 feet) (Tanner 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Occupied areas are often surrounded by large areas of unsuitable arid habitat (Tanner 1983).
63831		habitat	eng	The species' habitats are primarily rocky, montane, and often near streams or springs, but also include lower elevations in mesic canyons (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tanner 1983, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Vegetation may include pinyon-juniper woodland, oak-juniper woodland, pine-oak woodland, pine-Douglas-fir woodland, or chaparral (Stebbins 2003). During daylight hours, this snake may be found among rocks, logs, or dense clumps of vegetation, under objects, or exposed.
63831		population	eng	Tanner (1983) mapped about 56 collection sites rangewide; these are well scattered and represent probably about 50 distinct occurrences or subpopulations. This snake is secretive and occurs in rough terrain that often lacks good access for humans; the number of occurrences is very probably much larger than is currently known. Based on habitat considerations, probably many occurrences have good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one to 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). Compared to the historical situation, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably not declined by more than 25%.
63831		threats	eng	Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that "some populations have been adversely affected by habitat destruction and collecting for the pet trade" but did not elaborate or cite a source of this information. Certainly localized declines have occurred as a result of urbanization and in some roadside populations readily accessible to collectors, but in most areas this snake is not threatened. It is opportunistically collected occasionally as pets, although this is not considered to be a major threat.
63832		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Taxonomic as well as natural history studies for this species are needed.
63832		distribution	eng	This Mexican species ranges from Pazcuaro, central Michoacan, to the west to Chiapala and Tapalpa, and to the east to Queretaro. It is found from about 1,500 to 2,250 m asl
63832		habitat	eng	It is found in thorn forest and pine-oak forest. It can be found in areas of forest fragmented with farmland. It is an oviparous species.
63832		population	eng	It is a common species.
63832		threats	eng	It is heavily commercially collected for the international pet trade, with some illegal trade taking place. It is also threatened by deforestation through conversion of habitat to agricultural land. Animals are sometimes killed on roads.
63833		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.  Further information is needed on range, population, ecology and threats to this species.
63833		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species is currently known from the type locality which is 4 km west of El Palmito on Highway 40, in Municipio Concordia, in the state of Sinaloa (23°33’14.2’’ N, 105°50’47.2’’ W), at 2,000 m asl, and from 10 km further down the highway just across the border in the state of Durango. This region is not well surveyed and it is more than likely that the range of the species is much wider than is currently known.
63833		habitat	eng	The two known specimens were collected along the highway in rugged mixed boreal-tropical forest in a mountainous region.
63833		population	eng	This species is known from two specimens in museums and a few sightings in the field. The lack of records is most likely due to the isolation and ruggedness of the species' range as well as it being a dangerous place to work in the field at present.
63833		threats	eng	The species' range is quite rugged and isolated which affords it some protection from human activities. It may be threatened by the highway that passes through its range but with so few specimens known it is not possible to confirm if there are any threats to this species.
63834		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are in parks and other areas with protected habitat. Accessible sections of these areas are not necessarily well protected against illegal snake collecting.
63834		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southwestern Oregon, south along coastal and interior mountains of California in the United States, to northern Baja California, Mexico (Sierra Juarez, Sierra San Pedro Martir), with isolated populations in south-central Washington and apparently also adjacent northern Oregon, from near sea level to about 2,750 m asl (9,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63834		habitat	eng	The typical habitat of this species consists of moist open coniferous forests, oak woodlands, riparian woodland, chaparral, coastal sage scrub, and openly wooded areas where there are rocks or rotting logs (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). During periods of inactivity, individuals seek shelter under rocks, logs, bark, or underground.
63834		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Zweifel 1975). This snake is secretive and occurs in rough terrain that is often not easily accessible to humans; probably there are many more occurrences than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 and may exceed 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one to 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). The collections of the California Academy of Sciences and the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (University of California, Berkeley) include at least 185 specimens (Greene and Rodriguez-Robles 2003). Localized declines have occurred, but the overall level of decline is probably less than 25% compared to the historical situation. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over three generations or 10 years. In the southern part of its range, populations are restricted to higher elevations, and some of these could be small and threatened.
63834		threats	eng	Some local populations probably have been reduced or eliminated as a result of habitat destruction associated with urbanization. However, much of the range of this snake is in fairly remote country that is not threatened by urbanization. Some populations have probably been detrimentally affected as a result of snake collection by reptile hobbyists and commercial collectors and by the damage collectors do to the microhabitats used by this snake (Grismer 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This has impacted accessible populations (for example, along roads) in particular, but collectors also venture into remote areas for this species. Collectors have in  particular impacted its microhabitat in the southern of its range, in southern California and in Baja California.
63835		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas.
63835		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slope from central Veracruz southeastward through northern Guatemala and Belize. In the Yucatan Peninsula it is probably pan-peninsular, although it is yet to be found in southern El Peten or southernmost Belize. The species occurs on Cozumel. It occurs from near sea level to about 300 m asl.
63835		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and arboreal inhabitant of tropical wet and dry forest. It also occurs in degraded forest. On Isla Cozumel it is common around human habitations.
63835		population	eng	This is a very common species on Cozumel. In other parts of its range it is moderately common. Its population appears stable at present.
63835		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
63836		conservation	eng	The species' range includes several protected areas. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).
63836		distribution	eng	This Mexican species occurs in the Pacific coastal lowlands and adjacent slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental from southern Sinaloa southeastward to the Rio Balsas, and inland in the Balsas in Michoacan and Guerrero. It has been recorded up to elevations of about 2,000 m asl.
63836		habitat	eng	This species is adaptable to a relatively wide variety of habitats, including tropical dry forest, mangrove forest and disturbed areas.
63836		population	eng	It is very abundant across its range.
63836		threats	eng	No significant threats are known to impact this species.
63837		conservation	eng	It is found in la Sepultura Biosphere Reserve and Lagunas de Chacagua National Park in Mexico.
63837		distribution	eng	This species is found from Guerrero, Mexico, along the Pacific coast to Costa Rica; and in Honduras also on the Caribbean side (not mapped here). It occurs from near sea level up to 1,300 m asl.
63837		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry forest and wet forest. It can also be found in disturbed areas. It is a nocturnal and terrestrial snake.
63837		population	eng	No population data are available.
63837		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
63838		conservation	eng	This species is known from La Tobara and San Blas protected areas in coastal Nayarit.
63838		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution, from the central Pacific coast of Sinaloa, southward to central and northwest coast of Jalisco, Mexico. It has been recorded from only five widely separated localities, however suitable habitat exists between these and it is likely to be much more widespread than is currently known.
63838		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest.
63838		population	eng	There is little information on population size for this species. It is considered to be rare.
63838		threats	eng	There is no information about threats to this species. There is some habitat degradation occurring through deforestation, but this is not across the whole range of the species.
63839		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. More work is needed to determine whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
63839		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southern Sonora southward along the foothills and Pacific slopes of the Mexican Plateau to the coastal sierra of Michoacan and thence inland in the Balsas Basin to southwestern Puebla, Mexico.
63839		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry forest and wet forest. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
63839		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.
63839		threats	eng	It is possible that it is being impacted by the loss of its forest habitat, at least in parts of its range.
63840		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least ten protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened).
63840		distribution	eng	A widespread endemic species, occurring from southwestern Chihuahua and southern Sonora to southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico. In part, the range includes the Balsas basin area. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.
63840		habitat	eng	A highly adaptable species, occurring in tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, mangrove forest, oak forest and wet forest. It can also be found in disturbed areas.
63840		population	eng	It is a common to abundant species.
63840		threats	eng	There is some deforestation in parts of the range (for agricultural expansion and human settlement), but this is an adaptable species and deforestation is not likely to be a significant threat at present.
63841		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in El Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera, in Guatemala.
63841		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Chiapas, Mexico, and central Guatemala to northwestern El Salvador and southwestern Honduras. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,000 m asl.
63841		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, and is also present in recently disturbed areas, although it can't persist a long time in that environment.
63841		population	eng	It is becoming increasingly uncommon in some areas, especially in Mexico.
63841		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
63842		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several parks and preserves.
63842		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the United States and southern Canada, with an isolated population in northern Mexico. Its range extends from Nova Scotia westward across southern Canada to southeastern Saskatchewan, south and west to northern New Jersey, western Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, southern Ohio, northwestern Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Chihuahua (Mexico), and Utah, and highly disjunctly to southeastern Texas in the United States; the distribution is highly discontinuous throughout the western half of the range (Conant and Collins 1991, Grobman 1992, Walley 2003).
63842		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include meadows, grassy marshes, moist grassy fields at forest edges, mountain shrublands, stream borders, bogs, open moist woodland, abandoned farmland, and vacant lots. This snake has been found hibernating in abandoned ant mounds. Eggs are laid under rotting wood, underground, or under rocks.
63842		population	eng	It is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (Walley 2003). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of occurrences or subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining (less than 10% over 10 years or three generations).
63842		threats	eng	Local populations are threatened by habitat loss and degradation resulting from human activities and successional changes, but in general the species is not very threatened.
63843		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas across its range.
63843		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, but widespread along the central Pacific coast region: from Nayarit to Istmo de Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. It occurs from sea level up to 700 m asl.
63843		habitat	eng	An adaptable species, found in tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest, mangrove, coastal lowland oak forest, and disturbed habitats.
63843		population	eng	It is a common to abundant species.
63843		threats	eng	Some deforestation is occurring in parts of the range, but this is not considered a significant threat to this species at present.
63844		conservation	eng	The area where the species occurs was declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1994 by the Goverment of Mexico. Eradication of the introduced species on the island is urgently needed to avoid further degradation of the habitat.
63844		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Clarion island, in the Revillagigedo archipielago, off the coast of north western Mexico. The highest elevation on the island is 300 m asl (1,000 feet). The island is 6 by 4 miles (roughly 6 by 10 km) in size.
63844		habitat	eng	The species lives on the ground in open areas. The habitat on the island is predominantly grassland and shrubland. There is no freshwater available on the island.
63844		population	eng	There is no information available on the population of this species.
63844		threats	eng	This island is uninhabited by humans. However there have been recent introductions of species (pigs, rabbits, sheep) which are significantly degrading the habitat on the island (Mendez-Guardado, 2003). Grass and shrubland are being converted to desert where overgrazing is causing soil runoff.
63845		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least one protected area.
63845		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Cape Region, along the eastern slopes of the Sierra La Laguna, on the Baja California peninsula, Mexico.
63845		habitat	eng	The species prefers the foothills surrounding the Sierra La Laguna and sometimes can be found in the upland areas in pine-oak forests. It is found particularly in heavily vegetated rocky arroyos (dry creeks) on the eastern slopes of the Sierra La Laguna.
63845		population	eng	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered.
63845		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
63846		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area.
63846		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the western sides of the islands of Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
63846		habitat	eng	The species is associated with the more mesic, vegetated, western sides of the two islands from which it is known. It has been seen on rocky hillsides, and in low-growing vegetation on the beach.
63846		population	eng	It is probably not a rare species (only eight specimens known), but there is very little information.
63846		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The islands on which it occurs are not inhabited by humans, and the species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
63847		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
63847		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from central Arizona to extreme southwestern New Mexico in the United States, south through western Mexico to Colima, with an eastward extension onto the Mexican Plateau in Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas (Camper and Dixon 1994, Camper 1996). It occurs in Isla Tiburón in the Gulf of California. Camper and Dixon regarded records from Isla San Pedro Martir, Coahuila, and Oaxaca as erroneous. Its elevational range extends to 2,300 m asl (Camper 1996).
63847		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include semi-arid lower mountain slopes, with growth of grass, saguaro cactus, paloverde, and ocotillo, and extends through chaparral and juniper into pine-oak belt in mountains (Stebbins 2003); desert, grassland, and montane forest habitats (Camper 1996), and often found along rocky streams. It is basically terrestrial but also climbs in vegetation.
63847		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Camper (1996) mapped over 200 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but it is likely to exceed 100,000. It is relatively common in many areas of suitable habitat. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63847		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. The habitat often is unsuitable for most human uses.
63848		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas across its wide range in the United States and Mexico.
63848		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from the Balcones Escarpment of central Texas south to the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas in the United States, and in Mexico through Coahuila and Tamaulipas to central Veracruz, Hidalgo, and Puebla, and inland onto the Mexican Plateau; the western edge of the known distribution reaches Aguascalientes and northern Michoacan. It occurs at elevations of up to 2,300 m asl (Camper and Dixon 1994, Camper 1996).
63848		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, shrublands, grasslands, canyons, woodlands of pine/juniper/oak, rocky stream courses, and pond edges. In Texas, this snake occurs in savanna (mesquite-live oak; dry, rocky, and often sandy areas) and Tamaulipan thorn woodland; it is often associated with streambeds and ponds (Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000). Microhabitats are terrestrial and arboreal. It retreats underground or into deep crevices in cold weather. Eggs may be laid in abandoned small mammal burrows.
63848		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (Camper 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is relatively common in many parts of its range in Mexico, but Tennant (1998) described it as "somewhat uncommon" and "not numerous" in Texas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63848		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. In southernmost Texas, semi-arid brushland habitats of this snake have been converted to agricultural and urban uses (Werler and Dixon 2000).
63849		conservation	eng	This species occurs within a protected area.
63849		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of San Esteban, in the Gulf of California, Sonora, Mexico.
63849		habitat	eng	This species prefers the coastal areas, near shrubs, at the mouth of arroyos (dry creeks), occurring in brush habitat. It is most abundant where the density of lizards (its preferred food) is highest. It also occurs in lower numbers on the mountainous peaks on the island.
63849		population	eng	It seems to be a common species, especially in the lower lying coastal areas.
63849		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The island on which it occurs is not inhabited by humans and not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
63850		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species in the United States are in protected areas. In the southern extent of the range in Mexico the species occurs in few if any protected areas.
63850		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern Washington and southern Idaho south through Oregon, eastern California, Nevada, Utah, western Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, western and central Texas, in the United Sates, to Chihuahua, western Coahuila, Durango, and Zacatecas to northeastern Jalisco in Mexico; the eastern and southern range limits in Mexico are poorly understood (Camper and Dixon 1994). The elevational range extends to 3,077 m asl in Inyo County, California (Stumpel 1995).
63850		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include shrublands, arid grasslands, sagebrush flats, canyons, pinyon-juniper woodland, pine-oak woodland, and rocky stream courses. Microhabitats are terrestrial and arboreal. It retreats underground or into deep crevices in cold weather. Eggs usually are laid in abandoned small mammal burrows (sometimes communal with conspecifics or with other snake species).
63850		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Camper (1996) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is relatively common in many areas in the United States. It is apparently uncommon or rare in the southern part of the range in Mexico. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63850		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations are declining as a result of habitat destruction and road mortality.
63851		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas.
63851		distribution	eng	This species is found from Sinaloa, Mexico, on the Pacific slope, and from Tamaulipas on the Atlantic slope, south through the Yucatan Peninsula to Panama. It is also found throughout most of Petén, Guatemala, the northern Yucatan Peninsula, and Belize. It occurs from near sea level to around 1,250 m asl.
63851		habitat	eng	It is a largely terrestrial inhabitant of thorn forest, tropical deciduous, evergreen forest, and savannas. It also occurs in degraded forest, secondary forest, agricultural land, forest edge and small towns.
63851		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
63851		threats	eng	There are no threats to this very adaptable species.
63852		conservation	eng	Several occurrences on the Gulf Coast are in protected areas, including Gulf Islands National Seashore (Mississippi) and possibly St. Marks and Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) (Florida). The range of subspecies <em>taeniata</em> on the Atlantic coast of Florida includes Tomoka State Park and perhaps northern end of Merritt Island NWR, but the status of snakes there requires study, as do their ecological needs.
63852		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal areas on the southern United States and on the northern coast of Cuba. Its range includes brackish coastal habitats of the northern Gulf of Mexico, from the vicinity of Corpus Christi, Texas, eastward to Florida and including most of that state's coastline, including the Keys, then northward on the Atlantic coast to Volusia County; also the northern coast of Cuba (Lawson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The subspecies <em>Nerodia clarkii clarkii</em> occurs from the vicinity of Corpus Cristi in southern Texas east along the Gulf Coast to south of Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida. The subspecies <em>N. c. compressicauda</em> ranges from northern Pinellas County, Florida, around the southern tip of Florida and north to at least Merritt Island, including the Florida Keys and northern Cuba. The subspecies <em>clarkii</em> and <em>compressicauda</em> intergrade in a zone that may extend from Cedar Key to northern Pinellas County. The subspecies <em>N. c. taeniata</em> occurs on the Atlantic coast of Florida north of the range of <em>compressicauda</em>, in Volusia County, and apparently intergrading with <em>compressicauda</em> in Brevard and Indian River counties (Kochman and Christman 1992).
63852		habitat	eng	This snake is most common in estuarine situations, such as coastal brackish and salt marshes containing <em>Spartina</em>, <em>Juncus</em>, <em>Salicornia</em>; it occurs in lesser abundance farther inland in freshwater marshes with arrowheads, sedges, and naiads (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Toward the southern end of the range in Florida, it also inhabits buttonwood and red mangrove swamps and saline offshore islands (Tennant 1997). Microhabitats include the burrows of crayfish, fiddler crabs, or muskrats (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Tennant 1997). Sometimes it can be found on shore under rocks, logs, and other cover (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
63852		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Many subpopulations are discontinuous and isolated by lack of habitat. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Large numbers still exist in some parts of the range (Ernst and Ernsat 2003). In Florida, this snake is common on the Gulf Coast but rare on the Atlantic coast at the northern extent of the range (subspecies <em>taeniata</em>) (Tennant 1997). Abundance has declined throughout much of the range, particularly where coastal marshes have been degraded (Werler and Dixon 2000). Large numbers are still present in some areas, but elsewhere they have become scarce (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Current trend is unknown; extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations, whereas population size may be declining at an unknown rate.
63852		threats	eng	A major threat along the Gulf Coast is degradation of habitat by dredging, diking, development, and chemical pollution (Werler and Dixon 2000). Loss of salt marsh habitat appears to have slowed since 1988 (USFWS 1998). Insecticides may be lethal to the snake. Oil spills pose a potential threat. Along the Atlantic coast of Florida much habitat has been lost to commercial development (Tennant 1997). As habitat shrinks, the probability of interbreeding with <em>Nerodia fasciata</em> may increase, particularly along the Atlantic coast (Kochman and Christman 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63853		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.
63853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern United States. Its range extends on the Coastal Plain from extreme western Florida and southern Alabama to southeastern Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to extreme southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois (Barbour 1971, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63853		habitat	eng	Habitats include marshes, forested swamps, ditches, canals, bayous, shallow lakes and ponds, wet coastal prairie, oxbows and floodplain sloughs, sluggish tree-lined streams, flooded fields, abandoned rice fields, and rice field reservoirs, often quiet waters of wooded areas; also some brackish-water marshes along the Gulf Coast (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This snake basks on banks or in shore vegetation, and it is seldom found far from water.
63853		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations).  Most occurrences are in the southern part of the range (e.g., see dot maps in Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000), with relatively few in the north (Barbour 1971, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is very common in some parts of the southern part of the range (Dundee and Rossman 1989), though uncommon in Texas (Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000). It is much less numerous northward in the Mississippi valley (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), but even in the north some local populations may be fairly large (Keiser 1958). This species seemingly was always relatively uncommon and sparsely distributed in the northern part of the range, where today it is even more so as a result of habitat loss. Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63853		threats	eng	Declines have occurred as a result of drainage of sloughs and swamps and removal of aquatic vegetation, particularly in the northern part of the range (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003), but overall this species is not significantly threatened.
63854		conservation	eng	In the United States, at least several occurrences are in protected areas. No protected areas exist for the disjunct populations in Mexico.
63854		distribution	eng	This species' range extends in the United States from southern Delaware and southeastern Maryland to northern Florida, west through Georgia and Alabama to southeastern New Mexico and western Texas, thence northward to northeastern Kansas and western Missouri, southward to central Nuevo Leon, Mexico; north in the Mississippi and Ohio river systems to central Illinois and southern Indiana; disjunct populations in Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Durango, and Zacatecas; records from West Virginia and Pennsylvania are erroneous; a record from New Jersey probably is based on human introduction (McCranie 1990). Its elevational range extends from sea level to 2,042 m asl on the Mexican Plateau.
63854		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in a wide array of aquatic/wetland habitats, generally with permanent or semi-permanent water, such as forested and shrubby swamps, marshes, edges of ponds and lakes, ditches, and slow streams. It often basks or rests in water-edge vegetation. It wanders far from water, especially during warm wet weather. Hibernation sites are underground, under rockpiles, etc.
63854		population	eng	It is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in McCranie 1990). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63854		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or "human contact" has extirpated this species from some parts of its former range (McCranie 1990), particularly in the north-central part of the range (Great Lakes states; see information for subspecies <em>neglecta</em>). Apparent range expansion accompanied impoundment of a river in Missouri (see McCranie 1990). This species can successfully colonize and establish populations in reclamation ponds in formerly strip-mined areas (Keck 1998). Reduction of the water table (e.g., through irrigation) would threaten the disjunct Mexican populations.
63855		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63855		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from South Carolina disjunctly to southern Florida, and west through southern Georgia and the Florida panhandle to a small portion of southern Alabama (Mount 1975, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004); the species is apparently absent from most of southeastern Georgia (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).
63855		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of vegetated shallow lakes, ponds, marshes, wet prairies, rice fields, slow rivers, ditches with abundant vegetation, and other wetlands that are not much shaded, including brackish water in some areas (Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Basking sites are on grassy edges and in branches over water. This snake may travel overland at night; it seeks cover in water, and it also uses muskrat lodges.
63855		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is very common in much of Florida (Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63855		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Former DDT use probably reduced some populations (see Ernst and Barbour 1989).
63856		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species in the United States are in protected areas.
63856		distribution	eng	This species' range extends in the United States from Kansas, southeastern Iowa, Illinois, and southwestern Indiana south to Alabama (east to the Mobile Bay drainage below the Fall Line), Gulf Coast, southcentral Texas, and eastern Mexico to the southwestern base of the Yucatan Peninsula (to Tabasco, northern Chiapas, and southwestern Campeche) (McAllister 1985, Conant and Collins 1991, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Its elevational range reaches 745 m asl in Coahuila but generally is below 500 m asl (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).
63856		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic snake occurs in a wide range of habitats, including the margins and shallows of lakes, ponds, rivers, smaller streams, swamps, marshes, canals, and ditches. It basks on banks and in edge vegetation and may wander on land, especially in wet weather. It hibernates in underground burrows near water. It is largely nocturnal.
63856		population	eng	The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. It is locally common in much of its wide range in the United States and Mexico. Some populations at the margins of the range have declined, but this snake has remained stable or increased in many areas where bottomland habitats have been inundated by impoundments (see Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Many populations in xeric regions of Mexico have been extirpated or have declined (R. Conant pers. comm. 1997, cited by Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Currently, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63856		threats	eng	The major concern for this species is destruction and degradation of aquatic habitat (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004), but this snake is not threatened in most of its large range. Declines in xeric regions of Mexico have been attributed to pollution or water diversion for human use (R. Conant pers. comm. 1997 cited by Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). This snake is vulnerable to pesticide-caused mortality (see Gibbons and Dorcas 2004), and historical declines in abundance probably occurred in some agricultural areas. Pesticides that persist in the environment for long periods of time may still be affecting some populations. Some currently used pesticides may be causing watersnake mortality (see Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). This species readily colonizes reclamation ponds of formerly mined areas if suitable habitat is adjacent (Keck 1998). Individuals are frequently killed intentionally by humans, but this not a major threat except perhaps where the snake is rare (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).
63857		conservation	eng	Many occurrrences are in protected areas.
63857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from Virginia to southern Florida, and west to Alabama, and also the piedmont of the Carolinas and Georgia (Mount 1975, Tennant 1984, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63857		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits rivers, large creeks, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, swamps, and marshes, including brackish tidal waters in some areas; it often climbs into woody vegetation overhanging the water, and it also perches on fallen trees, jetties, duck blinds, debris or other object along shorelines (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). In South Carolina, it was significantly associated with the steep-banked outer bends of the river and with areas having good perch-site availability; only large individuals crossed a 100 m wide river (Mills <em>et al</em>. 1995).
63857		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 collection sites in North Carolina alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is often locally common to abundant in suitable habitat (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). No major declines have been recorded, aside from local reductions in limited portions of the range. Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63857		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Declines may have occurred at the periphery of the range and in areas subject to intense urbanization or pollution (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Many watersnakes are killed by people who fear that the snakes are venomous (Mitchell 1994). However, in most areas, this species apparently faces no significant threats.
63858		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
63858		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from San Luis Potosí and the Pacific slope from Oaxaca, Mexico. There are apparently disjunct populations in Guatemala, Belize, and northern Honduras. The elevational range of the species is from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
63858		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits tropical and subtropical wet and moist forest. It is a secretive and nocturnal species.
63858		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
63858		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
63859		conservation	eng	In the United States, this snake is probably effectively protected in at least several areas of federal, state, and private lands (e.g., national parks and wildlife refuges, state wildlife management areas). In Mexico there is a need for more information on biology, population, range, threats to this species.
63859		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the United States, extending into northeastern Mexico. Its range extends from southern New Jersey to southern Florida, west to eastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, and central Texas, north to the southern portions of the southern Great Lakes states in the United States, south into northeastern Mexico (Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas) (Walley and Plummer 2000).
63859		habitat	eng	This snake typically inhabits dense vegetation (vines, shrubs, trees) near water; often at forest edges or in fairly open forests; also overgrown pasture, tallgrass prairie, thickets, barrier islands; open marsh and spoil banks in Louisiana; pine-oak, mesic hardwood hammocks, and occasionally mangrove swamps in Florida (see Walley and Plummer 2000). In Mexico, it inhabits tropical deciduous forest. It is mostly arboreal but less so in spring and fall. In Arkansas, it avoids basking (Plummer 1993). It occupies vegetation above ground at night in warmer months; underground in cold weather.  <br/> <br/>Eggs are laid under objects in damp areas (Ashton and Ashton 1981), in rotting logs (Goldsmith 1984), or in tree hollows. It may nest communally. In Arkansas, gravid females moved five to 75 m (average 36 m) terrestrially away from the lake shore and oviposited in small chambers within the hollowed interiors of small living trees, 25 to 300 cm above ground; individuals may return to a specific tree each year (Plummer 1989, 1990).
63859		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (more than 100) (see map in Walley and Plummer 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but is probably greater than 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably relatively stable overall, with local declines associated with habitat loss or climate variation (Plummer 1997). This is a rare species in Mexico; in the last 10 years, only four specimens have been found (Pablo Lavin pers. comm. 2005).
63859		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, clearing of wooded wetlands and wooded borders of aquatic habitats is a potential threat, as is pesticide application in such habitats.
63860		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Big Bend National Park. Occurs in several protected areas in Mexico.
63860		distribution	eng	The species' range includes only southwestern Texas (central Hill Country, Trans-Pecos) and adjacent areas in northeastern Mexico: southwestern Edwards Plateau of Texas west through the dissected canyons of the Stockton Plateau and the Big Bend Region to the Davis Mountains, thence south into Mexico along Coahuila Folded Belt to the front range of Sierra Madre Oriental of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas; also the Sierra San Carlos of south-central Tamaulipas, at elevations of around 305 to 3,050 m asl (1,000 to 10,000 feet) (Lawson and Lieb 1990, Werler and Dixon 2000). Within this range, the distribution appears to be spotty (Tennant 1998), but this may in part reflect the snake's secretive behavior (Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63860		habitat	eng	Habitats include a wide variety of vegetational associations, from Chihuahuan desert scrub in Texas to Sierra Madrean pine forest in Tamaulipas (Lawson and Lieb 1990). In Texas, this terrestrial and arboreal snake inhabits wooded rocky canyons of Edwards Plateau, pinyon pine-needle grass uplands in Chisos Mountains, barren road-cut bluffs with scattered seep willow, and mesic canyons in montane forest and low desert areas in the Trans-Pecos region (Tennant 1984, 1998). Rocky, igneous or limestone habitats apparently are favoured, especially those with caves, deep crevices, and/or sheer canyon walls; eaves and wooded crevices associated with ranch outbuildings are also occasionally used (Lawson and Lieb 1990).
63860		population	eng	This species is represented by at least a few dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped several dozen collection sites in Texas; these represent probably at least 20 distinct occurrences. For Mexico, Lawson and Lieb (1990) listed three locations for Coahuila, three for Nuevo Leon, and three for Tamaulipas, so probably there are at least several subpopulations south of Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but probably at least several thousand. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63860		threats	eng	This species is not significantly threatened.
63861		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63861		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from southwestern Illinois, Missouri, southern South Dakota, and southeastern Colorado southward to San Luis Potosi and Veracruz, and through most of Texas, with a disjunct population in eastern Utah and western Colorado (Conant and Collins 1991, Burbrink 2002).
63861		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rocky hillsides, meadows, stream courses and river bottoms, canyons and arroyos, barnyards, abandoned houses and ranch buildings, areas near springs, caves (near entrance), and wooded areas. Terrestrial and arboreal.
63861		population	eng	This species is represented by many subpopulations. Many occurrences appear to have good viability. Adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This species is relatively common in many parts of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63861		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat destruction has reduced or eliminated some populations, but this species tolerates moderate levels of habitat alteration such as those associated with rural ranching activities.
63862		conservation	eng	This snake occurs within several nominally protected areas, but whether these can support long-term viable populations by themselves is unknown. This species would benefit from increased protection of coastal marshland habitat throughout the range. Better information on current distribution and abundance is needed; where are the best occurrences?
63862		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Canada and northern United States. Its range is entirely within the Great Lakes basin and includes southern Ontario, the southeastern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan, and northern Ohio; north to near Saginaw Bay (Michigan) and Georgian Bay (Ontario); eastward along northern Lake Erie to Long Point Bay (Ontario) and along southern Lake Erie to Erie County, Ohio; the range includes Pelee Island and some smaller Lake Erie islands; isolated records from near Buffalo, New York, and the western end of Lake Ontario (Ontario) have not been confirmed; a record from Massachusetts probably reflects erroneous data (Conant 1938, 1940, 1951; Powell 1990; Harding 1997).
63862		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits shoreline marshes and vegetated dunes and beaches of the Great Lakes; it sometimes ranges into adjacent farm fields, pastures, and woodlots; it occupies rocky areas and open woodlands on Lake Erie islands; it rarely climbs into trees or shrubs, and it readily crosses bodies of water; hibernation occurs in mammal burrows, old buildings, or similar shelters (Harding 1997).
63862		population	eng	Powell (1990) mapped about 35 collection sites, but the number of distinct occurrences or subpopulations is not precisely known. Adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This snake is locally common where ample habitat remains (Harding 1997). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to be declining; the species is now uncommon or rare in many areas where formerly it was abundant (Harding 1997).
63862		threats	eng	Threats include conversion of habitat to human uses (agriculture, industry, residential use), pollution and other habitat degradation, population fragmentation, mortality on roads, collection for the pet trade, and direct killing by humans (Harding 1997).
63863		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern and southeastern United States. Its range extends from southern New Jersey, Maryland, and Kentucky southward to southeastern Louisiana, southern Mississippi, southern Alabama, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Burbrink 2002). Introduced on Grand Cayman Island and Grand Bahama Island (Buckner and Franz, 1994,<em> Herpetological Review</em> 25: 166) and elsewhere in the Caribbean region (e.g., may be established on St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands; Perry <em>et al</em>. 2003).
63863		habitat	eng	This species is mostly semi-fossorial, inhabiting in a wide variety of environments, from dry to humid, including pine forest, grass flatwoods, grasslands, open rock areas, and tropical hammocks.
63863		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63863		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Habitat destruction is a local threat in some areas, but this species tolerates a fair amount of low intensity habitat alteration.
63864		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63864		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in the east of the United States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from southern New England and southern Ontario west to southeastern Minnesota, and south to southern Texas, the entire Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991). As defined by Burbrink (2001), the range of <em>Pantherophis obsoletus</em> is as follows: west of the Mississippi River from southern Louisiana along the Gulf Coast to southern Texas, west to central Texas on the Edwards Plateau, and through Oklahoma, central and eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska, and southeastern Iowa to extreme southeastern Minnesota. However, this taxonomy/distribution has not been adopted in this database.
63864		habitat	eng	Habitats include hardwood forest and woodland, wooded canyons, swamps, rocky timbered upland, wooded areas of streams and rivers, farmland near woods, old fields, barnyards, and rural buildings in wooded areas. This snake often occurs where wooded and open habitats (such as fields or farmland) are intermixed. It often climbs trees, especially rough-barked species or those with vines (Mullin and Cooper 2002), and it may sometimes enter water. Hibernation sites are in deep crevices or underground. Individuals exhibit very high fidelity to hibernacula (Prior <em>et al</em>. 2001).
63864		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63864		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This snake thrives on partial deforestation. Locally, some populations have declined as a result of extensive deforestation and various forms of intensive development.
63865		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.
63865		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south of the United States. Its range includes eastern Texas and western Louisiana (Burbrink 2002). Taxonomic affiliation of cornsnakes in adjacent southern Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004) is uncertain, but presumably the species there is <em>slowinskii</em>.
63865		habitat	eng	Habitat in eastern Texas includes pine-oak woodland (Werler and Dixon 2000). Many specimens in northern Louisiana were collected in cultivated fields, pasturelands, barns, and abandoned buildings (see Dundee and Rossman 1989). Werler and Dixon (2000) commented that "next to nothing is known about this snake's natural history in Texas."
63865		population	eng	This species is represented by many historical occurrences (subpopulations), but the current status of most of these is unknown. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped about 28 collection sites in eastern Texas. Dundee and Rossman (1989) mapped about 18 collection sites in western Louisiana. Adult population size is unknown. Trends in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are unknown.
63865		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
63866		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63866		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan through Wisconsin, southern Minnesota, and Iowa to eastern Nebraska (possibly extreme northeastern Kansas), South Dakota, and northwestern Missouri and through northern and western Illinois to northwestern Indiana (Vogt 1981, Powell 1990, Oldfield and Moriarty 1994, Harding 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Minton 2001).
63866		habitat	eng	Habitats include dry and moist areas of farmland, prairie, pastures, open woodland (hardwoods, pines), forest edge, logged forest and old woodlots, woods near streams, stream valleys, pine barrens, oak savanna, and sandy oak scrub (Vogt 1981, Oldfield and Moriarty 1994, Harding 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Minton 2001). This snake may spend much time in burrows and usually is found on the ground; it may hibernate in crevices, burrows, or old wells, sometimes underwater (Vogt 1981). Eggs are laid in old stumps, humus, or under logs and other objects on the ground (Vogt 1981).
63866		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and undoubtedly is much larger than that. This snake is locally common. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63866		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This snake thrives on partial deforestation and where farming is not too extensively intensive.
63867		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63867		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from south-central Arizona, United States, south through Sonora to southern Sinaloa, Mexico, at elevations of about 300 to 910 m (1,000 to 3,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63867		habitat	eng	In the north, this snake occurs in upland rocky or sandy desert dominated by mesquite, creosote bush, saltbush, paloverde, and saguaro; habitats in the south include thorn scrub and the lower edge of thorn forest (Behler and King 1979, Stebbins 2003). It burrows into rocky or sandy soil.
63867		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown. This snake is apparently common at some localities in Arizona (Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is secretive and relatively difficult to find except on roads after spring and summer rainstorms. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63867		threats	eng	No major threats are known, but some local populations in Arizona are likely to have been reduced as a result of urbanization and other intensive land uses by humans.
63868		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63868		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southern California (north to Inyo County), southern Nevada, extreme southwestern Utah, and central Arizona, United States, to southern Baja California (Grismer 2002) and southern Sonora (and one location in southern Sinaloa), Mexico, including certain islands in the Gulf of California; a record from San Joaquin County, California, is presumed not to represent a natural occurrence (McCleary and McDiarmid 1993). The elevational range extends from below sea level to about 1,220 m asl (4,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63868		habitat	eng	The habitat generally consists of rocky, gravelly, or sandy desert plains or dunes with creosote bush (Stebbins 2003). This snake may burrow into loose soil or sand, and it hides under rocks or surface debris or in abandoned rodent burrows (Stebbins 1954, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63868		population	eng	This species is represented by numerous occurrences or subpopulations (see map in McCleary and McDiarmid 1993). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is a common snake in most of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63868		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
63869		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63869		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern British Columbia to Indiana, and south through all of western North America to northern Baja California (Grismer 2002), Sonora, Sinaloa and Zacatecas in Mexico.
63869		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, extending from lowlands to mountains: desert, prairie, shrubland, woodland, open coniferous forest, farmland, and marshes. Midwestern populations inhabit prairies; western and Mexican populations range from coastal grasslands and forests through deserts into montane forests (Sweet and Parker 1990). This snake is terrestrial, fossorial, and arboreal. It remains underground in cold weather and during the hot midday period in summer; it may occupy mammal burrows (Schroder 1950, Fitch 1958) or dig its own burrow, aided by the pointed snout and enlarged rostral scale. Carpenter (1982) estimated that burrowing <em>Pituophis</em> could move up to 3,400 cubic cm of soil in an hour. Eggs are deposited in burrows excavated by the female in loose soil, in spaces beneath large rocks or logs, or possibly in small mammal burrows.
63869		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Sweet and Parker 1990). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is relatively common in many areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63869		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Local declines have occurred in areas with extensive, intensive agricultural or urban development, but these snakes persist in semi-agricultural landscapes and rural residential areas.
63870		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in several protected areas.
63870		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species occurs in the states of Aguascalientes, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro, Veracruz, Zacatecas and Mexico City. It occurs from 2,200 to 2,600 m asl.
63870		habitat	eng	it inhabits pine forest, oak forest, scrubland, meadows, pristine and disturbed areas, cultivated land, plantations (corn), sub-urban areas, even University campus areas.
63870		population	eng	This is a very common species.
63870		threats	eng	The pet trade could potentially be a threat, although it is a very common species.
63871		conservation	eng	The island is a multi-use protected area in which people are allowed to practice sustainable activities.
63871		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Cedros, off the Pacific coast of Baja California, in the State of Baja California, Mexico.
63871		habitat	eng	It is a ground-dwelling species, living in arid and semi-arid shrubland habitats and in chaparral scrub.
63871		population	eng	It is a common species, being ubiquitous on Isla Cedros.
63871		threats	eng	No threats are known, and it lives commonly alongside humans who do not pose a risk to the species. It is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
63872		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least eight protected areas, including El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.
63872		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeast Jalisco throughout Sierra Madre del Sur, to Oaxaca, including Morelos, Veracruz, and Michoacan in Mexico, as well as in the highlands of Chiapas (but it is not found in the depression), and in to Guatemala. It ranges from 800 to 2,500 m asl.
63872		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet forest, pine forest and cloud forest.
63872		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears stable at present.
63872		threats	eng	Deforestation in highland areas for agriculture is occurring, but this is patchy across the range and is not considered significant to the species at present.
63873		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63873		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from extreme eastern Louisiana discontinuously east to eastern and southern Florida, and discontinuously north to Kentucky, Virginia, and southern New Jersey in the United States (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Records for Arkansas, Maryland, New York, and Veracruz (Mexico) probably represent introductions (Sweet and Parker 1990) and are not mapped here.
63873		habitat	eng	Good quality pinesnake habitat appears to be characterized by xeric, pine-dominated or pine-oak (50 to 80% pine) woodland with an open, low understorey established on sandy soils. Longleaf pine sandhills appear to represent critical habitat over much of the southeastern United States. Pinesnakes also require forest openings, with level, well-drained sandy soils and little shrub cover, as nesting and hibernation sites. <br/> <br/>This snake is terrestrial, fossorial, and arboreal. It remains underground in cold weather and during the hot midday period in summer (Fitch 1956, Zappalorti <em>et al</em>. 1983, Burger <em>et al</em>. 1988). It may occupy mammal burrows (Schroder 1950, Fitch 1958) or dig its own burrow, aided by a pointed snout and enlarged rostral scale; it is an accomplished burrower in loose soil (Franz 1992). Eggs are deposited in burrows excavated by the female in loose soil (Moore 1893; Zappalorti <em>et al</em>. 1983; Burger and Zappalorti 1986, 1991), spaces beneath large rocks or logs, or possibly small mammal burrows (Ernst and Barbour 1989, Franz 1992).
63873		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Sweet and Parker (1990) mapped more than 100 collection localities. The number of occurrences or subpopulations with good viability is unknown but undoubtedly is significantly fewer than the number of extant occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 10,000. This snake is relatively common in some areas but appears to be uncommon over most of its range, including all of Florida (Franz 1992, Tennant 1997). Fossorial habits make it appear to be less numerous than it actually is. Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably declined over the past several decades, but the rate of decline is probably less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63873		threats	eng	In many areas, the habitat of this snake has been destroyed or degraded by human activities.
63874		conservation	eng	In March of 2004, a Candidate Conservation Agreement was developed and approved in order to identify and establish management protection for the pine snake on Federal land by protecting known populations and habitat, reducing threats to its survival, maintaining its ecosystem, and restoring degraded habitat. This agreement was intended to establish a framework for cooperation and participation in the pine snake's protection, conservation, and management within the boundaries of the Angelina and Sabine National Forests of Texas, Kisatchie National Forest in Louisiana, and Fort Polk Military Reservation in Louisiana. This agreement was implemented by the USDA Forest Service; Fort Polk, US Army, Department of Defense (Fort Polk); Region 2 and 4 of the US Fish and Wildlife Service; Texas Parks and Wildlife Department; and Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. Restoration measures will include prescribed burning, thinning, and replanting of long-leaf pine forest.
63874		distribution	eng	The Louisiana Pine Snake historically occurred in portions of west-central Louisiana and extreme east-central Texas (Jennings and Fritts 1983, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 199, Rudolph in litt. 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000). This area roughly coincides with a disjunct portion of the longleaf pine ecosystem situated west of the Mississippi River. The species is currently extant in a small portion of the historical range (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006).
63874		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of longleaf pine savanna with sandy, well-drained soils and substantial herbaceous ground cover (Reichling 1990, Rudolph and Burgdorf 1997). Recent records of this snake are primarily from isolated patches of habitat where the influence of fire has been most effective in maintaining well-developed herbaceous understorey conditions (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Texas, these snakes occur in longleaf pine-oak sandhills interspersed with moist bottomlands; sometimes in adjacent blackjack oak woodlands and in sandy areas of short-leaf pine/post oak forest; the snake prefers openly wooded areas over dense forest; it is frequently found in fields, farmland, and tracts of second-growth timber (Werler and Dixon 2000). In Texas, Mitchell and Tinkle (1960) reported observing <em>P. ruthveni</em> foraging in a seasonally dry, acid bog, where the vegetation consisted of loblolly pine (<em>Pinus taeda</em>) and shortleaf pine (<em>Pinus echinata</em>) with a dense sweetbay (<em>Magnolia virginiana</em>) and cyrilla (<em>Cyrilla racemiflora</em>) understorey. In Louisiana, <em>P. ruthveni</em> is restricted to longleaf pine forests and second growth longleaf pine-blackjack oak (<em>Quercus marilandica</em>) associations (Fugler 1955, Walker 1965). Pocket gophers (<em>Geomys breviceps</em>) are an essential component of this habitat. They create burrow systems where the snakes are most frequently found and are a major source of food for the species (Rudolph and Conner 1996, Rudolph in litt. 1997). Movement patterns of pine snakes are typically from one pocket gopher burrow system to another (Rudolph in litt. 1997).
63874		population	eng	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). Based on recent range-wide surveys, Rudolph <em>et al</em>. (2006) mapped the extant distribution as comprising six small patches, plus two additional locations represented by single individuals in areas lacking significant amounts of suitable habitat. Only three areas (Fort Polk Military Reservation and the adjacent unit of the Kisatchie National Forest, Peason Ridge Military Reservation in Louisiana, and the southern portion of the Angelina National Forest in Texas) have extensive areas of suitable, frequently burned longleaf pine habitat that is not currently subject to extensive change in management intensity (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). The adult population size is unknown but relatively small and presumably at least a few thousand. This snake is uncommon to rare (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Rudolph <em>et al</em>. (2006) conducted extensive trapping in several areas of Louisiana and Texas identified as having most of the best remaining habitat for Louisiana pine snakes. Only 26 pine snakes were trapped in over 100,000 trap days. Surveys documenting the current condition of the fire climax longleaf pine forests, and results of Louisiana pine snake trapping and radio-telemetry, suggest that the species has declined in geographic distribution and possibly in local abundance during the last 50 to 80 years (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Louisiana pine snakes originally occurred in at least 9 Louisiana parishes and 15 Texas counties; recent surveys indicate that the species now occurs in only four Louisiana parishes and six Texas counties (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Both the quantity and quality of Longleaf Pine savanna have declined sharply in Louisiana and Texas. Virtually all remaining virgin timber in the south was cut during intensive logging from 1870 to 1920 (Frost 1993). In the 1920s, foresters began converting unmanaged woodlands to pine plantations (Frost 1993). Wahlenberg (1946) estimated that in 1935, 1.2 million ha (approximately 3 million acres) of Longleaf Pine type forests remained in southwest Louisiana and southeast Texas. However, 43% of these Longleaf Pine types consisted of clear-cuts and only 2.9% were uncut old-growth stands. Bridges and Orzell (1989) used published data from the 1980s to make more current estimates of the natural Longleaf Pine forests remaining in Louisiana and Texas. They estimated that in Louisiana only 15%, and in Texas only 7.5% of the 1935 acreages remained. A habitat assessment of known historical localities found that only 34% were still considered capable of supporting a viable population of pine snakes.  Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably still declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.
63874		threats	eng	The primary factors leading to degradation of <em>P. ruthveni</em> habitat are intensive pine silviculture and alteration of the pre-European fire regime (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Intensive silviculture and reduction in fire frequency eliminate or reduce the microhabitat conditions needed by pine snakes and also may result in declines of <em>Geomys breviceps</em> (Baird's Pocket Gopher), a primary prey of <em>P. ruthveni</em> (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Vehicle mortality, both on state roads and off-road trails, may cause significant impacts to the Louisiana Pine Snake's population numbers and community structure. Roads with moderate to high traffic levels can cause significant reductions in the populations of large snake species (see Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Most existing pine snake habitat is within 500 m of currently existing roads (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Take of Louisiana pine snakes for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes is not currently considered to be a threat. However, the low number of Louisiana pine snakes makes them vulnerable to unscrupulous collectors should locality data become available.  Disease and predation are not currently considered to be significant threats.
63875		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas
63875		distribution	eng	The species ranges through most of the Baja California peninsula in Mexico, from southern El Rosario southward to Cabo San Lucas. The population in the north at Valle La Trinidad is not disjunct, but is connected through the interior valley to the main range of the species. It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita as well the island of San Jose in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
63875		habitat	eng	This species is fairly ubiquitous in the Baja California peninsula, occurring from low arid tropical lands (including the Vizcaíno Desert, for example) to Sierra La Laguna highlands. It is most common in the arroyos (dry creeks) and open sandy areas refuging in rodent burrows, beneath rocks and logs and roots.
63875		population	eng	It is variably abundant across its range, and appears to be common in some places, but only moderately so in others.
63875		threats	eng	There are no known threats. It occasionally appears in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
63876		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas including El Cielo, Tamaulipas and Sierra Gorda, Queretaro. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species. There is a need to educate people that this is not a venomous snake.
63876		distribution	eng	This Mexican species is present from southern Tamaulipas, throughout Xilitla in San Luis Potosi, and in a small area of east Queretaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz and northern Puebla. It is found between around 900 to 1,800 m asl.
63876		habitat	eng	It is present in primary and secondary cloud forest, and has also been recorded from shaded coffee plantations. It can be found below logs and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.
63876		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63876		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for conversion to agricultural land. It is sometimes killed by people who confuse it with venomous coral snakes.
63877		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
63877		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from southern Tamaulipas, Mexico, to central Honduras, and on the Pacific versant from Oaxaca, Mexico, to El Salvador, and including the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
63877		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits tropical wet, moist, and dry forest. It also occurs in degraded and secondary growth as well as forest edge and perhaps also the edge of agricultural land.
63877		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63877		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. Deforestation for agriculture is a threat in some parts of its range.
63878		conservation	eng	This species occurrs in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the status of this species.
63878		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de Santa Marta, in the Los Tuxtlas region, of southern Veracruz, Mexico. The elevational range of the species is from 700 to 1,000 m asl.
63878		habitat	eng	The species can be found under leaf-litter in tropical montane cloud forest.
63878		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63878		threats	eng	The species is persecuted by humans because it is venomous.
63879		conservation	eng	Several populations occur in protected areas.
63879		distribution	eng	This species occurs discontinuously at low elevations on the Atlantic slope of Mexico from central Tamaulipas and eastern San Luis Potosi, to Veracruz southward to Tabasco and Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, and then in to northern and central Belize and an isolated locality in northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It continues southwards to northern Honduras, and is also found on Corn Island, Nicaragua. It has been recorded from sea level up to 500 m asl.
63879		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland areas of tropical semi-deciduous forests and thorn forests. It can also occur in degraded and secondary forest.
63879		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, and its population appears to be declining in Quintana Roo in Mexico.
63879		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture and logging is a threat in parts of the species' range.
63880		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range.
63880		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Sonora, to southern Guerrero, including central Jalisco, Morelos, and Puebla, in Mexico. It occurs from sea level up to 1,100 m asl.
63880		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical semi-arid forest, tropical dry forest and arid scrub forest. It is an adaptable terrestrial species.
63880		population	eng	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.
63880		threats	eng	No significant threats to this species are known.
63881		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).
63881		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide range along the central Pacific coast region of Mexico: from southern Nayarit, to the central coast of Guerrero, including Balsas basin and the Oaxacan valley. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
63881		habitat	eng	It is found in arid tropical forest, semi-deciduous forest, and lowland oak forest. It is a terrestrial species.
63881		population	eng	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.
63881		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a threat in parts of the range, but this is not a significant threat across the whole range.
63882		conservation	eng	At least one population is protected in the Biosphere Reserve of Chamela-Cuixmala.
63882		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central coast of Jalisco, with one record from Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico.
63882		habitat	eng	This species can be found mostly on the ground in lowlands, in tropical dry forest and tropical semi-decidous forest.
63882		population	eng	The population size is not known, but the species apparently is rare.
63882		threats	eng	Some habitat loss through deforestation (for agriculture and human settlement) is occurring in parts of the range, however, other areas (particularly northern areas and the area around Chamela) are well protected. Habitat destruction is not considered a significant threat to the species at present.
63883		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in Mexico.
63883		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from San Luis Potosi on the Gulf Coast of Mexico, to Bolivia and Brazil, and on the Pacific slope including the coast of Oaxaca, Mexico to lower Central America. It occurs through the base of the Yucatan Peninsula and northward through the Mexican state of Quintana Roo, apparently avoiding much of the drier western portion of the peninsula. In Guatemala this snake is known from near sea level to 1,000 m asl but may occur somewhat higher. In Mexico it occurs up to 1,200 m asl.
63883		habitat	eng	This diurnal snake is an inhabitant of humid lowland forest and savannas. It is also found on small trees in pasturelands.
63883		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
63883		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
63884		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63884		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range includes southern Georgia and peninsular Florida (Dorcas <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).
63884		habitat	eng	This highly aquatic snake is usually in dense vegetation in shallow water of marshes, seasonally flooded prairies, swamps, sloughs, canals, lakes, sphagnum bogs, flatwoods ponds, temporary and permanent ponds, pocosins, or sluggish rivers (Ernst and Ernst 2003), primarily in areas that are not heavily shaded. Evidence for occurrence in brackish water is weak. Sometimes this snake traverses land, especially in humid or wet weather. Refuges include various burrows, including those made by crayfish, and spaces among or under wood or thick vegetation.
63884		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Dorcas <em>et al</em>. (2003) mapped somewhat more than 50 collection localities well distributed throughout the overall range. There are probably additional populations that have not yet been documented. Gibbons and Dorcas (2004) mapped occurrences in virtually every county in peninsular Florida. The adult population size in unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake attains high densities and is locally common throughout much of Florida (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63884		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Habitat destruction has caused declines in some areas, and many are killed on roads each year (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but this snake is not significantly threatened in most of its range.
63885		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63885		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from eastern Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois south to the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana (Webb 1970, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004 ).
63885		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits sluggish streams, river-bottom sloughs, bayous, pond and lake margins, marshes, swamps, rice fields, and roadside ditches, often in water-edge vegetation, under shore debris, or in crayfish burrows (Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). It may travel away from water on rainy nights.
63885		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Texas alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in much of its range (Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is widespread but uncommon in Illinois (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999), locally abundant in Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), and locally abundant in a few places in Texas (Tennant 1998). Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that this snake is often locally common but "loss of crayfish populations because of pollution and acid rain has reduced its numbers drastically." However, overall its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size may be declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.
63885		threats	eng	Without citing sources or details, Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that pollution and acid rain have reduced crayfish populations and have caused drastic declines in populations of <em>R. grahamii</em>. Local threats in Arkansas include draining and alteration of wetlands, but overall this species is not endangered or threatened there (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This snake often occurs in isolated colonies throughout its range (Werler and Dixon 2000); consequently, extirpated populations may not be readily reestablished through natural dispersal mechanisms. Werler and Dixon (2000) reported that this snake may prosper in the face of expanding human development, and they noted  the persistence of this species in urban parklands in Missouri and Texas. Overall, this species does not appear to be very threatened, but better information is needed on current trends and threats.
63886		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63886		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range extends from Virginia (Buhlman <em>et al</em>. 1993, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 24: 156-157) to northern Florida, west to eastern Texas and southeastern Oklahoma; most of the range is on the Coastal Plain, except in the northwestern portion (Webb 1970, Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63886		habitat	eng	Habitats include slow waters of lowland areas, such as swamps, nontidal and tidal freshwater marshes, sphagnum bogs, pocosins, seepage wetlands, ponds, lakes, flatwoods ponds, cypress ponds, bayous, rice fields, canals, drainage ditches, mucky areas along streams, and floodplains; also sometimes grassy or wooded upland habitats adjacent to wetlands (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Usually this snake is secluded in burrows (e.g., crayfish, muskrat), under mats of wet vegetation or debris at the water's edge, or among aquatic plants, but occasionally it basks on banks or on vegetation over water. It may travel on land during rain.
63886		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Due to the snake's secretive habits, it is likely that more occurrences are yet to be discovered. For example, this species was not detected in North Carolina until 1954, yet Palmer and Braswell (1995) noted that 51 records were then known from that state. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is seemingly uncommon in most of the range, but this probably reflects secretive behavior and habitat preferences rather than true scarcity (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). It is common in some parts of Florida (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Population trends are largely unknown but, based on habitat considerations, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63886		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Presumably habitat loss and degradation have caused local declines, but this snake is probably not threatened in most of its range.
63887		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63887		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the east of the United States, and extends into southern Canada. Its range extends from the southern Great Lakes region (southeastern Wisconsin, Michigan, southern Ontario, and western New York) to the Gulf Coast of the Florida panhandle, and east to southeastern Pennsylvania, western New Jersey, and northern Delmarva Peninsula, and west disjunctly to Missouri (apparently extirpated, Johnson 2000) and Arkansas (Barbour 1971, Mount 1975, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Harding 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ernst 2002, White and White 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
63887		habitat	eng	This snake occurs only where crayfish are present and fairly abundant, generally in moderate to fast-flowing streams with ample cover, wooded or open conditions, and good exposure to sun. Habitat has been characterized as follows: streams with vegetation along the shoreline, and rocky (north) or sandy (south) bottoms (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004); clean streams or marshes of open areas or woodlands (Ernst and Ernst 2003); small clear creeks with rocky or dandy bottoms, stream impoundments (Alabama; Mount 1975); woodland streams and cypress domes (Florida; Tennant 1997); exposed rocky river shorelines (Arkansas; Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004); shallow rocky streams in agricultural, urban, and forested areas (Virginia; Mitchell 1994); shallow streams and rivers with plenty of sun, rocks, and overhanging shrubs and small trees (North Carolina; Palmer and Braswell 1995); unpolluted rocky woodland streams (Illinois; Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999); small rocky streams in wooded areas or open pastures, swampy woods (Kentucky; Barbour 1971); clear, spring-fed streams with moderate to fast currents and rocky bottoms, in lowland hardwood forests and shrub-carr communities (Wisconsin; Vogt 1981). In some areas the habitat may include slow-moving streams, ditches, canals, freshwater marshes, or the edges of ponds or lakes (Mitchell 1994, Harding 1997, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004), but this species generally is uncommon or absent from these habitats (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Minton 2001). This snake basks on branches overhanging the water. Sometimes it travels on land away from water. Refuges include burrows, rocks, logs, and other cover.
63887		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped over 100 collection sites in North Carolina alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many areas with suitable habitat. It is common along many streams above the Fall Line in Alabama (Mount 1975); uncommon in most of the range in Illinois, but locally abundant in good habitat (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999); uncommon and local in most of the range in the Great Lakes region, but locally common where ideal habitat remains (Harding 1997). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to have declined in some parts of the range (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but the degree of decline is unknown. In the Great Lakes region, numbers have declined in many places due largely to habitat degradation; this species is now scarce or absent in many stream that once harbored healthy populations (Harding 1997). This species appears to be declining on the Delmarva Peninsula (White and White 2002). Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63887		threats	eng	Threats and declines appear to be greatest in the northern or peripheral parts of the range where habitat alteration has negatively affected crayfish populations (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that water pollution and acid rain have combined to reduce crayfish populations in many parts of the eastern portion of the snake's range, and that this, along with drainage of wetlands, has eliminated the Queen Snake from many areas where it was once common. In Arkansas, eutrophication due to livestock or poultry waste runoff into streams is a possible threat, as is "overuse of water resources by human recreational activities" (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Great Lakes region, siltation from urban or agricultural runoff may reduce or eliminate crayfish populations (Harding 1997). Threats in Illinois include pollution that reduces crayfish populations and siltation of rocky stream bottoms (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). Anecdotal evidence suggests that local populations in the northeastern United States are being reduced in numbers or extirpated as a result of adverse effects of stream degradation and pollution on crayfish (Mitchell 1994, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, White and White 2002). Other potential threats include stream channelization and large impoundments (Mitchell 1994).
63888		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no protected areas within its distributional range.
63888		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and its vicinity, in the Sierra de Juarez of north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 2,025 to 2,075 m asl.
63888		habitat	eng	This species is found underneath leaf-litter and logs in cloud forest. It has only been found in primary forest.
63888		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
63888		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture is a major threat to this species.
63889		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and threats for this poorly-known species.
63889		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only from a single specimen collected in the Córdoba region of central Veracruz, Mexico. A record from the east side of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca is believed to be in error (P. Ponce-Campos pers. comm.). The elevation in Veracruz is at 600 m asl.
63889		habitat	eng	It was collected in tropical evergreen forest. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.
63889		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
63889		threats	eng	The single site where it was collected has now been converted to a palm plantation.
63890		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63890		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the southeast of the United States. It is discontinuously distributed along the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to southern Florida (to Palm Beach County, Herp. Rev. 20:76), and west to eastern Louisiana (Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Walley 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003). It occurs mostly at elevations below 30 m and within 120 km of the coast (see Ernst and Barbour 1989).
63890		habitat	eng	Habitat is mainly damp pine flatwoods; also slash pine and longleaf pine woodlands; habitat is maintained by periodic fire (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Sometimes this snake is found in hardwood hammocks near pine flatwoods, along wooded edges of wet prairies, in sandhills near water, or in ecotones between sandhills and bottomlands and pocosins; some occur in dry live-oak woodlands on coastal islands off North Carolina and Florida (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake is secretive and fossorial, often occurring under loose bark, in or under rotting logs, stumps, leaf litter, or other debris, buried in sandy soil, or in burrows. During dry periods, it has been found in crayfish burrows. Eggs usually are laid in rotting wood (Martof <em>et al</em>. 1980).
63890		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). For example, Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped approximately 65 collection sites in North Carolina alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake often appears to be uncommon, but it is secretive and generally more numerous than casual observations indicate. The current trend is uncertain, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63890		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Some habitat has probably been lost due to changes resulting from fire suppression.
63891		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed to determine if wildfires are a threat to this species.
63891		distribution	eng	This species is present in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental, in Veracruz, Mexico. It has been recorded from around 518 to 1,500 m asl.
63891		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that has been recorded from primary pine-oak forest, it might also occur in secondary forest although this needs to be confirmed. It may be present in tropical evergreen forest at lower elevations, although this also needs to be confirmed. It is an oviparous species.
63891		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63891		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by increased numbers of wildfires resulting from habitat fragmentation, however, it is unclear if this is a threat to this fossorial species.
63892		conservation	eng	It is present in the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve (Puebla and Oaxaca). Further information is needed into the natural history of this species.
63892		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it ranges from central Veracruz, through southeast Puebla to central and northern Oaxaca. The elevational range is about 1,800 to 2,300 m asl.
63892		habitat	eng	It is found in primary pine-oak forest and oak forest. It does not appear to be within secondary forest, or modified habitats. It is found in leaf-litter, under rocks and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.
63892		population	eng	It is a common species.
63892		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation through clearing of land for agricultural use. The habitat is severely fragmented and animals cannot recolonise forest patches.
63893		conservation	eng	The species is found in El Tacana Biosphere Reserve.
63893		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific versant of the Sierra Madre of southwestern Guatemala and immediately adjacent Chiapas, Mexico, at elevations of 1,050 to 1,450 m asl.
63893		habitat	eng	The only reported habitat is the ground litter in the shade of coffee plantations.
63893		population	eng	Very little information is available on the population status of this species.
63893		threats	eng	Pesticides are potentially a threat to this species, but there is very little information known.
63894		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least seven protected areas. Further research is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.
63894		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present in western Mexico, from Sinaloa southward into Guerrero, Morelos and Puebla, in the Sierra Madre Occidental, Cordillera Volcánica (Distrito Federal and State of Mexico), Sierra de Coalcomán and the Sierra Madre del Sur. It is found at elevations of between 884 and 2,200 m asl.
63894		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that has been found in primary and secondary pine-oak forest, oak forest, tropical deciduous forest and mesquite grassland. It also occurs in agricultural areas. It is oviparous.
63894		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63894		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
63895		conservation	eng	This species may occur in the Huitepec Private Reserve.
63895		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western portion of the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,300 to 2,700 m asl.
63895		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine-oak forest. It may also persist in selectively logged forest.
63895		population	eng	There is very little information; it is known from very few specimens. It was last seen in the early 1980s. The paucity of records most probably reflects its secretive habits.
63895		threats	eng	Deforestation for wood extraction is a major threat to this species.
63896		conservation	eng	It occurs in Lagos de Montebello National Park and Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera in Guatemala.
63896		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands of Chiapas near the Guatemalan border, the highlands of Alta and Baja Verapaz of extreme eastern Guatemala and adjacent Honduras, and northwestern Honduras. It has been recorded from 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.
63896		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf-litter of lower montane wet and cloud forest. It also occurs in humid pine-oak habitats, but is found only in intact forest and possibly along forest edges.
63896		population	eng	There are sporadic records from throughout its disjunct range. It has been recorded since 1995. There are very few records probably due to its secretive habits.
63896		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species at present.
63897		conservation	eng	It can be found in El Tacana Biosphere Reserve, in Mexico.
63897		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Pacific versant of the Sierra Madre of western Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico. It is known from elevations of 1,050 to 2,637 m asl.
63897		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak and cloud forest, and can also be found in secondary forest, but needs shade. It eats salamanders, lizards, and small frogs.
63897		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
63897		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified for this species.
63898		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
63898		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental and Volcanic Belt, ranging from west-central Durango, south to northern and central Michoacan, and east to Morelos and the vicinity of Mexico City.
63898		habitat	eng	The species occurs in pine and pine-oak forest under rocks and logs. There is no information on the extent to which it can adapt to secondary habitats.
63898		population	eng	It is a common species.
63898		threats	eng	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.
63899		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no protected areas within its distributional range.
63899		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico, at elevations from 1,200 to 2,000 m asl.
63899		habitat	eng	A terrestrial snake, it is found underneath leaf-litter and logs in pine-oak forests.
63899		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63899		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
63900		conservation	eng	It is only present in a proposed protected area in Tlanchinol, Hidalgo. There is a need to establish protected areas to preseve remaining islands of cloud forest habitat. Further studies are needed into the ecology, biology and natural history of this species.
63900		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four small disjunct areas of cloud forest in the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. It has been recorded from Xilitla, southeastern San Luis Potosi; Tlanchinol, Hidalgo; Villa Juarez, Puebla and Cuetzalan, Puebla. It ranges from 1,000 to 1,600 m asl.
63900		habitat	eng	This species exclusively occurs in primary montane cloud forest. It is generally a terrestrial species that lives under rocks, fallen tree trunks and other ground cover. It feeds on salamanders. It is an oviparous species.
63900		population	eng	It is a locally rare species.
63900		threats	eng	The sites where this species has been recorded are threatened by deforestation through conversion to agricultural areas, including cropland and cattle pasture. It is also threatened by road construction in parts of its range.
63901		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey and the the Parque Nacional Sierra Pena Nevada. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, natural history and taxonomy of this species.
63901		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental in eastern Mexico, where it ranges through parts of western Nuevo Leon. It occurs at elevations of around 1,500 to 1,800 m asl.
63901		habitat	eng	It is present in primary open pine-oak forest and dry grassland. It is not present in agricultural land. It can be found close to springs and marshy areas. It is an oviparous species.
63901		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63901		threats	eng	It is threatened by fragmentation of primary habitat through agricultural expansion (cropland [e.g.. corn and wheat] and cattle ranching). The species can only be found in primary habitat and cannot cross areas of agricultural land.
63902		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not found in any protected areas.
63902		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur in the vicinity of Pluma Hidalgo and La Soledad in Mexico, at 1,524 m asl.
63902		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary cloud and pine-oak forest.
63902		population	eng	It is a very poorly known species.
63902		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
63903		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Omiltemi protected state park.
63903		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the zone of the Sierra Madre del sur in central Guerrero, where it is known only from Omiltemi and the vicinity of Chilpancingo in Mexico. The known elevational range is from 2,226 to 2,439 m asl.
63903		habitat	eng	It occurs in the leaf litter of pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is not known whether it occurs in disturbed areas.
63903		population	eng	There is very little information; it is known from relatively few specimens, many of which are 80 years old.
63903		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in the area, and the park is not well protected, but it is not known whether the species is able to adapt to modification of its habitat.
63904		conservation	eng	This species is poorly known, and there needs to be further studies in the field. At least one population occurs in the Biosphere Reserve Sierra Gorda de Queretaro.
63904		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known from northern Puebla, Queretaro and possibly Guanajuato. It is found from about 1,800 to 2,300 m asl.
63904		habitat	eng	It is only known from primary pine-oak forest. It is found below leaf-litter, logs and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.
63904		population	eng	It is a rare species, known only from three specimens.
63904		threats	eng	The area from which this species has currently been recorded (three specimens in total only) is threatened by clearing of the pine-oak forest though conversion to agricultural use.
63905		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas.
63905		distribution	eng	This species is known from the foothills along the eastern slope of Sierra Madre de Oaxaca, in Veracruz and northern Oaxaca, Mexico. The elevation range is between 800 to 1,500 m asl.
63905		habitat	eng	The type specimens were collected in a banana grove. Its usual habitat is upper rainforest/lower cloud forest. It is a terrestrial species.
63905		population	eng	It is a secretive species; it is possibly uncommon because it's uncommonly found.
63905		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
63906		conservation	eng	It is present in at least seven protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.
63906		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it is found in the volcanic belt (<em>R. t. taeniata</em>) and the Sierra Madre del Sur (<em>R. t. aemula</em>). It has an elevational range of around 1,650 to 2,200 m asl.
63906		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary pine forest, pine-oak forest, oak forest and juniper forest. It also occurs in agricultural areas. It is an oviparous species.
63906		population	eng	It is a very common species.
63906		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
63907		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas. More information is needed on range, population, habitats and ecology for this species.
63907		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Puerto del Gallo, in Guerrero, Mexico, from approximately 3,000 m asl.
63907		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species found in fir forests.
63907		population	eng	There is very little information available. Two specimens were collected in the 1970s within 15 minutes of one another and none seen since, although no-one has been back to check.
63907		threats	eng	Deforestation and fires are probably a threat to this species, but insufficient information is known to confirm this.
63908		conservation	eng	The species' range is within a protected area.
63908		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Cerralvo, in the Gulf of California, Mexico. It has been found only on the southern end of Isla Cerralvo, but probably occurs throughout the island (Grismer 2002).
63908		habitat	eng	This species has been found in sandy areas like arroyo bottoms and coastal dunes as well as on the branches of trees and bushes. The species is nocturnal.
63908		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species. It is known only from four specimens and five field observations (Grismer 2002).
63908		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The island is not known to be inhabited by humans, and is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes or other natural disasters.
63909		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63909		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from northern California, southern Idaho, Utah, southeastern Colorado, and southwestern Kansas in the United States, south to central Baja California, Jalisco, San Luis Potosi, and Tamaulipas, in Mexico, at elevations ranging from below sea level in desert sinks to around 1,900 m asl (6,233 feet) (Medica 1975, Stebbins 2003).
63909		habitat	eng	The species' typical habitats include deserts, dry prairies, arid river valleys, thornbrush, and shrubland; sometimes oak-hackberry woodland (Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). This snake retreats underground or under rocks by day. Eggs are laid underground or under rocks.
63909		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Medica (1975) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in most of its Mexican range and in southern part of its US range. In some areas of the United States, it appears to be uncommon but secretive habits may make it seem less numerous than it actually is. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63909		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species. Locally, some habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of urbanization or conversion to intensive agricultural uses.
63910		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least five protected areas.
63910		distribution	eng	This widespread species is endemic to central Mexico. It is found at elevations of between 1,200 and 2,400 m asl
63910		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary tropical dry forest, oak forest, pine-oak forest, pine forest and scrubland. It is also found in modified habitats including agricultural land. Its diet consists of amphibians, small lizards and small mammals. It is an oviparous species and lays up to two clutches in one season (Uribe-Peña <em>et al</em>. 1999).
63910		population	eng	It is a common species.
63910		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation of land for agricultural use in parts of its range.
63911		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63911		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern Arizona (isolated population in Oak Creek Canyon, central Arizona), New Mexico, and central Texas in the United States, southward into northern Mexico as far as Hidalgo (Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from sea level to over 1,980 m asl (6,500 feet), but in the western part of the range this snake seldom occurs below 1,370 m (4,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63911		habitat	eng	In the western part of the range, habitats include rocky canyons, plateaus, and mountain slopes with open woodland or open ponderosa pine forests; in the east, the habitat includes prairies, arid shrublands, oak-juniper savanna, thorn brush woodland, and woodland-grassland-farmland mosaics (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63911		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped nearly 100 collection sites in New Mexico alone. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is often common in suitable habitat (Tennant 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63911		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
63912		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63912		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southern and eastern California, western and southern Nevada, and extreme southwestern Utah south through Arizona, southern New Mexico, and southwestern Texas in the United States, to the tip of Baja California, southern Sinaloa, and Chihuahua, Mexico, at elevations ranging from below sea level in desert sinks to 2,135 m asl (7,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
63912		habitat	eng	The species' habitat consists of sandy and rocky areas of plains and lower mountain slopes; creosote bush desert, ocotillo-yucca-agave flats, mesquite dominated washes, tobosa-grama grassland, broken upland terrain, succulent desert, partially dry streambeds of foothills and mesas, sagebrush semi-desert, chaparral, pinyon-juniper woodland; this snake is mainly terrestrial but sometimes climbs into vegetation (Behler and King 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
63912		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. It is common in many parts of its range, but uncommon in Texas (Tennant 1984, 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63912		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
63913		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). The species occurs in Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.
63913		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Upper Balsas Basin and Valley of Tehuacan southward in to central portions of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Mexico. Its elevational range is approximately 1,400 to 2,500 m asl.
63913		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species occurring in pine-oak and tropical deciduous forest and high desert.
63913		population	eng	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.
63913		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
63914		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Cañon del Sumidero National Park.
63914		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Pacific coast of Mexico from Guerrero to Chiapas; also in Grijalva Valley of Chiapas. It possibly also occurs in adjacent Guatemala. It occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
63914		habitat	eng	It occurs terrestrially and semi-arborially in pastures and dry forest. It also occurs in secondary forest.
63914		population	eng	This is an uncommon species but it is regularly recorded.
63914		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
63915		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).
63915		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the central Pacific coast region of Mexico: from Nayarit, along the coast to the border of Guerrero and Oaxaca. It is also in the Santiago River Basin in Jalisco, Balsas Basin in Michoacan and Telhuacan Valley in Puebla.
63915		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats including tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, and cultivated land. This is a highly adaptable species.
63915		population	eng	It is a common and regularly recorded species.
63915		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species at present.
63916		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63916		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range includes the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to southern Florida, west to southern Alabama; extends up to 150 to 180 km inland from the coast in Georgia and South Carolina (Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Dorcas <em>et al</em>. 1998, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).
63916		habitat	eng	Habitats include swamps, bayheads, Carolina bays, ponds, marshes, grassy wet prairies, sphagnum bogs, sluggish streams, ditches, canals, and lakes with abundant floating or emergent vegetation; sometimes this species has been found in salt marshes or brackish tidal water; usually this snake is found among vegetation in water or in or under debris at the water's edge, including matted vegetation of round-tailed muskrat houses; it may travel on land after heavy summer rains or when pond basins dry (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). In north-central Florida, individuals moved between temporary ponds and larger bodies of water; certain temporary ponds may comprise developmental habitat (Dodd 1993).
63916		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake was the most abundant snake species in two long-term studies in South Carolina and Florida (Dodd 1993, Seigel <em>et al</em>. 1995). It is locally abundant in Florida (Tennant 1997) and relatively common in some areas of North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Wilson and Porras (1983) stated that populations in Florida have decreased. Current trends are not well known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63916		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, loss and degradation of wetlands likely have resulted in population declines or extirpations.
63917		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas in Mexico.
63917		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Veracruz, Mexico, southward across Petén and eastern Guatemala, southern Belize, northern Honduras and eastern Nicaragua to Costa Rica; it also occurs on the Pacific watershed of northern Chiapas, Mexico, and southwestern Guatemala. In Guatemala, this species is known from near sea level to around 1,000 m asl. In Mexico it occurs only up to 680 m asl.
63917		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal and nocturnal inhabitant of humid lowland forests. It also occurs in degraded forest.
63917		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63917		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
63918		conservation	eng	It occurs in the El Tacaná and El Triunfo Biosphere Reserves as well as the forests protected by the Los Chimalapas community.
63918		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the highlands of eastern Oaxaca and Chiapas, in Mexico, and in Guatemala, northern El Salvador, and southwestern Honduras. It ranges from 1,350 to 3,000 m asl.
63918		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf-litter, low shrubs, and low palms in pine, pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is also found in arboreal ferns. It is restricted to intact forest.
63918		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its range.
63918		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for agriculture, wood collection, and cattle grazing.
63919		conservation	eng	The specimen was found in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
63919		distribution	eng	The one known specimen of this species was found in Balzapote, extreme southeastern Veracruz in Los Tuxtlas, Mexico.
63919		habitat	eng	The species was found under leaf-litter in tropical rainforest
63919		population	eng	It is known from only one specimen collected in 1983. It has not been seen since, in one of the most well studied areas of Mexico, however, it is unclear whether extensive, appropriate surveys have been done to find this particular species. There is no reason to suspect that this species may be extinct.
63919		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, but the one specimen was found within a protected area.
63920		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a few protected areas.
63920		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Campeche through Yucatan, Quintana Roo and Yucatan in Mexico, and Belize and Guatemala on the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs from sea level up to 250 m asl.
63920		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical semi-deciduous forest and thorn forest. It also occurs in degraded forest as well as agricultural land.
63920		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
63920		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
63921		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
63921		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific lowlands of western Mexico, where it ranges from southern Sonora, through extreme western Durango, to southern Sinaloa.
63921		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowlands in areas covered by thorn forest and semi-deciduous forest. It is not found in open areas, or agricultural land.
63921		population	eng	It is a common species, but it is not well known, and little has been written about it.
63921		threats	eng	No threats have been directly identified, though it presumably suffers at least locally due to habitat loss for agriculture and other causes. However, it seems to avoid the coastal plain where habitat loss is most severe.
63922		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Barranca de Huantitan protected area. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.
63922		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it is present in the States of Zacatacas and Aguascalientes. It ranges between 1,000 and 2,299 m asl.
63922		habitat	eng	It is found in shrubland, oak forest, pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is an oviparous species.
63922		population	eng	It is a common species.
63922		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat fragmentation through agricultural development.
63923		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. No further research is needed into this species.
63923		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico. It has a scattered range from the Upper Balsas river basin in Michoacan and Guerro throughout Morelos and Puebla, and a record in the foothills of Colima. It ranges from around sea level to 1,000 m asl.
63923		habitat	eng	It is found in deciduous tropical forest and tropical shrubland. It is generally associated with primary habitat although it can occur in slightly disturbed areas. It is an oviparous species.
63923		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
63923		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any threats to this species. The habitat within its range is relatively intact.
63924		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Barranca de Huantitan protected area. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.
63924		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, it is present in central and southern Jalisco, southern Zacatas, eastern Nayarit and southwestern Sinola. It ranges between 1,000 and 1,690 m asl.
63924		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is an oviparous species.
63924		population	eng	It is a common species.
63924		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat fragmentation through agricultural development.
63925		conservation	eng	This snake occurs in several protected areas.
63925		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern California, Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, southwestern Utah, southeastern Colorado, Kansas, and southwestern Missouri in the United States, south to southern Baja California, Chihuahua, and Tamaulipas in Mexico; from sea level to around 1,830 m asl (6,000 feet) (Frost 1983, Grismer 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63925		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include arid and semi-arid regions: river bottoms, desert flats, sand hummocks, rocky hillsides with pockets of loose soil; from prairie and desert lowlands to pinyon-juniper and oak-pine zone; soil may be rocky to sandy, vegetation dense to sparse (Tennant 1984, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).
63925		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Frost 1983). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in suitable habitat. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63925		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
63926		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
63926		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low and intermediate elevations on the Pacific slope of Mexico southward from Guerrero to lower Central America. It occurs throughout much of central Petén, Belize, and northern Yucatan Peninsula. The elevation range of the species is from 100 to 1,800 m asl.
63926		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in tropical moist and dry forest. It also occurs in disturbed forest, forest edge, and agricultural areas.
63926		population	eng	The species is locally common.
63926		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
63927		conservation	eng	Several occurrences are in protected areas. This snake occurs in Ocala National Forest (though management may not be adequate) and in some small state parks, preserves, and geological sites (Wekiwa Springs, Ichetucknee Spring, San Felasco Hammock, Devil's Millhopper). Surveys are needed to determine distribution and status of populations. Protection of substantial tracts of xeric habitat is essential. Degradation of the large tracts of good habitat in the Ocala National Forest should be prevented. This snake can coexist with necessary residential, agricultural, and industrial developments if development is not too intense (e.g., not more than one homesite per acre) and native ecosystems are preserved to the maximum extent possible (Campbell and Moler 1992).
63927		distribution	eng	The range of this snake is restricted to northern and central peninsular Florida in the southeast of the United States, from Suwanee and Columbia counties to Hillsborough, Orange, and Highlands counties (Franz <em>et al</em>. 1992); the species is not known from west of the Suwannee River.
63927		habitat	eng	Habitat is dry sandy uplands, especially longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill) and sometimes adjacent xeric oak hammocks and rosemary-sand pine scrub; this snake also has been found in sphagnum bog adjacent to typical habitat (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Carr and Goin 1955, Campbell and Moler 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Campbell and Christman (1982) reported that this species is more abundant in early successional stages in pine scrub than in advanced stages with a full pine canopy, dense evergreen shrub layer, and matted ground cover. This is a fossorial snake, sometimes found under objects or in leaf litter in autumn (fall).
63927		population	eng	This species has been found in more than 30 localities. It is secretive and relatively difficult to detect, so it can be expected to occur in additional sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This snake seems to be very rare where it does occur, but its secretive, fossorial habits may make it appear to be less numerous than it actually is. The area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably declined and probably continue to do so, but the rate of decline is unknown.
63927		threats	eng	It is threatened by loss of habitat to residential and agricultural development and possibly also by clearcutting and other timber management programs in sand pine scrub (Campbell and Moler 1992). Mining is an additional cause of habitat loss.
63928		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63928		distribution	eng	The species' range extends in North America from southern Maine, southern Quebec, southern Ontario, Michigan, Minnesota, and northeastern South Dakota south to southern Florida (including the Lower Keys, Lazell 1989), the United States Gulf coast, and through eastern and southern Mexico to Veracruz and Oaxaca and from Chiapas to Honduras (Christman 1982).
63928		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in nearly all terrestrial and wetland habitat types in its range, including cities. Habitats in Mexico include cloud forest and tropical deciduous forest. Usually it inhabits moist situations, but it is not an aquatic species. It often occurs under debris or logs; frequently among water hyacinths in Florida. Hibernation sites (often communal) are underground or beneath buildings and other structures.
63928		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number (hundreds) of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Christman 1982). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally abundant (up to hundreds per hectare) in many areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63928		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This snake tolerates a high level of habitat disturbance.
63929		conservation	eng	It is present in at least four protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and biology of this species.
63929		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, where it ranges from Nuevo Leon, through Tamaulipas and eastern San Luis Potosi to northeastern Hidalgo. It occurs between 1,400 and 1,800 m asl.
63929		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in primary and secondary cloud forest, pine forest, pine-oak forest and fir forests. It is not believed to occur in agricultural areas, but may occur in cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.
63929		population	eng	It is a common species.
63929		threats	eng	It is threatened by severe fragmentation of suitable habitat by conversion to agricultural land throughout its range. Animals cannot move between habitat fragments.
63930		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63930		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the east of the United States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from Nova Scotia to southeastern Saskatchewan, and south to southeastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and central Florida; isolated population in the Black Hills, Wyoming-South Dakota (Ernst 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63930		habitat	eng	Habitats are varied and include mountainous or hilly woodland/forest, upland meadows and valleys, and swamp and bog edges (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake shelters under and in ground cover, in building foundations, and in abandoned ant mounds. Generally it occurs in mesic situations with abundant ground cover.
63930		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Ernst 2002). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000, probably much more. This snake, though secretive and sometimes hard to detect, is locally common in many parts of its large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63930		threats	eng	No major threats are known.  This snake is tolerant of minor habitat alterations.
63931		conservation	eng	The species' range includes several protected areas.
63931		distribution	eng	This species is known from cold areas of Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, Puebla, San Luis Potosi and Mexico City. It has been recorded between 2,743 and 3,000 m asl.
63931		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of pine forest, scrub forests, meadows and pine-oak forests. It lives under rocks. It feeds on slugs.
63931		population	eng	It is a very common species.
63931		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63932		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Chamela-Cuitzmala Biosphere Reserve.
63932		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific versant of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (southeastern Oaxaca and southwestern Chiapas, Mexico). It was also recently recorded at the mouth of the Rio Balsas in Michoacan and Chamela, Jalisco, Mexico. It occurs from near sea level up to 500 m asl. It may be continuously distributed along the Pacific coast of Mexico.
63932		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical deciduous forest, and is probably restricted to well-conserved forest.
63932		population	eng	There are no recent records for the population in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but it is common at Chamela, especially during the rainy season.
63932		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by deforestation.
63933		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.
63933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from the Mexican states of Yucatan, eastern Campeche and Quintana Roo, to central Belize. The elevational records for this snake are between sea level and 300 m asl.
63933		habitat	eng	It is known both from deciduous thorn forest and from the more mesic forests on the eastern side of the peninsula and to the south. It can also live in degraded forest but not in human habitation. It eats grasshoppers.
63933		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63933		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
63934		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Protected area(s) are needed for this species. Field work is required to determine the limits of the species' range.
63934		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur (Myers and Campbell 1981), from the northern portion (recent localities come from 6 miles southeast of Tamazulapan) and the center of Oaxaca (Sierra de Juárez).
63934		habitat	eng	It occurs in fragmented pine-oak forests.
63934		population	eng	It is generally rare, but is common in a few sites. There are only nine specimens known to date.
63934		threats	eng	Fragmentation due to logging and the conversion to agricultural lands is a major threat.
63935		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas, including most of the Lower Rio Grande National Wildlife Refuge system and Padre Island National Seashore (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997).
63935		distribution	eng	The range of this species includes a disjunct population in southern Texas; the main portion of the range is in Mexico in Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas (Cole and Hardy 1981, 1983).
63935		habitat	eng	Habitats include wooded and grassland-thorn brush communities (Tennant 1998). The species ranges from desert flats to wooded mountain canyons (Conant and Collins 1991).
63935		population	eng	The number of occurrences or subpopulations is not well known. Cole and Hardy (1981) mapped 12 collection locations in southern Texas and northern Mexico. It is rarely seen due to its secretive, fossorial way of life, nocturnal habits, and inaccessibility of habitat (Cole and Hardy 1981, A. Price pers. comm. 1997). There are probably many undiscovered occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least many thousands. This snake is not often collected, but it has a fairly wide distribution that may be spotty (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Probably it is more common than it appears to be (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably fairly stable.
63935		threats	eng	This species is not significantly threatened at the present time. Potential threats include loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation, as well as climatic change (L. Hardy pers. comm. 1997). A large amount of habitat in Texas is being converted to agriculture, sown to alien grasses for improved grazing, and fragmented by road construction (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Loss of habitat to development is a potential threat (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997).
63936		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to determine the extent to which it can survive in degraded areas.
63936		distribution	eng	This Mexican species is known from northeastern Sinaloa, southern Durango, and western Zacatecas, south through Jalisco and Colima and east through Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Michoacán, southern Queretaro, Hidalgo, Mexico, Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla and into central Veracruz. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,200 m asl.
63936		habitat	eng	It is found in pine-oak and tropical deciduous forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.
63936		population	eng	Little information appears to be available on its abundance.
63936		threats	eng	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.
63937		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). The area is protected by local communities.
63937		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the Caribbean versant of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the Mexican state of Oaxaca at low elevations between 90 and 100 m asl. Another specimen has been found recently (L. Canseco Marquez pers. comm. 2005) in a nearby location.
63937		habitat	eng	The species was found in tropical moist and possibly dry forest.
63937		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen, and one other specimen collected recently.
63937		threats	eng	Fires and deforestation are affecting the habitat within the range of this species.
63938		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas within its large range.
63938		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the Pacific coast of Mexico; from Sinaloa to Guerrero and Morelos, with a separate record from Tehuacan in southern coastal Guerrero. Its range includes the Tres Marias Islands. It occurs from sea level up to 1,050 m asl.
63938		habitat	eng	This species is adaptable and occurs in a variety of habitats, including tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, oak forest, mangrove, and cultivated land.
63938		population	eng	It is a common species.
63938		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this adaptable species.
63939		conservation	eng	Field work and systematics is required to define the present conservation status of this species and then to define conservation measures if necessary. It occurs in Parque Nacional Eduardo Ruiz.
63939		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de los Tarascos, in Pacific Michoacan, Mexico. It is known only from one specimen collected at 1,430 m asl in 1939.
63939		habitat	eng	The one specimen was found in an area originally covered by pine-oak forest in the ecotone with tropical deciduous forest, in an area of extensive lava outflows. It is fossorial.
63939		population	eng	It is known only from one specimen.
63939		threats	eng	The area in which it was found is highly disturbed, but this probably wouldn't impact the species because of its fossorial ecology. More information is needed regards whether there are any significant threats to this species.
63940		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
63940		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities of the Pacific versant of central Guerrero, Mexico, at 1,402 to 1,524 m asl.
63940		habitat	eng	It was collected in tropical deciduous forest, and in an area grazed by livestock. It is a fossorial species.
63940		population	eng	It is known from only 12 specimens collected at two localities.
63940		threats	eng	The area in which the species was found had been grazed by livestock, but it probably has not had much effect on this fossorial species. More information is needed to determine if there are any major threats to this species.
63941		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63941		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range extends from extreme southern Indiana and western Kentucky eastward to Virginia, and south to eastern Louisiana, Alabama, and the Florida panhandle (Barbour 1971, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63941		habitat	eng	Habitat varies but tends to be relatively dry and wooded (often pine and oak), with an abundance of rocks, logs, or rotting stumps on the surface; specific examples of occupied habitats include xeric pine-oak woodland on hillsides and ridges; sandy pine flatwoods; maritime forests; sandhills; and sometimes mesic meadows, hardwood hammocks, and the wet margins of marshes, swamps, and rivers (Barbour 1971, Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003). In daytime, this snake generally is under rocks, debris, or other surface cover, or within or under rotting logs or stumps. At night, it may be found on roads. Eggs are laid under woody debris, in rotting logs or sawdust piles, or underground.
63941		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) e.g., (see dot maps of collection sites in Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and probably more numerous than available records indicate. It is locally common statewide in Alabama (Mount 1975), nowhere abundant but locally common in some areas in Kentucky (Barbour 1971), and uncommon in Florida (Tennant 1997). Current trend is unknown, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63941		threats	eng	In Florida, this snake has been negatively affected by the recent invasion of imported fire ants (Tennant 1997). However, overall it is not significantly threatened.
63942		conservation	eng	Some occurrences are in protected areas.
63942		distribution	eng	The range of this species encompasses the Trans-Pecos region of western Texas in the south of the United States. It ranges from near Shafter (Presidio County), through the Big Bend region (Davis and Chisos mountains) and east to the Dolan Falls area of Val Verde County (Werler and Dixon 2000, Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63942		habitat	eng	Habitats include steep-sided rocky canyons with pinyon pine, oak, and juniper; hilly grassland with juniper and cholla; streamside woodland with creosote bush, acacia, yucca, and grasses; and low hills of arid grassland with creosote bush, yucca, ocotillo, and agave; at elevations of 1,180 to 1,712 m (Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive, fossorial snake is usually under cover, underground, or in crevices; it may travel on the surface at night in summer when surface moisture is present.
63942		population	eng	Wilson <em>et al</em>. (2000) mapped 25 collection sites. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped 28 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably is a least several thousand. Though seemingly rare (fewer than 100 have been collected), this secretive fossorial snake (like all <em>Tantilla</em>) is undoubtedly more common the available records indicate. Population trends are not certainly known, but there is no reason to suspect that extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are not relatively stable.
63942		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
63943		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.
63943		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from the Mexican states of Yucatan, northern Quintana Roo, and northern El Petén, in Guatemala, and northern Belize. It occurs from sea level up to 200 m asl.
63943		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits thorn and tropical evergreen forests. It can also occur in degraded forest but not in human habitation. They eat centipedes.
63943		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63943		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
63944		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and population abundance of this species.
63944		distribution	eng	This little-known species occurs in the Pacific versant of Morelos State, Mexico. It occurs between 1,524 and 2,438 m asl.
63944		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary open pine-oak forest. It can be found in disturbed habitats. Animals have been found under rocks and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.
63944		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63944		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It occurs in disturbed habitats.
63945		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is found inside the Tehuacan- Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.
63945		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Oaxaca, Mexico. It is found at altitudes from 2,000 to 2,340 m asl.
63945		habitat	eng	The species inhabits oak forests. It is a terrestrial, diurnal species from primary forests, and can be found under logs, and leaf-litter.
63945		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63945		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
63946		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas. However, in some areas, this may not be sufficient for long-term persistence (see Threats information).
63946		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from eastern Kansas, Missouri, and southwestern Illinois south through Oklahoma and Arkansas to central Louisiana, Texas in the United States, and adjacent Coahuila and Tamaulipas, in Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63946		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include rocky prairie, wooded hillsides, rocky forest edges, pine-oak uplands, oak-juniper brakes, pine woods, moist deciduous woods, thorn woodland, and grass-brushland (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This semi-fossorial snake often is found under rocks or logs after spring or summer rains. Eggs are laid in shallow underground hollows, under rocks (e.g., Cobb 1990), or in decaying vegetation.
63946		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped more than 200 collection sites in Texas, and Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped more than 100 collection sites in Arkansas. In Mexico, the species is known from only a few specimens. Many occurrences have probably good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common.
63946		threats	eng	Tennant (1998) reported that nest predation by non-native fire ants has decimated populations in Texas. Werler and Dixon (2000) did not mention this threat.
63947		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63947		distribution	eng	The species' known range extends discontinuously from southern California, southern Nevada, Utah, and west-central Colorado south to Arizona, southern New Mexico, Texas in the United States, and northern Mexico (Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila) (Cole and Hardy 1981, 1983; Stebbins 2003).
63947		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include pinyon-juniper woodland, chaparral-woodland, riparian woodland, mesquite-yucca grassland, sagebrush-greasewood, cedar-ocotillo, persimmon-shin oak, mesquite-creosote bush, and cedar-savanna (Cole and Hardy 1983, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). This semi-fossorial snake is secretive but may travel in the open at night.
63947		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (see map in Cole and Hardy 1983). The total adult population size is not known but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is locally common, but it is secretive and difficult to detect except under specific temperature, moisture, and temporal conditions. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63947		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
63948		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
63948		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Chiapas, Mexico, across Guatemala into northwestern Honduras. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,200 m asl.
63948		habitat	eng	It occurs in leaf-litter of pre-montane moist forest, and also in secondary forest and has been found along the edges of cardamom plantations.
63948		population	eng	It is known from about a dozen specimens, some collected after 2000, but the lack of specimens may be due to its secretive habits. There are no quantitative population data, but its habitat is not particularly threatened indicating that populations are stable.
63948		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by deforestation.
63949		conservation	eng	It occurs in the El Triunfo and Tacaná Biosphere Reserves.
63949		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific versant from eastern Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico to Guatemala. It has been recorded from 305 to 960 m asl.  The record from Oaxaca requires confirmation.
63949		habitat	eng	This species is known from leaf-litter of tropical moist forests and subtropical wet forests. It is found also in shade coffee plantations near forest. It probably does not tolerate much disturbance of its habitat because it requires a thick layer of leaf-litter.
63949		population	eng	It is a poorly known species, and is probably uncommon. It was collected in 2001 in El Triunfo, Chiapas.
63949		threats	eng	It is threatened by pesticides used in coffee plantations. Its range in Guatemala has been severely deforested.
63950		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
63950		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, from Musté, Municipio of Motozintla, Chiapas, Mexico, at approximately 450 m asl. It may be more widely distributed than is currently known.
63950		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-montane wet forest. Its adaptability to habitat disturbance is unknown.
63950		population	eng	This species was described recently from two specimens collected in 1968. There are no recent records, but this may reflect the secretive nature of the species and a lack of survey work within its range.
63950		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species; much of the forest remains in the region where this species was collected.
63951		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
63951		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula and occurs more or less continuously through northern Yucatan south to central Quintana Roo in Mexico. The several records from El Petén, Guatemala may represent an isolated population. Although it has not yet been recorded from Belize and Campeche (Mexico), it very probably occurs there. It occurs near sea level to about 200 m asl.
63951		habitat	eng	It is found in thorn forest and tropical deciduous and tropical evergreen forest. It can also be found in degraded forest but not in human habitation.
63951		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63951		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63952		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63952		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern Wyoming and southern Nebraska, south through eastern Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, southeastern Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the United States, to northern Mexico (Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas), at elevations from near sea level to around 2,130 m asl (7,000 feet) (Cole and Hardy 1981, Stebbins 2003).
63952		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include plains and desert grassland (including cattle rangelands), shrubland, sandhills, rocky canyons, riparian zones along prairie streams, and thorn brush woodland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Sometimes this snake can be found in old rubbish dumps. It shelters underground or under rocks or other cover by day, and travels in the open at night.
63952		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas in the United States and Mexico, but its secretive habits make it appear to be less numerous than it actually is. In Texas, it is moderately abundant in thorn brush habitat on the Rio Grande plain and in shortgrass prairie of the Panhandle (Tennant 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of much less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63952		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. Conversion of habitat to intensive agricultural uses probably has reduced the area of occupancy in some regions.
63953		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.
63953		distribution	eng	This species is found in moderate and intermediate elevations of the Pacific versant in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
63953		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of subtropical moist forests, lower montane dry forests and lower montane moist forests.
63953		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
63953		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63954		conservation	eng	Protected sites on upper Key Largo include Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, Key Largo Hammocks, and Port Bougainville. This snake is known also from Arch Creek Park. The current status and exact location of all occurrences should be determined so that they can be protected by some means. The primary protection need is the preservation of suitable habitat; this snake is able to coexist with some development if areas of native vegetation are left intact or at least if is a significant area is left in open space, parks, and green belts that are not subject to soil compaction or an altered water table (Campbell and Moler 1992).
63954		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Florida in the United States. Its range includes eastern Dade County and Monroe County, Florida, including the Eastern Rock Rim of Miami oolite and the Florida Keys (including at least Key Largo, Upper Matecumbe Key, Grassy Key, and Vaca Key); a Tantilla specimen from Key West apparently is this species, but occurrence in the Lower Keys needs to be confirmed (Campbell and Moler 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Most of the range in Dade County has been lost.
63954		habitat	eng	Known habitats include sandy or rocky soils in slash pine flatwoods, tropical hardwood hammocks, vacant lots, and pastures with shrubby growth and scattered slash pine (Campbell and Moler 1992). This fossorial snake may be encountered under fallen palmetto leaves, boards, logs, rocks, or other debris.
63954		population	eng	This species is represented by a small number of known occurrences (subpopulations) (Telford 1980, Campbell and Moler 1992). The adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least a few thousand (Tantilla usually are more numerous than available records indicate). However, very few individuals of this species have ever been found. Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably declined significantly compared to the historical situation. Currently, the remaining populations are declining or deteriorating in quality as very rapid loss of habitat continues.
63954		threats	eng	The biggest threat is habitat loss and fragmentation from development (Lazell 1989, Campbell and Moler 1992). Rapid and intense habitat modification has occurred (and continues) within the Miami-Key Largo area. Apparently this species can withstand limited human incursion and can survive in somewhat altered habitat.
63955		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.
63955		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends along the Coast Ranges from central California in the United States, just east (east of Livermore) and south of San Francisco Bay, to the tip of Baja California in Mexico. It also ranges to the desert side of the mountains in southern California (Cole and Hardy 1981, 1983; Grismer 2002; Stebbins 2003), but is absent from the Lower Colorado Desert, the Vizcaíno Desert, and the Magdalena Plain. Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 1,220 m asl (4,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Stebbins (2003) pointed out that the distribution of this species and of <em>T. hobartsmithi</em> in central California needs further study and clarification.
63955		habitat	eng	Habitats include grassland, coastal scrub, chaparral, oak and oak-pine woodland, desert-edge, and thorn scrub, often in rocky areas and along streams, on both level ground and hillsides (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This snake stays underground or under rocks or other cover during daylight, and comes on to the surface at night.
63955		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Cole and Hardy 1983). It is secretive, relatively difficult to find, and certainly occurs in many more locations than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 and may exceed 100,000. This secretive species is certainly more numerous than available specimens indicate. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63955		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally in southern California, some habitat has been lost to urbanization.
63956		conservation	eng	Some occurrences are in protected areas.
63956		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Florida in the United States. Its range extends disjunctly through peninsular Florida and northward into southern Georgia (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63956		habitat	eng	Habitats include sandhills, sand pine scrub, coastal dunes, and xeric and mesic hammocks (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Ernst and Ernst 2003); it is more common in sandhills than in scrub habitat (Mushinsky and Witz 1993). In scrub habitat, this snake appears to most common in early successional stages generated by periodic disturbance (e.g., fire, clear cutting) that removes the matted understorey or pine canopy (Campbell and Christman 1982). Fire periodicity evidently has no influence on local distribution in sandhill habitat (Mushinsky and Witz 1993). This secretive, fossorial snake is usually under the soil surface or under surface cover; it also uses pocket gopher mounds.
63956		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Telford 1980). The adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is relatively common (Mushinsky and Witz 1993, Tennant 1997). The area of occupancy and population size have probably declined compared to the historical situation. Current trend is uncertain, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63956		threats	eng	Habitat in southeastern Florida has been reduced as a result of urban and agricultural development (Wilson and Porras 1983).
63957		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field work in the area could help to determine the present conservation status of this species.
63957		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Octimaxal Norte, northern Puebla, Mexico. It was collected at 800 m asl.
63957		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found in a transformed, or disturbed, area, originally covered by cloud forest now converted to a coffee plantation. It is oviparous.
63957		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
63957		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly-known. The only known specimen was collected in a coffee plantation. It is possible that habitat transformation has affected the populations of this species in the past.
63958		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a number of proected areas. Research is needed to determine its abaility to survive in degraded habitats.
63958		distribution	eng	This species is found at low, moderate and intermediate elevations (near sea level up to 2,618 m asl) of the Atlantic versant from central Nuevo Leon, Mexico, to western Guatemala, and also at various elevations on the Pacific versant in Oaxaca, Mexico.
63958		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine forest, pine-oak forest, and tropical deciduous forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.
63958		population	eng	This is not a common species, but it is not rare.
63958		threats	eng	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.
63959		conservation	eng	This is a poorly known species, additional field work is needed in order to determine its range, population status, threats and ecology. It is not known from any protected areas.
63959		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one specimen collected in 1978 at La Union, western Guerrero, Mexico at 150 m asl.
63959		habitat	eng	The specimen was collected in an area covered by tropical deciduous forest. It is a fossorial species.
63959		population	eng	It is known only from one specimen. Its fossorial habits may be the reason why it has not been collected more often.
63959		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
63960		conservation	eng	Further research on population size, range, biology, threats and habitat status is needed. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
63960		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations; one in southeastern San Luis Potosi (Xilitla (Miramar)), and one in northwestern Veracruz (San Antonio Ixtatetla), Mexico (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1995). It is found at approximately 1,400 m asl.
63960		habitat	eng	The species is a secretive inhabitant of the cloud forest.
63960		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens and is considered rare.
63960		threats	eng	Habitat in the area is being degraded as cloud forest is modified for coffee plantations. The Xilitla area has been dramatically disturbed in recent decades due to logging and change in land use with the consequence of habitat being lost.
63961		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found within Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
63961		distribution	eng	The species is known from low and medium elevations in the Los Tuxtlas region of Mexico.
63961		habitat	eng	The few specimens were found in primary and secondary forest. The species is fossorial and difficult to find.
63961		population	eng	It is rarely encountered because it is difficult to find. The species is known from five to six specimens throughout the area.
63961		threats	eng	There is no information about threats to the species.
63962		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
63962		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast region of Oaxaca, Mexico. It is found from 700 to 1,200 m asl.
63962		habitat	eng	This species is known from tropical deciduous and oak forests. It is not known whether it can tolerate disturbance of its habitat.
63962		population	eng	This a rare species. It is known from only a few specimens.
63962		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to the species, but there is very little information known.
63963		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Tacaná Biosphere Reserve.
63963		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Volcan Tacaná, in the Municipality of Union Juarez, Chiapas, Mexico, at 760 m asl.
63963		habitat	eng	All five known specimens of this species were caught in leaf-litter on the ground in a cafetal with shade trees in subtropical wet forest. Tolerance to greater habitat disturbance is unknown.
63963		population	eng	It is known only from five specimens collected between 1970 and 1982. There is no recent population data, although there have been no significant land use changes in the last few decades.
63963		threats	eng	Complete deforestation would be a threat to this species but this activity is not widespread in the area where this species occurs.
63964		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population, ecology and threats for this species are needed.
63964		distribution	eng	This species is known from south, central and northern Oaxaca, Mexico.
63964		habitat	eng	It occurs in cloud and montane humid forests.
63964		population	eng	Only a few specimens of this species are known.
63964		threats	eng	There is some disturbance of the habitat in Sierra de Juarez, but overall threats to this are not well known.
63965		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63965		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from the Huachuca, Santa Rita, and Patagonia mountains of extreme southeastern Arizona in the United States, south to eastern Sinaloa, Durango, San Luis Potosi, and Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Liner 1983, Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from 910 to 2,440 m asl (3,000 to 8,000 feet).
63965		habitat	eng	It is found under rocks, logs, and dead plants (agave, yucca, and sotol) in shaded rocky canyons and on relatively open, sunny, rocky slopes in desert-grassland, pine-oak woodland, and evergreen woodland (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63965		population	eng	This species is represented by at least a few dozen occurrences or subpopulations. It is secretive, relatively difficult to find, and certainly occurs in more locations than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63965		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known. The habitat is remote from any significant disturbance.
63966		conservation	eng	At least a few occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63966		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from southeastern Arizona (Pajarito, Mule, and Chiricahua mountains) and the lower slopes of the Guadalupe and Peloncillo mountains, New Mexico (Painter <em>et al</em>. 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996) in the United States, south through eastern Sonora, extreme western Chihuahua, and Sinaloa to Nayarit, Mexico, at elevations from near sea level to about 1,680 m asl (5,500 feet) (McDiarmid 1977, Stebbins 2003).
63966		habitat	eng	In Mexico, habitats include deciduous thornforests of the Sierra Madre Occidental and tropical semi-arid and dry woodland of the coastal plain; in Arizona, this snake inhabits evergreen woodland and woodlands along streams (McDiarmid 1977, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Generally this snake is underground, or under rocks or logs.
63966		population	eng	This snake is secretive, relatively difficult to find, and certainly occurs in more locations than are presently known. McDiarmid (1977) mapped a couple dozen collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least a few thousand and probably exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63966		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
63967		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.
63967		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific slope of southeastern Oaxaca, and on the Pacific coastal plain of Chiapas, Mexico, to south central Guatemala. It has been recorded from 200 to 1,700 m asl.
63967		habitat	eng	It inhabits the leaf-litter of lowland rainforest and tropical deciduous forest. It occurs in corn fields, but apparently not in coffee plantations.
63967		population	eng	It is relatively abundant in Chiapas near the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.
63967		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63968		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas in Mexico.
63968		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mexican states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, and the northern portion of the Guatemalan department of El Petén, and northern and central Belize on the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 500 m asl.
63968		habitat	eng	This secretive snake occurs beneath surface debris and rocks in areas of thorn forest and tropical rain forest. It also occurs in degraded forest but not in human habitation.
63968		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63968		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63969		conservation	eng	It occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.
63969		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Veracruz, Mexico, through Guatemala into northwestern Honduras. In the Yucatan Peninsula it has been recorded from El Petén and southern Belize. It occurs from sea level to about 200 m asl.
63969		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits lowland tropical wet and moist forest. Several specimens have been taken in secondary growth, plantain groves, and pastures, while others have been encountered in forest leaf-litter.
63969		population	eng	It is sporadically recorded, probably due to its secretive habitats. It is regularly recorded at Los Tuxtlas, in Veracruz, Mexico.
63969		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
63970		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63970		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west of the United States. Its range includes southwestern Oregon and western California north of Point Concepcion, at elevations from sea level to around 1,920 m (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
63970		habitat	eng	Habitats include rocky fast-flowing streams, sluggish streams with soft bottoms, ponds, small lakes, and the adjacent riparian zone, in areas surrounded by woodlands, woodland-grass ecotones, or chaparral (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). This snake basks on boulders and vegetation along banks and in mid-stream; it seeks cover under water under rocks or among exposed tree roots. In most areas this snake is closely tied to water, but individuals sometimes travel on land away from water.
63970		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63970		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Predation by introduced bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) may be a concern in some areas.
63971		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least several protected areas.
63971		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. The native range includes southwestern New York and northwestern Pennsylvania, mainly in the unglaciated portions of the upper Allegheny River drainage, at elevations of 270 to over 700 m (Ernst and Barbour 1989, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This species is introduced and established at Pittsburgh and apparently also in Butler, Clearfield, and Erie counties (e.g., Lethaby, 2004, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 35: 73), Pennsylvania, in south-central New York (Conant and Collins 1991), and in Youngstown, Mahoning County, Ohio (Novotny, 1990, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 21: 42). In New York, this snake is restricted to the Allegheny River drainage in Chatagua, Cattaraugus, and Allegheny counties and two isolated (possibly introduced) areas at Horseheads straddling the Susquehanna and St. Lawrence river drainages, Chemung County (Bothner 1986).
63971		habitat	eng	Habitats include old fields, meadows, pastures, forest edges, and other open herbaceous fields, often in areas close to water or wetlands; this snake scarcely penetrates wooded areas; it can be found active or basking on the ground or in stone piles or under debris (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Introduced populations are well established in urban settings. Hibernating individuals have been found underground on a steep rocky slope.
63971		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Bothner (1976) mapped 69 records in New York and Pennsylvania and five questionable records. McCoy (1982) mapped 73 records in 11 counties from Pennsylvania. Hulse <em>et al</em>. (2001) mapped 70+ collection sites in Pennsylvania plus nine additional locations with established introductions. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is common to abundant in its small range (Harding 1997, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001). Early references commented on high population densities, while Bothner (1976) commented on drastic declines, yet this species remains locally abundant in many areas. The current trend is uncertain, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably relatively stable (see Bothner 1986) or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. This species appears to be common and secure within Pennsylvania. Large populations have become established through translocations outside of the native range (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001).
63971		threats	eng	In some areas the preferred habitat has disappeared as old farms have been developed or abandoned and reforested (Bothner 1986). It has been suggested that <em>Thamnophis sirtalis</em> may be encroaching on the range of <em>T. brachystoma</em> in some reforested areas (Bothner 1986), but whether or not this poses a threat independent of that associated with habitat change is unknown.
63972		conservation	eng	Its level of protection is unknown, but this species probably occurs in at least several protected areas.
63972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada. Its range includes southern Ontario, eastern Michigan, eastern Indiana, Ohio, and southeastern Wisconsin (Vogt 1981, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63972		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of open moist grassy/sedgy situations: meadows, pastures, marsh edges, margins of lakes and streams in open country, vacant lots, old dumps, railroad embankments, and roadsides, including such areas in cities; also seasonally dry uplands; shelters include logs, rocks, debris on the ground, old house foundations, burrows, ant mounds, and similar sites (Vogt 1981, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Harding 1997, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63972		population	eng	This species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Minton 1980). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is very common in preferred habitat in most of its range (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996), although Minton (2001) described it as a rare relict species in Indiana. The current trend is not definitely known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63972		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This snake has benefited from deforestation, and it thrives in disturbed areas in urban areas, but sometimes is eliminated or reduced with intensive development of its preferred habitat.
63973		conservation	eng	It is present in at least four protected areas. Further reserach is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.
63973		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is distributed in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental from Puebla to central Veracruz, and in the Sierra Madre del Sur in southern Oaxaca and southern Guerrero. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,200 m asl.
63973		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species has a high affinity with humid habitats, it can be found under rocks and logs close to pools and streams in cloud forests and pine oak forest. It can be found in primary and secondary forest and degraded habitats, such as agricultural land. It is a viviparous species.
63973		population	eng	It is a common species.
63973		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
63974		conservation	eng	Some occurrences are in protected  areas.
63974		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west of the United States. Its range includes the Sierra Nevada, California, north to the Pit River, south to the Tehachapi Mountains, and extends east along major rivers to the Owens Valley and west-central Nevada, at elevations of about 90 to 2,440 m (300 to 8,000 feet) (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63974		habitat	eng	Habitats of this highly aquatic snake include pools of permanent or seasonal streams (often rocky), meadow ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and associated riparian zones (e.g., cottonwood, willow, sycamore, alder), in areas with oak woodland, grassy valleys, chaparral,  montane coniferous forest, or (east of the Sierra crest) pine-juniper-sagebrush  (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63974		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is locally common in various parts of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63974		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some populations may be declining as a result of predation by introduced non-native fishes (Rossmand <em>et al</em>. 1996).
63975		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63975		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern Colorado and Utah south through Arizona, New Mexico, western and central Texas in the United States, and much of Mexico to Guatemala, at elevations from near sea level to around 2,700 m asl (8,700 feet) (Webb 1980, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). The distribution is spotty in many areas.
63975		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in a wide range of habitats, from desert flats, dry grasslands, and tropical lowlands to pine-oak habitats and cloud forest in mountains; in the southwestern United States it is often in the vicinity of permanent and intermittent streams, spring seepages, and irrigation canals, usually in canyons, foothills, or mountains (Stebbins 2003). It inhabits rocky hillsides and limestone ledges, and wooded ravines and cedar brakes, in the Texas Hill Country (Tennant 1984). In Mexico, habitats include tropical barrancas, thorny scrub forest, tropical deciduous forest, and upper arid or mixed boreal-tropical cloud forest (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996). This snake wanders far from water into adjacent grassland, desert, woodland, and shrubland, but mostly it is restricted to the vicinity of consistent water sources in the arid southwest (Jones 1990).
63975		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Webb (1980) mapped over 200 collection sites across the entire range. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is often common in suitable habitat (Woodin 1953, Minton 1959, Tennant 1984). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. Possible declines have been recorded at the extreme northern limit of the range in southwestern Colorado (Hammerson 1999).
63975		threats	eng	No major threats are known. In some areas, habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of urbanization, deforestation, or conversion to intensive agricultural uses. The pet trade is a potential threat to this species.
63976		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
63976		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from central British Columbia, central Alberta, and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, south through all of the western United States (east to western South Dakota, western Nebraska, Colorado, extreme western Oklahoma, and New Mexico) to (disjunctly) northern Baja California. There are many isolated populations around the margins of the main range (Fitch 1983, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003), notably in the Sierra Nevada and San Bernardino Mountains of California, and Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California (subspecies <em>T. c. hueyi</em>). Its elevational range extends from sea level to 3,995 m asl (13,100 feet) (very rarely); usually below 3,355 m asl (11,000 feet) (Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).
63976		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from lowlands to high mountains: grassland, shrubland, woodland, rocky hillsides, and open areas in forests. It is chiefly terrestrial in most areas, but also aquatic in some locations (e.g., high Sierra Nevada). Often in inhabits wetlands and areas near streams, ponds, and lakes.
63976		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Fitch 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, and Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This snake is very common in many areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The isolated southern populations in California and Baja California are much less abundant.
63976		threats	eng	No major threats are known. In high-elevation areas of the southern Sierra Nevada in California, introductions of non-native trout apparently have led to declines in populations of amphibians and possibly also of <em>T. elegans</em>, which may depend on amphibians as a primary food resource (and which may occasionally serve as prey for trout) (Matthews <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, Matthews <em>et al</em>. (2002) did not discuss the historical distribution of <em>T. elegans</em> in their study areas, so the significance of extensive trout introductions in the absence of garter snakes from some areas (John Muir Wilderness) is uncertain. Further study is warranted (e.g., in the mountains of Colorado, <em>T. elegans</em> is a versatile feeder [Hammerson 1999], and garter snake populations may not rely much on amphibian populations).
63977		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes many protected areas.
63977		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southeastern Arizona (now rare) and extreme southwestern New Mexico in the United States, south through the highlands of western and southern Mexico to Oaxaca, at elevations of 53 to 2,590 m asl (175 to 8,500 feet) (Roden and Schwalbe 1988, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). The Mexican distribution extends from southwestern New Mexico down the Sierra Madre Occidental and western edge of the Chihuahuan Desert to the southern mountains of the Mexican altiplano around Mexico City. There is an isolated population in Sierra Madre del Sur (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). In New Mexico, this snake is known from the lower Gila Basin, along Duck and Mule creeks in Grant County and near Virden in Hildago County (Hubbard and Eley 1985 cited by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997); may now be eliminated from Duck Creek (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). In Arizona, it is known from the Santa Cruz Valley east and generally south of the Gila River; also from Agua Fria River, Oak Creek, Verde River, and several upper Salt/Black River sites (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1998). There is an unsubstantiated report from southwestern Texas (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). See De Queiroz and Smith (1996) for evidence of former occurrence in southern Nevada and adjacent Arizona.
63977		habitat	eng	This snake is strongly associated with permanent water with vegetation, including stock tanks, ponds, lakes, cienegas, cienega streams, and riparian woods (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Manjarrez 1998). In the northern part of the range, the species is usually found in or near water in highland canyons with pine-oak forest and pinyon-juniper woodland, and it also enters mesquite grassland and desert areas, especially along valleys and stream courses (Stebbins 2003).
63977		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations, most of which are in Mexico. In the United States, it is known from a few localities in New Mexico (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997) and roughly 50 localities in Arizona (Sabra Schwartz pers. comm. 1998). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. This snake is common in much of its Mexican range. Tremendous numbers have been found in certain lakes of the Mexican altiplano, and it is abundant in a number of streams of the northern Sierra Madre Occidental (see Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Surveys during the 1980s indicate that abundance has declined in Arizona. During 1985-1986 a total of 79 Arizona sites were surveyed. During this survey, 180 observations were recorded and substantial populations were found at five of 21 locations. Museum records and habitat descriptions indicate that this species was formerly abundant at many more of these locations. Populations at the remaining locations consisted of few (less than 50) individuals or widely scattered individuals. Additionally, a crude statewide abundance estimate of 5,875 individuals was made (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). United States populations have disappeared from many historic locations and its status is of great concern (Jim Rorabaugh pers. comm. 1998). New Mexico populations have declined (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). In Arizona, substantial range contraction has been noted and fairly well documented (Kulby 1995) with populations extirpated at several locations since 1950 (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1998). The San Bernadino National Wildlife Refuge, Arizona, population is declining (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). During a 1985-1986 Arizona survey, Rosen and Schwalbe (1988) concluded that populations had been eliminated from Phoenix and Tucson and possibly eliminated from the Colorado and lower Santa Cruz rivers. Rosen and Schwalbe (1988) also noted population declines at several other historical Arizona localities. Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63977		threats	eng	No major range-wide threats are known. The species is not significantly threatened in Mexico. <br/> <br/>In the United States, primary threats include overcollecting, overgrazing, habitat alteration (dewatering, siltation, modification of stream morphology, and arroyo cutting), and the introduction of predaceous, non-native species, particularly bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) and domestic geese (Kulby 1995, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Cover is a critical habitat component. Removal of cover by grazing for even a single season could eliminate a population. Especially vulnerable to grazing are small, isolated populations in areas of limited habitat (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Bullfrogs influence populations through both competition and predation; garter snake numbers are lowest where bullfrogs are most abundant (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Additionally, the introduction of large catfish, bass, green sunfish, and pike may potentially have the same effect as introduced bullfrogs (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).
63978		conservation	eng	This is a poorly known species, and more fieldwork is needed to provide data on its natural history, on the status of its populations, and on its conservation requrements. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.
63978		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northwestern Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental through Durango to western Zacatecas and extreme northeastern Nayarit, Mexico. It is found from 1,860 to 2,545 m asl.
63978		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks and logs in pine and pine-oak forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.
63978		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance.
63978		threats	eng	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.
63979		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey and Parque Nacional Sierra Pena Nevada. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and natural history of this species.
63979		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico, where it has been recorded from an isolated population in southeastern Coahuila, and a second population in southern Nuevo Leon and southwestern Tamaulipas. It occurs between around 2,650 and 2,860 m asl.
63979		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and secondary dry pine-oak forests and grasslands, where it can be found under logs, rocks and other ground cover. Animals have been found hunting for prey under the leaves of agaves. It can be found in disturbed areas such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.
63979		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
63979		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by severe habitat fragmentation through conversion to agricultural use in parts of its range, however, it can generally move between habitat fragments.
63980		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas in Guatemala (for example, the Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera).
63980		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Central Highlands and Sierra Madre in Chiapas, Mexico, Guatemalan Highlands, Sierra Chuacús-las Minas, and Sierra de los Cuchumatanes-Alta Verapaz Highlands, Guatemala, and western Honduras and northern El Salvador. The recorded elevational range is from 1,636 to 3,353 m asl.
63980		habitat	eng	It occurs in pine-oak and cloud forests, and also in secondary growth, plantations, and highland marshes. It colonizes artificial bodies of water in the highlands.
63980		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable at present.
63980		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by the drainage of wetlands.
63981		conservation	eng	It is present in at least five protected areas. Further research is needed into the natural history and ecology of this species.
63981		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is present in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental. The species has several disjunct populations in Puebla and Veracruz in the east, and Oaxaca and Guerrero in western Mexico. It occurs between 1,768 and 3,018 m asl.
63981		habitat	eng	This species is associated with streams and other water bodies, such as ponds. It is found under logs and rocks in primary pine forest, pine-oak forests, oak forest and cloud forest. It is not present in secondary habitat or agricultural areas. It is a viviparous species.
63981		population	eng	It is a common species.
63981		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation of land throughout its range, through conversion of areas to agricultural use.
63982		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
63982		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Chihuahua with disjunct populations from central Durango southward to Zacatecas, western Jalisco, Nayarit, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, northern Michoacan, Estado de Mexico and Distrito Federale in Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 1,158 to 2,545 m asl.
63982		habitat	eng	This is a very aquatic species, commonly found in pools and low streams in forested areas and deciduous woodlands.
63982		population	eng	Previously, the species was very common, it is now uncommon. It has suffered greatly from habitat destruction due to water pollution in the past 10 years, degrading its Area of Occupancy.
63982		threats	eng	Water pollution due to agriculture and industry is a severe threat to the species.
63983		conservation	eng	It is present in the Rancho Cielo Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, natural history and biology of this species.
63983		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental in eastern Mexico, where it is restricted to Racho Cielo and Sierra de San Carlos in southwestern Tamaulipas. These sites may be isolated as there are lowlands between them. It is found from 1,100 to 1,600 m asl.
63983		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary humid pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is not present in secondary or disturbed habitats. Animals can be found under rocks, logs, under agave leaves and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species.
63983		population	eng	It is a rare species.
63983		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of land to agricultural use, principally cattle ranching. It does not move between habitat fragments.
63984		conservation	eng	This is a poorly known species, and more fieldwork is needed to provide data on its natural history, on the status of its populations, and on its conservation requrements. It is not known from any protected areas.
63984		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Durango, Mexico. It occurs from 2,200 to 2,743 m asl.
63984		habitat	eng	The species seems to be associated with streams and basins in high elevation areas of forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.
63984		population	eng	There is very little information on the abundance of this species.
63984		threats	eng	No threats have been identified, though its limited range places it at elevated risk should any threatening processes start. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.
63985		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63985		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Canada and northwestern United States. Its range includes southwestern British Columbia, western Washington, western Oregon, and extreme northwestern California, including various coastal islands, at elevations from sea level to around 1,680 m (5,500 feet) (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1981, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63985		habitat	eng	This snake is primarily terrestrial but may be found near or occasionally in water; often it occurs in meadows, forest clearings, and along the edges of thickets (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Hibernation sites include talus slopes or deep rock crevices.
63985		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see dot map in Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1981). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63985		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
63986		conservation	eng	More research is needed on biology, population, range, habitat status and threats to this species.
63986		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, and is known from the Tepalcatepec Valley in central Michoacan, and southwest of Chapala Lake. It occurs from 250 to 1,067 m asl.
63986		habitat	eng	The species is associated with temporary pools in the lowland arid shrublands and dry forests.
63986		population	eng	This is not a very common species. In the Tepalcatepec Valley, it occurs throughout the entire area; the other two subpopulations are isolated from this valley.
63986		threats	eng	A small amount of forest removal for crop agriculture occurs in parts of the range. The area this species occurs in is hot and not attractive for many people to settle in, therefore habitat loss is not considered to be a significant concern for this species.
63987		conservation	eng	Few data exist about natural history and population status of this species, although it is possibly present in some protected areas. More fieldwork is needed to provide data on its natural history, on the status of its populations, and on its conservation requirements.
63987		distribution	eng	Several disjunct populations of this Mexican endemic species can be recognized, the northeastern most one in western and southeastern Durango, then eastwards to Queretaro, Hidalgo, Puebla and adjacent central Veracruz, and others from Jalisco to Michoacan, Estado de Mexico, the Federal District, and Morelos and south to Oaxaca.
63987		habitat	eng	The species is found under rocks and logs in high elevation pine-oak and fir forests. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.
63987		population	eng	There is very little information on the abundance of this species.
63987		threats	eng	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk, at least locally, from the loss of its forest habitat if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.
63988		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63988		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central United States to south-central Canada. Its range extends from southern Alberta, Montana, eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado and northeastern New Mexico eastward through southern Manitoba, Minnesota, southern Wisconsin and northern and central Illinois to northwestern Indiana and disjunctly to central Ohio, southward to northern Texas, western Oklahoma, and northern half of Missouri, at elevations of 120 to 2,290 m (400 to 7,500 feet) but usually below 1,830 m (6,000 feet) (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Walley <em>et al</em>. 2003).
63988		habitat	eng	This snake often occurs in the vicinity of ponds, sloughs, marshes, lakes, or slow creeks or rivers, generally in prairie and farmland areas but also in the pinyon-juniper zone; it often disperses into adjacent terrestrial habitats, such as vacant lots, residential areas, old dumps, or prairie (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Hibernation sites include burrows of rodents or crayfish, crevices, anthills, old wells, spaces under concrete, and other similar sites; some may hibernate underwater.
63988		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Walley <em>et al</em>. 2003). The adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000, probably much more. This snake is very common in many parts of its large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63988		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This species tolerates a good deal of habitat alteration. Many are killed on roads or by mowing equipment, but this does not constitute a major threat.
63989		conservation	eng	The type locality is not in a protected area. Further information on population, range, threats and ecology are needed in order to make an assessment of the status of this species.
63989		distribution	eng	This is a recently described species from central Nayarit, Mexico. It is known only from the type locality; 1.4 km northwest of the small settlement of San Cayetano.
63989		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic species, mainly found in running water in ditches, rivers and streams, but sometimes it can be found on the ground. The type specimen was collected from an open roadside ditch.
63989		population	eng	Nothing is known about population size or trends of this species.
63989		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. More information about the species is required.
63990		conservation	eng	Apparently there are few if any adequately protected occurrences of this species. The degree of threat (e.g, interactions with non-native fish species) is in need of further study. Better information on abundance, number of occurrences, and population trend is needed, especially in Mexico. If the species is declining in Mexico in the same way as has been recorded on the United States, it might qualify for listing as Near Threatened, or even Vulnerable, under criterion A2.
63990		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Its range in the United States includes central and eastern Arizona and west-central New Mexico in the Mogollon Rim area. The Mexican range is larger and is disjunct from that in the United States. In Mexico it ranges from northern Sonora and Chihuahua and southward in the Sierra Madre Occidental to central Durango, with an apparently disjunct population in southwestern Durango. It occurs at elevations of 700 to 2,430 m asl (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, Tanner 1990, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997, Stebbins 2003). <br/> <br/>The New Mexican distribution includes the Gila and San Francisco river drainages in Catron, Grant, and Hidalgo counties, at elevations of 1,125 to 2,100 m asl (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). <br/> <br/>In Arizona, this species occurs in upland drainages in central and eastern Arizona from the White Mountains and along the Mogollon Rim to Oak Creek Canyon, in Apache, Coconino, Gila, Graham, Greenlee, Navajo, and Yavapai counties; good populations found at Oak Creek Canyon and along the East Verde River (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997; Arizona Game and Fish Department, 2002, unpublished abstract compiled and edited by the Heritage Data Management System ). A previously eliminated population from Fort Valley Creek at the Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, may have been reintroduced (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).
63990		habitat	eng	This species is regarded as one of the most aquatic of all garter snakes (Conant 1963). It often occurs along well-lit sections of rocky streams with abundant riparian vegetation, in areas of pinyon-juniper, oak-pine, or ponderosa pine; it basks on rocks, shrubs, or snags, and it often seeks cover under rocks in or adjacent to water (Fleharty 1967, Stebbins 1985, 2003; Rosen and Schwalbe 1988; Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996). This snake may be numerous among rocks in areas with riffles, deep pools, and abundant large boulders, whereas areas with broad expanses of small rock and sand, and streams that traverse meadows, do not appear to be suitable habitat (Fitzgerald 1986, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Along Oak Creek, Arizona, hibernation occurs from November to April in rocky areas well above the floodplain (Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005).
63990		population	eng	The population status and trend in Mexico, which includes the bulk of the range, is unknown. However, The Nature Conservancy's Heritage Program in Sonora estimated over 100 occurrences with possibly 80% of occurrences in good condition (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998).  <br/> <br/>In the United States, the number of distinct occurrences or subpopulations has not been determined using consistent criteria but probably there are at least several dozen. The Arizona Natural Heritage Program has recorded at least 51 occurrences, a few of which are believed to be not extant (Sabra Schwartz pers. comm. 1998). Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 27 collection sites in New Mexico. Its conservation status in Mexico is poorly known (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Tanner (1990) mapped six collection sites in New Mexico and 23 collection sites in Mexico. <br/> <br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand. A 1985-1986 survey of 79 locations in Arizona yielded 157 individuals from 10 localities; a crude statewide abundance estimate indicated a population size of possibly fewer than 3,500 non-neonates (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). According to the authors, this preliminary estimate indicated surprisingly low abundance in Arizona. Additionally, there have been few recent observations during statewide and national forest surveys for sensitive herps in Arizona (Kulby 1995). <br/> <br/>In Arizona, some populations appear stable, while others have declined. A 1985-1986 survey conducted by Rosen and Schwalbe (1988) in selected regions of Arizona indicated that the species is nowhere abundant and has been nearly eliminated from some areas where formerly it was abundant. The species is believed to be extirpated from Flagstaff [see range comment] and Wall Lake, Arizona, and from adjacent parts of the East Fork of the Gila River in New Mexico (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). It has declined along the lower portions of Oak Creek, Arizona, where it is now scarce below Oak Creek Canyon, and apparently has declined in lower Oak Creek Canyon (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, Kulby 1995, Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005). Additionally, there have been few observations during recent statewide and national forest surveys for sensitive riparian herps in Arizona.
63990		threats	eng	The greatest threats are introduced predators (bullfrogs, fishes, crayfish), loss of habitat (urbanization, overgrazing, and the destruction of rivers and wetlands), habitat fragmentation, and, in some areas (e.g., Oak Creek, Arizona), habitat degradation caused by heavy recreational use (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005).  <br/> <br/>There is indirect evidence that the introduction of bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) has eliminated populations in some areas (see New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Additionally, low densities and historical declines in the White Mountains correlate closely with the history of fish introductions (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Populations may also be negatively affected by predation by introduced crayfish, which also may negatively affect the snake's prey base (Rosen and Fernandez 1996, Nowak and Sanatana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005).  <br/> <br/>Habitat alteration can negatively affect high-elevation populations. The greater need to thermoregulate at higher elevations makes optimal basking sites such as shrubs and snags essential. Under such circumstances, channelization or other activities that remove or disrupt bank vegetation may lead to extirpation (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).  <br/> <br/>A notable concern is the isolation of the central Arizona populations in Oak Creek Canyon and East Verde River. The absence of a mainstream population makes repopulation of these streams during local extinction events highly unlikely. This also implies that the East Verde and Oak Creek populations are irreplaceable and that further degradation of the main streams of the Salt, Black, and Gila rivers may eventually eliminate most, if not all populations in these drainages (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). <br/> <br/>Needless killing and excessive collecting may be having a negative impact (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). There are indications of regular killing and removal along Oak Creek Canyon, Arizona. An estimated 44% of annual mortality of non-neonates is attributed to human mortality (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).   <br/> <br/>This species is regarded as not very threatened by the Sonora, Mexico, Heritage Program (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998). However, this does not cover all of the Mexican range, and the United States populations appear to be moderately threatened. The degree of threat warrants further investigation.
63991		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
63991		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the east of the United States, and extends into southern Canada. Its range extends from Wisconsin to southern Maine and Nova Scotia, and south discontinuously to southeastern Louisiana, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This species has been reported from the Bahamas but may not be established there (see Powell and Henderson 1999).
63991		habitat	eng	Habitats include wet meadows, marshes, seasonally flooded prairies, bogs, ponds, lake shorelines, swamps, and shallow slow streams; also hardwood hammocks and other wet or moist forest in some areas; usually this snake is in or near vegetative cover (often shrubs or clumps of sedges or grasses) in sun-exposed sites along the edge of standing or flowing water; it climbs into low vegetation, rarely into tree canopy (Bishop and Farrell 1994 <em>Herpetological Review</em> 25: 127, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Harding 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Shelters include thick vegetation, muskrat lodges, or burrows. Hibernation sites are in burrows, ant mounds, underground on high ground (sometimes high on rocky slopes), or underwater.
63991		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in many parts of its large range. Populations may be declining in some areas (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but overall the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
63991		threats	eng	In most areas, this snake is not significantly threatened. Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that populations are declining over much of the range because of habitat destruction, but this likely pertains primarily to peripheral populations or areas where the species is naturally rare. Degradation of shoreline vegetation is believed to result in population declines (Harding 1997). Locally, large numbers are killed on roads (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996), but this may be more a reflection of local abundance than a significant threat.
63992		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least three protected areas. Further research is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.
63992		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico where it occurs along the volcanic belt. It has been recorded from western and central Jalisco, Michoacan, State of Mexico, Distrito Federal, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Hidalgo and Veracruz. It occurs between 1,800 and 3,000 m asl.
63992		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is present in primary and secondary pine, pine-oak and fir forests, where it can be found under rocks, logs, bark and leaf-litter. It has also been recorded from grasslands. It is a viviparous species.
63992		population	eng	It is a common species.
63992		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use and cattle pasture.
63993		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need to establish protected areas for this species. Further research is needed into the ecology, natural history and population of this species.
63993		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico. It is present as isolated highland populations in the Central Plateau and the volcanic belt. It has been recorded from Michoacan, Aguascalientes, State of Mexico and the Distrito Federal. It has an elevational range of 2,230 to 3,000 m asl.
63993		habitat	eng	The species is associated with streams and small canyons in semi-arid dry grasslands, shrubland and oak forest. It can be found in secondary habitats including agricultural areas, such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.
63993		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
63993		threats	eng	It is threatened by extensive habitat conversion to agricultural use. Populations can remain in areas with some limited habitat conversion.
63994		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Sierra Gorda protected area. Further data is needed on the natural history, population status and threats to this species.
63994		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in eastern San Luis Potosi and extreme northeastern Queretaro to Hidalgo, from here it occurs in central Veracruz and extreme northern and eastern Puebla. It is found at elevations of about 1,365 to 2,305 m asl.
63994		habitat	eng	The species is highly associated with streams, irrigation ditches/canals, and other kinds of moving water, both close to, and within, primary humid montane forest, cloud forest and pine-oak forest. It can occur in agricultural areas (such as corn fields) and other disturbed areas. It can be found in leaf-litter and below logs and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species.
63994		population	eng	It is an abundant to uncommon species.
63994		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species. It may be threatened in Hidalgo in the future by continuing habitat loss, and further studies are needed into this.
63995		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least three protected wetland areas throughout its range.
63995		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico and occurs along the Pacific coast from southern Sonora to the central coastal area of Guerrero, and part of the Balsas basin. There is an isolated population in the Cape Region of the Baja California peninsula, where it occurs in the Sierra la Laguna and from near San José del Cabo (Grismer 2002).
63995		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic species. It is very adaptable and occurs in mangroves, swamps, streams, rivers, rocky canyon pools, irrigation canals, dams, marshy meadows oak woodland, and the lower parts of pine-oak woodland, always being found in association with water.
63995		population	eng	It is a common species, and is locally abundant in the Cape Region of the Baja California peninsula (Grsimer 2002).
63995		threats	eng	The main threat is loss of wetland habitat for small-holder farming, wood collection and human settlement. However, the species is currently widespread and relatively stable.
63996		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas.
63996		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed along slopes and foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental, Oriental, and Sur of Mexico. Specimens are known from the coastal plain and from the central plateau in the foothills of the Balsas and Tepaltepec basins. It occurs between 100 and 2,600 m asl.
63996		habitat	eng	It is usually found in rocky areas of irregular relief, also beneath rocks, and on the sides of rocks. It can also be found in croplands (corn).  It is tolerant of human disturbance.
63996		population	eng	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.
63996		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
63997		conservation	eng	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas. Its distribution in Mexico needs further study (LaDuc and Johnson 2003).
63997		distribution	eng	The species' range encompasses southwestern New Mexico (west to the Florida and Tres Hermanas mountains), western Texas, and adjacent Chihuahua and Coahuila in northeastern Mexico, at elevations ranging from at least 860 to 1,856 m asl (LaDuc and Johnson 2003). The range probably includes many of the Mexican mountain ranges bordering the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) throughout Chihuahua and to the Sierra del Carmen in western Coahuila, in addition to other uncollected intervening areas between Ciudad Chihuahua and the United States border (LaDuc and Johnson 2003).
63997		habitat	eng	This snake occurs most commonly in dry, rocky terrain of mountains, canyons, hills, rock outcrops, fissured bluffs, and arroyos, in areas with desert plants (e.g., ocotillo, catclaw mimosa, white thorn, yucca, lechuguilla, prickly pear, cholla, and grasses) or riparian vegetation (e.g., ash, hackberry, juniper, oak), sometimes on desert flats dominated by creosote bush or in shallow canyons with mesquite (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, LaDuc and Johnson 2003).
63997		population	eng	Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped nine collection sites in New Mexico. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped about 30 collection sites in Texas. These represent roughly 14 to 15 distinct occupied areas in addition to those in Mexico. Secretive habits and occurrence in rough terrain make it likely that this snake occurs in substantially more locations than are presently known. <br/> <br/>The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and is probably much larger. Though often regarded as rare, this secretive snake is fairly common in some areas (e.g., McCrystal 1991) and is probably generally more numerous than available records indicate. <br/> <br/>Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63997		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
63998		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are adequately protected.
63998		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends discontinuously from Illinois, Iowa, extreme southwestern Minnesota, and extreme southeastern South Dakota south through eastern Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma to New Mexico and Texas, at elevations from near sea level to around 2,000 m (6,560 feet) (Conant and Collins 1991, Oldfield and Moriarty 1994, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
63998		habitat	eng	Habitats include prairie hillsides and canyon bottoms, woodland edges, vacant city lots, residential yards, and abandoned trash dumps, in moist situations that may or may not be close to a body of water or wetland; in daytime, this snake can be found under rocks, logs, trash, and other cover (Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
63998		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and sometimes hard to find within its range, but it is often common and sometimes locally abundant in suitable habitat. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
63998		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This snake tolerates and even thrives on moderate habitat alteration.
63999		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).
63999		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the Pacific coast of Mexico, from Sinaloa to Guerrero, including the Santiago River basin. It occurs from sea level up to 1,450 m asl.
63999		habitat	eng	An adaptable species, occupying a wide variety of habitats, including tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, and disturbed areas. During the wet seasons, this species can often be seen on roads.
63999		population	eng	It is not a particularly common species, but it is widespread.
63999		threats	eng	No significant threats to this species are known.
64000		conservation	eng	It is found in Chamela Biosphere Reserve.
64000		distribution	eng	This species is known from two disjunct ranges in Mexico; one from Pacific coastal Sinaloa to the south to Central Nayarit and coastal southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima to northwestern Michoacan, and the other in coastal western Oaxaca. It occurs at elevations from sea level up to 850 m asl.
64000		habitat	eng	A nocturnal snake that inhabits arid and semi-arid areas of scrublands and thorn woodland. Some specimens have been collected in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest. It tolerates some disturbance of its habitat.
64000		population	eng	This is a common species.
64000		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
64001		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in a protected area.  Further specimens of this species are needed to confirm its taxonomic status.  More information on range, population, ecology and threats is also needed.
64001		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species is known from two specimens; one from the type locality "km 236.2 hwy 16 Chihuahua-Hermosillo", in the state of Sonora, at 1,643 m asl, and one from "km 36 on the autotrail Temoris-Chínipas", in the municipality of Guazapares, in the state of Chihuahua at 1,563 m asl.
64001		habitat	eng	There is no information regarding the habitat in which the species was collected. Both specimens were road kill.
64001		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens, both of which were road kill. There is no information known about the population status of this species.
64001		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to this species.
64002		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
64002		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from southeastern Virginia to northern Florida, west to central Texas, northward to central Missouri and extreme southwestern Tennessee (Conant and Collins 1991, Mitchell 1994, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werner and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
64002		habitat	eng	Habitats include rocky hillsides of dry open woods, limestone and sandstone cedar glades, woodland edge, mesic woodland and grassland, pastures, thickly wooded bottomlands, dry and mesic hammocks, pine flatwoods, wooded margins of streams in arid landscapes, swamp borders, gardens, and (often) vacant lots or woodlots in urban areas; this secretive semi-fossorial snake is usually in areas with moisture, ground cover, and some exposure to sunlight; often is found in rotting stumps or under rocks, logs, trash, loose bark, or other cover (Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
64002		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see dot maps in Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werper and Dixon 2000, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped hundreds of collection sites in Texas alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common to abundant in many parts of its range (Tennant 1997, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64002		threats	eng	Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that habitat destruction and pesticide spraying have reduced populations of this snake in many areas. Documentation of the effects of pesticides appears to be limited to Ferguson (1963), who listed one specimen of <em>Virginia striatula</em> that was found dead in an area sprayed with heptachlor. Mitchell (1994) noted that some populations in Virginia likely will be lost as a result of projected urbanization. However, on a range-wide basis, no major threats are known. This snake tolerates a good deal of habitat alteration and thrives in many urban areas.
64003		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are adequately protected.
64003		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from New Jersey and Pennsylvania to northern Florida, and west to southern Iowa, northeastern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, and central Texas; an isolated population occurs in peninsular Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
64003		habitat	eng	Habitats include deciduous woods, exposed rocky slopes in mixed deciduous-pine associations, pine woodland, grassy slopes with rocks in areas of deciduous forest, mesic hammocks, moist woodland along floodplains, wooded areas around marshes and other damp places, rocky sparse woods and forest edge, old fields, vacant lots, and wooded or brushy residential areas. In daytime, this secretive snake often shelters under logs, rocks, or other cover. It may aggregate during hibernation.
64003		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and sometimes hard to detect, bit it is locally common in suitable habitat (e.g. Palmer and Braswell 1995, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). Current trend is not documented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64003		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, this species is perhaps threatened in some areas by deforestation (Mitchell 1991), and some populations appear to have been eliminated by residential, industrial, and agricultural development (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001).
64004		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64004		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two disjunct ranges; at low and moderate elevations on the Gulf slope from southern Tamaulipas in Mexico, and the Pacific slope from Oaxaca, south and eastward into the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. The Yucatan populations are apparently isolated from those to the south and east. It occurs from near sea level to about 200 m asl.
64004		habitat	eng	This diurnal lizard is primarily an arboreal inhabitant of lowland tropical forest. In the Yucatan Peninsula it seems most abundant in the thorn and deciduous forests of the northern half of the peninsula. It can be found in secondary growth and degraded forests.
64004		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
64004		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present and it appears to be able to tolerate significant disturbance of its habitat.
64005		conservation	eng	The only known locality of this species is not within a protected area, and there is an urgent need to conserve habitat within its limited range. Further general research is needed, as is monitoring of populations.
64005		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to the limited area of Sierra San Lorenzo Texas and Sierra Solis in extreme southwestern Coahuila State.
64005		habitat	eng	It is a saxicolous species, with animals found perched on rocky outcrops in areas of typical desert scrub (creosote bush) habitat.
64005		population	eng	Only one population exists and this is reportedly abundant. McGuire (1996) observed 25 individuals in an area of approximately 1.5 km length and 200 m width.
64005		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat degradation, mainly due to gravel extraction for building materials in nearby urban areas.
64006		conservation	eng	Many parks and refuges harbor populations of this lizard.
64006		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to the western United States. It ranges from southeastern Oregon and southern Idaho south through northeastern California, Nevada, and western and lowland central Utah to southeastern California and western Arizona (McGuire 1996, Stebbins 2003); a museum record for Spokane County, Washington, is probably erroneous (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983) and at least should be considered questionable until confirmed by additional field work (McGuire 1996). Its elevational range extends from around sea level to about 7,500 feet (2,290 m) (Stebbins 2003).
64006		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs mainly in xeric, sparsely vegetated rocky areas; sometimes in adjacent areas lacking much rock; it perches atop rocks, and it hides under rocks or in rodent burrows (McGuire 1996). Eggs are deposited in sandy soil, rodent burrows, or under rocks.
64006		population	eng	McGuire (1996) mapped well over 200 known collection sites that are widely distributed throughout the range. The total adult population size is uncertain but probably exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance have probably not changed much compared to historical levels.
64006		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64007		conservation	eng	Many populations exist in protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64007		distribution	eng	Range extends from southeastern Utah, southern Colorado, Kansas, and central and southern Missouri south through Arizona, New Mexico, western and central Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas to Sonora and north-central mainland Mexico (Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi) (McGuire 1996, Stebbins 2003). Records for Louisiana may not represent natural occurrences (Dundee and Rossman 1989, McGuire 1996).
64007		habitat	eng	The habitat consists of rocky areas with sparse vegetation and encompasses open woodlands, bunchgrass areas, canyons, gullies, slopes, and mesa tops (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, McGuire 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). When inactive, these lizards hide under rocks or in crevices. Eggs are laid under large rocks or in burrows (Collins 1982).
64007		population	eng	McGuire (1996) mapped hundreds of collection sites across the broad range in the United States and Mexico. The total adult population size is uncertain but clearly exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance all appear to be relatively stable.
64007		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64008		conservation	eng	It is not clear whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.
64008		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to the Isla Tiburón in the Gulf of California and the adjacent Sonoran coastline (Sierra Bacha and Sierra Seri) between Punta Cirio and Bahia Kino.
64008		habitat	eng	It is a saxicolous species commonly found on hillsides and rocky slopes in dry, sparse, bushy vegetation. It is an egg-laying species.
64008		population	eng	Both the islands and mainland populations seems to be abundant and healthy.
64008		threats	eng	The habitats of this species are not subject major pressure across most of its range. Only large scale settlement by people could threaten the populations of this species in Isla Tiburón, but this does not seem to be likely. Local people believe that this is a venomous lizard, but any resulting persecution is probably only a local threat.
64009		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the abundance and ecology of this species.
64009		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to the Sierra los Cucapás and the Sierra el Mayor, in the northeast of the State of Baja California at 100 to 200 m asl.
64009		habitat	eng	It is a saxicolous species in extremely arid desert. It is commonly found in rocky hillsides, using small to moderately-sized boulders to perch on.
64009		population	eng	It is variably abundant across its range, but it is common in suitable habitats.
64009		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, as it occurs in a very remote area.
64010		conservation	eng	The whole range of the species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. There is a need to further study the habitat, ecology and potential threats to this species.
64010		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on the Isla Angel de la Guarda, in the Gulf of California of Mexico. It has an elevational range of around 15 to 500 m asl.
64010		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky hillsides and flats bordering arroyos where the vegetation is not excessively thick. Animals can occasionally be observed sitting on fallen cacti.
64010		population	eng	It is a common species in its small range, and its populations appear to be stable.
64010		threats	eng	While the species has a very restricted range, the Isla Angel de la Guarda is uninhabited, and does not appear to be at risk from introductions of non-native species.
64011		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas in the United States and probably also Mexico.
64011		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Arizona (United States) and Sonora (Mexico) (McGuire 1996, Stebbins 2003). The range closely approaches that of <em>Crotaphtyus bicinctores</em> in a couple places along the Gila River, which separates the two species (McGuire 1996). In Arizona it is known from Gila, Mohawk, Little Ajo, Ajo, Pozo Redondo, Puerto Blanco, Sikort Chuapo, and Estrella mountains, as well as the Buckeye Hills, plus a few mountain ranges farther east, including the Quijotoa, Silverbell, and Tucson mountains, and probably also in the remaining mountain ranges south of the Gila River, though the Baboquivari Mountains might be inhabited by <em>C. collaris</em> (McGuire 1996). In Sonora it is known from: the transversely oriented foothills that follow the United States-Mexico border along Mexican Highway 2 (the Pinacate Region); several mountain ranges to the south and east in northern Sonora, including the Sierra Cubabi, Sierra La Gloria, Sierra El Alamo, and Sierra Rajon; either the Sierra Cubeta or Sierra El Pinto farther east in the northern foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental (one specimen only); and north-south-trending valleys in Sierra Madre Occidental foothills east of Hermosillo and Guaymas (McGuire 1996). A distributional gap apparently exists between the Caborca region (Sierra El Rajon) and the Hermosillo-Guaymas region.
64011		habitat	eng	The habitat encompasses lowland desert and arid-tropical thornscrub mountain ranges; the species is always associated with rocks, such as granitic outcroppings or volcanic flows (McGuire 1996). In the northwestern part of the range, this lizard often perches on granitic rocks in sandy washes at the bases of rocky hillsides; in the south, it may be concentrated in arroyo bottoms and less vegetated valleys (McGuire 1996).
64011		population	eng	McGuire (1996) mapped approximately 50 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown, but probably it is at least many thousands, and it is common in some places. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably relatively stable.
64011		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
64012		conservation	eng	The primary conservation need is protection of habitat from alteration.
64012		distribution	eng	This lizard occurs in a relatively small areas in southern Texas, and Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas, Mexico (McGuire 1996). The range extends from Eagle Pass, Texas, on the north to Mission, Texas, on the southeast (Conant and Collins 1991, see Judd 1985). The Balcones escarpment of the Edwards Plateau in Texas is the northern limit of distribution, and the western distribution limit coincides with the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico (see Judd 1985).
64012		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits thorn-scrub vegetation, usually on well-drained rolling terrain of shallow gravel, caliche, or sandy soils. It often occurs on scattered flat rocks below escarpments or isolated rock outcrops among scattered clumps of prickly-pear and mesquite, but it also commonly ranges into mesquite flats far from the nearest rocky habitat, and in Texas it is absent on some rocky outcroppings along the margins of bluffs where other <em>Crotaphytus</em> species might be expected to occur. Fence posts or the branches of mesquite trees may be used a basking perches, in addition to rocks. As in <em>Gambelia</em>, when approached, this collared lizard often runs to the base of a shrub and remains motionless. Eggs are laid probably under large rocks or underground. Summarized mainly from McGuire (1996).
64012		population	eng	Montanucci (1976) mapped 32 collection sites in Texas and 16 in Mexico. Judd (1985) documented six locations in Texas and six in Mexico. Axtell (1989) mapped 65 collection localities in Texas. McGuire mapped 23 localities in Texas and 15 in Mexico. Dixon (2000) indicated the presence of this lizard in 11 counties in Texas. <br/> <br/>This is the rarest of the collared lizards (<em>Crotaphytus</em>) in the United States. The total population size is unknown. Data from museum collections suggest a low density throughout the range; the greatest number taken at a locality at one point in time was seven (see Judd 1985). The species may be locally fairly common: six were observed at one location. The distribution tends to be patchy, with large sparsely populated or uninhabited areas (Axtell 1989). <br/> <br/>Distribution and abundance may be declining, but distribution and population information are inadequate to assess status (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Some small populations may be declining; the species is found infrequently but it is not endangered (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997).
64012		threats	eng	In the southern part of the range, the greatest threat is habitat alteration, particularly land clearing practices, the conversion of native grazing lands to farms and improved pastures, and the planting of alien mat-forming grasses, including bufflegrass, for livestock grazing (Judd 1985, Axtell 1989, A. Price pers. comm. 1997). The introduced alien grasses degrade or destroy the preferred habitat. Buffelgrass has escaped from pastures and is common along road corridors (Judd 1985). Other potential threats include residential development and pit mining (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997).
64013		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Valle de los Cirios, and the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. No direct conservation measures are currently needed to the species as a whole.
64013		distribution	eng	The range of this species encompasses the desert side of the Peninsular Ranges of southern California (United States), north to the northern slope of the San Jacinto Mountains near Palm Springs, and south to much of Baja California (Mexico), southward to the southern margin of the volcanic Magdalena Plain (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In Baja California, the range includes Tecate Peak near the U.S.-Mexican border, and the western foothills of the Peninsular Ranges, and areas near El Rosario, but the species is absent from most of the western margin of the Baja Peninsula (Grismer 2002). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to around 4,000 feet (1,094 m) (Stebbins 2003).
64013		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits rocky areas in arid and semi-arid habitat, generally with scant xerophytic vegetation, including hillsides, alluvial fans, canyons, and lava flows (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid presumably underground or under rocks.
64013		population	eng	McGuire (1996) mapped about 85 collection localities. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance probably are relatively stable.
64013		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64014		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species as a whole.
64014		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species extends from extreme southern California (United States) (vicinities of Cameron Corners, Campo, and Potrero Grade) south through all but the Lower Colorado Desert region of northeastern Baja California to at least Todos Santos in the Cape Region, Baja California Sur, and encompasses the Pacific islands of Isla de Cedros, Isla Magdelena, and Isla Santa Margarita (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003); the species is narrowly syntopic with <em>G. wislizenii</em> over a zone of about 1.6 km in Paseo de San Matias, Baja California (see McGuire 1996 and Grismer 2002 for further details).
64014		habitat	eng	In Baja California, this lizard is particularly common on sparsely vegetated aeolian flats of the Vizcaíno Peninsula, where it can be observed basking on roadside rocks, on berms adjacent to graded dirt roads, or moving about in open spaces among clumps of vegetation; it also occurs elsewhere in Baja California in arroyo (dry creek) bottoms, bajadas, open sandy flats, creosote bush scrub habitats, coastal sage scrub, and oak woodland habitats (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002). Apparently the species occurs in relatively densely vegetated chaparral in southern California (McGuire 1996). It is similar to other <em>Gambelia</em> in seeking shelter at the base of a shrub and remaining motionless there (McGuire 1996).
64014		population	eng	McGuire (1996) mapped approximately 75 collection sites that are well distributed throughout the geographic range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is abundant in the Vizcaíno Desert and south through the Magdalena Plain into the western portion of the Cape Region (Grismer 2002). Population trends are not definitely known, but it seems likely that the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are stable in many places, but slightly declining in others.
64014		threats	eng	Although the species is not threatened overall, there is ongoing loss of habitat due to the expansion of intensive agriculture in the Vizcaíno Desert, Magdalena Plain, and Isthmus of La Paz.
64015		conservation	eng	From a range-wide perspective, no major conservation measures need to be established at the present time. The species is presumed to occur in many protected areas.
64015		distribution	eng	The geographic range extends from Oregon, southern Idaho, Utah and western Colorado south through eastern and southern California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas to northeastern Baja California and north-central mainland Mexico (including Isla Tiburon, Sonora, in the Gulf of California) (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
64015		habitat	eng	Habitat includes desert and semi-desert areas with scattered shrubs or other low plants (e.g., creosote bush, sagebrush), especially areas with abundant rodent burrows (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Hammerson 1999, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The species is basically ground dwelling, but sometimes individuals climb into bushes. When threatened, leopard lizards typically run to the base of a shrub and remain motionless there. When inactive, they occupy burrows  Eggs are laid in burrows.
64015		population	eng	This lizard is represented by a very large number of occurrences that are well distributed throughout the historical range (McGuire 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Population trends cannot be precisely quantified, but the area of occupancy and abundance are probably declining at a low rate as a result of ongoing habitat loss and degradation.  Mexico population is also common.
64015		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss and degradation resulting from agricultural, commercial, and residential development and invasion of alien herbaceous plants (e.g., cheatgrass) (Hammerson 1999). There are no major threats to this species in Mexico
64016		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the natural history of this species.
64016		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico where it occurs in the States of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro and Hildalgo. It is present between 300 and 500 m asl.
64016		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that is found in humid tropical forests and in semi-arid deciduous vegetation. It is found in both primary habitat and in secondary habitat close to primary forest. It is an oviparous species.
64016		population	eng	It is a rare species that is known from very few specimens.
64016		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation through the conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land (cropland and pasture).
64017		conservation	eng	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64017		distribution	eng	The  species' range extends from northwestern and central Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986; Cobb, 2004) and extreme southwestern New Mexico in the United States (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), south through Sonora and western Chihuahua to southern Sinaloa, Mexico, from sea level to 1,900 m asl (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).
64017		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include grassland, farmland, desert, brushland, thorn scrub, thorn forest, tropical deciduous forest, and lower pine-oak woodland, from plains to lower mountain slopes (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Arizona, this species is most commonly associated with rocky bajadas, slopes, and canyons of upland desert scrub and desert grassland (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). In New Mexico, it is most often found on rocky bajadas or in broad river valleys with mesquite, and occasionally on creosote bush flats of valley floors (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It sometimes enters buildings (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This is a fossorial snake that emerges into the open usually at night or sometimes on cloudy days (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
64017		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 60 collection sites. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 14 collection sites in New Mexico. This secretive snake probably occurs in substantially more locations than are presently known (Campbell and Lamar 2004). <br/> <br/>The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. This snake may appear to be rare, but this probably reflects secretive habits rather than true scarcity (Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is not abundant but not uncommon in Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64017		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64018		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy is needed, as it may not be a valid species.
64018		distribution	eng	This species ranges in eastern Mexico, from eastern Hidalgo southward to northern Puebla and portions of northwestern Veracruz. It may be more widely distributed than is currently known. It ranges from 50 to 2,100 m asl.
64018		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cloud forest, tropical evergreen forest and can also be found in shaded coffee plantations. It occurs under leaf-litter and bark. It may live in termite nests as do many other species in the genus. It is an oviparous species.
64018		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64018		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is not threatened by habitat loss. Animals are occasionally killed by people as it is a venomous species.
64019		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in a protected area.
64019		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low elevations on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, from about Puerto Angel to Tapanatepec, in Mexico. It ranges from near sea level up to 400 m asl.
64019		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical deciduous, dry coastal, and scrub forest. Its tolerance of habitat disturbance is unknown.
64019		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens at four localities. It is rarely encountered and has not been recorded recently.
64019		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
64020		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in several protected areas.
64020		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from low and intermediate elevations in the States of México, Morelos, Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Chiapas in southern Mexico, southeast to the mountains of south-central Guatemala. The record from the State of Morelos, Mexico, may be based on misidentifications of <em>Micrurus tener</em> (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The elevational range of the species is from sea level to above 2,000 m asl.
64020		habitat	eng	The species occupies tropical deciduous forest, pine-oak forest, and cloud forest. It also occurs in coffee and cacao plantations as well as degraded forest.
64020		population	eng	This species is locally common.
64020		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
64021		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix III (Honduras).
64021		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low and moderate elevations of the Atlantic drainage from central Veracruz, northern Oaxaca, and the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, southward through Belize and northern Guatemala to northwestern Honduras. The vertical distribution is from near sea level to about 1,250 m asl.
64021		habitat	eng	This secretive snake inhabits tropical wet, moist and dry forest (tropical evergreen forest, tropical deciduous forest, lower cloud forest, and pine-oak forest). The species tolerates human disturbance; it has been found on ranches, plantations, and farms.
64021		population	eng	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.
64021		threats	eng	Habitat loss for small-holder farming, wood collection, and human settlement is occurring throughout the range of this species, but this is not considered to be a major threat, and there is no evidence of declines in population.
64022		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in at least five protected areas throughout its range.
64022		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic occurs at low to moderate elevations from southwestern Chihuahua and southern Sonora, southward on the Pacific drainage through Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, and Michoacán to Guerrero, including the Santiago River basin. There is also a disjunct population in Aguascalientes (Vázquez and Quintero 1997, Quintero-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 2000, Vázquez and Quintero 2005). Its range within the Río de las Balsas basin probably includes portions of several other states as well. It occurs from near sea level to about 2,200 m asl.
64022		habitat	eng	This coral snake occurs in tropical deciduous forest, semi-deciduous forest, lower elevation cloud forest and thorn forest  It is a fossorial species.
64022		population	eng	It is a common species.
64022		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss for small-holder farming, wood collection, and human settlement. However, this is not considered a significant threat across the whole range at present.
64023		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
64023		distribution	eng	This species occurs at moderate and intermediate elevations of the Caribbean versant in Mexico from central Veracruz, northern Oaxaca, and the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, southeastward through southern Tabasco, northern Chiapas, and the Atlantic drainage of the northern mountains of Guatemala to the Sierra de las Minas. The elevational range is from about 500 to 1,000 m asl.
64023		habitat	eng	It occurs in lower montane wet forest, cloud forest and rarely tropical deciduous forest in areas of dense canopy. It has also been recorded from degraded forest and agricultural land.
64023		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64023		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.
64024		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected area.
64024		distribution	eng	This species is known from low and intermediate elevations of the Pacific drainage of Oaxaca, from the Continental Divide in Central Oaxaca to the lowlands and foothills of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in Mexico. It ranges from near sea level up to over 2,300 m asl.
64024		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. It has been found in disturbed forest, but not in open areas.
64024		population	eng	A rare species known from very few specimens. It has been collected as recently as 2002. The population in central Oaxaca probably declined substantially due to habitat destruction decades ago. Some habitat destruction continues.
64024		threats	eng	Deforestation due to agriculture is a major threat.
64025		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
64025		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of the United States, extending into northeastern Mexico. It ranges from southeastern North Carolina to southern Florida, west to southeastern Louisiana, disjunctly northward to central Alabama (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64025		habitat	eng	Habitats include hardwood forest, pine-oak woodland, pine flatwoods, and xerophytic scrub, often in areas with sandy soils, sometimes marsh edges and residential areas (Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive snake is often underground, under leaf litter, logs or stumps, or similarly secluded. Eggs probably are laid in loose soil or decaying organic matter (Mount 1975), or underground or under leaf litter or surface objects (Ernst 1992).
64025		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped more than 100 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. Nearly 2,000 were turned in for bounties in a 39-month period in one county in Florida (see Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake is often common; its secretive habits may give a false impression of rarity (Ernst 1992). Mount (1975) characterized it as relatively common in the lower Coastal Plain of Alabama. Tennant (1997) reported it as common in Florida. Population trends are not documented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64025		threats	eng	Overall, this species does not appear to be significantly threatened. In Alabama, populations declined after introduction of the fire ant, which may prey on eggs and young (Mount 1981). Habitat destruction and motorized vehicles are the most serious threats (Ernst 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003).
64026		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
64026		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico and occupies low, moderate and intermediate elevations in portions of the basins of the Río de las Balsas and Río Tepalcatepec in Michoacán, Guerrero, Jalisco. Its range extends northwestward along the coastal foothills of Colima and Jalisco. Its elevational range is from 300 to 1,800 m asl.
64026		habitat	eng	This coral snake is found in tropical deciduous forest, oak forest and arid tropical scrub forest.
64026		population	eng	It is regularly seen in suitable habitat.
64026		threats	eng	There is some forest destruction in parts of the range, however, this is not considered significant to the species at present.
64027		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
64027		distribution	eng	This species is known from low and moderate elevations of the Pacific versant from southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico, southeastward through Chiapas, Mexico, to eastern Guatemala. The elevational range is from about 300 to 1,280 m asl.
64027		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest and lower montane wet forest. It can also occur in disturbed areas.
64027		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64027		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
64028		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.
64028		distribution	eng	This snake is found in low and moderate elevations of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, Mexico. It is known from the south slope of Volcán San Martín, Coyame, near Tebanca, and the vicinity of La Palma. Its elevational range is from 160 to 1,050 m asl.
64028		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tropical lowland moist forest and cloud forest. It is also found in pastures, agricultural areas, and secondary forests.
64028		population	eng	It is a common species.
64028		threats	eng	The species is persecuted because it is venomous, but this is not considered a major threat at present.
64029		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). One population is in Tehuacan - Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.
64029		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Oaxaca in Mexico, from 1,585 to 2,256 m asl.
64029		habitat	eng	A nocturnal and crepuscular terrestrial snake found in pine-oak forest.
64029		population	eng	It is a rare species but it can still be found.
64029		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species, but data on threats is lacking.
64030		conservation	eng	The species inhabits the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley Biosphere Reserve. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species.
64030		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from Zapotitlan Salinas, in southeastern Puebla, Mexico. It may range more widely than is currently known. It is found at around 1,500 m asl.
64030		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and crepuscular species has been recorded on the ground in open areas of desert vegetation with cacti and mesquite vegetation. It is an oviparous species.
64030		population	eng	It is a rare species.
64030		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species possibly has a restricted range, but no habitat loss is taking place. As it is a venomous species it is killed when it is encountered by local people.
64031		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine the range and population status of this species.
64031		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific coast of Mexico, from northern Nayarit to extreme northern Jalisco. It has recently been recorded from a locality in southern Jalisco: this record is soon to be published (P. Ponce pers. comm. 2005). Suitable habitat occurs in a relatively wide range, therefore the species is likely to be much more widespread than is currently known. More surveys are required to determine occurrences elsewhere in the region. It is known only from elevations less than 150 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004). However, recently it has been recorded from 500 m asl (P. Ponce pers. comm. 2005).
64031		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical decidous forest, semi-deciduous forest and thorn forest.
64031		population	eng	It is not rare, but not common. Records are known from the northern part of the range (Nayarit), and the southern part (northern Jalisco), with nothing recorded between these two points. There are other potential records from the southern Jalisco area, but these are in the process of being confirmed.
64031		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture and human settlement is occurring in some parts of the known range, particularly in central Nayarit. However, there is much undisturbed habitat still available for this species and the current deforestation activities are not considered a significant threat.
64032		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population, habitat requirements and threats is needed.
64032		distribution	eng	This species is known from four specimens collected from the type locality; "Sierra de Tamaulipas, Rancho La Sauceda", about 50km north of Gonzalez in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. The specimens were collected between 750 to 1,000 m asl.
64032		habitat	eng	All specimens of this species were collected in pine-oak forest on a ranch that has cattle pastures scattered throughout the forest.
64032		population	eng	This species is known from only four specimens. There have been very few surveys of the area in which the specimens were found so there are no population estimates available.
64032		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
64033		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.
64033		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from western Louisiana and southwestern Arkansas to central and western Texas in the United States to Mexico in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, and northern Veracruz, extending west to Hidalgo, Guanajuato and San Luis Potosi. It occurs at elevations from near sea level to about 500 m asl in the United States and to about 2,000 m asl in Mexico (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Campbell and Lamar 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
64033		habitat	eng	Habitats are varied and include mixed pine and hardwood forests, subtropical thorn scrub, tall-grass prairie, and riparian woodlands in otherwise dry areas (Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Louisiana and Arkansas, this snake inhabits forested areas (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Texas, habitats include rocky creek banks and canyons of oak-juniper brakes, live oak woodland, thornbrush chaparral of the coastal plain, sandy grass-mesquite, Cross Timbers woodland-thickets, and pine-hardwood forest; also gardens, wooded lots, and undeveloped parklands in cities; habitat is generally partially wooded and has organic ground litter (Werler and Dixon 2000). In western Texas and northern Tamaulipas, this snake usually is found near watercourses and in vegetation along temporary streams (Campbell and Lamar 2004). In northern Mexico, this snake occurs in mesquite-grassland, thorn forest, and desert; in southern Tamaulipas, it reaches 900 m asl in oak savanna; at the south end of the range it is apparently restricted to high elevations in pine-oak forest and mesquite-grassland (Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake is often underground, under leaf-litter, logs or stumps, or similarly secluded. Eggs probably are laid in loose soil or decaying organic matter, or underground or under leaf-litter or surface objects.
64033		population	eng	Adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. It is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see dot maps of collection sites in Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, and Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake is common in Texas (Tennant 1998). In Mexico it is a widespread and common species. The population trend is undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64033		threats	eng	In the United States, there are no major threats known, but the species has declined in some areas in Texas that have undergone intensive urbanization (Werler and Dixon 2000). In Mexico, the species is killed because it is venomous, however, it is not under any significant threat at present.
64034		conservation	eng	This species currently is not in need of any major conservation measures.
64034		distribution	eng	Southern New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), southwestern Texas (Dixon 2000), and adjacent northern Mexico, where it is widely distributed south to northeastern Durango and southern Coahuila (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003).
64034		habitat	eng	Habitats include rocky limestone foothills with desert scrub vegetation such as creosote bush, acacia, and juniper (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); canyons, creviced escarpments, and low earthen hills. The species is particularly common in areas of flat rock and succulent vegetative debris. When inactive, individuals hide under rocks, debris, or in crevices (Smith 1946, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), and they may be found under debris near human habitations (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks. The species also occurs on sand dunes.
64034		population	eng	Abundant where it occurs. This species is represented by many occurrences; it is known from about 40 counties in Texas (virtually all of the counties within its range extent in Texas), at least two dozen collection sites in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), and additional sites in Mexico. Its population size is unknown, but the species is common within its range in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably relatively stable.
64034		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64035		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
64035		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Mexico and ranges in the Madrean foothills in Sinaloa and southern Sonora, and perhaps in extreme adjacent southwestern Chihuahua.
64035		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial gecko, in deciduous and semi-deciduous forest and shrubland. There are few data, but it can possibly tolerate disturbance of habitat.
64035		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64035		threats	eng	Parts of its habitat along the coastal plain is being lost to large-scale agriculture, but in the foothills, which encompass most of its range, much of its habitat is probably secure.
64036		conservation	eng	This species in endemic of an Island in the Gulf of California which is at present a Natural Protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64036		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla San Marcos, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
64036		habitat	eng	This species has been found mainly in the Arroyo la Taneria, where it is highly associated to outcroppings of gypsum rocks on the hillsides, in steep canyons, and in smaller tributary arroyos (Grismer 2002). It is common around the garbage dump near the arroyo bottom (Grismer and Ottley 1988).
64036		population	eng	In the only locality known for this species it seems to be common. The species is cryptic and very difficult to find.
64036		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified. Isla San Marcos is uninhabited and not particularly susceptible to natural disasters.
64037		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Big Bend National Park and Big Bend State Natural Area (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Better informarion is needed on distribution, abundance, and trends.
64037		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Big Bend region (Brewster and Presidio counties), Texas, and adjacent Mexico (southern Coahuila and northeastern Durango) (Dixon 2000). Curious gaps exist in the known distribution (Dixon 2000).
64037		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs in limestone canyons and other rocky areas in desert regions; most of those found thus far were on roads on summer evenings (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Individuals may climb on rocks or, when inactive, hide under them (Behler and King 1979, Dial 1978). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks.
64037		population	eng	Population size is unknown. Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) reported that this species is infrequently seen; it may be rare, secretive, or both. Dixon (2000) stated that this species is more common in Texas than was previously believed. This lizard is locally common but very secretive and difficult to survey; it is probably stable, but population information is inadequate for reliably assessing trends (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). The species is found infrequently but is not threatened (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). It has a fairly restricted range and has not been well studied; nevertheless, it probably has a very stable population (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Status in Mexico is unknown but is assumed to be stable (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997).
64037		threats	eng	Threats are insignificant; the habitat is not suitable for other uses (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Potential threats include commercial collecting for the pet trade, but the habitat is not easily accessible, so collecting is not a major threat (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Individuals occur under cap rocks; breaking rocks while surveying may be detrimental (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997).
64038		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range, the species presumably occurs in many protected areas. The impact of harvesting should be monitored.
64038		distribution	eng	This gecko occurs along the eastern fringe of the Peninsular Ranges from at least Borrego Springs and Yaqui Pass, northern San Diego County, California (United States), south into north-central and eastern Baja California (Mexico) to San Ignacio and the Santa Rosalia area (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). See Grismer and Ottley (1988) and Grismer (1990) for a listing of specific localities. There are unconfirmed reports of <em>C. switaki</em> occurring north to the Palms to Pines Highway, Riverside County, California. The elevational range extends from near sea level to around 700 m (2,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64038		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits rocky desert foothills, volcanic talus and terraces, and canyons; it is less common in areas with large granitic outcroppings (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). It appears to prefer areas with large rocks and sparse vegetation (Grismer 2002). The species has been found on flatlands up to about 100 m from rock outcrops, and it also has been found in arroyos and dump sites at or near the bottoms of steep washes (Grismer and Ottley 1988). Refuges include deep crevices among rocks and subterranean chambers.
64038		population	eng	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered. Approximately 25 occurrences were known as of the late 1980s (see Grismer and Ottley 1988, Grismer 1990); undoubtedly there are many others not yet documented. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably stable; sightings per year actually have been increasing (L. Grismer pers. comm. 1995).
64038		threats	eng	Overall, this species is not significantly threatened (L. Grismer pers. comm. 1995). However, mining and highway construction are localized potential threats, and the species is on the state threatened list for California. In the 1980s there was a concern about collecting this species for the national and international pet trade. However, the current level of harvest is probably lower, and in any case the effect of harvesting on populations is unknown.
64039		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
64039		distribution	eng	The range of this species in the United States encompasses southern California, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah, western and southern Arizona (including the Little Colorado River Basin; Persons and Nowak, 2004), and extreme southwestern New Mexico. In Mexico the species occurs throughout Baja California (except high mountains) and in western Sonora (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). <em>Coleonyx variegatus</em> also occurs on islands in the Gulf of California and off the western coast of Baja California. Its elevational range extends from below sea level in desert sinks to about 1,520 m (5,000 feet).
64039		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs in a wide range of habitats, including creosote bush and sagebrush desert, pinyon-juniper woodland, and catclaw-cedar-grama grass associations in the eastern part of range and chaparral areas in the west; it occurs in both rocky areas and barren dunes (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Refuges during inactivity include rocks, burrows, and spaces beneath vegetative debris or trash.
64039		population	eng	This species has been found in hundreds of sites that are well distributed throughout the range. Its total adult population size is unknown, but almost certainly exceeds 100,000. Sometimes this lizard is locally very abundant; brief searches in a small area may yield dozens of individuals (Grismer 2002). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably relatively stable from a range-wide perspective. Its abundance and perhaps area of occupancy might be declining somewhat in the more populated portions of the range (e.g., California, parts of Arizona).
64039		threats	eng	Locally, in the northern part of the range, threats include conversion of habitat to human uses (e.g., development of retirement communities and associated infrastructure), but overall the species is not threatened. There is incidental pet trade only, but this does not constitute a threat.
64040		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).  Populations have been recorded in the Valle de Tehuacan, Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64040		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the mountains near Taxco, at the Rio Balsas, Guerrero State and in the Cuicatlan Valley, Oaxaca State. Populations are known from 461 to 1,725 m asl.
64040		habitat	eng	The species naturally inhabits tropical deciduous dry forest and secondary forest, and appears to be very adaptable to some habitat disturbance.
64040		population	eng	It can be a locally common species.
64040		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
64041		conservation	eng	The Isla Santa Catalina is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64041		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Santa Catalina, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64041		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of microhabitats, including rocks and cracks, dead cardon cactus and giant barrel cactus, branches of leatherplants, on the ground in sandy washes, and on stony beaches. The general habitat of the island is xerophylic scrub.
64041		population	eng	It seems to be a common species within its limited range.
64041		threats	eng	Although it has a limited island range, there appear to be no major threat to the species.
64042		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and further research is needed into the biology, range, population status, and possible threats to this species.
64042		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been reported from the States of Colima and northwestern Michacoacan.
64042		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species that can be found in rocky areas within tropical dry forest. Animals are most frequently seen basking on rocks. It may be adaptable to some habitat modification.
64042		population	eng	Although little is known about the abundance of this species, populations are generally believed to be stable within their rocky habitat.
64042		threats	eng	There are not believed to be any current major threats to this species.
64043		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64043		distribution	eng	This species is apparently confined to the exposed igneous and limestone formations in the immediate vicinity of Tierra Colorada, Guerrero, Mexico. Its elevation range is from 1,000 to 1,200 m asl.
64043		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, saxicolous species inhabiting huge igneous and limestone rock outcroppings in tropical deciduous forest, dry forest and secondary forest. Animals are generally found in the crevices of rocks.
64043		population	eng	It is very poorly known. Only a few specimens have ever been recorded of this difficult to collect species.
64043		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The rocky habitat is generally secure because of the difficulty in accessing these areas.
64044		conservation	eng	Phyllodactylus duellmani is listed as Pr (special protection) within Mexican legislation. It does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat, ecology, population and potential threats to this species.
64044		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from the Balsas basin area in the States of Michoacan and Guerrero.
64044		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from tree branches and rocks in tropical dry forest. There is little information available on the adaptability of this species to habitat modification.
64044		population	eng	Although there is little information on population abundance, and few specimens have ever been collected, it is suspected to be a locally common species.
64044		threats	eng	While the species seems to have a relatively limited range, there currently appear to be no major threats.
64045		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but the populations on San Pedro Nolasco Island and on the mainland are relatively safe.
64045		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Mexico, where the nominate subspecies occurs in most of central and western Sonora and northwestern Sinaloa. Its northernmost point is a little north of Hermosillo. The supspecies <em>Phyllodactylus homolepidurus nolascoensis</em> occurs on the Isla San Pedro Nolasco in the Gulf of California.
64045		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of arid and semi-arid areas with some tropical floristic elements. It is commonly found beneath rock exfoliations and rock piles, and in fissures and shallow cracks.
64045		population	eng	The population seems to be stable on the Isla San Pedro Nolasco, and most common within 100 m of the coast. It is probably also stable and common on the mainland.
64045		threats	eng	No significant threats are known. It is occasionally killed by people who erroneously consider this species to be venomous, but this is not thought to constitute a threat.
64046		conservation	eng	It may be present in some protected areas, however, no conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64046		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is generally distributed from southwestern Nayarit in the north (including the Santiago River basin), south through Jalisco, Colima and Michoacan to northwestern Guerrero (including the Balsas basin area).
64046		habitat	eng	This species is adaptable to a wide variety of natural and man-made habitats. It has been recorded in tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest, mangrove forest, disturbed forest and urban areas where it is commonly found in houses.
64046		population	eng	It is often an abundant animal.
64046		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this adaptable and widespread species.
64047		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species.
64047		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the State of Oaxaca, Mexico. It ranges from a point a few miles north of Totolapan, east-southeast to the vicinity of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Populations are found from sea level to 1,300 m asl.
64047		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from tropical deciduous forest and dry forest, and the species appears to adapt well to habitat disturbance.
64047		population	eng	It can be a locally common species.
64047		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
64048		conservation	eng	The islands of Isla Partida Norte and Cardonosa Este are both within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64048		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Partida Norte and Cardonosa Este, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Dixon 1964, Grismer 2002).
64048		habitat	eng	This species is mainly saxicolous within xerophilic scrub, with animals sometimes observed on the ground or beneath dead cacti. It can presumably adapt to some degree of habitat modification.
64048		population	eng	This is a common species within its small range, and it is presumed that populations are generally stable.
64048		threats	eng	While it has a limited range, there appear to be no major threats to this species.
64049		conservation	eng	It is not known if any populations are present within protected areas. More research is needed into the geographic range, population size and trends, habitat status, biology, ecology and threats.
64049		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species is known only from the type specimen, collected from south Lombardia in the Balsas basin, Michoacan State, Mexico. In view of the general lack of field surveys for this species, it is uncertain as to whether it has a restricted geographic range.
64049		habitat	eng	The species is reported as occurring in crevices and rocky cliffs, within xerophytic shrubland in tropical dry forest.
64049		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trends. No studies have been undertaken on this species since its description in 1960.
64049		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
64050		conservation	eng	This species occurs on several islands in the Gulf of California which are part of the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64050		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southernmost part of Baja California, Mexico, where it is present both on the mainland and on a number of islands in the Gulf of California. On the mainland this species is restricted to the Cape Region. Within the Gulf of California it has been recorded from the islands of Partida Sur, Espiritu Santo, Ballena, Gallo, Gallina and Cerralvo.
64050		habitat	eng	This is an scansorial animal found under rocks and within caves, but also beneath the bark of dead vegetation and rotting cardons (cacti). Along the Gulf coast it occurs in dry thornscrub.
64050		population	eng	It generally appears to be a common species, except in urban areas.
64050		threats	eng	Although much of the habitat of this species is secure for the time being, there are local impacts of urbanization and intensive agriculture around La Paz and Cabo San Lucas.
64051		conservation	eng	The species is present within a number of protected areas. Other than further taxonomic research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread gecko.
64051		distribution	eng	The range extends from southern California, from north of Palm Springs, south to the tip of Baja California, including more than 30 islands in Gulf of California and Islas Magdalena and Santa Margarita off the west coast of Baja California (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from sea level to about 610 m (2,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64051		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits rocky areas (volcanic and granitic; ranging from talus and bedrock/boulder habitats to exfoliating slabs to beach cobble); occupied vegetation types include desert scrub, thornscrub, and broken chaparral; sometimes the species can be found under fallen columnar cacti or hidden among other plant material (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). When active at night, it may range into dunes or sandy arroyos and may forage on tree trunks or walls of buildings (Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid in crevices among rocks or under exfoliating bark (Grismer 2002).
64051		population	eng	This species has been documented in hundreds of sites that are well distributed throughout the historical range. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000; the species is locally numerous. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably stable.
64051		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64052		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least several protected areas.
64052		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cuba, the Bahamas, and southern Florida in the United States. The range of this gecko includes the Dry Tortugas, extreme southeastern mainland Florida, and the Florida Keys (subspecies <em>notatus</em>, common throughout the larger Upper and Lower Keys, Lawson <em>et al</em>. 1991); Little and Great Bahama banks; Cat Island, Little San Salvador Island, Great Inagua Island; Cuba, including Archipielago de los Canarreos, Cayos de San Felipe, Cayos los Ballenatos; Isla de la Juventud; Morant Cays; Pedro Cays; Swan Islands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, which see for subspecies distributions). Introductions of the species also has been reported from Colombia (F. Castro, pers. comm., cited in The Reptile Database) and Honduras (Wilson and McCranie, 2002, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 33: 90-94).
64052		habitat	eng	Schwartz and Henderson (1991) characterized this species as xerophilic and sometimes mesophilic. It occurs among or under leaf litter or debris on the floor of hammocks, coppice, coconut groves, ornamental gardens, pine lands, vacant lots, or around buildings (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), and it is often abundant under flotsam on beaches just above the high tide line (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is uncommonly edificarian but often is associated with human debris and abandoned dwellings (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Eggs are laid in rotting logs, at the bases of palm fronds, or under logs, boards, driftwood, coconut husks, or other debris (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
64052		population	eng	This species is known from many sites that are well distributed throughout the historical range. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. This lizard is abundant in southern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.
64052		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64053		conservation	eng	Its habitat is protected from development in several national parks and monuments and federal wilderness areas.
64053		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range encompasses southern Nevada, extreme southwestern Utah along the Virgin River in the vicinity of Beaver Dam Wash (at least formerly), and southern California east of the Sierra Nevada and Coast ranges southward through northeastern Baja California and all of southern Baja California (but not most of the Vizcaino Desert) and through western and central Arizona and western Sonora to northern Sinaloa. This lizard occurs on many islands in the Gulf of California and on Magdalena and Santa Margarita islands along the Pacific coast of Baja California (Hulse 1992, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The range in the United States coincides closely with that of creosote bush (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from below sea level in desert sinks to about 1,520 m (5,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64053		habitat	eng	The habitat most often consists of sandy arroyos or other open areas with loose soils, but sometimes the species occurs on nearby rocky hillsides (Grismer 2002). In the north, desert iguanas are typically found in creosote bush desert with hummocks of loose sand and patches of firm ground with scattered rocks, whereas in the south they may occur in subtropical scrub habitats (Stebbins 2003). These lizards seek shelter in rodent burrows or rock crevices (Grismer 2002), and they may climb into bushes (Stebbins 2003).
64053		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites throughout its range in the United States and Mexico (e.g., see Hulse 1992). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This lizard is very common in northeastern Baja California (Grismer 2002) and in similar creosote bush desert habitats in southeastern California and southwestern Arizona. Localized declines in areas of occupancy and population size have occurred where habitats have been lost or degraded.
64053		threats	eng	In some areas, habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of conversion to human uses (agriculture, commercial and residential development, road construction). Populations along busy highways presumably have been reduced as a result of road mortality. However, these threats affect a relatively small portion of the overall range. There has been a very limited pet trade from Mexico in the past.
64054		conservation	eng	Habitat is protected from development in several national parks and monuments and in federal wilderness areas in the United States, and the species occurs within protected sites in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998). Many sites outside formally protected areas are rugged and remote and thus protected from most potential threats.
64054		distribution	eng	This lizard occurs in the western United States and in northwestern Mexico. It ranges from southern Nevada, southern Utah, southeastern California, and western Arizona south to southern Baja California and west-central Sonora, Mexico; in Baja California, most of the distribution is away from the Pacific coast (Hollingsworth 1998, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
64054		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits rocky desert; lava flows, hillsides, and outcrops. Creosote bush occurs throughout most of the range (Stebbins 2003). Habitats encompass subtropical thornforest in the southern part of the range. Individuals seek shelter in rock crevices (or in burrows on islands in the Gulf of California; Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid underground.
64054		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of viable occurrences throughout the majority of the range in California, Arizona, and Sonora, Mexico. Abundance information is not available rangewide, but the total adult population size is probably more than 100,000. Coombs (1977) estimated a population size of 10,000-15,000 individuals in Washington County, Utah. The abundance in the remainder of the Utah range (Kane, Garfield, and San Juan counties) is likely to be less than in Washington County (G. Oliver pers. comm. 1998). Populations may vary with environmental conditions. According to Abts (1987), annual densities are variable with higher densities after relatively mild winters and the occurrence of summer rainfall. During a seven-year study in the Colorado Desert of southwestern California, densities ranged from 15 to 30 individuals per hectare (Abts 1987). Nevertheless, the area of occupancy and population size appear to be relatively stable over most of the range.
64054		threats	eng	Chuckwalla populations are locally threatened by excessive collecting and habitat degradation (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Collectors not only remove individuals from the habitat which may thus may reduce population viability but also often cause microhabitat destruction when tools are used to move or break rocks and exfoliations to expose the reptiles (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Some subpopulations have been hard hit by collectors. For example, the easily accessible South Mountain subpopulation, near Phoenix, Arizona, has a unique colour pattern and is highly desired by the pet trade; exploitation of this subpopulation and destruction of its habitat are on the rise (Gergus <em>et al</em>. 1998). Historical populations in the Glen Canyon area of Utah have been reduced or eliminated by the damming of the Colorado River. Habitat degradation due to grazing activities of goats, sheep, and burros is also a potential threat. Overall, however, the species appears to be moderately to not very threatened across most of its range. The species is regarded as not very threatened in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998).
64055		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field work is needed to assess the conservation status of this species.
64055		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in central Michoacan, Mexico. The elevation has not been recorded, but it is a highland species.
64055		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species. The species has been recorded in a highly disturbed area originally covered by oak forest. It is an oviparous species.
64055		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
64055		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known. It is known only from a very disturbed area of habitat. It is possible the disturbance and transformation of the original habitat could have affected populations in the past.
64056		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64056		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas south through New Mexico, Oklahoma, and northern and western Texas to southeastern Arizona in the United States, and northern Chihuahua and Coahuila, in Mexico (Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Dixon and Vaughan 2003).
64056		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include prairies and prairie canyons, rocky and sandy deserts, and pinyon-juniper and juniper-oak woodland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive, fossorial snake is usually in damp loose soil and sometimes can be found under rocks, logs, or debris. Eggs are laid in an underground chamber, in a hollow in decaying vegetation, or in a rocky fissure.
64056		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see spot maps in Hahn 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is fossorial, secretive, and not readily observed, but it is common in some areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64056		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64057		conservation	eng	Several occurrences are in protected areas, though this may not provide adequate protection from all threats, such as invasive species.
64057		distribution	eng	The species' range includes southern Oklahoma and Texas in the United States, northeastern Mexico, and possibly Queretaro and Hidalgo in central Mexico (Dixon and Vaughan 2003).
64057		habitat	eng	The species' habitat consists of arid and semi-arid areas with sandy or loamy soils, usually near moisture, including rocky and sandy desert, cedar-ocotillo associations, rock-strewn hillsides and mountain slopes, thornbrush, cedar savanna, live oak and juniper woodlands, mesquite-lined creek banks, open grassy plains, and sometimes residential areas (Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000). This secretive, fossorial snakes sometimes can be found under rocks, logs, or debris. Eggs are laid in an underground chamber, in a hollow in decaying vegetation, or in a rocky fissure.
64057		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped hundreds of collection sites in Texas. The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in Texas (Tennant 1998) and in Mexico. Sometimes several individuals can be found under a single rock or group of adjacent rocks. Its extent of occurrence and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable, but its area of occupancy and population size may have declined somewhat from the historical situation. Tennant (1998) reported that in Texas this snake, though still common, was formerly abundant but now is much less numerous.
64057		threats	eng	Tennant (1998) reported that the abundance of this snake in Texas has declined as a result of the invasion of fire ants.
64058		conservation	eng	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64058		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern California, southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah south through Arizona, southern New Mexico, and western Texas in the United States, to southern Baja California (including several adjacent islands) and Colima, Mexico, at elevations from below sea level in desert sinks to around 1,520 m asl (5,000 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
64058		habitat	eng	The species' habitats range from deserts and desert-grasslands to brush-covered mountain slopes, including rocky hillsides, canyon bottoms or washes near stream courses, riparian zones, areas near springs, sandy areas above ocean beaches, and sometimes gardens and farmland (Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). This secretive, fossorial snake sometimes can be found under rocks, wood, or debris, among plant roots, or in crevices, often in loose damp soil.
64058		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped about 50 collection sites in Texas. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 16 collection sites in New Mexico. This snake is "ubiquitous" in Baja California (Grismer 2002). The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and seldom seen by casual observers, but it is locally common in many areas (see Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64058		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64059		conservation	eng	It is present in the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.
64059		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico where it is found in the Rio Balsas basin, ranging from Guerrero to the east, to Estado de Mexico, Morelos and Puebla in the west. It has been recorded between 800 and 1,500 m asl.
64059		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that occurs in primary and secondary dry scrubland and tropical deciduous forest. It is present in agricultural areas such as cattle ranches and other disturbed sites; it can be found in areas of rubbish. It is not found in highly urbanised areas. It is an oviparous species.
64059		population	eng	It is a common species.
64059		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64060		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in a few protected areas within its range.
64060		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Veracruz north to central Tamaulipas, northeastern San Luis Potosi and eastern Nuevo Leon, in Mexico. Its elevational range is from approximately sea level up to 1,200 m asl.
64060		habitat	eng	It is a burrowing snake, living under rocks and logs, some of them are found in termite nests (eat termites). It also occurs in disturbed areas, and appears to be adaptable.
64060		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
64060		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
64061		conservation	eng	Its habitat is protected in several national parks and monuments and federal wilderness areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64061		distribution	eng	This lizard occurs widely in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It ranges from northwestern Nevada and extreme southwestern Utah south through southeastern California, Arizona, and extreme southwestern New Mexico to northern Mexico in Sonora, Sinaloa (south almost to Nayarit), and Baja California (south to the southern tip). It is also present on Islas Magdalena and Santa Margarita along the Pacific coast of Baja California and on several islands in Gulf of California (Angel de la Guarda, Carmen, Cerralvo, Coronados, Espititu Snato, Partida Sur, Patos, San Francisco, San Jose, San Luis, San Marcos, Santa Inez, Smith and Tiburon [Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003]). Its elevational range extends from sea level in desert sinks to about 1,520 m (5,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64061		habitat	eng	This lizard is usually found in sparsely vegetated desert areas on open sandy washes, dunes (e.g., Vizcaino Desert), floodplains, beaches, or desert pavement (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003); at higher elevations, it sometimes occurs on rocky, relatively shady, leaf-litter substrates (Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks. It is a substrate-dependent species.
64061		population	eng	It is an abundant species. This species is represented by a large number of viable occurrences that are well distributed throughout its range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds several hundred thousand. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and appear to be relatively stable.
64061		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, the species has been detrimentally affected by habitat destruction and degradation as a result of conversion of land to human uses (e.g., agriculture, residential and commercial development). There is a tiny pet trade, but generally it is a non-target species, and the trade does not constitute a threat to the species.
64062		conservation	eng	Habitat is protected in several national parks and monuments and federal wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64062		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from Arizona across most of southern New Mexico to northern Texas in the United States, and south to northern Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, and western Tamaulipas, Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from near sea level to about 2,100 m (6,890 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64062		habitat	eng	The habitat includes gravelly to rocky substrates in deserts with scattered to moderate vegetative cover (e.g., sparse cactus, mesquite, ocotillo, creosote bush, or paloverde), often along floodplains, arroyo edges, and similar topographic features (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid underground (Smith 1946).
64062		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences that are well distributed throughout the range. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped well over 100 collection sites in New Mexico, and Dixon (2000) mapped this species as occurring in more than 100 counties in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Densities of 10 to 107 individuals per hectare have been recorded in New Mexico and Texas (Howland 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species is common in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and appear to be relatively stable. The species is common in Mexico.
64062		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified in the US or Mexico. Habitat loss and degradation resulting from agricultural, residential, and commercial development likely have caused localized declines.
64063		conservation	eng	It is not clear whether or not it occurs in any protected areas; there are only a few within its range.
64063		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in northwestern Mexico, extending into southwestern United States. Its range includes south-central and southern Arizona and Sonora and Sinaloa (see Wilgenbusch and de Queiroz 2000 and Crother <em>et al</em>. 2003).
64063		habitat	eng	Habitats include desert (e.g., rocky foothills and slopes of Arizona upland desert between 300 and 1,200 m), thornscrub, and oak-grass habitats above 1,200 m (Lowe 1964). The species is often associated with slopes and hill country.
64063		population	eng	This species is reasonably common and represented by many subpopulations.
64063		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Its hilly habitat is generally safe from large-scale agriculture.
64064		conservation	eng	Populations of this lizard may occur at Dolan Falls (TNC), Seminole Canyon State Park, or Lake Amistad National Recreation Area (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997), but this needs to be confirmed. Overall, better information is needed regarding the biology and conservation status of this lizard.
64064		distribution	eng	This lizard occurs in central and southern Texas (different subspecies north and south of the Balcones Escarpment) and adjacent northern Mexico: Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas (Axtell 1968, Conant and Collins 1991, Dixon 2000).
64064		habitat	eng	Habitats include moderately open prairie-brushland regions, particularly fairly flat areas free of vegetation or other obstructions (e.g., open meadows, old and new fields, graded roadways, cleared and disturbed areas, prairie savanna); also, oak-juniper woodlands and mesquite-prickly pear associations (Axtell 1968, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In Mexico, the species is also known to occur in desert habitats. Eggs are laid underground.
64064		population	eng	Dixon (2000) indicated that this species has been found in at least 50 counties in Texas. However, the distribution appears to be discontinuous and localized (Axtell 1968). The total population size is unknown, but the species is not frequently observed and appears to be uncommon or rare (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This lizard has been declining in Texas since the early 1970s; all populations along the flatland, eastern coastal areas are extirpated; populations on the western periphery of the range and in southern Texas near the Rio Grande are declining; a few populations in this area still remain (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) noted that several recent searches in locations where this lizard had been found in the past failed to yield any additional observations. The population size and trends in Mexico are unknown.
64064		threats	eng	The greatest threats within the US are agricultural herbicides and insecticides; can survive ploughing (R. Axtel, pers. comm. 1997). Potential threats include loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation. Large amounts of habitat are being converted to agriculture, sown to alien grasses for improved grazing, or fragmented by road construction (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). The same threats apply within the Mexican part of the species' range. The fire ant <em>Solenopsys invicta</em> was introduced into Texas in the 1950s and its range has spread along the eastern coast of Texas; this is likely to constitute a threat to this species.
64065		conservation	eng	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64065		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern South Dakota to central Texas, southwest to southeastern Utah and Arizona, southward to Jalisco and Guanajuato, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from sea level to around 2,100 m (6,890 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64065		habitat	eng	Habitats include areas of sparse vegetation and sandy or gravelly soil: washes, streambanks, dunes, prairie, mesquite and pinyon-juniper woodland, sagebrush flats, farmland, and shrubby/grassy sandhills (Collins 1993, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). This species seeks refuge in rodent burrows or by wriggling into the soil. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64065		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites (e.g., Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The species is common (at least several adults per hectare) in many areas of Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and is common to abundant in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be relatively stable or perhaps slowly declining.
64065		threats	eng	Populations have been reduced or eliminated in some areas as a result of large-scale intensive cultivation. However, many viable populations remain, and the species currently faces no major threats. These lizards are attracted to disturbances (cattle grazing, fire) that create openings in otherwise thick vegetation (see Hammerson 1999).
64066		conservation	eng	This species occurs on most of the Lower Rio Grande National Wildlife Refuge, Padre Island National Seashore, Mustang Island State Park, Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, and Matagorda Island State Park (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997). In Mexico, it occurs in the Laguna Madre protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64066		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Texas south along northeastern coastal Mexico; inland in southern Texas, this lizard occurs northward to the southern edge of the Edwards Plateau (Axtell 1983). In Mexico, the species reaches as far south as the Tropic of Cancer (Tamaulipas), but does not range as far south as the State of Veracruz.
64066		habitat	eng	Habitats include coastal dunes, barrier islands, and other sandy areas (Axtell 1983). Although it occurs well inland in Texas, this species is most abundant on coastal dunes, were it seeks shelter in the burrows of small mammals or crabs (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64066		population	eng	The species is represented by more than 100 extant populations (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Dixon (2000) mapped the presence of this lizard in 28 counties in Texas. Axtell (1983) mapped 12 collection sites in Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. These lizards can be common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Probably the species declined somewhat during the historical period (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Populations in coastal regions and inland appear to be relatively stable (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Texas populations are doing well, particularly on coastal islands and dune fields; population status in Mexico is unknown, but the species occurs on barrier islands south of the Rio Grande in the state of Tamaulipas (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997). In Mexico, most of the current range area is uninhabited and protected; as such, the population is considered to be stable.
64066		threats	eng	No major threats are known to exist in the US (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Potential threats include modification and destruction of habitat for coastal development and conversion of habitat to sugar cane fields, but this is not the case in the Mexican part of the range. It is unclear how much of a threat is posed by development or conversion to sugar cane fields; these lizards have been observed utilizing areas immediately surrounding hotels, and the amount of area being converted for sugar cane is very limited. A great deal of pasture habitat is still available (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Threats may include the conversion of habitat for agriculture and alien grasslands, and habitat fragmentation due to road construction (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). A potential threat is off-road vehicles or heavy beach traffic (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997). In Mexico there are no major threats, as the range area is largely uninhabited and unsuitable for agriculture.
64067		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64067		distribution	eng	The range extends from San Gorgonio Pass, Riverside County, California, in the United States, south through the arid portions of the Peninsular Ranges to at least Bahia de los Angeles, Baja California, Mexico, including the upper elevations of the Sierra las Pintas and the isolated El Pedregoso in Valle de Gato, Baja California. There is an isolated population on El Muerto island in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range is from near sea level to around 1,200 m (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
64067		habitat	eng	This saxicolous lizard is most abundant among massive rocks (high rocky cliffs) in the shady, narrower parts of canyons, on the desert slope of mountains (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In Baja California, some populations extend into chaparral and pinyon-juniper woodlands on the west face of the Sierra San Pedro Martir (Grismer 2002).
64067		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Jennings (1990) mapped about 40 collection sites in Baja California and at least 25 in California. It is commonly seen in suitable habitat in Baja California. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is common or abundant in favorable habitat, such as cliffs and large rocks in canyon-bottom riparian zones (Grismer 2002). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy and population size are relatively large and appear to be stable.
64067		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified to this species.
64068		conservation	eng	It is present in the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve (Galina-Tessaro <em>et al</em>. 2003), and occurs in several other protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64068		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Baja Peninsula in Mexico. It ranges from 17 km north of Santa Catarina in central Baja California, south along the eastern part of the peninsula bordering the El Vizcaíno desert to Arroyo Seco, and from here to north of La Paz. It might occur further north, as far as Mesa San Carlos, but there are currently no specimens to document this.
64068		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from several saxicolous microhabitats, but they seem to prefer rocky canyons, areas of granitic boulders, rock outcroppings, escarpments of lava plateaus, and may be found on sheer cliffsides in steep canyons and on the walls of stone houses (missions).
64068		population	eng	It is commonly seen in suitable habitat.
64068		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64069		conservation	eng	The species is present within the Islas del Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve. Further field studies are needed to gather additional information on the ecology and habitat requirements of this species, and to better evaluate the conservation status of this species.
64069		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the islands of Angel de la Guarda and Mejía, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64069		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species, with animals found in rocky areas and on cliffs. It is possible that the species can persist in areas of habitat disturbance.
64069		population	eng	It is a common species, and its population is suspected to be stable within its limited range.
64069		threats	eng	Although it is only known from a small area, there appear to be no immediate threats to the species.
64070		conservation	eng	It is present in the Islas del Golfo de California Flora and Fauna Protection Area, on the Isla Espiritu Santo Reserve, and may also occur in a number of additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species, and the possible threat to populations from illegal collection of animals.
64070		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the islands of Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur in the Gulf of California, and from the Cape Region of the Baja California peninsula.
64070		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with rocky areas, but animals can sometimes also be found in upland wooded areas in the Sierra La Laguna.
64070		population	eng	It is an abundant species that is commonly seen in its preferred habitat.
64070		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Animals are occasionally illegally collected for the pet trade (Mellink 1995), but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.
64071		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the biology and ecology of this species.
64071		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it occurs in the States of Puebla, Oaxaca and Morelos. It has been taken from close to the border with Veracruz, and may be present in this State. It is found at elevations of about 800 to 1,800 m asl.
64071		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary tropical deciduous forest, scrubland and primary oak forest. It can be found in traditional agricultural areas, such as corn fields. It is a viviparous species.
64071		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64071		threats	eng	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this species. Some populations are impacted by roads and others are overcollected for the pet trade.
64072		conservation	eng	Extant populations exist in a fairly large number of areas with adequate protection.
64072		distribution	eng	The range extends from extreme southwestern Missouri and central Kansas to southeastern Colorado, and south and west throughout most of Oklahoma and Texas (including coastal barrier islands), eastern and southern New Mexico, and southeastern Arizona to northeastern Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango east of Sierra Madre Occidental, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, and Zacatecas (Price 1990). Native eastern limit is uncertain; records for Missouri and Arkansas have been questioned (now extirpated from Arkansas; Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), and possibly the species is not native to Louisiana (Price 1990). This species has been introduced and is established in several areas in the southeastern United States, including North Carolina), Florida (Jensen 1994), and elsewhere (see Price 1990 for references).
64072		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits open arid and semi-arid regions with sparse vegetation (deserts, prairies, playa edges, bajadas, dunes, foothills) with grass, cactus, or scattered brush or scrubby trees (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). Soil may vary in texture from sandy to rocky. When inactive, individuals burrow into the soil, enter rodent burrows, or hide under rocks. Sheffield and Carter (1994) reported individuals that climbed one to two m up tree trunks when soils were wet after heavy rains. Eggs are laid in nests dug in soil or under rocks (Collins 1982).
64072		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites throughout the historical range in the United States and by well over 100 sites in Mexico (Price 1990). Many historically occupied sites still support populations (e.g., Hammerson 1999).  Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This species can be locally abundant in undeveloped areas with appropriate habitat (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hammerson 1999). This species apparently has declined in area of occupancy and population size near the northeastern margins of the range in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, but it is doing well in most the range. According to Price (1990), the Texas Horned Lizard has virtually disappeared from Texas east of a line from Fort Worth through Austin and San Antonio to Corpus Cristi (formerly widespread and abundant in that area); it has also declined in range and/or abundance in areas where it was formerly common in parts of north-central Texas, the Texas Panhandle, and parts of Oklahoma. Price's conclusions are supported by more recent surveys in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. A 1992 Texas survey found the greatest declines in east Texas (where no individuals were found) and apparent declines also in central Texas; the species appeared to be doing well in northern and western Texas (Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994). Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) stated that the decline may have halted in at least some parts of Texas; they found numerous individuals in areas where searches in several previous years yielded few. A 1999 survey in Texas was unable to determine if the decline has halted or if it continues today (Henke 2003). A 1992 Oklahoma survey found the species to be rapidly disappearing in eastern areas of Oklahoma where it was once known to be abundant (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993). A 1993 survey of the northern Flint Hills of Kansas suggested that populations were possibly declining (Busby and Parmalee 1996), and local collectors reported declines in the southeastern portions of Kansas (Bill Busby pers. comm. 1998). In Colorado no trend information is available, but recent surveys indicate that the species appears to be locally common and stable (Siemers pers. comm. 1998, Hammerson 1999). According to Rosen (<em>Herp Diversity Review</em> 1996), populations are thriving and plentiful in extreme southeastern Arizona. New Mexico densities have not changed historically, and populations are considered stable (C. Painter pers. comm. 1998). Status is unknown in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lizarraga pers. comm. 1998). It is considered to be a very common species in Mexico.
64072		threats	eng	Within the US, declines may be related to the spread of fire ants, use of insecticides to control fire ants, heavy agricultural use of land and/or other habitat alterations, and overcollecting for the pet and curio trade (Price 1990, Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993, Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994). This species is extremely vulnerable to changes in habitat, especially the loss of harvester ants (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993). Harvester ants comprise up to 69% of the diet (Pianka and Parker 1975), and fire ants are thought to out-compete native harvester ants for food and space (Henke and Fair 1998). This threat may be significant in parts of Texas but probably not elsewhere. Intensive agriculture (plowing) could destroy adults and their eggs (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993, Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994) but, according to Henke and Fair (1998), reports of declines due to loss of habitat caused by urbanization, suburban sprawl, and conversion of native rangeland to agricultural crops are mostly unsubstantiated (Henke and Fair 1998). The widespread use of broadcast insecticides is also thought to contribute to declines. Insecticides can be detrimental by directly causing illness or death or indirectly by severely reducing or eliminating harvester ants (Henke and Fair 1998). In the past, this lizard was collected for the pet trade, by boy scout troops for trading at jamborees, for the curio trade, and by tourists (Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Henke and Fair 1998). Mortality from road traffic is an important local threat in some areas. Males are particularly vulnerable during May-June in Arizona-New Mexico (Sherbrooke 2002). A high level of road mortality may lead to significant local declines. <br/> <br/>There appear to be no threats to this species in Mexico.
64073		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research employing genetic methods is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the named subspecies. Then further consideration should be given to the conservation status of the identified valid taxa. The impact of collecting for the pet trade needs to be assessed.
64073		distribution	eng	This lizard ranges throughout most of west-central and southwestern California (United States) as well as most of Baja California (Mexico) (except the northeastern portion). In California, it ranges north to Shasta County, though a disjunct population occurs farther north at Grasshopper Flat, Siskiyou County, California (Jennings 1988, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from near sea level to around 2,438 m (8,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Attempted introductions at Yosemite Valley and San Clemente Island (California), and in Hawaii, Colombia, and Guatemala have failed (Jennings 1988).
64073		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs in a variety of habitats, including scrubland, grassland, coniferous woods, and broadleaf woodlands. Typically it is found in areas with sandy soil, scattered shrubs, and ant colonies, such as along the edges of arroyo bottoms or dirt roads (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In southern California, <em>P. coronatum</em> was most common in areas with native ants and few or no Argentine ants, in areas with native chaparral vegetation, and in sites with porous soils relatively free of organic debris (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2002). Individuals bury themselves in loose soil. Eggs are laid in a nest dug in the soil or in a burrow.
64073		population	eng	This species is known from hundreds of collection sites in California and well over 100 in Baja California (Jennings 1988), but many of these sites no longer support substantial populations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and may exceed 100,000. The species is common in parts of Baja California (Grismer 2002). The area of occupancy and population size appear to have declined significantly in California but much less so in Baja California. Its area of occupancy and population size are probably still declining, but the rate of decline is unknown (probably it is substantially less than 30% over the past three generations).
64073		threats	eng	The Coast Horned Lizard is now absent from much of its former southern Californian range due to urbanization, agricultural development, and over-collecting (Jennings 1987, 1988). In some areas, the non-native Argentine ant is displacing native ant species upon which this lizard feeds (Stebbins 2003). In Baja California, the expansion of intensive agriculture is also a threat, in particular in the Vizcaíno Desert, the Magdalena Plain, and the Isthmus of La Paz.
64074		conservation	eng	Further studies are necesary to evaluate the status of this species in the wild. It is not known from any protected areas.
64074		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species is known only from four locations in eastern Sonora, Mexico. Its distribution is probably very imperfectly known, and the distribution map is based on the assumption that it occurs between the known localities. The known localities are: the Sierra Manzanal (type locality); the Sierra Baviacora; in the drainage of the Rio Yaqui; and at El Chorro (8 km northeast of Nacori Chico in the Sierra Occidental). The first two named localities in the drainage of the Rio Sonora. Its elevational range is 1,050 to 1,425 m asl.
64074		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rocky habitats in evergreen oak and pine-oak woodland, short-tree Sinaloan decidous forest and thorn shrubland. However, its ecological requirements are very poorly known.
64074		population	eng	It is generally a localised species, but it is relatively common in a couple of locations.
64074		threats	eng	There is very little information, but the foothill areas that it inhabits are relatively secure from habitat loss. Subsistence wood cutting is taking place, but its impact is not known. Introduced fire ants would be a potential threat, but this is speculative at present.
64075		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
64075		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwestern United States, and formerly in southwestern Canada. It ranges from southern British Columbia (where it is apparently extirpated; Powell and Russell 1998) south to northeastern California, northern Nevada, and southern Idaho (Zamudio <em>et al</em>. 1997, Stebbins 2003); eastern and southern range limits have not been precisely determined; there is an old record from extreme southwestern Montana, where current status is unknown (St. John 2002, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its elevational range extends from around 300 to 1,830 m (1,000 to 6,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64075		habitat	eng	This lizard ranges from semi-arid plains to high mountains: sagebrush, bunchgrass, pinyon-juniper woodland, openly spaced pines (Stebbins 2003). Usually it occurs in open, shrubby, or openly wooded areas with sparse vegetation at ground level. Soil may vary from rocky to sandy. When not active on the surface, the lizards burrow into the soil or occupy rodent burrows.
64075		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences scattered throughout its historical range. The number of occurrences with good viability is unknown, but probably there are many. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be relatively stable.
64075		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64076		conservation	eng	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64076		distribution	eng	The range extends from southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan south through eastern Montana, the western Dakotas, Wyoming, western Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, eastern Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, and mountains of western Texas to southern Durango (Zamudio <em>et al</em>. 1997, Stebbins 2003); the range limit in the vicinity of Idaho, western Wyoming, northern Utah, and northern Nevada has not been precisely determined. Elevational range extends from 170 to around 3,440 m (900 to 11,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64076		habitat	eng	Habitats of this lizard range from semi-arid plains to high mountains; usually the species is in open, shrubby, or openly wooded areas with sparse vegetation at ground level; soil may vary from rocky to sandy (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). When not active on the surface, the lizards burrow into the soil or occupy rodent burrows.
64076		population	eng	This species is represented by very many occurrences that are well distributed throughout the wide range (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), but it can be fairly difficult to find in areas where it has been previously observed, even when habitat conditions appear to be stable (Hammerson 1999).
64076		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation (e.g., urbanization and intensive cultivation, conversion of native shrubland to dense grass) have caused local declines, but the species appears to face no major threats over most of the vast range.
64077		conservation	eng	In June of 1997, seven Federal and State agencies signed a Conservation Agreement (CA) to implement a Flat-tailed Horned Lizard Rangewide Management Strategy (Management Strategy). The purpose of the Management Strategy is to provide a framework for conserving sufficient habitat to maintain several viable populations of the species throughout the range in the United States. As part of the CA, agencies delineated specific areas under their jurisdiction as Management Areas (MAs). Approximately 181,100 ha of the remaining Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat managed by signatories of the CA exists within five MAs, which occur in the Borrego Badlands, West Mesa, Yuha Desert, East Mesa, and the Yuma Desert. These managed areas are believed to represent approximately 35% of Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat remaining in the United States. The five MAs were designed to identify large areas of public land where Flat-tailed Horned Lizards have been found, as well as to include most Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat identified as key areas in previous studies (Turner <em>et al</em>. 1980, Turner and Medica 1982, Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987, Foreman 1997). The MAs were delineated to include areas as large as possible, while avoiding extensive, existing and predicted management conflicts (e.g., OHV open areas). The MAs are meant to be the core areas for maintaining self-sustaining populations of Flat-tailed Horned Lizards in the US (FTHL-ICC 2002). This lizard commonly occurs in additional areas outside of the MAs. These areas include the Ocotillo Wells State Vehicle Recreation Area (Ocotillo Wells SVRA), Coachella Valley, the areas adjoining the Algodones Dunes, and east of the Algodones Dunes between Ogilby and the Mexican border (Norris 1949, Turner <em>et al</em>. 1980, Turner and Medica 1982). The Ocotillo Wells SVRA is currently a Research Area under the Management Strategy, and studies on the flat-tailed horned lizard have been encouraged and funded by the California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR) Division of Off-Highway Motor Vehicle Recreation (Foreman 1997). The majority of the potential habitat is within and adjacent to the Algodones Dunes is within the Imperial Sand Dunes Recreation Area. Over 47,754 ha of the Imperial Sand Dunes Recreation Area is used as an OHV open area. The majority of the Algodones Dunes north of Highway 78 is a designated wilderness area [from USFWS 2003]. Of the remaining habitat in the Coachella Valley, only about 2,150 ha of suitable Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat is estimated to be protected as part of the Coachella Valley Fringe-Toed Lizard Preserve System (Coachella Valley Mountains Conservancy 2001). Approximately 75% of the horned lizard habitat in the Coachella Valley is either private or Tribal land and subject to development in the near future [from USFWS 2003]. The majority (about 60 percent) of the range in Mexico lies within two federally protected areas: (1) The Upper Gulf of California and Colorado Delta Biosphere Reserve, and (2) the Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve (CEDO 2001). The National Park of Pinacate is an area administered by the Mexican government with use restrictions similar to those in a national park in the United States. The Upper Gulf of California Biosphere Reserve includes Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat in the vicinity of the Colorado River Delta in Sonora, Mexico [from USFWS 2003]. Grismer (2002) stated that "it is conceivable that the remote, undeveloped areas of northeastern Baja California and northwestern Sonora may become strongholds for this species".
64077		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a limited area in extreme southwestern United States, and extreme northwestern Mexico. The range includes southeastern California, extreme northeastern Baja California (Grismer 2002), northwestern Sonora, and southwestern Arizona (Funk 1981, Stebbins 2003). In California, the species ranges southward from the Coachella Valley, including both sides of the Salton Sea and Imperial Valley, and westward into the Borrego Valley, Ocotillo Wells area, West Mesa, and Yuha Desert (Yuha Basin), and, on the east side of the Imperial Valley, to the vicinity of the Dos Palmas Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC), but predominantly it occurs in East Mesa and in areas adjoining the Algodones Dunes (i.e., Imperial Sand Dunes, Glamis Sand Dunes) on the east side of the Imperial Valley. In southwestern Arizona, it occurs south of the Gila River and west of the Gila and Tinajas Altas Mountains in Yuma County (Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987). The range extends into Mexico from the international border in the Yuha Desert in California, south to Laguna Salada in Baja California, and from the international border in the Yuma Desert in Arizona, south and east through the Pinacate Region to the sandy plains around Puerto Penasco and Bahia de San Jorge, Sonora (Johnson and Spicer 1985, Gonzales-Romero and Alvarez-Cardenas 1989; these were cited, without full literature citations, by USFWS 2003). The distribution of the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard is not contiguous across its range; it is fragmented by large-scale agricultural and urban development, primarily in the Imperial Valley and the Coachella Valley. In addition, the Salton Sea, Colorado River, East Highline Canal, New Coachella Canal, and All American Canal are barriers to movement. Due to this habitat fragmentation and existing geographic barriers, the United States distribution appears to be currently divided on a broad scale into at least four geographically discrete subpopulations: three in California and one in Arizona. The three subpopulations in California are located in the Coachella Valley, the west side of the Salton Sea/Imperial Valley, and the east side of the Imperial Valley [from USFWS 2003]. The Flat-tailed Horned Lizard has been recorded at elevations as high as 520 m (1,706 feet) above sea level, but is more commonly found below 250 m (820 feet) in areas with flat-to-modest slopes (Turner <em>et al</em>. 1980). See Turner and Medica (1982) for the results of surveys done in southeastern California in 1978-1980; the area north of Highway 78 in the vicinity of Ocotillo Wells and Benson Dry Lake (= Ocotillo Dry Lake), eastern San Diego County, was identified as a particularly favorable area; other areas of relatively high abundance were in Imperial County--southern East Mesa, southeastern Yuha Desert, and the Superstition Mountain area. In Arizona, an area southeast of Yuma registered a relatively high abundance index (Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987). Its area of occupancy is very small within the extent of occurrence because of its dependence on wind-blown sand.
64077		habitat	eng	Typical habitat consists of sandy desert flatlands with sparse vegetation and low plant species diversity; occasionally the species occurs on low hills, mud hills, alkali flats, or areas covered with small pebbles or desert pavement; it is most abundant where surface soils contain some loose or windblown sand but rarely occurs on dunes (see USFWS 1993, Beauchamp <em>et al</em>. 1998). Vegetation in favourable habitat may include creosote bush, bur-sage, indigo bush, saltbush, and ocotillo (Turner and Medica 1982); also salt-cedar (Grismer 2002). In Arizona, it is most abundant in areas with galleta grass, sandy soil, and many active black harvester ant nests (Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987). In southeastern California, abundance is positively correlated with density of perennial plants, and there is a strong positive association between lizard and ant densities (Turner and Medica 1982). This is a cryptic lizard that generally occurs on the ground; often it is immobile and difficult to detect until it moves. Sometimes it perches on rocks or wood (Grismer 2002). Periods of inactivity may be spent burrowed in loose sand. When approached, it may attempt escape into a burrow or under a shrub (Wone and Beauchamp 1995, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 26: 132). Hibernation burrows appear to be self-constructed (constructed by the lizards themselves versus using burrows constructed by other animals) and are within 10 cm of the surface (Muth and Fisher 1992). Mayhew (1965) found that the majority of lizards hibernated within five cm of the surface. The greatest depth recorded was 20 cm below the surface.
64077		population	eng	The number of distinct occurrences has not been established using consistent criteria; probably there are more than 20 and perhaps fewer than 80 (e.g., see Funk 1981). Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped a few dozen extant populations in southern California, plus about 20 extirpated ones. The number of occurrences with good viability is unknown but probably does not exceed a few dozen. The BLM recently estimated the population size on the Yuha Basin Management Area (MA) (one of five management areas identified in a management strategy for the species) by using capture-mark-recapture (CMR) techniques incorporating detection probabilities (see Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the summer (June to August) of 2002, the population of Flat-tailed Horned Lizards for the Yuha Basin MA (24,122 ha) was estimated at 18,494 adults (95% confidence interval = 14,596 to 22,391) and 8,685 juveniles (95% confidence interval = 6,860 to 10,510). ''Adults'' included all lizards greater than 60 mm (Young and Young 2000), while ''juveniles'' included all lizards 60 mm or less in snout-to-vent length. Population estimates for the other four MAs using a CMR methodology will be conducted soon, for the first time (G. Wright, BLM biologist, pers. comm. 2002). [from USFWS 2003]. Based on this information, it seems likely that the total adult population size exceeds 100,000. Hodges (1997) estimated that the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard historically (prior to agricultural or urban development of either the Coachella or Imperial Valleys) occupied up to 979,037 ha in Arizona and California. Approximately 51% (503,173 ha) of this historical habitat remains in the United States, with about 56,770 ha in Arizona and 446,390 ha in California (Hodges 1997). The Salton Sea area could arguably be considered ephemeral historical habitat, present at some points and absent at others, as the area changed through time. Hodges (1977) included the Salton Sea as historical habitat. If the area the Salton Sea currently occupies is not considered historical habitat, then approximately 57% (557,072 ha) of historical habitat remains in the United States. [from USFWS 2003]. Johnson and Spicer (1985) estimated that in 1981 approximately 59% of the species range occurred in Mexico, with the majority of the range in Mexico occurring in the state of Sonora. However, the distribution of the species in Mexico is poorly understood because few surveys have been conducted to determine where the species occurs in Mexico. In 1981 in Sonora, about 14% of the habitat was estimated to be threatened by urban, agricultural or recreational use, and habitat degradation (Johnson and Spicer 1985). In Baja California, considerable habitat loss has occurred in the Mexicali Valley, where urban and agricultural development extends from Mexicali to the Colorado River (Johnson and Spicer 1985, Foreman 1997) [from USFWS 2003]. Overall, extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have been relatively stable to slightly declining in recent years.
64077		threats	eng	Based on information obtained since the withdrawal of the proposed listing rule in 1997 and information documented in the proposed rule, USFWS (2003) identified potential threats to the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard, including the following: urban development, agricultural development, OHV activity, energy development, military activities, introduction of non-native plants, pesticide use, and habitat degradation due to Border Patrol and illegal drive-through traffic along the United States-Mexico border. These threats and their effects on flat-tailed horned lizards and their habitat are discussed in further detail in USFWS (2003). After considering all the current available information, USFWS (2003) determined that the threats identified under Factor A (habitat loss/change) were not significant enough to conclude that the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard is likely to become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range in the foreseeable future. However, the Coachella Valley has experienced a significant amount of habitat curtailment and there is the potential for significant habitat destruction in the immediate future, because of the predominant private ownership of habitat and the rate of development in the Coachella Valley. Currently available information does not suggest that development of private lands on the west side of Salton Sea/Imperial Valley poses a threat in the foreseeable future. The only towns in this geographic area are Borrego Springs, Ocotillo, Ocotillo Wells, and Salton City. The largest of these towns is Borrego Springs with a population of approximately 3,000 people. It is likely that the size of these towns will not change significantly in the foreseeable future (USFWS 2003). Therefore, USFWS (2003) concluded that the threat of development of private lands in areas other than the Coachella Valley is not significant enough to endanger the species within the foreseeable future throughout a significant portion of its range. The available data do not suggest that habitat modification by OHV use threatens the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard on the west side of the Salton Sea/Imperial Valley and east side of the Imperial Valley (USFWS 2003). USFWS (2003) also concluded that the Arizona population is not likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future. The low percentage of lands in private ownership makes for a low degree of threat from development. Further, OHV use has not been shown to be a threat to populations there, and this geographic area experiences a relatively low level of OHV activity. Collection, predation, and disease are not believed to be significant threats (USFWS 2003). In Mexico, off-road driving by tourists over dunes is a major threat to its habitat. The species is also persecuted, and is harvested for the pet trade in Mexico.
64078		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64078		distribution	eng	The range extends from southeastern Arizona, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), southeastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999, Rondeau 2002), and northern Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000) south to San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from 210 to 2,200 m (700-7,220 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64078		habitat	eng	This lizard occupies various desert grassland and desert shrubland habitats, generally areas of sparse scrub vegetation and gravelly to rocky soils, such as bajada slopes, edges of washes, desert flats, arid and semi-arid hills (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003). It is also found in oak habitats in parts of its range. When not active or resting on the ground surface, it burrows into the soil or occupies rodent burrows. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64078		population	eng	Very abundant. This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Whiting and Dixon 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species is "not uncommon" in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are probably relatively stable or very slowly declining.
64078		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, populations have been reduced or eliminated as a result of urbanization or agricultural development.
64079		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is present in several (five or six) protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
64079		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Mexico. It ranges from the south of Chihuahua and Sinaloa, along Durango, Coahuila, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, central Mexico, to Queretero, Hidalgo, Guanajuato, Edo de Mexico, Mexico DF, Morelos, and from here to east Veracruz, Puebla,Tlaxcala and western Guerrero (Horowitz 1955, Anderson and Lidicke, 1963, Wilson and McCranie 1979, Rodríguez and Vázque 1996,Vázquez and Quintero 1997, De la Riva <em>et al</em>. 2000, McCranie and Wilson 2001, Vázquez and Quintero 2005). It occurs at elevation of 1,000 to 2,500 m asl.
64079		habitat	eng	This species is present in a wide variety of primary and secondary habitats. It has been recorded from dry scrubland, pine-oak forest, oak forest, juniper forest, and has been reported from agricultural land (plantations and crops) and agave and <em>Opuntia</em> fields.
64079		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.
64079		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to the species, some populations are impacted by habitat fragmentation (largely deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use, and burning of in some places for livestock; overcollection of animals for the local pet trade (commonly offered for sale in cities); and predation by domestic animals.
64080		conservation	eng	Populations exist in several national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.
64080		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the west of the United States, extending into northwestern Mexico. The range extends from southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, and northern Utah south through eastern and southern California, Nevada, and western Arizona to northeastern Baja California and northwestern Sonora (Pianka 1991, Grismer 2002, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). Old records for northeastern Utah need verification (St. John 2002). Its elevational range extends from below sea level (desert sinks) to about 1,980 m (Stebbins 2003).
64080		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits deserts dominated by sagebrush, creosote bush, greasewood, or cactus, on sandy flats, alluvial fans, washes, or at the edge of dunes (Grismer 2002, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). Periods of inactivity are spent burrowed in the soil.
64080		population	eng	It is very common for a horned lizard. This species is represented by a large number of collection sites (Pianka 1991). Populations are probably extant in most of these locations. The total adult population size is unknown but is certainly very large. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
64080		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, populations have been reduced or eliminated as a result of urbanization, agricultural development, and off-road vehicle use.
64081		conservation	eng	This species exists in several national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.
64081		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico, extending into southwestern United States. The range encompasses central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico (Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo County; Painter 1993, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 24: 155), Sonora, portions of southwestern Chihuahua, and northern Sinaloa. It is also present on Isla Tiburon in the Gulf of California (Parker 1974, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Stebbins (2003) mapped the range as extending through southern Sinaloa to at least Nayarit, but this appears to be an error. Elevational range extends from sea level to about 1,460 m (4,800 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64081		habitat	eng	This lizard occupies generally level or gently sloping terrain with openly spaced desert vegetation (e.g., creosote bush, mesquite, saguaro), including rocky and gravelly habitats of arid and semi-arid plains, hills, canyons, and lower slopes of mountains (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Three females lay eggs in 35 cm deep holes dug in fine soil within 1 m of shrubs (Van Devender and Howard 1973). It occurs in some desert corridors that penetrate deeply into the mountains. It is also present in mesquite grassland and oak woodland in a few places.
64081		population	eng	This species is represented by well over 100 collection sites that represented at least several dozen distinct occurrences (e.g., see Parker 1974). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence appears to be stable, and area of occupancy and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
64081		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations probably have been reduced or eliminated as a result of urbanization, agricultural development, and other human activities, but the species is unthreatened in most of the range.
64082		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Populations are present within the protected areas of Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve and Sierra de Huautla in Morelos State. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
64082		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the arid highlands of southern Mexico (States of Guerrero, Puebla and Oaxaca), where it ranges from the upper Balsas Basin crossing over continental divide into the Valley of Tehuacan. It is generally found below 1,500 m asl but has occasionally been reported up to 1,700 m asl (Zamudio and Parra-Olea 2000).
64082		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of high desert, arid scrub and tropical dry forest. It can persist in traditional pastures. It is a viviparous species.
64082		population	eng	It is considered to be a moderately abundant species.
64082		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some animals are collected for use in traditional medicines, the impact of this use needs additional research.
64083		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Omiltemi Protected State Park. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64083		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the Sierra Madre del Sur in central Guerrero State, Mexico. Populations are present between 1,500 and 3,000 m asl.
64083		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species associated with limestone outcrops in pine-oak and fir scrub forest as well as in traditional corn fields with rocky areas. Animals can be found on rocks, tree limbs and fallen trunks, in pine forests.
64083		population	eng	There is very little information about the abundance of this species.
64083		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, indeed, it is possible that deforestation could provide a more favourable habitat for the species.
64084		conservation	eng	It is present in at least five protected areas. No specific conservation measures are needed for this species.
64084		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from western Puebla, to western Michoacan and Jalisco (north of the Mexican Plateau), to northern Guanajuato, Queretaro and Hidalgo. It is found from 1,850 to 3,600 m asl.
64084		habitat	eng	The species inhabits in a great variety of habitats and microhabitats such as pine forest, bunchgrass, rocky areas and rock crevices. It is present in modified habitats including agricultural land. It is a viviparous species.
64084		population	eng	It is a common species.
64084		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64085		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least two or three protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species because of previous confusion with other taxa.
64085		distribution	eng	This species is found in the higher parts of the mountains bordering the south of the Mexican Valley in Distrito Federal and State of Mexico, Mexico. The species may occur more widely than is currently known. It is found from around 2,500 to at least 3,400 m asl
64085		habitat	eng	The species is mainly saxicolous, it is commonly found in rock crevices in pine-forest. It can occur in secondary forest and disturbed areas. It is a viviparous species.
64085		population	eng	It is a common species.
64085		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64086		conservation	eng	Both islands inhabited by this species are part of the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Grismer (2002) recommends that this species needs further field studies (especially with regards to the natural history and ecology) as it is very poorly known.
64086		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of San Diego and Santa Cruz in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64086		habitat	eng	This species seems to be ubiquitous in both islands exploiting a great variety of habitats such as rocky areas, caves along beaches, areas of beach cobble stones, sandy substrate, with animals also seen on the branches of small bushes and the limbs of cardones (cacti).
64086		population	eng	This lizard is abundant throughout its limited range.
64086		threats	eng	This species is not believed to be facing any major threats.
64087		conservation	eng	In New Mexico, large populations occur on lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and important populations occur in New Mexico on state and private lands as well (Painter 2004). See Painter (2004) for management recommendations. Elimination or reduction of shinnery oak removal is an important conservation need.
64087		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area in the southern United States. It occurs in localized populations chiefly on the Mescalero Sands in southeastern New Mexico and Monahan Sandhills in adjacent Texas (Andrews, Crane, Gaines, Ward, and Winkler counties) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Dixon 2000, Painter 2004). The elevational range extends from around 780 to 1,400 m (2,550 to 4,595 feet) (Painter 2004). The extent of occurrence is 2,312 sq. km in New Mexico, plus a smaller area in Texas. In New Mexico, potential and occupied habitat consists of 1,697 sq. km (655 sq. miles). The area of occupancy in Texas is much smaller than in New Mexico.
64087		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs in the vicinity of active and semi-stabilized sand dunes; vegetation consists of scattered stands of <em>Quercus havardii</em> and <em>Artemisia filifolia</em>; it tends to occur in greatest abundance in areas where the lizard <em>Uta stansburiana</em> is scarce; it seeks shelter in burrows, under leaf litter, or by burrowing into loose sand (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003). The lizard is absent where blow-outs, topographic relief, or shin-oak are lacking
64087		population	eng	Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped a dense array of 46 collection sites in New Mexico. Dixon (2000) stated that this lizard occurs in four counties in Texas. Painter (2004) showed the expected distribution in New Mexico as consisting of one large area and three disjunct smaller ones; each area includes a few to many sites where the species occurs. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (based on at least 1,500 sq. kilometres of occupied habitat and a very conservative estimation of at least one adult per hectare). This species is fairly common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This species is fairly common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Habitat alteration has caused the decrease or extirpation of some populations, but the level of decline is not precisely known (Painter 2004).
64087		threats	eng	Large-scale habitat destruction is the major threat to the continued existence of <em>S. arenicolus</em> in southeastern New Mexico (Painter 2004). Widespread use of herbicide for shinnery oak control and activities associated with oil/gas extraction have the greatest potential to cause significant Sand Dune Lizard population extinction or reduction (Peterson and Boyd 1998, Painter 2004). The short-term effect of these activities is lizard population decline resulting from development of a grassland habitat that is unsuitable for the lizard (unless this new habitat retains large blowouts, in which case it is capable of supporting very small populations of <em>Sceloporus arenicolus</em> for at least ten years after treatment;  e.g., see Snell <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gorum et. al., 1995). The long-term effect of these habitat modifications is unknown, but increased habitat fragmentation results in increased probability of extinction of individual populations (Painter 2004). In the mid-1990s, the BLM Roswell Resource Area placed a moratorium on chemical treatment of shinnery oak - sand dune habitat. However, the long-term future of this moratorium is uncertain. Other activities with the potential for habitat destruction (i.e., ORV use, livestock grazing, and fire) have been little studied or are considered of lesser importance (Painter 2004).
64088		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from three protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, biology and threats to this species.
64088		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to mountainous region of western Mexico from Nayarit to Guerrero; Uruapan; Michoacan; Cumbers de los Arrastrados in Jalisco and Chilapa in Guerrero. It ranges from 335 to 1,630 m asl.
64088		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in primary pine and fir forests. It might be a viviparous, however this needs to be confirmed.
64088		population	eng	It is difficult to find and the population abundance is not well known, it may be common or uncommon.
64088		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural used including crops and cattle ranches. This species has been collected for the pet trade although current collection levels might not be a significant threat.
64089		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Pico de Orizaba Parque Nacional. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
64089		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges eastwards from the eastern perimeter of the valley of Mexico to the Sierra Madre Oriental in the State of Veracruz. It ranges between 2,900 and 4,400 m asl.
64089		habitat	eng	This species is associated with macoyos grassland habitats (bunched-grass) within open pine forests. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat, but it is absent from heavily disturbed areas. It is a viviparous species.
64089		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its restricted range.
64089		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64090		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.
64090		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico from southern Sinaloa through southwestern Durango. A disjunct population occurs in northwestern Jalisco, Mexico. The species is not present on the east-facing slopes of the Sierra Madre (Webb 1967). It has been reported from approximately 426 (Jalisco) to 2,133 m asl (Webb 1967).
64090		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rugged mountainous areas, where it can be found in mixed boreal-tropical forest and tropical deciduous forests (Webb, 1967). Animals may be encountered on large boulders, steep-sided rock walls, logs and upright deciduous or pine trees (Webb, 1967). It is probably aviviparous species, although this needs to be confirmed.
64090		population	eng	It is common within its habitat.
64090		threats	eng	There are no major threats. There is incidental habitat loss at a local level only, since it inhabits places that are not suitable for intensive human activities.
64091		conservation	eng	Populations of this species are present in the Cañon del Sumidero National Park and La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.
64091		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Grijalva Valley of Chiapas State, Mexico, and adjacent parts of Guatemala. It has been recorded at between 500 and 1000 m asl.
64091		habitat	eng	Animals can be found on boulders and low trees within dry forest and pine-scrub habitats. The species has been recorded from disturbed areas.
64091		population	eng	This is a common species, and has been recently observed.
64091		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64092		conservation	eng	It may occur in Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterray, although this needs to be confirmed. Further research into the distribution, ecology and life history of this species is needed.
64092		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from western Zacatecas, southwards to Coahuila and northwestern San Luis Potosi. It is present between around 1,500 and 1,900 m asl.
64092		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary tropical xerophytic shrubland. It does not occur in agricultural areas. It is an oviparous species.
64092		population	eng	It is a common species.
64092		threats	eng	The arid habitat of this species is threatened by transformation, in recent decades, to open agricultural areas.
64093		conservation	eng	There is work underway to designate a protected areas in the region of the Sierra Peña Nevada where this species occurs. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.
64093		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges in the Sierra Peña Nevada in southern Nuevo Leon and Sierra La Gloria, in southwestern Tamaulipas. It has an elevational range of 2,550 to 2,880 m asl.
64093		habitat	eng	This species is present in arid areas of pine-oak forest and chaparral. It can be found in the axils of agaves. It is not found in disturbed habitats. It is an oviparous species.
64093		population	eng	It is a common species.
64093		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by loss or severe fragmentation of habitat through agricultural expansion within the region in the near future.
64094		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species.
64094		distribution	eng	This species ranges through the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico including Isla del Carmen, extending southward to northern Guatemala and central Belize. It has been found at elevations from sea level up to 300 m asl.
64094		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal lizard that is abundant in thorn forest, forest edge, and disturbed habitat, but is absent from the deep shade of primary forest. It appears to be a very adaptable species.
64094		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable at present. Populations may be increasing in response to ongoing forest fragmentation.
64094		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species. Populations may benefit through the opening of forest habitat.
64095		conservation	eng	In view of its large range, this species is presuambly present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64095		distribution	eng	The range encompasses central and southeastern Arizona (and disjunctly southwestern and northwestern Arizona) and southwestern New Mexico and extends southward to western Jalisco, Mexico with an isolated population in Aguas Calientes (Vázquez-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 1999; Vázquez and Quintero, 2005). Elevational range extends from sea level to about 1,848 m (6,060 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64095		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs primarily in wooded habitats of lower mountain: oak-pine woodland, tropical deciduous forest, subtropical thornforest (Stebbins 2003), riparian woodland communities that penetrate into more arid landscapes from forested mountains (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); it also inhabits rocky areas at the lower edges of foothills and in oak-grassland communities as low as 1,060 m (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is primarily a tree-dweller (climbs high into trees) but also can be found on the ground among rocks. Woodrat nests in trees may be used as refuges.
64095		population	eng	Degenardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped over 100 collection sites in New Mexico, and there are even more in Arizona and southward into Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The species is abundant in suitable habitat in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996) and very common on Isla San Pedro Nolasco. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be stable. The population is fine in Mexico.
64095		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species.
64096		conservation	eng	Much of the southern portion of the species range falls within the Cumbres de Monterrey National Park, however, there is little information on the number of populations within this protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine the impact of the localised threats on populations.
64096		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to north central Nuevo Leon and southeastern Coahuila. Populations have been recorded up to 1,500 m asl.
64096		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species, with animals often found basking on rocky hillsides in canyons surrounded by xerophytic vegetation. It is not known is the species is adaptable to habitat disturbance.
64096		population	eng	In studied populations the species seems to be locally common.
64096		threats	eng	In parts of its range the species is locally threatened by increasing levels of tourism; by off road motorcross competitions (leading to habitat degradation); overgrazing of vegetation by goats; and by urban expansion, especially close to the city of Monterrey.
64097		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.
64097		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, where it is known from numerous coastal localities in Yucatan, Quintana Roo, and extreme northern Campuche, and from the islands of Cozumel, Isla Contoy, and Isla Mujeres. It is found from sea level up to 50 m asl.
64097		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal habitats in sandy soils along beaches.  It is also found in houses built along the coast.
64097		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable at present.
64097		threats	eng	The main threat to the species' habitat is infrastructure development along the coast, although they do seem to be able to adapt to a moderate degree of habitat modification, being found in people's backgardens.
64098		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not occur in any protected areas.
64098		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from the drier portions of the Sierra de Juarez, in northeastern Oaxaca State. Populations have been recorded between 1,800 and 2,500 m asl.
64098		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this species if pine-oak forest. It can also be found in secondary forest, road cuts, and pasture edges.
64098		population	eng	A relatively uncommon species. The habitat quality has not changed recently so populations may be stable.
64098		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64099		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need to maintain suitable habitat for populations of this speices. Further research is needed into the impact of agricultural expansion on the habitat of species.
64099		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two isolated localities the Sierra de la Gavia, south Coahuila, Mexico. Its elevation range is 1,180 to 1,550 m asl.
64099		habitat	eng	Animals can be found in xerophytic shrubland and premontane shrubland on mountain slopes. It is not known if populations can persist in disturbed habitat.
64099		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64099		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to extraction of building materials (rocks, gravel) from its mountain range. Studies are needed to better determine if agricultural expansion (for cropland) is also threatening populations.
64100		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a few protected areas Other than general research into the threat and some monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64100		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southeastern Nayarit and northern Jalisco, through central Jalisco, to eastern Colima, northern Michoacan and the south of Guanajuato.
64100		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species often found basking on rocks in oak, pine, and tropical dry forest as well as in premontane shrubland. Animals have been observed in urban areas.
64100		population	eng	Although it is generally a common species, it may have experienced some local population declines.
64100		threats	eng	Although the global population does not seem to be in serious decline, some populations may be locally threatened by pollution. A number of populations in urban areas appear to be declining.
64101		conservation	eng	Does not occur in any protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64101		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found on the Pacific coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Oaxaca and extreme western Chiapas, Mexico). Populations are present between sea level and 750 m asl.
64101		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species found in crevices of large rocks within deciduous forest and dry scrub forest. Populations can persists in rock formations that are surrounded by heavily disturbed vegetation.
64101		population	eng	It is generally uncommon, but is regularly found in the appropriate rocky habitat. Animals are often hard to collect because they inhabit areas of large, inaccessible rocks.
64101		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64102		conservation	eng	It is unclear if the site at Peña Blanca is within the Sierra de Gorda Biosphere Reserve. Further surveys of areas with suitable habitat are needed to determine if additional populations of this species remain. If populations are found further studies of their taxonomy and ecology are needed.
64102		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Peña Blanca, Queretaro, Mexico. It is possible that it may be present in some additional areas of suitable habitat, however these are all in deep canyons which are both difficult to survey and inhospitable to people. It has been found at 1,420 m asl.
64102		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a small area dominated by xerophytic shrublands. This area is a relict of the Chihuahua Desert. It is an oviparous species.
64102		population	eng	This species has not been seen in the last thirty years despite a number of directed surveys.
64102		threats	eng	The causes of decline for this species from the Peña Blanca area is unclear, however, it is suspected to have resulted from the overgrazing of vegetation by cattle and sheep, and the extraction of sand and rocks from the area for building material.
64103		conservation	eng	It is found in three or four protected areas including the Omiltemi Protected State Park. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and the ecology of this species.
64103		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to central Mexico. It is present in the highlands of the States of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz. It ranges between 1,850 and 3,450 m asl.
64103		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary humid pine-oak forest, oak forest and cloud forest. It can be found in traditional agricultural areas such as corn fields. Animals have been observed on rocks and in trees. It is a viviparous species.
64103		population	eng	This species is moderately common.
64103		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation through clearance of land for agricultural use (crops and livestock).
64104		conservation	eng	Populations are present in the Sierra de Huautla and the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserves. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64104		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southern Michoacan, through Guerrero and Morelos, to southern Puebla, and from here to northern and western Oaxaca. It is found at elevations of around 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.
64104		habitat	eng	Animals are mostly terrestrial, or are found on low vegetation (such as agaves) in tropical scrub forest. Populations seem to be largely confined to rocky canyons with cliffs.
64104		population	eng	This is a common to abundant species.
64104		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64105		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed in remaining patches of suitable habitat, to try to locate any additional populations of this species. More information is needed on the natural history and ecology of this species.
64105		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Charcas in south Coahuila State (this population may now be extirpated) and a second site in north-central San Luis Potosi State, Mexico. It is found at around 1,600 to 2,000 m asl.
64105		habitat	eng	It is found in arid grassland with xerophytic vegetation. It is not found in secondary habitat, and it is sensitive to habitat disturbance. It is an viviparous species.
64105		population	eng	It is an extremely rare with few known specimens.
64105		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to the habitat loss and the known areas are being transformed into wheat fields. Additionally the known sites are suffering from overgrazing by domestic livestock.
64106		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many national parks and monuments. Other than further taxonomic research, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole
64106		distribution	eng	This lizard ranges from Washington, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota south to marginal north and central Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California, Mexico, northern Arizona, and northwestern New Mexico, and eastward into western Nebraska (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from around 150 to about -3,200 m (500 to about 10,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003). The disjunct populations in southern California and the Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California were treated as a distinct species by Grismer (2002).
64106		habitat	eng	Habitats include sagebrush and other types of shrublands (e.g., manzanita and <em>Ceanothus</em> brushland), also pinyon-juniper woodland and open pine and Douglas fir forests; occupied areas have with open ground and some low bushes (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). This is a ground dweller that regularly perches on rocks, logs, or snags; it uses rodent burrows, shrubs, logs, etc., for cover.
64106		population	eng	This species is represented by many hundreds of collection sites (e.g., see Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Baxter and Stone 1985, Censky 1986, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The species is common (up to dozens per hectare) in many areas throughout the range (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999). Extend of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be relatively stable or perhaps slowly declining.
64106		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations are negatively affected  by various kinds of habitat degradation.
64107		conservation	eng	Occurs in various protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64107		distribution	eng	The range encompasses southern Texas (Garcia-Prieto <em>et al</em>. 2000) and much of northern Mexico. Dixon (2000) regarded the Kleberg County and Refugio County records in Texas as representing "accidental introductions," and Garcia-Prieto <em>et al</em>. (2000) similarly concluded that they were extralimital, thus restricting the native range to four counties along the lowermost Rio Grande. Taxonomic uncertainties obscure the precise extent of the range in Mexico; Lara-Góngora (2004) recently included populations of much of Chihuahua, Sonora and possibly Sinaloa in <em>S. lemnosespinali</em>.
64107		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal lizard that occupies large mesquite trees and oaks as well as other trees including nopaleras in arid and semi-arid terrain (Smith 1946, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
64107		population	eng	This species is represented by many collection sites in Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown. This lizard is common in northern Mexico, but localized, wary, and seldom seen in Texas, where the species may be more common than it appears to be (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
64107		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64108		conservation	eng	Cerralvo Island is within the Islas del Golfo de California Flora and Fauna Protection Area. No direct conservation measures, other than occasional monitoring of populations, are currently needed for this species.
64108		distribution	eng	This species endemic to Cerralvo Island in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64108		habitat	eng	Although this species seems to prefer rocky sites it is commonly found in vegetated adjacent areas, vegetated coastal dunes and open flats with vegetation nearby. The species seems able to adapt well to some habitat disturbance.
64108		population	eng	It is an abundant species within its limited range.
64108		threats	eng	At present there are not considered to be any major threat. However, as the species has a restricted island range it might in the future be susceptible to the introduction of alien species (such as cattle), tourism and overcollection.
64109		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64109		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only from the Pacific slopes of Oaxaca State, near Miahuatlan, in Mexico. It has been recorded at 1,500 m asl.
64109		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in mid elevation xerophytic areas, living between agave leafs.
64109		population	eng	It is known only from a single collection, and there have been no recent sightings.
64109		threats	eng	The threats to this species are no known.
64110		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least three protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64110		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found from central and eastern Jalisco to western Michoacan, south of the Rio Santiago Valley in the western end of the Neovolcanic Axis and the northern end of the Sierra Madre del Sur (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is found at elevations of 1,250 to 3,000 m asl.
64110		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species of oak, pine and fir forest. It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.
64110		population	eng	Animals seem to be common in some areas, and uncommon in others.
64110		threats	eng	While the threats to this species are poorly-known, it is an arboreal species and presumably any significant deforestation would adversely affect populations. At present, some localized deforestation (for conversion of land to agricultural land) is taking place within its range.
64111		conservation	eng	Populations occur in protected areas throughout the species range. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64111		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southeastern Sinaloa, through Nayarit and northern Jalisco, east into southern Zacatecas and southwest Aguascalientes, and from here south through Colima, Michoacan, central and northern Puebla and the Balsas basin in Guerrero and Oaxaca.
64111		habitat	eng	This species is highly adaptable to a wide variety of natural and man-made habitats. It has been recorded from forests, shrubland, grasslands, urban and rural areas. It is an insectivorous species. The females lay a single annual clutch of between eight and fifteen eggs (Casas 1982, Ramírez 2001).
64111		population	eng	It is largely an abundant species.
64111		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
64112		conservation	eng	The Gulf of California islands inhabited by this species are within the Islas del Golfo de California Flora and Fauna Protection Area. Further studies are needed into the possible threats caused by expanding tourism in the region.
64112		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Baja California Sur in Mexico, where it is narrowly distributed in the Cape Region from La Paz to the eastern Sierra La Laguna, south to Cabo San Lucas. It is also present on the Gulf of California islands of Espiritu Santo, Gallo, Ballena, and Partida Sur.
64112		habitat	eng	Animals are generally found around rocks and crevices in arid-tropical areas with an abundance of cactus. It is an adaptable species, and can be found in urban areas, including around hotels in the Cabo San Lucas area, but it avoids intensive agriculture.
64112		population	eng	It is a common species.
64112		threats	eng	Apart from localized habitat loss due to intensive agriculture around La Paz, there are no significant threats to this species.
64113		conservation	eng	This species is protected under Mexican legislation, and occurs in at least one protected area, the Parque Nacional Nevado de Colima. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64113		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southern Jalisco and northern Colima to western Michoacan. Populations have been recorded between 800 and 2,400 m asl.
64113		habitat	eng	Animas are found in rocky areas within pine-oak-fir and tropical dry forest. It is not known how adaptable the species is to habitat disturbance.
64113		population	eng	This is a common species.
64113		threats	eng	Although there is localized deforestation in parts of the species range, overall this habitat loss is not widespread and seems unlikely to currently constitute a major threat.
64114		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64114		distribution	eng	This species is known from three disjunct ranges in Mexico; from Los Tuxtlas region in southern Veracruz, in northern Oaxaca, and a population spanning from extreme eastern Oaxaca to northwestern Chiapas. It occurs from around 100 up to 2,000 m asl.
64114		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist forest and grassland. It can also occur in farmland in rural housing but not in urban areas.
64114		population	eng	It is a common species.
64114		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
64115		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from at least two protected areas. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species.
64115		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico. It ranges from central Veracruz, south through eastern Puebla to central Oaxaca. It is found at elevations of 1,200 to 2,400 m asl.
64115		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary tropical semi-deciduous forest, scrub forest and dry oak forest. It can be found in agricultural areas, such as corn fields and coffee plantations. It is an oviparous species.
64115		population	eng	It is a generally a very common species, although it is uncommon in central Veracruz.
64115		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.
64116		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range, it seems likely that this species is present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64116		distribution	eng	Southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico south into Mexico, south to Durango and Zacatecas according to the systematic arrangement of Wiens and Penkrot (2002). Elevational range is about 1,370 to 3,550 m (4,500 to 11,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003). At the northern end of the range, this lizard occurs on major mountain ranges and certain minor mountain ranges (e.g., Winchester Mountains, Galiuro Mountains) (see Rosen and Persons 2002).
64116		habitat	eng	This is a montane species, attracted to rocky canyons, cliffs, and hillsides, including areas of oak woodland, thornscrub, and mixed oak and pine (Stebbins 2003). Typically it occurs on rocky outcrops, sometimes climbs trees.
64116		population	eng	This species is represented by many collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Density ranges from a few dozen per hectare to more than 200 per hectare (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably stable. It is very common.
64116		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64117		conservation	eng	There appear to be a number of protected areas within the range of this species, however, further details are needed to confirm that it is present within these sites. Additional studies are needed into the species distribution (in particular the possible presence in Sinaloa), ecological requirements and possible threats.
64117		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in the Sierra Madre Occidental highlands of Chihuahua and northeastern to southeastern Sonora. The distribution map provided for this species in Lara-Góngora (2004) includes a portion of northeastern Sinaloa, which is reproduced here pending additional information. The species ranges between 1,800 to 2,500 m asl.
64117		habitat	eng	Lara-Góngora (2004) reports that the species can be encountered on live trees, logs, stumps and fallen branches, in juniper, oak, pine-oak, pine and other temperate forest communities. It is unknown if the species can persist in modified habitat, however, Lara-Góngora (2004) observes that it is rarely seen away from trees.
64117		population	eng	Although this may be a relatively common species, further details of the abundance of this species are needed.
64117		threats	eng	It is possible that there are no major threats to this species, however, further studies are needed to confirm this.
64118		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. Other than general field studies, no direct conservation measures are needed for the species as a whole.
64118		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the extreme south of Baja California, Mexico. It is generally restricted to the Sierra La Laguna, in the Cape Region from Rancho Ancón south to La Soledad.
64118		habitat	eng	This species occurs in brushy areas in the central portion the Sierra la Laguna. It is scansorial, with animals being found on logs and rocks close to low trees.
64118		population	eng	It is a relatively common species in its preferred habitat.
64118		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The Sierra La Laguna is a protected area with some tourism pressure, however, this is not currently considered to be a major threat.
64119		conservation	eng	Isla Santa Catalina is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. Other than occasional monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64119		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Santa Catalina, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64119		habitat	eng	Animals are often difficult to observe in the open, but are most frequently found on the flats along the inland edges of beaches and in arroyo bottoms. They can generally live near of the base of bushes and cacti, into which they retreat when threatened. The have not been recorded from rocky hillsides, although it is likely to occur there in limited numbers (Grismer 2002).
64119		population	eng	Although the population abundance is poorly-known, it appears to be a common species in suitable habitat within its limited range.
64119		threats	eng	Other than the limited range size, there appear to be no major threats to the species.
64120		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it occurs more or less continuously through the northern half of the peninsula in Mexico. Southern populations, apparently disjunct, occur in El Petén, Guatemala and Belize. It is known from elevations between sea level and 300 m asl.
64120		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal, diurnal inhabitant of tropical moist and dry forest, and forest edges. It is typically seen on tree trunks to a  height of 20 m or more.  It has also been recorded from rock walls in human habitation such as fields, as well as in more built up urban areas. It is most likely a live bearing species like others in the group.
64120		population	eng	It is an uncommon species and it is not regularly encountered.
64120		threats	eng	Deforestation can be a threat because it is usually found high up in trees, however, it is also found in some modified habitats so this is probably not a major threat.
64121		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. No additional direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs at low elevations on the Pacific slope in the State of Oaxaca. It has been recorded from near sea level to around 600 m asl.
64121		habitat	eng	Populations are found in primary and secondary dry forest and tropical deciduous forest. Much of the original habitat in the species range has been modified, with populations persisting in these disturbed areas.
64121		population	eng	This is a fairly common species in parts of its range.
64121		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64122		conservation	eng	Part of the species range is within the Canyon Fernandez National Park, but there is a need to conserve additional areas of suitable habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64122		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from eastern central Durango and southwestern Coahuila. The range is fragmented with little or no interbreeding between subpopulations.
64122		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rocky areas into xerophytic vegetation. It is not known in the species can adapt to some habitat disturbance.
64122		population	eng	The species is uncommon, and consists of perhaps three or four subpopulations are known.
64122		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by the expansion of urban areas and other settlements over much of its limited range. Quarrying of marble is also a potential threat to the species habitat. The impact of these threats is poorly known and further research is urgently needed.
64123		conservation	eng	Populations occur in many national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.
64123		distribution	eng	The range extends from Nevada to southwestern Colorado, south to northern Baja California, Sinaloa, and Coahuila; west to west of the Central Valley in California, east to western Texas (Parker 1982, Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from near sea level  to around 1,520 m (5,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64123		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits arid and semi-arid regions, from plains to lower mountain slopes, including desert shrubland and woodland, mesquite-yucca grassland, juniper and mesquite woodland, shrubby areas along arroyos and playa edges, and cottonwood-willow zones along rivers (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). It occurs on trees, rocks, and on the ground near cover. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64123		population	eng	This species is represented by many hundreds of collection sites (e.g., Parker 1982, Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and relatively stable. Common in Mexico.
64123		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64124		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the ecology and threats to this species.
64124		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is present in central and western Veracruz and central and northern Puebla. It occurs at altitudes as high as 3,200 m asl.
64124		habitat	eng	It is restricted to semi-arid areas with xerophilous herbs and shrubs. It is an oviparous species.
64124		population	eng	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.
64124		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of land to agave cultivation. It cannot recolonize patches of habitat and can considered to be severely fragmented.
64125		conservation	eng	It does not appear to have been recorded from any protacted area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and common species.
64125		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the Pacific versant of Mexico to western Guatemala. It is found from the State of Nayarit in the north, through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, to the Rio Grijalva Basin of Guatemala. It ranges from sea level to 2,000 m asl.
64125		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species associated with tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, and pine forest. It is not known if populations can persist in modified habitats.
64125		population	eng	This is a common species.
64125		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this species.
64126		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Big Bend National Park, Big Bend State Natural Area, Dolan Falls Ranch (TNC), Seminole Canyon Sate Park, Brushy Canyon Preserve (TNC), Devils River State Natural Area, Chandler Independence Creek Preserve, and Lake Amistad National Recreation Area (A. Price, R. Savage, and J. Karges pers. comms. 1997).
64126		distribution	eng	This species is found in both Mexico and the United States. The range includes western Texas from Edwards to Persidio counties; also eastern Chihuahua, south central Coahuila, and extreme northern Durango (Olson 1979, Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000).
64126		habitat	eng	Habitats include canyon walls and rocky slopes with sparse vegetation. The lizard generally occupies steep rock faces and takes shelter in crevices. Eggs are buried beneath soil surface.
64126		population	eng	Subpopulations are subdivided a fair amount by unsuitable habitat; overall, there are over 100 occurrences or localized subpopulations (A. Dunham pers. comm. 1997). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Studies of three subpopulations in Big Bend National Park indicate that abundance varies by year and is dependent on environmental conditions; Grape Vine Hills, 10-150/ha; Boquillas Canyon, 15 to over 200/ha; Maple Canyon, 20-60 or 80/ha (A. Dunham pers. comm. 1997). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are stable (R. Axtell, A. Dunham, A. Price and R. Savage pers. comms. 1997); a large population retraction on northern edge of range in the 1980s probably was due to an extreme cold spell (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Population fluctuations are a natural response to environmental changes, particularly drought (A. Dunham and A. Price pers. comm. 1997).
64126		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. In the United States, much of the range is within protected areas. Local populations in some areas of Mexico may be detrimentally affected by habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing (A. Dunham pers. comm. 1997).
64127		conservation	eng	It is present in at least five different protected areas. Further studies are needed into the biology, ecology and natural history of this species.
64127		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico. It ranges from northern Zacatecas to eastern Aguascalientes, northern Nuevo Leon, southwestern Tamaulipas and south to central San Luis Potosi, northern Guanajuato, southern Queretaro and north-central Hidalgo. It has an elevational range of 1,800 to 2,940 m asl.
64127		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary pine-oak forest, oak forest, and in areas of dry scrubland with xerophytic vegetation. It can be found at the edges of agricultural areas. It is a viviparous species, the females annually give birth to a litter of between three and eleven young (Ramírez-Bautista and Ramos-Flores 2000).
64127		population	eng	It is a common species.
64127		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation through conversion of forest to agricultural land (crops and pasture).
64128		conservation	eng	It is present in three protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species, especially with regards to the three subspecies.
64128		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla and Mexico, and in the highlands of Guerrero and Oaxaca. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,000 to 3,700 m asl.
64128		habitat	eng	The species is present in primary and secondary open montane oak woodland, pine-oak forest and pine forest. The subspecies <em>S. m. olsoni</em> is found in dry scrubland. Animals are associated with rock crevices in agricultural land. It is a viviparous species.
64128		population	eng	It is a common species.
64128		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use (crops and pasture). In open areas, it is threatened by fires set to clear land of scrub. While this species is present in the international pet trade it is not thought that current collection levels present a serious threat.
64129		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least one protected area that might not legally protect the animals.
64129		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Mexico in the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It ranges from southern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua, through Sinaloa and Nayarit, reaching central Jalisco (Guadalajra).
64129		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowlands, in areas of tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forests on rocks. It is usually associated with rocky slopes.
64129		population	eng	It is a common species.
64129		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats. It occurs in rocky areas that are not normally degraded by anthropogenic activities.
64130		conservation	eng	It does not appear to be present in any protected areas. There is a need to establish protected areas where good populations of this species remain. Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and natural history of this species.
64130		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, north of the Sierra Madre Oriental. It is present from south Coahuila to central Nuevo Leon. It occurs at elevations of around 2,000 to 2,377 m asl.
64130		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species associated with rocky areas and canyons in pine-oak forest. It can be found in primary and secondary forest, but not in agricultural areas. The species shows strong site fidelity and does not move between habitat fragments. It is a viviparous species.
64130		population	eng	It is a common species.
64130		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat fragmentation caused by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural areas (cattle pasture and cereals).
64131		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many national parks, monuments, and similarly well-protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64131		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range extends from Washington and southwestern Idaho south through Oregon, California, Nevada, and western Utah to northwestern Baja California (Bell and Price 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003), and disjunctly south to Isla de Cedros of the Pacific coast of Baja California (Grismer and Mellink, 1994). Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 3,353 m (11,000 feet) (Bell and Price 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64131		habitat	eng	This lizard occupies various habitats, including grassland, sagebrush, woodland, open coniferous forest, rocky canyons, talus slopes, fence rows, etc. (Stebbins 2003). This species is not found in severe desert areas, but it comes close on mountain slopes (Stebbins 2003). Usually it is on the ground or on low perches (e.g., logs, fences), but sometimes climbs well up into taller bushes or trees. Eggs are buried in loose soil. It is largely tolerant of human disturbed areas. On Isla de Cedros, it is found in pine forest in the upper elevations of the island.
64131		population	eng	This is a common species is represented by hundreds of collection sites (e.g., see Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983,  Bell and Price 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000, and probably numbers many millions. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably relatively stable (or slowly declining).
64131		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, conversion of habitat to intensive human uses have eliminated or reduced some populations.
64132		conservation	eng	It is probably present in the Sierra de Huahutla, Morelos. Further research is needed into the ecology and distribution of this species.
64132		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it is restricted to parts of Guerrero, Morelos and Distrito Federal. It is found between 520 and 1,920 m asl.
64132		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary tropical deciduous forest and dry oak forest. It can be found in traditionally cultivated areas (such as corn fields). It is believed to be an oviparous species.
64132		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64132		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64133		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas, and no direct conservation actions is currently needed.
64133		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and northern Mexico and the south of the United States. Its range includes Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico, to as far south as southern Tamaulipas, central Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosi (Kennedy 1973, Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000).
64133		habitat	eng	This primarily arboreal lizard occurs on mesquite, oak, and other trees, and on buildings, fences, and bridges; it is often associated with scrub vegetation (Smith 1946, Kennedy 1973, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64133		population	eng	This species is represented by well over 100 collection sites (e.g., see Kennedy 1973). It has been found in virtually every county (>100) within its range in Texas (see Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Texas spring lizards are common to abundant throughout their range (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably relatively stable. The populations are fine in Mexico.
64133		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64134		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Valle de los Cirios, and the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve.
64134		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Baja California Peninsula in Mexico, and southern California in the United States. Its range extends from the northern side of San Gorgonio Pass on the lower slopes of the Peninsular Ranges in southern California,  south to near La Paz in southern Baja California. It also occurs on several islands in the Gulf of California, including Carmen, Coronados, San Francisco, San Ildefonso, San José, San Marcos and Tortuga (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). It is absent from the Vizcaíno Peninsula, the Magdalena Plain, and the Cape Region. Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 2,130 m (7,000 feet).
64134		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits granite outcrops in chaparral and on oak-covered slopes on the coastal side of the mountains in southern California; it also ranges into yellow pine habitat (Stebbins 2003). On the desert side, it occurs in rocky canyons and on rocks of upper alluvial slopes with chaparral, palms, or mesquite (Stebbins 2003). Habitats in Baja California include pinyon-juniper woodland and subtropical thornforest (Stebbins 2003). This species generally is associated with rocks, but in some locations it also climbs into vegetation (e.g., agaves, palms, willows) or occurs on the ground among shrubs (Grismer 2002). It probably it buries its eggs in the soil.
64134		population	eng	Weintraub (1980) mapped 37 collection sites in Baja California and 22 in southern California. These represent at least a few dozen distinct occurrences. Many additional occurrences undoubtedly exist. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are substantial and appear to be relatively stable.
64134		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, in southern California, some habitat has been degraded by urbanization.
64135		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve suitable habitat within the species limited range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64135		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from two disjunct localities in southern Coahuila State.
64135		habitat	eng	Animals are largely restricted to rocky hills within arid shrubland. It is not known if the species can adapt to significant habitat disturbance.
64135		population	eng	In general, this is considered to be a rare species.
64135		threats	eng	Although there are currently not considered to be any major threats to this species, it is possible that future collection of rocks and other similar building materials for use in construction could become a major threat.
64136		conservation	eng	It is present in in Parque Nacional Ajusco. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.
64136		distribution	eng	This species is present in Ajusco, Ocuilan and Nevada Sierras, where it ranges from 2,700 to 4,400 m asl. This species is probably more widely distributed in Mexico in the higher Sierra Madre in Distrito Federal, State of Mexico and extreme northern Morelos.
64136		habitat	eng	This species prefers dense humid coniferous forests. It is present in secondary forest, but does not occur in cultivated areas. It is a viviparous species.
64136		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its very restricted range.
64136		threats	eng	There are not known to be any major threats to this species.
64137		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas including the Sierra Nevada in Coahuila. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and biology of this species.
64137		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico. It ranges from northern Coahuila, through southern Nuevo Leon to northern Guanajuato, central-western Tamaulipas, northern Queretaro and Hidalgo. It has an elevational range of around 1,300 to 2,000 m asl.
64137		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including shrublands, juniper forests, oak forest, pine forest, rocky sites and even disturbed areas such as cropland. Cultivated agave fields are considered to be a good habitat. It is an oviparous species.
64137		population	eng	It is a common species.
64137		threats	eng	At present there are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by fires set to clear forest for agriculture. It could be impacted by habitat fragmentation in the future.
64138		conservation	eng	Populations occur in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64138		distribution	eng	The range extends from southern New Mexico to central Texas, USA, and south to Zacatecas, Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range: 300 to 2,818 m (1,000 to -9,245 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64138		habitat	eng	This lizard occupies rocky canyons, gullies, hillsides, and outcrops in largely barren areas, mesquite grassland, creosote bush desert, arid woodland (e.g., oak/pinyon pine/juniper), and spruce-fir forest (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is invariably closely tied to rocks and seeks shelter in crevices (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64138		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped more than 100 collection sites in New Mexico alone. Dixon (2000) mapped its occurrence in three dozen counties in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and very probably exceeds 100,000. The species can be common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are substantial and are probably relatively stable.
64138		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
64139		conservation	eng	The species does not appear to have been recorded from any protacetd areas. Othere than general research, there are no direct conservation measures currently needed for the species as a whole.
64139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from the southwestern coast of Jalisco (Chamela) and Colima to Pacific Michoacan, Guerrero (including the Basas basin area), southwestern Mexico state, and southern Morelos.
64139		habitat	eng	Animals are often found basking on rocks in streams and rivers within tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest. It is not known if this species can adapt to habitat disturbance. It is an oviparous species (Ramírez-Bautista and Olvera-Becerril 2004)
64139		population	eng	This is a common species.
64139		threats	eng	Some populations may be locally impacted by deforestation, however, this is probably not a significant threat to the species as a whole.
64140		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. The distribution and ecology of this species need further study.
64140		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico. The range is poorly-known, it has been recorded from Jalapa in central-western Veracruz; Puente de Fierro in northern Oaxaca and from Santo Domingo, northern Oaxaca. The species may range more widely than is currently known. It is found at elevations of between 700 and 2,000 m asl.
64140		habitat	eng	It is generally an arboreal species, recorded from primary and secondary tropical semi-deciduous forest and cloud forest. It has been recorded from traditional agricultural areas (corn fields) close to the forest, and coffee plantations. It may be viviparous, although this requires confirmation.
64140		population	eng	There is little information about the abundance of this species, other than it occurs at low densities.
64140		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural use (cropland and pasture).
64141		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species, as the range may be more restricted then is currently thought, and into the ecology and threats.
64141		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it occurs in southern Coahuila and south-central Nuevo Leon. It is found at elevations of between 2,130 and 3,300 m asl.
64141		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary juniper-oak forest, pine forest, pine-oak forest, croplands and secondary vegetation. It is an oviparous species.
64141		population	eng	It is a common species.
64141		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It can persist well in modified habitats.
64142		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems plausible that it is present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64142		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread endemic found over much of central Mexico. It has been recorded up to elevations of up to around 1,500 m asl.
64142		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in the dry and arid plains, with animals often found in small patches of grass at the base of rocks. It is presumably adaptable to some degree of habitat disturbance.
64142		population	eng	It is a common species that is regularly encountered.
64142		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.
64143		conservation	eng	Further study of phylogenetic relationships is needed. However, the results of such research probably would not change the Red List status of this lizard.  Species occurs in several protected areas.
64143		distribution	eng	The range encompasses southern Texas and Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991). The range of <em>S. serrifer</em> (<em>sensu lato</em>) is substantially larger than that of <em>S. s. cyanogenys</em> (or <em>S. cyanogenys</em>).  The range is Mexico is several disjunct populations representing several subspecies. Mexican range includes north Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, to southern Tamaulipas, Northern Veracruz, and north peninsula de Yucatan, central of Chiapas, and northern Guatemala.  It occurs from 700 to 2,300 m asl.
64143		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs on boulders, rock or earthen cliffs, stone bridges and walls, rock outcroppings, abandoned houses, or construction rubble; it takes shelter in holes and crevices in rocks or underground (Behler and King 1979, Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
64143		population	eng	The number of distinct occurrences is unknown. Dixon (2000) mapped this species as occurring in 11 counties in Texas. There are many more occurrences in Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This species is of localized occurrence in Texas but can be present in "sizable colonies" (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. This is a common species in Mexico.
64143		threats	eng	No major threats are known in the US portion.  Fragmentation due to agriculture (cattle grazing) is a threat in the Mexican portion of the range.
64144		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Other than general field work, no direct conservation measures are currently needed fot the species as a whole.
64144		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from western Guerrero along the Pacific Coast to eastern Chiapas. Populations have been recorded from near sea level to around 2,438 m asl.
64144		habitat	eng	Populations can be found in areas of dry forest and oak forest. Animals have been recorded from disturbed habitat.
64144		population	eng	This is a common species.
64144		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64145		conservation	eng	Better information is needed on lizard population trends and current habitat status. It is presumed to occur in some protected areas.
64145		distribution	eng	The geographic range extends from southeastern Arizona (Chiricahua, Dragoon, Whetstone, Huachuca, and Santa Rita mountains) and extreme southwestern New Mexico (Animas Mountains) in the US, into Mexico south through the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra del Nido of eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua into northwestern Durango (Lowe 1964, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). This is primarily a montane species, but it occurs or occurred on high grassy plains of Animas Valley (New Mexico), Sonoita Plain (Arizona), and near Yepomera (Chihuahua), as well as in mountains (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1996, Watkins-Colwell <em>et al</em>. 2003). The elevational range extends to at least 3,350 m (around 11,000 feet); some isolated populations occur at elevations as low as 1,220 m (about 4,000 feet) (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990); typically between 1,500 to 3,000 m (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
64145		habitat	eng	Typical habitat in the southwestern United States is bunchgrass of sunny coniferous woodlands and open plains and mountains (Stebbins 2003). The species is most common in dense bunchgrass on east- and south-facing slopes (see Ballinger and Congdon 1996). It is much more abundant in ungrazed grassland than in grazed grassland in southeastern Arizona. The lizard is seemingly very vulnerable to predation; bunchgrass affords needed cover (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990, Ballinger and Congdon 1996). In Chihuahua, Mexico, the species occurs in forest and woodland habitats and apparently does not require bunchgrass (Van Devender and Lowe 1977).
64145		population	eng	Watkins-Colwell <em>et al</em>. (2003) mapped somewhat more than 50 locations that probably represent at least a couple dozen distinct occurrences. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped four locations in New Mexico (Watkins-Colwell <em>et al</em>. 2003 mapped one location in New Mexico). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. The species has been recorded at densities of 80 to 300 individuals per hectare in southeastern Arizona (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Declines have been noted in the northern portion of the range (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990, Ballinger and Congdon 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is common in Mexico.
64145		threats	eng	Cattle grazing in Arizona-New Mexico has degraded habitat and has caused large population declines (Ballinger and Congdon 1996), especially at lower elevations (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990). Reduced populations on the Sonoita Plain, Arizona, may reflect drought combined with habitat loss from livestock grazing (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is not threatened in Mexico.
64146		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Tacaná Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species
64146		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the highland of southeastern Chiapas State in Mexico and Guatemala. Populations have been recorded at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 m asl.
64146		habitat	eng	In general this species is associated with montane pine and cloud forest. It appears to tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance.
64146		population	eng	While there is very little information available on the abundance of this species in Mexico, it is considered to be common or even abundant in Guatemala.
64146		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64147		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in areas of forest protected by the community of Chimalapa, Oaxaca. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
64147		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from southern Oaxaca State to extreme western Chiapas, Mexico. It has an elevational range from close to sea level to 1,200 m asl.
64147		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, as well as pine forest. Animals may be found among the leaf litter, and under logs and rocks. Populations seem to adapt well to some habitat disturbance in rural areas.
64147		population	eng	This is generally considered to be a common species.
64147		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64148		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64148		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread endemic found over much of central Mexico. It ranges between 1,500 and 2,300 m asl (Florez and Gerez 1994).
64148		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats including dry scrubland, juniper forest, oak forest, and within secondary forest and crops (traditional). It is an insectivorous species. The females lay a single clutch annually of between 10 and 30 eggs (Hernández-Ibarra <em>et al</em>. 2001, Vazquez and Quintero 2007).
64148		population	eng	It is a very common species.
64148		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
64149		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and general ecology of the species.
64149		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pacific slope of Guerrero State, Mexico. Its elevation range is 1,000 to 2,800 m asl.
64149		habitat	eng	Populations of this species have been recorded from tropical pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest. It is not known how well this species adapts to habitat modification.
64149		population	eng	While is seems to be a difficult species to collect, it is presumed to have a large relatively stable population.
64149		threats	eng	Although the species seems to have a generally restricted range, there currently appear to be no major threats to this species.
64150		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. There are no protected areas within this part of Mexico. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
64150		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality in the Sierra Madre del Sur of central western Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is believed to range more widely. It has been recorded from between 2,660 and 3,125 m asl.
64150		habitat	eng	It seems to have both arboreal and terrestrial habits. Animals have been recorded from tropical xerophytic areas, dry pine forest and pine-oak forest. Populations have been recorded in cultivated fields, however further details on the persistence of these populations is needed.
64150		population	eng	It is not thought to be a very common species.
64150		threats	eng	Although the threats remain poorly known, it seems possible that the species is susceptible to severe conversion of natural habitat to cultivated land.
64151		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala. Further studies are needed into the population and natural history of this species.
64151		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it occurs in the southern Distrito Federal, extreme eastern State of Mexico and northern Morelos. It is found at around 3,000 to 3,500 m asl.
64151		habitat	eng	The species occurs in temperate montane coniferous forests, it can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is not found outside of forested areas. It is not known if the species is oviparous or viviparous.
64151		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64151		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species. There is some tourism and limited development in the region, but this is not considered to be a significant threat to remaining areas of forest.
64152		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Huitepec Private Reserve and Lagos de MonteBello National Park, Mexico. Further studies are needed into range and ecology, as well as the tolerance of populations to habitat disturbance.
64152		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the central plateau of Chiapas State, Mexico, into central Guatemala. Populations have been recorded between 1,200 and 2,500 m asl.
64152		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from pine forest, pine-oak forest, and cloud forest. It appears to be able to adapt to some degree of habitat disturbance.
64152		population	eng	This is considered to be an abundant species.
64152		threats	eng	Although in general there appear to be no major threats, some populations seem to be threatened by severe habitat loss resulting from the conversion of natural habitat to small-holder farms.
64153		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known to be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats to this species. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable forest habitat. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
64153		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Sierra de Miahuatlan, in central Oaxaca State, Mexico. It has been collected at 1,800 m asl.
64153		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tropical pine forest. Animals need trees to climb on. It is possible that populations could persist in shade-grown coffee plantations, however this requires confirmation.
64153		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known. It was most recently collected by Eric Smith in about 2000.
64153		threats	eng	While the threats remain poorly known, it seems possible that deforestation, often resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, could present a threat to this species in some areas.
64154		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species.
64154		distribution	eng	This lowland species occurs at low elevations on the Atlantic slope of Central America from southern Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco and Campeche in Mexico, eastward through El Petén in northern Guatemala to Belize. It occurs from near sea level up to around 800 m asl.
64154		habitat	eng	It lives in forest edge, secondary growth of moist forests and savannas. It is also found in disturbed areas including archaeological sites and houses within local towns.
64154		population	eng	It is a common species over most of its range.
64154		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64155		conservation	eng	It is present in at least five protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy (especially with regards to the five subspecies), ecology, distribution and biology.
64155		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is widely distributed on the Central Plateau. It ranges from central Nuevo León and southern Tamaulipas through Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz and Morelos, from here is ranges westwards including the states of San Luis Potosí, Durango, Mexico, Distrito Federal, Michoacan, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Queretaro, Aguascalientes, Nayarit and central Jalisco. It ranges from 1,000 to 3,200 m asl.
64155		habitat	eng	This is a saxicolous species, generally inhabiting high elevations (even cool or cold areas). It is found in open semi-desert, rocky areas, grassland, coniferous forest and mixed forest. It is present in modified habitats (e.g.., traditional corn fields). It is a viviparous species.
64155		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable.
64155		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64156		conservation	eng	This species is present in a large number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for the species as a whole.
64156		distribution	eng	This species ranges from New York to Florida, west to Utah and Arizona, north to South Dakota and central Indiana, and south to the Gulf Coast and Zacatecas (Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from sea level to around 3,050 m (10,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64156		habitat	eng	Habitat varies geographically; various populations are primarily arboreal, terrestrial, or saxicolous. These lizards usually occur in sunny/open situations. They go underground or retreat to crevices when inactive. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64156		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences that are densely distributed across the historical range. Many occurrences exhibit good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. Local declines have occurred, but the overall extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and abundance are large and appear to be relatively stable.
64156		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Local declines have occurred as a result of conversion of habitat to human uses.
64157		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Mexico by national legislation. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the general ecology of this species.
64157		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the Pacific slope of Mexico from southern Sinaloa State through the Basas Basin to western Guerrero, and from here west to eastern and central Jalisco. Populations can be found up to 125 miles from the coast. Occurs from sea level to 1,700 m asl.
64157		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species. Animals have been recorded from dense brush, where they are sometimes seen on logs or limbs of shrubs. It is no known if the species can persist in modified habitats. The diet is mostly comprised of arthropods including ants, beetles, termites, bugs and orthoptera.
64157		population	eng	This species is common and regularly encountered.
64157		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64158		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park, and also in some protected areas in the United States.
64158		distribution	eng	This species is present in the in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. In the United States it ranges from the Coast Ranges in Los Angeles county, California, south to southern San Diego County, and occurs specifically on the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, Palomar and Laguna Mountains. In Mexico it occurs as a disjunct population in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, northern Baja California. All populations are found above 1,900 m, up to at least 3,100 m asl.
64158		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, mountaintop species, and is confined to the pine forests and the chaparral ecotones at the Sierra San Pedro Martir. It is not able to adapt to  disturbance of its habitat.
64158		population	eng	This seems is an abundant species in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, and on the San Gabriel, San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains. It is less common on the Palomar and Laguna Mountains.
64158		threats	eng	Most of the places where this species occurs are rather remote. However, its habitat is impacted locally by fire, logging, and recreational use. As a mountaintop species, it might be impacted in future by climate change.
64159		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.
64159		distribution	eng	The range encompasses extreme southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico (Chiricahua, Peloncillo, Guadalupe, and Animas mountains) in the USA, and areas to the south in the Sierra Madre Occidental to at least southern Chihuahua, into Mexico (Stebbins 2003). It occurs as geographically isolated montane "island" populations, particularly in the northern part of the range (Cole 1968). Elevational range is 1,490 to 3,080 m (4,900 to 10,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64159		habitat	eng	This is a montane species that is most abundant in mixed pine and oak woods (e.g., wooded canyons and ravines), but it ranges upward into pine forest and downward in oak woodland along streams (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003); typically it is found on the ground among rocks, logs, leaf litter, and scattered grasses, or near sandy, rocky intermittent streams, but it readily climbs (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). In southeastern Arizona, individuals generally perch on rocks, rarely on trees (Smith 1996).
64159		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several dozen distinct occurrences. Cole twelve in Chihuahua. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped eight locations in New Mexico. Qualitative information suggests that at least several occurrences are of good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species can be locally numerous; Smith (1985) recorded densities of 42 to 130 individuals per hectare in southeastern Arizona. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are not precisely known but appear to be stable.
64159		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified.
64160		conservation	eng	Populations occur in several sites on the Avon Park Bombing Range and at least one population occurs on each of the following areas: Archbold Biological Station, Highlands Hammock State Park, Johnathan Dickinson State Park, Saddle Blanket Lakes Preserve. There are multiple occupied sites on the Lake Arbuckle State Forest/State Park, Ocala National Forest, and Tiger Creek Preserve.
64160		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to Florida in the southeastern United States. It occurs in four disjunct areas in central and southern Florida: vicinity of Ocala National Forest in northern peninsular Florida, numerous inland sites in Polk and Highlands counties, Atlantic coast scrubs in central and southern Florida (Brevard County to Broward County), and Gulf Coast scrubs in Lee and Collier counties (DeMarco 1992). It now occurs sparingly in Collier County on the southwest coast and in the scrub along the sandy southeastern coastline; it is more numerous in suitable habitat on the Lake Wales Ridge and in the scrublands of Lake and Marion counties (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
64160		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to evergreen oak scrub and young sand pine scrub with ample open space; it is less common in the ecotone between scrub and sandhills, sandhills surrounded by scrub, scrubby flatwoods, and citrus groves. It prefers sites with open sandy areas (for nesting, basking, and foraging) in close proximity to mature trees (<em>Pinus</em> or <em>Quercus</em>) that can provide shade and perch sites. Development of a closed canopy (e.g., in the absence of fire) results in increasingly unsuitable habitat. It never occurs in nonxeric sites. The species is mostly terrestrial but commonly perches low on tree trunks. See De Marco (1992) for further information. Eggs are laid in soil (e.g., <em>Geomys</em> and tortoise mounds) (Ashton and Ashton 1985).
64160		population	eng	This species occurs in numerous scrub sites throughout the range (> 200 localities), although number of occupied sites has declined in recent decades, especially on both coastal ridges. The precise number of distinct, extant occurrences is not known. On a small-scale map, Lee and Funderberg (1977) indicated several dozen collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds several thousand. Population densities vary from 10 to 120 per hectare. The species is still common on the Ocala National Forest. This species was historically far more widespread and numerous on Florida's now largely developed sandy ridges (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are undoubtedly declining as scrub habitat is converted for agriculture and commercial/residential/golf course development. The rate of decline is uncertain but probably does not exceed 30% over the past 10 years or three generations.
64160		threats	eng	Its habitat is subject to destruction by agriculture (especially citrus), urbanization, forestry, and mining. The habitat is naturally fragmented, and scrub lizards appear to have limited dispersal capabilities due to high habitat specificity and low mobility, but genetic data indicate that some populations have existed in isolation for more than 1 million years (Clark <em>et al</em>. 1999). McCoy <em>et al</em>. (2004) documented a population decline over three years in a small habitat fragment. The decline was associated with a decline in the survivorship of reproductive females, possibly due to increased risk of predation.
64161		conservation	eng	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species. It is present in several protected areas.
64161		distribution	eng	This species occurs along almost all of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, from Ensenada south and westward to Bahìa de Los Angeles and then southward to Cabo San Lucas. It also occurs on the Cedros, Magdalena and Santa Margarita islands in the Pacific and the Coronados, Carmen, Monserrate, San Jose, Partida Sur and Espiritu Santo islands in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002).
64161		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is a generalist, inhabiting lowland scrub, chaparral, rocky areas, flat sandy desert and coastal dunes as well in well vegetated arroyos. Animals can commonly seen basking and perched on rocks and logs.
64161		population	eng	It is commonly seen in suitable habitat.
64161		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall, but locally it is being impacted by the expansion of intensive agriculture, and by urbanization.
64162		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be threatened by the Goverment of Mexico. It has been recorded from a Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are urgently needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.
64162		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Coahuila, Mexico. It has a very restricted area of occupancy (AOO); the species occurs in 20 to 30 subpopulations restricted to sand dunes not totaling more than 70 km² in area.
64162		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and completely restricted to sand dunes in xerophytic scrubland. It seems that the species has low genetic diversity and populations are considered to have a low viability.
64162		population	eng	It is generally a rare species. Under natural conditions, populations are stable. As soon as anthropogenic pressure is introduced, subpopulations are lost.
64162		threats	eng	The species is significantly threatened by habitat degradation resulting from the quarrying of sand, use of recreational vehicles within its sensitive habitat, and conversion of land to agricultural use.
64163		conservation	eng	The species is presumably present in some protected areas. There is a need to protect sites from intrusion by vehicles, and from initiatives to present the movement of wind-blown sand. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
64163		distribution	eng	The range includes southeastern California in the United States, and northeastern Baja California in Mexico (Pough 1977, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Trepanier and Murphy 2001, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Its populations are discontinuously distributed across disjunct patches of suitable habitat. In Mexico it ranges south from the United States border to the western edge of the Sierra los Cucapás. There is a disjunct subpopulation further south on the northern edge of the Sierra las Pintas (and it might occur further south in this range, but surveys have not been carried out). The species might also occur on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Juárez. Its elevational range extends from below sea level at the edge of the Salton Sea to around 180 m (600 feet) northeast of Borrego Springs in San Diego County, California (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Stebbins 2003).
64163		habitat	eng	This lizard is restricted to sparsely vegetated windblown sand in dunes, flats, riverbanks, and washes (Stebbins 2003). It also occurs in areas with extensive sand hummocks around the bases of plants (Grismer 2002). It requires fine, loose sand for burrowing. Vegetation is usually scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid in subsurface burrows in sand.
64163		population	eng	Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped approximately 34 extant locations in California. The species occurs in several additional locations in Baja California. The total adult population size is unknown but it is probably at least a few thousand and might exceed 10,000. In California, this lizard has been extirpated from at least four locations, and it has been recommended for special concern status (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Adequate information to determine population trends is not available, but there have clearly been declines in some areas. Reproduction and probably population size fluctuate with annual rainfall and food availability (see Jennings and Hayes 1994).
64163		threats	eng	Populations have been negatively impacted by off-road vehicle damage to sand dune habitat (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Other threats to habitat include commercial and residential development and the placement of windbreaks and other structures that stabilize sand. The lizard is tolerant of moderate non-destructive intrusion into the habitat but is susceptible to soil compaction due to foot or vehicle activity. Some populations have also been impacted by the spread of intensive agriculture, for example around Mexicali.
64164		conservation	eng	The species is considered as threatened and a priority by the goverment of Mexico. Although the species inhabits the core area of Mapimi Biosphere Reserve, it has intrinsic biological factors affecting its survival. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of dune habitat for this species.
64164		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is Known only from the area of the type locality in the Mapimi region between the States of Chihuahua, Durango and Coahuila.
64164		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and restricted to dune habitats. Individuals remain on the same sand dune throughout their lives. It presumably does not occur in modified habitat.
64164		population	eng	It appears to be a locally common species, with a population that probably contains more than 10,000 mature individuals.
64164		threats	eng	The population is restricted to a very specific habitat. They have low vagility and are vulnerable to threats such as trampling of their dune habitat by cattle.
64165		conservation	eng	In Arizona, the species occurs on lands administered by BLM (Yuma Field Office), Bureau of Reclamation (Yuma Area), Department of Defense (Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range), USFWS (Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge), and the Arizona State Land Department; it also occurs on private lands. In Arizona, an undescribed species of Uma (Trepanier and Murphy 2001), usually assigned to this species, occurs on Mohawk Dunes designated State Natural Area; military closure protects much of the habitat (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997).
64165		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a limited area in extreme southwestern United States and extreme northwestern Mexico. The range includes scattered areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Arizona (south of the Gila River; mainly in the Mohawk and Yuma dune systems, Yuma County, and the Pinta Sands, Pima County) and northwestern Sonora south to at least Tepoca Bay (Pough 1977, Stebbins 2003). In Arizona, the known elevational range is 49 to 275 m asl.
64165		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to sparsely vegetated windblown sand dunes and sandy flats; it requires fine, loose sand for burrowing; vegetation is usually scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid below the surface in sand. It has been found in relatively degraded habitats where there is soft sand.
64165		population	eng	Several distinct occurrences exist in Arizona (S. Schwartz pers. comm. 1997). In a somewhat dated publication, Pough (1977) mapped 10 collection sites in Sonora (about seven distinct areas) and four in Arizona. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of locations, and population size have probably not declined more than 25% compared to the historical situation, but better information on trend is needed. The short-term trend is probably relatively stable. Its status in Mexico is much less well known.
64165		threats	eng	This lizard is specialized for fragile aeolian sand habitats that are frequently damaged by off-road vehicle use. Other threats to habitat include commercial, residential, and agricultural development (e.g., in the Mohawk Valley of Arizona) Valley (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997). Overall, in Arizona, the species is not very threatened (S. Schwartz pers. comm. 1997). A potential threat is posed by a non-native annual mustard (<em>Brassica</em>), which recently invaded southwestern Arizona; it forms thick carpets and may degrade habitat (Arizona Game and Fish Department).
64166		conservation	eng	Probably several occurrences are adequately protected.
64166		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to southwestern United States. Its range is restricted to the Mojave Desert, California, and a small area in adjacent extreme western Yuma County, Arizona (Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from below sea level to about 1,000 m (3,280 feet) (Jennings and Hayes 1994) (reported as 90 to about 910 m (300 to 3,000 feet) by Stebbins 2003).
64166		habitat	eng	This lizard is restricted to sparsely vegetated windblown sand of dunes, flats, riverbanks, and washes; it requires fine, loose sand for burrowing; vegetation is usually scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid in subsurface burrows in sand.
64166		population	eng	Pough (1974) mapped 31 collection sites, all but one in California. Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped 52 sites in California with extant populations; these represent at least a few dozen distinct occurrences. The total adult population size in unknown but surely is at least several thousand and probably exceeds 10,000. Jennings and Hayes (1994) indicated that almost all of the historical localities are extant. Population trends are unknown but presumably relatively stable in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of locations. Its population size may be declining with decreases in habitat quality associated with vehicular use of habitat.
64166		threats	eng	Threats include habitat degradation and direct lizard mortality resulting from off-road vehicle use, which may be increasing in some desert areas as human populations increase in the western Mojave Desert (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Landfills associated with human population growth in the desert have resulted in increased populations of generalized predators (e.g., ravens), and these predators could have a negative impact on lizard populations (further study is needed) (Jennings and Hayes 1994).
64167		conservation	eng	The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994 (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is an ongoing eradication programme in the region, and there are plans to eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro (BirdLife International 2007). There is a need to implement a vegetation and soil restoration plan after sheep have been removed (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2001). Establish a research monitoring station on Socorro (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al</em>. 1996). Monitor the population, especially before and after the proposed eradication process (BirdLife 2007). Additional studies are needed into the impact of the introduced gecko <em>Hemidactylus frenatus</em> (Galina-Tessaro <em>et al</em>. 1999) on populations of <em>U. auriculatus</em>.
64167		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific island of Isla Socorro (132 km²), in the Archipielago Revillagigedo of Colima State, Mexico. The species is generally distributed throughout Socorro, being absent from areas of erosion that have resulted from overgrazing by sheep (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Animals range from sea level to the top of the Everman volcano at around 1,040 m asl (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993).
64167		habitat	eng	The species is found in many vegetation types, including dry forest and scrubland, throughout the island (Brattstrom, 1955; Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Animals were recorded by Brattstrom (1955) 'in cracks in rocks, under debris on sandy beaches, in piles of lava boulders, under rocks on the ground, and, higher in the island, crawling about in trees'. It is presumably an oviparous species.
64167		population	eng	It was reported by Slevin (1926) and Brattstrom (1955) to be a common, but not abundant species. It is less abundant in areas with very dense vegetation and few open areas (Brattstrom 1955). Arnaud <em>et al</em>. (1993), reported that the species was found at high densities in the remnants of natural ecosystems of the island, but was absent in deforested areas.
64167		threats	eng	Suitable habitat for this species is rapidly disappearing. The effects of feral sheep on Socorro have been severe, causing erosion damage, shifts in abundance of plant species and impaired forest regeneration (Ortega <em>et al</em>. 1992; Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Over 30% of the natural vegetation and soil have been destroyed through overgrazing by the sheep (Ortega <em>et al</em>. 1992, Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Arnaud <em>et al</em>. (1993) reports that lizards are absent from the areas of erosion. Feral cats are a significant predator of lizards, with the occurrence of lizard in scats varying from 33.3% in February to 66.7% in November (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is anticipated that the impact of predation by cats on the lizard will increase directly as the cat population grows (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). A species of house gecko (<em>Hemidactylus frenatus</em>) has recently established a population on the buildings of the island Navy Garrison (Galina-Tessaro, <em>et al</em>. 1999). Further studies are needed into the impact of this introduction on <em>Urosaurus auriculatus</em>.
64168		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably is present in a number of protected areas. There are no direct conservation measures needed for this generally adaptable species.
64168		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges along the Pacific Coast of Mexico, from southern Sonora as far as the central depression of Chiapas, and the Balsas basin area (Camarillo, 1983; Vázquez and Quintero, 1997; McCranie and Wilson 2001; Vázquez and Quintero 2005). Populations have been recorded from sea level to around 1,600 m asl.
64168		habitat	eng	It occurs in shrubland, tropical dry forest, tropical semi-deciduous forest, and oak forest. It is not known if the species can persist in heavily modified habitats.
64168		population	eng	This species is very common.
64168		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64169		conservation	eng	Although Clarion Island has been designated as a Biosphere Reserve, the natural habitat of the island is still being damaged by people. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species and the impact of introduced species. There is a need to determine whether cats have been introduced to the island. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are urgently needed.
64169		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Clarion Island, in the Revillagigedo Archipielago, Colima State, Mexico. The highest elevation on the island is 300m asl (1,000 feet).
64169		habitat	eng	Although the dominant habitat on Clarion Island is tropical dry forest, it is not known if the species inhabits forested areas.
64169		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
64169		threats	eng	The species has a highly restricted island range which is impacted by introduced species and military use. Domestic animals, including rabbits and pigs, have been introduced to the island for human consumption. This has resulted in a degradation of the islands natural habitat, with several native bird species being extirpated from the island. It is not known if feral cats are present on the island. Predation by cats is considered to be a serious threat.
64170		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Other than general research, and occasional monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and reasonably adaptable species.
64170		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic ranges from the Balsas basin in southeastern Jalisco State, through Michoacan and Guerrero to the Pacific coast.
64170		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are associated with tropical dry forest. Animals have been recorded from moderately disturbed areas.
64170		population	eng	It can be a common species.
64170		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to the species. Localized habitat loss (largely deforestation for use of land in agriculture and human settlements) may impact some populations.
64171		conservation	eng	Several to many populations are protected in various parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.
64171		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern United States and extreme northwestern Mexico. The geographic range extends from southern Nevada south into northeastern Baja California (to Bahia de San Luis Gonzaga) and northwestern Sonora, Mexico, and from southeastern California east to northwestern and south-central Arizona (Vitt and Dickson 1988, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from near sea level to about 1,070 m (Stebbins 2003).
64171		habitat	eng	This is a desert species that frequents areas of loose sand and scattered bushes and trees such as creosote bush, burrowbush, catclaw, mesquite, ironwood, paloverde, or saltbush (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003); it also occurs in olive trees and Washington palms near houses in some desert towns (Stebbins 2003), and in association with low-growing halophytic vegetation along beaches in Baja California; usually it is found on the branches of trees and shrubs in flat, open sandy areas or in wide canyon bottoms (Grismer 2002); it may dig into sand or use burrows at night (Stebbins 2003).
64171		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Its abundance varies greatly across its range, and is especially common in California. Vitt and Dickson (1988) mapped roughly 200 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. Population trends are undocumented but the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable.
64171		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Some habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of human activities (e.g., urbanization, off-road vehicle use), but in some areas these lizards have colonized and established populations in planted trees.
64172		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Valle de los Cirios protected area.
64172		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area in vicinity of Catavina, Las Arrastras de Arriola and las Palmas, in Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64172		habitat	eng	This is a scansorial lizard, with animals found on both rocks and trees in arid, rugged, rocky landscape with granite outcroppings. It is particularly associated with fan palms, but also occurs in boulder-strewn areas.
64172		population	eng	It is common in palm oases, but less abundant in the intervening rocky desert.
64172		threats	eng	Despite its restricted distribution, there appear to be no major threats to this species in its rugged habitat.
64173		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several areas presently declared as Biosphere Reserves and National Parks. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.
64173		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species includes extreme southwestern California in the United States (desert and coastal sides of mountains in San Diego County) and the full length of the Baja California peninsula in Mexico, including the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita and many islands in the Gulf of California (Ballena, Carmen, Cayo, Coronados, Danzante, El Coyote, El requeson, Espiritu Santo, Gallina, Gallo, Gaviota, Islitas, Las Animas, Pardo, Partida Sur, San Cosme, San Damian, San Francisco, San Jose, San Marcos and Tijeras), but excluding the Vizcaíno Desert region of central Baja California (Grismer 2002). Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 2,120 m (6,950 feet) (Grismer 2002).
64173		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs in a wide variety of habitats, such as those with oak, sycamore, desert willow, or chaparral in southern California and thornscrub in Baja California (Stebbins 2003). It habitually perches on rocks or vegetation (Grismer 2002) and retreats underground to escape predators or find shelter. It avoids extreme desert situations.
64173		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000., and is probably many millions This species occurs in tremendous numbers on some islands in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64173		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64174		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a large number of protected areas, such as national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species.
64174		distribution	eng	The geographic range extends from southwestern Wyoming (Baxter and Stone 1985), Utah, western Colorado (Hammerson 1999), southern Nevada, southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), and Texas (Dixon 2000) to northeastern Baja California (Grismer 2002), Sinaloa, northern Coahuila (Stebbins 2003), and Tamalipas. Elevational range extends from sea level to around 2,770 m (9,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64174		habitat	eng	Habitat includes a wide range of situations from desert to the lower edge of the spruce-fir zone; usually this lizard perches on massive rocks or trees (mesquite, oak, pine, juniper, alder, cottonwood, tamarisk, rough-bark eucalyptus) (Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003), sometimes on fence posts or buildings. It is often associated with river courses. When inactive, it occurs in tree stumps, under bark, in rock crevices, in burrows, or similar protected sites. It lays eggs probably in soil/underground, or under rocks.
64174		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996 and Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and basically stable.
64174		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64175		conservation	eng	The Isla Encantada belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64175		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Encantada, and the adjacent rocks, Islotes Blancos, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer (2002).
64175		habitat	eng	The species is almost completely confined to the intertidal areas of the Isla Encantada and Islotes Blancos. Animals use the base of the cliffs, especially large boulders at the waters edge, in areas below seabird nests (Brown Booby (<em>Sula leucogaster</em>) and Blue-footed Booby (<em>Sula nebouxi</em>)). They are less common in the islands' guano-covered, rocky interiors (Grismer 2002).
64175		population	eng	Although there is little-known about the population, it is presumed to be stable and naturally small.
64175		threats	eng	There are no threats identified for populations on the island.
64176		conservation	eng	The Isla El Muerto belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64176		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla El Muerto in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64176		habitat	eng	This species prefers the intertidal zones with abundant rocks and boulders, it can sometimes be found inland in rocky areas. It is less common in inter-tidal zones where the rocks are smaller than 18 cm. It is most common where steep rocks meet the water (Grismer 2002).
64176		population	eng	It is abundant within its small range, and its population is believed to be stable.
64176		threats	eng	No threats have been identified for this species.
64177		conservation	eng	The Isla San Pedro Nolasco belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64177		distribution	eng	The species in endemic to Isla San Pedro Nolasco, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64177		habitat	eng	This species is common in and among rocks of all sizes, but does not inhabit rocky beaches or cliffs. It occurs mainly in arroyos, and in the more level parts of the island, always among rocks, usually adjacent to shrubs, rather than in very open or grassy areas.
64177		population	eng	This species is very common within its small island restricted range.
64177		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64178		conservation	eng	The isla San Pedro Martir belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64178		distribution	eng	The species in endemic to the Isla San Pedro Martir (Sonora), in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64178		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky hillsides as well as in intertidal areas. Its habitat is dominated by a nesting colony of the Blue-footed Booby (<em>Sula nebouxi</em>). The breeding season is tied to that of the boobies, and the lizards feed on the small flies that gather in huge numbers on the guano. The lizards also feed on left-over fish scraps, deposited by the birds. Outside the seabird nesting season the lizards feed mainly on plant matter.
64178		population	eng	It is an unusually abundant species, and is ubiquitous within its tiny range.
64178		threats	eng	Although it has a restricted range, there appear to be no major threats to the species.
64179		conservation	eng	The Isla Santa catalina belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64179		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Isla Santa Catalina in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002), where it is ubiquitous.
64179		habitat	eng	This species seems to be ubiquitous in the island, it is common in rocky hillsides, in sandy arroyo (dry creek) bottoms and in the thorn scrub. In inland areas they are always in the vicinity of rocks, but also found in more open areas near the coast (Grismer 2002).
64179		population	eng	Populations are generally abundant and stable. It is more common within 500 m of the coast than in the island's interior.
64179		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64180		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas, such as national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64180		distribution	eng	The geographic range extends from central and northeastern California, central and eastern Oregon, central Washington, southwestern Idaho, Utah, and western Colorado southward to the tip of Baja California, northern Sinaloa, and northern Zacatecas, Mexico, including many islands along the Pacific coast of Baja California and in the Gulf of California  (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from below sea level in desert sinks to about 2,750 m (9,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64180		habitat	eng	Habitats include a wide variety of arid and semi-arid situations with scattered bushes and/or scrubby trees; soil may be sandy, gravelly, or rocky; the species is often found in sandy washes with scattered rocks and bushes (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are buried in sandy soil (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983).
64180		population	eng	This lizard is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 1,000,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and relatively stable.
64180		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64181		conservation	eng	The species inhabit in an islands that belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64181		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Isla Coloradito, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64181		habitat	eng	This species prefers the intertidal zones with abundant rocks and boulders, it can sometimes be found inland in rocky areas. It is most common where steep rocks meet the water (Grismer 2002).
64181		population	eng	It is abundant within its small range, and its population is believed to be stable.
64181		threats	eng	No threats have been identified for this species.
64182		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any proteccted areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this poorly-known species.
64182		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Central Guerrero State, Mexico. It possibly occurs more widely than is currently known, especially as sampling within the species range has only taken place close to roads. It has an elevational range of 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.
64182		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in the leaf-litter and low vegetation of pine and pine-oak forest. It is possible a forest edge species. It is not known if populations can persist in modified habitat.
64182		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
64182		threats	eng	Although it is only known from a small area, there appear to be no immediate threats to the species.
64183		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species. There is a general need to conserve areas of suitable tropical forest within the species range.
64183		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ocozocoautla (the type locality) and El Ocote, in the State of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded at 940 m asl.
64183		habitat	eng	It has currently only been recorded within well-preserved tropical evergreen forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
64183		population	eng	There is little information available on the population abundance of this recently described species.
64183		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is likely that it is threatened by deforestation, largely resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use.
64184		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations have been recorded within Huitepec Private Reserve and Lagos de MonteBello National Park. Other than general fieldwork, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64184		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.
64184		habitat	eng	Animals naturally occur in tropical pine-oak forest, but may also be found in areas of regenerating forest and similar disturbed habitats.
64184		population	eng	This is an abundant species within its limited range.
64184		threats	eng	While it has a limited range, there currently appear to be no major threats to this species.
64185		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology, and potential threats to this species.
64185		distribution	eng	This species appears to be known only from the holotype, collected at the undefined locality of "México" (Fitch and Henderson 1973, Lieb 1981, Nieto-Montes de Oca 1996). In view of the uncertainty about the species geographic range, no map has been prepared.
64185		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
64185		population	eng	Apparently known only from the holotype (Fitch and Henderson 1973, Lieb 1981, Nieto-Montes de Oca 1996).
64185		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
64186		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and the Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed.
64186		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic ranges from the Los Tuxtlas region of Veracruz, southwards into the mountains of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca, and eastward into the northern slope of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Chiapas. It occurs at elevations up to about 500 m asl.
64186		habitat	eng	This aquatic species is restricted to areas of tropical wet and tropical moist forest and is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.
64186		population	eng	It can be common but only in pristine habitats.
64186		threats	eng	Commercial logging and clearance of the forest for agriculture is considered to be a major threat to this species.
64187		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures for this species, it is present in the community protected area of Los Chimalapas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
64187		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from a small area in the extreme southeast of Oaxaca and adjacent Chiapas. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,400 m asl.
64187		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from montane pine and cloud forests. It is not believed to occur in severely disturbed areas.
64187		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species.
64187		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation and fires, both presumably resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use.
64188		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in many protected areas (parks, natural areas, etc.).
64188		distribution	eng	Range encompasses the southeastern United States: southern and eastern Texas, southeastern Oklahoma, central Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina south to the Rio Grande, Gulf Coast, and Florida Keys, with an isolated record from Tamaulipas, Mexico (presumably introduced) (Conant and Collins 1991). It has been introduced and is established in the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll (McKeown 1996, Lever, 2003); Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands (McCoid 1993, 1994; Wiles and Guerrero 1996; Vogt <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lever 2003); Palau (Crombie and Pregill 1999, Lever 2003); the Bahamas (Grand Bahama Island) (Lever 2003); <em>Anguilla</em> in the Lesser Antilles (Eaton <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lever 2003); introduced and possibly established on Grand Cayman Islands (Powell 2002); introduced to Japan (southern part of Okinawa-jima Island and the Ogasawara [Bonin] Archipelago) (Lever 2003, Goris and Maeda 2004); and Spain (isolated introductions at Cabo Huertas, Santa Pola, Almuñécar and on Tenerife) (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lever, 2003).
64188		habitat	eng	This mostly arboreal lizard occupies a wide variety of habitats, including upland forests, pine-palmetto scrublands, rocky escarpments, swamps, wooded parks, cleared fields, maritime scrub, and residential lots of coastal towns (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004); commonly it is in edge situations. It climbs on tree trunks, shrubs, vines, and various other plants, and also on fence posts and walls of buildings. It sleeps in vegetation at night. In cold weather, green anoles seek cover but do not go deep underground (Mount 1975). Eggs are buried in moist soil, sphagnum, leaf litter, rotting wood, or under rocks and debris.
64188		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000 and may exceed 1,000,000. The species is locally common in many areas (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and apparently relatively stable, though declines have occurred in Florida.
64188		threats	eng	In Florida, appears to be disappearing where the introduced brown anole has become established (Ashton and Ashton 1991). This factor, competition with and predation by other non-native anoles, and human-caused habitat degradation have caused declines in central and southern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). An introduced population in Guam is restricted by predation by the introduced brown tree snake (McCoid 1994).
64189		conservation	eng	Populations have been recorded from a community protected area named Los Chimalapas and in the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species and the persistence of populations in degraded habitats.
64189		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the northeastern extreme of Oaxaca, southern Veracruz, and Western Chiapas. Populations occur between 500 and 1,200 m asl.
64189		habitat	eng	This semi-arboreal and terrestrial is naturally found in lowland tropical moist forest, lower montane wet forest and pine-oak forest. Animals have been recorded from coffee plantations, and occasionally on cattle ranches.
64189		population	eng	In general, this is a common species.
64189		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened through deforestation and fire, resulting from the conversion of its natural habitat to agricultural use.
64190		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic research is needed into this taxon.
64190		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded from La Paz, in the upper Balsas basin of Puebla, Mexico. The location of 'La Paz' is unclear and the species is not mapped here.
64190		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology for this species are not known.
64190		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
64190		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64191		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations have been recorded from the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species, and the ability of populations to persists in coffee plantations.
64191		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to Eastern Oaxaca and western Chiapas. Populations have been found at elevations of between 200 and 700 m asl.
64191		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from primary and secondary wet montane cloud forest. It seems that populations can persist to some degree in coffee plantations, but are unlikely to survive in heavily disturbed areas.
64191		population	eng	In general, this is an uncommon species.
64191		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any major threats to the species. It seems to be able to adapt to living in coffee plantations, and there has been little recent additional change in land use within the region with no substantial change predicted.
64192		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are urgently needed into the distribution, populations abundance, reproduction, ecological requirements, and threat to this species.
64192		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in central Veracruz, Mexico.  It is present at elevations of about 1,000 m asl.
64192		habitat	eng	The species is quite poorly known, it has been recorded from tropical cloud forest, but it is not known whether it can tolerate habitat disturbance.
64192		population	eng	This species is rare to common in suitable habitat throughout its range.
64192		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64193		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. Further studies into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
64193		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern slope of Volcan San Martin and from Sierra Santa Marta, Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz State, Mexico. It occurs from 150 to 1,780 m asl.
64193		habitat	eng	It is restricted to lowland rainforest and lower montane wet forest. It is not tolerant of disturbance of its habitat.
64193		population	eng	It is a rare species.
64193		threats	eng	The species is threatened by loss of habitat through conversion of forest to pasture.
64194		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. Further studeis are needed into the ecology and threats to this species.
64194		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is distributed in the Pacific coastal foothills, below 1200 m asl,  in central and western Guerrero and adjacent eastern Michoacan.
64194		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal, diurnal species that is primarily associated with tropical dry forest. It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats.
64194		population	eng	The population density varies from rare to common throughout its range.
64194		threats	eng	The species is presumably threatened by ongoing deforestation (conversion of land to agricultural use) within its range.
64195		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.
64195		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is known only from the vicinity of the town of Izucar de Matamoros, in Puebla, Mexico. It occurs at about 1,000 m asl.
64195		habitat	eng	The species occurs in tropical deciduous forest. It is believed to occur in both primary and secondary forest. It is not known if it can occur outside of forest habitats. It is an oviparous species.
64195		population	eng	The population abundance of the species is not known. It is known only from the holotype.
64195		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64196		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas; areas of natural habitat should be protected where they remain. In view of the restrcited range of this species, it is important to monitor populations in order to detect any population declines.
64196		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the State of Guerrero, Mexico, where it ranges from Agua del Obispo to Acapulco on the Pacific coast. Populations have been recorded from sea level to close to 1,300 m asl.
64196		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this species is tropical semi-deciduous forest, where animals are mostly found on boulders and large rocks along rivers and streams. The range of this species has been highly disturbed, however the species can persist in these areas where there are waterways present.
64196		population	eng	It is not an especially uncommon species.
64196		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this somewhat adaptable species.
64197		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve areas of remaining forest.
64197		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of northwestern Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 1,525 to 2,000 m asl.
64197		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded in cloud forest and pine forest. Animals may be found in open areas, and in areas of plantain and traditional corn cultivation.
64197		population	eng	It is a common species within its restricted range.
64197		threats	eng	Although it is somewhat adaptable, the species is threatened through general habitat loss resulting from the conversion of forest to agricultural land.
64198		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable natural habitat for this species, with further research is needed into the threats.
64198		distribution	eng	This little-known species is found in the foothills northwest of Tehuantepec, in Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is present from around 300 to 500 m asl. It might occur more widely.
64198		habitat	eng	Populations have generally been recorded from thorn-scrub woodland, but animals have been found in disturbed areas.
64198		population	eng	The species is rarely, seen and little is known about its abundance.
64198		threats	eng	There is little information, but the species might be threatened through conversion of its woodland habitat to small holder farms.
64199		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded within the Omiltemi State Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and possible threats to this poorly-known species.
64199		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Sierra Madre del Sur in the Mexican state of Guerrero. It probably occurs more widely in the range than is currently known. It has been recorded between 1,500 and 2,500 m asl
64199		habitat	eng	Animals occur in leaf litter and low vegetation, within pine and pine-oak forested areas. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.
64199		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its restricted range.
64199		threats	eng	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.
64200		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve areas of suitable natural habitat. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species.
64200		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Pochutla, Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is found from 600 to 800 m asl.
64200		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species if tropical deciduous forest. Animals have been found in the shade trees of coffee plantations.
64200		population	eng	This species is rarely seen, probably because it occurs high in trees.  Animals have been collected as recently as 2002.
64200		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present.
64201		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). This species has been recorded from the Omiltemi State Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64201		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central Sierra Madre del Sur in the Mexican state of Guerrero. It probably occurs more widely within the range than is currently known. It has and elevational range of 1,500 to 2,500 m asl
64201		habitat	eng	Animals occur in leaf litter and low vegetation, within pine and pine-oak forested areas. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.
64201		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its restricted range.
64201		threats	eng	The species is threatened by general habitat loss, largely resulting from the conversion of forests to agricultural land.
64202		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and possible threats to this species.
64202		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Guerrero and western Oaxaca, Mexico. Populations have been found between 1,700 and 2,200 m asl.
64202		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded within open oak woodland and pine-oak woodland. Populations can occur in disturbed habitat, most especially at the forest edge.
64202		population	eng	This species is rare to common in suitable habitat throughout its range.
64202		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64203		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution (including field surveys close to El Ocote), abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
64203		distribution	eng	This Mexican species appears to be known only from the type series of two adult females collected at El Ocote, in the State of Chiapas at 600 m asl (Alvarez del Toro and Smith 1956). The location of the 'El Ocote' location where the species was collected at is unclear as there is more than one in this region, hence the species is not mapped here.
64203		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species remain unknown. One of the specimens contained a single, large intact egg; with other immature eggs present (Alvarez del Toro and Smith 1956).
64203		population	eng	It is apparently known only from two female specimens.
64203		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64204		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed.
64204		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded in the northeastern highlands of Oaxaca State, including the area around Quetzaltepec, at elevations of around 1,500 m asl.
64204		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected from evergreen tropical forest and cloud forest. It has also been recorded from disturbed areas, although further information on its persistence in these habitats is needed.
64204		population	eng	This species has only been collected twice, once in the 1940s, and once in the 1970s.
64204		threats	eng	The forest habitat from which the species has been recorded is threatened by burning and clearing for conversion to agricultural use (crops).
64205		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a urgent need to protect remaining cloud forest habitat for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and biology of this species.
64205		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it ranges from northeastern Hidalgo southward to central Veracruz, extreme northern Puebla with disjunct populations in southern Puebla. It has an elevational range of 500 to 1,600 m asl.
64205		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary montane cloud forest, including humid areas close to waterfalls. It occurs in shady areas on tree branches and in leaf litter. It is an oviparous species.
64205		population	eng	It is a naturally rare species.
64205		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and severe fragmentation of its habitat. Forest is cleared for conversion to agricultural land, including cattle pasture and cereal crops. Some locations are severely impacted by activities such as road construction (e.g.., in Hidalgo State).
64206		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place, and the species is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
64206		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca State, Mexico. Populations are found at 800 to 1,850 m asl.
64206		habitat	eng	This species is present in leaf-letter, shrubs and low trees within pine-oak forest. It can be found in secondary forest, and has been recorded from banana and coffee plantations.
64206		population	eng	It appears to be a locally common species, with populations that are believed to be stable.
64206		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64207		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it presumably occurs in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64207		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the Pacific foothills of central Guerrero at around 900 to 1,100 m asl, west to cover coastal and foothill regions of western Guerrero, from here along the Pacific coast through the States of Michoacan, Jalisco, and Nayarit as far north as central Sinaloa. From here it turns inland along the western foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental of Sinaloa, Sonora and Chihuahua. Additional populations occur in the high montane regions (to as least 2,100 m) of the Transverse Volcanic Range of Michoacan and Jalisco, and the Sierra Madrean regions along the Sinaloa-Durango border.
64207		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of wooded habitats, including tropical subdeciduous forest, tropical deciduous forest and mangroves. It can especially be found in disturbed forest.
64207		population	eng	This is generally a common species.
64207		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64208		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from Omiltemi State Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the highlands of the Sierra Madre del Sur in central Guerrero State, Mexico. It occurs between 1,500 and 2,500m asl.
64208		habitat	eng	It can be found in leaf litter and low shrubs within pine-oak and oak forests. It is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat disturbance.
64208		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its very restricted range.
64208		threats	eng	The main threat is general habitat loss caused by an expanding area of small-holder farming.
64209		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from the Laguna Belgica State Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
64209		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central-eastern Chiapas State, Mexico. Populations are found at 500 to 1,200 m asl.
64209		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in both tropical dry and pine-oak forest. There are records from plantations, although further details are needed about the persistence of populations in modified habitats.
64209		population	eng	While animals are rarely seen, the general population size of this species is not known.
64209		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64210		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). While it is not known from any protected areas, the forest in Sierra de Juarez is effectively protected by local community initiatives. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64210		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sierra de Juarez, in Oaxaca State, Mexico. It can be found at around 2,100 m asl.
64210		habitat	eng	This is a semi-arboreal species that is restricted to primary pine-oak and cloud forest.
64210		population	eng	This is a species that is rarely seen.
64210		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64211		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in El Ocote Biosphere Reserve and Los Chimalapas a community protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64211		distribution	eng	This Mexican species is distributed in the region of El Ocote in Chiapas State, and in northeastern Oaxaca State. Populations occur at elevations from 500 to 700 m asl.
64211		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to tropical sub-deciduous forest and tropical moist forest. It is not thought to be able to adapt to habitat disturbance.
64211		population	eng	This species is known to be rare in El Ocote Biosphere Reserve, and is uncommon in northeastern Oaxaca.
64211		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the ongoing expansion of small-holder farming within the areas; including clearance of land through the use of fire.
64212		conservation	eng	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
64212		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs close to Tejocotes and within the Valley of Zapotilan Salinas in the highlands of Oaxaca State. It has an elevational range of 1400 to 1800 m asl.
64212		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is open montane oak woodland and high desert or arid areas. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
64212		population	eng	Throughout its range, this species varies from being rare to common.
64212		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64213		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the possible threats, such as habitat loss, for this species.
64213		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in central Veracruz, Mexico. It occurs at around 1,340 to 1,530 m asl.
64213		habitat	eng	It is found in montane cloud forest. The species occurs in primary and secondary forest, and also within disturbed areas. This species is oviparous.
64213		population	eng	It is a common species.
64213		threats	eng	The threats to the area of cloud forest in which this species occurs are not known. Other areas of cloud forest are very threatened in Mexico, generally through deforestation through conversion to agricultural use.
64214		conservation	eng	While it is not currently known to occur in protected areas, it may be present in the Chamela National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64214		distribution	eng	This Mexican species is currently known only from single sites in Colima State and Michoacan State. A recently published record from Chamela, Jalisco State, needs to be confirmed. The species is believed to be more widely distributed in the areas than is currently known.
64214		habitat	eng	This is a small arboreal lizard, of tropical dry forest, and possibly also of semi-deciduous forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitat.
64214		population	eng	The species is not well studied, and little is known about the population size or trends. However, it is expected to be more common and wide ranging than is currently known.
64214		threats	eng	While deforestation may be considered a future threat, at present it is not significant enough a loss of habitat to threaten this species.
64215		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no protected areas within the species geographic range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
64215		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it appears to be restricted to the vicinity of Pinotepa Nacional, a small town in the Pacific lowlands in the State of Oaxaca. It is presumably a lowland species.
64215		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest, it may be able to persist in secondary forest.
64215		population	eng	Although the species is uncommon it can still be found.
64215		threats	eng	The threats to this species appears to be poorly known.
64216		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and potential threats to this species.
64216		distribution	eng	This little-known Mexican endemic appears to have been collected at a number of sites in Guerrero State (Davis 1954, Liner and Dundee 1969); it possibly also occurs in adjacent Oaxaca. The holotype was collected 'one mile southwest of Tierra Colorada, 900 ft' (Davis 1954). The type series appears to have been collected at around 300 m asl (900 to 1,000 ft).
64216		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known animal, for which there is very little information available on the habitat and ecological requirements.
64216		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
64216		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
64217		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque El Veladero. It is important to define the legal conservation status of one of the most important patches of vegetation at Puerto Marquez. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64217		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Puerto Marquez area, in northern Acapulco, Guerrero State, Mexico. It is a lowland species occurring at sea level to 200 m asl.
64217		habitat	eng	This is generally a saxicolous species, with  animals found on boulders in patches of tropical semi deciduous tropical dry forest. Populations are present in the outskirts of Acapulco in very disturbed urban areas.
64217		population	eng	It is common within its restricted range.
64217		threats	eng	The forested patches surrounding Acapulco are scarce and small, and the area has experienced an accelerated rate of transformation into human settlements. There appears to be no imminent threat to this adaptable species.
64218		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and potential threats to this species.
64218		distribution	eng	This little known species was collected "about ten miles north of Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico" (Barbour 1932). It seems not to have been collected since (Lieb 1981, Nieto Montes de Oca 1996).
64218		habitat	eng	There is little information recorded on the ecology or habitat requirements of this species. Barbour (1932) records that the type specimen was bought in a dusty lane from a Mexican cattle driver, who had been killing lizards on rocks and fence posts with the intention of taking these home to feed his cats.
64218		population	eng	This species is known only by the female holotype (Barbour 1932, Lieb 1981, Nieto Montes de Oca 1996).
64218		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64219		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least several protected areas.
64219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its range includes northern and central Florida and a small part of Georgia, encompassing a total of 28 Florida counties from Highlands County in the south-central Florida peninsula north to Lanier County, Georgia (Jensen and Payne 1996, Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005). The distribution in Georgia includes only one known location (Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005).
64219		habitat	eng	Habitats include sandy, easily burrowed soils (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), such as dry upland hammocks and sand pine and longleaf pine-turkey oak sandhills (Ashton and Ashton 1985). The species is fossorial but may come above ground in September-October (Ashton and Ashton 1985). Worm lizards often are just beneath a leaf-mold layer in well-drained sandy soil, but reportedly they also can be common in ploughed fields (Carr and Goin 1955). Eggs are laid underground.
64219		population	eng	The species is known from 510 localities (Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005). These represent a much smaller number of distinct populations (but probably at least 100) (see map in Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005). The total adult population size is unknown and would be very difficult to determine due to the worm lizard's fossorial habits. However, the species is probably not rare (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and probably exceeds 10,000 adults.
64219		threats	eng	Loss and degradation of habitat as a result of human activities (e.g., agriculture, residential and commercial development) probably are the most significant threats.
64220		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
64220		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to the United States. It occurs in scattered, disjunct subpopulations, extending from western New York and Pennsylvania to the Florida panhandle and Gulf Coast, west to eastern Texas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Kansas (Walley 1998).
64220		habitat	eng	The habitat generally consists of humid wooded areas with abundant leaf litter and loose rocks; often the lizard occurs in the vicinity of springs, swamps, and bogs, but it also inhabits clearcuts, highway and powerline rights-of-way (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001), rocky bluffs above creek valleys, dry, rocky, south-facing hillsides (Johnson 2000), and dry shale barrens (West Virginia). Individuals often shelter under logs and rocks near water. Sometimes they take refuge in water. One nest was under a piece of shale (Mount 1975).
64220		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Walley (1998) mapped well over 200 collection sites throughout the range. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This lizard's secretive habits make it difficult to determine abundance. In the Northeast, it generally occurs as relatively small, localized populations (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable in most of the range.
64220		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. These lizards are tolerant of a moderate degree of habitat alteration (e.g., logging).
64221		conservation	eng	It is present in at least four protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy and distribution are needed for this species.
64221		distribution	eng	This widespread species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the States of Durango, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Michocan, Colima, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz. It is found between around 800 and 2,900 m asl.
64221		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary pine forest, pine-oak forest and oak forest. It can be found in disturbed areas close to forest. It can be found in leaf litter, under logs and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species.
64221		population	eng	It can be a very common species.
64221		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened in parts of its range by severe deforestation.
64222		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64222		distribution	eng	This species mainly in northwestern Mexico, extending into extreme southwestern United States (Lieb 1990, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico it is known from northwestern Chihuahua south through western slope foothills and barrancas of Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Sonora, Durango, Sinaloa, Nayarit, northern Jalisco, and Zacatecas. It is also present on the coastal plain of central Sinaloa south through Nayarit, south to Bolaños and Gaudalajara in Jalisco. In the United States it is known from Pajarito, Baboquivari, Santa Rita, and the Huachuca mountains in Arizona, and from the Peloncillo Mountains (Guadalupe Canyon, Geronimo Trail) in New Mexico. Its elevational range extends from near sea level (in Mexico) to above 1,980 m, but it is generally above (1,220 m in the United States (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64222		habitat	eng	In the United States, this skink inhabits rocky pine and oak habitats in the mountains, particularly in canyon riparian and hillside situations (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico, it ranges down through western slope foothills and barrancas and is known from the coastal plain in the south (Lieb 1990). Eggs are laid under rocks and in similar sites and are attended by the female until after hatching (Tanner 1987) (live birth also reported). It is not found in agricultural habitats.
64222		population	eng	Lieb (1990) mapped 43 collection sites rangewide, all but 6 of which are in Mexico. This is a secretive species and relatively difficult to collect, so undoubtedly there are many more occurrences or subpopulations than currently are known. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds several thousand. Overall it is reasonably common in Mexico. Skinks are secretive and can be numerous even in areas where they are difficult to detect by visual techniques. Pifall traps are needed to determine abundance. For example, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) reported that most of the 89 specimens taken in New Mexico were obtained in pitfall traps. Population trends are poorly known but no major declines have been reported.
64222		threats	eng	The species is probably secure throughout most of its range in Mexico, although some local populations may be jeopardized by habitat loss. Potential threats in the United States include uncontrolled wildfire and intensive cattle grazing of riparian zones in the limited areas where this species occurs. But overall it is not significantly threatened.
64223		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Volcan de Colima National Park. Additional research is needed to determine the population, biology, threats to the species and the status of its habitat.
64223		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from northern Colima and adjacent Jalisco, with an isolated record by Webb (1959) 'at approximately 5000 feet in the southern part of the state of Sinaloa, one mile east of Santa Lucia...... on the road from Mazatlán to Durango approximately 18 miles (airline) northeast of Concordia' (the approximate site of this locality is mapped here). Populations have been recorded between 1,500 to 2,400 m asl.
64223		habitat	eng	Animals are found in rock crevices and leaf litter within pine and pine-oak forest, on the slopes of Volcan de Colima and the Sierra de Manantlan.
64223		population	eng	It may have been common in the past (Adrian Nieto Montes de Oca, pers. comm.), but now appears to be uncommon (A. Garcia Aguayo pers. comm.).
64223		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64224		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.
64224		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known from the States of Morelos and Mexico, and the Distrito Federal.
64224		habitat	eng	This species found in primary and secondary pine and pine-oak forest, where it occurs in rocky areas and under logs. It does not occur outside of forest habitat. It is a viviparous species.
64224		population	eng	It can be very common in some places.
64224		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There may be some limited, localized habitat loss in parts of its range.
64225		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. This is a poorly known species, further biological and ecological research is needed, and assessment of its habitat requirements.
64225		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico where it ranges from central Guanajuato to the south reaching northern Michoacan, Mexico. It is a montane species probably occurring above 2,000 m asl.
64225		habitat	eng	This little-known species occurs in upland areas of primary pine and pine-oak forests. It is not known if it can persist in secondary forest. It is usually found under logs and bark.
64225		population	eng	It is believed to be a rare species.
64225		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss through logging. This has severely fragmented suitable habitat in the range.
64226		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in a large number of parks, monuments, wildlife refuges, and other nominally protected areas.
64226		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its geographic range encompasses Florida, the coastal plain of Georgia, and a portion of the coastal plain and adjacent provinces of Alabama east of the Black Warrior and Tombigbee rivers (Mount 1968).
64226		habitat	eng	Habitats include coastal dunes, sand pine scrub, longleaf pine-turkey oak woods, and xeric hammocks. This lizard is mostly fossorial; often under surface litter, also in pocket gopher burrows and mounds, burrowing beetle mounds; it occurs in greatest numbers where soil is sandy or gravelly and dry. It also occurs under rocks and tidal wrack on beaches. Eggs are laid in a cavity dug in sandy soil, several inches to six feet below the surface (Mount 1975).
64226		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations; e.g., Mount (1968) mapped well over 100 collection sites throughout the range. This species is secretive; undoubtedly there are many more occurrences than are now known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. This skink is secretive and is more numerous than visual observations indicate. In Florida, it is fairly common where suitable habitat remains intact (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Population trends are unknown but overall the species remains fairly common and secure in some parts of the range. Some populations have declined as a result of habitat destruction and degradation.
64226		threats	eng	In some areas, such as the sandy ridges of central Florida, the major threat is habitat destruction for residential, commercial, and agricultural development; fire suppression has resulted in declining habitat quality in some areas. In the Florida Keys and in the Cedar Key area in Florida, habitat destruction and lizard collection by herpetological enthusiasts are major threats.
64227		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in many protected areas.
64227		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the eastern United States, and extending into southern Canada. Its geographic range extends from western New England and southern Ontario to Minnesota, and south through eastern Kansas and eastern Oklahoma to eastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and northern peninsular Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).
64227		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits wooded areas of many kinds, especially those that are humid, well-drained, supply abundant cover (rocks, logs, stumps, leaf litter), and have a patchy canopy; it also occupies seasonally flooded lowlands in some areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is generally terrestrial but also climbs trees (distinctly arboreal in Texas). Generally secretive, it spends much time under cover. Eggs are laid in or under rotting logs, stumps, or humus, or under rocks (Fitch 1954, Vogt 1981). In Ontario, preferred nest sites were large, moderately decayed logs with high substrate moisture (Hecnar 1994). Oviposition sites may be outside the non-nesting home range (Seburn 1993).
64227		population	eng	This species is represented by very many occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites in Arkansas alone. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000, and is probably in the millions. The species tends to be common in most of the large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
64227		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64228		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas (parks, refuges). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64228		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species encompasses the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges from central California in the United States to northern Baja California in Mexico (Pacific coast to the central Sierra San Pedro Martir; Grismer 2002). Isolated populations exist in southeastern California, southern Nevada, and west-central Arizona (Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 2,220 m (7,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64228		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide variety of habitats: grassland, salt flats, high desert, open chaparral, pinon-juniper woodland, and open pine forest, often in rocky areas in the vicinity of intermittent or permanent streams and springs (Stebbins 2003). It extends into hot desert areas along riparian corridors (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
64228		population	eng	This lizard is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Jones (1985) mapped more than 150 collection sites throughout the range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Population trends are not documented, but the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.
64228		threats	eng	In some areas, declines have probably occurred as a result of habitat destruction associated with residential and commercial development, and agricultural expansion. However, the species remains fairly common in many areas.
64229		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas.
64229		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the southeastern United States. Its geographic range extends from southern Maryland to the Florida Keys, and west to Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana, avoiding much of the Appalachian Mountains (Conant and Collins 1991).
64229		habitat	eng	The habitat of this terrestrial and arboreal species includes various situations such as wet pine flatwoods, cut-over woodlots, cypress heads, scrub and sand-hill (high pine) habitats, ridgetops, well-drained sandy places, seashore islands, and abandoned buildings. These skinks often are under or in ground litter, logs, piles of wood, or stumps, which appear to be important elements of the habitat (Mushinsky 1992, Anderson and Tiebout 1993). Eggs are laid in logs or stumps or under rocks or other cover.
64229		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Steiner (1986) mapped perhaps 150 to 200 collection sites throughout the range whereas Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped hundreds of collection sites in North Carolina alone. This secretive lizard undoubtedly occurs in many more sites than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. It is common to abundant over most of its range (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.
64229		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. The species tolerates moderate habitat alteration (logging, partial clearing). Frequent burning can be detrimental.
64230		conservation	eng	Populations of this species are present within some protected areas, such as La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. Other than general field research and monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64230		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic species ranges discontinuously from northern Baja California Sur, from San Francisco de la Sierra southward to San Jose Comondu. A disjunct distribution is located at the Sierra La Laguna, in the Cape Region in the south of Baja California Sur.
64230		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in montane deciduous forests, including pine-oak and oak forests, where it is found in humid microhabitats with permanent water. Animals dwell under ground cover, including rocks and logs, beneath grass and bushes, or under fallen palm fronds.
64230		population	eng	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered.
64230		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, as its forest habitats appear not to be threatened.
64231		conservation	eng	Many protected areas include populations of this lizard.
64231		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the southeastern United States, avoiding much of the Appalachian Mountains. Its range extends from southeastern Pennsylvania, central Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and eastern Kanas south to eastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and central Florida. An isolated population may occur in northeastern Indiana (record could represent an atypical <em>E. fasciatus</em> juvenile; Minton 2001 ). Isolated questionable records exist west of established range in western Oklahoma and central Texas, and to the south in southern Florida (Cooper 1988).
64231		habitat	eng	Rangewide, the species occupies wooded areas and woodland edges having diverse soil types and moisture conditions; hammocks and cypress heads in Florida; also swamps, vacant debris-strewn lots, and barrier islands. These lizards are semi-arboreal and often sun themselves on snags or stumps; they take refuge in rotting stumps and standing dead trees, occupying old woodpecker holes and other hollows. On coastal islands in South Carolina, they prefer large live oaks having holes and a fringe of dense cover (bushes) (Cooper 1993); adults occur most often in oaks or on the ground, juveniles occur most often on walls, palmettos, or on the ground; they may actively avoid pines (Cooper and Vitt 1994). Eggs are laid in a nest in a rotting stump or dead tree or under rocks or other cover.
64231		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Cooper (1988) mapped hundred of collections sites rangewide, and Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 sites in North Carolina alone. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Population trends are not well documented, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably stable or slowly declining.
64231		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. The species is tolerant of moderate habitat alteration (e.g., logging, partial clearing, nonintensive rural residential development).
64232		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least five protected areas.
64232		distribution	eng	This widespread species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from Durango, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Nayarit, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Queretaro, northern Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon. It occurs between 1,800 and 2,700 m asl.
64232		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in primary pine-oak forest and oak forest. It is not present in disturbed habitats. It is found under rocks, leaf-litter, logs and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species, giving birth to litters of up to five young (Ramírez-Bautista <em>et al</em>. 1998). The diet consists largely of insects and other arthropods.
64232		population	eng	It is a common species.
64232		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use.
64233		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. This is a rare and poorly known species, population and natural history data is scarce.
64233		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central-western Chihuahua, Mexico. Tanner (1988) records that populations occur in two areas, one north (vicinities of Chuhuichupa, García, and Yaguirachic) and one south (southeast of Creel) of the Río Papigochic. It has been recorded between 2,246 and 2,615 m asl (Tanner 1988).
64233		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded from meadows, rocky areas and streamsides in or near montane pine forest (Tanner, 1988); animals need an abundant ground cover of rocks and logs. It is not know if this species is able to adapt well to habitat disturbance.
64233		population	eng	There is little information on the population abundance of this species, but it is currently considered to be a relatively rare species.
64233		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64234		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in several national parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures, other than further taxonoimc studies, are needed for the species as a whole.
64234		distribution	eng	The northern part of the geographic range includes southern South Dakota, Nebraska, southeastern Wyoming, and northeastern Colorado; the southern segment encompasses southern Colorado, southeastern Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. Elevational range is 910 to 2,620 m (3,000 to 8,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64234		habitat	eng	Northern populations inhabit prairie grassland and sandhills; southern populations occur in creosote bush desert, streamside thickets, pinyon-juniper and pine-oak woodland, fir forests, semi-desert and oak shrublands, vacant lots, dumps; soil may be rocky, sandy, or loamy (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson, 1999, Stebbins 2003). This is a secretive lizard that is usually found under ground cover. Eggs have been found under rocks.
64234		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 70 to 75 collection sites in New Mexico. Hammerson (1999) mapped about 60 localities in Colorado. The species is secretive and undoubtedly occurs in sites not yet documented. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common. Pitfall samples may capture hundreds in areas where few are found by casual searching (see Hammerson 1999). Some localized declines have occurred, but overall the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of locations, and population size are probably stable or slowly declining.
64234		threats	eng	In prairie and shrubland regions, conversion of habitat to agricultural uses has caused local declines.
64235		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in many parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64235		distribution	eng	The geographic range includes northeastern Colorado, southern Nebraska, and southwestern Iowa through Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, eastern Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, and adjacent northern Mexico (to northern Tamaulipas and Durango) (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from near sea level to 2,650 m (8,700 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64235		habitat	eng	In the eastern part of the range, this skink inhabits prairie regions: rocky areas, canyon bottoms, sandhills, and floodplains; in the west, it occurs in canyons, mesas, and mountains in semi-arid regions, especially in shrubby rock outcrops along stream courses. It is a secretive species that often takes refuge under rocks, logs, and other cover. Eggs are laid in nests dug under rocks (Fitch 1970).
64235		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see Hall 1976, Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common (Degenhardt et al.1996). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable. Locally common throughout its range.
64235		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Large-scale intensive cultivation has eliminated or reduced some populations, but the species tolerates a moderate level of habitat alteration associated with agricultural development and cattle grazing.
64236		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations are present in the Omiltemi State Park. Further general field research is needed for this species.
64236		distribution	eng	The species is believed to be confined to the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero State, Mexico. It has been recorded from around 1,500 to 2,750 m asl.
64236		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of pine-oak and cloud forest. It is not known how adaptable the species is to habitat disturbance.
64236		population	eng	It seems to be a fairly common species that is regularly seen.
64236		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to the species.
64237		conservation	eng	This is a poorly known species, are few biological data are available. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
64237		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental, in Sonora State, Mexico. It is a lowland species.
64237		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from semi-arid bushland, generally at low elevations. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
64237		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species.
64237		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The habitats within its range are generally intact.
64238		conservation	eng	As with many other species of the genus <em>Eumeces</em> this is a poorly known species, and more biological data are needed in order to define its conservation. It occurs at the biological station at Chamela.
64238		distribution	eng	This western Mexico endemic is known only from a few localities in southern Sinaloa and adjacent Nayarit (type locality at Tepic), coastal Jalisco (at Chamela), and near Tehuantepec (near Coalcoman), in Michocan (P. Ponce-Campos pers. comm.). Robinson (1979) also records a collection site within Colima. It probably occurs much more widely, especially between the currently known localities. Robinson (1979) records that it occurs from below 500 m asl to at least 1,000 m asl.
64238		habitat	eng	The species appears to be restricted to oak woodland at lower elevations and transitional pine-oak forest at higher elevations (Robinson 1979). Animals can be found in holes (including the burrows of other animals), amongst leaf litter, and under rocks, logs and similar ground cover.
64238		population	eng	There is very little information on this species.
64238		threats	eng	There is no information, but based on habitat availability and ecological requirements it is very unlikely to be threatened.
64239		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.
64239		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North America, occurring widely in the prairies of the United States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from southern Manitoba, Minnesota, and northwestern Wisconsin south through the eastern Dakotas, Iowa, eastern Nebraska, Kansas and adjacent northwestern Missouri (Figg 1993), Oklahoma, and western Arkansas to coastal Texas and northwestern Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991). Populations at the northern end of the range in southwestern Manitoba apparently are separated from the closest occurrences in Minnesota and North Dakota by 193 km and 280 km, respectively (Bredin, 1989 COSEWIC report). Toal and Reiserer (1992, <em>Herpetoogical Review</em> 23: 89) reported subspecies <em>obtusirostris</em> from southwestern Missouri.
64239		habitat	eng	Habitat includes open sandy areas of pine barrens and bracken grassland, grassy dunes, sandy banks of creeks and rivers and along roadsides, open grass-covered rocky hillsides near streams, and forest edges and woodland; this semi-fossorial lizard is often under ground cover. Eggs are laid in shallow nests dug in loose moist soil under logs, boards, rocks, or other objects (see Frese 2003).
64239		population	eng	This skink is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. It is secretive and undoubtedly occurs in significantly more localities than current records indicate. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000, and is probably much higher. This species is secretive and more numerous than visual observations indicate. Some local populations have probably been eliminated or reduced, but no major decline has been reported. Population trends are not documented but probably relatively stable. See Bredin (1989 COSEWIC report) for information on status in Canada (no evidence of decline).
64239		threats	eng	Presumably some habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of large-scale intensive cultivation, but overall no major widespread threats to remaining populations have been identified.
64240		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in many national parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64240		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from south-central British Columbia in Canada, through the western United States to northwestern Baja California in Mexico. In the United States it ranges from the Pacific coast to western Montana, Idaho, eastern Utah, and north-central Arizona, including various islands off the west coast of California and Baja California (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico, its range extends possibly as far south as el Rosario. Its elevational range is from sea level (California) to about 2,530 m (8,300 feet) (southern Utah, southern Nevada, northern Arizona) (Tanner 1988, Stebbins 2003).
64240		habitat	eng	Habitats include grassland, chaparral, pinyon-juniper woodland, open  pine or pine-oak woods, and rocky areas near streams (Stebbins 2003); the species is partial to open wooded foothills and is usually associated with rocks, under which it takes shelter. It also digs burrows in soil. Eggs are laid in burrows or areas excavated by the female under rocks and stones.
64240		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Tanner (1988) mapped nearly 200 collection sites rangewide. Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped even more localities than did Tanner for the Pacific Northwest portion of the range. The secretive habits of this skink suggest that it occurs in many more localities than have been so far documented. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000 and is probably in the millions. The species is locally common in many areas. Like most skinks, it is secretive and much more numerous than visual observations would suggest. Population trends are undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.
64240		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Reductions from habitat loss appear to be minimal.
64241		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas, both in the United States and in Mexico. Other than raising public awareness, no direct conservation measureas are needed for this species as a whole.
64241		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern United States and in northeastern Texas. The subspecies <em>E. t. tetragrammus</em> ranges from southern Texas to northern Veracruz and Queretaro, and west to Coahuila (Conant and Collins 1991). Subspecies <em>E. t. brevilineatus</em> occurs from central and southwestern Texas south through northern Coahuila and northern Nuevo Leon, with an isolated population in the Sierra del Nido, Chihuahua (Lieb 1990, Conant and Collins 1991).The species reaches an elevation of around 2,300 m (7,550 feet) in the Chisos Mountains (Conant and Collins 1991). The two subspecies intergrade in southern Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico.
64241		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits rocky hillsides in arid and semi-arid country, brushlands, grasslands, thornscrub, edges of open pine-oak woodlands, pond edges, gullies near small streams, gallery forest of riparian corridors, tropical deciduous forests (in southern range area), and trash piles and dumps; it is often in leaf litter, rotting brush, old packrat houses, cactus clumps, or other debris, such as that around isolated dilapidated houses; may take cover in water (Smith 1946, Conant 1975, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug under rocks, logs, or other cover, or in loose soil. Individuals burrow underground or at least become difficult to find on the surface during the hottest summer weather (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
64241		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Lieb (1990) mapped well over 100 collection sites rangewide. Dixon (2000) indicated occurrences in virtually all of the several dozen counties within the range in Texas. This lizard is very secretive, and it is difficult to determine the size and robustness of individual occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000, and is probably much more. Population trends are unknown, but probably the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are relatively stable.
64241		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. However, in some parts of the range the species is killed under the erroneous belief that it is venomous.
64242		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Field surveys are underway within the species range, and it is hoped that these will provide more details on the species range, biology, ecology and threats.
64242		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Apatzingan and from the Tepalcatepec-Balsas basin, in central Michoacan State, Mexico. However it is expected to have a wider range.
64242		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species, generally found in the leaf litter of tropical deciduous forest. It is not known if the species can adapt to modified habitats.
64242		population	eng	There are no data on population size or trend. The species appears to be rare.
64242		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species. Although there has been some conversion of land from primary habitat in the Apatzingan area, this may have resulted in population declines.
64243		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
64243		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, occurring in Mexico, Guatemala and Belize.  It is found from near sea level to around 300 m asl.
64243		habitat	eng	It inhabits both dry deciduous and more mesic forests and is active on the forest floor by day.  It is mainly restricted to forest habitats, but can occasionally be seen on the edge of urban areas.
64243		population	eng	It is an uncommon species that is rarely encountered.
64243		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
64244		conservation	eng	Its range includes at least two protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64244		distribution	eng	This species is known from disjunct localities in coastal Veracruz and neighbouring states in Mexico.  It occurs from 200 to 2,000 m asl.
64244		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical evergreen forest, oak forest, cloud forest and rainforest, as well as secondary and degraded forest. It also occurs in pasturelands.
64244		population	eng	It can be very common in some places.
64244		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
64245		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in many parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64245		distribution	eng	The large range of this United States species extends from New Jersey to southern Florida, west to Kansas, Texas, and north to southern Illinois, southern Indiana, and southern Ohio, and south to the Gulf Coast (Brooks 1975, Conant and Collins 1991). It is not currently known to occur with certainty in Mexico.
64245		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats; generally it occurs in areas with ground cover (grass, leaf litter, forest floor debris, rocks, etc.), including dry upland woodlands as well as stream and pond edges (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999); often it can be found under ground surface cover. It goes underground in cold weather and may seek cover in water when pursued. Eggs are laid in moist humus, logs, rotting vegetation, or under rocks (Ashton and Ashton 1985, Minton 1972).
64245		population	eng	This species is represented by thousands of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. This is a very common lizard in many areas. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.
64245		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64246		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in the Biospere Reserves of Tehuaccin-Cuicatlan and El Cielo. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
64246		distribution	eng	This species is present in the highlands of Mexico from eastern Puebla, southwest Veracruz and northern Oaxaca.
64246		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine and pine-oak forests. It is believed to occur only in primary forest habitats.
64246		population	eng	It is a common species.
64246		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There may be some localized habitat loss, although this is not thought to be a significant threat.
64247		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, and possible threats to this poorly known species.
64247		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Rio Grijalva in Chiapas State, Mexico, and Guatemala. It occurs from about 400 to 700 m.
64247		habitat	eng	In Guatemala it has been recorded from seasonal dry lowland Caribbean pine forest. Little else is known about this species.
64247		population	eng	This is a uncommon and poorly known species. There are no recent records from Mexico, with the last record from 1956. The Guatemalan specimens were collected in the 1930s. This species is probably difficult to capture, which might be one reason why it is so poorly known.
64247		threats	eng	There is very little information on threats as the species is so poorly known. The area of distribution in Guatemala has not suffered major land use changes in the last several decades, although there has been some habitat disturbance resulting from fires and localized logging.
64248		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64248		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula. It is more or less continuously distributed throughout the northern half of the peninsula in Mexico, and occurs in the south as isolated populations on the Savannas of El Petén, Guatemala and Belize. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 300 m asl.
64248		habitat	eng	These wary, fast-moving lizards inhabit open situations, savannas, roadsides, and forest edges. They benefit from the opening up of habitats by humans, such as roadsides and urban areas.
64248		population	eng	It is a very common species in suitable habitat, and its population appears stable at present.
64248		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
64249		conservation	eng	Protection status is unknown, but probably most of the occurrences are not well protected.
64249		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwest of the United States. Its small range historically included the area in the vicinity of Willcox (Cochise County) Arizona, the vicinity of Fairbank (Cochise County), and the Hackberry Ranch in Whitlock Valley (Graham County), Arizona (Wright and Lowe 1993, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys in 2000-2003 found the species near Willcox and near Bonita (where not previously recorded in Graham County) but not at Fairbank or Whitlock Valley (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Fairbank locality appears to be erroneous and probably represents the base of operations rather than the collection locality (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005).
64249		habitat	eng	This is primarily a grassland species (Wright and Lowe 1993).
64249		population	eng	In a range-wide survey, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) found this species at 12 sites in two general areas. Total adult population size is unknown but probably at least several thousand. Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) noted that "relatively large numbers" were seen at three sites. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear not to have changed very much from the historical situation (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). Wright and Lowe (1993) reported that this species is "fairing badly" in Whitlock Valley, where it occurs in syntopy with a healthy population of <em>Aspidoscelis tigris</em> in an overgrazed, shrubby habitat. However, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) concluded that the overall distribution and probably abundance appear to have been stable at least over the past 50 years.
64249		threats	eng	This species appears to be holding its own despite habitat changes from heavy cattle grazing and the presence of a potential competitor (<em>Aspidoscelis uniparens</em>). Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) found no evidence of replacement of <em>A. arizonae</em> by <em>A. uniparens</em> over the past several decades, even in area subject to heavy grazing. <em>A. arizonae</em> was associated with relatively open grasslands, whereas <em>A. uniparens</em> was often found in habitats with numerous invader shrubs (e.g., mesquite), regardless of grazing activity.
64250		conservation	eng	The island San Pedro Nolaco, and therefore the species entire geographic range, is within the Islas del Golfo de California Biospehere Reserve. In general, there are no direct conservation measures needed, as there do not appear to be any current or future threats to the species.
64250		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Gulf of California island San Pedro Nolasco, in the State of Sonora, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64250		habitat	eng	This largely arboreal species is ubiquitous on the island; animals can readily be found around rocks, in grassy areas and on the branches of bushes. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed areas, however given the variety of habitats animals can be encountered in it seems possible that populations could adapt to at least limited habitat modification. Females produce a minimum of two clutches of one to three eggs each year (Walker and Maslin, 1969).
64250		population	eng	It is a common species within its island range.
64250		threats	eng	Although the species has a restricted range, there appear to be no major threats to populations.
64251		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64251		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. Its patchy distribution extends from southern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico south through Sonora into northern Sinaloa, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). In New Mexico, the species has been found only in Guadalupe Canyon, Hildago County, at 1,321 to 1,387 m (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); an unsubstantiated report exists for the Alamo Hueco Mountains, Hildago County (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Its Arizona range includes Cochise, Pinal, and Pima counties (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997). The subspecies <em>Aspidoscelis burti xanthonota</em> in central southern Arizona is probably isolated from other subpopulations of this species.
64251		habitat	eng	This whiptail inhabits mountain canyons, arroyos (dry creeks), and mesas in arid and semi-arid regions, entering lowland dry thorn scrub along stream courses; often it occurs in rocky areas or among dense shrubs near streams (Stebbins 2003). In New Mexico, it occupies riparian zones, either wooded with sycamore, cottonwood, and ash, or with bunch grasses (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Eggs are laid probably in nests dug in soil/underground.
64251		population	eng	At least several occurrences are extant in Arizona. In New Mexico, this species has been documented in one canyon and unsubstantiated reports exist for a couple additional locations (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1985; Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). More than 100 occupied sites probably exist in Sonora, Mexico, with 85% of the occurrences in good condition; extensively surveyed in 1995 (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998). The total adult population size is unknown but is certainly many thousands. The species can be common even at the periphery of the range. For example, 159 individuals were collected during 1992-1994 surveys in Guadalupe Canyon, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Specific population trend information is not available, but populations appear to be stable. According to J. Rorabaugh (pers. comm. 1998), the United States populations show no evidence of decline. The Guadalupe Canyon population, New Mexico is considered healthy and stable. The Arizona Game and Fish Department (1997) indicates that Arizona populations are apparently stable. The species is regarded as stable in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998), where it is not usually abundant but is consistently present.
64251		threats	eng	Overall, this species is currently not threatened. Locally, potential threats include habitat alteration and overcollecting. Due to limited habitat, the population in New Mexico could be impacted by uncontrolled wildfire or overgrazing of riparian vegetation.
64252		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas. In view of the species relatively limited geographic range, there is a general need to monitor trends in population size, most especially in areas of ongoing habitat modification.
64252		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Tepaltepec-Balsas basin area within the States of Michoacan and Guerrero, Mexico.
64252		habitat	eng	This ground dwelling lizard typically inhabits tropical dry forest. As with a number of other species in the genus, it is possible that populations may be able to adapt to some habitat disturbance (such as conversion of land to pastoral use).
64252		population	eng	It is generally considered to be an uncommon species..
64252		threats	eng	While there is some localized habitat disturbance within the species range, it is currently not believed to constitute a major threat to populations.
64253		conservation	eng	The entire geographic range of this species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. In general, there are no direct conservation measures needed, as there do not appear to be any current or future threats to the species.
64253		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands Salsipuedes, San Lorenzo Norte, and San Lorenzo Sur in the northern part of the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64253		habitat	eng	On Salsipuedes and San Lorenzo Norte, animals may be commonly encountered in arroyo (dry creek) bottoms and on beaches, as well as on rocky hillsides. On San Lorenzo Sur, it is most common on beaches and bottoms of the larger arroyos, where it forages beneath the vegetation and on the branches of low-growing shrubs (Grismer 2002).
64253		population	eng	It is a common species within its island range.
64253		threats	eng	Although the species has a generally restricted island range, there appear to be no major threats to populations.
64254		conservation	eng	The island of is entirely within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. In general, there are no direct conservation measures needed, as there do not appear to be any current or future threats to the species.
64254		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Carmen island in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64254		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found between the bases of dryland shrubs where animals can find both refuge and food. Individuals are also found, though less commonly, in the rocky foothills of upland areas.
64254		population	eng	It is a common species within its limited island range.
64254		threats	eng	It is presumed that there are no major threats to this species, despite its small range.
64255		conservation	eng	The island of Santa Catalina is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. There is need to further study the impact of predation by cats on this species, and to control or eradicate cat populations if they constitute a threat to the species survival.
64255		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island Santa Catalina in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64255		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species that inhabits scrub vegetation within arroyos (dry creeks), and can be encountered along the edges of beaches. It is less frequently encountered on rocky hillsides, but it does occur on the peaks of the island.
64255		population	eng	It is an abundant species within its island range, becoming less common towards the interior of the island.
64255		threats	eng	There are populations of feral cats on Santa Catalina island which are presumed to prey on this lizard. However, there is no evidence that this constitutes a significant threat.
64256		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). The entire island range of this species is contained within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. It seems that no direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64256		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Isla San José in the Gulf of California, Baja California Sur State, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64256		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in rocky areas in the island interior, where it is found on rocky hillsides, arroyo (dry creek) bottoms, thickets and shrubland. They are much less common in open sandy areas. The most suitable habitat is generally in the northern part of the island (Grismer 2002).
64256		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat within its island range, which is generally in the interior and northern parts of Isla San José.
64256		threats	eng	While this lizard has a limited geographic range, there appear to be no current or predicted major threats to this species.
64257		conservation	eng	The entire island range of this species is contained within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. It seems that no direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64257		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Cerralvo (= Ceralbo), in the Gulf of California, State of Baha California Sur, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64257		habitat	eng	Animals can be found in open sandy areas of shrubland, retiring to refuges in vegetation when disturbed. It is also in sand dunes along the beach, rocky washes, and rocky hillsides.
64257		population	eng	Populations are generally common and stable on the island.
64257		threats	eng	Although the species has a restricted island range, there are not considered to be any major threats at present or predicted for the future.
64258		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It may be present in some protected areas, however, this needs confirmation. Many studies have been undertaken on this well-known species. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64258		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific coast of Mexico, ranging from southern Nayarit in the north, to the Balsas River in northern Guerrrero, and from here through to Tepaltepec in Michoacan and southern Jalisco.
64258		habitat	eng	This lizard has been recorded from tropical deciduous forest, arid tropical forest and dry shrubland. It is a very adaptable species with populations present in disturbed habitat, including localities at the edge of urban areas.
64258		population	eng	In general, it is considered to be a very common species.
64258		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64259		conservation	eng	Its occurrence in protected areas is not known, though it it is presumably present in some. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.
64259		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, and ranges from the coastal plain of southeastern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua, south through Pacific coastal plain to Colima, thence east through though the Balsas Depression to Puebla and western Veracruz (these westernmost populations previously having been referred to as <em>Aspidoscelis alpinus</em>).
64259		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest, thorn forest and savanna, and is found particularly in brushy, broken country. It can survive in low-intensity subsistence agriculture, but not in commercially farmed areas.
64259		population	eng	While it  occurs at a relatively low density, it is not rare and animals are regularly seen..
64259		threats	eng	The threats to the species are localized, such as considerable habitat clearance in localized areas for intensive agriculture or human settlements. However, it is not significantly threatened overall.
64260		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat requirements, ecology and threats to this species.
64260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Cozumel off the east coast of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. It has been recorded at around sea level.
64260		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits open areas and shrubs on beaches and along roadsides. Populations may persist in the outskirts of towns but this requires confirmation. This is a parthenogenetic species.
64260		population	eng	This is generally a common species that is easily caught.
64260		threats	eng	Although coastal development for tourism and housing is considered to be a major threat to this species natural habitat, it appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat disturbance.
64261		conservation	eng	The entire island range of this species is contained within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. It seems that no direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64261		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla San José in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64261		habitat	eng	It is most commonly found in low-lying, flat, sandy areas (including the beach) or rocky flats, being most abundant where there are stands of vegetation separated by open space. It is less frequently found along the rocky foothills (Grismer 2002).
64261		population	eng	It is a common species within its small range.
64261		threats	eng	While this lizard has a limited geographic range, there appear to be no current or predicted major threats to this species.
64262		conservation	eng	The New Mexican occurrence is on Bureau of Land Management land but is not necessarily afforded protection.
64262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern United States. The range includes two small disjunct areas: the lower benches of the Chinati Mountains in southwestern Presidio County, Texas (Dixon 2000), and the vicinity of Antelope Pass in the Peloncillo Mountains, Hidalgo County, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The elevational range is 1,300 to 1,450 m (4,265 to 4,755 feet) in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), 275 to 450 m (900 to 1,475 feet) in Texas (Scudday 1973). Presidio County, Texas, encompasses about 10,000 sq. km. The range in New Mexico consists of fragmented populations in an area of approximately 3 x 5 miles (about 40 sq. km (see New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). Hence range extent is not more than about 10,000 sq. km and probably is much less.
64262		habitat	eng	In Texas, the habitat comprises rocky plains, dry washes, canyon bottoms, and desert scrub (ocotillo, creosote bush, <em>Opuntia</em>) (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999); generally on rocky soils of desert shrublands and degraded grasslands on alluvial benches, canyon bottoms, and lower southwestern mountain slopes (Scudday 1973, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). In New Mexico, this lizard occupies sandy or gravelly creosote bush flats (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
64262		population	eng	This species occurs in one county in Texas and in one small location in New Mexico (Hubbard and Schmitt 1985, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Dixon 2000; see also New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). The total population size is unknown but surely is at least a few thousand and more likely is at least 10,000 (assuming at least 1,000 adults per sq. km, which is a modest density for whiptail lizards). The species is not uncommon in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In New Mexico, this lizard may be locally abundant where suitable habitat occurs (see New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). In 1991 and 1994, population trend was reported as stable (Federal Register, 15 November 1994, Animal Candidate Review for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species). Some cite threats to habitat and believe the species is declining in Texas (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997), but there is reason to believe that this whiptail is probably reasonably secure in its Texas range because it appears to benefit from the grazing practices that are widespread there (Scudday 1973).
64262		threats	eng	Potential threats to gray-checkered whiptails in New Mexico include overgrazing, habitat alteration, BLM chemical brush control, mining, and possibly (unregulated) overcollecting (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). Texas habitats may be threatened by drought, mesquite invasion, conversion to alien grasses for grazing, and overgrazing (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997); however, the species occurs in deteriorated desert grassland and appears to benefit from the grazing practices that are widespread in Texas (Scudday 1973).
64263		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64263		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the islands of Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64263		habitat	eng	Animals generally prefer low-lying-flat brushy areas with sparse rocks, but are less commonly also found on the rocky hillsides. Occasionally the species can be found in the coastal dune systems that have built up along the back beaches and sometimes individuals are found in the bottom of arroyos (dry creeks) among clumps of vegetation and fallen cactus plants (Grismer 2002).
64263		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat within its small range.
64263		threats	eng	While the species has a restricted range, there do not appear to be any current or predicted major threats.
64264		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64264		distribution	eng	The range extends from the upper Rio Grande, Pecos River, and Canadian River valleys of New Mexico southward through western Texas to central Chihuahua (Rio Conchos and Rio Papigochic drainage basins) and westward to southeastern Arizona and northeastern Sonora, at elevations of 760 to 2,440 m asl (2,500 to 8,000 feet) (Stuart 1991).
64264		habitat	eng	Habitats include desert, desert grassland, oak-pine woodland, and ponderosa pine, on rocky slopes, along sandy washes, and in canyons (Stebbins 2003). The species occurs primarily in Madrean evergreen woodlands (oak-juniper, juniper, juniper-pinyon associations) on mountain bajadas and valley sides; it ranges upslope to Great Basin conifer and lower Madrean montane forests, and it descends to semi-desert grassland, Chihuahuan desert scrub, and (locally) riparian floodplain communities (Stuart 1991). Eggs are laid in a nest dug in soil/underground.
64264		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps Stuart 1991 and Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulation, and population size are probably relatively stable. The population is fine in Mexico.
64264		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64265		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least several areas that are adequately protected.
64265		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwest of the United States. Its range includes central and southeastern Arizona (from Cerbat and Hualapai mountains to the Gila River Basin) and southwestern New Mexico (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from 1,220 to 1,980 m (4,000 to 6,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Hulse (1973) reported this species (under the name <em>Cnemidophorus exsangui</em>s) as common at elevations of 1,060 to 1,515 m in east-central Arizona.
64265		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands, chaparral, and riparian woodland extensions into desert-grassland ecotones (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).
64265		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but very probably exceeds 10,000, probably much more. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64265		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64266		conservation	eng	The entire geographic range of this species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64266		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of San Francisco, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64266		habitat	eng	The species is most commonly found on sandy hummocks at the base of rocky hills along beaches or dune areas (providing vegetation cover is sufficient for protection, yet sparse enough to allow running room). It is much less common on rocky foothills and flats, and is absent from hill tops.
64266		population	eng	It is common within its restricted distribution.
64266		threats	eng	Although this species has a restricted range, there are no major threats currently or anticipated.
64267		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range. No conservation measures are currently needed.
64267		distribution	eng	The range extends from southern Oklahoma, southeastern New Mexico, and Texas southward on both sides of the Sierra Madre Oriental to Aguascalientes, Queretaro, and Veracruz, Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). There are some taxonomic problems with identification of specimens in northern central parts of Mexico: if these are resolved and included within <em>A. gularis</em>, the range of this species may be greatly extended.
64267		habitat	eng	Habitats include desert grassland, shortgrass prairies, rocky slopes, plateaus, washes, weedy areas, and shrubby river bottoms, in areas of sandy, gravelly, or rocky soil and sparse ground cover, including disturbed and undisturbed areas (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003). Nests have been found on south- to west-facing road embankments, among sparse vegetation (Trauth 1987). It is generally a lowland species. In the Sierra Madre, it is not present in the pine/oak habitat found at >2,000 m. However, there may be occurrences elsewhere above 2,000 m in more arid habitat.
64267		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, the species has been found in virtually every county (well over 100) within its range in Texas (Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. The species is common to abundant throughout most of Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size evidently are relatively stable.
64267		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64268		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64268		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Northern Veracruz in eastern Mexico and from the Rio Balsas in western Mexico southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and thence eastward along the Pacific lowlands and foothills of Chiapas into upper Cintalapa Valley in Chiapas. The elevation range of the species is 0 to 1,200 m.
64268		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest and tropical evergreen forest. It can also be found in savannas and coastal dunes. It occurs in degraded and secondary habitats, cattle ranches, and croplands.
64268		population	eng	This is a very common species and its population appears stable at present.
64268		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
64269		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs on the White Sands National Monument and White Sands Missile Range.
64269		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area in the southwest of the United States. Its range includes the White Sands region, in south-central New Mexico (Wright and Lowe 1993). The White Sands region encompasses about 712 sq. km, and the lizard inhabits only a portion of this area.
64269		habitat	eng	This lizard is restricted or nearly restricted to dunes of white sand (Wright and Lowe 1993). Dixon (1967) reported finding individuals as far as 50 m from the dunes, on what he called "adobe soil."
64269		population	eng	The entire range of this species can be regarded as comprising only one occurrence or subpopulation. The total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 10,000 (assuming at least 10 adults per ha [1,000 per sq. km] over at least 10 sq. km; however, density and area of occupancy are unknown). Population trends are unknown but probably stable.
64269		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64270		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several to many parks and other protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable habitat for this species in parts of its range.
64270		distribution	eng	The range includes New Mexico, western Texas, and northern Mexico (south to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi) (Wright and Lowe 1993; species limits as in Crother <em>et al</em>. 2000).
64270		habitat	eng	This is primarily a grassland species that also inhabits grassy areas of desert shrubland, chaparral, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine woodland (Stebbins 2003); it occurs in areas with sandy, silty, or gravelly soil (Stebbins 2003), on flats and gentle slopes, including floodplains and prairie dog towns (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.
64270		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is a common lizard in Texas (e.g., Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are fairly large and probably slowly declining. In New Mexico, this species appears to be declining or has disappeared over a considerable portion of its range, especially in the southwestern corner of the state (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
64270		threats	eng	In some areas of New Mexico, overgrazing, urbanization, and other anthropogenic sources of habitat loss or degradation have resulted in declines of this species (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
64271		conservation	eng	The southern part of the species range is within the Valle de Los Cirios Flora and Fauna Protection Area and the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve. There is a need to maintain and protect suitable coastal dune habitat for this species.
64271		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is distributed in a narrow band along the western coast of the Baja California peninsula. It ranges from Punta San José in northern Baja California, southward to Bahìa Sebastian Vizcaino in northern Baja California Sur (Grismer 2002).
64271		habitat	eng	It is a specialised species living on fine, windblown, sandy hummocks and dunes. It is sensitive to disturbance of its habitat.
64271		population	eng	It is commonly seen in suitable habitat.
64271		threats	eng	Populations are generally threatened by the intensified use, and expansion of, agricultural land, and by urbanization, within their coastal range, especially on the San Quintin coastal plain. It is less threatened south of San Quintin, south to the Baja California - Baja California Sur state boundary.
64272		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas on the US side of the river. No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64272		distribution	eng	The range extends along a small area paralleling the Rio Grande in southern Texas and adjacent Tamaulipas, Mexico, from near Brownsville to the vicinity of Del Rio, including some localities well away from the Rio Grande (Walker 1987, Paulissen and Walker 1998, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).  <br/> <br/>Morphotype LAR-A (the form originally described as <em>Cnemidophorus laredoensis</em>) occurs on both sides of Rio Grande from Laredo and Nuevo Laredo southeast to south-central Hidalgo County and adjacent Tamaulipas, and in a few sites away from the river in parts of Dimmit, LaSalle, and Starr counties.  <br/> <br/>Morphotype LAR-B has disjunct distribution from Del Rio (Val Verde County) and adjacent Mexico southeast along the Rio Grande to northern Webb County and then from south-central Starr County and adjacent Mexico eastward to within 16 km of the Gulf of Mexico; all localities presently known for LAR-B are within 0.8 km of the Rio Grande (Paulissen <em>et al</em>. 1988).   <br/> <br/>Abuhteba <em>et al</em>. (2000) used the results of histocompatibility reactions to conclude that the name <em>A. laredoensis</em> should be restricted to populations in Texas and Mexico that are diagnostically identical with the parthenogenetic species described from two sites in Laredo, Webb County, Texas, in 1973.
64272		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits sparse, weedy and/or scrub vegetation (short or tall grass-weed, weed-mesquite, bunchgrass-mesquite, or ecotonal thorn shrub) on hills and near streambeds in semi-arid areas; generally in disturbed situations with sandy to loamy soil. Also, it occurs along trails in dense vegetation (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), and may be found in urban areas (Mexico). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.
64272		population	eng	Paulissen and Walker (1998) mapped 32 collection sites; these represent perhaps roughly 20 distinct occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds a few thousand. This species is fairly common in suitable habitats (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Population trends are unknown but probably relatively stable. The species is regarded as apparently secure in Texas by the Texas Conservation Data Center. In Mexico, the species is also considered stable and relatively secure.
64272		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. The species appears to be able to adapt to disturbed and modified areas.
64273		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). In view of its wide range, it may be present in some protected areas, however, this needs to be confirmed. Further studies are needed into the adaptability of this species.
64273		distribution	eng	This is a widespread Mexican endemic species. Populations occur in the Pacific lowlands, along the Santiago river, and southwards along the coast to northern Guerrero (Tepaltepec-Balsas area). It ranges from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
64273		habitat	eng	Animals may be encountered in shaded places such as dense scrub forest, gallery forest, or tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest. Although this lizard seems to be more of a habitat specialist than many other species in the genera, often preferring denser forest cover, it is probably adaptable enough to use some disturbed areas.
64273		population	eng	In general, this is an abundant species.
64273		threats	eng	No significant threats are known to this species.
64274		conservation	eng	The range of this species is entirely within the Isla San Pedro Martir Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures, other than general field research, are needed for this species.
64274		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Isla San Pedro Mártir in the Gulf of California, Sonora State, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64274		habitat	eng	Isla San Pedro Martir is mostly comprised of steep, or emergent, rocky peaks edged with precipitous bluffs that generally lack extensive vegetation. These lizards occur throughout the island in shallow arroyos (dry creeks) and on steep rocky hillsides. It is uncommon on the narrow, rocky beaches. Its habitat is dominated by a nesting colony of the Blue-footed Booby (<em>Sula nebouxi</em>), and the lizards feed on left-over fish scraps, deposited by the birds. It is believed that they also eat the eggs of the endemic lizard <em>Uta palmeri</em>.
64274		population	eng	Although little is known about the species abundance, it is suspected to be common or even abundant within its island habitat.
64274		threats	eng	It seems unlikely that there are any threats to this species within its remote island habitat.
64275		conservation	eng	Its range includes Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64275		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Petén, in Guatemala and from several disjunct populations in southern, eastern, and northwestern Belize, and southern Quintana Roo and coastal and southeastern Campeche, in Mexico. It occurs from sea level up to 200 m asl.  Each disjunct population probably represents a separate origin for this parthenogenetic species.
64275		habitat	eng	It occurs in several disturbed and open habitats such as beaches, roadsides and coconut plantations. It is a parthenogenetic species.
64275		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
64275		threats	eng	Although it has a very restricted distribution, it is very adaptable, and there are no known threats to this species.
64276		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. No direct conservation measures, other than general field studies, are currently needed for this species.
64276		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Oaxaca State, Mexico. It occurs at elevations from around 1,700 to 1,800 m asl.
64276		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are generally associated with semi-arid valleys. The species can be found in areas of habitat disturbance.
64276		population	eng	It appears to be a common species within its limited range.
64276		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
64277		conservation	eng	It not found in any protected areas in Mexico. Further taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not this taxon is a complex of several species.
64277		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution in subhumid environments from central Oaxaca (southern Mexico), through the middle Grijalva Valley in the central depression of Chiapas (southern Mexico), to Guatemala (the Salamá Basin, upper Motagua Valley and the southeast of the country), central Honduras, and southwestern El Salvador. Its elevational range is 500 to 1,200 m asl.
64277		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest and low-elevation humid forests. It also tolerates disturbed habitats.
64277		population	eng	This species is moderately common.
64277		threats	eng	In view of its adaptability, there are no major threats to this species.
64278		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in White Sands National Monument, Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge, various national forests, and other protected or nominally protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64278		distribution	eng	The range encompasses, New Mexico, northwestern Texas, and probably adjacent Chihiahia, Mexico (Stebbins: Presidio County, Texas, north to Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, and west to Hidalgo County New Mexico. The species occurs disjunctly near Conchas Lake, San Miguel County, and Fort Sumner, De Baca County, in New Mexico (Taylor 2002), and at Petrified Forest National Park, Apache County, Arizona (Persons and Wright 1999). The Conchas Lake and Fort Sumner populations in New Mexico may be natural occurrences (Taylor 2002) but could possibly represent introductions, whereas the Apache County record in Arizona more likely represents an introduction. Elevational range is around 1,010 to 1,890 m (Stebbins 2003).
64278		habitat	eng	Habitats characteristically are perpetually disturbed, disclimax habitats within the Rio Grande drainage (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), such as those along floodplains (Stebbins 2003), including grasslands with scattered shrubs, mesquite-creosote bush communities, river basins, washes, arroyos (dry creeks), and vacant lots; also shrubby edges of desert playas and desert/grassland ecotones (west of the Rio Grande) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); generally in areas with loose sand or packed sandy soil (Stebbins 2003); it also can be numerous among human-generated rubble (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It rarely occurs at higher elevations in pinyon-juniper woodland where open sandy alluvial benches are present (Parker and Selander 1984, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.
64278		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped nearly 200 collection sites in New Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is a common lizard in most of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64278		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64279		conservation	eng	This species is relatively common in at least a few protected areas (e.g., state parks). Better information is needed on the current status of this species.
64279		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its known range include only southeastern Colorado, at elevations below 2,135 m (7,000 feet) (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).
64279		habitat	eng	This whiptail occurs in valleys, arroyos (dry creeks), canyons, and on hillsides, in areas dominated by plains grassland or juniper woodland, including areas such as parks with frequent human use and habitat disturbance (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997). This lizard is an all-female, parthenogenetic species.
64279		population	eng	When originally described as a distinct species, this lizard was known from about 15 to 20 localities (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997). Hammerson (1999) mapped 23 localities. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size have declined in recent decades; the rate of decline probably has been less than 30% in any particular period of 10 years or three generations. Populations in natural areas appear to be stable, but current trend is not well documented.
64279		threats	eng	This species has been extirpated from, or has greatly declined in, some areas as a result of urbanization or conversion of habitat to agricultural uses, whereas other populations exist in moderately or heavily disturbed areas (e.g., around buildings in parks and at rural landfills) and in nearby undisturbed habitats (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1996, 1997).
64280		conservation	eng	It is not know if the species is present in any protected areas. Further details are needed into the habitat, ecology and threats to this species.
64280		distribution	eng	This species appears restricted to the Bavispe region, in northwestern Sonora State, Mexico.
64280		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected on the ground in areas of shrubland and subtropical vegetation. It is not known if it can adapt to habitat disturbance.
64280		population	eng	There is little information available about the population abundance of this species.
64280		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64281		conservation	eng	Some occurrences are within the Grand Canyon National Park (Wright and Lowe 1993).
64281		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southwest of the United States. Its known range includes only Arizona, from the Grand Canyon and the Coconino Plateau eastward onto the Navaho Reservation; an apparently disjunct population occurs in the Mazatzal Mountains, Gila County, Arizona (Wright and Lowe 1993). Persons and Wright (1999) documented the occurrence of a population of the <em>A. inornata</em> group, most closely resembling <em>A. pai</em>, in Petrified Forest National Park (Navajo and Apache counties, northeastern Arizona).
64281		habitat	eng	This species inhabits chaparral and woodland, with an upper limit in ponderosa pine parkland (Wright and Lowe 1993).
64281		population	eng	This lizard has been documented from at least 10 localities (Wright and Lowe 1993, Persons and Wight 1999). The total adult population size in unknown. Collection sites generally have yielded several specimens, so evidently this species is fairly common or at least not rare. Population trends are not documented, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64281		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64282		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded within the Valle de Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. Other than general field research, no direct conservation measures are needed.
64282		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northern Oaxaca and adjacent Puebla, Mexico. Populations have been recorded between 500 and 1,500 m asl.
64282		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in semi-arid and mesquite-grassland areas, and from disturbed habitat including traditionally cultivated corn fields.
64282		population	eng	It is a very common species within its limited range.
64282		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64283		conservation	eng	The range of this species is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. No direct conservation measures are needed.
64283		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Isla Monserrate, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).
64283		habitat	eng	The species dwells in arroyo (dry creek) bottoms among dense vegetation of the island's interior. It is also common along sand dune-like areas behind beaches that are dominated by clumps of leatherplant (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>).
64283		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitats.
64283		threats	eng	Although the species has a limited range, there appear to be no major threats.
64284		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).  It is not known from any protected areas.
64284		distribution	eng	This species, endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, is known only from Islas Contoy and Mujeres and from the vicinity of Puerto Juarez on the adjacent mainland of Quintana Roo. It occurs from around sea level.
64284		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of shrubs in sandy beaches. On the mainland it can be found in areas where there has been infrastructure development such as restaurants, piers, etc. It is a parthenogenetic species.
64284		population	eng	It is a common species, especially on the mainland.
64284		threats	eng	Infrastructure development for tourism and other housing is a major threat to the species' habitat.
64285		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from some protected areas, including the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64285		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is found from southeastern Puebla to central Oaxaca and Balsas in Michoacan. Its elevational range is 800 to 1,500 m asl.
64285		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from semi-arid basins and tropical dry forest. Populations can persist in areas of disturbed habitat.
64285		population	eng	It is a very common species.
64285		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64286		conservation	eng	It may be present in some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64286		distribution	eng	Taxonomic ambiguities obscure the range of this species. The range minimally extends from the Big Bend region of southwestern Texas south into northern Mexico. Walker <em>et al</em>. (2001) restricted the range of <em>septemvittata</em> (in the strict sense) to Presidio County, Texas, and northeastern Chihuahua; they identified as undescribed species certain additional populations in Texas and Mexico that previously have been allocated to <em>A. septemvittata</em>; moreover, they believed that <em>septemvittata</em> should be treated as a subspecies of <em>A. gularis</em>. Here we provisionally regard <em>A. gularis</em> and <em>A. septemvittata</em> as distinct species and include in the range of <em>A. septemvittata</em> the undescribed species as well as populations assigned to <em>scalaris</em>, which we regard as conspecific with <em>A. septemvittata</em>. Hence the range of <em>A. septemvittata</em> includes several counties in southwestern Texas (Dixon 2000) and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, northeastern Durango, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi.
64286		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rocky terrain with sparse vegetation, from canyons and low desert foothills to mountains (Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid underground.
64286		population	eng	This species is represented by an uncertain number of occurrences or subpopulations. Walker <em>et al</em>. (2001) assigned to <em>A. septemvittata</em> 29 localities in Chihuahua and several localities in Presidio County, Texas. The species is represented by many additional occurrences or subpopulations when <em>scalaris</em> is included in A. septemvittata. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is fairly common in suitable habitat in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Population trends are not documented but is probably relatively stable.
64286		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.
64287		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
64287		distribution	eng	The range extends from Maryland to southern Florida, north to Wisconsin, east to eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado, eastern New Mexico, and central Texas, and south to southern Texas and the Gulf Coast (Trauth and McAllister 1996). Ranges into extreme northeast Tamaulipas, Mexico.
64287		habitat	eng	This lizard inhabits sunny areas with open ground; grassland, sandhills, sandy or gravelly banks and floodplains of streams, sparsely vegetated rocky areas at base of mountains, woodland edges and open woods, and beach dunes. It generally takes shelter underground or under rocks or other objects on the ground. Eggs are laid in a nest dug in soft soil or sawdust pile (Mount 1975) or under logs or other sheltering objects (Barbour 1971).
64287		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several hundred occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Trauth and McAllister 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or very slowly declining.
64287		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations have declined or disappeared as a result of conversion of habitat to human uses. Historically, much habitat may have been lost with agricultural expansion.
64288		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64288		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a relatively limited area in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range extends from southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico south into northeastern Sonora, Mexico, at elevations of about 210 to ,130 m (Stebbins 2003). It might occur in extreme northwestern Chuhuahua.
64288		habitat	eng	This lizard occurs primarily in upland habitats of oak-woodland and oak-grassland; also riparian woodland, desert-scrub of paloverde and saguaro, and thornscrub (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.
64288		population	eng	It is a very common species. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 16 collection sites in New Mexico. A larger number of localities exist in Arizona and Sonora. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64288		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64289		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas on both sides of the border. Other than general research activities and conservation of suitable habitat, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64289		distribution	eng	The range extends from southeastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) through New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), extreme southeastern Arizona, and western Texas (Dixon 2000) to Chihuahua (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2003). The distribution is mostly discontinuous and localized (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).
64289		habitat	eng	This lizard in habits sparsely vegetated areas: canyon slopes, bluffs, gullies, flatlands; soil may be sandy, gravelly, or rocky; vegetation may include pinyon-juniper woodland, yucca grassland, mesquite-creosote bush associations, and cottonwood-tamarisk-willow stands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Lizards take shelter underground or under rocks. Eggs are laid in soft well-drained soil in an open area.  <br/> <br/>Different clones may occupy different habitats; e.g., in Presidio County, Texas, one occurs in sandy flood plains, another on gravelly alluvial benches; clonal diversity may allow for larger geographic and ecological distribution (Parker and Selander 1984).
64289		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (e.g., see map in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. Densities of two to 10 individuals per ha have been recorded in New Mexico (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Population trends are not documented but is probably relatively stable or slowly declining over most of the range. However, the species appears to have disappeared from the vicinity of the type locality in Pueblo County, Colorado (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997).
64289		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Locally, populations have declined as a result of urbanization and conversion of habitat to agricultural uses (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1996; see Hammerson 1999).
64290		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in national parks and monuments and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64290		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from Oregon and Idaho in the United States, to southern Baja California, Sinaloa, and southern Coahuila in Mexico; west to California, east to Colorado and Texas (Stebbins 2003). The subspecies <em>marmoratus</em> (which is regarded as a distinct species by some authorities) ranges from southern New Mexico and southern and western Texas south through eastern Chihuahua and southern Coahuila.
64290		habitat	eng	Habitat includes deserts and semi-arid shrublands, usually in areas with sparse vegetation; also woodland, open dry forest, and riparian growth. Soil may be firm, sandy, or rocky. Lizards seek shelter in underground burrows (dug by rodent or lizard) or under surface objects. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.
64290		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This is a common lizard in most of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are relatively stable.
64290		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64291		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64291		distribution	eng	The range includes Arizona, New Mexico, extreme western Texas, and adjacent northern Mexico, southward into central Chihuahua (Stebbins 2003).
64291		habitat	eng	This whiptail is common in desert-grassland habitats and grasslands that have been degraded and invaded by shrubby species (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It inhabits lowland plains and gentle foothill slopes and is often abundant in dense mesquite and sometimes occurs in areas with sparse grasses/herbs; it follows drainages into evergreen woodland in lower mountains (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid underground.
64291		population	eng	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This species is abundant in many areas. Densities of more than 100 adults per ha have been recorded in some locations (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to be relatively stable or perhaps increasing with desertification of grasslands and riparian areas (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).
64291		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64292		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in national parks and monuments.
64292		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range is restricted to the Colorado Plateau and vicinity in southern Utah, western Colorado, northern Arizona, and northern New Mexico, at elevations of about 1,200 to 2,440 m (3,940 to 8,000 feet); introduced and established at Cove Palisades State Park, Jefferson County, Oregon (Stuart 1998, Stebbins 2003).
64292		habitat	eng	Habitats include pinyon-juniper woodland, mountain shrubland, open chaparral, oak woodland, lower elevations of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests, and lowland riparian woodlands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).
64292		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number (100s) of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stuart 1998, and Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are relatively stable.
64292		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64293		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
64293		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra de Juarez and Sierra Mije in north central Oaxaca, Mexico. It ranges from 800 to 2,000 m asl.
64293		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary cloud forest.
64293		population	eng	It is very rare; very few specimens are known.
64293		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, due to deforestation for agriculture and logging is a major threat to this species.
64294		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas.
64294		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from several localities in Yucatan and adjacent Quintana Roo, Mexico. The scattered records from southern Campeche, Belize, and El Petén, Guatemala may represent isolated populations. It occurs from near sea level to about 200 m asl.
64294		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical dry and moist forest. It can also be found in degraded forest, but not in human habitation.
64294		population	eng	It is generally considered to be a rare species.
64294		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
64295		conservation	eng	It occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.
64295		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Veracruz, extreme northeast Oaxaca, southern Tabasco, and southeastwards through Chiapas, Mexico, into Guatemala.  It occurs from sea level up to 800 m asl.
64295		habitat	eng	A subterranean species found in moist forest, degraded forest and agricultural land.
64295		population	eng	It can be common, but it is difficult to find as it is subterranean.
64295		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
64296		conservation	eng	Its range in Mexico includes Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and Chamela biological station.
64296		distribution	eng	The species ranges along the Pacific versant of Mexico, from northern Sinaloa and adjacent Sonora southward to northern Costa Rica. Inland in Mexico it ranges in Morelos and northern Chiapas and scattered localities in the Yucatan Peninsula.
64296		habitat	eng	The species prefers lowland areas of dry forests and tropical deciduous forest, thorn forest and savanna. It occurs in riparian vegetation. It can also be found in cultivated lands and grasslands.
64296		population	eng	It is an uncommon to rare species throughout its range.
64296		threats	eng	It is widely known and feared by the people of the Yucatan, which leads to human persecution of the species.
64297		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64297		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in the United States, extending into northeastern Mexico. Its geographic range extends from southern New England to northern Florida, and west through the southern Great Lakes states and southern Iowa to southeastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, western Texas in the United States, and the extreme portions of northern Coahuila and eastern Chihuahua (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from near sea level up to above 1,500 m asl.
64297		habitat	eng	Copperheads are often in or near deciduous forest in hilly situations, usually in the vicinity of rock outcrops; they occur also on floodplains and at the edges of swamps in the south and in mesic situations near water in the arid west. Hibernation generally occurs in dens among rocks, or in caves, animal burrows, under objects, in hollow logs or stumps, or in similar sites. Usually copperheads are in areas with abundant surface cover such as rocks, logs, stumps, or leaf-litter. They are mainly terrestrial but sometimes climb into vegetation up to a few metres above the ground. In the east at least, gravid females select rocky areas that are more open and have warmer soil temperatures than those used by non-gravid individuals (Reinert cited by Ernst 1992).
64297		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size may be slowly declining (less than 10% over 10 years or three generations).
64297		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation probably have resulted in declines in copperhead abundance. In Mexico, the species occurs in disjunct populations, but it occurs in areas that do not have many humans.
64298		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are protected in state parks, national parks, wildlife refuges, and national forests.
64298		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. It range extends from southeastern Virginia (near junction of Appomattox and James rivers) to southern Florida, west to central Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and southeastern Kansas (Triplett, 1991, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 22: 135), and north in the middle Mississippi River drainage to southern Illinois (Mitchell 1994, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Minton 2001, Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64298		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in a wide range of aquatic and wetland habitats: swamps, sloughs, delta bayous, bayheads, ponds and streams in pine flatwoods, pine-palmetto forest, offshore keys, marshes, river bottoms, lowland floodplains, tidal stream courses, dune and beach areas, clear upland brooks, drainage ditches in some southern cities, brackish waters, and sometimes salt marshes (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Cottonmouths may aggregate under waterbird rookeries. Hibernation sites include rocky wooded hillsides, in crayfish burrows, under rotting stumps or other cover, or in burrows of mammals (e.g., beavers, muskrats) or tortoises.
64298		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see dot maps of collection sites in Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Campbell and Lamar 2004, and Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its large range. Population trends are undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. Locally, declines have occurred with habitat loss and degradation. For example, in Virginia, this species decreased in abundance in the 1980s and 1990s (Blem and Blem 1995), and it has been extirpated from some localities (Mitchell 1994). However, cottonmouths remain locally common in even in regions where some declines have occurred.
64298		threats	eng	From a range-wide perspective, no major threats are known. Locally, threats include wetland drainage for agriculture, residential and commercial development, and forestry, and disturbance and direct killing by humans (Blem and Blem 1995).
64299		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is needed, particularly in southeastern Tamaulipas. Further research on biology, range, population and threats is needed.
64299		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Mexico, from central Nuevo Leon southward including half of Tamaulipas, northern San Luis Potosi and Veracruz and extreme eastern Hidalgo.
64299		habitat	eng	The species habitats include mesquite-grassland, thornforest and tropical deciduous forest. It is associated with small water bodies.
64299		population	eng	It is a rare species. The current population trend is unknown. There are few data on population size, however the species is rarely encountered. Although it is suspected that the population is declining as a result of habitat loss and collection, there are currently no data to support this.
64299		threats	eng	Habitat loss and modification for livestock agriculture (cattle grazing) is a major threat. The species is rare and therefore is more attractive to collectors.
64300		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Its range includes at least one protected area in Veracruz.
64300		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low, moderate and intermediate elevations of the Atlantic drainage from San Luis Potosi to northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 670 to 1,800 m asl.
64300		habitat	eng	It occurs in mesic forests, including tropical moist and wet rainforest, deciduous forest and lower cloud forest, as well as secondary forest. It also occurs in plantations.
64300		population	eng	It is a common species.
64300		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
64301		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Its range in Mexico includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Veracruz, and Ocote Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas.
64301		distribution	eng	This species occurs at low to moderate elevations in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, from extreme eastern Oaxaca, and from northwestern Chiapas, Mexico, as well as Guatemala. It is known from elevations of 800 to 1,500 m asl.
64301		habitat	eng	It inhabits upper rainforest (lower montane wet forest) and cloud forest. It can also be found in degraded forest and pastureland.
64301		population	eng	It is a common species.
64301		threats	eng	It is persecuted by humans because it is venomous.
64302		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in the Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera protected area and in a protected area in the Sierra de las Minas.
64302		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution in highland regions: moderate and intermediate elevations of extreme west-central Chiapas, Mexico (vicinity of Lagunas de Montebello, higher tributaries of the Río Lacantum); the Atlantic drainages of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Sierra de Chuacús, and Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. The elevational range is generally from 1,200 to 2,300 m asl, but a few specimens have been reported from lower elevations on the north face of the Sierra de las Minas.
64302		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in lower montane cloud forest, but it enters subtropical wet forest (pine-oak forest) along mesic ravines. It requires old growth forest although occasionally it is found in small patches of secondary growth and coffee plantations bordering more intact forest.
64302		population	eng	The population is probably declining substantially due to habitat destruction and overcollecting. It has been recorded as recently as 2003 in Guatemala.
64302		threats	eng	It is threatened by the destruction of cloud forest habitat for agriculture (coffee and ornamental fern plantations) and by collecting for the international pet trade.
64303		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in El Triunfo and Tacaná Biosphere Reserves.
64303		distribution	eng	This species occupies moderate and intermediate elevations along the Pacific versant of the southern Volcanic Cordillera of Guatemala from the Volcán de Agua westward to Cerro Ovando in southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. It has also been taken from several localities in Honduras, including the Sierra de Merendón and the Cerro Santa Bárbara. The elevational range is from 500 to 2,000 m asl.
64303		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane wet forest and lower montane moist forest. It can also occur in coffee plantations.
64303		population	eng	This species is now rare in lower portions of its range owing to habitat destruction that occurred in the mid twentieth century. The higher elevation populations remain relatively healthy. It continues to be seen regularly (early 2000s).
64303		threats	eng	Deforestation and transformation of the land to agriculture areas are the main threats.
64304		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in Laguna Belgica, state park in Chiapas, Mexico.
64304		distribution	eng	This species inhabits intermediate elevations of extreme southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico; these highlands include Cerro Baúl, Cerro Azul, and Cerro Atravesado. A single specimen known from the Selva Negra of the northern Chiapan highlands appears to be this species. Most of the range is on the Atlantic drainage, but the species also occurs sporadically on the Pacific versant. Its elevational range is from 1,500 to 1,830 m asl.
64304		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud forest and mesic ravines in pine-oak forest. It is found in primary forests and coffee plantations.
64304		population	eng	It is a rare species.
64304		threats	eng	Deforestation and transformation of the land to agricultural areas are the main threats. The pet trade is also a potential threat to this species.
64305		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Omiltemi protected state park.
64305		distribution	eng	This species occurs at intermediate and high elevations of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, Mexico. The elevational range is from 2,390 to 3,300 m asl.
64305		habitat	eng	A terrestrial inhabitant of pine-oak and cloud forest. It has also been collected in disturbed (secondary growth) areas.
64305		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species, though it appears to be declining as inferred through declining encounter rate.
64305		threats	eng	Deforestation and fires are a major threat to the species' habitat.
64306		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species.
64306		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Cerro Petlalcala, Municipality of San Andres Tenejapan, western Veracruz State, Mexico. It may range more widely than is currently known. It has been collected between 2,100 to 2,300 m asl.
64306		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both primary and disturbed pine-oak forests, and also in adjacent areas, including basking on roads. It is a viviparous species.
64306		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64306		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats known to this species. It may have a restricted range, however, further field work is needed to establish this.
64307		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Huitepec Private Reserve.
64307		distribution	eng	This species is known from intermediate elevations on the relatively flat tableland of the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It occurs from 2,050 to 2,500 m asl.
64307		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid pine-oak forest and broadleaf wet forest. It can persist in areas with minor habitat alteration.
64307		population	eng	Although there are no quantitative data, this species is regularly seen (including in 2005).
64307		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, although the rate of loss is currently not very high.  There is not thought to be severe habitat destruction occurring within its range.
64308		conservation	eng	Several occurrences are in protected areas. As of early 1995 there were no state or federal statutes specifically prohibiting the taking of the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake. Some states (Georgia, Florida) prohibit the gassing of Gopher Tortoise burrows, but do not place limits on the taking of this species. Improved state regulations pertaining to this species are needed. This snake should at least be given the status of a game animal, and the taking of specimens should be regulated by bag limits. Licenses should be required of people taking rattlesnakes. Out-of-state licenses should be much more expensive than in-state licenses. The sale of Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes should be regulated in the same manner as any game animal; interstate commerce should be prohibited.
64308		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from North Carolina to south Florida, and west to Mississippi and the Florida parishes of Louisiana, at elevations extending from near sea level to around 500 m (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). The major stronghold today is the northern Florida peninsula, eastern and southern Florida panhandle, and southwestern Georgia (Timmerman and Martin 2003). North Carolina: restricted to the Lower Coastal Plain south of the Neuse River; formerly occurred in the middle Coastal Plain but apparently never in the North Carolina Fall Line sandhills; not known on North Carolina barrier islands. South Carolina: patchily distributed in the lower and middle Coastal Plain; common in the coastal marsh-sea island area, occurring on Edisto and three smaller barrier islands. Georgia: restricted to the Coastal Plain, occurring on the Fall Line sandhills below Columbus (Fort Benning) and thriving on Georgia's sea islands. Florida: throughout the state, including many of the Florida Keys and most of Florida's east and west coast barrier islands. Alabama: does not range to the Fall Line but occurs in the lower Coastal Plain where longleaf pine and wiregrass dominated the uplands originally; has been recorded from Dauphin Island. Mississippi: occurs today principally in the counties of the southeastern portion of the state, east and northeast of the eastern tip of Louisiana; historically may have ranged to the limits of the longleaf pine forest, but today the range has contracted and is confined mainly to the longleaf pine hills and pine flats regions; there are no records from Mississippi barrier islands. Louisiana: nearly extirpated; was confined to the easternmost three of the seven Florida parishes, and never was reported from Louisiana barrier islands (Means unpublished manuscript).
64308		habitat	eng	Habitats include pine and wiregrass flatwoods, pine-palmetto flatwoods, longleaf pine-turkey oak hills, rosemary scrub, mesophytic and coastal maritime hammocks, xeric hammocks, barrier islands and coastal scrub habitats, vicinity of wet savannas, wet prairies (during dry periods), mixed pine-hardwood successional woodland, and abandoned farms and fields (especially near pine-dominated habitats), particularly areas with abundant cover (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake usually does not occupy marshes or swamps but may pass through these habitats or occupy their edges. Large tracts of habitat are most suitable. Eastern diamondbacks are basically terrestrial and rarely climb into vegetation. Shelters include stump holes, burrows of other animals, brush piles, or similar sites. Stumpholes in shortleaf-loblolly pine oldfield successional forest are utilized more frequently than burrows of the gopher tortoise (Means 1995). Eastern diamondbacks can tolerate temporary inundation of their overwintering burrows (Means 1982, 1995). According to Ernst (1992), most young are born in retreats such as gopher tortoise burrows or hollow logs.
64308		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped roughly 175 collection sites; however, relatively few of these represent extant populations with good viability. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 (several thousand are killed annually for the skin trade). This snake is rare in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989). However, it is still locally common in suitable habitat in some areas of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size clearly have declined significantly compared to the historical situation. This species probably ranged throughout the original extent of the longleaf pine forest in the Coastal Plain, but the longleaf pine forest now occupies only a small percentage of its former extent (Ware <em>et al</em>. 1993). longleaf pine upland habitat has shrunk from 60.6% to less than 1.4% of the landscape since presettlement times (Ware <em>et al</em>. 1993), so that the principal natural habitat of the species has diminished greatly. Many animals endemic in the longleaf pine forest such as the Gopher Tortoise and this rattlesnake are suffering range contractions because of the loss of the longleaf pine forest upland habitat in which they evolved and to which they are best adapted. Range contractions are known from Louisiana, Mississippi, and South and North Carolina. This snake is now very rare or virtually extirpated at the northern and western extremes of the range in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably declining throughout its range. The habitat continues to be drastically reduced at the northern extent of the range in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Substantial habitat loss is continuing in Florida (Tennant 1997). The rate of decline is unknown, but it may exceed 10% over three generations (probably at least 15 to 20 years). Eastern diamondbacks have been able to occupy many of the ruderal habitats that have sprung up in place of the native longleaf forest habitats, but these are also declining in percentage of the landscape (Ware <em>et al</em>. 1993, Means 1995).
64308		threats	eng	The original range has been reduced and fragmented by agriculture, forestry practices, urbanization, and plant succession resulting from fire suppression (Martin and Means 2000). Current threats to local populations include conversion of native habitat to planted slash or loblolly pine silvicultural plantations, agricultural fields, and urban and suburban uses. More than anything else, human alteration of native longleaf pine upland ecosystems (including fire suppression) is shrinking and fragmenting the suitable habitat base for this species. Another direct threat is the collecting of rattlesnakes for the skin trade and for competition for prizes in rattlesnake roundups held annually in Alabama (1) and Georgia (3). While probably not a serious threat in itself, when coupled with habitat loss, this sort of collecting is additive. It utilizes the practice of gassing the burrows of the Gopher Tortoise in winter (illegal in Florida and Georgia), sometimes killing rattlesnakes outright, and usually impacting the other fauna inhabiting burrows (Speake and Mount 1973). Rattlesnake roundups, themselves, account for only about 2,000 snakes per year. The skin trade is more insidious. Skin dealers have a huge network of pick-up stations where they advertise for people to bring in killed snakes to be frozen until the dealers can make the rounds and pick up the carcasses. Rangewide, this sort of activity probably accounts for at least ten times (20,000) the number of rattlesnake deaths caused by roundups (Means 1995). Berish (1998) provided further information on the harvest in Florida.
64309		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area.
64309		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Isla Angel de la Guarda, in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where it has been found from sea-level up to 500 m (Klauber 1963).
64309		habitat	eng	This species is fairly ubiquitous in the island, which is dominated by thorn scrub vegetation. It has been found on gravelly beaches along the shore as well in rocky arroyos, washes and on the hillsides of the island's interior (Grismer 2002).
64309		population	eng	It is a very abundant species within its small range.
64309		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The island where it occurs is not known to be inhabited by humans. The species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
64310		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas. More protected areas are needed for this species. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species are needed.
64310		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern portion of the Central Plateau, Mexico. It ranges from southern Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, westwards and southward through Guanajuato, western Jalisco and northern Michoacan. In the east of its range it occurs from San Luis Potosi to Queretaro and Hildalgo. It has an altitudinal range of between 1,080 to 3,110 m asl.
64310		habitat	eng	The species occurs in different primary and secondary habitats such as pine-oak forests, oak forests, montane grassy meadows, stony mesquite-grassland areas and rocky areas. It can occur at the borders of agricultural fields, and has been found to be abundant in areas of cultivated agaves. It is a viviparous species.
64310		population	eng	This is still a common species, although populations are generally declining.
64310		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss, generally through clearing of land with fire for conversion to agricultural use. It is also directly killed by people when it is encountered.
64311		conservation	eng	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64311		distribution	eng	The species' geographic range extends from southeastern California, possibly southern Nevada, central and southern Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas in the United States, south in Mexico to extreme northeastern Baja California, northern Sinaloa, Veracruz, and (at least formerly) disjunctly to Oaxaca (Ernst 1992, Campbell and Lamar 2004). It is unclear whether specimens collected in Kansas represent translocated individuals or part of a natural population (Matlack and Rehmeier 2002). The elevational range extends from near sea level up to at least 2,440 m asl in San Luis Potosi (Klauber 1972), but most locations are below 1,500 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64311		habitat	eng	The species' habitat encompasses arid and semi-arid regions, from plains to mountains and from sandy flats to rocky uplands, including desert, grassland, shrubland, woodland, open pine forest, river bottoms, and coastal islands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In southeastern Arizona, this snake is more numerous in desert scrub than in semi-desert grassland (Mendelson and Jennings 1992). It hibernates in rock crevices or cavities or sometimes in animal burrows or under other cover (Ernst 1992). Hibernation sometimes occurs communally in brushy upland ridges. A population in southeastern Arizona used mainly creosote bush flats but switched to rocky slopes during winter (Beck 1995). This primarily terrestrial snake sometimes climbs into vegetation or enters water.
64311		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This is a common snake in much of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size is probably declining at less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64311		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. Some populations have been decimated by habitat destruction, automobile traffic, and/or direct killing by humans, especially in conjunction with "rattlesnake roundups."
64312		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
64312		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the Mexican Pacific coast: from extreme southern Sonora southward along Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima and northern Michoacan, including the northern Tepalcatepec Valley, the Balsas Basin, and the Santiago Basin. It occurs from sea level up to 2,900 m asl.
64312		habitat	eng	The species prefers thorn forest and tropical deciduous forest and even in the ecotonal belt between tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest, however, in Michoacan it is possible to find individuals even in high elevations with pine-oak to fir forests.
64312		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
64312		threats	eng	There is some habitat destruction in parts of the range. The species is venomous and is killed because of this.
64313		conservation	eng	Its range is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64313		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific island of Isla Coronado Sur, off the coast of northern Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002). It is ubiquitous on the island.
64313		habitat	eng	It lives in low-growing brush and cactus that are generally wind-blown and stunted (Grismer 2002). It is most commonly found under the leaves of the ice plant (<em>Mesembryanthemum crystallinum</em>) that covers the island (Oberbauer 1992).
64313		population	eng	It is abundant within its small range.
64313		threats	eng	There are no known threats within its small range.
64314		conservation	eng	Although cats have been eradicated from the island, there is a need to ensure that they do not recolonize Isla Santa Catalina. There is a need to monitor populations and to prevent over-collection of this restricted range species.
64314		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Isla Santa Catalina, a 40 km² island in the Gulf of California, off the coast of Loreto, in Mexico (Campbell and Lamar 1989).
64314		habitat	eng	The island topography is composed of rocky hillsides separated by wide and narrow sandy arroyos (dry creeks) bearing the typical Sonoran Desert vegetation. This species occurs mainly in heavily-vegetated arroyos, but can also be found on rocky and scrubby hillsides, beneath roots and rocks or even in open areas of sandy soils. It is mainly nocturnal and can be easily found and caught. Most of its diet (70%) is composed of the endemic mouse <em>Peromyscus slevini</em>, the only ground mammal species on the island.
64314		population	eng	It was formerly a common species, but has probably declined, principally due to over-collecting. Abundance data gathered between 2003 and 2004 fluctuated between 0.23 (one snake every four person-hours) in June to 2.11 (two snakes per person-hour) in August (H. Avila-Villegas pers. comm.).
64314		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the loss of individuals by killing and illegal collection. "Pit fall" traps have been found on the island, and some fishermen have observed people collecting reptiles in bags. Other fisherman have allegedly taken people to the island to collect the species (what they get paid equals their profits in a week of hard work fishing). Santa Catalina Island is home to 10 reptile species, of which seven are endemic (Grismer 2002). Insular endemic species are the most wanted in the illegal trade market, hence, are the more threatened (Mellink 1995). Its passive behaviour makes it easy to catch or kill. Population declines of its main prey, <em>P. slevini</em> is also an important threat. A population of feral cats formerly invaded the island, --  /* Font Definitions */ @font-face  {font-family:Tahoma;  panose-1:2 11 6 4 3 5 4 4 2 4;  mso-font-charset:0;  mso-generic-font-family:swiss;  mso-font-pitch:variable;  mso-font-signature:553679495 -2147483648 8 0 66047 0;}  /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal  {mso-style-parent:"";  margin:0cm;  margin-bottom:.0001pt;  mso-pagination:widow-orphan;  font-size:12.0pt;  font-family:"Times New Roman";  mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";  mso-ansi-language:EN-US;} @page Section1  {size:612.0pt 792.0pt;  margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt;  mso-header-margin:36.0pt;  mso-footer-margin:36.0pt;  mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1  {page:Section1;} -->G. Arnaud and Hector Avila-Villegas observed several remains of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. catalinensis</span> in the scats (H. Avila-Villegas pers. comm. 2007). These cats were eradicated in 2002 (J. Donlan pers. comm. to H. Avila-Villegas).
64315		conservation	eng	Several to many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64315		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from southeastern California, southern Nevada, and extreme southwestern Utah, south through southwestern Arizona in the United States, to northeastern Baja California and northwestern Sonora, and Isla Tiburon, in Mexico (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Sonora, this species occurs north and west of the Nogales-Hermosillo-Guaymas highway, with the heaviest concentration in the Desierto de Altar (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). The elevational range extends from below sea level to about 6,000 feet (1,830 m asl) (Stebbins 2003), but most localities are below 1,200 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64315		habitat	eng	This snake generally inhabits open desert terrain with fine windblown sand, desert flats with sandy washes, or sand dunes sparsely vegetated with creosote bush or mesquite; sometimes it occurs in rocky or gravelly sites (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In the Mojave Desert, snakes concentrated near washes and areas of relatively dense vegetation where mammal burrows were common (Brown and Lillywhite 1992), though in other areas this snake has been found to be more common where vegetation is sparse. During the daytime inactive period, individuals retreat into underground burrows or under bushes, or, at the end of activity at night, snuggle into sand with a minimum of the body exposed, remaining partially buried through daylight until conditions become too hot (then seeking shade) (Brown and Lillywhite 1992). Hibernation sites are in in burrows of rodents or tortoises (Secor cited by Ernst 1992, Brown and Lillywhite 1992). In the eastern Mojave Desert, sidewinders hibernated in rodent burrows at the sand-alluvium interface (Secor 1994). This terrestrial snake rarely climbs into vegetation.
64315		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in suitable habitat. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64315		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64316		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
64316		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Mexico and ranges from the central-western Baja California peninsula, from Cabo Colonet south and westward to Bahia de los Angeles and thence continuously to Cabo San Lucas. It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita, and on the Gulf of California islands of Cerralvo, Carmen, Coronados, Espiritu Santo, Pardo, Partida Sur, San Francisco, San Jose and San Marcos.
64316		habitat	eng	This species occurs in several bushland and savanna habitats, but it avoids the arid land of the Lower Colorado Valley. It can be found under rocks, logs and trash piles and even in mammal burrows, and is common in the vicinity of human habitation. It also occurs in sand dunes. It forages on the surface at night.
64316		population	eng	Its abundance is hard to evaluate, as it is a secretive snake that is not often encountered.
64316		threats	eng	The northern extreme of its range is threatened by agriculture in the coastal plain of San Quintin. Agricultural developments in the Vizcaíno Desert, Magdalena Plain, and Isthmus of la Paz also pose threats.
64317		conservation	eng	The species ranges in a protected area.
64317		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the island of San Esteban in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
64317		habitat	eng	This species occurs in brushy, rocky arroyos and on talus hillsides. They have also been observed in rocky areas at the water's edge (Grismer 2002).
64317		population	eng	It is common within its small range, and there is no reason to suspect that a decline could have occurred.
64317		threats	eng	The island is not known to be inhabited by humans, and the species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters. The common rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) has been introduced to the island, but Grismer (2002) records that the snakes are eating the rats suggesting that they are not a threat.
64318		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are protected. Protection needs: 1) protect all known denning areas and adequate surrounding foraging habitat (generally a radius of about 1.5 to 2.5 miles from the den site) (see Brown 1993); 2) foster protection through public education; and 3) do not reveal den locations to the general public or unknown persons.
64318		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in the United States, ranging marginally into southern Canada (where it is extinct). Its range extends from central New England to northern Florida, and west to eastern Texas, central Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska, southern and eastern Iowa, and southeastern Minnesota (Martin, in Tyning 1992; Ernst and Ernst 2003; Campbell and Lamar 2004). The distribution is spotty along the western and northern edges of the range. Sizeable populations still occur in the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania though the Virginias, across eastern Kentucky and Tennessee to northeastern Alabama, in the Ouachita and Boston mountains of Arkansas and extreme eastern Oklahoma, in heavily wooded sections of the southeastern Coastal Plain from North Carolina to northeastern Florida and west to Louisiana and southern Arkansas, and in the Piedmont in the Uwharrie National Forest of central North Carolina and Pine Mountain of west-central Georgia (Martin in Tyning 1992). See Martin (in Tyning 1992) for a detailed range map and further details on current known distribution. Dens occur at elevations of up to about 5,000 feet in the southern Appalachians, 2,200 feet in southern New England, and about 1,300 ft in northeastern New York, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; individuals may range to higher elevations in summer (Martin in Tyning 1992).
64318		habitat	eng	In the northeast, this species inhabits mountainous or hilly deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, often with rocky outcroppings, steep ledges, and rock slides (Petersen and Fritsch 1986, Brown 1993). In the upper midwest, this snake occurs on steep rocky bluffs and bluff prairies with oaks (Breckenridge 1944, Oldfield and Keyler 1989, Vogt 1981). In the central midwest, optimum habitat is a high, dry ridge with oak-hickory forest interspersed with open areas (Minton 1972), and "deciduous forest, especially along hilltop rock outcrops in thick woods" (Fitch 1958). In the south, preferred habitat is "hardwood forests of the type found in Loess Bluff and in many river bottoms" (Cook 1943), swampy areas and floodplains (Mount 1975), wet pine flatwoods, river bottoms and hydric hammocks (Ashton and Ashton 1981), and hardwood forests and cane fields of alluvial plain and hill country (Dundee and Rossman 1989). Fogell <em>et al</em>. (2002) documented a relatively high level of agricultural field use at the western edge of the range in Nebraska. Activity is primarily terrestrial, but timber rattlesnakes sometimes climb into vegetation (see Fogell <em>et al</em>. (2002). Hibernacula are typically located in a rocky area where underground crevices provide retreats for overwintering, such as a fissure in a ledge, a crevice between ledge and ground, talus (rock slide) below a cliff, open skree slope (fallen rocks not associated with a cliff), or fallen rock (talus or skree) partly covered by soil (Martin 1989). At least in the northeastern part of the range (Reinert 1984, Reinert and Zappalorti 1988, Hammerson and Lemieux 2001), males and non-gravid females are primarily forest dwellers and gravid females use open, sparsely forested sites. Similarly, in Wisconsin Keenlyne (1972) reported gravid females using flat slab rocks and grassy, open slopes. This open habitat was not used by males or nongravid females. "Transient habitat" a somewhat arbitrary category, generally is within 200 m of a den. It tends to be broken by the rough topography and rocky terrain near the den site and supports more open woodland with exposed clearings and shelter rocks. This habitat occurs on outcrop knolls (Brown 1989) used as "stop-over" basking locations by rattlesnakes migrating away from a den in spring. This habitat also is used by gravid females during their reproductive year.
64318		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (see Martin in Tyning 1992), though most may not represent populations that are viable in the long term. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is still fairly common in some parts of its range. The Canadian population in southern Ontario is extinct, having been last recorded in 1941. It is declining or extirpated in all northeastern states. In New York, it is extirpated at 26% of historically known dens, nearly extirpated at another 5% (Stechert in Tyning 1992). The population in central Connecticut is declining slowly (Fritsch, in Tyning 1992). It survives in at least five population clusters in Massachusetts (French, in Tyning 1992) and just a few in Connecticut (Klemens 1993). One population is known to be extant in New Hampshire (Taylor and Soha, in Tyning 1992), two in Vermont (DesMeules, in Tyning 1992). It is extirpated in Rhode Island (Raithel, in Tyning 1992) and apparently also in Maine (Hutchinson and Hunter, in Tyning 1992).  There has been a 50 to 66% loss of known populations in southern New Jersey (Zappalorti and Reinert, in Tyning 1992). It is extirpated in about half of the counties in which it was recorded in Ohio (Wynn, in Tyning 1992). It has declined substantially in Minnesota (Keyler and Oldfield, in Tyning 1992).  No careful mark-recapture population estimates have yet been published. One long-term study (W.S. Brown, northeastern New York) will provide such estimates after several more years of field work. What has been clear to date is the difficulty of recapturing individuals other than gravid females regularly. This problem may cause violation of an important sampling assumption of equal catchability of all sizes and age classes, an assumption necessary for population estimates to be valid. Brown (unpubl. data) has recaptured many snakes after long lapses (up to nine years) and it remains to be seen how the problem of inconsistent recaptures will affect calculations.  From earliest settlement of the North American continent, hunting rattlesnakes at their dens became a regular habit of many pioneers. Babcock (1929) commented: "It is probably only a matter of time when the timber rattlesnake in New England will share the fate of the passenger pigeon." Recognizing the scarcity of objective data to show trends in numbers, an overall consensus among virtually all scientists and field observers is that the timber rattlesnake indeed is declining over most parts of its range.  The first major recent warning was published by Galligan and Dunson (1979) who, on the basis of counts of snakes turned in by snake hunters and on interviews with them at a number of local community-sponsored rattlesnake hunts in Pennsylvania, documented severe declines in timber rattlesnake numbers. Stechert (1982) summarized factors in the historical decline in New York. Brown (1984, 1988) suggested denning populations in New York have been reduced by 50 to 75% of their historical numbers. Martin (1982) stated that most long-term observers feel that most dens are at 15% to 20% levels compared to 40 years ago. Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and especially population size are probably still declining, possibly at a rate of more than 10% over three generations (roughly 20 to 30 years).
64318		threats	eng	Summary of primary threats: loss of habitat; habitat fragmentation and isolation of populations, which may become small and nonviable; and direct mortality caused by humans (including illegal snake hunters) and vehicles as habitat is encroached upon by urban/residential development (Brown in Tyning 1992, Brown 1993). <br/> <br/>1. HABITAT DESTRUCTION: In states where the snake is legally protected, housing developments near rattlesnake dens are causing the most serious problem. Current laws generally do not mandate habitat protection for endangered or threatened species. In some areas, persons encountering rattlesnakes in new developments have cooperated with protection efforts by calling persons authorized to catch and transport live rattlesnakes. This is an important factor in successfully protecting rattlesnake populations near developments. <br/>  <br/>2. MARKET HUNTING: Bounty systems have caused a high level of deleterious exploitation and significant reduction or extirpation of populations by a mere handful of people (W.S. Brown unpubl. data). In some areas (e.g., Pennsylvania) bounty hunting led to rattlesnake hunting among the general population and became a major outdoor activity promoted by sports and civic groups. Commercial collecting for the pet trade is an ever-present current threat, despite some decline in recent years. Single individuals have been responsible for removal of several thousand snakes (Stechert 1980). Today, a growing number of persons maintain reptiles in private collections. Timber rattlesnakes, beautiful and easily kept in captivity, are much sought-after. Private collectors are supplied by an often illicit network of collectors, dealers, and buyers. <br/> <br/>3. SNAKE HUNTING FOR "SPORT," ORGANIZED SNAKE HUNTS OR "ROUND-UPS." In Pennsylvania, organized snake hunts caused injury and cruelty to captured snakes, displacement from familiar range, removal of gravid females from already-depleted populations, and habitat destruction by snake hunters (Galligan and Dunson 1979, Reinert 1988). Despite regulations, timber rattlesnake populations in Pennsylvania were legally "harvested" at a nonsustainable level, leading to the collapse of most den populations (Martin <em>et al</em>. 1990). In response, Pennsylvania regulations were amended such that the open season extends from the second Saturday in June through July 31, with daily bag limit of one snake. These regulations should protect snakes at den sites, prevent stockpiling of snakes, and discourage rattlesnake hunting altogether. <br/> <br/>4. SHADING-OVER: In some regions, several investigators believe that "shading over" by the growth of large trees on and near a den may be causing conditions that are incompatible with long-term viability for timber rattlesnakes. According to this view, there is a need for an open, lightly wooded or brushy early successional plant association to provide an optimal denning environment. In contrast, Martin (pers. comm. 1990) says: "Shading over of the den site does not present a problem for snakes at emergence time when the trees are bare or just starting to leaf. The problem is shading over of the rocks that are used as gestating and birthing rookeries." Similarly, in Connecticut, G. Hammerson (pers. obs.) found that heavy shading (in summer) did not discourage den use, but he observed reduced use of a gestation/birthing site after it was shaded by growing vegetation. The possible threat of shading-over deserves further study, but it seems likely that shading has temporary, localized effects that are insignificant over the long term on a landscape scale. <br/> <br/>5. LOGGING: Commercial tree removal may not necessarily cause long-term harm to a timber rattlesnake population's habitat, but can pose a direct threat to the snakes if conducted during the active season (mainly April-October). <br/> <br/>6. ROAD MORTALITY: New Jersey Pine Barrens populations suffer from excessive mortality of gravid females due to vehicular traffic on roads and trails (Zappalorti and Reinert in Tyning 1992). Ill-placed developments and associated new roads and increased traffic can lead to increased mortality of rattlesnakes even in areas several miles from the development.
64319		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas within its range.
64319		distribution	eng	This species shows a disjunct distribution with populations in the north grouped from southern Hidalgo, northern Puebla and Tlaxcala to adjacent western Veracruz, and in the south from southern Puebla to central and southern Oaxaca. Another population occurs in north-central Guerrero. It also occurs in Sierra Madre del Sur in Oaxaca. It ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 m asl.
64319		habitat	eng	This species prefers the pine-oak forest, however it can also be found in cloud forests in guerrero and even in desert areas in Puebla and Hidalgo. It can also be found in secondary forest.
64319		population	eng	It is a moderately common species.
64319		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
64320		conservation	eng	The species is known from only one specimen; the type locality lies within Sierra de Manantlan Biosphere Reserve. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
64320		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen, collected from Puerto los Masos in southwest of Autlan de Navarro, southern Jalisco, Mexico.
64320		habitat	eng	The type locality lies in a transition zone between tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest.
64320		population	eng	The species has been the focus of many surveys, but it has not been found again since its first discovery in 1966.
64320		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
64321		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64321		distribution	eng	The species' range encompasses southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, southwestern Texas in the United States, and eastern Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, eastern Sinaloa, Zacatecas, eastern Nayarit, northern Jalisco,  Aguascalientes, western San Luis Potosi, western Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and southwestern Tamaulipas in Mexico (Armstrong and Murphy 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from about 300 to 2,930 m asl (1,000 to 9,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64321		habitat	eng	This snake occurs mainly in rocky mountainous areas, including talus slopes, gorges, rimrock, limestone outcrops, and rocky streambeds, often in arid or semi-arid areas vegetated with pine-oak, oak-juniper, pinyon pine, ponderosa pine, or agave; it also inhabits mesquite grasslands and rocky desert flats and canyons, as well as mixed boreal-tropical forest and tropical deciduous forest in Mexico (Armstrong and Murphy 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). In forests it tends to occupy open sunny areas (Campbell and Lamar 2004). It is a terrestrial species that may sometimes climb into low vegetation (Rossi and Feldner 1993 <em>Herpetological Review</em> 24: 35). It takes refuge under or among rocks, in animal burrows, or in or under stumps or similar refuges.
64321		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 200 collection sites. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped about 50 collection sites in New Mexico. In Arizona, the species is known from more than 40 localities and it is considered to be locally common (Johnson and Mills, cited by Ernst 1992). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common, but most populations appear to be small (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64321		threats	eng	No major threats are known. In Arizona, this species is largely unthreatened; minor or local threats include mining, grazing, road building, collecting, and recreational and urban development; in some cases mining can be favourable by creating suitable habitat conditions (Johnson and Mills cited by Ernst 1992).
64322		conservation	eng	The species' only known site is in a protected area.
64322		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of San Lorenzo Sur, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
64322		habitat	eng	The species occurs mainly in rocky areas and arroyo (dry creek) bottoms, and even in dunes near the coast. It can also be found in cave-like retreats formed by adjacent boulders.
64322		population	eng	It is abundant in its only location.
64322		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known. San Lorenzo Sur is not inhabited by humans and is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
64323		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64323		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southwestern Utah, southern Nevada, southeastern California, and western Arizona in the United States, south to the tip of Baja California (including islands in the Gulf of California and Isla Santa Margarita off the Pacific coast) and extreme northwestern Sonora, Mexico, at elevations from sea level to about 2,440m asl (8,000 feet) (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).
64323		habitat	eng	The typical habitat of this species includes canyons, foothills, buttes, and erosion gullies of rocky desert areas (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst and Ernst 2003); sometimes this snake ranges away from rocks into sandy arroyos or onto desert flats with shrubs and animal burrows for cover (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Vegetation may include sagebrush, creosote bush, cacti, thorn scrub, chaparral (uncommonly), or pinyon-juniper woodland (Stebbins 2003). This is a terrestrial species that occasionally climbs into low vegetation. When inactive, it occurs under rocks or bushes or in crevices, caves, abandoned mines, or animal burrows.
64323		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped more than 200 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas of suitable habitat. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64323		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64324		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64324		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from western, central, and southern Arizona, central and southern New Mexico, and southwestern and central Texas in the United States, south through Mexico to the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau and Mesa del Sur (Oaxaca), including Isla Tiburon in the Gulf of California, at elevations from near sea level up to around 2,930 m asl (9,600 feet) (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64324		habitat	eng	The species' habitat includes rocky areas (rock slides, outcrops, canyon slopes, areas near cliff, stream courses), with vegetation ranging from arid tropical scrub, tropical deciduous forest, mixed boreal-tropical forest, paloverde-cactus-thorn bush associations, oak-grass savanna, and mesquite grasslands to chaparral and the pine-oak and pine-fir belts (Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Arizona and northern Mexico, this snake often occurs in rocky areas in pine-oak association. A population in southeastern Arizona frequented rocky areas but used arroyos (dry creeks) and creosote bush flats in late summer and autumn (fall) (Beck 1995). Other habitats include creosote bush-covered hills, grassy prairie, giant-dagger flats, and the vicinity of abandoned buildings (Tennant 1984). This species occupies a wide range of habitats in Mexico, where at the southern end of the range habitats include pine-oak, oak savanna, sweet-gum/oak forest, and mesquite grassland (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). Refuges during inactivity include rock crevices, caves, animal burrows, or wood rat houses. This snake is mostly terrestrial but sometimes climbs into trees or bushes.
64324		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped more than 200 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. It is common in Mexico and in some areas of the United States. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64324		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64325		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area.
64325		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the island of El Muerto, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
64325		habitat	eng	This snake is almost ubiquitous on the island. Since the island is very rocky the snakes can be found in deeply eroded contours of the rocks or in the rubble of talus slopes, as well as in scrub, hill ridges, and the intertidal zone.
64325		population	eng	It is common in all habitats within its small range, and there is no reason to believe there have been any population declines.
64325		threats	eng	There are no current threats to the species. The island where it occurs is not known to be inhabited by humans, and the species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
64326		conservation	eng	There are many occurrences in protected areas.
64326		distribution	eng	As defined by Crother <em>et al</em>. (2003), following congruence of Pook <em>et al</em>. (2000), Ashton and de Queiroz (2001), and Douglas <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species encompasses the ranges of all subspecies of traditionally defined <em>C. viridis</em> except <em>viridis</em> and <em>nuntius</em> (i.e., southern British Columbia in western Canada, through the western United States (east to the Rocky Mountains) to central Baja California in Mexico). The ranges and relationships of <em>Crotalus oreganus</em> and <em>Crotalus viridis</em> in the Four Corners region and in northwestern Colorado need further clarification (Hammerson 1999, Brennan and Holycross 2004). The species avoids arid areas such as the Mojave and Colorado Deserts. The elevational range extends from sea level to around 3,355 m asl (11,000 feet) but most localities are below 2,745 m asl (9,000 feet) (Basey 1976, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64326		habitat	eng	This snake occupies a wide diversity of habitats, from shrubby coastal dunes to timberline, from shrubby basins, chaparral and canyons to open mountain forests (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). It avoids very arid areas. It is primarily terrestrial but sometimes climbs into trees or shrubs. When inactive, it occupies mammal burrows, crevices, caves, or similar secluded sites. Pregnant females may congregate near the winter den until parturition (Ashton and Patton 2001).
64326		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number (hundreds) of occurrences (subpopulations) (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas, but is very rare in Baja California south of Sierra San Pedro Martir. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size has declined in many areas in comparison to historical levels (e.g., see Ernst and Ernst 2003). Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size may be declining but probably at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64326		threats	eng	Overall, this species is not seriously threatened across most of its range. Locally, populations are being reduced as a result of persecution (especially around human settlements) and habitat loss and degradation from residential, commercial, and agricultural development. Populations in Baja California are being impacted by urbanization, agricultural expansion, and the construction of new roads (on which animals made be killed through collision with vehicles).
64327		conservation	eng	It is present in the Parque Nacional El Chico, Hidalgo. There is a need to establish protected areas where good populations of this species remain. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.
64327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is distributed in the southern portion of the Mexican Plateau, from west-central Veracruz, westward across central Puebla, Distrito Federal, northern Michoacan, southwestern Queretaro, Hidalgo, southern Guanajuato, central and eastern Jalisco and southern Zacatecas and Aguascalientes. It occurs between 1,450 and 2,600 m asl.
64327		habitat	eng	It is found in broad valleys, rolling plains and grassy meadows. It can be found also in pine-oak forests, mesquite-grassland areas and even in rocky outcrops or areas of old lava flows. It can be found in disturbed habitat with suitable rocky refuges close to agricultural fields. It is a viviparous species.
64327		population	eng	It is a very common species.
64327		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss, generally through clearing of land with fire for conversion to agricultural use. It is also directly killed be people when it is encountered. It can persist in modified areas where there are rocky refuges.
64328		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are protected areas or are in rough, remote areas not subject to major threats.
64328		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southeastern Arizona in the United States (Chiricahua, Huachuca, Pinaleno, Dos Cabezas, and Santa Rita mountains) southward in Mexico through the Sierra Madre Occidental to northeastern Sonora, western Chihuahua, and Durango, and in the Sierra Madre Oriental of southeastern Coahuila, southern Nuevo Leon, southwestern Tamaulipas, and north-central San Luis Potosi, and in Aguascalientes (Prival <em>et al</em>. 2002, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range is from 1,220 to 3,200 m asl (4,000 to 10,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003); lower limit is about 1,850 m according to Campbell and Lamar (2004). Prival <em>et al</em>. (2002) found this species at 2,530 to 2,900 m asl in the Chiricahua Mountains.
64328		habitat	eng	This species is a mountain rock dweller of pine-oak woodland, grassy and brushy areas, and open coniferous forest, usually occurring on well-lit rocky slopes such as south-facing talus (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Mexico, it is also found in grassy-shrubby mountain valleys where prey is abundant, on pinyon pine-agave slopes, and in limestone-scrub oak-agave habitats where pines have been reduced by logging (the latter two habitats pertain to the eastern subspecies <em>miquihuanus</em>, Armstrong and Murphy 1979). This snake was found among stumps and coarse woody debris in July in high-elevation pine-oak forest in Sierra del Nido, Chihuahua (Bryson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In autumn (fall), individuals may shift from summer habitat to a different winter habitat (e.g., a different talus slope or beneath surface cover in a non-talus site (Prival <em>et al</em>. 2003).
64328		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 46 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. It is locally common in some areas but apparently rare in the southern part of the range. Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that this species is now less common in Arizona than it was prior to 1982, but no evidence supporting this statement was provided. Currently, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably stable.
64328		threats	eng	No major threats are known; most localities in Mexico are remote and difficult to access. Potential threats in Arizona include mining, grazing, overcollecting, logging, and recreational or other development (Johnson and Mills, cited by Ernst 1992).
64329		conservation	eng	It occurs within Colima Volcano protected area.
64329		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico. Disjunct locations are recognized; southwestern Michoacan in the Sierra de Coalcoman and in the northeast in eastern Volcanic Belt, and in the extreme western Volcanic Belt in southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima.
64329		habitat	eng	It appears mostly to be restricted to pine-oak forest, usually in areas of volcanic rock and outcroppings.
64329		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Currently no studies focusing on this snake are known to be underway.
64329		threats	eng	Habitat loss for agriculture and human settlement is the main threat, although it is not known how serious this is to the population.
64330		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least three protected areas including the Omiltemi State Park. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.
64330		distribution	eng	This species occurs in temperate montane regions of moderate to high elevations across the Mexican Plateau from the Volcán de Toluca (Zinantecatl) in the State of Mexico to the highlands of west-central Veracruz, from here southward in the Sierra de Acatepec in Puebla and extreme northern Oaxaca; it is present in the Mesa del Sur in Oaxaca including the Sierra Juárez, in the mountains that extend northward from Cerro San Felipe, and in the Sierra Mixe and the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero. It has also been recently reported from Hidalgo. The elevational range is from about 1,490 to slightly above 3,000 m asl.
64330		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary pine-oak forest, oak forest, cloud forest, coniferous forest, dry scrubland, and upper tropical deciduous forest. It can also be found in agricultural land, such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.
64330		population	eng	It is a common species.
64330		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss, generally through clearing of land with fire for conversion to agricultural use. It is also directly killed be people when it is encountered.
64331		conservation	eng	Several populations are in protected areas.
64331		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southwestern California in the United States (from near Pioneertown and Morongo Valley of San Bernardino County and southeastern Los Angeles County) south through Baja California (Mexico), including several islands in the Gulf of California (e.g., Angel de la Guarda, Pond, San Marcos, Danzante, Monserrate, and San Jose islands) and Isla de Santa Margarita and Isla Cedros along the Pacific coast of Baja California to Los Cobos (Murphy <em>et al</em>. 1995, Grismer 2002, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species does not occur in the desert east of the Sierra de Juarez in northeastern Baja California (Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 1,500 m asl but usually below 1,200 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64331		habitat	eng	Habitats are varied and include rocky areas of tropical deciduous forest, ocean shores, desert scrub, thorn scrub, open chaparral, mesquite-cactus, and pine-oak woodland, sometimes also dunes, grassland, and cultivated areas between rock outcrops (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In southern California, this snake is most common in the western foothills of the Coast Ranges and in dry rocky inland valleys (Ernst 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003, based on Klauber's studies in San Diego County); it often inhabits areas of granite rock outcroppings, especially in winter (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). In southern Baja California, it is most common in heavy brush where rocks and rocky outcrops are prevalent, but it also occurs in desert and open arid plains (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). This terrestrial snake commonly climbs into low vegetation. Refuges include rock crevices, animal burrows, brush piles, surface debris, or similar sites.
64331		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). In California, Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped roughly 80 extant locations and about 45 locations from which the species was believed to be extirpated. Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 27 collection sites in Baja California. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Jennings and Hayes (1994) estimated that about 20% of the suitable habitat in California has been lost. Declines have been much less severe in Baja California, though it has disappeared from urban areas. Currently, its extent of occurrence is stable whereas its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably slowly declining; overall, the rate of decline is probably less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64331		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss caused by residential and agricultural development in inland valleys in portions of California and Baja California, where killing by humans likely has depleted populations near developed areas (Armstrong and Murphy 1979, Jennings and Hayes 1994).
64332		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64332		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from southern California, southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah south through Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986), southern New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), western Texas (Tennant 1984) in the United States, and central Mexico to near the south end of the Mexican Plateau in Puebla and adjacent Veracruz (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from sea level to around 2,530 m asl (8,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003); above 1,800 m asl at the southern end of the range (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64332		habitat	eng	The species' habitat is mostly upland desert and lower mountain slopes, including barren desert, grassland, open woodland, and scrubland; in the United States, vegetation in most occupied areas includes creosote bush, palo verde, mesquite, or cacti (Ernst 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake usually is not in broken rocky terrain or densely vegetated areas. In southeastern Arizona, it is more numerous in semi-desert grassland than in desert scrub (Mendelson and Jennings 1992). In southern Arizona and adjacent Mexico, it is very common in prairie valleys between forested mountain ranges (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). In the southern part of the range in Mexico, it occurs in open high interior plains, mesquite-grassland, pine-oak, and lava beds with cactus, agave, and grasses (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). In spring, this snake commonly coils under a small tree or shrub in early morning (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). Refuges include animal burrows, spaces under or among rocks, or similar sites.
64332		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is often locally common (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.
64332		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
64333		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further field research is needed to determine the full distribution of this species, and to learn more about its ecology, biology and threats.
64333		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico. It is present in western Durango and southeastern Sinaloa. It is found at altitudes of between 500 to 1,200 m asl.
64333		habitat	eng	The species seems to prefer the foothills and canyons in the ecotone between tropical deciduous and pine-oak forests. It only appears to inhabit primary habitats. It is a viviparous species.
64333		population	eng	It is a rare species, and is only known from a few specimens.
64333		threats	eng	Pine forests in western Durango have been extensively logged commercially, areas of tropical deciduous forest are being converted to agricultural land. Suitable habitat for this species has been severely disturbed and fragmented. It is not thought to occur in any reafforested areas.
64334		conservation	eng	The known range of the species is within Parque Nacional Pico de Tancítaro. More information on population, range, threats and ecology are needed for this newly described species.
64334		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be restricted to the volcano Cerro Tancítaro, in the western part of the Transverse Volcanic Cordillera in Michoacán, Mexico. Two specimens were recorded at 3,225 m asl, and the only other specimen was collected sixty years earlier at 1,524 m asl. There is some doubt whether this latter elevation is correct, and it is suspected that it may have been collected at a higher elevation.
64334		habitat	eng	The type locality of the species is predominantly pine-fir forest. The two most recently collected specimens were found in an open area of rocky bunchgrass in the forest. One specimen was found under a rock, the other on exposed ground.
64334		population	eng	It has only recently been described and is presently known from only three specimens, two collected in 2002 and one collected in 1941.
64334		threats	eng	The species' range is entirely within a national park. Its restricted range makes it more vulnerable to threatening processes.
64335		conservation	eng	Some occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64335		distribution	eng	The species' range extends from central Arizona south through south-central Arizona in the United States (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Painter and Milensky, 1993, Howland <em>et al</em>. 2002), to southern Sonora, Mexico, including Isla Tiburon in the Gulf of California, at elevations from sea level to about 1,465m asl (4,800 feet) (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Reported occurrences at higher elevations have not been confirmed (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
64335		habitat	eng	The species' habitats include rocky desert canyons, foothills, and bajadas, in vegetation zones ranging from thornscrub, ocotillo-mesquite-creosote bush, saguaro-paloverde, mesquite grassland, and chaparral to tropical deciduous forest (southern Sonora) and the lower edge of oak woodland (Behler and King 1979, Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In southeastern Arizona, this snake occurs strictly in rocky areas in winter and spring but uses edges of arroyos in summer (Beck 1995). It is a terrestrial species but may climb into low vegetation.
64335		population	eng	On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped 33 collection sites. Lowe <em>et al</em>. (1986) stated that the species is known from approximately 100 localities throughout the range. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is fairly common in some areas, but "some local populations seem small" (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64335		threats	eng	Southern populations on the flatter areas of the coastal plain of Sonora are probably losing habitat due to the intensification of agriculture. However, overall, this species is not seriously threatened.
64336		conservation	eng	The island on which the species occurs is a protected area.
64336		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Tortuga, in the Gulf of California, Mexico. It has been found throughout the island, except in the caldera of the volcano.
64336		habitat	eng	The island is mostly rocky, and dominated by thorn scrub vegetation. The snake inhabits the rocky barren areas covered with sparse brush, scrub and cacti.
64336		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant species within its small range, with 26 individuals being seen in a few hours of night time searching (Grismer 2002).
64336		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species at present. The island is not inhabited by humans and are not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.
64337		conservation	eng	It is present in two protected areas; Parque Nacionals Ajusco and Lagunas de Zempoala. Further research is needed into the exact distribution of this species and its population abundance.
64337		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a very small area of the Transverse Volcanic Cordillera in central Mexico. It occurs in the Sierra Ajusco south of Mexico City, where specimens have been taken from the hillsides surrounding the Lagunas de Zempoala in extreme northwestern Morelos and adjacent parts of the State of Mexico. It has been found at elevations of between 2,900 and 3,300 m asl.
64337		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the highlands covered with pines and bunch-grass on steep volcanic slopes. It is not present in any highly modified areas. It is a viviparous species.
64337		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
64337		threats	eng	The majority of the population is within protected areas and does not appear to be under any threat. There is some minor illegal habitat clearance for human habitations and agriculture within the parks. Ecotourism in the Lagunas de Zempoala and Ajusco mountain may also threaten this species although this needs to be confirmed.
64338		conservation	eng	It is present in at least two protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, ecology and natural history of this species.
64338		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it ranges along the volcanic belt, from west-central Veracruz, westward through parts of Puebla, Tlaxcala, Estado de Mexico, Morelos and western Michoacan. It occurs between 2,500 and 4,572 m asl.
64338		habitat	eng	This species is largely found in open pine-oak forest, bunchgrass grassland and alpine grasslands above the tree line. It can occur in primary and secondary habitats. It is also found in agricultural areas, such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.
64338		population	eng	It is a common species.
64338		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as it can be found in open, modified areas. It is only locally threatened in parts of its range by severe habitat fragmentation.
64339		conservation	eng	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.
64339		distribution	eng	As defined by Crother <em>et al</em>. (2003), following congruence of Pook <em>et al</em>. (2000), Ashton and de Queiroz (2001), and Douglas <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species encompasses only the ranges of subspecies <em>viridis</em> and <em>nuntius</em> of traditionally defined <em>C. viridis</em>. In other words, the range extends from southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan in Canada, to the northern fringe of northern central Mexico, west to Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and extreme eastern Arizona, east to the Dakotas, western Iowa, Nebraska, central Kansas, central Oklahoma, and western and central Texas in the United States (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). The ranges and relationships of <em>Crotalus oreganus</em> and <em>Crotalus viridis</em> in the Four Corners region and in northwestern Colorado need further clarification (Hammerson 1999; Brennan and Holycross, 2004). Its elevational range extends from about 100 m asl near the Rio Grande (Campbell and Lamar 2004) to at least 2,895 m asl (9,500 feet) in Colorado (Hammerson 1999).
64339		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits a wide diversity of habitats, from prairies and arid basins to wooded mountains (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is primarily terrestrial but sometimes climbs into trees or shrubs. When inactive, it occupies mammal burrows, crevices, caves, or similar secluded sites. Pregnant females may congregate near the winter den until parturition (Gannon and Secoy 1985, Graves and Duvall 1992).
64339		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences. On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites (see also dot maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996 and Hammerson 1999). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Some local populations have declined or disappeared as a result of historical killing of snakes at dens (Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Currently, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64339		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, populations have been eliminated or depleted as a result of killing at dens and loss/degradation of habitat by residential, commercial, and agricultural development (Hammerson 1999).
64340		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.
64340		distribution	eng	This species occupies intermediate elevations from southern Puebla to Central Oaxaca in Mexico. Most of its range falls within the Atlantic drainage; however, in the south it crosses the Continental Divide and includes some of the upper tributaries of the Río Atoyac. The elevational range is from about 1,600 to 2,400 m asl.
64340		habitat	eng	It inhabits high arid tropical scrub and tropical deciduous forest in the north, and pine-oak forest in the south.
64340		population	eng	It is not very common.
64340		threats	eng	Much of the area the species inhabits has been overgrazed, cleared, or greatly eroded because of agricultural development. It is also persecuted by people.
64341		conservation	eng	It is present in at least three protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy, ecology and natural history of this species are needed.
64341		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it is found as isolated populations in southern portions of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre del Sur. It has been recorded from the States of Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla, Oaxaca and Guerrero. It occurs between about 1,800 to 2,800 m asl.
64341		habitat	eng	The species occurs only in primary pine-oak forest, cloud forest and oak forest at moderately high elevations. It has been recorded from traditional corn fields, but only in southern Puebla. It is a viviparous species.
64341		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
64341		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of cloud forest and in some parts, pine-oak forest areas to agricultural use. It is also directly killed by people when it is encountered. It is severely fragmented in parts of its range and does not move between remaining habitat patches.
64342		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.
64342		distribution	eng	This species is known from low elevations of the Pacific foothills and coastal plain from southwestern Oaxaca to extreme western Chiapas, Mexico. The elevational range is from near sea level up to a little over 700 m asl.
64342		habitat	eng	This species occurs terrestrially in tropical deciduous forest characterized by thorny, relatively short trees. It occurs in secondary forest but not in heavily altered habitats.
64342		population	eng	It is uncommon but regularly found, including four records from 2004.
64342		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture.
64343		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. More research is needed on population, range, biology and possible threats to this species.
64343		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations; one subpopulation on the Pacific coast of southern Colima, and Playa Colola on the coast of Michoacan, Mexico. Its known area of occupancy is less than 500 km². It occurs from sea level up to 300 m asl.
64343		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the dense tropical deciduous forest in lowland Pacific Mexico.
64343		population	eng	It is considered to be rare, however the habitat is difficult to survey and populations are very likely to be undetected.
64343		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, and the habitat appears to be mostly unaffected by deforestation.
64344		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
64344		distribution	eng	This species is found at low and moderate elevations of the Atlantic drainage from northwestern Chiapas (and possibly southern Tabasco and eastern Veracruz), Mexico, eastward through northern Guatemala and the Caribbean lowlands of Central America to Panama and northern Colombia to Ecuador. It occurs locally on Pacific drainages of Costa Rica and Panama, and thence southward on the Pacific Coast of Ecuador. Its elevational range throughout most of its range extends from near sea level up to about 900 m asl; in Colombia there is a questionable record at 1,880 m asl.
64344		habitat	eng	The species occupies lowland rainforest and lower montane wet forest. It has also been found in secondary forest.
64344		population	eng	The species is considered to be moderately common.
64344		threats	eng	It is persecuted by people because it is venomous, but this is not a major threat.
64345		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.
64345		distribution	eng	This species occupies the northern third of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, in northern Quintana Roo, northern Campeche and Yucatan. It occurs from sea level up to about 150 m asl.
64345		habitat	eng	It inhabits thorn forest and tropical deciduous forest. It can also occur in degraded forest but not in human habitation.
64345		population	eng	It is a locally common species.
64345		threats	eng	It is persecuted by the local population because it is venomous. When fields are being cleared there are a lot of individuals killed.
64346		conservation	eng	It is believed that at least a few dozen occurrences are protected, particularly in the northern parts of the range. Southern and western populations may occur on public lands, but the status of the protection needs investigation. It is clear that the pattern of known protection is not adequate to protect the variation of the species.
64346		distribution	eng	The species' range extends discontinuously from the Great Lakes region of the United States (east to parts of southern Ontario (Canada) and a few sites in New York) southwest through the central and southern Great Plains region to southeastern Arizona (see <em>Herpetological Review</em> 21: 41), Texas Gulf Coast, and northeastern Mexico (Coahuila and Nuevo Leon) (Seigel 1986, Ernst and Barbour 1989, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from sea level up to around 2,100 m asl (6,890 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64346		habitat	eng	The species' habitat varies regionally (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Habitat in the eastern part of the range includes sphagnum bogs, fens, swamps, marshes, peatlands, wet meadows, and floodplains; also open sanannas, prairies, old fields, and dry woodland; the snakes often occur in wetlands in fall, winter, and spring, in drier adjacent uplands in summer. In Missouri, massasaugas shifted from prairie in spring to upland old fields and deciduous woods in summer, returned to prairie in spring (Seigel 1986). In the western part of the range, the habitat includes grassy wetland, rocky hillsides, mesquite/scrub plains, thornbrush, oak-grass, dry prairie, desert grassland, and sand dunes of coast and offshore islands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000). In Texas, this snake often occurs near moist microhabitats or sources of water (Werler and Dixon 2000). In Mexico, massasaugas have been reported from dry shrubby areas that also include wetlands or lush riparian areas (Campbell and Lamar 2004). Hibernation occurs in underground burrows (e.g., of mammals or crayfish), crevices, or similar protected sites.
64346		population	eng	This species is represented by numerous occurrences (subpopulations) (Campbell and Lamar 2004 mapped hundreds of collection sites), but many may be of low quality. Paucity of information on current status precludes a range-wide estimate of the number of extant occurrences. Probably most of the remaining occurrences have less than good viability. <br/> <br/>Its abundance is difficult to determine. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000, based on the large number of subpopulations and comments by Tennant (1984), Hammerson (1999), Ernst and Barbour (1989), and Seigel (1986), but supporting data are scant. <br/> <br/>Declines in area of occupancy and abundance undoubtedly have occurred in nearly every US state, though good documentation generally is lacking. Current trend data are not available for most areas, but this species appears to be declining in area of occupancy and abundance in many parts of the range. The rate of decline may or may not be more than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64346		threats	eng	Decline has been due to habitat loss and fragmentation caused by agricultural development, urbanization, damming, and drainage of wetlands (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Harding 1997, Werler and Dixon 2000). Wetland habitats remain highly threatened. Natural vegetation succession (encroachment of dense woody vegetation) is a significant cause of habitat loss in many areas. In some areas deliberate killing by humans is a problem, as is mortality from automobiles, late season burning, summer mowing, and pasturing of pigs in massasauga habitat. "In the Southwest, loss of prairie grasslands to overgrazing has eliminated much of the snake's original habitat" (Ernst and Ernst 2003). In some western states, the decline in agriculture may result in some habitat reclamation, but it may take a long time for abandoned fields to become suitable habitat. In Colorado, habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from agricultural expansion in the future might threaten the relatively large existing populations (Hobert <em>et al</em>. 2004).
64347		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
64347		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from eastern North Carolina to the Florida Keys, west to Oklahoma and eastern Texas, and north to southern Missouri and southwestern Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Campbell and Lamar 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).
64347		habitat	eng	Habitats include wet prairies, wet savannas and pastures, palmetto-pine flatwoods, swamps, hardwood-dominated floodplains, sandhills, mixed pine-hardwood forest, hilly second-growth forests, scrub pinewoods, borders of cypress ponds, vicinity of lakes and marshes, and along rice-field canals and roadside ditches, generally in moist or wet lowlands (Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake is mainly terrestrial; it shelters under surface cover (logs, stumps, thickets, etc.) or in animal burrows. It swims well; rarely climbs into vegetation.
64347		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurences. On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common to locally abundant in some areas of suitable habitat in the core of the range. Population trends are undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
64347		threats	eng	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat loss and degradation probably have reduced or eliminated some populations. Between September 1997 and March 1998, a severe skin, eye, and mouth disease (fungal dermatitis and stomatitis) was observed in a subpopulation of subspecies <em>barbouri</em> at the Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge in Volusia County, Florida (Cheatwood <em>et al</em>. 2003).
64348		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Canon del Sumidero National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64348		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is known only from the type locality of Cañon of Sumidero in Chiapas State. It was collected at 600 m asl.
64348		habitat	eng	Animals are found on rocks and logs in tropical deciduous forest. The species needs shady sites and are not found in open areas.
64348		population	eng	It is very rare species, with few specimens ever collected.
64348		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation.
64349		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64349		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on Cerro Lachiguiri, Oaxaca, Mexico. It may be more widely distributed than currently recognized. It has been collected at 2,200 m asl.
64349		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from pine forest and grasslands with <em>Agave</em> and <em>Nolina</em> vegetation (Smith, 1942; Bezy and Camarillo, 1992). It is not known if this species can persist in disturbed habitats.
64349		population	eng	Known from the type specimen and a few additional specimens.
64349		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64350		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Reserva de la Biosfera "Sierra Gorda de Queretaro". Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and natural history of this species.
64350		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it is found in northern Queretaro and adjacent northwestern Hidalgo. It has been recorded at elevations of around 1,800 to 2,200 m asl.
64350		habitat	eng	The species prefers limestone crevices in pine-oak forest, although some individuals have been found in rocky areas within thorn scrub and xerophytic scrubland. It is present in modified habitats that still contain rocky areas. It is a viviparous species, Dixon <em>et al</em>. (1972) report on a captive female giving birth to a single young.
64350		population	eng	It is a common species.
64350		threats	eng	There are no major threats as the species is reasonably adaptable. However, it is threatened by severe deforestation and fragmentation in parts of its range.
64351		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64351		distribution	eng	This species is found on the slopes of the Sierra de Miahuatlán in south-central Oaxaca State, Mexico. The elevational range is not known.
64351		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the habitat requirements of this species. Animals have been collected from coffee plantations.
64351		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
64351		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64352		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64352		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of "Presa Mal Paso, 30 km N Cintalapa", Chiapas State, Mexico. It has been collected at 600 m asl.
64352		habitat	eng	Populations may be confined to seasonal tropical moist forest, where animals can be found under logs, rocks and other ground cover. It is possible that the species can occur in coffee plantations, although their presence in this habitat requires confirmation.
64352		population	eng	It is a common species at the type locality.
64352		threats	eng	It is threatened by conversion of forest to agricultural use (including the use of fires for clearing land).
64353		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
64353		distribution	eng	This species is known only from San Bartolome Zoogocho, in the Municipality of Zoogocho, northern Oaxaca State, Mexico. It has been recorded at 2,200 m asl.
64353		habitat	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded living in rock crevices within pine-oak forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats. Camarillo, (1999) reports that a female gave birth to four offspring in April.
64353		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
64353		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
64354		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and potential threats to this poorly-known species
64354		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa, in eastern San Luis Potosi and adjacent southern Tamaulipas States, Mexico. It is currently known from no more than five caves.
64354		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from inside limestone crevices and caves in tropical deciduous forest. Active animals have been observed out side of the caves (see Bezy and Camarillo, 2002). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.
64354		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
64354		threats	eng	While no major threats have comprehensively identified for this species, many limestone caves have been used for recreational activities (such as caving). The effects of these activities on populations of this species are not known and need further investigation.
64355		conservation	eng	It is present in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the ecology and biology of this species are needed.
64355		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-central Mexico, where it is found in the Valle de Jalpan of northern Queretaro and adjacent San Luis Potosi. It occurs at elevations of between 900 and 1,400 m asl.
64355		habitat	eng	This species is found in thorn scrub forest, where it inhabits rocky areas at the base of limestone outcrops. It can also be found on rock walls and ruins. It can occur in urban areas, but is not present in agricultural areas. It is a viviparous species.
64355		population	eng	It is a common species.
64355		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
64356		conservation	eng	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.
64356		distribution	eng	This Mexican species is known only from Veracruz, and occurs in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas and from the vicinity of the Rio Coatzacoalcos near Jesus Carranza on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.  It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
64356		habitat	eng	These nocturnal lizards are found beneath the bark and between the buttresses of trees within the rainforest and cloud forest, as well as secondary forest. They are also found on the walls of rural houses and on rocks in pastureland.
64356		population	eng	It is a common species.
64356		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this reasonably adaptable species.
64357		conservation	eng	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).  It does not occur in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
64357		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two localities from southern and central Oaxaca, Mexico: San Jose Manteca (five km from San Carlos Yautepec); and on the road from Mitla to Ayutla. It might be more widely distributed than current records suggest. Animals have been collected between 1,750 and 1,800 m asl.
64357		habitat	eng	Populations occur in semi-arid, scrub forest. Animals have been found in disturbed habitat, but probably do not persist in areas of heavy disturbance.
64357		population	eng	This is a rare species known from the holotype and five additional specimens. It might have disappeared from type locality due to habitat destruction.
64357		threats	eng	It is probably threatened through habitat destruction caused by grazing goats.
64358		conservation	eng	It is present in the Rancho Cielo Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population, biology and ecology of this species.
64358		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, where it ranges from central eastern Nuevo Leon, through western Tamaulipas and eastern San Luis Potosi, and from Hidalgo to western Veracruz and northern Puebla in the south. It has an elevational range of around 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.
64358		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and secondary cloud forest, humid pine forest and dry pine-oak forest. At Hidalgo, it has been observed in cattle pasture close to forest, where it occurs under fallen trees. Animals may generally be found hiding beneath logs, rocks and bark. It is a viviparous species.
64358		population	eng	It is a common species.
64358		threats	eng	It is threatened by general deforestation and forest fragmentation throughout its range.
64359		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a need to survey and monitor the present status of populations.
64359		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is currently known from two, widely separated locations in the State of Michoacan. It has been recorded at Mexiquillo, on the Pacific coast, and from the northern Sierra de Coalcoman. It might occur more widely.
64359		habitat	eng	The species can be found mainly in tropical deciduous forest and oak forest, or in the transition zone between these two habitats, in rocky areas. The type series was collected in a rocky ravine in tropical semi-deciduous forest, but they may have been collected from evergreen oak woodland (Bezy and Camarillo 2002). It is a nocturnal species that lives in rock crevices. It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.
64359		population	eng	It appears to be a naturally rare species.
64359		threats	eng	The species occurs in rocky areas where there are few serious threats to its habitat. However, its ecological requirements remain largely unknown.
64360		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a few protected areas.
64360		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, in central Veracruz, west and southward to northern Oaxaca, southern Veracruz and northern Chiapas, Mexico.  It occurs from 150 to 1,500 m asl.
64360		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in tropical humid forest and tropical rain forest, as well as cloud forest, where it is found beneath bark and logs. It is restricted to forest and may survive in secondary but not heavily degraded forest.
64360		population	eng	It is a common species.
64360		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture, cattle grazing and commercial logging is a major threat to the species' habitat.
64361		conservation	eng	The level of protection is uncertain, but the rocky habitat is not readily convertible to destructive human uses. Better information is needed on the current conservation status of this species.
64361		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwestern United States. The range includes only a small area in Arizona; a recent taxonomic change that recognized <em>X. arizonae</em> as a distinct species and that described a new species (<em>X. bezyi</em>) in Arizona  (Papenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001) did not precisely define the range of <em>X. arizonae</em>. A phylogeographic analysis of <em>Xantusia</em> by Sinclair <em>et al</em>. (2004) determined that <em>X. arizonae</em> has a smaller range than depicted by Stebbins (2003).
64361		habitat	eng	This species is found under exfoliating rock in granite outcrops (Pappenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001).
64361		population	eng	This species is represented by at least several distinct occuurrences or subpopulations. Sinclair <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped six collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown. Population trends have not been documented but presumably are relatively stable.
64361		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64362		conservation	eng	Level of protection is uncertain, but the rocky habitat is not readily convertible to destructive human uses. Better information is needed on the current conservation status of this species.
64362		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwestern United States. When first described, the known range was confined to a small area near Sunflower, Maricopa County, central Arizona (Pappenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001). Subsequent phylogeographic study expanded the range, but it is still confined to central Arizona (Sinclair <em>et al</em>. 2004).
64362		habitat	eng	This species is found under exfoliating rock in granite outcrops (Papenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001).
64362		population	eng	This lizard is represented by several known occurrences or subpopulations. Sinclair <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped eight localities that they assigned to this species. The total adult population size is unknown. Long-term and short-term trends are presumably relatively stable, but no data are available.
64362		threats	eng	Status and current threats are unknown but the species is probably not very threatened, assuming the habitat is generally unsuitable for other uses.
64363		conservation	eng	It has been reported from the Canon San Fernandes protected area. Other than monitoring of populations, and general habaitat protection, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
64363		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of its type locality "6-6.5 road miles north-east of Pedriceña on Mexico Highway 40, at an elevation of 4,400 feet [1,341 m asl]" in central Durango State, Mexico. It might occur more widely.
64363		habitat	eng	Animals can be found inhabiting crevices in adesitic rocks, within areas of yucca vegetation. It is not known if this species is able to adapt to habitat disturbance.
64363		population	eng	This appears to be a naturally rare species, and seem to be difficult to collect, largely because of its secretive nature.
64363		threats	eng	Other than its apparently restricted range, there appear to be no major threat to this species.
64364		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the Canyon Fernandes protected area. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64364		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution within the Pedricenas region, in the southern portion of the Chihuahuan Desert of south-eastern Durango State, Mexico.
64364		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits desert and arid lands with a ground cover of rocks, fallen yucca plants and agaves (Webb 1965). It is a viviparous species. It is not known how well populations can adapt to habitat disturbance.
64364		population	eng	It can be abundant within optimal habitat (Webb 1965).
64364		threats	eng	Other than the species restricted range, there appear to be no major threat to the species.
64365		conservation	eng	The one occurrence is in a state park.
64365		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwestern United States. Its known range is confined to the Truckhaven Rocks area (an area of about 3 km by 1.3 km), in the Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, on the southeastern flank of the Santa Rosa Mountains, San Diego County, California; elevation 240 to 305 m (787 to 1,000 feet) (Grismer and Galvan 1986, Lovich 2001, Lovich and Grismer 2003).
64365		habitat	eng	Habitat consists of sandstone crevices and burrows primarily in and along the canyons that cur through the Truckhaven Rocks (Lovich and Grismer 2003). Some "were unearthed in what appeared to be rodent burrows atop piles of hardened siltstone" (Grismer and Galvan 1986).
64365		population	eng	One known occurrence exists, 32 km from the nearest known locality for <em>Xantusia henshawi</em> (Grismer and Galvan 1986). The total adult population size is unknown. Population trends are unknown.
64365		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, other than those inherent in the very limited distribution.
64366		conservation	eng	The species is present within some protected areas, incuding the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
64366		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southwestern California in the United States (Peninsular Ranges and a few other areas; Wilcox <em>et al</em>. 1995) so to 7,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003).
64366		habitat	eng	Its habitat encompasses rocky canyons, foothills, and hillsides in arid and semi-arid areas of chaparral, other shrubland, or pinyon-juniper woodland, particularly massive exfoliating granitic outcrops in shadier parts of canyons or near water (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This secretive lizard is usually in rock crevices or under rock flakes or fragments by day.
64366		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Lee (1976) mapped more than 100 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable, based on the habitat generally being unsuitable for conversion to human uses.
64366		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
64367		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in a protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this little-known species.
64367		distribution	eng	This recently described Mexican endemic is known only from three localities, Moyahua in Zacatecas State, and from the Guadalajara area and a second, unknown locality in Jalisco State. It seems likely that the species will occur in a much wider area than is currently known.
64367		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded under tree bark (of dead trees) and among rocks in mesquite and oak forests. It is not known how well the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.
64367		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population abundance of this species.
64367		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. As animals use rock crevices, it is suspected that populations may be less susceptible to most common threats.
64368		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are in national parks. Other than some general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
64368		distribution	eng	The range extends from southern Utah, western and central Arizona, southern Nevada, and southern California south to southwestern Sonora and throughout most of Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Some Arizona populations formerly included in this species are now regarded as <em>X. arizonae</em> and <em>X. bezyi</em> (Papenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001). A population in northern Durango is now recognized as <em>X. extorrus</em>. See Feldman <em>et al</em>. (2003) for discussion of distribution in the southern Sierra Nevada region of California.
64368		habitat	eng	This lizard lives in arid and semi-arid habitats among fallen leaves and trunks of yuccas, agaves, cacti, and other large plants, also in crevices of rock outcroppings and under logs and bark of foothill pines; it ranges locally into pinyon-juniper, sagebrush-blackbrush, and chaparral-oak (Stebbins 2003).
64368		population	eng	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Bezy 1982). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. No evidence of a significant overall decline has been reported. The species is common in Mexico.
64368		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, but locally the species likely is locally declining where its habitat has been degraded by commercial and residential development.
64369		conservation	eng	This species complex is currently under taxonomic revision, and some of the subspecies are in the process of being elevated to the species level. A re-evaluation of the Red List status of these species will then be needed as some of them might be seriously threatened. Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and Ocote Biosphere Reserve.
64369		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central-southern Mexico to central Guatemala. Several disjunct populations are recognized: one in central Veracruz; one in southern Oaxaca; one in northern-central Oaxaca; two along the highlands of central Chiapas; and one in central Guatemala. There are five subspecies, several of which might actually be full species. It is known from 800 to 1,200 m asl.
64369		habitat	eng	The five recognized subspecies inhabit a great variety of ecosystems, from xerophytic vegetation to tropical rainforest and cloud forest, oak forest, and tropical deciduous forest. It is commonly found in volcanic terrains and rocks, and can also be found in secondary or degraded forest. It lives in rock crevices.
64369		population	eng	At some localities it is common but in others it is uncommon.
64369		threats	eng	This species in the international pet trade, with all specimens being taken from the wild. The subspecies <em>Xenosaurus grandis grandis</em> may have been reduced to only two subpopulations near the town of Cuautlapan in Veracruz, mostly because the area that surrounds Orizaba and Córdoba is highly deteriorated due to human activities (Zúñiga-Vega <em>et al</em>. 2007). One of the two surviving subpopulations of <em>Xenosaurus grandis grandis</em> is on Buena Vista Mountain, which belongs to a cement factory, whose activities include mountain demolition to obtain raw materials for the production of construction cement (Zúñiga-Vega <em>et al</em>. 2007).
64370		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed to determine the full geographic range of the species, and to better understand the impact of habitat conversion on the persistence of the few known populations.
64370		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic is known only from the area of Xilita (4.1 miles east of Xilitla) (at close to 1,100 m altitude) in extreme southeastern San Luis Potosi State, and from La Selva in the State of Veracruz (7.2 km east of Huayacoctla) at 2,000 m asl (Lemnos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is also expected to occur in remote mountains to the north of the known range, although the distribution of this species is patchy, and any range extension needs to be carefully confirmed (Lemnos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000).
64370		habitat	eng	Animals are found in rock crevices, within areas of highly eroded karst limestone in closed-canopy  tropical deciduous and oak forest, pine forest, areas of dense second growth forest and citrus/coffee plantations (Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000; Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2003). This is a viviparous species with a gestation period of approximately 11 to 12 months, a biennial reproductive cycle, and a litter size of one or two young. Interestingly, this species may possibly shows post-hatching parental care (Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 1997). Individuals have relatively small home-ranges and are largely sedentary (Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 1997).
64370		population	eng	Lemnos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that the species is reasonably common in the limestone hills and bluffs immediately east of Xilitla.
64370		threats	eng	Forest habitat within the known range is being degraded through modification and conversion to coffee plantations. Animals may also be killed as a result of the mistaken belief that the species is venomous.
64371		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat, ecology and threats to this species.
64371		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality at Sierra de Malinaltepec, Cerro Pico del Aguila, central Sierra Madre del Sur, Guerrero, Mexico. It was collected at 1,800 m asl.
64371		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from pine-oak forest, where animals live in crevices formed by boulders and rocks. The area of collection has been modified by people, there is some secondary growth and the species does not appear to have been affected by this disturbance.
64371		population	eng	Five specimens were collected at the type locality. It appears to be a locally abundant species.
64371		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The area of collection has been disturbed through local extraction of pine and other kinds of wood for subsistence use.
64372		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat and ecology of this newly described species.
64372		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known from San Juan Acaltepec, and Sierrra Mixe, Oaxaca State. Populations have been recorded at elevations from 1,800 to 1,900 m asl.
64372		habitat	eng	Animals inhabit rocky crevices and areas of small boulders within oak and pine-oak forests. Occasionally, individuals are found amongst rocks in traditionally cultivated agricultural land
64372		population	eng	It appears to be common within its restricted geographic range.
64372		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
64373		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to establish protected areas to conserve the species. There is a need to educate people, especially tourists to the area, about this animal. Further research is needed into the species ecology and biology.
64373		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, where it is restricted to extreme southeastern Tamaulipas. It is thought to occur between 1,300 and 1,400 m asl.
64373		habitat	eng	It is present in primary dry scrub forest and oak savanna habitats. Animals are associated with rocky sites where they are found in rock crevices. It is a viviparous species.
64373		population	eng	It is a generally a common species within its limited range. It occurs at densities of around one or two animals per km2.
64373		threats	eng	This species is threatened by continuing fragmentation of its primary habitat through the development of tourism in the area, and through the conversion of land to agricultural use (crops and livestock). The species does not move between these fragments. It is also threatened by predation by feral cats.
64374		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Tehuacan Valley Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.
64374		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Chapulco, southeastern Puebla, Mexico. It is found at around 1,500 to 1,800 m asl.
64374		habitat	eng	Animals are found only in rock crevices in pristine semi-arid areas, with xerophytic vegetation, at the Tehuacan Valley. It is a viviparous species.
64374		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
64374		threats	eng	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species, and there are no threats predicted for the near future.
64377		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area, the Cape Peninsula National Park.
64377		distribution	eng	South Africa: Western Cape Province. This small-bodied species is found only in the Cape Fold Mountains region from the slopes of Table Mountain, and from the Cape Agulhas, Grabouw, and Hermanus areas. It is known from the upper reaches of the rivers on the Cape Peninsula, the Hottentot's Holland Mountains, the Klein River Mountains, and in the lower reaches of the Steenbras, Palmiet, and Rooiels Rivers. Bott (1960) listed the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. brincki</span> as Table Mountain, South Africa, but this was later discovered to be an error arising from a misread museum label (Stewart, 1997). The actual type locality is Viljoen's Pass, 8 km NNE of Grabouw, Western Cape Province, South Africa.
64377		habitat	eng	This species is found in the generally unpolluted clear cool-temperate acid water streams flowing over boulder-strewn stream beds in the upper reaches of the mountain streams of the Cape Peninsula. This species is also found in the acid brown-water habitats of the middle reaches of short coastal rivers such as the Steenbras, Palmiet, and Rooiels Rivers in the Western Cape.
64377		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, but it has been collected from more than 10 localities in the past decade.
64377		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range, pollution from agriculture.
64378		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it occurs in a protected area, the Kruger National Park, South Africa.
64378		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an extent of occurrence that is estimated to be about 200,000 km². The geographic range of this species includes Mpumalanga and North-West Provinces in South Africa, and Mozambique. It is also found in the Charre and Caia River basins in the lower Zambezi River basin in Zimbabwe.
64378		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is seasonal marshy wet ground in savannah country. During the day it lives in burrows (which it digs), while at night it leaves its burrows to feed in water or on land. This species moves into open water when it is available during the rainy season.
64378		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an extent of occurrence that is estimated to be about 200,000 km².
64378		threats	eng	The wetland habitat required by this species is seasonal, and long-term threats to this species could come from human encroachment onto wetlands as human populations rise.
64379		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It has been recorded from a protected area, the Royal Natal National Park.
64379		distribution	eng	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal, Free State Provinces. This small-bodied species is known only in the montane-escarpment region of the Drackensberg Mountains in the Free State Province of South Africa. This species occurs in the upper tributaries of the Tugela River which rises on the 3,050-meter high Mont-aux-Sources plateau near where the Free State Province border meets that of Lesotho. The upper course of the river lies within the Royal Natal National Park and flows through the Drackensberg range. This species is also found in the vicinity of Oliviershoek Pass and in the lake behind the Sterkfontein Dam near the summit of Van Reenan's Pass. The southernmost locality is the Cathedral Peak. The range of this species may extend further south into KwaZulu-Natal Province, and north into other parts of the Free State, and it may even be present in Mpumalanga Province. The total drainage basin of the Tugela River is more than 28,000 km², but this figure includes the middle and lower reaches of the river in western KwaZulu-Natal, and P. clarus is found in only the upper reaches of this river, an estimated 9,000-10,000 km² of this basin.
64379		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pristine cool temperature high-gradient fast-flowing mountain streams with moderate concentrations of dissolved solids. It is also found in the rocky headwaters of the Tugela River where it shelters under rocks and boulders. The carapace and limbs of this species are orange.
64379		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, but it has been collected from six localities in the past decade.
64379		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.
64380		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64380		distribution	eng	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal Province. This small-bodied riverine species is endemic to the low-gradient mature river systems in the tropical east coast region of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It's distribution includes the Mgeni (Mngeni) River (approximately 232 km long with a catchment area of 4,432 km²) which is controlled by several dams (the Midmar, Albert Falls, Nagel, and Inanda). Potamonautes dentatus is found in the middle reaches of the Mgeni River near Pietermaritzburg from below the Nagle Dam to the Howick Falls and the Albert Falls Dam (an estimated area of about 2,000 km²). This species has also been collected from tributaries of the Tugela River including the Bushman's River near Estcourt, the Mooi River, and the Inyamvubu River (an estimated additional 2,000- 3,000 km²). It has not been recorded from the Msunduzi (Dusi) River, a tributary of the Mngeni River.<br/><br/>Gouws, Stewart and Coke (2000), and Gouws and Stewart (2001) provided details of its distribution and habitat.
64380		habitat	eng	This species is found in medium to large rivers where it shelters under rocks in the parts of the rivers where the water velocity is fast enough to prevent silting up of the rocky substrate. Stewart, Coke, and Cook (1995), and Gouws and Stewart (2001) provided details of its distribution and habitat.
64380		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species but it has been collected from eight localities in the past decade and the indications are that it is relatively abundant.
64380		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64381		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. It is found in a protected area, the Highland Nature Reserve.
64381		distribution	eng	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal Province: This medium-sized species is known only in the montane-escarpment region of the Drackensberg Mountains. It is found in the faster flowing tributaries of the Drakensbergs and the higher altitude areas of the midlands in the Mzimvubu, Mzimkulu, Mkomasi, and Mgeni Rivers, as well as the Mooi River within the Tugela River system. The species is widespread in the Drakensbergs and their foothills south of Giants Castle, with the southernmost locality in the headwaters of the Mzimkulu River (possibly extending into the Eastern Cape Province), and the northernmost locality in the Highland Nature Reserve. It is likely that this species is also found in Lesotho.
64381		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pristine cool temperature high-gradient fast-flowing mountain streams of the Drackensbergs and the higher altitude areas of the Midlands that have moderate concentrations of dissolved solids. The carapace is brown to green-brown colour in life.
64381		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species which has been collected in the past decade.
64381		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64382		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
64382		distribution	eng	Namibia and Angola:  Kunene River. This species is endemic to the Cunene (Kunene) River and its tributaries in southwestern Angola and northern Namibia, where this river forms the border between these two countries. The Cunene River is more than 1,000 km long and has a catchment area of approximately 112,492 km². The course of the river includes a series of rapids, plus the Ruacana Falls and the Epupa (or Montenegro) Falls, after which its volume is reduced as it passes through the Namib Desert before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Because P. dubius is known only from a short stretch of this river its EOO is estimated to be less than 20,000 km², and its estimated area of occupancy is estimated to be about 2,000 km². More collections are necessary to establish the conservation status of this species.
64382		habitat	eng	This is a river-living species.
64382		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
64382		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.
64383		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
64383		distribution	eng	South Africa: Western Cape Province: This large-bodied riverine species is endemic to the Cape Fold Mountains.
64383		habitat	eng	This species is found in the boulder-strewn stream beds in the middle and lower reaches of the Oliphants River system from Citrusdal to Lutzville, Western Cape Province. The tips of the chelipeds are orange.
64383		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, which has been collected in the past decade. Despite recent collections of material there is insufficient information on population size and trends, and on the number of mature individuals to assess the species under criteria A, C, and D.
64383		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.
64384		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64384		distribution	eng	Angola: This large-bodied riverine species is newly-discovered and is so far known only from a single locality in central Angola, and is therefore endemic to that country. The Kwanza (Cuanza) River is over 1,000 km in length and has a total catchment area of more than 150,000 km². However, because P. kensleyi is known from a single locality in the middle reaches of the river on the inland plateau (before the river breaks through the escarpment between the Malanje highlands and Bié Plateau to flow into the sea about 90 km south of Luanda), its estimated EOO is less than 100 km².
64384		habitat	eng	The type locality is a rocky river bed with no ciliary vegetation.
64384		population	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
64384		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range. Although specific threats are unknown, alteration of river systems by damming for reservoirs and hydroelectric projects is a potential threat.
64385		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  However, it is found in three protected areas in northeastern Kwa-Zulu Natal: the Mapelane Nature Reserve, the Mkuze Game Reserve, and the Hluhluwe Game Reserve.
64385		distribution	eng	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal Province. This medium-sized species is endemic to swamp forests in northeastern Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. It is known from localities in the University of Zululand near Empangani, the Mdibi swamp forest near Richards Bay, and the Mapelane Nature Reserve. Additional localities include the Mkuze Game Reserve, False Bay Park, Ntambanana, Mtubatuba, and Hluhluwe Game Reserve, all in northeastern Kwa-Zulu Natal. An unconfirmed locality in the Amatikulu River would represent the southernmost limit of the species.
64385		habitat	eng	This species occurs only in swamp forest dominated by <em>Barringtonia racemosa</em>, <em>Ficus trichopoda</em>, and <em>Syzigium cordatum</em>.<br/><br/>Individuals inhabit u-shaped burrows dug into spongy hydromorphic, peat soil. This species digs burrows sited among vegetation away from seepage channels, and is quite terrestrial in habit. It leaves its burrow when it rains, and is most active on overcast days, migrating to higher elevations when the water-table rises. In life, the carapace is an orange/red colour with a blue sheen.
64385		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
64385		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to the wetland habitat of this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64386		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64386		distribution	eng	Angola: Sierra do Moco. This large-bodied riverine species is endemic to Angola.
64386		habitat	eng	A river-living species.
64386		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
64386		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64387		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64387		distribution	eng	South Africa: Western Cape Province: This small-bodied species is found only in the Cape Fold Mountains region of the Western Cape Province of South Africa. This species occurs in the headwaters (mountain stream zone) of the Liesbeek River system of Table Mountain, Cape Town.
64387		habitat	eng	This species is known from high mountain streams on the Cape Peninsula where it prefers unpolluted streams with leaf cover and small boulders. The high altitude upper reaches of the Liesbeek River have a steep gradient, a high-energy flow, and pure water quality. These headwaters are relatively undisturbed and in a good ecological state, but are potentially sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance.
64387		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, but it has been collected from a number of localities in the past decade.
64387		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.
64388		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64388		distribution	eng	South Africa: Western Cape Province. This small-bodied species is found only in the Cape Fold Mountains region in the headwaters of the Berg and Olifants River systems.
64388		habitat	eng	This species is found only in the upper reaches of the Oliphants and Berg River systems.
64388		population	eng	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species but it has been collected from a number of localities in the past decade.
64388		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64389		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64389		distribution	eng	South Africa:Western, Eastern, and Northern Cape Provinces, and Namibia. In the Western Cape <em>P. perlatus</em> is found in the Olifants, Berg, Bree, and Gamtoos River systems. This species is found in the upper, middle and lower reaches of rivers from Clanwilliam in the Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape. There are unconfirmed records of this species occurring in Namibia (Balss 1922, Barnard 1935).
64389		habitat	eng	This species lives in large rivers and is not found in small mountain streams.
64389		population	eng	This large-bodied riverine species is widespread and abundant with an extent of occurrence of at least 100,000 km².
64389		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64390		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
64390		distribution	eng	South Africa, Swaziland, and Mozambique. In South Africa this species is found in Northern Cape, Mpumalanga, North-West, Gauteng, Free State, Eastern Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces. In KwaZulu-Natal, <em>P. sidneyi</em> is found throughout the low lying midlands region from the foothills of the Drakensbergs to the coast, and from Lake Sibayi in the north to Port Shepstone in the south.
64390		habitat	eng	This large-bodied species is found in major rivers, small pristine mountain streams, and reservoirs behind dams, lakes, and swamps. <em>Potamonautes sidneyi</em> commonly shelters in burrows dug into the side of muddy river banks or under large boulders in rivers with boulder-strewn or sediment bottoms, leaving its shelter to feed, usually at night. This species is tolerant of moderate to high levels of organic pollution. In KwaZulu-Natal this species is typically found in the slower-flowing middle and lower reaches of rivers, and has not been recorded from the upper reaches and faster flowing tributaries of the Mzimkulu, Mzimvubu, and Mkomasi Rivers. However, there are reports of <em>P. sidneyi</em> from the faster-flowing streams and upper tributaries of the Tugela River and Mgeni River draining the Drackensbergs and its foothills where this species has been collected sympatrically with <em>P. clarus</em> and <em>P. depressus</em>. The presence of <em>P. sidneyi</em> in the upper drainages may have been assisted by impoundments such as the Woodstock, Kilburn, Driel, and Spionkop Dams in the Tugela River system and the Albert Falls Dam and Midmar Dam in the Mgeni River system (Gouws and Stewart. 2001).
64390		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in aquatic habitats of a number of major river systems and has an estimated extent of occurrence of at least 180,000 km².
64390		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64391		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it has not been found in a protected area.
64391		distribution	eng	South Africa and Zimbabwe. This species is found in the highveld (temperate) region from the interior plateau of Zimbabwe to the South African Provinces of Mpumalanga, Limpopo, Gauteng, North West, and Free State. This species has not been recorded from KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Western Cape, and Northern Cape Provinces.
64391		habitat	eng	This species is common in the middle and lower reaches of the Limpopo River system where it shelters under boulders and submerged vegetation. This species is tolerant of high levels of organic pollution (Stewart and Cook 1997). In Zimbabwe this species is found in streamless grassy depressions in low-lying, gently sloping treeless areas that are seasonally waterlogged by seepage from the surrounding high ground and by rainfall. During the dry season surface water is lacking and crabs have been observed to migrate overland to perennial streams (Gratwicke 2004)
64391		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species with an extent of occurrence of at least 200,000 km².
64391		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
64392		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.   Not found in a protected area.
64392		distribution	eng	South Africa: Free State, Potchefstroom. Also southern Namibia and southern Botswana.
64392		habitat	eng	This species is found under boulders in the middle and lower reaches of rivers.
64392		population	eng	A widespread and fairly common species.
64392		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) and pollution (mines) due to human  population increases in most parts of its range.
64396		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any enforced marine protected areas. There are no specific conservative measures for <em>E. bruneus</em>.<br/><br/>A more up-to-date stock assessment is crucial in determining abundance and population trends. More information on its stock, biology, age-and-growth and management practices is recommended.
64396		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus bruneus</em> is narrowly distributed from the coasts of the Republic of Korea, Japan (north to Hegura-jima Island, 37°50’N), China (north to Shanghai, south to Hong Kong and Hainan Island), and Taiwan (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
64396		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>E. bruneus</em> inhabits rocky reefs and mud bottoms (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Adults can be found in depths of 20 to 200 m, while juveniles occur in shallow water (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The maximum size of<em>E. bruneus</em> recorded is 136 cm TL (38 kg) (Jason Schratwieser, IGFA World Records, pers. comm. 12 Jan 2007).  <br/><br/><strong>Spawning</strong><br/>According to fishermen, does not take baits readily during summer and the gonads of <em>E. bruneus</em> are empty, indicating a “spent” (post-reproductive) condition (Chan 1968).<br/><br/>No information is available on sexual pattern, fecundity or recruitment.
64396		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Little information is currently available for this species across most of its range, although it has been previously abundant in regional fisheries. The species is occasionally seen in local Hong Kong markets (Sadovy Y, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Abundance</strong><br/><em>E. bruneus</em> was one of the most abundant species in Hong Kong waters in 1968 (Chan 1968). <em>E. bruneus</em> was available in markets throughout the year, with highest abundance from October to May (Chan 1968). Wilson (2003) frequently observed <em>E. bruneus</em> on Hong Kong artificial reefs. Sadovy and Cornish (2000) later described <em>E. bruneus</em> as one of the rarest grouper in Hong Kong, especially for fish larger than 50 cm TL.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/><em>Hong Kong</em><br/>Wilson (2003) stated that <em>E. bruneus</em> could be found on artificial reefs frequently. Sadovy and Cornish (2000) occasionally recorded <em>E. bruneus</em> during underwater observations (one 30 cm TL fish in a shallow coral area at about 3 m and a larger individual around large boulders at depth of 15 m).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data</strong><br/>No fishery-dependent data is available. No data are available on the sex composition or length-age relationship.
64396		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>E. bruneus</em> is fishing. The species is vulnerable to a wide range of gear types, including long-liners, trawlers and hand-liners (Chan 1968). Fishing on both juveniles and adults contributes to this threat.
64397		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for <em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em>.
64397		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em> is known only from Tonga.
64397		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em> is a demersal species, but nothing is known of its habitat and biology. The absence of additional specimens is puzzling. The only specimen currently in collection was obtained from locals from Tongatapu by J. Quoy and P. Gaimard during the expedition of J. Dumont d'Urville, 1826-1829.
64397		population	eng	Nothing is currently known of the population of <em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em>.
64397		threats	eng	Owing to the lack of life history, population and fisheries data, no major threats can be established for <em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em>.
64398		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> is only known from Clipperton Island, a remote location not thought to be subject to demersal fishing, Alijos Rocks (northern Baja California), and Revillagigedos Island, which is a marine protected area. There are no specific conservation measures for this species.
64398		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> is restricted to Clipperton atoll, Alijos Rocks (northern Baja California) and Revillagigedos Islands.
64398		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> is found in shallow reefs and rocky bottoms. Because of the isolation of Clipperton, nothing is know about its biology, but it is assumed that it is very similar to its sister species and very closely relative, <em>Epinephelus labriformes</em>.
64398		population	eng	This is a common species of <em>Epinephelus</em> at Clipperton Atoll (Allen and Robertson 1999). It is very closely related to <em>Epinephelus labriformes</em> and was often reported as <em>E. labriformes</em> or <em>Epinephelus</em> sp. prior to its description in 1999 (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2006).
64398		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> because it occurs in an uninhabited area. Its restricted range makes it vulnerable to threatening processes that may develop.
64399		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em>.
64399		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>darwinensis</em> is known from the western central Pacific from a single specimen caught off the north coast of Northern Territory (Australia) and landed at Darwin (hook and line) (Randall and Heemstra 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Capture location: S 10°11'; E 129°48'; Timor Sea.
64399		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em> is a demersal species, but is known only from a single specimen caught by hook and line at a depth of 107 m over a muddy, sandy bottom. The species does not appear to be reef associated.
64399		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em> is known only from a single specimen caught off the north coast of Northern Territory, Australia and landed at Darwin.<br/><br/>No survey work has been done and additional surveys are needed. Some underwater visual surveys have been done that have yet to be evaluated. The species may avoid detection because of its depth.
64399		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em> was captured in an oil prospect region and in an area subject to international territorial  disputes.
64400		conservation	eng	<em>USA</em><br/>Informational Public Hearing Document On Marine Protected Areas To Be Included In Amendment 14 To The  Fishery Management Plan For The Snapper Grouper Fishery Of The South Atlantic Region January 2004 South Atlantic Fishery Management Council [In consideration of the eight species in the deepwater snapper grouper complex: Speckled Hind (<em>E. drummondhayi</em>), Snowy Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> niveatus</em>), Warsaw Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. nigritus</em>), Yellowedge Grouper, Misty Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em>), Tilefish, Blueline Tilefish (<em>Caulolatilis microps</em>) and Sand Tilefish (<em>Hoplolatilus chlupatyi</em>)]. Regulations that apply to the entire snapper grouper FMU but affect deepwater species include a prohibition of trawls, traps and bottom longlines inside of 50 fathoms and North of St. Lucie Inlet, Florida and the commercial limited entry program in which two permits must be retired for one new vessel to enter the fishery.<br/><br/>Under Amendment 6/Environmental Assessment (SAFMC 1993), which was developed to rebuild the Snowy Grouper, Golden Tilefish, Speckled Hind, Warsaw Grouper, Misty Grouper, and Yellowedge Grouper resources: all deepwater species are included under an aggregate recreational bag limit in which recreational fishermen are limited to five groupers per person per day. Current regulations for deepwater snapper grouper species (SAFMC 2003) applied for Yellowedge Grouper included in five grouper aggregate bag limit limited access.
64400		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>flavolimbatus</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic from North Carolina (USA) to French Guiana, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. It ranges from central Brazil (12°S) south to the border of Uruguay (Rio Grande do Sul (32°32'S)). The species may occur in areas between French Guiana and central Brazil.<br/><br/>Higher concentrations are known from around Florianópolis (26°37'S to 27°42'S), Santa Catarina, Brazil (Haimovici pers. comm. 2007, REVIZEE-SCORE-SUL 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua and Bermuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Brazil (Alagoas, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, São Paulo, Sergipe), Cayman Islands, Colômbia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, México (Campeche, Quintana Rôo, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatán), Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Nicarágua, Panamá, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America (Alabama, Florida, Geórgia, Lousiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas), British Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, and Venezuela.
64400		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is a demersal, solitary species occurring in rocky areas and on sand mud bottom. On soft bottoms they are often seen in or near trenches or burrow-like excavations. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (mainly brachyuran crabs) and fishes (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is typically marketed fresh and considered good quality.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> inhabits moderately deep waters, and is typically distributed from 90 to 365 m (Smith 1971). Unlike most groupers, which are associated with reefs and structure, yellowedge grouper can be found in a variety of habitats. Off Texas, they are often found over areas of flat bottom, near "lumps" associated with tilefish, <em>Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps</em>, and over rock ridge habitats (Roe 1976, Jones <em>et al.</em> 1989). In the Western Gulf of Mexico, Yellowedge Grouper have been observed inside burrows cut into soft sediment at depths of ~275 m. They have also been collected at the shelf edge on mud, sand or sand-shell bottom (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1989, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juvenile Yellowedge Grouper are found inshore of the adult population, as shallow as 30 m (Smith 1971, NMFS SEAMAP surveys). In Southern and South Brazil this species is caught over areas of flat bottom, near "lumps" the so called "dirty floor".<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum reported size is 114 cm (45.3 in) TL (male), with a maximum weight of 18.6 kg (41 lbs) (Heemstra and Randall 1993); maximum length is 125 cm TL from Brazil (Haimovici <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>This fish is reported to be protogynous (Bullock <em>et al.</em> 1996). A study conducted by Bullock <em>et al.</em> (1996) in the Gulf of Mexico reported that 50% of fishes are mature at 22.4 in, and that 50% of females transform into males by the time they reach 81 cm TL. Spawning occurs from April through October in the South Atlantic (Keener 1984, Manooch 1984, Parker and Mays 1998). Ripe females were found in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from May through September (Bullock <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 6</strong>: Monthly mean gonadosomatic index values and sample sizes for mature females (A) and monthly mean diameter of the largest oocytes (B) of yellowedge grouper examined (1977-1980) from the eastern Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>A wide variety of invertebrates (mainly brachyuran crabs) and fishes comprise the diet of this species (Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip (2000) report yellowedge grouper as old as 35 years off Trinidad and Tobago. However, a recent investigation in the Gulf of Mexico using carbon-14 validation indicates that yellowedge grouper may live as long as 85 years (Banhick and Fitzhigh unpublished data, cited in Cass-Calay and Bahnick 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Early life history</strong><br/>The eggs and larvae of yellowedge grouper are pelagic and cannot be distinguished from larval snowy grouper,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> niveatus</em> (Cass-Calay and Bahnick 2002). The early life history is relatively unknown (Richards 1999).
64400		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> has declined in abundance in many parts of its range, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and Brazil. Its habitat has been fished by roller-rigged trawls, resulting in habitat destruction. Although abundance trends are lacking in many areas for this species and its catch is often pooled with other groupers, population trends for other more abundant species targeted by the same fisheries have shown drastic declines. Other species that co-occur in trawled, longlined, handlined and gillnet catches are considered overexploited (to the point of being critically endangered). Therefore, it can be inferred that <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> populations have also decreased. As this species is associated with specific habitats, the population might be fragmented and subjected to extreme local declines, considering the long generation time of the species.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery independent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>During 1997 to 1998, several fishery independent (research) surveys were conducted along the southern Brazilian upper shelf and slope. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> was captured with horizontal and vertical longlines, and occurred from São Paulo (25°40´S) to Rio Grande do Sul (32°32 S), in moderately deep waters (100 to 199 m) with higher concentrations at Santa Catarina, around Florianópolis (26°37' to 27°42' S), Santa Catarina, from 120 to 135 m deep (Haimovici <em>et al.</em> 2004, REVIZEE-SCORE-SUL 1999, Haimovici pers. comm. 2007). It was commonly associated with flat mud bottoms ("plateau") near deep trenches. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> may be classified as a rare species (0.5 kg per 1,000 hooks per hour, and 0.7 to 1.4% of total catch, as kg) with a patchy distribution, and occurring at specific, rare habitats.<br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Results from longline surveys off the coast of Louisiana conducted in 1984 and 1985 (Louisiana State University) to explore the economic potential of commercial longline fishing averaged 0.189 lbs/hook for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> in 1984 and 0.137 lbs./hook in 1985 (Cass-Calay and Banhick 2002). These estimates were obtained from fishing locations with positive catches and, therefore, do not represent absolute abundances. However, the catch results do reflect records of catch from a nearly unexploited stock in Louisiana in the mid-1980s (Bankston and Horst 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery dependent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em> <br/>Commercial fishery data: <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is vulnerable to several types of bottom fishing gear, especially longlines and gillnets that target Snowy Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">H.</span><em> niveatus</em>) and tilefish (<em>Lopholatilus villarii</em>) (Olinto, A. pers comm. 2007). No directed fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is known from Brazil. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is identified occasionally in bottom trawl commercial landings targeting angel sharks in depths from 80 to 150 m, over soft mud bottoms near rocky areas (M. Peres pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The species is registered in commercial landings for São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. State statistics generally group <em>Epinephelus</em><em> flavolimbatus</em> (now recognised and referred to hereafter as <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em>) with other <em>Epinephelus</em> species, under the name "cherne" (grouper). For Rio Grande do Sul (IBAMA-CEPERG), "cherne" mainly includes <em>Polyprion americanus</em>, <em>E. niveatus</em> (now recognised and referred to hereafter as <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> </em><em>niveatus</em><em></em>) and other <em>Epinephelus</em> species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. flavolimbatus</em>. For Santa Catarina (GEP-UNIVALI), fishery statistics display commercial landings for&#160;<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> </em><em> </em><em>flavolimbatus</em> under "chene-galha-amarela", probably because the species is regionally important, but it may also be registered under the "cherne" category, together with <em>P. americanus</em> and&#160;<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">H.</span><em> </em><em>niveatus</em><em></em>. São Paulo state (Instituto de Pesca) also groups <em></em><em>H. flavolimbatus</em> with other <em>Epinephelus</em> species, under the name "cherne" (grouper).<br/><br/>Bottom longline and gillnet have dramatically increased in the last 10 years, with the development of the wreckfish <em>P. americanus</em> fishery off southern Brazil and the snowy grouper and tilefish fishery mainly off southeastern Brazil. All grouper annual landings severely decreased after the period 1996 to 2002 (Figures 1, 2 and 3). As a by-catch of such fisheries, <em>H. flavolimbatus</em> populations have presumably been impacted by the heavy fishing effort off south and southeastern Brazil. It is inferred that <em>H. flavolimbatus</em> population trends mirror those of <em>P. americanus</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> and <em>Lopholatilus villarii</em>, which have drastically declined from heavy fishing pressure and are considered overexploited to critically endangered (Cornish and Peres 2003, Haimovici <em>et al.</em> 2004, BRASIL 2004, Avila-da-Silva and Haimovici 2005).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><br/><strong>Figure 1</strong>: Grouper landings at Sao Paulo, Brazil (in kg) (1998-2005)<br/><br/><strong>Figure 2</strong>: Grouper landings at Santa Catarina, Brazil (in kg) (2000-2006)<br/><br/><strong>Figure 3</strong>: Grouper landings at Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (in kg) (1991-2005)<br/><br/>With the decrease in target species catch and abundance, some longliners have directed their catches to other grouper species, and may opportunistically hit some spawning and feeding aggregations. These may be reflected in the high seasonal landings from July to October (Peres pers. obs.). <br/><br/><em>Gulf of Mexico</em><br/>Cass-Calay and Banhick (2002) reported that in the Western Gulf of Mexico (WGOM), nominal CPUE was highest in 1992 at 0.160 lbs./hook and have averaged 0.087 lbs./hook since 1995. In the eastern Gulf (EGOM), nominal CPUE was less than 0.065 lbs./hook since 1990. They concluded that these results suggest a decline in longline CPUE for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> since the onset of commercial fishing for the species in the region. <br/><br/><em>South Atlantic</em><br/>Cass-Calay and Banhnick (2002) reported CPUE as variable; since 1992 CPUE is declining in the Western Gulf of Mexico longline and Eastern Gulf of Mexico handline fisheries, while EGOM longline and WGOM handline CPUEs remained fairly constant.<br/><br/><em>Caribbean</em><br/>Landings increased in the 1980s due to the development of longline fisheries for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> (over 70 m depth) and Red Grouper, <em>Epinephelus morio</em>, in the Caribbean. Bannerot <em>et al.</em> (1987) discussed the sustainability of these fisheries and mentioned that fisheries for yellowedge groupers ceased in the Gulf of Mexico because of sharp catch declines (Nelson, W., pers. comm., cited in Bannerot <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>Snappers and groupers have been traditionally exploited on the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago by artisanal fishers (Mendoza and Larez 2004). The eastern Venezuelan snapper?grouper fishery is composed of medium range and long range handliners and longliners. The main species exploited by the medium range fishery are southern red snapper, <em>Lutjanus purpureus</em>, and Yellowedge Grouper, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> (Mendoza and Larez 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> catch and effort increased more or less linearly between the years 1981 and 1991 when catches peaked at around 2400 t. Since then catch and effort have been declining and historic lows were registered in the last years of the series (Mendoza and Larez 2004).<br/><br/><em>Southeastern USA</em><br/>Williams and Dixon (2003) reported landings from the Southeastern US headboat fishery for several deepwater species. Yellowedge Grouper landings declined five-fold during the past 20 years in both weight and abundance and 10-fold over 30 years relative to landings prior to 1981. CPUE by gear also dropped three-fold over the periods reported.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for the following figures from preliminary analysis of headboat (recreational) surveys of some deepwater species (Williams, E.H. and Dixon, B., 31 October 2003, SEDAR4-DW-16):<br/><br/><strong>Figure 4</strong>: Number and weight (mt) of landed deepwater species from the South Atlantic headboat fishery.<br/><br/><strong>Figure 5</strong>: Catch per unit effort for Yellowedge Grouper using trips which caught at least one member of the deepwater complex.<br/><br/><strong>Status</strong><br/>Ault <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated that Yellowedge Grouper was overexploited in the Florida Keys. Musick <em>et al.</em> (2000) considered the status of US Atlantic populations of Yellowedge Grouper in the Gulf of Mexico uncertain. However, NMFS (2002) considers that this resource is not overfished in the area. According to NOAA Fisheries 2002 report to Congress on the status of US fisheries (NMFS 2003), Yellowedge Grouper is not considered to be overfished, based on the pre-SFA definition of that term. Under that definition, the stock is overfished when the SPR (spawner per recruit) falls below 30%. This stock is not considered to be experiencing overfishing, based on a post-SFA definition of the MFMT. Overfshing is defined as a fishing mortality rate in excess of that corresponding to a 30% Static SPR (NMFS 2003). The council is currently reviewing these status determinations criteria in Amendment 13B to the Snapper-Grouper fishery management plan (FMP).<br/><br/>Mendoza and Larez (2004) concluded that in Venezuela, a significant amount of catch and income had been forgone due to overfishing, based on maximum sustainable yield (MSY) estimates. They considered that a biomass recovery plan must be instituted to establish adequate stock levels and recover the economic potential of the fishery. Cass-Calay and Banhick (2002) estimated FMSY between 0.050 and 0.076 and concluded that appropriate fishing mortality for Yellowedge Grouper is quite low. MSY estimates ranged from 230 and 630 mt, indicating that commercial yield is already at is maximum (Cass-Calay and Banhick 2002).
64400		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is heavy fishing effort, especially of the bottom longline and gillnet fisheries. Yellowedge Grouper are a long-lived, hermaphroditic species and relatively slow to mature, which increases their vulnerability to overfishing.
64401		conservation	eng	There has been a recent regulatory change to impose effort control by limiting number of fishing vessels in Oman. There are no protected areas within the range of this species and no regulations specific for <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em>. Because the species occurs in rocky reefs, some protection may be afforded to them from trawl fisheries.
64401		distribution	eng	The distributional range for <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> extends from the coast of Oman (Muscat) to the eastern border of Yemen, as well as Socotra (Yemen) and Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). In 2001, one individual was collected at a landing site in northern Oman, approximately 100 km south of the Straits of Hormuz (the opening of the Persian Gulf). However the same landing site was sampled for 12 months (March 2004 to March 2005), with no record of <em>E. gabriellae</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
64401		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> is a demersal species found over rocky bottoms.<br/><br/>Juveniles and sub-adults are the second most common species of grouper on inshore rocky areas along the southern coast of Oman (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Apparently juveniles/sub-adults prefer areas of high coral, then migrate into deeper water further offshore when they mature (McIlwain, J. pers. obs.).<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Max size: 70.3 cm<br/>Max weight: 5.3 kgs<br/>Longevity: 26 yrs (oldest specimen examined using otolith sections)
64401		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> is one of the most common species of grouper along the southern coast of Oman and is a major component of the grouper fishery. It is comparatively less common in shallow waters.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> forms a major component of the Omani grouper fishery and is caught by both traditional fishers using small (20 to 32 ft) fiberglass boats and by industrial trawlers operating in the Arabian Sea. Data were collected weekly from the major landing site at Muscat from March 2004 to March 2005. <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> made up approximately 11% of all grouper species measured during sampling (Jenny MacIlwain, Fishery Biologist, formerly of the Dept. of Marine Science & Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, unpub. data). <br/><br/>Unfortunately, the official Omani Ministry of Fisheries statistics do not differentiate between species of grouper that occur in landings. However, data suggest that the total grouper landings from Oman has actually shown a small increase over a 12 year period (on average 3,800 t/yr for 1991-2002). In contrast, many fishers suggested that catch-per-unit-effort and grouper landings had decreased by approximately 75% over the same time period. This coincides with a dramatic increase in the numbers of fishers over the past 20 years, coupled with heavy subsidies provided by the government that go towards providing new vessels, outboard engines, etc. This apparent increase has probably come from the industrial sector which is largely unregulated and is comprised of 12 to 20 foreign-owned and foreign-manned vessels (Jenny MacIlwain, Fishery Biologist, formerly of the Dept. of Marine Science and Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, unpub. data).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>According to McIlwain, who conducted visual census at 46 sites along the entire Omani coast, <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> was rarely encountered. The census of grouper was conducted using  strip transects (three transects per site), during which time <em>E. gabriellae</em> were counted at only four of the 46 sites, and usually found in very low densities. Three of these sites were situated at a group of small islands (the Halaniyats) 60 km offshore of southern Oman and east of the Oman/Yemen border. Here, counts averaged 2.2 individuals/90 sq. m, with a size range of 20 to 40 cm TL. One individual was recorded on a transect at Masirah Island in central Oman (the northern most distribution on the species map). Apparently juveniles/sub-adults prefer areas of high coral, then migrate into deeper water further offshore as they mature. This ontogenetic shift has been suggested from fisher interviews who stated that they catch small <em>E. gabriellae</em> (<40 cm TL) on the shallow reefs around Salalah (southern Oman) during the monsoon season when it is too rough to fish further offshore (Jenny MacIlwain, Fishery Biologist, formerly of the Dept. of Marine Science and Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, unpub. data).
64401		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> is increasing commercial and artisanal fishing pressure that coincides with a dramatic increase in the numbers of fishermen in the past 20 yrs. These fisher increases are coupled with heavy subsidies, apparently from the unregulated traditional sector, that provides funding for new vessels, outboard engines, etc. Recent new regulations have come into being to limit the number of fishing vessels in Oman. Whether this recent regulatory change is sufficient to reduce the observed (by fishers) declines in catch abundance and catch-per-unit-effort is not currently known (McIlwain, J., pers. comm.).
64402		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas in the range of <em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em>. Data on its population, range and fisheries is definitely needed.
64402		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em> has a limited range and its occurrence is confirmed only in the Indian Ocean: Puntland coast of Somalia, and Oman (unspecified locality in Oman). There are reports from fishermen of the species occurring in the Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia (A. Hersi, pers. comm. 2007). The extent of its range into the Arabian Sea and south into the Indian Ocean requires confirmation.
64402		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em> occurs on rocky reef and sandy bottom at depths of 70 to 200 m. No other information is available.
64402		population	eng	There are no data on the population size and abundance of <em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em>, but the limited information available suggests it is uncommon. It is not known whether it is in decline.
64402		threats	eng	There are no population data or fisheries information for <em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em>, making a detailed threats assessment difficult. The Puntland coast of Somalia is fished by both local fishers and by foreign vessels, especially from Yemen. The former is unmanaged and the latter is unregulated and unreported. Civil war has continued in Somalia since 1991 to the present, therefore, no fisheries management is taking place. Other threats, such as those from coastal development and pollution are highly unlikely at present.<br/><br/>The species is known by Puntland fishers, but is not targeted specifically and is said to occur at around 200 m depth in the Gulf of Aden where it is caught incidentally by handline (Abdilwahid Hersi, pers. comm., Jan 2007).
64403		conservation	eng	Unknown.
64403		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus lebretonianus</em> is a very poorly understood species and is known only from the holotype, probably collected somewhere in the Indo-Pacific.
64403		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus lebretonianus</em> is described from a single known specimen, the holotype, collected during the circumglobal voyage of the “L’Astrolabe” and “La Zélée” which were attempting to find the South Pole. Hombron and Jacquinot (1853) reported that the provenance of this species was unknown, but since most fish species collected were from the Indo-Pacific region it is assumed that this species was also collected there (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>No habitat information is given with the holotype.
64403		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus lebretonianus</em> is known from only one specimen.
64403		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
64404		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em></em><em>perplexus</em>.
64404		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>perplexus</em> is known only from the holotype taken from Cape Moreton, southern Queensland, Australia.
64404		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em></em><em>perplexus</em> is known only from the holotype collected by the FIV 'Endeavour'. Collected between 129 to 137 m. The absence of additional specimens may indicate that this species normally inhabits deeper waters. The size of the holotype specimen is 465 mm SL/565 mm TL.
64404		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>perplexus</em> has an unknown population abundance.
64404		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em></em><em>perplexus</em> is apparently a rare, deepwater species. No current known threats. It is not part of any known fishery. Possible limited distribution.
64405		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for <em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em>.
64405		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em> is known only from a single specimen taken from the Minami-Koto Seamount which lies on the Kyushu-Palau Ridge.
64405		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em> is a bathydemersal species, but is only known specimen was collected in a trawl at 360 to 570 m from Minami-Koto Seamount, Kyushu-Palau Ridge.
64405		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em> is known only from the holotype.
64405		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em>.
64406		conservation	eng	Nothing specific for <em>Epinephelus timorensis</em>.
64406		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> is broadly distributed across the eastern Indian Ocean (off western Australia) and parts of the eastern central Pacific, but has a disjunct occurrence (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Areas of occurrence include American Samoa (Tuitila) and the Phoenix Islands (Canton Island), Kiribati, Fiji, limited areas of Western Australia, and Samoa.
64406		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> is a demersal species found at depths of 73 to 210 m (Randall and Hemstra 1991). Nothing has been published on the biology of this rare species.  The apparent rarity of this species is probably a result of its deep-water habitat and the fact that it was only recently described as a new species (Heemstra & Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum size: 26.5 cm SL (Heemstra & Randall 1993).
64406		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> is a wide-ranging species, but very sparsely distributed; its apparent rarity is a result of its deep water habitat (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Nothing has been published on its population(s).
64406		threats	eng	No published information is available for <em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> across much of its range. Annual reported catch in American Samoa peaked in the late 1980s at about 200 kg, but dropped to 13 kg by 1996 (PROCFISH database).
64407		conservation	eng	There are some indirect conservation measures in place for <em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> within its distributional range, such as the protection provided through the UNESCO world heritage site at Henderson Island. No other protective measures are known within the species range.
64407		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> is known only from the French Polynesia (Tuamoto Islands, Society Islands, Gambier Island, Rapa), the Pitcairn Group (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Randall 1999), and Raratonga in the Cook Islands (Mead 1983).
64407		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits the outer slope of coral reefs. Fourmanoir (1971) found ophichthid eels, <em>Leiuranus phoenixensis</em>, in the stomachs of his type specimens. May be of some importance to artisanal fisheries, but it is rarely caught because of its preference for deep water. Depths of capture (and presumably habitat) range from 120 to 250 m.
64407		population	eng	There is no published information on the population status or life history of <em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em>.
64407		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> is apparently narrowly distributed within the Pacific and is found within a relatively confined depth strata. The species can be caught by deepwater handlining (>200 m), as demonstrated during a 1983 longlining experiment conducted in the Cook Islands by the South Pacific Commission (Mead 1983). However, these practices are unlikely to be conducted on a large-scale as long as other less costly and less labor-intensive methods remain viable for procuring fish. Some individuals may be captured by artisanal fishing, however, there are no known systematic fisheries records for this species to establish fisheries or population trends.
64408		conservation	eng	While there are no specific conservation measures for the species, <em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> does occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the northern extent of its range.
64408		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> occurs within the southern portion of the western Pacific from southern Queensland (One Tree Islands, Great Barrier Reef at 23°30'S) to Bateman's Bay (35°44'S) on the east coast of Australia (New South Wales). Catch distribution ranges from 22°07'09"S 151°47'01"E to 35°44'00"S, 150°15'00"E, but is recorded from Lord Howe Island and Lord Howe Rise. One specimen, assumed to be a vagrant, was reported from Kangaroo Islands, South Australia. The National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian) collection includes one specimen (dried head) that was reported from New Caledonia (Cat. No. USNM 111371: 1943). This specimen is possibly an unreliable record (Randall and Heemstra 1991; Heemstra and Randall 1993).
64408		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits coral reefs and rocky areas. The species possibly occurs deeper than the reported habitat maximum. It is an active swimmer that will leave the bottom to take a floating bait.
64408		population	eng	No population data are available for <em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em>. The species is presumed to be fairly common and is a favored species for anglers.
64408		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> occurs as by-catch within the trawl fishery. Is it likely to be moderately protected by its relatively deepwater habitat.
64409		conservation	eng	The range of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> includes a few protected areas. It is recommended that fishing of this species cease.
64409		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> is known only from the eastern Atlantic. The species is known with certainty only from the Azores and Madeira (Portugal), Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands (Spain) (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
64409		habitat	eng	<em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> is a demersal species that occurs near the bottom in rocky areas at depths from 1 to 200 m. Juveniles may be found in tide pools. Two specimens collected from the Cape Verde by J. Cadenat were from a depth of 50 m.
64409		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> has a limited range and was previously abundant, but due to fishing pressure is now locally rare. There has been local extirpation from the most intensively fished areas in the islands of the Canary Island Archipelago.<br/><br/><strong>Sub-populations Azores (Az), Madeira (Mad) and the Canary Islands</strong> <br/><em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> has an erratic distribution. Individuals are rarely observed greater than 40 cm TL, or approximately half of the known maximum size.<br/><br/>In the Canary Archipelago, among all groupers surveyed, <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> had the greatest mean area biomass  (464.63 ± 1464.25 g/100 m², mean ± SD; n=768 transects), while the mean abundance was 0.32 ± 0.76 ind/100 m² (mean ± SD, n = 768). Significant differences in abundances and biomasses were observed among the islands surveyed (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Specific areas of occurrence</strong> <br/>Santa Maria (Azores) at Baixa do Norte (reproductive aggregation known and monitored annually); São Miguel (Azores) at Ilhéus dos Mosteiros (adults very rare); Terceira (Azores) at Ilhéu da Mina (adults very rare); Faial (Azores) at Baixa do Castelo Branco (formerly the largest known reproductive aggregation in the NE Atlantic, presently totally extirpated by overfishing); MAP of Garajau (Madeiras), very common including adults but presently not known if reproductive aggregations occur; North Coast of Porto Santo Island (Madeiras), very rare but adults are regularly seen at depths below 30 m. (Barreiros, J.P., pers. comm., UAC/IMAR).
64409		threats	eng	Fishing targeted at spawning aggregations, which for other serranids of similar life history has resulted in population declines, altered sex ratio and aggregation extirpation.<br/><br/>Both <em>M. fusca</em> (along with <em>Epinephelus marginatus</em>) showed the strongest responses to variations in fishing intensity and human population among the Canary Islands, thus supporting the hypothesis that major human intervention has affected the abundance and biomass of both species across the Archipelago (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2006).
64410		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> occurs in several marine protected areas throughout its range. In areas not protected, harvest management is needed.
64410		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic from Florida (USA) and Bermuda to southern Brazil, including the Brazilian off-shore islands, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba and throughout the Caribbean.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua and Bermuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil (Alagoas, Ceará, Espírito Santo, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe, Trindade), Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, México (Campeche, Quintana Rôo, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatán), Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi), British Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, and Venezuela.
64410		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is reef-associated and found mainly on rocky or coral bottoms from the shoreline to at least 55 m depth (Smith 1978). Small and medium-sized individuals commonly occur in mangrove-lined lagoons. More common in island waters than along the coast.<br/><br/>The species is reported to have slow growth, long life spans, and presumed low natural mortality rates that likely increases their susceptibility to overfishing (Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip 2000), as with many of its congeners with similar life histories.<br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/><em>M. interstitialis</em> feeds on fishes.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex-reversal has been reported for the species. The species is a pelagic spawner.<br/><br/><strong>Colouration</strong><br/>The tri-colored pattern of the juveniles mimics that of the juveniles of the clown wrasse, <em>Halichoeres maculipinna</em>. The aggressive mimics behavior includes folding down the median and caudal fins, which adds to its wrasse imitation and allows it to approach its otherwise wary prey.
64410		population	eng	<em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is a naturally uncommon species throughout its range. Signs of decline (at least 30%) in all of its range is inferred from fishery data.<br/><br/>The species has been classified as vulnerable in the US, since it has low productivity and is vulnerable to overfishing (http://www.sefscpanamalab.noaa.gov/docs/Yellowmouth_grouper.doc). Extirpation is possible for this uncommon species, since it is taken along with similar yet more abundant and more persistent species, such as scamp (<em>M. phenax</em>) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000) and <em>M. bonaci</em> (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 1998).
64410		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is targeted by fisheries in some areas, but its rarity prevents it from becoming a major target species. In areas where fisheries are developed, rapid population declines have been noted. <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is apparently tolerant to habitat loss.<br/><br/>In the Caribbean, <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is caught with hook-and-line, traps and spear (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and is of significant commercial value in Venezuela (Smith 1971; Gonzalez and Celaya 1986; cited in Manickchand-Heilmand and Phillip 2000). The yellowmouth grouper is also commercially exploited in Bermuda (Smith 1971) and the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Bullock and Murphy 1994). In Honduras, large grouper species (e.g. <em>E. striatus</em>, <em>Mycteroperca</em> spp.) are caught in all areas but with different techniques, whereas in Utila, they are predominantly caught with handlines. Smaller individuals are caught elsewhere in larger proportions with spearguns, nets, and sometimes traps (<em>Gobert et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery dependent data</strong> <br/><em>Bermuda</em><br/>In the 1980s, a rapid development of trap fishing on shallow water grouper populations in Bermuda led to a seven year decline in grouper catches from 40,000 to 10,000 pounds per year (Bannerot <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/><em>Trinidad/Tobago</em><br/>Historically, <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> has been fished on the continental shelf and shelf edge northwest of Tobago and along the north and northeastern coasts of Trinidad by artisanal vessels from Trinidad and Tobago, as well as from Venezuela (Mendoza and Larez 2004). Declines in catch rates have been reported in these areas (Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip 2000, Mendoza and Larez 2004).<br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>In Brazil a sharp decline was observed in the grouper fishery in the Abrolhos bank (<em>Mycteroperca</em> spp). The present CPUE (1.4 kg per fisher<sup>-day</sup>) is considerably lower than in the late 1970s (12 kg per fisher-day) (Costa <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery independent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>In Brazil, <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is recorded in the landings under the same category as other <em>Mycteroperca</em> species. Ferreira <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated that <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> represented 3% of the total <em>Mycteroperca</em> catches in the northeast (<em>M. bonaci</em> is the main species with 88%), while Costa (unpub. data) estimates it represents 1.36% of the total <em>Mycteroperca</em> landings in the central coast of Brazil. During four research cruises of the Revizee Program between 1996 and 1998, 190,746 hooks were deployed in depths between 100 and 500 m in four areas distributed in the Abrolhos to Vitoria region (12° to 22° S). A catch-per-unit-effort of 0.2 to 2.1 kg per 1,000 hooks was estimated for this species that included 1.4 kg per 1000 hook in depths above 100 m and 0.3 kg per 1,000 hook in areas between 100 and 300 m.
64411		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>P. areolatus</em> occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including some specifically designed to protect spawning aggregations (Rhodes <em>et al.</em> 2005). Seasonal closures associated with spawning times are also in place in some areas (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002). Size-limits and catch quotas have also been imposed in various sites in Australia.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Palau</em><br/>The Marine Protection Act of 1994 prohibits sale or purchase of <em>P. areolatus</em> (and <em>E. polyphekadion</em> or <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em>) from April 1 through July 31 each year, intended to protect spawning aggregations. In 1995 the Act was amended to prohibit any capture of these groupers even for subsistence purpose in the closed period (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999). A four-month bul (taboo) was enforced in the state of Ngeremlengui, but not completely effective in preventing fishing on the spawning aggregation. <br/><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>A sales ban is enforced on all groupers, including the squaretail coralgrouper, during March and April, which coincides with a portion of its January-May spawning season (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).<br/><br/><em>Queensland, Australia</em><br/>Size limit: minimum 38 cm TL and a total combined bag limited seven individuals (coralgrouper), applied across all sectors of the coral reef fin fish fishery that includes commercial and recreational fishers, and charter boat operators. The minimum size limits is designed to ensure that at least half of the fish in a population reach reproductive maturity and spawn before harvest.
64411		distribution	eng	<em>Plectropomus areolatus</em> is an Indo-Pacific species, known from the Red Sea, with a population in the Maldives and Chagos Island, disjunct at the coast of Southeast Asia (Myanmar and Thailand), and then from the Philippines, north to Ryukyu Islands (Japan); south to Indonesia, east and west Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and most of Micronesia.<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations are known from the Solomon Islands; in Palau, it aggregates in Ebiil, Western Entrance and Ngerumekaol; Pohnpei, Micronesia (Kehpara Marine Sanctuary, Palikir Pass, Ant Channel), Chagos Archipelago; Mundoo Channel, Maldive; Kiribati; aggregates outside and around passages in Abaiang atoll , Fiji. Other Pacific countries where they have been reported include Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, and Samoa. Occasional individuals are sighted in Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) (Allen 1998).
64411		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>P. areolatus</em> inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, in areas with rich coral growth. Most frequently encountered in channels along the reef front. Often a shy fish, but will take bait during reproductive periods. Feeds exclusively on fishes. May be ciguatoxic in some areas. Forms spawning aggregations in association with specific lunar phases, with variable seasonality and lunar cycle associated with spawning by locale. The species commonly co-aggregates with the camouflage grouper, <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion</em>, and brown-marbled grouper, <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> throughout its range. Aggregation-associated abundances can number in the 1,000s of individuals (Conservation Society of Pohnpei unpublished data), although in many area, spawning aggregations may be naturally small, composed of 10s to 100s of individuals (Hamilton pers. Comm.). A total of 5781 individuals were recorded at the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary spawning site during monitoring in three days during peak aggregation periods in 2001  (Pet <em>et al.</em> pers. Comm.). Natural variations in mean size may occur between locales, but this phenomenon has not yet been confirmed and may be attributed to fisheries-induced changes in population structure. <br/><br/>Initial data suggests that some aggregations that appear within the presumed reproductive season, including some of substantial size, may not be reproductive and composed entirely, or nearly so, of a single sex, as demonstrated by fisheries data collected in January 2005 over a 5-day period leading up to the 'normal' full moon spawning time associated with the species in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data). Although there was no fisheries-independent data to support all-male aggregations, fishing over similar periods in subsequent aggregation months (February-May) resulted in a minimum of 1:4 female-to-male sex ratio to suggest that several females would have been captured in January of present. If confirmed, fishing on large, same-sex aggregations could impact sex ratios during subsequent reproductive periods in a manner similar to that shown for other aggregating serranids (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Kiribati</em><br/>In Abaiang Atoll of the Gilberts Group, Kiribati, local knowledge indicates a September to February spawning season, with spawning peak in early December. Occasional individuals sighted at 2 to 30 m, in coral reefs of Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea (Allen 1998).<br/><br/><em>Palau</em><br/>Mature females ranged between 347 and 510 mm FL, mature males between 390 and 557 mm. Immature fish ranged from 300 to 345 mm, so sexual maturation was attained at about 346 mm, but size distribution varied significantly between study aggregations. In 1996, no recruitment was observed within the smallest size category of females moving into Ebiil and Western Entrance spawning aggregations and negligible recruitment occurred at Ngerumekaol, suggesting larval settlement of <em>P. areolatus</em> 2 to 3 years earlier may have been very low. About 5-10 times as many females as males were counted in the most lightly fished area (Western Entrance), while spawning aggregations in more heavily fished areas Ngerumekaol (highest female: male (f:m) ratio recorded was 1:5 during peak aggregation) and Ebiil sites, f:m ratio exceeds one only at Western Entrance and Solomon Island (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999).This sex ratio may be responsible for the aggressive behavior observed between sexes and may have prevented spawning. Sex and size structure in spawning aggregation should be monitored where fishing on spawning aggregations occurs.<br/><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>In Pohnpei, marketed fish were derived primarily from inner reef locales using spear (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Individuals taken during a tagging exercise in Pohnpei had a mean size for mature females of 390+/-30 cm SL, with males averaging 462+/-28 cm SL. Mature females ranged from 318-469 cm SL, while males were found between 390-570 cm SL (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data).<br/><br/><em>Solomon Islands</em><br/>One of the earliest records of spawning aggregations of <em>P. areolatus</em> was in the Solomon Islands (Johannes 1988). Johannes noted aggregations in two outer reef passages and counted no more than 100 fish at any one time.
64411		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Possibly the most abundant <em>Plectropomus</em> species in the central Western Pacific. However, there have been severe declines regionally, probably due in part to targeting spawning aggregations by local and foreign commercial fishers and the species is highly valued in the international live reef fish trade centered in Hong Kong (Sadovy and Vincent 2002). Although spawning can be induced in this species, it is not commercially raised in hatcheries (Tucker and Fitzgerald 1994; Sadovy, Y., pers. obs.). <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Maldives</em><br/>In the Maldives, <em>P. areolatus</em> abundance is lower in the more heavily fished outer reef channels than in less intensely fished channels in the western side of Laamu Atoll (Sluka 2000). Stocks of <em>P. areolatus</em> was estimated at 1600 tonnes.<br/><br/><em>Kiribati and other Pacific locales</em><br/>In Abaiang Atoll of the Gilberts Group, Kiribati, fishing targeting spawning aggregations was traditionally practiced but became very intensive in the 1980s when an Outer Island Fisheries Project was started. The Project buys fish from the outer islands to sell in the capital, Tarawa. During peak fishing season, daily catch  of <em>P. areolatus</em> was estimated at two tonnes (about 1,200 individuals). A concurrent underwater visual survey showed a mean density of 0.13 individuals per 100 sq. m, with a mean individual length of 40 cm TL (Yeeting, unpublished data-1999). In 2004, a subsequent survey showed that mean density had declined to 0.04 individuals per 100 sq. m, with associated declines in mean size to 33 cm TL (ProcFish 2005). Other densities (per 100 sq. m) and mean length (cm TL) estimates are: Abemama, Kiribati: 0.19, 37; Chuuk, FSM: 0.0057, 50; Salelavalu, Samoa: 0.0072, 38; Funafuti, Tuvalu: 0.074, 44; Nukufetau, Tuvalu: 0.081, 37 (ProcFish 2005).<br/><br/>The species is apparently the most abundant live reef food fish species in the Fijian Islands (Yeeting <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>In Pohnpei, the species forms aggregations from January to May within the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary, an enforced marine protected area (Rhodes <em>et al.</em> 2005). Aggregations also form at Palikir Pass (Pohnpei) and Ant Channel (Ant Atoll) that overlap temporally with those at KMS, although the size and temporal duration of Ant and Palikir aggregations are unknown; the latter sites are open to fishing and smaller in abundance to those of Kehpara (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data). The species was the 6<sup>th</sup> most abundant serranid in marketed catches, contributing 12% to the Pohnpei spear and line serranid fishery over five months in 2006; the size range of marketed individuals was 211 to 513 mm TL, with a mean size of 352.0 +/- 55.4 cm TL (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Individuals were captured predominantly by spear in inner reef locales, with immature individuals accounting for the majority of catch: 75.6% and 97.2% of marketed catch of females and males, respectively, below the mean size at sexual maturity (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). <br/><br/><em>Indonesia</em><br/>In Komodo National Park, the species formed spawning aggregations during full moon periods from September to February and occasionally during new moon periods (Pet <em>et al.</em> 2005). During the 5-year monitoring program (1995-2000) at two sites within the Park, mean size declined by 8 cm, with heavy fishing continuing even following protection of the sites in 2001 (Pet <em>et al.</em> 2005); fish numbers at aggregations were low, less than 100 per aggregation site and period. <br/><br/><em>Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea</em><br/>At Roviana Lagoon (Solomon Islands), Hamilton and Kama (2004) identified seven spawning sites for <em>P. areolatus</em> through fisher interviews, with a reported peak in spawning activity between October and January during third quarter to new moon lunar phases. Hamilton and Smith (2005) report that 2 to 3 Manus fishers (Papua New Guinea) can remove an estimated 100 individuals per night from spawning sites using night-time spearfishing techniques, with associated declines in abundance and catch (Hamilton 2003). Catch-per-unit-effort records from Roviana estimate a catch rate of 16.8 kg/hr per fisher (41 fishing trips) (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Kavieng (Papua New Guinea), the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) has operated on and off during the past decade and traditionally used traps and handlines to target spawning aggregations and reproductive migratory pathways, although trap fishing is now banned. A number of Kavieng sites have been systematically fished, with associated declines in abundance often severe. In Roviana, at least one <em>P. areolatus</em> aggregation was fished to economic extinction from the LRFFT (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005) and coral reef damage was observed in association with this type of fishing at the same site (Rhodes pers. obs.). In Roviana, LRFFT operations between 1996 and 1997 removed an estimated 3 to 4 tonnes of the serranids, including <em>P. areolatus</em> (Hamilton and Kama 2004) during 24-hour daily fishing operations.
64411		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em> is the commercial live reef food-fish trade. The species is taken for both live and fresh/dead for international and national trade using a combination of line, trap and possibly chemicals (sodium cyanide). It is sold in Hong Kong live reef fish food market, with the highest proportion at 35-45 cm length. Import to Hong Kong was 2319 tonnes in 1997, maturity size range is 31-35 cm TL, common consuming size is 38.24 –50.21 cm TL (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999). Much of the foreign commercial fishing targets spawning aggregations (Sadovy <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Pacific countries it is the most abundant and main target grouper species for the Live Reef Fish Food Trade.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>Although subsistence use is not usually considered a main threat, a recent survey of serranids in Pohnpei showed that <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em> comprised >12% of serranids targeted by the spear and line fishery, with the majority of the catch composed of juveniles (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Local commercial fishers are also responsible for targeting spawning aggregations and reproductive migratory pathways, resulting in reduced abundances following heavy fishing (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data; Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hamilton and Kama 2004). <br/><br/><em>Solomon Islands</em><br/>In the Solomon Islands (and likely elsewhere), <em>P. areolatus</em> moves to shallow reef habitats (e.g. reef flat) at night within spawning aggregation periods. These areas are easily accessible to fishers, who can obtain exceptionally high catches over short periods of time (Johannes 1988); mean night-time CPUE was significantly higher than during the daytime (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005). Marovo (Solomon Islands) fishermen state that the average size of aggregations of <em>P. areolatus</em> has been diminishing since spearfishing became widely practiced in the area. Increasing human population in the Western Solomon Islands (doubling about every 17 years) is also exerting pressure on the species. Johannes suggests that aggregation fishing should be managed or banned in the Solomon Islands, where aggregations occur in multiple and often closely spaced (kms) locations, because heavy fishing pressure is likely to rapidly deplete them (Johannes and Kile 2001). Hamilton (unpublished manuscript) reports that night-time spear fishing poses a threat to spawning aggregations of the species because the high hourly catch rates possible using this method could rapidly deplete aggregations. <br/><br/><em>Palau</em><br/>According to Noah Idechong, at least four spawning aggregations have disappeared since the 1970s in Palau, including one composed primarily of <em>P. areolatus</em>. Sites include Rebotel, Mesikm near German Channel and Uchul a Chei on the southern tip of Ngermediu reef (lost in the 1970s). An aggregation site of <em>P. areolatus</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> was virtually eliminated at Denges in the late 1980s by a live grouper export fishing enterprise (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999). Possibly as a result of fishing pressure, the <em>P. areolatus</em> aggregation at Ebiil has been reduced to aggregating one only one of two sides of the channel (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999). <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em>, along with <em>Epinephelus fuscoguttatus</em> and <em>Epinephelus polyphekedoin</em>, dominate the commercial catch of groupers in Palau (Kitalong and Dalzell 1993).
64412		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in portions of its range.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, a preliminary recommendation for closed areas within Komodo National Park has been designed (The Nature Conservancy, unknown year).<br/><br/>To date conservation actions include size limits, total area closures to fishing and temporal sales bans. The current management plan on the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) has set a minimum size limit of 500 mm FL for this species. Approximately 30% of the GBRMP now comprises areas closed to fishing. However the primary habitat of this species in eastern Australia (exposed reef fronts on the northern Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea reef systems) have large areas of reef open to fishing. Increasing ease of access and navigation means that the protection by isolation component will be reduced in the near future. In Pohnpei (Micronesia), the species is prohibited for sale, along with other groupers, during March and April (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
64412		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. Its range extends from the East African coast (Kenya to Mozambique) to the central and southern Pacific. Pacific latitudinal range from southern Japan to Middleton Elizabeth Reefs. Pacific longitudinal from the western Pacific to the Tuamotos and Pitcairn Island.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>East Africa (Kenya to Mozambique), Comores, Madagascar, Tulear, Aldabara, Seychelles Réunion, Mauritius, Rodríguez, Chagos, Maldives, Lakshadweep, west India, Sri Lanka, Andamans, Nicobars, west Thailand, Myanmar, Sunda Shelf (excluding Malaya), Indonesia (excluding Irian Jaya), Bali, Sangalakki, Borneo, eastern Indonesia (excluding Aru), Flores, Komodo, Cocos-Keeling, Western Australia, Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, Great Barrier Reef, Chesterfield Reefs, Coral Sea Reefs, Middelton Reef, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Peng Hu Shan, Ryukyu, Kashimo-Jima, Izu Islands, Ogashawara Islands, Korea (Ceju), Micronesia, Pohnpei, Marianas, Howland Island, Fiji, Tonga, Niue, Uvea, Samoa, Cook Island, Society Islands, Tuamotos, Gambier, Austral Islands, Pitcairn, and Rapa.<br/><br/>(Data from Robert Myers distributional database).
64412		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is conspicuous on outer coral reef slopes throughout the Indo-Pacific, occurring in depths between 4 and 90 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <em>P. laevis</em> appears to be a relatively fast-growing species and reaches 50 cm in less than four years; females achieve maturity in under three years (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2006). Similar growth rates are recorded from individuals taken from the Western Indian Ocean (Grandcourt 2005). Fished populations of this species on the Great Barrier Reef have an age structure skewed strongly toward young (3 to 4 year old) fish and a high total mortality rate.<br/><br/><em>Plectropomus laevis</em> feeds mostly on fishes and occasionally on crustaceans (Lieske and Myers 1994). The prey comprises a variety of large reef fishes, including groupers that is likely responsible for the high concentrations of ciguatera toxins (Randall 1980).<br/><br/><em>P. laevis</em> attains 100 cm SL (about 125 cm TL) and a weight of 18 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><em>Sexual pattern</em><br/>Based on histological examination of gonads, <em>P. laevis</em> was suggested to be a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite, with males derived exclusively through sexual transition of mature females (Adams 2002, 2003).  Adams (2002, 2003) found that male maturation was seen in transitional phase gonads only and that immature bisexuals were present.<br/><br/><em>Spawning</em><br/>Komodo National Park: October to January (The Nature Conservancy, undated)<br/><br/><em>Colouration</em><br/>This species occurs in two distinct color phases: the blacksaddled or barred, and the blue spot phase. The barred color phase is generally associated with smaller individuals although it is still retained in a minority of very large fish. In a comprehensive survey of the Great Barrier Reef, Davies <em>et al.</em> (2006) stated that the barred color pattern was retained in individuals up to 12 years of age but that the majority of individuals displaying this phase where immature females. A minority of secondary males also retained the barred color phase. Ayling (pers comm.) has not observed the barred phase in Coral Sea reefs. <br/><br/><em>Age and Growth data</em><br/>Great Barrier Reef:  Linf      948 mm FL   K   0.14   (n=346) (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2006)<br/>Aldabra                  Linf    1015 mm FL   K   0.19   (n=22) (Grandcourt 2005)<br/><br/><em>Reproduction</em><br/><em>P.laevis</em> is a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite with highly biased female sex ratios (Adams 2002), although males may have been underrepresented in the sample. No historical fishing data specific to <em>P.laevis</em> is available to judge past population structure. Although small bisexual individuals were identified, the spermatocytes never passed beyond the secondary stage and no evidence of ovarian degeneration was observed. It was inferred that the male developmental pathway was monandric, with males only derived through sex change of mature females. The youngest male found was 9 years of age with transitional individuals occurring at 8-9 years. Sexual maturity occurred at 2.2 yrs (50% females mature) and at ~400 mm FL. (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Average age at maturity is 10.1 yrs (generation time calculated following Pianka (1978), using the formula t2 =(a+b)/2, where a=age at maturation and b=longevity Here, a= 2.2 years and longevity=18 yrs. Generation time is commonly assumed to be equivalent to age at 1st maturity.<br/><br/>Spawns in small groups (Samoilys, M., pers. comm.) and reported to spawn in an aggregation in Papua New Guinea (Hamilton 2003).
64412		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>With the exception of Coral Sea reef localities <em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is invariably an uncommon to rare species achieving abundances of less than one individual per 1000 sq. m. Regional catch data indicates substantial declines.<br/><br/>The primary issue with <em>P. laevis</em> is the rarity of this large roving serranid over most of its range. Its congener <em>P. leopardus</em> was up to 10-15 times more abundant on the GBR in the 1980s (Ayling and Ayling 1986). In a series of surveys in 1994 to 2001, Ayling and Choat (unpublished) recorded abundances of ~0.3 individuals per 1000 sq. m in their main habitat in 1994, while similar surveys in 2001 recorded only 0.1-0.3 individuals per 1000 sq. m. In no-entry preservation zones the numbers remained at 0.3 individuals per 1000 sq. m. On remote far northern GBR and Coral Sea reefs and atolls, relatively high numbers (0.5-0.9 per 1000 sq. m) were recorded. However these numbers are not high when compared with a number of other exploited reef fish species. Increasing access to remote areas by charter line and spearfishers suggests numbers will continue to decline in the future. Relatively low numbers of <em>P. laevis</em> were recorded from offshore west Australian reefs both at fished sites (Ashmore Reef; Kospartov <em>et al.</em> 2006) and unfished sites (Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef; Done <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species was also found to be rare in the western Indian Ocean. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data</strong><br/><em>P. laevis</em> is exploited over much of its range through line fisheries and is an important part of the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT). Catch records are difficult to interpret as a number of species may be aggregated under the term coral trout or leopard grouper. <br/><br/>As <em>P. laevis</em> (and especially the saddleback colour variant) is distinctive, a number of fishery databases exist that allow an analysis of trends. A review of the Maldives grouper fishery (Sattar and Adam 2005) identified the 8 most important grouper species in the line and diver-assisted fishery, which includes <em>P. laevis</em>-- one of the most valuable fishes in the live reef fish export trade (Table 3 in Sattar and Adam 2005).The fishery was initiated in 1994 with 1 million groupers being processed in 1997. By 2005, catch abundance had declined 75% with associated reductions in mean size. Additionally, fully 43% of the groupers taken at this time were immature. In response to declining abundance and mean size for targeted groupers, 16 species were protected under a quota system, with an annual quota of 30,000 individuals set for <em>P. laevis</em>. Twenty-one other serranid species did not receive quota protection. <br/><br/>Although no species-specific catch abundance estimates were included in Sattar and Adam (2005), a quantitative survey of the grouper fauna in the Maldives (Sluka 2001) revealed that <em>P. laevis</em> was rare, with abundance patterns similar to that obtained from the Seychelles.<br/><br/>A recent study in northern Indonesia (Scales <em>et al.</em> 2007) followed species-specific catch records for 6 species of grouper from 1995 to 2003. Total annual catch rate of the saddleback grouper (<em>P. laevis</em>) declined from 1995 to 2003 and was one of the rarer species. In terms relative abundance (kg per fisher per trip), <em>P. laevis</em> was the rarest of all species recorded. <br/><br/>In Pohnpei (Micronesia), <em>P. laevis</em> constituted 0.1% of serranid catch over a 5-month period in 2006 that included line and spear catch (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data </strong><br/>Despite extensive surveys in the Seychelles, <em>P. laevis</em> was only recorded on granitic reefs of the Mahe Plateau and then at very low densities. It was also the rarest species in a demographic study of Aldabra serranids (Grandcourt 2005).<br/><br/>(Pears 2005) (expressed as number of individuals (+/-SD) per 1000 sq. m) <br/><br/>West Indian Ocean<br/>Seychelles granitic reefs 0.1 (0.1)<br/>Northern Amirantes 0 (0)<br/>Southern Amirantes 0 (0)<br/><br/>(Ayling Choat unpublished) (expressed as number of individuals (+/-SD) per 1000 sq. m) <br/><br/>Northern GBR <br/>Fished reefs  (1994/95):  0.3 (0.1)<br/>Fished reefs  (2001):       0.12 (0.08)<br/>Unfished reefs (2001)      0.32 (0.09)<br/><br/>The summary of a comprehensive analysis of the distribution and abundance of four species of <em>Plectropomus</em> of the NE coast of Australia and the Coral Sea (Ayling and Ayling 1986) is provided below. All abundances are adjusted to numbers per 1000 sq. m<br/>  <br/>Geographic region.<br/>Far North<br/>Reef position    Inner shelf   0 (0)<br/>                      Mid shelf      0.09 (0.04)<br/>                      Outer shelf  0.9 (0.1)<br/>North       <br/>                      Inner shelf   0.01 (0.01)<br/>                      Mid shelf      0.01 (0.02)<br/>                      Outer shelf  0.4 (0.07)<br/><br/>South<br/>                     Inner shelf    0 (0)<br/>                     Mid shelf       0.1 (0.02)<br/>                     Outer shelf   0.3 (0.06)<br/><br/>Coral Sea<br/>                    Herald Cays   0.5 (0.7)<br/>                    Lihou 1         0.6 (0.5)<br/>                    Lihou 2         0.7 (0.8)<br/>                    Lihou 3         0.6 (0.8)<br/><br/>Surveys on West Australian off-shore reefs (Done 1994) showed that <em>P. laevis</em> was never abundant compared to <em>P. leopardus</em> and <em>P. areolatus</em>. <em>P. laevis</em> was present mainly on outer reef slopes. Surveys at Ashmore Reef (Indian Ocean) (Kospartov <em>et al.</em> 2005) revealed very low numbers:  0.1 (1998) and 0.03 (2005) individuals per 1000 sq. m. The reduction in numbers may be due to heavy fishing on this reef by Indonesian fishers. No <em>P. laevis</em> were observed during comprehensive surveys of Cocos/Keeling and Christmas Island in 2004 (Choat unpublished).<br/> <br/>Estimates of abundance (as individuals per 1000 sq. m) from outer reef habitats from three Pacific localities found the following: Fiji (0.54 individuals), New Caledonia (1.2 individuals), and Tonga (0.43 individuals). These numbers are consistent with estimates from other localities surveyed (IRD database).<br/><br/>No spawning aggregations sites for <em>P. laevis</em> have been identified in either Australia or the SW Pacific (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
64412		threats	eng	The major threat for <em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is collection for the aquarium trade. It may turn up in live fish trade, but this is not considered to threaten this species. However, given strong interest in the live food trade and that large species tend to be taken as juveniles for this trade because of the small sizes preferred in restaurants, there is potential for increased exploitation. Hamilton (2003) reports declining catches from an aggregation noted by fishers in the Solomons.
64442		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation or management initiatives in place for this species, excepting those indirectly afforded by the inclusion of Bathurst Harbour in the World Heritage area of south-western Tasmania.
64442		distribution	eng	A temperate Australian species, confined to two large estuary systems in western Tasmania, Bathurst and Macquarie Harbours. Its range within these systems is unknown but appears to be mainly in the upper estuary. The total available habitat is no more than a few tens of km² and initial surveys suggest the population is likely be small (less than 1,000 individuals; pers. obs.).
64442		habitat	eng	A medium-sized ray (to at least 77 cm total length (TL)), this species is unique among skates in that it is found only in brackish water. The estuarine systems in which it lives are high in tannin content, with low light penetration and silty bottoms, resulting in the encroachment of several deepwater invertebrate species into relatively shallow depths. The morphology of this skate resembles that of <em>Dipturus</em> species found on the continental slope (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/>Little is known of the biological or ecological requirements of this recently discovered and unnamed species. The estuaries are well separated and, given that this skate has never been taken in the sea, may form genetically distinct populations. Specimens have been caught in a broad range of brackish salinities to almost fresh water (pers. obs.).
64442		threats	eng	Both populations of this skate, which are likely to be small, are in scenic and important recreational areas facing increasing pressure from ecotourism. They are probably also caught occasionally by recreational gillnetting. The isolation of Bathurst Harbour in the World Heritage area of south-western Tasmania affords some habitat protection for this species. However, the other population is in an estuary heavily polluted by prolonged mining operations.
64443		conservation	eng	Protected under law of the Regione Toscana (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56). The occurrence on La Prajola is situated in the Parco Nazionale del Arcipelago Toscano; the locality on Sardinia is not protected. More research is needed on the distribution and population of this species.
64443		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Italy, and&#160; the western Tyrrhenian area. It is exclusively known from one locality on the islet of Praiola adjacent to Capraia and one locality at the Golfo degli Aranci on Sardinia (Giusti and Manganelli 1989). This distribution was confirmed by Giusti 2007. There is one record from La Maddalena (Sardinia) reported in Natura Mediterraneo 2007, but this is not reconfirmed.
64443		habitat	eng	In the type locality, the species has been found under stones partly covered by litter of maquis-vegetation; in Sardinia it lives under stones in grassy places on gneiss.
64443		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown. It is obviously very rare in both localities, and there are only a few specimens found (Prajola: 1976: 4, 1986: 3; Golfo Aranci 1988: 5).
64443		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
132722		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation or management initiatives for this species. It probably occurs in a few marine protected areas within its range.
132722		conservation	eng	There are currently there are no conservation or management initiatives for this species. It probably occurs in a few marine protected areas within its range.
132722		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus aeneus</em> can be found throughout the southern Mediterranean (up to 44°N in the Adriatic Sea) and along the west coast of Africa to southern Angola, including islands of the Gulf of Guinea. Records from the Canary Islands (Spain) and Cape Verde are unsubstantiated (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132722		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> can be found throughout the southern Mediterranean (up to 44°N in the Adriatic Sea) and along the west coast of Africa to southern Angola, including islands of the Gulf of Guinea. Records from the Canary Islands (Spain) and Cape Verde are unsubstantiated (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Albania, Algeria, Angola, Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo Dem Rep, Congo Rep, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, France, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Gibraltar, Greece, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Portugal, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Montenegro, Sierra Leone, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey and Western Sahara.
132722		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>E. aeneus</em> occur on rocky or mud-sand bottom up to depths of 200 m, while juveniles have been taken in coastal lagoons and estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>Ezzat <em>et al.</em> (1981) revealed a linear relationship between total length (L) and scale radius (S): L = 0.1217+5.4420S. Based on 104 <em>E. aeneus</em> collected from Gulf of Gabès in Tunsia, the von Bertalanffy growth equation was SL(cm)=204.34 (1-e(-0.039(Age+0.767)) (Bouain 1986). <br/><br/>In the west African waters, Longhurst (1960) found that its diet comprises of fishes (58%), stomatopods (21%), crabs (10%), and cephalopods (10%). Examination of commercially-caught specimen along Senegalese shore, stomach contents of <em>E. aeneus</em> (400 to 900 mm TL; n = 161) suggested that <em>Sardinella aurita</em> and <em>Octopus vulgaris</em> were the preferential and accessory preys during the cold season, respectively. During the warm season, teleosts were abundantly ingested, while molluscs (especially <em>Sepia officinalis</em>) and the crustacean <em>Callinectes amincola</em> were occasional prey in the stomach of <em>E. aeneus</em> (Diatta <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite that female matures first at 50 to 60 cm TL and weigh about 3 kg for Tunisian fish. Most females change sex at about 9kg, but smaller males (3 to 5 kg) are occasionally found (Bruslé 1985).<br/><br/>Based on histological examination on ovaries, Bouain and Siau (1983) suggested <em>E. aeneus</em> spawns in June and July in southeast Tunisian seashores.<br/><br/>Total potential fecundity was estimated to range from 789,436 ova in a 44 cm SL fish of 2.2 kg to 12,589,242 ova in a 87cm SL fish of 12.6 kg (Bruslé 1985). Vadiya (1984) estimated “absolute fecundity” of a 93.5 cm, 8.6 kg <em>E. aeneus</em> in southeastern Mediterranean at 3,873,271 ova.<br/><br/>Bouain and Siau (1983) estimated the total potential fecundities of a 43.5 cm SL and 87 cm SL <em>E. aeneus</em> from southeastern Tunisian waters were 789,436 and 12,589,242 ripe oocytes, respectively.<br/><br/>750,000&#160; to 1,200,000 eggs were produced by natural spawning in each of the five experiments (4 to 5 females and 3 to 4 males) in captivity, with an average of 80.2% of fertilization rate. (Gorshkova <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Bouain <em>et al.</em> (1983) found that the largest fish of the Tunisian population was 115 cm TL, 25 kg, and was estimated to be 17 years old; females mature at 5 to7 years (1.5 to 3.0 kg, 50 to 60 cm TL) and sex change occurs at 10 to 13 years (6 to 15kg, 80 to 110 cm TL)<br/><br/>Cury and Worms (1982) suggested the seasonal migratory behaviour of <em>E. aeneus</em> from Mauritania to Senegal. Cury and Roy (1988) noted that <em>E. aeneus</em> migrate and colonize protective areas from Mauritania to Senegal because of the onset of Senegalese upwelling and relaxation of the upwelling off Northern Mauritania. Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggested that <em>E. aeneus</em> is the process of colonization of new areas in the northern Mediterranean and Adriatic.
132722		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Adults of <em>E. aeneus</em> occur on rocky or mud-sand bottom up to depths of 200 m, while juveniles have been taken in coastal lagoons and estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Length and growth</strong><br/>Ezzat <em>et al.</em> (1981) revealed a linear relationship between total length (L) and scale radius (S): L = 0.1217+5.4420S.<br/><br/>Based on 104 <em>E. aeneus</em> collected from Gulf of Gabès in Tunsia, the von Bertalanffy growth equation was SL(cm)=204.34 (1-e(-0.039(Age+0.767)) (Bouain 1986). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>In the west African waters, Longhurst (1960) found that its diet comprises of fishes (58%), stomatopods (21%), crabs (10%), and cephalopods (10%). Examination of commercially-caught specimen along Senegalese shore, stomach contents of <em>E. aeneus</em> (400 to 900 mm TL; n=161) suggested that <em>Sardinella aurita</em> and <em>Octopus vulgaris</em> were the preferential and accessory preys during the cold season, respectively. During the warm season, teleosts were abundantly ingested while mollusks (esp. <em>Sepia officinalis</em>) as an accessory prey with the crustacean <em>Callinectes amincola</em> be an occasional prey in the stomach of <em>E. aeneus</em> (Diatta <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite that female matures first at 50 to 60 cm TL and weigh about 3 kg for Tunisian fish. Most females change sex at about 9 kg, but smaller males (3 to 5 kg) are occasionally found (Bruslé 1985).<br/><br/>Based on histological examination on ovaries, Bouain and Siau (1983) suggested <em>E. aeneus</em> spawns in June and July in southeast Tunisian seashores.<br/><br/>Total potential fecundity was estimated to range from 789,436 ova in a 44 cm SL fish of 2.2 kg to 12,589,242 ova in a 87 cm SL fish of 12.6 kg (Bruslé 1985). Vadiya (1984) estimated “absolute fecundity” of a 93.5 cm, 8.6 kg <em>E. aeneus</em> in southeastern Mediterranean at 3,873,271 ova.<br/><br/>Bouain and Siau (1983) estimated the total potential fecundities of a 43.5 cm SL and 87 cm SL <em>E. aeneus</em> from southeastern Tunisian waters were 789,436 and 12,589,242 ripe oocytes, respectively.<br/><br/>750,000 to 1,200,000 eggs were produced by natural spawning in each of the five experiments (4 to 5 females and 3 to 4 males) in captivity, with an average of 80.2% of fertilization rate. (Gorshkova <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Bouain et al (1983) found that the largest fish of the Tunisian population was 115 cm TL, 25 kg, and was estimated to be 17 years old; females mature at 5 to7 years (1.5 to 3.0 kg, 50 to 60 cm TL) and sex change occurs at 10 to 13 years (6 to 15 kg, 80 to 110 cm TL)<br/><br/><strong>Migration</strong><br/>Cury and Worms (1982) suggested the seasonal migratory behaviour of <em>E. aeneus</em> from Mauritania to Senegal. Cury and Roy (1988) noted that <em>E. aeneus</em> migrate and colonize protective areas from Mauritania to Senegal because of the onset of Senegalese upwelling and relaxation of the upwelling off Northern Mauritania. Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggested that <em>E. aeneus</em> is the process of colonization of new areas in the northern Mediterranean and Adriatic.
132722		population	eng	<em>E. aeneus</em> was previously an abundant species, but has declined significantly in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>For example, in the 1950s, <em>E. aeneus</em> was abundant along the south coast of Morocco (Furnestin <em>et al.</em> 1958). Similarly, more than 90% of female <em>E. aeneus</em> collected from 1970-1973 in Tunisia were sized 3-9 kg (Bruslé and Bruslé 1976). Bouain <em>et al</em>. (1983) stated that <em>E. aeneus</em> comprised 90% of the uploading of fish in Sfax in Tunisia in the early 1980s. In west Africa (Saharan Bank) <em>E. aeneus</em> accounted for 5.3% of the mean total abundance of landed fish in 1942 and declined to 0.001% in 1974.  However, <em>E. aeneus</em> was not recorded during a cruise in 1990 (Balguerías <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>On the basis of the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and effort of maximization calculated from fishery data, Gascuel and Ménar (1997) classified <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal as an over-exploited species. Froese (2004) also suggested the stock of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal is overfished based on three simple indicators: percentages of mature fish in catch, specimens with optimum length in catch and ‘mega-spawners’ in catch. Between 1984 and 1986, artisanal captures of 3,870 t of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal were very strong, surpassing the MSY. Since then, landings reached at low of 1,135 t in 1998 (Martial <em>et al.</em> 2002a). <br/><br/>In summary, the percentage of mature <em>E. aeneus</em> in this region has decreased from close to 80% in the early 1990s to about 38% in 1999.  In the same period, the percentages of <em>E. aeneus</em> at optimum size and of mega-spawners have decreased from about 35% to less than 20%. These suggest that the stock is overfished (Froese 2004). A range of stock assessment approaches show a decline in biomass of 80 to 90% from 1971 to 1999 as a result of excessive fishing effort (Laurens <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2003).
132722		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> was previously an abundant species, but has declined significantly in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>In the 1950s, <em>E. aeneus</em> was abundant along the south coast of Morocco (Furnestin <em>et al.</em> 1958).<br/><br/>On the basis of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and effort of maximization calculated from fishery data, Gascuel and Ménar (1997) classified <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal as an over-exploited species.<br/><br/>Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) described <em>E. aeneus</em> was very frequent found in the African-Mediterranean waters, but significantly rare in central areas, and not found in northern regions of the Mediterranean.  <br/><br/>Froese (2004) suggested the stock of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal is overfished based on three simple indicators (percentages of mature fish in catch, specimens with optimum length in catch and ‘mega-spawners’ in catch.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>Senegal</em><br/>Between 1984 and 1986, artisanal captures of 3,870 tonnes of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal were very strong, which surpassing the MSY. Since then, these captures reduced and reached their low-level of 1,135 tonnes in 1998 (Martial <em>et al.</em> 2002a). On the basis of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and effort of maximization (fMSY) calculated from fishery data, Gascuel and Ménar (1997) classified <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal as an over-exploited species, with fishing effort in 1991 as 2.7 times the fMSY. MSY of <em>E. aeneus</em> was estimated to be 3000 metric tonnes a year (Gascuel and Ménar 1997).<br/><br/>The percentage of mature <em>E. aeneus</em> has decreased from close to 80% in the early 1990s to about 38% in 1999.  In the same period, the percentages of <em>E. aeneus</em> at optimum size and of mega-spawners have decreased from about 35% to less than 20%. These suggest that the stock is overfished (Froese 2004).<br/><br/>A range of stock assessment approaches show a decline in biomass of 80 to 90% from 1971 to 1999 as a result of excessive fishing effort (Laurens <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2003). Caught with a variety of fishing gear, including industrial trawls although this sector has contributed a maximum of 27% to landings (1990).<br/><br/>Total catch of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal was 1,851 tonnes in 1991 (Gascuel and Ménar 1997). <br/><br/>MSY of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal was estimated to be 3,000 metric tonnes a year by the surplus production model (Gascuel and Ménar 1997), with fishing effort in 1991 as 2.7 times the fMSY.<br/><br/><em>Saharan Bank, west Africa</em><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> accounted for 5.3% of the mean total abundance of landed fish in 1942 and declined to 0.001% in 1974. <em>E. aeneus</em> was not recorded during a cruise in 1990 (Balguerías <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><em>Tunisia</em><br/>More than 90% of female <em>E. aeneus</em> collected from 1970-1973 were sized 3-9 kg (Bruslé and Bruslé 1976).<br/><br/>Bouain <em>et al</em>. (1983) stated that <em>E. aeneus</em> comprised 90% of the uploading of fish in Sfax in Tunisia.
132722		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>E. aeneus</em> is overfishing. It is highly esteemed in the market of West Africa (Maigret and Ly 1986) and typically caught with hook-and-line and in trawls (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> is heavily fished throughout its range by various methods from artisanal to industrial. It is consumed as food with considerable economic importance in fisheries of the Mediterranean and west coast of Africa (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). <em>E. aeneus</em> played an important role on the fish market in Senegal, mainly supplies by artisanal fishing.  Fresh <em>E. aeneus</em> was produced in industrial scale and for export (Cury and Worms 1982).  Cury and Worms (1982) recorded that <em>E. aeneus</em> only comprised a small amount in weight (83,557 kg, 3.7% of the total landing in Saint-Louis and 439,803 kg, 4.3% of the total in Kayar) but a relatively high monetary value of 11% and 17.6% of the total, respectively in 1980.  <br/><br/><strong>Aquaculture potential</strong><br/>Gorshkova et al (2002) suggested that broodstock management and larval culture seem to be the main deterrents for successful domestication of <em>E. aeneus</em>. Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) noted that juvenile <em>E. aeneus</em> (about 200 g) were adapted to aquarium conditions in Dubrovnik.  Particularly good results of aquaculture on <em>E. aeneus</em> have been achieved in Israel (Hassin <em>et al.</em> 1997).
132722		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>E. aeneus</em> is overfishing. It is highly esteemed in the market of West Africa (Maigret and Ly 1986) and typically caught with hook-and-line and in trawls (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> is heavily fished throughout its range by various methods from artisanal to industrial. It is consumed as food with considerable economic importance in fisheries of the Mediterranean and west coast of Africa (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). <em>E. aeneus</em> played an important role on the fish market in Senegal, mainly supplies by artisanal fishing.  Fresh <em>E. aeneus</em> was produced in industrial scale and for export (Cury and Worms 1982).  Cury and Worms (1982) recorded that <em>E. aeneus</em> only comprised a small amount in weight (83,557 kg, 3.7% of the total landing in Saint-Louis and 439,803 kg, 4.3% of the total in Kayar) but a relatively high monetary value of 11% and 17.6% of the total, respectively in 1980.  <br/><br/>Gorshkova <em>et al.</em> (2002) suggested that broodstock management and larval culture seem to be the main deterrents for successful domestication of <em>E. aeneus</em>. Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) noted that juvenile <em>E. aeneus</em> (about 200 g) were adapted to aquarium conditions in Dubrovnik.  Particularly good results of aquaculture on <em>E. aeneus</em> have been achieved in Israel (Hassin <em>et al.</em> 1997).
132723		conservation	eng	<em>E. maculatus</em> is found in several protected areas throughout its range.
132723		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus maculatus</em> is a Pacific Ocean species found from the Cocos-Keeling Islands to Line islands, north to southern Japan, south to southeastern Australia and Lord Howe Island.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Nicobars, West Thailand, Myanmar,   Bali, Sangalakki, Borneo, eastern Indonesia, Manado, Sulawesi, Flores, Komodo Sunda Is Ambon, Halmahera, Howland Island, Flores, Timor, Aru, Raja Ampat, Cocos-Keeling, Christmas, Ashmore Scott Reef, Phillippines, GBR, Solomon Is, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Loyalty Is, Chesterfields, Elizabeth & Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe, Hong Kong, South Taiwan Peng hu shan, Ryukyu, Kawhisi-jima, South Japan, Izu Is, Ogosawara, Line Islands, Micronesia, Palmyra, Phoenix, Palau, Yap, Ifalik, South Marianas, North Marianas, Marshall Is Fiji, Rotuma, Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, Cook Islands, West Papua (Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, Caroline Islands, Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) <br/><br/>FAO Areas: Indian Ocean, Eastern Pacific, Northwest Pacific, Western Central Pacific, Eastern Central Pacific, Southwest.
132723		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em> E. maculatus</em> is a reef-associated species found at depths of 1 to 100 m. It tends to occur on more shelter reef localities on the GBR (Pears 2005) but in the Pacific was associated with outer reef habitats (Kulbicki 2006). May be ciguatoxic in some areas (New Caledonia) (Myers 1999). Juveniles are found in shallow coral rubble. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Prey comprises mainly small fishes, crabs, and octopuses. (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Sex ratio</strong><br/>In New Caledonia there were 150 males compared to 440 females.<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth, reproduction</strong><br/>Analysis of 64 otoliths identified <em>E. maculatus</em> showed the species to be a fast growing serranid with a high population turnover rate. No reproductive data was gathered for this species. Lmax  431 mm TL, Tmax  seven years.  A size of 400 mm FL was achieved by 10% of three year old individuals.<br/><br/>There are anecdotal reports of spawning aggregation formation from Papua New Guinea and Pohnpei (Rhodes pers. comm.).
132723		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus maculatus</em> is moderately common and not currently in significant decline throughout its range, although there may be some localised declines. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Estimates of abundance from three Pacific localities (Kulbicki IRD data base adjusted to no. per 1,000 m²) gave for Fiji (0.09), New Caledonia (0.5), and Tonga (0.12) all in outer reef habitats and are consistent with estimates from other localities. Greater abundances are found in soft bottom habitats.<br/><br/>Replicated counts of <em>E. maculatus</em> from the Great Barrier Reef indicate very low abundances with evidence of restriction to northern reefs (no. per 1,000 m²) (Pears 2005):<br/><br/>Location: Lizard mid-shelf 0.87 +/1 0.16; Townsville 0; McKay 0; Pompey 0.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In New Caledonia where it is caught in experimental fishing it makes up 24% by number and 16% by weight of all serranids caught. Catches in 1987 were approximately twice as high as in 2000, and average weight changed from 1.1 to 0.9 kg per fish for the same levels of fishing effort.<br/><br/>In Pohnpei, 35 individuals were observed in the coral reef fishery over a five-month survey period, for a total of 1.9% of the total serranid catch during this period. The size range of catch was 185 to 345 mm TL. (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132723		threats	eng	This species is targeted by artisinal and subsistence fisheries. It is traded internationally, and is part of the live fish trade and for example is found in the Hong Kong live fish markets. In areas where there are grouper fisheries it is collected incidentally.
132724		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> occurs in several marine protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Specific management</strong><br/>In southern and southeastern Brazil there is a minimum size of catch 45 cm (IBAMA 2003)  <br/><br/>It is protected within the Conch Reef Research Only Area (a no-take marine reserve) in the northern Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (Lindholm <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Because grouper landings in the Campeche Bank decreased between 1991 and 1997, the Mexican government proposed management measures to protect the grouper resource, but without considering the biological characteristics and fishery aspects of each exploited species (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003, SEMARNAP 2000a, 2000b). Commercial fishing regulations for Gulf of Mexico Federal Waters consist of: an annual commercial quota of 4445 t for the shallow-water grouper complex, which includes the black grouper; commercial minimum size limits of 61.0 cm TL; a seasonal closure on commercial harvest and prohibition on sale of this species from 15 February to 15 March. Recreational fishing regulation in the same area consist of: minimum size limits of 55.9 cm TL; a recreational aggregate daily bag limit of five groupers per person; and also a seasonal closure on commercial harvest and prohibition on sale of this species from 15 February to 15 March (www.gulfcouncil.org).<br/><br/>In Brazil, <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is listed under the regulatory instruction Number 5 (IN5) from 21/05/2004 revised in 08/2005 MMA- as overexploited or threatened of overexploitation: Overexploited are species considered to be under high levels of exploitation, enough to reduce the biomass, spawning potential and future catches beyond sustainable levels.  For these species listed, management plans must be developed, under the coordination of the Brazilian Institute of Environment, within the next five years. These plans should promote stock recovery and sustainable fisheries.
132724		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is a western Atlantic species distributed from Bermuda and Massachusetts (USA) to Brazil (Villa des Remedios Island (northeast of Natal), to about 28°S), including the Brazilian off-shore islands, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba and throughout the Caribbean. Adults are unknown from the northeastern coast of the USA.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua and Bermuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil (Alagoas, Ceará, Espírito Santo, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe, Trindade), Cayman Islands, Colômbia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, México (Campeche, Quintana Rôo, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatán), Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi), British Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, and Venezuela.
132724		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is a reef-associated, solitary species inhabiting rocky and coral reefs and can withstand some degradation in its habitat. Their depth ranges from anywhere from 19 to 250 feet (6 to 75 meters). Juveniles sometimes occur in estuarine seagrass and oyster rubble habitat in North Carolina and South Carolina (Keener <em>et al</em>. 1988; Ross and Moser 1995). In the Florida Keys, juveniles settle on patch reefs (Sluka <em>et al.</em> 1994), similar to those in Brazil (Rezende unpub. data, Schawnborn 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Adults feed primarily on fishes, including grunts, snapper, and herrings. Juvenile black groupers feed solely on crustaceans.<br/><br/>According to Teixeira <em>et al.</em> (2004) fishing peaks occurs during a phenomenon known among local fishermen as the correção - which is an aggregation of these fish along the shelf break Northeastern coast during some periods of the year. The period of the correção – according to the interviews and the annual fishing reports from Brazilian Institute of Environment (www.ibama.gov.br/cepene) – indicated that, in the north area, the correção is expected between October and January; and, in the south area, between December and March. The correção, during the studied time, did not present any association with the phases of the moon.<br/><br/>The observations, during the correção, of the gonadal stages and the proportion of fat suggested that <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> was not in reproductive activity. All of the sampled gonads were in the resting stage presenting a large proportion of fat in the body cavity. This fat is used in the processing of the gonadal products and presents an inverse relation with the gonadal weight, as mentioned by Ferreira (1993) for <em>Plectropomus</em> and by Rajasilta (1992) for <em>Clupea harengus membras</em>.  <br/><br/>Based on this assumption, it seems that the black grouper takes advantage of the reproductive aggregations of other species as an opportunity to feed. This can be observed during the correção with the <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>, in Caiçara do Norte, where its capture was associated to the reproductive aggregations of <em>Lutjanus analis</em>, <em>Lutjanus jocu</em> and <em>Seriola</em> spp. and confirmed by the presence of ripe gonads in these species (personal observation in situ). Thus the black groupers during the correção, coming from ever deeper and inaccessible sites to the fishing gears’, are vulnerable to fishing pressure and are massively caught, as recorded during sampling at the correção period and on the annual fishing reports of IBAMA (www.ibama.gov.br/cepene) (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, age and maturity</strong><br/>The species is a monandric, protogynous hermaphrodite that forms spawning aggregations (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 2004, Smith 1965, García-Cagide and García 1996, Crabtree and Bullock 1998, Brulé <em>et al.</em>2003).  According to a study in Campeche Bank, females changed sex between 85.5 and 125.0 cm FL, with median length of 103.3 cm FL. At 114.5 cm FL, 50% of the females in the sample had transformed into males. The age at sex change was 15.5 years. The smallest size of <em>M. bonaci</em> in transition reported in Brazil by Teixeira <em>et al.</em> (2005) was 64 cm (LF). This size is similar to the size of the Cuban <em>M. bonaci</em> (LT of 65 cm) determined by García-Cagide and García (1996), but smaller than the Floridean type observed by Crabtree and Bullock (1998) with a LT of 94.7 cm (92.3 cm LF). In Campeche Bank the size at which 50% of the females transformed to males was 111.4 cm, and in Florida 119.9 cm (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Black grouper probably spawn throughout the year, however, peak spawning of females occurs from January to March. In Brazil, histological results and the gonadosomatic index suggest that the spawning period occurs between April and September (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 2004). The spawning period of the Cuban <em>M. bonaci</em> is from November to May with peaks recorded in November and February (García-Cagide and García 1996). In Florida, Crabtree and Bullock (1998) indicate that the peak of spawning of <em>M. bonaci</em> is from December to March. In Campeche Bank (Mexico), the spawning season for black grouper is also from December to March (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Brulé <em>et al.</em> (2003) did not observe spawning aggregations for <em>M. bonaci</em> from the Campeche Bank. This grouper has been reported to form spawning aggregations in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (Fine 1990, Carter and Perrine 1994; Domeier and Colin 1997; Eklund <em>et al.</em> 2000). Off Belize, black grouper are believed to spawn in aggregations at the same sites used by Nassau grouper (Carter and Perrine 1994).  Eklund <em>et al.</em> (2000) describe a black grouper spawning aggregation discovered during winter 1997-1998, less than 100 m outside a newly designated marine reserve.<br/><br/>In South Florida, Crabtree and Bullock (1998) indicate that black grouper appear to reach a maximum age of at least 33 years, and its growth was most rapid for the first ten years and then slowed considerably. The von Bertalanffy growth equation was TL = 1,306.2(1-e super((-0.169(Age+0.768)))). In Florida Keys, Manooch and Manson (1987) obtained the von Bertalanffy growth equation for black grouper using back-calculated data, which was Lt=1,352 (1<sup>-e</sup>-0.1156(t+0.927)). In this case growth was most rapid for the first three to four years, and then gradually trended downward throughout the remaining years, and the maximum age estimated was 14 years.<br/><br/>Age of first maturation was 5.2 at a size of 82.6 cm, and age of transition was 15.5 years by a length of 121.4 cm (Crabtree and Bullock 1998).<br/><br/>The size of first maturation for black grouper from Campeche Bank was 72.1 cm, from Florida was 82.6 cm, and from Cuba 84.4 to 108.7 cm (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Natural mortality (M) is estimated to be 0.15 (Potts and Brennan 2001).  Crabtree and Bullock (1998) found that black grouper live for at least 33 years and attain sizes as great as 151.8 cm (60.1 in) TL. Females ranged in length from 15.5 to 131.0 cm (6.1 to 51.9 in) TL and males range in length from 94.7 to 151.8 cm (38.3 to 60.1 in) TL.
132724		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> was probably the most abundant large grouper of the shallow water serranid-lutjanid complex throughout most of its area of occurrence. Black groupers are commonly landed in commercial grouper fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico and the south Atlantic Ocean. They are also very common in the recreational fishery. Commercial landings of black grouper exceed landings of any other grouper in the Florida Keys<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent data</strong><br/><em>Bermuda</em><br/>In Bermuda the rapid development of trap fishing on grouper population in shallow waters in the 80’s led to decrease in grouper catches over a period of seven years; the decrease was from 90,000 lbs/yr to 15,000 lbs/yr for the black grouper (Bannerot <em>et al</em> 1987), a six-fold reduction.<br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>Black grouper is an important species for the demersal fisheries in the Northeastern Brazilian coast, and is the most frequently caught serranid in the demersal bottom line fisheries of the northeastern coast (lat. 0 to 12° S) (MMA 2006). It is caught together with lutjanid species and is one of the species responsible for characterizing the typologies in the reef fishery of northeastern Brazil (Fredou <em>et al.</em> 2006). Teixeira <em>et al.</em> (2004) interviewed 40 fishermen based on their experience, that ranged from a period between 10 and 45 years along the northeastern Brazilian coast (lat. 0 to 12° S). According to the fishermen interviewed, <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is probably already undergoing overfishing effects, as the capture of the black grouper has decreased these last two decades.<br/><br/>The bottom line fisheries in south of Bahia state, is one of the oldest in Brazil. It was the main source of income of Porto Seguro province, in the beginning of the XVI century, maintaining an industry of salted and dried fish that was exported to Portugal and to other provinces in Brazil (Bueno 1998). Abundances of large groupers declined, and nowadays snappers make up 38% of total catch, pelagic species accounted for 43% while <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>, represented 10% (Costa <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>According to Martins <em>et al.</em> (2005), until the end of the 1980s, the bottom line fleet operating hand lines from dories in the Abrolhos region, between the lat 17 and 18° S, had as main target the large reef fishes badejo (<em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>) and the red grouper (<em>Epinephelus morio</em>). The collapse of these fisheries in the 80’s led fishers to turn to other resources.  By the end of the 1980s, a new market developed with the deep frozen or fast frozen techniques. The mains target for this fishery are lutjanids and smaller serranids, usually plate size (around 1 kg), caught and quickly dipped in frozen water, and exported.  Between  997 and 2000 only 11% of the fleet operated with dories targeting black groupers, and the rest was targeting coney and lutjanids. Figure 1, taken from Martins <em>et al.</em> 2005, illustrates the shift in the catches from black grouper to coney and yellowtail snapper.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: catch comparison between yellowtail snapper (<em>Ocyurus chrysurus</em>) and black grouper (<em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>) 1978-1998.<br/><br/><em>Cuba</em><br/>In Cuba, Nassau grouper is the main exploited grouper species. Catches for these species have gradually declined from an annual mean of 1,476 t (1959 to 1963) to less than 100 t (1992 to 1998). Reduction of yields was attributed to constant increase in fishing efforts (Fernandez 1984). Compared to Nassau grouper, other groupers were less significant in Cuba, all grouped in statistics as other fishes” (e.g. <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>) (Claro <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Mexico</em><br/>In the southern Gulf of Mexico, <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> can account for 40% of the grouper catch by weight for some commercial vessels, however in this area grouper fishery was considered deteriorated and lacked a well-defined management strategy (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries independent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>The reef fish assemblages along the Brazilian continental margin (40 to 500 m depth), between 13° E 22°, were investigated exploring data sampled during two demersal surveys using bottom long-line (Olavo <em>et al.</em> 2006) and during four demersal surveys using bottom long-line between 100 and 500 m (Costa <em>et al.</em> 2005). During four cruises between 1996 and 1998, a 190,746 hooks were deployed. CPUE for the black grouper was 0.8 to 1.8 kg/1000 hooks – 1,3 in depths above 100 meters and 0.2 in areas between 100 and 300 m.
132724		threats	eng	<em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is heavily fished throughout its range and involved in international fishery. Spawning and feeding aggregations are commonly targeted. Sedimentation is a problem in nursery areas.
132725		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is likely to occur in some marine protected areas, but no specific measures are in place for the species.
132725		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is an Indo-Pacific species found around the islands of the western Indian Ocean to Japan and the central Pacific, except for a single specimen caught off the coast of Natal (South Africa). Heemstra and Randall (1993) know of no confirmed records from other continental localities of East Africa, but there is one unconfirmed record from Mozambique (Fennessy pers. comm.). The East African record of <em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> reported by Morgans (1982) is a misidentification of <em>Cephalopholis nigripinnis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>American Samoa, China, South China Sea (Spratlys), Taiwan, Christmas Island, Cook Islands, Djibouti, Fiji, French Polynesia (Tahiti, Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands), Guam, India (Lakshadweep), Indonesia (Bali, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Madagascar, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius (Rodrígues), Micronesia, Mozambique, New Caledonia (not in Loyalty Islands), Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guienea, Philippines, Pitcairn, Réunion, Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Thailand (not shown in map), Tonga, Tuvalu. <br/><br/>The species is also recorded around Howland Island in the Pacific (B. Mundy pers. comm.). Australian records are based on misidentification of <em>C. spiloparea</em> (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006). There are no records of the species from Line or Phoenix Islands (Kiribati), Australia (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006), or Raja Ampat (Indonesia), and its occurrence in Malaysia is questionable.
132725		habitat	eng	<em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is a reef-associated species found on steep seaward reefs, usually at depths of 100 to 250 m, but can occur in shallower water. Museum specimens are lacking. The recorded maximum size of 60 cm TL is probably an exaggeration (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132725		population	eng	<em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is a poorly known deep-water grouper, with no fisheries statistics available.
132725		threats	eng	The threats to <em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> are unknown and the species is too small to be threatened by commercial fisheries. It may, however, be taken by some small-scale commercial or artisinal fishers.
132726		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> occurs in marine protected areas in parts of its range. Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is no clear how much compliance there is in Tanzania and Mozambique. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers. Quotas under currently under consideration in the Maldives (500 fish per year-smallest quota of any species of grouper).
132726		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> is found only in the Indian Ocean and is distributed from the Gulf of Aden south to Port Alfred (South Africa) and east to the northwest tip of Sumatra (Indonesia). It is also found in the islands of the western Indian Ocean, including Cargados Carajos and Rodríguez. It is not known from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Eastern Cape Province (South Africa), Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya to Somalia, Comoros, Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius, Madagascar, southern Oman (Randall), west Indian coast, Sri Lanka, east Burma Sea, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Reported catches from deep-slope reefs in Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia are based on mis-identifications (Myers pers. comm.).
132726		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> is a reef-associated species. Juveniles inhabit shallow reefs while adults are found on deeper coral and non-coral reefs from 10 to 150 m. Maximum size of at least 90 cm TL, 17 kg.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em>feeds on a variety of fishes, crabs, shrimps, spiny lobsters, squids, and small octopi (Morgans 1964).<br/><br/><strong>Growth and reproduction</strong><br/>Given the relatively large size, they are likely to be slow-growing, and probably protogynous. Ripe fish obtained in January on the North Kenya Banks and in October off Mafia Island (Nzioka 1977). Reproductively active fish were caught in August and November, the former month coinciding with very large catches (Morgans 1964). Females mature at around 50 cm (Morgans 1982).
132726		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> does not appear to be abundant across much of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) did not commonly record <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> during informal diving and angling surveys (8 to 45 m) on coral reefs in the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St. Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point, and yet few <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> were observed. Not recorded in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Very seldom (seven individuals of >12 000 groupers) recorded from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. data).<br/><br/>Not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Only recorded in 2001 and 2003 (no numbers provided) during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique (2000 to 2005; Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Not recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1999 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is abundant (possible confusion with <em>E. multinotatus</em>). <br/><br/>Morgans (1964) recorded relatively high numbers (7.5 % by no. to overall catch of serranids) of this species in catches on the North Kenya Banks.<br/><br/>Nzioka (1979) recorded catching 13 specimens from 1974 to 1977 as part of a survey of reefs between Mafia Island (Tanzania) and the North Kenya Banks which caught 130 other serranid fishes.<br/><br/>Overall grouper catch in the Maldives have declined appreciably since the beginning of the fishery in 1997, and particularly since the 2004 tsunami. Catch in 1997 was one million groupers overall, but by 2005 down to 250,000.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In a more formal survey, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) did not record this species in shallow (9 to 13 m) UVC surveys in the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves between 1987 and 1992. On the west coast of India, this species was only recorded at one of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m), and at a low relative abundance compared to other groupers (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.) Also reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other species. Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson 1996, Pereira 2003).
132726		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Loss of habitat  is likely the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em>, with episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Overfishing is also a possible threat, although most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g. Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The majority of this is concentrated on shallower reefs, so the deeper regions of this species’ habitat are less exploited, particularly by small-scale fishers.<br/><br/>In the Maldives, <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> is part of the live fish trade (Sattar and Adam 2005).
132727		conservation	eng	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> occurs in several marine protected areas and it is perceived that no other measures are needed at the moment.
132727		distribution	eng	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is known from the eastern Atlantic islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in Africa, and in the western Atlantic from Florida (USA), the Gulf of Mexico, and Bermuda to Brazil, and the Ascension Island in the central Atlantic.
132727		habitat	eng	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is a demersal species that occurs near the bottom in rocky areas and coral reef areas and feeds on plankton, forms large school often mixed with damselfishes.
132727		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is very abundant throughout its range especially in off-shore islands. The creole-fish is not fished and there is currently no known decline. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Visual surveys in Sao Tome resulted in density of 50 plus fish per 40 m² transect and 0.019 fish per m² from shipwreck in northeast Brazil.
132727		threats	eng	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is not found in the fishery as it doesn't usually take hook because it feeds on plankton only.
132728		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is found in protected areas in Eilat and Aqaba Jordan, Ras Mohammed National Park, northern Egypt.
132728		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is a western Indian Ocean species known only from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and Socotra (Yemen) (Myers distributional database 2006).
132728		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in shallow protected coral reefs and in shallow lagoons and seaward reef slopes (1 to 30 m) or brackish-water environments. No published information on the biology of this species has been found. It is sold fresh in local markets and when encountered on the reef it is often found in pairs or small groups.
132728		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus summana</em> is uncommon in the northern Red Sea and Yemen.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>FAO statistics report fluctuating annual catch between 18 and 54 mt from Saudi Arabia between 2000 and 2004.
132728		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is affected by subsistence fisheries and a local commercial fishery in Egypt, with increasing commercial use. There is some threat of habitat degradation.
132729		conservation	eng	<strong>Management</strong><br/><em>United States</em><br/>The grouper fishery is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council under the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan. Current regulations include a limited entry fishery where a limited number of commercial fishing permits are available, a seasonal closure during March and April to reduce the commercial catch and minimum size limits. These regulations have helped the stocks to recover; the most recent stock assessments show that scamp is not overfished or undergoing overfishing. Regulations are under consideration that would establish a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the commercial grouper fishery in the southeast. A TAC will greatly enhance the sustainability of the grouper populations.<br/><br/>There are closed areas in the Gulf of Mexico (Madison-Swanson) and South Atlantic (Oculina HAPC) where spawning of scamp probably occurs. In addition, US Amendment 14 to the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan of the South Atlantic Region will be implemented during 2007. This amendment implement protection to Oculina Banks which harbour spawning aggregation of this species. Spawning scamp have been collected from several of the proposed South Atlantic MPAs.
132729		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca phenax</em> occurs on the continental coast of North and Central America, from North Carolina (USA) to Venezuela. Juveniles are occasionally found as far north as Massachusetts (USA).<br/><br/>A vagrant was recently collected in the northeastern Atlantic in the Azores (Portugal) (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2004).
132729		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca phenax</em> is a reef-associated species  found over ledges and high-relief rocky bottoms in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and at low-profile bottoms at depths of 30 to 100 m in North Carolina. Scamp were the most abundant grouper in areas of living <em>Oculina</em> coral formations at depths of 70 to 100 m off the east coast of Florida. <em>Oculina</em> banks are threatened by bottom trawling, and aggregations of scamp are strongly associated with this habitat (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species apparently moved inshore when bottom temperature fell below 8.6°C. Juveniles found in shallow water at jetties and in mangrove areas. <br/><br/><strong>Life history</strong><br/><em>Reproduction</em><br/>Scamp are protogynous, with females dominating sizes less than 70.0 cm (27.8 in). Spawning occurs from February through July in the South Atlantic Bight and in the Gulf of Mexico, with a peak in March to mid-May. Hydration of eggs occurs primarily during the morning and late afternoon, which indicates that scamp spawn during late afternoon and evening. Spawning individuals have been captured off South Carolina and St. Augustine, Florida at depths of 33 to 93 m. Off the Carolinas, scamp spawned from April through August with a peak in May and June, and fed on fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans (Matheson <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>Scamp aggregate to spawn. Spawning locations and time of spawning overlaps with gag. Fishery-independent sampling revealed that: (1) spawning probably occurred during the late afternoon and evening, and (2) higher proportions of scamp spawned around new moon and full moon.<br/><br/><em>Size at maturity and mortality</em><br/>Scamp live for at least 30 years, and attain sizes as great as 107.0 cm (42.4 in) TL and 14.2 kg (31.3 lbs). Natural mortality rate is estimated to be 0.15 (Potts and Brennan 2001).  Length and age at first spawning of females off North Carolina to southeast Florida is 30.0 to 35.0 cm (11.9 to 13.8 in) TL and age one. Length and age at 50% maturity is 35.3 cm (13.9 in) TL and 1.28 years, respectively (Haris <em>et al.</em> 2002). In a study conducted in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, all fish larger than 35.0 cm TL were sexually mature.<br/><br/><em>Feeding</em><br/>Fish are the primary prey of this species.
132729		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>It is an abundant species below 60 m, and it is not currently in decline.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The US South Atlantic stock was assessed in 1997. The Gulf of Mexico stock has not been assessed. The US South Atlantic stock was not experiencing overfishing and was not overfished (Potts and Brennan 2001). The US 2006 Report to Congress indicates that the overfished status of scamp in the Atlantic was unknown since biomass with respect to a minimum stock size threshold was not specified by the 1997 assessment. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico annual commercial catch have been fairly constant. Recreational landings show a good bit of fluctuation.<br/><br/><em>Size</em><br/>Median length decreased significantly from 610 mm TL in 1979 to 1989 to 570 mm TL in 1990 to 1997, although there were no significant differences in the median age, size at maturity, and age at maturity between periods. The percentage of males declined from 34% to 21% for specimens >500 mm TL, although the sample size was much smaller during the earlier period (336 vs 1,645). The percentage of scamp age 10 and older declined from 17% in 1979 to 1989 to 7% in 1990 to 1997 (Haris <em>et al.</em> 2002).
132729		threats	eng	<em>Oculina</em> coral formations are threatened by bottom trawling, and aggregations (both spawning and feeding) of scamp are strongly associated with this habitat. Since there are no signs of overfishing, the major current threat is habitat destruction; <em>Oculina</em> banks are very fragile and easily destroyed.
132730		conservation	eng	<em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> may occur in some protected areas within its range, but it is likely that it occurs too deep to be protected by most coastal MPAs. In the Gulf of California, there needs to be regulation of harvests as the current level is unsustainable.
132730		distribution	eng	<em>Hyporthodus</em> <em>acanthistius</em> is an eastern Pacific species with a distribution from southern California (USA) to central Peru.
132730		habitat	eng	<em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> is a demersal species found in reefs and sandy bottoms near the coast at depths of 46 to 90 m.
132730		population	eng	<em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> is common in fisheries throughout the Gulf of California and in central Mexico, and is  occasionally taken on the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico. There is only a single record of the species in southern California.
132730		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> is targeted by recreational fishing, but is only incidentally caught in commercial fishery in the southern portion of its range. In the Gulf of California, it is targeted by artisanal fishermen at a level constituting a major threat.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> was reported to comprise 1.2% of the total fish catch in Colima, Mexico, from 1983 to 1998 based on surveys of 5 to 20 boats (Espino-Barr <em>et al.</em> 2004). The same reference reports the total fishery of Colima to catch ~25 kg/day of fish based on the effort of ~1,000 boats working ~250 days/year. (by extrapolation 0.3 kg/day of <em>H. acanthistius</em> are taken).
132731		conservation	eng	There is very little information on its abundance, its size distribution, reproduction or life span. It will gain from marine reserves or protection of the reef habitat. Harvest management of this species is needed as it is heavily fished throughout its range.
132731		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus socialis</em> is found on coral reef islands from Japan to Pitcairn, including Ogasawara, Pitcairn, Marshall Islands (Rigili island, Enewetak), Bikini, Yuroshi Island, Society (Tahiti), Tuamotu, Kiribati (Canton Island), Samoa, Northern Mariana, Tuvalu, Fanning Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra, Phoenix, Australe, Cook, Gambier, Rapa, Mururoa, Guam, Northern Marianas, Dulcie, Henderson, Marcus. It is not reported from Melanesia (New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Tonga) or Caroline Islands.
132731		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus socialis</em>is found in a very specific habitat: the shallow part of reef flats exposed to the wave action from the ocean. It is found in less than 10 m and most records are from less than 3 m deep. The habitat of this species is not very large in most of the islands where it is found. Known to reach at least 52 cm TL, most fish less than 35 cm. In parts of its range it is probably not eaten because of risks of ciguatera. It is not dependent on coral cover.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>This species lives on the bottom where it feeds on fish and benthic invertebrates (crustaceans, octopus). Ambushes its preys. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Nothing reported on its reproduction.
132731		population	eng	The population size of <em>Epinephelus socialis</em> is unknown and the very few accounts of population densities, size range or catch data are not sufficient to clearly define the population status. However, all the available information points to low natural abundances and restricted biotope. Populations can be considered as very fragmented. Local extinction is likely on such islands, with however a strong potential for re-colonization from nearby less populated or disturbed islands.
132731		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus socialis</em> is threatened mainly by subsistence fishing. This species is mainly threatened on islands with high human densities and easy access to reef flats exposed to oceanic action. It is very vulnerable to fishing as adults and juveniles live on reefs easily accessible and do not require sophisticated means to be caught. This species is never abundant and its relatively large adult size makes it a favored target for subsistence fishing over most of its range. In some highly populated islands (e.g., Tahiti, Tarawa) pollution of shallow oceanic reefs and coastal development (roads, peers, runways, hotels, etc.) may also be the cause for habitat degradation and decrease in prey abundance. The specificities of its habitat (shallow, close to shore) makes it very sensitive to cyclones and pollution (agriculture, terrestrial runoffs, etc.).
132732		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is found in marine protected areas within its range, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. No other measures specific to the species.
132732		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species recorded from the Red Sea to Durban (South Africa) and eastward to the Line Islands. Its range includes most islands in the Indian and west-central Pacific oceans. The species is absent from the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It also is recorded from the East Andaman Sea, Thailand (Allen and Stone 2005), and India (southwest tip) (Myers distributional database 2006). Misidentified as <em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> from Reuníon (Postel <em>et al.</em> 1963).
132732		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> inhabits clear waters of coral reefs and is more often found in exposed rather than protected reef areas (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). On the Barrier Reef, only found in outer shelf back-reef areas (Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> feeds on fishes (80%, mainly <em>Pseudanthias squamipinnis</em>) and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The species forms haremic groups comprising of a dominant male and two to 12 females; haremic groups occupy territories of up to 475 sq m subdivided into secondary territories and defended by a single female (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991). The species is listed as a protogynous hermaphrodite, but has not been confirmed through histological analysis (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). Sex ratio in New Caledonia 84 females to four males. Males were larger, but immature; females were found mature at 23 cm TL (IRD database).
132732		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is common in most coral-rich areas within its range (Myers pers. comm.) and is generally common in the Red Sea (Lieske and Myers 1994) but low in numbers (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Relative abundance (RA = 0.05) = pooled number of species in all censuses/total number of individuals in all censuses x 100 (Rilov and Benayahu 1998). <br/><br/>Frequency of appearance (Red Sea) (FA=no. of censuses in which the species was found/total number of censuses x 100) = 21.2 (Rilov and Benayahu 1998).<br/><br/>Densities 0.03 indiv/1,000 m² in shallow reef in New Caledonia, but higher abundance 0.8/1,000 m² on bommies (IRD database). <br/><br/>It shows stable abundances in New Caledonia over a ten-year survey period (IRD database). It is common in coral reef marine reserve in South Africa (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993). The species are not abundant in shallow waters in areas surveyed along the Great Barrier Reef (Pears 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Constitutes 3% of serranid catch in New Caledonia (IRD database) and less than 1% of catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132732		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is threatened by both overfishing and habitat degradation (fish-bombing, sedimentation). It is a common species of economic importance to local fisheries and is captured by hook and line, spear and traps. It is a component of the live reef fish trade, but occurs in unknown quantities. No population trend data is available (citation from Annadel-Busing). The species constitutes less than 1% of catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Declines in catch of serranids from Sabah includes an unknown sub-component of <em>C. miniata</em> (Cabanban and Biusing, submitted to NAGA).
132733		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for <em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em>, although it occurs in various marine parks throughout Baja California (Loreto, Cabo Pulmo) and the Galapagos Islands.
132733		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> is an eastern Pacific species that is narrowly distributed from the Gulf of California to Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands.
132733		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> is a common, shy and secretive reef-associated, non-migratory species that is found on coral reefs and rocky shore habitats. Maximum depth to at least 30 m. Maximum size recently increased to 387 mm TL (M. Craig SIOMVC). There is one doubtful record to 76 m. It prefers shallower, warmer water than many of its congeners.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>B. Erisman recent confirmed protogyny for the species. Spawning peaks in July/August in Loreto, Mexico (B. Erisman, SIO, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Age</strong><br/>Maximum age is approximately 25 years (Craig <em>et al.</em> 1999).
132733		population	eng	There is currently limited information on populations of <em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> over its range.<br/><br/>The population of <em>C. panamensis</em> in Loreto (Baja California) appears stable from informal surveys 2000-2007 (B. Erisman, MTC pers. obs.). <br/><br/>REEF surveys indicate ~55 to 60% site frequency from 2000 to 2006 (www.reef.org).<br/><br/>Anecdotal surveys by B. Erisman and M. Buckhorn indicate its population has been, and continues to be stable (six years of survey). REEF surveys also indicate that the population has remained stable since 2000. While the species is incidentally caught and may be taken by subsistence fisherman, there is no direct threat to this species by intentional harvest.
132733		threats	eng	Threat levels for <em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> are low. It is primarily targeted by subsistence and recreational fisheries and occurs as incidental catch in the commercial fishery.
132734		conservation	eng	The depth range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is outside of most protected areas.
132734		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>niphobles</em> is an Eastern Pacific species narrowly distributed from northern California to Peru.
132734		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is a demersal, deepwater species found in deep rocky reef and soft bottom. Juveniles have been collected in relatively shallow water.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is reported to be often caught in shrimp trawls in central Gulf of California, but is too rare to be of commercial interest.
132734		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> appears to be naturally rare throughout its range and there is very little population information. It is not known if it is in decline.
132734		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is incidentally taken in subsistence and recreational fisheries and is also caught by shrimp trawl (Gulf of California), but it is unknown if these activities present a major threat.
132735		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in Australia (Northern Territory) and there is nothing specific for the species. In shallower coastal areas, it may occur in some marine protected areas within its range, but not at its lower depth range.
132735		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species distributed in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Pakistan, India, Viet Nam, Hong Kong, China (Shanghai), Korea, southern Japan, Taiwan, and northwest Australia (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is unknown from the east coast of Africa, the Indian Ocean islands, Indonesia, Philippines, or Papua New Guinea (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory), Bahrain, China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangdong - Hainan, Guangxi, Shandong, Shanghai, Zhejiang), Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Hong Kong, India (Dadra-Nagar-Haveli, Daman, Diu, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mahé, Tamil Nadu), Iran, Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), North Korea, South Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, and Viet Nam.
132735		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> seems to prefer continental localities and bottoms of low relief. Its maximum size is 137 cm SL, with a maximum published weight of 58.6 kg (Randall and Heemstra 1991). The reported depth range is from 20 to at least 230 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Large individuals are taken on coarse sand or rocky areas, while the smaller ones live on silty-sand and muddy bottom. Also caught throughout the year by longliners.
132735		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is common in markets in Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore and the Persian Gulf. No population trends have been established for the species.
132735		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is commercial fishing and it is common in markets of the Persian Gulf, Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan.  It can be caught with hook and line, long-line, trawl and traps (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is rarely observed in the live fish trade in  Hong Kong.
132736		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range, including Ningaloo reef park in Western Australia and the GBR Marine Park and MPA in the Philippines.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is not clear how much compliance there is. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. <br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.
132736		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species that is distributed from East Africa to the western Pacific, southward into temperate waters of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. It is not known from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf or Fiji.
132736		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs on coral reefs, areas with rocky substrata, algal flats and seagrass beds. In New Caledonia, it is found on soft bottoms with scattered hard bottomed refugia (IRD database). The largest recorded specimen in New Caledonia is 47 cm.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes and crustaceans.  <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, growth and larval development</strong><br/>A monandric, protogynous hermaphrodite that forms spawning aggregations. <em>E rivulatus</em> has a fast growth rate (Table 3), although it is relatively long-lived, having been aged to 24 years (Mackie 1998). It matures at a small size/age, with the smallest mature female recorded at 144 mm TL, one year in Australia (Mackie 1998); the smallest mature male was 221 mm TL two years in Australia (Mackie 1998). The mean age of males was significantly greater than females (Australia 9.4 vs. 4.6 years, Mackie 1998). The mean size of males was significantly larger than females (South Africa 338 vs. 298 mm TL; Fennessy 2000) and was consistently significantly larger for males from a range of sites on Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia (Mackie 1998). Monandric protogynous sex change has been confirmed in this species, based on the occurrence of transitional individuals, gonad morphology and the absence of males below the female size at maturity (Mackie 2000, Fennessy 2000). Size at sex change varied in Western Australia from 263 to 315 mm TL (Mackie, 2000). Based on manipulative experiments, sex change was shown to be determined by the relative numbers of males and large females in the area (Mackie 2003) and could occur within a short period of about 3 weeks (Mackie 2003, 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: growth parameters for <em>E. rivulatus</em>.<br/><br/>In South Africa, based on sampling of commercial catches, males outnumbered females 1.25:1 as a consequence of the fishery targeting larger individuals (Fennessy 2000). In contrast, at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, in an area closed to fishing and based on research sampling, females were five to six times more numerous than males. Females had overlapping home ranges, while males were territorial towards each other and their territories rarely overlapped (Mackie 1998, 2000). Males aggressively defended their territories during the spawning season. Fish were reproductively active over an extended period in the austral winter and spring in both Australia and South Africa (July to December; Mackie 2000, Fennessy 2000), when water temperatures are cooler. Peak spawning occurred from September to December (Australia) and August to November (South Africa). Nzioka (1979) recorded ripe fish in October in Tanzania, while Morgans (1964) reported ripe fish in August off Kenya. Mackie (in press) observed that they do not form spawning aggregations at Ningaloo Reef, although numbers of females in male territories increased up to threefold during the spawning period; he ascribed the non-formation of “classic” aggregations as a consequence of this species naturally occurring in relatively high densities in this area. Spawning occurred in pairs, with gametes being released about 1.5 m above the substratum (Mackie in press). Spawning occurred after sunset (probably throughout the night) during a six day period over the full moon, followed by a 20 day period of no spawning during which gametes were replenished. In an adjacent area to the study area, spawning also occurred as the moon phase waned, but not as it waxed. Based on otolith micro-increment analysis, the larvae remained in the plankton for 21 to 61 days (Mackie 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Length-weight relationships</strong><br/>Wt g = 0.0114 x FL cm3.0862 (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005)<br/>Wt g = 0.000006902 x FL mm3.1148 (Australia: Mackie 1998)<br/>Wt g = 0.0000196 x TL mm2.968 (South Africa: Fennessy 2000)
132736		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> is a widespread and often very common small grouper. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Experimental catch decreased by about 50% in New Caledonia between 1987 and 2000 (IRD database). This species comprised 5% of the serranid catch. Recreational fishing off northern Natal - 40% decline in catch rate over a 15 year period. In Mozambique catches have been extremely variable over a 12 to 13 year period.<br/><br/>Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial linefishery shows that by 2002, fishing effort (no. of fishing days) had declined by half to that in 1993, and, from 2000, boats started to increasingly fish further north and on deeper (to 190 m) reefs as catches on the southern reefs declined (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2003) (Table 1). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery.<br/><br/>The only other long-term data set on catch is that from Richards Bay on the east coast of South Africa, in which recreational hook and line catches from boats are monitored. This fishery commenced in the mid-1980s, but monitoring data are only available from the early 1990s. Figure 1 suggests that catch rates of <em>E. rivulatus</em> generally declined from 1991 to 1999, and then appear to have stabilized at a level approximately 40% of that in 1991. For the commercial sector, the time series is much shorter and inconsistent, possibly because these boats have gradually expanded their area of operation as catches on inshore reefs (where the recreational sector mainly fish) declined. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: long-term boat-based hook and line catch data from Richards Bay on the east coast of South Africa.<br/><br/>Neither of these sectors can be said to target <em>E. rivulatus</em> – although numbers caught in the commercial sector are quite high, they contribute very little to overall catches, which are dominated by sparids. The fishery is also quite different (recreational and small-scale commercial, operating from relatively sophisticated craft on non-coral reefs in relatively rough seas) to that practiced elsewhere in the range of this species, except perhaps in Australia. It is therefore not appropriate to extrapolate between the status of the species in Richard Bay and elsewhere. <br/><br/>Using per-recruit modeling which did not incorporate the effects of sex change, Fennessy (2000) reported that spawner-biomass-per-recruit levels were 82 to 87% of the unfished level in two sites in South Africa (including the Richards Bay area) in the mid-1990s, even when a wide range of fishing mortality was applied. This was ascribed to the rapid growth rate, the high rate of natural mortality (0.75 to 0.8 yr<sup>-1</sup> in South Africa, 0.994 yr<sup>-1</sup> in Australia) and the observation that the age at first capture (four years) was greater than the age at maturity (1.9 to 2.3 yrs), and greater than/close to the age at sex change (2.2 to 4.3 yrs).  Essentially, the fishery targeted larger fish, allowing <em>E. rivulatus</em> to spawn several times before it recruited to the fishery. <em>E. rivulatus</em> does not form dense aggregations in order to spawn, although it can occur in fairly high densities. As well as reducing their vulnerability to fishing relative to species which do aggregate, this feature facilitates regular interaction between males and females which forms the basis of social cues for sex change. Further, the common occurrence of non-functional spermatic tissue in ovaries, and the simultaneous proliferation and degeneration of male and female tissues, was suggested by Mackie (2006) as mechanisms to facilitate rapid sex change. Together, these features suggest that <em>E. rivulatus</em> can compensate for the selective removal of males by fishing (observed in the South African fishery), which partially determines the extent to which stock can be harvested, as theoretically predicted by (Bannerot <em>et al.</em> (1987) and Huntsman and Schaaf (1994). Overall, a combination of small size, fast growth, early maturity, early and rapid sex change has better equipped this species to withstand fishing pressure than many other groupers.<br/><br/>However, the per-recruit assessment is already 10 years old. While fishing pressure in Richards Bay is not increasing, the commercial sector is seeking reefs further and further from the launch site as catch rates decline on inshore reefs (reflected in the recreational catches). While the modal size of this species has not changed over almost 20 years, it is apparent that the smaller size classes now make a more substantial contribution to the catch than before (Table 2), suggesting that this population is under some pressure (notwithstanding its resilience described above).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Length frequencies of <em>E. rivulatus</em>: handline and longline catches from New Caledonia.
132736		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The main threats to <em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> are overfishing and loss of habitat. <br/><br/><strong>Loss of habitat</strong><br/>Episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006).
132737		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> occurs within marine protected areas within some parts of its range.
132737		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> is distributed in the Indo-Pacific, ranging from East Africa (but not the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, or South Africa) to the Society Islands (French Polynesia), north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and south to northern Australia. Its range includes most islands of the Indian Ocean and those of the west-central Pacific (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is also reported from Réunion (Leternour 1996), and is found in the east Andaman Sea (Allen and Stone 2005).<br/><br/>One record from Rodríguez by Heemstra and Randall (1984) could not be verified and is probably erroneous (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132737		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species found at depths of 1 to 40 m. Leopard Hind occur in coral-rich areas of lagoon pinnacles, channels, and outer reef slopes. The species is solitary (Myers 1999) and secretive, usually hiding in caves and crevices in the reefs. Leopard Hind are one of the smallest species of groupers known.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Leopard Hind diet is omnivorous with a diet composed of fish and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Life history</strong> <br/>The species reproduces late in life and has a low GSI. Leopard Hind seldom form schools and are often territorial. It exhibits low growth after first reproduction and has low mortality; life-span 7 to 12 years (Mellin <em>et al. </em> 2006).
132737		population	eng	<em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> has variable abundance across its range. It is common in the western Indian Ocean, but uncommon in the Great Barrier Reef and Reunion.
132737		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> is habitat degradation from fish-bombing, sedimentation and eutrophication. It is not a specific target of commercial fisheries, although it is fished for subsistence purposes. The species is not commercially important in Papua New Guinea (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006) and is recorded in the trap fisheries in Mozambique. It is typically lumped with other serranids in catch records. Leopard Hind are present in the Maldives live food fish trade; no export quota established for this species.
132738		conservation	eng	<em>V. louti</em> occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
132738		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola louti</em> occurs throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific region from the Red Sea to the Pitcairn Islands of eastern Oceania. It is found along the east coast of Africa south to Durban (South Africa) and along the western coast of Australia to Shark Bay. This common and widely distributed grouper is known from most of the tropical islands of the Indian and west central Pacific oceans. In the western Pacific it ranges from Japan (southern Honshu) to New South Wales (Australia). It has not been found in the Persian Gulf or the Hawaiian Islands (USA).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Red Sea, Gulf of Aquaba, Gulf of Aden, south Oman, Socotra (Yemen), east Somalia, East Africa to 28°S, Comoros, Madagascar, Seychelles, Aldabara, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrígues, Chagos, Maldives, Laccadives, Sri Lanka, Andamans, west Thailand, Myanmar, Sumatra, Bali, Sangakkaki, Borneo, east Indonesia, Minado, Togean Islands, Sulawesi, Flores, Komodo Sunda Island, Raja Ampat, west Papua, Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island, Asmore, Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, NW Australian coast, Phillippines, Sprately Island, Great Barrier Reef, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Chesterfields, Elizabeth &amp; Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe island, south Taiwan, Peng hu shan, Ryukyu, Kawhisi-jima, south Japan, Izu Is, Ogosawara, Palau, Yap, Pohnpei, Ifalik, Chuuk, Kapingamarangi, Kosrae, south Marianas, north Marianas, Marshall Islands, Wake Island, Fiji, Rotuma, Tonga, Uvea, Samoa, Tuvalu, Phoenix, Line Island, Society Islands, Tuamotos, Gambier, Marquesas, Austral Island, Rapa, and Pitcairn (Myer distributional database 2006).
132738		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> is a coral reef-associated species found at depths of 3 to 240 m. Yellow-edged lyretail are usually seen in clear-water areas at depths below 15 m. <em>V. louti</em> prefers islands and offshore reefs, rather than continental shores. There is evidence of ciguatera in this species in the western Indian Ocean (Opic <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>This species feeds primarily on fishes, including a variety of coral-reef species; crustacean prey comprises crabs, shrimps, and stomatopods. <br/><br/><strong>Reproductive</strong><br/>Morgans (1982) reported mature females of 33 cm standard length, and spawning, which occurred between December and February.<br/><br/>Robinson <em>et al.</em> in prep have provided details of the reproductive biology of <em>V. louti</em> in the Western Indian Ocean. The size by sex distribution tends to suggest protogyny (Heemstra and Randall 1993), with females ranging from 300 to 600 mm FL and males from 300 to 700 mm FL. However until these data are examined in terms of age structure associated with histological analysis of smaller/younger individuals, protogyny cannot be confirmed. Distribution of females reproductive activity over the annual cycle suggests two spawning peaks based on the distribution of GSI values and the presence of hydrated oocytes. The highest GSI values associated with the presence of hydrated oocyctes where in March April and October. In both periods GSI fell abruptly following the presumed spawning periods.<br/><br/><strong>Growth</strong><br/>Demographic data are available for the Indian Ocean populations of <em>V. louti </em> (Grandcourt 2005).<br/>Growth parameters; Linf  510 mm FL,  K  0.48, M  0.28. The sample comprised individuals collected from Aldabara Atoll with Lmax 600 mm FL and Tmax 15 yrs.
132738		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> is a widespread grouper species that is abundant in the Western Indian Ocean gradually reaching low density east to the Western  Pacific. In areas with detailed fishery records, this species has declined sharply over 20 years period.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> abundance patterns differ sharply over their range with the major contrasts being between the western Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific. In the west Pacific, using UVC, <em>V. louti</em> was found to be one of the less abundant serranids on the Great Barrier Reef within the 5 to 0 m depth range. Analysis by habitat on the northern GBR (Pears 2005) demonstrated greater abundances on exposed reef fronts. <br/><br/>Abundances are expressed as no. per 1,000 m².<br/><br/><em>MidShelf</em><br/>Lagoon  0<br/>Back reef  0<br/>Front reef  0.25±0.2<br/><br/><em>Outer Shelf</em><br/>Lagoon  0<br/>Back reef  0.45±0.4<br/>Front reef  1.3±0.6<br/><br/>On a north/south gradient on the Great Barrier Reef with habitats combined <em>V. louti</em> was found to be marginally more abundant in the north.<br/><br/>Localities: Lizard 0.1±0.02; Tvlle 0.2±0.05; McKay 0; Pompey 0.<br/><br/>The carbonate reef systems of the  western Indian Ocean supports abundant populations of <em>V. louti</em>. Abundances of <em>V. louti</em> on these reefs are equivalent to those of <em>Plectropomus leopardus</em> on the Great Barrier Reef. Each species appears to have a similar ecological role in the different regions. <br/><br/>Sampling WIO (Seychelles) Abundances are expressed as no. per 1,000 m².<br/><br/>Regions: Grantic reefs (Mahe) 0.1±0.08; North Amirantes 8.2±1.4; South Amirantes 5.1±1.3; Farquahar Atoll 3.5±0.8.<br/><br/>Zeller (2006) provides some catch trends from the Northern Marianas, Guam and American Samoa.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figures 1</strong>, <strong>2</strong> and <strong>3</strong>
132738		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>V. louti</em> is overfishing. This species is also present in the aquarium trade and live fish food trade.<br/><br/><strong>Fishing</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> is fished over most of its range and contributes to the Live Reef Fish Food Trade (LRFT) (Lau and Li 2000). In the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), this species contributes to both local commercial (Grandcourt 2005) and Live Reef Food Fish Trade (Satter and Adams 2005). In the western and central Pacific <em>V. louti</em> has been fished intensively in the northern Mariana Islands for at least 25 years with landings maintained at  6 to 8 metric tonnes in the 1960s following by an increasing decline to 15 to 20% of this catch in the 1990s with this low rate being maintained through 2000 (Zeller 2006) (Fig 1). The recent Samoan fishery has shown fluctuating landings but an overall decline (Fig 2). The Guam fishery is erratic and relatively small with no trends (Fig 3). The combination of relatively low densities and declining catch rates indicates that this species is probably overfished in the West Pacific. Indian Ocean populations appear to be healthy although this species is considered to be one of the more important elements of the LRFT in the Maldives and as one of the eight most important species for export has a quota of 30,000 individuals (Sattar and Adams, 2005). Grandcourt (2005) suggests a fast growing high turnover species that maintains high abundance in the WIO (Pears 2005). However the magnitude of the decline in landings of this species in the West Pacific (Zeller 2006) and the evidence of declines in the Maldives associated with the LRFT suggests that this species is overexploited.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figures 1</strong>, <strong>2</strong> and <strong>3</strong>
132739		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are known, though <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> may be present in some marine protected areas within its range. More information is needed from fisheries to determine the population status and trend.
132739		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> has a wide tropical (27°N to 13°S) Indo-West Pacific distribution, ranging from East Africa to southern India and Sri Lanka in the northern Indian Ocean, to Taiwan in the north and the Solomon Islands in the east in the central western Pacific Ocean.
132739		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although generally considered to be a reef-associated species, <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> also lives on offshore banks and on open silty sand and mud substrates, where it seeks refuge in holes in the bottom or around solid structures, including shipwrecks or other bottom debris. Adults generally live at depths of ~25 to 90 m, and juveniles as shallow as 5 m. Juveniles living around <em>Montipora</em> coral colonies in the Gulf of Mannar (India/Sri Lanka) comprised the second most abundant (at 12%) of the grouper species “fry” occurring in this habitat (Ramesh 1996). It reaches a maximum total length of ~75 cm (females maturing at ~55 cm).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The species is a macrofaunal predator, feeding mainly on small fishes and crustaceans, but also on pelagic tunicates.
132739		population	eng	The population status of <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is unknown, although it is apparently relatively common at least in Sri Lanka and southern India. According to Heemstra and Randall (1993), this species is (or at least was) common on the North Kenya Banks off Lamu and in the Wadge Bank trawl fishery off the west coast of Sri Lanka (see also Munasinghe 1972).
132739		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is heavily fished in southern India and Sri Lanka, but it is not known what impact this has on the global population. According to Heemstra and Randall (1993), this species is (or at least was) common on the North Kenya Banks off Lamu and in the Wadge Bank trawl fishery off the west coast of Sri Lanka (<em>see also</em> Munasinghe 1972). It is also of some importance in the fishery along the Tamil Nadu coast of India, where it is caught with hooks and lines, vertical longlines, trawls, gill nets and fish traps. According to Deveraj and Murty (undated), in the Gulf of Mannar this species comprises ~6% of the grouper catch, which in turn comprises ~25% of the overall reef fish catch, in this primarily hook and line fishery. Devaraj (1996) states that:  “A private company (Scanet Aqua) is currently operating a net cage at Tuticorin in the Gulf of Mannar for captive holding and fattening of grouper for live export in ships to Hong Kong. The company exported in 1996 about 20 tons of live groupers”. <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is likely to be one of the species involved in this export trade.
132740		conservation	eng	Fisheries regulations are reasonably well enforced in Seychelles, and increased protection of spawning aggregations for <em>Epinephelus multinotatus </em>and other grouper species is currently under discussion (Robinson <em>et al.</em> in review).<br/><br/>Fisheries management is well established in Western Australia through five separate commercial fishing zones for a mixed demersal fishery which includes <em>E. </em><em>multinotatus</em>. The management plans are under review considering concerns of growth overfishing. Ningaloo Marine Park which is closed to commercial fishing provides protection to this species (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
132740		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is a western Indian Ocean species that is distributed along mainland East Africa and in the island states (Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar), Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman and most of the Western Australia coast.<br/><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is not listed in Australia’s Northern Territory Museum records (Barry Russell pers. comm. 30th January 2007)<br/><br/><strong>Genetic sub-populations</strong><br/>Shark Bay, Ningaloo, Pilbara and Broome locations in western Australia recognised as separate stocks from genetic studies which supports the current approach of four separate fisheries management plans for this species (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
132740		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is a reef-associated species found on drop-offs and banks throughout the Seychelles from 10 m to over 100 m (Robinson, pers. comm. 2007), and from deep rocky reefs at 20 to 110 m depths in Western Australia (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Spawning aggregations of <em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> are reported during peak reproductive months (Wheeler and Ommanney 1953, Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2004) and probably non-aggregating spawning at other times (derived from Robinson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Reproductive seasonality is 12 months, with peak of 3 to 4 months (Aug. to Oct.) when spawning aggregations occur (Robinson <em>et al.</em>, in review).<br/><br/>Sex change parameters (sex ratio fished and unfished, size of sex change, type of hermphroditism, etc.): M:F – 1:2.1 (lightly fished, Seychelles, Farquar atoll, Robinson <em>et al.</em> in review).
132740		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> has three separate sub-populations in the Indian Ocean as recognised by Heemstra and Randall (1993)  based on differences in colour pattern and scale counts:<br/><br/>1) Western Indian Ocean<br/>2) Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman<br/>3) Western Australia<br/><br/>Within Western Australia, there are also three separate sub-populations which are all managed individually.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is relatively abundant in the Seychelles and recorded as the most common of the three groupers taken in the demersal handline fisheries (Mees 1992, MRAG 1996). Populations on the granitic islands are now overfished (Jan Robinson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Very limited national deeper (>30m) water fisheries occurring in East Africa, though hook and line, seine, traps and trawl are listed for taking groupers in Tanzanian waters. Some illegal foreign fishing vessels trawling the shelf area beyond territorial waters may be taking this species (Samoilys 2004).<br/><br/><em>E. multinotatus</em> is the most common of the three groupers taken by the whaler and schooner fisheries in Seychelles (Robinson pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>E. multinotatus</em> is listed as occurring in catches from 2000, 2002, and 2003 from commercial hook and line vessels in Mozambique (Sean Fennessy pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>E. multinotatus</em> taken in small-scale artisanal fishery around Réunion, as one of 19 <em>Epinephelus</em> species. Total catches are estimated weights provided by fishers (not very reliable) in mt and have declined from around 20 to 45 mt in 1998 to 2002, to 3 mt in 2004 to 2005, though no effort data are provided (Dominique Miossec, IFREMER, La  Réunion, pers comm. January 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries independent</strong><br/>Densities in shallow strata (<20 m) range from 0 to 0.51 fish/1,000 m², with higher densities found in the Amirantes Isles (Pears 2005).<br/><br/>Possibly uncommon in mainland East Africa - not seen in underwater surveys (to ~20 m depth) along the Kenyan coast (Samoilys 1988, pers. obs), or in southern Tanzania’s Mnazi Bay Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (Obura 2004), though this may reflect its deeper range.
132740		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Overfishing is the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent</strong><br/>Overfishing  of <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em> is reported from the Mahé plateau, Seychelles by the local whaler and schooner fisheries, though fishing pressure reputedly light in the outer islands and atolls (Robinson pers comm. 2007). Growth overfishing is reported from the trawl fishery in Western Australia (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em> is taken in multispecies demersal fisheries in north Western Australia – taken by a trawl fishery in Pilbara region, and by trap and line fisheries in the Broome region, W. Australia (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em> is the most heavily fished grouper in Western Australia.
132741		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is found in marine protected areas throughout its range, including the Great Barrier Reef. No specific measures for the species.
132741		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species, occurring from the Red Sea to South Africa, and eastward to Tahiti (French Polynesia). It has been reported from the Arafura Sea (Russel and Houston 1989). It has also been recorded from Yemen (Rouphael <em>et al.</em> 1998). Reports by Heemstra and Randall (1984) from the Gulf of Oman, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka are unsubstantiated. It is absent from the Persian Gulf and is not yet known from Lakshadweep Islands (India).
132741		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is a reef-associated species ranging in depth from 6 to 150 m. It is found in rich coastal to outer reefs, usually along deep walls with caves, rich with invertebrate growth such as large sponges or soft corals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The species is also found inside the lagoon (Sluka 2002). <em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is a secretive species that is active nocturnally in shallow water and diurnally in deeper water (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991b). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> feeds mainly on fishes (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Growth and maturity</strong><br/>Length at maturity = 24.91 cm (Mangi and Roberts 2006).<br/>Maximum total length = 50 cm TL (Randall 1995); Linf = 220 mm SL, K =0.63 (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/>150 to 240 mm SL = 2 to 8 years (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).
132741		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is common in specific reef habitats on outer coral reef slopes (caves and crevices) (Randall and Heemstra 1991) and also on deep walls in caves (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>It was uncommon in shallow water visual censuses along the Great Barrier Reef (Pears 2005). It was also not common in New Caledonia (0.01% of the grouper catch) (IRD database). It is generally rare  in survey and catch statistics (Myers pers comm.). In visual surveys in New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga and French Polynesia, ths species was found only on the outer barrier reef (density=0.2 fish/1,000 m²). (IRD database).
132741		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The main threats to <em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> are overfishing and habitat loss.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is incidental and small-scale fishery and found in the Live Reef Fish Trade (LRFT). It is captured for food in artisinal and subsistence fisheries as juveniles (14.4 cm) in Kenya (Mangi and Roberts 2006). <br/><br/>Northern Marianas catch data was 120 kg/yr in 1950s and dropped to and fluctuated around 25 kg/yr from 1986 to  2002 under increasing fishing pressure (Zeller 2006). <br/><br/>It is commercially important in Papua New Guinea but assessed as extremely vulnerable to commercial fishing  (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006). It constitutes less than 1% of catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132742		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of <em>Cephalopholis nigri</em>. Protection of this species' habitat is desirable.
132742		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong> <br/><em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> is an eastern Atlantic species ranging from Senegal to Angola, including the Canary Islands (Spain), and islands of the Gulf of Guinea (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Spain (Canary Islands), and Togo.
132742		habitat	eng	<em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> occurs in shallow tropical rocky reefs to a maximum depth of 100 m.
132742		population	eng	<strong>General</strong> <br/><em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> is a relatively common species, but is not very abundant through its range. <br/><br/><strong> Fisheries-independent</strong><br/>In a recent underwater visual survey in São Tomé island (unpublished) average densities varied from 0.07 to 2.1 fish per 40 m² transect.
132742		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> is fished with spear and hook and line in São Tomé and Príncipe for subsistence but it is not currently considered a major threat. In the future, it may become a major threat.
132743		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range. No other known actions are reported for this species.
132743		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species distributed from western India to the Philippines, north to southern Japan (Honshu), and south to northern Australia. '<em>Epinephelus formosus</em>' from Madagascar, Réunion and Mauritius are probably based on mis-identifications of <em>Cephalopholis polleni</em>. The species is confused with <em>Cephalopholis boenak</em>.
132743		habitat	eng	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is a reef-associated species that prefers shallow (10 to 30 m) dead or silty reefs. This may account for the primarily continental distributions of this species and <em>C. boenak</em>. Within this range it generally doesn’t occur around oceanic islands and atolls (except the Lakshadweeps).<br/><br/>No detailed biological information is available, but the maximum recorded size is 34 cm TL.
132743		population	eng	The population status of <em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is unknown, but the species is apparently relatively common, for example, in western India (Sluka and Lazarus, unpub.). There are, however, no known separate fisheries statistics.
132743		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is threatened with overfishing through incidental catch.
132744		conservation	eng	Spotted grouper are present in several protected areas throughout its range.
132744		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus analous</em> occurs in the eastern Pacific from southern California (USA) to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, and Galápagos islands.
132744		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus analous</em> is reef-associated, being abundant in patch and rocky reefs where it is readily caught by anglers. Spotted groupers feed mainly on crustaceans and fishes on rocky and sandy bottoms. During winter, individuals move closer to the shore and feeds heavily on swarms of pelagic red crab <em>Pleuroncodes planipes</em>.
132744		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus analous</em> is common throughout its range and the most abundant small grouper in the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. <br/><br/><strong> Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>There is a reported 18 to 20 tonnes of annual landings of <em>Epinephelus analous</em> in Ecuador and the population appears stable.
132744		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus analous</em> is sought by commercial and recreational fisheries, yet is an abundant species that is not currently threatened by overfishing.
132745		conservation	eng	There are no known protections established for <em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> to date.
132745		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> ranges from South Africa to the southern tip of Tuamotu in tropical deep water reefs. It is known from many islands across the Indian and west Pacific oceans. It is seldom found south of the tropic of Capricorn. Its distribution seems patchy in the Indian Ocean but this is probably due to a lack of data. It is found in the Red Sea but absent from the Persian Gulf. In the Pacific it is found in most tropical Pacific islands west of Pitcairn (where it is not reported). Not reported from the subtropical south Pacific (Lord Howe, Kermadec, Rapa).
132745		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> is found in deep waters (80 to 370 m) on the slopes of islands, sea mounts or continental shelves. Almost nothing is known of it s biology (despite its importance in deep water bottom line fishing). <br/>It has been reported as ciguatoxic in Mauritius.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus morrhua</em>feeds upon benthic fishes and large invertebrates. <br/><br/><strong>Size at catch</strong><br/>Comet grouper reaches a size of 90 to 100 cm. The maximum weight recorded weight is 10 kg from catches during experimental fishing in the South Pacific (however no precise measurement is available). The average weight in deep water line catches in the South Pacific was 2.5 kg, with individuals being smaller (0.9 to 2 kg) in the west (PNG, Solomon Is., Palau) than for small isolated islands (Tuvalu, Tonga seamounts, Cook, French Polynesia, Kiribati) where the fishes ranged on average between 2 and 5 kg with a maximum in Kiribati (7.9 kg). Seasonal variations in the catch suggest that there could be migrations.
132745		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> is the most common Serranidae in the catch of bottom line fishing on reefs in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. It is commercially fished in the Red Sea, but it does not seem to be a major component of the deep reef bottom line fishing in the West Indian Ocean. Detailed catch data from experimental fishing is available for most South Pacific islands (most commonly caught serranid) (SPC experimental campaigns in New Caledonia, Vanuatu, PNG, Solomon, Marshall, Yap, Palau, Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, Tuamotu, Society Is., Cook Is., Niue, FSM, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Wallis, Futuna), for NW Australia, Torres and Queensland. Some catch information is available for the Maldives, La Réunion, the Red Sea in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>In Mozambique, <em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> makes up 20% of groupers caught in the commercial trap fishery. The species is regularly caught in the commercial line fishery  (FRI database).
132745		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> is vulnerable to line fishing but at present there is no location where it seems threatened, although in some areas catch of this species in deepwater fisheries is declining.
132746		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> occurs in marine protected areas within its range, but there are no specific measures for the species.
132746		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species found from Natal, South Africa to the central Pacific. It is not known from the Red Sea nor Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia: New South Wales - Lord Howe Is., Cook Islands, Hong Kong, Indonesia: Bali, Java , Lesser Sunda Is., Moluccas , Papua , Sumatra, Japan: Ogasawara-shoto , Ryukyu Is., Kiribati, Madagascar, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia Federated States of, Mozambique, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea: Bismarck Archipelago, North Solomons, Philippines, Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal, Taiwan, Province of China ,Tokelau, United States Minor Outlying Islands.
132746		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is a coral reef-associated species occurring in outer reef flats and shallow lagoons (Myers 1999), reportedly in depths less than 7 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993) although also reported to occur in reefs at a depth of about 30 m (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990) and has appeared in trawls (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984). Its maximum size is reported to be 35.0 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). There are reports of ciguatera poisoning for this species (Dalzell 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes and benthic crustaceans (Masuda and Allen 1993).
132746		population	eng	Little known about its population or abundance, probably because <em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is a member of the reticulated (hexagonatus) grouper complex and easily confused with other species. It is not commonly observed. It constituted less than 2% of catch in reef fish fisheries in Pohnpei in 2006 (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132746		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is found in subsistence fisheries, but because of its small size and apparent rarity, it is of little or no commercial importance. Habitat degradation (coral loss) may also impact this species.
132747		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range, but there are no known measures specific to foursaddle grouper.
132747		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> has a widespread, primarily insular, tropical Indo-West Pacific distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Central East African coast (Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique); Madagascar and all main tropical Western Indian Ocean Islands including Mauritius, Comoros, Seychelles, Chagos; Maldives; Laccadives, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India); and other islands throughout the tropical Indian Ocean, and off southern Myanmar, western Thailand and Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Philippines (?), northern Papua New Guinea, Rowley Shoals to Scott Reef (off NW Western Australia), GBR and Coral Sea off northeast Australia and eastwards across the Western Pacific Ocean via Micronesia and Polynesia to the Line Islands. Except for its occurrence along the East African coast, it seems to be a primarily insular species, probably occurring around most or all of the islands of the tropical Indian and Western Pacific Oceans.<br/> <br/>* Contrary to Heemstra and Randall (1993), this species does occur around the coral reefs and islands of the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea off NE Australia (Zool. Cat. Aust., Vol 35, Fishes); www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishguide/15744.html).
132747		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> is a shallow water species (down to ~30 m depth) in insular coral reefs, where it occurs over lagoonal patch reefs, the upper slopes of channels, and reef margins (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent</strong><br/>In the Maldives, where it was one of the more common species observed during underwater visual census, it occurs primarily on rubble patches, mainly near their edges and adjacent to areas of high coral relief rather than out in the open (Sluka and Reichenbach 1996). Almost nothing is known about its biology, though it grows to a maximum total length of ~35 cm. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>In Pohnpei, the species was captured primarily by spear on the outer reef, although there was little difference in the percentage of the species captured between out and inner reef locales (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132747		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> is apparently relatively common throughout most of its range. Its population trend unknown, but is probably relatively stable.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoeps</em> represented 13.1% of the serranid catch by all combined gear types in Pohnpei in 2006 (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). It was the third most common grouper overall.
132747		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> does not appear to be threatened by overfishing, although the live food fish trade could pose a threat in the future, particularly if spawning aggregations are targeted.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>In the Maldives this species is captured in the live food fish trade, in which it is a common but not particularly important species. In this fishery it has a (nominal) annual export quota of 8000 individuals (Shakeel and Ahmed 1996, Sattar and Adam 2005). It is also listed as a "regulated species" in the Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan 2003 of the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (Australia), though it is considered to be relatively insignificant in this primarily Great Barrier Reef line fishery (www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishguide). It is no doubt also caught in local artisinal and subsistence fisheries throughout most or all of its range.
132748		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is protected by marine protected areas is some parts of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is no clear how much compliance there is in Tanzania and Mozambique. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers. There is no export quota in the Maldives.
132748		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging from Kenya, through Tanzania and Mozambique to South Africa (32°S), and east to the Watubela Group of the eastern Banda Sea. Longspine grouper are not known from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. Records from Fiji are likely <em>E. maculatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Indo-West Pacific: Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Eastern Cape (South Africa), Madagascar, Comoros, Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion, India (Myers distributional database 2006, Sluka and Lazarus unpub.), Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore (Myers distributional database 2006). Sourced from Heemstra and Randall (1993) unless otherwise stated. <br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean islands, west Indian coast (Myers distributional database 2006, Sluka and Lazarus in prep.), Sri Lanka and the smaller northern Indian Ocean islands (Andamans and Nicobars), east Burma Sea, Indonesia/Malaysia (Sumatra, Sunda shelf, Bali, excluding Iryan-Jaya (Myers distributional database 2006)).
132748		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits coral reefs or rocky areas and occasionally on sandy bottom at depths of  1 to 70 m. Attains 55 cm (Smith and Heemstra 1986). Heemstra and Randall (1993) report it to attain at least 46 cm SL, 2.7 kg.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Longspine grouper feed mainly on crustaceans, especially crabs and stomatopods, rarely on small fishes, squids, and pelecypod flesh. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Morgans (1964) reported the smallest obviously mature specimen to weigh 3.5 lb (1.59 kg), which, using the Fishbase length-weight (L-W) relationship for the similarly-proportioned <em>E. maculatus</em>, produces a TL estimate of 44 cm. He also reported “Nearly-ripe” fish in August and September. A reproductively ripe fish was obtained in January on the North Kenya Banks (Nzioka 1977). Morgans (1964) reported that stomachs were dominated by stomatopods and also fishes and cephalopods.
132748		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> does not appear to be abundant throughout much of its range, although Heemstra and Randall say it is not uncommon. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) did not record it during informal diving and angling surveys (8 to 45 m) on coral reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point, and yet no <em>E. longispinis</em> were observed. In a more formal survey, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) did not record this species in shallow (9 to 13 m) UVC surveys in these reserves between 1987 and 1992. Not reported in >130 shallow (<30m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Rarely recorded (six individuals of 1,278 groupers) in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Not recorded from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. data). Not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Also not reported in subsequent port monitoring of this fishery to 2005 (D. Gove, Director, Instituto de Investigaçao Pesqueira, pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Not recorded during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique (2000 to 2005; Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.) or trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1999 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is common. Morgans (1964) recorded 17 individuals (2.5% by no. to overall serranid catch) of this species in catches on the North Kenya Banks. Nzioka (1977) recorded catching a single specimen (reported as <em>E. fario</em>) on the North Keya Banks from 1974 to 1977 as part of a survey of reefs between Mafia Island (Tanzania) and the North Kenya Banks which caught 130 other serranid fishes. On the west coast of India, this species was only recorded at two of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.) Also reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other species. Joseph <em>et al.</em> (1987) (reported in James <em>et al.</em> 1996), stated that longspine grouper was one of five groupers that contributed to trawl catches on the south-east coast of India.
132748		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is overfishing, followed by loss of habitat, since episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). <br/><br/>Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004). Most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The majority of this is concentrated on shallower reefs, so most of this species’ habitat is exposed to small-scale fishing.
132749		conservation	eng	No specific actions for <em>Epinephelus stictus</em>, but there is currently a trawling ban off the coast of China to depths of 0 to 60 (to 100 m in some areas) (since circa 1950s) (Min pers. comm.).
132749		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is found in the Eastern Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, but known only from southern Japan, Hong Kong, Hainan Islands of China, Viet Nam, South China Sea, Java, and northwest Australia. There is a record from Taiwan (Katayama 1960), but that is dubious (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Australia (Western Australia), China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangdong–Hainan, Guangxi), Hong Kong, Indonesia (Java), Japan (Shikoku), Taiwan, Viet Nam.
132749		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is a demersal species that occurs over mud and sand substrata. It has a maximum size of 33.0 cm SL.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is caught by trawling at depths ranging from 37 to 142 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). In Hong Kong, it is trawled at depths ranging from 37 to 92 m (Chan 1968).
132749		population	eng	Although <em>Epinephelus stictus</em> was one of the most common species of grouper caught by trawlers in the vicinity of Hong Kong, Chan (1968) reported that it was not of much commercial importance. Small size and edible quality probably account for its low market value.
132749		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is overfishing, particularly from commercial trawl fishing.
132750		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
132750		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is an eastern Pacific species that occurs from Baja California (Mexico) to Peru, including the offshore islands of Cocos, Revillagigedo, and the Galápagos Islands. The range for this species has recently been extended northward to San Diego, California (USA) based on a previously overlooked museum specimen (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2006). Other anecdotal records also indicate that this species sparsely populates the Pacific coast of Baja California. It is present in the northern Gulf of California, reaching higher densities in the south.
132750		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits rocky reefs to at least 30 m. Adults are most abundant in shallow water and also occurs to a depth of at least 30 m.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is a solitary predator that seems to feed on smaller fishes by day and crustaceans after dark. Spawning occurs in late summer.<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Age and growth studies indicate a maximum age of 30 years (Craig <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Recent unpublished data confirms protogyny (B. Erisman pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Species does not appear to form aggregations in the Gulf of California (B. Erisman pers. comm.)
132750		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is a very common species throughout its range, especially common in the Galápagos Islands and off Mazatian and Puerto Vallarta (central Mexico).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery dependent</strong><br/>Anecdotal reports indicate that the species has not declined substantially in Loreto (Baja California). <br/><br/><strong>Genetics</strong><br/>Recent genetic survey indicates strong population connectivity throughout entire range.
132750		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is in subsistence, artisinal, sub-national fisheries, but it is currently not considered a major threat.
132751		conservation	eng	Some conservation measures are in place regionally for coral reefs (e.g., Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) and also for serranids (e.g., Pohnpei and Palau) that include marine protected areas, size limits prohibitions on SCUBA-based fishing, destructive fishing gears (Dynamite, poisons) and seasonal closures around reproductive periods, although none are specific for <em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em>. Population increases seen in areas following declaration of marine protected areas in North Caledonia (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997).
132751		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific and ranges from East Africa south to East London (South Africa) and east to Tonga. It is unknown from the Red Sea, but it does occur in the Persian Gulf. A record from northwestern Australia is doubtful. It is closely related to, and is often confused with, three other white-spotted species: <em>Epinephelus ongus</em>, <em>Epinephelus summana</em>, and <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Seychelles (Pittman 1996), Kuwait (Faraj and Al Tamimi 2003), Australia (Northern Territory, New South Wales, Queensland) (Pollard pers. comm.), Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004), Philippines (Russ and Alcala 1996), Thailand (Allen and Stone 2005), Myanmar (Heemstra and Randall 1993), Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003), Maldives (Sluka and Reichenbach 1996), New Caledonia (Wantiez and Thollot 2000), Indonesia (Allen pers. comm.) (including Irian Jaya, and all the major island groups), Fiji, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Pohnpei, Kosrae, Chuuk, Kapingamaringi, Ant), Wake Island, Bonin, Japan (Ryuku, Yaeyama, Kashiwa-jima, Ogasawara) (Myers distributional database 2006, Rhodes and Tupper 2007), Taiwan and Pecadores Islands (Kulbicki pers. comm.), Solomon Islands (Allen pers. comm.), Papua New Guinea (Allen pers. comm.), southern and eastern Africa, Madagascar, Réunion and Mauritius, Lakshadweep and western India, Sri Lanka, the Nicobar Islands, Vanuatu, Loyalty Islands, Gilbert Islands, and Tuvalu.
132751		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in rocky or coral-rich areas of deep lagoons, channels and outer reef slopes; usually in or near caves. It is often found in greater abundances on fringing and intermediate reefs relative to barrier reefs. Whitespotted grouper occurs along mid-shelf reef slopes (GBR) (Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997). Juveniles are found in mangroves and tide pools. In areas where populations assessments have been conducted, the species appears to be generally rare in most reef areas, but appears to prefer outer reef to lagoon areas. <em>E. coeruleopunctatus</em> is reported to be found in caves (among other reef habitats) along the Queensland portion of the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fish (10 to 15% of its diet) and crustaceans (up to 70% of its diet). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Although the species is fished through much of its range and there are possible indications of spawning aggregation formation and targeting by fisheries, no information is known of its reproductive biology or general life history, including size at sexual maturity, spawning method or size-age relationships.
132751		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> is a widespread and occasionally observed species, but never abundant. No information on population trends are available. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>There is little published information on its population status. The species forms part of artisanal, small-scale (e.g., Rhodes and Tupper 2007) and large-scale commercial fisheries in much of its range and is targeted by the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) (Sadovy and Liu 2006). It is considered of moderate value within the LRFFT relative to other groupers. In Mozambique, the species provides little to commercialo catch (Instituto de Investigao Pesquiera, Maputo). Rhodes and Tupper (2007) found that the species contributed 13.2% to overall catch volume (as weight) of serranids in Pohnpei (Micronesia), although it was rarely observed during a recent REA (Allen and Stone 2005). <em>E. coeruleopunctatus</em> was more common in catch from outside versus inside reef locales in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Indications of spawning aggregation formation were suggested (but not confirmed); targeting by the LRFFT in Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004) and possibly other locales where the fishery is active. In New Caledonia, represents only 0.6% of experimental catch (IRD database). Simiilar densities in Fiji and New Caledonia are reported (50 fish/sq km of reef). Low levels of catch in the line and trap fishery in Mozambique (FRI unpub. data). No males recorded in New Caledonia experimental fishing in mangrove areas and nearshore areas. Mangrove catch was dominated by juveniles (IRD database).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>During dive surveys, along sections of the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, abundances were relatively low in comparison to other serranids (Pears 2005); also in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands (Allen, unpub. data). Rare in the Seychelles and along the Great Barrier Reef (<1/1,000 m²) (Pears 2005).
132751		threats	eng	<strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Although <em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> appears to make up a relatively minor component of reef fisheries in areas surveyed and is widely distributed within the Indo-Pacific, the species appears vulnerable to overfishing. In areas where the LRFFT operates, spawning aggregations (if they form) may be vulnerable to extirpation, as shown for other aggregating serranids globally when aggregations are targeted. In other areas, the species may be considered vulnerable to overfishing, including by small-scale commercial fishers, such as those typical of developing islands (e.g. Pohnpei and Palau) (e.g., Rhodes and Tupper 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Habitat Loss</strong><br/>Although the species is found on coral reefs, the effects on populations of coral loss from climate change, pollution or reef destruction from physical forces is unknown. The species appears to prefer certain types of corals (branching or tabular forms). The species may also occur in silty areas associated with coral reefs. The species is on the "species of least concern" list for the Northern Territory, Australia.
132752		conservation	eng	None known.
132752		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus bilobatus</em> is an eastern Indian Ocean species known only from Western Australia (Port Wolcott 20°39'S to Yampi 16°08'S). It was illustrated in colour as <em>Epinephelus maculatus</em> by Allen (1985) and Sainsbury <em>et al.</em> (1985). This species has been much confused with other 'reticulated groupers' in the literature, and many museum specimens have been misidentified. G. Allen identified six individuals in Raja Ampat (Indonesia) in 2002 and 35 specimens in 2006 at Fak Fak-Kaimana (Irian Jaya).
132752		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus bilobatus</em> is an inshore, reef-associated species found on coral reefs or rocky bottom at depths from four to 50 m. There is no published information on its biology.
132752		population	eng	There are no known population data for <em>Epinephelus bilobatus</em>. It is possibly common in some areas, but rare in Western Australia.
132752		threats	eng	Its occurrence in areas of Indonesia suggests it is fished by small-scale commercial and subsistence fishers there, but the level of threat is unknown.
132753		conservation	eng	Fisheries regulations for <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> are in place for several countries within its range, but enforcement is probably weak. There are no protected area within its range.
132753		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is known from West coast of India to Yemen coast, but the range may be greater (Randall and Heemstra 1991). However, it does not occur in the Maldives (Anderson pers. comm. 31st Jan 2007).
132753		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is observed in 10 to 15 m quite frequently, although only along the southern Oman and eastern Yemen coast (J. Kemp pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fsheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is caught from 33 to 100 m in trawls (Randall and Heemstra 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent</strong><br/>Surveys conducted off Muscat using baited remote underwater videos showed their preferred habitat was small rocky outcrops in depths from 70 to 155 m, which is supported by traditional fishermen and recreational fishermen from Muscat (Gulf of Oman) who say the species is difficult to catch because it inhabits deep water (>80 m) and prefers rocky outcrops. In contrast <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is caught in large numbers in the Arabian Sea in >50 m water. "I think the deep water habitat, in which this species is found at locations in the Gulf of Oman, is difficult for fishermen to access, which may inadvertently be offering some refuge to overfishing". This is also suggested in the age structure of this species from the Gulf of Oman where there were many individuals >10 yrs of age, compared to the age structure of samples taken from the Arabian Sea where there were fewer fish >10 yrs, with the sample comprised primarily of 3 to 5 yr old individuals. Though it is also possible that greater fishing pressure in the Arabian Sea has truncated the age structure, removing the older/larger individuals (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex change parameters (sex ratio fished and unfished, size of sex change, type of hermphroditism, etc.): M:F – 1:5<br/>diandric protogynous hermaphroditism (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).
132753		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population status of <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is not well known through its range, in part due to misidentification as <em>E. chlorostigma</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>It is likely to be part of the 'perch' fishery of west India which has operated since the 1960s (James <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>“From monthly sampling at Dibba fish market in Musandam, northern Oman, from March 2004 to March 2005, we found <em>E. polylepis</em> accounted for only 1.4% (in abundance) of all grouper species landed. During the same period, monthly surveys from Muscat (central Oman) reveal <em>E. polylepis</em> accounted for 14% of the total number of grouper landed at the primary landing site at Muttrah” (J. McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>"This species along with <em>E. gabriellae</em> and <em>E. diacanthus</em> is one of the most commonly caught grouper by the Industrial fishery sector which operates foreign-owned and manned trawlers in the Arabian Sea. Unfortunately the Ministry of Fisheries, in compiling their official fisheries statistics, pool all serranid species into one category. In the past 10 yrs the total grouper catch across both the traditional and industrial sectors averages 3,200 t, which has been steadily increasing despite strong evidence from traditional fishermen that CPUE has declined significantly over the same period" (J. McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>UAE – stock assessment data may be available from Bruce Shallard Ltd. (Simon Wilson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Apparently common off Oman in the Arabian Sea (Bianchi 1987 pers. comm. Cited in Randall and Heemstra 1991, and J. Kemp pers. comm. 1st Feb 2007).
132753		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is primarily threatened by overfishing and it is taken by trawl, and probably handline. <br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>It is threatened by fishing pressure in the Arabian Sea coast of Oman, which is probably quite high and may have truncated the age structure of population compared with the lighter fishing pressure in the Gulf of Oman where fish are older (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007). Threats in the rest of its range not known.<br/><br/>In Oman there are no restrictions on the effort or numbers or size of <em>E. polylepis</em> in the traditional commercial fishing sector (mixed gear). But there is some effort control in the industrial trawl fishery in that only 13 boats are allowed to operate at any one time and there is a TAC quota allocated each year across all species. However there is evidence that this quota is regularly exceeded due to the lack of enforcement (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Traditional fishermen from Muscat (Gulf of Oman) rarely take this species because it is difficult to catch because it inhabits deep water (>80 m) and prefers rocky outcrops. Local recreational fishermen from Muscat target this species during fishing competitions (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>E. polylepis</em> is caught in large numbers in the Arabian Sea by both traditional and artisanal fishermen and by the industrial trawlers which operate in >50 m water (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).
132754		conservation	eng	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout it range.
132754		distribution	eng	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is distributed within the eastern Pacific and ranges from the northern Gulf of California (Mexico) to southern Peru, including the Galápagos Islands.
132754		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is a demersal, non-migratory species found in shallow water. Pacific Mutton Hamlet are a cryptically coloured, secretive species that inhabit seagrass and rocky reef areas. Individuals are sedentary during the day, hiding in crevices or lying among seaweed, and rely on their effective camouflage to escape detection. It sometimes partly covers itself with sand. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Pacific Mutton Hamlet are nocturnal predators that feed mainly on benthic crustaceans. <br/><br/><strong>Resilience</strong><br/>It is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation.
132754		population	eng	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is more common in north of its range and becomes less common in the southern extent of its range where <em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> becomes the more common of the two species. The species is not known to be in decline.
132754		threats	eng	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is not currently a target of the commercial fishery, but it is caught in the artisanal fishery.
132755		conservation	eng	None known, though this species may be present in marine protected areas in some parts of its range. Its capture is monitored under fisheries management plans in the Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia.
132755		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus radiatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species with spotty distribution from the Red Sea to Japan and Papua New Guinea (36 deg. N to 24 deg. S), southern Japan to northern Australia. In Japan, the species is referred to as <em>Epinephelus morrhua morrhua</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Red Sea (Saudi Arabia, Sudan (?), Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Yemen), Gulf of Oman (Oman, Iran (?)), Réunion, Mauritius, Chagos, Maldives (?), Sri Lanka, southeastern India, Burma (?), Hong Kong, Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan, eastern Papua New Guinea and Timor, and north-western Western Australia, the Northern Territory and north-eastern Queensland (?) in  northern Australia. Records from South Africa and Mozambique are unsubstantiated.
132755		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus radiatus</em> is a demersal species found over hard substrates at depths between 80 to 383 m, with juveniles in 18 to 20 m of water. The species is apparently rare. It is found over sandstone reefs in Sri Lanka and over coral reefs in the Maldives. The species occurs in large schools (~50 to 100 fish) on banks off India and Sri Lanka. The maximum recorded size is ~70 cm TL. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>This species is reportedly a protogynous hermaphrodite, although there is no histological evidence to support this claim.
132755		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population status of <em>Epinephelus radiatus</em> is unknown, but it is considered rare in at least parts of its range (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is apparently uncommon in deepwater, based on deep rover observations. It occurs in large schools (~50 to 100 fish) on banks off India and Sri Lanka, where large adults inhabit depths 80 to 160 m. Moderate interest to fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>In developing new fisheries off Queensland and Western Australia, Northern Territory deepwater dropline and trap, the species represents a minor component of catch. In Sri Lanka, it is quite common in deepwater longline and handline fishery around the island (Debruin <em>et al.</em> 1995).
132755		threats	eng	There are no currently known threats to any populations of <em>Epinephelus radiatus</em>, although aggregations (reproductive ?) may be being targeted by trawling in India and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/>This species was recently moved from the Data Deficient to the Least Concern list by the Northern Territory Government (Australia), as it was regarded as reasonably common in NT waters (www.nt.gov.au/rneta/wildlife/threatened/publicconsultation/pdf/fish_dd.pdf).<br/><br/>The species occurs in artisanal fisheries in Reunion (IFREMER).
132756		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is found in marine protected areas in parts of its range.
132756		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is an Indo-West Pacific insular species ranging from East Africa (excluding the Red Sea and Persian Gulf) to the Gilbert Islands and Samoa, north to the Ryukyu Islands (FishBase).
132756		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is a reef-associated species found in a variety of habitats. Juveniles (8 to 21 cm SL) have been taken from mud bottoms, seagrass beds, mangrove swamps, and from coral reefs in depths of 1 to 16 m; adults in coral reefs at depths of 18 to 180 m. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Stomach contents reported to include juvenile clappid crab, a stomatopod, and a gastropod (Morgans 1982).
132756		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is typically found in low densities. Fry <em>et al.</em> (2006) caught only four individuals (mean SL = 320 mm ±37; mean weight 835 ±258 g) in an undisturbed volcanic seamount reef, Lihir Island Group, Papua New Guinea.
132756		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is threatened by overfishing and is taken by subsistence and incidental fisheries. Destruction of habitats is also a concern, including loss of mangrove forests, trawling on bays (soft-bottom environment), reclamation of seagrass beds and sedimentation and fish-bombing on coral reefs.
132757		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Tomato hind occurs in numerous marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Africa</em><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is not clear how much compliance there is. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a strictly enforced 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Trans-boundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species.<br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.<br/><br/><em>Australia</em><br/>The species is protected by a size regulation in Queensland, with a maximum catch size of 38 cm TL (Fisheries Amendment Regulation No. 2 2003). <br/><br/>No other country-specific regulations for the species are known.
132757		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis sonnerati</em> is widespread within the Indo-Pacific, occurring from east coast of Africa (Djibouti and Socotra (Yemen) to Durban (South Africa)) to the Line Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to southern Queensland (Australia). It is not found at the Chagos Archipelago despite intensive surveys there. The species is not reported from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.
132757		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephelopholis sonnerati</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in deep lagoon reefs and steep outer reef slopes. It is encountered in coastal areas with rocky substrates. Juveniles are usually found near sponges or coral heads. Adults usually reside at moderate depths with bommies with large holes, usually occupied by cleaner shrimps.  Usually caught in depths of 30 to 100 m, but in Madagascar, it occurs in depths of 10 to 20 m; may occur in as little as 3 to 4 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Tomato hind feed on small fishes and crustaceans including shrimps, crabs and stomatopods (Morgans 1964). Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon (1976) report that 99% of the prey comprised crustaceans. <br/><br/><strong>Size, maturity and reproduction</strong><br/>The maximum recorded size is 57 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993), and one tomato hind of 4.8 kg was recoded from spearfishing (van der Elst 1993). Females mature at about 28 cm SL and males at about 34 cm SL. The smallest observed mature fish 32 cm (Maldives), theoretical length at first maturity 28.5 cm (Shakeel and Ahmed 1997). Morgans (1964) reported a mature fish of 2 lbs, which equates to a weight of 909 g and a length of 37 cm using the length-weight relationship below.<br/><br/>Ripe tomato hind were caught in April, May-June and November-December on the North Kenya Banks (Morgans 1964); ripe fish obtained in January and in October on the North Kenya Banks and/or off Mafia island, Tanzania (Nzioka 1979). Likely spawning aggregation identified at Waigeo, Eastern Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004). Length-weight relationship y g = 0.0145.x cm FL.3.058 (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>The sex ratio was 3:1 female-to-male in New Caledonia during experimental fishing trials, with the smallest mature female at 29.5 cm TL and the smallest mature male at 38 cm TL (IRD database).<br/><br/>There is evidence that this species forms spawning aggregations, which increases its vulnerability to over-fishing.<br/><br/>A congeneric, <em>C. boenak</em>, is protogynous with both primary and secondary males occurring (Liu and Sadovy 2004), and other congenerics exhibit gonads with both male and female tissue (Smith 1965), so it is possible that this species is also protogynous (although <em>C. sonnerati</em> attains a much larger size).
132757		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sonnerati</em> is a common species throughout its range. There are some indications of population declines due to fisheries in Japan, but no specific information elsewhere. Limited catch data is currently available although it is a widespread, commonly-caught species. Few aspects of their biology have been studied.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>One of the three commonest groupers caught off northern Somalia (Darar 1994). This species is the third most common grouper (n=108 individuals, 16% of groupers) caught on the North Kenya Banks in the late 1950s (Morgans 1964). Less common (n=11 of 130 groupers) in linefish catches in this region by the mid 1970s (Nzioka 1977). Initially it was the most commonly recorded grouper (60% of all groupers recorded; only percentages available; suspected biased sampling) (Fennessy unpub. data) in commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Subsequently (to 2005), its contribution to grouper catches fluctuated between 7 and 25% by number (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Seldom recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1998 (n=7 individuals of 1,304 groupers; Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Occasionally recorded (23 individuals of 1,278 groupers) in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute, 1988). Also occasionally recorded (74 individuals of 12,094 groupers) from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast (non-coral reefs) from 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy, unpub. Data). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is common. Reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec pers. comm., IFREMER) but lumped with several other species.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: data from Yaeyama Is. Fishing market (Ishigaki and Iriomote Island) of the southern part of Okinawa island sic. In 2005, this species contributed <1% to all grouper landings there; mostly caught by hook and line and spear.<br/><br/>Catches have declined by 50% in southern Japan, although catch-per-unit-effort has declined less markedly (Table 1). Catches from Mozambique and the Pacific show no obvious trend (Table 2 and 3 respectively). A substantial proportion of the catch is immature (Table 5).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery. By 2002, fishing effort (no. of fishing days) had declined by half to that in 1993, and, from 2000, boats started to increasingly fish further north and on deeper (to 190 m) reefs as catches on the southern reefs declined (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2003). Percentages are relative contributions to total catch (all species). Discrepancies between figures obtained for 2000/2001 cannot be explained.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: Catches (kg) of <em>C. sonnerati</em> from two localities in the Pacific (Choat unpub. data). American Samoa = boat sector, Guam = offshore sector. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: Densities (no. of fish/km²) of <em>C. sonnerat</em>i (Kulbicki unpub. data).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 5</strong>: Length frequencies of <em>C. sonnerati</em> from UVC in New Caledonia (1st row), caught by handline and longline from New Caledonia (2nd row) date? (Kulbicki unpub. data) and from hook and line/spear at Yaeyama Island, Japan (3rd row) in 2005 (Itaru Ohta, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries and Ocean Research Center Ishigaki Lab. unpub. data).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Few <em>Cephalopholis sonnerati</em> were seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern-eastern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000). Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira, 2003). In shallow (9 to 13 m) fixed transect UVC surveys in the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded only one individual out of 43 groupers. On the west coast of India, this species was recorded at two of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m), but at a low relative abundance compared to other groupers (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.). In Tonga and New Caledonia, this species ranked 17th (of 18 grouper species) and 23rd (of 32 grouper species) respectively in terms of densities on all reef types (Table 4). Incidental in Pohnpei fisheries (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Constitutes 3% of grouper catch in New Caledonia (Kulbicki pers. comm.). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Commonly encountered off northern Somalia, Kenya, southern Mozambique and eastern Madagascar. A likely spawning aggregation was identified at Waigeo, Eastern Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004).
132757		threats	eng	The primary threat to tomato hind is loss of habitat, since the species is reef associated. Episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/>Fishing is also a major threat to tomato hind, although most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale. Fishing, however, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Tomato hind are caught in the live reef fish trade (Lee and Sadovy, 1998). Based on length frequency data, most of the catch is immature. The species is a minor component of the coral reef fishery in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Tomato hind are targeted in Indonesia for local consumption, apparently from spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Liu 2004).
132758		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is found in some marine protected areas within its range, such as the fishing Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve, WA, Great Barrier Reef and World Heritage Area, Queensland, Australia.
132758		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is known from the Red Sea and the East African coast, east to the Pitcairn group, north to Ryukus (Japan), and to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south. There are records from China, (south China Sea), Taiwan, Australia, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, Kingman Reef) (B. Mundy pers. comm.). Museum records of the species are available from the Timor Sea, Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands (Kiribati), Papua New Guinea, and the Malay Archipelago (D. Pollard pers. comm.).
132758		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> prefers clear water areas on coral reefs; juveniles have been taken on reef flats and in tidepools and mangrove estuaries; adults are found in deeper waters up to 50 m. Along the Great Barrier Reef, Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997 found the species on outer reef slope. The maximum recorded size is 75 cm TL (61 cm SL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993), but there is one report of 107 cm TL in Lau and Li (2000) and another of 2 m in Huang (1994), that are likely misidentifications for the species. <em>E. tauvina</em> is probably solitary by nature. It is occasionally ciguatoxic. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feed on fishes mainly and sometimes crustaceans (Parrish 1987, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The spawning season in India is Oct-Feb; In Kuwait: April-July (questionable since no occur in the area, may be <em>E. coioides</em>). Some recent published data are questionable as a result of misidentifications of <em>E. coioides</em>, <em>E. malabaricus</em> and <em>E. lanceolatus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993), for example: Reproductive biology of <em>E. tauvina</em> in the Kuwaiti waters (Abu-Hakima 1987), in the Arabian gulf waters (El-Sayed 1999), and others.
132758		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Partly due to the taxonomic confusion with other groupers, there is no reliable data that show population declines for <em>Epinephelus tauvina</em>. The species is fairly common in lightly fished areas of Micronesia (Myers 1989). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Serranid catch, in general, declining in Sabah, but there is no species-specific data from this area for this species.<br/><br/>FAO catch data:<br/>From Malaysia: 1982 (90t), 1983 (226t); questionable since not distributed in the area.<br/>From Saudi Arabia:  2000 (958t), 2001 (1113 t) in 2002 (1173 t); in 2003 1992 t; in 2004 786<br/><br/>It appears in the Great Barrier Reef at 0.04 fish/1,000 m² (Pears 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Habitat</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is found more commonly in New Caledonia on the barrier reef than in fringing and intermediate reef, but in low densities (0.06 fish/1000 m sq) (IRD database). It is not common in Fiji, Tonga or French Polynesia.
132758		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is likely overfishing. It is caught by multiple gears, including hook-and-line, spear, and traps. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>This species is important to artisanal and recreational fisheries, and is found in the Live Reef Fish Trade (Lee and Sadovy 1998). It is a minor component of serranid catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). In southern Mozambique (Sean Fennessy pers. comm.), <em>E. tauvina</em> was one of the commercial important fishes caught by hook-and-line in 1993 to 2005.
132759		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> is not protected by area management within its range of occurrence except in the Dyminiyats Islands in the Gulf of Oman. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will be required in the future. There is effort control on number of fisher licenses in Oman.
132759		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> has a disjunct distribution. It is known with certainty only from the northern end of the Red Sea, and then occurs on the northern coast of Oman to the Arabian Gulf and coast of Pakistan. And there are recent records from Socotra (Yemen) and mainland Somalia. Records from elsewhere are apparently based on misidentifications of other species.
132759		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>In the Red Sea, <em>C. hemistiktos</em> is more often found on patchy open reef areas rather than on well developed coral reefs and occurs at depths ranging from 4 to at least 55 m. In Oman is abundant but patchily distributed on shallow coastal reefs. The greatest abundance is shown in central region (Muscat) with smaller number in the Arabian Gulf. In Oman on rocky reef substrata from 2 to 55 m. Abundant in the upwelling area of the Gulf of Oman despite local fishery. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>It is a diurnal, ambush predator feeding throughout the day on fishes (64%, mostly pomacentrids) and crustaceans (36%). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>C. hemistiktos</em> is a monogamous species and each pair jointly defends a common territory of up to 62 m² (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991).
132759		population	eng	Records from northern Oman show that <em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> is one of the most abundant species of <em>Cephalopholis</em> recorded, however, abundance in other parts of its range is unknown. The population structure and abundance patterns of this species in Oman are highly variable. <em>C. hemistiktos</em> is abundant in the Gulf of Oman extending north beyond Musandam into the Arabian Gulf. To the south abundance drops sharply and this species is absent from reefs of the Arabian sea south of Ras al Hadd (McIlwain pers comm.).
132759		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threats to <em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> are habitat loss and overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>The yellowfin hind is not as heavily fished as larger co-occurring groupers at present, but as these larger species decline and are no longer economically viable to target, it is expected that this species will become more of a focus of the fisheries. It is heavily fished by line and trapping on central Oman coast. Weekly sampling in the Muttrah market from March 2004 to March 2005 revealed <em>C. hemistiktos</em> as the most abundant grouper, accounting for 34% of all grouper that were measured (by numbers). During the same time period, sampling the landings at Dibba in Musandam found that <em>C. hemistiktos</em> accounted for 16% of the total grouper landings. Logbooks filled out by Omani traditional fishermen from Barka (35 km north of Muscat) suggests <em>C. hemistiktos</em> accounts for 7.5% of the total catch (all fish species combined) and 42% of grouper species. <br/><br/>Not necessarily targeted in Musandam, but are caught as by-catch in traps that are set around reefs. This species is not targeted or caught by the Industrial trawl fishery which operates in the Arabian Sea where <em>C. hemistiktos</em> does not occur (J. McIlwain pers. comm.).
132760		conservation	eng	The current conservation status of <em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is unknown, although it possibly occurs in some small marine protected areas in Bali and Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka reports suggest poor management of marine protected areas (M. Samoilys pers. comm.).
132760		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is found in the eastern Indian Ocean from southern India, Sri Lanka, southern Indonesia (Bali, Lombok) and Cocos-Keeling Islands. However, it is likely that its distribution is continuous from Pakistan to Indonesia. The record from the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory) is based on <em>Epinephelus macrospilos</em>.
132760		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in shallow waters (1 to 125 m) over coral reefs or rocky substrate. It appears to be a small species. In southern India, it is found in inshore rocky reefs, silty reefs covered in algae and sponges (Sluka and Lazarus in press).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>A 17 cm SL fish from Sri Lanka had fairly well-developed ovaries.
132760		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>There is no information on population trends for <em>Epinephelus faveatus</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Density estimates from western India (seven localities) showed it to be the second-most common grouper.
132760		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is of little interest to fisheries in Sri Lanka; elsewhere it may occur in catch, but is probably recorded as a mis-identified species within a 9-species complex of reticulated serranids.
132761		conservation	eng	There are a few protected areas in the graysby's range. The establishment of MPAs in areas of complex reef habitat and that reduce fishing pressure on this and other small serranids are recommended.
132761		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis cruentata</em> is found in the North Atlantic and within the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles), Trinidad, Gulf of Mexico, USA (North Carolina to southern Florida), Bahamas and Bermuda. There are unsubstantiated records from Brazil, but no specimens or photographs from there.
132761		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cruentata</em> is found in <em>Thalassia</em> beds and on coral reefs from shore to depths of 170 m. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, it occurs on the rocky reef ledge in depths greater than 27 m. It is strongly associated with its habitat and is susceptible to habitat degradation. Graysby are small, secretive fish that usually stay near hiding places in the reef during the day. <br/><br/><strong>Age, growth and reproduction</strong><br/>Nagelkerken (1979) found that at the end of their first year; graysby were 8 cm long (standard length) and had formed seven growth rings in their otoliths. Females mature at 16 cm (total length) and most change sex between 20 and 23 cm (ages four and five), with sexual transition occurring immediately after spawning in August and September.<br/> <br/>The observations on protogyny by Nagelkerken (1979) and Potts and Manooch (1999) confirm the suggestions of  (Thompson and Munro 1983) but a more detailed histological analysis is required to confirm sexual pattern. Thompson and Munro (1978) estimated the number of eggs per spawning at 262 to 604 for a fish of 29 cm total length. Hawkins <em>et al.</em> (in press) estimated size at first female maturity for the St Lucia population at 16 cm FL with 100% maturity at 26 cm FL with only 12% of the trapped sample being immature females.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>They are crepuscular predators, and adults feed mainly on fishes, with a preference for <em>Chromis multilineata</em> where this species is abundant (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Home range and movement</strong><br/>Tagging with acoustic transmitters in St. Lucia (Popple and Hunte 2005) showed that this species had a mean home range of 2,120 m² and showed a clear preference for areas with high levels of reef complexity.
132761		population	eng	<strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Abundance data from Curacoa (Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> 2005) shows that <em>Cephalopholis cruentata</em> was moderately abundant on reef slopes with peak abundances ranging from 10.5 to 11.7 per 1,000 m² during two widely separated sampling periods 1973 and 2003. The authors detected no major time-associated trends in abundance over the three-decade time period despite a 58% reduction in hard coral cover and continuous fishing activity. However, the depth distributions at which peak abundances occurred shifted downwards from 9 m in 1973 to 20 to 27 m in 2003.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: results of comparisons of demography and size structure of five Caribbean populations of graysby (K. Ranatunga, PhD data) subject to heavy (Barbados, Belize), moderate (Curacao), light (Las Aves), and full protection (Los Roques) lying within the same latitudinal stratum.<br/><br/>The most consistent feature is the association of reduced maximum age and size and higher mortality rates with increased fishing. Although this species is not a major commercial target, artisanal trap and line fishing at a number of sites appear to be impacting on fished populations.<br/><br/>A comprehensive size-based earlier study on tropical Atlantic serranids (Thompson and Munro 1983)  demonstrated the that graysby was a relatively minor element of the serranid catch in the intensively fished areas around Jamaica in the 1970s. The data on sex and size distributions suggested protogyny with a sex ratio strongly biased toward females (1:6) which the authors suggest reflects intensive fishing on larger individuals in the Port Royal area. Modal sizes for catches in the vicinity of Jamaica were 20 to 24 cm FL. This was low compared to recent samples (Ranatrunga 2006). However, the main findings of Thompson and Munro (1983) were that samples of this species were very small compared to most of the other exploited serranids in the locality suggesting that this species is relatively rare and has never been a targeted species in the serranid commercial fisheries of the Caribbean.
132761		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threats to graybsy appear to be overfishing and habitat loss and degradation.<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Although graysby are heavily fished over much of its range at present, this appears to be having little impact on the population. However, if this threat increases, it will presumably have a significant effect in the future.<br/><br/>This species is the subject of a minor fishery in Florida waters with a high proportion of catches being released (Harper <em>et al.</em> 2000). Thompson and Munro (1983) have provided catch statistics of this and a number of other Caribbean groupers.<br/><br/>In Curacao, this is a commercially important species that constitutes 11% of the reef fish catch (Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> 2005). Gobert <em>et al.</em> (2005) show that while <em>C. cruentata</em> had a long history in the Honduran line, trap and spear fishery, it made up only a small proportion of the total reef fish catch in 1999 which confirms that it is not a highly targeted fishery species in most localities.<br/><br/>The recent evidence suggests some impacts of artisinal fisheries in Barbados and Belize although the impacts of these fisheries need to be evaluated through abundance estimates, as was done for the Curacao population (Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Fishery records (Thompson and Munro 1983, Harper <em>et al.</em> 2000) suggest low catch rates reflect small size and relatively low abundance. However Potts and Manooch (1999) point to increasing catch rates, Harper <em>et al. </em>(2000) confirm that although this species is taken in the Florida recreational fishery the numbers are small with a high proportion of releases.<br/><br/>The most definitive fishery data is provided by Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> (2005). Despite that this species was the target of a commercial fishery in Curacao and constituted 11% of the reef fish catch there were no significant changes in abundance over a 30 yr period although the population shifted to deeper habitats.<br/><br/>Hawkins <em>et al.</em> (in press) have shown that while <em>C. cruentata</em> represents about 2 to 3% of the reef fish population in St. Lucia (light fishing) and Jamaica (heavily fished) they were not considered to be highly “trappable” at either locality when compared to taxa such as haemulids and lutjanids.
132762		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, although it occurs in a few protected areas in the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>More data on fishing pressure as well as population are needed across its range.
132762		conservation	eng	Nothing specific for <em>Epinephelus costae</em>, although it occurs in a few protected areas in the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>More data on fishing pressure as well as population are needed across its range.
132762		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus costae</em> is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal south to central coastal Angola, including the Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands as well as the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Records of <em>Epinephelus alexandrinus</em> from Madeira (Portugal) are apparently based on misidentifications of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>.
132762		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus costae</em> is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal south to central coastal Angola, including the Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands as well as the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Albania, Italy, France, Spain, Malta, Portugal, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Canary Ilands (Spain), Cape Verde Islands, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and Angola. Records of <em>Epinephelus alexandrinus</em> from Madeira (Portugal) are apparently based on misidentifications of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>.
132762		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus costae</em> is a demersal species found on sand, mud or rock bottoms at 20 to 80 m. Juveniles form small groups.  This species feeds on crustaceans, molluscs, and fish and does not adapt well in aquaria. <br/><br/>Total fecundity for a female of 47 cm standard length was estimated to be 879,000 eggs. This species migrates annually to the same site to spawn.<br/><br/>Eggs and larvae have been reared in laboratory in Croatia and there is an attempt to start large-scale aquaculture.
132762		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus costae</em> is a demersal species found on sand, mud or rock bottoms 20 to 80. Juveniles form small groups.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on crustaceans, mollusks, and fish. Does not adapt well in aquariums. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Total fecundity for a female of 47 cm standard length was estimated to be 879,000 eggs. Migrates annually to the same site.<br/><br/><strong>Aquaculture</strong><br/>Eggs and larvae have been reared in laboratory in Croatia and there is an attempt to start large-scale aquaculture (Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> 2005).
132762		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus costae</em> is (or was in the 1970s) evidently fairly common in the Mediterranean and tropical west coast of Africa (Seret 1981). It is also reported as abundant in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands.
132762		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest potential threat to <em>Epinephelus costae</em> is overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus costae</em> is caught by large and small scale fisheries in Turkey and may be caught incidentally in other fisheries such as trawling, but this need to be confirmed.
132762		threats	eng	The greatest potential threat to <em>Epinephelus costae</em> is overfishing. It is caught by large and small scale fisheries in Turkey and may be caught incidentally in other fisheries such as trawling, but this need to be confirmed.
132763		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em>, although it occurs within marine protected areas within its range. There are size and bag limits for serranids within the Great Barrier Reef (northern Queensland).
132763		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> is a western Pacific species that is found in Thailand, Hong Kong, and Taiwan to Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales), and eastward to the Solomon and Mariana Islands, including Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Christmas Island, Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, and Palau. Possibly it also occurs in Timor. It occurs occasionally in northern New Caledonia (Allen in press). Adults are often misidentified as <em>Epinephelus macrospilos</em>.
132763		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> is a reef-associated species common in shallow silty reefs, sometimes in estuarine areas, but also found on clear outer reef slopes. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The ovary was well developed in an examined fish of 30 cm SL.
132763		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Nothing is known about the population of <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> within its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Less than 1% of the catch in the Pohnpei fishery (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Low abundance within marine protected areas in Sabah (Cabanban pers. comm.).
132763		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> is overfishing by the life reef food fish trade and small-scale commercial fishers. Global warming may affect coral reef habitat, providing a second level of threat.
132764		conservation	eng	Mutton hamlet occur in several protected areas throughout its range.
132764		distribution	eng	<em>Alphestes afer</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic from Bermuda, south Florida (USA), Bahamas, Cuba, West Indies, Panama, Venezuela, and southward to the state of Sao Paulo (Brazil), and in the eastern Atlantic in the Gulf of Guinea, western Africa.
132764		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>A. afer</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species with a depth range of 2 to 30 m. Mutton hamlet are solitary and typically occur in seagrass habitats. The species is sedentary during the day, hiding in crevices or lying among seaweed, sometimes partly covering itself with sand while lying on its side.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Nocturnal feeders of benthic crustaceans. Piscivorous, invertivorous (small fishes and crustaceans) (Randall and Bishop 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Mutton hamlets are sequential hermaphrodites (Randall and Bishop 2004). Thompson and Munro (1983) estimated the number of eggs in four females to range from 157,512 to 223,706 per fish.
132764		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The genus <em>Alphestes</em> was represented by a single species in the eastern Atlantic (Rocha and Costa 1999). In the tropical western Atlantic it has been synonymized with <em>Alphestes galapagensis</em> (Fowler), <em>Alphestes fasciatus</em> (Hildebrand), and <em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> (Breder).<br/><br/>Recently, genetic studies have confirmed specimens of <em>A. afer</em> occurring in the eastern Atlantic (Gulf of Guinea, western Africa). Thus, <em>A. afer</em> was re-described and its amphi-Atlantic distribution has been confirmed (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The species is common along the coast of Brazil, although it is not a main target of any fishery. Mutton hamlet are caught by spear, line and traps along the northeastern coast as by-catch and for personal consumption (unpublished data from Brazilian Institute of Environment, P. Lins pers. comm.). It is uncommon in samples from the Paraná Coast, south of Brazil (Spach <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Mutton hamlet are targeted or landed as by-catch in Bermuda (Luckhurst 1996) and Martinique (Gobert 1991, Gobert 1996, Reynal <em>et al.</em> in press), but not in Honduras (Goberta <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is scarce along St. Croix’s northeast coast with 13 individuals recorded by visual census (Mateo and Tobias 2001). It is also scarce in fisheries samples in Martinique (Gorbet 1990). When an artificial reef was built in a seagrass bed in the Virgin Islands, <em>A. afer</em> became the principal serranid fish which colonized it, with individual mutton hamlets moving in as adults from the adjacent seagrass bed (Randall and Bishop 2004).<br/><br/>According to data from the SCORE-Central/REVIZEE Program, <em>A. afer</em> is uncommon in fisheries between Cabo São Tomé (Rio de Janeiro State) and Salvador (Bahia State) (Brazil) (Rocha and Costa 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Recorded by visual census in West Indies coast (Bouchon-Navaroa <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Genetics</strong><br/>Species of <em>Alphestes</em> (Bloch and Schneider) in the eastern Pacific are sister taxa indicating post-closure speciation (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2004).
132764		threats	eng	Mutton hamlet are caught as part of a mixed catch fishery by artisanal fisheries (especially trap fisheries) in several locations within its distributional range.
132765		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus goreensis</span> is not subject to any conservation measures and there is no protected area in its range.
132765		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus goreensis</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that is distributed from Mauritania and Senegal to southern Angola, including Cape Verde and islands of the Gulf of Guinea (Maigret and Ly 1986, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.
132765		habitat	eng	Epinephelus goreensis is reported to occur from a variety of habitats (rock, mud and sand). The adults live in relatively deeper waters (Maigret and Ly 1986). Little is known about its biology.
132765		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>There is little or no information available for <em>Epinephelus goreensis</em> on its population status, biology or fisheries history.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The only information available is catch data for Sierra Leone (in tonnes) from FAO fisheries statistics (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Annual catch statistics from Sierra Leone.
132765		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus goreensis</em> is overfishing. It is fished along the coast of Africa but fishery data are lacking. Habitat loss is unlikely to be a threat because of its preference to deep waters.
132766		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is present in MPAs in numerous countries of its range, in particular Australia, New Caledonia, Maldives, La Réunion, Seychelles and in South Africa (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993).
132766		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is widespread from South Africa to the Marquesas (French Polynesia), north to the Ryuku Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Japan), and south to New Caledonia.<br/> <br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>American Samoa; Australia (all Queensland; Western Australia; Scotts Reef, Rowley Showls; Northern Territories); Chagos Is.; China Main (Hong Kong; Spratleys; Hainan; Fujian); Chagos (Diego Garcia); Cocos Is; Comoros; Fiji; Federated States Micronesia; India (Kerala; Lakshadweep Islands); Indonesia (Sumatra; Java; Bali; Flores); Japan (Ryukyu; Ogasawara Is.); Kenya; Kiribati; Line islands (Jarvis; Kiribati; Fanning); Madagascar; Malaysia; Maldives; Marquesas Is; Marshall Is; Mauritius; Micronesia; Mozambique; Myanmar; New Caledonia (main island; Loyalty Is.; Chesterfield); Palau; Papua N Guinea; Philippines; Réunion (also Europe Is.; Rodrígues); Samoa; Seychelles; Solomon Is.; South Africa;  Sri Lanka; Taiwan (Taiwan; Pescadores); Tanzania; Thailand; Tonga; Vanuatu; Vietnam.++++++++
132766		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> occurs on coral reefs, including outer reef slopes to 44 m. May have ciguatera in part of its range (e.g., New Caledonia). The species has a maximum size of 52 cm TL.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on crabs, with fish less than 20% of its diet.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Nothing is described for the reproduction of this species. Size at first maturity was found to be 340 mm (female) in New Caledonia, but probably matures at a smaller size.
132766		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is typically not abundant but usually found in a number of coral reef habitats, including bommies. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>During UVC in the Pacific, observed densities vary considerably from one island to the next: New Caledonia 138 fish/km² of reef; Fiji 8 fish/km²; Tonga 50 fish/km²; Great Barrier Reef 10 fish/km². Within a country densities may vary amongst reef types, with the highest densities being observed on barrier reefs.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>New Caledonia: 1.8% of caught Epinephelinae; 2% in numbers and 0.5% in weight of experimental catch for groupers in New Caledonia.
132766		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is targeted by the live reef food fish trade in the Maldives (Sattar and Adam 2005), but otherwise is typically part of the subsistence and small-scale commercial fishery throughout its range. The species occurs within shallow reef habitats  susceptible to habitat destruction and bleaching.
132767		conservation	eng	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> occurs in a few protected areas in its range.
132767		distribution	eng	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is an eastern Pacific species distributed from southern California (USA) to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo and Galápagos Islands, Cocos Island, and Clipperton Island.
132767		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is a reef-associated species inhabiting rocky reefs in mostly shallow water, but not found in sandy bottom or mud. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>D. dermatolepis</em> is a diurnal predator that feeds on small benthic fishes and occasionally on crustaceans. It often uses browsing herbivorous fishes as a moving blind in order to feed on the cryptic fauna disturbed by these browsers; it will also follow foraging moray eels to catch the fishes frightened from their hiding places. Small juveniles have been seen hiding among the long spines of the dark-colored sea urchin, <em>Centrostephanus coronatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>D. dermatolepis</em> forms spawning aggregation in limited number, approximately 40 to 50 individuals.<br/><br/><strong>Juvenile life history</strong><br/>Juveniles live among sea urchin spines.
132767		population	eng	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is locally abundant throughout its range, albeit patchily distributed.
132767		threats	eng	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is recreationally targeted and incidentally caught along with other grouper species, but this is apparently not at a level currently constituting a major threat. If spawning aggregations were targeted in the future, this could represent a major threat, particularly given the small size of the aggregations.
132768		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus trophis</em> is not known to occur in any protected areas
132768		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus trophis</em> is known only from Dillon Shoals (~11°S, ~125°E) in the Timor Sea off northwest Western Australia.
132768		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of its biology or ecology. Only two specimens have been collected, in tropical waters from the base of an oil rig at ~130 m depth, substrate unspecified. The maximum size of the specimens collected was 15 cm TL (12.6 cm SL).
132768		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus trophis</em> is known only from two specimens.
132768		threats	eng	None known, although its apparently rarity and limited distribution may be of concern if fishing in its distributional range should increase.
132769		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> is probably found in some marine protected areas within its range (e.g., Philippines and Hong Kong).
132769		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> is a coastal species in the western Pacific from southern Japan to Taiwan, including mainland China, Philippines, Viet Nam, Hong Kong, Hainan and Sarawak (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132769		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> occurs in shallow rocky areas of bedrock and boulders at 15 to 20 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes, prawns, crabs, worms and gastropods (Chan 1968).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Minimum age at sex change two years (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1980b).
132769		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> was one of the most common nearshore fishes in the 1960s in Hong Kong waters, now only moderately abundant in local markets (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
132769		threats	eng	Although <em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> is a small species, it is important in trawl, gill net and hook and line fisheries in Hong Kong and Taiwan because it is a favoured and valuable food fish (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132770		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is present in coral reef protected areas in the Greater Caribbean and Florida and regulated by fisheries in Bermuda and US Caribbean.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>In 2004, Puerto Rico’s Department of Natural Resources passed a new fisheries regulation to prohibit the take of <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> during its spawning season (December 1st to February 28 of each year), throughout the waters of Puerto Rico (up to 9 nautical miles from shore). This eliminated the site specific protection of the known spawning areas that had already been enforced for some time. Outside the 9 nautical miles (EEZ) the federal government (NOAA) has designated a ban on the take of <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em>. The enforcement and implementation of the new regulations has been low (Michelle T. Schärer, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations of <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> are protected in St. Thomas (US Virgin Islands), and there are signs that the species is recovering in this area, including an increase in average size of fishes (Nemeth 2005).
132770		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is a western Atlantic species that ranges from North Carolina (USA) to Venezuela. The red hind is the most common species of <em>Epinephelus</em> in the West Indies and also occurs in the Bahamas, Antilles, and the Central and South American coasts. There are a few records for Brazil, but those are not confirmed, and there are no voucher specimens or photographs of this species south of Venezuela (Moura and Menezes 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherland Antilles, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, British Virgin Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, USA, and Venezuela (www.fishbase.org, Cervigon 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Smith 1997).
132770		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is a reef-associated species found in shallow reefs and rocky bottoms. Important in terms of numbers caught and total weight of landings in the Caribbean. Easily approached by divers. Excellent food fish.  Readily caught on hook and line and easily speared. Faster growing and shorter-lived than most groupers in the Gulf of Mexico (Potts and Manooch 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on crabs (<em>Calapa</em> and <em>Mithrax</em>) and other crustaceans (alpheid shrimps and scyllarid lobsters), fishes (labrids and haemulids), and octopus.  <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Red hind are usually solitary but seasonally aggregate to spawn. Some undergo sexual inversion at 28 cm TL; most fish larger than 40 cm are males. Females rest on or close to the bottom, while males patrol around an area that consists of one to five females and defend this territory from other males.<br/><br/>Protogynous hermaphrodite species that produces pelagic eggs and larvae. Eggs hatch in 27 hours in lab (Colin <em>et al.</em> 1987). Females rest on or close to the bottom, while males patrol around an area that consists of one to five females and defend this territory from other males. Form aggregations and reproduce almost exclusively within the aggregation period (Shapiro <em>et al.</em> 1993). Reproduces from December to April in the Caribbean and from May to July in Bermuda.<br/><br/>Known spawning aggregations in Puerto Rico:<br/>1. Bajo de Sico, Mayagüez<br/>2. Abril la Sierra, Cabo Rojo<br/>3. Bajo Tourmaline, Mayagüez<br/>4. El Hoyo, La Mella and La Laja, Lajas<br/>5. Mona Island<br/>6. Grappler Bank, Guayama<br/><br/>Largest fish collected in Puerto Rico, 42 cm TL (Mona Island).
132770		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is one of the most common species of <em>Epinephelus</em> in the West Indies.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>The primary data comes from the Caribbean Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program (SEAMAP-C), a fisheries-independent sampling program that targets the western insular platform of Puerto Rico and collects data on standardized catch rates and fish sizes throughout the year. Fishery-independent data trends showed annual progressive decreases in average catch per unit effort (CPUE), and average lengths of males and females, in both protected and unprotected areas prior to the enactment of seasonal closures. A small increase in annual average CPUE occurred in both regions soon after the enactment of closures, but was followed by continual low values. Initially there were no significant differences in annual average lengths, by sex, prior to and following the enactment of seasonal closures, but significant increases were observed during 2004 to 2006 (A. Marshak MS thesis).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><br/><strong>Table 1</strong>:  Red Hind Average Catch per Unit Effort and Standard Error per year for the total sampled west coast of Puerto Rico, and the three protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Table 2</strong>:  Red Hind Average Catch per Unit Effort and Standard Error per annual spawning period (Dec-Mar) for the total sampled west coast of Puerto Rico, and the three protected areas.
132770		threats	eng	In Puerto Rico (and many other islands across the Caribbean), <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is threatened by the destruction of coastal habitats (mainly coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and lagoon habitats) by dredges, coastal fill projects and the impacts associated with high-density residential and industrial development of the coastline (water pollution, thermal pollution, increased sedimentation, etc.). Commercial and recreational fisheries target <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> with SCUBA with speargun, hook and line, fish traps and nets. Much effort towards red hind is expanded during the reproductive season of the species (Dec. to Feb.) despite local regulations. Other fishing gear such as traps and nets that do not target red hind may take them incidentally.
132771		conservation	eng	As there is little information on the population or status of <em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em>, no conservation measures are recommended or currently in place. Additional quantitative information on the landings, abundance and wild status of this deep-water species will be of conservation value.
132771		distribution	eng	<em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> is a western Atlantic species found from areas off North Carolina (pelagic post-larva, possibly drifted north from Florida or the Bahamas) to the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and south to Vitoria, Brazil, Trindade Island.
132771		habitat	eng	<em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> is a demersal, solitary species reported predominantly from sandy bottoms, although it may also occur in rocky habitats. No available is information on its biology.
132771		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> this species is relatively rare in commercial fisheries within its narrowly-distributed range (Beatrice Ferreira pers. comm.) (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). Most records of this species are found within the Caribbean (Rhode <em>et al.</em> 1995). The rarity of this species may be resulted from the deep-dwelling habit. The true abundance remains unclear.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>Quantitative fishery information is completely lacking within its range of distribution but qualitative information suggests that this species is rare in commercial fisheries within the region (Matthew Craig pers. comm., Beatrice Ferreira pers. comm.). Records from various studies also suggest rarity of this species in Trindale Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001) and coast of Jamaica (Thompson and Munro 1978). Except for occasional deep trawl and hand-line specimens, this species has been rarely caught (Rhode <em>et al.</em> 1995, Matthew Craig pers. comm.). This relatively rare and small species (300 mm TL) is not considered important as a food fish (Heemstra and Randall 1993). However, due to the beautiful body pattern and colour, it is potentially more valuable as aquarium fish (Froese and Pauly 2006). Information in this aspect is lacking, but any attempt to keep this fish alive in aquarium would be difficult as this fish is rarely caught and its deep-dwelling habit makes aquarium unlikely to be a suitable environment for this species.
132771		threats	eng	Available qualitative information suggests that <em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> is currently under relatively low fishing pressure within its relatively narrow range of distribution. Fishing pressure from the aquarium trade is unlikely to be large, although information is lacking.
132772		conservation	eng	Available information suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> has not been recorded within marine reserve in South Africa and Mozambique (reported from dive surveys from 1987 to 1992) (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993; Chater <em>et al.</em> 1995). Information from other regions is lacking. There is no known specific fishery regulation or management on this species.
132772		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging west to Somalia and South Africa, to China, Korea and Japan, south to Australia and New Zealand and east to the Marquesas. No information on important sites, areas of occupancy nor extent of occurrence (except for the distribution map) is available.
132772		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> favors deep (150 to 300 m) rocky reefs (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is reported to have a maximum life span to 56 years (FAO 2003).
132772		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> is a rare species throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Quantitative fishery data are lacking as catches of this species are probably lumped with other groupers) (Sean Fennessy pers. comm.). Qualitative information suggests that this species could be found along the whole northwest coast of Australia and one specimen weighing 66 kg was caught in Scott Reef from 200 m depth (John Choat pers. comm.). Quantitative data suggest that medium amounts of this species are landed annually in Western Australia, and the quantity is increasing, from 5,800 kg in 2001 to 72,100 kg in 2005 (Mark Cliff pers. comm.). Direct estimation of CPUE using available information on the number of vessel involved in such fisheries reveals a four times increase in CPUE during the period, from 322 kg/vessel (2001) to 1,441 kg/vessel (2005) (vessel irrespective of type). The landings of this species in Guam from 1998 to 2002 fluctuated bi-annually, but dramatically increased form 3 kg in 1992 to 1,530 kg in 1994 (annual mean: 392 kg) (data provided from Sea Around Us Project). Its true abundance may be overlooked due to its preference to live in relatively deeper water (150 to 300 m) (Froese and Pauly 2006), leading to decreased encounter rate from underwater survey and most shallow-waters fisheries.
132772		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> is primarily threatened from the commercial (also likely by recreational) fisheries. The magnitude of the fishing pressure is not clear within the range of distribution but its scale of fishery is likely to be relatively small (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Quantitative information is lacking for evaluating its importance and involvement into fisheries within its range of distribution.
132773		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> occurs in marine protected areas within its range. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is no clear how much compliance there is. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. May not be retained in South Africa (since 1992) and by recreational fishers in Mozambique (since 1999). Australia: Western Australia and Queensland: totally protected.
132773		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is a widely distributed Indo-Pacific species. It can be found in the Red Sea, Pakistan, southern Oman, Somalia (Myers distributional database 2006, Mann and Fielding 2000), Socotra (Yemen), Kenya, Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), some western Indian Ocean islands (Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion (last two: Myers distributional database 2006)), west coast of India (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.), Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Flores and Bali -Nusa Penida, Solomon Islands, excluding Irian-Jaya (Myers distributional database 2006), the northwest Australian shelf, Great Barrier Reef, Christmas Island, Coral Sea, Osprey Reef, Papua New Guinea (Myers distributional database 2006), Taiwan, southern Japan, Paracel Islands, Pratas Reef, and the East African coast from the Red Sea south to Aliwal Shoal 30°S (South Africa) (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).
132773		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is a reef-associated species mainly found in deep reef channels and seamounts, in current prone areas. Juveniles may be found in tide pools. Considered to be exceedingly territorial and very aggressive towards intruders.  Vulnerable to spear fishers.  Hand fed by divers in certain areas, but potentially dangerous to the inexperienced. Prefers coral reefs, although also occurs on non-coral reefs at depths of 10 to 150 m (Heemstra and Randall 1986); museum specimens collected from 3 m depth on the GBR (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002), occasionally to depths of 400 m (QFS 2000, reported in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). An aggressive species (van der Elst 1993), easily approached particularly on reefs which are protected from fishing.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on reef fishes, skates, crabs, and spiny lobsters.<br/><br/><strong>Growth and Reproduction</strong><br/>Maximum size 150 cm TL, 90 kg (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004); Lieske and Myers (1994) indicate a maximum length of 200 cm (110 kg). Yeh <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported inducing protogynous sex change in captive specimens. Matures at about 90 cm (Morgan, 1982); 90 cm TL/16 kg (Yeh <em>et al.</em> 2003); Lau and Li (2000) report maturity at 99 cm TL. Length weight relationship y(kg) = 1.0-5.xTL cm 3.07. A slow-growing species: von Bertalanffy parameters k 0.13 yr<sup>-1</sup>, Linf 114.9 cm (t<sub>0</sub> assumed to be zero), natural mortality 0.13 yr<sup>-1</sup> (Grandcourt 2005). Ripe fish obtained in February, October and December on the central East African coast (North Kenya Banks and Mafia island; Nzioka 1977).
132773		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is not a common species where fishing is known to occur, but may be more common in unfished areas. The species is patchy over its range and highly localized. Very rare in Japan (Dr. A. Ebisawa, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries and Ocean Research Center pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Potato grouper are classified as rare (based on density estimates) on the GBR (Pears 2005). Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) recorded it as common during informal diving and angling surveys (8 to 45 m) on coral reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point. In a more formal survey, in shallow (9 to 13 m) UVC surveys in these reserves between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded densities of this species which were higher than any other serranid. Attraction to divers cannot be ruled out however. On the west coast of India, this species was recorded at six of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m), but at a low relative abundance compared to other groupers (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.). Few seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Juveniles are relatively common (20% of all grouper caught from the shore by researchers, n=108 of 546 groupers) from the shore in the St Lucia/Maputaland marine reserves in South Africa 2000 to 2005; catches were higher in sanctuary areas compared to catches in areas which had been open to fishing five years previously (Mann, Oceanographic Research Institute, unpub. Data). Not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Recorded in 2002 to 2004 (no numbers provided) during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique from 2000 to 2005 (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.); recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1998 (n=7 individuals of 1,304 groupers; Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Morgans (1964) recorded only one individual in 689 groupers in catches on the North Kenya Banks, at a time when the reef had not been exploited. Nzioka (1977) recorded catching five specimens from 1974 to 1977 as part of a survey of reefs between Mafia Island (Tanzania) and the North Kenya Banks which caught 130 other serranid fishes. Also reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other species.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Localised small aggregations of large fish reported anecdotally by recreational scuba divers in numerous locations, particularly in areas where fishing effort is low e.g. northern KwaZulu-Natal MPAs, southern Mozambique – “Bass City” (Pereira 2003), Bassas d’India Mozambique channel (Oceanographic Research Institute, unpub. Data, Aldabra (Grandcourt 2005). Such aggregations may be for spawning as recorded by Robinson <em>et al.</em> (2004).
132773		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is threatened by loss of habitat and overfishing. <br/><br/><strong>Loss of habitat</strong><br/>Episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong> <br/>Most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g. Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewelling and Hosch 2006). Caught in the live reef fish trade (Lee and Sadovy 1998).  In the Hong Kong live fish markets.
132774		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Areolate grouper occurs in marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in NT Australia. There is a 35 cm minimum size limit and bag limit five fish (mixed species) in Queensland Australia (Department of Primary Industries 2003).
132774		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is a very widespread Indo-Pacific species that ranges from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to Natal (South Africa), east to Fiji, north to Japan, and south to the Arafura Sea (Russell and Houston 1989) and northern Australia. Recently it has been recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). Areolate grouper appears to be absent from Micronesia, Polynesia, and most islands of the western Indian Ocean (Randall and Heemstra 1991). It is often confused with <em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia), Bahrain, Cambodia, China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangdong–Hainan, Guangxi, Shanghai, Zhejiang), Cook Islands, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Fiji, Hong Kong, India (Andaman Island, Nicobar Island, Goa, Karaikal, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Maharashtra, Mahé, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Tripura), Indonesia (Bali, Java, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Iraq, Iran, Israel, Japan (Kyushu, Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Maldives, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Oman, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago North Solomons), Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Sri Lanka, Sudan, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, United Arab Emirates, Viet Nam, and Yemen.
132774		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is found usually in turbid water in seagrass beds or silty sand bottoms around isolated small rock outcrops, dead coral or soft coral (Randall and Heemstra 1991) in shallow continental shelf waters (Leis 1987) in depths from 2 to 200 m (Randall and Ben-Tuvia 1983, IRD database). Juveniles are common at water depths to 80 m (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feed on fish and benthic invertebrates, primarily prawns and crabs (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005, Randall and Heemstra 1991, Parrish 1987, Salini <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Size and age</strong><br/>Maximum size is reported to be 47.0 cm TL, with a maximum weight of 1.4 kg (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1988). The maximum reported age for areolate grouper is 15 years (Shapiro 1987).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Areolate grouper probably spawns during restricted periods and forms aggregations when doing so (Shapiro 1987).<br/>In New Caledonia, the sex ratio is reported as 1:6 males to females, with a size at maturity of females at 19.5 cm TL and 29 cm TL for males (IRD database).
132774		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is widespread and reasonably common, relatively common in some areas, but details of its current population abundance are unknown. However, it is likely declining due to intensive fishing efforts over soft bottoms (i.e. trawling) throughout much of its range.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Areolate grouper are reported catch from Saudi Arabia, but statistics do not indicate a decline (2000 to 2004) (http://www.fao.org).<br/><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is one of the most common grouper species on soft bottoms in New Caledonia (8.0% of grouper catch). Experimental fishing within a 10 year interval resulted in a 50% decline in catch (IRD database). Reported mean size 30 to 35 cm TL, with a density of 0.013/100 m sq. in New Caledonia (SPC PROCFISH data 2005).<br/><br/>A once common species in Hong Kong, but now rare, as a result of intensive trawling (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Small-scale industrial and commercial line and trap catch (Mozambique) represents 0.5 to 1% of the total catch (unpub. Data: FRI-Maputo). Second-most commonly caught serranid captured in Djibouti commercial fisheries (Darar 1984).
132774		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is subject to commercial and recreational fishing activities, including the live reef fish trade (Philippines) (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2000, Padilla <em>et al.</em> 2003) and the marine aquarium fish trade, have the potential to adversely affect populations of this species.<br/><fisheries-dependent><br/>A trawl species in N. Australia (Errity 2003) and forms part of by-catch of the Northern Prawn Fishery in Australia (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> (2001). Reported catch (tonnes) for Saudi Arabia (FAO unpublished) for 2000 (306), 2001 (245), 2002 (289), 2003 (309), 2004 (349) does not indicate any decline in this fishery. Not significantly caught by handline but major component of serranid long-line catch in New Caledonia (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2000). A 50% decline of catch in the experimental longline fishing in southern New Caledonia (IRD database).<br/><br/>One of the most common mariculture species in southern China SE Asia and the Middle East (Leung <em>et al.</em> 1999). Live reef fish import data from the Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department (HK CSD) record the largest quantities of "other groupers" and "other marine fishes" as being imported from Thailand. Thailand and Malaysia are important sources for so-called "cultured" species including brown-spotted groupers <em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> / <em>E. bleekeri</em>, which are amongst 12 most commonly available species imported to Hong Kong (http://www.traffic.org/reef-fish/executivesummary.html). Fingerlings are wild-caught in Vietnam and Thailand (Sadovy 2000) and no hatcheries are known for this species (Sadovy pers. comm.).</fisheries-dependent>
132775		conservation	eng	<em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is protected in the Ras Mohammed National Park,  Dungonab and  Sanganeb Marine Parks (Sudan)  and other marine protected areas throughout it s range.  <br/><br/>The Saudi Arabia Ministry of Agriculture is concerned with the protection of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> and <em>P. areolatus</em> along the coast, therefore fishing was prohibited during the closed season. This management method started in 1994; and the closed season was from April 15 to 14 June. Catching of these two species was also prohibited during the years (1995-1999-2001), so the landed catch in these periods was markedly decreased (Fallatah 2005).<br/><br/>There is a quota for aquarium fish trade in Maldives: 15,000.00 (Sattar and Adam 2005). An assessment of Morris <em>et al.</em> (2000) already led to the classification of roving coralgrouper as a vulnerable species (VU 2Ad).
132775		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> has a widespread but disjunct distribution from the Red Sea to Fiji. <br/><br/><strong>Localities</strong><br/>Red Sea, Zanzibar, Maldives, Lacaadives, St. Brandon's Shoals, Sri Lanka, Chagos, Nazareth Bank, Sumatra, and Fiji (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Subspecies localities</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessuliferus marisburi</em> occurs in the Red Sea, while <em>Plectropomus pessuliferus pessuliferus</em> from the rest of the Indo-Pacific region. Occurs in Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Fiji, Indonesia (Bali, Java and Sumatra), Israel, Jordan, Maldives, Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Tonga, and Yemen.
132775		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is strongly coral reef-associated and is an uncommon species found in shallow lagoon and seaward reefs. It occurs at depths of 3 to 147 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Myers and Samoilys pers. comm.) and has a maximum size of 120 cm TL (Red Sea) and at least 63 cm (TL) (other parts of the Indo-Pacific) (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding and ecology</strong><br/>It is piscivores (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003). As other groupers, <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> has shown to have specific microhabitats that are utilized preferentially to the surrounding general habitat. For example, in Maldives, Shepherd <em>et al.</em> (apud Sluka and Reichenbach 1996) reported that <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> has higher biomass on slopes adjacent to unmined reef flats, than in mined flats. And in Laamu Atoll this species was most abundant in faro reef slopes (Sluka 2001).
132775		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is rare to uncommon throughout most of its range, with higher abundances in the Maldives and the Red Sea. There is no specific information available on its abundance (Morris <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Fisher interviews suggest declines in some areas. It is highly targeted in the Red Sea, particularly by spear. Based on its general abundance (rare to uncommon), declines in certain areas can be inferred. It is virtual absence from Eritrea following heavy fishing. <br/><br/>Sattar and Adam (2005) in review of grouper fishery in Maldives presented some information about <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> fisheries in this area, as demonstrated here. In early stages of Maldives fisheries <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was considered “red” category, the most valuable, and all others groupers were considered as “black”. Rf. 14.00 was the value of individuals of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> measuring more than 20 cm total length, while Rf. 13.00 was given for individuals of black group in the same size. The total catch in Maldives is declining because of the decreasing catch and because smaller individuals being taken in the fishery. The average size of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> in the fishery is 40.2 cm, with the most common length 40.0 cm, and the maximum length catch was 86.0 cm.  <br/><br/>Fishing pressure on grouper continues to increase in Maldives and many sites show signs of local over-fishing (Sluka part 3). A survey of 18 fishermen was conducted from Faafu Atoll to reveal P. <em>pessuliferus</em> (together with <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em>, <em>P. areolatus</em>, <em>P. laevis</em>, <em>C. argus</em>, <em>C, miniata</em>, <em>A. rogaa</em>, <em>A. leucogrammicus</em> and <em>V. louti</em>) to be the most commonly caught species, suggesting the use of this species as the indicator species in the proposed “Grouper Management Plan for Faafu Atoll”.<br/><br/>According to Robinson Jan (pers. comm.), <em>Plectropomus pessuliferus</em> is common to Seychelles fisheries. However, it is not routinely monitored for fisheries catch and effort data. Thus, published or grey literature with regards to <em>P. pessuliferus</em> is lacking. This species is more common at the coral atolls to the south of the archipelago, where it is lightly fished. On the banks of the Mahe Plateau, surrounding the main granitic islands where most of the population resides, this species is rare to largely absent from catches. As there are no decent historical data, it is not known if this id due to fishing pressure or lack of favored habitat, although it is probably a combination of the two. From CPUE data, a decline is observed in the groupers family from areas close to centers of population.<br/><br/>Export oriented trade of groupers started in the Maldives in 1993. Catches rose from 200 t in 1994 to 1,000 t in 1995 (Sattar and Adam 2005). This fishery has been considered opportunistic and unregulated (Sattar and Adam 2005, citation of work from MRC). Total catches of groupers in the Maldives are declining both from smaller numbers and smaller individuals taken in the catch.<br/><br/>The fishery-dependent data presented here were compiled by Fallatah (2005) (Figure 1) and they are based on the Fisheries Statistics bulletins published by the Marine Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture of Arabia Saudita between 1995 and 2002. Catch of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> takes place along the Red Sea Coast in three places, namely the northern, the central and the southern, through traditional fishing boats and methods (hand line, gill net, and traps). In the northern and central areas the quantity caught is much higher than southern area. Between 1995 and 2002 hand line dominated catches (79.6% of production), while gill nets and traps do not exceed 1%. Hand line also had stability in catches along this period, while gill net and traps demonstrated a grate drop in catch. However there was an increase in quantities catch by other means of catch, due a reduction in boats and increase in yield, which raised the catch per trip (Fallatah 2005). The annual average catch of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was 384 tons. Figure 1 shows the total catch of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> from 1995 to 2002, which represents 2.3% of the total catch of fish the in the coastline of Red Sea in Saudi Arabia during this period. Generally the catch is consistent, but a gradual reduction in northern and central areas and an increase in south can be observed. However, in southern area <em>P. areolatus</em> (species considered economically important too) is misidentified as <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em>, so its land catch may be overestimated in this area (Fallatah 2005).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: catches of <em>P. pessuliferus</em> by traditional fishing boats for 1995 to 2002 period at the Red Sea Coast in Kingdom Saudi Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery independent</strong><br/>In Republic of Maldives the diurnal activity patterns of six grouper species (<em>Cephalopholis argus</em>, <em>C. miniata</em>, <em>Epinephelus merra</em>, <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em>, <em>P. laevis</em>, <em>P. pessuliferus</em>) were studied on coral reefs between Gamu and Baresdhoo islands (Sluka (Part 1 ).  Due to low numbers of roving coralgrouper observations in a study conducted between March and June 1998, Sluka (2000) could not used statistical analyses to infer about timing, location and characteristics of spawning aggregations for <em>P. pessuliferus</em> in Republic of Maldives. One hundred and forty three individual grouper were observed; among these six species, <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was the species with minor abundance (n=7).<br/><br/>In the South Sanai (Egypt) Red Sea <em>P. pessuliferus</em> was not recorded in a work focused on the impacts of tourists’ activities (Leujak 2006, Millport, UK, University of London, Ph.D.: 517 pp). Part of the research involved the establishment of a permanent monitoring program in the Gulf of Aqaba during 2001 to 2003. An assessment of fish communities was made at seven monitoring stations at 3 m and 10 m depth. Fish abundances at each station were estimated by underwater visual census along 4 x 50 m (total 200 m) transects. Fish were counted within 5 m to either side of the observer’s path, yielding a censused area of 2,000 m² at each depth, and a total survey area of 4,000 m² per station. <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was not recorded in these underwater visual censuses. Fishing in the Gulf of Aqaba is carried out only by resident Bedouin communities, with groupers being a main target species (Ashworth 2006). Artisanal Bedouin fishing is low-intensities and Ras Mohammed National Park is closed to inshore fishing activities.<br/><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> seems to be naturally rare in the Red Sea. In February 2006 in a survey of shallow water fish communities along the Baluchistan coast of Pakistan, roving coralgrouper does not seem to occur there (Leujak pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Table 1 provides some length information from fishes captured during experimental fishing trials in the Maldives. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Life history data from the Workshop on Integrated Reef Resources Management in the Maldives Paper 3: Exploitation of Reef Resources: Grouper and other Food Fishes.
132775		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is overfishing, followed by habitat loss and degradation. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>The demand for live reef fish by southeast Asian markets has resulted in intense fishing pressure on coral-reef fish resources throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Among the main coral-reef fish in demand is the grouper species <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> (Sluka 2000). In Maldives, it is one of the most important species in the live trade (Sattar and Adam 2005). In some of its range dynamite/cyanide fishing is practiced (Morris <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is heavily overfished in parts of the Red Sea. <br/><br/>Conservation actions seem to cover only in a few areas over its broad distribution. It has been previously assessed as vulnerable, and it seems to be the status of this species, unless the combination of high value in the live reef fish market, rarity, declining catch rates and absence of information/records in several areas within its distribution can be considered as indicative of an endangered status.
132776		conservation	eng	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> occurs in a few protected areas throughout its range (e.g., Great Barrier Reef Marine Park).
132776		distribution	eng	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is a western Pacific species found in the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, northeastern Australia (Cape York to northern Great Barrier Reef), Belau, Truk, Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, and the Solomon Islands (FishBase);  it is reported from Malaysia (Abu Khair <em>et al.</em> 1993), Western Australia (Scott Reefs), Timor Sea and Hibernia Reef.
132776		habitat	eng	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is reef-associated and inhabits drop-offs and steep channel slopes (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is dependent on good-quality coral reefs. It is reported to forage in groups of two or three for rock- and sand living crustaceans and fishes; L-W relationship: Y = 0.0268 cm SL x 2.9317 (Cabanban and Kassem unpub. data).<br/><br/>It has been implicated in ciguatera poisoning in some parts of its range (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132776		population	eng	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is rare in most areas (Lieske and Myers 1994), but is well known in the Philippines (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is found in low numbers even in protected areas (e.g., about 1 in 500 m²; Cabanban and Kassem unpub. data). There is no information on population trend.
132776		threats	eng	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is incidental and subsistence fisheries throughout its range. It is not targeted, but if caught can be found in trade including internationally in the live reef food fish trade. It is threatened by the destruction of coral reefs by fisheries damage and global warming.
132777		conservation	eng	No specific conservative measures for <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em>.<br/><br/>McIlwain <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggested area closures that protecting critical habitat together with installing satellite tracking devices in individual trawlers would be successful in managing this species.
132777		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> is an Indian Ocean species found on the continental shelf of the northern Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Aden (possibly) to Sri Lanka and Madras (India). It is not known from the Persian Gulf nor the Red Sea (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Western Indian Ocean (30°E to 80°E; 45°S to 30°N), Eastern Indian Ocean (77°E to 150°E; 55°S to 24°N). Records of <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> from the South China Sea, southern East China Sea, and western Pacific (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997) are based on misidentifications of <em>E. stictus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>India, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Yemen and Iraq (Nader and Jawdat 1977). The species is also possibly found off Malaysia and Mozambique.
132777		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> occurs on mud or muddy sand bottom in depths of 10 to 120 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It occurs within trawl catches ranging in India from 250 to 500 m (cited in James <em>et al.</em> 1996). Also recorded on hard coral and hard bottom in shallow water (2 to 12 m) (possibly juvenile habitat?) (Sluka and Lazarus in press). <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> reaches 52 cm TL (Boulenger 1895).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Based on 65 specimens collected in India, <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em>  feeds on crustaceans (mainly crabs and small prawns) and fishes (mainly <em>Ambassis</em> sp. and <em>Leiognathus</em> spp.)  (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).<br/> <br/>Juveniles abound the midshelf waters for feeding for eight months before migrating to the deeper waters for further growth and breeding (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, age, growth and maturity</strong><br/><em>Maturity</em><br/>Based on 530 specimens collected in 2000-2001 in Oman, 87.2% and 71.7% of the fish sampled were mature females and males, respectively (McIlwain <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Oman, sizes of first maturity for female and male <em>E. diacanthus</em> were found to be 39.2 mm FL and 42.5 mm FL, respectively (McIlwain <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The minimum size of maturity was estimated to be about 125 mm SL in Taiwan (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1980b).<br/><br/><em>Spawning</em><br/>According to GSI study, McIlwain <em>et al.</em> (2003) found that spawning of female <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> coincided with the decrease in sea surface temperature (25°C to 22.3°C) during June and July, during which disappearance of spawning / running gonads were also seen from macroscopic examinations. But there was no such pattern for male <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> (McIlwain <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>Growth</em><br/>Zacharia <em>et al.</em> (1995a) calculated that the growth rate of juvenile is 2.5 cm per month. Based on fish collected in Greater Bombay in 1989 to 1992, the length-at-age von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> (sample size not specified) was found to be TL=502 mm (1<sup>-e</sup>(-0.61(Age<sub>-0</sub>)) (Chakraborty 1994).<br/><br/>Based on 5,043 specimens collected at two landing centers of Greater Bombay in India, Chakraborty and Vidyasagar (1996) calculated the length-at-age von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>E. diacanthus</em> to be TL=494 mm (1<sup>-e</sup>(-0.59(t-t<sub>0/</sub>)).<br/><br/><em>Mortality</em><br/>The natural mortality of <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> was calculated to be 1.10 in India (Chakraborty and Vidyasagar 1996).<br/><br/><em>Sexual pattern</em><br/>Based on 380 specimens collected in 1975 to 1977 in Taiwan, <em>E. diacanthus</em> is protogynous which changes sex at two to three years of age in Taiwan (Chen <em>et al</em> 1980b).  Chen <em>et al.</em> (1980b) found that the intersexual fish were found within two to six year-old classes and absent during spawning, and males became dominant after four years old.<br/><br/><em>Fecundity and Recruitment</em><br/>Chen <em>et al.</em> (1980b) estimated the fecundity of <em>E. diacanthus</em> ranged from 64,000 to 233,000 ova, with a linear relationship with SL (Fecundity = -265.2036+2.6570xSL).<br/><br/><em>Sex ratio</em><br/>Based on 530 specimens collected in 2000 to 2001 in Oman, the male-to-female sex ratio of <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> was found to be 1:2.3, with females (40.3 mm FL; Flmin-max: 26.0-53.2 mm FL) had a lower average body size than males (41.2 mm FL; Flmin-max: 28.2 to 51.6 mm FL) (McIlwain <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>More up-to-date information on its abundance, biology, age-and-growth and management practices is recommended given its susceptibility to probable unsustainable exploitation (especially the trawling fishery).
132777		population	eng	<strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>It is uncommon in Sri Lanka, but abundant on muddy trawling grounds and forms large schools on Pakistan trawling grounds at depths of 20 to 50 m (Debruin <em>et al.</em> 1995). There have been declines noted in India and some concern that juveniles were being taken. One of the most abundant species in trawl catches (18 to 45 m) (James <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em>See</em> Table 1,  showing the mortality, yield and stock parameters for <em>E. diacanthus</em> (Chakraborty 1994).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: the mortality, yield and stock parameters for <em>E. diacanthus</em>.<br/><br/><em>India</em><br/>The landing of <em>E. diacanthus</em> at Mangalore increased by 328% from 81.4 tonnes in1988/89 to 348.3 tonnes in 1993/94, with an increase in catch rate (kg / hour) from 0.18 to 0.54, respectively (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).  <em>E. diacanthus</em> was found in the trawl fishery from October to May, with peak landing occurred during December (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).<br/><br/>Table showing the annual landings of <em>E. diacanthus</em> and ‘all fish’ catch by multi-day trawlers at Mangalore and Malpe during 1988/89 to 1993/94 (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a) (Table 2).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: The annual landings of <em>E. diacanthus</em> and ‘all fish’ catch by multi-day trawlers at Mangalore and Maple during 1988/89 to 1993/94.<br/><br/>In September 1995, <em>E. diacanthus</em> comprised 82.65% (size ranged from 25 to 46 cm TL with modal size group at 30 to 34 cm TL) of the groupers caught in the trawl fishery in India. In October 1995, the size of fish dropped to a length range of 20 to 32 cm TL with modal size at 24 to 26 cm TL (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995b).<br/><br/><em>Pakistan</em><br/>Based on a trawl survey carried out off Pakistan waters in 1983-1984, the mean catch rates of <em>E. diacanthus</em> ranged 6.80 kg/hour in September to 12.68 kg/hour in June (Iqbal 1995).<br/><br/>Biomasses of <em>E. diacanthus</em> in Pakistani coastal waters and in total shelf area of Sindh were estimated ranging from 0.01 to 0.14 tonnes per nm² and 93 to 1302 tonnes per nm², respectively (Iqbal 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> is moderately common in northwest India in visual surveys (Sluka and Lazarus in press).
132777		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> is overfishing and exploitation of juveniles and possible bycatch from trawl fisheries. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Zacharia <em>et al.</em> (1995a) indicated that very small <em>E. diacanthus</em> were discarded as trash fish and used for poultry feed. The trawl fishery of <em>E. diacanthus</em> consisted exclusively of juveniles (max catch size was 23.5 cm TL) from 30 to 60 m depth, which comprised of the 0-year age class (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a). The trawling fishery went deeper from 60 to 80 m in 1994 to 72 to 108 m in 1996, inducing a more serious threat to the population in Indian waters (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995b).<br/><br/>Exploitation of juveniles and the associated overfishing will lead to depletion of the stock of <em>E. diacanthus</em> from Dakshina Kannada coast in India (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).  <br/><br/>Chakraborty (1994) suggested go fishing beyond 70 m in Bombay waters will increase the yield of <em>E. diacanthus</em> without posing a threat to the depletion of this species  On the contrary, Zacharia <em>et al.</em> (1995b) pointed out that the trawling fishery went deeper from 60 to 80 m in 1994 to 72 to 108 m in 1996 will inducing a more serious threat to the population in the Indian waters.<br/><br/>McIlwain <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggested area closures that protecting critical habitat together with installing satellite tracking devices in individual trawlers would be successful in managing this species.
132778		conservation	eng	No specific action is required at present for <em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> as it is not a major target of fisheries.
132778		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> is distibuted from East Africa (Madagascar, Mascarene islands) all the way to Pitcairn in tropical waters. It is absent from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, most of the East African coastline except Kenya. It is present in India (Lakshadweep), Maldives, and probably in Sri Lanka, and it is likely to be present in Nicobar, Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia. In Australia, star-spotted groper are present from the Torres Strait down to New South Wales. It was introduced to Hawaii in 1956 but has not established there.
132778		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> is a shallow water species (depth range 0 to 30 m) which prefers coral reefs exposed to oceanic influence and is also found in rubble bottoms in clear waters. It is, therefore, found preferentially on islands, especially barrier reefs. Maximum length is reported as 27 cm TL. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>This species is usually solitary and lives on the bottom where it feeds mainly on small fishes, crustaceans and occasionally on worms. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>It is reported to be protogynous (unconfirmed), with external fertilization, the pelagic eggs. Sexual maturity is reached at 19 cm (TL). No spawning aggregations are known and sexual behavior has not been described. One study of growth suggests rapid initial growth, but requires confirmation.
132778		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> is abundant in many areas, based on museum records (Heemstra, pers. comm.), and is usually common over most of its range. Density data are available for most of the South Pacific, Hawaii, La Reunion Is., Japan. Populations are highly fragmented, each island holding probably a distinct population, exchanges between islands occurring for most of its range by larval migration. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Known abundances (fish/km² of reef): New Caledonia: 173; Fiji: 68; French Polynesia : 28; Tonga: 56. Highest abundance observed on the outer reefs of unpopulated atolls in French Polynesia with >2,000 fish /km².<br/>Most observed fishes between 15 and 25 cm; less than 5% of the specimens >25 cm (FL)<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Represents 0.05% of reported reef fish catches in American Samoa; 0.31% in CNMI; 0.01% in Guam; less than 0.1% of grouper experimental catch (in weight or numbers) in New Caledonia.<br/><br/>Declining catch of groupers (generic) is reported for Sabah (Busing 1990). It was not found during Greenforce surveys in 1999 to 2005 (Sabah).
132778		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> are habitat loss and overfishing, although neither currently appear to pose a substantial problem to the species. It is often common is artisanal and small-scale fisheries throughout its range because of its prevalence in island locales. It is taken by hook, line, spear and gillnets, but usually not targeted by fishermen as it is small. It is likely a component of the live reef food fish trade.
132779		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> has no specific conservation measures implemented for it, but occurs in marine protected areas in Eilat and Jordan (Aqaba), Sudan and Egypt.
132779		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> is endemic to the Red Sea and ranges from Eilat in the northern Gulf of Aqaba to the Farasan Islands off the southern end of Saudi Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen, and Eritrea.
132779		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits dead reefs in silty areas, including coral reefs and silty lagoons in 15 to at least 50. Usually found in or near caves; juveniles in coral rubble areas. It could possibly be an aquarium novelty. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Ripe females are found at 17 to 19 cm SL and a mature males at 22 cm SL were reported (Randall and Ben-Tuvia 1983).
132779		population	eng	<em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> is generally uncommon, but in some areas (Hurghada) there are up 5 to 10 individuals per 250 m² (Leiske and Myers 2004). There is no population or fisheries information for this species.
132779		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> has a low potential for overfishing and is currently taken incidentally in subsistence fisheries.
132780		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> occurs in marine protected areas in its range, e.g. the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and Tubbataha Marine Park (Sulu Sea), Bunakken Marine Park (Sulawesi), but nothing specific has been proposed for this species.
132780		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is a Western Pacific species occurring in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Spratleys, Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, the Arafura Sea and Australia (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Russell and Houston 1989).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia), Indonesia (Bali, Java, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
132780		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is a reef-associated species that is common on silty, soft sand or mud bottoms (10 to 80 m depth).  Its preference for soft-bottom habitats may account for its restricted distribution and absence at oceanic islands. The maximum size is listed as 40.0 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) but more usually 21 cm SL (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The length-weight relationship for Northern Territory (Australia) population is described by Willing and Pender (1989). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> feeds on small fishes and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Females are mature at 13 cm SL (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132780		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is absent from oceanic islands in the Indian Ocean. Little is known of the biology, fisheries or population status for this species is limited.
132780		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is primarily threatened by overfishing. Although a small species, it is commonly and readily caught in trawls, consequently it is often seen in local markets (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It also occurs in Indonesia inshore fisheries (Allen and Adrim 2003).
132781		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> occurs in number of marine protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>The establishment of no-take reserves appears to have played a key role in maintaining the sustainability of the fishery. As an example, in 1995, five no-take fisheries reserves were established within the Nabq Natural Resource Protected Area (South Sinai, Egyptian Red Sea). The abundance and body size of <em>C. argus</em> (other two monitoring species are <em>Lethrinus obsoletus</em> and <em>Variola louti</em>) had increased in the reserves; the CPUE within the adjacent fished areas also increased during five-year monitoring (Galal <em>et al.</em> 2002).
132781		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> is the most widely distributed of the groupers, occurring from the Red Sea to South Africa and east to French Polynesia and the Pitcairn group, including northern Australia, Lord Howe Island, and Japan. It was recently introduced to the Hawaiian Islands (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Recorded from the Red Sea, Gulf of Aquaba, Gulf of Aden, Oman, Socotra, east Somalia, eastern Africa to 28°S, Comores, Madagascar, Seychelles, Aldabra, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrígues, Chagos, Maldives, Laccadives (India), Sri Lanka, Andamans (India), west Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia (Sumatra, Bali, Sangakkaki, Borneo, east Indonesia, Minado, Togean Islands, Sulawesi, Flores, Komodo, Sunda, Raja Ampat, West Papua), Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island, Australia (Ashmore Island, Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, NW Australian coast, Great Barrier Reef, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe Island), Philippines, Spratly Island, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia (Chesterfields, Ouvéa), south Taiwan (Peng hu shan), Japan (Ryukyu Islands, Kawhisi-jima, south Japan, Izu Islands, Ogosawara), Palau, Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Pohnpei, Ifalik, Chuuk, Kapingamarangi, Kosrae, south Mariana Islands), Northern Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, United States Minor Outlying Islands (Wake Island), Fiji (including Rotuma Island), Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, Kiribati (Phoenix Islands, Line Island), French Polynesia (Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands, Gambier Islands, Marquesas Islands, Austral Islands, Rapa), and Pitcairn (Myers distributional database 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Additional records</strong><br/>China (Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan Strait, south China Sea). Records from Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, Kingman Reef (B. Mundy pers. comm.). <em>C. argus</em> was also introduced to Hawaii (USA) from French Polynesia in 1955-1961 (571 individuals) (Randall 1987, Planes and Lecaillon 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Distribution References </strong><br/>Randall and Ben-Tuvia (1983), Heemstra and Randall (1993), Huang (1994), Donaldson (1995), Planes and Lecaillon (1998), Sadovy and Cornish (2000), TNC/WWF (2003).
132781		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> occurs in a variety of habitats, but is most commonly associated with exposed reef front habitats. Recorded to at least 40 m, but prefers 1 to 10 m depths. <em>Cephalopholis argus</em> causes ciguatera at some islands in the Pacific region, such as French Polynesia, Marshall Islands and Hawaii (Randall 1980, 1987; Hokama <em>et al.</em> 1994; Bruslé <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Social system, reproduction and growth</strong><br/>Peacock grouper occurs in social groups comprising of a single male and haremic females. Male territiory size is positively associated with fish size. Growth tends to be highly asymptotic (Pears 2005) and there is presently no evidence of rapid increase in size in males. In the Gulf of Aqaba, <em>C. argus</em> is found in social units comprising up to 12 adults, including one dominant male. Each group occupies a specific area (up to 2,000 m²) that is defended by the territorial male and subdivided into secondary territories, each inhabited by a single female (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991a). A similar social organization has been observed in Hawaii populations (Meyer 2004).<br/><br/>There is very little information available on the reproductive biology of this species. Behavioural studies (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991a, Meyer 2004) suggest that male <em>C. argus</em> defend large territories that incorporate smaller female territories as described for <em>C. boenak</em> (Lui and Sadovy 2005). Protogynous hermaphroditism has not confirmed for <em>C. argus</em>, although the testes remain primary-growth stage oocytes and have ovarian structure with a lumen and lamellae (Bruslé <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Ciguatera</strong><br/>More detailed studies have implicated this species in ciguatera in the south Pacific (Bagnis 1968, Bagnis <em>et al.</em> 1979) and also in introduced populations in Hawaii (Dierking 2007) although demographic analyses carried out in this study indicated no impact on the fishes themselves. In some areas in the south Pacific fishing is restricted due to ciguatera. (R. Robertson pers. comm.). The very high densities recorded by Kulbicki from French Polynesia appear to reflect this.
132781		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>This is one of the most abundant medium-sized serranids in the Indo-Pacific.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In addition to a wide geographic distribution, <em>C. argus</em> is one of the most abundant of the medium size serranids in both the Indian and Central Pacific oceans (Pears 2005). On the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) the highest abundances are in the northern regions. Replicated estimates of abundance derived from belt transects are available for the western Indian Ocean (Seychelles), the western Pacific GBR (Pears 2005) and the central Pacific (American Samoa) (A. Green pers. comm.) (Table 1). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: estimates of abundance derived from belt transects for the western Indian Ocean (Seychelles), the western Pacific Great Barrier Reef and the central Pacific (American Samoa).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In Saudi Arabia, catch ranged from 11 to 72 mt over the period of 2000 to 2004 (www.fao.org).<br/><br/>In the Maldives, there has been a slight reduction in average size since exploitation began (Sattar and Adam 2005). <br/><br/>Estimates of abundance from four Pacific localities (Kulbicki IRD data base adjusted to no. per 1,000 m²): Fiji (1.7), Tonga (2.7), New Caledonia (0.6) (relatively low compared to other Pacific localities subject to fishing), French Polynesia outer reefs (14.7) (exceptionally high and indicate a local constraint on fishing). All areas sampled in the Seychelles and the GBR are subject to a moderate line fishery.<br/><br/>In American Samoa, Rose Atoll and Ofu/Olosegu are exposed to less fishing than Tau, Tutuila and Upolu. Low abundances on the GBR are not a result of heavy fishing pressure as this species is not specifically targeted. On the GBR <em>C. argus</em> is a member of a complex of abundant cryptic serranids including <em>Cephalopholis cynaostigma</em>, <em>C. microprion</em> and <em>C. boenak</em>. In the Seychelles this complex included <em>C. urodeta</em>, <em>C. miniata</em> which are associated with high abundances of small <em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em>. <br/><br/>Despite heavy fishing pressure in areas such as Samoa this species maintains healthy populations and only one locality showed reduced numbers associated with fishing. In addition this species is a strong colonizer and has established large populations in Hawaii after deliberate introduction from Moorea and the Marquesas (Randall 1987).<br/><br/>In a non-fishing area, the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea), adult <em>C. argus</em> (also <em>C. miniata</em> and <em>C. hemistiktos</em>) were experimental removed from their resident reefs. Within three years, limited recruitment was observed; replenished mainly by other predators of different taxa (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991b).<br/><br/>One of the most abundantly speared groupers in reef fisheries in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Demography</strong><br/>The demography of this species is highly plastic and shows great variation over its distributional range especially in terms of maximum longevity, maximum size and the VBGF parameters. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: summary of <em>C. argus</em> demographic data (Pears 2005, Molea and Choat unpub. data).<br/><br/>Notable features of the population dynamics are shorter life spans, larger size and high K value for the Indian Ocean populations, the extended life span in GBR populations and the growth dynamics of the Hawaiian invasive populations. The Hawaii populations are closer to the dynamics of the Indian ocean populations than of their parent populations in Moorea and the Marquesas. The GBR populations also have distinctive dynamics.
132781		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> is potentially threatened by overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Although abundant over most of its range, is subject to increasing fishery pressure in some regions. At three localities examined for landings of the distinctive species, the landings showed declines in the number of fish caught (Zeller 2006). The most dramatic was in the northern Mariana Islands where catches in a non-commercial fishery decline from 6 mt in 1952 to 1 mt in 2002. The Guam fishery was smaller and erratic but landings were also declining by 2001. For Samoa after a peak in the early 1990s the landings are now in steep decline. Localized protection is required at sites of heavy fishing as isolated populations are becoming increasingly vulnerable to larger vessels.
132782		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is likely to occur in marine protected areas within its range, but no specific measures are known for this species.
132782		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is a western Pacific species found in the Philippines, Indonesia (Sulawesi and Flores, but not recorded in the Raja Ampat Islands), and northern Papua New Guinea.
132782		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits protected or silty reef areas. <br/><br/><strong>Maturity</strong><br/>A mature female of 14 cm has been recorded (Randall and Heemstra 1991).
132782		population	eng	The population status of <em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is unknown. It is a small, poorly known species with a restricted (known) distribution.
132782		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is probably not targeted by fisheries because of its small size and is unlikely to occur as by-catch.
132783		conservation	eng	Darkfin Hind are present within numerous protected area throughout its range.
132783		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis urodeta</em> is widely distributed within the Pacific Ocean, occurring eastward to French Polynesia and the Pitcairn Islands, and on Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><strong>Recent records</strong><br/>There are recent new records of darkfin hind from Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (B. Mundy pers. comm.) and from Brunei (A. Conish, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Introductions</strong><br/><em>C. urodeta</em> was introduced into Hawaii in 1958-1961, but it did not become established there (Randall 1987).<br/><br/><strong>Specific localities</strong><br/>Calamianes Islands; Davao Gulf; Coral Sea; Great Barrier Reef; Hsiao-liu-chiu; Indonesian Sea; Kimbe Bay; Kuroshio current; Lagonoy Gulf; Lingyen Gulf, Milne Bay; north northeast and northwest Australian Shelves; Panay Gulf; Peng-hu; Polynesian waters; Ragay Gulf; South China Sea; Spratly Islands; Sulu-Celebes Sea; Tubbataha Reefs; and Verde Island Passage.
132783		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephaplopholis urodeta</em> is a reef-associated species that is not tolerant of habitat degradation. The species prefers clear, shallow waters of outer reef areas to 60 m. It is occasionally found in lagoons, back-reef areas, and on the reef-top. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>In Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan, it occurs on reef flats and slopes (Nakai <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Rota, Mariana Islands, it occurs largely on the upper reef terrace at 2 to 13 m, and is associated with coral pavement (Donaldson 2002). In Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan, <em>C. urodeta</em> is one of the dominant groupers (together with <em>Epinephelus merra</em> and <em>E. fasciatus</em>) (Nakai <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Darfkfin hind feed mainly on small fishes and crustaceans. In a quantitative study of the stomach content in Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan (Nakai <em>et al.</em> 2001), small fish and decapod crustaceans constituted 73.4% of stomach contents by weight. Diet composition has seasonal differences; diet is abundant from May to November, and higher hermit crabs in February.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>The minimum size for sexual maturity is 17 cm TL, with a maximum size of 28 cm TL.<br/><br/>The reproductive biology of darkfin hind has been studied briefly (Nakai and Sano 2002). In Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan, darkfin hind ranged from 11.5 to 21.1 cm TL. Males were larger than females. Protogynous hermaphroditism was proposed, but unconfirmed, because the sexual transitional individuals (with degenerating mature oocytes) were not found in samples.
132783		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis urodeta</em> is a very common species throughout its range and is not known or suspected to be in decline.<br/><br/><strong>Hybridization</strong><br/>Hybridizes with <em>C. nigripinnis</em> at Christmas Island (Randall and Heemstra 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>In the Mariana Islands, <em>C. urodeta</em> appeared to have a mating group organization with a single male and six to eight females (Donaldson 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In Brunei, a UVC survey in 2004 showed low abundance and biomass (A. Cornish pers. comm.):<br/>Abundance: 0/transect (5x50m); Biomass: 0.5g/transect).
132783		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Major threats to darkfin hind are habitat destruction due to coral reef loss and degradation, climate change and in particular coral bleaching (present and future threat).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Darkfin hind are a target of the subsistence fishery in some regions. It is also targeted by the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, it is sold occasionally in markets (fishers caught locally by hook-and-line and traps), with price HK$26-30/pound and size mainly 15 to 20 cm TL (Min Liu unpub. data).
132784		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> may occur in a protected areas in South Africa, but there are no specific measures for the species.
132784		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> is very widely distributed Indo-West Pacific species, with a disjunct distribution. It ranges from the Natal coast of South Africa, northern Mozambique, Réunion, Mauritius, New Caledonia, Philippines, New Guinea, New Ireland, and Fiji and was recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is one record from Australia (Myrmidon Reef, Coral Sea) (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1994), but it is unknown in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Fiji; Mauritius; Mozambique; New Caledonia; Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago); Philippines; Réunion; South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); Tonga.
132784		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> is known only in deep water (128 to 300 m) in the vicinity of coral reefs. Its biology is largely unknown. According to Postel <em>et al.</em> (1963) it grows to a maximum size of 150 cm TL and a weight of 50 kg.
132784		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> is fairly common in Reunion (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and occurs regularly in the line and trap fisheries of Mozambique (FRI unpub. data.).
132784		threats	eng	Commercial fishing is the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em>. It is of some importance to the fisheries at Réunion (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and Mozambique (FRI database), where it is fairly common.
132785		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> may occur in a few protected areas in Thailand, but management is doubtful.
132785		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging from Pakistan to India including Laccadive (Lakshadweep) Islands (India), Sri Lanka, and through the larger islands of the East Indies and the Gulf of Thailand.
132785		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> is a reef-associated that inhabits areas with muddy or silty-sand bottoms in harbours and in estuaries. Nothing has been published on its biology. A 16.3 cm SL fish was found to have ripe ova.
132785		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> is unlikely to be common as there is very little published information.
132785		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> may be threatened by overfishing, but there is no fishery information from its range of occurrence, although it occurs in trawls, also hooks and line and traps. It is most likely fished for subsistence, and occurs within densely human populated areas, so this may be a threat but further information is needed to clarify.
132786		conservation	eng	<em>C. nigripinnis</em> occurs in marine protected areas in some parts of its range.
132786		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis nigripinnis</em> is a valid species confined to the Western Indian Ocean plus Jakarta and the western end of Sumatera. In the Indian Ocean, <em>C. nigripinnis</em> is known from the east coast of Africa (South Africa to Kenya), Comoros, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Seychelles, Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrígues) and Chagos.
132786		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>C. nigripinnis</em> inhabits shallow coral and rocky reefs and is a common species in depth up to 60 m. Information is available on the habitat and ecology of the closely related <em>C. urodeta</em> which is likely to be very similar for <em>C. nigripinnis</em>. However, this information must be verified.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>C. nigripinnis</em> feeds mainly on small fishes and crustaceans.
132786		population	eng	<em>C. nigripinnis</em> is abundant throughout its range. There is currently no information on population trends.
132786		threats	eng	<em>C. nigripinnis</em> currently has no identified major threats, but it may be taken in subsistence and artisinal fisheries. At present, this is not believed to be a major threat factor.
132787		conservation	eng	<em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> occurs in marine protected areas in various areas, including Palau, Malaysia, Philippines, Pohnpei, East Africa (Kenya) and Australia.
132787		distribution	eng	<em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> is an Indo-Pacific species widely distributed from the Red Sea south to Mozambique, east to the Phoenix Islands, north to Japan, and south to Australia (southern Queensland and Heron Island). Its distribution probably includes all the islands of the tropical Indian Ocean. It is also found on the coast of Oman and Aldabra (Seychelles).
132787		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species that inhabits coral rich areas (5 to 80 m) and clear waters on lagoon and seaward reefs. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on fishes and probably on crustaceans. The distinctive blue and gold striped juveniles are mimics of the wrasse <em>Halichoeres purpurescens</em>. Juveniles mimic some of the small lined wrasses of the genus <em>Halichoeres</em> or dark damsels in surge zones. This allows the species to approach their prey.
132787		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> is widespread, but not abundant. There is no evidence of decline, but there is currently insufficient data for this species. Possible declines may be associated with habitat loss or degradation of coral reefs.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The slender grouper is uncommon in catches in Pohnei, where is was shown to contribute only to the spear fishery and occurred in only 3.2% of catches overall (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132787		threats	eng	In some areas, there are major threats to <em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> from overfishing, but in consideration of its overall range this is likely not a threat to the species overall. The species is not specifically targeted for the commercial fishery, but appears in Hong Kong live fish markets occasionally. Juveniles are targeted for the aquarium trade. Global warming may well affect the abundance and distribution of the species.
132788		conservation	eng	In Australia and in other areas within its range, <em>Epinephelus merra</em> is protected in marine reserves, but no other specific protective measures are known for the species.
132788		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus merra</em> is one of the most widely distributed and common small groupers in the Indo-Pacific, occurring from South Africa to Pitcairn, excluding the Middle East, coastal India and Hawaii. North to southern Japan, south to Lord Howe Island. It is reported from the East China Sea (China) (Huang 1994). It also appears in the Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and Exmouth, WA, Australia (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006), Howland Is., Baker Is., Jarvis Is., Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (Bruce Mundy pers. comm.), Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
132788		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus merra</em> is a reef-associated species with depth range 0 to 50 m, but mainly occurs in depths <20 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Honeycomb grouper are common in shallow lagoons and semi-protected seaward reefs. They may also be found in marginal coral reef habitats. Juveniles are common in thickets of staghorn <em>Acropora</em> corals. <em>E. merra</em> spends its entire life in one small area, having no significant movement from their home reef. Maximum body size is reported to be 26 cm SL (about 32 cm TL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  Reports of ciguatera poisoning.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>E. merra</em> is protogynous hermaphroditic. Of 1,067 fish examined, the average size of females was 16 cm SL (largest female was 21 cm SL), and the average size of males was 20 cm SL (largest male was 25 cm SL) (Randall 1955). <br/><br/>Males were larger than females in Reunion and sex change occurred at 3 to 5 years old (Pothin <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>At the Society Is., honeycomb grouper spawn between Jan and Apr for 3 to 4 days at the time of the full moon (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>At Okinawan waters, spawning season is between May and August with the peak of June, and spawn between the full moon and the last quarter moon. GSI of ripe females prior to spawning time (i.e. around the full moon) up to 13% (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>At Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia, the spawning season of <em>E. merra</em> was between March and April (Song <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>At New Caledonia, spawning season from Sep. to Feb. with a peak of Nov. to Dec. and sex-ration of 1:3 (female:male); and at Tahiti, from Jan to April (Shapiro 1987).<br/><br/>Around Sesoko Island, Okinawa, mature fish of <em>E. merra</em> disappeared from their inhabited fringing reefs for a few days after the full moon and appeared again in the same areas. These combined with gonadal development during spawning season (above), the authors proposed that <em>E. merra</em> formed spawning aggregation outside of their inhabited reefs (Soyano <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Honeycomb grouper feed on fishes and crustaceans, with increasing piscivory with age.<br/><br/><strong>Growth, mortality and early life history</strong><br/>Honeycomb grouper has relatively high growth rate with k ranging from 0.43-0.8. Natural mortality was 0.9 to 1.67 (Pothin <em>et al.</em> 2004). The TL-SL relation is SL=0.75TL+26.84 (n=38, r=0.94) (Pothin <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Early life history was summarized by Sazaki <em>et al.</em> (1999) (see Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>.
132788		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus merra</em> is abundant throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In Brunei (2004), underwater visual census showed (Andy Cornish, pers. comm.):<br/><br/>Abundance: 0.4/transect (5x50 m)<br/>Biomass: 15.7 g/transect(5x50 m)<br/><br/>In Hong Kong wet markets, 95% of <em>E. merra</em> were immature and prices at HKD 51 to 64 per kg (Allen To pers. comm.). Honeycomb grouper are common in artisanal fisheries in the Pacific.
132788		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus merra</em> is of importance in artisanal fisheries because of its abundance in shallow water. It is caught with handlines, traps and spear (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>In Vietnam, <em>E. merra</em> is mainly cultured in Ha Long Bay and the central seas, and the juveniles are caught from wild (Tuan <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Commonly caught during gleaning at night (Pacific Islands) (Yeeting pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It is captured during spawning events in Micronesia (Rhodes pers. comm.).
132789		conservation	eng	Nothing specific for <em>Cephalopholis microprion</em>, but it occurs within marine protected areas in some parts of its range.
132789		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis microprion</em> is a western Pacific species distributed from the Gulf of Thailand to New Caledonia, north to Luzon (Philippines), and south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia). Its range includes Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Great Barrier Reef, Solomon Islands, Palau and New Caledonia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Western Pacific: Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Philippines, northeastern Australia (south to Lord Howe Island), Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.
132789		habitat	eng	<em>Cephalopholis microprion</em> is a shallow, reef-associated species, usually on silty reefs. It is found on mid-shelf lagoons and back reef areas on northern and central Great Barrier Reef (Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997, Pears 2005). Secretive in corals to about 30 m depth. Juveniles under corals with rubble substrate.
132789		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <em>Cephalopholis microprion</em>. Common on the Great Barrier Reef (Pears 2005).
132789		threats	eng	The primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalopholis microprion</span> is overfishing; probably taken incidentally in reef fisheries.
132790		conservation	eng	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is not in protected areas, primarily because it occurs in deepwater habitats where few marine protected areas have been established.
132790		distribution	eng	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is a Western Pacific species with a disjunct distribution that ranges from the Republic of Korea and southern most coast of Democratic Republic of Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China. It is bounded by subtropical coordinates 39°N to 34°S, 114°E to 155°E, off eastern Australia (between 25°S to 32°S), off the coast of Western Australia (south of 19°30' S), and Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands (Japan).
132790		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Triso dermopterus</em> occurs on rocky or soft (silty-sand or mud) bottoms. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Young <em>Triso dermopterus</em> have been observed to feed on zooplankton in the water column; feeding of adults has not yet been discovered (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>Triso dermopterus</em> is reported to be protogynous (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132790		population	eng	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is an uncommon species and there is  little information on population trends.
132790		threats	eng	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is incidentally caught in deep-water fishing, but it is not a targeted species because it is too rare and occurs in deepwater habitats.
132791		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> has no known conservation measures in place.
132791		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> is distributed from southern Japan to Fiji and French Polynesia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Japan, Ogasawara Islands (Japan), Taiwan, Philippines, Guam, Tahiti, and French Polynesia (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is also reported in Fiji and Tuvalu by Chapman and Cussack (1990). Palau, Marianas, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Rotuma (Fiji), Samoa, Cook Islands, Society Islands and Tuamotus Islands (French Polynesia), and Christmas Island. The reported occurrence of this species in Indonesia needs to be confirmed.
132791		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> is a deep-water (80 to 250 m) demersal species associated with steep drop-offs, seamounts and offshore banks (Mattieu <em>et al.</em> nd). Maximum length is 43 cm. <br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>140 to 190 mm = 2 to 5 years old (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006)<br/>Length infinity - 44.8 cm<br/>Growth coefficient (K) - 0.07<br/>Natural morality (M) - 0.35<br/>Length at maturity - 25.4 cm<br/>Life span - 40.6 years<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Gut contents showed that it feeds on fishes and crustaceans (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132791		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> is rare to scarce. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>There is discontinuous catch data available from Guam between 1985 (10 kg) and 1999 (260 kg) (Zeller 2006). This could be attributed to increasing effort. Its occurrence in Tahiti, French Polynesia is reported from a specimen caught at 250 m. It is apparently exploited commercially in Indonesia, with stocks and biomass reportedly in decline.
132791		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is overfishing. There is both a subsistence fishery and a game fishery for <em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em>. It has been reported from a commercial fishery in Indonesia (Mathieu <em>et al.</em> no date) and is also reportedly commercially valuable in Papua New Guinea (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).
132792		conservation	eng	It s not known if <em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> occurs in any protected areas.
132792		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> is distributed from the Philippines south through eastern Indonesia, PNG and Solomon Islands, south to the northern tip of Cape York in Queensland, Australia.
132792		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> is only known from brackish or freshwater areas within its range, usually in mangrove areas.
132792		population	eng	<em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> abundance and population trends are unknown.
132792		threats	eng	There is nothing published for <em>Epinephelus polystigma</em>. Presumably coastal development and mangrove destruction are major threats. It is too small to be targeted by fisheries.
132793		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> may be present in marine protected areas in some parts of its range, including the Red Sea.
132793		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> has a tropical to subtropical (~10 to 30°N) continental distribution around the shores of the Red Sea and the northwest Indian Ocean, from Egypt to (and including) Pakistan.
132793		habitat	eng	Almost nothing is known about the biology and ecology of <em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> other than that it is reef associated. It generally occurs on shallow sandy bottoms (from 5 to 50 m depth) near small coral heads, though it is not known from well developed coral reefs. It grows to a maximum total length of ~38 cm. <em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> becomes abundant in the Arabian Sea south of Massirah Island, it is caught in this area and constitute 10% of the serranid catch in the Muscat market.
132793		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Nothing is known for <em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> population trends or status.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> was very common during dive surveys carried out on inshore reefs (few corals, mainly dominated by red algae, oscidians and sponges) in north eastern Somalia (Indian Ocean between Barmadobe and Dundura) in 1998 (Mann and Fielding 2000).
132793		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> is not currently threatened, though targeting of spawning aggregations could pose a threat to its populations in the future. Nothing has been published on the fishery catches of this species, although it is caught in local subsistence and artisanal fisheries and sold fresh in local market (traps, hook and line).
132794		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus retouti</em> may be present in marine protected areas in some regions, but there is no known specific measure targeting <em>Epinephelus retouti</em>.
132794		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is a widespread species with patchy tropical to subtropical (35° N to 25° S) insular distribution from the Mozambique Channel in the west to French Polynesia in the east, and southern Japan in the north to Madagascar and New Caledonia in the south.<br/><br/><strong>Localities</strong><br/>Bassas da India in the Mozambique Channel, via Madagascar, Réunion, Mauritius, Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, Christmas Island, Lesser Sunda Islands (Indonesia), Spratley Islands (?), Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands and southern Honshu (Izu Islands) (Japan), Midway Islands (?), Palau, Micronesia, Kiribati (?), New Caledonia, Tonga (?), Samoa and the Line Islands eastwards to the Society Islands and Tuamotu Islands in French Polynesia. Also on the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia (Zool. Cat. Aust., Vol 35, Fishes).
132794		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is a reef associated species, with juveniles occurring mainly at depths between 20 and 40 m, and adults from 70 to 220 m on outer reef slopes. The maximum total length of this species is ~50 cm, and its “theoretical’ length at maturity is 25 cm (Shakeel and Ahmad 1996).
132794		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population status of <em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is unknown, but apparently it is not very common at individual sites within its wide geographical range.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Deep slope handlining catch statistics (Dalzell <em>et al.</em> 1996): Melanesia 1.13%; Micronesia 0.47%; Polynesia 10.2%.
132794		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is generally too rare to be of particular commercial fisheries importance, though it is caught with handlines and vertical longlines (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>In the Maldives it is exploited in the live food fish trade, and could be threatened there if its spawning aggregations are targeted, but is not an important species in that fishery. Its status in this fishery is “unrestricted”, i.e. it has no export quota (Sattar and Adam 2005).
132795		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>There are no specific conservation measures currently in place for sevenbar grouper, though it is a component of managed fisheries in both NSW and Queensland waters, where species-specific catch figures are now recorded. Rowling (1995) suggested that reducing the catches of smaller fish would be beneficial to the stock (see Threats, above). It has also been suggested by Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) that, it seems likely that this species forms large aggregations for spawning, and that the marked fluctuations in catches of this species from season to season probably relate to the aggregation and spawning behaviour of the species. Thus, the designation of seasonal and/or area closures (at specific times and places) may prove to be necessary to protect breeding stocks of this species; though, to justify such action, this assumption [i.e. the occurrence of such spawning aggregations] needs to be tested by examining the sexual maturity of specimens where large catches have been made (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>There seem to be no marine protected areas which include populations of this species at this time, particularly as it is a deepwater species and few deepwater MPAs exist globally. Based on the above, the creation of  such reserves would be not only beneficial to the sustainability of the fishery, but to the longer term survival of the species.
132795		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> is a southwest Pacific species found off the eastern coast of Australia (mainly northern New South Wales and southern Queensland). It is mainly found in subtropical to warm temperate waters (~18 to ~36°S) off eastern Australia, including (mainly northern) New South Wales (NSW) and (mainly southern) Queensland. Outlying records include Bass Strait (Victoria) to the south, and Dunk Island (Queensland) to the north. The primary (fished) range of this species only extends over ~1,000 km of coastline. There are also reports of two large specimens from a fish market in Western Samoa (possibly of a different species) (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).
132795		habitat	eng	<strong>General and Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> generally inhabits deeper water rocky reefs and hard ground on the continental shelf and upper slope, but has been found at depths from ~15 to ~370 m (it is mainly caught deeper than 110 m in NSW waters). Juveniles and smaller fish are found in the shallower part of this depth range (~15 to 130 m). It grows to at least 157 cm and 66 kg, although fished specimens rarely exceed 100 cm and ~20 kg (max. wt from the NSW fishery was ~35 kg).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and females are thought to mature at between 70 and 80 cm in length and 6 to 8 kg in weight (Rowling 1994). Size composition data suggest that the stock in NSW may be subject to fluctuations in recruitment strength from year to year (Rowling 1995). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The diet consists of fish, crustaceans and molluscs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).
132795		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> is unknown. Although catches fluctuate, the overall population seems to be reasonably stable.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Sevenbar Grouper is mainly fished in deep waters using droplines (vertical longlines) off the east coast of Australia. Smaller specimens are taken as by-catch in fish traps and prawn trawls in shallower waters. It is the dominant species in the northern NSW line fishery, and is marketed regularly but in relatively small quantities through the Sydney Fish Market (Yearsley <em>et al.</em> 1999).The best fisheries related information on this species comes from the northern NSW dropline fishery, in which the species began to be heavily fished (and recorded separately in the fisheries statistics) around 1990. Annual catches from this fishery over this past 15 year period have fluctuated between around 10 and 30 tonnes. Though annual catches have declined over the four years from 2001/02 to 2005/06 (from ~30 t to ~10 t), none the various ways of looking at the catch rate show a dramatic decline in kg/day fished since the late 1990s (K. Rowling pers. comm.). Rowling (1996) also noted that, advice from fishers is that Sevenbar Grouper are very susceptible to hook fishing, and that reasonable catch rates are only maintained by fishing previously unexploited grounds or grounds which have been rested for some time. Catch figures for the Queensland deepwater fishery (Sumpton and Ryan 2004) seem to be even more variable (e.g., ranging from 0 t to >16 t between 1992 and 1998) (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Catch figures from both the NSW and Queensland fisheries will need to be carefully monitored over coming years, and more detailed estimates made of CPUE for both fisheries.
132795		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although no serious threats to populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> have been identified at this stage, there should be some concern about the size composition of the commercial catch. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Rowling (1996) stated that, the high proportion of small fish in the [NSW] catch is cause for concern. While the length at first maturity (of females) is estimated to be between 70 and 80 cm, the majority of the fish landed are between 40 and 70 cm (the range being ~20 to ~130 cm) (Rowling 1994). Few fish >70 cm are caught, and thus this fishery seems to be primarily based on immature individuals. Most of the smaller fish marketed may come from trap and trawl fishery by-catch, as the sizes of the hooks used in the dropline fishery generally take fish >50 cm in length (Rowling 1994). Rowling (1996) has suggested that: "It may also prove beneficial to examine ways of minimizing the catch of very small Sevenbar Grouper, in order to improve the yield per recruit for this valuable species". Also, although there are probably large areas of unfished habitat, the development of new fishing grounds (e.g., in southern Queensland) could lead to a reduction in the extent of such previously available refuge areas for larger adults (including males) of the species.
132796		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus caninus</em> occurs in protected areas in the Mediterranean, but there is no protection in its African range. Harvest management is recommended for the overfished part of its range.
132796		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus caninus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that is distributed from Portugal to Angola, including the Mediterranean and Canary Islands (Spain). There are no records from the northern coast of Spain, France, or the northwestern coast of Italy.
132796		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus caninus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that is distributed from Portugal to Angola, including the Mediterranean and Canary Islands (Spain). There are no records from the northern coast of Spain, France, or the northwestern coast of Italy.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Albania to Italy, France (Corsica), Spain, Portugal, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Canary Islands, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and Angola.
132796		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus caninus</em> is a demersal species that occurs on sandy mud bottoms 30 to 400 m. A maximum weight of 78 kg was reported by Jose Manuel, Spain.<br/><br/>This species feeds on fishes and invertebrates.  <br/><br/>A single specimen from Majorca was aged at 75 years old; 164 cm TL; 67 kg (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 2005).
132796		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus caninus</em> is a demersal species that occurs on sandy mud bottoms 30 to 400 m. A maximum weight of 78 kg was reported by Jose Manuel, Spain (05/05).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes and invertebrates.  <br/><br/><strong>Age</strong><br/>A single specimen from Majorca was aged at 75 years old; 164 cm TL; 67 kg (Morales-Nin, Bauza and Grau 2005).
132796		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>There is very little population information for <em>Epinephelus caninus</em>, but it is known to be rare in the Canary Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Fishery-independent survey at protected and unprotected areas in the Mediterranean indicated that it is now rare. The highest abundance observed was 0.2 individual per 250 m² (Charton <em>et al.</em> 2000).
132796		population	eng	There is very little population information for <em>Epinephelus caninus</em>, but it is known to be rare in the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>A fishery-independent survey at protected and unprotected areas in the Mediterranean indicated that it is now rare. The highest abundance observed was 0.2 individual per 250 m² (Garcia Charton <em>et al.</em> 2000).
132796		threats	eng	Overfishing for commercial trade is a major threat in many parts of its range, e.g., in the Mediterranean and the coast of west Africa.
132796		threats	eng	Overfishing for commercial trade is a major threat in many parts of its range, for example in the Mediterranean and the coast of west Africa.
132797		conservation	eng	In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. This area incorporates the only coral reefs in the country, which form the preferred habitat for this species. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species.<br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers; no limits for commercial and artisinal fishers. Madagascar – no restrictions.
132797		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus posteli</em> is found only in the Western Indian Ocean and is known only from Madagascar, Natal in South Africa, and southern Mozambique. Reported southernmost occurrence at Park Rynie (30.3343° S, 30.7342° E) in KwaZulu-Natal (D. King pers. comm.); northernmost occurrence in Mozambique at Ponta Zavora (24.52° S, 35.20361° E) Mozambique (South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity). In Madagascar, reported from commercial fishing boats operating from Tamatave, between 15° S, 21.30° S (A. Pages pers. comm.). Also reported in catches from Réunion (D. Miossec pers. comm., IFREMER).
132797		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus posteli</em> is a coral reef-associated that appears to be rare and found at depths of 20 to 50 m. It is of some importance to South African sport fishers along the northern coast of Natal. One specimen measured 1,055 mm, 14.2 kg from Mozambique (Oceanographic Research Institute unpub. data).
132797		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus posteli</em> is rare in catch throughout its range and apparently rare in the wild.<br/><br/><strong>Fsiheries-independent</strong><br/>As well as being range-restricted, this species is probably not abundant. Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) categorized it as rare during informal diving (8 to 45 m) and angling surveys on coral reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, south Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point, and yet very few <em>E. posteli</em> were observed. In a more formal survey, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) did not record this species in shallow (9 to 13m) UVC surveys in these reserves between 1987 and 1992. Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson 1996, Pereira 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fsiheries-dependent</strong><br/>Not recorded in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Not recorded from commercial boat catches from central KZN coast 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy upub. data). It was not reported from commercial hook and line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al</em>. 1994). Not recorded during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique (2000 to 2005; Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute pers. comm.), or trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1999 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est. pers. comm.) reported that <em>E. posteli</em> was caught very rarely in commercial vessels operating out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar.
132797		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus posteli</em> currently is loss of habitat through episodes of reef bleaching and overfishing, particularly given its apparent rarity. Bleaching in the range of this species is likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Netting on reefs has resulted in loss of habitat in Mozambique and Madagascar (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001). Commercial fishing in Mozambique appears to have stabilized, although there has been a steady expansion of the fishing grounds northwards. Artisanal effort is relatively low on offshore reefs.
132798		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> is classified as ‘Least Concern’ in Australia (Northern Territory), but there are no species measures in place for this species within its range.
132798		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> is a tropical western Pacific species distributed from Indonesia, the Philippines, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, northern Australia and New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and north to Japan and South Korea. The Queensland record possibly originates from the Gulf of Carpenteria.
132798		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> seems to prefer soft (sedimentary) bottom, rather than rocky areas and most specimens have been taken on mud or silty sand bottoms in depths of 40 to 235 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Nothing has been published on the biology of this species. Maximum size: 35.0 cm SL (Randall and Heemstra 1991).
132798		population	eng	There is no known information on <em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> and it is apparently rare.
132798		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> is primarily threatened by commercial trawl fishing, particularly in northern Australia (Errity C. M. 2003) and Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah (Rumpet <em>et al.</em> 1998). It may also be taken as bycatch in Northern Prawn Fishery in Australia (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2001).
132799		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is protected in marine parks in Hong Kong. It is also protected in marine reserves in Queensland and Western Australia and Northern Territory. Subject to size and bag limits in Queensland.
132799		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is widespread within the Indo-Malay region and occurs from the Andaman Islands to northern New South Wales (29° 47' S) and Western Australia (Shark Bay), north to Japan and Korea.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Taiwan Province of China, Philippines, Japan, Korea.<br/><br/><strong>Introductions</strong><br/>Hawaii introduced <em>E. quoyanus</em> in 1956, but it did not establish.
132799		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is a sedentary species of shallow (0 to 50 m), often silty, inshore, waters. Longfin grouper are well camouflaged when lying close to <em>Platygyra</em> coral heads, the polyps of which have a similar size and shape to the spots of the fish (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Size, maturity and reproduction</strong><br/>The maximum size is reported to be 40 cm TL (Lau and Li 2000). 50% of female maturity size is about 19 cm SL (i.e., 24 cm TL) (Allen To personal communication).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, the spawning season is April-May (Sadovy, 1998). <em>E. quoyanus</em> is protogynous hermaphroditic on the basis of gonadal histology (Allen To pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> feeds on shrimps, worms, small fishes (e.g., Apogonidae and Blenniidae species) and crabs (Connell 1998, Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
132799		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is not observed frequently during underwater surveys. There is no other information on population trends for the species. <em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> was one of the most common groupers in shallow and inter-tidal, eastern, waters of Hong Kong in the 1960s; however, it is not observed frequently today (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent</strong><br/>In Sabah, <em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is lumped together with other groupers and catch trends are decreasing. This situation is inferred in other areas in Southeast Asia.
132799		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is of some economic importance in fisheries in Hong Kong and Taiwan (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and can be found in live reef fish food markets in Hong Kong and likely other parts of Southeast Asia. Small juveniles of 2 to 5 cm have been collected in the summer and larger fish are taken by gill nets, hand-line and traps (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Allen To pers. comm.). <br/><br/><strong>Aquaculture</strong><br/>Juveniles are grown-out in cages in small scales in southeast Asia. In Hong Kong markets, >30% of fish sold are immature with price of HK$128 to 180/kg and >85% are caught from local waters (Allen To, pers. comm.).
132800		conservation	eng	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> occurs within marine protected areas within its range, but there are no specific conservation actions for this fish.
132800		distribution	eng	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species ranging from northern Mozambique to French Polynesia, north to Okinawa (Japan), and south to the northern Great Barrier Reef (Australia). It is unknown from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, but has been recorded from Europa Island (in the Mozambique Channel), Réunion, Mauritius, Indonesia, Scott Reef and Rowley Shoals (Australia).
132800		habitat	eng	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> is a reef-associated species and an active swimmer usually found on outer reef slopes and channels adjacent to deep water. It hovers above the bottom and probably feeds primarily on fishes. It is uncommon and usually solitary, however Myers (1989) reported of occasional sightings of groups of three or four fish.
132800		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Gracila albomarginata</em> is widely distributed and rare in most localities within its range, preferring deeper water habitat.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent and independent</strong><br/>Out of 17,000 serranids, only five individuals were observed in the South Pacific (IRD database). Only one specimen seen in Guam in 15 years of monitoring (creel census data) (Myers pers. comm.). A survey of 1,848 serranids over a seven month period in Pohnpei in 2006 did not find any of this species in catch in the reef fish fishery (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). The species is relatively rare on reefs in Pohnpei.
132800		threats	eng	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> may be threatened by small-scale commercial and artisinal fisheries in some areas as it is a rare species, in general. It may also be sensitive to habitat loss through coral destruction and climate change.
132801		conservation	eng	<em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> occurs in some marine protected areas throughout its range.
132801		distribution	eng	<em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> occurs only in the western Indian Ocean from Kenya to South Africa, and is found in the Comoros, Madagascar, Seychelles, Aldabra, Mauritius, St. Brandon's Shoals, Nazareth Bank, and the Chagos Archipelago (Randall and Hoese 1986), as well as southern Oman, Socotra (Yemen), Somalia. It is unknown from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and the Asian coast from Arabia to (but not including) India (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132801		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> is usually found in shallow water (less than 30 m). Occurs solitary or in small groups. Often drifts well above the bottom (Lieske and Myers 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Kyushin <em>et al.</em> (1977) reported three specimens from the Nazareth Bank (NE of St Brandon’s Shoals) that were caught on a vertical long-line at depths of 45 to 62 m.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds exclusively on fishes (parrotfishes, wrasses, holocentrids, acanthurids, a triggerfish, and a juvenile <em>Sphyraena</em>) (Morgans 1986).
132801		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> is relatively uncommon over most of its range, and probably in decline in part of its range due to fishing pressure.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Field studies have been undertaken to the atolls and islands of Cosmoledo, Farquhar and Praslin, where aggregations of <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> were documented. Similar to <em>P. leopardus</em> on the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> aggregations at Cosmoledo Atoll comprised around 50 individuals and formed on the edge of the outer reef slope. There is some evidence to suggest that Cosmoledo is host to numerous, small aggregations of this species. Whether or not this reproductive strategy makes <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> less vulnerable to overfishing, needs to assessed (Robinson 2004).
132801		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> is overfishing, including commercial and recreational line fishing, the live reef fish trade, and aquarium fish collecting (juveniles). According to Morgans (1982), <em>P. punctatus</em> was common in markets of Zanzibar in the 1950s. It probably is (or was) of commercial importance in the Seychelles and Mauritius. Caught with hook and line, trolling, spear and on benthic long-lines (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132802		conservation	eng	<strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is not clear how much compliance there is in Tanzania and Mozambique. In Kenya the protected habitat is too shallow to affect this species. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast to the shelf edge is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers. There are no known protections for this species in other parts of its range.
132802		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus poecilonotus</em> is a widespread, but has a disjunct distribution within the Indo-West Pacific ranging from the east coast of Africa to Japan, Korea, South China Sea, Viet Nam, and Fiji. It is unknown from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific locales</strong><br/>Port Alfred, South Africa (33°31' S), through Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya to southern Somalia, (not known from the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf), southern Oman (latter = Myers). Western Indian Ocean islands. West and East coasts of mainland India (Myers), Maldives. Sri Lanka. Indonesia/Malaysia (Sumatra, Sunda shelf, Bali, excluding Iryan-Jaya and the Malayan peninsula - Myers). Vietnam, Taiwan, southern Japan, Fiji. No important sites identified; reportedly common on East coast of Madagascar between 15° S, 21.30° S (see Population section below).
132802		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits relatively deep water (45 to 375 m), but a lower latitudes occurs in shallower waters. It attains at least 63 cm TL and 4 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>“Nearly ripe” fish caught in November and December on Kenyan North Banks (Morgans 1964). Females mature at around 41 cm (Morgans 1982). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Diet comprises fish and crustaceans (Morgans 1964).
132802		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Heemstra and Randall (1993) describe <em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> as rare (because of a scarcity of specimens, ascribed to its preferring deep water), with the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific populations apparently separated. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> was seldom recorded (16 individuals of 1,378 groupers examined) in catches from reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Not recorded from commercial hook and line catches from central KZN coast 2001 to 2006 (12,000 individual groupers; Fennessy unpub. data). Not reported from commercial hook and line catches from southern Mozambique in the early 1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Reported from late 1998s onwards - five individuals of 597 groupers in 1998 (Lichucha <em>et al.</em> 2000); reported every year from 2000 to 2005 (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.; no numbers provided), probably as the boats started fishing on deeper reefs. Contributed 4% (44 of 993 groupers) to a deep-water (>100 m) trap fishery in southern Mozambique in 1997 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species was common. Morgans (1964) recorded 19 individuals (of 689 groupers - 3% by no.) of this species in catches at depths of 95 to 130 m on the North Kenya Banks. Not reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER). Described as rare in Japan – caught sometimes on offshore banks (Dr. A. Ebisawa, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries and Ocean Research Center, pers. comm.).
132802		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major potential threat to <em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> is overfishing. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>In the western end of its range, most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The majority of this is concentrated on shallower reefs, so the deeper regions of this species’ habitat are less exploited, particularly by small-scale fishers. Since 2000, commercial fishing in Mozambique has increased on deeper reefs – up to 190 m (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2003); fishing on deeper reefs is increasing throughout the region as shallower reefs are depleted. No information is presented here on fishing within the eastern portion of its range, although trawling along the coasts of Taiwan, Japan and China is intense and may pose a problem for this species.
132803		conservation	eng	There is nothing specific for <em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em>, although it occurs in Similan Islands, a marine protected area.
132803		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is an eastern Indian Ocean species found in Thailand (coast near Phuket in the East Andaman Sea), Indonesia (off Sumatra), and the Similan Islands (Thailand). The distribution of this species is probably more extensive, but it has only recently been described.
132803		habitat	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is a reef-associated found in mixed coral and rubble in 3 to 20 m. Generally in small groups in the same coral/rubble patch. The smallest mature female examined was 13 cm SL (Randall and Satapoomin 2000). The maximum size of collected specimens is 17 cm SL.
132803		population	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is recently recorded. The species is fairly common in the Similan Islands. No fisheries information is currently available, but it appears in markets in southern Thailand where it occurs. The known distribution is restricted.
132803		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is overfishing and habitat destruction.  It is caught locally by fisheries as incidental catch.
132804		conservation	eng	No measures specific to <em>Epinephelus ongus</em> are known, although it likely occurs in marine protected areas in some parts of its range.
132804		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species distributed from East Africa to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Marshall Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, and northern Australia.  It is recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is also reported from Somalia and India by Heemstra and Randall (1984), but valid records and specimens have not been found (Randall and Heemstra 1991). It is closely related to <em>Epinephelus summana</em>, known only from the Red Sea.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia), Fiji, Indonesia (Bali, Java, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago, North Solomons), Philippines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, and Vanuatu.
132804		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits inner coastal and lagoon reefs, but is also found in brackish waters where it occurs in ledges and caves. Adults are usually found in 20 to 60+ m depth (IRD database). It has been reported to occur in middle and outer shelf reefs, lagoons and back-reefs (Newman <em>et al</em> 1997, Pears 2005). It maximum size is reported to be 40.0 cm TL (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) but more usually 25 cm SL (31 cm TL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>A cryptic species, feeds mainly macrofauna (crabs fishes shrimps and prawns) (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and growth</strong><br/>The sex ratio recorded from experimental fishing is 8:21 males-to-females. Only 5% of fish over 35 cm TL (IRD database).<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations in northern Borneo are thought to be extirpated. In Sabah, spawning is reported to occur January-April and December (Daw 2004).<br/><br/>Munro and Williams (1985) studied its growth within a Papua New Guinea population and length-weight relationships have been established for a New Caledonia population (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 1998).
132804		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is common in protected coral-rich habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is the most dominant serranid species in the Naha market in Okinawa (Craig 2007). It represented 0.3% of experimental grouper catch in New Caledonia (IRD database). It is not common in catch in the Maldives fishery. There are declining catches of serranids that includes this species in the live and dead fish markets in Sabah.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Very low densities 15- to 0 fish/50 km sq. Highest densities on fringing reefs. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Spawning aggregations reported around Kavieng, Papua New Guinea and Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005, Hamilton and Kama 2004) and reported to have a peak spawning season in many areas of Roviana Lagoon that occurs between October and January each year, but at some sites at least, spawning aggregations form over a much more extended period of the year (Hamilton and Kama 2004). Spawning aggregations are also reported in Sabah (Daw 2004).
132804		threats	eng	The two main threats to <em>Epinephelus ongus</em> are overfishing and habitat loss, particularly in areas where destructive fishing methods are used (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia). Although not very common, it is of some interest to fisheries in Japan (and probably elsewhere) and caught with hook and line spear and traps (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132805		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> has no specific management measures, but it is likely to occur in some marine protected areas.
132805		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> is an Indo-Pacific species found in scattered insular localities from the Comoros to the Line Islands and French Polynesia. It is unknown from the Red Sea, coast of East Africa, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Guinea, and the larger islands of Indonesia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Comoros, Mascarenes, Chagos Islands (British Indian Ocean Territory), Maldives, Christmas Island, Indonesia, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Cocos-Keeling Islands, Philippines, Okinawa (Japan), Palau, Guam, Solomon Islands, Society Islands (French Polynesia), Marianas Islands, New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and Line Islands.
132805		habitat	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs only at oceanic islands. It inhabits clear waters of steep drop-offs from 10 to 120 m and is rarely seen in less than 30 m. It has been taken in depths of 120 m and may occur deeper and is also found in caves and crevices. This species is typically solitary.
132805		population	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> is a rare, deep-water species. No fisheries information, except records from artisinal fisheries from Reunion are available.
132805		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> has a small potential for overfishing owing to its small size, and habit of dwelling in deep water and in caves.
132806		conservation	eng	In Brazil this is a common species in several  marine protected areas, including  APA dos Corais; Atol das Rocas; Fernando de Noronha in Brazil, as well as several protected areas in the Caribbean. There is a bag size limit in Florida for all groupers.
132806		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> is a western Atlantic species ranging from South Carolina (USA) and Bermuda to southern Brazil, including Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha (Froese and Pauly 2006, Teixeira 2005), Trindade Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001), and St. Paul’s Rocks (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Cuba, French Guiana, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, British Virgin Islands, and U.S. Virgin Islands.
132806		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species, that prefers coral reefs and clear water from depths of 1 to 40 m. Found above rocks and coral heads, rarely in the water column, usually hides in caves or under ledges during the day. In the Gulf of Mexico, it occurs in clear deep reefs (at least 45 m). At Bermuda and the West Indies, the species is common in shallow water, but it usually hides in caves or under ledges during the day. Wary, but approachable. Cleaned by Pederson's cleaner shrimp (<em>Periclimenes pedersoni</em>), scarlet striped cleaner shrimp (<em>Lysmata grabhami</em>), and goby (<em>Gobiosoma evelynae</em> and others) as observed on the coral reefs in Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. Also cleaned by <em>Thalassoma noronhanum</em> observed at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago off northeastern Brazil (Froese and Pauly 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The species is protogynous with females maturing at 16 cm TL and transforming to males at about 20 cm (Coehlo 2001). Males are territorial and form harems. Mature females transform to males at a length of about 20 cm. Spawning occurs just before sunset over several days, and a male will spawn daily with each of the several females in his harem. Spawning is pelagic and occurs in small groups composed of one male and multiple females. Fecundity estimates range from about 150,000 to 282,000 eggs per female; with eggs 0.95 mm in diameter and having a single oil globule. Larvae are reported to have a long period of larval duration with a large capability of dispersion (Freitas <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Although ripe ovaries are found from November to March off the west coast of Puerto Rico, spawning activity appears to be limited to several days around the last quarter and new moon phases during January and February (Figuerola <em>et al.</em> 1997). In some areas, the spawning season may be protracted. For example, off the central coast of Brazil, the period of reproductive activity can last up to ten months (Coelho 2001). However, shorter spawning periods were observed in other areas (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Shapiro 1987, apud Araújo and Martins 2006). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on small fishes and crustaceans (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005, Randall and Bishop 2004, Gasparini <em>et al.</em> 2001, Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000). May follow morays and snake eels to feed on flushed prey. The coney is a diurnal sit-and-wait predator, occasionally roving near the bottom, or following bottom-disturbing grubbers (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000, Sazima 1986). Juveniles mimic damselfish and feed opportunistically on fishes within damselfish schools (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005). Coney is alert and opportunistic predator, as other epinepheline groupers and would be expected to inspect almost every moving animal (Sazima and Grossman 2005). Coney is the dominant carnivore in Atol das Rocas (and nearby Fernando de Noronha), and in some tropical coastal sites like Tamandaré and Guarapari Islands (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Age, growth and maturity</strong><br/>Potts and Manooch (1999) examined the otoliths from 55 coney that were collected during 1979 to 1997 from North Carolina to the Dry Tortugas, Florida. The maximum reported age was 11 years and maximum size was 39.7 cm (15.7 in) TL. Araujo and Martins (2005) reported and size-ranges of 172 to 428 mm total length (TL) and maximum observed ages of 25 years, a maximum age well above that previously reported for coney. The von Bertalan¡y growth equation was TLt¼316(17e70.138(tþ5.301). Natural mortality rate is estimated as 0.18 (Ault <em>et al.</em> 1998). The estimated theoretical growth parameters show that coney grows fast in early life, achieving about 60% of the theoretical maximum size in the first year and then growing very slowly after the first few years (Araújo and Martins 2006).
132806		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Common even in intensively fished areas (Sadovy 1992, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Froese and Pauly 2000, Roberts pers. obs.), including in western Atlantic and Trindade (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> is caught in mixed catches in shallow waters in Caribbean.  A decrease in catch was observed in the 80’s following an increase in the in trap effort (Bannerot <em>et al.</em> 1987). Morris <em>et al.</em> (2000) states that coney is a very important species in the commercial fisheries of the West Indies. Scarce in sampling fisheries in Caribbean sea (Martinique) (Gorbet 1990).  In St. Paul’s Rocks is was considered rare in 2001. Authors think that this minor population originated from Fernando de Noronha where is very common (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Genetic flow: Freitas <em>et al</em>. (2003), using isozymes’ electrophorese, analysed samples from populations of <em>Cephalopholis fulva</em>, from the Atol das Rocas (mid Atlantic) and the Northeastern Brazilian Coasts, and found no genetic difference, concluding that there is genetic flow between the Atoll and the coast (genic identity, I = 1,000; FST = 0,048 P>0,05). They speculated that the high homogeneity might be associated to a elevated dispersion capability and larval production.<br/><br/><em>Santa Lucia</em><br/>The fisheries database shows 2005 annual fish landings for <em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> of 4.59 tons (S. Scott, Senior Fisheries Biologist, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Point Seraphine, Castries, Saint Lucia, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>Coney is a relatively abundant species of the line fishing fleet between Cabo São Tomé and Salvador (Brazilian Coast) and also along the northeastern Brazilian coast, where it is the most abundant serranid registered in artisanal catch (Lessa and Nóbrega, 2000). In this area, is caught together with lutjanid species and is one of the species responsible for characterizing the typologies in the reef fishery of northeastern Brazil (Fredou <em>et al.</em> 2006). Artisanal catch data from northeastern Brazil showed coney to represent 2.4% of total abundance and occurred in 15% of catches overall (Fredou <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, these figures may underestimated take of coney, which is also used as live bait, consumed on board or taken home and thus not registered in statistics.  Klippel <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimated landings of coney in the Abrolhos-Vitória area as 1,116 t/year, almost six times higher than reported in official statistics. Catch per unit effort estimated for the region varied between 0.03 and 3.35 kgs/fisher/day (Klippel <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/>Coney was the most abundant serranid during surveys in Brazilian reefs using UVC (mean/m²) and significantly more abundant in unfished areas (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2004).
132806		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The main threats to Coney are overfishing. <br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>In the Caribbean Sea and South Atlantic Ocean the status of coney is considered unknown (Status of Fisheries, 1997-2006), although the species is considered at lower risk extinction. Although this species is very important in the West Indian commercial fisheries, coney are a relatively small, early reproducing fish, and coney are shown to be common even in intensively fished areas (Sadovy 1992, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Morris <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><em>Honduras</em><br/>In Nassava Island (one of nine National Wildlife Refuges administered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex), grouper considered common in the 1970s and 1990s, were rare during a study conducted by McClellan and Miller in 2002, and preliminary analysis suggests serial overfishing is occurring (Miller 2003). In Haiti, since large grouper species are extremely rare within fish community in recent years, smaller grouper such as coney are now targeted (Miller 2003). <br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>The collapse of the Abrolhos-Vitoria (17 to 18° S) fisheries in the 1980s led fishers to turn to other resources.  By the end of the 80’s, a new market developed with the deep frozen or fast frozen techniques. The mains targets for this fishery are lutjanids and smaller serranids, including coney and yellow tail snapper (from Martins <em>et al.</em> 2005).  <br/><br/>In the 1990s, coney was one of the species most used as live bait in commercial fisheries in Northeast of Brazil for catch of large fishes, such as black grouper and was also traditionally consumed by fishermen and their families. Today, however, coney has been reduced in commercial fisheries to the point where they are now kept for personal consumption rather then utilized it as bait. As a result, others small species (e.g. <em>Holocentrus adscensionis</em>) are exploited as bait. (Rezende, S., pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Araújo and Martins (2006), coney has a maximum age comparable to larger serranids, suggesting comparable natural mortality rates, and thus, susceptibility to fisheries.
132807		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is now being bred and released back into the wild for stock enhancement purposes in Japan (Anon 2003). It may also be protected in some marine protected areas in various places within its range.
132807		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is a Northwest Pacific species  known with certainty only from Japan, Korea, and China. Reports from other areas appear to be based on misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>octofasciatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Japan, South Korea, North Korea, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan. Reports from other areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans (primarily to the south) appear to be based on misidentifications of <em>H. octofasciatus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>The geographic range of this species is restricted to only subtropical to warm temperate (~24 to ~40° N) north-eastern Asian waters (around Japan, Korea and China), and all other records (including fisheries catch records) from other areas of the Indo-Pacific region apparently refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. octofasciatus</em>.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em> septemfasciatus</em> is, however, cultivated for aquaculture purposes outside this range (e.g., in Italy).
132807		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species that occurs near shore, including semi-enclosed sea areas in rocky reefs in shallow waters. The species is commercially cultured in Japan and, apparently, in Italy. Specimens recorded from deepwater seamounts (down to ~360 m) are probably <em>H. octofasciatus</em>, which is known to be a deepwater species. The maximum recorded size of the species is ~155 cm and ~63 kg. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and has been bred and raised in captivity (Kitajima <em>et al.</em> 1991, Anon 2003). There are numerous references in the scientific literature to its reproduction, diseases and parasites, etc. in relation to its aquaculture potential.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>It is a macrofaunal predator, feeding on small fishes and crustaceans.
132807		population	eng	The population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is unknown, but wild populations have reputedly been depleted to some extent by fishing in some parts of its range.
132807		threats	eng	No specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> have been reported, although it has reputedly been heavily exploited throughout large parts of its range. The fact that it is now being bred in captivity and released back into the wild is encouraging in this regard (Anon 2003).<br/><br/>This species is of some commercial fisheries importance in Japan, and probably also in Korea and China (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). Much interest has been shown in it more recently, in Japan and elsewhere, as an aquaculture species (e.g., Moon <em>et al.</em> 1999).
132808		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is found in marine protected areas in some parts of its range. In some areas, it has been shown to migrate out of park boundaries and can be caught 50 m beyond the boundaries of park (Zeller <em>et al</em>. 2003). There are no specific measures for this species.<br/><br/>Although it occurs in a marine protected area in Sabah, visual census has not reported any observations of this species over 10 yrs. Therefore, the park may not be effective for this particular species.
132808		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is a western Pacific species found from the Philippines to Australia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Dampier Islands (off Western Australia) to the Capricorn Islands (off the southern Great Barrier Reef); including Palau, New Britain (Papua New Guinea) and the Solomon Islands (Heemstra and Randall 1993); East Andaman Sea (Allen and Stone 2005), Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia.
132808		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is a reef-associated species found at depths from 1 to 50 m. It inhabits shallow protected coastal reefs, in seagrass beds, and in coral-rich areas (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter and Konozuka 2001). Feeds on crustaceans and fishes (Myers 1999). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>C. cyanostigma</em> individuals 9.8 to 21.4 cm: about 75% of diet are fishes, apogonids, pomacentrids, caeesionids, clupeids, and 25 % Small invertebrates (Beukers-Stewart and Jones 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/><em>C. cyanostigma</em> may live up to 46 years (Mosse 1997). Late onset of sexual maturity, long spawning season (seven months) (Mosse 1997). The species is listed as protogynous; male to female ratio in Great Barrier Reef is 0.4:1 (Mosse 1997). Vulnerable to overfishing, regional variability in growth rates (Mosse 1997).
132808		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is the most abundant small serranid on the Great Barrier Reef (avg. 7.52 individuals per 1,000 m², but more abundant on the  mid rather than the outer shelf) (Pears 2005). It is common in Bali and found in the Solomon Islands (Beeing pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Visual census surveys in Sabah in the late 1990s show that the species is no longer found (Greenforce, Cabanban pers. comm.).
132808		threats	eng	<em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is vulnerable to overfishing (Mosse 1997) and habitat degradation (fish-bombing, sedimentation; bleaching in some areas). It is found in incidental and subsistence fisheries and occasionally in the live reef food fish trade.
132809		conservation	eng	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout it range.
132809		distribution	eng	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is an eastern Pacific species found from the Gulf of California (Mexico) to extreme northern Peru, including the off-shore islands of Cocos (Costa Rica) and Malpelo (Colombia).
132809		habitat	eng	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is a demersal, non-migratory rocky reef and shallow-water species, cryptically colored and secretive. The species is sedentary during the day, hiding in crevices or lying among seaweed, and rely on their effective camouflage to escape detection (sometimes lying and partly covering itself with sand). They are nocturnal predators feeding mainly on benthic crustaceans.
132809		population	eng	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is more common in south of its range and becomes less common in north of its range where <em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> becomes the more common of the two species. The species is not known to be in decline.
132809		threats	eng	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is not currently targeted by commercial fishery, but it is caught in artisanal fishery.
132810		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range, but no specific measures are targeted toward this species. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Export quotas for this species in the Maldives  are 10,000 individuals yr<sup>-1</sup>. White-edged lyretail falls under the general rules for bag and size limits of groupers in Queensland.
132810		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species ranging from the east coast of Africa (Zanzibar and Mafia Island, Tanzania) to Samoa, north to Ryukyu Islands (Japan), south to Queensland (Australia), and Mozambique. It is also found in East Andaman Sea (Thailand; Allen and Stone 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Southwest coast of India, Seychelles, western Thailand, Spratly Islands, Scott Reef (northwest coast of Australia), and the Cook Islands.
132810		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is a reef associated species that is found in depths ranging from 4 to 200 m. White-edged lyretail is a generally uncommon species that inhabits seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1984). Juveniles are typically found inshore on algae and soft coral reefs, usually swimming well above the substrate and looking much like a basslet (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Adults are usually found in small groups (Opic <em>et al.</em> 1994). The fish is highly ciguatoxic in some areas within its range (e.g. New Caledonia) (Kulbicki pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is piscivorous. <br/><br/><strong>Life history: General</strong><br/>The species has a reported max. length of 65.0 cm TL (male/unsexed; Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and fish ranging 163 to 250 mm SL were reported to be one to five years old (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Population parameters from Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006:<br/>Linf = 244±7; K = 0.97±0.14<br/><br/>Long-lived and faster-growing but catch rates are low and variable requiring precautionary approach in exploitation (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).
132810		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is a generally uncommon species (Lieske and Myers 1984). However, white-edged lyretail are common in the Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands and Bali, uncommon in areas of Micronesia (e.g. Pohnpei) and Timor and very uncommon on the Great Barrier Reef (H. Choat pers. comm.). <em>Variola albimarginata</em> is often mis-identified as <em>V. louti</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The species represented less than 1% of total catch within the coral reef fish fishery in Pohnpei in 2006 (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). No other catch details are available for this species, as it is often lumped together with other species in catch statistics. Overall grouper catch is reported declining in Indonesia. Fry <em>et al.</em> (2006) caught 19 individuals (239±7 mm SL; 352±26 g) on volcanic seamount, Lihir Island Group, Papua New Guinea. Not uncommon in the hook and line fishery in Mozambique. From the 1950s to 2002, annual decline in catch from 70 kg yr<sup>-1</sup> to about 15 kg yr<sup>-1</sup> (CNMI) (Zeller 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Moderately abundant in unfished waters.
132810		threats	eng	<em>Variola albimarginata</em> is important to subsistence and commercial fishery throughout its range and is captured for the Live Reef Fish Trade. Its low and variable catch rate suggest a precautionary approach in exploitation (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).
132811		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is a fully protected species in California and presumably occurs in protected areas within other parts of its range.
132811		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is found within the eastern central Pacific and ranges from San Francisco Bay, California (USA) to southern Peru. The holotype was reported from the Galápagos Islands and this is the only record from there; it is more than likely that the specimen has been mislabeled and is probably actually from Peru (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967).
132811		habitat	eng	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is a demersal species that occurs from mangrove areas to over hard bottom of the continental shelf and the slope. According to Thomson <em>et al.</em> (1979), this species prefers mangrove estuaries.  Adults and juveniles occur in shallow water with adults found to depths of 60 m.
132811		population	eng	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is abundant in a portion of its range (southern Baja California). There is only one record from San Francisco, USA. Surveys with fishermen indicated that this species was once more abundant in Mexico.
132811		threats	eng	The fishery is not a major threat, but <em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is incidentally caught. Perhaps the major threat to the species is loss of habitat (mangrove habitat) from infrastructure development for housing and tourism.
132812		conservation	eng	There is no known conservation measures for <em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em>.
132812		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em> is a western Pacific species distributed from the Andaman Sea to southern Japan, Taiwan, China, Philippines, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Arafura Sea, north-western Australia, and Fiji (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132812		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em> occurs on coral and rocky reefs in depths of 80 to 130 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Tseng and Chan (1985) discussed food, rearing procedures and larval development <em> E. amblycephalus</em> from Hong Kong.
132812		population	eng	There are no population data for <em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em>.
132812		threats	eng	Overfishing is the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em>. <em>E. amblycephalus</em> is a popular and commercially important species in Hong Kong (Tseng and Chan 1985), but in Singapore is “Not a popular grouper in the market” (Tan <em>et al.</em> 1982). The species is presently rarely observed in Hong Kong markets (Min pers. comm.).
132813		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is unlikely to occur in any protected areas. More information is needed on threats to this species as well as population status and trends.
132813		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is a western Pacific species that occurs in Indonesia (from Java eastwards), Philippines, Taiwan, Solomon Islands and New Britain (Papua New Guinea).
132813		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is found on mud or rocky or cobble bottoms. The species appears to be one of the rarest groupers in the Indo-Pacific region, nothing has been published on its biology.
132813		population	eng	There is very little information on <em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> population status and trends. It is common in suitable habitats in Bali (Rob Myers  pers. comm.)
132813		threats	eng	It is not known whether <em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is found in fisheries.
132814		conservation	eng	<em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is found in protected areas throughout its range, but there are no conservation measures specific to this species.
132814		distribution	eng	<em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species found from the Red Sea to South Africa, east to Samoa and Phoenix Islands, and north to southern Honshu (Japan). It is probably found around all tropical islands of the Indian Ocean (but is not yet recorded from Mauritius). It is recorded from Europa Island (MNHN 1992-0475).
132814		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is a reef-associated species found in coastal reefs and lagoons, often silty habitat, in or near caves and holes in the reef ranging from 1 to 60 m. Small juveniles mimic <em>Centropyge vrolikii</em>, and <em>C. nox</em> until they outgrow their model in size. It is found in Hong Kong live fish markets.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> feeds mainly on small fishes (including <em>Pempheris</em> spp.), also on stomatopods (<em>Pseudosquilla</em> spp.) and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Preliminary data indicate that the species spawns at any time of the year and matures (females?) at about 35 cm SL. Not known to form spawning aggregations (<a href="http://www.scrfa.org">Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA)</a>).
132814		population	eng	<em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is widespread, but typically uncommon with variable regional abundance. It is occasionally found in markets, but no detailed population information is available.
132814		threats	eng	The primary threat to <em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is overfishing, and it is incidentally captured by artisinal and small-scale commercial fishers. It is also vulnerable to habitat loss (coral removal or loss).
132815		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The species is likely to occur in marine protected areas within some parts of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>New Caledonia has restricted fishing during the spawning months in the area of the known spawning aggregations.<br/><br/>In Australia listed as “lower risk, least concern” (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002), with a 35 cm minimum size limit and a bag limit of five fish (mixed species) (Department of Primary Industries 2003, Queensland, Australia).<br/><br/>The export of live fish by sea is banned in Malaysia and Indonesia. The trade in live fish is currently banned in the Philippines (Cabanban pers. comm.).
132815		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> is a western Pacific species, occurring from southern Japan to southern Queensland (Australia), the Gulf of Thailand, and east to Fiji, the islands of Micronesia (Heemstra and Randall 1993) (except for the Marianas), and to Tonga (Myers distributional database 2006, Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). The record from Western Australia in the Indian Ocean is dubious; the species is replaced by <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> in the Indian Ocean (Myers 1989).
132815		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Speckled blue grouper are usually found around isolated coral heads in lagoons or bays, but are also caught on outer reef areas, in depths of 2 to 150 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). According to Myers (1999) it usually swims out in the open, several meters above the bottom. It is readily caught by anglers at night (Grant 1975). Reports of ciguatera poisoning (Myers 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The species feeds mainly on sand-dwelling fishes and crustaceans such as snake eels and box crabs (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005, Thollot 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Size distribution</strong><br/>Max size: 120 cm TL.
132815		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> is relatively uncommon throughout most of its range, but is common within some locales (e.g., New Caledonia). <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific data</strong><br/><strong><em>New Caledonia</em></strong><br/><em>Reproduction</em><br/>This species is known to aggregate for spawning in Dumbea Pass (November to December), mixed with other species of groupers, in particular <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.) Chauvet (2005).<br/><br/><em>Fisheries-independent</em><br/>The <em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> stock in New Caledonia’s southwestern lagoon has been studied since 1992. An assessment by diving visual census was done of spawning aggregations every spring and recruitment every summer. Moreover, fisheries are monitored by the Fishery Service.<br/><br/><em>Fisheries-dependent</em><br/>Data on commercial catches and fishing effort have been analyzed and a demographic study has been carried out (samples in catches and otolith analysis). The results show firstly, a regular decrease of the aggregation size and a real collapse since 1998; secondly, a high variation in recruitment success (exceptional one in 1996 followed by a big one in 1997); thirdly, an adult stock demography dominated by one or two successful cohorts (the stock size increased in 1999 and the bigger sizes were in 2000 and 2001). The collapse in spawning aggregations could be the consequence of the disturbance caused by the fishermen (recreational fishing). However, it seems that the recruitment success could be linked with the ENSO climatic system, although 12 years of observation is too short to draw conclusions. Stock size depends on variable recruitment (stochastic) and variations in stock size can be predicted by the previous recruitment knowledge. Therefore the size of spawning aggregations is not an index of the size of the stock (Chauvet 2005). In experimental fishing trials in New Caledonia (1984 to 2005) (383 individuals), the sex ratio was ~1:10 males-to-females I (IRD database), with the smallest male 52 cm TL and the smallest female 31.5 cm TL.<br/><br/>Previously uncommon in New Caledonia, but following a large recruitment event in 1997 to 1998, this species has become one of  the most common serranid in markets. Experimental fishing indicated that there was an increase in abundance of approximately 30% (1987 to 2000). The average size of individuals (3.5 kg) remained steady (IRD database).<br/><br/><strong><em>Fiji</em></strong><br/>One of several groupers that aggregate in large numbers in, or near, the channels and  passes of Fiji’s outer reefs for just a few months each year (Sadovy 2005).<br/><br/><strong><em>Australia</em></strong><br/>On the Great Barrier Reef occurs on mid – outer shelf reefs in densities 0.03 to 0.18 fish/100 m² (Pears unpub. data)<br/><br/><strong><em>Hong Kong</em></strong><br/>This species was common on Pratas Reef and Macclesfield Bank during the 60s (Chan 1968).
132815		threats	eng	The major threat to speckled blue grouper is overfishing. The species appears in Hong Kong live fish markets and is targeted within spawning aggregations, while juveniles are often collected by the aquarium trade.
132816		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures is in place for <em>Saloptia powelli</em> and no marine protected areas occur within its depth range.
132816		distribution	eng	<em>Saloptia powelli</em> is distributed within the South China Sea and western Pacific to French Polynesia. It has been reported from Taiwan, Okinawa (Japan), Mariana Islands, Society Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, South China Sea, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Tuamotu Islands, Vanuatu (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Dalzell and Preston 1992).
132816		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Saloptia powelli</em> is found on rocky substrates in deep water. Nothing is known or published on its biology. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Saloptia powelli</em> is captured by dropline fishing in 100 to 200 m depth in Pacific Island countries (Dalzell and Preston 1992). It is an important component of the deep water handline fishery in the Marianas (Polovina and Ralston 1987).
132816		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>No current information on population trends or abundance for <em>Saloptia powelli</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Saloptia powelli</em> was considered a virgin stock in the 1970s to 1980s (Dalzell and Preston 1992). It is taken in deep water drop line and handline fisheries throughout most of the Pacific; in the Cook Islands this species dominated the grouper catch (Polovina and Ralston 1987, Dalzell and Preston 1992). It is likely to be taken in any deep water fisheries within its range and is specifically is targeted in Japan.
132816		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <em>Saloptia powelli</em> is overfishing. It is not protected through any conservation measures (beyond the depth range of many marine protected areas), therefore research is recommended to assess this interesting monotypic species.
132817		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> occurs in numerous marine protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Africa</em><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007), however compliance is variable. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which should offer further protection to this species. <br/><br/><em>South Africa</em><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. <br/><br/><em>Mozambique</em><br/>In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.<br/><br/><em>Australia</em><br/>Occurs throughout the GBR Marine Park, and there are also size and bag limit restrictions for the recreational fishery in the state of Queensland, Australia. <br/><br/><em>Philippines</em><br/>In the Philippines in the Tubataha Marine Protected Area, Sulu Sea.
132817		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is an Indo-Pacific species ranging from the Red Sea to Port Alfred (South Africa) (33°36’S), eastward to the Pitcairn Group, north to Japan and Korea, and south to the Arafura Sea, southern Queensland and Lord Howe Island (Australia). The species is one of the two most widely distributed groupers. It may not occur off Wallace and Futuna islands.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Red Sea, Somalia (Myers distributional database 2006), Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal South Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Comores, Mauritius, Réunion, Oman (Myers distributional database 2006), Yemen, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, southern Vietnam, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia (Northern Australia, Western Australia, Queensland, Great Barrier Reef), Papua-New Guinea, Taiwan, southern Japan, Korea, southern China, Fiji, Tonga, Solomon Islands, Samoa, and New Caledonia. Source: Heemstra and Randall (1993), unless otherwise stated.
132817		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is a reef-associated species that is common in outer reef slopes at depths below 15 m to 160 m. Less common on non-coral reefs. It also occurs in protected bays and lagoons as shallow as 4 m. Blacktip grouper may also be found down to a depth of 160 m. It occurs on mid-shelf reefs on the GBR, Queensland (Pears, 2005; Newman <em>et al</em> 1997) and is very common around dead coral blocks in seagrass beds in the Red Sea (southern Egypt) (Lieske and Myers 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>In Madagascar it feeds night and day on brachyuran crabs, fishes, shrimps, and galatheid crabs. In Kenyan waters it feeds on crabs, stomatopods, fishes, ophiuroids, and octopus and in the Red Sea, mostly fishes and some crustaceans (mainly crabs) are consumed (Morgans 1964, Harmein-Vivien and Bouchon 1976). In Tuamotu archipelago the species is reported as a macro-carnivore (Mellin <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Blacktip grouper is a small species (max. size to 40 cm TL), with a relatively fast growth rate and small size at maturity. The species is known to form spawning aggregations in Sabah (Daw, 2004). Backtip grouper can attain sexual maturity at 12 cm SL (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), although Myers (1999) gives a length of 16 cm (SL). Maximum age is reported at 19 years (Pears 2005) (Table 8). Reproductively active fish were obtained in February on the North Kenya Banks and/or off Mafia island, Tanzania (Nzioka, 1979). Spawning aggregations have been reported from Sabah, Eastern Malaysia (Daw 2004). A length-weight relationship is given by Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> (2005) of y g = 0.0138.x cm FL.3.04066. Male and females mature at the same size (20 cm) in New Caledonia to implies gonochorism for this species; sex rations of 2:1 females to male were established (IRD database).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 8</strong>: Growth parameters for <em>E. fasciatus</em> from the Great Barrier Reef (Lizard island, Townsville, Mackay, Pompey combined) and Seychelles (Northern and Southern Amirantes) (Pears 2005); New Caledonia (Loubens 1978).
132817		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is one of the most widespread and common of all grouper species. There are some questions about distinct sub-populations and there are also known declines in some areas. The species appears to be able to replace other larger grouper species that are fished out.<br/><br/><strong>Subpopulations</strong><br/>Up to six populations may exist, based on meristic and colour variation. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Intra-specific variation in <em>E. fasciatus</em> characters.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Not seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern-eastern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000). Not reported from the North Kenya Banks in the late 1950s (Morgans 1964). Reported in shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique coral reefs between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira 2003). In shallow (9 to 13 m) fixed transect UVC surveys in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al</em>. (1995) recorded five individuals out of 43 groupers, and rated it as common based on informal fishing and diving surveys in these MPAs. Classified as abundant (~27 individuals per 1,000 m² of reef) in the Seychelles (Pears 2005). On the west coast of India, this species was recorded at only one of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m; Sluka and Lazarus unpub.). Rare in Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Classified as rare (~0.6 individuals per 1,000 m² of reef) on the GBR (Pears 2005); low densities (0.22 to 0.89 fish/4,000 m²) in UVC dives on mid-shelf and outer-shelf reefs (Newman <em>et al</em>. 1997). In terms of densities, this species ranked 8th of 12 grouper species in French Polynesia, 10th of 18 grouper species in Tonga and 6th of 32 grouper species in New Caledonia. Densities were highest at the latter locality.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Densities (no. of fish/km²) of <em>E. fasciatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Few (n=4 of 130 groupers) recorded in linefish catches in the east African region by the mid 1970s (Nzioka 1977). Initially quite commonly recorded (8% of all groupers; only percentages available) in commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort during the civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em>, 1994). Subsequently (to 2005), its contribution to grouper catches fluctuated between 0 and 4% by number (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Not recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997-1998 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Not recorded from commercial boat line catches (12,094 groupers) from central KZN coast (non-coral reefs) from 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. data). Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon (1976) reported it to be one of the most abundant serranids in south-west Madagascar at depths of 20 to 45 m, although commercial fishers report it to be very rare off Tamatave on the East coast (A. Pages, Refrigepeche, Est. pers. comm.). Makes an important contribution to artisinal catches in Reunion (Table 3) and is a primary target of artisinal fishers in the Seychelles (Pittman 1996). This author also noted that it was particularly abundant on reefs of Baie Ternay Marine Park and Brizarre Rock. Spawning aggregations reported from Sabah, Eastern Malaysia (Daw 2004). Percentage contributions (assumed to be by number) to grouper catches from “essentially unexploited” deep-slope reefs were low in Micronesia (0.55%) and Polynesia (1.82%) - Dalzell and Preston (1992), reported in Dalzell <em>et al.</em> (1996).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for:<br/><strong>Table 3</strong>: Data from Yaeyama Is. fishing market (Ishigaki and Iriomote Island) of the southern part of Okinawa island.<br/><strong>Table 4</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery.<br/><strong>Table 5</strong>: Small-scale artisinal fishery catches (mt; voluntary estimated data provided by fishers) from Reunion.<br/><strong>Table 6</strong>: Catches (kg) from three localities in the Pacific.<br/><strong>Table 7</strong>: Length frequencies of <em>E. fasciatus</em>.
132817		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is loss of habitat from episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species that are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Other threats include dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs that have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><em>Fishing</em><br/>Most of the fishing effort for blacktip grouper in the region is small-scale, but it is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The species is caught for the live reef fish trade (Lee and Sadovy 1998).
132818		conservation	eng	<em>P. maculatus</em> is presently protected in eastern Australia by the GBRMPA marine park zoning system (Russ pers comm.) has reported a 20% increase in three years in coastal MPAs on the Great Barrier Reef relative to open reefs.
132818		distribution	eng	<em>Plectropomus maculatus</em> is known only from the western tropical Pacific: Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Australia (Western Australia to southern Queensland). The species was formerly listed for the western Indian Ocean (Heemstra and Randall 1984) due to a misidentification of <em>P. pessuliferus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>West Thailand-Myanmar, Bintan, Sumatra, Seribu, Java Bali, Malay/Singapore, east Indonesia, Togean Islands, Suluwasei, Ambon, Halimahera, Flores, Komodo Sunda Islands, Raja Ampat, West Papua, Philippines, Solomon Islands; northwest Australia, Great Barrier Reef, South Taiwan, Micronesia, and Palau.
132818		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>P. maculatus</em> inhabits largely coastal and inshore reefs contrasting with other species of <em>Plectropomus</em> that are mainly associated with offshore and oceanic reefs. Turbid water and coastal habitats have resulted in relatively few abundance estimates.  The depth of capture is typically from 5 to 50 m.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The reproductive biology of this species is complex (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1991). Adams (2002) concluded this species was a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite after sampling 104 individuals from the northern Great Barrier Reef. Histological examination revealed immature males with a primary testis configuration at one year of age, transitional gonads in females five to six years of age and the presence of females with precursory sperm sinuses. The operation sex ratio in the sample collection was 3.1F:1.0M. Maximum age of females was six years, males ten years suggesting all females changed sex. No evidence of large long-lived females was collected. <br/><br/>The most important aspect of the reproductive biology is the evidence for hybridization between <em>P. leopardus</em> and <em>P. maculatus</em> on the east coast of Australia (Frisch and van Herwerden 2006, van Herwerden <em>et al.</em> 2006). Analyses in van Herwerden <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that <em>P. leopardus</em> females have hybridized historically with <em>P. maculatus</em> males and that <em>P. maculatus</em> mitochondria were displaced through introgressive hybridization and fixation in the <em>P. maculatus</em> founder population on the Great Barrier Reef. Both species co-occur on mid shelf reefs of the east coast but not on the west coast where hybridization has not been recorded.  It is unknown if hybridization occurs at any other localities where these two species co-occur. <br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Ferreira and Russ (1992) aged 103 individuals. Tmax was 12 years with L max 710 mm FL , Linf  732 mm Fl, K  2.1, Z  0.39. The median size of the sample was 370 mm FL and median age of 4 yrs. <em>P. maculatus</em> is relatively fast growing with males achieving a greater growth rate than females (Adams  and William 2001). Adams (2002) estimated age based reproductive parameters with 50% female maturity at 18 months and 300 mm FL. No age-based data is available from other regions.
132818		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>As with <em>P. leopardus</em>, the main area of abundance is on the Australian plate. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Halford (Indonesia) and Hamilton (Solomons PNG) report (pers. comm.) report this species as rare to uncommon during underwater surveys. The main species of <em>Plectropomus</em> encountered in these surveys was <em>P. areolatus</em>. Occurrence records and abundance estimates show a characteristic onshore to offshore decline in abundance in this species. The summary of a comprehensive analysis of the distribution and abundance of four species of <em>Plectropomus</em> of the NE coast of Australia and the Coral Sea (Ayling and Ayling 1986) is provided in Table 1. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>.<br/><br/>There appear to be few estimates of abundance of this species in the Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos. As with <em>P. leopardus</em>, this species appears to be relatively rare at low latitudes and achieves its greatest abundance in inshore reef habitats on the Australian plate.<br/><br/>Not recorded on offshore Western Australia reefs. (Done <em>et al.</em> 1994)
132818		threats	eng	<em>P. maculatus</em> is subject to fishing over most of it’s range including the Live Reef Fish Trade (LRFT). Was the 4th most abundant serranid recorded in a survey of the NW Australia coastal trap and line fishery (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1988). Commercially fished over much of its range for both local consumption and the LRFT (Lau  and Li 2000). Records of capture may be difficult to interpret as this species is usually lumped with <em>P. leopardus</em> in the east Australian fishery.
132819		conservation	eng	Closure of areas suggested due to local depletion and low rate of movement in shallow reef populations of <em>E. adscensionus</em>. In St. Helena, there is a catch limit of 45 metric tonnes per year. It occurs in some protected areas in its range, including the Gladden Spit Marine Reserve in Belize where spawning aggregations have been reported.
132819		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus adscensionis</em> is a wide-ranging species known from Ascension and St. Helena Islands in the central and eastern Atlantic, and in the western Atlantic from USA (Massachusetts (one record), South Carolina, Georgia, Florida), Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles), to southern Brazil (including Villa des Remedios Is (northeast of Natal), Abrolhos, Fernando de Noronhas, Trinidade). It has also been recorded from São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea (Heemstra and Randall 1993), and the Azores (Portugal) (Myers distributional database 2006).
132819		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong> <br/><em>E. adscensionus</em> occurs on rocky reefs in depths of 2 to 100 m.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>E. adscensionus</em> feeds mainly on crabs (67%) and fishes (20%). At Ascension Island, rock hind include juvenile triggerfish (<em>Melichthys niger</em>) and young sea turtles in their diet. At St. Helena, <em>E. adscensionis</em> are common in shallow water and represent 90% of “groundfish” landings; large adults (over 50 cm) are taken regularly in 50 to 100 m, but are rare in shallow water (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Only the Ascension Island population contained mature individuals at the time of sampling (May to June). Female maturity occurred at 350 mm FL and four years of age. The presence of older individuals with sexually transitional gonads indicates protogynous hermaphroditism. However histological analysis of small individuals was too sparse to allow unambiguous identification of male recruitment pathways. <br/><br/>Mean testis wt in mature individuals 7.3±0.6 gms <br/>Mean ovary wt in mature individuals 39.8±6.9 gms<br/><br/>This, plus observations, suggest that some spawning occurs within the context of small haremic groups. <br/><br/>Fishers in Belize have identified <em>E. adscensionus</em> as a group spawning species in the Gladdens Spit area (Heyman 2001).
132819		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>Detailed analyses of the demography of <em>E. adscensionus</em> are available from the Islands of Ascension and St. Helena courtesy of the Fisheries Directorate St. Helena. On both Islands <em>E. adscensionus</em> was one of the few serranids present in reefal waters and a line fishery that extended to 60 m  recorded only this species of serranid.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent</strong><br/>The abundance estimates (Table 1) represent some of the highest densities recorded for serranids on shallow reefs. However the low abundances recorded from sites adjacent to major population centres on St. Helena identify a potential to remove this species from specific localities. Very high abundances were recorded from one locality in deeper water on the north coast of Ascension indicating a possible groups spawning site.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: abundance patterns (count results).<br/><br/><strong>Population dynamics</strong><br/>Estimates of age structure from St. Helena and Ascension and from one Caribbean site showed that this species is fast growing and relatively short lived reaching 300 mm FL in four years with a maximum size of 60 cm.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: estimates of age structure from St. Helena and Ascension.<br/><br/>Both St. Helena and Ascension populations displayed very similar demographic characteristics despite the relative positions in tropical and subtropical water masses. No difference in length weight relationships was identified between the island populations.<br/><br/>Analysis of a small sample from Los Roques in the northern Caribbean showed a size range from 190 to 545 mm FL and 4 to 12 years in age.
132819		threats	eng	<strong>Fishery-dependent</strong> <br/>Although <em>E. adscensionus</em> is targeted by some tropical western Atlantic fisheries, the numbers taken are relatively small (Harper <em>et al.</em> 2000). However the isolated populations of Ascension and St. Helena represent targeted fisheries. On both island this species is subject to a local line fishery and is the main shallow water species targeted. The fishery is more intense on St. Helena. UVC on both islands identified fishing effects especially on St. Helena.<br/><br/>The St Helena fishery especially is increasing and now stands at approx 45 metric tonnes of <em>E. adscensionus</em> per year. Although effort has also increased there no evidence at this time of a decline in CPUE. However the evidence from the St. Helena UVC data strongly suggests localized depletion of this species in fished areas. <br/><br/>The potential for an export fishery exists in St. Helena once an international airport is established.
132820		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of <em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em>, nor are conservation measures needed at the moment.
132820		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is an eastern Atlantic species found from Western Sahara to Angola, including Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe islands.
132820		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is a demersal species found in shallow tropical rocky reefs and sandy bottoms from 20 to 200 m. Females attain sexual maturity at 18 cm TL.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>C. taeniops</em> is listed as a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite and a pelagic spawner. The low ratio of males in the population may correlate with polygamy. This study concluded that some males of <em>C. taeniops</em> may not pass through a functional female stage as observed in most groupers, and that these males may have developed directly from immature females conferring with the hypothesis of Shapiro (1987) and  Siau (1994).
132820		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is relatively common and abundant at Sao Tome and Cape Verde. Elsewhere in its range there is no data on its population. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In a recent underwater visual survey in São Tomé island (unpublished) average densities varied from 0.1 to 7.4 fish per 40 m² transect.
132820		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is fished for subsistence use but not at a level that is a threat to this species in south Sao Tome and Principe. In Cape Verde it is fished more heavily, where it is the most abundant, commonly caught and important demsersal species. There is no information on threats along the west coast of mainland Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Total landings have peaked at 350 tonnes per year in 2000 in Cape Verde. A reduction is recommended since it is being fished at its maximum.
132821		conservation	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>No specific conservation actions are known for <em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em>, although the species may be present in some marine protected areas in its distributional range. It was listed as being present in a proposed “fisheries protection area” in Port Shelter, Sai Kung, Hong Kong, by Ching <em>et al.</em> (undated) (www.hku.hk/ecology/porcupine/por34/34-vert3-survey.htm), although it is unlikely these areas are effectively enforced. <br/><br/><strong>Other</strong><br/>This species is also apparently now being propagated in captivity for aquaculture purposes in both Taiwan and Hong Kong.
132821		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> is primarily a subtropical (~20 to 37°N) species occurring in coastal east Asian seas, from southern China to southern South Korea and southern Japan. Possibly it also occurs in northern Vietnam. Records of the species from the Solomon Islands need confirmation (Hamilton 2003).
132821		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> is generally reef-associated, with juveniles are common in tide pools and in shallow clear water around rocks and coral reefs (Chan 1968). Juveniles are also common around artificial reefs in Hong Kong waters (www.artificial-reef/images/worksheet4-6.xls; www.artificial-reef/English/5_1k.htm). Adults are generally found in deeper water. This species grows to a maximum total length of ~50 cm. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex reversal and artificial spawning have been experimentally induced by Kuo <em>et al.</em> (1988), who referred to the species as <em>E. fario</em>.
132821		population	eng	The population status of <em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> is unknown, although may be relatively common throughout much of its range.
132821		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>No immediate threats to <em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> have been identified, although any targeting of the spawning aggregations of the species for the live food fish trade could threaten its population sustainability in the future.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>This species is caught commercially throughout its range using vertical longlines and handlines, and is an important food fish in Japan and Hong Kong. From a survey of the Hong Kong live food fish trade, although some aquaculture of the species is apparently practiced there, most of the live fish marketed were apparently wild caught using hand lines and cage traps, mainly in Hong Kong and nearby waters. Most specimens marketed were between 15 and 30 cm in total length, the largest being <40 cm (A. To, pers. comm.). Aquaculture of the species is also practiced in Taiwan (Yeh, undated).
132822		conservation	eng	<em>Paranthias colonus</em> is found in several protected areas and there is currently no need to add further protection since it is not a targeted species within the fishery.
132822		distribution	eng	<em>Paranthias colonus</em> is restricted to the eastern Pacific and is distributed from the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Galápagos, Clipperton, Cocos, and Malpelo islands.
132822		habitat	eng	<em>Paranthias colonus</em> is a reef-associated species found typically in small aggregations well above the reef, but retreats to the reef at the approach of danger. The species feeds mainly on small planktonic animals picked individually from the water, made possible by their shortened snout which facilitates close-range binocular vision.
132822		population	eng	Pacific creole-fish are very abundant throughout their range. The species is not fished and there is no known decline.
132822		threats	eng	Pacific creole-fish are not found in fishery. The species doesn't usually take baited hooks because of its plantivorous feeding behaviour.
132823		conservation	eng	<strong>General <br/><em style="font-weight: normal;">Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. This reserve extends to deeper waters, and so offers protection to this deep-living species. <br/><br/>It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer future protection to this species. <br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.</strong>
132823		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is an Indo-Pacific species that ranges from the Red Sea to Natal (South Africa), eastwards to the western Pacific (including Madagascar), north to southern Japan, and south to New Caledonia. Records from the Persian Gulf are apparently misidentifications of <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em>. Its presence has not been verified from the Comoros, on the continental shelf between Oman and Cambodia, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, western Australia or Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Red Sea, Djibouti, Aden (Yemen), Oman (Groeneveld, unpub. data), Somalia (Darar 1994, Mann and Fielding 2000), Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), southwestern Madagascar (Myers distributional database 2006), east coast of Madagascar (A. Pages, Refrigepech Est. pers. comm.), Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius (Myers distributional database 2006), Maldives, India, Indian islands (Andaman, Nicobars, Lakshadweep), Sri Lanka (Myers distributional database 2006), Thailand (East Burma Sea (distributional database 2006)), southern Vietnam, Korea, Indonesia/Malaysia (northern Sumatra, Malaysian peninsula, Sunda shelf, Bali), Western Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia and Vanuatu (Myers distributional database 2006), Samoa, southern Japan, Fiji, Taiwan (Myers distributional database 2006), China (Hong Kong). The distribution is from Heemstra and Randall (1993), unless otherwise stated.
132823		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species found over a wide range of habitats like seagrass beds and outer reef slopes; in the South China Sea, it is also found on mud bottoms. Depth range from 4 to 280 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Maximum size 75cm TL, 7 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Maximum length estimated to be 80.7 cm (MRAG 1996), reported to 80 cm TL from South Africa (Oceanographic Research Institute unpub. data).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/> Feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (mainly stomatopods and crabs).  <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and size</strong><br/>Based on consistent observations of male islets in mature, active female gonads from the Seychelles, Moussac (1996) concluded that the species is protogynous, with sex change first occurring at around 34 cm TL, and the first active males appearing at 37 cm. He suggested that sex change occurs over a wide range (34 to 56 cm) and that not all females change sex. Moussac attributed a skewed sex ratio (F:M) of 2.4:1 to fishing, noted that a more balanced ratio of 1.1:1 occurs where populations are not so heavily fished. Females mature at between 23 and 29 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993) while Moussac (1996) indicated a size at 1st maturity of about 31 cm. Morgans (1982) reported maturity at 25 cm SL in Kenya, while the smallest male observed was 39 cm TL (Sanders <em>et al.</em> 1988). The spawning season of <em>E. chlorostigma</em> in the Seychelles was protracted, occurring between November and April and with peaks at the beginning and end of that period (Sanders <em>et al.</em> 1988). These peak periods correspond to the inter-tropical monsoon months. Morgans (1964) reported ripe or nearly-ripe fish in February, March, August and September off Kenya. Nzioka (1979) reported a ripe fish in September off Kenya/northern Tanzania. While a few fishers have reported the formation of spawning aggregations (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2004), mating and spatial patterns of spawning are unverified. It is considered unlikely that transient aggregations occur (or used to occur) in this species, as large aggregations of common target species are generally well known to fishers (Robinson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Spawning season in Egypt (Red Sea) extended from May to end July, peaking in June. Length at 50% maturity was 28 cm TL (three years). F:M ratio 2.4:1. Mean size at sex reversal is 48 cm TL. Said to be protogynous, based on disparate length frequencies for males and females and observation of bisexual gonads. Absolute fecundity increases from age three to six, then drops at age seven. Relative fecundity 121 to 776 eggs/g body weight (Ghorab <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>Spawning season in Oman extended from August to October and peaked in September. Length at 50% maturity is 41 cm (Oman Fisheries Dept. unpub).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>In the Seychelles, it is common across the Mahe Plateau and surrounding banks, especially at depths ranging from 40 to 60 m. More abundant over rough rubble and coralline areas although it is taken in (experimental) trawls over more sandy areas (J. Robinson, Seychelles Fishing Authority, pers. comm.). In Seychelles it frequents the shelf edges of the banks and has been fished down to depths of 250 m (Intes and Bach 1989). It is less common on the atolls to the south of Seychelles and appears absent on shallow reefs (Pears 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Growth and maturity</strong><br/>Growth parameters for <em>E. chlorostigma</em> from the Seychelles have been derived using a range of methods, but those considered the most reliable are given, using length based (Mees 1992, Sanders <em>et al.</em> 1988) or size at age approaches (Grandcourt 2002) (Table 2). Aged up to 26 years in Oman.  <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Growth parameters for <em>E. chlorostigma</em> from the Seychelles.<br/><br/>Estimates of natural mortality using the growth parameters of Mees (1992) and Sanders <em>et al.</em> (1988) in Table 2 vary from 0.43, using Pauly (1980), to between 0.37 and 0.39 using Ralston (1987) models, which are considered more reliable for slow growing fish. Using the parameters derived by Grandcourt (2002), natural mortality estimated from Pauly is 0.37 yr<sup>-1</sup>.  <br/><br/>Length-weight relationship y g = 0.0145.x cm FL.3.05.
132823		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is an abundant species throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>The most common grouper caught off northern Somalia (Darar 1994), although few were seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern-eastern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000). Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira 2003). In shallow (9 to 13 m) fixed transect UVC surveys in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded only one individual out of 43 groupers.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Moderately common (n=31 individuals, 4.5% of groupers) caught on the North Kenya Banks in the late 1950s (Morgans 1964), slightly less common (n=4 of 130 groupers) in research hook and line catches in this region by the mid 1970s (Nzioka 1977). Not commonly recorded (<1% of all groupers recorded) in commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Subsequently (to 2005), its contribution to grouper catches fluctuated between 0 and 27% by number (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Occasionally recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1998 (n=23 individuals of 1,304 groupers; Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Rarely recorded (3 individuals of 1,278 groupers) in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Occasionally recorded (76 individuals of 12,094 groupers) from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast (non-coral reefs) from 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. Data). Pages (Refrigepeche Est pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is common, constituting about 20% of all grouper caught (total grouper catch about 30 mt yr<sup>-1</sup>). Reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other grouper species. Percentage contributions (assumed to be by number) to grouper catches from “essentially unexploited” deep-slope reefs were moderate to low in Melanesia (7.05%), Micronesia (2.35%) and Polynesia (0.23%) – Dalzell and Preston (1992), reported in Dalzell <em>et al.</em> (1996). Possibly the main grouper species caught in Seychelles; also in Djibouti/Somalia/Oman.<br/><br/>In terms of the inshore handline fishery, catch rates (CPUE) of the grouper guild, of which <em>E. chlorostigma</em> is one of the main species, have significantly declined since 1990, from over 0.6 to less than 0.3 kg/fisher/hr (Grandcourt and Cesar 2003). CPUE in the schooner handline fishery has declined significantly, from around 3.5 kg/man<sup>-day</sup> in 1986 to just over 1.0 kg/man<sup>-day</sup> since 2002. By contrast, CPUE in the whaler handline fishery has remained relatively stable since 1990 (between 0.5 and 1.2 kg/man<sup>-day</sup>), but effort estimation for these fisheries is confounded by a degree of within-trip target switching (demersal to pelagic) which may vary from year to year and is not reliably accounted for in the surveys.<br/><br/>Mees (1992) estimated the MSY of <em>E. chlorostigma</em> to be in the range of 0.013 to 0.023 mt/km², corresponding to 161 to 290 mt over the fishing ground. These estimates were based on a standing stock of 1,468 mt. Catches were maintained at just below the conservative MSY estimate until the closure of the mothership-dory fishery (Figure 1). This species is vulnerable to both pulse (mothership) and sequential fishing. High catches and CPUE prior to 1994 are thought to have been maintained through expansion of the fishery and sequential targeting. Stock assessments conducted at the level of statistical sector found localized depletions resulting from the mothership-dory fishing, and decreases in abundance at the level of sector have been detected (Mees 1996) following this period. Current length at first capture (Lc50 = 36.44 cm) is only slightly greater than 0.5L∞ (Lm50 is unknown), while F/M is >2, highlighting concern over current levels of fishing mortality (F = 0.91). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Total annual catch of <em>E. chlorostigma</em> form the Seychelles.<br/><br/>Catch data from commercial hook and line vessels off southern Mozambique are inconclusive – declines in recent years could be due to a spatial shift in fishing effort (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery.<br/><br/>In Oman, in three fisheries management areas, preliminary surplus production stock assessments of groupers (of which <em>E. chlorostigma</em> forms an important part – extent not quantified) range from over-exploited to under-exploited (Oman Fisheries department unpub. data).
132823		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is under intense fishing pressure regionally, yet its deep habitat may provide some natural protection.
132824		conservation	eng	Available information suggests that <em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> does not occur within established marine reserves in South Africa and Mozambique (reported from dive surveys from 1987 to 1992) (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993, Chater <em>et al.</em> 1995). Information from other regions is lacking. There is no known specific fishery regulation or management on this species.
132824		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is a widespread Indo-West Pacific species, occurring from South Africa and the Red Sea, east to Papua New Guinea, north to southern Japan, and south to the Gulf of Carpenteria (Australia).
132824		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in the continental shelf (71 to 291 m) over soft bottom.  It also inhabits rocky bottoms. Nothing has been published on its biology. <em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is a medium-size species attaining 800 mm TL. Except for its preference to inhabit deep waters over rocky bottoms and suggested protogyny (Heemstra and Randall 1993), nothing has been published on its biology.
132824		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is generally rare within its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>A rare species in fisheries within its range of distribution, for example in Taiwan (K-T Shao pers. comm.). Available information since 1987 suggests that this species is relatively rare in area around South Africa and Mozambique (Sean Fennessy pers. comm.) even within marine reserves (reported from dive and angling surveys within 8 to 45 m depth zone from 1987 to 1992) (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993, Chater <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species is only caught very occasionally around South Africa and Mozambique waters (43 out of 1,867 groupers) (Lichucha <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lichucha <em>et al.</em> 2000) from commercial line-fish catch and cage-trap from 1997 to 1998. Records by Chan (1968) and from a 15-month survey in Hong Kong SAR from 2004 to 2006 (Allen To unpub. data) (only six specimens ranging from 100 to 300 mm TL) suggests that this species is now rare in commercial catches (mostly by trawling) since the 1960s, despite its good edible quality (Chan 1968). However, its natural abundance may be overlooked due to its preference for relatively deep waters (71 to 291 m), potentially leading to a decreased encounter rate from underwater survey and most shallow-waters fisheries.
132824		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is potentially threatened by overfishing.
132825		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout parts of its range.
132825		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> is a widespread Indo-Pacific species ranging from East Africa (Pinda, Mozambique: 15°S) to French Polynesia and the Pitcairn Group, north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and south to Heron Island at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef (Australia).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>American Samoa, Australia (Queensland and Western Australia, including Rowley Shoals), Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Cook Islands, French Polynesia (Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands), Guam, India (Lakshadweep), Indonesia (Bali, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi), Japan (Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands), Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago, North Solomons), Philippines, Pitcairn, Réunion, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Taiwan, Tanzania, Tonga, United States Minor Outlying Islands (Wake Island).
132825		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> is a reef-associated species found at depths from 16 to 108 m. It is perhaps the most common grouper on Indo-Pacific coral reefs found below 40 m. The species is known primarily from insular localities except those collected from Pinda, Mozambique. Little is known of the biology of this species other than spawning, courtship and feeding. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Donaldson (1995a) described courtship and spawning behaviour of <em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> from Rota, Mariana Islands. This species has male-dominated haremic groups. Daily courtship behaviour began late in the afternoon and proceeded until after sunset. Males repeatedly visited females in single-male, multiple-female mating groups during each period and engaged in courtship bouts. Males were predicted to devote more effort toward intra-and interspecific interactions compared to females and to maximize reproductive success. Females were predicted to devote more effort towards foraging, compared to males. This behaviour maximizes reproductive effort. Foraging behaviour by both sexes was virtually absent during daylight and pre-courtship periods. Fish sought shelter and were not incidentally observed foraging after dusk, suggesting that this species actively forages later at night or during early morning hours, just prior to and during sunrise.
132825		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> is not commonly seen in shallow waters, but in deeper outer reef slope areas waters it is probably more common. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent</strong><br/>Only one individual, measuring 30 cm, was recorded in New Caledonia, during underwater visual census  in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Fiji and Tonga in Barrier, Fringing, Intermediate, outer-barrier-reef and Lagoon-bottom reefs. Density estimates for the species were three individuals/per sq km, with a size was between 25 and 30 cm.<br/><br/>It is relatively common on reefs of the southern Mariana Islands (Myers 1999, in Donaldson, 2002). <br/><br/>In December 1995, Machida <em>et al.</em> (1997) reported seven species of groupers collected at Agdao Fish Market in Davao City, including <em>C. spiloparaea</em>, which was the first record from Mindanao for this species. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/>Fishery statistics from The Sea Around Us From 1985 to 2002, <em>C. spiloparaea</em> represented 0.25% (304 kg) of total offshore catch of Serranidae (118,579 kg) in Guam.
132825		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em>.
132826		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in Australia (Northern Territory), but there are no measures specific to this species. The species does occur in some marine protected areas within its range.
132826		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging from the Persian Gulf to Taiwan, Indonesia and the northern coast of Australia. Currently it is not known from Japan, but it may occur there. It has not been found at any islands of Micronesia or Polynesia (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Northern Territory, Western Australia), Bahrain, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Fujian, Guangdong), Hong Kong, India (Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal, Kerala, Mahé, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Yanam), Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, Moluccas, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and Viet Nam.
132826		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is a demersal species that occurs on shallow banks (30 to 104 m), but is not known from well-developed coral reefs (Randall 1995). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>It is usually taken by trawling in 30 to 45 m or by hand-lining over rocky banks. Its maximum size is reported at 76.0 cm TL (Chan 1968). <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em>is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. Wild caught juveniles are also utilized for aquaculture for live fish market in Hong Kong (Lee and Sadovy 1998, Donaldson <em>et al.</em> 2003).
132826		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is widespread, but apparently no longer abundant in large parts of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In Hong Kong, declines are common to all medium-bodied groupers, including this species. There are inferred declines in the abundance of wild-caught fingerlings/juveniles for grow-out according to Hong Kong mariculturists. In southern China, fingerlings are near extirpated (Sadovy 2000). These declines suggest a reduction in the adult population in source areas throughout Southeast Asia (Min pers. comm. 2007). The species is still common in the markets of the Persian Gulf.  <br/><br/>A minor part of the Western Ausrtalia trap fishery. A total of 55 kg caught in Onslow, Western Australia (1986 to 1987) and 46 kg in 1987 to 1988 (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1987).
132826		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">General</span><br/>Perhaps the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong> <br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is subject to commercial trawling of adults, including India (James <em>et al.</em> 1996) and in trap fishery in Western Australia (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1988). <br/><br/>Within the live reef food fish trade, there is a capture fishery of wild caught fingerlings and juveniles (fingerlings, hereafter) for grow out in sea cages and pens. Juveniles are commonly taken in estuaries in the Philippines (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2000, Padilla <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Thailand (Vidthayanon and Premcharoen 2002), Malaysia, southern China, Vietnam and Indonesia. Fingerlings are either locally grown out or sold to Taiwan or Hong Kong (Sadovy 2000). The numbers can be substantial. For example, in one year 10 million fry were exported from Thailand to Hong Kong (Sadovy 2000). These fingerlings are grown out in open sea cages and big pens in Malaysia. Wild caught <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> fingerlings are raised in floating cages and ponds in Vietnam (Tuan 2003). <br/><br/>Among the fishing gears, seine net, scoop net and push net are mainly used for collecting small fish of 1 to 3 cm. Seine nets provide the highest yield (catch per unit effort) in terms of number of pieces per trip. For larger seed, encircling nets, used together with artificial reefs, were the most important in terms of quantity and quality of catch. The seasonality of use of different gears reflects the growth of the seed and their move to deeper water as the season progresses (Tuan and Hambrey 2000). No hatcheries are known for this species (Sadovy pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> was widely cultured in Hong Kong in the early 1990s when green groupers experienced disease problems that could not be overcome. <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> was not affected by the same disease, so fish farmers gave up farming green grouper and changed to this species. E. bleekeri <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> adapted very well to the new environment but grew much slower than green groupers. Disease problems with <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> began about three years ago. The diseased fish would consume excessive food one day, then stopped feeding the following day. By then an infection was noticeable on the fish’s body. Its condition would worsen very quickly and within three days most of the fish would die. Treatments with antibiotics, freshwater bath, malachite green, methylene blue and formalin have had no success with this problem. The situation was uncontrollable in 2001 with an almost 95% mortality rate for imported <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em>. Researchers found that the disease was caused by a new vibrio (SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin #9).<br/><br/>Listed in Life Reef Food Fish Trade in Hong Kong (Donaldson <em>et al.</em>  2003) and Philippines (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2000 Padilla <em>et al.</em> 2003). Live reef fish import data from the Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department (HK CSD) record the largest quantities of "other groupers" and "other marine fishes" as being imported from Thailand. Thailand and Malaysia are important sources for so-called "cultured" species including Brown Spotted Grouper <em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> / <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em>, which are amongst 12 most commonly available species imported to Hong Kong (http://www.traffic.org/reef-fish/executivesummary.html).
132827		conservation	eng	There are closed areas in the Gulf of Mexico (Madison-Swanson) and South Atlantic (<em>Oculina</em> HAPC) where misty grouper may occur. In addition, Amendment 14 to the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan of the South Atlantic Region will be implemented during 2007. Misty grouper may occur in some of the proposed South Atlantic MPAs.
132827		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> occurs in the western Atlantic, where it is found in Bermuda, North Carolina (USA), Florida (USA), Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, Cuba, Yucatan (Mexico), Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the Leeward islands to Trinidad. In the eastern Pacific, it is reported from the Galápagos Islands, Paramount Seamount, coastal Ecuador, northeast coast of Brazil south to 22° and Trindade Island.
132827		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> is a bathydemersal species that is typically solitary and occurs from 100 to 400 m. Juveniles sometimes occur in water as shallow as 30 m.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes, crustaceans, and squids.  Virtually nothing is known of the age, growth, and reproduction of this species.  <br/><br/><strong>Size and mortality</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> attains a maximum body weight of 107.0 kg, with male attaining a maximum size of 160 cm TL and females at least 100 cm TL (Appeldorn <em>et al.</em> 1997, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Natural mortality is estimated to be 0.14 (J. McGovern, pers. com.).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>The estimated size at maturity is 81.1 cm (31.9 in), although this may not be accurate (J. McGovern, pers. com). No information is available on its reproductive life history, including spawning and sexual pattern.<br/><br/>Virtually nothing is known of the age and growth of this species (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132827		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> was described as "mysterious" and "rarely seen" grouper species (Schobernd 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/>There are no studies on the abundance except the annual species and abundance survey conducted by novice and expert divers. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/>USA-based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> encountered [n] by the total number of survey carried out in a particular year [N]) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> in tropical western Atlantic ranged from 48.0% to 60.5%, with an average of 0.010% from 1993 to 2005 (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 15th Sep 2006) (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency of <em>H. mystacinus</em> from underwater visla census by Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF).<br/><br/>Bullock and Smith (1991) did not record any <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> during their survey on groupers from the west Florida shelf.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/>NMFS is the only source on the landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>According to NMFS, annual landings of commercial catches of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> in the USA from 1990 to 2003, the quantity caught stayed relatively low (0.8 to 2.0 metric tonnes) with no data available in 1991 to 1995, 1997 to 1998, 2001 and 2004 to 2005 (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 14th September 2006) (Table 2).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) commercial catch data 1990-2003.<br/><br/>Commercial landings are minor and there is little recreational take in SE US. <br/><br/><em>Central Brazil</em><br/>The catch per unit effort for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> in Brazil was 3.2 fish per 1,000 hooks between 100 to 300 m.
132827		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> is threatened by both recreational and commercial fisheries (Heemstra and Randall 1993).
132828		conservation	eng	<em>Epinephelus haifensis</em> probably does not occur within protected areas because it prefers deep waters. Further information is required on population and fishery.
132828		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em> probably does not occur within protected areas because it prefers deep waters. Further information is required on population and fishery.
132828		distribution	eng	<em>Epinephelus haifensis</em> is found in the southern Mediterranean and occurs south along the north and west African coast to southern Angola (Heemstra 1991). There is a recent report of the species from Lampedusa Island in Italy (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000), which extends its range to the central Mediterranean.
132828		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>haifensis</em> is found in the southern Mediterranean and occurs south along the north and west African coast to southern Angola (Heemstra 1991). There is a recent report of the species from Lampedusa Island in Italy (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000), which extends its range to the central Mediterranean.
132828		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus haifensis</em> is a large species, reaching a maximum total length of 110 cm and 25 kg (Poll 1954). It is found in depths from 90 to 220 m over mud, sand or rock bottoms (Poll 1954), rocky reefs with encrusting coraline algae, and most commonly found between the depths of 80 to 160 m (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000).
132828		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em> is a large species, reaching a maximum total length of 110 cm and 25 kg (Poll 1954). It is found in depths from 90 to 220 m over mud, sand or rock bottoms (Poll 1954), rocky reefs with encrusting coraline algae, and most commonly found between the depths of 80 to 160 m (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000).
132828		population	eng	There is very little population information about <em>Epinephelus haifensis</em>, as this is a deep-water species, and there is no information on current population trend.
132828		population	eng	There is very little population information about <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em>, as this is a deep-water species, and there is no information on current population trend.
132828		threats	eng	<em>Epinephelus haifensis</em> is probably important in local fisheries in the Mediterranean and the west coast of Africa, but there is insufficient data (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is frequently taken by long line fisheries, which target <em>E. caninus</em> around Lampedusa Island, Italy (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000).
132828		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em> is probably important in local fisheries in the Mediterranean and the west coast of Africa, but there is insufficient data (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is frequently taken by long line fisheries, which target <em>Epinephelus caninus</em> around Lampedusa Island, Italy (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000).
132829		conservation	eng	There are no specific actions being taken for <em>Epinephelus howlandi</em>, although it is protected within many MPAs in its range (e.g., New Caledonia, GBR, Samoa, Pohnpei). Its presence on many small unpopulated islands is probably also a natural protection for this species. In Pohnpei, the species is protected seasonally by a sales ban March to April (Rhodes pers. comm.).
132829		distribution	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> occurs on the islands of the South Pacific and Micronesia from the Line islands (Palmyra, Kingsman Reef, Jarvis Island) to Papua New Guinea, Palau and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia). It is also present offshore in the China Sea, in the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands (Japan). Blacksaddle grouper are noted to be found in Indonesia and Pitcairn, but these records require further confirmation considering the known range of this species.<br/><br/><strong>Present records</strong><br/>Ryuyyu and Ogasawara Islands (Japan), Palau, South China Sea, New Caledonia (including Chesterfields, Ouvéa, Lifou), Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu, Micronesia (Chuuk, Ifaluk, Yap), Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, Northern and Southern Marianas, Tuvalu, Australia (Great Barrier Reef (north and south), Lord Howe Island), Papua New Guinea (Kimbey Bay, Milne Bay), U.S. Minor Outlying Islands (Howland Island, Baker Island), Solomon Island, Jarvis Island, Kingsman Reef, Palmyra Island), Kiribati (Phoenix Island, Gilbert Islands), Nauru.<br/><br/>The record from the Paracel Islands needs confirmation (Myers distributional database 2006).
132829		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> is found on shallow reefs (0 to 37 m) in both good and marginal coral habitats. Information from New Caledonia suggests that nearshore individuals are smaller but more abundant. No small specimens (<20 cm) were observed on barrier reefs in New Caledonia. When observed, it is generally solitary and mainly active during daytime periods. Its maximum size is 44 cm TL, although no fish larger than 39 cm FL were recorded in New Caledonia (UVC record of 45 cm). There is a possible ontogenetic shift from inshore to offshore with size.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> ambushes its preys by laying still on the bottom. Its diet is made of fish and crustaceans (shrimp and crab) with occasional molluscs or worms. Fish tends to be the major diet item in large fish (>200 mm).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>No information on breeding (season, place). Sexual maturity reached at 250 mm TL in females in New Caledonia. With a highly skewed sex ratio (95% females New Caledonia for 48 fishes examined). Could be that males being the largest individuals were not well sampled.
132829		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> is typically not abundant, but may be fairly common in some areas. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Known abundances on reefs (fish/km² of reef) are as follows: GBR 10 to 50; New Caledonia 60 to 350; Fiji 45 to 213; Tonga 53 to 231.<br/><br/>Observed size ranges in New Caledonia-Fiji-Tonga: most fish observed were between 20 and 35 cm (FL); less than 5% of the specimens >37 cm (FL).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> represents 0.3% of reported reef fish catch in CNMI and <0.01% in Guam; not reported in catches from American Samoa; 2.5% in numbers and 0.5% in weight of groupers caught in experimental fishing in New Caledonia. The species constituted 12% of serranid catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).
132829		threats	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to this species is overfishing and possibly habitat loss or damage.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Although caught in fisheries throughout its range, <em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> is not always targeted as it is often ciguatoxic. It can be caught by hook and line, gill nets, and spearfishing. In other areas of the central Pacific, it is commonly targeted by spear and taken by line in both inner and outer reef areas. The species is also part of the live reef fish trade. <br/><br/>As this species is a shallow water species it may be locally endangered by large scale coral bleaching. As this species is present on a large number of islands, populations are isolated but there are probably exchanges between many islands through larval flow.
132830		conservation	eng	<em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> occurs in several protected areas in Southern Brazil, where the minimum size of capture is 23 cm. Examples of marine protected areas are the Arvoredo Biological Marine Reserve and Laje de Santos Marine State Park. Also in protected areas in the Caribbean, Texas.
132830		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> is distributed within the Western Atlantic, ranging from Texas (USA) and the northwestern Gulf of Mexico to Venezuela, including Bermuda, and central Brazil south to the state of Rio Grande do Sul (to around 28°S) (Carvalho-Filho 1999, Loebman and Vieira 2005). It has an apparently disjunct distribution, being absent from northeastern Brazil and most of the Caribbean. A report of this species (as <em>Serranus acutirostris</em>) from the Canary Islands (Spain) is probably a misidentification of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>.
132830		habitat	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> is a reef-associated species. Juveniles inhabit turtle grass beds, mangrove areas, and shallow waters among soft corals and coral reefs.  Adults are found on rocky bottoms with high relief. Easily found in groups of dozens of individuals. Juvenile (2 to 5 cm) are usually found among floating objects. Adults are often sighted in the water column predating on sardine schools. It reaches approximately 4 kg, although reports of specimens up to 10 kg do exist (Carvalho-Filho 1999, Gibran 2004). Juveniles found in intertidal rocky shores in tide pools in South Brazil (Barreiros <em>et al.</em> 2004). Sazima (2002) reports that comb grouper shows aggressive mimic behaviour of the wrasses <em>Halichoeres poeyi</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Reported to feed on plankton, sardines and squids, although systematic feeding studies are not available.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>The species is a popular game fish in southern Brazil for both spear fishermen and rod-and-reel anglers. Fish of 4 to 7 kg are common, with the spear fishing record at 10.1 kg (Capt. Eduardo Baumeier pers. comm. 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Preliminary results of reproductive biology (Gerhardinger, unpub. data) indicate that 2 kg fish are still juveniles. It is suggested that they spawn during spring time in Brazil (September-December) (Silvano <em>et al.</em> 2006).
132830		population	eng	<strong>General</strong><br/>In the coast of Brazil, it is more abundant in the rocky tropical and subtropical shores, from the state of Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina. Common throughout its range.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Comb grouper is important for small-scale artisanal fisheries as well as amateur fishing. It is common throughout its Brazilian range, but is regarded as a target of a “heavy” fishing pressure by Floeter <em>et al.</em> (2006). There is no comprehensive fishery data available for <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Densities in shallow rocky reefs in south Brazil obtained with UVC are in the order of 0.035/m² (A. Bertoncini  unpub. data).
132830		threats	eng	Fishing is the main known threat  to <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2006, Rocha and Costa 1999, Ferreira and Goncalves 1999). Disease events are reported from Southern Brazil, when large number of individuals died in summer months. However no further information is known. The species is a popular game fish in southern Brazil for both spear fishermen and rod-and-reel anglers.
132831		conservation	eng	<st1:placename w:st="on">Cocos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> is a National Park and a </span>UNESCO World Heritage Site, and as such is a well-protected site by the national authorities of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Costa Rica. Access is restricted and </st1:place></st1:country-region>any visits are regulated by the authorities on the island. Regular surveys of the habitat are conducted by the authorities' agents, who are constantly present on the island. Populations of <em>E. cocoense</em> do not seem to require any specific conservation action at present as the species is common on the island.</span>
132831		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Epidendrum cocoense</em> is strictly endemic to <st1:placename w:st="on">Cocos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Province of Puntarenas</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Costa   Rica</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160; (</span>Hágsater 1999). It has never been found on the continental lands of tropical America.Cocos Island (also known as Isla del Coco) is a volcanic island of 24 km<sup>2</sup>, located at 5º32’57” N and 86º59’17” W, in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place> (Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988). <br/></p><p><br/></p>    <p>One of the first distribution studies of <em>E. cocoense</em> was done by Trusty (2004) who visited the island in 2004. She also recorded herbarium specimens and based on these data estimated an </span>extent of occurrence (EOO) of 22.3 km<sup>2</sup> for this species. </span>We, the present assessors,&#160; visited the island in April 2006 and collected this species along five transects: i.e. the path between Wafer and <st1:placename w:st="on">Chatham</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bays</st1:placetype>, along <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Genio</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Punta Presidio, path to Cerro Yglesias and Los Llanos plain. Based on these data we calculated an EOO of 4.5 km<sup>2</sup>. </span></p>  <p></p>
132831		habitat	eng	<p><em>E. cocoense</em> is epiphytic, mostly growing on <em>Sacoglottis holdridgei</em> (a common endemic tree of the island from the Humiriaceae family). <em>E. cocoense</em> grows from about 1 m high on the trunk of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saccoglottis </span>in the understory of the rain forest. The plants produce white fragrant flowers and it is suggested that moths or butterflies might carry out pollination. However, no data have been found on this part of the ecology of the species. The life zone is pre-montane rain forest according to Gómez (1986).</span></p>
132831		population	eng	<em></em>  <em>E. cocoense</span></em> is a commonly found epiphyte, occurring from sea level to about 400 meters in altitude.
132831		threats	eng	<p>Cocos Island is very isolated and the national authorities restrict visits to this area. The island flora does not seem to be threatened by illegal collectors or deforestation. Nevertheless, it is a fragile ecosystem restricted to a small area in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place>. Climate change might be the main threat in the future. Lack of pollinators (yet unknown) or invasive species might also pose a future threat.</p>
132832		conservation	eng	<p>Although Humpback Whales have been legally protected from commercial whaling since 1966, they can still be killed for the purposes of scientific research under Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. The IWC’s Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary (e.g. the northern boundary of this Sanctuary follows the 40°S parallel of latitude except in the Indian Ocean sector where it joins the southern boundary of that sanctuary at 55°S, and around South America and into the South Pacific where the boundary is at 60°S) provides an additional layer of protection to Humpback Whales while on their summer feeding grounds in Antarctica, although whales inside the Sanctuary can still be killed under Article VIII.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>At present, more than 12 million km<sup>2</sup> of EEZs of more than a dozen South Pacific countries and territories have been designated as whale sanctuaries. This provides protection from commercial whaling for Humpback Whales in some of their breeding areas. Most recently an MoU under the CMS convention has been designed to protect cetaceans and their habitats in the South Pacific. It has already been signed by several countries and territories.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>New  Zealand and Australia have active disentanglement programmes to release any Humpback Whales captured in fishing gear.</p>
132832		distribution	eng	<p>Humpback Whales have a global distribution. Individual humpbacks have been observed to travel more than 8,000 km between their high-latitude summer feeding grounds and winter mating and calving range in tropical waters (Rasmussen <em>et al</em>. 2007). The Oceania subpopulation is delineated by its breeding range, with approximate boundaries in the west at 145°E (eastern Australia), in the east at 120°W (between French Polynesia and South America), in the north at the equator at 0°S, and in the south to approximately 30°S.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>During the austral autumn and winter, Humpback Whales in Oceania are spread across lower latitudes from approximately 30°S northwards to the equator. The South Pacific is a vast area with thousands of islands, and there has not yet been a comprehensive survey of the entire region. However, localized research by members of the South Pacific Whale Research Consortium (SPWRC 2008) has identified many island groups whose waters are host to Humpback Whales. During austral spring and summer, Humpbacks travel to Antarctic feeding grounds. These linkages have been demonstrated through Discovery tagging, photo-identification and, most recently, genotype matching and satellite telemetry (Mackintosh 1942, Chittleborough 1965, Dawbin 1966, Mikhalev 2000, Franklin <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>    <p></p>
132832		habitat	eng	<p>Humpback Whales have been recorded across most of the South Pacific, although densities vary from large numbers in East Australia to very low numbers in Fiji (in E3) and parts of French Polynesia. They are regularly found around island groups but also in open water away from islands. Humpbacks have been recorded throughout the southern ocean, including south to the ice edge and in the Ross  Sea.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Little is known regarding life history parameters for the Oceania subpopulation of Humpback Whales, although it is assumed that these rates are similar to those described from whaling records in Australia and New Zealand (Dawbin 1956, 1964, 1966; Chittleborough 1965). One rate that has been preliminarily investigated in the region is calving interval, which is approximately 2-3 years (consistent with that reported from other oceans). The diet of these Humpback Whales consists mainly of krill, which they consume while in Antarctic waters. They are not known to feed while in tropical breeding grounds.
132832		population	eng	<p>The following population estimates are available:</p>  <p>(i) SPWRC (2006) provided a preliminary mark-recapture estimate from photo-identification of the combined population size for E2 (New  Caledonia), E3 (Tonga) and F (French Polynesia) of 3,827 (CV = 0.12) for the period 1999-2004. There are no estimates of rate of increase available for this area but it was noted that there was little indication of trend in abundance over the survey period (SPWRC 2006).</p>  <p>(ii) Noad <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated from land-based sighting surveys that population size of E1 (Eastern Australia) was 7,090 (95% CI ± 660) for 2004 with an annual rate of increase of 10.6 (95% CI ± 0.5%) for 1987 – 2004. <br/></p>  <p>The IWC is presently engaged in a Comprehensive Assessment of Southern Hemisphere humpback whales, and research on the South Pacific breeding stocks of E1, E2, E3, and F is ongoing. The IWC (2006) Comprehensive Assessment of Southern Hemisphere Humpback workshop in 2006 agreed that, “<em>the situation for Breeding Stocks E and F is complex and currently unresolved, and therefore that it was not possible to construct stock structure hypotheses for assessment modelling, particularly with respect to the assignment to Breeding Stocks of catches taken on the feeding grounds</em>”. <br/></p>  <p>For example, while east Australia and New Caledonia (E1 and E2) are within the longitudinal boundaries of Antarctic Area V, and French  Polynesia and the Cook Islands (F) are within the longitudinal boundaries of Area VI, Tonga (E3) falls close to the boundary between the two Areas. Thus, in the current assessment, the approach of pooling demographically independent sub-stocks was necessary for practical reasons to develop catch allocation scenarios. However, this approach is likely to be conservative in ignoring potential differences in variable rates of recovery from the regional impacts of whaling. Soviet whaling on the Antarctic feeding grounds in the early sixties was extremely intense, with over 27,300 whales taken during two summers (1959-1961) alone. Maternal site fidelity together with a hunt concentrated both in time and space may have resulted in more extreme declines in some of the far-flung wintering sub-stocks of the Southwestern Pacific. <br/></p>  Jackson <em>et al</em>. (2006) explored a number of catch allocation scenarios for the combined sub-stocks of Oceania and east Australia. In their combined assessment of sub-stocks E1, E2, E3 and F, median population recovery toward historical levels in 2005 was estimated at between 15.9-24.8% (95% probability intervals (PI) 11.1-30.5%; prior population growth rate mean = 6.7% after Branch <em>et al</em>. (2004)).&#160; The most appropriate interpolation between these two recovery estimates depended on the degree of interchange between east Australia and Oceania (15.9% is complete interchange, 24.8% is no interchange). Recent photo-identification surveys (Garrigue <em>et al</em>. 2007) indicate that interchange between these regions is relatively low, suggesting that the ‘no interchange’ scenario may be more appropriate for the region. Under this interchange scenario, estimated abundance in 1942 was 41,356 (95% PI 36,800-53,580). Recovery level of the population three generations later (in 2005) is 26.6% (95% PI 18.2-33.5%) relative to 1942. This is using an estimate of 21.5 years/generation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).
132832		threats	eng	<p>During the last two centuries, Humpback Whales have been hunted intensively, especially in the southern hemisphere, where it was estimated that populations were reduced to a few percent of their pre-exploitation abundance (Chapman 1974). Based on catch records corrected for illegal Soviet whaling, a total of more than 200,000 Humpback Whales were killed in the Southern Hemisphere from 1904 to 1980 (Clapham and Baker 2002). Catches during the 19th century in the South Pacific by American whalers were made mainly during winter months in three tropical breeding grounds: off Colombia and Ecuador, around the Tongan archipelago, and northwest of New   Caledonia (Townsend 1935, Mackintosh 1942). During the 20th century, Humpback Whales were hunted along their migratory corridors, such as along the coasts of New Zealand and Australia, and more intensively in their feeding areas in sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters (Mackintosh 1942, 1965). The IWC gave legal protection to Humpback Whales from commercial whaling in 1966 but they continued to be killed illegally by whalers from the Soviet Union until 1972. Illegal Soviet takes of 25,000 Humpback Whales in two seasons (1959/60 and 1960/61) precipitated a population crash and the closure of land stations in Australia and New Zealand (Mikhalev 2000, Clapham <em>et al. </em>2005).<em></em>  </p><p>Recently, Japan proposed to kill 50 humpback whales as part of its programme of scientific research under special permit (scientific whaling) in the IWC management areas IV and V in the Antarctic. Areas IV and V have demonstrated links with breeding stock E. Japan postponed its proposed catch in the 2007/08 season but have not removed Humpback Whales from its future whaling programme. The continuation of this programme has the potential to slow the recovery of the Oceania subpopulation.<em></em>  </p><p>Mortality of Humpback Whales due to entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships have been reported in the Southern Hemisphere (IWC 2001). Entanglement of Humpback Whales in pot lines occurs in both New Zealand and Australia. There is little information from around the rest of the South Pacific, but a humpback mother (with calf) was reported entangled in a longline in 2007 (N. Hauser, reported in SPWRC 2008) and another Humpback was struck and killed by a vessel in 1999 in Tonga (Diver 2004).<em></em></p>
132833		conservation	eng	<st1:placename w:st="on">Coco</st1:placename>s <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, as a National Park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a well protected site by the national authorities of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Costa Rica</st1:place></st1:country-region>: restricted access, visit regulation and regular survey of the habitat are under control of the authorities' agents, who are constantly present on the island. The population of <em>E. insulanum</em> does not seem to require any specific conservation action as it is common on the island. The species is included in CITES Appendix II.
132833		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. insulanum</em> is strictly endemic to <st1:placename w:st="on">Coco</st1:placename>s <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Province of Puntarenas</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Costa   Rica</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160; (Hágsater 1999). It has never been found on the continental lands of tropical America. <st1:placename w:st="on">Coco</st1:placename>s <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> (also known as Isla del Coco) is a volcanic island of 24 km<sup>2</sup>, located at 5º32’57” N and 86º59’17” W, in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place> (Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988).</p><p><br/></p>  <p>A previous distribution study of <em>E. insulanum</em> was done by Trusty (2004) who visited the island in 2004. She also recorded herbarium specimens and based on these data estimated an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 18.2 km<sup>2</sup> for this species.We, the present assessors, visited the island in April 2006 and collected this species along five transects: i.e. the path between Wafer and <st1:placename w:st="on">Chatham</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bays</st1:placetype>, along <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Genio</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Punta Presidio, path to Cerro Yglesias and Los Llanos plain. Based on these data, we calculated an EOO of 3.0 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
132833		habitat	eng	<em>E. insulanum </em>is an epiphytic plant, mostly growing on <em>Sacoglottis holdridgei</em> (a common endemic tree of the island from the Humiriaceae family), but it can be found on other trees and shrubs around the island. <em>E. insulanum</em> grows on the trunk and branches of <em>Saccoglottis</em> in understorey conditions but is also found on exposed branches of the forest or along the rivers and bays. The plants produce small (up to 1.3 cm) yellowish flowers. No data have been found on the pollination of this species. The life zone is pre-montane rain forest according to Gómez (1986). The species can usually be found growing in proximity to <em>E. cocoense</em>.
132833		population	eng	<em>E. insulanum</em> is common from sea level to about 400 meters in altitude.
132833		threats	eng	Cocos Island is very isolated and the national authorities restrict visits to this site. The island flora does not seem to be threatened by illegal collectors or deforestation. Nevertheless, it is a fragile ecosystem restricted to a small area in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place>. Climate change might represent the main threat in the future. Lack of pollinators (yet unknown) or invasive species might also pose a future threat.
132834		conservation	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p><em>P. praeclara</em> is federally listed in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Federally protected since 1989, a recovery plan for the species was published in 1996. The focus of recovery has been on “maintaining the habitat of known populations on native prairie and providing the highest level of protection appropriate for all populations” (USFWS 1996). To accomplish these goals, the USFWS seeks to achieve two recovery criteria:</p>  <ol><li>ensuring that a minimum proportion of plants within several ecological units occur on lands that are protected from being converted to non-grassland; and</li><li>that those protected plants are subject to appropriate management (USFWS unpublished).</li></ol>      <p>Because many populations of orchids are found on land in private ownership (USFWS 1996), protection of the orchids has largely been approached and executed on an <span style="font-style: italic;">ad hoc</span> basis by various, interested agencies and organizations in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>. However, according the USFWS (unpublished) three of nine ecological sections having large, extant populations of <em>P. praeclara</em> are currently protected at some level [The Nature Conservancy levels 4 to 9], or nearly so.&#160; The remaining five ecoregions are still with low or no protection for populations. These lands continue to be vulnerable to conversion for agricultural production or development.</span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In terms of management of adequately protected populations, “the Service has not approved any management plans” or “developed specific management guidelines for the species” (USFWS unpublished). Therefore, criterion number two continues to be difficult to achieve.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>State level conservation measures:</p>  <ul><li><st1:state w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:state>: Presently, some 84% of orchid plants are protected at some level in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state>, most of which occur on land owned by The Nature Conservancy (Sather 2002, 2004).</li><li><st1:state w:st="on">North  Dakota</st1:state>: Over 90% of known orchids in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state> are found on the Sheyenne National Grassland, which is managed by the USDA Forest Service. The Nature Conservancy also owns land with orchid populations, as do some private land owners. Orchid populations are monitored in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state>; state protection and conservation measures are not reported (Lenz unpublished).</li><li><st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state>: There are 33 known sites hosting orchid in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iowa</st1:place></st1:state>, 13 of which are protected through state ownership. Seven sites are protected by some other measure on private lands (Pearson unpublished).</li><li><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Missouri</st1:place></st1:state>: The three sites are managed by the Missouri Department of Conservation.</li><li><st1:state w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:state>: Of the 116 distinct populations presumed extant in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:place></st1:state>, most (about 72%) are privately owned and vulnerable to inappropriate management or outright destruction (USFWS unpublished). Only 20 populations are known to be protected.</span></li><li><st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>: Only one of five extant populations of orchids in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kansas</st1:place></st1:state> is protected in some way. The species is not protected by <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kansas</st1:place></st1:state> state law (Freeman unpublished).</li></ul>            <p>&#160;</p>  <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p><em>P. praeclara</em> is listed as endangered under <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s federal Species at Risk Act since 2003. It is also listed as endangered by the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:placename></st1:place> under its Endangered Species Act. The latter law prohibits actions that “destroy, disturb or interfere with the habitat of an endangered species”. While there is a National Recovery Plan for the species, this plan has not been formally adopted on either the federal or provincial level.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> is at the northern fringe of the range for this taxon and, as such, habitat supporting the species in this region is limited. According to Environment Canada (2006), “many of the largest patches of plants are found on [Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie] Preserve land—more than 80% of flowering plants observed in 2005 were found there.” The Preserve protects some 3,000 hectares of tallgrass prairie, including prime orchid habitat in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> (Environment Canada 2006).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Although knowledge of the full extent of the orchid’s distribution and occurrence in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> is uncertain, particularly on private lands, known populations on the Preserve are managed and monitored for conservation, as per the National Recovery Plan (Environment Canada 2006).</p>
132834		distribution	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><em>P. praeclara</em> was historically distributed throughout the western Central Lowlands and eastern Great Plains within the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region>, inclusive of the following states: <st1:state w:st="on">South Dakota</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Oklahoma</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Missouri</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:place></st1:state>. Presently, extant populations of <em>P. praeclara</em> are found in 45 counties in six states ranging through nine ecoregion sections. Most recently, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) indicates that counties containing extant populations are presently found in the states of <st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Missouri</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:state>, and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state>, with the latter three states having the bulk of the remaining populations. Largest numbers of flowering individuals occur in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state> on land preserves managed by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and by The Nature Conservancy.&#160; Other sites of significance occur in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state>, where over 90% of known orchids are located within the Sheyenne National Grassland, which is managed by the USDA Forest Service.</span></p>  <p>      </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Canada,</st1:country-region> <em>P. praeclara</em> occurs in one extant metapopulation in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:placename></st1:place>, occupying approximately 670 ha. <st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state> Many of the largest patches of plants are currently located within the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve.<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p>  <p></p>
132834		habitat	eng	<p>The ideal habitat for <em>P. praeclara</em> is calcareous prairies and sedge meadows, primarily along swales and in marsh areas (Sieg and King 1995, Schwarz 2005, USFWS 1996). <em>P. praeclara</em> is also found in ditches and along roadsides in unmanaged prairie remnants (Crummy 1993, Environment Canada 2006). The orchids prefer higher, drier slopes of swales and ditches, in full sunlight (Alexander 2000, 2001). However, they require a moist soil and warm climate; they do not readily flower in dry areas or during times of drought (Sears and Linden 2002, Schwarz 2004, Schwarz and Keicker 2003, Wolken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). <em>P. praeclara</em> appears to require some sort of prescribed fire or grazing management (Pleasants 1994; Sieg and King 1995; Self 2003, 2004; Self and Anthonisen 2005), although uncertainty remains about the appropriateness of specific techniques and regimes. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The reproductive ecology of <em>P. praeclara</em> is very complex:</p>  <ul><li><em>P. praeclara</em> requires pollination by specific pollinators, most notably hawk moths (sphingids) (Cuthrell and Rider 1992, Cuthrell 1994). Hawk moths, however, are not conversely dependant upon the orchids. Thus, pollination success can be greatly influenced by timing of flowering, availability of other flowering species, and range of the pollinator in relation to orchid populations (Pleasants 1993, Pleasants and Moe 1992, Westwood and Borkowsky 2004). Moreover, a decline in pollinator populations, due to habitat loss or application of insecticides for example, could adversely impact the <em>P. praeclara</em>.</li><li>Has erratic flowering, and plant/seed dormancy periods.</li><li>Needs suitable symbionts.</li><li>As populations become smaller and more isolated, reduced genetic vigour and a decline in seedling success are likely to occur (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Environment Canada 2006).</li></ul>
132834		population	eng	<p>Population sizes fluctuate considerably over the years for this taxon.&#160; For example, across 43 sites in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state>, total counts declined steadily from 5,133 flowering plants in year 2001 to 1,117 flowering plants in 2006.&#160; </span>Of the five known localities in the state of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kansas</st1:place></st1:state>, plants were not seen at three sites during 2003 and 2006 (time period for which data are available).&#160; One locality contained two flowering individuals in 2004, but none have been documented since.&#160; </span>At another locality, searches in the last two years have yielded no flowering individuals, there were  two or three observed in 2003 and 2004, respectively.&#160; In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Missouri</st1:place></st1:state>, across three known sites, while total count has increased from 21 flowering individuals to 38, no flowering plants were seen recently at one location.&#160; </span>In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:place></st1:state>, total counts across all monitored sites at times have declined by up to 60% during the last 6 years.&#160; In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iowa</st1:place></st1:state>, overall, 90-</span>100% decline has been observed over the past at least 20 years at several localities. While at most localities in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state>, declines of up to 80% have been observed over the last seven years, two to three sites have shown increases in the numbers of flowering individuals.</span></p><p> <br/></span></p><p>The number of plants occurring in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> is difficult to determine because of dramatic fluctuations in numbers from season to season. A low of 1,818 plants were counted in 1995 and a high of 23,530 were recorded in 2003. Fluctuations in the number of flowering individuals are very common for this species, however, it is the overall decline in the numbers of reproductive individuals at each fragmented location which is of biological concern.&#160;&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>These summaries are based on data supplied by Missouri Department of Conservation, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, North Dakota Natural Heritage Inventory, US Fish and Wildlife Service, and Environment <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
132834		threats	eng	<p>The most significant threats to <em>P. praeclara</em> are habitat destruction/loss and habitat degradation/alteration, particularly in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Improper management of the intact habitat is also a significant threat to the species. Large tracts of prairie habitat ideal for the orchids have been lost due to conversion of land for agricultural production, especially row-cropping which results in ploughing (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Lenz 1996, Fauske and Rider 1996, USFWS 1996). In addition, habitat is increasingly lost under pressure of development as both remnant prairie and grazing lands are converted for housing and commercial uses. Although some habitat conversion has been documented in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Collicutt 1993, Punter in press) in recent years, historical trends are not available.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The orchids are also at risk from habitat alteration and degradation, which is induced by anthropogenic factors. Inappropriate land management practices can damage individual plants or create ecological changes that disadvantage entire orchid populations. For example, cattle can damage individual plants by grazing and trampling them (Self and Anthonisen 2005; Alexander 2000, 2001; Fauske and Rider 1996). More problematic are management practices and other alterations to associated ecological systems that disadvantage <em>P. praeclara</em>. For instance, non-application or misapplication of prescribed fire, grazing, or mowing could have a detrimental impact on plant survival, growth, and reproduction (USFWS 1996, Self and Anthonisen 2005, Environment Canada 2006). Similarly, a loss of prairie habitat within the landscape matrix could lead to a decline in pollinators and change local hydrology, thereby altering the surrounding vegetative communities (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, USFWS 1996, Wolken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). With more dry conditions, for example, Leafy Spurge (<em>Euphorbia esula</em>) an invasive exotic plant species, commonly invades <em>P. praeclara</em> habitat, often out-competing the orchids (Challey 1992, Crummy 1993, Kirby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wolken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Other exotic species that are observed in the habitat and could potentially out-compete <em>P. praeclara</em> are <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">St. Johns</st1:place></st1:city> Wort (<em>Hyperiucum perforatum</em>), Smooth Brome (<em>Bromus inermis</em>), Kentucky Bluegrass (<em>Poa pratensis</em>), Reed Canary Grass (<em>Phalaris arundinacea</em>) and clover species (<em>Trifolium</em> sp.) (Environment Canada 2006).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>There are other factors that are less well understood, but that may threaten <em>P. praeclara</em>. First, the orchid is subject to grazing by wildlife and insects, from which individual plants can sustain damage (Cuthrell and Rider 1992, Cuthrell 1994, Pleasants 1994, Sieg and O’Brien 1993, Self 2003). While such natural grazing may have been sustainable under historical circumstances (meaning when the species was widely distributed), mounting threats, as well as the orchids complex biology/ecology, makes any reduction in fitness problematic.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Second, as the biology and ecology of <em>P. praeclara</em> are increasingly understood, concern increases about the threshold of the species. The life cycle and reproductive biology of this species are very complex. As populations continue to decline, biological traits such as erratic flowering, dormancy periods, the need for suitable symbionts, and the need for particular pollinators may reduce the likelihood of recovering the species over the long-term. Finally, as populations become smaller and more isolated, reduced genetic vigour and a decline in seedling success are likely to occur (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Environment Canada 2006).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Other threats to the orchid include damage or destruction of plants by herbicide used during control campaigns for invasive species, roadway maintenance activities, introduction of new, alien species (primarily grasses on grazing lands), and the collection of plants by hobbyists and commercial plant dealers (Environment Canada 2006, USFWS unpublished). A new, potential threat in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> is the over-application or improper application of fertilizer, specifically hog manure. Problematic application of hog manure on or near orchid habitat could cause harm to the orchid or affect changes in plant communities thereby disadvantaging the orchid (Environment Canada 2006).</p>
132835		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Humpback whales have been legally protected from commercial whaling in the southern hemisphere since 1963, and the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> region has always been a closed area to commercial whaling under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. However, humpback whales were taken from the region illegally by Soviet pelagic operations in 1965 and 1966. The hunting of any cetacean species is prohibited by law in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region>. At the species level, the humpback whale is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.&#160; The <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian  Sea</st1:place> is also part of the International Whaling Commission’s Indian Ocean Sanctuary.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The potential for successful conservation of humpback whales in the region is considered to be high, provided that range state governments are made aware of this population’s precarious status. The countries of the Arabian region are generally affluent and in a good position to implement marine conservation measures for humpback whales in addition to those already initiated for other taxa, such as sea turtles. A coordinated series of marine protected areas, combined with species-specific protection measures, could greatly enhance the long-term prospects for humpback whales in the region. </span></p>
132835		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The humpback whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all of the major oceans (Clapham and Mead 1999). All known subpopulations, with the exception of the subpopulation in the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place>, migrate between breeding grounds in tropical waters and feeding grounds in productive temperate or polar waters. </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Nineteenth century whalers and observers on 20<sup>th</sup> century merchant vessels documented the presence of humpback whales in the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> (e.g., Brown 1957, Slijper <em>et al.</em> 1964, Wray and Martin 1980, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1991). Data from illegal Soviet whaling operations (Yukhov 1969, Mikhalev 1997, Mikhalev 2000) include records of sightings&#160; or whales captured off the coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Yemen</st1:country-region>, Southern Oman, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Iran</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>.&#160; </span>These locations are well within the northern hemisphere, but there are no feasible migration routes to any of the <st1:place w:st="on">North Atlantic</st1:place> or North Pacific feeding grounds used by other humpback whales in the northern hemisphere. Given other genetic and demographic information (see below), it is assumed that the humpback whales of the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> are an isolated remnant population with a historical connection to the southern hemisphere.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  Research efforts during the past thirty years have confirmed the continued presence of humpback whales off the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Oman</st1:placename> and Arabian Sea coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but only limited incidental observations of the species have been recorded for the rest of the reported range. Two humpback strandings are known from the <st1:place w:st="on">Persian Gulf</st1:place> (Gervais 1883, Al-Robaae 1974). Two strandings and one sighting of a mother-calf pair have been recorded for the Arabian Sea coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region> (G. Braulik pers. comm.). A small number of strandings have been documented from the west coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mathew 1948, Mörzer Bruyns cited in Slijper <em>et al.</em> 1964, Ahmed 1988, Lal Mohan 1992, Sathasivam 2000). All records of strandings and sightings from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:place></st1:country-region> are from the western and north-western side of the island (Winn <em>et al.</em> 1980; Whitehead 1985; Ilangakoon 2002, 2006).&#160; Three confirmed sightings of mother-calf pairs in the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Maldives</st1:country-region> may represent vagrants from a southern hemisphere population or the southernmost extent of the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> population (Anderson 2005 and pers comm.). A single sighting off the west coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Saudi Arabia</st1:country-region> indicates that individuals from this population may stray into the <st1:place w:st="on">Red Sea</st1:place> (Baldwin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
132835		habitat	eng	<p>  The southwest monsoon system in the <st1:place u1:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> drives one of the five largest upwelling systems in the world (Burkill 1999). During the peak monsoon months of July and August sea-surface temperatures drop to 16-17˚C (Sheppard <em>et al. </em>1992, Wilson 2000).&#160; High nutrient levels in the upwelling systems result in phytoplankton blooms and high productivity, with highest levels recorded on the Arabian Sea coast of <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Savidge <em>et al</em>. 1990). This productivity is believed to supply the food that permits whales to reside year-round in the tropical <st1:place u1:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1991, Papastavrou and Van Waerebeek 1997).<u2:p></u2:p></p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  Sightings of humpback whales off <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> include observations of defecation and feeding (Minton <em>et al.</em> in press). Over 50% of 190 whales examined in the November 1966 Soviet catch had full or half-full stomachs. Euphausiids, of unknown species, were the primary prey item in the northeastern part of the Arabian Sea, while small fish from the <em>Scomber </em>and <em>Sardinella</em> families were more prominent off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mikhalev 2000).
132835		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Soviet whaling data, observations from merchant vessels and recent research (primarily along the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region>) collectively include records from every month of the year and indicate that there is a resident population in the western <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> (Brown 1957, Slijper <em>et al.</em> 1964, Mikhalev 1997, Minton <em>et al.</em> in press). Re-sightings of photographically identified individuals off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> in early autumn and late spring provide further evidence of year-round residency (Minton <em>et al.</em> in press).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Examination of stomach contents and fetuses from the 238 humpback whales taken during Soviet whaling operations in the Arabian Sea in 1965-66 indicated that both breeding and feeding were taking place off the coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, consistent with a northern hemisphere cycle (Mikhalev 1997, Mikhalev 2000). A formal comparison of photo-identification catalogues from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region>, the <st1:placename w:st="on">Comoros</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype> and <st1:city w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:city> yielded no photographic matches between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> and any other region of the <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place>. Fluke pigmentation pattern frequencies differed significantly between the Oman animals and those from other areas (Minton 2004, Minton <em>et al.</em> in press) and initial analysis of song indicates significant differences between Oman and other regions (C. Clark pers comm.).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Genetic analysis of tissues sampled from live and beach-cast humpback whales off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> also provides evidence for a discrete <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> subpopulation. Although this subpopulation clearly originated from the larger Southern Hemisphere population, analyses of maternally inherited mitochondrial (mt) DNA and nuclear microsatellites confirm genetic differentiation from Southern Hemisphere populations including Madagascar, the Comoros Islands and Mozambique, and lack of current exchange with these neighbouring areas (Pomilla <em>et al.</em> 2006, Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 2006). These conclusions were reached with the congruent support of several analytical approaches including: searches for shared or private haplotypes, measures of population differentiation (<em>F</em>-statistics), Bayesian individual clustering and </span><span lang="EN-US">maximum likelihood estimates of migration rates. These results are even more striking in light of the fact that similar levels of distinctiveness have not been shown elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere (Pomilla <em>et al.</em> 2006, Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 2006, Olavarria <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Of 85 sexually mature females examined in the Soviet catch, 39 (45.9%) were pregnant, and the size range (140-375c m, mean 232 cm) of 36 examined fetuses indicated calving commencing in December, with a peak in February. Mikhalev (2000) suggested a 3-4 month mating season lasting from January to May, coincident with that of other Northern Hemisphere populations. Females with calves have been observed on the Arabian Sea coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> between the months of November and February, with recent observations of likely neonates limited to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Halaniyat</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place> in February 2000 (Minton <em>et al.</em> in press).&#160; </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Mark-recapture studies using three different pairings of tail fluke photographs collected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> in two main research areas over a period of four and a half years yielded a population estimate of 82 individuals (95% CI 60-111). However, sample sizes are small, and there are various sources of possible negative bias, including insufficient spatial and temporal coverage of the population’s suspected range (Minton <em>et. al.</em> in press).</span>
132835		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Humpback whales are well-known to be susceptible to entanglement in fishing gear (Volgenau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). A total of nine humpback whale entanglements in fishing gear have been recorded off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160; Eight of these animals were freed, another was observed swimming but trailing gear (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press).&#160; Analysis of scarring on the caudal peduncle region of photographically identified humpback whales in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> indicates that between 30-40% are likely to have been involved in entanglements with fishing gear (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press). Fishing effort off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> and in other parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> is increasing (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 2002, Ministry of National Economy 2003, FAO 2007) and drifting and set gillnets as well as traps are already widely used (Stengel and Al Harthy 2002).<p><span lang="EN-US">The <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> humpback whale population is small, and any human-induced mortality, especially of females, must be a concern. </span>
132859		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132859		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132859		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found only in subtidal turbid water, attached to wave washed rock. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, the back slope, in lagoons, and on inter-reef rubble substrate. It may be found on the foreslope. This species is found to 10 m. <br/><br/><em>Oulastrea</em> is usually found in muddy areas on the shallow back reef and seldom occurs among dense coral on the fore reef (Wood 1983). It may be more abundant in degraded habitats where other coral species have disappeared, e.g., Jakarta Bay.
132859		population	eng	This is generally an uncommon species, but locally common in degraded environments. It is one of the very few corals remaining in the Jakarta Bay.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132859		threats	eng	Apart from the large global threats, the only threat is the physical removal of the habitat.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132860		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132860		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Seychelles, Indonesia, the oceanic west Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific including Easter Island.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, <em>Psammocora stellata</em> is recorded from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.<br/><br/>In the ETP specific records include: <br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima (including the Revillagigedo Islands), Michoacán and Guerrero (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Islas Murciélago Archipelago, Culebra Bay, La Penca, Brasilito Bay, Cabo Blanco, Curú Bay, Punta Mala, Manuel Antonio, Marino Ballena National Park, Osa Peninsula, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés 1990, Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005), Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Island, Uva Island, Unnamed Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí, and Iguana Island, Taboga Island and Saboga Island in the Gulf of Panama (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría and Tebada (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: La Libertad and Sucre Island at mainland Ecuador, and Devils Crown, Floreana; Wolf Island; Darwin Bay, Genovesa Island; Gardner Bay, Española; Marchena (Hickman 2005, Wells 1983, Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).
132860		habitat	eng	<em>Psammocora stellata</em> occurs on shallow wave washed rock, or at depths of 15-20 m depth on coarse sand bottoms (Hickman 2005).<br/><br/>In general, <em>Psammocora</em> species are very slow growing corals; with a calculated growth rate of 0.6cm/year for <em>P. superficialis</em> in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993; Guzmán and Cortés 1989). Sexual reproduction is important, but asexual reproduction and fragmentation are more effective strategies for colonizing free areas within the reef (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). <em>Psammocora</em> species are considered to be amongst the most opportunistic species because of the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzmán and Cortés 2001).
132860		population	eng	This species is rare to uncommon in the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Psammocora stellata</em> has been categorized as common in many parts of its range including Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama. It is considered rare in Clipperton Atoll and mainland Ecuador, and <em>P. stellata</em> was common in the Galápagos (Wells 1983) before the 1982-83 El Niño event (Hickman 2005), and although it is still locally common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132860		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5. <br/><br/>The sea star <em>Acanthaster planci</em> and the fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> feed on <em>Psammocora</em> species (Cortés and Guzmán 1998,Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999). According to Cortés and Guzmán (1998), the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> is capable of reducing populations of <em>Psammocora</em> species if other preferred coral species such as <em>Porites lobata</em> are absent.<br/><br/>In Galápagos, following the 1982-83 El Niño event <em>P. stellata</em> experienced extreme population reductions at Española Island (Glynn 1997); in Costa Rica, after the 1991-92 ENSO event ~40% of all colonies were dead in Manuel Antonio (Jiménez and Cortés 2001), and after the 1997-98 El Niño event <em>P. stellata</em> disappeared from one locality (Punta Cambial) in Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2003). Despite the fact that <em>Psammocora stellata</em> is affected by ENSO events, this species is more resistant to bleaching than shallow water corals such as <em>Pocillopora</em> (Feingold 1995). Additionally, <em>Psammocora stellata</em> has also shown resistance to anomalous conditions during ENSO events (Feingold 1995, Feingold 1996, Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001). At Devils Crown, Floreana (Galápagos), <em>Psammocora stellata</em> bleached during the 1982-83 El Niño event but did not die (Robinson 1985). <br/><br/>Algae overgrowth has also been reported to cause mortality on <em>Psammocora</em> (Glynn 1997, Jiménez and Cortés 2001, Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006). At Uva Island, Panama, large aggregations of <em>P. stellata</em> at 8-10 m depth that survived the 1982-83 El Niño event were overgrown by thick mats of Caulerpa species (Glynn 1997); additionally, in Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, <em>Psammocora</em> species were completely overgrown by a brown algae (Jimenez and Cortés 2001). At La Penca (Costa Rica), <em>Psammocora</em>-dominated reef that once covered 0.3 ha is now reduced to several small (1-3m2) patches of coral among a dense bed of <em>Caulerpa</em> (Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
132861		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of this species.
132861		distribution	eng	This species was collected in the Muscat Area (Daymaniyat Islands, Cemetery Bay, Bandar Khayran) and the Arabian Sea near the Island of Masirah (Claereboudt and Al-Amri 2004).  However, it is a recent discovery it is likely to occur in a wider range than currently known.
132861		habitat	eng	Colonies are found attached to hard substrate: fragments of coral skeleton, large flagstone of limestone and <em>Ophiolite bedrock</em>. They have been found between 4-22 m depth in mixed communities dominated by <em>Cyphastrea</em>, <em>Leptastrea</em>, <em>Favites</em>, <em>Porites</em>, and <em>Goniopora</em> on the lower part of the reef, in areas with cold upwellings. Colonies are very sensitive to even slight changes in water pressure or movement and respond readily to the slightest disturbance by retracting the polyps (Claereboudt and Al-Amri 2004).
132861		population	eng	This species is relatively common in some environments, but it is a cryptic species and colonies are small (Claereboudt and Al-Amri 2004).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132861		threats	eng	This species occurs in areas with cold upwellings and is unlikely to experience warming to the same extent as species in other areas. However, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
132862		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132862		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, the Solomons, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007) Andaman Island, and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
132862		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on exposed upper reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132862		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132862		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132863		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132863		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.
132863		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef slopes and in lagoons.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132863		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132863		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 950.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132864		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132864		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific. On the main coast of Africa, the lower latitudes of the range are not confirmed.
132864		habitat	eng	This species is found on lower reef slopes and sandy reef base. The depth range is from 3-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 12 cm diameter and the generation length is approximately seven years. This is a free-living single polyp.
132864		population	eng	This is a widespread species and is moderately common in deeper waters. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132864		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132865		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132865		distribution	eng	This species is found only near Japan and in the East China Sea.
132865		habitat	eng	This species is only found in shallow, partly wave washed rocky foreshores nested among algae and soft corals. The depth range is unknown for this species. It is estimated to take three years for a colony of <em>A. japonica</em> to reach sexual maturity (Harii <em>et al</em>. 2001).
132865		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132865		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132866		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132866		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, east Papua New Guinea, Australia, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).
132866		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is commonly found on fringing reef flats, and also other reef habitats. This species is found from 1 m to at least 20 m.
132866		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132866		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread in tropical and subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132867		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132867		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. Also found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
132867		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow reef flats and upper slopes. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132867		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132867		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132868		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132868		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution. It is found in the Southeast Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Comoros, northern tip of Madagascar, and north Sulawesi (Indonesia)<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132868		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. <em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
132868		population	eng	This species is common but inconspicuous so easily overlooked.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132868		threats	eng	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132869		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132869		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Cook Island (Wallace 1999), and the oceanic west Pacific.
132869		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found subtidally on reef tops, walls and slopes to 30 m (Wallace 1999).
132869		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 31 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132869		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. One disease is found in this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. The extent of this threat is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 3297.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132870		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132870		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea.
132870		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to turbid water with muddy substrates. It is also occurs in muddy areas exposed at low tide. This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. Colonies are generally small, consisting of one or several corallites, and are often unattached (Wood 1983). This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 10 m.
132870		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132870		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132871		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132871		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the oceanic west Pacific. Also recorded from Palau (Randall 1995).
132871		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes and sandy substrates, especially with turbid water. This is a branching <em>Pectinia</em> species. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. elongata</em> colonies grow up to 30 cm (Fenner pers. comm). This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. elongata</em> is very conspicuous.
132871		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132871		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132872		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.
132872		distribution	eng	This species is found in Tanzania, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, southeast Papua New Guinea, and eastern Australia.
132872		habitat	eng	This species occurs in protected reef environments, typically in shallow water. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons.
132872		population	eng	This is a rare species, but it is recently described and might be overlooked (Obura pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132872		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.
132873		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132873		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, South China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132873		habitat	eng	This species is found on back reef margins, generally to depths of 20 m.
132873		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132873		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132874		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132874		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas.<br/><br/>This species has a questionable record from Brazil.
132874		habitat	eng	This species is found at intermediate to deep fore reef and lagoon habitats, edges of channels, and at the base of the reef, in hard ground areas and in soft substrate. Occurs from 10-80 m (Reed 1985) though most common from 15-25 m.
132874		population	eng	This species occurs at low abundances, generally as solitary polyps but occasionally in small groups.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132874		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching and occasionally observed with disease (white plague), but only low levels of mortality have been observed.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132875		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132875		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southern Japan and South China Sea, and northeastern Australia, north coast of New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.
132875		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow exposed reef environments. The colonies are small. This species is found from 5-40 m.
132875		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132875		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132876		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132876		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomon Islands, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
132876		habitat	eng	It is found in deep water and on vertical walls. Maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 15-25 m.
132876		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132876		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132877		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132877		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific but more specifically in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, Bismarck Sea, and Gilbert Islands and northeastern Australia. Also in Solomon Island (Veron and Turak 2006).
132877		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 3-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 15 cm in diameter. It reproduces asexually by budding (Hoeksema 2004). It is noteworthy to mention that this species has never been found with parasites.
132877		population	eng	This species is uncommon but may occur in very local clusters due to budding. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132877		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132878		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132878		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, East Africa, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, the Solomons, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132878		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper to lower reef slopes from 3 m to at least 25 m. Sparse colonies of <em>F. maxima</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in lagoons, and sometimes in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to 35 m.
132878		population	eng	This is an uncommon, but conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132878		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132879		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132879		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), Andaman Sea, and central Indo-Pacific.
132879		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
132879		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132879		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132880		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132880		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
132880		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 50 cm. This species is found from 2-20 m.
132880		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132880		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132881		conservation	eng	Import of this species to the E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). Recommended conservation measures should include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132881		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
132881		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments, especially lagoons and protected reef slopes. This species is found to 40 m.
132881		population	eng	This species is common and may form extensive single species stands.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132881		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 6,000 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132882		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132882		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan and the East China Sea.
132882		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow rocky foreshores. This species is found from 1-8 m depth.
132882		population	eng	This species is common, and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132882		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132883		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132883		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
132883		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical, shallow and deeper clear-water reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
132883		population	eng	This species is common, and it may be a dominant species of subtropical reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132883		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 315. There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a large harvest in Fiji.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132884		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132884		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
132884		habitat	eng	This species is found in back reef and fore reef environments from 0.5-55 m depth (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). The form <em>C. amaranthus</em> occurs in intermediate to deep waters from 10-30 m.
132884		population	eng	This species is common in most reef environments, but at low to moderate abundances. There are no known instances of widespread population declines, but localized mass mortality events have been recorded (e.g. Bruckner and Bruckner, 1997).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132884		threats	eng	The major threats are disease (black-band disease and white plague), bleaching, and predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) predation. Localized declines may be taking place due to bioerosion by endolithic sponges and predation by <em>Stegastes planifrons</em> (Three-spot Damselfish). This species is also sensitive to sedimentation. This species generally exhibits moderate rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132885		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132885		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.
132885		habitat	eng	This species is found on the lower reef slopes and on vertical walls. The maximum size is 25 cm. This species is found from 15-30 m.
132885		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132885		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was nine.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132886		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132886		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south Australia.<br/><br/>Also found in Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).
132886		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow lagoons and on foreshores exposed to wave action. This species is found from 3-12 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132886		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132886		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132887		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132887		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
132887		habitat	eng	This species is found on the lower reef slopes and on vertical walls. This species is found from 15-30 m.
132887		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132887		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132888		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132888		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau and south Marianas (Randall 1995).
132888		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments, especially upper reef slopes and outer reef flats. It is also found subtidally on reef edges and walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/><em>Acropora secale</em> likely spawns annually in September and October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006).
132888		population	eng	This species is common in the Pacific, but it is uncommon in the Indian Ocean. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 35 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132888		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). One record of disease for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,198.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132889		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132889		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northwest Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132889		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water and is tolerant of high salinities, generally to depths of 15 m. Although this species lives generally in less than 5 m, and tolerates salinities of up to 48 ppt. (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
132889		population	eng	This species is common and may form patch reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132889		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132890		conservation	eng	Import of this species from the Solomon Islands to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132890		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific and Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). So far it is known from two sites in Sabah, Malaysia (Darvel Bay: Ditlev <em>et al</em>. 1999; Semporna: Wood pers. comm.), one site in Papua New Guinea (Steene in Veron 2000), one in the Solomon Islands (Sprung pers. comm.), four sites in the Philippines, and 12 sites in Indonesia: southwest Sulawesi (Bruckner 2002b), north Sumatra, west, central, and east Java, Bali, Komodo, and Rinca, central Java, West Timor (Lilley, 2000), northern Sulawesi, and two sites in the Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia), West Papua (Irian Jia) (Turak, pers. comm.).
132890		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in protected, preferably turbid water. <em>C. jardinei</em> has a depth range of 24-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef (Fisk 1983). This species can be found from 0-40 m.<br/><br/><em>Catalaphyllia</em> occurs in a variety of reef biotypes, but is especially common on soft substrates rather than in areas of dense coral growth. Mature colonies may reach 100 cm in diameter (Wood 1983, Turak pers. comm.)
132890		population	eng	This species is rare, but conspicuous and easy to identify. It is rare in the western Indian Ocean. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132890		threats	eng	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter of this species and set an annual export quota of 26,500 wild caught pieces in 2005 and 1,000 cultivated pieces. Export of this species from Fiji is at zero in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132891		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132891		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Hawaiian Islands and northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fenner 2005).
132891		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef and lagoon environments (Fenner pers. comm.). It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.
132891		population	eng	This species is rare (Fenner 2005).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132891		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132892		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132892		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
132892		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on protected, upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
132892		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132892		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132893		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132893		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean.
132893		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
132893		population	eng	This is a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132893		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132894		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132894		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. There are unconfirmed reports from East Africa (Obura pers. comm.).
132894		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef slopes. This species can be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m.
132894		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but it is more common in some places, such as Vietnam (DeVantier pers. comm).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132894		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132895		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132895		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, Eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Also in the Southern Marianas (Randall 1995).
132895		habitat	eng	This species is found in most shallow tropical reef environments except areas with strong wave action. This species is found from 5-30 m.
132895		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132895		threats	eng	This species is likely used in the aquarium trade but there are no specific records for this species.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132896		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132896		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.
132896		habitat	eng	This species is only found in environments with moderate wave action, generally to depths of 30 m.
132896		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132896		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132897		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132897		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southeast Asia, South China Sea. Palau and the Marianas Islands (Randall 1995).
132897		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
132897		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132897		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132898		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132898		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan, and it has also been recorded from the Eastern Philippines (Licuanan and Capili 2003).
132898		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
132898		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132898		threats	eng	I<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132899		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132899		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132899		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef slopes. This species is also found in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
132899		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132899		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132900		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132900		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Arabian Gulf, northern and central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Am Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.) Palau (Randall 1995).
132900		habitat	eng	This species is found on all reef habitats. This species is found to 40 m.
132900		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132900		threats	eng	S. radians around Orpheus Island on the GBR were largely unaffected by the massive bleaching that occurred in 1998 (Baird and Marshall 1998)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132901		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132901		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, southern Japan and South China Sea.
132901		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower reef slopes. It can form large fields. This species is found from 15-30 m.
132901		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132901		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132902		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132902		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132902		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and lagoons.
132902		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132902		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132903		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132903		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Persian Gulf, southwestern and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
132903		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes and vertical walls. The maximum size is 30 cm. This species is found from 10-30 m.
132903		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132903		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132904		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Panama: Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)).<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.
132904		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) Indian Ocean (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species  is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Revillagigedo Archipelago, Cabo Pulmo (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Coiba Archipelago; recorded as <em>Pavona cf. minuta</em> (Guzman <em>et al</em>. 2003), and Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Clipperton Atoll</strong> (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn and Ault 2000).
132904		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. At various sites in the Gulf of Panama and Gulf of Chiriqui. <em>Pavona minuta</em> forms large colonies on upper reef slopes (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). Growth forms range from hemispherical colonies (<3 m in diameter) to upright columns; in addition, on places exposed to strong turbulence, colonies are individually sculptured into a range of very different shapes (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). The growth rates of P. minuta vary between 9.5 mm/yr and 13.8 mm/yr, at depths of 6-8 m and 16-17 m respectively (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). The maximum size is at least 1 m. This species may be found from 6-25 m. <br/><br/>Occasionally, the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> bites pieces of <em>P. minuta</em> (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Pavona</em> is a fairly common coral that is found in most reef habitats. Some of the massive colonies are large, and the foliaceous ones may form extensive tracts (Wood 1983).
132904		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pavona minuta</em> is as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000); <br/><br/>Common: Coiba Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), and is present at 36 sites across the Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzman et al., in prep.); <br/><br/>Rare: Mexico including the Revillagigedo Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000; Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132904		threats	eng	This species exhibited some high bleaching and significant mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132905		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132905		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean; central Indo-Pacific; north, west and south Australia; South-east Asia; eastern Australia; and oceanic West Pacific.
132905		habitat	eng	This species occurs on soft substrates in deep water or in shallow turbid water protected from wave action and currents. It occurs to at least 20 m, and likely to 30 m depth.
132905		population	eng	This species is uncommon but conspicuous. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132905		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. <br/><br/>The <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132906		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132906		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Solomons,  Japan and the East China Sea. It is found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
132906		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 1-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132906		population	eng	This species is sometimes common, especially in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132906		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132907		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132907		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the South China Sea. Also occurs in the Great Barrier Reef (Turak pers. comm.), American Samoa, New Caledonia, Coral Sea, and Fiji (Fenner pers. comm.).
132907		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in lower reef slopes protected from wave action, and in crevices. This species forms small colonies; rarely exceeds 10 cm (Fenner pers. comm.). It is found from approximately 5-20 m.
132907		population	eng	This species is rare, but distinctive. The species is more common in Fiji (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132907		threats	eng	The species is rare and does not appear in coral trade statistics.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132908		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132908		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.
132908		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132908		population	eng	This species is  uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132908		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2483.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132909		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132909		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south-west Australia. It is also found in Thailand, Indonesia, the Solomons, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.) and Sulawesi (Fenner pers. comm.). It is reported from Thailand by Wallace (1999), also in Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).
132909		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is found in protected lagoons or sandy slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-20 m.
132909		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132909		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132910		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132910		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.<br/><br/>Found in Palau (Randall 1995) and South Africa (Wallace 1999).
132910		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, in lagoons and on fringing reefs, and is subtidal (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora cf. divaricata</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 5-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132910		population	eng	This species is common, and may be a dominant species. It was found at 6 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at five sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132910		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known what threat this presents. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 3506.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132911		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132911		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the coral is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Revillagigedo Archipelago (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Guanacaste, Bahía Culebra, Parque Nacional Marino Ballena, Isla del Caño and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Archipelago, Gulf of Chiriquí (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Glynn and Ault 2000), and Iguana Island, Gulf of Panama (Holst and Guzman 1993). Maté (2003), questioned the presence of <em>P. maldivensis</em> in Panamá; however, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), confirmed this species at Coiba Archipelago, Panamá; <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); Unconfirmed record (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Clipperton Atoll</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000).
132911		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially those exposed to strong wave action. It is also found on vertical rock faces and in caverns. It is also found on deeper reef slopes and vertical walls. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region it also occurs on coral communities and on rocky substrata, often on vertical surfaces or at the entrance of crevices (Chiriboga, Guzmán, Hickman, and Edgar pers. comm.). The maximum size is approximately 50 cm. This species is found from 5-20 m.
132911		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pavona maldivensis</em> is as follows: <br/><br/>Common: Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Rare: Revillagigedo Archipelago (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Costa Rica (including Cocos Island); Coiba Archipelago and Iguana Island, Panama (Holst and Guzman 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004); mainland Colombia, and Galápagos Archipelago.<br/><br/>In the northern islands of Wolf and Darwin, Galapagos, the relative abundance of <em>P. maldivensis</em> seems to be moderately common (Chiriboga, Hickman, Edgar, Banks and Vera, pers. comm.). In addition, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. maldivensis</em> is uncommon in Panama and Costa Rica. <br/><br/>Although, the population trend of <em>P. maldivenis</em> in Eastern Tropical Pacific region is unknown, it seems to be stable in the Galápagos Archipelago, despite the fact that no detailed data are available (Chiriboga, Hickman and Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132911		threats	eng	El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132912		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132912		distribution	eng	This species was collected from Sabah, North Borneo (Ditlev 2003).
132912		habitat	eng	This specimen was collected at 2 m depth in a turbid location with moderate currents (Ditlev 2003).
132912		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132912		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132913		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132913		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific in Thailand, west Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.), Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004), Andamans, and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). It has a disjuct distribution.
132913		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It can be found on fringing reefs (Richards pers. comm.). This species can be found from 3-15 m.
132913		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but conspicuous. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132913		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132914		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132914		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
132914		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 2-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132914		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132914		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132915		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132915		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is reported to include the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, and Brazil (Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, it is not yet confirmed that <em>S. stellata</em> is the form present in the wider Caribbean (E. Weil pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species has been reported from Fortaleza to Cabo Frio, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>The taxonomic status of forms in the Caribbean requires further investigation.
132915		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reefs, lagoons and intertidal pools (Goreau and Wells 1967). It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
132915		population	eng	This species is common in Brazil and unknown in the Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132915		threats	eng	A potential future threat is sea-level rise, especially in areas where hard-bottom communities are replaced by soft substrates.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
132916		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132916		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006).
132916		habitat	eng	It is found on reefs and rocky foreshores. It may form encrusting plates of over 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 5-20 m.
132916		population	eng	This species is common except in the Indian Ocean where it is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132916		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132917		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132917		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Indian Ocean, and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>México</strong>: Puerto Escondido to Huatulco (Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Peninsula de Osa, Isla del Caño and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Contadora Island, Saboga Island, Mogo Mogo Island, Pacheca Island, Iguana Island, Unnamed Island (Secas Island) and Uva Island (Glynn and Mate 1997); <strong>Colombia</strong> (Reyes 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island, La Plata Island and Galapagos Archipelago (Glynn 2003).
132917		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments from 2-30 m. Colonies are massive to encrusting, sometimes with laminar margins. It usually occurs on walls or under overhangs in clear water  This species can be found in most reef habitats but is not a particularly common coral (Wood 1983). Sparse colonies of <em>G. planulata</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region <em>G. planulata</em> usually occurs on coral reefs and coral communities on rocky substrata at depths of 3-30 m (Guzmán, Chiriboga and Edgar pers. comm.); it also occurs on walls or under overhangs in clear water. <em>G. planulata</em> colonies are among the predominant framework builders in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Glynn 2000). <em>G. planulata</em> has reported average growth rates of 10.4 and 13.2 mm per year in Costa Rica and Panama, respectively (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, and Glynn 1985). Reproduction of <em>G. planulata</em> is mainly sexual (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <em>G. planulata</em> is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996), with an alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodite mode of reproduction (spawning of first one sex then the other in given colony, in a lunar phase, and over the breeding season (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, <em>G. planulata</em> has a high proportion of mixed sexual patterns, with gonochoric colonies usually predominating over hermaphrodites (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). This pattern of sexuality could promote outbreeding during periods of high population abundance, but still allow sexual reproduction by selfing at times of severe population decline (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the earliest age of sexual reproduction for <em>G. planulata</em> is 20 years; which may retard the recovery of the population, especially in areas that have experienced catastrophic mortality. Gardinoseris planulata has revealed no sexual recruitment where seed populations are absent or rare (Galápagos Islands), and only low recruitment (Panamá) in areas with colonies that survived the ENSO disturbance (Glynn 1996). At Uva Island, Panamá, corals that recruit are subject to significant mortality by <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation (Glynn 1996). <em>G. planulata</em> colonies are preferred prey for <em>Acanthaster planci</em>; which may affect the population structure and distribution of <em>G. planulata</em> (Fong and Glynn 1998, Glynn 2001). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the slow rates of sexual recruitment of agariciid corals critically affect recovery of eastern Pacific coral communities that have experienced severe disturbances. However, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.) recruits of <em>G. planulata</em> in the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama are common on rocky substrates.
132917		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.  This is not a particularly common coral (Wood 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Population trend</strong><br/><strong><em>Eastern Tropical Pacific</em></strong>: Increasing.<br/>In terms of relative abundance within the Eastern Tropical Pacific, <em>G. planulata</em> has been categorized as (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Guzmán and Cortés 2001): common: Caño Island, Costa Rica; uncommon: Cocos Island, Costa Rica; Panamá; Colombia (including Malpelo Island); rare: Mexico; mainland Costa Rica, and Ecuador (including the Galápagos Archipelago). <br/><br/>According to Glynn (1997), prior to the 1982-83 ENSO event approximately 100 colonies were present in Costa Rica (Caño Island) and 26 colonies in Galápagos (central southern islands). After that ENSO event, only 10 colonies survived in Costa Rica, and two colonies in the central southern islands of the Galapagos Archipelago (Glynn 1997). In 1998, only one single colony was known in the Galapagos central southern islands (at Punta Estrada, Santa Cruz), with a combined total of approx. 550 cm² live tissue. This colony was totally bleached on 11 May 1998 (Glynn 1998), and has not been found since (Glynn 2001), although another colony in the region on Champion Island is now known (Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Guzmán and Cortés (2001), the number of colonies in Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) and Panamá are increasing (Guzmán and Cortés 2001). In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), reported G. planulata as a very common species in Coiba Archipelago, found in 50 to 75% of the sites; and, according to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) G. planulata is common at the Gulf of Chiriqui (46% of the sites), as well as in Las Perlas Archipelago (35% of the sites). The species is also moderately common at Malpelo, Colombia (Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Galapagos, after a major population decline following 1982-83 ENSO event; a few isolated patches have persisted and are possibly increasing in number at Darwin and Wolf islands (Chiriboga, Hickman and Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong><em>Rest of the world</em></strong>: Usually uncommon.<br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132917		threats	eng	Although, <em>G. planulata</em> colonies seem not to be as sensitive to high temperatures as other species of corals (Fong and Glynn 1998), after El Niño 1982-83, approximately 92% of the southern Galápagos population was dead (Glynn 1994, 1997),as well as approximately 90% of the known colonies at Caño Island (Glynn 1997). According to Glynn (1988), El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for eastern Pacific small populations reef corals (e.g Gardineroseris planulata). Gardinoseris planulata has revealed no sexual recruitment where seed populations are absent or rare (Galápagos Islands), and only low recruitment (Panamá) in areas with colonies that survived the ENSO disturbance (Glynn 1996).<br/> <br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em> can influence the population structure and distribution of <em>G. planulata</em> in coral reefs (Fong and Glynn 1998, Glynn 2001), but no outbreaks resulting in mass coral mortality are known (Glynn 2001). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was six.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132918		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132918		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the west, north and east New Guinea. Also in the Sulu Sea (one record), and in the Solomons (Turak pers. comm.).
132918		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes, especially in turbid water. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). Typical colony size of <em>P. pygmaeus</em> is not known, but it is one of the smaller species (has smallest branches). <em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. pygmaeus</em> is quite distinctive. This species is found from 5-30 m.
132918		population	eng	It is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132918		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132919		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132919		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Japan and the East China Sea.
132919		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. Is found on reef slopes. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132919		population	eng	This species is common at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-western Australia, and is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132919		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132920		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132920		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and the Central Indo-Pacific.
132920		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, protected tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back slope, in lagoons, and in inter-reef soft substrate. It can be found on the foreslope as well. This species is found to at least 20 m.
132920		population	eng	This is a rare species, can be locally common in some places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132920		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132921		conservation	eng	Further taxonomic work is needed to clarify the status and distribution of the form in the Caribbean. <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132921		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern Caribbean, in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands, and on the north coast of South America from Colombia and Venezuela, and in Trinidad and Tobago. It is also known from Brazil, from Ceara to Cabo Frio, and the oceanic Ferbando de Noronha Archipelago, Trindade Island, and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).
132921		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow-water (0-3 m) reef and hard-ground environments, channels, and intertidal pools, in areas with good water circulation. It may be common in <em>Acropora palmata</em> thickets in the southern Caribbean.
132921		population	eng	This species is uncommon in shallow-water exposed environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132921		threats	eng	Typical threats for shallow-water corals (e.g., pollution, bleaching, sedimentation) may result in localized declines.<br/><br/>However, the genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132922		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132922		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
132922		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow and deeper environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
132922		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132922		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 78. It is harvested in Fiji, and probably also in Indonesia (though there is no species-specific export quota in this country).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132923		conservation	eng	This species is present in at least in one protected area in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: Mexico: Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI). It is included with corals in CITES appendix II.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132923		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Northeastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South China Sea, the Oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in Mexico: Socorro Island, Clarion Island and San Benedicto at Revillagigedo Islands (Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>P. woodjonesi</em> is possibly also present in the Galápagos Islands (Darwin and Wolf), but this requires confirmation (Hickman 2005).
132923		habitat	eng	This species occurs on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action at depths of 2-26 m (Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001). The maximum size is 60 cm across.
132923		population	eng	This species is uncommon.  <br/><br/>In Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico, <em>P. woodjonesi</em> is considered a rare species, covering less than 20% of the reef (Glynn and Ault 2000; Reyes-Bonilla 2003). Glynn and Ault (2000) consider <em>P. woodjonesi</em> as an endangered species in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, with known populations of ten or fewer colonies.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132923		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, presumably El Niño and climate change are threats. According to Glynn (1988), El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals including Pocillopora woodjonesi). Glynn and Ault (2000) consider <em>P. woodjonesi</em> colonies to be in the order of ten or less known colonies. However, in the Revillagigedo Islands (i.e., the location where <em>P. woodjonesi</em> is known to be present), coral mortality did not exceed 20% of the total coral population after the 1997-98 ENSO event (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). According to Reyes-Bonilla (2003), El Niño events are not as catastrophic on reefs off the west coast of Mexico as further south in the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Other threats: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2001, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132924		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132924		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, northwest Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), American Samoa  (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
132924		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower reef slopes and lagoons. The maximum size is over 1 m. The corals of this species may form small fields. This species is found from 10-25 m.
132924		population	eng	It is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132924		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132925		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132925		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific and the Solomon Islands.
132925		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrata on reef slopes. It is a single free-living polyp with a maximum size of 8.5 cm diameter. The species reproduces asexually by fragmentation. This species is found from 10-25 m.
132925		population	eng	This species is rare, but when found, it is usually in high densities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132925		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132926		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES and included in MPAs.
132926		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Japan and Palau. This species may be more widespread although there are no current records to confirm this. A specimen has been recorded from Chagos, central Indian Ocean, although this is still to be confirmed (Sheppard pers. comm.).
132926		habitat	eng	This is a deep water species, found usually below 50 m depth. This species forms clumpy thickets and is found on reef rocks in deeper areas. This species is thought to be mainly ahermatypic, and therefore most likely not affected by coral bleaching.
132926		population	eng	This is a common species, but it is seldom seen by divers because it is found in waters deeper than 50 m.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132926		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be affected by bleaching but could be affected by climate change.
132927		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132927		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and North and Western Australia, Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef (D. Fenner pers. comm.), and the Coral Sea (D. Fenner pers. comm.).
132927		habitat	eng	It is found on deep reef slopes and vertical walls. Maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 15-30 m.
132927		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132927		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132928		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132928		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132928		habitat	eng	It is found in most reef environments, especially lower reef slopes and turbid water habitats. <em>P. lactuca</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In the Philippines, this species has been seen at 5 m (Sheppard pers. comm.). <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. lactuca</em> colonies grow to around a metre. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. lactuca</em> is conspicuous.
132928		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132928		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO. <em>P. lactuca</em> exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,350 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,889.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132929		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132929		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific. Madagascar, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).
132929		habitat	eng	This species is very common on reef flats. This species prefers high energy environments. This species can be found to 35 m.
132929		population	eng	This species can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132929		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132930		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132930		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea. Palau (Randall 1995).
132930		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 15 m.
132930		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It is possibly more common than presently known.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132930		threats	eng	Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs in tropical and subtropical habitats, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132931		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132931		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Papau New Guinea, and Japan (Richards pers. comm.). Found in Fiji and Vanuatu (Lovell pers. comm.). Also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner CI RAP publication).
132931		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of environments from lower reef slopes to lagoons. It occurs well below the low water mark (Wallace 1999) on submerged reef flats and slopes (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 10-20 m.<br/><br/>Recruits of this species may experience higher mortality in regions that experience deposition of sediments enriched with marine snow. Both sediment composition and short term deposition affect the survival of juveniles (Fabricius <em>et al</em>. 2003).
132931		population	eng	This species is common in Western Australia, and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132931		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132932		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132932		distribution	eng	Northeast Somalia, Mozambique, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Southeast Asia, and Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands.
132932		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
132932		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132932		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>Acanthaster planci, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132933		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132933		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995) and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).
132933		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in deep water or protected reef backs and lagoons. It is very common in sandy environments including subtidal protected sandy slopes and lagoon floors (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-50 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132933		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132933		threats	eng	Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species probably occurs in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This is a delicate species and particularly vulnerable to physical damage. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132934		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132934		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Japan and the East China Sea. It is also found in Japan (Richards pers. comm.).
132934		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow, rocky foreshores exposed to wave action. This species is found from 3-15 m.
132934		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132934		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132935		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132935		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. This species is found in Indonesia, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.); Palau, Solomons, Pohnpei (Wallace pers. comm.); Philippines, Banggai, and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).
132935		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on sheltered reef slopes, deep slopes and walls below 12 m (Wallace 1999). This species can be found from 10-30 m.
132935		population	eng	This is an uncommon, but very conspicuous species. It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132935		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This is a plating morphology species that is particularly vulnerable to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>A delicate, lightly calcified species very prone to physical disturbance.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132936		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132936		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
132936		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It is found in all reef environments, often a dominant species of back reef margins. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can sometimes be found in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 50 m.
132936		population	eng	This species is one of the most common faviids.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132936		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005; the 2006 export quota is 5,000 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,176. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132937		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132937		distribution	eng	This species is found in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), Papua New Guinea, west coast of Australia (Wallace 1999).
132937		habitat	eng	This species is most common on backreef or reef flat but is found intertidally in many environments in clear water reefs (Fenner pers. comm.). It is typically found in waters less than 5 m deep (Fenner and Richards pers. comm.) but may be found up to 10 m deep (Wallace and Muir pers. comm.).
132937		population	eng	Common where it is found (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132937		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132938		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132938		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west and north Australia, southeast Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, and Johnston Atoll.<br/><br/>There are unresolved taxonomic issues around <em>P. evermanni</em>; the central Indo-Pacific part of the range may not be for this species, and it may in fact be restricted to Hawaii.
132938		habitat	eng	Veron (2000) records that this species is found in shallow, protected reef environments especially lagoons , generally to depths of 30 m.
132938		population	eng	Veron (2000) notes that this species is usually uncommon, but due to taxonomic issues it is not clear as to which species this information relates to.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132938		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132939		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132939		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in Sri Lanka, west and northeast Australia, southern Japan, south Sumatra, northwest and northeast Java, Lombok, north and southwest Sulawesi, Moluccas, and West Papua (Indonesia) (Hoeksema and Best 1991).
132939		habitat	eng	It is always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping bottoms usually in association with <em>Heteropsammnia</em> and <em>Cyclosers</em> species. It is a free-living polyp with a single mouth. The maximum size is 1.5 cm in diameter. This species is found from 15-100 m.
132939		population	eng	This species may be locally super abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132939		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132940		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132940		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and occurs in the Red Sea, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It was reported from Chagos by Wallace (1999).
132940		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It also is found in turbid or clear water on upper or lower reef slopes. It is found from 5-20 m depth (Lovell pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acropora acuminata</em> likely spawns annually in September in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132940		population	eng	This species is widespread, but uncommon. This species is sparsely distributed on Pacific reefs, but may be very common on reefs of the Indonesian archipelago (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132940		threats	eng	An open branching table growth forms and therefore susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish. Presumed susceptible to bleaching in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptible to wave damage (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132941		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132941		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southern Sulawesi (Hoeksema pers. comm.)
132941		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep reef slopes on sandy and coarse sand substrata. This is an attached free-living polyp. This species has been observed between 20-25 m.
132941		population	eng	This species is only known from two records from Sulawesi (Hoeksema pers. comm.). It has a very restricted range and it has been recorded as absent from adjacent sites.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132941		threats	eng	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132942		conservation	eng	Research on the resistance of M. capitata to bleaching stress could also be extended to this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132942		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Fenner pers. comm.).
132942		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef flats and slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.
132942		population	eng	This species is abundant in Hawaii (Fenner pers. comm.). It is the most common of the three Hawaiian endemic <em>Montipora</em> species.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132942		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The small range of this species renders it at increased risk of extinction to any future threats.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132943		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132943		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar.
132943		habitat	eng	It is found in shallow reef environments exposed to some wave action and in sheltered lagoons. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 20 m.
132943		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132943		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132944		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132944		distribution	eng	Thos species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, southwest Madagascar, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and Pitcairn.
132944		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper reef environments, typically in clear water on fore reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.
132944		population	eng	This is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132944		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132945		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132945		distribution	eng	Although reports have indicated that this species is distributed throughout the wider Caribbean, the species is restricted to the Caribbean coastal waters off Costa Rica and Panama. It may also be present off Colombia.
132945		habitat	eng	This species occurs from 2-25 m in fore-reef and back-reef environments, channels, and lagoons. It favours cryptic environments, including crevices, under ledges, and shaded habitats.
132945		population	eng	This species is uncommon, and generally occurs at very low abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132945		threats	eng	Shallow-water populations are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, bleaching, and high sedimentation, which is probably leading to localized declines particularly in coastal areas undergoing land clearing and development. Algal overgrowth is likely to interfere with recruitment and growth.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132946		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132946		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific.
132946		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments, especially on horizontal substrates. This species is found from 0.5-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132946		population	eng	This species is sometimes common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132946		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132947		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132947		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and eastern Australia. Also in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa, Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.) and recorded in Tanzania (Obura pers. comm.)..
132947		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, but especially turbid water on protected, steeply sloping substrates. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/><em>Echinophyllia</em> is found in most fore reef areas (Wood 1983). Typically, colonies can reach up to 20-40 cm (Fenner pers. comm.).
132947		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Australia, it is common in the northern hemisphere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132947		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132948		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132948		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, south-west Indian Ocean, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
132948		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, especially reef slopes protected from wave action. It occurs subtidally on walls and steep slopes, usually below 15 m, but occasionally shallower where shaded conditions exist (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-40 m.
132948		population	eng	This species is common. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 26 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132948		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown of thorns (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,009.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132949		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132949		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, Japan, and eastern Australia.
132949		habitat	eng	Protected turbid reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
132949		population	eng	This species is common at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-west Australia, uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132949		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132950		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132950		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, and the central Indo-Pacific.
132950		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 0.5-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132950		population	eng	This species is common in Indonesia, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132950		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132951		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132951		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
132951		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-10 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132951		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132951		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132952		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132952		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west, and south Australia, Japan and the East China Sea. Records from the central Indo-Pacific are doubtful.
132952		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 1-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132952		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132952		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132953		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132953		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132953		habitat	eng	This species is found on all reef slopes including steep slopes. This species can be found from 2-45 m.
132953		population	eng	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132953		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132954		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132954		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific, and Hawaii, based on a museum specimen (Hoeksema 1989).
132954		habitat	eng	This species is found in soft substrata either on seagrass beds or the reef base, and also on reef slopes. <em>C. cyclolites</em> is commonly found from 18-20 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). <em>C. cyclolites</em> has a depth range of 13-36 m on the Great Barrier Reef and has been found at 17 m off New Caledonia (Fisk 1983). The depth range is from 1-40 m (Hoeksema 1990). Often only a single specimen is encountered, but occasionally may also occur in clusters. The maximum size is at least 10 cm. It is a single free-living polyp. It may reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
132954		population	eng	This is a widespread and uncommon species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132954		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132955		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132955		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132955		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, although exact depths are unknown.
132955		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132955		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132956		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132956		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka and southern tip of India), South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132956		habitat	eng	It is found in turbid water, especially on horizontal substrates. Also found in clear water (Fenner pers. comm.). <em>P. alcocornis</em> colonies are commonly around 20 cm or less in diameter (Fenner pers. comm.). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995); <em>P. alcocornis</em> is conspicuous. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983).
132956		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132956		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132957		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132957		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132957		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reefs and rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. The maximum size is approximately 1 m. This species is found from 2-25 m. <br/><br/><em>Turbinaria</em> is the only reef-building (hermatypic) coral in the family Dendrophylliidae and sometimes contributes significantly toward coral cover. It is especially common on reef slopes, and colonies may be large and come in a variety of forms (Wood 1983).
132957		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132957		threats	eng	This species exhibited locally high bleaching and high mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132958		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. <br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>El Salvador: Complejo Los Cobanos (Areas Naturales Prioritarias del SANP). <br/>Costa Rica: Manuel Antonio National Park (IUCN category II); Isla del Caño Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia); Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/>Panama: Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)); Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Isla San Telmo and Isla San Jose private reserves (Las Perlas archipelago) <br/>Colombia: Utria Natural National Park (IUCN category II); Ensenada de Utria Natural National Park (IUCN category II); Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)), and Gorgona Island Natural National Park (IUCN category II).<br/>Ecuador: Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.
132958		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species has a patchy distribution in the Oceanic west Pacific, the Central Pacific, and the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Calderon-Aguilar 2005, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>El Salvador</strong>: Del Amor beach, Los Cobanos (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahia Culebra, Samara, Manuel Antonio, Caño Island (Cortes and Guzmán 1998), and Cocos Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), Gulf of Chiriquí and Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>., in prep.); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Ensenada de Utría; Gorgona Island and Malpelo Island (Zapata and Vargas-Angel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003).
132958		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in shallow rocky foreshores and is found on coral reefs, and in lagoons, platforms and coral communities on rock at sites with high energy; from shallow depths to around 20 m (Cortes and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán pers. comm.). The maximum size is 50 cm.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. capitata</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
132958		population	eng	This species is uncommon except in the far eastern Pacific. <br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for the Indo-West Pacific. <br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora capitata</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Common: Gulf of California, and from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/>Uncommon: Costa Rica (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000); found at 45 sites in the Gulf of Chiriqui and 17 sites in Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán et al. in prep.). Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000), and Ecuador including the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>Rare: Del Amor beach, El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003) and Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Guzmán and Chiriboga (pers. comm.) consider that <em>P. capitata</em> is common in some localities of Panama (Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama) and the Galápagos Islands. Moreover, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. capitata</em> populations seem to be recovering at Panamá. <br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988) report high rates of pocilloporid coral mortality across the eastern Pacific following the 1982/83 El Niño, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recovery or recruitment in these areas since (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132958		threats	eng	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>. (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galápagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132959		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132959		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Sri Lanka.
132959		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially lagoons. It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.
132959		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132959		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132960		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132960		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.
132960		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments. This species is mostly found on upper front reef slopes.
132960		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon but occasionally locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132960		threats	eng	This species may be part of the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 14.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132961		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. Recorded from Pulley Ridge Habitat Area of Particular Concern. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, their distribution range, threats, and population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132961		distribution	eng	Only known to occur in the Gulf of Mexico off the south-west coast of Florida (Dawson 2002, Culter <em>et al</em>. 2006).
132961		habitat	eng	This species is found on hard substrates at 60-75 m (Culter <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species may be found as shallow as 25 m.
132961		population	eng	Unknown. Identified in surveys conducted on Pulley Ridge as one of the less common corals in a multi-species assemblage (Culter <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132961		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132962		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132962		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Africa, Madagascar, Comoros Islands and Lakshadweep.
132962		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments. This species is found to 45 m.
132962		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132962		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132963		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132963		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
132963		habitat	eng	This species occurs in back reef or fore reef environments, but only in soft bottom habitats or cobble, rubble, mixed-sand communities; common in subtidal seagrass beds. Occurs from 1-65 m depth, and most abundant from 1-10 m. This species is tolerant of temperature and salinity changes, and is found in areas of high sedimentation. Commonly co-occurs with the free-living form of <em>Porites divaricata</em>, <em>Cladocora arbuscula</em>, and <em>Oculina</em> species.
132963		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant in seagrass beds.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132963		threats	eng	Localized threats include disease (black-band disease), dredging, burial by sedimentation, removal and burial during hurricanes, and habitat loss due to loss of seagrass beds. In the past, this species was collected for the aquarium trade, but this now seems to be very limited. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132964		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132964		distribution	eng	This species is found only in southeast Asia with a patchy distribution.
132964		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower reef slopes as a free-living with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 15-35 m (Hoeksema and Dai 1991). Maximum length is 30 cm in diameter.
132964		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132964		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132965		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132965		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Flores Sea, Indonesia and southern Japan. The current distribution is unclear as it is not a well known species.
132965		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef backs.
132965		population	eng	This species is extremely rare. This species is only known from two locations: Flores Sea, Indonesia and southern Japan (Hoeksema pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132965		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132966		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132966		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
132966		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132966		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132966		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132967		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132967		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
132967		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and generally prefers lower reef slopes. This species may form large carpets. This species is found from 6-30 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
132967		population	eng	This is an uncommon species but may occasionally be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132967		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Although this species is certainly collected in Indonesia, there is no species specific information. Fiji had an export quota of 400 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132968		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132968		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, and West Pacific. It has a patchy distribution.
132968		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and lagoons as a free-living with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 5-25 m (Hoeksema 1990, Hoeksema 1993a). Maximum size is 1 m in diameter. It reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
132968		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132968		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132969		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132969		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (questionable Veron 2000), the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Mauritius (Wallace 1999).
132969		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes, especially those exposed to strong wave action, also just subtidal shallow reef edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.
132969		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132969		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132970		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations and rates of recovery in deep-water habitats.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132970		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
132970		habitat	eng	This species is found in fore reef, slope, deep channels and deep lagoon environments. Recorded from 10-76 m (Reed 1985), but most common from 15-25 m (E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.), and especially at shallower depths (10-15m) in highly turbid waters. <br/><br/>This species forms large overlapping shingles.
132970		population	eng	Common in intermediate to deep water. This is the dominant species at the base of the reef in the southern and western Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132970		threats	eng	The major long-term threat to this species has been bleaching with reported mortality during the 1987/1988, 1990, 1995, 1998 and 2005 bleaching events in various places throughout the wider Caribbean, including Puerto Rico, Netherlands Antilles, Florida, and Jamaica (Sebens 1994, A. Bruckner, B. Precht and E. Weil pers. comm.). They are particularly susceptible to bleaching because they have very thin tissues and a limited ability to cope with the affects of temperature. Since 2001, there has been a dramatic increase in the occurrence of white plague and increasing rates of mortality. Localized declines result from other disease (black band) and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132971		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132971		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea.
132971		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores in shallow turbid water. This species is found from 1-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132971		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132971		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132972		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132972		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. Also found in Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Society Islands (Wallace 1999).
132972		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. It occurs just subtidally on reef edges and upper slopes as well as in sheltered lagoons (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-35 m.
132972		population	eng	This is an uncommon species but can be found to be locally common for example Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132972		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132973		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132973		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea, and Eastern Australia. Also found in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995), and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).
132973		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may cover extensive areas on horizontal muddy substrates with clear water. This species is found from 8-20 m.
132973		population	eng	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132973		threats	eng	A very fragile species. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132974		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132974		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific to the east Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands.
132974		habitat	eng	It is found on lower protected reef slopes. This species is found in very turbid water usually in single colonies not more than 50 cm diameter. This species is found from 8-15 m.
132974		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132974		threats	eng	This species is likely to be targeted for the aquarium trade. There is no species specific data.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132975		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132975		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Mariana Islands and American Samoa, including Australia and Japan.<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, West Thailand, Northwest Australia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Fiji (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give western Indian Ocean to Samoa and Great Barrier Reef to Japan.
132975		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m.<br/><br/><em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)
132975		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132975		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching. However, it is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
132976		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132976		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, Red Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
132976		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reefs on upper reef slopes, but occurs in a wide range of environments. It occurs subtidally on reef flats, submerged reefs, and upper slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
132976		population	eng	This species is common in the central Indo-Pacific. It was found at 6 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132976		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Two different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. Known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,971.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132977		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132977		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132977		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wide range of reef environments from reef flats to mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 25 m.
132977		population	eng	This species is common in the Red Sea, and rare elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132977		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132978		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132978		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.
132978		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments on protected reef slopes. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
132978		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132978		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10. It is harvested in Fiji and Indonesia, but there are no species-specific export quotas.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132979		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132979		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the  Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
132979		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m.
132979		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132979		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132980		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132980		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
132980		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in most reef environments except where the water is turbid. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely at 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It is possibly found on inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Leptoria species are usually found along the reef front an upper reef slope and may form colonies several meters in diameter (Wood 1983).
132980		population	eng	This species is common, especially on upper reef slopes.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132980		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 582.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132981		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132981		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean and the Philippines (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
132981		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and on submerged patch reefs (Wallace 1999). In the northern Red Sea, this species grows rapidly and lives for 13 to 24 years. The annual mortality rates estimated for this species in the northern Red Sea were 4.9 to 9.8% per year (Guzner <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species is found from 3-15 m.
132981		population	eng	This is a common species. This species currently exhibits low recruitment, which indicates a potentially declining population in the northern Red Sea (Guzner <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132981		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents. <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132982		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132982		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen found in northwest Australia.
132982		habitat	eng	The single specimen was found in a turbid water environment.
132982		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132982		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132983		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132983		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, western to southern India, western Sri Lanka, Thailand, Southeast Asia, western to northeast Australia (except in Gulf of Carpentaria), northern tip islands of Papua New Guinea, Palau, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), the Solomons, Micronesia, Kiribati, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, French Polynesia, and southern Oahu (Hawaii).
132983		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
132983		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132983		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132984		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132984		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines, Pohnpei Micronesia (Wallace pers. comm.) and Southeast Asia (Richards pers. comm.).
132984		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments protected from strong wave action. This species occurs subtidally on protected deep slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-25 m.
132984		population	eng	This species is uncommon except on some sheltered reef slopes. It was found two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132984		threats	eng	A fine branching species prone to physical disturbance. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987) although this species is too delicate to be targeted by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132985		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132985		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical and sub-tropical Australia, South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Lovell pers. comm., Fenner pers. comm.).
132985		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. It forms crusts up to 50 cm. Sparse colonies of <em>T. radicalis</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found from 2-25 m.
132985		population	eng	This species is rare except in some subtropical localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132985		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132986		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132986		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Africa, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
132986		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and on reef flats as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 23.5 cm in diameter.
132986		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132986		threats	eng	In one study, 75% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991). In a later study (2005) in the same area, this appears to have no mortality effect on population density (Hoeksema pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132987		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132987		distribution	eng	Found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwestern to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and Cook Islands. Palau (Randall 1995).
132987		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, protected reef environments, but also occurs in deeper waters. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 40 m.
132987		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132987		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132988		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132988		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995).
132988		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reefs in a wide range of reef environments. It is found subtidally on protected slopes, sandy slopes, and lagoon floors (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.
132988		population	eng	This species is common and may be a dominant species on unconsolidated substrates. It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132988		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132989		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132989		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Muscat area, Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
132989		habitat	eng	Found in deeper water, generally below 6 m (Claereboudt 2006). Colonies are massive to sub-massive, and flattened in deeper environments (Claereboudt 2006). It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
132989		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132989		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
132990		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132990		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Southeast Asia, and Solomon Islands (Richards pers. comm.), Papau New Guinea and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).
132990		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in wave washed lagoon margins, subtidally on submerged reef tops, ledges in walls, and rocky slopes; it is often found in indentations or crevices in the reef surface (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
132990		population	eng	This species is rare, being apparently absent on most reefs (Wallace 1999). When it does occur, groups of colonies can be found, suggesting that some localized form of recruitment is involved (Wallace 1999).  Locally common on the Great Barrier Reef (Lovell pers. comm.). It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132990		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species may be in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132991		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132991		distribution	eng	This species is found in Socotra, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic southwest Pacific.
132991		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments from 10 to 30 m depth.
132991		population	eng	This is a rare species, but may be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132991		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
132992		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132992		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995) and Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).
132992		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on exposed upper reef slopes and reefs flats, intertidally and subtidally on reef tops, upper reef slopes to 5 m, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 5-11 m on the north Great Barrier Reef (Sheppard 1982).
132992		population	eng	This species is usually common, and sometimes a dominant species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 36 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132992		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Very susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Two diseases known (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 20,902. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,300 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132993		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132993		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, southern Japan and oceanic West Pacific.
132993		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 12-20 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is over 1 m in diameter. The corals may reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
132993		population	eng	This species is uncommon. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132993		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132994		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132994		distribution	eng	This species is found  in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos, Archipelago, Andaman Sea, southeast Vietnam, Sulu Sea, south Celebes Sea, eastern Java (Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Pohnpei, and Fiji.
132994		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m.
132994		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132994		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132995		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132995		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, and South China Sea.
132995		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
132995		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132995		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132996		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
132996		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean and also in southern Japan (Hoeksema pers. comm.).
132996		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 5-25 m (Hoeksema 1993 b). Maximum size is 15 cm in diameter.
132996		population	eng	This species is locally common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132996		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132997		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132997		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.
132997		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
132997		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132997		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,000. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 3,600 live pieces in 2005. The Indonesian export quota was 4,000 pieces in 2006.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132998		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
132998		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
132998		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. It is found to approximately 15 m depth (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-15 m.
132998		population	eng	This is usually a very common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 36 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132998		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Acropora are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
132999		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
132999		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to western Atlantic, off the coast of Brazil.
132999		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
132999		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
132999		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133000		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133000		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and  north, west and south Australia, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia). It is also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133000		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on outer reef slopes. This species is found from 2-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133000		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133000		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133001		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133001		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sri Lanka, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Palau and South Marianas (Randall 1995).
133001		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow turbid reef environments. The species also occurs in a wide range of depths and water quality (Turak pers. comm.), but is generally found to 20 m depth.
133001		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133001		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133002		conservation	eng	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133002		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, northwest Australia, South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133002		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It may form fields of at least 50 cm in diameter. This species is found to 20 m.
133002		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133002		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133003		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133003		distribution	eng	Found in the Rodrigues Islands, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, southeast Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa, Phoenix Island, Line Islands, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.
133003		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in sheltered reef environments. Sparse colonies of <em>L. bewickensis</em> are found from 12-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
133003		population	eng	This species is uncommon and sometimes locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133003		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133004		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133004		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific. There is no real records known except for one (Umbgrove 1939).
133004		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments.
133004		population	eng	This species was previously known from a single beach eroded specimen. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133004		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133005		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133005		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
133005		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments in turbid water (Turak pers. comm.). This species is found from 5-15.<br/><br/>General genus information:  there are few records for this coral, and it is difficult to give detailed information on its distribution. It is generally found on soft substrates of lower reef slopes in clear or slightly turbid water. In certain areas it may occur in extensive tracts (Wood 1983).
133005		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133005		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133006		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II and Threatened on the US Endangered Species Act. In the US, it is present in several MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. In response to ship grounding and hurricanes, there have been efforts to salvage damaged corals and reattach them in acroporid habitats.<br/><br/>More information is needed to assist the recovery of acroporids including survival and fecundity by age, sexual and asexual recruitment, population information, juvenile population dynamics, importance of habitat variables to recruitment and survivorship, and location of populations showing signs of recovery (Bruckner, 2002). Further research is needed into disease etiology, and effectiveness of current restoration methods.
133006		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. While <em>A. cervicornis</em> has been documented further north along the Florida east coast, the northern extension of <em>A. palmata</em> is at Fowey Rocks offshore the Miami area (25°37’ N) (Porter <em>et al</em>. 1987).
133006		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef ecosystems, favouring outer reef slopes exposed to wave action. It has been recorded to depths of 22 m at Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico (Zimmer <em>et al</em>. 2005), but this is a recent range extension potentially due to the results of climate change (Precht and Aronson 2004). The normal depth range is 0.5-5 m (Goreau and Wells 1967), but it can be found up to 40 m.<br/><br/>This species has limited sexual recruitment.
133006		population	eng	There has been an 80-98% loss of individuals in parts of the Caribbean since the 1980s. There have been some signs of recovery. A second report has validated declines on the order of 97% in the Florida Keys, Jamaica, Dry Tortugas, Belize and St Croix (<em>Acropora</em> BRT 2005) and Puerto Rico (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There are signs of recovery in populations in some localities. For example, populations in St Croix showed increases from 2001-2003, although larger colonies are not surviving, as large colonies are more affected by stressors (Grober-Dunsmore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Similarly, there are signs of recovery in Puerto Rico and other parts of the southern Caribbean (E. Weil pers. comm.). However, some of these same populations have undergone subsequent declines.<br/><br/>Overall, decline of destroyed and critical reefs in the Caribbean region has been 38% (according to Wilkinson 2004) however there have been much higher population reductions for this species as it is particularly susceptible to disease and bleaching.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133006		threats	eng	The major threat to this species has been disease, specifically white-band disease which is believed to be the primary cause for the region wide acroporid decline during the 1980s (Aronson and Precht,  2001a,b) and is still ongoing (Williams and Miller, 2005). Other major threats include thermal-induced bleaching, storms, and other diseases (Rodriguez-Martinez <em>et al</em>. 2001,Precht <em>et al</em>. 2002,Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002,<em>Acropora</em> BRT 2005). <br/><br/>Localized declines are associated with: loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation; predation by snails; mortality by endolithic sponges; ship groundings, anchor damage, trampling, and marine debris. The long-term threat of reduced skeletal integrity due to ocean acidification is of particular concern due to the species' presence in wave-swept environments.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133007		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133007		distribution	eng	Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.
133007		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133007		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133007		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. It is a fragile species that is probably not significantly used in trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133008		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133008		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, the West Pacific, and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133008		habitat	eng	This species is found on lower reef slopes and reef bases as a free-living single polyp. It is only found on sand. The depth range is from 18-40 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 15 cm in diameter.
133008		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133008		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133009		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133009		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It might occur more widely.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133009		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found from 2-10 m.
133009		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133009		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133010		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133010		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea, south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133010		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found around the low tide mark, in shallow subtidal habitats (Wallace 1999) and on reef slopes and fringing reefs. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133010		population	eng	This species is very common and may form extensive single species stands. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 18 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133010		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). One disease is known for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133011		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133011		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Northeastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific. <br/><br/>It has also been recorded in Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2003), Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003), and Palau (Randall 1995).
133011		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. Colonies are small.
133011		population	eng	This species is common on exposed reef fronts. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133011		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133012		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. In the Marine Conservation District off St Croix this species is the most abundant coral species. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133012		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133012		habitat	eng	This is a common species. <em>M. franksi</em> is found from 5-50 m, and is often the most abundant coral from 15-30 m in fore-reef environments (Weil and Knowlton 1994, Szmant <em>et al</em>. 1997).
133012		population	eng	In the last 20 years, there has been a severe decline in the overall cover and abundance of <em>M. annularis</em> in several parts of the Caribbean. Declines in <em>M. franksi</em> appear to have taken place mainly in the past 10 years. Although this coral appears to be more resistant to disease than the other species in the complex, since 2002 in US waters, there has been an accelerating decline in cover (A. Bruckner and E. Weil pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133012		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are infectious diseases (e.g., plague, yellow band and black band disease) and bleaching. Other threats include loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation, as well as localized impacts due to bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, and other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133013		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133013		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. This species is also found in the Line Islands (Wallace 1999).
133013		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide variety of environments, especially upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species occurs only subtidally, usually in protected waters and is most commonly encountered in enclosed lagoons or sheltered slopes with sandy substrata (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
133013		population	eng	This species is common. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at nine sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133013		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Two different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133014		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133014		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea.
133014		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, and general depths are unknown for this species.
133014		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133014		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133015		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133015		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific. <br/><br/>Records from the eastern central Pacific are doubtful.
133015		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in crevices and beneath overhangs in semi-shaded areas. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133015		population	eng	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133015		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 846. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133016		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133016		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133016		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of environments, generally to depths of 40 m.
133016		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133016		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133017		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133017		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Southeast Asia, the Solomons. Also found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133017		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on sheltered upper reef slopes. It occurs in shallow subtidal habitats, including outer reef flats and upper slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-30 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133017		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133017		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 749.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133018		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133018		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133018		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef flats exposed to strong wave action or currents. This species is found from 1-8 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133018		population	eng	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133018		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133019		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133019		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133019		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow protected reef environments, mid-reef slopes and also on vertical walls. The maximum size is 30cm. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133019		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133019		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133020		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133020		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133020		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in shallow subtidal habitats including outer reef flats (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-20 m.
133020		population	eng	This species is common in the western Pacific and the Red Sea, and is uncommon elsewhere. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at six sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133020		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). One disease recorded (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 66,228.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133021		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133021		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in the Line Islands (Wallace 1999).
133021		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, also in turbid water and sandy lagoons. It is found in subtidal habitats such as slopes and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
133021		population	eng	This species is common and may be a dominant species in shallow water. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133021		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Two disease records (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133022		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133022		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea. This recently described species might be found to occur more widely. <br/><br/>Records from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden require confirmation.
133022		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow and deeper environments protected from wave action, mainly on mid to deep slopes. This species is found to at least 35 m.
133022		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133022		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. It is small and is unlikely to be significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133023		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133023		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, southeast Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Although several sources have not recorded this species in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991, DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.), Veron (2000) does record the species as being present there.
133023		habitat	eng	This species is frequently a dominant species of lagoons and reef slopes, generally to depths of 30 m. On the outer reef flat of central Vietnam's reefs, <em>P. lichen</em> is one of two species that dominate in both degree of substrate coverage and size of many circled colonies reaching 3 m across (Latypov 2001).
133023		population	eng	This species is common and usually conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133023		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia annual collection quota for P. lichen is 6,000 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133024		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133024		distribution	eng	This species is found in the east African coast, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Also found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133024		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of reef environments. This species is found to 40 m.
133024		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133024		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 634 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,484.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133025		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133025		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).
133025		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid water around fringing reefs. It only occurs in protected subtidal habitats such as contained lagoons and sandy slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.
133025		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. Locally common in Papau New Guinea. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 10 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133025		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is targeted in the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133026		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133026		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133026		habitat	eng	It is found in shallow reef environments, protected from strong wave action.<br/><br/>This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995), but <em>M. mancaoi</em> is not a particularly conspicuous species.
133026		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133026		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133027		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133027		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It is also known from the eastern Atlantic.
133027		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, hard-bottom communities, tidal flats, seagrass beds and rubble fields, to 3 m depth. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)
133027		population	eng	This species is very common in shallow-water reef and hard-bottom habitats. Some localized declines have been reported, but no major range-wide declines have been observed (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133027		threats	eng	The species is fairly tolerant to sedimentation. However, localized declines may be taking place due to pollution (oil spills) and habitat loss and fragmentation, particularly where there are ongoing coastal development projects, due to their occurrence in shallow waters. A potential future threat is sea-level rise, especially in areas where hard-bottom communities are replaced by soft substrates (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133028		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133028		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.
133028		habitat	eng	It is found mostly on upper reef slopes. The maximum size is 20 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.
133028		population	eng	This species is uncommon and locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133028		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 656.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133029		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133029		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, and Pitcairn.
133029		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper to mid reef slopes. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, and in lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.
133029		population	eng	This is a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133029		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133030		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133030		distribution	eng	This species is found in the north-west Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, American Samoa, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133030		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments, especially where exposed to strong currents. It occurs intertidally or just subtidally on shallow reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133030		population	eng	This species is common in Indonesia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133030		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133031		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133031		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133031		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133031		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133031		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133032		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133032		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and East China Sea, north eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea and southwest Pacific.
133032		habitat	eng	This species is found in most shallow reef environments, especially clear waters. This species is found to 30 m.
133032		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133032		threats	eng	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133033		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133033		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133033		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is usually restricted to shallow back-reef margins. It occurs in reef flat and shallow habitats or interefal lagoons (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora pulchra</em> likely spawns annually in September in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 1-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth  (Wood 1983).
133033		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but may be a dominant species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133033		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 420.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133034		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133034		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South Japan and East China Sea, north, west and eastern Australia and oceanic West Pacific.
133034		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrata on lower reef slopes and reef bases. The depth range is from 1 m (Fenner pers. comm.)  to 40 m (Hoeksema 1990) The maximum size is 15 cm in diameter. It may reproduce asexually by fragmentation. This species is usually found living in the deeper reef zones, but has also been seen in shallow seagrass beds.
133034		population	eng	This species is uncommon but can be locally abundant. It may even be very abundant in some areas due to fragmentation (Hoesksema, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133034		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133035		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133035		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific. Found in the Great Barrier Reef and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133035		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 0.5-30 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133035		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133035		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133036		conservation	eng	This species is protected in a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133036		distribution	eng	The distribution of the species is disjunct.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region <em>Fungia curvata</em> has been reported from <strong>México</strong>: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Nayarit and Colima (Revillagigedo Islands included) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em> 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahía Culebra (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Cortés and Guzmán 1997), Puerto Jimenez (Cortés and Guzmán 1997), and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Gulf of Panamá and Gulf of Chiriquí (Glynn and Maté 1997, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island (Zapata and Varagas-Ángel 2003, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Mainland Ecuador and the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>In the Indo-West Pacific (Hickman 2005), this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, and East China Sea.
133036		habitat	eng	<em>Fungia curvata</em> is a free living coral that occurs on soft inter-reef, coarse sand, coral rubble and sometimes reef substrata, at depths of between 3 to 73 m depth (Hickman 2005, Feingold 1996, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>In Mexico, <em>F. curvata</em> is most common at depths of 20 to 40 m (Reyes-Bonilla 2006), while in the Galapagos the species occurs at depths of 10 to 20 m (Wells 1983). It is a free-living polyp and can reach a maximum of 8.5 cm diameter. It reproduces asexually in some areas by breaking itself apart. <br/><br/>According to Feingold (1996), <em>Fungia</em> spp. can survive extended periods (>180 days) in the bleached state.
133036		population	eng	In México this species is rare throughout its distribution (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). However, this species can be very abundant in some locations (e.g., San José Island: thousand of animals within 1 ha) and populations are probably stable in Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Costa Rica, Glynn and Ault (2000) considered the species rare in mainland Costa Rica and Cocos Island. At present, Bahía Culebra is the only known site in Costa Rica with live polyps (Cortés and Guzmán 1997, Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Cortés pers. comm.) with a mean percentage cover of 0.05 in 12 transects (Jiménez 2001). <br/><br/>In Panamá, Unnamed Island (Secas Island group) in Gulf of Chiriquí is the only known site with live animals (Maté 2003), with two specimens found at 14 m depth in 2001 (Maté 2003). <br/><br/>This species is considered rare in Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). Devils Crown (Floreana Island) in the Galápagos is the only known site with living animals. At present, fewer individuals are found than in the 1970s. According to Feingold (1996), the population is very small, comprising only 30-40 individuals. <br/><br/>In the Indo West Pacific, this species is locally very abundant in the Persian Gulf (but may have been affected by recent bleaching events), in the Gulf of California and in the Galápagos. This species can reproduce by breaking apart along suture lines, and in this way it can reach high densities.<br/><br/>Parts of the range have suffered severe declines, specifically in the Persian Gulf and there are records of bleaching in the East Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133036		threats	eng	Robinson (1985) found that <em>Fungia</em> species bleached but did not die during the 1982-83 El Niño event at Devils Crown, Floreana, Galápagos. According to Feingold (1996), survival of <em>Fungia</em> species. was due to cool water that periodically flushed over the habitat, which mitigated the effects of elevated temperatures caused by the ENSO event.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133037		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133037		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133037		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep-water fore reefs, walls and overhangs. It occurs from 20-76 m (Reed 1985).
133037		population	eng	This is the least common of all species in the genus. In certain deep-reef habitats it is known to be abundant (for example, the Dominican Republic, Grand Cayman and Venezuela; Weil, 2003, 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133037		threats	eng	Unknown, but given the susceptibility of other <em>Mycetophylla</em> species to disease, it may be at risk from white plague and other diseases, and bleaching. Because of the depth at which it occurs, and its tendency to grow on walls, it is not likely to be affected by sedimentation and hurricanes (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133038		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133038		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133038		habitat	eng	This species is common on lower reef slopes and lagoons protected from wave action, generally to depths of 20 m.
133038		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133038		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year; annual collection quota for <em>P. nigrescens</em> is 10,000 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133039		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133039		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in northern Australia.
133039		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 1 m. This species is found from 2-20 m.
133039		population	eng	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133039		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133040		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133040		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Its presence in East Africa requires verification. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133040		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow water, especially lagoons and back reef margins. This species is found on the back and foreslopes of reefs. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133040		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133040		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133041		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133041		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133041		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. <em>P. descussata</em> is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It may form fields up to several meters across.
133041		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133041		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was eight.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133042		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133042		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Caribbean.
133042		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow water reef tops, generally to depths of about 15 m. It is usually found in areas with some water movement, and is common in areas with constant surge (Humann and DeLoach 2006). <br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)
133042		population	eng	This species is abundant to common in Florida, the Bahamas, and the Caribbean (Humann and DeLoach 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133042		threats	eng	This species has been reduced from historical baselines, but probably not much more than 10% except locally on some reefs. This species has been affected in past bleaching events but appears to recover more rapidly than most scleractinian species (Precht, pers comm).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but can be resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. <br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133043		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133043		distribution	eng	This species is found in throughout the Indian Ocean (excluding the Gulfs), the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133043		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133043		population	eng	This species is widespread and usually common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133043		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and high mortality in the bleaching event in 1998 in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133044		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133044		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found from the Bismarck Sea to Fiji including Vanuatu (Hoeksema pers. comm.). There are records for the Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006).
133044		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes. It is an attached and encrusting species. It is often found with a single mouth, but can also sometimes forms colonies. Approximately 5-7cm in diameter. The generation length is approximately seven years and it is a slow grower (Hoeksema 1993a). This species is found from 10-25 m.
133044		population	eng	This species is found to be rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133044		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133045		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133045		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Oceanic west Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific. Rodrigues  (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) - data unconfirmed, Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).<br/><br/>Possibly present in Galápagos; however this requires confirmation (Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005). According to Veron (2000), <em>Pocillopora ligulata</em> is present in the Eastern Tropical Pacific on the coasts of continental Ecuador, Galápagos, Colombia and Panama. Nevertheless, no other publication confirms this distribution. <em>P. ligulata</em> is not reported in any of the recent publications for the eastern Pacific (e.g., Glynn 2003, Maté 2003, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000). Moreover, Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2007) listed <em>P. ligulata</em> as a valid species, present in Hawaii, USA, and Easter Island, Chile. Hickman (2005) lists <em>P. ligulata</em> for the Galápagos Islands, but mentions that the presence of this species in Galápagos requires confirmation.
133045		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water exposed to strong wave action. The maximum size is 50 cm across.
133045		population	eng	This species is uncommon.  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133045		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133046		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133046		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Rodrigues and Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.).
133046		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m. <br/><br/>There are few records for this coral, and it is difficult to give detailed information on its distribution. It is generally found on soft substrates of lower reef slopes in clear or slightly turbid water. In certain areas it may occur in extensive tracts (Wood 1983).
133046		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133046		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133047		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133047		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133047		habitat	eng	This species occurs in intermediate and deep fore reef environments, and also in deep channels. Occurs from 10-80 m (Reed 1985), though more common from 15-25 m.
133047		population	eng	This species is common, but at low abundances in intermediate to deep reef environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133047		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague, black band disease) and has been known to bleach in intense bleaching events, although mortality is low. Isolated cases of mortality have been observed from white plague. This species is also at risk from high sedimentation. The plating morphology may make them susceptible to sand scouring and burial during severe storms.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133048		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133048		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and oceanic west Pacific. Also found in the Great Barrier Reef, south-west Madagascar and Coral Sea (Fenner pers. comm.). Found in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). Also found in western and American Samoa, and the Andaman Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).
133048		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133048		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133048		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133049		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133049		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-west Pacific except Hawaii. It occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Persian Gulf, East Africa and Madagascar, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, Fiji, Melanesia and Polynesia.
133049		habitat	eng	This species found in shady habitats on walls and overhangs where it can form encrusting sheets. Colonies can reach up to 3 m in diameter.
133049		population	eng	This species is very widespread and common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133049		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133050		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133050		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, and the central Indo-Pacific.
133050		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes, subtidally on reef tops and slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0.5-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133050		population	eng	This species is common, especially in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133050		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133051		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133051		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, and Southwest Pacific.
133051		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.
133051		population	eng	This species is uncommon except at Norfolk Island, in the western Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133051		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133052		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133052		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is endemic to the Red Sea. It is known only from the Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia. Further surveys might show that it occurs more widely in the northern and central Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133052		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, partly protected reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and possibly in lagoons from 1 m to at least 4 m.
133052		population	eng	It is a rare species; only three stands are known.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133052		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133053		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133053		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. This species is also present in Brazil.
133053		habitat	eng	This species occurs at intermediate, deep fore reef and lagoon environments especially towards the base of the reef and adjacent soft substrate communities. Occurs from 10-92 m (Reed 1985), but most common from 15-25 m. This species tends to be resilient to waters with high sedimentation.
133053		population	eng	This species occurs at low abundances, generally as solitary polyps but occasionally in small groups.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133053		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching and occasionally observed with disease (white plague), but only low levels of mortality have been observed.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133054		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133054		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and Southwest Pacific.
133054		habitat	eng	This species is found in subtidal reef environments, especially lagoons, generally to depths of 30 m. In the Arabian Sea it is found in non-reef substrates in areas subjected to cold-water upwelling between 2-5 m deep (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
133054		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133054		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133055		conservation	eng	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133055		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southwest India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Marianas Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Phoenix Islands, and Line Islands.
133055		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133055		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but can be locally common (DeVantier pers. comm.), for example in Indonesia (Johan and Syahrir pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133055		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 276. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133056		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133056		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133056		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of shallow to mid-depth reef environments, including lagoon back reef areas. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133056		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133056		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133057		conservation	eng	Import of this species from the Solomon Islands to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133057		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133057		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mid-slope reef environments protected from wave action. This species is found from 5-20 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
133057		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but likely rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133057		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 5,416 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133058		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133058		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west and northeast Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and southern Marianas (Randall 1995).
133058		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in protected reef environments, especially vertical faces and lower reef slopes. This species is found from 5-40 m. <br/><br/>Echinophyllia is found in most fore reef areas, but has a preference for slightly shaded spots on the reef slopes (Wood 1983). Colonies of <em>E. echinata</em> grow to 20 cm or less (Fenner pers. comm.).
133058		population	eng	This species is usually rare. Uncommon (Fenner and Sheppard pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133058		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133059		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133059		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, and Palau. Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).
133059		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef flats and upper slopes. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133059		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133059		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133060		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133060		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, Rodrigues, northern Maldives, eastern India, Thailand, South China Sea, Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Palau (Randall 1995).
133060		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is usually found in intertidal or just subtidal areas, but it also occurs in a wide range of other deeper habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133060		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but it is sometimes locally common (DeVantier and Obura pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133060		threats	eng	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133061		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133061		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Southeast Asia.
133061		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes. This species is found from 2-25 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133061		population	eng	This species is sometimes common in Vietnam.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133061		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133062		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133062		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133062		habitat	eng	This species is found in intermediate to deep fore reef environments, deep channels, and walls. Occurs from 10-75 m (Reed, 1985), but most abundant from 10-20 m. The species has the potential to exhibit moderate rates of recovery, due to its brooding reproductive strategy and some observations of successful recruitment following disturbance.
133062		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, but at low abundances. Because of its low abundance, and similarity in appearance to <em>M. danaana</em> (especially the smaller colonies), it is not frequently recorded in surveys.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133062		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to disease (white plague and black band disease); white plague has caused localized mortality events. Also at risk from high sedimentation and bleaching.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133063		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133063		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, south Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133063		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 53 cm in diameter.
133063		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133063		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,800 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 978 pieces in 2005.The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 12,137.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133064		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133064		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Papua New Guinea.
133064		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in turbid environments, especially lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133064		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133064		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133065		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, this species is present in the Coringa Herald Reserve in the Coral Sea (Cecarelli <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133065		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific region. It can be found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Southeast Asia, including southern Japan, Australia, and the Coral Sea.  It has also been recorded off the coast of South Africa and Mozambique (Reigl 1996).<br/><br/>Specific location records include: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, Western Australia, Philippines, Indonesia, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea, Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Fiji (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fabricius and Alderslade (2001) give Red Sea, Madagascar, Mozambique, most of the Indian Ocean and western Pacific (eastern limit: Marshall Islands and Vanuatu) and the Great Barrier Reef. Gosliner <em>et al</em>. (1996) gives East Africa, Red Sea to New Caledonia; Solomon Is., southern Japan, Marshall Islands, Madagascar, Andamans, Sabah, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Great Barrier Reef, Coral Sea, and Fiji.
133065		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reef, possibly to 12 m or more, and is found on exposed reef locations, and reef flats (Richards pers. comm).
133065		population	eng	This species is considered common in the western Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133065		threats	eng	Due to its attractive bright red skeleton, this species is collected for the curio, jewellery and aquarium trade. In 2005, 13,803 pieces of live and 2,714 pieces of raw Tubipora musica were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood, pers comm.).<br/><br/>This species is moderately susceptible to damage from hurricanes (K. Fabricius, pers comm.). It is generally not well known if <em>Tubipora</em> is particularly susceptible to bleaching, as it has light coloured tentacles so bleaching is hard to detect. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133066		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133066		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, SW Madagascar, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133066		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133066		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133066		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats in shallow to mid depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133067		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133067		distribution	eng	This species is found in Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands. Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).
133067		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133067		population	eng	It is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133067		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133068		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133068		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific. This species is found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133068		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments, especially back reef margins. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133068		population	eng	This is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133068		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 810. It is exported from Fiji (Hodgson, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133069		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133069		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). Records from the Red Sea are doubtful.
133069		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133069		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133069		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species may not be particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133070		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133070		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Somalia, western Madagascar, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Timor Sea, northeastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Papua, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), and American Samoa.
133070		habitat	eng	This species is found in most tropical reef environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
133070		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133070		threats	eng	It is probably harvested, but there are no data, as it is newly described and probably still not widely recognised.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133071		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133071		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133071		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is mostly found on protected upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133071		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133071		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,298. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2550 live pieces in 2005. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. <br/><br/>Other more localized threats include disturbance by coral removal and harvesting, fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133072		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to determine its full distribution range.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133072		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, and is so far known from two sites: the southern Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia; and the Yemen Red Sea coast. It is recently described and future work will probably show it to be more widely distributed, at least in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133072		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on semi-sheltered reef slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133072		population	eng	This recently described species is so far known only from a single area.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133072		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133073		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133073		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the main Hawaiian Islands and northwest Hawaiian Islands (Fenner 2005), as well as the Marshall Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).
133073		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, fringing reefs. It is known to what depth this species can occur.
133073		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Fenner 2005). It is very small, with most colonies less than 3 cm in diameter (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133073		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133074		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133074		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution. It is found  in the Southeast Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Comoros, northwest Philippines, southern Japan, and northern Papua (Indonesia).
133074		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores of temperate locations, and in tropical areas (DeVantier pers. comm.). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133074		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133074		threats	eng	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133075		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133075		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Andaman Sea, northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, northeast and southwest Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, Papua New Guinea to the Solomon Islands and the Astral Islands. Palau (Randall).
133075		habitat	eng	This species occurs in relatively shallow water up to 30 m deep and is found on all parts of the reef except in high wave energy areas. This is a branching coral and can form large beds up to 6-8 m diameter. This species shows a large range of growth forms.
133075		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Australia. It may be common in shallow waters, but can be found up to 30 m deep.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133075		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133076		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133076		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Africa, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern and northern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. New Caledonia, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133076		habitat	eng	This species can be found in most reef environments. This species is found to 40 m.
133076		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133076		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133077		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133077		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Great Barrier Reef around south Australia to Shark Bay in southwest Australia.
133077		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133077		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133077		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 15.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133078		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133078		distribution	eng	Found in Eastern Africa, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.
133078		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133078		population	eng	This is a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133078		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133079		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133079		distribution	eng	This species is found  in the Red Sea, northern Madagascar, Celebes Sea, and Papua New Guinea. It has a disjunct distribution.
133079		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper reef edges. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133079		population	eng	This species is common in the Red Sea and locally common in some other parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133079		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133080		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133080		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern and south-west Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133080		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide variety of environments from exposed upper reef slopes to turbid lagoons. It is found subtidally on protected reef slopes and patch reefs in lagoons (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
133080		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 12 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133080		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,343.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133081		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133081		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Indonesia, Papau New Guinea, New Caledonia, Philippines, Solomons (Richards pers. comm.), Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004), Palau (Randall 1995), and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).
133081		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow water protected from wave action, only in protected, subtidal lagoons (Wallace 1999), and protected reef slopes (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 10-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133081		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133081		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133082		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133082		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133082		habitat	eng	This species occurs with <em>P. lobata</em> and <em>P. australiensis</em> on back reef margins, lagoons and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 30 m. <em>P. lutea</em> is commonly found from 1-15 m, with massive colonies at 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In American Samoa, one colony is known to be 6.5 m tall and 41 m circumference (D. Fenner pers. comm.).
133082		population	eng	This species is common. In the Red Sea this species is abundant in sheltered areas where huge colonies can cover over 75% of the substrate over thousands of square metres.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133082		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year; annual collection quota for <em>P. lutea</em> is 1,900 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133083		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133083		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, New Caledonia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, oceanic West Pacific and Palau and South Marianas (Randall 1995).
133083		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes in depths of between 6 m and 20 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 40cm diameter. It has white tentacles which makes it easy to distinguish from other species. The generation length is approximately 10 years. This is a free living coral in the adult stage and therefore makes more independent after habitat destruction. This species is found from 6-20 m.
133083		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133083		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to bleaching, although mortality does not always occur (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133084		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133084		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133084		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially reef backs and sedimented lagoons protected from strong wave action. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is typically found on back slopes, in lagoons, and inter-reef soft substrate and can be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and foreslopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133084		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133084		threats	eng	This species exhibited low to moderate bleaching in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133085		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133085		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the East Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
133085		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on rocky foreshores to a depth of 50 m. This is a solitary coral (Wood 1983).<br/><br/>This species is a solitary, non-constructional coral that lives on rocky substrates. It has an annual cycle of sexual reproduction; it is a simultaneous hermaprhodite and brooder. Size at sexual maturity ranged from 6-10 mm length and specimens of this size are approximately three years old. (Goffredo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/><br/>General genus information: this genus generally prefers deeper waters, it can occur at depths exceeding 1,000 meters. Solitary dendrophylliids are widely distributed throughout temperate and tropical waters (Wood 1983).
133085		population	eng	This species is sometimes common. This is a small, rare coral which is easily overlooked (Wood 1983).  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133085		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133086		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133086		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.
133086		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 2-15 m.
133086		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133086		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133087		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133087		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133087		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is usually restricted to protected back reefs with clear water and soft substrates. This species is found from 5-25 m.
133087		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at six sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133087		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Acropora are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133088		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133088		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, western India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.
133088		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may be a dominant species in shallow water habitats with flat substrates. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes, in lagoons, and inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133088		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133088		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 450 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 976.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133089		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133089		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean Sri Lanka and southern tip of India), the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea. Also recorded from Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133089		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on vertical substrates with clear water at 10-40 m depth. Colonies are typically 50 cm or less (Fenner pers. comm.).
133089		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133089		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133090		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133090		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, NW Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133090		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. It is commonly found from 9-20 m, rarely from 1-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, in lagoons, and on inter-tidal rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
133090		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133090		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133091		conservation	eng	Present in at least two protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Costa Rica: Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133091		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the Southwest and Central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, South Japan and South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Records in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Clipperton Island</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998; Glynn and Ault 2000; Guzman and Cortes 1992, 2006); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Galápagos (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000), where it is restricted to the northern islands of Darwin and Wolf (Hickman 2005). Glynn and Ault (2000) also report this species from mainland Costa Rica, but according to Cortés and Guzmán (pers. comm.), the presence of this species anywhere on the mainland of the Eastern Tropical Pacific is questionable. So far the only reliable records are from the Galápagos Archipelago, Cocos Island and Clipperton Atoll (Cortés and Guzmán pers. comm., Guzman and Cortes 2006).
133091		habitat	eng	It is usually found on vertical or overhung walls in deep water. The maximum size is 30cm. Usually grows on rocky substrata on cracks and vertical or overhung walls (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); but can also overgrow dead corals (Guzman and Cortes 2006). In the Indo-West Pacific it is considered a deep water coral; nevertheless, in Galapagos and Cocos Island the species has been found as shallow as 8 m (Guzman and Cortes 2006). This species can be found from 8-30 m.
133091		population	eng	This species is usually common on lower reef slopes and vertical walls.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Leptoseris scabra</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as: common at Clipperton Island, and uncommon at Cocos Island and the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>According to Guzman and Cortes (2006), the population in Cocos Island is increasing and common.<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133091		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 150.<br/><br/>Threats to this species in the Eastern Tropical Pacific are unknown. It is potentially threatened by El Niño and climate change.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133092		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133092		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, the Solomons, Eastern Australia. It is also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000).
133092		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments and rocky foreshores. This species is found from 1-10 m.
133092		population	eng	This species is uncommon in subtropical Japan and rare in the tropics.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133092		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133093		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133093		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; southwest Indian Ocean; northern Indian Ocean; central Indo-Pacific.
133093		habitat	eng	This species is found on protected upper reef slopes, and can be found to a depth of 30 m.
133093		population	eng	This species is relatively common in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133093		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133094		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133094		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia (Pichon 2006), Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133094		habitat	eng	This species is often found in reef habitats exposed to strong wave action, generally to depths of 30 m.
133094		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133094		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133095		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133095		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central and Northeastern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic west Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific. Rodrigues  (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Santa Elena Peninsula; Islas Murcielago Archipelago, Bahia Culebra, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), Canal de Afuera Island, and Ladrones Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Maté 2003), Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>El Salvador</strong>: Del Amor beach (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn 2003).
133095		habitat	eng	<em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> occurs on shallow reefs and amongst coral communities on rocky reefs, at depth from 3-27 m (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). The colonies are small (up to 30 cm).<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals from the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). The growth rates of <em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> from Bahia Culebra, Costa Rica, varies between 1.8 to 5.6 cm per year, and these were the highest growth rates at Golfo de Papagayo, Costa Rica (Jimenez and Cortes 2003). <br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. meandrina</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzman and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002), particularly <em>P. damicornis</em>.<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133095		population	eng	This species is common on exposed reef front. <br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/>Common: Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico; Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Cocos Islands, Costa Rica (Glynn and Ault 2000), and Coiba Archipelago, Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Uncommon: Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000), at 10 sites in Las Perlas and at 42 sites in the Gulf of Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Rare: Del Amor beach, El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); mainland Costa Rica, and the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific following the 1982/82 El Niño was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galapagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well development at the northeastern sectors of San Cristobal, Española and Floreana Island until 1980s (Glynn 2003). These communities disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event; with minimal coral recruitment 10 to 15 years later (Glynn 2003). As an example, at Devils Crown, Floreana Island, pocilloporid patch reef disappeared from the inner platform (Glynn 1994). Amongst the pocilloporids, <em>P. meandrina</em> populations trends in the Galapagos Islands are unknown (Edgar and Chiriboga pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133095		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 335.<br/><br/>Monofilament fishing lines are probably one of the major causes of <em>P. meandrina</em> death at popular cast fishing sites in Hawaii (Yoshikawa and Asoh 2004).<br/><br/>El Niño and presumably climate change are threats in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin Eucidaris galapagensis (syn E. thouarsii) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galápagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, especially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats in the Eastern Tropical Pacific include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133096		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133096		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, extending along the Horn of Africa, including Socotra.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133096		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.
133096		population	eng	This species is uncommon. In the Red Sea, it was recorded along with <em>P. lutea</em> which is widespread. However, it is not known whether <em>P. columnaris</em> is itself common, as taxonomic uncertainties make this difficult to determine.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133096		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133097		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133097		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Northern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. The species has also been reported by other authors from the Indo-West Pacific including Easter Island (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007). Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006) Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995)<br/><br/>According to Reyes-Bonilla (2002), Colombia is the only location where <em>Pocillopora danae</em> is found at the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. However, this coral is not listed by Zapata and Vargas-Angel (2003). Moreover, Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2007), listed this species as present in the Society Islands, Tuamotus and Marquesas in French Polynesia, and at Easter Island, Chile.
133097		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on partly protected reef slopes. The maximum size is over 1 m across. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. danae</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133097		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133097		threats	eng	<em>Pocillopora</em> genus is particularly susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/>Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133098		conservation	eng	Included in one protected area in México:<br/>Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage site (UNESCO (ii)(iii)(iv)).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133098		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Southwest and Central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Recorded throughout the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>México</strong>: San Lorenzo Channel, Baja California Sur, and in the locations of Santa Cruz Bay and La Entrega Bay at Oaxaca (Layte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahía Culebra and Cocos Island (Jiménez 1997, Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Gulf of Panamá* (Glynn and Maté 1997, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island, Colombia* (Glynn and Ault 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: La Plata Island* (Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>(*only dead <em>L. papyracea</em> found)
133098		habitat	eng	It usually occurs on lower reef slopes, on horizontal sandy bottoms. Can occasionally found in shallow sandy flats. It usually forms large fields. Fragments can easily break off as a mechanism of asexual reproduction. Inter-reef soft substrate areas.<br/><br/>In the western Pacific <em>L. papyracea</em> usually occurs between 20 and 30 m, but can be found to 176 m depth (Dinesen 1980). <br/><br/>In contrast, within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region this species is usually found in mean depths of 13 m (Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). According to Leyte-Morales (2001), <em>L. papyracea</em> occurs in shallow depths in the Eastern Tropical Pacific because of two main factors: reduced light and lower temperatures at shallow depths, both of which are associated with upwelling and imitate deeper areas in the central and western Pacific where <em>L. papyracea</em> more typically occurs. Leptoseris papyracea is typically found on hard surfaces amongst soft substrata with little sediment movement (Jiménez 1997, 2001). At both Bahía Culebra, Oaxaca and Baja California Sur, this coral is found at a mean depth of approximately 13 m (Jiménez 1997, Jiménez 2001, Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). Considerable sections of the Esmeralda reef are constructed of Leptoseris papyracea; although frame construction by this species is rare (Jiménez 1997, Jiménez 2001).
133098		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>At present <em>Leptoseris papyracea</em> is only found in two countries in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, Costa Rica (Jiménez 1997, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Jiménez 2001, Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cortés and Jiménez 2003) and México (Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Mexico, this species was found in the states of Baja California Sur (San Lorenzo Channel) and in Oaxaca (Santa Cruz and La Entrega). At the moment the populations from Oaxaca have disappeared, only dead fragments are visible (Reyes-Bonilla pers. comm.; Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). In addition, populations at La Entrega and in San Lorenzo Channel are very small with most colonies dead (Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). According to Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. (2001), this is evidence that populations of <em>L. papyracea</em> in these sites are failed, transient or marginal, which hampers the possibility of sexual reproduction.<br/><br/>Before the 1997-98 ENSO event, at the Esmeralda reef, Bahía Culebra (Costa Rica), the deepest (i.e., mean depth of 13 m) sections of the reef were completely dominated and constructed by <em>Leptoseris papyracea</em> (Jiménez 1997). This living stand was approximately 2,500 m² (Jiménez 2001). Nevertheless, this small patch reef was reduced from 68% to 3.6% live coral cover when the 1997-98 ENSO event began (Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001; Cortés and Jiménez 2003); after the event, the total live coral cover was reduced by more than 90% (Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>According to Glynn and Ault (2000), <em>L. papyracea</em> populations seem to be declining in Eastern Tropical Pacific region. Since this species was previously recorded from several sites throughout the Eastern Tropical Pacific.<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133098		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Local extinctions of <em>L. papyracea</em> in some areas of the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (e.g. Colombia and Panama; see Glynn and Ault 2000) have not been linked to known causes (Glynn 1997). Nevertheless, the ENSO event presumably had disastrous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Jiménez (2001) reported a frequent and intensive use of Esmeralda reef, Bahía Culebra (Costa Rica), by commercial divers for the aquarium trade. The impact of this activity on the coral community and coral reef is considerable, having disturbed entire areas (>25 m²) of the Esmeralda reef (Jiménez 1997). Another major threat for <em>L. papyracea</em> at Esmeralda reef is coastal development, since a resort marina may be built over this reef (Jimenez 2001).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em> (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion may degrade coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133099		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133099		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, the Oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006) and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003) and the Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, this coral species is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerreo and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pérez Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>El Salvador</strong>* (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Murcielago Archipelago, Culebra Bay, Peninsula de Osa, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003, Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>(*Taxonomic determination requires confirmation (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003).)
133099		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> occurs in all shallow water habitats on coral reefs and coral communities on rocky substrata (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.), to at least 20 m depth, but is most common between 1-10 m depth (Guzmán and Chiriboga pers. comm.). Maximum size is 25 cm.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> is one of the major reef building species (along with <em>P. damicornis</em>), forming intermeshing compact frameworks that can attain 2-3 m in relief (Guzmán and Cortes 1989, Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the fastest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). Reported growth rates of Pocillopora elegans vary little between locations in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, from 3.1 cm per year in Galápagos to 3.32 cm per year in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). <br/><br/><em>P. elegans</em> is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991), with the capacity to function as a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991), larval settlement in the Galápagos Islands presumably has been the predominant mode of recruitment, and the only observed form of recruitment in areas that experienced high mortality (97-100%) in 1983. Asexual reproduction by fragmentation has been reported as an important mechanism for reef recovery in Panama (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). <em>P. elegans</em>, like other pocilloporid species in the eastern Pacific, has low rates of recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Histological evidence indicates that spawning is likely to occur during a few days around the new moon (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Reproductive activity in the eastern Pacific its related to local thermal regimes, with a generally higher incidence of gravid corals at sites with stable, warm water conditions, or during warming periods in areas that experience significant seasonal variation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991) conclude that moderate El Nino warming can stimulate gametogenesis in Galápagos pocilloporid corals.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. elegans</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133099		population	eng	This species is locally common in some regions of the central Indo-Pacific and the far eastern Pacific. <br/><br/>The relative abundance of Pocillopora elegans in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows:<br/><br/>Abundant: Mexico, Panama and Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Common: Gulf of California, Revillagigedo Islands in Mexico, and Ecuador including the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>Uncommon: Malpelo Island, Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>Rare: Costa Rica including Cocos Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Nevertheless, according to Guzmán and Cortes (1989), <em>P. elegans</em> is likely to be abundant in mainland Costa Rica but rare in Cocos Island, and common in Panama (Guzmán et al., in prep.).<br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988) report high rates of pocilloporid coral mortality across the eastern Pacific following the 1982/83 El Niño, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galapagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> populations are probably increasing in Costa Rica and Panama following the severe coral mortality of recent ENSO events (1982-83 and 1997-98) and red tides (Guzmán and Cortes 2001). Population trends of <em>P. elegans</em> in the Galápagos Islands are unknown (Edgar and Chiriboga pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recruitment since (Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>In mainland Ecuador at Sucre Island, Machalilla, the predominant frame-building species before 1983 were <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> and <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em>, with the two species generating a rigid framework that covered over 1 ha of bottom (Glynn 2003). However, by 1991 the reef had declined to dispersed colonies of <em>P. damicornis</em> and <em>P. elegans</em> (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133099		threats	eng	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133100		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. It may be offered limited protection by MPAs, such as Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133100		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean in the Greater Antilles, and from Yucatan, Mexico to Venezuela and the southern Gulf of Mexico. The precise limits of the distribution range are unclear. This species is also found in Brazil.
133100		habitat	eng	This species is found in the fore reef, deep water habitats below 20 m. Recorded to depths of 80 m (Reed 1985).
133100		population	eng	Common, but at low abundances in the southern and western Caribbean; uncommon in the northern Caribbean. This species is possibly rare in Brazil. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133100		threats	eng	The major threats to this species may include disease, bleaching and high sedimentation, based on the susceptibility displayed by congenerics.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133101		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133101		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Cambodia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northeastern tip of Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, and American Samoa.
133101		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species can be found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133101		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133101		threats	eng	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133102		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. At least in this species, from Florida, a causative agent for white plague has been identified (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 1998), which could have relevance since so little is known of disease etiology. Further taxonomic work is required to clarify the status of both Dichocoenia species. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133102		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133102		habitat	eng	This species is found in back and fore reef environments, rocky reefs, lagoon habitats, spur and groove formations, channels, and sometimes at the base of the reef, from 2-72 m. Hemispherical heads are more abundant on shallow exposed reefs from 5-20 m (Goreau and Wells, 1967; E. Weil. pers. comm.).
133102		population	eng	This species is common, and may be locally abundant in certain habitats and localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133102		threats	eng	This species is highly susceptible to white plague and has experienced localized mass mortalities since 1995 in Florida (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 1998). There was no evidence of coral recruitment in the seven years following the epizootic, and <em>D. stokesii</em> populations have continued to decline. The colony size-frequency distribution pattern on these reefs changed over this time period, with the <em>D. stokesii</em> population exhibiting a trend to domination by large colonies, suggesting that the remaining population, while growing, is no longer reproducing (Richardson and Voss, 2005). The species is also susceptible to black band disease, bleaching, high sedimentation, and damage by storms.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133103		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133103		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the Solomons, as well as the central Indo-Pacific. It is in east peninsular Malaysia (Fenner pers. comm.).
133103		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef flats exposed to strong wave action and in lagoons, intertidal or just subtidal on shallow reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0.5-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133103		population	eng	This species is common in the central Indian Ocean, and is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133103		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133104		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133104		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean.
133104		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, fringing reefs. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133104		population	eng	This is species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133104		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133105		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133105		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean (including Gulf of Aden), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific. However, records from the western Indian Ocean are doubtful.
133105		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, clear water, especially reef flats, generally only to depths of 5 m.
133105		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133105		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133106		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133106		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Palau and S Marianas (Randall 1995).
133106		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of reef environments, and does well in sedimented and turbid waters. This species is found to 20 m.
133106		population	eng	This species is very widespread and moderately common, and more common in high latitude locations.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133106		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133107		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133107		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan, the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133107		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133107		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133107		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133108		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133108		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in Vietnam, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia), W Papua, Japan and the East China Sea. Also found in the Philippines (Licuanan pers. comm.).
133108		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky foreshores, reef slopes. These species are typically small (to 15 cm) and conspicuous. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133108		population	eng	This species is rare from south Viet Nam and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133108		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133109		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133109		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in east Indonesia, the Philippines, north coast of Papua New Guinea, and West Pacific. The Solomons (TNC).
133109		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in reef slopes. The maximum size is 50 cm. Branches can break off easily and regenerate as a form of asexual reproduction. This species is found from 3-15 m.
133109		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133109		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133110		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133110		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, North and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific, Palau and the Maldives (Hoeksema 1989). Marshall Island (Rogers pers. comm.)
133110		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes in water depths of 3-25 m. (Hoeksema 1990). This is a free-living species and the maximum size is 48 cm. The generation length for this species is at least 10 years. This species is found from 3-25 m.
133110		population	eng	This species is widespread and relatively common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133110		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133111		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133111		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. There are three records, one from the north and two from the south, and probably occurs more widely.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133111		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 8 m.
133111		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133111		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching, and this species was affected by bleaching in the southern Red Sea. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133112		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133112		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is in Fiji (Lovell and Fenner pers. comm.), and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).
133112		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species occurs subtidally on slopes, ledges on walls and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
133112		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. This species is generally rare, but is common on some reefs of northern Indonesia and northeastern Papua New Guinea (Wallace 1999). It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133112		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is hypothesized to have a low reproductive capacity due to a lack of radial corallites (Wallace and Richards pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. <em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species does occur in the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 135.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133113		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133113		distribution	eng	Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and New Caledonia and the Solomon Islands.
133113		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in sheltered environments, especially sheltered lagoons with turbid water and soft substrates. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.
133113		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133113		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133114		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133114		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Australia and Vietnam.
133114		habitat	eng	It usually occurs in water over 20 m deep, attached to a solid substrate but in areas where soft sand predominates. It usually forms small creeping colonies or low clumps in which the corallites are united at their bases by coenosteum (Wood 1983). This species may be found to 30 m.
133114		population	eng	This is a rare, but conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133114		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133115		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133115		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).
133115		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in tidal pools. <em>Acropora retusa</em> likely spawns annually in September and October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 1-5 m.
133115		population	eng	This species is common in South Africa, and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133115		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133116		conservation	eng	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133116		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, south-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133116		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes particularly from the mid to lower regions. This species is found from 3-30 m.
133116		population	eng	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133116		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 2,400 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133117		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133117		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995). It has a disjunct distribution.
133117		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133117		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133117		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133118		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133118		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southeast Asia, southern Japan, the South China Sea, and Palau (Randall 1995).
133118		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly on reef flats, generally to depths of 5 m.
133118		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133118		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133119		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133119		distribution	eng	This species has not been observed outside Sabah (Ditlev 2003).
133119		habitat	eng	General genus information: <em>Plerogyra</em> is especially common on reef slopes and in the shelter of boulders and coral heads. Solitary coralla do not generally exceed 15 cm in diameter with the vesicles fully inflated. Colonial forms are usually less than 50 cm in diameter (Wood 1983).
133119		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133119		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133120		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133120		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133120		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reefs in a wide range of environments, especially shallow turbid water. It occurs subtidally on reef slopes, walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.
133120		population	eng	This species is common except in the central and western Indian Ocean where it is only known from a few records. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133120		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three diseases recorded (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004)<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. Known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 60.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133121		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133121		distribution	eng	<em>Siderastrea glynni</em> is an endemic species of Panama; only known from a single locality, Uraba Island, Panama Bay, near the Pacific opening of the Panama Canal (Budd and Guzmán 1994, Forsman <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>S. glynni</em> was discovered in September 1992 (Budd and Guzmán 1994).
133121		habitat	eng	The known colonies of <em>S. glynni</em> were reported to be unattached and occur along the upper sand-coral rubble reef slope at a depth of 7 to 8.5 m (Budd and Guzmán 1994). Its current habitat is restricted to the aquarium of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Fenner 2001, Glynn 2001, Maté 2003).<br/><br/>The genus <em>Siderastrea</em> contains only five extant species (Van-Oppen <em>et al</em>. 2006). Budd and Guzmán (1994) hypothesized that <em>S. glynni</em> originated from a rare dispersal event from the central Pacific. However, new studies conducted by Forsman <em>et al</em>. (2005) have revealed that it is more likely that S. glynni originated by a breach of the Panama Isthmus, or by a contemporary introduction by ship. <br/><br/>Glynn (1997) suggested that <em>S. glynni</em> could be an ENSO immigrant, and that colonies perhaps settled and started growing sometime between 1982 and 1985. Glynn (1994) agued that this could be possible if there is a source population located in the Gulf of Panama or elsewhere in the equatorial eastern Pacific (Glynn 1997).
133121		population	eng	<em>Siderastrea glynni</em> is an extremely rare endemic species in Panama; only five individual colonies have ever been discovered, and only four currently survive (Budd and Guzmán 1994, Maté 2003, Forsman <em>et al</em>. 2005). Following the discovery of this species (i.e., September 1992), extensive surveys in presumably suitable habitats have failed to reveal additional populations (Glynn 2001). Additionally, since the four living colonies were moved to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) aquaria due to a bleached and unhealthy state of the corals, no living colonies are presently known in the wild (Maté 2003, Fenner 2001, Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>After the removal of <em>S. glynni</em> from the wild, signs of bleaching stopped with temperature control; moreover the colonies are now in good health (Guzmán pers. comm.). Attempts made by H. Guzmán to propagate this corals in the STRI aquaria have produced 11 propagules (Guzmán pers. comm., Fenner 2001).
133121		threats	eng	During the 1997-98 El Niño event, the four <em>S. glynni</em> colonies started to deteriorate, displaying bleaching and tissue loss (Fenner 2001, Glynn 2001). Due to the unhealthy state of the corals, the four colonies were moved to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute aquaria (Maté 2003). However, the original rareness of this species has been related to unknown causes, and not to the ENSO event (Glynn 1997). Nevertheless, such small populations typically display low genetic variability, thus lowering their capacity to survive environmental perturbations (Glynn 1997). <br/><br/>Other threats to this species include coastal development and oil production and transport in the Gulf of Panama (Guzmán pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133122		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133122		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.
133122		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-10 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133122		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133122		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133123		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133123		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, South China Sea. Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003). There is also a doubtful record from the Red Sea.
133123		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133123		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133123		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133124		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133124		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. It may be absent from portions of the south-western Caribbean (Panama?).<br/><br/>This species is reported to have been eliminated from Panama, even though recent fossils (<1,000 year old) have been found.
133124		habitat	eng	Colonies are found on flat or gently sloping back reef and fore reef environments from 1-25 m depth, most commonly from 5-15 m (Goreau and Wells, 1967; E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.). Colonies do not occur in extremely exposed locations. This colony is resistant to heavy wave surge; however, colonies will occasionally topple due to bioerosion at the bases. Upper portions of the colonies generally survive, and the colony produces multiple new pillars which continue to grow upward (A. Bruckner pers. comm.).
133124		population	eng	This species is uncommon but conspicuous. Usually at low abundances, but can be locally abundant in shallower well-circulated areas due to propagation by fragmentation.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133124		threats	eng	This species is highly susceptible to disease (white plague), which has resulted in partial mortality to individual colonies (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997,Weil 2005). Localized impacts have been associated with hurricane damage (e.g., Rogers <em>et al</em>. 1991), other diseases, predation by damselfish, bioerosion by sponges. Collection for curios was reported to be a threat in the past (Colin, 1978), but this has now been banned (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Although it propagates through fragmentation, due to reproductive pattern (gonochoric), low juvenile survivorship, and the frequent occurrence of individual clones in localized areas this species may be slow to recover after disturbance events.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133125		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133125		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines and possibly Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm.).
133125		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments protected from strong wave action. <em>Acropora fenneri</em>, <em>A. derawanensis</em> and <em>A. filiformis</em> may occur together in the same habitat.
133125		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133125		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133126		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133126		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, northern and central Indian Ocean, northwestern Madagascar, central Indo-Pacific up to the Solomon Islands. Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).
133126		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper reef slopes and reef flats. This species is found to 20 m.
133126		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133126		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133127		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133127		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern and central Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133127		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and rocky areas. This species is found to 40 m.
133127		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133127		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133128		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133128		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea.
133128		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores in shallow turbid water. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133128		population	eng	This species is locally common in mainland Japan.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133128		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133129		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133129		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and south-west Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995), Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.), and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133129		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-20 m.
133129		population	eng	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133129		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, this species is not susceptible to bleaching and can live on reefs that have been highly impacted by bleaching events. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133130		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133130		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133130		habitat	eng	It is found in <em>Acropora</em> dominated communities (Claereboudt 2006).
133130		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133130		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133131		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133131		distribution	eng	Mozambique, Madagascar (except for the southwest part), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, southeast Asia, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.
133131		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in turbid waters and in lagoons. It also occurs in clear-water habitats. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133131		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133131		threats	eng	Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133132		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133132		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific. Wallace (1999) reports it from Oman.
133132		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reef flats. It occurs on reef flats and shallow lagoons, also exposed upper reef slopes and deep water. It is found from 0-5 m. <br/><br/>Where zoning can be detected on reef flats, <em>Acropora aspera</em> tends to occur between the ranges of <em>A. millepora</em> (outer flat) and <em>A. pulchra</em> (inner flat) and overlapping with each species at the edges of its range. It can be confused with either species, but especially with <em>A. pulchra</em>, with which it can occur in dense stands (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133132		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133132		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is found typically in shallow water and is particularly vulnerable to bleaching as well as human impacts. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade and this species is known to be present in the trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 740.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133133		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133133		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Coral Sea, Solomons, and the oceanic west Pacific. It might be found in Fiji and the Marshall Islands.<br/><br/>It is considered to be a generalist species (found in less than 12 areas) in the Indian Ocean, the Indo-Australian Arc, and the Pacific Ocean (Wallace 1999). This species also occurs in South-east Asia, Western Australia, and Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.).
133133		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow reefs. It is also found in lagoons or reef slopes protected from strong wave action. This species is restricted to enclosed lagoons and protected reef slope habitats and thus may be missed on many reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-18 m (Fenner and Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133133		population	eng	This is a common species at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands of south-west Australia. The species is most common in Western Australia and elsewhere it is more rare (Richards pers. comm., based on C. Wallace database).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133133		threats	eng	Major threats are bleaching and reef destruction. This species is generally found in lagoon or reef slope habitats protected from strong wave action that are generally more susceptible to bleaching.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 25.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133134		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133134		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133134		habitat	eng	This is a common species. <em>M. annularis</em> is found from 0.5-82 m (Reed 1985), and is often the most abundant coral from 1-10 m, especially in semi-protected reef environments; it is frequently a dominant species of lagoons and upper reef slopes.
133134		population	eng	In the last 20 years, there has been a severe decline in the overall cover and abundance of <em>M. annularis</em> in several parts of the Caribbean. For example, 90% of the cover of the species was lost in the coastal waters off Jamaica from 1980 through 1994 (Hughes 1994). Off the coast of eastern Puerto Rico, declines in cover were recorded at between 40 and 60% (Hernandez-Delgado 2005), at around 40% off south-eastern Puerto Rico (E. Weil pers. comm.), 50% off Mona Island (Bruckner and Bruckner 2006), and 72% in St John, US Virgin Islands, between 1988 and 1999 (Edmunds and Elahi 2007). Dustan and Halas (1987) observed a 31% decline in cover of <em>M. annularis</em> complex on Carysfort Reef (Key Largo) between 1975-1982, with a 21% decline in colony size. <br/><br/>Off the northern coast of Belize, declines upwards of 90% were recorded specifically for <em>M. annularis</em> (Burke <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133134		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are infectious diseases (white plague, yellow band and black band disease) and bleaching. Other threats include predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), hurricane damage, and loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation, as well as localized impacts due to bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, and other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133135		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of this species because of its occurrence in cryptic habitats, deep water and low abundance. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133135		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.<br/><br/>This species is also known from the eastern Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and Mediterranean.
133135		habitat	eng	The azooxanthellate form is found in cryptic habitats (e.g., in crevices, caves, under ledges) in fore reef and deep reef environments, and is also found in silty back reef lagoon environments, from 5-30 m. The zooxanthellate form is found in deep-water fore reef environments below 25 m, with a maximum depth recorded of 99 m (Reed 1985).
133135		population	eng	This species is common, but in low abundances throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133135		threats	eng	There are no major threats known, and the deeper zooxanthellate form has not been reported to bleach.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133136		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.
133136		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133136		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons.
133136		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133136		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.
133137		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133137		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Micronesia, Polynesia, and Papau New Guinea. Found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133137		habitat	eng	This species is found in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m.
133137		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133137		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, this species is not particularly susceptible to bleaching or disease and is likely to survive on reefs heavily impacted by bleaching events. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133138		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133138		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
133138		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 5-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133138		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133138		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133139		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133139		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Dominant in Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is also found in American Samoa (Wallace and Fenner pers. comm.).
133139		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found subtidally on deeper parts of reef flat and reef edge, reef slopes and walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). <em>A. palifera</em> is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 0-4 m of Chagos and 0-5 m off the north Great Barrier Reef (Sheppard 1982). This species can be found from 2-20 m.
133139		population	eng	This is a common species. This is species is the most abundant coral of the northern Great Barrier Reef where it is the dominant species of most exposed outer reef slopes. It is usually less dominant elsewhere in Australia and most other countries.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133139		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species particularly prone to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Three different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133140		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133140		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Red Sea and near Madagascar to South East Asia, including southern Japan, Australia, to Pohnpei (Micronesia), and American Samoa. In the Eastern Pacific, it is found near the Clipperton Atoll (Glynn 1997). The type locality is likely the Red Sea (Fenner, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Fiji (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give Indonesia, Australia, China, Guam, Japan, the Philippines, and Thailand.
133140		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m.<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)
133140		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range (Hoeksma pers comm).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133140		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching, although less so than <em>M. dichotoma</em> or <em>M. platyphylla</em> (Fenner pers comm). It is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm). In 2005, 50 pieces of raw <em>Millepora exaesa</em> were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood pers comm.).<br/><br/>This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133141		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133141		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean on the western coast of Africa.
133141		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky foreshores up to 35 m depth.
133141		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133141		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133142		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133142		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Mediterranean Sea.
133142		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow rocky substrates, to deep water where colonies are azooxanthellate.<br/><br/>This species grows as a number of distinct subspherical colonies 10-30cm in diameter or as large formations reaching some decimetres in height covering several square metres in surface area (Peirano <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>In the Ligurian Sea, this species is mainly distributed between 7-15 m and lives in turbid water at a relatively low irradiance level (Rodolfo-Metalpa <em>et al</em>. 2006).
133142		population	eng	This species is uncommon. This species can be locally abundant (Peirano <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133142		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133143		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133143		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in the Caribbean. All references to it outside of the southeastern Caribbean are likely misidentifications of a growth form of <em>M. complanata</em> (Fenner, pers. comm.).
133143		habitat	eng	This shallow water species is often found on reef crest to depths of approximately 10 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell, pers. comm.).
133143		population	eng	This is the most restricted of the Caribbean <em>Millepora</em> species. It is considered common to occasional from the Dominican Republic southward through the Lesser Antilles. But has not been reported from Florida, the Bahamas, or the northern or western Caribbean (Humann and DeLoach 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133143		threats	eng	This species has been reduced from historical baselines, but probably not much more than 10% except locally on some reefs. This species has been affected in past bleaching events but appears to recover more rapidly than most scleractinian species (Precht, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133144		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133144		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Caribbean, and has a wide depth distribution. It is found in the southwest Gulf of Mexico (Tunnell 1988), the Cape Verde Islands (Laborel 1974), Brazil (Hetzel <em>et al</em>. 1994), and Florida (Humann and deLoach 2006). A species in Bermuda is also referred to as <em>M. alcicornis</em> but is very different from the rest of the Caribbean (Sterrer and Schoepfer-Sterrer 1986).
133144		habitat	eng	This species is the only Caribbean fire coral that commonly can be found deeper than 10 m, and is relatively uncommon in shallow surge zones (Humann and DeLoach 2006). <br/><br/><em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.), commonly encrusting and overgrowing other species (Precht pers. comm.).
133144		population	eng	This species is the most common of the <em>Millepora</em> genus in the Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133144		threats	eng	In 2005, 117 pieces of live <em>Millepora alcicornis</em> were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood pers comm.).<br/><br/>This species has been reduced from historical baselines, but probably not much more than 10% except locally on some reefs. This species has been affected in past bleaching events but appears to recover more rapidly than most scleractinian species (Precht pers comm).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. <br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133145		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133145		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific including Cocos Keeling and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, Taiwan, South Ryukyus (Japan) and the Bismarck archipelago.
133145		habitat	eng	This species occurs in in shallow water from 2-10 m depth. It is found under overhangs and in crevices on the upper fore reef. This is an encrusting coral that forms colonies up to 10 cm in diameter.
133145		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133145		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133146		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133146		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific. Kermedec (Brook 1999). Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004).
133146		habitat	eng	It is found on shallow reefs and rocky foreshores. The maximum size is approximately 1 m. This species is found from 7-20 m.
133146		population	eng	This species is common in a wide range of reef environments. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133146		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 57.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133147		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133147		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), and Palau (Randall 1995).
133147		habitat	eng	It is usually found on lower slopes. Maximum size is over 1 m. This species is found from 6-20 m.
133147		population	eng	This is an uncommon, but conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133147		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133148		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133148		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, NW Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, North and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, the southern part of Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.
133148		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and reef flats. The depth range is 1 m to 20 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 44 cm in diameter and it is a free-living adult. It generally has a single mouth. These are among the largest single polyp animals.
133148		population	eng	This species is wide-ranging and very common within its range. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133148		threats	eng	20% of individuals in one study were affected by bleaching (Hoeksema 1991). All sizes are collected for the curio trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133149		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133149		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and the Horn of Africa.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133149		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments exposed to turbulence, generally to depths of 30 m.
133149		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133149		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133150		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133150		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea.
133150		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133150		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133150		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, <em>P. aranetai</em> was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133151		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133151		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea, Kenya, Tanzania and Cosmoledo Atoll (Aldabra group, Seychelles).
133151		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, exposed and sheltered reef environments. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the foreslope, and in lagoons. It can also be found on the back slope of the reef. This species is found from 1 m to at least 15 m.
133151		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133151		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133152		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133152		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central and northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, north and west and east Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).
133152		habitat	eng	This species can be found in most reef environments except high energy regions but is preferably found on protected upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.
133152		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133152		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133153		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument, and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.
133153		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. This species is also found in Brazil.
133153		habitat	eng	This species is found in sheltered intermediate to deep reef environments from 10-102 m (Reed, 1985). It is sometimes found in cryptic habitats (e.g., crevices, under ledges), when sometimes found in shallower waters.
133153		population	eng	Widely distributed at low abundances. This species is sometimes confused with other agariciids. There is no information available on whether or not the species has undergone population declines or increases.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133153		threats	eng	This species has suffered localized mortality from disease (white plague), bleaching, and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133154		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133154		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It may only have been recorded from the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.) and the Solomons (TNC).
133154		habitat	eng	It is found in protected, turbid reef environments, especially on steeply sloping surfaces. This species is found from 5-40 m.
133154		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133154		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133155		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133155		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133155		habitat	eng	This species is the most widely distributed species in this genus occurring in exposed locations, protected back reef environments and in bays with high sediment loads. It is found from 0.5-55 m depth (Goreau and Goreau 1973); however, it is most common above 10 m (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). In certain environments, like in reef-crest environments, it can form monospecific stands.
133155		population	eng	The most common of all <em>Diploria</em> species, and the dominant coral in Bermuda. There are no known instances of widespread population declines, although localized declines have taken place in some areas due to disease (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133155		threats	eng	Of the three species of <em>Diploria</em>, this is the most susceptible to black band disease and white plague. Predation by <em>Stegastes planifrons</em> (Three-spot Damselfish) and <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) is also a major threat (Bruckner and Bruckner 1998, 2004). This species is also susceptible to localized impacts from bleaching, bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation. This species generally exhibits high rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133156		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133156		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004). Palau and Southern Marianas (Randall 1995).
133156		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.
133156		population	eng	This species has a wide range, but is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133156		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133157		conservation	eng	Import of this species to the E.U. countries from Tongo was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133157		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern and northern Australia, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.) Palau (Randall 1995).
133157		habitat	eng	It is found in most reef environments. Sparse colonies of <em>S. vitensis</em> were found from 12-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to 50 m. <br/><br/>This genus is rounded, disk-like and attached to the substrate by a broad or narrow stem. It is fairly common on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
133157		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, and it is rare in the south-west Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133157		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,500 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133158		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133158		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west eastern Australia, southern Japan, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133158		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes as an attached polyps with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 3-20 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is over 1 m in diameter.
133158		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133158		threats	eng	In one study, 24% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species exhibited moderate bleaching in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133159		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133159		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Comoros, and Madagascar.
133159		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species may form large colonies several meters in diameter and occurs in a wide variety of reef habitats. It usually forms rounded colonies in exposed shallow areas. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133159		population	eng	This species is common in East Africa.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133159		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133160		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133160		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west, and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific, central Pacific, and Palau (Randall 1995). It is also in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).
133160		habitat	eng	This species occurs subtidally in almost all reef locations (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora austera</em> likely spawns annually in November in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 0.5-20 m depth.
133160		population	eng	This species is usually very common throughout the Indo-Pacific (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133160		threats	eng	Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1953.<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133161		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133161		distribution	eng	This species is found in Socotra (Yemen), eastern Africa, north Madagascar, Chagos Archipelago, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, Japan, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Line Islands. GBR and the Coral Sea (Fenner pers. comm.).
133161		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores or shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a metre or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133161		population	eng	It is common around mainland Japan. Generally a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133161		threats	eng	It is not exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133162		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133162		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).
133162		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow environments, including reef flats and mid-depth slopes. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
133162		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133162		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133163		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133163		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Australia.
133163		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores and southwestern Australian reefs. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133163		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133163		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133164		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133164		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia.  Also found in the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.). Found in Timor Sea, Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.) and Sri Lanka (Wallace pers. comm.).
133164		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on sheltered reef slopes and on deep sandy reef slopes (Richards pers. comm.). It is found in free-living colonies or matted assemblages, intertwined with <em>Leptoseris papyracea</em> (Dana 1846). Found in assemblages among Leptoseris and other species. This species is found from 15-30 m.
133164		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133164		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). However, this species not likely to be affected by COTS.<br/><br/>Found in inter-reef areas that may be trawled. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133165		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. Identified as a Species of Concern in the US under the Endangered Species Act; this does not provide any legal protection, but is designed to raise awareness about this species and promote proactive conservation efforts. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. The largest known population is in an area known as <em>Oculina</em> Banks has been protected as the <em>Oculina</em> Habitat Area of Particular Concern (HAPC) since 1984, prohibiting trawling, dredging, bottom longlines and anchoring. Legislation was enacted in 2000 for expansion of the <em>Oculina</em> HAPC to 1,029 km². The United States Coast Guard has been charged with surveillance and enforcement of the ban on bottom fishing and trawling. The primary difficulties in protecting these reefs and other deep-water Marine Protected Areas are their remoteness and time required to engage an enforcement vessel (Reed 2002). Consequently, some illegal fishing continues to occur that continues to impact remaining populations. <br/><br/>Small-scale restoration attempts have been undertaken in the <em>Oculina</em> reserve with varying success.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133165		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, much of the Gulf of Mexico (excluding the Flower Gardens), Florida, and the Bahamas. The northernmost record is off the coast of North Carolina at Cape Hatteras (Reed, 1980). The presence of this species in Bermuda requires confirmation.
133165		habitat	eng	Colonies are found to depths of 152 m depth on limestone rubble, low-relief limestone outcrops, high-relief, steeply sloping prominences, and soft-bottom sloping habitats. Colonies are semi-isolated, patchy and low-growing in shallow water, or they form larger, massive coalescing aggregates (thickets or coppices) with substantial topographic relief in 50-100 m depth. In shallow waters (2-30m) the form is zooxanthellate, inhabiting limestone ledges. In deeper waters, an azooxanthellate form is known from the shelf edge off eastern Florida, USA from Ft. Pierce to Daytona (Reed 1980, 1983, 2002; Brooke and Young 2003).<br/><br/>The arbuscula form is reported to be tolerant of a wide temperature range and varying light levels. It occurs both in well lit areas and darker crevices from shallow subtidal at least to 25 m depth, but most common from 5-6 m depth. In shallow water it is found on jetties, submerged ships, and other artificial substrates. It also occurs on vertical surfaces and under overhangs. High abundances of macroalgae in shallow water appear to limit its occurrence (Miller 1995).
133165		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range, and may form dense monospecific assemblages and bioherms.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that habitat quality has declined.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133165		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is mechanical damage associated with fishing gear, including dredges, bottom long lines, trawl nets and anchors. There have been major losses of this coral off the east coast of Florida to North Carolina in an area known as the <em>Oculina</em> Banks, with over 50% of the population being decimated due to bottom-trawling (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2005,Reed, in press). The species is not reported to be affected by disease and bleaching. There may be minor impacts associated with bio-eroding organisms such as endolithic sponges.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133166		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133166		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.
133166		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 3-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 63 cm in diameter. It may break into regenerating fragments.
133166		population	eng	This species is usually common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133166		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133167		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133167		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133167		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all tropical reef environments. It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely 1-2 m and 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It is very common on shallow reef flats in highly fluctuating environments, and is resistant to warming and high salinity. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of reefs, in lagoons and in inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. This species is found to at least 50 m.
133167		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133167		threats	eng	In Malaysia and Singapore, of the <em>Cyphastrea</em> species it is one of the more susceptible to bleaching, but it recovers fast. <br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 450 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 633.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133168		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>In Mexico it is found in Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/><br/>In El Salvador it is found in Complejo Los Cobanos (Areas Naturales Prioritarias del SANP). <br/><br/>In Costa Rica it is found in Marino Las Baulas de Guanacaste National Park (IUCN category II); Manuel Antonio National Park (IUCN category II); Golfito National Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Corcovado National Park (IUCN category II); Isla del Canio Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia); Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/><br/>In Panama it is found in Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Golfo de Chiriqui National Marine Park (IUCN category II); Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II); Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)), and Isla San Telmo and Isla San Jose private reserves (Las Perlas archipelago).<br/><br/>In Colombia it is found in Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)), and Gorgona Island Natural National Park (IUCN category II).<br/><br/>In Ecuador it is found in Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).
133168		distribution	eng	Found in the South Pacific: Fanning Atoll, Kiribati Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000) and in American Samoa, New Caledonia, and Fiji (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in:<br/><br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Concepcion Bay to Coronados Islands; Carmen Island, Loreto and Agua Verde Bay; San Jose Island, La Paz and Cerralvo Island; Cabo Pulmo to Cabo San Luca (Baja California Sur); Jaltemba Island to Punta Mita, and from Isabel Island to Marias Islands (Nayari); Bandera Bay to Tenacatita Bay (Jalisco); Revillagigedo Islands; Manzanillo (Colima); Zihuatanejo to Acapulco (Guerrero); and Puerto Escondifo to Huatulco (Oaxaca) (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/><strong>El Salvador</strong> (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Guanacaste, Bahia Culebra, Punta Mala, Manuel Antonio, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriquí and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm., Glynn 1997, Maté 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Ensenada de Utría, Tebada, Gorgona Island and Malpelo Island (Reyes 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003, Hickman 2005).
133168		habitat	eng	<em>Pavona gigantea</em> occurs widely on coral reefs and coral communities on rocks, except from shallow platforms with high energy (Cortés and Guzmán 1998) to 30 m. In several locations it can also grow in cryptic habitats (Chiriboga pers. comm., Guzman pers. comm.). <em>Pavona gigantea</em> along with <em>Pavona clavus</em> and <em>Porites lobata</em> can sometimes build reef frameworks or contribute to pocilloporid reef building (Glynn 2001). <em>P. gigantea</em> can reach more than one metre high and may build patches of hundreds of square metres (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). According to Cortés and Guzmán (1993), growth rates of <em>P. gigantea</em> vary between 0.83 and 0.86cm/yr. <br/><br/>Reproduction of <em>P. gigantea</em> is mainly sexual (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996) suggested that this species is a broadcast spawner. It is an alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodite (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, <em>P. gigantea</em> has a high proportion of mixed sexual patterns, with gonochoric colonies usually predominating over hermaphrodites (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). This pattern of sexuality could promote outbreeding during periods of high population abundance, but still allow sexual reproduction by selfing at times of severe population decline (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the earliest age of sexual reproduction for <em>P. gigantea</em> is 11 years. This may retard the recovery of populations, especially in areas that have experienced catastrophic mortality. Sexual recruitment of <em>P. gigantea</em> after the El Niño of 1982-83 was low, with only moderate recovery evident since 1983 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996) suggest that the factor which limits the number of corals reaching recruitment stages is probably mortality during planktonic development and settlement or shortly thereafter. According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the low rates of sexual recruitment of agariciid corals critically slows recovery of eastern Pacific coral communities that have experienced severe disturbances.
133168		population	eng	According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. gigantea</em> is widespread and abundant within much of the region (Costa Rica, including Cocos Island, Panama, Colombia and throughout central and north Galápagos Archipelago), and in recent years populations appear to be increasing, and new recruits and colonies are more frequently observed. As an illustration, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported <em>P. gigantea</em> in 75 to 100% of studied sites in Coiba Archipelago, Panama. <br/><br/>Reyes-Bonilla (2003) considered this species as abundant at the Gulf of California and nearby areas, and common from Nayarit to Oaxaca including the Revillagigedo Islands. According to Glynn and Ault (2000), <em>P. gigantea</em> is common at Panama, mainland Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), uncommon at Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) and mainland Ecuador, and rare at Clipperton Atoll.<br/><br/><em>Pavona gigantea</em> colonies are preferred prey for <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (COTs) which sometimes affects the coral’s abundance (Cortes and Guzman 1998).<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133168		threats	eng	El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). In general, after the 1982-83 El Niño event mean reef mortalities ranged between 50% and 75% at Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama, and between 85% and 97% at the Gulf of Panama, Panama, and the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador, respectively (Glynn 1990, Glynn 2001). Sexual recruitment of P. gigantea into eastern Pacific coral communities disturbed by ENSO 1982-83 has been low, with only moderate recovery evident since 1983 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em> (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development, overexploitation and destructive fishing practice, inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include small colony size, slow skeletal growth, susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation (COTS), and infrequent asexual fragmentation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/><em>Pavona gigantea</em> colonies are preferred prey on by <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (COTS) which sometimes affects the coral’s abundance (Cortes and Guzman 1998). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133169		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133169		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133169		habitat	eng	It is found only on vertical surfaces of mid- to lower reef slopes. It forms crusts of up to approximately 25 cm across.
133169		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133169		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133170		conservation	eng	Several colonies are now growing <em>ex situ</em>. Research on the resistance of <em>M. capitata</em> to bleaching stress could also be extended to this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133170		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Hawaiian Islands, where it is known only from Kaneohe Bay on Oahu in the main island group, and in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands it is known in 2004 from four islands: Midway (two sites); Kure (two sites), Pearl and Hermes (two sites) and Lisianski (one site). The records from the Northwestern islands had previously been recorded as <em>Montipora turgescens</em>. However, inspection of photographs provided by Aeby (pers. comm.) indicate that the species in question is likely to be <em>M. diiatata</em>. Corals possibly belonging to this species have been reported from one location on Palmyra in the  Line Islands (Maragos and Obura), and this requires confirmation.
133170		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow back reef environments with strong surge. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133170		population	eng	The population on Oahu declined drastically to two known remaining colonies after a bleaching event in 1996, which have since increased to approximately ten. On the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, it remains common in a few locations, despite bleaching events in 2002 (Aeby pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133170		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In the northwest Hawaiian islands this species was more resistant to bleaching than <em>M. capitata</em>, which bleached and died. <em>M. dilatata</em> bleached and recovered (Aeby pers. comm.). It is also less susceptible to disease. The Oahu population crashed to near zero due to bleaching, and has had a very slow recovery.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133171		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133171		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).
133171		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, typically on flat substrates. <em>Coeloseris</em> has a scattered distribution on most reefs, but is most likely to be found along the reef top and rim (Wood 1983). It is found from 1-5 m.
133171		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133171		threats	eng	<em>C. mayeri</em> around Orpheus Island on the GBR were largely unaffected by the massive bleaching that occurred in 1998 (Baird and Marshall 1998). In Indonesia (northwest Java 1983,Bali 1997) the species has been observed as bleaching (Hoeksema pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133172		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133172		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133172		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, especially lower reef slopes, lagoons, and fringing reefs. In the Red Sea it is found in mid to deep (30-40 m) water (Sheppard and Sheppard, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Echinophyllia</em> is found in most fore reef areas, but has a preference for slightly shaded spots on the reef slopes (Wood 1983).
133172		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>Colonies of <em>Echinophyllia</em> may reach a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983), including <em>E. aspera</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133172		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133173		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133173		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, east as far as Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133173		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes from mid reef to deeper water (30 m max). <br/><br/>Large colonies are usually found in more sheltered areas. May be a dominant species on protected horizontal substrates and on rocky outcrops in high latitude locations. Colonies often exceed 50 cm in diameter (Wood 1983), and often cover many square meters.
133173		population	eng	This species is common, and where it is occurs it can form carpets (in Chagos, Shepperd pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133173		threats	eng	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 27,550 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 400 pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133174		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133174		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Australia and Papua New Guinea. It is also found in the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.), Palau (Randall 1995), the Pitcairn Islands, and southern Tuamotu. This species has a patchy distribution.<br/><br/>Records from northern Indian Ocean are doubtful.
133174		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments on rocky foreshores. This species is found from 2-15 m.
133174		population	eng	This species is rare in the tropics, but common in subtropical localities of Eastern Australia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133174		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133175		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133175		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Oman, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Kiribati, and French Polynesia.
133175		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133175		population	eng	This is a uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133175		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133176		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133176		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific, including Palau (Randall 1995).
133176		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments to depths of 35 m. It is found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m and 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133176		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133176		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133177		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133177		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical and sub-tropical Australia, South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133177		habitat	eng	It is found on inshore reefs and shallow rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. They form plates of over 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 7-20 m.
133177		population	eng	This species is uncommon except in subtropical localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133177		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10.<br/><br/>This species exhibited locally high bleaching and high mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133178		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133178		distribution	eng	Found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, south tip of India, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133178		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
133178		population	eng	It is uncommon with local abundance.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133178		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,975. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,850 live pieces in 2005. The Indonesian export quota was 3,000 pieces in 2006.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133179		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133179		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific and Polynesia.
133179		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-24 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 14 cm.
133179		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133179		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133180		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133180		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and South China Sea, and eastern Australia. New Caledonia (Conservation International Rapid Assessment Program (CI RAP)).
133180		habitat	eng	This species is found on vertical rock faces protected from wave action. This species is found to 20 m.
133180		population	eng	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133180		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133181		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133181		habitat	eng	This species is found from 3-30 m depth.
133181		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133181		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil et al. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter et al. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133182		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133182		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995). <br/><br/>There is a discrepancy between records from Wallace (1999) and those illustrated in Veron (2000).
133182		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reefs, especially exposed upper reef slopes and sand flats. This species is found on subtidal reef flats, reef edges and reef slopes to about 15 m depth (Wallace 1999). This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity.
133182		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133182		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. A disease has been recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004) and therefore likely to be susceptible. <br/><br/>This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133183		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133183		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, South Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and Johnston Atoll. Southwestern Madagascar  (Fenner pers. comm.) Palau and S Marianas (Randall 1995).
133183		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 2-33 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 18.5 cm in diameter.
133183		population	eng	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133183		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133184		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133184		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean along the coast of Brazil.
133184		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water and is tolerant of turbid environments. <br/><br/>In Brazil, this species has been observed from very shallow waters (0.5 - 0.1 m above chart datum) to depths of 3.9 m. It was most abundant between 2.5-2.9 m. Observed colony size ranged from 1.3 - 65.3 cm. (Oigman-Pszczol and Creed 2004).
133184		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>This species showed low overall mean cover of about 1.4% with up to 13% or relative coral cover. (Oigman-Pszczol and Creed 2004)<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133184		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133185		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133185		distribution	eng	This species is found on the coast of eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, the Red Sea, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Philippines, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the central Pacific.
133185		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs on reef crests, outer reef flats and upper slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133185		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133185		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133186		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133186		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133186		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It occurs especially on upper and mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133186		population	eng	This species is common in the Coral Sea, and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133186		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133187		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133187		distribution	eng	<em>Porites arnaudi</em> was regarded as an endemic species within the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, but the species is now also known to occur throughout the central south Pacific. In the ETP, this species is primarily found near the Revillagigedo Islands and Clipperton Atoll.
133187		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper reef slopes or rocky foreshores exposed to strong wave action. <em>Porites arnaudi</em> is distributed at depths from 7 to 37 m, especially in steep rocky slopes or rocky foreshores exposed to strong wave action (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996; Reyes-Bonilla and Carricart-Gavinet 2000). <em>P. arnaudi</em> forms tiered plates that frequently overgrow other species, especially <em>P. lobata</em>, <em>Pavona varians</em> and <em>Psammocora superficialis</em> (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996; Reyes-Bonilla and Carricart-Gavinet 2000 ). Reyes-Bonilla and Carricart-Gavinet (2000) suggested that the fishes <em>Arothron meleagris</em> and <em>Melichthys niger</em> may feed on <em>P. arnaudi</em>.
133187		population	eng	This species is common in the south central Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) report <em>Porites arnaudi</em> as a rare species (i.e., found in less than 20% of the reef) but sometimes locally abundant at the Revillagigedo Islands. At Clipperton Atoll, this coral may be prevalent on some upper seaward slopes (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). It was not abundant at the southeast site, but comprised to 7.4% mean cover at 16 m (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133187		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133188		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133188		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. This species is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133188		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments, can go deep, turbid waters. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and in lagoons. It can be found also on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133188		population	eng	This species is uncommon in the western Indian Ocean, it is rare elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133188		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133189		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133189		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomon Islands.
133189		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs on subtidal reef flats, reef edge, and reef slope from 3 m to about 15 m depth (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133189		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133189		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133190		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133190		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Thailand, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
133190		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow tropical reef environments and on rocky foreshores. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133190		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133190		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133191		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133191		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea. It is recently described, and has probably been misidentified in the past. It might occur more widely.
133191		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow protected embayments, and also at mid depths. This species is found to at least 25 m.
133191		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133191		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133192		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133192		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also recorded from Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).
133192		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow, protected reef slopes. This species is found from 3-40 m. <br/><br/>This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133192		population	eng	This species is common in the central Indo-Pacific, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133192		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 349.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133193		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133193		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific region. It has been reported in Fiji. It can be found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Southeast Asia and Polynesia, including southern Japan, Australia, and throughout the Coral Sea to American Samoa. The largest blue coral stand in the world is thought to be off of Ishigaki Island, in southwest Japan (Zann and Bolton 1985). <br/><br/>Specific records include:<br/>Madagascar, Lakshadweep, western Thailand, northwestern Australia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Zann and Bolton (1985) present a detailed map of the distribution in the Pacific, which includes the Great Barrier Reef, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Wallis & Futuna, western Samoa, American Samoa, Tuvalu, the Marshalls, Micronesia and the area between Micronesia and the GBR, also Taiwan, Marianas, Bonin, and Ryukyu Islands of Japan.
133193		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reef (generally less than 2 m), exposed reef locations, reef flats and intertidal zones (Richards, pers. comm.). Off the coast of Kenya, this species can occur in generally disturbed or marginal habitat (Hoeksma, pers. comm.).
133193		population	eng	This coral is generally common throughout its range, although it can also be locally rare. It is known to form large colonies up to 10 km long in Japan and Indonesia (Zann and Bolton 1985, Foster <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is rare in the main archipelago of Fiji, but is considered common near the outlier island of Rotuma, common in Tuvalu, and abundant in Kiribati (Zann, pers comm., Lovell, pers comm.). This species is dominant in the Marshall Islands, prevalent in Kiribati, and uncommon in Ofu lagoon pools (Fenner pers comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133193		threats	eng	This species is collected for the curio and jewellery trade (dried skeletons give blue colour), and the aquarium trade. In 2005, 2,868 pieces of live and 5,787 pieces of raw <em>Heliopora coerulea</em> were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood, pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The huge <em>Heliopora</em> stands that extend for almost 10 km in Banda Aceh, Indonesia were the most damaged species of all corals due to the earthquake (Foster <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133194		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133194		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, northern Maldives, western India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwest to northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133194		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It may be a dominant species of shallow mud reef flats. This species is found to at least 5 m.
133194		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133194		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is reasonably widespread, and  is often a conspicuous survivor on reef tops following disturbances, including bleaching. It therefore appears to be more resilient to threats than some other members of the genus. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,889.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133195		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133195		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the southwest and northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><strong>Red Sea</strong><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133195		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow rocky foreshores and reefs. This species is found from 1-15 m depth. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133195		population	eng	This species is common in the western Indian Ocean, and it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133195		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This growth form is moderately susceptible to predation by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133196		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133196		distribution	eng	This species is found in Rodrigues, Thailand, Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, American Samoa, Line Islands, Hawaii, Johnston Atoll, and Pitcairn.
133196		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical and subtropical reef environments. It is found mostly on upper and mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133196		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133196		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133197		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133197		distribution	eng	This species has a widespread distribution within the Indo-West Pacific and Eastern Tropical Pacific regions.<br/><br/>In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Northwest Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, this species is found in <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: mainland Costa Rica including Cocos Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panama</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Colombia</strong>: mainland Colombia including Malpelo Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: mainland Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>Glynn and Ault (2000) reported <em>P. verrucosa</em> throughout the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, while Glynn (2003) later recorded this species as present on the mainland coast of Ecuador. The presence of <em>P. verrucosa</em> in the Galápagos Islands awaits confirmation (Hickman 2005). Nevertheless, <em>P. verrucosa</em> is not reported by Cortes and Jimenez (2003), Mate (2003), or Zapata and Vargas-Angel (2003) in Costa Rica, Panama, or Colombia, respectively. Additionally, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) considered this species as a synonym of <em>P. elegans</em>. Reyes-Bonilla (2002) discussed the uncertain taxonomic status of <em>P. verrucosa</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>, and suggested that more detailed morphological and genetic studies are needed to clarify the issue of whether they should be synonymised. However, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported <em>Pocillopora verrucosa</em> and <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> as valid species.
133197		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments from exposed reef fronts to protected fringing reefs and coral communities on rocky substrata (Guzmán pers. comm.), at depths of 1 to 54 m (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>P. verrucosa</em> is commonly found from 1-15 m, rarely 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and the Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). The maximum size is 30 cm across.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. verrucosa</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133197		population	eng	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for this species in the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>According to Glynn and Ault (2000), the relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora verrucosa</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: Gulf of California (Mexico); Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), and Panama. <br/><br/>Common: mainland Mexico, and mainland Colombia and Malpelo Island.<br/><br/>Uncommon: mainland Costa Rica, and mainland Ecuador.<br/><br/>Rare: Cocos Island<br/><br/>Reyes-Bonilla (2003) recorded this species as abundant throughout Mexico. By contrast, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. verrucosa</em> is an uncommon species throughout its range within the region.<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133197		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 5,600 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, El Niño and presumably climate change are threats. Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133198		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133198		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sri Lanka, South-east Asia, Micronesia, southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.) to New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).
133198		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper reef slopes protected from strong wave action, generally to depths of 25 m.
133198		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but it can be locally common (Sheppard pers comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133198		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133199		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133199		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, and is so far known from one site on the southern Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia. It is recently described and future work will probably show it to be more widely distributed, at least in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133199		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow, semi-sheltered reef slopes. This species is recently described and is little known. This species is found from 1 m to at least 10 m.
133199		population	eng	It is moderately common in its only known site.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133199		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133200		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133200		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133200		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, but especially in lagoons. This is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes. Colonies may reach several metres in diameter (Wood 1983). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to 30 m.
133200		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133200		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133201		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133201		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and east Australia, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133201		habitat	eng	This species lives as a free-living single polyp in reef slopes. Maximum size is 18 cm in diameter. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). It may also reproduce asexually by budding (Hoeksema pers. comm.).
133201		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133201		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133202		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to determine the distribution of this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133202		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea. It is recently described, and its range is possibly not yet fully known.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133202		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments in bays or reef slopes protected from strong wave action. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133202		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133202		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133203		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133203		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133203		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes below 40 metres and subtidal, protected slopes, shelves, 25-70 m (Richards pers. comm.).
133203		population	eng	This species may be locally common. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133203		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133204		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133204		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.
133204		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-25 m.
133204		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133204		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133205		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133205		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Sri Lanka, the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan, the South China Sea, and north and east Papua New Guinea. The Solomons (TNC).
133205		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes and enclosed embayments, especially with turbid water. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. teres</em> grows to around 30 cm (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. teres</em> is one of the less conspicuous <em>Pectinia</em> species.
133205		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133205		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133206		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133206		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean. It is also found in Mauritius (Richards pers. comm.) and Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).
133206		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 3-12 m.
133206		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133206		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133207		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133207		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133207		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on upper reef slopes, back reef margins and fringing reefs. This species is found from 8-20 m.<br/><br/>In South Africa, <em>Spirobranchus</em> species are highly prevalent on <em>Acropora clathrata</em> (Floros <em>et al</em>. 2005).
133207		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133207		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Particularly susceptible to COTS and physical disturbance (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133208		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133208		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-West Pacific excluding Hawaii and the Far East. This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133208		habitat	eng	This species occurs in widely in all reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m. It is commonly found from 9-15 m, and rarely at 1-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133208		population	eng	This is a common species over a wide range of environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133208		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 8. This species exhibited moderate to high bleaching and moderate mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133209		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133209		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan, western India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Phoenix Island, and Line Islands.
133209		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m.
133209		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133209		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133210		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133210		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean,  and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133210		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all shallow, tropical reef environments. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m and 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanov, 2002). It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons to 40 m. It can be found on inter-reef rubble substrate.
133210		population	eng	This is one of the most common faviids, especially in high latitudes.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133210		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was one. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133211		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133211		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan, the South China Sea, and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).
133211		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments where diversity is high, generally to depths of 15 m.
133211		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133211		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133212		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P. and Dry Tortugas National Park. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>There is a need to evaluate the impacts associated with trawls and fishtraps in habitats where this coral occurs. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133212		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico (but not in the Flower Gardens), Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It is unclear whether descriptions of this coral in the Gulf of Mexico are actually of this species and not of <em>O. varicosa</em>.
133212		habitat	eng	This species occurs predominantly in soft-bottom habitats, including seagrass beds, branching coral thickets, sloping fore reef and back reef environments, in deeper lagoon habitats, and in the roots and sediments of mangrove islands. Found from 0.5-30 m, but most abundant from 1-15 m. This species is generally resistant to high rates of sedimentation, salinity and temperature changes.
133212		population	eng	This species is widespread in soft-bottom habitats, and may be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133212		threats	eng	A major threat affecting this species could be bottom-tending fishing gear (trawls, traps, longlines). Not reported to be affected by bleaching or disease. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133213		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133213		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and east Australia, Japan and East China Sea, and Samoa. Palau (Randall 1995).
133213		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes as an attached, encrusting polyps with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-20 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 81 cm.
133213		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133213		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133214		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133214		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Fiji, Great Barrier Reef, Papau New Guinea, the Andaman Is and western Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), in the Marianas, (Randall).
133214		population	eng	Rare to uncommon in Randall (1995).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133214		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Perhaps not particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133215		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133215		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll, northwest Hawaiian islands.
133215		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and can occur on rubble and sand. The depth range is from 1-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). It is a single free-living polyp with a maximum of 8.5 cm diameter. Generation length is five years.
133215		population	eng	This species is widespread and moderately common throughout its range. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133215		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133216		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133216		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Palau and the Mariana Islands (Randall 1995).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, this species is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima and Guerrero (Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999, Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán and Cortés 1993); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Peninsula de Santa Elena, Culebra Bay, Brasilito Bay, Sámara, Cabo Blanco, Bahía Ballena, Punta Leona, Manuel Antonio, Punta Dominical, Punta Uvita, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulf of Panama and Chiriquí (Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría and Tebada (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán and Cortés 1993); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island, and La Plata Island in mainland Ecuador, and throughout the Galápagos Islands (Glynn and Wellington 1983, Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Hickman 2005, Guzmán and Cortés 1993); Clipperton Atoll (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn and Ault 2000).
133216		habitat	eng	This species is frequently a dominant species of back reef margins, lagoons and some fringing reefs, and can be found generally to depths of 30 m. <br/><br/>It is one of the predominant framework builders (Glynn 2000), sometimes building monospecific reef frameworks or contributing to pocilloporid reef building (Glynn 2001). <em>Porites lobata</em> is a relatively slow-growing species with reported growth rates of 8.4 mm/year in Costa Rica and 8.1 mm/year in the Galápagos; however it can grow as fast as 14 to 19 mm/year during the first few years (Guzmán and Cortes 1993, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). <br/><br/><em>P. lobata</em> utilizes a gonochoristic reproductive strategy (except from Caño Island, Costa Rica), and is presumably a broadcaster spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1994) suggested that eastern Pacific populations appeared to be reproductively active over multiple annual intervals, including periods of relatively low temperature. According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1994), fecundity can vary between regions; <em>P. lobata</em> has higher fecundities at Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, than in the Galápagos Islands, where water temperatures are lower and more seasonally variable. Moreover, Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1994) suggest that <em>P. lobata</em> reproduces twice per year in thermally high and stable environments. Fecundity of this coral appears to benefit from moderate sea warming events, but may decline dramatically during unusually strong thermal anomalies (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). After 1983, observations of sexual recruitment have been rare to infrequent in the eastern Pacific; however sexual recruitment has been observed in some areas of the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). The almost complete absence of sexual recruitment for this species in the eastern Pacific may be due to high larval mortality in the water column; as well as increased levels of competition with benthic alga, and increased densities of grazers and bioeroders following the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/><em>Porites lobata</em> can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003). In the eastern Pacific the incidental feeding activities of the triggerfish <em>Pseudobalistes naufragium</em> can generate fragments that survive to form new colonies (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). This form of fragmentation is common in Costa Rica and Panama, but uncommon in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Fragmentation also occurs by initial weakening of colonies by bioeroders; <em>P. lobata</em> colonies possess high densities of boring bivalves (<em>Lithophaga</em> spp.), which erode the skeletal structure, a process that can also lead to fragmentation (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>At least eight fish species feed on live corals, with their feeding strategies ranging from removing mainly live tissue and causing little damage to the skeleton, to abrading or breaking apart colonies in the feeding process, such as during feeding of <em>Arothron meleagris</em> and <em>Pseudobalistes naufragium</em> (Guzmán and Cortes 1989, Glynn 2001). <em>Porites lobata</em> is commonly grazed by the puffer <em>Arothron meleagris</em> (Guzmán and Robertson 1989, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).
133216		population	eng	This species is probably the most common <em>Porites</em>, especially in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. According to Guzmán and Cortés (1993), <em>P. lobata</em> is one of the most important hermatypic coral from the south section of the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. Additionally, Cortés and Guzmán (1998), considered <em>P. lobata</em> as the most important reef framework builder in the Caño and Cocos Islands, Costa Rica.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133216		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, <em>Porites lobata</em> was greatly affected by the 1982-83 El Niño event (Guzmán pers. comm.) at Caño Island, Costa Rica, where live cover declined by about 68% (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1987). Populations were even more reduced in Cocos Island (to 3%) (Guzmán and Cortes 1992), but had recovered after 20 years (Guzmán and Cortes 2006). High mortalities (95-100%) were also reported in the Galápagos from many sites (e.g., San Cristobal and Santa Cruz), and high partial mortality (<1-18% live tissue remaining) was found at most sites (Glynn 1990, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>In the Indo-Pacific, this species exhibited moderate bleaching and mortality (10-40%) in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/><em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year; annual collection quota for <em>P. lobata</em> is 3,000 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133217		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133217		habitat	eng	This species is a free-living form that inhabits sandy environments in channels between reef spurs, at the base of the fore reef, in some deeper lagoon habitats, and seagrass beds, and sloping soft-bottom communities in front of and back of the reef. It occurs from 5-80 m (Reed 1985), but more abundant from 15-20 m. This species does well in areas of high turbidity and high sedimentation.
133217		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range; usually at low abundances, but moderately abundant at some localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133217		threats	eng	This species may be susceptible to disease (white plague and black band), due to observations of these in <em>M. meandrites</em>, and bleaching. It is also at risk from storms, especially in shallower waters, as a result of tumbling, burial and removal.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133218		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133218		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, north coast of Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
133218		habitat	eng	It is found in lagoons and on lower reef slopes. Maximum size is over 1 m. It may form small fields. This species is found from 10-25 m.
133218		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133218		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133219		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133219		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the central Indo-Pacific.
133219		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid or sheltered reef environments. This species is found from 8-30 m.
133219		population	eng	This species is rare, but conspicuous. However, this species may form very large carpets and can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133219		threats	eng	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 14,000 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133220		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133220		distribution	eng	Kenya, Tanzania, northern Madagascar, Andaman Islands, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Kiribati, French Polynesia, and Pitcairn. Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.).
133220		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133220		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133220		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133221		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133221		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Qalhat in the Muscat area, Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133221		habitat	eng	The shallow water colonies kept the branching pattern but branches were shorter and sturdier; found also on soft substrate in the form of coralliths (Claereboudt 2006). This species can be found from 10-18 m.
133221		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133221		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133222		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133222		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Northwest Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical and Sub-tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic west Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, the Far Eastern Pacific, and Easter Island (Glynn 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/> <br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species has been reported from: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 1998, Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Calderon-Aguilar 2005, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007); <strong>El Salvador</strong>: Del Amor beach, Los Cóbanos (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Islas Murcielago Archipelago, Bahia Culebra, Bahia Brasilito, Samara, Cabo Blanco, Punta Leona, Herradura, Manuel Antonio, Punta Uvita, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007, Guzmán and Cortés 2007); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama (Maté 2003, Glynn 1997, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría and Tebada (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003, Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007).
133222		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all shallow water habitats from exposed reef fronts to mangrove swamps and wharf piles. This species is found in mono-specific stands or multi-species reefs throughout its range from near the surface to a maximum depth of 20 m. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, rarely 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002) This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found from 0.5-6 m of Panama (Sheppard 1982). This species is relatively tolerant of sedimentation and low salinity as long as there is adequate water motion. Colonies reproduce by fragmentation and by sexual reproduction (broadcast spawning) (Hodgson 1998).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the species has not been reported from mangrove environments (Cortés and Guzmán pers. comm.) but it is one of the major reef building species, forming intermeshing compact frameworks that can attain 2-3 m in relief (Glynn 2001). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the fastest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). Reported growth rates of <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em> vary substantially between locations in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, from 1.27 cm per year in Colombia to 3.96 cm per year in Panama (Guzmán and Cortes 1993).<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. damicornis</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>P. damicornis</em> is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991) with the capacity to function as a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991), larval settlement in the Galápagos Islands presumably has been the predominant mode of recruitment, and the only observed form of recruitment in areas that experienced high mortality (97-100%) in 1983. Asexual reproduction by fragmentation has been reported as an important mechanism for reef recovery in Panama (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). <em>P. damicornis</em>, like other pocilloporid species in the eastern Pacific, has low rates of recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Histological evidence indicates that spawning is likely to occur during a few days around the new moon (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Reproductive activity in the eastern Pacific its related to local thermal regimes, with a generally higher incidence of gravid corals at sites with stable, warm water conditions, or during warming periods in areas that experience significant seasonal variation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991) conclude that moderate El Nino warming can stimulate gametogenesis in Galápagos pocilloporid corals.<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133222		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>Specific information for the Indo-West Pacific populations may be available since this is a widely studied species.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Panama, Costa Rica and Colombia (Cortes and Guzmán, pers. comm.; Glynn and Ault 2000). Highly recovering in Caño Island, Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortes 2001) and in Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Common: Gulf of California (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Uncommon: Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003), and Ecuador including the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>Rare: Del Amor beach, El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003).<br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988) report high rates of pocilloporid coral mortality across the eastern Pacific following the 1982/83 El Niño, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Cortés and Guzmán (pers. comm.), Pocillopora damicornis seems to be very abundant and recovering in Panama, Costa Rica and Colombia, despite severe coral mortality after the ENSO events (1982-83 and 1997-98).<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recruitment since (Glynn 2003). No live <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em> has been seen in the once coral-filled lava rock pools at Punta Espinosa, Fernandina, Galápagos Islands since 1983 (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>In mainland Ecuador at Sucre Island, Machalilla, the predominant frame-building species before 1983 were <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> and <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em>, with the two species generating a rigid framework that covered over 1 ha of bottom (Glynn 2003). However, by 1991 the reef had declined to dispersed colonies of <em>P. damicornis</em> and <em>P. elegans</em> (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133222		threats	eng	This is the most commonly harvested species in the area. Like other coral species it is collected to be used directly as construction material, to make lime, which is used to make concrete and to sell as curios. Live corals are collected for sale to the aquarium trade (Hodgson 1998).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 6,000 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 15,321.<br/><br/>This species exhibited variable bleaching (0-50%) and low mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133223		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133223		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Yemen, Japan (Fenner pers. comm.).
133223		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is restricted to shallow fringing reefs and upper reef slopes where <em>Acropora</em> spp. diversity is high and it is subtidal (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.
133223		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but distinctive. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133223		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133224		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133224		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133224		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily on the fore reef, but is also found in back reef environments. Occurs from 0.5-80 m (Reed 1985), and is most common from 8-30 m (Goreau and Wells 1967, Pinzon and Weil in review). Tolerates high turbidity and high sediment influx. The species has the potential to undergo recovery, because of its observed good recruitment success.
133224		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, with moderate abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133224		threats	eng	The major threat is disease (white plague), which has resulted in localized mortalities (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997,Richardson <em>et al</em>. 1998,Weil 2005). Also susceptible to other diseases (black band), bleaching, and localized predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) (Bruckner and Bruckner, 1998). During intensive bleaching episodes, there have been reports of colony mortality; however, the species also exhibits annual patterns of bleaching from which the colonies exhibit high recovery rates.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133225		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133225		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan islands and the East China Sea, the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Palau (Randall 1995).
133225		habitat	eng	This species is found in all parts of the reefs, particularly in sheltered areas. They can form large colonies up to 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 2-35 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
133225		population	eng	This species is moderately common and widespread within the central Pacific. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133225		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 228.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133226		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133226		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).
133226		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes. This species is found from 4-15 m.
133226		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133226		threats	eng	This species is likely collected for the aquarium trade under a different name.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133227		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133227		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, north-west Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Vanuatu (Lovell pers. comm.).
133227		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133227		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but conspicuous. Rare in Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133227		threats	eng	This species may be targeted in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish is unknown.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133228		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133228		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Japan and the East China Sea.
133228		habitat	eng	It has only been found attached to sandstone rock in shallow water. This species is found from 5-15 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
133228		population	eng	This is the dominant species of Ôjioya Port, Tanegashima, Japan, the only place where this species has been found in Japan. This species is extremely rare elsewhere (Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133228		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133229		conservation	eng	Research on the resistance of M. capitata to bleaching stress could also be extended to this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hawaii and is found on all of the Hawaiian Islands apart from in Johnston Atoll (Fenner pers. comm.).
133229		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments on reef flats and slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133229		population	eng	This species is common in Hawaii (Fenner pers. comm.). There is no evidence of a population decline for this species (Aeby pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133229		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching, though this species has not been heavily impacted so far. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The small range of this species renders it at increased risk of extinction to any future threats.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133230		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133230		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and the Kermadec Islands (Brook 1991, Hoesksema 1989).
133230		habitat	eng	This species is found in soft substrata on lower reef slope and reef bases. The depth range is from 20-36 m (Hoeksema 1990).This is a single free-living polyp. It reproduces asexually by fragmentation. It has a maximum size of 8 cm diameter.
133230		population	eng	This species widespread and uncommon.  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133230		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133231		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133231		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. It is also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.)
133231		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on both exposed and protected reef environments. This species is found occasionally on most reefs, especially on upper reef slopes or in areas exposed to swell or currents. Colonies generally grow to a large size, and it is common to find some several meters in diameter. <br/><br/>Small gobies are often associated with this coral and can be seen lying on the surface or moving around in search of food (Wood 1983). This species is found in the outer reef channel and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133231		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but sometimes very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133231		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 450 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,353.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133232		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133232		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, South China Sea, and eastern Australia.
133232		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133232		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133232		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133233		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133233		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Papau New Guinea, Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.), and Osprey Reef Coral Sea (Wallace pers. comm.), and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).
133233		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons, also on patch reefs, typically seen between 3 and 12 m depth (Wallace 1999). It is also found on submerged reef flats (Richards pers. comm.). This species may be found to 15 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133233		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at two sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133233		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1282.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133234		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133234		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133234		habitat	eng	It is found on sloping rock faces. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.
133234		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133234		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133235		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133235		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Indonesia, Philippines and eastern Australia. Also found in Fiji (Ed Lovell pers. comm.).
133235		habitat	eng	It is usually found on upper slopes and outer flats of subtropical reefs. The maximum size is 50 cm. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133235		population	eng	This species is rare in the tropics, and it is uncommon in subtropical localities. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133235		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133236		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133236		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and south China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133236		habitat	eng	This species is found on lower reef slopes and on vertical walls.
133236		population	eng	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133236		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133237		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133237		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. <br/><br/>In Brazil, reportedly from Cabedelo (06°58'S to 034°50'W) to north of Esprito Santo, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>This species is also known from the eastern Atlantic.
133237		habitat	eng	This species is widely distributed through most reef environments from 0.5-95 m depth (Goreau and Wells 1967), with peak abundance from 10-30 m depth (Szmant <em>et al</em>. 1997). Colonies have been observed to 113 m depth (Reed 1985). Although this coral has a high tolerance for turbid and silty environments, this species is not adapted to eutrophic conditions (Tomascik and Sander 1987).
133237		population	eng	This species is common and tends to be the more abundant of the <em>Montastraea</em> species in environments with moderate sedimentation.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133237		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are disease (black band disease and white plague) and bleaching, although the proportion of colonies affected is generally lower than that observed in the other <em>Montastraea</em> species (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997). Localized threats include bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, other diseases, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133238		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133238		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Comoros, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southeast India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.
133238		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most turbid water habitats, and also in clear waters. It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely at 12-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 40 m.
133238		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133238		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a wide range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133239		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133239		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133239		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in all Acropora assemblages, but especially those of upper reef slopes. It is found subtidally on reef edge, slope, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.
133239		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 70 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133239		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,652.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133240		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/><br/><strong>México</strong>: Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Manuel Antonio National Park (IUCN category II); Isla del Caño Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia); Golfito National Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Corcovado National Park (IUCN category II); Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/><br/><strong>Panamá</strong>: Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)); Golfo de Chiriqui National Marine Park (IUCN category II), and Isla San Jose and Isla San Telmo Private Reserves (Las Perlas archipelago).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)), Isla Gorgona Natural National Park (IUCN category II).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.
133240		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, Southern, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within Eastern Tropical Pacific: <strong>México</strong>: Baja California Sur (San José Island, La Paz, Cerralvo Island and from Cabo Pulmo to Cabo San Lucas), Revillagigedo Archipelago, Nayarit, Jalisco (from Banderas Bay to Tenacatita Bay), Colima (Manzanillo) and Oaxaca (from Puerto Escondido to Huatulco) (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez 1998, Calderon-Aguilera 2005, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Perez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Islas Murciélago Archipelago, Bahía Culebra, Manuel Antonio, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island and Cocos Island (Guzman and Cortes 1992, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); <strong>Panamá</strong>: throughout the Gulf of Chiriquí and the Gulf of Panamá (Holst and Guzman 1993, Glynn and Maté 1997, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo, Gorgona and Ensenada de Utría (Glynn and Ault 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island, La Plata Island and throughout the Galápagos Island (Glynn 2003); <strong>Clipperton</strong> (Reyes-Bonilla 2002).
133240		habitat	eng	It occurs on reef slopes. It commonly occurs in habitats exposed to currents from 2-15 m. It may form large fields.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>Pavona clavus</em> occurs broadly on coral reefs and coral communities on rocks, except from shallow platforms with high energy (Cortés and Guzmán 1998; Guzmán pers. comm.); in some locations the species can also occur in cryptic habitats (Chiriboga pers. comm.), on soft bottoms (Guzmán pers. comm.), and in habitats exposed to currents Veron (2000). <em>P. clavus</em> occurs as isolated colonies or can develop large patches (Guzmán pers. comm.). <em>P. clavus</em>, along with <em>Pavona gigantea</em> and <em>Porites lobata</em>, can sometimes build reef frameworks or assist pocilloporid corals in reef building (Glynn 2001). According to Cortés and Guzmán (1993), the growth rates of <em>P. clavus</em> vary between 0.9 and 1.3 cm/yr. <em>Pavona clavus</em> colonies are preferred prey for <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, which can limit the coral’s abundance (Cortés and Guzmán 1998).
133240		population	eng	This is common species in habitats exposed to currents.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pavona clavus</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as: <br/><br/>Abundant: Caño Island, Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 2001), and Coiba Archipelago, several islands in gulfs of Chiriqui and Panamá (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Common: Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) (Guzman and Cortes 1992, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003), Panamá (Guzmán pers. comm.), Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán pers. comm.), Ecuador (Glynn 2003) and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago, except at Fernandina and the west side of Isabela (Glynn 2003, Hickman 2005, Edgar and Hickman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), populations of Pavona clavus are probably increasing in recent decades after the severe impacts of 1982-83 El Niño event. Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), reported <em>P. clavus</em> as an abundant species at Coiba Archipelago (present in 75-100% of the sites).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133240		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by ENSO events and climate change.<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 100.<br/><br/>This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation.
133241		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133241		distribution	eng	Known only from the type location in Sabah, Malaysia.
133241		habitat	eng	This species is found on moderately exposed upper slopes with high coverage between other Pectinidae, <em>Porites</em> species, and <em>Acropora</em> staghorn along the reef edge (Ditlev 2003).
133241		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133241		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133242		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133242		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the far eastern Pacific. Papua New Guinea  (Fenner 2003) Milne Bay at the east end (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in: <strong>Panamá</strong>: Coiba Archipelago and Uva Island, Gulf of Chiriquí (Guzman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Maté 2003a,b), and Las Perlas archipelago (11 sites), Gulf of Panamá (Glynn and Mate 1997, Maté 2003a,b, Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahía Culebra, Golfo Dulce, Isla del Caño, Parque Nacional Marino Ballena (Cortes and Guzman 1998, Jiménez 2001, Cortéz and Jiménez 2003, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005).
133242		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. <em>P. frondifera</em> has a compact foliose morphology and is an inhabitant of shallow sheltered reefs (Maté 2003 a,b). In Costa Rica and Panamá, it commonly occurs in reef rubble areas where it can be found as attached colonies (Maté 2003). Generally found in shallow depths, between three and 13 m (Maté 2003b), this coral can also occur amongst coral reef and coral communities on rocks in depths to 20 m (Guzmán pers. comm.). This species can be found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>The maximum size is approximately 50 cm. However, size can vary from small colonies of a few centimetres, which usually occur free or lightly attached to substrata, to hemispheric attached colonies larger than 1 m in diameter (Guzmán and Cortés 1998, Maté 2003b, Guzman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Pavona</em> is a fairly common coral that is found in most reef habitats. Some of the massive colonies are large, and the foliaceous ones may form extensive tracts (Wood 1983). This genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching compared to other genera (Gleason 1993).
133242		population	eng	This is generally a common species.<br/><br/>Glynn and Ault (2000) and Glynn (1997) have classified <em>P. frondifera</em> as a rare species in Costa Rica and Panama, perhaps due to a limited spatial survey (Guzman, pers. comm.). In addition, Maté (2003a,b) reported <em>P. frondifera</em> from only one location in the Gulf of Panama (single clone), and two sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí. Moreover, Glynn and Ault (2000) considered that <em>P. frondifera</em> should be considered as an endangered species, since the known populations consist of ten or fewer colonies. Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), in recent decades the relative abundance of <em>Pavona frondifera</em> within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has increased, and can be categorized as common on many locations within the Gulfs of Chiriquí and Panamá, Panamá, as well as in Costa Rica. In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported P. frondifera as a common species in Coiba Archipelago, Panama, occurring at 25 to 50% of sites. Finally, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) reported <em>P. frondifera</em> at 11 sites in Las Perlas archipelago and at 60 sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí.<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133242		threats	eng	Threats presumably include ENSO events and climate change.<br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133243		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133243		distribution	eng	This species is found in Vietnam, Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northeastern Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Phoenix Islands.
133243		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel and inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133243		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133243		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133244		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133244		distribution	eng	Found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Marianas Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.
133244		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments and rocky foreshores. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133244		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133244		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133245		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133245		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern tip of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia and also in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133245		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of shallow, tropical reef environments, including lagoon margins. It is also found on high latitude reefs and on rocky foreshores. Sparse colonies of <em>M. spongodes</em> are found at 3-11 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 25 m.
133245		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133245		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread in tropical and subtropical habitats, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,255. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133246		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133246		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, north, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133246		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments. This species has a large tolerance range for all reef environments, e.g. differing depths and light, including deep water and reef flats. This species is found to 50 m.
133246		population	eng	This species is the most common <em>Acanthastrea</em> and is very widespread.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133246		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,000 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133247		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133247		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean. It is also found in New Caledonia, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007). There is some doubt about Pacific records (Lovell pers. comm.), and Cocos-Keeling (Wallace 1999).
133247		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on sheltered reef slopes. This species is found from 5-25 m.
133247		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133247		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133248		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133248		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133248		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially reef margins exposed to strong wave action, intertidal or just subtidal reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-8 m.
133248		population	eng	This species is common in the central Indo-Pacific. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 30 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133248		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133249		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133249		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and eastern Australia. However, records from the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf/Arabian Sea are doubtful.
133249		habitat	eng	This species is found in back reef margins, lagoons, and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 20 m.
133249		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133249		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133250		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133250		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).
133250		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, wave washed back margins of reefs, and found intertidally on reef flats (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0-12 m.
133250		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 43 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133250		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is targeted in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 100.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133251		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133251		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, as well as the southwest Indian Ocean.
133251		habitat	eng	It is found only in shallow water exposed to wave action. The maximum size is approximately 20 cm across. This species is found to 10 m.
133251		population	eng	This species is uncommon, except on the edge of reef flats exposed to wave action. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133251		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133252		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133252		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in the central Pacific (Richards pers. comm.), Line Island (Wallace 1999), and Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004).
133252		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in lagoons and other protected subtidal habitats (Wallace 1999), subtidal, and protected sandy lagoons (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 1-30 m.
133252		population	eng	This species is common at Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs of south-east Australia, and it is rare elsewhere.  Common in Rongelap Atoll, Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.). Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133252		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is very popular in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133253		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133253		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific and Fiji.
133253		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes protected from wave action and turbid environments. This species is found to 40 m.
133253		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133253		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 3,800 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133254		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133254		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is also found in south central Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm., Richards pers. comm.). Known from the Lesser Sunda Islands.
133254		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes and submerged walls, 15-25 m (Richards pers. comm.).
133254		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133254		threats	eng	This species is in an area likely to be heavily impacted by anthropogenic disturbance. This species has a generally low reproductive capacity and therefore would be slow to recover. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987), although this is a deepwater species not likely to be heavily impacted by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is targeted in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 175.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133255		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is urgently needed to clarify the status of the genera (<em>Undaria</em> and <em>Agaricia</em>) and of the morphospecies within the A. agaricites species complex (see Taxonomy). (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133255		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133255		habitat	eng	This species is found in fore reef environments, channels, and deep lagoons, from 5-20 m.
133255		population	eng	Common, but less abundant than <em>A. agaracites</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133255		threats	eng	White plague has been responsible for mass mortality events in this species, and it has suffered high mortality from intensive bleaching (e.g., Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands, and eastern Caribbean; E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.). Localized threats include hurricanes, sedimentation, pollution, and possibly other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133256		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133256		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic southwest Pacific and Micronesia. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133256		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of reef environments. <em>E. glabrescens</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species may be found from 1-35 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
133256		population	eng	This species is generally found to be common throughout most of its range, but rare in the Red Sea. There is no specific population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133256		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,000 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 6,000 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133257		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133257		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133257		habitat	eng	This species is found from 1-43 m depth, and is most common from 2-15 m in lagoon and fore-reef environments (Goreau and Wells 1967).
133257		population	eng	This species is common in most reef environments, but at low abundances. In certain localized areas, this species can be the most abundant brain coral. There are no known instances of widespread population declines, but localized mass mortality events have been recorded (e.g., Bruckner and Bruckner 1997).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133257		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is black band disease and white plague, with localized impacts from bleaching, bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation. This species generally exhibits high rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133258		conservation	eng	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133258		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133258		habitat	eng	It is found in protected reef environments except in high energy environments. <em>P. sinuosa</em> is commonly found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found from 3-35 m.
133258		population	eng	This species is common and very widely distributed.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133258		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,000 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 410 pieces in 2,005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133259		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133259		distribution	eng	Found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Oman, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, Vietnam, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwestern to northwestern Australia, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Palau, and Fiji.
133259		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow turbid water, and also in clear water habitats. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133259		population	eng	This species is common and sometimes a dominant species, especially on reef flats, and protected upper reef slopes.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133259		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133260		conservation	eng	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133260		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic southwest Pacific.
133260		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical, inter-reef environments and on soft substrates around continental islands, generally to depths of 40 m. It is frequently it is found with other free-living corals: <em>Heteropsammia</em> (Dendrophylliidae), <em>Heterocyathus</em> (Caryophylliidae) and the fungiids, <em>Cycloseris</em> and <em>Diaseris</em>. Large colonies are found only in certain protected, shallow island embayments. This is a small coral seldom over 20cm in diameter. <br/><br/>It is rarely found among dense coral, but prefers soft sandy or muddy substrates on sheltered reef slopes or in lagoons (Wood 1983). It has a depth range of 16-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef and has been found at 17 m of New Caledonia (Fisk 1983). It is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is typically found as solitary unattached colonies but occasionally forms massive colonies.
133260		population	eng	This species is widespread and uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133260		threats	eng	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 51,000 live pieces in 2005 plus 10,000 under the name of <em>Wellsophyllia radiata</em>. Fiji had an export quota of 6334 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133261		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133261		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea.
133261		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments exposed to wave action. It may form smaller crusts up to 40 cm. This species is found from 0.5-15 m.
133261		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133261		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133262		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133262		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific, as well as in the Arabian Sea (Claerboudt 2006).
133262		habitat	eng	This species may form single species stands or individual colonies on sloping reef faces in clear or turbid water, generally to depths of 30 m.
133262		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133262		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133263		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133263		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in East Africa, and the southwest and the northern Indian Ocean. This species is also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).
133263		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
133263		population	eng	This species can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133263		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133264		conservation	eng	This species is listed in CITES and included in MPAs, including the Great Barrier Reef MPA.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133264		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia.
133264		habitat	eng	It is associated with <em>Halimeda</em> banks at over 20 metres depth. This species is known from dredge samples taken between 55 and 130 m (Wallace 1999).
133264		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133264		threats	eng	A deepwater species and therefore less likely to be susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish predation or bleaching. However, it is fragile and would be susceptible to bottom trawling.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133265		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133265		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific and the Solomons.
133265		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 3-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133265		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133265		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133266		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133266		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133266		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in deep, sandy lagoons to upper reef slopes. <em>A. nobilis</em> is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species can be found from 5-25 m.
133266		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133266		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three disease records (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133267		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133267		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoas (Lovell pers. comm.). It is also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000).
133267		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments in turbid waters in wide ranging habitats. This species is found from 5-20 m.
133267		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133267		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133268		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133268		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the Solomons, central Indo-Pacific and northern Australia.
133268		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m.
133268		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133268		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133269		conservation	eng	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133269		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, northwest, north and eastern Australia, south Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133269		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on reef flats and reef slopes as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). It may reproduce asexually by budding. Maximum size is 21 cm.
133269		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133269		threats	eng	In one study, 1% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 48,500 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 51,518. This species is one of the top ten most traded corals for aquarium industry (Raymakers 2001). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133270		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133270		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Australia and the oceanic West Pacific, including Palau (Randall 1995).
133270		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action, generally to depths of 20 m.
133270		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133270		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133271		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133271		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133271		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons as well as subtidally on reef tops (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133271		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at three of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133271		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133272		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133272		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka and southern tip of India), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133272		habitat	eng	It is found in turbid water habitats, especially on fringing reefs and in crevices on reef slopes. <em>P. paeonia</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. paeonia</em> can grow to around 50cm (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found from 3-25 m.<br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133272		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133272		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO. <em>P. paeonia</em> exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data); <em>P. paeonia</em> is the second most collected <em>Pectinia</em> species collected in this area (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133273		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133273		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133273		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid water around fringing reefs. This species is found from 0.5-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133273		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133273		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133274		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133274		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, east end of Papua New Guinea, Japan and the East China Sea. It is also found in Papua New Guinea  (Fenner 2003).
133274		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow lagoons and reefs. This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133274		population	eng	This species is common in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133274		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133275		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133275		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Japan.
133275		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133275		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133275		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133276		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133276		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sumatra, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Gulf of Thailand, and the Xisha Islands, China.
133276		habitat	eng	This species can be found in reef habitat at depths generally to 20 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell, pers. comm.).
133276		population	eng	This species is considered to be relatively common within its restricted range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133276		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133277		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133277		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west, central and east Pacific.
133277		habitat	eng	This species occurs with <em>P. lutea</em> and <em>P. lobata</em> on back reef margins, lagoons and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 20 m. This species is commonly found from 1-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133277		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133277		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133278		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133278		distribution	eng	This species if found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, east Africa, Comoros, northern Madagascar, Rodrigues, north Maldives, east Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Phoenix Islands, Line Islands, Oahu (Hawaii), and Pitcairn. Southwest Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).
133278		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments but can be found in deeper water. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel or on inter-tidal rubble substrate. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
133278		population	eng	This is can be a locally abundant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133278		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133279		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133279		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.).
133279		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical protected reef environments, especially lagoons.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133279		population	eng	This species is sometimes common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133279		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 335.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133280		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133280		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomons.
133280		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow reef slopes and fringing reefs. This species is found from 5-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133280		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133280		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133281		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133281		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133281		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep water fore reef habitats, and also on deep consolidated substrates and patch reefs, from 15-30 m, although more common at depths below 20 m (E. Weil pers. comm.).
133281		population	eng	This species is uncommon, occurring at low abundances throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133281		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to disease (white plague), although no known mass mortality events have been reported, and to high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133282		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133282		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean. This is a recently described species from Southern Madagascar, and its full distribution is unknown. The holotype from Tulear in southwestern Madagascar.
133282		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. Protected back reef margins from fringing reefs and lagoons. This species is found from 5 m to at least 15 m.
133282		population	eng	This is a locally common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133282		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133283		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133283		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), and Ponape (Turak pers. comm.). It is also in the Solomons (Fenner pers. comm.).
133283		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments. This species occurs subtidally to at least 44 m deep on slopes and ledges on walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found on submerged reefs and slopes, 10-40 m deep (Richards pers. comm.). This species may be found as shallow as 1 m deep.
133283		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133283		threats	eng	This is a fragile species that easily breaks. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133284		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133284		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133284		habitat	eng	It occurs in most reef environments, including shaded places such as under overhangs. Also it occurs on rocky foreshores of temperate locations protected from strong wave action. It is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m and 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species may form large colonies several metres in diameter and occurs in a wide variety of reef habitats. It usually forms rounded colonies in exposed shallow areas and plate-like growths on reef slopes where light intensity is low (Wood 1983). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 40 m.
133284		population	eng	This species is uncommon in many places, but abundant in parts of southeast Asia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133284		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133285		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133285		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Pohnpei.
133285		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in upper to mid reef slopes and shallow lagoons. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133285		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133285		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133286		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133286		distribution	eng	It is currently known only from the Muscat area in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133286		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from shallow environments at the limit of the algal mats (Claereboudt 2006). It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.
133286		population	eng	It is relatively common (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133286		threats	eng	Currently, the species is known only from the Muscat area of the Gulf of Oman. Muscat itself is a developed area, but direct threats to the species are not known at present.<br/><br/><em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133287		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133287		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the southwest and northern Indian Ocean.
133287		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, including reef flats, lagoons and upper slopes. It often forms small colonies less than 20 cm in diameter (Wood 1983). This species is found on the back slope and foreslope of reefs. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133287		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133287		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133288		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133288		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.<br/><br/>This species is also found in Brazil.
133288		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep fore reef habitats usually below 20 m. Recorded to depths of 115 m (Reed 1985).
133288		population	eng	Observational data suggest that the species is common in deep-water habitats, but it generally occurs at low abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133288		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are disease (white plague), bleaching and high sedimentation. However, there is no information on the impact of these threats throughout the range of the species.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133289		conservation	eng	Import of this species from the Solomon Islands to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133289		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, central Indian Ocean, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133289		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow to deep reef environments in most areas of the reef. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
133289		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but may be common in parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133289		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,000 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133290		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133290		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and Central Pacific.
133290		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, rarely from 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on inter-reef rubble substrate to 40 m.
133290		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133290		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 27,550 live pieces in 2005; the 2006 export quota was 5,500 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,708. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133291		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133291		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean (these are doubtful records Obura, pers. comm.), the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea. Also found in Marshal, Islands Society, Cooks, Kiribati, Solomons, Western and Eastern Australia including the Great Barrier Reef (Wallace pers. comm.; Wallace 1999). It is found in Palau and south Marianas (Randall 1995) and also Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).
133291		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow, rocky foreshores or shallow reef flats. <em>Acropora striata</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 10-25 m.
133291		population	eng	This species may be locally dominant in Japan, and rare elsewhere. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 44 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133291		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133292		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133292		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, north-west Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific, and central Pacific. Everywhere except Hawaii and Lord Howe.
133292		habitat	eng	This species is found in most shallow, tropical reef environments except very turbid water. This species is found from 3-20 m.
133292		population	eng	By far the most common <em>Astreopora</em> species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133292		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133293		conservation	eng	Included within Gorgona Natural National Park (IUCN category III). All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133293		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.
133293		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments and rocky foreshores. It is found intertidally on the outer reef flat and subtidally on the reef edge and tops of submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). At Gorgona Island, <em>Acropora valida</em> was found in a rocky wall habitat (diabasic type) at approximately 10 m (Prahl and Mejia 1985). This species is found from 1-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133293		population	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific this species is locally common.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, this coral is only known from three colonies at Rocas del Horno, Gorgona Island, Colombia (Prahl and Mejia 1985, Guzman 1988, Glynn 1997). <em>Acropora valida</em> colonies have not been seen since the original discovery (8 September 1983) at Gorgona Island or anywhere else in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, despite targeted searches (Glynn 1988, 1997, 2000, and 2001). <br/><br/>The Gorgona Island (Colombia) population has been suggested as an extralimital population recruited from the Indo West Pacific (Guzmán 1988). According to Glynn (1997), there is no evidence that A. valida became established in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region during the 1982-83 ENSO event. This population was discovered in 1983, and Guzmán (1988) estimated that the colonies at that time were of the order of 5-10 years old.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133293		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Glynn (1997) suggested that the disappearance of <em>Acropora valida</em> from Gorgona Island may have resulted directly from the 1982-83 ENSO, or from a secondary, minor mortality event. According to Glynn (1988), El Niño disturbance could have disastrous consequences for small populations of Eastern Pacific reef corals such as Acropora valida. Nevertheless, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel (2003) suggest that it is unclear whether the 1982-83 El Niño event drove <em>A. valida</em> to extinction in the Eastern Tropical Pacific because the colonies at Gorgona Island had a normal appearance when they were found in September 1983 (i.e., towards the end of the warming episode) by Prahl and Mejia.<br/><br/>Other threats: presumably climate change.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Four disease records (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,535.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133294		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133294		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in Southeast Asia (Richards pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Pohnpei (Turak pers. comm.), Raja Ampat, Coral Sea (Fenner pers. comm.), Solomons (Turak pers. comm.), and the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.).
133294		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs in sheltered lagoon patch reefs (Wallace 1999) and shallow reef flats (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 8-25 m (Lovell pers. comm.)
133294		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at three of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133294		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents, but it is likely to be targeted by the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133295		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133295		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, around the Horn of Africa and Socotra.
133295		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments, protected from strong wave action. <br/><br/>Information from Sheppard and Sheppard (1991): Occurs down to at least 30 m. This species is found over a broad range of depths on fore and back-reef slopes. It also tolerates well the more sedimented lagoon habitats where it can resist sedimentation, partly due to a tendency to always grow on vertical faces in such habitats. May form colonies of up to 1 m across in sheltered areas, though colonies are usually smaller on fore-reef slopes.<br/><br/>This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995), which is true of <em>M. umbra</em>.
133295		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133295		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133296		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133296		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, including the Solomon Islands, and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier 2005).
133296		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133296		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133296		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133297		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133297		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133297		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133297		population	eng	This species is uncommon but distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133297		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133298		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133298		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. Palau (Randall 1995).
133298		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133298		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133298		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133299		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133299		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, North, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Johnston Atoll and south east Africa. There is one record of many specimens from Hawaii islands (Hoeksema 1989)
133299		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrata, especially on reef bases. The depth range is from 9-40 m (Hoeksema 1990). It is a free-living single polyp with a maximum size of 8.5 cm. This species reproduces asexually by fragmentation.
133299		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but can be in high densities at greater depths. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133299		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133300		conservation	eng	Based on the former distribution of <em>M. boschmai</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, it was present in two protected areas: Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, a World Heritage Site, and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.<br/><br/>These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133300		distribution	eng	This species was only found in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991), and most recently, in Indonesia (Razak and Hoeksema 2003). Before 1983, the species was also reported to occur at Contreras Islands, Secas Islands, Coiba Island and Bahía Honda, Panama (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991). <br/><br/>According to Razak and Hoeksema (2003), <em>M. boschmai</em> may so far have been overlooked in Indonesia and the Indo-West Pacific because it is relatively rare or because it is not well known.
133300		habitat	eng	<em>M. boschmai</em> was reported from the upper forereef slope (2 m) to deep, sand and rubble slopes (18 m); however, it was most abundant at the reef base (5-6 m) and deeper outer slope to 12-15 m (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991).<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)
133300		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare.<br/><br/>According to de Weerdt and Glynn (1991), <em>M. boschmai</em> was the least abundant of the three <em>Millepora</em> species known from the Gulf of Chiriquí. De Weerdt and Glynn (1991) reported the elimination of  <em>M. boschmai</em> following the 1982-83 El Niño event. Detailed searches from 1984 through 1990 across the former range revealed only dead colonies (Glynn and Feingold 1992). However, in the early 1990's eight live colonies were found in the Gulf of Chiriquí; five colonies at Uva Island (Glynn and Feingold 1992), and three colonies at the north end of Coiba Island (Anonymous 1993 in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). However, after the 1997-98 ENSO event, all known colonies were dead (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since then, no live colonies have been observed, despite targeted searches throughout the former distribution. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133300		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is also susceptible to bleaching events, and this species is thought to have completely disappeared from the majority of its range in the Eastern Tropical Pacific following recent bleaching events (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133301		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133301		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, in the Coral Triangle.
133301		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.
133301		population	eng	This species is uncommon or rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133301		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133302		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133302		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in the Andaman Islands and American and western Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133302		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of shallow tropical reef environments, especially in shallow turbid waters. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133302		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133302		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133303		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133303		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Found in Palau and south Marianas (Randall 1995). Also found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Andaman, Banggai, Fiji, Raja Ampat, Papau New Guinea, and Western Samoa, Line Is, Japan, and Chagos (Wallace 1999).
133303		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action or currents. It is also found subtidally on reef edge to about 5 m depth and on submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora lutkeni</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 3-12 m.
133303		population	eng	This species is sometimes common on the Great Barrier Reef, it is usually uncommon elsewhere. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133303		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133304		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133304		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004).
133304		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments from 2-40 m except high energy areas. It is commonly found from 9-15 m, rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133304		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133304		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three. This species is likely targeted for the aquarium trade but there is no species specific data.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133305		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133305		distribution	eng	This species is known from Palau, Marianas Islands, Phoenix Islands, French Polynesia, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.
133305		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef flats. It is a very poorly known species. This species is found to at least 5 m.
133305		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133305		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133306		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133306		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000) and Vanuatu (Done and Navin 1995).
133306		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133306		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133306		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/> <br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133307		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133307		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. <br/><br/>Records from East Africa require confirmation, and are not mapped here.
133307		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is also found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to 20 m.
133307		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133307		threats	eng	Members of this genus are usually less preferred by crown-of-thorns starfish, and is relatively resistant to bleaching. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 303. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133308		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133308		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133308		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 38 cm in diameter. Sometimes it shows budding.
133308		population	eng	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133308		threats	eng	In one study, 51% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133309		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133309		distribution	eng	<em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is present on continental and oceanic islands of Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Santa Elena (Cortés and Jiménez 2003); Bahia Culebra (Jiménez unpublished data, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); and San Pedrito Island, Islas Muricelago (Glynn 1999).<br/><strong>Panama</strong>: Saboga Island, and Contadora Island in the Gulf of Panama (Mate 2003, Glynn 1999), Pedro Gonzalez Island (Las Perlas) and Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (Glynn 1999).<br/><br/>According to Obura and Stone (2002), <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is tentatively identified in the central tropical Pacific in the Republic of Kiribati.
133309		habitat	eng	<em>Pocillopora inflata</em> occurs in coral reef and coral communities on shallow rocky substrata (Guzmán pers. comm.), in depths of less than 10 m (Glynn 1999, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The species is usually found intermixed with other pocilloporid corals in Costa Rica and Panama (Jiménez and Cortés 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>According to Glynn (1999), <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> may have evolved within the eastern Pacific and is presently distributed widely over much of the region. Furthermore, the presence of a large dead colony of <em>P. inflata</em> in the Galápagos Urvina Bay uplift, where a coral community was elevated during a volcano eruption in 1954, indicates that <em>P. inflata</em> is not a recent ENSO-associated immigrant from the Indo-West Pacific; this species has been present in the Galápagos Islands for more than four decades (Glynn 1999).<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the fastest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). The growth rates of Pocillopora inflata range between 2.0 and 4.4 cm per year, with a mean growth rate of 3.15 cm per year at Bahia Culebra Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2003, Cortés and Jiménez 2003b). <br/><br/><em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is the only pocilloporid coral observed to spawn (Glynn 1999). The spawning event occurred on the morning (07:30 and 10:30 hours) of 22 March 1998 in Saboga Island, Panama (Glynn 1999). Among the six observed colonies, one spawned eggs and five produced sperm (Glynn 1999). <br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. inflata</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). <br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133309		population	eng	The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> has been categorized as:<br/><br/>Rare: in the Gulf of California and nearby areas, from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes Bonilla 2003), and Costa Rica (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Uncommon: in Panama, and in the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>According to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>P. inflata</em> is a rare species at Coiba Archipelago, Panama; found in less than 25% of the studied sites. At seven sites in Las Perlas and 9 sites in the Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Glynn (1999) indicates that the abundance of pocilloporid species shows marked interannual fluctuation. At three sites in the Galápagos Islands (Cormorant Bay, Floreana; Northeast anchorage, Santa Fe; and Caleta Robinson, Santa Cruz) in surveys undertaken from 1993 to 1997, <em>P. inflata</em> was present during some surveys, but absent after 1 to 3 yr in subsequent surveys (Glynn 1999). <br/><br/>Although <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is widely distributed in the Galapagos Islands, it has a low relative abundance (1.9 to 16.7% of all pocilloporid corals), as well as very low densities, ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 colonies per ha (Glynn 1999). According to Glynn (1999), this low abundance probably reflects the severe coral mortality (97%) during the 1982-83 ENSO event. Since them coral recovery has been negligible to slow (Glynn 1994); however, it is likely that all live colonies of <em>P. inflata</em> have recruited since 1983 (Glynn 1999).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133309		threats	eng	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn, 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán et al 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, especially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant et al (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133310		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133310		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Northeast Somalia, Tanzania, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia, Fiji, and Phoenix Islands.
133310		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species may be found in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Leptoria</em> species are usually found along the reef front an upper reef slope and may form colonies several meters in diameter (Wood 1983).
133310		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133310		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133311		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133311		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, Papau New Guinea, and Micronesia (Wallace 1999).
133311		habitat	eng	Found in sandy, inter-reef habitat and forming small clumps in thickets (Aeby, Lovell, Richards, Delbeek, Reboton, and Bass pers. comm.). This species is found from 10-20 m.
133311		population	eng	This species can be locally common (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133311		threats	eng	This species is found in inter-reef areas that may be trawled (Aeby, Lovell, Richards, Delbeek, Reboton, and Bass pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). However, this species not likely to be affected by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133312		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133312		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific and Eastern Australia.
133312		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133312		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133312		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133313		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133313		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the Northwest Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995). It is found in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).
133313		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and lagoons. It is found subtidally on reef slopes and submerged reefs, not usually intertidally (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>Populations in the Hawaiian Archipelago become sexually mature during the early summer (Kenyon <em>et al</em>. 2007). <em>Acropora cytherea</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 3-25 m.<br/><br/><em>A. cytherea</em>, along with <em>M. aequituberculata</em>, is the dominant coral species on the reef slope of central Vietnam reefs at a depth of 2-6 m (Latypov 2001).
133313		population	eng	This species is common, and conspicuous.<br/><br/>This species is the most widespread and abundant of the <em>Acropora</em> species in the Hawaiian Archipelago with its highest densities in this area found in the French Frigate Shoals (Kenyon 1992). In the French Frigate Shoals, it has a patchy distribution with several areas of high abundance (Kenyon <em>et al</em>. 2006). Only two specimens had been recorded in the main Hawaiian Islands until August 2006 when two colonies were observed by divers at Mana Reef, Kauai (Kenyon <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>On the outer reef flat of central Vietnam's reefs, <em>A. cytherea</em> is one of two species that dominate in both degree of substrate coverage and size of many circled colonies reaching 3 m across (Latypov 2001).<br/><br/>It was found at 55 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133313		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three different diseases are recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005) and three different (total six diseases) found in the northern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).<br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 384.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns predation, storm damage, and bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133314		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133314		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133314		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species, along with <em>A. cytherea</em>, is the dominant coral species of the reef slopes of central Vietnam reefs at 2-6 m (Laytpov 2001). It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species can form extensive monospecific stands. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133314		population	eng	This species is very common. It may be a dominant species on sheltered, upper reef slopes..<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133314		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. This species also prone to predation by <em>Drupella</em> snails.<br/><br/>Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In the summer months of 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 a disease causing atramentous necrosis was observed on this species in the fringing reefs of Magnetic Island, Australia. The disease spread rapidly and was gone quickly causing elevated levels of mortality. Temperature-induced coral disease outbreaks represent an added problem for corals during the warmer summer months (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 970.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133315		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133315		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also in Tuamotus (Wallace 1999).
133315		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on upper reef slopes. This species occurs around the low tide mark and just subtidally on rocky, wave-swept, shallow reefs, as well as reef habitats subject to strong tidal currents (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-12 m.
133315		population	eng	This species is sometimes common in Eastern Australia, usually uncommon elsewhere. It was found at 1 of 3 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 29 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133315		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is very vulnerable to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Three different diseases are known for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133316		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133316		distribution	eng	It is found in the central Indo-Pacific. Also recorded in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007) and the Solomons (TNC).
133316		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef environments protected from strong wave action. It prefers tropical reef environments. This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133316		population	eng	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133316		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133317		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133317		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, northeast Australia and eastern Australia, South Taiwan, oceanic West Pacific.
133317		habitat	eng	This species is found in deeper reef slopes as an attached, encrusting polyps with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 6-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 13 cm in diameter.
133317		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133317		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133318		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133318		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Eastern Australia. It is also found in Western Australia and Great Barrier Reef (Richards pers. comm.).
133318		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on protected reef slopes. It is common amongst living <em>Halimeda</em> on submerged banks (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 15-30 m.
133318		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133318		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133319		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133319		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.  It is found in Palau (Randall 1995) and the Line Islands (Wallace 1999).
133319		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid water around fringing reefs, and subtidally on protected deepwater flats, lagoons, and sandy slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.
133319		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. This species is observed to have undergone dramatic population declines at Orpheus Island, Great Barrier Reef, and Kimbe Bay, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at nine sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Observed to have undergone dramatic population declines at Orpheus Island, Great Barrier Reef and Kimbe Bay, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). This species loses reproductive capacity after disturbance (Wallace 1985). There are large sterile zones (Richards pers. comm.).  Low density clade a zooxanthellae (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133319		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987).<br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. The extent of this threat is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5013.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133320		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133320		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133320		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments and on rocky foreshores in subtropical locations. It occurs subtidally on reef slopes and walls and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
133320		population	eng	This species is common at subtropical locations, and is rare elsewhere. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133320		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133321		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133321		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133321		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species is found in lagoons and can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133321		population	eng	Veron (2000) considered it to be rare, but more recent surveys have shown it to be common in some places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133321		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133322		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133322		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific and Palau (Randall 1995). This species is also found in Vanuatu, Tonga, and Samoa (Lovell pers. comm.).
133322		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially reef margins exposed to strong wave action. This species is found between 5-20 m.
133322		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133322		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133323		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133323		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan, the East China Sea, and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).
133323		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments, generally to depths of 50 m.
133323		population	eng	This species is common in the western Indian Ocean, it is uncommon in the central Indo-Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133323		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 22.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133324		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133324		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, northwestern Hawaii, and the central Pacific.
133324		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on exposed upper reef slopes and flats, intertidally and subtidally on reef tops, upper slopes, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999) and is found from 1-15 m. <em>A. gemmifera</em> is commonly found from 1-5 m, rarely from 9-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133324		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 41 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133324		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is vulnerable to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Two different diseases are recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 565.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133325		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133325		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133325		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reefs, also rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of the reef, in lagoons, and in inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to at least 50 m.
133325		population	eng	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133325		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133326		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133326		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, the Solomons, and Fiji.
133326		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments. This species is found to 20 m.
133326		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133326		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133327		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133327		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau and southern Marianas (Randall 1995). It is in the Red Sea and Mauritius (Wallace 1999). It is also in the Austral Is and Pitcairn (Wallace 1999) and Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.).
133327		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow, protected lagoons, and lagoon entrances, found subtidally in lagoons and calm-water reef shoals (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-10 m.
133327		population	eng	This species is found to be rare in most of its distribution, but may be locally common. This species is common on subtropical reefs of south-east Australia where it forms extensive stands. Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133327		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133328		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133328		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Hawaiian Islands.
133328		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133328		population	eng	This is a rare species (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133328		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133329		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133329		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Sri Lanka, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. It has also been recorded from Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133329		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef flats, generally to depths of 5 m.
133329		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133329		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133330		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133330		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. <br/><br/>Hawaii (Fenner 2005); New Caledonia (Pichon 2006); the Solomons (TNC); American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133330		habitat	eng	It is usually found on lower reef slopes and on vertical or overhung walls. This species is found from 15-30 m.
133330		population	eng	This is an uncommon coral.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133330		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was five.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133331		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133331		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct and restricted range. It is only found near Rodriquez Island, Taiwan, the Marianas Islands, and Yap and Truk, Micronesia.<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range as Mauritius, Taiwan, Mariana Islands, Yap and Truk.
133331		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef habitat. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
133331		population	eng	This species is relatively common within its disjunct and restricted range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133331		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133332		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133332		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; southwest Indian Ocean; northern Indian Ocean; central Indo-Pacific; north, west and south Australia; South-east Asia; Japan and East China Sea; eastern Australia; oceanic West Pacific; and the central Pacific. It has also been found in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995).
133332		habitat	eng	This species is found in protected reef environments. In the Red Sea, it was recorded in dimly lit conditions with moderate sedimentation at the base of the reef slope (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991). This species is most commonly reported at depth between 5 and 10 m. However, the exact depth range is unknown, and this species is likely to occur in quite a wide range of depths. For example, it has been recorded from dim light conditions suggesting that it can occur at depths greater than 10 m.
133332		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133332		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133333		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133333		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southeast Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, northwest Madagascar, Rodrigues, Chagos Archipelago, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and American Samoa. SW Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).
133333		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes.<br/>This is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes. Colonies may reach several metres in diameter (Wood 1983). This species may be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to 30 m.
133333		population	eng	This is an uncommon, but sometimes conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133333		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133334		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133334		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.
133334		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It occurs on the upper reef slopes and tidal pools.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133334		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133334		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133335		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133335		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133335		habitat	eng	It is found on sheltered reef slopes with turbid water. <em>M. steeni</em> is inconspicuous (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found from 5-30 m.
133335		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133335		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133336		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133336		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea. It is known only from the Tiran area in Saudi Arabia. Further surveys might show that it occurs more widely in the northern and central Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133336		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133336		population	eng	This is a rare species currently known only from a single site.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133336		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133337		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133337		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133337		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef environments. It is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to 50 m.
133337		population	eng	This species is very common, rare in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133337		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 3,000 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133338		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133338		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Also found in Southeast Asia, central Pacific (Richards pers. comm.); New Caledonia, Philippines, American Samoa, Fiji, Sarawak, Banngai, Papau New Guinea, and Western Samoa  (Fenner pers. comm.).
133338		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in protected reef environments with clear water and a high <em>Acropora</em> diversity. It occurs subtidally on walls and steep slopes, usually below 15 m, but occasionally shallower where shaded conditions exist (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 12-30 m.
133338		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but conspicuous.  Sparsely distributed across its range (Wallace 1999). It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133338		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133339		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133339		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indo-Pacific, oceanic West Pacific.  However, it has a disjunct range, and it is possible that the Red Sea records are a separate species. The species is also very rare across its known range and further surveys are required to confirm its range.
133339		habitat	eng	This species is found on lower reef slopes protected from wave action, generally between 10 and 30 m depth.
133339		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133339		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133340		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133340		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in one northern section of Australia and the southern coastline, both east and west.
133340		habitat	eng	This species is found on subtidal rocky foreshores of temperate localities and a probable record from northern Australia. This species is found from 3-15 m.
133340		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon but conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133340		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133341		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133341		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995) and Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.).
133341		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow, usually turbid, reef environments and deep water soft substrates. Sometimes it is also found on exposed upper reef slopes.. This species is found from 2-25 m.
133341		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but it is more abundant than other <em>Anacropora</em> spp. Locally common on the Great Barrier Reef (Richards pers. comm.). Common in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).  Common in Palau (Delbeek pers. comm.). Found at one site of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133341		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible storms and bleaching (Delbeek pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133342		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133342		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and East Africa.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133342		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in most reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133342		population	eng	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133342		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Other more localized threats include disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133343		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133343		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Kiribati, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.
133343		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 25 m.
133343		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but patchily common, for example in East Africa (Obura pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133343		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133344		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133344		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one location in the Red Sea.
133344		habitat	eng	This species is found on a single reef slope in the Red Sea. This species is known from 10-20 m.
133344		population	eng	This species is rare. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133344		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133345		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133345		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133345		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. It prefers tropical and subtropical reef environments. <em>M. tuberculosa</em> is commonly found from 3-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 40 m.
133345		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133345		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 201. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133346		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133346		distribution	eng	This species is presently known from a few localities in the Arabian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden, and from Malaysia, Indonesia, and South-East Australia. Additional records from published illustrations extend the species distribution to Japan (Yabe and Sugiyama 1936) and the Philippines (Hoeksema and Van Ofwegen 2004, Benzoni 2006).
133346		habitat	eng	This species is widespread on reefs, generally to depths of 28 m.
133346		population	eng	This species is not likely to be uncommon, as it is widespread on reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133346		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133347		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133347		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Indonesia and the Philippines (Ditlev 2003).
133347		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found on more exposed localities than <em>P. multilobata</em> and is presumably widespread in Indonesian and Philippine waters (Ditlev 2003).<br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Plerogyra</em> is especially common on reef slopes and in the shelter of boulders and coral heads. Solitary coralla do not generally exceed 15 cm in diameter with the vesicles fully inflated. Colonial forms are usually less than 50 cm in diameter (Wood 1983).
133347		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133347		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133348		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133348		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, as well as the south-west Indian Ocean. Also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133348		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m.
133348		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133348		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133349		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133349		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Hawaiian Islands, including northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
133349		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef and lagoon environments, generally to depths of 30 m. This species forms monospecific stands in protected areas at medium depths (Fenner pers. comm.).
133349		population	eng	This species is the dominant coral in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. This is an abundant species throughout the Hawaiian Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133349		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133350		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133350		distribution	eng	Collected on the eastern coast of northern Borneo (Ditlev 2003).
133350		habitat	eng	This species is found on shoals and exposed lower slopes from 15 to 30 m depth (Ditlev 2003).
133350		population	eng	This species is rather common on shoals and exposed lower slopes on the eastern coast of northern Borneo from 15 to 30 m depth (Ditlev 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133350		threats	eng	<em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133351		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133351		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133351		habitat	eng	It is found on lower reef slopes and vertical walls. Maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 10-30 m.
133351		population	eng	This species is common on vertical walls.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133351		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 14.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133352		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133352		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomon Islands.
133352		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 5-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133352		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133352		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5065.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133353		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133353		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, the oceanic West Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, this species has been reported from Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia.<br/><br/>Specific records in the ETP include: <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Caño Island, Punta El Bajo at Golfo Dulce and Marino Ballena National Park (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Restinge Island (Glynn and Ault 2000, Maté 2003) and Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000).
133353		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and rubble, generally to depths of less than 5 m. Colonies are nodular or form small flattened branches; the latter may be only weakly attached to the substratum.<br/><br/>In general, <em>Psammocora</em> species are very slow growing corals; with a calculated growth rate of 0.6 cm/year for <em>P. superficialis</em> in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). Sexual reproduction is important, but asexual reproduction and fragmentation are more effective strategies for colonizing free areas within the reef (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). However, <em>Psammocora</em> species are considered to be amongst the most opportunistic species because of the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzmán and Cortés 2001).
133353		population	eng	In the Indo-Pacific, <em>P. obtusangula</em> is an uncommon species, although it may be locally common. However, the relative abundance of <em>Psammocora obtusangula</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as uncommon or rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133353		threats	eng	According to Cortés and Jiménez (2003), <em>Psammocora</em> species were highly affected by the 1992 El Niño event in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, with 75% of all colonies bleached in Costa Rica, although the species is though to rapidly recover. According to Cortés and Guzmán (1998), the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> is capable of reducing populations of <em>Psammocora</em> species if other preferred coral species such as <em>Porites lobata</em> are absent. Similarly, the sea star <em>Acanthaster planci</em> and the fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> feed on <em>Psammocora</em> species (Cortés and Guzmán 1998,Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133354		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133354		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, northern, western and eastern Australia, Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133354		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef environments protected from strong wave action. Sparse colonies of <em>G. astreata</em> are found from 3-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 20-30 m on the Chagos lagoon (Sheppard 1982). The maximum size is over 2 m.
133354		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133354		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau. It was affected in all areas and was one of the most affected species (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,650 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 606 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,529.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133355		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133355		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific.
133355		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133355		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133355		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133356		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133356		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. Possibly present in the Flower Gardens, though not mentioned by Grimm and Hopkins (1977).
133356		habitat	eng	This species is most common in fore reef environments from 5-30 m (but is more abundant from 10-20 m), but also occurs at low abundance in certain deeper back reef habitats and deep lagoons. The species has the potential to exhibit recovery, because of its reproductive strategy (e.g., brooding with moderate recruitment success).
133356		population	eng	This species is common throughout its distribution range at intermediate abundances. The most common species of the genus in shallow to intermediate reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133356		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is disease (white plague) and bleaching, which have both resulting in localized declines throughout the range. Also susceptible to black band disease and high sedimentation (especially when compromised by bleaching or disease). An outbreak of white plague was first identified in Florida in 1975 (Dustan, 1977) with a second occurrence in the same location in the early 1980s (Dustan and Halas, 1987). They predicted that this event would cause localized extinctions of the species; however, during later surveys, new recruits were observed. A more virulent form of white plague affected the species since the late 1990s in other locations throughout the wider Caribbean, which has been associated with high rates of mortality [get refs]. During the 2005 bleaching event, this species sustained high mortality off reefs off Puerto Rico and the associated islands, and Grenada, due to severe bleaching and a subsequent outbreak of plague.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133357		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133357		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, and eastern Australia. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133357		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133357		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133357		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133358		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133358		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea and Micronesia.
133358		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.
133358		population	eng	This species is sometimes common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133358		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133359		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133359		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also in Samoa, the Cook Is and Chagos (Wallace 1999).
133359		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on upper reef slopes. It occurs just subtidally at reef edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.
133359		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133359		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987) and the growth form of this species is particularly susceptible to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133360		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133360		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.).
133360		habitat	eng	This species occur on reef slopes and vertical walls. It may form large crusts over 1 m in diameter. This species may be found from 3-20 m.
133360		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/> <br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133360		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133361		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>It is recommended that the distribution for this species is verified.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133361		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is very poorly known and might be more widely distributed.
133361		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, including upper reef slopes. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133361		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133361		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133362		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133362		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western Atlantic off the coast of Brazil.
133362		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)
133362		population	eng	There is no population information known for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133362		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133363		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133363		distribution	eng	Known only from the type location in Sabah, Malaysia.
133363		habitat	eng	This species was recorded on a sheltered lagoon slope around 10 m depth at Bohey Dulong, Sabah, Malaysia on a moderately sloping protected continental slope with turbid water (Ditlev 2003).
133363		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133363		threats	eng	There are no data for past population declines specific to this species. The genus does not appear in trade statistics.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133364		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133364		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, eastern Australia, Thailand, Indonesia, and oceanic West Pacific, including American Samoa (Birkeland pers. comm.).
133364		habitat	eng	This species is found in subtidal environments usually uninhabited by other corals. From low water down to a maximum of half a metre deep, often found on dead coral (Hoeksema pers. comm.). This is one of the smallest corals known.
133364		population	eng	This species is usually rare. However, the species is very cryptic and is easy to miss in surveys.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133364		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133365		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133365		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133365		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in mostly shallow and deeper subtidal communities. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It may be found on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133365		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133365		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 14. There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a harvest quota in Fiji.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133366		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133366		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the Solomon Islands.
133366		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially in subtropical  localities. This species is found to 30 m.
133366		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133366		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was two.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133367		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133367		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, and Fiji.
133367		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, including lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133367		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133367		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 585.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133368		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133368		distribution	eng	This species is found in Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, and central Indo-Pacific.
133368		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.
133368		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133368		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133369		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133369		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species was described Sri Lanka. There are also records from Kenya, Tanzania and Comoros (Obura pers. comm.). Further surveys might show it to occur more widely within the western and northern Indian Ocean.
133369		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow to deep reef environments. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 25 m.
133369		population	eng	In East Africa this species is widespread and uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133369		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133370		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133370		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Gulf of Aden, the southwest Indian Ocean, and the Southwest Pacific (Papua New Guinea).
133370		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.
133370		population	eng	This species is uncommon or rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133370		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133371		conservation	eng	Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133371		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region <em>Fungia distorta</em> has been reported from: <strong>México</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Colima (including the Revillagigedo Islands), Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em> 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>*: Cocos Island, Bahía Culebra (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); <strong>Panamá</strong>*: Gulf of Chiriquí and Gulf of Panamá (Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Mainland Ecuador and the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>(*Currently only dead fragments are known).<br/><br/>In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern and central Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, east Australia, south Japan, West Pacific, Central Pacific and the Hawaii Islands (Cairns 1999, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Hickman 2005).
133371		habitat	eng	<em>Fungia distorta</em> is a free-living coral that occurs on soft substrata, sediments and coral rubble, especially where exposed to currents; and sometimes found in seagrass beds (Feingold 1996). It is found to 85 m, but the most common depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990)  Maximum size is 7.5cm in diameter. It also reproduce asexually by fragmentation.<br/><br/>According to Colley <em>et al</em>. (2000), <em>F. distorta</em> individuals are gonochoric and probably broadcast spawners. Reproduction activity occurs during the warm, wet season from at least February to June, peaking in April (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). Fecundity is high for <em>F. distorta</em>, with up to 13,000 mature eggs per cm² of live coral tissue (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). Individuals can have from four to eight reproductive cycles per year; additionally, the minimum size for sexual activity is 1.75 cm diameter (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). Asexual reproduction is locally important. In addition, parental fragments as well as secondary fragments can produce gonads (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). At Davil's Crown, Galapagos Islands, the sex ratio is skewed towards males (5:1), which can be a result of fragmentation (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000).
133371		population	eng	<em>Fungia distorta</em> is uncommon but may be locally common. <br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>F. distorta</em> within the Eastern Tropical Pacific has been classified as:<br/><strong>México</strong>: Abundant, with apparently stable populations (Reyes-Bonila, pers. comm.). Additionally, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. (2005), reported this species at twelve different locations in the Gulf of California Sur. Glynn and Ault (2000) considered this as a common species in the Gulf of California. According to Reyes-Bonilla (pers. comm.), <em>F. distorta</em> can be locally very abundant (e.g., at San Jose Island densities across an area of 1 hectare are between 100 and 200 individuals m<sup>-2</sup>). By contrast, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) considered the species to be generally rare throughout its Mexican distribution.<br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Only dead fragments are known, from Bahía Culebra (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). <br/><strong>Panamá</strong>: Only known from dead fragments (Maté 2003). <br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Considered rare by Glynn and Ault (2000). <br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: Abundant (tens of thousands over 1 to 2 ha) at Devils Crown, Floreana, Galápagos Island, which is the only known site with living individuals in Ecuador (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133371		threats	eng	Robinson (1985) found that <em>Fungia</em> species bleached but did not die during the 1982-83 El Niño event at Devils Crown, Floreana, Galápagos. According to Feingold (1996), survival of <em>Fungia</em> species. was due to cool water that periodically flushed over the habitat, which mitigated the effects of elevated temperatures caused by the ENSO event.<br/><br/>According to Feingold (1996) species of Fungia are capable of surviving extended periods (>180d) in the bleached state.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133372		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133372		distribution	eng	This species is found in the oceanic West Pacific.
133372		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The maximum size is 38 cm in diameter. The specimens may reproduce asexually by fragmentation. This species is found to 15 m.
133372		population	eng	This species is locally common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133372		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133373		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133373		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. May also be present in Bermuda, but this requires confirmation.
133373		habitat	eng	<em>M. faveolata</em> is found from 1-30 m in backreef and fore-reef habitats, and is often the most abundant coral between 10-20 m in fore-reef environments.
133373		population	eng	In the last 20 years, there has been a severe decline in the overall cover and abundance of <em>M. faveolata</em> in several parts of the Caribbean. For example, 90% of the species was lost in the coastal waters off Jamaica from 1980 through 1994 (Hughes, 1994). Off the coast of eastern Puerto Rico, declines in cover were recorded at between 40 and 60% (Hernandez-Delgado 2005), at around 40% off south-eastern PR (E. Weil pers. comm.), 40-80% off Desecheo Island and Mona Island (Bruckner and Bruckner 2006, A. Bruckner pers. comm.), and 72% in St John, US Virgin Islands, between 1988 and 1999 (Edmunds and Elahi 2007). Dustan and Halas (1987) observed a 31% decline in cover of <em>M. faveolata</em> on Carysfort Reef (Key Largo) between 1975 and 1982, with a 21% decline in colony size.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133373		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are infectious diseases (e.g., plague, yellow band and black band disease) and bleaching. Other threats include predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), hurricane damage, and loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation, as well as localized impacts due to bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, and other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133374		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133374		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133374		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).
133374		population	eng	It is a rare species. However, it is very common in the central Philippines in shallow water.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133374		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133375		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133375		distribution	eng	Southwest Madagascar, Rodrigues, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133375		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially shallow to mid reef slopes. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.
133375		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133375		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133376		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133376		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific as far as Samoa.
133376		habitat	eng	This species is found in depths of 1-20 m in all sheltered reef areas away from high wave action. This species is found to 15 m.
133376		population	eng	This species is uncommon but conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133376		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133377		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133377		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133377		habitat	eng	This species occurs up to 15 m depth, but is most abundant from 0.5-3 m depth in back-reef and exposed fore-reef environments (Goreau and Wells 1967, A. Bruckner pers. comm.).
133377		population	eng	This species is common in shallow water. No significant declines in populations have so far been recorded.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133377		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is black band disease, with localized impacts from bleaching and other diseases (e.g., white plague).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133378		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133378		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and Central Pacific.
133378		habitat	eng	This species is found in sheltered reef environments, especially beneath overhangs, generally to depths of 20 m. In the Red Sea, this species found in overhangs and darkened areas of reef slopes but commonest on steep slopes in clear and moderately turbid habitats (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
133378		population	eng	This species is uncommon but conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133378		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133379		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133379		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133379		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species occurs on turbid reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found from 1-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133379		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133379		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133380		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133380		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Gulf, the northern and central Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, north eastern Australia, southwest Pacific, Micronesia and Polynesia. Southern Marianas (Randall).
133380		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments and prefers low-light areas, like crevices and under overhangs and in turbid water. It can grow up to 1 m in diameter. It is an encrusting species with many tiny polyps. Sparse colonies of <em>M. kirbyi</em> are found from 3-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species can be found to 60 m.
133380		population	eng	This is a widespread and uncommon coral.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133380		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133381		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II and Threatened on the US Endangered Species Act. In the US, this species is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize) and Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Localized efforts to propagate and reintroduce the species have occurred in Florida, Puerto Rico, Domincan Republic, Jamaica and Honduras (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). In response to ship grounding and hurricanes, there have been efforts in some areas to salvage damaged corals and reattach them in acroporid habitats.<br/><br/>More information is needed to assist the recovery of acroporids including survival and fecundity by age, sexual and asexual recruitment, population information, juvenile population dynamics, importance of habitat variables to recruitment and survivorship, and location of populations showing signs of recovery (Bruckner, 2002). Further research is needed into disease etiology, and effectiveness of current restoration methods.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133381		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas and has been documented as far north as Palm Beach (26 deg 3'N) along Florida’s east coast (Goldberg 1973).
133381		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef ecosystems, favouring upper to mid-reef slopes and lagoons in areas with moderate to low wave exposure. It is usually recorded from 1 m to around 25 m (Aronson and Precht 2001a,b), with occasional records to 60 m (Goreau and Goreau 1973).<br/><br/>Recruitment by sexual reproduction is limited.
133381		population	eng	There has been an 80-98% loss of individuals in parts of the Caribbean region since the 1980's. There have been some signs of recovery. A second report has validated declines on the order of 97% in the Florida Keys, Jamaica, Dry Tortugas, Belize and St Croix (Acropora BRT 2005) and Puerto Rico (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There are populations present off the coast of Broward County (Florida), Mona Island (Puerto Rico), places in the southern Caribbean, and Dairy Bull Reef in northern Jamaica (Idjadi <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Overall, decline of destroyed and critical reefs in the Caribbean region has been 38% (according to Wilkinson 2004) however there have been much higher population reductions for this species as it is particularly susceptible to disease and bleaching.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133381		threats	eng	The major threat to this species has been disease, specifically white-band disease which is believed to be the primary cause for the region-wide acroporid decline during the 1980s (Aronson and Precht, 2001a,b) and is still ongoing (Williams and Miller, 2005). Other major threats include thermal-induced bleaching, storms, and predation by <em><em>Stegastes planifrons</em></em> (Three-spot Damselfish) (Precht <em>et al</em>. 2002,Acropora BRT 2005). <br/><br/>Localized declines are associated with: loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation; predation by snails; mortality by endolithic sponges; ship groundings, anchor damage, trampling, and marine debris.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133382		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133382		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Kermadec Islands (Brooke 1999).
133382		habitat	eng	It is common on reef slopes and vertical walls. It can form large plates of up to 1 m in diameter. This species can be found from 3-25 m.
133382		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133382		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was eight.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133383		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133383		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west and south Pacific.
133383		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from shallow lagoons, foreslope, back slope, and reef flats. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133383		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133383		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133384		conservation	eng	Recommended conservation measures include specific localised habitat protection and awareness raising in the region.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133384		distribution	eng	This species is found in New Caledonia. It is also reported from Papua New Guinea, Milne Bay Provence (Allan <em>et al</em>. 2003) but it is unconfirmed and not included in the current distribution.<br/><br/>There are Miocene fossil records form the species from Indonesia (Hoeksema 1989).
133384		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep water close to sediment in sheltered bays. The maximum size is 7cm diameter. It is an attached stalked species (Hoeksema and Best 1984). This species is found from 10-20 m.
133384		population	eng	This is a rare species and has a restricted range, endemic to New Caledonia. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133384		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is mining activities causing sedimentation and habitat degradation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133385		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133385		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133385		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on mid-reef slopes exposed to strong currents. This species is found from 8-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133385		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133385		threats	eng	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133386		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133386		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.
133386		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef habitats from 2-30 m.
133386		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133386		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133387		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133387		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.<br/>Is found in the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Philippines, Andamans, Polynesia, and Micronesia (Wallace pers. comm.) and Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).
133387		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found intertidally (Wallace 1999) on upper reef slopes and reef flats. <em>Acropora globiceps</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found to 8 m depth.
133387		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133387		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133388		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133388		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is known from Guam, American Samoa, Fiji, the Great Barrier Reef, Palau and the Marianas (Fenner pers. comm.).
133388		habitat	eng	The species occurs in very shallow, wave exposed habitats. The maximum size is 25 cm.
133388		population	eng	The species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133388		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133389		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133389		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It has been recorded as far north as the coast of northern North Carolina (Macintyre and Pilkey 1967, Macintyre 2003).
133389		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all types of reef environments from the shallow subtidal to 70 m depth (Goreau and Wells, 1967), and is most common at 5-15 m depth. This species does well in areas with high sedimentation and high turbidity.
133389		population	eng	This species is common in most reef environments, at low to moderate abundances. In certain localized areas, this species can be the most abundant coral. Localized declines have been reported, but no major range-wide declines observed. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133389		threats	eng	Colonies of this species are susceptible to bleaching, but generally show higher rates of recovery than other species, and only minor partial mortality has been observed as a result of extreme bleaching events. This species generally exhibits high rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth. Localized mortality may take place due to bio-erosion from endolithic sponges, and ship groundings (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133390		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133390		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133390		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments, especially intertidal reef flats. <em>S. hystrix</em> is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m and deeper from 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It can form large fields of over 1 m across.
133390		population	eng	This is a common species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133390		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 3,200 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 5,644 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 15,077.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133391		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133391		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea.
133391		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.
133391		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133391		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133392		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133392		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133392		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m.
133392		population	eng	This species is common in the Red Sea, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133392		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133393		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133393		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133393		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133393		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133393		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133394		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133394		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south Australia. It is also found in Malaysia, Western Australia, Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.), Philippines, Andamans, and Banggai (Fenner pers. comm.).
133394		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in protected lagoons. This species is found from 1-30 m.
133394		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but may be a dominant species. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133394		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133395		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many Marine Protected Areas, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Its presence in the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary requires verification. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve in Belize, and Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park in the Bahamas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133395		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It is also known from the eastern Atlantic.
133395		habitat	eng	<em>P. porites</em> is found on most reef environments, from 0.5 to 35 m depth, and also exists in back reef shallow platforms with <em>Thalassia</em> turtle grass beds and attached to mangrove prop roots; this species is most common from 1-15 m (Weil 1992b).
133395		population	eng	This species is the most common of the branching Porites corals in the Caribbean. Several places in shallow-water back reef and some shallow (above 10 m) fore reef environments that used to have very large stands have experienced extensive mortality (e.g., Mona Island and the south coast of Puerto Rico, Grenada, Morrocoy NP in Venezuela (Glynn 1973, E. Weil & A Bruckner pers. comm.)), although smaller colonies still occur in these areas.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133395		threats	eng	Shallow-water populations are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, burial by sediment, hurricane damage, and predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), and loss of habitat due to coastal development, dredging, and beach renourishment, which have caused localized declines.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133396		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133396		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and the Solomons. It is found in Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.) and the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000). It is found in Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier).
133396		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical protected reef environments, subtidally on slopes or submerged reefs, mostly below 15 m (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-30 m.
133396		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133396		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. <em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133397		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133397		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, South-east Asia, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan, northern Australia, and Vanuatu.
133397		habitat	eng	This is a single free-living polyp and very occasionally fragments to reproduce asexually. The depth range is from 25-35 m (Hoeksema 1990). It is most common on the soft substrata of the deeper parts of the reef base.
133397		population	eng	This species is rare. There is no specific population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133397		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133398		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133398		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Jaltemba Island to Punta Mita, and from Isabel Island to Marias Islands (Nayarit); Revillagigedo Islands; Zihuatanejo to Acapulco (Guerrero); and Puerto Escondido to Huatulco (Oaxaca) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Calderon-Aguilar 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Guanacaste, Bahía Culebra, Punta Mala, Manuel Antonio, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Guzman and Cortes 1992, Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama (Glynn 1997, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Maté 2003a,b); <strong>Colombia</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003): Ensenada de Utría, Tebada; Gorgona Island and Malpelo Island; <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003).
133398		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. It occurs on shallow and deeper reefer slopes and on vertical walls. Generally, <em>Pavona varians</em> occurs broadly amongst coral reefs and coral communities on rocks and rubble substrata, but is absent from shallow platforms with high energy (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000); in some locations this coral is found in cryptic habitats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). The maximum size is over 1 m. This species is typically found from 2-40 m but has been reported from 80 m. <br/><br/><em>P. varians</em> is a broadcast-spawner, releasing masses of minute eggs and sperm (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Most colonies utilize an alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodite mode of reproduction (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2000) suggest year-round reproductive activity. In addition, spawning appears to increase during high temperature conditions (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2000), <em>P. varians</em> may reach reproductive maturity at seven years; while the minimum colony size at first reproduction was found to be 5 cm (about five years old). The growth rate of <em>P. varians</em> has been estimated as 0.35 cm/yr in Costa Rica (Guzman and Cortes 1993). Recruitment of <em>P. varians</em> has been described as nil to low and patchy (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000).
133398		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pavona varians</em> is as follows: <br/><br/>Considered abundant at Clipperton Atoll (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn and Ault 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), <em>P. varians</em> is dominant on the lower reef slopes, where it often covers more than 90% of the substratum. In addition, the lower zone limit of this species is unknown; colony abundance at some sites shows no signs of decreasing at 80 m depth (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>According to Maté (2003b), the relative abundance of <em>P. varians</em> in the Gulf of Panama, varies from abundant to rare depending on site; and common to rare in the Gulf of Chiriquí. However, Guzman (pers. comm.) disagrees with Maté (2003b), since Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) recorded <em>P. varians</em> at 136 sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí and at 61 sites at las Perlas Archipelago. At Coiba Archipelago, Gulf of Chiriquí, <em>P. varians</em> was present in 75 to 100% of the sites studied by Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/><br/><em>P. varians</em> was considered abundant at Caño Island, Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 2001); common along mainland Colombia (Ensenada de Utría and Tebada), as well as in Cocos Island, Costa Rica (Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzman and Cortes 2006) and Malpelo Island, Colombia (Edgar pers. comm.). Uncommon in mainland Costa Rica and the Galápagos Island, Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). Rare in Mexico (from Nayarit to Oaxaca and the Revillagigedo Islands) and mainland Ecuador (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2000), population densities increased from ~1-4 colonies per 20 m² immediately following the 1982-83 ENSO to six to 12 colonies at Caño Island (Costa Rica) and Uva Island (Panama) after 10-yr. Survivorship to reproductive maturity at Caño Island, Uva Island and the southern Galapagos corresponded with recruitment rates of 0.1, 0.2 and 0 colonies/m², respectively, and recovered to pre-ENSO abundances at these sites (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Recruitment success of <em>P. varians</em> at Uva Island was significantly related to maximum monthly positive sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies that occurred in the year preceding recruitment over the period 1982 to 1996; recruitment failed when SST anomalies exceeded 1.6 to 1.9°C during the severe ENSO events of 1982-83 and 1997-98 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133398		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 223.<br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133399		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133399		distribution	eng	This species has been found only in southern Japan.
133399		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-protected shallow reef or terrigenous rock substrates. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133399		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133399		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133400		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133400		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133400		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, intermediate and deep fore reef environments, from 1-65 m, but is most common from 10-25 m (Goreau and Wells, 1967; A. Bruckner and B. Precht pers. comm.). It occasionally occurs in patch reefs in lagoon environments. It can form large monoclonal colonies at intermediate depths.
133400		population	eng	This species is usually common at low abundances in most fore reef environments throughout the wider Caribbean; in some areas especially the southern Caribbean can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133400		threats	eng	This species is highly susceptible to white plague and bleaching with localized mortalities reported; also susceptible to overgrowth and smothering by macroalgae (e.g., <em>Dictyota</em> and <em>Halimeda</em>) (Hughes 1994). At shallow depths it is susceptible to breakage by hurricanes and high sedimentation. Localized predation by <em>Sparisoma virdie</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133401		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133401		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the Solomons. It is found in Okinawa (Fenner pers. comm.), Papau New Guinea (Wallace 1999) and Southeast Asia (Richards pers. comm.) and Thailand (Wallace 1999).
133401		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs subtidally on outer reefs, reef slopes, or ledges on walls and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-20 m.
133401		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133401		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species has a growth form particularly vulnerable to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133402		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133402		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, including Madagascar and Indian Ocean islands.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133402		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. It occurs on submerged patch reefs and reef shoals (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-18 m.
133402		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133402		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133403		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133403		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133403		habitat	eng	It may form conspicuous dome-shaped colonies on upper reef slopes. Unlike other <em>Turbinaria</em>, this species is seldom found in turbid waters. The maximum size is 50 cm. This species is found from 2-15 m.
133403		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133403		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133404		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133404		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133404		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow, protected reef slopes. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133404		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133404		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133405		conservation	eng	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133405		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East and South China Sea. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007). It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133405		habitat	eng	This species occurs on tropical, shallow reefs, on hard and mixed substrates, as well as on rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. This species is found on the back slope and foreslope of reefs as well as in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133405		population	eng	This species is common in Western Australia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133405		threats	eng	This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of this range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 12,612. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 12,350 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133406		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133406		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, southwestern and northwestern Indian Ocean, Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic west Pacific, Hawaii and central Pacific.
133406		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments to 40 m.
133406		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133406		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 22.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133407		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133407		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northeastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species  is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Nayarit Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Santa Elena Peninsula, Islas Murcielago Archipelago, Culebra Bay, Peninsula de Osa, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: Uva Island, Unnamed Island, Canal de Afuera Island, Restinge Island, Montuosa Island, Jicaron Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí, and Iguana Island and Las Perlas Archipelago in the Gulf of Panama (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, and Ensenada de Utría (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn 2003).
133407		habitat	eng	This species is found on exposed reef fronts and where currents are strong. <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> occurs in most reef environments, especially exposed reef fronts and at sits with strong currents; this coral also occurs on coral communities on rocky substrata (Hickman 2005). It has been reported from 2 m to at least 20 m depth, but commonly occurs between 5-10 m (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). It may form large stands. The maximum size is over 1 m across.<br/><br/><em>P. eydouxi</em> is capable of building reef frameworks; in Santa Elena, Costa Rica, a 50 m² reef is composed exclusively of <em>P. eydouxi</em> (Cortes and Jimenez 2003). Additionally, at La Azufrada and Playa Blanca in Gorgona Island, Colombia, <em>P. eydouxi</em> forms fringing reef frameworks with large dense colonies (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003). Moreover, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), at least one reef in Colombia is formed from 100% cover of <em>P. eydouxi</em>.<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). Reported growth rates of <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> range between 2.1 and 3.9 cm per year at Bahia Culebra, Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2003). Guzmán and Cortés (1993) reported growth rates from 3.1 cm per year in Galápagos to 3.32 cm per year in Costa Rica.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. eydouxi</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133407		population	eng	Common throughout the Indo West Pacific.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Common: Revillagigedo Islands (Reyes-Bonilla 2003), Malpelo (Glynn and Ault 2000) and Gorgona Islands (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003). <br/><br/>Uncommon: Panama, and Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>Rare: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Costa Rica including Cocos Island, and Ecuador including the Galápagos Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. eydouxi</em> is likely to be moderately common in Panama (reported at 24 sites in Las Perlas and 77 sites in Gulf of Chiriqui), Colombia and Costa Rica. In addition, according to Jiménez and Cortés (2003), <em>P. eydouxi</em> can be found in moderate abundance at Culebra Bay, Costa Rica. Likewise, in the Galápagos Islands, this coral is moderately common in the northern Archipelago (Hickman 2005) but uncommon in the central region (Hickman and Chiriboga pers. comm.). In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported <em>P. eydouxi</em> as a very common species at the Coiba Archipelago, Panama.<br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galapagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galapagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Apparently, Pocillopora eydouxi populations have been recovering in recent years (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.), following the severe coral mortality associated with recent ENSO events (1982-83 and 1997-98) and red tides.<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recruitment since (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133407		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,498.<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133408		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133408		distribution	eng	This species is found in East African coast, Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll and Austral Islands.
133408		habitat	eng	This species is usually found encrusting vertical or overhung faces, generally to depths of 50 m.
133408		population	eng	This is an uncommon species but widespread and sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133408		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133409		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133409		distribution	eng	This species is found in Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and northeast Australia.
133409		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons that are protected from wave action. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133409		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133409		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133410		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133410		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995).
133410		habitat	eng	It is found is most commonly on lower reef slopes. It forms large fields. This species is found from 4-25 m.
133410		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133410		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 346 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 131.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133411		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133411		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, north, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133411		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower reef slopes protected from wave action. This species is found to 20 m.
133411		population	eng	This species is rare except in subtropical localities where it is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133411		threats	eng	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133412		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133412		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and the northern Indian Ocean. A single doubtful specimen has been recorded from the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.
133412		habitat	eng	This widespread species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments protected from strong wave action. It occurs in shallow and deep fore reef areas, but does not form large colonies (Wood 1983). This species is found to 30 m.
133412		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133412		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133413		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133413		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the east coast of Africa, Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.) Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133413		habitat	eng	This species is found in protected reef environments and deep sandy substrates. It has a depth range of 24-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef (Fisk 1983). This species can be found to 50 m.
133413		population	eng	This species is widespread and uncommon, can be locally common, and is conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133413		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 8,000 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>This species exhibited high bleaching and low mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133414		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133414		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133414		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper, tropical reef environments. It is found in most shallow water environments. <em>G. pectinata</em> is commonly found from 1-15 m, with mass colonies at 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may also be found on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133414		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133414		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,800 live pieces in 2005. The Indonesian export quota was 1,900 pieces in 2006. There is also Fiji export quota. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,303.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133415		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133415		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific and Philippines and Maldives. It is also found in Andamans Islands, Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.). Found in Fiji and Vanuatu (Lovell pers. comm.).
133415		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 5-20 m.
133415		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It is known to form large stands in the Philippines (Reboton pers. comm.) and at least one large thicket in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133415		threats	eng	A very fragile species. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133416		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133416		distribution	eng	Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and eastern Africa from Somalia to northern Tanzania<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133416		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of shallow reef environments, and often occurs in lagoons. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.
133416		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133416		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133417		conservation	eng	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133417		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Pitcairn, Tuomotos, northwestern Australia, and Palau (Randall 1995).
133417		habitat	eng	It is found on tropical, protected shallow reef slopes where the substrate is partly sandy. It forms extensive single species stands, sometimes over 5 m across.. It can also found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133417		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133417		threats	eng	No bleaching was seen in this species in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of this range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 190.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133418		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133418		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133418		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and is a free living adult. The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 17 cm in diameter.
133418		population	eng	This species is widespread and common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133418		threats	eng	In one study, almost 50 % of the specimens were recorded as bleaching (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133419		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133419		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133419		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments to 50 m. It is commonly found from 9-15 m, rarely at 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133419		population	eng	This species is widespread, very common and may be a dominant species and may form extensive single species stands.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133419		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 12,500 live pieces in 2005. This species is also likely exported from Fiji but there is no specific information.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133420		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133420		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, northern Maldives, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwest to northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, and Fiji.
133420		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133420		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133420		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133421		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133421		distribution	eng	<em>Porites baueri</em> is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only known from the Marias Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003).
133421		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known.
133421		population	eng	Based on collections by D.F. Squires in 1957, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) report <em>Porites baueri</em> as a rare species at the Marias Islands, Mexico. However, besides Squires (1959), there is no other literature record for this species. Recent studies in the Marias Islands revealed no colonies that could unmistakably be assigned to the nominal species <em>P. baueri</em>, but many colonies of <em>Porites lobata</em> were collected (Perez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006). These results support previous studies (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999, Glynn 2000) that suggest that <em>P. baueri</em> is a synonym of <em>P. lobata</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133421		threats	eng	The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133422		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133422		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133422		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found mostly in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133422		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133422		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. This species occurs especially in lagoons. These habitats have been particularly affected by high sea temperature-induced bleaching.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 281.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133423		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133423		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133423		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living polyp. The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size 21.5 cm in diameter.
133423		population	eng	This species is common and widespread.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133423		threats	eng	In one study, this species has been recorded as almost 50% of specimens is being bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133424		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133424		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Seychelles, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.
133424		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of reef environments but prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on the back and foreslope, in lagoons, and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
133424		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, though common in shallow reefs in East Africa.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133424		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133425		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Its presence in murky, cold, sandy, hard-bottom habitats means that it has been generally understudied compared to most other zooxanthellate scleractinian corals. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133425		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas. The northernmost record is from the coast of North Carolina (Macintyre and Pilkey 1969, Macintyre 2003).
133425		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of reef habitats and rocky foreshores, especially turbid environments typically from 1-30 m (although in North Carolina they are found from 20-40 m depth on hard substrates covered by fine sediments; Macintyre 2003).
133425		population	eng	This species is widespread, but at low abundances, and more common in the northern wider Caribbean than in the south.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133425		threats	eng	This species may be susceptible to bleaching and disease, but there has been no verification of the impacts of these. This appears to be a species tolerant to a wide range of temperature, salinity and sediment loads.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133426		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133426		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeastern Somalia, northwest Madagascar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Gulf of Carpentaria, eastern Africa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133426		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reefs and rocky foreshores of tropical and subtropical locations. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes of the reef, in lagoons and in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found from 3-20 m.
133426		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133426		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133427		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133427		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Indonesia and the Philippines (Richards pers. comm.).
133427		habitat	eng	It is found on protected reef slopes from 20 m depth (Wallace 1999) to 60 m (Richards pers. comm.).
133427		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133427		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 20.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133428		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133428		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133428		habitat	eng	This species occurs on a wide variety of reef slopes from five to 30 m, generally to depths of 30 m.
133428		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133428		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133429		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133429		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133429		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It forms large stands on protected horizontal substrates including shallow reefs and lagoons. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and can be found in inter-reef soft substrates. This species is found to at least 25 m.
133429		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, can be locally common in patches.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133429		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133430		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133430		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range. It has been recorded from west, north and east Australia, southern Japan, and the southwest Pacific.
133430		habitat	eng	This species is semi-protected shallow reef or terrigenous rock substrates, generally to depths of 20 m.
133430		population	eng	This species is common in subtropical localities, rare in the tropics.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133430		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133431		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133431		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133431		habitat	eng	It is always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping bottoms usually in association with <em>Heteropsammnia</em> and <em>Cyclosers</em> species. It is a free-living polyp with a single mouth. The maximum size is 1.5cm in diameter. <em>H. aequicostatus</em> has a depth range of 16-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef and 8-17 m off of New Caledonia (Fisk 1983). This species can be found to 100 m.
133431		population	eng	This species may be locally very abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133431		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133432		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133432		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific. It is also found in Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Palau (Randall 1995).
133432		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes. It occurs mostly intertidally on reef flats (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-10 m.
133432		population	eng	This species is common at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-west Australia, and is uncommon elsewhere.  It is common in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133432		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133433		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133433		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia and the East China Sea.
133433		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper and lower reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133433		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133433		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133434		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133434		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea.
133434		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133434		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133434		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133435		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133435		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Central Indo-Pacific. Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.) Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006).
133435		habitat	eng	This species is found in protected reef environments. The maximum size is 30cm across. This species is found to 40 m.
133435		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133435		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133436		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is required to clarify the status of both <em>Dichocoenia</em> species. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133436		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas.
133436		habitat	eng	This species is found in fore reef habitats below 15 m. Coexists with <em>D. stokesii</em> in deeper water. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.) This species may be found to 22 m.
133436		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. This is a deep-water species, often classified as the more abundant and closely related <em>D. stokesii</em>, and there is no reliable information on its current population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133436		threats	eng	This species has been observed with white plague, and is likely to be susceptible to other disease (black band), bleaching, and high sedimentation, but it is not known whether these have resulted in significant mortalities (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133437		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133437		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea, western and eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific. Southwestern Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.), New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).
133437		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living polyp. The depth range is from 3-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 18.5 cm in diameter.
133437		population	eng	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133437		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 7,500 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,807.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133438		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133438		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Kiribati, French Polynesia, and Pitcairn.
133438		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found most on reef foreslopes. This species is found to at least 25 m.
133438		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but relatively distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133438		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 65. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133439		conservation	eng	There is a need for more quantitative data from other locations on population status, and information on recovery rates in areas that have been highly impacted. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. Several protected areas offer protection to the species, including Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize) and MPAs off the Mexican Yucatan.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133439		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean and the southern Gulf of Mexico.
133439		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow fore reef spur and groove zones and on low-energy lagoon reef complexes, from 1-15 m. In high-energy reef environments, it forms box-like networks that are wave resistant (Chornesky 1991, Aronson and Precht 1995) and in low-energy lagoon environments it forms delicate open framework bouquets (Aronson and Precht 1997). <br/><br/>This species has high rates of recruitment, and rapid growth rates, so it has the potential to recover quickly from disturbance.
133439		population	eng	This species is common and abundant in southern and western Caribbean localities; it is less abundant in the northern Caribbean. <br/><br/>In some places, this species forms extensive monospecific stands. <br/><br/>In the last decade, populations off Belize, the Bay Islands, Yucatan, Jamaica and Guantanemo Bay have sustained extensive mortality with some recovery reported (Aronson <em>et al</em>. 2000, McField 1999, B. Precht pers. comm.); however, in other places, populations have remained stable, for example in Panama and Venezuela (E. Weil pers. comm., Aronson <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133439		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is bleaching, causing mass mortality events (Aronson <em>et al</em>. 2000,Kramer and Kramer 2002). Localized mortality events have occurred due to disease (white plague) and hurricane damage; the species is likely to be sensitive to high sedimentation.<br/><br/>Particularly susceptible to bleaching and disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133440		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133440		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Northern Red Sea, east Africa, Madagascar (except for the eastern side), Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Line Islands, and French Polynesia.
133440		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133440		population	eng	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133440		threats	eng	It is not exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133441		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133441		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.) and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).
133441		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on protected reef slopes, sandy areas (Wallace 1999), and deep, sandy reef slopes (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 8-30 m.
133441		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133441		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133442		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133442		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, the southwest, and central Indian Ocean (including southern tip of India and Sri Lanka), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, southeast Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and central Pacific. Also recorded from Palau (Randall 1995).
133442		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow, protected reef slopes. In Chagos, the species is commonly found in deeper waters (20-30m) on seaward reef slopes (Sheppard pers. comm.). Red Sea range information from Sheppard and Sheppard (1991): This is a mid to deep-water species, preferring sheltered sites without strong water movement, but without much sedimentation either. It is not usually conspicuous, partly because of its neutral grey or pale brown colour, but is not uncommon below 25 m. This species is distinctive (Sheppard pers. comm.). Colonies of <em>Oxypora</em> seldom exceed 1 m in diameter (Wood 1983).
133442		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133442		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 60.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133443		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133443		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific and the Solomons Islands.
133443		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 2 m to at least 30 m.
133443		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133443		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133444		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. May be offered limited protected by MPAs. <br/><br/>Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, their distribution range, threats, and population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133444		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Caribbean. Reported from Martinique (Adey <em>et al</em>. 1977). The limits of the distribution range are not well defined.
133444		habitat	eng	This species is likely to occur on shallow to intermediate rocky reefs based on closely related species in the genus (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.) This species is found from 5-30 m.
133444		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133444		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133445		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133445		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133445		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow fringing reefs, generally to depths of 15 m. It prefers areas of low exposure, and tolerates sedimented conditions well (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
133445		population	eng	This species is locally common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133445		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, in the Persian Gulf this species survived the 1998 warming event well, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133446		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133446		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, and in the east Atlantic on the coast of west Africa.
133446		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky shores and jetty pilings, and it is tolerant of a wide range of temperatures. <em>A. poculata</em> is distinct from its Caribbean relatives by exhibiting facultative symbiosis with zooxanthellae (Jacques and Pilson 1980), and can be both zooxanthellate and azooxanthellate.<br/><br/>Corals in this family are small, non-reef-building corals that may be found in shallow waters. They tend to grow under ledges and rocks in both shallow and deep waters. This cryptic habit, together with their small size, means that they are readily overlooked (Wood 1983).
133446		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no specific population information for this species.
133446		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133447		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133447		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (southern tip of India and Sri Lanka), central Indo-Pacific, and in the Solomons. Also in eastern Papua New Guinea (Fenner pers. comm.) and Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).
133447		habitat	eng	It is found in shallow reef environments.
133447		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133447		threats	eng	<em>Echinopora</em> species are collected for the aquarium trade; they are in the top 15 genera collected in Lampung in South Sumatra, which is one of the two main coral collecting areas in Indonesia.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133448		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133448		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.
133448		habitat	eng	This species forms large single species stands, especially in turbid water. In the Red Sea, common in sheltered, sandy or lagoon areas between 2-15 m deep.
133448		population	eng	This species is common, and is considered the most common species of this genus recorded in the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133448		threats	eng	<em>G. columna</em> occurs in shallower depths, which makes it susceptible to bleaching; but it also occurs in turbid waters, which can also help to protect it against bleaching effects. <em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133449		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133449		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, as well as the south-west Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133449		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 0.5-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133449		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133449		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133450		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133450		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia.
133450		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid environments and also in clear water habitats. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133450		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133450		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs in subtropical as well as tropical waters, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting to massive species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133451		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133451		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and South Marianas (Randall 1995).
133451		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper to lower reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133451		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133451		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a wide range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 0. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133452		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.
133452		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133452		habitat	eng	It is usually found in intertidal habitats where different colonies may adjoin to form flat expanses frequently over 5 m across. It also occurs in shallow, tropical reefs in protected turbid environments. It is found on subtidal rock or rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a metre or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133452		population	eng	This species was present at 10% of the sites in a study of 25 areas in a variety of Indo-Pacific regions (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is uncommon and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133452		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a large harvest in Fiji.
133453		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133453		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133453		habitat	eng	It may develop into large mound-shaped colonies in shallow water, but smaller colonies occur in a wide range of habitats including those exposed to strong wave action. <em>P. rugosa</em> is commonly found from 9-20 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It forms large fields. This species can be found from 5-20 m.
133453		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133453		threats	eng	This species exhibited variable but generally high bleaching and high mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001)<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 340 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,351.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133454		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133454		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, and is so far known from one site on the southern Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia. It is recently described and future work will probably show it to be more widely distributed, at least in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133454		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow semi-sheltered reef slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133454		population	eng	This recently described species is so far known only from a single site.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133454		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133455		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/>In Costa Rica it is found in Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II) and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).
133455		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Indo West Pacific region (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is also present in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region in Costa Rica: Cocos Island, first report of <em>P. xarifae</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (Cortés and Guzmán 1998) and in Panama: present in several sites (15) in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, final report).
133455		habitat	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>Pavona xarifae</em> grows in shallow (<20 m) on rocky reef environments (Guzmán pers. comm.).
133455		population	eng	Glynn and Ault (2000) classified <em>P. xarifae</em> as rare in Costa Rica. Moreover they consider that <em>Pavona xarifae</em> should be considered as an endangered species, since the known populations consist of ten or fewer colonies.<br/><br/>According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>Pavona xarifae</em> is not a common species that is known from 15 sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama and at least one site (Cocos Island) in Costa Rica. Distribution is unknown due to taxonomic uncertainty among field researchers.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133455		threats	eng	Presumably El Niño and climate change are threats to this species. According to Glynn (1997), species that are rare (such as <em>P. xarifae</em>) are vulnerable to extinction from future environmental disturbances, such as ENSO events. <br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development, overexploitation and destructive fishing practice, inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include small colony size, slow skeletal growth, susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation (COTS), and infrequent asexual fragmentation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133456		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133456		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.
133456		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found more often in turbid reef environments but may be found in most reef habitats. Sparse colonies of <em>P. lichtensteini</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). Some colonies can be very large, reaching 3 m in diameter. This species can be found from 1-20 m.
133456		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133456		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 10,500 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133457		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133457		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Flower Gardens), and the Bahamas.
133457		habitat	eng	This species is found in most fore reef environments and deeper lagoon reef complexes, from 5-30 m, but most commonly between 10-20 m.
133457		population	eng	This species occurs at low abundance in deeper fore reef environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133457		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague) and bleaching, with localized mortality affecting individual colonies in some areas. Not tolerant of high rates of sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133458		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133458		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133458		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef environments. This species is found to 35 m.
133458		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133458		threats	eng	This species is quite susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133459		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133459		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.
133459		habitat	eng	This species forms large single species stands, especially in turbid water, generally to depths of 30 m.
133459		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133459		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Indonesia, the catch quota for this species is 47,000 per year. In one area, 360 Goniopora were collected over 7 months (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133460		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133460		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133460		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and lagoons. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133460		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133460		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133461		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133461		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil and is not present in the wider Caribbean region.
133461		habitat	eng	This species is found in clear protected water with horizontal or rubble substrates. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133461		population	eng	This species is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133461		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133462		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133462		distribution	eng	This species was collected at Rongelap Atoll, northern Ralik archipelago in the Marshall Islands (Richards and Wallace 2004). It is also found in Micronesia, Irian Jaya (Richards pers. comm.), Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, and Sulawesi (Richards pers. comm.).
133462		habitat	eng	This species was collected subtidally from a deep lagoon habitat between 28 and 30 m depth (Richards and Wallace 2004). It can be found on protected deep sandy slopes (Richards pers. comm.). It can be found as shallow as 20 m and as deep as 40 m.
133462		population	eng	Rare throughout its range (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133462		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133463		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133463		distribution	eng	This species is widespread found in the southwest, northern, and eastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. This species is reported from Society Island and Pitcairn by Wallace (1999).
133463		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow reefs on upper reef slopes and lagoons.<br/><br/>This species occurs through a broad depth range, often being found to a depth of 20 m on slopes and walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-35 m depth (Richards and Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>General genus information: Throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133463		population	eng	This species is usually common in the central Indo-Pacific, it is uncommon elsewhere. It occurred at 17 of 87 surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Z. Richards pers. comm.) and all six regions of Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133463		threats	eng	This is a fragile species that readily bleaches. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species has a corymbose growth form (clumpy plate-like) and therefore, is more susceptible to COTS (De'ath and Moran 1998). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species is present in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133464		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133464		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific; South-east Asia; Japan; and South China Sea.
133464		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found on exposed shallow reef slopes, although it can occur to a depth of 30 m.
133464		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133464		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133465		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133465		habitat	eng	This species is common on very turbid lower slopes in Darvel Bay and may be interpreted as a local turbid water specialist (Ditlev 2003).
133465		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133465		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133466		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133466		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Caribbean. It is known only from Guadeloupe, San Blas (Panama), Venezuela, Colombia (de Weerdt 1990) and Belize (Fenner 1999).
133466		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell, pers. comm.)
133466		population	eng	This species is rare in Belize and Panama (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133466		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133467		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133467		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, including the Solomon Islands.
133467		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky surfaces exposed to currents, generally to depths of 20 m.
133467		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133467		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133468		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133468		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, Oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133468		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments, especially back reef margins. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, with mass colonies from 3-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133468		population	eng	It is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133468		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 56. It is exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133469		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133469		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the north-west Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133469		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on shallow margins of fringing reefs and submerged reef patches (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-10 m.
133469		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133469		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133470		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133470		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Northern Madagascar, Central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea, northern and Eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133470		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef areas including high energy sites. This species is found to 30 m.
133470		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133470		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133471		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133471		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Australia including the Great Barrier Reef, in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995).
133471		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reef flats. It occurs in reef lagoons. This species occurs predominately along continental or island coastlines, rather than on patch reefs. In Eastern Australia, it occurs in sub-tropical latitudes, in coastal shoals, rocky reefs and on some cay-bearing reefs offshore, but is rarely seen on middle and outer reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>This species is found from 0-5 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133471		population	eng	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133471		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, at Heron Island, it was the only reef flat species to survive the 2002 bleaching (Pratchett pers. comm.) and therefore may be resistant to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133472		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133472		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, New Caledonia,  and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Madagascar, Ellice Islands, Coral Sea, American Samoa, Fiji, Australia and western Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). It is found in Indonesia (Wallace pers. comm.).
133472		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially reef flats exposed to strong wave action. It is found subtidally on submerged reef tops (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-15 m.
133472		population	eng	This species is common in Indonesia. Unknown elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133472		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is very resilient to bleaching in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This species may be susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish because of its growth form. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133473		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133473		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, south-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.)
133473		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in most reef environments. This species is found from 2-25 m.
133473		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133473		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133474		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133474		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Africa, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific east to Fiji.
133474		habitat	eng	This species is found on most reef environments. This species can be found to 40 m.
133474		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133474		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,400 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133475		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133475		distribution	eng	This species is known from American Samoa and Taiwan, may be the senior synonym of <em>A. akajimensis</em>, in which case it would be known also from Japan, the Philippines and southeastern Asia (Fenner pers. comm.).
133475		habitat	eng	This species was originally dredged in 7.5 to 13 fathoms from Taema bank, south of Pago Pago Harbor (Hoffmeister 1925).
133475		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133475		threats	eng	<em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133476		conservation	eng	Reported from Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is needed to verify the validity of this species (see Taxonomy). (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133476		distribution	eng	Recorded from Colombia (Von Prahl and Ehardt 1985), Netherlands Antilles (Roos 1978), Jamaica (Wells and Lang 1973), Grand Cayman, and the Flower Gardens (Bright <em>et al</em>. 1984). Western Africa.
133476		habitat	eng	This species is found in intermediate to deep-water fore reef environments, from 12-200 m.
133476		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133476		threats	eng	Unknown, but likely as for <em>Madracis aureterna</em> (susceptible to disease (white plague), bleaching, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation; localized mass mortality events due to white plague have been recorded in Venezuela and the Netherlands Antilles) and <em>M. decactis</em> (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133477		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133477		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil.
133477		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical reef habitats. <br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Favia</em> is common in nearly all reef localities, but does not usually form heads more than a meter or two in diameter. This genus is unimportant in the western Atlantic in terms of reef-building. It is generally restricted to shallow reefs (Wood 1983).
133477		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon.<br/><br/>General genus information: This genus forms small spherical or encrusting colonies. Colonies are always small (less than 30 cm in diameter) and are generally restricted to shallow reefs (Wood 1983).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133477		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133478		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133478		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.
133478		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef environments but especially lagoons and reef slopes. This species is found to 30 m.
133478		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133478		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 10,900 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 662 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133479		conservation	eng	<em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> can be successfully transplanted as attached fragments if it is transplanted in the spring and vertically oriented (Okubo <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133479		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133479		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and outer reef flats, intertidally on reef flats, and subtidally on reef edges, slopes and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999).This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 4-10 m on the Chagos lagoon (Sheppard 1982). <em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia. (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006) This species is found from 5-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133479		population	eng	This species is one of the most abundant corals of exposed outer reef slopes of much of the western Pacific. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 40 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133479		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species exhibited very high bleaching levels and high mortality approaching 100% in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). Five different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This is particularly susceptible to COTS, disease, and physical disturbances (Richards and Aeby pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 19908. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 13,750 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133480		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133480		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.
133480		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, lagoons, and fringing reefs. This species is found from 5-30 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133480		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133480		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133481		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133481		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Chesterfield Island, Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is in Tokelau and the Cook Islands, Wallace (1999).<br/><br/>Some distribution records are doubtful and therefore it may be more restricted in its distribution.
133481		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes and in lagoons. It is found from 3-20 m depth. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133481		population	eng	This is a common species on the Chesterfield Reefs and Norfolk Island. It is rare elsewhere. Found at eight sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133481		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133482		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133482		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and central Pacific.
133482		habitat	eng	This species is found on protected upper reef slopes. Although it can occur up to 50 m depth, it is commonly found from 9-20 m, with mass colonies from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133482		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. But in the Red Sea it is the most common species of <em>Alveopora</em> recorded (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133482		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,050 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,568.<br/><br/>In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133483		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133483		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133483		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow reef slopes. This species is found from 2-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133483		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133483		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133484		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133484		distribution	eng	This species is found off of the east African coast, in the southern Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean. <br/><br/>This species is not found in the Chagos Archipelago.
133484		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid environments at the base of reefs and in intertidal pools, generally to depths of 20 m.
133484		population	eng	This species is common in south-east Africa, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133484		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133485		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133485		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, oceanic west Pacific, and central Pacific and Australia. It is also found in New Caledonia, Coral Sea and Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.).
133485		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133485		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133485		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, this species is not particularly susceptible to bleaching and disease and likely to survive on reefs heavily impacted by bleaching events. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133486		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133486		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, PNG, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133486		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from less than 10 m to greater than 20 m.
133486		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133486		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, <em>P. horizontalata</em> was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133487		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133487		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Muscat area in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133487		habitat	eng	Relatively common in deep, turbid environments, but also occurs in shallow environments (Claereboudt 2006).
133487		population	eng	Relatively common in deep, turbid environments (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133487		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133488		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133488		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean.
133488		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). For <em>P. africana</em>, colonies are usually less than 0.3 m across. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133488		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133488		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133489		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133489		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Southeast Asia, in Vietnam and central Indo-Pacific, northwest Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
133489		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is restricted to shallow reef edges. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133489		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133489		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133490		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133490		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf.
133490		habitat	eng	This species is known only from moderately deep, sedimented and turbid water. This species is found between 5-15 m.
133490		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133490		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133491		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133491		distribution	eng	This species is found in Rodrigues, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northeastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, and Ogasawara Island (Japan).
133491		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. This is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes. Colonies may reach several metres in diameter (Wood 1983). This species is found in lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.
133491		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133491		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133492		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133492		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Red Sea, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.<br/><br/>It also occurs in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, and has been reported from Sámara, Costa Rica (Cortés and Murillo 1985, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003). However, when <em>P. rus</em> was discovered at Sámara, the colonies (i.e., approximately 102 according to Glynn 1997) were bleached and since then <em>P. rus</em> has not been recorded from Sámara nor anywhere else in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Glynn 1997, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000). Glynn (1997) and Glynn and Ault (2000) reported this species as Regionally Extinct in the Eastern Tropical Pacific.
133492		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It is a common coral in the Indo-Pacific, which is especially successful in shallow reef areas. Branched colonies often form large tracts along the reef front, while massive and encrusting species thrive at more exposed sites. (Wood 1983). <em>P. rus</em> is commonly found from 1 to 11 m, rarely from 12 to 20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).<br/><br/>At Sámara, Costa Rica, <em>P. rus</em> was found on exposed rocky outcrops (Cortés pers. comm.).
133492		population	eng	This species is common in the Indo-Pacific portion of its range, and may be a dominant species in a wide range of habitats. In a study of 11 areas in the Philippines, three in Malaysia, two in Indonesia, and one each in Madagascar, Rodrigues, Andamans, Papua New Guinea, Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa and Hawaii, the species was present at 79% of the sites surveyed (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>P. rus</em> is possibly extinct. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133492		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133493		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133493		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133493		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133493		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133493		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133494		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133494		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea. It is also found in Indonesia, west and eastern Australia, and Japan (Richards pers. comm.).
133494		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments exposed to wave action, intertidal reef flats (Wallace 1999), and ultra shallow and exposed reef (Richards pers. comm.). This is found in depths of between 1 and 5 m.
133494		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It was found at three of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133494		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133495		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133495		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, northern, western, and eastern Australia, South China Sea, and oceanic West Pacific.
133495		habitat	eng	This species is common at greater depths where it can grow in large fields. It reproduces asexually by fragmentation. This species is found to 25 m.
133495		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133495		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133496		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133496		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.
133496		habitat	eng	This species may be a dominant species in lagoons or on back reef margins. <em>P. cylindrica</em> is commonly found from 1-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 20 m.
133496		population	eng	This species is common to abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133496		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,950 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>This species exhibited moderate to high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133497		conservation	eng	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133497		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East and South China Sea, the Solomons, and eastern Australia. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). Also found in New Caledonia (Pichon 2006) and Palau (Randall 1995).
133497		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on slopes and horizontal substrates protected from wave action and with turbid water. This species is found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 18 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Caulastrea</em> is an uncommon coral. It often forms small colonies less than 30 cm in diameter (Wood 1983).
133497		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133497		threats	eng	This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of this range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10,114. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,500 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133498		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133498		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133498		habitat	eng	It occurs shallow on sandy reef flats and deep sandy reef bases. It forms plates of over 1 m. <em>T. peltata</em> is commonly found from 9-20 m, rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found from 0.5-25 m.
133498		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133498		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 15,650 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17,191.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133499		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133499		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific and South China Sea.
133499		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is known to what depth this species can occur.
133499		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133499		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133500		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133500		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south Australia.<br/><br/>It is also found in Thailand, Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.), Philippines, and Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.). It has a disjunct distribution.
133500		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is found subtidally on outer reefs, upper slopes or walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-20 m.
133500		population	eng	This is a rare species. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133500		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133501		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133501		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, and eastern Australia. It has also been recorded from the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.), Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape (Turak pers. comm.), and Hong Kong (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005).
133501		habitat	eng	This species is found in protected turbid environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.
133501		population	eng	This species is common and conspicuous at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-west Australia, and is considered uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133501		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133502		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133502		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific, including Palau and the Marianas Islands (Randall 1995).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region <em>Psammocora superficialis</em> has been reported from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador. <br/><br/>Specific records in the ETP include:<br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco and Colima (including the Revillagigedo Islands) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Osa Peninsula, Caño Island, Marino Ballena National Park, La Penca, Curú Bay and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Panamá</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: mainland Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn 2003, Wells 1983, Hickman 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).
133502		habitat	eng	<em>Psammocora superficialis</em> occurs in a wide range of reef environments; on rocky substrata and rubble from shallow water to 30 m. Sparse colonies of <em>P. superficialis</em> were found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).<br/><br/>In general, <em>Psammocora</em> species are very slow growing corals; with a calculated growth rate of 0.6cm/year for <em>P. superficialis</em> in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). Sexual reproduction is important, but asexual reproduction and fragmentation are more effective strategies for colonizing free areas within the reef (Cortés and Guzmán 1998).
133502		population	eng	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Psammocora superficialis</em> has been categorized as follows:<br/><br/>Uncommon or rare in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Hickman 2005), Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000), mainland Ecuador (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000), throughout Mexico (including the Revillagigedo Islands) (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) (Glynn and Ault 2000), and Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>According to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>P. superficialis</em> is very common at Coiba Archipelago National Park; present in 50 to 75% of sites, and also at 105 sites studied in the Gulf of Chiriqui and 82 at Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>., in prep.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133502		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 150. <br/><br/>According to Cortés and Guzmán (1998) and Guzmán and Robertson (1989), the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> is capable of reducing populations of <em>Psammocora</em> species if other preferred coral species such as <em>Porites lobata</em> are absent. The sea star <em>Acanthaster planci</em> and the fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> feed on <em>Psammocora</em> species (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>During the 1991-92 El Niño event in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, <em>Psammocora</em> species were the most affected, with 75% of all colonies bleached (Cortés and Jiménez 2003), and approximately 66% mortality of corals in three localities (Manuel Antonio, Cambutal and Ballena) on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2001). However, <em>Psammocora</em> species are considered to be amongst the most opportunistic species because of the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzmán and Cortés 2001).<br/><br/>Algae overgrowth has also been reported to cause mortality on <em>Psammocora</em> (Glynn 1997, Jiménez and Cortés 2001, Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006). At Uva Island, Panama, large aggregations of <em>P. stellata</em> at 8-10 m depth that survived the 1982-83 El Niño event were overgrown by thick mats of <em>Caulerpa</em> species (Glynn 1997); additionally, in Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, <em>Psammocora</em> species were completely overgrown by a brown alga (Jimenez and Cortés 2001). At La Penca (Costa Rica), <em>Psammocora</em>-dominated reef that once covered 0.3 ha is now reduced to several small (1-3 m²) patches of coral among a dense bed of <em>Caulerpa</em> (Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133503		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133503		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, central Pacific.
133503		habitat	eng	This species is found on back reef, flat reef, reef slopes and lagoons. This is a solitary, free-living coral found between depths of 1-20 m. The depth range is from <1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size of the species is 31 cm diameter. It is a good asexual reproducer and often occurs in clusters as a result. This species is one of the first colonisers to settle in blasted areas and thrives in disturbed environments.<br/><br/>It is always attached as a juvenile and free living as an adult, and as a result it is mobile. It is a good competitor and can live on a variety of substrata.
133503		population	eng	This species is very common and widespread (Hoeksema 1989). It can occur in very dense clusters on reef flats and in multi-species fungiid assemblages on slopes.<br/><br/>Disturbed habitats provide good settlement areas for this species, and in many areas population size may be increasing.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133503		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching and in one study approximately 50% of individuals were bleached. Mortality rates were not known (Hoeksema 1991). <br/><br/>This species may be eaten by crown of thorns starfish, although are not targeted. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Other threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,300 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 9,438.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133504		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133504		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133504		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow to mid-slope reef environments, and sometimes in shallow seagrass habitats. On the south coast of Puerto Rico, occurs from 0.2-50 m, and is most abundant from 1-15 m (Goreau and Wells 1967, Weil 1992b). This species may be the dominant coral on the reef flat forming monospecific stands; colonies form a dense framework at 0.5-1.5 m depth, immediately behind the <em>Millepora</em> dominated reef crest and extending into the back reef (Goreau 1959, Glynn 1973).
133504		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout the range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133504		threats	eng	Shallow-water populations of this species are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, bleaching, burial by sediment, hurricane damage, and loss of habitat due to coastal development, dredging, and beach renourishment, which may cause localized declines.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133505		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133505		distribution	eng	This species is found in Vietnam, Philippines, Taiwan, southern Japan, Celebes Sea, and northwest Papua (Indonesia). <br/><br/>This species is possibly more widely distributed than is currently known.
133505		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow water exposed to wave action, and on mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133505		population	eng	This species is probably rare but little studied.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133505		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133506		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133506		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Lakshadweep islands and the Red Sea (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
133506		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes of the reef and can be found in lagoons. This species is found from 8 m to at least 25 m.
133506		population	eng	This is a rare species, but is inconspicuous and might be overlooked.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133506		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133507		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133507		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133507		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow protected lagoons.
133507		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133507		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133508		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133508		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Micronesia, and Fiji.
133508		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments, especially shallow fringing reefs. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133508		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133508		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133509		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133509		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Madagascar, central Indo-Pacific to the east of Singapore, north and east Australia, oceanic West Pacific.
133509		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slope as an attached polyp with multiple mouths. Maximum size is over 50 cm. This species is found from 5-20 m.
133509		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133509		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133510		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133510		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeastern Somalia, eastern Africa, northwestern Madagascar, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, China, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northern half of Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Line Islands.
133510		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. It can grow into very large colonies greater than 200 cm diameter. This species is found in lagoons. It can be found also on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133510		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133510		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133511		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133511		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Mediterranean Sea.
133511		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky foreshores and caves.<br/><br/>This species is abundant in wide areas along the Israeli coast at a depth range of 0.5-10 m. It is found in natural habitats of sandstone reefs and disturbed sites such as areas exposed to domestic and industrial pollution, artificial boulders, submerged metal objects, jetties and marinas. Azooxanthellate colonies can be found in dark caves and crevices at a depth of 1-6 m. This species has the ability to live and reproduce under varying and diversified environmental conditions, such as a wide range of water temperatures, salinity, UV radiation, turbidity and strong wave energy (Fine <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is a gonochoric coral, which spawns for only two nights every year, precisely during the September full moon. This species is able to reproduce sexually while still at small colony size (Fine <em>et al</em>. 2001).
133511		population	eng	This species is uncommon.
133511		threats	eng	Coral bleaching was first recorded along the Israeli coast in the summer of 1993. It was explained by a bacterial infection to which high water temperature was a contributing factor. These bleaching events were assumed to be new and have adverse affects on the ability of this coral to sexually reproduce. Bleaching was not observed in the Western Mediterranean (Fine <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133512		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133512		distribution	eng	<em>Porites sverdrupi</em> is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, and is only known from Mexico, where it has been reported from Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>Fossil records from the Pliocene and Pleistocene indicate a wider historical distribution to the south as far as the Marias Islands (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003).
133512		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 1 to 40 m, but is most common in deeper water (>20 m) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003).
133512		population	eng	<em>Porites sverdrupi</em> is considered a rare species throughout its current range (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). In the early 1980s, Reyes-Bonilla (1992) reported this species at Cabo San Lucas but the local populations have since become extinct (López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Nevertheless, new live populations have been reported recently from Loreto (Baja California Sur) and from Bahia de Banderas (Jalisco) (Reyes-Bonilla pers comm.). In general, this species distribution has contracted since the 1980s.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133512		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133513		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133513		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133513		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 5 to ~10 m depth.
133513		population	eng	This is usually an uncommon species, but locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133513		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). The growth form is particularly susceptible to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133514		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133514		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Muscat area, Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133514		habitat	eng	Colonies were found below 12 m in depth (Claereboudt 2006), although it is not known to which depth this species occurs. On soft sediment, this species forms coralliths (Claereboudt 2006).
133514		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133514		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133515		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133515		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Melville Island (Australia), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Fiji.
133515		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef flats sheltered from strong wave action. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and also in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133515		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133515		threats	eng	There is no harvest quota for this species in Indonesia or Fiji. It is rare and so is probably not directly targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133516		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.
133516		distribution	eng	This species is found Tanzania to northern Mozambique, Madagascar (except southwestern part), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Papua, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, and Fiji.
133516		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most shallow reef environments. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs.
133516		population	eng	This species is common in equatorial regions.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133516		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.
133517		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133517		distribution	eng	This species is only found in northeast Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia) and has a restricted range.
133517		habitat	eng	This species is found commonly below a depth of 10 m in the inner part of Darvel Bay on steep hard substratum (Ditlev 2003). This species can be found to 20 m.
133517		population	eng	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.
133517		threats	eng	This species is very local. Within its limited range, threats include siltation due to deforestation. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133518		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133518		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea, and Eastern Australia.
133518		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found in most reef locations from 0.5 m to approximately 15 m depth (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133518		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133518		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133519		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133519		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133519		habitat	eng	This species is found in intermediate to deep fore reef environments, deep channels, and walls, from 15-30 m, but more common from 15-25 m. The species has the potential to exhibit moderate rates of recovery, due to its brooding reproductive strategy and some observations of successful recruitment following disturbance.
133519		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, but at low abundances. Population abundances are usually lower than <em>M. lamarckiana</em>. Because of its low abundance, and similarity in appearance to <em>M. lamarckiana</em> (especially the smaller colonies), it is not frequently recorded in surveys.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133519		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to disease (white plague and black band disease); white plague has caused localized mortality events. Also at risk from high sedimentation and bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133520		conservation	eng	In Costa Rica protected in Isla del Caño Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia), Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/><br/>In Panamá protected in Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Golfo de Chiriquí National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)).<br/><br/>In Colombia protected in Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Isla Gorgona National Park (IUCN category II), and Utria National Park (IUCN category II).<br/><br/>In Ecuador protected in Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133520		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, this species is present on continental and oceanic Islands, from Costa Rica to Panamá, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Costa Rica, it is found in Caño Island (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Guzman and Cortes 2001) and Cocos Island (Guzmán and Cortés 2006).<br/><br/>In Panamá, it is found in Montuosa Island, Ladrones Island, Secas Island, Silva de Afuera Island, Uva Island (Contreras Island), Santa Cruz Island, Coiba Island, Jicarita Island, Restinge Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí, and Iguana Island, Saboga Island (Pearl Island) in the Gulf of Panamá (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Maté 2003, Maté 2003b). <br/><br/>In Colombia it is found in Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, and Utria (unconfirmed specimen) (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Ecuador it is found in La Plata Island and throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
133520		habitat	eng	<em>Pavona chiriquiensis</em> encrust basaltic outcrops at depths of 3-20 m (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), the species can also be found to depths of 30 m. This coral typically occurs on protected rock surfaces not exposed to direct wave action (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001) from 3-30 m.<br/><br/><em>P. chiriquiensis</em> is reproductively active year round, with peak activity from Jan to May (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). Most colonies are alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodites, with spawning of first one sex then the other in a given colony, in a lunar phase, and over the breading season (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). In addition, spawning increases during high temperatures (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Nevertheless, recruitment was found to fail ("nil to low and patchy") when SST anomalies exceeded 1.6 to 1.9°C during the severe ENSO events of 1982-83 and 1997-98 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Reproductive maturity is reached 2-3 years after settlement, when colonies are about 3 cm in diameter (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Bioeroders such as <em>Lithophaga</em> spp. and other bivalve molluscs and polychaetes live in abundance within the thin skeleton (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).
133520		population	eng	In the Gulf of Chiriquí the relative abundance of <em>Pavona chiriquiensis</em> has been categorized as rare or uncommon at most localities to abundant (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Maté 2003b). In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) recorded <em>P. varians</em> at 131 sites across the Gulf of Chiriquí. Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported this species as abundant (present in 75-100% of the sites) at Coiba Archipelago, and at 131 sites across the Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>In contrast, in the Gulf of Panama the species is rare, with isolated colonies present at Iguana Island and Saboga Island (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Maté 2003b). It is rare in Colombia, with only isolated colonies at Malpelo Island and Gorgona Island (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). At La Plata Island, Ecuador, four colonies have been recorded (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>In the Galápagos, the species commonly occurs at Darwin and Wolf, but is uncommon elsewhere (Hickman, Chiriboga, Edgar pers. comm.). Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), P. chiriquiensis is widespread and abundant within much of the region (Costa Rica, including Cocos Island, Panamá and Colombia), and in recent years its populations have been increasing and colonies are more frequently observed.<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133520		threats	eng	Presumably threatened by ENSO events and climate change.<br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs on the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include small colony size, slow skeletal growth, susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (COTS) predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133521		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>Further taxonomic work is required to determine whether the two ecomorphs represent distinct species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133521		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. This species is also present from Brazil.
133521		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef communities, from depths of 1-100 m (Reed, 1985). The crustos form is the more abundant form of the species in shallower habitats, lagoons, and silty environments (5-15 m), while the boulder form is mostly in fore reef habitats, channels, and deep lagoons, and is more abundant from 10-20 m. The deep-boulder form is often encountered associated with a pinkish-brown polychaete worm.
133521		population	eng	This species is common and can be locally abundant. It is rare in Brazil.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133521		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are white plague and bleaching, which have both resulted in localized declines. It is also susceptible to other diseases (black-band and dark-spot), hurricane damage (for the boulder ecomorph), predation by <em>Spirisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133522		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133522		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133522		habitat	eng	This species is found in intermediate to deep fore reef habitats, deep lagoons, and channels from 10-40 m, though most abundant from 10-20 m. Occurs in cryptic habitats (under overhands, ledges) in shallower waters, but in exposed areas in deeper waters.
133522		population	eng	This species is uncommon. Abundance is highly variable between localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133522		threats	eng	Although no large declines have been observed, they are susceptible to disease (white plague), bleaching, and sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133523		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133523		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.
133523		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.
133523		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133523		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133524		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133524		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133524		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may cover extensive areas on lower reef slopes, especially in turbid water. Often found in mixed assemblages with other <em>Anacropora</em> spp. (Turak pers. comm.). This species is found from 8-25 m.
133524		population	eng	This species is usually rare and can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133524		threats	eng	No specific threat information for this species. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133525		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133525		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.
133525		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found mostly on upper reef slopes, but also grows deeper. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133525		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133525		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 121. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133526		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133526		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific and the Oceanic West Pacific. Tubataha (Philippines), Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), Indonesia (Fenner 2002) Coral Sea, Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.) and Vanuatu (Hoeksema pers. comm.)<br/><br/>These areas are very general. Based on the localities were survey work has been carried out, we assume that area should be more limited, for instance to Eastern Indonesia and South Madagascar (Hoeksema pers. comm.)
133526		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is 20 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.
133526		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133526		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133527		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133527		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in Brazil.
133527		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow turbid reef environments. The genus occurs in a variety of reef habitats, but is a relatively small coral with a restricted range, so it is not often encountered (Wood 1983).
133527		population	eng	This is a common species. The genus forms massive colonies of a relatively small size (Wood 1983).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133527		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133528		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133528		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern and central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133528		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of reef environments including crevices and deep, steep slopes. This species is found to 50 m.
133528		population	eng	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133528		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 48.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133529		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133529		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean and along the East African coast and Madagascar.
133529		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m, in sandy reef areas.
133529		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133529		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133530		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133530		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), and Palau (Randall 1995).
133530		habitat	eng	It is found in most reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 30 m.
133530		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133530		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133531		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133531		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995); American Samoa, Andamans, Great Barrier Reef, Okinawa (Fenner pers. comm.); Mauritius, Micronesia, Cook Islands (Wallace 1999); Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000).
133531		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef flats exposed to strong wave action and in lagoons, also intertidally or subtidally on shallow reef tops and edges, especially in areas of strong current (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133531		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133531		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133532		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133532		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Fiji, and Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.).
133532		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes, especially those exposed to wave action or currents. It is found in shallow reef top and reef edge habitats often filling in spaces between other <em>Acropora</em> species (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-15 m.
133532		population	eng	This species is common, especially in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133532		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133533		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, their distribution range, threats, and population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133533		distribution	eng	This species is reported off the Florida middlegrounds.
133533		habitat	eng	This species is found in near-shore hard ground environments that may be exposed to high turbidity, to 20 m. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)
133533		population	eng	This species has been identified in surveys off the west coast of Florida, but no quantitative information available on abundance or trends. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133533		threats	eng	Unknown. It is possible that this species would have been affected during major red-tide blooms off the west coast of Florida (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133534		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133534		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the oceanic West Pacific.
133534		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It may form fields of at least 1 m across. This species is found to 15 m.
133534		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133534		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133535		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is urgently needed to clarify the status of the genera (<em>Undaria</em> and <em>Agaricia</em>) and morphospecies within the <em>A. agaricites</em> species complex.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133535		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. <br/><br/>In Brazil, reportedly from Cape Sao Roque (05°29'S to 035°16'W) to Nova Almeida (20°03'S to 040°12'W), and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atoll das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).
133535		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef environments from shallow back reef habitats, lagoons, channels, reef platforms, seagrass beds, and fore reefs. It occurs to depths of 75 m (Reed, 1985). This species is one of the early colonizers of formerly disturbed areas.
133535		population	eng	Abundant, and in some places this may be the dominant coral. These corals are short-lived and generally small-sized but exhibit extremely high rates of recruitment. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133535		threats	eng	White plague has been responsible for mass mortality events in this species, and it has suffered high mortality from intensive bleaching. Localized threats include hurricanes, sedimentation, pollution, and other diseases (black band).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133536		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, <em>M. intricata</em> is present in two protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region in Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133536		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific (Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999).  It is found near Madagascar, in South East Asia, the South China Sea, southern Japan, the Great Barrier Reef, and Micronesia. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region it is only known from the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991, Glynn 1997).<br/><br/>Specific records: Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range as Indonesia eastward to the Caroline Islands and Great Barrier Reef to Japan. Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give the range as Indonesia, China, Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.
133536		habitat	eng	In the Gulf of Chiriquí, <em>M. intricata</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 3 to 30 m on coral reefs and amongst coral communities (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). The growth rate of <em>M. intricata</em> is considered rapid with a mean branch extension of 4.6 +- 0.7 mm/month in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
133536		population	eng	This species is considered abundant throughout its range.<br/><br/>It is currently considered as widely distributed and abundant in the Gulf of Chiriquí. According to Glynn (1997), the population size of <em>M. intricata</em> was 102-103 colonies at Uva Island and Secas Islands. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. intricata</em> was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by late October 1983 only a 2 cm branch of <em>M. intricata</em> was found on a nearly 6 ha coral reef in Secas Islands (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). According to Glynn and de Weerdt (1991), M. intricata started to colonize basalt substrata in 1985, and by 1987 recruits were observed on Uva reef. More recently, Glynn and Ault (2000) categorized <em>M. intricata</em> as relatively common compared to other coral and hydrocoral species in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133536		threats	eng	In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. intricata</em> was severely bleached in Panama from January to March 1983 (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).However, since then <em>M. intricata</em> has recovered and is now considered widespread and abundant in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama.<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133537		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133537		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the southwest Indian Ocean and Persian/Arabian Gulf, southeast Sumatra, northwest Java, southwest and north Sulawesi and Moluccas (Indonesia), south Taiwan, and northeast Australia. (Hoeksema and Best 1991).
133537		habitat	eng	It is always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping bottoms usually in association with <em>Heteropsammnia</em> spp. and <em>Cyclosers</em> spp. It is a free-living polyp with a single mouth. The maximum size is 1.5 cm in diameter. This species is found from 15-100 m.
133537		population	eng	This species may be locally super abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133537		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133538		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133538		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, northwest and eastern Australia, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133538		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 62 cm in diameter.
133538		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133538		threats	eng	In one study, 9% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,000 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,119.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133539		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133539		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133539		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and on vertical walls. The maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 10-20 m.
133539		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133539		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133540		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133540		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, and northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka).
133540		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments and lagoons, generally to depths of 15 m. This species forms large colonies that can be several metres across.
133540		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133540		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133541		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133541		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Australia.
133541		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments and rocky foreshores. This species is found from 1-20 m.
133541		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133541		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133542		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133542		distribution	eng	This species is found in Northwest Madagascar, southeast India, eastern Australia, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and Micronesia.
133542		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
133542		population	eng	This species is rare, except at Cocos (Keeling) Atoll.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133542		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133543		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133543		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Hawaiian Islands and the Johnston Atoll.
133543		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It is known to what depth this species can occur. It is a common coral which is especially successful in shallow reef areas, and forms small colonies of 10 cm or less.
133543		population	eng	This species is common (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133543		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133544		conservation	eng	Further research is required to confirm the status of the species and its distribution.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133544		distribution	eng	Currently only known from Curacao in the Netherlands Antilles, although Vermeij <em>et al</em>. (2003) state that it occurs throughout the Caribbean.
133544		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep water fore reef environments. The species is mostly found from 20-40 m depth (Vermeij <em>et al</em>. 2003).
133544		population	eng	Relatively common (Vermeij <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133544		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133545		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133545		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.
133545		habitat	eng	This species is found in most reef environments. This species is found to 20 m.
133545		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133545		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133546		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133546		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west and central Pacific.
133546		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133546		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133546		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133547		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133547		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133547		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments and on rocky foreshores. It occurs subtidally (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.
133547		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133547		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is know to have had three different diseases (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133548		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133548		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea, east Africa, Madagascar and the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the Andaman Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, Melanesia, Polynesia and the southwest Pacific.
133548		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most areas on a reef, mostly in shady areas, in crevices and over-hangs. This species is found from 1-50 m.
133548		population	eng	It may be fairly common in some localities (Wood 1983). <em>Stylocoeniella</em> is an inconspicuous cryptic coral and is readily overlooked among other larger and more exotic reef corals.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133548		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133549		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133549		distribution	eng	<em>Porites panamensis</em> is an endemic species within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, reported from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador.<br/><br/>Specific records include:<br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima (including Revillagigedo Islands), Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, López-Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Glynn 1997).<br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Peninsula de Santa Elena, Culebra Bay, Sámara, Cabo Blanco and Caño Island (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Panama</strong>: through the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Glynn and Maté 1997, Maté 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island and Ensenada de Utría (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: mainland Ecuador (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).
133549		habitat	eng	<em>Porites panamensis</em> occurs on coral reefs and coral communities on rocky substrates, at depth ranges of 0 to 36 m (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/><em>Porites panamensis</em> is a slow growing species (e.g. 3.6 mm/year in Panama), which form small massive or encrusting colonies (Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003). In some areas, <em>P. panamensis</em> has shown high levels of sexual recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).
133549		population	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Porites panamensis</em> has been reported as abundant or common in the Gulf of California (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Peninsula de Santa Elena and Culebra Bay in Costa Rica (Cortés and Jiménez 2003); Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Taboga Island, Panama (Maté 2003).<br/><br/>It has been reported as uncommon or rare in Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000), mainland Ecuador (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000); the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003), and the southern section of the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Cortés and Jiménez 2003).<br/><br/><em>Porites panamensis</em> was considerably affected by the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). The species virtually disappeared from Caño Island following this event, with high mortalities reported from all studied reefs in the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Nevertheless, <em>P. panamensis</em> rapidly recovered from this event (Glynn pers. comm.). At Taboga Island, Panama, <em>Porites panamensis</em> passed from rare after 1983 to common in 1987 and to abundant by 1990 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Furthermore, <em>P. panamensis</em> is presently abundant in Costa Rica and Panama; and current population trends are probably stable or increasing (Guzmán and Cortés pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133549		threats	eng	<em>Porites panamensis</em> was considerably affected by the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). It virtually disappeared from Caño Island after this ENSO event; and high mortalities at all studied reefs in the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí were reported (Glynn et al 1988, Glynn et al 1994). Nevertheless, <em>P. panamensis</em> rapidly recovered from the event.<br/><br/>The genus is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. .<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133550		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133550		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia), the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the central Pacific. It is found in Madagascar, Sarawak, and Lord Howe (Fenner pers. comm.). It is in Oman, Bangladesh, PNG, Fiji, and American Samoa (Wallace 1999).
133550		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores of subtropical locations, subtidal on reef tops, and upper slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.
133550		population	eng	This species is common in subtropical locations and rare elsewhere. It was found at 2 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133550		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133551		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133551		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found on the east coast of Africa and Madagascar, in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, central Pacific.
133551		habitat	eng	This species is widespread on reefs but prefers calmer conditions where it may develop into super-colonies covering many square metres. This species is found to 40 m.
133551		population	eng	This species is common and sometimes is very abundant and forms super colonies.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133551		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 12,800 live pieces in 2005. <em>Lobophyllia</em> is also targeted in Fiji but there is no species specific quota.<br/><br/>This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133552		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133552		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar.
133552		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments exposed to strong wave action. The maximum size is 2 m across.
133552		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133552		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133553		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133553		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. It is found from the Red Sea and Madagascar, to Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Australia, the Coral Sea, to Pohnpei (Micronesia) and American Samoa. The type locality is likely the Red Sea (Fenner, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Solomon Islands (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range from Red Sea to the Ellice Islands, and New Hebrides to Taiwan.<br/>Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give Indonesia, Australia west and east coast, Xisha Is, China, Guam, Japan, Philippines, South China Sea, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.
133553		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m.<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)
133553		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range (Hoeksma pers comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133553		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to bleaching. However, it  is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm). This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133554		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133554		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwestern Indian Ocean, Madagascar and Comoros (DeVantier pers. comm.) and possibly in Seychelles and Mauritius (DeVantier pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133554		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes, in lagoons, and sometimes in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133554		population	eng	This is a common species in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133554		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133555		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133555		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan, the South China Sea, eastern Australia, PNG, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133555		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments , generally to depths of 30 m.
133555		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133555		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133556		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133556		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. <br/><br/>It might have been misidentified in the past.
133556		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments, including in semi-turbid areas. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133556		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133556		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133557		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133557		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, SW Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Oceanic West Pacific. It is also found in the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.) and American Samoa and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133557		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef habitats at depths of 1-20 m.
133557		population	eng	This species is widespread but uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133557		threats	eng	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133558		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133558		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Persian and Arabian Gulf, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133558		habitat	eng	It is usually found in lagoons and on upper reef slopes, especially those of fringing reefs, and in turbid water protected from wave action, where colonies are sometimes over 10 m across. It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species may be found from 3-20 m.
133558		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/> <br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133558		threats	eng	This species exhibited high bleaching and high to moderate mortality in the bleaching event in 1998 in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,362.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133559		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133559		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133559		habitat	eng	It is found in most reef environments protected from strong wave action. It prefers tropical reef environments. <em>M. elephantotus</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely at 3-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995); this is true of M. elephantotus.<br/>It is found to at least 40 m. <br/><br/>Colonies of <em>Mycedium</em> occur in shallow fore reef areas, but are more common on slopes and overhangs. They tend to become fragile and leaf-like at depth (Wood 1983).
133559		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133559		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 1,448 pieces in 2005.The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,702.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133560		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133560		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).
133560		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. This species may be found on the back and foreslope of the reef, as well as in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133560		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133560		threats	eng	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a harvest in Fiji.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133561		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133561		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eastern Papua New Guinea.
133561		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected fringing reefs, generally to depths of 20 m.
133561		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133561		threats	eng	In Papua New Guinea, reefs are relatively unimpacted compared to other regions, with only 5% destroyed or in a critical state (Wilkinson 2004).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133562		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133562		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133562		habitat	eng	It is found in protected reef environments. Colonies can grow up to 2 m across. This species is found from 5-30 m.
133562		population	eng	This is an uncommon, but conspicuous coral.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133562		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133563		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133563		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southern Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southwestern tip of India, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia. Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Line Islands, and Johnston Atoll.
133563		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow to mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133563		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133563		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133564		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133564		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133564		habitat	eng	This species is found in the fore reef and back reef environments, consolidated hard-bottoms and rocky reefs, and lagoon environments, from 3-20 m.
133564		population	eng	This species is common, but generally at moderate abundances with certain areas showing moderate abundances. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133564		threats	eng	The major threats include disease (white plague) and bleaching, which have resulted in localized mortalities. Also susceptible to other diseases (black band), high sedimentation, and storm damage in shallower habitats.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133565		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133565		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found from the Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, southwest Pacific and north east Australia.
133565		habitat	eng	This species is found on the shallow upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found to 10 m.
133565		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133565		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133566		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133566		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern, southern and southwestern Australia, and the oceanic southwest Pacific and Micronesia. Lord Howe Island east of Sydney (Fenner pers. comm.).
133566		habitat	eng	It is found in reef environments or on rocky headlands in high latitudes. This species is found from 10-40 m. <br/><br/>This genus is rounded, disk-like and attached to the substrate by a broad or narrow stem. It is fairly common on deep reefs, but is seldom found in areas of dense coral growth in shallow areas  (Wood 1983).
133566		population	eng	This species is relatively common in subtropical localities, uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133566		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was four.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133567		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133567		distribution	eng	This species has a highly disjunct range, and as it is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the northern Indian Ocean, and in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995).
133567		habitat	eng	This species is found on lower reef slopes protected from wave action, generally to depths of 50 m.
133567		population	eng	This species is rare (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133567		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133568		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133568		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. Currently it is known from only Sulawesi and Raja Ampats (Indonesia) and Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea).
133568		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.
133568		population	eng	This species is uncommon. However, it is more common in eastern Papua New Guinea than in the western part of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133568		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133569		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133569		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133569		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may be a dominant species on reef back margins. It is common in nearly all reef localities, but does not usually form heads more than a metre or two in diameter. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the foreslope, in lagoons, and in inter-reef substrate. It can be found in inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 50 m.
133569		population	eng	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133569		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133570		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133570		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern and central Indian Ocean, the  Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, including Palau and the Mariana Islands (Randall 1995), as well as in the Central Pacific and Clipperton Atoll.
133570		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m. However, it is commonly found from 9 to 15 m and rarely from 1 to 5 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133570		population	eng	This is an common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133570		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133571		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133571		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific. Records from the Red Sea require confirmation. It is a newly described species that might occur more widely.
133571		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983). This one of the main reef-building corals in Hong Kong, but uncommon to rare elsewhere, as far as is known.
133571		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133571		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133572		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133572		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, and the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133572		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally in clear water (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991). This species is found to at least 20 m.
133572		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133572		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133573		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133573		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Sri Lanka, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.
133573		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in lower reef slopes protected from wave action. This species is found to 40 m.
133573		population	eng	This species is uncommon and sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133573		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133574		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133574		distribution	eng	This species is known from only one small site in the Hawaiian Islands, on Molokai Island, and live colonies have only been seen by Don Potts and Cindy Hunter (Fenner pers. comm.).
133574		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, especially lagoons. Reef slope only (D. Fenner pers. comm.). It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133574		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon. This species is very rare and probably exists in less than 50 colonies (Fenner pers. comm.).
133574		threats	eng	This species has a highly restricted range.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133575		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133575		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas.
133575		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seagrass beds, soft-bottom lagoon environments, soft-bottom and cobble back reef and fore reef slopes, and at the base of the reef, from 1-25 m. It is found in turbid environments with high rates of sedimentation, and is tolerant of fluctuations in temperature and salinity.
133575		population	eng	This species may be locally abundant in certain reef-associated habitats. Due to its occurrence in soft-bottom habitats, there is an absence of data on population abundance and status.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133575		threats	eng	There are no known major threats, and currently no reported cases of disease and bleaching affecting this species. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133576		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133576		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995). It is in Pitcairn, Cook Island and Line Island, Wallace (1999).
133576		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on upper reef slopes. This species occurs subtidally on outer reef flats, reef slopes, walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.
133576		population	eng	This is a very common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 54 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133576		threats	eng	Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 890.<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133577		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133577		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar (except southwest coast), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Sulu Sea, Papua (Indonesia), and Papua New Guinea.
133577		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments, typically on reef tops and outer reef flats. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 10 m.
133577		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133577		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133578		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133578		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.). It is recently described and might be found to occur more widely.
133578		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133578		population	eng	This is a rare species, but it has probably been overlooked as it is recently described.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133578		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133579		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133579		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133579		habitat	eng	This species occurs only in deep water. The maximum size is 50 cm.
133579		population	eng	This species is rare (Fenner pers. comm.).  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133579		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133580		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133580		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Palau, and Pohnpei.
133580		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially reef flats. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133580		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133580		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this species is unlikely to be a main target of trade because of its growth form.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133581		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133581		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northwest Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf. Records from Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995) are unlikely.
133581		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. This species is found from 5-20 m.
133581		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133581		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133582		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133582		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, around the Horn of Africa and Socotra, Sri Lanka, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic west Pacific. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.) and the Solomon Islands (TNC).
133582		habitat	eng	700
133582		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133582		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133583		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133583		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, Southeast Asia, and Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is also in the Solomons and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).
133583		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow reef slopes and fringing reefs. It is found on the shallow parts of protected sandy slopes (to 5 m) and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). Occurs in mixed hispidose branching complexes.
133583		population	eng	This species may be common in parts of its range (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at one site of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133583		threats	eng	This is a delicate species and particularly vulnerable to physical damage. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133584		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133584		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133584		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow back-reef environments, especially seagrass beds. According to Goreau and Wells (1967), occurs from 0.1-47 m, but is found most commonly from 0.5-3.0 m (Glynn 1973, Weil 1992b).
133584		population	eng	This species is usually common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133584		threats	eng	Shallow-water populations of this species are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, bleaching, burial by sediment, hurricane damage, and loss of habitat due to coastal development, dredging, and beach renourishment, which may cause localized declines.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133585		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133585		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133585		habitat	eng	It is found attached to bare rock as well as on coral reefs, generally to depths of 20 m.
133585		population	eng	This species is uncommon, however it is small and may be overlooked.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133585		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133586		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133586		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean along the coast of Brazil.
133586		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow or subtidal reef environments. Can live off coral reef habitats.
133586		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133586		threats	eng	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133587		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133587		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwest Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, west, northeastern Australia and southern Japan, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133587		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 6-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 34 cm in diameter. In some areas, individuals reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
133587		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133587		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133588		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133588		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in east Africa, the Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific. Also known from American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133588		habitat	eng	This species can be found on all areas on a reef from depths of 1-35 m. This is an attached single polyp. All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.
133588		population	eng	This is widespread and moderately common. They usually exist in small colonies. There is no specific population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133588		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 30,100 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 156 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133589		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133589		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean excluding the Gulfs, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133589		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.
133589		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133589		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133590		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133590		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to Fiji, however, records from the Pacific require verification.
133590		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments or sandy lagoons, generally to depths of 10 m. Colonies are often partly buried in sand. This species is one of the hardiest Scleractinian species, and is often found in very high salinity and high temperature environments.
133590		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but may be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133590		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133591		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133591		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133591		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow to intermediate fore reef, back reef, lagoon, grassbed, and rocky reef environments, from 1-15 m. This species may be found to 20 m.
133591		population	eng	This species is common, but generally at low to intermediate abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133591		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague, and black band) and bleaching, which have resulted in minor localized mortality. Also potentially at risk from high sedimentation and hurricane damage in shallower waters.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133592		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133592		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133592		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, protected reef environments, especially lagoons. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133592		population	eng	This species is common in the Philippines and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133592		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 801.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133593		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133593		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133593		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments where water movement is strong. It prefers tropical reef habitats. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and can be found in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133593		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133593		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133594		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133594		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.<br/><br/>This species is also known from the eastern Atlantic.
133594		habitat	eng	This species is found in most fore reef and back reef environments, and in seagrass beds provided there is suitable substrate for them to settle on. Recorded from 0.5-20 m depth, though most common from 0.5-5 m.
133594		population	eng	This species is abundant in shallow water habitats.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133594		threats	eng	Localized threats include disease (white plague and black band), bleaching, burial by sediment, predation by <em>Diadema antillarum</em> (sea urchins), and hurricane damage. In certain locations, this species is coincidentally harvested with "live rock", and sold in the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133595		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. <br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, based on the former distribution of <em>M. platyphylla</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, it was present in two protected areas: Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site, and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133595		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region (Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to northern Australia and French Polynesia. However, in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is only known from the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). Before 1983, <em>M. platyphylla</em> was reported to be present at Contreras Islands, Secas Islands, Coiba Islands and Bahia Honda, in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, NW Australia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.). American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give western Indian Ocean eastward to the Tuamotus and GBR to Japan.<br/>Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give Indonesia, Australia, China, Guam, Japan, Oman, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand.
133595		habitat	eng	In the Indo-Pacific, this species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, <em>M. platyphylla</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 2 to 18 m on coral reefs and coral communities.<br/><br/><em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
133595		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common in the Indo-Pacific region.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, Glynn (1997) found a population size of <em>M. platyphylla</em> of 102 colonies at Uva Island and Secas Islands. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. platyphylla</em> was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by April 1983 no living colonies were found in the Gulf of Chiriquí  (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). Glynn and de Weerdt (1991) reported <em>M. platyphylla</em> to be locally extinct because they did not find any live colonies after almost 9 years intensive searching in likely habitats within their former range in the Gulf of Chiriquí. <br/><br/>Since 1983, <em>M. platyphylla</em> has not been seen or reported alive in the Gulf of Chiriquí or anywhere else in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Guzman 2004).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133595		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in the aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. In 2005, 90 pieces of live Millepora platyphylla were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In the Indo-Pacific, this species is susceptible to bleaching, although less so than <em>M. dichotoma</em> (Fenner pers comm). It is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm). This species is also susceptible to bleaching in the Gulf of Chiriqui, Glynn and de Weerdt (1991) reported the elimination of <em>M. platyphylla</em> following the 1982-83 El Niño event. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. platyphylla</em> was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by April 1983 no living colonies could be found in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991); since then <em>M. platyphylla</em> has not been seen in the Eastern Tropical Pacific.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133596		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133596		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean on the western coast of Africa.
133596		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky foreshores up to 35 m depth. This species can live off coral reef habitat.
133596		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133596		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133597		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures to protect this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133597		distribution	eng	This species is endemic in the Red Sea. <br/><br/>Reports of this species from the Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean and northern Indian Ocean are questionable.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133597		habitat	eng	This species is found on fore-reef slopes in depths of 15-30 m. It is a single polyp attached to hard substrata.
133597		population	eng	This species is rare within the Red Sea and occurs at low densities (Hoeksema 1989). There have been declines in the northern most point of the range due to habitat degradation.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133597		threats	eng	There is habitat degradation due to high diving activity and localised industrial activities close to ports.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133598		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133598		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is also found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.)
133598		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133598		population	eng	This species is common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133598		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133599		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133599		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).
133599		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found mostly on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133599		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133599		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133600		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133600		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines, Banggai, Raja Ampat, Suluwesi (Fenner pers. comm.), the Solomons (Turak pers. comm.), Thailand, and Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.).
133600		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on horizontal surfaces protected from wave action, found subtidally on surfaces such as submerged reef flats or ledges, or on very gentle slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found between 10 and 20 m.
133600		population	eng	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133600		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987), this species has a plate-like form that is targeted by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133601		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133601		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to northeastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133601		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow to deep reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m.
133601		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but less so in some places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133601		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133602		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133602		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Togian Islands of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm.) and western PNG (Turak pers. comm.).
133602		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially exposed upper reef slopes and flats. It is found subtidally on sandy slopes and fringing reefs (Wallace 1999). This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity. This species is found from 8-20 m.
133602		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133602		threats	eng	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133603		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133603		distribution	eng	This species is fairly widespread in the Indo-West Pacific. It is found from South East Asia and southern Japan to American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), and Tonga.<br/><br/>Specific location records: Indonesia to Samoa and Tonga to Japan (Randall and Cheng 1984), Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (Razak and Hoeksema 2003).
133603		habitat	eng	This species can be found in reef habitat at depths generally to 20 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
133603		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common throughout its range. It is uncommon to rare in American Samoa and New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133603		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133604		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>More research needed to determine the species actual distribution.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133604		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean and in the northern part of Madagascar. The distribution is disjunct.<br/><br/>This species was described originally from the Persian Gulf and subsequently recorded from the Red Sea and western Indian Ocean. There is some question about the validity of the records outside of the Persian Gulf. <br/><br/><strong>Red Sea</strong><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133604		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It is found on the upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found from 0.5-12 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133604		population	eng	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133604		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133605		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, may be present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. May also be present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is required to clarify the species status of <em>S. wellsi</em> (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133605		distribution	eng	This species is reported to occur in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.<br/><br/>This species is known from Brazil.
133605		habitat	eng	Based on closely related species, presumably occurs in intermediate, deep fore reef and lagoon habitats, edges of channels, and at the base of the reef, in hard ground areas and in soft substrate, from 10-40 m. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).
133605		population	eng	Unknown, but based on closely related species in the genus, assumed to occur at low abundances on intermediate, deep fore-reef and lagoon habitats. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133605		threats	eng	Unknown, but likely susceptible to bleaching and disease (white plague) (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133606		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133606		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, East Africa, northern and central Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).
133606		habitat	eng	This species is found on all reef habitats. This species lives in a wide range of depths and may be more resistant to increased temperatures. This species is found to 40 m.
133606		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133606		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133607		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133607		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, eastern Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133607		habitat	eng	This species is found in subtidal reef environments, especially lagoons, generally to depths of 30 m. In the Red Sea this species is a relatively inconspicuous coral found on reef slopes down to 20 m deep (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
133607		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133607		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Indonesia, the catch quota for this species is 47,000 per year. In one area, 360 Goniopora were collected over 7 months (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133608		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133608		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Red Sea.
133608		habitat	eng	It is found on shallow reef slopes. Colonies of <em>O. egyptensis</em> may grow to over 1 m across. The genus <em>Oxypora</em> is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133608		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133608		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133609		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133609		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean (southern tip of India), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007). Also in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).
133609		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. Colonies are less than half a metre across. In Chagos, this species was found in lagoons (Sheppard pers. comm.). This species is found to 30 m.
133609		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133609		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133610		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133610		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bar Al-Hikman reef complex along the Arabian Sea coast of the Sultanate of Oman (Claereboudt 2006). Since this is a newly described species, it is likely that further surveys will extend its range.
133610		habitat	eng	This species was collected around 4-7 m depth on the fore reef (Claereboudt 2006).
133610		population	eng	Locally common in the type locality (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133610		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133611		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of this species because of its occurrence in deep water habitats and low abundance, and the problems of misidentification with <em>M. decactis</em>.
133611		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133611		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep water fore reef environments, and also found at intermediate depths in murky reef areas, from 12-25 m, but most abundant below 15 m in reef environments adjacent to sandy substrates. This species may be found to 30 m.
133611		population	eng	This species is common, but at low abundances throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133611		threats	eng	Unknown. No known occurrences of disease or bleaching have been reported. It may be at risk from burial by high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133612		conservation	eng	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133612		distribution	eng	This species known from the Philippines, Taiwan, the Great Barrier Reef, and American Samoa. It has a patchy distribution.
133612		habitat	eng	This species occurs in reef habitat to depths of approximately 20 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
133612		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common within its restricted range. It is uncommon to rare in American Samoa and rare in the Philippines, though it is hard to recognize in the Philippines and could possibly be more common there (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133612		threats	eng	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133613		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133613		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Palau and Southern Marianas (Randall 1995).
133613		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.
133613		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133613		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133614		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133614		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the south China Sea.
133614		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially where protected from strong wave action, including vertical walls and beneath overhangs. The maximum size is 30 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.
133614		population	eng	This is a common species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133614		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133615		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133615		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka and Gulf of Mannar), central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and Central Pacific to French Polynesia.
133615		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.
133615		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133615		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133616		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133616		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, East Africa, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133616		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons from 1-30 m.
133616		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133616		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133617		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133617		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in Indonesia and Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). It is also found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Suluwesi, and  Papau New Guinea (Fenner pers. comm.).
133617		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef slopes protected from wave action, subtidal on walls and ledges on walls from around 10 to 30 m depth (Wallace 1999). It is found on reef slopes and submerged reefs, 10-35 m deep (Richards pers. comm.).
133617		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It was found at 5 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133617		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Anecdotal evidence that bleaching wiped this species out in Kimbe Bay in Papua New Guinea (Jones pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. The extent of this threat is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1842.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133618		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133618		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
133618		habitat	eng	This species can be found in fore reef and back reef environments, lagoons, channels, from 3-40 m.
133618		population	eng	Common, and sometimes locally abundant in shallow to intermediate waters. Often forms large monospecific stands.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133618		threats	eng	Susceptible to disease (white plague), bleaching, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation. Localized mass mortality events due to white plague have been recorded in Venezuela and the Netherlands Antilles (E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133619		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133619		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found from the central Indo Ocean, Andaman Sea, Malaysia, southern Viet Nam. It not recorded from the Philippines and central Indonesia. It occurs in north and eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea, southern west Pacific and Micronesia.
133619		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found to 10 m.
133619		population	eng	This species is found to be uncommon, and in some places rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133619		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 45.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133620		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133620		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, and Solomon Islands.
133620		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back slope, foreslope, and in lagoons. It is typically found in turbid to clear waters around high islands or in reef lagoons. This species is found to at least 15 m.
133620		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It is generally not in large stands, but it has been found more abundantly in the Solomons (Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133620		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 100.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133621		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133621		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133621		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper and lower reef slopes protected from wave action and inter-reef channels. This species is found from 5-25 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133621		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133621		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is known in the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 27.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133622		conservation	eng	Research on the genetic diversity of this species, and its resistance to bleaching stress is underway.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133622		distribution	eng	This species is found from Southwest Madagascar, Rodrigues, Andaman Sea, Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, American Samoa, Line Islands, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.
133622		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments and on soft substrates. In Hawaii it occurs in highly disturbed environments where it is one of the two dominant species of coral. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133622		population	eng	This species is common in the north and central Pacific, but is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133622		threats	eng	This species is prone to disease in Hawaii.<br/><br/>The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133623		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133623		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133623		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially lagoons. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.
133623		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133623		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. This species occurs especially in lagoons. These habitats have been particularly affected by high sea temperature-induced bleaching.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133624		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133624		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Central Indo-Pacific, Micronesia and the Solomons.
133624		habitat	eng	This species is found in lagoons and upper reef slopes. This species is found to 12 m.
133624		population	eng	This species is uncommon. This species is widely distributed, but disjunct due to the possible misidentification with faviid corals.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133624		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133625		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133625		distribution	eng	Recorded from the main Hawaiian Islands and northwest Hawaiian Islands (Fenner 2005), and from the Marshall Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).
133625		habitat	eng	This species occurs on sandy reef slope, and may be most abundant in very deep waters (D. Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found from 10 m to more than 40 m.
133625		population	eng	This species is rare (Fenner 2005).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133625		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133626		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management.
133626		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133626		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons. It is found intertidally (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth  (Wood 1983).
133626		population	eng	This species may be locally common, but is otherwise rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133626		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133627		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133627		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southern India, and Myanmar coast of Andaman Sea.
133627		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow to deeper reef environments (DeVantier pers. comm.)  This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and also in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133627		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133627		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133628		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133628		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Andaman Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is also found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133628		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. It is generally a small species. This species is found on the back slope and foreslope of reefs as well as in lagoons and can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133628		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, locally common in the Celebes Sea.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133628		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133629		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133629		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northwest Australia, and Solomon Islands.
133629		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found in the outer reef channel and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133629		population	eng	This species is uncommon to rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133629		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133630		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133630		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, Rodrigues, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southern coast of Solomon Islands, and Micronesia.
133630		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found in lagoons to 20 m.
133630		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133630		threats	eng	Probably harvested in Indonesia but there is no quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133631		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133631		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the Gulf of Kutch.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133631		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes protected from wave action. This species is found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 25 m.
133631		population	eng	This is a reasonably common species in the northern Red Sea, but perhaps rarer elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133631		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133632		conservation	eng	This species is little known, and its taxonomic validity needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133632		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is known from American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). It might occur more widely.
133632		habitat	eng	The original specimen was collected in shallow water, washed by breakers on seaward edge of Utelei Reef (Hoffmeister 1925).
133632		population	eng	This  is a rare species and very little is known about it.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133632		threats	eng	There is no direct information of threats to this species. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133633		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133633		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133633		habitat	eng	It is common in shallow turbid environments. Mass colonies of <em>T. mesenterina</em> are found from 9-15 m, rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to 20 m.
133633		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133633		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 17,550 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17,739.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133634		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133634		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133634		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is sometimes a dominant species of intertidal habitats. This species can be a primary reef builder in East Africa, Gulf of Aden, and Hong Kong (DeVantier, Obura, Huang, Johan, Syahrir, and Hodgson pers. comm.). It is commonly found from 1-15 m, with mass colonies at 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133634		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133634		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 950 live pieces in 2005. There was an Indonesian export quota of 1,000 pieces in 2006. In Fiji there is also an export quota. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,158.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133635		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133635		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).
133635		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133635		population	eng	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133635		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133636		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133636		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the South China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133636		habitat	eng	It usually occurs on lower reef slopes with soft substrates. It can form large fields even on sandy bottoms. This species is found from 10-30 m.
133636		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133636		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133637		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133637		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean.
133637		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is over 1 m across. This species is found from 2-20 m.
133637		population	eng	This is a locally common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133637		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133638		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133638		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China, South China Sea, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northern and northeast Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.
133638		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper, tropical reefs in turbid environments and muddy bottoms. It is found on reef slopes. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in lagoons, and in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found from 5 m to at least 30 m.
133638		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, locally common in some places (East Africa, south Vietnam).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133638		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133639		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133639		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.<br/><br/>This species is also found in Papau New Guinea, Micronesia, Solomons, Truk (Richards pers. comm.), and Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.).
133639		habitat	eng	It is found on protected reef slopes below 30 metres, on reef walls (Wallace 1999), on submerged shelf reefs 10-70 m, and shipwrecks (Richards pers. comm.).
133639		population	eng	This species may be locally abundant. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133639		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133640		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133640		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, South-east Asia, South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, including the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Palau, the Mariana Islands (Randall 1995), and Guam (Randall and Myers 1983).
133640		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3 m to more than 20 m.
133640		population	eng	This species is common in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133640		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133641		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133641		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.
133641		habitat	eng	This species may form large single species stands in turbid water, generally at depths to 20 m. <em>G. djiboutiensis</em> is commonly found from 12-20 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In the Arabian Sea, this species is found in moderately sheltered habitats at about 5 m (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).
133641		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133641		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133642		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133642		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan, East China Sea and Solomon Islands. Also recorded in New Caledonia, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133642		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid-reef slopes. This species is found to 20 m.
133642		population	eng	This species is widespread and found to be uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133642		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133643		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133643		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from the Red Sea. It is a relatively new species (described in 2000) and more extensive surveys may reveal a wider range.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133643		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper reef slopes, generally to depths of 20 m.
133643		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133643		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133644		conservation	eng	<em>Acropora formosa</em> can be successfully transplanted as attached fragments if it is transplanted in the spring and vertically oriented (Okubo <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133644		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133644		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, reef slopes, and in lagoons. This species is found from 5-30 m.
133644		population	eng	This species is common and frequently a dominant species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 40 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133644		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species exhibited high levels of bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Monospecific stands of this species are particularly vulnerable to disease outbreaks (Willis and Page pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 36,308. Indonesia is the largest exporter, with an annual quota of 10,700 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133645		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133645		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, around the Horn of Africa and Socotra, the southwest Indian Ocean (eastern Africa), and eastern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133645		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133645		population	eng	This species is rare, except at Cocos (Keeling) Atoll.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133645		threats	eng	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133646		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133646		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133646		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper and mid reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133646		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133646		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,646. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,700 live pieces in 2005. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting to sub-massive species that is probably not significantly impacted by harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133647		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133647		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is in Japan, Samoa and the Cook Is, (Wallace 1999).
133647		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. This species appears to be confined to reef-edge habitats with good water circulation (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora polystoma</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 3-10 m.
133647		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133647		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 120.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133648		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133648		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133648		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. It is very common on shallow reef flats in highly fluctuating environments, and is resistant to warming and high salinity. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of reefs, in lagoons and in inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. This species is found to at least 30 m.
133648		population	eng	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133648		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133649		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133649		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.
133649		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially reef margins and reef crests exposed to strong wave action. It is commonly found in subtidal reef flats. The maximum depth it is found is to 10-15 m. Often occurs in sympatry with <em>Acropora robusta</em>, which is its sister species (Richards pers. comm.).
133649		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It occurs in 9 out of 87 sites in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.). Occurs in five out of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133649		threats	eng	<em>Acropora</em> species are generally vulnerable to bleaching, disease and crown-of-thorns outbreaks. Sedimentation and eutrophication is a local threat. This species occurs in high wave action habitats and is generally robust. No specific cases of bleaching are known for this species and it is probably more resistant to bleaching than other species.  It is also resistant to predation because of its well-developed radial corallite lips.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133650		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133650		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar (except for the southwest part), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southwest tip of India, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, northwest Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomons, and Fiji.
133650		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons to 20 m.
133650		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133650		threats	eng	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133651		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.
133651		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean & Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, Oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific. This species is found in Palau (Randall 1995).
133651		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments, especially back reef margins. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons.<br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133651		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but can be common in places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133651		threats	eng	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.).
133652		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133652		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.
133652		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. It is commonly found from 9-20 m, rarely from 1-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).
133652		population	eng	This is a common species in much of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133652		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133653		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133653		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.
133653		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially exposed upper reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0-12 m.
133653		population	eng	This species is common in Papua New Guinea, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133653		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133654		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133654		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).
133654		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on inter-tidal rubble substrate. This species is found to 20 m.
133654		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133654		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 27, 550 live pieces in 2005 and 8,000 pieces in 2006. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6,813. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133655		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133655		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia) and the Solomon Islands. There is also a record from New Caledonia (Fenner, pers. comm.).
133655		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0.5-20 m.
133655		population	eng	This species is occasionally locally common, but is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133655		threats	eng	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is has a plate form which is preferred by COT.<br/><br/>Acropora are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133656		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133656		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is known from two sites in Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Fenner pers. comm.), from the Solomons, and in Western Irian Jaya (Fenner, DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Veron (2000) shows the range of species as throughout the Coral Triangle; this range is estimated rather than being based on actual records of the species throughout the area.
133656		habitat	eng	Occurs around 10 m in protected areas (Fenner pers. comm.). Shallow reef environments.
133656		population	eng	Rare. It is more common in western Irian Jaya than in other parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133656		threats	eng	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133657		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133657		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.
133657		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sandy environments between reef habitats from shallow sub-tidal to 30 m on the fore-reef. Also in deep channels, seagrass beds, and reef lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.
133657		population	eng	This species is common, but generally at a low abundance except in certain habitats; for example, in Florida Bay it is the predominant massive coral (B. Precht pers. comm.). Probably more abundant in the northern than southern wider Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133657		threats	eng	Localized mortality has occurred from disease (white plague) and bleaching. The species is also susceptible to black band disease and hurricane damage.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133658		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management.
133658		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Found in the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Papau New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands (Turak pers. comm.).
133658		habitat	eng	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It occurs on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 1-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133658		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133658		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133659		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133659		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133659		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.
133659		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133659		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133660		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133660		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Samoa, Micronesia, and Indonesia (Wallace 1999). Found in the Philippines, Fiji, Madagascar, Raja Ampats (West Papua, Indonesia), Lord Howe, New Caledonia, and Papau New Guinea (Fenner pers. comm.).
133660		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all shallow, tropical reef environments, especially upper reef slopes and reef flats. It is found intertidally or just subtidally on reef flats, reef tops or submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found to 15 m depth.
133660		population	eng	This species is common, but less so than <em>A. palifera</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133660		threats	eng	Very susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish because of its growth form. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is known to be susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Susceptible to disease with a record of Black Band disease (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004)<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133661		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133661		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Southeast Asia, the central Pacific (Richards pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995).
133661		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical protected reef environments with clear water and a high <em>Acropora</em> spp. diversity, and is also found subtidally on protected sandy slopes and lagoon floors (Wallace 1999). It has a narrow habitat preference. This species is found from 8-25 m.
133661		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but conspicuous.  Common in specific habitats (Lovell pers. comm.). It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 17 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133661		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species exhibited very high bleaching levels and high mortality approaching 100% in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. They are known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1296.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133662		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133662		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean and the Gulf, central Indo-Pacific, western, northern and eastern Australia, Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133662		habitat	eng	This species is common on reef slopes. This species is found in reef environments protected from strong wave action. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). The maximum size is over 5 m.
133662		population	eng	This species is common in a wide range of habitats and may be a dominant species on inshore fringing reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133662		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 17,550 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 1,600 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 20,682.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133663		conservation	eng	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133663		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. <br/><br/>In Brazil, reportedly from Pernambuco to Sao Paulo, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992), and the Atoll das Rocas (Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).
133663		habitat	eng	This species is found in fore reef and back reef environments, lagoons, and reef channels. Recorded from 5-98 m (Reed 1985).
133663		population	eng	This species is common, at low to moderate abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133663		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague), intense bleaching, and high sedimentation, but no significant mortality events have been reported.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133664		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133664		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in West Papua (Indonesia) and southeast Papua New Guinea. This species has been recorded from these three areas, but is most likely also found throughout the adjoining areas.
133664		habitat	eng	This species occurs in reef slopes. Maximum size is over 1 m. It may also form small fields. This species is found from 5-15 m.
133664		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133664		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133665		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133665		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and northern Madagascar. It might be found to occur more widely.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133665		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on semi-exposed reef slopes. This species is found in lagoons. It is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).
133665		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133665		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133666		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133666		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Yemen and South Africa (Wallace 1999).
133666		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, usually reef flats, but also lagoons and upper reef slopes. This species is typically found in intertidal or shallow subtidal areas (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-12 m.
133666		population	eng	This species is common. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133666		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns and bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,220.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133667		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133667		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Red Sea and the Chagos Archipelago.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133667		habitat	eng	This species is found on deep, steep seaward slopes, generally to depths between 30 and 70 m.
133667		population	eng	This species is very abundant between 50 and 70 m in its current range of distribution.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133667		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133668		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133668		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, including Palau (Randall 1995).
133668		habitat	eng	This species is usually found free-living on soft substrates, generally to depths of 30 m.. It is commonly found from 9-20 m, but rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).
133668		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but conspicuous. It can also be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133668		threats	eng	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Indonesia, the catch quota for this species is 47,000 per year. In one area, 360 Goniopora were collected over 7 months (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133669		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133669		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also found in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.) and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).
133669		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments, especially lagoons and lower slopes. It is the only branching member of its genus, and it forms patches. This species is found in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133669		population	eng	This is an uncommon species by comparison with some other members of the genus.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133669		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133670		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133670		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, Hong Kong, and southwestern Pacific.
133670		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments to 30 m deep. This species is particularly common in high energy areas.
133670		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133670		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133671		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133671		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, the species occurs in South China Sea, Myanmar, Mindanao (Philippines), East Australia, East Kalimantan, and Moluccas including West Halmahera (Hoeksema and Best 1991).
133671		habitat	eng	It is almost always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping sandy bottoms as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. It usually occurs in association with <em>Heterocyathus</em> spp. and <em>Cycloseris</em> spp. The maximum size is 2.5 cm. This species is found from 15-25 m.
133671		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133671		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133672		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133672		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133672		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on steep reef slopes. This species is found from 10-40 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133672		population	eng	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133672		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133673		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133673		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, central Indo-Pacific, northwest and eastern Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific and Hawaii Islands.
133673		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef slopes and is a free living adult. It is commonly found from 12-20 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990).
133673		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133673		threats	eng	In one study, 52% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 7,500 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,580.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133674		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133674		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwestern to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Johnston Atoll.
133674		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical and subtropical reef environments. It is found in subtidal muddy reef flats and in other inshore habitats. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133674		population	eng	This species is especially common in high latitude locations of Australia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133674		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133675		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133675		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and central Pacific.
133675		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments, to depths of 50 m.
133675		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133675		threats	eng	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133676		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133676		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Japan, the East China Sea and the oceanic west Pacific.
133676		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.
133676		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133676		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133677		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133677		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
133677		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, intertidally or just subtidally on shallow reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983)
133677		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133677		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133678		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133678		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133678		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found in shallow protected reef environments, especially lagoons.
133678		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Japan, and rare elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133678		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133679		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133679		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. New Caledonia (Pichon 2006; Fenner pers. comm.).
133679		habitat	eng	It is almost always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping sandy bottoms as a free-living polyp with one mouth. It usually occurs in association with <em>Heterocyathus</em> and <em>Cycloseris</em> species. The maximum size is 1.5 cm. It has a depth range of 10-35 m on the Great Barrier Reef (Fisk 1983). This species may be found to 100 m.
133679		population	eng	This species may be super abundant. This species is found in densities of up to 300 individuals per square meter on the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133679		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133680		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133680		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, Bermuda, and the Eastern Atlantic.<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species is reportedly from Cape sao Roque to Abrolhos, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).
133680		habitat	eng	This species is found in all reef and near-reef environments. <em>Porites astreoides</em> dominates on the shallow exposed fore reef where other massive species are rare, and it is found on the deep reef and in the back reef; depths range from 0.2-70 m, with the highest abundance from 1-15 m (Goreau and Wells 1967, Lang 2003). Also present in subtidal rocky environments and seagrass beds. They commonly inhabit disturbed reef surfaces (and are often the first to recolonize areas following disturbance), and are also common in areas of high sedimentation and high turbidity.
133680		population	eng	This species is extremely abundant, and in some places this may be the numerically dominant coral. These corals are short-lived and generally small sized but exhibit extremely high rates of recruitment.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133680		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is disease (white plague), although this is one of the less affected species. Other threats include bleaching and predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) (Frydl 1979, Bruckner and Bruckner 1998, Rotjan <em>et al</em>. 2006). Localized declines may be taking place due to pollution (oil spills) and physical damage from storms.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133681		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133681		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Australia and New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.).
133681		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on exposed upper reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0-5 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).
133681		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133681		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133682		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133682		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133682		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow reef slopes with a high <em>Acropora</em> spp. diversity, but it is protected from strong wave action. It is found subtidally on submerged reefs and gentle reef slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.
133682		population	eng	This species is common in shallow water. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at six sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133682		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 12.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133683		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133683		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Coral Triangle and the Solomon Islands (TNC).
133683		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow reef environments, protected from wave action and where the water is slightly turbid. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). Colonies of <em>P. maxima</em> may reach up to 1 m across. This species is found from 3-25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133683		population	eng	This species is usually uncommon, but distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133683		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133684		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133684		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan and the East China Sea.
133684		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.
133684		population	eng	This is a rare species with a very limited range.
133684		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
133685		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133685		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133685		habitat	eng	It is primarily found in shallow water reef environments exposed to strong wave action. Sparse colonies of <em>S. pistillata</em> are found from 3-11 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found from 0-4 m of Eilat (Sheppard 1982). The maximum size is approximately 30 cm across. It can be found to 15 m.
133685		population	eng	This species is common. It may be a dominant species on exposed reef fronts.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133685		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,250 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10,526.<br/><br/><em>S. pistillata</em>'s susceptibility to bleaching has been related to decreased capacity of it's zooxanthellae species to cope with photo damage (Yakovleva and Hidaka 2004).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133686		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133686		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico.
133686		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical reef environments, restricted to deeper water from 30-150 m.
133686		population	eng	This species is uncommon. <br/><br/>Over the last three decades, average hard coral coverage has decreased by 80% in the Caribbean region with some recent recovery in Jamaica (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133686		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species as it lives in deep waters greater than 30m.
133687		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133687		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and west and central Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.
133687		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133687		population	eng	This is a common species in the northern Red Sea, but rare in East Africa.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133687		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133688		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133688		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines and Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is also found in Milne Bay, Papau New Guinea and Ryukyu Japan (Turak pers. comm.).
133688		habitat	eng	It is found on protected, steeply sloping reef edges and reef walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 30 to around 60 m.
133688		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133688		threats	eng	This is a deeper water species that may not be as prone to bleaching and disease as other <em>Acropora</em> species. However, this species is uncommon and likely to also be threatened by the collection for aquarium trade. In addition has a fairly low reproductive capacity (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987), but since this species is in deep water it is not likely to be affected by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as Acropora species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133689		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133689		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and Eastern Australia. It is also found in Vanuatu. Found in Andamans, Rodrigues, and Okinawa (Fenner pers. comm.).
133689		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>There are few records for this coral, and it is difficult to give detailed information on its distribution. It is generally found on soft substrates of lower reef slopes in clear or slightly turbid water. In certain areas it may occur in extensive tracts (Wood 1983).
133689		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133689		threats	eng	Nothing is known about specific threats to this species.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133690		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133690		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea.
133690		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, exposed reef environments. It prefers tropical and subtropical reef habitats. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and on the back and foreslopes of reefs. It is also found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133690		population	eng	Veron (2000) considered it to be uncommon, but more recent surveys have shown it to be more abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133690		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133691		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. <br/><br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.
133691		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Records in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Caleta de Chon, Manzanillo, Playa Coral and Morros del Potosi at Guerrero, and at La Tijera, Montosa and Mazunte in Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Galapagos Archipelago (Hickman 2005); potentially in Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).
133691		habitat	eng	Pocillopora is common on most reefs, especially along the reef front, where it may occur in dense banks (Wood 1983).<br/>Shallow reef environments and rocky foreshore that are exposed to strong wave action.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. effusus</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).
133691		population	eng	This species is common at Clipperton Atoll and rocky foreshores of western Mexico.  <br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> is common on most reefs, especially along the reef front, where it may occur in dense banks (Wood 1983). The genus <em>Pocillopora</em> is very common and very conspicuous.<br/><br/>According to Veron (2000), in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora effusus</em> is common at Clipperton Atoll, and on the rocky foreshore of western Mexico. Nevertheless, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) classified this specie as rare in mainland Mexico (Guerrero and Oaxaca). According to CONABIO (2006), in Mexico populations trends of this coral are presumed to be stable.<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, the relative abundance of <em>P. effusus</em> varies between uncommon at the northern Islands of Darwin and Wolf to rare in the rest of the Archipelago (Hickman 2005).<br/><br/>In the event that the presence of <em>P. effusus</em> is confirmed in Panama, its populations should be regarded as uncommon or rare (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133691		threats	eng	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133692		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133692		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf. This species is found in the Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Mauritius (Pillay <em>et al</em>. 2002).
133692		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marginal reef environments, mainly the Arabian region. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.
133692		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133692		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133693		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133693		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwest Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, northwest and eastern Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.
133693		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-21 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 45 cm in diameter.
133693		population	eng	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133693		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133694		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133694		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea. Also in Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003) and the Solomon Islands (TNC).
133694		habitat	eng	It is usually found on algae dominated rock. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. ayleni</em> colonies can grow up to a metre (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).
133694		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133694		threats	eng	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133695		conservation	eng	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133695		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East and South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.
133695		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on slopes and flat substrates, often with <em>C. furcata</em>. This species is found in lagoons and inter-reef soft substrates. This species is found to at least 20 m.
133695		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133695		threats	eng	This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of its range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 501.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133696		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133696		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the east China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.
133696		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on protected reef slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.
133696		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, but can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133696		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133697		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133697		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical and sub-tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
133697		habitat	eng	It may form large stands on fringing reefs where the water is turbid. It forms plates of over 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 2-15 m.
133697		population	eng	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133697		threats	eng	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 278.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133698		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133698		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995), Samoa and the Society Islands (Wallace 1999).
133698		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on outer reef flats where currents or wave action is strong, just subtidally at reef edge and top of slope (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-10 m.
133698		population	eng	This species is uncommon. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 22 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133698		threats	eng	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>This species is heavily preyed upon by fish (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,580.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133699		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133699		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines, and north Sulawesi, Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm.).
133699		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is found with <em>Acropora derawanensis</em> in shallow reef environments protected from wave action. This species is found from 8-20 m.
133699		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133699		threats	eng	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133700		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133700		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.
133700		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments. This species is found to at least 40 m.
133700		population	eng	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133700		threats	eng	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133701		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
133701		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Chagos Archipelago and so has a restricted distribution.
133701		habitat	eng	It is found on reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found from 3-45 m.
133701		population	eng	This is a locally common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133701		threats	eng	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133702		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>México: Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Panamá: Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
133702		distribution	eng	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region is present on: <strong>México</strong>: Punta Chileno and Cabo Pulmo at Baja California Sur; Islas Marietas, Nayarit; and Revillagigedo Islands, Colima (Reyes-Bonilla pers. comm., Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, CONABIO 2006); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Coiba Archipelago, Gulf of Chiriquí; recorded as <em>Pavona cf. duerdeni</em> (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Las Perlas Archipelago, Gulf of Panama (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Punta Estrada*, Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos Archipelago (Chiriboga pers. comm.). <br/><br/>(* Taxonomic determination not confirmed; identified from underwater photographs.).
133702		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most reef environments and forms large colonies on horizontal shallow substrata. It forms big boulders over 1 m. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>In Panama and Galápagos occurs on broken reef and rock habitats in shallow depths (<15 m) (Guzmán and Chiriboga pers. comm.). According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. duerdemi</em> forms very large colonies in the Gulf of Chiriqui and Gulf of Panama, Panamá.
133702		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but conspicuous. It is rare in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>Within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the distribution and abundance of <em>Pavona duerdeni</em> is almost unknown (Guzmán pers. comm.) due to taxonomical uncertainty. However, according to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>P. duerdeni</em> is considered rare at Coiba Archipelago, found in less than 25% of sites, as well as in Las Perlas Archipelago, found in less than 3% of sites, and in the Gulf of Chiriqui occurring at 23 sites (Guzman et al., in prep.). In México, Reyes-Bonilla (2003), considered P. duerdeni as rare (found in less than 20% of the reef) at the Gulf of California and nearby areas, as well as at the Revillagigedo Islands.<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133702		threats	eng	El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133703		conservation	eng	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
133703		distribution	eng	<em>P. ericacea</em> is currently known only from the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).
133703		habitat	eng	Colonies are small. The common branching form becomes flattened and encrusting in deeper water (Claereboudt 2006). It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.
133703		population	eng	Found in most environments but always unusual or rare (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.
133703		threats	eng	The species is known only from the Gulf of Oman and specific threats to the species are unknown. <br/><br/><em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
133704		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Southern right whales have been protected from commercial whaling through international agreements in1935 and 1946, but not in Chile where the last right whale was killed in 1966 (Aguayo 1974). Although right whales were taken illegally by Soviet pelagic fleets until the early 1970s, none of these were taken in the southeast Pacific. No specific protection areas exist in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> for right whales.&#160; </span></p>
133704		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Southern right whales have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Hemisphere, but various breeding components of this species are concentrated near coastlines in the northern part of the range. In the case of Chile-Peru, the northernmost sighting is from 15° 08’ S in Bahia San Fernando, Peru. During the austral winter and spring, these whales are known from southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Peru</st1:country-region> (Santillan <em>et al</em>. 2004) to central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Aguayo and Torres 1986, Aguayo <em>et al</em>. 1992). During the same seasons, they are observed passing through coastal waters between southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Peru</st1:country-region> and central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The right whales in this population need to be considered isolated due to their breeding location and lack of any observable increase in numbers over the past four decades.</p>
133704		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Based of sightings of right whales in recent years off <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>, all coastal waters appear to be important areas used as migratory corridors. Southern right whale habitat is poorly known because of the small population size. Females have been recorded with calves in southern Peru 15°– 17° S, Antofagasta, Chile 23°-25°S, Valparaiso, Chile (31°-33°S), and Arauco to Osorno, Chile (37°-40°S), and there is a single record from Punta Arenas, Chile (53°S). Females in other populations produce calves at 3-5 year intervals and calves are born between June and October with a peak in August (Best 1994). The diet consists mainly of copepods and euphausiids (Tormosov <em>et al</em>. 1998). </p>
133704		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Best (1987) estimated that American whalers in the 19<sup>th</sup> century killed over 14,600 southern right whales in the South Pacific, but he did not attempt to allocate the catch to any geographic regions. French whalers in the 19<sup>th</sup> century took about 2,372 right whales along the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Du Pasquier 1986). These estimates do not include any allowance for struck and lost animals. During the 20<sup>th</sup> century between 1929 and 1966, a total of 119 right whales were killed by shore-based whalers in Chilean waters (Aguayo 1974). In only two decades between 1951 and 1971, Soviet pelagic whaling operations killed at least 3,368 right whales in the Southern Hemisphere (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998). These catches occurred in all the major habitats where right whales are known to be increasing today but none of these Soviet catches occurred in the waters off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>    <p><span lang="EN-US">The IWC conducted its last major review of southern right whales in 1998 (IWC 2001), but little information was available for the whales in the waters off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Between 1964 and 1991, only 16 female-calf pairs were recorded from south-central to northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and none from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1998). The first female-calf pair in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> was recorded in 1996 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1998). There were no known major catches by coastal whalers off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> in the past and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> during the 20<sup>th</sup> century and no catches in this region by Soviet pelagic operations between the 1950s and early 1970s. Thus, it is surprising that no increase has been observed in this subpopulation. Other subpopulations (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Argentina</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region>) have shown increases with doubling of times around 10-12 years. The maximum 1-day count of only four whales (Aguayo <em>et al</em>. 1992) is extremely low compared to maximum daily counts of 15, 40, 155 and 256 (2 days) off southeast Australia, southwest Australia, Argentina, and South Africa respectively (IWC 2001). </p>
133704		threats	eng	Right whale mortality due to entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships is known throughout the Southern Hemisphere (IWC 2001). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>, two whale deaths from human activities are known. One was a calf harpooned by fishermen (Aguayo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and the other was a calf that stranded after being struck by a vessel (Canto et al.1991). Mortality caused by entanglements and vessel strikes is a very serious issue for western <st1:place w:st="on">North Atlantic</st1:place> right whales. Similarly, any human-caused mortality in the subpopulation off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>, especially of females, would have a serious impact on the subpopulation.
133705		conservation	eng	<p>The locality was declared a protected area but part of the forest was opened up for constructing the national highway connecting Bontoc and Ifugao. </p>
133705		distribution	eng	<p>Occurs on Luzon Island (Philippines) in   Bontoc and Ifugao Provinces (Mt.  Polis), at 1,853 m asl, (16º58'33'' N and 121º01'35'' E ).   <br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place></p>
133705		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in open mossy forest along highways between Ifugao and Bontoc at higher elevations.</p>
133705		population	eng	The species is confined to one location and although the size of the population is not known, it is unlikely to be large.
133705		threats	eng	Loss of habitat through   conversion of mossy forest into a national highway poses a major threat as opening the area also facilitates increased human disturbance and provides easier access to collectors.
133706		conservation	eng	<p>North Pacific right whales were legally protected from commercial whaling through international agreements in 1935 and 1946, but this has been fully respected in practice only since the 1970s. A Recovery Plan has been developed by the US National Marine Fisheries Service, but to date the only conservation measure undertaken has been the designation in 2006 of two areas of Critical Habitat (the southeastern Bering Sea and a small region off eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Kodiak Island</st1:place>) under the US Endangered Species Act.</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>The species is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.</p>
133706		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Prior to the onset of commercial whaling in the 1830s, right whales were widely distributed across the North Pacific (Scarff 1986, Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shelden <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the eastern North Pacific, the waters adjacent to the Aleutian Islands and much of the Bering Sea below 60<sup>o</sup>N were major feeding grounds during spring, summer and autumn, as was virtually the entire <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place>. Neither the historical nor the present-day breeding/calving grounds for this subpopulation have been identified.&#160; </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In recent decades, both the southeastern Bering Sea and the western <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place> (shelf and slope waters south of Kodiak) have been the focus of sightings as well as illegal Soviet catches (see below). Recent acoustic detections of right whale calls have been made in both areas using autonomous recording packages deployed for extended periods (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2006). They confirm the presence of right whales in the southeastern Bering Sea from May into November; records from the <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place> are somewhat more sporadic, but include detections in August and September.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Seasonal movements are evident in sighting and catch data from the 20<sup>th</sup> century, with a general northward migration into the Gulf of Alaska and <st1:place w:st="on">Bering Sea</st1:place> in spring and summer, and a gradual movement away from these areas in autumn (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shelden <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are very few records of right whales anywhere in the North Pacific in winter.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In general, the majority of eastern North Pacific right whale sightings (historically and in recent times) have occurred from about 40º N to 60º N. There are historical records from north of 60º N, but these are rare and many are likely to be misidentified bowhead whales. Right whales have on rare occasions been recorded off <st1:state w:st="on">California</st1:state> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, as well as off <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hawaii</st1:place></st1:state>. However, as noted by Brownell <em>et al.</em> (2001), there is no evidence that either <st1:state w:st="on">Hawaii</st1:state> or the west coast of North America from <st1:placename w:st="on">Washington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype> to <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Baja California</st1:place></st1:state> has ever been important habitat for right whales. Consequently, the few records from this region are considered to represent vagrants.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Recent data indicate that while the present range of the remnant eastern subpopulation is likely reduced relative to pre-whaling times, the southeastern Bering Sea and western Gulf of Alaska (south of Kodiak) remain important habitats.</span>
133706		habitat	eng	<p>Little is known about habitat use by eastern North Pacific right whales. The rarity of coastal records in winter in either historical or recent times suggests that their breeding grounds may have been offshore (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is in contrast to southern and North Atlantic right whales, both of which form inshore breeding concentrations. There is clearly some northward migration in summer and southward in winter (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004), but the location of the wintering grounds is unknown. The historical catches show that in summer the population occurred mainly on feeding grounds in the Bering Sea and <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place>. Data on food habits are sparse, but suggest that right whales in the eastern North Pacific feed primarily on copepods of the genera <em>Calanus</em> and <em>Neocalanus</em> (Shelden <em>et al.</em> 2005). Primary habitats today include core areas of the southeastern Bering Sea and an area off eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Kodiak Island</st1:place>, which were also significant parts of the range in the past.</p>
133706		population	eng	<p>As noted above, right whales in the eastern North Pacific are considered to be separate from those in the west on the basis of distinct catch and recovery histories (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001, IWC 2001). The right whale population throughout the North Pacific is only a small fraction of what it was prior to 19<sup>th</sup> century whaling. A preliminary estimate of 26,500-37,000 animals taken (including struck and lost) throughout the entire North Pacific during the period 1839-1909 was given by Scarff (2001), of which 21,000-30,000 were taken during 1840-49 alone. <br/></p>  <p>In the eastern North Pacific between 1941 and 1964, there were 598 sightings of right whales; in contrast, in the period 1965-1999 there was a total of only 82 sightings in this region (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). The dramatic decrease was due to illegal Soviet catches of 372 whales in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska, mainly in the period 1963-66 (Doroshenko 2000); given the paucity of sightings in subsequent years, this catch total may well have constituted the bulk of the remaining subpopulation. In all, 411 right whales were killed in the eastern North Pacific in the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/></p>  <p>The few animals observed in the eastern North Pacific today are often alone and are scattered in their distribution. The only exception is an area of the southeastern Bering Sea where small groups of right whales have been seen in several successive years (LeDuc <em>et al.</em> 2001); in 2004, a recorded group of at least 17 individuals represented the largest sighting since the Soviet catches of the 1960s (Wade <em>et al.</em> 2006). No quantitative estimate of abundance is available, but the paucity of sightings suggests that right whales in the eastern North Pacific number only in the tens (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). Furthermore, the reproductive rate appears to be low: there have been only three records of calves since directed survey effort began in 1998 (Waite <em>et al</em>. 2003, Wade <em>et al</em>. 2006). </p>
133706		threats	eng	<p>Commercial hunting for right whales in the eastern North Pacific was initiated by Europeans and Americans in the 1830s; by about 1900, the subpopulation had been reduced to a fraction of its original abundance, as evidenced by the comparatively low number of 20<sup>th</sup> century sightings (Brownell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Although legally protected by the IWC since 1946 (and by an earlier agreement in 1935), illegal hunting continued into the 1960s with the Soviet catches of 372 animals in the eastern North Pacific (Doroshenko 2000, Brownell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).   <p>&#160;There is currently no evidence of human-related mortality or injury, but the very low observer effort and remoteness of the right whale’s habitats probably means that most deaths and injuries pass unrecorded.</span>  <p>&#160;The eastern North Pacific subpopulation is subject to anthropogenic threats such as entanglements in fishing gear, disturbance by vessels and other noise, collisions, and possibly petroleum-related and other contaminants.  <p>&#160;As compared with the intensively studied North Atlantic right whale, the more offshore and remote distribution of eastern North Pacific right whales may be an advantage in terms of less intensive exposure to human impacts, but the disadvantage is that impacts that do occur are less likely to be detected and their consequences are harder to ascertain and evaluate.<em><em></em></em></span>  <p>&#160;Small populations numbering less than a few hundred individuals can have a number of interacting effects that accelerate overall risk (Gilpin and Soule, 1986).&#160; Among those effects are demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and density depensation (Allee effects).&#160; Although direct data are lacking for marine mammals at low density, the expectation is that these threats could be serious because cetaceans are social animals with low reproductive output. <em><em><br/> <br/> </em></em></span>
133707		conservation	eng	Both locations were declared as protected areas but the implementation is very poor.
133707		distribution	eng	<p><st1:placename w:st="on">Occurs on Mindanao</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island (Philippines) in</st1:placetype> Misamis Occidental (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Malindang</st1:placename></st1:place>) and Bukidnon Provinces (Impalutao Reforestation Project) at 777 m asl (08º15'190'' N and 125º02'135'' E).&#160; </span></p>
133707		habitat	eng	<p>Found in primary and secondary forest at low altitudes. </p>
133707		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sanderiana</span> is confined to two locations: <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Malindang</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Misamis Occidental and Impasug-ong, Bukidnon, but no nformation on population size is available..
133707		threats	eng	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>Agricultural expansion (kaingin) and associated increased exploitation are the main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sanderiana</span> at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</span></st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Malindang</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:place></span>.&#160; In Bukidnon, the population is at risk from recreational activities; the area is often visited by local tourists due to the presence of water falls and swimming pools. Plants are collected for ornamental and medicinal use.<br/></span>
133708		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place and hence attempts are required to put some measures in place to ensure the future survival of this species in the wild.
133708		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Occurs on Samar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Philippines) at&#160; Marabot. It is located at 11º11'47'' N longitude and 125º10'52'' E latitude at a low altitude of 43 m asl.&#160; &#160;</p>
133708		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinuata</span> is found in limestone forests at very low altitude near the beach. </p>
133708		population	eng	<em>A. sinuata</em> was introduced into cultivation in international nurseries and gardens over a century ago, but since then the species has only been recordedonce in the wild at the location in <st1:place w:st="on">Samar</st1:place>. </span>
133708		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to the species is the conversion of the habitat to beach resorts.&#160; During the assessment, collection of the species in the wild was not observed but a few individuals were seen growing in gardens in the area, hence low level collecting may still be an issue..</span></p>
133709		conservation	eng	No actions are in place.
133709		distribution	eng	<p><st1:placename w:st="on">Known only from Mindanao</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island (Philippines)</st1:placetype>, where it was recorded at <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Candalaga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype>, Maragusan, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Compostela</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>
133709		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. magnifica</span> occurs in lowland evergreen rainforests <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> at 600–800 m asl.
133709		population	eng	The species is confined to the mountain range of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Candalaga</st1:placename></st1:place>. Only a few individuals were found with 3-5 individuals per cluster. So far, only male individuals have been recorded.
133709		threats	eng	The construction of a national highway in the area has facilitated easier human access and disturbance poses a threat to the species (these unusual flowers are often treated as visitor attractions). Furthermore, parts of the forest are being converted into banana plantations.
133710		conservation	eng	<p><em>Sousa</em> spp. are listed in Appendix I of CITES.</p><p><br/></p>  <p>Efforts are being made to characterize this dolphin population and the threats it faces, and to integrate relevant information into <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s environmental impact assessment and mitigation processes (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b).</p>
133710		distribution	eng	<p>The primary range of this subpopulation consists of coastal western Taiwan from the estuaries of the Houlong and Jhonggang rivers (Miaoli County) in the north to Waishanding Zhou (a large sandbar off Chiayi County) in the south (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF).&#160; However, one sighting of about 20 dolphins has been confirmed from the inshore waters of Tainan County and a dolphin, almost certainly a “stray,” was observed at the mouth of Fugang Harbour (Taitung County) where adjacent waters are deep and oceanic (i.e., clearly not the preferred habitat of this species).&#160; All sightings have been within 3 km off shore with the exception of the mud flats/littoral zone in the Changhua  County, the central part of the distribution, where extensive oyster mariculture structures and associated activities likely exclude dolphins physically (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007b).&#160; The distribution is linear, i.e. similar to that of a riverine species.&#160; Most of the dolphins in this subpopulation have been sighted in and around the two main estuaries of western Taiwan (Dadu and Joushuei rivers of Taichung, Changhua and Yunlin counties) (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007a, b).</p>
133710		habitat	eng	<p>The ETS dolphins appear to be year-round residents of the coastal waters of central western Taiwan where dedicated surveys have resulted in sightings from April to August (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a).&#160; Opportunistic sightings have been made in other months; as of December 2007, the only months with no confirmed sightings were January, February and March, when conditions and opportunities for observations are poor (J.Y. Wang pers. comm., 13 December 2007).&#160; In late winter and early spring, grey mullet (<em>Mugil cephalus</em>) fishermen report seeing humpback dolphins near their nets (trammel and gill nets that are commonly used as encircling nets as well).&#160; Recreational shore fishermen report that the dolphins are seen most commonly in the winter months in the Dadu River estuary. Although reports by fishermen need to be viewed skeptically because of the possibility of misidentification, other species of dolphins are generally not present in the near-shore waters of western Taiwan so the chances of confusion are relatively small in this instance (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007b). All sightings have been in waters less than 25 m deep, most in less than 15 m and within 3 km of shore.&#160; The few measurements of sea surface temperatures at sightings have varied from about 24 to 30<sup>o</sup>C (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007a). </p>  <p>Schools of dolphins often patrol parallel to the coastline just off the surf zone and large sandbars.&#160; Estuaries are likely where most of the foraging occurs.&#160; Feeding behind active trawlers (as in Hong Kong and Australia) has not been observed but dolphins move along the length of set trammel or gill nets, possibly searching for injured or net-entangled fish.&#160; In general, they appear to be indifferent towards boats (at least the research vessels that have been used to study them – a fishing boat and a large raft made of plastic tubing).</p>  <p>Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins appear to be opportunistic feeders. They take a wide variety of nearshore, estuarine, and reef fishes.&#160; They also eat cephalopods in some areas, although crustaceans appear to be rare in the diet (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002, Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994). Little is known about the specific feeding habits of the ETS subpopulation but these dolphins have been observed feeding on croakers (Sciaenidae), mullets (Mugilidae), threadfins (Polynemidae) and herring (Clupeidae) (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b).</p>
133710		population	eng	<p>The subpopulation was estimated to number 99 individuals (CV=51.6%) in the mid-2000s (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).&#160; By analogy with the Pearl River Estuary subpopulation of <em>S. chinensis</em>, mature individuals constitute about 60% of this subpopulation (Jefferson 2000), or about 60. Using a default value of 50% percent for this species (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007), however, would suggest only about 50 mature individuals. Almost all individually recognizable dolphins were novel in 2002 but by 2004, most had been photographed in previous years (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007a); the catalogue of recognizable dolphins numbered fewer than 30 at that time (J.Y. Wang pers. comm., December 2007).</p>
133710		threats	eng	<p><em>Fisheries</em></p>  <p>This population is not known to be hunted presently but is likely to have been hunted at least opportunistically in the past.&#160; Entanglements of humpback dolphins in gillnets have been recorded in coastal waters of the <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place> (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001).&#160; The greatest direct and immediate source of human-caused dolphin mortality for the ETS subpopulation is probably incidental catches in fishing gear (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007b).&#160; There are anecdotal records of incidental catches in trammel and other kinds of gill nets and trawls.&#160; Thousands of trammel and gill nets operate in the coastal waters of western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and this clearly represents one of the most serious threats to this subpopulation.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><em>Habitat Degradation and Reduction</em></p>  <p>Reduction of freshwater flow and other kinds of degradation of estuaries and adjacent coastal waters (<em>e.g.</em> land reclamation) are almost certainly having an impact on this dolphin population, and there are continuing proposals for large-scale industrial development projects involving land reclamation (<em>e.g</em>., offshore wind farms, steel factory of the Formosa Plastic Group, Chinese Petroleum Company’s petrochemical factory within the animals’ restricted habitat) (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2004b, 2007b).&#160; Besides the physical removal of habitat, activities associated with land reclamation, such as pile-driving, can cause disturbance or even direct harm to the dolphins.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><em>Pollution</em></p>  <p>Pollution (industrial, agricultural and residential discharge with minimal to no treatment) poses a risk to humpback dolphins via the consumption of marine prey species (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2000, Parsons 2004).&#160; Spills of oil and other toxic substances by commercial ships could be catastrophic for a population so small and limited in its distribution. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Parsons (1997) estimated that a humpback dolphin in <st1:place w:st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> waters ingests up to 70,500 faecal coliforms/day (minimum) from sewage-contaminated seawater.&#160; To put this in context, a one-off ingestion rate of 200-300 coliforms is considered unacceptable for humans (Parsons 2004). <st1:place w:st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> discharges over two billion litres of sewage into its coastal waters every day. The ETS humpback dolphins live in the coastal and estuarine waters of western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> where there is minimal treatment for residential and other sewage. Therefore, as in Hong Kong, a high rate of ingestion of contaminants of many kinds is to be expected, with associated concerns for the health of dolphins living in the coastal and estuarine waters of western Taiwan. In January 2008, an international group of scientists making up the Eastern Taiwan Strait <em>Sousa</em> Technical Advisory Working Group was established to provide expert advice and guidance on the conservation of the ETS population.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
133711		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to confirm that the species is now Extinct in the Wild. The <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> efforts need to be increased to ensure a large and healthy population from which plants could possibly be taken for reintroduction back into suitable sites in the wild.
133711		distribution	eng	The species is native to Argentina, and was found in the Province of Buenos Aires, Partido de Tornquist.
133711		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. leucopeplus</span> occured in temperate grasslands.
133711		population	eng	The population is now extinct in the wild.
133711		threats	eng	Major threats include: livestock farming, changes in native species dynamics and human disturbance related to recreational activities.
133712		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Eastern spinner dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC under a full observer scheme.&#160; The IATTC has imposed annual mortality limits by population on each purse seine and promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001).</span></p>
133712		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The subspecies occupies a range of roughly 10 million km<sup>2</sup> in the eastern tropical Pacific, extending from about the equator to about 20<sup>o</sup> North latitude and from the coast of Mexico and Central America west to about 135<sup>o</sup> West longitude.&#160; The core of the range (highest densities of dolphins) is north of 5<sup>o </sup>N and east of 130<sup>o </sup>W (Perrin <em>et al. </em>1991).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Subpopulations likely exist within the subspecies; spinners off northern Mexico (the "Tres Marias spinners") are longer on average than those farther to the south and offshore (Perryman and Westlake 1998), and peak timing of reproductive seasonality varies spatially within the range (Barlow 1984).</span></p>
133712		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Eastern spinner dolphins occur typically in the Eastern Pacific Warm Pool, a water mass characterized by high surface temperature and chlorophyll, low surface density and a shoal thermocline underlying a shallow mixed layer (Ballance <em>et al. </em>2006).&#160; Pelagic dolphins are capable of moving 50 km or more in a single day (Perrin <em>et al. </em>1979).</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The eastern spinner dolphin commonly occurs together with pantropical spotted dolphins (<em>Stenella attenuata</em>) in large aggregations and often accompanied by schools of yellowfin tuna (<em>Thunnus albacares</em>).&#160; </span>Tuna fishermen take advantage of the tuna-dolphin bond, using the dolphins as surface indicators of tuna and herding and capturing them to catch the tuna associated with them.&#160; </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  The diet is composed almost entirely of small deep-scattering-layer organisms that migrate toward the surface nocturnally: fishes such as myctophids, small squids and krill-sized crustaceans (Perrin <em>et al. </em>1973, Galván Magaña 1999). </span>
133712		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The most recent estimate of abundance is about 613,000 animals (CV = 22%) based on sighting effort of roughly 300,000 km in 13 multi-vessel line-transect surveys conducted 1979-2003 (Gerrodette <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160; Annual estimates ranged from 271,000 to 734,000.&#160; </span>The population is estimated to have declined 54.5-84.5% (median 71.2%) from its original size of 1.3 million, beginning in the late 1950s and continuing into the mid- to late 1970s (Wade <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; Due to greatly reduced levels of directly observed bycatch in the fishery in the 1970s and 1980s to below sustainable levels, the decline stopped.&#160; </span>The rate of increase between 1979 and 2003 has been estimated at 1.1%, an estimate not significantly different from zero (Gerrodette and Forcada<em> </em>2005).&#160; </span></p>
133712		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The major threat to the subspecies has been bycatch in the tuna purse seine fishery, which has caused a decline of 65% in abundance since 1959 (Reilly <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160; Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) implemented per-vessel mortality limits on the international fleet, the annual mortality for the eastern spinner dolphins has decreased, to 274 in 2005 (IATTC 2006).&#160; </span>Although current mortality is greatly reduced, the subspecies has not shown clear signs of recovery. Potential factors such as fishery-related stress, unobserved mortality due to calf separation and orphaning during fishing operations (Archer <em>et al.</em> 2001), possible mortality imposed by small vessels that do not carry observers, ecosystem changes, and under-reporting of mortality have been suggested as possible reasons for the eastern spinner’s slow recovery (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005).&#160; These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; two or more be operating in combination to prevent rapid recovery of the population.&#160; </span>However, in any case the cause is not understood.&#160; If indirect effects of chase-and-capture are the root of the problem, the impact could have been increasing in recent years, because the number of net sets on dolphins in the ETP has been steadily increasing since the early 1990s to an all-time high in 2003 of 14,000 sets (U.S. Marine Mammal Commission 2006), similar to levels in the 1980s and nearly twice as high as in the 1980s.</span></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">An additional threat is bycatch in artisanal gillnet fisheries in several nations (Vidal <em>et al. </em>1994, Palacios and Gerrodette 1996). </span></p>
133713		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. nubigena </span>is protected by national legislation.
133713		distribution	eng	Recorded from   <span lang="ES-AR">Argentina (Neuquén Province, Dto. Aluminé y Dto. de los Lagos and Rio Negro Province, Dto. de Bariloche); and Chile (VIII Región (BioBio) and X <span lang="ES-AR">Región (Los Lagos)).<span lang="ES-AR"></span>
133713		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to mossy and wet crevices of permanent water courses (cascades or water falls).
133713		population	eng	The population size is estimated to number less than 1,000 mature individuals. No population trends have been recorded.
133713		threats	eng	Major threats include: plant collection and recreational activities as well as recreational infrastructure development. Domestic water pollution is likely to become a threat in the future.
133714		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species <em>T. truncatus</em> is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN, although the Black Sea population is highlighted as a concern in the IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group's 2002-2010 Conservation Action Plan (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. The riparian states assumed international <span lang="EN-US">obligations to protect <span lang="EN-US">Black Sea cetaceans as contracting parties to the <span lang="EN-US">Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention), Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, Appendix II), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The 1st Session of the Meeting of the Parties to ACCOBAMS (2002) adopted a resolution to strengthen measures for restricting the deliberate catching, keeping and trade of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins. At the 12th Conference of the Parties to CITES (2002), a quota of zero was established for commercial export of live dolphins wild-captured in the Black  Sea. In 2003 the IWC Scientific Committee’s Sub-Committee on Small Cetaceans reviewed the status of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins and concluded that this population should be managed for conservation as a distinct entity (IWC 2004). <br/></span></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The bottlenose dolphin is included in Annex II of the EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora. In 1996 the Ministers of Environment of Black Sea countries adopted cetacean conservation and research measures in the framework of the Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea (paragraph 62). The bottlenose dolphin is included as Data Deficient in the regional Black Sea Red Data Book (1999). However, in 2002 it was listed as Endangered in the Provisional List of Species of Black Sea Importance, an annex to the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol of the Bucharest Convention. The regional Conservation Plan for Cetaceans in the Black Sea has been drafted in accordance with the ACCOBAMS International Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">On a national level, Black  Sea cetaceans, including bottlenose dolphins, are protected by environmental laws, governmental decrees and national Red Data Books. The bottlenose dolphin is listed in the Red Data Books of Bulgaria, Georgia, Russia and Ukraine (which do not use the IUCN categories and criteria). In Russia and Ukraine, Red Book inscription means that a species should be monitored and managed by appropriate state/national programmes. Such a programme has existed in Ukraine since 1999 (the Delfin-programme adopted by the Ministry of Environment). Action Plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in Ukraine (2001) and Romania (2003) but they have no legal effect. The ACCOBAMS Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002) envisage the development of a pilot conservation and management project to benefit bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises in the well-defined area between Cape Sarych and Cape Khersones, southern Crimea (Ukraine).</p>
133714		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The range of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins includes the Black Sea proper; Kerch Strait along with the adjoining part of the Azov Sea (Tzalkin 1940, Birkun <em>et al.</em> 1997, Sokolov 1997); and the Turkish Straits System (TSS) (Kleinenberg 1956, Beaubrun 1995, Öztürk and <span lang="EN-US">Öztürk 1997<span lang="EN-US">) (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF, see link below). The genetic data suggest that the TSS constitutes an ecological barrier between the Black Sea dolphins and those in the Mediterranean, although limited gene flow between the two seas is probable. A possible vagrant from the Black Sea population was identified genetically in the western Mediterranean (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). </span></p>    <p><span lang="EN-US">The range of the Black Sea subspecies includes the territorial waters and exclusive economic zones of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine in the Black Sea; internal waters of Ukraine in the Black Sea (including the Dnieper-and-Boug Liman, Karkinitsky Bay and Donuzlav Lake); internal waters of Russia and Ukraine in the Kerch Strait and Azov Sea; and internal waters of Turkey, represented by the Turkish Straits System including the Bosphorus Strait, Marmara Sea and Dardanelles. <span lang="EN-US">There are a few records of bottlenose dolphins entering rive</span>rs, e.g. <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">the Danube in Romania (Police 1930, cited in<em> </em>Tomilin 1957) and the Dnieper in Ukraine (Birkun 2006)<span lang="EN-US">. <br/></span></span></p>  <p>Population structure within the Black Sea is likely (<span lang="EN-US">Bel’kovich 1996), with several subpopulations or “semi-resident” communities, including those that spend most of the year in geographically and ecologically different areas, <em>e.g</em>. northwestern Black Sea; coastal waters off the southern Crimea; Kerch Strait and adjoining portions of the Black Sea and Azov Sea; shelf waters off the Caucasian coast; Turkish Black Sea; and TSS.</p>[Note: It has been agreed that territorial waters of all six Black Sea countries constitute the 12-mile-wide aquatic strip along the coasts of the sea; marine boundaries of the countries coincide with the external (offshore) border of this strip. However, there are some areas where the sea runs deep inland (gulfs, bays, etc.), and in these places the 12-mile rule does not work. These water bodies are situated quite far from the state boundaries and constitute the so-called “internal [marine] waters” of the Black Sea countries.]
133714		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Bottlenose dolphins are distributed across the Black Sea shelf; they sometimes occur far offshore (Beaubrun 1995, Yaskin and Yukhov 1997). In the northern Black Sea they form scattered communities of some tens to approximately 150 animals in different places around Crimea, including the Kerch Strait and coastal waters off the western and southern extremities of the peninsula (Zatevakhin and Bel’kovich 1996, Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2004a, Birkun 2006). Accumulations also are known to form off the Russian Caucasus (Olga Shpak pers. comm.<span lang="EN-US"> 2005<span lang="EN-US">) and close to the Turkish coast (Sergey Krivokhizhin pers. comm.<span lang="EN-US">, 2005<span lang="EN-US">). Bottlenose dolphins typically aggregate during autumn, winter and spring in a relatively small area off southern Crimea between Cape Sarych and Cape Khersones (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2006). According to a 2-year photo-identification study, this “winter” accumulation consists of animals from other “summer” concentrations. Mean group sizes varied from 2.0 to 2.9 in different surveyed areas (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003, 2004a).&#160; <br/></span></span></p>  The peculiarities of cetacean ecology in the Black Sea are conditioned mainly by the high degree of geographical isolation of the sea, its relatively low salinity, significant seasonal fluctuations of water temperature, and the presence of anoxic water saturated with hydrogen sulphide below 100-250 m depth. Bottlenose dolphins are primarily piscivorous in the Black Sea, taking both benthic and pelagic fishes, large and small. A total of 16 fish species have been reported as prey off the Crimean and Caucasian coasts (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957, Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2000) including four species of mullet&#160; (<em>Lisa aurata</em>,<em> L. saliens</em>, <em>Mugil cephalus </em>and <em>M. so-iuy</em>).
133714		population	eng	The total population size is unknown. Region-wide estimates of absolute abundance, based on strip transect surveys carried out in the USSR (1967-1974) and Turkey (1987), have been discredited by the IWC Scientific Committee due to irremediable methodological and interpretive problems (Smith 1982, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). During most of the 20th century, the bottlenose dolphin was considered the least abundant of the three cetacean species in the Black Sea (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976, Yaskin and Yukhov 1997). During the last decade, bottlenose dolphins have become prevalent in coastal waters of the northern Black  Sea (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2004b). The estimated sighting rate increased by a factor of five between 1995 and 1997-1998. There is an annual autumn accumulation of bottlenose dolphins in waters close to the southern extremity of the Crimea (Cape Fiolent – Cape Sarych). Groups of hundreds of animals migrate every autumn to this relatively small area from the eastern and, probably, other parts of the Black  Sea (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2004b, Birkun 2006). Estimates of abundance from recent line transect surveys in different parts of the range (see Table 1 in the attached PDF, see link below) suggest that present population size is at least several 1,000s.<br/>    <p><strong>Population Trend:&#160; </strong><span lang="EN-US">In the 20th century, the number of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins was reduced by direct killing for the cetacean-processing industry, which continued until 1983. The numbers of animals taken were not recorded accurately; much of the catch data was recorded as numbers of animals undifferentiated to species (all three Black Sea cetacean species were targeted) and by wet weight aggregates (e.g. <span lang="EN-US">tons of small cetaceans landed). Nevertheless, it can be inferred that the population size of <em>T. t. ponticus</em> had been reduced<span lang="EN-US"> by many thousands as a result of these direct kills by the time of the total ban on the Black Sea dolphin fishery (see “Threats” section). <span lang="EN-US">It is suspected that during the period from 1983-2005, the population had a tendency to increase. However, it is also suspected that recovery was compromised by a mortality event in 1990 and is continuing to be compromised by the persistent and probably increasing anthropogenic influences listed below under<span lang="EN-US"> “Threats”. <br/></span></span></p>  <strong>Generation Time:</strong>&#160; It was assumed that Black Sea bottlenose dolphins have a life history similar to <em>T. truncatus</em> elsewhere and therefore that the generation time is approximately 20 years. The interval between births is from two or three to six years (Tomilin 1957), but in captive females the reproductive cycle can be as short as two years (Ozharovskaya 1997). It was assumed that one female is unlikely to produce more than eight calves in her lifetime (Tomilin 1984, cited after: Ozharovskaya 1997). Sexual behaviour can be observed during the whole year with a peak in spring and early summer. The reproductive season (maximum five spontaneous ovulations) extends from March to October with a peak in June; the highest concentrations of testosterone in males were recorded in July and the lowest in January (Ozharovskaya 1997). Gestation lasts 12 months. Lactation can last more than 1.5 years.
133714		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">In the past, the population was subject to extensive commercial killing. Bottlenose dolphins were <span lang="EN-US">taken by all Black Sea countries for manufacturing oils<span lang="EN-US">, paint, glue<span lang="EN-US">, varnish, <span lang="EN-US">foodstuffs, medicine<span lang="EN-US">, soap, <span lang="EN-US">cosmetics, leather, “fish” meal<span lang="EN-US"> and bone fertilizer (Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957,<span lang="EN-US"> Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1992). <span lang="EN-US">The total number of animals killed is unknown; however, it is generally acknowledged that all <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetacean populations, including bottlenose dolphins, were greatly reduced by the dolphin fishery (IWC 1983, 1992, 2004). It has been roughly estimated that between the early <span lang="EN-US">1930s and mid 1950s bottlenose dolphins constituted only 0.5% of the aggregate numbers of Black Sea cetaceans killed and processed in the USSR (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956) including present-day Russia, Ukraine and Georgia. The statistics of the fishery were commonly expressed as total weight or total numbers of animals in the catch without species differentiation. Using the value of 0.5%, Zemsky (1996) estimated that a total of only 4,279 bottlenose dolphins were taken in the USSR (1946-1966) and Bulgaria (1958-1966), with yearly variation from 30 (in 1966) to 656 (in 1959). These figures are very likely underestimated to a great extent for the following reasons: (a) in spring 1946, more than 3,000 bottlenose dolphins were caught during a single day in one location close to the southern Crimea (Kleinenberg 1956); (b) in 1961, the Bulgarian cetacean fishery concentrated almost exclusively on bottlenose dolphins and about 13,000 of them were taken (Nikolov 1963 cited in<em> </em><span lang="EN-US">Sal’nikov 1967); (c) in April 1966, a single dolphin-processing factory in Novorossiysk, Russia, processed 53 bottlenose dolphins (Danilevsky and Tyutyunnikov 1968).</span></span></span></span></span> <br/></span></p>  <p>Thus, taking into consideration the unknown but presumably significant size of the Turkish and Romanian catches, it can be inferred that the number of bottlenose dolphins killed before the mid 1960s was sometimes very high. <span lang="EN-US">From 1976 to 1981, bottlenose dolphins<span lang="EN-US"> were believed to account for 2-3<span lang="EN-US">% of the total catch in the Turkish cetacean fishery, which took an estimated 34,000-44,000 small cetaceans annually (IWC 1983; Klinowska 1991<span lang="EN-US">). This would imply 680-1,320 bottlenose dolphins per year, or 4,080-7,920 for the six years all told. No reliable information is available on illegal commercial killing of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> bottlenose dolphins since the ban on cetacean fisheries in 1983. Isolated cases of deliberate killing and harassment (with pyrotechnic devices and firearms) have been reported in coastal fisheries. For instance, at least two bottlenose dolphins were reportedly shot in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Balaklava</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region></st1:place> (S. Popov pers. comm. 2004).&#160;</span></span> <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Since the mid 1960s, many hundreds of bottlenose dolphins (probably >1,000, not including those that died during capture operations<span lang="EN-US">) have been live-captured in the former <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> for military, commercial and scientific purposes (Birkun 2002a). The capture operations sometimes <span lang="EN-US">cause accidental <span lang="EN-US">(but usually unreported) death<span lang="EN-US">s. In recent years, 10-20 animals have been taken annually in May–June from a small area in the Kerch Strait, Russia. During the 1980s–early 2000s the number of facilities for dolphin shows and “swim with dolphins” programmes greatly increased in <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> countries. The export of bottlenose dolphins from Russia and Ukraine for permanent and seasonal shows also expanded, for example, to Argentina, Bahrain, Byelorus, Chile, Cyprus, Egypt, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Kuwait, Lithuania, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, and former Yugoslavia countries. A few captive animals were exported from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Yugoslavia</st1:country-region> and then re-exported to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Malta</st1:place></st1:country-region>. According to CITES statistics, at least 92 individuals were removed from the Black Sea region during 1990-1999 (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003) and Russia reportedly has exported at least 66 for travelling shows since 1997 (Fisher and Reeves 2005).</span></span> <br/></p>    <p>At present, incidental mortality in fishing gear is probably one of the main threats to <em>T. t. ponticus</em>, although these animals have never been the predominant species in national cetacean bycatch statistics. They constituted no more than 3% of the totals in the reports from Black Sea countries during the 1990s (Birkun 2002b). At least 200-300 bottlenose dolphins were estimated as being taken incidentally in Turkish fisheries each year (Öztürk 1999). They are known to be susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing nets, including bottom-set gillnets for turbot (<em>Psetta maeotica</em>), spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>), sturgeon (<em>Acipenser </em>spp.) and sole (<em>Solea </em>spp.), purse seines for mullet (<em>Mugil</em> spp. and <em>Lisa</em> spp.) and anchovy (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus</em>), trammel nets and trap nets. However, only bottom-set gillnets are thought to take significant numbers, especially during the turbot fishing season between April and June.</p><p>Small-scale coastal fisheries also affect Black Sea bottenose dolphins indirectly by depleting their prey populations.</p>Declining trends have been observed in the abundance of indigenous mullets (<em>M. cephalus </em>and <em>Lisa</em> spp.) (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). At the same time, the effects of a suspected decrease in cetacean forage resources (Bushuyev 2000) might be offset at least to some extent by the introduced far-east mullet, <em>M. so-iuy</em>, which has become abundant in the northern Black Sea since the 1990s (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). In fact, it may be responsible for the relocation of bottlenose dolphin groups and the recent marked increases in density along the Crimean coast (see “Abundance”).<br/><br/>According to annual compilations of cetacean stranding records in <st1:place w:st="on">Crimea</st1:place> (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), there was a prominent peak in <em>T. t. ponticus</em> strandings in 1990 (20 dead animals, representing 44% of all bottlenose dolphin strandings reported from 1989-1996). The primary cause and magnitude of that spike in bottlenose dolphin mortality remains unclear, although it can be inferred that many more than just 20 animals died. Severe purulent pneumonia was revealed in some cases. The multi-microbial pollution from untreated sewage in coastal waters poses a chronic risk of opportunistic bacterial infections to bottlenose dolphins, and there is evidence that they (as well as other <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetaceans) are exposed to morbillivirus infection (Birkun 2002c). Another ongoing problem (as a potential source of exotic infections and genetic “pollution”) is the poorly managed intentional releases and spontaneous escapes of captive bottlenose dolphins and other marine mammals from dolphinaria or oceanaria (e.g., Veit <em>et al</em>. 1997, ACCOBAMS/SC 2005).
133715		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place.
133715		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina, Province of de Mendoza, Departments Malargüe and San Rafael.
133715		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. chachahuensis</span> grows in rocky areas.
133715		population	eng	No information on population size is available, but it is presumably declining because of impacts to the habitat.
133715		threats	eng	Major threats include: smallholder livestock (overgrazing), mining activities, plant collection for subsistence use, and invasive alien grazers.
133722		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from some protected areas: Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Quảng Bình) and Bat Dai Son Nature Reserve (Hậu Giang).
133722		distribution	eng	Recorded from Viet Nam in the provinces of: Bắc Kạn, Cao Bằng, Hà Giang, Hoà Bình, Nghệ An, Quảng Bình, Sơn La. The species is principally restricted to limestone karst areas of these provinces.<br/><br/>It may occur in adjoining provinces of Lao PDR that share the same limestone geological formations (Sơn La/Houaphan, Quảng Bình/Khammouan and Savannakhet). <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rupestris</span> is also possibly found in adjoining parts of China (Hà Giang-Cao Bằng/Guanxi, Hà Giang/SE Yunnan).
133722		habitat	eng	The species grows on rocky limestone ridges and steep slopes. Associated conifers vary according to location: <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudotsuga sinensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Keteleeria</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. in the northern localities; <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrycarpus imbricatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrydium elatum</span> in the southern localities (Quảng Bình).
133722		population	eng	This species is rare in most provinces although it may be locally common in specific localities. The total population estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals. Seedlings and regeneration of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rupestris</span> is rare and hence recruitment is poor.
133722		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. rupestris </span>is threatened by selective logging for timber, general deforestation and forest degradation.
133729		conservation	eng	<p><p><p><p><p>The species <em>D. delphis</em> is listed globally as Least Concern by IUCN. At the same time, the Mediterranean population is listed as Endangered (see Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003), and concerns regarding the Black Sea population were expressed in the IUCN/SSC 2002-2010 Conservation Action Plan (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).</p><p><br/></p><p>Commercial killing of Black Sea common dolphins, as well as other Black Sea cetaceans, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. Black Sea states assumed certain international obligations to protect cetaceans as contracting parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention), Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The common dolphin is included in EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora; D. delphis is listed in its Annex IV (Animal and Plant Species of Community Interest in Need of Strict Protection). In 2003 the IWC Scientific Committee’s Sub-Committee on Small Cetaceans recommended that the Black Sea population should be managed for conservation as a distinct entity (IWC 2004).</p><p><br/></p><p>The Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea (1996) envisages some special cetacean-oriented conservation and research actions. The common dolphin was included as Data Deficient in the Black Sea Red Data Book (1999). Nevertheless, it is listed as Endangered in the Provisional List of Species of Black Sea Importance, an annex to the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol (2002) of the Bucharest Convention. The regional Conservation Plan for Black Sea Cetaceans prepared in accordance with the ACCOBAMS International Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002) was adopted by the 3rd Meeting of Parties to ACCOBAMS (Dubrovnik, Croatia, 22-25 October 2007).</p><p><br/></p><p>On a national level, Black Sea cetaceans, including common dolphins, are protected by environmental legislation and governmental decrees. Action plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in Ukraine (2001) and Romania (2003) but they have no legal effect at present. The common dolphin is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. In Russia and Ukraine, Red Book inscription means appropriate monitoring and management programs should be implemented at state or national levels. Such a program has existed in Ukraine since 1999.</p></p></p></p></p>
133729		distribution	eng	The range of common dolphins encompasses almost the entire Black Sea, including territorial waters and exclusive economic zones of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine, and internal waters of Ukraine in Karkinitsky Bay (Kleinenberg 1956; Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976; Birkun 2006) and Turkey including the Bosphorus Strait and Marmara  Sea (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). Common dolphins do not occur in the Azov Sea and normally avoid the Kerch  Strait, although a single live stranding was recorded there in 1994 at the time of a morbillivirus epizootic (Birkun <em>et al.</em> 1999; see distribution map, Figure 1, in the attached PDF). There is no reliable information from the Dardanelles Straits connecting the Marmara and Aegean  Seas, nor is there any reliable evidence of movement by common dolphins through the Turkish Straits System. <br/><br/>  [Note: It has been agreed that territorial waters of all six Black Sea countries constitute the 12-mile-wide aquatic strip along the coasts of the sea; marine boundaries of the countries coincide with the external (offshore) border of this strip. However, there are some areas where the sea runs deep inland (gulfs, bays, etc.), and in these places the 12-mile rule does not work. These water bodies are situated quite far from the state boundaries and constitute the so-called “internal [marine] waters” of the Black Sea countries.]
133729		habitat	eng	Common dolphins are distributed mainly offshore and visit shallow coastal waters following seasonal aggregations and regular mass migrations of their preferred prey, small pelagic fishes such as Black Sea anchovy (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus</em>) and Black Sea sprat (<em>Sprattus sprattus phalaericus</em>) (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976). Annual winter concentrations of anchovies in the southeastern Black Sea and, to a lesser degree, south of Crimea create favourable conditions for wintering concentrations of dolphins. Summer concentrations of sprats in the northwestern, northeastern and central Black Sea attract common dolphins to quite different feeding grounds. These cetaceans avoid waters with low salinity, and this may explain why they never occur in the Sea of Azov and, normally, in the Kerch Strait. The mean size of common dolphin groups recorded in 2003-05 varied from 2.9 to 5.4 (Krivokhizhin 2006 pers. comm.), and many such groups can be observed in close proximity to one other.
133729		population	eng	<p>The population size is unknown.<span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">&#160; Region-wide estimates based on strip transect surveys in the USSR (1967-1974; Zemsky and Yablokov 1974) and Turkey (1987; Çelikkale <em>et al. </em>1989) have been shown to be fundamentally flawed for a number of methodological analytical reasons so their use as indicators of absolute abundance is unwarranted (e.g., IWC 1992, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). Nevertheless, it is generally recognized that for almost the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the abundance of common dolphins in the Black Sea was far higher than that of bottlenose dolphins, <em>Tursiops truncatus ponticus</em>, and harbour porpoises, <em>Phocoena phocoena relicta</em> (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976). <br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p>Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate common dolphin abundance in <span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">a few parts of the range <span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">(see Table 1 in attached PDF)</span><span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">. The survey areas are small relative to the total range of the subspecies. R<span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">esults <span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">suggest that current population size is at least several 10,000s, and possibly 100,000 or more.<br/> <br/> <strong><span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">Population Trend:</span></strong><span times="" new="" roman="" =""=""><br/></span></span></p><p><span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">By the mid<span times="" new="" roman="" =""=""> 1960s, the population was depleted due to long-running overexploitation, which involved the killed of many 100,000s of common dolphins in the mid-20th century (IWC 1983; see “Threats”). The directed takes continued until 1983 when cetacean hunting finally ceased in Turkey. The numbers of animals taken were not recorded systematically or reliably, and therefore total removals have to be estimated indirectly. It can be inferred that the <span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">number of common dolphins was much reduced<span times="" new="" roman="" =""=""> by the directed kills. It might be assumed that during the period from <span times="" new="" roman="" =""="">1983-2005, the population was increasing. However, this may not be the case in view of mass mortality events (in 1990 and 1994) and the pronounced depletion of these dolphins’ primary prey species during the same period. The population has not fully recovered, and in fact it may have recovered only very little, from the depletion caused by hunting. Further decline seems likely if degradation of the Black Sea environment continues.</span></span></p>
133729		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Last century, the population was depleted because of directed takes. The total number of animals killed is unknown, but it was estimated that before the <span lang="EN-US">mid 1950s common dolphins comprised 94.8% of the total number of Black Sea cetaceans killed and processed in the former Soviet  Union (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956). Based on this value, it was calculated that during the last five years of the cetacean fishery in the USSR and Bulgaria (1962-66), these two countries landed 121,395 common dolphins, while during the preceding 31 years (1931-61) a further 1,449,304 had been landed mainly by the USSR (Zemsky 1996). <span lang="EN-US">Between 1976 and 1981, </span><em>D. d. ponticus</em><span lang="EN-US"> was believed to account for 15-16% (or 37,500-40,000 individuals) of the Turkish catch, estimated for that period as 250,000 animals of all three species (IWC 1983). </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Reduced prey availability has been considered an ongoing major threat to <em>D. d. ponticus</em> since the late 1980s (Bushuyev 2000). Of two mass mortality events that killed unknown but certainly large numbers of common dolphins in winter<em>–</em>spring 1990 and summer<em>–</em>autumn 1994 (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), the latter was recognised as being the result of a morbillivirus epizootic (Birkun <em>et al.</em> 1999). However, both die-offs coincided with a drastic decline in the abundance of both principal prey species, anchovy and sprat, which has been blamed on overfishing, eutrophication (e.g. water hypoxia) and the explosive increase of the introduced ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em> (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997).&#160; The total commercial catch of anchovies declined by 12-fold (from 468,800 tonnes in the 1987-88 fishing season to 39,100 tonnes in 1990-91), while landings of sprat fell by a factor of nearly eight (from 105,200 tonnes in 1989 to 13,800 tonnes in 1993) (Prodanov <em>et al.</em> 1997).&#160; This <span lang="EN-US">correlation between large die-offs of Black Sea common dolphins and prey scarcity could signify that reduced prey availability compromised the health of the dolphins and increased their susceptibility to viral infection.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Other known threats (bycatch in pelagic trawls, parasitic invasions) are of secondary importance (at least at present).
133733		conservation	eng	<p>Portscatho: small-scale hand-clearance of grass on top of soil-capped walls.</p>  <p>Talland Bay: currently grazed by ponies which will help to keep grassland open and disturbed.</p>  <p><br/></p><p>Material from Talland Bay is in <em>ex situ</em> cryopreservation facility (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew).</p>  </span>
133733		distribution	eng	The extant population is confined to the United Kingdom, being found in two tiny areas in Cornwall, England:&#160;    <st1:placename w:st="on">Talland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype> (AOO 17 cm²<sup></sup>) and at Portscatho (AOO 15 cm²).
133733		habitat	eng	<p>Short open grassland or bare ground on free-draining, summer-droughted, non-calcareous circumneutral loamy soils and on top of soil-capped field walls (‘Cornish hedges’) mostly coastal. Contrary to statements that&#160; <em>W. multicapsularis</em> is a dynamic colonist, it is now understood to behave as a perennial stayer and is faithful to sites, persisting if the niche is maintained.</p>  <p></p>
133733		population	eng	<p>    </p>    <p>The species is found at two locations separated by about 55 km on the south coast of Cornwall:</p>  <p>Talland Bay: 3 – 4 subpopulations over approx. 200 m.</p>  <p>Portscatho: 3 subpopulations over a 500 m linear stretch.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
133733		threats	eng	<p>Neglect (lack of grazing), competition from vascular plant growth and other bryophytes, nutrient enrichment and scrub encroachment are severe and increasing threats.</p>  <p></p>
133734		conservation	eng	The local municipality has proclaimed the site a protected area and has erected a plaque at the site to that effect.<p></p>
133734		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one locality in <st1:country-region u6:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>: Platklip, <st1:place u6:st="on"><st1:city u6:st="on">Stellenbosch</st1:city>, <st1:state u6:st="on">Western Cape</st1:state></st1:place>. The area falls within the Fynbos Biome and has a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall and hot, dry summers.<p></p>  <p></p>
133734		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>  It grows seasonally on shallow, moist sand in hollows on a dome-shaped granite outcrop, ca. 80 m above sea level.</p>  <p></p>
133734		population	eng	Know only from a single locality, and the population is presumably very small.
133734		threats	eng	Nearby to Platklip are sewerage works and a municipal dumping site.&#160; However, according to information supplied by Dr. C. Boucher of <st1:place u4:st="on"><st1:placename u4:st="on">Stellenbosch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype u4:st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>, by his instigation and that of like-minded associates, the local municipality has proclaimed the above granite outcrop a protected area and has erected a plaque at the site, to that effect. So, for the foreseeable future, this locality is not under immediate threat. However, as this little species is only known from this one locality, it remains highly vulnerable.<p></p>
133954		conservation	eng	None in place
133954		distribution	eng	China: Fangcheng in Guangxi.
133954		habitat	eng	Under stones or in crevices of stones of mountain streams
133954		population	eng	No information available.
133954		threats	eng	Unknown.
133955		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Gunung Goal area.
133955		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Known only from type locality in Gunung Goal, Sungei Siput, Perak, Pahang, northern Malaysian peninsula.
133955		habitat	eng	Not known, presumably semi-terrestrial in habits.
133955		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133955		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The potential development of the areas, long "protected" due to insurgency problems, is a concern.
133956		conservation	eng	No. Retention of the protected status Danum Valley Conservation area should ensure its survival.
133956		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah, Island of Borneo, endemic to the Danum Valley Conservation Area.
133956		habitat	eng	Terrestrial. Holotype was found hiding in a dry tree stump on a ridge in primary rainforest, some distance away from the nearest stream. It was very agile on land.
133956		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133956		threats	eng	No immediate threat, as its range is within Danum Valley Conservation Area.
133957		conservation	eng	None in place
133957		distribution	eng	China: Huitong, Loudi, Xinhua and Chenxi in Hunan Province. Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area.
133957		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133957		population	eng	No information available.
133957		threats	eng	Unknown.
133958		conservation	eng	The forest of Lom Kao have been designated to Khao Kho National park.
133958		distribution	eng	Lomkao and Lomkao District, Phetchabon Province, Thailand, Asia. Lomkao District has an area of 927km².
133958		habitat	eng	Holotype was found in burrows made in the soil of an orchard and a forest.
133958		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133958		threats	eng	Species of this genus are considered pretty as pets. Collected for food.
133959		conservation	eng	None in place
133959		distribution	eng	China: Guangdong Province.
133959		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133959		population	eng	No information available.
133959		threats	eng	Unknown.
133960		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
133960		distribution	eng	China: Kunming, Hekon, Daweishan, Geijiu/Geiji, Mengzi/Menzhi, Shiping, Mengla, Kaiyuan/Kei Yuan, Xichou Counties in Yunnan Province.
133960		habitat	eng	Unknown.
133960		population	eng	No information available.
133960		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
133961		conservation	eng	None in place
133961		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Almost certainly endemic to Sarawak.
133961		habitat	eng	Considering the physiognomy of the species, it is likely to be fully aquatic and probably occurs in clean mountain streams.
133961		population	eng	No information available.
133961		threats	eng	Not known, species known only from old museum material.
133962		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133962		distribution	eng	Central New Guinea: Indonesia: west Irian Jaya; and Papua New Guinea.
133962		habitat	eng	Unknown.
133962		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133962		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
133963		conservation	eng	None in place
133963		distribution	eng	Thailand: Chiang Khong District, Chiang Rai Province, northwesternThailand.
133963		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133963		population	eng	No information available.
133963		threats	eng	Unknown.
133964		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
133964		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park.
133964		habitat	eng	Cavernicolous, mainly aquatic species. Demonstrating pale body pigmentation. Found in limestone area.
133964		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133964		threats	eng	No clear threat, because its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.
133965		conservation	eng	None in place
133965		distribution	eng	China: North Hengduan Mountains Area; Yongsheng in Yunnan.
133965		habitat	eng	Temperature 20°C, pH 6.5.
133965		population	eng	No information available.
133965		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
133966		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133966		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Collected 14 km west of St. Domingo, tributary of Rio Toachi.
133966		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
133966		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133966		threats	eng	None known.
133967		conservation	eng	None in place
133967		distribution	eng	Thailand: Pa Dang, Mae Sot District; Pa Charoen Waterfall, Mae Sot District; Tak Province.
133967		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133967		population	eng	No information available.
133967		threats	eng	Unknown.
133968		conservation	eng	Unknown.
133968		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Central Borneo. This species is known only from the type specimen from Borneo. There have been no records in over 35 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.
133968		habitat	eng	Unknown.
133968		population	eng	No information available.
133968		threats	eng	Unknown.
133969		conservation	eng	None in place and it is not found in a protected area.
133969		distribution	eng	India: Karnataka state: Coorg [Kodagu] is a district of Karnataka state in southern India. The species is known only from the type locality, Coorg, Karnataka, which is adjacent to northen Kerala, southwestern India.
133969		habitat	eng	Ecology not known.
133969		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
133969		threats	eng	No recent information on this species and no information about population size, trends or threats.
133970		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Langkawi highlands and monitoring of pollution levels. The Durian Perangin water is near Gunung Raya forest reserve, which is a protected area.
133970		distribution	eng	Malaysia: northern Malaysian peninsula. The type locality is Durian Perangin Waterfall, Pulau Langkawi, Kedah (6 23'58"N, 99 50'05"E). Only known from type locality, but probably found on most of the highlands of Pulau Langkawi. Endemic to highlands of Pulau Langkawi, Kedah.
133970		habitat	eng	The species seems to have semi-terrestrial tendencies and seems to prefer burrows under shaded rocks in the moist area adjacent to fast flowing streams, the substrate being mud and soil. The animals dig relatively deep but gently sloping burrows at least 20 cm in length. These crabs are not very aggressive and stay for long periods out of water, however, they appear to be extremely susceptible to high temperature (Ng 1988).
133970		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133970		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Tourism.
133971		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133971		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi, Kerala, southwestern India.
133971		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from under stones in moist soil in a dry stream margin, in a shady area, where <em>Pilarta anuka</em>, new species, is syntopic.
133971		population	eng	No information available.
133971		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
133972		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133972		distribution	eng	Ecuador: three specimens collected 32 km north of Puyo, from a spring in the forest.
133972		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133972		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133972		threats	eng	None known.
133973		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133973		distribution	eng	Mexico: Sonora State.
133973		habitat	eng	Known from a river which runs in the limits of the Sonoran Desert. During a recent trip (July 2007), no crabs were found and there have not been sightings by locals in a long time.
133973		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133973		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
133974		conservation	eng	None in place
133974		distribution	eng	China: Xinpin County (24 1N, 102 E), Yunnan Province.
133974		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133974		population	eng	No information available.
133974		threats	eng	Unknown.
133975		conservation	eng	None in place
133975		distribution	eng	Myanmar/Burma.
133975		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133975		population	eng	No information available.
133975		threats	eng	Unknown.
133976		conservation	eng	Conservation of the Maliau Basin area.
133976		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Maliau Basin.
133976		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Associated with tea-coloured waters of fast-flowing streams.
133976		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133976		threats	eng	No clear threat, due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of the Maliau Basin
133977		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.
133977		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Endemic to northern Kelantan (Malaysia). Thailand: Also found in immediately adjacent parts of southern Thailand near Sungai Golok Town (06°05'30.5"N 101°57'18.2"E).
133977		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.
133977		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133977		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Also collected for aquarium trade.
133978		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133978		distribution	eng	Mexico: Guerrero State, southern Mexico (not on the Pacific slope);  Rio La Parota, small tributary of the Pinela River, Municipio Ayutla de los Libres.
133978		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. Fed on by the river otter (<em>Lutra longicaudis annedectens</em>).
133978		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133978		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
133979		conservation	eng	None in place
133979		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone. Xingyi, Guizhou Province.
133979		habitat	eng	Average temperature 16.2°C.
133979		population	eng	No information available.
133979		threats	eng	Unknown.
133980		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133980		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru: Puerto Maldonaldo, southeast Peru (Department Loreto), Brazil: Amazonas and Para States, and Bolivia. This species is found in the entire length of the Amazon river from Peru to the mouth in Brazil. Its northern and southern distribution limits are unknown because large areas in the northern parts of the Amazon drainage system have yet to be explored, so the full range of this species is still unknown.
133980		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
133980		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
133980		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
133981		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133981		distribution	eng	Hondouras: Endemic to Roatan Island (133 km²) off the coast of Honduras.
133981		habitat	eng	Streams and small rivers on Roaten island.
133981		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133981		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. There have been major tourist impacts with lots of building and uncontrolled release of sewage; regulations are coming in to try to control these.
133982		conservation	eng	The species is found in Doi Sutep National Park
133982		distribution	eng	Thailand: from northwestern Thailand in the Chiangmai and Lampang areas. "Torrents du Mont Su Tep, Laos occidental"; Chiang Mai Province (Mae Nam Taeng and Mae Taeng); Mae Nam Ping Basin (19 07'N 98 58'E); Doi Saket; Lampang, on road to Thoen - 17 50'N 99 18'E; Nam Mae Khot, at 65 km milestone, road 1001.
133982		habitat	eng	This species is common in shallow, rock-strewn streams with relatively fast-flowing waters and does not normally burrow.
133982		population	eng	No information available.
133982		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
133983		conservation	eng	None in place
133983		distribution	eng	China: Roungshui (25.0N, 190.2E) and Ziyuan in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Congjiang and Rongjiang counties in Guizhou Province.
133983		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133983		population	eng	No information available.
133983		threats	eng	Unknown.
133984		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133984		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Ilan County (Chilan).
133984		habitat	eng	Unknown.
133984		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133984		threats	eng	Taiwan is highly populated, so although no specific threats are known, it is likely that this species will be subject to habitat loss and pollution.
133985		conservation	eng	None in place
133985		distribution	eng	India: Ganjam, Cachar Hills, Assam state.
133985		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133985		population	eng	No information available.
133985		threats	eng	Unknown.
133986		conservation	eng	None in place
133986		distribution	eng	Thailand: Chantaburi Province, eastern Thailand. Type specimen from Pong Nam Ron in Chantaburi Province is lost. (Yeo unpubl. data).
133986		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133986		population	eng	No information available.
133986		threats	eng	Unknown.
133987		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.
133987		distribution	eng	Endemic to Kinabalu area, Sabah above 1,000 m above sea level. Bundutuan, Luidan river, Kina-Balu, North Borneo, Malaysia.
133987		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Occurs in flowing streams with pristine waters and under forest cover. Also found in stagnant pools
133987		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133987		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within Kinabalu National Park. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
133988		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133988		distribution	eng	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department: Pacific drainage. This species is known only from a single locality in the San Juan River Basin (Campos 2005).
133988		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range between sea level and 50 m above sea level along the coastal plain of the Pacific, inferred from its type locality. The search for new specimens has been hampered due to public order problems in the region.
133988		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133988		threats	eng	None known.
133989		conservation	eng	Since 1990, the species has been known only from a 20 hectare area in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, but may be found in small numbers in other small isolated swampy parts in the adjacent areas. Continued protection of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and surrounding buffer areas is essential.
133989		distribution	eng	Singapore: only from a part of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest. The species is endemic to Singapore.
133989		habitat	eng	Found in well-shaded acid water swamp forests with tea coloured water of low pH (5.0-5.5). Digs burrows by the side of muddy banks. Very secretive, only active nocturnally. Feeds on plant matter predominantly, but also scavenges for animal matter when the opportunity arises.
133989		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133989		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and/or deterioration.
133990		conservation	eng	The retention of designated protected areas.
133990		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Widespread throughout Sarawak. Indonesia: Kalimantan: Also found in western and northwestern Kalimantan.
133990		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic in all types of water bodies, from stagnant pools to flowing peat swamp or clear-water streams and rivers.
133990		population	eng	No information available.
133990		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within areas throughout its range.
133991		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133991		distribution	eng	Mexico: State of Jalisco.
133991		habitat	eng	The type locality consist of a steep slope flanking a stream flowing along Highway 110, 38 km south of Mazamitla, Jalisco, Mexico. The crab was collected near a pumping station in a damp area surrounding a drip from a leaking pipe. This site is in the Rio Tuxpan watershed which is a tributary of the Rio Coahuayana.
133991		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133991		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
133992		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Redang forests and monitoring of pollution levels as well as freshwater use.
133992		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Pulau Redang Island, Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Pulau Redang, Terengganu.
133992		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with rocky streams with fast-flowing waters and adjacent small pools. Biology not well studied.
133992		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133992		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The development of Redang as a resort island will increase land-use threats and over-use of very limited freshwater supplies.
133993		conservation	eng	Unknown.
133993		distribution	eng	Philippines: Balabac Island of Palawan Islands; Negros Island of Visayan Islands.
133993		habitat	eng	Unknown.
133993		population	eng	No information available.
133993		threats	eng	Unknown.
133994		conservation	eng	None in place
133994		distribution	eng	China: West Hengduan Mountain area, southwest China; Lushui in Yunnan.
133994		habitat	eng	Temperature 12-16°C, pH 5.6-6.
133994		population	eng	No information available.
133994		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountain area.
133995		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133995		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil (Para, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul States), Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. In Paraguay it is found in President Hayes, Concepcion, Boquerion, and Guaira Departments in the basins of the Tapajos, Paraguay, Parana, La Plata drainage, Confuso, and Pilcomayo river basins close to Argentina. In Argentina it is found in Santa Fe, Corrientes, Chaco, and Misiones Provinces.
133995		habitat	eng	Found in lakes and rivers where it occurs in floating macrophytes, between old leaves, in the holes of trunks as well as under submerged and immersed trunks and other objects. River, remora, swamp, submerged leaf litter, aquatic vegetation, woody debris.
133995		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
133995		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
133996		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133996		distribution	eng	Peru: The western Amazon basin in Peru (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996) from 20 km sw Ikitos, tributary of Rio Nanay. This species is also found near Pucallpa.
133996		habitat	eng	Crabs found in leaves and soil in clear water an din leaves in black-water-coagulate.
133996		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133996		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
133997		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133997		distribution	eng	Peru: This species is known only from the holotype from the Department Loreto in the Rio Ucayali and Amazonas basin.
133997		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
133997		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
133997		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
133998		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
133998		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hunan, and Hubei Provinces. From Qianshan, Leping, Yushan, Yiyang, Jiujiang, Nanchang, Poyang, Xinjian, Gaoan, Yifeng, Jinxian, Guixi, Yichun, Yugan, Shanrao, Fengcheng, Chongren, Fuzhou, Guangfeng, Nancheng, Ninggang, Ruijin Counties in Jiangxi Province. From Guilin and Yangshuo Counties in Guangxi Province. Zhijiang, Huangpi, Puqi, Tianmen, Mianyang counties in Hubei Province. And from Taoyuan, Yuegang, Xiangtan in Hunan Province.
133998		habitat	eng	Unknown.
133998		population	eng	No information available.
133998		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
133999		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
133999		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Brazil-Venezuela border: Rancho Grande; Aragua State.
133999		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
133999		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
133999		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134000		conservation	eng	None in place.
134000		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cessar Department: Curumani, San Sebastian tream, 100 m asl, foothills of the Sierrania de Perija (Campos 2005).
134000		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 100 m asl in the foothills of the Sierrania de Perija.
134000		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134000		threats	eng	None known.
134001		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134001		distribution	eng	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department: Pacific drainage of Colombia, Cajambre River (Campos 2005).
134001		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 500 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134001		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134001		threats	eng	None known.
134002		conservation	eng	None in place.
134002		distribution	eng	Mexico: Oaxaca State. Only known from the male holotype collected in 1964.
134002		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134002		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134002		threats	eng	None known.
134003		conservation	eng	None in place
134003		distribution	eng	China: Xinping (24, 0N, 101.9E), Yuxi County, Yunnan Province.
134003		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134003		population	eng	No information available.
134003		threats	eng	Unknown.
134004		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134004		distribution	eng	Taiwan: southern Taiwan (Hengchun Peninsula, south of Fenggang River - Taitung county); Taitung County (Tawu).
134004		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134004		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134004		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134005		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134005		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cordillera Occidental, Paso de Galápagos, Serranía de Los Paraguas (4º47’30’’N, 76º09’02’’ W), 2,500 m asl, approximately 11 km NE of the  Municipio de El Cairo, Departamento del Valle del Cauca, Colombia. From Colombia.
134005		habitat	eng	Crabs were collected in a brook, in madrigueras and small pools, hidden underneath humid vegetation from a muddy substrate, with a predominance of abundant organic matter.
134005		population	eng	Unknown.
134005		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution.
134006		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134006		distribution	eng	Ethiopia: Kaffa Province: Bidiru River near village of Sokoro, about 100 km NE of Jimma; Atule River 8 miles south of Jimma; Yabo River 13 miles N of Jimma near village of Yabo; Marauwa River, 10 km E. of Jimma; Marauwa River, 8 miles east of Jimma; Marauwa River, Jimma area; Karsa River, Karsa, near Jimma; Bidaru River, Jimma Area. Illubabor Province, Dabama River. Wollega Province, Lor-Chissa River. Rushubi.
134006		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134006		population	eng	Unknown.
134006		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134007		conservation	eng	None in place
134007		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Dran, Langbian Plateau, South-Central Viet Nam (Yeo and Ng 1999)
134007		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134007		population	eng	No information available.
134007		threats	eng	Unknown.
134008		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134008		distribution	eng	Mexico: Oaxaca State, and Colima, Jalisco State. It is found in more than one locality: its distribution extends from the state of Colima to Morelos in Michoacan on the banks of Lake Chapala and in the rivers and their tributaries associated with the lake; also found in the municipality of Huetamo.
134008		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134008		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134008		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134009		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134009		distribution	eng	Ukraine: Crimea. Turkmenistan: Mary Province, Transcapsia, Takhta-Bazar, Murpat-system. IRAN: Khorasan Province.
134009		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134009		population	eng	No information available.
134009		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134010		conservation	eng	None in place, not found in a protected area.
134010		distribution	eng	Australia: Queensland: Cape York, northern Australia. Headwaters of One Mile Creek, a tributary of the Alice River. Known only from type locality. Restricted distribution. Mitchell-Alice Rivers National Park, near Normanton [15°28′10″S, 142°05′07″E] (371 km²), 1748 km northwest of Brisbane.
134010		habitat	eng	A burrowing freshwater species. Caught in a small seasonal creek, about 200 km from the sea. The creek only flows during the wet season (Nov. to April) at which time the crabs number in their thousands in shallow water.<br/><br/>During the wet season, the crabs are very active during the day. In the dry season crabs occupy sandy burrows amongst the roots of fringing paperbark trees (<em>Melaleuca</em> spp.).
134010		population	eng	During the wet season (Nov. to April) crabs number in their thousands in shallow water.
134010		threats	eng	<em>A. tigrina</em> was first introduced to the Sydney aquarium trade in 1991. It has since sold steadily under the market name 'tiger crab' along with another freshwater crab marketed as the 'porcelain crab'. This species is only abundant during the wet season in an area that is currently leasehold pastoral land and lies largely within the Alice River Mining Field. Gold mining is a foreseeable threat to the habitat of the species.
134011		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134011		distribution	eng	Thailand: Khun Yuam District, and in hole in rice field Huai Chong Kham; Mae Hong Son Province. Area of Khun Yuam district is 1,700 km².
134011		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134011		population	eng	Last collected in 1979.
134011		threats	eng	The use of pesticides in rice fields.
134012		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134012		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a river close to the village of Bayanga, in the Central African Republic.
134012		habitat	eng	The type specimens were collected in rainforest from a large river (as opposed to a small stream) in a baited trap.
134012		population	eng	No information available.
134012		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134013		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134013		distribution	eng	Australia: Queensland: Cape York, northern Australia, NE coastal region; known only from a limited area, Torres Strait south to Musgrave Station, Normanby River, Cape York.
134013		habitat	eng	This species lives in burrows.
134013		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134013		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134014		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134014		distribution	eng	Guatemala: small cave crabs, Alta Verapaz Department - Grottes de la Sierra de Pampur. Mexico: Chiapas.
134014		habitat	eng	Truly troglobitic. Mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala.  Grottes C3 and G3 in the Sierra de Pampur, Guatemala, and other elevations around the town of Coban are a continuation of the karstic topography of Chiapas (Mexico). A blind crab, depigmented, with long slender legs.
134014		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134014		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134015		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.
134015		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Kinabalu area; Luidan River, Bundutuan, Mount Kinabalu.
134015		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic.
134015		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134015		threats	eng	No immediate threat, as range falls within Kinabalu National Park.
134016		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134016		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea
134016		population	eng	No information available.
134016		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134017		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134017		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Ngakau Surat, 1.5 km inside cave, Sumpurkudus, Sumatra Barat and Sing Karah Sumatra.
134017		habitat	eng	Unknown. Found deep within a cave.
134017		population	eng	No information available.
134017		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134018		conservation	eng	None in place
134018		distribution	eng	Indonesia, Sumatra, Java.
134018		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134018		population	eng	No information available.
134018		threats	eng	Unknown.
134019		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134019		distribution	eng	China: Shaanxi, Sichuan and Hubei provinces.  Middle China region, West Mountain Subregion (of Hengduan Mountain area), Basin zone. Shaanxi (=Shensi) Province: Hang-Tschong Fu, Shensi, 800 m. Ningqiang, Hanzhong. Sichuan Province: Qingchuan, Mingshan, Yaan, Mianyang, Chengdu, Wangcang, Yibin, Gauxian, Xuyong, Dazu, Hechuan, Nanchuan, Nantong, Peiling, Fengdu, Chonqing, Dianjiang, Wulong, Shizhu, Daxian. Hubei Province: Shiyan.
134019		habitat	eng	The subalpine zone in the southern Hengduan Mountains has abundant conifer forests with distinct forest types of hemlock, spruce, and fir species. The Hengduan Shan is a mountain range (Latitude: 27° 30' N, Longitude: 99° 0' E) that forms the border between Myanmar and Yunnan Province, China.  Largely covered in subalpine conifer forests, elevations range from 1,300 to 4,000 m. The dense, pristine forest, the relative isolation and the fact that most of the area remained free from glaciation during the ice ages provides a very complex habitat with a high degree of biological diversity. This mountainous region is home to the rare and endangered Giant Panda. Other species native to the mountains are the Chinese yew (<em>Taxus chinensis</em>) and various other rare plants, deer and primates.
134019		population	eng	No information available.
134019		threats	eng	Environmental groups have recognized the Hengduan Mountains as being threatened by "a growing human population and the resulting demand for non-timber forests and wildlife products for medicinal and other uses"
134020		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134020		distribution	eng	China: Guangdong, southern China (Naiyantr 1997); Nanning, in Guangxi Province (Dai 1999).
134020		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134020		population	eng	No information available.
134020		threats	eng	Unknown.
134021		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134021		distribution	eng	Mexico: Guerrero State,Tehauantepec to Sonora.
134021		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134021		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134021		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134022		conservation	eng	None in place
134022		distribution	eng	China: North Hengduan Mountains area; Li'jiang in Yunnan.
134022		habitat	eng	Temperature 8-10°C, pH 5.5.
134022		population	eng	No information available.
134022		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
134023		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134023		distribution	eng	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department. This species is known only from a single locality in the Cauca River basin (Campos 2005).
134023		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,600 m asl.
134023		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134023		threats	eng	None known.
134024		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134024		distribution	eng	China: Guilin, Yangshuo, Xingan Counties in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region, southern China.
134024		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134024		population	eng	No information available.
134024		threats	eng	Unknown.
134025		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134025		distribution	eng	Ecuador: confluence of Rıo Saloya and Rıo Mindo, between 1,000 and 1,200 m asl.
134025		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134025		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134025		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134026		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134026		distribution	eng	Mexico: Watercourses in the state of Chiapas, Mexico that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.
134026		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134026		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134026		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134027		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134027		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Only known from offshore islands of Taiwan - Lanyu Island (Taitung county).
134027		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134027		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens collected from a single locality between 2001 and 2003.
134027		threats	eng	Nuclear waste has been stored in the southern part of the island starting in 1982, which will hopefully be removed from the island by 2016.
134028		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134028		distribution	eng	Peru: Chanchamayo, Eastern Peru. The province of Chanchamayo is located to 305 km to the east of Lima, in the North part of the territory of the Junín Region.<br/><br/>Peru has three main drainage systems. One comprises about 50 torrential streams that rise in the sierra and descend steeply to the coastal plain. The second comprises the tributaries of the Amazon River in the montaña region. In the third the principal feature is Lake Titicaca, which drains into Lake Poopó in Bolivia through the Desaguadero River. The Napo, Tigre, and Pastaza rivers rise in Ecuador and flow into Peru. The latter two streams are tributaries of the Marañón River, and the Napo empties into the Amazon River. The border between Peru and Colombia is delineated by the Putumayo River.
134028		habitat	eng	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus inca</em> in Peru.
134028		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134028		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134029		conservation	eng	None in place
134029		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Stream in Cuc Phuong National Park, about 16km  from main gate, Ninh Binh Province, northern Viet Nam.
134029		habitat	eng	River and stream
134029		population	eng	No information available.
134029		threats	eng	Unknown.
134030		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134030		distribution	eng	Philippines: Mindanao, Mountains northwest Tayabas.
134030		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134030		population	eng	No information available.
134030		threats	eng	Unknown.
134031		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134031		distribution	eng	Venezuela: District Federal and Aragua State. Last recorded collection of this species was 1972.
134031		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134031		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134031		threats	eng	None known.
134032		conservation	eng	None in place
134032		distribution	eng	China: Hengduan Mountains area; Yongsheng in Yunnan.
134032		habitat	eng	Temperature 19°C, pH 6.
134032		population	eng	No information available.
134032		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
134033		conservation	eng	there are no conservation measures in place at this time
134033		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tad San Waterfall, Nam San River, Dan Sai; Ban Gaeng Hai, Nam San, Dan Sai River; Ban Pag waterfall; Loei Province. Also in Mae Chan District, Chiang Rai Province.
134033		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134033		population	eng	No information available.
134033		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134034		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134034		distribution	eng	Brazil: Acre, AM States, the type locality is in Rio Jurua, southwestern Amazonia.
134034		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134034		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134034		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134035		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134035		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two close localities along Kumerly-Munar road, Kerala, southwestern India.
134035		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from muddy soil at a margin of a shady streamlet.
134035		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134035		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134036		conservation	eng	None in place
134036		distribution	eng	Thailand: Sam Lon waterfall, Muang Saraburi District, Saraburi Province; and in the proximity of Bangkok (type locality). Specimens from Simla, Himalayas and perhaps from Calcutta do not belong to Larnaudia larnaudii. On the contrary, specimens form the collecting place in Sumatra are presumably correct, but are imprecisely described.
134036		habitat	eng	Waterfall crab.
134036		population	eng	No information available.
134036		threats	eng	Unknown.
134037		conservation	eng	None in place
134037		distribution	eng	China: Panxi County (24 3'N, 103 2'E) in Yunnan Province.
134037		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134037		population	eng	No information available.
134037		threats	eng	Unknown.
134038		conservation	eng	None in place.
134038		distribution	eng	China: Xuanwei City, Yunnan Province, coll. Haiyan Yang and Xianmin Zhou, 18 Aug. 2005.
134038		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is a second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.
134038		population	eng	Unknown.
134038		threats	eng	None known
134039		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134039		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: Prome; Rangoon; Kakhyen Hills; Mandalay, Yangon. Distance between Yangon and Mandalay is 578km.
134039		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134039		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134039		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134040		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.
134040		distribution	eng	Malaysian peninsula, Asia. Type locality: Bentong, Pahang (3°27'36"N, 101°53'31"E)<br/>This species is distributed at the lower half of the Main Range (south of 4"28'N) in Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and northwestern Johore.<br/><br/>Endemic to highland forests of the lower half of the Main Range in Selangor, Pahang, Negri Sembilan and northwestern Johore.
134040		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Found under rocks and vegetation in hill streams. More commonly found in shaded areas and where water flow is slow. One concern is that the species may prove to be part of a species complex and the range/threats will then need to be re-evaluated.
134040		population	eng	No information available.
134040		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation and pollution outside protected areas. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.
134041		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134041		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Batam island (415 km²) in the Riau Islands Province of Indonesia, located 20 km (12.5 miles) off Singapore's south coast.
134041		habitat	eng	Found in fast-flowing stream with slightly tea-coloured waters draining from a freshwater swamp forest. The substrate is mud and sand and overgrown with the sedge <em>Eleocharis</em> spp. The edge of the stream was lined with dead ferns and leaves, and most of the specimens were collected from under this detritus.
134041		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134041		threats	eng	The island of Batam (400 km²) is being rapidly developed and large tracts of land are currently being, or have already been, cleared for housing, industrial and commercial projects. The scale of the development plans are such that much of the native fauna will be (if not already) under serious threat in the years to come.
134042		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134042		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen from Bhutan. The report by Pretzmann (1975) that the holotype is from Tirokave, 40 km WSW of Kainantu a small town in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea) is most likely an error, because these localities are in New Guinea well out of the range of the other members of this genus. In another section of that work Pretzmann indicated that this species is from southwest Bhutan in the basin of the Torsa and Raidak Rivers, and this is most likely the correct locality data for the type. Torsa River (also spelt Torsha and also known as Machu and Amo Chu) rises from the Chumbi Valley in Tibet, China, where it is known as Machu. It flows into Bhutan, where it is known as the Amo Chu. It has total length of 358 km, out of which 113 km in China and 145 km in Bhutan before flowing into the northern part of West Bengal in India. It flows past the important border town of Phuntsholing in Bhutan. Raidak is a major river in Bhutan that rises in the Himalaya and empties into the Brahmaputra in India. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Asia.
134042		habitat	eng	No information available (freshwater).
134042		population	eng	No information available.
134042		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134043		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134043		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Aragua State, District Federal, Rancho Grande National Park.
134043		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134043		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134043		threats	eng	None known.
134044		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134044		distribution	eng	Venezuela: road between El Dorado and Santa Elena de Guairen, 126 km from El Dorado. From the Brazil-Venezuela border. Possibly also found in Suriname.
134044		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela in the Cuyuni river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.
134044		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134044		threats	eng	None known.
134045		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134045		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca and Boyaca Departments: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 950-1,600 m asl (Campos 2005).
134045		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 950-1,600 m asl.
134045		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134045		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134046		distribution	eng	Philippines: This species is known only from the type locality on Nagasaguipi River, Palawan Island of the Philippines which was found in 1985. There are no more recent records.
134046		habitat	eng	This species is the smallest known species in this genus <em>Parathelphusa</em>.
134046		population	eng	No information available.
134047		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134047		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Altaverapaz Department, Rio Chilax, Mountains of Alta Verapaz. Alta Verapaz, south Senahu, Seamay Cave. Trece Aguas, Cacao, karstic system Seamay-Sejul. Watercourses in Guatemala that drain into the Caribbean Sea. Not specially adapted for caves - long legs but normal eyes.
134047		habitat	eng	Holotype was found in a cave.
134047		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134047		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. Seamay Cave is a tourist destination.
134048		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134048		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan. This species is known only from the type specimen from Gunong Sarenipaka (1°50'12"S 115°44'54"E), Meratus Mountains, Kalimantan, South Eastern Borneo. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134048		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134048		population	eng	No information available.
134048		threats	eng	Unknown.
134049		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134049		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality Kaduwappara, between Mundakayam-Kumerly, Kerala, southwestern India.
134049		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected next to a drying stream, under stones and from moist soil.
134049		population	eng	No information available.
134049		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134050		conservation	eng	None in place.
134050		distribution	eng	Thailand: Chiang Mai Province, Lamphun Province, Uttaradit Province. Buagcrok village (near Sonkampaeng) and Mae Sa village, both in Muang Chiang Mai District; Sanpathong District; Handong District; Chiang Mai Province. Muang Uttaradi District, Uttaradit Province.
134050		habitat	eng	Common in rice fields or bodies of still or stagnant water in these areas.
134050		population	eng	No information available.
134050		threats	eng	No threats known.
134051		conservation	eng	None in place.
134051		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas State: Montozintla, Finca de la Victoria. Last recorded finding of this species in 1962.
134051		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134051		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134051		threats	eng	None known.
134052		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134052		distribution	eng	Liberia: This species is known only from one locality in Bong County (the St. Paul River at the Bong Mine Fishing Club near Haindi) and is therefore endemic to that country.
134052		habitat	eng	Populations of  <em>L. nanoides</em> are found only in the rocky parts of the fast-flowing waters of the St. Paul river, which during the rainy season was up to 100 m wide and 1-3 m deep at the collecting station. <em>Liberonautes nanoides</em> is only known from one of the major rivers in the rainforest zone of Liberia, and is rarely, if ever, found in small streams. The dwarf river crab serves as the second intermediate host to <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> in Liberia, but the incidence of infection is low indicating that this species does not play an important role in the transmission of the parasite to humans.
134052		population	eng	This species is known from a large number of specimens that were collected from a single locality in Liberia. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134052		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134053		conservation	eng	None in place
134053		distribution	eng	Philippines: Mindanao, Naujanlake.
134053		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134053		population	eng	No information available.
134053		threats	eng	Unknown.
134054		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Mt Saribau area.
134054		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Saribau, 2,500 feet above sea level.
134054		habitat	eng	Associated with limestone areas, living in caves. Biology not known.
134054		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134054		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134055		conservation	eng	None in place
134055		distribution	eng	Philippines: Palawan.
134055		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134055		population	eng	No information available.
134055		threats	eng	Unknown.
134056		conservation	eng	None in place
134056		distribution	eng	China: Sichuan Province (Rongjiang County (29 7'N 102 8'E, Shiping Village and Yingjing). Middle China, West Mountain subregion (of Hengduan mt region), west mountainous area to the basin zone.
134056		habitat	eng	Recorded in water at pH 6 and temperature 17°C.
134056		population	eng	No information available.
134056		threats	eng	Unknown.
134057		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134057		distribution	eng	Mexico.
134057		habitat	eng	This species is known from a major river.
134057		population	eng	This species is found in the major river systems of Mexico but there is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134057		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134058		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134058		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Department Baja Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, 96 km north of Guatemala City. Watercourses in Guatemala that drain into the Caribbean Sea.
134058		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134058		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134058		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134059		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134059		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Central and South Sulawesi (=Celebes), especially around the Malili Lakes System (Lake Towuti, Lake Mahalona, Lake Matano) up to the Poso area. Kalaena tributaries, small river of Soroaka 2 31'19.7"S 121 20'32.6"E; 2 37'40"S 121 12'50"E; 2 39'35"S 121 14'50"E.
134059		habitat	eng	Found in forest and rivers/tributaries.
134059		population	eng	No information available.
134059		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134060		conservation	eng	None in place
134060		distribution	eng	China: Loshing/Luocheng, Hedi, Lingchuan, Xingan and Jinxin Counties in Guangxi Province.
134060		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134060		population	eng	No information available.
134060		threats	eng	Unknown.
134061		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134061		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Rio Maranon, Department San Martin and Valley of Rio Santiago). The species is also found in the Amazon slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, in the provinces of Zamora, Santiago and Pastaza.
134061		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134061		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134061		threats	eng	None known.
134062		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134062		distribution	eng	Hong Kong (New Territories: lower course of Lam Tsuen River and Su Kwun), China.
134062		habitat	eng	Occurs in a variety of lotic and lentic lowland habitats, and is fairly tolerant of organic pollution, although it prefers unpolluted riverine habitats and slow-flowing low-gradient streams where the substratum might be muddy. Also inhabits irrigation ditches and flooded furrows. This species has been found to dwell among the roots of floating plants, such as the exotic water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em> or the trailing roots and stems of riparian grasses and other plants.
134062		population	eng	This species is very hard to find and collect in Hong Kong.
134062		threats	eng	Pesticides used in rice fields pose a major threat to this species.
134063		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134063		distribution	eng	The range of this species covers a vast area in the basins of the Mamore, Paraguay, and Parana Rivers, and it is widespread throughout the Amazon River basin in Paraguay (Concepcion Department, Rio Paraguay drainage, near the Brazilian border), ARGENTINA (Reconquista, Rio Parana Mini, Santa Fe Province), Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul States), and Bolivia (Beni Province) (Rodriguez, 1992).
134063		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and bays, and in holes of submerged tree trunks or in hollows above water level.
134063		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134063		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134064		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134064		distribution	eng	India: Assam state: Darband Pass, Cachar; Sibsagar (26.98N, 94.63E) a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (2668 km²). Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3825 meters) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Bhutan: Samchi, 26.86N, 89.10E (303 m).
134064		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134064		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134064		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134065		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
134065		distribution	eng	Turkey: This species is restricted to the rivers of the eastern Taurus Mountains in Konya Province in southern Turkey.
134065		habitat	eng	<em>Potamon bileki</em> is found in springs and water channels in gardens in the eastern Taurus Mountains in Konya Province in southern Turkey, otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.
134065		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species and no studies have been conducted.
134065		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134066		conservation	eng	None in place
134066		distribution	eng	China: Baiyan Cave (29.5 N 109.4 E), Longshan County, very near Hubei Province, Northeastern Hunan Province.
134066		habitat	eng	Baiyan Cave (White Rock Cave) is a small, relatively superficial cave (only 10 m under plateau) with small streams. Average temperature is about 18.4°C, water temperature 20.9-21.3°C and pH 8.7-8.8. Two specimens were collected about 150 m from the entrance.<br/><br/>This species might be predominantly cavernicolous but may make forays into the surrounding region.
134066		population	eng	No information available.
134066		threats	eng	Unknown.
134067		conservation	eng	Conservation forests, water resources and monitoring of pollution levels in Fraser's Hill area.
134067		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. The type locality is "the Gap", Bukit Telaga, between Fraser's Hil and Gunong Ulu Semangkok, Selangor (3"26'N, 101"26'E).  Endemic to Fraser's Hill, Pahang, and vicinity of high elevation. Described from specimens collected above 1,000 m above sea level.
134067		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Found under rocks and vegetation in and adjacent to forest streams.
134067		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134067		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The increased use of the area for tourists etc. is a concern. Over-use of freshwater resources and warming of surrounding forests may pose challenges. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.
134068		conservation	eng	None in place.
134068		distribution	eng	Angola, Southern Africa. Province of Lunda Norte, Cuango River, Cafunfo (08.8479S, 18.8019E).
134068		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134068		population	eng	Bott (1968) described this taxon from 38 specimens all from the same locality. Population levels and trends unknown.
134068		threats	eng	None known.
134069		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time and it is not found in a protected area.
134069		distribution	eng	Thailand: State of Lacom, highlands of southeasternThailand. Type locality is in Amphoe Kok Pho, Pattani Province, Isthmus of Kra. Also found in Yala Province and Narathiwat Province.
134069		habitat	eng	A highland species. Found under rocks in the shallow waters of fast flowing streams.
134069		population	eng	Locally common.
134069		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution
134070		conservation	eng	None in place
134070		distribution	eng	The Philippines: Pitogo River, Panay.
134070		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134070		population	eng	No information available.
134070		threats	eng	Unknown.
134071		conservation	eng	None in place
134071		distribution	eng	Thailand: Omkoi District (2,093 km²), Chiangmai Province.
134071		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134071		population	eng	No information available.
134071		threats	eng	Unknown.
134072		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134072		distribution	eng	This species is found in Côte-d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Gabon. It is likely that S. aubryi is also present in Equatorial Guinea. Cumberlidge (1994) extended the range of this species westward to include Côte-d’Ivoire and Ghana, and removed the Republic of the Congo and D. R. Congo from the range.
134072		habitat	eng	<em>Sudanonautes aubryi</em> is found in the guinea and woodland savannah regions from Côte-d’Ivoire to northern Cameroon, and in tropical rainforest from south-east Nigeria to Gabon. This large species inhabits streams, rivers, and ponds, and digs burrows near waterways; at night and during rainstorms it is often found on land because it is capable of breathing air.
134072		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.
134072		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134073		conservation	eng	None in place
134073		distribution	eng	Thailand: Sam Teb Waterfall, Nam Som Distirict; and Ban Pak Chom (18°01'38.6"N, 102°21'53.0"E), both Udon Thani Province, northeastern Thailand.
134073		habitat	eng	This is the smallest potamid crab known from Thailand. This waterfall crab lives under rocks in clear fast flowing streams.
134073		population	eng	No information available.
134073		threats	eng	Unknown.
134074		conservation	eng	None in place
134074		distribution	eng	China: Guizhou Province, Zhaibian in Congjiang County, Rongjiang County, Datang and Leishan county;  Hunan Province and Guangxi Province.
134074		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134074		population	eng	No information available.
134074		threats	eng	Unknown.
134075		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134075		distribution	eng	There are two records of this species, both in Ecuador. One in Esmeraldas province, and one on the Chone River, Manabi province.
134075		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134075		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134075		threats	eng	None known.
134076		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134076		distribution	eng	Mexico: Vera Cruz State.
134076		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134076		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134076		threats	eng	None known.
134077		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time..
134077		distribution	eng	Gabon: Libreville. Bangui, Central African Republic. D. R. Congo (Angolan localities doubtful)
134077		habitat	eng	Small streams and watercourses in rain forest.
134077		population	eng	Reported to be quite common and fairly abundant when first encountered in 1921 (Rathbun, 1921)
134077		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134078		conservation	eng	The whole of Palawan Island has been declared a wildlife preserve.
134078		distribution	eng	Philippines: This species is known only from the type specimen from Lake Manguao (10°45'27"N, 119°33'30"E), Municipality of Taytay in northern Palawan.
134078		habitat	eng	This species has been found in slightly alkaline water with a pH between 8.1-8.86 and 7.44-7.77 in water that had a temperature from 26.4 to 30.4°C.<br/><br/>The type specimens of <em>P. manguao</em> were caught at the northern littoral of Lake Manguao (10°45"27'N, 119°33"30'E) among stony substrate. <em>Parathelphusa</em> species have also been observed from many other parts of the lake. It is likely that <em>P. manguao</em> has a highly restricted distribution like most Philippine <em>Parathelphusa</em> species.<br/><br/>The banks of Lake Manguao are dominated by rock, rarely grit and sand. Water temperature ranged from 26.4 to 30.5°C in 1989, and around 26.8°C in 2001. The water was slightly alkaline, with the pH varying from 8.1 to 8.86 (Davies and Green 1990), and 7.44-7.77 at the surface slightly decreasing towards bottom to a minimum of 6.79 (SPCP-ASTD). Dissolved oxygen (DO) was found between 9.5 mg/l¨£ 127% saturation (morning, water surface) and 6.3 mg/l¨£ 79% saturation (early night, water surface) in the Davies & Green (1990) study. Values of the second study were 5.2 mg/l to 8.7 mg/l. From both studies, no substantial variations in DO were reported between surface and bottom layers indicating good vertical circulation. Conductivity was reported to be 43 mS/cm (Davies & Green, 1990) and 55 mS/ cm to 79 mS/cm (SPCP-ASTD).
134078		population	eng	No information available.
134078		threats	eng	No information.
134079		conservation	eng	None in place
134079		distribution	eng	China: North Hengduan Mountains Area; Huili and Dechang in Sichuan.
134079		habitat	eng	Temperature 20°C, pH 6.5.
134079		population	eng	No information available.
134079		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
134080		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134080		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Java.
134080		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134080		population	eng	No information available.
134080		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134081		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134081		distribution	eng	China: Jama La Tai Dong (cave), Jia Ban, Libo County, southern Guizhou Province.
134081		habitat	eng	A cavernicolous species. The entrance of the cave was situated at the foot of a limestone mountain and a small river flows down the mountain and into La Tai Cave. Outside the cave were rice and rape fields with many irrigation ditches and small fields.
134081		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134081		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134082		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134082		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cauca, Narino, and Valle del Cauca Departments: Pacific drainage of Colombia (Campos 2005).
134082		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50- 100 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134082		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134082		threats	eng	None known.
134083		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134083		distribution	eng	Known from south India; in addition to the type locality, Bott (1970) also recorded the species from “Palanis, Vandaruvu; shola bei Shembaganur; Bach bei Kukkal; Palanis Flub im Dschungel”.
134083		habitat	eng	Ecology not known.
134083		population	eng	No information available.
134083		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134084		conservation	eng	None in place
134084		distribution	eng	China: Yiyang (28.4N, 117.4E), Jiangxi Province.
134084		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134084		population	eng	No information available.
134084		threats	eng	Unknown.
134085		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134085		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Hoa Binh (Chi Le), Ha Tay (Ba Vi), Bac Thai Province (Cao Ky, Ky Phu) northern Vietnam (Yeo, unpubl. data). Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Bac Thai Provinces, northern Vietnam.
134085		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134085		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134085		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134086		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134086		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Nankang, Denqshanli, Taipei City; Taipei County (Shuangchi; Chisinghan; Alilao; Yuhlio; Juipin) Keelung City; Ilan County (Chiaochi).Taiwan, Asia. Recorded specimens from Ryukyus actually belong to other species (see Shy and Ng 1998).
134086		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134086		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134086		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. The very narrow distribution and small populations of this species means that it could be easily exterminated by large scale developments.
134087		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134087		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Caco, Trace Aguas, Caco, karstic system Seamay-Sejul. The only specimen is the male holotype.
134087		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134087		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134087		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134088		conservation	eng	None in place.
134088		distribution	eng	Coastal rain forest from south Cameroon to Gabon in central Africa. Gabon.--vicinity of Franceville, on the river Alima, Mission de Brazza;  Lac de Franceville, Mission de Brazza. Cameroon.--Ohana, Besa, Nyong; Mt. M. Banbarto, river Noun; Batouri District; Belabo; Ebogo; Boedou, near Banyo; Foumban, vicinity of Dschang. The presence of this species in southern Cameroon and northern Gabon makes it likely that S. chavanesii is also present in Equatorial Guinea.  Bott (1955) reported S. chavanesii from a wider region of Central Africa (from Cameroon to D. R. Congo). However, there are no confirmed records of this species in the Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, or in the D. R. Congo. Bott (1959) and Monod (1977, 1980) extended the range of S. chavanesii further to include West Africa, from Guinea all the way to Zaire. However, there is reason to doubt these records. Bott (1959) reported S. chavanesii from Guinea and Mali. And Monod (1977) illustrated these same specimens, from ravin de Sokonafing, near Bamako, Mali (Monod 1977, figs. 103, 104, 106, 107), and from Fenaria, Guinea (Monod 1977, figs. 105). This same material, deposited in IFAN, from Dabola, chutes de Tinkasso, Guinea (KIndia, 5 Apr 1954, A. Villiers ), and from Mali (Ravin de Sokonafing, Bamako, May 1945), was all identified here as Liberonautes latidactylus (De Man, 1903). There are, therefore, no confirmed records of S. chavanesii in any country in West Africa (i.e., from Senegal to Nigeria).
134088		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers in rain forested areas of Central Africa.
134088		population	eng	There have been no studies on population levels and trends but this species is well represented in museum collections from specimens collected recently.
134088		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134089		conservation	eng	The conservation of as many parts of Bau as possible is necessary.
134089		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Bau, endemic to the Bau limestone formations.<br/><br/>More material (one specimen) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Meraja, in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now two (both in the Bau Limestone Area).
134089		habitat	eng	Habitat. Primarily aquatic. Prefers lowland streams with rocky substrates and forest cover. Other specimens collected from stagnant water, among leaf litter with a sand and mud substrate. A specimen of <em>Isolapotamon bauense</em> was collected in a nearby pool.
134089		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134089		threats	eng	As the Bau area does not have long-term protection and the species occurs in low-lying areas, it is very vulnerable to anthropogenic effects.
134090		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134090		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo: top and at the foot of Mount Damoes, Sambas.
134090		population	eng	No information available.
134090		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134091		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134091		distribution	eng	Thailand: This species is known only from its type locality. Erawan Waterfall, Changwat Kanchanaburi.
134091		habitat	eng	Found in waterfalls.
134091		population	eng	Holotype and paratypes (5M and 4F) from same locality. Collected in 1975 and again in 1990.
134091		threats	eng	This waterfall is frequented by tourists, so there is a threat of pollution.
134092		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134092		distribution	eng	Rwanda: Matale, Lake Kivu. Several localities in nearby D.R. Congo: Tshiwia stream, Mukoba, southwest Kahusi; Mongbwalu; Makahe.
134092		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134092		population	eng	No information available.
134092		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134093		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134093		distribution	eng	Paraguay, Bolivia, and Brazil. This is a tropical species. The holotype is from Paraguay (Rio Paraguay). It is also found in Bolivia (Department Beni, Rio Beni system) and Brazil (Amazonas, Para, Rondonia, and Mato Grosso States). This species is known from the central and southern regions of the Amazon basin, and from the northern part of the Paraguay River basin (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996, De Melo 2003). The southern limits of its range are unknown, but it is probably found as far south as northern Argentina.
134093		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, lakes, bays, cryptic habitats such as hollows and holes of submerged trunks, or aquatic vegetation.
134093		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134093		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134094		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134094		distribution	eng	Laos: Tham Te, near Ban Na; Tham Houai Say near ban Khen; and Tham Thon, near Ban Thongkha; Khammouan Province.
134094		habitat	eng	This species is cave-dwelling and occurs in small streams and isolated ponds. A gravid female was collected from the cave wall outside of water. None were found in the large exogenous underground rivers.  This species can be regarded as an obligate cave-dweller, i.e. troglobite.
134094		population	eng	This species is fairly abundant in the caves where it is found in small streams and pools. One specimens was collected from the cave wall, out of water.  None were found in the large exogenous underground rivers.
134094		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134095		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134095		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Kaohsiung County (Sanmin; Meinung; Neimen, Mucha; Chiahsien); Pingtung County (Shandeman).
134095		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134095		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134095		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134096		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134096		distribution	eng	Brazil: This species is known from Brazil (Amazonas State), between 2 to 3 degrees S, and 66 to 67 degrees W as well as from the Amazonas lowlands of Peru (Department Loreto), and Ecuador (Department Pastaza).
134096		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134096		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134096		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134097		conservation	eng	None in place
134097		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone; Kunming, Dianchi and Hekou counties, in Yunnan Province.
134097		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134097		population	eng	No information available.
134097		threats	eng	Unknown.
134098		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134098		distribution	eng	Venezuela: eastern mainland on the eastern coastal range in Sucre, Monagas, and Nueva Esparta States. Also found on Margarita Island; plus the island of Trinidad.
134098		habitat	eng	Also found in a cave. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Venezuela.
134098		population	eng	No information.
134098		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134099		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134099		distribution	eng	China: Zhangpu in Fujian Province, southern China. Known only from this single locality in China. Male Holotype, female allotype and seven male and four female paratypes all from the same locality.
134099		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134099		population	eng	No information available.
134099		threats	eng	Unknown.
134100		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134100		distribution	eng	Philippines. This species is known only from the type specimen from Palawan Island. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of the Philippines.
134100		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134100		population	eng	No information available.
134100		threats	eng	Unknown.
134101		conservation	eng	None in place
134101		distribution	eng	China: Anlong County in Guizhou.
134101		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134101		population	eng	No information available.
134101		threats	eng	Unknown.
134102		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134102		distribution	eng	Congo: Central Africa, associated with the lower reaches of the Congo River from Ngancin (=Ngabé) to Gombe–Matadi (D. R. Congo) 4°58’60”S, 14°43’0”E; also found in the southeastern tributaries of the Congo River (the Kwa, Kwilu, and Kwango rivers), and Kinshasa and Malebo Pool in the D. R. Congo. Bott (1955) listed material from Kidzueme (= Kidzweme) 3°58’0”S, 18°26’60”E, Moluma stream, Kwilu river, a tributary of the river Kwango in the D. R. Congo. The report by Rathbun (1894) that this species occurs in Gabon cannot be confirmed.
134102		habitat	eng	Ngancin (=Ngabé) in the Republic of the Congo is on the right bank of the lower Congo River, at a stretch where the river banks are up to 1.5 km apart. Ngancin (=Ngabé) is directly opposite Kwamouth in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Here the river is deep and fast flowing, and the volume of water very high, because this section of the river is where the Congo is joined by the Ubangi, Sangha, and Kwa Rivers. Close to Kinshasa the Congo River forms the Malebo Pool, a large lake-like stretch of water about 25 km by 30 km. All the adult egg bearing females of <em>E. brazzae</em> known so far have been found either in the swampy areas of the lower Congo River and its tributaries, or on the banks of Malebo Pool, rather than in the river itself. The fact that only egg-bearing females have been collected between April and June, and that these were all taken from muddy ground near the river banks (either under stones, under boardwalks, or tangled in water plants) has given rise to speculation that this species releases its hatchlings in such habitats, but spends the rest of its lifecycle elsewhere. At Malebo Pool <em>E. brazzae</em> occurs together with <em>Potamonautes paecilei</em> (A. Milne-Edwards, 1886) in mud under boards and timbers.
134102		population	eng	Population estimates for this species are low based on its lack of wide representation in museum collections, and its rarity, because it has not been collected (to our knowledge) since 1947.
134102		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134103		conservation	eng	None in place
134103		distribution	eng	Laos: "Montagnes de Laos, Siam" (= present day eastern Thailand) and Xe Set River, Saravan Province, southern Laos
134103		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134103		population	eng	No information available.
134103		threats	eng	Unknown.
134104		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134104		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Near Quito; Gualea, western Ecuador, 943 m; Alluriquin, affluent of the Rio Toachi, SE of Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha Province. Pacific slope of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, between the Guayllabamba and Toachi rivers, tributaries of the Esmeraldas River, at altitudes between 880 and 2740 m asl. Basin of the Paita River.
134104		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134104		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134104		threats	eng	Human induced habitat loss and water pollution.
134105		conservation	eng	None in place.
134105		distribution	eng	Nicaragua: Matagalpa and Jinotega Departments.
134105		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134105		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134105		threats	eng	None known.
134106		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134106		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Island of Borneo: Kalimantan, also found in the Liang Koeboeng mountains (1894; de Man, 1899). Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah, Island of Borneo, the type locality is the Kadamaian River, Mount Kinabalu. Lectotype and paralectotype come from same locality on a hill/mountain.
134106		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134106		threats	eng	Future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134107		conservation	eng	None in place
134107		distribution	eng	China: Lingchuan County, Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province.
134107		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134107		population	eng	No information available.
134107		threats	eng	Unknown.
134108		conservation	eng	None in place
134108		distribution	eng	Myanmar/Burma: Thagata, Mount Mooleyit, Tenasserim.
134108		habitat	eng	Like other species of this genus, <em>D. thagatensis</em> is mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. This genus is sometimes found outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
134108		population	eng	No information available.
134108		threats	eng	Unknown.
134109		conservation	eng	None in place.
134109		distribution	eng	Colombia: restricted to the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija, between this country and Venezuela. Canon del Rio Manaure, 1 km from Finca El Susoiro, Serrania de Valledupar, Perija, Departmento del Cesar, 2,150 m above sea level (Campos 2005).
134109		habitat	eng	This species is known from a single site, where it lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 2,150 m above sea level in the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija. Further collection efforts have been hampered by public order problems in the region.
134109		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134109		threats	eng	None known.
134110		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134110		distribution	eng	Japan: Central Ryukyu Islands. Holotype: Ishikiridome, Akirigami River, Tokuno-Shima Island. Paratype: Youmisaki, Kasari Town, Amami-Ohshima Island. Others: Tokuno-Shima Island; Bane, Shikaura River; Kedokina; Tete; Manatsu River;  Akirikami River; Kametoku River; Nango River; Amami-Ohshima Island; Asato River; Ohmi River; Uragami River; Manatsu River;  Kawauchi River, Yamato-Sumiyou Village;  Youmisaki, Kasari Town; Manatsu River;  Ariya River; Yani River; Uragami River; near Nazemata Bridge, Nakagachi River; Yakukachi River;  Sumiyo River; Kawauchi River, Uken Village;  Kinsakubaru.<br/><br/>Amami Oshima (710 sq km/273 sq mi) and Tokunoshima (250 sq km/96 sq mi) islands in the Ryukyu islands in southern Japan. These islands lie south of Watase's Line marked by the Tokara Strait and so are part of the Indomalayan region.
134110		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134110		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134110		threats	eng	There are no known long-term threats to this species, and it is not found in a protected area.
134111		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134111		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Hwalien County (Taroko; Hsiulin, Loshao; Hsiulin, Chankuang Temple).
134111		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134111		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134111		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134112		conservation	eng	None in place
134112		distribution	eng	China: Guangdong Province.
134112		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134112		population	eng	No information available.
134112		threats	eng	Unknown.
134113		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134113		distribution	eng	Haveri, near Meroka (=Moroka), Port Moresby Subdistrict, Central District, Territory of Papua, Papua New Guinea at about 9.26?S, 147.31?E, altitude 700 m asl. This species is known only from the type specimen which was collected in 1892, and there have been no records in over 110 years.
134113		population	eng	No information available.
134113		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134114		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134114		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sintang, Sarawak, Borneo. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.
134114		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134114		population	eng	No information available.
134114		threats	eng	Unknown.
134115		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134115		distribution	eng	Colombia: Departments of Boyaca, Caldas, Cudinamarca, and Tolima in the Eastern Cordillera; between Guadas and Honda. From the slopes of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras in systems that drain to the Madgdalena River (Campos 2005).
134115		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 300-1,500 m asl.
134115		population	eng	This a widespread and abundant species.
134115		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134116		conservation	eng	None in place
134116		distribution	eng	India: Cherra Punji, Assam state.
134116		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134116		population	eng	No information available.
134116		threats	eng	Unknown.
134117		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134117		distribution	eng	China: Dayu in Huanglung (25.4 N 114.4 E) County, Jiangxi Province.
134117		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134117		population	eng	No information available.
134117		threats	eng	Unknown.
134118		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Kaki Bukit area.
134118		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Laha Datu.
134118		habitat	eng	Terrestrial to semi-terrestrial. Found in a disturbed habitat - secondary forest near an oil palm plantation.
134118		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134118		threats	eng	No specific threats known. Probably habitat loss/degradation. Although there is a decline in habitat quality, as it is found in a disturbed habitat, secondary forest near an oil palm plantation,  it has persisted despite the disruption, so may be quite resilient to threats.
134119		conservation	eng	The retention of designated protected areas.
134119		distribution	eng	Singapore: Singapore. Malaysia: Widespread throughout Peninsular Malaysia: Pulau Aor; Terengganu. Indonesia: Sumatra: southern half of Sumatra (<em>ca</em>. 1°101'S, 101°15'E) (Ng 1988).
134119		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. This species prefers lowland streams and seems quite tolerant of muddy waters. These animals have a high tolerance of low oxygen conditions and can be found in stagnant pools sometimes. It is common under rocks, logs, vegetation and debris, but also dig deep burrows by the banks. The burrows always open above the water level, however, the end of the burrow is always filled with water (burrows can be a metre or more in depth, can be slanted and sometimes bent). Gravid females rarely move around  in the open, instead stay in the burrows. Brooding ones are occasionally encountered. This is a nocturnal species and is most active after sunset. Can be a pest in rice fields, but is basically harmless.
134119		population	eng	No information available.
134119		threats	eng	No immediate threat, especially to populations within protected areas throughout its range. Occasionally sold as pets in the aquarium trade.
134120		conservation	eng	None in place
134120		distribution	eng	China: Guizhou Province (Bulang in Puding County; Yushe Forest Reserve in Shuicheng County).
134120		habitat	eng	Temperature 14°C, pH 6.
134120		population	eng	No information available.
134120		threats	eng	Unknown.
134121		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134121		distribution	eng	Peru: Moyobamba (56,064 km²), Amazon drainage northern Peru.
134121		habitat	eng	A river-living species.
134121		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134121		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134122		conservation	eng	None in place
134122		distribution	eng	Thailand: King Amphoe Na Muan, Nan Province, northern Thailand.
134122		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134122		population	eng	No information available.
134122		threats	eng	Unknown.
134123		conservation	eng	None in place
134123		distribution	eng	China: Jianfengling and Dongfang in Hainan Island.
134123		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134123		population	eng	No information available.
134123		threats	eng	Unknown.
134124		conservation	eng	None in place
134124		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: According to Tuerkay and Naiyanetr (1987) this species is found in North CochinChina (= southern Vietnam).
134124		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134124		population	eng	No information available.
134124		threats	eng	Unknown.
134125		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134125		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Upper Amazon (western basin) in Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil (Amazonas State).
134125		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134125		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134125		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134126		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134126		distribution	eng	Australia: Queensland: Known only from a limited area, from the west and eastward flowing catchments in the vicinity of  Coen, Cape York, northern Queensland.
134126		habitat	eng	Burrowing, freshwater.
134126		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134126		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134127		conservation	eng	None in place
134127		distribution	eng	China: Baoshan/Boshan and Jingdong Counties in Yunnan Province, Southwest China; Hengduan Mountains area (west).
134127		habitat	eng	In water of pH 6.5.
134127		population	eng	No information available.
134127		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
134128		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134128		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca Depatment: Agua Blanca stream, Vereda Lamal, Inspeccion Guadualito, Municipio Yacopi, 720 m asl. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia (Magadelena, Orinoco and Catatumbo River basins)  (Campos 2005).
134128		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 720 m asl. Crabs found in shaded moist banks of springs and streams in soft mud under rocks.
134128		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134128		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134129		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134129		distribution	eng	Philippines: Cabayugan River, Puerto Princesa, Palawan. The Cabayugan River catchment (10°09'N, 118°51'E) is approx. 3,683 ha and the catchment is surrounded by mountains 1,028 m high. This species was discovered during an extensive ecological survey in 2000-2001 of the river systems of St. Paul’s Subterranean River National Park in Palawan, Philippines, that included the Cabayugan / Underground River.
134129		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland waters surrounded by mountains. The soils in the upper river are alluvial shale and sandstone, while in the lower and underground levels they are limestone. Specimens were collected from different micro-habitats such as under small falls, in riffles and in pools, and also in caves. Individuals were not found in paddy fields or their drainage channels. No specimens were found in other river stretches, in the subterranean course, or the estuary. This species may leave the water body for short times at least. This species is primarily aquatic. The specimens were found in the permanent tributaries, which are lowland waters, with a basic pH of 7.1 to 8.7 and a high conductivity (140-170 uS/cm). Influenced by anthropogenic activities (paddy fields, settlements, increased temperature fluctuations 26°C +/- 3°C and raised turbidity).<br/><br/>The Cabayugan River catchment (10 09' N, 118 51' E), has an area of approximately 3,683 ha. The catchment is surrounded by mountains up to 1,028 m high, but all permanent tributaries and sites sampled are lowland waters. The soils drained are yellowish to deep red clays on ultrabasic subsoils at the peripheral headwaters; alluvial soils on shale and sandstone at the upper to middle river course; and karst soils on limestone at the lower and subterranean course of Cabayugan/Underground River. The pH was generally basic, ranging from 7.1 to 8.7, and the conductivity relatively high, ranging from 140 to 740 mS/cm. The specimens were collected from the river bed and in colonization baskets situated between stony and course organic substrates. Crabs were found in different micro-habitats such as under small falls, in riffles, and in pools. Applying drift nets at all sites, several specimens were caught only at a spring brook running out off limestone rocks. Dissolved oxygen was occasionally found decreasing to 60% saturation in this site. All other sites sampled had generally higher values. Lower abundance of <em>P. cabayugan</em> was found in the middle river course that is influenced by anthropogenic activities (paddy fields, settlements). Those result in higher temperature fluctuations (26°C +/- 3°C), raised turbidity and slightly increased BOD2+5 (max: 2.6 mg/l, n=5). In paddy fields and their draining channels, no individuals of the species were found. This is in contrast to other parathelphusid crabs such as members of Sayamia, Esanthelphusa and Somanniathelphusa that occur in rice fields in many parts of Indochina and China (see Ng and Naiyanetr 1993, Naiyanetr 1994, Ng 1995, Dai 1999, Yeo and Nguyen 1999). Not found in the subterranean course of the river and the estuary. The species is primarily aquatic but actively leaves the water body for short times. Juvenile stages (<5 by 4.5 mm) occur throughout the year at the same stream courses as the adults. One female (26.4 by 21.6 mm) was found carrying 54 juveniles of 2.0 by 1.9 mm size. Juveniles of the same size were detected as smallest among the released free living ones. <em>P. cabayugan</em> has an affinity for small and undisturbed headwater streams, with clear and unpolluted water. The preferred habitats overlap in parts with those of the potamid genus <em>Insulamon</em> Ng & Takeda, 1992.
134129		population	eng	High abundance in undisturbed first to 3rd order headwaters, lower abundance in middle river course. It is<br/>possible that the absence or low abundance of <em>P. cabayugan</em> in the middle parts of the river may be due to natural physical/environmental variables. However, the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the nearby paddy fields may also have played a part. The highest abundance of <em>P. cabayugan</em> was found in undisturbed first to third order headwaters with moderate to low turbidity (> 120 cm light penetration).
134129		threats	eng	Pesticides and fertilizers from paddy fields.
134130		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134130		distribution	eng	Mexico: Tabasco State, Montecristo (35,980 km²).
134130		habitat	eng	<em>Potamocarcinus hartmanni</em> has been collected in the large drainage systems of the Grijalva and San Pedro Rivers in the state of Tabasco.
134130		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134130		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The Grijalva river has already been dammed in one place to form Lake Nezahualcoyotl.
134131		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is found in a protected area.
134131		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia, and Argentina (Rodriguez 1992). Brazil (Amazonas, Amapa, Para, Mato Grosso, Rondonia, Acre, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Sao Paulo States).  The records for Sao Paulo State in southern Brazil are most likely of populations of this species that were introduced into that State by human activities. Peru (Rio Tombopata, Madre de Dios Department). Paraguay (Rio Paraguay, Rio La Plata drainage, Rio Salado, Rio Manduvira drainage, Presidenty Hayes Department, Rio Pilcomayo and adjacent overflow pools at bridges to Argentina). Colombia (Amazonas Magdalena, Maracaibo Departments) (Campos 2005).
134131		habitat	eng	Amazon floodplains, Paraguay/Parana River basins, white water rivers, floating meadows, remanso, swamp. Rivers and lakes, also in interior of holes in flat areas. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 85-970 m asl. Typical of floodplain areas, usually associated with floating meadows.
134131		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134131		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134132		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134132		distribution	eng	Colombia: Narino Department: Municipio Barbacoas, Corriregimento Altaquer, Carbonera stream, 1,400 m asl (Campos 2005).
134132		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers between 1,200 and 1,400 m asl.
134132		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134132		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134133		conservation	eng	None in place
134133		distribution	eng	Turkey and Syria (sources of Khabur River in Ras al-Ain; Nar al-Khabur). Known from the Khabur River from the lower reaches to the spring region, about 170 km upstream north to the Turkish border, and from the Euphrates River in the region from the mouth of Khabur River upstream to Lake Assad in southeastern Turkey. Syria: Hassaka Province, Nahr al-Khabur-system, Ras al-Ain (36.51.00N, 40.04.00E) and 35 other localities. Turkey: Sanliurfa Province: Euphrates tributary, bridge.
134133		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134133		population	eng	No information available.
134133		threats	eng	Unknown.
134134		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).
134134		distribution	eng	This very common trichodactylid species is found in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil (Amazon River, Piaui, Para, Amapa, Roraima, Amazonas, Maranhao, and Rondonia States and the lower Amazon basin, Balawa-ú village). It is widespread throughout the Amazon River basin in Colombia and Peru (Paraguay River) and is also found in the coastal river basins of the Atlantic Guianas in French Guiana, Guyana (Rupunumi River), plus Venezuela (Bolivar State, Rio Cuyumi basin), and northeastern Brazil. It is also found in Colombia (Department Amazonas), Peru (Amazon basin, Department Loreto, Rio Siamiria), Bolivia (Department Chochabamba, Region Chapare), Paraguay (Concepcion, Rio Paraguay Drainage, Amambay Department), between Brazil and Paraguay in Bella Vista Paraguay, and Argentina (probably Buenos Aires Province) (Campos 2005).
134134		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Araguari, Corantijn, Essequibo, and Oyapock river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, Rio Trombetas, and Rio Jari rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon River. This species is common in rivers, streams, and lakes, has an altitudinal range of between 100 and 180 m asl, and is also found in deep ponds or hollow cracks, submerged trunks, or it is associated with aquatic vegetation. It occurs in Balawa-ú village (01º47,91'N 63º46,88'W) in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela (Magalhaes <em>et al</em>. 2006). Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin. This medium-sized species (carapace breadth usually < 60 mm) is primarily aquatic, although it can occasionally be found out of water. It occurs in the Guianas, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, has a wide distribution throughout the Amazon basin, and occupies different types of habitats. In the stream near the Balawa-ú village, it was found in the sandy bottom of the stream.
134134		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134134		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams, and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Freshwater crabs exploited by the Yanomami include two species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two species of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs by the Yanomami is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival (Magalhaes <em>et al</em>. 2006).
134135		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134135		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Amazon drainage - this species is known from four localities.
134135		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134135		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134135		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134136		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134136		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Irian Jaya. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134136		population	eng	No information available.
134136		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134137		conservation	eng	None in place
134137		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra, Java.
134137		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134137		population	eng	No information available.
134137		threats	eng	Unknown.
134138		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134138		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cauca Department:Timbiqui, Quebrada Huanqui stream (02.50N, 77.30E), Rio Saija area, from the western slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia in the Patia river basin (Campos 2005).
134138		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 100 m asl.
134138		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134138		threats	eng	None known.
134139		conservation	eng	None in place
134139		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra and Java.
134139		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134139		population	eng	No information available.
134139		threats	eng	Unknown.
134140		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134140		distribution	eng	China: Bawangling, Zhanxian, Limushan, Baisha in Hainan Island- Guangdong Province.
134140		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134140		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134140		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134141		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134141		distribution	eng	Colombia: Tolima Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 470 m asl (Campos 2005).
134141		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 470 m asl.
134141		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134141		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134142		conservation	eng	None in place. Not found in a protected area.
134142		distribution	eng	Madagascar. Station forestière de Tampolo, Province de Toamasina, 17°17’2”S, 49°24’5”E, 10 m elevation, in leaf axils of Pandanus.
134142		habitat	eng	Known only from the Station forestière de Tampolo, Province de Toamasina. <em>Malagasya goodmani</em> is found at different elevations, always in association with <em>Pandanus</em> leaf axils.
134142		population	eng	Known only from 5 specimens all from the type locality (Tampolo).
134142		threats	eng	None known.
134143		conservation	eng	None in place
134143		distribution	eng	China: Hainan Island: Hele, Jiajie.
134143		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134143		population	eng	No information available.
134143		threats	eng	Unknown.
134144		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134144		distribution	eng	Colombia: Boyaca and Cundinamarca Departments, mountain springs and streams, in the median course of the Magdalena River valley 320-900 m asl in the slopes of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras in systems that drain to the Madgdalena river (Campos 2005).
134144		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 320-900 m asl.
134144		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134144		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134145		conservation	eng	None in place. Not found in a protected area.
134145		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Andrafiabe. This species is known only from the type locality.
134145		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134145		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
134145		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134146		conservation	eng	Bang Pae waterfall is part of Khao Phra Thaeo National Park.
134146		distribution	eng	Thailand: Salanga (=Phuket Island); Tone Sai waterfall Phuket Island (08 01.64'N 98 21.74'E), Phuket Province; Nam Tok Kathun (07 55.96'N 98 19.43'E, Phuket; Bang Phae waterfall, Phuket Island; southern Thailand (Yeo, unpubl. data); (11 km between Tone Sai and Nam Tok Kathun waterfall).
134146		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134146		threats	eng	Phuket is a major tourist destination. The waterfalls are easily accessible by humans.
134147		conservation	eng	None in place
134147		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: Mt. Catcin; Mount Katein/Katun, Northern Burma. Specimens from Hotha, Yunan, and Kakhyen Hills, Poonsee, Upper Burma have been lost (Yeo unpubl. data).
134147		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134147		population	eng	No information available.
134147		threats	eng	Unknown.
134148		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and caves, and monitoring of pollution levels in Bau district.
134148		distribution	eng	Upper Sarawak, Malaysia, Southeast Asia. Endemic to Bau district, Sarawak.<br/><br/>More material (four specimens) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Meraja, and Gunung Kawa (three specimens), in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now two (both in the Bau Limestone Area).
134148		habitat	eng	The holotype collected in cave stream in total darkness; this species prefers swampy areas or is found out of water in moist areas.
134148		population	eng	Primarily aquatic. Appears to be a facultative cavernicolous species (troglophile).
134148		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation
134149		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134149		distribution	eng	Mexico: Watercourses in the state of Chiapas, Mexico that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.
134149		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134149		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134149		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134150		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134150		distribution	eng	Brazil: southern Brazil (SP, ES, BA States).
134150		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams. and is known only from three localities in three states in Brazil.
134150		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134150		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134151		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134151		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ban Chiang Khua, Muang Sakon Nakhon Distirct, Sakon Nakon Province, northeastern Thailand.
134151		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace.
134151		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134151		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Caught for food during the wet season. Human induced habitat loss is a threat.
134152		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134152		distribution	eng	Hispaniola (Dominican Republic, possibly Haiti). Found only in the areas of the central Cordillera at high altitudes. The Dominican Republic (48,440 km²) occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Island of Hispaniola (Haiti is the western third). The type locality in the Dominican Republic is the Rio Magua, tributary of the River Mao, Sierra Platicos, northern slope of the Cordillera Central, near the watershed, Santiago Province, Dominican Republic, near Cascade, 2,300 m above sea level.
134152		habitat	eng	Found only in the highland areas of the Cordillera central at high altitudes in streams and rivers.
134152		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134152		threats	eng	The major current and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution due to urbanization and the development of agriculture. Forest loss has been rapid and wide reaching in the Dominican Republic, with cover reduced from 75% to 14% between 1920 and 1981 (Brothers 1997). This deterioration has continued.
134153		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134153		distribution	eng	Mexico. A neotropical species with a distribution in the states of Michoacan, Mexico and Guerrero. Its geographical range extends into the region of Tierra Caliente (Turicato and Aryan) ca. 75 km as the crow flies from Jungapeo and Huiramba (2,100 m), and the coastal region (Chucutitán, 60 meters) around 150 km as the crow flies from Uruapan.
134153		habitat	eng	Turicato: streamside zones standing among dead leaves and boulders.: house in an urban area, next to a pit. Chucutitán: under trees and gaps between rocks near intermittent streams. Tres Palos: water in ponds with abundant litter. Carámicuas: between grassland and pine forest, near an intermittent stream.
134153		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134153		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134154		conservation	eng	None in place
134154		distribution	eng	China: Meixian and Pingyuan (24.5°N, 115.8°E), Guangdong Province.
134154		habitat	eng	Found in upper reaches of streams, under stones or in muddy holes
134154		population	eng	No information available.
134154		threats	eng	Unknown.
134155		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134155		distribution	eng	India: Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3,825 m) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills; Cherrapunji (also spelled as Cherrapunjee), is a town in East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of Meghalaya, one of the world's wettest places; Garo Hills are part of the Garo-Khasi range in Meghalaya, India. Orissa state: Ganjam (19°23′N 85°04′E /19.38, 85.07) is a town in Ganjam District in the state of Orissa, India. Assam state: north Cachar, an administrative district (3,786 km²) in the state of Assam in India.
134155		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134155		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134155		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134156		conservation	eng	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival.
134156		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. So far only known from its type locality Pahang. Endemic to Taman Negara Park in Pahang, where it was first described from and has not been reported since it was first caught in the the 1950s.
134156		habitat	eng	Almost certainly terrestrial to semi-terrestrial in habit (as indicated by its highly arched carapace, typical of air-breathing species). No ecological notes associated with original capture.  Johora species are primarily aquatic and found in clean, clear, fast-flowing fresh waters, typically associated with hill streams.
134156		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134156		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its precise range not known. That it was described from Taman Negara suggests it should be safe for the moment.
134157		conservation	eng	None in place
134157		distribution	eng	Philippines: Salvacian, Busuanga, Palawan; vicinity of Puerto Princessa, Palawan. Tagbariri River, Palawan.
134157		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134157		population	eng	No information available.
134157		threats	eng	Unknown.
134158		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134158		distribution	eng	Thailand: Fang District, Chiang Mai Province; about 99°36'N 18°17'E and Muang Lampang District, Lampang Province, northern Thailand (Yeo, unpubl. data).
134158		habitat	eng	A rice field crab.
134158		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134158		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134159		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134159		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Cochinchine = southern Viet Nam. This species is known only from the type specimen from Viet Nam. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Viet Nam.
134159		population	eng	No information available.
134159		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134160		conservation	eng	None in place. Not found in a protected area.
134160		distribution	eng	D.R. Congo: Duma (Uele).
134160		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134160		population	eng	Unknown.
134160		threats	eng	Unknown.
134161		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134161		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Quebrada between La Soledad and Barinitas, Barinas State, 570 m.
134161		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134161		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134161		threats	eng	None known.
134162		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134162		distribution	eng	A very common species in the Western Himalayas to Punjab. India: Simla (=Shimla) Himachal Pradesh; Dharmsala (=Dharamsala) (1,333-1,666 m). Afghanistan.
134162		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134162		population	eng	No information available.
134162		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134163		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.   The cave systems where this species occurs provide an amount of protection for this species due to its inaccessibility.
134163		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Cueva Punto Fijo I, Rıo Guasare, Zulia State. This species comes from localities in the karstic formations of the Sierra de Perija, eastern Venezuela. (1) Cueva Los Laureles, Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; 600 m altitude; on the mud near the water's edge, 700 m from the cave's entrance; (2) Cueva El Saman, Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; 470 m altitude; under a stone in a dry gallery, 2,400 m from the cave's entrance. (3) Cueva El Saman (El Laberinto), Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; (4) Cueva El Saman (galeria La Culebra), Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; (5) Cueva La Retirada, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 900 m altitude; collected in stream, current speed 50 liters/sec,420 m from the cave entrance; (6) Cueva El Sumidero De La Retirada, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 815 m altitude; collected in stream, l current speed 30 liters/sec; (7) Cueva de los Cantos, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 740 m altitude; collected on land near stream, current speed 250 litres/sec, 420 m from the cave entrance; (8) Cueva El Veladero de La Retirada, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 850 m altitude; collected in gallery without a stream, but wet, 250 m from the cave's entrance.
134163		habitat	eng	<em>Chaecus caecus</em> has been recorded from several caves near the type locality. This species is from the middle courses of the rivers Guasare and Socuy, which drains in the northern portion of Lake Maracaibo. The holotype of <em>Chaceus caecus</em> comes from Cueva Punto Fijo, a cave to the north of this area, in the northern escarpment of the Guasare Valley. New records for this species were found in an extensive karstic area in the Socuy River, where the river goes underground in many places, to reappear further down in its course. The sinks and cavities where these crabs were found comprises the Cueva El Saman considered at present the largest cave in Venezuela, with a total length of 11.8 km; the Cueva Los Laureles, with a development of 1,617 m; the Cueva La Retirada, with 520 m development, with the nearby El Sumidero (sink) de La Retirada and El Veladero de La Retirada; and the Cueva de los Cantos.<br/><br/>The stygiobiont characters in this species are fully developed only in the adults, because the eyes in the juveniles are of normal size, although depigmented, and the pereiopods are not particularly slender. The eyes in the juveniles of <em>Chaecus caecus</em> are not reduced, as is the case in the adults, but there is no trace of pigment in the cornea; the legs are not particularly slender.
134163		population	eng	The number of juveniles per clutch is very low in relation to other species in the family. The brood found under the abdomen of a female from Cueva El Saman consisted of 8 juveniles. The size of these juveniles is large relative to the size of the mother.  The number of offspring is small, because the clutch size in other pseudothelphusids fluctuates according to the size of the species at reproduction - between 25 and 125 eggs.
134163		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution.
134164		conservation	eng	None in place
134164		distribution	eng	China: Xiuren in Guangxi.
134164		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134164		population	eng	No information available.
134164		threats	eng	Unknown.
134165		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134165		distribution	eng	Nicaragua: Jinetoga, Department Jinoteca, and Atlantico Norte Department.
134165		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134165		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134165		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134166		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134166		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: Sullivan Island and the mangrove swamp of Kisseraing Island, both localities off Myanmar. Mergui Archipelago, Gulf of Bengal. Thailand: Also found on islands of southern Thailand, about 300 km away.
134166		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134166		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134167		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Penrissen Mountains area.
134167		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Penrissen Mountains.
134167		habitat	eng	Aquatic to semi-terrestrial.
134167		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134167		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134168		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134168		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two localities, Chathankodu and Ponmudi (type locality), Kerala, southwestern India.
134168		habitat	eng	All recent material was collected from under stones and logs in wet soil, and from shallow burrows in wet soil, adjacent to small streams. The crabs were always found in the shade.
134168		population	eng	No information available.
134168		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134169		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134169		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Twelve specimens were collected at Quebrada Los Tubos, and thirty-two more were collected at Río Naranjo, Santa María de Dota, both sites in the Province of San José. Distribution is apparently restricted to the southwest of Costa Rica.
134169		habitat	eng	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Costa Rica. <em>P. costaticaensis</em> lives under rocks in small streams at an altitude of approximately 1,300 m and at a median water temperature of 16°C.
134169		population	eng	Unknown.
134169		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134170		conservation	eng	None in place
134170		distribution	eng	China: Jianou County in Fujian Province.
134170		habitat	eng	This species harbours metacercariae of <em>Paragonimus</em> lung flukes.
134170		population	eng	No information available.
134170		threats	eng	Unknown.
134171		distribution	eng	China: Anyuan (25.1 N, 115.3 E), Gauyun, Jiangxi Province.
134171		habitat	eng	Common in rice paddy fields, lives in burrows 70-80 cm in length, located along bunds of paddy fields. The mouth of the burrow is surrounded by an oval to circular bund ('castle'). <br/><br/>See Pillai and Subramoniam (1984) for the breeding ecology of this species.
134171		population	eng	No information available.
134172		conservation	eng	None in place
134172		distribution	eng	China: Jinping county in Yunnan Province.
134172		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134172		population	eng	No information available.
134172		threats	eng	Unknown.
134173		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).
134173		distribution	eng	Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil (Amazonas State), Ecuador, and Peru. This species is found in the Amazon and Rio Orinoco drainiage basins. Pyayamino, Napo-Pastaza; Rio Pindo, tributary of the RioTigre; upper Amazon, Loreto (Peru); Napo River basin (Ecuador); Amazon River basin (Colombia). It is also found in the Cuau River Amazonas territory, Venezuela. This species is found in the Colombian foothills of the Andes and towards the east to the Venezuelan Guiana, and in the Caqueta River basin and Orinoquian basin. Colombia: Amazonas, Caqueta, Cundinamarca, Guaviare, Meta, Putamayo, and Vaupes Departments (Campos 2005).
134173		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river. In the Cuau River (Venezuela) this species lives in the ground near the cano in muddy or swampy soil and eats <em>Gymnophonia</em> spp. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 120-900 m asl.
134173		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134173		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
134174		conservation	eng	None in place
134174		distribution	eng	China: Napo County, Guangxi Autonomous Region.
134174		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134174		population	eng	No information available.
134174		threats	eng	Unknown.
134175		conservation	eng	None in place.
134175		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: This species is known only from the type specimen from Lake Lindu (1°18'S 120°05'E), Central Sulawesi. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134175		habitat	eng	A lake.
134175		population	eng	No information available.
134175		threats	eng	No information available.
134176		conservation	eng	None in place
134176		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Nantow County, Sun Moon Lake (8 km²).
134176		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134176		population	eng	No information available.
134176		threats	eng	Unknown.
134177		conservation	eng	None in place, not found in a protected area.
134177		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Nosy-Bé, rivière de la route des lacs, 23.XI.1972; Grotte nord de l’Ankara, Berges Sable; Province de Ansiranana, Sta. SMG 12362, forest de Binara, near Analamazava River, 7.5 km west of Daraina.
134177		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134177		population	eng	This species is known only from three localities all in northern Madagascar.
134177		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134178		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134178		distribution	eng	India: Tamil Nadu state: The species is known only from the type locality (Coramandal coast) in South Eastern India. Yerkad (=Yercaud near Salem) in the Servarayan range of hills (anglicized as Shervaroy Hills) in the Eastern Ghats.
134178		habitat	eng	Not known, probably a rice field crab.
134178		population	eng	Unknown.
134178		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134179		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134179		distribution	eng	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province: Siguqiao, Yushan county (28.6 N 118.2 E; 1731 km²) and Shangrao county.
134179		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134179		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134179		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134180		conservation	eng	None in place
134180		distribution	eng	Burma: southern Shan State: rice fields near Yawnghwe; and Tuanggyi.
134180		habitat	eng	A rice field crab
134180		population	eng	No information available.
134180		threats	eng	Unknown.
134181		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134181		distribution	eng	India:Tamil Nadu state: southern India, Nilgiris (mountains), a range of mountains panning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India. This species is known only from the type specimen from southwestern India. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India. The species is known from Avalanche, Nilgiris, southwestern India.
134181		habitat	eng	Ecology not known.
134181		population	eng	No information available.
134181		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134182		conservation	eng	None in place
134182		distribution	eng	China: Nancheng (27.5N, 116.6 E) Jiangxi Province.
134182		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134182		population	eng	No information available.
134182		threats	eng	Unknown.
134183		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134183		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Borneo, from Barito Basin, South Kalimantan.
134183		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134183		population	eng	Unknown.
134183		threats	eng	Unknown.
134184		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134184		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Lushan (29.4N, 115.9E); Tongcheng in Hubei Province. Also Wuning, Xiushui, Yifeng in Jiangxi Province.
134184		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134184		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134184		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134185		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134185		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Taiwu Village and Machia Village, Pingtung County (Neipu township; Liangshan), northern Hengchun Peninsular, southern Taiwan.
134185		habitat	eng	Lives in burrows near small streams.
134185		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134185		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134186		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134186		distribution	eng	Distribution indeterminate because the type locality and only record ("Rogue") cannot be located (Rodriguez 1982). Tentatively assigned here to Colombia.
134186		habitat	eng	Presumably streams and rivers.
134186		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134186		threats	eng	Not known.
134187		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134187		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Pingtung County (Laii; Machia; Sandimen; Taiwu).
134187		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134187		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134187		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134188		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134188		distribution	eng	India: Malabar coast and Nicobar, southern India.
134188		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134188		population	eng	No information available.
134188		threats	eng	Unknown.
134189		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134189		distribution	eng	Thailand: southern Thailand (Prachuap Khiri Khan Province and southern Phetchaburi Provinces); Huai Sad yai and Pala Ou waterfall (12°32'11.2''N, 99°28'51.9"E) in Hua Hin District; Kui Buri forest in Kui Buri District, Huai Yang Waterfall, Thap Sakae District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province; Kaeng Krachang in Tha Yang District, Phetchaburi.
134189		habitat	eng	A waterfall crab, collected from waterfalls and cascades.
134189		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134189		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134190		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134190		distribution	eng	Mindanao, Philippines, Asia (Takeda and Ng 2001).
134190		habitat	eng	Cavernicolous, obligate troglodyte.
134190		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134190		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134191		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil.
134191		distribution	eng	Suriname. French Guiana. Peru. Brazil: Amazonas, Para, Maranhao, Acre, and Goias States, lower basin of the Amazon, near Santarem.
134191		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname in the Amazon, Araguari, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. Found in rivers and lakes in areas with deep basins, and in holes in flat areas.
134191		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134191		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams, and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
134192		conservation	eng	None in place
134192		distribution	eng	China: eastern part of Guangdong Province, East River (= Dongjiang River) and Han River flow through it, there is a subtropical monsoon climate.
134192		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134192		population	eng	No information available.
134192		threats	eng	Unknown.
134193		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134193		distribution	eng	China: This species is only known from Nanning county in Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous region, south China.
134193		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134193		population	eng	No information available.
134193		threats	eng	Unknown.
134194		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134194		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Lonbok Island. This species is known only from the type specimen from Air Sigaguruh, Lombok.
134194		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134194		population	eng	No information available.
134194		threats	eng	Unknown.
134195		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134195		distribution	eng	Colombia: Quebrada Chipo, Punta Arditas, Departamento del Choco; Serrania Costera del Baud (Campos 2005).
134195		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 10 m asl.
134195		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134195		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134196		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134196		distribution	eng	Mexico: Durango State.
134196		habitat	eng	Rediscovered three or four years ago from a small spring in downtown Cuernavaca, this species is strongly threatened by urban development.
134196		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134196		threats	eng	Rediscovered 3 or 4 years ago from a small spring in downtown Cuernavaca, this species is strongly threatened by urban development. The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134197		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134197		distribution	eng	China: Shanxi, Henan, Heibei and Hubei Province. Huixian, Yichuan, Ruyang, Xingchuan in Henan. Yangcheng, Huanhengxian in Shanxi.  Shexian in Heibei. Zhongxiang, Yingshan, Anlu, Jingshan, Jingzhou, Guanghua, Yunmeng & Suixian in Hubei.
134197		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134197		population	eng	No information available.
134197		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134198		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134198		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Kaohsiung (2,792 km²), Taitung (3,515 km²) and Tainan county (2,106 km²). Kaohsiung County (Neimen, Mucha); Tainan County (Nanhsi); Chialuohstoei; Kending; Manchow, Kangou; Manchow, Jeouperng; Moschow, Nanren Lake; Suchongshi; Wutai; Taitung County (Tawu).
134198		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134198		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134198		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134199		conservation	eng	The retention of Bako area as a National Park would help to protect this species.
134199		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: This species is known only from the vicinity of Kuching and possibly is also found in Bako National  Park. More material (15 specimens) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Tai Ton, Gunung Tongga (one specimen) and Gunung Aup (one specimen) in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now three (all in the Bau Limestone Area). <br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at 100 km², based on two original collections made a few years apart by different collectors (both list locality as simply “Kuching, Sarawak”), plus new material belonging to this species collected in 1986 from Bako National Park about 35 km north of Kuching city.  However, the new specimen was not directly examined – it is identified from a photograph, so the original locality is the only one for certain – but the authors speculate that “Kuching” as a locality might well have referred to the Bako National Park north of the city where the new specimens was photographed. So the EOO estimate of 100 km² might be acceptable.
134199		habitat	eng	These crabs are semi-terrestrial, foraging on vegetation at night, but digging and hiding in deep burrows in peat soil by day. This species digs deep holes in the forest floor on forest soil many meters away from the nearest stream. Collected from burrows in a small cocoa plantation next to the main forest.
134199		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134199		threats	eng	<p>The peat swamp remnants this crab occurs in are all small and their long-term survival questionable. Only one of the peat swamp remnants (one of the smallest ones) is protected as a state park (not a national park) and nests in an urban area, while the rest are still been developed for a wide range of agricultural crops.</p>
134200		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134200		distribution	eng	D.R. Congo: near Kisangani (Stanleyville). Rivers of the Congo river basin.
134200		habitat	eng	Major rivers in the central African rainforest (Rathbun 1921).
134200		population	eng	This species was locally abundant in the early part of the 20th century.
134200		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134201		conservation	eng	None in place
134201		distribution	eng	China: North Hengduan Mountains area, Ning Lang in Yunnan.
134201		habitat	eng	Temperature 16°C, pH 6.5.
134201		population	eng	No information available.
134201		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan mountains area.
134202		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134202		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Watercourses in Guatemala that drain into the Caribbean Sea. 14 km south of Guatemala City.
134202		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134202		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134202		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134203		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134203		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains, and Tabasco States.
134203		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.
134203		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134203		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134204		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134204		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Pichincha Province: Basins of the Napo and Pastaza Rivers which drain into the Amazon River, and the Esmeraldas River which drains into the Pacific. From a tributary of the Rio Peripa, W of La Aurora, and Mindo; Eastern Cordillera. Colombia: Narino, Putamayo Departments: San Miguel-Putumayo basin (24.885 km²), Amazon drainage. Western slopes of the Colombian Andes in southern Colombia and eastwards into Ecuador (Campos 2005).
134204		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,200-2,000 m asl.
134204		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134204		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution.
134205		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134205		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Central Sulawesi Lake Poso, Tentena; Pendola south coast; Tindolo east coast on sand. Surface area of Lake Poso 323 km². Crabs found in area surrounding lake.
134205		habitat	eng	Found on sand of lake and outlet.
134205		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134205		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134206		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134206		distribution	eng	Colombia: Antioquia and Choco Departments: found only in the Atrato River basin which drains into the Caribbean (Campos 2005).
134206		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,800-2,500 m asl. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. in Colombia.
134206		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134206		threats	eng	None known.
134207		conservation	eng	None in place
134207		distribution	eng	Burma: Thagata Monte Mooleyit.
134207		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134207		population	eng	No information available.
134207		threats	eng	Unknown.
134208		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134208		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Napo Province, Amazon slopes of Ecuador. Colombia: Putamayo Department: Caqueta River basin. Southern Colombia in the eastern slope of the Colombian Andes. This species is found in two river basins: the Caqueta and Napo Rivers, affluents fo the Amazon River (Campos 2005).
134208		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 450 and 600 m above sea level.
134208		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134208		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134209		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134209		distribution	eng	El Salvador: Department Santa Ana, Hacienda Los Planes. Honduras. Guatemala.
134209		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134209		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134209		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134210		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134210		distribution	eng	Southern Mexico, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala. According to Rodriguez (1982) the type locality is unknown, although Nicaragua and Guatemala are mentioned as possible localities. Montecristo,Tabasco, 24,475 km² (Mexico); Nicaragua (130,000 km²); Guatemala (108,889 km²)
134210		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134210		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134210		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134211		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134211		distribution	eng	Colombia: Caldas Department: eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in th basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134211		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,700-1,800 m asl in the humid forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera.
134211		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134211		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134212		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134212		distribution	eng	Brazil: This species occurs in the basins of the coastal rivers in the south of Brazil (mainly in the state of Rio Grande do Sul). The record for Rio de Janeiro is highly doubtful. This species also occurs in URUGUAY (in the basin of the river Uruguai in Paysandu, Rio Negro, Treinta y tres, Durazno, and Tucuarembo Departments); and in ARGENTINA (in Buenos Aires Province).
134212		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams.
134212		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134212		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134213		conservation	eng	None in place
134213		distribution	eng	Laos: "montagnes du Laos" present day northeastern Thailand or Laos.
134213		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134213		population	eng	No information available.
134213		threats	eng	Unknown.
134214		conservation	eng	Conservation of highlands of Penang island and monitoring of pollution levels.
134214		distribution	eng	Stream on wedge of rock, with dripping water, Titikarawan Falls, Penang, N Malaysian peninsula, Asia. Endemic to highlands of Penang.
134214		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. This species prefers clean flowing mountain and hill streams and usually hides under rocks and vegetation. Younger specimens have been found in relatively calm pools adjacent to the main stream with water trickling down. Aggressive crab species that can survive out of water for more than an hour without severely weakening.
134214		population	eng	This is a locally common taxon, apparently endemic to the Penang highlands in Penang, Malaysia.
134214		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134215		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
134215		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo: Ketapang, Sei Pelang, west Kalimantan.
134215		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134215		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134216		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134216		distribution	eng	India: Assam state (78,543 km²): Cachar; Sibsagar; Darband Pass (Alcock 1909).
134216		habitat	eng	There is no information.
134216		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134216		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation, pollution and industrial and agrarian development.
134217		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134217		distribution	eng	Mexico: From a river near Tectuapan, in northwest Chiapas State (17°28'0"N, 93°9'0"W)
134217		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134217		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134217		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134218		conservation	eng	None in place
134218		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tak Province (Mae Nam Moi, Phop Phra District) and Phitsanulok Province in the lower half of northwestern Thailand. Phop Phra District has an area of 1006.5km².
134218		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134218		population	eng	No information available.
134218		threats	eng	Unknown.
134219		conservation	eng	The continued conservation of Bukit Timah Hill and the associated stream systems in Jungle Fall Valley offers the only hope for survival of this species in Singapore.
134219		distribution	eng	Singapore: Known only from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (no longer found here) and a very small population in a streamlet on a small hill near Bukit Batok. The species is endemic to Singapore.
134219		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks at the sides of the main stream as well as hiding inside clumps of leaves and detritus, even in almost stagnant pools. It feeds on plant detritus as well as on oligochaete worms, which are present in the soft mud of a stream. Quite terrestrial habits and mainly nocturnal species (Ng 1988). Undisturbed primary hill forest streams.
134219		population	eng	Known only from a very small population in a streamlet on a small hill near Bukit Batok in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
134219		threats	eng	Loss of forest cover and aquatic pollution. Acidification of water and lowering of water table, probably reducing stream flow and availability of suitable habitats.
134220		conservation	eng	No conservation measure are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134220		distribution	eng	India: Kerala state: Maharastra state: Mahableshwar. This species is known only from the type specimen from southwestern India. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134220		population	eng	No information available.
134220		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134221		conservation	eng	None in place
134221		distribution	eng	China: Chongren (27.7N 116.0E), Linchuan and Pingxiang Counties in Jiangxi Province.
134221		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134221		population	eng	No information available.
134221		threats	eng	Unknown.
134222		conservation	eng	None in place
134222		distribution	eng	Burma. Two localities are known: Upper Irrawaddy River, Myanmar; Teinzo, Upper Irrawaddy.
134222		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134222		population	eng	No information available.
134222		threats	eng	Unknown.
134223		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134223		distribution	eng	China: Yangshan and Lechang Counties, Guangdong, southern China. Holotype and one female and one male paratype are from the same locality (1981), then two males (one juvenile) and two females (two juveniles) from a second locality (1964).
134223		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134223		population	eng	No information available.
134223		threats	eng	Unknown.
134224		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134224		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Annam, central Vietnam, Phuc Son, northern Vietnam. Hoah Binh (Chi Ne), Bac Thai (Ky Phu), nam Trung bo (Phuc Son).
134224		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134224		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends. Collected for food so presumably reasonably abundant.
134224		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Eaten, so harvesting might be a threat.
134225		conservation	eng	None in place
134225		distribution	eng	India Calcutta.
134225		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134225		population	eng	No information available.
134225		threats	eng	Unknown.
134226		conservation	eng	None in place
134226		distribution	eng	Burma: Upper Tenasserim.
134226		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134226		population	eng	No information available.
134226		threats	eng	Unknown.
134227		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134227		distribution	eng	Mexico: Jalisco State, Colima State.
134227		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134227		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134227		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134228		conservation	eng	Found in a protected area.
134228		distribution	eng	Madagasacar, Antsiranana Province, Parc National de Marojejy (= Marojezy), 13 km SE Doany, on ridge between the Andranomazava and Antsahaberaoka Rivers (14°26.2'S, 49°37.2'E),  northern Madagascar. Well-surveyed for.
134228		habitat	eng	Restricted to montane forest. Caught by hand in undisturbed montane forest (1,070 m asl) on slope with slightly wet ground; one specimens found 20 cm below surface of soil; others collected at 810-875 m asl in pitfall traps.
134228		population	eng	Known only from 2 adults (one male and two ovigerous females) and 3 juveniles, all from high altitude (810-1070 m) on the forested slopes of Mount Marojejy in northern Madagascar.
134228		threats	eng	No threats known.
134229		conservation	eng	None in place
134229		distribution	eng	Thailand:  Ban Phoem, King Amphoe Na Yung, Udon Thani Province, northeastern Thailand.
134229		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134229		population	eng	No information available.
134229		threats	eng	Unknown.
134230		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134230		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco States.
134230		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134230		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134230		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134231		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134231		distribution	eng	This species is known from four locations, two in Colombia and two in Ecuador. Colombia: It occurs at Sibundoy and Mocoa, Putamayo Department, corresponding to the eastern slope of the Colombian Andes (Campos 2005). Ecuador: The range of this species extends south to the Napo Province in Ecuador. This species is found in two basins: the Caqueta and Napo Rivers which drain to the Amazon River (Rodriguez and von Sternberg 1998).
134231		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 450-1,200 m above sea level.
134231		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134231		threats	eng	None known.
134232		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134232		distribution	eng	Mexico: Jacatepec River in Santa Marıa, Jacatepec (17851.369N, 96812.309W), Municipio de Santa Marıa Jacatepec, Oaxaca.
134232		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134232		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134232		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134233		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134233		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Xingshan; Zhenzi Commune, Xingshan; Huangliang Commune, Xingshan; Nanyang Commune; Baolong, Xingshan; Pingshui, Xingshan; Sanyang, Xingshan; Honghua Commune, Shennongjia; Wufeng, Xingshan. Also Yichang County.
134233		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134233		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134233		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134234		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134234		distribution	eng	Colombia: Putamayo Department: this species is known only from a single locality in the Caqueta River Basin which is part of the Amazon River basin (Campos 2005).
134234		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134234		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134234		threats	eng	None known.
134235		conservation	eng	The conservation of as many parts of Bau as possible is necessary.
134235		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: endemic to the Bau area of Sarawak. More material (one specimen) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Doya in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak, so now known from two locations in this area.
134235		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial to terrestrial. Likely to be in the swampy areas between the limestone formations in Bau.
134235		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134235		threats	eng	As the Bau area does not have long-term protection and the species occurs in low-lying areas, it is very vulnerable to anthropogenic and associated effects.
134236		conservation	eng	None in place
134236		distribution	eng	China: Yixian and Taiping in Anhui Province.
134236		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134236		population	eng	No information available.
134236		threats	eng	Unknown.
134237		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134237		distribution	eng	Mexico: Lake Chapala, Jalisco State, Michoacan State, Guanajuato State.
134237		habitat	eng	This species is found in the major river systems of Mexico.
134237		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of Mexico.
134237		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134238		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134238		distribution	eng	Colombia: Departments of Caldas, Risaralda, & Valle del Cauca, Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).
134238		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,200-1,980 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.
134238		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134238		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134239		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134239		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas State: Rancho La Esperanza and San Juan Bosque (Rodriguez, 1992).
134239		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134239		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134239		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134240		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134240		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Turrialla, Province Cartago. Mexico: Atamajac, east Guadalahara, Jalisco State; and San Antonio, Domingo, and San Blas, Nayarit State.
134240		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134240		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134240		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution.
134241		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134241		distribution	eng	India: Tamil Nadu state. This species is known only from the Palni Hills, a range of hills, an eastward extension of the Western Ghats, southwestern Tamil Nadu state, southern India. The Palni Hills are a continuation of the Anaimalai Hills in Kerala state, the Palni Hills are about 70 km wide and 23 km long, hills terminating abruptly in the south in steep slopes. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134241		habitat	eng	Not known, probably similar to <em>Snaha aruna</em>, which was collected from a shallow (<15 cm deep) streamlet (<1 m wide), under stones, but at 1,800 m altitude.
134241		population	eng	No information available.
134241		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134242		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134242		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone<br/>Hubei and Sichuan County.  Yuguan, Bayi, and Yangjahe in Wufeng County; Yazikou and  Duzhengwan in Chengyang/Changyang County; Dayan County;  Tianzhushan, Yishang/Yichang County; Yuquan and Zaolin in Dangyang County. Zhijiang County. All in Hubei Province. Plus Pengxian, Dayixian, Guanxian, Wenjiang, Shuangliu, Qionglai, Yaan, Mianyang and Chengdu all in Sichuan Province.
134242		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134242		population	eng	No information available.
134242		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134243		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134243		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Taoyuan County (Fuhing, Takuan), Ilan County. About 60 km between Taoyuan and Ilan.
134243		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134243		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134243		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134244		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134244		distribution	eng	Thailand: Occurs in the western part of the southern Chao Phraya drainage, in an area from Sing Buri Province, Authaya Province, Samud Prakan Province, Ratch Buri and outskirts of Bangkok.
134244		habitat	eng	The specimens from Suphunburi and Samud Prakan were taken from the roots of the water hyacinth. The other specimens were obtained from under small stones in shallow streams with fast-flowing water.
134244		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134244		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134245		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134245		distribution	eng	Colombia: Choco and the borderline between Choco and Valle del Cauca Departments: found only in the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific (Campos 2005).
134245		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams of the Pacific drainage and has an altitudinal range of between 70-2,000 m asl.
134245		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134245		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134246		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan. This species is known only from the type specimen from Benguela Basin, esat Kalimantan, Borneo.
134246		population	eng	No information available.
134247		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134247		distribution	eng	Kingoyo, lower Congo, D R Congo, Central Africa
134247		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134247		population	eng	No information available.
134247		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134248		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134248		distribution	eng	Philippines: This species is known only from the type specimen from Agan River, Oriental Mindoro Island of the Philippines (Freitag and Yeo 2004). There have been no records in over 20 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of the Philippines.
134248		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134248		population	eng	No information available.
134248		threats	eng	Unknown.
134249		conservation	eng	None in place
134249		distribution	eng	Laos:  local market, Luang Prabang Province, northern Laos; tributary of Nam Talan about 3 km S of Ban Nateuy, Nam Tha watershed, Mekong basin, Luang Nam Tha Province, northern Laos.
134249		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134249		population	eng	No information available.
134249		threats	eng	Unknown.
134250		conservation	eng	None in place.
134250		distribution	eng	Sudanonautes faradjensis is found in the rivers of the rainforest regions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon (Ivindo River, Makokou, 0.6° N 12.9° E) and D. R. Congo. It occurs in the middle reaches of the Congo River basin, and in the rivers Ubangui and Uele, and in the tributaries of the Congo River. The distribution of this species in D. R. Congo (Gombari (=van Kerckhovenville) and Faradje) is described by Rathbun (1921) and Balss (1936), and the distribution in Cameroon (Bipindihof; Boedou stream, subdivision of Banyo; Foumban, Dschang district) by Balss (1929).
134250		habitat	eng	<em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is restricted to the more humid areas of the rainforest from south Cameroon to the D. R. Congo. This species occurs in permanent aquatic habitats from large rivers to small streams. The following notes are based on the observations of Herbert Lang, the leader of the US Congo Expedition, as reported by Rathbun (1921). <em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is one of the largest river-living crabs of the Uele district in the Congo River basin. The species is found under stones in quiet portions of the river near rapids, where it is reportedly preyed upon by small crocodiles and carnivorous fish. In Cameroon, <em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is sympatric with <em>Potamonemus mambilensis</em>. The local name for <em>S. faradjensis</em> in Cameroon is the "Nyar" crab.
134250		population	eng	There have been no studies on population levels and trends in this species but it appears to be abundant based on recent collections of material from several different localities.
134250		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134251		conservation	eng	Unknown. Not found in a protected area.
134251		distribution	eng	DR Congo: only known from the type locality, Luebo.
134251		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134251		population	eng	Unknown.
134251		threats	eng	Unknown.
134252		conservation	eng	None in place.
134252		distribution	eng	D.R. Congo: Leopoldville, Kinshasa, Lower Congo. Erimetopus vandenbrandeni is found either in, or near, the Congo River in the vicinity of Kinshasa, D. R. Congo. Balss (1936) based his description on three lots of specimens, all from Kinshasa, and Bott (1955) reported on two female specimens from Kalima (near Kinshasa).
134252		habitat	eng	Probably a river-living species.
134252		population	eng	This species has a relatively narrow distribution, is not well represented in  museum collections, and has not been collected (to our knowledge) since 1935 and its population levels are likely to be low. It is known from 20 specimens collected from the same locality (Kinshasa, D. R. Congo) on 12 different occasions between 1925 and 1931,  and from specimens collected from Kalima which is near Kinshasa.
134252		threats	eng	Threats unknown.
134253		conservation	eng	<em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is a widespread and abundant species, has been collected recently and its conservation status is secure. This species is found in a number of protected areas including the Parc National d’Andasibe-Mantadia (Pe´rinet-Re´serve), the Parc National de Ranomafana, the Parc National d’Andringitra and the Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre.
134253		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Sakaleone river; Toamasina (formerly Tamatave); Andrafiavelo (Sakarava); Analamazastra river, Toamasina, Moramanga; Beforona, freshwater stream between Tananarive and Toamasina; Analamazastra river, forest streams; Analamazastra river, Moramanga; Ambodiriana, road to Lakato, Moramanga;  Road to Toamasina, from lake<br/>near Mandrake dam; Ambodiriana, road to Lakato, Moramanga; Analamazastra river. Madagascar. This species is found in the streams and rivers between Tananarive and Toamasina, in the region between Bombetok and Tananarive, and in the Sakaleone river near Mahela. Mangoro River, affluent of Tetivato River, basin of Mangoro River, Betafo, 840 m asl, 18°52.37S, 48°06.55E, affluent of Lantara River, basin of the Manampatrana River, Andringitra, 1,370 m asl; Ambatandrano River, basin of the Namorona River Ambatandrano, 775m asl; Vakoho River, basin of Sakanila River, Lakato road, 812 m asl;  basin of Rianila River, Lakato road, 1,050 m asl; Makis River, basin of Antongombato River, base camp, 1,075 m asl; Makis River, basin of Antongombato River, Mt Ambre-Aval, 1,040 m asl; Sahatany River, basin of Rianila River, Perinet-Reserve, Parc National d’Andasibe-Mantadia, 935m asl; camp on road to Lakato, 1,075 m asl; Manambolo River, basin of Ivondro River, Ampasimadinika, 444 m asl; Tsaratango River, basin of Namorona River, Tsaratango, 585m asl; basin of Namorona River, Hotel Domaine nature; Tsaratango River, basin of Namorona River, 537 m asl; Sahatandra River, basin of Rianila River, Ambodirina, 980 m asl;  basin of Rianila River, affluent of Sahatandra River, 1,050 m asl;  basin of Rianila River, Lakato road, 1,050 m asl; Gri-Gri, Ilazana River, basin of Rianila River, 430 m; Beharena River, basin of Betsiboka River, Antaniditra, 1,370 m asl; basin of Rianila River, affluent of Sahatandra River, Moramanga, 800m asl; Sandrakatrana River, basin of Rianila River, Ambodiaviavy, 420 m asl; Sandrakatrana River, basin of Rianila River, Ambodaviavy, 325 m asl; basin of Rianila River, Perinet-Reserve, Parc National d’Andasibe-Mantadia, 900 m asl; 15 km east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 980m asl; Makis River, basin of Antongombato River, northern affluent, 990 m asl; camp on road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 75m asl; Lakato road, basin of Rianila River, 1,050 m asl; Moramanga, basin of Mangoro River, 940 m asl, Anosibe An’ala, basin of Mangoro River, 960 m asl; Sahatandra River, cascade de Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 975 m asl; Sahatandra River, 200m before the bridge, basin of Rianila River, 1050m asl; 15km east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 975m asl; 15 km east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 980m asl; east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 975m asl; camp on road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 1,075 m asl; Lakato road, basin of Rianila River, 1,050 m asl; road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 0m asl; camp on road to Lakato; camp on road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 1,075 m asl; Iantara River, basin of Manampatrana River, Andringitra, camp I, 1,350 m asl; Lakato road, basin of Rianila River, 1050m asl; Amaringilra; basin of Rianila River.
134253		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is found in the streams and rivers mainly in the northern, central and south-eastern regions of the island (in Fianarantsoa, Antananarivo, Toamasina and Antsiranana Provinces). A total of 53 different localities are known for <em>H. agilis</em> from the literature (Rabeharisoa 1996, Cumberlidge 1997, Cumberlidge and Boyko 2001, Cumberlidge and Sternberg 2002). <em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is found in the rivers and streams of eight major river basins in five out of six Madagascan provinces in latitudes between 12° and 22°S, and from a lake near Mandraka, Toamasina Province. These river drainages are Antongombato (Antsiranana Province), Betsiboka (Antananarivo Province), Namorona and Manampatrana (Fianarantsoa Province), and Rianila, Mangoro, Ivondro and Sakanila (Toamasina Province). There are no records for this species from Mahajanga Province. The localities in the Betsiboka river basin are all at high elevations (1,220–1,370 m asl) in the clean fast-flowing tributaries of the highlands of Antananarivo Province. <em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> has been collected from a range of elevations from sea level (a stream in the drainage of the Rianila River) to 1,800 m asl in the headwaters of the Tsiribihina River.
134253		population	eng	<em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is a large and common species that is sympatric with <em>H. madagascariensis</em> in the Ambatandrano River in the Manampatrana river basin in Andringitra (775 m asl ), and in the Iantara River (1,370 m asl ).
134253		threats	eng	Unknown.
134254		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134254		distribution	eng	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department: Cauca River basin (Campos 2005).
134254		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,500 m asl.
134254		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134254		threats	eng	None known.
134255		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134255		distribution	eng	Panama: Cana.
134255		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134255		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134255		threats	eng	None known.
134256		conservation	eng	None in place.
134256		distribution	eng	Laos: That Luang swamp/wetlands, outside Vientianne. Also Thailand.
134256		habitat	eng	Common in rice fields and wetlands. This species appears to be territorial and quarrelsome, with larger individuals often attacking smaller conspecifics. Normally they burrow into mud down to depth of at least 50 cm. This species is an important predator of the invasive gastropod the Golden Apple snail (<em>Pomacea canaliculata</em>), which is a major pest on rice and other aquatic plants in southeast Asian wetlands.
134256		population	eng	No information available.
134256		threats	eng	No threats known.
134257		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134257		distribution	eng	China: Ruijin (25.8N 116.0 E) in Jiangxi Province. In mountains bordering Fujian Province in southeast Jiangxi Province.
134257		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134257		population	eng	No information available.
134257		threats	eng	Unknown.
134258		conservation	eng	None in place
134258		distribution	eng	China: Yuxi County (24 4N, 102 5'E), Yunnan Province.
134258		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134258		population	eng	No information available.
134258		threats	eng	Unknown.
134259		conservation	eng	None in place
134259		distribution	eng	China: Yiwu village, Mengla, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan.
134259		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134259		population	eng	No information available.
134259		threats	eng	Unknown.
134260		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134260		distribution	eng	Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), and Uruguay(Rodriguez, 1992).  In Paraguay it is found in the drainage basins of the rivers Uruguai and Parana, and from Arroyo Pindo at a bridge on a dirt highway (route 3) ca. 9 km N of Mbutuy, and from ca. 67 km N of Coronel Oviedo, Rıo Manduvira, San Pedro/Caaguazu.
134260		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and streams.
134260		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134260		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134261		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134261		distribution	eng	Colombia: Amazonas Department: Sitio La Sabana, Centro Providencia, Comunidad Makuna, Corregimiento La Pedrera, in the Amazon basin as far as the Caqueta River in the upper Amazon basin (Campos 2005).
134261		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Colombia in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 190-200 m asl.
134261		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134261		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134262		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134262		distribution	eng	Mindanao, Philippines.
134262		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134262		population	eng	No information available.
134262		threats	eng	Unknown.
134263		conservation	eng	None in place
134263		distribution	eng	Thailand: Salakpet; Ko Chang; Koh Kut, Ko Chang; Than Mayom waterfall, Ko Chang, Trat Province.
134263		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134263		population	eng	No information available.
134263		threats	eng	Unknown.
134264		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134264		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cordoba Department. The distribution of this species is restricted to the Sinu River which drains into the Caribbean at the northernmost corner of Colombia at a distance of more than 800 km from the main distribution area of the genus (Campos 2005).
134264		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134264		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134264		threats	eng	None known.
134265		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134265		distribution	eng	Colombia: known from a number of localities in Risaralda Department in the western and eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera (Campos 2005).
134265		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,350-1,600 m asl in the forested western and eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.
134265		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134265		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134266		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.
134266		distribution	eng	Thailand: Found throughout most of southern Thailand (Ko Samui, Trang Province, Nakhon Si Tammarat Province, Chumpon Province, Surat Thani Province) and its outlying islands down to northern Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysia: reaching south to Perak and possibly Selangor. E.g. in the states of Perlis and Kedah (6.29.39N, 100.15.30E; 6.29.30N, 100.15.30E; 6.23.58N, 99.50.05E; 6.23.58N, 99.50.05E; 6.21.06N, 99.52.10E).
134266		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Collected from under rocks, stones, at the base of water plants, and in clumps of vegetation. This species prefers relatively shallow and slow flowing streams with clean water. The substrate is usually sand, not mud. It has been collected in lower sections of waterfalls. It can excavate depressions under rocks for shelter during the day and forage towards dusk and during the night. <br/>It has also been found very close to the sea and can almost certainly tolerate tidal changes and small changes in salinity. <br/><br/>Not an aggressive species, can be kept together in relatively large numbers without loss of limb or damage, unless they're moulting. This species found in same area as Somanniathelphusa sexpunctata. <br/><br/>Found in a shallow stream with about 1.6m/s flow rate
134266		population	eng	No information available.
134266		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134267		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134267		distribution	eng	Colombia: Caldas Department, Manzapares (1870 m asl), tributary of Rio Magdalena, Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).
134267		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,870 m asl in the humid eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River.
134267		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134267		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134268		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134268		distribution	eng	Philippines: Bato Lake, Luzon.
134268		population	eng	No information available.
134268		threats	eng	Unknown.
134269		conservation	eng	None in place
134269		distribution	eng	China: Longlin, Guangxi.
134269		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134269		population	eng	No information available.
134269		threats	eng	Unknown.
134270		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134270		distribution	eng	India: northwestern India (Punjab: Bilaspur; Kangra; Dharampur near Simla; Simla, Kumason. Himachal Pradesh). NEPAL: western to central Nepal (Gandaki, Lumbini and Narayani Provinces). Nepal, N-India. Nepal: Silatpati, Sarda Khola, 3500 ft, Nepal; Dhadama Khola, Jarepipal, Palpa, Palpa district, Lumbini Province,Western Region, 27? 48.741 N, 083? 31.433 E, Alt. 764 m, 10.01.00; Chundi Khola, Tanahu near Dumre, Tanahu district, Gandaki Province, Western Region, 27? 57.559  N, 084? 24.891 E, Alt. 450 m; Daune Khola, Daune, Nawalparasi district, Lumbini province, Central region, 27? 33.336 N, 083? 50.523 E, Alt. 500 m; Phusre Khola (tributary of Buldi Khola) Ranigaon, Tanahu, Tanahu district, Gandaki Province, Western Region, 27? 59.409  N, 084? 16.727 E; Lumbini Province, Western Region, 27? 48.894  N, 083? 32.019 E, Alt. 615 m; Armadi Khola, Waling, Syangja district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 27? 59.625 N, 083? 46.758  E, Alt. 618 m; right tributary of Jugedi Khola, Jugedi, Chitawan, Makawanpur district, Narayani province, Central region, 27? 46.024 N, 084? 28.182 E, Alt. 285 m,; Bhut Khola at Bhut Pul, Palpa, Palpa district, Lumbini Province, Western Region, 27? 44.743 N, 083? 28.508 E, Alt. 840 m (origin from Siwalik hills),; Samari Khola, Samari bridge, Hetauda, Makawanpur district, Narayani province, Central region, 27? 27.383 N, 08502.55  E, Alt. 474 m. Type locality:INDIA: Bilaspur or Kangra, Punjab. Distribution: Northwestern India, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, western to central Nepal.
134270		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134270		population	eng	No information available.
134270		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134271		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134271		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Bac Thai Province, northern Vietnam.
134271		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134271		population	eng	No information available.
134271		threats	eng	Unknown.
134272		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134272		distribution	eng	Yemen: Socotra Island (3,625 km²). Waterfall in the western part of the Nojid plane at the escarpment (12.20.271N, 53.37.894E).
134272		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded to occur in the type locality which is a series of waterfalls and rock pools at the base of the escarpment in the western part of the Nojid plane on the south coast of Socotra island.
134272		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134272		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
134273		conservation	eng	None in place
134273		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Langbian Peaks, south Annam, Viet Nam.
134273		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134273		population	eng	No information available.
134273		threats	eng	Unknown.
134274		conservation	eng	None in place.
134274		distribution	eng	Mexico. From 10 km south of Valle Nacional, Oaxaca, Mexico (1°7"42'N, 96"19'W) at an altitude of 600 m, in a stream; collected in 1971.
134274		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134274		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134274		threats	eng	Unknown.
134275		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134275		distribution	eng	Japan: Okinawa, Amami and Tokunoshima; Ryukyu Islands.
134275		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134275		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134275		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134276		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134276		distribution	eng	D.R. Congo: Tschopo river near Stanleyville (Kisangani). Also Lake Kivu.
134276		habitat	eng	Small streams that flow into the Tshoipo River in the upper Congo river basin.
134276		population	eng	No information available.
134276		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134277		conservation	eng	None in place
134277		distribution	eng	Myanmar/Burma: This genus is found in Myanmar, the actual type locality of <em>L. barbouri</em> should therefore be regarded as <em>incertae cedis</em> for the time being, but probably somewhere in northern India. Distribution assumed Myanmar (Yeo's thesis 2000). Also possibly from “Buitenzorg (=Bogor), Java, Indonesia”, coll. T. Barbour, 1906-1907.
134277		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134277		population	eng	No information available.
134277		threats	eng	Unknown.
134278		conservation	eng	None in place
134278		distribution	eng	Laos: Ban Xieng Dad, Muang Phu Kit (Muang Sui), Xieng Khuang Province, Northern Laos.
134278		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134278		population	eng	No information available.
134278		threats	eng	Unknown.
134279		conservation	eng	protection of highland drainages.
134279		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Almost certainly endemic to Sarawak.
134279		habitat	eng	Considering the physiognomy of the species, it is likely to be fully aquatic and probably occurs in clean mountain streams.
134279		population	eng	No information available.
134279		threats	eng	Not known. Species known only from old museum material.
134280		conservation	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.  No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134280		distribution	eng	Hong Kong: stream at Wu Kwai Sha, Kwun Yum Shan stream and Tai Po Kau Forest Reserve in New Territories; The Peak, Hong Kong (Kemp 1918).
134280		habitat	eng	This species appears to be most numerous in shaded shallow streams with clear, fast-flowing water, rocky substratum, and accumulations of leaf-litter, which serve as shelter and food. It is not found in polluted waters. For a potamid, this species is timid and specimens can be kept together without much damage to one another.
134280		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134280		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134282		conservation	eng	None in place.
134282		distribution	eng	India: Darjeeling state: Darjeeling District: Punkabari, Darleeling. Sikkim state: a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. TheTeesta valley, Sikkim, recieves intense rainfall, even for the eastern Himalaya. Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3825 meters) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Meghalaya state: Garo Hills, part of the Garo-Khasi range. NEPAL: Thankot Hills, Kathmandu valley, 10 km from Kathmandu. Assam state: Cherra Punji, a village in the Khasi Hills which have some of the heaviest rainfall on the globe; Daphla (or Dafla) Hills, a tract of hilly country on the border of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Bhutan: Phuntsholing (200 m). (Alcock, 1910; Bott, 1970)
134282		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134282		population	eng	No information available.
134282		threats	eng	None known.
134283		distribution	eng	China: Jianfengling, Hainan Island.
134283		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134283		population	eng	No information available.
134283		threats	eng	Unknown.
134284		conservation	eng	None in place
134284		distribution	eng	Afghanistan and western Pakistan, western tributaries of the Indus River. Afghanistan: Kandahar, Kabul, Parvan, Farah, Faryab, Jawzjan, Nangarhar, Kunar, Herat, Patkia, Helmand, Bamiyan, and Parvan Provinces. Pakistan: Northwest Frontier Province. Beluchistan Province: Pond of Shisba River, 6,440 ft, Beluchistan; Barshor River, Peshin Valley, Beluchistan. India: Salt Range, Punjab; near Hallur, Habar; Beluchistan; Seistan; Quetta; Peshawur.
134284		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134284		population	eng	No information available.
134284		threats	eng	Unknown.
134285		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134285		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department: Santa Fe de Bogota, slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 2,200-2,900 m asl. Also Sabana de Bogota, Bogata area, Magdalena watershed (Campos 2005).
134285		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 2,200 and 2,900 m asl.
134285		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134285		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134286		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134286		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra: This species is known only from the type specimen from the Mentawei Islands (a series of four islands off the coast of Sumatra). There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134286		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134286		population	eng	No information available.
134286		threats	eng	Unknown.
134287		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134287		distribution	eng	El Salvador. Berg Caguatique, Dept. Morazan near Osicala.
134287		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134287		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134287		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134288		conservation	eng	None in place
134288		distribution	eng	China: Shangyong, Xishuangbannam Yunnan Province.
134288		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134288		population	eng	No information available.
134288		threats	eng	Unknown.
134289		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134289		distribution	eng	Mexico: Oaxaca State, Cueva del Brujo, Rancho el Guayabo, 4 km south of Jacatepec, Municipio Velle Nacionale. This species is known only from one cave and has a very particular morphology. Samples from other caves in the region suggest that this species is restricted only to the type locality in Cueva del Brujo, in Municpio de Valle Nacional, Oaxaca.
134289		habitat	eng	This species is known only from one cave and has a very particular morphology.
134289		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134289		threats	eng	This species is known only from one cave and represents a very particular morphology. Samples from other caves in the region suggest that this species is restricted only to the type locality in Cueva del Brujo, in Municpio de Valle Nacional, Oaxaca. The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134290		conservation	eng	None in place
134290		distribution	eng	Arbor County (present day Arbor State, Arunchal Pradesh), India.
134290		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134290		population	eng	No information available.
134290		threats	eng	Unknown.
134291		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134291		distribution	eng	Colombia: Antioquia Department: eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134291		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 950-1,600 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera.
134291		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134291		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134292		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134292		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Nhu Xuan District, Thanh Hoa Province , northern Vietnam; Nghe Tinh Province, central Vietnam.
134292		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134292		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134292		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134293		conservation	eng	Current national and international conservation efforts aimed at preventing populations of freshwater crabs in the Mediterranean region from decline are generally inadequate due to a general lack of knowledge of crab ecology and biology, and to long-term neglect (until recently) driven by the low economic value of these animals. The distribution of <em>P. fluviatile</em> in the Southern Tuscan Apennines (and presumably in the rest of its range) is not obviously associated with any biotic or abiotic parameters (Vannini and Gherardi 1981, Barbaresi <em>et al</em>. 2007). For example, this species is not highly sensitive to environmental conditions and occurs in waters that have relatively high minimum and maximum temperatures, variable oxygen levels, a wide range of dissolved ions, and different bedrock types. In addition, high concentrations of calcium in their water does seem to affect crabs, presumably because calcium is an essential element for crustacean exoskeletons. Informal field observations of river crabs in urban areas indicate that <em>P. fluviatile</em> may be quite resistant to some kinds of water pollution.<br/><br/>Leaf litter is a common component of the diet of crabs but it is not the sole source of protein for these animals (Gherardi <em>et al</em>. 1987). Shelters and burrows in streams are vital for survival because adult crabs seek refuge either in burrows or under riparian vegetation and juvenile crabs hide under pebbles and cobbles to avoid predation by fishes and adult conspecifics. The conservation of these freshwater crabs depends heavily on habitat protection and the preservation of freshwater ecosystems. Given the crisis that populations of native freshwater decapods are facing (Gherardi and Holdich 1999, Füreder <em>et al</em>. 2002) it is imperative that conservation planners make the most effective use of information currently available. The protection of river crabs needs to be strongly regulated at all levels of legislation (from community to regional levels) in order to guarantee the preservation of crabs throughout their distributional range. In Italy, <em>Potamon fluviatile</em> is protected by local regulations and regional laws but these have been adopted by only a few regions (Latium, Tuscany, Liguria, and Abruzzo), and are often not sufficient to preserve this species from decline. For example, crabs are not found in every part of suitable habitats within their range. The presence of crabs in some streams and their absence in similar streams nearby may be the result of over-exploitation by fishermen who continue to poach crabs despite the protection of crabs by local laws, an explanation that is supported by reports from local people and by long-term researchers. Today the pressure on freshwater resources ranges from moderate to intense, and some species have either been reduced or even locally extirpated from parts of their range. There is at present very little effective management and conservation in many parts of the distributional range of this species. Existing plans for managing aquatic inland resources primarily focus on water use and do not include specific, enforceable monitoring and management objectives, conservation actions, and little being done to <br/>protect either aquatic habitats and communities or endangered and threatened species.<br/><br/><strong>Recommendations</strong>. Rivers and streams should be protected against drying. Perennial rivers, and those rivers that normally flow for only part of the year, should be protected against extended seasonal drought because these are vital habitats for aquatic freshwater animals. Stream and river beds should not be concreted to make channels and water pollution should be prevented. Water pollution should be prevented, and the collection of crabs for food should either be banned or regulated.
134293		distribution	eng	Potamon fluviatile has a highly fragmented geographic distribution over a wide area in a number of countries that have a Mediterranean coastline. This species is found in Italy (Trento, Lombardia, Veneto, Liguria, Toscana, Umbria, Lazio, Campania, Puglia, Calabria, Sicily Provinces), the Maltese Islands (Malta and Gozo), the Balkan Peninsula (Croatia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania), and Greece (western mainland Greece plus the Ionian islands and western Aegean islands). In mainland Greece the Axios River in the Macedonian Province marks the easternmost point of its distribution. It is found in the Axios,Kalamas, Aheron, and Arachthos River drainages, and in Peloponnesos in the Pinios, Piros-Tethreas, Pamisos, and Evrota River drainages. The distribution of P. fluviatile also includes the provinces of Pella, Trikala, Larisa, Fthiotis, Prevenza, Aitolia-Akarnania in western Greece, and the Peloponnesian provinces of Korinthia, Arkadia, and Lakonia. Potamon fluviatile is also found on the Ionian islands (Kerkyra (=Corfu), Kefallinia, Lefkas, Zaknythos (=Zante)); on the Northern Sporades Islands: Skiathos and Skopelos islands (Magnesia Province), Evvoia island and Skyros island (Evvoia Province), and in the Cyclades island of Andros.
134293		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, streams and lakes throughout its range. In the Northern Apennine mountains in Tuscany, Central Italy, <em>P. fluviatile</em> lives in streams that are part of the Arno and Reno river basins (ranging from 155 to 596 m a.s.l.) that flow through wooded areas over both calcareous and siliceous rocks (Nocita <em>et al</em>. 2006, Barbaresi <em>et al</em>. 2007). In streams and rivers crabs shelter under stones or among vegetation, or they rest in their burrows dug into the banks; burrows are up to 50 cm deep and have water at the bottom. Crabs are most active between May and October, after which (i.e., from November to February) they are less active and hibernate either in natural refuges or inside burrows (Gherardi <em>et al</em>. 1988, Gherardi <em>et al</em>. 1998). Crabs feed at night either in water or on land, and they are opportunists that consume a wide variety of food items, that is either dead or alive, plant of animal. Food items include vegetable matter, tadpoles, insects, small frogs, and fish. Crabs have few predators, but they are vulnerable to habitat degradation, over-harvesting, and pollution (despite the population of crabs in an unpolluted part of the city of Rome). Young crabs are more aquatic than adults, and females mate in late spring and release hatchlings in summer. Crabs are semi-terrestrial and spend time out of water either at night or in the day when it is raining. Crabs are capable of dispersal by walking on land across relatively short distances to reach nearby streams.
134293		population	eng	Population levels of <em>Potamon fluviatile</em> have declined dramatically in recent years throughout its range. This trend towards a decline in population levels is often explained as the result of factors such as pollution, overharvesting, and habitat damage (Matthews and Reynolds 1995, Gherardi and Holdich 1999). More recently, the introduction of non-indigenous crayfish species into southern European waters may pose a further threat to freshwater crab survival (Gherardi and Holdich 1999). In the Maltese islands <em>P. fluviatile</em> has disappeared from a number of valleys either because its habitat has dried up, or because the springs that feed the water body have been polluted, or because it has been over-harvested by humans for food. In Greece, crabs used to be common in the Gallicos River system on the plain west of Thessaloniki, but none were found in surveys in the 1990s. This loss is attributed to the introduction of intensive agriculture here in the 1970s-1980s and to the increased use of insecticides, pesticides, and water draw-off for irrigation (Pretzmann 1993). Similarly, in 1978 the only living population of crabs on the island of Andros (Cyclades) was found near Meldano, and crabs were not found during searches elsewhere on the island where these animals.
134293		threats	eng	Many freshwater habitats in the Mediterranean region where <em>P. fluviatile</em> occurs (Italy, Greece and the Maltese Islands) are increasingly subjected to unprecedented levels of human disturbance, and the future rate of species extirpation in these habitats is predicted to be almost five times greater than that for terrestrial animals and three times that of coastal marine mammals (Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1999). For example, since 1900 Greece has lost an estimated 75% of its wetlands due mainly to human activities. Many populations of river crabs are now in urgent need protection, especially those populations that are found on the Mediterranean islands. <em>Potamon fluviatile</em> is associated with streams and rivers and it is important that these habitats be protected from pollution and drying out. Growth of agro-business (for fruits and agrarian products) and of tourism (hotels) have caused local water pollution and have placed large demands on the supply of fresh water. Also, increasing use of pesticides and insecticides on fields has caused increasing contamination of ground water, ponds, and streams. In some places stream beds have been concreted to make water channels and this has adversely affected crab populations by preventing them from digging burrows for shelter and breeding. An increasing volume of water is being extracted from streams and rivers in pipelines to supply hotels, factories, villages, industry and agriculture, and this is causing drying and a subsequent loss of aquatic habitat. <br/><br/>Interestingly, studies on <em>P. fluviatile</em> in Italy indicate that the main factors affecting its distribution are anthropogenic pressures and uncontrolled harvesting rather than specific alterations to the biotic and abiotic parameters of its aquatic habitat.<br/><br/>Studies in mainland Greece indicate that <em>P. fluviatile</em> may be threatened by pollution and habitat alterations. Populations of this species in the Axios River delta (along with the Aliakmon delta and Loudias and Gallikos rivers) live in a protected area that consists of wetlands of great ecological and international importance (Ramsar convention). However, even this habitat is now threatened by industrial pollution (from the disposal of industrial solids and liquid wastes from tanneries, slaughterhouses, pig farms, and phosphoric fertilizer factories), by sewage sludge, and by water extraction for irrigation and electric power production. Additional threats to crab habitat come from pesticides and herbicides, uncontrolled river sand extraction, alluvial deposits, overgrazing, overfishing, poaching, and arbitrary building.
134294		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
134294		distribution	eng	Potamon setiger is found in the following countries: southeastern Turkey (in Konya, Kahraman Maras, Gaziantep, and Hatay Provinces), in Syria (in Halab, Hama, and Idlib Provinces), and in Lebanon (in Al-Bika Province). This species occurs in the basin of the Orontes River (which originates in Lebanon and flows through Syria into Turkey), the Afrin River (which flows from Turkey to the northwestern part of Syria and returns to the Alexandretta region that borders Turkey and Syria), and the Ceyhan River (in Turkey).
134294		habitat	eng	<em>Potamon setiger</em> is found in springs, streams and rivers in southeastern Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon, otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.
134294		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134294		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and pollution associated with industrial and agrarian development.
134295		conservation	eng	None in place
134295		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: River Song Da (=riviere noire) inTonkin.
134295		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134295		population	eng	No information available.
134295		threats	eng	Unknown.
134296		conservation	eng	None in place.
134296		distribution	eng	Ecuador: tributary of Rio Labones, west of Santa Isabel.
134296		habitat	eng	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Ecuador.
134296		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134296		threats	eng	None known.
134297		conservation	eng	None in place.
134297		distribution	eng	China: Fuyuan County, Qujing City, Yunnan Province, coll. 28 Jul. 2005.
134297		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. Rivers and streams. This species is a second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.
134297		population	eng	Unknown.
134297		threats	eng	Unknown.
134298		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134298		distribution	eng	Brazil: Mato Grosso State, restricted to the region to the north of the pantanal matogrosso in the Paraguay River basin at Matto Grosso (Mato Grosso, Jauro River, Pto Esperidiao).
134298		habitat	eng	Rivers and bay areas, occurring between the roots and aquatic macrophytes, between cracks and holes of submerged and emerged dead tree trunks close to the water level and outside of water, under tree trunks and objects close to the edge.
134298		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134298		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134299		conservation	eng	None in place
134299		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra, Java.
134299		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134299		population	eng	No information available.
134299		threats	eng	Unknown.
134300		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134300		distribution	eng	Panama: Rio San Pedro, Bocas del Toro (1978).
134300		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134300		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134300		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134301		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134301		distribution	eng	Colombia: Boyaca and Cundinamarca Departments: Bogota, between 950-1,250 m asl; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordillerias of Colombia (Campos 2005).
134301		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 950-1,250 m asl.
134301		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134301		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134302		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134302		distribution	eng	China: Boyang (29.0 N, 116.6 E); Qianshan and Duchang, Jiangxi Province. Also Yanshan in Jiangxi (Dai, 1999).
134302		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134302		population	eng	No information available.
134302		threats	eng	Unknown.
134303		conservation	eng	Kaeng Chet Khwae National Park covers Khao Krayang National Reserved Forest which is partly in Tambon Kaeng Sopha of Wang Thong district, Phitsanulok province.
134303		distribution	eng	Thailand: Wang Thong District, Phitsanulok Province, in the lower half of northwestern Thailand. Wang Thong District has an area of 1,687 km².
134303		habitat	eng	This is the smallest potamid from Thailand (cw 12.8 mm adult).
134303		population	eng	No information available.
134303		threats	eng	Unknown.
134304		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134304		distribution	eng	India: The species is known only from two very close localities between Gudalur and Manjery, Tamil Nadu, southeastern India.
134304		habitat	eng	Specimens were from a very shallow stream (<1 m wide, <10 cm deep), in a well-shaded area. The substrate of the stream was mostly gravel and small stones. All the crabs were found from under small stones.
134304		population	eng	No information available
134304		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134305		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134305		distribution	eng	India: Tamil Nadu: southern India, Nilgiris Hills. Nilgiris (mountains), a range of mountains spanning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southern India. The species is known only from the type locality, Mudumalai, Nilgiris, Kerala, southwestern India.
134305		habitat	eng	Ecology not known.
134305		population	eng	No information available.
134305		threats	eng	Inadequate infrastructure, proliferation of slums, inappropriate tourist infrastructure, lack of liquid and solid waste management systems, lack of coordination and conflicting interest of government agencies plague the Nilgris district (online edition of India's National Newspaper. Sunday, Oct 02, 2005. Nilgiris: An action plan to save the hills by Dharmalingam Venugopal).
134306		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is not found in a protected area.
134306		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ghana (West Africa).
134306		habitat	eng	This small species of freshwater crab is endemic to Ghana where it is known from six localities. The type and paratypes come from a stream about 9 km north of Kibi, which is near to Puso Puso, about 7 km west of Asiakwa, about 90 km north of Accra.
134306		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134306		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134307		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134307		distribution	eng	Japan: Endemic to Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Islands. Okinawa island has an area of 2,272 km².
134307		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134307		population	eng	Known from 7-8 localities. Found in locally small numbers.
134307		threats	eng	This island is highly populated, so although no specific threats are known, it is likely that this species will be subject to habitat loss and pollution.
134308		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134308		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: El Coronel.
134308		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Panama.
134308		population	eng	A rare species.
134308		threats	eng	None known.
134309		conservation	eng	None in place.
134309		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cauca, Choco, and Valle del Cauca Departments: San Juan River Basin (Campos 2005).
134309		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams of the Pacific drainage and has an altitudinal range of between 500-1,600 m asl
134309		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134309		threats	eng	None known.
134310		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134310		distribution	eng	China: Hubei, Sichuan, Henan, Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces. Zigui, Yichang, Xingshan, Chongyang, Badong, Wufeng counties in Hubei Province. Shizhu, Dazu, Pingwu, Qingchuan, Jiange, Kaijiang, Yungyang, Kaixian, Wanxian, Liangping, Zhongxian, Dianjiang, Fengdu, Changshou, Peiling, Wulong, Chongqing, Beibei, Nantong, Hechuan, Daxian counties in Sichuan Province. Luanchuan county in Henan Province. Zhenan county in Shaanxi Province. Wenxian county in Gansu Province.
134310		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134310		population	eng	No information available.
134310		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134311		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area in Tham Tharn Lod National Park.
134311		distribution	eng	Thailand: Central Kanchanaburi Province (Tham Tharn Lod waterfall and Tritung waterfall, Bo Phloi district; and Thong Pha Phum District), central Thailand.
134311		habitat	eng	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
134311		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134311		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134312		conservation	eng	None in place.
134312		distribution	eng	China: Junjuang River, Xueli Village, Gaocun Rural, Mayang Miao autonomous county, Hu’nan Province, coll. 26 Jul. 2005.
134312		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.
134312		population	eng	Unknown.
134312		threats	eng	Unknown.
134313		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134313		distribution	eng	Brazil: North of Amazonas State, Rio Marauia, and the upper region of Rio Negro, close to the Venezuelan border.
134313		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.
134313		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134313		threats	eng	None known.
134314		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134314		distribution	eng	Japan: Amani Island and Tokunoshima Island, Ryukyu Islands.
134314		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134314		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134314		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134315		conservation	eng	None in place
134315		distribution	eng	Thailand: Siam, montagnes du Laos (= northeastern Thailand).
134315		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134315		population	eng	No information available.
134315		threats	eng	Unknown.
134316		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Road between Bombetok and Tananarive; Imerimandrosa; Tananarive; Forest, Manambato Valley, North of Tsaratanana Mountains; Lake Alaotra, North of Antananarivo (formerly Tananarive); Toamasina; Chambendiana river.
134316		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrothelphusa goudoti</em> is found in streams, rivers and lakes in the north-western, central and south-eastern regions of Madagascar in Antsiranana, Antananarivo and Toamasina provinces. <em>Hydrothelphusa goudoti</em> is found in five major river basins in three provinces between 13° and 24°S, from the Tsaratanana massif in the north, to the Marotsy River near Androkabe in the south-east. <em>Hydrothelphusa goudoti</em> is not known from either the north-western Province of Mahajanga or the western and southern Province of Toliara (except for the extreme south-east of this province), and there are no records from Fianarantsoa Province.
134316		population	eng	No information available.
134316		threats	eng	Although <em>H. goudoti</em> is locally common in the central highlands of Madagascar and is offered for sale in the market in Antananarivo, it is still known from only a few localities.
134317		conservation	eng	None needed for the immediate future.
134317		distribution	eng	Thailand: Throughtout most of southern Thailand (Sai Kau and Cape Patani). Malaysia: northern Peninsular Malaysia, including Pulau Langkawi.
134317		habitat	eng	Aquatic. Common in shallow stagnant bodies of water, especially in paddy fields and ponds. It digs relatively deep burrows (30 cm or more) by the sides of bunds, usually several centimetres above the water level, but sometimes metres away. Base of burrow is below the water table. Small animals hide in submerged vegetation and do not appear to dig burrows. High tolerance for anoxic water conditions. <br/>Nocturnal species, which are pests on rice fields, but are collected in traps. Natural enemies are herons, kingfishers, waterfowl and otters.<br/><br/>This species is peaceful and unaggressive, therefore adapts well to captivity. It moults when completely submerged in the aquarium and will only completely harden after two days.
134317		population	eng	No information available.
134317		threats	eng	No immediate threat. One concern is that if there is over-use of pesticides in rice-cultivation etc., the species will be severely affected.
134318		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134318		distribution	eng	Philippines, island of Bohol (caves), Asia. Quinapon-an Cave, Antequera, Bohol.
134318		habitat	eng	Cavernicolous, muddy bottom on subterranean stream, 20 to 30 cm deep, about 300 m from entrance.
134318		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134318		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to industrial and agrarian development.
134319		conservation	eng	None in place
134319		distribution	eng	China: Heping, Guangdong Province.
134319		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134319		population	eng	No information available.
134319		threats	eng	Unknown.
134320		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134320		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. Original specimen found 100 years ago, in 2004 another specimen was found, so now known from two localities.
134320		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134320		population	eng	No information available.
134320		threats	eng	Unknown.
134321		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134321		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in Brazil, northwest of Amazonas, in the mountain range of the Sierra do Curicuriari in the upper region of the Rio Negro. The type material was collected 300 m above sea level in the extreme NW of Brazil not far from the Venezuelan and Colombian borders.
134321		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology of this species is inferred from the type locality, found in the rivers and streams of the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.
134321		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134321		threats	eng	None known.
134322		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation).
134322		distribution	eng	Brazil: Amazonas State: upper Rio Negro basin, surroundings of Balawa-ú village. Venezuela in the upper Rio Negro region. Guyana.
134322		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Guyana and Brazil in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>The Balawa-ú village is situated at 01º47,91'N 63º46,88'W in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela. Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but is distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin. This is a large (carapace breadth >60 mm) terrestrial species that is commonly found in moist areas of the forest floor, usually inside burrows close to tree roots and not very far from the water body. It is distributed in the upper Rio Negro basin, mainly in the left bank tributaries, but its geographical range encompasses Venezuela, Brazil and Guyana (Magalhães and Rodríguez 2002).
134322		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134322		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Species exploited by the Yanomami include two crab species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival.
134323		conservation	eng	None in place. Not found in a protected area.
134323		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Mahalona, Lake Towuti, and Lake Matano. Lake Mahalona (2°34'0'' S, 121°31'0'' E). Lake Mahalona (north and west coast) (2°33'54.3"S 121°29'44.1"E) and (2°35'57.2"S 121°28'9.2"E; 2°35'57.2"S 121°28'19.2"E); Sungai Mahalona, 12 km from Lake Mahalona (2°36'65.8"S 121°31'06.4"E). Lake Towuti, 3 km South of Timampu (2°46'53.5"S 121°26'26.0"E). Lake Matano (2°31'48.7"S 121°27'9.9"E; 02°30.43'S 121°19.96'E) Lengko laro (Nautilo-Bay). All three lakes are interconnected by fast-flowing streams.
134323		habitat	eng	Crabs found on sand and under rocks or on muddy substrate in soft sediment. All three lakes are interconnected by fast-flowing streams.
134323		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134323		threats	eng	The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel. Mining for this metal causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF 200 Global Ecoregion homepage).
134324		conservation	eng	The watershed area according to the National Tourism Authority of Lao has been identified to have high potential for both culture and nature tourism. A larger Luang Namtha province eco-tourism project is also in place.
134324		distribution	eng	Laos: Tributaries of Nam Tha River, Luang Nam Tha Province, northern Laos; Nam Luang about 1km upstream of Ban Nam Luang, ((21°9'5"N 101°20'34"E) Nam Tha watershed; tributary of Nam Talan about 3 km south of Ban Nateuy, Nam Tha Watershed, Mekong basin, Luang Nam Tha Province.
134324		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134324		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134324		threats	eng	Threats for Nam Tha watershed in general include slash and burn agriculture, hunting of wildlife for food, road building which is reducing habitat and improving access for hunting and harvesting by outsiders, harvest of timber resources<br/>Also free ranging domestic animals, which disturb wildlife populations, compete for habitat, spread diseases, and increase probabilities of depredation of livestock by wildlife.
134325		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134325		distribution	eng	Colombia: Serranía de Los Paraguas, Cordillera Occidental. Paso de Galápagos, Serranía de Los Paraguas (4º47’30’’N, 76º09’02’’W), 2,500 m asl, approximatley 11 km NE of the Municipio de El Cairo, Departamento del Valle del Cauca.
134325		habitat	eng	Crabs were collected in a stream, brook, small river (apparently without a name), in madrigueras and small pools, hidden underneath humid vegetation. Muddy substrate, with a predominance of abundant organic matter.
134325		population	eng	No information.
134325		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution.
134326		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Cameron Highlands area.
134326		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Known only from the type locality: Gunong Brinchang, Cameron Highlands, Pahang (ca. 4 31'N, 101 23'E), exceeding 1,900 m above sea level, northern Malaysian peninsula.
134326		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to streams. Biology not well-known.
134326		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134326		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134327		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134327		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Towuti and Lake Mahalona, south Sulawesi; Lake Towuti (2°42'37.7"S 121°26'26.0"E; 2°40'53.5"S 121°26'06.9"E; 2°50.74'S 121°26.09'E; 02°40.89'S 121°41.49'E; 2°36'38.1"S 121°31'51.7"E).
134327		habitat	eng	Lakes. Collected when clinging to a rock in strong current, some collected with sands and rocks, others collected under rocks and sandstone terraces.
134327		population	eng	This lake-living species is found in a large number of localities, but the extent of occurrence is small (< 50km²).
134327		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134328		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134328		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Federal Territory of the Amazon, San Carlos de Rio Negro, Amazon drainage, Amazonas State. The type locality is San Carlos de Rio Negro in the state of Amazonas in the Negro River. Colombia: southeastern region of Colombia: Guaviare, Vaupes and Amazon Departments which correspond to the Negro, Guiviare, and Caqueta River basins (Campos 2005). Brazil: state of Amazonas, upper Rio Negro.
134328		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 130-300 m asl and is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river. This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.
134328		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134328		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134329		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134329		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea:  This species is known only from the type specimen from Finim Tel Plateau, Bahrman Mountains near Mt Fugilil Dabom, West Sepik District, Territory of New Guinea. There have been no records in over 25 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134329		habitat	eng	Cavernicolous crab, muddy sump pool connecting extensive phreatic areas in a cave. Water temperature was 13°C.
134329		population	eng	No information available.
134329		threats	eng	Unknown.
134330		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134330		distribution	eng	Laos: Ban Long Chen and side of dam, Saisombun Special Zone, northern Laos; Haut Lao, Ban Nong.
134330		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134330		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134330		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134331		conservation	eng	None in place.
134331		distribution	eng	Colombia: Occurs on the northwestern and southeastern slopes of the Sierra de Santa Marta mountain range (Campos 2005).
134331		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from one site. From these collection it has been inferred that it lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,580 m and 3,000 m above sea level. Further collection efforts have been hampered by public order problems in the region.
134331		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134331		threats	eng	None known.
134332		conservation	eng	None in place
134332		distribution	eng	China: Guixi County in Jiangxi.
134332		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134332		population	eng	No information available.
134332		threats	eng	Unknown.
134333		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134333		distribution	eng	Belize: from Blind Crab cave, 12 km SW of Millionario, Cayo District.
134333		habitat	eng	A truly troglobitic crab from Blind Crab cave, 12 km SW of Millionario, Cayo District, Belize.
134333		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134333		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134334		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134334		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains.
134334		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134334		population	eng	Although many collecting trips have been conducted in the mountain area where these crabs were originally collected, no new samples of them are available.
134334		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134335		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134335		distribution	eng	Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park and adjacent limestone formations, Sarawak. Malaysia, Asia.
134335		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. An obligate cavernicolous species (troglobite) living in subterranean streams and showing complete loss of cornea and body pigmentation.
134335		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134335		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134336		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134336		distribution	eng	India (Jessore, near Calcutta), Asia. Hazrapur, Jessore; Rookee; Purneah; Darbhanga; Barnagur, near Calcutta; Santipore, near Calcutta; Kissengunj; Mingura, Jessore; Lucknow; Abjulgar, Bijnor. Possibly also Myanmar (Bott 1970).
134336		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134336		population	eng	No information available.
134336		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134337		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134337		distribution	eng	DR Congo: Aketi Ibembo; Boangi, Momboyo.
134337		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134337		population	eng	Unknown.
134337		threats	eng	Unknown.
134338		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134338		distribution	eng	Sudanonautes floweri is a common species of freshwater crab widely distributed in Central Africa and in West Africa only as far as Nigeria. This species is found in Nigeria, Cameroon, Bioko, Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, Uganda, D. R. Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Cabinda (Angola). It is likely that <em>S. floweri</em> is also present in Equatorial Guinea. The distribution includes the Nile River system, the Congo River system, and the Chari River system including Lake Chad.
134338		habitat	eng	<em>Sudanonautes floweri</em> is found in the moister regions of the woodland and guinea savannah zones from central Nigeria to southern Sudan. This species is also found in the humid tropical rainforest habitats in south-east Nigeria, south Cameroon, Bioko (Equatorial Guinea), Chad, Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, D.R. Congo, Congo, Gabon, Angola (Cabinda). <em>Sudanonautes floweri</em> is common in shallow streams, rivers, and ponds, and digs burrows near waterways. This species is also found on land either next to water or some distance away, since it is capable of breathing air, and functions well for long periods out of water. The widened and highly arched carapace, and the lack of teeth on the anterolateral margins of the carapace of <em>S. floweri</em> are features often associated with air-breathing and burrow-living. <em>Sudanonautes floweri</em> serves as an important second intermediate host to the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> and <em>P. africanus</em> in Nigeria and Cameroon (Voelker and Sachs 1977).
134338		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.
134338		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134339		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134339		distribution	eng	Indonesia:  Mont Liang Koebang, Central Borneo (Balss 1937).
134339		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134339		population	eng	No information available.
134339		threats	eng	Unknown.
134340		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134340		distribution	eng	Fujian and Jiangxi Provinces. Southeast China, Asia<br/><br/>Shaowu, Jianou, Jiangle, Pingnan, Shouning, Fuzhou, Longyan, Liancheng counties in Fujian. <br/>Taihe, Yongfeng, Poyang, Pingxiang, Yihuang, Xingguo, Fenyi, Nancheng, Yigang, Ningdu, Shong rao, Guixi, Chongren, Lichuan, Shicheng and Shangyou counties in Jiangxi Province.
134340		habitat	eng	This species harbours metacercariae of lung flukes. Rivers and streams.
134340		population	eng	No information available.
134340		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134341		conservation	eng	None in place
134341		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: (Saigon), Cochin China, southern Viet Nam. Specimens from Chiang Mai and Chantaburi Province are not this species.
134341		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134341		population	eng	No information available.
134341		threats	eng	Unknown.
134342		conservation	eng	None in place.
134342		distribution	eng	Colombia: Casanare Department: from the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera in the llanos of Colombia (Campos 2005).
134342		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 290 m above sea level.
134342		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134342		threats	eng	None known.
134343		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134343		distribution	eng	China: Yulin/Guilin County, Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China. This species is known only from a single locality in China. Last recorded collection in 1979.
134343		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134343		population	eng	No information available.
134343		threats	eng	Unknown.
134344		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, a National Park.
134344		distribution	eng	Endemic to one hill in a national park in Malaysia, Gunung Jerai, Keday, near Sungei Petani, not far from the island of Penang, in northwest peninsular Malaysia. Gunung Jerai is forested, and is a massive limsestone outcrop that rises 1200m above sea level.
134344		population	eng	This species has small but stable populations that are probably not faced with any known long-term threats.
134344		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution, but not faced with any known long-term threats.
134345		conservation	eng	A multiple-use protected area in Balabac that advances conservation and sustainable development is being developed as well as  a marine ecoregion (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion = SSME) that is important to coral conservation and pearl farming. (WWF homepage: Coral Reef Conservation in Balabac Island).
134345		distribution	eng	Philippines:  Balabac Island in the Palawan Islands.
134345		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134345		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134345		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases.
134346		conservation	eng	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival.
134346		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Only known from its type locality in Taman Negara National Park, Pahang (<em>ca</em>. 4 34'31"N, 102 13'59"E) 1,600 m above sea level, northern Malaysian peninsula.
134346		habitat	eng	All known specimens have been collected at high altitudes. Semit-errestrial to aquatic. Not well studied.
134346		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134346		threats	eng	No clear threats, as its range is restricted to Taman Negara.
134347		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134347		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to the northernmost Andes of Venezuela, in Trujillo state. This species is known from its type specimen, which was found in a small stream in the area surroudning Santa Ana town (Suarez 2006).
134347		habitat	eng	The stream in which the type was discovered was a very disturbed, boulder strewn stream with dry forest on either bank.
134347		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134347		threats	eng	None known.
134348		conservation	eng	None in place
134348		distribution	eng	China: Kezhouken of Yongan city 25°42'N 117°30'E, Fujian Province, southeast China.
134348		habitat	eng	Lives under stones in streams with shallow water. Breadth of stream 0.31 to 1 m.
134348		population	eng	No information available.
134348		threats	eng	Unknown.
134349		conservation	eng	None in place
134349		distribution	eng	China: Yongchun (43.7°N 125.2°E), Fujian Province.
134349		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134349		population	eng	No information available.
134349		threats	eng	Unknown.
134350		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134350		distribution	eng	Mexico: Guerrero State. Last collected in 1962.
134350		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134350		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134350		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134351		conservation	eng	None in place
134351		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxian (35.5N, 111.5E), Shanxi Province.
134351		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134351		population	eng	No information available.
134351		threats	eng	Unknown.
134352		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134352		distribution	eng	Suriname: Coppename River, Paramaibo District; Brown's Mountain, Nassau Range, Marowijne Basin.  No localities outside of Suriname are mentioned.
134352		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Suriname in the Coppename, Marowijne/Maroni, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.
134352		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134352		threats	eng	None known.
134353		conservation	eng	None in place
134353		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area; Hongjiang, Huitong counties in Hunan. Xianfeng in Hubei.
134353		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134353		population	eng	No information available.
134353		threats	eng	Unknown.
134354		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134354		distribution	eng	Thailand: Khao Ram, Nakhon Si Thammarat mountains, Peninsular Siam (=southern Thailand) and Sai Rung waterfall, Trang Province, southern Thailand, 100 km between localities. This species does not have a wide distribution.
134354		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134354		population	eng	Last collected in 1988.
134354		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134355		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134355		distribution	eng	Colombia and Ecuador: Esmeraldas River (2,400 km²).
134355		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134355		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134355		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution along this river system.
134356		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134356		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Around the vicinity of Ussu and Maros (Kabupaten Maros, Leang Leang; Taman Wisata (5°02'S 119°40'E), Bantimurung Kabupaten, south Sulawesi. The extent of occurrence for this species is estimated to be small - approximately 100 sq km.
134356		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134356		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134356		threats	eng	Last collected in 1988. The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134357		conservation	eng	None in place.
134357		distribution	eng	Indonesia: endemic to Bawean Island, approximately 200 km north of Surabaya in the Java Sea, badly damaged specimens from the  north of Bawean Island  (Krong).
134357		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134357		population	eng	No information available.
134357		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134358		conservation	eng	None known.
134358		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Hanoi, from Dong Xuan market; Haiphong, Hadong; Hong City Market; northern Vietnam.
134358		habitat	eng	From rice fields.
134358		population	eng	No information available.
134358		threats	eng	Harvesting may pose a threat - this is unknown.
134359		conservation	eng	None in place
134359		distribution	eng	India: Kasuli, Punjab.
134359		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134359		population	eng	No information available.
134359		threats	eng	Unknown.
134360		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134360		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area. Asia<br/>Anshun, Bijie, Kaiyang, Shuicheng and Huishui county in Guizhou Province. Wufeng, Zushi, Xuanen, Hefeng, Xianfeng, Laifeng, Luchuan, Badong, Xingshan, Luotian counties in Hubei Province. Shizhu, Penshui, Qiuyang and Xiushan in Sichuan Province.
134360		habitat	eng	Recorded from water bodies at pH 6 and 6.5, and temperature 12.9°C and 12.5°C.
134360		population	eng	No information available.
134360		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134361		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Kaki Bukit area.
134361		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Endemic to Kaki Bukit, Perlis (6 36'59"N, 100 12'44"E) in the northwestern state of Kedah, Malaysian peninsula, near the Thai border.
134361		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic, biology probably similar to <em>S. stoliczkana</em>. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to highland streams.
134361		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134361		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134362		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134362		distribution	eng	Thailand: south Thailand (Nakhon Si Thammarat Province); Yong waterfall in Thung Song District, Krung Chin waterfall park in Ta Sala District and Krarom waterfall in Lan Saka District (Yeo, unpubl. data).
134362		habitat	eng	mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
134362		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134362		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134363		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134363		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas State.
134363		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134363		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134363		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134364		conservation	eng	None in place. Found in a protected area in part of its range (Masoala National Park).
134364		distribution	eng	Madagascar. Antongil Bay; Forest in Manambato Valley; Ambilobé; Tamatave; Toamasina; Tsingalapaky; Fetoky; Fandiarano; Marotsy river; Tsimantsy;  Forêt de Périnet; Moramanga; Grotte de la Mananjiba, Nosy-Bé; Ambilobe; Vondrozo; Masaolo Peninsula.
134364		habitat	eng	This species inhabits holes in old trees, in the forest. It has also been collected from rainforest canopy.
134364		population	eng	A number of specimens of this species have been collected recently from different parts of Madagascar and this species is probably locally quite common.
134364		threats	eng	None known.
134365		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
134365		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamon algeriense</span> occurs in streams and rivers in North Africa that drain into the Mediterranean Sea. Its distribution includes three countries: Morocco (in Kenitra and Fes Provinces), Algeria (in Algiers, Lemdiyya, and Bejaia Provinces), and Tunisia (in Jenduba, Beja, Kairouan, and Gafsa Provinces). This species is not found in either Libya or Egypt.
134365		habitat	eng	<em>Potamon algeriense</em> occurs in streams and rivers in North Africa.
134365		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown. However, the population is considered likely to be stable based on the relatively high number of localities and collections (23) in three countries where this species occurs.
134365		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134366		conservation	eng	None in place
134366		distribution	eng	Burma: Rangoon (16 47'00"N 96 10'00"E), south Myanmar.
134366		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134366		population	eng	No information available.
134366		threats	eng	Unknown.
134367		conservation	eng	None in place
134367		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Borneo - Sarawak.
134367		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134367		population	eng	No information available.
134367		threats	eng	Unknown.
134368		conservation	eng	None in place
134368		distribution	eng	China: Fucheng (20.0°N, 110.3°E), Hainan Island.
134368		habitat	eng	A semi-terrestrial crab species.
134368		population	eng	No information available.
134368		threats	eng	Unknown.
134369		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134369		distribution	eng	Mexico: Tabasco State, Southern Mexico, Arroyo Pueblo Viejo (17823.759N, 93839.759W), Ejido Carlos A. Madrazo, Municipio de Huimanguillo, Tabasco, 900 m above sea level.
134369		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134369		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134369		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134370		conservation	eng	None in place
134370		distribution	eng	Burma: Sheetee Hill, Kakhyen Hills, Upper Burma.
134370		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134370		population	eng	No information available.
134370		threats	eng	Unknown.
134371		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134371		distribution	eng	India: Himchal Pradesh state: Beas [Bias] River. Uttar Pradesh state: Saharanpur, northern India; Hardwar [Harwar]. Uttarakhand state: Roorkee; Dehradun [Dehra Doon] (30°11′24″N, 78°2′24″E; 30.19°, 78.04°). Nagla, Udham Singh Nagar district (29°59′0″N, 77°15′0″E/ 29.983333°, 77.25°). Nainital is a town in the Indian state of Uttarakhand in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas (1,938 m (6,358 feet) above sea level), Nainital is set in a valley containing a pear-shaped lake, approximately two miles in circumference, and surrounded by mountains. Bihar state: Darbhangā is a city and a municipal corporation in and headquarters of Darbhanga district and Darbhanga Division in the state of Bihar, India (26°10′ 12″N, 85°54′0″ E/26.17°, 85.9°). Chattisgath state: Bijor is located in Bilaspur District of Chattisgarh.
134371		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134371		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134371		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134372		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134372		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Known only from the holotype from Cueva de Las Lianas, Mesa Turik, Zulia State, western Venezuela. The collecting sites are on elevated ground between 1700 and 2600m above sea level. A deep karstic depression runs across the eastward section, with a series of five small caves located on its northern-most portion. Three large rivers have their headwaters in this mesa, the Rio Guasare and Rio Palmar in the lands to the north, and the Rio Apon on the southern slopes. The last two rivers drain into Lake Maracaibo, located to the east of Mount Turik. Details of the caves and collecting localities are as follows:  <br/><br/>1 - Cueva de Las Lianas (10°24'44"N - 72°42'08"W), 1,750 m above sea level. Total length of the cave is 200 m, no water course, but water dripping from the roof, aphotic. Crabs collected 40 m from the entrance.<br/><br/>2, 3, 4 - Cueva de la pared Norte (10°24'44"N - 72°42'06"W) 1,700 m above sea level. From a cavity located on the northern escarpment of the mesa, below Cueva de Las Lianas. The collecting localities were a tunnel which connects an internal doline with the external wall with the water course, which is open with vegetation and light (Locality 2), and Tunnel 5, a lateral gallery, which is aphotic, and crabs were collected 50 m from the entrance.<br/><br/>5 - Cueva del Rio (10°24'23"N - 72°42'32"W) 1,800 m above sea level. With a water course, headstream of Rio Palmar, aphotic.<br/><br/>6 - Cueva del Laberinto (10°23'46"N - 72°42'00"W) 1,700 m above sea level. In the headwaters of Rio Palmar, outside the main depression of Mesa Turik. Aphotic.<br/><br/>7 - Canon del Rio Apon, Mesa Turik, 1,800 m above sea level. A large canyon on the southem portion of the mesa, through which run the headstreams of the Rio Apon, which drains into the Maracaibo lake.
134372		habitat	eng	<em>Chaecus turikensis</em> is found in a system of caves in Mesa Turik, a rectangular flat-top table mountain of irregular topography, with its main axis oriented NE-SW. The Mesa Turik lies in the Cordillera de Perija, in eastern Venezuela, where three large rivers have their headwaters. Despite being found mainly in caves, the species is not restricted to caves and the only obvious stygobiont character is the relative slenderness of the appendages including the chelipeds.
134372		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134372		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution.
134373		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134373		distribution	eng	Indonesia: western Irian Jaya. Utakwa River, Bivak EIland (=Island) in the Lorentz River, Alkmaar, on the Lorentz River, Kloof-Bivak, on the Lorentz River, at altitudes of less than 10 m, 30 m, 1,050 m, and 1,700 m.
134373		population	eng	No information available.
134373		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134374		conservation	eng	Mae Charim forest belongs to the Mae Charim National Park, however this may not protect it from all threats..
134374		distribution	eng	Thailand: Huai Sa Kohrn, Sa District; and Nam Wa stream, Ban Nam Wa, Mae Charim District; Sakhon stream, Ban Nam oon, Wiang Sa District; all in Nan Province.
134374		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134374		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134374		threats	eng	A major recreational activity in the national park is rafting. Swimming is also allowed.
134375		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134375		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: Teikyi township, near Hmawbwi about 40 km north of Yangon. Also Htauk Kyant, Balar stream, km 12 on Yangon-Mandalay highway (17.03.46N, 96.09.02E).
134375		habitat	eng	All specimens were collected from a paddy (rice) field, some were collected from a burrow about 50 cm deep in the dyke of the field.
134375		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134375		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134376		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
134376		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: from a very wide cavern of a cae, Lina Massif, south of Manokwari (0.53°S, 134.05°E) northwestern Irian Jaya.
134376		habitat	eng	40 m in cave (with many bats).
134376		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134376		threats	eng	Future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to industrial and agrarian development.
134377		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134377		distribution	eng	Colombia: Norte de Santander Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,600-2,400 m asl (Campos 2005).
134377		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,400 m asl.
134377		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134377		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134378		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134378		distribution	eng	India: <strong>West Bengal state</strong>: Manbhum; West Bengal state: Parisnath Hill; Barābhūm (23°2'0'' N, 86°22'0'' E);<strong>Kerala state</strong>: Calicut; <strong>Uttaranchal state</strong>: Haridwar [Hardwar]; <strong>Madhya Pradesh state:</strong> Morar [= Gwalior]; Debnaddi, Narbudda [Narbada] river basin; <strong>Jharkhand state</strong>: Chota Nagpur, a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh); Maharashtra state: Nassik, Upper Godavari Valley, Poona [Pune]; Maharashtra state: Western Ghats: Khandalla and Mahableshwar. <strong>Travancore state</strong>: Madathoray. <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Shervaroy Hills; <strong>Madhya Pradesh state:</strong> Hoshangabad; <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Ootacamund; <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Anamalai Hills, a range of mountains in southern India, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, lying between 10° 13' and 10° 31' N. lat., and between 76° 52' and 77° 23' E. long., forming a portion of the Western Ghats south of the Palghat Pass, and south of the Nilgiris. They consist of a forest-clad and grassy tableland, with summits rising about 8,000 ft. The only inhabitants are a few wild tribes who live by hunting and collecting jungle produce. <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Coonoor, Nilgiris (Coonoor is a large hill station in the Nilgiris, surrounded by tea plantations, at an altitude of 1839 metres) Nilgiris (mountains), a range of mountains spanning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India.
134378		habitat	eng	A terrestrial crab, also found in rivers and streams, i.e., semi-terrestrial.
134378		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134378		threats	eng	Although this species has a wide distribution, it is potentially threatened in the future by habitat loss due to continued human development because this terrestrial crab lives in a region that is developing rapidly.
134379		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area (Khao Yai National Park).
134379		distribution	eng	Thailand: In Khao Khie in Khao Yai National Park and outside of the National Park (14.30N, 101.25E), Nakhon Rachasima Province, northeastern Thailand.
134379		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134379		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134379		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134380		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134380		distribution	eng	Colombia: Norte de Santander Department: Bogota; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,700-2,350 m asl (Campos 2005).
134380		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,700 and 2,350 m asl.
134380		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134380		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134381		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).
134381		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive range in the Amazon basin and is a very common trichodactylid crab. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In Peru it is found in the Rio Madeira River drainage and in the upper part in Puerto Maldonado, and it is also found in the Upper part of the Rio Maranon. In Brazil it is found in AP, PA, MT, AC, GO states and in the lower part of the Rio Madeira in Amazonas State. In Colombia this species is found in the Caqueta and Putumayo Departments in the Amazon basin and its tributaries. In Ecuador it is found in the Rio Bobonaza - Pastaza basin (Campos 2005).
134381		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon and Araguari river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Jari river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon river. This species appears difficult to collect, because it lives in permanently submerged habitats. This species is found in rivers and lakes, in areas with deep depressions, under rocks and in flat hollows. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 80-240 m asl.
134381		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134381		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
134382		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134382		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Babahoyo River, Pacific drainage, in Los Rios Province and from Guayaquil in Guayas Province.
134382		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134382		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134382		threats	eng	None known.
134383		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134383		distribution	eng	New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134383		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134383		population	eng	No information available.
134383		threats	eng	Unknown.
134384		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134384		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Taipei County (Kungliao, Homei).
134384		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134384		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134384		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134385		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134385		distribution	eng	Venezuela:  Sabana de Piedras, La Toma, Monagas State, 1,210 m.
134385		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134385		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134385		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134386		conservation	eng	None in place
134386		distribution	eng	Philippines, Marinduque and Luzon.
134386		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134386		population	eng	No information available.
134386		threats	eng	Unknown.
134387		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134387		distribution	eng	Philippines. A widely distributed species in central and southeastern parts of Bohol. Stream near Sierra Bulliones, about 5 km NW of Jagna, Bohol; Castigio Cave, Batuan, Bohol; Pahangong Talon, Ginguyuran , Bohol; Capiro Spring, Batuan, Bohol; Carmulaon lower part, Cugon, Jagna, Bohol.
134387		habitat	eng	Found in surface waters as well as in caves. Both caves were rich in organic nutrients. One of the caves had a very high amount plant debris, the other ones is receiving waters from nearby rice fields.
134387		population	eng	No information available.
134387		threats	eng	The species is apparently frequently sold in markets. The very low prices and abundance of the crabs strongly suggest that they came from the neighbourhood of Hanoi.
134388		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134388		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Between Merida and Mucuchies, Rancho Grande (14,300 km²) (Merida State, Barinas State), in the vicinity of the city of Merica.
134388		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134388		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134388		threats	eng	Habitat decline/loss and water pollution due to urbanization are the major threats to this species.
134389		conservation	eng	None in place
134389		distribution	eng	Burma: Pegu.
134389		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134389		population	eng	No information available.
134389		threats	eng	Unknown.
134390		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134390		distribution	eng	China: Guangzhou and Gaoyao in Guangdong Province. Known from southwestern China (Ng & Dudgeon, 1992).
134390		population	eng	No information available.
134390		threats	eng	Unknown.
134391		conservation	eng	None in place
134391		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, West mountain subregion (Hengduan Mt area), west mountainous area to the basin zone.<br/>An County (31 8'N, 104 4"E); Baishi Country, Wenchuan County (31 4'N, 103 6'E); Yingxiu Country Wenchuan County; Shuimo Country, Wenchuan County. Sichuan Province.
134391		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134391		population	eng	No information available.
134391		threats	eng	Unknown.
134392		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland.
134392		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Known from vicinity of Gunong Kajang, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (<em>ca</em>. 2°50'42"N, 104°09'14"E), Malaysia.<br/>Endemic to Pulau Tioman (probably in vicinity of Gunung Kajang). However not found despite several recent attempts.
134392		habitat	eng	Poorly known. Collected from 'amongst forest leaf litter', but likely to be more aquatic like other members of the genus.
134392		population	eng	Despite numerous attempts to find this species, it has not been found. Therefore populations are likely to have declined and the species may have disappeared.
134392		threats	eng	No clear threat at present, as development of extremely rugged hilly hinterland of Pulau Tioman appears unlikely.
134393		conservation	eng	None in place
134393		distribution	eng	Thailand: Phalat Waterfall, Mae Sariang District in Mae Hong Son Province.
134393		habitat	eng	Watrefall.
134393		population	eng	No information available.
134393		threats	eng	Unknown.
134394		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134394		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Irian Jaya, New Guinea. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134394		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134394		population	eng	No information available.
134394		threats	eng	Unknown.
134395		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place and it is not found in a protected area. Further work is needed on all aspects of this species as little is known about its distribution, ecology or threats.
134395		distribution	eng	India: Orissa state: Northern India, Ganjam (+19°22'58.80", +85°4'1.20"); Assam state: north Cachar. This species is known from only two locations in neighboring states in northeastern India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of collection work within its range.
134395		habitat	eng	No information is available.
134395		population	eng	No information is available.
134395		threats	eng	No information is available. Likely threats include habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134396		conservation	eng	None in place
134396		distribution	eng	China: Huitong, Loudi in Hunan Province, and Ziyuan in Guangxi Province.
134396		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134396		population	eng	No information available.
134396		threats	eng	Unknown.
134397		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in protected areas.  Mt. Emei was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. Lushan is part of Lushan National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (cultural) as well as Lushan Quaternary Glaciation National Geopark which is a member of UNESCO Global Geoparks Network.
134397		distribution	eng	China: Yaan, Emei and Lushan in Sichuan Province.
134397		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134397		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134397		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134398		conservation	eng	A big part of the Dan Sai district is part of the Phu Hin Rong Kla National Park.
134398		distribution	eng	Ban Na Wa, Dan Sai District, Loei Province, Thailand, Asia
134398		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134398		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134398		threats	eng	This species is considered pretty as pets.
134399		conservation	eng	None in place
134399		distribution	eng	China: Fujian Province, Longhai County.
134399		habitat	eng	This species harbours metacercariae of <em>Paragonimus</em> lung flukes.
134399		population	eng	No information available.
134399		threats	eng	Unknown.
134400		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134400		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea: northeast New Guinea and Papua New Guinea. This common and widespread species is known from 15 localities in NW Irian Jaya, Indonesia and six localities in Papua New Guinea.
134400		population	eng	Not a rare species.
134400		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134401		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134401		distribution	eng	Thailand: Lampun Province (Mae Kong River) and Tak Province (Ban Tak District, Huai Tung Ka Sao; Mae Nam Ping Basin - 16.48N, 99.93E; 16.47N, 98.03E), Phitsanulok Province (Mae Nam Nan Basin (Nam Phak at Ban Tha Sakae - 17.14.N, 100.40E). This species is known mainly from the Tak area.
134401		habitat	eng	Unknown
134401		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134401		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134402		conservation	eng	None in place
134402		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Province (Guangxi Autonomous Region), Jingxi/Jianxi County.
134402		habitat	eng	Temperature 20°C.
134402		population	eng	No information available.
134402		threats	eng	Unknown.
134403		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134403		distribution	eng	Venezuela (Araguay, Paraima, Guarico, Monagas, Bolivar States), Colonie Tovar; Central coastal range. Orinoco drainage system of Venezuela and Colombia (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996). Type specimen from Orinoco River. This species has been recorded from the Orinoco and many of the rivers draining to it  - Ciudad Bolivar, Rio Orinoco, affluent of the Rio Apure, Rio Cura and Rio Taguay, Rio Chiviripa, Rio Guarapiche, draining to Rio San Juan and the Gulf of Paria. (Rodriguez 1992). Colombia: Arauca, Caqueta, Casanare, Cundinamarca, Meta Departments. This species is found in eastern Colombia, in the Meta River and many of its afflluents, and the Guaviare River and some of its affluents (Campos 2005).
134403		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134403		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134403		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134404		conservation	eng	Conservation of freshwater and peat swamp habitats in its range.
134404		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Widespread throughout Peninsular Malaysia. Indonesia: Sumatra: Also found in eastern Sumatra.
134404		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in acidic freshwater swamps (pH 4.5-5.5) as well as blackwater peat swamps (pH 3.5).
134404		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134404		threats	eng	Although widespread, restricted to freshwater and peat swamp habitats. Rapid loss and degradation of such habitats is a threat.
134405		conservation	eng	None in place
134405		distribution	eng	India: Assam state: Sirpo Valley, near Renging and Naga Hills.
134405		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134405		population	eng	No information available.
134405		threats	eng	Unknown.
134406		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134406		distribution	eng	Philippines: Bohol, caves (Boho sa Bikahan, Bikahan, Antequera).
134406		habitat	eng	Was found in a cave (Boho sa Bikahan) northwest of Antequera which is subject to periodic resurgence of waters. At the end of the rainy season, the water in the cave is stagnant. There is a large amount of organic debris like tree branches and leaves in the pools, as well as numerous mollusc shells. Catfish are also present.
134406		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown but this species is found in caves and has a narrow distribution.
134406		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134407		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134407		distribution	eng	Japan: Iriomote Island, Yaeyama Group, Southern Ryukyus.
134407		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134407		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134407		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134408		conservation	eng	None in place.
134408		distribution	eng	<em>Sudanonautes orthostylis</em> is known only from the rivers and streams of the rainforests of south west Cameroon. <br/>The type locality is recorded as Bipindihof, but this locality is most likely Bipindi (3° 08’N, 10° 30’E). Also found at Beduma (=Baduma), Cameroon, 4°50'0'' N, 9°28'0'' E.
134408		habitat	eng	Rainforest in Cameroon.
134408		population	eng	Population levels and trends unknown. This species is known only from 14 specimens from two localities (Bipindi and Baduma, Cameroon).
134408		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134409		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134409		distribution	eng	Tanzania: Herkulu Estate, a tea plantation in the Western Usambara Mountains.
134409		habitat	eng	The Herkulu Estate is a tea plantation in the Western Usambara Mountains in Lushoto District of the Tanga region of Tanzania. This locality is 1,666 m asl and is situated in the montane forest zone, where areas of forest have been retained to prevent soil erosion.
134409		population	eng	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect factors such as the lack of recent specimens, its poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.
134409		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. There is increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.
134410		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, the Sai Yok National Park (500 km².)
134410		distribution	eng	Thailand: Sai Yok Noi waterfalll in Sai Yok district (14.06.00N, 99.23.00E); Thong Pha Phum district; Ban Huay Ka Yeng in Thong Pha Phum district, and Nam Chon waterfall in Si Sawat District in Kanchanaburi Province.
134410		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134410		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134410		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134411		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134411		distribution	eng	Kenya: Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountains. Mount Kenya, 762 m asl; forest near Meru, north of Mount Kenya; Limuru, southern Aberdare Mountains; Gituambugi/Mutonga Rivers, Mt. Kenya; northern Aberdare Mountains, Chania River below Kiandongoro Forestry station (2,187 m asl) (0°27'S, 36°50'E), 6-9 m wide, stony bed with boulders, quite shallow, part tree shaded; Gituambugi/Mutonga Rivers, eastern slope of Mount Kenya.
134411		habitat	eng	Found in streams in forest in the Gituambugi/Mutonga Rivers on the eastern slope of Mt. Kenya, and in the northern Aberdare Mountains, in the Chania River below Kiandongoro Forestry station (2,187 m asl) (0°27'S, 36°50'E)l  here the river is 6-9 m wide, with a stony bed with boulders, and is quite shallow, and partly tree shaded.
134411		population	eng	The populations of this species may be stable because it was first collected from Mt. Kenya in 1911, and has been collected from the streams draining Mount Kenya recently (2003)
134411		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134412		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, Cucphuong National Park.
134412		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Cuc Phong National Park, Ninh Binh Province.
134412		habitat	eng	Streams.
134412		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134412		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134413		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134413		distribution	eng	Mexico: Rio Sabinal west of Tuxla Guiterez in Chiapas State.
134413		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134413		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134413		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134414		conservation	eng	None in place
134414		distribution	eng	China: Sichuan Province, Middle China region, west mountain region (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Wushan County (31 N 109 8'E).
134414		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134414		population	eng	No information available.
134414		threats	eng	Unknown.
134415		conservation	eng	This species is not found in a protected area.
134415		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Mantano (and about 2 km southeast of Matano; South coast, west of Sorokao; southwest coast near Matano (2 27'41.5"S, 121 13'6.3"E; 02 30.49'S, 121 19.96'E; 2 28.44'S, 121 15.78'E), south Sulawesi. Lake Matano Cliff, south Sulawesi (2 28'59.1"S, 121 17'12.9"E).
134415		habitat	eng	The source of Matano lake is assumed to come from an area west of the lake (known as Matano village). This species is found around Lake Mantano under roots and logs on sand.
134415		population	eng	Locally common. Many localities, but all close to the South West side of Lake Matano.
134415		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. There is a small mining town (Soroako/Sorowako) close to lake Mantano which could influence water quality in the future. The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel. Mining for this metal causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF 200 Global Ecoregion homepage).
134416		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134416		distribution	eng	Philippines: probably northwestern Luzon.
134416		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134416		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134416		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134417		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134417		distribution	eng	Colombia: Department of Antioquia, Boqueron, near Medellin. <em>Strengeriana spp</em>. are restricted to the western slopes of the Central Cordillera (Campos 2005). Although many collecting trips have been conducted in the area where these crabs were originally collected, no new specimens were found.
134417		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,500 m above sea level on the western slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River. Recent collection trips by students from the University of Antioquia have failed to find this species (Campos pers. comm.).
134417		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134417		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. No specific threats are known, but its disappearance from its previous site suggests that threats are present.
134418		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134418		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cesar Department: restricted to the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija (Campos 2005).
134418		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 870-1,400 m asl in the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija.
134418		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134418		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134419		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134419		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Ilan County (Lotung; Sanshing; Tatung Jiuntow; Tatung Shnagtsukeng); the distance between Lotung and Tatung is 7.5 km.
134419		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134419		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134419		threats	eng	habitat loss and pollution
134420		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).
134420		distribution	eng	Brazil. This species is known only from the Central Amazon region in Brazil (AM, PA states) possibly in a larger area of eastern Amazon region. The holotype comes from Lagos Manacapuru, near Manaus; it has also been found in the Rio Negro 80 km upstream from Manaus, at Igarape Agua Preta (Rodriguez 1992) and in Amazonas and Para States (De Melo, 2003).
134420		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, and Rio Trombetas rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. Found in lakes, rivers, in areas with inundated bushes, or in cracks and holes of submerged and immersed dead tree trunks
134420		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134420		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
134421		conservation	eng	None in place
134421		distribution	eng	China: Lichuan (35.3N 112.7E), Jiangxi Province.
134421		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134421		population	eng	No information available.
134421		threats	eng	Unknown.
134422		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134422		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ton Tok Waterfall, Palian District (973 km²), Trang province, southern Thailand.
134422		habitat	eng	This is a small species, as the largest adult female is 24.9 by 20.5 mm. All the specimens were collected out of water, along the banks of a waterfall.
134422		population	eng	Apparently locally abundant as collected for food.
134422		threats	eng	This species is collected by humans for food.
134423		conservation	eng	None in place
134423		distribution	eng	China: Pingguo in Guangxi.
134423		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134423		population	eng	No information available.
134423		threats	eng	Unknown.
134424		conservation	eng	None in place
134424		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Tali, Ilan County.
134424		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134424		population	eng	No information available.
134424		threats	eng	Unknown.
134425		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134425		distribution	eng	China: Yunnan Province: Songhua dam, near Kunming; Kunming, Chengjiang, Zhangyi, Mengding and Geiju. Middle China region, West Mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone.
134425		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134425		population	eng	Crab populations may be in decline due to competition with a species of crayfish that has been introduced into the habitat of this crab which used to be common. Competition with introduced crayfish is a major threat to this crab species.
134425		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution in the Songhua River. Competition with introduced crayfish may be a major threat. This species used to be common. To date the competition with introduced crayfish is a major threat to this crab species.
134426		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134426		distribution	eng	Japan: Endemic to Kume Island (Latitude: 26.352°N; Longitude: 126.772°E). Kumejima Island is an island in Okinawa, Japan. It has an area of 63 km². It belongs to the Ryukyu Islands.
134426		habitat	eng	Not known.
134426		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134426		threats	eng	No specific threats known. Probably habitat loss and pollution.
134427		conservation	eng	None in place
134427		distribution	eng	China: Mengdin, Gengma County (23.5°N, 99.4°E); and Sifangjian, Gengma County; Yunnan Province.
134427		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134427		population	eng	No information available.
134427		threats	eng	Unknown.
134428		conservation	eng	None in place
134428		distribution	eng	Burma, Thailand.
134428		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134428		population	eng	No information available.
134428		threats	eng	Unknown.
134429		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134429		distribution	eng	Colombia: Eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera, Antioquia and Tolima Departments (Campos 2005).
134429		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,500 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.
134429		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134429		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134430		conservation	eng	None in place
134430		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Suikat, Langbian Plateau, South Annam (= south-central Vietnam); 97 km west of Kontum, central Viet Nam.
134430		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134430		population	eng	No information available.
134430		threats	eng	Unknown.
134431		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134431		distribution	eng	Mexico: Oaxaca State, Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
134431		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134431		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134431		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134432		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134432		distribution	eng	China: Yongjiang Village Shuanpai County (25.9N, 111.6E); Shuangpai County, Yongjiang village; Yongzhou City, Futian Village, Zhengjiaoqiao County; Dao xian/County; all in Hunan Province; Lianxian, Guangdong Province.
134432		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134432		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134432		threats	eng	Pollution and habitat loss/ degradation.
134433		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134433		distribution	eng	Yemen: Diksam, 700 m, Haghir massif, Socotra Island (3625km²).
134433		habitat	eng	In rockpools in crevices in limestone karst, plateau 660-740 m.
134433		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134433		threats	eng	Habitat loss or disturbance.
134434		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134434		distribution	eng	Thailand: This species is known only from the type specimen from Nan Province in northern Thailand.
134434		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from under rocks in shaded, shallow streams with rocky/sandy substrata.
134434		population	eng	No information available.
134434		threats	eng	Unknown.
134435		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134435		distribution	eng	Philippines: Palawan Islands: Panitan River, Panibacan River, Palawan, and Swan River, near Quezon, Palawan.
134435		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134435		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134435		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134436		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134436		distribution	eng	Colombia: Central Cordillera and Caldas Department. Cafetal Camelia near Angelopolis (1820 m asl) Rio Cauca (100,000 km²); Filadelfia (1589 m asl) Rio Cauca, Department of Caldas, north-Central Cordillera. Western slopes of the Central Cordillera. Also found in Fredonia, Antioquia Departmen (Campos 2005).
134436		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,100-1,800 m asl in the forested western slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.
134436		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134436		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134437		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134437		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo.
134437		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134437		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134438		conservation	eng	None in place. It is not found in a protected area.
134438		distribution	eng	Cameroon, Central Africa. This species is found in the forested highlands of southwest Cameroon (Somié Village, Tikow Plain, Bamenda, Bambulae and Nfom Grasslands; Foumban, region of Dschang), and in the forested lowlands of south Cameroon (Douala and Yaounde).
134438		habitat	eng	This species is found in the forested highlands of southwest Cameroon (Somié Village, Tikow Plain, Bamenda, Bambulae and Nfom Grasslands; Foumban, region of Dschang), and in the forested lowlands of south Cameroon (Douala and Yaounde). <em>Potamonemus mambilorum</em> is a riverine crab and is eaten by the Mambila people especially during the dry season when crabs are caught by villagers who bail out drying sections of river bed. The Mambila people call this species the "Kap" crab. <em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is sympatric with <em>P. mambilensis</em>.
134438		population	eng	Population levels and trends unknown. This species has been collected recently and is known from more than 20 specimens from about 8 localities.
134438		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
134439		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134439		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin. Colombia: eastern region in the Meta River and many of its tributaries, and the Guaviare River and some of its tributaries. The distribution is centered in the marginal Orinoquian River basin.
134439		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela in the Orinoco river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 300-600 m asl.
134439		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134439		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134440		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134440		distribution	eng	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: southwest India, Trivandrum, Travancore, Shastancottah near Quilon. Travancore (=Thiruvithaamkoor) was a princely state in India with its capital at Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram), now part of Kerala State. This species is found in the southern-most states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, south India. A widely distributed species.
134440		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep burrows next to streams (sometimes about 5-6 m away from the stream margins in shaded as well as in open areas). Juveniles were observed in burrows in wet muddy and sandy soil adjacent to streams in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, between 100-980 m in altitude (Bahir and Yeo, in publication).
134440		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134440		threats	eng	None known.
134441		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134441		distribution	eng	China: Tongshi, Ledong, Wuzhishan, Jianfengling counties in Hainan Province (Guangdong - Hainan), southern China.
134441		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134441		population	eng	No information available.
134441		threats	eng	Unknown.
134442		conservation	eng	None in place
134442		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kepahiang, Sumatra.
134442		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134442		population	eng	No information available.
134442		threats	eng	Unknown.
134443		conservation	eng	None in place.
134443		distribution	eng	Brazil: Para State, Rio Tapajos, Estado do Para, Monte Cristo; Estado do Para: Rio Tapajos, Fodlandia, Igarape do Cassepa.
134443		habitat	eng	Found on the silty margins of small watercourses. In mud on river banks.
134443		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134443		threats	eng	None known.
134444		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. Some localities lie within a protected area, the Mont Nimba National Park.
134444		distribution	eng	Guinea: This species is known from several localities on the slopes of Mount Nimba in Guinea and is therefore endemic to that mountain in this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone. It is also probably present on the Liberian side of Mount Nimba.
134444		habitat	eng	The vegetation cover on the slopes of Mount Nimba includes lowland forest and savannah (up to altitudes of 500 m), high evergreen forest (from 900-1,200 m), and high altitude grassland (above 1,200 mm). <em>Liberonautes nimba</em> was collected in cracks in rocks in high altitude grassland, above the upper limit of montane forest. This species may therefore be semi-terrestrial in habit.
134444		population	eng	This species is known only from a relatively few specimens from less than ten localities. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134444		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation, human population increases and advancing agriculture..
134445		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134445		distribution	eng	Colombia: Choco Department: this species is known only from a single locality in the San Juan River basin (Campos 2005).
134445		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 50 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134445		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134445		threats	eng	None known.
134446		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this abundant species.  It is found in a protected area in Colombia, the Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona, Canaveral, Piedras River, Magadelana, Santa Marta.
134446		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution in Nicaragua, Honduras, and Colombia (Magdalena River basin). The single record from Nicaragua is doubtful. In Colombia this species is found in northern Colombia in the foothills of the Eastern Cordillera in the Upper Magdalena River basin and the Meta River basin. Nicaragua: The type locality is in the Escondido River, 50 miles form Bluefield, Nicaragua and the holotype is a female; this is the only Nicaraguan specimen known. Colombia: Atlantica: Sabanagrande (1 loc); Bolivar: Zambrano (1 loc); Cesar: Valledupar (1 loc); Magdalena: Cienaga (1 loc), Santa Marta (8 locs); Meta: Cubarral (1 loc); Villavicencio (1 loc) (Campos 2005).
134446		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 0- 400 m asl.
134446		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134446		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. However, it is of concern that the distribution of this species is fragmented with populations in Central America separated by large distances from populations in Columbia.
134447		conservation	eng	None in place
134447		distribution	eng	China: Chishui in Guizhou Province. Yunlian, Gaoxian, Xingwen in Sichuan Province.
134447		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134447		population	eng	No information available.
134447		threats	eng	Unknown.
134448		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134448		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi Province (Mingshan in Jiujiang 29.7 N, 115.9 E; Boyang, Yongfeng, Xinjian, Nancheng counties), southeast China. Endemic to Jiangxi Province
134448		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134448		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134448		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134449		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134449		distribution	eng	Indonesia: west Irian Jaya, Lake Sentani. Manikion south of Ransiki (1.34S, 134.11E) in the exterme eastern part of the Vogelkop peninsula.
134449		population	eng	No information available.
134449		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134450		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Penrissen Mountains and Bau areas is recommended.  The effective preservation of hilly rain forest in the regions of the two known localities is essential. In addition, further survey work in the hilly border area of Sarawak and Kalimantan is necessary and to help provide a better indication of the species' current population status.
134450		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia, Sarawak (Island of Borneo). This species is known from only two locations in the western corner of Borneo: Mount Penrissen, in western Sarawak, and Bau, a gold mining town in the Kuching Division of Sarawak. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of collection work within its range.
134450		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Associated with sandstone areas. Its biology is not well-known, but has also been found in caves and near karst areas.
134450		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134450		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation primarily as a result of logging. Much of the suitable habitat within its range around Mount Penrissen has recently been converted into a golf course and to cultivated land. An additional threat from deforestation is the resultant sedimentation of the streams where it lives.
134451		conservation	eng	None in place
134451		distribution	eng	Thailand: Soi Yok District, Kanchanaburi, central westernThailand.
134451		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134451		population	eng	No information available.
134451		threats	eng	Unknown.
134452		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Gunung Kledang area.
134452		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Only known from its type locality in Gunong Kledang, Perak (ca. 4 36'30"N, 101 02'E) above 700 m above sea level in the northern Malaysian peninsula.
134452		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to streams. Biology not known.
134452		population	eng	Only known from the solitary type (male holotype).
134452		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Its very narrow range is a major concern.
134453		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134453		distribution	eng	The Philippines, Palawan Island: Simbulan; Iraan River; and Manili. So change from single locality to three localities.
134453		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134453		population	eng	No information available.
134453		threats	eng	Unknown.
134454		conservation	eng	National Park
134454		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: stream in Cuc Phuong National park, about 16 km from main gate, Ninh Binh Province; and Kim Boi and Chi Ne, Hoa Binh Province; northern Viet Nam. About 80 km between the locations.
134454		habitat	eng	River and streams
134454		population	eng	No information available.
134454		threats	eng	Unknown.
134455		conservation	eng	None in place
134455		distribution	eng	Thailand: Phu (Mt.) Luang, Udon Thani Province (101 23'E 17 25'N); northeastern Thailand, 17 km SE Phrae.
134455		habitat	eng	Found in a waterfall
134455		population	eng	No information available.
134455		threats	eng	Unknown.
134456		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134456		distribution	eng	Costa Rica (Agua Buena) and Panama, Central America.
134456		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers.
134456		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134456		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134457		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area (Indian Reservation).
134457		distribution	eng	Found in most of the Guianan Shield region in the Atlantic Guianas River basins and northern tributaries of the Amazon River in Brazil in the states of Roraima, Amazonas, and Para. Guyana: Dadanawa Crossing. Suriname: Paramaribo District, Coppename River. French Guiana.
134457		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname in the Amazon, Corantijn, Essequibo, Oyapock, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, and Rio Trombetas rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. In rivers, waterfalls and rapids. In general, crabs remain in cracks or holes under and between rocks, in areas of backwater.  Occurring in highplain rivers, usually among rocks along rapids and falls.
134457		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134457		threats	eng	None known.
134458		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels along Kinabatangan River.
134458		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Kinabatangan River area.
134458		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.
134458		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134458		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The ecology of the upper reaches of the river has been severely disrupted by excessive logging and clearing of land for plantations. However, the original lowland forests and mangrove swamps near the coast have largely survived
134459		conservation	eng	None in place
134459		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Cochinchine, Montagues de Cau-Thi-Vay, southern Viet Nam, and Cochinchine Saigon.
134459		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134459		population	eng	No information available.
134459		threats	eng	Unknown.
134460		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area. The island where it is found is an army base, which may provide it with some protection.
134460		distribution	eng	Indonesia, endemic to the Indonesian island of Natuna (Pulau Natuna Besar, formerly Pulau Bunguram or Bungaram Island).
134460		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134460		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134461		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134461		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca and Boyaca Departments: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,350 to 2,600 m above sea lebel, 50 km west of Bogata on the eastern edge margin of the Bogata River (6,000 km²). Quebrada El Penon, Vereda Aposento, Municipio Nuevo Colon, Cundinamarca, 1,700 m; Municipio Tena, Vereda El Rosario, Departimento Cindinamarca, 1,500 m. Bogota area, Magdalena watershed (Campos 2005).
134461		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at between altitudes between 1,350 and 2,600 m above sea level.
134461		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species. This species has been found in large populations when collected though (Campos pers. comm.).
134461		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The Magdalena River and its tributaries are the main “drains” for the sewage systems of most Colombian cities. The worst problem is caused by the Bogotá River, which receives all the effluent from the Bogotá metropolitan area (over 4 million people) and joins the Magdalena near the city of Girardot. Downstream from Girardot, the quality of the river water becomes so poor that it is hazardous to human health.
134462		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134462		distribution	eng	Colombia: Magdalena Department: San Lorenzo, northern region of the Sierra de Santa Maria (Campos 2005).
134462		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 2,000-2,700 m asl.
134462		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134462		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134463		conservation	eng	None in place
134463		distribution	eng	Mt Carien (Karen Mountaints) and Kakhyen Hills in Burma. Ponsee in Yunnan; Momien in West Yunan, China.
134463		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134463		population	eng	No information available.
134463		threats	eng	Unknown.
134464		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134464		distribution	eng	China: Guizhou, Hubei and Sichuan Province. Yingjiang and Shiqian in Guizhou province. Xianfeng and Lichuan in Hubei Province. Qianjiang in Sichuan Province.
134464		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134464		population	eng	No information available.
134464		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134465		conservation	eng	None in place
134465		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Tan Ky District, Nghe Tinh Province, northern Vietnam; and Nghe Tinh Province, southern Vietnam.
134465		habitat	eng	The species occurs in streams in hilly or mountainous areas (Dang and Ho 2001)
134465		population	eng	No information available.
134465		threats	eng	Unknown.
134466		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kubah National Park should ensure its survival.
134466		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Endemic to Gunung Matang (Serapi) area in Kubah National Park (2,230 ha) located about 20 km from Kuching.
134466		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living under rocks and vegetation in well-shaded forest streams.
134466		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134466		threats	eng	No immediate threat as a range is within Kubah National Park.
134467		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134467		distribution	eng	Thailand: This species is only known for certain from the Khok Samrong District (983 km²) in Lop Buri Province. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Thailand.
134467		habitat	eng	Unknown
134467		population	eng	No information available.
134467		threats	eng	Unknown.
134468		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134468		distribution	eng	Vietnam: This species is known only from the type specimen from Mois Chero, Nord de la Chochinchine (=northern part of south Vietnam) (Yeo unpubl. data). There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of IndoChina.
134468		population	eng	No information available.
134468		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134469		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134469		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Tainan County (Nanhsi).
134469		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134469		population	eng	This species is known from several specimens from 2 different localities collected between 1992 and 2002.
134469		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134470		conservation	eng	None in place
134470		distribution	eng	China: Longlin County in Guangxi.
134470		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134470		population	eng	No information available.
134470		threats	eng	Unknown.
134471		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134471		distribution	eng	Colombia: Antioquia and Choco Departments: headwaters of the Atrato River which flows north into the Gulf of Uraba to the Caribbean Sea; also from the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific. This trans-basin distribution arises probably due to the intermittant communication between both basins, which occur during flood seasons in areas with an altitude below 100 m (Campos 2005).
134471		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50-2,400 m asl along the San Juan River and the headwaters of the Atrato River.
134471		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134471		threats	eng	None known.
134472		conservation	eng	This species is found in caves and in Ao Phangnga National Park which covers an area of 400 square kilometres, mainly many isles of different shape and size. The caves, bays, rock formations and mangroves are some of the park's major attractions.
134472		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tham Poung Chang, Phangnga Caves in Phangnaga Province, southern Thailand, about 60 km northeast of Phuket Island (Ng 1988).
134472		habitat	eng	Cavernicole.
134472		population	eng	No information available.
134472		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to tourism.
134473		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134473		distribution	eng	Colombia: Norte de Santander Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,125-1,900 m asl (Campos 2005).
134473		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,125-1,900 m asl.
134473		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134473		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134474		conservation	eng	None in place
134474		distribution	eng	China: Western Hengduan Mountain area, Southwest China; Jianchuan, Yangbi, Lijiang Counties in Yunnan Province.
134474		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134474		population	eng	No information available.
134474		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan area (WWF ecoregion profile)
134475		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134475		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: northern Burma. China: YunnanProvince: Kakhyen Hills, Ponsee; Momein valley; Hotha valley, western Yunnan. India: Assam: Darjiling.
134475		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134475		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134475		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134476		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134476		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park (4.03N, 114.56E), Borneo.
134476		habitat	eng	Terrestrial. Living in burrows in forest floor. Often flooded lowland forest.
134476		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134476		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134477		conservation	eng	None in place
134477		distribution	eng	Thailand: Senangkhanikhom District (526 km²), Ubon Ratchathani Province Province.
134477		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134477		population	eng	No information available.
134477		threats	eng	Unknown.
134478		conservation	eng	None in place
134478		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Juyu in Fangxian and Zhushan.
134478		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134478		population	eng	No information available.
134478		threats	eng	Unknown.
134479		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134479		distribution	eng	Mexico:  Chiapas State, Tonina, Municipio de Ocosingo; highway Ocosingo-Palenque km 125.
134479		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134479		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134479		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134480		conservation	eng	<em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> is a widespread and abundant species. It has been collected recently, and its conservation status is secure. This species is found in three protected areas in Antsiranana Province (the Réserve Spéciale de l’Anjanaharibe-Sud, the Réserve Spéciale de l’Ankarana and the Parc National de Marojejy). It is also found in two protected areas in Antananarivo Province (the Réserve naturelle Intégrale d’Amparaky and the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely) and three in Fianarantsoa Province (the Parc National de Ranomafana, the Parc National d’Andringitra and the Réserve Spéciale du Pic d’Ivohibe).
134480		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Sakaleone river near Bombetok; Androkabe Bach, NW of Fort-Dauphin (Straße Fort Dauphin-Ranomafan du Sud); Andrafiavelo (Sakalava); Vallée d’Isaka, mountain stream; East of Sakavalana; Toamasina; Bezofo; Nosy-Bé, rivière de la route des lacs; Ambodirano, road to Lakato, Moramanga; Marozohy river; Ambodirano, road to Lakato, Moramanga; Analamazastra river, Toamasina, Moramanga; Tapimbato; Near Cuidongy, road to Farafangana, from rapids in forest; Nosy-Bé; Diego-Suarez (now Antsiranana), Montagne d’Ambre; Col de Sakavalana; Isandra river at Ankodobé, east of Béfotaké, 500 m, road to Farafangana; Bijofo, Diego-Suarez (now Antsiranana); Toamasina; Tsingalapaky, Fetoky, Fandiarano (= Fandriana?), Tsimantsy, Marotsy river; Lily river, Ampéfy, Soavinandriana; Marotsy river, Farafangana; Antananarivo Province, Re´serve Spe´ciale d’Ambohitantely, jardin botanique, 24 km north-east of Ankazobe, 1,450 m.
134480		habitat	eng	It is found in the streams and rivers of the central highlands in all six provinces, from Tolagnaro in the south to Antsiranana in the north. Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis is sympatric with <em>H. agilis</em> and with <em>H. goudoti</em>. <em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> is found mainly in the headwaters of 10 major river basins in five Malagasy provinces in latitudes between 12° and 25°S. These are the basins of the Antongombato (Antsiranana Province), Betsiboka and Tsiribihina (Antananarivo Province), Namorona, Manampatrana and Mananara-Sud (Fianarantsoa Province), Rianila (Toamasina Province), and the Efaho, Mandrare and Manampanihy (Toliara Province) Rivers. <em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> has been collected from a range of elevations from 25 m asl (in a stream in the basin of the Rianila River) to 1,390 m asl in the Andringitra massif. The southern localities in Toliara Province are close to the limits of the humid forest biome, and crabs are absent from the xerophytic zone which begins to the west of the Anosyennes Mountains. The headwaters of the Mandrare River in Toliara Province flow through humid forest, but the lower section of the river passes through arid spiny bush country, its river bed is seasonally dry, and crabs are therefore absent.
134480		population	eng	<em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> is the commonest and most widely distributed species of freshwater crab in Madagascar.
134481		conservation	eng	None in place
134481		distribution	eng	India: Nemotha, Cachar, Assam state; Cachar 25 05'00"N 92 55'00"E
134481		habitat	eng	Lives in high mountain environment.
134481		population	eng	No information available.
134481		threats	eng	Unknown.
134482		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134482		distribution	eng	Iran: northeastern Iran between Meshed and Bijistan. It is also found in northwestern Afghanistan (Herat and Oruzgan Provinces).
134482		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134482		population	eng	No information available.
134482		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134483		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by the Forest Department which is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impacts.
134483		distribution	eng	Thailand: Mekhong River, Amphoe Muang, Changwat Mukdahan, northeastern Thailand.
134483		habitat	eng	This species has been found along banks, under stones, on muddy sand.
134483		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134483		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134484		conservation	eng	None in place
134484		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Wutai, Pingtung County.
134484		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134484		population	eng	No information available.
134484		threats	eng	Unknown.
134485		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134485		distribution	eng	Colombia: Meta and Cundinamarca (Bogata) Departments. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia. Municipio Acacias, Vereda Portachuelo, Departemanto Meta, Orinoco watershed, 1,500 m asl; Municipio Restrepo, Vereda Caney Alto, Rio Caney Alto, Departamento Meta, 700 m asl; VIllavicencio, Vereda Quebrada Colorada, Departamento Meta, 1,000 m asl; VIllavicencio, Vereda Buena Vista, Cano Blanco, Departamento Meta, 1,300 m asl; Municipio Cumaral, Vereda Marayal, Departamento Meta, 825 m asl; Municipio Guayabetal, Quebrada San Miguel, Departamento Cundinamarca, 1500 m asl; 500-1,575 m asl (Campos 2005).
134485		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 500-1,575 m asl.
134485		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134485		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134486		conservation	eng	None in place.
134486		distribution	eng	Uganda: Bundeko. Known from five localities: Alibuaki, 900 m asl, west of Issango; Undussuma; Mbeni (Fort Mbeni in the Semliki Forest); Bundeko, south of Lake Albert, Semiliki Valley; Koganos.
134486		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134486		population	eng	No information available.
134486		threats	eng	None known.
134487		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134487		distribution	eng	Japan: Ohsumi Peninsula, Kyushu Islands.
134487		habitat	eng	A mainly aquatic species. See Okano <em>et al</em>. 2000
134487		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134487		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134488		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134488		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two localities in Kerala, southwestern India: between Kumerly-Munnar and near Perumedu, between Perumedu-Kumerly.
134488		habitat	eng	Specimens were obtained from deep burrows along a paddy field bund between Kumerly-Munnar at 1,140 m altitude, as well as from deep burrows in a muddy stream margin near Perumedu, between Perumedu-Kumerly, Kerala, India, at 1,050 m altitude.
134488		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134488		threats	eng	Future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134489		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area (Barbillas National Park), Costa Rica.
134489		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Cano Seco River, affluent of Rıo Barbillas, Barbillas National Park.
134489		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134489		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134489		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134490		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134490		distribution	eng	Thailand: central Thailand (Uthai Thani and Kamphaeng Phet Provinces); Huai Ai Yo, Lan Sak District and Huai Chang Tai in Ban Rai District, Uthai Thani Province. Klong Lan waterfall in Kamphaeng Phet Province.
134490		habitat	eng	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
134490		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134490		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134491		conservation	eng	Con Dao National Park is working with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Vietnam to further protection in the marine areas, with programs to establish a Marine Protected Area and develop sustainable nature-based ecotourism.
134491		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Con Son Island (formerly called Poulo Condor or Pulau Condore; Ile de Poulo Condore/Pulau Condore/ Con Dao Island) lies in the China Sea; Stream Dao Con Dao, southern Vietnam (8.41.00N, 106.37.00E).  Con Son Island is part of an island group of 13 volcanic islands and islets about 100 km southeast of the Ca Mau Peninsula in the South China Sea. Con Son Island is 21 km long and 8 km wide (160 km²), is well wooded and has an indented coast.
134491		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134491		population	eng	No information available.
134491		threats	eng	Unknown.
134492		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
134492		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Greek islands of Ikaria,Tilos, Kos, Samos, and Rhodes in the southern Aegean Sea. It is also found in a number of localities in western Anatolia in Turkey adjacent to these Greek islands along the coastal plain west of the Taurus Mountains in Mugla, Aydin, Izmir, and Manisa Provinces.
134492		habitat	eng	<em>Potion rhodium</em> has been collected from springs, a well basin at a spring in a cypress forest, in the streams and rivers in western Anatolia in Turkey, and in freshwater habitats on the islands of Rhodes, Ikaria, Tilos, Kos, and Samos. Otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.
134492		population	eng	There is not much information on the population size and abundance of <em>P.rhodium</em> in most parts of its range, but it would appear that populations of this species on the islands of Rhodes may be declining. In 1935 freshwater crabs were reported to occur at Monolithos in Rhodes, but subsequent surveys of this area in 1963 and 1969 did not produce any specimens (probably because the spring that fed this aquatic ecosystem now leads directly into a pipeline, and the stream bed is now completely dry).  A similar story may apply to the other islands where this species occurs.
134492		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. In Greece population declines and even local extinctions of P. rhodium relate to habitat destruction by human activities including water supply projects that adversely affect streams and rivers, and water pollution. Stream desiccation resulting from water abstraction for crop irrigation and the diversion of rivers and streams for potable water supplies for cities and towns represent other present and future threats to this species.
134493		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134493		distribution	eng	Colombia: Antioquia Department: this species is known only from a single locality in the Atrato River basin (Campos 2005).
134493		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has at an altitude of 25 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134493		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134493		threats	eng	None known.
134494		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134494		distribution	eng	Japan: Shirase River and branch thereof; northwest of Higa; Suhara River; all in Kume Island, Central Ryukyus Island.
134494		habitat	eng	Near riverside or banks of middle and upper reaches of the rivers, where water will seep out if the burrows are dug.
134494		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134494		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134495		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134495		distribution	eng	Colombia: Caqueta Department, Meta Department; restricted to the eastern slope of the Central Cordillera at 2000 m asl. Venezuela (Amazonas Federal Territory).  Peru (Rio Ucayali), and Loreto, upper Amazon. Ecuador (Napo Province). The distribution of the species includes the Colombian Ilanos, west to the foothills of the Andes (Loreto, in Napo Province, not Loreto in Colombia), and towards the east to the Venezuelan Guiana (Rodriguez, 1992).
134495		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134495		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134495		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134496		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134496		distribution	eng	Mexico.
134496		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134496		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134496		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134497		distribution	eng	Philippines: Luzon (Rio Agno, Mariveles and Palanan), Camiguin, Samar.
134497		population	eng	No information available.
134498		conservation	eng	None in place
134498		distribution	eng	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province: Linhua (27.1 N, 113.9 E).
134498		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134498		population	eng	No information available.
134498		threats	eng	Unknown.
134499		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134499		distribution	eng	Thailand: Trat Province, eastern Thailand. This species is only known from the Chantaburi and Trat areas in eastern Thailand. Not known whether it also occurs in Cambodia.
134499		habitat	eng	Unknown
134499		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134499		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. This species is found in a fast growing area without protection, with future long-term threats from human development very likely.
134500		conservation	eng	Upper reaches of catchment where it is found are within a protected area.<br/>Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland and monitoring of water usage from lower reaches of streams.
134500		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula, Pulau Tioman. The type locality is Sungai Ayer Besar drainage, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°52'39"N, 104°11'48"E). Also found in Sungai Salang (northwestern part of island), Sungai Baharu, Sungai Keliliing and Sungai Paya area. (Sungai = river or stream in Malay). Endemic to Pulau Tioman, Pahang.
134500		habitat	eng	A semi-terrestrial species, which can be found under rocks in damp areas, up to many metres away from the stream. Most common under large rocks in wet areas adjacent to the stream. Nocturnal in habit and is probably omnivorous.<br/><br/>Found in the rugged mountain areas with the headwaters of the rivers draining the central highlands.
134500		population	eng	Annual collecting trips have turned up fewer specimens in recent years.
134500		threats	eng	Part of this species' range is in a protected area, but in the lower reaches there is water pollution, habitat loss/degradation and uncontrolled tourism (viz. increased land use and over-exploitation of limited freshwater resources) which is a concern. In particular there is tourist swimming and playing in streams; alteration of stream course and reduced discharge due to water being piped to beach resorts. Some areas where crabs previously occurred have been altered or lost, e.g. stream flow altered or stream has dried up.
134501		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134501		distribution	eng	Taiwan: northeastern portion of Hengchun Peninsula and much of east coast of Taiwan - Taitung county. Hwalien County (Juisui; Shoufeng, Shyrtiping; Shoufeng, Takangkou; Yuli); Taitung County (Tungho, Dergualao; Tungho, Taiyung; Peinan, Chiafong) (Shy, Ng and Yu 1994).
134501		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134501		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134501		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134502		conservation	eng	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.
134502		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Eastern Sarawak to Brunei. West ridge of Gunong Mulu, Gunung Mulu National Park (4-3'N 114 53'E), Dipterocarp forest.
134502		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris. Sandstone/clay bank.
134502		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134502		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134503		conservation	eng	None in place
134503		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Beishiping, Chenyang; Bajiao, Ensi/Enshi; Dingzhai, Xingfen; Xuanen.
134503		habitat	eng	Hubei Province (from 29°05'-33°20'N to 108°30'-116°10'E) is situated in the middle part of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River, east of the Sichuan basin. Hubei Province is a transition area between the faunas of the north and south, and it also connects eastern and western faunas. 31°N is the delimitation of the Palaearctic and Oriental realms.
134503		population	eng	No information available.
134503		threats	eng	Unknown.
134504		conservation	eng	Lake Posso is protected.
134504		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Poso, also Lake Poso Salopa Waterfall (19km west of Tentana), Central Sulawesi. It was first collected in 1901 and then again in 2000.
134504		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134504		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134504		threats	eng	Present and future threats to this species still exist. These include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134505		conservation	eng	None in place.
134505		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Lombok Island (4,725 km²). This species is known only from the type specimen from Lombok. There have been no records in over 35 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134505		habitat	eng	Not known.
134505		population	eng	No information available.
134505		threats	eng	Not known.
134506		conservation	eng	Suitable areas needed to be identified to ensure its survival.
134506		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Island of Borneo: Endemic to the hills around Kinabalu National Park.
134506		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic, lives under covered forests in small streams with clear water.
134506		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134506		threats	eng	There are no clear threats but as its small range is mostly unprotected, it is very vulnerable.
134507		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134507		distribution	eng	Yemen: Socotra Island (3,625 km²): Kerignigi; Wadi Daneghan (12.36.57N, 54.03.48E); Wadi Fahuh (12.26.463N, 54.09.355E); wadi near Hadibo; Wadi Ayhaft (12.36.461N, 53.59.449E).
134507		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra island where it is common in freshwater streams and wadis throughout the island from the low coastal areas in the north to the mountainous parts of the Haghier. It is usually found in shallow water or on river banks where it builds its burrows.
134507		population	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra island and it is common in freshwater streams and wadis throughout the island .
134507		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134508		conservation	eng	Half of Cat Ba Island is a national park. In 2004 the UNESCO recognized the area as a Biosphere Reserve of the World. Parts of this park may not offer much protection to the species.
134508		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: cave at Gia Lung, cave at Thien Long, cave Hoa Cuong Cave in Gia Luan (20.50.20N, 106.58.57E), and cave Sung Sot Cave, all on Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay. Cat Ba is one of the largest islands in Vietnam, with an area of 356 square kilometers, forested zones, coastal mangroves and freshwater swamps, beaches, caves, and waterfalls. In 1986, the northeast side of the island was designated a national park, including a protected marine zone. Cat Ba Island supports a population of over 20,000 people, most of whom live off fishing or farming in the south, in and around Cat Ba Town.
134508		habitat	eng	Has been found in caves, but has no troglobitic cavernicole characteristics. Caves are in limestone hills.
134508		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134508		threats	eng	Even though there is a national park, the increase of tourism is a risk, e.g. tours lead into Sung Sot cave which contains light installations.
134509		conservation	eng	None in place.
134509		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, Nayamakad Tea Estate, on Munnar-Pollachchi road, Tamil Nadu, India.
134509		habitat	eng	The type series was collected from a shallow (<15 cm deep) streamlet (<1 m wide), under stones in the Nayamakad Tea Estate, on Munnar-Pollachchi road, Tamil Nadu, India, at 1,800 m altitude.
134509		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134509		threats	eng	None known.
134510		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134510		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Binh Phuoc (bau Canh).
134510		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134510		population	eng	No information available.
134510		threats	eng	Unknown.
134511		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134511		distribution	eng	This species is known from one location, 2 km east of Mendez, Morona-Santiago province, Ecuador (Rodriquez and von Sternberg 1998).
134511		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134511		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134511		threats	eng	None known.
134512		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134512		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kayan Basin, East Kalimantan
134512		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134512		population	eng	Unknown.
134512		threats	eng	Unknown.
134513		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134513		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains.
134513		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134513		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134513		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134514		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134514		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, Vaguvurai Estate, between Munnar-Pollachchi, Kerala, southwestern India.
134514		habitat	eng	All the specimens were obtained from muddy edge of a rocky stream at Vaguvurai Estate.
134514		population	eng	No information available.
134514		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134515		conservation	eng	there are no known conservation measures at this time
134515		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Cochinchine=Southern Vietnam. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of IndoChina.
134515		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134515		population	eng	No information available.
134515		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134516		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134516		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park and adjacent limestone formations in Groen Cave and Clearwater Cave.
134516		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. An obligate cavernicolous species (troglobite) living in and around subterranean streams. Shows reduced cornea and body pigmentation.
134516		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134516		threats	eng	No clear threats, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134517		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Tawau Hills Park should ensure its survival.
134517		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Tawau Hills Naitonal Park.
134517		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial.
134517		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134517		threats	eng	No immediate threat, as its range falls within Tawau Hills Park.
134518		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134518		distribution	eng	Panama: from Portobelo, Panama, collected in Feb 1973.
134518		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134518		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134518		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134519		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134519		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar (Yeo and Ng 1999). This species is known only from the type specimen from the Mergui Archipelago, Tenasserim.  There have been no records in almost 120 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134519		population	eng	No information available.
134519		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134520		conservation	eng	None in place.
134520		distribution	eng	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: Travancore: Madathoray, Kulattupuza (=Kolattupuzha, 8°54'0'' N, 77°4'0'' E). This species has been recorded throughout southwestern India.
134520		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from shallow to deep (10 cm to 1.5 m) streams. At Chathankodu, some of the crabs were found under leaf litter in a pool along a sandy, shaded stream (1 m deep). Crabs were always found in the water, and 56 to 600 m (Bahir and Yeo, in press 2007). This species is widely distributed. The area this species is found in is growing and developing. This species likes clean fast flowing water, which is threatened by habitat degradation due to human development.
134520		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134520		threats	eng	This species is widely distributed but parts of the area where this species is found are developing rapidly. This species likes clean fast flowing water and so it could potentially be threatened by habitat degradation due to human development.
134521		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134521		distribution	eng	Japan: Endemic to Uotsuri Island, Ryukyu Islands.
134521		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134521		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends. Found in locally small numbers.
134521		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Apparently this island is uninhabited.
134522		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134522		distribution	eng	Liberia: <em>Liberonautes lugbe</em> is known only from Lugbe in Nimba County in Liberia and is therefore endemic to that country.
134522		habitat	eng	The specimens were captured in rainforest in Liberia by hand when the crabs were walking on land close to a stream.
134522		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134522		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream and river habitats associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134523		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134523		distribution	eng	Thailand: Upper watershed areas of the Kolok and Sai Buri River Basins, in Wang and Sukirin District, Narathiwat Province, southern Thailand. Huai Sam Sop, Ko Lok River Basin, Ban Ba La; 5.71583N 101.83917E Wang District and upper Klong Ai Ka Ding in Wang District 5.80933N 101.82283E; Sirindthron Waterfall Ban Ba La  5.8N 101.82983E and 5.80567N 101.81167E; Sai Buri River Basin; Klong Phu Khao Tong, Ban Phu Khao Tong (5.8N 101.77283E and 5.80133N 101.7615E) in Sukirin District, Narathiwat Province.
134523		habitat	eng	This species is primarily aquatic and lives in clean, clear, fast-flowing fresh waters, typically associated with hill streams (upper stretches). It is typically found in areas where water flows slowly, such as at the side of the main stream or in  adjacent pools,. It is found under rocks and vegetation. They are nocturnal and hide during the day.
134523		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134523		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134524		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134524		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Only known from a single locality on a small offshore island (15 km² at high tide) off of Taiwan - Lyudao/Lutao Island (Taitung county).
134524		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134524		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134524		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134525		conservation	eng	None in place
134525		distribution	eng	China: Yichang, Hubei Province (Yichang covers an area of 21,084 km².)
134525		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134525		population	eng	No information available.
134525		threats	eng	Unknown.
134526		conservation	eng	None in place
134526		distribution	eng	China: Hengduan Mountains area; Yongsheng, Yunnan Province.
134526		habitat	eng	Temperature 19°C, pH 6.4.
134526		population	eng	No information available.
134526		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
134527		conservation	eng	None in place
134527		distribution	eng	India (Madhya Pradesh state: Banjar river, Moki Blaghat).
134527		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134527		population	eng	No information available.
134527		threats	eng	Unknown.
134528		conservation	eng	None in place
134528		distribution	eng	China: Shaanxi (Shansi) Province: Dingxian.
134528		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134528		population	eng	No information available.
134528		threats	eng	Unknown.
134529		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134529		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Tainan County (Nanhsi); Hsinchu County (Peipu, Nanpu; Herngshan); Taipei County (Chungho; Tanshui; Sanchih); Taoyuan County (Fuhsing, Kaoyih); Miaoli County (Shanwan, Tahodi); Taichung County (Taiping, Tsaohu; Hoping, Tianlerng); Nantow County (Tsaotun, Jeoujeoufong; Puli; Shuili); Yunlin County (Kukeng; Linnei, Linpei); Chiayi County (Meishan; Chuchi; Chuchi, Paichii; Meishan, Yeongshing; Tapu, Tamaopu; Chiayi City (Jiuntou); Tainan County (Yuching; Nanshi); Kaohsiung County (Sanmin, Minchu).
134529		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134529		population	eng	Populations are assumed to be stable because this species is known from a large number of localities in a relatively wide geographical area, but it is not found in a protected area.
134529		threats	eng	habitat loss and pollution
134530		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134530		distribution	eng	Mexico (Chiapas State). Guatemala (Alta Verapaz). Costa Rica (Santa Ana Department). El Salvador. Honduras (2 miles n of La Venta).
134530		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134530		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134531		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place and this species is not found in a protected area.
134531		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ankara Province in central Turkey and in Erzurum and Agri Provinces in the Tigris-Euphrates river systems in eastern Turkey.
134531		habitat	eng	<em>Potamon hueceste</em> is found in the streams and rivers in Central and Eastern Anatolia in Turkey, otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.
134531		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown. However, the population is considered likely to be stable based on the relatively high number of localities and collections (15) in Turkey where this species occurs.
134531		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134532		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134532		distribution	eng	Venezuela: North part of the Venezuelan Andes; Portuguesa State (Bumbis River, near Aparicion) and Barinas State; Trujillo State: Quebrada of Escuque town.
134532		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134532		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134532		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134533		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134533		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Market at Ngo Li Si lien Street and other 2 markets in Hanoi; Pleiku, northern Vietnam.
134533		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134533		population	eng	No information available.
134533		threats	eng	Can be bought from markets in Hanoi, in heterogeneous lots together with <em>Somanniathelphusa pax</em>.
134534		conservation	eng	None in place
134534		distribution	eng	China: Menghai County, Jinghon County, Yunnan Province.
134534		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134534		population	eng	No information available.
134534		threats	eng	Unknown.
134535		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134535		distribution	eng	Kenya: mid-altitude forest (2,500-2,800 m) on western slopes of Mount Kenya; Mount Kenya, Sirimon River (0°08'N, 37°06'E), 13-15 km north of Nanyuki on the road to Meru, 3.7 m wide, up to 0.6 m deep, part shaded, rounded stones, some larger blocks. streams in low- and mid-altitude bamboo and Podocarpus forest (2,400-2,700 m asl). This species lives in the rivers and streams of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares.
134535		habitat	eng	This species lives in the rivers and streams of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares in streams in low- and mid-altitude bamboo and <em>Podocarpus</em> forest (2,400-2,700 m asl). On Mount Kenya it is found in mid-altitude bamboo forest, and was collected from a torrential river in a clearing (2,700 m asl); it was also collected from Mount Kenya in a low-altitude Podocarpus forest (2,400 m asl) from the Burgurett River (Burguret is an ascent trail on Mount Kenya).
134535		population	eng	This species was first collected in 1912 and has been collected recently (2005) from fast flowing streams on Mount Kenya in Kenya.
134535		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134536		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134536		distribution	eng	Colombia: Magdalena Department: restricted to the northwestern slope of the Sierra de Santa Marta, Cincinnati Coffee Plantation (Campos 2005).
134536		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,000-1,500 m asl.
134536		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134536		threats	eng	None known.
134537		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134537		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Aru Islands (Calman 1914) Last recorded collection in 1989.
134537		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134537		population	eng	No information available.
134537		threats	eng	Unknown.
134538		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134538		distribution	eng	Kenya: Marsabit in northern Kenya.
134538		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134538		population	eng	Unknown.
134538		threats	eng	Unknown.
134539		conservation	eng	None in place, not found in a protected area.
134539		distribution	eng	D. R. Congo: Bolobo
134539		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Congo River which is wide and deep at Bolobo.
134539		population	eng	Known only from the type material (2 specimens).
134539		threats	eng	None known.
134540		conservation	eng	None in place
134540		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ban Ikor Saenchai, King Amphoe Mae Fah Luang, Chiang Rai Province, northern Thailand.
134540		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134540		population	eng	No information available.
134540		threats	eng	Unknown.
134541		conservation	eng	None in place
134541		distribution	eng	China: Chaling County (29.6N, 113.7E), Hunan province.
134541		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134541		population	eng	No information available.
134541		threats	eng	Unknown.
134542		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134542		distribution	eng	Kenya: from Amboni River, southern Aberdare Mountains, Nairobi Forest, 25 km from Nairobi, Central Province (0°24'0'' S, 36°59'0'' E); Murang’a (= Fort Hall); Kiganjo, Mt. Kenya, Chania River at road bridge below Nyeri (0°06'S, 37°52'E) 6.1 m wide, fast, bed of small boulders & stones; Mt. Kenya, Kiganjo, Nairobi River on road up to Trout Research Station, large stones in sandy bed, occasional small falls over outcrops and large rocks; Meru, northern Mount Kenya, Kiganjo, first stream north of last station, 2-2.5 m wide, open, sandy, some embedded large stones and a cattle watering pool; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River (0°07'S, 38°13'E), 1,585 m asl, 8.4 km from Mikinduri (00°07'N, 37°50'E) 3.7-4.6 m wide, stony with some boulders, 89+90 specimens, with large species and small pink species, shaded, at forest edge; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River, 1,585 m asl, large crabs from mid stream; Nyambeni Hills north of Mt. Kenya, unnamed stream, 1.2 km nearer, Mikindwi than Thangatha River, 0.7 m wide, shallow, occasional boulders, otherwise, sandy with a few stones, large male from beneath a boulder, mid-sized mature male with pale-legged pattern; Nyembeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Ngobit River at Ngobit on road between Naro Moru and Rumuruti (1°17'N, 36°47'E), a tribuitary of the Ewaso Ngiri River, 3.7-4.6 m wide, up to 0.7 m deep, gravel bed, embedded in silty clay, few large stones, crabs from rubble at sides of river below bridge; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; between Mt. Kenya and Murang'a, 2,833 m asl.
134542		habitat	eng	Chania River at road bridge below Nyeri (0°06'S, 37°52'E) 6.1 m wide, fast, bed of small boulders and stones; Mt. Kenya, Kiganjo, Nairobi River, large stones in sandy bed, occasional small falls over outcrops and large rocks; Meru, northern Mount Kenya, Kiganjo, first stream north of last station, 2-2.5 m wide, open, sandy, some embedded large stones and a cattle watering pool; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River (0°07'S, 38°13'E), 1,585 m asl, 8.4 km from Mikinduri (00°07'N, 37°50'E) 3.7-4.6 m wide, stony with some boulders, 89+90 specimens, with large species and small pink species, shaded, at forest edge; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River, 1,585 m asl, large crabs from mid stream; Nyambeni Hills north of Mt. Kenya, unnamed stream, 1.2 km nearer, Mikindwi than Thangatha River, 0.7 m wide, shallow, occasional boulders, otherwise, sandy with a few stones, large male from beneath a boulder, mid-sized mature male with pale-legged pattern; Nyembeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Ngobit River at Ngobit on road between Naro Moru and Rumuruti (1°17'N, 36°47'E), a tributary of the Ewaso Ngiri River, 3.7-4.6 m wide, up to 0.7 m deep, gravel bed, embedded in silty clay, few large stones, crabs from rubble at sides of river below bridge; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; between Mt. Kenya and Murang'a, 2,833 m asl.
134542		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134542		threats	eng	Unknown.
134543		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134543		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas States. Veracruz: Los Tuxtlas, mountains; and Rio Basura 17 km NW Catemaco. Restricted to Mexico.
134543		habitat	eng	A troglophile species that is  restricted to the Cueva del Azufre and has not been collected anywhere else.
134543		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134543		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134544		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134544		distribution	eng	Srisungwarn waterfall, Chiang Dao District; and Doi Chiang Dao (and 1' east of it), all in Chiang Mai Province, northwestern Thailand, Asia.<br/><br/>Amphoe Chiang Dao 1,882 km².
134544		habitat	eng	Mountains.
134544		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134544		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134545		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134545		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Estero San Agustın, 4 km south of the bridge over the Rıo Banchal, Manabı.
134545		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134545		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134545		threats	eng	None known.
134546		conservation	eng	None in place
134546		distribution	eng	India: near Rotung, Abor Country, 1,000-1,300 ft (305-396 m) asl, northeastern India.
134546		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134546		population	eng	No information available.
134546		threats	eng	Unknown.
134547		conservation	eng	None in place
134547		distribution	eng	Laos: Ban Xieng Dad, Muang Phu Kut (Muang Sui), Xieng Khuang Province, northern Laos.
134547		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134547		population	eng	No information available.
134547		threats	eng	Unknown.
134548		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134548		distribution	eng	Peru. Suriname. Brazil (AM, PA).
134548		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134548		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134548		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134549		conservation	eng	None in place
134549		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra, Java.
134549		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134549		population	eng	No information available.
134549		threats	eng	Unknown.
134550		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134550		distribution	eng	Japan: Ishigake, Yaeyama group, Southern Ryukyus.
134550		habitat	eng	This species can be found in shallow, narrow, slow-flowing streams and in small muddy swamps. Specimens were collected under large stones and from burrows.
134550		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134550		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134551		conservation	eng	None in place
134551		distribution	eng	China. No information about exact location available.
134551		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134551		population	eng	No information available.
134551		threats	eng	Unknown.
134552		conservation	eng	None in place
134552		distribution	eng	Burma (Myanmar) Meetan - Upper Tenasserim, Kokareet; and Valle de Houngdarau, Tenasserim.
134552		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134552		population	eng	No information available.
134552		threats	eng	Unknown.
134553		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area. More information needed on distribution, ecology and threats.
134553		distribution	eng	India: Assam state: Naga Hills. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in almost 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134553		habitat	eng	No information available
134553		population	eng	No information available
134553		threats	eng	No information available - likely threats include habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134554		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134554		distribution	eng	Iran: only known from the Elburs Mountains, in Ghilan Province: south of Khorramabad;  Kegachag east of Rasht; Shahshovar, east of Rascht; 42km south of Rascht; 20 km south of Rascht, tributary of the Sefi-Rud. Also from Mazandaran Province: 2 km south of Chalus; 20 km south of Chalus; 42 km south of Chalus; 44 km south of Chalus; Tula Rod River, southwest of the Caspian Sea.
134554		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134554		population	eng	No information available.
134554		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134555		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134555		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi Province:  from Wanzai (28.1N, 114.4E), Xiushui, Leping, and Nancheng counties. Hunan Province: Yueyang and Liuyang Counties.
134555		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134555		population	eng	No information available.
134555		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134556		conservation	eng	None in place
134556		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ban Pu Tae, Thong Pha Phum District; Ban Dong Lek, Tha Charep (ha Chalab), Si Sawat District, Kanchanaburi Province (Yeo unpubl. data). Localities probably 50km apart?  Both districts together have an area of 6,950 km².
134556		habitat	eng	A terrestrial animal. In deep burrows along the banks of small, heavily shaded streams in dense forests. The banks of the streams consist of mud and are overgrown by herbs.
134556		population	eng	No information available.
134556		threats	eng	Unknown.
134557		conservation	eng	None in place.
134557		distribution	eng	DR Congo: Loashi, 1300 m asl, Lake Kivu (plus 5 other localities). Rwanda: Nduga, Nyanza; Mwaka, Nyanza, 1700 m asl. BURUNDI: Kishubi, Muyehe, 1700 m asl.
134557		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134557		population	eng	No information available.
134557		threats	eng	None known.
134558		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134558		distribution	eng	Luzon, Philippines.
134558		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134558		population	eng	No information available.
134558		threats	eng	Unknown.
134559		conservation	eng	None in place
134559		distribution	eng	Thailand: Titrung waterfall in Tharn Lod, Si Sawat District, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand.
134559		habitat	eng	Waterfall.
134559		population	eng	No information available.
134559		threats	eng	Unknown.
134560		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134560		distribution	eng	Ecuador. Paramba, 70 miles north of Quito; Pacific drainage (Ecuador); Pichincha, 10 km south of Santo Domingo de los Colorados.
134560		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134560		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134560		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134561		conservation	eng	None in place
134561		distribution	eng	Burma: Kakhyen Hills, Poonsee, Upper Burma; Moung Sal, Mekhok River. China: Shuangjiang, Jinghong, Xiaomengyong, Mengla Counties in Yunnan (Dai 1999).
134561		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134561		population	eng	No information available.
134561		threats	eng	Unknown.
134562		conservation	eng	None in place
134562		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tad Ton waterfall, Phu Phan Mountain, Muang Sakon Nakhon District, Sakon Nakhon Province.
134562		habitat	eng	Holotype from a waterfall.
134562		population	eng	No information available.
134562		threats	eng	Unknown.
134563		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134563		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Gua Kelawan (Lubang Kelia) (Bat cave), just south of forest station at Long Pala (river junction, 4 01'36"N, 114 47'58"E).
134563		habitat	eng	Cavernicolous, semi-terrestrial
134563		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134563		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134564		conservation	eng	None in place
134564		distribution	eng	China: Gushui, Guangning, Guangdong Province.
134564		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134564		population	eng	No information available.
134564		threats	eng	Unknown.
134565		conservation	eng	None in place.
134565		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Zulia State: Venezuelan slopes of the Sierra de Perija (Perija Mountain Range) from Kunana in the headwaters of the Rio Negro to the upper Rio Guasare.
134565		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134565		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134565		threats	eng	None known.
134566		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134566		distribution	eng	Colombia: known from 15 localities in Caldas and Tolima Departments, eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).
134566		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 400-1,750 m asl in the humid forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River.
134566		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134566		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134567		conservation	eng	None in place
134567		distribution	eng	China: endemic to Jiangxi province (Ninggang 28.7 N, 113.9 E).
134567		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134567		population	eng	No information available.
134567		threats	eng	Unknown.
134568		conservation	eng	None in place
134568		distribution	eng	China: Hengduan Mountain Area; Tengchon County, Yunnan Province.
134568		habitat	eng	pH 6.5 to 7.
134568		population	eng	No information available.
134568		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to Hengduan mountains area.
134569		conservation	eng	None in place
134569		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region (of Hengduan Mt area), West mountain subregion, west mountainous area to the basin zone. Luocheng County, Guangxi Province and Zmei County in Sichuan Province.
134569		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134569		population	eng	No information available.
134569		threats	eng	Unknown.
134570		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134570		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department: The type locality "Monterrodendo", Colombia, given by Bott (1967) is an unidentifiable locality. The type-locality is probably near Quetame, 30 km NW of Villavicencio, in the Rio Negro Valley. Corregimento Monterredondo, Municipio Quetame, 1,350 m asl; Municipio Guayabetal, Vereda El Naranjal, 1350 m asl. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia; 1,320-1,500 m asl, Orinoco watershed (Campos 2005).
134570		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,320 and 1,500 m asl.
134570		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134570		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134571		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status Danum Valley Conservation area should ensure its survival.
134571		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sabah: endemic to Tawau and Lahad Datu area in eastern Sabah, including Danum Valley Conservation area.
134571		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial. Associated with puddles and temporary water bodies in muddy areas and swamp.
134571		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134571		threats	eng	No immediate threat to population in Danum Valley Conservation Area. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
134572		conservation	eng	Xishuangbanna is the only tropical rainforest nature reserve zone in China.
134572		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: Moung-Sal, Mekohk River, northeastern Myanmar. China: Menglun in Xishuangbanna autonomous prefecture in Yunnan Province and Puwen, Mangzhang, Simao, Manghong, Jinghong, Menghong, Xiaomengyang, Manwei, Menghan, Mengyang, Menghai, Maliping Counties of Yunnan Province, southern China.
134572		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134572		population	eng	No information available.
134572		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134573		conservation	eng	None in place
134573		distribution	eng	Thailand: around Bangkok.
134573		habitat	eng	Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages. Caught for food during the wet season.
134573		population	eng	No information available.
134573		threats	eng	Human induced habitat loss is a threat. Species of this genus are considered pretty as pets and populations could be vulnerable from over collection for the aquarium trade.
134574		conservation	eng	None in place
134574		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province.
134574		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134574		population	eng	No information available.
134574		threats	eng	Unknown.
134575		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134575		distribution	eng	Bolivia. Known only from the holotype.
134575		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134575		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134575		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134576		conservation	eng	It is found in a protected area.
134576		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Restricted to the island of Borneo with a rather wide range (Holthuis, 1979) (4 03'N 114 56'E). It is likely that it is found in Kalimanta because the original locality referred to "southeast Bornea" I.e. Kalimantan. Most of the subsequent records have been from Sarawak. It has been collected recently in 1978 in a protected area (Gunong Mulu NP).
134576		habitat	eng	Collected in alluvial forest, which is often flooded. This is a semi-terrestrial species, common in burrows. Mainly nocturnal. Crab guts contained vegetable, mineral and insect matter, and these crabs may contribute significantly to leaf litter degradation and the removal of leaves from the alluvial forest floor.
134576		population	eng	Crabs were found to be quite common along the banks of larger rivers and nocturnal in habits.
134576		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134577		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  Some localities lie within a protected area, the Mont Nimba National Park.
134577		distribution	eng	Liberia and Guinea: Liberonautes rubigimanus is known from only three localities: two in Liberia (Mount Gibi, Margibi County, and Balloon creek, Grand Gedah County) and one in Guinea (Mount Nimba) (Cumberlidge and Huguet 2003). It is endemic to this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone.
134577		habitat	eng	<em>Liberonautes rubigimanus</em> is found in fast-flowing mountain streams in Liberia (Mount Gibi) and Guinea (Mount Nimba), and at lower elevations in forest streams in Grand Gedah County, Liberia. The specimen from Mount Nimba was collected in forest at 600 m altitude. This is a large species, with an adult size range between cw 62-75 mm. This species is sympatric with <em>L. latidactylus</em> and <em>L. paludicolis</em>.
134577		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens from three localities in Liberia and Guinea. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134577		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its mountain stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134578		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area, although the cave system where it is found provides a certain amount of protection because of its  inaccessibility.
134578		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas State: caves in eastern Sierra Madre.
134578		habitat	eng	The only troglobitic (cave-living) trichodactylid. This species is blind, and its carapace and legs are depigmented, and it has long slender walking legs. Semi-terrestrial in habit, spending time out water too.
134578		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134578		threats	eng	The threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134579		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134579		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality between Munnar-Maraiyoor, on Munnar-Pollachchi, Kerala, southwestern India.
134579		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from just beside a streamlet, in moist soil and under stones, between Munnar-Maraiyoor above 1,570 m altitude.
134579		population	eng	No information available.
134579		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134580		conservation	eng	None in place
134580		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Mount Liang -Koeboeng.
134580		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134580		population	eng	No information available.
134580		threats	eng	Unknown.
134581		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.
134581		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Tributary of Sungei Kelantan (5°19'N, 102°18'E) and Terengganu, Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Kelantan and Terrengganu.
134581		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.
134581		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134581		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134582		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134582		distribution	eng	Thailand: Khao Ram, Nakhon Si Thammarat mountains; Phrommalok waterfall, Phrommakhiri District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province; southern Thailand. Found on hill next to city.
134582		habitat	eng	Recently reported to be the second intermediate host of <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> in Surat Thani, Thailand (Sugiyami <em>et al</em>. 2007).
134582		population	eng	No information available.
134582		threats	eng	Future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134583		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. The Lombong area (Kota Tinggi waterworks) is a protected area and this will help ensure its survival. A larger area of protection is desirable.
134583		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. The type locality is Lombong waterfall (Kota Tinggi), Gunang Panti area, Johore (1"46'N, 103"51'E). Endemic to Kota Tinggi and Gunung Panti, Johore, and adjacent areas in Johore and Pahang.
134583		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Found under rocks and vegetation on the sides of waterfalls, streams or adjacent pools.
134583		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134583		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation and pollution outside protected areas. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.
134584		conservation	eng	None in place
134584		distribution	eng	India: Dharampur, Simla (Shimla) Hills, 5,000 feet
134584		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134584		population	eng	No information available.
134584		threats	eng	Unknown.
134585		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134585		distribution	eng	China: Loudi (27.7N, 111.9E); Lengshui Jiang; Lianyuan, Loudi; Shangfengxian; Hunan province.
134585		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134585		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134585		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134586		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134586		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sumatra. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134586		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134586		population	eng	No information available.
134586		threats	eng	Unknown.
134587		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134587		distribution	eng	Thailand: This species has a wide distribution in central Thailand, centering around the Chao Phrya drainage, Asia<br/>Phukae, Saraburi Province; Lomsak District (Tantip waterfall) and Nong Phai District (Subchomphu Waterfall) Phetchabun Province; Lumnarai District, Lopburi Province.
134587		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small, fast flowing streams, the substrate are rocks and small boulders.
134587		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134587		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134588		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area (National Park).
134588		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Borneo: Wanariset Research Swamp Forest, east Kalimantan.
134588		habitat	eng	Lowland species.
134588		population	eng	The population levels are small but stable, and this species lives in a protected area where there are no known long-term threats to its habitat.
134588		threats	eng	None known.
134589		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134589		distribution	eng	Peru: Manu Province, Madre de Dios Department, and Brazil (AM) where it occurs in the Amazon basin and in the sub-basin of the lower Rio Madeira / Madre de Dios.
134589		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134589		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134589		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134590		conservation	eng	None in place
134590		distribution	eng	Myanmar/Burma: Mergui Archipelago, Andaman Sea, off southern Myanmar. The holotype and a few other specimens were collected from here in 1886 and it has not been collected since.
134590		habitat	eng	Like other species of this genus, <em>D. merguensisi</em> is mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. This genus is sometimes found outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
134590		population	eng	No information available.
134590		threats	eng	Unknown.
134591		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134591		distribution	eng	India: Kerala state: Cochin State Forest, Kerala is the type locality in southwestern India and the only locality known. The species is known only from the types from Cochin State Forest, Kerala, southwestern India.
134591		habitat	eng	Not known, probably from under stones and logs in wet soil and from shallow burrows in wet soil, adjacent to small streams (Bahir and Yeo, in publication).
134591		population	eng	No information available.
134591		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134592		conservation	eng	Conservation and monitoring of pollution levels in Gomantong caves area.
134592		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Island of Borneo (5 33'N, 118 06'E). Only known from its type locality (Simud Puteh Cave, Gomantong, Sabah). Endemic to Gomantong caves, Sabah.
134592		habitat	eng	Terrestrial. An obligate cavernicolous species (troglobite) living in and around subterranean streams.
134592		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134592		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134593		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Tawau Hills Park and Danum Valley Conservation area should ensure its survival.
134593		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Tawau and Lahad Datu area in eastern Sabah, including Danum Valley Conservation Area. This species appears to be restricted to Sabah in the northeastern part of Borneo, and is found inTawau Hills Park, Madai Caves, Danum Valley Conservation Area and Lower Segama River.
134593		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic.
134593		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134593		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within Tawau Hills Park and Danum valley Conservation Area. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
134594		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134594		distribution	eng	El Salvador: Volcan Monte Cristo, 25 km N of Metapan, 2,300 m.
134594		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134594		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134594		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134595		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area on Dominica.
134595		distribution	eng	Lesser Antilles, West Indies: St. Vincent, Dominica, Martinique, Guadaloupe.
134595		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in the highland areas of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.
134595		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country, but its distribution is fragmented and its populations are isolated because they are found on different islands.
134595		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
134596		conservation	eng	None in place
134596		distribution	eng	China: Tonghai (24 1N, 102 7'E), in Yunnan Province.
134596		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134596		population	eng	No information available.
134596		threats	eng	Unknown.
134597		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134597		distribution	eng	Hong Kong: Tai Po Kau Reserve, Nai Chung stream in New Territories, and near Victoria peak on Hong Kong Island. Known only from Hong Kong.
134597		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly in secondary forest, it is very terrestrial and rarely occurs in the water proper, instead inhabiting the dry areas beyond the banks of streams. Found for example near roots and large rocks. They excavate burrows which are gradually sloping and difficult to dig out. During rain, the adult crabs move out of their burrows, even during daylight. Smaller crabs and juveniles appear to stay closer to pools or patches of wet ground.<br/><br/>In captivity, this species is agile and climb semivertical surfaces with little effort. As this species is aggressive, specimens particularly conspecifics, cannot be kept together in confine spaces (Ng and Dudgeon 1992).
134597		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134597		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134598		conservation	eng	None in place.
134598		distribution	eng	India: Tamil Nadu state: southern India, Nilgiris Hills. The species is known from Coonoor and Hill-Grove, Nilgiris, and Glendale Tea Estate, Tamil Nadu, southern India. Possible additional records from Karnataka as well (Srivastava 2005).
134598		habitat	eng	Recently collected mature specimens are from a small (< 1m wide), shallow (< 30 cm deep), steep, rocky stream in a shaded area at about 15 km from Mettuppalayam on Ooty road (at 500 m altitude), Tamil Nadu, India. Juveniles were collected from Glendale Estate on Mettuppalayam-Ooty, are from 5–10 cm deep wet soil on a large boulder, in an open area within the tea garden, Tamil Nadu, 11.19’49.7”N, 076.47’18.3”E, at 1,560 m altitude.
134598		population	eng	No information available.
134598		threats	eng	None known.
134599		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is not found in a protected area.
134599		distribution	eng	Senegal: This species is known only from one locality in the Sénégal river, Sénégal, and is endemic to that country. In 1970 when this species was collected the Senegal RIver was saline for more than 250 km inland. In 1985 a dam was built at Diama to prevent the invasion of saltwater upstream of the dam. The collection locality is not specific but it seems likely that it was collected in the freshwater zone of the river which at the time was upstream of Podor, and so the locality must have been between here and the border with Mali.
134599		habitat	eng	The only locality record is from the Sénégal river, Sénégal. The highly arched and rounded carapace of this species is typical of freshwater crabs that live a semi-terrestrial life and breathe air as well as water (Cumberlidge 1999).
134599		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134599		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134600		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134600		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from PNG. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Australasia.
134600		population	eng	No information available.
134600		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134601		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134601		distribution	eng	Philippines, Luzon.
134601		habitat	eng	One specimen was found in hollow of tree, well above the ground and away from water in a forest
134601		population	eng	No information available.
134601		threats	eng	Unknown.
134602		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134602		distribution	eng	Calbigau on Samar; Loquilocum on Samar;  Danao lake; Molawin Creck, Laguna di Bay, Calibato Lake; streams near Goa; Leyte; Luzon, Philippines, Asia<br/><br/>Samar, Luzon, Leyte and Camiguin Islands, Philippines (Balss 1937).
134602		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134602		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134602		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134603		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134603		distribution	eng	India: Karnataka state: Bellary area, Wagrakarwar, Mysore; and tributary of Cauveri River, at Hunsur 50 km from Mysore on Madekeri -Mysore Rd. Localities probably 125 km apart.
134603		habitat	eng	Found on the bank of a shallow (<30 cm) slow-flowing, rocky stream.
134603		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134603		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134604		conservation	eng	None in place
134604		distribution	eng	Thailand, Ut Mai Thani Province, Lan Sak District, Nam Chon waterfall (15'25"00N, 99'41"00E); Lampang Province, Amphoe Hang Chat, Khun Tai waterfall (18'20"00N, 99'21"00E); Chang Rai province, Murang, Prong Pra Bat.
134604		habitat	eng	Waterfalls, mountain streams.
134604		population	eng	Unknown.
134604		threats	eng	Unknown.
134605		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134605		distribution	eng	Mexico: La Jolla Cave, State of Guerrero, Mexico, 5 km northeast from Taxco by highway 95 at 1,800 m asl.
134605		habitat	eng	Cave species. Isolated area in complete darkness 1,120 m from the cave's entrance, after a 20 m vertical drop, this seems to restrict the distribution of the species to the deeper parts of the cave.  Has no obvious adaptations to cave life - carapace dark, eyes normal.
134605		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134605		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134606		conservation	eng	None in place
134606		distribution	eng	Burma: southern Shan State: Inle Lake area, He-Ho stream, 3800 feet, from the Hsin Dawng stream near Yawnghwe and close to the Ngot bat cave. Was not found in the lake, only in its vicinity.
134606		habitat	eng	Under stones at the edge of running water and in holes in the banks of small streams.
134606		population	eng	No information available.
134606		threats	eng	Unknown.
134607		conservation	eng	None in place.
134607		distribution	eng	Colombia: West Colombia, Choco Department. From the headwaters of the Atrato River which flows north into the Gulf of Uraba to the Caribbean Sea; also from the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific. This trans-basin distribution arises probably due to the intermittant communication between both basins, which occur during flood seasons in areas with an altitude below 100 m (Campos 2005).
134607		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20-500 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134607		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134607		threats	eng	None known.
134608		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134608		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz State, Alta, Coban, Haute Vera Paz.
134608		habitat	eng	From a cave in the state of Veracruz, but no obvious adaptations to cave life.
134608		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134608		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134609		conservation	eng	None in place
134609		distribution	eng	Philippines: Dapaolake, Mindanao, Philippines, Southeast Asia
134609		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134609		population	eng	No information available.
134609		threats	eng	Unknown.
134610		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134610		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi Province: Anyuan (25.1 N, 115.3 E), Longnan, Daiyu, Ruijin. Fujian Province: Pingwu. Guangdong Province: Meixian and Shaoguan. Hunan Province: Lingxian.
134610		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134610		population	eng	No information available.
134610		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134611		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134611		distribution	eng	Pong Nam Ron, Chanthaburi Province, Thailand, Asia. Pong Nam Ron District covers an area of 927 km².
134611		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134611		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134611		threats	eng	Species of this genus are considered pretty as pets.
134612		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134612		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province: Juyu, Fanxian; Yunxian; Yangyuenwan, Shennongjia; Benshui, Shennonjia.
134612		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134612		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134612		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134613		conservation	eng	Conservation of the Pulau Langkawi highlands and monitoring of pollution levels.
134613		distribution	eng	Malaysia: northern Malaysian Peninsula. This species is common throughout the highlands of Pulau Langkawi, Kedah (e.g. 6 23'58"N, 99 50'05"E).
134613		habitat	eng	This species is a highland species which is absent in the lower stretches of streams and prefers shaded areas under leaf beds and rocks. It is semi-terrestrial to aquatic in its habits and has been collected from the wet terrestrial bank adjacent to streams. A resilient but timid species which is able to survive out of water for over a day if the environment is cool. Also very agile and fast on land. Moulting has been accomplished out of water, the carapace can harden without needing to be completely submerged in water. Although it feeds on animal and plant matter, it prefers animals.
134613		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134613		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134614		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134614		distribution	eng	Thailand: So far only known from southern Thailand, Kra of Isthmus area (7 35'23" N, 99 30' 46"E), Surat Thani Province (99 58'E, 8 25'N, and Trang Province, southern Thailand.
134614		habitat	eng	This species is semi-terrestrial to terrestrial, hides in deep burrows during the day.
134614		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134614		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. This species is occasionally caught by local villagers for sale as pets. It has three colour morphs, but there is no apparent morphological difference between the colour morphs (Yeo, unpubl. data).
134615		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134615		distribution	eng	Panama.
134615		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134615		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134615		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134616		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134616		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ban Kreo Noi, Khlong Phrae Sai, north of Ranong (10 08'50.9"N 98 41'11.3"E) and Ban Kho Krue, Khlong Kho Krue (10 22'13.7"N 98 48'34"E), Ranong Province, southern Thailand (Yeo unpubl. data). Localities are 28km apart and this species is not widespread.
134616		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134616		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134616		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134617		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134617		distribution	eng	Colombia: Choco, Huila, and Risaralda Departments: Found only in the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific, Serranía de Los Paraguas, Cordillera Occidental. Choco Department (= 46,530 km²), San Juan River drainage (16,465-km² basin) approx 25% of Choco area. This is one of the three large rivers that drain the Chocó Department, the other two being the Atrato River and the Baudó River, each one with many tributaries. The Baudó Mountains on the coast and the Cordillera Occidental are cut by low valleys with an altitude less than 1,000 meters that form most of the territory. Most of the Chocó is thick rain forest (Campos 2005).
134617		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 490-700 m asl.
134617		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134617		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134618		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134618		distribution	eng	China: Nanning County in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China.
134618		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134618		population	eng	No information available.
134618		threats	eng	Unknown.
134619		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134619		distribution	eng	Thailand: Sang Fa, Muang Mae Hong Son District; and Huai San, about 1 km on turnoff to Ban ma Sang (19°26'26"N 97°59'48"E), Mae Nam Pai basin, Mae Hong Son Province, central northeast Thailand. 40 km distance between locations. Not a widespread species.
134619		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134619		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134619		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134620		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is not found in a protected area.
134620		distribution	eng	Nigeria: This species is known only from one locality in southern Nigeria and is endemic to that country.
134620		habitat	eng	<em>Sudanonautes nigeria</em> is known only from four specimens collected in the rainforest zone of southeast Nigeria in the western part of the Lower Guinea forest block.
134620		population	eng	This species is known only from only four specimens, all from a single locality. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134620		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134621		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134621		distribution	eng	Philippines: Mindanao.
134621		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134621		population	eng	No information available.
134621		threats	eng	Unknown.
134622		conservation	eng	None in place.
134622		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Zulia and Merida States. Colombia: Cundinamarca, Norte de Santander, Boyaca, Santander, Tolima departments: extensive distribution on the slopes of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras in systems that drain into the Magdalena River which drains into the Pacific. Between Melgar and Bucaramanga, upper Magdalena basin, found exclusively in the Magdalena basin. <em>Hypolobocera b. angulata</em> is known from nine localities in Cesar Department; seven localities from Magdalena Department, and four localities from Venezuela (Merida and Zulia States). <em>Hypolobocera b. monticola</em> is known from eight localities in Antioquia Department; 26 localities from Risaralda Department, six localities from Caldas Department, one from Choco department, one from Quindio department, four from Valle del Cauca Department, and 17 localities from Tolima Department. <em>Hypolobocera b. stenolobata</em> is known from six localities in Huila Department (Campos 2005).
134622		habitat	eng	This species (as <em>H. b. monticola</em>) is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus</em> sp. in Colombia.
134622		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134622		threats	eng	None known.
134623		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kubah National Park should ensure its survival.
134623		distribution	eng	Western Sarawak including Gunung Matang (Serapi) in Kubah National Park. Also found in northwestern Kalimantan, Indonesia. Asia<br/><br/>More material (four specimens) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Meraja, Gunung Batu Payong (12 specimens), Gunung Krian (one specimen), Gunung Pambor (seven specimens), Gunung Tongga (46 specimens), Gunung Ropih (eight specimens), Gunung Lanyang (two specimens), Gunung Podam (seven specimens), Gunung Stulang (13 specimens), Gunung Doya (five specimens), Gunung Tai Ton (one specimen) and Gunung Kawa (seven specimens), in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now 28 (all in the Bau Limestone Area).
134623		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Prefers fast-flowing waters.
134623		population	eng	No information available.
134623		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within Kubah National Park. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
134624		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134624		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from PNG. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134624		population	eng	No information available.
134624		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134625		conservation	eng	The retention of Lanjak-Entimau as a Wildlife Sanctuary should ensure its survival.
134625		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Borneo: Sarawak: South Sarawak including Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, and northwestern Kalimantan, Borneo, Indonesia.
134625		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic.
134625		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134625		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
134626		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation).
134626		distribution	eng	Suriname: Monts Nassau. French Guiana. Brazil: Amapa, Amazonas, Para, Ceara States. This species is found in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Marowijne/Marone, and Suriname river basins. Atlantic Guianas and the eastern and central Amazon. Not found east of the mouth of the Amazon River. The easternmost records of this species are in Brazil from the Rio Acara in Tome-Acu, state of Para, and the Rio Gurupi, a coastal Atlantic river that divides the states of Para and Maranhao, Brazil. In Brazil, this species is found in the central Amazon region and in the Rio Calçoene, a coastal Atlantic river in Amapá State; also in Serra do Navio [00°52'N 51°59'W], serra do Veado; Serra do Navio, sítio São Sebastião, right bank of Rio Amapari. The record from the Serra do Navio confirms the occurrence of the species in the eastern Amazon region. Amazonas State: Presidente Figueiredo [02°04'S 60°10'W], road to Balbina, igarapé no sítio "Refúgio do Maroaga". Also found in Ceara State, northeastern Brazil, outside of the Amazon region.
134626		habitat	eng	Found on land, in humid areas of forest ground and in small water courses throughout the forest. This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Marowijne/Maroni, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.
134626		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134626		threats	eng	None known.
134627		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134627		distribution	eng	China: Linchuan (27.9 N, 116.2 E), Jian and Fengcheng, Jiangxi Province, distance between Linchuan and Jian is 146 km².
134627		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134627		population	eng	No information available.
134627		threats	eng	Unknown.
134628		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134628		distribution	eng	Peru: Amazon drainage of Peru (Departments of Loreto and Huanuco); Huacamayo River, km 155, road to Basadre, Pucallpa Department–Aguaytia Province, in the south-western part of the Amazon basin in tributaries of the Rio Ucayali (Magalhaes & Tuerkay, 1996).
134628		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134628		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134628		threats	eng	Unknown.
134629		conservation	eng	None in place
134629		distribution	eng	China: Loshang District, Xiushui County, Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province; Luocheng and Xiuren counties.
134629		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134629		population	eng	No information available.
134629		threats	eng	Unknown.
134630		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134630		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Amazon River basin in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. Brazil this species is found in the Amazon basin (Amazonas and Amapa States) and it also occurs in two localities in Colombia (Leticia) (Campos 2005).
134630		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon River basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Jari river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon River. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 80 and 120 m asl.
134630		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134630		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
134631		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134631		distribution	eng	Brazil: Para and Amazonas State. Could be present from Guyana to the Central Brazilian Shield. So far, this species is known to occur in four Amazon river sub-basins: Rio Trombetas and Rio Uatumã (northern tributaries) and Rio Curuá-Una and Rio Xingu (southern tributaries).
134631		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon and Araguari river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Uatuma and Rio Trombetas rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river, as well as in the Rio Xingu, a southern tributary of the Amazon river. This species occurs running rivers, waterfalls and rapids, as well as shallow areas, between cracks and under rocks, also being able live outside of water. It is also found in highplain rivers, usually among rocks along rapids and falls.
134631		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134631		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134632		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, and it is not found in a protected area.
134632		distribution	eng	Liberia: This species is known only from one locality, Weeni creek, Grand Bassa County, in Liberia and is therefore endemic to that country.
134632		habitat	eng	Found in a small stream (Weeni Creek) in the rainforests of central Liberia.
134632		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens and there is no information available on its population size or abundance.
134632		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134633		conservation	eng	None in place
134633		distribution	eng	China: Hengduan Mountains Area, Dali in Yunnan (Dali city has an area of 1468 km².)
134633		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134633		population	eng	No information available.
134633		threats	eng	Unknown.
134634		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134634		distribution	eng	Brunei: Near summit of East Kuala Belalong, Temburong.
134634		habitat	eng	Forest floor, near summit of East Kuala Belalong
134634		population	eng	No information available.
134634		threats	eng	Unknown.
134635		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134635		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Yunxi, Yunyang, Fangxian, Zhuxi, Baokang, Shennongjian, Xingshan, Laifeng, Nanzhang, Badong counties in Hubei Province. Plus Wuxi, Chengkou, Wanxian counties in Sichuan Province.
134635		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134635		population	eng	No information available.
134635		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134636		conservation	eng	None in place
134636		distribution	eng	Philippines - northeastern Mindoro.
134636		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134636		population	eng	No information available.
134636		threats	eng	Unknown.
134637		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134637		distribution	eng	Mexico: small cave crabs, Chiapas State - Cueva del Tio Ticho. Eastern Sierra Madre of Chiapas; Cueva del Tio Ticho, 3 km south of Comitan, Chiapas; plus Cueva Murcielagos and Cueva de los Llanos, which are both located 14 km ESE of San Cristobal de las Casas. Blind, depigmented, long slender legs.
134637		habitat	eng	Caves. Truly troglobitic, no pigmentation on carapace or appendages, ocular peduncle lacks visual pigments.
134637		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134637		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134638		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area, the Parc National de Niokolo-Koba in Senegal.
134638		distribution	eng	This species is common in the major rivers in the western part of the West Africa with a distributional range that includes Mauritania (Guidimaka), eastern Sénégal, Mali (river Niger and Mali, Lac Télé, near to Goundam), Burkina Faso, Côte-d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, and possibly Cameroon (although this record is doubtful). This species may also be found in the Gambia.
134638		habitat	eng	Found throughout the major rivers of West Africa.
134638		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species, and has been collected recently from two different localities (the Niger River at Bamako and Mopti, Mali) in the past five years. It is the subject of small scale local fisheries in Mali where it is captured in nets or in baited fish traps.
134638		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134639		conservation	eng	None in place
134639		distribution	eng	Vietnam: National Park HQ to Gia Luan (Ra Luan), about 1km and about 3-4km (20 4757"N 107 00'05"e Cat Ba Island, Hai Phong, northern Vietnam.
134639		habitat	eng	Collected from along the stream banks as well as a short distance from the streams. Semi-terrestrial habit.
134639		population	eng	No information available.
134639		threats	eng	Unknown.
134641		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134641		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco States.
134641		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134641		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134641		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134642		conservation	eng	None in place
134642		distribution	eng	Burma: Bhamo, Upper Irrawaddy River, Myanmar; Upper Burma
134642		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134642		population	eng	No information available.
134642		threats	eng	Unknown.
134643		conservation	eng	The selective protection of swamp forests is the only recourse.
134643		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Endemic to the lowland swamps of southerwestern Johore.
134643		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing waters with dense leaf litter and submerged vegetation, usually in freshwater swamp forests.
134643		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134643		threats	eng	The increasing loss of the swamp forests of southeastern Johore poses a clear threat.
134644		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
134644		distribution	eng	Thailand: Nakhon Phanom Province, northeastern Thailand (Yeo 2004). Also found in Lao PDR.
134644		habitat	eng	A rice field crab.
134644		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134644		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. Pesticides used in rice fields pose a threat as well.
134645		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134645		distribution	eng	China: middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan Mt area), west mountainous area to the basin zone, including basin zone. Kwanshsien/Wan xian, Chungking/Chong qing, Guanxian, Xinjin, Shifang, Chengdu, Yibin counties in Sichuan Province. Chishui in Guizhou Province.
134645		habitat	eng	Lung fluke associated with this species: <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> (Sichuan variety) and <em>P. szechuanensis</em> (Chung & Ts'ao).
134645		population	eng	No information available.
134645		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134646		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134646		distribution	eng	India: Assam state: Ganjam in northern Cachar Province in Assam.
134646		habitat	eng	Unknown (freshwater)
134646		population	eng	No information available.
134646		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134647		conservation	eng	None in place
134647		distribution	eng	Sikkim or Burma. Sikkim (also Sikhim) (Devanāgarī) is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas.
134647		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134647		population	eng	No information available.
134647		threats	eng	Unknown.
134648		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134648		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cesar Department: Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,270m to 1,800m above sea level (Campos 2005).
134648		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,270 and 1,800 m above sea level.
134648		population	eng	Large populations of crabs found.
134648		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134649		conservation	eng	None in place
134649		distribution	eng	China: Huanning (24.1N, 102.9E) Yunnan Province.
134649		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134649		population	eng	No information available.
134649		threats	eng	Unknown.
134650		conservation	eng	None in place
134650		distribution	eng	China: Taoyuan (32.3N, 110.2E); Niuchehe village, Taoyuan; Taojianping village, Xupu; Hunan Province.
134650		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134650		population	eng	No information available.
134650		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and industrial manufacturing and mining pose threats to the environment.
134651		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134651		distribution	eng	Colombia: Holotype from Pamplona, Norte del Santander Department. In addition to the type material, the species has been reported from a number of localities in the rivers of the Lago Maracaibo drainage in Venezuela (Zulia State) and Colombia (Rodriguez 1992). Magalhaes and Tuerkay (1996) and (Campos 2005) define the distribution of the genus Bottiella as northern Colombia and Venezuela.
134651		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50-325 m asl.
134651		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
134651		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134652		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134652		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Close to Bombetok; Bombetok, Province Faranfangana; Andrafiavelo (Sakalava); Forest, 1,700 m, Ambohitantely; Lily River-Ampefy, Department of Soavinandriana;  Province d’Antananarivo, Réserve spéciale d’Ambohitantely, 24 km NE Ankazobe, 1,450 m.
134652		habitat	eng	A river-living species.
134652		population	eng	No information available.
134652		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134653		conservation	eng	None in place
134653		distribution	eng	China: Emei Mountain, Sichuan Province.
134653		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134653		population	eng	No information available.
134653		threats	eng	Unknown.
134654		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134654		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: La Mina, Rio Torres, San Jose Province; Alajuela Province; Heredia Province.
134654		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus caliensis</em> and <em>P. mexicanus</em> in Costa Rica.
134654		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134654		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134655		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134655		distribution	eng	Peru: collected 5 km west of La Meced (-11.0500 S, -75.3167 W) Departamento de Junin (44.410 km²).
134655		habitat	eng	Collected from mountain streams under stones.
134655		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134655		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134656		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134656		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Buea / Kumba area, and Victoria, southwest Cameroon.
134656		habitat	eng	Two male specimens (cws 21.3, 20.1 mm) from Victoria, Cameroon collected 6 February 1912 by DR. E. Fickenday, were described as “Essbare Landkrabben” (edible land crabs).
134656		population	eng	Population levels and trends unknown.
134656		threats	eng	None known.
134657		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134657		distribution	eng	Colombia: Tolima Department: Eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134657		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 800-1,100 m asl in the humid forests of the Central Cordillera of Colombia.
134657		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134657		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134658		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134658		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Solala Department; St. Augustine, near Atitlan. Mexico: Cavadonque (Covadonga?), sw Mexico.
134658		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.
134658		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134658		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134659		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134659		distribution	eng	Taiwan: found throughout Taiwan (except the northeast). In the western region it is found from Taipeh County (Wulai Village) to Taoyuan County (Fuxing village). In the eastern region from Hwalien County down to Taitung County (Hsinwulu stream, Wulu, Haituan) and in the South Hengchun Peninsular. Found in 18 of the main river systems in Taiwan from mountain streams ot coastal plains.
134659		habitat	eng	This species occurs from sea level rivers to mountain creeks. Highland and lowland. It is found in rock crevices and in muddy areas. It is important as it is a secondary intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> in Taiwan, which was common before the 1960s. See Liu and Li (2000) for the reproductive behaviour and ecology of this species.
134659		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species that is endemic to Taiwan. It has been collected recently from 1994 to 2003.
134659		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution
134660		conservation	eng	None in place
134660		distribution	eng	Burma: Mounte Mooleyit, Myanmar.
134660		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134660		population	eng	No information available.
134660		threats	eng	Unknown.
134661		conservation	eng	Found in a protected area - a National Park. (but this is insufficient to protect it from threats)
134661		distribution	eng	Thailand: Huai Fai Hin, Chiang Mai Province. Also Nam Mae Chai (300 m NE of hot springs of Fang - 19°58'N 99°10'E); Doi chang; Doi Sutep Waterfall; Huai Kiaow waterfall in Doi Sutep-Pu National Park, Chiang Mai Province.
134661		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134661		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134661		threats	eng	Doi Su Tep National Park is one of the most visited national parks in Thailand. Much of the forest has been in decline because of its closeness to Chiang Mai, the rapid development of tourism and the presence of hill tribe families in the park.
134662		conservation	eng	None in place
134662		distribution	eng	China: Gaoan (24.8°N 117.4°E), Huaan, Fujian Province.
134662		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134662		population	eng	No information available.
134662		threats	eng	Unknown.
134663		conservation	eng	None in place
134663		distribution	eng	Philippines: Mindanao - Sultan Kradarat Province.
134663		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134663		population	eng	No information available.
134663		threats	eng	Unknown.
134664		conservation	eng	None in place
134664		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Tambelan Islands.
134664		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134664		population	eng	No information available.
134664		threats	eng	Unknown.
134665		conservation	eng	None in place
134665		distribution	eng	Burma: east side of Dawna Hills, Myanmar; Thailand: Senangkhanikhom District, Ubon Ratchathani Province.
134665		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134665		population	eng	No information available.
134665		threats	eng	Unknown.
134666		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134666		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Bougainville in the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134666		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134666		population	eng	No information available.
134666		threats	eng	Unknown.
134667		conservation	eng	None in place
134667		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area. Kaiyang, Shiqian, Jiangkou Counties in Guizhou Province. Zushi in Hubei Province.
134667		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134667		population	eng	No information available.
134667		threats	eng	Unknown.
134668		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, and receives special protection because it is named for the Queen of Thailand.
134668		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ngao Waterfall Forest Park, Amphoe Muang, Muang Ranong District, Ranong Province, southern Thailand.
134668		habitat	eng	Under small stones in mountain streams of Ngao Mountain at 100 m asl.
134668		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134668		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134669		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134669		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Near Pointe Bolivar.
134669		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134669		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134669		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134670		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134670		distribution	eng	China: Dongyin (26 22'42"N, 120 29'E, Matsu) a small island off Fujian.
134670		habitat	eng	This species was collected in irrigation ditches beside vegetable gardens.
134670		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134670		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134671		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area, although its cave habitat provides a degree of inaccessibility and therefore protection.
134671		distribution	eng	Indonesia: On the island of Halmahera in the Indonesian Moluccas.
134671		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone caves. Probably not an obligate cavernicole because although its legs are elongated and it is pale in colour, its eyes are not reduced in size. They live in small ponds either far from (as well as near to), or actually in the underground river in the cave.
134671		population	eng	These crabs were reported to be locally common in the cave where they were collected and live in small ponds either far from (as well as near to), or actually in the underground river in the cave.
134671		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134672		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134672		distribution	eng	China:  Endemic to Jiangxi Province: found in the following counties - Wanzai, Ruichang, Duchang, Boyang, Leping, Fengcheng, Yichun, Xiushui, Anyi, Xinyu, Yongfeng, Gaoan, Anfu, Nancheng, Shangxian and Taihe.
134672		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134672		population	eng	No information available.
134672		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134673		conservation	eng	This species is found in the Henri Pittier (= Rancho Grande) National Park, Aragua State, western coastal range in the Cordillera de la Costa, Aragua estado (state), Venezuela (900 sq km) between Lago (lake) de Valencia and the Caribbean. Much of the park is covered with primeval rain forest, and it is home to more than 500 different species of birds. In addition, hundreds of thousands of birds and insects following a natural migratory route fly over the park at Portachuelo Pass.
134673		distribution	eng	Venezuela: northern slope of the Venezuelan central range of the Venezuelan Andes from Distrito Federal to Aragua and Carabobo States.  Between 1966 and 1973, 13 crabs were collected by the Society of Natural History, La Salle, Caracas. This species is found in the Henri Pittier (= Rancho Grande) National Park, Aragua State, western coastal range in the Cordillera de la Costa, Aragua estado (state), Venezuela (900 sq km) between Lago (lake) de Valencia and the Caribbean.
134673		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Henri Pittier (= Rancho Grande) National Park, Aragua State, western coastal range in the Cordillera de la Costa, Aragua estado (state), Venezuela (900 sq km) between Lago (lake) de Valencia and the Caribbean. Much of the park is covered with primeval rain forest, and it is home to more than 500 different species of birds. In addition, hundreds of thousands of birds and insects following a natural migratory route fly over the park at Portachuelo Pass.
134673		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134673		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134674		conservation	eng	None in place.
134674		distribution	eng	D.R. Congo: Kidzueme, Moluma stream, Kwilu (Kwango). Known from 3 localities.
134674		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134674		population	eng	No information available.
134674		threats	eng	None known.
134675		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134675		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Zulia, Lara,Trujillo, Merida, and Falcon States. Colombia: Boyaca, Caldas, Cesar, Cordoba, Cuindinamarca, Guajira, Magdalena, Tolima, Norte de Santander and Bolivar Departments. This species is widely distributed in the upper and median course of the Maracaibo and Magadalena River basins (Rodriguez 1992, Campos 2005).
134675		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 120-570 m asl.
134675		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134675		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134676		conservation	eng	None in place
134676		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province, Yangshuo county.
134676		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134676		population	eng	No information available.
134676		threats	eng	Unknown.
134677		conservation	eng	None in place
134677		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Nanpu, Xinzhu/Hsinchu, Nantou, Takao (Kaohsiung). Xinzhu County 1,427 km².
134677		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134677		population	eng	No information available.
134677		threats	eng	Unknown.
134678		conservation	eng	None in place
134678		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Banhan ("massif mont de Taikinh"), near Hanoi.
134678		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134678		population	eng	No information available.
134678		threats	eng	Unknown.
134679		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134679		distribution	eng	Taiwan: northeastern portion of Hengchun Peninsula in southern Taiwan as well as much of east coast of Taiwan - Taitung County. Taitung County (3,515 km²) (Chiben; Peinan, Taiping); Hwalien County (4,628 km²) (Yuli; Juisui; Kwungfu; Shoufeng; Shoufeng, Takangkou).
134679		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134679		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134679		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134680		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134680		distribution	eng	Mexico: State of Oaxaca, Tehuantepec.
134680		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134680		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134680		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134681		conservation	eng	In the Ukraine this species is listed in that country's Red Data Book but in Greece no conservations measures are in place.  Conservation measures proposed include a complete inventory of the distribution and habitat requirements of this species, an evaluation of the population levels and trends, and the creation of protected areas.
134681		distribution	eng	This species has a wide and highly fragmented distribution ranging from the the middle and lower Danube River system and its tributaries and other coastal rivers of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, to the rivers of the Caucasus, northern Greece, and the northern Aegean islands. In the Black Sea region this species is found in Bulgaria (Haskovo, Varna, Burgas, Lovec, and Plovdiv Provinces), Ukraine, Crimea, Caucasia (= Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan). This species is also found in the region to the south of the Caspian Sea region in Turkmenistan (Maurakis et al., 2004) and Iran (Mazandaran, Province). In Turkey, this species is found both in the European part (Erdine, Kirklareli, and Tekirdag Provinces), and the Asian parts in the Provinces of Canakkale, Balikesir, Bursa, Bilecik, Sakarya, Ankara, and Rize. In Greece, Potamon ibericum occurs in Macedonia and the northeastern mainland part of Greece east of the Axios River to the Evros River at the Greece-Turkey border in Hevros,Thessaloniki, and Makedonia Provinces. Potamon ibericum is also found in the northeastern Aegean region on the islands of Thassos (Kavala Province), Samothraki, Chios (Chios Province), and Lesbos (Lesbos Province). The populations of this species in southern France from the Herault River near St. Guilhem le Desert, 350 km west of Nice are thought to be relatively recent introductions to France via human activity rather than representing relict populations that reached this location by natural means. Although the name might imply that P. ibericum occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, it is not found in either Spain or Portugal, and there are no species of true freshwater crabs in either of these countries.<br/><br/>Turkey (Meandre, Trabzon, Samsun, Sakarya River, Bursa, Istanbul, cave by Incaya by Brussa/Bursa), Macedonia (Lake Doiran), Greece (Soufli, River Maritza), Crimea, Caucasia, Turkmenistan, Black Sea, Bulgaria, Caspian Sea, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran, France.
134681		habitat	eng	On the island of Cyprus, this species inhabits streams and rivers up to altitudes where the water temperature does not get below 5°C, but it is absent from estuaries due to the relatively high salinities (brackish water) and pollution. Crabs survive temporary drying up events by hiding in deep burrows and under stones on river-beds and are also found in artificial ponds, but do not breed in stagnant water. Crabs feed on land at night and during the day when it rains, and can survive without any water for a long time in humid air. This species eats a variety of foods including detritus, green filamentous algae, fallen leaves, worms, amphipods, insect larvae, molluscs,  tadpoles, frogs, fish and carrion and will eat any plant or animal food. Copulation and spawning take place during the warm season from June until October. For the first 5-7 days hatchlings live under the female abdomen, where they grow up to carapace widths of 3.6 mm, after which they adopt an independent life mode.
134681		population	eng	There is relatively little known about the population size or abundance of this species in most parts of tits range, despite the wide distribution and high number of records from over 10 countries. However, in the Crimea (Ukraine) there has been a distinct decline in population abundance and distribution of this species since the mid 1970s, and in some places populations of crabs may have already disappeared, and in others they may now be threatened. This has led to the authorities in the Ukraine to assess this species as Endangered in that country. Sharp population declines in other parts of the range of <em>P. ibericum</em> also give cause for concern, especially those that are isolated on islands. On the island of Chios in Greece, industrial pollution near Kalimasis (Kallimasia) has rendered stream water visibly dirty and no crabs were found living there in 1988 (Pretzmann 1993). Elsewhere in the southwest of Chios, rivers shown as perennial on maps have actually dried out and either have very little natural running water or are actually completely dry. A one-week search for freshwater crabs on Chios in 1988 found only a single population of crabs living in a small stream about 100 m long in the north of the island near Hagos (Pretzmann 1993). Similarly, on the Greek island of Lesbos, a population of freshwater crabs previously found in a small stream near Agra may be threatened or extirpated because this stream was reported to be in danger of drying out in the 1980s. On the other hand, <em>Potamon ibericum</em> has accidentally been introduced in southern France, and is apparently thriving there.
134681		threats	eng	In the Ukraine this species is threatened by habitat destruction resulting from water supply projects such as river-bed straightening and the building of reservoirs. In addition habitats may dry up due to the withdrawal of water for local needs, and crabs may be adversely affected by water pollution from non-purified sewage. Sometimes crabs are caught for food or for the aquarium trade. In Greece population declines and even local extinctions of <em>P. ibericum</em> relate to habitat destruction by human activities including dam construction and operation, stream channelization, canalization, and pollution. Another major threat is stream desiccation resulting from water abstraction for crop irrigation and the diversion of rivers and streams (e.g. the Evinos and Mornos Rivers) for potable water supplies for Athens and other cities and towns. Most development in Greece is occurring at lower elevations and this is affecting the small to medium sized streams near coastal areas where Potamon populations are most prevalent.
134682		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134682		distribution	eng	Indonesia. Java. Known from three localities, Garut, Buitenzorg, and “Java” (no info given as to where exactly for this last locality).
134682		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134682		population	eng	No information available.
134682		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134683		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134683		distribution	eng	Colombia: northern Colombia in Sulca, Merida, and Cucuta in Norte del Santander Department. Venezuela: Locally abundant in Venezuela in Zulia and Merida States. This species is restricted to altitudes beween 30-180 m asl in the Maracaibo basin (Campos 2005), which has an area of approximately 90,000 km².
134683		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 30-180 m asl.
134683		population	eng	This species is not widely distributed but has been reported to be locally abundant.
134683		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134684		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134684		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Hsiulin, a village at the mouth of the Taroko Gorge, on the east coast of the island. Localities in the Taroko Gorge National Park include the Ching-Shui Cliff (800-1,100 m) between Hojen and Chungte that borders the ocean, Chungte, and the Shakatang Trail. Taroko National Park (92,000 hectares) lies in the northern section of the Central Mountain Range. The Park is 36 kilometers from north to south and 42 kilometers from east to west. It is situated at Nantou. Hualian County - 4,628 km².
134684		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134684		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134684		threats	eng	No specific threat known, probably habitat loss and pollution.
134685		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area.
134685		distribution	eng	This species has a trans basin distribution and is known from two localities in distinct tributaries of the upper Ro Trombetas (Brazil, state of Para), and one locality in Suriname. This species has a Guianan Shield distribution, but is restricted to the upper course of rivers coming from mountain ranges (Serra Acari and Serra Tumucumaque) along the border between Brazil (north of Para State, Rondonia State) and Guyana (Brazilian Guiana), and Suriname. Known in tributaries draining north of the river Amazon proceeding from the Macico of the Guianas and in the basin of the river Coppename (Suriname). This species is also found in the Rio Trombetas river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.
134685		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil and Suriname in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the RioTrombetas river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river. Found in waterbodies of mountainous regions.
134685		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134685		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. However, it occurs in remote and relatively pristine areas of the mountain range along the border of Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. The upper Rio Trombetas is an Indigenous land reserve.
134686		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134686		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department and Boyaca Department (Campos 2005).
134686		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,110 and 2,150 m asl.
134686		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134686		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134687		conservation	eng	None in place
134687		distribution	eng	Myanmar: Dawana Hills. India: Naga Hills, Assam state.
134687		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134687		population	eng	No information available.
134687		threats	eng	Unknown.
134688		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134688		distribution	eng	China: Hanyang (30.5N 114.1E), Tongcheng and Shishou counties, Hubei Province.
134688		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134688		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134688		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution (air and water) from municipal, industrial and agricultural sources (from SD FAO homepage http://www.fao.org/sd/EPdirect/EPan0011.htm).
134689		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134689		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park (4 03'N 114 56'E).
134689		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial. Alluvial lowland rain forest. Caught in a pitfall trap in a frequently flooded alluvial forest.
134689		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134689		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulul National Park.
134690		conservation	eng	None in place
134690		distribution	eng	China: Changan (34.1N, 108.9 E), Shanxi Province.
134690		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134690		population	eng	No information available.
134690		threats	eng	Unknown.
134691		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134691		distribution	eng	China: Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China.
134691		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134691		population	eng	No information available.
134691		threats	eng	Unknown.
134692		conservation	eng	None in place
134692		distribution	eng	Myanmar/Burma: Kokareet Hills, Tenasserim; Meetan, Houng Darau; Meetan (sul Houngdarau) and Valle del Houngdarau.
134692		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134692		population	eng	No information available.
134692		threats	eng	Unknown.
134693		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134693		distribution	eng	Burma/Myanmar: Monts Catchin; Kakhyen Hills; Sheli Chaung (about 25 miles ESE of 96E 24N); all northeastern Myanmar.
134693		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134693		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134694		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134694		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Gunung Mulu National Park. Also found in Baram River,Temburung, Brunei.
134694		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with streams and heath and peat swamp forest. Alluvial lowland forest.
134694		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134694		threats	eng	No immediate threat to population within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134695		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134695		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: This species is known only from Loka near Bonthain (<em>ca</em>. 5°30'S 119°50'E); Matinangkette; Loka, Bonthain; Luwu district; South Sulawesi (=Celebes), and Central Sulawesi (Palopo and Sungai Lampea Malili <em>ca</em>. 2°38'S 121°06'E) (Ng 1988).
134695		habitat	eng	A highland taxon.
134695		population	eng	No information available.
134695		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134696		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134696		distribution	eng	Mexico: Mecatan, Nayarit State.
134696		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.
134696		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134696		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134697		conservation	eng	None in place
134697		distribution	eng	China: Liancheng County in Fujian Province.
134697		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134697		population	eng	No information available.
134697		threats	eng	Unknown.
134698		conservation	eng	None in place
134698		distribution	eng	China:  Shanxi Province, Yong'an (31'13"N, 109.31"E).
134698		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134698		population	eng	No information available.
134698		threats	eng	Unknown.
134699		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134699		distribution	eng	India: Maharastra state: Mahableshwar. This species is known only from the type specimen from southwestern India. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134699		population	eng	No information available.
134699		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134700		conservation	eng	None in place.
134700		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Falcon State, El Mene D'Acosta in the western region of the Venezuelan coastal Cordillera.
134700		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134700		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134700		threats	eng	None known.
134701		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134701		distribution	eng	India: Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3,825 m) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Assam state: Goalpara, a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (1,824 km²); Sibságar [Jorhāt] (types), a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (2,668 km²). Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills.
134701		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134701		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134702		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134702		distribution	eng	Australia: Batavia River [Wenlock River], near Mapoon Mission, Cape York, northern Australia. Queensland (N Gulf, NE coastal); known only from limited area, from Wenlock River to Archer River, on western coast, and around Port Stewart, in the East.
134702		habitat	eng	Burrowing, freshwater.
134702		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134702		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134703		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134703		distribution	eng	Mexico: Colima State.
134703		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134703		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134703		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134704		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134704		distribution	eng	China: Zbian, Emei, Hongya, Yingjing counties in Sichuan.
134704		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134704		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134704		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Habitat threatened by development and a decrease in forested areas.
134705		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134705		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra: Southeast Sumatra. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134705		population	eng	No information available.
134705		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134706		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134706		distribution	eng	Brazil (Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Para, and Rondonia States), Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. This species is found in the Paraguay and lower Parana river basins. It is widespread throughout the Amazon River basin; Beni (Bolivia) and Paraguay River basins.
134706		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams.
134706		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134706		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134707		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134707		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra: Nias Islands, western Sumatra. Nias (4,771 km²) is an island off the western coast of Sumatra (1°6′0″N, 97°32′0″E' 1.1°, 97.533333°).
134707		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134707		population	eng	This species is rare and has not been collected since 1930.
134707		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution
134708		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Sungei Yum area.
134708		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Known only from the type locality, a stream near Sungei Yum, Perak (ca. 4 53'N, 101 23'E), northern Malaysian peninsula.
134708		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to streams. Biology not well-known.
134708		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134708		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134709		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134709		distribution	eng	Japan: Ryukyuk Islands (Omotodake, Ishigaki and Iriomote Islands, Yaeyama Islands). Upper reaches of Miyara River and Omoto-dake, both on Ishigaki Island, Yaeyama Islands.
134709		habitat	eng	Terrestrial crab and does not occur in the water itself. In Ishigaki Island it occurs from the banks of the upper reaches of the Miyara  and Nagura Rivers almost to the top of the mountain. The crab can sometimes be found in wet terrestrial areas during the breeding season.
134709		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134709		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134710		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134710		distribution	eng	<em>Kingsleya gustavoi</em> is known from three localities in Brazil, in Para State. One location is in the Rio Parauapebas, one on the Rio Itacaiunas (both in the same sub-basin of the Rio Tocantins), and one in the RioTocantins itslef. This species represents the easternmost occurrence of genus.
134710		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134710		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134710		threats	eng	None known.
134711		conservation	eng	None in place
134711		distribution	eng	Laos" Mountains of Laos (present day northeastern Thailand or Laos).
134711		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134711		population	eng	No information available.
134711		threats	eng	Unknown.
134712		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134712		distribution	eng	DR Congo: Kisangani (Stanleyville); mouth of Tshoppo River near Kisangani; Meshe, road to Walikale; Matale-Kivu; Bas-Congo, terr. de Cataractes, grot de Kavruya; Lubongola, Lake Kivu; Bukari, Lake Kivu; Kiasamba River, Loashi, 1350 m asl; Irangi; 156 km from Kisangani on Nya Nya road.
134712		habitat	eng	Common in forest brooks and in the shallow waters at the edges of large rivers in the Central African rainforest (Rathbun 1921).
134712		population	eng	This species was reported to be abundant when first encountered in the early 20th century.
134712		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution
134713		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134713		distribution	eng	Sao Tome and Principe: the island of Príncipe is the close to mainland Africa and has an area of 128 km².
134713		habitat	eng	Collected from the top of a mountain.
134713		population	eng	Unknown.
134713		threats	eng	Unknown.
134714		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134714		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Middle China region, West mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Hubei and Sichuan province.  Eanduhe Badong (31.0N, 110.3E); Nanmuyan, Badong; Fenghuang Brigade, Xingshan; Pingshui commune; Gaoqiao town, Xingshan; Yangling, Zigui; Jinyangkou, Chang yang county; Liuping Chang yang; Sandouping, Yichang; Daishi, Yichang; Yangxin County. Hubei Province. And Yunyong, fengjie, Shizhu and Wushan County in Sichuan Province.
134714		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134714		population	eng	No information available.
134714		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134715		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134715		distribution	eng	Indonesia. South Sulawesi and the southern parts of Central Sulawesi, bordering South Sulawesi. Luwu district, Palopo, South Sulawesi; Enrekang; Tiamba; Malawa spring near Bowanglangi; Kalaena; Malawa, underground river; Kabupaten Maros, above Bantimurung Waterfall; Bengo, Maros. Also 3°54'S 121°14'E; 4°55'46.9"S, 119°40'42"E; 4°47'05"S, 119°56'28.4"E; 5°1'30.5"S 119°40'39"E; 5°02'35.2"S 119°42'9"E; 4°55'46.9"S 119°40'42"E
134715		habitat	eng	Facultative cavernicole.
134715		population	eng	No information available.
134715		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134716		conservation	eng	None in place
134716		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Dran, Langbian Province, south Annam, south central Viet Nam.
134716		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134716		population	eng	No information available.
134716		threats	eng	Unknown.
134717		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134717		distribution	eng	D.R. Congo: Kidzueme, Moluma stream, Kwilu (Kwangero). Nepoko River upper Congo; Bondo Mabe, Panga, Lusahi. Gabon: Libreville.
134717		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in the central African rainforest.
134717		population	eng	Quite common in the Nepoko River.
134717		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134718		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134718		distribution	eng	Indonesia:  Batam Island is one of the 3,000 islands which make up the Riau Archipelago and is closest to Singapore, which is only 20 kms away. Batam island has an area of 415 km².
134718		habitat	eng	<em>P. batamensis</em> is only known from one area on the western part of Batam island where the forests are intermediate between freshwater and peat swamps. This species was collected from a well-shaded relatively fast-flowing blackwater stream in a disturbed swamp forest where the banks were overgrown with <em>Pandanus</em> and the waters were dark tea-coloured. The pH of the water was about five and the substrate was clay and leaf detritus. Crabs were obtained from burrows along the waterline as well as among the submerged roots and leaf litter.
134718		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134718		threats	eng	The island of Batam (400 km²) is being rapidly developed and large tracts of land are currently being, or have already been, cleared for housing, industrial ands commercial projects. The scale of the development plans are such that much of the native fauna will be (if not already) under serious threat in the years to come.<br/><br/>The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases. In the 1970s, the island underwent a major transformation from topologically forest area into a major harbour and industrial zone. The population drastically grew from a few thousand in the 1960s to more than 700,000 now. Located in the direct proximity of Singapore and provided with cheaper labour forces, several Singaporean companies have established factories in Batam.
134719		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.  However, it is found in an inaccessible place (a cave system) which provides it with some protection from casual collection.
134719		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas States.  Veracruz State, Lake Catemaco; Chiapas State, 1 km north of Palenque; Oaxaca State, Cueva de Juan Sanchez, NW Acatan; Tabasco State, Cuevita de la cascada Azufre, 3 km N Tapijulapa.
134719		habitat	eng	This species is sometimes associated with caves, but is not specially adapted for life in caves (and is also found in lakes).
134719		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance or trends.
134719		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134720		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134720		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi Province, Hubei and Anhui Provinces; Huoshan, Guichi, Xixian and Rongxi in Anhui Province. Qichun, Yingshan, Huangmei, Guangji, Suixian, Jiangxi in Hubei. Shangrao, Wuyuan, Fuliang in Jiangxi Province.
134720		habitat	eng	This species harbours metacercariae of lung flukes.
134720		population	eng	No information available.
134720		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134721		conservation	eng	None in place.
134721		distribution	eng	Cuba: Central Cuba, Topes de Collantes, at foot of Sierra de Trinidad, 50 km south of Santa Clara, Provincia de Villa Clara.
134721		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134721		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134721		threats	eng	None known.
134722		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134722		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Halamahera Sulawesi (=Celebes).
134722		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134722		population	eng	No information available.
134722		threats	eng	Unknown.
134723		conservation	eng	None in place
134723		distribution	eng	China: Yung Chang in the Mekong watershed, and Erhai, Lincang and Dali Counties. Yunnan. West Hengduan Mountain subregion, southwest China.
134723		habitat	eng	From a pool stream, outside the city wall.
134723		population	eng	No information available.
134723		threats	eng	Unknown.
134724		conservation	eng	None in place
134724		distribution	eng	China: Sichuan Province, North Hengduan Mountain subregion. Mountain slope of Xiaojian river, Muli County (27 9'N, 101 2'E); Nursery field of Boao Country.
134724		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134724		population	eng	No information available.
134724		threats	eng	Unknown.
134725		conservation	eng	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.
134725		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Western Sarawak.
134725		habitat	eng	Habitat. Semi-terrestrial. Lives along-side lowland streams in many areas, often with covered or partially covered forests in primary and secondary forests; with leaf litter substrates. Collected from muddy/sandy banks adjacent to a relatively slow-flowing lowland stream. Burrows located well away from the water, some of which were several meters away from the edge of the stream. The semi-inflated carapaces of <em>P. oxygona</em> may also indicate that this species has similar habits to the semi-terrestrial genera <em>Sommaniothelphusa</em> and <em>Sayamia</em> from Thailand.
134725		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134725		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134726		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134726		distribution	eng	Mexico, Chiapas State.
134726		habitat	eng	Grutas del cocona, Tabasco, caves.
134726		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134726		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134727		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134727		distribution	eng	Colombia: Santander department: sllopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,600-2,400 m asl (Campos 2005).
134727		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,400 m asl.
134727		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134727		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134728		conservation	eng	None in place
134728		distribution	eng	China: Xiangtan (27.8V, 112.9E), Hunan Province.
134728		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134728		population	eng	No information available.
134728		threats	eng	Unknown.
134729		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134729		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sarawak, Borneo. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.
134729		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134729		population	eng	No information available.
134729		threats	eng	Unknown.
134730		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area: Kuanwu (Guanwu) is in the Shei-Pa (Xueba) National Park, Hsinchu county, Taiwan, <em>ca</em> 2000-2300 km².
134730		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Kuanwu Sassafras randaiense protected area, Taian village, Miaoili County; Kuanwu waterfall; Kuanwu Peony Garden; Dalu forest trail about 13.5 km  from Kuanwu all from Taian Village; Wufeng Village in Hsinchu County.
134730		habitat	eng	Species appear to be wholly aquatic, living under boulders and stones in the streams. It is mainly  nocturnal in habit. Brooding females can be found during the summer months. At lower elevations, <em>G. hirsuta</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>Candidiopotamon rathbuni</em>.
134730		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134730		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134731		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is not found in a protected area.
134731		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localites in the rainforest zone of southeast Nigeria near Calabar, Cross River State, and is endemic to these forests.
134731		habitat	eng	This species lives in the overhanging vegetation at the sides of small, slow-flowing freshwater streams and is known only from a locality in the Palmol Estate (a palm oil estate that was formerly rainforest) in southeast Nigeria.
134731		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134731		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134732		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134732		distribution	eng	China: Huaan and Longhai Counties in Fujian province, southern China.
134732		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134732		population	eng	No information available.
134732		threats	eng	Unknown.
134733		conservation	eng	None in place
134733		distribution	eng	China: Xinping (24.0N, 117.2E), Yuxi, Yunnan province.
134733		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134733		population	eng	No information available.
134733		threats	eng	Unknown.
134734		conservation	eng	Found also in national parks.
134734		distribution	eng	Thailand: Chon Buri, Chachoengsao and Chantaburi Provinces, Eastern Thailand. Chanthaburi, Khao Yai Nat'l Park (Chuengri, 1973); Khao Sebap, Chantaburi, Chantaburi Province; Krating waterfall area, near Kitchabood National Park, east Thailand; Khao Soi Dao, Chantaburi Province; downstream of Nam Tok (waterfall) Krating (12 51'7.9"N 102 6'40.4"E) about 30 km from Chantaburi (rd. 3249) and about 1 km on road to Nam Tok Prew (waterfall) (12 31'14"E 102 10'36.1"E) after leaving Chantaburi-Trat highway; Khao Khieo, Chon Buri Province; Chan Ta Then waterfall in Khao Khie-Khao Chumphu wildlife sanctuary (rd.3144) off highway 7, 17 km from Chon Buri town, Chon Buri Province;Tha The Kiep wildlife sanctuary Chachoengsao Province.
134734		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134734		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134734		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134735		conservation	eng	None in place.
134735		distribution	eng	Panama: Cana.
134735		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134735		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134735		threats	eng	None known.
134736		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134736		distribution	eng	Thailand: This species is only known from the Phrae area/province. Nam Mae Lai, Muang District, Phrae Province; Mae Yom Basin, tributary of Mae Nam Yom (18.03N, 99.47E); Bah Huai Ket, Phrae Province; Mae Nam Yom Basin, Nam Mae Kham Mi, near Ban Mae Krating (18.22N, 100.25E). This species has a limited distribution with an extent of occurrence of aproximately 375 km².
134736		habitat	eng	This species appears to prefer the roots of water plants in small rivers.
134736		population	eng	Last collected in 1985.
134736		threats	eng	The major/ future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134737		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134737		distribution	eng	Thailand and Laos: As all the known species of this genus are found in northeastern and eastern Thailand, and Laos, the type locality of this species is probably somehwere in this region, even though the label only indicates "Cochin-Chine", which would be Vietnam.
134737		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace. Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages. Caught for food during the wet season. Human induced habitat loss is a threat.
134737		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134737		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134738		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134738		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Reventazon, at the Atlantic Coast. Alto La Palma, San Jose Province; Cartago Province.
134738		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134738		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134738		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134739		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134739		distribution	eng	Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Also found in Temburong, Brunei.
134739		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with fast-flowing streams.
134739		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134739		threats	eng	No immediate threat to population within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134740		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134740		distribution	eng	India: Himalayan region and foothills of northeastern India; Sikkim, Darjeeling; Runghee, Sikkim, India. <br/><br/>Nepal: Thankot Hills, Pokhara; Nigale; Pokhara, Gandaki Province - Western Region; Kathmandu Valley, SW Kathmandu, Mechi Province - Eastern Region. Nepal: Nigale; Balu Khola, Biratnagar; Mabandra Gupha, Pokhara, Nepal;  Kathmandu Valley, 27? 45 N, 085? 17E, Nagarjong, Nepal, Alt. 1,600 m; Chisapani Garhi SW Kathmandu, Bhainse Dobhan (tributary of Rapti river), 27? 34 N, 085? 08 E; Nepal, Uyam, Juwa Khola, before mouth into Kabeli Khola (28? 09  N, 084? 02 E), 1,400 m; Pushre Khola, Chorepatan, Pokhara, Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 11.114 N, 083? 57.466 E, Alt. 730 m; Yamdi Khola, Hyanja, near Pokhara, Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 15.360 N 083? 57.676  E; Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 15.360 N, 083? 57.676 E, 30.03.99; Sediya Khola, Sedi, Pokhara, Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 13.449 N 083? 57.121  E, Alt. 912 m; Biche Khola, Goda, Ilam, Ilam district, Mechi Province, Eastern Region; right tributary to Mai Khola before bridge, Ilam, Ilam district, Mechi Province, Eastern Region. Alt. 500-700 m asl. Type locality: Darjeeling. Distribution: Sikkim, Darjeeling, eastern Nepal from 200 m up to 2000 m, central Nepal (distribution area ends west of Katmandu). <br/><br/>Bhutan: Phuentsholing, 200 m, a border town in southern Bhutan, opposite the Indian town of Jaigaon, situated in Chukha Dzongkang; Balu Jhura, 200 m, Bhutan.
134740		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134740		population	eng	No information available.
134740		threats	eng	habitat loss and pollution
134741		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134741		distribution	eng	Laos: Thakhek in Muang Khammouan, central Laos.
134741		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace. Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages.
134741		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134741		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. There are long-term threats from collection for food and human induced habitat loss.
134742		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134742		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Alta Verapaz Department, Totonicapan Department. El Salvador: De la Paz Department. Belize: Silk Grass Falls, Bokowina. Mexico: Chiapas State, Coban and Vera Paz. Nicaragua.
134742		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Guatemala.
134742		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134742		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134743		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134743		distribution	eng	India:Tamil Nadu state: southwestern India, Nilgiris Hills, a range of mountains panning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southwestern India. Avalanche, near Ooty (Ootacamund) Western Ghats the Nilgiri chain of mountains.
134743		habitat	eng	Not known.
134743		population	eng	No information available.
134743		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134744		conservation	eng	None in place
134744		distribution	eng	Laos: tributary of Nam Thenn River, downstream of Nam Noy.
134744		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134744		population	eng	No information available.
134744		threats	eng	Unknown.
134745		conservation	eng	None in place
134745		distribution	eng	India: northeastern frontier. Abor County (Abor Expedition), between Yambung and Puak; stream below Balek; Egar stream; Lalek stream between Renging and Rotung; Rotung, alt. 1,300 ft (396 m); upper Rotung, alt. 2,000 ft (610 m); Sirpo stream; Renging, Abor County.
134745		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134745		population	eng	No information available.
134745		threats	eng	Unknown.
134746		conservation	eng	None in place
134746		distribution	eng	China: Xingan and Rongshui in Guangxi Province.
134746		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134746		population	eng	No information available.
134746		threats	eng	Unknown.
134747		conservation	eng	None in place
134747		distribution	eng	China: North Hengudan Mountains area, Xichang and Mianning in Sichuan Province.
134747		habitat	eng	Temperature 16°C, pH 6.
134747		population	eng	No information available.
134747		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan mountains area.
134748		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134748		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Nosy Be; Nosy Komba; Antsirana city, northwestern Madagascar.
134748		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134748		population	eng	No information available.
134748		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134749		conservation	eng	None in place
134749		distribution	eng	China: Cangyuan (29.1N, 99.2E), Yunnan Province
134749		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134749		population	eng	No information available.
134749		threats	eng	Unknown.
134750		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Gunung Padang area.
134750		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Only known from the type locality in Gunang Padang, Trengganu (4 51'N, 102 52'E) in the northern Malaysian peninsula.
134750		habitat	eng	Believed to be semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Biology not known.
134750		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134750		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation. The isolated nature of the type locality should ensure survival in the near future.
134751		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134751		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Ilan County (Nanao, Chinyang; Nanao, Suhwa Road).
134751		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134751		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134751		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134752		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134752		distribution	eng	Thailand: Bang Phrik Waterfall, Takua pa District, Phangnga Province.
134752		habitat	eng	No information available.
134752		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134752		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134753		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134753		distribution	eng	China: Qiongshan on Hainan, south China.
134753		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134753		population	eng	No information available.
134753		threats	eng	Unknown.
134755		conservation	eng	None in place
134755		distribution	eng	Thailand: Doi Chang, north Siam (= Chiang Mai), northern Thailand.
134755		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134755		population	eng	No information available.
134755		threats	eng	Unknown.
134756		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134756		distribution	eng	China: Guizhou Province:  Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area. Conjiang County (3,244 km²), Guizhou County.
134756		habitat	eng	Average temperature of county 18.4°C.
134756		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134756		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134757		conservation	eng	None in place
134757		distribution	eng	Japan: Endemic toTokashiki Island. The size of Tokashiki Island is 9 kilometers north to south and 2.8 kilometers east to west, and has an area of 15.8 square kilometers.
134757		habitat	eng	Stream on the southeastern side of a mountain located between Tokashiki and Tokashiku, Tokashiki Island, Okinawa, Japan
134757		population	eng	No information available.
134757		threats	eng	Unknown.
134758		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134758		distribution	eng	Colombia: Meta Department: Serrania de la Macarena, El Pinal, Guapaya stream, affluent of the Guapaya River, 400 m asl. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 400 m asl (Campos 2005).
134758		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes of 400 m asl.
134758		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134758		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134759		conservation	eng	None in place; not found in a protected area.
134759		distribution	eng	Cameroon: Bamenda highlands.
134759		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134759		population	eng	Unknown.
134759		threats	eng	Unknown.
134760		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, because the cave Phong Nha lies in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
134760		distribution	eng	Vietnam: In cave about 300 m inside and in a forest near Cha Noi, both in Quang Binh Province.
134760		habitat	eng	Found in forest as well as in a cave, about 300 m inside, but probably not a cavernicolous species. A terrestrial species.
134760		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134760		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134761		conservation	eng	None in place
134761		distribution	eng	Burma: Sheetee Hull, Kakhyen Hills, Upper Burma (=Myanmar)
134761		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134761		population	eng	No information available.
134761		threats	eng	Unknown.
134762		conservation	eng	None in place. Not found in a protected area.
134762		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Grotte de l’Ankara. This species is known only from the type locality.
134762		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134762		population	eng	This species is known only form the holotype collected in 1939.
134762		threats	eng	None known.
134763		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Cameron Highlands areas.
134763		distribution	eng	Malaysia: northern Malaysian peninsula. Only known from Cameron Highlands, Pahang (ca. 4 28'N, 101 23'E) (Ng, 1988). Endemic to Cameron Highlands, Pahang, and surrounding montane area exceeding 1,300 m above sea level.
134763		habitat	eng	Has only been collected in streams. Primarily aquatic, hiding under rocks or wood in very clean flowing water in shaded areas with sandy substrates. It is an extremely difficult species to maintain, as it is highly susceptible to temperature and stress, and aggressive.
134763		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134763		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The population has decreased in the last 15 years and is believed to be due to the scale of development in the Cameron Highlands.
134764		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation - Brazil) and in the upper Rio Caura basin it is found within the borders of indigenous land (Magalhaes pers. comm.).
134764		distribution	eng	Venezuela, Bolıvar State: (1) Basin of the Rio Caura, a tributary of the Rio Orinoco in Venezuelan Guiana; (2) Rıo Mojagua, affluent of Rıo Erebato; (3) El Raudal, Cano Cambur, 15 km SW of Maripa (basin of the Rio Caura (47,500 km²), a tributary of the Rio Orinoco in Venezuelan Guiana. Brazil, state of Roraima: upper rio Uraricoera basin (C. Magalhães, unpublished data).
134764		habitat	eng	This species is found in the rivers and streams draining the Guyana Shield in Brazil and Venezuela in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river basin draining the Guyana Shield that is a tributary of the Amazon river.
134764		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134764		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134765		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134765		distribution	eng	Rwanda: Terifwazi, SW Kahuzi, Lake Kivu.
134765		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134765		population	eng	Unknown.
134765		threats	eng	Unknown.
134766		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134766		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from the Bismark Archepelago, Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134766		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134766		population	eng	No information available.
134766		threats	eng	Unknown.
134767		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and caves monitoring of pollution levels in Bau district.
134767		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Bau district.
134767		habitat	eng	Terrestrial to semi-terrestrial. A facultative cavernicolous species (troglophile) living in and around subterranean streams and epigeally, in limestone areas. The threats to this species are higher than stated as there are two species now regarded as this, and if split, their respective ranges are substantially reduced.
134767		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134767		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Quarrying and gold mining.
134768		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134768		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sudanonautes africanus </span>is common in the eastern part of West Africa with a distributional range that includes the coastal rainforest regions of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa. This species is found in southeast Nigeria to the east of the river Niger and is not known from the rest of the West African region (from western Nigeria to Sénégal). The western boundary for <em>S. africanus</em> is closer to the Cross river than to the Niger river. In Central Africa, <em>S. africanus</em> occurs in south Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo, the D. R. Congo, and Gabon (the San Benito, Ogoué and Alima rivers), and in the lower reaches of the Congo River basin. It is likely that this species is also found in Equatorial Guinea and Cabinda.
134768		habitat	eng	<em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> is restricted to the more humid areas of the coastal rainforest belt from south-east Nigeria to the lower provinces of the D. R. Congo. <em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> is capable of breathing air, and is often found on land at night. The species is also common in streams and rivers draining mature forest, and also digs burrows near waterways. <em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> occurs in a range of permanent aquatic habitats from large rivers and small streams (with both fast and slow flowing water) to ponds. This crab also occurs in temporary water sources such as drainage culverts and ditches. Most aquatic habitats were found to be shaded by overhanging climbing palms or by emergent vegetation. <em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> serves as an important second intermediate host to the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> and <em>P. africanus</em> in Nigeria and Cameroon (Voelker and Sachs 1977).
134768		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.
134768		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134769		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134769		distribution	eng	Colombia: known from just two localities in the Caldas and Huilas Departments in the Cordillera of Central Colombia (Campos 2005).
134769		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,350 m asl in the basin of the Magdalena River.
134769		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134769		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134770		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134770		distribution	eng	<em>Travancoriana charu</em> is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi, Kerala, southwestern India.
134770		habitat	eng	Specimens obtained from under boulders in a streamlet (<1 m wide and <30 cm deep) in well shaded area, at Ponmudy, Kerala, southwestern India.
134770		population	eng	No information available.
134770		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134771		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134771		distribution	eng	China: Tongren city (27.7N, 109.2E), Jiangkou county; Liujiaoqiao village; Guizhou Province. Jiangkou, Tongjiang, Leishan, Wanshan, Zhenyuan counties in Guizhou Province. Xinhuang, Jishou and Fenghuang in Hunan Province.
134771		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134771		population	eng	No information available.
134771		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134772		conservation	eng	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134772		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: It is found in Gunung Mulu National Park. From Deer Water Cave, and from a Dipterocarp forest. It is also found in Niah Cave NP and in Pulong Tau NP, all in northern Sarawak.
134772		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic, lives under covered forest in small streams with clear water. Facultative cavernicole.
134772		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134772		threats	eng	No clear threat as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.
134773		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area (Bawangling National Park).
134773		distribution	eng	China: Hainan Island: Wuzhishan/Mount Wushi, Dongfeng, Jiangfengling, Bawangling. (Area of Hainan Island 34,000 km²). First described in 1916, then found again in 1979. Not seen since.
134773		habitat	eng	Living in holes at the bank of streams, or under stones.
134773		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134773		threats	eng	Hainan has been subjected to a great deal of deforestation, both recent and historical. For example, by 1949, forest cover had been reduced to about 25 percent. In 1981, the remaining forest cover on the island was only 7.2 percent.<br/>(http://www.eoearth.org/article/Hainan_Island_monsoon_rain_forests, downloaded 2/4/08)<br/><br/>Therefore habitat loss is a likely threat for this species.
134774		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134774		distribution	eng	China: Xiamen and Fuzhou Counties, Fujian Province, south China.
134774		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134774		population	eng	No information available.
134774		threats	eng	Unknown.
134775		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134775		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Collected for the first time in 1930 in an inaccessible area at 1730 m altitude in eastern Venezuela, Sucre State. A second collection in the same area at 1,900 m altitude in 1993 also produced male specimens with malformations in the first gonopod. Because malformations of the sexual appendages of Neotropical freshwater crabs are very rare, a genetic factor cannot be discarded.
134775		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134775		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134775		threats	eng	None known.
134776		conservation	eng	None in place
134776		distribution	eng	China: Shaoyang county, Hunan Province.
134776		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134776		population	eng	No information available.
134776		threats	eng	Unknown.
134777		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134777		distribution	eng	Mexico: Sinaloa State, Western Elata near La Cruz. Only specimen is a male holotype collected in 1939.
134777		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134777		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134777		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134778		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134778		distribution	eng	Trinidad: North Range, Cerro del Aripo. Last recorded collection was of the holotype in 1955. The presence of the endemic pseudothelphusid <em>M. odaelkae</em> in Trinidad probably reflects an older connection with the continent.
134778		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134778		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134778		threats	eng	None known.
134779		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134779		distribution	eng	Mexico: Nayarit State.
134779		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134779		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134779		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134780		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134780		distribution	eng	India: Kerala state. Maharashtra state: Mahableshwar, Poona [Pune] (altitude 1,666 m asl). This species is known from only two locations in neighboring states in southwestern India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of collection work within its range. Karnataka state: North Canara (=Uttara Kannada) (Bott 1970).
134780		habitat	eng	No information available. Freshwater.
134780		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134780		threats	eng	Likely threats include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134781		conservation	eng	None in place
134781		distribution	eng	India (Darband Pass, Cachar, Assam); Thailand (Phangnga Province).
134781		habitat	eng	Waterfall.
134781		population	eng	No information available.
134781		threats	eng	Unknown
134782		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134782		distribution	eng	China, Sichuan Province, Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone. Laowuji Country, Lichuan County (30 3'N 108 9'E); Muqiang Country, Jianshi county; Hubei Province. Xhangping Country, Yunyang County (33 4'N, 112 7'E); Jingji Country, Fengjie County (31 N, 109 5'E); Wanxian county; Kaixian county in Sichuan Province.
134782		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134782		population	eng	No information available.
134782		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134783		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134783		distribution	eng	Mexico: Jalisco State, Atamajac, western Guadelahara.
134783		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.
134783		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134783		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134784		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134784		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi, Hubei, Zhejiang, and Anhui Provinces. Fenghua River, Qiantang River and middle-lower Yangtze River. Plus: Suixian, Tiantai, Fenghua, Yinxian, Xinchang, Jinyun, Chunan, Yiwu, Zhuji, Shaoxing, Linan, Hangzhou, Yuhang, Jian, Changxing in Zhejiang Province. Huangshan, Ninguom Jingde, Xixian, Fanchang and Guangde in Anhui Province. <br/>Shangrao, Qianshhan and Yushan in Jiangxi Province. Zhaoyang and Nanzhang in Hubei Province. Changcheng, Tongbai, Shenxian/Shanxian and Xinyang in Henan Province. Jurong in Jiangsu Province.
134784		habitat	eng	This species harbours metacercariae of lung flukes. Found in water at pH 6.
134784		population	eng	No information available.
134784		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134785		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134785		distribution	eng	Colombia: Magdalena Department: northwestern slopes of the Sierra de Santa Marta (Santa Marta Mountains), Cincinnati Coffee Plantation, 1,200 m above sea level, northern Colombia. The range of <em>C. pearsei</em> overlaps here with the range of <em>C. davidi</em>. <em>Chaseus pearsei</em> is also found in Cesar Department (Campos 2005).
134785		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,000-1,600 m above sea level.
134785		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134785		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134786		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Maxwell Hill area.
134786		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Known only from the type locality: Maxwell Hill (Bukit Larut), Perak (4 47'N, 100 45'E) 1,000 m above sea level, northern Malaysian peninsula.
134786		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with deep, fast flowing waters of montane streams and waterfalls. It is also very aggressive and can stay out of water for several hours if external conditions are cool.
134786		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134786		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Its small range is a major concern.
134787		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134787		distribution	eng	Colombia: Bogota. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordillerias of Colombia, in the basin of the Rio Sanchez. Municipio Charala, Corregimento Virolin, departamento Santander, 1,700 m asl. Quebrada de Hormas, 7 km S of Moniquira, 40 km NW of Tunja, Boyaca Department: 1,450-2,150 m asl. Cueva de los Indios, La Paz, Departamento Santender, 1,995 m asl.  Caves. Sogamoso River basin (21,500 km²) which drains into the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134787		habitat	eng	This species lives in caves at altitudes between 1,450 and 2,150 m asl.
134787		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134787		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134788		conservation	eng	None in place
134788		distribution	eng	China: Dongting lake, Yueyang (29.3 N, 118.1. E), Hunan Province. Yichang county in Hubei province (Yueyang and Yichang counties together have an area of 36,103 km²).
134788		habitat	eng	Lake.
134788		population	eng	No information available.
134788		threats	eng	Lake Dongting's area has been reduced over time by rapid sedimentation and reclamation for farmland. (http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEM7H01XDYD_index_0.html).
134789		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134789		distribution	eng	Brazil (RO, MT, MS), Paraguay (basin of the Rio Paraguay), and northern ARGENTINA (banks of Parana River and its drainage basin) (Magalhaes & Tuerkay, 1996).
134789		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, lakes, bays, creeks, remanso, swamps, beaches, gullies, aquatic vegetation, and woody debris. Found in cryptic habitats such as hollows and in holes of submerged trunks, and between submerged aquatic vegetation.
134789		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134789		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134790		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134790		distribution	eng	Thailand: Bangkok metropolis area (Khet Bang Na, Ket Huai Khwang, Khet Bang Kapi, pond in Chulalongkorn university); hole in rice field in Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province; Pho Thon District, Ang Thon Province; Uttaradit about 100 06'N 17 37'E, Central Thailand.
134790		habitat	eng	Found in pond on the campus of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
134790		population	eng	No information available.
134790		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134791		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134791		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Rincon de Osa, Osa peninsula, Puntarenas Province, southwest Costa Rica (1971-72).
134791		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134791		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134791		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134792		conservation	eng	None in place
134792		distribution	eng	China: Baishuiyan Country, Huaxi County (24 2N, 102 9'E), Guizhou Province.
134792		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134792		population	eng	No information available.
134792		threats	eng	Unknown.
134793		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134793		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Pingtung County (2,776 km²), Wutai, Ila.
134793		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134793		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134793		threats	eng	Taiwan is highly populated, so although no specific threats are known, it is likely that this species will be subject to habitat loss and pollution.
134794		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134794		distribution	eng	Thailand: Market in Ban Haui Rai, and Ban Rai, both located in Denchai District (265 km²), Phrae Province, northern Thailand.
134794		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134794		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134794		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134795		conservation	eng	This species is endemic to Gorgona Island which is a protected area.
134795		distribution	eng	Colombia: This species is endemic to Gorgona Island (26 km²), off the Pacific coast of Colombia (Campos 2005). Gorgona island lies in the Pacific Ocean about 50 km off the Colombian Pacific coast and is part of the municipality of Guapi in the Cauca Department. The island is about 9km long and 2.5 km wide, with a maximum height of 338 m. In 1985 it was turned into a National Natural Reservation Park noted for a large number of endemic species resulting from its isolation from the American continent.
134795		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20 m and 300 m above sea level along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134795		population	eng	Although the EOO and AOO are very small, the population size and abundance of this species are likely to be stable and it is found in a protected area.
134795		threats	eng	None known.
134796		conservation	eng	None in place
134796		distribution	eng	China: Sichuan Province, Middle China region, western mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Weiyuan County (29 9'N, 101 2'E).
134796		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134796		population	eng	No information available.
134796		threats	eng	Unknown.
134797		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134797		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Hanoi, bought in market.
134797		habitat	eng	Probably found in rice fields.
134797		population	eng	No information available.
134797		threats	eng	The species is apparently frequently sold in markets. The very low prices and abundance of the crabs strongly suggest that they came from the neighbourhood of Hanoi.
134798		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
134798		distribution	eng	Madagascar: adult male, holotype, Fianarantsoa Province: region of Vondrozo near village of Vevembe (22º47'44"S, 47º11'19"E), Ramanara River, tributary of Sahampindra River, Mananara River drainage basin, 66.6 km inland from<br/>Farafangana, in a forested area in the mountains of southeastern Madagascar (M. Vences) (ZMA De. 205976);<br/>Sahavatov River, basin of Manampatrana River, Andringita Camp II, 1,390 m asl (20-Nov-93); Sahambano River, Mananara-sud River drainage basin, Madagascar, 570 m asl, 25-May-95.<br/><br/>One of these locations is far from the other two, so it is likely that this species is more widely distributed that these 3 records suggest.
134798		habitat	eng	Rivers in forested regions.
134798		population	eng	No information available.
134798		threats	eng	Not found in a protected area but no major threats known.
134799		conservation	eng	None in place
134799		distribution	eng	China: Nanri Island (25.2°N, 119.5°E), Putian County, Fujian Province.
134799		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134799		population	eng	No information available.
134799		threats	eng	Unknown.
134800		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134800		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Western Java.
134800		habitat	eng	Found in high mountains.
134800		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134800		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Threats include anthropogenic fires, illegal tree felling, and farming that all degrade the mountain stream habitat where this species lives.
134801		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134801		distribution	eng	India: Garo Hills; Pegu; Cachar; Sibsagar, Assam; Moulmein; Tyipperah; Naril, Jessore.
134801		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134801		population	eng	No information available.
134801		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134802		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.
134802		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to western Sabah (Gunong Lumaku, Mendolong, Sipitang District), including Kinabalu area (Mt Kinabalu - Luidan River).
134802		habitat	eng	Aquatic. Occurs in highland streams.
134802		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134802		threats	eng	No immediate threat to population within Kinabalu National Park. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
134803		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134803		distribution	eng	Japan: Endemic to Okinawa Island (2,272 km²).
134803		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134803		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134803		threats	eng	Possible threat from future development. Habitat loss and pollution.
134804		conservation	eng	None in place
134804		distribution	eng	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province: Yushan (28.6 N 118.2 E).
134804		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134804		population	eng	No information available.
134804		threats	eng	Unknown.
134805		conservation	eng	None in place
134805		distribution	eng	China: Anhui Province.
134805		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134805		population	eng	No information available.
134805		threats	eng	Unknown.
134806		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134806		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, Hengduan mountain area. Maoping village, Guzhang county (28.6N, 109.9E); Dongping village, Guzhan county; Luoyixi village, Guzhang county; Heku village, Fenghuang county; Panchou village, Jishou county; Baitian village, Yuanling county; Banbodu village, Cili county; Qinggongdu village, Shimen county; Taoyuan county; Hunan Province. China.
134806		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134806		population	eng	No information available.
134806		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134807		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134807		distribution	eng	India: Assam state: northern India, Cherra Punji, a village in the Khasi Hills, Assam, with heaviest rainfall; Assam state: Cachar; Meghalaya state: Shilong. Nagaland state; Naga Hills. Bhutan: Phuntsholing; Kamiee (850 m), and Samchi (300 m).
134807		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134807		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation, pollution, and industrial and agrarian development.
134808		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation).
134808		distribution	eng	Brazil: On the border between Venezuela and Brazil, South America. El Abismo, Cantarrana, the Rio Icabaru, a tributary of the Caroni River with its headwaters in the Sierra Pacaraima, Estado Bolivar, 500 m above sea levell. Brasil, Amazonas: surroundings of Balawa-ú village. Venezuela: The type locality is in El Abismo, Rio Icabaru, state of Bolivar, Venezuela (Rodríguez and Pereira 1992), which lies in the upper Rio Caroni (Orinoco basin), northern slope of Serra de Pacaraima. The record in the Amazon basin extends the distributional range of the species southwards, indicating that it has a transbasin distribution.
134808		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela and Brazil in the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>The Balawa-ú village is situated at 01º47,91'N 63º46,88'W in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela. Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin.  This is a large terrestrial species and, apparently, syntopic with <em>F. fittkaui</em>.
134808		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134808		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Species exploited by the Yanomami include two crab species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival.
134809		conservation	eng	None in place.
134809		distribution	eng	Belize.
134809		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134809		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134809		threats	eng	Unknown.
134810		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134810		distribution	eng	Japan: Ryukyus, Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu. Widely distributed on the Japanese mainland (north of Honshu southward to Nakano-shima of the Tokara Islands, south of Kyushu) (Suzuki and Okana 2000).
134810		habitat	eng	This species can live in both water and land (amphibious) (See Okano <em>et al</em>. 2000).
134810		population	eng	Populations are assumed to be stable because it is known from a total 201 specimens collected from three populations.
134810		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134811		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134811		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Irian Jaya, New Guinea. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134811		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134811		population	eng	No information available.
134811		threats	eng	Unknown.
134812		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.
134812		distribution	eng	Iran: Yazd Province, 10 km south of Yazd. 19 localities in Fars Province in Iran. Southeast Iran from Shiraz to the Afghan border region.
134812		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134812		population	eng	No information available.
134812		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134813		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134813		distribution	eng	Thailand: Den Chai District; Amphoe Den Chai (99°12'N 18°09'E);  Muang Phrae District; Phrae Province.
134813		habitat	eng	Rice fields.
134813		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134813		threats	eng	No known threats.
134814		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area - because Yakushima's forest is a natural World Heritage Site since 1993.
134814		distribution	eng	Japan: Southern Kyushu on Yakushima Island (500 km²).
134814		habitat	eng	Their altitudinal range is limited.
134814		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134814		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134815		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place but this species is found in a protected area - Yangminshan National Park.
134815		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Yangmingshan, Taipeh City.
134815		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134815		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134815		threats	eng	The park is facing growing pressure from development and leisure use.
134816		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134816		distribution	eng	Colombia: Boyaca Department, Colombia (23,189 km²): slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 2350-3000 m asl. La Uvita, basin of the Sogamoso-Magdalena rivers. The following localities are all in the Upia-Meta (93,800 km²)-Orinoco River basin: 150 km from type locality (La Uvita) and on a different drainage basin: Quebrada El Penon, Vereda Aposento, Municipio Nuevo Colon, Cundinamarca, 2,525 m asl; Quebrada Calliente, Municipio Ventaquemada, Departamento Boyaca, 2,625 m asl; Vereda Pavas, Minicipio Umbita, departamento Boyaca, 2,550 m asl. Sogamoso River basin (21 500 km²) which drains into the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134816		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 2,350 and 3,000 m asl.
134816		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134816		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134817		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134817		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Java: Known only from west Java.
134817		habitat	eng	Probably this is a semi-terrestrial burrowing species, feeding mainly on vegetable matter. The species is a minor pest on Javanese tobacco farms.
134817		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134817		threats	eng	Found on a tobacco plantation and pesticides pose a major threat to this species.
134818		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134818		distribution	eng	Philippines: Boholl, and Nicobar. Last recorded collection in 1989.
134818		population	eng	No information available.
134818		threats	eng	Unknown.
134819		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134819		distribution	eng	Japan: Iheya Island, the Central Ryukyus Islands. Mt Koshi-Dake (promenade and northern side); west and southeastern side of Mt Gayou-Zan; downstream of Kamiya River; dam reserve south of Gakiya.
134819		habitat	eng	Along the sides of rivers, on the banks, or within the water of the middle to upper reaches. This species prefers slow flow stream.
134819		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134819		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134820		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134820		distribution	eng	Cuba: Province de La Havane, Calabazar, El Guama, near Havana. El Guana. Rio Yateras, near Guantánamo, Provincia de Oriente, a basin conterminous to the area of E. armata. The species has been recorded westward, up to Havana , and Provincia Pinar del Rio (San Diego de los Baños). La Maya [25 km NE of Santiago], Najasa [Sierra de Najasa, south of Camaguey, Provincia de Camaguey]. The typical form is fragmented into Epilobocera cubensis cubensis Natio baracoensis [type locality: Baracoa, Provincia de Oriente] and additional paratypes from Paso de Cuba [10 km SSE of Baracoa]; Epilobocera cubensis cubensis Natio guisensis, type locality Río Guisa [draining into Cauto river, approximately 15 km NE of Bayamo, Provincia de Oriente]. Also Cotorro [12 km W of Havana, Provincia de la Havana] and R. Jaimanitas [a locality not identified]; Placetas [32 km ENE of Santa Clara, Provincia de Villa Clara], and Cueva S. Tomas [Cueva San Tomás, Provincia de Pinar del Río], Cueva S. Tomas.<br/><br/><em>E. armata</em>: Cuba. Restricted to the eastern end of Cuba. Baracoa, Province de Oriente, Rio Cacao and vicinity, Guantánamo, 80 km SE of Baracoa.<br/><br/><em>E. diazbeltrani</em>: Cuba:  Known only from the type locality, La Ceiba, in the municipio de Tercer Frente Ceiba (provinca de Santiagio of Cuba), 446 m asl. The type llocality is a very small town on the highway that leaves Baire towards the south, between Negros and Matías about twenty kilometers from Baire.<br/><br/><em>E. cubensis gilmani</em>: The type locality is in the Isla de Pinos (Isla de la Juventud) and this species is restricted to this island. The Isle of Youth (Spanish: Isla de la Juventud) is the largest Cuban island after Cuba proper and the sixth-largest island in the West Indies. The island has an area 3056 km² (1180 square miles) and is 100 km to the southwest of mainland Cuba, across the Gulf of Batabanó. The island lies almost directly south of Havana and Pinar del Río, and because of its superficial extension, population and for its economic characteristics, is considered to be a Special Municipality, not being a part of any province.<br/><br/><em>E. najasensis</em>: Cuba: Najasa, Sierra de Najasa, S of Camaguey, Provincia de Camaguey.<br/><br/><em>E. placensis</em>: Cuba: Type locality Placetas, 32 km ENE of Santa Clara, Provincia de Villa Clara.<br/><br/><em>E. poliocertes</em>: Cuba: Rio San Juan.<br/><br/><em>E. synoecia</em>: Cuba: Type locality Cueva San Tomás, Provincia de Pinar del Río.<br/><br/><em>E. gertraudae</em>: Cuba: Sierra de los Organos, Los Banos, 4 milies north of Vinales, Provincia de Pinar del Rio, and other karstic areas of Pinar del Rio province, Cuba. Long slender legs.
134820		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers and is also found in cave systems in caves in Las Villas, Cuba.<br/><br/>It lives in rainwater that collects in the small holes, microcaverns, and depressions in superficial lapiaz karstic rocks, in disturbed submontane forest, much of which has been converted to coffee plantations. The landscape in this part of Cuba is barren with exposed limestone slabs, and the vegetation becomes richer closer to Ceiba and the landscape becomes more rugged forming an area of irregular limestone in which erosion has produced fissures, sinkholes, underground streams, and caverns. The superficial rocks form irregular separated blocks which are cracked, with eroded irregular holes (microcaverns) filled with leaves and rainwater. The species inhabits these small water-filled cavities in rocks. It is not difficult to collect these crabs, by day or at night, catching them by hand or reaching deep down into their microcaverns (small natural caves filled with water).This habitat is unique in the genus <em>Epilobocera</em> and is an interesting example of adaptive evolution.<br/><br/><em>E. cubensis gilmani</em> lives in streams.
134820		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of Cuba.
134820		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134821		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134821		distribution	eng	Southern Mexico: Veracruz.
134821		habitat	eng	This species is known only from caves in Veracruz, Mexico. Caves, Cueva del Tuknel, Mahoilca, Porvenir Zongolica, Veracruz.
134821		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134821		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134822		conservation	eng	None in place.
134822		distribution	eng	Thailand: Boonyaban (10 2'32.4"N 98 39'27.7"E) Bun Ya Barn Waterfall, Muang Ranong District; Houw Waterfall, near Ranong town; Su Wan Kiri Waterfall; Klong Ban Man waterfall, along Highway 4, 22 km to Kapoe (9 27'24.2"N 98 30'31.1"E), Ranong District; stream below bridge on Highway 4 (10 2'6.1"N 98 39'48.3"E), Ranong District; Ranong Province, 67 km between two localities.
134822		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134822		threats	eng	Tourism. There are some 4,000 people living in the biosphere reserve of Ranong. They live mainly from fishing and a shrimp farm. Tourism is little developed yet, but there is potential. Habitat loss and degradation, pollution.
134823		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134823		distribution	eng	Laos: Ban Hinpoon in Ban Xieng Khuang Province.
134823		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages.
134823		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134823		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. There are long-term threats from human collection for food during the wet season and human induced habitat loss.
134824		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134824		distribution	eng	This species is from Iran. The type locality is the Minab River near Roodan, east of Bandar Abbas, Roodan County, in the Hormozgan Province, southern Iran (N. Cumberlidge, pers. comm. 29 August 2008).
134824		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134824		population	eng	Unknown.
134824		threats	eng	Unknown.
134825		conservation	eng	None in place and it is not found in a protected area.
134825		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed. India: <strong>Maharashtra state</strong>: Mumbai [Bombay], W. Ghats; Poona [Pune]; <strong>West Bengal state</strong>: Khandalla, Chattisgarh state: Bilaspur; <strong>Uttar Pradesh state</strong>: Lalauli [Lanauli] 25°49'0'' N, 80°33'0'' E; near near Kuerli caves (Alcock, 1910). Bott (1970) records this species from the Ganges and its southern tributaries; Jubbelpore; Bombay; Hosangabad, Banjar River; Yamuna River near Allahabad; Alibagh; Lonavia, Bombay; Nagpur; Kumta, Northern Kanara, in rice fields.
134825		habitat	eng	No information is available. Freshwater.
134825		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134825		threats	eng	This species is widely distributed. The future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134826		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area.
134826		distribution	eng	Madagascar: Northern Madagascar, between Ankarana and Analamera and from Montagne des Francais and the island of Nosy Be. The Ankarana massif (Antsiranana Province) is about 100 km south-west of Antsiranana, to the north of Ambilobe. The Ankarana massif is an undeveloped region of limestone formations (karst) consisting of caves and underground rivers with numerous forested valleys forming the Reserve Speciale d’Ankarana. This species has been collected in forest near the Andrafiabe cave, Reserve Speciale d’Ankarana, and in the Reserve Speciale d’Analamerana, Foret d Ankavanana about 19 km southeast of Anivorano-Nord. Madagapotamon humberti is also found on the slopes of the Anosiravo mountains (Antsiranana Province) and Montagne des Francais (Vuillemin, 1972) a few kilometres south of Antsiranana. Photographs of the specimens in Vuillemin (1972) are strikingly like Madagapotamon, rather than Malagasya (as labelled in that work). Cumberlidge and Sternberg (2002) also reported that <em>M. humberti</em> occurs on the nearby island of Nosy Be (Antsiranana Province) and from Baie de Diego, Diego-Suarez (now Antsiranana), Antsirana, 230 m altitude.
134826		habitat	eng	This semi-terrestrial species is restricted to limestone karst and as such has a limited distribution. Ankarana is aligned obliquely north-east/south-west and forms the western part of a limestone plateau lying to the south of the Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre. This limestone plateau continues eastward as the Andrafiamena–Analamera escarpment, which ends close to the Baie du Loky. The Ankarana and Andrafiamena escarpments are separated by a low-lying region occupied by the main road between Ambilobe and Antsiranana (Vuillemin 1970). "Forêts à feuilles caduques, sur calcaire (lapias) de l’Ankara et de l’Analamera. Crabe arboricole en saison des pluies. Passe probablement la saison sèche dans les fissures très profondes, les avens et les cours d’eau souterrains de ces lapias.  XII.1937 et I.1938”. Ces crabes corps et pinces blanc opaque ne sont pas rares sur les rochers, dans la forêt qui recouvre les pentes ouest de la Montagne des Français. Ils sont extrêmement vifs, à la saison sèche, vivent dans les trous des rochers et sortent dès que la pluie commence."<br/><br/>Found in the forest near the Andrafiabe cave, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana; Northern Madagascar, between ‘Ankara and Analamera’. The locality ‘Ankara’ is almost certainly Ankarana (Vuillemin 1970).  Northern Madagascar, Ankarana, Montagne des Français and Nosy Be. <em>Madagapotamon humberti</em> is found in the Ankarana massif (Antsiranana Province) about 100 km south-west of Antsiranana, to the north of Ambilobe. The Ankarana massif is an undeveloped region of limestone formations (karst) consisting of caves and underground rivers with numerous forested valleys forming the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana. Ankarana is aligned obliquely north-east/south-west and forms the western part of a limestone plateau lying to the south of the Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre. This limestone plateau continues eastward as the Andrafiamena–Analamera escarpment, which ends close to the Baie du Loky. The Ankarana and Andrafiamena escarpments are separated by a low-lying region occupied by the main road between Ambilobe and Antsiranana (Vuillemin, 1970). <em>Madagapotamon humberti</em> is also found on the slopes of the Anosiravo mountains (Antsiranana Province) and Montagne des Français (Vuillemin 1972) a few kilometres south of Antsiranana.
134826		population	eng	Up to 20 specimens have been collected recently from about 5 different localities and this species could be locally common.
134826		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
134827		conservation	eng	None in place.
134827		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin, Bolivar State. Guyana: River Cuyuni, Rio Rupununi, Bernice River, Great Falls.
134827		habitat	eng	This species is found in the streams and rivers draining the Guyana Shield in Venezuela and Guyana. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.
134827		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134827		threats	eng	None known.
134828		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134828		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas State.
134828		habitat	eng	Truly troglobitic. Caves. Cueva de Los Llanos, 15 km ESE San Cristobel de Las Casas, Chiapas; Cueva de los Murcielagos, 15 km ESE San Cristobel de Las Casas, Chiapas.
134828		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134828		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134829		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland monitoring of water usage from lower reaches of streams.
134829		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°50'08"N, 104°08'32"E), Peninsular Malaysia. This species is known from Sungai Genting, Sungai Raya (Mukut) drainages as well as Sungai Keliling, Sungai Asah, Sungai Nipah, Sungay Pasal on Pulau Tioman Island and probably between and adjacent to these areas. Endemic to drainages in the southern portion of Pulau Tioman, Pahang.
134829		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic, hiding under large boulders in areas adjacent to the main stream, often in pools. Associated with clean, clear, flowing waters. Mainly nocturnal, forages on and under rocks for food and is probably a scavenger and carnivore (e.g., freshwater snails) (Ng 1988).
134829		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134829		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation in lower reaches of drainages. Uncontrolled tourism (viz. increased land use and overexploitation of limited freshwater resources) is a concern.
134830		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134830		distribution	eng	Nicaragua: Rio Escondido, 50 miles from Bluefields municipality in formerly Zelaya Department. Costa Rica. Panama: le Barro Colorado, close to Darien; Rio Masimbar, Empire, Canal zone.
134830		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Panama and Costa Rica.
134830		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134830		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134831		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in any protected areas.
134831		distribution	eng	<em>Neopseudothelphusa fossor</em> occurs on the Caribbean slope of the central Cordillera, Venezuela (District Federal, Miranda State, Vargas State). Also La Guyara, Camuri Grande River; Central coastal range. An alluvial fan in the lower reach of the Camuri Grande River located in the east of Varagas State receives a large amount of sediment.
134831		habitat	eng	This species lives in small rivers that flow directly into the ocean, and ranges up to 200 m above sea level.
134831		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134831		threats	eng	River channel is subject to blockage by a large amount of sediment, so sedimentation might pose a threat to this species. However, while the streams on the lower part of the mountain are disturbed due to the impact of agriculture and urbanization, this species is more often found in the upper portion of the mountain, where streams are well preserved (Lasso pers. comm.).
134832		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134832		distribution	eng	India: West Bengal state: Barnagore near Calcutta; Buxa National Park in the Buxa hills that include the southern hilly area of the kingdom of Bhutan. Located inside the national park is the 759 square kilometers Buxa Tiger Reserve. SIKKIM STATE: southeast Sikkim, a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. Darjeeling state: Darjeeling District: Sureil, Kerseong, 1,655 m.
134832		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134832		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134833		conservation	eng	None in place.
134833		distribution	eng	Colombia: Close to Buenaventura (Campos 2005).
134833		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20-200 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134833		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134833		threats	eng	None known.
134834		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area. Research needed into all aspects of this species.
134834		distribution	eng	India: West Bengal state. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 110 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134834		habitat	eng	There is no information.
134834		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134834		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134835		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134835		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Anfusi, Zhijiang; Maohutang, Yidu; Jiuzhenshan, Hanyang; Jiuahenshan.
134835		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134835		population	eng	No information available.
134835		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134836		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134836		distribution	eng	Mexico: Guerrero State. Specimens were collected 40 km apart.
134836		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134836		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134836		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134837		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134837		distribution	eng	Panama: Cana. The male holotype is the only known specimen of this species.
134837		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134837		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134837		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134838		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134838		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea: caves.
134838		habitat	eng	Found in a cave system.
134838		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134838		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134839		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134839		distribution	eng	Colombia: Santander Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,050-1,750 m asl. San Gil, 75 km south of Bucaramanga. Plus four localities in Departamento Santander, Colombia. Sogamoso River basin (21,500 km²) which drains into the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134839		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,000-1,750 m asl.
134839		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134839		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134840		conservation	eng	None in place
134840		distribution	eng	China: Koaten, Fokien (occidental Chine).
134840		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134840		population	eng	No information available.
134840		threats	eng	Unknown.
134841		conservation	eng	None in place
134841		distribution	eng	China: Middle China Region, West mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone; Hsingyi, Guizhou.
134841		habitat	eng	Lung fluke found in this species: <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> (Kerbert)?
134841		population	eng	No information available.
134841		threats	eng	Unknown.
134842		conservation	eng	None in place
134842		distribution	eng	China: Liancheng, Fujian Province.
134842		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134842		population	eng	No information available.
134842		threats	eng	Unknown.
134843		conservation	eng	None in place
134843		distribution	eng	China: Hengduan Mountain area, Zhongdian, Yunnan Province.
134843		habitat	eng	Temperature 19°C, pH 7.
134843		population	eng	No information available.
134843		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountain area.
134844		conservation	eng	None in place
134844		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Province, Longpin village, Zhaoping county.
134844		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134844		population	eng	No information available.
134844		threats	eng	Unknown.
134845		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134845		distribution	eng	Colombia: Choco Department: Andagoya, found only in the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific (Campos 2005).
134845		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20- 50 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134845		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134845		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134846		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134846		distribution	eng	West Africa: This species occurs in the major rivers in Ghana (Assini), Cote d'Ivoire, and Liberia, and is endemic to the major rivers of this part of the Upper Guinea Forest block.
134846		habitat	eng	<em>Liberonautes chaperi</em> is found in the major rivers of the rainforest zones of Liberia, Côte-d’Ivoire, and Ghana (Cumberlidge 1985, Cumberlidge and Sachs 1989); it has never been found in small streams. Liberonautes chaperi serves as second intermediate host to the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em>) in Liberia (Sachs and Cumberlidge 1991). However, the incidence of infection of these crabs in Liberia is low indicating that this species may not play an important role in the transmission of the parasite to humans.
134846		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species.
134846		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases. In addition, this species is caught regularly in baited fish traps set by fishermen.
134847		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134847		distribution	eng	Japan: Ishigaki and Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands.
134847		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134847		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134847		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134848		distribution	eng	India: Tamil Nadu state: This species is known only from the type specimen from Tranquebar in southeastern India. There have been no records in over 200 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134848		habitat	eng	This species commonly lives in rice-field embankments. It has also been observed in burrows at the margins of waterholes.
134848		population	eng	No information available.
134849		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134849		distribution	eng	Peru:  Pucallpa, Ucayali, km. 59 of Basadre highway, Loreto Department.
134849		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134849		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134849		threats	eng	None known.
134850		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134850		distribution	eng	Thailand: Saraburi, Ratchaburi. Vietnam: South Vietnam. Cambodia: Cambodia.
134850		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134850		population	eng	No information available.
134850		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134851		conservation	eng	None in place
134851		distribution	eng	China: Motuo, Tibet.
134851		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134851		population	eng	No information available.
134851		threats	eng	Unknown.
134852		conservation	eng	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival.
134852		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Taman Negara, Pahang.
134852		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic.
134852		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134852		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its range is restricted to Taman Negara.
134853		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134853		distribution	eng	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains.
134853		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134853		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134853		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134854		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland.
134854		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula, Pulau Tioman. The type locality is Ulu Lalang, Gunong Kajang, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°51'23"N, 104°09'37"E). Endemic to Gunung Kajang and immediately adjacent high elevation areas of Pulau Tioman, Pahang. Described from specimen collected at 792 m above sea level.
134854		habitat	eng	This species has semi-terrestrial tendencies, foraging in areas relatively far from permanent water at night. Juveniles have been found in a dry cave (Yeo 1999). Terrestrial. Associated with higher elevation hill forests. Biology poorly known.
134854		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134854		threats	eng	No clear immediate threat, as development of extremely rugged hilly hinterland of Pulau Tioman appears unlikely. Nevertheless, that it is a specialist and has a restricted range is a concern.
134855		conservation	eng	None in place
134855		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Province: Wenzhu village, Zhaoping County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
134855		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134855		population	eng	No information available.
134855		threats	eng	Unknown.
134856		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134856		distribution	eng	Laos: Pakxe, Champaskak Province.
134856		habitat	eng	A terrestrial crab which digs burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by local populace.
134856		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134856		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134857		conservation	eng	None in place
134857		distribution	eng	China: Yongcheng County, Yunnan Province.
134857		habitat	eng	Temperature 20°C, pH 6.5.
134857		population	eng	No information available.
134857		threats	eng	Unknown.
134858		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134858		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Near and north of Lake Toba, Sumatra. Lake Toba is 100 km long and 30 km wide, and 505 m deep at its deepest point, located in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra with a surface elevation of about 900 m (3,000 feet), stretching from 2.88° N 98.52° E to 2.35° N 99.1° E. It is the largest volcanic lake in the world, and the biggest lake in SE Asia (1,265 km²).
134858		habitat	eng	Found near Lake Toba in streams and rivers. Not found in the lake itself.
134858		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134858		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134859		conservation	eng	None in place
134859		distribution	eng	China: Baoshan, Yunnan, southwest China; West Hengduan Mountain area.
134859		habitat	eng	Temperature 19°C, pH 6.
134859		population	eng	No information available.
134859		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountain area.
134860		conservation	eng	Tam Dao belongs to Tam Dao National Park which covers an area of 36,883 hectares.
134860		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Tam Dao, Vinh Phu Province in northern Vietnam.
134860		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134860		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134860		threats	eng	Tam Dao is a tourist destination, but it is also a National Park.<br/><br/>The Tam Dao National Park is situated 80 km north-west of Hanoi. The protected area of the Park extends over three mountains and contains primary Dipterocarp forest. Severe pressure is placed on the Park through the wild harvesting of plants for medicine, food and fuel. Timber extraction has led to serious deforestation and severe erosion on the slopes of the Park buffer zone threatening flash floods and mud slides. (http://www.bgci.org/worldwide/article/217/, downloaded 2/4/08)
134861		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Maxwell Hill area.
134861		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Perak, West Malaysia. Endemic to type locality Maxwell Hill (Bukit Larut), Perak (4 47 N, 100 45'E) from 70 m to 850 m.
134861		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Living under rocks and leaf litter in slower parts of streams and waterfalls.  Leaf-covered areas are preferred by this species. Its habits are semi-terrestrial to aquatic and it is agile on land.  A placid species that won't fight excessively even when crowded.
134861		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134861		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Its small range is a major concern.
134862		conservation	eng	None in place
134862		distribution	eng	China: Daweishan County; Wuchang, Daweishan County; Adakuo, Daweishan County; Mengla County (21.4°N, 101, Yunnan Province.
134862		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134862		population	eng	No information available.
134862		threats	eng	Unknown.
134863		conservation	eng	None in place.
134863		distribution	eng	Peru: Northern Peru to Lima; rivers of western Peru (Lima Province, Chachapoyas, Cajamarca Department, Bongara Province - Florida district 6.50'N, 79.10'W, North - La Languish, Rio Jaquetepeque) (Rodriguez 1982).
134863		habitat	eng	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus caliensis</em>, <em>P. amazonicum</em>, and <em>P. mexicanus</em> in Peru.
134863		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134863		threats	eng	None known.
134864		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134864		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Cartago, Heredia, San Jose Provinces. Cariblanco, River Banana, Rio Reventazon; Monte Verde; Cachi, Cartago Province, Reventazon River.
134864		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Costa Rica.
134864		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134864		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134865		conservation	eng	None in place.
134865		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Pacific side of Volcano Aguas in Saqatecepez Department near the border with El Salvador, from the foot of the Volcán de Agua, 900 m asl (14°27'53"N; 90°44'35"W).
134865		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134865		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134865		threats	eng	None known.
134866		conservation	eng	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.
134866		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sabah: Island of Borneo: Eastern Sabah.
134866		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.
134866		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134866		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134867		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134867		distribution	eng	Malay Peninsula (Renong, Ko Chang), South Thailand (Trang Province, Krabi Province, Surat Thani Province, Ko Samui, Phuket Province, Phangnaga Province, Ranong Province, Chumphon Province), Asia
134867		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134867		population	eng	This species is common and abundant and is known from many localities and over many years of collection.
134867		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134868		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134868		distribution	eng	Panama: Stream in El Valle Cocle, 670 m asl, pH 5.5, under stones.
134868		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134868		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134868		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134869		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134869		distribution	eng	China: Wuling Mountain area. Luiyang, Hunan Province. Pingxiang in Jiangxi Province. Distance between Luiyang and Pingxiang about 75km.
134869		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134869		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134869		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution..
134870		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Baling area.
134870		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Endemic to Baling, Kedah.
134870		habitat	eng	Presumably semi-terrestrial in habits, based on comparison with its congeners.
134870		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134870		threats	eng	water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The potential development of the areas, long 'protected' due to insurgency problems, is a concern.
134871		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134871		distribution	eng	Japan: Endemic to Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands.
134871		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134871		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134871		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134872		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134872		distribution	eng	West Africa: This species is common in the western part of the West African region with a distributional range from Sénégal and Mauritania to Ghana, in an area bounded by the Sahara desert and the Atlantic ocean. The species has been recorded in rainforest from localities in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Côte-d'Ivoire and Ghana, and in savanna from localities in Sénégal, Mauritania, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte-d'Ivoire. In Ghana it is found in the Prah River in the southern Ashanti region.
134872		habitat	eng	<em>Liberonautes latidactylus</em> is the most common and most frequently caught freshwater crab in small streams throughout the rainforest and savannah zones of West Africa. It is also encountered from time to time on land adjacent to streams. During the day these crabs remain inactive, lying hidden under stones or in crevices in the stream bed. At night crabs leave their resting places to feed on dead organic material or on small aquatic animals, such as molluscs, which they find in the creeks. Crabs also eat vegetable matter, and are attracted into traps baited with cassava, palm nuts, red papaya, or meat. Occasionally <em>L. latidactylus</em> is found on land adjacent to creeks, feeding on the abundant vegetable matter and small invertebrates on the forest floor. <br/><br/>This species is economically important because it is the commonest freshwater crab species and forms part of the diet of many people in West Africa. This species is also medically important because it is the predominant second intermediate host of <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em>, the human lung fluke that cause human paragonimiasis in Liberia and Guinea (Sachs and Voelker 1982) and in Côte-d’Ivoire (Nozais <em>et al</em>. 1980). This species plays a very important role in the transmission of the human lung fluke to humans. <em>Liberonautes latidactylus</em> also serves as the host of the larvae of biting blackflies (<em>Simulium</em>) that are the vectors of <em>Onchocerca volvulus</em>, the parasite that causes river blindness (onchocerciasis) in parts of Liberia and Guinea and elsewhere in West Africa.
134872		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species.
134872		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases in most parts of its range.
134873		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134873		distribution	eng	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province. Jiangganshan, from a reclaimed and cultivated wasteland farm, Jianggangshan City (26.5N, 114.1E); Lianhua, Xingzi and Anfu Counties.
134873		habitat	eng	Water pH 6.
134873		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134873		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134874		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134874		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: River near Pare-Pare; Maros, Kappang Gua Tanette; 5 02'S 119 40'E; small river at Anoengga; Gua Salkkan Kallang; Maros, cave, source of Gua Tanette near Kappang village; Gua Assuloang, gallery entrance 4 55'46.9"S 119 40'42"E; 4 55'46.9"S 119 40'42"E; South Sulawesi. In the vicinity of Maros, South Sulawesi. Localities 12km apart.
134874		habitat	eng	From caves (found along a subterranean stream) as well as rivers and streams.
134874		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134874		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial development.
134875		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134875		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Irian Jaya. This species is known only from the type specimen from  Utakwa River, New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134875		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134875		population	eng	No information available.
134875		threats	eng	Unknown.
134876		conservation	eng	None in place.
134876		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin: Territory of the Amazon, Rio Ventuari, Rio Manapiare; Culebra, Rio Cunucunuma, Territorio Federal Amazonas, 175 m asl; Carinagua, middle course of the Orinoco River near Puerto Ayacucho, Territorio Federal Amazonas, Amazonas Province; Upper Orinoco basin.
134876		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.
134876		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of Venezuela.
134876		threats	eng	None known.
134877		conservation	eng	None in place
134877		distribution	eng	Burma: Moulmein; Dafla Hills; dry stream bed, 2 km NE of Let Pan Village, 19°22.013´N 94°10.008´E, Rakhine State, Myanmar.
134877		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134877		population	eng	No information available.
134877		threats	eng	Unknown.
134878		conservation	eng	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.
134878		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Western Sarawak.
134878		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in medium elevation fast-flowing streams with gravel substrate, under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.
134878		population	eng	No information available.
134878		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134879		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134879		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea:  This species is known only from the type specimen from the headwaters of the Wakip River, north coast of New Guinea. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134879		habitat	eng	Found under stones in the bed of the stream at the foot of the waterfall. The water was perfectly fresh and flowing, but specimens were not plentiful.
134879		population	eng	No information available.
134879		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134880		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134880		distribution	eng	Panama: southern Panama, Province Darien, Rio Yape, Rio Chucunaque.
134880		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134880		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134880		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134881		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134881		distribution	eng	Mexico: Morelos State.
134881		habitat	eng	The type locality is in a region where periodic and extended droughts occur.
134881		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134881		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The type locality is in a region where periodic and extended droughts are common.
134882		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134882		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Miranda State, central coastal range of central Venezuela from the Rio Guaire and Rio Tuy basins. Last recorded collection of this species was in 1966.
134882		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134882		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134882		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134883		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134883		distribution	eng	Colombia: Valle del Cauca: Cajambre River in the Pacific drainage of Colombia, Costa del Pacifico (Campos 2005). The Pacific river basins of Colombia (76,365 km²) consist of a broad coastal plain and the western slope of the Cordilleras. The Cajambre, is one of many smaller streams, including the Dagua, Cajambre, Naya, Micay, Guapi, and Sanguianga rivers. The principal rivers from north to south are the Baudó, San Juan, Patía, and Mira. All rivers drain the western Cordilleras. The basins consist of mountainous terrain with elevations as high as 4,600 m, valleys descending onto the broad coastal lowlands (elevation 100 m), and depositional deltas.
134883		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50- 700 m above sea level along the coastal plain of the Pacific.
134883		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134883		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134884		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134884		distribution	eng	China: Nanning in Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, south China.
134884		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134884		population	eng	No information available.
134884		threats	eng	Unknown.
134885		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134885		distribution	eng	Mexico: States of Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas (Zapotes), Oaxaca (Lakes), Rıo San Antonio Canada, Acatlan-Oaxaca.
134885		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134885		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134885		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134886		conservation	eng	None in place
134886		distribution	eng	China: Guangdong Province.
134886		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134886		population	eng	No information available.
134886		threats	eng	Unknown.
134887		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134887		distribution	eng	Colombia: Quebrada de Perales, Departamento de Tolima, Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).
134887		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 800-1,850 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River. Crabs found in a shaded creek buried in a mound, 10 m from the water in holes 1 m deep.
134887		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134887		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134888		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134888		distribution	eng	Thailand: Muang Nan District (e.g., 100°46'N 18°46'E), Nan Province. There have been no records in over 25 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Thailand.
134888		habitat	eng	A rice field crab.
134888		population	eng	No information available.
134888		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134889		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134889		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localites in Côte d' Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroun, Bioko (Equatorial Guinea), and the Central African Republic.
134889		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the tropical rainforest zone of West Africa from Côte-d' Ivoire to Cameroon, including the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). In the Oban Hills northeast of Calabar, Nigeria, <em>S. granulatus</em> occurs in streams flowing through mature rainforest. Crabs were collected by hand from small streams (1-10 m wide, 20-50 cm deep), with fast, medium or slow flowing water, and even from a dried-up stream bed. The stream beds varied from mudstone to sand, together with either clay or yellow silt. These streams usually lacked vegetation (although one collection was made in a grass swamp). Crabs were collected from a variety of habitats: lodged among grass, under stones, burrowing among root material in the centre of the stream, hiding among stones, or burrowing in the moist bed of a dried up stream. One locality was a roadside ditch, with rust-red algae and grass in the water.
134889		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species that has been collected in the past five years.
134889		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134890		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134890		distribution	eng	China: Shaanxi, Hubei, Hena, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Gansu Provinces. Yunnan Province: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone. Plus Hanzhong, Sanmenxia, and Yangqu counties in Shaanxi Province. Mianyang in Sichuan Province. Xingshan, Gucheng, Zhushan, Junxian and Fangxian counties in Hubei Province. Lushi and Luoning counties in Henan Province. Huixian county in Gansu Province.
134890		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134890		population	eng	No information available.
134890		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134891		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134891		distribution	eng	Ecuador, Peru, Brazil (AM). This species was first collected from Ecuador where it is found in two different drainage systems, the Bobonaza-Pastaza rivers and Santiago-Maranon Sevilla de Oro rivers, between Mendez and Paute (Rodriguez 1992). Other authors indicate that this species is more widespread and occurs in the Amazon Basin (Brazil, Peru, Ecuador) (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996).
134891		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134891		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134891		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134892		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134892		distribution	eng	El Salvador: Hacienda los Planes, Department Santa Ana. Panama. Honduras (Nueva Ocotepeque).
134892		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134892		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134892		threats	eng	None known.
134893		conservation	eng	None in place
134893		distribution	eng	Burma: Myanmar; Sibsagar. India: Assam and Kakhyen Hills.
134893		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134893		population	eng	No information available.
134893		threats	eng	Unknown.
134894		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134894		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Taipei City 271km² (Neishuangchi; Nankang); Taipei County 2,052 km² (Hsintine; Pinglin; Chinshan); Hsinchu County 1,427 km² (Hengshan); Nantow County 4,106 km² (Dihli) (Shy, Ng and Yu 1994). Qinliang Lake. Records of this crab from the Ryukyus actually belong to other species (see Shy and Ng 1998).
134894		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134894		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134894		threats	eng	Very narrow distribution, therefore large scale developments could easily exterminate the species.
134895		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134895		distribution	eng	Bolivia: Rio Chapare, tributary of the Rio Grande, Mamore River basin, and Paraguay River basin. ARGENTINA: Santa Fe, Rio Parana, Formosa,Tucuman, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre-Rios, and Buenos Aires Provinces, and Rio Sali, Department Santiago del Estero (Magalhaes & Tuerkay, 1996).
134895		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams.
134895		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134895		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134896		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134896		distribution	eng	China: Hainan Island: Wuzhishan, Qiongzhong.
134896		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134896		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134896		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134897		conservation	eng	None in place
134897		distribution	eng	China: Hengduan Mountains area, Lushui County, Yunnan Province.
134897		habitat	eng	Average temperature 16°C, pH 6.
134897		population	eng	No information available.
134897		threats	eng	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.
134898		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134898		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Taichung County (Hoping, Sheauyeakow; Hoping, Songbor).
134898		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134898		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134898		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134899		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134899		distribution	eng	China: Shuangouan reservoir, Sangzhi county (29.3 N, 110.1E); Dayong, Baojing, Sangzhi counties in Hunan Province. <br/>Daiyong city and Fanjingshan, Guizhou Province. Xiuxi reservoir, Xiushan; Qiuyang county in Sichuan Province. <br/>Laifeng county in Hubei province. This species is distributed in the north-western side of Wuling Mountain.
134899		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134899		population	eng	No information available.
134899		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134900		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134900		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Borneo. This species is known only from the type specimen from Kenepai Mountains, western Kalimantan. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.
134900		population	eng	No information available.
134900		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134901		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
134901		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Bamenda highlands in southwest Cameroon, and from the neighboring Obudu plateau in southeast Nigeria, which is continuous with the Bamenda highlands.
134901		habitat	eng	The Obudu plateau in Cross River State, southeast Nigeria is a steep-sided plateau some 1,000 m above sea level rising steeply out of the rainforest. This Nigerian highland region continues across the nearby border with Cameroon (where it is known as the Bamenda highlands).  The climate on top of the plateau is cool and humid, and supports a tropical montane vegetation, including extensive grasslands. The streams and rivers where the specimens of <em>P. sachsi</em> from Nigeria were collected drain south into the Cross River, just to the east of the Nigeria-Cameroon border. These streams are about 2 m wide and 10 cm deep, with a medium flow, and a gravel-sand bed. The crabs were all caught by hand, from under boulders in stretches of the stream that were shaded by overhanging vegetation and the forest canopy.
134901		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134901		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134902		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134902		distribution	eng	Japan: Tokashiki Island, Kerama Group, Central Ryukyu Islands.
134902		habitat	eng	Collected from a very small stream less than a metre in width, and about 5 cm in depth. Crabs were seen in the stream itself or along the banks.
134902		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134902		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134903		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
134903		distribution	eng	Kenya: south of Lake Rudolf, now Lake Turkana (6,405 km²) in the Great Rift Valley. Lake Turkana is the world's largest permanent desert lake and the world's largest alkaline lake. The speciemens were not collected in the lake but in a freshwater stream that flows into the lake.
134903		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134903		population	eng	Unknown.
134903		threats	eng	Unknown.
134904		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (Atlantic forests).
134904		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution mainly along the coastal strip of southeastern Brazil (states of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana and Santa Catarina) (de Melo 2003, C. Magalhaes pers comm.).
134904		habitat	eng	In Venezuela this species is very common in the llanos, in rivers discharging into the Orinoco River.
134904		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134904		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134905		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134905		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from the Nakanai Mountains (2,316 meters), from cave in limestone karst, Tolan, Nouvelle-Bretagne, the largest island of the Bismark group, Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134905		habitat	eng	Adapted to subterranean life. 20°C in the cave.
134905		population	eng	No information available.
134905		threats	eng	Unknown.
134906		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134906		distribution	eng	India: <strong>Maharashtra state</strong>: Mumbai [Bombay], Western Ghats; Kham River, near Aurangabad; <strong>West Bengal state</strong>: Coonoor, Nilgiris; <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Shervaroy Hills; South Arcot. <em>Barytelphusa cunicularis sensu</em> Bott, 1970b, is a widely distributed species in a north-south direction along much of the Western Ghats, and is known from Maharashtra state, the general area around Bombay, including Pune (=Poona) and Manjra (=Manjira) River along the Balaghat Range in the north; through Karnataka State, Dharward and Dandeli; Nilgiris, Annamalai (see also Bott,1970b). This species is also found in many localities in Kerala, southwestern India.
134906		habitat	eng	Found in shallow to deep (10 cm-1.5 m) streams. Large crabs were found under large boulders in streams 0.5-1.5 m deep in water.
134906		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown. The population is presumed to be large.
134906		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
134907		conservation	eng	None in place
134907		distribution	eng	China: Wude Village Shiqian county (27.5N, 108.2E), and Longjing village, Shiqian county, Guizhou Province.
134907		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134907		population	eng	No information available.
134907		threats	eng	Unknown.
134908		conservation	eng	The retention of designated protected areas.
134908		distribution	eng	Malaysia:  Malaysian peninsula. Found throughout most of Pahang and western Terengganu (e.g. 4 21'N, 102 24'E)<br/>Widespread throughout Pahang, western Trengganu and Selangor.
134908		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing waters with dense leaf litter and submerged vegetation. Found under rocks and debris in shallow well shaded areas.
134908		population	eng	No information available.
134908		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within protected areas throughout its range.
134909		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134909		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Borcua.
134909		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134909		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134909		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134910		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134910		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Quebrada La Negra, between Seboruco and Las Mesas, Tachira State, Venezuelan Andes, 790 m asl.<br/>Colombia: Norte de Santander Departments: from the western and northern regions of the Venezuelan coastal Cordillera, and the northeastern slope of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. Brazil-Venezuela border, Suriname, Trinidad (Campos 2005).
134910		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 790 and 1,800 m asl.
134910		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134910		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134911		conservation	eng	None in place
134911		distribution	eng	China: Kaili County in Guizhou Province.
134911		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134911		population	eng	No information available.
134911		threats	eng	Unknown.
134912		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134912		distribution	eng	Colombia: Narino Department: from the western slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia in the Patia river basin (Campos 2005).
134912		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,200-1,300 m asl.
134912		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134912		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134913		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134913		distribution	eng	Brazil: Para State, Rio Xingu, Vitoria do Xingu.
134913		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134913		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134913		threats	eng	None known.
134914		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134914		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Caves in the vicinity of Maros, South Sulawesi. Gua Saripah (near Teduang Village; lake , Samanggi, Kabupaten Maros 5 2'35.2"S 119 42'9"E; gallery Cacing of Gua Saripa; Kecamatan Simbang; spring of Saripa, Samaggi).
134914		habitat	eng	This species is likely to be a cavernicolous species.
134914		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134914		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134915		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134915		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Province: Pingguo, Longlin, Napo, Tianlin, Leye, Lingyun and Jinxin Counties. Guongning County in Guangdong Province.
134915		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134915		population	eng	No information available.
134915		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134916		conservation	eng	None in place
134916		distribution	eng	China: Menghai, Yunnan.
134916		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134916		population	eng	No information available.
134916		threats	eng	Unknown.
134917		conservation	eng	Retention of Recreational Forest status or upgrading of protection of Gunung Pulai area, especially for the headwaters. Restricting access to more pristine, sensitive sites within.
134917		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. Type locality: Gunang Pulai, Johore (1"35'N, 103"32'E). Endemic to Gunung Pulai, Johore.
134917		habitat	eng	Common under rocks and vegetation, especially in the slow waters of side streams and areas where water is trickling down. Most common in upper stretches of a stream (between 150 and 250 m above sea level). Replaced by another species in the lower stretches. Extremely agile and can climb, also able to stay out of water for several hours.<br/><br/>This species is very aggressive, but should not be kept crowded. This species does well in captivity if the water is clean and feeds on all forms of animal and vegetation (Ng 1988).
134917		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134917		threats	eng	No clear immediate threats, as locality is within designated Recreational Forest. However, potential disturbance/pollution from resulting to high levels of human activity coupled with the small range is a concern. Over the last 15 years, the species has become rare in the lower stretches of the drainage (where most human impacts are) but still relatively common in the higher areas.
134918		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134918		distribution	eng	Sao Tome and Principe: Endemic to the island of Sao Tome (836 km²).
134918		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134918		population	eng	Endemic to the island of SãoTomé which lies further out to sea than Principe.
134918		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134919		conservation	eng	None in place
134919		distribution	eng	China: Zhangping, Longyan and Longxishan Counties in Fujian Province.
134919		habitat	eng	Water temperature 23-27°C, pH 6.5.
134919		population	eng	No information available.
134919		threats	eng	Unknown.
134920		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134920		distribution	eng	Taiwan: southern Taiwan: Pingtung County (2,775 km²) (Hengchun Peninsula south of Fenggang River; Hengchun, Sgehding; Henguhun, Byitzou), Taitung County (3,515 km²) and Tainan County (2,016 km²) (Nanhsi).
134920		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134920		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134920		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134921		conservation	eng	None in place
134921		distribution	eng	China: Tuanhe, Huitong (26.8 N, 109.7 E); Huitong, Hongjiang, Qiangyang, Longhui in Hunan Province. Tianzhu and Liping in Guizhou Province.
134921		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134921		population	eng	No information available.
134921		threats	eng	Unknown.
134922		conservation	eng	None in place.
134922		distribution	eng	Australia: This species has a wide distribution in inland north-western Australia, across the Northern territory to the Lake Eyre basin, the Darling River drainage system in western New South Wales and into inland and coastal Queensland. Queensland: Cape York, northeast Australia. NSW (Lake Eyre basin, Murray-Darling basin), NT (Lak Eyre basin, N coastal, N Gulf, W plateau), QLD (Lake Eyre basin, Murray-Darling basin, N Gulf, NE coastal), SA (Lake Eyre basin, Murray-Darling basin, W plateau), WA (N coastal, W plateau); known only from limited area, from Fitzroy River, near Derby, across northern Australia to west of Chillagoe, N QLD, and south to Lake Eyre catchment and down the Murray-Darling system to about Nyngan, mid western NSW, east of Great Dividing Range between Townsville and Gladstone, QLD. This taxon appears to be a species-complex and may prove to comprise three undescribed species all found across the northern coastal strip (Davie, 2002). This widespread species is endemic to Australia. The localities cited for this species as Fiji islands (de Man, 1892), New Guinea (Nobili), and Thursday Island (Haswell) are regarded are doubtful.
134922		habitat	eng	This widespread species burrows in the banks of streams, springs, swamps, ground tanks, and waterholes. Found in arid parts of inland Australia because its burrowing behaviour has preadapted it to life in low rainfall areas. Crabs dig burrows 50-100 cm deep in heavy impermeable clay soils, and construct a plug that forms an airtight seal to the burrow. Crabs aestivate during the arid season in a moistened chamber at the foot of the burrow. It is difficult to find burrows in habitats which have been dry for any length of time as weathering of the soil surface destroys the surface earthworks of the burrow. This species can survive long periods of drought in these burrows, and emerge from their burrows in large numbers when the rains start.
134922		population	eng	Stable.
134922		threats	eng	None.
134923		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134923		distribution	eng	Philippines: "Manille" = Manila (Rathbun 1904).
134923		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134923		population	eng	No information available.
134923		threats	eng	Unknown.
134924		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134924		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Southwest Taiwan, Kaoshiung county - Chahsien.
134924		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134924		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134924		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134925		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134925		distribution	eng	Philippines. This species is known only from the type specimen from the Palawan Islands. There have been no records in over 15 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of the Philippines.
134925		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134925		population	eng	No information available.
134925		threats	eng	Unknown.
134926		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland and monitoring of water usage from lower reaches of streams.<br/><br/>The inland forest of Tioman Island has been gazetted as a wildlife reserve encompassing a total are of over 8,000ha (80 km²) since 1979. This species is found in a river draining the inland forests (Sungai Besar Drainage = Sungai Ayer Besar).
134926		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sungai Besar Drainage, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°52'39"N, 104°11'48"E), Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to drainages in the central portion of Pulau Tioman, Pahang.
134926		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected several metres above sea level, i.e. near the sea, but also above 300 m sea level. It is primarily an aquatic species, associated with clean, clear, flowing waters, hiding under rocks and vegetation during the day and emerging at night to forage in the water.
134926		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134926		threats	eng	Potential water pollution and habitat loss/degradation in lower reaches of drainages. Uncontrolled tourism (viz. increased land use and overexploitation of limited fresh-water resources) is a concern. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.
134927		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134927		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Borneo, Longlanuk (1°58'S 117°50'E). This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 45 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134927		population	eng	No information available.
134927		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134928		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134928		distribution	eng	China: Yunnan Province: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area.<br/>Hubei Province: Changyang, Jianshi, Zushi, Xuanen, Xianfeng (Dai, 1999).
134928		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134928		population	eng	No information available.
134928		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134929		conservation	eng	The conservation and monitoring of pollution levels of the stream systems in Bukit Timah Hill and the Nee Soon Swamp Forest offer the best chance for maintaining good populations of this species.
134929		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Known from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, various parts of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, especially in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest. Not known from outside Singapore.
134929		habitat	eng	This species prefers slower parts of shaded streams, sometimes they are found under rocks, but usually among leaf litter with muddy substrates. It is not an obligate highland crab, it can be common in lowland secondary forest streams. Predominantly feeds on dead leaves and freshwater oligochaete worms (Ng 1988).
134929		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134929		threats	eng	Loss of forest cover and water pollution.
134930		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Terap district area.
134930		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Endemic to Padang, Terap district, Kedah, northern Malaysian peninsula.
134930		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic, likely to be similar to <em>S. stoliczkana</em>. Biology poorly known.
134930		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134930		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134931		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134931		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: CochinChina, Saigon, southern Viet Nam. This species is known only from the type specimen from Viet Nam. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Viet Nam
134931		population	eng	No information available.
134931		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134932		conservation	eng	None in place
134932		distribution	eng	Burma: Burma, Pegu Yoma.
134932		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134932		population	eng	No information available.
134932		threats	eng	Unknown.
134933		conservation	eng	None in place
134933		distribution	eng	China: Guangxi Province: Jingxi, Du'an, Debao Counties.
134933		habitat	eng	Under the stones in mountain stream.
134933		population	eng	No information available.
134933		threats	eng	Unknown.
134934		conservation	eng	None in place
134934		distribution	eng	China: Hong Kong.
134934		habitat	eng	Mountain streams.
134934		population	eng	No information available.
134934		threats	eng	Unknown.
134935		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134935		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ban Fung Daeng, Amphoe That Phanom, Nakon Phanom Province, northeastern Thailand.
134935		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace.
134935		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134935		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134936		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species .  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (Atlantic forests, SP).
134936		distribution	eng	Trichodactylus fluviatilis is found in southeast and southern Brazil (BA, MG, RJ, SP, SC, RS states) from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul in the basins of the coastal rivers and in the upper basin of the Rio Parana. Identifiable localities mentioned in the literature are the following: Brazil in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Bahia, and Espírito Santo States (Rodriguez 1992). This species also occurs in two localities in Colombia (Leticia) (Campos 2005). The type is not extant and there are doubtful records from Guiana, central Brazil, Chile, "Sandwich Islands", and Peru.
134936		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams, common under rocks of mountain streams
134936		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134936		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134937		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134937		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Minahassa, Tomohon, Sulawesi; Sungai Riska, Mondondow, near Manado, northern Sulawesi. This species is not widespread and its known extent of occurrence is estimated to be approximately only 25 km².
134937		habitat	eng	Found on banks of fast flowing river with sandstone crevices
134937		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134937		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134938		conservation	eng	None in place.
134938		distribution	eng	India: West Bengal state: Hill stream near Harmutti. Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3825 meters) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Assam state: Goalpara, a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (1824 km²); Sibsagar (types), a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (2668 km²); Cacha; Silchar town, Barak River, the major river of northeastern India and part of the Surma-Meghna River System. Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills; Garo Hills part of the Garo-Khasi range, one of the wettest places in the world, part of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion. Bangladesh: Sylhet is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh on the northern bank of the Surma River, surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills, nestled among tea plantations and lush green tropical forests.
134938		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134938		population	eng	No information available.
134938		threats	eng	None known.
134939		distribution	eng	Afghanistan: This species is known only from the type specimen from Rud. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Asia.
134939		population	eng	No information available.
134940		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134940		distribution	eng	Japan: Okinawa Island, Central Ryukyus. Tamagusuki village (Mt Meiji-Yama; Mt Yanbaru-Yama); Ohgimi Village (Taiho River; Oshi River), north of Iji; Kunigami Village (Yona River; east of Benoki Dam Reserve); between Hiji and Iji; near Ishiyama. More than 10 localities.
134940		habitat	eng	Occurs near middle and upper reaches of the banks or along small swamps in submontane areas. It also digs burrows adjacent to areas with water seeping out.
134940		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134940		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134941		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134941		distribution	eng	India: Maharasthra state (69,425 km²): Mumbai [Bombay]; Kandala [Khandalla]; Lalauali [Lanauli]. This species is known from at least three locations all in Maharasthra State in western India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the three known sites. There have been a few recent records and there are no known long-term threats, so this species is assessed here as LC.
134941		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134941		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134941		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134942		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134942		distribution	eng	Indonesia:  Lake Towuti and Lake Mahalona, South Sulawesi (2 42'37.7"S 121 26'26.0"E; 2 36'55.8"S 121 31'06.4"E; 2 37.56'S 121 31.94'E; 2 36.98'S 121 30.02'E; 2 37.56'S 121 31.94'E). The surface area of Lake Towuti is 561.1 km². Crabs were found in a surrounding area near the lake which was much smaller (>20 km²).
134942		habitat	eng	Under rocks and sandstone terraces.
134942		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134942		threats	eng	Lake Towuti is in a lake system with Lake Matana. The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel due to mining for this metal which causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF Global 200 Ecoregions homepage).
134943		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM, Indian reservation).
134943		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution and is found on the island of Trinidad (Mitan, near Nariva swamp) and on the mainland of northern South America in Venezuela, Trinidad, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Colombia, and Brazil (RR, RJ, SP States). This species is widely distributed in the basin of the Guiana and Orinoco Rivers including many tributaries of the Orinoco River. It is found in the basins of the coastal rivers in the north of South America, but not in the Amazon basin itself. In Venezuela it is found in the states of Portuguesa, Cojedes, Calabozo, Apure, Guarico, Aragua, Monagas, Bolivar and Delta Amacurain, as well as in the states of Yaracuy, Falcon, Guarico, Sucre, and Bolivar. In Colombia it is found in Bolivar Department at the Confluence of the Rio Merguia and Rio Cobugon, and in Norte del Santander, Arauca, Bolivar, and Cordoba Departments. In Suriname it is found in the Paramaribo, Corantijn, and Coppename Rivers. (Rodriguez, 1992; Campos 2005).
134943		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Suriname, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Cuyuni, and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon river. Lowland species. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 0 and 80 m asl.
134943		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134943		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
134944		conservation	eng	None in place, not found in a protected area.
134944		distribution	eng	DR Congo: Stanleyville. Congo: Ngancin (Nganchu). Central African Republic.
134944		habitat	eng	Lives in small brooks and streams in the central African rainforest (Rathbun 1921).
134944		population	eng	Reported to be abundant at Kisangani (Stanleyville) in the early part of the 20th century.
134944		threats	eng	None known.
134945		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134945		distribution	eng	Panama: River David, Chiriqui Province, Volcan, and Chiriqui.
134945		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134945		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of Panama.
134945		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134946		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134946		distribution	eng	Costa Rica: Emus Cave, Provincia de Punta Arenas, southern Costa Rica.
134946		habitat	eng	A cave-living species.
134946		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134946		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134947		conservation	eng	None in place
134947		distribution	eng	China: West Hengduan Mountain subregion: Poonsee, Hotha, Sipai Mountain, Kakhyen Mountain in Yunnan. Also Myanmar.
134947		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134947		population	eng	No information available.
134947		threats	eng	Unknown.
134948		conservation	eng	None in place
134948		distribution	eng	Thailand: Si Songkhram District, Nakonphanom Province, northeastern Thailand.
134948		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134948		population	eng	No information available.
134948		threats	eng	Unknown.
134949		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134949		distribution	eng	Pakistan: Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan and is the provincial capital of Sindh province.<br/><br/>Bangladesh: Narail District (Khulna Division, 990.23 km²),I n South-western Bangladesh. Jessore (or Jashahor) is a district in south western region of Bangladesh. Sylhet is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh.<br/>Balaganj, in the Division of Sylhet, Bangladesh. Balaganj is located at 24.6667° N 91.8333° E . It has a total area 389.51 km². Rajshahi is a city in Rajshahi District in northwestern Bangladesh.<br/><br/>India: Uttar pradesh: Saharanpur is a city in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India. West Bengal state: Kolkata, formerly Calcutta, is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Barnagore. Uttarakhand: Haridwar (also spelled Hardwar) is a holy city. Bihar state: Darbhangā. Kissenganj. Mangura, Jessore. Rajastan state: Kerwah (Kherwah) Gorge, Jhelum District, 2,000 ft. Punjab state: Safed-bein Canal, Jullunder District. Orissa state: Sur Lake, Puri District. Assam state: Cachar. Tipperah Hills (former name of Tripura) Tenasserim: narrow coastal region, southeastern Myanmar (Burma), bordered to the east by Thailand and to the west by the Andaman Sea.
134949		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134949		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
134949		threats	eng	habitat loss and pollution
134950		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134950		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Type locality unknown - assumed to be somewhere on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador and Peru where its closest relatives are found (<em>H. gracilignatha</em>, <em>H. orientalis</em>, <em>H. latipenis</em>, <em>H. puyensis</em>, and <em>H. hauserae</em>).
134950		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134950		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134950		threats	eng	None known.
134951		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134951		distribution	eng	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
134951		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134951		population	eng	No information available.
134951		threats	eng	Unknown.
134952		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134952		distribution	eng	Fiji islands (18,700 km²). This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Australasia. The specimen(s) may not have actually come from Fiji, locality unknown.
134952		population	eng	No information available.
134952		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134953		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134953		distribution	eng	Thailand: Type locality: Ton Nga Chang Waterfall, Amphoe Hat Yai, Songkhla Province. Also found in Bo Ri Phat waterfall, Rataphum, Songkhla Province, and at Pa Num/Nun Waterfall and Ya Roy Waterfall, which are both in King Amphoe Khuan Don in Satun Province, southwestern Thailand. Combined area of Amphoe Hat Yai and Khuan Don is 1052 km².
134953		habitat	eng	Found under rocks in waterfalls and relatively fast flowing streams
134953		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134953		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134954		conservation	eng	None in place
134954		distribution	eng	Laos
134954		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134954		population	eng	No information available.
134954		threats	eng	Unknown.
134955		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area (Serra do Tumucumaque).
134955		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Bolivar State. Tributaries of the upper Caroni River (a tributary of the Orinoco River) which drain the Gran Sabana plateau a highland savanna drained by the headwaters of the Caroni River and and the southern slopes of Mount Roraima. Bolivar State. Brazil: Rio Uraricoera, state of Roraima [C. Magalhaes, unpublished data]. The subspecies <em>F. e. siapiensis</em> is found in the Siapa river, Amazonas State. The Siapa River is a small river that flows near the Orinoco River in Venezuela, 518 m, but drains into the Amazon through Brazo Casiquiare and the Rio Negro; also from the Cunucunuma River, an affluent of the Orinoco with its headwaters in the Cerro Duida.
134955		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela and Brazil in the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river basin draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.
134955		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134956		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Perlis area.
134956		distribution	eng	Thailand: Found in southern Thailand including Phuket (Salanga). Nam Tok Tone Sai (08 01.64'N 98 21.74'E) and Nam Tok Kathun (07 55.96'N 98 19.43'E) on Phuket.  Malaysia: Present in northern Peninsular Malaysia (Perlis).
134956		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in shallow slow flowing streams and rivers with clean water, under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.
134956		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134956		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
134957		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134957		distribution	eng	South India, Asia. Ranigunj, lower Bengal; Dumagudin and Ellore; Pondicherry; Madras; Calcutta; Madras; Barabhoom, lower Bengal; Allahbad; Trivandrum; Travancore; south India; Ramnad, Madura; Sur Lake, Orissa; Pallode, Travancore; Calicut; Shervaroy Hills; Bankura, lower Bengal; Shencottah, Travancore; Madura (Madurai), Tamil Nadu; Shervaroy Hills (=Shevaroy Hills), Tamil Nadu.
134957		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134957		population	eng	No information available.
134957		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134958		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134958		distribution	eng	China: Type locality: Anshu in Shu Cheng. Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and Hebei Province. Changxing County in Zhejiang Province. Yixing and Xuzhou in Jiangsu. Dingyuan, Chuxian, Xixian, Chaohu, Shuchen, Funan and Fengyang counties in Anhui. Jinan and Taian in Shandong Province. Baoding in Hebei Province.
134958		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134958		population	eng	No information available.
134958		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134959		conservation	eng	None in place.  It is found in a protected area.
134959		distribution	eng	Seychelles: Mahe, La Digue, Silouette, Praslin islands in the granitic Seychelles. Endemic to the Seychelles.
134959		habitat	eng	Found in streams in the rainforests of mountains in the centre of the islands.
134959		population	eng	This species has been collected recently and appears to be locally abundant but the populations are severely fragmented (it is found on four separate islands).
134959		threats	eng	Habitat loss.
134960		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134960		distribution	eng	China:  Middle China region, West mountain subregion, Hengduan Mountain area. Yuanhou district, Jinsha country, Qingshan village;Tiantanggou village, Jinsha country; Guandu country, Wuli village; Fuxing district, Panlong country. Guizhou Province. Jinsha and Fuxing are about 250 km apart.
134960		habitat	eng	Found in small streams, water temperature 10°C, pH 6, breadth of the stream 0.5-1 m.
134960		population	eng	No information available.
134960		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134961		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134961		distribution	eng	Thailand: Kaeo District, Prachin Buri Province.
134961		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134961		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134961		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. In addition, species of this genus are considered attractive as pets and may be subjected to over collection for the aquarium trade.
134962		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134962		distribution	eng	Guatemala: small cave crabs, Sierra de Chama, Grotte de Chicam. This locality in Guatemala extends the range of the genus (not the species) some 170 km to the NE and suggests the likelihood of the presence of one or more congeners in the intervening karst areas separating this crab from its closest allies in north-central Guatemala. It is also present in caves in Mexico: Chiapas.
134962		habitat	eng	Truly troglobitic. Grotte de Chiacam, Sierra de Chama, mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, a short distance east of the caves in which <em>T. michelli</em> occurs. The elevations around the town of Coban are a continuation of the karstic topography of Chiapas (Mexico). A blind crab, depigmented, with long slender legs.
134962		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134962		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134963		conservation	eng	None in place.
134963		distribution	eng	China: Xiangyun County, Yunnan Province, coll. 31 Jul. 2005.
134963		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.
134963		population	eng	Unknown.
134963		threats	eng	Unknown.
134964		conservation	eng	None in place
134964		distribution	eng	China: Luanzhou, Lushi and Luoning in Henan.
134964		habitat	eng	Temperature 19-21°C, pH 7.
134964		population	eng	No information available.
134964		threats	eng	Unknown.
134965		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134965		distribution	eng	Thailand: central Thailand (Ratchaburi and Kanchanaburi Provinces), Asia. Also Myanmar (Tenasserim River "at same latitude as Ratchaburi). Krathing waterfall, Suan Phung waterfall (13°1'12.6''N, 99°14'19.9); Kao Chon waterfall in Suan Phung District; Mae Nam Pachi Basin (13°35'37"N, 99°12'25"E) in Ratchaburi Province. Huai Bong Ti in Sai Yok District; LinTin in Thong Pha Phum District; in Kanchanaburi Province.
134965		habitat	eng	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
134965		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134965		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134966		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134966		distribution	eng	China: This species is only known from an unspecified locality in China. There have been no records in over 15 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of China.
134966		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134966		population	eng	No information available.
134966		threats	eng	Unknown.
134967		conservation	eng	None in place
134967		distribution	eng	Vietnam: Jokdon, Taynguyen plateau in Daclac Province; and from Laos: Pakse market in Champasak Province.
134967		habitat	eng	This species is distributed in the streams of the mountainous areas in large quantities and is often used as food for the local people in Pakse.
134967		population	eng	No information available.
134967		threats	eng	Unknown.
134968		conservation	eng	None in place
134968		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tham Hud, Nam Lang District, Mae Hong Son Province, northern Thailand.
134968		habitat	eng	Found in caves, but is probably an epigeal species that just accidentally wandered into the caves (Ng 1988).
134968		population	eng	No information available.
134968		threats	eng	Unknown.
134969		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134969		distribution	eng	Colombia: This species is only known from a single locality (Casabianca) in the Tolima Department in the Cordillera of Central Colombia in the basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).
134969		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 15,00 m asl in the basin of the Magdalena River.
134969		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134969		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134970		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134970		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen from Indonesia, Irian Jaya, Central New Guinea, Doorman, River in Mamberabmo District, 110-1,410m asl.
134970		population	eng	No information available.
134970		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134971		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134971		distribution	eng	Thailand: Phetchaburi Province, Lop Buri Province, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province. 2-3 km from Phetchaburi town (99°56'N 13°06'E), Muang Phetchaburi District, Khok Samrong District, Lop Buri Province; Muang Prachuap Khiri Khan District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province.
134971		habitat	eng	This species occurs in stagnant pools of water in open areas with thick vegetation, including rice fields.
134971		population	eng	No information available.
134971		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134972		conservation	eng	None in place. Found in a protected area in part of its range (Marojejy National Park).
134972		distribution	eng	Madagascar. Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve naturelle intégrale de Marojejy, source of Andranomifototra River, under rocks, 1875 m, 14°26’8”S, 49°44’1”E, 1875 m, 11 km northwest of Manantenina collected in 1996.
134972		habitat	eng	11 km northwest of Manantenina, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve naturelle intégrale de Marojejy, 14°26’8”S, 49°44’1”E, source of Andranomifototra river, under rocks, 1,875 m.
134972		population	eng	Known only from the type material (6 specimens) all from the same locality.
134972		threats	eng	None known.
134973		conservation	eng	None in place
134973		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: feeder stream to Suoi Mo, Suoi Ho Mon, Ba Na foothills, Song Thuy Loan basin, Da Nang Province, Central Vietnam.
134973		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134973		population	eng	No information available.
134973		threats	eng	Unknown.
134974		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Redang forests and monitoring of pollution levels as well as freshwater use.
134974		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Endemic to Pulau Redang Island, Terengganu.
134974		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with rocky streams with clean, fast flowing waters.
134974		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134974		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The development of Redang as a resort island will increase land-use threats and overuse of very limited freshwater supplies.
134975		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134975		distribution	eng	Colombia: Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,200 m asl, between the Boyoca and North of the Santander Department. Orinoco watershed (Campos 2005).
134975		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,200 m asl.
134975		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134975		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134976		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134976		distribution	eng	Brazil: This species is found in central, southeast, northeast and north Brazil in the Amazon, Sao Francisco, upper Paraguay and upper Parana river basins. In Brazil it is found in Para,Tocantis, Goias, Pernambuco, Sergipe, Bahia, Matto Grosso, Matto Grosso do Sul, Sao Paulo, and Maranhao States (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996). It is also found in the Parana River and Xingu River basins in the highlands of Goias. The geographical range of this species spans both sides of the South American water divide formed by the Serra das Divisoes (Rodriguez 1992).
134976		habitat	eng	Typical of the rivers of the planalto.
134976		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
134976		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
134977		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134977		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Colonie Tovar (Aragua State); Central coastal range, mountainous region of central Venezuela, several collections have been made in the State of Miranda where this species occurs in the Parque Nacional Guatopo, 750 m, where it was living under a decayed tree trunk.
134977		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134977		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134977		threats	eng	None known.
134978		conservation	eng	The retention of Bako area as a national park should ensure its survival.
134978		distribution	eng	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: endemic to Bako National Park.
134978		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living under rocks and vegetation in waterfalls and streams.
134978		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134978		threats	eng	No clear threat, as its range is within Bako National Park.
134979		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
134979		distribution	eng	China: Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces. Fenghua, Tianmushan, Zhuji, Wencheng, Yongjia, Hechuan, Longquan, Qingtian, Lishui, Yunhe, Qingyuan, Linhai, Qingtian, Jinyun, Suichang, Yinxian, Tiantai, Panan, Taishun, Pingyong, Dongtou, Dinghai, Leqing, Kaihua, Shengxian in Zhejiang Province. Shouning in Fujian Province.
134979		habitat	eng	Lung fluke found in this species: <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> (Kerbert).
134979		population	eng	No information available.
134979		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134980		conservation	eng	None in place
134980		distribution	eng	India: Manipur Hills, Manipur State.
134980		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134980		population	eng	No information available.
134980		threats	eng	Unknown.
134981		conservation	eng	None in place.
134981		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: This species is known only from the type specimen from Jismil Camp, a few km from LabuhanTobela, along Sungai (River) Labuhan Tobela, northern Pulau Buton (4°26'30"S 122°59'E) in southeast Sulawesi. There have been no records in over 10 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
134981		habitat	eng	In hardly disturbed primary evergreen rainforest, boulder covered with calcareous deposits.
134981		population	eng	No information available.
134981		threats	eng	No information available.
134982		conservation	eng	None in place
134982		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Daban in Phan Rang Province, South Annam (= central Viet Nam).
134982		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134982		population	eng	No information available.
134982		threats	eng	Unknown.
134983		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134983		distribution	eng	Mexico: Guanajuato, Morelos, Puebla, Guerrero, Oaxaca States. Cuba, Haiti (Hispaniola) are doubtful records.
134983		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134983		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
134983		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
134984		conservation	eng	None in place
134984		distribution	eng	China: Sichuan Province: Motuo, Xizang Autonomous Region, China (Dai, 1990). Sping Country, Rongjing County (29 7'N 102 8'E). Yingjing, Sichuan Province (Dai 1999).
134984		habitat	eng	Temperature 17°C, ph 6.0.
134984		population	eng	No information available.
134984		threats	eng	Unknown.
134985		conservation	eng	None in place.
134985		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin. San Jose del Cuao, and alto Rio Cuao, both in theTerritorio Federal Amazonas, 400 m above sea level. The Cuao River is a tributary of the Orinoco near Puerto Ayacucho, Quebrada El Garzon, 18 km from Rio Parguaza, Estado Bolivar, 100 m above sea level. Quebrada El Garzon, 18 km from Rıo Parguaza, Bolıvar State - Venezuela, 100 m. The subspecies <em>Fredius adpressus piaroensis</em> is from the Paguaza River, another minor tributary of the Orinoco, north of the Cuao River.
134985		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. The two subspecies localities are in remote areas, and are not well surveyed (Lasso pers. comm.).
134985		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134985		threats	eng	None known. The areas in which this species has been collected is considered to be still quite pristine.
134986		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134986		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: This species is known only from the type specimen from Tanah Merah, Lempaka, Samarinda (1°04'S 117°05'E), eastern Kalimantan, Borneo. There have been no records in over 15 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.
134986		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134986		population	eng	No information available.
134986		threats	eng	Unknown.
134987		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134987		distribution	eng	Australia: Queensland: Port Stewart District, Cape York; known only from a limited area, near Croydon, Norman River catchment, and north to Coen River in the west, east to the upper Baron River, and north to Port Stewart, Cape York in the east.
134987		habitat	eng	Temporary freshwater lagoon, under leaves on hard bottom, also found in small streams, ponds, and lives in burrows.
134987		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134987		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134988		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is not found in a protected area.
134988		distribution	eng	Nigeria: This species is known from several localites in central Nigeria and is endemic to that country.
134988		habitat	eng	<em>Sudanonautes kagoroensis</em> is locally common in streams and rivers of the guinea savannah zone of west central Nigeria on the western slopes of the Jos plateau. The species occurs in the rivers on the top of the plateau, in the fast-flowing streams which drain the western escarpment, and in the rivers close to the western base of the plateau. All seven localities from which <em>S. kagoroensis</em> has been collected are associated with the Mada river, which collects water from the Jos plateau and which eventually joins the Benue/Niger river.
134988		population	eng	This species is known only from a relatively few specimens from several localities. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
134988		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
134989		conservation	eng	None in place
134989		distribution	eng	Burma: Himalayas, in mountains near Burma. China: South China region, South Yunnan mountainous region (Hengduan mountain area); Jinghong Tuanshan in Yunnan Xishuangbanna, China.
134989		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134989		population	eng	No information available.
134989		threats	eng	Unknown.
134990		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134990		distribution	eng	Thailand: District Wanon Niwat, Sakon Nakhon Province, in northeastern Thailand.
134990		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. Crabs are collected for food by the local populace.
134990		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134990		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
134991		conservation	eng	None in place
134991		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi (=Jian'ou) Province and Fujian Province.
134991		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134991		population	eng	No information available.
134991		threats	eng	Unknown.
134992		conservation	eng	None in place
134992		distribution	eng	Burma: Inle Lake (and one of its tributaries He-Ho stream), Southern Shan States, Myanmar.
134992		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134992		population	eng	No information available.
134992		threats	eng	Unknown.
134993		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134993		distribution	eng	Guyana: The type locality of <em>M. rodriguezi</em> provided by Suárez (2006) is “the Rupununi River, Melville, British Guiana”, which is most likely Dadanawa (= Melvilles Ranch), in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo Region of Guyana (2°49'60'' N, 59°31'0'' W). This locality is 156 m asl making it the only species in the genus that occurs at altitudes below 500 m (Suárez 2006).
134993		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Guyana in the Essequibo river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.
134993		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134993		threats	eng	None known.
134994		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134994		distribution	eng	Philiipines, Luzon Island, Quezon Province, caves.
134994		habitat	eng	Collected in a shallow stream or inside a cave +/- 100 m from the cave's entrance in a shallow puddle of water very near the main underground stream. Two juveniles were observed on higher puddles above the stream.
134994		population	eng	No information available.
134994		threats	eng	Unknown.
134995		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134995		distribution	eng	Belize: Balam's Cave (Uchen Balam), Cayo District (last recorded collection in 1967).  Mexico: Southern Mexico (Veracruz, Chiapas). Troglobitic characters are not conspicuously developed in this species. Legs only a little slender, carapace not pale, eyes normal.
134995		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
134995		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
134995		threats	eng	None known.
134996		conservation	eng	None in place
134996		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality. The literature record is not clear about the location, but it may be somewhere in Sikkim State, India (N. Cumberlidge, pers. comm 29 August 2008).
134996		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134996		population	eng	No information available.
134996		threats	eng	Unknown.
134997		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134997		distribution	eng	Thailand: Ban Nan Sinuan in Amphoe Muang, Mukdahan Province, northeastern Thailand.
134997		habitat	eng	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace.
134997		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
134997		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. There are long-term threats from collection for food and human induced habitat loss.
134998		conservation	eng	Unknown.
134998		distribution	eng	India: Assam state. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sibsagar in Assam. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
134998		habitat	eng	Unknown.
134998		population	eng	No information available.
134998		threats	eng	Unknown.
134999		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
134999		distribution	eng	Mexico: Queretaro State. Only known from the male holotype.
134999		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
134999		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
134999		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135000		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place and it is not found in a protected area.
135000		distribution	eng	India: Maharasthra state: Khandalla. This species is known only from the type specimen (Alcock, 1909). There have been no records in almost 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
135000		habitat	eng	No information is available.
135000		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
135000		threats	eng	No information is available. Likely threats include habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135001		conservation	eng	None in place
135001		distribution	eng	Thailand: The actual distribution of this species is unknown, probably north of Bangkok.
135001		habitat	eng	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.
135001		population	eng	No information available.
135001		threats	eng	Unknown.
135002		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135002		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Only known from western Taiwan (Bain-Her). Zhanghua/Changhua, Nantou, Yunling, Jiayi/Chiayi and Tainan.<br/>Taiwan, Nantou, Chung-Hsing Village.
135002		habitat	eng	Lives in holes along the banks of streams  under an altitude of 500 m above sea level. Also in mud burrows in rice fields with a depth of 50 cm.
135002		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135002		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135003		conservation	eng	None in place
135003		distribution	eng	Philippines: Naujan Lake, Mindoro.
135003		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135003		population	eng	No information available.
135003		threats	eng	Unknown.
135004		conservation	eng	This species has a wide distribution on mainland Australia but it's populations are fragmented because it is also found on Lizard Island, a protected area off coast of Queensland in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
135004		distribution	eng	Australia: Lizard Island, off coast of Queensland, to north of Cooktown, and Eureka Creek, Walsh River, Cape York, northern Australia. Queensland (N Gulf, NE coastal); known only from limited area, from Ravenshoe west to Walsh River, near Chillagoe, and north to Iron Range in the east, and Archer River in the west.
135004		habitat	eng	Burrowing, freshwater. From cattle and horse pads on grass slopes during rain.
135004		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135004		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135005		conservation	eng	The retention of Lanjak-Entimau as a Wildlife Sanctuary should ensure its survival.
135005		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (170,000 ha) in Sarawak, Malaysia.
135005		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic, there are many more undescribed species in this genus known from Sarawak but have been missed due to their small size.
135005		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135005		threats	eng	no clear threat, as its range is within Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary.
135006		conservation	eng	None in place
135006		distribution	eng	China: Yenyun/Yanyuan County (24°4'N 101°4'E), Sichuan Province.
135006		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135006		population	eng	No information available.
135006		threats	eng	Unknown.
135007		conservation	eng	None in place
135007		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, West Mountain subregion (of Hengduan Mountain area), Basin zone.
135007		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135007		population	eng	No information available.
135007		threats	eng	Unknown.
135008		conservation	eng	None in place
135008		distribution	eng	Thailand: Nam Yun District, Ubon Ratchathani Province.
135008		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135008		population	eng	No information available.
135008		threats	eng	Unknown.
135009		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135009		distribution	eng	Nicaragua: Granada and Rio San Juan Departments, Greytown.
135009		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135009		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
135009		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135010		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135010		distribution	eng	Philippines - southern Luzon, from a small valley north of Taal Lake, near Tagatay.
135010		habitat	eng	Waterfalls.
135010		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135010		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135011		conservation	eng	None in place
135011		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: 50 km west of Touranne (= Dan Nang), Phuc Son (Nam Trung bo) and Dong Tam Ve (Nghe An), Annam (= central Vietnam).
135011		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135011		population	eng	No information available.
135011		threats	eng	Unknown.
135012		conservation	eng	None in place
135012		distribution	eng	China: Fujian Province: Shaowu and Fuzhou counties.
135012		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135012		population	eng	No information available.
135012		threats	eng	Unknown.
135013		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135013		distribution	eng	Colombia: Choco and Risaralda Departments: Cauca River basin (Campos 2005).
135013		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 420-2,400 m asl.
135013		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135013		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135014		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135014		distribution	eng	Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, and Parana States) and Argentina (from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina). This species occurs in the coastal basins of the east band of Brazil, coincident with the oldextension of Mata Atlantica, and in the basin of the high Parana.
135014		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams, and is common under rocks of mountain streams.
135014		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
135014		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135015		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
135015		distribution	eng	China: Sanming, Jiangle, Huaan, Zhangping in Fujian Province. Meixian in Guangdong Province.
135015		habitat	eng	Temperature 24-25°C.
135015		population	eng	No information available.
135015		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135016		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
135016		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in four countries. It is found in Turkey (Sivas, Kayseri, Malatya, Elazig, Diyarbakir, Siirt, Bitlis, Van, and Hakkari Provinces, and in the Upper reaches of Aras, southwest of Erzerum, eastern Anatolia), in Iraq (Sulayamanijah Province), in Iran (Azarbayejan-e Gharbi, Azarbayejan e Sharqi, Gilan, Markazi, Hamadan, Bakhtaran, Lorestan, Esfahan Provinces), and in Armenia. This species is found the Tigris-Euphrates river systems and in the region from Lake Van to the Elburs Mountains and in the region south of Esfahan in Iran.
135016		habitat	eng	<em>Potion persicum</em> is found in the streams and rivers of eastern Turkey, Armenia, Iraq and Iran, but otherwise there is no information available on the habitat requirements of this species.
135016		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.
135016		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
135017		conservation	eng	None in place
135017		distribution	eng	China: Nancheng (27.5N, 116.6 E), Jiangxi Province.
135017		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135017		population	eng	No information available.
135017		threats	eng	Unknown.
135019		conservation	eng	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.
135019		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula,Terengganu (5°04'25.0"N, 103°03'19.8"E); endemic to Terengganu State (12,955 km²).
135019		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Living in shallow (i.e., less than 1 m depth), slow flowing shaded forest streams among leaf litter and submerged debris. In well shaded forests, with temperatures around 25.9°C and pH 6.71.
135019		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135019		threats	eng	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.
135020		conservation	eng	None in place
135020		distribution	eng	China: Heping (24.4°N, 114.9°E), Guangdong Province.
135020		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135020		population	eng	No information available.
135020		threats	eng	Unknown.
135021		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135021		distribution	eng	China: Jiangxi Province. Endemic to Jiangxi Province. Maozhushan, Xiushui (29 N 114.5 E), Xishui County has an area of 2,000 km²; Fengxin and Yifeng Counties. Jianxi Province is situated in the south-east part of China. Its north boundary is bordered by the Changjiang River, while its east, south, and west sides are surrounded by mountains (500-2000 m asl)
135021		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135021		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135021		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution..
135022		conservation	eng	None in place
135022		distribution	eng	China: Wenzhou (28.0°N 120°E), Zhejiang Province.
135022		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135022		population	eng	No information available.
135022		threats	eng	Unknown.
135023		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi. This species is known only from the type specimen from Lake Poso, Tomini gulf, Central Sulawesi. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
135023		population	eng	No information available.
135024		conservation	eng	A male crab was caught in Kaeng Krachan National Park in 1998. The national park provides reasonable protection.
135024		distribution	eng	Western Thailand and southern Burma. Thailand: Ban Krang, Huae mae Phraeng in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Phetchaburi Province. Also found in Tavoy (14.05.00N, 98.12.00E), Tenasserim, and in the Hills between Burma and Thailand (Phetchaburi Province, Thailand).
135024		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135024		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135024		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135025		conservation	eng	None in place
135025		distribution	eng	Indonesia (Borneo - Kalimantan), Southeast Asia.
135025		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135025		population	eng	No information available.
135025		threats	eng	Unknown.
135026		conservation	eng	None in place
135026		distribution	eng	The Philippines.
135026		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135026		population	eng	No information available.
135026		threats	eng	Unknown.
135027		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135027		distribution	eng	Philippines: Bohol, from caves (Quilas cave, Nueva Vida Norte, Butuan).
135027		habitat	eng	Quilas cave is part of a long chain of chambers with large pools. They do not seem to be connected directly to any permanent surface stream but rather, are fed diffusely or by periodical inputs from the surface. The presence of catfish in the cave suggested that a hidden connection to surface waters might exist.
135027		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown, although many specimens of this amphibious crab were observed, but only at the type locality.
135027		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135028		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
135028		distribution	eng	Angola: Dondo, Punto-Andongo, Ambaca. This large-bodied riverine species is common in the northwestern <br/>part of the southern African region with a distributional range that includes Angola and the neighboring provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This species occurs outside of the southern African region in Central Africa (the DR Congo), but significant immigration between these regions is not expected to occur.
135028		habitat	eng	A river-living species.
135028		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species with an extent of occurrence of at least 1,000,000 km².
135028		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
135029		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area
135029		distribution	eng	Colombia: Rio Sinu drainage, Ayapel, Lorica, Pueblo Nuevo, and San Pelayo, all in Cordoba Department. This species occurs in a quite restricted area in the Maracaibo, Magdalena, and Rio Sinu drainage systems in northern Colombia and across the border in western Venezuela (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996). It is found in the Sinu River near Monteria, Cordoba Department, and in the San Jorge River basin (Campos 2005).
135029		habitat	eng	Lowland species. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 10- 50 m asl.
135029		population	eng	This species is reported to be scarce and is known from only a few specimens (Campos, 2005).
135029		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135030		conservation	eng	Tonle Sap is the largest freshwater lake in South East Asia and is an ecological hotspot that was designated as a UNESCO biosphere in 1997.
135030		distribution	eng	Cambodia: swampy margin of Great Lake of Tonle Sap (2,700 km²), near Siem Riep.
135030		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135030		population	eng	No information available.
135030		threats	eng	Unknown.
135031		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135031		distribution	eng	Venezuela: Cerro Turimikiri, Sucre State, 1,500 m.
135031		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135031		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135031		threats	eng	None known.
135032		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135032		distribution	eng	This large-bodied riverine species is common in the northern part of the southern African region in Angola (Braganza-District), northern Botswana (Okavango Delta), Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and its range extends northward into the Katanga Province of the D. R. Congo in Central Africa, but significant exchange between the regions is not thought to occur.
135032		habitat	eng	This is a large-bodied river-living species.
135032		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species with an extent of occurrence of at least 1,000,000 km².
135032		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.
135033		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135033		distribution	eng	Pakistan: Kalagan, Bampush, Mand, Pishin, all in the Province of Baluchistan. The Province of Baluchistan was a former province of British India in the northen parts of modern Blaochistan Province of Pakistan.
135033		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135033		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
135033		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135034		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135034		distribution	eng	Taiwan: southern Taiwan (Hengchun Peninsula, south of Fenggang River); Pingtung County (Manchow, Jeouperng; Manchow, Nanren Lake).
135034		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135034		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135034		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135035		conservation	eng	Phu Rua National Park.
135035		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tad Lu Waterfall at Phu Luang, northeastern, Amphoe Wang Saphung, Loei Province. Also Ban Nam Tob, Khao Luang, Amphoe Wang Saphung; Huai Phai Waterfall, Phu Rua, Amphoe Phu Rua; Ban Na Wa, Amphoe Dan Sai - all in Loei Province.
135035		habitat	eng	Found in mountain stream of a waterfall
135035		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135035		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135036		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135036		distribution	eng	Thailand: Trat and Chantaburi Province, eastern Thailand. Khao Rakam, Muang Trat District; Khlong Fuai (rd. 3271, 12 23'44.8N 102 39'34.5"E), Trat Province; Nam Tok Salad Dhai, ~5-10km NW of milestone 26 on rd 3157; Klong Nam Ron (stream) about 54 km N from Chantaburi (12 54'44.3N 102 22'16.2"E) Pong Nam Ron district; Pong Nam ron (12 52'8.6"N 102 22'44.5"E) in Pong Nam Ron District, Chantaburi Province.
135036		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135036		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135036		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
135037		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135037		distribution	eng	Laos: Nam Xi below Kuang Xi (Kuang Si) waterfall, upstream of Ban Thapen, Luang Prabang Province and "torrents ou ruisseaux, Luang Prabang, Indochine", northern Laos.
135037		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135037		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends but the types were collected in 18th century and one further specimen was collected in 1997.
135037		threats	eng	This species is not widely distributed and Kuang Xi waterfall is a tourist spot that may be developed in the near future.
135038		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135038		distribution	eng	Colombia: Eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River. Only known from four localities all in the Tolima Department (Campos 2005).
135038		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,400-2,000 m asl in the humid forests of the Central Cordillera of Colombia.
135038		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135038		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135039		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135039		distribution	eng	Colombia: Narino Department: from the western slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia in the Patia river basin. Quebrada Taibai, Vereda Piedra Verde, Inspeccion Buena Vista, Municipio Barbacoas, 1,140 m asl, southern Colombia. Pacific slope of the Western Cordillera of Colombia which is a continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador (Campos 2005).
135039		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,140 m asl.
135039		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135039		threats	eng	None known.
135040		conservation	eng	None in place
135040		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: northern Viet Nam (Thuan Chau District, Son La Province, probably also Hoa Binh Province with part of the Song Da river drainage) (Yeo, unpubl. data)
135040		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135040		population	eng	No information available.
135040		threats	eng	Deforestation and replacement by rice fields in the Song Da River watershed. Also the Da River watershed has been profoundly changed by the construction of the Hoa Binh Dam between 1979 and 1994. The dam now supplies nearly 50% of Vietnam’s electricity, powering much of the urban, industrial development taking place in the lowland deltas. Damming the Da River resulted in the inundation of 200 square kilometers of surface area, extending 230 km upstream. (Asia Forest Network, Research Network Report Number 10, January 1998, from homepage: http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/doclib.nsf/0/E5E0A84E9B42A19F80256690003862FB/$FILE/PART3.html)
135041		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135041		distribution	eng	India: West Bengal state: Barnagore, near Calcutta. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in almost 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.
135041		habitat	eng	No information available (freshwater).
135041		population	eng	No information available.
135041		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135042		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135042		distribution	eng	Northern Prachuap Khiri Khan (Huai Sad Yai in Hua Hin District) and Phetchaburi Provinces (Kaeng Krachang in Tha Yang District), south Thailand, Asia. (from Yeo's thesis 2000).
135042		habitat	eng	This species appears to have different habitat preference from its congeners, being collected from mountain streams and creeks, rather than from waterfalls and cascades (Yeo's thesis 2000).
135042		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135042		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135043		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).
135043		distribution	eng	This species is found in Colombia (Amazon region), Ecuador, Venezuela, and Brazil (Amazonas State) in the Amazon drainage basin. This species was described from a single female specimen whose typical locality is not well established ("we found it in a jar with several crustaceans coming from Pernambuco; we believe accordingly that this species lives in the rivers of that state", Moreira, 1901). Bott (1969) assigned to this species one small male from Rio Cuieras, affluent of the Rio Negro in the Amazon basin of Brazil and the Negro River in Venezuela. Pernambuca River; rivers of the Atlantic drainage, Pernambuco State (Brazil).  Associated with rivers and blackwater lakes, in littoral areas, associated with submerged vegetation. Colombia: Amazonas, Guiania Departments (Campos 2005).
135043		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro and Rio Uatuma rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. Found rivers and blackwater lakes, in littoral areas, associated with submerged vegetation. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 75-160 m asl.
135043		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
135043		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
135045		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135045		distribution	eng	West Africa: This species is known only from the rainforest zone in Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire and is endemic to this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone. West Africa. It is quite a common species.
135045		habitat	eng	<em>Liberonautes paludicolis</em> is found in or near forest streams, or in low-lying areas of cleared forest which have permanent surface water, such as fish farm excavations, swamp rice farms, and ditches. Crabs also occur in other sites which become inundated with shallow water only during the rainy season in Liberia (May to October). Crabs spend a good deal of time resting in burrows dug into the banks of streams, swamps, marshy land, or the forest floor. Burrows are usually sited next to, or in the vicinity of water and are usually absent from those parts of the forest where there is no nearby surface water. Swamp crabs have often been encountered crossing the road during daytime rain storms or at night, when they leave their resting places to look for food on the nearby land. Occasionally <em>L. paludicolis</em> ventures into streams (as evidenced by the occasional collection of specimens in basket traps set in creeks). The ecology of the swamp crab is distinct from that of <em>L. latidactylus</em>, but there is an area of overlap, because the two species are both found in the small streams of the rainforest zone of Liberia (<em>L. latidactylus</em> always, <em>L. paludicolis</em> occasionally). <em>Liberonautes paludicolis</em> is an important second intermediate host to <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> in Liberia and plays an key role in the transmission of the human lung fluke parasite to humans.
135045		population	eng	A fairly common species in the rainforest.
135045		threats	eng	Specific threats to this area include deforestation and advancing agriculture in cleared forest in Liberia and on the slopes of Mount Nimba that disrupt its wetland habitat. This results in habitat loss/degradation. Increases in human populations are also an issue.
135046		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135046		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cauca and Huila Departments: found exclusively in the Magdalena River basin, drains into the Caribbean (Campos 2005).
135046		habitat	eng	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,300-2,300 m asl.
135046		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.
135046		threats	eng	None known.
135047		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135047		distribution	eng	Laos: Nam Ou at confluence with Huay Nam (21°4'10"N 102°31'44"E), Phongsali Province, northern Laos; Nam Sa River, tributary of Nam Ou (22.05'31"N, 102.06'19"E), Phou Dendin, Phonsgali, northern Laos (distance between locations in 130 km).
135047		habitat	eng	Dry evergreen forest, mixed with bamboo.
135047		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135047		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
135048		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135048		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi, Kerala, southwestern India.
135048		habitat	eng	Specimens from the type locality were collected from a dry stream. All the crabs were collected from under stones in moist soil in shade. Sand accumulates on the dense setae of their ambulatory legs, facilitating camouflage in the wet soil and leaf litter on the forest floor.
135048		population	eng	No information available.
135048		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135049		conservation	eng	None in place
135049		distribution	eng	India: Assam Province: Khasi Hills; Darjiling
135049		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135049		population	eng	No information available.
135049		threats	eng	Unknown.
135050		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135050		distribution	eng	Ecuador: Collected from one location, Estero Lojca, Muisne Salima, Esmeraldas Province.
135050		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135050		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135050		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135051		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135051		distribution	eng	India: South India, Travancore, Western Ghats. The species is known only from the type specimens collected from south India.
135051		habitat	eng	Probably a stream crab like its congeners but its ecology is generally not known.
135051		population	eng	No information available.
135051		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135052		conservation	eng	None in place
135052		distribution	eng	Indonesia (Borneo - Kalimantan - Barabai, Meratus Mountains (2 36'44"S, 115 22'02"E), Southeast Asia.
135052		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135052		population	eng	No information available.
135052		threats	eng	Unknown.
135053		conservation	eng	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival. Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels outside protected areas.
135053		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Kelantan. Found within Taman Negara which is a national park.
135053		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with clean, clear flowing waters, hiding under rocks and vegetation during the day and emerging at night to forage in the water. Biology poorly known.
135053		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135053		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within Taman Negara. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.
135054		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).
135054		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Orinoco and Amazon River basins in Venezuela, the island of Trinidad, the Guianas, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. In Brazil it is widespread along the Amazon river basin in the states of Pará, Amazonas, Rondonia, Acre, Amapá States, and in the coastal river basins of the state of Maranhão. Valdivia serrata is found in Suriname (Paramaribo, Litani River, upper reaches of the Marowijne River basin), and Guyana (Demerara River). This species is also found in Venezuela (Amazonas Federal Territory, Bolivar State), Ecuador (Napo Province), and Colombia. In Colombia this species is found in the eastern region of the country (Amazonas, Arauca, Caqueta, Meta, and Putumayo Departments) in the Putamayo and Maqueta Rivers which drain to the Amazon River and the Guiviare, Meta and Aracua Rivers which drain into the Orinoco River (Campos 2005).
135054		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Cuyuni, Essequibo, Marowijne/Marone, Orinoco and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, Rio Trombetas, and Rio Jari rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. This species is found in rivers and lakes, and in holes of submerged tree trunks. It has also been recorded from a stream near Agrauniversita Pucallpa, Quebrada de Lecheria. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 120-800 m asl. The Balawa-ú village (01º47,91'N, 63º46,88'W) is in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela (Magalhaes <em>et al</em>. 2006). Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin.  This is a medium-sized species and is primarily aquatic. It is usually associated with the submerged leaf litter and wood debris. In the stream near the Balawa-ú village it was found in the sandy bottom of the stream.
135054		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
135054		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Species exploited by the Yanomami include two crab species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival.
135055		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135055		distribution	eng	Panama: Rio Cocle del Norte, western Panama.
135055		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Panama.
135055		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135055		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135056		conservation	eng	None in place
135056		distribution	eng	Myanmar/Burma. Valley of Houngdareau (=Haungtharaw) River at the southwest slope of the Dawna Hills, Upper Tenaserim, south Burma (16.36.00N, 98.01.00E); Meetan (=Mitan Chaung (=river) 15.59.00N, 98.24.00E at the south-west slope of the Dawna mountain range); Kokareet, Tenasserim (= Dawna Hills).
135056		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135056		population	eng	No information available.
135056		threats	eng	Unknown.
135057		conservation	eng	None in place
135057		distribution	eng	Stream at Ninhhai (Ninhphuoc District, Ninhthuan Province), Viet Nam.
135057		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135057		population	eng	No information available.
135057		threats	eng	Unknown.
135058		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135058		distribution	eng	China: Pingshan, Muchuan counties in Sichuan Province.
135058		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135058		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135058		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135059		conservation	eng	None in place
135059		distribution	eng	China: Hubei Province, Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Yaohua, Zhijiang county, Hubei Province.
135059		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135059		population	eng	No information available.
135059		threats	eng	Unknown.
135060		conservation	eng	None in place
135060		distribution	eng	China: Hekou, Yunnan Province.
135060		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135060		population	eng	No information available.
135060		threats	eng	Unknown.
135061		conservation	eng	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival. Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels outside protected areas.
135061		distribution	eng	Singapore and Malaysian peninsula. Type locality: Kuala Tahan, Pahang (4°21'N, 102°24'E). Found in northern two-thirds of Pahang (<em>ca</em>. 3°30'N and above), Kelantan and western Trengganu. Endemic to small range of mountains east of the main range in Pahang and western Terrengganu.
135061		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic. Associated with clean, clear, flowing waters, hiding under rocks and vegetation during the day and emerging at night to forage in the water.
135061		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135061		threats	eng	No immediate threat to populations within Taman Negara. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.
135062		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
135062		distribution	eng	Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan. Dow Hill, Kurseong, 4,000-5,000 ft; Dafla Hills; Ajmere, Rajputana. Bhutan: 87 km northwest of Phuntsholing; Bhutan: Chukka district, Chima Kothi (1,900-2,300 m).
135062		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135062		population	eng	No information available.
135062		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135063		conservation	eng	None in place
135063		distribution	eng	China: Xingren County in Guizhou.
135063		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135063		population	eng	No information available.
135063		threats	eng	Unknown.
135064		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.
135064		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Turkey in the upper reaches of the Euphrates andTigris Rivers (in Artvin, Mus, Erzurum, Bingol, Sivas, Elazig, Sanliurfa, Adiyaman, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep Provinces), in Iraq (Ninava, Ymaniah, At-Tamin, SulaSalahudin Provinces), and in western Armenia and northern Syria (Halab Province).
135064		habitat	eng	<em>Potion magnum</em> is found in the streams and rivers in Turkey, Armenia, Syria, and Iraq, otherwise there is no specific information on the habitat requirements of this species.
135064		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species. Although no studies have been conducted, the population is considered to be stable based on the number of collections (13) and the number of different localities (13) representing one subpopulation, in the four countries where this species is known to exist.
135064		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
135065		conservation	eng	None in place
135065		distribution	eng	China: Lingxian County, Hunan.
135065		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135065		population	eng	No information available.
135065		threats	eng	Unknown.
135066		conservation	eng	None in place.
135066		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to highlands of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, southern India. Type specimens were from Tandikudi, Palanis. In addition, we found T. convexa from a wider range (three locations in Kerala, alt. 1,050-1,200 m) than its congeners.
135066		habitat	eng	Most of the recent specimens were collected from shallow, small streams, especially from under boulders. Specimens from beside a paddy field on Kumerly-Munnar road, Kerala, India, 09.39’18.6”N, 077.09’54.5”E, alt. 1,100 m, are from a muddy canal in turbid water, collected by removing <em>Alocasia</em> plants.
135066		population	eng	No information available.
135066		threats	eng	None known.
135067		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135067		distribution	eng	Indonesia: northern Sulawesi; Batjan in the Mollucas, and Soah Konorah in Halmahera.
135067		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135067		population	eng	No information available.
135067		threats	eng	Unknown.
135068		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135068		distribution	eng	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: Known from two closely-spaced localities in Kerala, south western India. Kodagara Village on Trissur-Chalakudy road, Kerala (10°21'30.7"N, 076°08'45.0E) and Koratti Village, Chalakudy Angamali Road, Kerala (10°21'39.7'N, 076°08'45"E).
135068		habitat	eng	All the crabs were from shallow to deep burrows along the muddy banks of rice-field embankments.
135068		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135068		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135069		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135069		distribution	eng	El Salvador: La Joya, south of Cuidad Arce (= El Chilamatal) La Libertad Department, also Santa Ana, Sonsonate, El Salvador, Chalatenango, and Cuscatlan Departments. Waterfall 2 km east of Juayua, Sonsonate Department.
135069		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
135069		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135069		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135070		distribution	eng	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: This species is known only from the type specimen from Kolaththuppuzha-Tenmalai Road (08°54'12.7"N 077°32'7.2"E) in southern India.
135070		habitat	eng	Was collected from rice-field embankments, crabs were also observed in burrows in the margins of adjacent streams.
135070		population	eng	No information available.
135071		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135071		distribution	eng	Philippines: Bohol, about 2km southwest of Batuan 09 46' 45''N, 124 07' 54''E at entrance of Ughob cave; at Bonugan cave, Batuan and Kalumpan, Behind-the-clouds, Batuan, caves. This species is found in caves only in a small area (EOO of 10 km²).
135071		habitat	eng	Was found in a number of rather diverse habitats, all in the Batuan region in the centre of Bohol. Found in a garden well as well as in caves. Bonugan is one of a chain of caves along the same brook. The substrate of this stream is only moderately enriched with organic matter and the surface fauna is present only in the entrance. In Kalumpan the crab was found in an illuminated siphon pool which had no direct connection with any surface stream.
135071		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135071		threats	eng	Human disturbance of the biota is not as severe in Bonogan as in Ughab cave, e.g. bathing, laundry, swimming. The irrigation system of Eastern Batuan uses the caves for faster irrigation during harvest time (Urich (1991) from Proceedings of the international conference on environmental changes in the Karst Areas). Major threats are an irrigation system and the human use of these caves.
135072		conservation	eng	None in place
135072		distribution	eng	China: Guangdong Province.
135072		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135072		population	eng	No information available.
135072		threats	eng	Unknown.
135073		conservation	eng	None in place
135073		distribution	eng	China: Zunyi County in Guizhou Province.
135073		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135073		population	eng	No information available.
135073		threats	eng	Unknown.
135074		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135074		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in NW Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Ajamaru on  Ajamaru Lake, Jate Lake near Djitmau, and Aitinjo on Aitinjo Lake, and Biak Island).  Three of these are lakes on the Vogelkop Peninsula while the fourth site was from a stream in Biak Island, Shouten Islands, Geelvink Bay.<br/><br/>Described from specimens collected between 1952-55 and has not been collected since.
135074		population	eng	No information available.
135074		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135075		conservation	eng	None in place
135075		distribution	eng	China: Fujian Province.
135075		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135075		population	eng	No information available.
135075		threats	eng	Unknown.
135076		conservation	eng	None in place
135076		distribution	eng	Vietnam:  Tonkin, montagnes du Yunnan (via Lao Koi), northern Vietnam border. China: Hekou in Yunnan Province, southern China. Wide range (Vietnamese Red Data Book 1992).
135076		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams in mountainous areas.
135076		population	eng	No information available.
135076		threats	eng	Unknown.
135077		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135077		distribution	eng	Panama: Cerro Azul (9° 10' 0N, 79° 25' 0W), 646 m asl.
135077		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135077		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135077		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135078		conservation	eng	None in place
135078		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Aluoi district, Thuathienhue Province.
135078		habitat	eng	Streams.
135078		population	eng	No information available.
135078		threats	eng	Unknown.
135079		conservation	eng	None in place
135079		distribution	eng	Viet Nam: Sin Ho District in Lin Chau Province, northern Vietnam. China: Hetouzhai, Jinping County in Yunnan Province, southern China.
135079		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135079		population	eng	No information available.
135079		threats	eng	Unknown.
135080		conservation	eng	Lake Poso is in a protected area.
135080		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Posso (East shore between Tentena and Peura, Tentena, Tindali East coast Pendolo, west coast near Taipa, east coast south of Tindoro among cliffs), Central Sulawesi.
135080		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135080		population	eng	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.
135080		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.
135081		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135081		distribution	eng	Peru: Holotype. Huánuco, Dantas, La Molina (9°38′5′′S, 75°0′W) 450 m asl.
135081		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers.
135081		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135081		threats	eng	None known.
135082		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135082		distribution	eng	Guyana: collected near Middle Camp in deep humus on the floor of cloud forest on the Wokomung Massif, in Potaro-Siparuni Province, western Guyana (05°06'36.3'' N, 59°49'14.1'' W), 1,135 m asl (according to altimeter) or about 1,219 m (according to the topographic map of the region).
135082		habitat	eng	The following is based on the field notes provided by D. Bruce Means. The holotype was collected scuttling around on the deeply humic and leaf-littered floor of a large cloud forest (31 km by 11.5 km) on the remote unexplored Wokomung Massif (1,650 m) a tabletop mountain (tepui) in the Pakaraima Mountain range of Guyana. Other larger specimens that were not collected were seen on the banks of a small blackwater stream, and specimens reported on here were collected from land, not water. The Pakaraima Mountains are part of the Precambrian quartzite and sandstone mesas known as the Guayana Highlands (Huber 1995), a series of tepuis found in Venezuela, northern Brazil, and Guyana. Nearby Mt. Roraima was made famous by the book ‘The Lost World’ by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1912). The Wokomung Massif is drained by tributaries of the Essequibo River that flows north into the Caribbean Sea and by the Ireng River that flows south into the Amazon River. The vegetation at the type locality on Wokomung is single-tiered semi-open cloud forest with a canopy of medium height (about 15-18 m) and trees close together. The trees and plant stems are heavily draped with epiphytes (mostly aroids) that are also present on the ground together with spiny palms, and the tree trunks, branches, and lianas in the forest are all covered by a fuzzy, dark green moss. During July when the specimens were collected it rained constantly, with clear skies less than 5% of the time, indicating that this cloud forest is perennially wet. The soil is predominantly humic and is underlain at some depth by sand or indurated sandstone. The cloud forest on the top of this tepui is completely surrounded by seasonally dry lowland rainforest, and it is likely that this species will prove to be endemic to this very isolated location. Interestingly, the paratype of <em>M. meansi</em> was regurgitated from the stomach of a large tree frog (<em>Stefania</em> sp., Anura: Hylidae: Hemiphractinae) that was kept overnight in a collecting bag. Several other specimens of these small red crabs were seen (but not collected) crawling around in the litter of the forest floor at night, mostly near the banks of small streams, and it is estimated that <em>M. meansi</em> may reach carapace widths of about 30 mm or more.
135082		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135082		threats	eng	None known.
135083		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.
135083		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Kinabalu area.
135083		habitat	eng	Primarily aquatic.
135083		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135083		threats	eng	No immediate threat, as range falls within Kinabalu National Park.
135084		conservation	eng	None in place
135084		distribution	eng	China: Shitai and Guichi in Anhui Province; Chunan county in Zhejiang Province.
135084		habitat	eng	This species harbours the metacercariae of <em>Paragonimus</em> lung flukes.
135084		population	eng	No information available.
135084		threats	eng	Unknown.
135085		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135085		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Java: western Java;  Lombok;  Sumbawa;  Flores.
135085		habitat	eng	This species digs burrows by the swampy, muddy, grass-covered banks of slow streams, but its habits appear to be basically semi-terrestrial.
135085		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135085		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135086		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135086		distribution	eng	China: Yunnan Province: Zhaotong, Dongchuan, Chuxiong, Yanglin; North Hengduan Mountain area: vicinity of Kunming; and west mountain subregion, mountainous area. Szechuan (Sichuan) Province: Yibin, Leibu, Panzhihua, Nantong, Miyi, Chengkou and Suifu. Guizhou Province: Chishui. Hunan Province: Jishou and Guzhang. Hubei Province: Badong, Zushi, Zigui, Xingshan, Shennongjia and Yingshan. Shaanxi Province: Shangnan and Zhengping.
135086		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135086		population	eng	Populations are assumed to be stable because it is abundant enough to be collected in large numbers to sell at local markets in Kungming, China (record from 2000).
135086		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135087		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
135087		distribution	eng	Philippines: Mainit Lake, Mindanao.  Lake Mainit (17,430 km²) is the fourth largest lake in the Philippines located between the Provinces of Surigao del Norte and Agusan del Norte, in the Island of Mindanao (9020.32”-9031.98” N Latitude and 125028.50” E Longitude). It is also the deepest lake with a maximum depth of about 223 m and a mean depth of about 128 m.
135087		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135087		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135087		threats	eng	Human interference in lake through introduction of alien species.
135088		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135088		distribution	eng	Thailand: Tham Nam Pah Kohan Cave, Kwai Valley in Kanchanaburi Province.
135088		habitat	eng	Cavernicolous and troglobitic potamid species. The cave in which the type specimen was found had a small river running from it. The crab was found in a gallery 30 m above the river level and 150 m away from the entrance of the cave. The river was about 30 m below sea level, water temperature 25°C.
135088		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135088		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135089		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135089		distribution	eng	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department: Facatativa, Municipio Bocaja, Bogata River basin (6,000 km²); Choachi, Negro (35,944 km²)-Guayuriba-Meta (93,800 km²) rivers basin; Municipio Bojaca, Vereda Chantilly, Departamento Cundinamarca; 1,800-2,350 m asl; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia. Cundinamarca Department, Bogata area, astride Orinoco and Magdalena watersheds (Campos 2005).
135089		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,800 and 2,350 m asl.
135089		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135089		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135090		conservation	eng	None in place
135090		distribution	eng	Indonesia: BunGabondar; Toba Lake; Harangol; Siboelangit in Western Sumatra.
135090		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135090		population	eng	No information available.
135090		threats	eng	Unknown.
135091		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135091		distribution	eng	Philippines. (Exact location unknown.)
135091		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135091		population	eng	No information available.
135091		threats	eng	Unknown.
135092		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135092		distribution	eng	Colombia: Apartado, Grande River, 30 m asl, Antioquia Department (Campos 2005).
135092		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 30 m asl.
135092		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135092		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135093		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135093		distribution	eng	Taiwan: This species is found in four counties: Nantou, Yunling, Jiayi, and Tainan counties. Shihguei R. (Dounan, Yunlin), Wushulin (Baihe, Tainan).
135093		habitat	eng	Rice fields channels and rivers in mountains.
135093		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135093		threats	eng	Overuse of  pesticides in rice fields poses a major threat to this species.
135094		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time
135094		distribution	eng	China: Huangshan, Jixi, Ningguo, Yixian in Anhui Province. Linan, Chunan, Kaihua, Linhai and Suichang in Zhejiang Province.
135094		habitat	eng	Water at pH 5.4.
135094		population	eng	No information available.
135094		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135095		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135095		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Njapa Mountain (1°51'26"N 117°17'58"E), Borneo, eastern Kalimantan.
135095		habitat	eng	This species is found near a drainage channel.
135095		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135095		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135096		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135096		distribution	eng	Colombia: Santander Department: Hoyo del Aire, La Paz, 1,800 m asl; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia (Campos 2005).
135096		habitat	eng	This cave-living species lives at an altitude of 1,800 m asl on the slopes and high plains of the eastern Cordilleria of Colombia. Cavernicolous, collected from two caves.
135096		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135096		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135097		conservation	eng	The crabs are not eaten by the local population, but the location of the swamp is a holy place and therefore protected.
135097		distribution	eng	Thailand: Bung Dunlumphun, Na Chuak, Maha Sarakham Province, northeastern Thailand.
135097		habitat	eng	The animals live in burrows in a swampy area, some parts may dry out during the dry season. During the day the crabs usually stay in their holes, they come out at night to feed. Rarely seen to come out during the daytime and then show little activity. The depth of the burrow depends on the groundwater level. The crabs are not eaten by the local population, because the location of the swamp is a holy place.
135097		population	eng	No information available.
135097		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135098		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135098		distribution	eng	Mexico: Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco States.
135098		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135098		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135098		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.
135099		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135099		distribution	eng	New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from close to the headwaters of Wakip River, north coast of New Guinea. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.
135099		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135099		population	eng	No information available.
135099		threats	eng	Unknown.
135100		conservation	eng	None in place
135100		distribution	eng	Burma (Myanmar): Pegu.
135100		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135100		population	eng	No information available.
135100		threats	eng	Unknown.
135101		conservation	eng	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.
135101		distribution	eng	Uganda. Amaler River.
135101		habitat	eng	River.
135101		population	eng	Unknown.
135101		threats	eng	Unknown.
135102		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135102		distribution	eng	Guatemala: Alta Verapaz.
135102		habitat	eng	Caves, cavernicolous, troglobite, troglophile, subterranean waters.
135102		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135102		threats	eng	None known.
135103		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135103		distribution	eng	Alima, Lateke, Gabon, Central African Republic, Central Africa.<br/><br/>D.R. Congo: Kasa, Kalambaie near the Kasa River; Binya, Banyala; Binya, Equateur; Flandria; Isangila; Kosa-Kosa. Matadi, Mporo River; Stanleypool Station 35, Nsele River; Maniema, Kasongo, Lamba River; Riv. Talya, Bilboma, kamituga Talya river 2. Matadi, Luashi. <br/><br/>In addition, it may well also occur in the rivers and streams of Congo and southeast Cameroon because Gabon does not share an adjacent border with the DR Congo and the CAR. However, it is likely that populations of this species may be fragmented over its range. It was last collected in 1960.
135103		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135103		population	eng	No information available.
135103		threats	eng	No specific threats are known, but this species lives in the rivers and streams of the rainforest and may be impacted by deforestation and shifting agriculture in the future.
135104		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135104		distribution	eng	Island of Hispaniola: found in both Haiti (Moline) and the Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo near Paradis). Found in nearly all lowland rivers on Hispaniola.
135104		habitat	eng	Lowland rivers.
135104		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135104		threats	eng	The major current and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution due to urbanization and the development of agriculture. Forest loss has been rapid and wide reaching in the Dominican Republic, with cover reduced from 75% to 14% between 1920 and 1981 (Brothers 1997). This deterioration has continued, and is greatest at lower altitudes.
135105		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
135105		distribution	eng	<em>Sudanonautes monodi</em> is found only in the sudan and Guinea savanna zone of West Africa in Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria, Republic of Benin, and Togo. The species is not found in the sahel savanna regions and in the tropical rainforest zone. In Nigeria <em>S. monodi</em> is associated with three major river systems draining the savanna region: the Benue River basin, the Hadejia-Jama'are River/ Lake Chad basin, and the Kaduna River/ Niger River basin. In Togo and Benin <em>S. monodi</em> occurs in the upper reaches of the Volta River basin which drains savanna country. <em>Sudanonautes monodi</em> is locally common throughout a wide area of savanna in West Africa from Togo to Cameroon, and is particularly abundant in Nigeria. The most northerly record is from Hadejia in northern Nigeria, a locality close to the border between the sudan savanna and sahel regions. It would appear that the sahel savanna region, which lies close to the southern edge of the Sahara desert forms the northern boundary for this species. Sudanonautes monodi has not been recorded from the tropical rainforests of Nigeria and Cameroon despite regular surveys of the decapod fauna in southeast Nigeria over a number of years. This species is also absent from collections of freshwater crabs from sites in woodland savanna as well as the rainforest. The southern boundary of the distribution lies between the Guinea savanna and woodland savanna zones, and it is found from Togo to Cameroon. However, the savanna region of West Africa (from Sénégal to southern Sudan) is an apparently uniform environment which presents few obvious geographical or ecological barriers to the distribution of its fauna.
135105		habitat	eng	This species is found in seasonal wetlands in Sudan savannah. The respiratory physiology and ecology of <em>S. monodi</em> were described by Cumberlidge (1986). In the Guinea and Sudan savannah regions of West Africa the dry season lasts from October to April.  To survive in this arid environment, each crab digs a burrow. Tunnels and burrows up to one metre long are dug into dried stream banks, waterless swamp beds and cracked water holes, which are all sited in low-lying areas where the water table is close to the surface. This species is found living in colonies of up to a hundred, with one crab per burrow. The purpose of digging a burrow is to avoid exposure to high temperatures, and to create a makeshift aquatic environment at the bottom. This habitat offers the crab little more than a shallow layer of mud-brown tepid water, which collects by seepage through the soil.  This water is usually sufficient to only partly immerse the resident crab, but it is enough to keep the crab alive in the dry season, by maintaining body fluid levels and by keeping respiratory surfaces moist. Crabs spend the hot daytime hours of the dry season resting semi-submerged in their tepid underground habitations, where the air is cooler and damper than at the surface. Later, in the colder nocturnal air, crabs emerge from their burrows, scavenging nearby land for vegetable matter or plant and animal remains. During the dry season this species is inactive in its burrow by day and active on land at night. The first storms of the wet season inundate the burrows and prompt crabs to move onto land in the daylight hours, as well as the night. The night air is cooler and more humid, and the new undergrowth provides crabs both concealment from predators and shade from the sun. Once the wetlands develop, crabs congregate in great numbers in the muddy, shallow waters of the newly-formed pools and marshes. During the wet season this species is active both day and night, either under water, on land, or resting in its burrow.
135105		population	eng	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.  It has been collected systematically from the same locality in northern Nigeria for a period of 2-3 years and no declines in population levels were observed.
135105		threats	eng	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its wetland and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.
135106		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135106		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sumatra. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.
135106		population	eng	No information available.
135106		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135107		conservation	eng	This crab is named after the Queen of Thailand.  The royal family is highly respected in Thailand, and this can be expected to afford some degree of protection to this species.  Last collected 1987.
135107		distribution	eng	Thailand: Amphoe Sai Yok District, Mountain creek in Ban Nam Chon: 14.06.00N, 99.23.00E, Kanchanaburi Province, south Thailand. Also purchased from Chatuchak market, Bangkok.
135107		habitat	eng	The crabs live in burrows that they dig in the soil of secondary forests at a depth of 30-120 cm. The depth of the burrow depends on the height of the ground water level. The burrows were found in open forest often in places that would be covered by water during the wet season, e.g. near creek beds that dry out during the winter.
135107		population	eng	Presumed large populations because this species is collected for sale in local markets.
135107		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135108		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by the Forest Department which is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impacts.
135108		distribution	eng	Thailand: Found in northeastern Thailand in the Mun River, Kengsaphu, Amphoe/District Phibun Mamgsahan, Ubon Ratchatani Province. Reported to have a wide distribution.
135108		habitat	eng	Found under water plants.
135108		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135108		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution. Habitat subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts.
135109		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135109		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi (Celebes); Panu River southern part of Matingang moutain chain, northern Sulawesi; Kakaskasen 1 20'34.2"N 124 50'29.7"E.
135109		habitat	eng	A semi-terrestrial species. Collected from a small river, between forest and rice fields, water pH 6.5.
135109		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135109		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development
135110		conservation	eng	None in place.
135110		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Matano (2 27'41.5"S 121 13'6.3"E; 2 26.97'S 121 13.00'E; 02 30.43'S 121 19.96'E; 2 26.01'S 121 13.03'E), Lake Matano has a surface area of 164.1 km², and crabs were also found in the surrounding area.
135110		habitat	eng	Lakes and nearby streams.
135110		population	eng	This lake-living species is found in a large number of localities, but the extent of occurrence is small (< 50km²).
135110		threats	eng	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel. Mining for this metal causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF 200 Global Ecoregion homepage).
135111		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135111		distribution	eng	China: Fuching, Qiongshan, Qionghai, Huangjiang on Hainan Island, southern China.
135111		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135111		population	eng	No information available.
135111		threats	eng	Unknown.
135112		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135112		distribution	eng	China: Zhongshi, Anyuan (25.1 N, 115.3 E), Jiangxi Province. Last recorded collection in 1989.
135112		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135112		population	eng	No information available.
135112		threats	eng	Unknown.
135113		conservation	eng	None in place.
135113		distribution	eng	Puerto Rico (8,960 km²): Caguo, Rio Grande; Salinas core, Eusenada. US Virgin Islands (230 km²): Saint Croix.
135113		habitat	eng	This species lives in caves in Puerto Rico.
135113		population	eng	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country but its distribution is fragmented and its populations are isolated because they are found on different islands.
135113		threats	eng	None known.
135114		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135114		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in Brazil in the Rio Negro basin (state of Amazonas) and the state of Rondonia (Rio Madeira basin). The records from Rondonia state are based on unpublished data by C. Magalhães.
135114		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon river.
135114		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species.
135114		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.
135115		conservation	eng	None in place.
135115		distribution	eng	China: Junjuang River, Xueli Village, Gaocun Rural, Mayang Miao autonomous county, Hu’nan Province, China, coll. 26 Jul. 2005.
135115		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.
135115		population	eng	Unknown.
135115		threats	eng	Unknown.
135116		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135116		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Hwalien County (Hsiulin, Lushui/Lushai; Hsiulin, Holiu; Hsiulin, Paiyang).
135116		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135116		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135116		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135117		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species in most parts of its range.
135117		distribution	eng	Potamon potamios has a wide but highly fragmented distribution and is found from Rhodes and Naxos in Greece, to southern Turkey and south throughout the Jordan and Litani River basins to the Sinai peninsula in Egypt. This species is found in the following countries that border the Mediterranean Sea: Greece (Crete and Karpathos plus Naxos in the Cyclades); Turkey (in the southern coastal provinces of Mugla, Burdur, Isparta, Antalya, Icel, Adana, and Hatay); in Cyprus; in Syria; in Jordan (in Irbid, Balqa, Asimah, Karak, and Maan Provinces); in Lebanon (in Jabal Lubnan and Al-Janub Provinces); in Israel (coastal region, upper Jordan Valley, lower Jordan Valley, Dead Sea region, southern Israel); in the Occupied Palestinian Territories; and in Egypt (Sinai peninsula).
135117		habitat	eng	This species has a very wide distributional range from the Mediterranean and Aegean islands of Greece to the semiarid inland regions in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Egypt. Its habitat includes diverse environments including streams, rivers and lakes, and <em>P. Potamios</em> is semi-terrestrial in habit. In Israel <em>P. potamios</em> occurs near rivers and fish ponds in the coastal plain, and inland to the Sea of Galilee near rivers draining into the Dead Sea and south into Sinai, Egypt. Medium-sized crabs are nocturnal whereas the larger ones are diurnal and are active during daytime in the water and on the banks of the rivers.
135117		population	eng	There is not much information on the population size and abundance of <em>P. potamios</em> in most parts of its range, but it would appear that populations of this species on the islands of Naxos and Cyprus are declining. On Naxos, crabs were present during surveys of the western, northern, and central mountain regions, and the river southwest of Apolon in 1983 (Pretzmann 1993) but later surveys in 1988 did not find any crabs in these localities, and the river near Apolon was completely dry. The only stable population of crabs found was at Engares in the eastern part of Naxos. In Cyprus, freshwater crabs are locally abundant in the numerous year-round small springs and seepages in the Akamas peninsula, and in the mountain streams of the Troodos mountains and Paphos Forest. However, freshwater crabs have disappeared from many parts of Cyprus probably as a result of the extensive use of DDT and other insecticides during the campaign against malaria. The use of less harmful insecticides in recent years has seen some recovery of certain populations of this species, but not all populations have recovered and some must be presumed extinct in some areas. Populations of <em>P. potamios</em> in Cyprus are now recovering from the use of DDT.
135117		threats	eng	In Cyprus, <em>P. potamios</em> is threatened by deforestation, loss of water in its habitat, and pollution from pesticides. Protection from these threats may be provided to those populations of crabs that are found in the State Forests which are protected areas in the westernmost tip of the island of Cyprus that may become part of a National Park in the near future.
135118		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135118		distribution	eng	Taiwan: Taichung County (Hoping, Chingshan).
135118		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135118		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135118		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135119		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area, the Leigonshan Nature Reserve.
135119		distribution	eng	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, Hengduan mountain area; Leigongshan, Leishan county (26.4N 108.2E), Guizhou Province.
135119		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135119		population	eng	No information available.
135119		threats	eng	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.
135120		conservation	eng	Found in national park: the Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, which is a strictly protected area (1560 km²).
135120		distribution	eng	Thailand: Phu Khieo in Chaiyaphum Province, northeastern Thailand.
135120		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135120		population	eng	Wide distribution, also found in national park.
135120		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution.
135121		conservation	eng	None in place
135121		distribution	eng	China: Zhibenshan, Yunlong (24.8°N, 101.5°E) Yunnan Province.
135121		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135121		population	eng	No information available.
135121		threats	eng	Unknown.
135122		conservation	eng	None in place
135122		distribution	eng	China: Jiangfengling, Wuzhishan (Mount Wuzhi), Hainan Island. This species  occurs in Wuzhishan; Bawangling; Jiangfengling (in Wuzhishan area); and Dongfeng on Hainan. It is not surprising to find two species (<em>H. orientale</em> and <em>H. daiae</em>) on Mount Wuzhi as it is high enough (1,867 m) and large enough to have three major drainages flowing independently from it (to the southeast, northeast and west), which could isolate and give rise to several sibling species.
135122		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams.
135122		population	eng	No information available.
135122		threats	eng	Unknown.
135123		conservation	eng	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland.
135123		distribution	eng	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula, Pulau Tioman, cavernicolous. Endemic to Pulau Tioman, Pahang. Described from single highland locality, Gua (cave) Tengkuk Ayer, on Gunung Kajang, 900 m above sea level.
135123		habitat	eng	Semi-terrestrial species found in caves and probably subterranean streams. Only obligate cavernicolous crab (troglobite) known from Peninsular Malaysia. Biology not well-known.
135123		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135123		threats	eng	No clear immediate threat, as development of extremely rugged hilly hinterland of Pulau Tioman appears unlikely.
135124		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135124		distribution	eng	Philippines: Luzon.
135124		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135124		population	eng	No information available.
135124		threats	eng	Unknown.
135125		conservation	eng	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.
135125		distribution	eng	Malaysia; East Malaysia: Sabah, Island of Borneo, endemic to Kinabalu area.
135125		habitat	eng	Terrestrial, has been known to climb trees.
135125		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135125		threats	eng	No immediate threat, as range falls within Kinabalu National Park.
135126		conservation	eng	None in place.
135126		distribution	eng	Colombia: Magdalena Department: Santa Marta, Verada Alto Guachaca, Oriente stream, affluent of Perdido River, 800 m asl; northwestern slopes of the Sierra de Santa Marta, Cuidad Perdida, 1,000 m asl. The range of <em>C. davidi</em> overlaps here with the range of <em>C. pearsei</em> (Campos 2005).
135126		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 800-1,000 m asl.
135126		population	eng	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.
135126		threats	eng	None known.
135127		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area (Serra do Tumucumaque).
135127		distribution	eng	Venezuela (Federal Territory of the Amazon), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Peru, and Brazil (Para, Amazonas, Rondonia, Mato Grosso, Ceará). Wide distribution in the lowland areas of the Atlantic Guianas and the eastern and central Amazon. Also eastern Peru in the coastal strip of the north, and part of northeastern Brazil. Not found east of the mouth of the Amazon River.  Rio Negro, Amazon drainage, Venezuela; Guyana; Surinam; French Guiana; Brazilian Guiana.<br/><br/>Brazil, Pará: Santarém [02°24'S 54°44'W], Comunidade Santa Rosa, 03.iv.1999, Equipe Faculdades Integradas do Tapajós. -Ceará: Serra da Ibiapaba, Viçosa do Ceará, Fonte do Caranguejo, 03º33'43.2"S 41º5'09.6"W, 625 m altitude; Serra da Ibiapaba, Ipu [04°19'S 40°11'W], sítio Santa Cruz. The easternmost records of this species are from the Rio Acará, in Tomé-Açu, state of Pará, and the Rio Gurupi, a coastal Atlantic river that divides the states of Pará and Maranhão (Magalhães, 1986). The latter was considered uncertain by Magalhães and Rodríguez (2002) because it is based on female specimens. The records from the state of Ceará considerably extend the species distribution towards northeastern Brazil, clearly transcending the limits of the Amazon.
135127		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname in the Amazon, Araguari, Coppename, Marowijne/Maroni, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river (and possibly the Rio rombetas) draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>This species is found on land in humid areas of forest ground and in small water courses through the forest. The specimens from Ipu were collected in muddy areas near swamp vegetation. They were observed to inhabit small holes. In Viçosa do Ceará, the crabs were found inside holes under stones in the moist terrain of a forest area; they were around a spring close to a rocky wall. The habitat is similar to that where the species is found in the Amazon region, that is, in the moist soil of the forest.<br/><br/>Except for a transitional zone in the state of Maranhão, most of the Brazilian Northeast is a very dry, semiarid region, with an unpredictable annual rainfall regime, usually with a short rainy season of three to five months and a pluviometrical average lower than 800 mm. The soil is shallow and rocky, with a typical xerophytic, deciduous and open vegetation called "caatinga" (scrubland) placed in extensive inter-plateau and inter-mountain plains; rivers are usually intermittent. The occurrence of <em>F. reflexifrons</em> in the Serra da Ibiapaba could be linked to the climatic conditions of the area, which is a high plain plateau with altitudes between 650 to 850 m and extending approximately 200 km in a North-South direction along the northwestern state of Ceará. The crabs were found in its eastern part, which is covered by a tropical pluvial forest, where the climate is hot and humid, with a six month rainy season and pluviometric indexes up to 1,800 mm (Bezerra 1989, Velloso <em>et al</em>. 2002). Such conditions propitiate a favourable environment for these crabs, similar to where they are usually found in the Amazon region.
135127		population	eng	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.
135128		conservation	eng	Unknown.
135128		distribution	eng	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo: Kajan River (1 22'N, 115 12'E) and Kapuas River (0 48'N, 113 54'E), central Borneo.
135128		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135128		population	eng	No information available.
135128		threats	eng	Unknown.
135129		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.
135129		distribution	eng	Japan: Miyako Island, Southern Ryukyus, Japan  Type locality: Miyako-Jima  (24-25°N, 125-126°E). It is only known from three small springs of Miyako Jima.
135129		habitat	eng	This species was caught during the fall in small springs and its downstream. Many burrows were observed at the banks of downstream, and one or two individuals were seen from burrows. It is omnivorous, e.g., land snails and detritus in the field.
135129		population	eng	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.
135129		threats	eng	No specific information about threats to these springs. However springs are very vulnerable habitats from e.g. water abstraction and lowering of water tables, or small pollution events. This island is highly populated and is also a tourist destination, so human impacts are likely to be high. Therefore habitat loss and pollution are likely threats.
135149		conservation	eng	No location in a formal protected area, but two of the springs ‘protected’ by Buddhist temples.
135149		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Dianchi its tributaries and springs. However, currently now only known from Muyang River, Lengshui River, Black dragon spring and Green dragon spring. These four sites all belong to Songhuaba Reservior drainage.
135149		habitat	eng	Prefers riffle habitats and cold water. It hides under big stones or caves under water in winter. In summer, it feeds in fast flowing water over sand and cobbles. It feeds and grows in lakes or rivers, but during the breeding season it will migrate to the rivers or any other kind of stream inlet to Lake Dianchi where it spawns in riffles (Chen and Cao 2000).
135149		population	eng	Known from about two temple spring ponds, and two lake tributaries (Muyang/Lengshui), but they make just one population. Population size is unknown.
135149		threats	eng	Its loss from the lake likely due to introduced fish species, water pollution, over-fishing, and breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.
135150		conservation	eng	The spring is not protected.
135150		distribution	eng	Only ever known from one tributary spring of Lake Dianchi.
135150		habitat	eng	In clear spring water. The bottom is sand and some stones with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratoph demersum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spirogyra</span> spp. and some other macrophytes on the ground. The colour pattern between the mature male and female is very distinct.
135150		population	eng	Population size is small for restricted distribution.
135150		threats	eng	Current threats at the springs are introduced species and modification of spring structure.
135151		conservation	eng	None.
135151		distribution	eng	Known from the Lake Dianchi basin, in its tributaries and effluent river, Zhangjiu River. It is also reported from two tributaries of Jinshajiang (upper Yangtze) in Sichuan (Ding 1994) and Yunnan.
135151		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers and streams with flowing water and rocky bottom. It is a small carnivorous fish living at the water bottom.
135151		population	eng	Since its discovery in 1935 in Jinning County, KIZ have deposited two specimens collected in 1960 and this is the last record of this fish. Even if the species still exists, the population should be very small.
135151		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the sudden explosion of the population of Kunming City and the discharge of domestic and industrial polluted waste water into the lake, seriously polluting the water of the lake and inflow and outflow rivers/streams. In addition, the large-scale reclamation of land from around the lake since the end of the 1950s to the beginning of 1970 destroyed the living and spawning environment of the fish, which is another cause of endangerment.
135152		conservation	eng	No location in a formal protected area, but five of the springs ‘protected’ by Buddhist temples. It is Grade 2 National Protected Species.<br/><br/>The assessors have recommended six of the 20 monitoring spots to a&#160; local government agency of Kunming City as key protected sites in Sep, 2007.
135152		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Dianchi its tributaries and springs. Now the species is extirpated from the lake itself, and is only known to survive in 20 temple spring ponds, and one lake tributary (Muyang/Lengshui) all within 36 km of the lake shore.
135152		habitat	eng	Clear water usually with indigenous macrophytes such as Ottelia acuminata or Hydrilla verticillata. When water quality in the lake was better it is believed it breeds only in the spring waters. Needs flowing water to breed, laying its eggs on hard substrates (sand to rocks, not mud or silt). Breeds from January to April.&#160; In winter it appears to migrate into cave streams. Adults eat shrimp and small fish, and juveniles eat zooplankton. They like water temperature about 20°C.
135152		population	eng	Known from about 20 temple spring ponds, and one lake tributary (Muyang/Lengshui) = four subpopulations. However the temple springs may be connected by small underground karst rivers. There are still a big portion of rivers and reserviors that has not been investigated, so the population size outside of the lake is impossible to estimate.
135152		threats	eng	Its loss from the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, declining water  quality, loss of macrophytes (in part due to grass carp), over-fishing, and also  breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.<br/><br/>Current threats  to the springs are introduced species (especially rainbow trout and red-eared  slider turtle); also land use adjacent to springs and modification of spring  structure.
135153		conservation	eng	Not known from any a formal protected areas.
135153		distribution	eng	Endemic to Jinsha River and Lishe River, Yunnan Province, China. These locations distributing in Jinsha River include those along Niulan River, Muyang River and Lengshui River (headstreams of Lake Dianchi), and Tanglang River. This species is becoming rare in Jinsha River. It is strongly believed that the specimen from Lishe River is a distinct species, research is needed to confirm this.
135153		habitat	eng	Lives in gaps between stones or floating grasses in slow streams. Feeds on insect larva at the bottom of the water body. Maturated almost in Dec.
135153		population	eng	The population size of the species is unknown.
135153		threats	eng	Habitat loss and water pollution threaten this species. Construction of a hydro power dams has resulted in population fragmentation.
135154		conservation	eng	No location as a formal protected area.
135154		distribution	eng	Endemic to Dianchi Lake, Yunnan Province, China.
135154		habitat	eng	This species lives in the bottom of the medium layer of the water body.  <em>Polyphagous</em>, including zooplankton and algae. Spawning from May to June.  The eggs stick on gravels at the riverside.
135154		population	eng	Unknown.
135154		threats	eng	Its loss from the lake is likely due to introduced fish species and loss of breeding sites.
135161		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Caparaó National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002), and several other protected areas in its range (C. Percequillo and M. Weksler pers. comm.).
135161		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeast Brazil (northern Espirito Santo south through Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo to the west and south to Rio Grande do Sul (C. Percequillo pers. comm.), to northeast Argentina and east Paraguay (Musser and Carleton 2005).
135161		habitat	eng	Within the Brazilian Atlantic forest region, this species has been collected primarily from secondary forest (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is a widespread species which occurs in conserved and altered vegetation. Also some occur in Cerrado gallery forest. It uses trees and ground so it needs forest structure.
135161		population	eng	This species is considered common (easy to capture) but not abundant (not captured in numbers) (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002).
135161		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion effect some populations.
135163		conservation	eng	The fish was listed as a second-class protected animal by the Government of Yunnan Province in 1989 and the Regulations on Fishing In Dianchi Lake was issued for the producing areas. The lake is closed for fishing for five months every year and seven no-fishing protected bay areas were set up, providing feeding grounds for a part of the fish population of the lake.
135163		distribution	eng	Only ever known from Dianchi Lake itself and Songhuaba Reservior, Yunnan Province, China.
135163		habitat	eng	It lives in the middle and upper layers of waters and feeds mainly on aquatic insects, plankton and fragments of plants. It becomes sexually mature after one winter and lays sticky eggs. The average standard length is 126.4 mm for one year’s individual, 172.8 mm for two years; 210.8 mm for three years; 251.2 mm for four years; 284.2 mm for five years and 311,9 mm for six years (Chu and Chen 1989).
135163		population	eng	Known from Dianchi Lake and Songhuaba reservoir. Only a few individuals are occasionally caught during the fishing season and population size is unknown.
135163		threats	eng	Its decline in the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, decreasing water quality, the loss of macrophytes (in part due to grass carp), over-fishing and the loss of breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.
135164		conservation	eng	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.
135164		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Washington north to southern Alaska in the United States and Canada, and west of the Coastal and Cascade mountain ranges, including the Queen Charlotte Islands and islands along the coast of British Columbia and the Alexander Archipelago. <em>Peromyscus keeni</em> also occurs in Yukon Territory and occurs farther inland in British Columbia than previously documented (not mapped here) (Lucid and Cook 2004).<br/><br/>Included are the ranges of the following nominal <em>Peromyscus maniculatus</em> and <em>P. sitkensis</em> taxa of Hall (1981): <em>oreas, interdictus, isolatus, sitkensis, oceanicus, algidus, hylaeus, keeni, macrorhinus,</em> and <em>prevostensis</em> (<em>carli, doylei,</em> and <em>triangularis</em> probably also should be included) (Hogan <em>et al.</em> 1993).
135164		habitat	eng	This species inhabits western coastal lowlands to high-elevation alpine forests. They appear to avoid closed canopy forested habitats and, at lower elevations, associate with edge vegetation, along logging roads, or at the periphery of small islands. They will enter human habitations. Diet includes various seeds, fruits, and small invertebrates.<br/><br/>On outer coastal islands it inhabits the edge of dense Sitka spruce-western cedar forests, and is found at forest edge and on beaches in cover of logs, stumps and rock crevices (Banfield 1974).<br/><br/>Multiple litters of about 3-5 young probably are produced each year. Gestation lasts about 23 days (non lactating) or 25 days (lactating) (Kirkland and Layne 1989). Probably capable of breeding at about 5-6 weeks. In southern British Columbia, it was reported as breeding from March through July.<br/><br/>Its distribution on smaller outer islands indicates it is probably less competitive than <em>maniculatus</em>, which occupies larger islands (Banfield 1974). It probably originally reached many islands on natural rafts.
135164		population	eng	This species is widespread on coastal islands and the western mainland of the Pacific Northwest from Washington to southern Alaska.
135164		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
135292		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single male specimen collected from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Singapore</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
135292		habitat	eng	Tropical rainforest – foodplant unknown.
135292		population	eng	The remaining habitat in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Singapore</st1:place></st1:country-region> has been explored but no specimens of the species have been found in more than 100 years.
135292		threats	eng	<p>  Habitat loss (human-induced) as well as possibly collection for traditional medicine probably contributed to the extinction of </span><span style="font-style: italic;">P. ridleyi</span>.</p>  </span>
135295		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span>. <br/><br/>It would be beneficial to attempt to prevent the spread of commercially based disease pathogens to native populations, as these are thought to be having a major negative impact on <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span>. Further research is needed for: <br/><ul><li>the size and range of the remaining population: although very few individuals have been observed, further investigation should be done to reveal precisely how many <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span> are remaining;</li><li>the species' ecology and biology: a better understanding of the behaviours and general biology of the bee, and its habitat requirements, especially any that might be limiting factors; </li><li>threats: studying the pathology, control, and cross-infectivity of different suspected disease agents of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span>, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Nosema bombi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Locustacrus buchneri</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithidia bombi </span>(Colla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Otterstatter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) would allow for better understanding of the risks to the bumblebee populations and the preventative measures that should be taken. The introduction of these diseases could also be better studies as an element of the risks of commercial trafficking in bumble bees (Thorp 2003);</li></ul>The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span> needs protection. The protected habitat must have an abundance of suitable pollen and nector aources such as, but not limited to: <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eschscholzia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agastache</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Monardella </span>as sources of pollen and nectar for the bees to feed on. Proximity to a natural source of fresh water would also be beneficial as it would increase the flowering season of the plants upon which the bees feed. Also, suitable nest sites are needed, such as abandoned rodent burrows.
135295		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bombus franklini </span>occurs only in the USA. It is found only from southern Oregon to northern California between the Coast and Sierra-Cascade Ranges, in Douglas, Jackson and Josephine and Siskiyou and Trinity counties in Oregon and California respectively. This area is around 190 miles in the north-south direction (40º58’ to 43º30’N latitude) and 70 miles from east to west (122º to 124ºW longitude).
135295		habitat	eng	The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini </span>includes floral resources, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eschscholzia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agastache</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Monardella </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia</span>, and abandoned rodent burrows that are thought to be used for nesting.      Bumblebees are social insects; they live in colonies. Most make their homes in abandoned animal burrows or in grassy tussocks, and feed on both the nectar and pollen rewards offered by the flowers of the plants they pollinate. </span>Bumblebees have a special technique in foraging that makes them exclusive pollinators of certain plants. They engage in “buzz pollination” by which they sonicate the flowers to vibrate the pollen loose from the anthers.&#160; </span>Tomatoes and related plants (Solanaceae), blueberries (Ericaceae), and others are pollinated this way.</span>
135295		population	eng	The population is currently decreasing drastically. Dr R.W. Thorp’s unpublished surveys have revealed that, since 1998, the populations have decreased drastically, and no individuals were found at all in 2004. Surveys of many historic and potential sites within the area inhabited by these bumblebees were repeated annually over nine years. Between nine and seventeen historic sites were visited annually. Some were visited more than once for an average of visits of historic sites per year. In addition, six to nineteen potential sites were visited at least once each year. During the first three years, bees were observed at seven new sites (where this bee had not been recorded before) but as time went on this number decreased. The continued abundance of other bumblebee species suggests that the habitat has not recently become uninhabitable.
135295		threats	eng	<p>The use of commercial bumblebee colonies in greenhouses to pollinate crops such as tomatoes, peppers and some field crops such as highbush blueberries has had an impact on bumblebee populations as exotic diseases are introduced into populations of native bee species. The commercialization of bumblebees in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u4:st="on">North America</st1:place></st1:place> over the past two decades is thought to have caused a pathogen spillover that has devastated local, wild populations of the same and some other species. These pathogens include tracheal mites (<em>Locustacarus buchneri</em>) and intestinal protozoa (<em>Crithidia bombi, Nosema bombi</em>), which can be transferred from bumblebee to bumblebee via the flowers upon which they feed, or within the colony. Although these pathogens are not necessarily lethal because they don’t directly kill their hosts, they reduce the bumblebees’ ability to learn to handle or feed on new flower types (Gegear <em>et al.</em> 2004). This can have extremely detrimental consequences for the health of the colony, by reducing resources brought in from foraging, and thus limiting the size of the colony and number of offspring it can produce. For <em>B. franklini</em>, exotic diseases such as <em>Nosema</em>, which have been introduced through transportation and sale of commercial bumble bee queens and nests (Colla <em>et al</em>. 2006, Otterstatter <em>et al</em>. 2005, Thorp 2003).<br/> <br/> Habitat destruction and degradation as a result of agricultural intensification is believed to threaten the future of tis species habitat. Agricultural pesticides are also a threat as these can be picked up by bumblebees and, if not immediately deadly to the insects, carried back to their nests to poison other colony members and the brood. However, many efforts are being made to reduce, if not eliminate pesticide application, as the far-reaching repercussions of their use are well-understood.</p>
135301		conservation	eng	1. Many subpopulations of Sockeye in British Columbia were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, Irvine and Fraser 2008). Two locations of Sockeye Salmon, Sakinaw Lake and Cultus Lake, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment.<br/><br/>2. We considered Ozette Lake, Lake Pleasant and Quinault Lake Sockeye Salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two sites were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include Ozette Lake in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include Lake Pleasant and Quinault Lake, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning Sockeye in Ozette Lake.<br/><br/>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in Alaska, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin.<br/><br/>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal Sockeye Salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River Sockeye Salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting Sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations.<br/><br/>5. Another leading factor threatening Sockeye Salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in North America. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control.<br/><br/>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of Sockeye Salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for reintroduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw Sockeye Salmon by DFO, and endangered Redfish Lake Sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of Sockeye from remnant, isolated Kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., Allouette Lake in British Columbia) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage.<br/><br/>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighbouring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced Sockeye Salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild Sockeye Salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild Sockeye Salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and Skeena) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighbouring subpopulations.<br/><br/>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type Sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change.<br/>&#160;<br/>9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of Sockeye Salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a site within the Kamchatka River basin that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type Sockeye exist, particularly in western Kamchatka, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135301		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45–70°N to 140°E–125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range.<br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135301		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a life history form called “Kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “Sockeye” or “Red Salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some Sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include Salmon Sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type Sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000–5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135301		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135301		threats	eng	<strong></strong>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><ol><li>Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations</li><li>Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners</li><li>Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat </li></ol>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific Sockeye Salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135302		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135302		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135302		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135302		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135302		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135303		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135303		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135303		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135303		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135303		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135303		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135306		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135306		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135306		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135306		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135306		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135306		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135308		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135308		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135308		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135308		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135308		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135308		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135309		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135309		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135309		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135309		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135309		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135309		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135310		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135310		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135310		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135310		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135310		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135310		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135311		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135311		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135311		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135311		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135311		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135311		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135312		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135312		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135312		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135312		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135312		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135312		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135313		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135313		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135313		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135313		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135313		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135313		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135315		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135315		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135315		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135315		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135315		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135315		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135316		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135316		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135316		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135316		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135316		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135316		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135317		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135317		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135317		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135317		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135317		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135317		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135318		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135318		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135318		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135318		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135318		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135318		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135319		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135319		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135319		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135319		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135319		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135319		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135320		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135320		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135320		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135320		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135320		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135320		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135321		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135321		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135321		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135321		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135321		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135321		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135322		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135322		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135322		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135322		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135322		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135322		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135323		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135323		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135323		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135323		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135323		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135323		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135324		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135324		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135324		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135324		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135324		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135324		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135325		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135325		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135325		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135325		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135325		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135325		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135326		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135326		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135326		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135326		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135326		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135326		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135327		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135327		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135327		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135327		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135327		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135327		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135328		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135328		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135328		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135328		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135328		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135328		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135329		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135329		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135329		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135329		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135329		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135329		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135330		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135330		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135330		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135330		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135330		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135330		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135331		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135331		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135331		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135331		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135331		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135331		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135332		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135332		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135332		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135332		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135332		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135332		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135333		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135333		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135333		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135333		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135333		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135333		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135334		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135334		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135334		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135334		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135334		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135334		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135335		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135335		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135335		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135335		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135335		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135335		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135336		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135336		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135336		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135336		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135336		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135337		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135337		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135337		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135337		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135337		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135337		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135338		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135338		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135338		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135338		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135338		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135338		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135339		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135339		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135339		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135339		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135339		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135339		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135340		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135340		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135340		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135340		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135340		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135340		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135341		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135341		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135341		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135341		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135341		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135341		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135342		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135342		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135342		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135342		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135342		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135342		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135343		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135343		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135343		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135343		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135343		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135343		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135344		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135344		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135344		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135344		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135344		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135344		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135345		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135345		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135345		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135345		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135345		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135345		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135346		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135346		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135346		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135346		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135346		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135346		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135347		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135347		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135347		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135347		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135347		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135347		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135348		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135348		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135348		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135348		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135348		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135348		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135351		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135351		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135351		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135351		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135351		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135351		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135352		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135352		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135352		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135352		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135352		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135352		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135353		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135353		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135353		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135353		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135353		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135353		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135354		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135354		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135354		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135354		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135354		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135354		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135355		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135355		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135355		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135355		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135355		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135355		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135356		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135356		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135356		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135356		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135356		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135356		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135357		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135357		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135357		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135357		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135357		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135357		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135358		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135358		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135358		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135358		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135358		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135358		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135359		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135359		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135359		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135359		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135359		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135359		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135360		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135360		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135360		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135360		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135360		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135360		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135361		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135361		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135361		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135361		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135361		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135361		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135362		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135362		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135362		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135362		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135362		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135362		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135363		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135363		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135363		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135363		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135363		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135363		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135365		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135365		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135365		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135365		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135365		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135365		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135366		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135366		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135366		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135366		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135366		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135366		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135368		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135368		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135368		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135368		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135368		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135368		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135369		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135369		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135369		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135369		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135369		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135369		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135370		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135370		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135370		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135370		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135370		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135370		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135371		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135371		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135371		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135371		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135371		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135371		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135372		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135372		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135372		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135372		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135372		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135372		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135373		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135373		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135373		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135373		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135373		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135373		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135374		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135374		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135374		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135374		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135374		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135374		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135375		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135375		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135375		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135375		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135375		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135375		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135376		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135376		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135376		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135376		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135376		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135376		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135377		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
135377		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135377		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135377		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135377		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135377		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135379		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135379		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135379		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135379		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135379		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135379		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135380		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135380		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135380		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135380		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135380		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135380		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135381		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
135381		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135381		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
135381		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135381		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
135381		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
135407		conservation	eng	Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive.<br/><br/>Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).
135407		distribution	eng	Ireland: several lakes draining westward, in Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Donegal and Westmeath Counties.
135407		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December.
135407		population	eng	About 30% of population is extirpated (Igoe & Hammer 2004). In the last few decades the decline of the species has increased rapidly (e.g. high profile extinctions in Corrib and Conn). The species is extirpated in all the lakes in Clare (Loughs Cloonsnachta, Fin, Gortglass, Inchiquin, Licken), two lakes in Galway (Loughs Boffin, Corrib), two in Mayo (Castelbar, Conn), two in Donegal (Erne, Minitiaghs) and two in Westmeath (Ennell, Owel).
135407		threats	eng	Eutrophication of lakes, introduced fish species (both predation and competition from non native species and introgression from farmed charr) and acidification.
135408		conservation	eng	No information.
135408		distribution	eng	Germany: Lake Ammersee.
135408		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water (below 80 m). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Almost no data. Spawns in all seasons with a peak in September and October.
135408		population	eng	Abundant.
135408		threats	eng	There are no known threats. Many species have been introduced into the lake including other char species, the lake has been eutrophic (currently mesotrophic), it has been the target of commercial fisheries for many years, the catchment is heavily populated and the species has not seen any decline in population (unlike the other lake endemic - <em>Coregonus bavaricus</em>).
135411		conservation	eng	Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive.<br/><br/>Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).
135411		distribution	eng	Eire: endemic to Lough Coomasaharn (Kerry), a small oligotrophic lake about 9 km from the sea.
135411		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December.
135411		population	eng	Healthy population in Lough Coomasaharn.
135411		threats	eng	Eutrophication and introduced species are potential threats to the species. Many char populations have been extirpated in Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species (e.g. <em>Scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>, <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, <em>Esox lucius</em>, <em>Perca fluviatilus</em>, <em>Abrabus brama</em> and <em>Tinca tinca</em>).
135412		conservation	eng	No information.
135412		distribution	eng	Shetland Islands (Loch of Girlsta); possibly Scotland (Loch More, Sutherland).
135412		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135412		population	eng	Last collected in 2006. Population trends unknown.
135412		threats	eng	Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).
135413		conservation	eng	A conservation action plan has been developed to translocate stock from Melvin to nearby reservoirs in County Tyrone, which would serve as refuge populations. It has been unsuccessful so far to locate any Char to translocate.<br/><br/>In general, Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive. Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).
135413		distribution	eng	Ireland: Lough Melvin.
135413		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives at depths of 10-30 m, except during spawning season. Feeds on <em>Cladocera</em>. Spawns in November, in shallow rocky area.
135413		population	eng	Declining.
135413		threats	eng	In Lough Melvin, rudd (<em>Scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>) were introduced around 20 years ago (1980s), and recently a rudd/roach hybrid was caught, indicating that roach have recently been introduced. The lake is also experiencing increasing amounts of phosphorous from its catchment. Surveys in the past few decades have seen a decline in the number caught, in 1975 33 specimens were caught as part of a fisheries survey, 42 in 1986 which declined to 12 in 2001. As part of a conservation plan (translocate stock to a nearby reservoir to set up a refuge population) in 2003, 30 fyke nets were set up at a range of depths and failed to catch any specimens of char, snorkelling along shorelines also found no signs of spawning activity. (Igoe, F. http://www.charr.org/char/melvin. 20/02/2007).<br/><br/>Many char populations have been extirpated in Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species (e.g. Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Rutilus rutilus, Esox lucius, Perca fluviatilus, Abrabus brama and Tinca tinca).
135414		conservation	eng	No information.
135414		distribution	eng	Orkney Islands (Heldale Water, Hoy Island) - presumed extirpated (last recorded in 1908), Scotland (Loch Mealt, Isle of Skye).
135414		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Loch Meallt is a small eutrophic lake, up to 3 m deep, on top of an exposed cliff. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Feeds on sticklebacks, molluscs, insect larvae.
135414		population	eng	No information.
135414		threats	eng	Canadian arctic charr are farmed on Loch Mealt, but the impacts upon the native charr are unknown. (http://www.snh.org.uk/futures/Data/pdfdocs/FRESHWATERS.pdf pg 88 20/02/2007)
135415		conservation	eng	No information.
135415		distribution	eng	Scotland: Loch Killin (Inverness-shire), Loch Doine (Trossachs), possibly Loch Builg (Cairngorms) and from several other lakes.
135415		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deeper part of lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In Loch Killin, moves to shallow areas to spawn. Feeds on insect larvae, bivalves and crustaceans.
135415		population	eng	No information.
135415		threats	eng	Fish farms and other means of introductions of alien fish species are a potential threat to the species.
135416		conservation	eng	No information available.
135416		distribution	eng	Found in lakes in Sweden, Norway, southern Finland and northern Russia (Kola Peninsula, northern Karelia, including Lakes Ladoga and Onega).
135416		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large deep lakes, very rarely in rivers. Benthic. Spawns in lakes, in shallow water along sand-pebble shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In larger lakes (Ladoga, Onega), two forms: one in relatively shallow waters, about 30-50 m deep, the other one at 70-150 m. Both forms feed on fish, amphipods, molluscs, insects and gammarids. Growth is slow. Spawns for the first time at 4-6 years, spawns once every 2-3 years. Spawns in August-October.
135416		population	eng	Rare.
135416		threats	eng	May be impacted by stocked <em>Salvelinus alpinus</em> or <em>S. umbla</em>.
135417		conservation	eng	Control programmes for the cormorants have since been set up, but these do not kill the birds only scare them and the results of which are unknown.
135417		distribution	eng	England: Haweswater (Cumbria). A resevoir that was created by the construction of a dam in 1929, which flooded two lakes (Highwater and Lowwater) and raised the water level.
135417		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135417		population	eng	No information.
135417		threats	eng	The level of cormorant predation of the species in Haweswater is causing concern (Maitland et al. 2007). A tree nesting colony of these birds first took up residence at Haweswater in 1992, numbers have since increased and in 1998 50 pairs bred there.(www.countryside.wales.gov.uk/fe/fileupload_getfile.asp?filePathPrefix=1396&fileLanguage=e.pdf)
135418		conservation	eng	No information.
135418		distribution	eng	Scotland: Loch Scourie (presumed to be Loch a'Ghriam) and Loch Shin (Sutherland).
135418		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135418		population	eng	Still present in both lakes but no information on population trends.
135418		threats	eng	No major threats known. But alien fish species introduced from fish farming and angling is a potential threat.
135419		conservation	eng	No information.
135419		distribution	eng	Recorded from several lakes in northern Scotland, especially draining to North Minch (strait between Highland, Skye Island and Hebrides Islands): Loch near Ben Hope, possibly Loch Merkland (Sutherland), Loch Clair, Loch Coulin, possibly Loch Maree (Wester Ross), Loch Langavat, Loch na Craobhaig (Isle of Lewis).
135419		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135419		population	eng	No information.
135419		threats	eng	Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).
135420		conservation	eng	Lake Thingvalla is within the Thingvallir National Park.
135420		distribution	eng	Iceland: Lake Thingvalla.
135420		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to 18 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years. Spawns in October. Feeds on zooplankton (Daphnia, Cyclops) and insects. A few individuals are piscivorous, have a slightly different morphology, tend to live closer to shores and develop a colour pattern somewhat similar to <em>S. thingvallensis</em>; they feed mainly on <em>Gasterosteus islandicus</em>, supplemented by small planktivorous conspecifics. Recent data suggest that they might be a distinct species.
135420		population	eng	Abundant.
135420		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. The lake has very little population in its catchment and no agriculture or forestry.
135421		conservation	eng	None.
135421		distribution	eng	Lake Neuchâtel (Switzerland).
135421		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water (below 80 m). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns on muddy sediments in Lake Neuchâtel. Feeds mainly on insect larvae, snails, crustaceans and fish eggs.
135421		population	eng	The species was last recorded in 1904. Further research has been undertaken and failed to find the species.
135421		threats	eng	Unknown.
135422		conservation	eng	Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive. <br/><br/>Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).
135422		distribution	eng	Eire: The species is known from Loughs Leane (19 km²), last recorded in 1999 (current status unknown), and the oligotrophic Lough Muckross (1.5 km²) where the last record was in 1904 (current status unknown) in Kerry. It has been extirpated from Loughs Tay (Wicklow), last recorded 1908, and Dan (Wicklow) where it was last recorded 1988 and subsequent surveys in 1994 and 1996 failed to record any char. In Lough Accose (Kerry) surveys in 1983 failed to find any char.
135422		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135422		population	eng	No information.
135422		threats	eng	Lough Leane is eutrophic which is impacting the species, it also suffered from domestic pollution in the early 1980s. The reasons for the extirpations in Lough Tay and Dan are believed to be the increased acidic conditions caused by afforestation in the catchment. High levels of inorganic aluminium were recorded from a river that drained a heavily afforested catchment into Lough Dan (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).
135423		conservation	eng	Llyn Padarn is a protected area (SSSI). Llyn Cwellyn is protected as a SAC (Special Area of Conservation - EU). Llyn Cwellyn has an operational agreement between the owners of the dam and the Environment Agency to ensure levels of water are not reduced to levels that would be harmful to the species during spawning season.<br/><br/>Approval for the draining of Llyn Peris, and the construction of the water pumping scheme was only granted on the condition that the Arctic Char were translocated into suitable lakes in North Walse (Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy).
135423		distribution	eng	Wales: Lakes Llyn Peris, Padarn, Cwellyn and Bodlyn (Gwynedd). Stock from Llyn Peris were translocated to Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy.
135423		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forms shoals at surface in summer, probably for feeding on insects or plankton. Spawns in November-December. In Llanberis lakes, used to move in November from lower lake (Llyn Padarn) to lower part of upper lake (Llyn Peris), where it spawned in shallow areas. Construction of Dinorwic hydroelectric scheme disrupted this migration; now mainly living and spawning in Llyn Padarn.
135423		population	eng	The populations in Padarn and Cwellyn are healthy, in Bodlyn the status is unknown and in Peris it is extirpated (1970's). The translocated fish from Llyn Peris, in Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy are both healthy populations.
135423		threats	eng	Used to move from lower lake (Llyn Padarn) to lower part of upper lake (Llyn Peris), where it spawned in shallow areas. Construction of Dinorwic hydroelectric scheme (1970s) disrupted this migration, it is now extirpated from Llyn Peris.<br/><br/>In the 1980s there was concern that eutrophication was causing faster growth and larger adult size in the fish in Llyn Padarn, but a phosphate stripper installed on the sewage has solved this problem. There is also potential impacts to the Llyn Padarn population from increased angling use and other recreational use (currently low).<br/><br/>Llyn Cwellyn currently has low angling and recreational use and although a dam was constructed on the outflow from the lake in 1976 an operational agreement between the owners of the dam and the Environment Agency to ensure levels of water are not reduced to levels that would be harmful to the species during spawning season.<br/><br/>Llyn Bodlyn has no official level of protection and may be at the most risk. The lake is very small (16 ha / 0.16 km2 max of 22 metres deep) so that climate change may reduce deep water thermal refuge in the lake. A dam was also built on the outflow of the lake and provides a regulated water supply.
135424		conservation	eng	No information.
135424		distribution	eng	Scotland: Loch Rannoch and Loch Ericht.
135424		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic zone of fjord-like lakes, usually less than 20 m below surface. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Reaches up to eight years. Adult males have dark red flank and belly, white pelvic-fin edges. Spawns in late September-October on gravels along shelving shores of lakes. Feeds on zooplankton, especially Cladocera (Daphnia).
135424		population	eng	Charr are common in Loch Rannoch.
135424		threats	eng	Potential threats to the species, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and escapees from fish farms with non-native arctic char.
135425		conservation	eng	Lake Thingvalla is within the Thingvallir National Park.
135425		distribution	eng	Iceland: Lake Thingvalla.
135425		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow littoral zone, in water 0-10 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Active at night, hides between stones during day. Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Usually spawns in October-November, but in areas with cold water springs, some individuals may spawn in July-September. Feeds mainly on snails, and to a lesser extent on benthic insects.
135425		population	eng	Abundant.
135425		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. The lake has very little population in its catchment and no agriculture or forestry.
135426		conservation	eng	In the lakes where the species was extirpated stock from other lakes were often introduced.
135426		distribution	eng	Alpine and subalpine lakes in Italy (Trentino, Alto Adige), France (Lake Bourget), Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Introduced in numerous high altitude lakes.
135426		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lakes in glacial valleys, high altitude lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in November-December, on pebble to stone bottom on steep slopes, at 30-120 m depth. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and benthic fauna; a few individuals develop as large piscivores and develop a distinct morphology. Numerous dwarf, stunted populations exist in Alpine lakes (up to 2680 m); all seem to result from introductions.
135426		population	eng	In some lakes it was extirpated (e.g. Mondsee) in many cases restocked from other lakes. In some lakes it is recovering (e.g Constance where it was almost extirpated, Geneva). In some lakes the population has always been healthy (e.g. Grundl and Konigsee). In general, there was a population collapse in the 1970s and the population is now recovering.
135426		threats	eng	The major threat to the species was eutrophication which occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Habitat destruction is also a local threat.
135427		conservation	eng	Lakes Windermere and Ennerdale are both nationally protected as SSSI (Sites of Special Scientific Interest). There have also been translocations (unknown whether it is the spring or autumn spawning Char) from Windermere to Grimwirth Reservoir (Yorkshire) (1989, 1990, 1991), where the species is most likely still present.
135427		distribution	eng	England: Lakes Windermere and possibly also found in Ennerdale Water (Cumbria).
135427		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in early November, in shallow water (1-3 m deep) and in main tributaries, on stone bottom. Eggs hatch in 64-80 days.
135427		population	eng	There are concerns over the stocks in Windermere and Ennerdale.
135427		threats	eng	Eutrophication and introduced species and possibly impacted by land use change.
135428		conservation	eng	No information.
135428		distribution	eng	Scotland: Loch Eck, and possibly also recorded from Loch Awe (Argyll), Loch Lee (Angus), Loch Earn (Pertshire), and Loch Doon (Ayrshire); Loch Doon population has been introduced in Megget and Talla reservoirs.
135428		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In Loch Doon: Lives up to nine years. Spawns in October, over gravel and stones in shallow water, along stone shore line. Feeds on zooplankton in summer, on benthic invertebrates rest of year.
135428		population	eng	No information.
135428		threats	eng	Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).
135429		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
135429		distribution	eng	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis melanoleucus</em> occurs along the east (right bank) of the upper Rio Juruá, south from the mouth of the Rio Eirú (Hershkovitz 1977). With <em>S. f. acrensis</em> now recognized to be a hybrid form of <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> x <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> at the headwaters of the Rio Juruá (Peres 1993), the range of <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> now includes that of <em>acrensis</em>, along the right bank of the upper Juruá up to its headwaters, as described by Hershkovitz (1977). No records are available for the Rio Tarauacá, but according to Hershkovitz (1977) specimens collected by A. M. Olalla from Santa Cruz, Rio Eiru, in 1936, were from the right bank of the river, indicating that the distribution extends at least to the left bank of the Rio Tarauacá. No saddleback tamarins have to date been recorded to the east of the Rio Tarauacá in the state of Acre as far as the upper Rio Purus. Mena <em>et al</em>. (2007) provided the first record of <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> for Peru (headwaters of the Río Breu (right bank affluent of upper Juruá). However, the specimen actually looks like one of the hybrids (<em>fuscicollis</em> × <em>melanoleucus</em>) that were discussed by Peres <em>et al.</em> (1996).<br/><br/>The origin and distribution of the subspecies <em>Saguinus fuscicollis crandalli</em> is not known. Hershkovitz (1977, p.636) proposed that it may occur between the Rios Purus and Madeira, south of the Rio Amazonas/Solimões. The affinity of this tamarin to <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> and particularly the form described as <em>S. f. acrensis</em> by Hershkovitz (1977) (here regarded as a hybrid form of <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> and <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em>, see Peres 1993, Peres <em>et al.</em> 1996) in terms of its pelage colour and pattern is the only indication of its distribution, and on this basis, Hershkovitz (1977, p.622) subsequently suggested a more likely locality: the headwaters of the Rio Purus in southern Peru.
135429		habitat	eng	<em>Saguinus melanoleucus</em> occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8.<br/><br/>Saddleback tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They tend to form mixed-species groups with the larger, sympatric moustached tamarins, including <em>Saguinus mystax</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>Saguinus imperator</em> (see Yoneda 1981; Buchanan-Smith 1990; Peres 1992a,b, 1993c; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). The moustached tamarins trravel higher on the forest, spending more time in the lower and middle canopy, above 10 m.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult H&B 25.0 cm, TL 38.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).
135429		population	eng	Peres (1997) estimated population densities for <em>Saguinus m. melanoleucus</em> at three terra firma forest sites on the upper Rio Juruá: Porongaba, 65.1 individuals/km²; Kaxinawá Reserve, 36.7 individuals/km²; and Penedo, 67.6 individuals/km².
135429		threats	eng	At present, there is no evidence of any major threats to the species. However, although it occurs in a remote region of the Brazilian Amazon, its small distribution and the rapidly expanding development of the state of Acre would indicate that it may be vulnerable. Probably not hunted, possibly some use as pets.
135440		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is on Schedules II, Part I, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Sri Lanka it is included under the Fauna and Flora Protection Act number 2 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range in India (Sri Venkateshwara National Park, Nellapattu Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Biligiri Rangsweamy Temple Sanctaury, Mudumalai Sanctaury, Chinnar Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Shendurney Sanctuary, Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kalakad Sanctuary, and Mundanthurai Sanctuary), and in Sri Lanka (Knuckle Range Forest Reserve, Ampara Sanctuary, Buddaragala Sanctuary, Kanthale Naval Sanctuary, Wilpattu National Park, Ritigala Strict Nature Reserve, Angamedilla National Park, Flood Plains National Park, Giritale National Park, Moragaswawe National Park, Somawathie National Park, Wasagamuwa National Park, Uduwalawe National Park, Bundala National Park, Lunugamvehera National Park, Madura Oya National Park and Ruhuna National Park).<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggests research on taxonomy, man-animal conflict, more surveys, as well as habitat management, wild population management, public education, monitoring, and limiting factor management.
135440		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in southern India and Sri Lanka. <br/><br/><em>S. p. priam</em><br/>Occurs south of river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh to Madurai in Tamil Nadu, but the actual areas of occupancy are sparse in between (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003), with large areas absent of langurs. The forests of the Eastern Ghats are not contiguous, have highly degraded dry deciduous forests, and are for the most part scrubby. The ratio of extent of occurrence to area of occupancy is very high (A. Kumar, M. Singh and S. Molur pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>S. p. thersites</em><br/>It is found in the southern Western Ghats in India and in the dry zone of Sri Lanka.  However, there are some <br/>populations of langurs on the foothills of southern India along the western slopes of the Western Ghats and in the Palghat gap, whose identity has not been established. Extent of occurrence is around 10,000 km<sup>2<sup> in India and around 40,000 km<sup>2<sup> in Sri Lanka.  Area of occupancy is almost contiguous in the Indian portion, while it is about one-fourth in Sri Lanka.
135440		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical dry evergreen forest, riparian, dry deciduous forest, coastal forest, gardens, around temples in Sri Lanka and cultivated areas (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is found in India up to 1,200 m and in Sri Lanka up to 500 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; A. Nekaris pers. comm.). It is arboreal, semi-terrestrial, folivorous and frugivorous, and diurnal. In southern India these langurs are not very commensal with humans (M. Singh pers. comm.).
135440		population	eng	The global population size is unknown. There is a continuing decline in habitat in Andhra Pradesh that suggests a decline in population, but the rates are unknown (A. Kumar, M.Singh and S. Molur pers. comm.). In Sri Lanka, there has been a drastic decline in habitat (>50% in the last 30 years), and there is more than 50% decline in population over the last 3 generations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; A. Nekaris pers. comm.).
135440		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat loss are the major threats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting is rampant in the Eastern Ghats and the forests of the eastern coast, and common in some areas near national parks, like for example Ruhuna National Park (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). The habitats are highly vulnerable to human activities, and very few places are protected. Man-animal conflicts in Andhra Pradesh are also a concern. Other threats include capture for pets.
135442		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
135442		distribution	eng	It is restricted to central and northern Portugal: from Limia to Tornada drainages.
135442		habitat	eng	The species is found in the lower stretches of rivers and streams.
135442		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
135442		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, sand extraction and pollution. Water abstraction and climate change (leading to droughts) are also a threat.<strong></strong>
135446		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, <em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em> is protected in accordance with Resolution No. 105 of the Ministry of the Environment (<em>Registro Oficial </em>No. 5  of 28 January 2000) (Tirira 2001). This prohibits hunting and commercialization throughout Ecuador.<br/><br/>Tirira (2001) proposes the following measures: <br/>Research on its range and the size and status of remaining populations;<br/>Evaluation of the effectivness of the protected areas where it occurs;<br/>Research on its ability to cope with deforestation and forest fragmentation, and proximity to humans and their activities;<br/>Research on the extent of illegal hunting by colonists and Indigenous people;<br/>Evaluate the needs and possibilities for increasing the size of the current protected areas and providing for more protected areas where it occurs;<br/>Carry out education awareness campaigns and environmental education programs in its range - emphasizing particularly aspects of the traffic in, and commercialization of, primates; and<br/><em>Ex situ</em> breeding programme, and associated research needed for such (e.g., husbandry, reproduction) .<br/><br/>The subspecies are recorded from the following protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em><br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Los Cedros Protected Forest (Tirira 2007)<br/>Awá Ethnological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Los Katios Natural National Park (72,000 ha)<br/>Las Orquideas Natural National Park (32,000 ha)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
135446		distribution	eng	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps </em> is endemic to Ecuador, in the north, west of the Andes, in the Province of Esmeraldas, and, at least historically it would seem, south as far the Cordillera de Colonche (Tirira 2007). There are two populations remaining: one in the Chongon Colonche Mountain Range and the another in the Cotacachi-Cayapas Reserve and surrounding forests in the north. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) suggested that <em>A. f. fusciceps</em> might occur in southern Colombia, south of the Río Mira, continuous with the populations in Ecuador, but no evidence has been forthcoming regarding this. <br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em> ranges from the western cordillera of the Andes from south-western Colombia, northward on west side of the Río Cauca to eastern Panama (Cerro Pirre and the basin of the Río Bayano of the Pacific coast) (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 2006). The Cerro Pirre or the Río Tucutí mark the border with <em>A. geoffroyi grisescens</em>. In Colombia, <em>A. f. rufiventris</em> occurs throughout the Pacific lowlands except for Juradó, norh-western part of the Department of Chocó, supposedly the domain of <em>A. g. grisescens</em> (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler, 2003, 2004). It occurs in the Urabá region in north-western Antioquia, Córdoba, Sucre, and northern Bolívar east to the lower Río Cauca along the western bank to south-central Antioquia. The most southerly record in Colombia is Barabacoas, Department of Nariño, and the most northerly is southern bank of the Canal del Dique, Cartagena. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) believed that it formerly occurred as far north as Pendales.<br/><br/><em>Ateles f. rufiventris</em> does not occur in Ecuador and is discontinuous with <em>A. f. fusciceps</em>. Furthermore, this subspecies range in Colombia is likely fragmented in the southern part of its range. There are only two known locations in the Chocó region.
135446		habitat	eng	In Ecuador (<em>A. f. fusciceps</em>), tropical and subtropical humid forests from 100 to 1,700 m above sea level (Tirira 2007). In Colombia (<em>A. f. rufiventris</em>), Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) recorded that it occurs in dry forest, humid forest and cloud forest, occupying the greatest range of forest habitats of any of the Colombian spider monkeys. Defler (2004) indicated that they range as high as 2,000-2,500 m above sea level in the Cordilllera Occidental. <br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.   <br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.
135446		population	eng	<em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em> is rare and diifficult to see (Madden and Albuja 1989). In Cotacachi-Cayapas, this subspecies is found in population densities of 1.2 individuals/km² (Gavilanes and Endara 2006).<br/><br/>There is no population information available for <em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em>.
135446		threats	eng	<em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em><br/>Tirira (2001) has reported an 80% reduction in population size based on habitat loss. This species has a very small distribution, is highly fragmented, and is under pressure from a high rate of habitat loss due to deforestation and strong hunting pressure.<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em><br/>In Colombia, Defler <em>et al.</em> (2003) all spider monkeys are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat loss and fragmentation. National Parks such as Katios and Orquideas are believed to have very few spider monkeys because of indigenous hunting pressure (N. Vargas pers. comm.; H. Rubio pers. comm.) and the population density of <em>Ateles</em> may be decreasing in Los Katios (Director del Parque Los Katios, D. Pintor pers. comm.). Widespread censuses of <em>Ateles</em> are needed, especially in national parks.<br/><br/>In Colombia, along the Atlantic coast, it has been estimated that over 30% of habitat has been lost in the past 10 years based on calculations from satellite photos (Miller <em>et al</em>, 2004). Ground truthing of this data found only 2.5% of viable secondary forest habitat was left in this region (Miller <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Panama, there is a lower human population and likely higher habitat availability, but more research is needed to determine population status and threats to this subspecies.
135458		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known. More data are required.
135458		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Iran (Kurdistan) and from three regions in Turkey: in the vicinity of Meydanekbez, Hakkari and Tatvan (Krystufek <em>et al.</em> 2001). All records are from the southern margin of the Anatolian-Iranian high plateau (Krystufek <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species could be found more widely distributed in the western parts of the range (there is only one record from 1800s that was not precise) (Turkey and potentially adjacent Syria), and there are Upper Pleistocene records (as <em>Talpa chthonia</em>) further south. This suggests that the species' range has been shrinking over the last ten thousand years. Specimens were apparently always collected at altitudes of around 2000 metres above sea level.
135458		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mountain meadows and pastures. The species' habitat is little known; two specimens have been collected from burrows in a hayfield whilst others have been found in alpine grassland. The specimen reported from the town seems anomalous, it is unlikely that this would be suitable habitat for a burrowing mole (Krystufek <em>et al.</em> 2001). Like other moles, this species inhabits burrows and eats worms and insects.
135458		population	eng	The species is rare.
135458		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to urban and agricultural expansion may have contributed to the historical reduction of the range, but there is no information to confirm this or any data available on current threats.
135484		conservation	eng	This species is protected locally by Indonesian regulations and internationally by CITES, which includes all <em>Latimeria</em> species (CITES Appendix I, since 2000).<br/><br/>This species needs further research in all aspects of its ecology and biology and to determine the extent of its distribution, population size and trends. However it is an extremely difficult and expensive animal to study due to it's habitat time and deep water living.<br/><br/>Shark nets were outlawed in Bunaken National Park which includes Manado Tua where the first individuals were caught.
135484		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Celebes Sea, north of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is only known only from three localities.  The first two specimins were caught on Manado Tua in September 1997 and July, 1998.  Another was caught in Manado Bay in May, 2007. The third site is northern Suluwesi near Dondo Bay, slightly to the east on Tanjum Kandi.  The animal from the Dondo Bay site was observed in the Jago submersible in November 1999.  The Tanjum Kandi sighting was in June 2006 from the Fukushima Aquamarine Aquarium ROV.
135484		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory marine species found in deep water between 150-200m depth. It lives in water temperatures from 17-20°C. It is presumably found in rocky slopes and caves. Fricke <em>et al</em>. (2000) observed two specimens of 120 and 140 cm length in a deep carbonate cave at a depth of 155 m (water temp. 17.8-20.1°C).  <em>Latimeria menadoensis</em> is presumed to be very slow growing and long lived, with very low fecundity (maximum of around 50 for congeneric species), similar to sharks. Females produce large, orange-sized eggs which hatch within the oviduct before the female gives birth to live young. The autopsy of the Sulawesi Coelacanth that was caught in May 2007 in Bunaken National Marine Park, showed that in fact the fish was pregnant. Scientists in Indonesia, France and Japan are currently conducting research to better understand the reproductive biology of this fish.<br/><br/>Though scientists have never observed coelacanths feeding in their natural habitat, analyses of stomach contents of captured specimens have shown that their diet includes cuttlefish, squid, and various small to medium-sized benthic fishes – including lantern fishes, cardinal fishes and deepwater snappers.<br/><br/>Coelacanths can weigh up to 100 kg, though an average size is closer 30 kg.They may live to an age of at least 22 years.<br/><br/>There are many unanswered questions about the ecology of <em>Latimeria manadoensis</em>.<br/><br/>A unique combination of morphological features suggest that the coelacanth lineage is close to the origin of the evolution of early terrestrial, four-legged animals (tetrapods) like amphibians. The most remarkable of these features is the presence of seven lobed fins, unique among the living fishes. The paired fins move in an alternating fashion which resembles a horse in a slow trot. Other interesting features include a small secondary "epicaudal" lobe on its tail, an oil-filled notochord instead of a backbone, an intercranial joint which is thought to allow them to widen their gape when capturing prey, and a unique electrosensory rostral organ that may be used to detect prey. While their morphological features lead many scientists to believe the coelacanth lineage was the direct link to tetrapods, recent molecular evidence suggests that lung fish might be more closely related to tetrapods (University of California Museum of Paleontology, website).
135484		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. It is believed to be a naturally small population (suspected to be less than 10,000 mature adults) and rare. A population study has never been undertaken and the species is very rarely caught by fisherman. One experienced fisherman informed that during his life as a fisherman this species was caught no more than 30 times, or not more than one or two times per year (M. Erdmann pers. comm.). The growth of its population is likely to be very slow, similar to <em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>. The shark fishermen at Menado Tua Island generally catch 1-2 individuals of <em>L. menadoensis</em> once every 5-10 years as bycatch (Erdmann and Kasim Moosa, pers. comm.). In northern Sulawesi, all fishermen are aware of this species and would report it if caught.
135484		threats	eng	<em>Latimeria menadoensis</em> has a very low population size and its life history makes it a species with higher extinction risk due to slow growth and low fecundity. This is not a commercial species and has no food value, but is caught as bycatch by deep shark nets and by hook and line targeting deepwater snapper.<br/><br/>This species is an extremely sought after aquarium fish, although no specimen has ever been successfully kept alive for aquarium display.
135485		conservation	eng	It is possible that this species is present in a number of protected areas in East Africa; it has been recorded from Tsavo National Park in Kenya. In southern Africa it has been recorded from the Kruger National Park in Limpopo Province, South Africa. There is a need to protect important roosting sites of this species, and to limit collection of animals to sustainable levels. Additional studies are needed into the identity of populations currently allocated to <em>Hipposideros vittatus</em>.
135485		distribution	eng	This species has mainly been recorded from East Africa and southern Africa with some scattered records from West Africa and Central Africa. In East Africa the species ranges from Ethiopia and Somalia in the north, through Kenya and Tanzania to Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique. In southern Africa it has been recorded in Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and marginally in northeastern South Africa. In Central Africa there are patchy records from Angola, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Central African Republic. In West Africa the species currently appears to limited to a few records from Nigeria and Conakry in Guinea. It has been recorded from around sea level to 1,700 m asl.
135485		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitat types. In East and southern Africa it seems to be largely associated with savanna woodland habitats (Skinner and Chimimba 2005), whereas in West Africa it is possible that the species has additionally been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest, secondary forest and riverine forest (Happold 1987). The species can occur locally in very large numbers (thousands of individuals) where suitable cave habitats are available, however, animals have been recorded (presumably in considerably smaller numbers) roosting in tree canopies, hollow trees and dense vegetation (Happold 1987; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). This bat has been recorded flying among and within buildings, and roosting under the eaves of buildings (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).
135485		population	eng	This species is known to exist as a few large ancestral roosts, containing tens of thousands of individuals which seasonally migrate considerable distances.
135485		threats	eng	In view of the species wide distribution, there might not be any major threats to the species as a whole. However, a number of the major colonies are threatened by the mining of limestone caves, disturbance by tourists, and subsistence overhunting, particular for the use of their fat for making candles (this species stores particularly large amounts of fat in its body [Churchill <em>et al.</em> 1997]).
135486		conservation	eng	No information.
135486		distribution	eng	Azov and Caspian Sea basins. In Volga, native in delta, now up to Lake (Resevoir) Rybinskoye.
135486		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A variety of slow-flowing or still waters. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks.  <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
135486		population	eng	Abundant.
135486		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135487		conservation	eng	No information.
135487		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin; Maritza and Struma drainages in eastern Aegean basin. In Danube, historically present up to about Vienna, invasive since 1970s, now reaching upstream to southern Germany. Recorded in 1999 from Rhine where it arrived from Danube through a canal and spread as far as the Netherlands (2002). In South Bug and Dniepr native far upriver. Arrived to North America in ballast of ships in 1991.
135487		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A variety of slow-flowing or still waters from estuarine to small, slowly flowing premontane streams. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks. Often very abundant in backwaters and lakes, proliferates in reservoirs and channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
135487		population	eng	Abundant.
135487		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135488		conservation	eng	No information.
135488		distribution	eng	Ukraine: Crimea: Chornaya drainage, below Chornaya gorge only.
135488		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats. Chornaya is a medium-sized stream with a flow of about 10 m<sup>3</sup>/s. The inhabited stretch is about 25 km long. In its lower part, water is extracted in large quantities for irrigation and the stream is almost dry in summer. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135488		population	eng	No information.
135488		threats	eng	High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase, so that the river below Chornya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted increase.
135489		conservation	eng	No information available.
135489		distribution	eng	Upper Volga drainage and northern and eastern Gulf of Bothnia from Estonia eastward and northward to Finland and northern Sweden. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cottus</span> populations from Dniepr, Ural and Pechora drainages might be conspecific.
135489		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Medium sized rivers to small streams, lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.
135489		population	eng	Abundant.
135489		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135490		conservation	eng	No information available.
135490		distribution	eng	Lakes of western central Baltic basin, Sweden, southern Norway, Denmark, Poland. In Poland, restricted to a few lakes in lower Odra drainage.
135490		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-March, along shores, at 5-10 m depth, on firm bottom, or in lower part of tributaries. Feeds on zooplankton.
135490		population	eng	No information available.
135490		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135491		conservation	eng	No information.
135491		distribution	eng	Black and Azov Seas from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn.
135491		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deeper layers (50-70 m) of coastal waters. Migrates from sea to mouth and lower reaches of large rivers, spawns in fresh or slightly brackish water, usually close to shore, in upper 2-4 m, in almost still water bodies as flood plains or lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver at 1-2 years. Many individuals spawn 2-4 seasons. Spawners appear along coast in late January-March, enter rivers when temperature reaches about 10°C, in late April-May. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C or beyond, in May-June. Eggs are bathypelagic or sink to bottom. Spent fish migrate to estuaries and coastal lagoons or to sea near river mouths to feed. In autumn, they move to sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea or estuaries during first summer, remaining there until they mature. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (crustaceans), insect larvae and small fish.
135491		population	eng	Abundant.
135491		threats	eng	Locally threatened in the northern Black Sea basin by the increasing salinity in the limans, due to water abstraction and drought.
135492		conservation	eng	No information.
135492		distribution	eng	Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages; Amur drainage (Russia, Mongolia and China).
135492		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Swamps, backwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135492		population	eng	Locally abundant.
135492		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135493		conservation	eng	No information.
135493		distribution	eng	From Aliakmon to Nestos drainages (Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria).
135493		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135493		population	eng	Abundant.
135493		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135495		conservation	eng	No information.
135495		distribution	eng	Western Caspian basin in Europe: Kuma, Terek, Sulak, Shura-ozen and Samur drainages. Records from Kuban drainage need confirmation.
135495		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper montane reaches of rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135495		population	eng	Abundant in western Caspian basin.
135495		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135496		conservation	eng	No information.
135496		distribution	eng	The species is known from five streams on the Crimea; Salgir, Alma, Chornya, Bel Bek and Kacha.
135496		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower and middle parts of streams and estuaries. In estuaries, lives close to surface. Migrates to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in June-July. Forages in small stream estuaries and migrates upstream to spawn. Some juveniles forage in lower part of streams. Feeds on drifting and terrestrial insects and zooplankton. Regularly hybridizes with <em>Squalius cephalus</em>.
135496		population	eng	It's presence in Salgir needs to be confirmed, it is rare in Kacha and Chornaya streams, almost extirpated in Almastill but still abundant in the Bel Bek stream.
135496		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution (Salgir stream), water abstraction (Alma, Chornaya, Kacha) and river regulation (Chornaya). The level of drought is predicted to increase in severity due to climate change.
135497		conservation	eng	No information.
135497		distribution	eng	Southern Portugal: Mira, Arade and Bensafrim drainages.
135497		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Ubiquitous. Small to medium sized streams. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats in fast-flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135497		population	eng	No information.
135497		threats	eng	Alien species (<em>Gambusia</em>, <em>Lepomis</em> and <em>Micropterus</em>) which are probably impacting the species. Streams almost dry out in summer due to water abstraction and drought where the species survives in small refuges. If the spring rains fail, the species risks extinction as it may have no habitat remaining.
135498		conservation	eng	No information.
135498		distribution	eng	Ukraine: lower parts of Dniestr and South Bug drainages. Likely to occur as well in lower Dniepr.
135498		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in foot hills and lowlands with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135498		population	eng	Abundant.
135498		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135499		conservation	eng	No information.
135499		distribution	eng	Caspian (mostly western and southwestern coast, from Ural, Volga to Safid-Rud drainages).
135499		distribution	eng	Caspian (mostly western and southwestern coast, from Ural, Volga to Safid-Rud drainages), and Aral Sea basins.
135499		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, coastal lakes, estuaries, and adjacent areas of seas where salinity is lowered by large inflow of freshwater. In estuaries, lives close to surface and tolerates salinities up to 12 ‰. Earlier migrated for long distances upstream, up to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. Landlocked populations in reservoirs spawn in reservoir tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn (September in Kura) and move upstream during winter and/or in spring. Spawns in May-September in water 0.2-0.7 m deep, current about 1 m/s, and 18-26°C, often with much splashing. Males seem to be partly territorial. Males assemble at spawning grounds and wait for ripe females, which arrive later. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Embryonic development lasts 2-3 days, larvae first staying among gravel for 8-11 days, then actively migrating to shallows and backwaters. Adults migrate back to sea, lakes or estuaries soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles migrate downriver in autumn of same year or next spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish.
135499		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, coastal lakes, estuaries, and adjacent areas of seas where salinity is lowered by large inflow of freshwater. In estuaries, lives close to surface and tolerates salinities up to 12   %o. Earlier migrated for long distances upstream, up to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. Landlocked populations in reservoirs spawn in reservoir tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn (September in Kura) and move upstream during winter and/or in spring. Spawns in May-September in water 0.2-0.7 m deep, current about 1 m/s, and 18-26°C, often with much splashing. Males seem to be partly territorial. Males assemble at spawning grounds and wait for ripe females, which arrive later. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Embryonic development lasts 2-3 days, larvae first staying among gravel for 8-11 days, then actively migrating to shallows and backwaters. Adults migrate back to sea, lakes or estuaries soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles migrate downriver in autumn of same year or next spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish.
135499		population	eng	The poplation declined in the 1950's and 1960's due to the damming of the rivers which blocked access to spawning sites. However they have formed stable landlocked populations and can still spawn below the dams.
135499		threats	eng	Currently overfishing and pollution in the Caspian Sea could be a threat to the species.
135500		conservation	eng	No information.
135500		distribution	eng	France: streams draining to Mediterranean between Rhône and Pyrénées.
135500		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in hilly area with moderate current, over sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135500		population	eng	Abundant.
135500		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135501		conservation	eng	No information.
135501		distribution	eng	Tisza system, Danube drainage.
135501		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in small rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135501		population	eng	Abundant.
135501		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135502		conservation	eng	No information.
135502		distribution	eng	Rhône drainage, except Lake Geneva basin (France, Switzerland). Apparently eastward to Roia drainages (France, Italy), possibly further eastward in Ligurian Sea basin.
135502		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rivers and streams, in clear, cold, well oxygenated water, with slow to fast current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only. Spawns for the first time at four years. Spawns in late December, at temperatures about 4°C, on gravel or coarse sand. Feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians.
135502		population	eng	Fragmented and locally abundant.
135502		threats	eng	Hybridisation with <em>S. trutta</em>.
135503		conservation	eng	No information.
135503		distribution	eng	Lake Vistonis drainage (Greece). Shemajas from Filiouris drainage might be conspecific.
135503		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135503		population	eng	Was believed to extinct, but information from fisherman and subsequent survey has found the species.
135503		threats	eng	Commercial fishing and loss of spawning grounds due to damming of rivers. Increased salinity of the lagoon, due to the blocking of tributaries for irrigation, is also threatening the species. Pollution may also be a threat as there is intensive agriculture which surrounds the catchment and lagoon.
135504		conservation	eng	No information.
135504		distribution	eng	Romania: known from a single small lagoon near Portita, south of Danube delta in the Golovita-Sinoe-Razelm Lake complex.
135504		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A small and shallow lagoon behind coastal sand dunes with brackish water and mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135504		population	eng	Last recorded in 1994, when it was described. The site was visited the year later and none were found. Another survey in 1998 also failed to find the species.
135504		threats	eng	Unknown.
135505		conservation	eng	None.
135505		distribution	eng	Dniestr, Dniepr and Don drainages (Black Sea basin).
135505		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Unknown. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Adults were known to migrate and were the target of specific fisheries in lower part of rivers in autumn and spring (including in lower Dniepr where <em>E. mariae</em> is known to be absent). It is not known whether the migration was restricted to freshwater or included a period at sea. Spawns during spring in headwaters, in clear water, over gravel bottom or recently flooded areas.
135505		population	eng	Last recorded around the end of 19th century.
135505		threats	eng	Unknown.
135506		conservation	eng	None.
135506		distribution	eng	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).
135506		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. Spawns in 10-60 m water depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July-November. After spawning migrates to deeper places, at depths of up to about 140 m. Migrates to 50-60 m in March-April. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (especially mussels and snails).
135506		population	eng	Thought to have gone extinct in the early 1970s.
135506		threats	eng	Eutrophication which peaked in 1979. Natural reproduction in coregonids is said to have almost stopped during the period of high eutrophication as the eggs could no longer develop in the low-oxygen substrates.
135507		conservation	eng	No information.
135507		distribution	eng	Aegean Sea basin, from Volvi to Nestos drainages (Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria).
135507		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers; prefers stretches with clear water and riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Reaches up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in June.
135507		population	eng	No information.
135507		threats	eng	Water abstraction, drought, poaching and pollution from agriculture.
135508		conservation	eng	No information.
135508		distribution	eng	Lake Ohrid basin (Macedonia, Albania). Mainly in springs draining into the lake and the upper Drin river.
135508		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Springs along lake shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135508		population	eng	Unknown.
135508		threats	eng	Drought is most likely not a threat as the springs and Lake Ohrid are fed by the water from Lake Prespa.
135509		conservation	eng	No information.
135509		distribution	eng	Caspian, Azov and Black Sea basins. Close to sea.
135509		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to saline water of coastal lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and lagoons, in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20 mm SL. Spawns in March-July. Individual females may spawn several times during a season. Males defend eggs in cavities under stones, plant material or mollusc shells. Eggs hatch at 3.0-3.8 mm. Feeds on small invertebrates.
135509		population	eng	Abundant.
135509		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135510		conservation	eng	No information.
135510		distribution	eng	Gulf of Taganrog and limans of eastern coast of the Sea of Azov; also along western coast especially in high-water years when the species is recorded in central parts of the sea, too (Iljin , 1927a, 1927c, 1930; Maiskiy, 1955, 1960). The species is formally described from Voronezh (Upper Don R. system, 51.8ºN 33.5ºE) but have never been recorded in Don so up since (Fedorov, 1960). According to our samplings, along the main course of Don it only occurs up to the upper reach of Tsymlyansk Reservoir. Benthophilus stellatus may be present in Severskiy Donetz and Manych (Solodovnikov, 1930; Vitkovskiy, 2000) and in Lower Kuban' River (Emtyl' et al., 1988) together with Benthophilus durrelli but this needs clarification. Prefers shallow coastal lagoons and lowland rivers.
135510		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow coastal lagoons and lowland rivers, in fresh and brackish water with salinity below 12 ‰. In rivers, prefers mainstream, more than 3 m deep and with mud bottom. In Sea of Azov over sand, avoiding silted areas. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns after first winter, in May-June. Females die shortly after spawning, males some weeks later. Feeds mainly on molluscs, insects and crustaceans.
135510		population	eng	Abundant.
135510		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135511		conservation	eng	No information.
135511		distribution	eng	Great Britain; Atlantic drainages from Garonne (tributaries draining from Massif Central) to Scheldt [French: Escaut] in France and Belgium. Lower, middle and northern upper Rhine mainstream in Germany and the Netherlands, reaching upriver (southward) to Karlsruhe. Also in rivers Mosel and Sieg in Germany. Might also be present in other major Rhine tributaries, the French stretch of the upper Rhine and the lower Meuse.
135511		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams to medium-sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year in Belgium; up to four times, in February-early July, in stream Bere (southern England). Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.
135511		population	eng	Abundant.
135511		threats	eng	Pollution, water abstraction and alteration of river morphology.
135512		conservation	eng	No information.
135512		distribution	eng	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Introduced in lakes of Po drainage (where it possibly has hybridised with other introduced species).
135512		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, near flat shores, or near bottom, sometimes on steep slopes. Spawns in shallow water, along shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in late November-December. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (especially mussels, snails, worms and insects).
135512		population	eng	Naturally rare.
135512		threats	eng	Hybridisation with <em>C. macrophthalmus</em> (another native species in Lake Constance) happened through a ranching programme. This was stopped in 2004.
135513		conservation	eng	No information.
135513		distribution	eng	Germany: Lakes Ammersee, Starnbergersee, Tegernsee, Schliersee, Kochelsee; Austria: Traunsee, Hallstädtersee. In 1480, introduced from Kochelsee to Walchensee (not previously inhabited by <em>Coregonus</em>).
135513		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic in surface layers. Usually spawns above gravel or rocks on bottom or along shores. Spawns below surface in Ammersee. In Traunsee and Hallstädter See, reported to migrate to spawn in tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in late November-early December at 3-4 m depth (Schliersee), in mid December-late January at 10-20 m depth (Tegernsee), in second half of November at 2-3 m depth (Starnbergersee), in mid-December at 80-100 m depth (Kochelsee, Walchensee), in November below surface (Ammersee). Feeds mainly on zooplankton, rarely on benthic invertebrates. May consume large amounts of small fish in summer.
135513		population	eng	No information
135513		threats	eng	The type locality (Starnbergersee 59 km²) has been heavily impacted by pollution (eutrophication) and stocking of alien species
135514		conservation	eng	No information.
135514		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin: Kuban drainage.
135514		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane rivers with strong current and gravel bottom. Most of year in middle or upper stretches of rivers; in winter, moves downstream to lower stretches or larger tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at three years, females often one year later. In January-February, starts spawning migration to uppermost montane reaches, entering small shallow streams with very fast current. Spawns in March-May at sites with gravel or hard sand, with rapids and swift current (up to 1.5 m/s), 0.2-1.0 m deep, in clean water with high oxygen concentrations. Females lay 1000-1250 eggs, during a short period, usually in a single night, but often in several portions. Most individuals at a given spawning site spawn over 3-4 nights. Eggs are sticky and adhere to substrate. Feeds mainly on detritus, also on periphyton, benthic invertebrates, especially during first year of life.
135514		population	eng	Very abundant.
135514		threats	eng	The dam one dam in the basin (Krasnodar Dam) was built during Soviet times and may have had an impact. Currently there are no threats to the species.
135515		conservation	eng	No information.
135515		distribution	eng	Greece: Thessaly: Pinios and Karla Lake drainages (now extirpated).
135515		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Stretches of streams and rivers with moderate flow, usually sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135515		population	eng	No information.
135515		threats	eng	Intense water abstraction and drought, pollution from domestic sources.
135516		conservation	eng	No information.
135516		distribution	eng	Sea of Azov: Taganrog Bay of the Sea of Azov and Don River from mouth upstream to the upper stretch of Tsymlyansk Reservoir. Prefers freshwater and does not penetrate into the sea, abundant in fresh waters at river mouths. Introduced (mixed with mysids) in Kuibyshev reservoir on Volga, from where it spread in Volga, from Gorgy to Volgograd reservoirs.
135516		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and brackish waters. In coastal areas of Sea of Azov, but mostly at river mouths (saline water, up to 3 ‰), lower reaches of rivers, and reservoirs. Prefers silty sand with mollusc shells. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in May-August. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions inside or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on insect larvae and small molluscs.
135516		population	eng	No information.
135516		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135517		conservation	eng	No information.
135517		distribution	eng	France: Mediterranean coastal streams from Gardon to Tech; probably extends further to south and east. Possibly an introgression zone with <em>P. phoxinus</em> in lower Rhône, from about Lyon southward.
135517		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams with clear, cold, well oxygenated water, over gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135517		population	eng	No information.
135517		threats	eng	Water abstraction, species introductions (<em>P. phoxinus</em>) and climate change is predicted to increase the severity of droughts.
135518		conservation	eng	Fertilised eggs from the fish have now been relocated to nearby Llyn Arenig as part of a two year project.
135518		distribution	eng	Wales: Llyn Tegid [Lake Bala]. Introduced into Llyn Arenig.
135518		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in January-February in shallow bays on stones and gravel. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.
135518		population	eng	Abundant.
135518		threats	eng	Declining water quality, a lack of oxygen and the depths of the lake in summer, human activity and fluctuating lake levels.<br/><br/><em>Gymnocephalus cernuus</em> (ruffe) - introduced to the lake in the 1980s - attacks spawning <em>C. pennantii</em> and predates upon eggs and young fish.
135519		conservation	eng	No information.
135519		distribution	eng	Vistula drainage (mainly San and Wisloka systems) downstream to Wilga (about 50 km from Warsaw), upper Dniestr basin in Poland and Ukraine. Similar barbels from upper Tisza system (Danube drainage) may belong to this species.
135519		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rather small rivers with moderate to fast current in piedmont and montane zones at 200-600 m above sea level. Prefers stone, gravel, pebble or sand bottom and river stretches with rapids and deep holes. Spawns in shallow places over pebble bottom with fast current and clear water with high oxygen concentrations. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at 4-5. Spawns in May-July. At beginning of spawning season, migrates upriver to shallow, smaller tributaries. Does not migrate for long distances. During feeding season, usually moves along main course of stream. Spawning peaks in evening, at sunset. Males and females splash. Individual females actively dig holes with anal, into which eggs are released. Probably spawns 2-3 times during a spawning season. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
135519		population	eng	Slowly declining.
135519		threats	eng	Locally threatened by dams, particularly in highland areas.
135520		conservation	eng	No information.
135520		distribution	eng	Recorded once in 1998 from the Danube drainage: upper Arges. May be present in other tributaries of lower Danube.
135520		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Known from a cold and fast-flowing small river. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135520		population	eng	No information.
135520		threats	eng	Unknown.
135521		conservation	eng	No information.
135521		distribution	eng	Adriatic and Tyrrhenian basins in Italy and Switzerland. Widely introduced in Italy. Most likely only native in Po drainage and Adriatic rivers east of Po.
135521		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In well vegetated lowland rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. Spawns on submerged plants. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Fractional spawner. Spawns in March-July, when temperature rises above 18°C. Feeds predominantly on macrophytes and terrestrial insects.
135521		population	eng	Abundant.
135521		threats	eng	Hybridisation with introduced <em>S. erythrophthalmus</em>.
135522		conservation	eng	No information.
135522		distribution	eng	Coastal streams of Thrace from Karasu (Sea of Marmara basin) to Papuc (Black Sea basin) (Turkey).
135522		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine and lacustrine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forages in lower part of rivers, close to surface.
135522		population	eng	Abundant.
135522		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135523		conservation	eng	No information.
135523		distribution	eng	Sweden: Lakes Vänern, Locknesjön, Skalka-Parkijaur, Storvindeln, Storlaisan, Storuman, Vojmsjön, Siljan, Övre Särvsjön, Östra Vattnan, Orten-Randsjön, and probably others.
135523		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deeper waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in October-February, on gravel to stone bottom, at 1-10 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, molluscs and insect larvae.
135523		population	eng	No information.
135523		threats	eng	None known
135524		conservation	eng	No information.
135524		distribution	eng	France: from Loire to Garonne drainages on Atlantic slope, from Tech to Aude drainages on Mediterranean slope. Leuciscus population from Hérault possibly conspecific.
135524		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers, sectors with current, clear and cool water, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Adults apparently undertake small migrations. Spawns in February-March, at night, in stretches with swift current and pebble bottom, in deeper pools.
135524		population	eng	No information.
135524		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135525		conservation	eng	No information.
135525		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Common Goby.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.  Further research and monitoring of the threats to this species should be carried out to ensure they do not become more widespread.
135525		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Annex III of the Bern Convention.
135525		distribution	eng	Coastal waters of Atlantic from northern Morocco northward to southern Norway, Baltic northward to about 63°N; isolated records from northwestern Mediterranean.
135525		distribution	eng	The Common Goby (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomatoschistus microps</span>) occurs from Norway to Mauritania and its range includes the Baltic Sea, the western Mediterranean and the Canary Islands.
135525		distribution	eng	This species is found in the east Atlantic from Norway to Morocco, including Baltic Sea (Miller 1986). It is also found in Mauritania and the Canary Islands, although these records are questionable.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in only two locations: Gulf of Lion, in France, and Gulf of Genova, in Italy. Given its very shallow depth range, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
135525		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes connected to sea, large to medium size rivers. Usually found on sand or mud. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to two years. Spawns after first winter. Spawns at sea in February-September, depending on latitude. Individual females spawn several times during a season. Adhesive eggs, 0.9x0.7 mm, are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Juveniles enter freshwater habitats in late summer to forage. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.
135525		habitat	eng	The Common Goby is an inshore, benthic species that occurs in sandy shallows, often around estuaries and the brackish waters of salt marshes (Miller 1986).&#160; Its diet consists of polychaetes, mysids, bivalve siphons, and isopods, though it is an opportunistic predator and its diet reflects the local abundance of prey (Leitao <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;  During reproduction, males build nests in sandy substrate and are responsible for caring for the unhatched eggs (Leitao <em>et al.</em> 2006). &#160; This species is found down to a depth of 12 m.
135525		habitat	eng	This is an amphidromous which sometimes enters estuaries, salt marshes and pools (Maugé 1986). It prefers brackish water. It feeds on small crustaceans, worms, chironomid larvae, and mites (Miller 1986). Its burrowing habit allows it to survive low water levels and to avoid predators (Thorman 1983). It spawns in summer. The eggs are attached to the ceiling in shelters built with bivalve shells. The male defends and aerates the eggs for about nine days. It is a benthic spawner (Cole 1990).
135525		population	eng	Abundant.
135525		population	eng	The Common Goby is a common species and surveys in areas such as the Mondego Estuary, Portugal, have found it to be the most abundant fish species (Leitao <em>et al.</em> 2006).
135525		population	eng	This is a relict species that is has suffered serious declines in the Mediterranean Sea due to temperature increases related to climate change (Lejeusne <em>et al. </em>2010), as it is a colder water species. Based on surveys, there is an estimated population decline of at least 80% over the past 10 years (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007).
135525		threats	eng	As the Common Goby is an inshore species, its habitat quality may be deleteriously impacted by coastal development and pollution discharges such as sewage effluent.&#160; However, these threats are not known across the entire range of this species and so will only be causing localised declines in abundance, if they are impacting this species at all.
135525		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135525		threats	eng	The major threat for this species is the loss of habitat quality due to increased water temperatures associated with climate change in the Mediterranean Sea. This species is also captured as bycatch in fixed nets and trap nets.
135526		conservation	eng	No information.
135526		distribution	eng	Eastern part of the Sea of Azov: Miusskiy, Eyskiy, Kurkuy and other limans, estuarine and deltaic areas, Gulf of Taganrog.
135526		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and slightly brackish waters with salinity below 11‰, usually over mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions within or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on molluscs, crustaceans and chironomid larvae.
135526		population	eng	Abundant.
135526		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135527		conservation	eng	No information.
135527		distribution	eng	Lakes Prespa (Greece, Macedonia, Albania).
135527		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surf zone along lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June.
135527		population	eng	No information.
135527		threats	eng	Water abstraction, drought, pollution and introduced species which could impact the whole lake.
135528		conservation	eng	There are local reserves set up specifically for the species in Italy.
135528		distribution	eng	Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Tyrrhenian basin of Italy from Magra drainage southward.
135528		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in hilly areas; in lowland in karstic resurgences. Clear waters around 10-20°C, usually with dense subaquatic vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only. Spawns in January-March, on gravel bottom, in shallow water. Feeds mainly on aquatic insects.
135528		population	eng	Declining.
135528		threats	eng	Water abstraction, overfishing and stocking of non-native trouts (hybridisation and competition).
135529		conservation	eng	No information.
135529		distribution	eng	Germany: Lake Chiemsee.
135529		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spawns in shallow water 1-5 m deep, on gravel or rock bottom. Chiemsee is mesotrophic lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns in mid-November to early-January, usually in first week of December. Feeds on zooplankton and small insects.
135529		population	eng	Last recorded in the 1940's. Fisherman indicate its presence until the late 1980's.
135529		threats	eng	Stocking of alien species, most likely <em>Coregonus macropthalmus</em>.
135530		conservation	eng	No information.
135530		distribution	eng	Drin drainage including Lake Ohrid and Lake Skadar basins  (Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo) .
135530		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Probably similar to <em>E. mariae</em>. Metamorphoses in November-April in Drin drainage (but this requires confirmation).
135530		population	eng	No information.
135530		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135531		conservation	eng	No information.
135531		distribution	eng	Lake Ladoga, especially southeastern part. It used to enter rivers (including the Volkhov and Svir) and migrate very high upstream to spawn in ruffles.
135531		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Alevins and juveniles mostly occur along eastern shore, adults in deeper places. Used to migrate to River Volkhov up to its uppermost reaches for spawning, now blocked by a dam. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Migrates to eastern coast before spawning, starting in May-June. Spawns in October-early November. In Volkhov, used to spawn high upstream, in riffles. Information about spawning in the lake is very sparse, but continued presence confirms lacustrine reproduction. Spawning is now assumed to occur in Volkhov estuary, probably also in River Svir. Feeds on benthos (crustaceans, insect larvae, molluscs).
135531		population	eng	Catch data from Lake Ladoga do not distinguish between different species of Coregonus species. However it is still recorded as present by fisheries scientists.
135531		threats	eng	Dams have blocked the access to the river spawning sites (Volkhov dammed in 1921).<br/><br/>Overfishing is the main current threat to the species, but the impact is unknown as catches are identified to species level. <em>Coregonus</em> catches are decreasing in Lake Ladoga. The species is listed in the Red List of Russia.
135532		conservation	eng	No information.
135532		distribution	eng	Western and southwestern Caspian basin, from Kuma to Safid-Rud drainages.
135532		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Water bodies with slow to fast current; prefers places where current is slowed down, commonly in shallows near bottom. Abundant in middle and lower reaches of large rivers and their tributaries, reservoirs and swampy creeks; also in brackish water at river mouths, in estuaries and coastal lakes. Spawns in shallow water, 0.1-0.5 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, commonly forms schools in upper water layers. Lives up to three years, spawns 1-2 times during its life. Spawns in April-July, when temperatures rise above 18-23°C. Males predominate in mating groups (sex ratio 2.5:1). Eggs sticky, laid on submersed plants, rarely on pebbles, 1.4 mm diameter. Females lay 2-3 portions of eggs in a season. Feeds on plankton, insect larvae, seeds.
135532		population	eng	Abundant.
135532		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135533		conservation	eng	Lake Skadar is a nature reserve, but this has little impact.
135533		distribution	eng	Lake Skadar (Montenegro, Albania).
135533		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to about five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in June-July along shore, at temperatures around 23-28°C, on sand or gravel. Overwinters in deep water at northeastern part of lake in depressions fed by sublacustrine springs with constant temperature.
135533		population	eng	Species was observed to be abundant on the local fish markets in 2006 (J. Freyhof, pers comm.).
135533		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by introduced species, damming of the tributary river and pollution from industrial development.
135534		conservation	eng	No information.
135534		distribution	eng	Don, Kuban, Volga, Ural and Emba drainages. Outside Europe in most Siberian drainages, eastward to Amur and Huang He (China).
135534		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From small lowland streams to large rivers with gentle current, and lakes. Mostly in habitats with dense vegetation on sand-silt to sand-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June, when temperatures reach 16-17°C, among filamentous algae or other aquatic vegetation.
135534		population	eng	Abundant.
135534		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135535		conservation	eng	No information.
135535		distribution	eng	Danube drainage: lower and middle Danube upriver to Bratislava, entering only lowermost parts of tributaries; Tisza system in Hungary and Slovakia.
135535		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers. Usually in deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in Danube and in mouths of some tributaries.
135535		population	eng	Abundant.
135535		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135536		conservation	eng	No information.
135536		distribution	eng	West Caspian basin, from Kuma to Samur drainages.
135536		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and mountain rivers with strong current and rock to gravel bottom. Spawns over hard bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years, about 120 mm SL. Spawns in March-April. Females lay eggs probably in several portions. Eggs adhere to gravel. Feeds mainly on detritus, and also on periphytic algae and benthic invertebrates, especially during first year of life.
135536		population	eng	No information.
135536		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135537		conservation	eng	There is a canal which has been constructed to allow fish to pass the Volgograd Dam, so some fish occasionally get past.
135537		distribution	eng	Caspian Sea from where adults ascend Volga (only few fish enter Ural and Terek) to spawn. Earlier reached upriver up to Kama and Oka systems. Migrations now blocked by Volgograd dam. There are indications it has formed landlocked populations in Volga reservoirs.
135537		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in a wide variety of habitats. Migrates to middle reaches of large rivers, spawning close to shores in main channel and in almost-still water bodies such as river bays, river eddies and flood plains. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver to spawn at 4-5 years. Enters rivers with unripe gonads. Some spawn 2-4 seasons, but most females die after spawning. Spawners appear along the coast in March-April, entering rivers April-May when temperatures reach about 9°C, peaking at 12-15°C. Spawning run originally lasted 30-50 days. Spawning starts in May-August when temperature rises above 15°C, and lasts as long as temperatures remain at 15-23°C. Spawning is most intensive between 4 and 10 p.m. Eggs are bathypelagic. Spent fish migrate back to the sea to feed. In autumn, they move to the southern part of the sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to the sea or to estuaries during their first summer, remaining there until maturity. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton, crustaceans and small fish.
135537		population	eng	Still relatively abundant and stable below the Volgograd dam where it appears to have found new spawning grounds. Juveniles are regularly found in the delta of the Volga. In 2000 the estimated number of mature individuals in the Caspian was 12,000,000 (N. Bogutskaya, pers comm.)
135537		threats	eng	The damming for the Volga River (main spawning river) in the 1950's and 1960's, blocked most of the spawning grounds. Currently the major threat to the species is commercial and illegal fishing in the Caspian Sea and at the mouth of the Volga during the migration. The flow regulation from the Volgograd dam (which is dependant on energy demand) is also a threat to the species as the species needs a large flow in April to the beginning June for optimal spawning conditions.
135538		conservation	eng	No information.
135538		distribution	eng	Only known from the original description at the type locality. Bulgaria: River Beli Vit (Danube drainage), possibly in other lower Danube tributaries.
135538		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.
135538		population	eng	No information.
135538		threats	eng	No information
135539		conservation	eng	None.
135539		distribution	eng	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).
135539		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water (below 80 m). Lives and feeds on bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>When brought to surface in nets, usually appears with a greatly bloated belly because of expansion of gas bladder resulting from reduction of water pressure. Possibly spawns on an extended period between July-February (or maybe even at all seasons), at depths around 60-80 m, on pebble bottom in most lakes. Feeds mainly on cocoons of <em>Turbellaria</em> and copepods.
135539		population	eng	Last recorded in the 1970's.
135539		threats	eng	Eutrophication which peaked in 1979. Natural reproduction in <em>Salvelinus</em> species is said to have almost stopped during the period of high eutrophication as the eggs could no longer develop in the low-oxygen substrates.
135540		conservation	eng	No information.
135540		distribution	eng	Restricted to seven streams of the Crimea (Black and Azov Sea basins).
135540		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Widespread, from mountain streams with strong current to brackish stream estuaries. Prefers river stretches at 100-600 m above sea level. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at two years, about 65 mm SL, females at three years, about 100 mm SL. Moves upstream into upper reaches, or near rapids to spawn on gravel or rock bottom. Females lay eggs in 1-3 portions. Eggs are non-sticky and lie among or under pebbles until hatching. At beginning of winter, moves to deeper places with less current and stops feeding. Feeds mainly on zoobenthos.
135540		population	eng	Abundant.
135540		threats	eng	Water pollution and abstraction. Water abstraction is expected to increase.
135541		conservation	eng	No information.
135541		distribution	eng	France: Lez to Tech drainages (Mediterranean basin); Spain, in Ebro drainage and between Bidasoa and Nervión drainages on eastern Cantabric slope (introduced in Douro drainage).
135541		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data, probably largely similar to <em>B. barbatula</em>. Spawns for the first time at 40 mm SL.
135541		population	eng	Abundant.
135541		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135542		conservation	eng	No information.
135542		distribution	eng	France: Adour drainage. Spain: Ebro drainage and streams of Cantabric range (possibly introduced in some). Introduced into Douro drainage.
135542		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and creeks in foothills with clear and cold water, and gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns in April-June. Feeds mainly on aquatic macroinvertebrates.
135542		population	eng	No information.
135542		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135543		conservation	eng	No information.
135543		distribution	eng	Lake Ohrid (Macedonia, Albania). Imported in France and probably other countries, might be locally established.
135543		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, usually on sand to pebble bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns in June-July.
135543		population	eng	No information.
135543		threats	eng	There is a potential threat of introduced species, many have already been introduced into Lake Ohrid.
135544		conservation	eng	Its distribution within the Krka basin is partially covered by Krka National Park.
135544		distribution	eng	Karstic streams in Livanjsko polje, Lakes Buško and Mandecko near Livno, Šarena lakes (many lake some are interlinked) at Knin, Krka (in a natural lake, dammed by a waterfall) and Cetina basins.
135544		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Slow-flowing and still waters and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135544		population	eng	Population in the Krka basin is very abundant.
135544		threats	eng	In Buško lake <em>Silurus glanis</em>, a highly predatory cat fish, was introduced around 2000. Its impacts upon <em>S. dergle</em> are unknown. In Livanjsko polje, there is very little water remaining due to long term water abstraction (it has been like this many years).
135545		conservation	eng	There are special fishing regulations in some territories, and in places it is illegal to catch for consumption (M. Skopets, pers. comm.).
135545		distribution	eng	Arctic Ocean basin, from Ponoi (Kola Peninsula, White Sea basin) eastward to Anadyr (Siberia), Yukon (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.
135545		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, in pelagic zone with water salinity up to 20?. Large lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Prefers cold water with temperatures below 16°C. Forages and overwinters in lower reaches of large rivers, deltas, estuaries and sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Migrates for spawning in rivers, moving upstream for long distances, up to uppermost reaches in European rivers. Lacustrine populations migrates into tributaries. Spawns over shallows with sand-gravel bottom and 2-3 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous or semi-anadromous, resident in some rivers and landlocked in some lakes. Resident and anadromous populations co-occur in some rivers in North America. Anadromous populations spawn for the first time at 600-900 mm SL and 8-16 years, females 2-3 years later than males. Freshwater populations may mature earlier, males at four, females at five years and have shorter life cycle. Usually spawns only 1-2 times during life, rarely three, usually every 2-3 years. Starts migration in early spring just after ice melting, reaches spawning sites by autumn. Spawns in September-October, 80,000-420,000 non-sticky eggs. Adults actively feed after spawning and spend following winter and spring in river, return to lower reaches and sea by next summer. Embryonic development lasts 250-260 days, larvae (12-14 mm SL) appear in May-June. Fry migrates to sea soon after start of active feeding or remain 2-3 years in rivers. Juveniles feed on mysids, insect larvae and fry, become exclusively piscivorous at about 300 mm SL. Active predator feeding on all available fishes. Occasionally hybridises with <em>Coregonus</em> species.
135545		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, in pelagic zone with water salinity up to 20‰. Large lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Prefers cold water with temperatures below 16°C. Forages and overwinters in lower reaches of large rivers, deltas, estuaries and sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Migrates for spawning in rivers, moving upstream for long distances, up to uppermost reaches in European rivers. Lacustrine populations migrates into tributaries. Spawns over shallows with sand-gravel bottom and 2-3 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous or semi-anadromous, resident in some rivers and landlocked in some lakes. Resident and anadromous populations co-occur in some rivers in North America. Anadromous populations spawn for the first time at 600-900 mm SL and 8-16 years, females 2-3 years later than males. Freshwater populations may mature earlier, males at four, females at five years and have shorter life cycle. Usually spawns only 1-2 times during life, rarely three, usually every 2-3 years. Starts migration in early spring just after ice melting, reaches spawning sites by autumn. Spawns in September-October, 80,000-420,000 non-sticky eggs. Adults actively feed after spawning and spend following winter and spring in river, return to lower reaches and sea by next summer. Embryonic development lasts 250-260 days, larvae (12-14 mm SL) appear in May-June. Fry migrates to sea soon after start of active feeding or remain 2-3 years in rivers. Juveniles feed on mysids, insect larvae and fry, become exclusively piscivorous at about 300 mm SL. Active predator feeding on all available fishes. Occasionally hybridises with <em>Coregonus</em> species.
135545		population	eng	Declining in European and Siberian range.
135545		threats	eng	Locally threatened by overfishing and pollution.
135546		conservation	eng	No information.
135546		distribution	eng	Russia and Ukraine: river Don.
135546		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135546		population	eng	Abundant.
135546		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135547		conservation	eng	No information.
135547		distribution	eng	Romania: River Ialomita and tributaries of lower River Siret in Danube drainage.
135547		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Sandy streams with clean water and moderate to fast current. Burrows into sand, rarely in gravel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in spring. Eggs 0.9-1.1 mm in diameter, sticky and indiscriminately scattered over sand, gravel or other substrate. Portion spawner. Eggs hatch in 50-60 h at 22°C. Larvae 3.0-3.4 mm TL start to feed after 6 days. Free larvae lack external gill filaments, but have a transparent bump on forehead.
135547		population	eng	Declining, localised and fragmented population.
135547		threats	eng	Development in Romania is leading to increased water abstraction, pollution and damming of rivers.
135548		conservation	eng	No information.
135548		distribution	eng	Caspian Sea from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn.
135548		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in coastal waters with steady current, avoids areas with stable salinity. Migrates from sea to mouth of large rivers, spawns in fresh or slightly brackish water at shallow sites washed by flow of large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 2-3 years, females at 4-5. Many individuals reproduce 2-4 seasons. There are two migration peaks, one in late April (mostly males) and one in early May (mostly females), entering rivers when temperature rises above 10°C. Spawns when temperature reaches 15°C or more, in May-June. Spawns usually in the upper 3 m. Eggs semipelagic and demersal. Spent fish migrate back to sea. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer, remaining at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominantly on zooplankton such as copepods and mysids.
135548		population	eng	Abundant.
135548		threats	eng	No major threats known. Damming in the Caspian basin (1950-60s) has restricted the species access to some of their spawning grounds.
135548		threats	eng	No major threats known. Damming in the Caspian basin (1950-60s) has restricted the species access to some of their spawning grounds.   Hoever, most spawning places originally were and still are situated below dams.
135549		conservation	eng	No information.
135549		distribution	eng	Ukraine: Crimea: Chornaya drainage, below Chornaya gorge only.
135549		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats. Chornaya is a medium-sized stream with a flow of about 10 m<sup>3</sup>/s. The inhabited stretch is about 25 km long. In its lower part, water is extracted in large quantities for irrigation and the stream is almost dry in summer. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135549		population	eng	No information.
135549		threats	eng	High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase so the river below Chornya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted increase.
135550		conservation	eng	No information available.
135550		distribution	eng	Tributaries of Aegean Sea east of Lake Volvi and rivers draining to the northern Black and Azov Seas, entering all rivers in that area.
135550		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spends most of year in shallow brackish coastal waters. While at sea, adults are most abundant at 2.5-4 m depth and 2-4 m during summer. Enters freshwater of estuaries, lagoons and lower reaches of large rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous, riverine and lacustrine populations. Anadromous populations starts approaching coasts in August and entering rivers in September, with a peak in October. Ceases migration by end of November and overwinters in main river or estuaries. Spawning migration resumes with breaking up of ice in March (Dniepr). Spawns in April-May. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Juveniles migrate to estuaries during first summer (August).
135550		population	eng	Reported to decline in population in the 1950s and 1960s. Currently declining but still abundant especially in the Azov Sea.
135550		threats	eng	Currently the species is threatened by the increasing salinity of the limans and estuaries in the northern Black Sea basin, due to water abstraction and drought. The species was also heavily impacted in the 1950s and 1960s by the construction of large dams.
135551		conservation	eng	No information.
135551		distribution	eng	Greece; Lesbos and Streams draining into the northern Agean in Turkey.
135551		distribution	eng	<p>Turkey; Lake İznik basin, streams Simav and Biga (Sea of Marmara drainage) as well as from the stream Menderes on the Biga peninsular (Aegean Sea drainage). Greece; Lesbos. </p>
135551		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, lakes and sometimes restricted to isolated pools during droughts. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135551		population	eng	Abundant.
135551		threats	eng	Droughts (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution and water abstraction.
135551		threats	eng	Droughts (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution and water abstraction. Bakir stream, a major part of the species range (est. 25%) in Turkey, is heavily polluted by a coal power station, the species only survives in the tributaries.
135552		conservation	eng	No information.
135552		distribution	eng	Austria: subalpine lakes in Danube drainage (Attersee, Traunsee, Fuschlersee). The same or similar species were apparently recorded in subalpine lakes in Switzerland (e.g. Vierwaldstätter [Rhine drainage]).
135552		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. Spawns along shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine species, not reported to migrate to tributaries. Only caught in May (hence the vernacular name) when it comes in to shallow waters, presumably to spawn. Eggs white, about 2 mm in diameter. Feeds on fishes.
135552		population	eng	No information.
135552		threats	eng	Unknown
135553		conservation	eng	No information.
135553		distribution	eng	Caspian basin: From Kuma, south to lower courses of Iranian costal drainages to Gorgan Bay.
135553		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rivulets and streams 3-10 m wide and less than 1 m deep in foothills and plains, sometimes in channels. Usually on gravel, rarely on sand bottom. Usually along steep banks. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July-August.
135553		population	eng	No information.
135553		threats	eng	Water abstraction in particular in Iran, dams, channelization of the lower courses and drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).
135554		conservation	eng	No information.
135554		distribution	eng	Austria: Lake Attersee. Presence in Lake Mondsee questionable.
135554		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, usually at depths of 10-30 m. Spawns in open water close to surface, above depths of 20-40 m (Attersee) or at 2-3 m and close to shore (Mondsee). Attersee is an oligo-mesotrophic lake and Mondsee a mesotrophic lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years (Mondsee). Spawns for the first time at four (Attersee) or three years (Mondsee). Spawns in early February-mid March (Attersee), late December-mid January (Mondsee). Eggs sink to bottom. Individual fishes usually spawn 2-3 seasons. Feeds on zooplankton and small amounts of benthic invertebrates.
135554		population	eng	Some decline has occurred after the 2nd World War (presice date is unknown).
135554		threats	eng	Introduction of non-native coregonids, leading to hybridisation and competition.
135555		conservation	eng	No information.
135555		distribution	eng	Western Caspian basin: from Kuma (Russia) to Yalaminskie (Azerbaidjan) drainages.
135555		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inhabit streams and river stretches with fast current and gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Almost no data. Lives up to six years. Feeds on Trichoptera larvae.
135555		population	eng	Abundant.
135555		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135556		conservation	eng	No information.
135556		distribution	eng	France: Lake Bourget.
135556		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in January-February, at 70-80 m depth, on mud bottom.
135556		population	eng	Dissapeared apparently in the 1960s.
135556		threats	eng	Unknown.
135557		conservation	eng	No information.
135557		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Thun and Brienz.
135557		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in midwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December, along shores at 0-30 m depth.
135557		population	eng	One of the most abundant species in Lake Thun.
135557		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135558		conservation	eng	No information.
135558		distribution	eng	Greece: Kalamas, Acheron, Louros and Arachthos drainages; Lake Pamvotis. Possibly extends northward to Neretva drainage.
135558		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135558		population	eng	Abundant.
135558		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135559		conservation	eng	No information.
135559		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Caspian Sea from where adults ascend the Volga (to Volgograd dam) to spawn, however this is spawning mostly unsuccessful (juveniles are rarely recorded). Its current status in the Ural is unknown.<br/>The species used to enter rivers from Terek to Ural.
135559		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, in a wide variety of marine habitats. Migrates to delta and lower reaches of large rivers, spawns in main channel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver to spawn at 2-3 years. Females spawn 2-3 times in their life. Appears at estuaries in April, enters rivers when temperature reaches about 9°C, in late April-early June with a peak at 17°C. Spawning run lasts 3-8 days. Enters rivers with ripe gonads. Spawning starts when temperature rises above 13°C, in late April-June, and continues as long as temperature remains below 27 °C. Eggs are pelagic. Spent fish migrate back to sea to feed. In autumn, moves to southern Caspian to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer, remaining there until maturity. At sea and during migrations, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (e.g. crustaceans) and small fish.
135559		population	eng	The species is now so rare there are no statistics from commercial catches and it is rarely recorded from scientific surveys.
135559		threats	eng	Historically overfishing (fishing was banned before 1962) and dam construction destroying spawning grounds and blocking migratory routes (late 1950's and early 1960's) caused population declines. Recently the channelization and canalisation of river mouths has inhibited the species migratory routes and the loss of more spawning sites.
135560		conservation	eng	No information.
135560		distribution	eng	Middle Kuban drainage, in the main course at Armavir and Belaya and Laba tributaries (Russia). Invasive in Don drainage, in River Egorlyk, which it entered through Nevinnomyssky canal.
135560		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>High-gradient stretches of large rivers with fast (not turbulent) current and gravel or sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, found near shores during night on mud or sand bottom. Seems to spawn early and have a short spawning period. Only large juveniles observed in July.
135560		population	eng	Abundant.
135560		threats	eng	No current threats, but economic development of the region is expected to impact the species in the future.
135561		conservation	eng	No information.
135561		distribution	eng	Lake Ladoga. Widely introduce to lakes in Latvia, European Russia and Siberia.
135561		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years and 30 g (males) and 60-70 g (females). Juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on fish (mostly <em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>). Reported to hybridise with other <em>Coregonus</em> species.
135561		population	eng	Very abundant in Lake Ladoga.
135561		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135563		conservation	eng	No information.
135563		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Neuchâtel, Bienne and Morat. Introduced in Lake Geneva and other lakes and reservoirs in France and Switzerland.
135563		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4 years, females at five. Spawns on gravel near shore or, depending on population, in depths up to 50 m. Spawning time depends on depth and apparently of temperature at that location, from November-December in shallow water to February in deepest places.
135563		population	eng	Abundant in Lakes Neuchâtel and Bienne. Extirpated in Morat in early 1900s due to water level management and polluton (eutrophication).
135563		threats	eng	Eutrophication is the probable cause of the species extirpation in Lake Morat. There are no current threats to the species in lakes Neuchâtel and Bienne.
135564		conservation	eng	No information.
135564		distribution	eng	Adriatic basin: Soca drainage (Italy, Slovenia). Danube drainage: upper Save, Archar, Krupaja, Vlasinsko and Nera systems, possibly more widespread in upper Danube drainage. Aegean basin: Gallikos, Vardar, Loudias and Aliakmon drainages (Greece, Macedonia).
135564		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast to moderate-flowing premontane and montane streams and small rivers with gravel bottom. Spawns in riffles. Most abundant in rapids and riffles during day. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Moves to upper reaches for spawning. Spawns in May-July.
135564		population	eng	Abundant.
135564		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135565		conservation	eng	No information.
135565		distribution	eng	Ukraine: Salgir, Alma and Bel Bek drainages (southern Crimea).
135565		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in small rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135565		population	eng	Abundant.
135565		threats	eng	Intensive water abstraction, drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).
135566		conservation	eng	No information.
135566		distribution	eng	Scotland: Loch Lomond and Loch Eck; introduced in two reservoirs in Loch Lomond basin (Loch Sloy, Carron Reservoir).
135566		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In Loch Lomond, spawns in late December-early February, usually in early January, on offshore banks and reefs at temperatures close to 6°C. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.
135566		population	eng	Abundant.
135566		threats	eng	Introduction of alien species is a potential threat
135567		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in much of its range.  In Turkey the minimum size limit is 30 cm for commercial fishing, and in sport fishing it is 20 cm and there is a maximum of 5 kg harvested per person per day.
135567		conservation	eng	No information.
135567		conservation	eng	None known.
135567		distribution	eng	In all tropical and subtropical seas; Mediterranean, Black Sea and Atlantic, reaching northward to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Lake Trasimeno (Italy).
135567		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widespread but the reproduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cephalus</span> in estuarine waters has never been observed in western Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Mugil cephalus</span> is the most cosmopolitan <span style="font-style: italic;">Mugil</span> species. It inhabits warm and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, being variably abundant in coastal marine waters, estuaries (sometimes far up-river), lagoons and hyperhaline environments (up to 100%  in the Sine Saloum).
135567		distribution	eng	The specis is distributed throughout the rivers of the eastern Africa Indian Ocean coastline.
135567		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal in tropical to warm temperate coastal and insular waters, from southeastern France to South Africa in the eastern Atlantic, and throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas. <br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific, it has been recorded from California (USA) to Chile (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). <br/><br/>In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Nova Scotia (Canada) to Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986), and from Cape Cod (USA) to the southern Gulf of Mexico (Smith 1997). It is absent from the Bahamas and most of West Indies and Caribbean (Robins and Ray 1986, Humann 1994).<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, it has been recorded from the Bay of Biscay to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (Thomson 1990). Reported in Sea of Okhotsk (Fedorov et al. 2003) and Caspian Sea (Ben-Tuvia 1986).
135567		habitat	eng	Coastal species that often enters estuaries and rivers.  Usually in schools over sand or mud bottom and dense vegetation.  Mainly diurnal, feed on zooplankton, benthic organisms and detritus.  Adult fish tend to feed mainly on algae while inhabiting fresh waters.  Reproduction takes place in the sea, from July to October.  Females spawn 5 to 7 million eggs provided with a notable vitellus. Sexually mature at 7 to 8 years.
135567		habitat	eng	<em>M. cephalus</em> is a benthopelagic, coastal species (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002) that often enters estuaries and rivers (Thomson 1986, Allen 1991, Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002). It usually occurs in schools over sand or mud substrata (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983) and dense vegetation (Billard 1997). It is mainly diurnal, feeding on zooplankton, benthic organisms and detritus. Adult fish tend to feed mainly on algae while inhabiting fresh waters (Thomson 1951). Reproduction takes place in the sea, from July to October (Billard 1997). Females spawn 5 to 7 million eggs provided with a notable vitellus. They become sexually mature at 7 to 8 years (Keith <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>One spawning aggregation that was observed in detail consisted of five fish: a female and four males. Males would press against the female, which took place as the entire group moved along slowly, facing into a fairly strong tidal flow.
135567		habitat	eng	In coastal waters and estuaries, but frequently ascends rivers into the freshwater zone (Thomson 1986).
135567		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shores, sometimes forages in lagoons, estuaries and lower courses of rivers. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns several million of pelagic eggs in July-October. Eggs develop optimally at full marine salinity. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, larger individuals filter algae, vegetal detritus, sediment and small invertebrates.
135567		population	eng	Abundant.
135567		population	eng	No available data.
135567		population	eng	No information available.
135567		population	eng	This species is extremely common in the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
135567		threats	eng	No information available.
135567		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135567		threats	eng	None known
135567		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is commercially fished, mainly using seines. It is also important in commercial aquaculture.<br/><br/>The species is widely cultivated in freshwater ponds in southeast Asia (Allen 1991). It is a very important commercial species in many parts of the world (Smith 1997).
135568		conservation	eng	No information.
135568		distribution	eng	Greece: Lake Stymphalia and Vouraikos drainage; possibly present in other drainages of northern Peloponnese.
135568		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-May. Feeds on a variety of plant and animal food.
135568		population	eng	No information.
135568		threats	eng	Lake Stymphalia dried out in 1998 caused by drought and water abstraction. Climate change is predicted to increase the severity of droughts in the future. The Vouraikos stream is also threatened by the same threats.
135569		conservation	eng	No information.
135569		distribution	eng	Caspian basin, in Emba, Ural and Volga (with Oka and Kama) drainages; Black Sea basin, in Don drainage.
135569		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland and piedmont rivers with moderate to strong current; also in reservoirs. Common in river main courses in rapids, sandy shallows and river curves. Spawns on gravel or rock bottom in shallow riffles of larger rivers or in smaller tributaries with moderate to strong current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, females usually one year later. Spawns in April-May. Eggs are sticky, adhere to gravel. Larvae and early juveniles with superior mouth feed on small invertebrates. After 3-4 months, juveniles about 30-35 mm SL change to adult feeding mode and graze benthic diatoms and detritus from hard substrate in habitats with strong current. Most of year in middle and upper stretches of rivers, moving in winter to lower stretches or to larger tributaries. Reported to occur year round in lower reaches and deltas of Volga and Ural.
135569		population	eng	Sharply declined in many parts of Volga and Don due to building of dams (1950s and 1960s).
135569		threats	eng	No current threats are known. Pollution may be a local threat to the species. The decline in population due to damming occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.
135570		conservation	eng	None.
135570		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lake Morat.
135570		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns on sand or mud at 35-40 m deep, in January.
135570		population	eng	Last recorded in 1890. Survey work in the 1950s found no coregonus in the lake. The Coregons that are present in the lake now originate from stocked individuals from other species.
135570		threats	eng	Eutrophication which happened before 1950s.
135571		conservation	eng	No information.
135571		distribution	eng	Russia: Kuban drainage.
135571		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats from montane rivers to small lowland streams with a gravel or sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135571		population	eng	Abundant.
135571		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135572		conservation	eng	No information available.
135572		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin: Dniestr. Southern Baltic basin in Poland, most likely further east to Lithuania.
135572		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams to medium sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on the ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching; a single male may guard egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.
135572		population	eng	Abundant.
135572		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135573		conservation	eng	No information.
135573		distribution	eng	Southern (Pyrrenean) Garonne drainage (France, Spain).
135573		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.
135573		population	eng	No information.
135573		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135574		conservation	eng	No information.
135574		distribution	eng	Circumpolar. In Europe: eastern Atlantic, White and Barents Seas.
135574		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December-May under ice. Spawning in May reported from White Sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.
135574		population	eng	Abundant.
135574		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135575		conservation	eng	No information.
135575		distribution	eng	Aoos drainage in Greece and Albania. Maybe also present in adjacent drainages in Albania.
135575		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135575		population	eng	Abundant.
135575		threats	eng	Water abstraction, pollution (especially in Albania), drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).
135576		conservation	eng	No information.
135576		distribution	eng	Only known from a few localities. France: upper Dordogne and upper Loire drainage. Populations from upper Lot possibly conspecific.
135576		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135576		population	eng	Unknown.
135576		threats	eng	Dams in the Loire and Dordogne impact the habitat up and downstream.
135577		conservation	eng	No information.
135577		distribution	eng	British Isles: Loughs Melvin, Erne, Corrib and Mask (Ireland), several lakes of northern Scotland, apparently also Lakes Ullswater and Bassenthwaite (Cumbria) and Llyns Padarn and Peris (Wales).
135577		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large oligotrophic lakes; in Scotland usually only in lakes inhabited by <em>Salvelinus</em> species on which it preys. Spawns only in the larger and deeper tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 23 years. Spawns in November-December. Feeds on fishes and a variety of insects. In Scotland, feeds on invertebrates until about 300 mm SL, then switches to a fish diet, mostly <em>Salvelinus</em> species.
135577		population	eng	No information
135577		threats	eng	Unknown
135578		conservation	eng	No information.
135578		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Vierwaldstätter, Zug, Alpnach, possibly in Sempach, Baldegg and Hallwil; introduced in Lakes Aegeri, possibly Lungern, Maggiore and Locarno (possibly has hybridised with other introduced species).
135578		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, feeds on benthic (spring) and pelagic prey (summer). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Fast growing species. Spawns in November-December, along gravel to stone shores, in very shallow water. Feeds on crustaceans, insect larvae and molluscs. Survival of Lake Hallwil population depends on stocking as eutrophication makes the lake unsuitable for reproduction since 1960.
135578		population	eng	Very abundant in Vierwaldstätter. Status in other lakes unknown.
135578		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135579		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in most of its Mediterranean range. In Turkey there is a minimum size limitation of 30 cm.
135579		conservation	eng	No information.
135579		distribution	eng	<em>Liza aurata</em> is an eastern Atlantic species. It has been recorded from Scotland (UK) to Cape Verde, and in coastal waters from southern Norway to Morocco. It is rare off Mauritania (Thomson 1986). It is also present in the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
135579		distribution	eng	Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway and British Isles (not reaching southern Baltic); northern Red Sea. Introduced in Caspian Sea.
135579		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries, rarely into freshwaters. Among Mugilidae recorded from European freshwaters, this is the least tolerant of freshwater. Spawns at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Spawns in September-November. Juveniles move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in winter and especially in spring. Juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger individuals feed on algae, vegetal detritus, and sediment.
135579		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, amphidromous species. It is neritic, entering lagoons and lower estuaries (Thomson 1990). It rarely enters fresh water (Thomson 1986). It feeds on small benthic organisms, detritus, and occasionally on insects and plankton (Ben-Tuvia 1986). Reproduction takes place in the sea, from July to November.
135579		population	eng	Abundant.
135579		population	eng	This is one of the most common Mugilids in the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
135579		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135579		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is commercially fished (including in the Mediterranean).
135580		conservation	eng	No information.
135580		distribution	eng	Aegean basin, from Maritza to Aliakmon drainages (Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia).
135580		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Stretches of streams and rivers with moderate flow, usually sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135580		population	eng	Abundant.
135580		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135581		conservation	eng	No information.
135581		distribution	eng	Ukraine: Crimea: Chornaya drainage, below Chornaya gorge only.
135581		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with still to moderately flowing clear water, on sand to silt bottom or in dense vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135581		population	eng	No information.
135581		threats	eng	High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase so the river below Chornaya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted to increase.
135582		conservation	eng	The identification of spawning sites in Lough Leane and their protection from declining water quality and development works is a priority to ensure the future survival of the species (Doherty <em>et al</em>. 2004).
135582		distribution	eng	Lough Leane (19 km²) (Killarney, Eire).
135582		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, spawns in shallow bays. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Females are larger than males. Spawns in June-July on gravel bars and gravelled shallows around large islands of the lake. Feeds mostly on zooplankton. Highly sensitive to pollution (Whilde 1993).
135582		population	eng	The population was considered small in 1993 (Whilde 1993).
135582		threats	eng	Eutrophication of the Lough Leane is a current threat to the species. The presence of excessive algal growth overlying littoral gravel may impede spawning. Also recently cyprinids such as <em>Rutilus rutilus</em> and <em>Abramis brama</em> have been recorded in the lake, and they may represent a threat to the species through competition.
135583		conservation	eng	No information available.
135583		distribution	eng	Large lakes of northern Sweden (Parkijaure, Hornävan, Storlaisan, Storuman, Vojmsjön, Storlögdan), Finland and Russia (Karelia). Only sporadically in Baltic near Neva and Narva estuaries.
135583		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Often enters rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in October-November, on gravel to stone bottom, near shores. Feeds on zooplankton and insects from surface.
135583		population	eng	No information available.
135583		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135584		conservation	eng	No information.
135584		distribution	eng	Tisza system (Danube drainage), from Hron to Somes sub-systems, occasionally reaching to eastern Austria. Upper Vistula drainage in Slovakia and Poland; Wierzyca system (lower Vistula drainage, Poland); upper Dniestr drainage in Poland and Ukraine.
135584		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast to moderate flowing premontane and montane streams and small rivers with gravel bottom. Most abundant in shallow rapids and riffles during summer. Moves to deeper places in winter. Spawns in fast-flowing water (0.8-1 m/s) of shallow (0.5-0.8 m) riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and about 75 mm SL (males), 110-140 mm SL (females). Spawns in May-August at temperatures above 18°C. Females deposit 2-3 portions of non-sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae drift short distance from spawning site to shallow shoreline habitats. Larvae and juveniles benthic, in very shallow shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for faster-flowing waters as they grow. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates and algae.
135584		population	eng	Abundant.
135584		threats	eng	Locally threatened by dams, particularly in highland areas.
135585		conservation	eng	No information.
135585		distribution	eng	Veleka and Resowska drainages, draining from the Strandzha (Yildiz Daglari) range to Black Sea (Bulgaria, Turkey).
135585		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams with clear, well oxygenated water, over gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135585		population	eng	No information.
135585		threats	eng	Drought, and water abstraction is also a potential threat to the species, a decline in annual discharge of the Veleka has been recorded.
135586		conservation	eng	No information.
135586		distribution	eng	Greece: lower stretch (less than 5km) of Manikiotiko stream on eastern slope of Evia (Euboea) Island.
135586		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: Stream on gravel bottom, flow usually interrupted in summer when only a few pools may subsist. <strong>Biology</strong>: No data. In June, individuals over 110 mm SL had nuptial tubercles.
135586		population	eng	No information.
135586		threats	eng	Water abstraction for agriculture and drought are causing the stream to almost totally dry up in summer. Climate change also poses a threat as it is predicted that the severity of droughts will increase.
135587		conservation	eng	No information available.
135587		distribution	eng	Large rivers draining to Baltic Sea (absent in northern Sweden and Finland north of 62°N), North Sea (Weser, Elbe), Black Sea, Sea of Azov (Don) and Caspian Sea (abundant in Volga, rare in Ural).
135587		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers with backwaters; also in eutrophic lowland lakes. Spawns on submerged vegetation along shores of rivers or in backwaters. Also reported to spawn on gravel in moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years and about 150 mm SL. Most individuals spawn several times during their life. Spawns in spring (March-April in lower Danube, April-early May in Baltic, May-June in Volga delta), when temperature reaches 10°C (8-12°C in lower Danube). Spawning period short, usually only 1-2 weeks. Females spawn once a year. Males often defend spawning territories along shoreline. In mature males, sides of body above anal with nuptial tubercles. May undertake long migrations upriver to suitable spawning sites. Juveniles in backwaters and flooded zones along rivers. Enters freshened parts of seas to forage. Feeds predominantly on zooplankton in open water of backwaters and other still water bodies.
135587		population	eng	Abundant.
135587		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135588		conservation	eng	No information.
135588		distribution	eng	Greece: Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas. Turkey: Rivers on the western coast (Aegean drainage) from Bakir to Great Menderes.
135588		distribution	eng	<p>Greece: Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas. Turkey: Rivers on the western coast (Aegean drainage) from Menderes (Biga peninsular) to Dalaman.</p>
135588		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Stream and upper parts of rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.
135588		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.
135588		population	eng	No information.
135588		threats	eng	Pollution, industrial, domestic and agricultural, water abstraction and climate change (predicted to increase the severity of droughts).
135589		conservation	eng	No information.
135589		distribution	eng	Italy: Timavo spring, north of Trieste. Timavo spring is the resurgence of River Reka, which flows from Slovenia after 35 km of underground course through the Kras (Karst) plateau. There is no record of Cottus species in Reka.
135589		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, very cold spring. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March. Most individuals live only 1-2 years.
135589		population	eng	No information.
135589		threats	eng	The species is restricted to a very small area, but there are no known current threats to the species. However the spring is very close to a road which may pose a threat.
135590		conservation	eng	A detailed action plan for this species within the EU is urgently needed.
135590		distribution	eng	<p>This fish occurs in the Black Sea basin in the lower and middle course of the Danube, lower Dniepr and South Bug, and coastal lakes. It is very rare in the Danube.</p>
135590		habitat	eng	<p><strong>Habitat</strong> <br/> This species occupies the lower and middle parts of rivers, estuaries, coastal lakes and adjacent areas of seas where salinity is lowered by large inflow of freshwater. It tolerates salinities up to 12%. Spawning occurs in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom, today mostly below dams.<br/> <br/> <strong>Biology</strong> <br/> The species usually has semi-anadromous populations. The Danube has only a residual population left. It spawns for the first time at 2–4 years, females one year later than males. It starts entering rivers in autumn and moves upstream during winter and/or spring; spawning occurs in May–July at 18–26°C. Eggs are sticky and adhere to pebbles or stones. Adults return to the sea, lakes or estuaries soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles move downstream in the autumn of the same year or the following spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, while adults mainly feed on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish. This species regularly hybridizes with <em>Squalius cephalus</em>.</p>
135590		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
135590		threats	eng	<p>The reason for the collapse of the species in the Danube is unknown. Dams have blocked most spawning sites for this species, but it now spawns below the dams in the Ukraine. Illegal fishing at new spawning sites below the dams could threaten the future survival of this species.</p>
135591		conservation	eng	No information.
135591		distribution	eng	Mediterranean basin (including Mallorca, Sardinia, Corsica), Atlantic basin south of English Channel and along western slope of British Isles; Rhine drainage. Hybrid zone with G. aculeatus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to Switzerland.
135591		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, lakes and ponds with slow to moderate current, clear water, sand bottom. In Mediterranean basin, commonly in spring-fed water bodies, also found in other habitats (including brackish water in Po delta). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Freshwater, non-migratory species. Reproduces in April-May in Spain, in Italy in May-July in springs and earlier in brackish waters. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. In spawning season, males develop a vivid red belly. They defend territories, in which they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas. They dig a depression to which they bring plant materials, which are glued together with kidney secretions and covered by sand, leaving only the entrance distinct. Several females are then led in turn to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in about 10 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days, after which the male abandons the nest. Feeds mainly on small invertebrates.
135591		population	eng	Abundant.
135591		threats	eng	Locally threatened in the Mediterranean basin.
135592		conservation	eng	No information.
135592		distribution	eng	Ireland: Lough Melvin (21 km²); possibly other lakes of Ireland and Scotland.
135592		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in shallow benthic waters. Spawns near or in lake outlet. May also spawn on sandy bays in middle region of northern shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December. Juveniles swim upstream to return to lake. Feeds primarily on snails and trichopteran larvae, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates.
135592		population	eng	No information.
135592		threats	eng	Eutrophication and introduced species are potential threats to the species.
135593		conservation	eng	No information.
135593		distribution	eng	Arctic Ocean basin, in Siberia from Ob' to Ienissei drainages, in Europe in some tributaries of Pechora (Usa, Kos'yu, Kozhim), Korotaikha and Kara.
135593		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane cold rivers and lakes with high oxygen concentrations. Spawns in montane streams with heavy current on shallows with rock-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Includes several ecotypes (lacustrine, riverine-lacustrine, riverine, brook) differing in migratory pattern and duration of different stages of life cycle. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years, brook short-cycle ecotype at 1-2 years. Breeding males are brighter coloured and have an enlarged posterior part of dorsal. In April-May, migrates to upper reaches for foraging and spawning; in summer, returns downriver to larger streams and lakes, then, in winter, moves to deeper places. Spawns in May-June at 6-12°C. Embryonic development takes 10-14 days. Feeds on benthic organisms, small fish, algae and plants. Larvae and small juveniles feed on small crustaceans and other small objects, then up to 70 % of diet contains insect larvae, worms, molluscs, and terrestrial insects.
135593		population	eng	The population is increasing as the water quality increases due to the decline of many industries and towns since the collapse of the Soviet era.
135593		threats	eng	Pollution from industry, now decreasing.
135594		conservation	eng	No information.
135594		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin: Resowska (Turkey) and Veleka (Bulgaria) drainages.
135594		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forages in lower part of rivers, close to surface.
135594		population	eng	In is still abundant in the Resowska (Oezulug pers comm.) and Veleka.
135594		threats	eng	Heavy fishing (poaching, commercial and sport fishing). Drought (at the spawning grounds) is also a potential threat to the species, already a decrease in the mean annual discharge of the Veleka has been recorded.
135595		conservation	eng	No information.
135595		distribution	eng	Lakes Skadar and Ohrid basins (Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia).
135595		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and in lake tributaries. Spawns on lakes shores, or migrates to tributaries to spawn in shallow riffle habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, forms large schools. Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at one year. In Lake Skadar, spawns in March-July, peaking in May at 18-23°C; in Lake Ohrid in May-June. Eggs are deposited on sand, gravel and rock bottom, at about 0.3 m depth. Eggs hatch in about 4 days. Feeds mainly on <em>Cladocera</em> and copepods.
135595		population	eng	Abundant.
135595		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135596		conservation	eng	No information.
135596		distribution	eng	Caspian basin; common in Volga drainage, upriver to Moscow. Introduced in Aral basin in 1954.
135596		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium-size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Usually on open sand or sand-shell bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to three years. Spawns for the first time at one, rarely at two years. Spawns in April-September. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (mainly crustaceans and insect larvae) and small fish.
135596		population	eng	Abundant.
135596		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135597		conservation	eng	No information.
135597		distribution	eng	Danube, upper Elbe and Odra drainages. Coastal Black Sea drainages south of Danube in Bulgaria and Turkey. Western Anatolia.
135597		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Flowing or still waters from small brooks to large rivers, springs, lakes and oxbows. On sand, silt or mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to five years, males up to three years. Spawns in aquatic vegetation in April-July. Usually occurring together with hybridogenous, sperm-parasitic lineages, which have originated by hybridisation with <em>C. taenia</em> and <em>C. tanaitica</em>.
135597		population	eng	Abundant.
135597		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135598		conservation	eng	No information.
135598		distribution	eng	Bulgaria: Lake Mandras drainage (Black Sea basin).
135598		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Migrates up to upper reaches of lake tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with strong current, on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June. Forages in pelagic area of lake, close to surface. Feeds on terrestrial insects and zooplankton.
135598		population	eng	Reportedly abundant in the lake.
135598		threats	eng	Pollution in the lake from industrial and domestic sources and impoundment of spawning rivers, some are already blocked.
135599		conservation	eng	No information.
135599		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lake Neuchâtel. Introduced in Lake Maggiore (where it has possibly hybridised with other introduced species).
135599		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four. Spawns in January, on sand or mud, in deep water, at depths up to 90-130 m.
135599		population	eng	Abundant.
135599		threats	eng	Introduced species (coregonids) - competition, may have impacted the species when they were first introduced. Eutrophication (1970s) of the lake caused a population decline, but the conditions in the lake are now improved.
135600		conservation	eng	No information.
135600		distribution	eng	Greece: two springs, one near Almiri (probably now extirpated) and the other at Meligou (Peloponnese).
135600		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and brackish water springs (up to 23 ‰ salinity). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Observed in areas with slow current.
135600		population	eng	At Almiri Spring in 2002 the species was not observed in a survey, in October 2003, five larvae were found and it has not been seen since where it is now expected to be extirpated (Kottelat pers comm.). At Meligou the species seems to be surviving in the lagoon adjacent to the bathing area in 2004.
135600		threats	eng	Habitat loss. One of the two springs the species is known from, Meligou, has been converted to a bathing area. <br/>At Almiri Spring, once brackish water, was observed to be totally marine in 2002 for unknown reasons.
135601		conservation	eng	No information.
135601		distribution	eng	Northern and northwestern Caspian Sea. For spawning, enters Volga, Ural, Emba, Terek and Kura drainages. In Volga, migrates through delta and southern zone of Volga-Akhtuba system, only few go as far upstream as Volgograd. In Terek, does not migrate beyond delta.
135601		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spends most of year in shallow brackish coastal waters. At sea, adults are most abundant at 2.5-4 m depth and 2-4 ? salinity during summer. Enters freshwater of estuaries, lagoons and lower reaches of large rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years. In September, adults moves close to coasts and overwinter in shallow waters from middle of November until ice melts. Spawning migration commences in late March-early April at 1-3°C and peaks at 7-9°C. Spawns in April-May on shallow shores of coastal lakes and flooded areas at 10-17°C. Eggs are sticky, laid among plants. Annual spawner, but some females spawn only every second year. After spawning, adults return to sea where they join groups of immature juveniles, not travelling for long distances, staying in areas with high abundance of prey. Larvae migrate to sea, first passively, then actively. By August, juveniles reach coastal waters. While in river, juveniles feed on plankton (mostly Cladocera) and small benthic animals. At sea, they feed on oligochaetes and chironomid larvae, sometimes algae. At one year, starts to feed on molluscs and large benthic crustaceans. Adults also feed on crustaceans, worms and chironomid larvae.
135601		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spends most of year in shallow brackish coastal waters. At sea, adults are most abundant at 2.5-4 m depth and 2-4 ‰ salinity during summer. Enters freshwater of estuaries, lagoons and lower reaches of large rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years. In September, adults moves close to coasts and overwinter in shallow waters from middle of November until ice melts. Spawning migration commences in late March-early April at 1-3°C and peaks at 7-9°C. Spawns in April-May on shallow shores of coastal lakes and flooded areas at 10-17°C. Eggs are sticky, laid among plants. Annual spawner, but some females spawn only every second year. After spawning, adults return to sea where they join groups of immature juveniles, not travelling for long distances, staying in areas with high abundance of prey. Larvae migrate to sea, first passively, then actively. By August, juveniles reach coastal waters. While in river, juveniles feed on plankton (mostly Cladocera) and small benthic animals. At sea, they feed on oligochaetes and chironomid larvae, sometimes algae. At one year, starts to feed on molluscs and large benthic crustaceans. Adults also feed on crustaceans, worms and chironomid larvae.
135601		population	eng	Abundant.
135601		threats	eng	The population in the Caspian sea has declined due to overexploitation from commercial fisheries.
135602		conservation	eng	No information.
135602		distribution	eng	The species is kown from several localities in the Adour drainage (France).
135602		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, sectors with current, clear and cool water, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135602		population	eng	No information.
135602		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135603		conservation	eng	No information.
135603		distribution	eng	Russia: Kuban drainage.
135603		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inhabits a wide range of habitats from small lowland streams to foothill rivers with clear water and gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135603		population	eng	Abundant.
135603		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135604		conservation	eng	No information available.
135604		distribution	eng	In Tendrovskiy Bay, limans and coastal lakes of north-western Black Sea, lakes of Danube delta. It occurs rather far upstream: in Danube to Iron Gate dam, in Dniester to Bendery, in South Bug to Gard rapids. Native range in Dnieper not clear. Invasive in reservoirs in Dnieper after damming in late 1940s where distributed now up to Kiev, in Ingulets up to Snegirevka (Smirnov 1986, Pligin <em>et al</em>. 2002; pers. obs.).
135604		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and slightly brackish waters. Prefers lowland rivers, deltas and coastal lakes. In rivers, usually abundant in main stream. Usually on silty sand with mollusc shells. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in May-August. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions inside or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on chironomid larvae, amphipods and molluscs.
135604		population	eng	Abundant.
135604		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135605		conservation	eng	No information.
135605		distribution	eng	In Europe: southern tributaries of lower Kuban. Caucasian Black Sea basin of Russia, Georgia and eastern Turkey near Hopa.
135605		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large rivers. Associated with salmonid fishes or cyprinids of barbel zone. Spawns over clean gravel areas in flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, rheophilic. Spawns in April-July. Spawns in shoals, fractional spawner, females deposit the sticky eggs deep into clean gravel. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.
135605		population	eng	Abundant.
135605		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135606		conservation	eng	No information.
135606		conservation	eng	There are various fisheries management measures in place for this species in some countries. For example, in Turkey, there is a minimum legal length for catches of 18 cm, for sport fishing it is also limited to 5 kg per person per day.<br/><br/>Recommendations include separating the wild stock landing figures from the aquaculture production figures in the FAO statistics to enable population tends to be determined and conducting genetic studies to separate wild stock from aquaculture escapees and hybrids between the two. The conservation status of the wild population may then be able to be more accurately determined.
135606		distribution	eng	All European coasts. Absent from White, Barents, Baltic and Caspian Seas and from Northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.
135606		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from the British Isles and southern Norway to Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas. It has also migrated eastwards through the Suez Canal and has been found in the Gulf of Suez. <br/><br/>Mediterranean:<br/>Dicentrarchus labrax is widespread in the Mediterranean, including the Alboran Sea (Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Iberian coasts (Macpherson <em>et al.</em> 2002, Clavero <em>et al.</em> 2006, Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Gulf of Lions (Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> 1996, Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000, Jouvenel and Pollard 2001, Dumay <em>et al.</em> 2004, Claudet <em>et al.</em> 2006, Mouillot <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Molinari 2005, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> 1997, La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Brando <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Strait of Sicily and Ionian Sea (Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> 1997), the Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003, Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bonaca and Lipej 2004, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the Aegean Sea (Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> 1997, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Castilho and Ciftci 2005, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2005, Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the Egyptian coasts (Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is also known from the Black Sea. It has also penetrated eastwards through the Suez Canal to the Gulf of Suez (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).
135606		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Coastal waters and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 30 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-7 years and about 350 (males) and 420 (females) mm SL. A pelagic spawner in open sea, in January-June at temperatures above 9°C. Larvae planktonic. Juveniles move inshore as they grow, aggregating in brackish estuarine nursery areas where they usually remain until their second summer. Large juveniles and adults show a complicated migration pattern at sea, coming close to shore and entering freshwaters of estuaries during summer to forage. Juveniles feed on invertebrates, taking increasingly more fish with age. Adults piscivorous.
135606		habitat	eng	This is an oceanodromous species with demersal behaviour, inhabiting coastal waters down to about 100 m depth but is more common in shallow waters (Lloris 2002). It occurs in the littoral zone on various substrata in estuaries, lagoons and occasionally rivers. The species enters coastal waters and river mouths in summer, but migrates offshore in colder weather and occurs in deep water during winter in the northern range. Young fish form schools, but adults appear to be less gregarious (Frimodt 1995). In the Ligurian Sea, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> (2005) observed juvenile <em>D. labrax</em> during April in shallow waters (from 1.5 to 2 m depth). Genetic studies by Castilho and Ciftci (2005) revealed that a Levantine basin sea bass population represents a further subdivision of this species in the eastern Mediterranean. It feeds chiefly on shrimps and molluscs, and also on fishes (Tortonese 1986). Spawning takes place, in groups, in the spring near the British Isles, and earlier in its southern range. Its eggs are pelagic (Muus and Nielsen 1999).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, first sexual maturity occurs generally between two and four years while in the Atlantic sexual maturity happens a little later (males between four and seven years and females between five and eight years). Spawning happens just once a year and it tends to be in winter, although in southern areas it can occur in spring. Eggs present 1-2 fat drops that fuse about 12 hours after laying. Embryo development lasts about three days at 13-14°C and larval development about 40 days at 19°C. Egg size is 1.1 to 1.5 mm, larval length at hatching is 3 mm.
135606		population	eng	Abundant.
135606		population	eng	This species is common throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings figures are available from 18 countries in the Mediterranean Sea. A sharp increase in landings appears to occur in the early 1990s, but aquaculture for this species began at that time and the figures represent a combination of aquaculture and commercial landing figures. The former influences the apparent rise in landings. It is not possible to tell from the FAO figures what the real trend in landings figures was over the last 10 to 15 years.  However, based on what limited data is available and observation, it is estimated that there has been at least a 20-30% decline over the past 15 years (since the early 1990s), and with the introduction of aquaculture stocks, wild populations are expected to decrease even further in the future.<br/><br/>The following Greek catch figures include the aquaculture production:<br/><br/>Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> (1997) collected 60 specimens from the Gulf of Lions, 120 from the central Tyrrhenian Sea, 30 from the Ionian Sea, 30 from the Strait of Sicily, 30 from the Aegean Sea, and 30 form Egyptian coastal lagoon. Koutrakis and Tsiklis (2003) sampled 146 specimens, with length varying from 1.6 to 27.0 cm TL, using various fishing gears (beach-seine, fyke net, gill nets) in Porto Lagos (NW Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon, between December 1988 and September 1990, and Strymon and Rihios estuaries (NW Aegean) in September 1997 and May 1999. Castilho and Ciftci (2005) collected 105 specimens from the eastern Mediterranean basin (the Beymelek lagoon Turkey in 1998, Patras, Greece, and the Ionain Sea) in 1996. Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 620 specimens, with length varying from 22.6 to 88.0 cm TL, in three eastern Adriatic estuarine systems, using various fishing gears (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps) from October 1998 to December 2003.
135606		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135606		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is used in commercial aquaculture and in public aquaria (Frimodt 1995). It is also highly sought by sport fishermen (Billard 1997). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, hybridisation with escaped individuals from aquaculture is likely to have significant genetic pollution effects on the remaining wild stocks. Aquaculture of this species is concentrated in the Aegean and Adriatic Seas but is also spreading to other areas in the Mediterranean.
135607		conservation	eng	No information.
135607		distribution	eng	Western Caspian basin, from Terek to Samur drainages in northern Caucasus, Daghestan and Azerbaidjan. After construction of Kuma-Manych canal, invaded Chograiskoie Reservoir (Don drainage).
135607		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane stretches of rivers and streams with stone or gravel bottom. Ranges upstream to uppermost reaches in mountains. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to seven years. Females spawn for the first time at four years, males at 2-3. Migrates upriver and spawns in shallow tributaries in March-September. Average female spawns about 9,000 eggs. Larvae and yearlings remain in spawning streams, adults migrate downriver. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, terrestrial insects and diatoms. In still-water habitats, feeds on terrestrial insects and zooplankton.
135607		population	eng	Abundant.
135607		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135608		conservation	eng	No information.
135608		distribution	eng	Northern and southeastern Caspian Sea; deltas of Ural and Volga; along western coast southward to Daghestan.
135608		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A near-pelagic coastal marine species; found in areas with different salinities, including fresh water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives one year. Matures at 18-20 mm SL. Spawns after first winter, in May-July, down to 2-7 m. Females probably lay 2-3 portions of eggs (0.4 × 1.0 mm), separately attached inside a mollusc shell. Adults probably die soon after spawning. Feeds on small crustaceans.
135608		population	eng	Abundant.
135608		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135609		conservation	eng	No information.
135609		distribution	eng	Drainages of Arctic and Pacific Oceans. In Europe in Umba (Kola Peninsula), Severnaya Dvina, Mezen and upper Pechora drainages. In Asia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea); Amur drainage; Sakhalin Island; Hokkaido (Japan).
135609		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>All types of rivers and streams, including brackish waters. Spawns in sand-gravel bottom in shallow water. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Enters floodplain meadows during high waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depend on latitude when temperatures reach 13-15°C, from late March to mid-July or later. Migrates into small brooks to spawn. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2.5-3.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer, overwinters and spawns in spring. Ammocoetes remaining in temporal floodplain pools burrow into the bottom and form a protective capsule of slimy secretion and remain immobile until water returns.
135609		population	eng	Abundant.
135609		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135610		conservation	eng	No information.
135610		distribution	eng	Kuban drainage: southern tributaries from Adagum to Laba systems.
135610		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and mountain streams with Mediterranean water regime, strong to moderate current, rock or gravel bottom, abundant along shores. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats, with strong current and stone or pebble bottom, at 10-20 cm water depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females often one year later. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 20°C. Does not migrate long distances, but moves downstream in winter to deeper pools, and in summer to uppermost stretches of streams. Females lay eggs in 2-3 portions during entire spawning period. Eggs are 1.9 mm in diameter, orange, and adhere to pebbles. Eggs hatch in 3 days. Larvae lack adhesive glands, lie passively on bottom; at 3 days, become negatively phototactic and actively hide under stones. After start of active feeding, they drift to shallow areas. Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects, benthic invertebrates and algae.
135610		population	eng	Abundant.
135610		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135611		conservation	eng	No information.
135611		distribution	eng	Lakes Como, Garda, Orta, Maggiore, Lugano and Iseo (northern Italy, Switzerland). Introduced in Lakes Bolsena, Bracciano and Vico (central Italy).
135611		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Most individuals reproduce only once or twice. Spawns when temperatures rise above 15-16°C in June-August, along shores near surface at night in bright moonlight. Feeds predominantly on cladocerans and copepods but also consumes small fish.
135611		population	eng	Abundant.
135611		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135612		conservation	eng	No information.
135612		distribution	eng	Baltic: Bothnian Gulf, Gotland (missing along Swedish coast southward of Stockholm); southern Baltic: from Germany to Gulf of Finland; several landlocked populations in northern Germany (almost extirpated), Sweden (lakes Vänern, Vättern, Locknesjön, Storvindeln, Storlaisan, Skalka-Parkijaur, Arjeplog), Russia (Neva drainage, Lakes Ladoga and Onega).
135612		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, coastal waters. Lacustrine, at depths greater than 30 m, in Lake Ladoga commonly at 50-150 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-6 years. In northern Baltic, spawns along shores or in lowermost stretches of rivers, in October-January. In Lake Ladoga, spawns at 50-100 m depth, in late November-December (later than other sympatric <em>Coregonus</em> species), overwinters in deep water and moves to higher water layers (25-40 m) only in summer. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, molluscs and insect larvae.
135612		population	eng	No information.
135612		threats	eng	No information.
135613		conservation	eng	No information.
135613		distribution	eng	Lower Struma drainage and Lakes Volvi and Koronia (Greece).
135613		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135613		population	eng	Very abundant. In the resevoir created by a dam on the Struma river, the species is very abundant.
135613		threats	eng	Water abstraction and pollution is a potential threat to the species in the Struma tributaries. In August of 1995 almost all fish died in Lake Koronia, due to anoxic conditions provoked by extreme pollution. The lake totally dried in 2002.
135614		conservation	eng	No information.
135614		distribution	eng	Freshwater lakes, backwaters and reservoirs in Volga and Ural drainages. Invasive in middle Don drainage and in middle and upper Volga drainage, especially in River Kama.
135614		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic zone of large freshwater lakes and reservoirs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to five years. Spawns in open water in late evening, in April-July. Eggs are pelagic. Feeds on crustaceans such as copepods and cladocerans.
135614		population	eng	Abundant.
135614		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135615		conservation	eng	No information.
135615		distribution	eng	Bulgaria: River Provadiskaya (enters Black Sea near Varna).
135615		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Restricted to the upper and middle stretch of a small, slowly flowing stream. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135615		population	eng	Very restricted and fragmented.
135615		threats	eng	Pollution from industrial and domestic sources.
135616		conservation	eng	Improving water quality.
135616		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lake Vierwaldstätter.
135616		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, feeding at 5-30 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In July-September, moves to depths of up to 80-200 m to spawn. Feeds on crustaceans.
135616		population	eng	Thought to be extinct, but was re-discovered in early 2000s. The population seems to be on the increase.
135616		threats	eng	Eutrophication was thought to have caused the species to go extinct. Now conditions in the lake are improving.
135617		conservation	eng	No information.
135617		distribution	eng	Lake Ohrid (Macedonia, Albania).
135617		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surf zone along lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June.
135617		population	eng	Unknown.
135617		threats	eng	Introduced species are a potential threat to the species. Many species have already been introduced into Lake Ohrid.
135618		conservation	eng	No information.
135618		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Vierwaldstätter, Zug and possibly Alpnach and Sarnen.
135618		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic feeder. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Most individuals spawn in November-December, at depths of 20-80 m, along littoral slope. In lake Vierwaldstätter, a very rare "<em>albeli</em>" is spawning in July-August. Its identity needs further investigations. Feeds on zooplankton and insect nymphs.
135618		population	eng	Extirpate in Zug (before 1950). Very abundant in Vierwaldstätter.
135618		threats	eng	No current threats to the species are known.
135619		conservation	eng	No information available.
135619		distribution	eng	Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea basins, from Genova to southernmost Italy, Ionian Sea basin in southern Italy (Sini and Basento drainages), Adriatic basin from Ofanto drainage (southern Italy) to Krka drainage.
135619		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small rivers and streams with riffles and pools. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats in fast-flowing water. Also along shores of slowly flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams or spawning in very shallow water, over stones close to surf zone. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-3 years, females at 3-5. Spawns in April-July, when temperature rises above 14°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles or lake shores. Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms hybrids with <em>Alburnus arborella</em> and <em>A. albidus</em>.
135619		population	eng	Abundant.
135619		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135620		conservation	eng	No information.
135620		distribution	eng	Lake Doiran (Greece, Macedonia).
135620		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, near shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Along southern shore, spawns in surf zone of lake.
135620		population	eng	No information.
135620		threats	eng	Water abstraction from the lake for agricultural irrigation. It is predicted that the lake will be dry by 2015 if current abstraction rates continue.
135621		conservation	eng	No information.
135621		distribution	eng	France: upper Loire, Dordogne, Lot and Tarn drainages.
135621		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in hilly area with moderate to swift current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135621		population	eng	No information.
135621		threats	eng	Dams, especially the regulation of flow regime allowing the spread of lowland species. Introduction of other species of <em>Gobio</em> is a potential threat.
135622		conservation	eng	No information.
135622		distribution	eng	Lower reaches, deltas and limans of rivers draining to northern Black Sea (Dniestr, Dniepr), Sea of Azov (Don and Kuban deltas, mouth of smaller rivers) and Caspian Sea (delta and lower reaches of Volga).
135622		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and slightly brackish water with salinity up to about 10 ‰; usually over mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Probably lives only one year. Spawns in May-August, in shallow areas, at 0.5-0.8 m depth (also reported down to 20 m), with some current, hard sand, mud or clay bottom and with rare vegetation. Spawns in empty mollusc shells. Probably spawns eggs (4.3 × 1.8 mm) in several portions. Males probably tend the nest. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, rotifers and algae.
135622		population	eng	No information.
135622		threats	eng	Shortening of the brackish zone, due to water abstraction and flow regulation of the rivers.
135623		conservation	eng	The species entire range (Lake Posta Fibreno, 0.29 km² and tributaries) is included in Lago di Posta Fibreno Nature Reserve.
135623		distribution	eng	Italy: Lake Posta Fibreno and tributaries.
135623		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Posta Fibreno is an elongated karstic lake with underwater springs and caves, 1.1 km long, 0.1-0.3 km wide, 0.29 km², 289 m above sea level, 15 m deep (average depth 2.5 m), about 10°C year-round and clear and well oxygenated water. Spawns close to underwater springs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, sometimes entering lake tributaries. Spawns in December-January (local <em>S. cettii</em> population in February-March).
135623		population	eng	No information.
135623		threats	eng	Potential threats of introduced species and pollution.
135624		conservation	eng	No information.
135624		distribution	eng	Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia: middle and lower Neretva drainage, Stara (Old) Neretva, Lake Desne, lake basins near Imotski, Matica drainage near Vrgorac.
135624		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In well vegetated rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135624		population	eng	Abundant.
135624		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135625		conservation	eng	No information available.
135625		distribution	eng	Adriatic basin, from Drin drainage, including Lakes Skadar and Ohrid (Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia).
135625		habitat	eng	<strong></strong>Lacustrine and riverine. Found in streams and rivers, prefers stretches with clear water and riffles.
135625		population	eng	Abundant.
135625		threats	eng	Overfishing, drought.
135626		conservation	eng	No information.
135626		distribution	eng	Western Black Sea basin: from Kamchiya to Resowska drainages (Bulgaria, Turkey).
135626		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast to moderate flowing rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns until July.
135626		population	eng	Abundant.
135626		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135627		conservation	eng	None.
135627		distribution	eng	Lake Geneva (Switzerland, France).
135627		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in moderate depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In summer, feeds on insects. Moves to deeper water in winter. Spawns in February in deep water over aquatic vegetation.
135627		population	eng	It was last recorded in Lake Geneva in 1920. Although the name féra is still used for the only coregonid present in Lake Geneva, this is not the original species but the introduced <em>C. palaea</em>.
135627		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction are thought to be eutrophication and overfishing in the early 1900s.
135628		conservation	eng	No information.
135628		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Zürich and Walenstadt.
135628		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July (or until December?) in Lake Zurich, in deep water. Spawns near shores, at depths of 20-80 m, in October-November in Lake Walenstadt. Feeds on plankton in midwater and on benthic invertebrates (snails, chironomids).
135628		population	eng	No information.
135628		threats	eng	None known.
135629		conservation	eng	No information.
135629		distribution	eng	Montenegro: Lake Skadar basin, Moraca drainage.
135629		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers with stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135629		population	eng	In 2003 and 2006, it was found to be very common in the Moraca.
135629		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135630		conservation	eng	No information.
135630		distribution	eng	Greece: lakes of Acheloos and Louros drainages; introduced in Lake Pamvotis.
135630		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine; spawns in shallow and sandy areas, with vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns once a year, in March-April, on plants or gravel. Eggs are very adhesive, 1.0-1.4 mm in diameter. Larvae and juveniles are found away from shore. Juveniles feed on invertebrates and plant material, individuals larger than 120 mm SL feed mainly on snails and mussels.
135630		population	eng	Abundant.
135630		threats	eng	No major current threats known, but it is potentially threatened by introduced alien fish species.
135631		conservation	eng	No information.
135631		distribution	eng	Caspian, Black, Baltic, White, Barents, Arctic, North and Aral Seas and Atlantic basins, southwest to Adour drainage; Mediterranean basin, in Rhône drainage and northern Italy. Widely distributed in North America and Siberia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea basin). Historically absent from Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean France, central Italy, southern and western Greece, eastern Adriatic basin, Iceland, western Norway and northern Scotland. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe.
135631		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In a wide variety of habitats with aquatic or periodically flooded vegetation. Often semi-anadromous in part of northern Baltic basin with lower salinity. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 170-350 mm SL, females at 250-400 mm SL, at 1-6 years. Reproduction closely related to the presence of submerged vegetation. Spawns in late winter or early spring, between February in the south and June in the north, when temperature rises above 5°C. Several males court a single female. Eggs are deposited in flooded areas and on submerged vegetation over a period of 2-5 days. Juvenile survival is negatively related to biomass of older individuals and positively related to the area of the patches covered by submerged vegetation. Feeds on various small vertebrates, predominantly fish, and large invertebrates as decapod crustaceans. Cannibalism is common. In arctic lakes, it is sometimes the only fish species in a given water body; in such cases, juveniles feed on invertebrates and terrestrial vertebrates; large individuals are predominantly cannibals.
135631		population	eng	Abundant.
135631		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135632		conservation	eng	No information.
135632		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lake Thun.
135632		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in August-December, at 40-150 m deep, mainly near torrent deltas. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially chironomids.
135632		population	eng	In recent surveys the species is rare but present.
135632		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135633		conservation	eng	No information.
135633		distribution	eng	Austria: Lake Traunsee.
135633		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At depths of 40-60 m, up to surface in summer. Spawns close to shore. Traunsee is a 25.6 km² oligotrophic lake at 422 m above sea level (maximum depth 191 m, average depth 90 m). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns from mid-October to early March.
135633		population	eng	Abundant.
135633		threats	eng	The introduction of non-native coregonids, has led to hybridisation.
135634		conservation	eng	No information.
135634		distribution	eng	Subalpine lakes in Germany and Austria.
135634		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Migrates for short distances to lower reaches of tributary streams. Spawns in streams with strong current, on gravel bottom, rarely along lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years, females one year later than males. Spawns in May-July, in shallows, current about 1 m/s, and 12-18°C, often with much splashing. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Adults return to lakes soon after spawning to forage. Larvae move downriver soon after hatching. All age groups feed on zooplankton.
135634		population	eng	Abundant.
135634		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135635		conservation	eng	Natura 200 species.
135635		distribution	eng	Basins of North, southern Baltic, Black, western and southern Caspian and Aegean Seas (south to Pinios drainage); Mediterranean basin, only in northern Rhône (France) and Drin drainages (Albania, Montenegro, Macedonia). Invasive in France in southern Rhône and west of Seine, in southern Russia in Don and Kuban drainages. Introduced to Great Britain and northern Italy. Absent in River Ural, Denmark, Scandinavia, Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas, most of Adriatic basin and Black Sea basin south of Kuban drainage.
135635		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in still or slow-flowing water with dense aquatic vegetation and sand-silt bottom as lowland ponds, canals, slow-flowing rivers, backwaters and oxbows, where mussels are present. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year and about 30-35 mm SL. Lives exceptionally up to five years but most individuals do not survive the year of their first reproduction and populations sizes fluctuate greatly over the years. Spawns in April-August.
135635		population	eng	Abundant.
135635		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water pollution, weed clearing, and stocking of predatory fish.
135636		conservation	eng	None.
135636		distribution	eng	Lower Danube in Romania and Ukraine, from confluence with River Arges downstream to delta.
135636		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep waters of large rivers on sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135636		population	eng	The species was last recorded in the 1960's. There have been many studies within the species range which have all failed to find the species. Recently in 2001, 2002 (J. Freyhof, pers comm.) and 2003 (Bogutskaya, N. pers comm.) survey work in the Danube delta in the species habitat all failed to find the species.
135636		threats	eng	Unknown.
135637		conservation	eng	None.
135637		distribution	eng	Romania: freshwater springs of hypersaline littoral Lake Techirghiol (south of Constanta).
135637		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Freshwater springs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns during an extended period, in February-October.
135637		population	eng	Last recorded in the 1960's. Further surveys, most recently in 1998, all failed to find the species.
135637		threats	eng	Hybridisation with <em>G. aculeatus</em> which invaded its habitat when irrigation transformed the hypersaline lake which served as a natural barrier between the two species.
135638		conservation	eng	No information.
135638		distribution	eng	Maritza drainage (Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey).
135638		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams to rivers, stretches with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Omnivorous; feeds mainly on insects and aquatic invertebrates. Spawns in April-June in shallow areas with gravel bottom.
135638		population	eng	Locally some populations are declining.
135638		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water abstraction and drought.
135639		conservation	eng	No information.
135639		distribution	eng	Large rivers draining to Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas. Introduced or native to Northern Dvina drainage (White Sea basin) where it is quickly spreading from warmer upper reaches (Vychegda system) northward. Introduced in River Volkhov (a Lake Ladoga tributary), in Rhine in 1995 and invasive in Vistula drainage, coming from Black Sea basin through Prypet-Bug canal (connecting Dniepr and Vistula drainages).
135639		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers and estuaries. Spawns in fast-flowing water on gravel bottom or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Poorly known. Thought to be a rheophilic, nocturnal species. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Spawns in April-May when temperature rises above 8°C. Spawns in large aggregations. Semi-anadromous populations forage in large brackish-water habitats in estuaries around Black Sea. Spawning migration of semi-anadromous individuals start in November (Kura). Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
135639		population	eng	Unknown.
135639		threats	eng	May be locally threatened by water pollution.
135640		conservation	eng	Fishing for the species is now banned in its remaining locations.
135640		distribution	eng	England: Lakes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite (Cumbria); Scotland: Castle Loch and Mill Loch near Lochmaben. It has been introduced for conservation purposes in Loch Skene.
135640		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. Spawns on gravel or stone shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, shoaling. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in November-December. Males gather in spawning places and females join these shoals and spawn together in midwater. Eggs sink to bottom and develop between stones. Shoals move to deeper water in warm weather. Comes closer to shores in late summer. Feeds mainly on crustaceans (<em>Entomostraca)</em>, supplemented by small insects.
135640		population	eng	No information.
135640		threats	eng	Eutrophication was the cause of the species extirpation in Castle Loch which occurred in 1911 and Mill Loch in the early 1970s. The main threat to the species in Bassenthwaite is <em>Gymnocephalus cernuus</em>, an introduced species which eats the eggs of <em>C. vandesius</em>. There is no plausible threat to the Derwentwater population.
135641		conservation	eng	No information.
135641		distribution	eng	Greece: basins of Lakes Volvi (69 km², maximum depth 23 m) and Koronia (where it is now extirpated).
135641		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Spawns in streams <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135641		population	eng	Currently abundant in Lake Volvi.
135641		threats	eng	The species was extirpated from Lake Koronia as the lake almost dried up in 1995, and then totally dried in 2002. The threats to the species in Lake Volvi is drought (which is predicted to be increase in severity due to climate change), especially of the spawning streams of which there is only one or two.
135642		conservation	eng	Lake Constance is a cross border lake (Austria, Germany and Switzerland) and has a well managed and strictly regulated management and harvest plan.
135642		distribution	eng	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).
135642		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, usually at 0-40 m during summer. Spawns at surface over deep water, off-shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in first half of December, when temperature falls below 7°C. Males aggregate at surface and females ready to spawn come from deeper water to join these aggregations. Eggs sink to bottom and hatch in March. Larvae swim to surface and start to feed after about 8 days. Feeds on plankton and insects; preys on juvenile Perca fluviatilis in summer.
135642		population	eng	Abundant.
135642		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135643		conservation	eng	No information.
135643		distribution	eng	Russia: Lake Kezenoi-am (formerly Eizenam (Daghestan)) in northern Caucasus at 1870 m above sea level. In 1963, introduced in Lake Mochokh (Daghestan), probably established.
135643		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Kezenoi-am is a mountain lake, 2.4 km²,with a maximum depth of 74 m,, temperatures about 5°C below 20 m and 5-18°C in upper layers in summer, covered by ice in winter, high oxygen concentrations down to bottom year-round and low plankton density. Spawns in lake, close to underwater springs; large-sized form probably migrates to tributaries. Prior to the introduction of <em>Gobio holurus</em> and <em>Squalius cephalus</em>, <em>S. ezenami</em> was the only fish in the lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, migrates to tributaries. Two forms are known: small-size (adults 160-260 mm SL, 200-350 g) and large-size (adults 380-1130 mm SL, over 1 kg). Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Spawning period extends over almost entire year. Young juveniles feed mostly on gammarids, chironomid larvae; larger juveniles and adults feed on molluscs, benthic invertebrates and fry; largest individuals are mostly piscivorous, especially since the introduction of <em>G. holurus</em>.
135643		population	eng	No information.
135643		threats	eng	Introduction of alien species (<em>Squalius cephalus</em>), which feeds on its fry. The region is hard to access as it is a war zone (Chechnya) so levels of harvesting are unknown.
135644		conservation	eng	No information.
135644		conservation	eng	Research is needed on the distribution and impacts of threats on the species.
135644		distribution	eng	In Europe, restricted to western Sardinia (Italy). Southwestern Mediterranean coast, from northern Morocco to northern Tunisia. Enters permanent rivers and coastal lagoons. Landlocked population in Lake Ichkeul (Tunisia) and in man-made lakes in Sardinia.
135644		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spawns close to estuaries in fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-4 years, females at 4-5. Starts entering rivers when temperatures reach 14-18°C, mainly in May. Spawning commences when temperature rises above 20°C in May-June. Spent individuals migrate back to sea, but many die after spawning. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth in first summer and remain at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominant on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.
135644		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spawns close to estuaries in fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-4 years, females at 4-5. Starts entering rivers when temperatures reach 14-18°C, mainly in May. Spawning commences when temperature rises above 20°C in May-June. Spent individuals migrate back to sea, but many die after spawning. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth in first summer and remain at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominant on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.   Landlocked populations are resident.
135644		population	eng	No information.
135644		threats	eng	It is suspected that the species spawns in the brackish zone of estuaries. If the flow of freshwater is reduced due to dams, flow regulation, water abstraction and climate change, this brackish water area may be disappear.   . Landlocked populations are vulnerable to overfishing, habitat modification and pollution. The impacts of the threats to the species are unknown.
135644		threats	eng	It is suspected that the species spawns in the brackish zone of estuaries. If the flow of freshwater is reduced due to dams, flow regulation, water abstraction and climate change, this brackish water area may be disappear. The impacts of the threats to the species are unknown.
135645		conservation	eng	No information.
135645		distribution	eng	Sea of Azov basin (Russia, Ukraine), where it migrates up the Don to the Tsymlansk Dam, Kuban to Krasnodar Dam, and other smaller rivers. There is a landlocked population in the Tsymlansk Resevoir.
135645		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, coastal lakes, estuaries, and open sea. At sea, lives close to surface and tolerates salinities up to 12 ‰. Landlocked populations in reservoirs. Migrates for long distances, up to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in rivers or streams with heavy current, on gravel bottom. Landlocked populations spawn in reservoir tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn (September in Kuban) and move upstream during winter and/or in spring. Spawns in May-July, in shallows and at 18-26°C. Males assemble at spawning grounds and wait for ripe females, which arrive later. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Adults return to sea soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles move downriver in autumn of same year or next spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish. Regularly hybridizes with <em>Squalius cephalus</em>.
135645		population	eng	Abundant in Tsymlansk Resevoir. Its status in the Sea of Azov is unknown but thought not to be currently declining. (declined in the 1960's - Don damed in 1963).
135645		threats	eng	Current potential threat to the species is overfishing.
135646		conservation	eng	No information.
135646		distribution	eng	Russia: Kuma, Terek and Sulak drainages in Western Caspian basin.
135646		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in small rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135646		population	eng	Abundant.
135646		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135647		conservation	eng	No information.
135647		distribution	eng	Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas and western Anatolia from Bakir.
135647		distribution	eng	Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas and western Anatolia from Bakir to Great Menderes.
135647		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper part of stream, with current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.
135647		population	eng	Locally common (J. Freyhof, pers comm.).
135647		population	eng	Very few populations but locally common (J. Freyhof, pers comm.).
135647		threats	eng	Water abstraction. Climate change is also a threat as the severity of droughts are predicted to increase.
135648		conservation	eng	No information.
135648		distribution	eng	France: three disjunct populations in Hérault drainage.
135648		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small stream with clear, swift water and stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.
135648		population	eng	No information.
135648		threats	eng	Drought (potentially increasing due to climate change) and increasing water abstraction is a potential threat to the species, especially as the species occurs in a very restricted range.
135649		conservation	eng	No information.
135649		distribution	eng	Spain; Guadalmina and Guadiaro rivers in Andalucia.
135649		habitat	eng	The species inhabits streams with clear water and gravel bottoms and prefers moderate flowing water.
135649		population	eng	Rare and declining.
135649		threats	eng	The species habitat has been reduced by water abstraction, mainly due to the proliferation of golf fields.
135650		conservation	eng	No information.
135650		distribution	eng	Don drainage.
135650		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Prefers main course of rivers, with clear water, moderate to slow current, sand or sand-clay bottom. Avoids turbid and still waters. Commonly stays on bottom, in water 0.3-3 m deep. Spawns in stretches with heavy current and stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forms small groups of individuals of similar size. Lives up to seven years. Spawns in April-May at 5-6°C. Eggs are 2.0 mm in diameter, sticky, slightly transparent. Eggs hatch in 9 days at 13°C. Larvae lack adhesive glands, lie passively on bottom, are negatively phototactic. Starts active feeding at 16 days. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, molluscs, also on other benthic invertebrates and algae.
135650		population	eng	Abundant.
135650		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135651		conservation	eng	No information.
135651		distribution	eng	Middle and upper Danube drainage.
135651		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine and lacustrine habitats with sand bottom. Spawns in shallow water, over stones, sand or plant material. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135651		population	eng	Abundant.
135651		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135652		conservation	eng	No information.
135652		distribution	eng	Danube drainage.
135652		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing large and medium size lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. Juveniles may inhabit backwaters. Lacustrine population in Lake Balaton (Hungary). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. Nocturnal, benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other large benthic invertebrates.
135652		population	eng	Declined in the mid 20th century.
135652		threats	eng	No current threats known. Dam construction in the mid 20th century probably impacted the species.
135653		conservation	eng	No information.
135653		distribution	eng	Ireland: Lough Melvin (21 km²).
135653		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, in relatively deep water. Moves to tributaries for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December in most lake tributaries. Feeds mainly on mid-water plankton, especially Cladocera, and chironomid pupae.
135653		population	eng	No information.
135653		threats	eng	Eutrophication and invasive species are potential threats to the species. Arctic charr have gone extinct in other Irish lakes due to eutrophication.
135654		conservation	eng	No information.
135654		distribution	eng	Along most coasts of Caspian Sea (at depth 3-15 m in North Caspian, and at down to 50 m in Central and South Caspian), abundant in Volga delta (Ragimov, 1976, 1977, 1981, 1985b). recorded in Volga downstream from Volgograd (Lagunova, in Ragimov, 1981) but a single sample is reliably known only from the upper part of the Volga delta (45 km upstream from Astrakhan', Ragimov's matererial, IZA uncat.).
135654		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and brackish waters, salinity up to 13 ‰. Down to 50 m, mature adults at 1-11 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in May-September, until December in southern Caspian. Some individuals may spawn for the first time at 6-7 months. Females probably lay eggs in three portions. Females die after spawning, males probably 3-4 weeks later.
135654		population	eng	Abundant.
135654		threats	eng	Sensitive to oil pollution.
135655		conservation	eng	No information available.
135655		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin, in Dniestr, Dniepr and Don drainages. In the Baltic basin in the Vistula and Odra drainages.
135655		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inhabits a wide range of habitats from small lowland streams to fast-flowing piedmont rivers with clear water and sand to gravel bottom. Usually absent from large lowland rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Burrows into sand, avoids mud or silt, sometimes in gravel. Spawns in spring. Eggs 1.1-1.2 mm in diameter, sticky and indiscriminately scattered over sand, gravel or other structures. Portion spawner. Eggs hatch in 50-60 h at 22°C. Larvae 3.1-4.2 mm TL start to feed after 6 days. Free larvae lack external gill filaments, but have a prominent transparent bump on forehead.
135655		population	eng	Locally abundant.
135655		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135656		conservation	eng	No information.
135656		distribution	eng	Lower reaches and deltas of Volga, Ural, Samur, Terek (Berg, 1949; Ragimov, 1966, 1981, 1985а; Vasilieva, 1983, 2000).  In Central Caspian along the western coast, and in South Caspian further eastward to Gorgan Bay (ZISP and IZA collections). We suppose that the species does not occur along the eastern coast of Central Caspian Sea; reports on its distribution there most probably refer to the later described B. mahmudbejovi.
135656		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow coastal waters and estuaries, usually at 0.5-10 m depth, over mud bottom; lower reaches of rivers. Widely distributed but rare. During warm seasons prefers coastal waters down to 10 m. In northern Caspian Sea, moves to deeper areas (20-25 m) in winter. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Forms schools during spawning season (April-July) in coastal shallows over hard mud bottom with mollusc shells. Females lay eggs in at least two portions into empty shells. Feeds mostly on molluscs and fish (small gobies), also worms and crustaceans.
135656		population	eng	One of the most abundant species in North Caspian.
135656		threats	eng	Sensitive to oil pollution.
135657		conservation	eng	No information.
135657		distribution	eng	Greece: Sperchios, Pinios and Cholorema drainages, streams in northern extremity of Evia (Eubea) Island.
135657		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers; prefers stretches with clear water and riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135657		population	eng	No information.
135657		threats	eng	Water abstraction, drought, water pollution (agricultural).
135658		conservation	eng	No information available.
135658		distribution	eng	<p>Rivers draining to northern Black Sea. Lipkovska stream in upper Vardar drainage (Macedonia). Anatolian populations have recently been show to be two distinct species, <em>Salmo coruhensis </em>and <em>S. rizeensis</em>, reducing the distribution area of the species.</p>
135658		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, along coasts at depths of up to 50 m. Migrates to hill streams. Resident part of populations in streams and uppermost reaches with fast current, cold clear water and stone or gravel bottom. Spawns in upper reaches with fast current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, lacustrine and resident ecotypes. Spawns in October-January. Parrs spend 2-4 years in rivers and streams, then smoltify and migrate to sea or mature in freshwater. Spends 2-4 years at sea. Anadromous individuals return to rivers in April-May and again in October-November. Eggs hatch in 6-8 weeks. Parrs and resident adults feed on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. Anadromous and large lacustrine individuals feed mainly on fish and large crustaceans. Anadromous individuals feed while in rivers.
135658		population	eng	Abundant.
135658		threats	eng	The anadromous ecotype is very rare in Europe. Because of damming, most returning adults are unable to reach spawning sites. The resident populations are less impacted by the dams.
135659		conservation	eng	No information.
135659		distribution	eng	Only known from the Zeta stream and the lower Moraca river, part of the Lake Skadar basin (Montenegro, Albania).
135659		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Skadar and lower parts of tributary streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135659		population	eng	Possibly naturally rare.
135659		threats	eng	Water abstraction is a current threat to the species and drought is a potential threat (however the Zeta stream is fed by karstic water basin and therefore unlikely to totally dry out).
135660		conservation	eng	No information.
135660		distribution	eng	Estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from White Sea to Chukotka (eastern Siberia), Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); America from Vancouver Island to Coronation Bay.
135660		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal shallows and bays; fresh water in lowland and piedmont rivers. At sea, pelagic, at 4-8 m depth. Spawns in rapids, in clear water, over stone-gravel bottom and depth 0.2-0.5 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Enters rivers only for spawning, first at 3-4 years. Lives up to 11 years. Spawning migration starts in April-May under ice. Distance of migration depends on availability of spawning sites, from tens to thousands of kilometres. Usually spawns in May-June and returns to sea soon after. Spawns at 7-14°C. Eggs are yellow, 0.8-1.0 mm in diameter, and adhere to pebbles and stones. Eggs hatch in 18-25 days at 5-18°C. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger juveniles mostly on gammarids and mysids. By August, juveniles migrate to sea. Becomes piscivorous when reaching sexual maturity. Feeds mostly on smaller, schooling fishes, usually juveniles of cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>), Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Coregonidae.
135660		population	eng	Abundant.
135660		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135661		conservation	eng	No information.
135661		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin, in Danube drainage; Aegean Sea basin, in Maritza and from Gallikos to Pinios drainages.
135661		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly hill streams with clear water and bottom with sand or fine gravel bottom. In moderate current with few plants at water depths up to 1.5 m. Also observed in large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Burrows during daylight into sand, sometimes in gravel. Spawns in spring. In aquarium, eggs indiscriminately scattered over sand, gravel and plants. A dwarf population was observed in a pond fed by a warm thermal spring with constant temperature in western Romania.
135661		population	eng	Abundant.
135661		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135662		conservation	eng	The area is protected to maintain clean drinking water.
135662		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality the Norin stream (10 km) in the Neretva drainage (Croatia).
135662		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Outflow of a karstic spring, discharging 3.5-6.0 m/s in summer, down to 5.5 m, with gravel to mud-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Adults observed in deepest parts of stream, juveniles in shallow areas among vegetation.
135662		population	eng	Very rare.
135662		threats	eng	Water is abstracted from the spring and used for drinking water. However the habitat is in good condition.
135663		conservation	eng	Lake Constance is a cross border lake (Austria, Germany and Switzerland) and has a well managed and strictly regulated management and harvest plan.
135663		distribution	eng	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Introduced in lakes of Po drainage (where it possibly has hybridised with other introduced species) and probably in several other European lakes.
135663		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, midwater along shores. Spawns in shallow water, on bottom, along shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December. Feeds on insects and plankton.
135663		population	eng	The second most abundant species in Lake Constance.
135663		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135664		conservation	eng	No information.
135664		distribution	eng	Kuban drainage and Sea of Azov close to Kuban estuary.
135664		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mountain and piedmont streams, with strong currents, sand, gravel or rock bottom. Less abundant in lowland stretches and estuary. Spawns on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at three years, females at four. Spawns in May-August. Spawning run starts at end of March and peaks in May. Migrations may extend to uppermost reaches of tributaries. Female lays up to three portions of eggs (total up to 60,000). After spawning, adults migrate downstream and spend winter in main course of Kuban and lower reaches of tributaries. Larvae and small juveniles feed mostly on chironomids and algae. Larger juveniles and adults feed on a variety of benthic invertebrates, and small fish.
135664		population	eng	Abundant.
135664		threats	eng	Dams.
135665		conservation	eng	No information.
135665		distribution	eng	Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages. Introduced or stocked in many lakes in northern and central Russia.
135665		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes and their tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, marine waters with salinity up to 6-10?. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, semi-anadromous, lacustrine, lacustrine-riverine, and riverine stocks are reported. Most stocks are migratory. Spends most of year at sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Enters rivers in July-August and reaches spawning sites by October-November. In larger rivers, moves upriver up to 2000 km (average speed 20 km/day). Spawns for the first time at 6-14 years, 470-500 mm SL. Spawns in rapids or shallows, at 1-2°C, when rivers start freezing. Adults leave spawning sites in winter. Eggs hatch in 150-180 days; peak hatching usually in April. Juveniles feed on planktonic crustaceans. Adults feed on plankton in winter (during which they do not cease active foraging) and benthic invertebrates in summer.
135665		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes and their tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, marine waters with salinity up to 6-10‰. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, semi-anadromous, lacustrine, lacustrine-riverine, and riverine stocks are reported. Most stocks are migratory. Spends most of year at sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Enters rivers in July-August and reaches spawning sites by October-November. In larger rivers, moves upriver up to 2000 km (average speed 20 km/day). Spawns for the first time at 6-14 years, 470-500 mm SL. Spawns in rapids or shallows, at 1-2°C, when rivers start freezing. Adults leave spawning sites in winter. Eggs hatch in 150-180 days; peak hatching usually in April. Juveniles feed on planktonic crustaceans. Adults feed on plankton in winter (during which they do not cease active foraging) and benthic invertebrates in summer.
135665		population	eng	Not declining (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.).
135665		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135666		conservation	eng	No information.
135666		distribution	eng	Iceland; some populations with low scute number in Norway and northern Finland possibly belong to this species.
135666		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No information. Most likely similar to <em>G. aculeatus</em>. Morphological differences are reported in several lakes between individuals inhabiting different substrates (mud, lava), especially in Lake Thingvalla.
135666		population	eng	Abundant.
135666		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135667		conservation	eng	No information.
135667		distribution	eng	Coastal areas of western Europe, from Netherlands to Garonne drainage (France), Ireland, southern Great Britain.
135667		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow still water with dense vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns at one year in April-June. Males build a nest hanging to aquatic vegetation and take care of eggs and larvae. Eggs hatch in 10-20 days. Dies at end of spawning season. Feeds mainly on zooplankton, small crustaceans and benthic insects.
135667		population	eng	Abundant.
135667		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135668		conservation	eng	No information available.
135668		distribution	eng	Northern Black Sea basin (Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages), southern Baltic basin (Odra, Vistula), southern North Sea basin (Elbe, Rhine). Occurrence in Lake Ilmen and Ladoga basins questionable.
135668		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. To spawn, both sexes move to surface or open water. Nocturnal, benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other larger benthic invertebrates.
135668		population	eng	Declined in the mid 20th century.
135668		threats	eng	In the mid 20th century large dam construction destroyed areas of the species habitat.
135669		conservation	eng	No information.
135669		distribution	eng	Pinios drainage, Aliakmon (Greece), Vardar (Greece and FYROM) and upper Struma (FRYOM and Bulgaria).
135669		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135669		population	eng	Unknown.
135669		threats	eng	Drought, water abstraction, pollution.
135670		conservation	eng	No information available.
135670		distribution	eng	Adriatic basin from Soca drainage to Ancona province (Slovenia, Switzerland, Italy), Ricica, lower Zrmanja drainage (Croatia). Tyrrhenian basin in the Arno drainage (Italy). Introduced in Ombrone and Tevere drainages (Italy).
135670		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open surface waters in a variety of habitats ranging from large subalpine lakes to small, lowland streams. Spawns in shallow riffles or along stony shores of lakes, occasionally above submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only for a single season, in May-August at temperatures above 15°C. Feeds on plankton, drifting insects or invertebrates fallen on waters surface.
135670		population	eng	Abundant.
135670		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135671		conservation	eng	None.
135671		distribution	eng	Lake Geneva (Switzerland, France).
135671		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>The species is found in deeper parts of the lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In December, moves to spawn in shallower areas, near shore, on gravel.
135671		population	eng	Last recorded in the early 1900s. If the species still existed it would have been recorded in one of the many surveys that have taken place.
135671		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction are thought to be eutrophication and overfishing in the early 1900s.
135672		conservation	eng	The species is ranched in all of its range states. In Gulf of Bothnia alone, about six million juveniles were stocked annually in 1995–1998 to support commercial fisheries.
135672		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Baltic Sea area: Swedish coast (including Bothnian Gulf, missing in Gotland); in southern Baltic, German coast, extending from River Schlei to Gulf of Finland. Southeastern North Sea basin: Ems, Weser and Elbe drainages and small rivers of Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark. Landlocked populations also occur in Lake Miedwie (former Madüsee) and other lakes in Poland, Lakes Vättern, Vänern, Mälaren, Siljan (Sweden), Ladoga (Russia) and others. It has been introduced and transplanted in many drainages within its native range and outside westward to Rhine drainage.
135672		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong><br/>This fish forages along coasts and spawns in freshened parts of estuaries or in lower stretches of rivers. It also occurs in deep, oligo-mesotrophic lakes. Spawning occurs in shallow water, in rapids or small rivers or over firm sediments in lowland rivers and estuaries. In Lake Vänern, it spawns at 8–20 m depth, over firm bottom.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>The species has both anadromous and landlocked populations. It spawns for the first time at 3–5 years. Adults enters rivers in June–October (northern Baltic) until November (southern Baltic), when the temperature falls below 10°C. In the River Tornionjoki (Finland), individuals ascending from sea in June–August can be distinguished by DNA markers from fish ascending in September. It spawns in October–November (Finland) until November–December (Poland), when the temperature falls below 6°C. Spawners overwinter in rivers or at sea very close to estuaries. Eggs hatch in early spring (March–April in Odra) and drift to sea or to estuarine bays. Juveniles migrate to sea in June–August (Odra). It may migrate up to 700 km from the spawning river to forage at sea (Bothnian Bay). Northernmost stocks undertake the longest migrations between spawning and foraging grounds. Some females spawn every second year. The species feeds on benthic prey (crustaceans, molluscs, large insect larvae, small fish).
135672		population	eng	Populations have declined across most of the species range. In Germany and Poland, since World War II, all populations have been extirpated except one, and there is only one population remaining in Denmark. In Sweden and Finland the populations have also massively declined.
135672		threats	eng	Water pollution, impoundment of rivers and overfishing.
135673		conservation	eng	No information.
135673		distribution	eng	Eastern and northeastern Sea of Azov: Gulfs of Taganrog and Temryuk. Bolshoi Akhtanizovski Liman, Kuban delta, rare in Don delta.
135673		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Coastal fresh and brackish waters with salinities up to 7 ‰, and river mouths. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>A gregarious, bottom-dweller. Females live up to four years, males up to three. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in least saline part of Gulf of Taganrog in June-July, at 24-25°C. Eggs are released over mud bottom; although slightly sticky, they do not adhere to bottom but become coated with minute substrate particles. Soon after spawning, adults migrate to open sea. Eggs hatch in two days. Larvae first lie on bottom, moving to the to surface at four days. From about 6 mm SL they actively prey on planktonic crustaceans, at 16-40 mm on larger copepods and mysids, and from second the year of life on <em>Knipowitschia longecaudata</em>, <em>Clupeonella cultriventris</em>, benthic worms, molluscs, and insect larvae.
135673		population	eng	Abundant.
135673		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135674		conservation	eng	No information available.
135674		distribution	eng	Lakes of Baltic and White Sea basins from southern Norway to Karelia and Kola Peninsula (and possibly further eastward), e.g. in Lakes Gruda, Krøderen, Randsfjorden (Norway), Bullaren, Bolmen, Vänern, Vettasjärvi, Siljan, Storsjön, Tåsjön, Ormsjön, Flåjsön, Övre Särvsjön, Nedre Särvsjön, Östra Vattnan, Orten-Randsjön, Ansjön (Sweden), Inarijärvi (Finland), Onega, Ladoga, and Imandra (Russia).
135674		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. In Lake Ladoga, mainly at depths less than 50 m. Migrates to spawn in bays at beginning of autumn and spawns in November over clean pebble or silt bottom at depths of 2 to 10 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, forms shoals. In small lakes and low altitude often sole species of genus. Spawns in September-February, depending on latitude and habitat, in flowing water in mid-autumn, in deep water in winter. In Lake Vänern, spawns in November-December, at 2-5 m depth, over gravel or sand. Feeds on plankton in summer, may take benthic prey too.
135674		population	eng	No information available.
135674		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135675		conservation	eng	No information.
135675		distribution	eng	Europe: from Loire drainage (France) eastward to White, Barents and Arctic Sea basins; upper Volga drainage; southeastern Caspian basin; rivers draining to Black Sea; Rhône drainage (France); in Italy, native only in Po drainage; eastern England (now extirpated). In Siberia eastward to River Lena. Originally absent from Iberian Peninsula, central and southern Italy, Adriatic basin, Greece, Ireland, western and northern Great Britain and western France.
135675		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>All well oxygenated flowing waters and large lakes. Known from estuaries of large lowland rivers as well as from small mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Generally nocturnal. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three in Central Europe. Spawns in November-March, at temperatures below 4°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. Spawns at night, in groups of up to 20 interlaced individuals forming a ball about 60 cm in diameter constantly moving and rolling on the bottom, releasing eggs and sperm. Eggs are semipelagic, slightly sticky and 1.2-1.8 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch after 40-70 days. Larvae are positively phototactic, float below surface in March-April. After about two months, juveniles are benthic, grow rapidly, reach about 80 mm SL within first year. In contrast to most freshwater fish, very active during winter even below ice cover. Larvae feed on drifting invertebrates or zooplankton. Juveniles and adults feed on large invertebrates and small fish.
135675		population	eng	Abundant.
135675		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135676		conservation	eng	No information.
135676		distribution	eng	Spain: Ebro and Llobregat drainages. France: from Tech and Agly drainages, probably also Aude (Languedoc-Roussillon); possible introgression with S. cephalus in southern Garonne tributaries and Adour drainage.
135676		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135676		population	eng	Abundant.
135676		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135677		conservation	eng	No information.
135677		distribution	eng	Spain: Ebro and Bidasoa drainages; France: Adour drainage. Introduced to rest of Spain and Portugal.
135677		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in foot hills with moderate current, with sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135677		population	eng	Abundant.
135677		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135678		conservation	eng	No information.
135678		distribution	eng	Spain; from the Mijares to the Vinalopo river, on the Mediterranean slope (Mijares, Turia, Jucar, Serpis, Bullent, Gorgos, Guadalest, Monebre/Verde, Albufera de Valencia Lagoon, Vinalopo).
135678		habitat	eng	The species inhabits streams in the lower basins (prefers moderate flow), with clear water and gravel bottom.
135678		population	eng	The species is found to be the dominant species in small rivers, but becomes local and rare in larger ones. However overall, the species population is declining.
135678		threats	eng	In the past decade the species habitat has been reduced by water abstraction (for agriculture), construction of dams, and introduction of alien fish species.
135679		conservation	eng	No information available.
135679		distribution	eng	Adriatic basin, from Po to Drin drainages. Introduced elsewhere in Italy.
135679		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams with clear, cold, well oxygenated water, over gravel to stone bottom. Most common in foot hills. In plains, usually associated with springs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Lives up to six years, usually three years. Spawns for the first time at two years in hilly areas, sometimes at one year in lowland. Spawns in May-July, in groups of one or a few females and numerous males. Eggs are deposited in shallow water on sand or gravel bottom. Fractional spawner. Eggs hatch in 4-5 days at 18°C. Feeds on aquatic macroinvertebrates and algae.
135679		population	eng	Abundant.
135679		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135680		conservation	eng	No information.
135680		distribution	eng	Widely spread but not abundant in coastal areas of almost the whole Caspian Sea. In the south, reliably known from Gorgan Bay. Not reported from eastern Central Caspian
135680		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh, brackish, rarely marine waters, prefers salinity below 9 ‰. In still or slowly flowing water over mud bottom. At depths around 0.5-10 m in summer, moves to deeper places in winter. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs in two, sometimes more, portions. Females die shortly after last release of eggs, males 3-4 weeks later. Males probably guard a clutch of eggs until hatching. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly molluscs.
135680		population	eng	Abundant.
135680		threats	eng	Sensitive to oil pollution.
135681		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in much of its range. In Turkey the minimum catch size is 20 cm.
135681		conservation	eng	No information.
135681		distribution	eng	<em>Liza saliens</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay to at least Morocco and possibly as far south as Angola. It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov. It has been introduced to Iran and now naturally occurs in the Caspian Sea basin (Baltz 1991).
135681		distribution	eng	Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Angola to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Caspian Sea.
135681		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in May-August, rarely until early October. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in summer and autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic organisms until 50 mm SL; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.
135681		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, inhabiting coastal waters (Thomson 1986). It is herbivorous (Frimodt 1995).
135681		population	eng	Abundant.
135681		population	eng	This species is widespread and relatively common in the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
135681		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135681		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. <br/><br/>This species is commercially fished in the Mediterranean, mainly with seines. It is also used for commercial aquaculture.
135682		conservation	eng	No information.
135682		distribution	eng	Coastal areas of the whole Caspian Sea, especially abundant at northern and eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea, at river deltas, in particular, of Ural and Volga (up to Astrakhan).
135682		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Both fresh and marine waters; prefers brackish and slightly saline zones in deltas and estuaries. In summer inhabits shallow coastal waters (0.5-20 m) and shallow channels of deltas, moves to deeper areas (down to 60-70 m) in winter. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns after first winter. In northern Caspian Sea and Volga delta, spawns in April-July in shallow water. Feeds mostly on molluscs and crustaceans.
135682		population	eng	Abundant.
135682		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135683		conservation	eng	No information.
135683		distribution	eng	Portugal: Estremadura, in Alcabrichel, Sizandro and Safarujo drainages. It is believed the population in the Safarujo is extirpated after the stream dried up.
135683		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower stretches of rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Spawns in April-May.
135683		population	eng	No information.
135683		threats	eng	The species is heavily impacted by pollution from domestic and agricultural sewage and water abstraction.
135684		conservation	eng	Fishing is banned in the Caspian Sea.
135684		conservation	eng	Targetted fishing for this species is banned in the Caspian Sea.
135684		distribution	eng	Aral basin (extirpated in the sea - due to salinity, only survives in the resevoirs of its tributaries), Chu drainage and southern and western Caspian Sea. For spawning, migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts: Terek, Samur, Kura, lower Aras. Rarely in lower Volga (up to Volgograd) and Ural.
135684		distribution	eng	Aral basin (extirpated in the sea itself - due to salinity, survives in much reduced landlocked populations in the large rivers and.in the resevoirs of its tributaries), Chu drainage and southern and western Caspian Sea. For spawning, migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts: Terek, Samur, Kura, lower Aras. Rarely in lower Volga (up to Volgograd) and Ural.
135684		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, at depths of up to 25 m. In rivers, in deep stretches with gravel or stone bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water at sites with hard bottom, 1-2 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and riverine populations. Spawns for the first time at about 500-700 mm SL, 5-7 years, females later than males. Spawns in April-August, with peak at 23-27°C. Some individuals start spawning migration in late summer-autumn and spawn following spring after overwintering in river. Some enter rivers in early spring and spawn same year. Female lays 100,000-1,250,000 bright yellow eggs; in 2-3 portions during a single season. Eggs are semipelagic and hatch while drifting downstream after at least 2 days at 25°C. Larvae settle into places with slow current for 2-12 months, then drift downstream to sea (or reservoir if river is dammed). In freshened parts of sea, feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans. Does not feed while migrating upstream. At spawning sites, starts to feed again, mainly on insects, eggs and juveniles of other fishes, rarely on algae, seeds and other plant material.
135684		population	eng	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's).
135684		population	eng	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. Now almost extirpated in the Caspian basin. Almost all spawning rivers are blocked by dams and there while no special fisheries target this species, it is the victim of bycatch in fishereies for other species, especially for <em>Rutilus frisii</em>. While other long-distance migratory, anadromous species in the Caspian Sea basin as <em>R. frisii</em> and Acipenseridae are artificially reproduced and massively stocked, this species is not reproduced and is therefore at the verge to extinction in the Caspian basin. No riverine or landlocked populations are known from ths species. <br/><br/>In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's) but it still survives in much reduced landlocked populations in the large rivers.
135684		threats	eng	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increasing salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threat is overfishing (illegal) in the Caspian sea.
135684		threats	eng	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increasing salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threats   are the loss of spawning sited by dam construction and overfishing (as bycatch) in the Caspian sea.
135685		conservation	eng	No information.
135685		distribution	eng	Slovenia: upper Save system (Danube drainage).
135685		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams to medium sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn for several years.
135685		population	eng	Abundant.
135685		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135686		conservation	eng	Part of the catchment is covered by a nature reserve.
135686		distribution	eng	Northern Germany: Lake Breiter Luzin.
135686		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, reported to inhabit deep water layers (20-58 m) and move to shallow waters to spawn. Lake Breiter Luzin is a 3.5 km² mesotrophic lake (formerly oligotrophic), maximum depth 85 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Matures at two years. Spawns in April-July, usually May-June. Feeds mainly on chironomids and <em>Mysis relicta</em>.
135686		population	eng	Since the 1970's, when the lake was eutrophic, the species has increased in abundance along with the water quality.
135686		threats	eng	The species survived heavy eutrophication in the 1970s, caused by sewage and agricultural pollution. Stocking of alien species is a potential threat to the species.
135687		conservation	eng	Fishing is banned in the Caspian Sea.
135687		distribution	eng	Caspian basin, for spawning migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts, from Volga southward to Atrek (Iran). Was always very rare in Volga. Aral basin, in Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Chu drainages, extirpated in the Aral Sea.
135687		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, mostly close to shores. Forages also in estuaries. Spawns in lowland streams and rivers on sand-gravel bottom, usually in strong current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous but rarely landlocked in reservoirs. Spawns for the first time at 3-7 years, females later than males, over 200 mm SL. Spawns in April-August. Males are annual spawners, females apparently spawn every 2-3 years. Semi-anadromous populations start migration in late summer-autumn and spawn following spring, but some enter rivers in early spring and spawn same year. Migrate to uppermost tributaries of rivers. Landlocked populations migrate just before spawning to upper stretches of tributaries, or spawn in lakes and reservoirs on sand to mud bottom. Female lays 15,000-125,000 light grey eggs. Larvae feed on zooplankton and small benthic invertebrates. Juveniles and adults feed on invertebrates, algae, detritus, plant material, and small fishes.
135687		population	eng	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's).
135687		threats	eng	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increased salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threat is overfishing (illegal) in the Caspian sea.
135688		conservation	eng	The whole lake catchment is a nature reserve, which is well managed.
135688		distribution	eng	Northern Germany: Lake Stechlin (4.2 km²).
135688		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, inhabit deep water layers (20-60 m), migrate above 20 m at night. Lake Stechlin is a 4.25 km² oligotrophic lake (mean depth 23 m, maximum depth 69 m) formed during Weichselian glaciation (about 12,000 years BP). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years, 65-110 mm SL for females. Spawns in April-September, usually May-June. Most individuals spawn only for a single season. Feeds mainly on <em>Cladocera</em> and <em>Copepoda</em>.
135688		population	eng	Abundant.
135688		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135689		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in most of its range in the Mediterranean Sea.  In Turkey there is a minimum size limitation of 20 cm.
135689		conservation	eng	No information.
135689		conservation	eng	None known.
135689		distribution	eng	Coasts of Mediterranean, Black Sea (absent from Sea of Azov) and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway, southern Iceland and Faroe Islands.
135689		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Coastal areas of Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The species is known from Scandinavia and Iceland south to Senegal and Cape Verde. Also Mediterranean Sea; southwestern Black Sea.
135689		distribution	eng	This species is present from Iceland, the British Isles and Norway to Morocco, including Azores and Madeira in the eastern Atlantic. It is also present in the western Atlantic. It is common and widespread throughout the Mediterranean and southwestern Black Sea (Berg 1965).
135689		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic, amphidromous species, occurring in shallow inshore waters and entering brackish lagoons and freshwater (Billard 1997). The species occasionally migrates, tending to move northward in summer-time as the temperatures rise. It feeds mainly on benthic diatoms, epiphytic algae, small invertebrates and detritus (Ben-Tuvia 1986). It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). Reproduction occurs in the sea during winter (Billard 1997) and both eggs and larval are pelagic.
135689		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shores, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools along shores, frequently enters lagoons and estuaries, juveniles easily adapt to freshwater. Lives up to 12 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three, later in northern areas. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in February-April. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in April-June, return to sea in summer. Juveniles feed on zooplankton; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.
135689		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, catadromous fish that lives in fresh and brackish water. Occurs inshore, enters brackish lagoons and freshwater. Migrates occasionally. Tends to move northward in summer-time as the temperatures rise. Feeds mainly on benthic diatoms, epiphytic algae, small invertebrates and detritus. Oviparous. Reproduction occurs in the sea during winter. Eggs and larvae pelagic.
135689		population	eng	Abundant.
135689		population	eng	No information available.
135689		population	eng	This is a very common and widespread species in the Mediterranean.
135689		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135689		threats	eng	Overfishing of the species by the use of seine nets and the prevention of the migration of alevins.
135689		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. <br/><br/>This is a commercial species in the Mediterranean, and is also an aquarium fish (in public aquaria).
135690		conservation	eng	No information available.
135690		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
135690		distribution	eng	This species is found in the north-east Atlantic, from Greenland and Norway, including the White Sea, to south Morocco. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in Spain, France, and Italy (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006).
135690		distribution	eng	Western Mediterranean and along all European coasts to White and Barents Seas; absent from northern Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas. Regularly reported from freshwaters in Kanin Peninsula (Barents Sea). Occasionally reported from freshwater outside Barents Sea basin, but individuals might be misidentified <em>P. flesus</em>.
135690		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom from a few metres down to about 100 m, at sea and in estuaries, rarely entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Spawns at sea, in January-June, in deep water, at temperatures around 6°C. Eggs and larvae are pelagic and drift with current. At about 10 mm SL, left eye moves to right side, pigmentation develops, and juveniles switch to benthic life. Juveniles enter freshwater to forage in mid-June in Kanin Peninsula, remaining there until August. Not all individual enter brackish and fresh-water. Adults do not move into brackish or fresh water. Feeds on thin-shelled molluscs and polychaetes.
135690		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on shallow sandy and muddy substrata, with older individuals occurring deeper. Small individuals are usually seen on bathing beaches (Frimodt 1995). It mainly feeds on thin-shelled molluscs and polychaetes. It is active at night in the very shallow water while it buries in the sand during the day. Changes in the environmental conditions have been disadvantageous.
135690		population	eng	Abundant.
135690		population	eng	This species is not common in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 244 specimens (17.2  to 38.3 cm TL) were caught with various fishing gears in three estuaries in the east central Adriatic Sea.
135690		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135690		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial interest. In the Mediterranean Sea it is caught with bottom trawls. Due to its boreal origin, this species is particularly threatened by pollution and increased water temperatures associated with climate change in this portion of the Mediterranean Sea (Lejeusne <em>et al.</em> 2010 ), as well as by loss of habitat from the reduction of freshwater influences causing increased salinity. It is estimated that at least 20% of its habitat has been altered through hydrologic changes and pollution over the past 30 years.
135691		conservation	eng	No information.
135691		distribution	eng	Lakes Ladoga and Onega, introduced in many natural and artificial water bodies in European and Siberian parts of Russia.
135691		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In summer, mainly along coasts of southern part of Lake Ladoga, and in winter, along the northern coast. Prefers stone and gravel bottom. No data from Lake Onega. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years. Forms large aggregations in July-August in a few localities along southern coast of both lakes for intensive foraging, and again in late October-early November (when first ice appears) over stone bottom in southern part of lakes. Spawns during 10-15 days along shores, at a maximum depth of 2 m, on rocks or gravel bottom. After spawning, moves to deeper places to overwinter. Feeds on benthos (insect larvae, molluscs and crustaceans), in summer usually moves to upper water layers to feed on zooplankton especially Cladocera.
135691		population	eng	Abundant in both lakes.
135691		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135692		conservation	eng	No information.
135692		distribution	eng	Montenegro: Moraca drainage and its tributary upper Zeta river.
135692		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only.
135692		population	eng	No information.
135692		threats	eng	Introduction of trouts which may hybridise with the species.
135693		conservation	eng	No information.
135693		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Zürich, Walenstadt, Pfäffikon and Greiffensee.
135693		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in midwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December, at depths of 12-100 m. Feeds on plankton.
135693		population	eng	Extirpated in Pfäffikon and Greiffensee. Abundant Lakes Zürich and Walenstadt.
135693		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135694		conservation	eng	No information.
135694		distribution	eng	Lowland river of the Don drainage.
135694		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. Nocturnal, benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other large benthic invertebrates.
135694		population	eng	Abundant, even in the large resevoirs.
135694		threats	eng	Locally threatened by pollution and river channelization.
135695		conservation	eng	No information.
135695		distribution	eng	Karstic streams in Livanjsko polje, Lakes Buško and Mandecko near Livno and river Cetina. Possibly introduced to Lake Blidinje (Bosnia-Herzegovina) more than 100 years ago.
135695		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Slow-flowing and still waters and lakes. Possibly enters subterranean waters during winter or droughts. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in April-June. In lakes, adults prey on small fishes.
135695		population	eng	Abundant in Lakes Buško and Mandecko and Cetina. However Livanjsko polje is almost dry and the species is only found in a small part.
135695		threats	eng	Water abstraction and drought (which are predicted to increase in severity due to climate change)
135696		conservation	eng	No information.
135696		distribution	eng	Most European drainages, from Adour (France) to Pechora (White Sea basin); Aegean Sea basin, in Lake Volvi and Struma and Maritza drainages. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Scotland, Scandinavia north of Bergen (Norway) and 67°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Ireland, Spain and northeastern Italy. In Asia, Marmara basin (Turkey) and eastward to Aral basin. Introduced in Lake Baikal and upper Ob and Yenisei drainages.
135696		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of lakes and large to medium sized rivers. Most abundant in backwaters, lower reaches of slow-flowing rivers, brackish estuaries and warm and shallow lakes. Semi-anadromous individuals enter freshened parts of seas to forage. Usually spawns in densely vegetated backwaters, floodplains or lake shores. Sometimes far from shore. Nearly all surfaces can be used for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. During winter, form large aggregations, often together with other fish. Lives about 10-20 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Some females do not spawn every year. Spawns in May-June at temperatures above 15°C. In many populations, spawning migration starts in autumn (especially semi-anadromous individuals), slows down during winter and continues in spring. Migrate far upriver (100 km in Dniepr) to spawn. Males with nuptial tubercles on head and body. Males often defend spawning territories along shoreline. Females spawn from once a year over a few days (Rhine) to 1-3 portions, at 7-14 days intervals (Lake Ilmen). Eggs are sticky and egg size increase with age of female. Larvae and juveniles inhabit still water bodies, feeding on plankton. Survival of juvenile is high in backwaters and low in main channel of large rivers. Growth is faster in main river than in backwaters. Juveniles 1-2 years old move from backwaters to river for feeding and then return to backwaters to spawn. If juveniles do not have an opportunity to leave backwaters, they are able to adapt but have a slower growth and reach maturity at a smaller size (stunted populations). In lower parts of large rivers, juveniles drift to brackish estuaries to forage when water level of flooded areas drops. Juveniles forage in brackish waters enter lower parts of rivers to overwinter in freshwater. Juveniles mostly feed on zooplankton. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, which are dug out of fine bottom sediments, and also often on molluscs. May shift to particle feeding or even filter feeding at high zooplankton abundance. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>.
135696		population	eng	Abundant.
135696		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135697		conservation	eng	A Natura 2000 species.
135697		distribution	eng	Greece and FYROM; Vadar River to Pinios River.
135697		habitat	eng	In lowland rivers with slow moving or stagnant water.
135697		population	eng	Very abundant.
135697		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water abstraction.
135698		conservation	eng	No information.
135698		distribution	eng	Germany: Lake Ammersee.
135698		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At depths of 60-85 m, down to 60 m in summer. Spawns on bottom at depths of 40-50 m. Ammersee is a mesotrophic lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in June-July, usually between 15 June and 15 July.
135698		population	eng	Since 2000 only three individuals have been caught. In the 1940s the species was an important commercial species.
135698		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is eutrophication, caused by pollution from domestic sources. The lake is still mesotrophic.
135699		conservation	eng	No information available.
135699		distribution	eng	Western and northern Black Sea basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). In Danube, Dniestr and Kuban drainages restricted to lowermost part. More widespread in South Bug and Dniepr drainages. Expected   but not yet confirmed  in part of Baltic basin (Vistula and Odra drainages).
135699		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large coastal lakes and lower part of rivers on silt bottom, as well as smaller streams with sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May. Migrates to larger water bodies in autumn for overwintering. Usually occurring together with hybridogenous, sperm-parasitic lineages, which have originated by hybridisation with <em>C. elongatoides</em>.
135699		population	eng	Abundant.
135699		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135700		conservation	eng	No information.
135700		distribution	eng	From Veleka (Bulgaria) to lower Sakarya and Simav (Turkey).
135700		habitat	eng	Streams.
135700		population	eng	Abundant.
135700		threats	eng	Water abstraction, droughts (exacerbated by climate change).
135701		conservation	eng	Cormorant control measures are being practised. Reducing the level of water abstraction.
135701		distribution	eng	England: Lakes Haweswater, Ullswaterand, Brotherswater and Red Tarn (Cumbria).
135701		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in January-February, in shallow bays on stones and gravel. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.
135701		population	eng	In Haweswater the population has seen a decline. Stable in the other three lakes.
135701		threats	eng	Water abstraction and cormorant predation.
135704		conservation	eng	Fishing regulations and stocking for conservation purposes.
135704		distribution	eng	Ireland: Lough Neagh, lower and upper Loughs Erne, Lough Ree and Lough Derg.
135704		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to nine years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in October-December on rocky or gravel shallow areas. Feeds mainly on crustaceans (<em>Mysis relicta</em>), supplemented by insect larvae, shrimps and small fishes.
135704		population	eng	Only abundant in lough Neagh, where after a decline in the 1970's, the population is on the increase and may number several million (Whilde, A. 1993. Threatened mammals, birds, amphibians and fish in Ireland. Irish Red Data Book 2: Vertebrates. HMSO, Belfast). The species relies upon stocking in the other Loughs. It was on the verge of exinction in Lough Erne where, in 1992, only two individuals were caught.
135704		threats	eng	Eutrophication of the loughs, the introduction of alien species (competition with cyprinids), overfishing and potentially warming of the water due to climate change. In Lough Neagh competition with roach is a serious threat.
135705		conservation	eng	No information.
135705		distribution	eng	Danube drainage in Bulgaria and Romania: Mures, Arges, Olt, Iskar, Jantra, Ialomita and Beli Vit systems. Kamchyia drainage (Black Sea basin of Bulgaria).
135705		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper and middle stretches of streams and small rivers, with fast, clear and well oxygenated water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135705		population	eng	Abundant.
135705		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135706		conservation	eng	No information.
135706		distribution	eng	Caspian Sea and tributaries in Europe (Ural, Volga, Terek, Kuma) and Asia. Migrates to uppermost tributaries in Volga.
135706		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in sea and spawn in reaches of rivers and streams with strong current. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Spawns in couples in March-July (River Sakmara, Ural drainage), when temperatures reach 15-23°C. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoete stage lasts 2-4 years in freshwater. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis, juveniles migrate to the sea. In lower Volga, the occurrence of small (about 190 mm TL) and large (370-550 mm TL) mature adults implies that adults may feed one or two summers before breeding. Feeds on invertebrates and dead fish. Feeding behaviour unknown. Adults start to migrate to rivers in autumn and winter, usually in October-February. Spawning migration is not interrupted by ice flow in Volga.
135706		population	eng	Only single individuals have been caught in fisheries catches in the past few years (N. Bogutskaya, pers comm.) at the Volga river mouth. There is an indication that there is a landlocked population above the Volgograd dam (status unknown). The species has aparently disapeared in the Kuma, Terek and Kura. In Iran individuals are still caught regularly (A. Abdoli, pers comm. to J. Freyhof).
135706		threats	eng	Dams of rivers in the Caspian sea in the 1950's and 1960's blocked off many spawning grounds, causing a population decline. Current threats to the species is the drying of the rivers (drought), as the species has found some new spawning grounds below the dams. The species is not poached.
135707		conservation	eng	No information.
135707		distribution	eng	Caspian Sea and lower reaches of Volga, Ural and possibly Terek.
135707		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic. Spawns near river mouth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, marine or anadromous. Lives up to six. Spawns in open water in late evening in April-July at 10-25°C. Pelagic eggs usually released in water 5 m deep and with a salinity of 0.02-15 ‰. Feeds on zooplanktonic crustaceans (copepods, mysids), following their daily vertical movements, in surface layers at night, descending during daylight hours.
135707		population	eng	Abundant.
135707		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135708		conservation	eng	No information.
135708		distribution	eng	Rivers, estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from Kara drainage to Chukotka (eastern Siberia) and to Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); in America, from Copper to Kobuk (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.
135708		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal waters of open sea; freshwater of lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Anadromous populations pelagic at sea, commonly at 4-5 m depth and spawning in rivers. Landlocked populations may spawn in lakes or migrate to their tributaries. Spawns along shallow river shores and in backwaters with little or no current, often in lakes, on sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Does not migrate long distances. Enters deltas and lower reaches of rivers in September-December to overwinter, then returns to sea and rivers for spawning. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July. Eggs are about 0.75 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch in 11-16 days. Juveniles remain close to spawning sites for a year or longer, then migrate to sea or estuaries. Feeds on zooplankton, mostly crustaceans.
135708		population	eng	Abundant.
135708		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135709		conservation	eng	Angling is regulated.
135709		distribution	eng	Tributaries of the lower Vardar (Crna system) and Aliakmon drainages (Macedonia, Greece); populations from Stumica drainage possibly represent a distinct species.
135709		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only.
135709		population	eng	No information.
135709		threats	eng	In the Greek part of the species range the main threat is overfishing and poaching, and the introduction of alien trout (hybridisation). The introduction of alien trout is also a threat, but has not yet happened, in FYROM.
135710		conservation	eng	No information.
135710		distribution	eng	Rhine and Meuse drainages, in Rhine upriver (southward) to about Mannheim, including tributaries of Main and Neckar.
135710		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small, cold streams with gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 years.
135710		population	eng	Abundant.
135710		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135711		conservation	eng	No information.
135711		distribution	eng	France: upper reaches of Lot, Aveyron, Tarn and Dordogne drainages (Garonne drainage).
135711		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers, sectors with current and clear water, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Feeds on vegetal matter. Spawns in March-April in stretches with swift current and pebble bottom.
135711		population	eng	No information.
135711		threats	eng	Hydropower dams are modifying the flow regime, reducing the suitable habitat of the species.
135712		conservation	eng	No information.
135712		distribution	eng	Croatia, Imotzki polje.
135712		habitat	eng	Unknown.
135712		population	eng	Rare.
135712		threats	eng	Water abstraction, and climate change.
135713		conservation	eng	No information.
135713		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Morat and Bienne, possibly also Lake Neuchâtel.
135713		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December-January, in Lake Morat on sand or mud at 35-40 m depth, in Lake Bienne on slopes, at 2-20 m depth.
135713		population	eng	Extirpated in Morat (1960's).
135713		threats	eng	Extirpated in Morat due to eutrophication and water level management. There are no current threats to the species in Lakes Bienne and Neuchâtel, but the introduction of coregonid species is a potential threat.
135714		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in much of its range in the Mediterranean Sean.  In Turkey the minimum catch size is limited to 20 cm.
135714		conservation	eng	No information.
135714		distribution	eng	Mediterranean, Black Sea, Azov Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Baltic and British Isles (not reaching northern Scotland). Migrates north during summer. Landlocked population in Fratel reservoir, Portugal. Introduced in Lake Kinneret (Israel).
135714		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from the British Isles and Norway, including the western Baltic, to Morocco, Azores, and Madeira. It is present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
135714		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, entering lagoons and lower reaches of rivers, often found in polluted waters. Spawns offshore at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four or later. Females somewhat larger than males. Spawns several million pelagic eggs in September-December, April-July on British coast. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn and especially winter. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic animals and plants. Adults filter algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.
135714		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic in inshore waters, and is amphidromous. It is migratory (Rochard and Elie 1994) and spawning takes place at sea near the coast during gatherings between September and (February Rochard and Elie 1994, Billard 1997). The eggs develop in the sea and juveniles colonize the littoral zone and estuaries (Rochard and Elie 1994). The adults enter the lower parts of the rivers (Rochard and Elie 1994). Usually, they live inshore, entering lagoons, estuaries and rivers between temperatures 8 and 24°C. It feeds on epiphytic algae, detritus and small benthic or planktonic organisms, pelagic eggs and larvae.
135714		population	eng	Abundant.
135714		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
135714		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135714		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is a commercial species (including in the Mediterranean). It is mainly caught by seines. It is also used in commercial aquaculture (in the Mediterranean it appears in aquaculture in Tunisia).
135715		conservation	eng	No information.
135715		distribution	eng	Switzerland: Lakes Thun and Brienz.
135715		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in September, at 30-100 m depth. Spawns for the first time at about 120 mm SL.
135715		population	eng	In recent surveys the species was found to be abundant in Lake Thun.
135715		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135716		conservation	eng	No information.
135716		distribution	eng	Adour and Nivelle drainages (France, Spain).
135716		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135716		population	eng	No information.
135716		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135717		conservation	eng	No information.
135717		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus</span>. However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas, affording it some protection from harvesting and high loadings of chemical waste.<br/><br/>It is recommended that systematic monitoring is undertaken  to determine stock status across the entire range.
135717		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Sufficient seasonal freshwater inflow should be maintained to protect the species.
135717		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic, from White to Mediterranean and Black Seas. Introduced in Caspian Sea and Great Lakes of North America. Enters rivers and coastal streams. In Rhine, recorded up to 650 km upriver.
135717		distribution	eng	This natural range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus</span> extends from the White Sea to the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Due to accidental introductions in ballast water, it may also be found around North America.
135717		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic, in coastal and brackish waters of west Europe and from the White Sea to the Mediterranean and the Black Seas (Nielsen 1996, Rochard and Elie 1994). It was accidentally introduced into the USA and Canada through transport in ballast water (Welcomme 1988). It is also found in Iran (Coad 1995).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>P. flesus</em> occurs along the Spanish coast (Borsa <em>et al.</em> 1997), Gulf of Lion (Borsa <em>et al.</em> 1997, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), Aegean Sea (Borsa <em>et al.</em> 1997, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2005), north Adriatic Sea (Borsa <em>et al.</em> 1997,  Libralato <em>et al.</em> 2004, Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004,Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006).
135717		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus </span>is common around the British Isles, where it is typically found resting on the muddy substrate of estuaries. It has been found at a depth range of 1-100 m. It migrates into the open sea to breed from March to June, during which time it can migrate up to 300 km offshore, although it will more often migrate just 30 km. The larvae feed on copepods and diatoms and gradually shift to a diet of mysids, decapods, crustaceans, polychaetes, and bivalves. The young then return to estuarine waters, where they live on the bottom until they are ready to migrate and spawn.
135717		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Migrates to sea in October-December. Spawns at sea, in deepwater, in January-June. Eggs and larvae are pelagic and drift with current. At about 10 mm SL, left eye moves to right side, pigmentation develops, and juveniles switch to benthic life. Pelagic larvae migrate to brackish- and fresh-water habitats with tidal currents; they move in the water column during flood and to the bottom during ebb. First pelagic flounders are usually recorded in estuaries in March. Juveniles start to migrate upriver to forage by mid-April. Not all individuals enter brackish- and fresh-water. Spawned adults do not return to brackish or freshwater but remain at sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.
135717		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, euryhaline, migratory species which is found in estuaries most of the year (Rochard and Elie 1994). During winter, adults retreat to deeper, warmer waters, where they spawn in spring (Cooper and Chapleau 1998). This species lives only in the coldest parts of the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Juveniles live in shallow coastal waters and estuaries, which are also the summer feeding grounds for the adults (Cooper and Chapleau 1998). Juveniles of less than a year old feed on plankton and larvae of insects, while juveniles of more than a year and adults feed on benthic fauna (Rochard and Elie 1994), including small fishes and invertebrates (Cooper and Chapleau 1998).<br/><br/>In the north Adriatic Sea, 42 specimens of <em>P. flesus</em> were caught in estuarine habitat, with a minimum TL = 11.0 cm and a maximum TL = 43.0 cm (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006).
135717		population	eng	Abundant.
135717		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus </span>is common throughout its range.
135717		population	eng	There are no direct population estimates in the marine environment. The species generally enters brackish waters, even up to rivers, where population data is also not available. However, it was stated to be very common until the 1970s (Hureau and Monod 1973), when stocks in the Black Sea were significantly reduced due to changes in benthic conditions and a decrease in water transparency related to the eutrophication (Zaitsev and Aleksandrov 1997). Sea of Marmara and Aegean Sea populations have also declined in the last two decades (Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). A major decline was observed in the 1970s in the Gulf of Lion and in the north Adriatic Sea (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>According to Franco <em>et al.</em> (2006), samples were collected in each season of 2002, at five sampling stations at Venice lagoon (north Adriatic). Fish were collected with fine mesh (2 mm inter-knot) and small beach seine (10m long and 2m high). Annual mean abundance was 0.15 individuals at seagrass beds, 0.20 individuals at sparsely vegetated habitat, 0.30 at bare sand habitat, 2.69 individuals at mudflat habitat and 1.14 individuals at salt marsh creek.<br/><br/>The total number of specimens collected for a genetic study throughout Europe (Borsa <em>et al.</em> 1997), were 407 for the west Mediterranean Sea (from Spain to Gulf of Lion) in the period from April 1984 to March 1986, 22 in the Adriatic Sea (March 1986) and 20 in the Aegean Sea (April 1986).
135717		threats	eng	Due to the close association of <span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus</span> with estuarine waters and the benthic invertebrate fauna within these habitats, it has been impacted by chemical pollution within these sediments. In particular, xenoestrogens, which occur in domestic, industrial and agricultural waste, have been noted to have a negative effect on this species, causing the occurrence of intersex specimens. Intersex individuals are caught in low, but constant amounts (Lye <em>et al.</em> 1998). The effects of xenoestrogen are markedly lower further from the shore (Vethaak <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In addition, this is a commercially important food fish, with some of the most important fisheries existing in Baltic and Danish waters. The total landings for 1999 were 11,879 t, with Denmark and the Netherlands contributing the greatest landings of 3,528 t and 3,159 t respectively.
135717		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135717		threats	eng	The main threats are changes in the hydrological and climatic conditions (increasing salinity, increasing temperature) and pollution. This species is mainly associated with low salinities and relatively cold water temperatures, and therefore threatened by the decreasing freshwater inflows (mainly due to river dams and water extraction) and by global warming. Given the already low population numbers of this species, further population reductions are of approximately 15 to 25% are expected in the next 20 years if successful conservation measures are not implemented. <br/><br/>This is a commercial species. It is caught with trawls and seines. It can be marketed fresh and frozen.
135718		conservation	eng	No information.
135718		distribution	eng	Aegean Sea basin; Currently only known from the Aggitis system (Strymon basin) (Greece), records from the Loudias and Filiouris drainages are tentativley considered to be P. strymonicus but this requires examination of the specimens for confrmation. (Greece, probably Bulgaria).
135718		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small streams with clear and cold water; occasionally found in irrigation canals. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.
135718		population	eng	No information.
135718		threats	eng	Water abstraction, drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution from agriculture.
135719		conservation	eng	No information.
135719		distribution	eng	Circumpolar; seas and freshwaters of northern Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, Arctic, White and Barents Sea basins of Russia and Norway, from Pechora (Russia) to Pasvik (Norwegian-Russian border) drainages.
135719		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in coastal and estuarine waters and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, predatory. Adults migrate into rivers in late summer and autumn, until rivers freeze. The migration is mainly nocturnal. Spawning season depends on latitude, when temperatures reach 12-16°C, from April to August. Both sexes dig a shallow nest in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3½ years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer. Most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea the following spring and early summer. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of fish, mostly Clupeidae and Salmonidae. Feeds on body tissues of the prey, which is usually killed. Adults feed for 1-3 summers before migrating to spawning grounds. Large and small mature individuals might represent different age classes returning from sea to spawn. Landlocked populations are not found in Europe, but are known in Alaska. Individuals of these populations are smaller.
135719		population	eng	Abundant.
135719		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135720		conservation	eng	No information.
135720		distribution	eng	Fjellfrøsvatn, an oligotrophic subarctic lake on a tributary of River Målslev (69°N), Tromsø County, northern Norway.
135720		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, below 20 m depth. The lake is oligotrophic, 6 km2, maximum depth 80 m, flat and muddy bottom in deeper part, covered by snow and ice from November-December to May-June. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 70 mm SL. Spawns in late February-early March. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
135720		population	eng	No information.
135720		threats	eng	Potentially threatened from introduced species (stocking of other Arctic charr) and eutrophication.
135721		conservation	eng	No information.
135721		distribution	eng	Greece: Marathon plain (now drained for agriculture) and Sperchios and Kifissos drainages.
135721		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Springs, swamps, canals; usually among vegetation or under shore cover. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to two years. Spawns in May-September. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic invertebrates, algae and detritus.
135721		population	eng	No information.
135721		threats	eng	Water abstraction, drought, drainage for agriculture, agricultural pollution and introduced species (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>).
135722		conservation	eng	No information.
135722		distribution	eng	Danube drainage upriver of Iron Gate; most abundant in Save drainage.
135722		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Medium sized to large rivers. Spawns over gravel or submerged plants in fast-flowing water of riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns at 10-14°C in March-May. Biology almost unknown.
135722		population	eng	Abundant.
135722		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135723		conservation	eng	No information.
135723		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin: Lower and middle Kuban drainage.
135723		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Restricted to large, high-gradient river stretches with fast but not turbulent current and gravel or sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Almost no data. Nocturnal, at night near shores on mud or sand bottom. Seems to spawn late and to have a long spawning period. Many small juveniles found in July. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly Trichoptera larvae.
135723		population	eng	Abundant.
135723		threats	eng	No current threats, but economic development of the region is expected to impact the species.
135724		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures needed. It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.
135724		distribution	eng	<em>A. witherbyi</em> occurs in plains, mountain and plateau steppes, and highland semideserts (not found in desert depressions) from east of the Dnepr River in the southern Ukraine, through the Caucasus, extending southeast to western-central Pakistan (probably occurs in Afghanistan and northern Iraq, but there are no records). In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Greece (Rhodes), Anatolian Turkish steppe, Syria, Israel, Lebanon and Jordan. Occurs up to at least 2,100 m.
135724		distribution	eng	Occurs on Rhodes (Greece) and in S Ukraine. Also in N and S Caucasus, Anatolian Turkish steppe, south to N Israel and NW Jordan; through C and N Iran to Kopet-Dag Mountains of SW Turkmenistan and WC Pakistan. Probably also occurs in Iraq and Afghanistan (Wilson and Reeder 2005).
135724		habitat	eng	Found in shrublands and in degraded forests. It needs shrub cover.
135724		habitat	eng	"Plains, mountain and plateau steppes, and highland semideserts" (Wilson and Reeder 2005).
135724		population	eng	Generally common within suitable habitat in its range.
135724		threats	eng	No major threats known.
135725		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in many protected areas, with no direct conservation measures needed as a whole. Additional taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the distribtuion of this species and <em>Mus minutoides</em> in Central Africa and East Africa.
135725		distribution	eng	The range of this species is poorly understood. It appears to range through West Africa, between Senegal in the west to Nigeria in the east, then into Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and Congo, with an unresolved distribution resulting from confusion with the similar <em>Mus minutoides</em> from northern Congo in the west, through Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the East Africa of Uganda, western and southern Kenya and much of Tanzania.
135725		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in Nigeria from savanna and grassland habitat, extending its range into farmland and similar open habitats where forest has been cleared (Happold 1987). Animals occasionally enter tropical moist forest, but this is a marginal habitat. In Sierra Leone, it has been recorded from most vegetation types with the exception of mangroves and inland swamps, and is especially common in gardens, farmas an farm bush habitats (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Ghana, it has been recorded in the vicinity of houses (Jeffery 1973).
135725		population	eng	It is a common species.
135725		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
135726		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135726		distribution	eng	<em>Bokermannohyla itapoty</em> is known from the type locality (Lençois River, 12 33 13 S, 41 24 48 W) in Serra do Sincora (500-1300 masl), Chapada Diamantina, Municipality of Lençois, and from the Municipalities of Andaraí, Mucugé, and Palmeiras, state of Bahia, in Northeastern Brazil (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).
135726		habitat	eng	The species can be found in rocky montane fields. Both adults and juveniles were active at night close to streams.<br/>During the day, adults were seen on rocks, sandy soil, or rupicolous vegetation, generally in sunlight, but some occupied rock crevices. When found in sunlight, <em>B. itapoty</em> were on moist rocks or in stream beds. Prolonged breeder, males called throughout the year, on stones, in rock crevices, or perched on rupicolous vegetation, but some call from bushes and trees. Calling activity began at sunset and continued throughout the night. Males were territorial and frequently fought to defend calling sites (may be used for oviposition). Juveniles were observed on rocks in the stream bed. Egg clutches were deposited as a loose aggregate on the rocky bottom of stream backwaters; egg clutches obtained in aquaria contained 186–445 eggs (295.4 +- 92.2, N = 8). Tadpoles in different developmental stages and recently metamorfosed froglets were found throughout the year. Tadpoles were active during the hottest hours of the day into night. They were found in the rocky substrate of streams and generally remained in backwaters with little or no current, avoiding areas of high flow (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).
135726		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135726		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135729		conservation	eng	Most populations are found within Sierra de La Culata National Park (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
135729		distribution	eng	Pristimantis culatensis is known from Páramo La Culata (8 44’33’ ’N, 71 04’20’’ W,  2870-2900 masl) and Páramo Los Conejos, above Monte Zerpa, Municipality of Libertador, Mérida state, Venezuela (La Marca, 2007).
135729		habitat	eng	The species lives in páramo ecosystems and the upper limit of cloud forests close to the city of Mérida, Venezuela. In Páramo Los Conejos the species can be found under rocks, especially under rock walls; here it is found in sympatry with Pristimantis briceni. In Páramo la Culata individuals have been found to live in disturbed areas, under rocks, where they have been found together with Atelopus oxyrhynchus and Pristimantis briceni (La Marca, 2007).
135729		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135729		threats	eng	Some populations are affected by agriculture. Occasional man-made fires may constitute a potential threat to this species (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
135730		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.
135730		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the several localities on the northern slope of Mount Simpson, at 1,400-2,500m asl in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has not so far been found in neighbouring sites such as Mount Dayman and Mount Suckling. It is unlikely to be widespread, but further surveys are needed to determine whether or not it is endemic to Mount Simpson (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).
135730		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from closed-canopy mid-elevation tropical moist forest, montane cloud forest and open montane mixed shrub-grassland (Kraus and Allison, 2006). At lower elevations (around 1,500m asl) these frogs call from the steams and leaves of shrubs, or from within <em>Pandanus</em> leaf axils (Kraus and Allison, 2006). At higher elevations (around 2,500m asl) they call from low grass tussocks (Kraus and Allison, 2006). The species presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on water.
135730		population	eng	It is apparently common in its small known range.
135730		threats	eng	Bushland fires might possibly pose some threat to the species if these fires are eroding the primary montane forest habitat for the species (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). On the other hand, the species also lives in grassland/shrubland areas, so such fires might not have much impact on its status (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).
135731		conservation	eng	The species occurs at Tiputini Biodiversity Station and Yasuni National Park.
135731		distribution	eng	Pristimantis waoranii is only known from the type locality: ca 2.5 km west-northwest of Tiputini Biodiversity Station (0 38' 18.49" S, 76 08' 56.69" W, 217 masl), near the border of Yasuni National Park, along the Tiputini River, Province of Orellana, Ecuador (McCracken et al., 2007).
135731		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the sub- to upper canopy strata of lowland evergreen broadleaf rain forest of the upper Amazon Basin. Individuals of this species have been found in the water-filled outer bracts of tank bromeliads at heights ranging between 23.5 and 38.0 m, on branches or trunks of trees in terra firme forest. Another syntopic anuran species is Pristimantus aureolineatus (McCracken et al., 2007).
135731		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (S. McCracken, pers. comm. 2008).
135731		threats	eng	Deforestation and forest fragmentation caused by petroleum operations and subsequent colonization were observed in the region where this species occurs (S. McCracken, pers. comm. 2008).
135733		conservation	eng	There is a protected area in the Serra dos Órgãos, Serra dos Órgãos National Park (Canedo and Pombal, 2007).
135733		distribution	eng	The species is only known from near the Soberbo River at Serra dos Órgãos (22 22' S, 42 45' W), Municipality of Guapimirim, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Canedo and Pombal, 2007).
135733		habitat	eng	The species occurs within the Atlantic forest domain.
135733		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135733		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135734		conservation	eng	Its only known sites are not in protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.
135734		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from three areas in Papua Province, in the Indonesian part of New Guinea: 1) at 500 to 1,150m a.s.l. in the Waira and Amoman Mountains northeast of Serui, on Yapen Island, Cenderawasih Bay (1°47’S and 136°20’E); 2) on the New Guinea mainland along the Nabire-Mapia road at 750m a.s.l. (3°30’S, 135°44’E); and 3) in the Foya Mountains (02°36’S, 139°05’E) in northern New Guinea. It is likely to occur more widely, especially between known locations.
135734		habitat	eng	This species lives on the ground in primary and secondary rainforests, where they perch on bare humus soil and on, or in, leaf litter. It probably cannot survive in completely open-up habitats (R. Günther, pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in damp terrestrial habitats, without dependence on aquatic ecosystems.
135734		population	eng	It is rather rare in its only known localities (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
135734		threats	eng	The species might be at risk in at least some of its sites from selecting logging and clear-felling (R. Günther, pers. comm.). However, it seems to be a widespread species, so it is probably not seriously threatened.
135735		conservation	eng	One population in Amapá is close to Tumucumaque National Park. Other populations are not close to protected areas (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008).
135735		distribution	eng	The type locality is "Sta. Isabel bei Para", Brazil. The species is distributed over the Amazon Basin of Brazil, according to Frost (2007). According to M.S. Hoogmoed (pers. comm. 2008) at least 3, possibly 4, species are distributed in Brazilian Amazônia and <em>B. paraensis</em> only occurs in eastern Pará State between Belém and Bragança, below 50 m above sea level, and in Amapá, in the Guianan Shield. All other records from Brazilian Amazônia concern other taxa. The species found in Acre may be <em>Bolitoglossa altamazonica</em> (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008).
135735		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in lowland Amazonian rainforests. It occurs primarily on bushes and tree trunks of the primary forest understory. Clutch size can vary between 8-15 eggs (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008). Specimens of a related taxon in western Brazilian Amazonia were mostly found in leaf litter on the forest floor (M.S. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).
135735		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species in the forest fragments in and around Belém do Pará. Taxa confounded with it  appear to be rare in other localities (the region of Juruti, Pará, and states of Amapá and Amazonas: Urucu, Benjamin Constant and Juruá) (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008).
135735		threats	eng	Deforestation due to urban growth in the region of  Belém and bauxite mining in the region of Juruti. Other localities are well preserved (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008). The habitat of a related taxon in western Brazilian Amazonia is threatened (or already destroyed) by expanding agricultural activities (M.S. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).
135737		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, though it could occur in the Udzungwa National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
135737		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from Mafinga on the Udzungwa Plateau of southern Tanzania at around 1,600m asl. It can be expected to occur more widely, at least within the Udzungwa Plateau.
135737		habitat	eng	The species has been found in a flooded meadow partially fringed by pine trees. It is probably associated with montane grassland, and presumably breeds by larval development.
135737		population	eng	There is no information. Several frogs were found calling at its only known locality.
135737		threats	eng	There is no information. If it is dependent on montane grassland, it could be at risk, as this habitat is being lost to agriculture and tree plantations.
135738		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135738		distribution	eng	Centrolene callistommum is known from tributaries of the Río Bogotá (1 05' 13.8" N, 78 41' 25.8" W, 83 masl; 1 05' 9.06" N, 78 41' 8.7" W, 77 masl), Province of Esmeraldas, and from the Río La Carolina (0 42' 16.16" N, 78 12' 4.14" W, 500 m), on the Ibarra–Lita Road, near Jijón y Caamaño, Province of Carchi, Ecuador (Guayasamin and Trueb, 2007).
135738		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the Evergreen Lowland Forests in northwestern Ecuador. It is active during the night and has been found on leaves along streams. Males call from the upper sides of leaves, and females deposit pigmented eggs on the upper sides of leaves (Guayasamin and Trueb, 2007). The species requires permanent streams for breeding (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135738		population	eng	The species is locally abundant at the localities where it has been found (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135738		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a major threat for this species (and others that inhabit the Chocoan Ecoregion). It may be restricted to the Chocoan Ecoregion (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135741		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135741		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella katantika</span> is known only from the type locality, the village of Pelechuco (3,600 m asl), and its vicinities, Province of Franz Tamayo, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). This species is considered to have restricted geographical and altitudinal (perhaps from 3,400-3,800 m asl) ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
135741		habitat	eng	This species lives in the upper limit of cloud forests; <span style="font-style: italic;">Polylepis</span> ferns are common in the area. Individuals can be found among mosses and ferns on the old walls and ruins of the village of Pelechuco. Vocalizations have been reported for the month of March. Males are known to call primarily at night, although diurnal calling activity has also been reported (De la Riva 2007). This species presumably reproduces by direct development.
135741		population	eng	It is considered to be an abundant species (De la Riva 2007).
135741		threats	eng	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious future threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
135744		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135744		distribution	eng	Restricted to a small stream near the village of Chusmisa (19 41' S, 69 13' W), 92 km NE of Huara, Iquique Province, region of Tarapaca, northern Chile, 3650 m (Formas et al., 2006).
135744		habitat	eng	Region of ocurrence has an annual mean temperature of 12.5 C, in the austral summer rainfall ranges between 50–100 mm. The type locality is a semi-desertic area, with scarce vegetation (Browningia candelaris, Verbena<br/>gynobaris, Adesmia spinusissima and Balbisia stitchkinii). Adults were collected by hand below stones on the bottom of a slow moving stream (1 m wide, 12 C) covered with aquatic plants during the austral summer (11 March 2002). Tadpoles (Stages 28–39) were collected with a net below aquatic plants on the banks of the stream (Formas et al., 2006).
135744		population	eng	Species description is based on 9 adult frogs and 19 tadpoles collected in March 2002; no population status information is available.
135744		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135745		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species, Pampa Hermosa, is locally protected (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135745		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis cruciocularis</span> is known from three localities (Pampa Hermosa, San Alberto, and 30 km [airline] NE Tingo María) at elevations of 1,330–1,850 masl in the Departments of Pasco and Huánuco, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006).
135745		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in the Selva Alta Ecoregion. The type locality is near the Chanchamayo Valley and is comprised of undisturbed primary forest. Individuals are active at night and can be found on vegetation, ca 1 m above the ground or on the ground. Sympatric anuran species include P. bipunctatus, P. bromeliaceus, P. cf. platydactylus, P. sagittulus, Hypsiboas cf. melanopleura, and Gastrotheca atympana (Lehr et al., 2006).
135745		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135745		threats	eng	Deforestation has been observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135747		conservation	eng	The purchase of land for conservation purposes is recommended for this species, as is the establishment of an <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>assurance colony (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.).
135747		distribution	eng	This species has been found on the eastern flank of the northen Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes at ca 5 08´ N 74  56´ W, 1,780 m asl,  in the  Municipality of Falan, Department of Tolima, Colombia (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
135747		habitat	eng	It is found on the forest floor and hides in bromeliads up to 2 meters from the ground (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The reproductive mode, reproductive period and clutch size of this species are unknown (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.), although it is possible that it may have larval development ocurring in bromeliads.
135747		population	eng	It is a relatively abundant species within a small range (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). However, intensive sampling carried out in forest fragments close to the type locality and over a radius of ca 80 km have not shed additional records for this species (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.).
135747		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species has been lost due to cattle grazing, selective logging and agricultural crops. Some areas of forest are now recovering from logging (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In addition, illegal collection of individuals for the pet trade has been observed (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.).
135748		conservation	eng	The species is present within Dinira National Park (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
135748		distribution	eng	Pristimantis jabonensis is only known from the type locality, Páramo El Jabón, Municipality of Carache, state of Trujillo, Venezuela. It has been found between 3100-3200 masl (La Marca, 2007).
135748		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in the páramo ecosystem. It inhabits páramo grasses (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
135748		population	eng	The species was relatively common at the time of discovery. However, there have been no further visits to the type locality thereafter (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
135748		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135749		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status, and, if it is a valid species, surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135749		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an unspecified location in "Tonkin", in northern Vietnam. Because of this lack of specificity, no distribution map is provided.
135749		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of its ecological requirements. It presumably breeds in small pools by larval development.
135749		population	eng	This is an extremely poorly known species, and there is no information on its abundance.
135749		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135750		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Marojejy National Park and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Research is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and its ecological requirements.
135750		distribution	eng	This species is reliably known only from the holotype, collected in 2005 at Camp Simpona (14º26'S, 49º44'E), at 1,326 m asl in Marojejy National Park, and its recently confirmed presence at Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Future studies should clarify whether or not some of the previous records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Plethodontohyla notosticta</span> from the Marojejy National Park, at 700-1,300 m asl (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, at 1,000-1,700 m asl (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guentheri</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. notosticta</span> or even another species.
135750		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found on the ground during the day in montane rainforest. It contained large eggs, suggesting that reproduction occurs during the rainy season. Its breeding is not known, but is likely to be by larval development, not requiring water. It might breed in tree holes.
135750		population	eng	There is no information, as this species is so far known only from a single specimen.
135750		threats	eng	The only known specimen was collected in a well-protected area. It is possible that, if this species occurs more widely, it is present in some areas where it is at risk from habitat loss.
135751		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135751		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis ornatus</span> is known from several  localities at elevations of 2,400–3,000 masl in the Province of Pasco, Department of Pasco, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006). This species' range may possibly extend into Ecuador (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135751		habitat	eng	Pristimantis ornatus occurs in cloud forest (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). It was found at night between 1900–2300 hrs on the ground or on vegetation up to 1 m above the ground. During the day, individuals can be found among leaf litter and under stones. Sympatric anurans include Rhinella multiverrucosa, P. lundbergi, P. mendax, P. platydactylus, Gastrotheca stictopleura, Phrynopus juninensis, and Phyllonastes duellmani (Lehr et al., 2006).
135751		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135751		threats	eng	Deforestation and agriculture have been observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135753		conservation	eng	Cuba's Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas considers the area where the species is found to be at medium risk. The species has not been found in a nearby protected area (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).
135753		distribution	eng	Eleutherodactylus michaelschmidi is known from La Ceiba [type locality, 20 11'07'' N, 76 20'14'' W, 408 masl], Municipio Tercer Frente, and the region of Los Negros, Municipio Contramaestre, both localities in the karstic valleys and premontane areas at the north slope of Sierra Maestra, Province of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba (Díaz et al., 2007). The species is currently known only from this restricted area (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).
135753		habitat	eng	The limestone mountains and premontane valleys inhabited by Eleutherodactylus michaelschmidi are covered by secondary vegetation and the remnants of a semideciduous forest. Many places, including the type locality, are widely used for coffee plantations. Specimens are often found at night (21:00–1:00 hours), mostly on rocky surfaces and cave entrances, but may also be found on fallen trunks. Other anuran species in this area include Bufo peltocephalus, B. taladai, Osteopilus septentrionalis, Eleutherodactylus atkinsi, E. auriculatus, E. cuneatus, E. ionthus, E. leberi, E. ronaldi, and E. varleyi (Díaz et al., 2007).
135753		population	eng	Although this is considered to be a relatively common species, it was never recorded before during previous surveys to this area (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).
135753		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs is used for coffee plantations, and it is also affected by urban encroachment: many places within the area have exposed karst, without vegetation cover, and the area is crossed by various roads and tracks (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).
135754		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135754		distribution	eng	Pristimantis stictoboubonus is known from two localities at elevations of 3000 and 3130 masl in the Province of Mariscal Cáceres, Department of San Martín, Peru. This area is in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in northern Peru (Duellman, Lehr and Venegas, 2006).
135754		habitat	eng	This species is found in the ecotone of grassland with bushes (Baccharis) and very humid montane forest. Individuals have been found at night on the bases of bunch grass and on a rock. The species is sympatric with several other anuran species in the two localities: Pristimantis corrugatus, Colostethus sp., Pristimantis wagteri, Gastrotheca ossilaginis, Telmatobius atahualpai, Rhinella arborescandens, P. bromeliaceus and P. schultei (Duellman, Lehr and Venegas, 2006).<br/><br/>In February 2008 an egg clutch containing 14 eggs was found amidst the grass. The only species found in this area was P. stictoboubonus, and the hatchlings resembled adults of this species (P. Venegas, pers. comm. 2008).
135754		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of three specimens.
135754		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135755		conservation	eng	The species occurs within two biological stations in Ecuador, Yasuní Scientific Research Station and Tiputini Biodiversity Station.
135755		distribution	eng	<em>Pristimantis aureolineatus</em> is known to occur at localities below 350 m in elevation, in the upper Amazon Basin of eastern Ecuador and Peru (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
135755		habitat	eng	This species can be found in Amazonian lowland forest, including terra firme forest (nonflooded forest), várzea (flooded forest), and seasonally flooded forest (Guayasamin et al., 2006). Individuals can be most often found up to 40 m into the canopy, often associated with bromeliads, although they may also occur on low vegetation and on the forest floor (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
135755		population	eng	This appears to be an abundant species in the canopy; bromeliad patch sampling of 40 bromeliads among eight trees resulted in the collection of eight specimens (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
135755		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135756		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135756		distribution	eng	<em>Cochranella erminea</em> is only known from the type locality: Sabetari stream (11 14’31’’ S, 73 31’33’ ’W, 370 masl), on the Tambo River Basin, 9 km NNE of the indigenous community of Quitepampani, province of Satipo, department of Junín, Peru (Torres-Gastello et al., 2007).
135756		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the Amazonian tropical forest. The area has suffered little human impact and it is covered by primary lowland forest with predominance of dense forest (canopy height above 15 m), and semi-dense forest with patches of bamboo (<em>Guadua sarcocarpa</em>). The female holotype was found on a leaf of a 20-m fallen tree next to the stream, 30 cm above ground, at night. The stream had a slow water flow due to the season, and its bottom was rocky. <em>Cochranella erminea</em> is syntopic at the type locality with <em>Pristimantis</em> cf. <em>buccinator</em>. Other sympatric anurans include <em>Rhinella</em> sp. (aff. <em>margaritifer</em>), <em>Ameerega macero</em>, <em>Pristimantis toftae</em>, <em>P. ventrimarmoratus</em>, and <em>Oreobates quixensis</em> (Torres-Gastello et al., 2007).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135756		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135756		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135758		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135758		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality of Caiçara, Municipality of Cáceres, state of Mato Grosso, Brazil (Nascimento <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
135758		habitat	eng	No habitat information is available for this species.
135758		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135758		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135759		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Crocker Range Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
135759		distribution	eng	This species from Borneo is known only from two sites, both in Malaysia: Meligong, on the Akah River, in northern Sarawak (Inger and Haile, 1960); and the Crocker Range (Trails 3 and 4), mostly between 750 and 820m asl, in Sabah (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2007). It presumably occurs more widely on Borneo, including at sites between the two known locations.
135759		habitat	eng	It lives along the banks of clear, small, rocky streams in primary forests, and can be found perching on rocks either along banks or mid-stream, usually near rapids. Breeding takes place in streams, but the larvae have yet to be recorded.
135759		population	eng	It is locally common is suitable habitat in the Crocker Range between 750 and 820m asl.
135759		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by logging, and the associated sedimentation of streams, are probably the principal threats to this species.
135760		conservation	eng	Known locations include the rocky southern portion of the Parry's Lagoon Nature Reserve, and the Prince Regent Nature Reserve (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range of this species more completely.
135760		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Australia. It is currently known from: a) two locations near "The Grotto", approximately 30 km south of Wyndham, in the northeasternmost part of Western Australia (Doughty and Anstis, 2007); b) the Mitchell Plateau and Prince Regent Nature Reserve in the northern part of the Kimberley Plateau (Doughty and Anstis, 2007); and c) Katers Island, Bigge Island and Southwest Osborn Island (P. Doughty pers. comm.). Extensive searches of museum collections of the related <em>Litoria coplandi</em> have not turned up any additional specimens of <em>L. staccato</em>, suggesting that it has a naturally small distribution (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). However, owing to the inaccessibility of the Kimberley region due to the rugged terrain and large areas with no vehicular access, it is likely that <em>L. staccato</em> will be found elsewhere in the Kimberley Plateau, and possibly also to the east in the Northern Territory (Doughty and Anstis, 2007).
135760		habitat	eng	In general, the species seems to prefer big flat rock platforms with lots of shallow, ephemeral pools in which to breed (P. Doughty pers. comm.), and also smaller creeks (that run into larger ones below) (M. Anstis pers. comm.). Owing to their slightly more ridge-dwelling existence compared to the common rock frog <em>Litoria coplandi</em>, <em>L. staccato</em> can be found in a wider range of places with less water. <em>L. coplandi</em> is more common around flowing streams, whereas <em>L. staccato</em> is happy can be found on ridges with no water around (P. Doughty pers. comm.). This species has been found in two areas near "The Grotto" with flowing water. The first was a steep rocky ridge with a slow trickle of water running under large boulders where males were calling, and where the eggs and tadpoles were collected (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). The second area was a creek that ran down a rocky ridge, about 2-3 km long (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). Both sources of water came from underground streams that flowed from near the top of ridges. The vegetation at the rocky ridge sites where <em>L. staccato</em> occurs is sparse but dominated by <em>Triodia wiseana</em> with <em>Cochlospermum fraseri</em>, <em>Calytrix exstipulata</em> and stunted <em>Erythrophlem chlorostachys</em> (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). Along the watercourses where <em>L. staccato</em> was calling were <em>Triodia pungens</em>, <em>Terminalia volucris</em>, <em>Ficus</em> sp. and occasionally the boab tree <em>Adansonia gregorii</em> (Doughty and Anstis, 2007).
135760		population	eng	It can be quite abundant at choruses located in ideal habitat.
135760		threats	eng	This species occurs in a remote area with limited human impact, where there are not likely to be many threats in operation.
135761		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is protected and and the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.
135761		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Carbine and Windsor Tablelands, in northeastern Queensland, Australia (Mahony <em>et al</em>., 2006), at 700-1,300m asl.
135761		habitat	eng	The species is found around clear, flowing streams and nearby pools in mountainous rainforest. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter near streams and ponds. No further information about this species’ ecology is available.
135761		population	eng	It is a common species within its small range, but it is uncommonly seen.
135761		threats	eng	In the past, habitat loss from logging was a threat. The area in which this species has been recorded is national park or forest reserve in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. The forest reserve is currently being converted to national park tenure.  There is only one minor tourist road in the distribution and no significant tourist or recreation activities in the area.
135763		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecology and conservation needs of this species.
135763		distribution	eng	This species is only know from the East Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania, from 752m asl, but to at least 1,000m asl, perhaps higher. It might occur more widely.
135763		habitat	eng	It lives along margins of streams in forest. It breeds in water by larval development.
135763		population	eng	It is quite common in the East Usambaras, but previous workers have identified it as <em>Amietia angolensis</em>.
135763		threats	eng	In the East Usambaras it is probably threatened by deforestation for slash-and-burn clearing techniques, plantations of exotic tree species (such as teak, pine or eucalyptus), and human settlements, and also by the subsequent siltation of streams.
135764		conservation	eng	Its only known sites are not in protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.
135764		distribution	eng	This species has been found in two localities on the island of Biak, 120 km off the nortwestern coast of New Guinea, in Papua Province, Indonesia. It has been recorded from a swamp 6 km southwest of the fishing village of Korim (Korem) (0º56’S, 136º00’E) at 100m a.s.l., and at the mouth of a stream surrounded by marsh at the village of Warsa (Biawar) on the northeast coast of the island (0º48'S,135º56'E), close to sea-level. It might occur more widely on the island (especially between the known localities), but is likely to be endemic to Biak (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
135764		habitat	eng	The type locality is densely vegetated with bushes and slender trees. Larger trees were absent as an obvious result of prior logging. Populations were concentrated on a narrow ditch filled with water 10-30cm deep which served as a spawning site. Many specimens were found sitting on leaves of bushes and trees between 1.5 and 3 m above the ground with a few perched on herbaceous plants and grasses 30-80 cm above the ground, or above 3 m on trees. All records are so far from secondary habitats, but its original habitat was probably lowland swamps with scattered shrubs and trees, and perhaps also lowland rainforest. It probably could not survive in completely opened-up habitat (R. Günther, pers. comm.). The breeding is not known, but is believed to take place is still water in swamps.
135764		population	eng	It is rather rare in its two known localities (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
135764		threats	eng	The island of Biak has suffered from extensive habitat destruction with the majority of its forests destroyed recently. The habitat within its range is at risk from selective logging, clear-felling for timber, shifting agriculture, and small holder farming. However, as a species that survives in secondary habitats, it is not clear that it is immeditately at risk.
135765		conservation	eng	This only known site is within the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project area (Richards and Oliver, 2006), where the habitat is conserved. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, and conservation needs.
135765		distribution	eng	This species is known only from around the Yuwong Village at around 400m asl in the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project area on Huon Peninsula, in Morobe Province in Papua New Guinea (Richards and Oliver, 2006). It probably occurs more widely.
135765		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been encountered in primary rainforest calling from high in the canopy on ridges adjacent to the Tarona River (Richards and Oliver, 2006). One specimen was in a tree adjacent to a forest garden and two specimens were collected from primary rainforest in trees overhanging puddles that had formed in a previously dry rocky creek bed after torrential rain (Richards and Oliver, 2006). One male descended to within three metres of the pools during observation, suggesting that this species may descend after torrential rain to breed in pools on the forest floor (Richards and Oliver, 2006).
135765		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance, as it is a canopy species which is hard to find.
135765		threats	eng	The habitat where the species is known to occur is reasonably well conserved. However, the species probably occurs more widely, and might be found in less well protected sites. It is probably dependent on intact rainforest.
135767		conservation	eng	The species is found within the boundaries of Buenaventura Reserve (Cisneros-Heredia and Yánez-Muñoz,  2007).
135767		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphargus buenaventura</em> is only known from Buenaventura Reserve (03 38’S, 79 45’W, 1200 masl), canton of Piñas, Province of El Oro, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and Yánez-Muñoz,  2007).
135767		habitat	eng	The type locality is covered by Seasonal Evergreen forest. Individuals are found on leaves of shrubs and low trees, 1-3 m above streams. Calling activity has been reported for the months of December and July. Egg clutches have been found on the upper side of leaves above rivulets. They contain ca 38 eggs and there are suggestions that males may exhibit parental care. Other sympatric species include <em>Centrolene prosoblepon</em>, </em>Hyloscirtus alytolylax</em> and two undescribed species of <em>Pristimantis</em> (Cisneros-Heredia and Yánez-Muñoz,  2007).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135767		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of four specimens, but additional individuals were observed at the type locality. It considered to be an uncommon species at the type locality (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135767		threats	eng	Severe habitat destruction and transformation (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135768		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Volcán Rincón de la Vieja, Distrito Liberia, Canton Liberia; and from the protecetd watershed of Miravalles (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed to better define the full extent of this species range.
135768		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the Volcán Miravalles and the Volcán Rincón de la Vieja in the Cordillera de Guanacaste, Costa Rica (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). These mountain ranges are geographically isolated from the ranges of other species of Crepidophryne (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). The range appears to remain poorly known, however it has not yet been located during surveys in adjacent mountain peaks (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.). It is found between around 1,900 to 2,000m asl.
135768		habitat	eng	It is restricted to cloudforest and wind-swept elfin forest (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). Animals are presumably associated with deep leaf litter, as are other members of this genus. It is possible that this species undergoes direct development, however this requires further investigations (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).
135768		population	eng	It is currently known only from three speciemens, and there is no information on the abundance of this species (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).
135768		threats	eng	The current known range of this species is fully within well-protected areas, and there are not considered to be any major threats ongoing or predicted.
135769		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Yangmingshan National Nature Reserve. Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.
135769		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Yangmingshan region, in Shuangpai County, Hunan Province, China, at 840-1,300m asl (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007). It might occur more widely.
135769		habitat	eng	In the non-breeding season it lives in forest (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007). It breeds in October, laying eggs in paddy fields, ponds and other still water habitats (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007).
135769		population	eng	It is common where it occurs (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007).
135769		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being affected by clear-cutting. The species might also be adversely affected by climate change in future, causing the drying of breeding habitats.
135770		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Matsui, 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135770		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bala, in the Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, Narathiwat Province, southernmost Thailand, near the Malaysian border (Matsui, 2006). It is expected to occur more widely, including in neighbouring Malaysia. Its elevational range is not known.
135770		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found among rock about 10m from a large stream in rainforest (Matsui, 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance of its habitat.
135770		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype (Matsui, 2006).
135770		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species. The only known locality is in a protected area.
135771		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135771		distribution	eng	Cochranella amelie is known from two nearby localities in the Province of Pastaza, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and Meza-Ramos, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M. Ortega pers. comm. 2008).
135771		habitat	eng	Two of the known specimens were collected on Heliconia leaves (ca. 0.8 m above ground) over a small affluent of the Oglán River, in primary forest. Both specimens were calling on the upper surface of leaves in the month of July.  One male was found next to a single-layer egg clutch deposited on the upper surface of a leaf. Other anuran species found along the stream included <em>Hypsiboas boans</em> and <em>Osteocephalus</em> sp. (Cisneros-Heredia and Meza-Ramos, 2007).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135771		population	eng	The species is only known from three specimens, two included in the type description and an additional specimen collected at a nearby locality. Although there are no estimates of relative abundance, the species appears to be rare in those localities where it was found (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135771		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species, although habitat destruction in nearby areas is apparent (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135773		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. However, there is ample habitat to support this species on three tepui cloud forests, which are extensive on these tepuis, and the tepuis are not suitable for human agriculture or occupancy (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135773		distribution	eng	Pristimantis saltissimus is known only from the Wokomung Massif at elevations between 698 and 1560 masl (Means and Savage, 2007). It is also possible that this species may also be found on Mt. Ayanganna to the north of Wokomung and Maringma to the east. P. saltissimus may also be present at an elevation of about 1000 masl in transitional forest between rainforest and cloud forest below the Prow of Mt. Roraima in Guyana (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135773		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species can be found on leaves of shrubs, branches, tree buttresses, exposed roots, and herbaceous ground vegetation, from below 0.5 m off the ground to 2 m high, in dense cloud forest. Most often individuals are found near the leafy banks of small cascades plunging down the steep sides of escarpments, often in the identical microhabitats of a species of arboreal toad, Oreophrynella sp., but they are also found on the leaves of understory vegetation in the cloud forest away from streams and cascades. P. saltissimus is syntopic with P. dendrobatoides and P. jester (Means and Savage, 2007).
135773		population	eng	This is the most commonly encountered frog in cloud forest habitats on the Wokomung Massif. At the moment, it is a common species (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135773		threats	eng	No major threats were observed for this species. However, introduced microbes and/or chemicals could be an unobservable threat (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135774		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135774		distribution	eng	Brachycephalus alipioi is known from the type locality, "Fazenda Aoki or Fazenda dos Japoneses” (20 28’24” S; 41 00’36” W, approximately 915 masl), municipality of Vargem Alta, and the neighboring municipalities of Forno Grande and Santa Teresa, all in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. The exact place where specimens were collected in Santa Teresa is not known; fieldwork to locate this species in Santa Teresa failed. However, when the specimens were collected, in 1952, the municipality of Santa Teresa was larger than in present time; it is possible that the locality indicated as Santa Teresa is not part of the current municipality (Pombal and Gasparini, 2006).
135774		habitat	eng	The species is known to inhabit the leaf litter and forest floor of Atlantic rain forests. It is a slow-moving diurnal species. One female was found to have large unpigmented ovules, suggesting direct development, as in other species of this genus (Pombal and Gasparini, 2006).
135774		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135774		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135776		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Eravikulam National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
135776		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Eravikulam National Park, in the southern Western Ghats of the State Kerala, India, at 2,200m asl (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007). It might be found to occur a little more widely.
135776		habitat	eng	This species has been found along slow-flowing streams in montane (shola) forest patches in the Kolukkumalai area and Turners Valley where tree canopy is high, and in the higher mountains in the Bhimanada shola-grassland mosaic (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007). Specimens have been located in the vicinity of water, among dead leaves and stones on the floor of the shola forest (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007). It breeds in streams by larval development (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007).
135776		population	eng	No information is available on its abundance.
135776		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135777		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
135777		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northeastern Madagascar and the Sambirano region of northwestern Madagascar. It ranges from sea level up to 900m asl.
135777		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats including rainforest, dry forest, degraded forest and in open areas. It is a terrestrial species. The eggs are laid on land near water, and the larvae develop in temporary and permanent pools, and sometimes in brooks.
135777		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
135777		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species, and there are few, if any, habitat-related threats. It is has been suggested that over collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but it is only traded in low numbers.
135778		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Huanglianshan National Nature Reserve (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). Surveys are needed to determine this species' distribution, abundance, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
135778		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Huanglianshan, at 2,400 m asl above Ha-Zha Village, in Qimaba Township, Luchun County, Luchun County, Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan Province, in southern China (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). It can be expected to occur more widely in the mountainous areas of neighbouring Jinping County, in the border region with Viet Nam (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). Its range could, therefore, extends into northern Viet Nam (Rao and Wilkinson 2007).
135778		habitat	eng	This species lives in cascading mountain streams of heavily forested mountains (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). The streams have sandy bottoms and large boulders beside or within the stream (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). The tadpoles live in streams (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). It is not known whether or not the species can survive in deforested areas, but all records are from forest far from human settlements (Rao Ding-Qi pers. comm.).
135778		population	eng	It is a rare species at its type locality (Rao Ding-Qi pers. comm.).
135778		threats	eng	There are potential threats through occasional harvesting for food, and deforestation by local people (Rao Ding-Qi pers. comm.).
135779		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Namtok Phliu National Park, Pang Si Da National Park, Khao Yai National Park, and probably Khao Ang Rui Ni Wildlife Sanctuary (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006; Kongjaroen and Nabhitabhata, 2007; Inthara <em>et al</em>., 2004). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, adundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135779		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from several rovinces in southeastern Thailand. There are records from: Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Soi Dao Tai Mountain, in Chantaburi Province, at 600-1,000m asl; Namtok Phliu National Park, in Khlung District, Chantaburi Province; Pang Si Da National Park, in Muang Sa Kaeo District, Sa Kaeo Province, at 600m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006); and Khao Yai National Park, in Pak Chong District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, at 900-1,000m asl (Kongjaroen and Nabhitabhata, 2007). In addition, records of tadpoles attributed to <em>Megophrys parva</em> from Khao Ang Rui Ni Wildlife Sanctuary, in Chachoengsao and Chon Buri Provinces (Inthara <em>et al</em>., 2004) probably refer to this species (Y. Chuaynkern, pers. comm.). It might occur a little more widely, but the species is probably restricted to the uplands of southeastern Thailand, the closely-related <em>Xenophrys auralensis</em> occurring in nearby Cambodia (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.).
135779		habitat	eng	This species has been found at night on boulders and rock outcrops above swift, rocky streams with waterfalls in hilly evergreen mixed with bamboo forest, and on leaf-litter near swift, rocky streams in disturbed vegetation next to an abandoned road through hilly evergreen forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). However, there is no evidence that it can adapt to seriously disturbed habitats (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.). The tadpoles live in streams (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006).
135779		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species in suitable habitat.
135779		threats	eng	No information is currently available on threats to this species. All records so far are from well-managed protected areas.
135780		conservation	eng	Its only known site is in a protected area, but this has not prevented logging from taking place. Effective protected area management is needed. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.
135780		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the eastern slopes of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula at 400 to 800m a.s.l. (approximately 2°58’S, 134°38’E) in the northwestern part of Papua Province in Indonesian New Guinea. It probably occurs more widely (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
135780		habitat	eng	All specimens of this species have been located in closed-canopy primary rainforest. They prefer loamy slopes but have also been found on horizontal areas on the ground in small valleys. When calling they perch without exception on the surface of the ground where they stay on bare humus or clay soil, or on, or in, leaf litter. The species can probably survive in secondary forest, but not in completely opened-up areas (R. Günther, pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in damp terrestrial habitats, without dependence on aquatic ecosystems.
135780		population	eng	It is at least locally common within its small range, as several hundred calling males were registered along a strip about 100 m wide and 4 km long strip. Loamy slopes between 600 and 700 m a.s.l. are most densely populated.
135780		threats	eng	It is impacted by clear-felling and selective logging at its only known site, which has taken place after the construction of a road inside the protected area in 1997-1998 (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
135782		conservation	eng	The species occurs in two national reserves.
135782		distribution	eng	Eupsophus septentrionalis is found in Los Queules National Reserve, Province of Concepción (35 59 S, 72 42 W) and in the vicinity of Los Ruiles National Reserve, Province of Cauquenes (35 49 S, 72 30W), Chile. The species is latitudinally distributed along the Cordillera de la Costa, between Los Ruiles National Reserve (Chanco, VII Region, 35 49 S) and Trehuaco (VIII Region, 36 26 S) (Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004).
135782		habitat	eng	The species can be found in fragments of temperate forest dominated by Nothophagus obliqua and Nothophagus glauca of the Cordillera de la Costa (Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004). It can be found within the forest's leaf litter, in humid areas and sites that are close to flowing water (J.C. Ortíz, pers. comm.).
135782		population	eng	Nineteen specimens were reported in the original description. In addition, type specimens were collected between 1998-2001 (Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004). It is considered to be a rare species given that it is found in low densities and in a relatively restricted area (J.C. Ortíz, pers. comm.).
135782		threats	eng	There is forest fragmentation outside of the national reserves where the species is found (see Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004). This is due primarily to collection of firewood and the development of silviculture (pine and eucalyptus), which changes the local habitat and its relative humidity. In addition, protected areas in the region cover a limited surface area (J.C. Ortíz, pers. comm.).
135783		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
135783		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Borneo, where it has been recorded from close to Samling Camp at Ravenscourt, at 1,351m asl on Gunung Murud, Sarawak State, Malaysia (Das, 2005). It is expected to occur more widely.
135783		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected from vegetation at 0.8 m above a granite boulder at the edge of a stream (Das, 2005). It is presumed to be a larval-developing species.
135783		population	eng	It is currently known only from the female holotype (Das, 2005).
135783		threats	eng	The species was collected at a relatively inaccessible site (Das, 2005), but it was logged a few months after the holotype was collected (I. Das pers. comm.).
135784		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135784		distribution	eng	Craugastor chingopetaca is known from Chingo Petaca, Rio San Juan (40 masl) Department of Rio San Juan (Köhler and Sunyer, 2006), Cerro El Bolívar, near Río Machado, and  Boca de San Carlos, Nicaragua (G. Köhler, pers. comm. 2008).
135784		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found during the daytime, in the leaf litter of the forest floor, on a wet ridge in the forest (Köhler and Sunyer, 2006).<br/><br/>It likely breeds by direct development, as in other congeners (G. Köhler, pers. comm. 2008).
135784		population	eng	The species is only known from one specimen, the holotype.
135784		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135785		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ba Na, Bach Ma, and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Parks. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
135785		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains of central Viet Nam (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). There are records from: Ba Na National Park, in Danang Province, at 1,400m asl; Bach Ma National Park (Hai Van Mountain Range), in Thua Thien-Hue Province, 1,300m asl; Huong Hoa district, in Quang Tri Province, at 400m asl; and Phong Nha – Ke Bang National Park, in Quang Binh province, at 300m asl (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). It presumably occurs more widely, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected from neighbouring Laos.
135785		habitat	eng	This species lives in valleys near mountain streams in evergreen forest (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). It is arboreal, but prefers the lower strata of the forest (usually 30-100cm above ground), and can be found on leaves of ferns and Gingeraceae and Araceae plants at night (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). Clutches of 5-12 eggs are found on the back surface of the leaves, sometimes with 2-3 clutches lie on the same leaf (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). The males appear to guard the egg clutches (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). It presumably breeds by direct development.
135785		population	eng	It is probably common in suitable habitats.
135785		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats, but the habitat of this species is presumably being impacted by expanding agriculture and human settlements, and by logging.
135786		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135786		distribution	eng	Bokermannohyla oxente is known from the Municipalities of Lençois, Andaraí, Mucugé, and Palmeiras, all from the Serra do Sincorá in the central part of the Chapada Diamantina, and also from the Municipality of Rio de Contas, south<br/>of Chapada Diamantina, north of the Espinhaço mountain range, Bahia, in northeastern Brazil. It can also be found in the Municipalities of Utinga and Bonito, in the northeastern area of the Chapada Diamantina, Brazil. All localities reported<br/>are approximately between 500 and 1300 m elevation. Georeference coordinates of the municipalities are: Lençois, 12 33 47 S and 41 23 24 W; Palmeiras, 12 31 44 S and 41 33 32 W; Mucugé, 13 00 19 S and 41 22 15 W; Rio de Contas 13 34 44 S and 41 48 41 W (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).
135786		habitat	eng	Both adults and juveniles of B. oxente are nocturnal, living close to permanent streams with clear or brownish red water, bordered by riparian vegetation. Reproduction is prolonged; males call throughout the year. Males apparently are territorial, remaining far from each other (10–20 m), and apparently defend their territory only by acoustic signals; combats between males were never observed. Males generally call while perched on bushes and trees at the margins of the streams, but some of them were found calling on rocks or in rock crevices. Calling activity begins at sunset and can extend through the night. Females and juveniles were observed on rocks of the stream bed (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).<br/><br/>Egg clutches are deposited on the rocky bottoms of stream backwaters. One clutch contained 313 eggs (oviposition observed in situ); an egg clutch obtained in an aquarium contained 296 eggs. Eggs are pigmented, with diameter range of 1.4–1.9 mm, enveloped by individual gelatinous capsules. Tadpoles in different developmental stages and recently metamorphosed froglets were found throughout the year. Tadpoles are diurnal and nocturnal, beginning the activity at the hotter hours of the day, and remaining active all night. They were found on the rocky botton of streams and mostly remain in backwaters with slow or no current, avoiding areas of fast flow (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).
135786		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135786		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135788		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135788		distribution	eng	Leptodactylus sertanejo is found at the Clube de Caça e Pesca Itororó of Uberlândia (around 19 00’00” S, 48 18’53” W, 850 masl), Municipality of Uberlândia, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). It is hypothesized that populations currently allocated to Leptodactylus jolyi distributed in the Cerrado ecoregion may in fact be Leptodactylus sertanejo (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). If populations of large sized Leptodactylus historically referred to as L. jolyi are in fact conspecific with L. sertanejo, its distribution includes large areas of the Cerrado Biome, such as Serra do Cipó, Serra da Canastra and Chapada dos Veadeiros (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.). The elevational range is comprised between 750-850 masl  (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135788		habitat	eng	Males call from natural and artificial grassland areas, near rivulets or temporary ponds. Syntopic Leptodactylus species include L. furnarius, L. fuscus, L. labyrinthicus, and L. ocellatus. Males call under dense vegetation, from within underground chambers or exposed (Giaretta and Costa, 2007).<br/><br/>The reproductive season coincides with the rainy season (September-February). It is thought to reproduce like other members of the Leptodactylus fuscus group i.e. eggs laid in excavated ground chambers close to waterbodies. Clutch size is estimated to be ca 200 eggs (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135788		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135788		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135789		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135789		distribution	eng	Pristimantis tantanti is only known from the type locality: Myaria (11 20' 14.3" S, 73 00' 29.8" W, 321 masl), District of Echarate, Province of La Convención, Department of Cusco, Peru (Lehr et al., 2007).
135789		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary lowland rainforest. Individuals have been found on leaves ca 150-800 cm above ground. It is suspected that the species could be a canopy dweller. Other species of Pristimantis found at Myaria are P. diadematus, P. fenestratus, P. ockendeni, and P. peruvianus  (Lehr et al., 2007).
135789		population	eng	The species is known from the type series, comprised of two specimens. However, this is likely a canopy dweller, and the forest canopy in this area has not been studied (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135789		threats	eng	Deforestation has been observed in the region where the species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135790		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Although it can clearly tolerate disturbed habitats, its distribution and biology remain largely unknown and more survey work and research are needed, in particular to determine geographic range, habitat occupancy, population size and life history.
135790		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Keri Village, Sattari Taluk, in North Goa district, Goa Province, India, at 32-42m asl (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). It probably occurs more widely.
135790		habitat	eng	Two of the three known specimens were collected from rotting vegetation at the base of saplings c. 5m from a small river in a mixed orchard of arecanut, banana, coconut, acacia and pepper (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The soil where the specimens were collected was black and rich in mixed compost and rotten waste (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The third specimen was collected from underneath piles of rotting coconut leaves c. 20m from a small rivulet (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The soil was lateritic, mixed with clay (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species can clearly adapt to certain anthropogenic habitats, and its original natural habitat is unknown. It is assumed to be oviparous, like other members of its genus, with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water bodies for breeding.
135790		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known from just three specimens (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007).
135790		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
135791		conservation	eng	The species can be found within a small forested area of the Chapada Diamantina National Park. Long-term studies are recommended to estimate population size, and research of regional northeastern museum collections may increase the known geographic distribution of this species (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135791		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllomedusa bahiana</span> is known from northeastern Brazil; specifically, from the state of Bahia [Serra São José (12 06’ S 39 02’ W; 400 masl), Municipality of Feira de Santana, and Lages, Municipality of Morro do Chapéu (11 29’ S 41 20’ W; 900 masl), state of Bahia, Brazil; Serra São José and Lages are approximately 120 and 330 km (respectively) from the type locality (Salvador) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllomedusa b. bahiana</span>] (Silva-Filho and Juncá, 2006). Museum records also place <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bahiana</span> in the municipalities of Miguel Calmon, Mucugê, Lençóis, Rui Barbosa, Muritiba, Palmeiras, Conceição de Feira and Senhor do Bonfim. The species occurs between 100-900 masl (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135791		habitat	eng	The species can be found near permanent ponds in the Caatinga domain, with presence of seasonal forest and Atlantic forest. In the Caatinga domain the landscape is comprised of emergent rock, intermittent streams, permanent and temporary ponds. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a dry and wet seasons. The wet season at Serra São José runs from March to May, and the dry season runs from August to October. At Lages, the wet season is from November to January, and the dry season is as above (Silva-Filho and Juncá, 2006). P. bahiana has been found within deciduous or semi-deciduous humid forest fragments, and it is common in caatinga areas with vegetation above 3m high (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>It lays clutch in leaves and tadpoles develop in water (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135791		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135791		threats	eng	Deforestation and fire of deciduous and semi-deciduous forests are the main threats to the species (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135792		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Andringitra National Park. Research is needed to determine its geographic range and ecological requirements.
135792		distribution	eng	This species has been reliably identified only from the Andringitra Massif, at altitudes between 1,400 and 2,000 m asl. Further research might show it to occur more widely.
135792		habitat	eng	It requires clean streams, usually in forest, and above the tree line in montane grassland. It breeds in streams by larval development. It probably does not occur in degraded habitats.
135792		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
135792		threats	eng	All currently known records are within a protected area, but if it occurs more widely, it could a be threatened by habitat loss.
135793		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs.
135793		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zhaojue County, in Sichuan province, and from Lichuan County, in Hubei province, China at 3,050-3350m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in locations between the currently known sites.
135793		habitat	eng	The species is associated with marshes, ponds, pools or paddyfields, and makes foam nests in holes near the still water from the beginning of May until the end of June. Outside the breeding season, it lives in forest.
135793		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
135793		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat degradation as a result of clear-cutting and the impacts of tourism. It might also be adversely affected by climate change, which is causing both increased droughts and flooding in its range.
135794		conservation	eng	Given the species distribution, it is likely to occur in protected areas.
135794		distribution	eng	Pseudis platensis is distributed from southeastern Bolivia and south-central Brazil into northeastern Argentina (Frost, 2007).
135794		habitat	eng	Pseudis platensis is an aquatic species (Aguiar-Jr et al., 2007).
135794		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135794		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135795		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135795		distribution	eng	Rhinella alata's distribution is poorly documented; the type locality is in Panama but the population currently allocated to this name is in Venezuela north of the Orinoco River, possibly also in northern Colombia (Frost, 2007).
135795		habitat	eng	No information available on the species' habitat and ecology.
135795		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135795		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135796		conservation	eng	The species is found within the boundaries of Grande Sertão Veredas National Park (Brandão et al., 2007). It is also present in the the Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Veredas do Oeste Baiano, and at the Serra das Araras State Park (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).
135796		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella veredas</span> is found in sandy ground chapadas (plane highlands) in the southwestern parts of the states of Piauí (Uruçuí-Una Ecological Station) and Bahia (Cocos Municipality) and in northeastern Minas Gerais (Formoso, Serra das Araras, Chapada Gaúcha, Pirapora, Várzea da Palma and Buritizeiro municipalities), Brazil (Brandão et al., 2007). It occurs between 200-250 m elevation in those localities on the margins of Rio São Francisco (Pirapora, Várzea da Palma, Buritizeiro) up to approximately 1000 m elevation on the border of the states of Bahia, Goiás and Minas Gerais (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).
135796		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species were found in open areas (cerrado, campo cerrado, veredas, and campo sujo). No reproductive activity was observed nor tadpoles found. However, in December toadlets were found close to wet areas, but no adults. Leptodactylus troglodytes, Pleurodema diplolistris, and Physalaemus centralis are found in the same habitats as R. veredas (Brandão et al., 2007). Individuals were observed in open areas during the rainy season, but were nowhere to be seen during the dry season. It is possible that they may burrow underground. The presence of some individuals with soil on their heads and developed calluses suggest that they may bury underground. R. veredas uses large temporary pools in the rainy season in the border area of the three states (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).
135796		population	eng	It is an infrequently encountered species, seen mostly at the beginning of the rainy season (October/November) (Brandão et al., 2007). It is less common than other congeneric sympatric species: R. granulosa; R. schneideri; R. cerradensis; however, it cannot be considered as rare (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).
135796		threats	eng	The main threat in the region is the rapid conversion of land to monoculture of grain crops or trees (Pinus and Eucalyptus). The region is especially fragile due to its sandy soil, easily arable land and the lack of physical barriers for the mechanized treatment of soil, allowing for a rapid land use change. There are, however, populations of this species that are found within conservation areas (Parque Nacional Grande Sertão Veredas, Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Veredas do Oeste Baiano, Parque Estadual da Serra das Araras and another four private natural heritage reserves in the area of the three state borders, such as  São Francisco da Trijunção, Sertão do Formoso, Guará and Leite Verde) (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).
135798		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ankarana Special Reserve. Research is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and its ecological requirements.
135798		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Ankarana Special Reserve in northern Madagascar which has a total surface of 182 km2. Within the Ankarana Reserve, it has been found around the "Petit Tsingy", the "Campment des Anglais" (now called Campement Anilotra), and close to the "Campement des Americains" (now called "Campement d'Andrafiabe") in the west of the reserve, indicating that the species has a wider distribution in the central part of Ankarana. It occurs at low elevations, and records so far come from 50-117m asl. It appears likely that this species is endemic to the Ankarana Reserve, but it cannot be excluded that its also occurs in other remote "tsingy" formations (such as Tsingy de Namoroka or Tsingy de Bemaraha), or in other karstic areas (such as Analamera Reserve).
135798		habitat	eng	The Ankarana reserve consists mainly of eroded "tsingy" limestone formations and moderately dry forest areas, with rivers and subterranean passages and caves. All four specimens of Tsingymantis antitra were found at night and were associated with the "tsingy" formations. One specimen was found along a small brook, whereas the other three<br/>specimens were not associated with open waters (although they were not far from dry riverbeds). One specimen was sitting on the ground close to the entrance of a big cave. Another specimen was found on the top of the "tsingy" limestone, and the fourth specimen was in a cave of approximately 1m depth in "tsingy", both close to a dry riverbed. A further individual was photographed along a brook. It remains unclear if the species is mainly distributed along streams, or is widespread in the "tsingy" formations of Ankarana. Its mode of reproduction is unknown.
135798		population	eng	There is very little information on its abundance, though it appears to be rare. Only four specimens are known, plus one field observation.
135798		threats	eng	There are no obvious threatening process currently affecting this species due to the inhospitability of the terrain in the "tsingy" formations. However, it is intrinsically at risk due to its small range.
135800		conservation	eng	It occurs in Daiyun Mountain National Natural Reserve and in Nanjing Huboliao National Natural Reserve. Surveys are needed to determine the range, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
135800		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from five localities in Fujian Province, southeastern China, where it has been recorded at 700-1,400m asl (Geng Baorong pers. comm.). There are records from Daiyun Mountain, Datian, Yongding, Nanjing and Zhaoan (Geng Baorong pers. comm.), though it probably occurs more widely, and is likely to occur in localities between the currently known sites.
135800		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of forest-fringed, small hill streams, particularly those with cascades. It does not survive where the forest is removed. The eggs are laid in rock crevices where the water splashes over them, and the larvae cling to the rocks by means of a ventral sucker.
135800		population	eng	It is a common species.
135800		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation caused by agriculture, clear-cutting, human settlement and the construction of hydroelectric plants.
135802		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Endau-Rompin National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135802		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from Peta Visitor Centre in Endau-Rompin National Park, Johor Province, Peninsular Malaysia at 46m asl (Grismer, 2007). This species presumably occurs more widely, beyond the confines of Endau-Rompin National Park.
135802		habitat	eng	The only record so far of this species was of individuals heard calling from a swampy area centered on a slow-moving, shallow stream beneath a closed-canopy portion of lowland forest. All individuals were collected during the early evening following a brief period of afternoon precipitation. They were seated no higher than 0.5 m above the ground on dead vegetation along the streambed.
135802		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is so far known from only three specimens (Grismer, 2006).
135802		threats	eng	Its only known location is in a well-protected location. However, if it is occurs more widely, as is very likely, it will most likely be found to be present in places where its habitat is at risk from logging and agricultural expansion (especially oil palm plantations).
135803		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Las Tablas protected area in Costa Rica, and from Reserva de la Biósfera de La Amistad in Costa Rica and Panama. Additional field studies are needed to better determine the threats to this species.
135803		distribution	eng	This newly described species is present in the border area of Costa Rica and Panama. It is reported by Wake <em>et al.</em> (2007) from "both Pacific and Atlantic slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca, with localities ranging from the vicinity of Cerro Pando on the Costa Rica-Panama border in the west, to the Pacific slope in Chiriquí Province, Panama, as far east as the Boquete area, east of Volcán Barú". Animals have been recorded between 1,900 and 2,300m asl.
135803		habitat	eng	Wake <em>et al. </em>(2007) record the species presence in "Tropical Lower Montane Rainforest zone (sensu Holdridge, 1967) at elevations between 1900 and 2300 m". The species is nocturnal and frequently arboreal; whereas the holotype was found at night on the ground, others were found on low vegetation within a couple meters of the ground (Wake <em>et al.</em>, 2007). It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitat. It presumably breeds by direct development.
135803		population	eng	This species has only been collected on a few occasions and little is known about the population abundance.
135803		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not well-known, however it is distributed in an area that is largely protected.
135804		conservation	eng	It occurs in the reserve on the Wandammen Peninsula, as well as in the Foya Mountains protected aea. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
135804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea where it has been recorded from three sites in Papua Province, Indonesia: near the former Biological Station PUSPPENSSAT at the "54 km" site along the Nabire-Mapia road about 30 km direct line southeast of Nabire, at 500-800m asl; in the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula at 750m asl; and in the foothills of the Foya Mountains of north-central Papua near Marina Valen (Günther and Richards, 2005) at around 500m asl. It almost certainly occurs more widely, in particular between these known sites.
135804		habitat	eng	The species is associated with small rocky mountain streams bordered by dense riparian vegetation in primary or secondary tropical moist forest. The streams have both fast and slow-flowing sections, with larvae present in the slower flowing sections. Adult animals can be found perched on stones or leaves at the margin of the stream or overhanging it (Günther and Richards, 2005). The species appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance as breeding animals were recorded at the edge of a road with motor traffic, and at a site where people regularly came to collect water (Günther and Richards, 2005).
135804		population	eng	It is a rather common species (R. Günther and S. Richards, pers. comm.).
135804		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats, but it is an adaptable species and so is not likely to be seriously affected by habitat degradation (R. Günther, S. Richards, pers. comm.).
135806		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the protected areas of Lake Beyşehi National Park and Kovada Lake National Park.<br/>The impact of habitat loss and conversion and collection requires monitoring. The taxonomic status of this species requires further investigation.
135806		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lakes District in southwestern Anatolia, Turkey, ranging from the Konya Plain to Denizli. There are records from Lake Beyşehir, Lake Eğridir, Lake Suğla, Çarşamba Creek (Konya), Lake Gölcük (Isparta), Lake Hotamiş, Ivriz (Ereğli/Konya), Işikli Lake in Çivril (Denizli), and Çardak (Denizli).
135806		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species of permanent wetlands with rich aquatic vegetation. The species' habitats include permanent ponds, rain pools, streams, rivers, irrigation channels, reservoirs, marshes, springs and fishponds. It is a seasonal breeder, with breeding taking place in permanent waterbodies, and can be found in surrounding terrestrial habitats. This species is somewhat adaptable and can occur in modified habitats where suitable wetlands exist.
135806		population	eng	It is common species in suitable habitat (Ǒz, pers. comm. 2008).
135806		threats	eng	A major threat to this species habitat loss from water extraction, the drying of its aquatic habitats, and land conversion.  A number of dams for drinking water and irrigation are planned in the species' habitat which would dry lakes in the area and pose a significant threat to the species.  In addition, this species is the largest edible frog in Turkey, and is commercially collected for trade for food in France, Italy, and Switzerland representing threat to the species.
135808		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the Serra dos Órgãos National Park.
135808		distribution	eng	Gastrotheca fulvorufa is known from the region of the Serra dos Órgãos, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).
135808		habitat	eng	The species occurs within the realm of the Atlantic Rain Forest domain.
135808		population	eng	No population status information is currently known for this species.
135808		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135809		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. However, there is ample habitat to support this species on the tepui cloud forests, which are extensive on these tepuis and the tepuis are not suitable for human agriculture or occupancy (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135809		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis dendrobatoides</span> is known from the Wokomung Massif in west-central Guyana  in cloud forest habitat (1,385–1,570 masl) (Means and Savage, 2007). It is possible that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. dendrobatoides</span> may also be present on both Mt. Ayanganna to the north of Wokomung and Maringma to the east (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135809		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species can be found sitting on small leaves in cloud forest understory vegetation up to 2 metres from the ground, sometimes in close proximity to mountain streams, but sometimes very far from running water (40 m). All individuals were found alone, 2-4 hours after full dark and during rains or lulls in rainfall (Means and Savage, 2007).
135809		population	eng	Considered to be a rare species given that in ca six weeks of field work during four expeditions to the Wokomung Massif, only about 10 specimens were found. Ten-day field trips to two other tepuis yielded two or three specimens per trip (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135809		threats	eng	No major threats were observed for this species. Introduced microbes and/or chemicals could be an unobservable threat (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
135810		conservation	eng	The Serra dos Barbados belongs to the “Área de Proteção Ambiental Serra dos Barbados”, a protected area with sustainable management (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).
135810		distribution	eng	Type material of Bohermannohyla diamantina was collected at the Riacho do Tijuquinha, Serra dos Barbados, District of Catolés de Cima, Municipality of Abaíra (13 16’ 08’’ S; 41 54’ 39’’ W; 1700 m masl), State of Bahia, Brazil (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).<br/><br/>This species is only known from the type locality, Municipality of Abaíra, in Serra dos Barbados. The Serra dos Barbados is a mountain range with altitudes varying from 600 to 2033 m, (the highest point of the State of Bahia), and is located in the Brazilian semiarid. The mountain scenery contains ecosystems like Caatinga, Cerrado, Campo Rupestre <br/>(“rock fields”), Deciduous and Semi-Deciduous Mountain Forests, and Gallery Forests (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).
135810		habitat	eng	Bokermannohyla diamantina occurs in gallery forests along creeks surrounded by rocky mountain fields called “Campo Rupestre”, a biome typical in Chapada Diamantina. The three males heard were calling from the central axis of an epiphytic bromeliad, a cavity under a rock on the side of a stream, and on the ground in an open field near the stream, respectively. Two individuals were collected in a gallery forest, and four in the “Campo Rupestre” near a stream, all at night. Only one individual was collected during the day, resting inside the gallery forest (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).
135810		population	eng	There were ca 20 vocalizing males at the type locality when the species was found. However, no further surveys have been conducted therafter (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135810		threats	eng	This species inhabits the Chapada Diamantina, where the main threats are fire and cattle (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).
135811		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (Tapajos National Forest) (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007). This is a little-known, newly described species for which more information is needed in general.
135811		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the eastern Amazonian rainforest, in the State of Pará, Brazil (Heyer, 2005).
135811		habitat	eng	The few data available for this species indicate that it has generally been recorded from closed canopy primary tropical moist forest (Heyer, 2005). Although it has not been found in deforested areas, it is common in forests that have been subjected to selective logging (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007).
135811		population	eng	It is common in some parts of its range (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007).
135811		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007).
135812		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from within the Tsaratanana Strict Nature Reserve, the Manongarivo Special Reserve, and the Marojejy National Park (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and may be present within the Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve and the Masoala National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species.
135812		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Tsaratanana Massif at 688 m asl, the Manongarivo Massif at 1,000 m, and the Marojejy Massif at around 700 m, in northwestern Madagascar (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Glaw and Vences 2007, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has been provisionally recorded through observation from the Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve, Ambolokopatrika-Betaolana (at 1,200 m) and from Masoala (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It might exist as several isolated populations (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
135812		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to primary mid-elevation tropical moist forest (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It is not thought to occur in disturbed areas. Calling males have been observed at night perched on vegetation at 2-3 m alongside small streams. It is a stream-breeding species with a larval development stage (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
135812		population	eng	This species appears to be locally abundant in undegraded habitat.
135812		threats	eng	The known populations within protected areas are not considered to be under any immediate threat (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). However, it is a forest specialist, and so any populations outside protected areas could be at risk from forest loss. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) generally report that there is a substantial continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, presumably through the general conversion of land to agricultural use or logging/collection of firewood.
135814		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, though a protected area is planned for the Wanui site. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
135814		distribution	eng	This species is known only from New Britain Island, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. It has so far been confirmed only at two localities (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006): near Sulu and Silali Villages in the foothills of the Nakanai Mountains, West New Britain (Foufopoulos & Brown 2004); and Wanui, East New Britain (near Sampun Village (05° 21.638'S, 152° 05.266'E)). It has been found at 300–500m a.s.l. It is likely to occur more widely.
135814		habitat	eng	Both known sites are in primary rainforest. These frogs call from elevated perches (leaves and branches) as high as 2m above the ground. They presumably breed by direct development without dependence upon aquatic habitats. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to heavily degraded habitats, but some closely related species are very adaptable (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
135814		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance, as it had previously been confused with <em>Platymantis schmidti</em>. However, at Wanui it was 8-10 times more abundant that <em>P. schmidti</em>, which appears to be more common at lower elevations.
135814		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species. If it is dependent upon undisturbed forest, it could be impacted by ongoing forest clearance on New Britain.
135815		conservation	eng	No information is currently available on existing conservation measures for this species.
135815		distribution	eng	Proceratophrys paviotii is found at Santa Lúcia Biological Station (19 57’ S, 40 31 ’W, 560 masl), municipality of Santa Teresa, state of Espírito Santo, Brazil (Cruz et al., 2005).
135815		habitat	eng	Proceratophrys paviotii was found to vocalize in sympatry with Proceratophrys boiei and P. laticeps in a stream with sandy bed and also on the margins of a stream with a rocky bed (where P. moehringi was heard) (Cruz et al., 2005).
135815		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135815		threats	eng	No information on major threats is currently available for this species.
135816		conservation	eng	The Valley of Sibundoy has a regional network of natural reserves; the species was collected in most of these areas. However, there are no apparent differences between the reserves and their near surroundings, indicating that these reserves are not fulfilling their conservation roles. In addition, there are no other known conservation measures for either this species or any other species from other taxonomic groups (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
135816		distribution	eng	Pristimantis colonesis is known from Valle de Sibundoy in Colón, San Francisco and Sibundoy municipalities, department of Putumayo, Colombia. It is found at elevations between 2200–2750 masl (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).
135816		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane forest ecosystems. Individuals are active at night, and can be found mainly on vegetation between 1 and 2 meters above the ground along small streams inside the forest, and in clearings from 0.5 to 2 meters above the ground. The call of this species is not known (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).
135816		population	eng	While the species may not appear to be rare, there is insufficient information to determine its relative abundance (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
135816		threats	eng	The species has been found in disturbed forests. While the observed impact of habitat destruction has not appeared to be significant, no quantitative studies were undertaken, so it is possible that it may comprise a potential threat (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
135817		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135817		distribution	eng	Pristimantis meridionalis is only known from the type locality: Caraz,  District of Caraz, Province of Huaylas, Department of Ancash, Peru. This locality is in the northern part of the Callejón de Huaylas in the Río Santa Valley, at 2290 masl. The area is in the Mountain Steppe (Serranía de Esteparia) Ecoregion (Lehr and Duellman, 2007).
135817		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species.
135817		population	eng	The species is only known from the one type specimen.
135817		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135818		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
135818		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Gunung Jeroi on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia, where it has been found at 720m asl on the Teroi River (Matsui and Jaafar, 2005). It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.
135818		habitat	eng	This species has been found perching on rocks and sand along mountain streams in montane myrtaceous forest (Matsui and Jaafar, 2005). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. Higher elevations on Gunung Jeroi (1,050-1,100m asl) are occupied by <em>Odorrana hosii</em> (Matsui and Jaafar, 2005), suggesting the <em>O. monjerai</em> might have a narrow elevational range.
135818		population	eng	There is no information on the abundance of this species.
135818		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135819		conservation	eng	Many occurrrences are in protected areas.
135819		distribution	eng	Range includes the south-central United States in eastern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, Arkansas, eastern Texas, Louisiana, and eastern and southern Mississippi (Lemmon et al. 2008).
135819		habitat	eng	Habitats of this ground-dwelling frog are diverse and include forests, fields, swamps, marshes, irrigation ditches, and temporarily flooded areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Lemmon et al. 2008). Eggs are laid in small clusters that adhere to submerged vegetationin shallow temporary pools, ditches, and flooded areas where emergent vegetation or a grassy margin is present (Dundee and Rossman 1989).
135819		population	eng	This species is represented by large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see maps in Dundee and Rossman 1989 and Trauth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Many occurrences have good viability.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000.<br/><br/>Over the long term, likely stable in extent of occurrence; unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Current population trend is unknown but probably stable to slightly declining.
135819		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified. This frog tolerates a substantial level of habitat alteration. Various kinds of habitat loss and degradation attributable to human activities (e.g., urbanization, intensive agriculture) undoubtedly have caused localized declines.
135821		conservation	eng	No information is currently available for conservation measures in place.
135821		distribution	eng	<em>Ameerega yungicola</em> is only known from km 10 on road from Caranavi to Yolosa (15 53 17 S, 67 33 09 W), and from  ca km 22-30 on the Caranavi-Yucumo road, Yungas de La Paz, Caranavi Province, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (Lötters et al., 2005; Köhler et al., 2006). Its altitudinal range lies between 600-1450 masl. However, it is expected to occur more widely (S. Lötters, pers. comm. 2008).
135821		habitat	eng	The entire area of the species' distribution is comprised of humid montane rain forest. Males call from exposed positions on the ground by day; specimens were often found at the forest edge along roads; calls were heard and recorded in the months of February-May and October. Other syntopic callers include <em>Ameerega boliviana</em> and <em>Ameerega picta</em> (Lötters et al., 2005). Information on reproductive biology is limited, but it is likely to be as in related species, ca 10-20 eggs per clutch throughout the year if it is not too dry. Tadpoles are carried to temporary water (S. Lötters, pers. comm. 2008).
135821		population	eng	The species has a small known distribution where it can be locally common. It can be considered somewhere between rare and common (S. Lötters, pers. comm. 2008).
135821		threats	eng	At the type locality small scale agriculture has induced local deforestation (Lötters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2005).
135822		conservation	eng	It occurs in Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Sok National Park (Matsui, 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135822		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from Thailand. There are records from central peninsular Thailand at: Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Sok National Park, both localities being in Surat Thani Province; and Klong Hat Som Pen, Muang, in Ranong Province (Matsui, 2006). Much further north there is a record from Pilok, Thong Pha Pum, in Kanchanaburi Province in southwestern mainland Thailand (Matsui, 2006). It presumably occurs in intervening areas, including, mist likely, Myanmar. Its elevational range is not known.
135822		habitat	eng	Males have been found calling at night among stones and litter on on slopes 1-10m from small streams (Matsui, 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance of its habitat.
135822		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
135822		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats, but it is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss due to logging and expanding agriculture.
135823		conservation	eng	The Valley of Sibundoy has a regional network of natural reserves; most specimens were collected in one of these reserves, which is protected because the owners live within the reserve. However, in most cases there are no apparent differences between the reserves and their near surroundings, indicating that these reserves are not fulfilling their conservation roles. In addition, there are no other known conservation measures for either this species or any other species from other taxonomic groups (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
135823		distribution	eng	<em>Pristimantis zoilae</em> is known from San Francisco and Santiago municipalities, Valle de Sibundoy, department of Putumayo, Colombia, between elevations of 2060–2550 masl (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).
135823		habitat	eng	This species is found in disturbed forests. Individuals have been found during the night, on grass, bushes and bromeliads up to 2 meters above ground.  Males have pale yellow testes and the females have a mass of pale eggs (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).
135823		population	eng	The species does not appear to be rare and seems to be much more abundant than P. colonensis, although further studies need to be undertaken to determine if the species is common or abundant (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. com. 2008).
135823		threats	eng	The species has been found in disturbed forests; it has even been more frequently encountered in partially open areas. While the observed impact of habitat destruction has not appeared to be significant, no quantitative studies were undertaken, so it is possible that it may comprise a potential threat (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
135824		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the protected area of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, which is difficult to access (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135824		distribution	eng	Pristimantis vilcabambae is only known from the type locality: Cordillera de Vilcabamba, CI/RAP Expedition Camp Two<br/>(11 33' 35" S, 73 38' 28" W, 2050 masl), Province of Satipo, Department of Junín, Peru.
135824		habitat	eng	Vegetation at the type locality consists of tall cloud forest (18–20 m) with a high number of epiphytes, terrestrial Araceae, ferns, and orchids. Nothing is known about the species' ecology (Lehr, 2006).
135824		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprising 4 specimens.
135824		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135825		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Parco Naturale Regionale ?Sette Fratelli-Monte Genas?.
135825		distribution	eng	This species has a tiny range in extreme southeastern Sardinia, Italy. It is only known from the general vicinity of Monte dei Sette Fratelli, between 200 and 850 approximately, in the territory known as Sarrabus, in the province of Cagliari (roughly between 39°15?N and 39°12?N).
135825		habitat	eng	This species is found in a granitic, almost caveless area, in humid rocky outcrops, crevices, and forested areas.<br/>It possibly reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs but there is some evidence that it might be a live-bearing species.
135825		population	eng	It is not rare in some places.
135825		threats	eng	The only known population is in a protected area, so there are not any obvious direct threats to its habitat. However, the species is intrinsically at risk because of its tiny range, and through illegal collection.
135826		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135826		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynopus tautzorum</span> is only known from the type locality, 15 km southeast of Maraypata, near Laguna Gwengway (10 11.04' S, 76 05.17' W, 3770 m asl), Province of Ambo, Department of Huánuco, Peru (Lehr and Aguilar 2003).
135826		habitat	eng	The species lives in the puna ecoregion. Specimens from the type series were found in the afternoon under stones on moist underground (Lehr and Aguilar 2003).
135826		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).
135826		threats	eng	Livestock farming has been observed at the type locality (E.Lehr pers. comm. 2008).
135828		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are urgently needed to protect the only wetland system where the species is known to occur, and also the associated limestone hills to the south, which include two watersheds that drains freshwater into this wetland (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Other conservation measures may also include the restoration of wetlands with similar characteristics as those at the type locality, the implementation of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>breeding projects (individuals of this species have been successfully bred in captivity with a relatively simple methodology, N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008) and reintroduction of the species (both captive bred and translocated individuals) into these restored wetlands (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Some conservation measures already in place include assigning the species a Critically Endangered (CR) status and the designation of its ecosystem and surroundings as Essential Critical Natural Habitats. This designation, issued by the Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales (DRNA) of Puerto Rico, provides a legal basis for the regulation and enforcement of the area's conservation. Although this is the first time the DRNA issues this kind of designation, it is being challenged at local courts by a landowner and by the municipal government of Toa Baja. In the meantime, there is still no management plan and no actions have been undertaken to create a Natural Reserve at this site, which limits the protection that this designation can afford (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).
135828		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi</span> is only known from the type locality: Sabana Seca, Toa Baja Municipality, in a seasonally flooded herbaceous wetland in the vicinity of the US Naval Security Group Activity Sabana Seca (USNSGASS) and the Caribbean Primate Research Center, Puerto Rico (18 26.127' N, 66 12.092' W, 10-20 m asl)(Rios-López and Thomas 2007).
135828		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the subtropical moist forest life zone. The type locality consists of a palustrine herbaceous wetland at 17 m asl. The wetland is seasonally flooded with fresh water; the soil consists of swamp and marsh organic deposits. Herbaceous vegetation in this habitat includes the toothed midsorus fern (<span style="font-style: italic;">Blechnum serrulatum</span>), willdenow's maiden fern (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thelypteris interrupta</span>), bulltongue arrowhead (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sagittaria lancifolia</span>), flatsedges (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus</span> sp.), spike rushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis</span> sp.), and vines and grasses. The habitat at the type locality occupies ca 180 ha; the species was not found in other wetland sites in the northern coastal plain. Individuals are active between 1900-2200 hours, while perching, sitting, or calling on herbaceous vegetation, between 0.4 m and 1.2 m above water level. Calling sites for males were found to be between 0.6 and 1.2 m above ground level. Egg clutches vary between 1-5 eggs and are mostly deposited on leaf axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. lancifolia</span>. Embryos hatch after approximately 19 days (Rios-López and Thomas 2007; N. Rios-López pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species is thought to have year-round reproduction given the frequency of juveniles found in any given month. However, most adult activity (including calling males) is greater during the warm and wet months (May to November), and diminishes during the cooler and drier months (particularly between the end of January and end of March). It is expected that recruitment rates reflect this seasonal pattern with a greater amount of clutches being produced during the warm and wet months. The seasonal breeding pattern in this frog is similar to that of other species of the genus in Puerto Rico, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. antillensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cochranae</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. coqui</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cooki</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. gryllus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. portoricensis</span>. (N. Rios-López pers. comm. 2008).
135828		population	eng	The species appears to be common in the type locality (Rios-López and Thomas 2007). Nonetheless, it is the less abundant species among sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">E. brittoni</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cochranae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. coqui</span>) (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).
135828		threats	eng	The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi </span>has, in the past, experienced little disturbance partly due to restricted access of local people by the US Naval Security Group Activity Sabana Seca (USNSGASS) and the limited development of military installations in this wetland. However, it is now threatened by private and governmental housing, industrial, and recreational projects that are spreading rapidly through the region after the USNSGASS ceased operations in 2005 (Rios-López and Thomas 2007).
135829		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Territorio Comunitario de Origen and Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve (Aguayo and Harvey, 2006).
135829		distribution	eng	Cochranella phryxa is only known from the type locality: approximately 20 km west of Población de la Cascada (Territorio Comunitario de Origen y Reserva de la Biosfera Pilón Lajas), La Paz department, Bolivia (15 22' 37" S, 67 12' 4" W), 1000 masl (Aguayo and Harvey, 2006). It is possible that it may occur in montane streams from about 300-1500 masl (M. Harvey, pers. comm. 2008).
135829		habitat	eng	The type locality is part of a bioclimatic zone of the Bolivian Yungas called ‘‘Amazónico Pluvial del Alto Beni’’. The emergent layer of the forest at the type locality reaches 35 m. The holotype was found perched on a leaf about 50 cm above the ground along a dry stream in the month of September. Other species of anurans found in sympatry with Cochranella phryxa include Atelopus tricolor, Rhinella veraguensis, Hyloscirtus armatus, Hypsiboas balzani, Ischnocnema cf. santaecrucis, Pristimantis danae, Pristimantis fenestratus, Cochranella spiculata and Cochranella sp. Hyalinobatrachium bergeri has been collected along a dry stream through forest at an adjacent locality on the same mountain (Aguayo and Harvey, 2006).
135829		population	eng	The species is only known from the holotype. Several researchers have collected in the area, however, the species remains known from a single specimen; thus, it is likely to be a rare species (M. Harvey, pers. comm. 2008).
135829		threats	eng	The species occurs in a protected area and extensive undisturbed habitat occurs nearby. On the other hand, like other centrolenids, C. phryxa likely reproduces in montane streams and may be threatened by chytrid fungus (M. Harvey, pers. comm., 2008).
135830		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135830		distribution	eng	Brachycephalus pombali is known only from the type locality: Morro dos Padres, Pico da Igreja (25 39 S; 48 51 W, 1300 masl), municipality of Guaratuba, state of Parana, southern Brazil (Alves et al., 2006).
135830		habitat	eng	Brachycephalus pombali is an inhabitant of the leaf litter in Atlantic rain forests. The species is active by day and adult males are exposed on the litter when calling (Alves et al., 2006).
135830		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135830		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135831		conservation	eng	It occurs in Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary and Phu Kradueng National Park (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, adundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135831		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary and Phu Kradueng National Park in Loei Province, northern Thailand, at 1,100 to 1,500m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It might be found to occur a little more widely, but surveys in nearby Laos have not located it (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.). However, specimens from new localities in Thailand, that are probably this species, are currently being examined (Y. Chuaynkern, pers. comm.).
135831		habitat	eng	This species has been found at night in intact hilly evergreen forest on boulders, rock outcrops and fallen trees within a few metres of swift, rocky streams and cascades, and in one case a slow stream (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It probably cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.).
135831		population	eng	It can be a locally abundant species.
135831		threats	eng	No information is currently available on threats to this species. All records so far are from protected areas.
135833		conservation	eng	The species can be found within Manu Biosphere Reserve (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
135833		distribution	eng	Hyla antoniiochoai is known only from the type locality: Esperanza, Cosñipata Valley, Department of Cusco, Peru, 13 11.350 S, 71 35.092 W, 2817-2845 masl (De la Riva and Chaparro, 2005).
135833		habitat	eng	Type specimens were found in cloud forest during the rainy season. Hyla antoniiochoai appears to be a secretive species living in bromeliads, and it possibly has a mostly arboreal, non-swimming lifestyle. The holotype contains immature white ovarian eggs, developed fat bodies, and undeveloped oviducts, suggesting that the specimen, collected at the end of the wet season, was probably ready to lay eggs in the following days or weeks. This individual was found at night within a fallen bromeliad of the genus Catopsis, near a stream, whereas the second individual was<br/>in an area without water bodies. Flora of the area includes plants in the genera Miconia, Ruagea, Myrica, Fucsia, Clusia, Alnus, Calceolaria, Peperomia, Muehlenbeckia, Oreocallis, Fragaria, Lachemilla, Rubus, Psychotria, Meliosma, Agalinis, Alonsoa, Leucocarpus, Physalis, Solanum, Pilea, Valeriana, Viola, Cyathea, Diplopterygium, Polypodium, Histiopteris, as well as orchids and bamboos. Other species of anurans that could be identified in the area of the type locality of Hyla antoniiochoai are Gastrotheca excubitor, Hyla armata, Eleutherodactylus rhabdolaemus, Phrynopus peruvianus, and P. cophites (De la Riva and Chaparro, 2005).
135833		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species, although the authors suggest it is rare (De la Riva and Chaparro, 2005).
135833		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135834		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
135834		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna, Guyana, between 1490 and 1550 masl (MacCulloch and Lathrop, 2005).
135834		habitat	eng	MacCulloch and Lathrop (2005), record the vegetation at the type locality as consisting of 'wet low evergreen high-tepui forest, dominated by Bonnetia roraimae, Schefflera, Clusia and Ilex, with large terrestrial bromeliads (Brocchinia)'. The specimens were collected at vegetation above ground level. As there is little free water on Mount Ayanganna, it is suspected that the larvae of this species may develop in the water of bromeliads (MacCulloch and Lathrop, 2005).
135834		population	eng	It is known only from the recently collected type series.
135834		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It is possible that there are no major threats to this species.
135835		conservation	eng	The type locality is close to Podocarpus National Park, and one of the additional localities is the Yachana Protected Forest (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008). Additional recommended conservation actions include the conservation and recovery of forest fragments, as well as the protection of river basins (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135835		distribution	eng	<em>Centrolene durrellorum</em> is known from four localities on the foothills of Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador, provinces of Zamora-Chinchipe, Orellana, and Napo. The localities encompass an altitudinal range between 600 and 1150 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M.H. Yánez-Muñoz pers. comm. 2008).
135835		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary foothill evergreen forests. Individuals have been found at night on the upper surface of leaves of small trees, between 3–4 m above small rivulets. The holotype was found in sympatry with an undescribed <em>Cochranella species</em>, other populations are sympatric with <em>Cochranella puyoensis</em>, <em>Cochranella flavopunctata</em>, and <em>Hyalinobatrachium</em> sp. (cf. munozorum) (Cisneros-Heredia, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M.H. Yánez-Muñoz pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135835		population	eng	The species is known from four different populations. Just one specimen was collected at the two localities originally referred in the type description, however several specimens have been collected at two additional localities in the provinces of Napo and Orellana, and the species may be considered as uncommon in those areas (Cisneros-Heredia, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M.H. Yánez-Muñoz pers. comm. 2008).
135835		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the foothills of the Cordillera Oriental is extensive, most areas are widely deforested and heavily populated (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135836		conservation	eng	This species is found within the protected area of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, which is difficult to access (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135836		distribution	eng	Pristimantis tanyrhynchus is only known from the type locality, Cordillera de Vilcabamba, CI/RAP Expedition Camp Two<br/>(11 33' 35" S, 73 38' 28" W, 2050 masl), Province of Satipo, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr, 2007).
135836		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the species' ecology. Vegetation at the type locality consists of tall cloud forest (18–20 m) with a high number of epiphytes, terrestrial Araceae, ferns, and orchids (Lehr, 2007).
135836		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of five specimens.
135836		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135837		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Phou Dendin National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
135837		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Phou Dendin National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Phongsaly District, Phongsaly Province, Laos, where there are records from near the Nam Khang and Nam Ou Rivers, at 600-600m asl (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely to occur more widely.
135837		habitat	eng	All records of this species are from the immediate vicinity of streams in hilly evergreen forest (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has been found on foliage of bushes up tp 1.5m above the ground (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). The tadpoles remain unknown (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006), but presumably develop in streams.
135837		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species in its only known site (R. Bain, pers. comm.).
135837		threats	eng	The species is probably affected by forest loss for agriculture and logging (R. Bain, pers. comm.).
135839		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kokagala Forest Reserve (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007), but active conservation measures now need to be targeted towards securing the survival of this species in both of the sites in which it occurs. Surveys are needed to determine more accurately its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
135839		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, where is is know from the eastern intermediate zone (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has so far been recorded from Kokagala Hill, in Ampara district, Eastern Province, and from Yakunhela, near Bibile, Monaragala District, Uva Province (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). All records are from between 200 and 620m asl (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). Although might be discovered in future in other locations, many of the hill tops in eastern Sri Lanka, including Monaragala, have been searched for this species without success (S. Fernando pers. comm.).
135839		habitat	eng	This species is associated with seasonal streams with rock crevices on hillsides with scattered trees, and a ground cover of grasses, dominated by <em>Cymbopogon</em> sp. (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). Rock crevices, boulders, masses of grass (<em>Cymbopogon</em> sp.), and roots and vegetation mats consisting of <em>Utricularia</em>, <em>Eriocaulon</em> and <em>Xyris</em> spp. have been identified as microhabitats (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). The vegetation and the water sources rapidly dry out during the southwest monsoon winds in July-October, and bush fires are frequent at this time of year (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). The new species is more active at night; during the day it hides in the microhabitats (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). In the morning, individuals gather on the open vegetation mats of <em>Utricularia</em> to prey on insects attracted by flowers (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). The tadpoles presumaly live of wet rock surfaces by streams, like other members of the genus. The species has a short annual activity period (December-February), after which the habitat dries out and the frogs hide underground (perhaps in deep rock crevices) (S. Fernando pers. comm.). In anthropogenic habitats within its range, the landscape modifications (such as slash-and-burn cultivation) result in a very low water-retaining capacity in the ground, and so it is thought that the species cannot survive in such areas (S. Fernando pers. comm.).
135839		population	eng	It is quite common at its two known locations. Populations are aggregated, with 10-15 individuals being found along a 10m length of a seepage stream (S. Fernando pers. comm.). There are certainly more than 100 mature individuals in each of its known locations (S. Fernando pers. comm.).
135839		threats	eng	The species is threatened by removal of the natural vegetation for agriculture, including slash-and-burn cultivation (S. Fernando pers. comm.). Human activities are increasing on the hill tops on which it occurs, with burning of the grassland, and felling of trees (S. Fernando pers. comm.). All of these activities reduce the water-retention capacity of the small streamlets (S. Fernando pers. comm.). It might also be impacted by high agrochemical usage (S. Fernando pers. comm.).
135840		conservation	eng	It is known from the Raksawarn Public Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135840		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Isthmus of Kra in southern Thailand (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). There are records from: Punyaban waterfall, Raksawarn Public Park, Ranong Spa, in Ranong Province; Klong Hat Som Pen, Muang, in Ranong Province; and Kao Lak, in Phang Nga Province (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). In addition, specimens from Tasan, in southern Thailand, formerly considered to belong to <em>Ansonia malayana</em>, are now considered to belong to <em>A. kraensis</em> (Grismer, 2006). It is possible that other records of <em>A. malayanus</em> from southern Thailand might refer to this species. The type locality (Punyaban waterfall) is at 113m asl, but no information has been provided on its elevation range.
135840		habitat	eng	It lives in forest and has been found at night along the bank of a mountain stream perching on leaves of short grasses (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). They have also been found near a seepage over 30m from a stream (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). It breeds by larval development in streams (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005).
135840		population	eng	No information is currently available on its abundance.
135840		threats	eng	No direct information on threats is yet available, although it is likely to be affected by forest loss for logging and agricultural expansion.
135841		conservation	eng	Gunung Benom is in a protected area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135841		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in Peninsular Malaysia: Sungai Lembing logging camp (3° 52.26” N, 103° 3’.13” E), in Pahang Province, at 255m asl; and Gunung Benom in the western part of Pahang Province (Grismer, 2006). The elevation of the Gunung Benom records is not recorded, though it is likely to be higher than Sungai Lembing logging camp. The species presumably occurs more widely, especially in locations between the currently known sites.
135841		habitat	eng	This species is associated with streams in closed-canopy hill dipterocarp forest (Grismer, 2006). These toads perch no higher than two metres above the ground on leaves overhanging the streambed or on the tops of large rocks along the edge of the stream (Grismer, 2006). The ability of this species to adapt to modification of its forest habitat is not known.
135841		population	eng	It is very common at Sugai Lembing, and probably locally common at Gunung Benom.
135841		threats	eng	There is currently no direct information on threats to this species, but it is very likely to occur in places where its forest habitat is being lost to logging and agricultural expansion (indeed, Sugai Lembing was a logging camp).
135842		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. By conserving ponds the species is thus conserved (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
135842		distribution	eng	The species is known from the vicinity of Murucusa, Municipality of Petit (11 02’ N, 69 35’ W), 550 masl, and Curimagua, District of Petit, spurs of Sierra de San Luís, Estado Falcón, Venezuela. This species may be endemic to the low, dry lands of the Sierra de San Luis and vicinity, but it also could be more widespread through similar habitats in northwestern Venezuela in the states of Falcón, Lara, Yaracuy and Zulia (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). It could potentially be constrained by the dry zone of the Barquisimeto depression towards the southwest and the Yaracuy depression towards the northeast (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
135842		habitat	eng	P. neildi is known only from xeric localities on a spur of the Sierra de San Luis. The dominant vegetation consists of low trees (to 8 m) called locally “cujíes”, spiny bushes, and cacti, composing a dry semi-deciduous dwarf forest (Barrio-Amorós, 2006).<br/><br/>Egg clutches were observed in August 2001 at the type locality. Eggs were encased in one or two leaves. Nests were found to contain 255 and 282 white eggs, surrounded by transparent jelly capsules. Adult males called from bushes at heights of 1.5 m to 4 m, around ponds. Amplectant pairs were observed in vegetation at various heights above water. Other species of anurans common in savannas and xeric habitats of northern South America that were found in the pond where P. neildi was breeding include Chaunus marinus, C. granulosus complex, Dendropsophus microcephalus, D. minutus, Hypsiboas crepitans, Scinax “x-signatus”, Engystomops pustulosus, Pleurodema brachyops, and Leptodactylus insularum (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). The call is described in Barrio-Amorós (2006).
135842		population	eng	There was as considerable number of individuals where the species was found; however, like other species in the genus, it is not necessarily a dominant species (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
135842		threats	eng	No major threats were observed. Although the drying out of ponds could comprise a potential threat, it is unlikely that this would happen as they are used by cattle in the region (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
135843		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135843		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the right bank of the Florestão river (22 55’ S, 44 21’ W; near sea level),  Ariró, Municipality of Angra dos Reis, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Weber et al., 2006).
135843		habitat	eng	Individuals of Physalaemus angrensis were collected near sea level, associated with ponds or leaf litter from the coastal plain in the Atlantic Forest domain. They are often found under dead leaves on the edge of temporary ponds at very disturbed sites near the border of secondary forests. Males call at late afternoon during the rainy season (October to February) in this region (Weber et al., 2006). <br/><br/>It is possible that P. signifer (and probably also P. spiniger) occur in the same habitat. Two species of the P. signifer group are geographically close to P. angrensis: P. atlanticus and P. moreirae, known respectively from a lowland and a mountain locality in northeastern São Paulo state (Weber et al., 2006).
135843		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135843		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135844		conservation	eng	The species is found within the Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park (surface area of 122,000 ha), which contains the<br/>Cordillera de Yanachaga that reaches an elevation of 3643 m, and descends into the valley of the Rıo Palcazu (Duellman et al., 2006).
135844		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality, i.e. the vicinity of San Alberto (10 32' 53" S, 75 22' 17" W, 2200 masl), Department of Pasco, Province of Oxapampa, Peru (Duellman et al., 2006).
135844		habitat	eng	Gastrotheca carinaceps is found on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in central Peru, in humid montane forest (Duellman et al., 2006).
135844		population	eng	The species is only known from two specimens.
135844		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135845		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Ngezi Forest Reserve which requires careful management for this extremely rare species.
135845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ngezi Forest, on Pemba Island, in Tanzania. It occurs close to sea-level.
135845		habitat	eng	It appears to be dependent on lowland forest. At its only known site it was found calling in forest trees overhanging a small pool, but it was absent from the grasses and herbage at the other end of the same pool in a more open situation. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
135845		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species. Only 10-20 males were heard calling at its only known site.
135845		threats	eng	It is restricted to a tiny area where its forest habitat is at risk from harvesting of wood, and small-scale agriculture.
135846		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kakamega Forest National Park, but much stricter protection of forests in and around this area is urgently needed.
135846		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kakamega Forest and its vicinity in western Kenya at around 1,500-1,700m asl. It is possible that the species will also be found in Uganda. It is also possible that frogs in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo currently included in <em>Leptopelis modestus</em> actually belong to this species, or to another undescribed species (Köhler <em>et al.</em> 2006).
135846		habitat	eng	This species is only known from forest habitats, including in secondary and disturbed forest. It is arboreal, and males have been heard calling above a small stream. A tadpole was found in a water-filled puddle with a surface area less than 0.5 by 0.5m and a depth of approximately 0.2m in secondary forest. The eggs are probably deposited in the soil on the forest floor, and and at hatching tadpoles wriggle over the ground to the water to continue their development (Köhler <em>et al.</em> 2006). So the species is probably dependent on areas with loose ground substrate which turns into puddles after terrestrial egg deposition.
135846		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species within Kakamega Forest, where the area of available habitat is small.
135846		threats	eng	Although it is able to adapt to secondary forest, it is believed that selective logging (illegal), alteration of the forest by cattle browsing, collection of fuel-wood, and draining or modification of natural water bodies might threaten its survival  (Köhler <em>et al.</em> 2006; J. Köhler pers. comm.).
135847		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur within a 1180 ha Biological Reserve (Pau Brasil) and in several private reserves in southern Bahia.
135847		distribution	eng	Gastrotheca pulchra is known from several localities in southern Bahia [Pau Brasil Biological Reserve (CEPLAC), vicinity of Porto Seguro (16 22’ S, 39 10’ W, 30 masl); RPPN Estação Veracruz, Porto Seguro (16 27’S, 39 04’W); RPPN Salto Apepiqui, Ilhéus (14 47’S, 39 03’W); Fazenda Alto São Roque (13 51’S, 39 40’W), Itamari; Fazenda São José, Mascote (15 34’S, 39 18’W); all in the state of Bahia], Brazil.
135847		habitat	eng	Gastrotheca pulchra is known to occupy primary tropical forest characterized by tree heights reaching approximately 30m, several of them with DAB > 80cm. The area also has a high diversity of bromeliads and ferns. Clumps of large bromeliads are abundant and attached to the trunks of large trees (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).<br/><br/>The holotype is an adult female with ten developing eggs in the dorsal pouch, and was found sitting on a moderately sized leaf, approximately 1m above ground (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).
135847		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135847		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135848		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas throughout its range.
135848		distribution	eng	This is a very widespread species. It is found in central, northern, southern and south-western China (including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau), and through mainland Southeast Asia, south to northern Peninsular Malaysia. It has been recorded from a single locality in the north of Sumatra (Indonesia). It occurs up to 2,000m asl. The boundary between this species and <em>Microhyla ornata</em> is not clear, but has been arbitrarily set at the western border of Myanmar, pending further information.
135848		habitat	eng	It occupies a number of habitat types including lowland scrub forest, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and urban areas. Sub-fossorial in habit, it is also found in forest floor leaf-litter. It is mostly a nocturnal species that is only active diurnally during the rainy season. It breeds in temporary rain pools and other bodies of still water. It can occur in modified areas, such as non-intensively farmed agricultural land.
135848		population	eng	It is a common species through most of its range.
135848		threats	eng	Globally there are no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened by agrochemical pollution (land and water) and the conversion of habitat to intensively cultivated land.
135849		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135849		distribution	eng	The type locality of Plectrohyla miahuatlanensis is north of Candelaria Loxicha, 2550 m (16 12.844’ N, 96 31.938’ W), Sierra de Miahuatlan, state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
135849		habitat	eng	The habitat at the type locality consisted of mesic pine-oak forest (Meik et al., 2006).<br/><br/>The single female specimen was found in the late afternoon, inactive between the leaves of an arboreal bromeliad. Other amphibians collected at the type locality include Eleutherodactylus mexicanus, Bolitoglossa oaxacensis, and a series of hyline frogs of the Exerodonta sumichrasti group (Meik et al., 2006).
135849		population	eng	The species was described from a single female specimen; no population status information is available for this species.
135849		threats	eng	Although the area where Plectrohyla miahuatlanensis was found was covered with relatively intact forest during 2001, many slopes of the Sierra de Miahuatlan have been cleared, or partially cleared, for agricultural purposes (Meik et al., 2006).
135850		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
135850		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Ryukyu Islands and Amami Islands in Japan. It is found on most of the islands from the Tokara Archipelago on the north to the Yaeyama Archipelago in the south. It is introduced to Suwanosejima in the Tokara Group, Taramajima of the Miyako Group, and Kuroshima of the Yaeyama Group.
135850		population	eng	It is a common species through most of its range.
135850		threats	eng	Globally there are no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened by agrochemical pollution (land and water) and the conversion of habitat to intensively cultivated land.
135851		conservation	eng	The species is found within Munchique National Park.
135851		distribution	eng	Pristimantis jubatus is only known from the type locality: Munchique National Park, La Romelia sector (02 38' 40" N, 076 54’ 55" W, 2550–2750 masl), municipality of El Tambo, Department of Cauca, Colombia (García and Lynch, 2006).<br/><br/>Given the bioclimatic conditions of the area and the species' low dispersal rate outside of Munchique, P. jubatus is considered to be endemic of the area (J.C. García, pers. comm. 2008).
135851		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid forest with dense plant cover (>80%). Individuals can be found at night on vegetation within 2 meters of the ground, with leaves being the preferred perch site. Relative abundance of juveniles during April-September and February-March suggests that reproduction of the species is continuous (García and Lynch, 2006).
135851		population	eng	Considered to be a very abundant species (García and Lynch, 2006).
135851		threats	eng	The species is currently known from a high elevation area (above 2500 masl) within a National Park. However, a potential threat, if the park's conservation policies were to change, could be constituted by the extensive Smurfit's pine crops that occur in neighbouring areas (J.C. García, pers. comm. 2008).
135852		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135852		distribution	eng	Phrynopus oblivius is known from the type locality and vicinities: village of Maraynioc (11 20' 39.4" S, 75 26' 44.7" W), Vitoc Valley, between 3210 and 3220 masl, Province of Tarma, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr, 2007).
135852		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species were found in remnants of a cloud forest beyond the old village and former Hacienda Maraynioc; all were found during the day on humid ground beneath rocks next to a small creeks. Gastrotheca griswoldi is the only other anuran known from the type locality (Lehr, 2007).<br/><br/>The species presumably breeds by direct development.
135852		population	eng	This is likely a rare species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135852		threats	eng	Deforestation and agriculture are a problem in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm.).
135853		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135853		distribution	eng	Ranitomeya intermedia is known only from the type locality: Huallaga Canyon, San Martin region, Peru, 200 m elevation (Frost, 2007).
135853		habitat	eng	No habitat and ecological information are available for this species.
135853		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135853		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135854		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135854		distribution	eng	Pristimantis caeruleonotus is known from ‘‘Nueva York’’ hill and ‘‘Quebrada Parramata’’, Rıo Blanco Basin, District of Carmen de la Frontera, Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru. It is known from elevations comprised between 2500 and 2900 masl (Lehr et al., 2007). Its distribution may extend into Ecuador (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135854		habitat	eng	The species inhabits cloud forest (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). All individuals of this species were found at night at 2000–2240 h on vegetation 0.2–1.5 m above ground. One individual was found in a terrestrial bromeliad. Sympatric anuran species include P. aquilonaris, P. bellator and P. colodactylus (Lehr et al., 2007).
135854		population	eng	The species appears to be locally abundant, although further fieldwork is needed to confirm this (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135854		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135855		conservation	eng	Colostethus ucumari is known to occur in a regional protected area, as well as outside of the confines of this area.
135855		distribution	eng	Colostethus ucumari is known from cloud forest localities in the Cordillera Central of Colombia at approximately 2100–2500 m above sea level (Grant, 2007).<br/><br/>Type material of Colostethus ucumari was collected at: Parque Regional Natural Ucumarí (ca 2500 m above sea level), Department of Risaralda, at approximately 4 42’ N, 75 29’ W; Hacienda El Carelia, ca. 8 km E Salento, Department of Quindío; Finca La Cristalina (2152–2250 m) ,Vereda Guamal, Pijao, Department of Risaralda; 20.3 mi WNW Cajamarca, Department of Tolima;  6 km ESE Villa María (2130 m), Department of Caldas; 5.5–6 km by road southeastward from Villa María (2320 m), Department of Caldas, Colombia (Grant, 2007).
135855		habitat	eng	Colostethus ucumari is a riparian species not known to occur more than a few meters (<3 m) from the water’s edge. Specimens were collected in grassy vegetation, on and beneath rocks along streams and pools, in both primary forest  and in or at the edge of forest clearings, such as pastures and grassy roadside drainage ditches. Most specimens were<br/>taken during diurnal collecting, although some type specimens were collected while active at night (Grant, 2007).
135855		population	eng	Information on population status is currently unavailable for this species.
135855		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135857		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Zhadatulin Nature Reserve.  Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs.
135857		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Zadam (Tzada), in Xizang (Tibet), in western China at 2,900m asl (Fei <em>et al</em>., 1999). It is likely to occur more widely.
135857		habitat	eng	This species lives in high-elevation wetlands, such as ponds and marshes, and in surrounding meadows and grassland. It breeds in water by larval development.
135857		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
135857		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135858		conservation	eng	Urgent measures are needed to conserve forest on limestone karst in northwestern Panay. Surveys for this species in karst forest habitats should be conducted across Panay Island in the rainy season.
135858		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northwestern peninsula of Panay Island in the Philippines (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has so far been found only at 180–300m asl on the mountain known locally as ‘‘Mount Lihidan’’ (11º 24' 52.74'' N, 122º 06' 16.74'' E), in the Municipality of Pandan in Antique Province (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, it is suspected to have a wider elevational and geographic range (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007).
135858		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a small patch of disturbed, secondary-growth forest in karst habitat. Males call from either the top of rock outcroppings or from within crevices in the rock formations (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species appears to be adaptable to a certain extent, as it has been found in secondary areas, but it is not clear whether or not it can tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. It is suspected that of the main factors needed for this species to survive in these karst forests is moisture content within the forest and rocky crevices (C. Siler pers. comm.). While the species should be able to survive in somewhat degraded and open habitats, as the forest gets more heavily destroyed, the karst patches will eventually become more arid and possibly less suitable for this species (C. Siler pers. comm.). Although it is expected to occur more widely, it is possible that one of the main limiting factors to this species’ range is distribution of forest on limestone karst (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence of water.
135858		population	eng	The species was observed to be quite common during periods of heavy rain in the region.  It is believed that this species maintains healthy populations in the karst forests of northwestern Panay and possibly has a wider geographic distribution on the island.
135858		threats	eng	There is widespread forest destruction in its only known locality due to expanding local agriculture (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, the habitat is protected to some extent from agricultural expansion as it is very difficult to farm on the very rocky terrain, which may provide some protection for this unique forest microhabitat (C. Siler pers. comm.). Nearly all surrounding soil-dominated habitat around the karst patches has been heavily disturbed by farming (C. Siler pers. comm.). Mining of stone is a direct threat to the habitat of this species (C. Siler pers. comm.). More detailed information on threats is needed.
135859		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in Parque Estadual (PE) Serra do Conduru (Pimenta and Caramaschi, 2007).
135859		distribution	eng	Frostius erythrophthalmus is known from four localities in the Atlantic Rain Forest Domain in southern Bahia, Brazil, at altitudes between 140 and 920 masl (Pimenta and Caramaschi, 2007).
135859		habitat	eng	Frostius erythrophthalmus inhabits primary or slightly disturbed fragments of the hygrophilous forests of southern Bahia. Fragments at the type locality, in the contiguous forests of PE Serra do Conduru, and in the EEE Nova Esperança are well preserved patches of ombrophilous forests. Individuals have been found during the night in leaf litter, sitting on the leaves of bushes or bromeliads, 0.1 to 0.7 m above ground, or climbing tree trunks. All specimens were found away from water bodies, suggesting an association with bromeliads (Pimenta and Caramaschi, 2007).
135859		population	eng	No population status is currently available for this species.
135859		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135860		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within the range of this species. The boundary between this species and <em>Rana amurensis</em> needs to be determined.
135860		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Republic of Korea, where it is widespread. It is presumably present also in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, but the boundary between this species and <em>Rana amurensis</em> is unclear. For the purpose of this assessment we have arbitrarily taken the boundary to be at 40ºN in the Korean Peninsula. This is mostly a lowland species occurring up to 700m asl, but it is usually below 400m asl (J.-Y. Song pers. comm.).
135860		habitat	eng	The species is present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, shrublands and grasslands. It is found most frequently in open, wet places such as wet meadows and forest glades, swamps, overgrown lakeshores, riverbanks, and floodplains. Reproduction and larval development takes place in shallow lakes, ponds, ditches, large puddles and marshes with stagnant water. Large numbers of this frog may be found hibernating in the bottom mud of ponds and pools. It may be found in modified habitats.
135860		population	eng	It is a common species in the Republic of Korea.
135860		threats	eng	The species is mostly threatened by general habitat loss, and the drainage and pollution of breeding pools, but overall it is not significantly threatened.
135861		conservation	eng	The type locality is found within the "Ciénaga de Zapata" Biosphere Reserve, where there is an environmental education programme for children and adults (Rodríguez and Rivalta in press).
135861		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo florentinoi </span>is only known from the type locality and its vicinities: Gironcito  (224' 9.62" N, 811' 10.81" W), Playa Girón, Península de Zapata, Province of Matanzas, Cuba (Moreno and Rivalta 2007). The species occurs at 0 m asl (V. Rivalta pers. comm. 2008).
135861		habitat	eng	The species lives in the karst subcoastal semideciduous forest. It is believed that during the day the toad hides within the karstic rocks. It is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Peltophryne peltocephala</span> in the type locality (Moreno and Rivalta 2007). Playa Girón lies on the coastal lowland to the south of Matanzas province, where marine intrusions that probably can fill the holes where the species lives have frequently been reported (Rodríguez Schettino and Rivalta in press). The species has at least two types of acoustic emissions, during the night on exposed limestone rocks, or inside crevices between rocks (Hernández Quinta 2007; Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
135861		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135861		threats	eng	Rising of the sea level caused by climatic change is considered to be a threat (Rodríguez and Rivalta in press).
135862		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, and to ascertain whether or not it has any conservation needs.
135862		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cameroon, where it has been recorded from two main areas: western Cameroon at 700-2,200m asl on the Mbos Plain (in the Bamileke Plateau) and Mount Manenguba); and the Adamawa Plateau at 1,100-1,200m asl around Sadolkoulaye, Ngaoundere and Wakwa. Its distribution is probably imperfectly known and it will probably be found elsewhere.
135862		habitat	eng	On Mount Manenguba it has been found around lakes and in marshes in high-elevation grassland. On the Mbos Plain it has been found in flooded grassland and marshes in humid savanna. In the Adamawa Plateau it was found in a temporary lake in grassland. It breeds in water by larval development.
135862		population	eng	It is a poorly known species, and there is little information on its abundance. However, it is appears to be uncommon, and is certanly patchily distributed.
135862		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this poorly known species.
135863		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range of this poorly known species.
135863		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Wamangu, adjacent to the Nakam River in the Sepik Basin, East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, at 180m asl (Richards, 2007). It is likely to occur more widely.
135863		habitat	eng	It has been found in a complex patchwork of secondary lowland rainforest, patches of bamboo, coconut plantations, cleared forest and gardens, and sago swamps (Richards, 2007). The males call predominantly on relatively cool, wet nights, and are common around pools and swamps (particularly sago swamps) in severely disturbed habitats (Richards, 20070. Several males were found calling from sago palm leaves about 3–5m high in the evening after rain; others were found in lowland rainforest near the sago swamps, calling from between 50cm–2m above ground on leaves. The species preumably deposits its eggs on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall to complete their development.
135863		population	eng	It is apparently common in suitable habitat (Richards, 2007).
135863		threats	eng	It appears to be an adaptable species, and so is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
135864		conservation	eng	The species is found at Yanayacu Biological Station.
135864		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphargus wileyi</em> is only known from the type locality, Yanayacu Biological Station (0 41′ S, 77 53′ W; 2100 masl), Province of Napo, Ecuador (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
135864		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary cloud forests. Individuals can be found at night on leaves 120–220 cm above streams (males) or above the ground (one female). Three males were found near egg clutches, which were on the tip of leaves; males were never found in the same leaf as the egg clutches, suggesting that males do not guard the eggs. The number of eggs per clutch varies from 19-28; eggs are whitish as well as embryos in early developmental stages. Males call from the upper side of leaves (Guayasamin et al., 2006). A male can fertilize up to 4 clutches in one breeding season. The species breeds in permanent streams (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135864		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of six specimens, which were collected during 3 years of inventory work at Yanayacu, suggesting that <em>Nymphargus wileyi</em> is a rare species (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
135864		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a conspicuous threat for the species. It is thought to have a restricted range, although further field work is needed to test this (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135865		conservation	eng	A protected area (Reserva Nacional Los Queules) is in place. The private company that commercially exploits the region's forests and scientists from the Universidad de Chile are conducting conservation studies in the area. Several proposals have been generated, and it is possible that corridors may be established between the remaining Maulino forests in the region (A. Veloso, pers. comm. 2008).
135865		distribution	eng	Eupsophus queulensis is known only from the type locality, the east edge of Reserva Nacional Los Queules, 71 km W<br/>Cauquenes (450 m), coastal mountain range of the Costa, VII Maule Region (35 59' S, 72 41' W), Chile (Veloso et al., 2005).
135865		habitat	eng	Within native Maulino forest, individuals were found only in moist habitats including shallow streams, soil cavities, leaf litter and under logs. No individual was found in surrounding pine plantations. The Maulino forest is dominated by the deciduous tree, Nothofagus glauca, and evergreen trees e.g. Persea lingue, Gevuina avellana, Aetoxicum punctatum.<br/>Advertisement calls were heard from September to January. Male and female pairs were found together with egg masses or recently hatched embryos in soil cavities near streams. Tadpoles were found in shallow waters (Veloso et al., 2005).<br/><br/>The species inhabits permanent streams subject to strong fluctuations (lowest volume during the summer months of December-March).  The breeding season (once a year) coincides with the rainy season. Clutch size is comprised of approximately 200 large, unpigmented eggs, which are deposited in small flooded cavities in the ground. Endotrophic tadpoles emerge from these small holes and are dragged into small streams (A. Veloso, pers. comm. 2008).
135865		population	eng	Population status information unavailable for this species.
135865		threats	eng	The species is found within a protected area, Reserva Nacional Los Queules, which belongs to the Servicio Nacional de áreas protegidas, and contains Maulino forest. This type of forest is severely fragmented in the region and is embedded within a matrix of Pinus radiata which is commercially exploited by the private sector. The reserve size, however, is small (only 147 ha), limiting this species' habitat protection (A. Veloso, pers. comm. 2008).
135867		conservation	eng	It occurs in the in Ranomafana National Park. Research is needed to determine its distribution, status and ecological requirements.
135867		distribution	eng	This species is know only from two localities in Ranomafana National Park in south-eastern Madagascar. The type locality is near the summit of Mount Maharira (21°20.053' S, 47°24.787' E), at approximately 1,350m asl. It has also been recorded from and from sites west of Vohiparara, above 1,000m asl, just outside Ranomafana National Park (Glaw & Vences 2007). It might occur a little more widely, but its distinctive calls have not been heard in other parts of southeastern Madagascar, such as Andringitra, so it appears to be genuinely restricted in its range.
135867		habitat	eng	This species was found most commonly on the mountain peak, which is characterized by large bare surfaces of granitic rock, surrounded by heath, bushland and patches of rainforest. Two related species, Gephyromantis enki and G. decaryi, occur commonly at lower altitudes (1,000-1,200 m), but these species become less frequent towards the summit where Gephyromantis runewsweeki occurs. The species calls intensely from perch heights of 10 cm to 1.5 m in these bushes. Its breeding is not known, but it probably breeds by direct development.
135867		population	eng	Calls of this species were commonly heard on summit of Mount Maharira. The species was also heard less commonly in rainforest below the summit. At sites east of Vohiparara it is very rare (M. Vences pers. comm.). The species has a very distinct call, and the patchiness of records shows that it is not a ubiquituous throughout its limited range (M. Vences pers. comm.).
135867		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in a well-protected area, the Ranomafana National Park, it might occur a little more widely in habitats that are much less secure from forest loss due to agriculture. Its probable small (or at least discontinuous and patchy) distribution also raises some concerns about its conservation status, and there is little suitable high-elevation forest habitat within its range.
135868		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Tay Yen Tu Nature Reserve and Xuan Son National Park (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). The Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, the Bac Giang and Lang Son Forest Protection Departments, and Cologne Zoo are collaborating on an <em>ex-situ</em> conservation program starting in 2008 (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135868		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from northern Vietnam (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005). There are confirmed records from the following localities: the vicinity of Dong Vanh Village, Luc Son Commune, Luc Nam District, Bac Giang Province at 250-300m asl (21°12' N, 106°40' E) (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005); Quang Thanh Commune (22°38' N, 105°55' E) and Thank Cong Commune (22°48' N, 105°44' E), both of these being in Nguyen Binh District, Cao Bang Province (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005); Mau Son Mountain in Lang Son province at 900-1,000m asl (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.); and Xuan Son National Park in Phu Tho Province (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Records from and Pu Hoat Forest, Dong Van Commune, Que Phong District, Nghe An Province were attributed to <em>Tylototriton vietnamensis</em> (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005), but genetic studies have since shown that these belong to another species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Specimens from Nam Tha Commune (21°55' N, 104°22' E, 850m a.s.l.), in Van Ban District, Lao Cai Province and from Tay Con Linh Mountain (22°45’ N, 104°49’ E, 1,700m asl), in Vi Xuyen District, Ha Giang Province exhibit some slight morphological differences from <em>T. vietnamensis</em> (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005; Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.), and have been referred to as <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em> (Bain and Nguyen, 2004), but might belong to an undescribed species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). The species probably also occurs more widely, including in adjacent southern China (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005). Indeed, several Vietnamese records previously referred to as <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em> (or <em>Echinotriton asperrimus</em>) are likely to refer to <em>T. vietnamensis</em> (Fleck, 2003; Nguyen, <em>et al</em>., 2005).
135868		habitat	eng	This species is probably generally associated with forest, and specimens have been found in ponds within dense bamboo vegetation in secondary forest (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005). Although it can tolerate disturbed forest, the species is dependent on small, muddy ponds in the shadow of trees, and so it probably cannot tolerate serious deforestation (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Mating and reproduction presumably take place in water during the rainy season, with the adults living on land at other times of year.
135868		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.).
135868		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation (especially in Bac Giang and Lang Son provinces) resulting from agricultural encroachment and logging (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Collecting for the pet trade or traditional medicine are probably not serious problems at the present time (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.).
135870		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Puchangkuankuoshui Nature Reserve. Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.
135870		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from its type locality, Shuiyang, in Guizhou Province, China, at 1,350-1,500m asl (Xu <em>et al</em>, 2007). It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.
135870		habitat	eng	When not breeding, the adults live on land in montane forest (Xu <em>et al</em>, 2007). They breed in water, and the larvae develop in small streams surrounded by the forest, and sometimes can be found in pools near springs (Xu <em>et al</em>, 2007).
135870		population	eng	It is a rare species where it is found (Xu <em>et al</em>., 2007).
135870		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being degraded by human activities, including clear-cutting, logging and expanding agriculture.
135872		conservation	eng	The species occurs within a protected area, the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve.
135872		distribution	eng	Allobates spumaponens is only known from the type locality: Mabura Hill Forest Reserve, Upper Demerara-Berbice Region, (central) Guyana (5 09'N, 58 41'W, ca 100 masl) (Kok and Ernst, 2007).
135872		habitat	eng	The species occurs within the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve, which is characterized by gently undulating terrain with low elevations ranging from 90–100 masl. Individuals were found throughout the forest in low-lying as well as slope habitats. The species was not recorded on top of a rock plateau that supports dry evergreen low forest (Kok and Ernst, 2007).<br/><br/>Allobates spumaponens deposits its eggs (5–11) in moist leaf litter. Clutches have been found attached to dead leaves. Subsequent to hatching, tadpoles are usually carried by the male, although it is also possible that they may be   carried by the female. Larvae are eventually deposited in small lentic pools and continue their development within these aquatic habitats. The new species occasionally deposits tadpoles in leptodactylid foam nests (Kok and Ernst, 2007).
135872		population	eng	Allobates spumaponens was the fourth most abundant amphibian species recorded at the type locality. It was found to be most abundant in primary forest than in secondary forest, and more abundant in the wet season than in the dry season. Despite differences in abundance between habitats, the species appeared to cope relatively well with the more restrictive conditions within secondary forests. This may be in part due to its reproductive biology, which is relatively independent of open water (Kok and Ernst, 2007).
135872		threats	eng	The Mabura Hill Forest Reserve encompasses approximately 20 km² of primary rain forest and is part of the Wappu compartment located within a 500 km² Timber Sales Agreement concession. Disturbed sites were located outside the reserve’s core area, within the main logging concession (Kok and Ernst, 2007).
135874		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Kaieteur National Park.
135874		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anomaloglossus kaiei</span> is known from Kaieteur National Park and the Pakaraima Mountains, Guyana, where it is known to occur in primary and disturbed forest (Kok et al., 2006). The species can also be found along the Guyana-Brazil border and is also possibly present in Brazil. It occurs between 150-900 m elevation (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).
135874		habitat	eng	The species has been found mainly in primary and disturbed forest, with one individual found at the edge of the savannah. Anomaloglossus kaiei is a terrestrial, diurnal species, which is not closely associated with bodies of water. Males call from their territories, and females exhibit parental care (Kok et al., 2006).
135874		population	eng	The species is considered to be locally abundant (Kok et al., 2006).
135874		threats	eng	Mining activities within the boundaries of Kaieteur National Park constitute a threat to the Park's forest ecosystem  (Kok et al., 2006).
135875		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135875		distribution	eng	Pristimantis minutulus is known from the type locality, 0.0-1.5 km NW of Cacazú, 10 38' S, 75 07' W, 900-1200 masl, Department of Pasco, Peru (Duellman and Hedges, 2007). It is now also known to occur in Finca Panguana, 300 masl, Department of Huánuco, Peru.
135875		habitat	eng	The species is known only from humid lower montane forests on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in central Peru. All individuals were on leaves 30-60 cms above the ground at night (Duellman and Hedges, 2007).
135875		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of five specimens.
135875		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135876		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135876		distribution	eng	<em>Dendropsophus juliani</em> is known from the vicinity of the settlement of Barracón, on the road from Cobija to Riberalta, 11 33’ S, 66 56’ W, 160 masl, Province of Madre de Dios, Department of Pando, Bolivia. In 2007 its call was heard also in the vicinity of the community  of Palmira, 10 35´S, 65 44´W, Province of Federico Román, Department of Pando, Bolivia (Moravec et al., in prep.). It is also possible that a population in the northern Department of Santa Cruz may be <em>D. juliani</em> (Moravec et al., 2006).
135876		habitat	eng	The type locality is located in an alluvial plain of the small river Arroyo Jenichiquia. The area consists mostly of western Amazonian forest represented primarily by old secondary forest with many large emergent trees (e.g. <em>Bertholletia excelsa, Dipteryx micrantha, Ficus schultesii</em>, etc.), which were not selected for timber harvest 30–40 years ago. An important feature of the area is the presence of isolated pockets of open or overgrown pampas associated with poorly drained soils, which penetrate the closed forest. Males called from emergent grasses from small lakes or flooded depressions or from bushes over the water surface (ca. 5–50 cm above water). Nevertheless, single males were observed calling from bushes and young trees up to 250 cm above the ground and a chorus of males was heard calling from dense bushes and trees growing on the banks of Arroyo Jenichiquia (month of January). Calling activity started approximately a half hour before sunset. Other hylid species found in sympatry with <em>D. juliani</em> include <em>Dendropsophus leucophyllatus, D. minutus, Hypsiboas boans, H. cinerascens, H. lanciformis, Phyllomedusa bicolor, P. camba, Scinax ruber</em> and <em>S. parkeri</em>. Females and larvae of <em>D. juliani</em> are unknown (Moravec et al., 2006).<br/><br/>The species occurs in wet forest edges and open wet areas including disturbed habitats (e.g. sides of forest roads) (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).
135876		population	eng	<em>Dendropsophus juliani</em> was a relatively common species at the type locality (Moravec et al., 2006).
135876		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135877		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135877		distribution	eng	Hyloxalus parcus is known from Limón and Gualaceo, on trail between Agua Rica and San Juan Bosco, 1981 masl, and from Plan de Milagro, a tambo on the trail between Limón and Gualaceo, ca. 10 km WSW of Limón, 1707 masl, Province of Zamora-Santiago, Ecuador (Rivero, 1991).
135877		habitat	eng	No habitat and ecology information is currently available for this species.
135877		population	eng	No population status is available for this species.
135877		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135878		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135878		distribution	eng	Phyllomedusa nordestina is distributed over northeastern Brazil, in the caatinga and adjacent regions, in the states of <br/>Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia and Minas Gerais (Caramaschi, 2006).
135878		habitat	eng	The species is found in the ecoregion of Caatinga (dry shrubland).
135878		population	eng	No population status information is available.
135878		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135879		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine this species' distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135879		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single site, Nguti (Sukhalu), in Zunheboto District, Nagaland, northeastern India at 1,715m asl (Mathew and Sen, 2007). It presumably occurs more widely.
135879		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected from a torrential mountain stream strewn with rocks and boulders (Mathew and Sen, 2007) in undisturbed hilly forest (R. Mathew pers. comm.). The species probably also occurs in forest surrounding the stream, and it presumably breeds in streams.
135879		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from a single specimen, and efforts to locate additional specimens at the time of its discovery were not successful (Mathew and Sen, 2007).
135879		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. In Zunheboto district, many people consume frogs and tadpoles, but this is a small species and so it is probably not directly targeted (R. Mathew pers. comm.).
135880		conservation	eng	It occurs in Chu Yang Sin, Yok Don, and Cat Tien National Parks, and in Bac Huong Hoa and Song Thanh Nature Reserves (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.). In addition, it has been found just outside Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park, and is possibly present in Dakrong Nature Reserve (T. Ziegler, pers. comm.). Surveys  are needed to determine its geographic distribution (especially its potential occurrence in Laos), abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135880		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of central and southern Viet Nam and eastern Cambodia. There are records in Viet Nam from the following locations (arranged from north to south): Minh Hoa in Quang Binh Province; Dong Tam Ve and Huong Hoa in Quang Tri Province; A Luoi and Thua Luu in Thua Thien-Hue Province; Tra My, Nam Giang and Tay Giang in Quang Nam Province; Kon Plong in Kon Tum Province; K Bang, Kon Cha Rang and Krong Pa in Gia Lai Province; Yok Don and near Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve in Dak Lak Province; Da The and Lac Duong in Lam Dong Province; and Cat Tien in Dong Nai Province (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.; Bourret 1942; Ziegler <em>et al</em>., 2006); N. Orlov, pers. comm.). In Cambodia it is known from Mondolkiri Province. It can be expected to occur more widely, in particular in locations between the currently known sites, and probably in neighbouring Laos. It has been recorded between 100 and 1,000m asl (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
135880		habitat	eng	This species is only found in forests in upland areas, where it is associated with streams and can also be found away from streams on the forest floor (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.). It has been found in limestone areas (Ziegler <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. In central Viet Nam it has been found in disturbed forest, but not outside forest (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
135880		population	eng	It is an uncommon species (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
135880		threats	eng	In Vietnam this species is collected by local communities for food (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.). Its natural habitat is being threatened by forest clearance for agriculture, logging and human settlements (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
135881		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135881		distribution	eng	Hyloxalus maculosus is only known from "Puyo, between Turingia and theatre, 950 m, Provincia Pastaza, Ecuador" (Frost, 2007).
135881		habitat	eng	There is no information available on this species' habitat and ecology.
135881		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135881		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135882		conservation	eng	The species' type locality is within the limits of the Manu Biosphere Reserve in southeastern Peru (Chaparro et al., 2007).
135882		distribution	eng	Rhinella manu is known only from the type locality, Trocha Union Km 6, situated in the Kosñipata Valley (13 06' 91.2" S, 71 17 00' W, 2700–2800 masl), District of Paucartambo, Province of Paucartambo, Department of Cusco, Peru (Chaparro et al., 2007).
135882		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane cloud forests. The floristic composition of these primary forests includes the following genera: Clusia (Gittiferae), Miconia (Melastomataceae), Hedyosmum (Chloranthaceae), Schefflera (Araliaceae), Oreocallis (Proteaceae), Piper (Piperaceae), Chusquea (Bambusoideae), and Cyatheacea (tree ferns). Other anuran species in the area of the type locality include Pristimantis rhabdolaemus, P. cf. cruralis, Phrynopus cf. peruvianus, and P. cophites. Individuals are found during and directly following the rainy season. Rhinella manu is likely nocturnal and arboreal as all type specimens were encountered at night, on leaves and branches of arboreal ferns (Cyathea), 50 cm–2 m above the ground. Most individuals have been found in areas without standing water (Chaparro et al., 2007).
135882		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).
135882		threats	eng	Although the species is found within the boundaries of Manu National Park, there are areas that are open to tourism, including Trocha Union, where there is a project to develop a camp site at the type locality, which would bring more tourism but also cause more impacts on the area (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).
135883		conservation	eng	Hypsiboas jimenezi is known to occur in Canaima National Park, Bolivar state, Venezuela.
135883		distribution	eng	This species is known from montane streams on the southern slopes of Auyan-tepui and from its summit, in Bolıvar state, Venezuela, between 950–1850 m (Señaris and Ayarzagüena, 2006).
135883		habitat	eng	Males call at night from upper surfaces of leaves or branches 0.2 to 4 m above water in gallery forest. Other anurans found at the Atapere stream include Hypsiboas sibleszi, Centrolene gorzulai, Hyalinobatrachium crurifasciatum, H. taylori, Rana palmipes and Leptodactylus mystaceus. The following species were also found in other streams and in the adjacent forest: Colostethus tepuyensis, Hypsiboas benitezi, Hypsiboas sp., Adelophryne gutturosa, Lithodytes lineatus, Leptodactylus sp. and Otophryne robusta. The centrolenids Centrolene gorzulai, Hyalinobatrachium crurifasciatum and H. taylori were also found in the same locality; Tepuihyla edelcae was found in adjacent herbaceous habitat (Señaris and Ayarzagüena, 2006).
135883		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135883		threats	eng	Major threats for this species are unknown.
135884		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135884		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis bellator</span> is known from four localities at elevations of 1,900–3,100 masl in the northern Department of Piura (District of Carmen de la Frontera, Province of Huancabamba), and adjacent Department of Cajamarca (District of Tabaconas, Province of San Ignacio, Department of Cajamarca), Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007).
135884		habitat	eng	The species occurs in paramo and humid montane forest. Individuals were found during the day on moss and at night on the ground or on vegetation up to 1.7 m above the ground. They can sometimes be found in terrestrial or arboreal bromeliads. Sympatric anurans include Pristimantis aquilonaris, P. colodactylus, P. galdi, P. cajamarcensis, Phrynopus parkeri and an unidentified species of Gastrotheca (Lehr et al., 2007).
135884		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
135884		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135885		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Arabuko-Sokoke National Park. Jozani Forest is within the Proposed Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park. Both of these areas need increased protection. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not this species survives at any other sites.
135885		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jozani Forest on Unguja Island (Zanzibar), Tanzania, and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in coastal Kenya. It is likely to be found in other forested localities on the East African coast. All records are from very close to sea-level.
135885		habitat	eng	Both known sites are in coastal forest where it lives on the forest floor. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
135885		population	eng	It is abundant in Jozani Forest.
135885		threats	eng	It is probably unable to adapt to loss of its forest habitat (Pickersgill 2007). The main threats are expanding agriculture and removal of timber.
135886		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135886		distribution	eng	Cordillera de Carpish, vicinity of Caserío Carpish de Mayobamba (09 43' 50" S, 76 06' 46" W, 2625 masl, and 09 43' 14" S, 76 06' 53"  W; 2735–2750 m), Province of Huánuco, Department of Huánuco, Peru (Guayasamin et al., 2006).
135886		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane forests within the Selva Alta or Yungas Ecoregion, in an area where humans have had little impact. At night, individuals of Nymphargus mixomaculatus were found syntopically with <em>Gastrotheca stictopleura</em> in bushes along a small fast-moving stream. Other sympatric anurans include <em>Rhinella chavin</em>, <em>Pristimantis</em> sp., <em>Phrynopus carpish</em>, <em>Phrynopus dagmarae</em>, and <em>Phrynopus kauneorum</em> (Guayasamin et al., 2006).<br/><br/>The species breeds in permanent water (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135886		population	eng	The species is known from the type series, comprised of six specimens. It is possible that the species may be locally abundant, but further field work is needed to verify this (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135886		threats	eng	The species could have a restricted range, although this has to be tested with further field work (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).
135887		conservation	eng	Queimada Grande Island is a federally protected area in the Brazilian conservation category "Área de Relevante Interesse Ecológico" (area of relevant ecological interest). This category is equivalent to a Natural Monument (Category III) under the classification of protected area management categories by IUCN. Additional enforcement of the conservation status of the Queimada Grande Island is needed to maintain the only known population of<em> S. peixotoi</em> (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Critical priorities for conservation of <em>S. peixotoi</em> are to survey the species' aggregations throughout the island, estimate population size, and evaluate the quality and distribution of its habitat (Brasileiro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
135887		distribution	eng	<em>Scinax peixotoi</em> is known only from Queimada Grande Island (24 29' 02.12" S; 46 40' 33.66" W), a 43 ha island about 33 km from the coast of Itanhaém, in the southern coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil (Brasileiro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). The species is found at about 50 m asl (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).
135887		habitat	eng	Most of the area of Queimada Grande island is still covered by native Atlantic forest, especially those parts located in the western slopes and on the mountaintops of the island. The forest on the eastern slope is much shorter because of frequent exposure to strong winds carrying salt from the sea. Approximately one fifth of the area originally covered by forests is now covered by introduced grasses (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>In the course of six visits to the type locality between 2001 and 2005, calling and reproductive behavior were only observed in January 2002. Males call at night from the leaves of ground bromeliads (ca 40-60 cm in diameter) on a rock outcrop. Females are also found on bromeliad leaves. <em>S. peixotoi</em> tend to favour clustered bromeliads. All type specimens were collected at a single large patch of bromeliads at an altitude of ca. 50 m asl (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
135887		population	eng	The species appears to be relatively rare at Queimada Grande Island. The bromeliads in which this species is found are patchily distributed. The species distribution is likely to be much smaller than the total island area (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
135887		threats	eng	Removal of forest was undertaken by the Brazilian Marine Force several decades ago to reduce the risk of snake encounters associated to forests. Currently, the island's vegetation landscape has not experienced any further changes (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).
135889		conservation	eng	Bolivian populations can be found in the Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Apolobamba (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
135889		distribution	eng	The type locality of Telmatobius sanborni is Limbani (14 08’ S, 69 42’ W, 3350 masl), Department of Puno, Peru. <br/>The species has also been found ca 6 km (airline) SW of Ollachea, 3240 m, Department of Puno, Peru, and in Bolivia, where it has only been found in the vicinity of Pelechuco, in the Cordillera de Apolobamba, western Department of La Paz (14 49’ S, 69 05’ W). The airline distance between the two most distant localities (Pelechuco and Ollachea) is around 180 km. It occurs within an altitudinal range comprised between 3100-3800 masl (De la Riva, 2005).
135889		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams on steep Andean slopes in the upper part of cloud forests and Polylepis formations (De la Riva, 2005).
135889		population	eng	The species is common in the Pelechuco River valley (De la Riva, 2005). However, it has not been found again in Peruvian localities (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
135889		threats	eng	Major threats for this species are unknown, although it is possible that the species may be used (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
135890		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species or its immediate habitat, the creation of a protected area encompassing the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pyrodactylus</span> is suggested (Venegas and Barrio 2006).
135890		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pyrodactylus</span> is only known from the type locality: trail from Los Chilchos to Leymebamba (06º 41'   19" S, 77  º 41'   48  "   W, 2,860 m asl), Province of Mariscal Cáceres, Department of San Martín, Peru. This site is located in the northern section of the Río Huallaga basin, at a ridge between two tributaries of the Río Chilchos, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central (Venegas and Barrio 2006).
135890		habitat	eng	Prevalent vegetation in the type locality is evergreen montane forest, mostly continuous with small clearings next to the trail; some larger clearings were also noticed. The clearings are embedded in the matrix of montane forest. The holotype was found at the end of the dry season (December), by late morning during a slight rain. The frog was spotted at the edge of a trail, hidden beneath a mud trail-cut-wall (Venegas and Barrio 2006).
135890		population	eng	The species is known from the holotype (Venegas and Barrio 2006) and a female which was found dead at the type locality in January 2006. The species has not been seen since, despite searches at its type locality in February 2008. The species is likely threatened with extinction (P. Venegas pers. comm. May 2008).
135890		threats	eng	The forest at the type locality is currently under high human pressure. The land is being cleared mostly for cropland but cattle ranching is also an issue, and both are caused by increased human migration into the area (Venegas and Barrio 2006). The dead female found awaits chytrid screening tests (P. Venegas pers. comm. May 2008).
135891		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.
135891		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western slope of Mount Obree, at 600-1,800m asl in Central Province, Papua New Guinea (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely in the Owen Stanley Range in Central Province.
135891		habitat	eng	This species has been found in somewhat disturbed closed-canopy low-elevation rainforest, and primary mid-elevation rainforest (Kraus and Allison, 2006). Animals are associated with rather steep slopes and, to a lesser extent, ridges; they were not obtained close to streams (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has been found it in moderately well-developed secondary forest in a stream valley along which several villages are scattered (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). It probably does not occur in extensively opened-up habitats, but it can recolonize recovering forests (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). This species presumably reproduces through direct development, without dependence on water.
135891		population	eng	It is apparently common in its small known range.
135891		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to this species within its currently known range (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).
135892		conservation	eng	The park is an isolated enclave within the city of Rio Branco. Survey and monitoring efforts should be urgently implemented to determine the threat levels to this species (A.P. Lima, pers. comm.).
135892		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality: Parque Zoobotanico of the Federal University of Acre (09 57' S, 67 57' W, 136 masl), city of Rio Branco, Acre, Brazil (Lima et al., 2007).
135892		habitat	eng	The Zoobotanical Park of the Federal University of Acre covers 100 ha of remnant primary and secondary forest in different stages of regeneration (Lima et al., 2007).<br/><br/>Males call from positions on leaves or small branches in leaf litter from the end of October until May. Egg-laying sites are ca 10 cm above the ground, and only one clutch is deposited per leaf. This species lays its eggs on the lower surface of leaves. Clutches are composed of 8-10 white eggs and are attended by the male. The tadpoles develop on the lower surface of leaves until stage 25, when they are carried by the male to complete metamorphosis in pools (Lima et al., 2007). Males have 1-5 clutches, an average of 3 clutches per male in a breeding season (A.P. Lima, pers. comm.)
135892		population	eng	The species appears to be relatively common at the type locality.
135892		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation is a threat to this species, as it occurs within a forest fragment in the city of Rio Branco. Field trips to other forest fragments close to Rio Branco have not shed reports for this species, although the species was not the subject of these studies (A.P. Lima, pers. comm.).
135895		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
135895		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known from a single locality on the Tiri River, a small tributary of the Mamberamo River in the southern Mamberamo Basin, central Papua Province, Indonesia (3°17'30"S,138°34'53"E) (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is expected to occur more widely.
135895		habitat	eng	Males have been found calling from palm leaves 4–6 metres above the water in a shallow swamp in primary lowland rainforest (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). The breeding season seems to be independent of substantial rainfall (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). It presumably breeds by larval development.
135895		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
135895		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135896		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area, where its habitat is conserved. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
135896		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Southern Highlands Province in Papua New Guinea. All records so far have been from streams near Moro Camp (6°21.833’S, 143°13.481’E) at 800m asl, and the Benaria River (6°03.287’S and 142°58.707’E) at 1,345m asl, both of these sites being within the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area. It is expected to occur more widely.
135896		habitat	eng	Male specimens have been encountered in riparian rainforest, where they called from branches 3-10m above ground, overhanging torrential streams. It is assumed to breed in streams by larval development.
135896		population	eng	Many frogs were heard at its only known sites.
135896		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135897		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Foya Mountains protected area (S. Richards, pers. comm.). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
135897		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yapen Island and the New Guinea mainland, both locations being in Papua Province, Indonesia. On Yapen Island it has been found at 620-1,050m asl on and near the central mountain ridge in the Amoman region and along the road to Ambaidiru Village, and also on Waira Mountain (Günther, 2006). On the mainland it has been recorded from the foothills of the Foya Mountains at 500m asl, in the Mamberamo Basin (Günther, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.
135897		habitat	eng	All specimens have been encountered in primaery tropical moist forest, or in partly logged and regenerating areas of forest (Günther, 2006) and secondary vegetation near roads (R. Günther pers. comm.). Animals were found perched on vegetation 2-6m above the ground, often along streams, by water holes, at the margin of roads, and at the forest edge (Günther, 2006). The larvae live in small permanent ponds and probably also stream pools surrounded by dense vegetation (Günther, 2006). Eggs are believed to be laid on vegetation overhanging the water, with the larvae falling into the water upon hatching (Günther, 2006).
135897		population	eng	It is an uncommon species (R. Günther pers. comm.).
135897		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. No immediate and obvious threats have been noted (R. Günther and S. Richards, pers. comm.).
135898		conservation	eng	Both Ngok Lin and Chu Yan Sin are protected areas where its habitat is protected. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135898		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two localities in the central highlands of Vietnam: Ngoc Linh Mountain, in Dac Glei District, Kon Tum Province, at 1,700-1,900m asl (Orlov, 2005); and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve at 1,600m asl in Dak Lak Province (N. Orlov pers. comm. to J. Pilgrim). It presumably occurs more widely, especially in locations between the two currently known sites.
135898		habitat	eng	It has been found on a forest slope on a small watershed between two rapid streams. It is presumed to breed in streams by larval development. If it is like other members of this genus, it is not able to adapt to anthropogenic habitats (N. Orlov, pers. comm.).
135898		population	eng	No information is available on its abundance, as it is a very secretive and cryptic species (N. Orlov, pers. comm.).
135898		threats	eng	There is currently no information available on threats to this species. If it occurs outside protected areas, it could be threatened by forest loss.
135899		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Mount Dawei National Nature Reserve (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.). Additional studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
135899		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Mount Dawei, in Pingbian County, Yunnan Province, China (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has been found from 2,089m asl up to about 2,500m asl (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It could possibly widely, including in neighbouring Vietnam.
135899		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from moderately sized, slow-flowing forested streams close to the summit of Mount Dawei (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is not known if the species can persist in heavily disturbed habitats. Males have been hearde calling beside streams, usually from just under the soil (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is a larval-developing species, with oviposition presumably taking place in streams.
135899		population	eng	It is a rare species (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).
135899		threats	eng	This species is known only from a well-protected area, where the only threat is potential habitat loss through the construction of facilities for tourists (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).
135900		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the vicinity of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park.
135900		distribution	eng	Pristimantis albertus is known from Rio San Alberto, 0.9 km N, 2.1 km E of Oxapampa, 10 33; 36" S, 75 24' W, 1970 masl, Department of Pasco, Peru (Duellman and Hedges, 2007). It may occur more widely (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).
135900		habitat	eng	The species can be found amid the leaf litter of humid montane rainforest. One female was found to contain 16 unpigmented eggs. Other anuran species known to occur at the type locality include Pristimantis cruciocularis, P. saggitulus and an apparently undescribed species of Scinax (Duellman and Hedges, 2007).
135900		population	eng	The species is only known from two specimens.
135900		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135901		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Longuza and Kambai Forest Reserves. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of this species, and its conservation needs.
135901		distribution	eng	This species has so far been recorded only from the Kambai and Longuza Forest Reserves in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania at around 300m asl. It might occur more widely, as it was confused with <em>Arthroleptis xenodactylus</em> and <em>A. xenodactyloides</em> in the past (Pickersgill 2007).
135901		habitat	eng	This species is most common in forest clearing where they call from elevated positions in bracken and brambles. They are less common in the forest itself, perhaps because ground cover is more scace there. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to completely open habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on water.
135901		population	eng	In Kambai Forest Reserve these frogs were found to be abundant, calling in their hundreds (Pickersgill 2007).
135901		threats	eng	From the little evidence available, it would appear that this species benefits from a degree of opening up of the forest. However, it is not known whether or not it can tolerate full-scale forest clearance.
135902		conservation	eng	It occurs in the   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve  and the Mont d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The Montagne des Français has been granted Temporary Protected Area Status (the first of three steps necessary to create a permanently protected area) (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Research is needed to determine its geographic range and ecological requirements.
135902		distribution	eng	This species is reliably known from   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve,  Montagne d’Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Ankarana, and Montagne des Français in northern Madagascar, and Andape in the northeast (Glaw and Vences 2006; D'Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007; Glaw and Vences 2007). The species can be expected to occur more widely within its range in northern and northeastern Madagascar. It occurs at 100-1,100m asl.
135902		habitat	eng	It lives along streams in  evergreen forest and dry forest, and also survives in degraded habitats. It has been found in a ditch in degraded forest near the edge of a town. It breeds in streams.
135902		population	eng	It is a very common species (M. Vences pers. comm.) and is abundant on the Montagne des Français (D'Cruz et al. 2007).
135902		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
135903		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135903		distribution	eng	Nymphargus vicenteruedai is known only from the type locality: quebrada Aguas Claras (ca 06 01’ 13.3” N, 73 05’ 52.4” W, 2650-2700 masl), Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce, Department of Santander, Colombia. This locality is on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (Velásquez-Álvarez et al., 2007).
135903		habitat	eng	The species inhabits high Andean forest in excellent conservation status, with plenty of epiphytes and sources of water. Oak and encenillo trees are common in this forest. Some watersheds appear to have a high tannin content (M. Rada, pers. comm.). Nymphargus vicenteruedai is a nocturnal species, associated with the streams of the area. The males are found vocalizing on top of leaves of plants over the water at a height of approximately 1-2 m, close (< 30 cm), but not in contact, with egg masses. Reproductive activity is restricted to the rainy season between April and May. Breeding activity, as indicated by the number and regularity of calling males, declined rapidly after mid-May(Velásquez-Álvarez et al., 2007). Clutch size is estimated to be between 20-30 eggs (M. Rada, pers. comm.). Other amphibian species sympatric with N. vicenteruedai are Rheobates palmatus, Hyloscirtus callipeza, Atelopus<br/>mittermeieri, and Centrolene buckleyi (Velásquez-Álvarez et al., 2007).
135903		population	eng	The species is known from the type series, comprised of nine specimens.
135903		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species, although attention should be paid to any symptoms associated with the chytrid fungus, which has been reported in the type locality of Atelopus mittermeieri (M. Rada, pers. comm.).
135904		conservation	eng	The site occurs within a conservation area.
135904		distribution	eng	Phyllomedusa itacolomi is known from two localities associated to the southern part of the Espinhaço mountain range complex, locally called Serra do Itacolomi and Serra de Ouro Branco. It can be found at Lagoa Seca (20 25’ S, 43 29’ W, 1600m above sea level), Parque Estadual do Itacolomi, Municipality of Ouro Preto, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Caramaschi et al., 2006).
135904		habitat	eng	Specimens were found in an ephemeral pond in an open area at ca 1600m above sea level. The pond is a rain-flooded depression of ca 800m2 located in a “campo rupestre” patch (a type of altitudinal rocky field), with bushes and small trees on a sandy soil predominantly covered with grasses. Some scattered massifs of quartzitic rocks emerge in the field. The sparse bushes and small trees emerging from the continuous herbaceous layer are typical elements also found in other regions of “campos rupestres,” such as Velloziaceae, Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae, and Eryocaulaceae (mainly Paepalanthus), and isolated Melastomataceae. The perimeter of the flooded area is densely covered by Juncaceae (mainly Juncus cf. microcephalus), Cyperaceae, and grasses, leaving only a small central portion of open water. During the dry months (April-September), the pond becomes completely dry with peats and lichens covering the exposed areas between grasses. Winters are dry and and summers are hot and rainy. The annual rain mean ranges 1450-1900mm (Caramaschi et al., 2006).<br/><br/>Phyllomedusa itacolomi was collected during the rainy season, between October and December, when the pond was totally full and a small rivulet drained the excess water. Individuals were found on the bushes around the pond and along the rivulet, at ca 0.5 to 2.0m above the water. The call is composed of low-pitched, short, isolated notes (Caramaschi et al., 2006).
135904		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135904		threats	eng	In spite of being within a conservation area, the site bears anthropogenic pressures including sporadic visitations by horses. The area is also accidentally burned (Caramaschi et al., 2006).
135905		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Endau-Rompin National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135905		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from Sungai Semawak, in Endau-Rompin National Park, Johor Province, Peninsular Malaysia at 46m asl (Grismer, 2006). The type locality is 5km west of the Endau-Rompin National Park visitor centre at Peta (Grismer, 2006). This species presumably occurs more widely, beyond the confines of Endau-Rompin National Park.
135905		habitat	eng	All individuals were collected from the same small, rocky stream (Sungai Semawak) which runs through a closed-canopy portion of lowland forest (Grismer, 2006). They were found at night following periods of afternoon precipitation, and were perched no higher than one metre above the ground on small leaves overhanging the streambed (Grismer, 2006). Its breeding has not been observed (Grismer, 2006), but it is presumably by larval development in streams.
135905		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is so far known from only four specimens (Grismer, 2006).
135905		threats	eng	Its only known location is in a well-protected location. However, it is occurs more widely, it could be found to be present in places where its habitat is at risk from logging and agricultural expansion (especially oil palm plantations).
135906		conservation	eng	No conservation areas or measures are currently known for this species.
135906		distribution	eng	<em>Bokermannohyla vulcaniae</em> is known only from the type locality: Morro do Ferro, municipality of Poços de Caldas, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (De Vasconcelos and Giaretta, 2003). It occurs at ca 1000 masl (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135906		habitat	eng	The species can be found in gallery forests adjacent to streams (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.). Specimens were found on leaves of bushes at approximately 1.5 m above the margin of slow moving streams in the forest. <em>Aplastodiscus perviridis</em> and <em>Scinax ranki</em> are species that occur in sympatry with <em>B. vulcaniae</em> (De Vasconcelos and Giaretta, 2003).
135906		population	eng	This is considered to be rare species (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135906		threats	eng	Deforestation has been observed in the species' distribution area due to agricultural and mining activities (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).
135907		conservation	eng	It occurs in Mantadia National Park and the Ambohitantely Special Reserve.. Further work is need to determine the geographic range, ecological requirements and conservation needs of this species.
135907		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in central eastern Madagascar (at least from Andasibe, Ambohitantely and Antoetra). It probably occurs more widely.
135907		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky streams in rainforest, secondary forest, and open areas adjacent to forest, and in more open savannah on the high plateau of Madagascar. However, it requires clear streams and so cannot survive in fully transformed agricultural landscapes. It is usually associated with larger waterfalls than its close relative, Mantidactylus lugubris. It breeds in streams. The eggs are laid on steep rocks near streams, and the tadpoles presumably live in water.
135907		population	eng	It is rather rare. Only few individuals are generally found, while Mantidactylus lugubris is, by comparison, very common.
135907		threats	eng	It is somewhat adaptable, but cannot tolerate extreme deforestation.
135908		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Maoershan National Nature Reserve (which contains some agricultural areas). Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.
135908		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality, Maoershan Mountain, in Xingan County, Guangxi Province, southern China, at around 2,000m asl (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is not knowh whether or not it occurs more widely.
135908		habitat	eng	This species lives in marshes and surrounding forest, breeding in pools or ponds from early November until the end of February (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006). Each female lays one pair of egg sacs containing an average of 82 eggs (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006). The male guards the eggs after oviposition (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006).
135908		population	eng	It is quite a common species in the breeding season (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006).
135908		threats	eng	This species is probably being affected by the negative impacts human activities on its habitat, including road construction, tourism and some small-scale agriculture. As a high mountain species, living close to the summit of Maoershan, it is also at potential climate change.
135909		conservation	eng	Parque Estadual da Serra do Cabral covers a great part of the species' known distribution (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).
135909		distribution	eng	Scinax cabralensis is only known from the region of the Serra do Cabral, in the Municipalities of Joaquim Felício and Buenópolis, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, but its distribution may extend to other localities in the Espinhaço Mountain range (Drummond et al., 2007). It is found at elevations above 1000 masl (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).
135909		habitat	eng	Scinax cabralensis can be found in marshes, lakes, seasonal and permanent streams and rivers, and shrubby savanna habitats. Reproduction coincides with the rainy season (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.). Calling males are found in high densities, during the beginning of the rainy season. They are nocturnal callers, calling from perches on the emergent shrubby vegetation and on the ground or rocks, at the margins of temporary and permanent streams, ponds, and marshes. Dendropsophus minutus, Elachistocleis ovalis, Leptodactylus labyrinthicus, Physalaemus cuvieri, Pseudopaludicola cf. mystacalis, Pseudopaludicola saltica, Scinax squalirostris and Scinax sp. were found in activity in the same site of S. cabralensis (Drummond et al., 2007).
135909		population	eng	The species is considered to be locally abundant (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).
135909		threats	eng	Fires are frequent at Serra do Cabral and they always sweep a great part of the area. There are also extensive pine plantations as well as small cattle ranching in the area. Although the species is found within a reserve, this protected area does not currently have an adequate infrastructure. The amphibian species of the area are also used as fishing bait by local inhabitants. In addition, the species' area of occurrence is small (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).
135910		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs within Dayaoshan Nature Reserve. Survey work is needed to determine the range, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
135910		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Dayao Mountain in Shiliugongli in Guangxi Province, southern China (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). There are records from Shiliugongli at 900m asl and from Xiang-Lu-Chong at 1,200-1,600m asl, both localities being in Jinxiu County, Laibin Prefecture, Guangxi Province (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It might be endemic to Dayao Mountain, but it is possible that it might in future be discovered elswhere in southern China (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).
135910		habitat	eng	It has been found in undisturbed monsoonal evergreen forest with mostly broad-leaf trees (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006).The males call in grass within or beside shallow ponds, and males and amplexing pairs have also been found in wooden trays set out by local people to ambush-hunt birds (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). White foam egg-nests have been found on the sides of the wooden trays (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). Males call during the day and night, but more so at night (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). In some areas, the habitat was dry, and what little water that was present was in the wooden trays, so the frogs were limited to these sites for breeding (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). Some frogs also call from perches within broad-leaf trees (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006).
135910		population	eng	It is common on parts of Dayao Mountain (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.)
135910		threats	eng	The major threat is probably forest loss, especially for wood extraction and farming. Although it has been found in disturbed habitats, these are in areas close to the forest and the species is not expected to survive significant forest loss (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).
135911		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135911		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella condoriri</span> is only known from the type locality: Amaguaya  (3,760 m asl), Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It is believed to have a restricted distribution, and may occur between 3,500-3,800 m asl (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
135911		habitat	eng	Individuals of the species can be found under stones by day in humid páramo with abundant mosses, slightly above the village of Amaguaya (De la Riva 2007). The species presumably has direct development.
135911		population	eng	Although its population status is unknown, it could be common, given that the three known specimens were found within a half hour (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
135911		threats	eng	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
135912		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135912		distribution	eng	Brachycephalus ferruginus is known only from its type locality: Pico Marumbi (25 26' S; 48 55' W), municipality of Morretes, Parana state, southern Brazil, at an altitude 1200 masl (Alves et al., 2006).
135912		habitat	eng	The species is an Atlantic forest inhabitant. It is found in leaf litter and is active by day. Adult males were always exposed on the litter when calling. A female was found to contain three large, unpigmented maturing oocytes. Direct development of terrestrial eggs was described for Brachycephalus ephippium and it is suspected that this may also be the case for B. ferruginus (Alves et al., 2006).
135912		population	eng	The species is locally abundant (Alves et al., 2006).
135912		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135913		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135913		distribution	eng	The species is known for the type locality in Maracas, state of Bahia, and Matias Cardoso, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Caramaschi and Cardoso, 2006).
135913		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species can be found in epiphytic bromeliads, and males call from temporary pools (Caramaschi and Cardoso, 2006).
135913		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135913		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135964		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Charpa Forest Range, in the Vazhachal Forest Division, but this probably does not provide much in the way of effective protection. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135964		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Charpa Forest Range, in Vazhachal Forest Division, Thrissur District, Kerala State, southwestern India (Das and Dutta, 2006). Its elevational range in unknown.
135964		habitat	eng	There is no direct information, though the species presumably occurs in forest and breeds by larval development in ponds. The collection of a metamorph at the end of July indicates that the species breeds during the Southwest Monsoons (Das and Dutta, 2006).
135964		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from three adult males and a metamorph collected in 1986 (Das and Dutta, 2006).
135964		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to the species, but it is likely to be impacted by deforestation and extraction of of minor forest products (I. Das pers. comm.).
135965		conservation	eng	This species' type locality is close (within 2 km) of Parque Nacional Cerro Azul (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).
135965		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Craugastor cyanochthebius</span> is known from San Isidro, on the western flanks of Montaña del Cerro Azul, Sierra del Espíritu Santo, Departament of Copán, Honduras. The locality is at approximately 15 07' 38.2" N, 88 56' 13.8" W and the species was found between 900 and 1,200 masl (McCranie and Smith, 2006).
135965		habitat	eng	The species is found in Montane Subtropical (Premontane) habitats. Individuals have been found between 1730–1930 hours sitting on low vegetation (ca 0.25–1.00 m above the ground) in an area of karstic limestone outcropping during foggy and light rainy conditions. Craugastor charadra is also present at the locality (McCranie and Smith, 2006).
135965		population	eng	The species was described from seven specimens. It is considered to be a common species (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).
135965		threats	eng	The original vegetation in the San Isidro area has been heavily denuded and is now largely taken over by coffee and crop fields. However, the rugged nature of the isolated karstic limestone areas in the region has allowed their associated vegetation to remain largely intact (McCranie and Smith, 2006).
135966		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135966		distribution	eng	The species is reported to occur in the chaco region of Bolivia (Provinces of Beni and Santa Cruz), Paraguay and northern Argentina (Provinces of Salta, east of Jujuy, Formosa, Chaco, north of Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe and Corrientes), and in the regions of pantanal and cerrado in central Brazil (states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Tocantins, Goiás, Distrito Federal and Minas Gerais) (see Caramaschi, 2006).
135966		habitat	eng	The species is associated to savannah-type environments.
135966		population	eng	No population status information is available.
135966		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135967		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
135967		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern slopes of the Nakanai Mountains on the island of New Britain, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, at 520-865m asl, in the vicinity of the western end of Jacquinot Bay. It is likely to occur more widely, at least in the Nakanai Mountains.
135967		habitat	eng	This species lives in leaf-litter in primary and old secondary rainforests. It can probably tolerate some habitat alterations, but is unlikely to survive in completely open habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on aquatic habitats.
135967		population	eng	From the limited information currently available, it appears not to be a common species.
135967		threats	eng	The most obvious threats are forest logging and, if the species occurs more widely on New Britain, permanent conversion of habitat to oil palm plantations (the currently known locality is probably not at risk from this latter threat).
135968		conservation	eng	This species is found within Podocarpus National Park and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2006).
135968		distribution	eng	Centrolene mariaelenae is known from seven localities along the slopes of Cordillera Oriental, provinces of Napo, Orellana, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2006, 2007; Cisneros-Heredia and Guayasamin, 2006). The species can be found between 1400 and 1820 masl (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2007).
135968		habitat	eng	All individuals with natural history information were active at night, on leaves up to 5 m above water of small streams in primary or old secondary-growth Low Montane Evergreen Forest. Other centrolenid frogs in sympatry with this species <br/>are <em>Cochranella cochranae</em> and an undescribed species of <em>Centrolene</em> (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2006). The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135968		population	eng	The species is rare at all known localities, where usually just one or two specimens have been collected despite significant collection efforts (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
135968		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (deforestation) and water pollution (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008). Predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).
135985		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the boundaries of Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (Lehr et al., 2007). <br/><br/>Studies on the presence of the chytrid fungus are recommended for this species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008; J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).
135985		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella yanachaga</span> is only known from the Yanachaga Chemillén National Park, Cordillera Yanachaga, Province of Pasco, Department of Pasco, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2007).
135985		habitat	eng	The species can be found in cloud forest with a thick layer of moss covering the ground and tree trunks. Individuals have been found beneath a layer of moss and dirt about 10–20 cm below the surface on the side of a trail, resting on<br/>the tops of leaves (ca. 50 cm above the ground) and in trees. Syntopic species include Phrynopus bracki, Pristimantis mendax, and P. sagittulus. One gravid female was found to contain 136 unpigmented eggs (Lehr et al., 2007).
135985		population	eng	The species was seen as recently as 2007 and 2008. It was one of the most abundant species in the area (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).
135985		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135986		conservation	eng	In southeast Asia, this species is confirmed from only a single protected area (Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary in Viet Nam). In China the species occurs in the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve. Surveys are needed to verify its occurrence in adequately protected areas (particularly the Lao, Vietnames and Thai populations), and to identify any undiscovered populations (including in Myanmar, and possibly in India). The conservation of mature lowland rainforest is essentail for this species. The listing of 'Threatened' for <em>R. nigropalmatus</em> in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em>, 1992) probably refers to <em>R. reinwardtii</em>, at least in part.
135986		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and southwestern China (Mengyang in Jinghong County and Mengla County in Yunnan Province, and Longzhou and Pingxiang in Guangxi Province), south to the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bokeo, Khammouan and Phongsaly Provinces, Viet Nam (Gia Lai, Ha Tinh, Lao Cai, Quang Binh and Than Hoa Provinces), and northern and western Thailand (Doi Chiang Dao in Chiang Mai Province and "Me Wang, in northern Thailand") (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). Although there are likely to be some undiscovered populations, its distribution is probably severely fragmented due to the loss of mature lowland rainforests through much of its range, and Ohler and Delorme (2006) estimate that only about 1,500km2 of suitable habitat remains within its range. It is expected to occur in Myanmar, and a record from West Bengal in India needs confirmation (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It occurs up to about 1,400m asl, though it occurs mainly at lower elevations.
135986		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary evergreen rainforest with a closed canopy, generally at low elevations (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It appears to avoid forest on mountain slopes (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It has also been observed in forest edge near villages. It is a canopy species that makes foam nests above pools and ponds inside forests (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). Adults probably spend most of the time in the upper forest strata. It is an explosive breeder that apparently descends from the canopy only occasionally to congregate at breeding pools, attracting about a dozen animals.
135986		population	eng	In most places, the populations of this species are not large, though it is considered to be common in suitable habitat in southern China. Its rarity in museum collections is partly due to the small size of its breeding populations, and partly due to its arboreal behaviour (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). In one locality, more than ten males could be observed in a tree at a breeding site (Ohler and Delorme, 2006).
135986		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss of its rainforest habitat and potentially water pollution. Removal of mature lowland forest through logging, agricultural expansion and human settlements has probably reduced the available habitat to less than 1,500km2 (Ohler and Delorme, 2006).
135987		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135987		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and peninsular Thailand and presumably in adjacent Myanmar. There are records from: Pa Lao U, in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province; Pilok, near Thong Pha Phum, in Kanchanaburi Province; and from Punyan Waterfall, in Ranong Province (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006). An old record of <em>Amolops larutensis</em> from Chumphon presumably refers to this species (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006). The records from Punyan Waterfall are at 113m asl, but elevations are not given for the other locations.
135987		habitat	eng	This species is associated with streams and waterfalls in forest (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006). The tadpoles live in streams and sometimes cling to rocks near waterfalls (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006).
135987		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
135987		threats	eng	This species is presumably impacted by forest loss due to agriculture and logging.
135988		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve and the Ikwamba Forest Reserve.
135988		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania between 1,500 and 1,900m asl. It is thought likely to be endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains.
135988		habitat	eng	All records are from leaf litter in montane forest. It probably cannot tolerate forest clearance. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other members of its genus, without any dependence on water.
135988		population	eng	It is probably relatively common in suitable habitat within its small range.
135988		threats	eng	The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
135989		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135989		distribution	eng	The species is known from Darby Island (23 50' S,  76 11' W) and Bell Island (24 19' S, 76 32' W),  Exuma Cays, Long Island and San Salvador (Watling Island), Bahama Islands (Goin, 1955).
135989		habitat	eng	No habitat and ecology information are currently available for this species.
135989		population	eng	The description was based on a type series consisting of 49 individuals, although other revised specimens include many more. No current population status information is available for this species.
135989		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
135990		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further fieldwork is needed to investigate the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007).
135990		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bonaccord, in Thiruvanathapuram District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of southern India (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). It is not known where it was collected on the Bonaccord estate, and so the elevation of its occurrence is not known (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). It is likely to occur more widely.
135990		habitat	eng	Almost nothing is known about this species, with only a single specimen collected from unknown habitat (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). However, if it is similar to other members of the genus, it is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae, and the adults are likely to be subterranean. The holotype was most probably found by locals or estate workers while they were helping to collect the caecilian <em>Gegeneophis ramaswamii</em> for physiological studies at the University of Kerala (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). Previous collections of hundreds of <em>G. ramaswamii</em> at Bonaccord have mostly occurred in agricultural land within the tea estate at around 600m asl, and it is possible that <em>U. oommeni</em> occurs more frequently in other habitats in the area, including adjacent forest and/or higher altitude sites (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007).
135990		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007).
135990		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
135991		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135991		distribution	eng	This species is known only its type locality, 30km north of Kohima, in Nagaland State, northeastern India, at 1,421m asl (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely to occur more widely.
135991		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected during a rainy day from near a residential area with trees (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006), suggesting that it can adapt to some anthropogenic habitat. Its natural habitat is presumably montane forest, though this has not yet been verified. The only specimen was not close to any water body (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is probably arboreal, breeding in tree holes like other members of the genus, but there is no information on this.
135991		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype.
135991		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
135992		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
135992		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from Misima Island in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It has been found in three locations at 200-300m asl: the Misma mine site (152° 47.761' E, 10° 39.540' S); the North Dump Rainforest (152° 47.876' E, 10° 39.848' S); and, Boma Village (152° 47.064' E, 10° 39.090' S) (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It can be expected to occur more widely on the island.
135992		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been found in leaf litter on the rainforest floor. One specimen was collected from moist, dense rainforest regrowth of an old garden adjacent to rain forest. It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.
135992		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance, but it appears to be moderately common in rainforest (Richards and Oliver, 2007).
135992		threats	eng	The rainforest on Misima has been fragmented by intensive human activities, including mining and small-scale agriculture (S. Richards, pers. comm.), though the species appears to survive at least in old regrowth.
135993		conservation	eng	The species appears to be endemic to a very restricted area. Therefore, survival may depend on the development of a specific in situ conservation policy because of the high extinction risk the taxa with small geographic ranges face (Di-Bernardo et al., 2006).
135993		distribution	eng	<em>Melanophryniscus admirabilis</em> is only known from the type locality: Perau de Janeiro (52 18' W, 28 51' S), Municipality of Arvorezinha, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Di-Bernardo et al., 2006).
135993		habitat	eng	<em>Melanophryniscus admirabilis</em> occurs along the southern slopes of the Brazilian Southern Plateau. All known specimens were caught during the day inside marginal ponds or over flattened stone formations along the left bank of the Forqueta River, at 616 masl. The vegetation is dominated by riparian native forest. Some natural history observations indicate that the species may have reproductive activity during October. In this month some clutches and tadpoles were recorded inside the marginal ponds, and many males were heard calling (Di-Bernardo et al., 2006). <br/><br/>This species is associated to lotic waters. Although clutch size is not known, it is very possible that the species may have similar features to those of other members of the genus (e.g. just over 100 eggs per female) (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).
135993		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species, given that, although the number of individuals observed tends to be high, members of this genus are known to be explosive breeders, so it is likely that when breeding individuals are observed, a large proportion of the existing population may be involved in the observation (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).
135993		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species, although its restricted distribution could make it vulnerable to stochastic events (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).
135994		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs of this species.
135994		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the southwestern foothills of Mount Nlonako, between the villages Ekomtolo and Badjong, in southwestern Cameroon at around 450m asl. Future research might show it to occur more widely.
135994		habitat	eng	This species has been found at a site which dominated by lowland and submontane secondary rain forest. Animals have been found along the bank of a small creek close to a waterfall, either in the leaf-litter, or perching in low vegetation. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
135994		population	eng	Little information is available. Eleven specimens were collected during surveys of Mount Nlonako over a six-year period.
135994		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably at risk from agricultural expansion and removal of timber, but little information is available.
135995		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecology and conservation needs of this species.
135995		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Uganda (Lake Bunyonyi) to northwestern Rwanda (Ruhengeri and Rwaza near lake Ruhondo) (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.). Its range is poorly known, and possibly occurs also more widely. It has been found from 1,220 to 1,799m asl (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.).
135995		habitat	eng	It can be found on the margins of lakes, streams and rivers, especially in forested areas. It breeds in water by larval development.
135995		population	eng	It is very common on Bushara Island.
135995		threats	eng	The quality of its habitat is probably declining due to intense farming, human settlement, and deforestation which increases siltation of streams during the rainy season. Many streams in non-forested regions may be uninhabitable by tadpoles due to intense siltation during the rains (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.).
135996		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135996		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphargus laurae</em> is known from "Loreto, Upper Rio Napo" [= Loreto region, near the town of Loreto](ca. 77 20' S, 00 40' W, ca. 500 m asl), lower slopes of the Sumaco Volcano, on the Cordillera Oriental, eastern slopes of the Andes, Province of Orellana, Ecuador. This area of Amazonian foothills corresponds to the trapezoidal plateau limited to the northeast and west by the Cordillera Oriental (the eastern range of the Andes in Ecuador), to the southeast by the Cordillera de Galeras, to the south by the Napo River, and to the north and east by the Payamino River. This plateau covers almost 1200 km2, and the small town of Loreto is located within it (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2007).
135996		habitat	eng	The adult male holotype was likely found along a stream that runs through the Foothill Evergreen forests of the Loreto plateau. <em>Nymphargus cochranae</em>, <em>Cochranella flavopunctata</em>, an undescribed centrolenid, and an unidentified glassfrog were also collected in the Loreto region and may occur in sympatry with <em>N. laurae</em>. In addition, <em>Hypsiboas boans</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendropsophus triangulum</span> were collected by J. Olalla (the holotype collector) at the locality in the same month that <em>N. laurae</em> was collected, which suggests possible sympatry (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2007). No reproduction information is currently available, but based on the reproductive mode of all other congeneric glassfrogs (and most members of the family Centrolenidae), it is possible that <em>N. laurae</em> may have arboreal eggs, placed as clutches attached to leaves overhanging running water sources (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2008).
135996		population	eng	The species is only known from the holotype. Despite the fact that it was recently described, the only known specimen was collected during the 1950s and recent surveys in the Loreto plateau and surrounding areas have not found extant populations of <em>N. laurae</em>. Collections during the 1950s in the Loreto plateau were intensive and over several years because the collector (part of the Olalla family) lived in the area; however, only one specimen of <em>N. laurae</em> was ever collected (versus numerous specimens of other species of centrolenids), suggesting that even at the time of collection (when the quality of the habitats was better) the species was at least uncommon  (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2008).
135996		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the Loreto Plateau (the only known locality for the species) is extensive and most forested areas in the plateau are gone. In general, the entire northern foothills of Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador, where <em>N. laurae</em> occurs, are widely deforested and heavily populated (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2008).
135997		conservation	eng	The Reserva Biológica de Una is a protected area including all gradients of forest regeneration, along with plantation areas (Pimenta et al., 2005).
135997		distribution	eng	Physalaemus camacan is found at the Reserva Biológica de Una (15 10' S, 39 04' W; 35 m above sea level), Municipality of Una, state of Bahia, Brazil.
135997		habitat	eng	The area of Una is characterized by the existence of large, well-preserved or secondary forest patches connected by agricultural forest systems, especially cacao and rubber tree plantations. Physalaemus camacan was found in small shallow ponds left by a temporary stream inside a well-preserved forest patch. Males call from the edges of ponds or floating on shallow water, and when disturbed, they jump in the water and hide beneath foam nests (Pimenta et al., 2005).
135997		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
135997		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
135998		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
135998		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality: north end of the town of Vilhena, km 16, 12 43' S, 60 07'W, state of Rondonia, Brazil (Heyer and Crombie, 2005).
135998		habitat	eng	Leptodactylus lauramiriamae is known only from a single Cerrado enclave in a predominantly Amazonian rainforest landscape. Individuals of the species were found under trash within the cerrado habitat (Heyer and Crombie, 2005).
135998		population	eng	No population status is available for this species.
135998		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species. It appears to live in disturbed and degraded environments.
135999		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
135999		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella guillei</span> is only known from the type locality: ca 4 km E of Chullina (3,590 m asl), Cantón Charazani, Province of Saavedra, Department of La Paz, Bolivia. This locality is on the top of the mountain range that separates the valleys of the Río Charazani and Río Quillhuacota, on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera de Apolobamba (De la Riva 2007). It is thought to have restricted geographical and altitudinal ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
135999		habitat	eng	This species inhabits an area that is heavily cultivated, with old terraces. Frogs of this species can be heard calling in the morning from a patch of forest with ferns and mosses. Males call when mist rolls over the vegetation (De la Riva 2007). This species presumably reproduces by direct development.
135999		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
135999		threats	eng	Traditional agriculture has been reported for the type locality (De la Riva 2007). There is limited connectivity between forest patches. If relictual forest formations disappear, the species may also disappear with them. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136000		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
136000		distribution	eng	This species was known only Poojagodde (=Poojagoda) Estate, Ramboda, Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007), but is now considered to be Extinct. Poojagoda is in fact a division of the Frotoft Estate, Ramboda (7°04’30”N, 80°42’15”E), a tea plantation approximately 1,400m asl (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). The Pedro Forest Reserve, which extends along a forested ridge bordering Frotoft Estate about 1 km north of Poojagoda, is now the only remaining undisturbed habitat in this area (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, extensive surveys of this forest have failed to detect this species (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136000		habitat	eng	One of the specimens apparently had eggs attached to its abdomen, a form of brooding hithertoo unknown in frogs (Günther, 1876; Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. (2007) give reasons for believing that this species in fact attached its eggs to leaves, as is also done by <em>Philautus femoralis</em>. This species presumably lived in montane forest and bred by direct development.
136000		population	eng	Attempts to locate this species in the vicinity of the type locality in the period 1993–2003 have been unsuccessful, and it is now considered to be Extinct (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is known from only two specimens collected in 1876 or earlier (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136000		threats	eng	Clearance of the cloud forest adjacent to Frotoft Estate in 1978 might have lead to the extinction of this species  (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). The clearance of this forest resulted in the extinction of <em>Albizia lankaensis</em> (Mimosaceae), a tree species formerly endemic to this site (Kostermans 1980).
136001		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur within the Parque Botânico do Morro do Baú (Mun. Ilhota) and Parque dos Nascentes (Blumenau)(A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).
136001		distribution	eng	<em>Leptodactylus nanus</em> is known from the northern region of the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil (Kwet, 2007) and may also occur in adjacent Paraná (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008). It is found from sea level to ca 800 masl (morro do Baú, Mun. Ilhota), perhaps even a bit higher (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).
136001		habitat	eng	<em>Leptodactylus nanus</em> can be found on the slopes leading to the mountains of the Atlantic Forest domain (within the forest and/or close to it), in transitional areas, and in urbanized areas (close to roads, gardens, etc.)(A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008). The species undergoes all of its ontogenetic development inside foam nests, which are usually laid far from water (Lutz, 1947).
136001		population	eng	The species appears to be locally abundant, although its geographic distribution is not considered to be overly extensive (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).
136001		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136002		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136002		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Kon Du, Mang Canh village, in Konplong district, Kon Tum Province, southern Vietnam (14°41'25'' N, 108°19'31'' E), at 1,210m asl (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely to occur more widely.
136002		habitat	eng	The type specimen was found in a hollow of a big tree 4m above the ground. The hollow was filled with water<br/>(depth about 20 cm), leaf litter and bark. In addition to the type specimen, some tadpoles (more than 5) and two adults of this species were also found. <em>Theloderma stellatum</em> was found on the same tree, and <em>T. gordoni</em> was recorded on hollow trees 50m distant. The general habitat was primary montane forest. It is not known whether or not this species can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
136002		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype, and two other adults and some tadpoles found at the same time.
136002		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
136003		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one small conservation park (C. Hoskin, pers. comm.). Management of <em>L. myola</em> should focus on protection and revegetation of the stream habitat and surrounding rainforest throughout its range, and include strict control of impacts from the catchments that may affect water quality, water flow and sedimentation (Hoskin, 2007). There should be a prohibition on moving and releasing adults or larvae of both <em>L. myola</em> and <em>L. genimaculata</em> throughout the Kuranda area, as this could lead to a breakdown in the isolating mechanisms between the two species (Hoskin, 2007).
136003		distribution	eng	This species has a very small distribution in northeastern Queensland, Australia. It is known from short sections of 13 streams draining into the Barron River in the Kuranda area (between the localities of Kuranda, Fairyland, Myola, Mantaka, Kowrowa, and Oak Forest). The distribution is bound to the north, east and south by the northern lineage of<em> Litoria genimaculata</em> (which also occurs at most <em>Litoria myola</em> sites), and to the west by the limit of rainforest distribution (Hoskin 2007). All sites are between 320 and 360m asl. The extent of occurrence of <em>L. myola</em> is 13.5 km2 (calculated as a minimum convex polygon that includes all records) (Hoskin 2007).
136003		habitat	eng	All records of <em>L. myola</em> are from rainforest along permanent and ephemeral streams (Hoskin, 2007). Rainforest along the streams ranges from mesophyll vine forest to rainforest regrowth dominated by <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Calamus</em>. <em>Litoria myola</em> is a stream breeder (Hoskin, 2007). Stream substrate at the sites ranges from rock and gravel through to coarse sand, and stream gradient at all sites is low. Males were only encountered along the streams, at high density at some sites (Hoskin, 2007). Females were rarely encountered, with most found on the streams, primarily as gravid individuals, and always where <em>L. myola</em> males were calling (Hoskin, 2007). Occasionally, females were sighted perched high in trees, and several females were encountered a considerable distance from the streams (Hoskin, 2007). Metamorphs were rarely encountered (on streamside vegetation) and juveniles were not observed (Hoskin, 2007). Therefore, as is in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Richards and Alford, 2005; C.J. Hoskin, unpubl. data), <em>L. myola</em> utilizes streams as breeding habitat, primarily in spring and summer, and nonbreeding adults and subadults utilize the surrounding rainforest. Given the apparent rarity of non-breeding individuals on the streams, and how infrequently the species is encountered in the surrounding rainforest, it would appear that <em>L. myola</em> utilizes the mid and upper forest levels when not breeding (Hoskin, 2007).
136003		population	eng	<em>Litoria myola</em> is abundant along only one stream, where it occurs at a density of up to 50 males per 100m of stream (Hoskin, 2007), a density similar to or higher than recorded at sites across the range of <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Laurance, McDonald and Speare, 1996; Richards and Alford, 2005; C.J. Hoskin, pers. observ.). Although <em>L. myola</em> was consistently recorded at a high density along this stream, the four smaller monitored populations were inconsistently detected and declined in abundance from common to rare over the monitoring period (Hoskin, 2007). The decline appeared to be due an extended drought between 2002 and 2005, during which most streams in the area stopped flowing and several were completely dry for consecutive years. This was particularly the case for streams on the drier western end of the species' range and populations at these sites may be particularly susceptible to dry periods as they breed in ephemeral streams on sandy soils in marginal rainforest habitat (Hoskin, 2007). Intensive surveys in the region in early 2007, following a year of reasonably high rainfall, detected <em>L. myola</em> at all known sites (13 streams), although it remained rare at four of the five monitoring sites (Hoskin, 2007). Based on stream surveys of mature males, and assuming an equal sex ratio, the total breeding population was estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals in the summer of greatest abundance and considerably less in other summers (Hoskin, 2007). This consisted of a population on one stream estimated at 500 mature individuals and smaller populations of between ten and 100 individuals across the other streams (Hoskin, 2007).
136003		threats	eng	<em>Litoria myola</em> is threatened by: (1) clearing of rainforest (including regenerating rainforest); (2) impacts to the streams in terms of water flow, water quality, and sedimentation; and (3) fragmentation of habitat and breeding populations (Hoskin, 2007). The species is potentially threatened by: (1) altered levels of hybridization and/or competition with <em>L. genimaculata</em> due to captive breeding and release or movement of individuals of either species into or out of the Kuranda region; (2) frog chytrid fungus; and (3) stochastic events (Hoskin, 2007). The sites where <em>L. myola</em> has been recorded are generally unprotected strips of riparian rainforest along streams whose catchments are being heavily altered by rural residential development and more intensive urbanisation (Hoskin, 2007). Disturbance to upstream sections of the stream catchments has the potential to detrimentally impact the breeding habitat of <em>L. myola</em> by affecting stream flow, water quality, or sedimentation (Hoskin, 2007). <em>L. myola</em> sites are subject to considerable disturbance from clearing, road construction, dam construction, and run-off of sediment, chemicals and rubbish from the catchments (Hoskin, 2007). The degree of connectivity between the populations in each of the catchments is not known. Given the genetic similarity between <em>L. myola</em> and <em>L. genimaculata</em>, the effect of disease and parasites on <em>L. myola</em> would be predicted to be similar to that seen in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Hoskin, 2007). <em>Litoria genimaculata</em> is currently common throughout the Australian Wet Tropics but underwent population declines in the early 1990s (Laurance <em>et al.</em>, 1996; McDonald and Alford, 1999). Concurrent declines in several other Wet Tropics stream-breeding frog species resulted in complete disappearance of some species and the decline of others from upland areas (Laurance <em>et al.</em>, 1996; McDonald and Alford, 1999). A chytridiomycete fungus (<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em>) has been identified as the most likely proximate cause of these declines (Berger <em>et al.</em>, 1998), and chytrid is known to be a source of mortality in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Speare and Berger, 2005). Populations of <em>L. genimaculata</em> appear to have recovered to pre-decline levels across the Wet Tropics (McDonald and Alford, 1999; Richards and Alford, 2005). The effect of chytrid on <em>L. myola</em> is not known but is assumed to be similar to its effect on <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Hoskin, 2007). <em>Litoria myola</em> is parasitized by a Dipteran fly (<em>Batrachomyia</em> sp.), but it is not known whether or not this has a negative impact on populations (Hoskin, 2007). Hybridization between <em>L. myola</em> and the surrounding populations of <em>L. genimaculata</em> is very limited (Hoskin <em>et al</em>., 2005). Interaction between these two species as it currently stands is not a threat; indeed, it appears to be the driving force for speciation of <em>L. myola</em> from <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Hoskin <em>et al</em>., 2005). However, the reproductive isolation (and competitive interaction) between these two species may be in part density or habitat dependent, and if this were so, the integrity of <em>L. myola</em> could be compromised by reductions in population size or translocations of <em>L. myola</em> frogs or tadpoles out of, or <em>L. genimaculata</em> into, the Kuranda area (Hoskin, 2007).
136004		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in national parks and other protected areas.
136004		distribution	eng	Range includes large areas of Canada and the western and north-central United States from the Great Bear Lake in Canada's Northwest Territories to northern Ontario, southward to Arizona, New Mexico, northern Oklahoma, Missouri (possibly northern Arkansas), and Illinois; disjunctly also in southern Ontario, southern Quebec, northern New York, and northwestern Vermont (Conant and Collins 1991, Stebbins 2003, Lemmon et al. 2007). Elevational range extends to above 12,000 feet (3,670 meters) in Colorado and Utah (Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).
136004		habitat	eng	Habitat is mostly the vicinity of nonflowing bodies of water and associated wetlands and meadows; sometimes these frogs cross up to a few hundred meters of upland habitat between wetlands, and they may overwinter in upland sites adjacent to wetlands; periods of inactivity may be spent in water, among thick wetland vegetation, under objects on the ground, or in rodent burrows (Hammerson 1999). Breeding sites include marshes, rain pools, glacial kettle ponds, snow-melt pools, bog ponds, marshy edges of lakes and reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water with little or no current; breeding pools may be temporary or permanent, and they usually contain aquatic or wetland plants or submerged terrestrial vegetation (Hammerson 1999).
136004		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Many occurrences have good viability.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and presumably exceeds 1,000,000.<br/><br/>Area of occupany, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined somewhat over the long term, especially in the southeastern portion of the range where habitat change has been most extensive, but the extent of decline may not exceed 25 percent.<br/><br/>Current trend is not well documented, but area of occupany, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.
136004		threats	eng	No major threats are known, but locally some populations probably are declining as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.
136005		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Cerros de Escazú protected zone, and Parque Nacional Tapantí and Reserva Biológica Cerro las Vueltas. Additional studies are needed into the threats to this recently described species.
136005		distribution	eng	This recently described species has been recorded from the northern slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca and the Cerros de Escazú, of Costa Rica (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). Animals have been collected between 1,745 and 2,500m asl (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136005		habitat	eng	This species is found in subtropical montane tropical moist forest to cloud forest habitats (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). The mean annual temperature within the species range in 12-15 ºC, with between 1,825 to 2,300mm of annual rainfall (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is a relatively arboreal species that has often been collected from bromeliads, although animals have also been captured under surface litter and the bark of logs (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.
136005		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
136005		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by some conversion of forest to agricultural land at lower elevations in its range. Additional studies are needed into the threats to this species.
136006		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136006		distribution	eng	Phrynopus kotosh is only known from the type locality in the eastern part of the Cordillera Central, Peru: 10.8 km W of Huancapallac at 2950 masl, Province of Huánuco, Department of Huánuco, Peru (Lehr, 2007).
136006		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the species' natural history. Presumably it breeds by direct development.
136006		population	eng	The species is only known from seven specimens that comprised the type series, collected in 1969.
136006		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136007		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara North Forest Reserve. The extent of its distribution within the Ukaguru Mountains needs to be assessed. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
136007		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one site in the Mamiwa-Kisara North Forest Reserve in the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania, at around 1800m asl, and it appears to be very rare. It is probably endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains.
136007		habitat	eng	All specimens were in montane forest in a valley dominated by the tree fern <em>Cyathea manniana</em>. The animals were found on vegetation up to 1.3m from the ground during rainy evenings along a stream and close to standing water.In terms of microhabitat selection it was most often found on small trees, shrubs or bushes, with males calling from exposed sites. It is presumably a live-bearing species, like other members of its genus.
136007		population	eng	There is little information on its abundance. Ten specimens were collected on its discovery, and there has been only one subsequent record.
136007		threats	eng	The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
136008		conservation	eng	The forest on Mount Malinao is not formally protected, butis  owned by a private geothermal company, which protects it to a certain extent by keeping out squatters. However, conservation initiatives aimed at protecting habitat of this species are urgently needed, and could also guarantee the future supply of clean water for the human populations surrounding the southern and eastern foothills of Mount Malinao (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007).
136008		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Malinao, in the municipalities of Tiwi and Malinao, Albay Province, on the Bicol Peninsula, in the south of Luzon Island, in the Philippines, between 900 and 1,160m asl (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). It is presumed to have a small distribution, but might occur more widely on the central geological component of the Bicol peninsula (for example on Mounts Isarog, Bulusan and Labo). It could possibly occur even further afield on Catanduanes and the Caramoan Peninsula.
136008		habitat	eng	This species is currently known only from mid-elevational transitional forest between lower- and mid-montane<br/>dipterocarp forest communities (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Calling males exhibit a microhabitat preference unique among Philippine <em>Platymantis</em>, calling solely from the edge of steep cliffs along deep arroyo-like creek ravines (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). These frogs were observed at the upper edges of a few cliffs, 15–35m above the level of the water below, and were situated only on dry patches of soil directly underneath the overhanging edge of the cliffs’ upper lip. Calling males face out into the forest, away from the cliff edge, and calls could be heard 50–75m away in the forest below (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). In one locality, specimens were only collected 30–40m away from water, at the upper edge of a slope (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Despite extensive searches below and above cliff ledges on the plateau above, individuals were only encountered along the narrow strip of exposed soil at the edge of the overhanging and collapsing cliff edge (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). The predominant vegetation is lower montane rainforest, the dominant trees being Podocarpaceae (<em>Podocarpus</>, <em>Dacycarpus</em>), Lauraceae, some Moraceae, Fabaceae (<em>Lithocarpus</em>) and Melastomaceae (<em>Medenilla</em>), with some stilt-rooted Pandanaceae (<em>Pandanus</em>), and many epiphytic shrubs, ferns, and orchids with moderate to thick moss cover on branches and trunks (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). During surveys on Mount Malinao, biologists spent several weeks at the lower edge of the forest (approx. 700–800m asl) and at higher elevations between the type locality and the mountain’s peak (1,550m als), but <em>Platymantis diesmosi</em> was only encountered between 900 and 1,160m asl (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). It has not been found outside forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence on water.
136008		population	eng	It is a very common species locally.
136008		threats	eng	The available evidence suggests that this species is restricted to a single habitat type: the transition zone between lower- and mid-montane dipterocarp forests (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Near the type locality, extensive slash-and-burn shifting agriculture and selective logging is taking place throughout mid-montane elevations on Mount Malinao (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). In 2001, the type locality was barely 100m above some of the most severe disturbances on the eastern face of Mount Malinao, and it is feared that continued degradation of the forest edge at this site will soon extend upwards to the type locality (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Because this area also supplies the majority of freshwater to the municipality of Tiwi, continued and unchecked exploitation of this fragile transition zone habitat will threaten not only the continued existence of <em>Platymantis diesmosi</em>, but also the future availability of freshwater for humans in the Tiwi watershed (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). In addition to agricultural expansion, extensive timber poaching is taking place within the forest.
136009		conservation	eng	The species is found within the Juan Pablo Peñaloza National Park (La Marca, 2007).
136009		distribution	eng	<em>Pristimantis thyellus</em> is found almost exclusively in Páramo El Batallón, state of Táchira, Venezuela, between 2900 and 3800 masl. The type locality is found within a protected area [Juan Pablo Peñaloza National Park (ca 8 10’48’’ N, 71 54’08’’ W, 3125 masl), municipality of Guaraque, state of Mérida, close to the boundary with the state of Táchira, Venezuela] (La Marca, 2007).
136009		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species can be found in shrubby páramo habitat, under rocks, on top of relatively moist soil.  One individual was found close to a clutch of ca 20 x 15 cm, which contained 34 cream-yellowish eggs laid in a single egg mass (La Marca, 2007).
136009		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136009		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136010		conservation	eng	It is known only from the Parque Nacional El Cusuco. Further conservation of the habitat of this species is needed within this protected area. Additional field surveys are needed to determine whether this species ranges more widely than is currently known.
136010		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Honduras, where it has been recorded from the Parque Nacional El Cusuco in the Sierra del Omoa. It is known only from this single locality, and it is certainly possible that it is endemic to the area, although futher studies are needed to confirm this. It has been recorded at elevations of 1780 to 1800m asl.
136010		habitat	eng	It has only been recorded from pirmary tropical cloud forest. It has been found under leaf litter close to streams. Little more is currently known about this species.
136010		population	eng	This recently described species is known only from two specimens.
136010		threats	eng	There is some habitat loss taking place within the Parque Nacional El Cusuco, resulting from shifting ariculture and conversion to coffee plantations.
136011		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project Area where its habitat is conserved. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136011		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Huon Peninsula, in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea at 1,100-1,830m asl (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It has been recorded from just two sites, Surim and Albagumut, 30 km apart (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It does not appear to occur at Dendawang (2,000m asl) or at Tarona (200–400m asl) despite the close proximity of these sites to Abalgamut and Surim respectively, suggesting that this species may be restricted to wet forests at altitudes between about 1,000 and 1,850m asl (Richards and Oliver, 2007). Within this elevational band, it is expected to occur in other sites, at least on the Huon Peninsula, and perhaps elsewhere.
136011		habitat	eng	It has been found in extremely wet, lower-montane rainforest (Richards and Oliver, 2007). Thick moss covers most exposed surfaces in the forest (Richards and Oliver, 2007). At Surim this species was found calling from the ground or from logs on the forest floor, usually in positions hidden by low foliage (Richards and Oliver, 2007). At Abalgamut males called from more elevated positions (up to 1.5m above the ground), normally from within dense mossy clumps on the side of tree trunks or on tree branches above the ground (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence on water.
136011		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
136011		threats	eng	The forest where it occurs is reasonably well protected in a Wildlife Management Area (S. Richards, pers. comm.), but overall there is no information on threats.
136012		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136012		distribution	eng	Pristimantis amydrotus is only known from the ridge above the base camp near Chorro Blanco, ca. 4.5 km (airline) NE of Monte Seco (ca. 06 51’ S, 79 06’ W, ca. 1500 masl), Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Duellman and Lehr, 2007).
136012		habitat	eng	The species possibly occurs in isolated patches of cloud forest (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).
136012		population	eng	The species is only known from the type material, comprised of two specimens.
136012		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136013		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
136013		distribution	eng	This species is known from West New Britain Province on New Britain Island, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. All records are from the northern Nakani Mountains, at 1,500–1,700m a.s.l. on a ridge between the Ivule and Sigole rivers (05°33.1129S, 151°04.2699E) (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). Its true distribution probably includes similar forested high-elevation habitats throughout the Nakanai Mountains and perhaps other mountain ranges on New Britain.
136013		habitat	eng	It is a species known from montane rainforest, including El Niño-damaged <em>Nothophagus</em> forest with a fairly open canopy and a dense secondary understory of climbing bamboo and <em>Pandanus</em> screw palms. It appears to be dependent on <em>Pandanus</em> stands, perching on leaf-fronds 2–4m above the ground (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has never been observed to perch in adjacent understory vegetation or bushes (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). Dense congregations of calling individuals have been observed in areas where <em>Pandanus</em> stands were plentiful (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). This species presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on aquatic habitats, laying eggs in leaf axils. It can probably survive in selectively logged areas but not in completely opened up habitats (J. Foufopolos pers. comm.).
136013		population	eng	It is common in its only known locality.
136013		threats	eng	No direct information is available on threats to this species. However, it could be impacted by ongoing commercial logging on New Britain, and also the effects of global climate change (droughts bringing fire which destroy its habitat).
136014		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
136014		distribution	eng	The range of this species is extremely unclear following its separation from <em>Xenopus laevis</em>. For the purposes of this assessment we have assumed that all animals in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo east of 28ºE refer to this species.  It occurs up to 3,000m asl. We therefore consider that all animals from Zambia southwards refer to <em>Xenopus laevis</em>, and all animals in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Congo west of 28ºE refer to <em>X. laevis sudanensis</em>.
136014		habitat	eng	It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.
136014		population	eng	It is an extremely abundant, and often increasing, species.
136014		threats	eng	It is very successful and adaptable, and is not facing any significant threats.
136015		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136015		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis aquilonaris</span> is known from three sites: Alto Samaniego (2,200 masl), "Quebrada Parramata", Rıo Blanco basin, (2,500 masl), and Rıo Blanco riverbank (2,000 masl), all in District of Carmen de la Frontera, Huancabamba province, Department of Piura, Peru. The species is found in montane forests at elevations of 2,000–2,500 masl (Lehr et al., 2007).
136015		habitat	eng	The species is found in humid montane forest. Individuals were found during the day on the ground and at night on the ground and in low vegetation up to 0.5 m above the ground. Sympatric anurans include Pristimantis caeruleonotus, P. cajamarcensis, P. colodactylus, and P. galdi (Lehr et al., 2007).
136015		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136015		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136016		conservation	eng	Both known localities are in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project area (Richards and Oliver, 2006), where the habitat is conserved. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, and conservation needs.
136016		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in southern Papua New Guinea: the Darai Plateau in Southern Highlands Province at 420m asl; Dark End Lumber in Gulf Province (Richards and Oliver, 2006). It probably occurs more widely, and a specimen from Kokoda in the Owen Stanley Range might refer to this species (Richards and Oliver, 2006).
136016		habitat	eng	This species has been found only in trees in primary rainforest where males call at night from branches high above the ground (Richards and Oliver, 2006). Its breeding requirements are unknown, though it possibly lays eggs in tree holes, and presumably breeds by larval development.
136016		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance, as it is a canopy species which is hard to find.
136016		threats	eng	The habitat where the species is known to occur is reasonably well conserved. However, the species probably occurs more widely, and might be found in less well protected sites. It is probably dependent on intact rainforest.
136017		conservation	eng	The species can be found within the boundaries of Tunari National Park. However, the rest of the species' distribution falls outside of protected areas (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136017		distribution	eng	The type locality is Tolota (= Tolata), Jordán Province, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, 17 32’ S, 65 55’ W. The species can also be found in the high valleys of the departments of Cochabamba and northern Potosí, 2700-4400 masl. The most distant localities are ca 300 km apart (airline) (De la Riva, 2005).
136017		habitat	eng	Telmatobius hintoni occurs in streams and pools in the high valleys of the departments of Cochabamba and northern Potosí (De la Riva, 2005). It occupies dry valleys and puna ecosystems (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008). It is a completely aquatic species inhabiting permanent streams and temporary pools associated to permanent streams (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136017		population	eng	The species was described in 1940 and was considered to be abundant until recently. Populations in Cordillera Tunari, Department of Cochabamba, were very abundant in 1998; however, there has been no subsequent additional information (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136017		threats	eng	Threats to this species include pollution, human consumption and perhaps chytrid fungus (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136018		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
136018		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from a tributary of the Nam Tha River, in Nam Tha Commune, Van Ban District, Lao Cai Province, in northern Vietnam, at 640m asl (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is expected to occur more widely.
136018		habitat	eng	All records have been from along streams in submontane evergreen forest (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has been found on riverside banks, on rocks in the torrent, and on low-lying branches (0.5–1 m above ground) adjacent to the water (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). In the area where <em>R. cucae</em> is found, the Nam Tha is completely forested on both sides (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). All rivers and streams in the area are geomorphologically variable: bottoms vary from rocky to sandy; banks vary from steep and rocky to low with humus and vegetation (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). <em>Rana cucae</em> has also been found inside the forest within 100m of water on the forest floor, on logs, and in trees (up to 4m above ground)  (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). This forest is composed of stands of mixed hardwood, bamboo and banana (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). Males were calling from leaves on small branches (0.5–4 m above the ground) directly beside streams (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). Tadpoles are unknown (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006), but presumably develop in rivers.
136018		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species in its only known site (R. Bain, pers. comm.).
136018		threats	eng	The only locality known so far for this species might no longer exist, as it was being surveyed for a hydro-electric project at the time of collection (R. Bain, pers. comm.). The planned high-water mark of the river valley was dozens of metres above the collection sites of this species (R. Bain, pers. comm.). The species is probably also affected by forest loss for agriculture and logging (R. Bain, pers. comm.).
136019		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR, Russia and Georgia. It is present in protected areas in Russia and Georgia, and was re-introduced in the Caucasian Nature Reserve. It is present in some protected areas in Turkey.  Control of invasive raccoons is necessary to help stop the decline of this species.
136019		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the western Caucasus in southern Russia and Georgia (in the mountain forest belt on the north-western and south-western slopes of the Main Caucasian Ridge), through northwestern Armenia and northern Turkey west to the Bosphorus Strait. It has been recorded from near sea level (Tabbaria Lake) up to around 2,750m asl (in Turkey)
136019		habitat	eng	It is found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of birch, oaks, eastern hornbeams, alders, chestnuts, beach and rhododendrons) up to subalpine meadows. Reproduction occurs in lakes, ponds (including temporary pools), large puddles, drainage canals, roadside ditches in meadows, slow-flowing streams and stream pools in open areas near or within forests. The number of eggs varies between 50 and 100. It can occur in some slightly modified habitats.
136019		population	eng	The species is sporadically distributed over much of its range, but is common in suitable habitats.
136019		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to habitat loss.  In the Western Caucasus, this species is threatened by predation from the introduced raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>).  In breeding ponds, the raccoon has been found to consume 50% of reproductive adults per year. Construction and building along the Black Sea coastline impacting the northern Turkish population. Over one-hundred dams are planned for the north-eastern part of its range in Turkey which would negatively impact the species. Within the Caucasus, habitat loss and fragmentation (through forest destruction, destruction of wetlands, overgrazing by cattle, urbanization, industrial and agrochemical pollution) are negatively impacting populations. In the Caucasus it is threatened by collection for the pet trade.
136020		conservation	eng	It occurs in the protected area on the Wandammen Peninsula (R. Günther pers. comm.). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.
136020		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is currently known only from the eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula (Cenderawasih Bay), in Papua Province, Indonesia, at 350-850m asl (Günther, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.
136020		habitat	eng	It is found in a primary rainforest at altitudes above 350m asl, and animals prefer slopes with exposed stones and small rocks (Günther, 2006). Some specimens were found a few metres away from rocks on leaf litter covering humus or clay soil (Günther, 2006). Nearly all calling males maintained a position at a crevice or an overhanging rock or stone (Günther, 2006). This is direct developing species in which the males exhibit parental care by guarding the terrestrial eggs and transporting the hatched froglets on their backs (Günther, 2006). It can probably tolerate a certain level of habitat disturbance, but is unlikely to be able to survive in opened-up habitats (R. Günther pers. comm.).
136020		population	eng	It is a common species with more than 100 calling males counted during a walk of 4 km (Günther, 2006).
136020		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to this species at present, but more information is needed (R. Günther pers. comm.).
136021		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136021		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella boettgeri is only known from the type locality, Phara (14 07' 36.2" S, 69 39' 52.3" W, 3466 masl), District of Limbani, Province of Sandia, Department of Puno, Peru. It is located in the Cordillera Oriental in southeastern Peru (Lehr, 2006).
136021		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests with small bushes, small trees, and small streams. Individuals have been found under rocks during the day. Females are known to contain between 5 and 8 ovarian eggs (Lehr, 2006).<br/><br/>The species is presumed to breed by direct development. It likely reproduces during the rainy season (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136021		population	eng	This is not considered to be a rare species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136021		threats	eng	Deforestation was observed to occur in the region (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136022		conservation	eng	The type locality is an area restricted to public access, although it is unclear whether it is a reserve or protected area. Other localities appear to be unprotected (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
136022		distribution	eng	<em>Pristimantis padrecarlosi</em> is known from a section of the road between Bucaramanga and Pamplona (kms 18-22), municipalities of Tona and Floridablanca, department of Santander, Colombia. It can be found between 1500 and 1950 masl (Mueses-Cisneros, 2006).
136022		habitat	eng	The species is active at night, often found on vegetation between 1-1.5 meters above the ground, next to small streams, roads, and in cracks between rocks in the splash zone of the stream in the type locality. Other amphibian species at the site include Cochranella daidalea, Hyalinobatrachium ibama, Hyloscirtus callipeza, Pristimantis bicolor, P. douglasi, P. miyatai, P. prolixodiscus and Bolitoglossa nicefori (Mueses-Cisneros, 2006). The species was also found within the forest, both close and far away from bodies of water (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species is presumed to breed by direct development.
136022		population	eng	The species was described from 15 specimens. In order to give a reliable estimate of P. padrecarlosi's relative abundance it is necessary to first resolve the identity of this species and that of P. douglasi both in the field and in museum collections, given the similarity between both species (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).
136022		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136023		conservation	eng	Many occurrences are in protected areas.
136023		distribution	eng	Range encompasses the southern Cascades and Sierra Nevada of California, from Shasta County to Tulare County (Kuchta and Tan 2006); <span style="font-style: italic;">T. sierrae</span> hybridizes with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. torosa</span> in the southern Sierra Nevada (Kaweah River area) (Kuchta 2007).
136023		habitat	eng	Breeding occurs in streams, ponds, and reservoirs, and terrestrial individuals occupy various adjacent upland habitats such as grassland, woodland, and forest (Storer 1925, Petranka 1998, Stebbins 2003, Kuchta 2005). Eggs are attached to sticks, undersides of stones, or vegetation in flowing or nonflowing water.
136023		population	eng	This species is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range. Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Over the long term, likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, probably less than 25% decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Currently relatively stable in extent of occurrence; probably relatively stable to slowly declining in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences.
136023		threats	eng	Locally, population have been reduced or eliminated as a result of habitat degradation or loss caused by conversion of habitat to human uses and to a much lesser degree by large-scale commercial exploitation (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Many are killed on roads as they move between uplands and aquatic breeding sites. Introduced fishes likely have a negative impact in some bodies of water inhabited by this species.
136024		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Taman Negara National Park, Lakum Forest Reserve, Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Ampang Forest Reserve, Raja Muda Forest Reserve, Kenaboi Forest Reserve and Khao Lu-ang National Park (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007; N. Ahmad, pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine is distribution and adundance.
136024		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and in the southern part of Peninsular Thailand (McLeod and Ahmad 2007). There are records from the following localities in Malaysia: Taman Negara Resort, Kuala Tahan Taman Negara, Pahang State, at 82 m asl; Lakum Forest Reserve, Pahang State, at 72 m asl; Bukit Rengit and Kuala Gandah, Pahang State; Pulau Perhentian, Pahang State; Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah State, at 385 m asl; Sungai Lasor base camp, Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah State, at 193m asl; Ampang Forest Reserve and Raja Muda Forest Reserve, Selangor State; and Kenaboi Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan State (McLeod and Ahmad 2007, N. Ahmad, pers. comm.). In Thailand it has been recorded from Khao Lu-ang National Park, in Nakhon Si Thamarat Province, at 400 m asl (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). Additional fieldwork is necessary to confirm the full distribution of this species (McLeod and Ahmad 2007). However, on the basis of the known localities, it seems likely that <em>Theloderma licin</em> might occur throughout the Malay Peninsula and perhaps as far north as the Isthmus of Kra in Thailand (McLeod and Ahmad 2007).
136024		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a number of habitats, including secondary tropical evergreen forest, by a steep cliff near a logging road, in the gardens of the resort area in Taman Negara, in a sewage tank, and at a temporary pool in forest (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). Several records have been of frogs sitting on leaves up to 40cm above ground (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). It is clearly able to adapt well to antropogenic habitats, and one specimen was found inside a bathroom at the Sungai Lasor base camp (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). Its breeding is unknown, but probably takes place in tree holes by larval development, like other members of its genus.
136024		population	eng	It is common in the gardens of the resort area in Taman Negara (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007).
136024		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but given that it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, it is probably not significantly threatened.
136025		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range of this species.
136025		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known only from the Derewo River basin at 1,890m asl in an unnamed mountain range in Papua Province, Indonesia.
136025		habitat	eng	The two known specimens were collected in very wet montane rainforest close to a torrential stream. It is presumed to breed in streams by larval development.
136025		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance as it is known from only two specimens.
136025		threats	eng	There is no information on threats, but it occurs in a very remote area where there are no immediate treats to its habitat.
136026		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in some protected areas (such as Mikumi National Park in Tanzania).
136026		distribution	eng	This species is said by Pickersgill (2007) to range widely in western and eastern Africa, south to South Africa. However, here we restrict its range to the confirmed localities given by Pickersgill (2007), in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda. It must presumably also occur in other countries such as Mozambique. Clarification of the range of this species will require resolution of the taxonomic issues in the <em>Hyperolius nasutus</em> complex.
136026		habitat	eng	On the assumption that its ecological reqirements are similar to those of other members of the <em>Hyperolius nasutus</em> complex, it is associated with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It can presumably be found around human settlements, but probably does not respond well to extreme urbanization and agricultural intensification. It presumably breeds in swamps, shallow plans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes and permanent pools.
136026		population	eng	Because of confusion with other species, its abundance is hard to ascertain.
136026		threats	eng	In South Africa it is threatened by coastal development, wetland drainage, and expansion of sugar cane plantations. However, overall, this species is presumably not seriously at risk.
136027		conservation	eng	The species is associated to the Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá buffer zone. In addition, private reserves have been created in the western slope of the buffer zone, e.g. Karagabi (A. Acosta, pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>An increase in the authority of park staff is recommended  (A. Acosta, pers. comm.).
136027		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Tatamá mountain range, western Cordillera, Municipalities of Santuario (5 5' N and 76 01' W) and Mistrató, Department of Risaralda, Colombia. It is found between 1760 and 2130 masl (Acosta and Hoyos, 2006).
136027		habitat	eng	Bolitoglossa tatamae is a nocturnal species, often found on the lower branches of shrubs (0.5 to 2 meters) and on leaf-litter. The inner forest has tall and dense trees, belonging to the ‘‘montane humid forest’’.  B. tatamae is sympatric with several species of anurans (‘‘Dendrobates bombetes’’, Eleutherodactylus palmeri, Eleutherodactylus orpacobates, Eleutherodactylus thectopternus and Eleutherodactylus mantipus) (Acosta and Hoyos, 2006).<br/><br/>A juvenile was collected in the month of February, so it is possible that reproduction may take place between the months of October or November (A. Acosta, per. comm.).
136027		population	eng	It is reported to be a common species (Acosta and Hoyos, 2006).
136027		threats	eng	The species is found in the buffer zone of Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá, which is under severe anthropogenic pressure (deforestation); the landowners of the site where the species was found were eliminating native forests to give way to agriculture (A. Acosta, pers. comm.)
136028		conservation	eng	The possibility of establishing a reserve in the type locality to protect forest fragments where the species is found is currently being studied by the local community and landowners (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In view of the fact that the species has been recently described, there is still a lack of information regarding its natural history and distribution. In addition, it would be important to compare this species with another recently encountered species in Supatá (Cundinamarca), which bears a general external resemblance to R. tolimense (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).
136028		distribution	eng	Ranitomeya tolimense is known only from the type locality [vereda el Llano, Department of Tolima, Municipality of Falan, Cordillera Central of Colombia, (5 01’08” N, 75 02’31” W)] on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, Department of Tolima, Colombia. Specimens were collected at an elevation of about 1852 m above sea level (Bernal et al., 2007).
136028		habitat	eng	The type locality of the species is a small patch of a secondary forest dominated by trees with a maximum height of 4 to 6 m, covered by epiphytic plants, mainly of the families Araceae, Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae. The canopy is dense, allowing for little penetration of light. Humidity in the area is maintained by the constant cloud cover and frequent rainfall. The forest floor is covered by leaf litter, fallen tree branches and trunks, house to fungi, mosses and lichens. There are also smaller trees, palms and tree ferns. The mean temperature is about 19 C and the annual precipitation is between 2500–3000 mm per year (Bernal et al., 2007).<br/> <br/>Ranitomeya tolimense is a diurnal inhabitant of the forest floor. Males call throughout the day hidden in small holes within the root system of some trees, under leaf litter. One egg clutch deposited in the laboratory contained 3 brown eggs  (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008). A male nurse frog carrying a tadpole on his back on the ground near bromeliads and heliconias was also found in May (Bernal et al., 2007). The species requires a permanent water source for its tadpoles (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).
136028		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).
136028		threats	eng	The general area of the species' distribution is dominated by farms with coffee plantations, most likely not suitable habitat for R. tolimense (Bernal et al., 2007). In addition, the small population size may render the species susceptible to stochastic processes (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).
136029		conservation	eng	The species is found within the boundaries of Madidi National Park (Padial et al., 2006).
136029		distribution	eng	Rhinella tacana is only known from two close localities, Huairuro (14 19'28.2'' S, 68 05'36.1'' W), and Arroyo Huacataya (14 20'12.1" S, 68 5'57.3" W), at ca 1500 masl, path from San José de Uchupiamonas to Apolo, Serranía Eslabón, Madidi National Park, Franz Tamayo Province, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (Padial et al., 2006).
136029		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary humid montane forest with high abundance of arboreal ferns, bromeliads and other epiphytes. Potentially flooded flat surfaces are almost inexistent but there are some small streams. Rhinella tacana is a nocturnal species that can be found active on leaves of bushes or on the trunk of trees from 1–4 m height. It climbs vertical trunks covered by moss. The adult female presents convoluted oviducts and small white ova. The call, tadpole and reproductive mode are unknown. Other anuran species that occur in the area are Atelopus tricolor, Ameerega boliviana, Hyalinobatrachium bergeri, Hyloscirtus armatus, Hypsiboas balzani, Pristimantis danae and P. madidi (Padial et al., 2006).
136029		population	eng	The species may be rare or perhaps moderately common (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136029		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136030		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136030		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella illampu is known from the type locality, 18.5 km from Sorata on Sorata-Mapiri road (15 44' 07" S, 68 38' 11" W, 3840 masl) and its surroundings, in the Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva, 2007). The species may possibly be found within a few kilometres from the type locality (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136030		habitat	eng	The species can be found in the upper part of open elfin forest and the adjacent humid paramo. Individuals were located under stones near a small lake with dirty water. One clutch of eight brown, translucent eggs 5.5 mm in diameter was found under a stone in the month of November. The eggs contained much yolk, and the embryos had well-developed legs. Calling activity has been reported for the month of March, with males calling just before dusk but becoming silent shortly after. Gastrotheca marsupiata was common in the area in 1999 (De la Riva, 2007).
136030		population	eng	It is considered to be a common species in the type locality (De la Riva, 2007).
136030		threats	eng	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136031		conservation	eng	The creation of protected areas in the ridges of the Cordillera Central is a much needed conservation action (Venegas, 2007).
136031		distribution	eng	Pristimantis wagteri is only known from the type locality: Ullilen (06 50' 32" S, 77 41' 50.1" W, 3000 masl) and vicinities (Los Cóndores Lake,  2870 masl), Province of Mariscal Cáceres, Department of San Martín, Peru. This area is in the northwestern corner of the department of San Martín in the northern portion of the Cordillera Central in northern Peru (Venegas, 2007).
136031		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur the humid montane forest of the Yungas eco-region. Individuals are active at night and can be found on logs on the ground and in terrestrial bromeliads, in pasture area for cattle and on rocks and bushes. Sympatric anurans include Gastrotheca ossilaginis, Pristimantis corrugatus, P. schultei, P. stictoboubonus, and Telmatobius truebae (Venegas, 2007).<br/><br/>A clutch of 14 white eggs presumably of P. wagteri was found among the leaves of a terrestrial bromeliad in the month of November. Abundant juveniles were found in the same area on the same day. Vocalizations of P. wagteri<br/>sound like a little bell (Venegas, 2007).
136031		population	eng	This species is abundant at its type locality (P. Venegas, pers. comm. May 2008).
136031		threats	eng	The montane forests of the northern Andes in Peru are continuously suffering destruction because of agricultural expansion and cattle grazing (Venegas, 2007).
136032		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in the Sierra Nevada National Park.
136032		distribution	eng	Pristimantis flabellidiscus is currently only known from its type locality, Los Aranguren (ca 8 35’59’’ N, 70 55’28’ ’W, 2860 masl), south slope of the Sierra Nevada National Park, municipality of Rangel, Mérida state, Venezuela (La Marca, 2007).
136032		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species have been found during the day, under small rocks close to human habitation or close to a stream in the subpáramo ecosystem. At time of encounter air temperatures varied between 6 C and 10 C (La Marca, 2007).
136032		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136032		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136033		conservation	eng	The species is being constantly monitored at the type locality, which is in a protected area. Efforts have been directed towards the captive breeding of this species, although unfortunately without positive results in producing captive-bred offspring.
136033		distribution	eng	<em>Atelopus mittermeieri</em> is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, quebrada Aguas Claras (6 14' N, 72 56 W, 2525 masl) vereda Río Negro, Santuario de Flora y Fauna Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce, Municipality of El Encino, Department of Santander, Colombia (Acosta-Galvis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
136033		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane humid forest with canopy heights not exceeding 10 m. This forest is rich in moss and lichens. <em>Atelopus mittermeieri</em> is a diurnal stream-associated species, where adults are found either near the margins of the Aguas Claras stream or in the stream itself. Tadpoles are also found within the stream. Breeding activity has been recorded for July, after the rainy season, although tadpoles have been found both during March and July. Calls attributed to this species have been heard during the months of May and August. One female revealed 393 cream-coloured eggs (Acosta-Galvis et al., 2006).
136033		population	eng	The population at the type locality appears to be stable (Acosta-Galvis et al., 2006), although densities of adults are found to be low, while tadpole densities appear to be high (A. Acosta, pers. comm. 2008).
136033		threats	eng	The presence of <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been confirmed for the known extant population of <em>Atelopus mittermeieri</em> (A. Acosta, pers. comm. 2008; Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008), although live specimens did not exhibit clinical symptoms of chytridiomycosis (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008). Other possible threat factors include predation by introduced trout, pollution and sudden fluctuations in the stream's water level (Acosta-Galvis et al., 2006).
136034		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136034		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bryophryne bustamantei </span>is known only from the Umasbamba Valley, near Abra de Málaga, and Canchayoc, District of Huayopata, Province of La Convención, Department of Cusco, Peru, between 3,555–3,950 masl (Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
136034		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the transitional zone from cloud forest to puna. Individuals were found in two kinds of habitats: humid, grassy puna (between 3,700–3,950 m) and the adjacent humid forest (between 3,555–3,700 m). These frogs can be found during both rainy and dry seasons, under stones along roads, within bushes and grass, and under moss. Males call from bushes during the day in April. The female holotype, collected in April, contained convoluted oviducts. Other amphibians found in sympatry were <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannophryne corynetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gastrotheca excubitor</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurodema marmoratum</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis rhabdolaemus </span>(Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is thought to have direct development. It may possibly reproduce during the rainy season, e.g., April (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).
136034		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species (Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
136034		threats	eng	The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bustamantei</span> is being severely affected by the construction of the Cusco-Quillabamba road and the increasing human activity in the area (Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Given the restricted distribution of the species and its rarity, Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) proposed to include it as “Endangered” in the Peruvian official list of threatened species and in the IUCN Red List.
136035		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in several protected areas, i.e. Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra, Parque Nacional da Serra Geral, Parque da Ferradura and Parque Caracol (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).
136035		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnocnema henselii</em> occurs in the subtropical Atlantic rain forest and parts of the <em>Araucaria</em> forest domain in southern Brazil (northeastern Rio Grande do Sul and coastal mountain range of southeastern Santa Catarina), Misiones, Argentina, and probably southeastern Paraguay (but see Brusquetti and Lavilla, 2006), at altitudes from about sea level up to 1200 masl (Kwet and Solé, 2005).
136035		habitat	eng	Ischnocnema henselii lives on mountain slopes with subtropical Atlantic rain forest and in Araucaria forests on the margin<br/>of the Araucaria plateau. It is a ground-living species with diurnal and nocturnal activity. During the breeding season (October to January) males call at night, rarely during the day, on the ground or from fallen trees and stones. Calling activity increases during warm periods with rainfall. Eggs are deposited terrestrially, below trunks or stones. One female was found to have 26 large (3 mm diameter) and 45 small (1 mm diameter) yellowish eggs (Kwet and Solé, 2005).
136035		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).
136035		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136036		conservation	eng	The species occurs within a protected area, Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).
136036		distribution	eng	Melanophryne barbatula is only known from Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park, at approximately 2500 masl, District of Oxapampa, Province of Oxapampa, Department of Pasco, Peru. Yanachaga-Chemillén is in the valley of the Río Palcazu in the Amazon Basin of central Peru (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).
136036		habitat	eng	Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park is 122 000 ha in area and consists primarily of the Cordillera de Yanachaga, reaching an elevation of 3643 masl. On the eastern side of the park, the Cordillera de Yanachaga descends gradually into the valley of the Río Palcazu. On the western flank, the Cordillera de Santa Barbara reaches an elevation of 3400 m and is<br/>separated from the Cordillera de Yanachaga by the deep Huancabamba Canyon (Lehr and Trueb, 2007). <br/><br/>The species is found within forested areas (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). One female  contained 22 pigmented eggs with an average diameter of 1.6 ± 0.09 mm (n = 10). One stomach content revealed a diet consisting of  arthropods belonging to Blattelidae, Carabidae, Cryptorhynchinae, Galumnidae, Oribatidae and Formicidae, suggesting that the species is a leaf litter inhabitant (Lehr and Trueb, 2007). Although the reproduction mode is unknown, it is possible that the species may use terrestrial bromeliads like M. carpish (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136036		population	eng	The current populations size for this species is unknown (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136036		threats	eng	Deforestation was observed to occur in the region (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136037		conservation	eng	Much of the species' habitat is protected within National Parks and State Forests.
136037		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of northeastern Queensland from lowland and upland areas, from Home Rule in the north to the Paluma Range in the south. It has been recorded from 100 to 1,500m asl.
136037		habitat	eng	The species is found around fast-flowing streams and nearby pools in mountainous rainforest. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter from the surface of the leaf-litter, or buried up to 5cm under leaf-litter, near streams and ponds. Egg deposition sites are unknown.
136037		population	eng	It is a common species, but it is sparsely distributed and uncommonly seen.
136037		threats	eng	In the past, habitat loss from logging and clearing for farmland was a major threat. Most habitat is in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and national parks or equivalent protected areas. High-use tourism and recreation occurs in a few areas and consists mainly of graded tracks and small picnic areas. However, this frog survives in these areas where suitable adjacent rainforest habitat occurs, thus indicating no significant impact.
136038		conservation	eng	Its altitudinal range overlaps with that of Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca (Coloma 2005).
136038		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus petersi</span> occurs in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in Ecuador, Provinces of Napo and Chimborazo, at elevations of 2,660<span style="font-style: italic;">-</span>3,300 m asl (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
136038		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane cloud forest and high montane evergreen forest. Knowledge on the life history of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus petersi</span> is poor. Individuals were formerly found under rocks at the edge of a stream, in streambeds, under logs on grassy hillsides, on cushion plants in paramo habitat, on a trail, along the border of the river.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Atelopus petersi </span>(as<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. pachydermus</span>) occurs sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ignescens</span> sensu stricto (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136038		population	eng	The last record for this species in Napo Province was a dead individual, found on 8 November 1996. Despite occasional efforts to locate <span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersi </span>subsequently, no additional individuals have been found. In the past, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersi </span>was a very common species in the vicinity of Papallacta. Interviews with local people revealed that these toads once were abundant but have not been seen for several years, although in Oyacachi some people claimed, on September 2003, that from time to time they still see single individuals (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
136038		threats	eng	The area of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus petersi</span> is close is to areas where climate abnormalities have occurred and <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius </span>extinctions have been reported. They are also close to areas where the chytrid fungus has occurred, or its presence is predicted. Given this scenario and considering the overwhelming evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus </span>has been affected by these two key factors in the highlands, it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersi </span>may be extinct, although the possibility of existing relictual populations may not be overlooked (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
136039		conservation	eng	The entire island is contained within the Ilha Grande Biological Reserve.
136039		distribution	eng	Hylodes fredi is known only from Ilha Grande (23 09' S, 44 30' W), an island belonging to the Municipality of Angra dos Reis, southern coast of the state of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil (Canedo and Pombal, 2007).
136039		habitat	eng	The new species is known to occur within the Atlantic forest domain.
136039		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
136039		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species, although it is only known to occur in an island, Ilha Grande.
136040		conservation	eng	It has not been confirmed to occur in any protected areas.
136040		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from southeastern Papua New Guinea, with records from: the mountains behind Port Moresby; the foothills of Mount Obree in Central Province; the southern Owen Stanley Mountains; Fergusson and Normanby islands in the D’Entrecasteaux group; and Kwatto island (just off the southermost part of New Guinea) (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Records from Sudest (Tagula) island in the Louisiade Archipelago have been provisionally assigned to this species (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Its distribution is still very poorly known, and it might occur elsewhere. It has been recorded from sea-level up to 800m asl.
136040		habitat	eng	This species occupies low-elevation and mid-elevation streams in forest with flow rates varying from fast to stagnant (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Adults are most often encountered at night along the banks and in the beds of streams with substrates of cobbles, rocks, or boulders. Animals have occasionally been found traversing the forest at night on ridges well away from water. It breeds in streams. It adapts to anthropogenic environments, occurring, for example, along somewhat disturbed lowland streams in secondary habitats (F. Kraus pers comm.).
136040		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
136040		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species for which there are no obvious threats.
136041		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Gunung Gading National Park (Das and Haas, 2005) and Kubah National Park (I. Das pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
136041		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Borneo, where it was collected at the granite massif of Gunung Gading, Lundu Division, Sarawak, East Malaysia (Das and Haas, 2005) below 150m asl, and from Kubah National Park in western Sarawak (I. Das pers. comm.). It is expected to occur more widely, in particular at low elevations between the currently known localities.
136041		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded up to 3m in vegetation overhanging granite boulders at the edge of a torrential forest stream of approximately 8m in width (Das and Haas 2005). It is presumed to be a larval-breeding species.
136041		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype and paratype (Das and Haas, 2005).
136041		threats	eng	The species was collected in a protected area (Das, 2005), and so it is possible that there are no major threats to this species at this location. However, it might be found in future at other sites that are less secure.
136042		conservation	eng	Three of the areas in which it occurs in India are protected areas: Namdhapa and Mouling National Parks, and Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary. Provided the existing protected areas of the region remain intact the survival of this species appears secure. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution more accurately, and in particular whether or not it occurs in Myanmar and Viet Nam.
136042		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in southeast Asia. It is known from: southern and southwestern China (southern Xizang Province, southern Yunnan Province, Guangxi Province [Dayaoshan] and Hainan Province [Diaoluoshan and Wuzhishan]; north-eastern India (from four sites in Arunachal Pradesh (Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary, Mouling National Park, Namdapha National Park, and northern West Siang District); northern Myanmar (Machanbaw in Kachin Province); eastern Thailand; Cambodia; Lao People's Democratic Republic; and northern and central Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2004, Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  It is present at altitudes comprised between 250-2,100 m asl.
136042		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species known from closed-canopy evergreen forest and forest edge in lowland and montane rainforest areas. It breeds in rain pools and standing water in streams in forest. Foam nests are created on tree branches overhanging shallow moving water. It sometimes also occurs in orchards and cultivated areas.
136042		population	eng	In India and China it is a common species within its range.
136042		threats	eng	It is probably impacted by degradation of its forest habitat through logging, agricultural encroachment, and human-induced wildfires, but it is able to adapt to some anthropogenic habitats, so it is probably not seriously threatened. It is also threatened by water pollution and aquaculture in China. In India, there is a concern that it might be experiencing detrimental effects of the current management plan of Namdapha National Park, which is largely determined by the requirements of the large mammal fauna.
136043		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in two reserves, Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo and Pacaya Samiria (Brown et al., 2006).
136043		distribution	eng	Ranitomeya uakarii is known from upstream Quebrada Blanco in the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Reserve, Department of Loreto, Peru (4 11’ 21.88” S, 73 6’ 15.66” W)(Brown et al., 2006). It is found at elevations between 100 and 220 masl (J. Brown, pers. comm.).
136043		habitat	eng	Dendrobates uakarii can be found throughout the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Community Reserve and further south to Pacaya Samiria Reserve, on the Rio Yarapa. It is thought to occur between Rio Amazonas, Rio Javari, and Rio Ucayali (north of the Contamana-Sierra Divisor Arch) in western Brazil and eastern Peru on the basis of Christmann’s (2004) book, which contains pictures of a similar looking species 200 km east of Iquitos, south of Rio Napo, and further east to the tributaries on the south side Amazon, near the Brazilian border. In Tahuayo, the species occurs sympatrically with two other Dendrobates, D. ventrimaculatus sensu lato and D. flavovittatus (Brown et al., 2006). <br/><br/>D. uakarii occurs in primary forests. It spends most of its time on the forest floor, however it occasionally ventures a few meters into the canopy. Males have been observed to carry one to four tadpoles to large phytotelmata such as bromeliads (Brown et al., 2006). This species breeds year round, clutches vary between 2-7 eggs (average ~3), if food and breeding pools are abundant, females can breed 1-4 times a month.  Populations are limited by reproductive resources (i.e. arboreal bromeliads, tree holes) (J. Brown, pers. comm.).
136043		population	eng	This species is common in late-secondary and primary forests that are not prone to flooding. These forests only compromise a small proportion of the species' range area (Jason Brown, pers. comm.).
136043		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss and collection for the pet trade (J. Brown, pers. comm.).
136044		conservation	eng	It might occur in some protected areas. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomic status of this species and its relatives.
136044		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from mid-elevations in southern Kenya, including around Nairobi. Its overall distribution and altitudinal range are still unclear because of confusion with <em>Bufo lonnbergi</em> and <em>Bufo mocquardi</em>, and the range map should be regarded as provisional.
136044		habitat	eng	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it is apparently a savanna woodland species that presumably breeds in water.
136044		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
136044		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136045		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
136045		distribution	eng	This species has so far been recorded only from the general vicinity of Kurichiyarmala, in Wayanad District, Kerala, India, at 1,200m asl (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is currently known from seven sub-populations on the Wayanad Plateau (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). It might be found to occur a little more widely, but it is probably endemic to Wayanad Plateau (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.).
136045		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from Shola forests (patches of high-altitude forest separated from one another by undulating grassland) (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007). Of the seven currently known populations, five are in degraded forests in and around small-scale cultivation and plantations of cardamom and coffee, and two are in undisturbed, wet evergreen forest (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). There is no clear difference in abundance in these two habitat types (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to seriously degraded, open habitats (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). The males start calling from marshes inside the forest during or immediately after sunset (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007) in the monsoon period (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). While most species of <em>Nyctibatrachus</em> are aquatic, the miniature species mainly inhabit the forest floor, where they are mostly found in leaf litter or under rocks (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007), and on the banks of streams (though not in the flowing water (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.)). It breeds by larval development in shallow water (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.).
136045		population	eng	It is a locally common species, but it is restricted to a small area within its range (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.).
136045		threats	eng	It can adapt to somewhat degrated forest. However, it is possible that serious opening up of the habitat for agriculture is detrimental to the species.
136046		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136046		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranitomeya ignea</span> is only known from the type locality: "Rio Itaya (near Iquitos), Perú" (see Frost, 2007).
136046		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species' habitat and ecology, although it is recorded from an area of lowland rainforest.
136046		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
136046		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
136047		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136047		distribution	eng	Phrynopus ayacucho is only known from the type locality: Rapi, Provincia de La Mar, Department of Ayacucho, Peru. <br/>This is located in the northeastern section of the Department of Ayacucho, near Chiquintirca. Rapi is likely the<br/>short form for Hacienda Rapi (13 5' 51' S, 73 48' 49" W), which is at 3411 masl. No other species of Phrynopus is known from this locality (Lehr, 2007).
136047		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about this species' ecology. The type locality may likely have puna and/or cloud forest habitats (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.
136047		population	eng	The species is only known from the two type specimens.
136047		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136048		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Parc National de l’Isalo. Further work is needed to determine the range of this species, and its conservation needs.
136048		distribution	eng	This species is known so far only from Ambovo in the Parc National de l’Isalo, Madagascar at 996m asl. It might occur more widely in the Isalo Massif.
136048		habitat	eng	Several individuals were found inside a narrow canyon (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). Calling males were hanging at night on the almost vertical canyon walls at about 150–200 cm above the bottom or the water surface. Females and males have also been found on the canyon bed inside the water pools. It has also been found in rocky areas within canyons, near cliffs (F. Andreone pers. comm.). Breeding is not known, but it is presumed to be by larval development.
136048		population	eng	Littlie is known of its abundance; several individuals were found at the only known locality. But surveys have generally shown this species to be rare (M. Vences pers. comm.).
136048		threats	eng	It is potentially at risk because of its small range and specialised habitat. No specific threats to its habitat are currently known.
136049		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and measures are needed to conserve its habitat, in particular in the face of expanding coconut plantations. Further research is needed to determine its threats and conservation needs in more detail.
136049		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central and northern group of Nicobar Islands, India: Car Nicobar; Teressa; Kamorta; Trinkat; and Nancowry (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.).
136049		habitat	eng	This species is largely restricted to the grassland habitat, where they have been observed breeding in the rainwater puddles (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). A few individuals have been observed in littoral zone, but there are greater encounter rates in grassland (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). On Car Nicobar Island, it also occurs coastal wetlands (both pre- and post-tsunami) and along newly cleared forest trails (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). It presumably breeds by larval development.
136049		population	eng	This species can be reasonably common in suitable habitat. It is more common on Car Nicobar Island than on other islands (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.).
136049		threats	eng	The recent initiative to plant coconut trees in the preferred grassland habitat of this species could pose a serious threat to this species (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). It is one of the frog species that survived the tsunami in late 2004 (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.).
136050		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, including, for instance, the Awa Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).
136050		distribution	eng	This little-known species is limited to the wettest areas of the Colombian Choco and adjacent forests of Ecuador (Heyer 2005; Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). The species is largely restricted to the Pacific lowlands and western Andean foothills (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). It formerly ranged as far south as the Province of Pichincha in Ecuador (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).
136050		habitat	eng	This species is associated with the Colombian Choco and adjacent tropical moist forests of Ecuador (Heyer 2005). Populations can persist in modified or disturbed areas containing some forest patches, but are absent highly altered areas, such as agricultural monocultures or grasslands/pasture (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). The breeding strategy includes the use of large holes, inforest, close to streams (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).
136050		population	eng	It is fairly common in primary forest habitats, being found at lower densities in seondary habitats (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).
136050		threats	eng	In Ecuador, the species is threatened by general deforestation and fragmentation, and to a lesser degree the pollution of rivers and other waterbodies (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). It is harvested in parts of its range, with additional research needed to determine whether this constitutes a significant threat to the species (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).
136051		conservation	eng	Aprada tepui is found within the boundaries of Canaima National Park (C. (Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
136051		distribution	eng	Anomaloglossus breweri is known only from Aprada tepui, Bolívar state, Venezuela (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). The type series was collected at the entry to the vast Cueva del Fantasma (05 27’N, 62 27’W, 660 masl), a collapsed steep gorge on the northwestern slope of the tepui (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). The species seems unlikely to be restricted to the Cueva del Fantasma, but is possibly endemic to the Aprada tepui or more widely to the Gran Sabana region (Barrio-Amorós, 2006).
136051		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded along creeks and in quiet pools along small streams on the slopes of the tepui (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed areas. The breeding biology of the species has not been recorded, but it is presumed to undergo larval development.
136051		population	eng	The species is known only from the type series.
136051		threats	eng	Barrio-Amorós (2006) considers that the species is potentially threatened by natural or artificial catastrophes within its presumed restricted distribution.
136052		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Serengeti National Park, and presumably other protected areas. More work is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and to determine the relationship between this species and frogs currently assigned to <em>Cacosternum boettgeri</em> from Ethiopia.
136052		distribution	eng	This species is known mainly from highland areas in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya (including the Serengeti National Park, Nairobi, Mau Narok and the Kinangop Plateau), but its range is very poorly known. There are also records from Kitende in Uganda and the Marungu Plateau in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It probably occurs at least between 1,200 and 2,500m asl. Further work is needed to determine the range of this species.
136052		habitat	eng	It is a species of grasslands (including montane grassland) and dry savannahs, favouring open areas with short vegetation, and is extremely successful in grassy meadows. It breeds in any shallow water body, including vleis, flooded depressions, drainage ditches, puddles, small pools, inundated grasslands and shallow pans, especially where grass is growing. It is able adapt to human-modified habitats, and is found in the edges of Nairobi, and near the airport where they call in large choruses from roadside ditches (S. Lötters pers. comm)..
136052		population	eng	It is abundant around the edges of Nairobi (S. Lötters pers. comm.).
136052		threats	eng	If its ecology is similar to that of <em>Cacosternum boettgeri</em>, it is a generalist that is very unlikely to be signifcantly threatened.
136053		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136053		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella ankohuma is known from the type locality, Cooco (15 47' 14.4" S, 68 26' 55.9" W, 3540 masl), and a nearby locality, Ankho Uma (Ancoma; 15 44' 33.0" S, 68 29' 22.8" W, 3690 masl), Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia. These localities are 6.6 km (airline) apart, without discontinuity in habitat (humid paramo) (De la Riva, 2007). It is believed to be restricted to one valley (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136053		habitat	eng	The species occurs in humid paramo. Individuals can be found during the day under stones, and males can be heard calling at night (De la Riva, 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
136053		population	eng	The species is abundant within its known distribution (De la Riva, 2007).
136053		threats	eng	The predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose a serious threat to this species, in addition to its restricted distribution (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136054		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur within Brownsberg Nature Park, Brokopondo district, Suriname (Fouquet et al., 2007), and in French Guiana National Park (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).
136054		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella martyi </span>occurs in most of Suriname including Brownsberg Nature Park, Goliathberg area, Lely mountains, Kaysergebergte, Sipaliwini and Raleighvallen; in southern French Guiana in "Savane layon ouest - Haute Wanapi" and "Sud-Mitaraka"; it is known from Guyana, i.e. Bartica, Kurupukari and Baramita; and also from Serra do Navio, Amapá, Brazil (Fouquet et al., 2007; A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008). This species is probably also present in other adjacent areas of Brazil and may extend into northeastern Venezuela. It has been found between 50-510 masl (Fouquet et al., 2007).
136054		habitat	eng	This species can be found in lowland primary rainforest (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008). Rhinella martyi was observed calling at dawn and during the night in small groups on the road leading to the camp of Brownberg Nature Park after heavy rainfall in January 2006 (Fouquet et al., 2007). It breeds in temporary pools (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).<br/>There are no obvious ecological differences with Rhinella margaritifera (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).
136054		population	eng	This is likely an abundant species (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).
136054		threats	eng	The region where the species occurs is quite pristine but regional threats are forest clearing and gold mining (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).
136055		conservation	eng	It occurs within the boundaries of Ranomafana National Park. However, more inventory work is necessary to understand its actual distribution range and habitat requirements.
136055		distribution	eng	This species has so far been recorded only known from the Ranomafana region in southeastern Madagascar, from Ranomafana village (c. 550 m asl) to the Kidonafo bridge near Vohiparara (1,000 m asl). Despite intensive surveys in the central-eastern rainforests around Andasibe and Moramanga, this species has never seen or heard in these sites. Nevertheless, it probably occurs also in additional locations beyond Ranomafana, but it is probably a regional endemic to southeastern Madagascar.
136055		habitat	eng	Calling males have been observed mostly after dusk in primary rainforest and in secondary vegetation. They sit on tree trunks at heights of 50-150 cm above the ground. They have also been found in small tree holes, and hidden under extensive moss layers on tree trunks. Close to Ranomafana village, this species was found in acoustic syntopy with Anodonthyla boulengeri. It presumably breeds in tree holes by larval development.
136055		population	eng	This species is relatively common around Vohiparara, close to Ranomafana.
136055		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in a well-protected area, the Ranomafana National Park, it might occur more widely in habitats that are much less secure. However, it appears able to adapt to secondary habitats, at least to some extent. Its probable small (or at least discontinuous and patchy) distribution also raises some concerns about its conservation status.
136056		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Yinggeling Nature Reserve which was established in 2004. Surveys are needed to clarify the distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs of this species.
136056		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Yinggeling Mountain range on Hainan Island, Hainan Province, southern China, at 1,300-1,550m asl (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are records from Mahuolong and Yinggezui (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). Its not been found in surveys of other mountains in Hainan despite surveys there, but it will probably be found in more sites in the Yinggeling Mountain Range (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). There are not many areas in Hainan above 1,300m asl (B. Chan pers. comm.).
136056		habitat	eng	It is known only from primary montane rainforest (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has been found on the leaves of shrubs 30cm over a dried pool in a stream, and in sedges in a dried rain pool on a mountain ridge (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). It appears to be a montane species that breeds in still water, and there are not many suitable breeding habitats within its elevational range (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). It is not known if it can survive in opened up habitat.
136056		population	eng	It appears to be a rare species, as during a three-month survey, only three specimens were found (B. Chan pers. comm.). The area of suitable habitat is very small (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.).
136056		threats	eng	The montane habitat of the species is above the elevation at which human disturbance of the forest is taking place  (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). The forest was given formal protection in 2004. The species could be at risk if climate change leads to a decrease in rainfall, as the species is believed to be dependent on rainpools for breeding, which are few and far between in the steep terrain where it lives.
136057		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve. The extent of its distribution within the Ukaguru Mountains needs to be assessed. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.
136057		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania, from 1800m asl up to 2,200m asl. It is probably endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains.
136057		habitat	eng	The species lives in leaf litter on the floor on montane forest. It has not been found outside forest habitats. It is presumably a live-bearing species, like other members of its genus.
136057		population	eng	It appears to be common within its small range.
136057		threats	eng	The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.
136058		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Longuza and Kambai Forest Reserves. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of this species, and its conservation needs.
136058		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is poorly known, but all confirmed records are from northeastern and eastern Tanzania. There are records from Mombo at the foot of the West Usambara Mountains, Kambai and Longuza Forest Reserves in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains, and Morogoro at the foot of the Uluguru Mountains. There are unconfirmed records from coastal Kenya at Kilifi Creek and Kwale. It appears to occur at low elevations up to around 500 m asl.
136058		habitat	eng	This species is the forest-dwelling equivalent of <span style="font-style: italic;">Arthroleptis stenodactylus</span>. It occurs on the floor of lowland forest and in recently cleared areas. It is not clear how long it can survive in deforested areas. It presumably breeds by direct development without a larval stage.
136058		population	eng	It can occur at high densities in suitable locations.
136058		threats	eng	More information is needed to determine the long-term adaptability of this species to loss of forest habitat. It can clearly adapt to some level of deforestation, but it is not clear that it can persist in completely open up areas.
136059		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Andringitra and Ranomafana National Parks. Work is needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
136059		distribution	eng	This species has so far been recorded only from the Andringitra Massif, and from Maharira forest in Ranomafana National Park, at 1,300-1,800m asl. Both localities are in southeastern Madagascar.
136059		habitat	eng	It lives alongside streams in mid to high-elevation forests, and has not been found in more open forest habitats. It breeds in streams.
136059		population	eng	It is a relatively rare species (M. Vences pers. comm.).
136059		threats	eng	Its currently known sites are within protected areas, but it probably occurs in other unprotected sites which are likely to be subject to forest loss.
136060		conservation	eng	The species is found within the protected area of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, which is difficult to access (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136060		distribution	eng	Pristimantis seorsus is only known from the type locality: Cordillera de Vilcabamba, CI/RAP Expedition Camp One<br/>(11 39' 36" S, 73 40' 22" W, 3350 masl), Province of Satipo, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr, 2007).
136060		habitat	eng	Vegetation at the type locality consists of pajonales, mixed-species forest, and Polylepis forest. Nothing is known about this species' ecology (Lehr, 2007).
136060		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of four specimens.
136060		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136061		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136061		distribution	eng	Pristimantis cordovae is known from four localities at elevations of 3400–3985 masl (up to 4010 masl based on vocalizations) between Quiruvilca and Huamachuco (airline distance 37 km), Province of Santiago de Chuco, Department of La Libertad, Peru. These localities are on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in northwestern Peru (Lehr and Duellman, 2007).
136061		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the Puna Ecoregion. At the type locality, the dominant vegetation consists of Polylepis sp. and Peruvian Feather Grass (Stipa icchu). Individuals are found under rocks between, or in, clumps of Stipa icchu near small streams. Males call from within clumps of Stipa icchu at 1630–2300 hrs. Gastrotheca peruana occurs sympatrically with P. cordovae (Lehr and Duellman, 2007). The species needs puna grass (micro habitat)(E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136061		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136061		threats	eng	There are mines close to the type locality of this species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136062		conservation	eng	It occurs in two nature reserves (Jizushan and Yulongxueshan) and a national park (Lijiang). Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.
136062		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Binchuan and Lijian Counties, in Yunnan Province, China, from 1,900 to 2,800m asl.
136062		habitat	eng	This species is associated with mountain streams surrounded by forest. The mating call of the males can be heard at the end of May. The tadpoles live under rocks in streams.
136062		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
136062		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being degraded as a result of the effects of logging, road contruction, and tourism.
136063		conservation	eng	Yanachaga Chemillén National Park is an established protected area in the general region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136063		distribution	eng	Pristimantis flavobracatus is only known from the type locality, Km 34 on road Oxapampa to Yaupi (10 44' 44.4" S, 75 30' 02.2" W, 1770 masl), District of Chontabamba, Province of Oxapampa, Department of Pasco, Peru (Lehr et al., 2006).
136063		habitat	eng	The species is found in the Selva Alta Ecoregion. Individuals are active at night between 1900–2200 hrs, and have been found on vegetation 1–3 m above ground, next to a road. The roadside is nearly vertical and covered with secondary vegetation, which is cut several times a year as part of road maintenance. There are several small<br/>creeks near the type locality, and a roadside ditch containing running water. Other sympatric anuran species include Atelopus sp., Pristimantis bipunctatus, P. rhabdocnemus, and Hyalinobatrachium bergeri (Lehr et al., 2006).
136063		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of five specimens.
136063		threats	eng	Deforestation was observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136064		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, which is a conservation unit managed by the  Instituto Estadual de Florestas do Estado de Minas Gerais. It is an area that covers ca 13000ha (Cruz et al., 2007).
136064		distribution	eng	Chiasmocleis mantiqueira is currently only known from the type locality, Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro (20 53’S, 42 31’W, 1227 masl), District of Careço, Municipality of Ervália, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Cruz et al., 2007).
136064		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the Atlantic rainforest domain. Inidividuals were found after strong rains, at the edge of a temporary lake (Lagoa das Bromélias), with ca 250m2 of water surface. This lake is found within an epiphyte-rich  forest (Cruz et al., 2007).
136064		population	eng	The type series is comprised of 15 specimens.
136064		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136065		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136065		distribution	eng	Rhinella lescurei is only known from French Guiana, i.e. the southwestern (Haute Wanapi and Mitaraka), central (Saül), western (Litany) and northeastern portions (Cisame camp on Approuague river, Pararé station on Aratai river). Localities range from 20 to 170 masl. The species probably occurs in southeastern Suriname and Brazilian areas adjacent to French Guiana and Suriname. Preliminary results of an analysis of genetic data spanning the distribution of the R. margaritifera group suggest that this taxon could be endemic to the Guianan Shield (Fouquet et al., 2007).
136065		habitat	eng	This species can be found in pristine lowland primary rainforest; males are often found  near the banks of a permanent river (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008). During the rainy season (from November to January and from March to May), males call during day time within 10 meters of slowly running water. Calling males are usually isolated from each other and perched between 0.3 and 1 m high on a vine, dead trunk or root (Fouquet et al., 2007).
136065		population	eng	This species appears to be rare; however, its range is still poorly known and data are still insufficient to provide a more reliable estimate of its population status (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).
136065		threats	eng	The region occupied by this species is quite pristine, but regional threats are clearing and gold mining (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).
136066		conservation	eng	Cerro Aracamuni is considered to be a natural monument (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
136066		distribution	eng	Pristimantis aracamuni is known from the summit of Cerro Aracamuni (01 28’ 36’’ N; 65 50’ 07’’ W, 1493 masl), state of Amazonas, Venezuela. Cerro Aracamuni is in the northern part of the huge Neblina massif, reaching a maximum elevation of 1600 m (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).
136066		habitat	eng	The vegetation at Cerro Aracamuni is considered to be “broad-leaved, shrubby upland meadows on peat” . Individuals have been found in a moss patch on a rocky tallus (0.8 m high), in a small creek (2 m wide) of tannic water and rocky<br/>bed. The creek is located in a dwarf gallery forest (2.5 m canopy). There is one other species of amphibian known from Aracamuni, Cochranella riveroi (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).
136066		population	eng	The species is only known from a type series comprised of two specimens.
136066		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species. However, the species' restricted distribution may render it vulnerable to stochastic events (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).
136067		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136067		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Pa Lao U, in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, in southwestern Thailand (Matsui, 2006). The elevation of this locality is not given. It can be expected to occur more widely, perhaps including in neighbouring Myanmar.
136067		habitat	eng	Males have been found calling at night among stones and litter on the forest floor along a stream (Matsui, 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval devleopment. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance of its habitat.
136067		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only four specimens (Matsui, 2006).
136067		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
136068		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this species needs to be clarified.
136068		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Kasiki, at 2,300m asl in the Marungu Highlands in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. This locality was inadvertently stated to be in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo by Schiøtz (2006a).
136068		habitat	eng	There is no information on its ecology. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.
136068		population	eng	There is no information. It has not been recorded since its discovery.
136068		threats	eng	There is no information.
136069		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136069		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary at 500-700m asl in O'Rang District, Mondolkiri Province, eastern Cambodia (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006), and from 300 km to the north on Ngoc Linh Mountain, at 930-1,480m asl in Tra My District, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam (Bain and Truong, 2006). It is presumably, therefore, found through the the intervening area in the Truong Son and Annamite ranges.
136069		habitat	eng	It lives in hilly evergreen forest, and in mixed evergreen and deciduous forest with bamboo forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is closely associated with streams, and is nocturnal, and can be found on leaf litter on the forest floor near streams (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. In Viet Nam it has only been found in primary or mature secondary forests, and it has not been recorded from degraded habitats (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
136069		population	eng	This species is locally abundant at its Cambodian site (B. Stuart, pers. comm.), but appears to be rare in its Vietnamese site, where only a few animals have been found (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
136069		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats, but it is believed to be affected by ongoing forest loss due to logging and expanding agriculture.
136070		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136070		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park, in Na Chaloey District, Ubon Ratchatani Province, in eastern Thailand, at 230-360m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Future surveys might show it to occur a little more widely, but a month-long survey in Laos, close to the type locality, did not locate any specimens (B.L. Stuart, pers. comm.). However, specimens from a new locality in Thailand, that are probably this species, are currently being examined (Y. Chuaynkern, pers. comm.).
136070		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a variety of habitats: on igneous bedrock in deciduous dipterocarp forest with a grassy understory; on a road through hilly evergreen forest; and in hilly evergreen forest near flowing, rocky streams (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Adults appear to be most active at night (19h00–21h00 ) (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Tadpoles have been found in a rain-filled depression on igneous bedrock in deciduous dipterocarp forest with grassy understory (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Although it has been found in slightly disturbed habitats (on a road in forest), there is no evidence that it can tolerate severe anthropogenic disturbance (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.).
136070		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat in Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park.
136070		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species. All records so far are from a well-managed national park.
136071		conservation	eng	The species has been seen and heard at the federal reserve of Floresta Nacional do Tapajos (Lima et al., 2007).
136071		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella magnussoni</span> is known from the type locality, Highway 163, Km 89 (03.15313° S, 54.84216° W), Belterra municipality, near Santarém city, Pará state, Brazil. However, it has also been seen and heard calling in the Floresta Nacional do Tapajos, at km 72 on the BR 163 highway, Belterra municipality (Lima et al., 2007).
136071		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland Amazon terra firme rainforest (A.P. Lima, pers. comm. 2008). Males call frequently during daylight hours from within leaf-litter distant from streams or terrestrial pools. Oviposition sites are pools of water that form on fallen tree trunks, these can contain tadpoles of R. magnussoni in more than one developmental stage. Tadpoles can also eat eggs. Calling males apparently exhibit site fidelity, returning to call at the same place after being caught and handled. Reproduction appears to be seasonal and occurs between January and March. At night, males and females rest on vegetation at 30 to 150 cm above ground. Rhinella magnussoni occurs in sympatry with R. castaneotica, another member of the R. margaritifera species group (Lima et al., 2007).
136071		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species in the western region of Pará, between Santarém and Ruranópolis (A.P. Lima, pers. comm. 2008).
136071		threats	eng	The species occurs within a relatively large protected area, but a regional threat is extensive deforestation (A.P. Lima, pers. comm. 2008).
136072		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, and conservation needs.
136072		distribution	eng	This species is known from around the village of Utai in Sandaun Province, north-western Papua New Guinea (at 03°23'S, 141°35'E) (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely that this new species has a broad distribution in the extensive lowland rainforests of northern New Guinea, and specimens collected in the foothills of the Foya Mountains, Papua Province, Indonesia might refer to this species (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006).
136072		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and was encountered calling from at least 5–8m above ground in forest trees in lowland rainforest, and one specimen was found calling from 1.5m high in the vegetation in a swamp  (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006). This suggests that this species may breed in lentic water bodies on the forest floor (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006).
136072		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance, as it is a canopy species which is probably hard to find.
136072		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats to this species. It is probably dependent on intact rainforest, and so might be affected by forest exploitation and clearance.
136073		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species. However, part of its potential distribution would be within the boundaries of a national park (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).
136073		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyalinobatrachium tatayoi</span> is known from a stream near Tokuko (09 50’ 30.6’’ N, 72 49’ 13.6’’ W; 301 masl), state of Zulia, Venezuela (Castroviejo-Fisher, Ayarzagüena, and Vilà, 2007). This locality is in the Venezuelan Cordillera de Perijá, in the Northern border between Colombia and Venezuela (Castroviejo-Fisher et al., 2007). Although the species is currently known from only one locality, it is very likely that it may have a wider distribution, and that it may occur throughout the humid foothills of the Sierra de Perijá (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).
136073		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is part of the submontane rainforest. Individuals have been found during sunset and night along a stream used to provide water to the Tocuco village. Frogs sit on leaves (1–3 m above water) along a stream and males are known to call in the month of July. Males guard their egg clutches, which are composed of ca 35-40 eggs. Rana palmipes and juveniles of Rhaebo haematiticus were found syntopically with Hyalinobatrachium tatayoi (Castroviejo-Fisher et al., 2007). The species does not require of a permanent source of water (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).
136073		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).
136073		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136074		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kakkayam Forest Reserve Reserve (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species. In particular, work is needed to confirm whether or not it occurs in the Anamalai Hills.
136074		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kakkayam Forest Reserve (11°33’16” N, 75°55’12” E), in Calicut District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of southern India , at around 745m asl (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species is most unlikely to be endemic to the Calicut district, and indeed it seems probable to it occurs in the Anamalai Hills of Kerala (Karthikeyan Vasudevan and S.D. Biju, pers comm. to K.V. Gururaja).
136074		habitat	eng	This species appears to be closely associated with reed brakes (i.e., dense stands) of the bamboo <em>Ochlandra setigera</em> (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). These reed brakes can be found on the edges of forests and in more in open habitats (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.). These frogs reside inside the hollow tube of the internodal region of <em>O. setigera</em> stems, and generally remain there throughout the day at a height of 2.25–2.7m above the ground (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). The frogs use slit-like openings in the bamboo stems to enter and leave (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). This species has only been found inside live bamboo stems, and the males call from inside the stems (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). An egg clutch with six developing embryos has been observed attached to inner walls of the hollow stems (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species breeds by direct development without dependence on water.
136074		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species. Groups of 10-15 individuals have been located in in stands of <em>Ochlandra</em> reed brakes with an area of 0.25ha (50m X 50m) (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.). In other nearby localities (at lower elevations, in other habitats such as canopy forests), the call of the species could not be heard (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.).
136074		threats	eng	The habitat of this species in the Kakkayam Forest Reserve Reserve is being fragmented and reduced in area as a result of dam construction and other related activities (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007), including: clearing of forest for access roads, power lines, and pipelines; cutting of the reeds to provide temporary shelters for the construction work force; and cutting of the reeds for fuel wood for the construction workers (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.). It seems that this species can survive wherever there are <em>Ochlandra</em> reed brakes, including in open habitats in the surrounding ladscape.
136075		conservation	eng	It is found in the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary (L. Grismer pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136075		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from the eastern flank of Phnom Samkos, in Pursat Province, in the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, at 501m asl (Grismer <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is expected to occur more widely.
136075		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were found seated 1.5m above the ground on the leaves of small shrubs among grassy vegetation along the edge of a temporary rain pool at the edge of a wide trail surrounded by hill evergreen forest (Grismer <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is presumed to breed in water by larval development. It is not known whether it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
136075		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only two specimens (Grismer <em>et al</em>., 2007) found among large choruses of other <em>Chiromantis</em> species.
136075		threats	eng	A wide road has just been graded through the type locality in the exact place where the two specimens were found (L. Grismer pers. comm.). If the species occur more widely, as is expected, it might be affected by habitat loss for other reasons.
136076		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
136076		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the general vicinity of Mang Canh village, in Konplong District, Kon Tum province, in the central highlands of Viet Nam at 1,150-1,250m asl (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is expected to occur more widely.
136076		habitat	eng	The species is known only from tropical mountain rainforest, along the banks of fast-flowing streams (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). Vocalizing males sit on the rocks, fallen trunks and wide leaves of plants along the banks of the streams (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.
136076		population	eng	It is abundant along streams in its only known location, with eight frogs being found along a 100m length of stream (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006).
136076		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136077		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
136077		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is currently known only from the holotype collected at the Wapoga Alpha drill site (3º 08.687' S, 136º 34.423' E), Wapoga River headwaters, in Papua Province, Indonesia, at 1,070 m asl (Günther and Richards, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.
136077		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected from the branch of a spiny <em>Pandanus</em> “tree” about 1.8 m above the ground in forest (Günther and Richards, 2006). This forest is a transition between hill forest and closed-canopy lower montane rainforest, and is dominated by emergent <em>Agathis</em> trees (Mack and Alonso, 2000). Reproduction in this species has not been recorded, but it is presumably by direct development.
136077		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the holotype.
136077		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to this species at the present time (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136078		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Reserva Dantas in the Districto Los Angeles, Canton San Rafael (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). Los Juncos is part of a Forestry Reserve (Eduardo Boza pers. comm. 2007).
136078		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities (including Los Juncos 1,500 to 1,600m asl) near Cascajal, on the Cerro Chompipe, and from the Reserva Dantas in the Cordillera Central in central Costa Rica (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).
136078		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from primary or mature cloudforest with a closed canopy (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It appears to be associated with deep leaf litter (Vaughn and Calvo, 2003; Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It is possible that this species undergoes direct development, however this requires further investigations (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).
136078		population	eng	Vaughn and Mendelson (2007), mention that this is generally a rare toad with a few individuals being recorded along trails. However it is reported to be generally common by other researchers (five to seven animals encountered daily) (Eduardo Boza pers. comm. 2007).
136078		threats	eng	There appears to be no definite habitat loss ongoing or predicted within the range of this species. However, while it is not certain, the possibility remains that part of the habitat within the range of this species could be degraded through the expansion of housing from the city of San José (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).
136079		conservation	eng	The species is likely to be present within many protected area. There are no direct conservation measures needed for the species as a whole.
136079		distribution	eng	This species ranges from eatern Honduras, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama to Colombia adjacent to Panama (Heyer, 2005), with a seemingly disjunct population present in the area of Santa Marta in northern Colombia. A largely lowland species ranging from close to sea level to premontane areas at 660m asl (McCranie and Wilson, 2002).
136079		habitat	eng	This large frog has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats including primary and secondary lowland to premontane tropical moist forests, forest edges and severely deforested areas (McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Savage, 2002; Heyer, 2005). Animals can often be found at some distance from waterbodies (Savage, 2002).  Males call at night on the ground near rivulets and ponds within or adjacent to forest, during the rainy season (Ibañez <em>et al.</em> 1999). The large larvae can be encountered in backwaters of small streams, temporary ponds, swampy areas, small man made ponds or in foam nests and burrows (Muedeking and Heyer, 1976; McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Savage, 2002; Heyer, 2005).
136079		population	eng	Presumed to be a common species throughout most of its range.
136079		threats	eng	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
136080		conservation	eng	It is unclear if the species is present within any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest for this species in western Ecuador. Additional studies are needed into the natural history of this recently described species.
136080		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the seasonal evergreen forests of western Ecuador (Heyer 2005; Cisneros-Heredia 2006).
136080		habitat	eng	This species is generally limited to the tropical seasonally evergreen forests found in the contact zone between the Chocoan and Tumbesian regions of Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia 2006). Heyer (2005) reports that it hads been encountered in previously forested areas, although its persistence in these areas needs further investigation.
136080		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
136080		threats	eng	Much of the forest (~70% - Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007) within the known range of this species has been cleared for timber, or through conversion of land to agricultural use, with remaining forest remnants being greatly threatened by ongoing deforestation (Cisneros-Heredia 2006).
136081		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.
136081		distribution	eng	This species is generally restricted to northeastern parts of Brazil.
136081		habitat	eng	This species is associated with tropical open formations, including caatinga and the adjacent northern part of the cerrado (Heyer 2005).
136081		population	eng	There is little information available, but it is presumably reasonably common in suitable habitat.
136081		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is presumably fairly adaptable to open habitat types.
136082		conservation	eng	This species is present in the the forest fragment associated with the Las Cruces Biological Station (Catherine and Robert Wilson Botanical Garden). Further details are needed on the threats to this newly described species.
136082		distribution	eng	The range of this recently described species is described by Wake <em>et al.</em> (2007) as being a "small region along the Pacific slope on either side of the Costa Rica-Panama border". In Costa Rica it has been recorded between 1,170 to about 1,250m asl from "the eastern end of the Fila Costeña at the Las Cruces Biological Station (Catherine and Robert Wilson Botanical Garden) and the relatively close Finca Loma Linda" (Wake <em>et al.</em> 2007). Specimens are also known from the western slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca in extreme western Panama (at 1,700 to 2,120m asl); these have been collected at three separate sites both in the vicinity and above and to the east of the valley of the Río Candela (Wake <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136082		habitat	eng	Wake <em>et al.</em> (2007) report that the species is found in the "Tropical Premontane Rainforest and Tropical Lower Montane Rainforest zones (sensu Holdridge,1967)". Animals have typically been collected from large bromeliads, up to 3m up trees, within cloud forest; a single animal was collected from the forested ridge of a recently cleared field (Wake <em>et al.</em>, 2007). It is possibly a direct developing species, however this requires confirmation.
136082		population	eng	This species has only been collected on a few occasions and little is known about the population abundance.
136082		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not well-known, however much of the known range of this species is unprotected.
136083		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136083		distribution	eng	Pristimantis ventriguttatus is only known from the type locality: Hacienda Taulis (approx. 6 50' S, 79 10' W, 1800 masl), Province of Santa Cruz, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Lehr and Köhler, 2007).
136083		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane forests. Sympatric Pristimantis include P. cajamarcensis, P. lymani, and P. pinguis (Lehr and Köhler, 2007).
136083		population	eng	The species is known from the type series, comprised of four specimens, and additional collections undertaken in 2007 (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136083		threats	eng	Deforestation of the dry forests in northen Peru is an ongoing issue (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136084		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136084		distribution	eng	Physalaemus irroratus is only known from the type locality: Fazenda Duas Barras (16 25' S, 40 03' W; 800 m above sea level), Municipality of Santa Maria do Salto, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. This locality is in the Serra do Cariri mountain range, which separates the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia, as well as the basins of Jequitinhonha and Buranhém rivers (Cruz et al., 2007).
136084		habitat	eng	Fazenda Duas Barras is an unprotected area within the Atlantic rain forest domain, characterized by the presence of large, well-preserved or secondary forest patches, associated with cattle breeding activities. Physalaemus irroratus have been found during the wet season (October and January). Males call floating on small temporary ponds at the edge of forested areas, and foam nests are deposited on these temporary ponds (Cruz et al., 2007).
136084		population	eng	No population status is available for this species.
136084		threats	eng	There are no major threats currently known for this species.
136085		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
136085		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is known only from the headwaters of the Wapoga River, in Papua Province, Indonesia. All specimens were found at the Wapoga Alpha mineral exploration camp (3°08'41"S, 136°34'25"E) at 1,070m asl. It probably occurs more widely.
136085		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been encountered at night on low vegetation along torrents in closed-canopy lower mountane rainforest (Richards and Iskandar, 2006). No females were detected but the close association of males with torrential streams and their absence from lentic water bodies in the area suggests that this species breeds in lotic environments (Richards and Iskandar, 2006) by larval development.
136085		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
136085		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136086		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine this species' distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136086		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single site, Sercchip, in Sercchip District, Mizoram, northeastern India at 880 m asl (Mathew and Sen, 2007). It presumably occurs more widely.
136086		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected from a the compound of a guest house, where it was entering an underground hide-out (Mathew and Sen, 2007). The countryside surrounding the compound is dominated by trees (R. Mathew pers. comm.). If its ecology is similar to that of other members of its genus, it breeds in streams and occurs in forest surrounding streams.
136086		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from a single specimen, and efforts to locate additional specimens at the time of its discovery were not successful (Mathew and Sen, 2007).
136086		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136087		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
136087		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Manus and Los Negros Islands, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. It is widespread on both islands. It is found from 5 up to at least 296m asl, and is generally a lowland species (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136087		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest, but also in degraded habitats and rural gardens. Males called from exposed or semi-exposed positions in forest litter, or from the base of grass tussocks in disturbed garden habitats, after heavy rain (Richards <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species seems to be at least as abundant in gardens where canopy cover is severely reduced, as it is in closed-canopy forest. This species occurred in micro-sympatry with <em>P. latro</em>, and calling males of the two species were frequently spaced less than 50 cm apart. It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.
136087		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
136087		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
136088		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136088		distribution	eng	Pristimantis coronatus is only known from the type locality: Campamento Nueva York, Rio Blanco, (79 22' 32.1" S, 04 54' 28.2" W, 2850 masl), District of Carmen de la Frontera, Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru (Lehr and Duellman, 2007).
136088		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane cloud forest and can be found amidst the leaf litter on the forest floor at night. The single specimen known for this species, a female, was found to contain ovarian eggs when it was collected, in May 2005 (Lehr and Duellman, 2005).
136088		population	eng	The species is only known from one specimen, the holotype.
136088		threats	eng	Deforestation has been observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136089		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas. The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation. The Council of Europe (Anon. 1991) recommended that the introduction of salmonid or other predator fish to the species habitat was strictly forbidden; and that there was a need to carry out a field survey of the species in the whole Taurus Mountains range. Local public awareness programmes have been initiated (Olgun 1998).  Captive breeding might be necessary in the future if threats continue.
136089		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bolkar Dagi, in the Taurus Range, southern Turkey. There are records from Karagöl (2,500m asl), the Çiniligöl lakes (2,600m asl) and Eğrigöl (16km southeast of Karagöl - 3,000m asl). Within this small region it is patchily distributed, being absent from apparently suitable habitat, such as Çinili Lake, which is at a slightly higher elevation.
136089		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high montane lakes with grassy borders and slow-flowing creeks created by snow water. The frogs are also found in meadows close to the water bodies in which they breed. The creeks are surrounded by prairies where domestic sheep graze. Pads formed by grass roots on the creek sides provide a suitable habitat under which the frogs spend the winter. The related species, <em>Rana macrocnemis</em>, occurs at lower elevations in the Bolkar Dagi (it is found at Seviçova at 2,500m asl, below Eğrigöl (3,000m) where <em>R. holtzi</em> occurs).
136089		population	eng	Baran (1969) noted that the population at Karagöl was large. Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001) stated that the population size of <em>Rana holtzi</em> had declined approximately 60%-70% in Karagöl because of the introduction of the common carp <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>. Kaya <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimated the population size of <em>Rana holtzi</em> in Karagöl to be between 725 and 1,432 individuals based on a mark-recapture study. They also stated that this species is facing a very high risk of decline in its natural habitat.
136089		threats	eng	The species is endemic to a popular tourist area. A road has recently been completed at the site potentially increasing the number of visitors. It is reported to be declining through overcollection for scientific and possibly other purposes (Olgun 1998; Eken pers. comm.), and the introduction of predatory fishes (including carp) into the lakes in the 1990s, has led to a significant decline in the population. The impact of local fisheries (including dynamite fishing) and overgrazing of surrounding meadows by goats on the species requires further information, but is presumed to be having a negative impact.
136090		conservation	eng	More information is needed about the species' population status, distribution and conservation biology. Effective preservation of lowland forest is essential for the survival of the species. It is present in Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia, and in some protected areas in Thailand (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
136090		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Thailand (two sites), Peninsular Malaysia (including the island of Pulau Sibu on the east coast) and Singapore (Berry, 1975; Dring, 1979; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Leong, 2000; Das <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has recently been recorded from a single locality in West Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 0-500m asl.
136090		habitat	eng	It is known from lowland areas of primary rainforest, forest edges, moderately modified rainforest, and "secondary trackside growth" (Dring, 1979). Explosive breeding takes place in forest pools. Adults are generally found in leaf-litter.
136090		population	eng	This species is frequently encountered (N. Yaakob, pers. comm.).
136090		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are largely unknown, although it is unlikely to tolerate extensive forest degradation from logging and expanding oil palm plantations.
136091		conservation	eng	This species has been found adjacent to the Mahadayi Wildlife Sanctuary (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007), where it presumably occurs. Although it can clearly tolerate disturbed habitats, its distribution and biology remain largely unknown and more survey work and research are needed, in particular to determine geographic range, habitat occupancy, population size and life history.
136091		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Western Ghats of southern India in the vicinity of Chorla village, Khanapur Taluk, Belgaum District, Karnataka Province (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are records from two sites: the surroundings of Rameshwar Temple (15°39′ N, 74°08′E) at 728m asl; and 2km away at Chavatyaar, Chavato vaddo, at 732m asl (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species probably occurs more widely.
136091		habitat	eng	One specimen was collected from underneath piled rotting grass in an open field at a distance of c. 50m from Haltar nallah (nallah = canal) (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The other two specimens were dug from soil in a small plantation of young banana plants and mature jackfruit trees (canopy cover c. 40%) (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). A strong monsoonal stream flows along the edge of on of the sites, and subsequently joins the Haltar nallah, a tributary of the River Mahadayi (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species can clearly survive in humid anthropogenic habitats, but it is not known if it also occurs in nearby forest (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). Its reproductive biology is unknown, although where known other members of the genus are oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly without a larval stage.
136091		population	eng	There is no information. It is so far known from only three specimens.
136091		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. It is clearly somewhat adapatable, but more information is needed.
136092		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Nameri National Park and Dihingpatkai Wildlife Sanctuary. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136092		distribution	eng	This species is known only from five sites in northeastern India: Suffry tea estate (26° 55’-27°00’ N, 94°55’-95°03’ E), in Assam (Bordoloi <em>et al</em>., 2007) at 60-100m asl; Nameri National Park in Assam (S. Sengupta, pers. comm.); Dihingpatkai Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam (S. Sengupta, pers. comm.); Wokha district in Nagaland (S. Bordoloi, pers. comm.); Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary In Arunachal Pradesh (S. Sengupta, pers. comm.); and Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (27° 04' 15'' N 92° 24' 06'' E), in Arunachal Pradesh (I. Agarwal, pers. comm.). Its overall elevational range is unknown, but it is probably restricted to relatively low elevations, though the record from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary was at 1,250m asl (I. Agarwal, pers. comm.). It is likely to occur more widely.
136092		habitat	eng	Thi species is found mainly in swampy areas (S. Bordoloi pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from a banana plantation, and areca nut tree, and from sugarcane plants in personal gardens (Bordoloi <em>et al</em>., 2007), and has been found resting on ferns in the day time along the side of the road (I. Agarwal, pers. comm.). It is presumably an arboreal species that breeds in still water by larval development.
136092		population	eng	It appears to be rare within its habitat (S. Bordoloi pers. comm.).
136092		threats	eng	No direct information is available on threats to this species. However, the general threat in this area might be pollution in water bodies due to use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture.
136093		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136093		distribution	eng	Pristimantis phalaroinguinis is only known from type type locality: Río Zaña, ca. 06 51’ S, 79 06’ W, 1800 masl, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Duellman and Lehr, 2007).
136093		habitat	eng	The species possibly occurs in isolated patches of cloud forest (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).
136093		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of six specimens.
136093		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136094		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Although it can clearly tolerate disturbed habitats, its distribution and biology remain largely unknown and more survey work and research are needed (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136094		distribution	eng	This species is so far known with certainty only from Venkidds Valley Estate, about 20 km south of Madikeri (5<br/>Mercara), in Kodagu (5 Coorg) District, southern Karnataka, in the Western Ghats of India, at 1,143m asl (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is likely to occur more widely, and there is a specimen from an unspecified locality in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka or Kerala (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are also additional possible records from Karnataka and northern Kerala currently under investigation (D. Gower pers. comm.).
136094		habitat	eng	The type locality is a mixed coffee and areca nut plantation, and the holotype was collected by digging in soil adjacent to a small stream (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007). Its original habitat is unknown. It is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae, like other members of its genus.
136094		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only seven specimens, but several of these were collected in a single day by digging (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136094		threats	eng	Although it can clearly survive in agricultural habitat, more information is needed on its  range and ecological requirements of this species before it could be considered unthreatened (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136095		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species. In view of its extremely restricted range, habitat specificity, and the pending threat to the habitat of <em>C. faustoi</em>, Brasileiro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2007) propose that this species be considered as susceptible to extinction and, thus, be included in the Critically Endangered (CR) category of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
136095		distribution	eng	<em>Cycloramphus faustoi</em> is only known from Saco do Funil (24 05 58.4 S, 45 41 42.3 W) at the island Ilha dos Alcatrazes (135 ha), municipality of São Sebastião, state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species was recorded between 20 and 100 m asl, but it may occur a little higher (maximum elevation on the island: 150 m asl). (C.A.Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).
136095		habitat	eng	<em>Cycloramphus faustoi</em> was found in a small valley area (Saco do Funil) bordered by Atlantic forest in a dry stream bed composed of several large rocks. During the rainy season, the water trickles through this valley. Both males and females were found in rock crevices. Two other frog species were recorded in the Ilha dos Alcatrazes, <em>Scinax alcatraz</em> (Hylidae) and <em>Leptodactylus cf. marmoratus</em> (Leptodactylidae), which occupy different microhabitats than <em>C. faustoi</em> (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<em> C. faustoi</em> has been recorded in the months of March, August, and September. Calling activity was recorded once in August 2005 when five males were calling from rock crevices and one female was found guarding an egg clutch in a crevice. The female did not leave the clutch even after being disturbed. The swelled throat (possibly storing water) of the female was in contact with the eggs. The clutch had 31 large white eggs, with an average diameter of 3.8 mm (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136095		population	eng	<em>Cycloramphus faustoi</em> appears to be scarce on the island. The maximum number of individuals recorded in one night was 11. Related species, such as <em>C. boraceiensis</em> and <em>C. dubius</em> from nearby coastal localities in the state of São Paulo occur in higher abundance; up to 30 individuals may be found in small stretches of streams at night (see Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136095		threats	eng	The vicinity of Saco do Funil is used by the Brazilian Navy for artillery training activities. Occasionally this practice ignites the vegetation, as was the case for a fire in November 2004, thus posing a serious threat to <em>C. faustoi</em> and other island endemics (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136096		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136096		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypsiboas curupi</span> is restricted to Misiones, northeastern Argentina, between 300 and 700 masl.  Its distribution seems to be associated with the basins of the Paraná and Uruguai rivers. In Brazil, it is potentially present in the state of Paraná (Garcia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007).
136096		habitat	eng	The vegetation where Hypsiboas curupi is found is seasonal forest and Araucaria forest in Atlantic Forest domain. H. curupi call in the vegetation, on the margins or backwaters of shallow streams, and in forested areas. Individuals perch on trees and vegetation surrounding forest streams at variable heights, at distances of 50–100 cm from water. Males are dusk and nocturnal callers, and when in high densities, tend to call in a chorus. Calling activity and tadpoles were observed in the months of December, January, and February. Males call from the vegetation or partially submerged in water. Spawns are laid in clumps of eggs, laid in water, adhered to vegetation or stones.  A spawn was found to contain 263 eggs with a dark animal pole; each egg being covered by an individual jelly capsule. Tadpoles have been found in streams of clear water inside the forest. Other anuran species that share the same area include Aplastodiscus perviridis and Crossodactylus schmidti (Garcia et al., 2007). The advertisement call is reported in Garcia et al. (2007).
136096		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136096		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136097		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136097		distribution	eng	Allobates caribe is known from the southern slope of Cerro El Humo (10 41' 094" N, 62 37' 147" W), Penınsula de Paria, state of Sucre, Venezuela, at an elevation of 1050 masl (Barrio-Amorós et al., 2006).
136097		habitat	eng	The species inhabits cloud forest. Individuals were found at the entrance of a hole at the edge of a path in the cloud forest and in a dry streambed, together with young Craugastor biporcatus. The advertisement call of this species is unknown. The species is believed to be terrestrial (Barrio-Amorós et al., 2006).
136097		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, consisting of three specimens.
136097		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136098		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136098		distribution	eng	The species inhabits wet tropical forests of the foothills of the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (departments of Boyacá and Santander) and eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central (departments of Caldas and Antioquia), in Colombia. It is found between 70 and 320 masl (Grant et al., 2007).
136098		habitat	eng	The species is found in forests that are no taller than 20 m. The mean temperature of the region is 28 C and annual precipitation is greater than 2,000 mm, with one rainy season in April–June and a second season of greater precipitation in September–November. The presence of the species becomes conspicuous with the onset of winter (September–November) rains (Grant et al., 2007).<br/><br/>Allobates niputidea is diurnal, most active in the morning hours. Males call from the forest leaf litter. Individuals are often found  at some distance (greater than 3 m) from permanent streams. Adults were observed scattered throughout the forest from September–November, whereas juveniles were found in isolated pools in the forest interior (Grant et al., 2007).
136098		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
136098		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136099		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project area, in which there are strict controls on vegetation disturbance. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species occurs more widely.
136099		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites at 900-930m asl on Iagifu Ridge, near Moro, in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea. It might occur more widely, but intensive surveys have not located it around Kopi, Gobe and Mount Sisa, suggesting that is distrbution might be genuinely small.
136099		habitat	eng	Animals have been found between 1.0 and 3.5m above the ground on leaves and branches adjacent to a small stream in submontane rainforest. It has not been found in anthropogenic habitats.
136099		population	eng	It appears to be a common species, but its arboreal habitats make it hard to detect (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136099		threats	eng	The only known site is well protected. If it occurs more widely, it might be found in some areas experiencing habitat loss.
136100		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Guaramacal National Park (a.k.a. General Cruz Carrillo National Park)(E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
136100		distribution	eng	Pristimantis rhigophilus is known from the type locality and its vicinities: Páramo de Guaramacal (9 13’ 53.9’’ N, 70 11’ 08.7’’ W, 3100 masl), on the  Laguna de Los Cedros- Guaramacal road, Municipality of Boconó, Trujillo state, Venezuela. It is known to occur between 2360-3100 masl.
136100		habitat	eng	The species is found from montane rain forest to páramo. Individuals have been found under rocks in a páramo pasture-like area, with a vegetation landscape dominated by Espeletia sp. and Puya sp., a habitat that is shared with Pristimantis boconoensis. One individual was also found under a rock near a forest stream in a transition zone between cloud forest and páramo; other species found in this habitat include Atelopus sp. and Nephelobates sp. (La Marca, 2007).
136100		population	eng	This has been always a rare species to find (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
136100		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136101		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for the species.
136101		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella harveyi</span> is only known from the type locality: 2.5 km N of Jatum Incacasani (between 3,400-4,000 m asl), Province of Ayopaya, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It may occur in areas adjacent to the type locality (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136101		habitat	eng	The species is found in the grass and under rocks. Calling activity is reported for August and September, where the species calls during the day (De la Riva 2007).
136101		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136101		threats	eng	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136102		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136102		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella iani</span> is only known from the type locality (Tucurmani Molino and Achapampa, Cantón Tacacoma, Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia) and its vicinities (De la Riva 2007). It may occur in areas adjacent to the type locality (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008). It occurs between 3,000-3,500 m asl.
136102		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid páramo habitat. Individuals of this species were found under a large moss patch and under stones, near a narrow rivulet (ca 10 cms) by day during the dry season. No eggs were found. The species presumably breeds by direct development.
136102		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species. It was first and last seen in 1995 (C. Cortez pers. comm. 2008).
136102		threats	eng	Potato crops are grown in the near vicinity (C. Cortez pers. comm. 2008). In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136103		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136103		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella illimani</span> is known only from the type locality, from Río Caballuni, 5 km from Totoral on the road to Cooperativa 15 de Agosto (3,594 m asl), Province of Sud Yungas, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It is thought to have restricted geographical and elevational (perhaps no more than 300 m around the type locality) ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136103		habitat	eng	This species is found in an area which has both elfin forest and wet páramo, with abundant mosses on the ground and rocks. Individuals are found under stones by day. Locomotion in most <span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella </span>species is by walking, but individuals of this species are able to jump short distances (De la Riva 2007).
136103		population	eng	The species is considered to be rare (De la Riva 2007).
136103		threats	eng	Mining activity has been observed around the area. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are also considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136104		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136104		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella quimsacruzis is known from Choquetanga and Mina Caracoles (16 52' 39" S, 67 18' 23" W, 3660 masl) and from the junction of the roads to Quime and Choquetanga (17 00' 02" S, 67 16' 49" W, 3730 masl), Province of Inquisivi, Department of La Paz, Bolivia. The two localities are separated by an airline distance of 13.9 km, and lie in the northeastern versant of the main massif of the Cordillera de Quimsa Cruz (De la Riva, 2007).
136104		habitat	eng	The species is found in humid paramo habitats. Individuals can be found under stones by day. Gravid females were found to contain numerous, large, unpigmented eggs. Other anurans at the type locality are Telmatobius bolivianus and Gastrotheca marsupiata (De la Riva, 2007).
136104		population	eng	It seems that there are two different populations of this species; however, it is not known whether these populations are conspecific with each other (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136104		threats	eng	Mining activities can be a potential threat to the species. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136105		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the vicinity of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park.
136105		distribution	eng	Prisitmantis adiastolus is only known from the type locality, 1.5 km NW of Cacazú, 10 38' S, 75 07' W, 1200 masl, Department of Pasco, Peru (Duellman and Hedges, 2007). This species may occur mode widely (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).
136105		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane forests of the Cordillera Yanachaga, in central Peru. The holotype was found perching on a leaf at ca 1.5 m above the ground in riparian forest at night. Other species of anurans at the type locality or in the near surroundings include Leptodactylus andreae, L. griseigularis, Hypsiboas cinerascens (=Hypsiboas granosus), Rhinella poeppigii and Pristimantis albertus (Duellman and Hedges, 2007).
136105		population	eng	The species is only known from one specimen, the holotype.
136105		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136106		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. Surveys are needed in the type locality to determine whether it is still present there (the holotype was collected in 1972)(Mueses-Cisneros, pers. com. 2008).
136106		distribution	eng	Rhaebo lynchi is only known from the type locality, Vereda “El Chuscal”, boundaries with Caicedo, Urrao, Antioquia, Colombia (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).
136106		habitat	eng	The holotype was captured in primary forest, under logs during a rainy season. The female has a mass of pale eggs and convoluted oviducts (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).
136106		population	eng	The species is only known from a single specimen, the holotype.
136106		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136107		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status, and, if it is a valid species, surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136107		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Surat Thani and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces, Peninsular Thailand (Pauwels and Chérot, 2006). The distribution map should be considered highly provisional.
136107		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of its ecological requirements. It presumably breeds in small pools by larval development.
136107		population	eng	This is an extremely poorly known species, and there is no information on its abundance.
136107		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136108		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur within the realm of two research stations.
136108		distribution	eng	Ischnocnema penaxavantinho is known from the type locality: Estação Ecológica do Panga (Panga), (19 11’ S; 48 24’ W, ca. 800 masl), municipality of Uberlândia, and Perdizes (Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Ambiental Galheiro; about 19 12’ S, 47 10’ W; 700–1000 masl; 2840 ha), another municipality in the Triângulo Mineiro region, both in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Both localities are ca 130 km apart (Giaretta et al., 2007).
136108		habitat	eng	The vegetation at the type locality (Panga) includes several Cerrado physiognomies, including “Veredas” (a vegetation dominated by grass-like plants, with dispersed bushes and Mauritia flexuosa palms) and a riverine forest running along the Panga River (2 m wide). Human altered areas are covered by the exotic grass Brachiaria sp.. The local weather presents a hot and wet summer (Sep.–Mar.), and a cold and dry winter (Apr.–Aug), when frosts may occur. Males were heard calling on the ground or perched (up to 60 cm height) amidst dense tufts of natural grass-like herbs in Veredas or on Brachiaria sp. Up to 200 m from permanently wet soil. Rarely, when fires cleared open areas from<br/>grasses, males were heard also from within forests or forest borders. Calling activity was observed between October and  March, being most intense in the afternoon and first hours of the night (Giaretta et al., 2007).
136108		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136108		threats	eng	Natural wildfires may comprise a potential threat to this species.
136109		conservation	eng	The type locality is a research station (Giaretta et al., 2007).
136109		distribution	eng	Phyllomedusa araguari is currently only known from the type locality: Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Ambiental Galheiro (ca 19 12’ S, 47 10’W; 900 masl), municipality of Perdizes, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Giaretta et al., 2007).
136109		habitat	eng	Vegetation types at the type locality include small patches of several Brazilian savanna (Cerrado) physiognomies, including forests and grass fields. Males were found calling during the night along a narrow (0.5 m wide) deep (2 m)<br/>eroded trench (100 m) bordered by short (< 1 m high) dense grass-like vegetation and sparse low (< 2 m high)<br/>shrubs, including Velloziaceae. Tadpoles were found in deep (up to 2.5 m) pools along the trench. The<br/>water of these pools was colored muddy red and was permanently shaded by the marginal bank and bordering<br/>vegetation. One egg clutch found in the month of December 2003 was wrapped in a leaf (Melastomataceae) hanging over a pond. It had 24 eggs with embryos (Gosner stage 21, 21.8 mm TL), and many small (2 mm) jelly spheres. Syntopic frogs include Ameerega flavopicta and Leptodactylus cunicularius (Giaretta et al., 2007).
136109		population	eng	The species is known from the type series, comprised of three specimens.
136109		threats	eng	The reservation is surrounded by cattle farms, agricultural fields and the lake of a hydroelectric power station (Nova Ponte, MG) in the Araguari River. Given that the new species is a grass/shrub environment dweller, it probably is not threatened of extinction by local human activities such as damming, deforestation, and cattle farming. Potential threats appear to include fires, exotic grasses (Melinis minutiflora Beauv) over-shadowing trenches/ponds, and removal of natural vegetation for agriculture (Giaretta et al., 2007).
136110		conservation	eng	No conservation areas are currently known for this species.
136110		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinella achavali</em> can be found in two hill systems (known as ‘‘Cuchillas’’; Cuchilla de Haedo and Cuchilla Grande) in northeastern Uruguay, at an altitude of approximately 500 masl (Maneyro et al., 2004), and across several localities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (100-374 masl), southern Brazil (Kwet et al., 2006).
136110		habitat	eng	This is a mostly nocturnal species found in or near small forest streams (Maneyro et al., 2004; Kwet et al., 2006). Individuals can be found perched on tree-trunks, about 20-50 cm above the water surface, and sometimes under stones or in the water (Kwet et al., 2006). The species was recently found in artificially-forested (<em>Pinus</em>, <em>Eucalyptus</em>) environments (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The hill systems of Uruguay where the species is found exhibit a particular hydrographic system and associated vegetation that have other endemic species of bufonids, i.e.  <em>Melanophryniscus orejasmirandai</em> and <em>Melanophryniscus sanmartini</em>. The tadpole, eggs and vocalizations of <em>R. achavali</em> are not currently known (Maneyro et al., 2004; Kwet et al., 2006). While this may be considered an "explosive" breeder, the breeding season appears to be a lengthy one, on a yearly basis (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).
136110		population	eng	This is a common species in those areas where it is found, although the habitat itself is considered to be specialized (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).
136110		threats	eng	Due to its small distribution range, Maneyro and Langone (2001) classified <em>R. achavali</em> (as <em>Bufo sp.</em>) as potentially threatened in Uruguay. Kwet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) indicate that data are still insufficient to assess the distributional range and threat category of this species in Rio Grande do Sul, but that <em>R. achavali</em> may have a wider distribution than presently acknowledged, being sometimes mistaken for <em>R. arenarum</em> or <em>R. icterica</em>.<br/><br/>A major part of the environment where this species was recorded is considered to be a “zona de prioridad forestal”, meaning that the area is likely to be drastically modified in the future as native vegetation is being replaced with plantations of exotic wood species. It is thus important to conduct monitoring studies that address the impact of these forestry practices on <em>R. achavali</em> (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).
136111		conservation	eng	It occurs in Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary and Kudremukh National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
136111		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the Sharavathi River basin, in the central part of the Western Ghats, Karnataka State, India, at 534-692m asl (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). Within this elevational range it occurs quite widely in this river basin (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007), and has also been located further to the north, as far as the Bedti River basin in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, and south as far as Kudremukh National Park (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.).
136111		habitat	eng	The region where this species occurs has an undulating terrain, with both evergreen and moist-deciduous forests in which this species occurs(Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). In relatively flat areas there are freshwater habitats known as <em>Myristica</em> swamps, dominated by members of plant family Myristicaceae, and these sites are favoured by the species. The species is absent from unsuitable habitats within its range, such as rock outcrops, recently burnt areas, open/barren lands, agricultural fields, plantations, and built-up areas (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence on water.
136111		population	eng	Its abundance varies through its range (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). There were 6-8 individuals/mhs (man-hours of search) in the <em>Myristica</em> swamps, where densities were relatively high, compared to the densities of 2-4 individuals/mhs observed in forested habitats (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136111		threats	eng	This species has lost much habitat within its range due to the construction of dams for hydropower, the extension of agricultural fields into forested areas, and urbanization, and its populations are now severely fragmented (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136112		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park. There is a need to prevent continuing habitat loss and degradation within the species limited forest habitat.
136112		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from two localities in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, Mahajanga Province, west-central Madagascar: Andafiabe at the Beboka River (18°47'03" S, 44°46'46" E) at 177 m asl; and in the northern parts of the Bendrao Forest (18°47'04" S, 44°51'37" E) at 430 m asl (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> It is believed to be endemic to Bemereha, where it is limited to suitable forest along streams (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<em><br/></em>
136112		habitat	eng	As specimens have not been observed or heard calling in open habitat, <em>Boophis tampoka</em> must be considered a dry forest species (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is limited to forest habitat along streams (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is presumably a stream breeder, however, this needs confirmation.<br/><br/><br/><br/><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em>
136112		population	eng	It is abundant in its only known non-degraded sites (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<em>.</em>
136112		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation as a result of over-grazing by zebu cattle, and collection of firewood, which continue inside the national park (J. Köhler pers. comm. 2009). General water pollution has also been noted as a threat to this species (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
136113		conservation	eng	The U.S. Geological Survey has developed a conservation plan for this species, and about 1.7 million hectares were designated as critical habitat for it in California (USFWS 2001). A monitoring and conservation program needs to be implemented in the Mexican portion of the range, which does not include any protected areas.
136113		distribution	eng	Native historical range extended from southern Mendocino County in northwestern California south (primarily west of the Cascade-Sierra crest) to northwestern Baja California (Shaffer et al. 2004). Historical populations on the floor of the Central Valley may not have persisted due to extensive natural flooding (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005). Range is now much reduced in the Sierra Nevada and in southern California, but the species is still present throughout much of its former range in the central California coast range (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005). This species has been introduced in a few places in Nevada, but the current status of those populations is uncertain (A. Cook, cited by Fellers, in Lannoo 2005). Rana draytonii is still present in Baja California, Mexico (USFWS 2000, Grismer 2002, Shaffer et al. 2004). Elevational range extended from sea level to about 1,500 meters (5,000 feet); usually below 1,200 meters (3,935 feet).
136113		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs in or near quiet permanent water of streams, marshes, ponds, lakes, and other quiet bodies of water. In summer, frogs estivate in small mammal burrows, leaf litter, or other moist sites in or near (within a few hundred feet of) riparian areas (Rathbun et al. 1993, cited by USFWS 1994; USFWS 1996). Individuals may range far from water along riparian corridors and in damp thickets and forests. Breeding occurs in permanent or seasonal water of ponds, marshes, or quiet stream pools, sometimes in lakes (Fellers, in Jones et al. 2005); eggs often are attached to emergent vegetation, float at surface (Hayes and Miyamoto 1984).
136113		population	eng	Number of distinct occurrences (subpopulations) is unknown but probably is at least several dozen. According to USFWS (2000), the species occurs in about 238 streams or drainages.<br/><br/>In the mid-1990s, most of the occupied habitat was in Monterey, San Luis Obispo, and Santa Barbara counties; the species occurred in only 5 sites south of the Tehachapi Mountains (80+ historic sites) (USFWS 1996) Aggregations including more than 350 adults were known only from Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve in coastal San Mateo County, Point Reyes National Seashore in Marin County, and Rancho San Carlos in Monterey County (USFWS 1996). More than 120 breeding sites exist in Marin County (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>In California, south of Los Angeles, a single population is known from the Santa Rosa Plateau in Riverside County (Shaffer et al. 2004). Only two populations are known to exist south of Santa Barabra (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>In the Sierra Nevada, Rana draytonii is now represented by only about a half dozen populations, only one of which is known to have more than 10 breeding adults (Shaffer et al. 2004).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000. The species is still locally abundant in portions of the San Francisco Bay area and the central coast (USFWS 2000). Breeding sites in Marin County include several thousand adults (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>Over the long term, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have undergone a major decline. The species has been extirpated from much of its former range in California (Hayes and Jennings 1988, Shaffer et al. 2004). Range has been reduced by 70% (USFWS 1996, 2000). Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probabaly are still declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.
136113		threats	eng	Factors contributing to the decline include wetland destruction and degradation/fragmentation, urbanization, residential development, reservoir construction, stream channelization, livestock grazing of riparian vegetation, off-road vehicle activity, drought, overharvesting, and exotic fishes (bass, mosquitofish) and possibly bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998; USFWS 1994, 1996, 2000; Adams 1999, 2000; Lawler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999; Cook and Jennings 2001; Kiesecker, Blaustein and Miller 2001a; Cook 2002). An important threat is the loss of wetlands in the Willamette Valley (Oregon) and Puget Lowlands (Washington). Conversion of habitat to more permanent ponds is an important threat (as this allows breeding waters to be invaded by non-native predators). <br/><br/>Declines in the red-legged frog complex also have been attributed to global warming, UV-B radiation (Belden and Blaustein 2002), airborne contaminants (pesticide drift), and disease (see Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) found support for the negative impact of wind-borne agrochemicals and weaker evidence for the widespread impact of habitat destruction and UV-B radiation; evidence did not support the hypothesis that declines have been caused by climate change.
136114		conservation	eng	Most occurrences are on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service or U.S. National Park Service. However, occurrence in protected, pristine areas does not ensure population persistence.
136114		distribution	eng	Historical range extended from the Diamond Mountains northeast of the Sierra Nevada in Plumas County, and from just north of the Feather River in the extreme northwest region of the Sierra Nevada, California, south through the Sierra Nevada to Inyo County, California, and east to Mt. Rose, northeast of Lake Tahoe, in Washoe County, Nevada (Vredenburg et al. 2007). West of the Sierra Nevada crest, the southern part of the range is bordered by ridges that divide the Middle and South Fork of the Kings River, ranging from Mather Pass to the Monarch Divide; east of the Sierra Nevada crest, R. sierrae occurs in the Glass Mountains just south of Mono Lake (Mono County) and along the east slope of the Sierra Nevada south to the type locality at Matlock Lake (Inyo County) (Vredenburg et al. 2007). Rana sierrae is now extirpated from Nevada and from large portions of the historical range in the Sierra Nevada of California.
136114		habitat	eng	The habitat of frogs of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex includes sunny river margins, meadow streams, isolated pools, and lake borders in the Sierra Nevada. Sierran frogs are most abundant in high elevation lakes and slow-moving portions of streams. They seldom are found away from water but may cross upland areas in moving between summer and winter habitats (Matthews and Pope 1999). Wintering sites include areas near shore under ledges and in deep underwater crevices (Matthews and Pope 1999).
136114		population	eng	Extensive surveys between 1995 and 2005 yielded only 11 occupied sites (Vredenburg et al. 2007). Total adult population size is unknown but may not exceed a couple thousand (generously assuming 20 sites each with 100 adults).<br/><br/>A precipitous decline in Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae appears to have occurred over the past 3-4 decades (Bradford 1991, USFWS 1999). For the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex as a whole, Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped many more extirpated populations than extant populations. Rana sierrae has declined greatly in the Yosemite area of the Sierra Nevada, California (Drost and Fellers 1996). In the Sierra Nevada, recent surveys indicate that Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae has been reduced to a small number of widely scattered, mostly very small populations (fewer than 20 adults) (Knapp and Matthews 2000). Surveys in the 1990s indicated that the rangewide decline in distribution may be as much as 70-90 percent (USFWS 2000). <br/><br/>Of the 146 historical R. sierrae sites studied by Vredenburg et al. (2007), only 11 sites contained frogs when revisited between 1995 and 2005 (92 percent extirpation rate).<br/><br/>The current trend (past 10 years) is unknown, but probably the decline is ongoing.
136114		threats	eng	A petition to list the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex as endangered cited the following threats: non-native fish introductions, contaminant introductions, livestock grazing, acidification from atmospheric deposition, nitrate deposition, ultraviolet radiation, drought, disease, and other factors (see USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Extensive surveys in the Sierra Nevada clearly demonstrate the strong detrimental impact of introduced trouts on R. muscosa/Rana sierrae populations (Bradford 1989, Knapp and Matthews 2000). Removal of non-native fishes (relatively easy in some Sierra Nevada lakes) might easily reverse the decline (Knapp and Matthews 2000).<br/><br/>See Bradford (1991) for information on mass mortality and extinction of a population due at least in part to red-leg disease and predation on metamorphics by Brewer's blackbird; reestablishment of the extirpated population probably will be prevented through predation by introduced fishes.  <br/><br/>Frogs of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex are possibly but probably not threatened by sublethal effects of low pH and elevated levels of dissolved aluminum (Bradford et al. 1992).<br/><br/>Fellers et al. (2001) documented oral chytridiomycosis (often indicated by oral disc abnormalities) in larvae and recently metamorphosed individuals of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex in the Sierra Nevada, where recent declines have occurred. However, loss of pigmentation of larval mouthparts does not always indicate chytridiomycosis (Batrachochytrium infection) (Rachowicz 2002).<br/><br/>Davidson et al. (2002) found support for the hypothesis that airborne agrochemicals have played a significant role in the decline of frogs of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex.
136115		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136115		distribution	eng	Hydrolaetare caparu is only known from the type locality, Caparú Ranch (14 48.795 S; 61 09.602 W, 158 masl), Provincia Velasco, Department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Jansen et al., 2007). The species may possibly be distributed more widely in adjacent areas with similar habitats (e.g. northern Bolivia and neighbouring areas in Brazil (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 2008).
136115		habitat	eng	This species seems to be restricted to seasonally flooded riparian forests of a small river associated with the Rio Paragua that dries up during the dry season. Occasionally, the species was found in an adjacent flooded grassland area near the borders of the forest.  All 17 observations in February 2006 were found near or on small islands formed by roots at the bottom of trees. Twelve individuals were found in the water, five were found on the ground. Calling males were observed on sites close to the waterline or half inside the water with high escape distance (approximately 5–10 m). Other anuran species recorded at this site were Dendropsophus cf. leali, Leptodactylus chaquensis, Osteocephalus sp. and Rhinella cf. margaritifer (Jansen et al., 2007). The species is likely to burrow itself during the dry season (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 2008).
136115		population	eng	Seventeen individuals were observed in early 2006, while only one subadult was observed in December of the preceding year. A remarkably high density of this species could be observed along 100-m transects: up to three individuals were seen on 11 surveys along the transect (12 observations; average 1.1 per survey), and up to four individuals could be heard (24 observations on 11 visits; average 2.2 per survey). Although H. caparu appeared to be very rare in October 2005, the strikingly high densities of H. caparu during the surveys in January 2006 suggest that this species is highly seasonal in its appearance (Jansen et al., 2007).
136115		threats	eng	A potential threat outside the type locality is habitat fragmentation. Further research is needed to assess its impact on the species (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 2008).
136116		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136116		distribution	eng	Pristimantis chimu is only known from the type locality, 2–3 km NW (straightline) El Pargo (Llama-Huambos Road), 3000–3100 masl, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (2007).
136116		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the species' ecology (Lehr, 2007). The species' likely habitat may be puna or dry forests of the western cordillera (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136116		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136116		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species. However, if it does occur in dry forests, these are threatened by deforestation in northern Peru (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136117		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas (R. Günther pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
136117		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to New Guinea where it has been recorded in Papua Province, Indonesia. It is currently known only from the type locality of the '"54 km" site along the Nabire-Mapia road, about 30 km direct line southeast of Nabire, 750m asl (3º29.517' S, 135º43.913'  E') (Günther and Richards, 2005). It might occur more widely.
136117		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was found on the leaf of a shrub 1.8 m above the surface of a fast flowing "rocky" stream, near to a road with motor traffic (Günther and Richards, 2005). The vegetation surrounding the stream is secondary tropical moist forest. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.
136117		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype, and appears to be rare.
136117		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known (R. Günther pers. comm.).
136118		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in some other protected areas. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomy, distribution and ecological requirements of this species.
136118		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Its distribution in these countries is poorly known, but on current knowledge it ranges from Lira in north-central Uganda, through the western and central Kenyan highlands, to the southeastern Kenyan coast and northeastern Tanzania, south to the Udzungwa Mountains, and also on the island of Zanzibar. A record from Somalia is doubted by Lanza (1990) and records from northeastern Angola (Laurent 1954; Ruas 1996) probably refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus parvulus</em>. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 1,800m asl.
136118		habitat	eng	It is found amongst herbaceous vegetation, leaf litter, rocks or mud at the swampy margins of lakes, rivers, streams and temporary pools in both moist grassland and forest clearings. It breeds in lake edges, rivers, streams and pools.
136118		population	eng	It is a poorly known species, partly because it is not well defined taxonomically, and so there is little information on its abundance.
136118		threats	eng	There is little information, but if its ecology is similar to that of <em>Phrynobatrachus minutus</em> it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural expansion, human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.
136119		conservation	eng	It in the Nyika National Park and might occur in the Udzungwa National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecology and conservation needs of this species.
136119		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Udzungwa Plateau in southern Tanzania (with records from Dabaga and Masisiwe), and the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi. It is probably also present in the intervening highland areas. In Tanzania it has been recorded around 1,740m asl, but probably also occurs higher, at least to 2,000m asl.
136119		habitat	eng	It is known from the margins of streams and rivers in forest and montane grassland. It breeds in water by larval development.
136119		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
136119		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably threatened by expanding plantations of exotic tree species such as teak or eucalyptus, as well as by human settlements.
136120		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.
136120		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from several localities in southeastern Papua New Guinea, including in Milne Bay Province and a single site in Central Province (Kraus and Allison, 2006). In Milne Bay Province it has been recorded from the Cloudy Mountains, Owen Stanley Mountains, Fergusson Island and Normanby Island (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has been recorded near Aieme Creek in Central Province (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has been recorded from sea-level up to 1,500m asl, but most records are from 300m to 1,000m asl (Kraus and Allison, 2006).
136120		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in closed-canopy lowland and mid-elevation tropical moist forest (Kraus and Allison, 2006). Animals have also been collected at sea-level in a sago swamp (on Normanby Island) and from more open montane forest (1,500m asl) dominated by <em>Metrosideros</em> (Mytaceae) trees (Kraus and Allison, 2006). The species occurs widely through the forest, with no tendency to cluster near streams, unlike some other members of the genus (Kraus and Allison, 2006). The species can be observed fully exposed at night perching on vegetation, and during a drought they have been found hiding in moist soil beneath rocks, close to streams (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It can survive in somewhat degraded, secondary forest, but it doesn't like open areas (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on water.
136120		population	eng	It is a very common species (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).
136120		threats	eng	This species is reasonably adaptable with much extensive habitat through its range, so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.
136121		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas (R. Günther pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
136121		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Yapen Island, in Papua Province, Indonesia. There are records from Amoman Mountain (1º 45' S, 136º19' E), at 1,130m asl, and from around 1 km south of here at 1,000m asl. on (Günther and Richards, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.
136121		habitat	eng	This apparently largely arboreal species has been recorded along a road traversing partly logged mossy rainforest (Günther and Richards, 2006). Animals have been found on trees 1-8m above the ground, with a single specimen found on the ground in a small earth hole at the margin of a road about 6m from the adjacent forest (Günther and Richards, 2006). The calling sites suggest that the species is more arboreal than terrestrial (Günther and Richards, 2006). Animals on trees were associated with accumulations of humus formed by decomposing wood or decomposing epiphytes and which were encrusted with moss (Günther and Richards, 2006). Reproduction in this species has not been recorded, but it presumably breeds by direct development.
136121		population	eng	It seems to occur at high densities, as over 100 males were heard calling along a 500m length of road, and sometimes the frogs were only a few metres apart.
136121		threats	eng	At present there are no obvious threats to this species, but more information is needed (R. Günther pers. comm.)
136122		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
136122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mannophryne trujillensis</span> is known from two locations: Paseo Los Ilustres, Quebrada Los Cedros (850 masl, 9 21´ 46.0" N, 70 26´ 41.8" W), city of Trujillo, state of Trujillo, Venezuela, and from Paragüita (700 masl), 2 km E of Flor de Patria, state of Trujillo, Venezuela (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007).
136122		habitat	eng	The species inhabits semi-deciduous forests in the state of Trujillo. Individuals have been found on rocks and vegetation (submersed roots), under rocks and in a stream (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007). The species appears to require a permanent water source (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).
136122		population	eng	The populations at the two sites where the species is known to occur survive in low numbers (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007).
136122		threats	eng	One population lives in an urban park where solid waste was observed contaminating the local stream. The stream's water was found to be somewhat acidic (pH=5.75). The other population is found in an area undergoing dramatic change due to urbanization (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007). Habitat destruction (through deforestation) seems to be the single most important factor of change for this species (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species is thought to occupy an area less than 500 Km², which is severely fragmented (R. Sánchez, pers. comm. Jan. 2008).
136123		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur within the limits of Emas National Park (Maciel et al., 2007).
136123		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinella cerradensis</em> has a large distribution in the Cerrado biome, occurring in the Brazilian states of Piauí, Bahia, Goiás, Minas Gerais, and Distrito Federal (Maciel et al., 2007). It has recently been recorded in the municipality of Dourados, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, by Rodrigo Lingnau and identified by Natan Maciel (N. Maciel, pers. comm.).
136123		habitat	eng	<em>Rhinella cerradensis</em> is known to occur in open Cerrado physiognomies (Cerrado and Campo Sujo). Adults were observed in March (end of the rainy season), and August to October of 2002 (from dry season to just before the beginning of the rainy season). The species is sympatric with <em>R. schneideri</em> and <em>R. veredas</em> in western Bahia and Piauí states, and with <em>R. schneideri</em> and <em>R. rubescens</em> in the states of Distrito Federal (<em>R. schneideri</em> and <em>R. rubescens</em> were found breeding in the same permanent pond as <em>R. cerradensis</em> in Brasília) and Goiás. <em>R. cerradensis</em> is predated upon by <em>Conepatus striatus</em> (Mammalia: Mustelidae). The elongate and well developed inner metatarsal tubercle suggests that <em>R. cerradensis</em> might bury itself during the dry Cerrado season as do other Neotropical species (e.g., <em>Eupemphix nattereri</em>, <em>Pleurodema diplolistris</em>, and <em>Odontophrynus cultripes</em>). (Maciel et al., 2007).
136123		population	eng	Considered to be a rare species in the areas where it has been recorded (N. Maciel, pers. comm.).
136123		threats	eng	The Cerrado system in which the species exists is severely threatened by increasing deforestation, charcoal<br/>production, and large hydroelectric dams (Maciel et al., 2007).
136124		conservation	eng	It occurs within the Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.
136124		distribution	eng	This species is is known only from the northern Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes at 1800-2000 masl, in the department of Caldas, Municipality of Samaná. It can be found within the Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia, on the eastern flank of the cordillera Central, ca 5 30' N, 75 5' W (Rueda-Almonacid et al., 2006).
136124		habitat	eng	<em>Ranitomeya daleswansoni</em> lives in the wettest areas of the understory of both primary and secondary montane forests. Animals are concentrated in areas with moderate leaf litter, high humidity and abundant refuges or holes in the ground. It is sympatric with <em>Ranitomeya opisthomelas</em> at around 1800m, but replaces it above this elevation. The larvae have been found in bromeliads (Rueda-Almonacid et al., 2006), while eggs are laid in the leaf litter. Reproduction is possibly continuous throughout the year, based on the examination of gonads in preserved specimens and on the presence of tadpoles at any time of the year. Clutch size is unknown. <em>Ranitomeya daleswansoni</em> can inhabit secondary or selectively logged forests insofar as it is adjacent or in the vicinity of primary forests (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid, pers. comm.).
136124		population	eng	It is a relatively common species in forested habitats within its distribution range (Rueda-Almonacid et al., 2006).
136124		threats	eng	Deforestation for the purposes of wood collection is present in this species' geographic area. In addition, there appear to be bromeliad collection and illegal trade activities (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid, pers. comm.).
136125		conservation	eng	The species occurs within several protected areas (area protectora del Macizo de Turimiquire, Mochima National Park and Cueva del Guacharo National Park) (Manzanilla et al., 2005).
136125		distribution	eng	Mannophryne leonardoi is known from its type locality [caserío El Toyano, Parroquia Pozuelos, Municipio Sotillo, Estado Anzoátegui, Venezuela (10 07´30.7" N; 64 29´ 35.7" W)] and the areas within the Turimiquire Massif (ca 540 000 ha), in NE Venezuela. The species can be found throughout a wide altitudinal gradient, from a few metres above sea level to 1650 masl (Manzanilla et al., 2005).
136125		habitat	eng	The species lives in montane forests and forests at the foothill of the Turimiquire massif. It is often found next to streams, and males sit on higher elevation objects, from where they call. Females are often dispersed around the area (Manzanilla et al., 2005).
136125		population	eng	This used to be a common species, but recent surveys suggest a dramatic population decline, potentially associated to the use of agrochemicals (see Manzanilla et al., 2005).
136125		threats	eng	Part of the area is being afflicted by urban development, agriculture and building of roads (Manzanilla et al., 2005).
136126		conservation	eng	All amphibians are legally protected in Israel, but this does not mean that the sites in which they occur are protected. Indeed, the habitat at the only confirmed site has been destroyed (C. Grach, pers. comm.). The site at Ein Fara is protected, but there is some doubt as to whether or not the species was ever found there. There was formerly a breeding stock in captivity, but this was confiscated and it is believed that all the animals subsequently died. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not any other populations of this species exist. Research is also needed to determine it conservation requirements should any populations be found.
136126		distribution	eng	This species is known from just three localities in Jerusalem and the adjacent Judean Hills in Israel and the Palestinian territories: Mamilla Reservoir; the Wadi near Moza; and Ein Fara. This implies a geographic range with a west-east stretch of 13km and a north-south extent of 6 km (Grach <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, information from C. Grach (pers. comm.) casts doubt on whether or not the specimens from Wadi and Ein Fara really originated from these two localities - it is possible that they too came from the Mamilla Reservoir. The species might therefore be known from a single site, though all three are included in the distribution map.
136126		habitat	eng	The Mamilla reservoir is an ancient cistern excavated in limestone which dries out in the summer months, and is 6m deep at its deepest point. Ein Fara in the Judaean desert is a spring-fed pool, with ample vegetation dominated by <em>Typha australis</em>. The frogs sit on the <em>Typha stalks</em>. The Wadi at Moza has a water depth of greater than 1m, with tangled vegetation dominated by the spiny bush <em>Rubus sanctus</em>, on which the frogs sit. The Mamilla reservoir and the Wadi near Moza lie within the Mediterranean region (<em>sensu stricto</em>) with average annual precipitation of 500-700mm, and average annual temperatures of 17-19ºC. The third locality, Ein Fara, is an oasis-like spring habitat on the fringe of the Judean Desert, with average annual precipitation fluctuating widely around 300 mm, and average annual temperatures around 19-21ºC. <em>Hyla heinzsteinitzi</em> is sympatric with <em>Hyla savignyi</em> and in some places the two are apparently syntopic. The species breeds by larval development in temporary pools.
136126		population	eng	The species no longer exists in any of the three listed localities from which it has been recorded (C. Grach, pers. comm.). At the Mamilla Reservoir, suitable habitat no longer exists. At present there is no locality where the species is still known to exist  (C. Grach, pers. comm.). The species is certainly gravely endangered, and might be Extinct (C. Grach, pers. comm.). Attempts to locate other populations of the species have not been successful.
136126		threats	eng	The tiny range of <em>Hyla heinzsteinitzi</em>, and the lack of connectivity between its isolated sites place it at considerable risk. The confirmed site at the Mamilla Reservoir has been destroyed, and no suitable habitat remains there (C. Grach, pers. comm.).
136127		conservation	eng	The species is found within the perimeter of Sapiranga Reserve.
136127		distribution	eng	The species is known from Sapiranga Reserve (12 34’ S; 38 02’ W, 12 masl), Municipality of Mata de São João, state of Bahia, Brazil.
136127		habitat	eng	Sapiranga Reserve lies within a “restinga” forest, which is an ecosystem restricted to the Atlantic Forest Biome and<br/>is typically known as coastal sand dune habitats, covered with herbaceous and shrubby vegetation, common along the Brazilian coastline. The Reserve includes 500 hectares covered by arboreal vegetation, with various water sources such as springs, streams, freshwater and brackish rivers, lakes, ponds, as well as areas without bodies of water with a few terrestrial bromeliads (N < 20 bromeliads per 1000 m2), and sandy areas without bodies of water with a high density of bromeliads (N > 100 bromeliads per 1000 m2) (Cruz et al., 2007).<br/><br/>Individuals of C. sapiranga have only been collected with pitfall-traps in the past, despite active search efforts. These were collected in plots with arboreal vegetation with temporary ponds and/or permanent lakes, arboreal vegetation with rivers, springs or streams, and arboreal vegetation without bodies of water on the ground; however, they appear to be more common in the latter two environments (Cruz et al., 2007).
136127		population	eng	No population status is available for this species.
136127		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136128		conservation	eng	This species occurs on Eglin Air Force Base in Florida.<br/><br/>Activities aimed at restoring/maintaining the ecological integrity of mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and associated ephemeral wetlands are needed to preserve extant populations of flatwoods salamanders.<br/><br/>Recovery is directly linked with the ability to preserve existing habitat and restore degraded habitat. Given the drastic decline in the extent of longleaf pine-dominated communities (Ware<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1993), elevation of flatwoods salamander populations above present levels is unlikely. Restoration of degraded mesic, seasonally inundated longleaf pine flatwoods and savannas has not been attempted, and may only be feasible in cases where soil disturbance is minimal. The effectiveness of reintroduction into areas where extirpated is unknown.<br/><br/>High quality occurrences include several wetlands within a matrix of pine flatwoods and savanna. Based on the maximum distance adults are known to travel between reproductive and nonreproductive habitat (1.7 km), each breeding site should be surrounded by at least 10 sq km of terrestrial habitat. Long term perpetuation of a viable population of flatwoods salamanders will presumably require protection of a larger area of terrestrial habitat encompassing a suite of alternative breeding sites (Travis 1994). A suite of wetlands guards against extirpation at any one breeding site, since animals can immigrate from nearby wetlands. The minimum viable population size needed to sustain a population longterm is not known. Preliminary drift fence data at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, suggests that breeding population sizes are low relative to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambystoma</span> (Palis, unpubl. data). However, this may be a site specific observation as larger breeding migrations have been observed elsewhere in the range (R. Moulis, pers. comm.). Presently, there is no method of assessing an occurrence based on the number of animals captured at a drift fence or the number of larvae inhabiting a breeding site.<br/><br/>Maintenance of intact mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and ephemeral wetlands by mimicking natural forces, such as lightning-season fire, is the most appropriate form of management. On sites where timber extraction is practiced, several precautions should be taken to limit the impact to flatwoods salamanders. Tree harvest should be restricted to dry periods to prevent soil compaction and rutting. Clearcutting should be replaced with selective timber harvest and natural regeneration enhanced by fire, particularly lightning-season fire. If off-site species such as slash pine have been planted, they should be removed and replaced with longleaf pine at densities found in nature. Mechanical preparation of the soil should be avoided. If a site supports mature, closed-canopy pine plantations, they should be thinned with as little disturbance to the soil and remaining groundcover as possible. The natural hydrology and fire regime of terrestrial and aquatic habitats should be restored on sites where altered. <br/><br/>The wetland/upland ecotone appears to be critical to successful flatwoods salamander reproduction. Some areas are in need of periodic burning to clear encroaching shrubby vegetation that shades out herbaceous ground cover (Palis and Jensen 1995). Maintenance of a graminaceous ecotone and breeding site will require burning in the lightning-season when wetlands are dry or nearly dry (Huffman and Blanchard 1990) . Bury et al. (1980) recommended that wiregrass not be burned in winter (destructive to wiregrass [used for egg attachment] and possibly to salamanders directly). Palis and Jensen (1995) stated that winter burns may be needed to avoid catastrophic fires when warm-season burning is initiated. <br/><br/>Mechanical disturbance of the wetland-upland ecotone should be avoided. The practice of "protecting" wetlands by encircling them with plow line should be abandoned. Where present, berms should be removed and drainage ditches filled. <br/><br/>Breeding ponds should not be dredged or stocked with fishes.<br/><br/>Demographic data are needed to better understand the natural history and, in particular, factors that limit population size (e.g., egg, larval, and metamorph survivorship; competition with other species). <br/><br/>Longterm drift-fence studies are needed at several nearby sites to examine inter-pond salamander movement and to delineate the range of natural population fluctuations. <br/><br/>More information is needed on the extent of upland habitat required to support a population breeding in a particular pond. Radiotelemetry or radioactive tagging of adults could be used to address this need. <br/><br/>Effects on salamander populations of different forms of resource management and of anthropogenic habitat disturbance need to be examined (Palis and Jensen 1995).
136128		distribution	eng	Range includes a small portion of the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from the Apalachicola and Flint rivers (western part of the Florida Panhandle and southwestern Georgia) westward (at least formerly) to extreme southwestern Alabama (Conant and Collins 1991, Pauly et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Based on 22 occurrences, and assuming 4 square kilometers per occurrence (actual value is unknown), area of occupancy would be 88 square kilometers; actual area of occupancy likely is larger than this.
136128		habitat	eng	The following information pertains to the Ambystoma cingulatum/bishopi complex as a whole.<br/><br/>Post-larval individuals inhabit mesic longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)-wiregrass (Aristida stricta) flatwoods and savannas. The terrestrial habitat is best described as a topographically flat or slightly rolling wiregrass-dominated grassland having little to no midstory and an open overstory of widely scattered longleaf pine. Low-growing shrubs, such as saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), gallberry (Ilex glabra) and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), co-exist with grasses and forbs in the groundcover. Groundcover plant diversity is usually very high. The underlying soil is typically poorly drained sand that becomes seasonally inundated. <br/><br/>Slash pine flatwoods is often cited as the preferred terrestrial habitat of the flatwoods salamander (e.g., Conant and Collins 1991). This may be the result of an error made by Martof (1968) in which he referred to longleaf pine as slash pine (Pinus elliottii). In addition, slash pine now dominates or co-occurs with longleaf pine in many pine flatwoods communities as a result of fire suppression and preferential harvest of longleaf pine (Avers and Bracy 1975). Historically, however, fire-tolerant longleaf pine dominated the flatwoods, whereas slash pine was confined principally to wetlands (Harper 1914, Avers and Bracy 1975). Post-larval individuals are fossorial (live underground) and occupy burrows (Goin 1950, Neill 1951, Mount 1975, Ashton 1992). Presumably, they remain underground during the lightning-season (May through September). Adults are rarely encountered under cover objects at or near breeding sites (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in acidic (pH 3.6-5.6 (Palis, unpubl. data)), tannin-stained ephemeral wetlands (swamps or graminoid-dominated depressions) that range in size from 0.02 to 9.5 ha, and are usually not more than 0.5 m deep (Palis, unpubl. data). The overstory is typically dominated by pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora) and slash pine, but can also include red maple (Acer rubrum), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus). Canopy coverage ranges from near zero to almost 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The midstory, which is often very dense, is most often composed of young of the aforementioned species, myrtle-leaved holly (Ilex myrtifolia), Chapman's St. John's-wort (Hypericum chapmanii), sandweed (Hypericum fasciculatum), titi (Cyrilla racemiflora), storax (Styrax americana), popash (Fraxinus caroliniana), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), vine-wicky (Pieris phillyreifolia), and bamboo-vine (Smilax laurifolia). Depending on closure of the canopy and midstory, the herbaceous groundcover of breeding sites can range from about 5% to nearly 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The groundcover is dominated by graminaceous species, including beakrushes (Rhynchospora spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), panic grasses (Panicum spp.), bluestems (Andropogon spp.), jointtails (Manisurus spp.), three-awned grass (Aristida affinis), plumegrass (Erianthus giganteus), nutrush (Sclera baldwinii) and yellow-eyed grasses (Xyris spp.). The floor of breeding sites is riddled with the burrows of crayfish (genus Procambarus). Breeding sites are typically encircled by a wiregrass-dominated graminaceous ecotone. Breeding sites can include roadside ditches (Anderson and Williamson 1976; Palis, pers. obs.) and borrow pits (D. Stevenson, pers. comm.). Breeding sites often harbor fishes, the most typical species include pygmy sunfishes (Elassoma spp.), mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrookii), and banded sunfish (Enneacanthus obesus) (Palis, unpubl. data). Favorable breeding habitat lacks large predatory fishes. <br/><br/>Before breeding sites fill with water, eggs are deposited singly or in small groups on the ground beneath leaf litter, under logs and Sphagnum mats, at the base of grasses, shrubs or trees, or at the entrance to crayfish burrows (Anderson and Williamson 1976). In wetlands that fill incrementally, eggs are deposited amid graminaceous vegetation at the edge (J. Palis, pers. obs.). Egg deposition in shallow water also has been reported (Ashton 1992). Larvae hide amid inundated graminaceous vegetation by day, but will enter the water column at night (J. Palis, pers. obs.).
136128		population	eng	Surveys completed since 1990 indicate that 22 populations are known from across the historical range, with 2 in Georgia and the remainder in Florida (none known extant in Alabama) (USFWS 2005, Pauly et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Secretive habits of adults make population estimates difficult. Total adult population size presumably is at least 1,000, but actual number is unknown.<br/><br/>During extensive surveys of historical (pre-1990) breeding ponds, researchers recorded the species at only a small minority of formerly inhabited sites. Currently, the species presumably is declining in concert with continued loss of remaining intact pine flatwoods community (particularly degradation of groundcover). The rate of decline is unknown.
136128		threats	eng	Potential threats include conversion of pine flatwoods habitat for agriculture, silviculture, or commercial/residential development; drainage or enlargement (with subsequent introduction of predatory fishes) of breeding ponds; habitat alteration resulting from suppression of fire; mortality and collecting losses associated with crayfish harvest; and highway mortality during migration.  <br/><br/>The principal threat is habitat destruction as a result of agriculture, silviculture, and residential and commercial development. Modern silvicultural methods rely on altering soil hydrology, suppressing fire, shortening timber rotations, and replacing widely-spaced longleaf pine with dense plantations of slash pine. Loss of groundcover vegetation due to mechanical soil preparation, fire suppression, and shading by overstories of slash pine have been implicated in the decline in north Florida (Means et al. 1994, 1996).<br/><br/>Larvae are threatened in some wetlands by the harvest of crayfish as bait. Bait harvesters drag large hardware cloth buckets through inundated vegetation, dump the contents of the bucket on the ground, and then sort out the crayfish. Flatwoods salamander larvae taken in this manner are left to die or are collected as bait (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>The effect of herbicide or fertilization application on flatwoods salamanders is unknown. However, fertilization of plantations often results in eutrophication of wetlands, promoting algal blooms. Larval flatwoods salamanders have not been observed in algal-choked wetlands (J. Palis, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Ditching or berming of small, isolated pond-cypress wetlands, a common practice when establishing slash pine plantations on mesic sites, results in lowered water levels and shortened hydroperiods (Marois and Ewel 1983). These hydrologic perturbations could prevent successful flatwoods salamander reproduction by preventing egg inundation or stranding larvae before they are capable of metamorphosis. Altered hydrology, in association with fire exclusion, results in a shift in dominance from pond-cypress to broad-leaved hardwoods that reduce herbaceous groundcover vegetation through shading (Marois and Ewel 1983). This may be detrimental since A. cingulatum larvae take shelter in herbaceous vegetation during the day.<br/><br/>Ephemeral pond-cypress depressions are sometimes converted into permanent water bodies, rendering them unsuitable for flatwoods salamander reproduction (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>A constant winter-burn fire plan could be detrimental (Ashton 1992). <br/><br/>See USFWS (1999) for additional information.
136129		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are reported; however, in view that many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius</span> are considered to be declining, several conservation actions are recommended (see under Conservation Measures).
136129		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be endemic to Peru. The type locality for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. punctatus</span> is "Santa María de Valle, Huánuco", Province of Huánuco, Department of Huánuco, Peru. It is found in the provinces of Huánuco and Pachitea both in the Department of Huánuco, 2,300-3,000 m asl (Lehr 2005).
136129		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic frog. It inhabits permanent streams in puna and cloud forests (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).
136129		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).
136129		threats	eng	Major threats include water pollution derived from agriculture and the use of agrochemicals and waste derived from the mining industry, and deforestation. It is also possible that the species may be used as a food source and in traditional medicine (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).
136130		conservation	eng	The Río Apaza is at the edge of Carrasco National Park (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136130		distribution	eng	<em>Telmatobius espadai</em> is known from the vicinity of Choquetanga Chico, Inquisivi Province, Department of La Paz, Bolivia, and from near Río Apaza, Province of Chapare, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. It is considered to be endemic and only known to occur in the two places where it was collected, which are ca 12 km (airline) from each other, 3,000-3,500 m asl (De la Riva 2005).
136130		habitat	eng	The species can be found in clear streams at the ceja de montaña, the upper limit of the cloud forest. Adult specimens were found both above and under water under trunks and stones, juveniles and tadpoles were found under stones and among aquatic plants in small rivulets and tributary branches of the main stream. <em>Telmatobius espadai</em> may be a moderately terrestrial species (De la Riva 2005). The species inhabits permanent streams (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136130		population	eng	Adults and juveniles are difficult to find; tadpoles were found to be abundant throughout the year in 1990, but in 1994 intensive sampling efforts yielded no tadpoles, and only a single tadpole was found in 1998 (De la Riva 2005). The last tadpole seen showed clinical symptoms of chytridiomycosis. The species is currently considered to be extremely rare (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136130		threats	eng	There is habitat alteration at the Río Apaza location given its proximity to the road (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136131		conservation	eng	It occurs in the El Montseny Natural Park, though this area is not managed to conserve this species. Research is needed to determine the species' ecological requirements, and to determine management options. A captive breeding programme started in 2007 and is being carried out by the Departament de Medi Ambien of the Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain. Measures are urgently needed to protect this species' habitat (e.g. to prevent mountain streams from drying out). This species is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as part of <em>C. asper</em>).
136131		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the El Montseny mountain massif situated in northeastern Spain. It has only been found in seven mountain streams, all within the boundaries of El Montseny Natural Park (Carranza and Amat 2005). It is found between 700 and 1,200m asl.
136131		habitat	eng	It lives in oligotrophic, cold (below 15°C) fast running waters, preferentially in beech forest (<em>Fagus sylvatica</em>) but also in holm oak forest (<em>Quercus ilex</em>), with patches of <em>Algnus glutinosa</em> (Carranza and Amat 2005). Neither juvenile nor adult <em>C. arnoldi</em> have been found on land  (Carranza and Amat 2005). If this behaviour is confirmed, the only way that contact among populations could occur is by moving down one watercourse and then up other tributaries of the same river system. It therefore seems possible that there is a considerable degree of isolation between the populations.
136131		population	eng	Its population is thought to number between 1,000 and 1,500 mature individuals, with an estimated rate of decline of 15% over the last 10 years. Preliminary demographic studies have been carried out in two streams. In three streams <em>Calotriton arnoldi</em> occurs at very low densities and in one stream it is extinct above 1,000m asl. Populations are declining in the upper parts of all the streams as the water table is being lowered. The population of <em>C. arnoldi</em> is divided into two sub-populations that occur on each side of a river valley. These two sub-population groups are genetically and morphologically differentiated (Carranza and Amat 2005).
136131		threats	eng	The drying out of mountain streams is the most immediate threat to this species. Large amounts of water are being extracted from El Montseny, and this is bottled and sold widely in Spain and Europe. As a result, El Montseny is drying out and the distribution of <em>Calotriton arnoldi</em> is being reduced dramatically. The low population size of the species could also be due to past human alteration of its original habitat (Carranza and Amat 2005). The species might also be affected by global warming. For instance, the beech (<em>Fagus sylvatica</em>) forest, an excellent habitat for <em>C. arnoldi</em>, has shifted upwards by 70m at the highest altitudes (1,600-1,700m asl) since 1945, and is being replaced by holm oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) forest at lower altitudes (800-1,400 m) (Peñuelas and Boada 2003). In other words, the most favoured woodland habitat of the species is moving up into areas where the streams are drying out.
136132		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136132		distribution	eng	Pristimantis pardalinus is only known from the type locality, vicinity of the village of Huasahuasi (11 16' 06.1" S, 75 39' 28.3" W) at 2640 masl  District of Huasahuasi, Province of Tarma, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr et al., 2006).
136132		habitat	eng	The species can be found in the Puna Ecoregion. Individuals have been found during the early afternoon in terrestrial bromeliads surrounded by the Peruvian Feather Grass (Stipa ichu) on a hillside (Lehr et al., 2006).
136132		population	eng	This species is common where there are terrestrial bromeliads (it depends on them), but the bromeliads themselves are not common (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136132		threats	eng	Agriculture is ongoing in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).
136133		conservation	eng	Populations have been recorded from the Península de Paria National Park, and a protected area established for the Turimiquire massif ("area protectora del macizo del Turimiquire") (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007). It seems likely that the species might also be present in the Mochima National Park (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007). Further studies are needed into the natural history of this newly described species, and into its long term tolerance of habitat modification.
136133		distribution	eng	This large species is endemic to northeastern Venezuela where it is mostly distributed in the State of Sucre and parts of adjacent Monagas and Anzoategui. Its range includes much of the Serranía de Turimiquire. The species has been recorded from 150 m asl (Heyer, 2005), but is likely to range between 50 and 500 m asl (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007).
136133		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with tropical lowland forest, including both primary and secondary forest (Péfaur and Sierra, 1995; Heyer, 2005). Péfaur and Sierra (1995), recorded the species within secondary growth of mixed riparian and thory forests, with animals being found under rocks, in crevices or amongst dense vegetation. It has also been reported from formerly forested areas used for agriculture (Péfaur and Sierra, 1995; Heyer, 2005); additional details are needed on the persistence of populations in cleared sites. There is little additional information currently available for this species.
136133		population	eng	There are currently no esitmates of population abundance available for this species.
136133		threats	eng	Threats to this species include ongoing conversion of forested land to agricultural use (and previously also through the development of urban areas), and possibly harvesting of timber and wood (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007). Péfaur and Sierra (1995), report that some experimental commercial frog farms in Brazil and Venezuela are using <em>Leptodactylus labyrinthicus</em>, within which<em> Leptodactylus turimiquensis</em> was formerly included, and they suggest that this may represent a threat to wild populations. It remains unclear if <em> Leptodactylus turimiquensis</em> is being commercially harvested, and if so, what impacts this may be having on wild populations.
136134		conservation	eng	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.
136134		distribution	eng	Range includes extreme southeastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Delmarva Peninsula of eastern Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia (Tobey 1985, Hulse et al. 2001, White and White 2002, Lemmon et al. 2007). Conant and Collins (1991) stated that the species ranges north to Staten Island, New York, but Gibbs et al. (2007) did not indicate any historical or extant occurrences of this frog in that area.
136134		habitat	eng	This frog occupies various moist habitats, including grassy floodplains and wet woodlands containing shallow wetlands (ephemeral pools, ditches, wooded swamps, freshwater marshes) in which breeding occurs (White and White 2002). Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.
136134		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This frog is common throughout the Coastal Plain of the Delmarva Peninsula (White and White 2002).<br/><br/>Trends are not well documented, but area of occupnacy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.
136134		threats	eng	No major threats are known, but locally the species likely has been reduced or eliminated as a result of conversion of habitat to human uses.
136135		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in several provinces in Italy, and it is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas, including the Abruzzo National Park.
136135		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to peninsular Italy, mainly in the Appenine Mountains (where it is widespread), but also in other hilly areas to the west and east of the Appenines, south to the province of Caserta (Campania region) (south of this it is replaced by <em>Salamandrina terdigitata</em>). It is usually found at elevations between 200 and 900m asl, but can occur between 50 and 1,500m asl.
136135		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in forests with dense undergrowth in hilly and mountainous areas, often in north-facing mountain valleys. Only females of this species are aquatic during the short oviposition phase for which well-oxygenated waters, slow running streams (usually with rocky beds), drinking troughs, and residual and vernal ponds (sometime of very small dimensions) are used. It appears to avoid seriously modified habitats. This species shows high site fidelity to breeding sites.
136135		population	eng	It is sometimes difficult to find, but it is common in western parts of its range.
136135		threats	eng	In parts of the species range there are some localized declines through habitat loss and aquatic pollution. But overall, it is not significantly threatened.
136136		conservation	eng	Jozani Forest is within the Proposed Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park, which, once gazetted, will include the largest known suitable within its boundaries. However, there is a need to establish how far individuals disperse into other habitats, such as coral rag thicket, after breeding, and to ensure that dry season refugia also receive suitable protection to ensure the survival of the species. A wider-ranging survey for the presence/absence of this species on Zanzibar is also needed.
136136		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Jozani Forest, and its surroundings, on Unguja island (Zanzibar) in Tanzania. It has been found at 0-50m asl.
136136		habitat	eng	It has been recorded around pools in ground water forest, where it breeds, and in the surrounding terrestrial<br/>habitats (forest and small-holder farmland). Juveniles and sub-adults were found outside the breeding season in coral rag thickets and plantation forest areas that were up to 3 km away from depressions within the Jozani Forest, which are the most likely breeding locations. The species appears to be a seasonal visitor to ephemeral breeding sites, but can disperse to distant areas. The habitat requirements of the species are still poorly known, but it is unlikely to survive in completely opened-up habitats.
136136		population	eng	There is little information currently available on its abundance.
136136		threats	eng	There is ongoing encroachment of thickets and forest of Unguja for small-scale agriculture and other human uses.
136137		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Obo National Park.
136137		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to São Tomé island, and the small island of Rolas, in the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea. It is present from sea level up to 1,412m asl.
136137		habitat	eng	It is a typical puddle frog, present in primary forest, farm bush (heavily degraded former forest), and abandoned plantations where wet conditions prevail. It breeds in most types of water, but it is not found in drainage ditches. It is generally not present close to human habitation.
136137		population	eng	It is generally common where it occurs.
136137		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species facing no immediate threats.
136138		conservation	eng	The species' range includes some protected areas. Surveys are needed to clarify the species' distribution, ecological requirement, threats and conservation needs.
136138		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China, northern Viet Nam and northern Laos (Ohler, 2007). There are records from: Mengyang, in Yunnan province, China (Wu and Tian, 1995); Menglian and Jinghong in Yunnan province, and at Debao in Guangxi province, China (reported as <em>A. chunganensis</em>) (Fei <em>et al</em>., 1999); Fan Si Pan Mountain in Viet Nam (reported as <em>A. chunganensis</em>) (Ohler <em>et al</em>., 2000); the vicinity of Sa Pa village, in Lao Cai Province in northern Viet Nam (reported as <em>Rana daorum</em>) (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2003); Phou Louey<br/>Mountain, Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Vieng Tong District, in northern Laos (reported as <em>R. daorum</em>) (Stuart, 2005); and an unspecified location in Huaphahn Province, northern Laos (reported as <em>R. daorum</em>) (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). A photographic record from Hong Kong should be treated as unconfirmed. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Known localities are between 680 and 1,900m asl.
136138		habitat	eng	This species lives in tropical forest on partially submerged rocks in waterfall cascades, as well as in vegetation adjacent to the streams. It presumably breeds in clear, flowing streams. It has not been found outside forest.
136138		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
136138		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not certain, but it is believed to be affected by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming, subsistence-level harvesting of wood and expanding human settlements.
136139		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Phu Sri Tan Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Pha Namtip Non-hunting Area, and Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136139		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in northeastern Thailand (Matsui and Panha, 2006). There are records from: Phu Sri Tan Wildlife Sanctuary, in Kalasin Province, at 500m asl (Matsui and Panha, 2006); Phu Pha Namtip Non-hunting Area, in Roi Et Province (Matsui and Panha, 2006); and Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park, in Na Chaloey District, Ubon Ratchatani Province, at 230-325m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely, in particular in areas between the currently known locations.
136139		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a variety of habitats: on the ground or in low vegetation near a rain-filled depression in igneous bedrock in deciduous dipterocarp forest with grassy understory; on the ground next to a seep running over solid rock substrate at the side of a road through deciduous dipterocarp forest; on vegetation 0.5–1.8m above a small, rocky stream and a small pond near a road through hilly evergreen forest; in a dried rocky streambed with small pools; and on the leaves of trees (<2m above the ground) along the bank of a small pond (Matsui and Panha, 2006; Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Tadpoles have been found in a small stream pool with silt and leaf litter substrate in hilly evergreen forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006).
136139		population	eng	There is no information on the abundance of this species.
136139		threats	eng	The species has so far only been found in protected areas (Matsui and Panha, 2006; Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006), and so it is possible that there are no major threats to this species at these locations. However, it might be found in future at other sites that are less secure. The species is found on the "Thai-Lao Dry Plateau" (Inger, 1999), where much of the natural vegetation has been removed (Matsui and Panha, 2006) for agriculture and collecting of wood, and so the species has probably lost much of its original habitat.
136140		conservation	eng	The island does not have any legal conservation status under federal laws. In view of its small distribution and the absence of any enforcement, <em>S. faivovichi</em> should be in a threatened IUCN category (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
136140		distribution	eng	<em>Scinax faivovichi</em> is known only from Ilha de Porcos Pequena (23 22' 32.6" S, 44 54' 01.6" W, C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008), a 24-ha island approximately 0.74 km from the northern coast of São Paulo state, Brazil (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The species occurs between 0-80 m asl (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).
136140		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the Ilha de Porcos Pequena, a privately-owned island covered by native preserved Atlantic Forest. Males of the species are known to call in the months of April, October, and December, although less so during April. They are nocturnal, calling from bromeliad leaves. Females were also found on bromeliad leaves. Tadpoles were found in bromeliad axils during October and December, suggesting that breeding season coincides with early summer rains in September/October (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136140		population	eng	The species is abundant within the island, especially on rainy and hot nights (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136140		threats	eng	Given its extremely restricted range and habitat specificity, <em>S. faivovichi</em> is believed to be susceptible to extinction because of habitat modification or disturbance (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This modification includes destruction of the species' breeding habitat, bromeliads (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).
136141		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136141		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella hoogmoedi </span>is distributed along the Atlantic Rain Forest of Eastern Brazil, from the state of Ceará to the state of Paraná. There are three juvenile specimens from Leopoldina, state of Rio de Janeiro, collected in 1938. Currently, Leopoldina is inside the City of Rio de Janeiro and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. hoogmoedi </span>is not present in this city (Caramaschi and Pombal, 2006).
136141		habitat	eng	Individuals of Rhinella hoogmoedi may be found inside the forest at night, resting on vegetation a few centimeters above the ground. The reproduction is explosive, when males can be heard by day and night. Males vocalize on the ground or tree trunks up to 60 cm above the ground near ponds or slack water of rivulets inside forest or restinga (Caramaschi and Pombal, 2006).
136141		population	eng	There is no population status information available for this species.
136141		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
136142		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but has not so far been recorded from there.
136142		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Uluguru Mountains and on the escarpment of the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. In the northern Udzungwa Mountains it occurs very close to the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Probreviceps rungwensis</span>, and the two species are possibly sympatric. It occurs in the montane and submontane zones, and its altitudinal range in the Udzungwa Mountains is 900–2,100 m asl, and in the Uluguru Mountains is 1,200 to 1,500 m asl.
136142		habitat	eng	It lives in montane and submontane forests, and can survive mild disturbance where good vegetation cover remains, but cannot tolerate complete forest clearance. It lives on the forest floor, where it is semi-fossorial. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they develop directly without a larval stage.
136142		population	eng	It is a common species.
136142		threats	eng	It is almost certainly being adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture.
136143		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136143		distribution	eng	<em>Sphaenorhynchus caramaschii</em> is known to occur in the highlands (the type locality is at 910 masl) of the states of São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catarina; in Santa Catarina it also occurs in a lowland locality (about 150 masl)(Toledo et al., 2007).
136143		habitat	eng	The species can often be found in open and flooded areas, and permanent swamps, generally with deep waters (i.e. over 1m deep). Water bodies with floating vegetation are also favoured (L.F. Toledo, pers. comm. 2008). <em>Sphaenorhynchus caramaschii</em> can also be found in permanent and temporary ponds in open areas. Reproduction occurs in the rainy season (September-March), where males call from floating vegetation in ponds. Eggs are laid in lentic water, from which exotrophic tadpoles emerge. The eggs are attached individually to submerged vegetation (Toledo et al., 2007).
136143		population	eng	It seems to be an abundant species (Toledo et al., 2007).
136143		threats	eng	No threats are currently known for this species.
136144		conservation	eng	It is reported to occur in the Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla (Enciso et al., 2008).
136144		distribution	eng	<em>Pristimantis corrugatus</em> is known from several localities at elevations of 3000–3300m asl in the regions of San Martín and Amazonas, Peru (P. Venegas, pers. comm. 2008). This area corresponds to the Cordillera Central in northern Peru (Duellman et al., 2006).
136144		habitat	eng	The species is found in very humid montane forest and in patches of elfin forest. Individuals are found on leaves of low bushes, 30–150 cm above ground at night. Sympatric species at the different localities include <em>Colostethus</em> sp., <em>Pristimantis wagteri</em>, <em>Gastrotheca ossilaginis</em>, <em>Rhinella arborescandens</em>, <em>Centrolene lemniscatus</em>, <em>Pristimantis bromeliaceus</em>, <em>P. rufioculis</em>, <em>P. schultei</em>, <em>P. stictoboubonus</em>, <em>Gastrotheca ossilaginis</em> and <em>Telmatobius atahualpai</em> (Duellman et al., 2006).
136144		population	eng	This species is considered to be relatively abundant (P. Venegas, pers. comm. 2008).
136144		threats	eng	Enciso et al. (2008) reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>P. corrugatus</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.
136145		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136145		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella kallawaya</span> is only known from the type locality, Caalaya (ca 3,600 m asl), Province of Saavedra, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). This site is found in the Cordillera de Apolobamba (De la Riva 2007). The species is thought to have restricted geographical and elevational (no more than 200 m) ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136145		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a moderately dry valley where there is extensive agricultural activity (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008). Individuals of this species are found in the wettest parts of a small area near a stream that flows into the Río Caalaya, approximately 900 m before reaching the village of Caalaya travelling from Charazani to Curva. The otherwise moderately dry area is cultivated; the type locality is perhaps the only suitable habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella </span>in the Caalaya Valley. Individuals are found under stones during the day<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(De la Riva 2007). This species presumably reproduces through direct development.
136145		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136145		threats	eng	Agriculture is a major threat to this species. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136146		conservation	eng	The paratype comes from a forest study area of the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP, in Iquitos) called “Arboretum”. On one side, this area is not cleared (a regular net of trails is managed inside only). On the other hand a new campus of UNAP was built recently just at the margin of the “Arboretum”. This made this area accessible and considerably increased anthropogenic pressure to it. The holotype was collected in a territory which was (is?) a property of UNAP and the University had its field station there. Therefore, there is a chance that this area might be saved from the anthropogenic changes taking place in its surroundings, although the university's long-term plans are unknown. A nature reserve lies between both localities, which could provide the species with necessary protection (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The occurrence of <em>Chiasmocleis magnova</em> in the Zona Reservada Allpahuayo-Mishana has to be confirmed (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).
136146		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the surroundings of Iquitos (04 00’ S, 73 26’ W and 03 50’ S, 73 22’ W, ca. 120 masl), Department of Loreto, Peru (Moravec and Köhler, 2007).
136146		habitat	eng	<em>Chiasmocleis magnova</em> can be found in disturbed unflooded Amazonian lowland forest with sandy substrates and in disturbed terra firme forest at the alluvial zone. Individuals can be found during the daytime, within the leaf litter or on top of fallen trees. They appear to feed on ants, and the presence of large unpigmented eggs in the holotype suggests terrestrial mode of reproduction. Other microhylids found in sympatry with <em>C. magnova</em> include <em>Chiasmocleis bassleri</em> and <em>Hamptophryne boliviana<em>. Males and larvae of <em>C. magnova</em> are unknown (Moravec and Köhler, 2007).<br/><br/>The holotype is a gravid female collected in March. Therefore, it is possible that the species reproduces at least in the wettest period of the year (February-May) (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).
136146		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136146		threats	eng	Threats include deforestation and urbanization of the landscape, road network building and white sand mining (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).
136147		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136147		distribution	eng	Phyllodytes maculosus is known to occur in northeastern Minas Gerais and southern Bahia, specifically, in the Municipality of Bandeira (15 49’ S, 40 30’ W; 837 masl), state of Minas Gerais, and Municipality of Mascote (15 34’ S, 39 17’ W), state of Bahia, Brazil (Cruz et al., 2006).
136147		habitat	eng	The species is found in Atlantic rainforest.
136147		population	eng	No population status information is currently available.
136147		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136148		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the confines of El Cusuco National Park.
136148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isthmohyla melacaena</span> is known to occur in El Cusuco National Park, 15 31' N, 88 12' W, 1370–1990 m elevation, Department of Cortes, Honduras, and "mountains west of San Pedro, Honduras"’ (see McCranie and Castañeda, 2007).
136148		habitat	eng	The species is known from 1370 to 1990 m elevation in pine forest with an understory of broad leaf shrubs and grasses and in broadleaf cloud forest. Many bromeliads occur on the pine trees at the type locality, which lies on a hillside at least 150 m from the nearest streams or rivers (McCranie and Castañeda, 2006). The other known specimens were also probably associated with bromeliads. Tadpoles have also been collected in bromeliads (J.R. McCranie and F. Castañeda, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Males call at night from 1-2 m above the ground, a female was found at ca 3 m above the ground. The species appears to retreat into bromeliads (3-5 m high) during the daytime. Bromeliohyla bromeliacia was found in sympatry with I. melacaena (McCranie and Castañeda, 2006).
136148		population	eng	This is considered to be a common species (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).
136148		threats	eng	Habitat destruction outside of El Cusuco National Park (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).
136149		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve.
136149		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Usambara (East and West) and Nguu Mountains in Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, but it is a species of medium to high altitudes. Records from the coastal plain of Tanzania require confirmation.
136149		habitat	eng	It is a forest-dependent species, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds in swampy valley bottoms and temporary pools in closed-canopy forest.
136149		population	eng	It is abundant where it occurs.
136149		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, logging, and expanding human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.
136150		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136150		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella saltator</span> is only known from the type locality, ca 15 km (by road) from Charazani on the road to Apolo (2,550 m asl), Province of Saavedra, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It may occur in other nearby localities, although likely not far from the type locality (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136150		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a region of semi-humid forest in the otherwise dry valley of the Río Charazani in the Cordillera de Apolobamba. Calling activity was recorded for the month of November, males call at night. Individuals have been found in a small patch of disturbed forest on both sides of the road. Males call while perched on plants 50 cm above the ground. These frogs are agile and able to jump (De la Riva 2007). This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.
136150		population	eng	This is an abundant species at the type locality.
136150		threats	eng	Agriculture, deforestation, habitat fragmentation and desertification have been observed at the type locality. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).
136151		conservation	eng	Its only known site is not in a protected area. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.
136151		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from Yapen Island, Cenderawasih Bay in Papua Province, in the Indonesian part of New Guinea. The only records are from near the road to Ambaiduru Village, about 17 km in a direct line northeast of Serui, at 1,000 to 1,100m a.s.l. on Amoman Mountain (1°45´S and 136°19´E). It almost certainly occurs more widely on Yapen Island, and could well occur on the New Guinea mainland (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
136151		habitat	eng	All records have been from near a road traversing a partly logged mossy rainforest. Their calling sites are in small holes 5-20 cm below he surface, beneath trees or shrubs. Most animals occurred in loose groups. It is unlikely to be able to survive in completely opened-up habitats (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
136151		population	eng	It is common in its only know location (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
136151		threats	eng	It is probably affected by selective logging and clear felling of its habitat (R. Günther, pers. comm.).
136152		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve (Tanzania), the Nyika National Park (Malawi), and is almost certainly present in the Udzungwa National Park (Tanzania), and probably in several other protected areas.
136152		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Malindi in coastal Kenya, south across eastern and southern Tanzania to the highlands of Malawi. It is presumed to occur in northern Mozambique and perhaps in extreme northeastern Zambia, but there are not yet any records from these countries. It occurs from sea level, up to over 2,000m asl.
136152		habitat	eng	It lives in several habitats, including dry forest, moist forest, humid savannah woodland, and bush land. It can survive in somewhat degraded habitats, but cannot tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. The males call from vegetation around pools, where they breed.
136152		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
136152		threats	eng	Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.
136153		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
136153		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only two localities in Laos and Viet Nam: in Houay Ting Tou Stream and Houay Duen Stream in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, in Nakai District, Khammouan Province, Laos, at 700m asl; and in Po Xi Stream between Mang Xang and Ngoc Lay Villages, in Dak Glei District (formerly part of Dac To District), Kon Tum Province, Viet Nam, at 1,500m asl (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is expected to occur more widely, especially in the extensive area of mountains along the Lao-Vietnamese border between the two currently known sites.
136153		habitat	eng	This species has been found in or close to streams in evergreen forest (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). They have been found on vegetation up to 5m above the ground, and  on rocks and bushes within the splash zone of a large cascade (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). Amplexing pairs have found very close to a cascade, either on the ground or on wide leaves of Araceae plants, and on a gravel bank on the edge of a stream pool (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). The tadpoles remain unknown (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006).
136153		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species (R. Bain, pers. comm.).
136153		threats	eng	The species is probably affected by forest loss for agriculture and logging (R. Bain, pers. comm.).
136154		conservation	eng	Given its widespread occurrence it is possible that this species may be found within protected areas.
136154		distribution	eng	Pseudis boliviana is distributed from the mouth of the Amazon valley of Brazil to northern Bolivia (Frost, 2007).
136154		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland Amazonian rainforest. It is an aquatic species.
136154		population	eng	No population status is currently available for this species.
136154		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136155		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur within established protected areas (e.g. Tambopata National Reserve, Manu National Park, both in Peru)(A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).
136155		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Amazonian Brazil, northern Bolivia and southeastern Peru, from 10 to 999 m elevation (Funk et al., in press).
136155		habitat	eng	Physalaemus freibergi can be found in lowland Amazon rainforest. It is usually found amidst the leaf litter in primary forest. A nocturnal species, males call at night from the leaf litter in the vicinity of temporary ponds and slow-moving streams. The breeding period coincides with the rainy season (December-March), during which time foam nests are deposited on the surface of ponds (A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).
136155		population	eng	This species varies from rare to common in several localities of Madre de Dios, southeastern Peru (A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).
136155		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species, although some populations could be affected by local deforestation outside of protected areas (A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).
136156		conservation	eng	Its only known site is not in a protected area. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.
136156		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a mountainous area in the centre of Yapen island (off the northern coast of New Guinea), in Papua Province, Indonesia. All specimens were encountered in a 50 m wide and one km long strip on Amoman Mountain at 900-1,150m a.s.l., along the road to the village of Ambaidiru (at 1°45´S and 136°19´E). The species is likely to occur at least a little more widely on Yapen island. It might well be endemic to the island, but this is not yet certain.
136156		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been encountered in primary rainforest either directly on soil or on leaf litter under bushes and trees where small hollows are preferred. No specimens have been seen climbing on leaves or hidden underground. Patches of secondary vegetation which have replaced the original rainforest in some places were also inhabited, but at a lower density. It is throught that the species could not survive in completely opened-up habitats (R. Günther pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in damp terrestrial habitats, without dependence on aquatic ecosystems.
136156		population	eng	It is common in its only known site. Searches for it at lower-elevations have not been successful (R. Günther pers. comm.).
136156		threats	eng	The habitat in its only known site is not threatened at the moment (R. Günther pers. comm.). If clear-felling takes place in future, this would be very detrimental to the species.
136157		conservation	eng	The information available thus far suggests U. daviesae is restricted to the sand sheets of the Howard River and the Elizabeth River, and it has not been identified outside of these catchments (Young <em>et al</em>., 2005). Additional surveys across a broader range of northern Australia designed to target <em>U. daviesae</em> would be valuable to confirm twhether or not its distribution is genuinely restricted. It is not known from any protected areas.
136157		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from sandsheet areas in the Howard River catchment and the Elizabeth River catchment, south of Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia. It might occur more widely.
136157		habitat	eng	It has been found in open savannah/<em>Grevillea</em> woodland, on ephemerally flooded sands with short to medium-height grasses; sedges and herbs are dominant in the understory (Young <em>et al</em>., 2005). The main breeding areas are characterized by shallow pools with small mounds (possibly termite) with clumps of grass growing over the tops, sparse tea tree <em>Leptospermum</em> spp., and <em>Banksia</em>. Several species of carnivorous plants, such as sundews (<em>Drosera</em> spp.) and bladderworts (<em>Utricularia</em> spp.), are common within the habitat. Most male <em>U. daviesae</em> were observed calling from small chambers at the base of sand mounds within flooded grassland, either on wet sand or in very shallow water.
136157		population	eng	Populations of this species have been found throughout the Howard River catchment (Young <em>et al</em>., 2007), suggesting that it is common through its small known range.
136157		threats	eng	There is no information on threats, though it occurs in an area of limited human impact.
136158		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
136158		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed on Manus, Los Negros, Rambutyo and Pak Islands in the Admiralty Archipelago, Papua New Guinea.  It is found from 5 up to at least 296m asl, and is generally a lowland species (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136158		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest, but also in degraded habitats (including grassy paddocks in the centre of Lorengau Town) and rural gardens. Males called from exposed or semi-exposed positions in forest litter, or from the base of grass tussocks in disturbed garden habitats, at night after heavy rain (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species occurred in micro-sympatry with <em>P. admiraltiensis</em>, and calling males of the two species were frequently spaced less than 50 cm apart (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2007). It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.
136158		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
136158		threats	eng	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
136159		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.
136159		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southernmost Papua New Guinea from sea-level up to 600m asl (although in fact almost all records are from near sea-level, and higher-elevation records might refer to wanderers or non-self-sustaining populations (F. Kraus pers. comm.). There are records from Fergusson, Goodenough and Normanby islands in the D'Entrecasteaux Group, the Pini Range at the west end of Milne Bay, and the southern Owen Stanley Mountains in Milne Bay Province. It could possibly occur a little more widely in extreme southeastern New Guinea, but it is not likely to be very widespread (F. Kraus pers. comm.). Its area of occupancy is probably only a very small proportion of its extent of occurrence.
136159		habitat	eng	This species is associated slow- and faster-flowing streams, ditches, and <em>Pandanus</em> swamps, in disturbed grassy habitats and villages (Kraus and Allison, 2007). The frogs are encountered sitting within watercourses or alongside<br/>their edges, but never even a few meters away in adjacent forest (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Animals from sea-level in the D’Entrecasteaux islands occupied areas within a few metres of the sea and at least one of these streams on Normanby Island was subject to tidal flux (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Although it can clearly adapt to anthropogenic habitats, there is probably a limit to the amount of disturbance that it can tolerate (F. Kraus pers. comm.).
136159		population	eng	It is an uncommon species, occurring sparsely and in moderate numbers (F. Kraus pers. comm.). The D'Entrecasteaux Islands seem to be the species' stronghold, but on the New Guinea mainland in Milne Bay Province it has not been found in several locations otherwise appear to be suitable for it (F. Kraus pers. comm.).
136159		threats	eng	Although this species can adapt to certain anthropogenic habitats, it has a small range, sparse numbers, and is restricted to elevations that tend to be moderately to heavily disturbed by humans. Its status is therefore of concern.
136160		conservation	eng	Two of the know localities, Iamabahatsy and Sakamalio, are within the Parc National de l’Isalo. Outside this protected area conservation measures are needed to protected the species' habitat from the effects of fires and mining.
136160		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only three localities (Andriamanero, Iamabahatsy and Sakamalio) in the northern part of the Isalo Massif, between 640 and 689 m asl (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). It might occur a little more widely in the Isalo Massif. It is inferred that the potential distribution includes forest habitats along streams of the Isalo area, within and outside the protected areas boundaries (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Mercurio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
136160		habitat	eng	This species has been found in large canyons with running water in the river bed between stones, as well as in the gallery forest. Calling males were observed at night on leaves in the forest at about 50–150 cm above the ground (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). Its breeding is not known, but is presumably by larval development in streams.
136160		population	eng	There is little information, although individuals were found in suitable gallery forest habitat calling 10-20 m from each other (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). It is presumed that the population is declining with the associated continuing habitat loss.
136160		threats	eng	On of the known localities, Andriamanero is outside the boundaries of the Parc National de l’Isalo. Threats affecting this area include the extensive prairie burning leading to the loss of gallery forest, and habitat alteration due to the excavation of mines for sapphires, an activity that has a great potential for long-term persistence and is thus seriously threatening the Isalo biodiversity (Duffy 2006).
136161		conservation	eng	It is known only from a restricted area within the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136161		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Moran in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project (KICDP) Area in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea (6°14.363'S, 143°07.660'E) at an altitude of 1,800m asl (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). This species was not detected at numerous sites at lower elevations in the KICDP area, and was also absent from higher sites on Mount Sisa (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is possible that this species is restricted to a relatively narrow altitudinal range within the KICDP.
136161		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower-montane rainforest on steep limestone in dangerous terrain that included deep hidden sink-holes (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). The frogs call from elevated positions between 0.2-0.5m above ground in dense mossy montane forest after heavy rain at night (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). No calling was heard on dry nights (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). Males called from within curled leaves in dense low foliage and are extremely difficult to detect (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007).  It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.
136161		population	eng	Many individuals were heard calling at its only known site (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136161		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136162		conservation	eng	There are currently no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Given the presumed rapid population decline, it appears that urgent conservation actions are needed. Further population surveys of the type locality and possibly suitable sites are needed to locate and monitor remnant populations (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). The species is not known from any protected areas, but consideration should be given to protecting the remaining habitat at the type locality. General studies are additionally needed into the breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
136162		distribution	eng	<em>Atelopus epikeisthos</em> has been recorded only from the type locality of 7 km East of Chachapoyas, in the eastern Cordiillera Central of Departamento de Amazonas, northern Peru (Lötters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The type collection took place in a small ravine along the road from Chachapoyas to Molinopampa. The ravine stream flows into the Río Sonche, a tributary of the Río Utcubamba, which flows into the Río Marañón (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).
136162		habitat	eng	The single collected specimen was found in a small remnant of humid montane forest with tree fern vegetation (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). The specimen was collected walking on the floor (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). It is not known if the species can persist in heavily disturbed forest. Although the breeding biology of this species is not known, it is presumed to undergo larval development within streams. The specimen was found along a permanent stream, and it is expected that <em>A. epikeisthos</em> is (at least seasonally) a riparian species, as are many other <em>Atelopus</em> in similar environments (S. Lötters, pers. comm.).
136162		population	eng	The species is known only from the holotype collected in 1989. No animals were observed during a visit to the type locality in 2002 (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).
136162		threats	eng	By 2002, the remaining forest at the type locality had almost entirely been cleared through conversion of land to cattle pasture and corn fields (Lötters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It seems plausible that remaining populations of this species would be susceptible to the disease chytridiomycosis that has been implicated in the decline of several congeners.
136163		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
136163		distribution	eng	This species is known only from an unspecified locality in Sri Lanka. It is considered to be Extinct.
136163		habitat	eng	There is no information, though it is likely to be associated with forest. It presumably bred by direct development, like other members of its genus.
136163		population	eng	This species has not been found since the holotype was collected prior to 1859. Extensive surveys in Sri Lanka in recent years have not located the species, and it is now believed to be Extinct.
136163		threats	eng	No information is available, though the species is likely to have disappeared due to loss of forest.
136164		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
136164		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites in New Guinea: 5.5 km west of Tabubil township, in Western Province, Papua New Guinea (5°17’30”S and 141°11’55”E;) at 500m asl; and adjacent to the Tiri River, Mamberamo Drainage, in Papua Province, Indonesia (3°17’30”S, 138°34’53”) at 80m asl (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006). It is expected to occur more widely, especially in suitable habitat in intervening areas (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006).
136164		habitat	eng	This species is likely to be a canopy dweller and may glide given its extensively webbed fingers and toes (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006). It has been found in lowland rainforest in areas of very high rainfall (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006). It is presumed to breed by larval development, and may lay eggs in swamps or ponds on the forest floor, and/or in small canopy ponds (those trapped in tree forks and hollows and regularly replenished by high rainfall) (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006).
136164		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. Only two specimens have ever been found, but it might be a canopy species which is hard to detect.
136164		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136165		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the Cotapata National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management (PN-ANMI Cotapata).
136165		distribution	eng	Psychrophrynella chacaltaya is known from the type locality, Sanja Pampa (16 15' 13.8" S, 68 01' 41.8" W, 3900 masl), Province of Nor Yungas, Department of La Paz, and the nearby locality of Zongo Valley (16 11' 47"S, 68 07' 35" W, 3600 masl), 1.7 km above Central Botijlaca, Province of Murillo, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva, 2007).
136165		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species can be found under stones or amid grasses and mosses in paramo, usually occupying different<br/>microhabitats with a variable degree of humidity, commonly around small lakes which are sometimes associated with Polylepis formations. Males can be heard to call by day and night, with or without rain (De la Riva, 2007). <br/><br/>The species presumably has direct development.
136165		population	eng	The species seems to be scarce in the Zongo Valley, as compared to Cotapata (De la Riva, 2007).
136165		threats	eng	The species could be affected by the removal of Polylepis formations and agriculture in Zongo Valley. In addition, its restricted distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are also considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136166		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the boundaries of Manu Biosphere Reserve. It may also occur in other neighbouring protected areas (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136166		distribution	eng	Oreobates lehri is known from the type locality in the Apurimac River Valley (Apurimac River Valley, Camisea Natural Gas Pipeline, Wayrapata Camp, 2445 masl, 12 50' 10" S, 73 29' 43" W, Department of Cusco, Peru), and from two localities in the Kosñipata Valley (Pillahuata, between Puente Kosñipata and road, 2430 masl, 13 09' 52" S, 71 35' 46" W, and Esperanza, Kosñipata Valley, 2600–2800 masl, 13 10' 56" S, 71 36' 14" W), Department of Cusco, Peru. Both localities are separated by an airline distance of ca 200 km (Padial et al., 2007).
136166		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cloud forests, where individuals have been found on the ground. A gravid female was found during the dry season, suggesting that the species may reproduce throughout the year (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).
136166		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136166		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136167		conservation	eng	Most of the species' distribution lies within the “Amazonian Park” of French Guiana. However, there are problems with illegal mining and associated pollution in the park (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).
136167		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allobates granti</span> is currently known from French Guiana, at elevations between 100-730 masl.
136167		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, forest-dwelling species not closely associated with bodies of water. Males are territorial and call from the leaf litter. Reproduction does not seem to be seasonally constrained, as courtship and tadpoles were observed in February and March, and females collected in February, April, May July and November contained mature eggs. An egg clutch was found to have 9 fertile eggs (Kok et al., 2006).
136167		population	eng	This is considered to be an uncommon species, and found in small isolated populations at Arataye and Nouragues, French Guiana (Kok et al., 2006).
136167		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
136168		conservation	eng	One of the localities, Andranobe, is a forestry station within Masoala National Park (F. Andreone pers. comm. February 2011), but the other known localities are outside any protected area. Andranobe's management appears to have deteriorated in recent years (F. Andreone pers. comm. February 2011). Research is needed into this recently-described species' ecology, area of occupancy and population trends, and threats impacting known localities.
136168		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from two locations in the Masoala Peninsula in northeastern Madagascar (F. Andreone pers. comm. February 2011). It has been reported from the western coast (at Ambanizana and Andranobe) and slope (with records from Andasin’I Governora,&#160; Antsarahan’Ambararato, and Menamalona), at elevations of 10-780 m asl. Surveys elsewhere, including the nearby locality of Betampona, have failed to locate this species there (F. Andreone pers. comm. February 2011), suggesting that it may not be much more widespread than its known sites. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 430 km².
136168		habitat	eng	This species has been found during the day and night in lowland rainforest at 0–3 m above the ground, but it has only been found calling or out of refuges at night. Six of eight specimens found in 2001 were found in phytotelmata (tree holes), while the other two were found moving freely on a tree trunk and vine respectively. Male-female pairs with eggs have been found in water-filled tree holes, and in common with related forms this species is expected to breed by larval development in small water bodies. The species is presumably dependent upon moist forest habitat, though, like other members of its genus, it can probably survive in somewhat altered forest..
136168		population	eng	It is a rather common species within its small range.
136168		threats	eng	Deforestation is a serious threat on the Masoala Peninsula, especially due to small-holder agriculture and extraction of timber. Logging activities in this area have intensified in the wake of the political crisis in 2010, and may therefore represent an increased risk to this species (F. Andreone pers. comm. February 2011). There is no information on the impact of these activities at specific known localities (F. Andreone pers. comm. February 2011).
136169		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Kaieteur National Park.
136169		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypsiboas liliae</span> can be found on the Kaieteur Plateau (5 10'51" N, 59, 28'57" W), ca 400 m elevation, and vicinity of Elinkwa River (5 10' 06" N, 59 23' 41" W), ca 550 m elevation, Kaieteur National Park, Potaro-Siparuni district, Guyana (Kok, 2006). The species was also heard calling at the Guyana-Brazil border. It is likely widespread in the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. It is found between 400-1200 m elevation (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).
136169		habitat	eng	Hypsiboas liliae can be found in primary forest and edge of primary forest with savannah, in the proximity of large bromeliads. Individuals call from high elevations (above 10-15 m) in trees (Kok, 2006) in the month of March.
136169		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species at known sites (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).
136169		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136170		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in some.
136170		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the Tanzanian coast between Dar es Salaam and Tanga, inland to the foothills of the West Usambara Mountains (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.). There is an unconfirmed record from Lake Kenyatta in coastal Kenya (Pickersgill 2007). There are records from very close to sea-level, up to 429m asl in the West Usambara footlhills.
136170		habitat	eng	It has been found calling from puddles and pools, occupying areas with denser fringing vegetation than <em>Phrynobatrachus mababiensis</em>. It has also been in sites where dense bush has been cleared for vegetable plots. The little available evidence suggests that it survives well in habitats modified by humans. It breeds in water by larval development.
136170		population	eng	It is locally abundant, but little data are available, as it has probably been confused with other species.
136170		threats	eng	It is probably an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
136171		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
136171		distribution	eng	Oreophrynella dendronastes is only known from the type locality and immediate vicinities: northeast slope of Mount Ayanganna (5 24.11' N, 59 57.41' W, 1490–1550 masl) District 7, Guyana (Lathrop and MacCulloch, 2007).
136171		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species can be found on broad-leaf vegetation at a height of 1.5 m or more between 2000–2400 h. Their discovery coincided with very humid evenings in which it had either rained all day, or was in the early stages of<br/>a downpour. Oreophrynella dendronastes appeared to be relatively active at night. Individuals have been found on their own, and no breeding groups have been observed. Seven of the eight females of the type series have 20 or more small ova (<0.5 mm) in one ovary; in five specimens the ova are in the left ovary, while in two specimens the ova are in the right ovary (Lathrop and MacCulloch, 2007).
136171		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136171		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136172		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. However, there is ample habitat to support this species on three tepui cloud forests, which are extensive on these tepuis, and the tepuis are not suitable for human agriculture or occupancy (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
136172		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis jester</span> is known from the tops of the two highest summits (Mt. Wokomung and Little Ayanganna) of the Wokomung Massif of west-central Guyana (1411–1650 masl)(Means and Savage, 2007). It is also possible that the species may be found on Mt. Maringma to the east of Wokomung (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
136172		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dense cloud forest approaching tepui scrub forest. The trees are no more than 10 m high with trunks, stems, and leaves densely covered with epiphytes ranging from mosses and a gooey, slimy alga to bromeliads and large aroids. The forest included trees of the genera Podocarpus, Weinmannia, and Clusia. Individuals of this species were collected at about 2 m off the ground during light rain alternating with cloudy skies and blowing mists (Means and Savage, 2007).
136172		population	eng	Only 4 or 5 individuals have been found during four expeditions to the Wokomung Massif.  It seems to be as uncommon as or more so than <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis dendrobatoides</span> (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).
136172		threats	eng	No major threats have been observed for this species. Introduced microbes and/or chemicals could be an unobservable threat (B. Means pers. comm. 2008).
136173		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas in Ecuador.
136173		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus onorei</span> is only known from near Río Chipla (2 47' 24" S, 79 21' 36" W, ca. 2,500 m asl), 10–15 Km E Luz María, and a nearby creek, in the Azuay Basin of the Cordillera Occidental of Ecuador, Azuay Province, Ecuador (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136173		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid cloud montane forest on the Pacific versant of the Cordillera Occidental. Individuals were found close to running water, and were active during the day, with numerous pairs found in amplexus. A female was found to contain 133 ovarian eggs ca 2.14 mm in diameter. The species occurs in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nanay</span> at one of the localities (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species requires a permanent source of water (L. Coloma pers. comm. 2008).
136173		population	eng	Although this species was previously abundant at the type locality, no individuals have been found after 1990, despite at least four occasional search efforts to locate the species at the same site as before and surroundings (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136173		threats	eng	The area of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus onorei</span> is close is to areas where climate abnormalities have occurred and <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius </span>extinctions have been reported. They are also close to areas where the chytrid fungus has occurred, or its presence is predicted. Given this scenario and considering the overwhelming evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus</span> has been affected by these two key factors in the highlands, it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. onorei</span> may be extinct, although the possibility of existing relictual populations may not be overlooked (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
136174		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in a protected area, Peninsula de Paria, National Park. However, shifting agriculture is a common practice in the region, including within the realm of the national park (Manzanilla et al., 2007).
136174		distribution	eng	Mannophryne venezuelensis is found on the slopes of the Península de Paria, Municipality of Arismendi, state of Sucre, Venezuela, from near sea level to about 600 masl (Manzanilla et al., 2007).
136174		habitat	eng	The species is found in and around mountain streams, some individuals have been found in a stream that runs through a cocoa field (Manzanilla et al., 2007).
136174		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species.
136174		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include traditional shifting agriculture and use of agrochemicals in upstream coffee and cocoa plantations (Manzanilla et al., 2007).
136175		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Itatiaia National Park.
136175		distribution	eng	Gastrotheca ernestoi can be found in the Serra dos Órgãos, but extends to the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira, in the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).
136175		habitat	eng	Gastrotheca ernestoi is an inhabitant of the Atlantic rain forest. It occurs in sympatry with Gastrotheca albolineata and Gastrotheca fulvorufa at Serra dos Órgãos (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).
136175		population	eng	No population status is available for this species.
136175		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136176		conservation	eng	It probably occurs within the Masoala National Park, though this has yet to be confirmed. It is considered that the presence of this park is favourable for the conservation of the species (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
136176		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only from the type locality of Menamalona, Antalaha Fivondronana, Antsiranana Faritany (Diégo Suarez Province) at 780 m asl on the Masoala Peninsula of northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is suspected to occur more widely at low and middle-elevation forests on the Masoala Peninsula, and perhaps elsewhere in northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
136176		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded from unaltered tropical moist forest (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It has been collected from a small pool near a stream and is expected to be an explosive breeder during the wet season, and to have a larval development stage (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species has not been recorded from heavily modified habitat and might be restricted to mature tropical moist forest (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
136176		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the type series.
136176		threats	eng	The species is considered to be generally threatened by the ongoing rapid deforestation of its habitat in Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
136177		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution (in particular whether or not it is known from any other islands, such as Misima and Rossel), ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136177		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to Sudest (Tagula) Island in the Louisiade Archipelago, off the southeastern tip of Papua New Guinea. There are records from Vanua Mountain and the western slopes of Mount Rio at 127-410m asl, and it probably occurs through most or all of Sudest Island (Kraus, 2007; Hiaso and Richards, 2006). Local people have also reported it from the vicinity of Araeda, on the north coast of the island. This species was not found on surveys of the nearby Rossel and Misima islands, the other large islands of the Louisiade Archipelago.
136177		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is associated with primary lowland rainforest (Kraus, 2007; Hiaso and Richards, 2006). Most specimens were found around the margins of a muddy, largely dried, oxbow pond along a slow-flowing river (Kraus, 2007). Adults and tadpoles were also located around or in water-filled pig wallows on ridges up to 410m asl, far from any natural standing water (Kraus, 2007). Local people haves reported that the species also inhabits sago swamps and other areas with standing water (Kraus, 2007). It can probably tolerate some habitat disturbance, but not complete opening up of its habitat. The eggs are attached to leaves and suspended over water (Kraus, 2007).
136177		population	eng	It is probably a moderately common species.
136177		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not seriously threatened at the present time, but there is no direct information on threats to this species.
136178		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136178		distribution	eng	Crossodactylus cyclospinus is only known from the type locality at Fazenda Duas Barras (15 53' S, 40 28' W, ca 800 masl), Municipality of Santa Maria do Salto, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. The locality is in the mountain range called Serra do Cariri, which separates the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia, and the Basins of Jequitinhonha and Buranhém rivers (Nascimento et al., 2005).
136178		habitat	eng	Adults, juveniles, and tadpoles of Crossodactylus cyclospinus are diurnal and active during the wet season, in the months of October and January. The new species can be found in shallow rivulets in forested areas in Atlantic Rain Forest. Males vocalize from rocks or under plants in the midst of these rivulets. The frogs are vigilant, males tend to vocalize when they perceive the presence of an observer. When threatened, individuals hide in the leaf litter or dive into water (Nascimento et al., 2005). The vocal repertoire of the species is described in Nascimento et al. (2005).
136178		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
136178		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
136179		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Urgent measures are needed to conserve the habitat of this rare species.
136179		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Milyang sub-basin of the Kyeongsang Basin southeastern Korea (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003, 2007). There are records from described from Hyoam-ri and Gilcheon-ri (both in Jangan-eup), Gijang-gun, and Busanshi (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003). The type locality is at 45m asl (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003).
136179		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and slow-flowing streams. The larvae also develop in these streams.
136179		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
136179		threats	eng	The habitats of this species are limited and are being destroyed (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003).
136180		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in the Waza National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution of this species.
136180		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from its type locality in northern Cameroon, 40km northeast of Mora, near Waza. It presumably occurs more widely, and can be expected to be found in neighbouring Nigeria and Chad.
136180		habitat	eng	The species was discovered in an ephemeral marsh in seasonally flooded grassland in an open, treeless landscape. It is probably adapted to Sahelo-Sudanian zone, with a long (nine-month) dry season. It presumably breeds by larval development in water.
136180		population	eng	There is very little information, as it is known only from six specimens collected in 1975. When it was discovered, it was much less numerous that <em>Kassina senegalensis</em>, which was also present at the same site.
136180		threats	eng	There is no information on threats.
136181		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136181		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Chung Chry Stream, at 500m asl in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, O'Rang District, Mondolkiri Province, eastern Cambodia (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2005). It presumably occurs more widely, perhaps including in neighbouring Viet Nam; indeed, records of <em>Ophryophryne gerti</em> from Viet Nam could refer to this species (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).
136181		habitat	eng	Both specimens were found near a swift-flowing stream in hilly evergreen forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2005). It presumably breeds by larval development in streams. It has not been found in degraded habitats.
136181		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only two specimens (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2005), but this apparent rarity might be an artifact of limited sampling.
136181		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. The only records so far are from a protected area.
136182		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.
136182		distribution	eng	The species is known from the locality of Povoação, at sea level, municipality of Linhares, northern portion of the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil, although it is possible that it may also occur in Governador Lindemberg, Espírito Santo and in southern Bahia, Brazil (Almeida and Angulo, 2006). The species has recently been recorded and collected in Mimoso do Sul, southern Espírito Santo, extending its range by ca 300 km (A.P. Almeida, pers. comm. 2008).
136182		habitat	eng	Leptodactylus thomei is a leaf litter inhabitant of cacao plantations within alluvial forests. It breeds in temporary ponds, and its tadpoles need water to complete their ontogenetic development (Almeida and Angulo, 2002). Reproductive activity goes from August to March, coinciding with the rainy season in this area (Almeida and Angulo, 2006). Foam nests have been found to contain 27-29 tadpoles (Almeida and Angulo, 2002), a collected female released 32 eggs (Almeida and Angulo, 2006).
136182		population	eng	The species is common to abundant in the rainy season at the locality of Povoação.
136182		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species.
136183		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.
136183		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern slopes of the Nakanai Mountains on the island of New Britain, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, at 517-850m asl, in the vicinity of the western end of Jacquinot Bay. It is likely to occur more widely, at least in the Nakanai Mountains, and perhaps elsewhere on New Britain.
136183		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been encountered in primary and old secondary rainforest either in ravine bottoms or on hill slopes in leaf litter. It can probably tolerate some habitat alterations, but is unlikely to survive in completely open habitats. This species presumably breeds by direct development.
136183		population	eng	It is probably not common, but it is a very difficult species to detect.
136183		threats	eng	The most obvious threats are forest logging and, if the species occurs more widely on New Britain, permanent conversion of habitat to oil palm plantations (the currently known locality is probably not at risk from this latter threat).
136184		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur at Reserva de Produccion Faunıstica Cuyabeno and Yasuni National Park (Ecuador), as well as within the realms of Tiputini Biodiversity Station (Ecuador), and the Gueppi Reserved Area and Allpahuayo-Mishana Reserved Area (Peru) (Faivovich et al., 2006).
136184		distribution	eng	<em>Hypsiboas nympha</em> is distributed in the western Amazon Basin. Specimens reported in the original description originate from the northern and southern regions of eastern lowland Ecuador and from northeastern Peru at elevations below 600 m, and from lowlands of Colombia around Leticia. The northernmost locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nympha</span> is "Singue", province of Sucumbıos, Ecuador, whereas the southernmost record is Leticia, Colombia. The species probably also occurs in adjacent western Brazil (Faivovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006).
136184		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsiboas nympha</em> appears to prefer primary lowland forests flooded by white and black waters, and is occasionally found in lowland nonflooded (terra-firme) forests. The type locality is a swampy area (water depth 5–20 cm), approximately 50 m distance from a stream. The arboreal vegetation at the type locality includes species of the families Verbenaceae, Lauraceae, Arecaceae, Bombacaceae, Actinidiaceae, and Rubiaceae, with stem diameters up to 450 mm; poor herbaceous coverage and an average canopy height between 12–23 m (emergent trees up to 40 m). The general topography of the type locality consists of low hills with flat or slightly rounded tops and slightly convex slopes; the lowermost areas were flooded. Other hylids collected at the type locality of <em>Hypsiboas nympha</em> are <em>Dendropsophus leucophyllatus</em>, <em>D. marmoratus</em>, <em>D. miyatai</em>, <em>Hypsiboas boans</em>, <em>H. calcaratus</em>, <em>H. fasciatus</em>, <em>H. geographicus</em>, <em>H. granosus</em>, <em>H. lanciformis</em>, <em>Osteocephalus cabrerai</em>, <em>O. planiceps</em>, <em>O. taurinus</em>, <em>O. yasuni</em>, <em>Scinax ruber</em>, and <em>Sphaenorhynchus lacteus</em> (Faivovich et al., 2006).  In other localities (e.g., Tiputini Biodiversity Station) the species has been found in small slow rivulets amidst the low riverine vegetation.<br/><br/>One female of <em>H. nympha</em> was found to contain ca 70 unpigmented oviductal eggs of ca. 2 mm (Faivovich et al., 2006).
136184		population	eng	No population status information is available for this species; however, the species is relatively uncommon in most areas where it has been recorded (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
136184		threats	eng	Although the species has a widespread distribution, several areas of its current distributional range are severely affected by deforestation produced by colonization and the uncontrollable extension of the agricultural frontier (e.g., Limoncocha and Cuyabeno areas in northeastern Ecuador and Iquitos surroundings in northern Peru) and by contamination of water sources due to residues of oil extraction (e.j. Cuyabeno area in northeastern Ecuador)(D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).
136185		conservation	eng	The range of the species includes several protected areas.
136185		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and in adjacent areas of New South Wales (south of the Wollondilly River) and eastern Victoria (as far as the Aberfeldy River) (Donnellan <em>et al</em>. 1999).
136185		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rocky and mountain streams in rainforest and wet and dry forest including swamps. It is often found on shrubs and low vegetation beside creeks and streamside ponds, seldom in still water. It breeds in summer and spring. Males call from rocky riverbanks or streamside vegetation. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation in streams and ponds. Larvae take 12 weeks to metamorphose.
136185		population	eng	It is a common species.
136185		threats	eng	In the past logging in forest was a threat. Development and clearing of wet sclerophyll forest and drainage of swamps are now more serious threats. It is probably also impacted by introduced fish, notably trout. Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species by PCR testing. There has been extensive monitoring across the distribution and significant declines have been noted in high altitude populations, some of which have disappeared.  However, overall this species remain abundant in many places and is not significantly threatened.
136186		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park where there is a need to limit additional habitat degradation, especially in the Bendrao Forest. Research is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and its ecological requirements.
136186		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bendrao Forest, at 420-470 m asl, in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, Mahajanga Province, western Madagascar. It appears to be endemic to the low-elevation dry forest of the Tsingy de Bemaraha.
136186		habitat	eng	Very little information is available on this species. It has been found in moderately moist dry forest among "tsingy" rocks. One specimen contained more than 100 eggs, indicating that the specimen was ready for reproduction at the end of the rainy season. Its stomach contained a large number of medium-sized insect remains (ants, beetles) and pieces of dead leaves from the forest floor. Both specimens were found in the same forest (Bendrao), but the actual range is likely to comprise a larger area. However, it is probably endemic to the Tsingy de Bemaraha massif due to the absence of sufficient humidity outside the karstic habitats elsewhere in the general region.Its breeding is not known, but it is probably a terrestrial, larval developing species, not requiring water, like some other members of the genus.
136186		population	eng	It is known from only two specimens. Attempts to locate the species, using pitfall traps in three other sites in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, failed to capture any additional specimens, so it appears to be rare.
136186		threats	eng	The Bendrao forest has been degraded by zebu (cattle) grazing. It is possible that other dry forest habitats potentially inhabited by this species in the Tsingy de Bemaraha have also been degraded by overgrazing, and firewood or timber collection.
136187		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas, though it could be in the Namdapha Tiger Reserve. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136187		distribution	eng	This species is known only from 10 km north of Gandhigram, in Changlang District, Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). It could occur more widely, and no information is available on its elevational range.
136187		habitat	eng	The only record was from dense forest on the north bank of the Noa Dihing River, in a tree hollow about 3m above ground (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). The follow was full of dead leaves and rain water (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). It presumably breeds by direct development.
136187		population	eng	There has been no information since its discovery in 1988 (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). Several frogs were found at that time, two of which were collected (Sarkar and Ray, 2006).
136187		threats	eng	No information is available.
136188		conservation	eng	It occurs in Khao Yai National Park (Bain and Stuart, 2005). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.
136188		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Khao Yai National Park in Thailand, in Nakhon Ratchasima Province and in Nakhon Nayok Province (Sarika Waterfalls) (Bain and Stuart, 2005). Its elevational range is not known, nor is it known whether or not it might occur more widely.
136188		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species have been collected at night in dry evergreen and gallery evergreen forest on rocks, vines, trees, and stream banks within 4.5 m of 3.5–18m wide streams (Bain and Stuart, 2005). One specimen was also found on the forest floor away from water (Bain and Stuart, 2005). These frogs have been found from ground level to 1.5m above ground (Bain and Stuart, 2005). The tadpoles are unknown (Bain and Stuart, 2005), but presumably develop in streams.
136188		population	eng	There is no recent information on the abundance of this species (Bain and Stuart, 2005). It is known only from 18 specimens collected in 1969 and 1970 (Bain and Stuart, 2005), but the lack of subsequent records might be due to a lack of survey effort.
136188		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but all records so far are from a well-protected area.
136189		conservation	eng	In the course of three studies the species was collected at two different sites, both of which are in protected areas [one is in a Reserve projected to become a Natural Park, and the other one is in an area that has been declared as a Sactuary](S. Arroyo, pers. comm. 2008).
136189		distribution	eng	Pristimantis carlossanchezi is known from localities ranging from the departments of Santander (northern section) to  Boyacá (south-western section), Colombia. It has been recorded for elevations ranging from 2400-2550 masl (Arroyo, 2007).
136189		habitat	eng	The species is more frequently observed in cloud forest above 2400 masl, particularly in secondary forest (S. Arroyo, pers. comm. 2008). Individuals are found on leaves at heights 1.5 to 2.0 m above the ground and are nocturnal. Pristimantis carlossanchezi was not heard, male calling activity was not recorded (Arroyo, 2007).
136189		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species (Arroyo, 2007).
136189		threats	eng	Given that the species was collected in regenerating secondary forest, perhaps deforestation could be a possible threat (S. Arroyo, pers. comm. 2008).
136190		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.
136190		distribution	eng	This species from New Guinea is currently known only from the type locality in the headwaters of the Wapoga River, in Papua Province, Indonesia: the Wapoga Alpha exploration camp (3º 08.687' S, 136º 34.423' E), at 1,070m asl) (Günther and Richards, 2005). It is expected to occur more widely.
136190		habitat	eng	This species has been found within torrential headwater streams at night, or on the riparian vegetation surrounding these streams. Specimens were also collected during the day from underneath stones in the streams (Günther and Richards, 2005). While the breeding biology of this species needs further research it is presumed to be a larval developing species within its associated stream habitats. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to degraded habitats, but it probably would suffer if its stream habitat is degraded (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136190		population	eng	It is common in its type locality (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136190		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats to this species at present (S. Richards, pers. comm.).
136191		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is very poorly known, and so research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.
136191		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from its type locality, Shuicheng County, in Guizhou Province, China, at 1,910-1970m asl (Tian <em>et al</em>., 2006). The limits of its distribution are not yet clear, but it is not likely to be very widely distributed.
136191		habitat	eng	The species lives in a karstic region. The adults live on the forest floor near streams in the non-breeding season. Breeding takes places in pools, ponds or near the springs from early May until the end of June, and the larvae develop in these habitats.
136191		population	eng	It is a rare species where it is found (Tian <em>et al</em>., 2006).
136191		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of clear-cutting, expanding agriculture, and pollution as a result of the use of pesticides and herbicides.
136192		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed in to the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136192		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and the type locality in Sumatra (Abai Siat, 01°02'S, 101°43'E, south east Kota Baru, Sumatra Barat). Surveys to the east of the mapped range in Malaysia have failed to find the species (T. Kingston pers. comm.).
136192		habitat	eng	This is a lowland rainforest species (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136192		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
136192		threats	eng	Deforestation and degradation of the habitat due to logging, agriculture, infrastructure development, plantations and fire are major threats to this species.
136193		conservation	eng	This species is present in Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.
136193		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from Khammouan Province in central Lao PDR. There are records from the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Thakhek district, and from the surroundings of Ban Muang and Ban Doy.
136193		habitat	eng	Collected specimens have been found at the base of limestone karst caves. Morphological features, such as its broad forefeet, stout claws, naked hindfeet with large cheridia, and others, suggest that it may be a karst limestone specialist. The behavioral ecology of the species is unknown (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005). Jenkins and Robinson (2002) recorded the species in heavily degraded mixed decidious forests, scrubland and bamboo.
136193		population	eng	A survey conducted by Musser <em>et al</em>. (2005) in the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area found this species to be locally abundant.
136193		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It is not known if it is susceptible to habitat loss or over-hunting.
136194		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas such as Pico de Orizaba, Mapimi.
136194		distribution	eng	It occurs in North Central Mexico (Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Nayarit, Sinaloa and Veracruz) (Tejedor 2005).
136194		habitat	eng	Tropical deciduous forest, mountain tropical forest, from lowlands to middle elevations. Its distribution is probably more limited by the availability of roosts rather than vegetation type (Tejedo 2005)
136194		population	eng	This species is considered as common.
136194		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136195		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
136195		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern fringe of Amazonian rainforest, principally in Pará and Mato Grosso east of the Rio Xingu and as far south as Serra do Roncador, central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136195		habitat	eng	This rodent is often found in house plantations, gallery forest and Cerrado dry forest (Tribe, 2005).
136195		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance.
136195		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136196		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136196		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the extreme northwest of Yunnan province (Mekong and Salween river valleys) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging between 2,400-4,250 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
136196		habitat	eng	It inhabits open and rocky meadows and stream banks in forests (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs from early summer to late fall (Smith and Xie 2008).
136196		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136196		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136197		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range (Fagundes pers. comm.). At present the efficient method of identifying species is using karyotyping (2n = 24, 25, 26) (Fagundes pers. comm.).
136197		distribution	eng	This species occurs from east Paraguay (Gamarra de Fox and Martin, 1996), northeast Argentina (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em>, 2003), and southeast Brazil (Rio de Janeiro to Rio Grande do Sul, including gallery forest settings in Minas Gerais and Goiás; Geise <em>et al</em>. 2001; Rieger <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Brazil, the species occurs from coastal areas inland to eastern Mato Grosso do Sul.
136197		habitat	eng	The species inhabits Atlantic forest and cerrado. Akodon montensis has been collected only above 800 m in Rio de Janeiro State, and in northern-most areas of its distribution it occurs above 900 m. Species occurs in gallery forest along creeks and streams (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136197		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
136197		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to the species, the Atlantic forest populations are affected by habitat destruction.
136198		conservation	eng	There is not included in any protected area.
136198		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Misiones Province, Guaraní Department, junction of Hwy 2 and Arroyo Paraíso, 197 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136198		habitat	eng	This species holotype was collected in a rocky area within disturbed rainforest approximately 6 m uphill from a river (Mares and Braun 2000).
136198		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136198		threats	eng	Deforestation at the forest areas where it was found.
136199		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. It is known to occur in the Analamazaotra Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park. It is not clear whether it also occurs in Mangerivola Special Reserve. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Zurich, Switzerland) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136199		distribution	eng	Currently, this species is known only from the type locality of Andasibe and surrounding regions (for example, Maromizaha Forest, including the two protected areas Analamazaotra Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park (Kappeler <em>et al.</em> 2005; Roos and Kappeler 2006). The extent of the distribution of this species to the south and north is still unknown. The maximum extent of its range to the south may be Ranomafana National Park, where it is replaced by <em>M. rufus</em>, and to the north to the Betampona Strict Nature Reserve and Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve and National Park, where it is replaced by <em>M. simmonsi</em> (Roos and Kappeler 2006).
136199		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.
136199		population	eng	Unknown. Only discovered in 2005.
136199		threats	eng	Unknown. It is currently known only from protected areas.
136200		conservation	eng	It does not occur in protected areas.
136200		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Ternate and Tidore, west of the island of Halmahera, Indonesia.
136200		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical moist forest and disturbed forest, as well as plantations.
136200		population	eng	This species is common.
136200		threats	eng	This species is adversely affected to some degree by local hunting for food, although population numbers are probably stable. There is an active volcano on Ternate. Introduction of other <em>Phalanger</em> species is also a potential threat.
136201		conservation	eng	It may be distributed more widely than is currently known, additional field surveys are needed to determine the full range of this species.
136201		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from Central, Milne Bay, and Western Provinces (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). In Papua Province, Indonesia it has been reported from the Kwiyawagi area (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded at altitudes of between 1,900 and 2,800 m asl.
136201		habitat	eng	Bonaccorso (1998) reports that this species has been recorded in southern beech (Nothofagus) moss forest and over subalpine grasslands. The roosting habits are unknown.
136201		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens.
136201		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known, but there are likely to be few, if any, major threats within its range (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).
136202		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136202		distribution	eng	The species is known from two separate ranges: northeastern and northwestern sectors of the piedmont hill systems that are found between the Venezuelan Guiana Shield border and the Río Orinoco; and from the foothills of the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia (up to the north of Sierra de La Macarena) and foothills of northern and southern slopes of Cordillera de Merida (Venezuela) (Lew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Further studies should determine whether populations occurring in these two disjunct sections of the species’ distribution correspond to different subspecies or not.
136202		habitat	eng	This species is distributed along the hill system. It has been collected in premontane, basimontane, and submontane locations (50–800 m elevation), including nonflooded ombrophilous and riparian forests, with semideciduous and mostly evergreen vegetation, from medium to tall (15 to 25 m) in height (Lew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species is often more common in logged forest in Imataca Forest Reserve (Bolívar State, Venezuela) (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136202		population	eng	The species is common throughout its distribution (D. Lew unpubished data). Although the current population trend is unknown, populations from the piedmont slopes of Cordillera de Los Andes (in Venezuela and Colombia) are affected by intensive and extensive deforestation.
136202		threats	eng	There are no major threats. The forests on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera de Los Andes in Venezuela and Colombia have been heavily deforested and probably some populations have likely declined or become locally extinct (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136203		conservation	eng	Occurs in parks, however, attention should be made to loose of habitat between protected areas.
136203		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; this taxon is expected to occur in southern Colombia; the elevational range comprise from 1,480 to 2,500 m (Velazco, 2005).
136203		habitat	eng	This bat is basically frugivorous. This species is very poorly known.
136203		population	eng	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.), as in other country throughout its range. Population status in Bolivia is considered vulnerable due its its presence in a highly fragile ecosystem.
136203		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
136204		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136204		distribution	eng	Argentina and Bolivia (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136204		habitat	eng	Insectivore. Found in all kind of roosts (Barquez pers. comm.).
136204		population	eng	Abundant.
136204		threats	eng	None known.
136205		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps numerous protected areas.
136205		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lower Amazon Basin, south of the Rio Amazonas between the Rios Tocantins and Madeira, central Brazil, as least as far south as northwest Mato Grosso (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136205		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland moist forests of the Amazon River basin.
136205		population	eng	This species is widespread and common.
136205		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
136206		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Lokobe Special Reserve (Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> 2006). As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar) (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136206		distribution	eng	Currently believed to be confined to the island of Nosy Bé in north-western Madagascar.
136206		habitat	eng	Recorded only from humid forests on Nosy Be.
136206		population	eng	Unknown.
136206		threats	eng	Unknown. Its only known locality is a protected area.
136207		conservation	eng	Further research&#160; is needed.
136207		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Peru, Loreto Department, southeast bank of Río Gálvez, village of Nuevo San Juan (5°17'30"S, 73°9'50"W, 150 m; Simmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002) (Simmons, 2005).
136207		habitat	eng	This small bat is mainly insectivorous. May be associated with giant armadillo burrows (Davalos pers. comm.)
136207		population	eng	It is rare (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2002).
136207		threats	eng	Holotype was not found in protected areas but we know nothing more.
136208		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in many protected areas.
136208		distribution	eng	Ranges east of the Volta River system in Ghana (recorded from Accra Plain and Salaga) to Sudan (Imatong Mountains in the south to Jebel Marra in the north), Uganda, and the Lake Turkana district of Kenya. Recorded up to about 1,900 m asl.
136208		habitat	eng	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, and forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers. It is an extremely adaptable species, residing in degraded habitats or forest edges (e.g., in Togo and Bénin; Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008), and found in both rural and urban environments.
136208		population	eng	Common species, widely distrubuted in appropriate habitat. The population is stable and possibly increasing due to forest clearance providing more suitable habitat.
136208		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
136209		conservation	eng	Unknown.
136209		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area on the Libyan coast (in the Cyrenaica area) (Benda <em>et al.</em> 2004)
136209		habitat	eng	Unknown, although the photograph of the type locality in African Bat Conservation News 4: 7 (2004) (see http://flyingfur.typepad.com/abcn/abcn4.pdf) indicates typical Mediterranean woodland interspersed with shrubland.
136209		population	eng	Unknown.
136209		threats	eng	Unknown.
136210		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, although there are seven protected areas within the general range of this species. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.
136210		distribution	eng	This species occurs at middle elevations in east Andean slopes, central Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 700 to 1,800 m (Tribe 1996, Musser and Carleton 2005).
136210		habitat	eng	It is presumably an arboreal, nocturnal species. It is present in lower montane forest, cloud forest and east Andean slopes. It is not known if the species can persist in secondary habitats, although one specimen was collected from an abandoned shed (Tribe 1996).
136210		population	eng	It seems to be a rare species.
136210		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use and illicit crops (e.g., coca).
136211		conservation	eng	This species may occur in Tatamá Natural National Park.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136211		distribution	eng	The precise geographic range of this species is not known. It is believed to occur on the western slopes and foothills of the Andes in the region of Quindío and Riseralda. This being so it would occur in areas currently assigned to <em>A. zonalis</em>.
136211		habitat	eng	Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest, western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>, 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).
136211		population	eng	No information available. Known only from type locality. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.
136211		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
136212		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in the Arabuko-Sokoke National Park, Shimba Hills National Park, Tana River Primate National Reserve, and in Kipini Conservancy (Kenya) (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006; Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.). There is a need to better determine the distribution range, especially along the coast of Somalia and around Nairobi in Kenya (Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136212		distribution	eng	This species is present in coastal forest, ranging from the north coast of Kenya (possibly in coastal southern Somalia) to northern coastal Tanzania (see Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is found at elevations from sea level to at least 210 m asl over the coastal zone of Kenya, and to at least 350 m asl in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania (Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136212		habitat	eng	This species is found in the middle storey of coastal lowland tropical moist forest, riverine forest, and some secondary growth such as cultivated mosaic habitat and rural gardens (Bearder <em>et al.</em> 2003; Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006). It may also occur in tropical montane forest. They sleep in tree hollows (Bearder <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.<br/><br/>Sympatric with <em>Galago senegalensis</em> and <em>Otolemur garnettii</em>. Parapatric with <em>G. z. udzungwensis</em> or, possibly, sympatric at a few sites in the coastal strip of north Tanzania. Probably parapatric with <em>Galago gallarum</em> in north central Kenya (Butynski and De Jong 2004; Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136212		population	eng	According to Butysnki <em>et al.</em> (2006) this species is the most abundant and widespread galago in the coastal forests of<br/>Kenya, with densities of approximately 170 –180 individuals/km² both at Gedi and Diani (see Harcourt and Nash 1986).
136212		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened over much of its range by conversion of suitable habitat to cultivated land, especially non-timber plantations of pineapple and sisal. However, it is able to persist in high numbers in agricultural areas with good tree coverage.
136213		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Needs taxonomic revision as it could be a species complex.
136213		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the eastern flanks of the Andes in northern Argentina and extending just into southern Bolivia (Gardner 2007)
136213		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry thornscub and shrub forests. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136213		population	eng	Abundant in appropriate habitats.
136213		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species at this time although some populations are threatened by deforestation.
136214		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas in parts of its range.
136214		distribution	eng	This species occurs between the Sanaga River in Cameroon, through Congo and Rio Muni (Equatorial Guinea) to Gabon (between the Sanaga and Ogooue Rivers). Its extension south beyond the Ogooue River is unknown.
136214		habitat	eng	This species lives in the lower levels of mature tropical moist forest, and may sometimes be found in secondary and logged forest. It forages on the ground in heavily shaded forest with a clear floor and numerous lianas and tree trunks. The ranges of males (30–60 ha) were 3–5 times greater than those of females (8–10 ha) (Charles-Dominique 1977). It is presumed to give birth to one to two young per year.
136214		population	eng	This species is found at relatively low densities in much of its range.
136214		threats	eng	Presumably this species is locally threatened in parts of its range through conversion of forest to agricultural land and timber extraction.
136215		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas that overlap with this species' range. Research is needed into its population status.
136215		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in the Oriental Basin of eastern Puebla north to Veracruz and west to the base of Volcán La Malinche, Tlaxcala (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges in elevation from about 2,300 m to 2,700 m asl (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136215		habitat	eng	This species lives in grasslands (sacatonal), and temperate forests of pine and oak.
136215		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it is presumed to be common.
136215		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement.
136216		conservation	eng	The species has been found in protected areas (GMA Turkey, 2005).
136216		distribution	eng	The species is found in Central and SW Kopetdag (Turkmenistan) and NE Iran. In Central Kopetdag found in Chuli, Hailenau, Firuza River basin, Hermab, and Dushak Mt. In W Kopetdag along Sumbara and Chandyr rivers (Zorenko, Golenistchev, Biodiversity Conservation centre).
136216		habitat	eng	Inhabit cereal and herb steppes in middle and higher mountain belts (1000-2500 m), often found at areas with trees and shrubs. In lower semi-desert belt (300-1000 m) found only along rivers and moist ravines with clay and rubbly soils. Abundant in fruit gardens and lucerne fields. In spring and summer active in dusk and down; in winter and early spring also diurnal. In winter active under snow. Burrows are shallow, however, sometimes ap to 70 cm deep. Burrows system is complex with several exits. Exits are connected by pathes on the ground. One colony can cover 5-12 m<sup>2</sup>. Feed on green parts of plants, roots, bulbs an seeds. Often feed on cultivated plants, wheat, barley, oats, corn and cotton. Store food, supplies that could be up to 3,5 kg. Reproduction starts in May, litter size is 5-7 young. Gestation is 20-22 days.(Zorenko, Golenistchev, Biodiversity Conservation center).
136216		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in suitable habitat, and the population fluctuates (GMA Turkey, 2005). In Turkmenia population is declining due to climate aridification and overgrazing. This species does not adapt easily to new conditions and that results in range shrinkage.
136216		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however, in Turkmenistan population is declining due to climate change (increased aridity) and overgrazing. This species does not adapt easily to new conditions..
136217		conservation	eng	Research actions. It is found in protected areas.
136217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).
136217		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous; a few fecal pellets from a single bat have been examined; they contained only beetles (Silva-Taboada, 1979).
136217		population	eng	Rare.
136217		threats	eng	Hurricanes.
136218		conservation	eng	Riley (2002) states that the key site for the conservation of this species is the Sahendaruman forest block on Sangihe. This forest is 4,268 ha in size, and represents the only remaining sizable area of primary forest left in the two islands. It was designated as Protection Forest <em>Hutan Lindung</em> (Riley 2002), but it is not strictly protected and is subject to a number of threats (Riley and Wardill 2001). The species is protected under Indonesian law, but there is little enforcement. Increased community awareness and enforcement are seen as essential to the conservation of this species, which will require a reduction in hunting pressure and habitat protection (Riley 2002). Further taxonomic research should be conducted to confirm the identity of the bear cuscus on Sangihe, and field surveys are needed to confirm its continued existence on Salibabu.
136218		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it has been reported from Sangihe (the largest island in the Sangihe Island group) and Salibabu (within the Talaud Islands). However, although a bear cuscus has been seen and photographed on Sangihe, no specimen from here is known to exist. It has been assumed that this bear cuscus is <em>Ailurops melanotis</em>, but this requires confirmation as the Sangihe Island group is separate from the Talaud Islands and lies closer to Sulawesi, where the more widespread <em>A. ursinus</em> exists.
136218		habitat	eng	It is though to be restricted to primary forest and gardens next to the Sahendaruman caldera on Sangihe, but on Salibabu it is reported also from degraded forest and adjacent gardens (Riley 2002).
136218		population	eng	This species is rare. It the late 1990s survey work on Sangihe and Salibabu Islands failed to locate the species (Riley 2002). This survey work was intense on Sangihe (120 days), but brief on Salibabu (Riley 2002). A captive individual was found on Sangihe and there was local knowledge of the species on both islands (Riley 2002).
136218		threats	eng	This species is heavily hunted (Riley 2002). Its populations are now small and fragmented within its small range (Riley 2002). Although it has been reported from secondary forest and gardens, these individuals are probably dependent on nearby primary forest, which continues to be reduced and degraded by logging, expanding agriculture, and human settlement.
136219		conservation	eng	None known.
136219		distribution	eng	Known from three locations in Middle Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan). Also may be found in Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan.
136219		habitat	eng	Was found in caves in arid areas.
136219		population	eng	Despite specially organized in field trips in the 1970s and 1980s, this species has not been found since the 1950s. <br/><br/>Dr. P. Strelkov didn't find any signs of occupation at the colonies during his field trip in the 1970s (P. Strelkov pers. comm.). In the 1980s Dr. Khabilov investigated areas around terra typica, but did not find any signs of Myotis bucharensis. There was semi-fresh guano in the cave from which Myotis bucharensis was described, but that time there was impossible to identify if the guano belonged to M. bucharensis or other bat species.
136219		threats	eng	Unknown.
136220		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. Research on distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats urgently required. Museum specimens should be checked to clarify distribution of <em>R. hussoni</em> and <em>R. io</em>.
136220		distribution	eng	This species is known from two records (Genoways and Baker, 1996). Suriname and Brazil.
136220		habitat	eng	Little known, probably similar to <em>R. tumida<em>. One specimen found in mixed savanna and gallery forest in southwestern Suriname and the second from the state of Bahia in Brazil. Found in lowland evergreen rainforest. (Genoways and Baker, 1996). Also found in Para in the southeastern Amazon. (Peters <em>et al</em>. in press.).</em></em>
136220		population	eng	Rare and poorly known. It is an aerial insectivore so sampling methodology may be biased.
136220		threats	eng	This species is extremely poorly known. Probably threatened by habitat lost.
136221		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Itatiaia National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Its montane habitat is better preserved than its lowland habitat. This species is protected in several state and national parks as well as reserves.
136221		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil, in Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and Espirito Santo states, above 600 m asl (Leite, 2003, Lara and Patton, 2000).
136221		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in primary and second growth rainforest with a dense overstory (Leite, 2003).
136221		population	eng	This species is common and its population is presumed to be large (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
136221		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
136222		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Terra Ronca State Park. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, ecology and threats.
136222		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil, in northeastern Goias State and possibly adjacent Tocantins State (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136222		habitat	eng	This rodent is possibly associated with dry forest and calcareous substrate (Reis, M. pers. comm.). It is restricted to the Brazilian Cerrado (Langguth, A. pers. comm.). Some specimens have been collected from rocky habitats, where it nests in rock crevices; it is vegetarian, feeding primarily on cacti, manioc and leaves (Moojen, <em>et al.</em>, 1997). It is reported to be an active and acrobatic animal (Moojen, <em>et al.</em>, 1997).
136222		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance. It is known from only three specimens.
136222		threats	eng	Threats to this species are presently unknown. As a large species, it is possible that it is affected by hunting pressure (Lacher pers. comm.), but this requires confirmation.
136223		conservation	eng	In Guinea, recorded from the Classified Forests of Ziama and Diécké. Survey work in Taï N.P., adjacent to its current known range, has thus far failed to confirm the presence of the species (Gaubert in press). This is a species in need of further survey work in order to better assess the status of this species in the wild, and also to determine levels of offtake from the wild.
136223		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Upper Guinean rainforests, in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire (Gaubert 2003, in press). A specimen collected from Oda in Ghana in 1946 has been attributed to this species, but the true origin of this animal is in question (Gaubert in press).
136223		habitat	eng	All localities from which the species has been recorded to date are from rainforest. There is no other information available on the biology of this species.
136223		population	eng	There is limited information available on the population status of this species. It is known from 29 museum specimens, several having been recovered from bushmeat markets in south-eastern Guinea as recently as 2003 (Gaubert in press).
136223		threats	eng	Habitat loss is likely to be a major threat, particularly if this species is restricted to rainforest as suspected, although Liberia still retains significant tracts of forest: forest loss in Liberia over the period 1984-2000 has recently been estimated at only 0.2% per annum, but was as much as 20% over the course of this 14-year period in neighbouring Côte d’Ivoire (Christie <em>et al.</em> 2007). Hunting is also a likely threat, as skins have been sighted in the bushmeat market of Man, Côte d’Ivoire (P. Gaubert and C. Crémière, pers. obs.).
136224		conservation	eng	There appear to be no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest within the Taita Hills.  Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology andthreats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
136224		distribution	eng	This East African species is known only from Kenya, where it has been recorded from Mount Sagalla (1,500 m asl) and Chawia Forest (1,600 m asl) in the Taita Hills (Oguge <em>et al.</em> 2004). It was not present at an additional 12 sites sampled by Oguge <em>et al.</em> (2004). It might be present in northern Tanzania, however, this requires confirmation (Hutterer 2005).
136224		threats	eng	Much of the habitat of this species is fragmented or severely degraded through the conversion of forest to agricultural use, including plantations (Oguge <em>et al.</em> 2004), and presumably also through some harvesting of timber, firewood and similar resources.
136225		conservation	eng	Further research is necessary to determine the range of this species and whether it occurs in any protected areas.
136225		distribution	eng	Central Argentina (La Rioja, Catamarca, and Córdoba Provs.); distributional limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136225		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat of this species.
136225		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species.
136225		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
136226		conservation	eng	The species has been collected from Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao PDR. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this very poorly known species.
136226		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is very poorly known. It is found in northeastern and central Thailand and central Lao PDR. In northeastern Thailand, it has been found in Loei province, 48 km south of Loei, Ban Nong Hin and Wat Tham Maho Lan (Hutterer 2005). Motokawa and Harada (1998) found also a male specimen at Sakaerat Station, Nakhon Ratchasima province, central Thailand. In Lao PDR it has been found in the Khammouane National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further research is likely to show that the species is more widespread, in particular in locations between the currently known localities. The type locality habitat ranged in altitude from 542-575 m asl, and it is believed to occur up to 1,000 m asl.
136226		habitat	eng	This species is found predominantely in lowlands. Its habitat in the Khammouane Conservation Area of Lao PDR is comprised of limestone karst and heavily degraded, mixed decidous forests, scrubland, bamboo, rice paddies and undisturbed semi-evergreen forests, suggesting that the species might be able to tolerate a wide range of habitats. This species of shrew is smaller than <em>C. fuliginosa</em>, as was determined from the skulls extracted from owl pellets (Jenkins and Smith 1995; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).
136226		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136226		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on undisturbed forest, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation for agriculture and timber extraction.
136227		conservation	eng	There are records from Guaripiche Forest Reserve, Mariusa National Park and Delta del Orinoco Biosphere Reserve (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136227		distribution	eng	This species is found only in northeastern Venezuela, specifically in the Orinoco River Delta and Gulf of Paria, in Delta Amacuro State, and eastern Monagas State, including recent alluvial plains of the Orinoco, Morichal Largo, Guanipa, and San Juan rivers (Lew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
136227		habitat	eng	It is known from deltaic plains, seasonally or perennially flooded. It occurs only from low- to medium height (15-25 m) evergreen permanently flooded swamp forest or seasonally flooded marsh forest (Lew <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136227		population	eng	The species is common in appropriate habitat (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136227		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The vast majority of the area is uninhabited. The area does not have high human settlements, but there are surveys for oil in the area, and plans to drill for oil and build gas pipes (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136228		conservation	eng	It occurs in two prteceted areas (Valle Fertil and Sierra de las Quijadas).
136228		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west-central Argentina in San Juan and San Luis Provinces in scrublands associated with salt flats, 380-412 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136228		habitat	eng	Salt basins, Several fragmented and found only in seven localities.
136228		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136228		threats	eng	This species is habitat specific to a unique vegetation and geological formation which is sensitive to human disturbance, however, the extent to which this species is affected is unknown and requires research.
136229		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It is present in several national parks. Recommended actions include surveys to better understand the species' distribution, molecular studies on distance between subpopulations, and protection of roosting sites.
136229		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It is present in several national parks. Recommended actions include surveys to better understand the species' distribution, molecular studies on distance between populations, and protection of roosting sites.
136229		distribution	eng	Pyrenees; Alps from France to Slovenia, Dinaric Alps, Greece incl. Crete; Corsica; from Anatolia through Caucasus to south Iran; Syria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Altitudinal distribution from sea level to 2,800 m (Garin 2003, Pavlinić and Tvrtković 2004).
136229		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Pyrenees (Andorra, Spain and France); the Alps from France to Slovenia, Dinaric Alps, Greece including Crete; Corsica; from Anatolia through Caucasus to south Iran; and in Syria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Altitudinal distribution from sea level to 2,800 m (Garin 2003, Pavlinic and Tvrtkovic 2004).
136229		habitat	eng	Is known from a wide array of habitats. In Croatia it was found in all altitudinal zones from sea level to mountain tops above the tree line. It occupies Mediterranean oak shrub as well as  beech and pine forests (Pavlinić and Tvrtković 2004). The highest record is 2,800 m (Pyrenees: Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Eastern Alps maternity roosts are located in attics of churches, winter roosts are not known (Spitzenberger 2002), the highest record here is 1,720 m (Spitzenberger 2006).
136229		habitat	eng	Is known from a wide array of habitats. In Croatia it was found in all altitudinal zones from sea level to mountain tops above the tree line. It occupies Mediterranean oak shrub as well as  beech and pine forests (Pavlinic and Tvrtkovic 2004). The highest record is 2,800 m (Pyrenees: Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Eastern Alps maternity roosts are located in attics of churches, winter roosts are not known (Spitzenberger 2002), the highest record here is 1,720 m (Spitzenberger 2006). In the western Alps observed up to 2,800 m and often roosts in churches (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007).
136229		population	eng	This species was only recognised in 2003, and remains quite poorly known. However, it seems to be generally uncommon, with a fragmented distribution. Individual colonies are composed of few (less that 50) individuals. Fewer than 50 colonies are known, but more are likely to be discovered in the future (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2003). Molecular analyses have confirmed that subpopulations from different mountain ranges are genetically isolated (Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003).
136229		population	eng	This species was only recognised in 2003, and remains quite poorly known. However, it seems to be generally uncommon, with a fragmented distribution. Inidividual colonies are composed of few (less that 50) individuals. Fewer than 50 colonies are known, but more are likely to be discovered in the future (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2003). Molecular analyses have confirmed that subpopulations from different mountain ranges are genetically isolated (Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003).
136229		threats	eng	In the European and Asian parts of its range, restoration of old buildings and development of tourism infrastructure is causing habitat loss.
136229		threats	eng	In the European part of its range, restoration of old buildings and development of tourism infrastructure is causing habitat loss.
136230		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and possibly occurs in Panua Nature Reserve. Further research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species.
136230		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lowland forests of central and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia, with the southern limits of its range still unclear. It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 985 m.
136230		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is a large rat that feeds on worms and probably has a specialised ecology. It has not been recorded from modified habitats.
136230		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well known.
136230		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through collection of wood for subsistence use. It does not appear to be threatened by opportunistic hunting.
136231		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136231		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, occurring in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from the provinces of Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008) and Gansu.
136231		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grasslands (Smith and Xie 2008). It lives in colonies and is diurnal (Smith and Xie 2008).
136231		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136231		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. The Mongolian Red List of Mammals suggests that unsustainable harvesting, habitat degradation, and drying of water sources may pose a threat, but these were listed with regard to <em>Spermophilus erythrogenys</em> within which they included <em>brevicauda</em> and <em>pallidicauda</em> as subspecies (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136232		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas but these are sparse and fragmented.
136232		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from both slopes of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, from 1,230 to 2,950 m (Velazco, 2005).
136232		habitat	eng	This bat is basically frugivorous. It roosts in small groups in leafy tangles, tree hollows, or caves. In caves it can be found with other species.
136232		population	eng	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.) and in Colombia (Muñoz pers. comm.) and Peru (Velazco pers. comm.).
136232		threats	eng	The species occurs in a fragile ecosystem on the slopes of the Andes which is undergoing rapid conversion to agriculture and other land-uses. Caves where they are found are threatened by tourism.
136233		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats of this species.
136233		distribution	eng	This species is known from Majuyod, Negros, and Guimaras islands in the Philippines, and Selaru island in the Lesser Sundas (Indonesia) (Kitchener and Suyanto 2002; Simmons 2005). A reference for Borneo from Simmons (2005) refers to a nearby offshore island adjacent to northern Borneo, Balambangam (Sabah, Malaysia) (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; C. Francis pers. comm. 2006). Also, there is a record from Sumbawa, Roti, Timor, Semau, and Sawu in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm. 2006).
136233		habitat	eng	The ecology and habitats for this species are not known.
136233		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136233		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136234		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136234		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north eastern Argentina, in Corrientes Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Two small outlier localities included in southern portion of the distribution (Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.).
136234		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136234		population	eng	There are three main populations, which are also severely fragmented.
136234		threats	eng	The species is considered a pest in the north and is because they invade fields to eat vegetables. Their burrows also cause horses to harm their legs. For these reasons they are considered a pest and hunted (Bidau pers. comm.).
136235		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It could be present in at least two national parks, Mantadia and Zahamena, and in the Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve, although this may require confirmation given the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding the exact distributional limits of the various species of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests. It may also be the form in Analamazaotra Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
136235		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. As with other species formerly included in <em>C. major</em> and regarded as distinct, the range of <em>C. crossleyi</em> remains to be determined. Groves (2000, 2001) describes it as running inland to that of <em>C. major</em> in eastern Madagascar and extending farther to the north, this based on specimens from Lac Alaotra, Andasibe, and Vohémar. According to Hapke <em>et al.</em> (2005), this is also one of three <em>Cheirogaleus</em> species found west of Tolagnaro, along with <em>C. major</em> and <em>C. medius</em>.
136235		habitat	eng	Inhabits the eastern moist forests, but other information on ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.
136235		population	eng	Unknown, and complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests. In the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park, Cheirogaleus now thought to be this species were recorded at densities of 70-110 individuals/km² (Pollock 1979).
136235		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat loss is a likely threat across the range.
136236		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas (Percequillo <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136236		distribution	eng	This species in known only from type locality: Juruena, Mato Grosso State, Brazil; 206 m in altitude (Percequillo <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136236		habitat	eng	The habitat at the collection locality is lowland rainforest (Percequillo, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136236		population	eng	Population and abundance are unknown (Percequillo pers. comm.).
136236		threats	eng	The major threat is agricultural expansion (Percequillo <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136237		conservation	eng	Part of the eastern edge of the range falls within Tuz Lake Special Protected Area (declared in 2000), which is not well managed for nature protection and has deteriorated in condition over the past 5 years. More genetic research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species, and further surveys are needed to determine the range, population, and trends.
136237		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Turkey, where it occurs in the steppes of central Anatolia. Its distribution limits are poorly known, but it appears to be restricted to southern parts of central Anatolia (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136237		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas with dry alkaline soil vegetated sparsely with halophytic plants. It can also be found in areas of sugar beet agriculture during the harvest season only (at other times of the year the species is absent from sugar beet fields).
136237		population	eng	Little information is available. This species lives in small colonies.
136237		threats	eng	The species is found in an area that is a remnant zone from the Tetis Sea, an area of typical alkaline vegetation (halophytic plants) that hosts a number of endemic animal and plant species. This area is under increasing exploitation for sugar beet cultivation. Irrigation for this agriculture is the main threat. Rodenticides are also used in the area (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).
136238		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed, as <em>C. attenuata</em>, as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136238		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations from sea level up to 2,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
136238		habitat	eng	It occupies grassland, secondary forest, bamboo thickets and pastures (Smith and Xie 2008).
136238		population	eng	It is a common species (Smith and Xie 2008).
136238		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136239		conservation	eng	The species range is within two protected areas in which it is likely to occur although there are no records (Burneo pers. comm.)
136239		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Ecuadorian Andes, including the eastern and western slopes of the Andes of northern Ecuador, and the slopes of the Cordillera de Cóndor and Cordillera del Cutucú in southern Ecuador. Its known distribution is restricted to higher elevations (1,300-1,890 m on the eastern and 2,000-2,275 m on the western slopes), where it inhabits montane cloud forests (Muchhala <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136239		habitat	eng	This bat inhabits mid elevations of outer slopes of the Andes. One specimen was captured in the Numbala caves, where it was roosting with 4 other individuals. All specimens have been collected in mature cloud forest habitat. Anoura fistulata consumes nectar and pollen from a number of large-flowered plants, and supplements its diet with insects. Pollen was collected from the fur of 4 individuals. Three were carrying pollen from unidentified bromeliads, 2 from Marcgravia, 2 from Meriania, 2 from Centropogon nigricans, and 1 from Markea. A faecal sample collected from 1 of these 3 contained pollen of Marcgravia, Aphelandra acanthus, and bromeliads, as well as wing scales of Lepidoptera and other insect parts. The gut contents of a 5th individual contained insect parts and pollen from Pitcairnia brogniartiana, Marcgravia coriaceae, and Markea (Muchhala <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136239		population	eng	Although widespread, this species is uncommon, as demonstrated by the low rate of capture in mist nets and its relative rarity in museum collections (Muchhala <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136239		threats	eng	The ecosystem on which it is highly dependant is very fragile and the rate of destruction is high (Mantilla pers. comm.).
136240		conservation	eng	This species is known from Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area in Mondul Kiri Province in Cambodia, Phu Suan Sai National Park in Loei Province and Nam Nao National Park in Petchabun Province, both in Thailand (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007), and from a National Park in Viet Nam (P. Bates pers. comm.).
136240		distribution	eng	This species is found in the forests of northern Myanmar (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2004; Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2005), and its range extends eastwards to Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007). Future studies may increase the range of this recently described species (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Lao PDR it has been recorded between 150-800 m asl.
136240		habitat	eng	In Myanmar the species has been collected from good deciduous and evergreen forest (around 100 m asl), and in Viet Nam it has been collected in evergreen to semi evergreen forest with some bamboo (at 229 m asl in central Viet Nam) (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Cambodia it has been collected in deciduous dipterocarp forest, near bamboo (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007), in Thailand in lower montane forest which included banana trees, bamboo groves and mixed deciduous forest (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007), and in Lao PDR in evergreen forest (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136240		population	eng	This is a widespread but never abundant species (P. Bates pers. comm.). Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007 consider it to be locally common in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand.
136240		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
136241		conservation	eng	Occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park.
136241		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few localities in Brazil (Goiás, São Paulo and Minas Gerais states) (Gardner, 2007).
136241		habitat	eng	Found in high altitude areas of cerrado, a habitat which is limited. The species occurs in gallery forest. Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and diurnal. Little known, probably similar to other species of <em>Monodelphis</em>.
136241		population	eng	Rare and poorly known. Surveys around the known range have not found more individuals (Weksler pers. comm.).
136241		threats	eng	This species seems to be restricted to a naturally rare habitat type (Vieia pers. comm.) and occurs patchily across the presumed range. Where it does occur the species is threatened by habitat conversion and populations are in decline.
136242		conservation	eng	Badgers are designated in local Red Data Lists in 11 out of 46 prefectures: Vulnerable (VU): Hyogo; Near Threatened (NT or C): Chiba, Kagawa, Tokyo, Oita, Okayama, Osaka and Yamaguchi; Data Deficient (DD): Aichi, Gunma, Tochigi.
136242		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), and Shodoshima but no other small islands. The Environmental Agency of Japan (1979) reported that there were many in Fukui (Honshu), Miyazaki and Oita (Kyushu) but less in Ibaraki, Osaka, Chiba and Tokyo (Honshu) prefectures. Kurose <em>et al</em> (2001) suggest that genetic distances among Japanese populations were much smaller than the continental one. Nowadays the badger’s distribution is declining.
136242		habitat	eng	Although the ecology of the Japanese badger is one of the least studied in Japan, several scientific surveys were conducted in three typical habitats in Honshu; evergreen broad-leaved forest in Yamaguchi, subalpine conifer plantation in Nagano (Mt. Nyugasa) and conifer plantation/countryside mosaic in Tokyo suburb (Hinode-town).<br/><br/>Body size, Life cycle and reproduction<br/>One of differeces between Japanese badgers to European species is body size. In total body length in adults (over 2 years old), 78.7±4.9 cm in males and 72.0±2.3 cm in females (Tokyo Kaneko <em>et al.</em> 1996) are far shorter than <em>M. meles</em>, more smaller badgers were recorded in south evergreen forest population (66.8±2.7 cm in males and 60.4±2.4 cm in females, Yamaguch, Tanaka 2002). Abramov (2005) reported Japanese badgers’ downsizing of the skull accompanied by a decrease of sexual size dimorphism (except in canine size) in comparison to the continental species.<br/><br/>Body weight (April-July period) has much variation between individuals as well as seasons, 7.7±1.3 kg in males and 5.4±0.8 kg in females in Tokyo (Kaneko and Maruyama 2002), 5.7±0.4 kg in males and 4.4±0.6 kg in females in Yamaguchi (Tanaka 2002). <br/><br/>Female’s parturition is from 2 years of age and on mid-April in Tokyo, mid-March to April in Yamaguchi, average litter size of 2.5±1.2 cubs (1-4 cubs in range, Kaneko 2001) and 2.3 cubs in Yamaguchi (Tanaka 2002). Copulation is from April, just after parturition in April and blastocysts delayed implant until February (Kaneko 2001). Tanaka (2002) reported badgers are nocturnal, as well as their activity almost ceased in January and February, badgers remained in their setts most of the time with about 3 degree lower body temperature, is likely hibernation.<br/><br/>Food, home range and  cover<br/>Japanese badgers feed on earthworms from spring and autumn in sub-alpine zone (Yamamoto 1991, 1995), ever green forest (Tanaka 2002) and Tokyo suburb (Hinode-town, Kaneko 2001; Kaneko <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Badgers are also known to eat other items with worms; berries and beetles in summer in all three habitats and switched worms to persimmon (tree fruit) in autumn Tokyo suburb. Nowadays in Japan, old and new land use types are mixed because of rapid growth and development by building new residential area. <br/><br/>Social structure<br/>Unlike European badgers, there are no male-female bond for rearing cubs by direct observation in Tokyo suburb (Ito 1992) as well as both female and male adult badger home ranges were solitary in Yamaguchi (Tanaka 2001). It seemed that male badgers is solitary but construct a temporary bond with one or several females only in mating season. In mating season in Tokyo suburb (Kaneko <em>et al</em>. in prep)and Yamaguchi (Tanaka <em>et al.</em> 2002), male badgers extend their range overlapped with 2-3 females. Tanaka suggest intra-sexual territoriality in Yamaguchi population, may differ from large social group or pair in European badgers. Scent marking in Japanese badgers in Tokyo suburb (Kaneko in prep.), the border latrines may be effective sources of information about badger presence and oestrus status in low density populations because there are few opportunities for badgers to encounter each other and no badgers met at latrines.
136242		population	eng	In 2003, the Ministry of the Environment reported in a National survey on the Natural Environment that badger geographic range was obviously shrinking in 45 of 46 prefectures compared to 1978 survey, especially in Nara and Chiba (Honshu) prefectures while only one prefecture (Ehime in Shikoku) reported increase. Recorded area is about 29% of country (about 126,000 km²) and 7% reduction in last 25 years. <br/><br/>It is classified as a "game species" in Japan, although numbers hunted each year have been declining from 7,000 individuals per year in the 1970s to less than 2,000 individuals in late 1980s, though this might be caused by a loss of interest in badgers as game animals (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006). Although present scientific surveys are not sufficient to define population trends or density, it was estimated as 4 adults/km² in Tokyo suburb from seven years capture-recapture result.
136242		threats	eng	Japanese badger population and distribution has been shrinking over the last 30 years, mainly due to intensive development and agriculture (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006). In addition, there is a threat from the invasive carnivore raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006). Radio-tracking data from a Tokyo suburb showed that a breeding female was not allowed to use her breeding site in a year a raccoon was present in its home range (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006).
136243		conservation	eng	This species is found in Lachay National Preserve (Solari, 2003). Very little information is available on this species and further research is needed into its ecology and effect of threats.
136243		distribution	eng	This species is found in around five localities in the coastal Peru (departments of Ancash and Lima) (Solari 2003; Braun <em>et al.</em> 2005; Gardner 2005). The species may occur further north, though not much given the available habitat; it is unlikely to be found more extensively to the south. This species has the northernmost range of the genus (S. Solari pers. comm.). It is found from 300 to 3,000 m (Solari 2003).
136243		habitat	eng	This species is found in the coastal deserts and shrublands of Peru (Solari, 2003). Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The species of this genus are crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136243		population	eng	Unknown, there are specimens from a handful of localities (S. Solari pers. comm.).
136243		threats	eng	The major threats are agriculture and small settlements (S. Solari pers. comm.).
136244		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
136244		distribution	eng	The range is the western Andean slopes from southwestern Colombia to southwestern Ecuador (Gardner 2007). There are recent records from Tumbes Department (Tumbes Reserve Zone), Peru (H. Zeballos pers. comm.) which need to be confirmed. It has an altitudinal range of 0 to 1,500 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136244		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary. It is known from wet evergreen lowland rainforests and wet montane forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997). The southern region of its range is dry forest.
136244		population	eng	There is little known about the populations.
136244		threats	eng	The southern part of its range has little protection, outside of Tumbes Reserve Zone in Peru. The northern part of its range is severely fragmented by agriculture and human settlements.
136245		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
136245		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Paraguay and north Pantanal, western Brazil.
136245		habitat	eng	The species inhabits in open vegetation in cerrado and transition areas forest edge and grassland (Lacher pers. comm.).
136245		population	eng	This rodent is common and abundant throughout the range (C. Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136245		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at this time.
136246		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Continued enforcement of export bans of this species is necessary to aid recovery. It is protected by domestic legislation banning all hunting since 1981. The species is not present in any protected areas. Local awareness programmes are needed to emphasize the importance of wildlife resources. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
136246		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the four adjacent small main islands of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia.
136246		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest, mangroves, and agroforest. Although there is virtually no primary forest remaining on the islands, there is significant secondary forest and agroforest, which this species utilizes. It reproduces throughout the year (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).
136246		population	eng	The population in 1981 was estimated to be 1,000 animals (Wiles and Payne 1986), and between 2,500-5,000 animals in 1986 (J. Engbring, unpubl. data in Wiles 1992). Although there are no current population estimates, numbers had increased even further by the early 1990s following protection (G. Wiles pers. comm.).
136246		threats	eng	The population of this species was drastically reduced during the late 1970s through commercial hunting for export of animals to Guam and the Northern Marianas for the luxury food market. It is estimated that 23,410 bats were imported from Yap to Guam between 1975 and 1989 (Wiles 1992). The species is currently threatened by subsistence hunting for local use that continues despite the 1981 ban, by the impacts of tropical typhoons, and by minor amounts of deforestation (E. VanderWerf pers. comm.; G. Wiles pers. comm.).
136247		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
136247		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005).
136247		habitat	eng	The species normally roosts in large colonies (thousands or hundred of bats) in cooler portions. It begins foraging later than many other bats (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its diet typically contains some combination of insects, nectar, and fruit. In a detailed survey, 75% of the individuals consumed at least some insect remains, 76% had fed on nectar, 85% had eaten fruit, and about half the bats had consumed all three dietary items during their most recent foraging period (Soto-Centeno, 2004). Seeds found in fecal pellets indicate that it often feeds on the fruit of Panama berry, elder, and turkey berry, whereas pollen samples obtained from the fur suggest that this bat also visits flowers of banana, guava, and wild tamarind for nectar (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has a litter size of one and probably gives birth just once each year in spring. On Puerto Rico pregnant females can be obtained from February through June and lactating females from May through September (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136247		population	eng	This bat is locally common; it can form colonies of thousands (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136247		threats	eng	Same cave issues as it is a hot cave species, more susceptible to hurricanes. Mining (Rodriguez pers. comm.).
136248		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, habitats, ecology and threats to this species.
136248		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Lequi Mia, Meera, Timor-Leste, at 1,220 m asl (Simmons 2005).
136248		habitat	eng	It was collected from a shallow man-made, humid cave (Quoto Lo Cave), on a heavily forested slope. It is believed that more than six or seven individuals were inhabiting the caves.
136248		population	eng	The status of the population is unknown. It is known only from the holotype collected in 1979.
136248		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown.
136249		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Monarch Butterfly Sanctuary. Research is needed into its distribution and natural history.
136249		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern slopes of Volcán de Toluca and Valle de Bravo regions of central Mexico (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2004). It ranges in elevation from 2,500 m to 3,500 m asl. (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is a possibility that another nearby valley also contains this species, but it has yet to be sampled (M. Hafner pers. comm.).
136249		habitat	eng	Like all pocket gophers this species is patchily distributed within its range, depending on the type of soil. There is, however, a lot of suitable soil where this species occurs (M. Hafner pers. comm.). It is found in pine-oak forests that transition into predominantly pine forest at higher elevations, but is also prevalent in agricultural fields.
136249		population	eng	Populations of this species are fairly dense within its range (M. Hafner pers. comm.).
136249		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It has co-occurred with people for a very long time and while considered an agricultural pest, it is not subject to serious control measures that threaten its existence. The forested terrain where this species occurs is rugged and does not appear to be under threat from logging (M. Hafner pers. comm.).
136250		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Songshan, Shennongjia, and Pangquangou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and may be present in other protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species was regionally Red Listed (as <em>M. mystacinus</em>) as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable under criterion A1bc (Wang and Xie 2004).
136250		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of China, occurring in the following provinces: Beijing, Hebei, (Smith and Xie 2008), Nei Mongol, Shanxi, (CSIS 2008), Hubei and Shaanxi.
136250		habitat	eng	There are no data on the habitat and ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).
136250		population	eng	There are no current data on the population status for this species.
136250		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136251		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species may occur more widely than currently known.
136251		distribution	eng	Known only from the Isalo National Park in south-central Madagascar. Collecting localities with recorded elevation info range from 650-700 m asl.
136251		habitat	eng	This species is at least in part terrestrial and lives outside forest formations (Carleton and Goodman 2007).
136251		population	eng	This recently described species is known only from four specimens (Carleton and Goodman 2007).
136251		threats	eng	Currently, all known specimens of this very recently described species are recorded from the Isalo National Park. It is not likely that there are any threats to the species, but further survey work is needed.
136252		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.
136252		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Elburz Mountains in northern Iran. There are records from: the foothills of Elburz Mountains near Fasham; the southern foothills and ridges (2,590 m asl) of Mount Demavend; Doab on the crest of the central Elburz Mountains; and on the northern slopes of the Elburz Mountains in Mazandaran Province at Abass-Abad (36º44' N, 51º08' E). The limits of its distribution remain unresolved and is almost certainly occurs more widely than current records suggest, though it is likely to be endemic to the Elburz Mountains.
136252		habitat	eng	There is no information on its ecological requirements, though it is likely to occur in mountain forests.
136252		population	eng	There is no information on its abundance.
136252		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
136253		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas, though several are within range, including Guaribas Biological Reserve (2,714 ha), Barra do Mamanguape EPA (14,640 ha), Manguezais da Foz do rio Mamanguape (Area of Outstanding Ecological Interest; 5,721 ha), and Engenho Gargau RPPN and Mata Estrela RPPN. Surveys over its entire range are needed to establish habitat preferences, area of occupancy, and population numbers.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136253		distribution	eng	The coastal region of north-east Brazil in the states of Alagoas, Paraíba and Pernambuco (Oliveira and Langguth 2006; Pontes <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Cebus libidinosus</em> occurs inland (see Oliveira and Langguth 2006).
136253		habitat	eng	Lowland coastal rain forest and <em>Montrichiardia linina</em> swamp in north-east Brazil (Pontes <em>et al</em>. 2006), secondary forest, semi-deciduous seasonal forest, canopy at about 20 m and emergents about 25 m. Capuchin monkeys are arboreal quadrepeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). <br/><br/>Capuchin monkeys are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Typical group size for tufted capuchins is about 18 individuals, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males (adult sex ratio of 0.85). Pontes <em>et al</em>. (2006) recorded a group of 18. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male HB 36.8 cm, TL 37.8 cm, weight 3.0 kg (Oliveira and Langguth 2006)<br/>Adult male HB 40.0 cm, TL 41 cm, weight 2.9 kg (Pontes <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/>Adult female HB 35.1 cm, TL 38.4 cm, weight 1.8 kg (Oliveira and Langguth 2006)<br/>Adult female HB 36.1 cm, TL 38.0 cm, weight 2.5 kg (Oliveira and Langguth 2006).
136253		population	eng	The remaining populations of this species are all extremely fragmented (approximately 24 subpopulations) each averaging approximately 15 total individuals. The estimated total remaining mature populations size is 180 individuals (M. M. de Oliveira, unpubl.).
136253		threats	eng	The major threats are hunting (for food and pets), and habitat loss and fragmentation (mainly through coastal development and sugar cane).
136254		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. This is presumably the species that occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, but this requires confirmation. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136254		distribution	eng	Known only from the region of its type locality (Andramasay) in western Madagascar. Andriaholinirina <em>et al.</em> (2006) put the southern limit as the Tsiribihina River, and the northerly limit as either the Manambaho or Mahavavy du Sud Rivers. However, <em>L. ahmansonorum</em> has been described by Louis <em>et al</em>. (2006) from south of the Mahavavy du Sud (although its southern limit is unclear). The northerly limit is here provisionally taken as the Maningoza, but this obviously requires further investigation, especially relative to the southern limits of <em>L. ahmansonorum</em>.
136254		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
136254		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136254		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat loss is likely a threat.
136255		conservation	eng	It occurs within a community managed area. Further studies into the taxonomic status and population abundance of this species are needed as well as research into conservation measures. Hunting regulations should be developed for this species.
136255		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the high elevations in the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. It ranges from 3,000 to 3,800 m asl.
136255		habitat	eng	It is present in upper montane tropical forest and subalpine grasslands. Little else is known about the natural history of this species.
136255		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
136255		threats	eng	This species is threatened by local hunting for food.
136256		conservation	eng	Its range includes numerous protected areas.
136256		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Ulladulla in southern New South Wales, south to Wombat Forest and Mount Cole in central Victoria. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300 m asl (but usually above 300 m; Martin 2008).
136256		habitat	eng	It is a mostly scansorial species, of various tall open and closed forest types. It can occur in exotic pine plantations and is a pest in regenerating pine plantations. The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of between 15 and 17 days; the young have a pouch life of five to six months (Martin 2008). Along the Snowy River it dens in rocky crevices instead of tree holes or logs.
136256		population	eng	It is a common species (Martin 2008).
136256		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Clearance of land for agriculture and forestry is a threat in some parts of its range. Foxes also can be a problem.
136257		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It probably is present in some protected areas on the island.
136257		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Motokawa and Lin 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 300-3,000 m asl (Motokawa and Lin 2002; Smith and Xie 2008).
136257		habitat	eng	This species occupies subtropical, mixed deciduous, and coniferous forest, as well as alpine tundra, and has been caught in agricultural fields, riparian woodlands, and dwarf bamboo (Jameson and Jones 1977; Smith and Xie 2008).  It is at greatest abundance in deciduous forests (1,500-2,500 m asl) (Jameson and Jones 1977; Smith and Xie 2008).
136257		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136257		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136258		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in a few protected areas.
136258		distribution	eng	The species' range is confined to west-central Texas (Schmidly 2004) and southeastern New Mexico (Baker <em>et al.</em> 1989, Hopton and Cameron 2001, Frey 2004). The distributional limits in New Mexico are unclear (Frey 2004).
136258		habitat	eng	This fossorial rodent is restricted to areas with deep, sandy, aeolian soils; usually in native yucca-grassland habitat, although it is also found on grassy roadsides, pastures, and lawns (Bradley and Baker, in Wilson and Ruff 1999).  Breeding occurs from late October to early April (Pembleton and Baker 1978). Gestation is probably about 23 days; delayed implantation or sperm storage by females probably occurs (Bradley and Baker, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It feeds on tubers, roots and stems of plants such as yucca, sunflowers, and grasses (Bradley and Baker 1999, as cited in Hopton and Cameron 2001).
136258		population	eng	This species is represented by several to many distinct occurrences or subpopulations. It has been recorded from 10 counties in Texas (Schmidly 2004) and five counties in New Mexico (Frey 2004). Total population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This pocket gopher is locally common throughout its range (Schmidly 2004). The population trend is not well documented. Probably the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are not declining at a rate of greater than 30 percent over 10 years of three generations; decline might be less than 10 percent, or trend could be stable.
136258		threats	eng	Ploughing or disking eliminates or degrades habitat by destroying burrows. The species is vulnerable to applications of rodenticides. However, these factors are not known to be major threats at the present time.
136259		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136259		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality: Mount Tay Con Linh II (22°45'27"N, 104°49'49''E), Ha Giang province in Viet Nam where it has been collected in sympatry with <em>Chodsigoa parca</em>. The species is likely to occur more widely in the montane forests of northern Viet Nam and southern China.
136259		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Specimens were collected in montane forests between 1,300 and 2,000 m asl. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
136259		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, as this species was only recently discovered on Mount Tay Con Linh II (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136259		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, if it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range, most likely as a result of agriculture and extraction of timber.
136260		conservation	eng	This mouse occurs in Caparao and in Itatiaia National Parks (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The taxonomy of this species requires revision to determine whether Akodon paranaensis and A. reigi are valid species.
136260		distribution	eng	This species is known only from highland localities, 2000-2700 m, in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro States, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136260		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to high altitude fields within it range in the Atlantic forest. It has been found in areas covered by dense rainforest in Caparao, and in Itatiaia, more frequently in swampy areas (Geise pers. comm.).
136260		population	eng	This mouse is common throughout the range.
136260		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136261		conservation	eng	Ths species is not known from a protected area.
136261		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Salta Province, which is questionable as Euneomys is otherwise unrecorded this far north in Argentina (see Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1989).(Musser and Carleton 2005).
136261		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat of this species. Possibly dry chaco.
136261		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species.
136261		threats	eng	There is nothing known of threats to this species.
136262		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
136262		distribution	eng	The species ranges from Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
136262		habitat	eng	It can inhabit a wide variety of habitat: from evergreen rainforest to cultivated land near villages, from lowland to<br/>mountain areas.
136262		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136262		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
136263		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Andohahela National Park (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006); assuming that the Mananara River is indeed the northerly limit of the range, then it will also occur in the Midongy du Sud National Park, but this requires confirmation. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136263		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Manangotry region, specifically the rainforest parcel of Andohahela National Park between the Mandrare and Mananara Rivers (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Formerly, the sportive lemurs in this region were thought to be <em>L. microdon</em>. Further work is needed to confirm the limits of the range.
136263		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of rainforest regions in the south-east.
136263		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136263		threats	eng	Unknown.
136264		conservation	eng	The species is found in Timboong Hibok-hibok Natural Monument.
136264		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines and is restricted to Camiguin island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
136264		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane and mossy forest and areas which are subject to natural disturbance caused by volcanoes and landslides, there is little or no old growth forest here because of this disturbance. It is possible that the species remains in lower elevation habitats, including disturbed areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It has been reported at an elevation range from 1,000 m to 1,475 m (Heaney and Tabaranza 1997).
136264		population	eng	The population is likely to comprise of less than 10,000 individuals (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). This is a relatively common in suitable habitat (L. Heaney pers. comm.), but occurs at lower densities than <em>Apomys camiguinensis</em> which is tolerant of a wider range of habitats.
136264		threats	eng	If the species remains in lower elevation areas, it may be affected by habitat loss due to slash and burn agriculture, logging, urbanization and increased tourism; it is less threatened at higher elevation areas where logging and deforestation occur to a lesser degree and areas of intact forest remain (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).
136265		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in many protected areas.
136265		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau to west of the Volta River system in Ghana. It is also recorded from the Bijagos archipelago (Guinea Bissau) (Gippoliti and d Dell'Omo 2003). This species has been introduced to Barbados and Saint Kitts and Nevis in the Caribbean, and also to Cape Verde.
136265		habitat	eng	Recorded from riverine gallery woodlands, acacia savannas, mangrove forest and at the edge of lowland tropical moist forest (Gippoliti and d Dell'Omo 2003).
136265		population	eng	Reasonably abundant, especially in the delta areas of West African rivers.
136265		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
136266		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136266		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of central Peru (Simmons, 2005). Known from type locality, at 1,600 m (Gardner and Patton 1972)
136266		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
136266		population	eng	The species might be rare.
136266		threats	eng	Not known.
136267		conservation	eng	The species likely occurs in several protected areas.
136267		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern portion of the Central and Western Cordilleras of Colombia (Woodman 2002; Hutterer 2005). It is found from 2,500 to 2,800 m asl (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).
136267		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest, as well as agricultural fields (Delgado pers. comm. 2005). It is predated by the crab-eating fox, <em>Cerdocyon thous</em> (Delgado 2002).
136267		population	eng	It is commonly found in appropriate habitat.
136267		threats	eng	There are no major threats identified for this species.
136268		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Research actions.
136268		distribution	eng	This species is known from San Luis Potosi (Mexico) south to west Panama (Simmons, 2005).
136268		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. All previous information for <em>C. brevicauda</em> applies to <em>C. sowell</em>i (Pineda pers. comm.).
136268		population	eng	In a rapid assessment in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, <em>C. sowelli</em> was the most abundant species.
136268		threats	eng	There are no known threats throughout its range.
136269		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The Red-fronted Brown Lemur is found in five national parks (Isalo, Ranomafana, Zombitse, Vohibasia and Andringitra), two special reserves (Andranomena and Pic d'Ivohibe), the Analabe Private Reserve in the Menabe region (and in Berenty), and in the Kirindy-Mitea Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136269		distribution	eng	The Red-fronted Brown Lemur is found both in western and eastern Madagascar. In the west, it is known from the Tsiribihina River south at least to the Fiherenana River near Toliara. The limits of its distribution in eastern Madagascar are not as well defined, but it appears to occur from the Onive and Mangoro Rivers south to the Andringitra Massif, the southern limit of its range probably being the Manampatra River, which separates this subspecies from <em>E. cinereiceps</em>. South-east of the Andringitra Massif, there is a 60-km wide hybrid zone between <em>E. rufifrons</em> and <em>E. cinereiceps</em> at the Iantara River (headwaters of the Manampatrana) (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005). A small introduced population of Red-fronted Brown Lemurs (hybridized with <em>E. collaris</em>) also inhabits the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar. Ranges from sea level to 1,670 m.
136269		habitat	eng	Present in moist lowland and montane forest in the east, and dry tropical forest in the west. It has been studied in western Madagascar in the deciduous forests of Antserananomby and Tongobato, in the Kirindy Forest, and in eastern Madagascar in Ranomafana National Park (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Based on these studies, the species has a very adaptable behavioural ecology. Group size varies from four to 17 (with an average size of nine) in the west and from six to 18 (with an average size of eight) in the east. In the west, population density is reported to be very high and home ranges small; in the east, population densities tend to be lower and home ranges as large as 100 ha. Reproduction is seasonal. In western populations, one male typically monopolizes the females of the group, while in the east several males may participate in reproductive pairings. In the west, mating takes place in June, births occur in September and October, and the young are weaned by January.
136269		population	eng	In the east, Irwin <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded 22 individuals/km² in Ranomafana National Park. In the west, Sussman (1974) documented densities of 1,120 individuals/km² at Antseranomby, but recent estimates have declined considerably to about 23.9/km² (kelley <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136269		threats	eng	The principal threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, burning to clear pastureland, fuelwood gathering, and illegal logging. Hunting and trapping are also threats throughout its range.
136270		conservation	eng	The species is found in one protected area. More data are needed on population densities, trends, habitat preferences, and threats.
136270		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura arispa</em> is endemic to Turkey. Currently it is known only from two localities, about 400 km apart (one individual recorded from each site) in the Taurus Mountains, in the southern part of the country (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001).
136270		habitat	eng	<em>C. arispa</em> inhabits rocky areas. It is adapted to arid climates (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001) and is adapted to live in fissures (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007).
136270		population	eng	This is a rare species, although it is difficult to collect; despite several attempts to collect the species it has only been collected twice, perhaps because of specific habitat requirements.
136270		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present.
136271		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in most protected areas within its range. Further taxonomic work is required to assess the validity of proposed subspecies.
136271		distribution	eng	Distributed from the Ethiopian Rift Valley, highlands east of the Rift, and southern Somalia in the north, through the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia (east of the Luangwa Valley), Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa (all provinces). This species has also been recorded from the islands of Pemba and Mafia, Tanzania, and the Manda Islands, Lamu Archipelago, of northern Kenya. Sympatric with <em>Papio</em> spp and <em>Erythrocebus patas</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
136271		habitat	eng	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, and forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers. It is an extremely adaptable and versatile species able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated areas, and sometimes found living in both rural and urban environments. A significant part of the range consists of Miombo woodland. Is generally absent from desert areas and deep forest within its range. Lives in multi-male and multi-female groups of up to 38 individuals; many unrelated males may be present in a group.
136271		population	eng	Often common and abundant. However, very patchily distributed over its extensive geographic range, probably due to its need to drink water daily (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers comm.). Regarded as a pest species in cultivated areas in parts of its range.
136271		threats	eng	There are no major threats although it is classed as vermin in parts of its range and is actively persecuted (shot and hunted) by landowners in areas where it raids crops or interacts with humans. Vervets are found to be a source of bushmeat in some areas (e.g. Turkana District, Kenya; De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press).
136272		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. The only protected area in which it is known to occur is the Anjanaharibé-Sud Special Reserve. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136272		distribution	eng	<em>Microcebus mittermeieri</em> occurs in and around the Anjanaharibé-Sud Special Reserve in north-eastern Madagascar. The type locality is at 1,056 m asl.
136272		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.
136272		population	eng	Unknown. Only discovered in 2003.
136272		threats	eng	Unknown. The only locality from which it is currently known is a protected area.
136273		conservation	eng	The species' range includes several protected areas, that may include appropriate habitat.
136273		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico where it occurs in Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, and Sinaloa (Carraway and Timm, 2000). It ranges from 3 m up to 550 m asl in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Sinaloa (Carraway, 2007).
136273		habitat	eng	It occurs a variety of dry habitats including fallow fields, bordered by scattered cacti, thornbush and mesquite, and shrubland.
136273		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
136273		threats	eng	Conversion of the mesquite areas into agriculture is a major threat to this species (Ivan Castro-Arellano pers. comm.).
136274		conservation	eng	The species habitat is owned by army for field training, this provides some degree of protection (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
136274		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Mantiqueira, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Leite, 2003). It was collected at 1,800 m elevation.
136274		habitat	eng	This rodent is known from mixed montane rainforest at 1,800 m altitude, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat (Leite, 2003).
136274		population	eng	Very little is known about populations of this species.
136274		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136275		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Houhe, Jinfoshan, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), and Zhujiashan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136275		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan (southern mountains), Yunnan (east of the Salween river) (Smith and Xie 2008), Hubei (CSIS 2008), and possibly Guizhuo as Musser and Carelton (2005) indicate that the specimens listed by Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1997) require verification.
136275		habitat	eng	The species occupies montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008).
136275		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136275		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
136276		conservation	eng	This species potentially occurs in several protected areas in its range in Paraguay and Brazil, but records are not known from those areas.
136276		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, south Brazil (Matto Grosso do Sul State, Municipality Maracaju, Fazenda da Mata) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Langguth and Bonvicino (2002) believe that this rodent also occurs in Bolivia and eastern Paraguay.
136276		habitat	eng	This species is confined to gallery forest (disturbed gallery forest also) (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002). Other members of this group are tolerant of habitat modification.
136276		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).
136276		threats	eng	The major threat to some populations is agricultural expansion.
136277		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
136277		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Panama to western Colombia and western Venezuela (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
136277		habitat	eng	The species occurs only in habitat close to water including marshes, estuaries, and along rivers and streams. Depending on habitat and hunting pressure, it is found singly or socially. It is diurnal or nocturnal depending on hunting pressure and the season. In Venezuela, the species breeds throughout the year, usually with a single breeding cycle. Gestation lasts up to 120 days after which an average of 3.5 young are born (range, one to seven) (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).
136277		population	eng	This species is common in protected and unprotected areas in Panama, and uncommon in Venezuela. Its population status is unknown in Colombia.
136277		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation of gallery forest and extensive agriculture. There is subsistence hunting of this species throughout its range; it is used as a food source. It is heavily hunted in Colombia. Habitat for this species is being rapidly destroyed in Colombia, where many swamps are being drained at the mouth of the Magdalena River.
136278		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
136278		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeast Brazil, where it occurs from Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Paraná states (Gardner, 2007).
136278		habitat	eng	Known only from wet montane forest and cloud forest (Mustrangi and Patton 1997).
136278		population	eng	Known from relatively few specimens and localities; habitat range narrow (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
136278		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
136279		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Ke Bang Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136279		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam, Quang Binh province, Minh Hoa district, 35 km south Minh Hoa (Qui Dat), Yen Hop valley near Yen Hop. Borissenko and Kruskop (2003) found this species only in Ke Bang Nature Reserve (Quang Binh province) but probably this bat inhabits valleys of small streams in middle elevation through the whole of central Viet Nam.
136279		habitat	eng	This species inhabits valleys of small rivers, with variably disturbed vegetation. Foraging bats were seen only over the water surface (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003).
136279		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136279		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136280		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not it is widespread through the region.
136280		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Nahkon Ratchasima (Khorat) province in south central Thailand: the type locality, Ban Nong Sanga (14°32'33''N, 101°57'44''E), and Tumbon, both 50 km SSE from the town of Khorat (Auffray <em>et al</em>. 2003; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from Lamam, Sekong Province, in Lao PDR (K. Aplin pers. comm.). Additional field surveys and reexamination of museum specimens may reveal an even wider range.
136280		habitat	eng	It was found in dry grass and patches of pygmy bamboo along roadsides or dikes bordering dry rice fields (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded in sympatry with <em>M. cervicolor</em>, and <em>M. caroli</em> were also found.
136280		population	eng	This species is currently known only from 21 specimens (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136280		threats	eng	There likely are no major threats to the species.
136281		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136281		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen from the type locality at 600 m asl (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 2006), in Southern San Juan Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136281		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136281		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136281		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136282		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
136282		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution on the Olympic Peninsula as well as surrounding regions in western Washington state in the United States, and also occurs northwards in to British Columbia, Canada, where it is found south of the Fraser river near the Pacific Coast. It has been recorded from near sea-level up to a maximum of 700 m asl.
136282		habitat	eng	It occupies most terrestrial habitats excluding areas with very little or no vegetation.
136282		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it is thought to be secure, although not common.
136282		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species at present.
136283		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least one protected area (type locality in Noel Kempff Mercado NP).
136283		distribution	eng	This species was recently described and is known from only a handful of locations in northeastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz and Beni Departments) in the environs of Noel Kempff Mercado National Park.
136283		habitat	eng	This species is known from only a few localities. It is suspected to prefer humid, semi deciduous forest and liana forests and wet and dry savanna and cerrado formations (Emmons and Patton, 2005).
136283		population	eng	Very little is know about populations of this species
136283		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
136284		conservation	eng	No protected areas are included in its range; the Petrobras drilling station is probably having a positive effect in some respects since it is excludes humans from some areas of the species range (Patton, J. pers. comm.).
136284		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazil; it is known from five specimens in two localites which are 300 km apart: Rio Jurua (type locality) and upper Rio Urucu, Amazonas state (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its distributioin may be more widespread than the range indicates as the majority of the possible range of the species has not been surveyed. It is difficult to distinguish from M. hispidus (Patton, J. pers. comm.).
136284		habitat	eng	This species has been obtained in traps placed in trees in terra firme forest, one at 1.5 m above the ground, the others in canopy platforms positioned between 9.6 and 15.4 m (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). During the same survey, two adult females were collected in early June; one was pregnant with a single embryo (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
136284		population	eng	It is considered vulnerable to imperiled by NatureServe.
136284		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136285		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Based on the description of Zaramody <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species is presumably present in a number of protected areas, including Ranomofana National Park. Further research is necessary to investigate the boundaries of this form with <em>A. betsileo</em> to the north, and to investigate the population status of the species.
136285		distribution	eng	The precise limits of distribution are unclear, but the species is currently known from south of the Onibe River in the forests of Manara, Vatoalatsaka, Sangalampona, Mahasoarivo and Ranomafana in eastern Madagascar (Zaramody <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, see Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> (2007; Fig. 25).
136285		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.
136285		population	eng	Unknown. Only described in 2006.
136285		threats	eng	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat to the species.
136286		conservation	eng	The species is found in Mt. Kitanglad Nature Park.
136286		distribution	eng	This species is known from high elevations of the Kitanglad Mountain Range in the province of Bukidnon, Mindanao (Philippines) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is likely that the species will be found on other high peaks of central Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
136286		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary mossy montane forest from 2,500 up to 2,800 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data).
136286		population	eng	This species is moderately common in high-elevation forest, but probably has a restricted geographic range (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
136286		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is not under threat.
136287		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research into the habitat, ecology, threats and range is needed for this poorly known species.
136287		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few records collected near the type locality at Lago Aricoma, 13 miles (20.8 km) ENE of Crucero, in the Cordillera Carabaya of the eastern Andes, Puno Department, southern Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded between 4,500 and 4,800 m asl.
136287		habitat	eng	It is specifically restricted to moist microhabitats in Puna grassland. It can be found in areas that have some traditional pastoral use.
136287		population	eng	It is a very rare species. It has not been collected since 1970, although there have been no recent searches in this area.
136287		threats	eng	No major threats currently exist for this montane species, however, it may be threatened by drainage of suitable wet habitat, although this needs to be confirmed. It has a restricted elevational range which is considered to be threatened by climate change in the future.
136288		conservation	eng	Poorly known species with very restricted range and which requires legal protection and a conservation management plan. Research on status, ecology, threats and conservation measures is needed. Public awareness campaigns may also be valuable.
136288		distribution	eng	Rare species, endemic of the basin of the Sevan Lake, Armenia (ca. 4000 sq. km, above 1800 m a.s.l.).
136288		habitat	eng	Only females have been found. Unknown, habitats may be similar to <em>M. aurascens</em>, including forest, scrub and roosts in underground sites.
136288		population	eng	Population size unknown, the species is known only from five sites, probably of records from nursery colonies (no male individuals have yet been recorded). There are no proved records since 1980s. There have been 2 surveys, although effort was only three days in one case, a second survey in 2003 specifically for this bat did not find the species (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008) - it might be extinct. Only thirty specimens are in museum collections.
136288		threats	eng	Unknown, destruction of roost sites might be threat to the population.
136289		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136289		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Paraguay, in Ñembucú and Misiones Provinces. The range is restricted by the Paraguay River to the west and the Parana River to the south (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs to the east of the city of Pilar (Bidau pers. comm.).
136289		habitat	eng	C. pilarensis usually lives in sandy soils and do well in manioc (yucca) fields.
136289		population	eng	The species has a patchy distribution, there are only three or four known isolated populations (Bidau pers. comm.) in a single location.
136289		threats	eng	Owing to the fact that they live in manioc fields they are considered a pest to agricultural crops.
136290		conservation	eng	The species is listed in CITES Appendix III for Guatemala as <em>M. temama cerasina</em>.<br/>Recommended conservation actions are: further information about habitat status, distribution and abundance, ecological research; study about their importance for human community as uses and harvest levels and their cultural relevance; implementation of management plans and legislations at international and national level.
136290		distribution	eng	Very little is know of the actual distribution and range limits for the Central American red brocket. It is presumed to occur in southern México, North and central Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Panama, and extend into western Colombia. In México there are records for states around the cost of gulf of Mexico and Pacific ocean: Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche and Quintana Roo. Further field and genetic reserach are required to determine where <em>M. temama</em> seperates from <em>M. americana</em> and vice versa.
136290		habitat	eng	The brocket deer is considered characteristic of well-preserved high forest sites (Branan and Marchinton 1985, Eisenberg 1989). It occupies perennial forest, cloud forest, sub-perennial forest and low-dry forest (Reyna-Hurtado 2002, Ivan-Lira and Naranjo-Piñera 2003). It can, however, be found at transformed sites such as secondary forests and cropland as well (Bodmer 1989, Bello 2004), but in some conserved areas it avoids deforested areas and agricultural vegetation types (Weber 2005). During three years of camera-trapping in the Cordillera Talamanca region in Costa Rica - the species was found in a variety of native (but not altered) forest and non forest habitats, and from lowlands to paramo (2,800 m asl) (J. Schipper unpublished data). In areas with high hunting intensity, brocket deer also use low flooded forest (Reyna-Hurtado 2002). Its preference for well-preserved sites seems to be a protective strategy, as deer can stand still and hide in thick vegetation when a predator approaches, or run through it without being easily caught (Pinder and Leeuwenberg 1997). Further research is needed to determine the degree of disturbance and isolation of the fragments that they inhabit.
136290		population	eng	Total populations are unknown. There is some information about density but only at local level abundance for Mexico. Including Protected areas, the estimates were of 0.09 deer/km² in tropical forest (including M. Pandora) (Weber 2005), in cloud forest the estimate was 0.32 individuals/km² (Lira-Torres and Naranjo-Piñera 2003). No reliable estimates exist for Nicaragua, Honduras or Colombia.
136290		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation and degradations for agricultural and livestock activities is one of the principal factors in the reduction of their potential habitats and distribution. This also includes natural disasters such as wildfire (Bello 2004). Hunting is a major threat in some areas - especially in and around protected areas. Harvesting for cultural activities, and principally as a food source could influence their populations levels and behaviour (Reyna-Hurtado 2002). Another threat that has existed for a long time is their killing as a pest control in bean croplands (Méndez-Izquierdo and Bello-Gutiérrez 2005).
136291		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in several protected areas.
136291		distribution	eng	Ranges from southern Democratic Republic of the Congo southwards to northern Namibia and to the Luangwa Valley, Zambia, west of the Luangwa River.
136291		habitat	eng	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, and forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers. It is an extremely adaptable species that can live in both rural and urban environments.
136291		population	eng	It is presumably reasonably common as much of the area where this species occurs has a low human population density.
136291		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
136292		conservation	eng	Not known.
136292		distribution	eng	S Argentina, S Chile (Simmons 2005).
136292		habitat	eng	Habitat dependent, found in forests.
136292		population	eng	Populations are low in south but there are not many problems.
136292		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, there are problems with beavers in Terra Del Fuego (introduced sp).
136293		conservation	eng	It is most important to determine the taxonomic affinity of this name, especially whether it is a species-level taxon, rather than a junior synonym of an existing described species. Secondly it is important to determine the morphological and molecular characteristics which diagnose this taxon (if it is distinct), which in part would require collection of new material (preferably including whole animals) and conducting an analysis of the congruence of molecular and morphological data.
136293		distribution	eng	This nominal species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam, specifically the Pu Hoat area in Que Phong District, Nghe An Province (Grubb 2005; Le Trong Trai pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins). See <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for a fuller description of potential range.
136293		habitat	eng	The region around the type locality is closed-canopy evergreen forest, on steep slopes above about 900 m asl with various forms of secondary and degraded forest, primarily on slopes, persisting below this (Le Trong Trai and Do Tuoc pers. comm. to R. J. Timmins 1999). Nothing is known about the species' natural history and ecology. See <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for a fuller description of potential habitats.
136293		population	eng	This nominal species is known only from the type, which has insufficient material to allow morphological assignment of other material as conspecific (even that collected around the type locality), or even morphological confirmation that the species is distinct (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Thus, there is no further information on possible populations. See <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for a fuller description of potential status.
136293		threats	eng	Threats to <em>M. puhoatensis</em> are likely to resemble those to other muntjac species in Indochina, and for large mammals in general. The most significant is hunting for subsistence and local and more widespread bushmeat trade intertwined with large scale snaring for species of international trade value (such as civets). The threat from habitat loss is relatively minor in comparison to the latter, although in the long term could significantly impact the species. Specific threat assessment is rendered impossible by the inability to determine the name’s taxonomic status, especially whether it constitutes a distinct species rather than a synonym, and if a distinct species what its range might encompass.
136294		conservation	eng	Protected by Decreto de Veda General Indefinida (D.S. 22641, 1990) in Bolivia (Tarifa 1996).<br/><br/>This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Amboró National Park (?) (98,640 ha) (637,600 ha - WCMC DB)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (927,000 ha) (WCMC DB)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Reserve (21,900 ha) (WCMC DB)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (135,000 ha)<br/>Chapada dos Guimarães National Park (33,000 ha)<br/>Taiamá Ecological Station  (14,325 ha)<br/>Serra das Araras Ecological Station (28,700 ha)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (?) (200,000 ha)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Defensores del Chaco National Park (780,000 ha) (Stallings 1985, 1989)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix melanura</span>).
136294		distribution	eng	The most widespread of the "<em>argentata</em>" group marmosets, <em>M. melanurus</em> is the only one to occur naturally outside of Brazil, extending south through the Pantanal of Mato Grosso into Bolivia and Paraguay. Hershkovitz (1977) indicated the Rio Tacuarí in Brazil and the headwaters of the Río Mamoré in Bolivia as the southern limit of its distribution, but Stallings and Mittermeier (1983) and Stallings (1985) recorded it also from the north-eastern Paraguayan chaco, extending the known range to approximately 20ºS. In Bolivia, it occurs east of the Río Mamoré, in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz (Brown and Rumiz 1986; Anderson 1997).<br/><br/>According to Hershkovitz (1977), in Brazil it occurs to the east of the Rio Madeira, from the mouth of the Rio Aripuanã extending south to beyond the Rio Guaporé and west to the Rio Roosevelt. However, field research and the discovery of a number of distinct new marmosets has modified the range he proposed. In the state of Rondônia evidence has not been forthcoming for its occurrence between the Rios Aripuanã and Roosevelt (the range of <em>M. intermedius</em>). It does occur on the east bank of the Rio Aripuaná, north at least to 10ºS, and probably west to the Rio Juruena, or the Rio Teles Pires, where Ávila-Pires (1986) predicted that it would meet the range of the form <em>M. emiliae</em>. Hershkovitz’s (1977) proposal for its occurrence west of the Rio Aripuanã-Roosevelt was based on three localities. The first was the Foz do Rio Castanho (near the junction of the Rios Roosevelt, Guariba, and Aripuanã in the state of Amazonas) (locality 197b, p.569, Hershkovitz 1977). This is the type locality of the distinct form <em>M. marcai</em> described by Alperin (1993). According to Vivo (1985), the marmosets at the other two localities indicated by Hershkovitz (1977: 214b, mouth of the Rio Jiparaná, upper Rio Madeira; and 214c, Urupá, Rio Jiparaná) would not be the form <em>melanura</em>, but <em>Callithrix emiliae</em> according to their similarity (although darker) to the marmosets from the Rio Curuá, in Pará (the type locality of <em>M. emiliae</em> [Thomas, 1920]). However, the “Callithrix emiliae” of Vivo (1985) occurs to the west of the range of <em>M. melanurus</em> and, if aligned with the <em>Callithrix emiliae</em> of Thomas (1920), listed by Cruz Lima (1945), Cabrera (1957) and Ávila-Pires (1986), would indicate a disjunct distribution, being separated by typical <em>M. melanurus</em> between the Rios Aripuanã and Juruena (or Teles Pires). The Rondônia marmoset of Vivo (1985, 1991) is distinct from <em>melanurus</em> in its paler colour (less brownish dorsum) and the lack of the distinct pale thigh stripe.
136294		habitat	eng	<em>Mico melanurus</em> is known from the Amazon lowland rain forest of the state of Mato Grosso, extending south form the south and east of Serra dos Pacáas Novos into Bolivia and Paraguay. Stallings and Mittermeier (1983) and Stallings (1985) found <em>M. melanurus</em> in the northeastern Chaco. The habitats there are diverse and annual precipitation is high. There it occurs in tall forest along the ephemeral waterways or <em>cauces</em> (Stallings 1985).  Recorded during surveys in the mountainous region of Huanchaca, eastern Bolivia, by Braza and García (1987). In Bolivia, it occurs in primary and secondary growth forest, dry, deciduous forests, gallery forest and forest patches in savannas (Tarifa,1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Two groups seen by Braza and García (1987) were of 7 and 12 individuals. Stallings (1985) recorded mean group sizes of 4.6 (Agua Dulce) and 7.8 individuals (Chovoreca) in Paraguay. Generally only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Mean H&B 22.6, T 33.0 (N=30) (Ferrari 2008).
136294		population	eng	In the north-eastern Paragyana Chaco, Stallings (1985) recorded densities of 1.6 groups/km² (Agua Dulce) and 3.52 groups/km² (Chovoreca) , with mean group sizes of 4.6 and 7.8 individuals, respectively.
136294		threats	eng	A wide ranging species with no obvious major threats at present. Generally not hunted, though there is some use as pets.
136295		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136295		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Chile, General Carrera Province, about 2 km S Chile Chico and 1 km west of Chile Chico aerodromo (46o33?S, 71o46?W) and Coyhaique Province, 4.5 km SE Coyhaique Alto (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
136295		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136295		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136295		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136296		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas in Peru and Bolivia.
136296		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004) and Peru (Pacheco and Vivar, 1996; Solari and Rodriguez, 1997; Patterson <em>et al</em>. in review), with two isolated records in the lowlands, one from Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia and from the type locality in Matto Grasso State, Brazil (Pine, 1981) (Gardner, 2005). The disjunct range in Peru and Bolivia is likely a sampling artefact.
136296		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species have been taken from a diversity of landscapes, including: primary lowland forest, lowland dry forest, seasonally flooded evergreen gallery forest, and cloud forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136296		population	eng	The species seems to be common from the known localities in Peru (Pacheco and Vivar, 1996; Solari and Rodriguez, 1997).
136296		threats	eng	No major threats known.
136297		conservation	eng	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout this species' range but there is no clear evidence that they are depressing populations, except where formerly suitable habitat is converted to non-forest uses. Adequate legal basis exists in most or all range states to control both potential threats (through protected areas and regulations governing wildlife trade and hunting). The chief need is presumably for effective translation of these laws into action. More specific needs cannot be identified in the absence of more detailed information on this species' current status throughout its range, and investigations of the effects upon it of the high levels of hunting and habitat modification.
136297		distribution	eng	The Lesser Oriental Chevrotain as defined here occurs in Borneo, Sumatra, the Thai–Malay Peninsula, many islands within the Greater Sunda region, and continental South east Asia north to at least 18°10′N, as established through Lao PDR specimens from Thangon (Osgood 1932; Chasen 1940; Meijaard 2003; Meijaard and Groves 2004; E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2004). This includes the countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) also included China, but the occurrence there of <em>T. kanchil</em> is not confirmed, reflecting the difficulty of separation from <em>T. williamsoni<em>. Records from Yunnan Province seem on present evidence likely at least to include <em>T. williamsoni</em> (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008) but the additional occurrence of <em>T. kanchil</em> cannot be ruled out. Similarly, records in Viet Nam north to ca 22ºN (Dang Huy Hyunh 1994) and in the west part of Lao PDR’s northern highlands (e.g. Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; 21°N), could refer to <em>T. kanchil</em> or to <em>T. williamsoni</em>, or to a mix. It is unclear if there are chevrotains at all in the central and eastern parts of Lao PDR’s northern highlands. The record of chevrotain signs in Evans <em>et al</em>. (2000) for Phou Dendin NPA, far north-eastern Lao PDR and outside the interview derived range as shown in Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (1999: 269), was by a relatively inexperienced observer and upon recent re-examination of his original notes, he has retracted the record, since confusion with muntjac fawn was possible (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008). More telling, during interviews by the same observer in the same area in 2004–2005, villagers commonly reported that while they knew what a chevrotain ("kai", or "fan kai") is, most said they are essentially absent from the area (including the southern sector), and always have been. But whether they are truly absent or only rare differed somewhat with informants (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008). Likewise, the northern extent of <em>T. kanchil</em> in Thailand remains unclear. No species of chevrotain appears to penetrate Myanmar away from Tennaserim (Tun Yin 1967; Lynam 2003; in the latter, identifications to species should be disregarded). Well outside the confirmed range of the genus, Khan (1985) speculated that Lesser Oriental Chevrotain might occur in Bangladesh: "over a hundred villagers, whom I have interviewed have said they have either seen, killed or eaten such an animal". But he could procure no physical evidence for this, and none has been traced subsequently (Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>A recent taxonomic revision of chevrotains (Meijaard and Groves 2004), followed here, attaches a slight doubt to assume that any records, other than those validated through examination of specimens, from non-Sundaic South-east Asia, certainly refer to this species; as well as <em>T. williamsoni</em> (of at least northern Thailand, but perhaps with a much wider range) there is also <em>T. versicolor</em> of South-east Viet Nam, also perhaps with a much wider range. This Red List account assumes that the chevrotains of the Mekong basin and Thailand south from 18°N to the Thai–Malay peninsula refer to <em>T. kanchil</em>, on the basis of a fair number of specimens from many localities (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008: a listing of the mainland specimens examined for Meijaard and Groves 2004). Further south, <em>T. kanchil</em> is widely sympatric with <em>T. napu</em>, making chevrotains often challenging to identify (particularly for people with limited field experience of the genus) on field views, camera-trap photographs and even in hunting studies (Duckworth 1997; Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). Many observers have therefore pooled their Sundaic chevrotain records as ‘chevrotain spp.’ (e.g. Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Laidlaw 2000; Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003; O'Brien 2003; Kawanishi and  Sunquist 2004; Azlan 2006; Azlan and Engkamat Lading 2006; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). Thus, the information base for determining this species' status is much thinner than would be expected from the general perception of the genus as being widespread and common, at least in the Sundaic part of its range.</em></em>
136297		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland/foothill primary and secondary forests as well as cultivated areas up to 600 m in elevation (Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm.).  The habitat of this species is a mosaic of riverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps.  In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest.  In Peninsular Malaysia, it feeds on shoots, young leaves and fallen fruits in the tall forest of the lowlands.<br/><br/>During the day it may prefer crown-gap areas with dense undergrowth of creeping bamboo, and move to higher and drier ridge areas at night. Home range All <em>Tragulus</em> species are associated with forests, but there is strong evidence that <em>T. kanchil</em> does not require old-growth forest or even particularly mature secondary forest. Its heavy use of disturbed habitats was confirmed by Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. (2003), who found that in Kabali-Sepilok (Sabah), <em>T. kanchil</em> fed primarily in crown-gap areas dominated by bamboo stands, probably because it prefers fruits and soft leaves of pioneer plants with lower concentrations of secondary metabolites. Later, at another site in Sabah, Matsubayashi and Sukor (2005) again found a strong association of <em>T. kanchil</em> with immature forest.  Johns (1997) found <em>Tragulus</em> to be more common in logged forests than in mature forests in Peninsular Malaysia, and densities tended to decrease again as logged forests matured. The abundance of <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (<em>T. napu</em> and <em>T. kanchil</em> combined, with no information on the proportions or even confirmation that both species were present) was higher (strongly statistically significantly so) in areas within 1 km inside the boundary of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, than in the interior of the park, suggesting higher numbers in somewhat encroached habitat (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003); note that it is not confirmed that this information refers to <em>T. kanchil</em>. The genus (presumably including this species) was ubiquitous in a study in West Malaysia which paired each of seven of virgin jungle reserves with a nearby unprotected area with seriously encroached habitat (Laidlaw 2000). By contrast, at the Danum Valley, Sabah (East Malaysia), densities of <em>T. kanchil</em> were 21–39 animals per km² in primary forest but only 10–15 animals per km² in selectively logged areas (and there was an even bigger decrease of 55–66% for <em>T. napu</em>); in this area, where hunting is negligible and so is not confounding patterns, chevrotain densities were positively correlated with fruit abundance, and negatively correlated with pioneer trees and grass and herbs (Heydon 1994; Heydon and Bulloh 1997; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). Heydon and Bulloh (1997) suggested the obligate frugivory of chevrotains limited their ability to compensate for logging-led loss of fruit trees by browsing the abundant regrowth of logging areas. This may be significant in rationalising the differences between areas concerning the apparent effects of logging on the species: in some logging areas, fruiting trees are common along streams and tend to be left, and pioneer colonists produce abundant edible fruit. Around Buon Luoi, southern Viet Nam, most encounters with chevrotains (assumed to be largely or entirely this species rather than <em>T. versicolor</em>, based on ratios of specimens) were in places where tall forest alternated with scrub thickets, patches of grassland and moist riverine habitats. Riverbank slopes appeared particularly favourable to chevrotains (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). E. Pollard (pers. comm. 2008) sees Lesser Chevrotains commonly in highly degraded forest in Mondulkiri province, Cambodia. In Thailand, R. Steinmetz (pers. comm. 2008) finds the species commonly in edge habitats, also widely, but probably less frequently, within big blocks of closed-canopy forest. By contrast in Lao PDR, the genus seems to be scarce in the interior of old-growth forest, based on surveys of many of the country’s remaining forests. Chevrotains have been camera-trapped in at least one protected area (Nakai–Nam Theun NPA), but only in one part of that (Johnson and Johnston 2007); the report does not discuss habitat. Tracks are readily identified by those familiar with them, but are rarely found within heavy forest in Lao PDR (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Chevrotains are easily spot-lit at night where they occur, yet extensive spotlighting in south and central Lao PDR during 1992–1996, with most of such survey in areas below 550 m asl, found the species only once, and there were not many more records by day (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994; Duckworth 1996, 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; and a lack of records in many other sources). All or nearly all the handful of sightings (day or night) were in edge or heavily degraded areas (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008), but some lengthy surveys of lowland encroached forest failed to find the genus (notably in the ‘corridor’ sector of Phou Xang He NPA). This indicates a general overall rarity, or at least a localised distribution, either natural or human-induced. The apparently large numbers on the Vientiane plain (see Threats; Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992) (at the time of surveys perhaps among the most intensively hunted areas of Lao PDR for mammals of this size-class), including persistence at dreadful sites like Houay Nhang (whence almost all mammals larger than rats had been hunted out; see Threats), argues against human agency being responsible for the absence or low densities of chevrotains elsewhere in lowland Lao PDR in places like the corridor of Phou Xang He NPA and interior forests. Extensive surveys in the 1990s of Lao forest areas suggests almost certainly that in extensive tracts of semi-evergreen and evergreen forest below 1,000 m asl chevrotains are naturally scarce at least away from ‘edge areas’, because hunting pressure from snares, dogs, and day and night hunting with guns is relatively low, and other quarry species captured in similar ways to chevrotains are often common (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In contrast, Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004), who concurred that, in Viet Nam, closed-canopy forests often support few if any chevrotains, proposed that this is an artificial pattern produced through hunting (see Threats). In Lao forest ‘edge’ areas the very low numbers of chevrotains cannot necessarily be concluded to be a natural pattern, as these ‘edge areas’ tend to be in the vicinity of human settlements and in at least the 1990s experienced high levels of snaring and gun hunting (primarily by day) for primarily local consumption or local markets and ubiquitous hunting dog presence (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Experiences in 2005, however, suggest that chevrotain presence is perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features, as in the Nam Kading National Protected Area there was a clear hunting focus on chevrotains with an evidently significant capture rate; yet general wildlife field surveys in 2005 and 1995 observed the species in the field only once, despite significant spotlighting effort (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Timmins and Robichaud 2005; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm.. to R.J. Timmins 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). It suggests that the species is tied to specific microhabitats; perhaps this might be related to water requirements as there is a surprising regularity with which authors note commonness in riverine areas. Dumas’s (1944) description of the distribution in Cambodia strongly echoes modern findings that it is localised in Lao PDR and associated with gaps in Sabah: he stated that it was absent from heavy forest of tall trees without understory, and in general it was localised in occurrence but found somewhere in each of most of the forested provinces of Cambodia, wherever there are low, dense, thickets, and within clumps of bamboo, of which it is fond of the young shoots. Such a pattern 70 years ago seems unlikely to have been produced by hunting. In sum, the habitat use of this species with respect to edge–interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.<br/><br/>The Lesser Chevrotain may even be able to survive in large numbers in plantation landscapes: in the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu, Sarawak, Belden Giman (pers. comm. 2008) has many records from <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantations both mature and immature. However, this landscape contains many patches of secondary and old-growth forest (Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007), so further study is needed to assess use, if any, of landscape-level monocultures.<br/><br/>Most of this chevrotain’s geographic range is dominated by evergreen or semi-evergreen forests, but large areas of Cambodia, Thailand and to a lesser extent Lao PDR and Viet Nam are deciduous. One survey in Mondulkiri province, Cambodia, in 2008, found chevrotains to be widespread and common in mixed deciduous forest, dominated by e.g. Lagerstroemia spp., but they were not found in nearby deciduous dipterocarp forest (C. Starr pers. comm. 2008). In this same general area, J. Walston (pers. comm. 2008) also found them commonly in mixed deciduous forest, during 2002–2006. Field surveys of extensive landscapes of deciduous dipterocarp forest and mixed deciduous forest (in which ground fires are almost annual) in eastern and northeastern Cambodia (including Mondulkiri) have not detected the species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) and camera-trapping from the same landscapes also suggest chevrotains are absent from deciduous regularly burnt forest tracts, but occur in semi-evergreen forest patches within the same landscapes (WWF unpublished data). Dumas (1944) stated that chevrotains were unknown in the deciduous dipterocarp forests of Cambodia, No other information on their use of deciduous landscapes has been traced; it is probable that even within deciduous dipterocarp they might use the semi-evergreen riverine strips within.<br/><br/>The Lesser Oriental Chevrotain may be absent from highlands throughout much of its range, and seems to be an extreme lowland specialist in some areas. The clearest analysis, from Borneo, found that it lived mostly below 100 m asl, with no record above 600 m asl (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). The maximum altitude in Indonesia (i.e. Borneo and Sumatra) is also said to be 600 m asl (G. Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006); specific information from Sumatra has not been traced. In Lao PDR most known sites (see Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994; Duckworth 1996; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000) are also below 600 m asl; however, chevrotains are abundantly hunted in the Nam Ha NPA which has a minimum altitude of 560 m asl (and rises to nearly 2,100 m asl) and is almost entirely rugged (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003), although these are perhaps more likely to be <em>T. williamsoni</em> than <em>T. kanchil</em>. There is a chevrotain specimen from Thateng on the Bolaven plateau (FMNH 38012) confirmed as <em>T. kanchil</em> (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008), suggesting occurrence at 800–1,200 m asl, although a short-distance trade origin may be possible. A recent finding of the genus being common in one part of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA (Johnson and Johnston 2007) gives no information on altitude of the records, and there are too few relevant specimens to allow a firm prediction as to which species they relate. Good populations certainly occur well above 600 m asl in Thailand: chevrotains are common in the degraded and edge habitats around Khao Yai National Park headquarters at 760–800 m asl (J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008) and a number of specimens from nearby Pakchong suggest that these are likely to be <em>T. kanchil</em>, rather than unsuspected southerly occurrence of <em>T. williamsoni</em>. Also in Thailand, at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary chevrotains were camera-trapped commonly at 700–900 m asl, although the species involved is/are unclear (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001; A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Lesser Chevrotains visit saltlicks regularly (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Lesser Chevrotain is often stated to be nocturnal, but in fact most activity is diurnal (in the first few and last few hours of daylight), with animals spending most of the night resting (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2003; Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). It is highly solitary (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Apparent territorial behaviour has been observed (Davison 1980); home ranges and core areas overlap considerably between males and females but core areas are completely separate between individuals of the same sex (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males are highly philopatric but females establish new home ranges when giving birth (Ahmad 1994 in Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005). Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated home-range size for females at 4.3 ha and for males 5.9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the difference between males and females was not significant. The mean daily distance travelled for males was 519 ± 89 m, that for females 574 ± 220 m. The Lesser Chevrotain is partly frugivorous, but also eats substantial quantities of shoots and young leaves, mostly of fast-growing gap species rather than closed forest understory species; the latter tend to be richer in secondary protective compounds (Dang Huy Huynh 1968; Medway 1983; Kuznetzov and Puzachenko 1992; Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Among fruits, those of mass 1–5 g and seeds of mass 0.01–0.5 g are particularly taken (Heydon and Bulloh 1997). It seems to be facultively monogamous–polygymous (given the congruence between core areas of individual males and females with a conspecific of the opposite sex; Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006), with post-partum oestrus, females being almost continuously pregnant (Cadigan 1972 in Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005). The gestation period is 140–177 days (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), with 2–3 young per year, the fawns kept hidden (Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136297		population	eng	The Lesser Oriental Chevrotain populations are not well studied, in part reflecting a general lack of research interest in the genus and in part the difficulties of confirming how much of the information on the genus relates to this species. <em>T. kanchil</em> seems to be relatively common on at least Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), specifically in the Bintulu Planted Forests Area in Sarawak (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). In Thailand, even though it is generally more common than Greater, there are no studies and sightings are too few to determine national population status or trends (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2008). During the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani province; 20–130 m asl), 172 Lesser Chevrotains were ‘rescued’ compared with only six Greater Chevrotains (Nakasathien 1989). At Kuiburi National Park (12°N), only <em>T. kanchil</em> has been camera-trapped (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). The genus is commonly camera-trapped on Sumatra (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003), where this species is reportedly still common (G. Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006). The genus also remains common in West Malaysia (Laidlaw 2000; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Azlan 2006) and in far southern Myanmar (Lynam 2003; the identifications to species should be disregarded). At the Danum Valley, Sabah (East Malaysia), densities of <em>T. kanchil</em> were 21–39 animals per km² in primary forest but only 10–15 animals per km² in selectively logged areas (see Habitat and ecology) (Heydon 1994; Heydon and Bulloh 1997; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species specifically was also found commonly in several other sites in Sabah (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005; Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2006, 2007). Population densities for <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (presumably including this species) in Taman Negara, Malaysia, were taken to be 0.37–0.83 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004).<br/><br/>Non-Sundiac populations are poorly documented. Chevrotains are common in Thailand’s Khao Yai National Park, at least in the degraded and edge habitats around the park headquarters (J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008) and Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001; identifications to species should be disregarded). The genus seems to be of localised occurrence in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1999; Duckworth 1996, 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Johnson and Johnston 2007; see Habitat and ecology). Chevrotains seem also to be localized in Viet Nam. They are common in Cat Tien National Park, southern Viet Nam (Borissenko and Ivanova 2003; Polet and Ling 2004). Somewhat further north, intensive sign and spotlighting searches at several sites in lowland Dak Lak in 1997 failed to find the genus (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; an earlier listing in a report for that area should not be taken seriously, see Duckworth and Hedges 1998: 66–68), although these were mostly in rather or entirely deciduous areas and perhaps outside the species' habitats; however, landscape in parts of the areas surveyed is similar to that in eastern Mondulkiri, Cambodia (see below). Further north again, they were common around the Buon Luoi area, although seem to have declined recently (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). As in Lao PDR, there are many other areas within the genus’s range (as defined by Dang Huy Hyunh 1994) from which reasonably intensive mammal surveys have failed to find the species (e.g. Phong Nha Ke Bang National Park [Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999] and the Huong Son District of Ha Tinh Province [Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001]). In Cambodia, chevrotains were recorded commonly by recent surveys in at least one area of Mondulkiri province dominated by semi-evergreen forest (T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2008; E. Pollard pers. comm. 2008; J.L. Walston pers. comm. 2008; C. Starr pers. comm. 2008); but in the primarily deciduous lowlands presence appears to be patchy (see Habitat and Ecology), but no good modern composite picture for the country is available (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Dumas (1944) considered that it occurred in most of the forested provinces of Cambodia, wherever its favoured microhabitats were found.
136297		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout this species' range. While it is clear that the genus remains widespread and common in its Sundaic range in the face of these threats, few data to support assessment specifically of Lesser Chevrotain’s current status were traced: many key studies there have not identified chevrotains to species. In the non-Sundaic areas, evaluation of resilience is hampered by evident heterogeneity of chevrotain occurrence with a lack of convergence of opinion as to explanations of same.<br/><br/>North of the sympatry with <em>T. napu</em>, <em>T kanchil</em> is heavily hunted and is often considered one of the most preferred wild meats (Srikosmatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Nonetheless, it is clear that <em>T. kanchil</em> is adept at surviving in areas (at least in the lowland plains) in the face of very heavy hunting, major habitat degradation and isolation from other forest areas. Exemplifying this, it was one of the few mammals larger than a rat confirmed to persist at Houay Nhang, an isolate of a few km² of highly degraded forest just outside the capital of Vientiane facing, in the early 1990s, exceedingly concentrated hunting with guns and snares (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994). A little to the west it persists in Sangthong district, which was heavily logged just before a 1996 survey and also supported heavy hunting (Duckworth 1996). These two areas are within 10 and 70 km, respectively, of, and ecologically contiguous with, Thangon, from where Osgood (1932) reported specimens of <em>T. kanchil</em> (confirmed by E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008 as this species), and thus the modern records probably do relate to <em>T. kanchil</em>. Hansel (2004) provided a further record from the adjacent low hills. Numbers of chevrotains in Vientiane markets in the early 1990s (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992) were so high that they could not be at the brink of extinction in this degraded and fragmented landscape. Chevrotains are still common in trade in the city, although mostly in transit rather than on open sale in the city’s markets, and their origin is not clear (T. Hansel pers. comm. 2008). The genus was recently camera-trapped quite commonly in a part of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA where ground mammals were much depleted (Johnson and Johnston 2007), perhaps indicating higher resilience than many other mammals, although there is no information to compare with pre-exploitation levels. <br/><br/>While non-Sundaic chevrotains can, therefore, clearly persist under extreme pressures in at least some circumstances, this does not rule out that densities might be quickly reduced through the twin pressures of hunting and habitat degradation. Decreasing population densities between the 1970s and 1990s, in at least parts of southern Viet Nam, were suggested by both spot-lighting surveys and qualitative assessments of footprints. Near Buon Luoi in December 1978, chevrotains were spotlit at about three animals per 5 km of transect route, but by 1993, when forest had undergone heavy degradation and hunting was very heavy, chevrotains were not even found every night with at least 10 km of transect (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) proposed that night-time hunting may explain chevrotain’s near-absence from habitats with open-understory (this feature allowing chevrotains to be readily hunted using spotlights and guns) in the Buon Luoi area, because by contrast in Cat Tien National Park, where the use of firearms has been banned for decades and enforcement is fairly effective, chevrotains are encountered with comparable frequency both in thickets and on exposed forest floor (Borissenko and Ivanova 2003). This sighting rates contrast is consistent with a difference between the headquarters area of Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (where chevrotains are readily found by spotlight) and which is relatively well-protected from hunting, and Lao forests (see above) where hunting was effectively unrestrained (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). However, a proposal that, where hunting is unrestrained, as it is in most of Viet Nam and Lao PDR, chevrotains would be common in heavy forest but have been effectively eradicated from such habitat, is flawed for at least Lao PDR, where numbers of forest mammals killed through spotlight hunting are probably insignificant compared with those trapped (including with snares) and perhaps even killed using dogs (J.W. Duckworth and R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on numbers of active hunters encountered at nigh versus traps found, in many areas of Lao PDR). Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) based their reasoning on only two sites and it is possible that other factors explain the differences. In sum, the effects of hunting and habitat modification, and the interaction between them, on non-Sundaic chevrotains remain most unclear.<br/><br/>The effects of potential threats operating in the Sundaic range are not understood well, either. Lesser Oriental Chevrotain is now rather rare on Singapore (K. Lim pers. comm. 2008), presumably nowadays constrained by habitat quality rather than by ongoing hunting, although the role of free-ranging dogs, if any, in restraining population numbers is unclear. However, the ‘island within an island’ situation of remaining forest on Singapore and the extreme habitat loss over the last 150 years prevent useful extrapolation of this species' situation there to other Sundaic areas. Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Sumatra, among snared ungulates was greatest for muntjacs and lowest for chevrotains, as assessed by diameter of the cable (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Chevrotains were more then nine times as abundant in areas of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the park boundary, suggesting low resilience to human presence, presumably the effects of hunting (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003); note that it is not confirmed that this information refers to <em>T. kanchil</em>. Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) profiled the effects of hunting in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas, upon chevrotains (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995. They constituted 8–9% of animals killed. No direct or index measure of chevrotain densities was possible at these sites to determine what effects, if any, such heavy hunting was having on chevrotains. Chevrotains are among the most favoured wild meat by inhabitants of the Sarawak Planted Forests area, Bintulu, Sarawak, after Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> and wild pigs <em>Sus</em> (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). Logging can apparently drive substantial reductions in density, at least locally, although other studies have found it allows an increase in numbers (see Habitat and ecology). No information on the use of plantation landscapes has been traced. In the Greater Sundas, lowland forest is being converted at unprecedented high rates. At least in Borneo, where this species is concentrated in areas below 100 m asl, most of its habitat either has been substantially modified during the last two decades or will be in the next two (e.g. Holmes 2000; BirdLife International 2001; Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2001; McMorrow and Talip 2001; Lambert and Collar 2002; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller 2004; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, inferring proportionately large population losses in Lesser Chevrotain populations is not possible: depending on how serious hunting is and what exactly is being done to the habitat post-logging (forest regeneration, tree plantation or non-woody habitat) in any given area, chevrotain numbers might remain broadly unaffected, decrease or increase in logged-over areas.
136298		conservation	eng	It is not known if the type locality is within a protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136298		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Likiang Range, Sushancheng, Yunnan, China (Hutterer 2005). It occurs around 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
136298		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information for this species.
136298		population	eng	It is known only from the type species.
136298		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136299		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas, such as el Darien National Park in Panama.
136299		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands along the Panama-Colombia border (Hutterer, 2005). It is found from 1,400 to 1,500 m asl (Reid, 1997).
136299		habitat	eng	The species can be found in wet, evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). It is terrestrial and individuals have been trapped under logs on steep banks of streams. The banks were wet and densely covered with ferns (Goldman, 1920 in Reid, 1997).
136299		population	eng	It is not widely distributed and probably not uncommon in its range (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).
136299		threats	eng	Deforestation and pesticides are a major threat to this species.
136300		conservation	eng	The species is not currently known from protected areas.
136300		distribution	eng	The species is found in dry forests on the lower slopes (below 500 m asl) of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, through the lowlands to the eastern slopes (below 1,100 m asl) of Serrania de Perija in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 1999). The species is also likely to be found in adjacent Venezuela, and perhaps wider in northern Colombia.
136300		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in dry forest.
136300		population	eng	Unknown. There are only a few records, there is a recent record from 2003 near Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
136300		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown..
136301		conservation	eng	Some populations are probably present in all Venezuelan Andean national parks, but hunting still occurs and the effect of hunting on its populations is unknown (Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez 1995). The protected areas overlapping Mérida brocket distribution and the establishment of corridors between the parks could protect a large part of Merida brocket populations. Additionally consensus building is needed among key social and political actors, with top-down and bottom-up approaches that consider ecological, social, and political sustainability (Yerena <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting of Merida brocket is against the law in Venezuela since 1979, when a general ban on hunting of this species was formalized due to the low density (República de Venezuela 1980). It is actually considered an endangered species in Venezuela (República de Venezuela 1996a, 1996b).
136301		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in the high Andes in northern Colombia and western Venezuela. According to present forest distribution, the largest populations of M. bricenii should be located in the following Venezuelan national parks: El Tama National Park, between Táchira and Apure states; Páramos del Batallón National Park between Mérida and Táchira states; Sierra Nevada National Park between Barinas and Mérida states; Sierra de la Culata National Park in Mérida and Trujillo states; Guaramacal National Park also known as "General Cruz Carrillo" in the state of Trujillo, with a small portion located in the state of Portuguesa (Utrera 1999); and Dinira National Park located in Sierra de Barbacoas, in watersheds of Tocuyo river between Lara, Portuguesa and Trujillo states. Dinira and Guaramacal are probably the eastern most location of the species within Venezuela. Some populations might be expected outside protected areas in the hinterlands between Sierra Nevada and Páramos del Batallon national parks, an area known as Pueblos del Sur de Mérida, and between Guaramacal and Sierra Nevada national parks, known as Ramal de Calderas.  In Colombia it is found in Tama national park in Norte de Santander state and possibly in Cocuy national park between Boyaca, Arauca and Casanare states.  The southern distribution limit is unknown.
136301		habitat	eng	Originally found in montane forests and paramos at altitudes between 1000 and 3500 m.a.s.l. in  mountain chains and massifes crossing over Venezuela (Zulia, Tachira, Apure, Merida, and Trujillo) and Colombia (La Guajira, Cesar, Norte de Santander, Santander, Boyaca). Linares (1998) reports M. bricenii as present on the eastern flank of Perija massive based on animal body parts that he collected at 3100 m in Cerro Viruela near Pico Tetari. Thus, it is highly probable that the species also occupies paramos on the Colombian side of Perija.  <br/><br/>The main habitat of M. bricenii is paramos and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. The paramos are high altitude grasslands (Boom <em>et al.</em> 2001), which are dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants from the genus Espeletia (Luteyn 1992). The tropical montane cloud forest is a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions causing cloud and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest vegetation (Bruijnzeel and Veneklaas 1998). These forests support ecosystems of distinctive floristic and structural forms with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1963). Details on M. bricenii ecology are unknown, although it seems to be solitary, active at day as well as at night, and expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understory. They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They live either alone or in pairs and normally within a small territory. They usually defecate in latrines probably located at boundaries of territories. Further research is required.
136301		population	eng	Current distribution and abundance need to be assessed. A decreasing population trend is inferred from habitat destruction.
136301		threats	eng	Habitat destruction occurs due to small-scale cattle ranching and agriculture practiced by local communities through forest cutting and burning of montane grasslands and shrub lands. Illegal plantations of opium and Coca may be the main cause of habitat destruction in some areas of Colombia (Alvarez, 2007). Mining, road construction and colonization expand habitat loss. Climate change might also result in a reduction of available habitat for the species in the future, since cloud forests and paramos are broadly affected by atmospheric temperature rise (Foster 2001). Hunting occurs as a source of meat and medicinal products at the local level but needs assessment. They are preyed on by a small number of South American predators, such as puma and feral dogs.
136302		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected area. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.
136302		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Quebrada de la Vena, at approximately 7 km SSE of Uspallata village (32˚39.405’S, 69˚20.970’W, 1,880±150 m asl) in Mendoza Province, Argentina (Braun and Mares 2002).
136302		habitat	eng	It is found in Monte Desert habitat, and is a specialist feeder on creosote bush (<em>Larrea divaricata, L. cuneifolia</em>, and <em>L. nitida</em>) (Braun and Mares, 2002).
136302		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136302		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136303		conservation	eng	The whole island is State Reserve "Ostrov Vrangelya".
136303		distribution	eng	Endemic to Wrangel Island, <span style="background-color: rgb(251, 251, 251); ">North Chukotka</span>, Russia.
136303		habitat	eng	Inhabits river and brook valleys with mixed herbs, mountain avens and willows, in areas with moderately wet soil. In the center of the island colonies are common in the plains of Mamontovaya River and on low terraces. At the beginning of September, with the onset of snowfall on the island, lemmings move to areas with deep snow cover (river and brook banks, low marshes and small drying tundra lakes). Lemmings remain at winter habitats until snowmelt (beinning of June). Seasonal migrations of <em>Lemmus portenkoi</em> are short distance and are not mass migrations. The species feeds mainly on lings, cotton grass, cereals and green mosses. In total, 53 different species of plants have been recorded in the diet. Litter size is 5-7 young.
136303		population	eng	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations that coincide with those of <em>Dycrostonyx vinogradovi</em>.
136303		threats	eng	Endemic of a single island, with pronounced population cycles. No major threats, but intrinsically vulnerable because of restricted distribution and marked population fluctuations.
136304		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
136304		distribution	eng	Occurs in west-central Argentina (Cordoba); limits to the distribution of this species are poorly known (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136304		habitat	eng	Prefers dry shrublands and grasslands (Espinal). Populations fluctuate..
136304		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
136304		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
136305		conservation	eng	Both localities where this rodent occurs are within protected areas. Further surveys required to determine extent of occurrence.
136305		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality at Porto Seguro, Bahia State, Brazil (Lara <em>et al.</em>, 2002). A second locality has been found at Pau Brasil Ecological Station (Leite pers. comm.).
136305		habitat	eng	It is known from stands of Caesalinia echinata (Lara <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is present in lowlands habitat, in secondary forest (Moura pers. comm.).
136305		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance of this species.
136305		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation and destruction of habitat (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).
136306		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136306		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Jamaica (Simmons, 2005). It occurs below 400 m (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136306		habitat	eng	This is one of the poorest known species on Jamaica. No specimens have been recorded from within caves or near caves so this appears to be a tree-roosting bat. Often it is caught over water. It is insectivorous (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136306		population	eng	It is rare; known from only six localities (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136306		threats	eng	Habitat loss, hurricanes.
136307		conservation	eng	Likely found in several protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species.
136307		distribution	eng	South of the Amazon and west of the Xingu in Brazil, through Bolivia (La Paz and Pando departments) to Manu National Park in Peru (Anderson, 1997; Gardner, 2007)
136307		habitat	eng	Lowland tropical forest. Species of the genus Monodelphis are among the least arboreal of the Didelphids, and are usually found on the ground, though they can climb. They are nocturnal, and their diet consists of small rodents, insects, carrion, seeds, and fruit (Nowak, 1999).
136307		population	eng	Unknown.
136307		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Extreme southern portion of range is subjected to logging, soybean plantations, cattle, and general loss of habitat.
136308		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136308		distribution	eng	Known only from the type location of Catamarca Province, La Puntilla, Argentina.
136308		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136308		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136308		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136309		conservation	eng	The known range falls entirely within two protected areas, namely the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (including Mwanihana forest and the eastern part of the Ndundulu-Luhomero forest) and the Kilombero Nature Reserve (including the remaining, western part of the Ndundulu-Luhomero forest). Both the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Kilombero Nature Reserve are designated for the protection of biodiversity and no utilization  of animals for food or trade is permitted in either protected area. The National Park has a management plan that is being implemented with a regular operating budget. The National Park also has a community education and outreach plan.  Rates of disturbance are low relative to other Eastern Arc Mountains. The Kilombero Nature Reserve consists of three Forest Reserves that have recently been upgraded to a Nature Reserve.  As yet, the Nature Reserve does not have a management plan and the operating budget is, as yet, insufficient to support many management activities. With donor support, community involvement in forest management was promoted for the former forest reserve.
136309		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania (Kilombero District, Morogoro Region and Kilolo District, Iringa Region), where it occurs solely in two forests, namely Ndundulu-Luhomero forest (north-western Udzungwa) and Mwanihana forest (north-eastern Udzungwa). Within these forests, locations recorded by Rovero <em>et al.</em> (2008) indicate that the species is found in montane and upper montane forest throughout Ndundulu-Luhomero, whilst it occupies only the northern part of Mwanihana forest (north of Sonjo valley), above 1,000 m in elevation, which is where large areas of montane forest are found. The area of occupancy for <em>R. udzungwensis</em>, including all  the closed-canopy, sub-montane and montane forest habitat above 1000 m a.s.l., is estimated to be 300 km² (Rovero <em>et al</em>. 2008). This estimation is based on the spatial distribution of known and inferred sites of present occurrence based on sightings, camera-trap photos and live-trapping (Rovero <em>et al</em>. 2008). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 720 km². This includes a 25-km stretch of wooded grassland that separates the two forests from where <em>R. udzungwensis</em> has been recorded.<br/><br/>The extensive zoological surveys that have been conducted in the Udzungwa Mountains and adjacent highland forests indicate that it is unlikely that the species will be found in forests other than Mwanihana and Ndundulu-Luhomero in the Udzungwa Mountains. However, further research is required to accurately define the margins of its distribution, especially in Mwanihana forest.
136309		habitat	eng	<em>Rhynchocyon udzungwensis</em> was found in different forest types, but always within moist, sub-montane and montane evergreen to upper montane closed-canopy forest, including bamboo thickets (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2008). The canopy of sub-montane and montane forest was typically 25–50 m high, while that of the upper montane forest was 10–25 m. The forest floor vegetation varied from relatively open areas covered in leaf litter to more densely covered with clumps of grasses, herbs and tree seedlings.<br/><br/>The behavioural ecology of <em>Rhynchocyon udzungwensis</em> appears similar to congeneric species (Rathbun 1979). For example, five nests were examined by Rovero <em>et al</em>. (2008), each had an oval cup excavated in the soil lined with layered leaves and loose leaves piled on top to form an indistinct dome surrounded by thick leaf litter on the forest floor. Four of the five nests were situated at the base of trees
136309		population	eng	Rovero <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimate the population abundance at 15,000-24,000 individuals extrapolating a density range of 50–80 individuals/km² over the known area of occupancy. The density range was considered to be realistic by Rovero <em>et al.</em> (2008) based on sighting rates obtained during survey walks, which were compared with data from other species of <em>Rhynchocyon</em>.
136309		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is from habitat loss as a result of forest fires. These fires are causing a slow reduction in forest area, particularly in the Ndundulu – Luhomero forest.  <br/><br/>A recent analysis of changes in forest and woodland areas for the period 1970-2000 was carried out for the Udzungwa Mountains by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (2006; see also Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2007). The study was based on analysis of remotely sensed images of land cover and ground truthing. For the present assessment, the analysis was applied to the extent of occurrence of <em>R. udzungwensis</em> (courtesy of Jenny Hewson, Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International). The results reveal that Ndundulu-Luhomero forest has faced a reduction of 2.71% between 1970 and 2000, Mwanihana forest has faced a reduction of 0.52%, and the woodland area between these two forests was degraded by 56%. Habitat loss in this area is mainly attributed to human-induced or natural fires. Fires appear to have caused major degradation of the woodland (including the low elevation, deciduous forest in Mwanihana) along with evergreen forest loss that mainly occurred at the edges and interior clearings. As <em>R. udzungwensis</em> appears to be restricted to forest interiors, the gradual reduction in total forest area will reduce the habitat available to the species.<br/><br/>Whilst there is no evidence of hunting by the local people, the ethnic tribe living in the western Udzungwa plateaux (called the Wahehe) are known to routinely practice subsistence hunting, including of the giant sengi<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rhynchocyon cirnei </span>(Nielsen 2006). This species occurs widely in the Udzungwa Mountains including areas near the Wahehe villages located to the west of the Ndundulu-Luhomero forest (T. Jones pers. comm.). Therefore, in addition to the predicted habitat reduction, with the growth and expansion of human population around protected areas in the Eastern Arc Mountains (Schipper and Burgess 2004), threats to the very localized <em>R. udzungwensis</em> are likely to increase.
136310		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.
136310		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of São Tomé (São Tomé and Príncipe) where it is widespread (Juste <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136310		habitat	eng	The species appears to be quite common both in forest and plantations (Javier Juste pers. comm. 2008). A particular cave in Santa Catarina (north) had a quite impressive population (several thousands) that was near the 'city' and could be particularly sensitive to human disturbances (Javier Juste pers. comm. 2008).
136310		population	eng	It is a common species (Juste <em>et al.</em> 1994).
136310		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
136311		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. It is known to occur in the Kalambatritra Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136311		distribution	eng	Currently known from Kalambatritra Special Reserve in south-eastern Madagascar, west of the Mananara River and north of the Mandrare River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further studies need to be conducted to determine the precise limits of the distribution, especially relative to <em>L. leucopus</em> and <em>L. fleuretae</em>.
136311		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of lowland rainforest.
136311		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136311		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat loss and hunting are presumably threats.
136312		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed on ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.
136312		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwest Peru; limits are uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136312		habitat	eng	<em>T. preator</em> is poorly known. This is nocturnal, terrestrial and perhaps arboreal. It occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo. It can be found in primary and second growth forest and moderately disturbed areas (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136312		population	eng	It is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136312		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136313		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136313		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Red River Valley from northern Viet Nam to south central Yunnan, China (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1997).
136313		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. The type specimen was collected at high elevation (2,500-3,000 m) from Mt. Fan Si Pan, near Chapa Tonkin, Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136313		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136313		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136314		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. Needs taxonomic review.
136314		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central and south Nicaragua south to northern Colombia and western Ecuador; as well as Venezuela; It is also found on Trinidad and Tobago; San Andes and Providencia, Guyana; northeastern Amazonia Brazil; and northern Bolivia (Simmons, 2005). Central Brazilian portion of range need taxonimic review (Tavares pers. comm.), therefor Bolivian, Ecuadorian and Colombian populations are unclear (Aguirre pers. comm.). Need taxonomic clarification to determine appropiate geographic range.
136314		habitat	eng	This bat inhabits a variety of habitats, including evergreen and deciduous forest, thorn shrub, open areas, and villages. It appears to favor slightly disturbed, deciduous forest. Its roosts are unknown, but it can take refuge in buildings and hollow trees, like other species of the genus. This is one of the first bats to appear at sunset, often flying low to the ground along wide trails or roads. There are two peaks of activity, for an hour after sunset and within an hour of dawn. It feeds on small flying insects. Individuals appear to have established hunting routes. Echolocation calls are short, with maximum energy at 50 to 60 kHz.
136314		population	eng	In Central America it is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).
136314		threats	eng	Non known since taxonomy is unclear. No threats.
136315		conservation	eng	The species is in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Regulations, including net attendance rules and gear modifications, have been introduced to reduce bycatch but enforcement, especially in remote areas, has been inadequate (Hale 1997). Some protection is believed to accrue to snubfin dolphins from their presence in dugong protection areas (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136315		distribution	eng	Australian snubfin dolphins inhabit coastal, shallow waters of the tropical and subtropical zones of Australia, and possibly some parts of New Guinea (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Australia, they occur from Broome, Western Australia, north and east to the Brisbane River, Queensland. The range along the northern Australian coast and New Guinea is poorly documented (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136315		habitat	eng	Australian snubfin dolphins inhabit coastal, shallow waters and are most common in brackish estuaries. They have been seen in the same areas as Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, which sometimes chase them aggressively. They occur most often near river and creek mouths, generally in waters less than 10 m deep (with a preference in some areas for very shallow waters, < 2 m deep) (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006b)<br/><br/>Australian snubfin dolphins appear to be generalist feeders, taking a wide variety of fishes (including anchovies, sardines, eels, halibut, breams, grunters, and other estuarine species). They also eat cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, and octopus), and crustaceans (shrimps and isopods, although the latter may be consumed incidentally).
136315		population	eng	No overall population estimate is available for this species. There are only two abundance estimates for the Australian snubfin dolphin. Freeland and Bayliss (1989) roughly estimated that there were about 1,000 individuals in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory, Australia. Their highest estimate was 1,227 individuals (CV=25%). However, the scientific credibility of that estimate has been challenged due to the difficulty of distinguishing Australian snubfin dolphins from other species during aerial surveys over turbid waters and later surveys conducted in the gulf that indicated a much lower population density (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2002; H. Marsh pers. comm). In Cleveland Bay, Queensland, abundance was estimated as < 100 (actual estimates ranged from 62-78, with CVs from 8-17%) (Parra 2005; Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006a). A survey conducted in May 2006 recorded only 15 groups totaling 88 animals distributed sparsely along portions of the northeastern part of the Kimberly coast (Debra Thiele pers. comm. to Brian Smith on 24 Jan 2007).<br/><br/>Although the species has been surveyed in only two areas (Cleveland Bay and Gulf of Carpentaria) which, together, comprise less than 20% of the species’ range, the results of those surveys, as well as the preliminary results from a reconnaissance survey of a portion of the Kimberly coast in 2006, indicate that the number of mature individuals is well below 10,000. It is assumed that the surveyed areas are broadly representative of the species’ density across its range. The population may be declining due to bycatch in commercial fishing nets (e.g. gillnets) and anti-shark nets.
136315		threats	eng	The nearshore occurrence of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to human activities. However, most of its range in northern Australia and New Guinea has not been severely degraded. Substantial numbers of snubfin dolphins have been killed in anti-shark nets set to protect bathers (Paterson 1990). For example, in the Townsville region between 1968-1976, 15 of 24 dolphins known to have been killed were this species (Heinsohn 1979). The mortality rate of snubfin dolphins in anti-shark nets along the Queensland coast declined to an estimated 1.3/year between 1992-1995, coincident with the replacement of most anti-shark nets with baited drumlines (Gribble <em>et al</em>. 1998). In addition to the mortality in anti-shark nets, these dolphins die in inshore gillnets set across creeks, rivers and shallow estuaries primarily for barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>) and threadfin salmon (<em>Polynemus sheridani</em>) and (<em>Eleutheronema tetradactylum</em>) (Anderson 1995; Hale 1997).
136316		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, including Ambatovaky and Mangerivola Forest Reserves and Mantadia National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution and natural history of this species. This is the only native species of rodent that is restricted to eastern lowland humid forest, and is restricted to one province.
136316		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to lowland eastern Madagascar, and is known only from Toamasina Province (Carleton 2003). It has recently been recovered from several additional localities - Andriantantely, Saharay, and Sandranantitra - form within the same localized area (Carleton and Goodman 2007). It has been recorded between 450 and 1,145 m asl.
136316		habitat	eng	This forest-dependent species has been recorded from lowland humid forest. Presumably it is an arboreal or scansorial animal.
136316		population	eng	This species has been rarely collected, and until 2003 was known from only three specimens.
136316		threats	eng	This species is threatened by both deforestation, largely for agricultural purposes, and the resulting fragmentation of its habitat. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
136317		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas - however, areas surrounding these areas are rapidly changing to agriculture.
136317		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Andes from western Venezuela south to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Velazco, 2005). However, it has also been found at lower elevations along the Andes.
136317		habitat	eng	This bat is basically frugivorous and likely lives under palm trees (Aguirre pers. comm.). This species is poorly known and needs further research.
136317		population	eng	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.) as in Peru (Velazco pers. comm.). Seems to be common as well in Colombia and is less common in Bolivia although poorly known.
136317		threats	eng	Occurs is a fragile ecosystem on the eastern flanks of the Andes - an area undergoing rapid habitat conversion.
136318		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place. More research is needed, particularly taxonomic research.
136318		distribution	eng	<em>Sorex arunchi </em>is endemic to Europe, where it is found in the Udine province of north-east Italy, and probably adjacent Slovenia (Lapini and Testone 1998).
136318		habitat	eng	It is a lowland taxon, and is found in forested areas.
136318		population	eng	There are no population data available for <em>S. arunchi</em>.
136318		threats	eng	Pesticides and habitat destruction (agriculture) are likely to be the main threats. Shrews tend to accumulate toxins from pesticides and pollutants through their invertebrate diet (Stone 1995). It may be particularly vulnerable to habitat loss because of its restricted range.
136319		conservation	eng	Tarsiers are protected by national law and international treaties, including CITES Appendix II. Many portions of the range of this taxon are protected and indeed it occurs in at least one national park (Lore Lindu); however, there needs to be improved management of the currently protected areas to ensure the ongoing survival of the species. Public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures for the species. In fact the species might actually be beneficial to crops, as they eat, and may even have a dietary preference for, some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers.
136319		distribution	eng	This species is found in western central Sulawesi (Indonesia) in the Lariang River basin near the confluence with its tributary, the Meweh River, and extends as far north as Gimpu. The precise limits of its distribution have yet to be precisely determined, though the eastern boundary is known to be parapatric with that of <em>T. dentatus.</em>  Its distribution is likely to be much larger than what is confirmed at present.
136319		habitat	eng	This is a newly described species and was separated from <em>T. tarsier</em>, thus information has been extrapolated from prior knowledge of both it and <em>T. dentatus.</em>. Based on these assumptions, it should occur in primary, secondary and mangrove forests, forests gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Tarsiers show extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 2 meters or less from the ground. Nocturnal, social primates, they likely live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-7. Their diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).
136319		population	eng	Very little is known of the population of this species. Preliminary studies suggest that its population densities and home range sizes are similar to those of <em>Tarsius dentatus</em> (S. Merker unpubl. data).
136319		threats	eng	Although this is a newly described taxon, by analogy with other taxa major threats can be extrapolated to be habitat loss and illegal logging, with lesser threats including agricultural pesticides, and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats). In addition, some animals may be entering the pet trade. There has been extensive loss of habitat; however, the species has some tolerance to forest conversion. A crucial unknown variable in determining how critical the threats to this species are is its elevational distribution. GIS data indicate that large areas of quality forested habitat remain at higher elevations, but the vertical range of this species is believed to stop somewhere between 1,100-1,500 m, thus rendering a large portion of the best remaining habitat outside the range of this species.
136320		conservation	eng	It is present in Karakelang Utara dan Selatan Wildlife Reserve. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
136320		distribution	eng	This species is found only on Karakeland and Salebabu in the Talaud Islands, Indonesia (Helgen 2003).
136320		habitat	eng	This species is sympatric with <em>Melomys caurinus</em>. It is thought (due to tail size) that <em>Melomys talaudium</em> is arboreal, and <em>M. caurinus</em> is terrestrial, while other similarities point towards a common ancestor between these two species (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005).
136320		population	eng	It is known only from a handful of specimens, and there is no information available on current population status.
136320		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to logging. It may also be impacted by competition with introduced murids.
136321		conservation	eng	More biological surveys are needed in the area where the species has been found to date. Museum records should be reviewed to verify that the species has not been collected previously.
136321		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in northeastern Brazil (Gregorin and Ditchfield, 2005) and northern Minas Gerais (Nogueira, pers. com.).
136321		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid Caatinga vegetation (Gregorin and Ditchfield, 2005). Based on closely related species and morphology, this species may be an important pollinator (Ditchfield pers. comm.).
136321		population	eng	Five specimens have been collected to date. No further information on population (Gregorin and Ditchfield, 2005; Nogueira, pers. com.).
136321		threats	eng	The habitat is suffering extensive habitat change and degradation (Gregorin pers. comm.).
136322		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. The area from which the single specimen was collected has been declared a reserve (Flannery and Groves 1998). There is a need to enforce the protection of this area and conduct additional surveys in suitable habitat for remaining populations on Berg Rara and in the Foja Range. Further research is needed into the natural history of the species and into conservation measures to protect it.
136322		distribution	eng	This species is known from one specimen collected in 1961 at 1,600 m asl, from a single mountain of Berg Rara in the Cyclops Mountains in extreme northern Papua Province, Indonesia. It has not been located in the adjacent mountain ranges of Torricelli and Bewani (there are fossil records from the Bewani range). It could be found in the Foja Range, which has not been adequately surveyed. An expedition to the Cyclops Mountains in May 2007 found evidence of the species (recent digging activity and burrows), and there was local knowledge of the species that implied its continued existence there, although no echidna was sighted (J. Baillie, <em>in litt.</em>). This expedition concluded that the species probably occurs also at lower elevations than previously thought; 166 to 1,600 m.
136322		habitat	eng	It is found in tropical montane moss forest. It is likely that this species lays eggs (given what is known of its congeners and from local reports) and the primary food is worms.
136322		population	eng	This species has not been recorded since 1961. An expedition to the Cyclops Mountains in May 2007 found evidence of the species (recent digging activity and burrows), and there was local knowledge of the species that implied its continued existence there. It is thought to have been distributed more widely. It is a large animal that probably occurred at low density and would not have existed in such a small area naturally.
136322		threats	eng	Hunting by local people continues to be a major threat (J. Baillie, <em>in litt.</em>). The habitat is also being degraded by logging and by the expansion of small-scale agriculture.
136323		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within its range. There are no known conservation measures specific to this species.
136323		distribution	eng	This species occurs at higher elevations from south-east Hildalgo, central Veracruz, and central Guerrero to Oaxaca and Chiapas, México, south through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras (Houseal <em>et al</em>. 1987; Schmidly <em>et al</em>. 1988; Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005).
136323		habitat	eng	This species occurs in thorn scrub, forest edge, and clearings; it favours rocky areas with brush and scattered trees. It is found in stands of conifers but rarely enters in mature broadleaf forest (Reid 1997).  This species is nocturnal. Its preference for relatively open areas makes it easier to observe at night than related species. Stomachs of 11 individuals caught in Chiapas contained 91% athropods, 6% seeds, and 3% green plant material (Alvarez <em>et al</em>. 1984). Breeding can take place year-round; mean litter size is 2.3 young in Oaxaca, Mexico (Millar 1989).
136323		population	eng	This species is widespread and common (as <em>Peromyscus levipes</em> in Reid 1997).
136323		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136324		conservation	eng	Occurs in Lorentz National Park and possibly other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species, and to determine its sensitivity to heavy disturbance.
136324		distribution	eng	This species occurs on New Guinea, where it is widespread in the southern lowlands of Papua Province, Indonesia. It has also been recorded from Wokam Island in the Aru Islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). The elevational range of the species is from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
136324		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland forest.
136324		population	eng	It is a common species.
136324		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species. Despite the habitat loss due to deforestation (i.e., logging and oil palm expansion), this species is tolerant of disturbance.
136325		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Masoala National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this taxon.
136325		distribution	eng	This taxon has been found in eastern Madagascar where it is known from two widely separated localities, 40 km north-west of Maroantsetra in the north and in the vicinity of Lohariandava in the south (Carleton 1994). It has been recorded at 400 m (Lohariandava) and 850 m asl (Maroantsetra).
136325		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this taxon. Presumably it is an arboreal or scansorial animal of lowland and mid-altitude tropical rainforest.
136325		population	eng	It is known only from two specimens.
136325		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unclear, but it is probably threatened by deforestation for cultivated land and extraction of forest products (timber and firewood). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
136326		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. In Turkey, it is considered to be of conservation concern. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of steppe habitat and to monitor the abundance of known populations.
136326		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Anatolia (Turkey), the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkey), and northwestern Iran, with an isolated population in central Afghanistan. It ranges from 360 m asl in the west of its range, to 3,200 m asl in Afghanistan (Habibi 2003).
136326		habitat	eng	This species occurs in steppe regions with sparse vegetation. It is rarely found in cultivated lands, although it occurs in secondary steppe habitats where open vegetation remains. Animals have been observed running on roads through pine forests (Çolak and Yiğit 1998). This species lives in burrows, and produces two litters of three to six young annually (Çolak and Yiğit 1998).
136326		habitat	eng	This species occurs in steppe regions with sparse vegetation. It is rarely found in cultivated lands, although it occurs in secondary steppe habitats where open vegetation remains. Animals have been observed running on roads through pine forests (Çolak and Yi?it 1998). This species lives in burrows, and produces two litters of three to six young annually (Çolak and Yi?it 1998).
136326		population	eng	This species is found at relatively low densities relative to other species of jerboas. There is evidence of local extinctions in central Turkey (Kefelioglu pers. comm.). In Azerbaijan, the species is considered common in semi-desert and foothills and mountain steppes and rare in lowland and riparian forests.
136326		threats	eng	In Turkey, the species is affected by the transformation of steppe regions to agricultural use, primarily for growing sugar beets. Steppe habitat has declined significantly in the last decade in Turkey (Kilic and Eken 2004).
136327		conservation	eng	It is common in Tai National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, and is presumably present in several more protected areas. Further research is needed into the range of both this species and the partially sympatric <em>Crocidura crossei</em>.
136327		distribution	eng	Hutterer (2005) records this West African species as probably ranging through southern Guinea, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire. Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) indicate that the species is present in northwestern Sierra Leone.
136327		habitat	eng	This species is present in lowland tropical moist forest, and possibly in montane forest. Additional details are needed on the adaptability of this species to secondary habitats.
136327		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species. It is very abundant in both Tai National Park (Côte d’Ivoire) and on Mount Nimba (Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone).
136327		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species as a whole.
136328		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
136328		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sierra de Mérida, west Venezuela (Musser and Carleton, 2005). This species is found from 1,500 to 3,250 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
136328		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is terrestrial and solitary. It occurs in cloud forest (Woodman and Pascual, 2004). This species is nocturnal, and omnivorous (M. Aguilera and B. Rivas pers. comm.). This species is a bioindicator of cloud forest conditions.
136328		population	eng	This species is abundant.
136328		threats	eng	There are no current threats because the habitat of this species is well protected by national parks.
136329		conservation	eng	Taxonomic review. More surveys are urgently required, using appropriate methodology. Forest in the area where the species is found should be conserved.
136329		distribution	eng	This species is known only from French Guiana (Simmons and Voss, 1998).
136329		habitat	eng	All specimens have been found in forest. It is an aerial insectivore that exploits uncluttered space. Otherwise, its natural history and ecology is poorly known.
136329		population	eng	Rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
136329		threats	eng	Forest degradation.
136330		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and Bemaraha National Park. There is a proposal to extend Bemaraha N.P. further north. This species needs more study into its distribution and natural history.
136330		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to western Madagascar, where it is has been collected from the limestone regions near Maintirano south to the Mananbolo River. A recently captured individual (not adequately identified) was found from the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park to the south of Antsalova (Ryan 2003). Subsequently, three individuals have been confirmed from Bemaraha (Goodman and Schütz 2003). There have been surveys surrounding the range, so the species is likely to be localized in the region.
136330		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known. The Tsingy de Bermereha National Park where the species has been recorded is largely comprised of limestone karst and deciduous forest (Ryan 2003). Terrestrial, only known from intact tsingy forest.
136330		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens. In the deep karst habitat of Bemaraha it is observed to be common (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
136330		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fires and the conversion of habitat to pastures. There is also illegal selective logging in localized areas.
136331		conservation	eng	No information is available on conservation measures.
136331		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species  extends from the northeastern slope of the Villarrica Volcano to Puyehue, in Chile, and up to the district of the Nahuelhuapi Lake in Argentina (Gallardo and Reise, 1992).
136331		habitat	eng	Colonies are found in areas of the Valdivian rain forest that are covered with shrubby vegetation and bamboo thickets above the timberline, close to the Andes (Gallardo and Reise, 1992).
136331		population	eng	There is little known about populations of this species.
136331		threats	eng	Little is known of the threats to this species.
136332		conservation	eng	This species is present in Amazonia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (Ayres and Milton 1981), while both Jatuarana National Forest (837,100 ha) and Pau Rosa National Forest (827,877 ha) are in range. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
136332		distribution	eng	<em>Alouatta nigerrima</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas in Brazil, west from the rios Tapajós and Juruena, to the Rios Madeira and Aripuanã, to about 9ºS. There are outlying populations north of the Rio Amazonas in the region of Oriximiná and Óbidos on the lower Rio Trombetas (Napier, 1976) and just south of the Rio Amazonas-Solimões, midway between the rios Maderia and Purus, at the Lago Janauacá (A. Rylands, pers. obs.; Langguth <em>et al.</em> 1987; Bonvincino <em>et al</em>. 1989; Gregorin 2006).
136332		habitat	eng	<em>Alouatta nigerrima</em> is found in tall evergreen terra firme forest, seasonally inundated forest and forest patches in savanna areas, as well as secondary forest in abandoned rubber plantations. <br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Black howler groups number four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).
136332		population	eng	There is no information available on population densities.
136332		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat loss are localized threats, but human population density is relatively low, and neither is likely to be driving significant range-wide declines.
136333		conservation	eng	The species may occur in Machalilla National Park and Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve which has suitable vegetation; however, its presence there has not been confirmed, other protected areas within the species potential range do not appear to have suitable habitat (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002). It has been found in some very small reserves (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).
136333		distribution	eng	This species is known only from central western Ecuador from near the Rıo Esmeraldas and Rıo Guayllabamba south to the Cordillera de Chongon-Colonche, from near sea level on the coastal plain to up to 2,000 m asl on the western slopes of the Andes. Populations from the Cordillera de Chongon-Colonche may be isolated (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002).
136333		habitat	eng	A nocturnal species associated with small water courses where it uses distinct runways (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002). It occurs in drier and fairly seasonal evergreen forests in the southernmost extension of the Choco, along the Pacific coastal plain and western slopes of the Andes; it can occur in mildly disturbed forest (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002).
136333		population	eng	It is uncommon to rare (D. Tirira, pers. com.).
136333		threats	eng	Six of the seven localities where the species has been collected are in landscapes where most of the natural vegetation has been removed (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002). The distribution of H. teleus has been much reduced, with only around 13-19% of its historical distribution still forested and an estimated 2-3% intact and falling in protected areas (Anderson and Martinez-Meyer, 2004). Deforestation and extreme fragmentation due to logging and African Oil Palms are major threats to this species (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002).
136334		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.
136334		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Otro Cerro, in Catamarca Province, Argentina at 3,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Braun and Mares (2002) suggested that it is probably restricted to Sierra de Ambato of Catamarca and La Rioja Provinces.
136334		habitat	eng	It is known from rocky areas with grasslands over 3,000 m asl.
136334		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136334		threats	eng	Intentional, controlled burning of vegetation by cattle farmers is a major threat.
136335		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. it is known to occur in Tsingy de Bemeraha National Park, a World Heritage Site. Given the extremely small known range of Cleese’s Woolly Lemur, surveys are obviously urgently needed to find additional populations.
136335		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Tsingy de Bemaraha region of western Madagascar, north of the Manambolo River (Thalmann and Geissman 2005). The northern limit of its range is unclear and there is no evidence of its occurrence between the Sambao and Mahavavy Rivers or between the Mahavavy and Betsiboka Rivers (Thalmann and Geissmann 2005). Currently, it is known only from within Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, where it has been sighted in two localities, in the forest of Ankindrodro (19°08′S, 44°49′E;) and the type locality (18°59′S, 44°45′E), a forest 3 – 4 km east-northeast of the village of Ambalarano at the base of the western Tsingy precipice (Thalmann and Geissmann 2006). The species was previously outside the reserve’s boundaries in 1994, in the heavily disturbed forest in the surroundings of the village of Ankinajao (19°03′S, 44°47′E; Thalmann and Geissmann 2000). However, the forest was completely destroyed since these sightings at Ankinajao, and no woolly lemurs have been found there since 2003 (Thalmann and Geissmann 2006).
136335		habitat	eng	<em>Avahi cleesei</em> occurs in subhumid, dry deciduous forests close to the western Tsingy precipices, in the larger Tsingy crevasses or gorges, and forests along small seasonal rivulets and seasonal swamps close to the Bemaraha massif (Thalmann and Geissmann 2006).
136335		population	eng	This species was originally discovered in 1990 and named in 2005. Thalmann and Geissmann (2000) describe <em>Avahi</em> as being generally rare in the Bemaraha region, where the forests it inhabits tend to have a high proportion of evergreen trees. Ironically, local population densities appear to correlate negatively with levels of habitat disturbance, meaning that higher population densities seem to be found in disturbed habitats.
136335		threats	eng	Thalman and Geissmann (2005, 2006) note that the disturbed forest close to the village of Ankinajao (outside the park), which supported a substantial number of individuals in 1994, had been cut completely by 2003. The subhumid forest at the base of the escarpment of the Tsingy de Bemaraha is under continuous pressure from bush fires that reduce it in many places every year–in some places to only a few meters in width. Such subhumid forests are the only habitat in which Avahi cleesei is known to occur so far.
136336		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros and Grande Sertao Vereiras National Parks (Weksler pers. comm.).
136336		distribution	eng	This species is known from Minas Gerais, Tocantins and Goias States (Carminhoto 2004, Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).
136336		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cerrado and also gallery forests (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).
136336		population	eng	This species is relatively common. Weksler and Bonvicino (2005) collected only 12 individuals in Chapada dos Veadeiros.
136336		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation due to agriculture.
136337		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its range. In Australia protection and monitoring of important roosting and foraging sites across the species range is needed. Further studies into the taxonomy and dispersal routes of this species are needed.
136337		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including Sulawesi and Seram), the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea) as far east as the Solomon Islands (islands of Santa Isabel, San Cristobal and Rennell), and northern and eastern Australia. The range aslo may include the island of Timor (Timor-Leste and Indonesia). It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to 2,120 m asl in southern parts of its range. It is to be noted that genetic work, published recently (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2004), shows that there may be a number of species within Australia and New Guinea (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
136337		habitat	eng	This species forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies and spiders. It is a colonial species that roosts almost exclusively in caves and mines (although it has occasionally been found in man made tunnels), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. The species prefers large, warm caves. Solitary animals and small groups may sometimes occupy other types of shelter. In south-eastern Australia it hibernates in underground sites in winter (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It changes roosts in response to seasonal needs, long-distance movements occur occasionally.
136337		population	eng	In Indonesia, it is a locally common species throughout its range. In Australia a large cave may hold many thousands of individuals of this species.
136337		threats	eng	There are overall no major threats to this species. There are historical records of mass mortality events in Australia. A meeting was held at the 9<sup>th</sup> European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain of the closely related species <em>M. schreibersii</em> did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter or early spring. In Australia, it is primarily threatened by the disturbance of colonies in roosting caves and the destruction of caves for limestone mining in some areas (L. Hall pers. comm.).
136338		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three protected areas: Caparao, Itatiaia, and Serra dos Orgãos National Parks.
136338		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro States, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136338		habitat	eng	This species occurs in middle to upper elevations (1,000-2,700 m), in disjunct mountain ranges (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species has a similar habitat requirements and ecology to <em>D. dorsalis</em> and <em>D. sublineatus</em>.
136338		population	eng	This rodent is known from three point localities (Caparao, Itatiaia, and Serra dos Orgãos); it is difficult to find in the field but it’s population is assumed to be large as it is thought to have a range which extends as far as other species in the same genus (L. Geise pers. comm.).
136338		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction within its range, it is also affected by fires which are common to the grasslands which it inhabits (L. Geise pers. comm.).
136339		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of this species. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify its distribution. More information is also needed on the species population status, major threats, ecology and distribution.
136339		distribution	eng	This species is known from Oaxaca and Guerrero in Mexico. Its exact distribution is not known as there is ongoing confusion with <em>Sorex veraepacis mutabilis</em>. It occurs at elevations from 1,900 m to at least 3,000 m asl (Carraway, 2007).
136339		habitat	eng	It occurs in conifer and pine-oak forest with deep humus and leaf litter.
136339		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
136339		threats	eng	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.
136340		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several designated protected areas, though most of these exist only on paper. The clear exception is Mount Iglit-Baco Natural Park, though this area largely comprises of a former cattle ranch and therefore also largely composed of grasslands unlikely to adequately support representative biodiversity in this globally critical region. Reinforcement of existing legislation, more effective protection of the few remaining natural habitats of Mindoro, research to identify pure populations, and increased public awareness, are all needed as a matter of some urgency for the conservation of this and other Mindoron endemic species (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 2006; Gonzalez <em>et al</em>, 1999).
136340		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where is found only on Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Surveys conducted in the late 1990’s indicated the species is now mostly confined to the central and north-western mountain ranges higher elevations.
136340		habitat	eng	This species was formerly found in most habitats, from sea level to upper montane areas. It now occurs in lowland, mid-montane and dry-molave forests and savanna grasslands (Gonzalez <em>et al</em>1999), being mainly restricted to higher elevations.
136340		population	eng	Its population size is unknown, but it is fragmented and declining.
136340		threats	eng	The main threats to this species include widespread destruction of former forest habitats, evident weaknesses in the existing protected areas network on Mindoro, and anomalies in local legislation pertaining to allowable hunting of threatened versus non-threatened’ species by local indigenous peoples. Many (perhaps most) of Mindoro’s remaining forest areas are also severely threatened by commercial mining claims and salient ‘pro-mining’ agendas by many of the relevant Philippine governmental authorities. Genetic contamination via hybridisation with free-ranging domestic pigs maintained in hinterland communities is also known to occur in Mindoro and might pose the single most important threat to the genetic integrity of this species (Gonzalez <em>et al</em>, 1999; W. Oliver pers. comm.). It is also hunted for food, bushmeat trade and local ceremonials.
136341		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas. It is listed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
136341		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on 15 small islands in the Amami Islands and Okinawa Islands (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to around 400 m asl.
136341		habitat	eng	It inhabits bushes and grasslands along river banks, and in cultivated fields, and shrubs at low elevations (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136341		population	eng	It is a common species.
136341		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Many habitats have been destroyed by urban expansion since the 1970s, but the population appears to be fairly large and stable. The introduced mongoose preys upon this species in Amami-Oshima.
136342		conservation	eng	Its only known locality is the Huu Lien Nature Reserve. This is one of three new genera of petricolous rodents described in the last two to three years from karst landscapes in northern Indochina, underscoring the need for further survey work for this particular species throughout north eastern Viet Nam and southern China.
136342		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam: Lan Dat village, Huu Lien Nature Reserve, Lang Son province at 150 m. Its distribution in this reserve is likely patchy. It probably occurs in suitable forested habitats throughout karst landscapes of northern Viet Nam, and perhaps even in southern China (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136342		habitat	eng	This is a petricolous species, and was collected from talus habitats composed of large limestone blocks in forested tower karst landscapes. It is mostly nocturnal, but also active during the day, and includes insects in its diet (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136342		population	eng	This recently described species is represented by 14 adult museum specimens. It has specific microhabitat requirements and is not uncommon in these specific areas.
136342		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats other than possible destruction of limestone habitats for quarrying.
136343		conservation	eng	This species has not currently been recorded from any protected areas, but it might be present within the Udzungwa National Park. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this species.
136343		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the Ndundulu and Nyumbanitu Forests of the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania (Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005). All localities where the species has been collected are above 1,500 m asl. It is suspected to be present in the Udzungwa National Park, which borders the Ndundulu Forest, but has yet to be confirmed from here (Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136343		habitat	eng	This montane species has been recorded from forested areas either predominated with bamboo, or in marshy habitats (Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136343		population	eng	It appears to be relatively common within its limited range. Stanley <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that it was the most numerous shrew, making up 53% of the insectivores captured, during a 2003 survey.
136343		threats	eng	There is likely to be some habitat loss taking place, presumably through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use, within the limited range of this species.
136344		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.
136344		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.
136344		distribution	eng	<em>Erinaceus roumanicus</em> has a distribution extending from central and eastern Europe, the Baltic and the Balkan peninsula eastwards through Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia, reaching as far as western Siberia. In the south, its range extends as far as the northern Caucasus and possibly north-western Anatolia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It is recorded from sea level to at least 1,400 m (Lapini 1999).
136344		distribution	eng	<em>Erinaceus roumanicus</em> has a global distribution extending from central and eastern Europe, the Baltic and the Balkan peninsula eastwards through Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia, reaching as far as western Siberia. In the south, its range extends as far as the northern Caucasus and the island of Crete. It is recorded from sea level to at least 1,400 m (Lapini 1999). Within the Mediterranean region, it ranges from Italy and Slovenia, through the Balkan peninsula (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, European Turkey) and extending south into the Near East Anatolian Turkey.
136344		habitat	eng	It inhabits farmland, parks and gardens in rural and urban areas, and scrubby habitats at the edge of forests. Like its congener <em>E. europaeus</em>, it is more abundant in artificial than in natural habitats (Lapini 1999).
136344		habitat	eng	The northern white-breasted hedgehog inhabits farmland, parks and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at the edge of forests, and shrubby vegetation. Like its congener <em>E. europaeus</em>, it is more abundant in artificial than in natural habitats (Lapini 1999).
136344		population	eng	<em>E. roumanicus</em> is locally common in at least some areas (Lapini 1999). It is considered common in Greece. There is no evidence to suggest a population decline.
136344		population	eng	It is relatively rare in the colder parts of its range, but there is no evidence to suggest a population decline. It is locally common in at least some areas (Lapini 1999).
136344		threats	eng	Many are killed by collision with cars (Lapini 1999), but this is unlikely to cause widespread population decline.
136344		threats	eng	Many are killed by collision with cars (Lapini 1999), but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines.
136345		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Sumaco National Park and close to other two protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136345		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Oriental, 2400-3600 m, north central Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In addition, there are some records in Bolivar province, Cordillera Occidental, central Ecuador (V. Pacheco, com. pers.).
136345		habitat	eng	Seventeen specimens of Thomasomys erro in the vicinity of Papallacta, were collected. Of these, eleven were taken in dense secondary vegetation, five in Subalpine Rain Forest, and one in Upper Montane Rain Forest. All recorded captures were on the ground (Voss, 2003).
136345		population	eng	It is rare. The <em>Thomasomys erro</em> reported in 1980 was the first report since the original description in the 1920s (Voss, 2003).
136345		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136346		conservation	eng	This is a widespread and adaptable species, which occurs in a number of protected areas where suitable (forest) habitat is available. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136346		distribution	eng	Occurs in north-east Brazil in the eastern part of the state of Maranhão, from the basin of the rios Mearim and Itapecuru, through Piaui, Ceará, into Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Paraíba  and Apagoas. It ranges west of the Rio São Francisco, through the Cerrado or bush savanna, in Tocantins, Goiás, western Minas Gerais and part of western Bahia, and north-eastern Mato Grosso, being replaced by <em>C. apella</em> to the north in transition to the Amazon rain forest and the dry forests of Mato Grosso (Silva Jr., 2001). Silva Jr. (2001) indicates that the right (east) bank of the Rio Araguaia may be the westernmost limits to its range ion the north, with <em>C. apella</em> occurring west from the left bank, and further south, at the headwaters, giving way to <em>C. cay</em>. The southern limit is in the region of the Rio Grande in western Minas Gerais (<em>Triângulo Mineiro</em>). <em>C. nigritus</em> occurs to the south of the Rio Grande (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004, Rylands <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136346		habitat	eng	Dry, deciduous forest open, forest and scrub of the Caatinga of north-east Brazil, gallery forest and dry forests of the cerrado (bush savanna) of Central Brazil.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Izawa 1979; Fernandes 1991). Group sizes range from 6 or 7 to 20, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Freese and Oppenmheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).
136346		population	eng	There are no population desnity estimates available.
136346		threats	eng	This species is hunted in many parts of its range, much of which is open savanna grassland or thorny desert scrub. However, it is wide-ranging, and there is no reason to believe that the species is threatened at the present time. The region over which it occurs is undergoing habitat loss due to the expanding agricultural frontier (charcoal, soy, etc.). Some wild individuals are collected for the pet trade.
136347		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Known to occur in the Anjiamangarana and Bora Special Reserves (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further surveys are needed to determine the full extent of its range and population status, and to confirm the taxonomic distinctiveness of this taxon.
136347		distribution	eng	Known only from six forest fragments between the rivers Sofia and Maevarano in north-west Madagascar (Olivieri <em>et al.</em> 2006). Prior to recent taxonomic revisions, the mouse lemurs in this region were  assumed to be <em>M. ravelobensis</em>.
136347		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of deciduous forest.
136347		population	eng	Unknown.
136347		threats	eng	Unknown.
136348		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas (one locality) and seems reliant of mature primary forest.
136348		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northwestern Ecuador and southwestern Colombia (Dávalos, 2004), and is known from only three localities (1 in Ecuador and 2 in Colombia). These three localities are known as areas of high endemism and are in primary forest.
136348		habitat	eng	This bat has been captured along with other glossophagines (<em>Anoura</em> spp.) in a disturbed secondary forest in nets left open overnight due to continuous rain (B. Lim pers. comm.). The habitat associated with the capture of <em>L. chocoana</em> has been characterized as disturbed, and the simultaneous capture of other glossophagines probably indicates the presence of local food resources, regardless of the habitat condition (Dávalos, 2004). This species is very poorly known.
136348		population	eng	This bat is rare, known from only a few records (Dávalos, 2004).
136348		threats	eng	Habitat degradation.
136349		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed on ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.
136349		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ecuadorian Andes. It is known from a few records from slopes Pichincha volcano (00°15'S, 78°33'W, 3,500 m) (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136349		habitat	eng	<em>T. vulcani</em> is poorly known. This is nocturnal and terrestrial. It occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo into the western Andean cordillera (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136349		population	eng	This species is rare, known from less than five records (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136349		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136350		conservation	eng	Although it is known to occur in some protected areas and likely to occur in others within its range, the species is not the target of management plans and actions. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Centronycteris maximiliani</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
136350		distribution	eng	This species can be found in areas between southern Mexico and southeastern Peru (Simmons 2005). There are records from Bolivia (GMA Andes).  Found between 0-500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000). Point locality Rio Ure Cordoba Colombia (Mantilla, pers comm.)
136350		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in mature rainforests, semi-deciduous forests and secondary forests; it tends to roost in hollow trees and on tree trunks. It appears to be a slow flier and has a rather regular pattern of foraging in its home range, a feature shared with other emballonurids. It forages in beats, with a slow, fluttering flight. They have been noted flying in the late afternoon. Pregnant females have been noted in May. Its flight is slow and deliberate; individuals may patrol the same area repeatedly (Eisenberg 1989; Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997; Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989).
136350		population	eng	It is apparently rare everywhere in its geographic range (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997). Abundant in intact habitat, restricted by the quality of the forest (Miller pers. comm.)
136350		threats	eng	Local level deforestation.
136351		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the Kasungu National Park in Malawi. Further field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution range, threats and conservation status of this species.
136351		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently only known from Malawi, where it has been collected in the Kasungu National Park (collected in 1982 and 1988) and (most probably) the Karonga area (collected in 1961) (Bergmans and van Strien 2004).
136351		habitat	eng	Bergmans and van Strien (2004) record that 'the type specimen was mist netted in Miombo woodland at an elevation of 1,000 m, over a stream  between two water berry trees, <em>Syzygium cordatum</em> Hochst., in fruit (Bergmans <em>et al.</em>, 1983).' Furthermore, they state that 'the vegetation of Lifupa Camp, the locality where the female paratype was collected (exact elevation unknown, but between 1,000 and 1,100 m) is Miombo woodland with <em>Brachystegia</em> and <em>Julbernardia</em> (Bergmans <em>et al.</em>, 1983)'.
136351		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens.
136351		threats	eng	Bergmans and van Strien (2004) note that they "have no reason to believe that the species is in any danger but at the same time the available data are few and between 43 and 16 years old".
136352		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas.
136352		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Venezuela, through Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, to Amapá, Brazil, and southwards to Amazonas and Pará, Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136352		habitat	eng	The species in this nocturnal genus occur in lowland areas where they feed on seeds, insects and fruit (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The litter size ranges from two to four (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
136352		population	eng	Populations in this genus undergo great fluctuations in abundance throughout the annual cycle (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
136352		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136353		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Serrania Huanchaca, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology and threats to this species.
136353		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Bolivia, Santa Cruz Department, Velasco Province, Serrania de Huanchaca, Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, Campamento "Huanchaca II", 14°31'S, 60°44'W, 700 m (Emmons, 1999).
136353		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from well drained or rarely- and shallowly-flooded open savanna with dense bunch grass and scattered trees or shrubs. It is not known if this species can occur in modified habitats. This species co-occurs with <em>Kunsia tomentosa</em> (Emmons, 1999).
136353		population	eng	This species was common in several localities within the park, but may have recently declined (2004-2007, Emmons unpubl.)
136353		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. There are no people in the area. Failure to burn and overgrowth of the grasslands with shrubs or trees may affect population densities of this species (Emmons, L. pers. comm.).
136354		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
136354		distribution	eng	NE Turkey (humid forest along southern shore of Black Sea east of type locality), N Caucasus (Russia), S Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and W Azerbaijan), and NW Iran. The western range limit are undefined; there are records further west based on morphology that have not been karyotyped. The southern and western range limits are not well defined. Elevation: 500-1,400 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).
136354		distribution	eng	Northeastern Turkey (humid forest along southern shore of Black Sea east of type locality), northern Caucasus (Russia), southern Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and W Azerbaijan), and northwest Iran. The western range limit are undefined; there are records further west based on morphology that have not been karyotyped. The southern and western range limits are not well defined. Elevation: 500-1,400 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).
136354		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mixed forests, shrubland and forest clearings as well as in alpine pastures. The species prefers forest clearings and does well in degraded habitats. Also occurs in bogs.
136354		population	eng	The species is common over its wide distribution.
136354		threats	eng	No major threats.
136355		conservation	eng	It occurs in a protected area within its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
136355		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bahia State, Brazil.
136355		habitat	eng	The species occurs in gallery forest and open vegetation, cerrado and rocky outcrops (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
136355		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
136355		threats	eng	This rodent is hunted and may be affected by fire in rupestrian fields (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).
136356		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Lesneur National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136356		distribution	eng	This species occurs across Sumatra, in Indonesia. The type locality is 150 km north of Bencoolen, upper Ketuan River, Lebang Tandai.
136356		habitat	eng	It has been mist netted from lowland primary forest in Lesneur National Forest (U. Sinaga pers. comm.), and also collected from secondary forest (D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm.).
136356		population	eng	It is considered rare and uncommon (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
136356		threats	eng	This species is not hunted. Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture and plantations, logging and forest fires is a major threat particularly in lowland areas.
136357		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures yet to preserve this new species.
136357		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Southern Ceara state, northeastern Brazil (Tribe, 2005).
136357		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in open fields, in palm trees, and other trees (Tribe, 2005). It is associated with agricultural lands, soil ranging from sandy to stony and black earth, near permanent and intermittent rivers.
136357		population	eng	This species was recently described and there is no information on population or abundance.
136357		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136358		conservation	eng	Needs to have a proper taxonomic evaluation. It occurs in several protected areas.
136358		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Atlantic Forest Region of southeast Brazil, Bahia to Santa Catarina States, and along riverine forest into Cerrado and Caatinga regions; limits poorly documented (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136358		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Cerrado and Caatinga where it is found along rivers. The species can persist in secondary and degraded areas (Paglia pers. comm.).
136358		population	eng	This rodent is locally common in areas of the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado (Paglia pers. comm.).
136358		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation by agricultural expansion and urbanization.
136359		conservation	eng	The type locality is in Manusela National Park. There is a need for further survey work to more appropriately determine the range of this species on Seram, and also the habitat requirements of the species.
136359		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, on the south coast of Seram island, Piliana, (3°15'S, 129°30'E at 400 m) (Helgen 2003; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is likely to occur more widely in the lowlands than current records suggest (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
136359		habitat	eng	This species was recored in a moderately disturbed low elevation rainforest in precipitous limestone country (Helgen 2003). It was formerly included as a subspecies of <em>Melomys rufescens</em>, which is rarely encountered in undisturbed forest, and seems to favor modified habitats such as village gardens and secondary forest (Helgen 2003). It is probably sympatric with <em>Melomys fulgens</em> (Helgen 2003).
136359		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype (Helgen 2003), and there is no information on current population status.
136359		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to logging, although as noted it probably can adapt to some habitat degradation as is typical of <em>M. rufescens</em>.
136360		conservation	eng	Surveys (if possible combined with those for other poorly known and regionally endemic mammals) in the Southern Annamites and southern portions of the Central Annamites (in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR) at a range of altitudes and in various habitats are urgently required to document the species’s range, status, and habitat and altitudinal preferences, using appropriate methods such as camera-trapping and specimen collection. Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) urged for particular attention to be paid to forests persisting around Nhatrang and Buon Loui; but given the lack of ecological similarities between these areas, either the Nhatrang location is in error or the species has a wide ecological tolerance. In either case, this urges surveys to be extensive rather than focussed on only these two areas. The suggestion in Meijaard and Groves (2004b) that "the main external differences between <em>T. kanchil</em> and <em>T. versicolor</em> are distinctive and it is likely that, if <em>T. versicolor</em> still exists, local hunters will know both species" should not be taken to suggest that village information alone would be a suitable survey method, rather that it may help in determining where to invest time and effort in camera-traps. After examination of three of Thomas’s (1910) specimens alongside specimens of <em>T. kanchil</em> from Indochina, R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) thought that field identification of <em>Tragulus</em> (or from photogpaphs) should be done very cautiously, and that there could be circumstances for confusion; experience with muntjacs <em>Muntiacus</em> in Indochina urges caution with both field identification and use of villager information in surveying for species (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Until one or more populations are found, further conservation measures cannot be recommended additional to the general need to consolidate the declared protected areas in southern Indochina into functioning biodiversity conservation areas.
136360		distribution	eng	The specimens used by Thomas (1910) to describe this species were acquired at Nhatrang on the coast of southern Viet Nam (12°15'N 109°10'E). The provenance of the specimens cannot be certain, although there is no specific reason to doubt it, because they may have been acquired in trade. Another specimen was obtained from local hunters on 16 January 1990 at about 500 m asl near the River Tra (a tributary of the River Ba) around Dak Rong and Buon Luoi, about 20 km north of Kan Nack (Gia Lai province, Viet Nam) and is now held at the Zoological Museum of Moscow University (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little conscious knowledge of the species, so surveys have not sought it; many have assumed that only one <em>Tragulus</em> occurs in most of Indochina and therefore not critically identified records. Confusion was fomented by the widespread inclusion of <em>T. versicolor</em> within <em>T. napu</em>, although in many external characters <em>T. versicolor</em> is more like <em>T. kanchil</em> than it is <em>T. napu</em> (Meijaard and Groves 2004a; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), meaning that even surveyors who thought they had correctly excluded ‘the second Indochinese chevrotain’ from their records of <em>T. kanchil</em> (then referred to as <em>T. javanicus</em>) had not in fact done so (e.g. almost all records from Lao PDR in the 1990s). Few, if any, records of <em>Tragulus</em> from Indochina other than those in Meijaard and Groves (2004a) and in Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) have been positively identified to species using criteria that could distinguish <em>T. versicolor</em> from <em>T. kanchil</em>. However, the species is certainly not as widespread as <em>T. kanchil</em> in Indochina (which is known from a scattering of specimens from throughout southern and central Indochina; Meijaard and Groves 2004a; E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008), and analysis of <em>Tragulus</em> photos (by R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) from camera-traps from a number of localities (central Annamites: Quang Nam; B. Long/WWF; Virachey NP; Huy Keavuth/WWF; Northern Annamites: Nakai-Nam Theun NPA; W.G. Robichaud/J. Johnson/WMPA; eastern Cambodian lowlands; Huy Keavuth/WWF) have either been of unidentifiable chevrotains or more commonly have certainly been of <em>T. kanchil</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The same appears to be true of photos from camera-traps from Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area in eastern Cambodia (J. Walston pers. comm. 2005 to R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>T. versicolor</em> would be difficult to separate confidently from <em>T. kanchil</em> especially under field conditions and this is so even on photographs. Thus, building knowledge on the species is likely to prove difficult and time consuming (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Distinguishing characters were discussed by Meijaard and Groves (2004a) and by Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004). The latter, admittedly on the basis of a single specimen which, lacking a skull, could not be aged, confirmed the pelage pattern differences described in the earlier source, but suspected that <em>T. versicolor</em> might be smaller than sympatric <em>T. kanchil</em>, rather than consistently larger.
136360		habitat	eng	Speculation on habitat and altitudinal preferences are complicated by the diverse range of habitats (from deciduous to evergreen) and the abrupt changes in altitudinal range (sea-level to 500 m asl) in the two localities for which evidence of presence comes (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), taking Nhatrang as a true locality. The 1990 specimen came from an area from where 24 specimens of <em>T. kanchil</em> were collected during 1980–1993, indicating sympatry, although records are not located precisely enough to speculate on actual syntopy (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004).
136360		population	eng	There is no meaningful way of estimating population levels or trends. The paucity of records of the species cannot be taken as evidence of real rarity because of the likelihood that records of the species have in the past been mistakenly identified as <em>T. kanchil</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) stated that the specimen they identified as <em>T. versicolor</em> in 2004 had been noted at time of collection (1990) as oddly coloured, and that none of the other 24 chevrotains examined in the Buon Luoi area in the 1978–1993 period were similar. Also, the same team’s investigations further south on the Tay Nguyen plateau were quite extensive, and encountered and collected many chevrotains without any other specimens of <em>T. versicolor</em> having come to light in the Russian collections (Viet Namese ones have apparently not been checked). Retrospective statements without the specimens to hand can only be provisional and moreover even if the low ratio around Buon Luoi is genuine, this might simply reflect suboptimal habitat for the species at that site (e.g. through altitude, humidity, underlying geology). It cannot be taken as indicating that <em>T. versicolor</em> is generally rare across its range. It is impossible to determine whether <em>T. versicolor</em> is genuinely specialised to certain habitat types within a restricted range, or a common species (perhaps even the predominant chevrotain species) over wide areas of southern Indochina from where there is very little information on <em>Tragulus</em> rigorously identified to species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).
136360		threats	eng	Threats to the species are little more than speculation. The forests of Viet Nam are subject to very high levels of indiscriminate hunting especially snaring for small game such as chevrotains and civets (Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Timmins <em>et al.</em> 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) and specifically this is so around Buon Luoi (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). In general, hunting pressure may be somewhat lower in southern regions of the country although this region is less well known when compared with the northern Annamites and the northern parts of the Central Annamites (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Whether this species would be able to cope with high hunting levels is not yet debatable as there are no relevant data, but some congeners persist in the face of very heavy hunting, even in fragmented and degraded landscapes (see 2008 Red List accounts of other Tragulus). Declines in <em>T. versicolor</em> are very likely to have happened to some extent, because even the most resilient ground-dwelling species in chevrotain size-class occur in unnaturally low densities in most forest areas of Viet Nam (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Spotlight surveys in protected areas around Buon Luoi totalling 100 hours in about year 2003 found no chevrotains (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004), but the significance of this is unclear, as chevrotains are absent or exceptionally rare in various Lao forests whence they cannot plausibly have been eradicated, given their persistence in other more heavily hunted and degraded areas (see 2008 account for <em>T. kanchil</em>). Hunting patterns are similar in Lao PDR and Cambodia, which may also be found to support the species, although the intensity and severity of hunting is generally less than in Viet Nam, but on the increase (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation and fragmentation may also be threats, depending on how well the species persists in such areas. These processes occur widely in the species' known range and throughout its plausible range. Habitat conversion is more likely to reduce or eliminate populations where it occurs, although there is no evidence of whether <em>T. versicolor</em> can use plantation crop landscapes. By the mid 1990s the area around Buon Luoi had been completely deforested and converted to agriculture (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). Although protected areas remain in the general region, all are being logged and heavily hunted (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). No information is available on the current status of the habitat whence came the original material, because this is not known precisely.
136361		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed because this species has a restricted range and low density, making it vulnerable to various threats.
136361		distribution	eng	This species occurs in San Luis Potosi and south-east Zacatecas (Mexico) (Patton 2005).  It is found from 1,600 to 2,400 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
136361		habitat	eng	This species is exclusively found in xerophilius shrub (Ceballos and Oliva 2005), and can be found on the desert plains. It occurs along rocky cutbanks and along old stone walls. It is less restricted to areas of soft soil. It is nocturnal, emerging from burrows at the bases of desert plants or crevices in rock cliffs or rocks walls, one hour after dark and rarely straying far from cover.<br/><br/>Food consists of the seeds of prickly pear cactus (<em>Opuntia</em>). The fruits may be opened and partially eaten, presumably by birds, and seeds falling to the ground are gathered by lined pocket mice (Best 1993). However, <em>C. lineatus</em> apparently does not feed on the red pulp of the cactus fruit (Dalquest 1953).
136361		population	eng	This species occurs at low densities (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
136361		threats	eng	The combination of restricted distribution and low density could make this species to vulnerable to habitat change or other threats.
136362		conservation	eng	The species is found in Timboong Hibok-Hibok Natural Monument (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
136362		distribution	eng	This species is found so far only on Camiguin Island, Philippines, in the Bohol Sea (Heaney and Tabaranza 2006) is likely to be restricted to this island (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is found from the central highlands of the island, the only location of surveys where it has been documented from 1,000-1,400 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136362		habitat	eng	The species was caught in disturbed lowland forest and primary montane and mossy forest (Heaney and Tabaranza 2006). Some surveys in lowland, heavily disturbed agricultural areas did not find any records (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). The known area is very steep, cold and wet (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
136362		population	eng	This species is moderately to very common in known elevations (Heaney and Tabaranza 1997; Heaney and Tabaranza 2006).
136362		threats	eng	The region is under threat from both commercial and local logging; almost all of the lowland forest is gone, although there is some forest left in highlands (L. Heaney pers. comm.). The farmers at 600-800 m, and up to 1,000 m have been moving away from farmlands due to poor soils, and for tourism jobs on the coast of island.
136363		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
136363		distribution	eng	Northern Mexico including Baja California south to Panama (Davalos and Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
136363		habitat	eng	These bats are generally found in dry and semi-deciduous forest and secondary growth forests, and are occasionaly found in evergreen forest. They can be found at elevations up to 2,400 m, but are usually found around 300 m. They roost in moist caves. (Reid 1997). Little is known about mating systems in this family (Reid 1997). In El Salvador and Mexico, <em>N. stramineus</em> is reported to breed during the dry season. In Mexico and Central America, pregnant females have been found from January through July, and gestation is thought to last 8 to 10 months. Females are thought to be monoestrus, and to have slow development of the fetus. A single offspring is produced annually, weighing almost half of the adult mass, or about 2.1 g (Nowak 1999). During the breeding season, the sexes apparently segregate, so that males and females roost separately. (Nowak 1999, Reid 1997). Groups of Mexican funnel-eared bats leave the roost approximately 30 minutes after sunset to feed on small, flying insects (Reid 1997).
136363		population	eng	This species generally roosts in deep, moist caves. These bats are typically found in groups of up to 300 bats in one colony. While roosting in the caves, the individuals are spaced out widely in the dark caverns. Most flight occurs at understory level, with great speed and agility in dipping, twisting, and dodging the vegetation. These bats are most active within 2 hours after sunset. As the evening progresses, the bats may use nighttime refugia which differ from their normal daily roosting location. Northern populations will sometimes migrate, causing colony size to vary considerably (Reid 1997).
136363		threats	eng	Cave issues, like mining and tourism.
136364		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from a protected area. There is only one protected area between the two localities in the known habitat, Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136364		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Chanchamayo Valley of Peru (Gardner, 2007). The type locality of this species is Utcuyacu, between Tarma and Chanchamayo, Junin (11°12'S, 75°28'W, 1463 m) (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Also, there may be an additional record from Huanuco Department, central Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,460 m up to 2,200 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136364		habitat	eng	It is found only in primary montane forest. Other ecological aspects are unknown (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136364		population	eng	The species is known only from the holotype and one additional individual (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136364		threats	eng	There is agricultural expansion in the area, mainly subsistence agriculture. In the lower elevation, there are illicit (coca) crops which may expand further (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136365		conservation	eng	It presumably occurs in several protected areas in China. This species has been recently recorded from Mount Tay Con Linh II Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
136365		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in China, where it has been recorded from Gansu, Hubei and a large part of southwestern Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em> 2008; Smith and Xie 2008). It also extends into northern Viet Nam, where it has recently been recorded from Mount Tay Con Linh II (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). It might occur more widely, possibly even in northern Lao PDR and Myanmar.
136365		habitat	eng	It is believed to occur mainly in forested habitats. Specimens from Viet Nam were collected in bamboo forest between 1,500-1,700 m elevation (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
136365		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136365		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range.
136366		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>El Rey National Park Province of Salta (44,162 ha) (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1986; Brown 1989)<br/>Calilegua National Park, Province of Jujuy (76,000 ha) (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1986; Brown 1989)<br/>Baritú National Park Province of Jujuy (72,000 ha) (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1986; Brown 1989)<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado Natonal Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1998)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (136,046 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra da Bodoquena National Park (77,232 ha) (in range)<br/>Acurizal Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Penha Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Boqueirão Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Singapura Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda América Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Trevo Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Floresta Negra Private reserve (RPPN)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Ybicui National Park (5,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Cerro Cora National Park (5,500 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Caaguazu National Park (6,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Kuri y National reserve (2,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Yakui Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Nacunday Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136366		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>C. a. paraguayanus</em> (here referred to as <em>C. cay</em>) is described by Cabrera (1957) as the south of the state of Mato Grosso (now the states of Mato Grosso and Mato do Grosso do Sul) and extreme south-east of Goiás, Brazil, through Paraguay, to south-east Bolivia, to northern Argentina, including the provinces of extreme south-east Jujuy, Salta, Formosa, and Chaco (Mantecon <em>et al</em>. 1984; Brown 1989). In Paraguay, <em>C. cay</em> occurs to the east of the Río Paraguai (Hill 1960; Stallings 1985, 1989). Capuchin monkeys are not found in the chaco region of the Provinces of Formosa and Chaco in northern Argentina. So the distribution of <em>C. cay</em> forms a horseshoe shape, bordering the xerophytic chaco of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay (Brown and Rumiz 1986). In the west, the limits are defined by the Andes in Argentina and Bolivia, and in the east it is confined to eastern Paraguay, east of the Rio Paraguai. Probably its southernmost limit in the east is defined by the confluence of the Rios Paraguai and Paraná, about 27º15’S.
136366		habitat	eng	This is a subtropical humid and semi-deciduous forest species, ranging into the Yungas, the dry deciduous forests of northern Bolivian Chaco, eastern Paragiuay (not recorded in the Paraguayan chaco; Stallings 1985, 1989), and the Pantanal. It is an adaptable species that also occurs in degraded habitats.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Stallings (1985) recorded an average size of seven for four groups in the Ybicui National Park: population density there was estimated 4 groups/km² or 28 individuals/km². Wallace <em>et al</em>. (1998) recorded an average group size of nine (n=47, SD±5.7, range 1-25) and estimated a population density of 14.1 individuals/km² in the Noel Kempff Mercado Natonal Park in Bolivia. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male 1.35-4.8 kg (mean 3.05 kg); adult female: 1.76-3.4 kg (mean 2.4 kg) (Jack 2007).
136366		population	eng	There is no information on population densities available.
136366		threats	eng	There are no major threats. It is hunted for subsistence purposes in some of its range, but human population density is typically low in those areas. Hunting (by Indigenous peoples) and forest loss are the main threats in eastern Paraguay (Stallings 1985). As elsewhere in its range, in Paraguay, <em>Cebus cay</em> is the most common primate pet.
136367		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within its range. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.
136367		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra de Famatina in Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Its range is thought to extend to eastern San Juan Province, in Argentina (Cabrera, 1961), possibly in Sierra del Valle Fertil and/or Sierra Pie de Palo (Braun and Mares 2002).
136367		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky outcrops in grasslands (Thomas, 1920) at elevations over 3,800 m asl.
136367		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136367		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
136368		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in its range.
136368		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cerrado of Matto Grosso do Sul to Goiás and west Minas Gerais, central Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).
136368		habitat	eng	This species is tolerant to habitat modification including agricultural areas (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).
136368		population	eng	This species is very common (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).
136368		threats	eng	Threats to some populations include agricultural expansion, cattle, and soybeans.
136369		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in Andohahela National Park, the Ste. Luce Private Reserve, and in the Mandena Conservation Zone (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further studies are required to determine the exact distribution range of this species.
136369		distribution	eng	Restricted to the reserve of Andohahela and the area of Sainte Luce in south-eastern Madagascar (Zaramody <em>et al.</em> 2006)
136369		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforest.
136369		population	eng	Unknown.
136369		threats	eng	Unknown.
136370		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136370		distribution	eng	Southern Cordoba and southern San Luis Provinces, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It no longer occurs near the type locality of La Carlota, Cordoba Province (Tiranti <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136370		habitat	eng	Historically, this species natural habitat was Pampas.
136370		population	eng	This species is naturally rare (Bidau pers. comm.).
136370		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss to conversion to agriculture.
136371		conservation	eng	This rodent can be found within Caparao National Park (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136371		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Minas Gerais, and Espírito Santo to Rio de Janeiro States, between 1,300-2,700 m, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136371		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical moist forest and humid montane forest and scrub areas.
136371		population	eng	This rodent is known from very few specimens, the first being described in 1998 (Leite pers. comm.).
136371		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
136372		conservation	eng	It is listed as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has not been recorded from protected areas although it could occur in Brahmagiri and Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuaries in Coorg, Karnataka. Distribution, ecological and population studies are recommended (S. Molur pers. comm.).
136372		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern Western Ghats, especially the Nilgiris (Musser and Carleton 2005) and the Coorg Western Ghats of Brahmagiri and Pushpagiri areas (S. Molur pers. comm.). It ranges from 900 to 2,100 m asl and is restricted in its extent of occurrence to less than 5,000 sq km. and its area of occupancy to less than 500 sq km. based on available undisturbed montane habitats. Specimens of <em>Vandeleuria</em> in central northern Coorg match the descriptions of <em>V. nilagirica</em>, while those in the south and southeast in the low lying areas are <em>V. oleracea</em>. Specimens from Raigad district of Maharashtra and foothills of the Nilgiris in Anaikatty near Coimbatore are <em>V. oleracea</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.).
136372		habitat	eng	It is seen in evergreen montane forests and relatively undisturbed plantations of coffee, banana and cardamom with native canopy (S. Molur pers. comm.). It builds spherical to oval shaped nests of grass and leaves in forks of trees or on coffee. It is usually found nesting in pairs in the months of October to February. Once the young mature, the family abandons the nests and seek shelter in tree holes and shallow nests high up in trees (S. Molur pers. comm.).
136372		population	eng	Very patchy in distribution, the only good population (inferred from the number of active nests) was seen in a relatively undisturbed coffee plantation close to a forest fragment in Haleri, Coorg (S. Molur pers. comm.)
136372		threats	eng	Human disturbance, use of pesticides and exotic trees are found to be major threats to this species (S. Molur pers. comm.).
136373		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Field studies are needed to determine important roosting and foraging sites for this species. It does not appear to be present in any protected areas.
136373		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the islands of Mioko, New Britain, New Ireland, Sakar, Duke of York, and Umboi in the Bismarck Achipelago of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995, Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl. Records from the main island of New Guinea are likely vagrants.
136373		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in lowland and hill forests, secondary forest, plantations, logged forest, and in gardens at the forest edge. It is also found on coconut plantations (feeding on coconut flowers). It roosts in vegetation (Flannery 1995, Bonaccorso 1998). Presumably females give birth to a single young. There is male lactation in this species. Lifespan averages 8–10 years and reaches maturity at 1–2 years of age.
136373		population	eng	This cryptic species is distributed at low densities over a wide range.
136373		threats	eng	The species is threatened by intensive logging activities on New Britain and New Ireland Islands. The species is probably highly threatened through the clearing of land for oil palm plantations and the subsequent loss of roost sites. Logging is most pervasive at low elevations within this species' range (for estimates of forest cover loss on New Britain for the period of 1989–2000, see Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
136374		conservation	eng	May be present in some protected areas.
136374		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bismarck Archipelago and Admiralty Group of Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from the following provinces: East New Britain, Manus, Medang Province, Morobe Province (Umboi), New Ireland, West New Britain (Bonaccorso 1998), and Northern Solomons (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.
136374		habitat	eng	This species lives in colonies which roost in tree hollows, caves, and man-made tunnels. It feeds on canopy and subcanopy fruits (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). Found in many habitats, including human dominated environments. Females give birth to a single young.
136374		population	eng	It is a common species that may have increased in abundance with development, because it feeds in agricultural areas.
136374		threats	eng	Local populations are vulnerable to the disturbance of caves and overhunting.
136375		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas.
136375		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Brazil south to Paraguay and into northeastern Argentina (Gardner 2007).
136375		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland evergreen rainforest. Habitats and ecological requirements are probably similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Philander opossum. </span>
136375		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (M. Passamani and D. Brito pers. comm.). However, population trends are unknown in Argentina and Paraguay.
136375		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species (D. Brito pers. comm.).
136376		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not known from any protected areas. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136376		distribution	eng	Found between the Betsiboka and Mahavavy du Sud Rivers in western Madagascar. The southern extent of the range across the Mahavavy du Sud River is unknown (Andriaholinirina <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136376		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
136376		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136376		threats	eng	Unknown, but presumably habitat loss is a threat.
136377		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Studies into the apparent loss of populations at some localities are needed.
136377		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of northern and northeastern Iran (from southern foothills of Elburz Mountains in Semnan Province near Semnan and adjacent Sang-i-sar eastward through northern Khorasan Province in northeastern Iran to the Mashhad region), southwestern and southern Turkmenistan (from Little Balkhan Mountain east through the Kopet Dag Mountains to east of the Tedzhen River), and northwest Afghanistan (Herat Province). (Lebedev <em>et al.</em> 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005; Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008). Southern and eastern borders of the range are unresolved.
136377		habitat	eng	Little is known about its ecology, what is known is from Iran where the species is found in barren, dry and rocky mountain sides with little vegetation. It nests in concealed rock crevices, individuals frequently share favourable shelter sites and feeds on Bromus grasses. It does not seem to be as exclusively nocturnal, during the summer months it is active only during the hours of darkness, but in autumn and winter it can be seen foraging by day. The breeding season is long with early pregnancy observed from October to November, two litters per year is usual.
136377		population	eng	Information on the status is conflicting, some report the species to be abundant, whilst anecdotal information from field workers suggests the species is rarely encountered and may be approaching extinction at some localities.
136377		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
136378		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas, but these are rapidly becoming isolated. The species is not well protected in Ecuador.
136378		distribution	eng	Occurs in northwest Peru and western Ecuador. The species may also occur in northwest Colombia, however, there are no records (Velazco pers. comm.).
136378		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist forests on the west of the Andes. 50-680 m asl (Velazco pers com).
136378		population	eng	Not abundant (Velazco pers com)..
136378		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and increasing human settlements (Velazco pers. com)..
136379		conservation	eng	On Christmas Island, there were a number of survey for this species s in the 1980s and 1990s. Further surveys appropriate to the problems of the island (destruction of traps by Coconut Crabs) are needed. If populations are found, there is a need for investigation of the taxonomic status, and - dependent on results of this - a captive insurance colony and other <em>in-situ</em> conservation measures. <br/><br/>There is a Recovery Plan for this species (Schulz 2002), which outlines the following needed actions: investigate the taxonomic status of the shrew; investigate current status and distribution; develop wildlife management program for potential habitat outside the Christmas Island National Park; control abundance and spread of the yellow crazy ant; implement a community awareness programme; establish a captive breeding population; implement effective management of any remaining wild populations; identify and describe critical habitat; and identify threatening processes. This Recovery Plan also outlines the following Management Practices: "No removal of primary plateau rainforest within Christmas Island National Park; implementation of the Invasive Ants on Christmas Island Action Plan; ensure tight quarantine controls to prevent accidental introductions of new diseases and exotic pests; implement feral cat and black rat control programmes within primary plateau and terrace rainforest; and maintainenance of existing habitat quality or primary rainforest through strategies to minimize spread of exotic weeds following the Weed Management Strategy".
136379		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Christmas Island (Australia).
136379		habitat	eng	The most recent records are from tall plateau rainforest in deep soils, and terrace rainforest with shallow soils (Schulz 2002). It is not known whether or not this species can tolerate secondary growth, but there appear to be no records around human settlements on the island (Schulz 2002). It was recorded using holes in rocks and roots of trees as shelter, and foraging predominantly on small beetles (Andrews 1900).
136379		population	eng	<em>C. trichura</em> was common in 1900 (Andrews 1900) but already rare in 1909 (Andrews 1909). The most recent specimens (two animals) were found in 1985. Several unconfirmed reports occurred between 1996 and 1998 but a survey undertaken in 2000 to determine the status of the shrew were not successful in finding any individuals (Meek 2000). <em>C. trichura</em> formed part of the endemic mammal fauna of the Christmas Island, along with <em>Rattus nativitatis</em> and <em>R. macleari</em>, both of which are now extinct (Meek 2000). It is possible that <em>C. trichura</em> is also now extinct.
136379		threats	eng	The reasons for the reduction of the population on Christmas Island are unknown. Schulz (2002) lists the following potential threats in the Recovery Plan for this species: disease; the introduced yellow crazy ant (<em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em>) which is a dangerous threat for many terrestrial animals on Christmas Island; habitat loss; habitat alteration (in part through the spread of invasive weeds); predation by both introduced and natural predators (including cats and black rats); small population size; and mortality due to road traffic.
136380		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected within the Welder Wildlife Refuge of Texas.
136380		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazos River in south-central Texas (Milam and Burleson counties) south along the west bank of the Brazos River to the Gulf Coast (Matagorda County), southwest along the coast beyond Rockport (Aransas and San Patricio counties), and northwestward to Atacosa County (Williams and Cameron 1991).
136380		habitat	eng	They are found in sandy soils of bunchgrass and annual forb community (Williams and Cameron 1984, Cameron <em>et al.</em> 1988), they also occur in silty clay loam soils and in habitat dominated by annual plants. They are fossorial, rarely occurring above ground. The diet is generalized and is composed mainly of grasses and forbs, of which they take above and below ground portions in equal amounts. Breeding occurs between October and June with females giving birth to an average of two young per litter and may have more than one litter per season. The burrows of this pocket gopher do not follow the linear patterns of similar species, but instead are convoluted, often criss-crossing an area.<br/><br/>Radio telemetry indicated activity throughout day in May, but they spent more than 60% of the day in nest area (Cameron <em>et al</em>. 1988). Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988).
136380		population	eng	Attwater's pocket gopher is common within its range (NatureServe). Population densities can range from 11 to 43 individuals per hectare (Williams and Cameron 1991).
136380		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. It is often viewed as a pest species. Gophers eat crops, their burrows lessen soil stability and the mounds of soil created at the openings of burrows destroy underlying vegetation. Because of this they are often targets of trapping and rodenticide.
136381		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
136381		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Cuba.
136381		habitat	eng	An insectivorous species.
136381		population	eng	This species is known from recent fossil deposits suggesting that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.
136381		threats	eng	Introduced rats are the most probable reason for the extinction of this species. Fossil deposits of this species have been found with rat fossils.
136382		conservation	eng	This species has been recently recorded from Mounnt Tay Con Linh II Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136382		distribution	eng	This species is found on Hainan Island (China). It is also known from Mount Tay Con Linh II, Ha Giang Province, northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). The exact limits of species' distribution are unknown, and it is expected to occur more widely.
136382		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Specimens have been captured in forests between 1,300-1,500 m asl (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003).  It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
136382		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136382		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture, timber extraction and human settlement.
136383		conservation	eng	It is listed (as <em>Capra aegagrus</em>) on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (natural populations only). <br/><br/>On Crete it is fully protected under national law, which is well enforced. Part of the agrimi's distribution on Crete falls within Samaria (Lefka Ori or White Mountains) National Park. There are no current management plans in operation other then an attempt to control poaching. Agrimi inhabiting Theodorou island also receive protection. Shackleton (1997) proposes the following measures for agrimi on Crete: 1) Establish a strict control program to eliminate feral goats inside Samaria National Park to remove the threat of hybridization with the agrimi. Only reducing or eliminating the herds of domestic goats from the surrounding areas will prevent their immigration into the Park. 2) Continue improving the control of poaching by regularly patrolling the Park during winter, and by allowing no further increases in access. 3) Impose greater controls on tourism developments in the Park. These should include banning the development of major tourist facilities (chair/ski lifts, hotels, restaurants, roads, etc.) in the mountain regions of the Park and its surroundings, and strictly controlling visitor use (e.g. specific hours of use enforced, no overnight use of the Park). 4) The population should be censused and the area surveyed regularly throughout the Lefka mountains, paying special attention to the degree of hybridisation and human encroachment. 5) Overall, it may be desirable to eradicate domestic x wild goat hybrids, unfortunately F1 hybrids are difficult to distinguish from agrimi in either external appearance or behaviour. (However, compared to agrimi, the hybrid' s coat appears to be slightly longer and interspersed with black hairs, the horns are curved outwards a little more and are more robust, and the resting tail is held more horizontal than downwards.) 6) Determine the degree of hybridization of the goats found on the various islands to help direct conservation management decisions. <br/><br/>On Majorca, the wild goat has been studied since 2001 and several groups have been protected in fenced areas and captive-bred (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007).  Palomo and Gisbert (2002) recommended that selective hunting should be used to remove the hybrids from the population. Since 2006, hunting of pure-bred animals has been banned (Decret 91/2006, Balearic Government) but hunting of hybrids amd recent feral domestics goats is allowed and encouraged. Trophy hunting of Mallorcan wild goats will be allowed again once populations have reached target levels stated in Decret 91/2006. To prevent poaching, capturing alive animals for trade, and illegal hunting of hybrids for commercial purposes, the Balearic Government is collaborating with SCI and Junta Nacional de Homologación de Trofeos de Caza, MMAM, Spanish Government (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007).
136383		distribution	eng	This Red List assessment refers to populations of <em>Capra hircus</em> that were introduced to Mediterranean islands  in prehistoric times, known as Cretan or Majorcan "wild" goats, or as agrimi (Cretan populations only). These feral descendants of primitive domestic stock are clearly distinct from modern domestic and feral goats, and are of conservation interest as "living fossils" and repositories of important genetic diversity (Shackleton 1997). More recent feral populations are not considered here; neither are domestic <em>Capra hircus</em>.<br/><br/>"Wild" goats can be found in mountainous areas in northern and western Majorca (Spain), and on Crete (Greece) where they were formerly widespread but are now restricted to an area of approximately 72 km<sup>2</sup> in the Lefka Mountains at the western end of the island. There is a small, semi-captive population on the small (68 ha) satellite island of Theodorou (Shackleton 1997, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Populations on the Greek islands of Dia, Agii Pantes (Agii Apostoli), Erimomilos (Antimilos), Samothrake, Gioura and others, are all considered hybrids of "wild" and modern domestic or feral goats (Shackleton 1997), as are populations in the Czech Republic (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). There are genetic and morphological differences between the Cretan and Majorcan populations (Seguí 2005). The species occurs from sea level to 1,450 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
136383		habitat	eng	Agrimi inhabit mountainous areas, where there is a mixture of rocky outcrops or scree slopes and vegetation (shrubby maquis thickets or conifer forests). They tend to be found in relatively arid habitats, and are herbivorous, feeding on grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999).
136383		population	eng	The 1985 Cretan population was estimated to be around 500 agrimi, and together with those on Theodorou island, make a total population of at least 570 to 600 agrimi in Europe at that point (Shackleton 1997). More recent population estimates vary widely, but some are as large as 2,000 individuals (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006). It occurs at high densities in at least parts of its range on Crete, although its total range is very small. In 1998 a census of Majorca found 20,000 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), although this included hybrids and feral domestic goats (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007). The current (2007) estimate of the Majorcan wild goat population is 1,500-2,000 individuals, out of a total of 10,000 including hybrids and feral descendants of modern domestic goats (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007).
136383		threats	eng	For the Cretan population, the greatest threat is hybridization with recently feral domestic goats that are common even within Samaria National Park. Other problems arise from increased road accessibility, which in turn increases tourism and poaching problems. In Majorca, hybridization with feral domestic goats is again the main threat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).
136384		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported to occur in two national parks (Andohahela and Midongy du Sud); this is also probably the species in Kalambatritra. Additional survey work is needed to establish the precise range of this species (especially relative to <em>H. griseus</em> to the north) and obtain additional info on biology and ecology.
136384		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar and is the southernmost of the bamboo lemurs. The type locality is the forestry station of Mandena, located approximately 10 km north of Tolagnaro in far southern Madagascar (Warter and Tattersall 1994). The precise range is a little unclear, but it ranges at least from Andohahela north to the Mananara River. Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> (2007) noted that an animal from Atsimo appeared to be a heterozygote between this species and <em>H. griseus</em>. Upper elevation limit unclear as animals from 1,600 m on the Andringitra Massif are now either <em>H. meridionalis</em> or hybrids between <em>H. griseus</em> and <em>H. meridionalis</em>).
136384		habitat	eng	The behaviour and ecology of this species are poorly known. It was first found in degraded littoral forests dominated by <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> and <em>Pandanus</em> spp., which at the most contained only patchy stands of bamboo. It is believed to be diurnal and to live in relatively small groups (Mutschler and Tan 2003).
136384		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
136384		threats	eng	The principal threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture (for growing Cannabis), illegal timber extraction, charcoal production, and for mining of titanium. Hunting is also a threat.
136385		conservation	eng	The Asian badger is listed as Critically Endangered under criteria A2cd on the Chinese Red List (China Species Information Service 2007). The China Red List regards <em>M. leucurus</em> as occurring only in Tibet while the populations elsewhere in the country are treated as <em>M. meles</em> and are Near Threatened. According to Wozencraft (2005), only <em>M. leucurus</em> occurs in China and hence the existing Red Listing cannot be correct. Further studies are required to clarify this situation and accurately assess threat status in the region. The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.
136385		distribution	eng	The Asian badger is found in Russia (from the Volga River through Siberia) through Middle Asia, Mongolia, China, to DPR Korea and Republic of Korea (Wozencraft 2005). The boundary between distribution ranges of European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, while <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The only locality of Asian badger distribution on the right bank of Volga River is the Zhiguli Nature Reserve (Abramov and Vekhnik, 2003). The Asian badger is widely distributed in the Urals and area easttward of the Ural Mountains. The sympatric zone between two badger species is country between the upper Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al</em>., 2003). Corbet and Hill (1992) mapped occurrence into northern Lao PDR, but there is no evidence for it occurring there (Duckworth 1997) and this is assumed to have been in error. The species is found from sea level to 2,500 m in Tian Shen Mountains, potentially higher in Tibetian Plateau up to over 4,000 m.
136385		habitat	eng	The Asian badger is similar to the European badger. It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland, but is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas, steppe and semi-deserts. <br/><br/>This species is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as mice, voles, hedgehogs and mole. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months.
136385		population	eng	The Asian badger is widespread and common.
136385		threats	eng	The Asian badger is hunted legally in China, Russia and Mongolia, as well as illegally within protected areas in China. There is an established hunting season in Russia, usually from August to November; the hunting is limited and licensed (Abramov pers. comm. 2006)
136386		conservation	eng	Research actions, found in protected areas (Mancina pers. comm.).
136386		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).
136386		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
136386		population	eng	Rare. Poorly known (Mancina pers. comm.)
136386		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136387		conservation	eng	This species is known from a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Studies are needed to determine the species' status/abundance, population trends, exploitation levels, ability to withstand habitat degradation, and taxonomic standing. Wiles <em>et al.</em> (1997) recommended a hunting ban within 100 m of bat roosts, further enforcement of a ban of firearms, and the consideration of three sites as potential protected areas, including: Ngeream Island and another unnamed island to the south-east in Airai State, the Rock Islands, and the area along the border between Melekeok and Ngiwal States in central Babeldaob Island.
136387		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Palau. It is widespread in the main islands of Palau, but is also present on nearby Kayangel Atoll and on the more distant islands of Sonsorol and Fanna. It is known from sea level to 213 m asl. (the highest point in the islands).
136387		habitat	eng	Palau flying-fox can be found in a range of habitats, but they appear to prefer tropical moist forest and swamp forest. Although they can be regularly seen feeding in villages and farms, they do not roost near human settlement. Likewise, they inhabit savannas and mangroves, but are less numerous here than in their preferred habitats. Mangrove use is also likely to be seasonal with the bats heavily using these areas when <em>Sonneratia alba</em> is in bloom (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Most of the population appears to roost solitarily or in small groups. Colonies are uncommon, usually containing 30-200 animals (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997). There may be a few colonies that number into the thousands, but this is unproven, and unlike <em>P. mariannus</em>, is probably rare. Palau flying-fox also has the unusual tendency to form regular colonies for only a few hours in the early morning. Females are thought to give birth annually to a single young.
136387		population	eng	Two studies of its abundance in Palau were conducted using point counts from April to May 1991 (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997) and from April to May 2005 (G. Wiles, unpublished data). Both studies were inconclusive about total numbers, but provided baseline encounter rates that could, and should, be repeated in the future to determine population trends. Data from 2005 have not yet been analyzed, but bats were common in many locations. Numbers appeared to have increased since 1991. Prior to the early 1990s the species had gone through a large decline due to commercial exploitation with thousands of bats being exported annually to markets in Guam and the Northern Marianas. In the 1940s the species was considered abundant (Marshall 1945, as reported in Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997), but by the 1970s numbers were starting to decline (Owen 1977), and at some point in the 1980s this trend reversed itself with less bats being exported (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).
136387		threats	eng	The major threat to this species has always been over-exploitation, primarily for commercial trade outside of Palau, but also for local use (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997). Hunting for commercial export ended in 1994, but considerable hunting for local consumption continues (G. Wiles, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Deforestation and development, particularly of roads of the largest island of Babeldaob, were identified as future threats in the 1990s (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997), and these threats are present today (Hinchley <em>et al.</em> 2007). Additionally, large typhoons, while uncommon in Palau, are a potential threat not only because of the direct loss of bats these storms can inflict, or even the loss of habitat, but there is often a sharp increase in hunting of Pacific island Pteropus bats that follows major storm events (e.g., Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136388		conservation	eng	The only record is from Mt. Guiting Guiting Mangrove Forest Reserve, however, habitat protection offered by this protected area is minimal. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136388		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its holotype around 1,325 m elevation on Sibuyan island, Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136388		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in a mossy forest (Goodman and Ingle 1993).
136388		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
136388		threats	eng	Sibuyan Island is threatened by widespread illegal logging, slash and burn agriculture, especially in the lowlands (P. Alviola pers. comm.), and there is potential for mining in the near future (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).
136389		conservation	eng	Part of the distribution is included in the   Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and Los Tuxtlas Biological Station. According to Cervantes and Guevara (2009),  a specific conservation action plan is needed in order to buffer and eventually halt alterations of the habitat and protect the integrity of the populations of this species.
136389		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species was known only from the type locality; which is on the western slope of the extinct Volcán San Martín Tuxtla in Veracruz, Mexico (Hutterer 2005). It has been recorded from 1,463 m up to the summit of the volcano at 1,650 m asl (Goldman 1951). Recently, it was found at three additional localities in the vicinity of the type locality (Cervantes and Guevara 2009). These localities lie on the south face of the volcano and just to the north west of the nearby Catemaco Lake (Cervantes and Guevara 2009). It has been hypothesized that this shrew probably occurs in suitable habitats throughout that Sierra (Choate1970). However, a recent study on the mammalian diversity of Sierra de Santa Martha, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:place></st1:state> did not record the presence of this species (Gonzalez Christen 2008).
136389		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat reported by Merriam (1895) for the holotype and paratypes was evergreen tropical forest, represented by well-conserved vegetation that consisted of areas covered by layers of volcanic sand and ashes and trees of large size (Choate 1970, Goldman1951). The lower section of its range, from 1,460 to 1,525 m asl, is within dense primary forest; above this elevation it is montane grassland. The vegetation where the recently discovered specimens were obtained was cloud forest. In one of the three localities sampled, at 1,500m, the trees of the canopy were unusually low (Cervantes and Guevara 2009). It is an insectivorous species, feeding exclusively on insects.</p>
136389		population	eng	It was considered common when collected by Goldman (1951). One adult male, one male juvenile, and one female adult have been  recently found by Cervantes and colleagues (Cervantes and Guevara 2009).
136389		threats	eng	The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nelsoni</span> is gradually changing or disappearing due to the use of land within the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. The activities within the reserve frequently involve logging, cattle grazing, induced fires, and crops (Cervantes and Guevara 2009) .  In the area of the type locality, deforestation is as much as 90% and the annual deforestation rate is 6.2% (Dirzo and Garcia 1992).
136390		conservation	eng	It does not occur in any protected areas but it is listed as Endangered in red list of Argentina.
136390		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Estancia San Luis, Cordoba Province, above 2,000 m asl in the Sierras Grandes, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136390		habitat	eng	C. osvaldoreigi occurs in highland grasslands.
136390		population	eng	This species is known only from one very small population (Bidau pers. comm.).
136390		threats	eng	Severe fires struck population recently in 2006. Grazing also impacts population (Ojeda, Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.).
136391		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known (GMA Turkey, 2005).
136391		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeast to central Armenia, extending north into extreme south central Georgia and west into Turkey. It is elevationally separated from <em>Microtus socialis</em> and is found at higher elevations (above 1,400 m). The distribution map shows the approximate distribution of the species, but that this needs verification.
136391		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeast to central Armenia, extending north into extreme south central Georgia and west into Turkey. It is elevationally separated from <em>Microtus socialis</em> and is found at higher elevations (above 1400 m). The distribution map shows the approximate distribution of the species, but that this needs verification.
136391		habitat	eng	Inhabit xerophytic steppes and meadow-steppes at altitudes 1400-1700 m. Also found in agricultural fields and fruit and vegetable gardens in that altitude range. Burrows are simple.
136391		population	eng	Unknown (GMA Turkey, 2005).
136391		threats	eng	No major threats (GMA Turkey, 2005).
136392		conservation	eng	The known records from Venezuela are in Canaima National Park.
136392		distribution	eng	This species was originally described by a single specimen collected in 1971, from Sierra de Lema (sector La Escalera, Estado Bolívar), near the eastern borderline between Venezuela and Guyana. Two additional specimens were collected in October and November 2002, from Mount Ayanganna, Potaro-Siparuni Region, which is the highest tepui (table-top mountain) within all Guyana (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This record represents an extension of the range 200 km southeast from the type locality. Four new records were collected very near the type locality in 2007 and 2008 (J. Sánchez pers. comm.).
136392		habitat	eng	<p>The type specimen was found in evergreen montane forest, at around 1,300 m (Lew and Pérez-Hernández 2004). Animals from Guyana were collected in wet montane habitats in close association with tepui mountains: sandstone formations of the Pakaraima-Guayana Highlands of west-central Guyana and southern Venezuela, respectively, a plateau region beginning at approximately 500 m in elevation that is situated on the ancient Pre-Cambrian Guiana Shield of northern South America (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The species is found from 1,100 to 2,050 m. </p>
136392		population	eng	There are only occasional records and not evaluations of the populations status.
136392		threats	eng	In the Venezuelan distribution area a major international road, high-voltage power lines, and tourist activity represent a potential disturbance in the National Park all the way to the border with Brazil. There is forest loss in the area due to gold and diamond mining, although only in the lower elevations nearby the park limits; there is a steep gradient up the slope, and there is some disturbance into the forest, including fires.
136393		conservation	eng	This species is known from in or near to four protected areas, but is never as common or as abundant as other sympatric molossid species (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and its conservation status should be reviewed in the future when new data are available. In particular, information on its propensity to dwell in buildings is needed.
136393		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found from the north-west to the south-west of the island. It is known to occur in areas with dry deciduous or spiny forest from 50 to 870 m above sea level (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although further surveys may reveal that this species is more widespread than currently known, it has yet to be recorded from some sites with extensive limestone caves, from where it would be expected based on habitat preference and distribution (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Cardiff 2006).
136393		habitat	eng	It is usually associated with tropical dry deciduous forest, and the spiny bush of the south-west on a karst and sandstone substrate (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species roosts in caves and houses, and buildings in villages (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). In the extended network of caves at the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, <em>C. jobimena</em> was only found in a single cave (Cardiff 2006).
136393		population	eng	The population and local abundance of this species are not known, but at Ankarana the recorded roost is 1,200 individuals (S. G. Cardiff pers. obs.). Forty individuals were recorded from a house roughly 10 km from Parc National de Namoroka (A. F. Kofoky pers. obs.).
136393		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is probably hunted in the south of Madagascar for food.
136394		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to determine the geographic range of the species on nearby islands as well as its tolerance to habitat disturbance.
136394		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from Dinagat island (Heaney and Rabor 1982). It is thought to occupy areas above 300 m. It may be more widespread than its current known range, occurring perhaps on Siargao and Bucas Grande, but surveys are required to determine this (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
136394		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest at around 350 m (Musser <em>et al</em>. 1998). This species is not thought to be tolerant to major habitat disturbance.
136394		population	eng	The species is known only from two specimens collected in 1975, and one individual in 1995 (Musser <em>et al</em>. 1998). There have been no subsequent surveys done specifically for this species, but other surveys in the area in the early 2000s failed to locate any additional individuals (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).
136394		threats	eng	The population of this geographically restricted species on Dinagat island has been particularly threatened by habitat loss caused by illegal logging since 1995 and more recently (2001-2007) several mining companies have started operating there. The habitat of this species is found within the mining concessions. The local government is also very supportive of the mining companies because of their contribution to the local governments funds.
136395		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas.
136395		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela (Lemos and Cerqueira, 2002). In Ecuador, it has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 3,700 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136395		habitat	eng	Species of the genus Didelphis are seen as generalists, having large ranges and high migration rates between populations in comparison with other Neotropical small mammals (Lemos and Cerqueira, 2002). In Bolivia, there is the potential for crossbreeding between this species and <em>D. albiventris</em> (Lemos and Cerqueira, 2002). It is common in disturbed areas including secondary forest, open lands, agricultural areas, and suburban areas.
136395		population	eng	The species seems to be common in appropriate habitat.
136395		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
136396		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas that overlap with this species' range. Research is needed into its population status.
136396		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in southern Hildalgo, the mountains of Puebla, and west-central Veracruz south to Cofre de Perote and Mount Orizaba (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges in elevation from about 2,400 m to 4,000 m asl (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136396		habitat	eng	This species lives in grasslands (sacatonal), and temperate forests of pine and oak.
136396		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it is presumed to be common.
136396		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement.
136397		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There was a community based conservation program to control hunting in the central Bauro area, but this is no longer active. Further research is needed into population size, ecology, harvest levels, and threats to this species.
136397		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from the islands of Makira (San Cristobal) and Uki Ni Masi (Flannery 1995). The species was recorded in the early 1990s from Olu Malau (Three Sisters) Island, but these are likely to be vagrants. The total area of the two islands is just over 3,200 km<sup>2</sup>. It has been found at sea level and at 350 m asl.
136397		habitat	eng	There is little information on the natural history of this species. It is believed to be solitary (Flannery 1995). A nursing mother was found by day hanging in a banana tree by a river. This species is often seen congregating in small numbers (approximately 3-6 individuals) on fruiting trees close to villages; in these conditions, the species is more vulnerable to hunting (R. James pers. comm.).
136397		population	eng	Only a few specimens of this species have been collected, and none since the early 1990s. It can be observed around food resources; animals are known to have been harvested recently by local people (R. James pers. comm.). A photograph was taken this species in the late 1990s providing further evidence for its continued presence.
136397		threats	eng	This species is hunted opportunistically for food, and this may be a threat. The species is also hunted for its teeth, which are used in necklaces. Subsistence agriculture and land conversion for cocoa and teak plantations and rice farms could significantly impact this species, due to its highly restricted distribution. Large-scale logging on the western third of Makira is potentially a major threat.
136398		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Honduras, Guatemala and Costa Rica.
136398		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of southern Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, northern Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica (Hutterer, 2005). It is known from 975 to 1,650 m (Flores Villela and Gerez, 1994; Woodman and Timm, 1993).
136398		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen, broadleaf and pine-oak forest and cultivated areas near forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known.
136398		population	eng	This shrew apparently is uncommon (Reid, 1997). In Guatemala it is considered common (Woodman and Matson pers. comm.).
136398		threats	eng	Deforestation and pesticides are localized threats to this species, but over its entire range they are not considered major threats at present.
136399		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas; it may be necessary to extend the boundaries of Anjanharibe-Sud National Park to encompass the range of this species. Further studies are needed into the ecology and natural history of the species. In addition, surveys should be done to determine the distributional limits of this species.
136399		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from two nearby sites on the western slope of Anjanharibe-Sud. It has been collected at 1,200 and 1,600 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species probably occurs within forest in this elevational range throughout the northern highlands.
136399		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal, and presumably strictly arboreal species of the eastern rainforests. This is a forest dependent species. It is presumed to nest in hollow sections of standing tree trunks (Carleton and Goodman 2003).
136399		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens. It has not been more frequently encountered largely because of its nocturnal and arboreal habits.
136399		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of forest habitat due to selective logging, shifting agriculture and wildfires - the zone between 1200 and 1600 meters is less threatened than lower elevations, although the area where this species occurs is also threatened by mining for quartz. There is evidence that it is at least passively hunted on occasion (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.
136400		conservation	eng	The species has been found in Reserva Biológica de Poço das Antas, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Leite, 2003).
136400		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities 200 km apart in southern Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil (Leite, 2003).
136400		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected 1 m up on a tree branch in old, second growth broadleaf evergreen rainforest with a dense overstory about 10 m from a stream in a private unprotected area of about 5,000 ha (Leite, 2003).
136400		population	eng	Very little is known of populations of this species.
136400		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136401		conservation	eng	At present, there are no known records from protected areas. This is a recently described taxon that does not appear to rely on large tracts of intact forest for its survival (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further studies are needed to understand its adaptation to high elevations and extreme climate (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136401		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Madagascar where it has mainly been recorded from sites above 900 m elevation (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007) although there are a few records from sites at elevations <50 m (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is known from <10  confirmed localities ranging in elevation from 40 to 2,200 m above sea level. It is presumed to have a broad distribution spanning various portions of the central highlands (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136401		habitat	eng	Recorded from central highlands of Madagascar were it roosts in shallow caves in rocky (marble and limestone) outcrops (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007). The natural forest of this area has mostly been cleared and replaced with introduced trees (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007), but some remnant native vegetation remains. It has also been recorded from open savanna areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Records from southern Madagascar at elevations <50 m might consist of breeding colones or be evidence of migration (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136401		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this recently described endemic species.
136401		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and it exists in areas some distance from native forest (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136402		conservation	eng	There is recorded in the border of one Protected Area (Reserva Mocona).
136402		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Misiones Province, Guaraní Department, 6 km NE (by Hwy 2) junction of Hwy 2 and Arroyo Paraíso, 360 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). .
136402		habitat	eng	The habitat is suspected to be Mata Atlantica forest.
136402		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136402		threats	eng	Deforestation at the border of the Reserva Mocona.
136403		conservation	eng	This species is probably present in Bajo Cauca and Nechi protected areas (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
136403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in basins of the Magdalena, Cauca and Porce Rivers, north Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 0 to 2,000 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Delgado and Cataño-B., 2004).
136403		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on arthropods, crabs, and other invertebrates, it also eats fruit and fungi. This water rat is adapted for swimming and is almost always found near water. It occurs in areas of dense tall grass near water (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species is preyed upon by barn owls in Colombia (Delgado and Catano-B., 2004).
136403		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown.
136403		threats	eng	The major threat is general deforestation.
136404		conservation	eng	There is a need for further research to determine the exact distributional limits. The only known individual was found in Manu National Park (S. Solari pers. comm.).
136404		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowland forest of southeastern Peru (Solari, 2004). The species is known only from the type locality (S. Solari pers. comm.).
136404		habitat	eng	This species is most similar to <em>Monodelphis adusta</em> (Solari, 2004). The only known individual was found in mixed forest with cane thickets (S. Solari pers. comm.).
136404		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype. Although the vicinity of the area has been surveyed, appropriate sampling has not been extensive (S. Solari pers. comm.).
136404		threats	eng	Unknown.
136405		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas.
136405		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the Pacific slope of the Sierra de Miahuatlán, South Oaxaca, México.
136405		habitat	eng	This species is found on the Pacific slope of Oaxaca in deciduous tropical forest.
136405		population	eng	There is no information about the population of this species.
136405		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and habitat transformation for tourism development and small-holder agriculture.
136406		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. The immediate priority for this species is additional survey work to provide the needed details about distribution and abundance, and taxonomic studies to resolve their status relative to <em>T. palawanensis</em>.
136406		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Philippines, where it is found only on the low-elevation islands of Busuanga and Culion (part of Calamian Isls) and Cuyo (Helgen 2005).
136406		habitat	eng	The meagre data available suggest that this species is likely to be uncommon to common in heavily disturbed second-growth forest habitat and bamboo thickets, which is the only habitat that has been evaluated to date, although they may do well in old-growth forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).
136406		population	eng	Known from 15 specimens collected in 1947 from the islands of Cuyo, Culion, and Busuanga by the Philippine Zoological Expedition of 1946-47 (Sanborne 1952), and a further 10 specimens (deposited in USNM) collected in 1962 from Culion (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There is no recent information on their population status.
136406		threats	eng	The major threats are not immediately clear, although the islands on which this species occurs have been pretty extensively converted for agriculture, and mining is ongoing.
136407		conservation	eng	One population of this species occurs in Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003). A second population occurs in Restinga de Jurubatiba National Park. These protected areas are considered insufficient because Restinga National Park is the only national park in its range, Barra da Maricá is not protected and Poço das Antas is one of the only strong protection areas.
136407		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern region of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003). There are three known populations, one from the type locality at Barra de Maricá coastal scrubland and the second from Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003).  The third population occurs in Restinga de Jurubatiba National Park, which is the only national park in its range (D. Brito pers. comm.).
136407		habitat	eng	<em>Trinomys elaisi</em> is distributed in small, isolated populations within a restricted geographic range. It is small solitary, terrestrial species, occurring in dry land forest being most common in dense, viny undergrowth and around fallen trees and complex tree roots (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is crepuscular in activity and has low mobility. Females breed successfully from eight months with two young per litter, producing up to four litters year round. Males reproduce successfully from about five months; longevity recorded in the field is about 30 months (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003). It is preyed upon by small didelphid marsupials amongst other predators.
136407		population	eng	Brito <em>et al.</em> (2003) conducted a population of viability analysis using VORTEX (a computer simulation model) which predicted population sizes of 200 animals to achieve demographic stability, but buffering for declines in genetic variability required populations of 2,000 animals. Estimated minimum areas of suitable habitat were approximately 250 and 2,500 ha for demographic and genetic stability, respectively. Mortality rate and mean litter size were the most sensitive modeling parameters (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003).
136407		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats in Barra de Maricá which is used for sand extraction and as an illegal waste dump (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003).
136408		conservation	eng	The species is not included in any protected area.
136408		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Mendoza Province, Departamento La Valle, La Pega; 32°48′S, 68°40′W, and vicinity between 600-1200 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136408		habitat	eng	This species occurs in halophytic desert scrub habitats dominated by several species of saltbush (<em>Atripler lampa. A. fivescens. A. nrgenrina</em>) and the halophytic shrub <em>Suaeda divaricnta</em> (Braun <em>et al.</em> 2000).
136408		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136408		threats	eng	Agricultural activities are an increasing threat.
136409		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. In Mongolia approximately 8% of the species’ range occurs within protected areas. Considered Vulnerable on the Japanese Red List. Conservation measures required. Further research on all aspects of ecology and population trends is strongly recommended.
136409		distribution	eng	N China; Upper Yenisei River (Russia); Altai Mtns (Russia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia); Korea; Ussuri region (Russia); Sakhalin (Russia); Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku (Japan).
136409		habitat	eng	Inhabits hilly and mountainous areas, up to 4000 m ASL, with mixed coniferous-broadleafed and broadleaved forests and usually with underground cavities. In northern Mongolia it is found in taiga zones. Day roosts were found in tree canopies and other tree- or timber-associated shelters (under loose bark, in firewood piles, etc.), and also in caves. In China this species is known to roost in caves, in trees, and in houses. They forage in both forested and open areas. Life habits are poorly known. Apparently insectivorous, probably a ground-gleaner (at least in part), picking its prey from soil or vegetation surface. The foraging flight is powerful and manoeuvrable. This species is unusual because it is a ground feeder, searching for beetles. This information is verified by the regularity of them being caught in pitfall traps, and never being caught in traps higher than ground level (S. Dorjderem pers. comm.). While foraging, this species may also extensively use quadrupedal ground locomotion. Echolocation signal is an FM sweep from 112 to 40 kHz, with maximum energy around 50-80 kHz. Births probably occur in the beginning of summer. Females do not form large nursing colonies and possibly live solitarily. One or two young are produced in each litter. A resident species, hibernating in caves, were it can form aggregations up to several hundreds of individuals. Maximum recorded longevity is up to 16 years (usually ca. 5-9).
136409		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species at present. It is widespread, but naturally rare species.
136409		threats	eng	No available data across much of the range, although as logging activity increases, habitat loss may constitute a threat in the future. In Japan, decrease of old-growth forests is a major threat.
136410		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether this bat exists in any protected areas. Taxonomic revision is a priority for this species.
136410		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Madura Island and the Kangean Islands in Indonesia (Simmons 2005). The maximum elevation of these Islands is less than 500 m asl. The type locality of <em>R. madurensis</em> is Soemenep, Madura Island, off north-eastern Java, Indonesia.
136410		habitat	eng	This is a cave roosting species. It is probably not dependent on water, but forages in primary forest.
136410		population	eng	It is known from seven specimens. The only records of this bat are from Madura Island by Andersen (1918) and collections made from 1982-1984 on the Islands of Kangean, Saubi and Sepanjang (Bergmans and van Bree 1986).
136410		threats	eng	This species is under threat due to loss of habitat as a result of limestone extraction and deforestation for logging and agriculture.
136411		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas.
136411		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Luzon (Bulacan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Nueva Viscaya, and Rizal provinces), and from Negros, Palawan and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Only one specimen has been collected on Palawan although there is no information on the locality (Allen 1922). It is generally found from near sea-level to 1,125 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), but there is a record of a specimen at 1,465 m asl from Mount Banahaw, Luzon (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006).
136411		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are poorly known. It has been found in primary lowland and montane forest and in an agricultural area near sea level (Mudar and Allen 1986; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
136411		population	eng	It is very poorly known, but it is probably an uncommon species (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).
136411		threats	eng	The species is probably threatened by deforestation in the lowland parts of its distribution.
136412		conservation	eng	There are no measures known specific to the entire species. However, there are protected areas within its range, and the island populations are considered threatened under Mexican law (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). Additional research is needed to assess population size and status of this species.
136412		distribution	eng	Known from south-west California, USA, south through Baja California (into central Baja California Sur, Mexico) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Occurs on several islands in the Gulf of California.
136412		habitat	eng	<em>P. fraterculus</em> is found in areas of desert shrub and rocky slopes. In areas with sandy substrate it will dig burrows, otherwise it is known to live in piles of vegetation or rock crevices. <br/><br/>The nocturnal habits and ability to enter extended states of inactivity during the summer months allow this species to cope with arid conditions (Caire 1999). The diet of the Northern Baja Deermouse varies with seasonal availability, but may include seeds, insects, flowers and fruit (Veal and Caire 1979).
136412		population	eng	This species is common (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
136412		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136413		conservation	eng	It occurs in two protected areas, Santuario de Vida Silvestre Tabaconas-Lavaye  en Peru and Bosque Protector Cashca Totaras en Ecuador (V. Pacheco and D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136413		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of central and south Ecuador (Bolivar and El Oro Provinces, as per Luna and Pacheco, 2002; Musser and Carleton, 2005). Recently, it has been recorded in northern Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 2,500 to 3,350 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136413		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in high elevation elfin forest (Luna and Pachero, 2002).
136413		population	eng	It is uncommon.
136413		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136414		conservation	eng	This rodent is not included in any protected areas.
136414		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality and from Queimadas, Bahia State, Brazil. It is endemic to sand dunes, restricted dune range probably includes most of the continuous main sand dune field on left bank of the middle Sao Francisco River, and probably excludes the smaller northern field (Rocha, 1995).
136414		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sand dune fields with sparse shrubby cover; it is present in caatinga region, where the species builds extensive burrow systems in the dunes (Rocha, 1995).
136414		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
136414		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of its habitat to sand extraction (Y. Leite pers. comm.)
136415		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas, but areas between these are dissappearing rapidly.
136415		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pacific coast of northwestern Ecuador, with records from Esmeraldas, Guayas and El Oro (southern extent), Los Ríos, and Pichincha Provinces. It is reported also from Alta Quer Narino, Colombia in the Pacific versant of the Colombian Andes - however, the record is pending review.
136415		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. It is found in tall evergreen forest and dry forest. It travels through the forest understory; the short, broad wings enable slow, highly maneuverable flight. Although it is largely insectivorous, fruits and pollen may be eaten during dry season.
136415		population	eng	This species is not uncommon.
136415		threats	eng	Habitat destruction.
136416		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
136416		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cordillera Transvolcanica from west central Jalisco eastwards to Distrito Federal and north Morelos, México. It is found from 2,300 to 2,700 m asl.
136416		habitat	eng	This species is found in pine-oak, conifer, and wet forests within its range (Caballos and Oliva 2005).
136416		population	eng	This species is abundant within its habitat.
136416		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, particularly in the conifer forests.
136417		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tongbiguan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it is present in any other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
136417		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in western Yunnan province (Smith and Xie 2008). It is known only from Ruili County (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies elevations between 970-1,300 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
136417		habitat	eng	There are no data regarding the habitat preferences or ecology of this species.
136417		population	eng	This species has been characterized as rare (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).
136417		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136418		conservation	eng	Its range overlaps with several protected areas, including the Bi Dup-Nui Ba and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserves and Rhung Thong Da Lat.
136418		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Langbian highlands of the Dà Lat region of southern Viet Nam. Species distribution limits remain unresolved (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136418		habitat	eng	This is a large terrestrial omnivore that lives in montane forest. It is tolerant of secondary forest.
136418		population	eng	It is known only from a handful of museum specimens, but is presumed to relatively common in its highland range.
136418		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136419		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This is the only black uakari not in any protected area. A conservation strategy for the species should be based on a conceptual mosaic composed of fully protected areas, a private reserve and community-based extractive areas. The success of a conservation programme for the black uacari in the Aracá River depends on the participation of traditional local communities (the ‘piassabeiros’ and other important stakeholders exploit the fiber of <em>Leopoldina piassaba</em>) in the process of reserve creation and management.
136419		distribution	eng	The range of Ayres Black Uakari is limited to a small area comprising the Curuduri River Basin and the mid to lower Aracá River. Local people claim this species is present in neighbouring areas, but field surveys to date have failed to confirm the existence of this monkey outside the region of the Curuduri, Aracá Rivers. The total geographic range of <em>C. ayresi</em> might be as small as 5,000-6,000 km².
136419		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the ecology of the Ayres Black Uakari. It has only been seen twice in the wild in igapós in large groves of the palm <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> and terra firme forest interspersed by an open herbaceous vegetation characteristic of the Aracá River basin (J-P. Boubli, pers. obs.).
136419		population	eng	There are no data concerning the population status of this species.
136419		threats	eng	This species has a very limited distribution. Human settlements are few and small in the extent of occurrence. Hunting appears to be restricted to the rainy season when fish, the main source of protein for people in the Aracá River, become scarce. During the rainy season, all black uakaris use igapó forests intensively to take advantage of the pulse of fruit production at this time. While foraging in the igapó, black uakaris are easy to find because of the noise produced when fruits are dropped into the water.
136420		conservation	eng	Protect the kartisc areas.
136420		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four sites in Antioquia, Colombia.
136420		habitat	eng	This small bat is poorly known. Occurs in lowland and is associated with karstic formations in a restricted area (Muñoz and Cuartas 2001)
136420		population	eng	It is rare (Simmons, 2005).
136420		threats	eng	Restricted to karstic areas which are threatened. Does not occur in reserves and is vulnerable in roost sites.
136421		conservation	eng	None.
136421		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cape Region of Baja California Sur (Mexico) (Patton 2005).
136421		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. There is no information on habitat and ecology. This species is associated with desert and sandy areas and specifically with epiphtic plants, where more moisture occurs.
136421		population	eng	There is no known information on population or abundance. This species is not considered to be common. Within its range, however, it is more common on the Gulf side of the peninsula than on the Pacific side (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).
136421		threats	eng	Its habitat is quickly being converted for coastal development and tourism.
136422		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Serra da Canastra National Park, Grande Sertao Veredas National Park, Chapada Diamantina, and Dos Veadeiros as well as several other protected areas.
136422		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ceará southwestwards to east Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Goias, Tocantins, part of Bahia and Mato Grosso do Sul, central and east Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005; Tribe, 2005).
136422		habitat	eng	This species occurs in gallery and semideciduous forests of the cerrado-caatinga biomes (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is an arboreal species, found in primary and secondary forest. One specimen also found in the Atlantic Forest area in Chapada Diamantina (Bahia state) (Tribe, 2005, Geise pers. comm.).
136422		population	eng	This species is locally common.
136422		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.
136423		conservation	eng	Several protected areas exist throughout the range of the species complex.
136423		distribution	eng	The species is found on Sumatra, Nias Island, Java, and Sulawesi (all in Indonesia), and throughout Borneo.
136423		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary forest but is also collected in villages and disturbed habitats.
136423		population	eng	This species is uncommon and it seems that the population is decreasing.
136423		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
136424		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas.
136424		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Jalisco and Tamaulipas, Mexico, throughout Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, and Amazonian Brazil. Lowlands to 2,600 m (Reid, 1997). Also Bolivia.
136424		habitat	eng	This small bat occurs in evergreen and deciduous forest, second growth, and orchards. Roosts in hollow trees, logs, caves, mines, buildings, culverts, and large mammal burrows in areas with some natural light, they are alert and easily induced to take flight. Shallow earthen depressions along banks and among tree roots are also ocupied. Clusters of 4 to 6 bats hang together from the ceiling of the roost. Their diet includes fruit and insects; insects may be gleaned from the vegetation or captured in flight. Food is usually consumed at a night roost, which may be the same as the day roost or may only be used at night. A collection of wings and legs dropped at night roosts in Costa Rica consisted of insects of 13 different orders, with small scarab beetles, grasshoppers, cockroaches, crickets, and katydids predominating. Seasonal changes in diet, probably reflecting insect abundances, were noted (LaVal and LaVal, 1980). A roost in Mexico contained wings of Lepidoptera. In Panama flies and beetles were taken (Humphrey <em>et al.</em>, 1983). Single young are born annually, usually at the onset of the rainy season.
136424		population	eng	Rather common and widespread. This species is the most commonly encountered <em>Micronycteris</em> in southeastern Mexico and Central America (Reid 1997).
136424		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species range.
136425		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros and Chapada Diamantinha protected areas (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005; Geise pers. comm.).
136425		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities from Campo Rupestre in high altitude Cerrado (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).
136425		habitat	eng	This rodent is a specialist of high altitude areas (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).
136425		population	eng	This species is rare and occurs in low densities. For additional information see Weksler and Bonvicino (2005).
136425		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136426		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Further taxonomic research in needed to determine whether any of the subspecies of <em>S. hirsutus</em> should receive specific status.
136426		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Chiapas, Mexico, through Central America (excluding Belize), and into northern Colombia and northern Venezuela (Linares, 1998; Peppers and Bradley 2000; Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005). Musser and Carleton (2005) state that its northern limits are uncertain, but they include subspecies found as far north as El Salvador. Using genetic analysis, Carroll <em>et al.</em> (2005) refer all subspecies formerly assigned to <em>S. hispidus</em> occurring in Central America and southern Chiapas, Mexico, to <em>S. hirsutus</em>. This includes one subspecies, <em>S. hirsutus zanjonensis</em>, found in the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala, to which Musser and Carlton (2005) assign species status.
136426		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical rainforest and dry forest, and is primarily found in the lowlands (however, see reference to the subspecies <em>S. h. zanjonensis</em>, which occurs in highlands). It is often found in sugarcane fields and wet cattle pastures.<br/><br/>This rat is mainly active during the day but may also be active at night if population is high. It feeds on green plant material, fungi, some seeds, and insects (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984). Its nests are usually built under cover of logs, rocks, or dense clumps of grass. Occasionally, short burrows dug by other mammals are used as nest sites (Reid 1997). It is preyed upon by barn owl (Delgado and Cataño B. 2004).
136426		population	eng	It is common to abundant in grassland, clearings and brush (Reid, 1997). Common in agricultural areas, especially sugarcane. It has increased its distribution over the past several decades. However, the population fluctuates greatly.
136426		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
136427		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136427		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Yasuni Reasearch Station (00 30'S, 75 55'W, 220 m), Yasuni National Park, Orellana Province, Ecuador (Fonseca and Pinto, 2004).
136427		habitat	eng	This bat is poorly known. The holotype of <em>L. yasuni</em> was caught in a mist net placed in the sub-canopy approximately 9 m above the ground in primary forest. The habitat consists of evergreen lowland forest (Fonseca and Pinto, 2004). Like other members of the genus, it probably eats insects inside the forest.
136427		population	eng	It is rare, now from only one specimen (Fonseca and Pinto, 2004).
136427		threats	eng	Unknown due to recent discovery.
136428		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Borneo in Sepilok Forest Reserve and Tanjung Puting National Park (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136428		distribution	eng	This species is known from peninsular and eastern India, Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah (Malaysian Borneo), where it is confirmed from Sepilok Forest Reserve (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003; Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2006). Another record from Tanjung Puting National Park in Kalimantan (Borneo) represents the first record of this species in Indonesia (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species may be much more widespread than is currently known (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136428		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. In India it is found in the forests of Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136428		population	eng	This species has only recently been resurrected from its subspecific status within <em>K. papillosa</em> (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003). The abundance, population size and trends are not known.
136428		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136429		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.
136429		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and south east China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending to eastern India, where it is known from Meghalaya (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press), and Viet Nam.
136429		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is a forest dwelling species that may roost in caves and tree hollows (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.; Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136429		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.).
136429		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
136430		conservation	eng	None.
136430		distribution	eng	This species (if distinct) is endemic to Curaçao Island in the Netherlands Antilles.
136430		habitat	eng	No known information.
136430		population	eng	This species if valid, is presumed to be extinct.
136430		threats	eng	<em>Rattus rattus</em> remains were found together with those of <em>O. curasoae</em> suggesting that the introduced Black Rat may have played a role in its demise.
136431		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether or not Rossel Island Melomys occurs within protected areas. A survey of Rossel Island to determine the population status of this species should be a high priority.
136431		distribution	eng	Rossel Island Melomys is known only from specimens collected from Rossel Island (Papua New Guinea): the holotype from the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, and four more specimens collected by the fifth Archbold Expedition in October 1956 (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005). Other Milne Bay Islands have been well-surveyed without locating this species, thus it is likely to be endemic to Rossel (Flannery 1995). Specimens were collected at elevations ranging from 50 to 700 m asl (Flannery 1995).
136431		habitat	eng	There is no information about the habitat and ecology of this species.
136431		population	eng	There is no information about the population of this species.
136431		threats	eng	There is no recent information about threats pertaining specifically to this species. Rossel Island is still mostly forested and is unlikely to be under severe threat of habitat destruction within the next ten years (F. Kraus pers. comm.). The village of Cheme is quite large and its footprint is probably serious within the surrounding area. The higher elevations of Mt. Rossel are considered taboo by local inhabitants, and the habitat is particularly secure here (note: Rossel reaches a maximum elevation of 839 m asl, and the species has been recorded as high as 700 m asl) (F. Kraus pers. comm.). Introduced murids would have the potential to compete with this species.
136432		conservation	eng	The range is included in a provincial protected area (Ecological Park Sierra de San Javier).
136432		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Tucumán Province, Tafí Viejo Department, Las Aguitas, Cumbres del Tafícillo, 1700 m asl; 26°42′S, 65°22′W (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136432		habitat	eng	Inhabit high montane grasslands and although diet is unknown, they are thought to specialize in soil invertebrates like other Akodons (Diaz <em>et al.</em> 1999).
136432		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species, there only two specimens collected from this species.
136432		threats	eng	Rare, with restricted distribution; considered a locally threatened species for Tucuman Province, Argentina (Tabeni <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is threat by intentional fire for cattle and agricultural activities (Jayat, J.P pers. comm.)
136433		conservation	eng	Search for roosting sites and associated foraging areas; employ acoustic equipment capable of detecting <em>Eumops</em>. Every effort must be made to protect existing roosts and their surrounding habitats.
136433		distribution	eng	The range encompasses southern Florida, including Charlotte, Collier, and Lee counties on the Gulf Coast and Miami-Dade County on the Atlantic Coast (Timm and Genoways 2004); the species is known mainly from the Miami, Coral Gables, and Fort Lauderdale areas. According to Timm and Genoways (2004), "In the greater Miami area, only three records exist of the Florida bonneted bat after 1965. The most recent of these are from the 1990s; one is a single recent specimen from Coral Gables and one is an acoustic recording. Additionally, an extant, albeit probably small, population occurs along Florida's southwestern coast in Lee County near Fort Myers and adjacent Collier County in the Fakahatchee-Big Cypress area." Excluding fossil records, <em>Eumops floridanus</em> was first recorded at Miami in 1936. A pregnant female was captured in Coral Gables in 1988, indicating the continued existence of this species in Florida after an earlier survey concluded that the subspecies probably was extinct (Belwood 1992). Ted Fleming (pers. comm., 1994, 1995) obtained anecdotal acoustic evidence of the bat's continued existence in the Miami area between 1989 and 1993, and he also found evidence of an early 1990s occurrence in the George Merrick House in Coral Gables. This bat was found in 1979 near Punta Gorda, Charlotte County, on the western coast of Florida (8 individuals, including a pregnant female); the roost was destroyed as part of a highway construction project (Belwood 1992).
136433		habitat	eng	Once believed to be common on Florida's eastern coast in the Miami-Coral Gables area but reported there only a few times since the mid-1960s. One of the few occurrences in southwestern Florida was destroyed. Low fecundity (only one young at a time).<br/>This bat occurs in urban, suburban, and forested areas; it roosts in buildings (e.g., in attics, rock or brick chimneys of fireplaces, and especially under Spanish roof tiles, often in buildings dating from about 1920-1930), sometimes in tree hollows (including those made by woodpeckers), occasionally in foliage of palm trees (e.g., shafts of royal palm leaves); also has been found under rocks, in fissures in limestone outcrops, and near excavations (Layne 1978, Timm and Genoways 2004). The species is known primarily from suburbs, also (on the west coast) from a pine flatwoods community where several were found in a longleaf pine in a cavity 4.6 meters above ground; the cavity had been excavated by red-cockaded woodpeckers and enlarged by a pileated woodpecker (Belwood 1992); this tree was later cut down in conjunction with road construction. In the early 2000s, a colony consisting of at least one male and several females took up residence in a bat house in a North Fort Myers (Lee County) suburban backyard (Organization for Bat Conservation).
136433		population	eng	This species is represented by very few occurrences or subpopulations. All of the known occurrences are relatively small and probably of less than optimal viability, yet they probably have a good probability of persistence for the foreseeable future. This species has appeared to exist in low numbers for several decades (Timm and Genoways 2004). Total adult population size is unknown. The species appears to be rare but may be more numerous than historical evidence indicates (USFWS 1996). It roosts singly or in small groups.
136433		threats	eng	Vulnerable to habitat loss (in urban and forested areas), habitat alteration (removal of old trees with cavities, or buildings with spaces suitable for roosting), and pesticide spraying for mosquitoes. The last may be responsible for the species' decline in the Miami area, as roosting sites are still abundant. Severe hurricanes may cause loss of older trees with roosting cavities. Hurricane Andrew, an intense Category 5 hurricane that struck southeastern Florida in 1992, may have had a significant impact upon the already low population of bonneted bats (Timm and Genoways 2004). Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission has listed this species as endangered (2004)
136434		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Manombo Special Reserve.
136434		distribution	eng	Restricted to the type locality of the Manombo Reserve in south-eastern Madagascar. The precise limits of the distribution are unknown (Zaramody <em>et al.</em> 2006)
136434		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.
136434		population	eng	Unknown. Described only in 2006.
136434		threats	eng	Unknown.
136435		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.
136435		distribution	eng	Recorded from Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Isl.), and Congo Republic (Gaubert 2003a, in press).
136435		habitat	eng	The localities from which the species has been collected to date suggest that it may be restricted to rainforest (Gaubert 2003a, in press).
136435		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, but the scarcity of records suggest it is rare and localized. It is represented by 10 known specimens in collections, and has not been collected since 1946 (Gaubert 2003b, in press).
136435		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unclear, but hunting is a likely threat as most of the museum specimens were collected from local hunters or bushmeat markets (Gaubert in press).
136436		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Serrania Huanchaca and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology and threats to this species.
136436		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Bolivia, Santa Cruz Department, Velasco Province, Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, Flor de Oro, 13°33'S, 61°00'W, 210 m (Emmons, 1999).
136436		habitat	eng	It was collected in relictual open savanna woodland on upland dense long grass. The savanna where it was collected is an open area surrounded by forest, entirely isolated from other grassland or cerrado habitats (Emmons, 1999). It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats.
136436		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
136436		threats	eng	It may be threatened by cattle ranching in the recent past, through modification of the grassland.
136437		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas across the range.
136437		distribution	eng	Ranges from Senegal to Ghana, although the eastern boundary is uncertain (Gaubert and Dunham in press). Crawford-Cabral (1980-81) suggested the Volta R. as a possible barrier to the species.
136437		habitat	eng	Present in a wide range of habitats; usually restricted to primary and secondary rainforests, gallery forests and moist woodlands, but also occurs in forest plantations, bush-lands and suburban areas (Gaubert and Dunham in press).
136437		population	eng	Believed to be common. Night-time field searches carried out from a vehicle in Niokolo-Koba N.P. in Senegal resulted in an estimated frequency of occurrence of 0.7/100 km (Sillero-Zubiri and Marino 1997).
136437		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. However, they have been recorded from bushmeat markets.
136438		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136438		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western and eastern slopes of the Andes of central Ecuador (Hutterer 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,600 to 4,300 m asl (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997).
136438		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known. There have been some records from secondary habitats and pastureland.
136438		population	eng	This species ranges from being uncommon to frequently encountered (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136438		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Although it is found in a region with high rates of habitat loss, the species apparently tolerates some degree of disturbance.
136439		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
136439		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Phillipines. It has been recorded from Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Dinagat, and Siargao islands (Heaney and Rabor 1982).
136439		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary lowland to montane forest from 500 to 1,600 m, although it is most abundant at middle elevations (Musser and Heaney 1992).
136439		population	eng	This species is moderately common in midelevation primary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).
136439		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136440		conservation	eng	It was collected in the Area Natural de Manejo Integrado San Matias. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.
136440		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Pozo Mario (200 m), Estancia Las Conchas, Santa Cruz Department, southeastern Bolivia (Brooks <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136440		habitat	eng	It was collected in Cerrado, in a transitional mosaic between dense and high savanna, with open forest. Ground cover was some dead leaves with 30 to 40% grass cover. It is not known if this species can occur in modified habitats (Brooks <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136440		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype (Brooks <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136440		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known. It seems to have restricted habitat availability within the Cerrado.
136441		conservation	eng	Pulau Nustaram Nature Reserve is within the range of this species. This species needs further taxonomic studies as it may be conspecific with <em>N. albifenta</em> which is more widespread (M. Sinaga pers. comm.).
136441		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Maluku, the Kai Islands, Tanimbar (Timorlaut), and Babar island groups in Indonesia (Simmons 2005), and is probably also on Timor and Flores (K. Helgen pers. comm.). The type locality for this species is 12 km north of Tual, near Taman Anggrek (5°38'S, 132°44'E), Pulau Dullah (closely associated with Pulau Kai Kecil), Maluku, Indonesia. There is a record of the species also from Gag Island, Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is thought to be below 1,000 m asl.
136441		habitat	eng	It has been caught by mist-netting in disturbed vine forest, with an understorey of lantana (<em>Ficus, Erythrina, Podocoarpus, Albizia</em>). It has also been found in mixed gardens (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).
136441		population	eng	This species is common on the islands where it occurs.
136441		threats	eng	Habitat loss on the islands, due to conversion to agriculture and mining are the main threats to this species. This species is not hunted.
136442		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs within several protected areas.
136442		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil at 30 m elevation (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136442		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical moist forest areas.
136442		population	eng	This species is known only from a few localities; it was described in 1998 (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136442		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
136443		conservation	eng	The island of Supiori is a protected area. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
136443		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Biak and Supiori, in Cenderawasih Bay, Indonesia.
136443		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in lowland tropical moist forest.
136443		population	eng	This species appears to be uncommon. It is known only from two museum specimens and a pet. The last five surveys to Biak have only encountered it as a pet.
136443		threats	eng	This species is threatened by rapid, ongoing deforestation of suitable habitat, and by hunting for food and collection as a pets by local people.
136444		conservation	eng	None known.
136444		distribution	eng	Known only from the SW coast lowlands of Caspian Sea in Iran and Azerbaijan. The species is found in the Lenkoran district of Azerbaijan (Baku 2004).
136444		habitat	eng	Unknown.
136444		population	eng	Unknown.
136444		threats	eng	Unknown.
136445		conservation	eng	Specimens have been collected in Yuli Wildlife Refuge, Lulinshan Major Wildlife Habitats (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006), and it is probably present in Yushan Nature Reserve. Further research is needed in the areas of abundance, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.
136445		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Taiwan, Province of China (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006). All collected specimens (n=11) come from the mountainous region of the country, between elevations of 1,000-2,400 m asl (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136445		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coniferous plantations or mixed forests of coniferous and broad-leaf trees with more or less closed canopy (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006). Two collected specimens were obtained from a tunnel (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136445		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136445		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species since it appears to be restricted to closed canopy forests, although there is no longer significant deforestation going on at higher elevations in Taiwan. More information on the species' extent of occurrence is needed to establish whether it occurs in lowland areas that are more affected by deforestation.
136446		conservation	eng	The babirusa was accorded full protection under Indonesian law in 1931 (Dammerman, 1950; Setyodirwiryo, 1959). The species has been included on Appendix I of CITES since 1982, although international trade in this species is not thought to be have been an important issue in recent times (Macdonald 1993).<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi (e.g. Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserveand others (Macdonald, 1993; Alvard, 2000, Riley, 2002; Wiles <em>et al</em>., 2002, http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/274feature3.shtml - accessed 5 June 2008)) The species often remains under hunting pressure even in protected areas.<br/><br/>There is an international studbook for the world captive population of the Sulawesi babirusa and both the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) have cooperative breeding programmes for the species, cooperating with the South East Asian Zoos Association (SEAZA). The founders of this population likely originated from northern Sulawesi. Ongoing genetic studies will hopefully help to resolve this origin question.
136446		distribution	eng	<em>Babyrousa celebensis</em> is endemic to Indonesia, and, as defined here, occurs widely on Sulawesi, with the exception of the southwestern  peninsula where the form <em>bolabatuensis</em> is known from subfossials (Meijaard and Groves 2002a). It is also known from offshore islands, including Muna, Buton and Lembeh. On the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, they have most likely disappeared from the most northern section and their distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and to the Nantu Wildlife Reserve and the Panua Nature Reserve; all in the western half of the peninsula ((Riley, 2002). The babirusa still occurs in central Sulawesi and the eastern and southeastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking (Macdonald, 1993; Alvard, 2000; Burton, 2002, Riley 2002; Wiles <em>et al</em>., 2002). The species is unlikely to still occur on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys (Meijaard and Groves 2002b, Wiles <em>et al</em>., 2002) and no babirusa skulls were found during a recent visit to the island in search of anoa skulls (J. Burton pers. comm.). Its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain.
136446		habitat	eng	The Sulawesi babirusa inhabits tropical rain forest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. Whereas in the past the animal has tended to occur in low lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that it is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground (Riley, 2002).<br/><br/>In common with most of the other suids, babirusa are omnivorous and both wild and captive individuals consume a wide variety of leaf, root, fruit and animal matter (invertebrates and small vertebrates). They visit volcanic salt licks and drink the water and ingest the soil (Clayton, 1996; Leus <em>et al</em>., 2002). Although detailed studies of their diet in the wild still need to be carried out, a review of the available information from the wild combined with studies on the stomachs and digestive abilities of captive animals suggest that from an anatomical/digestive point of view, they are most likely non-ruminant forestomach fermenting frugivores/concentrate selectors (Leus <em>et al</em>., 2004). Their jaws and teeth are reported to be strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. However, babirusa do not exhibit the rooting behaviour typical of other suids because of the absence of a rostral bone in the nose.  They will probe soft sand as well as wet, muddy places for food.<br/><br/>In northern Sulawesi groups or troops of up to 13 individuals have been observed in rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas and salt licks (Patry <em>et al</em>., 1995; Clayton, 1996). Older adult males were often observed singly and most groups were composed of five or fewer animals, the majority of which were females with young animals.
136446		population	eng	<em>B. celebensis</em> has been largely extirpated from the northeast part of the northern peninsula, and is being brought to markets in the neighbourhood of Manado from practically all over Sulawesi at an alarming rate (Milner-Gulland and Clayton, 2002; Lee <em>et al</em>, 2005).  Recent survey data strongly suggest that populations in the wild are seriously depleted (Riley, 2002). Babirusa appear to have become rare in Lore Lindu National Park, but may be more common in the area to the north of Palu (Riley, 2002; Burton, 2002).
136446		threats	eng	Babirusa are hunted for food to supply the Christian markets in North Sulawesi (Blouch, 1990; Burton 2002; Milner-Gulland and Clayton, 2002; Lee <em>et al</em>., 2005). As the species becomes rare or absent from eastern sections of the northern peninsula, hunting is moving to the west and centre. For example, babirusa from the area to the north of Palu and from Lore Lindu National Park (although the species now appears severely depleted in the latter) are being hunted and sold to traders from North Sulawesi (Burton, 2002).<br/><br/>The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation (MacDonald 1993; Riley 2002). Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75% (Riley 2002).
136447		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. In particular it is important to determine whether or not this is a valid species.
136447		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Bangka Island (Indonesia). It perhaps also occurs on Sumatra.
136447		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in primary and secondary lowland forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, such as plantations.
136447		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136447		threats	eng	Forest is being lost on Bangka as a result of logging, and also expanding plantations, especially for oil palm, though it is not yet known whether or not this species can survive in these secondary habitats. Mining on Bangka also represents a major threat to this species.
136448		conservation	eng	Protect the caves and provide environmental education.
136448		distribution	eng	From Para (Brazil) to the south to São Paulo and Rio Grande do Norte (Brazil) (L. Davalos and A. Tejedor pers. comm.).
136448		habitat	eng	Roosts in caves.
136448		population	eng	There is no information on population.
136448		threats	eng	Extirpation in campaigns against rabies in Brazil.
136449		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Mt. Bosavi National Park and Mt. Victoria protected area. Field studies are needed to confirm whether or not it occurs in the large area between the known collecting localities (and if not, the degree of divergence between the two populations should be assessed). Further information concerning the threats to this species (should they exist), and its population status is required.
136449		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known from a small number (33) of specimens, collected between 1894 and 1985, from the southern side of the Central Cordillera. It has been recorded from Mt. Bosavi and Mt. Sisa in the west and Mt. Victoria/Vanapa River in the east (Woolley 2005). The species ranges in elevation between 650 and 1,600 m asl, and it presumably occurs within appropriate habitat between the two known areas, but this requires confirmation.
136449		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary lowland and montane forest. Like its congeners, it is thought to be largely terrestrial and diurnal. Peter Dwyer has noted seeing this species active during daylight hours (as reported in Woolley 2005).
136449		population	eng	There is no population information concerning this species.
136449		threats	eng	There is no information concerning possible threats to this species.
136450		conservation	eng	In New Guinea it occurs in Kikori management area. It is well protected in the Australian portion of its range.   <br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
136450		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern lowlands of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and possibly in the Aru islands (Indonesia). It is also present in the McIlwraith Range/Iron Range block of rainforest on the eastern seaboard of Cape York Peninsula (Winter <em>et al.</em> 1991; Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Winter and Leung 2008).
136450		habitat	eng	In New Guinea the species often occurs in gallery forest near rivers, but is found also in a variety of habitats with trees, including secondary forests and gardens. It does well in degraded areas. In Australia it is a rainforest specialist; confined to semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest, notophyll vine forest, and evergreen notophyll vine forest.
136450		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitat.
136450		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species overall. In New Guinea this species is affected by hunting and local trade. Mining is also occurring within its range. In Australia it is well protected.
136451		conservation	eng	No actions required.
136451		distribution	eng	The bones of this species were discovered in a cave in northern Venezuela (Monagas) in 1988 and more recently in southeastern Brazil (Trajan and de Vivo 1991). Remains have been reported from other countries in the region, so it seems to have had a wider distribution than initially thought. The other countries are not recorded in the list below, but may include the Guinas, Colombia and Ecuador. The remains were not mineralized and found in association with living species, thus the extinction is presumed to be recent.
136451		habitat	eng	Presumed to be similar to other members of the genus.
136451		population	eng	Not known.
136451		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction are not known.
136452		conservation	eng	None
136452		distribution	eng	Known only by a single skull from southern Peru, presumably of an animal that lived in recent times (Nowak, 1999).
136452		habitat	eng	There is nothing known about the ecology of this species.
136452		population	eng	The is no population data on this species.
136452		threats	eng	Nothing is known of the threats to this species.
136453		conservation	eng	Is not found in any protected areas (at the moment national system of protected areas is being developed in Uruguay) (G. D'Elia. pers. comm)
136453		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Uruguay, south of the Río Negro (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136453		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in wetlands, scrub, humid grasslands, sandy areas (Queirolo pers. comm.).
136453		population	eng	This species is poorly known; there are only a few locations known.
136453		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat destruction, tourism development, and urban expansion.
136454		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas through its range, including Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136454		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou), extending to northeastern India, northern and central Thailand, Lao PDR, and northern Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2000, 2008). It presumably occurs in Myanmar, though there are not so far any records. The species has been recorded from Nakhon Ratchasima in central Thailand (Kloss 1919), Doi Inthanon in northern Thailand (Allen and Coolidge 1940) and Thung Yai and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries in western Thailand (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Lao PDR it has been recorded from Xe Pian and Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
136454		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the ecology and habitat requirements of this species. The holotype was captured in timberline forest on Ssu Shan (Snow Mountain) at 4,000 m asl (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). In Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR), a single specimen was caught in semi-evergreen forest near Ban Taong (Robinson 1997). In Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR), the species was recorded in an area comprising dense, relatively undisturbed, semi-evergreen forest surrounded by karst formations reaching heights of 200-300 m asl, with small areas of grassland maintained for grazing (Robinson and Webber 1998). These observations, taken together, suggest that the species occur in a wide variety of environmental conditions, from high temperate mountains to the lowland tropics. Its ability to adapt to anthropogenic habitats is not known.
136454		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136454		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. If it is dependent on forest, then threats, especially in the lowlands, include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture, timber extraction and human settlement.
136455		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Xuelingyunshan Nature Reserve in China (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the species' abundance.
136455		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China, Kazakhstan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Kyrgyzstan (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). In China, it is known from the province of Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). Its range is allopatric with <em>Spermophilus relictus</em> (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).
136455		habitat	eng	This species inhabits meadows in which it constructs burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>It is diurnal and feeds on grass, green vegetation, and insects (Smith and Xie 2008). It hibernates from between August/September and the end of February/beginning of March (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproduction occurs during spring, after it has emerged from hibernation (Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation is 25-27 days and litter size is 3-7 (average) (Smith and Xie 2008).
136455		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136455		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
136456		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed.
136456		distribution	eng	On the basis of current subfossil evidence, <em>Cryptoprocta spelea</em> occurred at a variety of sites from Lakaton’ny Akanga in the far north near Antsiranana, along the western portion of Madagascar, south to numerous sites at the southern end of the island; it is also recorded on the central highlands at Antsirabe (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136456		habitat	eng	Given the size of <em>Cryptoprocta spelea</em>, its massive jaws, and large carnassial teeth, it must have been a formidable predator and certainly capable of taking larger prey than the extant <em>C. ferox</em>. Evidence suggests that the two forms of <em>Cryptoprocta</em> might have been separated well enough in size to be able to coexist (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136456		population	eng	Extinct.
136456		threats	eng	The reasons for the disappearance of this species on Madagascar are unknown.
136457		conservation	eng	There is not included in any protected area.
136457		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Misiones Province, Guaraní Department, ca. 2 km W Parque Provincial Moconá, junction of Hwy 21 and Arroyo Oveja Negra (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136457		habitat	eng	The species holotype was collected from under a log uphill from a nearby river (Mares and Braun 2000).
136457		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136457		threats	eng	Deforestation.
136458		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Manombo Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar).
136458		distribution	eng	<em>Microcebus jollyae</em> is found in south-eastern Madagascar, its range extending from just south of the Mananara River north to the north bank of the Mananjary River. According to Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006), populations of this species are reported to occur in the forests of Mananjary and Kianjavato. The type locality is at 71 m asl.
136458		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the south-eastern rainforest.
136458		population	eng	Unknown. Only discovered in 2003.
136458		threats	eng	Unknown.
136459		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Meigu Dafengding and Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserves, but is it not known if it occurs in any additional protected areas.  Further research is needed in the areas of distribution, abundance, biology and ecology, habitat, and threats.
136459		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China, it's known distribution is restricted to two nature reserves in southwestern Sichuan province (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007). All specimens (n=18) were collected between 2,560-3,100 m asl (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136459		habitat	eng	This species was collected in forest dominated by fir and spruce, with an understory of bamboos and humid spruce forest with abundant bamboo and moss (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136459		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136459		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Ecotourism development within Meigu Nature Reserve, that does not consider the protection of wildlife habitat, may pose a threat (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136460		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
136460		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mediterranean (Morocco, N Algeria, Tunisia). Range overlaps with that of the closely-related species <em>M. shawi</em> in eastern Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia (Pavlinov 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005). Occurs up to at least 2,800 m in the High Atlas (F. Cuzin pers. comm.)
136460		habitat	eng	It is common in relatively humid habitats in the mid-Atlas Mountains. It is present in all bioclimatic zones, and in gardens and palm plantations.
136460		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitats. In some regions (e.g., Marrakesh) it is considered an agricultural pest species and its numbers are controlled.
136460		threats	eng	No serious threats are affecting the population at present.
136461		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Lopé National Park, Gabon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
136461		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Africa, where it has been recorded from central Gabon, south of the Ogooué River and south to the Massif du Chaillu.
136461		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with tropical moist forest, especially where trees of the families Cesalpiniaceae and Burseraceae are common. It is usually observed as single animals or less frequently in pairs in the lower storeys of the forest at 4-6 m above ground, but has been recorded in all storeys from ground level to >25 m.
136461		population	eng	It is moderately common within the known range.
136461		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
136462		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas such as El Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Tamaulipas.
136462		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mexican highlands, from 1,040 to 2,500 m asl in the states of Hidalgo, México, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz (Hutterer, 2005).
136462		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense, wet cloud forest where it is found in the thick herbaceous undergrowth and leaf litter. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
136462		population	eng	It is a moderately common species (Neal Woodman pers. comm.). In El Cielo Reserve it is considered common (Ivan Castro Arellano pers. comm.).
136462		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture and urban development is a threat to this species.
136463		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Lawn Hill National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
136463		distribution	eng	The Purple-necked Rock Wallaby is endemic to Australia, where it is present in north-western Queensland from Dajarra and west of Mount Isa to the eastern end of the Selwyn Ranges, extending northwards to Lawn Hill and probably into the Northern Territory. There are sight records from Wollogorang (Northern Territory) that are likely of this species.
136463		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of rocky outcrops, cliffs, and boulder formations near dry forests savannas and spinifex grasslands (Johnson and Eldridge 2008). It lives in small colonies. Colonies that have access to permanent water tend to be larger, and those that do not may disappear during prolonged droughts (Johnson and Eldridge 2008).
136463		population	eng	The populations are patchily distributed within its range. It is common around Dajarra and Mount Isa, but rarer to the west near Lawn Hill (Johnson and Eldridge 2008). It seems to have declined in the south-eastern part of its range due to the presence of goats (Johnson and Eldridge 2008).
136463		threats	eng	This species is likely threatened by competition with domestic and introduced herbivores. It is possibly threatened by introduced predators.
136464		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area: Estação Ecológica do Taim, Rio Grande do Sul. Freitas (1995) considers the species as endangered.
136464		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil where it occurs along the southeastern coast (de Freitas, 1995).
136464		habitat	eng	The species inhabits seashore dunes, in an area of high salinity and poor vegetation where it burrows into the moving dunes.
136464		population	eng	There is an estimate of six individuals per hectare (Stolz <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136464		threats	eng	This species is considered the most endangered of the tuco-tucos in southern Brazil  due to its habitat specificity (Fernandez, 2007).  In the north of its range, the species occurs in an area of dunes which is undergoing urbanization. Exploration for coal may be occurring within its geographic range. Habitat degradation is also occurring due to removal of dunes.
136465		conservation	eng	<em>Myzopoda schliemanni</em> has been trapped in Parc National de Namoroka and Parc National d'Ankarafantsika (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) as well as a recently created protected area in the Lac Kinkony - Mahavay area (Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). Based on current information this is a restricted-range species for which there are few data on natural history or ecology and basic field research is clearly needed.
136465		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from central western Madagascar in lowland areas from Ankaboka in the north (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007) to Andranomanintsy in the south (Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). It was not found during surveys of Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007), Parc National de Kirindy-Mité (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006) or Kirindy CFPF (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). Goodman <em>et al</em>. (2007) suggested that the distribution of range of <em>M. schliemanni</em> is broader than currently known and may extend north as far as Ambanja.
136465		habitat	eng	Kofoky <em>et al.</em> (2006) observed <em>M. schliemanni</em> roosting in a cave. There are no other published observations of this species' roosting preferences, although it is assumed to also use broad-leaved plants such as <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> (Strelitziaceae) (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are few accounts of its foraging habitats, although Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandrianina (2007) mist-netted 16 individuals in relatively disturbed forest. In Andranomanintsy forest, 17 of the 18 bats captured were males and the diet consisted mainly of Blattaria and Lepidoptera (Rajemison and Goodman 2007)
136465		population	eng	Estimated effective population size using demographic models from two sites was between 61,453 and 134,630 individuals (Russell <em>et al.</em> 2008). A roosting colony of 4 individuals was reported from a cave in Parc National de Namoroka (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2006)
136465		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known because of a lack of information on habitat preferences. Russell <em>et al.</em> (2008) consider bats of the <em>Myzopoda</em> genus to benefit from deforestation.
136466		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Apurimac protected area. Further research is needed into the distribution, population status, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species.
136466		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: North of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, Department of Cusco, Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It might range more widely in the nearby elfin forest, but the extent of its range is not known. It is found at 3,350 m asl (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
136466		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It was collected in primary elfin forest. Nothing further is known about the ecology of this species. Apparently it is hunted by long-tailed weasel (<em>Mustela frenata</em>), of which a specimen was collected nearby (Emmons, 1999).
136466		population	eng	It is only known from the holotype.
136466		threats	eng	The lowland areas of forest, close to where the species was collected, are threatened by the conversion of forest to cropland, especially cocoa.
136467		conservation	eng	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. Further studies in to the habitat and ecology of this species is needed. There is a need to actively protect areas of forest on Yamdena Island before it is totally logged.
136467		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known only from the type series collected on Yamdena island of the Tanimbar Island Group, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may be present on other islands in the Tanimbar Island Group, however, this needs to be confirmed (K. Helgen pers. comm.).
136467		habitat	eng	It is a lowland species but has been recorded up to 200 m. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.
136467		population	eng	It is known only from the type series, the abundance is not known.
136467		threats	eng	The forest on the island is being clear-cut, however, it seems as though the species can adapt to modified habitat in a similar way to the related <em>Melomys rufescens</em>.
136468		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Brasilia National Park.
136468		distribution	eng	This rodent was known only from the type locality: Brazil, Federal District, Parque Nacional de Brasília, ca. 20 km NW Brasília, 1,100 m (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). A second individual was collected in 2003 outside the park, from the Federal District. The species has a relatively narrow distribution area.
136468		habitat	eng	This species occurs in transition zones between sylvan and pastoral environments of the cerrado, which includes wet and mixed grassland, shrub and low trees.
136468		population	eng	Populations of this species are poorly known. There have not been any efforts to trap this species recently (E. Vieira pers. comm.).
136468		threats	eng	This species' habitat has been heavily degraded within its small extant of occurrence, and remaining potential habitat is severely fragmented.
136469		conservation	eng	<em>E. munbyanus</em> occurs in several protected areas, including Tubkal National Park, and Djurdjura in eastern Algeria.
136469		distribution	eng	<em>Eliomys munbyanus</em> occurs in Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the Spanish North African territories. It is found from sea level to 3,800 m in the High Atlas.
136469		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide range of habitats from humid forest to semi-desert (e.g. in the Saharan Atlas), and maybe desert, in coastal dunes, pine forests and mountain cedar forests. They have a preference for rocky habitats, and sometimes enter buildings. Nocturnal and solitary, but little is known of the ecology of this species. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) recorded two specimens as active in full winter, suggesting that they may not hibernate as is typical of dormice.
136469		population	eng	Both <em>E. melanurus</em> and <em>E. munbyanus</em> are locally common.
136469		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
136470		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to locate any remaining populations and also to study the natural history of this little-known species.
136470		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype collected from Owi Island in the Paidaido Islands east of Supiori-Biak, Papua Province, Indonesia. It is probably a small island endemic.
136470		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded about the natural history of this species. It presumably occurs in tropical moist forest.
136470		population	eng	There is no information available on population abundance of this species. Recent collecting efforts have not located this animal.
136470		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation. It is susceptible to changes in its habitat since it is known from a small island system.
136471		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in protected areas over much of the species range (eg. Ein Gedi Nature Reserve, Israel).
136471		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species ranges from the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel, through much of the Arabian Peninsula, southern Iraq and Iran to southern Pakistan (Baluchistan and Sindh at 300 to 1,200 m asl) in the east of its range.
136471		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from several semi-arid or dry habitats, including rocky areas and hilly soils in Mediterranean woodland, dry deciduous forest and scrub forests. In Egypt the species invades human habitations, and it can also be encountered in agricultural areas.
136471		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range (eg. Israel and Jordan). It was considered to be 'near threatened' in the United Arab Emirates by Hornby (1996).
136471		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
136472		conservation	eng	All species of babirusa were accorded full protection under Indonesian law in 1931 (Dammerman, 1950; Setyodirwiryo, 1959). The species has been included on Appendix I of CITES since 1982, although international trade in this species is not thought to be have been an important issue in recent times (Macdonald 1993). The Togian Islands have been designated a Marine National Park since 2004 (Kepulauan Togean), incorporating 336,773 ha of sea and 25,832 ha of land (http://www.dephut.go.id/INFORMASI/TN%20INDO-ENGLISH/tn_index.htm – accessed 5 June 2008).
136472		distribution	eng	<em>Babyrousa togeanensis</em> is confined to the Togian Archipelago in Indonesia, between the northern and eastern Sulawesi peninsulas (Macdonald, 1993). Babirusa are found on the islands Batudaka, Togean, Talatakoh and Malenge (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136472		habitat	eng	Babirusa generally inhabit tropical rain forest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. On the Togean islands babirusa were also sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub of former ‘ladang’, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).<br/><br/>In common with most of the other suids, babirusa are omnivorous and both wild and captive individuals consume a wide variety of leaf, root, fruit and animal matter (invertebrates and small vertebrates). Babyrusa on Sulawesi visit volcanic salt licks and drink the water and ingest the soil (Clayton, 1996; Leus <em>et al</em>., 2002), and so they might also do this on the Togian Islands. Although detailed studies of their diet in the wild still need to be carried out, a review of the available information from the wild combined with studies on the stomachs and digestive abilities of captive animals suggest that from an anatomical/digestive point of view, they are most likely non-ruminant forestomach fermenting frugivores/concentrate selectors (Leus <em>et al</em>., 2004). Their jaws and teeth are reported to be strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. However, babirusa do not exhibit the rooting behaviour typical of other suids because of the absence of a rostral bone in the nose.  They will probe soft sand as well as wet, muddy places for food.<br/><br/>On the Togian islands troops of up to eleven individuals have been observed (Ito <em>et al</em>, 2005). During interview surveys on the Togian islands, 37% of respondents considered babirusa to be solitary, 29.6% reported them to occur in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter and 29.5% of respondents reported a group size of more than 5 typically composed of an adult males with multiple females and their litters (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136472		population	eng	Selmier (1983) estimated that the total 1978 population on the Togian Islands was in the region of 500 to 1,000 individuals. Recent estimates by Ito (pers. comm., 2008) place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Recent estimation from questionnaires showed local residents did not provide agreement on population size (ranges from <100 to >1,000), but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).
136472		threats	eng	Babirusa on the Togian islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forest fires, to disturbance by humans, occasional hunting by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops and predation by dogs (Ito <em>et al</em>, 2005; Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007, Ito pers. comm., 2008). Hunting for food only occurs in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998 two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire (due to annual climatic variation). No large animal carcasses were found and babirusa have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species (Ito <em>et al</em>., 2005, Akbar <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136473		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in those parts of the range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends and minimising or preventing disturbance to roost sites in Europe.
136473		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends and minimising or preventing disturbance to roost sites in Europe.
136473		distribution	eng	<em>Plecotus kolombatovici</em> is a Mediterranean endemic with its distribution fragmented into three parts: southern regions of the Balkans and Asia Minor (Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and probably into Israel, Palestine and Jordan), northeast Libya (Cyrenaica) and northwest Africa from Morocco to northwest Libya, it was found in Malta and Pantellaria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). It occurs from sea level to higher altitudes in the Rif and Atlas mountains.
136473		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Plecotus kolombatovici</em> is fragmented into three main parts: southern regions of the Balkans and Asia Minor, Libya (Cyrenaika) and northwest Africa from Morocco to Tunisia; it has been found in Malta and Pantellaria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). It occurs from sea level to higher altitudes in the Rif and Atlas mountains.
136473		habitat	eng	It forages in a variety of open and semi-closed habitats, mainly steppe but also agricultural landscapes in both lowland and mountain areas. It often forages over small water bodies. It feeds predominantly on moths, but also takes beetles and flies. Summer roosts are primarily rocky cavities, but also dark areas of old monuments, ruins, caverns and buildings. Winter roosts are located in buildings, mines, caves, wells, and trees.
136473		population	eng	Little is known about population size and trends in this species, although it is regarded as relatively common in North Africa. In Europe, the total population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, and it is suspected that the population may be declining. Summer colonies usually number 10-30 females, although a breeding colony of 120 females was found in a building in Croatia (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Winter clusters are smaller (10 ind.), and the species is often solitary at this time of year (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). It is possible that European, African and south-west Asian populations are isolated from each other.
136473		population	eng	Little is known about population size and trends in this species, although it is regarded as relatively common in North Africa. In Europe, the total population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, and it is suspected that the population may be declining. Summer colonies usually number 10-30 females, although a breeding colony of 120 females was found in a building in Croatia (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Winter clusters are smaller (10 individuals), and the species is often solitary at this time of year (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). It was thought that European, African and southwest Asian populations were isolated from each other, but range extensions as a result of recent records indicate that they might not be as isolated as was previously thought.
136473		threats	eng	Pesticides and roost disturbance have a negative impact on the species, but are not thought to be causing significant population declines at the global level. However, in Europe, where this species is largely restricted to coastal areas, disturbance of roost sites by tourists may be a major threat.
136474		conservation	eng	It is present in the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further survey work is needed to assess the current population status of this species, and levels of offtake and harvest.
136474		distribution	eng	Most specimens of this recently described species were collected from Thakhek District, Khammouan Province (Lao PDR), including several localities in the vicinity of the villages of Ban Mauang and Ban Doy, and were also reported to have been trapped at Ban Dong, 23 km from the turning to Gnommalat. Specimens were also extracted from owl pellets within the limestone cave system Tam En (Swift Cave), 67 km north of Mauang and 3 km north east of Ban Tonglom, Hinboun District, Khammouan Province (Lao PDR). Other specimens have been observed at roadside stalls between Thakhek and Gnommalat, that were apparently obtained from limestone outcrops of the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136474		habitat	eng	It was trapped in large limestone boulders varying in size up to several metres, on steep slopes surrounding karst formations, where traps were set on bare earth under and between boulders. The slopes were covered in both evergreen and deciduous trees, but with little ground vegetation. Low lying areas away from the karst had been cleared for the cultivation of paddy rice. Villagers reported that the animals were caught only in the vicinity of the karst (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is not clear whether the species is able to use, in addition to scree slopes around the base of the karst, the massive karst limestone formations themselves, nor whether it is able to exist in secondary scrub habitats.<br/>Believed to be nocturnal. Morphological features of the hypsodont molars, capacious stomach, a large caecum and appendix combined with evidence of plant remains in the stomach, suggest that it is primarily vegetarian in its diet. In an analysis of dietary toothwear by Gina Semprebon, which guages the probable diet of the last few meals, fine wear on the teeth suggested that leaves formed the diet of one individual, while there was evidence of grass and seed in the diet of a second specimen (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136474		population	eng	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species, but they have been found in bushmeat markets.
136474		threats	eng	Limestone habitats in general are relatively safe from large scale destruction; however, tree cover in peripheral and accessible karst areas is very vulnerable to loss due to logging and firewood removal. The species is found in bushmeat markets, and it is unclear whether it is able to tolerate the very high levels of offtake that is ubiquitous within its known range.
136475		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Ranomafana National Park. This species requires further taxonomic work, particularly with regards to the populations in the Masaola Peninsula.
136475		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is found in the eastern lowland forests from the Masoala Peninsula in the north to Manantantely, near Tolagnaro, in the south (Ryan 2003). It appears to have a patchy distribution over this range. It is present from near sea level to elevations approaching 1,025 m asl.
136475		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial, crepuscular species of lowland rainforest. Animals use a number of multi-chambered burrows which are often situated under logs, brush piles and other ground cover. The litter size is presumably one or two young. This species seems to be very sensitive to forest destruction, and has not been found outside of forest.
136475		population	eng	Patchily distributed, and more common at lower elevations.
136475		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through clearance for cultivation, and also by deforestation for the production of charcoal.
136476		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to see if it extends to other north coast ranges.
136476		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the type locality, Bainyik on the southern slopes of the Princess Alexandra range (Papua New Guinea) at 200 m asl.
136476		habitat	eng	Found in streams and rivers in lowland tropical forest, possibly extending to higher elevations. Occurs in rural gardens.
136476		population	eng	Known from two specimens, only one of which has a locality.
136476		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by forest clearance, but this needs confirmation.
136477		conservation	eng	Several of the records are from protected areas although there is habitat loss within these (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136477		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Lao PDR. The type locality is Ban Keng Bit (18°15'N, 104°34'E), Nam (River) Kading, Bolikhamxai province.
136477		habitat	eng	There is a lack of knowledge on roosting sites and habitat and ecology for this species (C. Francis pers. comm.). Presumably, it is found in dry forest and it may tolerate some degree of disturbance (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136477		population	eng	This species is only known from a limited number of records, each with only 2-3 individuals, with limestone cave areas nearby.
136477		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136478		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.
136478		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008), extending to Myanmar (Akanti, Upper Chindwin), northern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam (Simmons 2005). It can be expected in northern Lao PDR, but this has not been confirmed. Although <em>H. grandis</em> is considered distinct from <em>H. larvatus</em> the geographical range is not clearly understood and it is impossible to draw a range separate from that of <em>larvatus</em> with any degree of confidence.
136478		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about habitat preferences that is unequivocally attributable to this species (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136478		population	eng	As currently defined this is a common bat throughout much of its range (P. Bates and C. Francis pers. comm.).
136478		threats	eng	There are no major threats although the species may be affected by hunting in some parts of its range (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136479		conservation	eng	There is limited knowledge on this newly discovered species, and more information is needed on its biology, ecology, threats, and population size and trends. The known range has several large protected areas. The major taxonomic uncertainties over this group of species needs resolution before a solid conservation assessment can be made.<br/><br/>Muntjac-leather jackets are an almost ubiquitous status appareil in Myitkyina and other Kachin state towns, although there is no information on the proportions of the different muntjac species used in their manufacture (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Even in advance of any further taxonomic understanding it can be assumed that hunting management activities are likely to be a conservation need for this muntjac; if it is a species with limited resilience to hunting, such measures are urgently needed.<br/><br/>There are surveys currently underway in India (Arunachal Pradesh), especially within the Namdapha Tiger Reserve (Datta <em>et al</em>., 2003).
136479		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a limited area in northern Myanmar and adjacent India. The known range is in the mountain region between the Mali Kha and Mai Kha rivers of the Hakakaborazi National Park and adjacent Naungmung area of northern Kachin state, Myanmar, south within Kachin state through the Hponkhanrazi range to the Bumpha Bum range (also known as Sumprabum), based on camera-trap data (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. based on WCS unpublished data). Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004) stated there are also specimen records from the Hukaung valley and near Saramati massif, this latter extending the species' range south to 25°42′N, 95°13′E. Records of <em>M. putaoensis</em> from northeastern India (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003) initially identified morphologically have been confirmed by recent genetic analysis of five specimens as <em>M. putaoensis</em> (James <em>et al</em>. press). Specimens came from the villages of Lumpang (96°10′09″E, 27°17′45″E) and of Mossang Putok (96°17′38″E, 27°20′37″E), in the general areas of the northeast part of Namdapha Tiger Reserve and reserve forests to the south-west in the Patkai hills in Jairampur Forest Division (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003, James <em>et al</em>. in press). The species could also occur east from its known range in Myanmar towards the border of China, and possibly into China; Wang (2003) listed the species, without caveat of identification for Yunnan, specifically ‘western parts-Tengchong, Lianghe, Yingjiang and Longchuan’. No details were given for the basis of this statement. The southern extent of the species range is very uncertain as little survey work has been carried out in potentially suitable areas.<br/><br/>The known elevational range based on camera-trap data is from 700 m to 1,220 m asl in Myanmar (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS unpublished data); Indian specimens were reported by hunters to have come from 900–1,100 m asl (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003). Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999b) stated that the leaf muntjac “resides ‘on mountain tops’ while the other two larger sympatric species, the common [northern red] muntjac, <em>M. muntjak</em>, and the [a taxon allied to] black muntjac, <em>M. crinifrons</i., are found lower down”. Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) made a similar statement that the species was only found on “distant hilltops” away from village areas from 1,600 to 2,000 m asl. These statements are not consistent with more specific information from Myanmar and India, above.
136479		habitat	eng	All known localities are in forest and like other muntjacs the leaf muntjac is probably tied to forest. There is no information available on its tolerance to degradation and fragmentation. The species occurs sympatrically with northern red muntjac but is probably largely allopatric with <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, with the latter apparently at higher altitudes (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). The species apparently feeds on a range of plant materials, including fruits; an examination of stomach contents by Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) revealed mostly fruit.
136479		population	eng	There is no information on the global population size or trends for this species, but camera-trapping within the species' range has captured it with similar frequency to northern red muntjac, suggesting that it is likely to be naturally abundant (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). Sample sizes are too small to say anything more conclusive (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). Villagers’ assessments of hunting levels suggest that the species is relatively abundant but decreasing over time (Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. 1999).
136479		threats	eng	The major threat to leaf muntjac may be hunting, not targeted on this species, which is heavy throughout in its Indian and Myanmar range (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003; Than Zaw and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006), but the species' resilience to such hunting is unknown. The presumed Indian range is within areas of rapid habitat loss and human expansion; much of the Myanmar range is within an area which has seen remarkable stability of forest cover (Renner <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, this healthy situation may change in the near future, as some other forests of northern Kachin (which have not been surveyed for the species, and so may hold, or have held, it) have recently been devastated (Eames 2007). Although habitat needs, and thus the effects of forest fragmentation and degradation are essentially unknown, it is unlikely that viable populations can survive outright forest conversion. It is also likely that in areas where forest is being fragmented, negative effects of hunting on populations of leaf deer are compounded and populations decline, whatever intrinsic ability the species has to use fragmented areas.<br/><br/>Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) suggested that this species and other muntjacs are less adaptable than other deer, and that this might explain the ‘restricted’ ranges of this and other small muntjacs. However, the thee most widespread muntjacs, <em>M. muntjak</em>, <em>M. vaginalis</em>, and <em>M. reevesi, are very successful: they use a wide variety of forested habitats, and are well able to exploit secondary and degraded habitats. Secondly, and contrary to the statements of Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) and others, which have not taken into account the patchiness of suitable surveying, the ‘small’ muntjacs comprising the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex are not particularly restricted in range, but are rather widespread in montane areas of northern southeast Asia. The lack of evidence of the complex from many areas, giving an apparent disjunct distribution, is much more likely to reflect the paucity of suitable surveys than the genuine distribution pattern. Survey work in southwest and southeast China, much of Myanmar, the Himalayan region and northern and western Thailand have certainly been insufficient to conclude anything about the range of this species-complex in those regions.</em>
136480		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Rio Biseo National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136480		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Pampa del Cuy Valley, in upper montane elfin forest from 3,250 to 3,380 m, north central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136480		habitat	eng	This species co-occurs with <em>Thomasomys apeco </em>(Gardner and Romo, 1993). Little is known about this species. It is terrestrial, and occurs in montane forest and close to paramo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136480		population	eng	This species is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136480		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136481		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas (e.g. Madidi National Park in Bolivia). Maintenance of savanna habitats may be needed to prevent forest encroachment.
136481		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, and possibly northern Argentina (see Galliari <em>et al.</em>, 1996) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In southern Peru it is known from the Pampas del Heath (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1995). It is found at elevations from 300 to 2,030 m.
136481		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from a number of habitats including cerrado, chaco, savanna and open areas. It can be found in disturbed areas.
136481		population	eng	It is a common species.
136481		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in savanna habitats through clearance for cattle ranching.
136482		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution and habitat requirements of this species.
136482		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Riama island (Indonesia), a small island off the west coast of the larger Pulau Selaru in the Tanimbar Island Group (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The distribution of this species is poorly known, and it seems likely that it may also be present on other islands in the Tanimbar Island Group, although this requires confirmation. The species has been recorded from sea level, and may occur up to a maximum of 200 m on Riama Island.
136482		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not well known. It is unclear as to whether it is associated with forest habitats, related species can be found in grassland habitats including those within modified areas.
136482		population	eng	While this species is poorly known, related animals can be common.
136482		threats	eng	Forest habitat on Riama island is decreasing through logging, and this may be impacting the species, although this requires confirmation. It is a small species that is not utilised.
136483		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas in Argentina and Brazil (Itatiaia National Park, A. Langguth pers. comm.).
136483		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Brazil (Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul States) to northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136483		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in temperate climate Araucaria forests and Atlantic rainforest with fields at about 900 m altitude in above mean sea level.
136483		population	eng	The species is abundant throughout the range (A. Christoff and  A. Langguth pers. comm.).
136483		threats	eng	The species has no reported threats (Christoff and Langguth pers. comm.).
136484		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Guaramacal and Yacambu National Parks. The species would benefit from a reduction in habitat loss close to protected areas (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2001)
136484		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Venezuelan Andes (Lara and Trujillo States), 1,600 to 3,230 m, western Venezuela (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The type locality is Venezuela, Lara State, Parque Nacional Yacambu, 9 km SE Sanare, El Blanquito, 1,600 m; 09°40'N, 69°37'W (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
136484		habitat	eng	The species is present in cloud forest and paramo (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2001) and is almost entirely terrestrial and nocturnal. It is presumably omnivorous, but has some preference to insects (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
136484		population	eng	This species is locally common within remaining undistrurbed habitat within its restricted distribution (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
136484		threats	eng	The major threats are lost habitat in the Lara and Trujillo States close to the protected areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).
136485		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas.
136485		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the foothills and the crest of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, the disjunct Serrania de la Macarena, and from western and northern Venezuela. The known range of this species in Venezuela includes the foothills of the Serrania de Perija, the lowlands of the western Maracaibo Basin, the Cordillera de Merida, and the Cordillera de la Costa (Voss and de Silva, 2001). It has an altitudinal range of 54 to 2,600 m asl.
136485		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland rainforest, but at higher elevations the typical habitat is probably cloud forest (Voss and de Silva, 2001). To the best of our knowledge, no specimens have been taken in unforested (e.g., savanna or paramo) landscapes. In a freshly dissected specimen the stomach was full of brownish paste, possibly consisting of chewed bark; no insect parts, seeds, or other identifiable food fragments were observed (Voss and da Silva, 2001).
136485		population	eng	It is apparently rare, known only from a few specimens; however, like other species of porcupine, the species could be just difficult to record.
136485		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation.
136486		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including:<br/><br/>El Avila National Park (85,192 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Henri Pittier National Park (107,800 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Aguaro-Guariquito National Park (569,000 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Sierra Nevada National Park (190,000 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Guatopo National Park (92,640 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Macarao National Park (15,000 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>El Guacharo National Park (15,500 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982).<br/><br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Alouatta seniculus</span>).
136486		distribution	eng	<em>Alouatta arctoidea</em> is endemic to Venezuela. Its range, following Hill (1962) and Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987), is along the Venezuelan coast, east of Lake Maracaibo from Falcón to the state of Miranda. Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicated that the howler monkey north of the Río Orinoco and west through Apure basin north of the Rio Meta, widely distributed throughout the Venezuelan <em>llanos</em>, is a distinct, as yet undescribed, form. Linares (1998), however, considered it to  be <em>A. arctoidea</em>. Linares (1998) descibed its range as the Cordillera Oriental, Cordillera Central and the Coro System along northern Venezuela, extending south throughout the <em>llanos</em> to the Río Orinoco, between 10 m and 1,160 m above sea level. To date, the species is known only from Colombia, but it may extend into Colombia in Arauca.
136486		habitat	eng	This species is found in the llanos (plains), in deciduous forest patches and gallery forest. Long-term studies of this species have been carried out at Hato Masaguaral, Guarico, in seasonally inundated "<em>bajo llanos</em>". Troth (1979) describes the vegetation on the ranch. It is otherwise known from the biogeographic region of the North coast range (approximately 62ºW to 69ºW), where there are humid rain forest patches, either lowland tropical or pre-montane, resulting from orographic rainfall. Some mountains rise to elevations exceeding 2,000 m and in some ranges there are true montane cloud forests (Eisenberg and Redford 1979). <br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surrounds the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber.  It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 km (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).  Mean group size in Hato Masaguaral, Guarico State, Venezuela, ranged 7.7 to 10.5 at various times in the period 1969 to 1984 (Crockett and Eisenberg 1984). Mean numbers of adult males per group ranged 1.1 to 1.8, and adult females from 2.3 to 2.9. Group size in another ranch in the llanos, Hato El Frío, was 7.6 (Braza <em>et al.</em> 1981). In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). The large groups of <em>A. palliata</em> may have home ranges extending to 60 ha (Estrada 1982), whereas in the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) reviewed long-term demographic data on births at Hato Masaguaral, examining seasonality and interannual and habitat differences. Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Venezuela<br/>Adult male 6.31 kg (n=64) (Rodríguez and Boher 1988)<br/>Adult female 4.67 kg (n=46) (Rodríguez and Boher 1988).
136486		population	eng	Between 15 to 118 individuals/km² have been recorded in Venezuela (Defler 2003). Rudran and Fernandez-Duque (2003) report on 30 years of demographic data on this species at the Hato Masaguaral, Guarico State, Venezuela. Habitats there include a continous gallery forest along the Río Guarico and forest patches in seasonally inundated grasslands. Populations on the ranch ranged from a peak of 346 in 1989/1990 to 99 in 1999; population densities from 223 to 58 individuals/km². Population increases were found to result in part from increases in group size and in part from increases in the numbers of groups. The authors fojund that density was a good predictor of the size of established and new groups. A gradual increase from 146 in 1970 to 346 in 1989/1990 was partly due to habitat regeneration. The decline in the population from 1990 to 1999 was believed to result from disease and food shortage, the latter resulting in stress, longer distances travelled to find food, less nutritious diets, and increased susceptibilty to botfly infestations. Short-term fluctuations were related to rainfall, drier years reducing population growth. Crockett and Eisenberg (1986) and Crockett (1996) examine particular aspects of demography, habitat and group size in this species.
136486		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hunting.
136487		conservation	eng	This species occurs close to two ecological protected areas: Antisana and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserves (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136487		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the crest of cordillera Oriental, 3,350-3,700 m asl, north central Ecuador (Napo and Pichincha Provinces) (Voss, 2003; Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species is known from a single location.
136487		habitat	eng	This species has been captured in grassy paramo, in shrubby paramo/forest ecotone or in grassy glades surrounded by forest, and in deep inside Subalpine Rain Forest. Most recorded captures were on the ground, on special rabbit trails or runways through dense grass or low herbs, and along the wet margins of small streams. Other muroid species that were trapped syntopically (in the same habitats) with T. ucucha include Akodon latebricola, Akodon mollis, Anotomys leander, Chilomys instans, Microryzomys altissimus, M. minutus, Neusticomys monticolus, T. aureus, T. baeops, T. cinnameus, T. erro, and T. paramorum (Voss, 2003).
136487		population	eng	This species is frequently captured but only at a single location (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136487		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136488		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas (Maya Biosphere Reserve), and is listed under Mexican regulation as subject of special protection.
136488		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and adjacent Belize and Guatemala. Also it is known from owl pellets collected in Guerrero, Mexico (Choate, 1970). It occurs in lowlands mainly below 100 m asl (650 m asl in Guerrero) (Reid, 1997).
136488		habitat	eng	It can be found in lowland, dry scrub, deciduous forest, and seasonally dry evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology and ecology is poorly known.
136488		population	eng	This shrew is locally common (Reid, 1997).
136488		threats	eng	Deforestation, particularly in the Mexican part of its range where it is reported at around 14-20% loss (Alfredo Cuaron and Paloma Carton de Grammont pers. comm.).
136489		conservation	eng	Zambales Mountains have no designated protected areas. We recommend that a national park or other protected area be designated in Zambales that includes all types of habitats at all elevations, to assure protection of this newly documented center of mammalian endemism, including the highly distinctive <em>R. tapulao</em>. Additional basic research needed on this species is needed (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136489		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchomys tapulao</em> is known only from the type locality on Mt. Tapulao, Zambales province, Luzon island (Philippines) (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007). It may occur on several peaks within the mountain chain (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136489		habitat	eng	<em>Rhynchomys tapulao</em> was recorded in mossy forest at 2,024 m, near the peak of Mt. Tapulao. It appears to be nocturnal–crepuscular and occur naturally at low densities. Stomachs of two specimens contained fragments of earthworms, centipedes, collembolans, ground beetles (<em>Staphylinidae</em>), and unidentified insect larvae (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136489		population	eng	Current data on the new species suggests that they are not abundant and that they are probably restricted to montane habitats (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136489		threats	eng	The montane habitats are not under substantial threat from logging or agriculture, but plans for mining (a combination of metals, possible cromite) in Zambales pose some reason for concern (Mallari <em>et al</em>. 2001). Mines that were once active and then abandoned may have started up again (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136490		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136490		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and Kazakhstan (Smith and Xie 2008). In China it is present in the northern region of Xinjiang province (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs allopatrically to <em>Spermophilus alashanicus</em> and <em>S. pallidicauda</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).
136490		habitat	eng	There are few data regarding this species, but it is thought to occupy dry steppes and semi-desert brushlands (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a burrow-dwelling species, in which it will hibernate if temperatures are low enough or retreat to if it is too hot (Smith and Xie 2008). Burrows are generally located at the base of shrubs (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It is primarily vegetarian, feeding opportunistically on seasonal vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).
136490		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136490		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
136491		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Manombo Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136491		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Manombo Special Reserve region in south-eastern Madagascar. The precise northern and southern limits of the range are unknown, but it could range south of the Manampatrana River and north of the Mananara River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136491		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of moist lowland rainforest.
136491		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136491		threats	eng	Unknown.
136492		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species.
136492		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Brazil.
136492		habitat	eng	Little is known oif the habitat and ecology of this species. It is suspected to use remnant of lowland tropical moist forest.
136492		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species.
136492		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs has been very heavily converted to agriculture and pasture.
136493		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
136493		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from Kai Besar island (Kai Islands, Indonesia).
136493		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species. Presumably, it occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest.
136493		population	eng	This species is known only by two skins and a single skull (Groves and Flannery 1994). The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
136493		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136494		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136494		distribution	eng	Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Northwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).
136494		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
136494		population	eng	Very rare in southern Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.). Endangered because its low population density and habitat impact. In Bolivia is restricted to very nearly places (Anderson 1997)
136494		threats	eng	Unknown.
136495		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. There is a need for additional taxonomic research into this probable species complex. In South Asia, additional research is needed into the species conservation status, with public awareness initiatives additionally recommended (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).
136495		distribution	eng	Thedistribution range of this species is clouded by ongoing taxonomic problems, however, it has presently been widely recorded from the Caucasus in the west of its range, through much of Central Asia and western and central China, being found as far south as northern India and Nepal. In the Caucasus, it is likely present in northeastern Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and the Caspian region of northern Iran. In Central Asia, the species appears to be distributed in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. In China, it has been recorded from Qinghai, Gansu and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008), and is possible present in Xizang. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central Nepal) in South Asia (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). Elevation details are not known.
136495		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of often arid or mountainous habitats, including forest, shrubland, grassland areas and desert. It has also been recorded from rural garden and urban areas in South Asia. Roosts in cracks in in buildings, rocks, caves and old mines (Smith and Xie 2008; C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008; Katerina Tsytsulina pers. comm. 8 May 2008). Animals usually begin feeding after dusk, hunting flying insects low above ground. The flight is fast and manoeuvring. It is most probably non-migratory, but populations can relocate to different roosting sites if they are disturbed. Winters in underground shelters. The species reproduces once a year, giving birth to a single young.
136495		population	eng	This is a widely distributed, generally common species. In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).
136495		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. However, in South Asia (and possibly other parts of the range) it is  presumed that the species is probably locally affected by loss of or damage to roost sites and landscape changes (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).
136496		conservation	eng	Three of the four populations in Thailand occur in protected areas (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Further research is needed on the range and population status of this species.
136496		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Thailand, western Malaysia and adjacent small islands. It is also present in south Viet Nam but the<br/>exact locality is not known and so is not mapped here.
136496		habitat	eng	It is found in mixed pristine deciduous forest in west Thailand, and in the south in pristine lowland dipterocarp forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Malaysia it is primarily found in lowland and hill forest, and found roosting in crevices in rock boulders, and other individuals have been found from palms in understorey (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136496		population	eng	In Thailand it is locally rare (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Surveys in areas surrounding pristine forest in Thailand have failed to find the species in degraded habitats, it is probable that they would have been found in these areas if they were there. The population at the type locality is no extirpated (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is rare in Malaysia (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
136496		threats	eng	Forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and fires is a major threat for this species. The cave locality in the north of Thailand is disturbed by tourism (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).
136497		conservation	eng	The species is listed (under <em>Manis javanicus</em>) on CITES Appendix II. This species is protected under a ban on the collection of any form of wildlife in the Province of Palawan, the entire province having been declared a game refuge and bird sanctuary in 1969 (Proclamations 219 and 530-B) (CITES 2000). There is further research needed into population size and trends, as well as the magnitude and types of threats to this species. There is currently no evidence of international trade in this species, but in the future this should be tightly monitored given the declines of other Asian pangolins.
136497		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Palawan faunal region. The species is known from mainland Palawan and adjacent islands (Busuanga, Culion and Calauit), and has also been introduced to Apulit Island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Schlitter 2005).
136497		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland primary and secondary forests, grassland/secondary growth mosaics, mixed mosaics of agricultural lands, and scrubland adjacent to secondary forests (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The upper elevational limit is not known. As with other pangolins, this species feeds on termites and ants.
136497		population	eng	There is very little information available on the population of any species of Asian pangolins. This species is rarely observed due to its secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). The species is suspected to be moderately common across its range, with sometimes localized distribution, although it is not often sighted (Hoogstraal, 1951; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). According to local hunters, the species population is in decline (Batin pers. comm. 2006).
136497		threats	eng	The species is affected by deforestation and it is also hunted for its skin/scales, which are used to treat asthma, and for its meat (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). There are reports that the species has been seen for sale in Puerto Princesa, as well as reports that the it is hunted in places on Palawan such as Taytay, in logged lowland forest (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is described by locals as fairly common, but under moderate hunting pressure (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The scales are also presumably in the Chinese medicine trade, as part of the shift to market economies among Tagbanua and other ethnic groups on Palawan (Lacerna and Widmann 1999; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136498		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.
136498		distribution	eng	Endemic to Europe, where it occurs in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia. In Austria, it is found in two isolated localities and also found along the Italian and Slovenian border (Spitzenberger 2002). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,700 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). One record for Serbia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007)
136498		distribution	eng	Endemic to Europe, where it occurs in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia. In Austria, it is found in two isolated localities and also found along the Italian and Slovenian border (Spitzenberger 2002). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,700 m (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). One record for Serbia (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2007)
136498		habitat	eng	It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em>, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Kryštufek 1999).
136498		habitat	eng	It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em>, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Kry?tufek 1999).
136498		population	eng	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline (Kryštufek 1999).
136498		population	eng	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline (Kry?tufek 1999).
136498		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning.
136499		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136499		distribution	eng	Southwest Catamarca Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Known only from the type locality (Ojeda pers. comm.).
136499		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136499		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136499		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136500		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, but is not protected by national law. Lammertink <em>et al</em>. (2003) recommend, for the conservation of the species, the implementation by the district government of Natuna of two strict conservation areas on the island, and the maintaining of a larger area of sustainably used natural forest around Mount Bedung.
136500		distribution	eng	This species is confined to Bunguran Island, in the northern Natuna Islands off the northwestern coast of Borneo, Indonesia (Groves 2001).
136500		habitat	eng	This species is reported from a range of habitats, including primary and logged forest and rubber plantations (Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136500		population	eng	Groups average 3.5±SD 2.0 individuals and occur in a density of 2.3±SD 1.1 groups/km<sup>2</sup>. Extrapolation of the density estimates to the entire island indicates that <10,000 individuals remain in two subpopulations (Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136500		threats	eng	The species is threatened in part by the demand for captive individuals as pets but mostly by continuing degradation and reduction of forest (Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2003), and perhaps by the presence of offshore petroleum production activities and defense facilities.
136501		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas.
136501		distribution	eng	Known from the Amazonian region of Peru (Ucayali and Loreto Departments), and adjacent portions of Brazil (Acre and Amazonas states) (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Gardner, 2007).
136501		habitat	eng	When in sympatry with <em>P. opossum</em> along the Rio Jura, <em>P. mcilhennyi</em> occurs in terra firma forests, while <em>P. opossum</em> occurs in varzea forests (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136501		population	eng	Locally common, more common in upland forests (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136501		threats	eng	No major threats.
136502		conservation	eng	There is a need to reduce habitat loss and review the species distribution.
136502		distribution	eng	Argentina, S Bolivia, S Peru (Simmons 2005).
136502		habitat	eng	Found only in forests.
136502		population	eng	It is locally not abundant, threatened in Yungas.
136502		threats	eng	Deforestation.
136503		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. Two of the three known localities are in the National Park of Gennargentu and the Orosei Gulf. Recommended research actions include surveys and monitoring to determine distribution, status, and population trend. Protection of roosting and foraging habitat is also recommended.
136503		distribution	eng	<em>Plecotus sardus</em> is restricted to the island of Sardinia (Italy). The three known localities are situated near to the coast or at low elevations.
136503		habitat	eng	It occurs in the most wooded areas parts of Sardinia, and roosts in natural caves. Two of the three known localities are situated in karstic areas, one locality lies near the sea coast (Mucedda <em>et al.</em> 2002). Artificial habitats are not used. It is a sedentary species.
136503		population	eng	This species was first described in 2002 and is poorly known. It is considered to be rare (known only from five specimens).
136503		threats	eng	Roost disturbance (as a result of tourism) and habitat loss (caused by forestry management) are the main threats to the species.
136504		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. A proposed protected area (Pulau Kobroor) is within the general area where the species was found. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats of this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136504		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to the Aru Islands, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).
136504		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology of this species.
136504		population	eng	This species has not been collected since the nineteenth century. The complete absence of twentieth-century records for P. a. aruensis is concerning, and expeditions to the Aru Islands sponsored by the Western Australian Museum in the early 1990s did not encounter it. However, a single toothless jaw from a kitchen midden collected by P.A. Woolley at Namara on the island of Kobroor in October/November 1992 probably represents this species (field number NA/36, unregistered lot at CSIRO) (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It is a very large and colourful bat and so hence it is potentially a target of concerted hunting. It could possibly be extinct.
136504		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. This species is a potential target for hunting, and this may have resulted in the species decline, but this has not been confirmed.
136505		conservation	eng	Occurs in a few protected areas.
136505		distribution	eng	Biogeographic Choco - western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. Occurs from 0-500 m asl (Solari pers. comm.)
136505		habitat	eng	Lowland moist tropical humid forests of the Choco.
136505		population	eng	Rare.
136505		threats	eng	Deforestation.
136506		conservation	eng	It occurs in a protected area. Further surveys on habitat, ecology, taxonomy and distribution are required for this species.
136506		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes of west and central Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevation range from 1,828 to 3,150 m; the distribution is likely to be larger than currently known (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136506		habitat	eng	It occurs in paramo, montane forest habitats, and secondary forest.
136506		population	eng	It is scarce throughout its range.
136506		threats	eng	Deforestation is affecting its conservation.
136507		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Nujiang and Tongbiguan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and is likely to be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, distribution, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136507		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern China and the extreme northeast region of Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from the area west of the Salween river valley in Yunnan province (Smith and Xie 2008). Its range may extend to southern Yunnan and the east-central regions of Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occupies elevations ranging from 2,300-3,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).
136507		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense montane forest at high elevations, preferring steep slopes and banks (Smith and Xie 2008). There are few data regarding the natural history of this species.
136507		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136507		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
136508		conservation	eng	This species is not yet recorded from a protected area, but known records are adjacent to several and it is presumed to occur there.
136508		distribution	eng	This species is known only in eastern Peru. There are only two general locations known. The type locality was identified as the Valle de Occobamba, Cuzco, Peru (Gardner, 2007). There is also a locality at 860 m at Moyobamba, San Martin, Peru (Osgood, 1913). There are records from an expedition to Vilcabamba (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2001) that likely represent this species (Solari pers. comm.). The species likely is found more extensively, perhaps into Bolivia (Solari pers. comm.). It is found from 300 to 2,700 m.
136508		habitat	eng	It is a low and upper montane forest. It is restricted to forest, there are no records from secondary forest though may persist there.
136508		population	eng	Unknown.
136508		threats	eng	No major threats. The northern locality has habitat loss, though the southern known range is relatively intact.
136509		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.
136509		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia, where it ranges from the Mitchell River and near Mount Carbine, west to Mungana and south to the Burdekin River near Mount Garnet (Eldridge and Close 2008). It is found from sea level to 1,000 m asl.
136509		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species, associated with areas of rocky hills, cliffs, and gorges.
136509		population	eng	This species is common.
136509		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Much of their range around Mareeba is subject to agricultural and rural development, and is in areas where predation by dogs poses a threat.
136510		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the distribution, habitat preferences,<br/>and densities of the species (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005).
136510		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Forêt d'Andaladomo in the Forest des Mikea, Province de Toliara, south-eastern Madagascar. It was collected at about 80 m asl (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005). Without further inventory work it cannot be discerned if this species occurs elsewhere in the region (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136510		habitat	eng	The single known specimen was collected on the ground in an isolated fragment of dry deciduous forest growing on red sands. The area of capture was surrounded by small bushes and succulent euphorbias (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005).
136510		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype collected in 2003. This single animal was the only individual captured in the course of a total of 3100 trap nights accrued. However, the fact that only a single individual was obtained during the Foret des Mikea survey, that took place at the end of the rainy season, does not necessarily mean that this species is rare (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005).
136510		threats	eng	The local forest habitat is partially degraded, mostly associated with cleared and abandoned areas for growing maize (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005). The Foret des Mikea, one of the last remaining tracts of extensive forest habitat in this region of Madagascar, is not protected and has extensive anthropogenic pressures in the form of selective logging, cattle pasture, and clearing for agricultural crops.
136511		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Potentially it occurs in Parque Nacional das Emas. Its range is probably wider; so research is needed to determine its actual distribution.
136511		distribution	eng	This species was only recently described and is known only from the type locality: Brazil, Goiás State, Jaborandi Municipality, Fazenda Sertão do Formoso (formerly Fazenda Jucurutu), in the Cerrado, central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136511		habitat	eng	Occurs in Cerrado habitat (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136511		population	eng	This species is locally common (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136511		threats	eng	The major threats are agriculture expansion, cattle and the growing soybean agroindustry.
136512		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary, and may be present in other protected areas within the region. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species and its tolerance to habitat modification.
136512		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Cameron Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia in an elevational range from 1,520 to 2,010 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136512		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary montane tropical forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
136512		population	eng	It may be common as it is known from large series of specimens.
136512		threats	eng	The species is threatened by conversion of habitat to cultivated use (including vegetable and tea plantations) at elevations below 1,700 m. The habitat at elevations above 1,700 m is threatened by conversion to tea plantations and infrastructure development (eg. roads).
136513		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.
136513		distribution	eng	This Central African species is distributed from central and eastern Cameroon, though southern Central African Republic and northern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (north of the Congo Basin), to southern Sudan in the east of its range.
136513		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from moist savanna grasslands and forest margin areas. It appears to prefers sandy soils on valley slopes above riverine forest, with dense tall grasses and termite mounds.
136513		population	eng	It is generally uncommon or rare.
136513		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this species as a whole.
136514		conservation	eng	The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range. Further studies into the taxonomy and migration routes of this species are needed.
136514		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species ranges from the Caucasus through to South Asia, Peninsular Southeast Asia, China, North and South Korea. It has been recorded also over much of the Philippines, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali (all Indonesia), and from the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). In Japan, it is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima Island, and Sado Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/>Confusion between <em>M. schreibersii</em> and <em>M. magnater</em> makes the mapping of the distribution extremely difficult. Future research may show that this species is less abundant in Southeast Asia than previously thought.
136514		habitat	eng	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to 2,120 m asl in southern parts of its range. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies and spiders. It is a colonial species that roosts almost exclusively in caves and mines (although it has occasionally been found in man made tunnels), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large and warm caves are preferred. Solitary animals and small groups may sometimes occupy other types of shelter. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a migrant species which changes its roosts frequently, long-distance movements occur occasionally.
136514		population	eng	This species is widely distributed and common. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 100,000 in India). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals. Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in the Middle East it appears to be stable.<br/>It is the second most common bat species in Iran, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatash and M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005), and the population in Iran is probably stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005), although there is a possible historical record of a mass mortality event in Iran. Populations in the Caucasus are considered near threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Indonesia, it is a locally common species throughout its range. In Japan it can be found in colonies of over several hundred bats.
136514		threats	eng	There are overall no major threats to this widespread species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There is a possible historical record of an incidence of mass mortality in Iran, and many more mass recent mass mortalities in Europe within the closely related <em>M. schreibersii</em>, as well as in Australia with <em>M. oceanensis</em>. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.
136515		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are required. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136515		distribution	eng	Originally known only from subfossil remains uncovered at Long Mile Cave in Jamaica, but additional cranial and postcranial material attributed to <em>Xenothrix</em> has since been recovered from elsewhere on Jamaica (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991, MacPhee and Horovitz 2004).
136515		habitat	eng	<em>Xenothrix</em> is known only as a fossil taxon. It has traditionally been regarded as a frugivore. Several features of the known limb skeleton suggest a slow quadrupedal locomotor style that has no evident counterpart among extant platyrrhines, but was possibly somewhat convergent on sloths (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991).
136515		population	eng	Extinct. It is believed to have survived until after 1500, perhaps until some time after 1700 (MacPhee and Fleming 1999).
136515		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction of this species in Jamaica are not known.
136516		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
136516		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in northeast Colombia and northern and western Venezuela. There is a record from Caqueta Department, Colombia, that may refer to this species (S. Solari pers. comm.). The distribution in Colombia is not yet well known. This species occurs in Venezuela from sea level to 2,250 m (D. Lew pers. comm.).</p>
136516		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in forest, including gallery and secondary forests. There are also records in plantations, including coffee. It is terrestrial and crepuscular. In northern Venezuela, the breeding season mainly extends from May to August and up to eight young have been reported to born in a single litter (O’Connell 1979, 1989; Eisenberg 1989).</p>
136516		population	eng	The species is common in appropriate habitat.
136516		threats	eng	No major threats are known. However, the significant deforestation occurred particularly in lower elevations, especially outside of protected areas, might affect the populations of the species.
136517		conservation	eng	Thorough surveys, ecology, population and dsitribution studies are recommended. It has been recorded outside of Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in Coorg. It is also classified as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. There is an urgent need to conserve areas of suitable undisturbed forest for this species.
136517		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern Western Ghats found of India, where it is found in three severely fragmented regions of Satara in Maharashtra, the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Coorg in Karnataka (S. Molur pers. comm.). It occurs at elevations ranging from 700 to 2,150 m asl.
136517		habitat	eng	It has been recorded only in pristine montane moist deciduous and evergreen forests. It is a strictly canopy dwelling animal coming to the ground occasionally only to the base of the tree or vine. It lives in nests or burrow in the middle or high canopy, is frugivorous and insectivorous. It is a slow mover, almost reluctant to move even when released from the trap, and prefers to run rather than hop like <em>Rattus rattus wroughtoni </em>or <em>R. r. rufescens</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.). This species is highly sensitive to habitat disturbance (S. Molur pers. comm.). In disturbed forests and fragments it is not recorded, nor is it available in coffee and cardamom plantations with either a native or exotic canopy where <em>R.r. wroughton</em>i displaces this species completely (S. Molur pers. comm.)
136517		population	eng	It is most commonly trapped rat in undisturbed forest fragments in Coorg compared to <em>Rattus rattus wroughtoni</em> or <em>R. r. rufescens</em>.
136517		threats	eng	Habitat loss from conversion of forests into plantations, fragmentation, logging, collection of minor forest produce, use of pesticide and planting of exotic species are all major threats to this species (S. Molur pers. comm.).
136518		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Further surveys are required to determine its extent of occurrence, its abundance and its habitat requirements.
136518		distribution	eng	This species is found on the banks of the middle Rio Maderia between 5 and 9o S latitude, Brazil (Wilson and Reeder, 2003).
136518		habitat	eng	The  paratype of the species from Santa Maria was taken from local vegetation described as tall "seringal" forest growing on terra firme with abundant rubber trees, Brazil nuts and other trees (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001)
136518		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered and very little is known about it.
136518		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136519		conservation	eng	The hunting of this species is regulated under wildlife laws (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has only been recorded once from Riviére Bleu National Park (Flannery 1995). Field surveys of population numbers, range, utilization, and ecology studies are ongoing by IAC (Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien) (Brescia and Borel 2004; Boissenin and Brescia 2007).
136519		distribution	eng	New Caledonia blossom bat is known from only a few caves in the northern part of the island of New Caledonia (Brescia and Borel 2004; Boissenin and Brescia 2007).
136519		habitat	eng	It is a cave roosting species. It is usually observed close to their roosting area, foraging near areas of human habitation on coconut flowers (F. Brescia pers. comm.). Presumably it also forages in tropical moist forest.
136519		population	eng	It forms colonies of up to 300 animals, and is an uncommon species.
136519		threats	eng	Threats to this species include disturbance at roosting caves (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Brescia and Borel 2004), and, to a much lesser extent, hunting (Boissenin and Brescia 2007).
136520		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in Serra do Tabuleiro State Park which may receive funds from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem rehabilitation. <em>C. intermedia</em> habitat has been designated a Preservation Zone, and all entry is prohibited (Cherem <em>et al.</em>, 1999). This park is unmanaged and the park status and entry prohibition are not enforced.
136520		distribution	eng	This species in known from Serra do Tabuleiro State Park, on Moleques Island do Sul, in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. This island has a surface area of 10.5 ha. This is one of the worlds? smallest geographical distributions for a mammal (found in an area of only 4 ha) (Cherem <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
136520		habitat	eng	Its ecology and natural history is poorly known, as it was only recently discovered (Cherem <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
136520		population	eng	Salvador and Fernandez (2008) studied the population dynamics of this species between March 2004 and June 2005 using monthly capture?mark?recapture sampling methods and radio telemetry. Over 5,530 trap-nights, there were  665 captures of 141 individuals. The minimum population was 24, and maximum population was 60, in a sample year with 42 as the sample average. The population had a high and stable density, stable age structure with mostly adults, small home ranges, and high rates of survival.
136520		threats	eng	People have free access to the island and protected area enforcement is not strict. The hunting of this rodent is presumed a threat.
136521		conservation	eng	It has been collected in Cotapata National Park in Bolivia, and from Manu Biosphere Reserve in Peru. Further research is generally needed into this poorly known species.
136521		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known from three localities. Two of these are in the Alto Madre de Dios river basin in Peru (Cuzco and Madre de Dios Departments), the third locality is at Bajo Hornuni, in Bolivia. It has been recorded between 450-2,100 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136521		habitat	eng	This is believed to be an arboreal species; it has been collected at 2 m above ground and in pitfall traps. It has been found in a variety of habitats from dry cane fields in lowland areas close to rivers, to humid montane forest. It has been collected in disturbed forest.
136521		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens. This is likely to be a reflection of low sampling effort and inadequate methods.
136521		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
136522		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas on the island. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Manus, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995).
136522		habitat	eng	It seems to be a largely arboreal species, and has been recorded in forested areas including a cacao plantation (Flannery 1995).
136522		population	eng	It is only known from two specimens (Flannery 1995), but there have been further collections in 2004 (but these are not yet confirmed).
136522		threats	eng	Much of the island has been, and continues to be, cleared for plantations and human settlement. Only the areas at higher elevation are still intact.
136523		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and any threats to this species are needed.
136523		distribution	eng	It is currently known from a single locality in the Agaun area (elevation 1,300 m asl) and is believed to have a restricted range in the mountains of south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea). Note that our map is much larger than the proven range of the species.
136523		habitat	eng	This species is an insectivore and may specialize on worms. It is probably dependent on mature forest.
136523		population	eng	It is known only from a single specimen.
136523		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136524		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas.
136524		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela (Simmons, 2005).<br/>Not found in Costa Rica (Bernal Rodriguez pers. comm.)
136524		habitat	eng	This bat is strictly insectivorous. Likely forest dependent. This bat prefers moist habitats and montane tropical forest or evergreen forest.
136524		population	eng	This species is poorly known. This species is likely rare.
136524		threats	eng	Habitat modification.
136525		conservation	eng	This species is probably found in Leoncito National Park. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.
136525		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Los Sombreros, Sierra del Tontal, in southern San Juan Province, Argentina, at 3,800 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136525		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky outcrops in grasslands.
136525		population	eng	The size and distribution of this species are unknown.
136525		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136526		conservation	eng	This species was collected from within the Arfak Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136526		distribution	eng	This species is known from the holotype, collected on the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province, Indonesia at 2,000 m asl, and some additional specimens in the Australian Museum in Sydney (Helgen 2007). The area has not been well collected, so it could well be more widely distributed in the Arfak Mountains.
136526		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is unknown.
136526		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown.
136526		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species are not known.
136527		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in Sanjiangyuan and Qiangtang Nature Reserves and other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Wang and Xie 2004).
136527		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Qinghai and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). The distribution map accompanying this account is a parsimonious alignment that awaits revision.
136527		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is presumed to be similar to that of <em>Cricetulus kamensis</em>, occuring in high mountain grasslands, shrubby marshes, and open steppe (Smith and Xie 2008).
136527		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136527		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
136528		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats of this species.</p>
136528		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Kei Islands in Indonesia.
136528		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species.
136528		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
136528		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136529		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
136529		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east of the Andean foothills and western margins of the Amazon Basin, including central and southeast Colombia, east Ecuador, east Peru, northern Bolivia, and western Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Percequillo, in press); eastern limits indeterminate (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136529		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and insects. It if found in virtually every habitat along rivers in the Amazon, including disturbed habitats (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136529		population	eng	This species is common (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136529		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
136530		conservation	eng	It is found in a protected area (Reserva San Javier).
136530		distribution	eng	It is found in Tucuman Province (Argentina).
136530		habitat	eng	It is found in Yungas.
136530		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136530		threats	eng	No major threats apparently for the species.
136531		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not believed to be present in any protected areas (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). There is a need to clarify the taxonomy of this species, and conduct further research on current population size and threats.
136531		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is restricted to Kosrae Island in the Federated States of Micronesia. A specimen in the Berlin Museum collected on Pohnpei in the 1800s is undoubtedly mislabeled (G. Wiles pers. comm.).
136531		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known. Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> (1992) suggest that it is similar to <em>Pteropus mariannus</em> in that it forms congregations in native forest and mangrove habitats.
136531		population	eng	Populations of this species significantly declined through disease in 1927. A few colonies of 100 to 400 bats were reported in 1983, and the species was still uncommon in 1989 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Current abundance is not known. Although there is little information on the overall population size and trends, there are at least two good fruit bat roosts in Kosrae and the species is probably stable: one at the opening of the Utwe-Walung channel on the south side of the island, and another on a mangrove island in Lelu, which is in a much more developed area (K. Ewel pers. comm.).
136531		threats	eng	The species declined rapidly in 1927 through a disease epidemic. It appears to have been exported from Kosrae to Guam in the 1980s in significant numbers for the luxury food market. Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> (1992) states that government officials in Kosrae reported this trade, although officials in Guam did not have documentation concerning imports from Kosrae. The species is not locally hunted for food. The species is threatened by typhoon events, which are rare on Kosrae. A vegetation map of Kosrae was published in the 1980s and there has not been a great deal of change since then (K. Ewel pers. comm.). Much of the interior of the island is occupied by mountainous terrain with scrubby vegetation, while the forest on the coastal plain is freshwater swamp dominated by <em>Terminalia carolinensis</em> and used for agroforestry (K. Ewel pers. comm.). Mangrove forests occupy about 15% of the total land area of the island (K. Ewel pers. comm.). Mangrove habitat loss is due to filling from the interior for building sites, and harvesting for firewood, which can be extensive in some places (K. Ewel pers. comm.).
136532		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed.
136532		distribution	eng	Known only from subfossil remains on Madagascar where it is believed to have had a wide distribution.
136532		habitat	eng	Unknown, although it was believed to be extremely suspensory, hence the name "sloth lemur".
136532		population	eng	Extinct. Relict populations may have survived until as late as 1300 to 1620 AD (Burney <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136532		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction are not known.
136533		conservation	eng	Much more research is required; in particular it is a priority to reassess the taxonomic validity of the species. This requires collecting more material of <em>Tragulus</em> from across the northern highlands of South-east Asia but an immediate and possibly highly informative first step would be critical examination of material already held in collections in the region (particularly China, Thailand, and Viet Nam). Distributional surveys focusing on relative species status (of <em>T. williamsoni</em> and <em>T. kanchil</em>) and altitudinal range, perhaps focussed on acquiring remains from hunters, should be carried out in widely spaced localities in northern Thailand, northern Lao PDR (both east and west of the Mekong), southern China, and perhaps also Viet Nam and Shan State, Myanmar (such surveys could sensibly be combined with those for other taxa, for instance <em>Muntiacus</em> spp.). <br/><br/>Because of the species' presumed external similarity to <em>T. kanchil</em>, it will be necessary to collect specimens in order to distinguish the two species. Most unfortunately it seems likely that while data collected from camera-trapping studies will be helpful in establishing the genus’s distribution and conservation status, until specimen-based clarification of ranges, particularly the extent of geographic and ecological overlap, is clear, species-specific conclusions will not be possible from this method. Similarly, hunting studies such as those of Johnson <em>et al</em>. (2003) which do not systematically collect voucher specimens will be of limited use in determining this species' conservation needs.<br/>Because this species might have a small range it might therefore be a conservation priority and clarification of chevrotain status in degraded and fragmented forests and in plantations in its possible range is urgently needed.<br/><br/>Many protected areas exist within the northern highlands of South-east Asia. Whether any hold the species is as yet unclear. Few of those that might do are effectively reigning in hunting levels.
136533		distribution	eng	<em>Tragulus williamsoni</em> is only known from the holotype which was collected at Meh Lem, Muang Pre, Song forest of Thailand (18°25'N, 100°23'E); also referred to as Me Song (Meijaard and Groves 2004). The species' true range cannot be determined until more material of <em>Tragulus</em> is examined from the northern highlands of South-east Asia and adjacent southern China; this will require serious further collecting. The lack of subsequent records of <em>T. williamsoni</em> may largely reflect the paucity of collecting in recent decades, the fact that most surveyors and other biologists in the region have been unaware of the taxon’s distinctiveness, and so have not sought it and may well have overlooked it when they came across it. The collections in China and Thailand (and Viet Nam), where additional specimens of <em>T. williamsoni</em> would be most likely to be found, were not studied by Meijaard and Groves (2004) and remain to be critically examined. Thus, the current restriction of records to the type locality cannot be seen as even weakly indicative of a genuinely restricted  distribution. The type locality is west of the Mekong and this river is a biogeographic barrier for some species (Meijaard and Groves 2006, Timmins and Duckworth in press) but it should not be assumed to be so for <em>T. williamsoni</em>. While all specimens (about four) examined from east of the Mekong from localities lying along the southern edge of the northern highlands of Indochina have all proved to be <em>T. kanchil</em> (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008), this is a small sample size and does not represent the actual highland area. Most significantly, two specimens from Yunnan province (China) here provisionally assigned to this species (below) come from east of the Mekong. Specifically, given the known presence of <em>Tragulus</em> across a large area of the northern highlands of Lao PDR far from any specimens validated to either <em>T. williamsoni</em> or <em>T. kanchil</em> (Bergmans 1995, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: 269; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003), it is an open question whether <em>T. williamsoni</em> occurs in Lao PDR. Records from the area of north Lao PDR west of the Mekong (Xaignabouli province), based on village interviews but surely reliably indicative of the genus given the strength of the distribution pattern in Lao PDR from this nation-wide dataset (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: 269), should be priorities to determine to species. Two specimens from Mengla, Xishuanbanna, southern Yunnan province, China (21°32’ N, 101°36’ E) appear to be <em>T. williamsoni</em> on the basis of some skull measurements (the skulls are damaged and knowledge of intraspecific variation in this taxon is obviously weak given only a single specimen from the region of the type locality) (Wang Yingxiang <em>in litt</em>. to E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008). <em>Tragulus</em>, nominally identified as <em>T. javanicus</em> (=, here, <em>T. kanchil</em>) occur in northern Viet Nam (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1994), but the distributional map suggests records are likely to have been from the lowlands. <br/><br/>The type locality and the data from China suggest that this species might be associated with highland terrain and higher altitudes than <em>T. kanchil</em>, but this is no more than speculation at present. The genus <em>Tragulus</em> has an odd northerly distribution within South-east Asia, being entirely unrecorded from Myanmar (except the far south) (Tun Yin 1967, Lynam 2003, Meijaard and Groves 2004; Shan state, adjacent to highland areas of northern Lao PDR and Thailand which hold the genus, has not been well investigated and may yet be found to hold the species), apparently absent from the east of Lao PDR’s northern highlands (and the central northern highlands remain to be investigated; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: 269), present in northern Viet Nam but quite probably restricted to the lowlands (see above), and penetrating China only in the far southwest, in Xishuangbanna prefecture of Yunnan Province (Smith and Xie 2008). The <em>T. williamsoni</em> holotype appears to be the only <em>Tragulus</em> record critically identified to species from this extensive area, making the absence of confirmed <em>T. kanchil</em> records biologically uninformative.
136533		habitat	eng	Its habitat is currently speculated to be evergreen forest, though it is essentially unknown. Meijaard and Groves (2004) thought it might be restricted to higher elevation forests; this is plausible but currently entirely speculative (see above). Other <em>Tragulus</em> species appear to be associated especially with forest microhabitats with dense undergrowth, such as especially edges (see other species’ 2008 Red List accounts).
136533		population	eng	The population status is unknown, but there are indications of the status of <em>Tragulus</em> as a genus from the northern highlands of South-east Asia. Chevrotains (which may or may not comprise or include <em>T. williamsoni</em>) are clearly common in and around Nam Ha National Protected Area, Lao PDR: they are one of the most commonly hunted (mostly with snares, some with guns), eaten, and traded wildlife. Only 3% of households interviewed considered the genus to be in decline (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003) (However, because no wildlife taxon was considered to be in decline by more than 13% of households questioned and even such heavily traded species such as pangolin, otter, tiger and sambar were assessed as being in decline by fewer than a tenth of villagers questioned, there was either a major mismatch of villagers’ perceptions with reality or of surveyors’ records with villagers’ beliefs: so nothing should be concluded from this statement of villagers’ perception of decline.) An intensive hunting study of two villages in Thailand’s northern highlands in the general areas of the type locality did not record the species at all (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). Given the genus’s prominence in hunting bags when it is present, it can safely assumed to be absent from around the two study villages; and given that the study was specifically investigating species extirpation sequence, it is safe to assume that it never occurred in these two areas. Neither village is located precisely. This suggests the genus’s populations may be localised in Thai northern highlands.
136533		threats	eng	There is no applicable knowledge of threats, because even though hunting and habitat change patterns in the region can be presented even without resolution of the species' actual distribution, there is no information whatsoever on the effects these patterns have on the genus. The northern highlands of Thailand, China and Indochina are generally subject to heavy hunting from local people, often with high densities of snares suitable to catch animals like chevrotains. At least in Indochina, chevrotains are a favoured quarry (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There is an enormous trade in wild meat from rural areas to markets in adjacent towns, those further afield, across international borders and up into, particularly, Viet Nam and China (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001). However, whether the species would be significantly threatened by such activity is unknown (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008); it might be one of several ungulates that is remarkably resilient. Despite extensive forest disturbance through shifting cultivation in the species' likely range, habitat-related factors may only have been a relatively minor threat to date, if indeed one at all, given the adaptability of the genus to disturbed and secondary habitats (see other species 2008 Red List accounts). This may be changing fast, because the northern highlands of Lao PDR and adjacent areas are currently seeing heavy conversion of forest (albeit mostly secondary and regrowth, which is all that survives in large areas) to plantations to supply the burgeoning Chinese market for rubber. This will have three linked negative effects on ground-dwelling mammals: direct loss of forest habitat, decline and destabilisation of the forest resource-base (including wild-meat sources) for subsistence-level communities, leading to higher hunting levels in remaining wildlife areas (C. Wood pers. comm. 2005 to J.W. Duckworth, based on emerging patterns across several provinces in Lao PDR’s northern highlands); and shrinkage of the size of natural habitat blocks and thereby reduction and, locally, loss, of the cushioning effect which allows hunted wildlife to persist in large blocks of forest when eradicated from smaller blocks. Although this habitat trend is not in doubt, it is entirely unknown to what extent rubber plantations will support chevrotains in northern South-east Asia, so effects on the genus cannot be predicted. Hunting and habitat loss are provisionally seen as threats to the species, pending actual data.
136534		conservation	eng	It is not so far known from any protected areas. Further work is needed to determine the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.
136534		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in 2006, and is so far known only from its type locality: Mount Siburan, Barangay Batong Buhay, Sablayan Municipality, Occidental Mindoro Province, Mindoro Island, Philippines, at 100 m asl. It probably occurs more broadly on Mindoro Island.
136534		habitat	eng	The four specimens were collected at the edge of selectively logged lowland forest and an open field with a few guava trees (Psidium sp.). It is not yet known to what extent this species is dependent on forest.
136534		population	eng	It is very poorly known and is so far known from only four specimens.
136534		threats	eng	If this species is dependent of lowland forest, then its population must have been seriously reduced due to habitat loss. However, at this stage, the precise threats to the species are not clear.
136535		conservation	eng	Part of the eastern edge of the range falls within Tuz Lake Special Protected Area (declared in the year 2000), which is not well managed for nature protection and has declined over the past 5 years. The species' natural history, ecology, and distribution need research.
136535		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to central Turkey. The species' range limits are poorly known, and further work is needed to determine the species' distribution. Found from 200-800 m.
136535		habitat	eng	The species is found in open, dry habitats including farmlands.
136535		population	eng	There is not much known about the species population abundance, however, the species is not very common. It can be a pest locally.
136535		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. Although there are agricultural areas within its range, the species persists in these areas.
136536		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas. Research is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species.
136536		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Italy, Calabrian Peninsula, Camigliatello Silano (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Genetic data also indicates that the species occurs in Abruzzo region of central Italy (Castiglia <em>et al.</em> 2008; G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). The distribution limits between <em>M. savii</em> and <em>M. brachycercus</em> require clarification.
136536		habitat	eng	It is found in the majority of terrestrial habitat types, with the exception of high mountains, dense woodlands, and some very sandy, rocky or wet areas. It occurs in many anthropogenic habitats including pastures, arable land, gardens, and urban areas.
136536		population	eng	Like <em>Microtus savii</em>, to which it it closely related (indeed perhaps conspecific), it is likely to be widespread and abundant within its range, with a stable population trend (G. Amori <em>in litt. </em>2006).
136536		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
136537		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Possibly present in the Bongolava Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further surveys are needed to determine the full extent of its range and population status, and to confirm the taxonomic distinctiveness of this taxon.
136537		distribution	eng	Known only from three small forest fragments in the area around Port-Bergé, between the rivers Mahajamba and Sofia in north-western Madagascar (Olivieri <em>et al.</em> 2006). Prior to recent taxonomic revisions, the mouse lemurs in this region were assumed to be <em>M. ravelobensis</em>.
136537		habitat	eng	Inhabits the western deciduous forest of Madagascar.
136537		population	eng	Unknown.
136537		threats	eng	Unknown. The area where it occurs is quite difficult to access.
136538		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Arfak Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history, and threats to it. The species needs to be looked for in the Tamrau range.
136538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Arfak mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province, Indonesia. It is known only from four specimens collected at two localities (the extent of occurrence is less than 3,000 km²). It has been recorded from 1,800 m to 2,200 m asl.
136538		habitat	eng	This species is found in high-elevation tropical moist forest. Three of the known specimens were collected in the vicinity of a lake.
136538		population	eng	The population abundance is not known.
136538		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this montane species, but there is a growing human population and there are hunting camps in the Arfak Mountains.
136539		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Andringitra Strict Nature Reserve and possibly the Ankarana Special Reserve. Further research is needed into the ecology and behavior of this species.
136539		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is known from widely dispersed sites between Ankaratra Massif (the type locality) south to the Andohahela National Park. It is largely a montane species recorded up to 2,200 m asl, but also down to 800 m. The range is likely continuous, although previously it was thought to be on isolated montane localities.
136539		habitat	eng	This species is scansorial, and occurs in montane forest. It is notably more common in degraded ericoid grasslands above the forest line. After the grasslands are burned, this is one of the first species to return (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).
136539		population	eng	At certain sites, such as above forest line on the Andringitra massif, this species is notably common (B. Rasolonandrasana pers. comm.).
136539		threats	eng	In montane forests, the main threat is fire for pastureland. At lower elevations, this species is threatened by conversion of its forest habitat to cultivated land.
136540		conservation	eng	None.
136540		distribution	eng	This species was known from Jamaica.
136540		habitat	eng	Unknown.
136540		population	eng	Extinct.
136540		threats	eng	Likely went extinct following the introduction of mongoose. The species was last recorded 5 years after the introduction of mongoose to Jamaica.
136541		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997; I. Maryanto pers. comm.), and several other protected areas in Kalimantan. Conservation of forests is needed for this species.
136541		distribution	eng	This species is found in Borneo, in Sabah (Mt. Kinabalu 1,833 m), Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei, and Kalimantan (Indonesia).
136541		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane primary forest above 600 m asl.
136541		population	eng	The species is believed to be quite common in highlands.
136541		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of agriculture, logging, fires, and plantations represents a major threats to this species mainly in lowland areas.
136542		conservation	eng	There is little information available for this species. It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.
136542		distribution	eng	This species was initially known from three areas in central Alaska: Crow Creek near Galena (type locality), about 140 km east of the type locality near the Yukon River, and upper Susitna River; it is apparently widespread but scarce in subarctic Alaska (Dokuchaev 1997). It has subsequently been found in southwestern Alaska (Peirce and Peirce 2000; Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).
136542		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. All specimens have been from riparian areas (Dokuchaev 1997). It is usually found burrowing in or using soil, or under fallen logs or debris.
136542		population	eng	As of the mid-1990s, this shrew was known from three areas in Alaska, where the first specimen was collected in 1982; its distribution is poorly known but apparently widespread and seemingly scarce in subarctic Alaska. Its scarcity may be that it is difficult to detect. Extensive pitfall trapping will be necessary to determine its distribution and abundance.
136542		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
136543		conservation	eng	One of two localities where occurs it species is in a protected area. Surveys to determine the extent of occurrence are required.
136543		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality Minas Gerais, Brazil (Pessoa, 1992).
136543		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest lands above 1,000 m asl; it is present at the border between Cerrado and Atlantic Forest (Leite pers. comm.).
136543		population	eng	This rodent is not commonly found.
136543		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation and destruction of habitat; also, there are frequent fires in its range.
136544		conservation	eng	This species has been found in the Bemaraha and Namoroka National Parks and in the Anakarana Special Reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine whether the species is more continuously distributed between recorded localities.
136544		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western and northern Madagascar. It is currently known from three widely separate regions: the Bemaraha National Park; the Namoroka National Park; and the Ankarana Special Reserve and the Forest d'Ambilondambo near Daraina in the north of the island (Carleton and Goodman 2007). There has not been much survey work in the intervening tsingy forest, the species' specific habitat. All ;localities are at low elevations (50-550 m).
136544		habitat	eng	Originally believed restricted to limestone tsingy and associated forest habitat, but recent collections in the north have also recorded the species near massive metamorphic rock outcrops at the edge of transitional dry-humid forest (Carleton and Goodman 2007).
136544		population	eng	Unknown. Known only from ten specimens (Carleton and Goodman 2007).
136544		threats	eng	The tsingy habitat are at risk of degradation and removal for agriculture.
136545		conservation	eng	Several protected areas throughout the range - but not collected from any protected areas (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136545		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, "Crato", Ceará, Brazil (Gardner, 2005). It is presumed to occur in East/central Brazil in the Caatinga and Cerrado biome (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136545		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the Caatinga and Cerrado, from 400 to 760 m (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136545		population	eng	There are only a few known individuals, all from old records, so it is not possible to evaluate the population (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136545		threats	eng	Expansion of agriculture is causing habitat loss in the cerrado (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136546		conservation	eng	It is probably present in Aconcagua Provincial Park. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.
136546		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality: Punta de Vacas, Mendoza Province, Argentina at 3,000 m asl (Braun and Mares, 2002). Thomas (1921) suggested its distribution extended to northwestern Mendoza Province, Argentina, and Cabrera (1961) suggested its distribution included southwestern San Juan Province, but specimens have not been confirmed from these two areas (Braun and Mares, 2002).
136546		habitat	eng	It is found in puna-like, high Andean habitat with short grass and low shrub vegetation cover (Braun and Mares, 2002).
136546		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.
136546		threats	eng	The major threats, if any, to this species are unknown.
136547		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several disjunct protected areas, however, porpulations are increasingly fragmented. Further reseacrh is needed to establish the range and susseptibility of this species to numerous possible threats.
136547		distribution	eng	Currently known only from northern Argentina, <em>Chacodelphys formosa</em> may be widely distributed in the Chaco and other adjacent Neotropical biomes (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2004). Teta <em>et al.</em> (2006) presents four localities, all in north central Argentina, constituting new records.
136547		habitat	eng	Until 2004, the only available information about the habitat of <em>Chacodelphys formosa</em> was recorded by the collector of the  holotype in 1920, and it was known only from northern Argentina (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2004). The new recorded localities of <em>C. formosa</em> suggests that this species may be endemic to the humid Chaco (Teta <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136547		population	eng	It is a rare species, being less common than <em>Cryptonanus chacoensis</em>, another small marsupial found in sympatry (Teta <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136547		threats	eng	Deforestation and conversion of habitat for agriculture are the primary threats to this narrowly distributed species.
136548		conservation	eng	Protect the caves.
136548		distribution	eng	This species is known from Dominican Republic, and Haiti (Simmons 2005).
136548		habitat	eng	This species is found throughout dry areas. <em>Natalus major</em> has been found almost exclusively in caves, the exception being one report of nine individuals (2 females and 7 males) found roosting inside a large hollow tree in semiarid lowlands in the northern Dominican Republic (Timm and Genoways 2003). Its delicate wing membrane is subject to rapid dehydration; thus, this species probably require caves with relative humidity for day time roosts. There is not reproductive information available (Hoyt and Baker 1980).  It is insectivorous (Nowak 1999). It probably forages in rather cluttered vegetation and over relatively small home ranges (Tejedor <em>et al.</em> 2004).
136548		population	eng	It is locally common in specific areas (Hoyt and Baker 1980). Dependent on caves (L. Davalos pers. comm.)
136548		threats	eng	Caves modification by tourists, mining in Dominican Republic (Inchaustegui pers. comm.). Guano extraction, mining for material construction (Rodriguez-Duran and Turvey pers. comm.)
136549		conservation	eng	It occurs in several proteced areas.
136549		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east-central Argentina and eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136549		habitat	eng	A semiaquatic rodent occupying xeromophic woods with trees and shrubs and in coastal areas, riverine marshland (Nava <em>et al.</em> 2003).
136549		population	eng	It is considered a common species. In a study capturing 55 species of rodents in northeastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, this species was the most abundant (Nava <em>et al.</em> 2003).
136549		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
136550		conservation	eng	Its range does not include any protected areas.
136550		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only two localities; Sierra de Cuatro Venados and Sierra Yucuyacua, in Oaxaca state, Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). The type locality is at an elevation of 9,500 ft (2,860 m asl).
136550		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, the only habitat information is from the type locality which is described as "wet meadow" within cloud forest. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
136550		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens (Neal Woodman pers. comm. 2008). There have been several surveys in its range but no recent specimens have been collected, including the American Museum of Natural History, UNAM, and Centro Interdisciplinario de Desarrllo Integral (Sergio Ticul Alvarez pers. comm.).
136550		threats	eng	Deforestation is probably a threat to this species, but more information is needed.
136551		conservation	eng	Northern Red Muntjac occurs in many protected areas throughout its range and in most countries is covered by laws regulating hunting at some level. Across large parts of its range, the species would benefit if these national laws involving the protection of the species were more efficiently enforced, particularly those which relate to wildlife trading.
136551		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sri Lanka, most of India, northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and southern China, including Hainan and southern Tibet, and into southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia) south to the northern part of the Thai–Malay peninsula (Roberts 1977; Groves and Grubb 1990; Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Corbet and Hill 1992; Wang Ying-xiang 2002; Groves 2003; Grubb 2005). The precise southern range limit remains unclear on the Thai–Malay peninsula (see Taxonomy). It has been introduced in the Andaman Islands (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is widespread in most range states, except Pakistan (see Population).
136551		habitat	eng	The Northern Red Muntjac inhabits a wide variety of forests and scrub, including level plains and rugged mountains, dense and open forests, evergreen and deciduous areas, old-growth and secondary forests, and even grass- and cropland near woody habitats; from sea-level commonly up to about 1,500 m asl and occasionally over, perhaps with some variation regionally (Blanford 1891; Prater 1971; Barrette 1977, 2004; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Teng <em>et al</em>. 2004). Within this broad habitat use, densities doubtless vary based on conditions. Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. (2008) found that signs, and presumably animals, were significantly more common in lower- than higher-lying areas of the Tenasserim–Dawna mountains, Thailand, noting that this was the opposite of the patterns that would be predicted if hunting (itself concentrated heavily in the lowlands) was the chief determinant of population densities. Kushwaha <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Kumaon Himalaya (India), <em>M. vaginalis</em> frequently exploits grass- and herb-dominated environments, linked to highly logged locations, and with a preference for lower altitudes (although they did not specify what altitude range was covered, nor discuss the possibility that because logging tends to occur in valley bottoms and lower hills rather than on steep hills and ridges, a preference for lower altitudes could simply be a consequential effect of a preference for logged areas. Teng <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Hainan, muntjacs preferred shrub grassland and thorny shrubland; used dry savanna in proportion to its availability; and avoided woods, cultivated grass-plot, and deciduous monsoon forests. Sheng and Ohtaishi (1993) attributed the apparent stability in numbers of the Chinese population to logging activities, which were bringing about an increase of secondary forest and scrub dominated areas. A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Red Muntjac more widely than any other herbivorous mammal, including in coffee areas far from the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Its diet is based on fallen fruits, buds, small seeds, twigs, seed pods, tender leaves, and young grass (Barrette 1977, 2004; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977; Chen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Teng <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species has been cited as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants in southern China (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2001) and Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977) and this is presumably so throughout its range.<br/><br/>In much of its range (although rather less than was popularly supposed until recently) this is the only muntjac species. Where congeners occur, it is widely sympatric, evidently even syntopic, with them; there is no solid evidence for competitive exclusion except perhaps at very high altitudes. Where it overlaps with Fea’s Muntjac <em>M. feae</em> in Thailand, Red clearly predominates in more deciduous habitats and lower altitudes, with Fea’s apparently more common in high altitudes and fully evergreen forest (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). It probably occurs throughout the range of Large-antlered Muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em> (e.g. Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is extensive overlap with muntjacs of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex (<em>M. rooseveltorum</em>, <em>M. truongsonensis</em>, <em>M. puhoatensis</em> and <em>M. putaoensis</em>), but there may be areas above about 1,500 m asl where the latter greatly outnumber <em>M. vaginalis</em> and some where <em>M. vaginalis</em> is absent (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on examination of numerous camera-trap photographs from many camera-trap programmes). Camera-trap results from northern Myanmar suggest that Red Muntjac occurs largely below the altitudinal range of <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, but fully through the range of <em>M. putaoensis</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004), however, reported many <em>M. vaginalis</em> at high altitudes in Arunachal Pradesh, with one direct sighting at 3,000 m asl near Tawang, and there may therefore be significant local variation in the upper altitudinal limit. Two specimens in the Natural History Museum, London from Nepal have recorded altitudes of 11,400 and 8,500 feet (3,450 and 2,590 m asl) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Northern Red Muntjac appears to be able to breed all year around, although the existence of well-defined breeding seasons has been suggested for some populations, particularly in those inhabiting locations with a more seasonal climate (Barrette 1977; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977; Chen <em>et al</em>. 2001). In any case, "peaks" of mating activity are present, at least, in some areas (Prater 1971; Barrette 1977; Roberts 1977). Despite only a single fawn being born each occasion, overall lifetime output is high (Barrette 2004). Even where births occur throughout the year, there is still a fairly rigid cycle of antler formation and shedding, synchronised at the population level (Barrette 1977; Mishra 1982; Acharjyo and Patnaik 1984). It tends to be solitary (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Seidensticker 1976; Karanth and Sunquist 1992; Barrette 2004); reports of small groups could be attributed to mating pairs or to female/offspring units, or to temporary incidental proximity of individuals at concentrations of high-value food, e.g. fallen fruit under a tree (Barrette 1977, 2004; Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Individuals seem strongly attached to a certain home range, but there is no convincing evidence of territoriality (Barrette 1977, 2004). Northern Red Muntjac is diurnal in some areas, nocturnal in others (Prater 1971; Barrette 1977; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977) and is probably best regarded as crepuscular. It is an important prey for Leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>, Tiger <em>P. tigris</em>, and Dhole <em>Cuon alpinus</em>.
136551		population	eng	This adaptable and widespread species remains locally common in most of its range (e.g. Whitehead 1993; Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lynam 2003; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; Polet and Ling 2004; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2006; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008), even in Hong Kong, an almost totally deforested landscape which has in the past sustained hunting and habitat disruption heavy enough to force extinction even of squirrels (R. Corlett pers. comm. 2008). About 20–30 individuals were estimated by Roberts (1977, based on a 1972 estimate) for Margalla National Park in northern Pakistan; this would account for most of the population surviving in that country at the time. It appears to be increasingly rare in Bangladesh, with only a small population left in the Sundarbans and a few in the northeast and southeast of the country (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008); this reflects “rampant...forest destruction” during the British colonial era which was, if anything, even worse after independence (Khan 2003). Even so, muntjacs (assumed to be this species) can still be seen readily in the north-east (P.M. Thompson pers. comm. 2008). Sheng and Ohtaishi (1993) stated that the total Chinese population is about 500,000, although the assumptions behind such a number were not explicit. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) estimated that a total of 30,000 individuals were harvested each year on Hainan Island alone. In mainland China, Red Muntjac are notably scarcer than in Hong Kong, based on encounter rates of calls, faeces and camera-trap photographs; this is attributed by rural hunters to recent very heavy hunting with gin-traps precipitated by a fire-arm ban (B.P.L. Chan and M.W.N. Lau pers. comm. 2008). Populations are certainly also declining in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and probably to a lesser extent, Cambodia and Thailand through heavy trade-driven hunting (see threats). Populations in Nepal are thought to be relatively stable (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Red Muntjacs are common in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Thailand (Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007), but this is within the main transition zone between Sundaic and northern taxa, so the species there is/are unknown. The following densities have been estimated in India: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 3.64 +/- 0.63 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Kanha moist deciduous forest, 0.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 0.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 0.9 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Melghat dry deciduous forest, 0.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Wilpattu, Sri Lanka, 2.5 animals per km² (Barrette 1977); Karnali-Bardia, Nepal, 1.7 animals per km² (Dinerstein 1987); and Rajaji National Park, 1 animal per km² (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers. comm. to Barrette 2004). Where studied, population densities are always well below those of herding ungulates (previous citations), but this is not so in areas where hunting has perverted ratios, where Red Muntjac may even be the only deer species remaining.
136551		threats	eng	Northern Red Muntjac are hunted widely, both legally and illegally, over most of its range (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993; Madhusudan and Karanth 2002; Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002; Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003; Hansel 2004; Kaul <em>et al</em>. 2004; Kumara and Singh 2004; Rao <em>et al</em>. 2005; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008), and it is probably among of the most used and most desired wild meats in South and South-east Asia (e.g. Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). Patterns of threat vary across the species' range. Viet Nam, Lao PDR and to a lesser extent Cambodia and northern Thailand are apparently the areas where mammal hunting is heaviest. In its mainland China range, rates may be even higher, because a recent fire-arm ban is said to have pushed up levels of gin-trapping (B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2008). Muntjacs are hunted within a thriving hunting and wildlife trading culture in this area and in adjacent countries such as China and Thailand, involving many land vertebrate species, along with other forest products such as orchids and <em>Aquilaria</em> resin (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001). Such hunting reaches all areas, although in large rugged mountain forest blocks trade-driven hunting of species valued only for their meat (rather than high-value, low-weight, generally medicinal products that can be carried out efficiently from even the remotest areas) is still limited by economics of accessibility. The regional wild meat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are any pigs, muntjacs, and civets to be hunted. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 70 million, that of China more than 1,000 million. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000). There has been no comparable study of ungulate trade levels. Within the Northern and Central Annamites, every square kilometre of Viet Namese forest and of Lao forest that is within 5 km of the Viet Namese border probably has snares capable of capturing muntjacs set in it every year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per square kilometre per year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR at least away from the Viet Namese border, but is increasing dramatically (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2007). Hunting intensity has in recent decades been generally lower in southern Viet Nam than in Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, leaving many wildlife populations less depleted (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Polet and Ling 2004), but the general increase in regional hunting intensity and economic wealth indicate that hunting intensity in this region must also be increasing. When muntjacs become rare, the animals are hunted in group drives; the meat is often sold (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002).<br/><br/>Closed tropical evergreen forests have inherently low ungulate biomass (Robinson and Bennett 2000), and beyond this populations of all wild animals larger than 20 kg in Indochina have been significantly reduced by human exploitation (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Field survey encounter rates with Northern Red Muntjacs in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia are remarkably low compared with other areas in its range (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In a recent reconnaissance survey of highly fragmented habitat in southern Lao PDR (Pathoumphon district, Champasak province), outside the protected area system, muntjac were the only ungulates (assumed to relate to this species on habitat and distribution) for which signs were commonly found, even wild pigs <em>Sus</em> sp(p). being noticeably more scarce (K. Khounboline and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). This pattern is general throughout Lao PDR (K. Khounboline pers. comm. 2008). However, areas of heavy hunting have lost muntjacs or had them reduced to extreme rarity, not only forest isolates such as Houay Nhang (a few square kilometres,, just outside Vientiane; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994) but also, where hunting has been extremely heavy, less fragmented landscapes (such as the western lowlands of Xe Bang-Nouan National Protected Area in south Lao PDR; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). In such areas, even though forest within them is in general heavily degraded, habitat is unlikely to be the prime cause of decline, because in some other areas of long-standing forest devastation now dominated by a mix of secondary ruderals, shrubs and grasses, muntjacs are still relatively common, e.g. <em>Phongsali</em> (far northern Lao PDR), where they can even still be heard from the provincial capital town (Duckworth and Robichaud 2005). Similarly, Red Muntjac is common and widespread in Hong Kong, an almost deforested landscape (Chek 2006; R. Corlett pers. comm. 2008), and studies in Hainan indicated selection of openings and other edge habitats rather than forest interiors (Teng <em>et al</em>. 2004); this seems generally true throughout South-east Asia (R.J. Timmins and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). There is also evidence from elsewhere in its range that this species is better able than most ungulates to withstand a certain degree of continuous harvesting as well as habitat disturbance (Jathanna <em>et al</em> 2003), although this has rarely been based on quantified status assessment. In Nagarahole National Park, India, Madhusudan and Karanth (2002) found no difference in muntjac abundance between a heavily hunted and a lightly hunted site, compared with enormous differences for most other ungulates. In the context of Indochina, even their heavily-hunted site would, however, rank as lightly hunted (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, from based on visit and discussion). Madhusudan and Karanth (2002) cautioned against assuming that these results indicated an intrinsic resilience to hunting by this muntjac: it is not so readily hunted as, for example, Chital <em>Axis axis</em>, because of its solitary nature, affinity for dense cover and therefore risks of getting caught are higher when using appropriate techniques to kill or capture it. However, the ubiquitous disparity in status between <em>M. vaginalis</em> and other ungulates (and indeed almost all other mammals of similar or larger body weight) in Indochina indicates that it is truly much more resilient to hunting. An intensive study of hunting on mammals in two Hmong villages of northern Thailand classified quarry species into tiers representing the sequence of loss through overhunting; muntjacs (most or all were presumably <em>M. vaginalis</em>) fell in the fifth tier, persisting much longer than all other ruminants and with only species like squirrels, civets, and linsangs being placed later in the extinction sequence (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). Even so, villagers reported that muntjacs were greatly reduced in numbers in the area. The strongest demonstration of its remarkable resilience is that it is now common and widespread in Hong Kong, an almost deforested landscape which has in the past sustained hunting and habitat disruption heavy enough to force extinction even of squirrels. Red Muntjac were reduced to very low populations a few decades ago, but did not become extinct, and has increased rapidly in recent years (Chek 2006; R. Corlett pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>While wild meat is the major driver of South-east Asian muntjac trade, parts such as antlers are also heavily traded (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Noreen and Claridge 2001).<br/><br/>Rapid economic development and expanding wealth in the species' range, particularly South-east Asia and China, are increasing the demand for wildlife meat and ‘medicines’ (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007) highlighted a common misconception, especially in documentation of development projects in the region, that poverty is a principal cause of biodiversity loss, but as they pointed out for Saola <em>Pseudoryx nghetinhensis</em>, the main driver of threats to wild ungulates, at least for the mid-term, is not rural poverty but increasing urban wealth in Indochina and China. In Viet Nam “the free market economy has resulted in feverish periods of trade in wild species nationwide, with negative impacts on biodiversity” (Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2004). In Cambodia, the same factor has fostered a thriving bushmeat market and hunting of species for international wildlife trade (Timmins and Ou 2001; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2006; Timmins 2006). There is a rapid, ongoing, expansion of wealthy social strata in Lao PDR, directly accelerated by illegal trade in rosewood, wild meat, and other forest resources, and by the economics of large infrastructure projects (e.g. Nan Theun 2 hydro-electric power project), creating a significantly greater in-country demand for luxury meats such as venison (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Wild meat is chosen in preference to farmed meat despite a greater price per unit weight (e.g. Hansel 2004). Markets along major roads such as route 13 (e.g. at Ban Namthon) have expanded, not contracted, in the last 15 years and have a huge (albeit unquantified) turnover of wild meat; at this specific market, multiple stalls are selling dried muntjac meat daily (balance of muntjac species unknown). The effects of hunting in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand have been exacerbated during the last two decades by habitat loss and various socio-economic factors, of which the most biologically significant are discussed in the Red List account for Large-antlered Muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em>.<br/><br/>Thus, even though this is one of the most resilient of large mammals in Indochina persisting in fragmented landscapes and often in peripheral forest areas, populations in Indochina (Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia) are likely to be declining significantly (perhaps at a level to trigger VU i.e. 30% in 10–15 years; for the regional population). Densities especially in Lao PDR and Viet Nam are generally well below carrying capacity, although in extensive areas of Cambodia are likely to be more natural, as they are across the range west of the Mekong.
136552		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from some protected areas. Hunting regulations are needed to protect this species. Further field studies to identify important areas for this species are needed. The taxonomy of this species should be reviewed.
136552		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the central mountains of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Foja Mountains (Indonesia), and the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea), but it has a very patchy distribution and is probably now extirpated from most of its range (specimens are very common in the fossil record). Historically, it has been recorded from sea level to around 4,150 m asl. It is, however, rarely found at sea level now.
136552		habitat	eng	This species ranges from tropical hill forests to sub-alpine forests, grasslands and scrub. It is also found in secondary habitats. It has a large altitudinal range. This species lays eggs and the primary food is worms. It can have large home ranges, as evidenced by a recorded home range of about 198 ha over a two month period (D. Wright pers. comm.). Is a long-lived species; there is a record of an animal from the London Zoo which lived for thirty years.
136552		population	eng	The species has been hunted to local extinction in the densely populated and accessible regions of New Guinea. It may be more common in inaccessible areas. Tim Flannery (pers. comm.) says that the subpopulations in the western half (mainly the central mountains of Papua, Indonesia) have largely gone extinct, but some in the east (Papua New Guinea) appear to be more secure.
136552		threats	eng	It is heavily threatened by hunting for food by local people (a prime prey species), and also by loss of habitat through conversion of suitable areas to cultivated land. A nickel mine has been proposed in the Wowo Gap area (in the next 10-15 years), which is an area that appears to support a good population of this species (L. Seri pers. comm.). The major populations are now largely confined to the higher reaches of the central massifs.
136553		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where those apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Further research is required on population size and trends, distribution, habitat requirements and ecology, and potential threats to this species. Measures to increase public awareness are also recommended.
136553		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. Some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Further research is required on population size and trends, distribution, habitat requirements and ecology, and potential threats to this species. Measures to increase public awareness are also recommended.
136553		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis aurascens</em> is a western Palaearctic species; from present knowledge it is distributed in south-east Mediterranean and extending eastwards out of the region into steppe Europe, and in south-west Asia (i.e. from Italy through the Balkans to southern Russia and Transcaucasia). In parts of this area it may be the most common of the <em>M. mystacinus</em> group and one of most common bat species (Benda 2004).
136553		distribution	eng	<em>Myotis aurascens </em>is a western Palaearctic species; from present knowledge it is distributed in south-east Mediterranean and steppe Europe, and in south-west Asia (from Italy through the Balkans to southern Russia and Transcaucasia). In that area it is the most common of the <em>M. mystacinus</em> group and one of most common bat species (Benda 2004).
136553		habitat	eng	Recorded from forest and scrub (including Mediterranean-type scrub), and likely to occur in underground habitats.
136553		habitat	eng	Recorded from forest and scrub (including Mediterranean-type scrub). In Turkey it is usually caught in riparian areas (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). Roosts in cracks and crevices in rocks, winters in caves (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm). Forms small winter aggregations up to 15 individuals (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.).
136553		population	eng	Exact details are not known, but it is a widespread and common species.
136553		population	eng	Is a widespread species, and although common in parts of its range, this is not true everywhere. Almost all records from Turkey are based on animals caught in mist nets, usually only 1 to 2 animals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007)
136553		threats	eng	Potential threats include habitat loss (as a result of infrastructure development and other causes), and disturbance of roost sites in buildings or underground habitats. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.
136553		threats	eng	Potential threats include habitat loss (as a result of infrastructure development and other causes), and disturbance of roost sites in buldings or underground habitats. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.
136554		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, distribution, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).
136554		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yunnan, China and northern Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 3,350-3,650 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136554		habitat	eng	This species occupies rocky alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).
136554		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136554		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136555		conservation	eng	The majority of the species' range is in the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Site.
136555		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to tropical Queensland, between Bluewater Range and the Mt. Windsor Tableland (Burnett and Crowther 2008). This species is found at altitudes above approximately 600 m (Burnett and Crowther 2008).
136555		habitat	eng	This species is found only in upland dense tropical vine-forest, in areas that receive highly seasonal rainfall up to 1500 mm annually (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). It prefers rainforest that is relatively undisturbed Burnett and Crowther 2008). Its habitat preferences are similar to that of <em>A. subtropicus</em> (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000), and it occurs sympatrically with <em>A. godmani</em> and <em>A. flavipes rubeculus</em> around Ravenshoe (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). <br/><br/>It frequently nests in epiphytic ferns, and also in tree hollows. Shelter within tree hollows, often shared by multiple individuals, are lined with leaf litter, moss, and lichens and are typically located in the mid- to upper- strata of the forest (Burnett and Crowther 2008). This species has a home range of 1 to 2 hectares. It feeds on moths, beetles and other insects, as well as spiders, worms and small vertebrates such as skinks and frogs. It is also known to consume carrion (Burnett and Crowther 2008).
136555		population	eng	It is common within its limited range (Burnett and Crowther 2008).
136555		threats	eng	In the future, climate change could be a very severe threat, and over the next 30-50 years it is suspected that much of its range will be lost. 1080 baiting to control pigs and wild dogs may be resulting in incidental poisoning of some animals.
136556		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136556		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality at 500 m asl (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 2006) in southeastern Jujuy Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136556		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136556		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136556		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136557		conservation	eng	This species has not been found in any protected areas.
136557		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality at Salar de Pipanaco in Catamarca province, Argentina (27°50'S; 66°15'W) (Wilson and Reeder 2005).
136557		habitat	eng	The habitat consists of perisaline shrublands associated with the salt pans of Pipanaco. Low shrubs dominate the area and the substrate is mainly sand with significant amounts of salt. The animals are restricted to a narrow band of halophytic plant habitat that lies between the bare salt and the more typical Monte Desert habitats (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It specializes in feeding on halophite plants.
136557		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
136557		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion, in the form of olive plantations. Its area of occupancy is less than 10 km² and all individuals are in a single location.
136558		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from a National park, Kirirom National Park (Csorba and Bates 2005). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species.
136558		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Kirirom National Park in southern Cambodia (Csorba and Bates 2005).
136558		habitat	eng	The species has been collected in disturbed semi evergreen gallery forest with many immature trees (Csorba and Bates 2005). This area had been selectively logged in the past (P. Bates pers. comm.).
136558		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known (P. Bates pers. comm.).
136558		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known (P. Bates pers. comm.).
136559		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within its range.
136559		distribution	eng	Foothills and lowlands of eastern of México, from the Rio Grande, south across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, into the Yucatán Peninsula and lowlands of Chiapas and northern Guatemala (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005) Range limits require vouchered documentation (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136559		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal and moist lowland grassland habitats (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005; Ceballos and Oliva 2005). Can be found in agricultural areas, including sugarcane fields (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
136559		population	eng	This species is common.
136559		threats	eng	No known major threats.
136560		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Songshan and Liangshui Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it occurs in additional protected areas.  Further studies are needed regarding the taxonomy, abundance, and natural history of this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136560		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, occurring in China, Mongolia, Russia, and the Korean Peninsula (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it occurs in the provinces of Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Sichuan, Henan, Anhui, Shandong, Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang (Smith and Xie 2008), Beijing (CSIS 2008), and Hebei. This species occurs as a vagrant on Hokkaido, Aomori Prefecture and Tsushima Island in Japan (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005 as <em>Pipistrellus savii</em>).
136560		habitat	eng	In China this species occupies a variety of habitats and is known to roost in caves (Smith and Xie 2008).
136560		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136560		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136561		conservation	eng	In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>M. bennetti</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
136561		distribution	eng	This species is known from south Mexico to Colombia (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).
136561		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry and semideciduous forest, as well as mature evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. Usually it roots in groups of 2 to 20 in limestone caves (most captures are made in or around roosts) (Reid, 1997). LaVal (1977) reported a roost of 15 to 20 in a hollow log. It probably gleans prey from vegetation. Whitaker and Findley (1980) found remains of large scarab beetles and a bird in feces of 4 individuals. Small lizards and katydids are also taken. A single young are born at the onset of the rainy season (Reid, 1997).
136561		population	eng	This bat is common on the Yucatan Peninsula; but rare and local southward, in rainforest (Reid, 1997).
136561		threats	eng	None known. Its biology is poorly known.
136562		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136562		distribution	eng	Unknown; Carter and Dolan (1978) have suggested that the type and only known specimen is probably not from South America.
136562		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
136562		population	eng	There is no information on population.
136562		threats	eng	Not known.
136563		conservation	eng	The species occurs mainly in national parks.
136563		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to adjacent areas of Rio de Janero, Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo States, Brazil (Bonvicino pers. comm.). The species is known from 3 disjunct locations - and occurrence between these sights is unknown.
136563		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species; it occurs in high altitude forest (Geise pers. comm.).
136563		population	eng	This is a very rare species; it is known only from three specimens collected in one year during over eight years of surveys. It is possible that the lack of collection in most years may be due to inappropriate survey methods (Geise pers. comm.).
136563		threats	eng	There are no known major threats at this time (Bonvicino pers. comm.), however, the species has a very limited range and is currently occurring only in a few remaining protected areas. The species was likely more widespread and the remaining populations need protection.
136564		conservation	eng	This species roosts in one cave that is locally protected by 'fady' or taboo (Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been recorded from five protected areas: Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National d’Isalo, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). A total of nine roosting colonies are currently known: six in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (Cardiff 2006), two in Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007) and one in Sarodrano (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007), and all receive some form of protection. More research is needed on its roosting ecology and surveys are required in areas where this species is expected to occur.
136564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is has a disjunct distribution from the north to the south-west of the island. It has an elevation range of 5 m to 800 m above sea level (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136564		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to areas with sandstone and limestone outcrops in western Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and appears to be an obligate cave dweller (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, its roosting colonies were associated with caves that were relatively cool, high and in close proximity to water (Cardiff 2006). The diet consists mainly of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007) and foraging habitats are not thought to be associated with intact forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136564		population	eng	The colony of <em>O. madagascariensis</em> in a cave in the south of Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha consisted of between 90 and 100 individuals in 2003 (Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Sarodrano roost in the south of Madagascar contained at least 67 animals in November 2003 (Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2007). The maximum colony size at Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana was 97 individuals (S. G. Cardiff pers. comm.).
136564		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear, but more research is needed into possible disturbance at its roost sites.
136565		conservation	eng	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its taxonomic validity and geographic distribution.
136565		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from its type locality in northwestern Iran: Bu’in-Zahra (49º58′E, 35º39′N), 65 km south of Qazvin City, Qazvin Province. The species presumably occurs more widely, but it range limits are currently unknown.
136565		habitat	eng	There is no direct information on its habitat preferences, though these are likely to be similar to <em>Microtus guentheri</em> and <em>M. irani</em>.
136565		population	eng	It is said to be locally common or abundant within its range.
136565		threats	eng	Although its distribution is still very unclear, this species is probably adaptable, and there are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.
136566		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats, reproduction and ecology of this species.
136566		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in south east Sulawesi (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2007), Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park (04°22’S, 121°44’E) in Indonesia. Future studies may show it to be more widespread elsewhere in Indonesia and beyond.
136566		habitat	eng	All individuals of this species were captured in lowland rainforest. The forest was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge was characterized by a high incidence of bamboo and rattan (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136566		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136566		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136567		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Brazil, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It inhabits a sandy soiled region named 'Coxilha das Lombas', along a narrow line of old sand dunes that extends from north of Guaiba Lake to the northwestern sandbanks of Barros Lake (Freitas, 2001).
136567		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136567		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136567		threats	eng	A hybrid zone between <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lami </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. minutus</span> has been identified. The two species were formally separated by a wide humid zone but rice farming has reduced the swamp to a dry region and the two species have been brought together (Gava and Freitas, 2003). Urbanization and the development of agriculture, particularly rice and soybeans, in its limited geographic territory, make <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lami</span> a threatened species (Fernandes, 2007).
136568		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136568		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Los Cardones (26o40?S, 65o51?W) Tucumán Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136568		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136568		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
136568		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136569		conservation	eng	As this is a newly described species, it is not yet listed on the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005; 2006a), but is covered by CITES Appendix II. Sinha <em>et al</em>. (2005) suggest the establishment of community awareness and conservation programs, as well as the designation of a protected area that is locally appropriate. At the moment it is not known to occur in any official protected areas, its occurrence in Mouling National Park is likely but needs to be confirmed (A. Kumar pers. comm.).
136569		distribution	eng	This recently described species is reported from the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). The type locality is Zemithang (27°42’ N, 91°43’ E, at 2,180 m), Tawang District in Arunachal Pradesh (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is distributed over much of Tawang District, and in the western part of West Kameng, they may also occur in other parts of Arunachal Pradesh, and in adjoining areas of Bhutan and Tibet (China) (Sinha <em>et al. </em>2005). The extent of occurrence of this species from the available field data is about 3,700 km<sup>2</sup> and area of occupancy is about 2,700 km<sup>2</sup> (Kumar <em>et al.</em> in press). Macaques resembling <em>M. munzala</em> have recently been observed in areas adjacent to Mouling National Park in Upper Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh; however, the taxonomic identity of these animals needs confirmation (A. Kumar Chhangani pers. comm.).
136569		habitat	eng	This species is mostly terrestrial and has been sighted in a range of habitats, including: degraded broadleaf forest, degraded open scrub forest, agricultural areas, undisturbed oak forest, and undisturbed conifer forest (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species occurs at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,500 m (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is relatively tolerant of humans, and has occasionally been recorded close to villages and crops (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136569		population	eng	According to one source there are currently thirty-five distinct troops known, with at least 569 different individuals (32 troops of 540 individuals in Tawang, and 3 troops of 29 individuals in West Kameng, Kumar <em>et al.</em> in press; Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Another source, however, has the number of mature individuals as less than 250 (A. Kumar pers. comm.).
136569		threats	eng	These animals are sometimes killed in retaliation for damaging crops (Sinha <em>et al. </em>2005). In general, however, the local people do not eat primates (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some hunting of primates for meat is carried out by non-local government employees (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). According to Sinha <em>et al</em>. (2006b), 54 macaques were killed in one village over a year in West Kameng district. There is not much habitat loss within its range.
136570		conservation	eng	This rodent is known from several indigenous reserves (Patton pers. comm.).
136570		distribution	eng	So far known from the central and lower drainage of the Rio Juruá, western Brazil; range limits require amplification (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136570		habitat	eng	The majority of specimens were obtained in terra firme forest during survey of the Rio Jurua, some were also collected from seasonally flooded varzea forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Pregnant females have been observed during August, September, October, November, May, and June, in both the wet and dry seasons suggesting that reproduction occurs throughout the year (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is thought that sexual maturity is reached at an early age (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
136570		population	eng	This rodent is known from a few specimens (total = 32) from 7 localities (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is thought to be reasonably abundant (Patton pers. comm.).
136570		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136571		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
136571		distribution	eng	The species is found in Indonesia, in northern Moluccas, Togian Islands, Sangihe Islands, Talaud Islands, Pelang, and Sulawesi and other Indonesian islands (Muno, Buton, Peleng, Kabaena, Mangole, Sanana, Halmahera, Siau, Sangihe, Karekelang and also Hoga Island).
136571		habitat	eng	It is commonly found in gardens and disturbed forest (Flannery 1995). It is not dependent on water. It roosts in caves, trees, and rock crevices. This species lives in large colonies. Births probably take place in December (Flannery 1995).
136571		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.
136571		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting, and limestone extraction at roosting sites in south Sulawesi are localised threats to this species.
136572		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from Krau Wildlife Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136572		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in Peninsular Malaysia; Kuala Lompat, Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang Province (3°43’N, 102°10’E).
136572		habitat	eng	All known examples of this bat have been caught in the understorey of mature lowland rainforest. The type specimen was caught over small pools in the stream bed of a seasonal stream in relatively undisturbed forest about a kilometre from the clearing at Kuala Lompat. Other individuals were caught along forest understorey trails, showing no particular association with streams or swamps. Nothing is known of the species’ roosting ecology, although, like other <em>Kerivoula</em> it has not been found to roost in caves in the area (Francis <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136572		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136572		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known, although deforestation will be a threat if it is known to occur outside of the forest reserve.
136573		conservation	eng	Found in several protected areas throughout its range.
136573		distribution	eng	These opossums are found in northeastern Brazil, French Guiana, Surinam, Guyana and Venezuela (Gardner 2007).
136573		habitat	eng	Known from lowland rain forest, including swampy forest and secondary forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is nocturnal; terrestrial; solitary. Feeds on insects and fruit.
136573		population	eng	Poorly known. Apparently rare but locally abundant, but based on very few surveys.
136573		threats	eng	No known threats.
136574		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
136574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sangir Island (Sangihe) of the Molucca Islands (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136574		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in low elevation primary forests, where it has its highest population density, but it is also common in all cultivated areas (Riley 2002).
136574		population	eng	<em>P. rosenbergii</em> is the most frequently encountered mammal on Sangihe island in several habitat types, with the highest population density in primary forest.
136574		threats	eng	Sangihe island is heavily cultivated at low elevations. Though this animal does well in secondary and cultivated habitats, its primary habitat is rapidly being transformed (Riley 2002).
136575		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Otishi National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136575		distribution	eng	This species is known only from elfin forest at the type locality at 3,350 m Vilcabamba, south Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136575		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in montane forest and is terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136575		population	eng	This species likely common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136575		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.
136576		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. Little is known about this newly described species.
136576		distribution	eng	This species is known from Durango, Sinaloa, and Sonora, Mexico (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004; Cabrera <em>et al. </em>2007). It might possibly be present throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental (Cabrera <em>et al. </em>2007).
136576		habitat	eng	This species is found in pine-oak forests at elevations greater than 2,000 m (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004).
136576		population	eng	This species is relatively common within suitable habitat.
136576		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging.
136577		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
136577		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the eastern slope of the Andes in Bolivia and Peru (Velazco pers. comm.). Elevation range is 650-3,350 m asl (Velazco 2005)
136577		habitat	eng	Lives under palm leaves in forested areas. It is frugivorous but there is no information on its specific diet. The ecology of this specis is poorly know (as with all <em>Platyrrinus</em>)
136577		population	eng	In seems to be common.
136577		threats	eng	The species occurs in a fragile ecosystem on the slopes of the Andes which is undergoing rapid conversion to agriculture and other land-uses.
136578		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
136578		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo, where it  has been recorded from Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia). It presumably also occurs in Brunei.
136578		habitat	eng	There is little information available on this species. It is found in primary and secondary forest, but also occurs also in cultivated areas.
136578		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known. It is believed to be common in suitable habitats.
136578		threats	eng	This is a widespread and adaptable species, and so is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.
136579		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. The urgent priority with this species is to resolve <em>Miniopterus</em> taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to it. Important roosting and foraging sites for this species should be protected. In parts of the range there is a need to sustainably manage harvesting of the species.
136579		distribution	eng	This species ranges from New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), through the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), into the Solomon Islands (Choiseul, New Georgia, San Cristobal), through the islands of Vanuatu to New Caledonia (including the Loyalty Islands). It is found from sea level to 3,200 m. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
136579		habitat	eng	This species is found from lowland tropical forest habitats to subalpine grasslands. It occurs in very large colonies, perhaps in the thousands in large, dry caves (and often in association with other species). It is an aerial insectivore and one of the smallest bats in the genus. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
136579		population	eng	It is common at high altitudes, and less common in lowland elevations. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).
136579		threats	eng	The genus <em>Miniopterus</em> is very reliant on caves and tend to form large aggregations that are susceptible to disturbance. It is collected for food by the Telefol and Tifal people on New Guinea.
136580		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas, however, it may be present in Gunung Leuser National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, population abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.
136580		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is known only from the type locality of Blangnanga Base Camp, in the Aceh foothills of Gunung Leuser, northern Sumatra, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It was collected at 1,097 m.
136580		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
136580		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens (Musser and Carleton 2005) and its population status is unknown.
136580		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. But if this is found to be a lowland species, it is potentially seriously threatened by ongoing deforestation.
136581		conservation	eng	Listed as rare in Red List of Kazakhstan (category 3: rare species with limited distribution).
136581		distribution	eng	Distributed in Kazakhstan (lower Ural River basin, along Uil, Temir and Emba rivers flood plains).
136581		habitat	eng	A steppe species. It inhabits moist sands and adjacent areas with sabulous soils and high underground water. Found in clearings in forests, steppe islands, hilly fixed sands, ravine slopes and old river beds. A solitary and obligately subterranean species. Active year round. Peak of digging activity is in spring, the minimum is in June. There are no evident peaks in daily activity. Burrows are complex, consist of shallow feeding passages and deep passages that include nest cells. Nests range from 0.9 to 3 m in depth. Total length of passages is 145-540 m. This species feeds on underground parts of various plants, but the main part of the diet is volga wild rye (<em>Elymus giganteus</em>). Local distribution of <em>Spalax uralensis</em> is linked to that of <em>Elymus giganteus</em>. The species makes food caches of up to 2.5 kg in weight. Reproduction is usually once a year in spring or summer, some females can give a second litter in autumn. Litter size is 2-6.
136581		population	eng	Spatial distribution is very uneven, associated with isolated sand massifs. In Aktyubinsk region, population density ranges from 0.26 to 1 individuals per hectare. On the borders of sand massif Kokzhide it is 1-2 individals per hectare. On the southern border of Kumzhargan sands it is 4 indviduals per hectare (Garbuzov, 1977)
136581		threats	eng	Overgrazing, extremely low temperatures in winter and droughts.
136582		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Cerro Machim (2,500-3,000 m), in the Sierra de Juarez, Oaxaca (Mexico) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136582		habitat	eng	This species in only found in cloud forest from 2,500-3,000 m. It has a very restricted range.
136582		population	eng	This species is rare.
136582		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation throughout its very restricted range.
136583		conservation	eng	It occurs in several proteced areas.
136583		distribution	eng	South Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), North Argentina (Provincia de Entrerios) and Uruguay.
136583		habitat	eng	This species is found in grasslands and is herbivorous.
136583		population	eng	It is a common species.
136583		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
136584		conservation	eng	Listed in CITES Appendix II (under Primates spp.). At present, no conservation measures are required. Humans are present in numerous protected areas throughout their range.
136584		distribution	eng	Humans have the widest distribution of any terrestrial mammal species, inhabiting every continent on earth (although there are no permanent settlements on Antarctica). A small group of humans has been introduced to space, where they inhabit the International Space Station.
136584		habitat	eng	Humans are found in a wide variety of habitats, largely thanks to their ability to use technology to adapt to and modify their habitats. Major concentrations are found in urban centers: over the past 30 years, the urban population has increased so that more than half of the world population will be living in cities by 2008 (Population Reference Bureau 2007).
136584		population	eng	In mid-2007, the total population of human beings was estimated at 6.6 billion, an increase from 6.1 billion in 2001. Two countries, China and India, hold approximately one-third of the entire human population alone, with 1,318 million and 1,312 million people, respectively. The United States of America is third with 302 million. The annual rate of increase is about 1.2%; the total population is expected to reach 7,965 million by mid-2025, and 9,294 by mid-2050 (Population Reference Bureau 2007).
136584		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to humans, although some subpopulations may be experiencing localized declines as a result of disease, drought, war, natural disasters, and other factors.
136585		conservation	eng	The species is listed (as <em>M. meminna</em>) in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range (Raman 2004). Several of these are well secured from damaging levels of hunting and from serious habitat encroachment. Conservation of the species outside well-secured protected areas is hampered by the almost total lack of knowledge of its specific conservation needs. As stated by Raman (2004), “Habitat and ecological requirements for the conservation of the Indian Chevrotain require field research that has hitherto been lacking. Radio-telemetry studies of home range and social organisation and behavioural-ecological studies on habitat preferences and use, foraging ecology, the effects of habitat alteration and degradation, and on reproduction and population dynamics are sorely needed to develop a more realistic and comprehensive picture of the future conservation prospects of this species”. Perhaps most urgent is that the actual population-level effects of the heavy hunting documented by various studies are unknown, and therefore the urgency to address these illegal practices is unclear.
136585		distribution	eng	The Indian Chevrotain inhabits most of the India, from Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the far south, north to at least 24°N, i.e. Mandla, Hoshangabad, Palamau and near Udaipur (Rajasthan) at 24°04′N (Tehsin 1980, Groves and Meijaard 2005). The northern limit has been muddled in past and current literature. Champion (1929) strongly doubted the occurrence of chevrotains in Nepal, and originated a now commonly-held view its northern limit lay at about 24°N. Most of the subsequent major reviews have followed this and have thus omitted Nepal from the species’s range (Corbet and Hill 1992; Groves and Meijaard 2005; Grubb 2005); this overlooks several valid records from the country. Hodgson (1841) stated that chevrotains occurred at Vulgo Bijay in the terai. Many of Hodgson’s Nepal specimens came from Sikkim and Bhutan, outside the modern boundary of Nepal (see e.g. Hinton and Fry 1923), but there are no indications that any species of chevrotain occurs in these areas, so this standard explanation cannot, therefore, be used for the presence of the species in Hodgson’s Nepal list, and it was therefore retained as a Nepal inhabitant by Hinton and Fry (1923). Hodgson’s statement was vindicated by Mitchell and Punzo (1976), who obtained a specimen (a partial skeleton from a decomposed carcase, supplied by hunters) and saw two live wild chevrotains in Sal Shorea robusta forest at Mahadeva, Banke District (28°13′N, 81°56′E; 220 m asl), and observed a live wild chevrotain in tall elephant grass at Tamispur, Nawal Parsi District (27°34′N, 83°57′E; 90 m asl) on 15 February 1968. Mitchell and Punzo’s (1976) records were simply overlooked, not rejected, by Groves and Meijaard (2005) (C. P. Groves pers. comm. 2008) and presumably the other reviews. Other Nepal records include a live animal displayed some years ago in the Nepal zoo collected from the country’s lowlands (K. Shah per Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008), a specimen held at the Kathmandu Natural History Museum labelled ‘West Nepal below 300 m’, and several reports from foresters of direct sightings in the lowlands (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Suitable habitat, which would always have been limited in the country, has been mostly lost (Hem Sagar Baral <em>in litt</em>. 2008).
136585		habitat	eng	Raman (2004) synthesised the following: the Indian Chevrotain is found in tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaux, extending into montane forests up to around 1,850 m elevation (Prater 1971, personal observations). It is reported to favour rocky habitats (MacDonald and Norris 2001), grass-covered rocky hill-sides and forest (Prater 1971), and it often occurs along forest streams and rivers (personal observations). It also occurs in some anthropogenically disturbed areas, such as plantations, rural gardens, and degraded forest. Very little is known about the ecology and behaviour of the Indian Chevrotain with much of the information being in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records (Prater 1971, Krishnan 1972, Paulraj 1995, Gokula 1997). Like other forest ruminants, adults are mostly solitary except at the time of courtship. During the day, chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles (Krishnan 1972). Occasionally, they may also be encountered resting in the leaf litter of the forest floor where their dappled pelage acts as an effective camouflage as long as the animal stays immobile. If one chances upon it while it is resting thus, the animal allows the observer to approach quite close before suddenly rushing off into the forest undergrowth or into a well-chosen hiding spot. Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal. Chevrotains are of a shy and retiring disposition, avoiding open areas and ready to scurry away at the least hint of alarm. They forage for herbs and shrubs and fallen fruit from the forest floor. Krishnan (1972) noted that the Indian Chevrotain eats the fruits of species such as <em>Terminalia bellerica</em>, <em>Gmelina arborea</em>, and <em>Garuga pinnata</em>, common in the deciduous forests of south India. The species is reported to have a gestation period of around five months (MacDonald and Norris 2001). Females are reported to bring forth their young, usually twins, in their dens or hides, at the end of the rains and commencement of the cold season (Prater 1971). It is prey for a wide range of carnivorous mammals (especially leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>) and reptiles, and even birds. Some of the information in this section quoted from secondary references such as Prater (1971) may have been drawn originally from Sri Lankan populations, not here considered conspecific with <em>M. indica</em> of India and Nepal.
136585		population	eng	This chevrotain has a poorly-known population status. Raman (2004) synthesised the following: the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve at the extreme south of the Western Ghats appears to be one of the best localities for the species and may represent a major population stronghold (personal observations). The species may also be frequently met with in most other protected areas along the Western Ghats such as the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley, Mudumalai-Bandipur-Nagarahole, Bhadra, and Kudremukh. Krishnan (1972) noted that the species is seen almost commonly around Karwar and in some forests of south India, having also observed the species in the Simlipal hills of Orissa in the east. Along the Eastern Ghats populations occur in the forest tracts along the Nallamal hills and Srisailam Nagarjuna Sagar. To this can be added further support for it being regularly encountered in the Western Ghats at sites surveyed by Kumara and Singh (2004).<br/><br/>In Nepal, it would always have had a small population, restricted to the lowlands, Siwalik hills and Bhabar area. Hem Sagar Baral (pers. comm. 2008) traced a number of records from Nepal, but none was from recent years (see Distribution). This species may now be very rare there, or even extinct, but it would be premature to consider it so, because there has been no recent search specifically for the species. The hills of the Chitwan valley are the most likely place the species might persist in Nepal, because habitat here is protected and relatively little encroached (Hem Sagar Baral <em>in litt</em>. 2008).
136585		threats	eng	Raman (2004) synthesised the following: Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. Hunting of them by indigenous and settled local communities is widespread along the Western and Eastern Ghats. Madhusudan and Karanth (2000, 2002) give an account of the techniques used for hunting chevrotains by people such as the Kuruba in tropical forests of Karnataka near and within Nagarahole and Kudremukha. Active hunting uses hunting dogs to locate and flush the animals and a club/machete to kill them, while passive means include deadfall traps. Much of the hunting is for the pot, although wild meat is often sold in local markets in many places. This is one species that even women and children join with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beat bushes and flush animals toward nets held by people where the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. In the Dakshin Kannada district, 78% of 49 hunters interviewed by Madhusudan and Karanth (2002) ranked the chevrotain as the species they hunted the most. They also believed that this had led to depressed abundance of the species in areas with hunting. Three-quarters of the hunters themselves identified hunting as the most important factor for the decline in abundance. The control of hunting therefore may be required for the conservation of the species. Raman (2004) provided no empirical information on habitat relevant to conservation. As a forest-associated species, forest conversion has obviously greatly reduced the area holding Indian Chevrotain over the past few millenia. Compared with most of the tropical world, outright forest conversion in its range has been low within recent decades: more serious has been degradation and fragmentation of what remains, but the Indian Chevrotain’s adaptability to fragmentation and degradation has never been studied. In Nepal, the Siwalik hills and Bhabar area that lie just north of the Gangetic plain presumably formed the northernmost range limit. These areas remained little disturbed until recently mainly because of malaria infestation and low quality land for cultivation. With the quashing of malaria, habitat conversion was rapid and now such habitat persist only within protected areas (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008).
136586		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in Viet Nam. Further studies are required to determine the population status of this species (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136586		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a geographically restricted area, on the border between central Lao PDR and central<br/>Viet Nam. It is only known from a small number of records (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136586		habitat	eng	It is currently known only from caves in limestone areas (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136586		population	eng	Surveys around the area, though not specifically for this species, have not captured any individuals (P. Bates pers. comm.). It is likely to have a population size of less than 10,000 individuals (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136586		threats	eng	The species is affected by disturbance of caves and it may be hunted in Lao PDR.
136587		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to determine the presence of this species in south-west lowland areas of Bougainville. Studies are needed also on population size.
136587		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from lowland forest from sea level to 200 m on the islands of Bougainville (including the immediately adjacent small island of Puruata), Buka, Choiseul, and Isabel (including the immediately adjacent small island of Barora Fa) (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands). These are all land bridge fragments of a formerly larger island.
136587		habitat	eng	This species appears to be entirely dependent on old-growth, lowland forest. It probably roosts solitarily in foliage, though it might also utilize hollows or cavities of large ficus trees (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The generation length may be 5 years or a bit longer.
136587		population	eng	This species is very infrequently encountered. It was last collected from Choiseul in 1964, from Bougainville in 1968, from Buka in 1987, and from Barora Fa in 2000. Field surveys in Choiseul and Isabel in the 1990s failed to detect this species. Local people in Choiseul suggest that it has disappeared. Recent surveys over the course of the three years, 2002-2005, on Bougainville failed to detect this species (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).
136587		threats	eng	Forest clearance and disturbance, along with active hunting, probably threaten this species. Hunting is likely to be a major threat, given the size of this species. Civil tensions in Bougainville from 1987 till 2000 resulted in an increase in hunting pressure.
136588		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136588		distribution	eng	Sierra Famatina northwest, Rioja Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is only known from a single specimen from the type locality (Bidau, Ojeda and Lessa pers. comm.)
136588		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136588		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136588		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136589		conservation	eng	This species might be present in Namdapha National Park, although this requires verification. General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species.
136589		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the South Asian countries of Bhutan and India (present in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim) where it is confined to the southeastern slopes of the Himalaya (Hutterer 2005). It occurs at an elevational range of 1,500 to 3,100 m asl and is probably widely distributed.
136589		habitat	eng	It occurs in subtropical and tropical montane forests in the Himalayan slopes.
136589		population	eng	Population status and trends are not known for this species.
136589		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known.
136590		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known.
136590		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Taurus mountains of Turkey. Found at altitudes of 1,000 m and above.
136590		habitat	eng	A montane species.
136590		population	eng	Unknown.
136590		threats	eng	No threats at present because it occurs at higher altitudes that are not subject to major human impacts.
136591		conservation	eng	This species needs research and museum studies.
136591		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Mistrato, Colombia (980 m). This species occurs in the west Andes of Colombia (Simmons, 2005).
136591		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. Holotype is in primary forest.
136591		population	eng	This is a newely described species known from one location.
136591		threats	eng	Unknown due to lack of information.
136592		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas across its range.
136592		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Guiana Shield. It occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela, and adjacent portions of Brazil (Lim <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ventura <em>et al</em>. 2002, Cerqueira and Tribe 2007).
136592		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lowland rainforests and in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. marsupialis</span> in French Guiana (Catzeflis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Lavergne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) and Venezuela (Ventura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">Didelphis imperfecta</span> is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and arboreal. It is omnivorus feeding on fruit and insects. This species has been found in lowland rainforests, and is sympatric with <em>D. marsupialis</em> (Ventura <em>et al.</em>  2002). The females build a leaf nest in a tree cavity or burrow. Its  ecology is lesser known than other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Didelphis</span>. It is found from  60-2,550 m (D. Lew pers. comm.).
136592		population	eng	This species is relatively common in some areas  (D. Lew pers. comm.) and rare in others.
136592		threats	eng	There are not currently any major threats to the species.
136593		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Lore Lindu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats for this species.
136593		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four specimens collected in the swamp forest of Kenawu village, Lindu Lake, Lore Lindu National Park, central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Maryanto and Yani 2003).
136593		habitat	eng	This newly described species is known only from swamp forest at 995-1,005 m (Maryanto and Yani 2003).
136593		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species. It is known only from four specimens.
136593		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136594		conservation	eng	More research is needed to get a better understanding of the species distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats.
136594		distribution	eng	This species is found in Guyana and Brazil (Gregorin <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136594		habitat	eng	It is found in savanna areas and cerrado.
136594		population	eng	This is a recently described species that is known from only four specimens.
136594		threats	eng	This species natural habitat is being rapidly converted to pasture or agriculture lands. More research is needed to identify threats more thoroughly.
136595		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136595		distribution	eng	Southeast Jujuy Province and Salta Province, northwest Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136595		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136595		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
136595		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136596		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
136596		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been recorded at two sites in Sinharaja Forest, at Kudawa (460 m asl) and Morningside (1,040 m asl) (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sampling efforts at ten other sites in Sri Lanka have not located any additional populations, and it seems possible that this species is restricted to Sinharaja Forest with an available range of 110 km²; although it is still considered possible that it might be present in other nearby forested areas (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136596		habitat	eng	Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. (2007) only recorded the species from recent secondary forest (regrowth since logging operations in the 1970s), although it is possible that animals initially identified as <em>Crocidura miya</em> by Wijesinghe and Brooke (2005) from unlogged forest habitat at Sinharaja might be <em>C. hikmiya</em> (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007). The forest at Kudawa is as a <em>Mesua</em>–<em>Doona</em> community (mixed dipterocarp forest), while the forest at Morningside is transitional between the lowland wet-evergreen vegetation and low-elevation (~1,000 m asl) tropical montane forest (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136596		population	eng	It is considered to be the most abundant shrew species in Sinharaja (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136596		threats	eng	It seems probable that the habitat of this species is under a degree of degradation or loss, largely through conversion of these forested areas to agricultural use (including plantation systems).
136597		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from a protected area, but Yasuni National Park is within its known localities (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136597		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowlands (below 400 m asl) of western Ecuador. A juvenile specimen purchased near Iquitos, Peru suggests the species may be more widely distributed (Voss and da Silva, 2001).
136597		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Some field observations of Coendou ichillus are available. An adult female porcupine was briefly observed in the night as it ate ripe bananas suspended by a cord from the rafters of a building surrounded by gardens and secondary vegetation. Another adult was observed at night in adjacent primary floodplain forest, where it was perched on a liana about 8 m above the ground. At least two individuals were said by lodge employees to inhabit holes in hollow palm trunks that were used as upright supports for the kitchen and other buildings (Voss and da Silva, 2001).
136597		population	eng	It is uncommon; the species is known only from a few individuals (Voss and da Silva, 2001).
136597		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown.
136598		conservation	eng	Its range does include a few protected areas.
136598		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Altai mountains in Kazakhstan, eastwards through southern Siberia, Mongolia, northern China, to the Republic of Korea and the Russian islands of Sakhalin and Iturup (Kuriles). In Mongolia it is distributed throughout northern Mongolia, in Mongol Altai, Hangai, Hövsgöl and Hentii mountain ranges (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980 as <em>P. auritus</em>), and Eastern Mongolia (Dorjderem, 2004 as <em>P. auritus</em>).
136598		habitat	eng	Inhabits steppe and forest-steppe habitats in northern Mongolia, and taiga and southern mountain forests in Siberia, and temperate forest in the remainder of its range. It often roosts in the crevices of trees. It does not avoid areas inhabited by humans. It feeds on small to medium-sized insects, including mosquitoes and butterflies. It hunts at night catching prey in the air, but are also ground seeking (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Breeds in colonies, young are born in June, usually just one offspring is produced.
136598		population	eng	There is no information on population sizes in Mongolia (or elsewhere in the range) at present.
136598		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
136599		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, including Udzungwa Mts and Kilimanjaro National Parks, Arusha National Park and several forest reserves in the Eastern Arc Mts of Tanzania, such as Kindoroko and Nguru North Forest Reserves (see Cordeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005; Roberts <em>et al</em>. in press). The taxonomic status of this species relative to <em>D. arboreus</em> requires further investigation.
136599		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted and patchy geographic range, being limited to montane forests on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt Meru, the Eastern Arc Mountains, and coastal forests of Tanzania, southern Kenya and offshore islands, including Pemba, Zanzibar and Tumbatu (Roberts <em>et al.</em> in press).
136599		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist lowland and montane forest, from sea level to 3,070 m (Roberts <em>et al.</em> in press). The species appears to be susceptible to habitat disturbance. In the Udzungwa Mts, logging has a significant impact on population numbers, especially where hunting also occurs (Topp-Jørgensen and Pedersen 2001). In disturbed forests, individuals call less frequently. Overall, high population densities (i.e., based on calling frequency) appear to be linked to isolated, undisturbed forest patches. This would agree with the findings of Kundaeli (1976) on Mt Kilimanjaro: highest densities were estimated at an elevation of 2,310 m, where disturbance from logging was low.
136599		population	eng	Locally abundant. They are rarely seen, but can frequently be heard calling. Based on Circular Plot Counts of calls, densities of up to 17 individuals/ha have been estimated in undisturbed, closed-canopy forest on the Udzungwa Mts (Topp-Jørgensen and Pedersen 2001).
136599		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are severe forest loss and fragmentation (mainly due to logging and burning), and hunting. Although individuals can persist in closed-canopy forests of less than one square kilometre, logging, including selective logging of large trees, removes potential shelter trees, destroys arboreal pathways and makes animals more vulnerable and prone to ground trapping (Roberts <em>et al.</em> in press). Eastern Tree Hyraxes are hunted for their meat and skins (to make blankets or karosses, which can still be found for sale in Arusha), and easily trapped using snares set at the head of runnels (pathways through the undergrowth) near the base of a tree. They may also be clubbed, speared, or run down by dogs having been ‘smoked out’ or following the felling of a den tree (a common method employed in the Udzungwa Mts) (Topp-Jørgensen and Pedersen 2001).
136600		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Marus National Park, Lambu Sango National Reserve, and a few other protected areas.
136600		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sulawesi and adjacent islands in Indonesia (T. Kingston pers. comm.). The type locality is Peleng Island east of Sulawesi in Indonesia.  Its elevational range is from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.
136600		habitat	eng	This bat is dependent on karst and cave habitats for roosting sites. It occurs in large colonies in the hundreds, perhaps thousands, and forages over cultivated land.
136600		population	eng	This species is locally common.
136600		threats	eng	Limestone extraction in South Sulawesi for cement factories is a threat to this species.
136601		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136601		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality Lago Blanco (46oS, 71oW), Chubut, southern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136601		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136601		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136601		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136602		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
136602		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities in southeastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. In Cameroon, it has been recorded from Tinta, Mamfe; Bibundi Crater, Mount Cameroon; and Mount Nyasoso. In Nigeria, it is known only from Okpuje, Nigeria.
136602		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in montane tropical moist forest habitats.
136602		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136602		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. It might be threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
136603		conservation	eng	CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Neofelis nebulosa</span>), fully protected in Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei.  It occurs in most protected areas along the Sumatran mountain spine, and in most protected areas on Borneo.  More research is needed on population size and basic ecology (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).
136603		distribution	eng	The Sunda clouded leopard is probably restricted to the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Buckley-Beason <em>et al.</em> 2006, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2007, Wilting <em>et al.</em> 2007a,b, Eizirik <em>et al.</em> submitted). It is unknown if there are still Sunda clouded leopards on the small Batu Islands close to Sumatra.  There are clouded leopard fossils from Java (Meijaard 2004), but none in modern times.  Although the Sunda region includes the Malay peninsula , Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2007), on the basis of a small sample of skins, ascribed clouded leopards from the Malay peninsula to the mainland species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Neofelis nebulosa</span>.<br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>
136603		habitat	eng	On Sumatra it appears to be more abundant in hilly, montane areas, whereas on Borneo it also occurs in lowland rainforest (perhaps because there are no tigers on Borneo).  It is forest-dependent, and does not go deep into plantations (oil palm, etc), although it can be found, perhaps at lower density, in logged forest. Records on Borneo are below 1,500 m. Occurs higher in Sumatra (IUCN Cats Red List Workshop 2007).<br/><br/>On Sumatra the Sunda clouded leopard occurs most probably in much lower densities (1.29/100 km²: Hutajulu <em>et al.</em> 2007) than on Borneo (6.4/100 km²: A. Hearn and J. Ross pers. comm. 2007 -  9/100 km²: Wilting <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One explanation for this lower density might be that on Sumatra the clouded leopard co-occurs sympatric with the tiger, whereas on Borneo the clouded leopard is the largest carnivore <br/><br/>From local hunters, Rabinowitz <em>et al.</em> (1987) collected reports of clouded leopards with kills of a wide variety of prey, including young sambar deer, barking deer, mouse deer, bearded pig, palm civet, gray leaf monkey, fish and porcupine.<br/><br/>It is strongly arboreal.  Holden (2001) found that the encounter rate for clouded leopards increased significantly when camera traps were set along narrow ridges or in places where animals would have difficulty moving arboreally.  In level or undulating terrain clouded leopards were seldom if ever photographed, suggesting that the species does move about in trees, although from tracks they are known to travel along logging roads and trails (Holden 2001, Gordon and Stewart 2007).  Clouded leopards may be less arboreal on Borneo (Rabinowitz <em>et al.</em> 1987) than in other areas where tigers and leopards are sympatric.
136603		population	eng	Wilting <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated a rough clouded leopard density of about 9 individuals per 100 km², derived from classification of individual tracks in a study area of Tabin Wildlife Reserve. Their preliminary landscape analysis confirmed the presence of clouded leopards in 25% of Sabah?s surface, but only a small fraction of these areas are classified as totally protected forest reserves. As a first working hypothesis Wilting <em>et al.</em> (2006) extrapolated, based on their densities from Tabin Wildlife Reserve, the potential number of clouded leopards in Sabah to be 1,500-3,200 individuals. However, they pointed out that this number most likely overestimates the true number.<br/><br/>Based on a different methodology (camera traps), Andrew Hearn and Joanna Ross (unpubl. 2007) obtained a lower density in a different area of Sabah of 6.4 adults per 100 km².  This suggests the Sabah population could be at the low end or even below the above population estimates.<br/><br/>There are no population estimates for the remainder of its range in Borneo and Sumatra, but in lowland forest in Sumatra Hutujulu <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated a low density of 29 adults per 100 km², from camera traps.  This suggests the population of Sumatra could be considerably lower than on Borneo.
136603		threats	eng	Sumatra and Borneo are undergoing high rates of deforestation, with oil palm plantations expanding rapidly, as well as logging and clearance for agriculture and settlement (Rautner <em>et al.</em> 2005, FAO 2007).  There is substantial illegal trade in clouded leopard skins, partially fuelled by indiscriminate use of snare traps (TRAFFIC Southeast Asia pers. comm. 2007).  Holden (2001) reported that in Sumatra, clouded leopards are snared accidentally in traps set for other species, but their parts have commercial value, and seven were killed in Kerinci Seblat's National Park from 2000-2001.  Reports of clouded leopard attacking livestock are rare, but do occur, with one cat known to have been shot after reportedly taking goats from an enclave village surrounded by forest.
136604		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.
136604		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species is endemic to the Kai Besar in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (extent of occurrence less than 570 km²). A record from the island of Kai Taam may also refer to this species. Elevation range: sea level to 500 m asl.
136604		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known. It presumably occurs in tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can adapt to secondary or degraded forest.
136604		population	eng	It is possibly a common species.
136604		threats	eng	The islands from which the species has been recorded are being logged. It is potentially threatened by competition with the non-indigenous <em>Rattus rattus</em>.
136605		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136605		distribution	eng	Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Brazil, northern Argentina. A record from central Mexico listed by Corbet and Hill (1980, 1991) is dubious) (Simmons 2005).
136605		habitat	eng	One lactating female of <em>Cynomops paranus</em> was netted over a small creek on August 1992, at Bosque Nacional Alexander von Humboldt, Ucayali, Peru (Solari <em>et al.</em> 1999).
136605		population	eng	Very rare in Argentina (Barquez 2006). According Lim and Engstrom (2001), although this species is known from only a few museum specimens, its apparent rarity may be an artefact of collecting bias because, like other molossids, <em>C. paranus</em> typically flies high in the canopy. In Ecuador is known by one register at Scientific Station of Onkone Gare (00°40’S, 76°24’W, 250 m), at National Park of Yasuní, Orellana (Reid <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136605		threats	eng	Not known.
136606		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.
136606		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chihuahuan Desert, from south New Mexico and Trans-Pecos Texas (USA) through Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosi (Mexico) (Patton 2005).
136606		habitat	eng	This species is found in association with sandy soils on creosote-scrub flats or in washes bordered by small desert trees such as mesquite or palo verde. Rocky soils are avoided. Prefers sparsely vegetated sandy desert floors and rock-free bottomland soils along rivers and streams (Schmidly 1977). <br/><br/>Sleeps and rears young in underground burrow. Most reproduction occurs in spring or late summer after rains have stimulated production of a new seed crop. Females become reproductive soon after emerging in about March from a brief period of winter inactivity and can produce several litters of 2 to 4 young. Gestation spans 3 to 4 weeks, and the young are weaned after another 3 weeks. When conditions are good, spring-born young breed during late summer of their first year; the populations then increase rapidly, reaching peak densities in the fall (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Dry seeds comprise most of the diet, although insect larvae and some green material are eaten occasionally.
136606		population	eng	It is common (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
136606		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Mexico or in the US.
136607		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.
136607		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from two localities: Nuflo de Chavez, Esperanza, near Concepcion and from 10 km north of San Ramón, La Laguna, both in Santa Cruz Department of southeastern Bolivia (Anderson, 1997).
136607		habitat	eng	It occurs in Cerrado Chiquitano habitat and may be found in areas disturbed by cattle ranching.
136607		population	eng	It is known only from a few specimens.
136607		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species can be found in disturbed areas.
136608		conservation	eng	The New Mexico shrew is not known to occur in any protected areas. This species should be sought in the Gallinas and Guadelupe mountains (Frey 2004).
136608		distribution	eng	The known range of this species includes the Capitan and Sacramento mountains, in south-central New Mexico, United States (Frey 2004; Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 2005); the range possibly may extend as far east as the Pecos River (Alexander 1996).
136608		habitat	eng	Referring to <em>S. monticolus</em> in the United States Southwest and Mexico, George (in Wilson and Ruff 1999) described the habitat as "meadows and in leaf litter in canyons of coniferous forests, often along streams." Findley <em>et al.</em> (1975) described the habitat as mesic conifer-aspen forest in sheltered canyons.
136608		population	eng	The population trend is unknown but, based on habitat considerations, it probably is stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years.
136608		threats	eng	It has only a small known range in the Capitan and Sacramento mountains, New Mexico. It may be more widely distributed than currently known but little information is available. Its small range may make this species more vulnerable to significant declines from localized threats, but no major threats have been identified.
136609		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Andrafiamena Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006), which is slated to become a national park soon. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136609		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Daraina region in north-eastern Madagascar, south of the Loky River. Sympatric with <em>L. ankaranensis</em> in the Andrafiamena Classified Forest, but not in Analamerana or Ankarana (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136609		habitat	eng	Present in dry deciduous and semi-evergreen forest.
136609		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136609		threats	eng	Unknown.
136610		conservation	eng	Needs conservation and fencing of ALL caves (one is fenced) and conservation of habitat - as well as public education.
136610		distribution	eng	Resticted to the Peninsula of Paraguana, Venezuela - but does not occur in the isthmus (J. Molinari pers. comm.). Total area of occupancy on the peninsula is less than 100 km².
136610		habitat	eng	Species uses the densest (xerophytic shrub) forest on the peninsula (which has been severely reducted).
136610		population	eng	Entire population found in only three caves - and with some sexual segregation (J. Molinari pers. comm.)
136610		threats	eng	Narrowly restricted and confined to endangered habitats. Cave exploitation/vandalism is a serious problem (as they are only in 3 caves where people frequently go) - where vandals often kill bats (J. Molinari pers. comm.).
136611		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas. Listed as special protection status by the Mexican NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
136611		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Nayarit to Chiapas (Mexico), Honduras and Costa Rica (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid, 1997). Also occurs in Nicaragua (Medina <em>et al.</em> in press) and Belize and Guatemala (Miller pers com).
136611		habitat	eng	This species can be found in deciduous and evergreen forest and clearings, often near water (Reid, 1997). Small groups roost in hollow branches and buildings. Activity begins soon after sunset. Most records are from individuals caught over streams or ponds (Gardner <em>et al.</em>, 1970; Valdez and LaVal, 1971).
136611		population	eng	It is uncommon (Reid, 1997). Need to use acoustic methods to detect, may be more widespread (Miller pers. comm.)
136611		threats	eng	Not known, maybe habitat loss.
136612		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.
136612		distribution	eng	This species is present in western Java, Bali, Lombok, Flores, Timor, Semau, and Roti islands in Indonesia, and Sabah in Malaysian Borneo (Simmons 2005), and has also been collected on Lembata, and Aru Islands (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It is probably also found on Sumba, Sawu, and Banda islands in Indonesia.
136612		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in primary and secondary forest.
136612		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136612		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
136613		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas.
136613		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province), southeastern Brazil (from northern Rio Grande do Sul to Rio de Janeiro States), and may extend into extreme eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136613		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist and dry scrub, and subtropical forests.
136613		population	eng	Little is known about populations of this species - it is believed to be a common species.
136613		threats	eng	Little is known of threats to this species.
136614		conservation	eng	It is found in a small private protected area (100 hectares) called Huitepec, but otherwise it is not known from any other protected areas.
136614		distribution	eng	This species occurs in highlands above 2,000 m asl in Mexico (Chiapas) and Guatemala (Hutterer, 2005).
136614		habitat	eng	It is insectivorous and known to occur in high elevation forests dominated by pine and fir, and oak-dominated cloud forest (Goldman 1951), and can be found even in secondary forest in Guatemala (N. Woodman and J. Matson pers. comm.).
136614		population	eng	No population information is available for this species in Mexico. It is considered common in Guatemala (John Matson and Neal Woodman pers. comm.).
136614		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a major threat, and in particular it is reported that the deforestation rate in the Chiapas highlands is around 75% (Ochoa-Gaona and Gonzalez-Espinosa, 2000 in Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Hence this species has a very restricted and fragmented range particularly in Mexico.
136615		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas (e.g., Ngotto Classified Forest, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in CAR and Nouabale-Ndoki in Congo). It has also been recorded from the proposed Mbaéré-Bodingué National Park in CAR. Studies are needed into the impact of hunting on this species.
136615		distribution	eng	This species is found to the north of the Congo River. It is present in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, north-east Gabon, northern Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (north of the Congo River to Garamba and Semliki River).
136615		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in periodically flooded swamp forest (Quris 1975), although in Dzangha-Sangha, Central African Republic, animals spend most of their time in terra firma mixed forest, and were never observed along the Mondika River, nor in swampy forest along the Ndoki (although their ranges went within close range of these areas) (Shah 2003). <br/><br/>In Dzangha-Sangha, where they co-exist with <em>Lophocebus albigena</em>, group size ranges from 8-22, and they spend less time on the ground than other <em>Cercocebus</em> (15-20%) (Shah 2003). Majority of time is spent in lower strata (0-10 m) (Quris 1975; Shah 2003). Strong dietary preference for fruit, seeds, and monocotyledon shoots (Shah 2003). Home range was recorded as ca. 303 ha at Dzangha-Sangha (Shah 2003), and 198 ha in Gabon (Quris 1975).<br/><br/><em>Cercocebus agilis</em> were found to be restricted to the flooded forest of the proposed Mbaere-Bodingue National Park in the south-western part of the Central African Republic (Brugiere <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136615		population	eng	The population density of this species in Gabon has been recorded at 6.7 to 12.5 individuals per km² (Quris 1975), low densities have also been recorded elsewhere in the range. The subpopulations appear to be stable in some areas.
136615		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss caused by deforestation for timber and firewood. It is also locally hunted for meat and animals are persecuted for crop raiding.
136616		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to determine the status of this species.
136616		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Sierra de Taxco on the border of Guerrero and the Estado de Mexico (Romo-Vazquez <em>et al.</em> 2005; Leon-Paniagua <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136616		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest at elevation over 1,800 m.
136616		population	eng	This species is considered rare throughout its restricted range.
136616		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation within its restricted range.
136617		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine its range, extent of possible threats and habitat use of this species.
136617		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Bolivia and northern Argentina (Gardner 2007).
136617		habitat	eng	Little is known of the ecology of this species. It is found along the foothills of the Andes. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136617		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species.
136617		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species although some populations are declining due to deforestation.
136618		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136618		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Central Cordillera in north central region of Luzon (Philippines). It has been recorded from: Mt. Bali-it (1,950 m and 2,150 m); Magdallao, Barangay Balbalasang, Balbalan Municipality (1,600 m); and Amlicao, Barangay Balbalasang, Balbalan Municipality (1,800 m) (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136618		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary montane and mossy forest and secondary growth, at elevations between 1,500-2,700 m, and it is probably fairly habitat tolerant. It is diurnal and feeds primarily on earthworms and other invertebrates (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136618		population	eng	This species was common at the trapping sites. It maintains stable populations in primary montane and mossy forest as well as secondary growth.
136618		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136619		conservation	eng	The species does not appear to be present within any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest in the montane regions of Cameroon and adjacent parts of Nigeria. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
136619		distribution	eng	This little-known species is known only from the type locality of Mount Lefo in the Bamileke Plateau area of western Cameroon, where it has been recorded at 2,550 m asl.
136619		habitat	eng	This species appears to be limited to montane tropical moist forest. There is little additional information available on its natural history, including persistence in degraded habitat.
136619		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
136619		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not well known, the highland region within which it has been recorded is densely populated with corresponding loss of habitat resulting from logging operations, conversion of forest to agricultural land and pasture.
136620		conservation	eng	Populations occur on Barrow Island (see Taxonomic Notes), which is a nature reserve. Chevron, however, owns an oil lease to the island. Part of the Cape Range is a National Park (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). More research is needed to resolve the outstanding taxonomic issues.
136620		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia where it is found in northern Pilbara region, north of the Hamersley Range, into the Great Sandy Desert as far east as the Clutterbuck Hills. An isolated populations exists on the Cape Range Peninsula and another isolated population probably exists on Barrow Island (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2000).
136620		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas and adjacent spinifex covered sandy areas. It has also been found within termite mounds and in low woodlands (Cooper 2008). Little is known about its breeding, but they appear to breed seasonally and females can carry up to six young (Cooper 2008).
136620		population	eng	This species is sparsely scattered within abundant suitable habitat (Cooper 2008). There is no evidence of a current decline.
136620		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
136621		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas, having been recorded from, for example, Amboseli N.P. and Masai Mara National Reserve (Kenya), and Arusha N.P., Serengeti N.P., Tarangire N.P. and Lake Manyara N.P. (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
136621		distribution	eng	This little-known East African species has been recorded from south-western Tanzania northwards to central Kenya. Although not mapped by Kingdon (1971), the species does occur marginally in Uganda, with one confirmed record close to the Uganda/Kenya border at Mount Moroto (T. Davenport pers. comm.). They have been recorded at altitudes from 80-2,135 m asl (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).
136621		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and terrestrial species is found in semi-arid grassland (steppe) habitats, where, like the Southern African species, it shelters during the day in a system of burrows constructed in sandy soils.
136621		population	eng	Absent from large areas within their distributional range. When present, density often <1/km² (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers. obs.). In favoured habitats they can be found in concentrations of 30 or 40 animals within a small area (Kingdon 1971). Densities of 24 individuals/km² were recorded in Cynodon-Balanites Grassland (n=361; Augustine <em>et al</em>. 1995).
136621		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. However, it occurs in an area of extensive, suitable habitat which appears not to be under significant threat. Subject to some hunting for meat, like the Southern African Spring-hare.
136622		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not currently known from any protected areas. The remaining forest on the Ampasindava Peninsula should be considered for inclusion within a protected area. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136622		distribution	eng	Known only from the Ampasindava Peninsula in north-western Madagascar. Formerly, the sportive lemurs found on the Ampasindava Peninsula were thought to be <em>L. dorsalis</em>. The precise limits of distribution are unclear, especially relative to <em>L. sahamalazensis</em> and <em>L. dorsalis</em> (Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136622		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of humid rainforest.
136622		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136622		threats	eng	Unknown, although charcoal production is a problem on the Ampasindava Peninsula.
136623		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures have been taken, but <em>B. omurai</em> will have been an incidental beneficiary of the area restrictions on pelagic whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The species is on Appendix I of CITES.
136623		distribution	eng	The range of Omura’s whale is poorly known because to date very few specimens have been confirmed. The type specimen was a stranded individual collected near Oyama in the southern Sea of Japan in 1998 (Wada <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eight specimens taken under scientific permit in the 1970s, identified at the time as Bryde’s whales (<em>B. edeni/brydei</em>), were subsequently re-identified genetically from archived tissue samples as <em>B. omurai</em> (Wada <em>et al.</em> 2003, Sasaki <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Six of the <em>B. omurai</em> specimens were taken in deep water in the Solomon Sea in 1976, and reported as unusually small Bryde’s whales (Ohsumi 1978). Two specimens were taken in deep water near the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in 1978, and reported as ordinary Bryde’s whales, which were also collected in the same area (Ohsumi 1980).<br/><br/>Genetic identification confirms the presence of <em>B. omurai</em> in the Bohol Sea, Philippines (see above).<br/><br/>Specimens of <em>B. omurai</em> may have been collected elsewhere without being recognized. Bannister (1964) reported eight “Bryde’s” whales taken off Western Australia during 1958-63 that “do not match the published descriptions of specimens from other parts of the world” but their small size (11.2-11.7 m for mature animals) appears consistent with either <em>B. omurai</em> or the small type of <em>B. edeni/brydei.</em><br/><br/><em>B. omurai</em> is at least partially sympatric with Bryde’s whales (<em>B. edeni/brydei</em>), and occurs both in deep water and in inshore areas. The location of the type specimen (Sea of Japan) may not be representative.
136623		habitat	eng	The diet of <em>B. omurai</em> is not known. Stomach contents apparently were examined for the specimens taken under scientific permit in the 1970s but have not been published separately from those of Bryde’s whales taken in the same expeditions. No prey items other than euphausiids were found (Kawamura 1977). <em>B. omurai</em> occurs in both deep and shallow water, and is at least partly sympatric with Bryde’s whales.
136623		population	eng	The only population estimate that may relate to <em>B. omurai</em> is an estimate of 1,800 from sightings data for the Solomon Islands “Bryde’s whale” stock (Ohsumi 1980). However, given the small sample size, the use of methodology that is no longer accepted, and the possibility that some of the animals seen may have been <em>B. brydei/edeni</em>, little reliance can be placed on this figure. The global population size is unknown.
136623		threats	eng	Because the range of the species is poorly known and has only recently been described, it may have been subject to catching by commercial whaling operations in the past. It may also be subject to by-catch.<br/><br/>Based on genetic identifications (LeDuc and Dizon 2002), it can be inferred that <em>B. omurai</em> have been taken in the Philippines artisanal whale fisheries (Dolar <em>et al.</em> 1994; Perrin <em>et al.</em> 1996), but more analysis would be needed to determine what proportion of the “Bryde’s whales” taken there were in fact <em>B. omurai.</em>.
136624		conservation	eng	This rodent potentially occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
136624		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south central Venezuela eastwards through Guyana, and French Guiana, to Amapá, Brazil and southwards to Amazonas, Brazil, north of Amazon River (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The elevation range of this species is from sea level to 1,100 m of altitude.
136624		habitat	eng	In French Guiana, the species has been captured in the understory of swampy primary forest around 1.2 m above the ground (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). This is an arboreal species known only from primary forest (Weksler pers. comm.).
136624		population	eng	Information about its population or abundance is unknown.
136624		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136625		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.
136625		distribution	eng	This species is distributed through much of the Angolan Plateau and adjacent southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
136625		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with grasslands in moist savanna and woodland. Little additional information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species.
136625		population	eng	It is a common species.
136625		threats	eng	There are presumably no major threats to this species as a whole.
136626		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps several protected areas but it has not been confirmed to occur in any. This species needs surveys to establish range, impact of threats and natural history.
136626		distribution	eng	T. venustus occurs in the Yungas and associated forests in southern Bolivia and northern Argentina (Braun <em>et al.</em> 2005; Gardner 2007).
136626		habitat	eng	Transitional and humid forests (Yungas) below 2,000 m; brushlands, riverbank chaparral and agricultural areas.
136626		population	eng	Very little is known of populations of this species.
136626		threats	eng	There is little known about threats to this species. It occurs in an area which is being developed and could be threatened, however, more information is necessary to quantify threats.
136627		conservation	eng	Research actions. It is found in protected areas.
136627		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bahamas, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005).
136627		habitat	eng	This species is solitary. It rest among the leaves of a tree and does not take shelter in tree hollows, buildings, or caves. This bat is a swift flier but not highly maneuverable; consequently, it typically forages in open areas (above the canopy, in woodland open areas, and along forest edges). It is insectivorous; its diet has not been studied in detail. Some fecal pellets examined contained moths, winged termites, and flying ants (Rodriguez-Duran and Kunz, 2001; Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136627		population	eng	It is rare in Puerto Rico, known from only six individuals (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Found in six localities in Dominican Republic (Inchaustegui pers. comm.)
136627		threats	eng	Hurricanes, habitat destruction and human population growth.
136628		conservation	eng	The area where the species has been recorded is outside the protected area of the Reserve Naturelle Integrale du Tsaratanana.
136628		distribution	eng	<em>Microgale jobihely</em> is known only from two sites on the south-western slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif in madagascar across an elevational gradient from 1,420 to 1,680 m (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It appears to be the only member of this genus that is a very localized endemic (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136628		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in montane forest habitat near Matsaborimena Lake. According to Goodman <em>et al.</em> (2006), the largest trees at the site are about 15 m tall, the canopy is partially open, the sub-canopy contains few lianas, sparse herbaceous ground cover, and on slopes and in valleys a considerable number of downed and rotten tree trunks. The site, which is relatively close to the village of Bemanevika, is partially disturbed, with numerous trails associated with different minor types of forest exploitation, including cattle grazing.<br/><br/>The second locality where the other 11 specimens were taken is the Analapakila Forest, which shows considerable signs of anthropogenic disturbance. At this site the canopy is open, the remaining trees are notably separated from one another, the sub-canopy has a dense growth of small lianas, and the forest floor has considerable fallen and decomposing tree trunks and branches. The site is located next to an extensive marsh, which has been partially converted to rice paddy. Within the forest there are numerous signs of human disturbance, including cattle grazing, wood cutting, hunting of forest animals and coffee cultivation (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136628		population	eng	Currently known from 12 specimens taken at two sites on the south-western slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif.
136628		threats	eng	The two sites from which this species has been recorded are in a relatively remote forested region extending off the<br/>south-western flank of the Tsaratanana Massif. In both the foret du lac Matsiborimena and the foret d’Analapakila, there is local human pressure on the forest, mostly in the form of slash and burn agriculture (tavy), as well as non-commercial timber extraction. Furthermore, the marshlands close to the sites from which this species was obtained are being converted to rice paddies (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136629		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas.
136629		distribution	eng	This species occurs from west-central Peru to northern Chile along the western coast and contiguous Pacific slopes of the Andes, sea level to 4000 m (Steppan, 1998; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136629		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky and sandy areas in the desert, in riparian vegetation and gallery forest, in coastal Lomas habitat, and some Puna areas in southern Peru and Chile. It can be found in secondary and disturbed areas.
136629		population	eng	It is a common species.
136629		threats	eng	In coastal areas the species is threatened by loss of habitat, but in the majority of its range there are no major threats.
136630		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
136630		distribution	eng	From the south of Los Angeles Basin and San Jacinto Mountains of southern California, USA southward through Baja California to near Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Patton 2005).
136630		habitat	eng	This species primarily occurs in gravelly and sandy soils in open chaparral and grassland communities in southern California, and in desert to coniferous forest in Baja California. Wiith few exceptions, it occurs in lowland-scrub and coastal mountain habitat below about 800 m.<br/><br/>It burrows within and at the edges of these washes. The entrances of burrows often are closed in the daytime. Apparently it spends only a few hours outside their burrow each night. It primarily eats seeds, but may eat green vegetation and insects during some months of the year. Its diet varies from season to season, depending upon what seeds and other foods are available. Breeding may occur during any month of the year, but peaks occur in winter and spring. One litter of two to four young (average is 2.5) is born each year. Average life span is about 10 months (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
136630		population	eng	This species is common in the United States (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Populations are relatively stable throughout the year, but largest in winter and spring. Maximum densities are 45 per hectare (Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Mexico, this species is not considered to be common.
136630		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.<br/><br/>This species is threatened by agriculture, as it prefers to live in deep soils where agriculture is prevalent. However, this is not considered to be creating population decline at this time.
136631		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.
136631		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern India, Myanmar, and south west China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, and Fujian provinces) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is also reported from Hubei, Hainan, and Guangdong in China (Wang 2002).
136631		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. In Myanmar, it has been collected in seasonally dry dipterocarp forest.
136631		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and abundance of this species.
136631		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136632		conservation	eng	It possibly occurs in Lorentz National Park. Further studies into its taxonomic status are needed (see Taxonomic Notes).
136632		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed through the lower montane forests in the Central Cordillera of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is found from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.
136632		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in lower elevation montane tropical forests.
136632		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
136632		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
136633		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136633		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina near the Paraná River in Corrientes Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It can be found over an area smaller than 100 km² (Bidau pers. comm.)
136633		habitat	eng	The species is found in sand dunes and edges of rivers (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.).
136633		population	eng	There are only two known populations very close to each other and are considered as one locality (Bidau pers. comm.).
136633		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. roigi</span> has a naturally restricted range. Its numbers have been declining for a long time and it is listed as CR in the Red List of Argentina (Ojeda and Bidau pers. comm.).
136634		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. There is very little information available for <em>C. katinka</em>. More research is necessary to be able to determine the status of this species.
136634		distribution	eng	<em>Crocidura katinka</em> is recorded from Israel, Palestine and Syria; there is also an unpublished record from southwestern Iran that appears to represent this species (Hutterer and Kock 2002, Hutterer 2005, R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The records from Israel are old and are based on owl pellets; it is likely that the species is now extinct there (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).
136634		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is unknown.
136634		population	eng	Nothing is known of current population densities or trends. In Syria, the species is known from only two localities; it was originally described from fossil material.
136634		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
136635		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136635		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Entre Rios Province of Argentina in three isolated populations. It can also be found in a small areas (50 X 60 km) in the Department of Rio Negro, Uruguay (Wlasiuk <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It is restricted to sand dunes which make up <10% of the area the species range.
136635		habitat	eng	It is restricted to sand dunes (Lessa pers. comm.).
136635		population	eng	It is found in four disjunct populations. It may be locally abundant (Lessa pers. comm.) occurring at densities of 30-80 individuals per hectare where they are considered abundant (Lessa pers. comm.).
136635		threats	eng	These sand dunes have been priorities for expansion of pine plantation and Eucalyptus. Many populations were extirpated due to this reason (Lessa pers. comm.).
136636		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas.
136636		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Mexico south to central Costa Rica (Walker, 1964).
136636		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, mainly terrestrial (but climbs well), and omnivorous - feeding on insects, small mammals, fruit, grain, birds and bird eggs (Reid 1997). The species occurs from lowlands to 300 m (Reid 1997).
136636		population	eng	The Southern spotted skunk is "uncommon but widespread in farmland, open woodland, and brush; open in dry, rocky areas" (Reid 1997). The species is common in Pacific coastal areas of Costa Rica (F. Reid pers. comm).
136636		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to monoculture, fires and road building threaten this species.
136637		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is known to occur in the Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, and the Berenty Private Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). No specimens are reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). Mahafaly Plateau is currently under review to be included in the Tsimanampetsotsa National Park.
136637		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and southwestern Madagascar, where it ranges from Lamboharana south to the Toliara (= Tuléar) region, to the Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve (south of the Onilahy River) in the south-east, and to Tsimanampetsotsa, Berenty, and Petriky in the extreme south (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Sea-level to 250 m.
136637		habitat	eng	<em>M. griseorufus</em> is found in spiny desert, dry thorn scrub, and gallery forest habitats (Rasoazanabary 2004). Basic aspects of this mouse lemur’s ecology and behavior are being studied at present.
136637		population	eng	This is a common species.
136637		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, although forest loss due to charcoal production and commercial maize production is taking place and may be causing localized declines.
136638		conservation	eng	The small distribution area that this species occurs in is protected as the Monumento Natural Cerro de Santa Ana and the Reserva Biologica Monte Cano, its habitat on Monte Cano is protected in a nongovernmental biological reserve managed by INFALCOSTA, a partnership between the Universidad Nacional Experimental Francisco de Miranda (in Coro) and local communities (Anderson, 2003).
136638		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Santa Ana (550 m asl) and the Fila de Monte Cano on the Peninsula de Paraguana, Estado Falcon, Venezuela (Anderson, 2003). The two known populations are isolated from each other (Anderson, 2003). Its distribution encompasses a 22-25 km² area (the approximate area above 200 m associated with Cerro Santa Ana and Monte Cano); however, it is likely that the area with viable populations is much smaller (Anderson, 2003).
136638		habitat	eng	Most specimens of Heteromys oasicus derive from cloud forest and mesic vegetation types on Cerro Santa Ana. All specimens known from Monte Cano were captured among terrestrial bromeliads in the bed of a seasonal stream, which was dry at the time. It likely is restricted to small areas of evergreen and semideciduous vegetation, and to be associated with small streams (Anderson, 2003).
136638		population	eng	It is rare, and known from two localities (Anderson, 2003).
136638		threats	eng	The greatest threat to the species habitat on Cerro Santa Ana and Monte Cano is grazing by domestic goats, which defoliate native vegetation on the slopes, causing an increase in erosion. Also on Monte Cano, there is small-scale gathering of wood and ornamental plants, the construction of infrastructure for tourism is planned, and small-scale mining projects are forthcoming (Anderson, 2003).
136639		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected areas.
136639		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra de Miahuatlan, south Oaxaca, Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). It has been recorded between elevations of 1,060 and 2,600 m asl (Woodman and Timm 2000).
136639		habitat	eng	It is found in humid cloud forest. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
136639		population	eng	It is considered to be moderately common (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).
136639		threats	eng	Overgrazing and deforestation (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005) in some parts of the lower elevations of its range (Inventario Nacional Forestal de Mexico, 2002) is a major threat.
136640		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Presently, the Pico da Neblina transboundary conservation area protects the species. The Neblina transboundary preservation area consists of one of the largest protected areas in South America with a total of 3,560,000 ha (2,200,000 ha in Brazil and 1,360,000 ha in Venezuela). The Brazilian Pico da Neblina National Park and the Venezuelan Serranía de la Neblina National Park were created (in 1979 and 1978, respectively) in order to protect the Pico da Neblina massif, its endemic flora and fauna, as well as a large area of the surrounding lowlands (Huber 1995). The Black-headed Uakari is possibly the only medium-sized mammal restricted to the Neblina transboundary area and could be used as a flagship species for the conservation of the area.
136640		distribution	eng	The range of this species is delimited to the south and west by the Rio Negro (Brazil, Venezuela), by the Rio Marauiá in the east (Brazil), and the Canal Cassiquiare and Rio Orinoco to the north (Venezuela). The absence of <em>C. hosomi</em> north of the Canal Cassiquiari is speculative at present.
136640		habitat	eng	Black-headed Uakaris are found in a variety of habitat types, including terra firme, chavascal, flooded forests (igapós), campinarana or "Rio Negro caatinga" (white sand forests), and montane forest. They are seasonal vagrants and move to different areas of the forest tracking the seasonal variation in availability of preferred fruits. They forage at different levels from the understory to the canopy, but they have never been seen descending to the ground. All uakaris are specialized seed predators and the majority of their diet is made up of immature seeds. The diet can be supplemented by fruit pulp, leaves and arthropods. Group sizes range from 35 to >100 individuals; fission-fusion was never witnessed in this species.
136640		population	eng	There are no precise data concerning total numbers. Boubli (1997) estimated a crude density of 7 animals/km² at his study site in Pico da Neblina National Park, Brazil. However, this is probably an overestimate given that these animals are seasonal vagrants (i.e., they move to different areas in times of food scarcity). Thus, overall densities are probably lower than one individual/km².
136640		threats	eng	This species has a limited distribution and is heavily hunted for its meat, particularly by the Yanomami Amerindians from the Maturacá, Nazareth, Xamatá, Pohoró villages, but also by caboclos along the road from São Gabriel da Cachoeira to Cucuí, Amazons, Brazil. Although the consumption of primates and other game by the Yanomamis might have been sustainable in the past, the advent of permanent (missionary encouraged) settlements, and subsequent population increase and use of shotguns are now drastically affecting primate numbers near indigenous villages. Once abundant along the Canal Maturacá (a natural channel that connects the Cauaburi River in Brazil with Canal Cassiquiari in Venezuela), Black-headed Uacaris are now a rare sight in this area. Lehman and Robertson (1994) reported that Black-headed Uakaris were hunted heavily by both illegal Brazilian goldminers and local people and may have been eliminated from much of their range in southern Venezuela. They claim that surviving populations may be restricted to forests in the Rio Baria and the Rio Manipitari interfluvium.<br/><br/>The threat of goldmining present during the 1980s and 1990s is no longer present in the region.
136641		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known. Surveys are required to determine the status and range of the species, and research is required to confirm or refute the existence of any major threats. The Cyprus mouse is of conservation interest as it is one of just three surviving palaeoendemic mammal species found on Mediterranean islands (the other two being the shrew species <em>Crocidura sicula</em> and <em>C. zimmermanni</em>) (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Most ancient endemic mammals of Mediterranean islands died out after the arrival of man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Mediterranean islands are also home to a number of taxa currently recognised as endemic species and subspecies that are the descendants of mainland taxa introduced by man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006).
136641		distribution	eng	The Cyprus mouse <em>Mus cypriacus</em> is endemic to the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean (Bonhomme <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may be quite widespread in upland areas, and is typically found at altitudes of 300-900 m, although there are some records from 100-150 m (Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Among the 15 trapping localities sampled in different biotopes on the southern part of the island, <em>M. cypriacus</em> was captured in eight of them (Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further research is required in order to establish the range of this new species.
136641		habitat	eng	The species has mainly been found in abandoned cultivation terraces at moderate altitudes (300-900 m), where the vegetation consists of a mosaic of open grassy areas, shrubs and small trees, and cultivated vines (<em>Vitis vinifera</em>).<br/><br/>It can also be found in forested riverine areas at 100-150 m, where it is syntopic with the house mouse (<em>M. m. domesticus</em>). It is apparently absent from lowland (less than 100 m) areas with strong anthropogenic pressure, such as intensive arable farmland, human dwellings and farms, and orchards (orange groves), where the house mouse is almost exclusively dominant (Cucchi 2005).
136641		population	eng	Population status and trends are not known.
136641		threats	eng	It is not yet known if there are any major threats to this recently-discovered species. It is generally found in abandoned vineyards and terraced fields at moderate altitudes. This type of habitat has increased in Cyprus in the recent past, and is probably now more or less stable, although declines may potentially occur in the future as a result of changes in agricultural policy since Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, and as a result of housing and tourism development (Panayides 2004, M. Hellicar pers. comm. 2006). The use of rodenticides as pest control may cause mortality in populations that live close to human habitation.
136642		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in a protected area. Surveys are needed for this species, as no comprehensive trapping has taken place in the area of collection.
136642		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Gunung Tokala (02°13'S, 120°04'E) in central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It was collected at 2,400 m. The species has not been recorded from any other mountain areas, however, further surveys are needed.
136642		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded only from tropical upper montane rain forest (Musser and Carleton 2005), slightly disturbed by human activities, close to a wooden hut (Musser and Durden 2002). It is not known if the species occurs in modified habitats, but it is presumed to be a primarily forest species. It is gracile, insectivorous, nocturnal, terrestrial, scansorial, and arboreal (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136642		population	eng	The population abundance is not known. Only a single specimen has been collected. The species probably has a specialised ecology, which would account for the fact that regular surveys have not encountered it.
136642		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by deforestation, largely through small-scale firewood collection and clearance of land for subsistence cultivation.
136643		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China since 2002, and as Endangered (B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)) in the Chinese Red List (Wang and Xie 2004). Measures, are urgently needed to control hunting in this species, and to protect its habitat on Mount Dabie. It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to determine the species population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.
136643		distribution	eng	The species is found only in and around the Mount Dabie area of west Anhui province in China (Smith and Xie 2008). It might also occur in the Hubei section of Mount Dabei.
136643		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known; however, its natural history is likely similar to that of <em>M. berezovskii</em> and <em>M. moschiferus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). It presumably therefore inhabits coniferous or broad-leaved forests, or mixed forests at high elevations  According to Smith and Xie (2008), it is more likely than other musk deer to produce twins.  Females mature rapidly and are capable of breeding in their first year of life.
136643		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trends. It is estimated by Wang Yingxiang (Kunming Institute of Zoology pers. comm., 2008) to have been reduced in geographic distribution by 70% in the 30 years between 1957 and 1977. According to Sheng (1998), the total population was only 700-800 in 1985. In Mazongling Nature Reserve, a survey in 1993 estimated that only 6-8 remained above 1,000 m asl. A 1995 survey suggested that the species was still declining, although Yang <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that its status has recently improved. There have been no published surveys since that time.
136643		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include habitat loss and hunting, and it is especially at risk due to its limited distribution (Smith and Xie 2008). The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S. $45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 2007).<br/><br/>Musk deer appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).
136644		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Kenting National Park (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2007) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
136644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs in the following counties: Taipei, Hsinchu, Taichung, Hualien, Taitung, Pingtung, and Nantou (Smith and Xie 2008). It can be found at low to middle altitudes (Smith and Xie 2008).
136644		habitat	eng	Roosting locations vary from caves, buildings, tunnels, and irrigation conduits (Smith and Xie 2008). It can be found in primary forests located in the central region of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). This species was also recorded during a survey in the Guijiaou Experimental Forest in the Kenting National Park, an area characterized as approximately 450 ha (total area) at 200-300 m asl. (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136644		population	eng	It is considered a rare form (Smith and Xie 2008).
136644		threats	eng	Deforestation as a result of expanding infrastructure development for housing, industry, roads, etc. as well as large scale agriculture, is a threat in the lowlands of Taiwan.
136645		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. The species is present in the recently established Parc National de Sahamalaza – Iles Radama (Aire Protégée Terrestre, Marine et Côtière) which is part of the Malagasy protected area network managed through the Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées (ANGAP). The Sahamalaza Peninsula is also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (declared in 2001). A consortium of AEECL, WCS, ANGAP and the local communities are currently establishing structures to ensure a better protection of the very few remaining forest fragments in the park (Schwitzer <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136645		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Sahamalaza Peninsula in coastal north-western Madagascar. The northern boundary of the range is likely to be the Sambirano River (Andriaholinirina <em>et al.</em> 2006), but precise limits, especially with <em>L. dorsalis</em>, remain unclear.
136645		habitat	eng	The Sahamalaza peninsula is part of a transition zone between the Sambirano region in the north and the western dry deciduous forest region in the south. The species inhabits both primary and secondary forests.
136645		population	eng	One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006. Olivieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded an encounter rate of 4.17 individuals/km in the forest of Ankarafa. This high encounter rate could be due to recent loss of habitat, forcing all animals to concentrate in the few remaining forest fragments.
136645		threats	eng	Although much of the known distribution is within a recently declared protected area, forest clearing for agriculture, and timber-cutting for charcoal and construction continue. They are also subject to hunting. Further studies are needed to determine the extent of both threats.
136646		conservation	eng	Even though this species roosts synanthropically in the east and may therefore be expected to be relatively common given the abundance of suitable roosting sites, it is only known from four locations across Madagascar despite the large survey effort on Malagasy bats in recent years (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006; Cardiff 2006; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). Of the four known localities, all receive some form of active forest management and it is expected that deforestation at these sites has been and will be less than for non-protected forest. Further studies of this species are needed to investigate why it appears to be forest-dependent in the west but not in the east of its range.
136646		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species to Madagascar that is currently known from four localities (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006), two in the west (Mikea forest and Kirindy CFPF) and two in the east (Kianjavato and Tampolo forests), all below 80 m elevation (from 16 - 70 m asl.).
136646		habitat	eng	Individuals from the east have been netted near to disturbed lowland and humid forest but also in proximity to agriculture and there is no evidence that this species requires humid forest vegetation to survive (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the west, <em>P. raceyi</em> was netted inside degraded and relatively intact dry deciduous forest (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the east it is known to roost inside buildings (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nevertheless, all four localities are noteworthy for the presence of lowland forest formations and additional surveys are now needed to determine whether this is a genuine reflection of habitat requirements or an artifact of how biologists select their survey sites. If it is the latter case, then <em>P. raceyi</em> may turn out to be a common species in the low-lying areas across much of Madagascar.
136646		population	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from 15 specimens (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006); however, with further survey work, it may be shown to more common.
136646		threats	eng	No major threats are documented, but forest degradation may conceivably reduce availability of suitable foraging and roosting habitat in the west where this species presumably roosts in trees and appears to be associated with forest habitats.
136647		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is likely found in protected areas within its range.
136647		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Zacatecas, southern Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosí, Mexico (Wilson and Reeder 1993)
136647		habitat	eng	This species' biology and ecology are poorly known. It lives in arid and semi-arid areas with sandy soils and desert-vegetation. It can also be found in degraded lands and agricultural areas.
136647		population	eng	This species is very common.
136647		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is considered a pest in agricultural areas
136648		conservation	eng	Occurs in Pribaikalskyi National Park.
136648		distribution	eng	Endemic to Olkhon and Ogoi Islands, Lake Baikal (Russia).
136648		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky steppes in Olkhon and Ogoi Islands, Lake Baikal.
136648		population	eng	There are no data on population status.
136648		threats	eng	Unknown.
136649		conservation	eng	Although this species was only recently described, it is apparently widespread and abundant. However, further clarification of its distribution, population size and trend, habitat preferences, and ecology is required.
136649		conservation	eng	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.<br/><br/>Adoption of bat-friendly practices in the construction and maintenance of buildings is a proposed action.<br/><br/>Although this species was only recently described, it is apparently widespread and abundant. However, further clarification of its distribution, population size and trend, habitat preferences, and ecology is required.
136649		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</em> was only recently differentiated from <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, and some details of its distribution are still lacking. It is also a western Palaearctic species, occurring from the British Isles through much of Europe (including the islands of Corsica and Sardinina) east to Ukraine and western Russia. Its range may extend much further east, as well as into north Africa (Wilson and Reeder 2005), although it is also possible that the species does not occur outside Europe. It occurs further north in Scandinavia than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.
136649		distribution	eng	<em>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</em> was only recently differentiated from <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, and some details of its distribution are still lacking. It is also a western Palaearctic species, occurring from the British Isles through much of Europe (including the islands of Corsica and Sardinina) east to Ukraine and western Russia. Its range may extend much further east, as well as into north Africa  (Wilson and Reeder 2005), however, repeated surveys for it in Morocco have failed to find any records so it may not occur in North Africa at all (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007), although it is also possible that the species does not occur outside Europe. It occurs further north in Scandinavia than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.
136649		habitat	eng	It forages around woodland and wetlands, and is more closely associated with water than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>. It feeds mainly on small Diptera (especially aquatic midges). Maternity colonies are generally located in buildings. No specific data are available on <em>P. pygmaeus</em> winter roost sites, but presumably they are similar to those used by <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.
136649		population	eng	It generally appears to be less abundant than <em>P. pipistrellus sensu stricto</em>, although it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species. Summer colonies may be larger than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, numbering up to 250 (or occasionally up to 3,000) individuals. It is not known if the species congregates in winter, or what size its winter colonies are.
136649		threats	eng	As maternity colonies tend to be found in buildings, the species may be vulnerable to anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005). However, this is not thought to be a major threat.
136650		conservation	eng	In Mexico it is found in some protected areas.
136650		distribution	eng	The range encompasses southeastern California, Arizona (Hoffmeister 1986, Arizona Game and Fish Department 2003), New Mexico (except perhaps extreme northeast; Frey 2004), southern Colorado, and perhaps southern Utah and western Texas (Piaggio <em>et al.</em> 2002; Valdez pers. comm.). In Arizona, this bat is distributed predominantly in the highlands and upper stream reaches (Piaggio <em>et al</em>. 2002). In New Mexico, it is known from low-elevation riparian areas in the Rio Grande Valley and montane highlands. In California, it occurs only along the Colorado River lowlands and in the adjacent desert mountain ranges. The range meets that of <em>M. lucifugus</em> in central Colorado; that species occupies the northern third of the state (Valdez pers. comm.). The only record from Texas is an unusual, perhaps intermediate specimen collected in the early 1900s near Fort Hancock in Hudspeth County (Piaggio <em>et al</em>. 2002; Valdez pers. comm.; Schmidly 2004). <br/>Range limits in northcentral Mexico are uncertain; the species has been recorded from several localities in Chihuahua and a disjunct site near Texcoco in the Distrito Federal (Piaggio <em>et al</em>. 2002; Valdez pers. comm.). In Arizona, this bat is most common at elevations of 1,830-2,806 meters, but it also occurs much lower along rivers in desert regions (Arizona Game and Fish Department 2003).
136650		habitat	eng	Habitats in Arizona include ponderosa pine and oak-pine woodland near water; this bat is also known from wooded riparian areas in desert areas (Hoffmeister 1986). In New Mexico, the species is usually associated with large bodies of water without respect to associated vegetation type; it is known from low elevation riparian areas in the Rio Grande Valley and montane highlands (Piaggio <em>et al.</em> 2002). Maternity colonies have been found in buildings (e.g., the attics of abandoned houses; Hoffmeister 1986; Chung-MacCoubrey 1999), in crevices between timbers of a highway bridge (Arizona Game and Fish Department 2003), and in snags. A few individuals have been found hibernating in mines in California and Sonora (Howell 1989).
136650		population	eng	The total number of occurrences or subpopulations is unknown but is at least a few dozen. Total adult population size is unknown. Stager (1943) estimated that <em>Myotis occultus</em> made up about 40 percent of 2,000 bats in a mixed-species colony roosting under a bridge in May near Blythe, California. Hayward (1963) recorded an Arizona maternity colony that included 67 females in one year and 41 the next year.<br/>Overall trend is unknown, but some subpopulations have apparently declined or been eliminated. One or two of the three or four known maternity colonies in Arizona have been eliminated, and another has been partially excluded from available buildings (AGFD 2003). Populations that were formerly common along the Colorado River in California and Arizona have apparently declined, perhaps drastically (K. Stager, P. Leitner pers. comm.).
136650		threats	eng	Without citing specific examples, Schmidly (2004) reported that this species has declined as a result of pesticide use, control measures in nursery colonies, and disturbance at hibernation sites.
136651		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136651		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Yunnan Province in China, southwards extending in to Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam.
136651		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is associated with limestone caves in evergreen forest like others in the genus.
136651		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136651		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136652		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Tapajos National Forest, Brazil (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005)
136652		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities: two in Para State, and one in Amazon State, Brazil (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136652		habitat	eng	Its habitat and ecology is poorly known (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136652		population	eng	This rodent is known from only three localities (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005); its population status is unknown.
136652		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136653		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).
136653		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil, where it is found in the cerrado and caatinga in northeast and central parts of the country (Gardner 2007).
136653		habitat	eng	Occurs in open habitats, including open grasslands, shrubby vegetation and dry forest (caatinga), as well as dense savannas with trees in the cerrado (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press) - an area currently targeted for soy bean production. Found from 300-1,100 m (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press). Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).
136653		population	eng	Probably occurs at low densities, although not rare (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).
136653		threats	eng	There is widespread agriculture, mainly soybean plantations, which are removing the species habitats (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).
136654		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its limits of distribution and current population status.
136654		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Tanke Salokko in south eastern Sulawesi, Indonesia (03°35'S, 121°15'E, at 1,500 m) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possible that it might occur slightly more widely, at high elevations, than current records suggest.
136654		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest, and not likely to occur in degraded habitats.
136654		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series of three specimens collected in 1932 (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136654		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although forest loss in this region of Sulawesi has been less severe than elsewhere.
136655		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in the Manu Biosphere Reserve, Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136655		distribution	eng	So far known from the headwaters of the Rio Juruá, southeastern Peru and extreme west Brazil; range limits require amplification (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136655		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is upper tropical forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Specimens collected from southeastern Peru in July during the dry season were all adults but none were in reproductive condition, the specimen from Brazil taken during the rainy season was pregnant with two near term embryos (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).
136655		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance.
136655		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136656		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas within its range.
136656		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guerrero, Jalisco, México, and Michoacán states in Mexico (Carraway, 2007). It occurs from 1,875 to 3,048 m asl (Carraway, 2007).
136656		habitat	eng	It occurs in high elevation pine-oak juniper woodlands, and moist montane canyons in pine-oak or Douglas-fir-juniper woodlands in the Transvolcanic belt, in areas where there is a deep layer of humus and leaf litter (Carraway, 2007).
136656		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
136656		threats	eng	Deforestation threatens some parts of the species' range.
136657		conservation	eng	This species is extinct.
136657		distribution	eng	This species was found on the island of Santa Cruz of the Galápagos Islands. It is known only from late Quaternary and subfossil cave deposits. This species is considered to have very recently become extinct (Steadman and Ray, 1982; Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136657		habitat	eng	The species is through to have occurred in shrub forests.
136657		population	eng	The chronology of extinction of <em>Megaoryzomys curioi</em> is very speculative. There are no absolute age determinations available as yet for any mammal-bearing fossil deposit in Galápagos. The possibility of the involvement of feral dogs, cats, pigs, and black rats in its extinction is also suggestive of a recent extinction (Steadman and Ray, 1982).
136657		threats	eng	This species is extinct.
136658		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. The skulls were found at Machu Picchu but this may not be the origin of the animals.
136658		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Inca burial sites of Machu Picchu, southeastern Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136658		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is not known.
136658		population	eng	The species is known only from two skulls, estimated to be around 400 years old. It is considered probably extinct (Thomas, 1920; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). However, Emmons (1999) states that there is no evident reason for<br/><em>C. oblativa</em> to have become extinct since 1500 and it is likely to be still extant. It has not been located during any surveys of the region and the origin of the two skulls collected is not known.
136658		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The presence of the two skulls at an Inca burial site suggests that it was used for food.
136659		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001. Also is listed as priority for conservation (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). USFWS list the species as endangered.
136659		distribution	eng	This species is known from central California (Constantine 1998), southern Arizona, and New Mexico (USA) to Honduras and El Salvador (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,600 m (usually below 1,800 m) (Reid, 1997).
136659		habitat	eng	This species occurs in thorn scrub and deciduous forest. Its range corresponds closely to the distribution of the mezcal plant (Agave angustifolia) in Mexico (Arita, 1991). This bat roosts in caves and mines, often in colonies of several thousand. It emerges about an hour after sunset to feed on nectar and pollen of agaves and saguaro cactus in Arizona. It lands on the flowers or may hover for short periods to feed. Plant species visited in central Mexico are similar to those for L. nivalis. Some fruit and insects are also taken. Night roosts, including buildings, are used after feeding (Reid, 1997). Northern population migrate south in September and return in May. Young are born in May to June in large maternity colonies (Barbour and Davis, 1969).<br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size likely are stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.<br/>The habitat in Mexico is primarily tropical deciduous forest and thorn forest (Arita 1991). In the United States, this bat roosts in old mines and caves at the base of mountains near alluvial fans vegetated with agave, yucca, saguaro, and organ pipe cactus (Barbour and Davis 1969). Young are born in maternity colonies in caves and mines.
136659		population	eng	It is generally uncommon (Reid, 1997). This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Arita (1991) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Mexico. Arita and Humphrey (1988) reported 269 historical and currently occupied localities in Mexico. Total adult population size is unknown but exceeds 100,000. A single roost in northern Mexico supports probably more than 100,000 individuals. This species is widespread and abundant in Mexico (Arita and Prado 1999). See Cockrum and Petryszyn (1991) for historical and recent population estimates for several sites in Arizona (no decline is evident) and Sonora.<br/>Cockrum and Petryszyn (1991) strongly disputed the reported decline of this species and, in reviewing pertinent data, concluded that little evidence exists to document a long-term decline in Arizona, New Mexico, and Sonora; these authors stated "the various recent reports of disappearance appear to be, at least in part, the result of not looking in the right places at the right times" and further reported that "current populations...are little, if any, decreased from those of a quarter century ago. It even has been suggested that populations have increased in the past century because of more suitable roosts being available as a result of mining activity in the area."
136659		threats	eng	USFWS (1987, 1989) stated that the species was threatened by disturbance of roosts, loss of food sources through land clearing and human exploitation, and direct killing by humans. Overall, however, this species does not appear to be very threatened. Habitat loss, cave issues, as mining and recreation.
136660		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136660		distribution	eng	This species is found on the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is known from several large drainage basins, including the Fly River and lower Strickland River. It appears to be a lowland species. Elevation range is from sea level to 600 m asl.
136660		habitat	eng	It is believed to be an arboreal species of lowland tropical moist forest (gallery and hill forest). It may be sensitive to habitat disturbance as it is rarely found close to areas inhabited by people. Animals have been collected in a tree hollow.
136660		population	eng	It is considered to be difficult to trap and is not known from many specimens.
136660		threats	eng	There are possibly no major threats to this species, as it has a wide range in an area with a low human population density.
136662		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Fandriana Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136662		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Fandriana region, between the Mangoro/Onive and Namorona Rivers in central-eastern Madagascar. The southern and northern extents of the range are unknown (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006)
136662		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.
136662		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136662		threats	eng	Unknown, but presumably at risk from habitat loss and hunting.
136663		conservation	eng	There is no information on the conservation status of this species.
136663		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Rio Maranon, Pongo de Rentema in Peru. Its range extends into eastern Ecuador, southern Columbia, southern Venezuela and south of the Amazon, in the Amazonas and Para regions of northern Brazil.
136663		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species occurs in lowland evergreen tropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It can exist in altered areas close to natural forest. It scatters and hoards the fruits and nuts it consumes. Captive studies suggest the species could be monogamous (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Gestation is 99 days after which a litter, usually of two, is produced (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).
136663		population	eng	There is no information on population numbers for this species.
136663		threats	eng	The major threats to this species have not been confirmed but <span style="font-style: italic;">M. acouchy</span> is over-hunted within its range. Also, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. acouchy</span> is kept as a pet in some indigenous populations in Brazil, this is probably the case for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. pratti</span> too.
136664		conservation	eng	There are some protected areas within its range.
136664		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hokkaido and Honshu (but not Chugoku District), Shikoku (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and Rebun and Rishiri in Japan, and Iturup and Kunashir in the Kuril Islands of Russia. It has been recorded between 700 and 1,700 m asl.
136664		habitat	eng	They roost in tree holes in large trees in forests during the day and forage at night. They also roost in caves and houses.
136664		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
136664		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
136665		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas.
136665		distribution	eng	North Central Argentina (Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe Provinces to the Pampas and Buenos Aires Provinces at South).
136665		habitat	eng	Grasslands and Espinal (thorn bushes in dry lowlands). It is a carrier of a try of portavirus (Teta, P., comm. Pers.)
136665		population	eng	There are good population studies, indicating that is a common species.
136665		threats	eng	Agricultural and cattle farming activates are threats to populations across much of the species range, in fact it has been extirpated from the type locality.
136666		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Arizona in the United States.
136666		distribution	eng	This species is known from Arizona, United States to central Sonora, Mexico (McAliley <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136666		habitat	eng	Typical habitat is desert shrub, including plant communities dominated by mesquite, agave, cholla, and oakbrush (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).
136666		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is probably common in the proper desert habitats (Robert Timm and John Matson pers. comm.).
136666		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
136667		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Rio Biseo National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136667		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity, in upper montane forest, north central Peru; it has an altitudinal range of 3250 to 3380 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136667		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It co-occurs with <em>Thomasomys apeco</em> (Gardner and Romo, 1993). This is terrestrial and was trapped in montane forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136667		population	eng	This species is apparently rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136667		threats	eng	No major threats currently exist (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).
136668		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Field surveys are needed to find this species. Although the area has not been well-sampled, there have been a few visits to the area with no reports of this species.
136668		distribution	eng	Known only from a single specimen (an adult male) collected in 1928 by Ernst Mayr in the Wondiwoi Peninsula of Papua (Indonesia). Elevation of specimen: 1,600 m asl.
136668		habitat	eng	It inhabits mossy montane forest.
136668		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown.
136668		threats	eng	Presumably hunting is the main threat.
136669		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further studies on the taxonomy, ecology and threats to this species are needed.
136669		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from mountains in the north-west of Mozambique close to Lake Malawi, and from Chikwawa in Malawi.
136669		habitat	eng	Presumably occurs in either tropical montane or lowland forest. Also known to occur in secondary vegetation associated with tea plantations. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.
136669		population	eng	No information is available. This species was identified on the basis of six specimens, and it may be synonymous with <em>Galagoides granti</em>.
136669		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to this species, but almost certainly habitat loss due to deforestation (for crops and logging) and expanding human settlement is likely to be a threat.
136670		conservation	eng	It is included in two protected areas, including Torres del Paine National Park.
136670		distribution	eng	It was found in two localities in southernmost Chile, Punta Arenas and Torres del Paine National Park.
136670		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Magallanic steppe shrublands/grasslands.
136670		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136670		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136671		conservation	eng	Reduce habitat loss. Further studies of basic ecology and threats are required.
136671		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Oaxaca and Veracruz (Mexico) to Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, and French Guiana (Simmons, 2005). Also occurs in northern and western Brazil (Tavares pers. comm.). Occurs up to 1,000 m elevation (Molinari pers. comm.) in the Andes. From Mexico to Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela and the Guianas and Amazonian Brazil (Last record - Tavares pers com). There is a record from Chiapas, Mexico (Reid pers. comm.).
136671		habitat	eng	This bat is found in semi-deciduous and evergreen forest. Its roosts in tents made from philodendron and other heart-shaped leaves; basal nerves and midrib are chewed near the leaf stem, causing the sides and tip of the leaf to fold down. Tents are occupied by 1 to 5 individuals. This species has the greatest activity during the first 2 hours after sunset. Figs and other small fruits are eaten. Reproduction may occur twice annually, with young born late in the dry season and in the middle of the wet season (Kunz <em>et al.</em>, 1994; Reid, 1997). Found in a variety of habitat types. Roosts in tents (Timm, 1984; Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994) It is a frugivore. As with other members of the genus, ecology is not well known.
136671		population	eng	This species is uncommon but widespread (Reid, 1997) in Mesoamerica, but is common throughout its range in South America. Can be locally common (Tavares pers. comm.).
136671		threats	eng	None known - adaptable to human land-use. Habitat loss in some parts of the range.
136672		conservation	eng	This rodent can be found within Iporanga State Park (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136672		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Brazil, São Paulo State, Iporanga (Petar) State Park (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136672		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical moist forest areas.
136672		population	eng	This rodent is known only from the type locality; it was described in 1998 (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136672		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
136673		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Manusela National Park. Further studies are needed into the habitat requirements of this species, especially whether it can persist in modified habitats.
136673		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the southern coast of Seram island, Indonesia, where it was found at Teloeti Bay (Musser and Carleton 2005; Helgen 2003). It has been collected at close to sea level.
136673		habitat	eng	Although the habitat and ecology of the species is poorly known, it appears to be related to <em>Melomy leucogaster</em>, and may be similarly adaptable in lowland tropical forest habitats (Helgen 2003). It is assumed to be highly aroboreal species (Helgen 2003). It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
136673		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens collected in 1920 (Helgen 2003).
136673		threats	eng	It is a lowland species that is believed to be threatened by commercial logging, and presumably also threatened through competition with introduced rodents.
136674		conservation	eng	It has not been found in any protected area.
136674		distribution	eng	It is found in Northwest Argentina in the Tucuman province.
136674		habitat	eng	It is exclusively found in high mountain forest of Yungas (transition between foggy grassland and Aliso forest)
136674		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136674		threats	eng	Overgrazing and conversion of habitat to agricultural activities.
136675		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from near Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha and the managed forest of Kirindy CFPF (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005), but evidence is lacking that it actually roosts or feeds in these forests.
136675		distribution	eng	There is specimen evidence of this species from two localities: near Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in the west and Sarodrano in the south (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Photographs and forearm measurements of an individual from Kirindy (CFPF) forest in the west represents the third known locality for this species (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136675		habitat	eng	This species is not considered to be a strict forest-dwelling species or known to be synanthropic (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is no information on roosting or foraging habitats, but it appears to be associated with dry deciduous forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136675		population	eng	There are no data on the population of this species and all existing information is based on two specimens that were collected in 1868 and 2003 (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; and see Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136675		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
136676		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, habitat and ecology and threats to this species.
136676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south central Bolivia between 900 and 2100 m asl, and is assumed to extend into parts of northern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). The species has not been found in Argentina.
136676		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements are not well-known in Bolivia, although it has been recorded from humid forest, chaco and a dry inter-Andean valley. It is not known if it occurs in modified areas.
136676		population	eng	The population abundance is not known. It is known only from six localities and ten specimens in Bolivia.
136676		threats	eng	The threats to this species are incompletely known, however, the habitats that it has been recorded from are highly-impacted by human activities (e.g. agriculture).
136677		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). May also be the species present in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136677		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Beza-Mahafaly region in south-western Madagascar, where thought to occur south of the Onilahy River and west of the Linta and Menarandra Rivers. The northern extent of the range is unknown. Formerly, the sportive lemurs from the Beza-Mahafaly region were thought to be <em>L. leucopus</em>, and it remains unclear how the distributions of these two species relate to each other.
136677		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of spiny forest and dry forest.
136677		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136677		threats	eng	Unknown.
136678		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. There is a need to determine if the species is still present at Grotte du Viaduc à Loudima, and to locate additional populations through directed surveys.
136678		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from type locality of 'Grotte du Viaduc à Loudima, Republic of Congo (04º15'S, 13º00'E) (Happold 2005). Despite extensive surveys of other seemingly suitable localities, it has not been recorded from additional caves in the Loudima-Kimongo region, or from caves in the Mayombe and lower Kouilou regions of Congo, the Haut-Ivindo region of Gabon, or Kikwit in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Happold 2005).
136678		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected from a cave close to the valley of the Loudima River, and may hunt over water (Adam and Le Pont 1974; Happold 2005). The vegetation zone surrounding the cave is classified as a mosaic of Guinea-Congolian rainforest and grassland by White (1983), this was found to be in a degraded condition by Aellen and Brosset (1968) with primary forest partially replaced by patches of savanna (Happold 2005).
136678		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype collected by Jean-Paul Adam sometime between 1961 and 1968, from a small number of this species present in the cave (Happold 2005).
136678		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
136679		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Araguaia National Park (Bonvincino <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
136679		distribution	eng	This species is known from Goias, Mato Grosso and Tocantins States, central Brazil (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2003).
136679		habitat	eng	This species is found on the borders of gallery forest, Cerrado (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2003). Fagundes <em>et al.</em> (2000) found the species in transitional areas between Amazonian rain forest and Cerrado. No information available on the reproductive activity (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136679		population	eng	No information is available on this species, although other species in the genus are common (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2003). Although the species has been collected only from three localities, this is due to limited sampling (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136679		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is occurring throughout its range (except in protected areas) (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).
136680		conservation	eng	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the species' protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Conservation recommendations include further research on distribution, population status and trends, ecology, habitat requirements, and threats. Measures to increase public awareness of this little-known species are also recommended.
136680		distribution	eng	This species was recently described and is poorly known (von Helversen <em>et al.</em> 2001), but current information suggests that it is endemic to central and southern Europe. It is known from Spain, France, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece (Ruedi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Benda <em>et al.</em> 2003, Agirre-Mendi <em>et al.</em> 2004, von Helversen 2004, Helversen <em>et al</em>. 2006, P. Benda <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The species is possibly present for most of Serbia and areas of Montenegro (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007).
136680		habitat	eng	According to present scarce knowledge, it is a tree dwelling and forest foraging species. In parts of the range at least it prefers to hunt in small valleys with deciduous trees and flowing water, which is a threatened habitat. The only breeding colony was found in a tree hollow. It may also occur in rural gardens and urban habitats. It probably occurs in underground habitats in winter.
136680		population	eng	Its population size and trend is unknown. To date, c.15 localities are recorded in international publications (von Helversen 2001, Benda <em>et al.</em> 2003, von Helversen 2004). However, new localities continue to be found (EMA Workshop 2006, Mediterranean Mammals Workshop 2007).
136680		threats	eng	Damage to riparian forest is believed be a threat in parts of range (von Helversen <em>et al.</em> 2001). Wider forest and roost tree loss (especially in wet old growth forests) may also be threats.
136680		threats	eng	Damage to riparian forest is believed be a threat in parts of range (von Helversen <i>et al.</i> 2001). Wider forest and roost tree loss (especially in wet old growth forests) may also be threats.
136681		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136681		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the Paraná and San Javier Rivers, Santa Fe Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136681		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136681		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
136681		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136682		conservation	eng	Genetic surveys are required to confirm the species taxonomic status (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
136682		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ubatuba, on the northern coast of Sao Paulo state, Brazil. The type locality is Estaçao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba municipality (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136682		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern forests. The vegetation in area is broadleaf evergreen rainforest and the elevation is close to sea level (Leite, 2003, Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136682		population	eng	This rodent is known from only 3 specimens from 1940's, not re-surveyed in recent history (Leite, 2003).
136682		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136683		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one location in the Cañada de Hermita, Dexcani Alto Jilotepec, Estado de México (México) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002; León-Paniagua <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136683		habitat	eng	This species is only found in cloud forest at elevations above 2,000 m.
136683		population	eng	This species is considered rare throughout its restricted range.
136683		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation within its very restricted range.
136684		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Until now the presence of the species in protected areas is only confirmed in Sahamalaza National Park and Lokobe Strict Reserve (Markolf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Ramaromilanto 2009). Detailed surveys throughout the proposed area of accupancy are clearly indicated to determine the distribution and abundance of this species.
136684		distribution	eng	Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. zaza</span> come from the region of the Ampasindava Peninsula in north-western Madagascar, specifically from Ambato and Pasandava (Kappeler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Surveys and the genetic analysis of further specimens confirmed their presence at Ankiabe and Andranobe near Befotaka, in the Sahamalaza region at Ambendrana and Ankarafa forest and on Nosy Be (C. Schwitzer pers. comm., Markolf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Ramaromilanto 2009). The area of occurrence of the species is suggested to be limited by the Maeverano River in the south and the Mahavavy River in the north (Markolf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Surveys in the province Mahajanga failed to confirm the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mirza</span> (Randrianambinina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Olivieri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Markolf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2008) could confirm with genetics that individuals from Tsingy de Namoroka National Park are <span style="font-style: italic;">Mirza coquereli.</span>
136684		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry forests and the transition area to the more humid Sambirano area; also recorded from secondary forest. In contrast to the solitary <span style="font-style: italic;">Mirza coquereli</span>, the gregarious <span style="font-style: italic;">M. zaza</span> sleeps in groups of 2 to 8 animals including several males with fully developed testes (Kappeler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Rode 2010). Only 1–3 nests were used in a 50-day observation period, which indicates a high preference for and/or a scarcity of nest sites (Rode 2010). Tall trees with many lianas were preferred as nest sites, but microhabitat used during nightly activity consisted of tall trees and showed high forest density compared to random microhabitat (Rode 2010). Individual home ranges were estimated to range from 0.5 to 2.2 ha, while group home ranges were between 1 ha and 2.4 (MCP method) (Rode 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. zaza</span> is suggested to be the primate with the largest relative testis size (Rode 2010) and seems to be highly promiscuous (Kappeler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Rode 2010). Reproduction evidently takes place throughout the year as opposed to a strict mating season in <span style="font-style: italic;">M. coquereli</span> (Stanger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Rode 2010). Feeding on the sugary secretions of the larvae of homopteran Flatidae in the dry season may enable the species to reproduce aseasonally (Rode 2010).
136684		population	eng	Andrianarivo (1981) and Kappeler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) both recorded high population densities for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. zaza</span>. Their estimates of 385 individuals/km² and 1,086 individuals/km² are several times higher than those obtained for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. coquereli</span> in the Kirindy Forest. The concentration of animals in more isolated forest fragments and the presence of mango, cashew, and other introduced food tree species in the Ambato region may help explain the higher densities, but further research is needed (Mittermeier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Using data on group home range size and group size, Rode <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) indicated a range of population size from the maximum (occupancy of 80% of total area covered in dry forest approximately 1,650 km²) of 177,500 to a minimum (only fragments ≥1 km² and smaller fragments closer than 500  m to other, larger fragments, that covers 955 km²) of 16,500.
136684		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unclear. It is presumably at risk from forest clearance and slash-and-burn agricultural activities. The dry forests where it lives are one of the fastest declining habitats of the island, with a decrease in forest cover of 40% from 1975 to 2000 (Moat and Smith 2007). They are able to persist in forest fragments, especially where there are introduced tree species to provide a food source.
136685		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is poorly-known and field studies are needed to determine the current status of the population. Work is also needed to determine the taxonomic status of <em>Pteropus rennelli</em>. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected. The species might be found within the East Rennell World Heritage Site.
136685		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the island of Rennell in the Solomon Islands (an area of 683 km<sup>2</sup>).
136685		habitat	eng	The female bears a single young. The lifespan is approximately 8 or 9 years. Because of their size, vocalizations, and mobility, flying foxes are easily detected, and therefore their numbers are often over-estimated.
136685		population	eng	It is known from a very few specimens and some site records.
136685		threats	eng	The western side of the island is heavily disturbed, and densely populated in some areas. This species is likely to be threatened by opportunistic hunting for food. Although not threatened by large-scale agriculture, subsistence agriculture could significantly impact this species, due to its highly restricted distribution. Cyclones could also be a threat.
136686		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas, including the Shimba Hills N.R. and Arubuko-Sokoke Forest. If records from the Usambaras in Tanzania belong to this species, then it probably also occurs in several nature reserves, such as Amani N.R. There is a clear need for improved protection of these reserves. Further survey work is needed to confirm the species identification of records of this species from the Usambaras.
136686		distribution	eng	Restricted to the coastal forests of Kenya and Tanzania. In Kenya, the majority of confirmed records are from Gedi, south of Malindi in Kenya, but other specimens have been collected in Diani Beach, Shimba Hills N.R., Tiwi, Kwale, Mazeras, and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest; reports of this species from coastal parts of northern Kenya have been reported, including close to the Somali border (Taylor in press). In Tanzania, there are records from the East and West Usambaras, and another unsubstantiated record from the Ulugurus, but these require confirmation since they could very well be the result of confusion with Bushy-tailed Mongoose <em>B. crassicauda</em> (Taylor in press).
136686		habitat	eng	Found predominantly through forested habitats on the coast. Has been observed foraging on roads at night after insects, when individuals may sometimes be injured or killed by vehicles (Taylor in press).
136686		population	eng	This mongoose is only locally common, but likely declining.
136686		threats	eng	The population in the Arubuko-Sokoke Forest is under threat from habitat loss due to illegal logging and the Shimba Hills population is potentially under threat from afforestation with non-native pine species together with management for Sable Antelope <em>Hippotragus niger</em> (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989, Engel and Van Rompaey 1995).
136687		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Argentinian Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).
136687		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Córdoba Province, central Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
136687		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to natural grasslands over sand dunes, which are considered as vulnerable habitats. Bidau and Lessa suggest that the species does not occur within grasslands and is restricted mostly to sand dunes (Bidau 2006).
136687		population	eng	Average density of this species is approximately 16 individuals/ha. This species breeds all year round, with mean litter size being 2.9 (Zenuto and Busch 1998). Populations are fragmented (Bidau 2006).
136687		threats	eng	This species is restricted to natural grasslands over sand dunes, which are considered as vulnerable habitats. Therefore, this species warrants special conservation status (Zenuto and Busch 1998).
136688		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in the western side of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Tamaulipas, Mexico.
136688		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Tamaulipas, and only from the west side because it is a dry area (Carraway and Timm, 2000). It may occur more widely than is currently known (Carraway, 2007).
136688		habitat	eng	it has been found in pine-oak forest, tropical forest and riparian forest (Carraway, 2007).
136688		population	eng	It is currently known only from three locations in two isolated mountain valleys. There is no further information on population status.
136688		threats	eng	Overgrazing and agricultural activities threaten the habitat of this species.
136689		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas within its range (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136689		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeast and central Brazil, from Piaui and Ceara southwest through Goias and Minas Gerais States (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136689		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in open vegetation in cerrado and caatinga formations (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136689		population	eng	The species is easy to collect and common (Bonvicino pers. comm.). Its populations can increase rapidly after disturbance to levels where it becomes an agricultural pest (Viera, 1999).
136689		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is occurring but it is not a major threat to this species (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136690		conservation	eng	Not known. Reaserch actions.
136690		distribution	eng	Southern Argentina, Chile (Simmons 2005).
136690		habitat	eng	It is solitary and insectivore, as others .
136690		population	eng	Nothing is known about population.
136690		threats	eng	Not known.
136691		conservation	eng	It is present in a number of protected areas.
136691		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the montane forests of Sumatra, Indonesia, and Peninsular Malaysia usually above 1,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136691		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial and possibly arboreal, omnivorous species which occurs in primary and degraded tropical moist forest.
136691		population	eng	There is little information available for this species, but presumably it is abundant in suitable habitat.
136691		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.
136692		conservation	eng	Extinct.
136692		distribution	eng	This species is known from late Quaternary fossils, with the type locality given as: Brazil, Territorio de Fernando de Noronha, Ilha Fernando de Noronha, beach dunes (late Quaternary) near Ponta de Santo Antonio (Carleton and Olson, 1999). There is historical archival information from Amerigo Vespucci's 1503 voyage to the New World that this species existed on Fernando de Noronha at that time. The species was likely extirpated soon thereafter (Carleton and Olson, 1999).
136692		habitat	eng	Unknown. Maybe beach dunes and associated habitats.
136692		population	eng	Extinct.
136692		threats	eng	Extinct.
136693		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Taim Federal Reserve (Gonzales <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
136693		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Uruguay and extreme southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul state) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Species range may extend northward to the southern portion of the Atlantic Forest (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1998).
136693		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dense subtropical gallery forests (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Taim, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, species were found in abundance in swamp forest habitats, and some specimens were captured in grasslands (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1998). Breeding season is thought to occur from spring into autumn (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1998).
136693		population	eng	This species is collected less frequently than others and has a patchy distribution (A. Langguth pers. comm.).
136693		threats	eng	There are no threats affecting the species; its habitat is not being reduced (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Some populations may be affected by clear cutting in the future.
136694		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136694		distribution	eng	Southeast Jujuy Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).
136694		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136694		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size of this species.
136694		threats	eng	There is no information available on any threats to this species.
136695		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. The control of introduced predators is needed. It is listed as Endangered (En) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
136695		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tokunoshima Island, in the Ryukyu Islands, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. It is restricted to the northern and central parts of the island in the vicinity of Mount Amagi and Mount Inokawa (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136695		habitat	eng	The species prefers secondary broad-leaved forests, although it can also be found in intact forests (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Tokudaia osimensis</em>). It has not been observed in plantations.
136695		population	eng	The population has been shown to decline with reductions of chinquapin seedlings following some typhoons (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Tokudaia osimensis</em>).
136695		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has severely decreased the available forest habitat on the island (Japan RDB, 2002). Feral cats and dog are present on the island and are known to predate this species (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136696		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to survey known localities including the Foja and Prince Alexander ranges for this species and to protect any remaining populations through the development of protected areas, hunting regulations, and local awareness programmes.
136696		distribution	eng	This species is now known only for certain from the Torricelli range of Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea. There are fossil records from Vogelkop and other places. It is suspected to occur in the Foja range (there is a sight record) and the Prince Alexander range of Papua New Guinea. It has been extirpated from 99% of its historic range. It has been recorded at between 680 and 1,100 m asl.
136696		habitat	eng	It is a montane tropical forest species.
136696		population	eng	Jim Thomas (pers. comm.) reports 12 animals killed on Mt. Sapa or close to it in 2004. These records were from the villages of Nunsi (4 animals) and Sibilanga (8 animals). Although there have been more recent surveys in the Torricelli area they have not been undertaken at the known sites. Remaining numbers are likely to very low.
136696		threats	eng	The species is highly threatened by hunting for food by local people, and additionally by habitat loss through conversion of forest to cultivated land. The lowland areas are earmarked for deforestation and oil palm expansion.
136697		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites and foraging wetlands. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution, as well as abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136697		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Australia where it is present in along to coast from Victoria to south-east Queensland, and near Nildottie on the River Murray in South Australia (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is found in the Kimberley of Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Populations previously identified as <em>Myotis moluccarum</em> (or called <em>M. adversus</em>) in Australia, and at least one of the records from New Guinea, have been shown to be <em>M. macropus</em> (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2001). Given the disjunct range with <em>M. moluccarum</em> on islands west of New Guinea, it is possible that the Myotis populations in eastern New Guinea, and eastwards in the Melanesian islands may also all be <em>M. macropus</em> (or one or more other species). This species is known from sea level to 840 m, but most records below 300 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
136697		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with wetland habitat ranging from estuaries to forest streams, large lakes, and reservoirs (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008). It roosts in caves, tunnels and mines, tree hollows, under bridges and in similar habitats (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136697		population	eng	It is a common species within its limited habitat (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136697		threats	eng	Although the current threats to this species are not known it is presumably susceptible to changes in water quality caused by sedimentation, chemical pollutants, and altered flow regimes. Roosting colonies may be threatened by disturbance.
136698		conservation	eng	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.
136698		distribution	eng	This species is known in Mexico from high elevations in the states of Federal District, México, Michoacán, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz (Carraway, 2007).
136698		habitat	eng	It can be found only at high elevations, in montane valleys bordering pine forests and above the treeline in talus slopes (Carraway, 2007). It is tolerant of habitat modification, and has been found in coffee plantations (Sergio Ticul Alvarez pers. comm.).
136698		population	eng	It is not an uncommon species (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).
136698		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136699		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
136699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it occurs from the Star Mountains (Indonesia) in the west through the Central Cordillera to between Wau and the Kratke Mountains in the east (Papua New Guinea). It is also found in the Huon Peninsula and northern coast ranges of Papua New Guinea.
136699		habitat	eng	It is found in primary and secondary forest. It is the most sexually dimorphic arboreal marsupial in New Guinea. It is highly fecund.
136699		population	eng	Flannery (1995) considered it to be abundant in the Telefomin area.
136699		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food by local people.
136700		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species and to better understand its limits of distribution.
136700		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the south eastern peninsula of Sulawesi, where it has been recorded at two localities: the type locality, Tanke Salokko at 1,500 m (03°35'S, 121°15'E), and lowlands around Mowewe at 300 m (03°57'S, 121°43'E) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is quite likely to occur in areas between these two localities, and perhaps further to the north.
136700		habitat	eng	The two specimens from Tanke Salokko were collected from montane forest. It is not known whether it could occur in modified habitats, but it seems reasonable to expect that it may be found in plantations adjacent to intact forest.
136700		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens, and was last collected in 1932 from Tanke Salokko. There is no recent information on population status.
136700		threats	eng	It may be threatened by ongoing loss of habitat, although forest loss in this part of Sulawesi appears to be less severe than elsewhere.
136701		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, habitat status, and threats to this species.
136701		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two mid-montane localities in Papua New Guinea. It ranges in elevation from 2,300 to 2,400 m asl.
136701		habitat	eng	Found in mid-montane moist tropical forest.
136701		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
136701		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat degradation is a major threat to this species. Habitat at the only known localities for it could be ruined in the near future by nearby human populations (habitat on Mount Kandy has been destroyed by gold miners and wood cutters).
136702		conservation	eng	This porcupine occurs in several protected areas. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136702		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andes Ecuador (Voss, 2003; D. Tirira pers. comm.) and northeast Colombia, from San Vicente de Chucuri, Cordillera Oriental (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 1999).
136702		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus: nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary, feeding on fruits and seeds (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136702		population	eng	It is uncommon to rare (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136702		threats	eng	The major threats are deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and agriculture (D. Tirira and C. Boada pers. comm.).
136703		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
136703		distribution	eng	This little-known species has only been recorded from southeastern Kenya at two localities, near the type locality of Voi and at the second locality of Maktau.
136703		habitat	eng	This species appears to be associated with dry sandy plains with some thorn scrub. No further details on the natural history of this species are available.
136703		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens.
136703		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136704		conservation	eng	This species occurs in privately owned protected area: Reserva Natural Salto Morato, Paraná.
136704		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the states of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro in the southeast to Rio Grande do Sul in the south, Brazil (Leite, 2003). The type locality is Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana state, south Brazil (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136704		habitat	eng	This rodent is found mainly along coast in areas of broadleaf evergreen forest, but extends to west into <em>Araucaria</em> forests in the state of Parana. Northern range records are from above 1,000 m elevation, southern records are from lower elevations suggesting preference for cooler climates (Leite, 2003, Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136704		population	eng	This species is known from 15 specimens; it is known from wide range and may be locally common (Leite, 2003).
136704		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136705		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas.
136705		distribution	eng	This species has a geographically discrete distribution, with all known individuals from the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. It is known from only three islands: Guahiba, São Lourenço, and Taquara (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136705		habitat	eng	Unknown. Presumed to occur in subtropical forests.
136705		population	eng	Poorly known, there are only three known localities.
136705		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a threat but the impact on the species is unknown. The area where the species occurs is highly altered and only few remnants of forest remain.
136706		conservation	eng	Avoid habitat loss. Found in protected areas (Davalos pers. comm.).
136706		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Costa Rica south to west Ecuador (Albuja and Gardner, 2005). Record from Peru is erroneous (Davalos and Velazco pers. comm.). Occurs from 0-1,000 m (Muñoz pers. comm.) in Colombia.
136706		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Associated with forests, and has been captured in both disturbed and primary forests and along roads. Tolerant of land use change.
136706		population	eng	It is rare in Panama, known from few records, mainly in eastern Panama (Reid, 1997). Rare in Costa Rica (Pineda and Bernal Rodriguez pers. comm.)
136706		threats	eng	No known threats at present.
136707		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve and Mananara-Nord National Park. Based on its presumed distribution as understood here, it also would be the species in Marojejy and Masoala National Parks and Ambatovaky and Maratondrano Special Reserves. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136707		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Anjanaharibé-Sud region, north of the Antainambalana River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Additional work is needed to determine the limits between this species and <em>Lepilemur mustelinus</em> to the south. Louis <em>et al</em>. (2006) assigned the <em>Lepilemur</em> from Mananara-Nord (south of the Antainambalana River) to this species, even though the available molecular data suggest that this population will be described as a separate species in the future (Louis <em>et al</em>. 2006). The identity of populations on the Masaola Peninsula also requires investigation; these are provisionally here included in <em>L. seali</em>.
136707		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.
136707		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136707		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat loss and hunting are presumably threats.
136708		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.
136708		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mazama nemorivaga</span> occurs in Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Isla San José (Panamá), Ecuador, Peru, and probably in Bolivia. In Brazil, this species occupies the Amazon forest and transitional areas in its border, where it may be in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. gouazoubira</span> as reported by Rossi (2000) for the states of Mato Grosso and Maranhão. It is probably present everywhere in the territory of French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana, but in Venezuela it has a disjunct distribution that includes the evergreen and semidecidual forests south of Río Orinoco in the states of Amazonas and Bolívar, plus the decidual forests and xeric shrublands of the coastal region in the states of Aragua, Carabobo, Falcón, Lara, and Zulia (Bisbal 1991). In Colombia, Alberico <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported the occurrence of the Amazonian brown brocket deer in the Amazon and Caribbean regions in the states of Amazonas, Caquetá, Bolívar, Cesar, and Cundinamarca, from 0 to 500 meters high. Additional information gathered from the literature points the presence of this species also in the states of Antioquia, La Guajira, Magdalena, and Meta (Allen 1904; Barriga-Bonilla 1966; Lydekker 1915; Medellín <em>et al</em>. 1998; Osgood 1912). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nemorivaga</span> does not reach Central America except for the Isla San José in the Archipiélago de las Perlas, Golfo de Panamá, Panamá (Kellogg 1946; Medellín <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Ecuador, it can be found in the entire Amazon region (Tirira 2001). There is no published data regarding the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nemorivaga</span> in Peru, but according to J. Barrio (pers. comm.) this species occurs all over the Amazon region (except for some flooded areas), and reaches sites up to 1500 meters high (J. Barrio pers. comm.). It probably occurs in northern Bolivia, although Anderson (1997) had only reported the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. g. gouazoubira</span> in this part of the country.
136708		habitat	eng	Most of the localities with records of M. nemorivaga are inside the tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests biome of Olson <em>et al.</em> (2001), and are related to the Amazon region. From a total of 114 records, 10 are inside the tropical and subtropical broadleaf dry forest biome, and 7 are inside the desert and xeric scrubland biome. The majority of the localities associated with dry or xeric habitats are those referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. gouzoubira</span> cita by Bisbal (1991). The taxonomic status of Mazama cita Osgood, 1912 still needs to be thoroughly evaluated.<br/><br/>According to the absence or presence of flooding, the Amazonian rain forests are broadly classified into respectively non-flooded (tierra/terra firme) and seasonally flooded (várzea) forests. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mazama nemorivaga</span> inhabits the non-flooded forests and is rare or absent in the seasonally flooded forests. For example, it does not occur in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru, which covers an area of over 2 million hectares of seasonally flooded várzea forests. However, it is found in the adjacent inter-fluvial upland forests of the Yavari valley (Bodmer 2003).<br/><br/>Reproduction biology of the Amazonian brown brocket deer has been studied by Hurtado-Gonzales (2000) in the northeast Peruvian Amazon. Breeding appeared to be year round, and occurred from January to March, July to October, and December. Births occurred in January, March, April, and from July through October. No twinning was observed and the pregnancy rate was 0.50 pregnant females/total numbers of females. Most of the pregnant females were adults between 1 and 2 years old. In northeast Bolívar, Venezuela, Bisbal (1994) found pregnant females in December, January, and April. Births occurred in July, August, and November, apparently associated with the rainy season.
136708		population	eng	Through the studies of Bodmer (1994), Bodmer <em>et al.</em> (1997) and Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer (2004) we have known of Mazama nemorivaga populations that inhabit the margins of Yavari Miri and Tahuayo rivers, northeastern Peru. Apparently, these populations are not isolated from each other, as stated by Novaro <em>et al.</em> (2000).<br/>In this region, the Amazonian brown brocket has considerably lower population densities than the red brocket. The density of the former is around 0.43-0.55 individuals per km² and its biomass estimates range from 6.5-8.2 kg/km². In contrast, red brocket deer usually have densities around 1.0 individuals per km² and a biomass of around 33 kg/km² (Salovaara <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Populations of Amazonian brown brocket were also reported in Suriname (Branan <em>et al</em>. 1985); in  the Reserva Florestal Imataca, northeast of the state of Bolívar, Venezuela (Bisbal 1994); and in  French Guiana (Gayot <em>et al</em>. 2004). Other populations of this deer are certainly present in many reserves or even private areas with well preserved forests. But the extant to which they are isolated from each other is unknown, due to the lack of knowledge on how this species responds to altered and fragmented habitats.
136708		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is certainly the main type of threat to this species, at least in Brazil where the deforestation in Amazonia started by the early decade of 1970 and reached 16.2% (forest loss) of the original forest in 2003 (Fearnside 2005). This threat is particularly strong across the “deforestation arch” in the southern Brazilian Amazon, a region that extends from the state of Acre eastward to the southern states of Pará and Maranhão.<br/><br/>Although the Amazon forest has been destroyed for many reasons, the main cause of deforestation is cattle raising, responsible for 70% of forest loss in the Brazilian Amazon (Fearnside 2005). Besides the destruction of forest, the cattle itself may negatively affect deer populations through a variety of parasitic, bacterial or viral diseases that can contaminate them. Indeed, Pinder and Leeuwenberg (1997) mentioned that there are reports of high mortality rates of deer previously in contact with ill cattle in the Brazilian Pantanal region and the states of Maranhão and Minas Gerais. The extent to which the cattle affect populations of <em>M. nemorivaga</em> is unknown.<br/><br/>Fortunately, overhunting appears not to be a threat to <em>Mazama nemorivaga</em>. This species is usually less abundant than the sympatric red brocket deer (M. americana), but also has lower hunting pressure. Branan <em>et al.</em> (1985) reported the harvest of 5 individuals of the former species against 57 individuals of the latter by Surinamese hunters in 1980 and 1981. Similarly, Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer (2004) found a rate of 0.06 individuals hunted/km² for <em>M. nemorivaga</em> in contrast to 0.17 individuals hunted/km² for <em>M. americana</em> in a heavy hunted site in northeastern Peru. In addition to the low hunting pressure, most studies on the sustainability of hunting by Peruvian rural and indigenous people reported that the harvest of <em>Mazama nemorivaga</em> is within sustainable limits (Ascorra 1997; Bodmer 1995; Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 1997; Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer 2004; Mena <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are two likely reasons for that. First, brockets (including <em>M. americana</em> and <em>M. nemorivaga</em>) can be categorized as less vulnerable to overhunting because of their fast rates of reproduction and intrinsic rates of population increase, allied to the ability of dispersal and difficulty of capture (see Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 1997, and Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer 2004). Second, slightly or unhunted areas adjacent to persistently hunted ones may have been acting as sources of game, as claimed by Novaro <em>et al</em>. (2000). According to them, 47 to 87% of unhunted area close to the catchment site is required to prevent a population decline of Amazonian brown brocket in the Peruvian Amazon.
136709		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in Lokobe National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136709		distribution	eng	Confined to the Lokobe region on the island of Nosy Bé, where currently known only from the type locality of Lokobe National Park (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Zinner <em>et al</em>. (2007) found that some specimens from the mainland were identical in mtDNA to the type of <em>tymerlachsonorum</em>. This may or may not be the species that formerly occurred on the island of Nosy Komba as well, but in any case sportive lemurs have not been observed there in recent years (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136709		habitat	eng	Recorded from humid forest habitats on the island of Nosy Be.
136709		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of Lepilemur described in 2006.
136709		threats	eng	Unknown. The type locality is currently a protected area.
136710		conservation	eng	None.
136710		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the very small area of Los Reyes in northwest Michoacán, México (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
136710		habitat	eng	This species is found in pine-oak forests (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).
136710		population	eng	Within its very restricted range, it is common (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).
136710		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat transformation for cattle ranching.
136711		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136711		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Gunung Rorekatimbo (01°16'S, 120°15'E) at 2,230 m asl, in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. It might occur more widely on the island.
136711		habitat	eng	It is found in mossy montane forests on Gunung Rorekatimbo. It likely occurs in similar habitat more widely, but it has not been found at lower elevations nearby, from 1,000 to 1,500 m asl (L. Ruedas pers. comm.), so it may be restricted to higher elevations. This species is a member of the moss forest guild of small mammals described by Musser (1987). There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.
136711		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136711		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136712		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. Considered "secure" (S5) in British Columbia, but "critically imperiled" (S1) in Alberta. Not ranked at the species level in Alaska or in other Canadian provinces/territories. One subspecies of concern in North America: L. s. nigripes (S3 in Alaska).
136712		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in northern North America from Alaska east to Baffin Island and south (in the west) to central British Columbia and (further east) to northern Manitoba. In Old World distributed in tundra to Kolyma in the west (Russian Federation).  Several specimens found outside tundra, in middle Anadyr and Paren' Rivers, and lower Penzhina and Gizhiga Rivers.
136712		habitat	eng	Inhabit either arctic tundra or subarctic alpine tundra above tree line. Feeds on lings, cotton grass, some cereals and green mosses (Pleurosium, Polythrichum).
136712		population	eng	Populations highly variable, cycling on a 3-4 year basis. Populations lows may drop to <1/ha and peak densities may reach 150-200/ha.
136712		threats	eng	No major threats.
136713		conservation	eng	This species has recently been given species status and requires additional research in the areas of survey studies and life history (Friedmann and Daly 2004).
136713		distribution	eng	<em>Pronolagus saundersiae</em> is endemic to Africa (Happold in press).  It is a widely distributed species that occurs in the southern and eastern regions of South Africa (including portions of Western Cape, Free State, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo Province, and Mpumalanga), as well as Lesotho and western expanses of Swaziland (Friedmann and Daly 2004).
136713		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences for <em>Pronolagus saundersiae</em> are considered similar to those of other <em>Pronolagus</em> species (Happold in press).  It prefers rocky hillsides and outcroppings, and "rock crevices and boulders are an essential component of the habitat" (Happold in press).  Habitat loss has been occurring over the last 100 years and is anticipated to continue to decline in total area by <20% over the next 20 years due to commercial plantations (Friedmann and Daly 2004).  <br/><br/>Total length ranges from 38.0-53.5 cm (Happold in press).
136713		population	eng	Populations are considered fairly abundant throughout its distribution (Happold in press).  Population for <em>Pronolagus saundersiae</em> has been estimated at >10,000 mature individuals (Friedmann and Daly 2004).  The population is characterized as having declined in the past, and is predicted to continue declining in the future at a rate of <10% over the next 20 years (Friedmann and Daly 2004).
136713		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species; however, loss of habitat has been occurring.
136714		conservation	eng	It does not occur in protected areas.
136714		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens collected from the type locality at 26 km SW of Quimilo, Dept de Chamical, La Rioja, Argentina (30°43'S, 65°31'W), (581 m asl).
136714		habitat	eng	The habitat consists of perisaline shrublands associated with the Salinas Grandes along the edges of thorn scrub islands that rise within the salt flat and provide dense thorn scrub on sandy substrate. It is restricted to a narrow band of halophytic plant habitat that lies between the bare salt flat and the dense thorn scrub habitat of cacti, trees and shrubs that is typical of the Gran Chaco. It specializes in feeding on halophite plants (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
136714		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. Several field trips have gone to the type locality since the species description but have failed to capture or register any individuals.
136714		threats	eng	This species is found in an area less than 10 km², all individuals are in a single location, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat.
136715		conservation	eng	It is present in Karakelang Utara dan Selatan Wildlife Reserve. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
136715		distribution	eng	This species is found on Karakelang and Salebabu in the Talaud Islands, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136715		habitat	eng	This species is sympatric with <em>Melomys talaudium</em>. It is thought, due to tail size, that <em>Melomys talaudium</em> is arboreal, and <em>M. caurinus</em> is terrestrial, while other similarities point towards a common ancestor between these two species (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005).
136715		population	eng	This species is known only from four specimens (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136715		threats	eng	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to logging. It may also be impacted by competition with introduced murids.
136716		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.  Further research is needed on the range, taxonomy, population, ecology and threats to this species.  In China, it was regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A2cd (Wang and Xie 2004).  In Japan, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Endangered (ME 2007).
136716		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species known from China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. In China, it is known from the provinces of Sichuan, Fujian, Anhui, Guangxi, Guizhou, Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008), and Guangdong.  In Japan, all records until recently have been of vagrants (prefectures of Hokkaido (Yagishiri Island), Saitama, Kanagawa, Mie, Hyogo, Hiroshima, Ehime, Kumamoto, and Fukuoka); however, recently there have been breeding colonies from the outlying prefectures of Kochi, Miyazaki, and Kyoto Prefectures (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136716		habitat	eng	There is very little information known about this species other than its presence in caves (Smith and Xie 2008).
136716		population	eng	This species is characterized as rare in Japan (Funakoshi and Matsumura 1990). Total population size for Japan is unknown, but recently a few breeding colonies have been found.  There are no data regarding the population status for the rest of the species' distribution.
136716		threats	eng	Habitat loss resulting from cave destruction due to tourism projects and stone quarrying is a threat to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).
136717		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Iguazu National Park (Bitteti 2001) <br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Iguaçu National Park (170,036 ha)<br/>Morro do Diabo State Park (34,441 ha) (Coimbra-Filho 1976b)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (13,120 ha)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (35,973 ha)<br/>Caparaó National Park (31,853 ha) (part Espírito Santo)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station / RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (900 ha)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136717		distribution	eng	<em>Cebus nigritus</em> occurs south of the Rio Doce, in the states of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, Brazil, and extending south along the coast through Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. It extends into the northernmost tip of the Argentinean province of Misiones (east of the Rio Paraná).
136717		habitat	eng	Lowland, submontane and montane tropical and subtropical forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil; also in gallery forest and secondary forests.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Izawa 1979; Fernandes 1991). Bittetti (2001) recorded an average home range for 3 groups in the Iguazu National Park, Argentina: 161±77 ha (range 81-293 ha). Mean group size (not including infants) varied over two years from 12.4±7.0 to 16.8±9.5 individuals. Group sizes range from 6 or 7 to 20, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top-ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Freese and Oppenmheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).
136717		population	eng	Bitteti (2001) recorded a populastion density of 16 individuals/km² in the Iguazu National Park, Argentina.
136717		threats	eng	Although quite wide ranging, the species is nonetheless subject to habitat loss and degradation and to hunting across its range. The species is considered a crop pest in some areas (in sugar cane and pine plantations). Otherwise, generally scarce except in the larger protected areas.
136718		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136718		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series (six specimens) collected on Wayland Mountain on the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia). The mapped range is likely larger than the area from which it is actually known. It was collected between 2,000 and 2,600 m asl.
136718		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded only in montane forest.
136718		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is unknown (only known from the type series).
136718		threats	eng	The species has a highly restricted range (consisting of a single location as defined by IUCN). However, it is found in an area that it not threatened by human activities.
136719		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central mountain ranges from Lake Habbema to the Baliem Valley, Papua Province, Indonesia. It possibly has a greater extent of occurrence than is currently recorded. Elevation ranges from 1,600 to 2,200 m asl.
136719		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from disturbed habitats and grasslands.
136719		population	eng	The species is described from a large series of specimens so it is presumably common in places.
136719		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
136720		conservation	eng	The mouflon is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats & Species directive (populations on Corsica and Sardinia only). It is protected under national legislation in Sardinia, Corsica, and Cyprus. The Corsican population is being studied as part of an EU LIFE Project. As part of this project they are looking into increasing the population through captive breeding, and improving genetic vigour by mixing the two subpopulations (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).
136720		distribution	eng	This Red List assessment refers to populations of <em>Ovis aries</em> that were introduced to Mediterranean islands  in prehistoric times, known as mouflon. These feral descendants of primitive domestic stock are clearly distinct from modern domestic and feral sheep, and are of conservation interest as "living fossils" and repositories of important genetic diversity (Shackleton 1997). More recent feral populations, and recently-introduced populations of ancient feral forms, are not considered as part of the population for the purposes of the assessment; neither are domestic <em>Ovis aries</em>.<br/><br/>The mouflon was introduced in prehistoric times to Corsica, Sardinia and Cyprus. Since the middle of the 18th Century it has been introduced to many parts of Europe and populations have become established in many countries including Spain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Denmark, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and the Canary Islands (Röhrs 1999). These introduced mainland populations are patchily rather than continuously distributed. In Corsica it is found from sea-level to above 2,000 m, whereas in Cyprus it is found from sea level to about 500 m.
136720		habitat	eng	In Europe, the species inhabits Mediterranean maquis (shrubland), rocky areas, and open coniferous forest and green oak forest. It is absent from dense woodland (Röhrs 1999). Mouflon are hunted for trophies and meat.
136720		population	eng	On Corsica it is known from two small isolated subpopulations (one in the north near Massif du Cinto and one in the south in the Bavella Reserve). There are only about 500 animals, and the population is probably stable (after a long decrease, during which the total population dropped below 100 individuals) (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). On Sardinia there are at least 5,000 head (C. Murgia pers. comm. to S. Lovari). In the western part of Cyprus, the population is more than 2000 animals and increasing (EMA Workshop 2006).
136720		threats	eng	Hunting is the most important threat, although competition and crossbreeding with domestic sheep are also threats (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, these are not considered to endanger the species at present.
136721		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
136721		distribution	eng	<em>Bos primigenius </em>is Extinct. The aurochs had three subspecies: <em>Bos primigenius primigenius</em> from Europe and the Middle East; <em>B. p. namadicus</em> from India; and <em>B. p. mauretanicus</em> from North Africa. Only the nominate subspecies has survived until recent times. Originally the aurochs occurred from the British Isles and southern Scandinavia, through most of Europe to northern Africa, the Middle East, central Asia and India. By the 13th century A.D., the aurochs' range was restricted to Poland, Lithuania, Moldova, Transylvania and East Prussia (The Extinction Website, 2007). The last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów (Jaktorowka) Forest, Masovia, Poland (Grubb, 2005).<br/><br/>It is distributed worldwide under domestication (as <em>Bos taurus</em>), and feral populations have become established in Australia, New Guinea, the United States, Colombia, Argentina and many islands, including Hawaii, Galápagos, Hispaniola, Tristan da Cunha, New Amsterdam, Juan Fernandez Islands, and the United Kingdom (Chillingham cattle).
136721		distribution	eng	<em>Bos primigenius </em>was Extinct in the Wild, except in Jaktorowka Forest, Masovia, Poland, by the start of the 15th century. The last wild individual is reputed to have died in 1627 (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is distributed worldwide under domestication (as <em>Bos taurus</em>), and feral populations have become established in Australia, New Guinea, USA, Colombia, Argentina and many islands, including Hawaiian, Galapagos, Dominican Republic/Haiti, Tristan da Cunha, New Amsterdam and Juan Fernandez Islands, and the United Kingdom (Chillingham cattle). Its native range encompassed parts of Europe, Africa and the Middle East (Wilson and Reeder 2005).
136721		habitat	eng	Presumably in grasslands.
136721		habitat	eng	There is uncertainty about the habitat preferences of the aurochs. The species appears to have preferred swamps and swamp forests, such as river valleys, river deltas, and bogs, but it probably also lived in drier forests, and perhaps in open parkland (The Extinction Website, 2007). In Europe, there might have been an ecological separation between the preferred habitat of the aurochs and that of the European bison (<em>Bison bonasus</em>), with the aurochs lived in somewhat wetter forests and the European bison in the somewhat drier forests (The Extinction Website, 2007), though the niches of these two species almost certainly overlapped (Van Vuure, 2003).
136721		population	eng	The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted to nobles and gradually to the royal household (The Extinction Website, 2007). As the population of aurochs declined, hunting ceased but the royal court still required gamekeepers to provide open fields for the aurochs to graze in (The Extinction Website, 2007). The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service and a decree made poaching an aurochs punishable by death (The Extinction Website, 2007), but this was not enough to save the species. In 1564, the gamekeepers knew of only 38 animals, according to the royal survey (The Extinction Website, 2007). The last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest, Poland (The Extinction Website, 2007).
136721		threats	eng	In central Poland in the forests of the village of Jaktorów for several centuries the managed of the remaining aurochs was well organised (The Extinction Website, 2007). Initially the animals were owned by nobility, but later they became royal possessions (The Extinction Website, 2007). There they were protected and fed during the winter period (The Extinction Website, 2007). However, the Kings Zygmunt I and his successor Zygmunt August had less interest than their predecessors and did little to preserve the animals, and the conservation measures weakened (The Extinction Website, 2007). After 1572, a period of political turmoil lead to a decrease in influence of the King. By 1604 only a few aurochs remained, and a Royal decree was issued stating that everything needed to be done to protect the aurochs and its habitat, but this was not enough (Van Vuure, 2003). The species disappeared because of hunting and competition on its feeding grounds with domesticated cattle (The Extinction Website, 2007). The last aurochs in Poland disappeared through a combination of lack of interest, corruption, cattle diseases, food competition (from domesticated cattle), and to a lesser extent, hunting (Van Vuure, 2003).
136722		conservation	eng	Of the six known localities, this species has been found in five protected areas.
136722		distribution	eng	So far, <em>Crocidura ramona</em> is known only from Israel (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is found in three regions: Mizpe Ramon and Sede Boqer in the Negev Desert, and Sartaber at the northern edge of the Judean Desert (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is likely that the species occurs more widely in the region than currently known (i.e., in Jordan where similar habitats and <em>Crocidura</em> species have not been well surveyed) (G. Shenbrot pers. comm). The three locations in which the species occur are rocky desert areas at altitudes between 200 and 950 metres above sea level.
136722		habitat	eng	<em>C. ramona</em> is known from the central Negev desert, Israel (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is caught either in or near to dry river beds with <em>Retama</em> and <em>Tamarix</em> vegetation or near to dry river beds with dense <em>Atriplex</em> vegetation. During surveys no other <em>Crocidura</em> species were found to be co-occuring with <em>C. ramona</em>, the only other shrew which it was found together with was <em>Suncus etruscus</em> (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). From 1999 to 2006 no specimens have been found; this is likely to be due to poor precipitation leading perhaps to lower populations and/or making the species more difficult to capture as it enters deeper soil layer (G. Shenbrot pers. comm). It is a naturally rare habitat specialist.
136722		population	eng	During general trapping for rodents, lizards and insects in the Central Negev, between 1993 and 1995, seven specimens were collected (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996).
136722		threats	eng	Current threats to the species are unknown.
136723		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed, other than general research into the distribution, habitat and ecology of the species.
136723		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the Requena Province, Loreto Department, Peru, close to the Ucayali River: 7 km east of Jenaro Herrera (04°55'S, 73°45'W), right bank of the Ucayali River (type locality, Musser and Carleton, 2005); and San Pedro (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). It has been recorded at around 200 to 300 m.
136723		habitat	eng	It is believed to be a semi-aquatic species. The original type was found in the forest at the edge of a stream. M. H. Valqui, while camping near a lake, was attracted to the site by the splashing of animals apparently diving into the water (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It may only be found in primary forest, although this needs to be confirmed.
136723		population	eng	It is a rare species.
136723		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. The area that it has been collected from is not under a great deal of human pressure.
136724		conservation	eng	Mt. Banahao is currently protected as National Park and well managed. Priority for this species' protection is more basic research on their habitat and ecology, abundance and  distribution (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136724		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchomys banahao</em> is known only from Mt. Banahao, Quezon province, southern Luzon island (Philippines) (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136724		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary montane forest at 1,250–1,465 m, dominated by species of <em>Podocarpus</em> (Podocarpaceae), <em>Lithocarpus</em> (Fagaceae), and <em>Syzygium</em> (Myrtaceae). The species appears to be nocturnal–crepuscular, as is the case with congeners (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991; Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007). The stomach contents of 1 specimen consisted of earthworms and few fragments of wings and exoskeletons of unidentified insects (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136724		population	eng	Current data on the new species suggests that they are not abundant and that they are probably restricted to montane habitats. They may occur on the two other peaks in Mt. Banahao park (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).
136724		threats	eng	The montane habitats are not under substantial threat from logging or agriculture, but current levels of use by hikers and religious pilgrims on Mt. Banahao pose some reason for concern (Mallari <em>et al</em>. 2001).
136725		conservation	eng	The species is found in several protected areas.
136725		distribution	eng	This species occurs from east Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to Rio de Janeiro, southeast Brazil (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998).
136725		habitat	eng	This species is found in 1,800-2,700 m elevation range of humid montane forest and secondary vegetation (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136725		population	eng	This species is common.
136725		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.
136726		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.
136726		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Kinabalu (Sabah, Malaysia), at altitudes between 1,600-3,700 m asl (Hutterer 2005), though it could be more widespread in Borneo. A potential record exists for Sarawak, based on a damaged skull at the Natural History Museum, London (Ruedi 1995). However, Mount Kinabalu is by far the highest mountain on Borneo, and so it is not clear that suitable habitat exists elswhere for this species.
136726		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest (Lim Boo Liat and Heyneman 1968). It is replaced at lower elevations by <em>C. foetida</em>. This species seems to be rather tolerant of habitat disturbance, and can be found in both primary forests as well as degraded, secondary forests and scrub.
136726		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136726		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, other than its restricted range, and the possible impacts of climate change of a species restricted to high elevations. Its only known location is in a protected area, and it is tolerant of a certain level of habitat disturbance.
136727		conservation	eng	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.
136727		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Suriname, French Guiana, and Amapá, Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136727		habitat	eng	This species is widely distributed in lowland areas. It occurs in secondary and primary forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
136727		population	eng	There is no information on population or abundance.
136727		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time.
136728		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas within its range.
136728		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeast Argentina (Formosa, Chaco, Santa Fe and Corrientes provinces), east Paraguay, and south central Brazil (Goiás to Paraíba States; Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998).
136728		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in open areas (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005), grasslands and gallery forests/shrublands (wet Chaco).
136728		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).
136728		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation due to agriculture.
136729		conservation	eng	One of the localities where the species was found it is included in one protected area.
136729		distribution	eng	It is found in the Catamarca Province in Argentina.
136729		habitat	eng	It is found in Puna, high elevation grasslands.
136729		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.
136729		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but the habitat where the species was found is threat by overgrazing.
136730		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within its range (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Further taxonomic study is needed (see Taxonomic Notes).
136730		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the mountains of central and western New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia). It has been recorded between 2,200 and 4,100 m asl.
136730		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from montane moss forest and alpine habitats.
136730		population	eng	This is an extremely abundant species above 2,000 m asl.
136730		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
136731		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The species is found in Montagne d’Ambre National Park and in three special reserves (Analamerana, Ankarana, and Fôret d’Ambre), as well as in the Andrafiamena Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Improved management and protection of Analamerana is urgently required, and long-term scientific presence within the existing reserve is encouraged. Andrafiamena should be included within a protected area.
136731		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Madagascar in the forests of Montagne d’Ambre, Ankarana, Andrafiamena, and Analamerana, from low elevations to 1,500 m.
136731		habitat	eng	Occurs in dry deciduous forests and also in moist evergreen forest. The natural history of this species remains poorly studied by comparison to that of sportive lemurs inhabiting western and southern Madagascar. Adults seem to remain solitary during nightly bouts of foraging for leaves. Tree holes and vine tangles are preferred daytime shelters.
136731		population	eng	Common, though not in Montagne d' Ambre. Population densities have been variously estimated between 150 and 550 individuals/km² (Ratsirarson and Rumpler 1988; Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1990), the higher figures coming from more humid forest environments such as Ankarana.
136731		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are forest loss, particularly for charcoal (such as in Analamerana and Andrafiamena), and hunting (exacerbated by mining in the region for sapphires).
136732		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it is found in the high elevations of the central mountains of Papua New Guinea. It ranges between 900 and 3,100 m asl.
136732		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to mossy mid- to  upper primary montane tropical forest. It is suspected to have an 18 month dependency period before the female is ready to breed again.
136732		population	eng	It is generally rare and occurs at low densities. The productivity of its preferred habitat is low, resulting in a natural low population density.
136732		threats	eng	This species is threatened by heavy hunting for food with dogs by local people (it has disappeared from the Schrader Range). It is also threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture (shifting cultivation) and deforestation due to logging.
136733		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136733		distribution	eng	The exact distribution limits are unknown. This species is known from a small number of specimens from northern and eastern Myanmar, northern and central Thailand, northern and central Lao PDR, northern and southern Viet Nam, and China where it is found in Yunnan, Sichuan and Fujian (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Records from Fujian have not been located and have not been mapped here. In Viet Nam, the population on the Langbian Plateau (the species' type locality) in the south of the country may, or may not, be fragmented from the others from which the species is known.
136733		habitat	eng	In China, <em>C. indochinensis</em> inhabits montane forests from 1,200 to 2,400 m asl (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is found in primary and secondary forests, and occurs both in broad-leaved and coniferous forests. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.
136733		population	eng	There is little information available about the abundance and population size of this species.
136733		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on undisturbed forest, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation for agriculture and timber extraction.
136734		conservation	eng	There are virtually no protected areas within this region, except for Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and Cutervo National Park, but the species has not been recorded from either. More research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
136734		distribution	eng	This species is only known from elfin forest in northernmost Peru, east and west slopes of the Andes, at 2,050 and 3,150 m asl (Hutterer 2005). The type locality is: La Palma-Sallique trail in Las Ashitas, Chontali, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is not likely to be found further south of the Huancabamba Depression, however, the species may be found further north into Ecuador. The populations of <em>peruviensis</em> are the southernmost occurrence of <em>Cryptotis</em> in South America (Vivar <em>et al</em>. 1997).
136734		habitat	eng	The species has been found in cold, humid elfin cloud forest habitat with shrubby trees. The holotype was found at the upper limit of the forest, just below the paramo (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997).
136734		population	eng	This species is currently only known from two specimens (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997).
136734		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are presently unknown.
136735		conservation	eng	Research actions.
136735		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Los Pambiles (00 32'N, 78 38'W, 1200 m), Río Piedras, Cordillera de Toisán, Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. It probably occurs in other areas of similar habitat and elevation in northwestern Ecuador (Albuja and Gardner, 2005).
136735		habitat	eng	The area where was captured <em>Lonchophylla orcesi</em> is in the foothills of the Cordillera de Toisán, in subtropical rainforest. It cohabits with <em>L. robusta</em> y <em>L. chocoana</em> (Albuja and Gardner, 2005). Further aspects of its natural history probably are similar to other members of the genus. It feeds nectar and insects.
136735		population	eng	This bat is rare (Davalos pers comm.), known from only one record (Albuja and Gardner, 2005). However, more information is necessary to understand the species.
136735		threats	eng	Not known.
136736		conservation	eng	The two localities where this species has been collected are not in protected areas.
136736		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur on the western slopes of the central part of the eastern Cordillera of Colombia (Hutterer 2005), although there have not been adequate surveys to fully document the species' range. It has been recorded from two localities, one at 1,300 m, and the other at 2,715 m asl (Woodman 2003).
136736		habitat	eng	The habitat of the two known localities where the species occurs is not known. A closely related species, <em>Cryptotis colombiana</em>, is tolerant of some habitat disturbance (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).
136736		population	eng	It is known from only four individuals from two separate localities (Woodman 2003). The last record was from 1925 (Woodman 2003), however, there have not been many recent surveys.
136736		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136737		conservation	eng	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
136737		distribution	eng	This species is found in the yungas of Chuquisaca, Tarija, and Southern Santa Cruz, Bolivia. It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 2,700 m.
136737		habitat	eng	It is found in yungas and Tucumano boliviano forest (a dryer forest in the south of Bolivia). They are often more common in disturbed areas.
136737		population	eng	It is a common species.
136737		threats	eng	This species does not have major threats at this time. The species is often treated as a pest species, but it is a minor threat.
136738		conservation	eng	This rodent has not been collected in any protected areas, but is likely to occur in some throughout its range.
136738		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southeastern Venezuela to northern Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guyana (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
136738		habitat	eng	This porcupine inhabits primary and secondary forest in French Guyana. It is a nocturnal and arboreal species which occurs mainly in the canopy (Y. Leite pers. comm.). It is frugivourous as well as feeding on ant pupae and cultivated vegetables and roots.
136738		population	eng	This species is not rare, but cryptic (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
136738		threats	eng	The species is hunted locally, but not at levels considered to cause a major threat.
136739		conservation	eng	The species is known from two conservation reserves; Litchfield and Kakadu National Parks. It has not been recorded from Litchfield since 1983, however, it is considered to be relatively secure within its currently known range (Milne and Richards 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. Visitation controls should be implemented at known roost sites. Once habitat requirements are better understood, restoration work is needed at previous roosting sites. There is also a need to evaluate the potential of constructing artificial roosts.
136739		distribution	eng	This species is currently only found in Kakadu National Park in the top end of the Northern Territory of Australia. It has been recorded from 14 locations in the western Arnhem Land sandstone massif (Deaf Adder Gorge and upper South Alligator River area). It was also previously known from one site (Tolmer Falls) in Litchfield National Park (McKean and Hertog 1979; Woinarski and Milne 2005).
136739		habitat	eng	Arnhem leaf-nosed bats are present in monsoon forest, eucalyptus forest and woodlands, and open heath on sandstone plateaus usually close to water. They roost in caves or abandoned mine adits. The largest known roost possibly contains between 20 and 50 individuals. Its diet includes beetles, moths, cockroaches, and leaf-hoppers (Woinarski and Milne 2005).
136739		population	eng	It is quite a rare and restricted species, with only three roosting sites (a disused mine adit and two caves) known (Milne and Richards 2008). This species is almost certainly under-recorded as much of the Kakadu escarpment in which it lives has not been surveyed (D. Milne pers. comm.). Although the proven populations of this species are quite small, it is very unlikely that the overall population is >300 mature individuals (D. Milne pers. comm.).
136739		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by loss of suitable roosting sites in mines. Disappearance from Litchfield National Park may be due to human visitation (G. Richards pers. comm.).
136741		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from the Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea on Madagascar (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). Additional taxonomic studies are needed to better define the extent of the species range relative to other species of <em>Pipistrellus</em>.
136741		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from the Cape Verde Islands, to Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, to Nigeria, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), western Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia, into Kenya and Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola being found as far south as eastern and southern South Africa and possibly Swaziland. There are a few records of this species from central western Madagascar (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). The current identity of bats from the Arabian Peninsula formerly allocated to <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> is unclear and some records might refer to <em>P. hesperidus</em>. Simmons (2005) also indicates that this species is present in the Canary Islands (Spain) however, this distribution needs to be confirmed and is not included here. Animals from North Africa are referable to <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em>.
136741		habitat	eng	Records from Zimbabwe were made in the vicinity of streams and rivers, and their distribution in eastern southern Africa suggests that they prefer well-watered areas (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Animals have been recorded from narrow cracks in rocks and under the loose bark of trees (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Bates <em>et al.</em> (2006) note that 'In the Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea, 14 individuals were captured within two hours of sunset in an open saltpan habitat next to freshwater pools at the foot of coastal sand dunes'.
136741		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, however, it is not very common in southern Africa (Skinner and Chimimba 2005)..
136741		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
136742		conservation	eng	It is likely to occur in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
136742		distribution	eng	The species range covers the islands of Java and Bali, in Indonesia (Hutterer 2005). Among other places, it has been recorded from: Tijbodas, in west Java (Jentink 1890) at altitudes up to 1,500 m (Ruedi 1995) asl; Mount Pangerango at an altitude of 1,000 m asl (Jentink 1890); and Poedjon, in east Java, at an altitude of 1,200 m (Sody 1936). Kitchener <em>et al</em>. (1994) recorded specimens from Bali.
136742		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. It has been recorded in mid-montane areas, in primary and secondary forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.
136742		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known from rather few records.
136742		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, although, if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats, it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlement.
136743		conservation	eng	This species needs further research into its distribution and natural history. The known range of the species is within a previously proposed National Park between Ecuador and Peru, which is now labelled as Santiago-Comaina Reserved Zone. This region was under some conflict in the mid-1990s, but now is settled.
136743		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality in Ecuador (Achupallas, 03°27'S, 78°21'W, 2,080 m), the Cordillera del Condor on the border of Peru, where is likely also occurs (Albuja and Patterson 1996).
136743		habitat	eng	The recorded habitat was heath-like vegetation less than 1.5 m in height (Albuja and Patterson, 1996).
136743		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens collected at the same time (Albuja and Patterson, 1996).
136743		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this time other than the fact that it is known from only one location.
136744		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. It is currently known only from two strict nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena) and Zahamena National Park. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136744		distribution	eng	Known only from the regions of Betampona and Zahamena in north-eastern Madagascar; the type locality is at 965 m asl (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006)
136744		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforest.
136744		population	eng	Unknown. Only discovered in 2003.
136744		threats	eng	Unknown. Currently known only from protected areas.
136745		conservation	eng	The species is not currently known from any protected areas.
136745		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Bahia, Brazil (Gonçalves <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136745		habitat	eng	This species occurs in semi deciduous forest in Cerrado (Gonçalves <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136745		population	eng	Nothing is known of populations of this species.
136745		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
136746		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136746		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of China, occurring in southern Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). The distribution map accompanying this account is a parsimonious alignment that awaits revision.
136746		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is presumed to be similar to that of <em>Cricetulus kamensis</em>, occuring in high mountain grasslands, shrubby marshes, and open steppe (Smith and Xie 2008).
136746		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136746		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136747		conservation	eng	It occurs in Kerinci Seblat National Park and several other protected areas.
136747		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains of western Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded at elevations from 1,250 to 3,500 m on Korinchi peak (the type locality is at 1,432 m) (Robinson and Kloss 1916, 1918).
136747		habitat	eng	This species is found primarily in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136747		population	eng	The current population status of this species is unknown. Expeditions in the early 1900s on Korinchi found them to be fairly common at higher elevations, particularly above 2,000 m.
136747		threats	eng	It may be threatened by habitat loss at lower elevations of its range, but there are no major threats at the more inaccessible higher elevations.
136748		conservation	eng	This species is in need of further taxonomic work, as well as surveys for potential areas containing wild populations.
136748		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, where the holotype and several other individuals were wild-trapped in 1997 in Valle Hermoso, 2,557 m asl, (66°09'W, 17°23'S), south of Cochabamba, Cordillera Oriental, in Cochabamba Province, Bolivia (Solmsdorff <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136748		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. Some behavioural characteristics distinguish this species from other <em>Galea spp.</em> as noted by Solmsdorff <em>et al.</em> (2004).
136748		population	eng	The species is known only from wild caught individuals sent to Germany from the type locality (J. Dunnum pers. comm.).
136748		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136749		conservation	eng	This species likely occurs in several protected areas, however, more research is necessary on the natural history, threats and distribution.
136749		distribution	eng	The species is known only from northern Bolivia (Gardner 2007).
136749		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Some individuals were captured in seasonally flooded grasslands surrounded by forest (Voss <em>et. al</em>. 2005).
136749		population	eng	No information is available on populations.
136749		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown, however, numerous potential threats could be impacting populations, including agriculture and deforestation.
136750		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It is uncertain what conservation measures exist for this species given its taxonomic ambiguity. The high value of the parts in trade mean that conservation requires effective hand-on anti-poaching activity. It is likely to occur in some protected areas in India and Pakistan.<br/><br/>  The Government of Afghanistan has listed <em>M. cupreus</em> on the country’s Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan.
136750		distribution	eng	<em>Moschus cupreus</em> occurs in the Himalayas of extreme northern India and Pakistan in Kashmir, and northern Afghanistan (Grubb 2005). Habibi (2003) recounts anecdotal reports from the late 1940s and 1970s of the species from Nuristan Province eastern Afghanistan. The author thought that muskdeer “must be regarded as extremely rare” in Afghanistan.
136750		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to be known of this species’s habitat or ecology, although based on its close taxonomic relationship to <em>M. chrysogaster</em>, it is presumably similar to that species. <em>M. chrysogaster</em> is found on barren plateaus at high altitudes, where it occupies meadows, fell-fields, shrublands or fir forests. It feeds mainly on grasses, shrubs, leaves, moss, lichens, shoots, and twigs (Green 1987). It is generally solitary and crepuscular (Harris and Cai 1993).
136750		population	eng	Little is known of the species’s current status. Two recent interview surveys with local communities in the central part of Nuristan province, northeastern Afghanistan, suggest that small numbers of muskdeer may be present in the remnant of the eastern forests (oak and pine). Numbers are likely to be low and perhaps very localised. The results are somewhat equivocal, but during the first survey in 2006/2007 only 7 out of 97 respondents reported hunting of the species. However, a more recent survey in 2008 of over 100 respondents found that muskdeer are commonly known and that they are widely hunted. Camera-trap surveys conducted in the same area between August and December 2007, aimed at base line assessment of large mammal occurrence, did not detect muskdeer, although a range of other large mammals were photographed between 1,150 and 3,010 m asl (WCS/USAID Afghanistan Biodiversity Conservation Program / Maria Karlstetter pers. comm. 2008).
136750		threats	eng	There is a high trade in musk deer parts, particularly pods, into China and elsewhere in north-east Asia (see accounts for other <em>Moschus</em> species). Many relatively high-volume illicit wildlife trade links pass through <em>M. cupreus</em>’s range, so it is certain to be under some level of threat from trade. The unstable taxonomy hampers abilities to assess threat levels directly to species, especially as parts like pods are not readily identifiable to species anyway.<br/><br/>Besides hunting for meat, which is considered a delicacy locally, hunting of the muskdeer is primarily for trade of musk glands, which reached the area reportedly only 30 years ago and has led to a substantial increase in hunting since then. The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S. $45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means. Today local hunters are reportedly able to get ca $200-250 per musk gland from mostly foreign traders (the main market is reportedly in the Middle East). The increased availability of guns over the last few decades and the political instability in the area, which has resulted in a basically uncontrolled trade to bordering Pakistan, have added significantly to the amount of wildlife being hunted for trade. During the summer the species stays in higher mountain regions and is apparently opportunistically hunted by shepherds (almost all of whom carry guns for hunting purposes). Most animals are reportedly hunted in winter when muskdeer distribution and ranging patterns are most predictable. As reported, the species is exclusively hunted with guns; snares apparently are not being used at least in the area surveyed (WCS/USAID Afghanistan Biodiversity Conservation Program / Maria Karlstetter pers. comm. 2008).
136751		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in the Jaú and Mamirua National Parks.
136751		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brazilian Amazon, in an area around the mid course of Rio Negro, Amazonas State (Stolz <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136751		habitat	eng	This rodent occurs in seasonally inundated forests (Stolz <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136751		population	eng	This rodent is moderately common.
136751		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136752		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136752		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Grand Comore island in the Comoros.
136752		habitat	eng	There is little information on the natural history of this species.
136752		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136752		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136753		conservation	eng	It is not found in any protected area.
136753		distribution	eng	South of the Misiones Province in Argentina.
136753		habitat	eng	It is found in jungle-edge grasslands associated to the Mata Atlantica forest.
136753		population	eng	It is not considered a rare species.
136753		threats	eng	The habitat is very threatened due the existence of agricultural activities.
136754		conservation	eng	Research actions. It is found in protected areas.
136754		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).
136754		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Its ecology and biology must be similar to <em>L. intermedius</em>. It has been reported as inhabiting palm groves. It is an extract insect-feeder (mainly Coleoptera, Homoptera, and Diptera).  Some pregnant females have been reported in May (Silva-Taboada, 1979).
136754		population	eng	Apparently it is solitary roosting.
136754		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136755		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas.
136755		distribution	eng	The Subtropical Antechinus is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland, south from Gympie into north-eastern New South Wales. There is also an isolated population in Dorigo, but the species has thus far not been found within the intervening area despite recent survey work (only <em>A. stuartii</em> has been found here and the two do not occur sympatrically). Elevational range is sea level to 1,000 m asl (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000).
136755		habitat	eng	The Subtropical Antechinus is found in subtropical vine-forest and wet sclerophyll forest (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). This species is not found in mature forest with sparse ground cover or in disturbed areas (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). It is a terrestrial and arboreal insectivore.
136755		population	eng	The species is abundant in vine-forest, particularly in perimeter vegetation, and is rare in sclerophyll habitat (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000).
136755		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the Subtropical Antechinus. The species is not losing habitat to development, but its range is on the boundary of highly developed areas, and thus susceptible to predation by domestic cats and dogs and there is some encroachment on its range. Historically, land clearing for forestry, agriculture and urban settlement has resulted in some reduction of its range.
136756		conservation	eng	It occurs in a sevaral protected areas.
136756		distribution	eng	This species occurs in westernmost Brazil (Acre and Amazonas States), and contiguous lowlands and Andean foothills of central and east Ecuador, east Peru, and west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997; Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000); distributional limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Ecuador it has an altitudinal range of 200 to 1,250 m (Tirira, in prep.).
136756		habitat	eng	It is a riparian species occurring in tropical lowland forest (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). This species is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on arthropods, crabs, and other invertebrates, it also eats fruit and fungi. This water rat is adapted for swimming and is almost always found near water. It makes nests under logs or roots or in dense vegetation. It occurs in areas of dense tall grass near water (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
136756		population	eng	This rat is widespread and sometimes common.
136756		threats	eng	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.
136757		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas such as El Triunfo (Chiapas) in Mexico.
136757		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the eastern highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, east and south into the highlands of Belize and Guatemala (Hutterer 2005).
136757		habitat	eng	It inhabits high elevation tropical rainforest plains and slopes. This shrew is nocturnal, but sporadically active during both night and day. It is terrestrial and makes tiny runways through grass or uses larger runways made by rodents. The diet includes insect larvae, centipedes and earthworms (Whitaker 1974 as <em>C. parva</em>).
136757		population	eng	This species is not well studied, it is known from only a few specimens and localities.
136757		threats	eng	Agricultural and urban development are potential threats to this species, but this requires confirmation.
136758		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136758		distribution	eng	C. viperinus is found in northern Tucuman Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136758		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136758		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
136758		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136759		conservation	eng	It has been found in Manu Biosphere Reserve in Peru. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.
136759		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the westernmost Brazil (Acre State) and lowlands of southeast Peru, perhaps including the valley of the Río Ucayali (Tribe, 1996; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is known to occur from about 200 to 1,480 m.
136759		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species, which has been collected in undisturbed lowland evergreen forest. It has also been collected in disturbed forest.
136759		population	eng	It seems to be an uncommon species.
136759		threats	eng	There appear to be no immediate threats to this species. It may be threatened in the future by general clearance of lowland tropical forest.
136760		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered C2a(i,ii) (Wang and Xie 2004).
136760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). Specimens have been collected from 1,560-2,438 m asl (Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1998).
136760		habitat	eng	This species occupies broad-leaf forest (Smith and Xie 2008).
136760		population	eng	This species is considered rare and is only known from five specimens (Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1997 in Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1998).
136760		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging most likely poses a major threat to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press)., although the amount of logging occurring at high elevations in Taiwan is decreasing
136761		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in Vombitse National Park; may also be the <em>Lepilemur</em> recorded in Isalo National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136761		distribution	eng	Currently known only from the Zombitse National Park region in south-western Madagascar, north of the Onilahy River and south of the Mangoky River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Formerly, the sportive lemurs within its geographic range were thought to be <em>L. ruficaudatus</em>.
136761		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
136761		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136761		threats	eng	Unknown.
136762		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded close to the Cajas National Park (D. Tirira pers. comm.) but not inside.
136762		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: south Ecuador, Azuay Province, Bestión, 3078 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136762		habitat	eng	Unknown.
136762		population	eng	It is rare (D. Tirira pers. comm.).
136762		threats	eng	Unknown.
136763		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Determining the degree to which this species can tolerate habitat modification (i.e., the change from forest to grassland) is a particularly important research priority. Further studies are needed also into the distribution, abundance, natural history, habitat status, and threats to this species.
136763		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the D'Entrecasteaux Islands of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded on the islands of Fergusson, Goodenough, and Normanby (Flannery 1995). It has been collected between 200 and 900 m asl.
136763		habitat	eng	A specimen was collected at the "oak-rainforest transition" (Flannery 1995). An additional specimen was collected climbing in vegetation close to a village (Flannery 1995).
136763		population	eng	It has been rarely collected and there are few known specimens of this species (Flannery 1995).
136763		threats	eng	Forest clearance is a serious problem, the islands are being converted to grassland (perhaps entirely) through subsistence farming.
136764		conservation	eng	The range includes several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
136764		distribution	eng	This species is present on the island of New Guinea, where it is found in Papua Province, Indonesia and in Papua New Guinea. It ranges from sea level to 2,200 m asl. Further taxonomic work is required on the <em>M. lutillus</em> to determine the distributional limits of the species.
136764		habitat	eng	It is present in savanna, grassland, and in rural gardens and other disturbed areas.
136764		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known. It is poorly represented in specimen collections, mostly because it lives in a zone where there is little collecting.
136764		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
136765		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas. It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
136765		distribution	eng	There are only a few records of this species from the Iwate and Fukushima Prefectures, on Honshu, Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136765		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of primary forests. It roosts in tree hollows; and one hibernating colony was found in a building.
136765		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
136765		threats	eng	Deforestation of the evergreen old-growth forests in warm temperate regions, primarily for agriculture, conversion to conifer plantations, logging and infrastructure development for expanding human settlements, is a major threat.
136766		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas. No specific measures in place.
136766		distribution	eng	There is much confusion between <em>A. amphibius</em> and <em>A. scherman</em> and the distribution of both taxa should be considered tentative. <em>A. scherman</em> occurs mainly in mountainous areas in southern and central Europe (Saucy 1999, Panteleyev 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the French Alps it occurs to 2,400 m (Reichstein 1982).
136766		habitat	eng	Mainly restricted to the uplands, where constructs extensive underground burrows in grasslands (including pastures) or, less frequently, in woodlands. Predominantly herbivorous, feeding on vegetation in the summer and on roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Saucy 1999). The species lives in complex burrows that are usually not deeper than 1 m.
136766		population	eng	Pronounced cyclic population fluctuations occur every 5-8 years, with densities ranging between 0 and 1,000 individuals per hectare (Saucy 1999). At high densities it becomes an agricultural pest. A main pest in orchards (e.g., in Slovenia (B. Krystufek pers comm. 2007).
136766		threats	eng	No threats known.
136767		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not currently known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the geographic range and population status of this species.
136767		distribution	eng	<em>A. betsileo</em> is currently known in the Bemosary Classified forest (Fandriana). The regional distribution is tentatively set from south of the Mangoro River and north of the Mananjary River, until its distribution can be confirmed (Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> 2007).
136767		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern moist rainforests.
136767		population	eng	Unknown. Only described in 2007.
136767		threats	eng	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat.
136768		conservation	eng	<em>E. robusta</em> occurs in protected areas and the caves in which the species roosts are given nominal protection under the Cave Management Act, but enforcement of this legislation is weak. There is an important need to gather more information on the ecological requirements and conservation needs to this species. In particular, more study is needed to document the extent of any hunting, to assess its habitat preferences and association, and to determine its distribution in lowland caves.
136768		distribution	eng	The Philippines dawn bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from most large islands except the Palawan Faunal Region and the Batanes and Babuyan group of islands. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol (R. Pamaong pers. comm. 2006), Catanduanes, Leyte, Lubang, Luzon (Abra, Aurora, Cavite, Mountain and Rizal provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Cotabatao, Lanao del Norte, Maguindanao, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Negros, Polillo, Samar and Siargo islands (Gomez in litt. 2007; J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006) and has an elevational range from sea level to 1,100 m. However, most specimens of the dawn bat are from the lowlands; in Luzon it has never been taken from high elevations.
136768		habitat	eng	<em>E. robusta</em> is not a well known species, but appears to be reliant on caves in lowland habitats. It is most common in undisturbed forest though it can occur in secondary forest and some disturbed areas. It is thought to roost primarily in caves, although it is possible that rock crevices and rocky banks along creeks are also used as roosting sites in primary lowland forest and disturbed habitats on limestone on Negros (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006); there are no reports from agricultural or urban areas.
136768		population	eng	The population is likely to have undergone a significant decline since the 1960s (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) evidenced by it being captured only rarely in the 1980s and 1990s and it was reported as likely to be quite rare during the 1990s (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1998; Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Utzurrum 1992). However, in the past, <em>Eonycteris robusta</em> was commonly misidentified as <em>E. spelaea</em> or <em>R. amplexicaudatus</em> (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) and the some of the reports of rarity may be attributable to this. It can be easily distinguished by field characters described by Ingle and Heaney (1992). <br/><br/><em>E. robusta</em> was not captured in surveys of many forested areas with lowland forest (for example Mount Makiling, 300-500 m asl) during a 1989 survey (Ingle 2002) and in 1997-1999 by J. Sedlock. Surveys from 1992 to 1999 also failed to find this species, though further netting in the remaining forest patches below 1,000 m are required to confirm absence (Ingle in litt. 2007). On Kitanglad in 1992–1999, surveys below 1,000 m asl failed to capture any specimens (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006), and a recent survey by The Philippine Eagle Foundation captured a single dawn bat in lowland forest (900 m asl) on Mount Sinaka, Arakan, Cotabato Province, Mindanao (R. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>In general, through, during 2000s there have been increased numbers of the dawn bat being reported during surveys (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). In undisturbed habitat on Samar it is more common than <em>E. spelaea</em> (J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006). For Mindanao past and ongoing habitat loss due to deforestation has probably caused a population decline in the dawn bat which is estimated to be at least 30% over three generations (D. Balete and N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006).
136768		threats	eng	Deforestation and cave disturbance are likely to be the main threats to this species. <em>E. robusta</em> seems to be able to persist in some areas of secondary growth forest, which remains relatively widespread in Philippines (Heaney pers. comm. 2006), but it appears to be absent from other similar areas (for example Mount Makiling, Luzon) (Ingle <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Habitat loss has been high in the past but the species is perhaps less threatened currently than it was 20 years ago (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).  <br/><br/>It is probably hunted in parts of its range, along with other cave-roosting bats, although there is no direct evidence of this. If mining operations proposed to occur within the range of the species proceed, then this would cause a particular threat to the species.
136769		conservation	eng	<p>There are serious concerns that<em> P. murrayi </em>is now extinct. Despite the extensive coverage of detector surveys in recent years, there is still a slight possibility that a small colony remains undetected. Should a small population be discovered, these individuals should be captured immediately in order to start a captive breeding program. Such a program has been shown to be the best approach for the recovery of the species once it reached critically low levels and with the cause of the decline unknown (Lumsden and Schulz 2009) </p>  <p>This species is listed as Critically Endangered under Australia's Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act. The last known population of the species roosted within a protected area, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Christmas Island</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National   Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> and foraged just outside the park in leasehold land. A range of management actions from the Recovery Plan (Schulz and Lumsden 2004) had been implemented, including installing protective barriers around the base of the few known remaining roost trees, and establishing bat boxes in an attempt to provide additional roost sites. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Christmas Island</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> staff are continuing the detector surveys in the hope of finding any remaining individuals. It has been recommended that this work continue for six months after the last record of the species (Beeton <em>et al</em>. 2009) </p>
136769		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Christmas Island (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>), approximately 135 km² in area, located in the eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place>. Although the bat was once widespread on the island, the last known individuals were recorded only in the western portion with no records from the rest of the island for a number of years.
136769		habitat	eng	This species roosts under bark, in dead foliage, and in tree hollows. Maternity roosts were discovered in late 2005 under shedding bark of dead forest trees (<em>Tristiropsis acutangula</em> and <em>Inocarpus fagifer</em>) and in a hole in a palm (<em>Arenga listeri</em>), many of which were heavily decayed and collapsed soon after (Lumsden <em>et al.</em> 2007). Females form colonies of up to approximately 50 individuals, while males often roost solitarily (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2007).  Generation length of this species is likely to be 4-5 years (L. Lumsden, D.J. James pers. comm.). This species roosts in mature, tropical, evergreen, closed canopy rainforests and mature, tropical, semi-deciduous rainforests (Lumsden <em>et al. </em>1999; James and Retallick 2007; Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007). It feeds in and over these forests and also along tracks, and in and over secondary forests and thickets of woody weeds (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 1999, James and Retallick 2007, Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007).   It feeds on a range of small flying invertebrates, predominantly moths, beetles, and flying ants (Lumsden and Schulz 2009).
136769		population	eng	<p>Because <em>P. murrayi </em>is (or was) the only microbat on Christmas Island, ultrasonic bat detectors are an effective technique for documenting its status, as it is obvious if the species is present or not, since it is readily recorded and can not be confused with, or obscured by, other species. Intensive detector sampling over the last decade (almost continuous since 2004) has provided unusually detailed documentation of its decline, resulting in it being one of the most intensely monitored bat species on the planet. <em>&#160;</em> </p>  <p>This species was widespread and common until the mid 1980s (Tidemann 1985). By 1994 its range had contracted away from the north-east section (which is where the only town is located), and it had a patchy distribution and declining abundance (Lumsden and Cherry 1997). Between 1994 and 1998 there was a further westward range contraction and an apparent mean reduction of 33% in relative abundance, although this was not statistically significant (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 1999; Schulz and Lumsden 2004). Between 1998 and 2004 there was a decline of between 55 and 65% in relative abundance and a continued westward contraction of range in the order of 25 to 50% (James 2005). This decline has continued and the species was considered to be confined to the far west of the island, no longer occurring across more than 90% of its former range (James and Retallick 2007; Lumsden <em>et al.</em> 2007). Long-term monitoring using bat detectors indicates this species underwent a 90% decline in abundance between 1994 and 2006 (James and Retallick 2007, Lumsden <em>et al.</em> 2007). Since 2006 this decline continued at an alarming rate with the species disappearing from many of the few remaining sites where it was present in 2006 (Parks Australia North Christmas Island unpublished data) </p>  <p>In December 2008, <em>P. murrayi</em> was thought to be restricted to a single foraging area and a single roost site (Lumsden and Schulz 2009). Although the roost site had previously contained as many as 50 individuals, by January 2009 there were only four adults present. The behaviour of these individuals suggested that they were lactating females with four dependent young in the roost. The total population was then estimated to be less than 20 individuals in order to account for the possibility of small undetected colonies (Lumsden and Schulz 2009). Lumsden and Schulz (2009) stated that the January findings indicated that </p>  <p>?without urgent intervention there is an extremely high risk that this species will go extinct in the near future. While it can not be precisely predicted when this would occur if there was no intervention, it is highly likely that it will be within the next 6 months, i.e. by June 2009? (pg. 7).</p>  <p>Unfortunately, this predicted decline of the species appears to have been prescient. After the January findings, Dr. Lumsden urgently sought approval to capture the remaining individuals for a captive breeding program, the details of which had been outlined in a feasibility report (Lumsden and Schulz 2009). Rather than acting immediately the Australian government established an Expert Working Group, and waited for its report in July 2009 (Beeton <em>et al</em>. 2009) before approving this intervention. In August 2009 a team led by Lumsden of eight bat experts and captive breeding specialists from Zoos Victoria attempted to take the remaining individuals into captivity. During the four weeks of intensive sampling, which used 30 bat detectors, only one individual could be found, and it evaded all attempts to catch it. On 27 August this individual also disappeared, and all survey work since that night has failed to detect the species. While it is possible that this individual moved to a new area, shifting both its roosting and foraging areas on the same night, this is considered unlikely as both areas had been continually used for at least the last ten years by members of this colony (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It is quite possible that this is one of the few times that an extinction of species in the wild can be marked to the day.</p>
136769		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline of this species remain unclear. While habitat loss may have caused some declines in the past, 75% of the island is covered by primary or secondary rainforest, with little change to the habitat over the last 20 years. The major threats to the species may include predation or disturbance to bats within their roosts from introduced species, e.g. Common Wolf Snake <em>Lycodon aulicus capucinus</em>, Feral Cat <em>Felis catus</em>, Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and Giant Centipede <em>Scolapendra morsitans</em> (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although not considered the primary cause of decline, the recent explosion of Yellow Crazy Ants <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> is likely to have exacerbated the situation. It is also possible that some form of disease may be contributing to the decline, however, individuals appear in good health, with the exception of low white blood cell counts although the significance of these findings is unclear (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007). Even the last known individual appeared to behave normally and looked healthy before it vanished (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).
136770		conservation	eng	It is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect important roosting sites for this species. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
136770		distribution	eng	This species is present on the islands of Halmahera, Seram, Ambon, Peleng, and the Kai Islands (all Indonesia). It also appears to be found in scattered localities across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and in the Solomon Islands. It ranges between sea level and 1,200 m asl with most records below 300 m asl. <br/><br/>Populations in Australia, and at least one of the records from New Guinea, have been shown to be <em>M. macropus</em> (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2001). Given the disjunct range with <em>M. moluccarum</em> with islands west of New Guinea, it is possible that the Myotis populations in eastern New Guinea, and eastwards in the Melanesian islands may all be <em>M. macropus</em> (or one or more other species).
136770		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in lowland areas where it is associated with wetland habitat ranging from large lakes to rainforest streams. It feeds on large aquatic insects and small fish. This species roosts in caves, tunnels, mines, under bridges, rock overhangs, in old buildings, and under foliage. It generally roosts as a few individuals or in small colonies of up to 20 animals. Females may annually give birth to three successive litters of a single young or occasionally to twins (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998).
136770		population	eng	It is not uncommon.
136770		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
136771		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Anjiamangirana Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136771		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Anjiamangirana region in north-western Madagascar. Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006) gave the range as south of the Mahajamba River and north of the Maevarano and Sofia River, which is presumably a lapsis for "north of the Mahajamba River and south of the Maevarano and Sofia River". Formerly, the sportive lemurs found in this part of Madagascar were thought to be <em>L. edwardsi</em>. More recently, Craul <em>et al</em>. (2007) have described <em>L. otto</em> from between the Mahajamba and the Sofia, making the Sofia River effectively the southerly limit of <em>L. grewcockorum</em>; Craul <em>et al</em>. (2007) also described the species <em>L. manasamody</em> from between the Sofia and Maeverano Rivers, but following Zinner <em>et al</em>. (2007) that species is here considered a synonym of <em>L. grewcockorum</em>. Clearly, the limits between <em>L. edwardsi</em>, <em>L. otto</em>, and <em>L. sahamalazensis</em> remain unclear.
136771		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
136771		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136771		threats	eng	Unknown, but habitat loss is presumably a threat.
136772		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the range, habitat, ecology and threats to this species.
136772		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: southeast Bolivia, Tarija Department, Tapecua (21°26'S, 63°55'W), at 1,500 m (Anderson and Yates, 2000), and from 24°04'S at approximately 63°55'W at 1,200 m in Jujuy Province, Argentina (Ferro <em>et al.</em>, 2005).
136772		habitat	eng	The habitat around Tapecua is a mixture of cloud forest vegetation, patches of columnar cacti and leguminous trees in open areas and broadleaf canopy trees and thick brush on hillsides and in ravines. This type of habitat extends for many kilometers to the south and north, and Tapecomys is likely to occur throughout. It is possible that this species is partially arboreal (Anderson and Yates, 2000). In Argentina it was collected in similar habitat to the type locality. It is not known if it occurs in modified habitats.
136772		population	eng	It is known only from four specimens (2 in Bolivia and 2 in Argentina). Attempts to collect additional specimens in May 1993 at the type locality were unsuccessful. It is not known whether this is indicative of a general rarity of this species, a low population level at that time, or a poor understanding of the habitat and habits of this species (Anderson and Yates, 2000).
136772		threats	eng	The threats to this poorly known species are not known.
136773		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to locate any remaining populations and also to study the natural history of this little-known species.
136773		distribution	eng	This recently-described species has been recorded from the island of Biak, Indonesia. It was collected close to Biak town in 1963. This area has since been deforested. It is possible that the species may be present also on the island of Supiori, although this requires confirmation.
136773		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded about the natural history of this species. It presumably occurs in tropical moist forest.
136773		population	eng	It has only been collected once (a single specimen) in five expeditions to Biak. The population is believed to be small.
136773		threats	eng	Although this species is poorly-known, it is presumed that hunting for food by local people and habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion to cultivated land are threats. At least >50% of the forest on Biak has been cleared. There is still available habitat on the island of Supiori.
136774		conservation	eng	Given the wide distribution of this species and occurrence in heavily disturbed habitats there are no pressing conservation measures. However, it should be noted that prevalence for synanthropic roosts does not automatically indicate a bat species is not of conservation concern. Furthermore, it should be noted that <em>S. marovaza</em> was not found in many of the sites surveyed for bats in western Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) which included areas from where it is suspected of being present (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). Additional field studies are therefore needed to elucidate its range, local abundance and habitat needs, but this is not a conservation priority (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136774		distribution	eng	This species is known from a wide area of western Madagascar from near Morondava in the south, to the holotype locality at Marovaza in the north near Mahajanga (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). Goodman <em>et al</em>. (2006) suspect that <em>S. marovaza</em> is distributed across much of western lowland Madagascar although specimen evidence for this is still lacking (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). Current records are from below 200 m.
136774		habitat	eng	This species roosts synanthropically in dense layers of palms leaves (<em>Bismarckia nobilis</em>) that form roofing material for small huts in western Madagascar (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005). It has been suggested that these palms are the natural roosting habitat for this species and the bats have adapted to using the dead leaves on roofs (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005). It is distributed within areas of savanna grassland and dry deciduous forest but knowledge of feeding sites are lacking. Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandrianina (2007) mist netted <em>S. marovaza</em> in degraded forests and near villages in western Madagascar.
136774		population	eng	There is very little information on this species. Only singletons are known from two of the four sites from which it has been recorded (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been found in small roosting colonies (< 5 individuals) in huts made from palm leaves (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005).
136774		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. It is a widely distributed species and is tolerant of habitat disturbance (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007).
136775		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Cajas National Park.
136775		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the páramo, 3,100 to 3700 m, of the Cajas Plateau, in the Cajas National Park area, south Ecuador (Barnett, 1999; Jenkins and Barnett, 1997).
136775		habitat	eng	It is a paramo stream-living species which is probably primarily a predator on aquatic macroinvertebrates, supplemented with fish. This mouse occurs close to small, clear, cold, and fast flowing stream, downstream from a small (2.5 m) waterfall. The water is no more than 40 cm deep at any point and appeared extremely well-oxygened. The examination of the stomach contents showed the remains of fish (scales, bones with attached flesh), along with larvae of aquatic insects (including Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera) (Barnett, 1997).
136775		population	eng	This rodent is rare, and has a low population density and restricted range (Barnett, 1997).
136775		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
136776		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Domoga-bone National Park.
136776		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is also found in Soloi on Buton island in Indonesia. It occurs from sea level up to 2,120 m asl or probably higher.
136776		habitat	eng	It seems to require good forest, but has also been recorded from cocoa plantations. Soloi individuals were caught over a river in undisturbed forest. Roosting habits are not known, but this species is not likely to be a cave dweller.
136776		population	eng	This species is not common. In 2002, three individuals were captured at a single locality.
136776		threats	eng	Hunting for sale at market, and forest loss due to expanding agriculture and logging represent major threats to this species.
136777		conservation	eng	Protecting the cave is the most important priority.
136777		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba, Isle of Pines (Simmons 2005). Known from one cave (Turvey pers. comm.)
136777		habitat	eng	This species roosts in caves. It is known from a single cave (Tejedor <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2005). Copulation in <em>N. primus</em> has been observed to take place in April, and pregnant females of this species have been captured in May (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>N. primus</em> has been found to feed mostly on moths, crickets, and beetles, and less frequently on other insect orders: Hymenoptera (Formicidae), Neuroptera, Diptera, Homoptera, and Hemiptera (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136777		population	eng	This species is known from a single cave where occurs at fewer than 100 individuals (Tejedor <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136777		threats	eng	Habitat loss and human intrusion on the cave are threats. In addition the ongoing collapse of the roof of the cave can upset the thermal balance in this hot cave. Climatic changes could also interrupt the thermal cave balance and result in extinction (L. Davalos pers. comm.)
136778		conservation	eng	Areas where collected in Bolivia are in protected areas. Review taxonomy.
136778		distribution	eng	This species is known only in Venezuela and Bolivia (Sánchez-Hernández <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its geographic distribution between these point is unknown. Experts consider that the species need revision to clarify distribution and ecology.
136778		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.
136778		population	eng	This is a recently described species and very little is known.
136778		threats	eng	Unknown, although status will depend on validity of species.
136779		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes several protected areas. However, this species has only a small range in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick and it is considered rare, conservation measures may be required.
136779		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, Canada (Stewart <em>et al.</em> 2002).
136779		habitat	eng	There is no information specific to this species available, however, <em>Sorex arcticus</em> from which this species was recently split, is most commonly found in grass-sedge marshes, wet meadows, and other moist openings in and adjacent to boreal forest.
136779		population	eng	It is considered to be relatively rare (van Zyll de Jong 1983).
136779		threats	eng	The species' habitat is rare and fragmented (Herman and Scott 1992). Its habitat is vulnerable to changes that may result from global warming; and is also vulnerable to flooding, and shrews may be stressed by the absence of snow cover (Herman and Scott 1992).
136780		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from at least one protected area, El Tamá National Park, in Venezuela.
136780		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Páramo de Tamá, west Venezuela, and adjacent highlands in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, between 2,385 and 3,325 m (Woodman 2002; Hutterer 2005). There have not been appropriate surveys in the mountains to the north and south of the known distribution in the Eastern Cordillera, however, the species probably occurs more widely than is currently known.
136780		habitat	eng	Most individuals of this species were found in cloud forest, though there is at least one record from pasture on the margin of forest (Woodman 2002). A closely related species from the <em>C. thomasi</em> group, occurs in disturbed habitats, including agricultural areas and near human settlements (C. Delgado pers. comm.).
136780		population	eng	This relatively newly described species is only known from a few specimens and population trends are still unknown.
136780		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no significant deforestation within the species' known range.
136781		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Gunung Leuser National Park, and possibly some other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. In particular it is important to know whether or not it can survivve in transformed habitats, such as oil palm plantations, which are expending rapidly within its range.
136781		distribution	eng	This species is only known from northern Sumatra, where it appears to e widespread. It might occur more widely across the island (Ruedi 1995).
136781		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs at low elevations, and has been found, for example, in regenerating lowland rainforest at 300 m asl, in dense understory. It has been found at higher elevations in Gunung Leuser National Park. It can clearly tolerate some transformation of its forest habitat, but the level of its adaptability is not known.
136781		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136781		threats	eng	<em>C. hutanis</em> is probably threatened to some extent by deforestation, though its adaptability to anthropogenic habitats is not well understood.
136782		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas in Peru, but not in Bolivia (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.).
136782		distribution	eng	This species is known from Department of Cuzco, Madre de Dios, and Puno, in southeastern Peru; and the Department of La Paz in northern Bolivia. The elevational range is from 1,300 to 2,250 m (Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136782		habitat	eng	Little is known of the behaviour of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. Occurs in humid montane forest (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.)
136782		population	eng	It is possible that the population is stable (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.).
136782		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, due to coffee and coca plantations may threaten the species in parts of its range, it occurs in a fragile ecosystem and is sensitive (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.).
136783		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is probably present in protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136783		distribution	eng	This species is known from Taiwan, Province of China, and neighbouring islands of Lu Dau (Green Island) and Lan Yu (Orchid Island) as well as southern China, including Hainan island (Smith and Xie 2008). It is also known from northeast India (Jiang and Hoffmann 2001), but the exact locations and the range are unknown and so are not mapped here.
136783		habitat	eng	There is very little information available on the habitat and ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).
136783		population	eng	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.
136783		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136784		conservation	eng	Inside its wide range it is possible to find several protected areas.
136784		distribution	eng	British Columbia (Canada) south to Central Mexico and east to west Oklahoma (USA) (Simmons 2005)
136784		habitat	eng	Hibernates in caves for periods of 5 months, starting at the end of November to the beginning of April (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It is found in mesic habitats and Conifer forests (Holloway and Barclay, 2001)
136784		population	eng	They are not common. This bat occurs in a wide range (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005)
136784		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.
136785		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136785		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from a small geographic area (two localities in close proximity) in the mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia. It probably has a larger range within montane areas in Papua Province. Recent surveys have not been conducted for this species, due to difficulty of access to the region. It has been recorded between 2,950 and 3,950 m asl.
136785		habitat	eng	It is known from alpine scrub and at lower elevations from shallow marshes above the tree line, and boggy alpine heath.
136785		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitat.
136785		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although it could be restricted to just two localities.
136786		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136786		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand (south of the Isthmus of Kra). It is present on some adjacent islands (Koh Samui, Pulau Tioman, and Pulau Mapor).
136786		habitat	eng	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in primary and secondary forest, but its degree of tolerance to habitat degradation is not known.
136786		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136786		threats	eng	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human induced habitat degradation. In particular there is a rapid expansion of plantations, including oil palm, taking place within its range.
136787		conservation	eng	In Brazil, this species is present in Mapinguari National Park (1,572,422 ha), Abufari Biological Station (288,000 ha), and Piagaçu-Purus State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,008,167 ha).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136787		distribution	eng	This red howler monkey extends west from the lower Rio Madeira (left bank) and the Rio Aripuanã across the basin of the Rio Purus to the Rios Juruá and Envira, as postulated by Gregorin (2006). It occurs in northern Rondônia, but the southern limits to its range in Brazil are unclear. It is not clear whether it is the form in north-west Bolivia and far south-eastern Peru in the basins of the upper Purus, Madre de Dios and Tampopata. According to Anderson (1997), only <em>Alouatta sara</em> occurs in Bolivia. Aquino and Encarnacion (1994a) did not consider subspecies or any species other than <em>A. seniculus</em>. Red howlers occur throughout the Peruvian Amazon from the Río Inamabari in the far south-east, along the Rio Urubamba, through the Pachitea to the right (east) bank of the Rio Huallaga, north accompanying the Cordillera to cross the Río Marañón, extending into Ecuador along the Río Santiago (left bank). According to Gregorin (2006), the west (left) bank the Rio Juruá and Envira is taken up by <em>A. juara</em>. For this reason, the Río Inuya may be the northern limit to <em>A. puruensis</em> in Peru.
136787		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland, evergreen rain forest. Along the Rio Juruá, and undoubtedly elsewhere in its range, it tends to be more common in seasonally flooded forest (<strong>várzea</strong>) than in <em>terra firma</em> forest (Peres 1997).<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). The large groups of <em>A. palliata</em> may have home ranges extending to 60 ha (Estrada 1982), whereas in the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982a).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982)<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Brazil<br/>Adult male 7.62 kg (n=28) (Ayres 1986)<br/>Adult female 6.02 kg (n=34) (Ayres 1986).
136787		population	eng	Peres (1997) estimated population densities of howler monkeys at a number of sites on the right (east) bank of the Rio Juruá (presumably <em>A. puruensis</em>): Vai Quem Quer (<em>terra firma</em> forest), 1.0 individuals/km²; Igarapé Jaraquí (<em>terra firma</em> forest), 5.5 individuals/km²; Penedo (<em>terra firma</em> forest), 2.6 individuals/km²; Boa Esperança (<em>várzea</em>), 89.7 individuals/km². Peres (1997) found that populations were higher in <em>várzea</em> (seasonally inundated) forests than in <em>terra firma</em> forests.
136787		threats	eng	No major threats across the range, although habitat loss and hunting are no doubt taking place. Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) reported that populations of red howlers have declined in the lower parts of the selva alta in the Peruvian Amazon as a result of colonization by humans, hunting and deforestation, noting particularly the valley of Chanchamayo (Department of Junín) where they have been extirpated.
136788		conservation	eng	None of the known collecting localities for verified specimens of this species are from within protected areas (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). The taxonomic status of specimens from north Madagascar requires further study.
136788		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar and appears to be restricted to lowland (<550 m elevation) habitats in the south-east (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). The taxonomic status of specimens from the north of Madagascar remain unresolved (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136788		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from lowland humid, transitional dry-humid and humid littoral forests, often in areas that have been subject to medium levels of habitat degradation (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is known to occur in sympatry with <em>M. majori</em>. There are no records of it roosting in synanthropic settings and it is assumed to roost in caves in forest formations (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).
136788		population	eng	This species was only formally described in 2008 and there is no information on its population (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008).
136788		threats	eng	Although robust data are lacking and there are still some taxonomic uncertainties of specimens from the north of Madagascar, the information on <em>M. petersoni</em> from the south-east suggests that this species is closely associated with natural forest formations and is therefore threatened by the loss or degradation of these habitats (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). Threats to roosting colonies have not yet been documented.
136789		conservation	eng	There are several small protected areas within the range of this species.
136789		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic occurs in the Transvolcanic Axis highlands in the Mexican states of Colima, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, Mexico, Puebla, Morelos, and in the Distrito Federal (Woodman and Timm, 1999 in Hutterer, 2005). It occurs at elevations from 2,460 to 4,400 m asl (Carraway, 2007).
136789		habitat	eng	This insectivorous species is found in several temperate forest types; pine, pine oak, pine fir, and has also been collected in bunchgrass meadow. In Michoacán it has also been found in disturbed pine forest (Álvarez and Sánchez-Casas 1997).
136789		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
136789		threats	eng	Deforestation and pesticides are major threats to this species, although it is not known to what degree it can tolerate disturbance of its habitat.
136790		conservation	eng	Need surveys to confirm distribution of the species. Need to review museum specimens of <em>P. macrotis</em> to confirm whether or not actually correspond to this species.
136790		distribution	eng	Trinidad and Tobago; Aruba Isl. (Netherlands Antilles); Grenada; Venezuela; Margarita Isl. (Venezuela); French Guiana (Simmons 2005).
136790		habitat	eng	Very little is known on the natural history of this species. Roosts are in hollow trees and in hollow rotten logs on the ground (Eisenberg 1989) or under overhanging banks (Emmons and Feer 1997). Also found in caves in the Llanos in Venezuela (Lim pers. comm.). This is an aerial insectivore of background cluttered space. Distributional limits are still poorly known (Lim pers. comm.).
136790		population	eng	This species is poorly known and considered by Emmons and Feer (1997) to be rare everywhere in its geographic range. However, this species may be confused with <em>P. macrotis</em> and so may be less rare than previously thought. It can be common, for example in caves in Venezuela. (Lim pers. comm.) As na aerial insectivore, it may be underrepresented in mistnet sampling, but can be more easily captured at roost sites.
136790		threats	eng	Not known.
136791		conservation	eng	The Kipunji occurs entirely within protected areas, 48.4% within Kitulo National Park, 44.9% within Mt Rungwe Catchment Forest Reserve and 6.7% within the Kilombero Nature Reserve (Davenport <em>et al.</em> in press). However, only the national park has any current management activities and they remain limited, especially within the forest (Mwakilema and Davenport 2005). The focus of current Kipunji conservation work is the protection and restoration of the montane habitats of Mount Rungwe, especially the forest connections such as Bujingijila Corridor (Davenport 2005, 2006). Protecting these corridors is of the highest priority for the conservation of this genus/species. In addition, research into the reasons for, and viability of, the extremely small Udzungwa population, conservation education and long-term monitoring of both populations is important (Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). The Kipunji is being used as a 'flagship species' by the Wildlife Conservation Society's long-term Southern Highlands Conservation Programme in and around Rungwe-Kitulo, especially in education and awareness raising activities, and as part of a long-term monitoring programme.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136791		distribution	eng	A Tanzanian endemic known only from two populations separated by ca. 350 km of non-forested land. One population is at 1,750-2,450 m in 12.4 km² of Rungwe-Kitulo Forest (Davenport <em>et al.</em> 2008) in the Southern Highlands of south-western Tanzania (09.12º-09.18ºS, 33.67º-33.92ºE). The Rungwe-Kitulo Forest includes Mt. Rungwe Forest Reserve (150 km²) and the Livingstone Forest (191 km²), which lies within the 412 km² Kitulo National Park (Davenport 2002; Davenport and Bytebier 2004; Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2006, 2008). Mt. Rungwe and Livingstone Forest are connected by the Bujingijila Corridor, a two km wide degraded forest connection (Davenport 2005, 2006; Mwakilema and Davenport 2005). The Kipunji inhabits the wetter forest of south Mt. Rungwe and isolated groups are scattered in the north and south of Livingstone Forest (Davenport 2005; Jones <em>et al.</em>. 2005; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2006, 2008). Anecdotal evidence points to the historical presence of the species in other Southern Highland forests, though this is unconfirmed and recent extensive searches have found no new subpopulations in other forests (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). <br/><br/>The other population of <em>R. kipunji</em> is at 1,300-1,750 m in the Vikongwa Valley, Ndundulu Forest (07.67º-07.85ºS, 35.17º-36.83ºE;  ca. 180 km of closed forest), in the Kilombero Nature Reserve in the Udzungwa Mountains, south-central Tanzania (Jones <em>et al.</em>. 2005). The area known to be occupied by the species in the Ndundulu Forest is 8.2 km² (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008; Jones <em>et al.</em> unpubl.).  Previous and more recent research in Ndundulu Forest indicate the animal is absent from large parts of this forest (Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). The area of occupancy (AOO) achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares is 10.79 km² in Rungwe-Kitulo and 3.18 km² in Ndundulu giving a combined species AOO of 13.97 km² (Davenport in press; Jones <em>et al.</em>. unpubl.). The species? extent of occurrence (EOO) was estimated to be 12.41 km² in Rungwe-Kitulo and 8.19 km² in Ndundulu, with the combined total EOO (species range) just 20.6 km² (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008; Jones <em>et al.</em> unpubl.).
136791		habitat	eng	Habitat ranges from degraded montane and upper montane forest from 1,750-2,450 m in Rungwe-Kitulo, to pristine submontane forest in Ndundulu (Davenport and Jones 2005; Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005; Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2006, 2008). In Rungwe-Kitulo, the canopy is often broken and between 10 and 30 m with emergents to 35 m. The Kipunji prefers steep-sided gullies and valley edges and is rarely found far from streams (Davenport and Butynski in press).  Ridges and open areas are usually avoided. The forest has been greatly reduced by logging (Lovett 1986; McKone and Walzem 1994; Machaga <em>et al.</em>. 2004; Davenport 2005, 2006). Thick undergrowth is typical, with the tree fern <em>Cyathea manniana</em>, wild banana <em>Ensete ventricosum</em>, and large stands of bamboo <em>Sinarundinaria alpina</em> common in the south and south-east of Mt. Rungwe and the north-west of Livingstone (Davenport and Butynski in press; Gereau <em>et al.</em>. in press). The species rarely frequents the bamboo and leaves the forest only to raid nearby crops.  In southern Mt Rungwe, annual rainfall ranges from ca. 185-280 cm and there is a distinct but short dry season from June to October. In Ndundulu, the <em>Parinari  excelsa</em>-dominant forest is undisturbed and the canopy is unbroken, reaching a height of between 40 and 50 m (Jones 2006).
136791		population	eng	Surveys totalling 2,864 hours and covering 3,456 km of transect were undertaken by Davenport <em>et al.</em> (2008) to determine distribution and group numbers. In addition, 772 hours of simultaneous multi-group observational follows in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu forests enabled 209 total counts to be carried out. Davenport <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimated some 1,042 individuals in Rungwe-Kitulo, ranging from 25 to 39 individuals per group (µ = 30.65; SE = 0.62; n = 34), and 75 individuals in Ndundulu, ranging from 15 to 25 individuals per group (µ = 18.75; SE = 2.39; n = 4). The total Kipunji population was thus estimated to be 1,117 animals in 38 groups (µ = 29.39; SE = 0.85; n = 38). The Ndundulu population may no longer be viable and the Rungwe-Kitulo population is highly fragmented with isolated subpopulations remaining in degraded habitat (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008).
136791		threats	eng	The threats to the Kipunji are considerable. The Rungwe-Kitulo forests are severely degraded. Logging, charcoal making, illegal hunting and unmanaged resource extraction are common (Davenport 2005, 2006; Machaga <em>et al.</em> 2004). The narrow Bujingijila Corridor linking Mt Rungwe to Livingstone Forest, and the corridors joining the northern and southern sections of Livingstone, are encroached by farmers and degraded (Davenport 2005; Jones <em>et al.</em>. 2005; Mwakilema and Davenport 2005). Without immediate conservation intervention these forests will be fragmented, resulting in isolated subpopulations some of which are unlikely to be viable over the long-term (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. in press). The Kipunji is hunted in the Southern Highlands (Davenport 2005, 2006), mainly as retribution for the crop-raiding of maize and the leaves of beans and potatoes in the first few months of the year. However, the monkey is also occasionally hunted for food.<br/><br/>Mt. Rungwe, while nominally a Forest Reserve, remains unmanaged and unprotected, although there are moves to upgrade its status. Although Ndundulu Forest is in excellent condition, and largely undisturbed (Davenport and Jones 2005; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2005; Jones, 2006), the species is present in low numbers (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). The reasons for this are unclear (Davenport and Jones 2005; Jones 2006). The gazettement in August 2007 of Kilombero Nature Reserve incorporating Matundu, Iyondo and West Kilombero Scarp (including Ndundulu) (Marshall <em>et al.</em>. 2007) may serve to further protect the species in Ndundulu. However, whether this population is viable in the long term is debatable (Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008).
136792		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas.
136792		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sumatra in Indonesia. It seems to be widely distributed from the hillsides of east and south Sumatra to upper montane rain forest of west Sumatra. It ranges from sea-level up to 2,000 m asl.
136792		habitat	eng	This species is found up to 2,000 m asl in primary lowland and montane forest, but it is most abundant in highly degraded forest and cultivated lands between 1,500 and 1,800 m asl.
136792		population	eng	<em>C. lepidura</em> seems to be an abundant species.
136792		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
136793		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.
136793		distribution	eng	From southeast Colorado, eastern New Mexico, western Oklahoma and Texas (USA), southward through Chihuahua and Coahuila (Mexico) into central Mexico, as far south as Guanajuato and Queretaro (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136793		habitat	eng	<em>N. leucodon</em> is known from a variety of habitat types including scrublands, rocky areas, cactus stands (especially cholla and prickly pear), as well as pinyon-juniper forests. Well adapted to these arid regions, the White-toothed Woodrat is able to obtain much of its food and water needs from cacti. Like other woodrats, <em>N. leucodon</em> often builds elaborate dens of sticks and vegetation, which offer protection from predators and extreme temperatures (Mares 1999).
136793		population	eng	Population surveys have not been conducted for this newly established species. Data from investigations of <em>N. albigula</em> and all subspecies indicate that white-toothed woodrats are secure (NatureServe 2006).
136793		threats	eng	None known.
136794		conservation	eng	This species occurs inside a protected area: Parque Nacional de Caparaó.
136794		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Brazil, Minas Gerais State, Parque Nacional de Caparaó, Pico de Bandeira, 2,700 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).
136794		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat requirements and ecology of this species. It is known only from the type locality within a National Park (Bonvicino pers. comm.).
136794		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species.
136794		threats	eng	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.
136795		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from several small reserves near Medellin (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).
136795		distribution	eng	The species is found only in the Central Cordillera in Antioquia department, Colombia. A second specimen reported from the Cordillera Oriental by Woodman (1996) was later described as a new species, <em>Cryptotis brachyonyx</em>, related to <em>Cryptotis colombiana</em> (Woodman 2003; Hutterer 2005). There have not been further surveys north or south of the known range, where it may occur. It is found from 1,750 to 2,800 m asl (Woodman 2003).
136795		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest, as well as near pine plantations, disturbed forest, and in agricultural fields (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).
136795		population	eng	The species is common in the montane forest in the vicinity of Medellin (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).
136795		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Although it is found in a region with high rates of habitat loss, the species tolerates some degree of disturbance.
136796		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not known from any protected areas, but based on current understanding of the range it would occur in the proposed 50,300-ha conservation area on the Bongolava Massif. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136796		distribution	eng	So far known only from its type locality of Ambodimahabibo in north-western Madagascar. This site is limited by the Mahajamba River in the west and the Sofia River in the north (Craul <em>et al.</em> 2007). This would suggest that the species is bounded by <em>L. grewocki</em> to the north (north of the Sofia), and <em>L. edwardsi</em> to the south (south of the Mahajamba), but this requires clarification.
136796		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.
136796		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this recently described species.
136796		threats	eng	Unknown, but presumably habitat loss is a threat.
136797		conservation	eng	<em>Spilogale g. amphialus</em> is considered to be a subspecies of special concern by the state of California (Crooks, 1994).
136797		distribution	eng	The geographic range of the western spotted skunk extends from central Mexico through the western United States to British Columbia (Rosatte, 1987).
136797		habitat	eng	The spotted skunk has been recorded in a big spectrum of habitats varying from open lowlands to mountainous areas (Baker and Baker, 1975), streams to rocky places, beaches to human buildings and other disturbed areas, chaparral among others (Rosatte, 1987; Verts <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The species has been found at elevations of 2,500 m in California (Orr, 1943). Doty and Dowler (2006) reported that <em>M. mephitis</em> and <em>S. gracilis</em> coexist in habitats of west-central Texas that provide sufficient cover for <em>S. gracilis</em>. Its an omnivorous species, feeding primarily on insects and small mammals (Ewer, 1973; Kurten and Anderson, 1980) and carrion, berries, fruits and other (Bailey, 1936; Clark and Stromberg, 1987; Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981).
136797		population	eng	Populations of western spotted skunks have been known to fluctuate in numbers and the animal is generally not common on the United States plains (Polder, 1968; Choate <em>et al.</em>, 1974). Few studies have been published on the home range, population density, and mortality of spotted skunks (Howard and Marsh, 1982). Crabb (1948) found that the western spotted skunk in Iowa maintained a home range of 64.8 ha at densities of 2.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>.
136797		threats	eng	Humans have been the main cause of mortality for spotted skunks, especially as a result of automobile roadkills. Spotted skunks are also trapped, shot, and poisoned during predator control tactics (Rosatte, 1987). The pelts of both eastern and western spotted skunks represent an insignificant fraction of the modern fur trade. Pesticides present a significant threat over portions of the range.
136798		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.
136798		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippines. Specimens from Buton e Kab'na (south of Sulawesi) were identified as <em>C. brachyotis</em> but might be <em>C. luzoniensis</em>.
136798		habitat	eng	It is abundant in agricultural areas, and common in lowland and montane secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, 1991; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Ingle 1992; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). In the Philippines, it ranges from sea level up to at least 1,250 m asl, but has also been documented in montane forest from 925-1,600 m asl in Balbalasang, Kalinga Province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). It can also be found in residential and urban areas. It rarely occurs in primary forest, and only when there are few other fruit bats. It is an agricultural pest. In Sulawesi, it mainly occurs in the lowlands in disturbed habitats. It has the second highest reproductive rate among fruit bats in Philippines.
136798		population	eng	The species is locally abundant, stable, and most common in disturbed and residential areas.
136798		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136799		conservation	eng	A number of well-secured protected areas exist within Yellow-striped Chevrotain’s range, within which it is presumed to occur (and is confirmed from some). Perhaps most notable in terms of long-term security is Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area, a World Heritage Site which is actively protected under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department (IUCN/WCMC 1997). Sri Lanka's protected area network is extensive but is least developed in the wet zone. Expansion to cover nearly all forests remaining in the wet zone has been proposed (IUCN/WCMC 1997). Following concerns that existing conservation laws were ineffective, a moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect all wet-zone forests from logging and legal protection of the remaining wet zone forests was shortly afterwards adjudged to be quite effective (IUCN/WCMC 1997). Wet forest conservation within Sri Lanka is the essential foundation to the survival of this species. The National Environment Action Plan (NEAP 1998–2001) gives a comprehensive guidance for achieving this. It is also desirable to determine to what, if any, extent the species extends outside the wet zone along riverine strips.
136799		distribution	eng	The Yellow-striped Chevrotain occurs in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6°24′N, 81°25′E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy district (Groves and Meijaard 2005): specific localities are given in Groves and Meijaard 2005: 420). Riverine forests of the intermediate zone support some of Sri Lanka's wet zone endemic forest birds (BirdLife International 2001): no information has been traced on whether the wet zone chevrotain uses such habitats. No published records additional to Groves and Meijaard (2005) and following their suggested taxonomy were traced, although this species persists in the Talangama wetland close to Colombo (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). Objective identification (i.e. not solely on the basis of habitat and location) of further animals at various localities within the island is required to test the hypothesis of Groves and Meijaard (2005) of a strict segregation of habitat between this species and <em>M. memmina s.s</em>.; these authors stressed their “admittedly small sample sizes”. Currently it might be rash for species-level identification to be assigned to individuals under the Groves and Meijaard (2005) taxonomic hypothesis solely on the basis of habitat.
136799		habitat	eng	Information for the genus is reviewed under <em>M. indica</em> and, given the previous treatment of all forms of <em>Moschiola</em> as conspecific, some of this information may relate to Yellow-striped Chevrotain. Differences in ecology, other than the basic restriction to wet forest of this species, have not been clarified within the genus. Yellow-striped Chevrotain freely enters rice paddies (K.A.I. Nekaris pers. comm. 2008), is more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs commonly in rubber plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008).
136799		population	eng	Based on localities of confirmed specimens, Yellow-striped Chevrotain appears to be widespread within the wet zone (Groves and Meijaard 2005), which is itself only a small proportion of the island. In the wet zone, chevrotains are common wherever there is relatively undisturbed secondary or better forest, and densities may be in the order of ten per km² or so; in the wet zone, chevrotains are more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occur commonly in rubber plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). During extensive spot-light surveys of the wet zone in 2001, chevrotains were the most commonly seen mammal, being seen at many sites and almost every night, but, while they clearly remain common, surveys in subsequent years to 2006 suggested that populations in the survey areas were declining (K.A.I. Nekaris pers. comm. 2008). There are certainly some steep local declines: for example, in the last eight years, the Talangama wetland close to Colombo have probably lost more than half the available cover to housing projects and in peri-urban sites such as this chevrotains also suffer heavy predation by domestic dogs. Unlike the small village dogs, Colombo's sub-urbanites increasingly keep large dogs which make short work of native mammals (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). With increasing fragmentation of wet-zone forests, the proportion of animals in essentially small and spatially constrained areas, and so vulnerable to such localized pressures, increases.
136799		threats	eng	In past centuries, there has been a major loss of habitat available to this chevrotain and thus in its population, reflecting a rise in the human population of Sri Lanka from one million in the 19th century to twenty million now (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). There is now, overall, rather little forest habitat left in the wet zone: only 1,440 km² of rainforest were estimated to remain in Sri Lanka by Collins <em>et al</em>. (1991), and only 9% forest cover was estimated to remain in the wet zone (IUCN/WCMC 1997). This situation was caused by logging, fuelwood-gathering (domestic use and for brick-making), agricultural conversion (including for tree crops), mining, urbanisation, and fire (Collins <em>et al</em>. 1991). Legal protection of the remaining wet zone forests is quite effective (IUCN/WCMC 1997) but encroachment of human populations is fragmenting and degrading them (National Environment Action Plan 1998–2001). Even some protected areas have suffered severe degradation (Hoffmann 1996). In the decade up to 2008, there has been a major growth in tea small holdings within the wet zone, which were mostly forest patches until then (P. Fernando pers. comm. 2008). However, the level of threat these activities pose to chevrotains is unclear, because in the wet zone chevrotains are common wherever there is relatively undisturbed secondary or better forest (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). In fact, in the wet zone chevrotains are more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, so habitat "degradation" by itself is unlikely to be a threat, especially as they also occur commonly in rubber plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). Sri Lankan chevrotains are hunted, with firearms, for their meat in areas where security broke down during the civil war (Santiapillai and Wijeyamotan 2003), but it there is no reason to suppose that this is at levels sufficient to drive major population declines. Gun-hunting of birds was considered a limited threat, given the strict gun controls wrought by the security situation and the high cost of ammunition by BirdLife International (2001), but for chevrotains snaring and other forms of trapping, not of concern to public order, may be more serious.
136800		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. At the present time it is not known to occur in any protected areas within what appears to be a restricted range (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.
136800		distribution	eng	At present, this species is known only from the type locality, Ambositra, north of Fianarantsoa in east-central Madagascar. Groves (2000) believes that this is also the species recorded from the Bongolava Massif north-west of the type locality (Thalmann and Rakotoarison 1994); however, photographs from this region show that this is not the case and that it is probable that a further, undescribed species exists on Bongolava (C. Groves pers. comm.).
136800		habitat	eng	Inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but other information on its ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.
136800		population	eng	This species is currently known only from a single museum specimen.
136800		threats	eng	Unknown. The type locality, Ambositra, from which the species is only known, is a major city and has been deforested.
136801		conservation	eng	It has been frequently collected across a large range including several large protected areas (Leite, 2003). The species has been collected from an area adjacent to Linhares Forest Reserve and Sooretama Biological Reserve; however, its presence there has not been confirmed (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136801		distribution	eng	The main distribution area is on the coast of Paraiba State, northeastern Brazil to the northeast of Sao Paulo State in the southeast. It occurs inland in Bahia and east Minas Gerais States (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136801		habitat	eng	This species range is relatively large.The species is found mainly in broadleaf evergreen rainforests and associated with habitats such as mangroves from sea level to 1,000 m (Leite, 2003). Apparently it prefers primary forest and areas with dense vegetation.
136801		population	eng	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (Y. Leite pers. comm.).
136801		threats	eng	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented in some parts of its range (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).
136802		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern India with a known distribution range in Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland (Hutterer 2005). It has a wide distribution in the region and ranges in altitude from 1,500 to 3,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136802		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a variety of natural and modified habitats. It is found in both subtropical and tropical montane forest, it has been reported from stony escarpments, and has even been found in sewage lines (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136802		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
136802		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
136803		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Cotapata National Park (J. Vargas pers. comm.). Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species.
136803		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three adjacent localities in the valley of the Rio Zongo, Departamento La Paz, Bolivia. Based on similarly distributed small mammal species, this species is hypothesized to occur more widely, likely on the eastern Andean slope humid montane forests from central Bolivia through southeast Peru (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). There is a second record near Coroico, which was from disturbed forest. Surveys into the north in Madidi National Park have failed to find this species (J. Vargas pers. comm.). It is known only from montane humid forest, from 1,800 to 3,000 m (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004; J. Vargas pers. comm.).
136803		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in a disturbed forest area, which consisted of patches of closed canopy with open areas with isolated trees. The other two localities were in primary cloud forest. Throughout its known range in the Valle de Zongo, it occurs sympatrically with Gracilinanus aceramarcae and several sigmodontine rodents. The lower elevations of the Valle de Zongo are inhabitated by a different species, Marmosops noctivagus (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Further surveys, particularly from 1,000-2,000 m along the eastern forested slopes of the Cordillera Real, are needed to determine where the two congeneric species occur sympatrically or parapatrically (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136803		population	eng	This species is known only from six specimens (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). However, the habitat that this species occurs in is rather poorly sampled, except for where there has been encroachment from humans, and it is likely to be found much more widely (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136803		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. Within the known area of this species, there is subsistence farming, especially from 1,600 to 1,800 m.
136804		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from the Samuel State Ecological Station, Rondônia (20,865 ha) (Martins <em>et al.</em> 1987).
136804		distribution	eng	The range is reportedly delimited to the north and west by the Rios Mamoré-Madeira and Jiparaná, and to the south by the Serra dos Pacáas Novos, where it may be parapatric with <em>M. melanura</em>, which is “typically found in the savanna-like vegetation, rather than rain forest ecosystems, that predominate in southern Rondônia. Ferrari <em>et al</em>. (1995) failed to find any evidence of the occurrence of marmosets during surveys of the Guajará-Mirim State Park in west-central Rondônia. Likewise no marmosets were recorded at Pimenta Bueno on the upper Rio Jiparaná (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1996), although G. R. Monção has recorded this species there (pers. comm. to A. B. Rylands, February 2006). The range of this marmoset, as such, is evidently much smaller than previously thought.<br/><br/>Vivo (1985) argued that the Foz do Rio Castanho specimens, later described as <em>Callithrix argentata marcai</em> by Alperin (1993) were similar, and Vivo (1985) made no mention of the two other localities indicated by Hershkovitz (1977: 214b, mouth of the Rio Jiparaná, upper Rio Madeira; and 214c, Urupá, Rio Jiparaná), but his map would argue that they would also be “<em>C. emiliae</em>”. The discovery of <em>M. nigriceps</em> (Ferrari and Lopes 1992) means that the range of Vivo’s (1985) “<em>C. emiliae</em>” is restricted to the left bank of the Rio Jiparaná.
136804		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Martins <em>et al. </em>(1987), Ferrari and Martins (1992), and Lopes and Ferrari (1994) studied some aspects of the ecology and behaviour of <em>Mico rondoni</em>, especially feeding behaviour. <br/><br/><em>Mico rondoni</em> is syntopic with Weddell's Saddleback Tamarin, <em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em>, possibly as a result of a recent range extension of the saddleback tamarin to the east side of the Rio Madeira (Ferrari 1993; Lopes and Ferrari 1994). Although similar in size, the two species differ in their exploitation of gum: the marmoset gouges holes in tree trunks and branches, and vines, specializing on this resource, whereas its consumption the saddleback tamarin is opportunistic (Ferrari and Martins 1992). Lopes and Ferrari (1994) recorded the marmosets in association with the saddleback tamarins for 40% of their observations of the latter. <em>Mico rondoni</em> tends to forage and travel higher above the ground (10 m or higher) than the saddelback tamarin groups (Lopes and Ferrari 1994).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adults mean 326.9 g (n=6 males and two females) (Ferrari and Martins 1992).
136804		population	eng	This species is rare and its range evidently very patchy. The reasons for this are not known, but may be related to its sympatry with <em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> (see Martins <em>et al</em>. 1987; Ferrari and Martins 1991; Ferrari 1993). Population densities are low when compared with those typical of other Amazonian marmosets.
136804		threats	eng	The major threat is ongoing habitat loss from the construction of the Samuel Hydroelectric dam, highway BR-364 (a corridor of deforestation in the southern Amazon) and development in its western range limits along the Rio Madeira, all of which resulted from the Polonoroeste Development Project of the 1980s. Two new hydroelectric dam projects have been approved for the upper Rio Madeira in Rondonia near the Bolivian border, which will inundate large areas of land and result in extensive forest loss.
136805		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>All <span style="font-style: italic;">Bettongia</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> spp. are listed on CITES Appendix I.
136805		distribution	eng	This species was known from the Nullarbor Plain in Western Australia and South Australia. This habitat has been surveyed and there is no evidence of current existence of this or most other similar-sized mammal species.
136805		habitat	eng	There is no information about its habitat or ecology.
136805		population	eng	Only known from recent subfossils (McNamara 1997). There is little doubt that this species persisted into European settlement.
136805		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136806		conservation	eng	It is present in the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, formally declared in October 1993. Further survey work is needed to understand the limits of distribution of the species and to assess its current population status.
136806		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from four localities within the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in central Lao PDR. This tower karst landscape is part of the Quy Dat massif, which outcrops at the same latitude in Binh Tri Thien Province of north-central Viet Nam. Providing that adequate forest cover is still extant, this species could occur in suitable limestone habitats in that part of Viet Nam (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136806		habitat	eng	It is likely petricolous, and has been collected only in forested, rocky habitats of the Khammouan Limestone, but comparable environments in the adjacent Viet Namese portion of the Quy Dat limestone massif may harbor these same species specialized for living in forested, karstic landscapes. It is not known whether it actually lives inside cave entrances or only in forested talus outside cave entrances and at the base of limestone towers.It is nocturnal, and the diet probably includes insects (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136806		population	eng	This species may be common. It is known from two whole specimens and 14 individuals represented by fragments recovered from owl pellets (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136806		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as limestone habitats in general are relatively safe from massive scale destruction. However, tree cover in peripheral and accessible karst areas is very vulnerable to loss due to logging and firewood removal.
136807		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the distribution, population, and threats to New Caledonia long-eared bat. Pressure on the Mount Koghis site also occurs in the form of high rates of human visitation (Parnaby 2002) to this remnant tract of undisturbed rainforest that is near Nouméa and "which is surrounded by maquis and grassland" (Flannery 1995).
136807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Caledonia, where it has only been recorded from Mount Koghis, near Nouméa (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002). The type locality is at 430 m asl.
136807		habitat	eng	New Caledonia long-eared bat has been recorded from a clearing in tall rainforest; all collected at dusk (Parnaby 2002).
136807		population	eng	It is only known from a few specimens (Parnaby 2002).
136807		threats	eng	Available habitat for this species is threatened by urban encroachment and wild fires originating from human settlements (Parnaby 2002).
136808		conservation	eng	It is present in Kakadu National Park and Litchfield National Park, but both provide only nominal protection for the species. Further research needed on the threats to this species.
136808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from Kakadu National Park to Litchfield National Park, in the Northern Territory. Surveys indicate that it is likely restricted to the known range.
136808		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of gravelly hills with a tall savanna understorey and a substrate of small stones as opposed to sand, which is preferred by Delicate Mouse <em>Pseudomys delicatulus</em> (Ford and Johnson 2007; Woinarski and Ford 2008). Animals build mounds of pebbles under which a burrow is located. Captive animals have produced seven litters of 22 young over a nine-month period (Woinarski and Ford 2008).
136808		population	eng	The species is patchily distributed. It is probably a common species within specific habitats, existing in localised populations (Lee 1995).
136808		threats	eng	The species is currently patchily distributed over a fairly limited range. It continues to face the threat of changing fire regimes.
136809		conservation	eng	Reduce loss of forest habitat.
136809		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Colombia, northern Bolivia, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname French Guyana, and the Amazon basin of Brazil (Engstrom and Lim, 2000; InfoNatura, 2004; Lim and Engstrom, 2000; Marinkelle, 1968).
136809		habitat	eng	This bat occurs in evergreen forest in the Amazon Basin. It feeds on large insects (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 1993), for which the audible echolocation is an adaptation (Emmons and Feer, 1997) and roosts in small groups in tree holes, cliffs, roofs and attics of buildings (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Females form maternity colonies during the breeding season; a single young is born each year (Eisenberg, 1989).
136809		population	eng	The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to its high flying and roosting behaviors (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
136809		threats	eng	There are no major threats throughout its range.
136810		conservation	eng	It is found in at least five protected areas alon Yucatan peninsule (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
136810		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Yucatán (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).
136810		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). It occurs in tropical forest, especially at the perennifolious and descidious forest. It is known from localities below 50 masl (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005)
136810		population	eng	Is a non common species (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).
136810		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
136811		conservation	eng	It is found in a few protected areas within its range.
136811		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas along the Cordillera Oriental, to Chiapas, and up to the Sierra Madre Occidental as far north as Durango, in Mexico, from 1,600 to 3,650 m asl.
136811		habitat	eng	It is found in high elevation temperate forest and agricultural fields (corn, oats) (Carraway, 2007).
136811		population	eng	It is a locally common species (John Matson pers. comm.).
136811		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
136812		conservation	eng	It occurs in at least two protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history.
136812		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it ranges from the Tembagapura area of Papua Province, Indonesia, to the Victor Emmanual Range in western Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995).
136812		habitat	eng	This is a large tree kangaroo that needs primary upper montane tropical forests.
136812		population	eng	This species is rare and occurs at low density, and it is difficult to find. The productivity of its preferred habitat is low, resulting in a natural low population density.
136812		threats	eng	This species is threatened by heavy hunting pressure, this includes hunting with dogs (trophy jaws were still very much in evidence in 2000; T. Flannery pers. comm.). It is hunted for food by local people. A large part of the species' range is in uninhabited areas. Populations in the eastern parts of the range were impacted by the fires during the El Niño period in 1998-1999.
136813		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Itatiaia and Restinga de Jurubatiba Nationals Parks.
136813		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region of southeast Brazil, including Bahia, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States; see Hoffmann <em>et al.</em>, 2002, Pereira <em>et al</em>. 2001).
136813		habitat	eng	The species has been found in submontane and montane vegetation. It occurs in forest and disturbed areas but on edge of forest, from sea level to 800 m elevation (Geise pers. comm.). It also occurs in wetlands (Bergallo pers. comm.).
136813		population	eng	This species is relatively common to uncommon across a large range. It is not easy to collect (Bergallo pers. comm.).
136813		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.
136814		conservation	eng	More research is required on the range, population, threats and habitat requirements of the species.
136814		distribution	eng	The main part of of this species' range occurs in Italy, but it crosses the border into France and Switzerland. It inhabits the southern part of the Alps, the Po lowlands, and the Appenine mountains south to Calabria (Brünner <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further research is required to determine the distribution limits of this species. The northern boundary of its distribution is poorly defined, and in southern parts of its range it is confined to higher altitudes and its distribution is patchy; in general it is more patchily and less extensively distributed than shown on the map.<br/><br/>It occurs from the Po plain to at least 1,300 m  (Brünner <em>et al.</em> 2002).
136814		habitat	eng	Occurs in areas with dense vegetation cover.
136814		population	eng	There are very poor population data for this species. Population trend is not known.
136814		threats	eng	Pesticides and habitat loss (resulting from agricultural expansion and intensification) are the main threats.
136815		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Madidi National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management in Bolivia, and the Tambopata National Reserve and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. Providing these protected areas remain intact, the conservation status of this species is not an immediate concern. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
136815		distribution	eng	<em>Callicebus aureipalatii</em> was recently described from the western lowlands of Bolivia (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2006) from the piedmont forest at the base of the Andes in the south into lowland humid riverine and floodplain forests. Primate surveys indicate that it occurs on the western side of the Río Beni (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007, unpubl.). The eastern and northern distributional limits require further study. Preliminary data indicate that the species is not a Bolivian endemic, with localities stretching into southern Peru until at least the Tambopata River (Ayala pers. comm. to R. Wallace, November 2007).
136815		habitat	eng	Found in floodplain forest and piedmont forest on the lower hills of the Andes (less than 500 m asl). More common in more dense forest with a higher density of lianas (R. Wallace, pers. obs.). S. De La Torre (pers. comm.) is currently analyzing the results of a six-month behavioural ecology study on <em>Callicebus aureipalatii</em> at the Hondo River study site within the Madidi protected area. Preliminary analyses suggest home ranges of between 17 and 25 hectares for two study groups with more than 30 plant species consumed (S. De La Torre pers. comm.).
136815		threats	eng	Occasionally hunted, usually for fishing bait. However, hunting databases from several indigenous communities in the region hardly include this species. There is a general threat of habitat destruction related to road development, planned hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, and proposed biodiesel development. Proposed dams may also affect portions of known distribution.
136816		conservation	eng	It occurs within protected areas within its range.
136816		distribution	eng	<em>Apodemus epimelas</em> is endemic to the western and southern Balkans, where it is found in Croatia, west Bosnia and Herzegovina, south Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, west Bulgaria and Greece. It is also found on the Adriatic islands of Korčula and Mljet (Storch 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs at altitudes from sea level to at least 1,600 m (Storch 1999).
136816		habitat	eng	It inhabits rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs (Storch 1999).
136816		population	eng	It is abundant in suitable habitats, and European populations are presumably stable (Storch 1999).
136816		threats	eng	No major threats.
136817		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas within its range.
136817		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from thirteen localities across Southeast Asia in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been collected up to 1,600 m asl in Viet Nam.
136817		habitat	eng	It has been collected in lowland and montane, primary and secondary evergreen and deciduous forest, often associated with areas of limestone. It is most likely a forest dependent species. Nothing is known of the roosting behaviour of this species.
136817		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance or population trends of this species.  It has only been recently described, but in the past, specimens of this species had been assigned to other <em>Kerivoula</em> species. Hence its recent description is not an indication or rarity but rather taxonomic revision.
136817		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.  Being a forest dependent species, logging and agricultural development may be a threat to some populations.
136818		conservation	eng	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species.
136818		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it occurs in the central highlands and in the south-east of the country. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,800 m asl.
136818		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species inhabiting montane tropical moist forest. It occurs in secondary and degraded forest.
136818		population	eng	The species is common.
136818		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136819		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
136819		distribution	eng	The species has been collected only in a small area at the center of Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Saisombun Special Area, where it appeared to be relatively common, and near Ban Nampe, about 11 km north east of Vang Vieng, Vang Vieng District, Vientiane Province, all in central Lao PDR (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006). The species has been caught between 180 m and 400 m asl (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006).
136819		habitat	eng	These bats have been captured in patches of intact and disturbed evergreen forest. In Vang Vieng there were large limestone outcrops with caves in the vicinity. Capture sites in Phou Khao Khouay were not near limestone outcrops or large caves, but the roost sites are not known.
136819		population	eng	It is known from only two sites (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006). A few surveys in surrounding areas have failed to locate the species (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136819		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a possible threat to this species as Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area is not well managed. One of the locations is affected by deforestation, road work and building associated with the development of the large Tad Leuk dam project (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006).The type locality has been flooded for the dam (C. Francis pers. comm.).
136820		conservation	eng	This species is present in Parc National d’Isalo. Future conservation measures should focus on roosting sites, but further research is needed to investigate the roosting and foraging habitats of this species.
136820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is restricted to an area of 1,905 km² around the Isalo Massif (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been recorded between 450 and 700 m above sea level (Goodman and Ranivo 2004) and is currently known from four localities (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136820		habitat	eng	This species has been found in transitional, gallery tropical dry forest in canyons where it has been netted foraging over water (Goodman and Ranivo 2004; Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its roosting requirements have yet to be described.
136820		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
136820		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but its habitat is presumably undergoing some decline. It has yet to be recorded from synanthropic settings and probably relies on natural roost sites in trees and other vegetation.
136821		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas.
136821		distribution	eng	This species is known from the montane region of central Guerrero, Mexico. It occurs at elevations greater than 2,150 m (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is only known from two localities:  Filio de Caballo and Omiltemi de la Sierra Madre.
136821		habitat	eng	The species occurs particularly in pine-oak habitats associated with cloud forests. It may occupy other montane regions in central Guerrero, but appears to be restricted in distribution (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004).
136821		population	eng	No information on population or abundance could be found.  Little is known about this recently described species.
136821		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and deforestation by logging within its restricted range.
136822		conservation	eng	In Ecuador, this species occurs in two protected areas and close to other two (D. Tirira, pers. com).
136822		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cordillera Oriental, ca. 2,400 to 3,800 m, north central Ecuador (Tungurahua and Napo Provinces) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It also occurs in Carchi province (D. Tirira pers. comm.) and southern Colombia, Nariño Department, Galeras Volcano (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).
136822		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial. Five animals were taken in Papallacta area en 1978. Three were trapped among mossy boulders in an old lava flow that impounds the Rio Tambo to form a lake and two were taken on the ground in Subalpine Rain Forest in the valley of the Rio Papallacta (Voss, 2003).
136822		population	eng	It is rare to uncommon. The <em>Thomasomys cinnameus</em> reported in 1988 was the first report since the original description based on a single specimen collected at 2,438 m near Hacienda San Francisco, Provincia Tunguragua, Ecuador (Voss 2003).
136822		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
136823		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. More information is needed on the species' range, population status, habitats and ecology. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).
136823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is known from the base of the northern Japan Alps and Mount Fuji, Chichibu Mountains, and Oze (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It has mostly been recorded from elevations above 700 m asl.
136823		habitat	eng	This species roosts in tree hollows, but sometimes it breeds in buildings and houses.
136823		population	eng	There are only around 20 records for this species, and very little information is available. There has been little survey work, but they are probably patchily distributed across Japan. It is thought to be very rare. Colonies can contain over 100 individuals (Abe, <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136823		threats	eng	Human disturbance at roost sites in buildings and homes is a threat (exacerbated by the destruction of habitat resulting in loss of suitable tree hollows).
136824		conservation	eng	Protected areas are needed for this species (particularly St Clair cave).
136824		distribution	eng	This species is known from Jamaica (Simmons 2005).
136824		habitat	eng	Apparently, this species requires large caves with high humidity to roost ( Genoways <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is known from a single cave (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2005). It occurs in the same cave with <em>Natalus micropus</em> (Hoyt and Bake 1980), and other species.  It occurs in a very dry and arid area with xerophytic vegetation. Its biology is poorly known (Genoways <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It is insectivorous (Nowak 1999). It probably forages in rather cluttered vegetation and over relatively small home ranges (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2004).
136824		population	eng	This bat is uncommon to frequent (Genoways <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136824		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Not found in protected areas.
136825		conservation	eng	Not known, maybe some research actions.
136825		distribution	eng	Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay (Simmons 2005). Distribution includes southern Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil (Gonzalez 2003), and Paraguay (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004).
136825		habitat	eng	Found in human habitats and forests (Barquez pers. comm.).
136825		population	eng	It is an abundant species (Barquez pers. comm.).
136825		threats	eng	Deforestation affects population in Chaco.
136826		conservation	eng	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.
136826		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality; Sierra Tontal, San Juan Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).
136826		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.
136826		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. The area it is recorded from covers <500 km².
136826		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
136827		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.
136827		distribution	eng	This species is found on Java, Madura, Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor, Wetar, Seralu, Timor (including Timor-Leste), Semau, Roti, and Savu Islands in Indonesia (Simmons 2005).
136827		habitat	eng	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.
136827		population	eng	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.
136827		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
136828		conservation	eng	This species is present in Tiantangzhai, Wuyishan, Dinghushan (Guangdong), Shimenhupingshan, Taibaishan, Foping, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Qingliangfeng, Tianmushan, Wawushan, and Zhujiashan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).
136828		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution and is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Hong Kong, Taiwan, Beijing, Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Liaoning, Jilin, Fujian, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Hebei (CSIS 2008).
136828		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded roosting in old temples and under roof tiles, and also include caves, buildings (roof, cellar), ruins, hollow trees, and rock crevices. It forages in the surrounding forest habitat.<br/><br/>In early-mid November, it begins hibernation (Smith and Xie 2008). Ovulation for this species occurs at the end of March through the beginning of April, with delayed fertilization that often produces twins in late June (Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation time is 50-60 days (Smith and Xie 2008).
136828		population	eng	This species appears to be common over much of China (Jones, G. pers. comm.).
136828		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
136829		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in protected areas. Further information is required concerning its distribution, population status, and threats to it.
136829		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known only from less than ten specimens collected in the Wau area on the northern side of the Central Cordillera (Woolley 2005). It ranges in elevation from 975 to 1,810 m asl (Woolley 2005).
136829		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary montane forest. Like its congeners, it is thought to be diurnal and largely terrestrial (Woolley 2005).
136829		population	eng	There is no population information concerning this species.
136829		threats	eng	There is no information concerning possible threats to this species.
136830		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species.
136830		distribution	eng	This species is found in disjunct populations on montane/tepui formations in the Amazon basin in Venezuela (on Cerro Neblina from 1,400 to 2,100 m), eastern Ecuador and in Brazil, in the lowlands along the Rio Jurua (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Gardner, 2007).
136830		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane cloud forest on a Venezuelan tepuis and lowland evergreen Amazonian rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
136830		population	eng	This species is known only from three widely disjunct regions; however, its range is likely to be much larger (Emmons and Feer, 1997).
136830		threats	eng	No major threats.
136831		conservation	eng	Indonesian forestry law protects all species of muntjac and so <em>M. montanus</em>, despite its position of taxonomic uncertainty, has unambiguous statutory protection in law. Species protection laws relating to ungulates in many areas of Sumatra have not been widely publicized. A significant percentage of Sumatra’s montane forests are protected either as national parks, nature reserves, or Hutan Lindung (protected watershed forests). Unfortunately, protected areas and the authorities responsible for conservation of catchment forests are often under-funded and almost all are grossly understaffed so that there is little ranger presence in the field. Where there are field ranger teams, these focus generally on flagship species such as elephants <em>Elephas maximus</em>, Sumatran rhinoceros <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em> or tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, although tiger protection rangers do also conduct ungulate protection activities and in 2007 three hunters arrested in the national park with two muntjacs carcasses received custodial sentences at Kerinci district court (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Some of the known records come from within protected areas, although the operational conservation significance of that is currently minimal: deforestation occurs at higher rates in state forests, including national parks, than in forests owned by communities (Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>To evaluate conservation measures required, any more precisely than to reiterate the need for protection of Sumatran forest and application of existing wildlife laws, the conservation status of <em>M. montanus</em> needs to be clarified. This must start with taxonomic clarification, using as many specimens as possible, as well as other more modern materials such as camera-trap photographs. Once diagnostic characteristics have been established, surveys are needed across the island to determine actual distribution and status and, if the species is not common, the locations of populations of conservation priority. Such status assessment might be achieved by a camera-trapping project, noting that in external features <em>M. montanus</em> may be very close to <em>M. muntjak muntjak</em>. The collection of body parts from hunters is likely to be a vital component of taxonomic clarification and status assessment.
136831		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>M. montanus</em> is uncertain. It is known only from specimens collected from western Sumatra, Indonesia, and has never been suspected to occur anywhere off the island. The known localities are Sungai Kering (spelled as Sungei Kring in the Dutch colonial era), a river draining from the south east massif of Gunung Kerinci); Gunung Kerinci [= Korinchi Peak], Kerinci district, Jambi province; and Sungai Kambang [= Sungai Kumbang], Pesisir Selatan district of West Sumatra province (Robinson and Kloss 1918; D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Miller (1942) described a specimen very likely to be this species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) from Gunung Leuser [= Mount Löser], Aceh Province, in the north of Sumatra. Van Bemmel (1952) mentioned a specimen from Redelong, Aceh, in the Zoological Museum, Amsterdam, and also gave the distribution as including Gunung Talamau (= Mount Ophir) based on Jacobson (1919; basis for record uncertain) and Gunung Kerinci (= Mount Indrapura) based on reports, as well as the lowlands of Deli, east Sumatra. However, all these localities additional to Kerinchi should be considered provisional, notably Deli, because it is not clear from descriptions in Van Bemmel (1952) that the muntjacs he attributed to <em>M. montanus</em> were in fact this species (see Taxonomic Note). There are several modern records. A female muntjac released from a snare (and photographed) at about 1,920 m asl at Ladeh Panjang on the western slopes of Gn. Kerinci, and a male photographed on the south-eastern side of Mt Gunung Tujuh (about 15 km south-east of Ladeh Panjang) at about 1,900 m asl, both locations being within Kerinci Seblat National Park (Kerinci district, Jambi province), each show at least one character likely to be diagnostic of the species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on photograph and data provided by D. Martyr and J. Holden). Several other animals photographed in the Kerinci Seblat National Park are either best considered unidentifiable, or most probably <em>M. muntjak</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on photograph and data provided by D. Martyr and J. Holden).<br/><br/>It seems very likely that <em>M. montanus</em> is a montane form. The Bukit Barisan mountain chain runs almost uninterrupted along the length of Sumatra, and there does not seem to be an obvious ecological break for restricting species to southern Sumatran mountains such as Kerinci. However, the area south of Lake Toba (about 2°45′N, 99°35′E) has several passes of somewhat lower land and has been suspected to be a faunal break for some species (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987); but survey to date has been insufficient to be sure that it truly comprise a barrier of distribution for any of large mammal (e.g. Meiri <em>et al</em>. 2007). Whether <em>M. montanus</em> occurs the length of the chain is therefore difficult to predict.<br/><br/>This paucity of information is partly the result of the synonymy of <em>montanus</em> with <em>M. muntjac</em> in the lengthy review of Van Bemmel (1952), thereby no doubt dousing subsequent authors’ enthusiasm to differentiate muntjacs in Sumatra. In any case, there are very few specimens of muntjacs from Sumatra in easily accessible western institutions, and at least within the RMNH, NHM, AMNH, NMNH and FMNH, the only specimens of <em>M. montanus</em> found by R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) are those of the type series (the small majority of other identifiable specimens being <em>M. muntjac</em>). Other specimens or records of the species may exist, especially within Indonesia, but there is no confirmation of this.
136831		habitat	eng	The specimens collected by Robinson and Kloss (1918) came from altitudes of 7,300 and 4,700 feet (2,225 m and 1,430 m asl), and that reported on by Miller (1942) was obtained at 9,300 feet (2,830 m asl); all were presumably in montane forest. The two recent records of the species came from 1,900–1,925 m asl. The species may thus be primarily montane. Robinson and Kloss (1918), who only definitely recorded <em>M. montanus</em> at higher elevations, also acquired “a large number of antlers and frontlets” and two skins from local communities in the ‘Korinchi valley’ and suspected these were identifiable as from both <em>M. muntjak</em> and <em>M. montanus</em>; they did not acquire any <em>M. muntjak</em> specimens themselves from their time in the forest.  There are relatively few specimens of <em>M. muntjak</em> from Sumatra, and R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of the altitudinal range from which these animals were taken (many historical specimens lack altitudinal data), thus without a thorough re-evaluation of muntjac records from Sumatra (and collection of new data) the ecological relationship between the two species including their respective altitudinal distributions is little more than speculation.<br/><br/>Local hunters in the Kerinci Seblat National Park recognise two forms of muntjac, each of which has a distinctive local name. One is said to be smaller, darker, with small antlers and occurs only in the mountains (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Caution, however, should be taken in assuming that the local names correspond precisely to the two taxonomically defined species <em>M. montanus</em> and <em>M. muntjak</em>, as local people probably use slightly different ‘diagnostic’ characteristics in their taxonomy from those generally used in ‘scientific’ systematics of <em>Muntiacus</em> (for instance elevation might be used as one of the characters). In Indochina, although in some areas local taxonomies and names appear to be based on nominal species of muntjac, it is clear when such taxonomies are tested against empirically defined species boundaries that there is not 100% congruence (in some instances congruence is very poor) (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). This is likely to be especially the case in Sumatra, given the close similarity in general body pelage of <em>M. montanus</em> with Sumatran <em>M. muntjak</em> (Robinson and Kloss 1918; Van Bemmel 1952; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Aspects of ecology are predicted to resemble those of other <em>Muntiacus</em> species of broad-leaved evergreen forests.
136831		population	eng	Nothing is known of population levels or, directly, trends. There are almost 30,000 km² of land above 1,000 m asl in Sumatra (Meiri <em>et al</em>. 2007) but it is unknown how much of this is actually occupied by this muntjac, nor indeed whether 1,000 m is an appropriate altitudinal cut-off. Hunters describe muntjacs in montane areas as ‘rare’ (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).
136831		threats	eng	Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park is fairly high. Ungulates are the main hunting target. Among them, snaring was found to be greatest for muntjacs and lowest for chevrotains and serow; the target species were assessed by the diameter of the cable (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Muntjacs are almost invariably hunted with snares and primarily for meat, either for household use or for sale in village markets. Unlike sambar <em>Cervus unicolor</em>, there seems no significant market for the antlers of this muntjac (which are small) and there is no recorded market for medicinal purposes (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). A figure of 51 snares (mostly of size suitable for muntjac) were found in a one km² area and this was regarded by Linkie <em>et al</em>. (2003) as indicating very high snaring pressure. It is, however, well within the snaring densities found within various Viet Namese and Lao forests which retain muntjacs after a decade or more of such pressures, although it is likely that populations are declining and their long-term viability is unclear (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Indeed, J. Holden (pers. comm. 2008), in the unique position of substantial direct field experience in both these areas, stated that “hunting pressure even in the worst affected forests of Kerinci does not come close to that in Indochina”. Caution therefore needs to be drawn in inferring anything about the level of threat, if any, that such snaring poses to this muntjac at the population level. Moreover, without knowing the relative distribution of the two muntjac species in Kerinci it is impossible to speculate meaningfully on the effects of hunting on <em>M. montanus</em> specifically: hunting intensity in montane Sumatra is patchy, and although high on Gunung Kerinci, many other montane areas within Kerinci Seblat National Park are little visited by hunters (J. Holden pers. comm. 2008). Hunters say that they prefer to trap muntjacs at lower altitudes as these animals are generally larger than are those at high altitudes which, hunters advise, rarely if ever yield more than 14 kg of meat (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The montane forests of Sumatra are generally still in relatively good condition although under increasing pressure (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).The major threat facing them is, in contrast to much of the rest of the Greater Sundas, not logging but conversion to small-holder and other agriculture, in particular coffee plantations and temperate vegetables. This is accelerating as opportunities for clearance of lowland and lower hill forests decrease because so little is left (e.g. Holden <em>et al</em>. 2003: 39). This forest loss takes place even though most of these forests are under statutory protection for their catchment function or fall within national parks or nature reserves. Pressures are locally very high: almost 40 per cent of one mountain has been cleared in the last 10 years (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Elsewhere, many other montane areas within Kerinci Seblat National Park are at present relatively safe from habitat conversion (J. Holden pers. comm. 2008). Montane forest is also under threat in some areas from mining interests for gold, silver, copper and other mineral resources while pressure for road-building through protected areas continues to threaten core habitats. Conversion of flatter hill and lowland hill forests, legal or otherwise, along the Barisan mountains has fragmented many forest blocks (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). The ability to infer anything about threat levels to <em>M. montanus</em> from the ongoing forest degradation and conversion in Sumatra’s highlands is hindered by the lack of understanding of the adaptability of <em>M. montanus</em> to degradation and fragmentation, although it presumably cannot survive outright conversion to non-forest.
136832		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Australia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
136832		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded in coastal areas of Papua New Guinea (Port Moresby and Central Province) and northern Australia (West Australia, Queensland, and Northern Territory). It ranges from sea level to 100 m asl.
136832		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from tropical moist forest, open sclerophyll woodland, and mangroves. It roosts in tree hollows, building roofs, crevices, occasionally caves and similar habitats. Females give birth to a single young.
136832		population	eng	It is common in Australia (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008; Richards 2008), and is known from only a few specimens in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).
136832		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
136833		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, specifically four National Parks.
136833		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costal Central cordilleras, north central Venezuela (Aragua, Miranda, Distrito Federal, and Carabobo) (Musser and Carleton, 2005) from 1,000 to 2,500 m (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
136833		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary cloud forest, it is terrestrial, nocturnal, and omnivorous (M. Aguilera and B. Rivas pers. comm.).
136833		population	eng	This species is abundant (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).
136833		threats	eng	There are no current threats because the habitat of this species is well protected by national parks.
136834		conservation	eng	The only known specimen is from the Danum Valley Protection Forest Reserve. There is a need for additional survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
136834		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Danum Valley Field Centre in Sabah, north Borneo, at 150 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136834		habitat	eng	This species was recorded in "dense viny roadside secondary brush on an abandoned logging road" in what remained of primary lowland dipterocarp forest, which is the dominant habitat in the surrounding region (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136834		population	eng	This species is known only from the type specimen, which was a juvenile (Musser and Carleton 2005).
136834		threats	eng	Given its presence in lowland regions, it is likely at least somewhat susceptible to extensive habitat loss and human disturbance, although it has been recorded from degraded habitats so would appear to be somewhat adaptable.
136835		conservation	eng	It is known from three protected areas, Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d'Analamerana (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136835		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is restricted to the karstic lowland areas in the western part of the island, extending from the drier areas in the north in Diana Region to Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in the west (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). A record from Toliara in the extreme south has also been attributed to this species (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 1995), but the specimen was not examined as part of the recent reassessment of <em>Emballonura</em> taxonomy on Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). The distribution of this species would be significantly reduced if the Toliara specimen was omitted. It is currently known to range between 10 and 330 m elevation (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).
136835		habitat	eng	It appears to be associated with relatively intact forest and is believed to be forest dependent (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006). It is usually found roosting in the entrances to narrow caves and overhangs on rocks that receive weak sunlight (Cardiff 2006; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007). At night it has been observed resting on buildings (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). It feeds in forest understorey and over small streams with bank side vegetation (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Its diet includes Lepidoptera (Razakarivony <em>et al</em>. 2005).
136835		population	eng	Roosting colonies of <em>E. tiavato</em> are usually relatively small (< 20 individuals).
136835		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture (tavy) and from charcoal collecting and logging. Other potential threats come from the disturbance of roosting caves from tourists (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007), fire (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007) or mining (Cardiff 2006).
136836		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It may be sympatric with <em>P. raptor</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. Further taxonomic work is needed to elucidate the identification and status of <em>P. tenax</em> relative to <em>P. raptor</em>.
136836		distribution	eng	This species is presumably present over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and is found on the islands of Waigeo and Salawati (both Indonesia). The type locality is near Wau, Papua New Guinea at 850 m asl. It may be sympatric with <em>P. raptor</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. A note in Helgen (2007) states: "<em>Paranyctimene tenax</em> may be widely distributed in the northern lowlands of New Guinea and <em>P. raptor</em> in the south (N. Irwin pers. comm.)." It ranges from sea level to 1,350 m asl.
136836		habitat	eng	This highly cryptic species is largely solitary. It can be found in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, rural gardens, and swamps. Animals roost in vegetation, and are not likely to be dependant on water. Females give birth to single young; pregnant females have been reported in January, February, April, May, July, August, and September.
136836		population	eng	Individuals of this species are commonly encountered. It may be sympatric with <em>P. raptor</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear.
136836		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Bonaccorso (1998) commented that its small size, solitary roosting behaviour and broad distribution safeguard Paranyctimene against most factors threatening fruit bat populations.
136837		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. On Monserrat Island, this species was considered endangered.
136837		distribution	eng	This species is in southernmost California (USA) and in the Baja California peninsula (Mexico). It occurs also on several islands in the Gulf of California (Stapp and Polis 2003), but has been extirpated from Monserrat Island (Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003).
136837		habitat	eng	Presumed generally similar to habitat and ecology of <em>Chaetodipus baileyi</em>, which is found within deserts, at the interface between sandy flats and rocky slopes, and is associatated with shrubs or small trees. <br/><br/>This rodent forages most often in the shelter of perennial plants and modifies its behavior in response to the risk of predation from owls. In the presence of owls, individuals make furtive, short trips into risky open areas between shrubs, especially when the moon is bright. It is solitary, nocturnal, lives in burrows, eats mostly seeds that it stores avidly against lean times, and does not need to drink water. It also is unusually slow in harvesting seeds from sand. Breeding is controlled by rainfall (Wilson and Ruff 1999).
136837		population	eng	It is common (Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is said to be numerous in inland habitats and stable on islands (Stapp and Polis 2003). The population on Monserrat Island in the Gulf of California is extinct (Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003).
136837		threats	eng	No known major threats to the species as a whole. However, on Montserrat Island, this species has been extirpated by predation from feral cats.
136838		conservation	eng	It occurs in a few protected areas within its range.
136838		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands and mid-elevations from Honduras and El Salvador south to central Costa Rica (Hutterer 2005).
136838		habitat	eng	This shrew is nocturnal, but sporadically active during both night and day. It is terrestrial and makes tiny runways through grass or uses larger runways made by rodents. The diet includes insect larvae, centipedes and earthworms (Whitaker 1974). It occurs in marshes and a variety of wooded habitats.
136838		population	eng	There is very little information known about this species.
136838		threats	eng	Development and pesticides are potential threats to this species, but more research is needed to confirm this.
136839		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within the range, but there is only one collecting record from within a protected area. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of the species, specifically to see to what degree mainland populations differ from those from the Aru Islands (Westerman <em>et al.</em> 2006).
136839		distribution	eng	Wallace's Three-striped Dasyure occurs in the Aru Islands (Indonesia), and in the southern lowlands on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) from Merauke in the west to Avera on the Aroa River in the east (Woolley 2005). This species is known from less than 20 museum specimens. It was first collected by A. R. Wallace on the Aru Islands in 1857 and more specimens were collected there by P.A. Woolley in 1992. A few specimens were collected in New Guinea in the late 19<sup>th</sup> and early 20<sup>th</sup> centuries and more recently, in 2006, two specimens were obtained in the Trans-Fly region near Serki village by S. Hamilton. The species ranges in elevation from close to sea level to 923 m asl.
136839		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected in lowland tropical moist forest and gallery forest and in secondary habitats. It is a terrestrial and diurnal species (Woolley 2005). Observations on aspects of the reproductive biology of a small number of wild and captive animals have been made by Woolley (2001).
136839		population	eng	There is no population information concerning this species.
136839		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species. Possible future threats could include predation from feral cats, which have recently established a small population in the Trans-Fly region. Introduced Cane Toads also could present a future threat to species in the Trans-Fly region, although this remains speculative given the fact that Cane Toads have not yet arrived and the effects of Cane Toads on this species are unknown.
136840		conservation	eng	This species is considered secure and is not of conservation concern. Its range includes some protected areas.
136840		distribution	eng	This species is found from the eastern bank of the Brazos River in central and southeastern Texas eastward into western Louisiana, and north into southwestern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, just east of Norman. The subspecies <em>breviceps</em> occurs in the vicinity of Mer Rouge, Morehouse Parish, Louisiana, and the subspecies <em>sagittalis</em> occurs across the remainder of range (Sulentich <em>et al.</em> 1991).
136840		habitat	eng	This species is found in fine sandy loam soils where topsoil depth is greater than 10 cm. It is also found in clay loam soils. Habitat is mainly prairie and grasslands with oaks and <em>Ilex</em>. Burrows rarely extend into clay subsoils. It is strictly fossorial, rarely leaving its burrows. The burrow system may include up to 80 m of tunnels, including foraging tunnels and deeper chambers for food storage and nesting. Nests may also be found in mounds that extend 30-61 cm above general ground level, especially in areas prone to seasonal flooding.<br/><br/>This species is an opportunistic herbivore, eating roots, stems and leaves of most plant species encountered in foraging. Caches food underground. Reproduction occurs from February through August, with peaks in June-July and April, the average litter size is about 2.6, with one or two litters per year. Females are sexually mature at about three months (Wood 1949). Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988). They are primarily nocturnal.
136840		population	eng	It is common within its range, the population density in fine-sandy loam soil near College Station, Texas, was estimated at 0.55 per hectare (see Sulentich <em>et al.</em> 1991).
136840		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is often viewed as a pest species. Gophers eat crops, their burrows lessen soil stability and the mounds of soil created at the openings of burrows destroy underlying vegetation. Because of this they are often targets of trapping and rodenticide.
136841		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, and status of this species. Protection of roosting sites is a priority for the conservation of this species.</p>
136841		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Myanmar (Amherst, near Moulmein) and central Thailand.
136841		habitat	eng	This species has been seen roosting in tall, well-established trees in urban areas. It flies many kilometres to feed on wild and cultivated fruits.
136841		population	eng	This species was last recorded in Thailand in 1970 (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Presumably, a small viable population remains in southeast Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.).
136841		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown, although it is hunted for food and controlled as a pest in some areas, and is also affected by disturbance of roosts but the significance of these threats is not known.
136842		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from some protected areas.
136842		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Bolivia, east of the Andes mountains, in the lowlands of Santa Cruz Department (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004), as well as southwestern Brazil.
136842		habitat	eng	This species is widespread in the Cerrado, in the provinces of Navarro and Maldonado; however, in this region it has only been trapped in closed-canopy forests, not in the typical Cerrado habitat (savanna woodlands or shrubland) (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). It is believed that this species will be found in the parts of Santa Cruz that receive 1000 to 1500 mm of annual rainfall (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on insects and fruit. It is found in mature, disturbed, and secondary forests.
136842		population	eng	This species is the most commonly trapped small marsupial in Santa Cruz, from the base of the Andes to the Brazilian frontier (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004).
136842		threats	eng	No major threats.
136843		conservation	eng	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Tsiombikibo Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.
136843		distribution	eng	Currently known from the Tsiombikibo region, west of the Mahavavy River. The southern extent of the range is unknown (especially relative to the recently described <em>L. randrianasoloi</em>), although individuals perhaps representing this species have been obtained from the village of Mitsinjo (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). The southerly limit is here rather arbitrarily taken as the Maningoza (with <em>L. randrianasoloi</em> to the south), but obviously this requires further investigation.
136843		habitat	eng	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforest.
136843		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.
136843		threats	eng	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat.
136844		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. paraguayanus</span> occurs in several protected areas.
136844		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic forest region of Brazil up to the northern border of Espirito Santo state, south to Rio Grande do Sul, and east to Misiones; Argentina, and eastern Paraguay (Gardner 2007).
136844		habitat	eng	It lives in primary and secondary habitats. Insectivorous, omnivorous and arboreal. Several ecological studies exist for this species - especially in southern brazil. It can disperse between fragments up to about 800 m apart from one another in grassland matrix (Pires <em>et al.</em> 2002). PVAs available for this species also (Brito and da Fonseca 2006).
136844		population	eng	This species is locally uncommon, but in Paraguay it is quite rare.
136844		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, there is habitat loss due to agriculture and urbanization in much of its range.
136845		conservation	eng	It is known from at least two protected areas in Brazil and from at least multiple protected areas in Paraguay.
136845		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Argentina and Paraguay as well as in Brazil in Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species could occur in Uruguay but has not yet been recorded.
136845		habitat	eng	It inhabits seasonally flooded forests and grasslands. The species seems to be adaptable to disturbed habitats and it there is a possibility that it may be expanding in range with deforestation in the Atlantic forest of Paraguay although there are no data to substantiate this (de la Sancha in litt. 2006). It is found from 50-1,800 m (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2005).
136845		population	eng	There is no local estimate of its abundance but it is known from over 20 localities. It is locally rare and appears to be one of the more commonly captured species of small marsupials in Paraguay (de la Sancha in litt. 2006). There seem to be two distinct morphotypes. New specimens have been collected in the interior of primary forest remnants which are redder and considerably larger than specimens collected in open habitats. Many aspects of this species (e.g., population, intraspecific variability, ecology) are poorly known.
136845		threats	eng	There are not currently any major threats to the species (de la Sancha in litt. 2006).
136902		conservation	eng	Listed in CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalophus brookei</span>).
136908		habitat	eng	.
136930		conservation	eng	.
151194		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
151194		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, to the state of Durango occurring at elevations from about 1800 to 2400 m altitude.   The species appears over a 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.
151194		habitat	eng	The species grows among volcanic rocks in semi desert.
151194		population	eng	The species has an estimated population >10,000 individuals.
151194		threats	eng	<p>Illegal<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>collecting, agricultural use and housing expansion pose some small threat. Temperature extremes have reduced some subpopulations.</p>
151200		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).
151200		distribution	eng	<p>Species endemic to Mexicon, found in the states of   Coahuilla, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas  </p>
151200		habitat	eng	<p>In semi desert on calcareous soil among pinon and juniper trees and in open meadows.</p>
151200		population	eng	The estimated population size is of more than 50,000 individuals.
151200		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
151805		conservation	eng	Unknown.
151805		distribution	eng	Appears to be confined to the area around the   Rio Nazas in Durango state, Mexico.
151805		habitat	eng	Grows in dry grassland on hills and slopes, often under bushes or Oaks. The soils are volcanic and plants are usually solitary.
151805		population	eng	The population numbers several thousand plants.
151805		threats	eng	No threats known.
151833		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
151833		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas at elevations of 1,800 m.   The species appears over a more than 40,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.
151833		habitat	eng	On calcareous rock in semi desert.
151833		population	eng	Estimates population of more than 500,000 individuals.
151833		threats	eng	There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.
151840		conservation	eng	Unknown.
151840		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mexico where it occurs on the western slopes of the Sierra Madre Orientál from Monclova in Coahuila to Monterey in Nuevo León state.
151840		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert shrubland on limestone gravels or alluvial soils, usually at the foot of hills but also on ridges. Plants can be solitary or form clumps.
151840		population	eng	Appears to be abundant with very dense subpopulations.
151840		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
151882		conservation	eng	Occurs within the Biosphere reserve of La Michilia (González-Elizondo and González-Elizondo 1993).
151882		distribution	eng	Species endemic to northwestern Mexico occurring on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the states of Durango and Chihuahua.
151882		habitat	eng	Found in pine forests and grasslands (González-Elizondo and González-Elizondo 1993). Grows on plains and ridges of low hills in volcanic soils. Plants are usually solitary.
151882		population	eng	Appears to be very abundant.
151882		threats	eng	Land use change for agriculture may be a threat in places, but this is not having a significant impact at present.
151962		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the USA in Texas, and in Mexico in the sates of   Coahuila, Nuevo León and San Luis Potosí.
151962		habitat	eng	In semi desert in calcareous soils.
151962		population	eng	The species has an estimated population size of more than 1,000,000 individuals.
151962		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
152003		conservation	eng	<p>Even though the species is here listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
152003		distribution	eng	Species endemic to the Mexican state of Nuevo León, occurring    over a range of 50 km<sup>2</sup> .
152003		habitat	eng	<p>Semi desert, on gypsum and limestone cliffs.</p>
152003		population	eng	The estimated population is >1,000,000 individuals.
152003		threats	eng	The species is illegally collected.
152077		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).
152077		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Durango and Zacatecas at elevations of   about 2,200 to 2,600 m.   Widely distributed over a range of 25,000 km<sup>2 </sup>.
152077		habitat	eng	Among volcanic rocks in semi desert.
152077		population	eng	Population estimated in excess of 10,000 individuals.
152077		threats	eng	These plants seem to be little threatened by illegal collecting although the habitats are known to both commercial and amateur collectors.
152140		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152140		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Big Bend area in western Texas (USA), and from the states of Chihuahua and Coahuila in Mexico.
152140		habitat	eng	The plants are often solitary but can sometimes form large clumps. Grows in very dry shrubland or degraded grasslands on alluvial plains covered with limestone gravel. Also recorded on or near igneous hills and benches, growing with <span style="font-style: italic;">Larrea</span>.<br/><br/>Flowers in late spring early summer (April to July). <span id="lblTaxonDesc">"The showy flowers of <em>Coryphantha echinus</em> are among the most ephemeral in the Cactaceae. They are fully expanded at high noon (if in brilliant sunlight) and wilt after only an hour or two. By mid afternoon, when most Chihuahuan Desert cacti are at the peak of anthesis, the flowers of <em>C. echinus</em> are tightly closed." (from <span style="font-style: italic;">Flora of North America</span> 4: 227)
152140		population	eng	The subpopulations are very scattered, but it occurs in large numbers in places forming dense subpopulations.
152140		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
152180		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152180		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mexican states of    Guanajuato, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.
152180		habitat	eng	The solitary plants grow in dry Oak forests on volcanic soils of plains and slopes. The forest understorey is often grassy.
152180		population	eng	Although fairly widely distributed, this species is not that common, usually only a few plants are found in each locality where it occurs.
152180		threats	eng	The habitat is being impacted by deforestation for expanding agriculture (conversion to pastures for livestock), harvesting for wood, and increased use of fires.&#160; Some of these threats are leading to increased soil erosion. However, the species appears to be able to survive after deforestation.
152219		conservation	eng	Protected by International trade legislation.
152219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico but fairly widespread, occurring in the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas.
152219		habitat	eng	The species grows on grasslands and sandy soils (Sivinski 2007, Cartron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recorded growing on the lower slopes of limestone and volcanic hills, usually growing under other shrubs, e.g., agaves and hechtias. Plants are usually solitary.
152219		population	eng	The species is abundant and frequently encountered in the Rio Grande Valley (Sivinski 2007, Cartron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">stipitata </span>appears to be a bit scarcer.
152219		threats	eng	Use of fire to improve grazing may be a threats in parts of the range, but overall there are no major threats.
152234		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).
152234		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, found in the states of Nuevo León, Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí
152234		habitat	eng	Semi desert, among outcroppings of calcareous rocks.
152234		population	eng	It has an estimated population size of more than 1,000,000 individuals, and the species reproduces well.
152234		threats	eng	Illegal collection is the major threat for this species, this is sometimes done   with the aid of indigenous people.
152292		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
152292		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-US">Species endemic San Luis Potosí state, in the Sierra Alvarez at elevations of 2,000 to 2,400 m, <span lang="EN-US">there are many subpopulations, extending over 200 km<sup>2&#160;</sup>.<br/></span></p><span lang="EN-US"><p></p>
152292		habitat	eng	Among calcareous rocks in sloping terrain in semi desert at about 2,000 to 2,400 m altitude.
152292		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are many subpopulations, extending over 200 km<sup>2</sup> in the Sierra Alvarez with a total population estimated to be more than 5,000 individuals.</p>
152292		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">These plants are somewhat threatened by illegal collecting, commercial or amateur. </p>
152295		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Durango and Zacatecas at elevations of about 1,900 m.   <em>M. sinistrohamata </em>appear over a 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.
152295		habitat	eng	Among volcanic rocks in semi desert.
152295		population	eng	<p>Estimated population size of more than 10,000 individuals.<strong></strong></p>
152295		threats	eng	There is some illegal collecting by tour groups and individuals. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat.
152324		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152324		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Querétaro and San Luis Potosí (Dicht and Lüthy 2003, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
152324		habitat	eng	Grows in dry shrubland (often with agaves and various trees) on calcareous gravels. The plants branch basally to form clumps.
152324		population	eng	Is extremely abundant.
152324		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
152398		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).
152398		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, to the states of Durango, occurring at elevations of 2,000 to 2,800 m.   The species appears over 60,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.
152398		habitat	eng	Among volcanic rocks in semi desert.
152398		population	eng	<p>Estimated population of more than 10,000 individuals.<strong></strong></p>
152398		threats	eng	Illegal collecting poses some small threat.
152438		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152438		distribution	eng	Recorded mainly from the state of   Querétaro but also found in the neighbouring areas of San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
152438		habitat	eng	Grows in dry shrubland on limestone rocks.
152438		population	eng	The population numbers several hundred plants.
152438		threats	eng	Despite the human activities in the surrounding areas, there are thought to be no threats to this species.
152492		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002)</p>
152492		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico occurring in the states of San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas at elevations of around 1,800 m (Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
152492		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">On volcanic rock in semi desert.<strong></strong></p>
152492		population	eng	The species has an estimated population of 30,000 individuals.
152492		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is some illegal collecting by tour groups and individuals. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. The plants are collected for sale in the local market for nativity scenes.</p>
152493		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of San Luis Potosí State, in the Sierra Alvarez at elevations of   2,000 to 2,400 m. It occurs in an area of ca   600 km<sup>2</sup>.
152493		habitat	eng	On sloping calcareous rocky terrain in semi desert.
152493		population	eng	There are many subpopulations, extending over the southwestern portion of the range of the calcareous Sierra Alvarez, 600 square kilometers with a total population estimated to be more than 5,000 individuals.
152493		threats	eng	<p>These plants are little threatened by illegal collecting, commercial and amateur. </p>
152518		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).
152518		habitat	eng	Semi desert, in both volcanic and calcareous soil.
152518		population	eng	The species has an estimated population size of more than 1,000,000 individuals.
152518		threats	eng	Illegal collecting.
152538		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152538		distribution	eng	Recorded from the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oreintal occuring in Texas (US) and in the Mexican states of Coahuila and Nuevo León.
152538		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert shrubland on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert. Often found on limestone outcrops or in alluvial soils at the foot of hills and ridges. Usually grows under other bushes.<br/><br/>Plants may be solitary or may have many stems forming low mats. Flowers in summer (August to September).
152538		population	eng	Is abundant in places where there has not been any disturbance.
152538		threats	eng	Habitat has been lost in some areas, e.g., around Monterey, due to urban expansion (settlaments and roads).
152565		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152565		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the state of San Luis Potosí, Mexico. The species was reportedly first described from a collection supposedly made inthe state of Durango, but its occurrence in that state has not been confirmed.
152565		habitat	eng	Solitary plants grow in dry grassland areas, usually on the lower slopes of hills in limestone gravel.
152565		population	eng	Is fairly widespread and there are sizeable populations which have not been impacted by human activities.
152565		threats	eng	No major threats known.
152572		conservation	eng	<p>Even though the species is listed here as Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
152572		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurs throughout much of the semi desert in the states of Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas.
152572		habitat	eng	Semi desert on calcareous soil. Usually the plants occur singly, often growing in clumps of <em>Agave</em> or <em>Hechtia</em>.
152572		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be of more than 500,000 individuals.
152572		threats	eng	Illegally collecting of individuals.
152599		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152599		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mexico and found in the states of Chihuahua, Durango and Coahuila (Dicht and Lüthy 2003).
152599		habitat	eng	Grows on alluvial soils in plains that are only sparsely used for farming.
152599		population	eng	Is a very abundant species with plants growing in clusters comprising hundreds of plants.
152599		threats	eng	There is some farming for crops, but this is not a major threat.
152601		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas across its range, for example Tehuacan-Cuicatlan and Mapimí Biosphere Reserves (Golubov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
152601		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico and occurs in several states. It has been reported from herbarium records from Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Querétaro, San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas and doubtfully records from the State of Mexico, Chihuahua and Veracruz and from the literature in Durango (Dicht and Lüthy 2003, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Records from the Texas and Arizona in the USA likely pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. difficilis</span> (H. Hernández and C. Gomez-Hinostrosa pers. comm. 2009).
152601		habitat	eng	The species grows in limestone gravel on low hills and plains in xerophyllous scrub and grasslands. Plants are usually solitary.
152601		population	eng	This species is generally abundant where it occurs.
152601		threats	eng	Some populations are being reduced by grazing of goats and cattle, as well as expanding agriculture, but generally these are not causing major declines.
152618		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
152618		distribution	eng	Species endemic to the Mexican state of San Luis Potosí, occurring north and northwest at elevations of 1,800 to 2,400. The species is spread over and area of more than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
152618		habitat	eng	Semi desert among calcareous rocks.
152618		population	eng	The estimated population size is more than 100,000 individuals.
152618		threats	eng	Illegal collection, and road construction&#160; affect some of the populations.
152643		conservation	eng	Even though the species is here listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).
152643		distribution	eng	Species endemic to the Mexican state of Nuevo León.
152643		habitat	eng	Semi desert, on gypsum and limestone cliffs.
152643		population	eng	The estimated population of the species is over 1,000,000 individuals.     <p>Early observations indicated that this species was restricted to one or two localities in the Valley of Rayones. In the 1960s and 1970s collectors removed large numbers of plants, though steep cliffs prevented the destruction of entire subpopulations. More recently several additional subpopulations have been found and evaluated. Large numbers of plants occur in these several sites, many of which are largely inaccessible. The species totals more than 1,000,000 individuals in a number of known, quite disjunct, subpopulations. </p>
152643		threats	eng	Illegal collecting, however the species grows on inaccesable cliffs and as a result it is protected.
152646		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152646		distribution	eng	A Mexican endemic with a fairly wide range in the central states of   Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas.
152646		habitat	eng	Grows in dry grasslands on limestone gravel or in alluvial soils on plains. Also recorded on the slopes and tops of hills.
152646		population	eng	Is an abundant species, often forming clusters with hundreds of plants.
152646		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
152655		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed as the species has no major threats and is not targeted by collectors.
152655		distribution	eng	This Mexican endemic has a fairly restricted range being found in the area around the Sierra de la Paila in Coahuila State.
152655		habitat	eng	Grows as solitary plants in shrubland on alluvial plains and in limestone gravel on the slopes of the Sierra Paila and adjacent localities.
152655		population	eng	Subpopulations are fairly scattered, but it is common where it occurs. These long-lived species only start reproducing after 15 years.
152655		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
152728		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Guanajuato, Querétaro and San Luis Potosí at elevations of   1,600 to 1,800 m.   The species appears over a 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.
152728		habitat	eng	On volcanic rock in semi desert.
152728		population	eng	Estimated population size of   more than 100,000 individuals.<strong></strong>
152728		threats	eng	<p>There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.</p>
152733		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p><p>Occurs in the&#160; Cumbres de Monterrey National Park (CMNP), Nuevo Leon, Mexico. </p>
152733		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, but is widely distributed and common in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas (Hunt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>  The original range of this subspecies extended from Coahuila and Nuevo León in the north to San Luis Potosí in the south. However, much of this range has been modified by agricultural development. The plants occur in many locations.
152733		habitat	eng	The species tends to favour limestone and rocky slopes (Goettsch and Hernández 2006) in semi-desert vegetation.<br/>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. retusus</span> is a perennial and obligate gypsophile, occurring regularly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Muhlenbergia </span>grassland and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bouteloua </span>grassland in Central Mexico (Meyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). In the <span style="font-style: italic;">Muhlenbergia </span>grassland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ariocarpus </span>species are the only succulents present (Meyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992).
152733		population	eng	Although <span style="font-style: italic;">A. retusus</span> has a relatively extensive area of distribution, it has a very low density (Hernández and Godinez 1994).
152733		threats	eng	Threatened by illegal collecting and agricultural development, however, they are not major threats.
152792		conservation	eng	<p>Even though the species here is listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
152792		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.<br/>    <p>The original range of this subspecies extended from north of Monterrey, southward on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental to approximately Ciudad Victoria. It is also found commonly in the Valley of Jaumave, west of Ciudad Victoria. However, much of this range has been modified by agricultural development, particularly that area east of the Sierra. The plants occur at numerous localities throughout the Valley of Jaumave.</p>
152792		habitat	eng	Semi desert among outcroppings of calcareous rocks.
152792		population	eng	It has an estimated population size of more than 100,000 individuals.
152792		threats	eng	Illegal collecting and agricultural development
152799		conservation	eng	Even though the species here is listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).
152799		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Coahuila and Nuevo León.
152799		habitat	eng	It occurs throughout much of the mountainous grassland and pine forests of the states of Coahuila and Nuevo León, on limestone soil at above 2000 m altitude.
152799		population	eng	<p>It is estimated that there are more than one million plants.</p>
152799		threats	eng	There is some illegal collection but this is not a major threat.
152803		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152803		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mexican states of   Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.
152803		habitat	eng	The solitary plants grow in shrubland on hill slopes in calcareous gravels, sometimes protected by other bushes such as Agaves and Opuntias.
152803		population	eng	A very common species with many thousands of plants.
152803		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
152811		conservation	eng	Recorded from Big Bend National Park (Texas, US).
152811		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range in the Chihuahuan Desert occurring in the states of   Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas (Mexico); and in New Mexico and Texas (USA). The subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">runyonii </span>has a small disjunct range along the lower river-course of the Rio Grande, at sea level, between Brownsville and Rio Grande City (Texas) and a parallel range on the opposite river side in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas.
152811		habitat	eng	Grows in semi-desert shrubland in sandy alluvial soils or clay, especially in dry river lagoon areas. Has also been recorded growing in pure gypsum and in gravelly soils. The species commonly forms large clumps up to one metre wide. Grows out in the open or under bushes.
152811		population	eng	The typical subspecies has an enormous population comprising many thousands possibly hundreds of thousands of individuals. The subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">runyonii </span>on the other hand appears to be much scarcer.
152811		threats	eng	Given the wide range of this species it is likely to be impacted in parts of its range by human activities, however, this is not likely to have any significant impacts.
152819		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152819		distribution	eng	This species, only described in 2000 (Dicht and Lüthy 2002) is confined to the Mexican states of   Guanajuato and San Luis Potosí.
152819		habitat	eng	Grows in dry grassland on slopes and tops of hills and mountains and in calcareous gravels. The plants usually grow from large underground stems and form clusters of several stems.
152819		population	eng	The population is fairly small but is likely to number more than 1,000 mature individuals. All the subpopulations are healthy and untouched by human activities.
152819		threats	eng	There are no major threats at present.
152870		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>
152870		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-US">Species endemic to the Mexican state of Coahuila, occurring at elevations between 1,000 to 1,800.  <span lang="EN-US">The species appears over a 16,0<span lang="EN-US">00 km<sup>2</sup>.<strong></strong></span>
152870		habitat	eng	The species grows on steep calcareous rock in semi desert.
152870		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The estimated populations size of&#160; 5,000 individuals.<strong></strong></p>
152870		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-US">There is some illegal collecting.</p>  <span lang="EN-US"><br/><p></p></span>
152918		conservation	eng	Given its wide range it probably occurs in protected areas, but none have been specifically recorded.
152918		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mexico, reported to be present in the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajauto, Hidalgo and Querétaro (Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Dicht and Lüthy (2003) also report it as occurring rarely in the states of San Luis Potosí and in Tamaulipas.<br/><br/>Given the wide range of this species and its striking appearance, it was collected and sent to Europe very early.
152918		habitat	eng	Plants are solitary or branch basally to form clumps. Grows in dry grassland on limestone gravel or alluvial soils at the foot of hills and on ridges.
152918		population	eng	Is fairly common, with dozens of plants being found at each known locality, and in remote areas forming huge groups (Dicht and Lüthy 2003).
152918		threats	eng	Although there is some illegal collection, this does not appear to be a major threat. The main threat to the species is increasing frequency of fires to create grazing for livestock.
152928		conservation	eng	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
152928		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Mexico, occirring in the states of Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas and reported from the literature from Durango. It occurs throughout much of the northern portion of the Mexican Altiplano.
152928		habitat	eng	Semi desert on various soil types.
152928		population	eng	<p>The estimated population size is more than 1,000,000 plants.</p>
152928		threats	eng	Illegal collection of individuals form wild populations. Removal of floral buds for human consumption could be affecting the populations, however studies are needed (Goettsch).
152960		conservation	eng	Unknown.
152960		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area (two locations) in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico.
152960		habitat	eng	Grows in dry grassland on flat ridges on or in between hills in calcareous soils. The plants are usually solitary, but may occasionally branch and form small clumps.
152960		population	eng	The population comprises thousands of plants. The two subpopulations are both healthy and stable.
152960		threats	eng	No threats are known.
153534		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia oceanica </span>is protected by EU legislation (Habitat directive), the <st1:place w:st="on">Bern</st1:place> and Barcelona Conventions and national legislation (<st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place>, <st1:place w:st="on">Algeria</st1:place>, etc.). Fishing regulations limit trawling activities near the shore (either above 50 m or a certain distance from the coast), which constitute an indirect protection measure for the species (EC Council Regulation N° 1967/2006 and national regulations). </p>          <p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> oceanica</span> is present in various marine parks in the countries along the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean Sea</st1:place> (Green and Short 2003). Efforts have been made to prevent physical damage caused by trawler-fishing by placing artificial reefs, consisting of spiked concrete blocks, along certain stretches of the coast, and also by mounting a coastal watch to prevent illegal trawling.</p><p>Research into potential species conservation plans is needed, as is site protection and management, habitat restoration, increased awareness, and legislation at local, national and international levels.<br/></p>
153534		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia oceanica</span> is endemic to the Mediterranean  Sea. <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia </span><span style="font-style: italic;">oceanica</span> is the dominant  seagrass in the Mediterranean Sea covering about 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of coastal to offshore sandy and rocky areas to depths of 45 m.</p>
153534		habitat	eng	<em>Posidonia oceanica</em> is the most abundant seagrass species in the Mediterranean. This species forms single species meadows in the Mediterranean bioregion (Peres and Picard 1964, Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. 1990, Short <em>et al</em>. 2007), from the surface to the maximum depth of 45 m. It is common on different types of substrate, from rocks to sand (Bethoux and Copin-Motegut, 1986), except in estuaries where the input of fresh water and fine sediments is high. It is more commonly found on sand.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is a large, long-living but very slow-growing seagrass. Its shoots, which are able to live for at least 30 years, are produced at a slow rate from rhizomes which grow horizontally by only 1-6 cm each year. Over centuries the rhizomes form mats which rise up into reefs that help to trap sediment and mediate the motion of waves, thus clarifying the water and protecting beaches from erosion (Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is a monoecious species, with male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. The biological characteristics of <em>P. oceanica</em> are not conducive to a rapid recolonization of dead matte: sexual reproduction is rare, natural reestablishment is not common, and horizontal growth of rhizome edges from a contiguous bed is very slow (Meinesz <em>et al</em>. 1991). For more detailed information, a synthesis of the current knowledge is available in Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. (2006).<br/><br/>The meadows composed of this species are considered the basis of the richness of Mediterranean coastal waters, due to the surface area they occupy and to the essential part they play at biological level in maintaining the coastal equilibrium and their concomitant economic activities (Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. 2006). The role of <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> meadows in marine coastal environments is often correctly compared to that of a forest.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is an important habitat forming species and provides habitat for many species. Nursery grounds for the juveniles of many commercially important fishes and vertebrates, such as several species of the family Sparidae (e.g., <em>Diplodus annularis</em>), Serranidae (e.g., <em>Serranus cabrilla</em>), Labridae (e.g., <em>Coris julis</em> and <em>Crenilabrus maculatus</em>) and Scorpaenidae (e.g., <em>Scorpaena scrofa</em> and <em>Scorpaena porcus</em>), and the sea urchin <em>Paracentrotus lividus</em>. <em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is also grazed on by the Green Sea Turtle (<em>Chelonia mydas</em>). A recent study by Thomas <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that urchins have a relatively minor impact on the seagrass, while grazing by the fish <em>Salpa salpa</em> can outstrip locally the plants' leaf production.
153534		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia oceanica </span>is abundant in the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>, however there is evidence that the population is declining in the western Mediterranean. Several local studies have shown serious declines in <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica </span>meadows. However, accurate data are generally very localised and are lacking for many parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>. Therefore, cases of observed regression are not representative of the region as a whole. Relatively healthy <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> meadows, whose limits have changed little since the 1950s, can thrive in highly developed areas. In some areas, there is evidence of recolonization by <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> after the human impact ceased or was reduced, but the process of recolonization is extremely slow, i.e. a few centimetres per year (Pergent-Martini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). Considering all Mediterranean seagrass species area combined, Jackson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) estimated total losses at 446 km² over the last 100 years. A recent study looking at the population status of six Mediterranean <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> areas showed positive population dynamics in some localities for all studied parameters (González-Correa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is estimated that the overall decline in area for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> is less than 10% (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) over three generation lengths (100 years), and declines have mainly occurred near urban areas (Boudouresque <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
153534		threats	eng	<em>Posidonia oceanica</em> is threatened at depth by mechanical damage from trawling, boat anchoring, and turbidity. Coastal development including shoreline hardening, urban and harbour infrastructure, and sand mining&#160; affect the upper limit of&#160; <em>Posidonia</em> meadows. <br/><br/>Eutrophication (fertilizer from agriculture and urban waste) and pollution, especially in coastal regions that are heavily populated, is a problem. Fish farm activities and aquaculture affect surrounding <em>Posidonia</em> meadows. Only meadows greater than 800 m away from the fish farms showed no impact from the fish farming activity and meadows up to one km from large fish farms may be affected (Marba <em>et al</em>. 2006). Invasive species also compete for habitat (e.g., seaweeds species such as <em>Caulerpa taxifolia</em> and <em>Caulerpa racemosa</em>). Climate change will be an additional threat through warming of waters (in excess of 28°C) and erosion from sea level rise.<br/><br/>The lack of genetic variability and slow growth makes <em>Posidonia</em> <em>oceanica</em> less resilient to disturbance.
153535		conservation	eng	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is protected in various marine parks in different countries of the Mediterranean.
153535		distribution	eng	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea and extends into the Atlantic Ocean north to mid-Portugal and south to Madeira and to the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, as well as to Mauritania and Senegal on the coast of Africa.
153535		habitat	eng	In the western Mediterranean, <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> commonly occurs in shallow water (from a few cm to a depth of 2.5 m) but can reach a depth of 30-40 m, usually found in sandy substrate and sheltered sites. This species is a common seagrass in the eastern Mediterranean, frequently occurs in small sandy pockets that accumulate in crevices or small depressions on rocky flats. In beds, occasionally it is accompanied by <em>Caulerpa prolifera</em>, which may reach 20% of the plant cover. This species forms single species meadows in the Mediterranean Bioregion (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007) but also occurs in meadows with <em>P. oceanica</em> (it is out-competed by this species). <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> provides important habitat for seahorses.<br/><br/>In Israel, <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is found on sandy bottoms at sheltered sites. Populations are subject to large seasonal and year-to-year fluctuations in size, on occasion disappearing completely, eventually to renew from the seed stocks in the sediment. <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> can survive a moderate level of disturbance.
153535		population	eng	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is common throughout the Mediterranean. The overall population is thought to be stable.
153535		threats	eng	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is threatened locally by mechanical damage from trawling and anchoring from boats and coastal development. Eutrophication is also a problem. This species is found in coastal regions where there is a high level of human disturbance. It is however, a relatively resistant species.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is threatened due to competition from seaweed species like <em>Caulerpa taxifolia</em> and <em>Caulerpa racemosa</em>. In the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, increased amounts of domestic and industrial pollutants are impacting the species (Green and Short 2003).
153538		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it has general protection under coastal habitat conservation laws and where it occurs in protected areas.
153538		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera marina</em> is widespread and circumglobal in northern latitudes, found throughout the north Atlantic and north Pacific and in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. <em>Zostera</em><em> marina</em> extends into the Arctic in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and northern Europe and to the tropics in Baja California, Mexico.
153538		habitat	eng	In Scandinavia and UK, this is the most widely distributed seagrass, dominates sandy and muddy sediments in coastal areas of low to moderate wave exposure. In southernmost Sweden it flourishes on stony and sandy bottoms at 2-4 m depth. It has a wide salinity tolerance of 5-35 ppt. In the western Baltic Sea it occurs along exposed sandy shores and in long bays and shallow lagoons with reduced water exchange and muddy substrate. Has a facultative mutualism with blue mussels (<em>Mytilus edulis</em>) in shallow waters (1-3 m depth).<br/><br/>This species is commonly grazed by isopods (<em>Idotea</em> spp.) and snails (<em>Hydrophobia</em> spp., <em>Littorina</em> spp.). It is also consumed by birds, especially Mute Swans (<em>Cygnus olor</em>) in shallow lagoons.<br/><br/>This is a relict species in the Mediterranean, where it forms perennial meadows distributed from the intertidal to a few meters deep. In the Black Sea, <em>Z. marina</em> is found in pure and mixed stands from 0.5-15 m depth on silty-sandy substrates. It has 80-100% cover in its beds and shoot density of 988/m². It has 115 species of macroalgae associated with it (Milchakova 1999). <em>Zostera</em><em> marina</em> occurs regularly in coastal lagoons of the western Mediterranean (Laugier <em>et al</em>. 1999) where it is often found with <em>Z. noltii</em>.<br/><br/>In Japan, occurs in the shallowest parts of subtidal beds, mostly between 1-5 m deep, but in some places down to 10 m. Flowering and fruiting seasons vary by 2-4 months across Japan, with early flowering and fruiting observed at lower latitudes. In South Korea, appears at the intertidal and subtidal zones, where the water depth is usually less than 5 m, and forms relatively large meadows and can be observed in both muddy and sandy sediments. It accounts for about 90% of total seagrass coverage in Republic of Korea.<br/><br/><em>Zostera</em><em> marina</em> is the dominant species in terms of biomass and habitats in the Pacific coast of North America, where it grows in the shallow waters of the continental shelf, the Gulf of California, coastal lagoons, estuaries and coastal fjords. Can co-mingle with <em>Zostera japonica</em> in the Pacific Northwest and <em>Ruppia maritima</em> in Baja California. Overwhelmingly dominant seagrass in coastal and estuarine areas of the western North Atlantic, found in both intertidal and subtidal areas, from a depth of +2 m to -12 m mean sea level. Distribution ranges from the protected low-salinity (5 ppt) waters of inner estuaries and coastal ponds to high-energy locations fully exposed to the Gulf of Maine and the North Atlantic with salinity of 36 psu (Green and Short 2003).
153538		population	eng	There are regions of large scale decline for <em>Zostera marina</em> (wasting disease and major pollution threats), areas where there has been no decline and the population is thriving, and areas of complete disappearance. This species is a widespread and dominant species, usually monospecific meadows. It has declines mostly in developed and populated areas in Europe and North America.<br/><br/>Ongoing restoration efforts since the 1940s in Europe and North America transplanted to re-establish populations of eelgrass in part of their former range from which they had been extirpated.<br/><br/>There has been a global decline of area covered by <em>Zostera marina</em> by 1.4% per year based on 126 documented changes in area that have been conducted over a 10 year period from 1990-2000.
153538		threats	eng	There have been local declines in many regions due to loss of water clarity from sedimentation, coastal development and wasting disease. Nutrient loading from runoff has also resulted in some local declines.
153567		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas. There have been some reintroductions in Ibiza, and some habitat restoration (restoration of water tanks) has been carried out. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the Habitats Directive (as <em>Bufo viridis</em>).
153567		distribution	eng	This species ranges through much of Italy, including the island of Sardinia and the easternmost parts of Sicily; it also is present on the island of Corsica (France), and the Balearic Islands of Spain (where it was probably introduced in prehistoric times). Found from sea level to 1,330 m asl in central Italy (Romano <em>et al</em>. 2003; Spilinga 2007).
153567		habitat	eng	It is generally a lowland species. It occupies coastal areas (typically but not exclusively sand dunes), cultivated areas, and suburban and urban areas where it is found in gravel and sand pits, ponds and ditches; also in water tanks in the Balearic Islands.
153567		population	eng	Common with stable populations in suitable habitats in Italy. Within the Balearic Islands it is common except for on Ibiza. It is declining slowly on Majorca and more rapidly on Ibiza as a result of loss of breeding habitat.
153567		threats	eng	In the Balearic Islands, loss and degradation of breeding habitat has resulted from excessive water abstraction, urbanization, decline of traditional agricultural practices and pollution with agrochemicals. Fragmentation as a result of road construction is also a problem.
153568		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed to confirm the identity of green toad populations in Israel and Jordan.
153568		distribution	eng	This largely North Africa species occurs as fragmented populations from Western Sahara and Morocco in the east through Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, to Egypt. It has been recorded from the island of Lampedusa in Italy. The status of fragmented populations recorded from western Arabia, southern Israel and Jordan is unclear and they may be assignable to this species or possibly to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>.
153568		habitat	eng	This species is found as often fragmented populations in forested areas, scrubland, dry grassland, semi-deserts and deserts. It inhabits both wetland areas as well as different dry desert types (usually found close to oases). It is presumably able to adapt to some habitat modification, especially where irrigation schemes increase the availability of suitable spawning habitats.
153568		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
153568		threats	eng	The main threat over much of the range appears to be the loss of breeding habitats through wetland drainage, desiccation and aquatic pollution (industrial and agricultural).
153569		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to occur in protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.
153569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it has been recorded from Sicily as well as the islands of Favigana and Ustica. The precise eastern distribution limit on Sicily needs to be clarified. Altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,200 m.
153569		habitat	eng	It is generally a lowland species. It occupies coastal areas (typically but not exclusively sand dunes), cultivated areas, and suburban and urban areas where it is found in gravel and sand pits, ponds and ditches.
153569		population	eng	This is a common species.
153569		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation as a result of road construction is a threat. Loss of breeding habitat as a result of water abstraction may also be a problem. The species is, however, not considered to be seriously threatened at present.
153570		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Turan Protected Area of Iran (Theodore Papenfuss and pers. comm., September 2008), and might be present in the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve in Turkmenistan (Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
153570		distribution	eng	This species appears to be an endemic species of the Kopet-Dagh mountain range and a little of the eastern Elbourz mountain range in northern Iran and southern Turkmenistan. It is possibly present in adjacent Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, although this requires confirmation.
153570		habitat	eng	This species is found in an area of arid mountains and hills, and breeds in slow moving streams and ponds. Populations can be found close to villages and in disturbed habitats.
153570		population	eng	It is a very common species.
153570		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
153571		conservation	eng	Additional taxonomic studies are needed for populations currently indicated as belonging to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck<em> et a</em>l. (2006), as are studies into the natural history of these populations. Further details of the distribution are desirable. It seems probable that if <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> is widespread that it will also be present in some protected areas, although this requires confirmation. Further studies are needed to confirm the identity of green toad populations in Israel and Jordan. The entire range of the morphologically distinct Kavir Desert population is within the very well-protected Kavir National Park. There is a need to ensure that no development of the limited habitat of this locality is undertaken.
153571		distribution	eng	This species is mapped by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as ranging from Greece, eastwards through Turkey, Cyprus to Syria and Lebanon (and possibly south as fragmented populations through Israel and Jordan through western Saudi Arabia (although these populations are current unassigned to species by Stöck <em>et al</em>. [2006] and might represent <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri</em>). It is mapped in Iraq and Iran, and is recorded as being distributed through the Caucasus and Russia to Kazakhstan. Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) records a seemingly isolated population in Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany. There is a morphologically distinct population in the Kavir Desert known only from the type locality of 'Cheshmeh-ye Sefied Ab, situated about 10 km southwest of Kuh-e Ghal'e-ye Sard mountains and about 30 km south of Siah Kuh mountains in the southern part of the Kavir Protected Region about 200km south of Teheran, Iran' (Andrén and Nilson 1979). The total range of this population consists of a single brackish spring and surrounding grass covered areas of less than 1km2 in total (Andrén and Nilson 1979; Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). The distribution of<em> Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> is considered to be incompletely known with further surveys needed.
153571		habitat	eng	Although additional details of natural history are needed for populations recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>, it seems plausible that it can be found in similar habitats to those populations indicated by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as belonging to <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em>, including grassland, meadows and steppe habitats, forests and shrubland, and a range of wetland areas or waterbodies. The isolated Kavir Desert population is restricted to the area of a single brackish spring and surrounding grassland within this highly arid environment.
153571		population	eng	There is little information available for populations recognized by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>. The isolated population indicated by Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2006)  from Denmark, Sweden and possibly northern Germany are considered to be rare and declining. Populations in Israel my be expanding their range with increasing irrigation of arid areas. The isolated population in the Kavir Desert is very small, possibly only 100 mature individuals, but certainly less than 1,000 animals (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
153571		threats	eng	The threats to the species are poorly known, but in view of the widely reported distribution for <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> it is probable that there are no overall major threats. The key threats to this species in parts of its range are likely to be similar to that of <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em>, namely the loss (for instance through agricultural expansion) or degradation (pollution) of wetland breeding habitats. The Kavir Desert population is found in an extremely remote area, although there are buildings of the Game Guard Post surrounding the single spring. Although there are no current threats to this population, it is plausible that any alteration of the stream flow (for example through the creation of watering troughs for game animals) could lead to the rapid decline of this morphologically distinct population.
153601		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Border</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse. pers. comm. 2008).&#160;&#160;     <p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm Orbital Carapace Length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse. pers. comm. 2008). </p>
153601		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species<em> </em>is known from small gullies and creeks feeding a few creeks in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Border</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place> (Coughran 2005). It is known from eight localities, and has an extent of occurrence of approximately 48.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Coughran 2007). The species is restricted to rainforested headwater streams and gullies above 570 m above sea level. The isolated sites thus constitute a fragmented overall distribution, due to the effective barrier to dispersal by intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).
153601		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species occupies a range of habitat types including gullies, tributaries and headwater streams. Individuals were taken from both shallow excavations under rocks, and complex burrow networks. All sample sites were within closed forest cover. Many of the sites lacked standing water (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse. pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>  The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).  </p>
153601		population	eng	<p>There are no population data available for this species. It is uncommon at the sites at which it is found (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153601		threats	eng	Although this species occurs within a national park it is still susceptible to threats such as climate change (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). This species will be significantly impacted by climate change in two ways; first the increase in temperature may restrict this species to higher altitudes, where the habitat is more thermally suitable. Second, climate change may result in the upper extremities of their montane habitats becoming drier. This could cause the lowering of superficial water tables upon which they appear to rely, thus restricting their upper altitudinal range (Coughran 2007). This will potentially lead to a population and distribution decline (Coughran 2007).<br/><br/>As this species does occur in an area of high visitation there is a very real risk of pollutant or infectant introduction (Coughran 2007). Wildfire or management burns may also lead to siltation and deoxygenation of habitats. Although illegal collecting for personal collection and preserved material is relatively low-level, it may pose a considerable threat to this species given its extremely restricted distribution (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In recent years, the Cane Toad has been found in high altitude rainforest habitats, including sites inhabited by this species and is of direct concern (DEH 2004b; Coughran 2007). Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e). Given the highly restricted distribution of this crayfish, these exotic species could contribute to serious declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted  range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments),  global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This  species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats,  feral pigs, foxes and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade  riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this  species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be  significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J.  Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).<p></p><p><br/></p>
153602		conservation	eng	<p>The apparent disjunct distribution between populations of this species<em> </em>at Dandenong and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mornington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype></st1:place> needs to be investigated (Horwitz 1990). Further monitoring is required to detect if the population is declining in peri-urban areas as they expand beyond the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Melbourne</st1:place></st1:city> metropolitan area (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Research should include the investigation of habitat status, and potential threats. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is found in the foothills to the north-west, west, and south of the Dandenong Ranges, from Panton Hill in the north to Flinders in the south on the Mornington Peninsula. There is a  disjunct distribution between populations at Dandenong and the Mornington Peninsula. (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 2,891 km².
153602		habitat	eng	At Olinda, this species<em></em> can be found in   large cavernous burrows in grey, clay-dominated soils in temperate, wet sclerophyll forest at the foot of the Dandenong Ranges. The largest male found was 30.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 24.2 to 38.5 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 29.3 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153602		population	eng	<p>There is no population information for this species, although large burrows can contain high numbers&#160;of free living juveniles, sometimes exceeding 100 (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153602		threats	eng	<p>Early reports of this species&#160;refer to the species being found in what are now the suburbs of Melbourne (i.e. Box Hill, Croydon and Ringwood) (Smith and Schuster 1913, Clark 1936); these populations may have been slowly eliminated (Horwitz 1990), although their burrows are still periodically reported from urban areas. The most likely reason for this apparent decline in urban areas is destruction of burrows during infrastructure works, and even poisoning of crayfish to prevent them from undermining building structures (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). However, the wide range of this species (with an EOO exceeding 2,800 km²) means that these local effects are not likely to be a major threat for the species as a whole. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153603		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, along with monitoring of the population trends. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153603		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-eastern Tasmania, Australia. Its range extends from Port Sorell eastwards to near St. Helens where it can be found at predominantly low altitudes (less than 200 m) (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of  5,954 km<sup>2</sup>.
153603		habitat	eng	This species burrows in a variety of habitats, including temperate, wet, sclerophyll forests in the region of Mt. Horror and Lilydale; buttongrass plains in the region of Floyds Creek; and ephemeral creeks and swamps in the open, temperate and dry sclerophyll forests of the Mt. Direction-Georgetown region of north-east Tasmania. Spawning takes place in late spring or early summer after females moult. The largest male found was 25.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 13.4 to 24.1 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 17.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153603		population	eng	This species is considered to be abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153603		threats	eng	This species' range overlaps with areas of development for agriculture and urbanization, which is likely to have driven localized declines, although this is not believed to be impacting this species on a global scale. Broad scale habitat alteration and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153604		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although part of its range falls within several national parks. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species<em> </em>does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements and connectivity, and whether this species is impacted upon by any major threat processes (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). &#160;</p><p></p>    <p><br/></p>
153604		distribution	eng	<em></em>  This species is endemic to Australia, it is found at altitudes above 75 m above sea level (Morgan 1997). It ranges from near Elands, southwest of Comboyne, 100 km southwest to the Barrington Tops area (New South Wales), it also inhabits the Myall  Range near Bulahdelah (Morgan 1997).   This species has a distribution of approximately  5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153604		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits small steams with temperate rainforest along the banks and sclerophyll on elevated ridges (Morgan 1997). The species co-occurs with the much larger <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus spinifer</span> (Morgan 1997). Although this species occurs in a number of streams, these are in different drainages and may represent fragmented populations; Morgan (1997) included this species in his "highland" grouping of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, though&#160; this species occurs at altitudes as low as 75 m above sea level. </p>
153604		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153604		threats	eng	<p>It is currently unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species are either restricted to fragmented highland habitats, or are widespread extending to near sea level, with little crossover (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is unusual as it does not fit into either group, it could therefore be fragmented across its range, separated by mountain ridges and/or lowlands (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It inhabits various vegetation types and appears to be locally abundant within its range, but could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, e.g. climate change, exploitation and exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
153607		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is vulnerable due to its highly restricted distribution and relatively strict habitat requirements. This species requires further research into its range, monitoring, and investigation of any potential threats which may cause habitat degradation. The Collingwood and Franklin Rivers should also be given protection to ensure no land is cleared in the vicinity.</p>
153607		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the catchments of the Collingwood and Franklin rivers and streams. The estimated range of this species is 6 km<sup>2</sup>, although this is likely to increase with further collecting (Hansen and Richardson 2006). This species has been collected at an elevation of 500 - 600 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>  <p></p>
153607		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in plains and creeks. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath (Hansen and Richardson 2006).
153607		population	eng	<em></em>  This species may reach densities of 0.25 m<sup>-2</sup>, though locally densities of this species seem lower than some other sedgeland species (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153607		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by its restricted distribution, estimated to be 6 km<sup><em>2</em></sup> at present (although this is likely to increase with further collecting) (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Although this species is found in a national park, its highly restricted distribution and relatively strict habitat requirements mean that disturbance (most likely to be land clearance) to the Collingwood or Franklin river catchments could cause a significant population decline.   Furthermore, too frequent or too intense fires are a possible threat (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153608		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is currently listed as 'vulnerable' under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (Doran 2000). It is also included in the <em>Engaeus</em> group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both state and federal governments (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species is currently incorporated in a notification and conservation prescription system established by the Forest Practices Board (FPB) and the Threatened Species Unit (TSU) to advise forestry operations within sensitive areas (Doran 2000). It was identified as a Category 1 fauna species (requiring protection of all populations and habitat within its known range) under the Tasmanian comprehensive regional assessment process (Tasmanian Public Land Use Commission 1997). It has ultimately been identified as a Priority Species 'requiring recovery action' under the Tasmanian Regional Forest Agreement (Attachment 2, Part A.1) signed between the Commonwealth of Australia and the State of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state> in November 1997 (Doran 1999). Long-term monitoring programs have been put in place to provide feedback information on the effectiveness of conservation measures currently in place.<br/> <br/> This species has a limited and patchy distribution, so all habitat in which the species is found must be considered essential for species survival. None of its distribution occurs within formal reserves and it is considered to have a particularly poor reservation status (Doran 2000). Furthermore, the impacts of forestry activities on this species are unclear. Its restricted range combined with limited availability of good quality forested habitat, demands that it be treated with caution until we have a better understanding of this species (Doran 2000). Assessment and prioritisation of Crown, public and private land for both formal and informal reservation are required to protect relevant catchments. Conservation measures that are required include rehabilitation of habitat within urban Burnie, by developing a program with the Burnie City Council to address water quality/ pollution issues and promote native streamside revegetation (Doran 2000). Future decisions about catchment-based refuse sites should be made with consideration for threatened species and community health (Doran and Richards 1996). Landholders should be informed about the presence of the species and its importance, and encouraged to conserve the crayfish habitat on their land (Doran and Richards 1996). Community involvement and monitoring are also essential conservation measures. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>
153608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Burnie, in north-western Tasmania, Australia. This species was thought to be restricted to three creeks, namely the catchments of Shorewell, Romaine and Cooee Creeks (Doran and Richardson 1996, Horwitz 1994). More recent survey work has also found populations in Camp and Distillery Creeks and related catchments (Doran 1999). The extension to the additional catchments expanded the known extent of occurrence (EOO) from only 9 km<sup>2</sup> to over 107 km<sup>2</sup> (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   It is no longer considered to be as severely fragmented as previously believed, and only the urban populations remain fragmented (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153608		habitat	eng	This species prefers well-covered, slowly draining strips of fern-dominated native riparian vegetation. It is known from stream banks and seepages retaining remnant riparian vegetation within Burnie, and outside the city, in open and grassy sheep pasture, farm dams, roadside seeps and culverts, sedgey marsh, and some moderately disturbed stream sides (Doran 1999). This species feeds mainly on rotting vegetation and insects (Bryant and Jackson 1999). It is likely that it burrows under structures such as fallen logs, consuming <em>Dicksonia sporangia</em> and other vegetation. Burrows are either connected to the water table or are directly connected to the creeks. At sites where the burrows are adjacent to creeks it is probable the species supplements its diet with aquatic invertebrates (Doran and Richardson 1996). The breeding season for this species has been inferred from the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span>; this generally occurs from July to December (Bryant and Jackson 1999). Large numbers of berried (egg-carrying) females have been found in early December, all carrying eggs in early developmental stages (Doran 1999).
153608		population	eng	This species, following recent investigation has been found to be quite abundant in the western portion of its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). The eastern portion of its range, however, is patchy&#160;where suitable habitat exists, is separated by channelized creeks and is being impacted by urban development. It is thus very reasonable to assume that populations in this eastern distribution have declined significantly in extent and number (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).
153608		threats	eng	Due to the restricted distribution of the species, it is impacted by a number of threats. The greatest threats to this species are water pollution, water diversion and habitat removal (Doran 2000). There is some evidence that declines in population numbers and distribution have occurred due to decreasing water quality and increasing urban and industrial water pollution (Doran 2000). In Burnie, it appears that this species<em></em> shows no tendency to colonise areas which have previously been cleared of native vegetation along Shorewell Creek (Doran and Richards 1996). The Cooee Creek subpopulation could potentially be threatened by the Burnie Municipality refuse site impacting water quality and resulting in habitat loss (Doran and Richardson 1996). This species is absent from sites downstream of a disused refuse site on the Shorewell Creek (Doran and Richardson 1996). Effective dispersal and breeding between the Shorewell and Cooee Creek subpopulations is thought to be limited, therefore increasing genetic depression (Horwitz 1994).<br/><br/>Agricultural and forestry activities also impact on populations through changes to the hydrology and water quality of the area due to water abstraction, road building, dam building, streamside land clearance, soil compaction, and sedimentation. Stock access can be especially detrimental, causing disruption of colonies by soil compaction, sedimentation and loss of water quality. Widespread streamside land clearance over many years has left few of the smaller streams with this species preferred riparian vegetation, particularly tree ferns.   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/><br/><p></p>
153609		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with the <st1:placename w:st="on">Richmond</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Yabbra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">national parks</st1:placetype></st1:place><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm   orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, population genetics, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160;   <p>&#160;</p>
153609		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is found in some tributaries of the Clarence and <st1:placename w:st="on">Richmond</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Rivers</st1:placetype> in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Richmond</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype> of northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place> (Morgan 1997, Coughran 2006). It is found only in headwater streams, usually at altitudes over 200 m above sea level (Coughran in press). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 985 km<sup>2</sup>, but its distribution consists of three distinct, severely fragmented populations separated by unsuitable habitat in intervening lowlands or steep mountain ranges (Coughran <span style="font-style: italic;">in press</span>, Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).
153609		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams along gullies in wet and dry sclerophyll forest on exposed ridges (Morgan 1997).   The surrounding lower country has been extensively cleared for agriculture and is inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> (Morgan 1997). Further information on the ecology of the species has been documented by Coughran (2000, 2006 <span style="font-style: italic;">in press</span>).
153609		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species. Its distribution consists of three distinct, severely fragmented  populations separated by unsuitable habitat in intervening lowlands or  steep mountain ranges (Coughran <span style="font-style: italic;">in  press</span>, Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).</p>
153609		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007. <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153610		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Lake Paniai is included within the Enarotali Nature Reserve, however Lake Tage and Tigi are unprotected. Further research is needed to determine if this species' range does in fact extend beyond the Wissel Lakes and how it has been impacted by threats within its range.</p>
153610		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Wissel Lakes (Paniai, Tage and Tigi) in the Sudirman Range of New Guinea, Indonesia. The lakes are located at an altitude of 1,750 m (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153610		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is confined to lakes (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153610		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.
153610		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The shorelines of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Wissel</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lakes</st1:placetype> are surrounded by one of the densest concentrations of agricultural land within the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region> highlands. There has been extensive land clearance for sweet potato plantations, t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ber, and livestock ranching. Changes in land use are known to be <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the water quality in the lakes, through sed<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>entation and eutrophication (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). The local villagers harvest this species for food.&#160; While the precise effects of these <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts are not yet well understood, they are believed to be having a significant <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on habitat quality and population size (C. M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p></p>
153612		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Targeted surveys are required to determine if this species has become extinct. <br/></p>
153612		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia. It has been recorded from the catchment of a creek near the King River and has an approximate distribution of 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Richardson 2006), and is known to occur at an elevation of 200 - 300 m above sea level. Furthermore, the range of this species has probably been severely reduced by the creation of the Lake Burbury hydroelectric impoundment in the early 1990s (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153612		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows located in creeks (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides professorum</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153612		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153612		threats	eng	This species is possibly facing extinction due to the construction of the Crotty hydro-electric dam on the King River (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Invertebrate surveys of the King River in 2001/02, 2004/05 and 2006 have shown all three sample sites fall well below historical reference site abundance and diversity (Davies and Cook 2006). The construction of the dam, combined with the restricted distribution and strict habitat requirements of this species mean that this species is at a high risk of extinction (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153613		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for <em>Euastacus gamilaroi</em>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New   South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus gamilaroi</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. </p>
153613		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from a single locality, Hanging Rock near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Nundle</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place> (Morgan 1997). The altitude of hanging rock is approximately 1,100 m above sea level. This species extent of occurrence is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008)
153613		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat and ecology information available for this species<em></em>, although given its restriction to a single, highland locality (more than 1,000 m above sea level), it is likely that it requires cool, montane river habitats as has been noted for other <em>Euastacus</em> spp.<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>
153613		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153613		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to the following potential threats: 1. </span>Given its highly restricted range (i.e. one location), the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors; 2.  </span>Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007).; 3. There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species; 4. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c,d,e). Given this species highly restricted distribution, t</span>hese exotic species could have serious impacts on <em>E. gamilaroi</em>, and lead to serious declines in distribution and/or </span>abundance
153614		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, the impact of subsistence level fishing and the impacts of surrounding land use change.</p>
153614		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to New Zealand. It exists in the southeastern corner of the South Island from Otago, Southland, to Stewart Island. Recently, this species is rarely encountered in Canterbury (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;40,700 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><p><br/></p>
153614		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species inhabitats streams, small ponds, and lakes, with a gravel-bedded and muddy substrate. It predominantly prefers native vegetation for shelter and sometimes burrows. The maximum age for this species is estimated at over 20 years (Whitmore and Huryn 1999)
153614		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, there is anecdotal evidence that this species has declined over the years from land use change to pastoral farming and predation from introduced species such as trout (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
153614		threats	eng	<em></em>This species has been harvested at a subsistence level for many years, but this is not considered to be a major threat as it is not having a significant impact on population levels. There has been recent interest in commercial harvesting, and this could be a significant threat in the future (Whitmore <em>et al</em>. 2000). It was calculated that the Powder Creek, Otago population of <em></em>this species would not be able to withstand commercial harvesting due to the effects of low reproductive success, slow recruitment, and slow development to sexual maturity (Whitmore and Huryn 1999). Legislation currently prevents commercial harvesting for sale, although aquaculture of crayfish can be permitted (with approvals required).  Minor threats also present are erosion and habitat loss through the draining of wetland habitat for urban and industrial uses, though these are not, as yet, causing severe losses in numbers (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). In addition, future threats include climate change leading to stream warming, as survival is reduced when temperatures exceed 16<sup>o</sup>C&#160;(S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/><em></em>
153615		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and investigations into thermal tolerance.</p>    <p>In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.</p>
153615		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. Its range is known to extend from the Brown Mountains area west of Bemboka, 25 km south along the mountains to near Mount Darragh, northwest of Wyndham in New South Wales (Morgan 1997). A specimen found near Timbillica, a further 60 km south indicates that the species extends to near the Victorian border, though the distribution may be patchy (Morgan 1997). It has been collected from streams between 240 m and 1,000 m above sea level. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the vicinity of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it is known from only four localities within that range, representing headwaters of various different drainages. The species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).</p>
153615		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in highland streams in granite dominated country. Light temperate rainforest or tree ferns are found along the stream banks, with dry sclerophyll on ridges above providing good shade (Morgan 1997). The species is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus yanga</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus claytoni</span> at some sites (Morgan 1997).</p><p>    </p><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>  <p></p>
153615		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species however as this species is extremely susceptible to over exploitation (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153615		threats	eng	The species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors.<br/><br/>Climate change, including increasing temperature, alteration to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rain forest and increased potential for bushfires also threaten this species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).<br/><p></p>    <p>Exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007), also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d). These exotic species could have localised impacts on this species which given the fragmented distribution of this species, could contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.</p>  <p><br/> </p>
153616		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parkland. Currently, regulations for forest practices stipulate that logging activity should not occur in the riparian zones of a creek (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Monitoring of population numbers and threats, such as logging, is required to determine how these are impacting the population .
153616		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Victoria and south-eastern New South Wales, Australia. It is widely distributed in East Gippsland, Victoria, predominantly east of the Snowy River and has been found on the New South Wales side of the Victorian border, in two distinct regions (Craigie and Timbillica) (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 6,547 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>
153616		habitat	eng	This species is frequently found in burrows in flood beds of creeks in wet sclerophyll forest or warm temperate rainforest (e.g. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Lind</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National   Park)</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It has also been found in burrows near creeks in dry sclerophyll forest (Murrungowar) and in a tea-tree swamp (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). The largest male found was 26.9 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.2 to 24.2 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 20.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153616		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153616		threats	eng	There is no evidence to suggest that the species is, or could be, experiencing significant population declines at present. However, forestry activity (in the form of logging of native forests) continues across its range (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009) and could be&#160; resulting in sedimentation of streams. In addition, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153617		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research has been conducted investigating how well this species would adapt to being bred in aquaculture. Out of the four harvested Chilean species of crayfish it was found to survive the best, as it can survive well in captivity and has high fecundity (Rudolph 2002).  In the future, harvest levels will need to be monitored and controlled to ensure that there are no significant declines in numbers. The establishment of new protected areas should be considered to preserve some habitat for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and if it is being impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale. <br/></p>
153617		distribution	eng	This species is found in the region of Talcahuano, south towards the Taitao Peninsula and the Island of Chiloé, Chile. It is known to occur in the rivers and streams of Maipo River basin to the north, and was found in most of the Aconcagua River and tributaries. In addition, it is also found in Lake Nahuel-Huapi, Argentina (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).   This species has distribution of approximately 13,813 km<sup>2</sup>.
153617		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in tranquil waters between vegetation on the river bank, where it digs shallow burrows. In lakes it is normally found in the littoral and sublittoral regions, beneath rocks or submerged logs and digs burrows in the soft soil (Rudolph 2002).
153617		population	eng	There is no population information available for<em> </em>this species.
153617		threats	eng	<em></em> This species is impacted by several threat processes. It has been strongly exploited for human consumption and for use as bait in salmon fishing. It is easy to catch and there are no guidelines stopping the harvesting of juveniles or fertile females (Rudolph 2002). Its habitat is also being altered by contamination from surrounding industry and livestock agriculture, modification of river vegetation and aquatic macrophytes, and physical alterations of the river channel by the extraction of groundwater (Rudolph 2002). These threats are not present throughout the entire range of the species and so are only affecting local populations and are not at present affecting the species at a global level (L. Buckup pers. comm 2008).
153618		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species, however its distribution coincides with the Otway Ranges National Park.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population and habitat trends) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. This species has been found in Western Victoria where it can be collected from some of the creeks south or south east of the Otway Ranges; abundantly between the Otway Ranges and Warrnambool; in creeks south and south-west of Ballarat (north of Lake Corangamite); and between Port Fairy and Portland. Populations west and east of Warrnambool appear to be disjunct but this gap will probably be closed with further collecting. The region around Lake Corangamite was searched extensively without finding evidence of freshwater crayfish and the gap in the distribution around this lake therefore appears to be a real absence rather than an artefact of lack of collections (Horwitz 1990).<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 11,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
153618		habitat	eng	Burrows of this species are found in creeks. They are found at greater densities in areas of temperate forest or mature riparian vegetation (March and Robson 2006). In this same study the crayfish demonstrated an aversion to highly compacted soils.
153618		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153618		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats currently impacting the population. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153619		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.
153619		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found from Brisbane to Maryborough in Queensland, Australia. It is also found on the sand islands off the coast of southeast Queensland, including North Stradbroke Island (Bywater <em>et al</em>. 2008) and Fraser Island. This species is reported to be widespread in the permanent small streams of southeastern Queensland (Reik 1969).   This species has a distribution of approximately 11,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153619		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species inhabits swamps and creeks. Furthermore, it is reported to be highly territorial and aggressive (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2007).
153619		population	eng	This species is thought to be disappearing from the Brisbane area, though can be easily collected (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153619		threats	eng	This species has been extirpated from Sandy Creek, Brisbane where a waste water treatment plant now releases into this creek, which has resulted in dark anaerobic sediments down stream from the plant (Lawrence 1998). This species was however, found to occur in small numbers in Oxley Creek 7 km away. At the time of sampling, this creek was being mined for sand and there were variations in the water chemistry upstream and downstream of the mining. This species was found both upstream and downstream of the mining activity (Lawrence 1998), suggesting that this species may be tolerant of moderate changes in environmental parameters. This species is likely under threat from expanding urbanization around the Brisbane area (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008), however relative to the range of this species urbanization is not likely to be a significant threat at the present time.
153621		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
153621		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species <em></em> was known from the type locality, Ojo de Carbonera spring, 4.3 km south of Ejido Rancho Nuevo, approximately 57.6 km west of Villa Ahumada, Chihuahua, Mexico, and three other springs within 3 km of Ojo de Carbonera (Hobbs 1980). These springs were highly discontinuous, meaning the distribution of this species was highly fragmented (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). A recent survey for this species found the type locality of this species,&#160;and several other former locations, to be completely devoid of water in 2009 (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). A single spring in the area still contained water but was not found to support any crayfish after&#160;extensive&#160;searches (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).
153621		habitat	eng	The type locality was a clear shallow spring, 10 cm deep and 1 - 2.5 m wide, which flows at a moderate rate over sand and gravel substrate, with sparse vegetation consisting of filamentous algae and submerged grass (Hobbs 1980). There is no suitable habitat surrounding the type locality, as the region is very arid   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species was thought to co-occur with the Endangered pupfish&#160;<em>Ciprynodon fontinalis </em>(C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010)<em>.</em>
153621		population	eng	Fewer than 100 specimens have been collected of this species (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009). After targeted surveys of this species, no new specimens were found, and it is believed to be Extinct (F. Álvarez pers. comm 2010) .
153621		threats	eng	Ojo de Carbonera spring is threatened by increased pumping of groundwater for irrigation, which has already resulted in the failure of other spring flows in nearby areas (Echelle <em>et al.</em> 2003). An increased level of dessication has also been reported from the area once occupied by this species (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). This seems to have led to the complete dessication of most, if not all, of the springs which formerly supported populations of this species&#160;(F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010), while the agricultural industry responsible for this water abstraction has now collapsed in the area owing to a lack of groundwater.
153622		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species,   though part of its range lies within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">South</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">West</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Hansen and Richardson (2006) have identified <em>Ombrastacoides dissitus</em> as rare and vulnerable due to the construction of dams throughout its range, and this species requires research into its abundance, full range, and the impact that threats have had on the population.
153622		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia. This species has been recorded in Lake Pedder, and the catchments of the following rivers and streams: Florentine, Derwent, Gordon, Huon, Serpentine, Weld.   It is known to occur at an elevation of 400 - 600 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). In addition,   the range of this species was possibly substantially reduced, by up to 20 %, by the inundation of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pedder</st1:placename></st1:place> hydroelectric dam in 1973 (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 120 km<sup>2</sup>, but this is likely to increase with further collecting. (Hansen and Richardson 2006).
153622		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in swamps and seepages. The burrows are usually found in peat or gravel, and the vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath and moss (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides decemdentatus</em> and <em>O. huonensis</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (Hansen and Richardson 2002).
153622		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is thought that it may have a similar abundance to   <em>Ombrastacoides huonensis.</em>     <em></em>Densities measured at one typical site of   <em>O. huonensis </em>ranged from 0.2 - 1.1 animals m<sup>-2 </sup>(Hamr and Richardson 1994), each burrow probably containing a single adult crayfish. However, extrapolation to an overall population size is complex because of the mosaic of drainage and soil types within the species range for   <em>O. huonensis</em>.
153622		threats	eng	This species has an estimated range of 120 km<sup>2</sup> and is considered rare. This species is at risk from a relatively restricted distribution, combined with the construction of several hydro-electric dams on the rivers within which<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>it inhabits. Pollution also affects certain rivers inhabited by this species. The Upper Derwent is affected by agricultural run-off, particularly from land clearing. The Lower Derwent suffers from extremely high levels of heavy metal contamination in sediments. Levels of mercury, lead, zinc and cadmium exceed national guidelines and the state recommends against consuming shellfish. A large proportion of the heavy metal contamination is derived from an electrolytic zinc and a paper mill (Green and Coughanowr 2003).<br/>    <p>Furthermore, this species was preyed upon heavily by the introduced Brown Trout, <em>Salmo trutta</em>, after the creation of the impoundment, and the lake-dwelling population is probably extinct. On land the main threat to this species is excessive fire, which removes the peat soil (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153624		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range coincides with the Jardine National Park and the Tonda Wildlife Management Area.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.
153624		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wepeia, Wicheura, North Cape York, Andoon Swamp, Mapoon, Jardine River, Lake Wichera and Lake Boranto, Australia, and the Fly River and Bensbach in Papua New Guinea and Badu Island, Torres Strait (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008)   This species has a distribution of approximately 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153624		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species which is found in acidic coastal swamps, perched lakes and in burrows connected to open water or the water table. It is found in pristine environments (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153624		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153624		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the population of this species. It is located in areas of relatively low human population density, and protected areas indicating that it is unlikely to be impacted by anthropogenic threats. Significant portions of the Fly River are at risk from high levels of acid, from mining in the tributaries (Chatterton 1996), though it is unknown what impact this is having on this species.
153625		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153625		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia, and has an estimated range of approximately 200 km<sup>2</sup>. Its range appears to border near Lake Eildon, near Hoddles Creek, Lilydale and Healesville (Horwitz 1990).  Taxonomic clarifications are required to be more precise about the distribution of this species (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/></p>
153625		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species burrows in clay-dominated hillsides or deep soil-filled flood plains. The largest male found was 36.2 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 16.5 to 39.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 30.1 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153625		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant, but its distribution is described as patchy throughout its range (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<p></p>  <em></em>
153625		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats impacting this species, however it may be undergoing localized declines due to changes in land use where significant soil disturbance occurs, or local developments where drainage is an issue (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change, could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153626		conservation	eng	There are no species-specifc conservation measures in place for this spcecies. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether there are any major threats impacting upon it.
153626		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is Cuevas de Santo Tomas, Sierra de los Organos, Pinar del Rio, Cuba (Hobbs 1989).
153626		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subterranean waters.
153626		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153626		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting this species.
153628		conservation	eng	This species has been given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe, and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153628		distribution	eng	This species was first found in a ditch near Bay City in Matagorda County, Texas. It has since been found in the Colorado River, Fort Bend County, and Waller County. It is thought that the range is bound by the Lavaca River and Bay on the west, though the northward and eastward range limits are not known (Albaugh and Black 1973).
153628		habitat	eng	This species is known from roadside ditches and rivers (Albaugh and Black 1973), in shallow water with aquatic plant cover (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). During the summer it is known to burrow when some of its habitat becomes dry (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153628		population	eng	This species has been collected from 31 sites and is believed to be common at most sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153628		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting the population of this species.
153629		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in the future it will be important to establish protected areas to ensure some habitat is preserved for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and what extent threats such as habitat degradation and subsistence harvesting are having upon it. <br/></p>
153629		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Chile. It is known only from the type locality, Corral.   This species has distribution of approximately  315 km<sup>2</sup> (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).
153629		habitat	eng	This species is a burrowing species. It has been found in swamps, cascading streams, and peatlands (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153629		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.
153629		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is suffering from a decline in habitat quality. The current habitat is being deforested to provide areas for agriculture (Rudolph and Crandall 2007). The peatlands in southern Chile support the extraction of <em>Sphagnum</em> moss for commercial purposes. It is also harvested at a subsistence level for human consumption and for use as salmon bait. Harvesting levels are not known but do not appear to be causing severe declines in numbers and so is not considered a major threat (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153630		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although this species has been found within the Alpine National Park and the Mount Buffalo National Park in recent surveys (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). Further research should include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, in Victoria, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) applies to spiny crayfish (DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughhran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
153630		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It inhabits streams in central Victoria from the Dandenong Mountains, east of Melbourne, north-east to Eildon and Dandongadale, east to Woods Point and Erica and southeast to the region of Thorpdale. Included in this range are tributaries of the Yarra, Murray and Latrobe Rivers and some small coastal streams. This species usually occurs at altitudes greater than 200 m above sea level, and specimens have been collected at altitudes greater than 1,400 m above sea level, habitat that is snow covered in winter (Morgan 1986).   This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 7,901 km<sup>2</sup>. Recent searches within many of these areas have not been successful, although a population has been found on top of Mount Buffalo, which is a national park (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).
153630		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>Much of the range of this species has been cleared, and this species is most commonly found where vegetation is intact (Morgan 1986). Natural vegetation in the region includes mountain ash and tree ferns, with some dry sclerophyll forest at lower altitudes (Morgan 1986). This species is restricted to cool headwaters of streams and rivers (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160; </p>
153630		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species (J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). There is some evidence that this species is being replaced by<span style="font-style: italic;"> Euastacus armatus</span> in at least part of its range (the Buffalo River). Indeed, searches in the area where this species was found by Horwitz (1980) have only found <span style="font-style: italic;">E. armatus</span> (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2009).
153630		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to threats such as climate change, over-exploitation and the introduction of exotic species. This species is particularly susceptible to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003). This alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006). <br/><br/>Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this species attains a relatively large size and may be susceptible to over exploitation through fishing pressure (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Morgan (1983) observed evidence of heavy fishing activities in the Latrobe River system, and noted that populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> could be heavily impacted in a single weekend of heavy fishing pressure. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure, such as the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>There is also the potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Other exotic species, such as cats, foxes, pigs, goats, that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and could have localized impacts on this species. Invasion of habitat by other crayfish species has also been noted as a threat, along with pollution and habitat alteration (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/><p><br/></p><br/><p><em></em></p>
153631		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution may coincide with a number of national parks (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Research is required to clarify the population genetics of the species, and should also include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Furthermore, in New South Wales and Victoria, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (DPI 2007, NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153631		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. This species ranges from the Robertson and Bundanoon areas (New South Wales) to just inside the Victoria border West of Genoa, a distance of 400 km. The region is drained by many coastal streams including Shoalhaven, Clyde, Tuross, Towamba, Wonboyn and Genoa Rivers (Morgan 1997). This is a lowland species that can be found close to sea level, although has typically been collected from altitudes above 60 m (Morgan 1997, Coughran 2008a, J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm 2009). </p>
153631		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species inhabits small, coastal streams in southern New South Wales and far eastern Victoria (Morgan 1997). The vegetation along streams is predominantly temperate rainforest or ferns, occasionally dry sclerophyll (Morgan 1997). The species appears to prefer smaller streams with rainforested banks (Morgan 1997).
153631		population	eng	<em></em>There is no population data available for this species. <br/><br/>Morgan (1997) noted the species to be extraordinarily variable across its range, both within and between populations. He acknowledged the possibility that more than one species was regarded as this species in his revision, but on morphological grounds treated them as a single polytypic species. Coughran (2008b) also discussed the possibility that the species may represent several taxa, and discussed the unusual variation in the cuticle partition for the species (a character generally considered to be the most reliable morphological character for the genus). Examination of population genetics is required to clarify the taxonomic status of the species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm 2009).
153631		threats	eng	<p>This species is susceptible to the threats of climate change, with particular regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change modelling      predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a      warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture      (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003). This species is also susceptible to threats from over exploitation. This is a large species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, colloquially referred to      as 'Southern Lobster' in southern New South Wales, and is susceptible to fishing      pressure (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults)      has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population      structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist      1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008),      including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Exotic species (cats, foxes pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species.&#160; </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><br/><p></p>
153632		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. The spiny crayfish fishery was closed in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place> from 1983 until 1991 (Barker 1992). The current fishery for spiny crayfish is managed through a minimum size limit of 90mm OCL, closed seasons and areas, and a bag limit of five per person per day (only one of which can exceed 120mm OCL) (DPI 2007). Only three of the 11 Victorian species (<em>E. armatus</em>, <em>E. bispinosus</em> and <em>E. kershawi</em>) attain 90mm OCL, so the regulations may increase pressure on these species. Barker (1992) found considerable variation in catch rates and sizes across different sites, and failed to record any specimens above the minimum size limit at one site. Research should be extended to include an assessment of population genetics, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p></p><p>This species is found in the Alpine National Park, south of the Great Divide (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>
153632		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from Gippsland, Victoria, to 80 km east of Melbourne, a distance of approximately 320 km (Morgan 1986). In addition this species is found south of the Great Divide, from just south of Mt. Hotham in the Wongungarra and Wonangatta Rivers, to the coast (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). This&#160;is a lowland species that can be found from close to sea level up to altitudes of 250 m above sea level, and its long, narrow distribution cuts across several drainages in eastern Victoria (Morgan 1986). However, the species is morphologically invariable across its lowland range, and there is no information to suggest any level of fragmentation across its range. The estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species is around 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>   (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
153632		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in southerly flowing streams in eastern Victoria. The vegetation along the banks is commonly wet or dry sclerophyll forest, and the species also persists in areas cleared for agriculture providing riparian vegetation remains intact (Morgan 1986). It is a very slow-growing species (Morey 1998). This species is regarded as very tolerant of disturbed or absent riparian vegetation (S. Lawler pers. com. 2008).
153632		population	eng	In a study conducted from 1987 to 1996, 1063 individuals (with 102 individuals recaptured at least once) were collected in the Bunyip and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Latrobe</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> systems (Morey 1998). This species is regarded as common within its range, and there is no evidence of increase or decline (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;  Barker (1992) recorded variable catches, a lack of reproductively active specimens, and variation in maximum size across different sites.<em></em>  <p><em></em></p>
153632		threats	eng	<p>  This species is susceptible to the effects of climate change, particularly with regard to altered      hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modeling      predicts that southeastern mainland <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> will experience a      warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased runoff and soil moisture      (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003).   This is a large species of <em>Euastacus</em>, which is susceptible to fishing pressure (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). Heavy amateur fishing and land development have severely reduced its range in rivers near human settlement, such as the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Latrobe</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;(Morgan 1996). Closures on the recreational fishery appear to have had no effect, and evidence of illegal poaching is common (Morey 1998).&#160; Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure, such as the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <em>et al.</em> 2008), and impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <em>et al.</em> 2008). Failure to adhere to fishing regulations has resulted in this decline (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). Furthermore, some exotic fishes such as the Brown Trout and Redfin Perch are prevalent throughout the region and might pose a potential threat (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).&#160;<br/><br/>Land clearing is regarded as the biggest threat to this species, although this species is much more resilient than other species of the genus (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153633		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is relatively widespread, does not have strict habitat requirements, and is found in a major national park, which will provide a certain amount of protection. Monitoring is required to determine the abunance of this species, and if there are any threats likely to cause a population decline in the future (A. Richardson pers.comm. 2009) <br/></p>
153633		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Albert, Andrew, Birches, Bird, Davey, Denison, Franklin, Gordon, Hardwood, King, Landing, Manuka, Maxwell, Nora, Olga, Orange, Sorell, and Wanderer catchments, at an elevation of 0 - 400 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). Hansen and Richardson (2006) have assessed this species as secure, with estimated distribution of 3230 km<sup>2</sup>.
153633		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains and swamps, and in seepages and creeks. The burrows are found in peats, clays, mud, silt or gravel. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, melaleuca scrub, rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest (Hansen and Richardson 2006). It may be found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides asperrimanus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinastacoides catinipalma</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. insignis</span>, where<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occupies deeper, wetter burrows (Hansen and Richardson 2002). <br/><br/>Although there is no life history information for this species, observations suggest it may be less fecund than <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides huonensis.</span> In addition,   like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate (pholeteros) fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/>    <p>&#160;</p>
153633		population	eng	There are no formal estimates of density for this species, but in the most suitable habitat (graminoid heath on peat) 1-2 burrows m<sup>-2</sup> are known to occur (A. Richardson pers.comm. 2009).
153633		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be acting on this species. Potential threats include processes that remove vegetation cover or the peat soil layer such as excessive fire, roading or mineral exploration. However, these are not considered to be major threats because this species occupies a wide range of vegetation types, and much of its range is within the Franklin  Gordon Wild  Rivers National   Park which will provide a certain amount of protection. The conservation status of this species is believed to be secure (Hansen and Richardson 2006).
153634		conservation	eng	Fishing regulations of this species, such as legal size limits, fishing licences, length of fishing season, and gear restrictions have been imposed to address the declines in the catch rate of this species over the last decade (Beatty<em> et al.</em> 2005). It is managed under Western Australia Fisheries legislation which are currently addressing the declining catch per unit effort, through temporary closure of the fishery, rotational closure of certain water bodies, revision of the management controls to assess their effectiveness, total reduction in fishing effort, improvements to habitat status, and stocking in areas where recruitment and over-fishing are known to be a problem (Molony and Bird 2002).<br/><br/>Further research is required to identify populations of genetic and morphological significance that may be at risk through the introduction of strains of this species used in aquaculture (J. Bunn pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>  <em></em>
153634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South-west Australia. Originally, it had a restricted distribution in the southwest of Western Australia, but has since naturally expanded its range from Esperance to Geraldton (Department of Fisheries 2008). However, it has been widely transplanted in both natural and artificial water bodies and is now widespread throughout the South-west of Western Australia. It has been introduced to South Australia, New South Wales, Kangaroo Island off the coast of Adelaide, Queensland, and Victoria, where feral populations have become established (Austin and Ryan 2002, J. Bunn pers. comm. 2008). Two self-sustaining populations are known in Victoria, on the Mornington Peninsular, southeast of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Melbourne</st1:place></st1:city>. Both populations occur in artificial waterbodies namely Devilbend reservoir and O.T. Dam (Bryant and Papas 2007).<br/><br/>In addition, this species has been translocated to North America (Merrick and Lambert 1991, Lawrence and Morrissy 2000), South Africa (Lawrence and Morrissy 2000), New Zealand (McDowall 1988), Japan, Zimbabwe, China, Chile and the Caribbean (Lawrence and Morrissy 2000).<p>    </p><p>This species has a distribution exceeding&#160; 243,600 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p><p></p>
153634		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep pools of clear, flowing rivers (Merrick and Lambert 1991, Mosig 1998, Wingfield 1998). They are more commonly seen on sandy stretches with shelter (snags and rocks). Whilst it has a higher tolerance for more saline waters than <em>Cherax destructor</em> and <em>Cherax quadricarinatus</em> (likely due to the naturally high salinity of Western Australia rivers), it is not tolerant of low dissolved oxygen concentrations (Bryant and Papas 2007). It has an optimal water temperature of between 17.5°C and 24.5°C (Bryant and Papas 2007). This species is not known to be a burrower, although it has been observed excavating short burrows under roots and instream branches. The populations in the Devilbend Reservoir and O.T. Dam are thought to make more use of burrow systems where refugia are limited (Raadik pers. comm. 2008). This is a K - strategist species (Beatty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Unlike other species of <em>Cherax</em> occupying the same distribution, the is species does not have the potential for multiple spawning (Beatty <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/> They can reach a length of 38 cm and can weigh up to 2.7 kg (Merrick and Lambert 1991). Maturity under favourable conditions can be reached in two years, although it is commonly three years (Merrick and Lambert 1991).&#160;It has been noted, however, that there can be large differences in the sizes of individuals present due to fishing and habitat pressures&#160;(J. Bunn pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>This species is predated upon by cormorants, water rats, tortoises and fish (Tay<em> et al</em>. 2007). However, it is capable of outcompeting a number of other crayfish species such as <em>Euastacus</em> species due to rapid breeding succession (Bryant and Papas 2007). In a recent study of breeding patterns of a population found in an impoundment dam, the majority of females released their broods form mid-November to mid-December. Furthermore, spawning occurred in late August and September (Beatty et al. 2003).&#160;It has&#160;recently&#160;been posited, through stable isotope analysis, that this species&#160;may&#160;be a&#160;keystone&#160;species&#160;in&#160;the Hutt River, playing a key role in nutrient cycling and aquatic food web structure (Beatty 2006). This species and <em>C. destructor</em> were found to have similar diets and trophic position in summer months, although this seemed to diverge during the winter (Beatty 2006). Juveniles and adults of this species maintain a predatory strategy during both summer and winter, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">C. destructor</span> is only predatory during summer months&#160;(Beatty 2006). &#160;<br/>    <p><em></em><br/></p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; <em></em></p>  <p><br/></p>
153634		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant in habitats that are not overly degraded (J.Bunn pers. comm. 2008). Populations have increased in the Margaret River to the detriment of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax tenuimanus, </span>and decreased in the upper reaches of the Blackwood River due to increased salinity and general habitat degradation (Nickoll and Horwitz 2000).
153634		threats	eng	In areas such as Western Australia, this species has been replaced by <em>Cherax destructor</em> which is posing a threat to the recreational fishery of this species (Bryant and Herbert 2007). There have been noted declines in the catch per unit effort (CPUE) within the recreational fishery for this species. The recreational season has been reduced from 55 to 16 days and gear restrictions have been imposed (Molony and Bird 2002, Beatty <em>et al.&#160;</em>2004). This is not considered a major threat at present, because it is still currently widespread in Western Australia. <br/><br/>In a 2002 report by Molony and Bird, it is noted that, due to high fishing pressure on the dam sub-populations, there is now evidence of over-fishing. In 2000, approximately 44.8 tonnes of this species were taken by recreational fisheries (Molony and Bird 2002). Between 1990 and 2000, catches of this species decreased from approximately 8 per person to 5 per person (Molony and Bird 2002). Current population trends for this species are not fully understood.<br/><br/>This species is also being impacted by general habitat degradation to waterways which are acting at the local scale&#160;(J.Bunn pers. comm. 2008). The impacts of climate change which would increase aridity and reduce the amount of water in rivers, could impact recruitment as temperatures exceed this species tolerance levels (J.Bunn pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153635		conservation	eng	This species has been assessed by the American Fisheries Society as CS and G4 (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, threats and habitat and ecology.&#160;<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cambarellus ninae</em>.<br/>Further research is needed into the abundance of this species and its threats.
153635		distribution	eng	This species is found in Aransas, Calhoun, Kleberg, Nueces, Refugio, Victoria and probably San Patricio Counties, Texas, USA (Hobbs 1950, Albaugh and Black 1973). This species has an approximate distribution of 8,453 km², and is known to occur in 19 sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009), though given further survey work, this species may be found to occur in more locations (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153635		habitat	eng	Albaugh and Black (1973) found all specimens of this specie<em>s</em> in roadside ditches, indicating a degree of tolerance to pollution particularly heavy metals. This species is also known to occur in irrigation diversions, less than 1 ft in depth (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is sometimes found in association with <em>Fallicambarus hedgpethi</em>, <em>Procambarus acutus</em>, <em>P. clarkii</em> and <em>P. simulans</em> (Penn and Hobbs 1958; Albaugh and Black 1973), and has a longevity of 1.5 years, and an age of maturity of less than 1 year (S. Adams pers. comm 2009).
153635		population	eng	This species is known to be common within suitable habitat throughout its range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153635		threats	eng	Within the state of Texas there is considerable agricultural irrigation for rice fields, which is likely to have resulted in decreases in crayfish populations within these areas. This species appears to have a tolerance to pollution as a number of specimens have been collected in roadside ditches. It is unknown what impact threats such as habitat degradation and loss have had on the global population (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153636		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parks.&#160;Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species should also be assessed for listing under State/ Federal listing, and management plans should be developed for known sites of occurrence (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153636		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, and has the widest distribution of all Tasmanian endemic <em>Engaeus</em> species (Horwitz 1990). This species has been recorded from most of the western half of the north coast and from the north-western coast (Riek 1969).   This species has a distribution of approximately  7,800 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
153636		habitat	eng	This species is typically found below the water table in drainage channels on the floodplain of streams (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is found in association with a wide variety of vegetation; in swamps dominated by blackwood (<em>Acacia melanoxylon</em>), tea-tree swamps associated with small creeks, buttongrass plains, temperate wet sclerophyll forest, and the Myrtle Beech<em> (Nothofagus cunninghammi)</em> rainforest (Horwtiz 1990). This species feeds in streams under rotting logs, or in the root system of buttongrass clumps (Suter and Richardson 1977). <br/><br/>The largest male recorded is 24.9 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged form 20 to 24.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 21 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).<br/><p></p>
153636		population	eng	This species is considered to be very common and abundant throughout its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153636		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats currently impacting this species. Threats to a single habitat type are unlikely to significantly impact this species as it is known from a range of habitat types. Some minor localized threats to this species include drainage of swamps, inundation of flood beds of creeks, channelization and cattle trampling (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>
153637		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance, distribution, ecology and threats impacting upon this species. <br/></p>
153637		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Santa Catarina region of Brazil and in Uruguay, though specifics of where in Uruguay are not known. Unusually, it has not been found in the Rio Grande do Sul region of Brazil, but this is likely the result of unsatisfactory surveying programs (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).
153637		habitat	eng	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for&#160;<em></em>this species. Within the genus <em>Parastacus</em>, many species live in burrows in marshes, pools and streams (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).
153637		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.
153637		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
153638		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with several National Parks. Research should be extended on aspects such as population assessment and monitoring, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. A detailed study into the population genetics of this species is urgently required.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four of the >35 <em>Euastacus</em> species in NSW attain that size (<em>E. sulcatus</em>, <em>E. spinifer</em>, <em>E. valentulus</em>, <em>E. armatus</em>), so the regulation may in fact increase   fishing pressure on these four species. All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed across its range.
153638		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is a high altitude species that ranges from Mount Tamborine to the Lamington Plateau, southern Queensland, and West along the McPherson Range in both Queensland and New South Wales. Other populations have been recorded on Mount Warning and the Tweed, Richmond and Yabbra ranges (Coughran 2006). The range is drained by Nerang, Albert, Logan, Brisbane, Condamine, Clarence, Richmond, Tweed Rivers and Currumbin and Tallebudgera creeks (Morgan 1988, Furse and Coughran in prep., Coughran 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of  8,000 km², although it is restricted to high montane areas above 300 m, in rainforest and occasionally wet sclerophyll forest (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Importantly, there are clearly several fragmented populations within the species' distribution that are geographically isolated due to mountain ridges and/or intervening lowlands that constitute a barrier to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). Several of these populations (e.g. Mt Warning, Mt Tamborine, Springbrook, Nightcap, Koreelah) are restricted to areas less than 100 km² (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153638		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in streams at altitudes above 300 m above sea level, in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest (Morgan 1997). It is restricted to streams where suitable riparian vegetation remains intact (Furse and Wild 2002). As is the case for most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species, this species prefers well oxygenated, heavily shaded sites (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Individuals inhabit rock crevices and burrow under rocks and logs or in stream banks (Furse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Although this species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, and therefore the species distribution is clearly fragmented (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). The species is extremely slow growing and takes at least 4-5 years for females to reach sexual maturity (Furse and Wild 2004, Wild and Furse 2004, Coughran 2006, Furse and Coughran in prep.).</p>
153638		population	eng	This species may be locally abundant within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). The activity of the species is highly seasonal, with adults rarely encountered in the cooler months (April to September), for unknown reasons (Furse and Coughran in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).  The different populations are well noted for displaying locality-specific colouration differences, and also in developments of spination and setation.
153638		threats	eng	Although this species occurs within national parks across a relatively wide area, it also occurs extensively on private land. The highly fragmented populations are susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).  Land use management on private properties situated at the top of the catchments and within national park properties (e.g. on the Springbrook Plateau, Tamborine and Lamington), could lead to declines in habitat/water quality due to pesticides, pathogens, pollution, siltation and eutrophication (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Given the isolated nature of these areas, these factors could lead to significant population declines, or extinction of distinct populations (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <br/><br/>This species is a relatively large species that would be appealing to recreational fishers, and its striking colouration forms renders it a sought-after species for aquarium displays. Illegal harvesting is known to occur at several sites, even within national parks, and over-exploitation is a potential threat given the slow growth and fragmented distribution of the species. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<p>Furthermore, climate change, presents a potential threat to this species including; increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).<br/></p>Additionally there is a potentially large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153639		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution range may coincide with a number of national parks, however its distribution also coincides with  a heavily populated and developed area (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and resilience to effects of exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). In Victoria, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm occipital carapace length (OCL) applies to spiny crayfish (DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>
153639		distribution	eng	<em> </em>This species is endemic to Australia. The species inhabits a roughly semicircular area around the State of Victoria's capital city, Melbourne. It is found in all the larger southern flowing streams of Victoria between the Gellibrand River and the Bunyip/Tarrago River systems at elevations below 300m above sea level (Riek 1969, Morgan 1986). The distribution of the species appears to be severely fragmented, primarily into eastern (east of Melbourne) and western (south-west of Geelong) components, with some outlying records to the north-west (O'Brien 2007). Morgan (1986) discussed some variation in morphology and size at maturity between populations. The estimated extent of occurrence is 9,000 km², although this area has been very heavily developed (i.e. includes Melbourne and other cities) and the area of occupancy of this is likely to be much less than the extent of occurrence   (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153639		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits creeks, streams and rivers. The vegetation in the species range includes dry sclerophyll forest and acacia, blackberry in semi-cleared areas and tree ferns in some sheltered valleys. This species is present in some cleared areas, especially if vegetation persists along streams (Morgan 1986). The species is sometimes sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus kershawi </span>(J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm. 2009). </p>
153639		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm. 2009). </p><p>    </p><p><br/><em></em></p>  <p></p>
153639		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the effects of climate change, over exploitation and the introduction of species, including exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change threatens this species, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modelling predicts that southereastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003). This alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006). <br/><br/>Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this restricted range species is susceptible to over exploitation through fishing pressure (O'Brien 2007). Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Exotic or introduced species can cause potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout of Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Exotic introduced species such as cats, foxes, pigs and goats, that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and therefore could have localized impacts on this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, trout, perch, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <br/><br/>  <p></p>  <br/><p></p>
153640		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species is not listed under either the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act or the Commonwealth Endangered Species Protection Act. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by potential threats within its range.
153640		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is found in the western half of <st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state>, from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Huon</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in the South through the western edge of the Central Plateau to the <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gog</st1:place> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:placename> in the North and is relatively widespread (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Hamr 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 28,229 km².
153640		habitat	eng	This species is   found in rivers, streams and lakes. It constructs burrows in rivers and streams. In addition, it constructs extensive burrow networks in the soft bottoms of lakes (Horwitz and Richardson, 1986, Hamr 1990).<br/><br/>Secondary sexual characters are more numerous in females and perform important functions in spawning and incubation of eggs (Hamr 1990). Females show sexual dimorphism by the presence of cement (or glair) glands in their abdominal segments and pleopods, heavier abdominal setation, elongation and decalcification of uropods, presence of long filamentous oosetae (for egg attachment) on pleopods, broader and deeper abdominal segments as well as greater total length of the abdomen (Hamr 1990). The secondary sexual characters observed in males are greater total weight and larger chelae. Secondary sexual characters are reliable indicators of sexual maturity in females of <em>Astacopsis. </em>The complete acquisition of the full set of these characters accurately mirrors the onset of sexual maturity. Females in the process of maturing can be identified by partial acquisition of some or all of these characters (Hamr 1990). Females mature between 62 and 101 mm carapace length while in males spermatophore production occurs in individuals with a carapace length greater than 37 mm (Hamr 1990).      <p>The male gonopores (or external copulatory structures) consist of a raised genital papillae on the ventral surfaces of the coxae of the fifth pereiopods while the the female gonopores are a pair of oval openings on the ventral surfaces of the coxae of the third pereiopods (Hamr 1990). Female gonopores undergo significant changes at the onset of sexual maturity. These changes consist of increased setation around the gonopore as well as the decalcification of the gonopore cover (Hamr 1990). The setal cover is lost and regained through a moult during the two year reproductive cycle of mature females. The position in the body cavity of male and female gonads of <em>Astacopsis </em>is similar to that observed in other Astacidea. The ovaries consist of a pair of sac-like lobes connected by a single commissure while the testes consist of two cylindrical lobes joined anteriorly by a small transverse bridge (Hamr 1990). The largest collected to date was a male from the lower Gordon River with a carapace length of 14 cm and weighing 1 kg (Hamr 1990).</p>  <p><br/></p>
153640		population	eng	This species is   common and abundant throughout its range, with many populations occurring within various national parks and world heritage areas (Hamr 1990).
153640		threats	eng	General threats to crayfish in Tasmania are likely to affect this species. These include the conversion of native forest to plantation, fragmentation of populations by barriers to movement such as poorly constructed or raised road culverts, habitat disturbance (removal of riparian vegetation, bank erosion, de-snagging, channelisation) and illegal fishing (Australian Natural Resources Atlas 2007). However, this species is relatively widespread throughout eastern Tasmania so these threats are unlikely to cause a significant population decline at present.
153641		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the abundance and population trends of this species.<br/></p>
153641		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern parts of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and regions of Maldonado and Rocha, Uruguay (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).   This species has distribution of approximately  1,127 km².
153641		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in lotic habitats such as streams, but has also been reported in fish culture ponds. It builds subterranean habitat and has morphological characteristics adapted to this way of life. The subterranean tunnels are normally inhabited by one animal, but some may contain two. The low density of the animals may represent a barrier to reduce the possibility of dispersion (da Silva-Castiglioni <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Furthermore, this species provides several ecosystem services from soil aerification by their burrows, sheltering of a variety of highly specialized comensal subterranean macro invertebrates inside the galleries, and as a food source for species of fish, mammals and reptiles ((L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153641		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.
153641		threats	eng	This species is impacted upon by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture. These are however localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are specially important on the surface waters around the main metropolitan areas of <st1:city w:st="on">Rio Grande</st1:city> do <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sul</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place> (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153642		conservation	eng	This species occurs within several protected areas, including&#160;Broadwater and Richmond Range National Parks, Tyagarah Nature Reserve, and Camira, Cherry Tree, Lower Bucca, Mount Pikapene, and Sugarloaf State Forests (Coughran <em>et al. </em>2008). This species is regarded as being of low conservation concern (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008), pending a more thorough investigation into distribution, threats and trends in population. Continued monitoring of the effects of invasive species, is advised.
153642		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found only in coastal areas south of the Brunswick Heads, to Port Macquarie New South Wales, Australia. A subpopulation in Kingscliff is now thought to be extinct as repeated surveys have failed to find any individuals (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).&#160;In a recent study this species was recorded from 26 sites, from the Brunswick, Clarence and Richmond River catchments, in addition to some minor coastal drainages (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008). It is further suggested this species may also be present within the Tweed River catchment where it was historically recorded (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008). Other&#160;historical&#160;records of this species further South toward Port Macquarie&#160;failed to yield any specimens in this recent study (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008), suggesting the range of this species may be contracting.<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 29,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it must be noted this is based on a river basin assessment. Thus the Area of Occupancy (AOO) of this species is thought to much more restricted.&#160;&#160;</p>
153642		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a variety of areas including sclerophyll forest, heathland and agricultural pasture (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008). Collection sites varied from dry gullies with sub-surface moisture to swamps, lakes and streams.&#160;&#160;This species seems very tolerant of anthropogenic disturbances,&#160;particularly&#160;those caused by agriculture, such as vegetation clearance, habitat&#160;disturbance&#160;and eutrophication (Coughran <em>et al. </em>2008). Water temperatures of the habitat containing this species were recorded from 15 - 30<sup>o</sup>C (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008).This species was noted as being tolerant of drought, with some specimens surviving in locations which had been dry for over 12 months (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008).&#160;In fact, the majority of specimens were found in moist depressions under rocks or woody debris, devoid of standing or flowing water (Coughran&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).&#160;Individuals&#160;dig multi-chambered burrows, although it is noted that these burrows are not vital for survival, although availability of&#160;suitable&#160;borrow-digging&#160;substrate does not seem to limit population size or distribution (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008).Some individuals were collected from sites not connected to the water table or to a water course, and survived by burrowing into moist clay (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008).
153642		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although the highest densities of this species were recorded from&#160;heathland&#160;drains with high&#160;acidity (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008).
153642		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development (C.M. Austin, pers. comm. 2008). The coastal area in which this species is found has been heavily urbanised. Conversely, further inland this species is regarded as tolerant to&#160;disturbance&#160;and widespread, with no threats associated with habitat destruction (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008). In addition no threats associated with pesticides or pollution have been identified. The most prominant threat to populations of this species is the presence of invasive native and alien species, including the Cane Toad <em>Bufo marinus, </em>the carp <em>Cyprinus carpo</em>&#160;and the plague minnow <em>Gambusia holbrooki. </em>In addition, an introduced crayfish,&#160;<em>Cherax quadricarinatus, </em>has demonstrated aggressive behaviour toward this species (McGrath 2005) and ha the potential to extirpate this species from several sites.
153643		conservation	eng	This species<em> </em>has been listed as endangered by the China Species Information Service (CSIS). Further research is needed into the distribution, population status and threats affecting this species (Y. Maschino pers. comm. 2009). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, threats and life history and ecology.
153643		distribution	eng	This species is known from East Asia across China, Russia and Korea (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).<br/>.
153643		habitat	eng	Koba (1942) described this species as inhabiting mountain creeks though it is also known to occur in still water, such as the freshwaters of Amurskii Liman around Pronge (Birstein and Winogradow 1934, Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). An ovigerous female of this species was collected during spring months (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).
153643		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.
153643		threats	eng	This species has been found in a market place (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008), and may be threatened by crayfish plague and water pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).
153645		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range coincides with a national park. In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction ( J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, additional investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to and presence of exotic species at its locality are warranted.
153645		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>. It is known only from the headwaters of Tianjara Creek (a tributary of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Shoalhaven</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype>), <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state> (Morgan 1997); at an elevation of 480 m above sea level. Furthermore, it has an approximate extent of occurrence of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008); it's area of occupancy must be less than or equal to the extent of occurrence.</p>
153645		habitat	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is a small stream with sandstone bedrock, lined by dry sclerophyll and heath forest. The site was open and poorly shaded, and crayfish were commonly found under rocks (Morgan 1997).
153645		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be extremely rare having been described from only six specimens (Morgan 1997).<em></em><br/><p></p>
153645		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>Furthermore, an exotic crayfish species, <em>Cherax destructor</em>,<em> </em>is being increasingly recorded throughout the Shoalhaven region (Daley and Craven 2007, McCormack 2008), and may pose a serious threat to this species if present at the locality. <em>Cherax destructor</em> is aggressive, and likely far more prolific and faster growing than this species. As such, it may outcompete native species in a short period of time (<st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> 1995). Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153646		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the Whian Whian and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Nightcap</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">national parks</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further research is needed on the possible threats impacting this species.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; <p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This crayfish species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. </p>
153646		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to New South Wales, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is currently known from only three localities, Tuntable Creek in <st1:placename w:st="on">Nightcap</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>, Gibbergunyah Creek, and a gully in the Cooper's Creek catchment, both within the <st1:placename w:st="on">Whian</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Whian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>). All individuals were collected between 460 m and 580 m above sea level. Extent of occurrence is estimated to be 396 km² and area of occupancy has been estimated at 6.5 km² (Coughran 2007). The localities are rainforested headwaters of different streams, and should be regarded as severely fragmented due to the effective barrier to dispersal by the intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).
153646		habitat	eng	This species<em> </em>occupies different habitat types at each site, including a gully and headwater streams. Individuals were collected from both shallow excavations under rocks, and complex burrow networks. All sample sites were within closed forest cover (Coughran 2007).
153646		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species, however it is uncommon at the sites it inhabits (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153646		threats	eng	Despite being found in a national park and a state conservation area, this species may also be adversely affected by pesticides and pollution associated with the maintenance of the areas. These could be herbicides or pesticides, or as a result of visitation. e.g. vehicle pollution, or infected trapping gear. As this species occurs in an area of high visitation there is a very real risk of pollutant or infectant introduction (Coughran 2007). Wildfire or management burns may also lead to siltation and deoxygenation of habitats.<br/><br/>  Although this species occurs within a National Park it is susceptible to the following potential threats: 1. Given its highly restricted range, the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors; 2. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007); 3. There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species; 4. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c,d,e). Given this species highly restricted distribution, these exotic species could have serious impacts on <em>E. girurmulayn </em>and lead to serious declines in distribution and/or abundance.  Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted    range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments),    global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This    species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral  pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish  and  degrade  riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these  threats  on this  species are not yet well understood, they are believed  to be   significantly impacting the long term viability of the  population (J.   Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/><span lang="EN-US">
153648		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>;&#160;however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. This species is highly adaptable, widespread throughout the world, invasive and is a vector of the crayfish plague. This species is generally regarded as a threat to native species and does not require any conservation measures.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis</span>: NatureServe G5T5, AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus leniusculus</span>: NatureServe G5T5, AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii</span>: NatureServe G5T5, AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>.&#160;2007).
153648		distribution	eng	<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus leniusculus</em> is distributed throughout British Columbia in Canada, and in California, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington in the USA. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis</em> is distributed throughout British Columbia in Canada, Idaho and south to central California in the USA. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii</em> is distributed throughout British Columbia in Canada and California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington in the USA, and has been introduced into California and Nevada in the USA, and also introduced into Japan. Furthermore, this species is also known to occur in Greece (Koutrakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/><em>Pacifastacus leniculus</em> has been introduced into many countries throughout Europe, as well as to California, Nevada and Utah in the USA. This species was introduced during the 1970s and 1980s, is widely cultivated and is established in the wild, from where it is harvested (Harlio?lu and Holdich 2001).
153648		habitat	eng	<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus leniusculus</em> generally prefers cool water with current over a rocky bottom; does not burrow; is highly adaptable and can be found in a wide variety of habitats including coastal and mountain streams and lakes, reservoirs, and the saline waters in river deltas (Hogger 1988). <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis</em> is found in lentic and lotic habitats including cold swift streams. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii</em> is found in lentic and lotic habitats.<br/><br/>Tolerance experiments indicated that O+ juveniles and adults are well adapted for surviving salinities of at least 21 in the long term and of being transferred directly back into freshwater. However, their ability to colonize the estuarine environment may be restricted to areas of low salinity (i.e. 7) due to the adverse effects of seawater on egg development and hatching (Holdich <em>et al</em>. 1997).
153648		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>;&#160;however the signal crayfish is an important invasive species, which has a wide distribution and is likely to exceed 1 million mature individuals in the wild.
153648		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>.
153649		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153649		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It has a very wide distribution south of the Great Dividing Range in eastern Victoria, stretching from north of Melbourne to Mallacoota, near the Victorian-New South Wales border. The populations in the region to the north of Melbourne appear to be separate from the remainder (Horwitz 1990). This species has a distribution thought to exceed 27,400 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p>  </p>
153649		habitat	eng	This is a lowland species and reaches its highest altitude (approximately 250 m above sea level) in the Mirboo North region of the Western Strzelecki Ranges. It has been found in burrows in a wide variety of vegetation types including that approaching warm temperate rainforest (near Lake Tyers), ferny gullies in either wet or dry sclerophyll forest, in swamps or creeks flowing through tea-tree (often in coastal areas) or along the banks of creeks or larger rivers. In addition this species has been found&#160;in a channelized stream in urban areas (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;The largest male found was 33.2 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.3 to 31.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153649		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant and may be found within urban areas (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
153649		threats	eng	Currently there are no known threats to this species<em></em>. The species appears to be able to tolerate urban and peri-urban changes to its habitat; it has been recorded from channelized sections of creeks, and in burrows in creeks systems in urban <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Melbourne</st1:place></st1:city> (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153651		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes</p>
153651		distribution	eng	This species is found along the shorelines of Aitinjo Lake in the Kais River Drainage on Irian Jaya (West New Guinea), Indonesia, situated about 20 km southeast of Ajamaroe. This species is known only from the type locality (Lukhaup and Pekny 2006).
153651		habitat	eng	This species is known from a single lake, which consists of two parts separated by strong rapids and small cataracts. The water is clear, and has a pH 6.5. It flows strongly in the narrower parts of the lake, including the upper reaches. The substrate of the lake is rocky, and mostly covered with sand, stones and large rocks. The aquatic and terrestrial vegetation is dense (Boeseman 1963, Lukhaup and Pekny 2006).
153651		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153651		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threat processes impacting this species.
153652		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however a large portion of this species range falls within the Otway National Park Given the altitudinal range of the species, monitoring of population trends and habitat status is required due to temperature increases and declining rainfall, as predicted under some scenarios of climate change (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <em> </em>
153652		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Otway region of southwestern Victoria, Australia.   This species has a distribution of approximately  1,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
153652		habitat	eng	This species is usually found above 100 m above sea level, though may occasionally be found at sea level (e.g. Johanna River Reserve). It typically occurs in temperate wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus obliqua, E. regnans, Acacia melanoxylon</em> and Myrtle Beech (<em>Nothofagus cunninghamii)</em> in the Otway Ranges (Horwitz 1990). This species constructs type 3 burrows (burrows independent of the water table) in yellow-brown soils with a high clay component, or more usually type 2 burrows (burrows connected to the water table but not connected to surface water bodies) adjacent to water-courses. However, it has also been found in burrows in tea-tree swamps, or next to creeks in scrubby vegetation or in burrows along the banks of larger river systems (such as Aire, Cumberland and Gellibrand Rivers). The largest male found was 26.4 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 19 to 27.3 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153652		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant where habitat is in good condition, such as&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">state</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">forests</st1:placetype></st1:place> or national parks (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
153652		threats	eng	<p>This species has a distribution which is restricted to the Otway region of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state>. A large proportion of its range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Otway</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, which will afford this species protection from development and so the relatively limited range of this species is not in itself considered a threat at present. Some populations may be threatened by cattle trampling or where banks of creeks are eroding due to loss of riparian vegetation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="State"></u1:smarttagtype>
153653		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with protected areas. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements and investigations into the threats impacting upon this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153653		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It is found at altitudes as low as 70 m above sea level, although typically above 480 m above sea level (Morgan 1997, McCormack 2008). It ranges from the coastal mountains 20 km North of Coffs Harbour, South and West through the Dorrigo region to New England National Park and Mount Killiekrankie area (New South Wales), a distance of approximately 65 km on a North to South axis (Morgan 1997). The main river systems include the Orara and Nymboida Rivers to the north and the Bellingen and Nambucca rivers flowing east (Morgan 1997).  This species has a distribution of approximately  5,000 km<sup>2</sup>( J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153653		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in small, cool creeks, fringed by rainforest and frequently with sclerophyll forest on the higher more exposed ridges in the eastern areas of its range. In the west of its range it occurs in streams in areas largely cleared for agriculture, bearing at most a sparse border of eucalypts, wattles and raspberry along the banks (Morgan 1997). Although this species occurs in a number of streams, these are in different drainages, and may represent fragmented populations, Morgan (1997) included this species in his "highland" grouping of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, though it has has been collected from altitudes as low as 70 m (Morgan 1997, McCormack 2008).
153653		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be relatively common across its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>
153653		threats	eng	<p>It is currently unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. In parts of this species' range, forest is being cleared for agriculture, although this is localized and not thought to pose a major threat to the entire population (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species are either restricted to fragmented highland habitats, or are widespread extending to near sea level, with little crossover. This species is unusual as it does not fit into either group; it could therefore be fragmented across its range, separated by mountain ridges and/or lowlands. This species inhabits various vegetation types and appears to be locally abundant within its range, but could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species, e.g. climate change, exploitation and exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153654		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place to protect <em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> however there is a national law officially preventing harvesting of crayfish less than 10cm total length. <br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed to determine range.
153654		distribution	eng	<em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> is endemic to Madagascar and known from four specimens (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). The type locality is the Andranofotsiorana effluent of the River Ranomadio, Fianarantsoa province, Madagascar.
153654		habitat	eng	<em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> is found in lotic habitats. This species prefers cooler waters at high altitudes, which may reflect a physiological need to avoid the warm-water habitats typical of lowland tropical aquatic ecosystems (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005).
153654		population	eng	There is no population information <em>Astacoides hobbsi</em>.
153654		threats	eng	<em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> is more vulnerable to threat processes because of its restricted distribution (Boyko<em> et al.</em> 2005). This species is likely to be threatened by habitat loss through the conversion of forest to rice fields, introduction of non-native species such as eels, rats and trout (Boyko<em> et al.</em> 2005), and intense harvesting by both commercial and subsistence fisheries (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). The recent introduction of <em>Procambarus</em> ‘marmorkrebs’ crayfish to Madagascar poses a new threat through competition and spreading of crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a). However, this is a recently documented species and so the precise threats to this species are not yet known.
153656		conservation	eng	<em>Geocharax gracilis</em> is not listed by State or Federal governments in Australia as being of conservation significance, nor is this species specifically protected by legislation (Yen and Butcher 1997).
153656		distribution	eng	<em>Geocharax gracilis</em> is endemic to Victoria and Tasmania, Australia, and has a limited distribution within its range. Within Tasmania, this species is restricted to the far north west, occurring between Rocky Cape and Temma on the Tasmanian mainland and also on islands of the Hunter group and King Island (DPIWE 2003). In Victoria, it is restricted to the Otway Region (M. Schultz pers. comm. 2010). This species has an estimated&#160; extent of occurrence of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153656		habitat	eng	<em>Geocherax gracilis</em> is commonly found in lowland coastal areas, inland areas, and highland freshwater lagoons, along with blackwood and tea-tree swamps (DPIWE 2003, Schultz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This species&#160;is more widespread in native forest areas. IT is a burrowing species found in burrows connected to the water table (Richardson, Doran and Hansen 2004).
153656		population	eng	There is no population information regarding this species.
153656		threats	eng	<em>Geocharax gracilis</em> is becoming increasingly threatened by habitat loss. Areas in which land is used for agriculture appear to have lowered crayfish populations below those present in native forest, and simple fencing of thin strips of vegetation does not seem sufficient to ameliorate these effects (March and Robson 2006). The higher densities of crayfish burrows in forest blocks were associated with lower soil compaction, more vegetation overhanging the stream, higher water quality and intact riparian vegetation (March and Robson&#160;2006).<br/><br/>March and Robson (2006) found that areas with pasture/cattle access to the stream edge displayed significantly fewer burrows. Areas with thin riparian vegetation also had a much lower abundance of burrows. Water temperture and salinity was lower, and dissovled oxygen levels were found to be higher in areas with native vegetation. <br/><br/>Phosphate run-off may severely reduce the number of burrowing freshwater crayfish. Pesticides and high concentrations of these chemicals have been known to eliminate populations of freshwater crayfish (Holdich 1991). Native forest areas had lower mean levels of phosphate. Areas with cattle/pasture to the edge of the stream had the highest phosphate levels and this could largely be attributed to drainage from agricultural land and cow faeces (March and Robson 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that populations of this species have declined in areas of pasture (March and Robson 2006). However, this species is known from a broad geographic range and is unlikely to be suffering significant declines across its entire range at the present time.
153657		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is unlikely to require protection as it is relatively widespread across north eastern Tasmania, and its range overlaps with national parkland, including the South West Wilderness World Heritage Area.    Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><strong></strong></p>  <br/>    <p><strong></strong></p><p></p><p><strong></strong></p>  <br/><p></p>
153657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It can be found from the Castra Falls in the northern region of Tasmania to the Gordon Dam in the southwestern region (Suter 1977). It has an estimated range of approximately 9,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Furthermore, this species may be undergoing range expansion to the south where there is suitable habitat (Richardson 1990).
153657		habitat	eng	<p>This species typically forms burrows in clay soils within temperate rainforest, above the water table and away from creeks (Richardson and Swain 1980). Soil type appears to be a more <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant factor affecting the presence of this species than vegetation type; since the turn of the century mining activity converted areas of rainforest to sedgeland where this species may also be found (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Richardson</st1:place></st1:city> 1990). The burrows of this species never connect with the water table; the water in these burrow systems is derived from surface run-off or percolation of water through the soil (Horwitz and Richardson 1986). This species is able to tolerate low oxygen concentrations (Suter and Richardson 1977). </p>  <p>The size of mature individuals of this species<em></em> shows little variation between the sexes. The largest male found was 31.4 mm carapace length, and females ranged from 16.7 to 30.5 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 27.8 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).</p>
153657		population	eng	This species is considered to be common and abundant throughout its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153657		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. Deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) might be a localized threat, however a sufficient part of this species' range occurs within national parkland (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Though, it is possible that rainfall decline and deforestation might together cause a change in quality of the habitat (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153658		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution coincides with several national parks (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace lenght (OCL ) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four (including this species) of the more than 35 <em>Euastacus</em> species in New South Wales attain that size, so the regulation may in fact increase fishing pressure on these species (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in Queensland are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed across its range (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is being impacted upon by threat processes within its range. <br/></p>
153658		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from Currumbin Creek, South-East Queensland, 90 km South to the Ballina area of New South Wales and West to Woodenbong, a distance of approximately 100 km (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). The range is drained by the Tweed, Richmond and Clarence Rivers, and small coastal streams (Morgan 1997). This species is found in an altitudinal range from close to sea level, up to 600 m above sea level.   This species has a distribution of approximately 20,000&#160; km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153658		habitat	eng	This species occurs within rivers and streams from close to sea level to 600 m above sea level in rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and in cleared pasture (Morgan 1997).<br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><em></em><br/></p>
153658		population	eng	<p>This species may be locally abundant within its range (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153658		threats	eng	<p>This species is susceptible to threats such as climate change, over exploitation and the introduction of exotic species. This species is susceptible to climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). A large scale flood event in the Numinbah Valley (Queensland) in January 2008 resulted in a mass crayfish kill of this species, several hundred small and medium sized (approximately 40mm orbital carapace length (OCL)) crayfish had apparently been overwhelmed by the large volume of storm induced flow and had been buried in the alluvium, up to 50 m away from the stream channel (Furse in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). More recently a similar event (involving greater than 10000 crayfish) has been documented in the United Kingdom (Lewis and Morris 2008). If climate change increases the frequency of large scale flood events, mass crayfish strandings and kills may become more common (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>This species is susceptible to over exploitation through fishing pressure, and there is recent data to suggest the size and abundance of the species appears to be declining at key recreational fishing spots in New   South Wales (Coughran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). However, the species? overall distribution includes many areas that are inaccessible to recreational fishers. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p><p>Other threats to this species include the potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osborne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) which also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species. <br/></p>
153660		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is indirectly protected by a number of other conservation measures. Lake Kutubu has RAMSAR designation as a "Wetland of International Significance". The lake is also located within the Lake Kutubu Wildlife Management Area (240.57 km<sup>2</sup>) and the Kikori River Basin - Great Papuan Plateau World Heritage Site. Furthermore, the WWF Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project aims to promote sustainable use of natural resources within the catchment.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution and threats to this species is needed to determine if it is in fact more widespread, and what impact threats have had on the population numbers.
153660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Kutubu in Papua New Guinea. The area of the lake is approximately 49.24 km<sup>2</sup>. This species may be more widespread, although it is not thought to occupy a significantly greater area (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153660		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species occurs in Lake Kutubu, which is located at an altitude of 850 m above sea level. The area of the lake is 49.24 km<sup>2</sup>. The water of Lake Kutubu is clear, and the lake reaches a depth of 70 m. It is fed by several streams, but much of the inflow water comes from underground sources (WWF 2001). The lake is famous for its high level of endemic fish species, and the water quality within the lake is good (D'Cruz 2008).
153660		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.
153660		threats	eng	The development of the Lake Kutubu Oil Project has undoubtedly impacted the water quality within the region. Siltation as a result of mining activity, road construction and deforestation are likely to pose a threat to <em></em>this species. Furthermore, potential oil spills and introduced species could pose a significant threat to the lake species (WWF 2001). In a programme monitoring the subsistence fishery on the lake,&#160;<em></em>crayfish were found to comprise 35% of the total catch (approximately 5,800 individuals a day) (D'Cruz 2008). It also notes a decline in the fish stocks of the lake, however it is unclear whether this is a result of the petroleum development or over-fishing. There is some concern over increasing human population pressures upon the lake's resources, though local awareness projects have been established to teach the local villagers the importance of sustainable harvest (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153661		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Robinson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure, and it does not require any conservation measures at present. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. </p>
153661		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia. This species has been reported from the Arthur, Catamaran, Crossing, Davey, D'Entrecasteaux, Esperance, Huon, Lune, Moth, New, Picton, South Cape, Salisbury, and Weld catchments.   Furthermore, it is known to occur at an elevation of 0 - 1000 m above sea level. This species has a distribution of approximately  3,310 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Robinson 2006).
153661		habitat	eng	This species is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes, in swamps, seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peat, clay, mud or gravel substrate, and the vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths, rainforests, wet sclerophyll, moss, coastal and alpine (Hansen and Robinson 2006).<br/><br/>    <p>In addition, this species may be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides</em> <em>decemdentatus</em>, <em>O. huonensis</em>, <em>Spinastacoides insignis</em> and <em>S. catinipalma</em>. In most cases this species is found in shallower, better-drained soils than the other species (Hansen & Richardson 2002).</p>
153661		population	eng	<p>At one surveyed site this species had a much lower density than the sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides huonensis</span> (<0.25m<sup>-2</sup>), but it was restricted at that site to better-drained soils. In some situations (gravely rainforest seepages, lake shores) densities of this species may exceed 1m<sup>-2</sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153661		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be acting upon this species. It is realtively widespread in southern Tasmainia, a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153662		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, including monitoring of the population trends and habitat status. Surveys and taxonomic work should be conducted to clarify the status of this species (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
153662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is confined to South Gippsland, being found in the triangular area bordered by Wilsons Promontory, Kongwak and Boolarra (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of  2,430 km².<p>&#160;<br/></p>
153662		habitat	eng	This species has burrows that occur in the extensive flood plain region of Lilly Pilly Gully on Wilson Promontory. The flood plain has surface water in very shallow but extensive pools (seen in October 1982 and 1983) on silts and loams with a very high organic content, received from the many rotting logs and input from falling leaves of the Lilly Pilly and other remnants of warm temperate rainforest. The creek flows slowly, with a bed of coarse sands and with fern covered banks approaching 1 m height in some places. The largest male found was 25.5 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 18.6 to 28.5 mm carapace length. (Horwitz 1990).
153662		population	eng	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153662		threats	eng	The species occurs within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Wilsons</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Promontory</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, although not exclusively (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). A possible threat to this species could be that its range largely overlaps with an area of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state> which has been altered by agriculture, although the extent of specific habitat degradation is unknown. Pollution to rivers, and changes to the hydrological regime caused by dams and water extraction are likely to occur in these areas (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future, in particular within&#160;Victoria, which has been subjected to an extended drought of late (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153663		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Richardson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure. This species does not require any conservation measures at present. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and threats impacting upon this species. <br/></p>
153663		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia and has been reported from the Crossing, Davey, Gordon, Huon, Serpentine, and   Weld catchments, at an elevation of 300 - 700 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<sup></sup> Though it has probably lost 50 % of its range with the completion of the Lake  Pedder hydro-electric scheme in 1973 (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately of 1,770 km<sup>2</sup>.
153663		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains, swamps, seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peats, they are semi-permanent and out-live their occupants; larger burrows are occupied by larger crayfish (Growns and Richardson 1988, Richardson and Swain 1990) The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths, rainforests and wet sclerophyll (Hansen and Richardson 2006). <br/><br/>Adults mainly feed on roots and decayed plant material; juveniles take a larger proportion of animal food (Growns and Richardson 1988). Furthermore, it is found in sympatry with <em>Spinastacoides inermis</em>, where this species occupies deeper, wetter soils. Also it may have a parapatric boundary with <em>Ombrastacoides decemdentatus </em>(Hansen and Richardson 2002).<br/><br/>In addition, this species has a biennial breeding pattern. Adults mate in autumn (March), and the eggs are carried over winter and hatch in early summer. The female does not release the young until late summer and they remain in the maternal burrow in close association with the female for another year, after which the female mates again (Hamr and Richardson 1994). This pattern may be typical of Tasmanian freshwater crayfish. Its life span may be up to 10 years and age at first reproduction 3-5 years; females produce 20-80 eggs in a brood (Hamr and Richardson 1994).<br/><br/>Furthermore,   like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate ?pholeteros? fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).  <p>&#160;</p>
153663		population	eng	Densities of this species, measured at one typical site, ranged from 0.2 - 1.1 m<sup>-2</sup> (Hamr and Richardson 1994), each burrow probably containing a single adult crayfish. However, extrapolation to an overall population size is complex because of the mosaic of drainage and soil types within the species? range (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153663		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be acting on this species. This species is realtively widespread in southern Tasmainia, with a large proportion of its range overlapping with national parkland, and it does not have strict habitat requirements.   Though the area surrounding its known habitat is impacted by roading, drainage of soils, and excessive fire   (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153664		conservation	eng	Horowitz and Adams (2000) suggest this species is well represented and no significant population declines are known,   however its distribution range coincides with the D’Entrecasteaux and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Shannon</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">National Park</st1:placename></st1:place>, therefore this species does not require conservation measures at present (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
153664		distribution	eng	<em></em><em></em>This species is endemic to tributaries in the vicinity of Walpole, Western Australia. This species is distributed from the Windy Harbour region to Denmark (Morgan and Beatty 2005).&#160;<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 13,000 km².
153664		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is a primary burrower.  They are generally found in seasonal wetlands where the water table often does not reach the surface (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). This particular species is generally found in sandy soils in which they dig expansive burrow systems (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
153664		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;is known to be abundant in many of the areas that it inhabits (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
153664		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by rapid changes in land use within their combined distribution areas, which have affected surface and ground water conditions in the south-west, destroying their natural habitat (Naturebase 2007). Horowitz and Adams (2000) suggest this species is well represented and no significant population declines are known. This species is known to be abundant and is unlikely to be threatened in the near future (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).
153665		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
153665		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, and is found in the Northern Territory. It has a patchy distribution and has been recorded in the Blythe River, Maningrida, Arafwa swamp, Blue Mud Bay and Wessel Island (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008). However, its distribution is likely to be greater (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008). This species has an approximate distribution of 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153665		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, that can be found in coastal streams, swamps, and freshwater pools and streams (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153665		population	eng	In areas where it is located this species is usually locally abundant (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008).<em></em>
153665		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species<em></em>. However, nearly half of the Northern Territory's land is used for livestock grazing&#160; (cattle), with most of the remaining land being classified for indigenous use. It is possible that loss riparian vegetation through grazing is resulting in sedimentation and therefore reduced water quality in parts of this species range. At present this is considered a localized threat to this species. This species is also potentially threatened by competitive fish species and freshwater crabs which occur within its range (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153666		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place specifically for <em>Euastacus clarkae</em>. However, its distribution is within <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>, so there is the potential for some degree of habitat protection within the species limited range. In the future, the threat processes affecting localised populations of this species need to be monitored to ensure they do not become more widespread and result in significant losses. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to exotic species, susceptibility to forest management and logging impacts. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South   Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus clarkae</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </span> </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153666		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species has been collected from two nearby tributaries in Mount Boss State Forest, near Mount Werrikimbe in New South Wales (Morgan 1997). The species is restricted to rainforest habitat above 600 m above sea level. The extent of occurrence is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008), and area of occupancy is almost certainly less than this.</p>
153666		habitat	eng	This species is found in cool, shaded streams more than 670 m above sea level. Rainforest is found along the banks and dry sclerophyll on exposed ridges (Morgan 1997).<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>
153666		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species<em>.<br/></em>
153666		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to localized impacts, including logging (resulting sedimentation), bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors. It is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>This species may also be potentially threatened by Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004b,c,d,e). Given the highly restricted distribution of this crayfish species, these exotic species could contribute to serious declines in distribution and/or local abundance. Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153667		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed into the abundace of this species, and potential threats in the area.
153667		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Mazatlan in Sinaloa County as well as Nayarit County, Mexico (F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species occurs in an area of approximately 300 - 400 km².
153667		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes, ponds and swamps (Hobbs 1989), and has been described as a physiologically tolerant species (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153667		population	eng	Some survey work has indicated that this species is not abundant, and other surveys have reportedly collected 80 specimens per hour (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).
153667		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
153668		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the population abundance and range of this species, and whether threats occuring within its range are having animpact upon it.
153668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Chile. It is restricted to the western slopes of the Coastal Cordillera from Rucapihuel to Estaquilla. It has been found in the Los Kakanes homestead of Rucapihuel, and also 105 km South, in Estaquilla, Llanquihue Province (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).
153668		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a burrowing species. It inhabits peatland that is loosely compact and highly saturated with water throughout the year. The burrows of this species are simple and not deep with few chimneys, that are not high. Unlike other burrowing parastacid in Chile, this species has been found outside of its burrow and consequently has been described as a 'secondary burrower' (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).
153668		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153668		threats	eng	It is likely that this species<em> </em>is being significantly impacted by habitat degradation. The habitat of this species is being deforested to clear land for agricultural purposes, and the peatlands of southern Chile are suffering from the extraction of <em>Sphagnum</em> moss for commercial purposes. These activities are a major threat towards the decline of this species' habitat (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).
153669		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, the distribution, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes at a global scale. <br/></p>
153669		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has been reported from Montevideo, Uruguay, but is principally very abundant in east central Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153669		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is a burrowing species of crayfish. It lives in swamps and lakes, where it digs sloped subterranean tunnels. Sexually mature males and females, and juveniles are frequently found occupying the same burrow (Noro <em>et al</em>. 2008).
153669		population	eng	This species is very abundant in east central Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).<em></em>
153669		threats	eng	This species is impacted by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008). These are however localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are particularly important on the surface waters around the main metropolitan areas of <st1:city w:st="on">Rio  Grande</st1:city> do <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sul</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place> (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153670		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure in place to protect&#160;<em></em>this species at present.&#160;<em></em>It is state-listed as 'vulnerable' and protected under the Western Australia Wildlife and Conservation Act (1950). Horwitz and Adams (2000) have recommended that this species should be classed as Endangered using B criteria. Further research into the abundance and appropriate conservation measures are required for this species. This species is likely to occur within the Haag Nature Reserve which is roughly 10 km south of Dunsborough (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). A recovery plan is in the process of being formulated, as this species is listed within the state and is currently under federal review (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
153670		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Dunsborough region in Western Australia, and has a restricted distribution. This species is known from several swamps between Dunsborough and Margaret River. It is unknown whether altitude is potentially a limiting factor in the distribution of this species (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 465 km<sup>2</sup>.
153670		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a primary burrowing species which digs expansive burrow systems in sandy soils and is found in seasonal wetlands where the water table may or may not reach the surface (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).    <p><br/></p>
153670		population	eng	Historical records show that some populations which existed 20 - 40 years ago, no longer exist (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). It is thought to be common in relation to other species in sites where it is found (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).
153670		threats	eng	This species is known only from a few swamps, it is absent from the type locality, and the habitat of this species is isolated and severely fragmented. Other threats include cattle grazing and hydrological change due to damming of water courses for vineyards (Horwitz and Adams 2000). Rapid changes in land use within this species range, has affected surface and ground water conditions in the south-west, destroying natural habitat (Naturebase 2007).&#160;Any large-scale perennial extraction of groundwater falls into one of the major  categories of threats posed to the freshwater crayfish of the region (Morgan and Beatty 2005).
153671		conservation	eng	This species is state listed as 'endangered' and protected by the Western Australia Wildlife Conservation Act (1950) (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). A recovery plan should be formulated as this species is listed within the state and is currently under federal review&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008)<p></p>
153671		distribution	eng	This species is found at only three or four localities in the vicinity of Walpole, Western Australia, and has a restricted distribution. It is unknown how or if these sites are connected.<br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been inferred as 28 km²,&#160;but is unlikely to be more than 100 km² if other subpopulations are located (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
153671		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a primary burrower and is found in swamps and peatlands and other habitats where the water table either reaches or nearly reaches the surface and there is a suitable substrate for burrowing (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). It is not found in significant water bodies (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).
153671		population	eng	This species is now extirpated from the type locality. &#160;It is thought to be abundant in sites where it is currently found (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).
153671		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat disturbance by feral pigs, land use change for agriculture, cattle grazing, logging, urbanization, water extraction and dams, sand mining, and water pollution (Naturebase 2007, Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).
153672		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research should be initiated to include population assessments and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).This species occurs within national parks.<br/></p>    <p>All <span style="font-style: italic;">'</span>spiny crayfish' species in Queensland are officially 'no take' species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as this are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008b), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> (unprotected species) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
153672		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is known from the Atherton Tablelands and Bellenden Ker Range in North Queensland. The species inhabits highland rainforest areas (Morgan 1988), more than 700 m above sea level (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153672		habitat	eng	This species inhabits waterways in cool, rainforested areas (Morgan 1988), including gullies and small streams (Coughran 2008a unpublished data). Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, on different mountain ranges, and therefore the species distribution is clearly fragmented (Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006).<br/><br/>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).
153672		population	eng	<p>There are no population data available for this species. It is not an abundant species. Morgan (1988) was only able to collect 6 specimens from across its entire range. A recent (October 2008) targeted survey in one area (the type locality) only produced a similar number of specimens (Coughran 2008a <span style="font-style: italic;">unpublished data</span>). </p>
153672		threats	eng	Although this species occupies a relatively wide distribution (including national parks), it is susceptible to over-exploitation, climate change, predation by Cane Toads and other exotic species. Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this rare species may be susceptible to over-exploitation by collectors (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Climate change, through increasing global temperatures, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires could alter this species distribution (Hilbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001; Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007; Laurance and Curran 2008). This species is potentially under large scale threats from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on this threat. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997; ACT Government 2007; O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004b,c,d), and could be causing localised declines as a result of predation and habitat destruction.
153673		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>  Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and resilience to effects of exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <br/></p><p><br/></p>
153673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is known from the Hastings Range (northwest of Port Macquarie), New South Wales (Morgan 1997). This species is restricted to small, upland (more than 680 m above sea level) sections of streams that occur in several different drainages including the Apsley, Hastings and Manning rivers (Morgan 197). Given the barriers to upland, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> presented by mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006), this species range can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of&#160; 488 km<sup>2</sup>.
153673		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits small streams vegetated by temperate rainforest and wet or dry sclerophyll forest. It appears tolerant to clearing, and populations have been recorded in areas where even the banks have been cleared for pasture (Morgan 1997).</p>
153673		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species.</p>
153673		threats	eng	<p>This species is susceptible to a number of threats given its highly restricted range. In particular, it is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable highland habitat and increased potential for bushfires pose a threat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). There is also the potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species restricted distribution, could have impacts<em> </em>by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p>
153675		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and better understand the scale of threats.<br/></p>
153675		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Brazil. It is known only from the east-central part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, occurring in the basins forming the Guaiba estuary in the central depression of the state (Noro <em>et al</em>. 2005).   This species has distribution of approximately  of 6,536 km².
153675		habitat	eng	This species is found in lotic habitats among plant detritus that accumulates, and shoals. Like other species of the genus, it builds burrows in ravines in small brooks (Noro <em>et al</em>. 2005).
153675		population	eng	In most of the rivulets where this species was found, the estimated population density is approximately one specimen per square meter and a standing crop of 613.32 kg/ha (Ferreira-Fontoura and Buckup 1991, L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153675		threats	eng	This species is impacted upon by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture. These are, however, localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing confirmed or significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are especially important on the surface waters around the main metropolitan areas of <st1:city w:st="on">Rio  Grande</st1:city> do <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sul</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">State (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008)</st1:placetype></st1:place>.
153676		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Warning</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Wollumbin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Parks</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm   orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><p></p>
153676		distribution	eng	<em></em>  This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is currently known from Korrumbyn Creek in <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Warning</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Palmer</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Creek</st1:placename></st1:placename> in <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Wollumbin</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> and two other un-named gullies in <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Wollumbin</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">New   South Wales</st1:state></st1:place></st1:state></st1:place>. All individuals were collected between 320 - 440 m above sea level.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 80 km² and an area of occupancy of 7.5 km², with sites ocurring within remnant rainforest pockets in headwater streams, and thus should be regarded as severely fragmented due to the effective barrier to dispersal by intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). <br/><p> &#160;    </p>
153676		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species occupies a range of habitat types including gullies, tributaries and headwater streams. Individuals can be collected from both shallow excavations under rocks, and complex burrow networks (Coughran 2007). All sample sites were within closed forest cover. Further information on the species' habitat and ecology has been documented by Coughran (2007).&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;   <p>&#160; </p>
153676		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered uncommon within sites it inhabits (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153676		threats	eng	<p>Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). Furthermore, the upper extremities of its montane habitats may become drier. This could cause the lowering of superficial water tables upon which it appears to rely, thus restricting its upper altitudinal range (Coughran 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, goats Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p><p></p>  <p>.</p>
153677		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not listed under any state or Federal Act (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). However, its range does overlap with national parkland. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, threats and distribution) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>
153677		distribution	eng	<p>This species can be found in <st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state>, northern <st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state> and several Bass Strait islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is estimated to have a distribution of approximately 291,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Horwitz (1988) proposed that this species responds to sea level fluctuations by staying close to the coast in coastal freshwater wetland systems.</p>  <p></p>
153677		habitat	eng	This species is predominantly located at low altitudes, except in the area around Korumburra where it can be found at altitudes of up to 350 m. Its habitat<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is typically creeks 1.5 - 2 m wide, and up to 0.5 m deep (at mean level), with vertical banks at least 0.5 m high. The burrows are found in close proximity to the junction of the bank and the creek (Suter 1977). This species is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats, and is generally found in lowland, coastal regions. On the Bass Strait islands, this species is mainly found in lowland swampy areas. The largest male found was 32.6 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 16.6 mm to 30 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).<br/>  <strong></strong>
153677		population	eng	This species is considered to be very abundant throughout its range, especially in the flat lowland areas of some Bass Straight islands, such as Flinders, Cape Barren and King Island (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). It is less common in northern Tasmania, where it is only found in the northern coastal areas  (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<strong></strong>
153677		threats	eng	Currently there are no major threats to this species<em></em>. However, coastal development might be a minor threat in some areas of northern Tasmania (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).  Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future. As this species is most abundant on lowland islands and coastal habitats, future sea level rise might also be a potential threat (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>
153678		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Furthermore, no conservation actions are required at present as there is no immediate threat to this species, and parts of its range coincide with national parks.&#160;  Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><em> </em>
153678		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It has one of the largest geographical distributions of all <em>Engaeus</em> species, occuring mainly north of the Great Dividing Range. It is also found above 1000 m in altitude (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 250,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153678		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species occupies a wide variety of habitats, but is usually found in creeks and seepages in either dry or wet sclerophyll forests. The largest male was 24.1 mm carapace length, with mature females ranging from 16.5 to 26.6 mm carapace length. The smallest non-reproductive female was 23 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153678		population	eng	<p>This species can be locally abundant over parts of its range, but subpopulations are only rarely encountered, suggesting a more widespread distribution in the geological past (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153678		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats currently impacting this species. Local population declines will occur as cattle and horses are allowed to graze in wetter seepage areas in higher altitude locations. These can trample burrows and compact the land making burrowing difficult (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153679		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is&#160; needed and should focus on determining aspects of the reproduction of this species, including its fecundity, size of eggs, exact longevity and size at sexual reproduction. Future study should also investigate microhabitat use in seasonal habitats where <span style="font-style: italic;">G. falcata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> are known to co-exist, in order to determine the mechanism allowing them to do so and enhance future conservation management activities. In addition, all study of the ecology and biology of this species to date has occurred in the Grampians National Park in southwest Victoria, Australia. Therefore, future studies should incorporate sites/areas from elsewhere throughout the range of this species in order to confirm whether the trends observed in the Grampians National Park are true of populations elsewhere.<br/><br/>To conserve this species, future management strategies will need to consider both perennial and seasonal habitat types and incorporate the small non-burrowing crayfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> which is commensal with it. The habitat needs of each of these species warrant consideration when hydrological or fire regimes are manipulated for water supply and national park management, respectively. Further, routine or control burns should be avoided throughout the range of this species in autumn when water tables are lowest and this crayfish is most exposed to radiant heat from fire. Instead, fires for management should occur during the wettest time of year (late winter and spring), when crayfish are protected by surface waters.
153679		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the North Grampians in Victoria, Australia (Schultz 2007). This species can be found in the headwaters of the Glenelg River and also throughout the north of the Grampians National Park in southwest Victoria (McCormack 2006, Johnston and Robson 2009, Schultz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153679		habitat	eng	<em></em>In the Grampians National Park region this species is found predominately in floodplain wetlands and flooded vegetation, which are both seasonal habitat types (Johnston and Robson 2009). Similarly, Zeidler (1982) reported this species inhabits small streams, marshes, riverbanks or hilltop areas, drains, creeks and swamps throughout its range (Schultz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species burrows in materials ranging from sandy clay to fine gravel to depth of 1-1.5 m (Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1976), and while juveniles do not burrow they are abundant in surface waters during spring (Zeidler 1982). This species has been found in flooded vegetation, floodplain wetland habitat and soft sediment channel habitats within the Grampians National Park and co-exist with <span style="font-style: italic;">Gramastacus insolitus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span> frequently and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus bispinosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. lyelli</span> occasionally throughout this area (Johnston and Robson in press). There is a commensal relationship between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gramastacus insolitus</span>, whereby the second smaller, non- burrowing crayfish species inhabits natural cracks and shallow depressions off to the side of the main burrow tunnel of the former species (Johnston and Robson in press). This species appears unaffected by the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> in its burrows and indeed <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> co-occurs with this species at almost all sites at which this larger crayfish species occurs in the Grampians National Park region (Johnston and Robson 2009).<br/><br/>The presence of this species at any given location is associated with a mud substrate devoid of boulders, a high percentage cover of submerged, and emergent vegetation and moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and compared to other habitat types, a low total alkalinity and moderate level of water colouration. These parameters are characteristic of the flooded vegetation and floodplain wetland habitats in which they predominantly occur (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). In addition, the occurrence of this species in these seasonal habitats, suggests these species to be somewhat opportunistic, taking advantage of surface waters when they are present with the capacity to tolerate a range of levels of environmental and physicochemical parameters in these habitats as they go through their annual filling and drying cycle (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species has the life history characteristics of a summer brooder, including a potentially asynchronous spawning regime, short breeding period, relatively short life span, and the ability to grow rapidly. Adults attain a maximum adult size of 39.9 mm OCL. Gravid females are seldom sighted because they remain in their burrows but a single gravid female has been measured to be 15.6 mm OCL (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). Individuals likely take two years to attain this size.
153679		population	eng	All prior information on the population numbers of this species from Robson and Johnston, were in fact relating to <span style="font-style: italic;">Geocharax</span> sp. 1 and not <span style="font-style: italic;">G. falcata </span>(except from Troopers Creek). This has been confirmed by DNA evidence from Robson's samples (M. Schultz pers. comm. 2010).<br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
153679		threats	eng	Populations of this species are thought to have suffered a reduction in the range of available habitat, due to drainage activities in western Victoria (Horwitz 1990). In the Grampians National Park region, any habitat modification or disturbance arising from park management activities will likely affect the abundance of this species (Johnston and Robson 2009). Climate warming is predicted to increase the frequency and duration of drought and the frequency and intensity of wildfire in western Victoria, and both of these changes are likely to have negative impacts on this species, and active management may be required to minimize the effects of these events. In particular, prolonged drying of seasonal wetlands will increase the duration of time spent over summering in burrows, lengthening the period of exposure to fire impacts and potentially reducing the time available for surface feeding and reproduction   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/>    <p><em></em><br/></p>
153680		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <em>T. glypticus</em>. Research should be urgently initiated to establish the species’ Area Of Occupancy, and should also include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements (including salinity tolerance), investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. In addition, genetic and/or morphological analysis should be undertaken to elucidate any distinction between populations from the two extant localities, <st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename> (on the mainland) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bribie</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. Coughran, K.L.Dawkins, J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153680		distribution	eng	<em></em><em></em>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species was described from specimens collected in Brisbane (Mt. Gravatt) and Caloundra (Riek 1951). However, the species has not been recorded in metropolitan <st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city> for over 60 years (Davie 2007), although it has been recorded at <st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename> (to the southeast of <st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city>) (Davie 2007), and on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bribie</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> to the northeast (Harding and Williamson 2003). Recent research (Dawkins 2008, Dawkins <em>et al.</em> in press) has revealed additional populations of <em>Tenuibranchiurus</em>&#160;further north and south of the distribution of <em></em>this species. However morphological and genetic information suggest that most, if not all, of these populations are distinct taxa (Horwitz 1995, Dawkins 2008, Dawkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). As such the distribution of this species is considered to extend from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city></st1:place> to Caloundra, a distance of approximately 100 km north-south.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>. However, this area has been very heavily developed (i.e. includes <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>) and the actual area of occupancy is likely to be a small fraction of this. This species is now only known from two sites (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
153680		habitat	eng	This species has a maximum length of 25 mm, and is the smallest known species of crayfish found in Australia. It inhabits coastal wallum swamps and is found among sedges rather than in more open water (Harding and Williamson 2003). There is very little suitable habitat remaining within its range, as most has been cleared for the development of <st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city> and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sunshine</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Coast</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).   The habitat of other <em>Tenuibranchiurus </em>species has recently been recorded (Dawkins et al. in prep) and the biology of this genus is poorly understood.
153680		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species.<em>&#160;Tenuibranchiurus spp.</em>&#160;are extremely rare and this species appears to have been extirpated at two of the sites it was known from (one of which was developed for housing) and one of the two remaining sites is at <st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename> (Davie 2007), a heavily urbanized area with some light industry on the outskirts of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008)</st1:city></st1:place>.</p>
153680		threats	eng	<em></em>  Given its highly restricted distribution, the species is extremely susceptible to disturbance events and localized impacts, including bush fires, land management practices, groundwater extraction, habitat destruction, weed incursion, pollution and pesticides, and exotic species. The&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename>&#160;locality could conceivably be eliminated from the range of this species by any number of localized anthropogenic influences in a very short time frame (i.e. a single industrial accident). Although probably less susceptible, the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bribie</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> locality could also be affected by a single factor (i.e. groundwater extraction from the perched freshwater aquifer leading to saltwater intrusion to the wallum habitat). In addition, there are several threats associated with climate change including, increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, elevated sea levels (i.e. saltwater intrusion), severe weather events, loss of suitable coastal habitat, and increased potential for bushfires (IPCC 2007). Potentially large scale threats from introduced species Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>), Plague Minnow (<em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>), and Swordtail (<em>Xiphophorus helleri</em>) are likely given the very small size of this species, although there are no specific data on impacts from these species (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).
153683		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information is first needed on the taxonomy of this species to determine if it is in fact part of <em>Cherax quadricarinatus</em>.
153683		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is found in Irian Jaya, and the low-lying populated regions in West New Guinea, Indonesia (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153683		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams. It is a predatory omnivore/detritivore that tolerates a wide variety of water parameters (pH 6.5 to 8.5, medium to hard water). The optimum temperature for this species is between 22 and 28<sup>o</sup>C (Werner 2003). This species varies from 15.05 to 61.15 mm in carapace length and from 1.8 to 121 g in mass (Tapilatu 1997).
153683		population	eng	In a study by Tapilatu (1997), a total of 774 individuals of this species were collected from the Klasafet watershed.
153683		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threats at the present time.
153685		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Further research on the distribution, threats and population trends of this species is needed.
153685		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known to occur in China, North Korea and South Korea. It inhabits mountain valleys from South Korea, most areas of North Korea, and Liao-dong Peninsula in China (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).
153685		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in lotic habitats, including small streams which are surrounded by trees with a large quantity of fallen vegetation, but may also occur in small brooks or puddles. This species prefers clear water, has a biological oxygen demand of <1 parts per million, a dissolved oxygen demand of >7.9 ppm, a pH range of 6.4-6.7, and turbidity range of 0.4-1 NTU. Water temperature is usually 7°C during spring, 16°C during summer, 13°C during autumn, and frozen from December to March. Maximum carapace lengths of females and males <em></em>are approximately 3 and 4 cm, respectively (Nisimura and Masanobu 2008).
153685		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.
153685		threats	eng	Recently, the abundance of this species in Korea has declined, probably as a result of environmental change and water pollution. Moreover, it is confirmed that the red swamp crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>, has been introduced in Korea, which poses a threat due to its ability to outcompete native species. At present, protection of this species is needed in Korea. (Nisimura and Hirata 2008).
153686		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However its distribution coincides with national parks. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, population genetics and the impacts of threats occuring within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>
153686		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from 25 km West of Dorrigo, 90 km to the Armidale and Guyra areas of New South Wales and one individual was found near Yarro, which suggests the species extends south along the Botumbella Range for a similar distance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Major drainage systems include the Nymboida, Styx, and Guy Fawkes Rivers in the North and the Hastings River in the South (Morgan 1997). It is a high altitude species, restricted to sites above 1100 m above sea level (Morgan 1997). As a highland species, it inhabits upper reaches of different drainages, and the species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
153686		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in small to medium sized open streams with banks vegetated by sclerophyll forest and heath, or largely cleared for pasture at elevations between 1,100 m and 1,380 m above sea level. The water within its known habitat is clear and cool with brown algal growth (Morgan 1997).</p>
153686		population	eng	<p>This species is known to be relatively abundant within sites it is known from (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153686		threats	eng	<p>This species is fairly tolerant to clearing (Morgan 1997); it is relatively widespread and occurs within some national parks but is susceptible to threats such as climate change and the introduction of exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change poses a threat through increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes and severe weather events (Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).   <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus simplex </span>is restricted to very high altitudes, and it is probable that this reflects a requirement for cool conditions.  </p><p>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species.   Other exotic introduced species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><br/><p></p>
153687		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Horwitz (1990) suggests this species has a high conservation significance. Further research is needed on the population status of this species <br/></p>
153687		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia. It is found east of the Wellington Range, in the south through the midlands, to the Asbestos Range in the north, and has an estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of 22,379 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Hamr 2008).<br/><br/><em></em><em></em>
153687		habitat	eng	<em></em> This species is found in rivers and streams and is a burrower (Hamr 2008). It is also known,&#160;in at least one location on the&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Freycinet</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula,</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;to construct burrows well away from permanent water bodies&#160;(Horwitz and Richardson 1986).<br/><br/>Females <em></em>begin to acquire secondary sexual characters between 36 and 46 mm carapace length (CPL), but most do not mature until 46 mm CPL. Males apparently begin to produce sperm at approximately 30 mm CPL but 100% maturity is not reached until size classes reach a CPL of 38 mm (Hamr 2008). In addition, this species<em> </em>mates and spawns in April-May, eggs are carried over winter, hatch in January, and young stay attached until well into the following autumn (April-May) (Hamr 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacopsis franklinii</span> from Mt. Wellington matures at a smaller size than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gouldi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tricornis</span> (Hamr 1992a).
153687		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is regarded as relatively widespread and common in eastern Tasmania (Hamr 2008).&#160;</p>
153687		threats	eng	General threats to crayfish in Tasmania are likely to affect&#160;<em></em>this species. These include the conversion of native forest to plantation, fragmentation of populations by barriers to movement such as poorly constructed or raised road culverts, habitat disturbance (removal of riparian vegetation, bank erosion, de-snagging, channelization) and illegal fishing (Australian Natural Resources Atlas 2007). In addition, climate change may present a threat to this species in the future through warming the cool, high altitude habitat required for this species (Hamr 2008). At the present time these ae not considered significant threats to the population.
153688		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is known to occur within <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Franklin-Gordon</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Wild</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Rivers</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>  Further research is needed into the abundance and habitat requirements of this species, as well as the extent to which threats such as land clearance are impacting upon it.     <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><br/></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place></p>
153688		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Andrew and Franklin river catchments (Hansen and Richardson 2006), at an elevation of 200 - 400 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species is known from five locations, with an extent of occurrence of 18 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153688		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in creeks. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em> and <em>O. leptomerus</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (Hansen and Richardson 2002).
153688		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153688		threats	eng	E<span lang="EN-AU">xcessive fires and mineral exploration within its range may remove suitable habitat for this species, including peat soils (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009), however it is not known if these threats are impacting this species.
153690		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is likely to be found in a number of national parks including the D'Entrecasteaux National Park (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.
153690		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is endemic to south-west coastal areas of Western Australia and has a relatively uniform distribution due to its ability to tolerate a range of habitat types (Morgan and Beatty 2005). This species ranges from Cannington near Perth, to Albany. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153690		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a burrowing species and is found in a range of habitat types including rivers, streams, ponds and swamps indicating that it is a habitat generalist. It occurs in both permanent and temporary freshwater systems (Morgan and Beatty 2005). It has an active dispersal rate and is able to survive extended periods out of water (Gouws, Stewart and Daniels 2006).
153690		population	eng	This species is relatively common (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008) and has been found in "considerable numbers" by Morgan and Beatty (2005) on the Blackwood River.
153690		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is locally threatened by competition from both <em>Cherax destructor</em> and <em>Cherax quinquecarinatus</em> to a lesser degree (Lynas <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is also likely to be impacted by drought in areas of water abstraction, urbanization, and land conversion for agriculture (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). However, this species is widespread and common throughout much of its range implying it may only be locally threatened. This species is undergoing more significant declines in the northerly extent of its range, around Perth, where it is threatened by intense urbanization (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153691		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153691		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found in eastern Uruguay and southern Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).
153691		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is a fossorial seasonal burrower, which constructs tunnel systems that reach the groundwater table in swampy areas in Uruguay, and in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Furthermore, this species provides several ecosystem services from soil aerification by burrowing, sheltering of a variety of highly specialized comensal subterranean macro-invertebrates inside the galleries, and as a food source for species of fish, mammals and reptiles (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153691		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.
153691		threats	eng	<p>This species is impacted by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture. These are however localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are particularly important on the swampy habitats in the South Brazilian and Uruguayan 'pampas', where this crayfish occurs (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153692		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Border</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South   Wales</st1:place></st1:state>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; <em></em></p>
153692		distribution	eng	k<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from four proximal sites at one locality in Sheepstation Creek, in the Border Ranges National Park, New South Wales. All individuals were collected between 330 - 430 m above sea level.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100 m² and an area of occupancy of 2.5 km² (Coughran 2007).
153692		habitat	eng	This species occupies shallow waters at the edge of minor tributaries (i.e. side-streams of Sheepstation Creek). At some sites, surface water was minimal or absent. The species forms complex burrows around underlying rocks and tree roots, or can be found in shallow excavations under rocks (Coughran 2007).
153692		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is exceedingly rare in the small area it occupies (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153692		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153693		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, with particularly focus on the genetic relatedness of disjunct populations. Monitoring of the population is required in order to detect more widespread declines as a result of habitat loss. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153693		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is most commonly found north of the Great Dividing Range from the Grampian Ranges in the west to near Myrtleford in the east, and it does not appear to extend far from the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria (although its northwards range has not been thoroughly investigated). The distribution is characterized by distinct gaps in its range, with gaps occurring between Moyston and Beaufort, in the Lerderderg River drainage region, between Ballarat and Daylesford, and in the Seymour-Yea region (although this gap may be due to insufficient sampling) (Horwitz 1990).&#160;<br/>  This species has a distribution of approximately 11,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153693		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the banks of creeks or small lakes in dry, temperate, sclerophyll forest. On occasion it can burrow very extensively, but it has also been found out of burrows in surface waters, particularly in spring (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). The largest male found was 28.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 18.8 to 32.4 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 27.7 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153693		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species<em></em>.
153693		threats	eng	Parts of this species range overlaps with areas which have undergone agricultural development. While activities associated with this type of development   may be detrimental to the populations locally, it is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153695		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. NatureServe ranked it as G5 (Least Concern)   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and the American Fisheries Society considers it to be Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007).</p><p></p>
153695		distribution	eng	This widespread species' range centres around the Great Lakes-Ohio River drainages in northeastern America (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2005). It is found in Ontario, Quebec, and New York, down south to Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia (Hobbs 1989, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). &#160;In the southern portion of its range the species is found along the strike of the Appalachian Mountains (R. Thoma pers.comm. 2010). It has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 650,406 km<sup>2</sup>.
153695		habitat	eng	<p>This species can be found in large rivers and lakes, and prefers to burrow under large rocks (Bouchard 1974). It has a preference for larger (greater than 2 m wide) fast flowing streams on sandy or gravelly substrate, but can also be found in roadside ditches (Jezerinac 1991) indicating a tolerance to some level of pollution. This species has some tolerance to water acidification (Berrill <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1985) and copper pollution (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1995). This is a large and aggressive species that has been found to be dominant over other native crayfish such as <em>Cambarus bartonii</em> (Guiasu <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996).</p><p>Reproduction takes place in summer and the young hatch in August (Hamr and Berrill 1985). Individuals normally mature after two years, however some may not reach maturity until three years of age (Hamr and Berrill 1985). The maximum life span of this species is 4 years (Hamr and Berrill 1985). This species has a carapace length of 34 mm to 45 mm. This species is known to competitively exclude other species of crayfish.</p>
153695		population	eng	This species is considered to be abundant in at least parts of its range (Jezerinac 1991, Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005).
153695		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats to this species. It is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation and loss, however its tolerance to a certain level of sedimentation and pollution makes it less vulnerable to such threats. The introduced Rusty Crayfish might be able to compete with this species, however due to its high tolerance to acidification and pollution this species should be able to survive in at least parts of its distribution (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Both NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) have described this species as stable.</p>  <p>  </p><p></p>  <p></p>
153696		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the ecology, distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>
153696		distribution	eng	This species is known from Indooroopilly in Brisbane, Australia (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153696		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.
153696		population	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen which was found in a concrete drain (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).
153696		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
153697		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by threats such as habitat degradation and harvesting. In addition, protected areas should be established to ensure there is some suitable habitat for the preservation of this species.
153697		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Chile, and is found in the Valdivia region   (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009). There is still some question over the exact range of this species.   This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately  9,623 km².
153697		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is a burrowing crayfish. It inhabits swampy grounds, where it builds burrows converging into a living chamber at the level of underground waters (Kilian 1959, Rudolph 1995).
153697		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.
153697		threats	eng	This species is facing loss of habitat due to high deforestation pressure to clear lands for agricultural purposes (both livestock grazing and crops) (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).The degree to which this is affecting the entire population is unclear.
153698		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Robinson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure. Furthermore, this species does not require any conservation measures at present, though further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>
153698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south eastern Tasmania, Australia. It is reported from the Coffin, Cracroft, Davey, De Witt, Frankland, Fulton, Giblin, Gordon, Hardwood, Huon, Melaleuca, Moth, Mulcahy, North, Olga, Passage, Spring, Race, Wanderer, and White Horse catchments. Furthermore, it is known to occur at an elevation of 0 - 700 m above sea level. This species has a distribution of approximately 3,312 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Robinson 2006).
153698		habitat	eng	This species is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains, swamps, seepages and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peats, sand, mud or gravel. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, melaleuca scrub, rainforest, wet sclerophyll, moss, coastal and alpine (Hansen and Robinson 2006).<br/><br/>    <p>Furthermore, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em>, <em>Spinastacoides inermis</em> and <em>S. catinipalma</em>. In these situations, it is usually found in deeper, wetter soils (Hansen and Richardson 2002).</p>
153698		population	eng	Burrow densities for this species are known to sometimes be very high in favourable habitat (deep water-logged peats, >1m<sup>-2</sup>) (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153698		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be acting upon this species. It is realtively widespread in South eastern Tasmainia, and a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements.
153699		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is relatively widespread, does not have strict habitat requirements, and is found in a national park, which will provide a certain amount of protection. Monitoring of the eastern boundary of the species; range is required in the face of climate change (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). In addition, further survey work is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the impact of potential threats. <br/></p><p>&#160;</p>
153699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Derwent, Florentine, Gordon, Huon, Tyenna, and Weld catchments, and has an estimated distribution of 430 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Furthermore, it has been collected at an elevation of 400 - 900 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153699		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes, and in seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peat, and vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath and melaleuca scrub (Hansen and Richardson 2006). It may be found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides pulcher</span> (no habitat partitioning identified) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinastacoides inermis</span>, where this species occupies wetter burrows (Hansen and Richardson 2002). Furthermore, the life history of this species is likely to be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides huonensis</span>, but apparently breeds earlier in the season (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>    <p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-AU">In addition, like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate ?pholeteros? fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).</p>  <p></p>  <br/><br/><br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
153699		population	eng	Observations of this species suggest densities of less than 1 m<sup>-2</sup> in optimum habitat; graminoid heath on peat. ( A.Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153699		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be acting on this species. Potential threats include processes that remove vegetation cover or the peat soil layer such as excessive fire, roading or mineral exploration. However, these are not considered to be major threats because this species does not have strict habitat requirements, and is found in a national park in central Tasmania, which will provide a certain amount of protection (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). The conservation status of this species is believed to be secure (Hansen and Richardson 2006). As one of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides</span> species occupying the warmer, drier eastern end of the genus range, this species will be most vulnerable to climate change if, as seems likely, this involves warming and drying of their habitat (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).   <p>&#160;</p>
153700		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.<br/></p>
153700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil. It is known from only two localities, Estrada da Cidra and Chácara dos Ipes (Joinville). Both localities are in the extreme northeastern part of Santa Catarina   (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).
153700		habitat	eng	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for this species. Within the genus <em>Parastacus</em>, many species live in burrows in marshes, pools and streams   (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).
153700		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<em><br/></em>
153700		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
153701		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>. However, the range, abundance and potential threats to this species requires investigation to determine if it could be threatened. This species has been given a NatureServe status of G3G4, while the American Fisheries Service regards this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).
153701		distribution	eng	<em></em> This speceis is found in unpopulated areas of Idaho and Oregon in the USA.
153701		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in lotic habitats.&#160; It is known from streams in unpopulated areas of Idaho and Oregon.
153701		population	eng	There is no population information for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species. <em><br/></em>
153701		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species<em></em>. The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable in 1996 (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, this classification was made over a decade ago and this species may have declined in this time.<br/><br/>This species is sensitive to stream quality, urbanization and agriculture activities, which impact the habitat requirements for this species.
153702		conservation	eng	<em>Astacus pachypus</em> is listed as a species in 'danger of extinction', in the Red Data Book of the Region of Rostov in Russia (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). <br/><br/>Monitoring of population numbers is needed to determine at what rate this species is declining globally. Further research on current threats is needed.
153702		distribution	eng	This species is indigenous to Russia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan (Machino and Holdich 2006; Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Azerbaijan it is known from the coastal waters off Baku (Holdich 2002); in Kazakhastan this species is known from the coastal waters of the Caspian Sea (Sokolsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999); in Turkmenistan it is known from coastal waters (Cherkashina 1999a); in the Ukraine this species is known from the Dneiper-Bug Lagoon of the Azov-Black Sea Basin (Cherkashina 1999b). This species appears to be absent from the northern Caspian Sea which may be as a result of&#160; oil pollution (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species was once reported from Bulgaria (Skurdal and Taugbøl 2001) however this is believed to be an error and there have since been no further reports of this species (A. Zaikov and G. Grozev pers. comm. 2002 cited in Holdich 2002).
153702		habitat	eng	This species can be found in both fresh and brackish waters including rivers, estuaries and lagoons. It can be found on a range of substrate types (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In brackish water, salinity ranges from 13‰ (in southern part of its range) to 12‰ (in northern part of the range).<br/>This species cannot withstand sharp increases in water temperature (Cherkashina 1974). The thick-clawed crayfish prefers rocky bottoms with water plants and avoids very warm water (more than 22-26<sup>o</sup>C) and areas where sharp declines in temperature occur. This species is very sensitive to oxygen concentration. According to Rumyantsev (1974), crayfish mortality was observed at average oxygen concentration of 2.23 mg/l and a water temperature of 11° C (Ushivtsev and Kamakin 2000). This species is a heterotrophic feeder.
153702		population	eng	A higher abundance of <em>Astacus pachypus</em> was observed in the Caspian sea every third year, increasing from 1.5 million in non-productive years to 14 million in the third year (Cherkashina 1999). During investigations undertaken at offshore banks, crayfish were found at Zhdanov Bank, the average density of the population was 0.02-0.06 ind./m<sup>2</sup> , at Livanov Bank 0.05-0.08 ind./m<sup>2</sup> . Many crayfish were found at the nameless bank 20 miles north-west of Livanov Bank. The average density of the population was 1 ind./m<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> , and ranged from 0.5 to 3 ind./m<sup>2</sup>. A high biomass of red algae and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mytilaster</span> was recorded at that bank (Ushivtsev, Kamakin, 2000)<br/><br/>This species is absent from the northern Caspian Sea which may be as a result of oil pollution (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Western subpopulations are said to be threatened, while subpopulations are thought to be good owing to a lack of predators and good quality habitat (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
153702		threats	eng	This species has been affected by a range of threats. It is commercially harvested in the Eastern Caspian Sea where approximately 100 tonnes was landed in 1990 (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species has also been impacted by oil and toxic pollution: it is said to have disappeared from the River Don in the 1980s due to toxic pollution; its scarcity in the northern and western parts of the Caspian is attributed to oil pollution (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There are no records of this species being affected by crayfish plague  (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
153703		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although some of the subpopulations in the Blue  Mountains do exist within national parks (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).     </p><p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus australasiensis</span> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). </p><p></p>
153703		distribution	eng	<em></em>  This species is endemic to eastern Australia. It is found at altitudes ranging from sea level to 1,100 m above sea level (Morgan 1997). Its range extends 120 km north-south along the coast from Ourimbah, south through Sydney to Wollongong, and approximately 150 km west into the Blue Mountains, New South Wales (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Its range is drained by small coastal streams including tributaries of the Hawkesbury and Port Hacking Rivers, and in higher country by tributaries of the Grose and Coxs  Rivers (Morgan 1997). The species Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153703		habitat	eng	<em></em>  This species is found in lotic situations, ranging from small streams to large rivers (Growns and Marsden 1998). The geology of the area is mostly sandstone and granite and the vegetation is primarily eucalypt and heath forest with occasional patches of temperate rainforest, however, some areas have been largely cleared of vegetation (Morgan 1997).<br/><br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>species&#160;renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>
153703		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, although it has been recorded from numerous localities within its distribution (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Merrick (1995) suggested that large scale urban and industrial developments might be a factor in local declines in abundance of this species
153703		threats	eng	This species is found in national parks in the Blue Mountains region of its distribution and so is unlikely to be affected by habitat destruction within national park boundaries. However, due to increasing human population and urbanisation in the region there is an increased risk of fire, habitat loss and pollution (Merrick 1995; Growns and Marsden 1998). Recreational fin-fish angling poses a two-fold threat, the direct impacts of the introduced trout (i.e. predation of crayfish) and the potential introduction of an exotic species of crayfish as bait (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span>, i.e. competition) (Merrick 1995, Merrick 1997, Growns and Marsden 1998).  <p>Other exotic species (foxes, goats, cats, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localized impacts on this species and contribute to declines in distribution and/or abundance.</p><p>Although this species occurs over a wide altitudinal range, it is probably susceptible in the long run to climate change, as are other species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>(Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).<br/></p>
153704		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research should be urgently initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. A captive breeding program should also be considered.</p><p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus dharawalus</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. However, the site is a popular tourist recreational spot, and there are signs of heavy crayfishing activity (e.g. claws in the carparks and around picnic tables). Given that the introduced <em>Cherax </em>species is more prolific and faster growing, it is predicted that recreational fishing pressure will exacerbate the on-going competition between the exotic and native species.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153704		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from a small area in and near the northern section of Morton National Park, southwest of Robertson, New South Wales which is drained by tributaries of the Kangaroo and the Shoalhaven rivers (Morgan 1997). This species was collected in 1981 from only a single site, to the north east of Fitzroy Falls from where most specimens have been collected. The extent of occurrence is approximately 80 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran). <br/></p>
153704		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is found in areas with some Eucalypts along the stream banks. They inhabit burrows in the soft stream bed (Morgan 1997). The site at which this species was found has been largely cleared of Eucalypts (Morgan 1997).</p>
153704		population	eng	<p>There are no population data available for this species, although the species appears to be rare. The species is considered to be in rapid decline due to several factors such as habitat clearing and water impoundment (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153704		threats	eng	The species is restricted to a small plateau above a steep cliff. The overall stream length is in the order of a few kilometers, and has been altered dramatically by the establishment of a water impoundment. An exotic crayfish species, <em>Cherax destructor</em>, has invaded the stream (likely after being deliberately stocked in the impoundment). This exotic crayfish is aggressive, and far more prolific and faster growing than <em>Euastacus dharawalus</em>. As such, it may outcompete the native species in a short period of time. An exotic species of trout also occurs in the stream which is likely to further impact the native species (Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995). The area is within a National Park, adjacent to a well developed information centre and picnic area that receives heavy tourist traffic. The area appears to be heavily fished by recreational fishers, and this fishing pressure is likely to be having a major impact on the species, particularly in light of the competition from the invading <em>Cherax destructor</em>. A recent hour-long survey (Coughran 2008 <em>unpublished data</em>) collected only three <em>E. dharawalus</em> and 75 (5kg) of exotic <em>Cherax destructor</em>. All three <em>E. dharawalus</em> specimens were heavily wounded.   <p>Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d). These exotic species could have additional impacts on <em>E. dharawalus </em>which given its highly restricted distribution, and other known threats, could exacerbate the current rapid decline in abundance.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><p><br/></p>
153705		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed into the abundance of this species, as well as the affects of threats such as water abstraction, pollution, non-native species, habitat destruction and degradation   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153705		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Lake Chapala, Jalisco and Michoacan states, Mexico (Hobbs 1989). Specimens have been collected from two tributaries joining the lake, and it is also known from small lakes/ large ponds around Lake Chapala, and the eastern and northern parts of the lake. This species has an Extent of Occurrence of 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153705		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in lakes, ponds and swamps (Hobbs 1989), as well as in a variety of habitats surrounding the lake (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). Lake Chapala is thought to be undergoing natural fluctuations in water levels (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153705		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however this species has been found in abundance in numerous places throughout its range (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).
153705		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in the states of Jalisco and Michoacan are known to be threatened by pollution, water abstraction, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of non-native species (Contreras-Balderas 2003).  Water abstraction is believed to be the main threat to this species (   M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009); however this species is able to tolerate areas which are polluted and disturbed and is still found in abundance throughout its range (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>The recovery of Lake Chapala is thought to occur as a natural cycle, and water levels have fluctuated a lot, historically (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). Lake Chapala has refilled to an extent that it cannot be explained by restoration efforts that have redirected water to the lake.
153706		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kosciuszko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to exotic species. Given that <em>E. rieki</em> is the highest altitude species of crayfish in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, further exploration of its aquatic requirements is warranted. In particular, closer examination of bogs may increase understanding of its alpine ecology. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (DPI 2007; NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus rieki</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. Apart from a ban on <em>Euastacus armatus</em>, there are no recreational fishing regulations in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Australian   Capital Territory</st1:state></st1:place> (TAMS 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153706		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It is found in New South Wales within the vicinity of the Snowy Mountains (around Mount Kosciusko), north to Kiandra and Yarrangobilly, southwest of the Australian   Capital Territory (Morgan 1997). It is restricted to highland sites above 560 m, and usually above 1,000 m above sea level; it has been found as high as 1,520 m (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Its narrow distribution thus incorporates highland reaches of streams in several different drainages, including the Snowy, Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers, thus its range can be considered as severely fragmented due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat of the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of&#160; approximately 322 km<sup>2</sup>.
153706		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in creeks and streams, but is more commonly associated with bogs (ACT Government 2007). Shade on the streams is moderate to poor, and water is clear with very little algal growth, while the riparian vegetation consists of dry sclerophyll forest, heath or tussock grass (Morgan 1997). This species is found under rocks and in burrows in the stream beds, and the preferred substrate is largely gravel with some loose rocks (Morgan 1997).&#160;<em></em>
153706		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009)
153706		threats	eng	Habitat modification is the main threat to this species; its habitat has been impacted by agriculture, burning, river regulation and in-stream structures, such as the Snowy River Hydroelectric Scheme (O'Brien 2007). Other potential large-scale threats include predation by exotic fishes such as Brown Trout, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996). Other exotic species such as cats, foxes, pigs and goats have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) and also occur in this species range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by climate change. Climate change poses a threat through increased temperatures, altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003).
153707		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with numerous national parks. Research should be initiated to include population genetics, thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four of the >35 <em>Euastacus</em> species in NSW attain that size (<em>E. sulcatus</em>, <em>E. spinifer</em>, <em>E. valentulus</em>, <em>E. armatus</em>), so the regulation may in fact increase fishing pressure on these four species. There is no information available on the levels of compliance. The current recreational fishing regulations are inconsistent with the specific recommendations for the species provided by <st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> (1997). </span></p>
153707		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. The species has been collected at altitudes ranging from near sea level to 1200 m above sea level (Morgan 1997, McCormack 2008). Its range extends from the upper reaches of the Hastings River northwest of Port Macquarie, South through Sydney and the Blue Mountains to the vicinity of Clyde Mountain near Brooman, a range of approximately 550 km North to South and approximately 100 km East to West (Morgan 1997). The range is drained by a number of eastward flowing coastal streams (Morgan 1997). Recent surveys in the western drainages (Murray-Darling Basin) have recorded specimens that appear to be this species (Coughran 2008 unpublished data).   This species has a distribution of approximately  55,000 km<sup>2</sup>, the second most widespread species in the genus (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; </p>
153707		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>    </p><p><em>Euastacus spinifer</em> is found in creeks, streams and rivers. The inhabited areas are moderately well shaded by dry sclerophyll and heath vegetation, occasionally with wet sclerophyll and temperate rainforest along the banks (Morgan 1997). Much of the species habitat&#160; around <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sydney</st1:city></st1:place> has been dramatically altered. The pressures of fishing and development have concentrated populations in relatively undisturbed areas of national parks, state forest and water catchments (Morgan 1997). Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>  <p>&#160;</span> </span></p>  <p></p>
153707		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>Numerous aspects of the species’ biology, distribution, abundance and ecology have been documented (Turvey and Merrick 1997a,b,c,d,e) rendering this species one of the best understood in the genus <em>Euastacus.</em> With regard to the <st1:city w:st="on">Sydney</st1:city> region <st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> (1995) suggested that large scale urban and industrial developments might be a factor in local declines in abundance of this species. Although the species is very widespread and occurs in a number of streams, these are in different drainages and may represent fragmented populations.</p>  <p></p><p></p>
153707		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>In areas of this species range, it has undergone habitat loss and degradation due to urbanization, however this threat does not apply across the entire range of this species and so is not considered significant to the species in general. Although widespread and less specific in its habitat requirements that most <em>Euastacus </em>species, it could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <em>Euastacus</em>, e.g. climate change, exploitation and exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p></p>
153708		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether threat processes occuring within the range of this species are having an impact upon it.
153708		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Isla de la Juventad, Cuba (Hobbs 1989).
153708		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent streams and other lotic habitats (Hobbs 1989).
153708		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimens   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153708		threats	eng	Fisheries within the range of this species may be a threat (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153709		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, protected areas may need to be established to preserve some habitat for this species. Further research is on the scale of threats.<br/></p>
153709		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Chile and ranges from Valparaíso southward to the Taitao Peninsula (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 60,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153709		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a burrowing species, and like other members of its genus, it inhabits swampy ground (Rudolph 2002).
153709		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.
153709		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is facing population declines as a result of deforestation for agricultural land (livestock grazing and crops) causing reductions in habitat quality through sedimentation. There are also some localized populations that have been harvested at a subsistence level for human consumption and for use as bait in salmon fishing. This species is easy to catch, and there are no guidelines stopping the harvesting of juveniles or fertile females (Rudolph 2002). However the scale of these threats is not certain. Further work is needed to determine if these are widespread declines.
153710		conservation	eng	This species is listed as threatened under Western Australian state legislation. This species is also present in a nature reserve (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008) which may afford some protection. Horwitz and Adams (2000) recommend this species should be listed as Critically Endangered. Further research into the abundance and appropriate conservation measures are required for this species.
153710		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Western Australia, and has a restricted distribution being found only in one locality in two creeklines (Q.Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The type locality for this species has been altered and no longer contains any individuals of this species (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). This species is found in fragmented sites on the edge of a nature reserve (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). The distribution of this species is unlikely to be significantly greater, due to other crayfish species being present in close proximity, but not overlapping (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).&#160;It is unknown whether altitude is potentially a limiting factor in the distribution of this species. It appears this species is limited to the clay soils found in the Treeton area (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to be&#160;less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
153710		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in heathlands dominated by myrtaceous shrubs, and where the level of the water table never comes above the surface (Horowitz and Adams 2000).&#160;More precisely,&#160;this species usually burrows in silty, sandy-clay soils, where the water table may or may not reach the surface (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). This species appears to be closely associated with certain hydrological processes and potentially soil types, while responding poorly to disturbance. They are limited to habitats that constitute a small component of the range through which they are found&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em></em><br/></p>
153710		population	eng	Populations of this species are estimated to have been higher before anthropogenic disturbance. According to Q. Burnham (pers. comm. 2008), this is the most difficult <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaewa</span> species to find.
153710		threats	eng	<em></em>This species has a highly restricted geographical range and is presumed to be susceptible to agricultural practices (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The swampy headwater creek habitat of the only known population has been substantially altered by clearing of native vegetation, cattle grazing, draining, afforestation practices and small dam construction (Horwitz and Adams 2000). Any alterations to the natural condition of the soil, for example soil compaction by cattle grazing, is a major threat to this species due to its close relationship with clay soils in this area (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). Rapid changes in land use within their combined distribution areas have affected surface and ground water conditions in the southwest, destroying their natural habitat (Naturebase 2007). Any large scale perennial extraction of groundwater therefore falls into one of the major categories of threats posed to this crayfish of the region (Morgan and Beatty 2005).
153711		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parks. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population numbers, threats and distribution) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153711		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It has been collected from Hunter Island in the northwest, from Rocky Cape along the north coast, and from Birchs Inlet in the south (south of Macquarie Harbour). The disjunct distribution between the Frankland River and just north of Macquarie Harbour is probably an artefact of insufficient collections rather than a real distributional gap (Horwitz 1990). This species has a distribution of approximately&#160; 4,100 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>
153711		habitat	eng	This species has been found in coastal swamps or creeks surrounded by Tea Tree and Blackwood (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia melanoxylon)</span>, and in swamps dominated by Huon Pine (<em>Lagarostrobus franklinii)</em>. This species has also been found at the mouth of the Gordon River, in buttongrass plains (Birchs Inlet), and by creeks either in temperate wet sclerophyll forest (Smithton), or true rainforest (near Arthur River). This species can co-occur with <em>Engaeus fossor</em>, even within the same burrow system (Horwitz 1990). The largest male found was 16.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 10.2 to 17.4 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 11.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153711		population	eng	This species is believed to be abundant in at least part of its range (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).
153711		threats	eng	This species is not thought to be affected by any major threats at the present time (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2010).
153712		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<em></em>.  Further   surveys are needed to confirm if the population has since become extirpated as a result of flooding of the freshwater spring.
153712		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known only from the type locality, near Parras, Coahuila, Mexico (Hobbs 1989). The area in which this species is distributed is less than 100 km² (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153712		habitat	eng	This species was previously known to occur in spring habitat, which was subsequently flooded for swimming and is now artificially managed. The region within which this species was known to occur is very arid, and it is thought that dispersal to new sites would be very difficult (M.&#160; López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153712		population	eng	Surveys undertaken in 2006 failed to find any specimens (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Further survey work is planned for this species throughout its range (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).
153712		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in the state of Coahuila are threatened by water abstraction, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of non-native species (Contreras-Balderas <em>et al.</em> 2003).  However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<em></em>. Furthermore, the spring habitat within which this species was known to occur has been flooded for swimming, and is now artificially managed (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153713		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, to protect this species.
153713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia.
153713		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species occurs in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus regnans</em> and with abundant ferns at ground level; microhabitats can be divided into flood-bed and clay-dominated hill-slopes. In western populations, it occurs in sympatry with <em>Engaeus urostrictus</em> and the two species divide the habitat finely, with <em>E. tuberculatus</em> occurring in type 3 burrows (independent of the water table) on the slopes above the creek bed. In easterly populations<em></em>, this species is not found in sympatry with any other species of <em>Engaeus</em>, and it can be found in both these microhabitats. The largest male found was 33.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.9 to 34.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 27.7 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153713		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153713		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats currently impacting this species.
153714		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Perez-Arteaga <em>et al.</em> (2002) identified Lake Chapala as a high priority to qualify for designation as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.  Although not yet protected, the site is reported as likely to receive official designation as a natural area covered under the Ramsar Convention. Further research on the population status and impact of threats is needed.
153714		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Chapala, Jalisco, Mexico (Hobbs 1989).  This lake has a surface area of 1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981) and is at an altitude of approximately 1,520 m above sea level (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs (1981) mapped the distribution of this species within Lake Chapala, and from this, the species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence of approximately 40 km<sup>2</sup>.
153714		habitat	eng	This species is known only from Lake Chapala, where it occupies the marginal and sub-marginal zones (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981).  It usually occurs at depths of 3 - 4 m, but individuals have been found down to 8 m (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981).  The water temperature in these regions is 18.0 to 20.5<sup>o</sup>C with transparency of 1.2 to 1.4 m, oxygen concentrations of 4.44 to 4.66 ml/L, and a pH of between 8.3 to 8.6 (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981).
153714		population	eng	At a depth of 3 - 5 m this species has been described as relatively common   (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153714		threats	eng	Lake Chapala is severely threatened by water abstraction, sedimentation and pollution.  Over the last 20 years, the lake has experienced a 3 m drop in surface level, a 42 % reduction in water volume and an 8 % reduction in surface area (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  This has occurred largely as a result of increased water abstraction for agriculture, and to meet the needs of the growing population in Guadalajara, Mexico's second-largest city, which uses the lake as its primary water source (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  In addition, the depth of the lake has been further reduced by increased sedimentation caused by changes in land-use in the surrounding valley (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  Increased sediment flow into the lake has also resulted in reduced light availability, limiting photosynthetic production (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  However, due to the large amount of domestic and agricultural waste it receives, the lake is nutrient-rich, so in shallower areas, where light is less limiting, algal blooms are common (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  The lake also receives a considerable amount of  industrial waste (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  Concentrations of cadmium and lead above the freshwater chronic criteria values recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for protection of aquatic ecosystem health, have been recorded, and the lake also contains significant concentrations of arsenic, chromium, zinc, nickel and copper (Shine<em> et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>A study by Lyons <em>et al.</em> (1998) revealed that, of the 44 species of fish endemic to Lake Chapala and the Lerma drainage basin, 3 are now extinct and 23 have greatly reduced ranges and population sizes.  Although there have been no studies of the impact of these threats on crayfish, it is likely that the population of this species has been greatly reduced by severe habitat degradation. Furthermore, occasionally this species is used as a bait source by fishermen (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153716		conservation	eng	This species is recognised as a Priority Species by the Forest Practices Authority (FPA) and as such must be taken into account in the preparation of the mandatory Forest Practices Plans that are drawn up for any substantial forestry activity in Tasmania. Prescriptions include the establishment of permanent reserves around watercourses, and given the fact that this species is restricted to the edges of watercourses and swamps, they should provide protection to its habitat.  Monitoring of the species' range is required in the face of climate change (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153716		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south western Tasmania, Australia. It is known only from the Little Denison River catchment, at an elevation of 100 - 300 m above sea level and has an estimated range of 10 km<sup>2</sup>, but this is likely to increase with further collecting (Hansen and Richardson 2006). It is likely that the range of this species has declined in the last 50 years due to land clearance for agriculture and drainage of swamps on existing agricultural land (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species is known only from a single location based on the widespread threat of land clearance for forestry and agriculture.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
153716		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on swamps in clay substrate, beside forest streams and seepages and in roadside ditches. Burrows range from very shallow in wide silty drainages to 1.8 m in clayey swamps. The vegetation recorded in the vicinity of burrows is melaleuca scrub (Hansen and Richardson 2006) and wet sclerophyll forest. This species has not been found in sympatry with any other burrowing crayfish (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>  <br/><p>&#160;</p>
153716		population	eng	There are no formal density estimates for this species, but most colonies seem to be small (less than 100 individuals) and very isolated (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
153716		threats	eng	The main threats to this species arise from its restricted distribution, estimated to be 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Further collecting (Forest Practices Authority (FPA), Hobart; Huon Valley Environment Centre) has only increased the range by a few square kilometres. Almost the entire range of this species is in state forest. Land clearance, mostly for forestry and agricultural purposes, is the most likely threat to this species (Hansen and Richardson 2006). As one of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides</span> species occupying the warmer, drier eastern end of the genus' range, this species will be most vulnerable to climate change if, as seems likely, this involves warming and drying of their habitat (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>  <p></p>  <br/><p>&#160;</p>
153718		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range coincides with national parkland. Further research should be initiated to clarify the population genetics of the species and should extend to population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.</p>    <p>In <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish. This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (DPI 2007; NSW DPI 2007). </p>
153718		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is distributed from the Craigie area, near the New South Wales and Victorian border, north through the Nimmitabel type localities to the vicinity of Captains Flat (a distance of 160 km along the Great Dividing Range) (Morgan 1997). The long, narrow range of the species cuts across several different drainages on both sides of the Great Dividing Range including the Snowy, Tuross, Murrumbidgee and Shoalhaven  Rivers (Morgan 1997). It is restricted to the highland reaches (more than 800 m) of these different drainage's, and can be considered as severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153718		habitat	eng	The species was described from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">MacLaughlin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> in 1969. The MacLaughlin River is narrow with deep pools (less than 2 m), and shallow rocky stretches. Morgan (1997) revisited the area in 1981 and found the habitat to be largely cleared and characterized by grass and some sclerophyll forest, and could not locate any specimens. Other areas where the species occurs support poor temperate rainforest and tree ferns along the banks, and dry sclerophyll on ridges (Morgan 1997).<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>
153718		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Crayfish holes were noted as relatively common at the sites investigated by Morgan (1997).<p></p>
153718		threats	eng	Due to its restricted range, the species is susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).&#160;       <p>It is also potentially under large scale threat from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) as well as other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) and occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d).</p>  Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of apparently required rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires could have a detrimental affect on this species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, cats, goats, trout and perch) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153719		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range fall within national parks.   A survey to confirm, or otherwise, the possible extirpation of the species from the state of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state> is urgently required (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008, N. Doran pers. comm 2010) as well as information on the extent to which it is impacted by possible threats within its range.
153719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania and Victoria, Australia. In Victoria it is found in Gippsland, south of the Great Dividing Range and occupies two largely disjunct regions, namely South Gippsland from Bunyip River in the west, to the south of Sale (with a record of specimens from Meeniyan from the southern side of the Eastern Strzelecki Range), and East Gippsland from Orbost to Genoa. In Tasmania it has been found in the rivers and creek systems flowing into the Bass Strait in the northeast only (Horwitz 1990) although it has not been seen there recently (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008).&#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 12,309 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>
153719		habitat	eng	This species is always found in lowland areas in either close proximity to standing or permanent water, or in areas which are reliably inundated. The burrows of this species are usually simple, short, and straight-shafted tunnels in the banks of creeks or pools of water. The largest male found was 21.5 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 13 to 20 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 20.4 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153719		population	eng	This species is believed to be very rare in Tasmania (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009) but potentially locally abundant in Victoria (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008). Heavy development of in-stream farm dams that permanently inundate or disturb potential habitat, are the most likely causes of its rarity in Tasmania (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153719		threats	eng	The range of this species overlaps with areas of urbanization. The apparent disappearance of the species from northern Tasmania could be attributable to the drainage of swamps, channelization of creeks and rivers, and application of pesticides, all in agriculture areas, although no concrete evidence exists (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009, P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Modification of waterways are a significant threat to this species; not only for the change in water movement, but also for subsequent high levels of sedimentation associated with their manipulation (N. Doran pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Similar threats to its habitat in Victoria are likely, but here its broader distribution and occurrence in a large coastal national park afford it protection from the effects of agriculture (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008).&#160;Heavy development of in-stream farm dams that permanently inundate or disturb potential habitat may be impacting populations of this species (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153720		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Euastacus bidawalus</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of National Parks. In New South Wales and Victoria minimum recreational size limits of 90mm OCL are in place for any spiny crayfish (DPI 2007, NSW DPI 2007), <em>Euastacus&#160;</em><em>bidawalus </em>does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction.  <p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153720		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from near Mount Imlay south of Eden, New South Wales to Lind National Park near Cann River, Victoria, a distance of 90 km (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). It is a highland species known from altitudes between 150 and 400 m above sea level (Morgan 1986). The extent of occurrence for the species is 2,087 km<sup>2</sup>. Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, on different mountain ranges, and therefore the species distribution is clearly fragmented (Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006).</p>
153720		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is found in streams bordered by sclerophyll forest, with dry sclerophyll and heath on ridges (Morgan 1986). The species inhabits some cleared areas providing that riparian vegetation is present along creeks (Morgan 1986).</p><p>    </p><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>  <p></p>
153720		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153720		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to the following threats: 1. Climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modeling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased runoff and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007); 2. The alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006); 3. Over-exploitation. Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this restricted range species is susceptible to over-exploitation by collectors and illegal fishing pressure (O’Brien 2007); 4. Exotic fish. Potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008); 5. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localised impacts on <span style="font-style: italic;">E. bidawalus</span> and contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153722		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range occurs within the Franklin Gordon Wild Rivers National Park. The range of the species needs to be better-defined, but the region is remote and difficult to access (A. Richardson pers.comm. 2009) Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. <br/></p>
153722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia, and has been reported from the Birches, Braddon, and Landing catchments, at an elevation of 0 - 50 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Hansen and Richardson (2006) have assessed this species as rare with an estimated range of 70 km<sup>2</sup>, but have also stated this is likely to increase with further collecting.
153722		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows located on slopes and in seepages. The burrows are usually found in peat or gravel, with surrounding vegetation types including graminoid heath and melaleuca scrub (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   <br/><br/>It may be found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastcoides brevirostris</span>, and in these situations this species occupies shallower, better-drained soils (Hansen and Richardson 2002).   There is no life history data, but it is expected to be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastcoides huonensis</span>. This species has a biennial breeding pattern, adults mate in autumn (March), the eggs are carried over winter and hatch in early summer. The female does not release the young until late summer and they remain in the maternal burrow in close association with the female for another year, after which the female mates again (Hamr and Richardson 1994). This pattern may be typical of Tasmanian freshwater crayfish. Its life span may be up to 10 years and age at first reproduction 3-5 years; females produce 20-80 eggs in a brood (Hamr and Richardson 1994).<br/>      <p>In addition, like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate 'pholeteros' fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).</p>
153722		population	eng	No formal estimates of density have been carried out for this species, but in suitable habitat (graminoid heath on peat) 1 - 2 burrows m<sup>-2</sup> are known to occur (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153722		threats	eng	The only known major threat to this species is its restricted distribution. Potential threats include mining and mining exploration, and over-frequent fires, both of which can remove the peat layer (A. Richardson, pers.comm. 2009). Other localized potential threats include fragmentation of populations by barriers to movement such as poorly constructed or raised road culverts and habitat disturbance (removal of riparian vegetation, bank erosion, de-snagging, channelization) (Australian Natural Resources Atlas 2007).
153724		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place to protect this species.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends and habitat status) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia. Its distribution in not clearly defined; at present it is known from the region between Port Macdonnell in South Australia to Warrnambool in Victoria. The most extensive collections come from the Dartmoor-Heywood area of western Victoria (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of 12,360 km<sup>2</sup>.
153724		habitat	eng	This species constructs burrows on flood-plains, in creeks, swamps, and in drainage channels. On some flood-plains, formerly tea tree swamps but now cleared and partially drained, the burrows are constructed in silty or sandy black organic soils. Burrows in these soils are easily searched; however, burrows are more usually found in hard soils with a heavy clay component (clays brown or grey) and these burrows are almost impossible to explore without a small bulldozer and a handful of dynamite. The largest male found was 24.3 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 20.1 to 31.9 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 24 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153724		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153724		threats	eng	Currently there are no known threats to this species<em></em>. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   Like other members of the genus <em>Engaeus</em>, fire, clearing and loss of riparian vegetation, cattle trampling and urban development would be regarded as the most likely threatening processes for this species (Yen and Butcher 1997), but due to the widespread nature of this species they are likely to be resulting in localised declines only.
153725		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with the Barrington Tops World Heritage site. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>  Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160;&#160; <br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
153725		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia, it is found in the Barrington Tops area (60 km West of Taree) in New South Wales (Morgan 1997); the range falls across two different coastal drainages: the Manning and Hunter rivers (Morgan 1997). It is found at altitudes greater than 1,000 m above sea level, and due to its restriction to upland sections of the streams it inhabits, it can be considered as severely fragmented across its range, due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately  750 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Courghran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>
153725		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits streams at altitudes over 1,000 m above sea level. Stream banks are vegetated by dry sclerophyll forest and tree ferns, sub-alpine grassland with snow gums and negrohead beech forest (Morgan 1997).</p>
153725		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153725		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change,  including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 20070. <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153726		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincides with national parks. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is widespead and abundant in southern Victoria, occurring on both sides of the La Trobe River Valley, usually above an altitude of 100 m, in the Western and Eastern Strzelecki Ranges and in the southwestern parts of the Australian Alps (Horwitz 1990).   This species has a distribution of approximately  14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153726		habitat	eng	This is the only species in the genus which exclusively occupies burrows in habitats which are usually situated in the yellow-orange clay-dominated soils of South Gippsland, often in what was formerly dense, temperate wet sclerophyll forest dominated by the mountain ash <em>Eucalyptus regnans</em>. This species' burrows are independent of the water table, and reliant on surface run-off (Horwitz and Richardson 1986). The largest male found was 42 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 20.1 to 36 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 33 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153726		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, however it is considered to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its range (Horwitz 1990).
153726		threats	eng	<p>  There is no evidence to suggest that the species is experiencing significant population declines at present. The only concerns for local populations might be where pesticides are applied for crops or where gully and tunnel erosion are occurring on hillsides due to clearing of vegetation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009), as this species' ability to burrow does not seem to be affected by forest&#160;clearance. However, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153727		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution range coincides with several national parks (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for all spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). All <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species in Queensland are officially no take species under the Fisheries<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Act<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching has been observed for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>Further research should include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. A detailed study into the population genetics of this species is urgently required (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153727		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. Its range extends from the Stanthorpe area, southern Queensland, 120 km south to Dundee near Glen Innes, New South Wales, and east along the Gibraltar Range into Washpool and Gibraltar Range national parks (Coughran 2008 unpublished data, J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It has also recently been recorded in Ewingar State Forest, north of Washpool  State Forest (Leckie and Coughran 2005). The range is drained by tributaries of the Severn, Dumaresque and Clarence rivers (Morgan 1997). This species is typically collected at altitudes greater than 680 m above sea level (usually above 1,000 m) (Morgan 1988). As a highland species, it inhabits upper reaches of different drainages, and the species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 10,000 km² ( J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153727		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits headwater streams (Morgan 1997). Most of the areas are in dry eucalypt forests, alpine heath swamps, and rainforest with this species favouring granitic soils mixed with extruding bedrock, and cobble and boulders (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Specimens inhabit large water bodies and have also been found in shallow water beneath rocks (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). In general, they do not appear to make burrows in sandy streams, but do however in marshy areas away from the main stream channel (Leckie and Coughran 2005). Permanent water is not an essential habitat requirement for this species, and neither is access to the water table (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species has been found burrowed under ground near ground water. Although not dependent on permanent water, the species is restricted to highland sites of appreciable altitudes, indicating a requirement for cool conditions (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153727		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species. Though, it is thought that it may be locally abundant in some of the highland sites it occurs in (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>
153727		threats	eng	<p>This species is fairly tolerant to minor clearing, and has been recorded in lightly disturbed areas such as those adjacent to roadworks, low density cattle farming and largely intact riparian zones (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It has not, however, been recorded from sites that have been appreciably cleared for agriculture (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). For example, this species is absent from areas where cattle are farmed at high density, in particular where cattle have access to the creeks, and riparian vegetation has either been largely cleared, or replaced through weed infestation (Leckie and Coughran 2005).</p><p>This species occurs within some national parks but is susceptible to potential threats such as climate change, exploitation and the introduction of exotic species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006,Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). Furthermore, it is restricted to very high altitudes, and it is probable that this reflects a requirement for cool conditions (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>   There has been some evidence of poaching in some protected areas that coincide with the species range (i.e. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bald</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Rock</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>). As this is a slow growing species, there is the potential for localised depletion as a result of a single fishing trip (Leckie and Coughran 2005). As yet this is not considered a major threat but if recreational fishing of the species intensifies it may be. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<em> et al. </em>2008). The streams in several areas are also heavily modified by anthropogenic activities such as fossicking for mineral and gemstones, which may adversely impact on water quality.  </p><p>This species is also susceptible to the threat of introduced exotic species; there is a&#160;potentially&#160;large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bugo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific data on impacts for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Large areas of stream habitat have been totally rooted by feral pigs (Coughran 2008 unpublished data<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). In addition, other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995; Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and could have localized impacts on the species distribution and abundance (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p>
153728		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and to identify potential threats.
153728		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico (Lopez <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from the type locality at Cascada del Arroyo de Atezca, 5 km Northwest of Molango, Hidalgo, where it is found at an altitude of 1285 m.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It <em></em> is also known from Xochicoatlan and Chalma in the Atlapexco River basin, and Chalma in the Claro River basin, which are within&#160; 20 km of the type locality (Lopez <em>et al.</em> 2003).
153728		habitat	eng	This species is known from Lake de Atezca, and a stream at Cascada del Arroyo, which has a water temperature of between 17.0 and 26.1 oC (López-Mejía <em>et al.</em> 2003), as well as streams at Xoachicatlan and&#160; rivers at Chalma and Calnalli   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153728		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant within its range (M. López-Mejía pers. comm.2009).
153728		threats	eng	Subsistence fishieries exist within the range of this species, but these are not believed to be a major threat to this species (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153730		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species. It was given a heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to determine if this species is currently undergoing significant population declines due to habitat loss and degradation.
153730		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known from two seperate, disjunct subpopulations. One is found on the Appalachian Plateau in West Virginia and Pennsylvania, and the other population is found in the Appalachian Mountains of West Virginia and Virginia, USA (Hobbs 1989).
153730		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is a primary burrowing species and can be found on wooded hillsides and hilltops, in springs and seeps. This species collects leaf litter in autumn and young are born in February and March, remaining in the burrow until September/October (Western Pennsylvania Conservancy 2004). This species prefers upland wooded areas, with clean water and is unlikely to be able to tolerate habitat loss or degradation   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153730		population	eng	<em></em>This species is rare throughout its range (Western Pennsylvania Conservancy 2004), though this may reflect the difficulty in locating burrowing crayfish in Pennsylvania. It is known from 21 counties is West Virginia, while its range in Virginia is somewhat unknown (Jezerinac<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995).&#160; Populations are thought to be stable throughout its range (T. Jones, R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009).
153730		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is critically imperlled in Virginia (Roble 2003) at the edge of its range. Threat information is not yet known.
153731		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is included in a mixed bag limit of 4 L per fisher, however this includes other crayfish species. Furthermore, this species range is likely to coincide with national parkland (e.g. D'Entrecasteaux National Park).<br/><br/>Monitoring of populations in intensely fished locations is suggested to ensure levels of exploitation do not intensify and result in regional extirpations.
153731		distribution	eng	This specie<em>s </em>is endemic to south-west coastal areas of Western Australia. It ranges from Perth to the Denmark region (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately  77,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153731		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in both permanent and temporary freshwater systems and in a range of habitat types from drainage dams and temporary swamps, to large river systems (Austin and Knott 1996). It is most commonly seen in freshwater systems with a high flow velocity and dissolved oxygen concentration (WRM 2005). This species constructs burrows and uses in-stream structures such as rocks for shelter. Beatty, Morgan and Gill (2005) noted the <em>r</em> and <em>k</em> life history strategies displayed by the species, allowing it to proliferate in a range of habitat types and withstand a number of threats.
153731		population	eng	<em></em>This species is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). It is the most abundant crayfish species in the Blackwood River and associated tributaries (Morgan and Beatty 2005).
153731		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is impacted by a number of localized threats. It is harvested as a food source by both recreational fishers and Aborigines (Beatty, Morgan and Gill 2005, Clarke and Spier-Ashcroft 2005). In areas of its range it is likely to be in direct competition with <em>Cherax destructor</em> or predated upon by fish predators such as Red-fin Perch and Trout (Beatty, Morgan and Gill 2005). Declines in subpopulations are also attributed to habitat loss and degradation from urbanization and water abstraction, especially around major urban centres such as Perth. However, this species is recorded in high numbers and is capable of re-populating numbers following periods of decline (Beatty, Morgan and Gill 2005). At present, threats are considered localized and unlikely to be causing significant declines in the global population of this species.
153733		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).    Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160;   &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p><p></p>
153733		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New South Wales, Australia. It ranges from Mount Keira near Wollongong, south and west to just northeast of Nowra, a distance of 55 km (Morgan 1997). The range is drained by small eastern flowing creeks and some larger streams, including Minnamurra and Cambewarra creeks and Shoalhaven River (Morgan 1997).   This species has been collected at an altitude range of 200 to 600 m above sea level. Given its restriction to the upper reaches of the streams it inhabits, it should be considered severely fragmented across its range (due to the isolating effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat) (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,200 km<sup>2</sup>   (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).
153733		habitat	eng	<em></em>  This species has been collected from sedimentary sites (mostly sandstone). Light temperate rainforest borders the streams it occurs in, with wet or dry sclerophyll forest surrounding the creeks. Furthermore, the sites were described as moderately to well shaded (Morgan 1997).
153733		population	eng	This species should be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the  isolating effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat  (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).
153733		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>An exotic crayfish species (<em>Cherax destructor</em>)<em> </em>is being recorded with increasing frequency throughout the Shoalhaven region (Daley and Craven 2007, McCormack 2008) and may pose a serious threat to this species if present within its range.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Cherax destructor</em> is aggressive, far more prolific and faster growing than this species. As such, it may outcompete native species in a short period of time (<st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> 1995). Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have a serious impact by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) and the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span> which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153734		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or currently needed, for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). NatureServe has given this species a heritage rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and the American Fisheries Society considers it currently stable (Taylor et al., 2007).
153734		distribution	eng	The range of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>this species is unclear, but appears to extend from southwestern Pennsylvania and southern Maryland and Kentucky, USA, through the Allegheny Mountains into southwestern Virginia, northwestern North Carolina and as far south in Tennessee as the junction of the Clinch and Holston rivers. The western edge of the range for this species extends to headwaters of the South Fork of the Cumberland and Caney Fork rivers in Fentress and Cumberland Counties (Cumberland Plateau), Tennessee (Hobbs 1989). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to exceed 150,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153734		habitat	eng	This species can be found in burrows, in seepage areas near streams (Cooper and Braswell 1995), in addition to wet areas such as springs, seeps, roadside ditches, stream and creek banks, and run-off areas (Jezerinac<em> et al.</em> 1995). This species is a primary burrower that builds large and complex chambers (Jezerinac <em>et al</em>. 1995).
153734		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
153734		threats	eng	This species faces few threats   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009) &#160;Some undescribed taxa within the species complex may be threatened by mining activities (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).<em><br/></em>
153735		conservation	eng	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> received protection under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) and classified as species of concern by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department. The abundance of this species is largely unknown, and little life history information is available. In addition to this the sources of pollution and siltation are yet to be precisely identified  (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2002). Further research into the causes of potential threats are needed.<br/><br/>NatureServe G4G5<br/>AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).
153735		distribution	eng	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> is common and wideranging across the Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountains. It is distributed along the Pacific slope and in the Missouri River drainage in California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, with a suspected introduction into California. <br/>The pilose crayfish is widespread and often abundant in the Bear and River drainages.
153735		habitat	eng	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> is found in lentic and lotic habitats and is likely to breed during the spring. This species is believed to be an opportunistic feeder that breeds in the springtime and has a home range estimated to be no more than 50 meters (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2002). The pilose crayfish is belived to be intollerable of warmer waters or of the warmer water fish populations (Johnson 1986).
153735		population	eng	The pilose crayfish is widespread and often abundant in the Bear and River drainages (Johnson 1986) and also abundant in Salt Creek.
153735		threats	eng	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the government of Wyoming has stated that potential threats to this species include the requirement of high quality water coupled with a low tolerance for pollution and siltation. In addition, the sources of pollution and siltation are yet to be precisely identified (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2002).<br/><em>Pacifastacus gambelii </em>is believed to be extirpated in Montana due to introduced species (Montana Natural Heritage Program 2008). Hubert (1988) believed that introduced species were having a negative affect on the pilose crayfish in the Snake and Bear River areas.
153736		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with protected areas. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>  Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, population genetics and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).
153736		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia, it is found at altitudes between 330 - 850 m above sea level, in some tributaries of the Clarence River in northern New South Wales (Coughran and Leckie 2007). Although this species inhabits a number of streams that eventually connect, it is restricted to high altitude reaches and the overall distribution can, therefore, be considered severely fragmented, due to the barriers to dispersal created by mountain ridges and the unsuitable habitat of intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153736		habitat	eng	<em></em>    <p>This species is found in rivers and streams in a variety of forest types, and specimens were collected from burrows or under rocks and debris (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It appears that this species does not require flowing or standing water, and at some sites burrows were not connected to the water table (although the soil was moist) (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is tolerant to a variety of land uses including low level grazing and upstream mining, but not to broad scale clearing of vegetation for broadacre agriculture (Coughran and Leckie 2007).</p>
153736		population	eng	<p>  There is no population information available for&#160;this species, though it may be locally abundant within its distribution (Coughran and Leckie 2007).</p>
153736		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).
153737		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several national parks and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">state</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">forests</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.<br/><p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. </p>
153737		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges through the coastal mountains of New South Wales from immediately north of Coffs  Harbour, to Rollands Plains west of Port Macquarie, a distance of 150 km. The distribution includes the Clarence, Nambucca and Bellingen drainages (Morgan 1997). It inhabits both lowland and highland sites (Morgan 1997). The Extent of Occurrence is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153737		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams in rainforest with wet or dry sclerophyll forest on higher ridges (Morgan 1997).
153737		population	eng	<p>There are no population data available for this species. It may be abundant at sites at which it is found (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>
153737		threats	eng	It is currently unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). It has an unusual distribution, that includes both highland and lowland sites, yet is restricted to a narrow range that cuts across several drainages, close and parallel to the coast. It could therefore be fragmented across that range, separated by mountain ridges (<em>sensu</em> Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   <p>It inhabits various forest types and appears to be locally abundant within its range, but could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <em>Euastacus</em>, e.g. climate change and exploitation (Chiew and McMahon 2002; IPCC 2007; O’Brien 2007), and potentially large scale threats from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species.</p>  <p>Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e), and could contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.</p>
153739		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Richardson (2006) have identified this species as rare and vulnerable due to land clearance. Animals within the South  West National   Park will gain some protection, and those in forestry areas will gain protection from the mandatory buffer strips required along watercourses (Forest Practices Code 2000). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent threats within its range are impacting upon it. <br/></p><p>&#160;</p>
153739		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia. It is reported from the   D'Entrecasteaux, Catamaran, Cockle, Donnellys, and Lune catchments, at an elevation of 0 - 100 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). The range of this species is likely to have decreased in the last 100 years due to land clearance for forestry (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 218 km<sup>2</sup>.
153739		habitat	eng	<em></em>  This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in plains, creeks and seepages. The burrows are found in clays and peats (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths, rainforests and wet sclerophyll forest (Hansen and Richardson 2006). This species has not been found in sympatry with any other burrowing crayfish, but may have a parapatric boundary with <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinastacoides inermis</span> (Hansen and Richardson 2002).
153739		population	eng	There are no formal assessments on population for this species, however densities appear to be lower than population densities of other sedgeland <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides</span> species; estimated as less than   0.5 m<sup>-2</sup><sup></sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
153739		threats	eng	<em></em>  This species is vulnerable to land clearance and excessive fires, which might lead to drying or loss of soil. A small part of its range falls within the South West National Park, within which it gains some protection (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153740		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Richardson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure, and it does not require any conservation measures at present. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this speices, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>
153740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North East Tasmania, Australia. This species has been reported from the Alma, Andrew, Anthony, Baxter, Blythe, Collingwood, Cuvier, Derwent, Dove, Emu, Forth, Franklin, Hellyer, Henty, Inglis, King, Leven, Mersey, Murchison, Marcissus, Navarre, Newton, Nive, Penguin, Que, Wey, Wilmot, and Yolande catchments (Hansen and Richardson 2006), at an elevation of 100 - 1200 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species has the largest range of all the<em> Ombrastacoides</em> species, with an approximate distribution of 7,500 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
153740		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains, swamps and seepeages, and in lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peats, clays or gravel. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, rainforest, wet sclerphyll, spagnum moss and alpine (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em> and <em>O. professorum</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (Hansen and Richardson 2002).
153740		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, densities of this species are known to decrease towards the northern end of its range where animals become increasingly restricted to the edges of watercourses, becoming stream-dwellers at the northern-most sites (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009)
153740		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be impacting this species. It is realtively widespread in North eastern Tasmainia, a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).
153741		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends and habitat status) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153741		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the northeastern region of Tasmania, Australia.&#160;Richardson&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;(2004)&#160;estimated range of this species as 1,559 km<sup>2</sup>, although more recent estimates are closer to 1,630 km<sup>2</sup>.
153741		habitat	eng	Information regarding the habitat of this species<em></em>&#160;comes only known from the type locality, where individuals were found in type 2 burrows (connected to the water table) in the flood-bed. The soils in the flood-bed were predominately sandy and silty with a high organic matter component. Several individuals have also been collected from type 3 burrows (independent of the water table) on the hill-slope beyond the flood-bed, in soils with a slightly higher clay component. The vegetation at most sites was comprised of temperate, wet sclerophyll forest, with abundant ferns. The largest male found was 24.5 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.3 to 24.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153741		population	eng	There is no population for this species, however it is considered to be abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009), no reports of declines in the abundance of this species have been made (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<p></p>
153741		threats	eng	The range of this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is not extensive, which could pose a threat in future. Maps show that the area in which this species is found in north-eastern Tasmania has undergone relatively little urbanisation, however there have been some plantation developments and modification of streams due to dam development (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). It is unlikely that threat processes are acting upon the population as a whole, despite the reasonable chance that localised disturbance has occurred in some areas. This species is not believed to be threatened (J. Coughran, unpublished). Where creek and wetland systems have been exposed to these types of development, populations may have been affected, but no specific evidence for this has been presented (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>
153742		conservation	eng	<em></em><em></em>This species is protected under the (VIC) Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. This species will require monitoring to detect any further population declines, and conservation measures to prevent further land drainage within its range are also needed. Avoidance of the use of herbicides/pesticides, providing education, and incorporating this species into the Grampians National Park Environment Action Plan have also been suggested as suitable conservation measures.    <p>Future study should investigate microhabitat use in seasonal habitats where<em> </em>this species<em> </em>and <em>G. falcata</em> are known to co-exist, in order to determine the mechanism allowing them to do so and enable the success of future conservation management activities. In addition, all study of the ecology and biology of this species to date has occurred in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in south-west <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Victoria</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (which covers approximately one fifth of its reported range). Therefore, future studies should incorporate sites/areas from elsewhere throughout the range of this species (particularly those sites in <st1:state w:st="on">South Australia</st1:state> from which has been previously recorded) in order to confirm whether the trends observed in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> are true of populations elsewhere   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).  </p>  <p>To conserve <em></em>this species future management strategies will need to consider both perennial and seasonal habitat types and incorporate the larger burrowing crayfish<em> G. falcata </em>which is commensal with it. The habitat needs of each of these species warrant consideration when hydrological or fire regimes are manipulated for water supply and National Park management, respectively. Further, routine or control burns should be avoided throughout the range of this species in autumn when water tables are lowest when this crayfish is most exposed to radiant heat from fire. Instead, fires for management should occur during the wettest time of year (late winter and spring), when crayfish are protected by surface waters   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153742		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species<em> </em>has a distribution restricted to southwest <st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state> and southeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">South Australia</st1:state></st1:place> (Riek 1972, Zeidler and Adams 1990). In <st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state>, this species is found throughout the Grampians National Park Region (10 sites)   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009),  and also at Ledcourt near the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> (SWIFFT 2007). This species has a distribtuon of approximately 2,900 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>.
153742		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species inhabits permanent swamps or creeks and drains connected to swamps (Zeidler and Adams 1990). Unlike many other freshwater crayfish, this species does not burrow (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009), although under laboratory conditions, individuals have been observed to make shallow burrows when the water level is reduced (Ziedler and Adams 1990). <br/><br/><em></em>  In the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> region this species<em> </em>has been found in flooded vegetation, floodplain wetland and soft-sediment channel habitats and co-exists with <em>Geocharax falcata</em> and <em>Cherax destructor</em> frequently and <em>Euastacus bispinosus</em> occasionally throughout this area (Johnston and Robson, in press). The presence of this species<em> </em>at any given location in this region has been determined to be associated with a mud substrate devoid of boulders, a high percentage cover of submerged vegetation and moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and compared to other habitat types, a low total alkalinity and moderate level of water colouration. These parameters are characteristic of the seasonally present flooded vegetation and floodplain wetland habitats in which they predominantly occur (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). In addition, the occurrence of&#160;<em></em>this species in high abundances in these seasonal habitats, suggest this species is somewhat opportunistic in nature, taking advantage of surface waters when they are present (winter to late summer), with the capacity to tolerate a range of levels of environmental and physicochemical parameters (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species displays the life history characteristics of a summer brooder, including a potentially asynchronous spawning regime, short breeding period, relatively short life span, and the ability to grow   rapidly. These traits demonstrate the flexibility required to inhabit seasonally-dry wetlands where the timing and duration of inundation is unpredictable (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). Preparatory moulting, spawning, brooding of eggs and release of juveniles (lasting 2-3 months) occurs over the period late winter to late summer, with the exact duration of this period determined by the duration of the presence of surface waters (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<em></em>This species attains a maximum adult size of 13.2 mm OCL, while the minimum size at sexual maturity for females of this species is <st1:metricconverter productid="7.2 mm" w:st="on">7.2 mm</st1:metricconverter> OCL and gravid females are captured in the highest abundances in spring.     <p>Most&#160;<em></em>individuals probably only live for one year (due to the seasonality of the habitats they occur in), but some survive for at least two by aestivating in the burrows of the larger crayfish species <em>Geocharax falcata</em> (Johnston and Robson in press). This trait enables this species to survive the summer to reproduce and ensure the continued survival of populations. The relationship between this species and <em>G. falcata</em> is commensal, in which the former small and non-burrowing crayfish species inhabits natural cracks and shallow depressions off to the side of the main burrow tunnel of the larger burrowing<em> G. falcata </em>(Johnston and Robson, in press).&#160;<em></em></p>    <p>Stable isotope and gut content analyses suggest that this species is an obligate plant eater, but it is not clear whether detritus or living plant material is more important in their diet. However, this species appears to derive the majority of its dietary organic carbon requirements from eucalyptus leaf litter (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153742		population	eng	<p>Within the region of Grampians National Park this species has an average population range of between 869 - 2,322 individuals, with the highest population density observed being 8.76 m² (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). This species<em> </em>is relatively common throughout this region and occurs at 10 sites. Furthermore, its distribution has increased by at least one site over the last five years. In this region higher abundances of this species<em> </em>are generally recorded in spring and summer than other times of year, with sex ratios almost always favouring females (2 - 5 times more females than males)   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). Sex ratios favouring females are likely to be an opportunistic trait that enables this short-lived species, that relies on the appearance of surface waters, to find mates and breed in the seasonal habitats in which it occurs. Likewise, fewer males (than seen in a 1:1 male to female ratio) are probably required to fertilize the eggs of a larger female population in a temporary habitat within a relatively small period of time   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153742		threats	eng	<p>This species is considered threatened primarily because of its restricted distribution, the lack of ecological and biological information about the species and the disturbance of habitat occurring through habitat modification - particularly wetland drainage (Johnston and Robson in press). In addition Ziedler and Adams (1990), showed there was little or no gene flow between neighbouring populations of this species, posing a future threat to the species and serious management difficulties, if localized extinctions were to occur. In its final recommendations the Scientific Advisory Committee determined that this species is prone to future threats which are likely to result in extinction. </p>  <p>In the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> region any habitat modification and disturbance arising from park management activities will likely affect<em></em> populations (Johnston and Robson in press). These activities may include, the construction or upgrading of roads, fire dams and visitor facilities and fuel reduction burning of wetland vegetation and the draining of wetlands themselves. Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency and duration of drought and the frequency and intensity of wildfire in western <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>. Both of these changes are likely to have negative impacts on this species and active management may be required to minimize the effects of these events. In particular, prolonged drying of seasonal wetlands will increase the duration of time spent by this species over-summering in the burrows of <em>G. falcata</em>, thus lengthening the period of exposure to fire impacts and potentially reducing the time available for surface feeding and reproduction   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  </p><p><br/><em></em></p>
153743		conservation	eng	<em></em>  There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Toonumbar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007).&#160;<em></em>This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and resilience to effects of exotic species.  <p>&#160;</p>
153743		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from tributaries and headwaters of Iron Pot Creek in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Toonumbar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>, and minor headwater gullies in <st1:placename w:st="on">Yabbra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New   South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>). The species is restricted to highland (>425 m), rainforest pockets in headwater streams in two drainage basins, and thus the distribution should be regarded as severely fragmented due to the effective barriers to dispersal of mountain ridges and the unsuitable habitat of intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 42.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Coughran 2007).
153743		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in shallow streams, minor tributaries, headwater streams and wet soaks. It constructs burrows in stream channels and the forest floor. At some sites, surface water was minimal or absent. Further information on the species' habitat and ecology has been documented by Coughran (2006, 2007). </p>
153743		population	eng	<p>This species is known to be uncommon within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153743		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>
153745		conservation	eng	This species is partially protected in Uzbekistan where it is listed in the  The Red Data Book of Uzbekistan but under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Pontastacus kessleri.</span> It is also listed in the Red Data Book for Moscow. Harvesting of this species in Turkey during the spawning season is prohibited. In the western parts of this species range where it has been introduced, there is no protection in place. In fact measures are often taken to try and eradicate it. This species is being reintroduced into areas of its former range (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
153745		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species and can be found throughout Europe, eastern Russia, and the middle east. However it is absent from some of the northern European countries such as Norway and Sweden, and the southern European countries Spain and Portugal (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is considered indigenous in the eastern part of its range, but has been introduced into many of the western European countries (Machino and Holdich 2006, Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
153745		habitat	eng	This species is found in both fresh and brackish waters, e.g. lagoons, estuaries, as well as running freshwater rivers in the Ponto-Caspian Basin. Across Europe it is found in lakes, canals and rivers. It is tolerant to changes in temperature, low oxygen content, and low water transparency, and is known to occur in saline conditions such as estuaries. Tolerance experiments indicated that O+ juveniles and adults are well adapted for surviving salinities of at least 21ppt in the long term, and will tolerate being transferred directly back into freshwater. However, their ability to colonize the estuarine environment may be restricted to areas of low salinity (i.e. 7ppt) due to the adverse effects of seawater on egg development and hatching (<span style="background-color: white;">Holdich, Harlioğlu and Firkins </span><em style="background-color: white;"></em>1997).<br/><br/>In addition, this species is active during the day and during winter. These features and the high fecundity and fast growth suggest that it can outcompete <em>Astacus astacus</em>. Furthermore<em>, </em>it is an omnivorous species, but demonstrates a preference for zoobenthos, which makes up to 97.2% of the weight of its food in the first year of life in the Caspian Sea.
153745		population	eng	Declines have been noted in some parts of this species range as a result of competition with the crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, and the crayfish plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>). Declines are most notable in the western part of this species range where it has been introduced. <br/><br/>Austria: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/>Azerbaijan: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/>Belarus: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/>Bosnia and Herzegovina: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Bulgaria: This species is widespread and of commercial interest (Zaikov and Hubenova 2007).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Croatia: This species is dense in parts of its range and is expanding its range size (I. Maguire and G. Klobučar pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Georgia: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Greece: This species is </span>found in the Evros River (Perdicaris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>  <span style="background-color: white;">Hungary: It is usually present in lowland waters and fish ponds, and is most common in the southern and eastern part of the country (Puky </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2005). It has been wiped out from different habitats by several factors e.g. the introduction of the European eel (</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Anguilla anguilla) </span><span style="background-color: white;">to Lake Balaton leading to its extinction in the 1960s there and in the lower stretch of the inflowing River Zala; the spread of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Orconectes limosus</span><span style="background-color: white;"> along the southern part of the Hungarian Danube stretch at the turn of the 1990s and 2000s. However, previously unknown populations are also being described for the first time, as such at a national level its status is indeterminate;&#160; it appears stable in some areas, with declines in others (P. Miklós pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/>  <br/><span style="background-color: white;">Iran: There are good stocks of this species in this country (Souty-Grosset </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2006).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Israel: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Kazakhstan: This species is described as abundant in countries such as Kazakhstan (Souty-Grosset </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2006).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Moldova: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Romania: There have been significant historical declines in the population numbers of this species, however attempts are being made to re-stock it into former parts of its range (M. Miron and L. Miron pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/>    <p>    </p><p>Russia: This species is described as widespread and abundant in countries such as Russia (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Pollution has affected crayfish species in Russia (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998) especially in the lower River Don where abundance is reported to have declined 4-17 fold since the 1980s (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006)</p>    <span style="background-color: white;">Serbia: Spreading in some regions, but declining in others as a result of</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> Orconectes limosus</span><span style="background-color: white;"> (Holdich </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Slovakia: Though this species is listed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia, the population is thought to be currently stable (P. Manko pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Turkey: There have been fluctuations in the harvest of this species over the years, though is said to have shown an increasing trend since 1995. However, since 2005 there has been a decline in the catch from 2,317 tonnes in 2004, to 809 tonnes in 2005, to 797 tonnes in 2006, and to 750-760 in 2007. The reason for this apparent decline is not clear and there is no indication that it is related to crayfish plague, though over-harvesting is thought to be contributing (Harlioğlu and Harlioğlu 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Turkmenistan: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Ukraine: Widespread and abundant (Souty-Grosset </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2006).</span>
153745		threats	eng	There are a number of widespread threats impacting this species. Due to the commercial quantities in which it is found in some countries, it has been extensively harvested for food within a number of countries. In Turkey this species suffered significant declines as a result of overfishing and crayfish plague (<em style="background-color: white;">Aphanomyces astaci</em><span style="background-color: white;">).</span> <span style="background-color: white;">The harvest of this species showed a gradual increase between 1977 and 1984, after which is underwent a significant decline from between 3,885 - 7,936 tonnes, to less than 2,000 tonnes up to 2002. Between 1991 and 2002 a gradual increase in the harvest has been observed, though it is still at 20% of the 1980s level (Harlioğlu and Harlioğlu 2005).</span> Two of the greatest threats to this species are invasive species such as the Signal Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</span>) and the Spiny-cheek Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span>), and crayfish plague (<em style="background-color: white;">Aphanomyces astaci</em><span style="background-color: white;">)</span> (Lózan 2000).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Dredging of waterways in localised areas has further threatened this species as it leaves the water cloudy and disturbs the habitat. </span>Pollution of waterways (domestic, agricultural and industrial) has also resulted in significant declines, particularly in the River Don where abundance is said to have declined 4-17 fold since the 1980s (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/></span>
153746		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the future protected areas should be established to preserve some habitat for this species. Further research is required on the impact of threats on the population.
153746		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>was initially recorded only at the type locality at Los Kakanes farm of Rucapihuel in the Coastal Cordillera,&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Osorno</st1:placename> Province, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Subsequently, it has been found in the localities of Coihuer´a, Carrico, Contaco, and Loma de la Piedra; which are also located in the Coastal Cordillera at 4.0, 5.3, 7.4, and 16.7 km southeast of Rucapihuel, respectively (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<em> </em>
153746		habitat	eng	<em></em>This is a burrowing species that was described from the semi-marshland area of Rucapihuel on the coastal Cordilera, Osorno Province in southern Chile (Rudolph and Crandall 2005, L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153746		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.
153746		threats	eng	<em></em>The area in which this species is known to occur is heavily impacted by forest clearance for agricultural land, and the construction of canals to drain the 'hualves' (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).
153747		conservation	eng	<p>      </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Within Canada this species is thought to be 'Threatened'  (Hamr 2005).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  <em></em></p><p></p><p></p>
153747		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">United   States of America</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from southern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Ontario</st1:state></st1:state> to <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Arkansas</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Texas</st1:state></st1:state>, and East to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Appalachicola</st1:placename></st1:place>  <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place> (Hobbs and Robison 1989). It has a distribution of approximately 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and is the most widespread species in its genus (Guiasu 2007).</p>  <p></p>
153747		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a semi-terrestrial burrower that can be found in a range of habitats such as wetlands (marshes and swamps), roadside ditches, creek banks and among rooted semi aquatic plants and grasses (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2005, Hamr 2005). It is mostly found in fine clay soils (Hamr 2005), and is unable to tolerate fast-flowing streams (Bouchard 1974).</p><p>Little is known on the life history of this species. Captive individuals were observed to mate in June, while reproduction is thought to occur throughout most of the year in the southern parts of its range (Hamr 2005). This species may live for up to five or six years (Norrocky 1991, Guiasu and Dunham 2002). It shows little aggression to conspecifics and several members of the same species are able to inhabit the same burrow (Guiasu <em>et al</em>. 2005).</p>
153747		population	eng	<p>This is by far the most widely distributed species within its genus (Guiasu 2007), however it is not found to be locally common and it is usually restricted to isolated patches (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Canadian populations of this species are found at an average density of 1.3 m<sup>2</sup> in areas of suitable habitat (Hamr 2005).<br/></p>
153747		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species, however it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to habitat degradation and loss. This species seems to be fairly resilient to a number of contaminants (Simon and Morris 2008). However, the amount of suitable habitat has been decreasing due to urban, industrial and agricultural development (Guiasu <em>et al</em>. 1996). For example, this species was found to be absent from the rice growing region in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Arkansas</st1:place></st1:state> (Hobbs and Robinson 1989). Furthermore, population numbers were found to be much higher in protected areas compared to unprotected areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hamr 2005). Competition from introduced crayfish species (<em>Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii</em> and <em>Cambarus robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species' in this genus (Guiasu 2007), but is not thought to be a major threat to this species at present.</p>  <p></p>
153748		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species<em></em>. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) ranked it as Currently Stable. It has a NatureServe G-rank of G5 (Least Concern)   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2008).
153748		distribution	eng	This species is found along the eastern part of North America&#160;from the New River north and the Mississippi and Atlantic basins from the New River south following the strike of the Appalachians (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010). It is found from New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario in Canada, south to Georgia, South Carolina, and Alabama in the USA along the Atlantic coast (Hobbs 1989, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has an estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) exceeding 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153748		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in fast flowing, rocky areas (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007), but is occasionally seen in ponds (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1989) and lakes (Jezerinac 1985). Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;(2005) noted that it is found in the high elevation lakes in the Canadian Shield, where pH values can be as low as 5.0.&#160;Its burrows are often found in gravel and sand under larger rocks (Mar 1983) and along streams (Williams and Bivens 1996).Burrows have been known to be as deep as 1 m (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;Spring to autumn delineates the period of reproduction with&#160;the offspring hatching in July and August&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;&#160;The species has a life span of three to four years (Hamr and Berrill 1985). The carapace length ranges between 25 mm and 30 mm (Hamr and Berrill 1985).
153748		population	eng	This species is abundant and common in parts of its range (Jezerinac 1991, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
153748		threats	eng	<p>This species faces few threats, although localised disturbance may exist. The introduced Rusty Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oroconectes rusticus</span>) might be able to compete with this species (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore, the closely related <em>Cambarus robustus</em> has been found to competitively exclude this species from some of its range in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Ontario</st1:state></st1:place></st1:place></st1:state> (Guiasu <em>et al</em>. 1996). Localised declines can also be attributed to general habitat degradation and loss.&#160;</p><p>At a greater scale, one significant pressure is the acidification of streams that it lives in; although it has developed a tolerance to low pH levels it has been noted that juvenile and moulting crayfishes are at risk from the changing pH levels (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).</p>
153749		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, including monitoring to detect if any population declines are occurring. Potential threats also require investigating as currently these are unknown.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153749		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Geelong-Ballarat region, Victoria, Australia. It has been found in the upper reaches of the Werribee River and just across the Great Dividing Range in the upper reaches of the Loddon and Tullaroop drainages (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,292 km<sup>2</sup>.
153749		habitat	eng	Information on this species' ecology is only known from the type locality, which is in the headwater region of a small creek in a cleared paddock at Mount Moriac near Geelong. The soils were yellow-grey and appeared to contain a heavy clay component; consequently the burrows ramified along the banks of the creek. Pools of water could be found in small chambers above the water table. At Werribee River, individuals could be found in very short burrows beneath rocks in a dry creek bed, and in dry burrows on the banks. The largest male found was 27 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 15.4 to 28.9 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).
153749		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
153749		threats	eng	There is no evidence to suggest that the species is, or could be, experiencing significant population declines (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). However, the range of this species overlaps with areas which have undergone extensive development for agriculture; this may have reduced population numbers in the past due to cattle trampling and habitat loss.  Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153750		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although legislation is in place which bans the capture of wild crayfish for sale&#160;(S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). Monitoring of population numbers and harvest levels should be carried out because significant population declines may occur in the future if threats persist. In addition, this species should be widespread in most national parks (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.&#160;</p>
153750		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand. It extends from the far north of New Zealand, south to Marlborough, Nelson, and the West Coast districts of the South Island (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 45,200 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153750		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in lakes and streams, and is most commonly associated with cover habitat such as undercut banks, leaf litter, tree roots, and woody debris. Habitat preferences are for still or slow flowing water and depths of 0.2-0.3 m in streams (Jowett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In lakes, this species generally stays below the photic zone during the day (presumably out of cormorant diving range) but travel up to the littoral zone to feed at night. It has been seen to occur at great depths (180 m in Lake Taupo) and in streams on Mount Ruapehu at 1,260 m above sea level. This species is an omnivore, feeding on benthic invertebrates and leaf detritus predominantly (Parkyn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). <em><br/><br/><br/></em>
153750		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There is anecdotal evidence of declines in the abundance of this over time in both streams and lakes, but there are no systematic long term records of this (Parkyn <em>et al.</em> 2002, S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
153750		threats	eng	This species is impacted by a reduction in habitat (due to channelization and dredging of streams, and drainage of wetland for urban and industrial use), water pollution, and a loss of riverbank vegetation leading to erosion (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008,&#160;Department of Conservation 2006). Predation by introduced species such as perch, trout, catfish and possibly rats and stoats, and harvesting at a subsistence level for human consumption have also played a role in their gradual population decline (Department of Conservation 2006). This species has been resistant to the dominant land use change as they are generally tolerant of warmer water temperatures in pastoral streams as long as water quality remains generally good&#160;(S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). These do not qualify as major threats however, as they are only localized and do not appear throughout this species' range. However, once crayfish have been made locally extirpated, they find it difficult to recolonize as their mode of dispersal is limited to instream movement (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).
153751		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been listed as an endangered species by the Japanese Fisheries Agency in 1998 and the Environmental Agency in 2000 (Nakata, Tsutsumi,  Kawai and Goshima 2005, Usio 2007). Protection measures, such as education and awareness, particularly in schools, have been initiated; however further efforts are necessary, such as new  protection measures and policy to prevent further declines (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2010). Further research on the threat from the Signal Crayfish, and monitoring of populations trends is recommended.
153751		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is indigenous to northern Japan, and is found in Hokkaido, Aomori, Akita, and Iwate Prefectures (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).
153751		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift or high gradient streams without fish, and is associated with abundant cover in dense broadleaf forests. This type of habitat serves as a conservation area, and consideration of riparian composition may facilitate conservation efforts (Usio 2007). This species will carry 30-100 eggs and grow to approximately 8 cm (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).
153751		population	eng	There is no current population information available for this for this species. This species was considered common in Hokkaido until the twentieth century; however following the introduction of the Signal  crayfish in the 1920s and habitat  destruction&#160;since the 1960s <em>C. japonicus</em> populations have continued to decline, and the species is thought to be rare in Hokkaido (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2010).
153751		threats	eng	This species is threatened by interspecific competitor from the invasive Signal Crayfish <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em> is competitively advantageous, and has a markedly higher reproductive ability <em></em>in terms of egg numbers (Nakata, Tanaka and Goshima 2004). Fewer eggs, more larval stages, slower growth, smaller pereopods, and poor disease resistance all contribute to the displacement of indigenous&#160;<em></em>populations of this species by introduced competitors such as <em>P. leniusculus</em>. The fecundity of<em></em> this species is an order of magnitude lower than that of<em> P. leniusculus</em> (Yamanaka, Kuwabara and Shio 1997).<br/><br/>In the past,&#160;<em></em>this species had a widespread distribution in Hokkaido (Kawai 1996), but the population has drastically declined, prompting the Japanese Fisheries Agency in 1998 and the Environmental Agency in 2000 to declare it an endangered species (Nakata, Tsutsumi,  Kawai and Goshima 2005, Usio 2007). Crayfish plague may be a factor in species displacement in some Hokkaido rivers and lakes, though there is yet no evidence of infection in this prefecture but it should be investigated further (Usio, Motoharu and Shigeru 2001).
153752		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the population status of this species, and if there are any major threats impacting it.
153752		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in scattered localities throughout Cuba except in the southwestern mountains (Hobbs 1989). This species has a distribution of approximately 15,000km<sup>2</sup>.
153752		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in lotic and lentic habitats, mountain streams (Hobbs 1989) as well as lowland streams   and lakes (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Laboratory experiments have shown that this species can tolerate temperatures in the range of 18-23   ºC , and do not require water to be artificially oxygenated when kept in shallow tanks (Shuranova and Burmistrov 2002). This species grows to 5-7cm   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153752		population	eng	This species is reasonably common within suitable habitat in Pinar del Rio (C. Pedraza Lara pers. comm. 2009), and generally thought to be widespread and abundant   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>
153752		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is some development within its range, though the scale of threats is unknown   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153753		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species. The China Species Information Service has classified&#160;<em></em>this species as endangered, but the reasons for this are unknown. Introduction of invasive species needs to be controlled (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). Further research on the distribution and taxonomy of this species is needed.
153753		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known to occur in China and Russia   (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).
153753		habitat	eng	This species seems to be restricted to lentic water in flats and open rivers, lakes, or dead channels, to a depth of approximately 1 m.   It is also known to occur in brackish water such as coastal areas of the Amurskii Liman (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).   On Sakhalin Island, its optimal water temperature is around 19ºC and pH is 6.5-7.0 (Labai 2005). It inhabits mesotrophic or oligotrophic conditions, silt or sand substrate, usually covered by detritus and vegetation snags (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008). Floating plants may also occur on the surface of the habitat, and emergent plants or sub-emergent plants dominate in shallow areas (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008). Gammarid amphipods and snails are known to cohabit with this species. Adult females and males mate during October, females are ovigerous laying 200-240 eggs in spring (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).
153753		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species. However, it has been suggested that the density of juveniles is less than 50 per m<sup>2</sup> and adults are 3-7 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).
153753		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <em></em>this species. The sister species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cambaroides japonicus</span>) has no resistance to crayfish plague  (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>) so it is likely that this species also has no resistance. Exotic crayfish species are not known from this area, but measures must be taken to prevent their introduction (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). Water pollution from major industry may also pose a threat to this species (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).
153754		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007) and was given a heritage ranking of G2G4 by NatureServe (Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). However, as there are a number of potential threats within its range further research is needed to see if these are impacting this species. There are some conservation goals outlined for the Cumberland River basin, however it has been stated that these are not being met for crayfishes and snails (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2002). This suggests that crayfish species, endemic to this basin,<em></em> are affected by the activity in this area and are not sufficiently protected. However, as this species is not specifically known to be affected, its threat status is unknown   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153754		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was first found in Louise Creek, in Montgomery County, Tennessee. It has since been found in tributaries of the Cumberland River in three places in Montgomery and Dickson counties on the western Highland Rim (Hobbs Jr. 1953). The Smithsonian Museum (USNM 2009) has a few additional records from Montgomery Bell State Park and an unnamed stream east of Charlotte, and Yellow Creek&#160; in Dickson County Houston. Additionally it has been found in a tributary of Hurricane Creek, Humphreys County, and Saline Creek, Stewart County. The Duck River sites are of questionable validity (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153754		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in streams. At the type locality of this species the stream width varied between 3 m and 7.5 m, and was between 0.3 m and 1 m deep (Hobbs Jr. 1953). It had a rocky bed and was clear. This species was very abundant in the riffle areas, where it was found digging shallow holes below rocks (Hobbs Jr. 1953).
153754		population	eng	Hobbs Jr. (1953) found this species<em></em> to be very abundant at the riffle areas of its type locality in Louise creek. It can be abundant where suitable habitat exists.&#160; However, there is no other population information available for this species. All occurrence records are old (1950s and one from 1974), although&#160; D. Withers (TN NHP, pers. comm., 2009) surveyed this species in June 2009 and found 3 females and 1 non-reproductive male tentatively identified as this species.
153754		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species.<em></em> It is known however, that throughout the Cumberland Basin threats have been identified, including hydrological alterations, channelisation and land use change, pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural run-off, excessive sedimentation and rapid urban expansion. Nearly 25% of the region is agricultural land, which may be having an impact on freshwater systems (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). The impact this is having on this species is currently unknown as its environmental tolerances are not known.
153756		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, threats and distribution) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).
153756		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is distributed through northeast Tasmania. Its range can be outlined by the triangle between Upper Blessington, St. Helens and Mt. William (Horwitz 1990).   This species has a distribution of approximately  2,903 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
153756		habitat	eng	This burrowing species occupies a wide variety of habitats, including buttongrass plains, dry temperate sclerophyll forests (near Upper Blessington and Mathinna) and rainforest (near Weldborough) (Horwitz 1990).   <span class="msoIns">It occupies a wide altitudinal range, from lowland areas to subalpine conditions (over 700 m). Some burrowing systems are very extensive and occupied by large numbers of individual crayfish (Horwitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). This species constructs both type 2 and type 3 burrows, meaning some burrows are connected to the water table whilst other burrows are connected to water only through surface run-off&#160;<span class="msoIns">(Horwitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<span class="msoIns"> The largest male found was 32.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 21.8 to 33.5 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 24.2 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).</span>
153756		population	eng	This species is considered to be very abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153756		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has undergone substantial modification, though it is unknown to what extent this has impacted this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<span class="msoIns"> Their occurrence in or near agriculture makes them vulnerable to the effects of cattle trampling, drainage, application of pesticides and other agricultural practices (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009), however at present these threats are probably affecting localised populations.<span class="msoDel"></span>
153757		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Robinson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure. Furthermore, this species does not require any conservation measures at present, though further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153757		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Albert, Andrew, Baxter, Bird, Davey, Denison, Derwent, Franklin, Gell, Gordon, Hardwood, Hibbs, Jane, King, Maxwell, Nora, Olga, Orange, Pokana, and Wanderer catchments. Furthermore, it is known to occur at an elevation of 0 - 1100 m above sea level. This species has a distribution of approximately 5,950 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Robinson 2006).
153757		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peat, clay, sand, mud or gravel, and the vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, melaleuca scrub, rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and moss (Hansen and Robinson 2006).<br/><br/>    <p>In additon, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em> and <em>Spinastacoides insignis</em>, where it is found in shallower, better-drained soils (Hansen and Richardson 2002). </p>
153757		population	eng	In sedgelands this species is known to have a density of usually below 0.2m<sup>-2</sup>, though in gravelly rainforest seepages they may exceed 1m<sup>-2</sup> (A. Richardson 2009).
153757		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be acting upon this species. It is realtively widespread in eastern Tasmainia, and a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements.
153763		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This indicates that Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) consider this species to be apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)</p>
153763		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus</span> in habits the Vidalia Upland District between the Oconee and Ogeechee rivers in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). A single specimen held at the U.S. National Museum has only "South Carolina" on the label. This record was not considered by Hobbs (1989). This is an approximate extent of occurrence of 10,000 km².
153763		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus</span> is found in seepage areas in colonies where each member digs its own complex burrow (Hobbs 1954; Hobbs 1981).
153763		population	eng	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus truculentus.</span>
153763		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus. </span>
153764		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), meaning the species is apparently secure, widespread and abundant<em><em>.<br/></em></em>This species is a carrier of the crayfish plague and poses a great threat to native crayfish species in Europe (Holdich and Black 2007).<em><em><br/></em></em>Further research is required on the population abundance of this species and its life history.<em><em><br/></em></em>
153764		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is widespread in North America occurring in the Atlantic watershed in Connecticut, District of Columbia, Delaware, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Québec, Rhode Island, Virginia, Vermont and West Virginia (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1974, Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species was introduced to Europe in the 1890s where it is now widespread (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species was originally introduced into Europe to replace diminished  populations of the Signal crayfish, but due to its small size that  replacement failed (Black and Holdich 2007).    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2 million km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
153764		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits clear streams that are 10 - 100 m wide, with silt, cobble, gravel and sand substrates (Jezerinac 1995, Aiken 1965). This species has also been found in lakes (Aiken 1965). Individuals are often found in shallow depressions in pools and have rarely been captured where silt is absent from the substrate (Jezerinac 1995).
153764		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>However, it is known to be abundant in sites of suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153764		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Hybridization is known to have occurred between&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> at a single locality in Massachusetts. However, this is not having a major impact on the global population of this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009), but these are very unlikely to be threatening the species.
153765		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153765		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Córdoba in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mexican</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype> of <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153765		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153765		population	eng	This is a rare species, which is only known from the type specimens collected in the 1950s (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009). <em></em>
153765		threats	eng	Cordoba is a fast growing city, and urbanization could be a significant threat to this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153766		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Part of this species range lies within a national wildlife refuge, however it is not known what the subpopulation size is here nor is the abundance trend known.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution is required for this species, especially in the coastal plain tributaries of the Savannah River to determine how widespread this species is (Hobbs 1958). Information on the current and future impacts of threats for this species are required.
153766		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hirsutus</span> is known the Edisto, Salkehatchie, and Savannah drainage systems in South Carolina (Hobbs 1958). Currently it is found in nine counties in South Carolina within the following drainages:&#160;Edisto, Salkehatchie, Savannah, Conagree, Lake Marion and Four Hole Swamp (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010). &#160;It may also be found in Georgia but this is not confirmed (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>See page 54 of Eversole and Jones (2004) for species distribution map.
153766		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hirsutus</span> inhabits permanent creeks and rivers which have sandy or mud substrates (Hobbs 1958).
153766		population	eng	This species is abundant in the Salkehatchie drainage system (Hobbs 1958).
153766		threats	eng	No species specific major threats have been identified for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hirsutus</span> although it is likely to be undergoing some localised declines due to urban development and surface water abstraction occurring in South Carolina.
153767		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153767		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Cueva de Rio S. Domingo, near the <st1:placetype w:st="on">village</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Bochil</st1:placename> in the state of <st1:city w:st="on">Chiapas</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, at an altitude of 1250m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153767		habitat	eng	This species is known from subterranean waters (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). This species does not appear to be a cave adapted species, though it was collected from a cave   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153767		population	eng	This species is known only from the type specimens   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <br/><em></em>
153767		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted upon by any major threats.
153768		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
153768		distribution	eng	This species was first found in prairie grassland at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Angelina County Airport</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Texas</st1:state></st1:place> (Hobbs and Whiteman 1987). It has since been found in <st1:placename w:st="on">Houston</st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype>, <st1:placename w:st="on">Trinity</st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype>, <st1:placename w:st="on">Tyler</st1:placename><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Polk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Counties</st1:placetype>, <st1:state w:st="on">Texas</st1:state> and occupies the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Neches</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Hobbs 1990, Hobbs and Whiteman 1991). It has been reported, but not confirmed from four other counties in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Texas</st1:place></st1:state> (Hobbs and Whiteman 1991). In addition, recent surveys conducted by Dan Johnson have found this species to occur at 59 sites across five counties (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153768		habitat	eng	This species is found predominantly in roadside ditches or grassland (Hobbs and Whitemand 1991). It is a burrowing species that creates turrets or mounds that can reach as high as 30 cm. Within the burrows, the water table can range from the surface, to 1 m below the surface (Hobbs and Whiteman 1991).&#160; Furthermore, the burrows of this species are very large and occur away from ditches (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153768		population	eng	At <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Angelina</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename></st1:place> Airport, as many as 100 individuals can be seen in an area of 90 m<sup>2</sup> (Hobbs and Whiteman 1987).&#160; Further more, recent surveys by Dan Johnson have found this species to occur at 59 sites across five counties, and found this species to be abundant at most of these sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). &#160;<em> <br/></em>
153768		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. However, it is known to be a pest species within <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Texas</st1:place></st1:state>, as the mounds created by its burrows can cause damage to farm machinery. They are also known to cause injuries to livestock, as the burrows weaken the ground causing it to give-way (Hobbs and Whiteman 1991). In some areas this species is being 'controlled' by farmers to prevent it inhabiting farmland (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153769		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>      <p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
153769		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae deficiens</span> is found in the Coastal plain of Georgia, between the Ocmulgee-Altamah and Satilla rivers, intergrading with the nominate subspecies in the extreme upper and lower Satilla. One locality of this species is situated immediately North of the Altamaha River in Montgomery County (Fetzner 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae pubischelae</span> is found from the Satilla River in Georgia, South to Alachua and Flagler Counties, Florida, intergrading with <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae deficiens</span> in the extreme upper and lower Satilla and in the upper Suwannee basins (Hobbs 1942).<br/><br/>    <p>This species has a distribution of approximately 15600 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
153769		habitat	eng	Both<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus pubischelae pubischelae</span> and&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae deficiens </span>are found in lentic and sluggish lotic situations, and are secondary burrowers (Hobbs 1942).
153769		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>
153769		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae pubischelae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus publischelae deficiens </span>are impacted by any major threat processes.
153770		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
153770		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Indiana and Ohio, and northern Kentucky, USA (Hobbs 1989) in the middle and lower Ohio River drainages (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).
153770		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing crayfish that burrows in springs and rarely ventures into larger water bodies (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). This species has also been found in ditches, roadside ditches, temporary pools and small streams (Norrocky 1989).
153770		population	eng	A population increase can be inferred from the recent range expansion <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species has experienced (Thoma and Jererinac 2000).
153770		threats	eng	There is unlikely to be any major threats impacting this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009).
153771		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range, habitat destruction, and natural or anthropogenic factors affecting this species continued existence (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, Nature  Serve 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the extent to which it is impacted uipon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>  <p></p>
153771		distribution	eng	This species is found in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, and Forest, Hancock, Harrison, Jackson, and Pearl River  counties in southern Mississippi eastward to Baldwin County, Alabama (Fetzner 2008).&#160;Theses species look very similar and there is a possibility of misidentification (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010).&#160;species has a distribution of approximately 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153771		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent ditches and is a primary burrower (<span class="copy">Schuster and Taylor 2004)
153771		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153771		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). Also, the more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. The second greatest threat is pollution (including air, water and soil pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary waters). Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of the U.S. and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes far removed from permanent waterbodies, they are often prevented from expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the effects of global warming. In addition, competition from introduced crayfish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</span>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007).
153772		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'currently stable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).
153772		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the northern draining river systems in upper White River from Madison and Washington counties, Arkansas, to Barry County, Missouri, USA (Pflieger 1996). In Arkansas it extends down the Arkansas River drainage in streams that drain to the south into Washington County.&#160; It is also found in the Elk River drainage in Arkansas and Missouri (B. DiStefano pers. comm. 2010).&#160; This species was found to be absent from two of its historical sites in 2006 (Westhoff <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;11,700 km² .
153772		habitat	eng	This species&#160;inhabits fast flowing, shallow streams with substrates of gravel or cobble (Pflieger 1996, Westhoff <em>et al.</em> 2006).
153772		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is common at sites with suitable habitat in first to third order streams.
153772		threats	eng	This species&#160;has become fragmented in recent years due to the development of reservoirs (Westhoff <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is also the potential impact of invasive species from bait release in this popular fishing area<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In the White River portion of its range in Missouri, lead and gravel mining and urbanization continue to threaten species that inhabit this river system (Westhoff <em>et al.&#160;</em>2006)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>&#160; However, in the Arkansas part of its range, which is the majority of this species range, there is much less development, and therefore the threats referred to in Missouri are considered localized&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153773		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>
153773		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seven cave localities in Hernando and Marion counties, to Alachua, Citrus and Suwannee counties, Florida (Franz and Lee 1982). Franz and Lee (1982) suggest that this is the most widespread Florida cave crayfish. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 11,500 km².
153773		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean caves in the shallow portions of pools (Franz and Lee 1982). Furthermore, this species is usually found clinging to the sides of pools (Franz and Lee 1982).
153773		population	eng	In 1942, Hobbs recorded 42 individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>at the type locality, but in a study by Doonan (2001), only two were recorded. Two individuals were recorded at a second cave also studied by Doonan (2001).
153773		threats	eng	Karst regions within West-Central  Florida are impacted upon by a number of threats, including urban development, quarrying and waste water treatment plants (Tihansky and Knochenmus 2001), though it is not known to what extent these are impacting this species.
153774		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of species habitat or range&#160; (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p><p></p><p><br/></p>
153774		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Blood River drainage, an eastern flowing tributary of the Tennessee River on the border of <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor and Sabaj 1998). In Tennessee it occurs in the Coastal Plain province in the Blood River system in Henry County (Williams and Bivens 2001). The Blood River is a relatively small tributary of the Tennessee River, with its headwaters originating in Henry County, Tennessee. Furthermore, within Kentucky, the Blood River drainage and the range of this species are contained entirely within the boundaries of Calloway County (Taylor and Schuster 2004).   This species has estimated extent of occurrence of 1,200 km².
153774		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small to medium-sized streams with sand and gravel substrates. Furthermore, this species is frequently found in woody debris or vegetation along stream banks (Taylor and Sabaj 1998).
153774		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is common in appropriate habitat with high accumulations of woody debris (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153774		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is potentially threatened by the introduction of invasive crayfish species which are used as bait for fishing in the area. There is heavy recreational fishing pressure in the area and the nearby Kentucky Lake is a popular destination for fishing. Furthermore, there is a lot of channelization in Kentucky and if the decision was taken to re-channelize this drainage, there could be negative impacts on the species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153775		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153775		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the drainage systems of the Arkansas, Ouachita, and Red rivers in Louisiana and Arkansas (Penn 1953).   This species has a distribution of approximately 81000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153775		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in temporary lakes, ponds and rivers, and is a secondary burrower (Penn 1953).
153775		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153775		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.
153776		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).
153776		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found in the Cumberland River system from Jellico Creek, Scott County, Tennessee, downstream to and including Roaring River in Jackson County, Tennessee, Jackie Branch and Hatchell Branch streams and the Green River system in Adair and Metcalf counties, Kentucky, USA. This species has also been introduced into Caney Fork River system in DeKalb (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Hobbs and Bouchard 1973). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as approximately 34,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
153776		habitat	eng	<em></em> This species is found among debris and under rocks in waterways ranging from streams of about a metre in width to large rivers (Fetzner 2008). Larger examples of this species are found more commonly in the middle part of the stream. This species is often found together with crayfish species from the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes</span> (Hobbs and Bouchard 1973).
153776		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153776		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. <em></em>This species has been given a tolerance value of 4.54 by the Kentucky Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet (1 being the least tolerant, 10 the most tolerant). The tolerance value is calculated by assessing the individual tolerance of a species to human threats such as water pollution. (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
153777		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species,<em> </em>although the source of the River Camécuaro falls within the Camécuaro  Natural Park. Monitoring of population trends is needed.
153777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mexican Central-Occidental Plateau and is found only in certain parts of the Duero and Camécuaro rivers (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; The Duero River is 10 km long, whist the river Camécuaro is just 2 km long (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; The two rivers meet at Las Adjuntas (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Furthermore, this species is known to occur in Lake Chapala, though samples were collected 40 to 50 years. This species is believed to have naturally disappeared from some locations, though these local extinctions may in fact be unnatural (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 2,300 km².
153777		habitat	eng	This species is known only from the Duero and Camécuaro rivers (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The Duero River is slow-flowing during the dry season and fast-flowing during the rainy season (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The river Camécuaro is slow-flowing and originates from a spring in the Camécuaro Natural  Park (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; At Las Adjuntas, where the two rivers meet, the dominant aquatic vegetation is common hornwort and water-hyacinth and the main predators are Rainbow Trout and Black Bass (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The water depth is 1.5-1.8 m, with a mean temperature of 17.7-21.0 °C, mean dissolved oxygen content of 7.3-7.5 mgl<sup>-1</sup>, and alkalinity of 138.8 and 145.5mgl<sup>-1</sup> CaCO3 in the cold and warm seasons respectively (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Mean turbidity is 40-20 cm visibility in the River Duero, and 100% transparency in the River Camécuaro (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).
153777		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant, however there are believed to have been some local extinctions (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009) .
153777		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over-exploitation, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of exotic species (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). These processes have already resulted in reduction in abundance of this species, and the extinction of some populations (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Much of the natural habitat of this species has been altered by chemical pollution or by human activities such as canalization, clearing, dredging and embanking of rivers, construction of reservoirs, and the regulation of water levels and stream flows (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Furthermore, this species is also threatened by the introduction of exotic crayfish such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> species from Australia, which compete for food resources and refuges, and also alter the total production of the native ecosystems (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).<br/><br/>The Duero River basin is highly disturbed, being impacted by fertilizers and pesticides used for agriculture. This species is also harvested in large numbers for human consumption   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>
153778		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This speciess has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
153778		distribution	eng	This species is almost endemic to the Cumberland Plateau, and is found in the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Kentucky River drainages in Kentucky and eastern Tennessee (Hobbs 1989).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 39,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153778		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found amongst rock litter and in burrows in streams of low alkalinity and limited vegetation (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1968).</p>
153778		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153778		threats	eng	The <st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee river</st1:place> system, where this species is found, has been impacted upon by a number of human activities, including toxic spills, agriculture, dam building and the introduction of non-native species (Neves and Angermeier 2006). However it is not known if and how these threats might be impacting this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153779		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as endangered (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and NatureServe has given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), critically imperilled, due to the restricted distribution of this species. No significant conservation accomplishments had been achieved for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species by 2005 (Price 2005). Further research is required to give an accurate estimation of the EOO for this species and which threats are impacting this area. As there is planned construction in this county a conservation plan to protect the habitat of this species is required.
153779		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is confined to a very limited portion of the Saluda drainage in Saluda County, South Carolina, USA. Extensive searches have failed to find any more occurrences (Fitzpatrick and Eversole 1997). This represents an extent of occurrence (EOO) of&#160; less than 1,100 km<sup>2</sup>. The type locality of this species has been noted as run-off drainages.
153779		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower which inhabits run-off drainage and creates burrows around tree roots under the water table (Fitzpartick and Eversole 1997). The type locality for this species is wet sandy soils with a relatively high water table in a forest with an overstory of pine, red maple, willow oak and American Elm (Price 2005).<br/><br/>  It is thought this is a long-lived slow growing species similar to <em>D. crockeri.&#160; </em>If that is the case, it would reach maturity at 4-6 years of age (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
153779		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a very rare endemic to South Carolina (Price 2005). This species is not known from many localities or collections.   This species is known from only 2 - 3 localities and follow up surveys did not expand the range. The most recent survey’s third site was close to the type locality, and may not be a real expansion of the species' range (Welch 2008, A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>Many attempts have been made to collect this species with only limited or no luck. In the autumn of 2005, A. Eversole twice visited near the type locality but was unsuccessful in finding a specimen. In 2007 Shane Welch made 4 attempts to collect the species near the type locality and also found nothing. Shane Welch (2008), using a GIS-based habitat model to identify survey areas with high probabilities of occurrence for species of<em> Distocambarus</em> in Lexington, Laurens, Fairfield, and Chester counties, South Carolina did not find any <em>D. hunteri</em> populations (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153779		threats	eng	There are no known current threats to this species. There is, however, intended urban and commercial construction in the county of Saluda which would seriously impact this species (Bristol <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). There are already urban areas close to the rivers in Saluda County.<br/>    <p>A building was structured near the type locality but the effects of this on the type locality population have not been determined (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). Activities that influence soil conditions are expected to impact <em>D. hunteri.&#160; </em>If similar to<em> D. crockeri </em>then<em> </em>it would be expected that increased forestation (i.e. loss of open prairie - type habitats) and ground water contaminants (e.g. pesticides, nutrients, and industrial pollutants) would also impact <em>D. hunteri</em><span lang="EN-GB"> (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153780		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). The species has at least one population which is located in a wildlife refuge and is likely to be protected even if indirectly (Biernbaum 1989). Further research is required to assess the degree of threat impacting upon populations of this species which do not occur within the wildlife refuge, and to determine the population status of this species.
153780		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the coastal plain from the Pee Dee River system in South Carolina and southern North Carolina, South towards the Santee River basin in South Carolina (Hobbs 1989). This species has a distribution of between 20000 to 200000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153780		habitat	eng	This species is a generalist primary burrower which can be found in ditches, impoundments, lakes and swamps. In other areas this species has been reported from other lentic and lotic sites (Biernbaum 1989).
153780		population	eng	This species is commonly encountered and usually abundant when present (Biernbaum 1989).
153780		threats	eng	No species specific threats have been reported for this species, and as at least part of its range occurs within&#160; a wildlife refuge.&#160; Furthermore, this species is unlikely to be affected by the creation of dams as it flourishes near one at present (Biernbaum 1989).
153781		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the Americna Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).<br/>This species continues to increase its distribution, particularly in the Canadian Shield area, suggesting that unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, this species can spread into other regions despite possible environmental constraints (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>In some of the watersheds surveyed in Ontario, this crayfish was the only species present, suggesting that it may have eliminated native crayfish species (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005). This may be the result of direct competition but it is also believed that hybridization between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes propinquus </span>can occur (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Although it does not appear to be as invasive and prolific as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, it is still important to monitor the spread and impact of this species in Ontario (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This is particularly crucial in the Canadian Shield where <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> appears to have had little impact (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>Further research is required to determine the impact that <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> has had on this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>abundance and whether it is impacted by water pollution.<em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em>
153781		distribution	eng	This species is occurs in New York, Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, West Virginia, northern Virginia, and western Maryland, USA (Hobbs 1989, Fetzner 2008). In addition, this species has been introduced to Ontario, Canada, and Maine, Vermont, Tennessee and Massachusetts, USA (Jezerinac 1986).<br/><br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 187,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/><br/>.
153781		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in pools and streams with rocky substrates (Fetzner 2008, Daniels 1998). It is usually found underneath rocks, gravel and boulders and is not normally found in fast flowing portions of streams (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
153781		population	eng	This species is regarded as common and abundant in much of its range (Jezerinac 1986).
153781		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been displaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>in areas where this invasive crayfish has encroached, as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> is less vulnerable to predation than this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Kulmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> has been replaced entirely by <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> in the Sunfish Creek watershed, Ohio (Jezerinac 1986,   S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). This is known to have occurred within a 30 year period   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). It is also impacted across large areas of its range by acid mine runoff from strip mining, which is causing localized population decline   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <br/>There are still large portions of the range which have not been invaded, and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. obscurus</span> has strong holds in small, forested headwater streams (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Kulmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
153782		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
153782		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Wateree, Congaree, Edisto and Savanna drainages in South Carolina and in the Ogeechee and Ocmulgee drainages in Georgia (Hobbs 1962).&#160; It is found in upper coastal plain streams from Richland and Calhoun Counties. in the Wateree River system to Aiken and Barnwell Counties. bordering the Savanna River in South Carolina into Georgia (Eversole and Jones 2004). This species has a distribution of approximately 5000 to 20000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153782		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit small permanent creeks and streams (Hobbs 1989). Additionally, it has been observed that when surveyed across a major flood plain&#160;<em>P. chacei</em>&#160;were found in the more permanent water areas as opposed to depressions and sites that dry once annual flooding conditions receded (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
153782		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153782		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species, however, this species is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to agriculture and urban development (M.   López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153783		conservation	eng	This species has been given a heritage rank of G4G5 NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153783		distribution	eng	This species is currently found from the Patapsco Basin in Maryland, to Saluda Basin in South Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1989).&#160; Members of this species' complex were recently identified from the Catawba River and tributaries in North Carolina and South Carolina (Alderman 2005).&#160; Also, collections from several habitats were made from Valley Creek in southeastern Pennsylvania and are attributable to this complex, with some speculation that they may warrant a new state endemic species (Lieb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated as 245,304 km².
153783		habitat	eng	It inhabits permanent freshwater streams, pools and riffle, shallow lateral areas and main-channel areas (Hobbs 1989).
153783		population	eng	This species is common in shallow littoral areas (Lieb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
153783		threats	eng	A possible threat to this species is the introduction of exotic species into the Catawba River Basin   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The degree of this threat is currently unknown.
153784		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153784		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is found in the Tennessee and Black Warrior River systems in northern Alabama and western Tennessee (Fetzner 2008).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 33,500 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153784		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent streams in areas where there are rocky bottoms in riffle areas and along margins of streams (Fetzner 2008).
153784		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species although it&#160;is regarded as&#160;common to abundant in areas of suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153784		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. There may be localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution, but nothing that is thought to be significant to its global range&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153785		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by AFS (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the threats impacting upon it.
153785		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in southern Louisiana in the Mississippi River drainage and East of the Brazos River in Harrison, Liberty and Jefferson Counties, southeastern Texas (Penn and Hobbs 1958).
153785		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in pools and roadside ditches (Penn and Hobbs 1952) as well as in muddy and silty permanent or near permanent waters (Walls 2009).
153785		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Though, Penn (1958) recorded 39 specimens from Harrison , Liberty and Jefferson Counties.
153785		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
153786		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by thre American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whther it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153786		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located mostly on coastal plain in southeastern Alabama, from Lee and Macon Counties South between the Alabama and Chattahoochee rivers. Its range has recently extended it range into Stewart and Chattahoochee Counties, Georgia (Stanton 2003), which is thought to be a new record, rather than a genuine expansion of its existing range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153786		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is present in permanent, slow flowing streams with sandy substrates (Hobbs 1952). It is also found in backwaters and woodland seeps (Stanton 2003).
153786		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; </span>This species is known to be uncommon<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>though this could be an artifact of lack of collection effort across much of its range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153786		threats	eng	This species may be impacted on a local level, but is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale.
153787		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em>&#160; </em>Further research is needed to confirm the range of this recently described species, and to determine whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153787		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three ponds at Nacimiento de Dejigui, 4 km East of Huayacocotla, in the Municipo   de Huayacocotla, Veracruz, Mexico (López-Mejia <em><em>et al. </em></em>2004).<em><em> &#160;</em></em>The ponds are at an altitude of 1675 m and the largest has a surface area of 8 m<sup>2</sup> (López-Mejia<em><em> <em>et al. </em></em></em>2004).<em><em><em> </em></em></em>The area in which this species is found borders a deep ravine, which is difficult to access. However, even if it was found from other streams and ponds it is thought to have a very restricted range   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em></em></em></em>
153787		habitat	eng	This species is known from three small ponds next to a spring (López-Mejia et al. 2004).&#160; The largest of these has a surface area of 8 m<sup>2</sup> and the deepest, a depth of 0.4 m (López-Mejia et al. 2004).&#160; The temperature of these ponds was recorded as 18.9-20.4 °C (López-Mejia et al. 2004). The area in which this species is found is in good condition   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153787		population	eng	There is no population information available fro this species, though it has been collected several times from known locations   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em></em></em><em></em>
153787		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Furthermore, the only human development within its range consists of a small village   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153788		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine whether this species is still present within its known range.
153788		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is known only from its type locality at Los Estajos, 6 km northeast of Zihuateutla, in the state of Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1974).
153788		habitat	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, which is a stream habitat (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), within a mountainous region, which is humid   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153788		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen. The type locality was recently re-visited and no specimens were found, though it is thought to still be present   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153788		threats	eng	<p>The habitat where this species is known to occur is within a town and drained for drinking water (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153789		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, habitat requirements, its current distribution and any major threats that are impacting upon it.
153789		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Canoochee, Ogeechee, Newport, and Savannah river basins in southeastern Georgia (Hobbs 1989).
153789		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown lentic habitat (Hobbs 1989).
153789		population	eng	There is insufficient population data&#160;available&#160;for this species.
153789		threats	eng	The threats to this&#160;species&#160;are unknown.
153790		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the popualtion trends and distribution of this species.
153790		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is only known from its type locality at Cueva de Los Camarones in the Rio Tecolutla Basin, 3 km northwest of Xochitlan in the state of Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1989). Specimens have been collected from Sumidero de Atepolihuit de Nauzontla, 32 km north of Cuetzalan, and Cueva de Guayateno no. 2 near Cuetzalan, both in Puebla (Hobbs 1982), but it is unclear whether these have been confirmed as this species, and they may in fact be <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus cuetzalanae</span>   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em><em><em></em></em></em>
153790		habitat	eng	This species is known from subterranean pools (Hobbs 1975, 1989), which are small though is not thought to be a troglobytic species  (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153790		population	eng	This species is rare and difficult to collect   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>
153790		threats	eng	The area in which this species is known is impacted by urbanization and urban pollution, though it is not known if these threats are impacting upon this species. In addition, this species has a restricted range and is, therefore, susceptible to changes in habitat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). More recently it has emerged that the type locality of this species is now completely surrounded by urban areas (M .López-Mejía pers. comm. 2010).
153791		conservation	eng	This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, and was given a heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153791		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in the Clinch and Powell River watersheds in northeastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994) and is less common in parts of the lower Holston River basin (Williams and Bivens 2001). It was first found in Caney Valley Creek in Claiborne County, Tennesse, but has since been found elsewhere within northeastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994). In Tennessee it occurs in the Ridge and Valley Provinces in caves draining into the Tennessee River from Walden Gorge west to Franklin County (Williams and Bivens 2001).&#160; </p>
153791		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in most lotic habitats in the Clinch and Powell watersheds (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994), although this species is predominantly found in moderate to swift flowing waters (Williams and Bivens 2001). The type locality of this species (i.e. Caney Valley Creek) was a rapid flowing stream with slightly turbid water and a sandy substrate devoid of vegetation. Throughout its range, this species is most commonly found amongst rapids. It has also been found in subterranean streams (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994) and parts of streams where sediment and soft mud are absent.<br/></p>
153791		population	eng	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species. <br/></p>
153791		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species. It is possible that this species is undergoing localized declines within its range as a result of habitat degradation and modification, and water contamination from mining   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). However, as this species is found in most lotic habitats in two watersheds, it is likely that these threats will be acting on a localized scale only, and therefore they do not pose a major threat to the global population.
153792		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish the range and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153792		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Rincón de la Doncella Park Lake, Ciudad Mendoza, Municipio de Camerino Z. Mendoza, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is found at an altitude of 1,400 m (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 10 km².
153792		habitat	eng	This species is found in a permanent, spring-fed lake (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1999). Furthermore, this species has a slow rate of reproduction and therefore slow population growth rate (M.   López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153792		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however this species has been collected in the hundreds and it has been collected many times over the last 60 years   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153792		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting this species. There is some pollution in the lake, though it is unknown to what extent this is impacting this species   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em><br/></em>
153793		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153793		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known to occur within the tributaries of the Papaloapan River, including Rio Atoyac and Rio Jamapa (Hobbs 1987). It is also known to occur at Acatlan, Cozolapa and Buenos Aires near Cerro Mojarra, boundaries of Miguel and Aleman Dam in Oaxaca State, as well as Tezonapa in Veracruz State. This species has a distribution of approximately 500 km<sup>2 </sup>  (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153793		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in streams and ponds at a depth of between 20 - 50 cm, within clear water and under rocks   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em></em>Furthermore, this species has been found at altitudes ranging from 800-1600 m (Hobbs 1987).
153793		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153793		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species, though there are moderate levels of agricutluture within its range   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153794		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage Global rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research on the abundance and range of this species is needed   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153794		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found in the Coosa River basin from Polk and Bradley counties, Tennessee; Murray, Pickens, and Paulding counties, Georgia; Bibb, Calhoun, Cherokee, Chilton, Clay, Coosa, Shelby, and Talladega counties, Alabama, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1981). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to exceed 32,300 km².
153794		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in shady streams with sandy, rock-littered bottoms and clear, with swiftly moving water (Hobbs 1981). This species uses rocks as cover&#160; in both large rivers and shallow brooks (Hobbs 1981, Schuster and Taylor 2004).
153794		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is described as being abundant in several different localities (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
153794		threats	eng	<p>Evidence suggests that this species has a low tolerance to changes in dissolved oxygen concentration, with a lower tolerance level of 3.6 mg/l (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This means that this species is sensitive to oxygen level changes as a result of pollution. This is thought to have reduced the range of this species in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Conasauga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> where there is a high level of industrial pollution (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1981). However, this is a localised threat and unlikely to significantly impact the global population of this species.<br/></p>
153795		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the range and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153795		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur at Tuexla Gutierrez, Chiapas   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153795		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known from rivers, where the landscape is a mix of mountains, waterfalls and ravines   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
153795		population	eng	This species is easy to find, but is not described as abundant. Furthermore, there have been a number of collections of this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153795		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. Furthermore, the area in which this species is known to occur is fairly remote and so unimpacted by urbanization   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153796		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the Amercian Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007. NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the population stauts of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any threats.
153796		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Escambia River drainage in Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties, Florida, to the Pearl River drainage in Pearl River County, Mississippi, and St. Tammany and Washington parishes, Louisiana (Penn 1959).
153796		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent large and small streams, sloughs, sand bottomed creeks with clear water&#160; (Hobbs 1942).&#160; It is also known to occur in well oxygenated rivers and streams including overflow areas (Walls 2009).
153796		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> A recent survey found it to be wide spread and abundant, from the Alabama part of its range in the Tensew drainage, (C. Taylor pers. comm.2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153796		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Local impacts may include urban development, including sedimentation and pollution   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153797		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, as well as a more precise distribution, habitat preferences, and any major threats efftecting it.
153797		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mississippi, and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been located in the Pascagoula and Tombigbee river basins, between the 31st and 34th parallels (Hobbs and Walton 1957). This species has a distribution of approximately 20000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153797		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a secondary burrower and is found in ditches (Hobbs and Walton 1957). Furthermore, it is known to burrow up to a depth of 5 ft (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153797		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a burrowing species, which makes it difficult to collect (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153797		threats	eng	This species is impacted by urbanization and agriculture, which occur within its range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153798		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p><p></p>
153798		distribution	eng	This species is considered to be widespread in southern Arkansas (Robison and Allen 1995). Collections of this species since its description have greatly expanded its known range (NatureServe 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately13000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153798		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in roadside ditches with a high water table, and clay-gravel substrates (Hobbs 1975).
153798		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span>
153798		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.
153799		conservation	eng	All subspecies of this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>have been given a heritage rank&#160;of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor&#160;<em>et al. 2007).&#160;</em><em><br/></em>Further research on this species is&#160;recommended&#160;to clarify taxonomy and morphological differences between this species<em>&#160;</em>and <em>O. hobbsi.</em>
153799		distribution	eng	<p>This species, in its three subspecies is a very wide ranging species, found in the&#160;<st1:city w:st="on">Pearl</st1:city>&#160;and&#160;<st1:city w:st="on">Pascagoula</st1:city>&#160;Rivers and Lake Pontchartrain in&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state>&#160;and&#160;<st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Louisiana (Hobbs 1974, Fetzner 2008),&#160;the&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state>&#160;and&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Arkansas</st1:state>&#160;Rivers in&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Texas</st1:state>,&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Oklahoma</st1:state>,&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>,&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Arkansas</st1:state>&#160;and&#160;<st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Louisiana</st1:place></st1:state>&#160;(Metcalf and Distler 1963, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008) and&#160;the Lower Mississippi Valley in western Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Mississippi and in eastern Missouri and Arkansas (Hobbs 1974, Burr and Hobbs 1984, Fetzner 2008).</st1:place></st1:state></p><p><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:state></p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 450,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;</p>
153799		habitat	eng	This species inhabits flowing waters in ditches and steams (Pflieger 1996).
153799		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, but it is believed to be abundant in large parts of its range&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153799		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153800		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe<em></em> and vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). In addition, most localities mentioned within its distribution are within the Ozark National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153800		distribution	eng	This species is known from springs in the Boston Mountains, in at least 7 counties across northern Arkansas, USA (Robison and Allen 1995, Robison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has been identified in 8 watersheds (Upper White River, Buffalo River, Mulberry River, Upper Mulberry River, Spadra Creek, Little Piney Creek, Big Piney Creek, Middle Fork Illinois Bayou) and it is speculated that the species is present in 10 more watersheds in the Ozark National Forest (Robison and Leeds 1996). The distribution of this species is estimated to exceed 13,100 km².
153800		habitat	eng	This species burrows near spring and run-off areas, and sometimes on adjacent hillsides, and is believed to be restricted to seeps, springs, and habitats immediately adjacent to these areas (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153800		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153800		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although it occurs in the Ozark region which is regarded as 'good' in terms of habitat quality   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153801		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em>.&#160;</em>
153801		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is found in the tributaries of the Rio Tecolutla, Puebla and Rio Nautla, Veracruz, Mexico (Hobbs 1974). Furthermore, it is also known from Tenango de las flores, Puebla (  (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153801		habitat	eng	This species is known from streams (Hobbs 1974). It has an average total length of 57 mm   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>
153801		population	eng	Populations of this species are large, and it is easy to collect   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>
153801		threats	eng	There is moderate human presence within the range of this species, with a town 5 - 6 km away from known sites. There is a small risk of water contamination from neighbouring towns, but no immediate threat.
153802		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however Lake Pátzcuaro is a RAMSAR site (Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Further research is needed to look at population trends and how it has been impacted by the range of threats.
153802		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from its type locality in Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico (Hobbs 1974).&#160; This lake has a surface area of 130 km<sup>2</sup> (Torres 1993) and is at an altitude of 2,035 m above sea level (Bradbury 2000). Furthermore, this species is also known to occur in springs in Chapultepec, Opopeo and Tzurumutaro, Mexico   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Although the basin is 982km<sup>2</sup>&#160;this species is probably&#160;restricted&#160;to a limited area around the lake (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm 2010). It has been estimated that this species occurs in an area of approximately 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153802		habitat	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from its type locality in Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico (Hobbs 1974).&#160; This lake has a surface area of 130 km<sup>2</sup> (Torres 1993) and is at an altitude of 2,035 m above sea level (Bradbury 2000). It is a warm polymictic lake, with a mean depth of 4.9 m and a maximum depth of &#160;12 m (Torres 1993). Furthermore, this species is also known to occur in springs in Chapultepec, Opopeo and Tzurumutaro, Mexico (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). These are usually to be isolated populations (Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<em></em>
153802		population	eng	This species is thought to be abundant; in the1950s 400 individuals were collected during survey work. Furthermore, survey work conducted surrounding Janitzio Island within Lake Patzcuaro describes this species as abundant   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153802		threats	eng	Lake Patzcuaro is under threat from increasing siltation rates and inputs of raw sewage (Torres 1993). The lake basin is highly developed, with cattle ranching, water abstraction and deforestation occurring. Furthermore, this species is occasionally taken as by-catch and consumed (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).&#160;However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on this species&#160;(M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009)&#160;.
153803		conservation	eng	<p><em></em>This species was assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al.&#160;2007) and was given a heritage rank if G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This suggests that this species is not known to be undergoing any significant population declines and is not being impacted by any major threat process. &#160;However, further research is needed to ensure no unknown threats are causing significant declines to the global population.</p>
153803		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was first found in a boggy area along a tributary of Turnbull Creek. This species is now known to inhabit the Nashville Basin and Highland Rim provinces in Stones river, Yellow Creek and <st1:placename w:st="on">Harpeth</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River and</st1:placetype> in the <st1:city w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:city> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Duck</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basins</st1:placetype> in middle <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970). In addition this species is found in the Elk River headwaters (Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). The Extent of Occurrence of this species has been estimated as exceeding 18,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153803		habitat	eng	<em></em> This species is a burrowing crayfish found in streams and rivers. In some areas of its range, the water table is almost the same level as the bank and the banks are covered in mosses and liverworts (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970).
153803		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
153803		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting this species. It is known however, that throughout the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> the major impacts are hydrological alterations, channelization, land use change, pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural runoff, excessive sedimentation and rapid urban expansion. Nearly 25% of the region is agricultural land, and this is having an impact on the freshwater systems (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2002). &#160;However, it is not known what effect these threats may be having on this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span><em></em> This species is also found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Duck</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype>, so any threats it may face in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> will be localized, rather than persistent throughout the entire species range.</p>
153804		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153804		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from the tributaries of the Río Pantepec in the vicinity of Tenango de Doria, Hidalgo, Mexico (Hobbs 1974). It is also known from three localities in San Cornelio, San Juan, Acaxochitlan, Hidalgo   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153804		habitat	eng	This species is known from streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), and is an adaptable species that is likely to re-build numbers following flooding   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153804		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153804		threats	eng	This species has been impacted by flash flooding; since this occurred in 2000 only one specimen has been collected, though generally the habitat conditions within the range of this species are thought to be good   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153805		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given a heritage Global rank of G3 by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.
153805		distribution	eng	This species is found in headwater tributaries of the Conasauga (Hobbs and Hobbs 1962), Coosawattee, and Etowah rivers in Dawson, Fannin, Gilmer, Murray, Lumpkin, and Pickens counties, Georgia, and in the Hiwassee Basin in Bledsoe and Polk counties, Tennessee, USA (Fetzner 2008). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to exceed 10,300 km<sup>2</sup>.
153805		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found on the stream bed under large stones. It is found in close association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus asperimanus</span> (Hobbs and Hobbs 1962). It occurs at elevations above 400 m, in clear, cool water, with many rocks under which the animals might take cover.&#160; It has been found beneath rocks and in rather complex burrows in seepage areas, in small cascading mountain brooks, and in swiftly to moderately flowing streams ranging in width from less than one metre to approximately eight metres, at a depth range of 3 cm to some 60 cm deep.&#160; In the larger streams it occurs with other crayfishes, but in seepage areas it is the only species (Hobbs 1981).
153805		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153805		threats	eng	Southern populations of this species are threatened by development in the Atlanta metropolitan area. In addition, there is reported range fragmentation by nearby reservoir construction (i.e. Carters Lake). The Chattanooga metropolitan area also borders the range of this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). It is unclear how these threats have affected the global population.
153806		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (critically imperilled) by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This has been given due to the very restricted distribution of this species and the potential of rapid extinction due to introduction of invasive species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population status, and habitat status of this species is needed.
153806		distribution	eng	&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only in the Linville River of North Carolina and is presently known to exist at about 8 - 16 km above the falls of the Linville River (Thoma 2005). Thus, this species has an extremely small extent of occurrence of 128 km². Area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be less than 16 km².
153806		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent streams, under rocks in riffle areas (Thoma 2005).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
153806		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species
153806		threats	eng	This species is known from a single locality on Linville River, which has numerous impoundments on its mainstem that create the possibility of bait bucket introductions of non-native crayfish species. Because of the placid nature of this species, it is believed that the introduction of any mainstream dwelling species could result in extinction of the species (Thoma 2005). There are no major cities or industries located close to the river however there are a few small towns to the north which could be polluting the river with urban waste   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153807		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus chaenodactylus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G5T3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).</em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/><em><em></em><em><em><em><em>Orconectes neglectus neglectus</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em> has been given the heritage rank of G5T5 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em> and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
153807		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus </span>is a widespread, invasive crayfish (Flinders and Magoulick 2005, Magoulick and DiStephano 2007). This species has been recently introduced into the Spring River drainage, Missouri; the Rogue River basin, Oregon and streams in southeastern New York (Flinders and Magoulick 2005, Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008, Daniels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in the White River in Arkansas as far south as Sylamore Creek in Stone County, Missouri, and the Arkansas River in Missouri, Oklahoma and Arkansas  (Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008). In addition, isolated populations of this species are found in tributaries of the Kansas River in Colorado, Nebraska, and in east central Kansas (Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008).<br/>    <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 24,436 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153807		habitat	eng	This species is a<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>generalist, occurring in clear, rocky streams of varying sizes (Pflieger 1996).
153807		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is the most abundant crayfish in its range with the most general habitat requirements (Pflieger 1996).
153807		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153808		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153808		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in only a few localities in the Red and Ouachita watersheds in Caldwell, Grant and Lincoln parishes, Louisiana, and Columbia and Union counties, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1989). This species has a distribution of approximately 9,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153808		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower, forming moderately complex burrows, approximately two feet deep, in roadside ditches. The substrate of the ditches consists of sandy clay (Hobbs and Robison 1989).
153808		population	eng	There is no population information avaliable for this species.
153808		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species but this is as a result of no investigation into possible threats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).
153809		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as threatened (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It has also been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), vulnerable to extirpation or extinction, due to the existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of a species' habitat or range and the restricted range in which it already exists.<br/>Further research is required to record the abundance of this species and the threats impacting upon it. Also research is required to clarify the habitat requirements and to state whether this is a specialist species only capable of living in pristine prairie habitat or whether it is a tolerant generalist which lives in ditches.
153809		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from the Savannah and Saluda river basins in Abbeville, Edgefield, Greenwood, McCormick, and Saluda Counties, corresponding to a geographically limited portion of the piedmont section of South Carolina and Georgia, USA (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153809		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower. This species exhibits a high degree of specialization and is largely limited to open canopied terrestrial habitats maintained along roadsides, utility rights-of-way, and agricultural field edges within a portion of Piedmont, South Carolina. As a primary burrower this species is rarely found in surface water (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). &#160;This species has been described as a prairie (temperate grassland) specialist although this habitat has mostly been lost (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>The soils in which this species lives undergo dramatic shifts in condition from extremely wet in the dormant vegetative season to extremely dry during the growing season (Welch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). The species current distribution is largely dependent on anthropogenic disturbances (Welch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).<br/>A recent habitat study (Welch and Eversole 2006) in the Sumter National  Forest in South Carolina, indicates the presence of this species is most  strongly associated with a terrestrial habitat.&#160; The species was found  at 48 locations (16 in burrows in intermittend streams and colluvial  valleys and 32 in terrestrial burrow habitats often beneath leaf  litter). Prior to this study, very experienced collectors records  recorded only 6 sites, most likely due to sampling improper habitats (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm.  2009).
153809		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
153809		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is largely dependant on anthropogenic disturbances and is capable of living in both extremely wet and dry conditions (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This would suggest that few major anthropogenic associated threats would impact this species, although this species restricted distribution would cause it to be susceptible to stochastic mortality. Habitat destruction has been quoted as a threat to this specialist species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153810		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
153810		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of its type locality at Zapoapan de Cabaña, 11 km southeast of Catemaco in the Mexican state of <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>.
153810		habitat	eng	This species is known from small, rocky temporary streams, and has been collected from burrows in fields. Furthermore, the climate within its range is humid providing the moisture this species requires. It has a high population doubling time, a high fecundity, and a longevity of&#160; 2 - 3 years   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153810		population	eng	There have been a number of subsequent collections since the collection of the type specimens   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>
153810		threats	eng	The region within which this species is known to occur is impacted by agriculture and pollution, both of which negatively effect the habitat of this species and are thus assumed to impact the population of this species. Though this species has been found in the vicinity of cattle, which occur in low densities, it not thought to pose a significant threat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153811		conservation	eng	Due to the recent description of this species,<span class="copy"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>no conservation measured have been put in place. <span class="copy">This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<span class="copy"><span class="copy"> and Vulnerable, provided by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This classification has been given due to the restricted range occupied by this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>More research is required for this species as little is known about its population size and threats associated with its type locality habitat.<br/><span class="copy"></span></span>
153811		distribution	eng	This species is a North Carolina endemic known from 12 creeks in the Rockfish Creek and Little River subdrainages, and one creek that forms an independent subdrainage of the Cape Fear River basin in and near the Sandhills District, North Carolina, USA (Cooper and Cooper 2003). NCSM records include specimens from Cumberland, Hoke and Moore Counties, North Carolina.     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be just under 7,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153811		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent freshwater rivers and streams. This species inhabits rivers with sandy substrate and detritus covered beds. Individuals were found to be most abundant in areas of the greatest current (Cooper and Cooper 2003). This species is best suited to a pH of 4.9, a temerature of 22<sup>o</sup>C, and dissolved oxygen of 6.9 ppm. The type location was covered with&#160; several large submerged logs, and dense growths of long, slender submerged vegetation in which the crayfish were found in areas of greatest current (Cooper and Cooper 2003).
153811		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species as it is newly described with only the original survey completed, with 25 known occurrences   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153811		threats	eng	Due to the recent description of this species there are no known major current threats.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is, however, likely to be impacted by large scale localized residential development occurring in and around the Cape Fear River   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). There are many small farms adjacent to the creeks in the Cape Fear River Basin which will almost certainly has some nutrient run-off and transportation corridors such as shipping lanes and roads have been created which may have also caused a decline in population size. Furthermore, the main river has been, and is still used for, recreational activities such as sailing which may be impacting this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153812		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to determine whether this species is still located in the cave, while other surveys should be undertaken in other surrounding caves again to record if it has spread elsewhere   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153812		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is restricted to one cave in Limestone County, Alabama, USA (Fetzner 2008). In 2007, Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. conducted a survey of 27 caves in the surrounding area, including<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species' only known location, and none were recorded.&#160; It is only known from a single location with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 1 km² and an inferred area of occupancy of less than 0.4 km² (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153812		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is only known from subterranean pools (Buhay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).&#160; It co-occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus jonesi</span> at White Spring Cave in Alabama (Buhay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).
153812		population	eng	In 1968, only seven individuals of this species were recorded (Buhay 2006). In a survey conducted in 2006, none<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were found (Buhay 2006). The species was only recently described   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153812		threats	eng	It is unknown what threats are impacting this species (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153813		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153813		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Navasota and Trinity river watersheds in Texas, and the Red River basin in southwestern Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma (Reimer 1975).   This species has a distribution of approximately 86,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153813		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower which inhabits permanent rivers, temporary and permanent pools, and ditches (Reimer 1975, Hobbs 1990). It burrows in sandy soil but can inhabit much harsher environments (Hobbs 1990).
153813		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
153813		threats	eng	This species may be locally impacted upon by urbanization, but there are no known major threat processes impacting upon it at a global scale.
153814		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>Part of this species' range occurs within a federally protected area (Long Point National Wildlife Area Canadian Wildlife Service) (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).&#160;However, further research should be implemented to establish the life history of this species.
153814		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is wide ranging in the southern half of North America. It is found in Ontario, Canada (the extreme edge of its northern most range), Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Kentucky; Delaware, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Indiana, Maryland, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana , USA (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2 million km<sup>2</sup>.
153814		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower and is found in coastal wetlands, mudflats, wet meadows and marshes (Hobbs 1989, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is mainly found in clay substrates (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is host to the Ostracod <span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylocythere cryptoteresis</span> (Hobbs and Peters 1993). It can be excavated almost anywhere where the water table is near the surface (Pflieger 1996).<br/>Their burrows usually have mud&#160;chimneys, but they are not as deep as the burrows of <em>Fallicambarus fodiens</em>&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).
153814		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been described as one of the mo<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>t widely distributed and successful crayfish species in North America (Rhoades 1944, Pflieger 1996).
153814		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agricultural and recreational activities which cause wetland habitat degradation and alteration (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).Other threats include<strong> </strong>water fluctuation in reservoirs and lakes, litter from anglers, roadside pollution, gas station runoff, channelization, habitat alteration, erosion due to wave action from boats, lawn mowing, fertilization and pesticides (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).  Given the wide dsitribution of  this species, however, it is unlikely to be impacted by these processes   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)  . <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153815		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala</st1:placename></st1:place> is incorporated within the Lagunas de Zempoala National Park which falls within the Sierra del Chichinautzin Corredor Biologies which covers an area of 4,724 hectares. Monitoring of potential threats to this species habitat is needed.
153815		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala</st1:placename>, <st1:city w:st="on">Morelos</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974). This lake is at an altitude of 2,800 m above sea level and its surface area varies seasonally between 1,234 km² and 1,056 km² (Garcia-Rodriguez and Tavera 2002).
153815		habitat	eng	This species is only known from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala</st1:placename> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), which is a shallow, monomictic lake of volcanic origin (Garcia-Rodriguez and Tavera 2002).&#160; Water temperatures in the lake fluctuate from 3 to 22 °C annually, with a mean temperature of 12 °C (Garcia-Rodriguez and Tavera 2002). This is a littoral species   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153815		population	eng	This species has been collected many times from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala, where it has been described as </st1:placename>abundant (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153815		threats	eng	Illegal deforestation occurs within the surrounding area, however this is not on a large scale. Tourism is present but not on a large scale   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). However, the state of Morelos is affected by pollution, eutrophication and introduced species, with an estimated 64 % of the fish species present having been introduced (Contreras-MacBeath <em>et al.</em> 1998).
153816		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
153816		distribution	eng	This species has a relatively wide distribution across Mexico (Alvarez and Rangel 2007). It is found from Lake Chapala in Jalisco, east towards the crater lakes of Puebla (Alvarez and Rangel 2007).
153816		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, lakes, reservoirs and canal banks, and is associated with the roots of riparian vegetation, up to a depth of 0.5 m. It feeds on a wide variety of organisms, including macrophytes, and is predated upon by vertebrates.&#160; Furthermore, it is a burrowing species and berried females can be found between October and March. Each female will produce between 12?120 eggs. In addition, temperature, pH and oxygen concentrations are not thought to have a significant effect on the abundance of this species, and it has been found at oxygen concentrations of 5 to 7.5 mg L<sup>-1</sup>, at a pH range of 7.6?9 and at temperatures of 10?25 °C, though only rarely above 20 °C (Alvarez and Rangel 2007). It has also been described as a physiologically tolerant species   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em></em></em>
153816		population	eng	In the canals of Xochimilco, near Mexico   City, this species is abundant and is the dominant native invertebrate. It is regularly fished at a subsistence level for human consumption (Alvarez and Rangel 2007), but there is no evidence that this is having a significant adverse effect on the overall population size and status.<br/><br/>A reduction in the abundance of this species has been observed in shallow ponds within which <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span> have been introduced (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004), which is likely to be as a result of carp increasing the turbidity of the water and thereby reducing the amount of light available to submerged macrophytes on which the crayfish are dependent for food and shelter (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004). Although carp introductions may be causing localized declines in some areas, given the wide distribution of this species and its ability to utilize a wide range of habitat types, this is not considered to pose a major threat to the entire population   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153816		threats	eng	This species is regularly fished at a subsistence level for human consumption (Alvarez and Rangel 2007), but there is no evidence that this is having an adverse effect on the overall population size.&#160; The introduction of the Common Carp (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>) for aquaculture, may however pose a threat to this species (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004). A reduction in the abundance of this species has been observed in shallow ponds within which carp have been introduced, which is likely to be as a result of the carp increasing the turbidity of the water and thereby reducing the amount of light available to submerged macrophytes on which the crayfish are dependent for food and shelter (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004). Although carp introductions may be causing localized declines in some areas, given the wide distribution of this species and its ability to utilize a wide range of habitat types, this is not considered to pose a major threat to the entire population<em><em><em><em>.</em><em><em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153817		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), which indicates that this species is apparently secure (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). Further research is needed on the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any threat processes. <br/></p>
153817		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known to occur in the Ocmulgee-Oconee-Altamaha and Satilla watersheds in the coastal plain of Georgia (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This species has a distribution of approximately of 20000 200000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
153817		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a primary burrowing species,&#160; and is known to occur in streams within rolling pine woods and pine flatwoods (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>
153817		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153817		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats on a global scale   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).  </p>
153818		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 or Globally Secure by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), though it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially in its periphery (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153818		distribution	eng	This crayfish is known from the Tennessee, Cahaba, Pascagoula, Perdido, Escambia and Alabama  Basins in Alabama, USA. In addition this species is found in southeastern Tennessee (in the southern half of the Cumberland Plateau, Blue Ridge, and Ridge and Valley Provinces), and northwestern Georgia; the Coosa Basin from its headwaters in Georgia to Chilton County, Alabama, and in headwaters of the Black Warrior River in Blount and Tuscaloosa counties, Alabama; the Chattahoochee Basin from Walton and De Kalb counties, Georgia, to Russel County in Alabama; and in the upper Ocmulgee Basin in Georgia (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is also known from the Hiwassee River basin in North Carolina (Cooper and Braswell 1995).
153818		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from streams and rivers  (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is a primary burrower in wetlands and can be found in many places where the water table is near the surface (Crandall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Furthermore, LeGrand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2006) has found this species in small creeks and pools. <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:state><span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>
153818		population	eng	This species has no specific population data although it is thought to be widespread through its range (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)
153818		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, as well as hydrologically altered and heavily polluted systems (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153819		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine whether this species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place>, and whether it is in fact threatened.<br/></p><p>An assessment of freshwater biodiversity in Latin America and the Caribbean by the World Wildlife Fund and Wetlands International classified <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place> as Regionally Outstanding and Vulnerable, with high priority for conservation at a regional scale (Olsen <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, there is little evidence that any conservation measures have been taken.</p>
153819		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality on the northern shore of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename> in the Mexican state of <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). This lake is at an altitude of 335 m and has a surface area of 72.5 km² (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 2000, Komarkova and Tavera 2003).
153819		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks along the <st1:placetype w:st="on">shore</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Lake</st1:placename> Catemaco (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153819		population	eng	The status of the population is not clear as there have not been many collections of this species (F. Alvarez, M. Lopez-Mejia and C. Pedraza Lara pers. comm. 2010).<em><br/></em>
153819		threats	eng	<p>Over the last few decades, there has been extensive deforestation of the tropical rainforest surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place>, leading to increased sedimentation in the lake (Komarkova and Tavera 2003). This deforestation has taken place mainly to clear land for agriculture, and run-off of fertilizers from farmland has resulted in eutrophication (Komarkova and Tavera 2003). The lake is also under considerable pressure from fishing, with more than 10,000 people, mostly fishermen and their families, living along the shores (Komarkova and Tavera 2003). There is an intense fishing activity in the lake, but it is mainly focused on  fish and snails. Fishermen were observed catching crayfish although they said  this was only ocassional, and they don't search especially for them (C. Pedraza Lara pers. comm. 2010). </p>
153820		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153820		distribution	eng	This species is found in central Ohio in the Scioto and Little Scioto Rivers and in direct tributaries of the Ohio River in south-central Ohio, USA (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).&#160; In West Virginia and Virginia, it is restricted to the Big Sandy, Guyandotte, and New Rivers.&#160; In Kentucky, it is restricted to the Big and Little Sandy River drainages in the far eastern part of the state (Taylor and Schuster 2004).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 53,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153820		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits clean water in riffle areas of small to large streams under flat boulder sized rocks (Thoma and Jereinac 2000).
153820		population	eng	&#160;There is insufficient population data available for this species, although   3.2 g m<sup>-2</sup> of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species were produced in New River,West Virginia, in 1992 (Roell and Orth 1992).
153820		threats	eng	The harvesting of this species for bait only represents a very localized threat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153821		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153821		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found from southern Illinois, eastern Arkansas, and northeastern Louisiana East towards the northward flowing segment of the Tennessee River in Kentucky and Tennessee, and through Mississippi to Tuscaloosa County, Alabama (NatureServe 2009). This species also exists in Missouri (Pflieger 1996).
153821		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> permanent sluggish streams and creeks, lentic situations such as pools and seasonally flooded swamps and sloughs (NatureServe 2009).&#160; It is also found in seasonally flooded roadside ditches   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153821		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, though it is found to be locally abundant in suitable habitat   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153821		threats	eng	This species may impacted on a local level by urbanization, but is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale&#160;  (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153822		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, as well as the impact of localized threats upon it.
153822		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from the states of <st1:state w:st="on">Chiapas</st1:state> and Quintana Roo in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guatemala</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Belize</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974).
153822		habitat	eng	This species is known from lentic habitats such as lakes and ponds (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), as well as streams (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).
153822		population	eng	Due to the locations where this species is known to occur, it is difficult to collect. However, it is thought that this species could be locally abundant   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>
153822		threats	eng	This species may be impacted locally by deforestation (resulting in deforestation) in Chiapas and water pollution in Monte bello, but it is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153823		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the range and abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted by any major threats.
153823		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Villa Juarez in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mexican</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype> of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Puebla</st1:place></st1:state>, where it was collected at an altitude of 1069 m (Villalobos 1958). It has also been collected from Tenargo de las Flores, Puebla and in the vicinity of&#160; (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 100 to 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153823		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in small streams, and has also been known to occur in the vicinity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hoffmani</span> (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).
153823		population	eng	This species is believed to be reasonably abundant, and there have been a number of collections of this species over the last three years (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153823		threats	eng	There is some agriculture, for apples and flowers within the range of this species, however, it does not appear to driving declines in this species (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).
153824		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 assigned by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research into the abundance, distribution, trends and ecology of this species as well as the threats impacting upon it is required.
153824		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus raneyi</span> is known from the Savannah River drainage in Georgia and South Carolina and headwaters of the Ocmulgee River in Dekalb, Gwinnett, Newton, and Walton Counties, Georgia (Hobbs 1953). &#160;More recently this species is found in at least seven counties, in the Savannah and Saluda river drainages. Most of the collections are from small streams (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
153824		habitat	eng	All of the specimens collected for this species have been from small permanent streams.
153824		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
153824		threats	eng	No species specific major threats have been reported for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus raneyi </span>and due to the lack on information on this species it is difficult to infer any.
153825		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em>. <br/><br/><br/></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153825		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to the spring of Ejido El Potosi, Galeana, in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Rodriguez and Campos 1994).&#160; It is only known from a single pond with a surface area of approximately 0.01 km<sup>2</sup> (Rodriguez and Campos 1994). In 2006, the type locality&#160;Ejido El Potosi was found to have no water in it, which was subsequently confirmed in 2009 (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010): This means there have been as many as 15 continuous years of dessication at the only location this species is found.</p>
153825		habitat	eng	This species is known from a single pond with an area of approximately 0.01 km<sup>2</sup> (Rodriguez and Campos 1994). Miller and Walters (1972) described this pond as having clear water of varying depth and abundant vegetation. Furthermore, this species was most commonly found in the southeastern part of the pond, in association with plants of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum </span>genus(Rodriguez and Campos 1994). However, this location is now known to be completely dry (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara<strong> </strong> pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></p>
153825		population	eng	This species has been surveyed for on 10 occasions, over a period of 4-5 years within the spring of Ejido El Potosi, Galeana, in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, but no specimens have been found (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara<strong> </strong> pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><em></em>
153825		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The pond habitat of this species is thought to have been relatively stable between 1960 and 1989 (Rodriguez and Campos 1994). However, since then, intensive pumping of groundwater for agriculture has led to a dramatic reduction in the size of the pond and the amount of aquatic vegetation that it supports (Rodriguez and Campos 1994, Contreras-Balderas and Lozano-Vilano 1996). Furthermore, this location is now known to be completely dry (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara<strong> </strong> pers. comm. 2009), confirmed in 2006 and 2009 (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><em><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span><br/><br/><br/><br/></em>
153826		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on    to determine the full distribution, habitat characteristics, and associated crayfish species, of this species.</p><p></p>
153826		distribution	eng	This species has recently (1992-2002) been found from Atoka, Muskogee, Haskall, Hughes, and Choctaw Counties in Oklahoma. It is most abundant in the Muddy Boggy Creek an Atoka County tributary of the Red River, but it also occurs occasionally in the Canadian River and Arkansas  River drainages (the mainstem and a couple of tributaries) (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153826		habitat	eng	This species is a generalist species, which inhabits a wide variety of stream types from small to moderate streams with clear water and white sand bottoms, to large streams with mud bottoms and very silty water. This species was encountered under embedded rocks and debris (Walls 1985). Individuals of this species were collected from polluted water in Beckwick Creek and Little Indian Bayou (Walls 1985).   The habitat also includes moderate steams with muddy bottoms (Muddy Boggy  River), and sandy rivers (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).
153826		population	eng	This species appears to be common in the Muddy Boggy River   (380 were collected in 1997; other years have 5 to 18 specimens). Of the other known sites, the two streams (14 and 30 specimens) have more than the three rivers (1 to 4 specimens)   (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).
153826		threats	eng	The type locality of this species, Bayou Santabarb, was dammed to produce a cattle pond and the flow was greatly reduced. The impact on the species is not known. Furthermore, this species is absent from seemingly suitable habitats possibly due to competition from the closely related&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes palmeri</span> (Walls 1985). Though, one specimen of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">O. palmeri </span>was collected from Muddy Boggy Creek, where this species is abundant. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. palmeri </span>is found in stone filled steams, so there may be little overlap in habitat between it and this species (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
153827		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Urgent conservation action is needed to protect this species and to prevent further destruction and degradation of its habitat. In addition, further research is required to determine the abundance and current distribution of this species.
153827		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mexican Central-Occidental Plateau (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Its current distribution is patchy (Amaya Tapia et al. 1999) and restricted to just two or three small ponds, though it was previously more widespread over the state of Michoacán (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).<br/><br/>This species has an extent of occurrence of 234 km<sup>2</sup>.
153827		habitat	eng	<p>This species is now only known from lentic habitats (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). It has been studied in Cuitzitan Pond, which is shallow, with a maximum depth of 1.6 m (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; This pond is flooded from March to July, then retains water between August and February, before becoming desiccated (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The reduction in water level is accompanied by a reduction in food availability and the crayfish spend almost all of the cold, dry season inside burrows, where they can lower their metabolism to conserve energy (Amaya Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).  </p><p>The dominant aquatic vegetation in Cuitzitan Pond is jungle rice and bladderworts, and there are no crayfish predators present (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The pond has a mean temperature of 18.70 to 20.17°C, mean dissolved oxygen content of 6.20 to 6.53 mgl<sup>-1</sup>, mean turbidity of 25 to 40 cm visibility, and alkalinity of 21.5 and 5.5 mgl<sup>-1</sup>CaCO3 in the cold and warm seasons respectively (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).</p>
153827		population	eng	This species is thought to have been greatly reduced in abundance, with several populations having been extirpated (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).
153827		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over-exploitation, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of exotic species (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999; Amaya Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). These processes have already resulted in reductions in the abundance of this species, and the extirpation of some populations (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999; Amaya Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). Much of the natural habitat of this species has been altered by chemical pollution or by human activities such as canalization, clearing, dredging and embanking of rivers, construction of reservoirs, and the regulation of water levels and stream flows (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). It is also threatened by the introduction of exotic crayfish such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> species from Australia. These compete for food resources and refuges, and also alter the total production of the native ecosystems (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160;<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>&#160;</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>In addition this species' distribution lies on the outskirts of the rapidly growing city of Uruapan, Michoacan, the expansion of which is predicted to soon envelope this species remaining locations.&#160;Furthermore, it is predicted that&#160;the springs at Presa Calzonzin (Calzonzin Dam), where one of the main  populations of this species&#160;occurs, will be compromised through use as a water source for the city (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).
153828		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, in Florida it is known to occur in Big Cypress National Preserve and the Everglades National Park, where there are plans to restore the hydological conditions. Furthermore, it has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p><p><br/></p>
153828		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in East of St. Johns River, throughout peninsular Florida, in and South of Levy and Marion Counties, as well as on some of the Keys (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 80000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153828		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both permanent lentic and lotic situations such as ditches, marshes and lakes, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989). Acosta and Perry (2000) suggest that this species is one of the most ubiquitous inhabitants of the seasonally flooded marl prairies wetlands of the eastern Everglades. Hobbs (1989) indicates that this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is tolerant of a wide variety of water quality parameters, and also describes this species as 'robust and well-adapted to seasonal habitats'.
153828		population	eng	This is a common species within the everglades (Acosta and Perry 2000). Though, as a result of anthropogenic impacts such as water management, there has been an increase in dry seasons which has resulted in increased mortality of this species (Acosta and Perry 2000).
153828		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is alterations to the hydrological regime (abstraction of water) of its habitat within the Everglades National Park. A study by Acosta and Perry (2002) found that crayfish density has declined but stabilized, over a period of 20 years to 13% of the saturated population size. There are plans to restore the hydrological regime of the Everglades, and a 7-month hydroperiod would be enough to increase the density of this species by 7 fold (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153829		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).</em>Furhter research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, life history and ecology and threats.
153829		distribution	eng	This species inhabits two tributaries of the Lost River drainage, above and below the Orangeville rise, from Lost River and Stampers Creek, and from Blue Creek in the east fork of the White River, an adjacent drainage to the north, south central Indiana, USA (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 68 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153829		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks and small rivers with substrates of limestone bedrock, slab boulder, cobble and large gravel substrates (Simon <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005).&#160; It is most commonly encountered along rock substrates in shallow riffle areas or among slowly flowing runs&#160;(Simon&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2005).
153829		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153829		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any major threats are impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153830		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
153830		distribution	eng	This species is found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, southeastern <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state>, and northeastern <st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state>, where it was found in the Ridge and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Hobbs 1981).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has  been estimated to exceed 17,700 km<sup>2</sup>.
153830		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found under rocks in riffle areas of clear, moderately to swiftly flowing streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>
153830		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153830		threats	eng	<p>The Coosa River basin area has experienced a large increase in residential development in recent years. Furthermore, 116,300 acres of forest has been allocated for residential building to be completed by 2030 (White 2009). However, it is unknown if this is impacting upon<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species now or how it will in the future   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153831		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).
153831		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found widely in Canada. It is found from Alberta to Quebec&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;It is also widespread&#160;in North America, where it occurs from New York in the north to Texas in the south (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;Its&#160;most&#160;western reach is Utah&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;<br/>This species has also been introduced to other areas in the US including, but also Mexico and Europe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).The native Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 11 million km<sup>2</sup>, not including the wide ranging introduced regions.&#160;<p>&#160;<br/></p>
153831		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a generalist species, found in a wide variety of freshwater habitats, primarily streams and lakes, but not in swift flows or rapids (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Aiken 1965).&#160;<br/>It is commonly found on rocky substrates, however in slower rivers it is found on a variety of material such as: mud, silt, and sand&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005). Sometimes it constructs burrows in river banks, which have been found to occur at up to 10 m deep&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005).
153831		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Aiken 1965).
153831		threats	eng	There are localised threats from competition and pollution in some Canadian watersheds&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005). In Ontario it has to compete with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, </span>an introduced species&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other declines have been attributed to air and water pollution associated with run-off from surrounding watersheds.&#160;<br/>Reduced fecundity has been attributed to acidification of water bodies(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;</span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> <br/><br/></span>
153832		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis </span>has been given a heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by AFS due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It was placed on the North Carolina watch list in 1999.<br/><br/>Population trends need to be monitored to ensure that the species receives the most accurate conservation assessment.
153832		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis</span> is endemic to the Neuse and Tar-Pamlico river basins in the coastal plain of Halifax County, North Carolina. "More thorough sampling of isolated lentic waters and burrows might reveal a wider distribution pattern for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. medialis" </span>(Cooper and Braswell 1998)
153832		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis</span> inhabits lentic and sluggish lotic locations as well as ditches with very slow to nil flow, with sandy mud bottoms (Fetzner 2008).
153832		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis</span> is believed to have a global population size of 2,500-10,000 mature individuals. There are no known declines in this species.
153832		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis </span>may be affected by urbanization and development as this occurs in much of its range. It is unclear what the effects are as the species seems relatively tolerant of a variety of habitat conditions (NatureServe 2008).
153833		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi </span>has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This indicates that this species is apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)</p>
153833		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi </span>is found from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Ashepoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage, <st1:city w:st="on">Colleton County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:state> to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">McIntosh County</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, including Saint Simons and Sapelo islands (Hobbs 1958; Hobbs 1981). This is an approximate Extent of Occurrence of 13,000 km². More recently this species has been collected from six counties&#160;(Aiken, Bamberg, Colleton, Beaufort, Hampton and&#160;Jasper) within the Savannah, Salkahatchie and Broad-St. Helena river drainages (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
153833		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi </span>can be found in habitat from streams to lowland wetlands (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010), including&#160;ponds, lakes, swamps and roadside ditches. This species is a secondary or tertiary burrower (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
153833		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi</span>; however in some of the locations where it is found, it is abundant (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
153833		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi.</span>
153834		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span></em> 2007).
153834		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Lower Ohio, Cumberland, Duck, and Tennessee drainage systems in southern Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee and northern Alabama, USA (Poly and Wetzel 2003). There were reported to be small, very localised<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>populations of this species in Missouri, although these were found to be misidentified&#160;specimens&#160;of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O. luteus</span>&#160;(C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 128,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153834		habitat	eng	This species is a stream dwelling species found in streams of all water course from second order to sixth order, on substrates of gravel and rock (Hobbs 1989).
153834		population	eng	This species&#160;is considered to be abundant in suitable habitat (Poly and Wetzel 2003).
153834		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
153835		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).&#160;</em><em><br/></em><em><br/><br/><em></em></em>
153835		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is native to the Ohio river system, which spreads through the states of: Ohio, Kentucky, Michigan, and Indiana(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;It has an introduced range which includes: Ontario, Illinois, Tennessee, Missouri, West Virginia, Iowa, Minnesota, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire and New Mexico (Taylor<em> et al.</em> 2005).<p>Thus, the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 604,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>
153835		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a generalist species that inhabits permanent streams and lakes with a range of substrates such as clay, silt, sand and gravel (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). It prefers areas which consists of rocks, logs or other debris which they use to construct shallow excavations underneath (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been shown to breed very early in spring (March - April) before most other crayfish species (Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005). Juveniles feed heavily on benthic invertebrates and, in some parts of its range, it has been estimated that this species can consume twice as much food as the native and similarly-sized Virile Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes virilis</span>) because of a higher metabolic rate. This&#160;severely&#160;increases competition between the two species (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). In addition, this species is tolerant to pollution such as septic tank discharge and organic pollution (Jezerinac<em> et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>This species has a high rate of reproduction&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005). In Ontario alone it has displaced the local species in numerous waterways throughout the region&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;<br/>Not only is it a larger species, but its breeding patterns also account for its &#160;for its dominance due to:earlier breeding season, higher fecundity, and faster larval and juvenile development (Taylor<em> et al.&#160;</em>2005).
153835		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a common species and has become the dominant crayfish in much of its range in recent years (Kulhmann 2008).
153835		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species currently known.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/><br/><br/></span>
153836		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further surveys are needed to determine how it is being affected by possible threats.
153836		distribution	eng	This species is known from Santa Rosa County, east toward the Suwannee River drainage system in Florida, USA (Hobbs 1989, Fetzner 2008). This species is believed to have a distribution of approximately 35,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153836		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear streams and springs (Hobbs 1989). Specifically, this species is most abundant in cypress ponds and river floodplain swamps (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
153836		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153836		threats	eng	Anecdotal&#160;evidence suggests excess nutrient through groundwater discharge may be&#160;adversely&#160;affecting this species habitat (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).
153837		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population status of this species is needed.
153837		distribution	eng	This species is known from the headwater tributaries of the Rio Nautla in the Mexican states of <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153837		habitat	eng	This species is known from headwater streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153837		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153837		threats	eng	Increased urbanization within the range of this species is thought to pose a serious future threat, through impacts such as pollution   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Current threats to this species are unknown.
153838		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>
153838		distribution	eng	This species is found in Okaloosa County, Florida, West to Bay St. Louis, Hancock County, Mississippi (Hobbs 1974, Hobbs 1989), and in Alabama, it is known from 17 records from the Tombigbee, Alabama, Pascagoula, and Escatawpa River systems (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, appendix 1.2 pub. separately).   This species has a distribution of approximately 19000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153838		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower (Hobbs 1989, Hobbs 1974).
153838		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153838		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.
153839		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Its distribution is known to be close to Albany Nursery Wildlife Management Area but not within it (Cooper and Skelton 2003). Further research on the abundance and threats faced by this species is needed.
153839		distribution	eng	This species has only recently been described from a single location: the western boundary of Albany Nursery Wildlife Management Area, about 12.8 km west of Albany, Kiokee Creek subdrainage, Flint River basin, Georgia, USA (Cooper and Skelton 2003). The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
153839		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a burrowing species found in swamp forest that is flooded seasonally. The burrows of this species are found amongst roots of small trees in standing water (Cooper and Skelton 2003).
153839		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153839		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. However, as this species is only known from one location it is at risk from stochastic perturbations.
153840		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), meaning this species is regarded as apparently secure.
153840		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the Ohio and Big Muddy basins in the counties of&#160; Alexander, Hardin, Jackson, Johnson, Massac, Pope, Pulaski, Union, and Williamson in Illinois, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1974).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as just over 6,400 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153840		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits streams ranging form first order to forth order streams with substrates of gravel, cobble and mud (Hobbs 1974). Although usually found under cobbles, this species can be found under weeds and debris piles   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153840		population	eng	Page (1985) noted that many populations of this species are large, especially in upland streams in Pope County.
153840		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
153841		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153841		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in southern Georgia, and Florida from the Choctawhatchee Basin east and south to Flagler, Marion, and Hillsboro Counties (Hobbs 1942). This species has a distribution of approximately 96,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153841		habitat	eng	This species is found in both permanent and seasonal lentic and lotic situations such as ponds, ditches, flatwoods forest, streams, rivers and small spurges, and is a tertiary burrower (Hobbs 1942).
153841		population	eng	In Hobbs (1942) examined 1304 specimens of this species, though there is no recent population information available.
153841		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.
153842		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus epicyrtus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due its restricted range (Criteria 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
153842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, inhabiting the tributaries of the Ogeechee and lower <st1:city w:st="on">Savannah</st1:city> rivers in southeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hobbs 1958, Hobbs 1981). This species has an approximate distribution of 10,000 km².
153842		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus epicyrtus</span> inhabits streams of varying sizes with sand and clay substrates. It is unknown whether this is a burrowing species (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>
153842		population	eng	A very experienced collector found the species at 16 locations (Hobbs, 1981). It has only been collected in Bryan, Bulloch, Chatham, Effingham, Jenkins and Screven counties. This species is uncommon in Georgia , but can be fairly common when it is found within portions of its limited range (GA NHP, pers. comm., 2009). There is no other population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus epicyrtus. </span>There is nothing known about trend for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153842		threats	eng	Expansion of Savannah, Georgia metropolitan area could affect downstream most populations.&#160; Habitat destruction and water quality degradation are probably the most immediate threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus epicyrtus</span>.
153843		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153843		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Florida parishes of southeastern Louisiana and Harrison, Forrest, Jones, Stone, Jackson, Perry, Pearl River, and Winston Counties, Mississippi (Penn 1953). This species has an approximate distribution of 31,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/>.
153843		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, and roadside ditches, and streams and bogs and is a secondary burrower (Penn 1953). Furthermore, it is often found in temporary habitats with muddy bottoms with little or no aquatic vegetation. The typical habitat of this species is in pine forests and flatwoods (Walls 2009).
153843		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153843		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by localized threats, but is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153844		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae</span> has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
153844		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae</span> is widespread across the coastal plain of the <st1:city w:st="on">Flint</st1:city> and Altamaha river basins, Georgia (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
153844		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae </span>is a tertiary burrowing species. This species is found in a wide range of habitat types but is most commonly found in submerged dense vegetations in slow to moderately fast flowing streams (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1981).</p>
153844		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae </span>is described as being abundant in several areas of its wide range (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
153844		threats	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae</span> is known to be infected by the parasitic worm <span style="font-style: italic;">Alloglossidium dolandi</span> (Turner 2007). However, the effects of this parasite are unlikely to impact the global population of this species.</p>
153845		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>Further reseach is needed to determine the abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>and whether there are any threats currently impacting.
153845		distribution	eng	It is found in Perdido, Escambia, and Yellow drainage systems in Alabama and Florida (Hobbs 1942; Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004, appen. 1.2, pub. separately). This species has a range of 120 km (east to west) and 64 km (north to south) (Hobbs 1942).
153845		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>is found in a wide ranging variety of habitats such as small streams, roadside ditches, river backwaters and small flatwood pools (Hobbs 1942). This species is usually found covered with vegetation or under stones with sandy substrates (Hobbs 1942).
153845		population	eng	In 1942, Hobbs examined 137 specimens. There is no recent population data available.
153845		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution.
153846		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153846		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the Red River Basin in Columbia, Lafayette, and Miller Counties, Arkansas, and Webster and Sabine parishes, Louisiana (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153846		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent lentic (pools) and sluggish lotic (rivers) situations (Hobbs 1975).
153846		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153846		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.
153847		conservation	eng	NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   has assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure.
153847		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tennessee, Elk, and Coosa river systems in southwestern Virginia, Mobile, Black Warrior, Alabama Cahaba and Tallapoosa River systems in eastern Tennessee, northwestern Georgia, and northern Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1989, Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 123,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153847		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit streams where it resides under rocks and woody debris (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153847		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is considered common in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153847		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species, although it is likely to be affected by common threats such as urban development, agriculture and surface water abstraction in localized patches   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153848		conservation	eng	<p><em></em>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/> <br/> Further research on this species is required to clarify its taxonomy and threats posed.</p>
153848		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found in the Lake Pontchartrain watershed in <st1:state w:st="on">Louisiana</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> , USA (Hobbs 1989, Walls 2009). The Mississippi Museum of Natural Science crayfish database indicates<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>this species occurs in 15 counties in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> with the range extending far north of the Ponchartrain drainages (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Until the relationship with <em>O. palmeri</em> is better defined, it is not possible to accurately define the range of this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em><br/>Morphologic characters, especially the slightly open areola, seem to  indicate that this species is widespread throughout much of southwestern <st1:place w:st="on">Mississippi (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). </st1:place>
153848		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This species is found in rapidly flowing, sand-bottom, permanent streams that are relatively cool and well-oxygenated (Walls 2009).&#160; It is more associated with woody debris and rocks than with aquatic vegetation (Walls 2009).</p>
153848		population	eng	<p>  There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is regarded as widespread in streams of the <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state> parishes, east of the <st1:place w:st="on">Mississippi River</st1:place> (Walls 2009).&#160;<em></em></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153848		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
153849		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society due its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
153849		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mud</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> system, and the adjacent Muddy Creek in the Green River drainage, in west central <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky, USA</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor 2000). A disjunct population has just been discovered in Perry County, Indiana, and is awaiting final confirmation, but appears to be a new population of this species&#160;(C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.
153849		habitat	eng	<p>This species can be found in open water and under boulders in creeks and small rivers with cobble, gravel, and mud substrates and woody debris (Taylor 2000). In addition, this species has been collected from sections of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mud</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> of widths ranging from 6 - 8 m and at an average depth of 0.4 m (Taylor 2000). &#160;</p>
153849		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153849		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
153850		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been assigned a heritage Global rank of G4 by NatureServe    (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153850		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from the upper Broad River basin in the northern part of South Carolina westward into North Carolina and Tennessee (south of the French Broad River) almost to the Tennessee River, USA (Dewees 1972).&#160; It also exists in the Little Tennessee River basin (Cooper and Braswell 1998). Hobbs (1989) and Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1996) both list the range as South Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Eversole and Jones (2004) include the upper Broad River basin in northern South Carolina westward into North Carolina and Tennessee almost to the Tennessee River. Furthermore, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia records are assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus dubius</span>, a former subspecies (Hobbs 1989). Although not yet collected in Georgia, further collecting effort may reveal occurrences in the extreme northeastern part of the state   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be almost 39,000 km².
153850		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from bogs close to rocky streams. This species is a primary burrower (Cooper and Braswell 1995). It is known from swampy areas with some flowing water and has a much more restricted habitat than one of its congeners, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. latimanus</span> (Hobbs 1983).&#160; It also occurs in spring fed small streams along the banks or under rocks (R. Thoma and T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).
153850		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153850		threats	eng	There are no known current threats to this species although as it is dependent on a high water table. As such, activities such as major road construction and ground water abstraction for suburban development would threaten this species (Price 2005).
153851		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species was assessed as G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whther it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153851		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur between the Altamaha and Pee Dee rivers, in Georgia and South Carolina (Fetzner 2008).
153851		habitat	eng	This species is a tertiary burrower which inhabits lentic and lotic environments (Fetzner 2008).
153851		population	eng	This species is known to be abundant at sites of suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153851		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.
153852		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>Further research is required to determine its habitat ecology and life history and monitoring on its population distribution and fluctuations.
153852		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper Sequatchie Valley, Tennessee, southward to Blount County, Alabama, USA (Cope and Packard 1881). In Alabama it is known from Blount, Jackson, and Marshall Counties in the Black Warrior and Tennessee drainages (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; In Tennessee, it is known from Sequatchie, Marion, Bledsoe, Franklin, and Cumberland Counties. in caves draining into the Tennessee River from Walden Gorge west to Franklin County (Williams and Bivens, 2001). A questionable record from the Black Warrior system has been verified using genetic data and voucher specimens exist for two confirmed cave sites in Blount County, Alabama.&#160; In Tennessee, Lewis (2005) includes one cave in Bledsoe County, one in Franklin County, nine in Marion County, and two in Sequatchie County. The number of caves may increase as more caves are surveyed (Spanjer and Cipollini 2006, Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004). According to Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) the greatest concentration of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is in Jackson County, Alabama and Marion County, Tennessee. This species was originally found in 2007 in 20 caves, but in a more conclusive study, it was found in 40 caves (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Buhay and Crandall 2009).    The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 8,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
153852		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in subterranean pools and does not attempt to escape when habitat is disturbed.&#160; This species is stygobitic, preferring aquatic cave environments with high dissolved oxygen, low ammonia, and low water temperature. Furthermore, it holds a preference for those caves with externally originating streams (Spanjer and Cipollini 2006). The only crayfish species that co-occurs with this species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus tenebrosus </span>(a facultative cave dweller) (Buhay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
153852		population	eng	From a study by Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), 103<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>specimens of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were found in 20 caves. In 2008, 357 specimens of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were found in one cave (Huryn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; Several new caves have recently been discovered and the caves within the range have been surveyed extensively (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153852		threats	eng	This species is threatened by cave flooding in a very small number of caves due to dam construction and lake building (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153853		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as 'threatened' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). NatureServe has assigned a Heritage Status Rank of G2 due to its very restricted range (NatureServe 2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>). Part of this species range is contained within a national park. There is also a basin-wide water quality plan for the Little Tennessee water basin which was completed in 1998 and is reviewed every five years (N.C. Division of Water Quality 2008). Further research is required on the abundance and distribution of this species as it is believed to exist in other areas of the basin but no dedicated surveys have been completed so far (NatureServe 2009). Monitoring of the population of this species is suggested.
153853		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Oconaluftee River, Soco Creek, and Raven Fork, within the Tuckasegee River subdrainage of the Little Tennessee River basin, North Carolina, USA (Cooper and Schofield 2002). Similarly, LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) cite streams in the Tuckasegee River subdrainage of the Little Tennessee River drainage in Jackson and Swain counties, North Carolina. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 1,600 km² .
153853		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species can be found in high gradient, fast flowing permanent  freshwater streams dominated by a boulder or cobble substrate. Stream width is usually 10 - 14 m with well developed algal communities. Individuals have been located beneath boulders at stream margin although some have been located in the mid-stream channel (Cooper and Scholfield 2002). This species' habitat is in good condition, and there are no known associations with other crayfish species (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153853		population	eng	This species is known from only 5 occurrences, although decent viability at all localities is reported (Cooper and Schofield 2002).
153853		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species. The Tuckasegee River, however, runs through Bryson City and therefore there is a high likelihood that urban development and urban waste water are having localised impacts. Recreational activities such as fishing, hiking and paddling all occur in or around the crayfish localities   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153854		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/>Further research is required to determine whether this species is impacted by any major threats, its population size and distribution, and its ecology.&#160; Also, taxonomic uncertainty exists for some populations   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153854		distribution	eng	This species was originally thought to be confined to small tributaries of the Powell River in Lee County, Virginia and Clairborne County, Tennessee, USA (Thoma, 2000). Thoma and Fetzner (2008) modified this range to include a much wider distribution to encompass the waters of the Cumberland River upstream of the confluence of Clear Fork, Williamsburg, Kentucky; the upper reaches of the Kentucky River adjacent to Pine Mountain; and the Powell River basin in Lee County, Virginia and Claiborne County, Tennessee including the adjacent Cumberland Mountain. Kentucky populations, now differentiated from <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus parvoculus</span>, are found in the upper Cumberland River above Pine Mountain and Kentucky River headwaters (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009, Thoma and Fetzner 2008).<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 5,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
153854		habitat	eng	This species prefers first and second order, spring-fed streams of high altitude and high gradient. Within this habitat, this species occupies a secondary burrower niche (Thoma 2000).
153854		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although there are some declines in Virginia populations (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009) </p>
153854		threats	eng	There are some declines in Virginia populations due to forestry activities as well as decline in the Tennessee/Virginia line due to mining (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009). It is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to climate change, water pollution and alterations to the hydrological regime. Even though it has a semi-restricted range, the species probably occurs in many high gradient head-water streams which are not immediately threatened with mining activities.
153855		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). </em><br/>Crandall (1998) recommended that this species be placed on the Missouri Rare and Endangered Species Watch List, due to its relatively small range. <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153855		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the headwaters of the Big and Meramec Rivers in eastern Missouri, USA (Fetzner 2008, Crandall 1998, Pflieger 1996).<br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 14,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
153855		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>clear, permanent<span style="font-style: italic;"> s</span>treams in cavities that it has dug underneath rocks (Pflieger 1996). Crandall (1998) stated that this species has a broad habitat specificity.
153855		population	eng	In many creeks within its range <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is the most abundant crayfish (Pflieger 1996). Crandall (1998) estimated that<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species has a population size of 11,457.
153855		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;&#160;</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
153856		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). <em><em></em></em></em>
153856		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is confined to the tributaries of the Big, Black and Meramec Rivers in Reynolds and Washington Counties in southeastern Missouri, USA (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996). This species range has recently been introduced into the St. Francis River drainage, Missouri (Rahm <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 12,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153856		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found under rocks in streams and pools with rocky and gravelly substrates (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996).
153856		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is more abundant and widely distributed in the Black River than the Big and Meramec Rivers (Pflieger 1996). In addition, this species is found to be common to abundant in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153856		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
153857		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007).
153857		distribution	eng	This species is known from a cave in the Caney Mountain Conservation Area, as part of the Missouri Department of Conservation, in Ozark County, Missouri, USA (Hobbs 2001).&#160; This species is only known from the holotype and allotype collected in 1999 in Mud Cave.&#160;This is a well studied region of the USA for karst biology, therefore it could be inferred that if the species was present in other systems, it might have been found by now&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of this species are likely to be less than 10 km² and 1 km² respectively, as it is only known from a single cave. Mud Cave at first appears to be quite an extensive cave if one only considers the 135 meters total length (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010). It  is possible that a thorough survey of small, local springs could find <em>O.  stygocaneyi</em>, especially during t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es of   high groundwater (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).<p>Cave crayfish were not found in 1979 when an experienced cave biologist, Gene (James E.) Gardner, visited the cave. The pool is easily muddied with the first step, and the crayfish population is small. In 1998 two biologists from the Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, entered the cave with a local person who knew of the crayfish, and they collected several live spec<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ens in a bucket, as documented in a video tape they sent to the Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC), along with an application for a wildlife collector permit. The permit was denied because they reported it was an <em>Orconectes</em>, which would have indicated a possible new species since there were no cave-adapted <em>Orconectes</em> known in Missouri at that t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>e. In 1999 a team from MDC collected the new species, and it was described by Hobbs in 2001 as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes stygocaneyi </span>(W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).</p><em></em>  <p><em></em><em>O. stygocaneyi </em>is a relict of a t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>e dating back to before the Mississippi River took its modern form. Probably there was a widespread ancestral species on the surface that became isolated in caves in the central highlands. The river developed a few hundred thousand years ago and isolated the crayfish further. It is possible that other such <em>Orconectes</em> species survive in isolated caves on hillsides in the Ozark region. Searches of likely habitat in wet caves in Ozark County in May 2001 by William R. Elliott, Horton H. Hobbs, III, and Toby Dogwiler, failed to find <em>O. stygocaneyi</em> anywhere but in Mud Cave (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).</p>
153857		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>inhabits a subterranean stream (Hobbs 2001). The floor of the stream was reported to be knee deep in mud, and was thought to be a failing spring (Hobbs 2001). Mud Cave is a failing  cave spring, that is, it functioned as a local spring long ago but no longer. A small  wet-weather spring make exist nearby. The cave is perched on a hillside high above  the surrounding terrain. The cave is at 1220 ft. elevation, and local springs are at  1000-1200 ft. or lower. No water well records are known for Caney Mountain  Conservation Area, but based on physiography, it is remarkable that this small,  perched aquifer has survived hydrogeologically for so long (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010). <br/><p> Finding a new species of cave crayfish is a rare event (the last one  in Missouri was in 1952). Some species of cave crayfish have an  extremely slow growth rate, low reproductive rate, and long life span,  so it is <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant to  carefully study and conserve cave crayfish populations. In an Alabama  species the males mature after the age of 40, and individuals may live  to 100 years, as opposed to surface crayfishes, which live just a few  years (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).  </p>
153857		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
153857		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;</span> The area is rural and the cave is in a conservation area. There is no reported reduction in the quality of habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The site from which this species is known is now protected by a steel gate to prevent collectors accessing it (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  <p>The long-term fate of the cave and the crayfish species is  drying out and extinction, but the cave is well-protected with no  threats from collectors, intruders, land development, chemicals,  pesticides, or anything obvious. Prescribed burning has been used in the  area to thin out cedar (juniper), which is thick on some hillsides.  Soil and water retention are management goals of the Missouri Department  of Conservation, and that should serve to delay the cave drying out (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).</p>
153858		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153858		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Neosho River basin in Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, USA (Williams 1952). In 2005, it was found in the Illinois River (Bergey<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005), and into the White River drainage in Arkansas (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). This species distribution is not currently regarded as being severely fragmented (C. Taylor pers comm. 2010) &#160;The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 10,442 km<sup>2</sup>.
153858		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in clear, flowing permanent streams with substrates consisting of limestone gravel and cobbles (Williams 1952).
153858		population	eng	Williams (1952) found 113 specimens of this species at certain sites. In addition, it has been found to be locally common in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153858		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Non known.
153859		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p>
153859		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Coastal Plain of Georgia (from Tifton upland to the coast), between the Ogeechee and Suwannee basins, and from Florida (Gulf, Liberty, Leon, and Wakulla Counties) (Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1976).&#160; Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1976) documented it in the Savannah River Plant Park (on the Savannah River) in southwest South Carolina, but these records are questionable (NatureServe 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153859		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both permanent lentic and lotic situations amongst vegetation, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942).
153859		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153859		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.
153860		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Vulnerable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), vulnerable to extirpation, due to the restricted range in which this species lives.<br/>The Mississippi Species of Greatest Conservation Need has categorised this species as "in need of timely conservation action and/or research because of rarity, restricted distribution, unknown or decreasing population trend, specialized habitat needs or habitat vulnerability or significant threats."<br/>Further research is required on the abundance of this species and on the impact that historical and current threats. The current distribution also requires confirmation&#160;(R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153860		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Haralson County, Georgia, a reasonable distribution in the Tallapoosa Basin in Alabama and Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989).&#160; Ratcliffe and DeVries (2004) found this species in 11 of 35 surveyed sites in the Tallapoosa River drainage. In general, this species is restricted to the Tallapoosa River system and known from 16 records in 5 counties (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as exceeding 6,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
153860		habitat	eng	This species is found in the riffle areas of freshwater streams and other lotic habitats (Ratcliff and DeVries 2004). This species lives in streams under rocks (Schuster and Taylor 2004).
153860		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
153860		threats	eng	Large dams have been build in the Tallapoosa river which are likely to have caused localized declines in this species abundance   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153861		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of&#160; G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153861		distribution	eng	<em></em><em></em>This species is found in the western tributaries of the Tennessee River from <st1:placename w:st="on">Robinson</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Creek</st1:placename> northward to Snake Creek in <st1:placename w:st="on">Hardin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>, and in the Forked Deer, Hatchie, and Loosahatchie drainage systems in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place>, USA (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976) . In addition, several specimens from headwaters of the Little Tallahatchie River drainage in the Yazoo basin) and the Town Creek drainage in the <st1:place w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:place> basin,. both in Mississippi, have been tentatively assigned to<em> </em>this species based on morphology and preliminary genetic analyses (Adams 2008). Thus, to date, <em></em>this species has been collected from Alcorn, <st1:city w:st="on">Benton</st1:city>, Prentiss, Tippah, Tishomingo, and <st1:place w:st="on">Union</st1:place> Counties, Mississippi (Adams 2008), and may also be present in Lee and Marshall Counties. <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160; 23,200 km<sup>2</sup>
153861		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This species occurs in permanent flowing streams, often occurring in leaf litter in pools and runs (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976) or among woody debris. Water clarity supproting this species ranges from clear to turbid and substrate ranges from sand or clay to gravel and cobble (Adams 2008).</p>
153861		population	eng	<p><em></em>    </p><p>There is insufficient population data available for this species although it can range from uncommon to common   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153861		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether <em></em>this species is impacted by any major threat process, although concievable threats may include sedimentation, channelization, and reduced&#160; water quality and quantity from urbanization   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). This is thought to primarily effect the lower ends of applicable drainages.</p>
153862		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures inplace for this species. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance and ecology of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153862		distribution	eng	Thi species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Pearl and Pascagoula drainage systems in eastern Louisiana and south-central Mississippi (Penn 1959). Walls (2009) comments that this species occurs only in stream tributaries to the western side of the Pearl River, being replaced by the very similar <span style="font-style: italic;">P. clemmeri</span> in streams draining into the eastern side of the Pearl. Considering how often the Pearl overflows its banks and creates a large flood plain, this situation dserves more research (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Fitzpatrick (1977) noted that all records of this species from the east bank of the Pearl River&#160; and eastward should be assigned to the sibling species<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. clemmeri.</span> Thus this species is restricted to streams draining from the west bank of the Pearl river in Copiah, Lincoln, Marion, and Walthall Counties; the Lake Pontchartrain watershed in Amite, Pike and Walthall Counties; and in Franklin County it is in the Homochitto drainage (Fitzpatrick 1996). Furthermore. in Mississippi, it is known to occur throughout the southern third of the state (USFS 2009).
153862		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams, overflow ponds with clear water and sand and gravel substrates (Penn 1959).
153862		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Though, there have been a large number of collections of this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153862		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat processes. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153863		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and NatureServe has given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/>Further research is required on the abundance and trends of this species as it is likely to have declined. More accurate knowledge about the habitat requirements of this species would enable a suitable management plan to be created as it is likely that this species is threatened. A more specific understanding of the threats impacting this species would also be required for a management plan   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153863		distribution	eng	This species was originally described as largely restricted to the Cumberland Plateau where it occurred in the Cumberland River basin in eastern Tennessee, southeastern Kentucky, and northwestern Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989). Virginia records and upper Kentucky River drainage,records have recently been attributed to another species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus jezerinaci</span>) (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009, Thoma and Fetzner 2008). This  Virginia population in the South Fork Powell River of Wise County,  Virginia, is morphologically similar somewhat to this species but is  far separated from nominal populations of this species and has not been  analyzed genetically. Therefore it is currently placed tentatively in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus  jezerinaci </span>(Thoma and Fetzner 2008). Thoma and Fetzner (2008) have modified the distribution to be confined to waters of the Big South Fork Cumberland River in northern Tenenssee (and possibly southern Kentucky), and the Cumberland Plateau regions of the Tennessee River basin from the Sequatchie River to the Emory River basin. Taylor et al. (2007) have also recorded this species in Alabama. <br/>There are 78 localities known as of March 1992.&#160; In the Cumberland  Plateau it occurs in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems in  Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee as well as a tributary of Lookout  Creek in Tennessee on the Georgia border (Bouchard 1974). In Kentucky,  it is known sporadically from the Big South Fork of the Cumberland  drainage, the upper Cumberland River drainage above Cumberland Falls,  and upper Kentucky River drainage (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; It has  been recorded from Dade County, Georgia; Bell, Letcher, McCreary Counties,  Kentucky; Pickens County, South Carolina; Anderson, Campbell, Claiborne,  Cumberland, Hamilton, Marion, Morgan, and Rhea Counties, Tennessee; and Lee and Wise  Counties, Virginia. A single USNM record exists for  Dade County, Alabama (Tennessee River drainage) (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) believe  that <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species was once more  widespread than it is now due to the intolerance of the species to  habitat alteration and pollution.<br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 18,400 km<sup>2</sup>.
153863		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky streams (Fetzner 2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is a specialist as its arbitary tolerance values of water quality were 2.5 - 3.5 with other more generalist species have values of 2.2 - 6.8. These values also show that<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species requires more pristine water than other more tollerant species (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It&#160; is known to prefer small headwater streams with hemlock and rhododendron cover; a  habitat that is presently drifting toward more woody adelgid habitat (R. Thoma, pers. comm.  2009).
153863		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
153863		threats	eng	This species is thought to be more susceptible to interspecific competition as conditions change (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> It is likely to be affected by urban development, road building, and pollution which is caused by both of these (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). As this species is regarded as a specialist, the water quality is likely to have a very large impact, although this has yet to be verified.
153864		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153864		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the Choctawhatchee drainage system in Alabama and northern Florida (Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
153864		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams with sandy substrates with no preference for pool or riffle habitats (Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
153864		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; </span>Many specimens exist for this species, so it does not appear difficult to collect, suggesting it is abundant in suitable habitat   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153864		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160; There is some timber harvesting in the Alabama portion of its range, which could lead to local impacts from sedimentation, but these are not thought to be significant across the species range   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153865		conservation	eng	<p>This species&#160;has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society due its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p><p>Monitoring of the emerging potential threats of introduced invasive species and the impacts of urbanization is recommended&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>
153865		distribution	eng	<p>This species&#160;has historically been described from the Coosa and Tennessee River drainages in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Virginia</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">North  Carolina</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). However, after examining morphological data <st1:city w:st="on">Taylor</st1:city> (2000) considers the range of this species to be restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> and southeastern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee, as well as small portion of northeastern Alabama (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</st1:place></st1:state></p><p>Pending further investigation, the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 12,600 km<sup>2</sup></p><p>&#160;<br/></p>
153865		habitat	eng	<p>This species&#160;inhabits higher gradient cobble and gravel-bottomed second to forth order streams (Hobbs 1981).</p>
153865		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;it is regarded as common to abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153865		threats	eng	This species&#160;is potentially undergoing localized declines due to the impacts of urbanization resulting in polluted run-off and channelization of natural streams&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; There are three large reservoirs, namely Carters Lake, Lake Allatoona and Weiss Lake, in the species' range which receive a lot of fishing pressure, giving the potential for introduction of invasive species from fishing bait.&#160; It is not thought that these localized threats constitute a major threat to the species at present&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153866		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 assigned by NatureServe, demonstrably widespread abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153866		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread in the United States and is found from South Carolina in the east to Alabama in the west and down to Florida in the south (Hobbs 1962, Hobbs 1969, Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971). This species has a distribution of between 10,0000-10,000,00 km<sup>2</sup>.
153866		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a habitat generalist which is restricted to lotic waters although these may be small brooks or sizeable rivers (Hobbs 1981, Ratcliff and DeVries 2004). This species prefers deep water sites but adults can be found in shallow sandy bottomed streams. In addition, this species is not tolerant of temperature changes and is susceptible to dessication during droughts (Caine 1978). It is is sympatric with many crayfish species including, <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus versatus, Cambarus latimanus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. englishi</span> , although it may be outcompeted by larger crayfish (Ratcliff and DeVries 2004).
153866		population	eng	Caine (1978) collected 500 individuals from Georgia to use in ex situ experiments and large densities of large individuals had been recorded in deep water by Taylor (1983), however this subpopulation was reduced to near extinction after the 1981 drought. Ratcliff and DeVries (2004) collected this species from 21 sites in the Tallapoosa and Coastal Plain river drainages in Alabama. This species can be extremely abundant in suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153866		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by threats on a local level, but is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale.
153867		conservation	eng	This species has been given a G-rank of G3G4 by NatureServe due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). At least one site is known from the Fire Creek Wildlife Management Area (Cooper 2006). Further research is needed on the distribution, threats and population status of this species.
153867		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known only from the Hiwassee River basin in Cherokee and Clay counties, North Carolina, USA (Cooper 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to be greater than 1,700 km².
153867		habitat	eng	This species is known small creeks in the Hiwassee River basin in North Carolina (Cooper 2006).
153867		population	eng	This species is quite common where it occurs, despite being a local endemic (J. Cooper, pers. comm. 2008).
153867		threats	eng	The small range of this species and heavy sedimentation from development and poor land management may pose a threat to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Skelton 2008). The introduction of exotic species may also pose a threat, but this is speculative.
153868		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures currently in place for this species. Furthermore, the American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required on the abundance of this species as it has not been surveyed since Albaugh (1975), and a comprehensive current distribution is also required.
153868		distribution	eng	This species can be found in southeastern Texas in Lavaca, Jackson, Matagorda, Brizoria, Fort Bend, Austin and Brazos (Albaugh 1975). The distruibution of this species is bound to the southwest by the Lavaca River and Bay, to the East by the lower San Barnard River and North by the Braznos River (Albaugh 1975). This species has a distribution of approximately 38000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153868		habitat	eng	This species is found in pools on the flood plains of rivers and in creeks and potholes (Reimer and Clark 1974). Furthermore, this species is also known to occur near permanent waterbodies,&#160; in ditches and overflow pools (Johnson 2008).
153868		population	eng	This species is known from 37 sites within 10 Counties in Texas, and further surveying of this species is planned (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is known to be abundant at some sites, however other sites have a single or few specimens present (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153868		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats reported for this species (NatureServe 2009), but development throughout the distribution of this species could reduce the available suitable habitat (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153869		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009) and a conservation status of Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).
153869		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Cumberland and Upper Tennessee River drainages in Tennessee and Kentucky, USA (Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007), with anecdotal reports from Virginia (Winston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Based on taxonomic uncertainty, however, it may be confined to the Cumberland River basin upstream of Pine Mountain with questionable records from Tennessee and Virginia as potentially an alternate and as yet undescribed species of this genus<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated around 5,700 km².
153869		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is found in small creeks to large streams with sand, gravel, clay or silt beds (Taylor <em>et al</em> 2007, Bouchard 1973b). In addition, this species has been collected from under rocks and in leaf litter (Bouchard 1973).
153869		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
153869		threats	eng	<em></em>This species has been given a tolerance value of 5.14 by the Kentucky Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet (1 being the least tolerant, 10 the most tolerant). The tolerance value is calculated by assessing the individual tolerance of a species to human threats such as water pollution (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species.
153870		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed on the population trends and threats impacting this species.
153870		distribution	eng	This species is known from the tributaries of the Río Cazones and the Río Tecolutla, in the vicinity of Zihuateutla, Agua Fría and La Union, Puebla, Mexico (Villalobos 1955). Furthermore, it is known from Mesa de San Diego and Arroyo de San Diego within the Agua Fria, La Magdalena,&#160; La Union, Cumbres de Cuanepixca, Arroyo del Coyular and San Cornelio, Mexico, though these locations are believed to be severely fragmented (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 500 km².
153870		habitat	eng	This species is known from small streams and ponds, typically at high altitudes. It has an average total length of 55 mm   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153870		population	eng	This species is difficult to collect, though there have been a number of collections. The last collection of this species was in 2005, and there has been a slight decline in the presence of it (  M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153870		threats	eng	This species is impacted by cattle farming at La Union, but this is not thought to be a major threat. Draining of ponds for drinking water occurs within its range   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153871		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153871		distribution	eng	This species is known from 11 localites in Angelina, Jasper, Newton, Panola, San Augustine, Trinity and Tyler Counties (Hobbs 1990), 355 sites in 34 Counties, Texas (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009) and from central and southwestern Louisiana (Walls 2006).
153871		habitat	eng	This species is believed to inhabit permanent well aerated streams and open water outside of its burrows, although its type locality is a roadside ditch (Hobbs 1990). The soil in which this species lives is clay or sandy-clay with a overlay of sand. This species constructs simple burrows and is not a primary burrower (Fitzpartick and Suttkur 1992).
153871		population	eng	This species is common at most sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153871		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species. As it inhabits ditches, and co-exists with two invasive species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. zonangulus</span> (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992) this species is likely to be tolerant of inter-specific competition and poor water quality.
153872		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threats.
153872		distribution	eng	<p>This species<em> </em>is found from South Veracruz in Mexico eastwards through the states of Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. The presence of this species in Quintana Roo is in question (Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).<em><em></em></em></p>
153872		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits small streams, drainage ditches and agricultural fields (sugar cane) (Hobbs 1974).&#160; It spawns between two and four times annually, between January and September, with a maximum rate during June and July (Carmona-Osalde et al. 2002).<em><em></em></em></p>
153872		population	eng	<p>This species has been described as abundant in the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, although it is less abundant in northern Yucatan and Quintana Roo (Rodriguez-Serna et al. 2002).<em><em></em></em></p>
153872		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation, water abstraction and pollution are all known to threaten the freshwater habitats of the Yucatan Peninsular (Conteras-Balderas et al. 2003).&#160; It is unknown what impact these may be having on this species, but it is likely that they will be acting at a localized scale only.&#160; Furthernmore, this species forms part of the diet in some rural communities of the Yucatan Peninsula, but there is no evidence that this seriously impacts its population size (Rodriguez-Serna et al. 2000).&#160; <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153873		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on the abundance and population trends of this species are required, as well as any threats impacting upon this species.
153873		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lower Alabama and Tombigbee drainages in Green county Alabama and Mississippi, and from Lafayette and Lee counties in the north to Kemper County in the south of Mississippi (Busack and Belk 1988, Hobbs and Walton 1960). Furthermore,&#160; is also known to occur in the Upper Yazoo, Tomigbee, Black Warrior, and Cahaba drainages (Busack and Belk 1988). This species has a distribution of approximately 41000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153873		habitat	eng	This species is a secondary burrower, occupying temporary ponds and pools, burrows, roadside ditches and very small, intermittent streams, burrowing as habitats dry (Hobbs and Walton 1957, Hobbs 1962, Hobbs1989). This species can also be found in streams and roadside ditches (Busack and Belk 1988), and the type locality was a roadside ditch with a clay and mud bottom, with 10-15 cm of clear water (Hobbs and Walton 1957).
153873		population	eng	This species has been described as common (Busack and Belk 1988), and widespread and abundant (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, Hobbs and Walton (1957) examined 238 specimens when they described the species.
153873		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats recorded for this species. This species was found in a roadside ditch and is likely to be reasonably tolerant of poor water quality. Furthermore, many of the streams and river from which this species was found are tributaries of the Mississippi river any large damage to this river could impact this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153874		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4,&#160;apparently secure,&#160;by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
153874		distribution	eng	This species inhabits an area extending southwestward from <st1:placename w:st="on">Hart</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype> to <st1:city w:st="on">Trigg  County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state>, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Montgomery County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state></st1:place> (Hobbs and Barr 1972).&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;23,000 km<sup>2.&#160;</sup>
153874		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a subterranean cave dwelling species from flowing subterranean streams (Jegla 1961).</p>
153874		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this&#160;species is regarded as abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153874		threats	eng	This species has a specialized habitat requirement of cave systems, although part of its range lies within Mammoth Cave National Park.&#160; Therefore whilst subject to the threats that most cave species are, this species&#160;appears to be relatively well protected&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153875		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required to identify whether this species is present in North Carolina or not and if so what its distribution within the county is. Threats to this species need to be identified and research into the impacts the threats are having is required.
153875		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lepidodactylus</span> can be found in the Santee, Black, Wateree and Pee Dee drainage systems in eastern South Carolina and extreme southeastern North Carolina (Hobbs 1962). Cooper (1998) has disputed the occurrence in North Carolina. It is currently found in nine counties in South Carolina within the PeeDee, Black, Lynches, Wateree and Lake Marion water systems (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
153875		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lepidodactylus</span> can be found in small, clear, moderately swift, sand-bottomed permanent streams (Hobbs 1947). Hobbs (1962) stated that as a group <span style="font-style: italic;">Pictus</span> was not affected by water quality or size of stream, however no species specific information was presented.
153875		population	eng	No species specific abundance data is available for this species although Hobbs (1962) described the Pictus subgroup as 'abundant in beds of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vallisneria</span> and other aquatic plants'.
153875		threats	eng	No species specific threats have been recorded for this species however it is likely to be undergoing some localised declines due to surface water abstraction and land conversion due to urban development.
153876		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. An assessment of freshwater biodiversity in Latin America and the Caribbean by the World Wildlife Fund and Wetlands International classified Lake Catemaco as Regionally Outstanding and Vulnerable, with high priority for conservation at a regional scale (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). Part of the range of this species is being protected through eco-tourism, which may provide indirect protection of this species (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and how it is being affected by threats within its range. </p><p><br/><em><em><em></em></em></em></p><p><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></p>
153876		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lake Catemaco, in the Municipio de Catemaco, Veracruz,  Mexico (Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This lake is at an altitude of 335 m and has a surface area of 72.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Komarkova and Tavera 2003). Further surveys in neighbouring habitats suggest that this species is restricted to this single lake   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is restricted to the eastern shore of the lake, which is approximately 10 km<sup>2</sup> (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153876		habitat	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known only from Lake Catemaco.&#160; This warm, polymictic lake is one of the most productive in Mexico and is permanently blue-green from phytoplankton, with low transparency (Komarkova and Tavera 2003, Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).&#160; The lake has a mean depth of 7.6 m and a maximum depth of 11 m (Komarkova and Tavera 2003).&#160; The bottom of the lake is formed of clay and silt clays, and is covered with a deep layer of organic matter, although there is a transition to course sand, pebbles and gravel towards the shore (Komarkova and Tavera 2003).<em><em><em></em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></p>
153876		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153876		threats	eng	<p>Over the last few decades, there has been extensive deforestation of the tropical rainforest surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place>, leading to increased sedimentation in the lake (Komarkova and Tavera 2003), though this is not believed to be a major threat to the lake habitat (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The lake is also under considerable pressure from fishing, with more than 10,000 people, mostly fishermen and their families, living along the shores of the lake (Komarkova and Tavera 2003), though this species is not targeted as a food source (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). </p><p><br/></p><p><br/><em></em></p>
153877		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153877		distribution	eng	This species is wide-ranging from northern Mexico, to Escambia County in Florida, North to southern Illinois and Ohio. It has been widely introduced in the United States and elsewhere; Huner (1986) recorded the following introductions: Arizona, California, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, North Carolina, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Utah and Virginia. This species has also been introduced to Europe, Africa, East Asia, South and Central America (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153877		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of habitat types including wet meadows, subterranean karst systems, seasonal swamps and marsh, permanent lakes and streams, rice paddy fields, and irrigation channels and reservoirs (Global Invasive Species Database 2009). This species is able to tolerate a range of environmental conditions including low oxygen levels and high temperatures (Global Invasive Species Database 2009)<span class="Info">.
153877		population	eng	"The population at the Granville County site is extremely large, both in numbers and biomass. There is a very dense population distributed throughout the small ponds along Ledge Creek and in shallow areas of the creek itself" (Cooper and Braswell 1998).&#160; This is typical of this species in its native range (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153877		threats	eng	This species is highly invasive, and is not impacted upon by any threats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153878		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G4 by by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Current Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>This species was recently collected from an intermittent stream in Walter B. Jacobs Memorial Nature Park, southwest of Blanchard, Caddo Parish, Louisiana (Walls 2006), which may bestow some further protection to this species.
153878		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is known from the Sabine basin from Harrison to Newton Counties in Texas (Johnson and Johnson 2008), and from north western Louisiana, generally in the Red River drainages, best known from DeSoto, Natchitoches and Caddo parishes (Walls 2009). Recent collections from Vernon and Sabine parishes may be assignable to this species (Walls 2009).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 32,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153878		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is found in lentic habitats such as roadside ditches and temporary pools which are static, unshaded, and have mud substrate in shallow and slightly turbid water (Penn 1950). Aquatic plants were present at the type locality, indicating the probability that the habitat is at least semi permanently wet (Penn 1950). More recently, this species was described as being found often in pools under or near hardwood trees (Johnson & Johnson 2008).&#160; When habitats dry, this species burrows deeper (Walls 2009).
153878		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Where present, numbers of this species are usually abundant, although occurrences are spotty across its range.
153878		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is distributed in a relatively rural area which is not undergoing rapid development&#160;(C. Taylor, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009). Potential threats could be alteration to hydrological regimes for drainage or timber extraction, although these are not thought to be major threats to the species&#160;(C. Taylor, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).
153879		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'vulnerable' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is needed on the population status of this species. <br/></p>
153879		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters from the northwestern part of Alachua County and northeastern part of Levy County, to the Suwannee River basin in southern Suwannee County, Florida (Franz<em> et al.</em> 1994). This species was originally known from only seven localities, but has since been found in 82 caves across its range (Hobbs 1942, Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994) and is listed as occurring in the following counties in Florida: Alachua, Columbia, Gilchrist, Hamilton, Lafayette, Levy, Madison, and Suwannee (NatureServe 2010).&#160;This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately 3,000 km².
153879		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters (Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is reported to be found in cave systems with high flow in newly emerging karst areas (NatureServe 2009).
153879		population	eng	Although this species is widespread in Florida, population numbers are considered low (NatureServe 2010).
153879		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by urban development, groundwater pollution and human disturbance. A large number of individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were killed by a flood from an unconfined aquifer (Abell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Furthermore, one site that this species is known to occur in is threatened by the construction of a proposed industrial park (Abell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and some of the caves in which this species is found are recreational dive sites<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Florida Caves 2008).
153880		conservation	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of species habitat or range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p><p>Monitoring the presence of invasive species establishment in Rough River Lake is recommended.<br/></p>
153880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the State of Kentucky, USA. Within the state the species has a limited distribution in the lower Ohio and Green River drainages.&#160; It occurs throughout the Rough River drainage and sporadically in Green River tributaries downstream of the mud river in Muhlenberg County. It also occurs in some Ohio River tributaries from Breckinridge to Henderson Countries (Taylor & Schuster 2004).&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 7,600 km<sup>2</sup>
153880		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found under rocks or debris in streams, although if there is no cover available it may make shallow burrows in muddy substrate (Rhoades 1944).</p>
153880		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is common to abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153880		threats	eng	Currently this species has&#160;no known threats. This species&#160;is subject to a potential threat from invasive specie<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>.&#160; It is present in the Rough River Lake which is under intensive fishing pressure.&#160; If bait escape leads to the establishment of an invasive species, this narrow range<em> Orconetces</em> crayfish could suffer displacement and population decline&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153881		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153881		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is restricted to Ouachita Mountain Province, to the tributaries of the Red River drainage in Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, USA (Fitzpatrick 1965).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 13,056 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153881		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in small to medium, clear, rapidly flowing permanent streams either on or near shoals, with rocky substrates (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1948).
153881		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In a study conducted by Williams (1954) 323 specimens were examined. There is no recent data available for its current population, however it is described as common at suitable sites (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153881		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
153882		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe (NatureServe 2009). It has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153882		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a restricted range in the Meramec River basin in eastern Missouri, USA (Pflieger 1996). This is an approximate extent of occurrence (EOO) of just over 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
153882		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the clear, fast flowing creeks and small rivers of the Meramec Basin.  It is rarely seen in the open, it is usually found in its burrow, under rocks and boulders (Pflieger 1996).
153882		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>     <p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is far less abundant than other crayfish with which it associates, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes punctimanus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. luteus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. medius</span> (Pflieger 1996). <span class="copy">While this species has a restricted range, W. L. Pflieger (pers. comm. cited in NatureServe 2009) says it is widespread and fairly common in the Meramec River drainage and does not have any immediate threats.</p>
153882		threats	eng	Land use practices within the range of this species have not changed in the last 50 years (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2010). This species is not thought to face any major threat at the present time.
153883		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007), while a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, apparently secure, has been assigned by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required into the abundance and the ecology of this species as this may indicate what effects the inferred threats may be having.
153883		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is known from the Chowan drainage system and lower Roanake basin in North Carolina and Virginia, USA (Fetzner 2008). Specifically, it is found in&#160;Brunswick, Dinwiddie, Greensville, Isle of Wight, Lunenburg, Nottoway, Southampton, Surry, Sussex, Emporia City, Franklin City, Petersburg City, and Suffolk City Counties, Virginia (Hobbs 1974, McGregor 2002). LeGrand <em>et al. </em>(2006) further cite streams and rivers in the Chowan and Roanoke drainages of Bertie, Granville, Halifax, Hertford, Martin, and Northampton Counties, North Carolina.<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 19,100 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153883		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sluggish streams or swamps on sand or gravel substrates (Fetzner 2008).&#160; Collections have occurred in rivers up to 200 m wide, with potentially brackish water (Cooper & Braswell 1995) and in areas with many pieces of dead wood on the bottom.
153883		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;Cooper and Braswell (1995) report it to be one of North Carolina's rarest crayfish. The abundance and range of this species in Virginia is unknown&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153883		threats	eng	There are no major threats reported for this species, however, it is likely that this species is being impacted by urban development and non point source pollution from&#160; housing around the drainage&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). As this drainage is so close to the coast it is likely to be a major transport corridor for the towns further upstream. Thus, channelization may have occurred and shipping lanes may have been created&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Further information may be obtained from the following sources, if access is possible.&#160;<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Stinson, M C</span><span style="background-color: white;">. (1997) On the type locality of Orconectes virginiensis Hobbs (Decapoda: Cambaridae).</span>&#160;Banisteria Volume: 10: 28-29&#160;</li></ul><br/><ul><li>Hobbs, H. H., Jr. (1951)&#160; A new crayfish of the genus Orconectes from. Southwestern Virginia (Decapoda, Astacidae).&#160;Virginia J. Sci. N.S. Volume: 2: 122-128</li></ul>
153884		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). <em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153884		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species , inhabits the upper Arkansas (Neosho) River system in southwestern Missouri and northwestern Arkansas, USA (Pflieger 1996). The range of this species is now known to extend into Oklahoma (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) and Kansas (Ghedotti 1998).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 22,200 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153884		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the shallow, fast flowing areas of clear steams with gravel and rock substrates (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). This species is often found in shallow burrows or beneath rocks or boulders (Pflieger 1996). This is a generalist species with a broad habitat specificity (Crandall 1998).
153884		population	eng	Based on geographic distribution, habitat specificity and local population size Crandall (1998) estimated the total population size for this species to be 22,791 individuals. There is no reason to believe that this might have altered significantly over the past decade (K. Crandall, pers. comm. 2009).
153884		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153885		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as vulnerable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction, due to the restricted range of this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and the impact any threats are having on it.
153885		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Waccamaw and the Lumber-Little Pee Dee River basins in North and South Carolina (Fullerton and Watson 2001). &#160;It is currently known from one county in South Carolina as it is a relatively new species (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010). This species has a distribution of approximately 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153885		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers and creeks (Cooper 1998), and has been found in rivers in close proximity to dams (Cooper 1998).
153885		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153885		threats	eng	No species-specific threats have been recorded, however, many of the streams and rivers in North Carolina have been invaded by the Red Swamp Caryfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii, </span>and this species is likely to reduce the abundance of this species. This species may also suffer from localized declines due to habitat destruction and alteration (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
153886		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>
153886		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio and Tennessee, USA (Finlay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This species has an unusually large distribution encompassing the interior lowlands and Cumberland Plateau (Finlay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species is the most widespread crayfish species in Kentucky and is only found in unglaciated sections of Ohio (Finaly <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In 2006, 233 individuals were recorded from 84 caves and 20 surface locations in the Cumberland Plateau (Finlay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
153886		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in both subterranean environments and surface streams   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Its occupation of subterranean environments is not recent, and is usually found under rocks with shallow excavations   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). On permanent surface streams, it prefers mud substrates   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153886		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153886		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the population of this species.
153887		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe, and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on appropriate conservation measures is needed.
153887		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from only 19 localities in the Yalobusha River drainage in Calhoun, Montgomery, Webster, Yalobusha and Grenada counties, Mississippi (Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971). The sites that this species has been collected from are severely fragmented (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009), and are distributed over approximately 1,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
153887		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in permanent sluggish streams, with substrates consisting of sticky mud and woody detritus (Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971).
153887		population	eng	This species has recently been collected during surveys, and population numbers were found to vary according to site. Sites with channelised streams and no riparian strip were found to have few individuals (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Busack (1988) suggested that the species' range was contracting due to habitat degradation, including hydrologic and stream channel alterations and loss of cover, resulting primarily from agriculture. Though, Fitzpatrick and Suttkus (1992) discounted this idea, noting that "populations are vigorous in reproduction and under no immediate threat", but that the species is rare due to its "restricted range and comparative scarcity where found". <br/><br/>Busack (1988) proposed that another Pennides species, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ouachitae</span> (originally identified as<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. vioscai</span> but corrected by Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992), appeared to be replacing or displacing this species in degraded habitats. In 2008, revisitation to three of Busack's sites that had this species coexisting&#160; with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ouachitae</span> 20 years ago, found all still contained both species, suggesting that the latter is probably not actively displacing the former (USFS 2009). In the most agriculturally impacted site, this species density was extremely low, and only juveniles were captured so identification was not definitive (USFS 2009). An additional conservation concern is that the already limited range is fragmented by the Grenada Reservoir and probably by channelized portions of the Yalobusha River and its major tributaries, presumably isolating populations in the tributary systems from one another (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153887		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by hydrological alterations such as stream channelization (Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971). Its range is fragmented due to water management uses including the construction of the Grenada Reservoir and the channelized portions of the Yalobusha River and its tributaries (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992), which is isolating <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>sub-populations of this species from one another. In areas where there is intensive agro-industry,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>populations of this species are extremely low (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992).
153888		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153888		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality at Hoya de las Guaguas, near the town of Xilitla in the Mexican state of San Luis Potosi (Hobbs and Grubbs 1986).
153888		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in subterranean waters, and is a troglobytic species. Furthermore, there are many caves and springs within its range   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153888		population	eng	This species is known from the type specimens.
153888		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Though, it is unlikely as the area in which thias species is known to occur is remote   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153889		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>
153889		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from four localities in Calcasieu, and Lafayette parishes, and has recently been found in Jefferson Davis, Acadia and St. Laudry parishes, Louisiana and Brazoria, Galveston, Chambers, Jefferson, Liberty and Orange counties, Texas (Reimer, Johnson and Marcello 1975, Johnson 2008).&#160; Recent surveys by Johnson report 86 sites across nine counties in Texas for this species (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 17000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153889		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in temporary road side ditches with heavy alluvial clay substrates (Hobbs 1989).
153889		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is abundant at most sites where it is found<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153889		threats	eng	Urbanization, oil mining, agriculture, pollution, and wetland destruction are of potential threat to this species' habitat. Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus </span>crayfishes. Competition from introduced crayfish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</span>) is also considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007). However there is no information on how these possible threats are impacting upon this species.
153890		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to establish whether this species is impacted by threats occurring within its range.
153890		distribution	eng	This species is known only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Gabriel</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Cave</st1:placename>, near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Buenos Aires</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Oaxaca</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Mejia-Ortiz<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003).&#160; The cave is in the Mojarra Hill, at an altitude of 110 m above sea level (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).&#160; This species was mainly collected within 1000 m of the cave entrance (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), and so is likely to have an extent of occurrence (EOO) less than 100 km². Surveys in surrounding areas have failed to find this species (M. Lopez-Mejia pers. comm. 2009).
153890		habitat	eng	This species is found only in pools of the dark zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gabriel</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Cave</st1:placename></st1:place> (Mejia-Ortiz et al. 2003.&#160; It is most common within 1 km of the entrance of the cave, where the substrate is soft soil and mud with occasional rocky patches (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).&#160; There are two permanent water bodies in this area; a small basin 1 m deep, and a small, shallow pool approximately 10 m from the basin (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003.&#160; The mean water temperature of the pools is 19.5-23.0°C, the dissolved oxygen concentration ranges from 1.59-6.64 mgl<sup>-1</sup> and the mean pH is 7.2-8.1 (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003.&#160; This species is found alongside copepods, mysids, isopods, caridean prawns and alpheid shrimps (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153890		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is quite common, but only within a very restricted range (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
153890		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<em> </em>is being impacted by any major threat processes, however, sugar cane plantations outside of the cave pose a future threat, and tourism may be having an impact   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153891		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and NatureServe have given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009),   demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance of this species and the threats that it is facing throughout its range.
153891		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a widely distributed species, found from the Savannah and Ochlockonee basins in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida westward into Mississippi and northward through Tennessee into the Green watershed in Kentucky, USA (Hobbs 1989, Eversole and Jones 2004). It occurs throughout most of Kentucky except for the Mississippi Alluvial Plain ecoregion (Adams 2008). <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 456,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153891		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be a primary, secondary or tertiary burrower depending on the population (Bouchard 1978). This species is also found in streams (Hobbs 1989). Taylor and Schuster (2004) also found this species in rivers and creeks of all sizes. It has also been reported that juveniles in Mississippi are common in streams which dry seasonally (Adams 2008).<br/>Bouchard (1978) also found a female in a subterranean cavern in Alabama.
153891		population	eng	This species is extremely common in Tennessee, Alabama and northern Mississippi. Globally there are most likely millions of individuals   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153891		threats	eng	There are no known major threats currently impacting on this species although due to the wide distribution there is likely to be localized declines due to urban development, agriculture, surface and ground water extraction and road contruction   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153892		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Though, part of the range of this species is a biosphere reserve (Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as agriculture.
153892		distribution	eng	This species was previously known from the type locality at southern Tamaulipas and southeastern <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). Lopez-Mejia<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2005) show that it is currently known only from  <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>. Though it is also known to occur at Queretaro and Cueva de Tenango in Hidalgo, Mexico   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  Furthermore, clarification is needed to Hobbs (1989) reference to Tamaulipas, as this record cannot be confirmed   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153892		habitat	eng	This species is known from streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).&#160; Its type locality at Puente de Xilitla is a small, slow flowing, clear, rock bottomed stream (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1943). Furthermore, the area in which it is known to occur is humid and at the foot of mountains   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153892		population	eng	This species was originally described as 'very rare' at its type locality, Puente de Xilitla (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1943). However, this species is reasonably easy to collect and is known to be quite common, with a stable population   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153892		threats	eng	Sugar cane plantations and the exapsnion of some farms are thought to be having a impact upon this species. Though, due to the mountain locality of this species, this is not considered a significant threat. Furthermore, this species is occassionally harvested as a food source but not in significant quantities   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153893		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>Further research should be initiated to determine the impact of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>on this species as this may pose a larger threat in the future.
153893		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. In Canada it primarily occurs in Ontario and Quebec(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). In the former it occurs from Moose River drainage in the north to Lake Huron in the South(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). For the latter it is uncertain where its range lies, however there have been collections of this species in the St&#160;Lawrence&#160;river and Ottawa River&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160;Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2005) noted that it has been introduced in north western Ontario. In the United States it is found in: New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,Wisconsin and Minnesota (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 218 million km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153893		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a habitat generalist, and has been found in habitats such as:&#160;small streams, &#160;large rivers, ponds, and &#160;lakes (Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005). The substrates it dwells on range from sandy to rocky&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). Under detritus, such as rock or wood, this species creates small depressions in the substrate(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). In streams without shelter and clay substrate. It is also able to create &#160;extensive burrow networks in clay substrate streams, when cover is scarce (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).
153893		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was once one of the most dominant crayfish species in much of its range. However, the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconects rusticus</span> has replaced this species as the most dominant species in some parts of its range (Olden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
153893		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>By far the biggest threat to this species is the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, which has replaced&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in parts of its range and taken it over as the dominant crayfish species in other locations (Olden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Kuhlmann 2008). In Wisconsin, for example,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> has gone from being 7% of crayfish records to 36% in 20 years (Olden<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). However, this species&#160;has stronghold areas where there is good forest cover, such as Conneaut Creek in Ohio (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In Illinois, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> has replaced this species  in 10-15% of its range, particularly in the Rock River drainage (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). It is known to be losing ground to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus </span>in Ohio (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009).Two forms of competition include, "hybridisation and reproductive interference" (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005). The increase of the range of &#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O.rusticus </span>has caused declines in this species, and in some places they are thought to be locally threatened&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;This species is also threatened by water acidification and pollution (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).
153894		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p></p>
153894		distribution	eng	This species was first found on a grassy highway within Loblolly Pine forest in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hardin County</st1:city>,  <st1:state w:st="on">Texas, USA</st1:state></st1:place>. It is now known from 17 sites in two Texan counties, namely&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Hardin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tyler</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename></st1:place>. The targeted surveying level of this species is 50% complete (D. Johnson, pers. comm. 2009).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 1,640 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153894		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower, with all adults sampled being collected from burrows. Juveniles are commonly found in open water during the cool season. Burrows of this species have multiple entrances and are often plugged (Johnson 2008). This species is described as a nuisance in the towns of Silsbee, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lumberton</st1:place></st1:city> and Kountze (Johnson 2008).
153894		population	eng	The species is abundant within its limited range and colonies are apparently a nuisance in the towns of Kountze, Silsbee, and Lumberton (Johnson 2008).
153894		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. In addition, it is not thought to be subject to urbanisation (D. Johnson, pers. comm. 2009).
153895		conservation	eng	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed this species&#160;as Currently Stable&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2007)&#160;and it has a heritage rank of G4 assigned by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species is therefore considered to be stable and not undergoing any significant population declines.</p>
153895		distribution	eng	This species was first found in Otter Creek in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Davidson County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state></st1:place>. However, its range is now known to include the <st1:city w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:city>, Duck, and <st1:placename w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basins</st1:placetype> in central <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153895		habitat	eng	This species is found in small to medium sized slow to moderately flowing streams, sometimes collected in shallow burrows, more common in leaf litter and under banks than under rocks (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153895		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;in suitable habitat, this species can be described as common&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153895		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats affecting this species.   </p><p>It is possible that within its range, it is affected by habitat degradation and destruction, such as water course alteration, or water contamination as a result of agricultural or industrial run-off&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). However, as this species&#160;is found in several river basins, it is likely that these threats will be localized and therefore will not result in significant declines in the global population.</p>
153896		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a global heritage rank of G3 and American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al., 2007) listed it as Vulnerable. Research to determine if there are any threats impacting this species is recommended.
153896		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus petersi </span>is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, inhabiting only a few localities from the headwaters almost to the tidewaters of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Ogeechee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River  basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).
153896		habitat	eng	It occurs in lotic systems of various sizes (Hobbs, 1981).
153896		population	eng	Hobbs (1981) found the species at 18 localities in Bryan, Bulloch, Burke, Glascock, Hancock, Jefferson, Taliaferro, Warren, and Washington Cos. Occurs in low numbers in most localities but a few localities have yielded several specimens (Hobbs, 1981).
153896		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
153897		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this speceis. Further targeted surveys are needed to determine if this species is in fact Extinct.
153897		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the area of its type locality at Tetela de Ocampo y La Canada, 35 km northeast of Zacapoaxtle, in the state of Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1974). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100 km².
153897		habitat	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from stream habitats (Hobbs 1974), which occur within a humid, forested region   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153897		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimens, collected in the 1940s. Attempts have been made to search for this species within its habitat but no individuals have been found   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em></em>
153897		threats	eng	Water quality within the nearest town to the type locality of this species is poor, though within mountainous regions conditions are better. Furthermore, this species is known to occur within Puebla State, and is, therefore, likely to be impacted by urbanization and urban water pollution   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153898		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of the range of this species coincide with protected areas. In addition, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>  Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
153898		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Ouachita River basin in Clark, Hot Spring, Montgomery, and Pike Counties, Arkansas (Hobbs 1973).&#160; Recent surveys have not extended the range of the species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 8,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
153898		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower, and is found in roadside ditches and low-lying seepage areas in sandy to clay soils (Hobbs 1973). It is usually found in herbaceous wetland in the vicinity of creeks (NatureServe 2009).
153898		population	eng	Subpopulations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are typically low in number (less than 50), and the populations are severely fragmented in occurrence (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009)
153898		threats	eng	<span class="copy">Habitat destruction and degradation are the main  threats to all <em>Fallicambarus </em>crayfishes.  Also, the more widely  distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or  habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification  for agriculture and wetland destruction.  The second most important  cause for imperilment is pollution (including air, water and soil  pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary  waters).  Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and  the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of  the U.S. and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes  far removed from permanent water todies, they are often prevented from  expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the  effects of global warming.  Lastly, competition from introduced crayfish  species (<em>Orconectes rusticus</em>, <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>, <em>Cambarus  robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus  (Guiasu, 2007).
153899		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153899		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span><span style="font-style: italic;">. vioscai paynei</span> is widespread East of the Mississippi River, occurring in the Wolf system in Tennessee in the North, the Tombigbee basin of Alabama in the East, South as far as the middle Pearl and upper Pascagoula drainages of Mississippi and in the West it can be found as far as the upper Pascagoula, upper Bogue Chitto and upper Homochitto drainages in Mississippi (Fitzpatrick 1990).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. v. vioscai</span> can be found to the West of the Mississippi river, in tributaries of the Red River in Arkansas and Louisiana, eastward to the Pascagoula River in Mississippi and the lower Tombigbee River in Alabama (Hobbs 1962).
153899		habitat	eng	This species can be found in permanent stream and rivers with sandy silt or gravel substrates (Penn 1946, Fitzpatrick 1990). It prefers cool running water (Schuster and Taylor 2004).
153899		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species. Though, this species complex has been described as widespread throughout the southeastern United States (Fitzpatrick 1990).</p>
153899		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species.
153900		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153900		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Trinity, Neches, and Sabine drainage systems of Texas and Louisiana (Walls and Black 2008), and <span class="copy"><span class="copy">has been recently documented from Oklahoma. However, specimens recorded from the <span class="copy">Calcasieu River <span class="copy">are in fact the newly described&#160; species<span class="copy"><span class="copy"><em> Procambarus pentastylus</em> <span class="copy"><span class="copy">(Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/><span class="copy"><span class="copy"></span></span></span></span></span>
153900		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear to coffee-coloured creeks and streams (Hobbs 1990).
153900		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
153900		threats	eng	No species-specific threats have been recorded, however, this species imay be impacted locally by urban development and by the presence of invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii </span>(K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153901		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153901		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Coastal Plain of the Savannah through Santee River basins in Georgia and South Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1981, Eversole and Jones 2004).
153901		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower found in seepage areas. Burrows are often in root mats and have two openings (Hobbs 1981).
153901		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153901		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting on this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
153902		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153902		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is confined to the tributaries of the Ouachita River in Garland, Hot Spring, Montgomery, Perry, Pike, Polk, Saline (Fitzpatrick 1965) and Clark Counties, Arkansas (INHS Crustacean Collection).   This species has a distribution of approximately 14995 km<sup>2</sup>.
153902		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams with rapidly flowing water as well as spring outflows (US Forest Service 2008).
153902		population	eng	This species is thought to be locally abundant (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; At 125 sites across Arkansas, a total of 1, 258 specimens of this species were collected (US Forest Service 2008).
153902		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species. Furthermore,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it is distributed in a sparsely populated area, and so is unlikely to be undergoing any major habitat change.
153903		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Eight of the sites at which this species occurs are on public land.
153903		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to part of the Salem Plateau of southeastern Missouri, mainly in the east/central Ozark region, from Camden and Crawford Counties south to Howell and Ripley Counties (Pfleiger 1996).
153903		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cave streams where it appears to prefer deep water pools and siphons fed by submerged passages. It has been observed in a wide variety of habitats, including cave streams over rock, sand and bat guano substrates, the margins of deep, subterranean lakes over organic debris; and the orifices of large springs near the limit of daylight at depths of 12 to 40 m deep. Specimens have also been collected in daylight from the outflow of a small spring, a pool in the bottom of a large, deep sink and the ruts left by a truck that became stuck in an Ozark fen (Pflieger 1996).
153903		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.   Gardner (1986) reported several observations of this species, with the largest number noted being two to three crayfish at any given time.
153903		threats	eng	This species has been seriously affected in one locality by an acute pollution episode. This crayfish remains susceptible to this kind of threat as urban encroachment into its habitat proceeds.&#160; In 1981 a pipeline break caused ammonium fertilizer to leak into the Maramec Spring causing a massive decrease in oxygen levels, resulting in the death of thousands of individuals (Pflieger 1996).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153904		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rnak of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/>Further research is required to determine the abundance, habitat, ecology and a more accurate distribution of this species, in addition to the the existence of any major threats.
153904		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Black Warrior River system and Buttahatchee Creek of the Tombigbee system, Alabama, USA (Mirarchi et al., 2004).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 18,400 km<sup>2</sup>.
153904		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams under rocks (Hall 1959).
153904		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153904		threats	eng	It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydroloigcal regime and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153905		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5,&#160;widespread, abundant and secure,&#160;by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
153905		distribution	eng	This species is found in the <st1:state w:st="on">Ohio</st1:state> drainage system in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky, USA</st1:place></st1:state>. Its distribution also extends to southern <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state> and northern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alabama</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor 2000).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;58,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153905		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits creeks and streams, perfers riffle habitat under large cobble (McNeely <em>et al.</em> 1999, Fezner 2008).</p>
153905		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is common in areas of suitable habitat (Taylor & Schuster 2004).
153905		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153906		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure) by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153906		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Tombigbee and Tallahatchie river basins in Alabama and Mississippi, and the Hatchie drainage in Tennessee (Payne 1972).
153906		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent sluggish streams and lentic situations such as ponds. The highest densities are found in streams which are upstream or downstream of small impoundments. Juveniles are found in masses of fine root systems along stream margins (US Forest Service 2008). In ponds, adults use deeper water by day moving into shallow waters or even terrestrial habitats by night (Payne 1972). This species is also a secondary burrower (Payne 1972).
153906		population	eng	This species is believed to be widespread and abundant (S Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153906		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by urbanization on a local level, but is unlikely to be being impacted upon by any major threat processes on a global scale.
153907		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and the impact of potential threats.<br/></p><p></p>
153907		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Neuse and Tar-Pamlico river basins of North Carolina . It is known from the Coastal Plain and the eastern edge of the Piedmont Plateau. Within the Neuse River basin this species type locality is the Trent River in Jones County, North Carolina, with a range from Willow Springs, Wake County Southeast to the upper reaches of the Trent River, Jones County to Swift Creek between Pitt and Craven Counties. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>appears to be absent from some of the Coastal Plain and most of the Piedmont Plateau. In the Tar-Pamlico River basin this species occurs in the headwater streams East to western Halifax County and Southeast to Pitt County (Cooper and Cooper 1995).   This species has a distribution of approximately 21865 km<sup>2</sup>.
153907		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear, shallow permanent rivers with little or no visible flow. The type locality stream had substrate of limestone covered with fine silt and organic debris. The specimens collected were found under rocks (Cooper and Cooper 1995).
153907		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, although 200 specimens of this species were collected in a survey by Cooper and Cooper (1995).
153907		threats	eng	This species is likely to be localy impacted upon by nutrient loading within river habitat, from agricultural activites activites occuring cloase to the river, as well as urbanization. However, there is no information as to how these activites are impacting upon this species, and it is unlikely that it is not threatened on a global scale   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153908		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Gloabl Heritage Status Rank of G5 by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153908		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Nashville Basin, Highland Rim, and western edge of the Cumberland Plateau in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, USA (Bouchard 1978). In Kentucky, it is commonly encountered in the upper Green River drainage basin and sporadically in the Cumberland, Rolling Fork and Dix River drainages   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 69,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153908		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is commonly found in permanent streams under rocks (Bouchard 1978). It is also a secondary burrower (Bouchard 1978).
153908		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
153908		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likley to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regimes and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153909		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <span class="copy">This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<span class="copy">, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction, provided by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This classification has been given due to the restricted range occupied by this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/><br/></span>More research is required for this species as little is known about its abundance and threats associated with its type locality   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)<span class="copy"><span class="copy">.</span></span>
153909		distribution	eng	This species was recently described from the eastern Blue Ridge foothills and western Piedmont Plateau of North Carolina, USA, where it occurs in streams in the Upper Broad, Catawba, and Yadkin-Pee Dee River basins (Cooper 2006). It is described from about 50 sites in this region. The known distribution appears to be limited to a system of streams and  rivers derived from multiple stream capture of elements of the White's  River region by backcutting headwaters of high-gradient, southeast  flowing streams (Cooper 2006)   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be just under 12,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153909		habitat	eng	This species is known from small to medium permanent freshwater streams (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).<span class="copy">
153909		population	eng	Due to the recent description there is no accurate population data available for this species. This is a rather rare species in terms of comparative numbers that show up in samples, but appears to have a broad distribution in the upper sections of the Catawba, Yadkin, and Broad basins as a North Carolina endemic (J. Cooper, pers. comm. 2008).
153909		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by localized residential development occurring in the Piedmont Plateau river basin. There are some small-holding farms adjacent to the creeks in the Piedmont Plateau river basin which will almost certainly result in nutrient loading which may have caused a decline in population size (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). At present, however, it is not known what impact these threats are having upon this species.
153910		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by &#160;the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).<br/><em><em>Bait regulation would help to prevent the spread of&#160;O. rusticus in parts of this species range where it is currently not present&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/></em></em>
153910		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Little Kanawha River system in West Virginia, southern Ohio and adjacent areas of Kentucky, USA (Fetzner 2008, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Jezerinac <em>et al.</em> 1995).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 232,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153910		habitat	eng	This species&#160;can be found amongst rubble or underneath undercut banks in small, medium and large sized streams and pools (Jezerinac <em>et al.</em> 1995).
153910		population	eng	This species has been found in densities ranging from 0.2 ? 1.8 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Jezerinac <em>et al.</em>1995).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is described as common in suitable habitat although, where it is coming in contact with the invasive species <em>Orconectes rusticus,</em>&#160;it is showing large declines in population size.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153910		threats	eng	In parts of the Ohio and West Virginia&#160;range of this species, populations&#160;are declining as the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>expands (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, T. Jones pers. comm. 2009). At present this is not a major threats to this species, but may become problematic in the future.
153911		conservation	eng	<p>NatureServe assessed this species with a heritage ranking of G4, stable,&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and the American Fisheries Society &#160;lists it as Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p><p>Removal of woody debris from channels is locally impacting this species, so control of this practice would benefit the species (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p></p><p><br/></p>
153911		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was first found in <st1:placename w:st="on">Morris</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Creek</st1:placename> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Carroll County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place>, USA. It is known to be confined to streams draining the McNairy Sand and Coon Creek, which is in Carroll, Henderson, Henry and Benton Counties, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor and Sabaj 1997). In general,&#160;it is restricted to the headwater streams of the White Oak Creek and Beech River Drainages due to its tendency to inhabit streams with pure sand substrate (Taylor and Sabaj 1997). It has also been found in the middle fork of the Obion river which drains to the Mississippi (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 5,500 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
153911		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams. Its type locality is a stream 5 - 8 m wide, with an average depth of 0.4 m. There were piles of woody debris occurring commonly in the stream (Taylor and Sabaj 1997). Throughout its range, this species shows a preference for pure sand substrates, restricting its range to these sections of streams (Taylor and Sabaj 1997).
153911		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>
153911		threats	eng	<p>&#160;There are no major threats known to be affecting this species.&#160; It seems to be somewhat tolerant of channelization as long as there is sand and woody debris present (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Therefore if channelization is combined with debris removal, which is a common practice, it can pose a localized threat (G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
153912		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the population status and threats impacting upon this species.
153912		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located from the Pearl River to the Escatawpa River basin in southern Mississippi and Alabama (Hobbs 1975). This species is thought to be expanding its range into eastern parts of the Pearl river, and replacing <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus penni</span> in eastern tributaries of the Pearl river (Walls 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 23800 km<sup>2</sup>.
153912		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in permanent streams (Hobbs 1975), that are clear, shallow and flowing&#160; with a strong current. In addition, it inhabits streams that contain woody debris and detritus, that have clay, sand and gravel substrate (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153912		population	eng	There is no poulation information available for this species. However, it is known from a number of collections, though it is thought to be undersampled in Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153912		threats	eng	This species may be effected by logging (resulting in sedimentation), agriculture and urbanization on a local level, but is unlikely to impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153913		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 (Currently Stable) by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research on the abundance, range and threats is needed.
153913		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found in the Tennessee River drainage system from northeastern <st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> and northward to the vicinity of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Knoxville</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place>, USA   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). This species is also found in <st1:city w:st="on">Chickamauga</st1:city> creek and various creeks in Dade, Walker, Catoosa and Whitfield counties in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This is possibly the dominant species of this subgenus in the upper <st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alabama</st1:place></st1:state> (Fetzner 2008).
153913		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in fast moving streams. It is also found in slower streams when cover is available, such as rocks, roots or leaf litter (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1981).
153913		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153913		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
153914		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
153914		distribution	eng	This species is found across southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas (Pflieger 1996). However, this species has disappeared from parts of its former range, particularly in the Spring River drainage. This is thought to be due to displacement by the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007).&#160; In Missouri, it occurs commonly in all principal drainages on the  southern slope of the Ozark Uplands, from the St. Francis River west to  Eleven Point River and adjacent Spring River and has been collected in  the James Rvier, Beaver Creek, and Little North Fork of the White River  system, but is rare there (Pflieger 1996).<br/>Reports for this species in the Mississippi are in error (T. Mann, MS  NHP, pers. comm. January 2008).&#160; Despite this   the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 52,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153914		habitat	eng	It inhabits permanent-flowing, clear, high-gradient, rocky streams, ranging in size from small creeks to moderate-sized rivers (Pflieger 1996). Flinders and Magoulick (2007) found both small and large individuals predominantly occupied riffles and runs.
153914		population	eng	This species has been found in densities of up to 12 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Flinders and Macoulick 2007). A population decline can be inferred, however, from the reduction caused by the recently identified invasive species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153914		threats	eng	Interspecific competition with the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> is thought to be causing a reduction in the range of this species, in addition to changes in land use causing a decline in stream habitat quality (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007). The causes of this decline, however, have yet to be confirmed. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153915		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>
153915		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Little and Red River basins in Arkansas, and McCurtain County, Oklahoma and Texas (Johnson and Johnson 2008).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Though, the range of this species has not been clearly defined (Hobbs, 1989). A recent survey in Arkansas indicates that this crayfish is far more widespread and much more common than formerly believed. Searches throughout southwestern Arkansas revealed the presence of 36 new populations of this crayfish in Little River and Sevier Counties, Arkansas (Robison and Crandall 2007).
153915		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in ditches and woodland swamps (Hobbs 1990). It is most common along highways where woodland areas are adjacent to roadways (US Forest Service 2008).
153915		population	eng	This species is known to be typically very abundant where found (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153915		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. However, it is likely that this species is undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution.
153916		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure) by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). In addition, part of the range of this species is known to occur within National Forest parkland. Further research is needed to determine abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153916		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Ouachita and Arkansas river systems in southwestern Arkansas, and the Yazoo river basin in Mississippi (Penn 1954). This species has a distribution of approximately 93000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153916		habitat	eng	In Arkansas this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in permanent streams with a strong current, and a substrate consisting of mixed sand and gravel, either with or without flat rocks. Where the water is clear, shallow (<38 cm) and cool (19<sup>o</sup>C) with a moderate presence of vegetation (Penn 1954). However, clear, colourless water is not present within Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species is nocturnal, foraging near stream banks at night. During the day, juveniles hide in plant cover near banks whilst adults hide in burrows (Penn 1954).
153916		population	eng	This species is easy to collect and often abundant at sites at which it is found (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153916		threats	eng	This species may be impacted locally by channelization and loss of in-stream cover (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153917		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its current distribution and any major threats that are impacting upon it.
153917		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Barbour, Bulloch, Lowndes, Macon, Montgomery, and Russell Counties, Alabama (Hobbs 1989).&#160; There is one recent record for this species, from March 2008, but all other records for this species are over 35 years old (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
153917		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in sluggish streams and roadside ditches, and is present in muddy water conditions with abundant filamentous algae (Hobbs 1959).
153917		population	eng	There is no population information is available for this species.
153917		threats	eng	It is not clear   whether there are any major threats impacting this species. There are a number of potential threats   including change in hydrological regimes occuring within its range (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
153918		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007, NatureServe 2009). One site where this species is located, is within a military reserve in Georgia (Stanton 2008). At present, this species is under no impact from any military activities, but there is the possibility of disturbance due to the commencement of more intense military activities (Stanton 2008). However, the reserve has a natural resource management plan inplace to protect species which occur within the reserve (Stanton 2008). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by threats within its range.
153918		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is generally distributed in the coastal plain region of Alabama from the Mobile system as far north as Choctaw, Tuscaloosa, Blount, and Tallapoosa Counties, East to the Chattahoochee system in Georgia where it is only known form a couple of sites, and the Florida pan handle West of the Apalatchicola system (Fetzner 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately 115,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153918		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in permanent clear flowing streams, found amongst debris, on sandy, mud and silty substrates (Stanton 2008).
153918		population	eng	According to Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) this species is common to abundant in suitable habitat at most locations.
153918		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a widespread and adaptive crayfish species which is unlikely to be under any major threats across its range.&#160; On a local scale, it is potentially threatened by military activities at one locatility, and two of the best sites have been impacted by highway construction in Georgia, which is at the edge of its range (Stanton 2008).
153919		conservation	eng	<p><em></em> This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and was given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This means this species is considered secure.</p><p>Further research is needed to determine the abundance and the full range of this species, as currently it is only known from two localities.</p>
153919		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to small streams of the Highland Rim in DeKalb and Smith Counties, and Cannon, Humphreys, and Stewart Counties, Tennessee, USA. In Kentucky, it is rare, occurring in the upper reaches of the Barren River drainage in Allen County and the Little River, a tributary of the Cumberland River in Trigg County (Taylor and Schuster 2004).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 17,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153919		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was a small roadside stream. It was 1.2 - 1.8 m wide and 0.1 - 0.3 m in depth. The substrate was rocky, with clear fast flowing water. There was an accumulation of rubbish and debris on the rocks and in the eddies in the faster flowing areas (Hobbs 1953).
153919		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
153919		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats known to be affecting this species<em></em>. It is known however, that throughout the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> the major impacts are hydrological alterations, channelization and land use change, pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural runoff, excessive sedimentation and rapid urban expansion. Nearly 25% of the region is agricultural land, and this is having an impact on the freshwater systems (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this species is found in a roadside stream, with an accumulation of rubbish, which suggests it is tolerant to pollution and other such disturbances. Therefore, the threat processes currently found in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> are likely not to be having a significant impact on this species.</p>
153920		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given&#160; a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and is widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
153920		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be found in the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee River drainages in Kentucky and Tennessee southward to Sand Mountain in Alabama and Georgia, USA (Cooper and Schofield 2002). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 84,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153920		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent freshwater streams. The mountains of eastern Kentucky, southwestern West Virginia, and along the northwestern border of Virginia interlock allowing the crayfish to cross the drainage divides (Rhoades 1944).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has the widest variability of water quality tolerance in the family Cambaridae, however, as a species it is not tolerant of pollution (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
153920		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>     <p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is estimated to have had a decline in population size due to anthropogenic impairments (Peake&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</p>
153920		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is impacted by many agricultural threats such as production of non-timber crops and pollution through nutrient loading. Urban recreational activities such as swimming occur as well as urban pollution in the form of sewage which damages the water quality. There has been surface water abstraction for domestic use from the Kentucky river system. In parts of the habitat channelization has occurred removing much of the rocky substrate needed for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Some of the impacts are so strong that no aquatic life can be sustained in these areas (Kentucky River Authority 2009). Given its wide distriubtion, however, these threats are not likely to impact this species in te near future   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153921		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, whether it is restricted to its type locality, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153921		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality; a cave 4 km west northwest of the Hacienda at Potrero Viejo, Paraje Nuevo, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico (Hobbs 1943). Collection attempts are being made in surrounding suitable habitat, to try and determine the range of this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153921		habitat	eng	This species has been found in the shallow water of a subterranean stream system consisting of pools joined by shallow narrows (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1943).
153921		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimens (M. Mejia-Lopez and F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153921		threats	eng	Cordoba is a fast expanding urban area which may pose a threat to this species in the near future (M. Mejia-Lopez and F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).
153922		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
153922		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found from the Apalachicola River westward to the Choctawhatchee Bay drainage basin in Walton County, Florida (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 6500 km<sup>2</sup>.
153922		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both lentic and lotic situations, and is a tertiary burrower (Fetzner 2008).
153922		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153922		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat processes. However, it may to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution, but this is unlikely to be impacting it on a global scale (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153923		conservation	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p><p>It is likely that aquatic management plans in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky are</st1:place></st1:state> going to have an effect on the global population of this species,<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>as the plans cover the majority of the range of this species (Burr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).</p>
153923		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the state of Kentucky, USA, and is found in the <st1:city w:st="on">Lower Tennessee, Lower Cumberland and Pond River drainages. In Tristan and Todd County regions, the species occurs in the headwaters of three river drainages; the Little River (Cumberland River drainage), the Pond River (Green River drainage), and Whipperwill Creek (Red and&#160;</st1:city>Cumberland River drainages) (Taylor and Schuster 2004).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 6,200 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153923		habitat	eng	<p>This species is common in small to large creeks ranging in width from 2 - 8 m with bottom substrates of bedrock, cobble or large gravel.&#160; In larger creeks the species can occur in slower flowing runs with mud and scattered cobble substrates (Taylor & Schuster 2004).</p>
153923		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is regarded as&#160;relatively common in streams of suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153923		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species. Further, as it largely resides in areas with high levels of endemic crayfish, it is likely to benefit from aquatic management plans, aimed at the conservation of other species in this area (Burr<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).
153924		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em>&#160; </em>Further taxonomic work is needed to distinguish between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus acutus</span>, and to confirm the ranges of these two species.&#160; Furthermore, information on the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as water abstraction and pollution are also needed.
153924		distribution	eng	<p>The exact range of this species<em> </em>is unclear, due to taxonomic confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus acutus</span> (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The type locality of this species is La Cueva Chica, a limestone cave about 1.6 km northeast of Pujal in the Mexican State of San Luis Potosi (Hobbs 1989).&#160; Its presence has also been confirmed in the states of Hidalgo, Puebla, Tamaulipas and Veracruz, Mexico (Hobbs 1989).&#160;<em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>In addition, this species has been extirpated from Atlapesco river, though this is only a small part of its range   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em> </em></em></em></em></em></em></em>This species has a distribution of approximately 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
153924		habitat	eng	This is not a cave adapted species, and is known to occur in rivers in the lowlands. It is known to be a tolerant species, which coexists with prawn species, and where the climate is humid   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153924		population	eng	This species is known to be easy to collect, and has been collected a number of times   (M.López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>
153924		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in central <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place> are known to be threatened by water abstraction and pollution, as well as by other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (Contreras-Balderas <em>et al. 200</em>3).<em>&#160; </em>However, it is unknown what impact these threats may be having on this species.&#160; In 1995, the Australian redclaw crayfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax quadricarinatus</span>, was introduced to the region for aquaculture, and it has subsequently spread and established in the wild (Bortolini et al. 2007).&#160; There is currently no evidence that this has impacted native crayfish populations, but its spread may potentially become a threat in the future (Bortolini et al. 2007).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153925		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Status Heritage Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). It has also been described as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the native population size and the population trends of this species. Monitoring of the harvest levels and trade of this species should be undertaken   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153925		distribution	eng	This is a widespread crayfish species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found from Maine and Connecticut in the east to eastern Colorado and Wyoming in the west, and from Kentucky in the south to southern Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec in the north. Its presence in New England, including New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont and Massachusetts are probably the result of introductions. The presence of this species in Connecticut is questionable (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Hobbs 1974, Hobbs 1989, Williams 1945, Aiken 1965, Simon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Since this species was introduced into Europe in the early 1990s is has steadily spread along the Rhine in Germany (Gelmar 2006). The native Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 6 million km<sup>2</sup>.
153925		habitat	eng	This is a generalist species often found in roadside ditches, as well as ponds, flood plains, drainage ditches and small sluggish streams. It also occurs in higher gradient gravel bedded streams (Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954). The substrate in the habitats of this species is generally soft mud or clay with abundant aquatic vegetation (Crocker and Barr 1968, Berrill 1978). &#160;This species is also not an obligate burrower and so can also travel across dry ground, especially in wet weather and is thus able to move from pond to pond (Crocker and Barr 1968). This species is found to occur with other crayfish species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus bartonii, Fallicambarus fodiens, Orconectes propinquus, Orconectes rusticus rusticus, Orconectes virilis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes obscurus</span> (Berrill 1978, David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996, Hamr unpublished data).<br/>Although this species has a broad ecological niche it is unable to colonize fast flowing streams of more than 26 cms<sup>-1</sup> which restricts its distribution (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
153925		population	eng	This species is abundant in much of its range, particularly Indiana (Simon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Pflieger 1996).
153925		threats	eng	This species is found in habitats vulnerable to human activity&#160;(Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005). Unlike other crayfish, it has a better tolerance to pollution and low oxygen levels&#160;(Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005). &#160;Due to these tolerances this species is unlikely to be impacted greatly by the threats reported.
153926		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153926		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in western Ohio and Kentucky, all of Indiana (except for the most northwest corner), southern and east-central Illinois, southern Michigan, and western Tennessee near its northern border with Kentucky, USA (Thoma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).  It is widely distributed in the western part of Kentucky from  Louisville to the Mississippi River embayment (Taylor and Schuster  2004).&#160; In Ohio, it occurs in the western part of the state west from a  line running from Sandusky to Cincinnati (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).&#160; In  Alabama, it is only known from the Tennessee River drainage (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
153926		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower that thrives in disturbed environments, for example, ditched streams surrounded by pastureland, irrigation channels, in farm fields and partially drained wetlands (Thoma<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
153926		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is commonly found throughout its wide distribution (Thoma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
153926		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats.
153927		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153927		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and known to inhabit Counties in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas (Williams 1954). Although not listed in McLaughlin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005), the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus simulans </span><span style="font-style: italic;">regiomontanus</span> extends into Texas from Mexico (Johnson and Johnson 2008), and within Mexico it is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>known from Nuevo Leon (Moles and Tistler 1995).
153927		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower which constructs burrows in or at the edge of temporary pools, sometimes far from permanent water, although it has been described as inhabiting streams, ponds (Williams 1954) and lakes (Young 1971). <br/><br/>Furthermore, this species has been described from burrows in a slough (marsh) near a spring-fed pool in Kansas. In New Mexico, this species burrows into the banks of lakes and rivers as well as inhabiting quiet pools (Williams and Leonard 1952). In addition, irrigation channels and ditches have also been inhabited by this species. As a primary burrower this species is capable of existing in burrows with no surface water (Williams 1954).
153927		population	eng	This species was reported to occur infrequently in Kansas even though more than 20 localities were recorded. In Texas, it is common in ditches and irrigation channels (Johnson and Johnson 2008).
153927		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.
153928		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).&#160;</em> This species is listed as State Endangered in Illinois   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153928		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits tributaries of the Patoka River in the Wabash Basin in southern Indiana and the Saline River, Honey and Rock Creek watersheds and small tributaries of the Ohio River in southern Illinois, USA (Hobbs 1989, Page and Mottesi 1995, Simon and Thoma 2006). This species is absent from the north fork of the Saline River where historical records document its presence (Page and Mottesi 1995), which comprised about 25% of its range in Illinois.<br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 11,100 km<sup>2</sup>.
153928		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small to medium sized streams with coarse rocky substrates. This species prefers a slow to moderate current and is often found in association with woody debris (Simon and Thoma 2006). Most specemins collected by Page and Mottesi (1995) were from less than 30 cm deep and all were from less than 50 cm deep.
153928		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is common in southwestern Indiana and is regarded as common in the restricted area where it is found in Illinois (Page and Mottesi 1995). The relative abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is 0.76 individuals m<sup>-2</sup> in its perferred habitat. However, this species has been found at lower densities ? only one or two individuals per stream ? in less suitible streams that are heavilty sedimented&#160; (Simon and Thoma 2006).
153928		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to strip-mining actives in the north fork of the Saline River area of Illinois are thought to be responsible for the extirpation of<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species at localities where this species was historically found (Page and Mottesi 1995). Simon and Thoma (2006) consider <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species habitat in Indiana to be under similar pressures as those in Illinois.<br/>The coal mining that occurs around streams around the middle and south forks of the Saline River seems not to be resulting in detectable impacts on the species (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The remainder of the area is relatively rural and there are not considered to be any effects from urbanization.&#160; In the eastern portion of its range where its habitat coincides with a national forest, it was collected in more than 30 locations, in many different tributaries (Simon & Thoma 2006).
153929		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
153929		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Escambia River basin in Conecuh, Escambia, and Monroe Counties, Alabama, and Escambia County, Florida (Hobbs 1971).     <p>This species has a distribution of approximately 5300 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
153929		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1971). This species could be considered to be a habitat generalist (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153929		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153929		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threats.
153930		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, as well as its abundance and possible threats.<br/></p><p></p>
153930		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the western tributaries of the Tombigbee River in Chickasaw, Clay, Lowndes, and Monroe Counties, Mississippi (Cooper and Hobbs 1980). Furthermore, Cooper and Hobbs (980) noted that it probably also ranges northwestward at least into Lee, Pontotoc, and Union Counties. Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) included this specie<em>s </em>in a species list for <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state></st1:place>, with the caveat that the taxonomy and distribution of the taxon is unclear. Fitzpatrick (2002) included these additional <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> Counties in the range: Calhoun, Choctaw, Itawamba, Oktibbeha, Prentiss, and Tishomingo. The Mississippi crayfish database lacks records from Prentiss and Tishomingo Counties, but includes records from many counties West of the published range (Adams 2008).&#160;  This species has a distribution of approximately 50000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153930		habitat	eng	<p>This species<em> </em>occurs in sluggish and moderately flowing streams and ditches with or without emergent vegetation. Stream substrate is sand, silt, or rock, and they often occur in areas where rock is added at road crossings.&#160; Furthermore, it is known to occur in streams that completely dry out in the summer months (Adams 2008), and<em> </em>constructs small burrows near to the water line (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).</p>
153930		population	eng	Although uncommon in some sites, it is common or abundant in many localities   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153930		threats	eng	<p>In experimental tanks, this species<em> </em>were preyed upon by catfish; more so in the absence of shelter, suggesting that the loss of cover in many incised streams within its range may limit its abundance or distribution (Adams 2007). However, at present this species is not considered to be impacted upon by any major threat process.<br/></p>
153931		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), which is due to the species being believed to be secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153931		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazos and Brazoria counties, Texas, eastward through the coastal plain to the Mississippi basin and from the lower part of the delta to Johnson County, Illinois (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004, Fetzner 2008, Burr and Hobbs 1984, Hobbs 1990). In addition, this species is a native of the Mississippi River lowlands in Missouri (B. DiStefano pers. comm. 2010)
153931		habitat	eng	This species inhabits well vegetated swamps, ditches (including roadside ditches), ponds and lowland streams with muddy substrate (Taylor, Jones and Bergey 2004, Fetzner 2008, Pfelieger 1996).
153931		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153931		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153932		conservation	eng	<p>Part of the range of this species is located within a wildlife management area (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). The American Fisheries Society assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Threatened (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and it was given a heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), meaning it is imperilled due to its restricted range on the one peninsula of limestone where it is found. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) suggested that additional collections should be conducted in the Caney Fork River drainage north and east of the current known range of this species to determine whether it is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">De Kalb</st1:city></st1:place> and Cannon counties.&#160; Monitoring of logging activity is needed.<br/></p>
153932		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species was first found in a tributary of Dry Creek, at Pea Ridge Wildlife Management Area in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">De Kalb County</st1:city>,  <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state></st1:place>. It has since been found to occur in a portion of the Eastern Highland Rim in central <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state>. It appears that this species is restricted to a narrow peninsula (14 km) of elevated limestone that extends southwards throughout the counties of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">De Kalb</st1:place></st1:city> and Cannon (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Samples made in several high gradient, seep-fed, creeks in nearby Eastern Highland Rim sites surrounding the peninsula previously described did not record this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
153932		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only on one peninsula of limestone, with chert and shale formations, in seep fed creeks. Creeks can range from 0.25 m - 0.6 m wide with gravel and small cobbles and shale substrates. Water depth can be 1 - 5 cm, flow is not constant in all stretches. Specimens were found under pieces of flat rock and in shallow burrows dug into the stream bank (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species can be found in two types of burrow; winding burrows into the stream bank, or in shallow burrows under mid-channel shale or gravel (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
153932		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. However, a total of 68 specimens have been examined from five locations in the Caney Fork River drainage (5 sites) and one site in the East Fork Stones River drainage in Cannon County, Tennessee (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).</p>
153932		threats	eng	<p>Much of the species' habitat is found in an agricultural  setting and many of the small streams occupied by this species are subjected to  cattle grazing. Large numbers of cattle can trample streams destroying habitat  and reducing the abundance of this species (R. Thoma pers. obs. 2010), However at present this is not considered a major threat to this species.&#160;Furthermore, as the known range of this species is restricted to parts of only two counties it may be vulnerable to any future habitat alterations. Though, in central Tennessee this type of habitat usually occurs far from roads on privately held property where access can be restricted (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). There is a potential future threat from timber harvest on neighbouring hillsides which would significantly impact the quality of this species habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
153933		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed the global population of this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In addition this species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/>Further research is required on the current abundance of this species which would enable a more comprehensive conservation status to be assigned.
153933		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Piedmont region from Orange County, North Carolina, to Richland County, South Carolina, USA (Eversole and Jones 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Within this it is nearly restricted to the Piedmont Plateau (Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). It is found in the Haw River subdrainage in the Cape Fear basin in Alamance and Guilford Counties, in the northern and northwestern parts of the Yadkin-Pee Dee and Catawbe River basins, and in the eastern Broad River drainage. In addition, several populations are now known in the Sandhills of the North Coastal Plain (Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 65,200 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153933		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower and can be found in small streams and burrows although it is not confined to either (Hobbs 1956).<br/>This species type locality has been described as the flood plain pools of Little River, Fairfield County, South Carolina. The pools were 1.5 - 4.5 m in width with clay banks and bottom,  turbid water and a temperature of 20<sup>o</sup>C. No vegetation was found in these pools.<br/>This species can survive in seepage areas where there is no permanent standing water. This species has been collected in both lotic and lentic habitats as well as relatively clear water and water laden with silt, and on neither occassion has this species shown preference   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153933		population	eng	In 1956 it was reported that this species was abundant at 1 locality but it was believed that there was additionally a colony of some size in a seepage area in Rowan County (Hobbs 1956).<br/>There is no recent abundance data for this species.
153933		threats	eng	There are no known major threats acting upon this species although it is likely to be impacted upon by the urban development occurring in the Carolinas and from urban non point-source pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In some areas of this species range invasive species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, have been found which could impact the species (Fullerton and Watson 2001).
153934		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G3/G4 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine abundance, habitat ecology and threats impacting this species.
153934		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Pascagoula, Escatawpa and Mobile river basins in Mobile and Washington Counties, Alabama, and George, Jackson, Perry, and Stone Counties, Mississippi (Hobbs 1952). Furthermore, it is also known from the from lower Tombigbee river systems, Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153934		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent streams (Hobbs 1952).
153934		population	eng	This species is thought to be uncommon throughout its range (Fitzpatrick 1996).
153934		threats	eng	This species is impacted upon by urbanization in part of its range, but this is not believed to be a major threat (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153935		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).
153935		distribution	eng	This species occurs in most of Ohio, western West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, southwestern Pennsylvania and northwestern Tennessee, wherever suitable habitat occurs. (Jezerinac 1993).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 172,500 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>
153935		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is a primary burrower that burrows near streams or swamps near streams. This species is rarely seen outside of its burrow (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
153935		population	eng	In Kentucky, this species occurs sporadically from the Big and Little Sandy River drainages in the far eastern part of the state west to the uppermost Salt and Green River drainages and south to the upper Cumberland River drainage (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; In Ohio it is found from the eastern side of the state west up to the eastern side of the Great Miami River basin and can also be found in the Appalachian Foothills of Kentucky and West Virginia and a small area of Tennessee just west of the Smoky Mountains (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In addition, this species was collected in 2007 in the headwaters of the Youghiogheny in Garrett County, Maryland which may represent an invasion of robust populations from along the Ohio River floodplain leading to possible invasion of the Monongahela River, which the Youghiogheny River ultimately joins (Loughman 2007).
153935		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>
153936		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required on the taxonomy of this species.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
153936		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is <span class="copy">known from Ouachita and Red River drainages in Nevada, Howard, and Sevier counties, Arkansas. It was recently documented in northeast Texas in Fannin County (Johnson and Johnson 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>. This species has a severely fragmented range and is known from fewer than 20 sites each of which had fewer than 50 individuals (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).
153936		habitat	eng	This species is found in simple burrows and temporary pools (Hobbs and Robison 1988).&#160; It is a primary burrower, i.e. it burrows all year long in one place and rarely exits except during the breeding season when males search for females. This species was never collected in static open water, in fields or in ditches with standing water. Burrows are generally simple in construction, and depths of capture ranged from 1-2.5 feet. Soils where burrows were found tend to be of a sandy clay without standing water. Roadside ditches, because of their propensity to hold water seasonally, are a favourite habitat type for this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153936		population	eng	In each population examined, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was found to be a highly localized and a locally uncommon crayfish.&#160; No formal estimates of population size have been conducted for this species, though, it can occur in 'extremely large' colonies (Robison and Allen 1995). Searches have found fewer than 50 individuals at each site (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>
153936		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is conversion of land for agriculture and resulting pollution (sedimentation, eutrophication, herbicides and pesticides) (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153937		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as a species of Special Concern (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and NatureServe has given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, imperilled and vulnerable to extirpation   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required into the population trends and abundance of this species as well as the effects of any threats impacting them.
153937		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is only known from the Saluda River basin in Abbeville, <st1:city w:st="on">Anderson</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Greenville</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Greenwood</st1:city>, Laurens, Newberry, and Saluda, counties, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:place></st1:state>. The type locality is <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Anderson</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> and the county with the most number of records (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
153937		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species type locality is a swampy area bordering an unnamed  tributary of the Saluda River (Hobbs 1983). This species is a primary burrower which creates burrows in sandy clay rich in humus with a relatively high water table, but static water flow   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>Other members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Distocambarus</span>, most notably <em>D. crockeri</em>, are associated with soils characterized by a near surface (< 2 m deep) soil horizon that restricts vertical water movement and results in a perched water table that ensures free water in the burrow during periods of high rainfall (Welch and Eversole 2006, Welch <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; However, this might not be the case with <em>C. carlsoni</em>, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> (1983) gives the impression that the water table was closer to the surface than has been observed in <em>D. crockeri</em> colonies; he described the habitat as swampy and that is not the case for <em>D. crockeri.</em> Another major difference is that <em>D. crockeri</em> lives in open-canopy, prairie-types habitats whereas <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> (1983) found <em>D. carlsoni</em> in more forested area with matted roots, decaying leaves littering the ground.&#160; Note also that <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> (1983) type locality for <em>D. carlsoni</em> was near a stream and that is clearly not the case for <em>D. crockeri</em> colonies (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
153937		population	eng	There is no data to indicate a decline in this species (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species has proven difficult to collect owing to its burrowing nature and there have been a number of droughts (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
153937		threats	eng	In the Savannah River Basin surface water abstraction from the Savannah river provides drinking water for the municipalities. There are also 183 facilities, including municipalities and industry, authorized to discharge waste water into the Savannah River Basin (Georgia River Network 2002). Habitat destruction and alteration have been stated as 'challenges' to this species (South Carolina Department of Natural Resources 2005). &#160;  <p>Alteration of soil hydrology should be considered a major threat to all the <span style="font-style: italic;">Distocambarus</span> species including <em>D. carlsoni.</em> </p>
153938		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Ite protection is urgently needed with measures to address water quality issues. Monitoring of the poulation trends is needed to determine if the population is in decline.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
153938		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in a single creek in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. It is only known from its type locality and is endemic to Louisiana (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 6.5 km<sup>2</sup>.
153938		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in an intermittent stream, with a substrate consisting of loamy soils. The Jacob's Memorial Park is a relatively undisturbed pine, oak and hickory forest (Walls 2006).Walls (2006) reported that significant habitat still remains for this species in this area, but that it has not been recorded in any other creeks in the park, aside from Fordney Creek.
153938		population	eng	Only ten specimens of this species have been collected from Fordney Creek (NatureServe 2009). Searches have been conducted in the remaining creeks in Jacob's Memorial Park, and even though similar habitat has been found, no other individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>have been recorded (Walls 2006).
153938		threats	eng	This species is impacted by tourism, and declining water quality upstream of its type locality. Both public access and upstream water problems urgently need to be addressed as this species occurs in a single location, and could become extinct by a single pollution event (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
153939		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153939		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the northern tributaries of the westward flowing segment of the Tennessee River, between Shoal Creek and the Paint Rock River,  in Alabama and Tennessee, USA (Fetzner 2008).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 10,900 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153939		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams, mianly in riffles and under rocks (Outdoor Alabama 2008).
153939		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, however in suitable habitat it is found to be common to abundant (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
153939		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153940		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine whether it is still present within its known range.
153940		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, within the tributaries of the Rio Nautla, in the vicinity of <st1:city w:st="on">Tlapacoyan</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). However, survey work is needed to determine whether this species is still present within this location, as flash flooding has submerged this town   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153940		habitat	eng	This species is known from streams (Hobbs 1989).
153940		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153940		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. Though, flash flooding has submerged its type location   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153941		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153941		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found from the Altamaha River drainage in Georgia to Marion County, Florida. A few localities are known in Bryan, Montgomery, and Toombs Counties, Georgia (Hobbs 1942; Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 34000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153941		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in clear, swift streams, stagnant pools, roadside ditches, flatwood ponds and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942). This species is a habitat generalist.
153941		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153941		threats	eng	This species is not impacted by any major threat processes.
153942		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and a rank of Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).<br/></em>  Further research on the threats to this species is required.
153942		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Big and Meramec rivers in St. Francis, St. Genevieve, and Washington Counties, Missouri, USA (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1989, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996). <br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2,200 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153942		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits medium to large sized streams with coarse rock substrates and is most commonly found beneath rocks in areas of permanent but moderate flow (Pflieger 1996).
153942		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>but it is believed to be fairly common within its range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
153942		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species. This species has been collected in degraded habitat, in areas which had active cattle grazing, no riparian vegetation and high flocculant algal growth. Despite these perturbations, this species was still found in good numbers (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153943		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abunance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153943		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is widely distributed throughout the states of <st1:city w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Oaxaca</st1:state> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1987). This species has distribution of approximately<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>10,000km<sup>2</sup>, though this may be an underestimate. <em><br/></em>
153943		habitat	eng	This species is known from a variety of lotic and lentic habitats (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1987). In addition, it is known to occur in subtropical climates and is typically found at an altitude of 300 - 1000 m   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153943		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is widespread, but not found in large numbers, though there have been a number of collections made of this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>
153943		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160; However, it may be suffering localized declines in parts of its range, as a result of habitat destruction and degradation, as this species occurs in both urban areas and inaccessible remote areas   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153944		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007), meaning this species is apparently secure.
153944		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs from the Marais des Cygnes River, Kansas, eastward through southern Missouri in the Osage River, and into the Black and Black Rock Rivers, Arkansas, USA (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954). Recent work shows that this specis also extends into Iowa and Southern Minnesota, while this species presence in Wisconsin is uncertain   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 85,0000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153944		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found under rocks or debris in clear to moderately turbid, swiftly flowing streams and rivers of any size with firm cobble or gravel substrates (Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954).
153944		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is easily found throughout its range (Wetzel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Poly and Wetzel 2003), and is abundant in Missouri (Pflieger 1996).
153944		threats	eng	The invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticu</span>s has encroached on the range of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in Iowa (Wetzel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), although there is no evidence to suggest this is having a negative impact upon populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, apart from this, there are no major threats to the species.
153945		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures inplace for this species. Though, this species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure, and assessed as Currently Stable by the&#160; American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153945		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Alabama drainage system in Clarke County, Alabama, to Chattooga and Whitfield Counties, Georgia, and the Tennessee river basin in Walker and Catoosa Counties Georgia, and Polk County, Tennessee (Fetzner 2008).
153945		habitat	eng	This species is a tertiary burrower, which has a type locality of a roadside ditch which passes through pastureland (Hobbs and Walton 1960). This species can be found in other lentic and lotic situations (Hobbs 1989).
153945		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153945		threats	eng	This species is widely distributed across the southern part of Alabama. There are no species specific threats recorded, but as a tertiary burrower it is likely to be impacted by surface water abstraction and water pollution on a local scale, however, these are not considered to be major threats to the species   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153946		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153946		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in Wetappo Creek, Gulf County, and St.Marks River in Leon and Wakulla counties, Florida (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
153946		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent, clear flowing streams (Hobbs 1942).
153946		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>when found is locally abundant, but no formal census estimates have been made nor is there any historical information to infer population stability or decline (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153946		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat processes.
153947		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the two remaining subpopulations is needed to determine if this species is in decline.
153947		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the state of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1996). These are La Media Luna, 6.6 km south of Rioverde, and El Venado, 105 km southwest of Matehuala City (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1996). These sites are approximately 60 km apart. It is unlikley to be found at other sites as there is very little water in the area   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km².
153947		habitat	eng	At El Venado, this speices is found amongst scarce grass in a spring pool with clear water and a rocky bottom (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1996). At La Media Luna, it has been found in a wide ditch (8-35 feet) with clear water and a moderately strong current (Villalobos and Hobbs 1974). The bottom of the ditch consists of rocks, boulders, gravel and deep mud, with dense beds of submergent aquatic plants and a few water lilies (Villalobos and Hobbs 1974).&#160; The water temperature is approximately 26 °C (Villalobos and Hobbs 1974), and the surrounding area is very arid with no or little suitable surrounding habitat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153947		population	eng	This species is not abundant at La Media Luna (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>
153947		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in the state of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">San Luis   Potosi</st1:state></st1:place> are known to be threatened by water abstraction and other forms of habitat degradation and destruction (Contreras-Balderas <em>et al</em>. 2003).&#160; However, the effect of these threats on this species are unknown. La Laguna is a popular dive site, and there is a thriving tourism industry at this lagoon. The spring habitat that this species is known to occur in is now shrinking in size, and water is taken for agriculture from the area surrounding La Media   Luna; tourism and water abstraction are very likely to be impacting this species (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153948		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G4G5, apparently secure and widespread, by NatureServe,&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007)<em>.</em>
153948		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs between the White, St. Francis, and Missouri Rivers in Arkansas and Missouri, USA (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;82,400 km<sup>2</sup>
153948		habitat	eng	This species inhabits vegetated areas of streams of varying size and often uses detritus and rocks as cover (Pflieger 1996). This species is aggresive and can therefore exclude others such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes luteus</span>. It does not have a broad tolerance of habitat type and so is restricted in its distribution (Rabeni 1985).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>
153948		population	eng	This species has been noted as often the most abundant crayfish in much of its range (Pflieger 1996, Flinders and Magoulick 2005).
153948		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>There are other introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span>species (<span style="font-style: italic;">O. hylus</span> in the St. Francis River and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. neglectus </span>into the Spring River) in the range of this species, however there are currently no reports of a negative impact on this species&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153949		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153949		distribution	eng	The species occurs along the Gulf Coastal Plain in Oklahoma and eastern Texas, East to the Florida panhandle and North through Georgia to the upper coastal plain in South Carolina; and also in the lower Mississippi Valley West of the Mississippi River, from Louisiana to southeastern Missouri (Hobbs 1989, Pflieger 1996). Pflieger (1996) believed that this species was probably more widely distributed in Missouri before the area was ditched and drained. Furthermore, the range of this species has not been clearly defined. Research is needed to ascertain whether or not current records for Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma are based on correct identification (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 540,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153949		habitat	eng	This species is a tertiary burrower inhabiting slow or sluggish streams, marshes, swamps and ditches (Mobberly and Pfrimmer 1967). In Missouri, it occurs in small intermittent creeks and shallows of seasonally flooded sloughs and swamps, when not in burrows (Pflieger 1996). This species prefers relatively undisturbed habitat (Pflieger 1996).
153949		population	eng	Recent surveys in Arkansas found this species to be locally abundant when encountered (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153949		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
153950		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).</p><p></p>
153950		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Arkansas, Ouachita, and the Red river basins in southwestern Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1982). Originally, it was described by Hobbs and Robison (1982) from 12 localities in the Red and Ouachita River basins in Clark, Grant, Hot Spring, Nevada, Ouachita, Pike, and Sevier Counties.&#160; Hobbs and Robison (1988) added 21 additional localities from Clark, Franklin, Hempstead, Hot Spring, Howard, Montgomery, Nevada, Pike, Polk, Saline, and Sebastian Counties.   This species has a distribution of approximately 32,561 km<sup>2</sup>.
153950		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary pools and backwater pools of small streams on floodplains (Hobbs and Robison 1982).
153950		population	eng	Populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are difficult to find and there are few individuals associated with local populations when they are found. In every instance, it is found to be a highly localized and a locally uncommon crayfish (K. Crandall pers comm. 2009). However, Hobbs and Robison (1988) found this species to be common when found.
153950		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.
153951		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> has been given the heritage rank of G4/G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), which is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research is needed to determine the population status and threats impacting this species.
153951		distribution	eng	This species occurs from streams of the lower Oconee and Ohoopee drainages in Georgia to South Carolina Counties below the fall line from the Savannah River to the Santee River basin (Eversole and Jones 2004). This species has a distribution of approximately 45,000 km².
153951		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits small, moderately flowing, clear stream tributaries with a sand substrate (Hobbs 1946, Hobbs 1958).
153951		population	eng	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species.
153951		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Altamaha</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> watershed and surrounding areas are relatively undeveloped (Weston<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2003).
153952		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance and threats impacting upon this species.
153952		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a wide ranging species found in Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Oklahoma and Nebraska (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985).
153952		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and has been recorded from a variety of habitats including wet meadows, ditches, lowland pools, roadside berms, prairies and ephemeral ponds in woodlands (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985). This species disperses using contiguous drainages (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985). Juveniles are primarily found in open water areas (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985).
153952		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, though this species is thought to be common for a burrowing species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153952		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.&#160; Furthermore, this species is known to occur in degraded urban areas where there is mud for burrowing   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153953		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of   Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153953		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Tennessee River basin, from Shoal Creek in Lawrence County and Hardin County, Tennessee, to Lauderdale County, Alabama (Fetzner 2008).     <p>This species has a distribution of approximately 14951 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
153953		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams (Fetzner 2008), usually under woody debris and leaves along stream margins (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
153953		population	eng	This species is thought to be relatively common. There are 72 records of this species in the Smithsonian Institute, and one record comprises more than 240 specimens (Buffler Spring, Lauderdale County) (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153953		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>Furthermore, this species exists in the tributaries of the Tennessee River, rather than in the main river channel, and therefore is unlikely to be impacted by threats such as dam building which is present in this area   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153954		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153954		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Thisa species inhabits central Kentucky with its most northerly population just entering southern Indiana, USA (Taylor 2000). In addition, in 2005&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species was discovered to have been introduced into eastern France (Chucholl and Daudey 2008).
153954		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits streams and creeks with gravel, cobble and mud substrates (Taylor 2000).
153954		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> considered abundant in suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153954		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
153955		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153955		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Cueva del Agua, 75 km East of Valles in the state of <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
153955		habitat	eng	This species is known from a cave stream (Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, this is a troglobytic species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153955		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimens.<em></em>
153955		threats	eng	The region in which this species is found is dominated by agricultural land, though it is currently not known what impact this is having on this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153956		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe, 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>Further research is required to determine abundance and the existence of any major threats, especially in the light of a recent decline in site occupancy   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153956		distribution	eng	This species is known from caves in the Tennessee River basin between Florence and Guntersville, Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1989, Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). According to Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), this species is currently known from 12 caves in Alabama.&#160; Previous cave localities in Marshall County actually represent two distinct species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus speleocoopi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus laconensis </span>(Buhay and Crandall 2009). As such, this species only occurs in Colbert, Limestone, Lauderdale, Madison, and Morgan Counties, Alabama. It was previously recorded from 14 sites along the Highland Rim region of northern Alabama (six counties on both sides of the Tennessee River) and is now known from 12 (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>This range is severely fragmented, with an extent of occurrence of approximately 11,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an inferred decline in the quality of cave habitat (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153956		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a cave dwelling species inhabiting subterranean water (Hobbs and Barr 1960). This species is known to co-occur with other cave crayfish species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes sheltae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pecki </span>(Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153956		population	eng	There is insufficient population data for this species. All populations of this species are, however, composed of very few individuals and fecundity of these is low (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153956		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution. As this species has documented habitat declines, further research should be initiated to determine the cause of this decline (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153957		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153957		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Mobile River drainage in Choctaw, Clarke, Dallas, Hale, Marengo, Perry, Sumter, and Webster Counties, Alabama., USA.&#160; This species is also present in Kemper and Chikasaw Counties, Mississippi (Fitzpatrick and Busack 1989).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 31,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153957		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent lotic habitat predominantly, with clay and sand substrates (Fitzpatrick and Busack 1989), and is a secondary burrower associated with ditches and ponds   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
153957		population	eng	&#160;  There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it has been annecdotally described as&#160;relatively common at some sites, but not abundant   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153957		threats	eng	Few threats have been identified to be impacting this species. The area it occupies is impacted by localised urbanisation, with possible effects from logging (sedimentation) and agriculture   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).
153958		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population status and the threats to each pond.
153958		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at El Coyular, 7 km northeast of La Union, in the <st1:city w:st="on">Municipio de  Zihuateutla</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974). It is uncertain whether this species is still present at the type locality   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  This species has an approximate extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>²</sup>.
153958		habitat	eng	This species is known from a stream habitat and small ponds (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974). Furthermore, this species is known to coexist with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus zihuateutlensis</span>, and the pond habitat it is known to occur is very small   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153958		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, and it is uncertain as to whether this species is still present the type locality at El Coyular   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153958		threats	eng	The ponds where this species is known to occur are within a town, and are drained for drinking water   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153959		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153959		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Big Black and Pearl river basins in Attala, Carroll, Hinds, Montgomery, Rankin, and Scott Counties, and the Upper leaf river drainage, Mississippi, as wel&#160; as Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana (Hobbs and Walton 1957).
153959		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seasonal lentic situations and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs and Walton 1957). Furthermore, it seems to be relatively tolerant of development (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153959		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species
153959		threats	eng	This species may be impacted on a local level by threats such as channelisation, development and industry, which occur in the Pearl River, but is unlikely to be being impacted on a global scale.
153960		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by AFS (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance and ecology of this species, and whether there are any major threats impacting upon it.
153960		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Alabama River basin in Dallas, Hale, Monroe, and Perry Counties, Alabama (Hobbs 1975).&#160; This species is only known from 7 sites in 4 localities, though only one of these collections is recent, April 2008, the remainder are over 35 years old (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This species has a distribution of approximately 1000-5000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153960		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent lentic and sluggish lotic situations with silt or clay substrates, littered with plant debris (Hobbs 1975).&#160; It is also found in roadside ditches   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).  <p>&#160;</p>
153960		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153960		threats	eng	It is not clear whether there are any major threats impacting upon this species. There are a number of potential threats that occur within its range, including changes in hydrological regimes (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
153961		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153961		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the tributaries of the Satilla River, Georgia, and southward through peninsular Florida (Hobbs 1942).   This species has a distribution of approximately 87000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153961		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a burrowing species found in lentic and lotic situations (Hobbs 1942). Hobbs (1942) indicates that this species has a very variable habitat range, and will occur in any freshwater habitat providing there is sufficient vegetation to provide protection from predators.
153961		population	eng	Hobbs (1942) recorded 1844 specimens and stated that it is one of the most common species in the North-central part of the Florida peninsular.
153961		threats	eng	There are no major threat processes imapcting upon this species.
153962		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>The cave within which this species&#160;is located, has been protected by the NSS since 1967. Protection measures include a cave fence surrounding the cave's entrances and the surrounding&#160;area.&#160;Buhay and Crandall (2008) assessed the species using IUCN criteria and recommended a Critical (CR) listing be imposed, owing to a decline in EOO, found at a single location, and an inferred decline in number of mature individuals.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>Monitoring of the population trends is urgently needed.
153962		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to one cave, Shelta cave, in Madison County, Alabama, USA (Buhay 2006), where it co-occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">O. australis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Camberis jonesi</span> (Cooper and Cooper 1997). Within this cave, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is found in a 283 m² subterranean lake, down a 762 m long passage (Cooper and Cooper 1997). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to exceed 2,100 km², although the inferred area of occupancy (AOO) is thought to be less than 1 km².
153962		habitat	eng	This species is found in a subterranean lake and passage, where it is dependent on external nutrients entering the cave, such as leaf litter. In addition, the guano of the Gray Bat <span style="font-style: italic;">Myotis grisescens &#160;</span>provides nutrient input&#160;(Cooper and Cooper 1997).
153962		population	eng	The species is known from 17 specimens, held in the Smithsonian Natural History Museum (holotype and the allotype) and the North Carolina State museum.&#160; Another 97 individuals were examined and released during a study between 1968 and 1975 (Cooper and Cooper 1997, Buhay and Crandall 2008).
153962		threats	eng	This species&#160;is impacted by a variety of threats, namely land development, vandalism, cave abandonment by Gray Bats, insecticides and water level fluctuations. In the 1960s, there was extensive vandalism in the cave while the surrounding land was developed with residential housing (Cooper and Cooper 1997). In 1967, the cave was purchased by the National Speleological Society (NSS) which owns the entrances and controls access to the cave. The Headquarters of the NSS has been built above the cave (Mississippi State University 2003). In an attempt to curb vandalism, cave gates were built at the entrances to the caves in 1968, but these were not conducive to Gray Bat colonization. By 1970, the bats had abandoned the cave, reducing the amount of nutrients available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Overall cave biodiversity has declined since the Gray Bats left the cave (Cooper and Cooper 1997). In 2002, a fence was erected 20 feet around the cave to encourage the bats to return, and to continue to deter vandalism (Mississippi State University 2003). Some water chemistry analysis has been conducted at the cave, which found high levels of the insecticide Heptachlor epoxide in 1989 presumably from surrounding residential gardens (Mississippi State University 2003). Additionally, this area of Alabama, due to geological circumstances, is prone to having high levels of radon gas. Levels in the cave were very high at 400 - 500 pCi/L, although the impact of this on this species is unknown<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Finally, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is sensitive to water level fluctuations, common at this site as a result of droughts.&#160;The NSS is controlling the number of visitors to the cave, but still allows school groups to visit, thus continuing to cause disturbance to&#160;this species suitable<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153963		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable within its range and have given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apperently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Further research on population abundance and the impact the threats are having on this species are required. Also a monitoring program to assess the decline in quality of the habitat should be initiated.
153963		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pearsei</span> is known from Samson and Cumberland counties potentially in extreme southwestern Johnston county, North Carolina, south to Horry and Marion counties, South Carolina (Hobbs 1989, Cooper and Braswell 1995).
153963		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pearsei</span> is a secondary burrower which frequents ditches, borrow pits, temporary bodies of standing water and small sluggish streams (Hobbs and Walton 1958).
153963		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
153963		threats	eng	No species specific threats have been reported for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pearsei</span> although the water quality in the Cape Fear River basin is poor with 35% of the streams in the basin considered threatened and 18% are impaired by pollution (North Carolina State University 2006). The pollution recorded is from large scale animal farming, with nutrient loading and sedimentation a result of this.
153964		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and G4 by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Further research is required to determine abundance, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153964		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in tributaries of the Tallapoosa drainage system in Alabama and Georgia, USA (Ratcliffe and DeVries 2004), specifically the Piedmont Plateau province of the Tallapoosa drainage (Ratcliffe and DeVries 2004).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 10,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153964		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Tis species is found in permanent pools and streams consisting of sand substrates littered with rocks, where the water is slightly cloudy (Hobbs 1968).
153964		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153964		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be expereincing declines due to alterations of the hydrological regime, water pollution and climate change   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153965		conservation	eng	This species has been given the Global Heritage Rank Status of G4G5 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required to determine abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153965		distribution	eng	<p>This species&#160;is widespread in the Tombigbee and lower Alabama River basins in Alabama, and in Clay and Lowndes Counties, Mississippi, USA (Walls 1972).&#160; Additional records of this species in the Mississippi Crayfish database from the&#160;Yazoo River drainage in&#160;Montgomery County, the&#160;Chickasawhay River drainage in&#160;Lauderdale County, and the&#160;Bayou Pierre River drainage in&#160;Copiah County represent range extensions outside of the Tombigbee River basin and warrant further investigation to confirm&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Fitzpatrick (1996) also included&#160;Clarke, Itawamba, Neshoba, and Noxubee Counties,&#160;Mississippi, in the range of this species but did not specify the location of accompanying voucher specimens.</p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 60,000 km<sup>2.&#160;</sup></p>
153965		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent streams and rivers (Walls 1972).
153965		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is regarded as relatively widespread and common, especially in the Tombigbee River drainage (Hobbs 1989)</p><p>  </p>
153965		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species&#160;is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153966		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; However, part of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rio</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Necaxa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River   Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> is designated as a Natural Resources Protection Area (Zona Protectora Forestal Vedada Cuenca Hidrográfica del Río Necaxa), and is a recognized Ramsar site (Ramsar 2008). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>
153966		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from the headwater tributaries of the Rio Cazones, Rio Necaxa and Rio Tecolutla, in the states of Hidalgo and Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1982).
153966		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), and is able to occupy habitats with a temperature range of 7  ºC  - 15  ºC&#160; and is known to be adaptable   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153966		population	eng	This species is believed to be common with a strong population, and is easy to collect   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153966		threats	eng	<p>This species may be impacted by threats on a local level, but is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <br/><span class="MsoHyperlink"></p>
153967		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153967		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the tributaries of the Cheat, Greenbrier, and Tygart rivers in West Virginia, the Allegheny and Monongahela river basins in Pennsylvania and New York, and is widespread in eastern Ohio, USA (Fetzner 2008, Thoma and Jezerinac 1999). In recent years this species has extended its range to the basin of Lake Erie and can now be found in the tributaries of the Grand River, Ohio and Gennessee River, New York (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). It extends into a small portion of Virginia in Wolf Creek in Tazewell and Bland Counties (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009). It has recently been documented in the Monongahela River in Maryland (R. Thoma and T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to exceed 116,000 km².
153967		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a secondary burrowing species that inhabits cool pools and riffles of small streams fed by springs (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). This species is occasionally found in non-permanent streams in very low densities (Thoma and Jezerinac 1999).
153967		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153967		threats	eng	Sedimentation caused by forest removal has greatly reduced the size of subpopulations of this species in Ohio<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Furthermore, strip mining and acid mine drainage can extirpate this species from affected areas (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).
153968		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is affected by any major threat processes.
153968		distribution	eng	This species is known from five localities in the vicinity of <st1:city w:st="on">Cuetzalan</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1982).&#160; The type locality for this species is Cueva de Tasalolpan, 5 km southwest of Cuetzalan, in the Rio Tecuantepec watershed (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1982).&#160; It has also been found at a spring 6.1 km North of Cuetzalan, at Sumidero de Atepolihuit de San Andrés, at Sima Zoquiapan (1.1 km north of Cuetzalan) and at Sumidero de Chichicasapan (0.8 km South of Cuetzalan) (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1982).&#160;In addition, this species has been recently collected from the&#160;Cuichat River and caves in Zapotitlán (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 120 km<sup>2</sup>.
153968		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subterranean habitats and springs (Hobbs 1982). It is also found in water storage tanks (  M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009), and the biggest specimens are known to occur in these water tanks. Furthermore, it is known to occur in rainforests at altitude, streams that pass through towns and rivers   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em><br/></em>
153968		population	eng	This species is thought to be reasonably common, though the population size is thought to be small    (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Most recent collections of this species have found it to be abundant in streams and rivers int he&#160;vicinity&#160;of Cuetzalan (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><em></em>
153968		threats	eng	As this species is predominantly found in the region south of the city of Puebla, urbanization is not thought to be an imminent threat to this species (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). Water use and deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) around small mountainous towns is a more likely threat to this species (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). This species is not harvested for food     (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). The type locality of this species is know completely surrounded by the nearby town (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><em></em>
153969		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the distribution of this species as well as the abundance and the threats impacting upon it.
153969		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannah river systems in eastern Georgia and South Carolina (Hobbs 1962). Hobbs <em>et al.</em> (1976) documented it in the Savannah River Plant Park (on the Savannah River) in southwest South Carolina.&#160; Range includes tributaries to the Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannaah Rivers; eastern Georgia, western South Carolina (Eversole and Jones, 2004).&#160; In South Carolina, it occurs in Aiken, Allendlae, and Hampton Cos. (Eversole and Jones, 2004). This&#160;species&#160;is also found in the Edisto and Broad-St. Helena drainages (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
153969		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubescens</span> is a tertiary burrower which inhabits streams (Brown 1981; Hobbs 1989)
153969		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
153969		threats	eng	There are no specific threats reported for this species however it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat alteration for urban development and agriculture. Surface water abstraction would also have a major impact on this species as it is a tertiary burrower.
153970		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by trhe American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007), meaning the species is apparently secure, widespread and abundant.
153970		distribution	eng	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species extends from the western Gulf Coastal Plain from extreme southern Illinois to Louisiana and west to eastern Texas, including the state of Oklahoma (Hobbs 1989, Pflieger 1996). It is considered likely that this species' range is wider in Oklahoma than currently known (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 380,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
153970		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits deep, permanent waters of oxbows, bayous, and slow-moving lowland streams, shallow streams and associated flood plains with mud or mixed mud and sand substrates (Pflieger 1996, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160; It is also found in shallow burrows   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153970		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> On the extreme northern edge of its distribution in northern Illinois, this species has declined in one study of an oxbow lake (C. Taylor pers. comm.). This species is not found to be particularly common but it is difficult to sample. Low counts in collecting trips is most likely an artifact of this<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span></p>
153970		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>The amount of suitable habitat available to the species is large   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153971		conservation	eng	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2007).
153971		distribution	eng	This species is known from seven counties in north central Tennessee, USA, in the Obey and Big South Fork Cumberland River drainages (Hobbs 1989). In Tennessee it occurs in the Cumberland Plateau province in the East Fork Obey River system, Emory River system, and Big South Fork Cumberland River system in Cumberland, Fentress, Morgan, Overton, Putnam, and Scott Counties (Williams and Bivens 2001, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Recently Rohrbach and Withers (2006) also reported this species for the first time from Bridge Creek in the Calfkill River drainage. The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as 2,461 km<sup>2</sup>.
153971		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species can be found on the bottom or in the banks of small streams, under rocks, in leaf litter, in algal mats or in short burrows (Fetzner 2008, Bouchard 1973a). This species is also found in pools with sandy or silty bottoms (Bouchard 1973a).
153971		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
153971		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
153972		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and is listed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
153972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the upper Green River basin in Kentucky and Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1989).&#160; In Kentucky it is found most commonly in the Batten River drainage, the mainstem of the middle section of the Green River, and in the Nolin Rover above Nolin Lake (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160;&#160;<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 19,500 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>
153972		habitat	eng	This species is a tertiary burrower found in streams or riffles (Burr <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is also commonly found under large boulders and in association with limestone or rubble, and along creek margins where there is current (Hobbs 1974, Rhoades 1944, Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; It is occasionally found in shallow riffles if there are large boulders present. This is the largest species of<em> Cambaridae,</em> reaching a maximum size of 135 mm.
153972		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is regarded as&#160;uncommon.&#160; It is best described as sporadic, as the habitat which it prefers (large flat rocks), is not a common habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153972		threats	eng	The main threats to<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>this species&#160;are fragmentation of the range preventing gene flow&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It is possible that populations in the Green and Nolin Rivers have become isolated due to reservoir construction.&#160; These were built in the late 1960s to the early 1970s&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It is unlikely that invasive species introduced to these lake systems by bait release from fishing will impact this species due to their large size, and different habitat preferences&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153973		conservation	eng	This species has been described by the American Fisheries Society as Currently Stable in its range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In addition, this species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction and apparently secure according to NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/>There are no conservation plans in place for this species currently as it has only recently been classified. <br/>More research is needed for this species before any accurate assessment can be made. Population size, trends and life history must be established. Furthermore,&#160; threats need to be accurately identified in order to assess the number of locations and sub-populations of this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153973		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Cape Fear and Yadkin-Pee Dee River basins in North Carolina, USA, but may have a wider distribution (Cooper 2001). Its range is likely to increase to other river basins in central North Carolina following further surveys. This species is also recently reported from South Carolina in Fishing Creek in the Catawba River basin in Chester County   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The type locality of this species is Bearskin Creek (Cooper 2001).    The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 24,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153973		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent streams   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153973		population	eng	This species is known from 22 localities in the Cape Fear River basin and 36 localities in the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin (Cooper 2001). Arnie Eversole (Clemson University) reported species from two sites in South Carolina, including Fishing Creek in the Catawba River basin in Chester County (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2008). There have been&#160; 291 vouchers taken of this species from 58 localities (all in NCSM) (Cooper 2001)
153973		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
153974		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).&#160;<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
153974		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the tributaries of the White and Little Red rivers in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, USA (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996).<br/><br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 16,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153974		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs under large slabs of rock or rocky outcrops in clear streams, pools and lakes (Williams 1954, Pflieger 1996).
153974		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is regarded as fairly common throughout its range (Pflieger 1996).
153974		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is captured for human consumption in one lake within its range (Pflieger 1996). This is unlikely, however, to cause global population declines.
153975		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153975		distribution	eng	This species is known from 29 sites in 11 counties in Texas (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). A targeted survey has not yet been done, but will likely increase the number of occurrences significantly (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153975		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower which lives in grassy pastureland with a sand and clay substrate. The type locality is agricultural pastureland which has been used for horses and cattle for the last 10 years. There are temporary pools which form after rain, but the entire area dries out in the summer (Fitzpatrick and Wicksten 1998). It has also been suggested that this species will also occupy stream or puddle habitats (Fitzpatrick and Wicksten 1998).
153975		population	eng	This species is abundant at sites at which it is found (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153975		threats	eng	This species' habitat is not subject to significant development, and so it is not thought to be threatened at present (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
153976		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage status rank of G4 and G5, it is apparently secure or demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to ascertain the abundance and current distribution of this species, as well as the threats impacting upon it.
153976		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cape Fear River basin in Columbus and Bladen Counties, North Carolina. It is also known from the in the lowermost portions of the piedmont and the coastal plain to the Santee River system in Colleton County, South Carolina (Hobbs 1958); it occurs in nine counties and the lower coastal plain drainages from the North Carolina border south to the Savannah River (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
153976		habitat	eng	This species is a generalist species which can be found frequenting swamps, ponds, lakes, roadside ditches, springs and streams. It occurs in lentic and lotic habitats and burrows (Hobbs 1962).
153976		population	eng	This speceis is believed to be widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
153976		threats	eng	This species may be threatened locally by urban development and watercourse alteration, but it is not known to what extent (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
153977		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153977		distribution	eng	This species has been found in a tributary of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Pánuco</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> at Camino a Olotla, 2 km East of Tlanchinol in <st1:state w:st="on">Hidalgo</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place>, at an altitude of 1,375 m (Lopez-Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; Most of the rivers and streams surrounding Tlanchinol have been surveyed for crayfish, but this species has only been found at this single location (Lopez-Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2005).
153977		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a cloud-forest stream, where the water temperature rarely exceeds 15°C (Lopez-Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2005). The habitat of this species is in good condition, though near to a small town. Furthermore, this species inhabits clear water, has a total length of 57 mm and is not vulnerable to predation   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153977		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, 20 or more specimens can be collected in a survey, and hence this species is neither considered rare nor abundant   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153977		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species within its range
153978		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 assigned by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on the precise habitat requirements and abundance of this species is required as well as identifying any threats impacting upon it.
153978		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution and is known from the Escambia River drainage in Florida westward to the Pearl River basin in Mississippi (Hobbs 1989) and Louisiana (Penn 1959).
153978		habitat	eng	This species is a secondary burrower which can be found in permanent streams, marshes and ditches (Penn 1959, Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, it is known to occur in shallow, slow, or still waters such as ponds, ditches and overflow areas of streams, and is generally found over soft substrate with little vegetation. Though it is also known from leaf beds (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153978		population	eng	From 1936 - 2007 there have been six records of this species from Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). and it is rarely collected in Louisiana (Walls 2009). Though, despite the fact there have been few records for this species, there has been little directed sampling effort (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153978		threats	eng	This species may be impactd by threats on a local level, but is unlikely to be impacted on a global scale. Within Louisiana, this species is is only known from ditches, and is, therefore, susceptible to changes in habitat.
153979		conservation	eng	This species has a heritage rank of G5 from NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and is Currently Stable according to the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) due to its large extent of occurrence.
153979		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic watershed from the James drainage in Virginia and West Virginia south to the Yadkin Basin in North Carolina, USA, in both mountains and Piedmont   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 122,400 km<sup>2</sup>.
153979		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is highly restricted to rocky areas of permanent freshwater streams and rivers. They live in moderately to swiftly flowing rivers, with cool to cold water (James 1966)
153979		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been reported as 'abundant' in Reed Creek, Wythe County, Virginia   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
153979		threats	eng	In parts of its range this species is susceptible to sedimentation from logging and is sensitive to pollution from mining and quarrying (T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).
153980		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
153980		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the coastal flatwoods within Calhoun and Gulf Counties, East and South to Levy County, Florida (Caine 1978).   This species has a distribution of approximately 11500 km<sup>2</sup>.
153980		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, and is a secondary burrower (Caine 1978).
153980		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153980		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.
153981		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).<br/><br/></em>Monitoring of the population trend is needed.<em><br/></em>
153981		distribution	eng	This species has been collected only in the main channel of the Ohio River between Illinois and Kentucky, USA (Wetzel <em>et al.</em> 2005). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at under 370 km².
153981		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of the Ohio River where the substrate has been anthropologically altered by adding more rocks, gravel and riprap (Wetzel <em>et al.</em> 2005).
153981		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
153981		threats	eng	Zebra mussels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span>) have been found on this species (Wetzel <em>et al.</em> 2005). In addition, the invasive crayfish species&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> has invaded the range of this species and is thought to be having an impact, displacing this species. Dredging for channel maintenance may also be a problem for this species, by destroying habitat (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).
153982		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).   This species has also been given a tolerance value of 4.62 by the Kentucky Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet. The tolerance value is calculated by assessing the individual tolerance of a species to human threats such as water pollution; 1 being the least tolerant, 10 the most tolerant (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
153982		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Green, Barren and Cumberland rivers drainages in Kentucky and the Ohio River in southern Illinois (Hobbs 1989) with records from the Tennessee River system (Paint Rock River and Harpeth River) in Alabama, USA (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160; It was also recently reported from Mississippi for the first time from Bear Creek in the Tennessee drainage (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Page (1985) reported a collection from the Ohio River, about 42 river  miles below the outlet of the Cumberland on the Illinois side (right  bank).&#160; In Alabama, it is known only from a single record from the Paint  Rock River drainage within the Tennessee River system, which might be a  possible introduction (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> 2004, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2008).&#160; It was also recently reported from Mississippi for the first  time from Bear Creek (Tennessee drainage) (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  In Kentucky, it is known from the Barren, upper Green, Nolin, and Rough  River drainages, and is also widespread in the Cumberland River system  from eastern Kentucky to creeks draining into Lake Barkley in western  Kentucky (Taylor and Schuster 2004).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 38,400 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
153982		habitat	eng	It inhabits cool, fast flowing streams in riffle areas (Rhoades 1944).
153982		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
153982		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
153983		conservation	eng	The Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health (2008) has placed<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species on the invasive species watch list as it was introduced into South Carolina via a bait bucket. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe 2009), and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al., 2007), as it has a wide distribution and no major threats are currently acting upon it.
153983		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Tennessee River basin upstream from below the mouth of the Sequatchie River, in Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia, USA (James 1966). This species has been introduced into headwaters of the Savannah River in South Carolina (Hobbs 1989). It has also recently been found in Alabama (Schuster and Taylor 2004). The Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health (2008) has placed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species on the invasive species watch list as it was introduced into South Carolina via a bait bucket.    The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated to exceed 58,100 km<sup>2</sup>.
153983		habitat	eng	This species lives in streams under rocks (Schuster and Taylor 2004). It has a broader ecology than either of its close relatives, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus longulus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus chasmodactylus</span>, and is by far the least ecologically restricted of the three (James 1966). It inhabits large and small freshwater permanent streams, usually found in the riffle areas (James 1966).
153983		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it has been found in six different counties in the United States. Although likely a species complex, even using the most conservative taxonomy, the range is still widespread enough such that populations likely number in the millions (R. Thoma, T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
153983		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as an invasive species (Fuller 2009) and is not currently impacted by any major threats.
153984		conservation	eng	NatureServe has assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure&#160;  (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153984		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been reported from the Tennessee River drainage, chiefly above Walden Ridge, from southwestern Virginia to Wayne County, Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989, Poly and Wetzel 2003).  <br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to 56,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153984		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small streams to large rivers, especially in riffle areas under rocks (Williams and Bivens 2001).
153984		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is regarded as common to abundant in suitable habitat (G. Schuster pers. comm 2009).</p>
153984		threats	eng	The Tennessee River has been dammed many times and this is likely to have an impact on this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). In addition, several fossil fuel power plants are within the river drainage which is most likely affecting water quality within this catchment. Recreational activities have also been reported to occur, although the extent and effect of this is unkown   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). However, the species is much more prominent in the tributaries and is widespread.&#160; Thus these threats are not thought to be significantly reducing populations of this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153985		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 assigned by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe 2009) and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Research on<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> population size and threats impacting upon this species is required   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153985		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as endemic to streams in the First Broad River sub-drainage of the upper Broad River basin of North Carolina, USA (Fullerton and Watson 2001). North Carolina currently maintains 5 occurrences of this species in Cleveland (possibly extirpated) and Rutherford counties (LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).    The extent of occurrence of this species is est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated to be 3,265 km².
153985		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent freshwater streams and prefers deeper sections of the river which have rocks or vegetation for cover (Cooper 2000).
153985		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>
153985		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is currently threatened by two non-indigenous crayfish species; namely<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ortoconectes rusticus</span>, the Rusty Crayfish, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>, the Red Swamp crayfish (Fullerton and Watson 2001). There are some small-hold farms close to the First Broad River which could be polluting the river via nutrient loading, and herbicide and pesticide run-off. The human population is expected to increase by 23% by 2020 which would cause a reduction in viable habitat area through urban development (N.C. Division of Water Quality 2003). One of the four main reservoirs in the Broad River basin is used for drinking water supply which means that surface water abstraction must occur (N.C. Division of Water Quality 2003).
153986		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Furthermore, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the Global Hertiage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
153986		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the central Arkansas River drainage and parts of the White River and Elk River drainages in the extreme northwestern parts of Arkansas and LeFlore County, Oklahoma (Robison and McAllister 2006, Fetzner 2008, Crandall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
153986		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in clay and sandy substrates, and is known to occur in seepage areas and roadside ditches (Fitzpatrick 1978).
153986		population	eng	Populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>can be large or small, with hundreds to very few individuals observed in a particular area.&#160; However, no formal population census has been conducted for this species   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153986		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species. Furthermore, this species seems to be somewhat tolerant, as it found in roadside ditches near sizable towns   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).
153987		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this speceis.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153987		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur at Paso Largo, Maria de la Torre, near Nautla in Veracruz (Villalobos 1957). This species has a distribution of approximately 100 to 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
153987		habitat	eng	This species is found in lentic habitats with low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (Villalobos 1957).&#160; It has also been found in roadside water tanks and in small pools which shrink during droughts, leaving very cloudy, muddy water (Villalobos 1957). This is a physiologically adaptable species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153987		population	eng	This species is thought to be reasonably abundant. This species was last collected three years ago, though at that time it was commonly found   (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>
153987		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, cattle ranching occurs within its range, but this is not considered to be a significant threat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153988		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).<em><em></em></em></em>
153988		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species inhabits the White and Black River systems in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, USA (Pflieger 1996, Hobbs 1989, Hobbs 1974, Williams 1954).&#160;    <br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 45,721 km<sup>2</sup>.
153988		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be found in burrows beneath rocks and boulders in silt-free substrates in streams, and can also be found in pools and riffles. In addition this species is able to survive in dry stream beds by living in moist burrows (Flinders and Magoulick 2007, Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954).
153988		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is regarded as very common, and abundant at most sites (Pflieger 1996)
153988		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known to hybridize with <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes eupunctus</span> at two localities within its range in parts of the Eleven Point River (Pflieger 1996, C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). However, this is unlikely to be a major threat to this species.
153989		conservation	eng	<em></em> This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)  and is considered vulnerable due to limited range by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).
153989		distribution	eng	<p><em></em>This species is found in the Teche-Bayou Boeuf system in Rapides parish near Elmer and Woodworth and from <st1:placename w:st="on">Cotile</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, the Mermentau system in Allen Parish, and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Calcasieu</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> system south to Vermillion Parish, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Louisiana</st1:place></st1:state>, USA (Walls 2009).</p><p>    </p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of both subspeceis of this species combined has been estimated to exceed 24,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>  <p></p>
153989		habitat	eng	This species is found in small, clear and shallow permanent streams with a sand and gravel bottom, with no aquatic vegetation and shaded banks (Penn 1952).
153989		population	eng	<p><em></em>This species is regarded as quite common in many spots, especially where protected in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kisatchie</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Such protected areas do not, however, include the range of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> O.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">hathawayi blacki</span> subspecies (J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009)</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
153989		threats	eng	<p><em></em>This species is impacted by major habitat degradation in the <span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. blacki</span> portion of the range, but there are relatively secure areas within the <span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. hathawayi</span> portion of the range (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Localized declines result from reduction in the water level due to logging, water pollution from oil and gas exploration and agriculture. In addition, urbanization and watercourse damming have been highlighted as threats to this species   (S. Adams, J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009). </p>
153990		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the scale of threats.
153990		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is so far only recorded between the Ouachita and Red Rivers in Caldwell, LaSalle, Rapides, Winn and Jackson Parishes, in&#160;north-central Louisiana, USA&#160;(Walls 2009). Reports from Arkansas and Missouri (Hobbs 1989)&#160;have not been substantiated.&#160; It is likely to to occur more widely in north-central and northwestern parts of the state, towards the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Faxonella beyeri</span> (Walls 2009).   The LA Natural Heritage Program has 12 extant occurrences (plus two extirpated) in five counties and two major watersheds in the state (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 2,830 km<sup>2</sup>.
153990		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>occurs in temporary pools and roadside ditches which are shallow with a mud and sand substrate (Walls and Black 1991).
153990		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p></p><p>This species can be abundant (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p></p>
153990		threats	eng	The main threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>are chemical pollution and sedimentation from surrounding agricultural farmland (Walls and Black 1991). Changes in hydrology throughout the drainage in which this species is found is a further potential threat&#160;(C. Taylor, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).
153991		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
153991		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Choctawhatchee and Yellow river drainages in Alabama and Florida (Hobbs 1942).   This species has a distribution of approximately 15000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153991		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, roadside ditches and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942).
153991		population	eng	Hobbs (1942) examined 300 specimens. There is no recent population data available for this species.
153991		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
153992		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambaurs hagenianus hagenianus </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5T4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hagenianus vesticeps </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5T3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this speceis and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
153992		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> North of Tibbie Creek in Tombigbee drainage in Chickasaw, Clay, Monroe and Pontotoc Counties and South and East of Tibbie Creek in the Tombigbee drainage in Lowndes, Noxubee and Oktibbeha Counties, Mississippi. Furthermoe, it also occurs in Marengo, Pickens and Sumter Counties, Alabama. (Fitzpatrick 1978). This species has an approximate distribution of 27,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153992		habitat	eng	This species are primary burrowers, and are known to occur in prairie soils, idependent of surface water and reliant on ground water. Furthermore, it is known to occur at high elevations and 4.5-4.7 m below the surface (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153992		population	eng	This speceis was considered to be abundant prior to persecution by farmers, though it is now considered to be rare. Furthermore, in 1937, 37000 burrows per hectare were known to occur for this species (Fitzpatrick 1976).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153992		threats	eng	This species was persecuted by farmers for ruining crop fields and was poisoned using arsenic, cyanide other pesticides in the 1920's (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
153993		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further work is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species, as well as to determine its abundance and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p><p></p>
153993		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. Owing to taxonomic problems with this species, the range is not clearly delineated.&#160; It has also been introduced into Maryland and Virginia (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Fitzpatrick (2002) considers this species more restricted to eastern Louisiana, very southern Mississippi, and very southern Alabama.&#160; Recent surveys in Alabama have not found this species. Johnson and Johnson (2008) describe this species distribution as the flat coastal plain from Texas to Louisiana, but midway along the Texas flat coastal plain, individuals have features of both this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. texanus</span>.
153993		habitat	eng	This species can be found in permanent streams and in aquaculture ponds (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153993		population	eng	This species is known from a large number of collections (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153993		threats	eng	This species is harvested as a food source, used for scientific research and collected for the pet trade. Though, without understanding the exact distribution of this species, it is difficult to determine if it faces any significant threats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
153994		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
153994		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as widespread throughout Veracruz, Chiapas, Mexico (  M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
153994		habitat	eng	This species is known from creeks, lagoons, and marshy habitats, and has a rapid population doubling time (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>
153994		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>
153994		threats	eng	This species is harvested as a food source, though this is not considered a major threat at present (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <br/><em></em>
153995		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'currently stable' (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). At present, 10 of the 50 known sites in Arkansas, are owned by conservation organisations. A further 14 sites have restricted access. Current conservation measures include the acquisition of land to restrict traffic access (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Further conservation measures are needed to protect the remaining sites and prevent ongoing habitat degradation.<br/></p>
153995		distribution	eng	The majority of this species range occurs in Missouri in Christian, Dade, Greene, Jasper, Lawrence, Newton, and Stone counties (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Koppelman and Figg 1995). There have recently been new discoveries of this species in Benton and Independence counties in Arkansas (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Historic accounts in northeast Oklahoma are now believed to be erroneous (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In total this species is know from 164 localities. The extent of occurrence is estimated to exceed 18,400 km².
153995		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits subterranean hydrological systems (Koppelman and Figg 1995).
153995		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The largest known population of this species comprises at least 47 individuals (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species was reported to be more abundant during the first half of the 1900s, than the second half of the century (Hobbs and Barr 1960), however there have not been systematic surveys at any of the localities where this species is found.
153995		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by habitat degradation (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). A single population in a cave in Missouri was thought to have been extirpated due to sewage pollution from a nearby city, however specimens were found there several decades later (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Another cave population in Arkansas might currently be threatened by nutrient loading. The entire population at the type locality is thought to have been collected by scientists leaving just 2 individuals by 1992 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). At other caves individuals have been inadvertently trampled by pedestrian traffic, and drowned by flooding (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). However, these are thought to be localised threats and do not pose a significant threat to the global population   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).
153996		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
153996		distribution	eng	This species is known from tributaries of the Bayou Teche, Red, and Calcasieu rivers in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 46,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
153996		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits creeks and streams with a moderate current and sandy and rocky substrate, as well as pools and roadside ditches. This species lives in clear to slightly cloudy water (Hobbs 1990).
153996		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
153996		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted upon by pollution and habitat alteration through urban development on a local scale, though there are no known threats impacting upon it on a global scale.
153997		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160;</p><p>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.<br/></p>
153997		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern tributaries of Guntersville Lake, an impoundment on the Tennessee River in DeKalb and Marshall Counties, Alabama, USA (Fetzner 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated not to exceed 92 km².
153997		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams under rocks (Bouchard and Hobbs 1976); in clear, sluggish streams flowing over bedrock and sand, usually at depths of less than 0.6 m.
153997		population	eng	This species was only found recently at one site; it was formerly known from seven sites (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
153997		threats	eng	The impoundment of the Tennessee River represents the major historical and present threat to this species. Reasons for decline (based on current versus historic records) are not known but the species is absent from nearly all historical sites where it was formerly known (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). This has resulted in a reduction of over 80% of its historical range, assuming it was equally distributed across all known sites, and a decline that has been noted over the last 20 years. However the actual rate of decline over the last 10 years is not as high as 80% and more likely in the range of 50-70% (assuming a linear rate of decline).
153998		conservation	eng	This species has a heritage rank of G4 from NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).
153998		distribution	eng	This species is found in North America. Its range includes the states of: Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and&#160;Tennessee(Nature Serve 2009)in higher elevations of the Appalachian Mountains (R. Thoma &#160;pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/>Hobbs (1989) highlights that this species is found in particular river headwaters throughout the region, including: "French Broad, Little Tennessee, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Savannah River." It is also found in the Watuga Basin in Tennessee (Hobbs 1989).
153998		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from seepage areas associated with mountain streams, and first order streams   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). It has also been found in quieter headwaters of North and South Carolina, and Georgia. It is a secondary burrower, and is often found in tunnels of rock debris&#160;(R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009; NatureServe 2009).
153998		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, although it has been described as 'the most common of the other crayfish' found associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chaugaensis </span>'(North Carolina Crayfishes 2010; Nature Serve 2009). It is abundant within the southern Appalachian Mountains of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and parts of Tennessee. It is considered the most common species in first order streams (R. Thoma and T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).
153998		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
153999		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify causes of decline and threats posed.
153999		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a very localized distribution in the Spring River and Eleven Point drainage systems in Arkansas and Missouri, USA (Hobbs 1989) and the Strawberry River drainage, near Evening Shade. The occurrence of this species in the Spring River drainage, however, appears to have been reduced due to displacement by the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007). Currently a distribution and population genetics survey for this species is under way (B. DiStefano pers. comm. 2010). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,893 km².
153999		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found on coarse gravel substrates of cool, shallow, fast flowing streams (Pflieger 1996) and deeper pools of 2.5 - 3 m under large pieces of cobble (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
153999		population	eng	This species is regarded as very localized where found in Missouri, but is considered the most abundant crayfish in the Eleven Point River and most common crayfish in the Greer Spring Branch and West Fork of Spring River (Pfleiger 1996). Thus, this species has a highly restricted range with large local populations. The population size of this species has been estimated to be smaller than 10,000 individuals (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
153999		threats	eng	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is in decline due, predominantly due to inter-specific competition with the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> and changes in land use causing a decline in stream habitat quality (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007) where there has been a documented decline in at least one drainage (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007). The precise causes for the decline have not been confirmed (Rabalais and Magoulick 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
154000		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154000		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from one location at Cueva del Guano, 10 km northeast of Valle Nacional, Oaxaca, three sites near Acatlán (approximately 200 km from Cueva del Guano), and one site 40 km northwest of Acatlán (Mejia-Ortiz <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>et al. </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>2003<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>). </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>There are a number of other caves between these sites in which this species may be found, though they have not been surveyed for this species&#160; (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
154000		habitat	eng	This species is only known from caves (Mejia-Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 2003).
154000		population	eng	This species is likely to be stable at present (F. Alvarez and M. Lopez-Mejia pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>
154000		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.
154001		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
154001		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from six localities within Le Flore County, Oklahoma and Polk County, Arkansas (Robison and Crandall 2005).   This species has a distribution of less than 10000 km<sup>2</sup>, though the exact limits of its range are not known.
154001		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found burrowing both in and adjacent to freshwater springs and clear cool permanent streams and under rocks (Jones and Bergey 2007).
154001		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was found to be a highly localized and a locally uncommon crayfish (Robison and Crandall 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; </span>Though, no population census studies have been performed on this species.
154001		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
154002		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further targeted surveys are needed for this species.
154002		distribution	eng	This species is known from El Pozón 8 km west of Cuatatalapan; El Tular San Simón, north of San Andrés Tuxtla; Nacimiento de Actopan, Actopan; Laguna de Apaxtla, Acayucan; 8 km southwest of Cuautotolapan, Cuautotolapan; La Ladrillera, San Andrés Tuxtla. All  these sites are in or around Los Tuxtlas region in southern Veracruz and cover a linear distance of 40 km (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100 km².
154002		habitat	eng	This species is a secondary burrower that inhabits temporary ponds and pools (Hobbs 1989), as well as streams with clearwater (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).
154002		population	eng	This species is rare and not easy to collect. Furthermore, it has has not been collected recently, including during surveys that have been under way for six months (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009). The last sample of this species was collected in 1957 by Villalobos Senior, though it is thought that specimens could be found with further survey work (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).
154002		threats	eng	This species is impacted by pollution from sugar cane plantations (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).
154003		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries society has assigned a conservation status rank of Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), while NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe, 2009) have   assigned a heritage rank of G5 to this species, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>as it has a wide range and EOO.
154003		distribution	eng	This species is common in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and North Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1989). Eversole and Jones (2004) list the distribution of this species as the Piedmont and Coastal Plain from the Tar and Cape Fear systems in North Carolina south to the Altamaha and Appalachicola systems in Georgia and Florida, and west to the Coosa River system in Georgia and Alabama.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><sup></sup>
154003		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small to moderately large permanent streams and burrows (Fetzner 2008). In addition, this species can tolerate a wide range of ecological conditions (Hobbs 1983).
154003		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is commom and widespread in the Piedmont Plateau and much of the Coastal Plain (Cooper and Baswell 1995)
154003		threats	eng	The Harris Dam is a large dam on the Tallapoosa River which affects much of this catchment   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). From the dam to Martin Lake is the only streatch of large river left in Alabama. Large commercial agriculture is the major economic driver in the Tallapoosa River basin, involving both livestock farming and agro-industry farming on an industrial scale. There is also much river commerce from Wetumpka downstream to Mobile. This means shipping lanes have been created for barges down the canal by dredging. In addition, droughts have severely affected the area in the past. Traffic on the Alabama River is almost entirely related to forest products and pulp   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Finally, forest replacement has occurred in much of the Piedmont area (Noss<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995), although the threat posed to this species by this is unknown.
154004		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Stauts Rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and apparently secure, by the American Fisheries society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). More research is required on this species before an accurate assessment can be made as the threats are uncertain, there is no population knowledge, or life history, or ecology and the distribution is continually changing   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
154004		distribution	eng	This species is limtied to parts of the eastern Piedmont Plateau in the Neuse and Cape Fear River basins, North Carolina, USA (Cooper and Schofield 2002). More than 20 collecting localities are listed in the Neuse, Cape Fear and Tar/Pamlico drainages by Cooper and Schofield (2002).&#160; In the original description (Cooper 2000), all speciemens were collected from the eastern Piedmont Plateau in two endemic river basins of North Carolina.&#160; LeGrand et al. (2006) cite the Neuse and Cape Fear drainages of Alamance, Caswell, Chatham, Durham, Harnett, Orange, Rockingham, and Wake Counties, North Carolina.
154004		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent freshwater streams. This species is also a primary burrower (Cooper 2000).
154004		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although new occurrences are being discovered continually (Cooper 2000, Cooper and Schofield 2002).</p>
154004		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has not been reported to be impacted by any major threats, although this is most likely due to a lack of knowledge about this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). It is likely that this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is affected by nutrient load pollution coming from swine farms in the Neuse River Basin (Waterkeeper Alliance 2003), although its affect on this species survival is unknown.
154005		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for thi species.&#160; However, 70 % of the water entering Lake Yojoa now originates from the Cerro Azul Meambar National Park, which was established in 1987 (Pfeffer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as water pollution.
154005		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities; Lake Yojoa in Honduras, and Los Amates, approximately 7 km South of the Rio Motagua, in the Province of Izabal, Guatemala (Hobbs 1989).&#160; These two localities are approximately 120 km apart, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Yojoa</st1:placename></st1:place> has a surface area of 89 km<sup>2</sup> (De Vevey <em>et al</em>. 1993).
154005		habitat	eng	This species inhabits still waters, including a lake (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
154005		population	eng	This species is only known from type specimens, and there have been no further surveys in the surrounding area   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<em></em>
154005		threats	eng	<p>Until relatively recently, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Yojoa</st1:placename></st1:place> received wastewater from the mining operations of El Mochito mine, to the northwest of the lake (De Vevey <em>et al</em>. 1993).&#160; A survey in 1993 found sediment samples to contain high concentrations of copper, zinc and lead (De Vevey <em>et al</em>. 1993).&#160; There has also been extensive deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) of evergreen broadleaved forest in the area surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Yojoa</st1:placename></st1:place> (House <em>et al.</em> 2002).&#160; However, it is unknown what impact these threats may be having on this species.&#160;</p>
154006		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) although no species specific conservation measures are in place for this species. In addition, this species has been placed on the South Carolina State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Management Plan (South Carolina Department of Natural Resources 2008).&#160; <br/><br/>Further research is required on the abundance of this species and the threats facing it before a more accurate assessment of conservation status can be made.
154006		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in headwaters of the Savannah, Hiwassee, and Chattahoochee River drainages in Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 14,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
154006		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing crayfish which is found in pools, seepage areas and occasionally in the riffle areas of streams. This species can also be found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum </span>bogs. The substrate of the river is sand and mica with stretches of bed rock and scattered small to large rocks (Bouchard and Hobbs 1976). This species is probably a generalist as females with eggs and young has been found in ditches next to roads in more than one locality (Bouchard and Hobbs 1976).
154006		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
154006		threats	eng	As<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is able to tolerate with, and breed under, all of the associated threats of living in a ditch it is likely that this species is not currently impacted by any major threats   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). No major threats have been reported for this species.
154007		conservation	eng	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and the threats associated with it.
154007		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Coastal Plain from the Altamaha River in Georgia, to the Edisto River in South Carolina (Fetzner 2008). It is found in&#160;Jasper, Beaufort and Hampton counties and the Lower Savannah and Broad-St.Helena drainages in South Carolina (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
154007		habitat	eng	This species is a secondary burrower which can be found in lentic situations and rivers (Fetzner 2008). This species can also be found frequently in inundated upland depressions that dry in summer (drier periods); these often contain live crayfish without water during these dry periods (Welch and Eversole 2006).
154007		population	eng	This species has been described as widespread and abundant (NatureServe 2009).
154007		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats associated with this species, although it is likely to be undergoing some localized declines due to urban development and habitat alteration due to agriculture and ground water abstraction   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009, A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).
154008		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009), due to the species being believed to be secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
154008		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the Gulf Coastal Plain of the USA, which includes the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas. This species is also found in Georgia, however, this is a suspected introduction (Taylor 2005).
154008		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swamps, ditches, lakes, ponds, oxbow lakes and sluggish streams. This species is able to burrow into the water table as water disappears from its habitat (Fetzner 2008, Peterson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Pfilieger 1996).
154008		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
154008		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting this species.
154009		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
154009		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tennessee River basin, below Walden Ridge, in Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee; Cumberland River basin in Tennessee and Kentucky; and the Barren River watershed in Tennessee and Kentucky (Hobbs 1949).   This species has a distribution of approximately 79000 km<sup>2</sup>.
154009		habitat	eng	This species is associated with clear, rock or gravel bedded streams (Hobbs 1949).
154009		population	eng	Rhoades (1944) stated that this species was common in the lower Tennessee and its tributaries.&#160; Furthermore, it is found to be abundant in areas where the correct gravel substrate exists (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154009		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread species which inhabits a relatively rural area   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154010		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
154010		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Tombigbee River basin in Mississippi, Eastward to the middle Chattahoochee River basin in Georgia (Fetzner 2008). This is a wide ranging species (S. Adams and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154010		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent sluggish streams, ponds, and seasonal roadside ditches (Turner 2007).
154010		population	eng	This is a reasonably common species (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009), though not particularly abundant. (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
154010		threats	eng	This species may be effected by threats locally, but it is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting upon it on a global scale.
154011		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further targeted surveys are needed for this species.
154011		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, 24 km east of Ciudad Valles in the state of <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1977).
154011		habitat	eng	This species is found in a small, clear, spring-fed stream with a maximum width of about 5 m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1977).&#160; The stream flows with a moderately swift current over a rocky bed with pools of up to 1.5 m in depth alternating with rapids (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1977).
154011		population	eng	This species is known from the type specimens   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>
154011		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
154012		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine its abundance, current distribution and whether it is being impacted by any major threats.
154012		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the Ouachita drainage system in southern Arkansas and Claiborne and Union parishes, Louisiana, and in the Pearl River basin in Montgomery and Simpson Counties, Mississippi (Hobbs 1969). Most records of this species are from Saline County, Arkansaw, and the Mississippi accounts are thought to be questionable. There are no records of this species ocurring in Mississippi held within the Smithsonian Institute, and no individuals have been collected during surveys within Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
154012		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams, with brown water that flows from sluggish to moderately swift through multiple channels in an eroded clay substrate (Hobbs 1969).&#160; In addition, this species is also known to occur in larger rivers, deep low-flowing channels behind dam structures with many cypress knees. It has also been collected in shallow, sandy, cool streams during droughts (Walls 2009).
154012		population	eng	This species has been referred to as a rare. Furthermore, not much suitable habitat is available for this species in Louisiana (Walls 2009).
154012		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is being impacted upon by any major threat process. However, it could be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
154013		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).<em></em></em>
154013		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the Great Plains in Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas, USA (Fetzner 2008). The species is also found in the extreme south west of Missouri and the extreme north west of Arkansas.<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 793,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
154013		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a generalist that can be found in a wide variety of habitats ranging from farm ponds to fast flowing streams (Williams 1954).
154013		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is very abundant in many locations where it has been collected   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p>
154013		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
154014		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threats.
154014		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Hatchie River system in Hardeman, Hardin, and McNairy Counties, Tennessee, and Alcorn, Tippah, Tishomingo and Union Counties, Mississippi (Adams 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately 14500 km<sup>2</sup>.
154014		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a permanent stream dweller, using sluggish to moderatly flowing streams and rivers (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976). It prefers a substrate of clay, sand, gravel, woody debris and large rocks (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976). Additionally,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is a secondary burrower (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
154014		population	eng	This species is believed to be reasonably common (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>
154014		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is being impacted upon by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime, water pollution and channelisation (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
154015		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
154015		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found along the St. Johns River and its tributaries, from Putnam County South to Seminole County, Florida (Hobbs 1942), including southern St. Johns County and Marion County. It is also known from the <span class="copy">Oklawaha Rivers in Florida <span class="copy">(Franz and Franz 1990).</span>
154015		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in flatwoods forest, seepage areas, and in springs (Hobbs 1942).
154015		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154015		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats.
154016		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the spring pool at El Sabinal, Cerralvo, is contained within the El Sabinal National Park   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Monitoring of remaining populations is needed.
154016		distribution	eng	Prior to 1985, this species was distributed relatively widely over the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, with a distribution of approximately 20,000 km² (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). However, this species is now only known from two disjunct localities in Nuevo Leon: Canoas Park (<1 km<sup>2</sup>), near Monterrey, and the spring pool, El Sabinal (<1 km<sup>2</sup>), at Cerralvo (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994).&#160; The current extent of occurrence of this species is approximately 2,000 km² (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). The area of occupancy is approximately 2 km<sup>2</sup>. This species has a severely fragmented range with a large area of unsuitable habitat existing between localities, and the presence of exotic species which have displaced this species throughout much of its range.
154016		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small streams and pools (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). Furthermore, it is known to occur in lowland and arid regions, between mountains and coastal plains, and within a semi-closed valley   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>
154016		population	eng	During a survey of Rio San Juan, near Presa de la Boca in 1985, over 98% of the crayfish collected were this species<em> (</em>Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994).&#160;<em> </em>However, during 1987 to 1989, a significant collapse of the population of this species was observed (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). Surveys in Monterrey, Guadalupe, Villa de Santiago and El Cercado in 1992 found 95-100% of crayfish to be the exotic species<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus clarkii</span> (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). This species is believed to have undergone an 80 - 90% decline in population in 10 years   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>
154016		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened by the introduction of the Red Swamp Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>) into central Nuevo Leon (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> was first introduced into the region in 1985 in the hope of starting commercial fisheries, although no economic profit has since resulted (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). Repeated introductions, and the high dispersal ability of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. clarkii</span> (Campos and Rodríguez-Almaráz 1992), mean it is now well established in the area and is thought to be responsible for the observed reduction in the range and abundance of this species, through outcompeting the endemic species (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). In addition, the expansion of Monterrey City is attributed to the ongoing decline in this species (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  </p><p><br/></p><p><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></p>
154017		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>  <p></p>
154017		distribution	eng	This species is found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Barren</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage in <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee </st1:state>(Rhoades 1944), and Green River system in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor and Schuster 2004). This species has a distribution of approximately 15409 km<sup>2</sup>.
154017		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in moderately flowing water (Rhoades 1944), and is known to occur under cobble sized rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154017		population	eng	This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; <br/></span>
154017		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.
154018		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been assigned the Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society, due its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2007). Monitoring of the progression of the invasive species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconecte</span>s<span style="font-style: italic;"> rusticus</span> into the range of this species is recommended.<br/></p>
154018		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from small tributaries of the extreme lower <st1:city w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:city> and Ohio River drainages in Livingston and Crittenden Counties, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2002).   The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>. It is known from only 5 locations (based on the threat of the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>): Fergasson, Sandy and Claylick Creeks, which are all tributaries of the Cumberland River; and Buck and Coefield Creeks, which are all tributaries of the Ohio River (Taylor 2002).
154018		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small, moderately flowing streams with substrates of cobble and gravel intermixed with mud and is sometimes found amongst woody debris (Taylor 2002). This species feeds on the eggs of the Fringed Darter,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Etheostoma crossopterum</span>, but not exclusively (Knouft and Page 2004).</p>
154018		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
154018		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span><span style="font-style: italic;"> rusticus </span>which has been collected in Smithland pool (T. Jones, pers. comm.2009), 16 km from the nearest downstream distribution of this species.&#160; This invasive species has outcompeted several other <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span>species, and is likely to cause declines in population number and extent of occurence in the future   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).
154019		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further surveys are needed for this species to confirm it still exists at previous known sites, or in surrounding suitable habitat. Further research on the impact of threats is also needed.
154019		distribution	eng	This species is found in the headwater tributaries of the Rio Tecolutla, in the vicinity of Zihuateutla, <st1:city w:st="on">Puebla</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). It is uncertain whether this species is still present at the type locality (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has an approximate extent of occurrence of 100 km², and is likely to occur in five locations.
154019		habitat	eng	This species inhabits headwater streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).
154019		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154019		threats	eng	The area within which this species is known to occur is impacted by urbanization and domestic pollution. Furthermore, water abstraction is a major threat within Puebla. (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).
154020		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, but has not been assessed by the American Fisheries Society as it is newly described (NatureServe 2009). The limited distribution of this species is well established, as the caves in a much broader area were extensively surveyed and this species was not found to occur in them (Buhay and Crandall 2008). Further research is needed to establish the abundance of this species and how inferred threats have impacted the population. <br/></p>
154020		distribution	eng	This species is known from the subterranean waters of nine caves in Wayne and Clinton Counties, Kentucky; Pickett and Fentress Counties, Tennessee (Buhay and Crandall 2008). Furthermore, it is considered to have a fragmented distribution (Buhay and Crandall 2008).   This species has a distribution of less than 4000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>There are records from another seven caves in Wayne County, Kentucky and Fentress County, Tennessee which are formerly identified as <em>Orconectes australis australis</em> or <em>O. a. packardi </em>and<em> </em>are now considered of unknown identity, these await molecular identification and could be this species<em> </em>or <em>O. packardi</em> (Buhay and Crandall 2008).
154020		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in subterranean streams and pools  (Buhay and Crandall 2008).&#160; It is found in open water in caves, and up on the pool banks and cave walls.&#160; This species does not appear to hide itself away under rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, it is known to coexist with Cambarus (Erebicambarus) tenebrosus (Buhay and Crandall 2008).<br/></p>
154020		population	eng	Multiple individuals of this species have been found at each cave locality, including a female with eggs which is highly unusual for a cave crayfish (Buhay and Crandall 2008).&#160; No formal census surveys have been performed for this species, but genetic diversity has been measured and is low for the species (Buhay and Crandall 2008).
154020		threats	eng	Like many cave species, this species is heavily influenced by ground water discharge.&#160; There is urban development at the extreme southern portion of the species range, where urbanization is a potential threat through pollution. However, in the more northerly reaches of its range on the eastern edge of the <st1:place w:st="on">Cumberland plateau</st1:place>, there are no known threats as development in this region is not rapid   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154021		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>
154021		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in New Mexico, Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kansas (Jester 1967). It has been intentionally introduced to the Colorado River watershed in New Mexico and North Eastern Arizona (Dean 1969, New Mexico Register 2006). Though, the precise limits of its range are not well understood   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  This species has a distribution of approximately 1,837,982 km<sup>2</sup>.
154021		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a habitat generalist, and is found in a variety of habitats such as streams, ponds and reservoirs (Dean 1969). It is found in relation to a range of substrates including rocks, sand and mud (Loring and Hill 1976). This species is a tertiary burrower, of which the most common type of burrow is a tunnel under rocks embedded in the substrate. Furthermore, it<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has a range of temperature tolerances from 33 to 90<sup>o</sup>F (Dean 1969).
154021		population	eng	This species is likely to be relatively abundant across its range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154021		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to water pollution, diversion and loss through irrigation   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154022		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species, as well as to determine its abundance, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes</p><p></p><p><br/></p>
154022		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the coastal plain and piedmont from Maine to Georgia, and from the Florida panhandle to Texas, and Minnesota to Ohio (Ghedotti 1998, Loughman 2007). Furthermore, this species has been introduced to many areas of the US, including California, Maine and Kentucky (Loughman 2007).
154022		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent sluggish, to moderately flowing streams and most permanent lentic (lakes, swamps, ponds) water bodies (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In West Virginia, this species has been found in ephemeral wetland habitats (Loughman 2007). It is considered to be a habitat generalist (US Forest Service 2008).
154022		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is often rare when it is found, but on occasion occurs in high numbers (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).
154022		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species. .
154023		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, its distribution, and the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. <br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
154023		distribution	eng	This species is found in eight counties in Texas: Liberty, Brazoria, Fort Bend, Montgomery, San Jacinto, Grimes, Harris, and Walker counties (Johnson 2008; D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010). This species has been collected from 120 sites, and targeted surveying has been completed (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010). The collection spacing is on the order to 3-5 miles (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).This species has a distribution of approximately 10,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(D.Johnson pers.comm. 2010).
154023		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrower, with all adult specimens being collected from burrows. Juveniles of this species can be found in temporary pools (Johnson 2008).
154023		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant in its range (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
154023		threats	eng	Although this species is widespread within its range, the entire range is in the Houston area and is all subject to development.&#160; Much of its distribution is now highly fragmented (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). It does not face an immediate threat of extinction, but could undergo a very significant decline over the next 50 years (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).
154024		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>    <p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Due to the restricted nature of this species, further research is required on its abundance and threats impacting upon it. <br/></p>
154024		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Bodcaw and Dorcheat bayou basins, and LaFayette, Nevada, Hempstead and Columbia counties, southwestern Arkansas (Hobbs 1977, Robison and Allen 1995). This species has a distribution of approximately 250 km<sup>2</sup>.
154024		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in shallow, sluggish backwaters and small intermittent streams with a sandy substrate (Robison and Allen 1995). In this study, individuals appeared to be associated with the presence of vegetation such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ludwiga </span>sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia</span> sp. It was collected from burrows over 3 m deep (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><span class="copy">
154024		population	eng	This is a rare species (NatureServe 2009).
154024		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be undergoing a significant decline as much of the catchment in which it occurs is forested with very little urbanization, or agricultural land (Arkansas Water 2009).
154025		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), indicating this speceis is widespread, abundant and secure. In addition, this species has been given a status of Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Service (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p>
154025		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from a wide area of the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Green River basins in  Middle Tennessee and nearby Kentucky, USA (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995, Fetzner 2008).   This species is also known from Lauderdale County, Alabama ( Tyalor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 37,600 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
154025		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high gradient streams with a cherty gravel substrate and can also be found among leaf litter and in root mats (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995, Fetzner 2008).
154025		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is described as abundant in large parts of its range (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995), with some of the highest densities recorded for species from this <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>genus (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).
154025		threats	eng	The threat to this species are unknown.
154026		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>
154026		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found between the Apalachicola and Suwannee rivers, spanning 10 counties in Florida (Hobbs 1942).   This species has a distribution of approximately 17000 km<sup>2</sup>.
154026		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both lentic and lotic situations, and burrows (Hobbs 1942). This species is a&#160; habitat generalist (Hobbs 1942).
154026		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154026		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.
154027		conservation	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
154027		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known to occur in Okaloosa county, Florida to the Pearl River in Hancock County, Mississippi (Hobbs, 1989). This species is known from seven collections from Mississippi and seven from Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
154027		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in small creeks and sluggish streams, with clear water and a substrate consisting of sand, dead leaves and twigs (Hobbs 1942). Furthermore, it is known to occur in simple burrows in drying creek beds (Hobbs 1989).
154027		population	eng	Hobbs (1942) examined 80 specimens from a range of sites in within the distribution of this species. It is thought to be uncommon from most records, and the most recent record is from 1994 and was a juvenile record (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
154027		threats	eng	This species is impacted upon by urbanization and channelization. It is restricted to the Gulf coast where considerable development occurs (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).
154028		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p></p>
154028		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the coastal plain from the Satilla River system to Tift and Thomas Counties, and Cumberland Island, Camden County, Georgia.&#160; As well as Alachua and Putnam Counties, Florida (Hobbs 1981).   This species has a distribution of approximately 37,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
154028		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower (Hobbs 1981) and is frequently found in seepage areas adjacent to streams. It has also been found in flatwoods, semi-permanent pools and roadside ditches. Burrows have been found in a range of soil types including clay, sandy clay, loam, and hummic soils (Hobbs 1981).
154028		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154028		threats	eng	There are no known threat processes impacting upon this species.
154029		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>  <p></p>
154029		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs from the Upper Cumberland River drainage in southwestern <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky,</st1:state> East to the upper New River drainage of western <st1:state w:st="on">North Carolina</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Virginia</st1:place></st1:state>. This species is also found in the Little Scioto drainage, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Ohio</st1:state></st1:place> and Big Sandy, Guyandotte, upper New, and Elk drainages in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">West   Virginia</st1:state></st1:place> (Taylor 2000).   This species has a distribution of approximately 67189 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
154029		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits creeks and small to medium-sized rivers with cobble and gravel substrates. This species uses large pieces of gravel and cobble as shelter (Taylor 2000).</p>
154029		population	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been described as common to abundant in most locations in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor 2000).
154029		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting upon this species.
154030		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation management practices for this species, although some of this species distribution occurs within national forests and parks (Adams 2008). The American Fisheries Society have assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and NatureServe have given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
154030		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in the Lower Mississippi drainage in Arkansas, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, and in eastern and central Texas with its type locality in New Orleans, Louisiana (Marlow 1960, Reimer and Clark 1974).<br/>This species has also been found in Alabama, Kentucky, Missouri and Oklahoma (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 251,700 km<sup>2</sup>.
154030		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as probably the most secretive crayfish in the Mississippi drainage. It is a primary burrower which lives in lotic habitats and only leaves its burrows at night or during rainy conditions (Reimer and Clark 1974).
154030		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although NatureServe (2009) has stated that this species can be found in almost any habitat where the water table is near the surface.</p>
154030		threats	eng	There is no species specific threats recorded. However, due to the wide distribution of this species it is likely that there are no major threats impacting this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). There are likely to be localized declines occurring due to pollution in areas of urban development and also in agricultural practice due to nutrient loading and herbicide run off    (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).
154031		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.<br/></p>
154031		distribution	eng	This species is a regional endemic in Georgia, and occurs in three drainages with a total range of between 5000 to 20000 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species inhabits the lower coastal plain of Georgia, between the <st1:city w:st="on">Savannah</st1:city>, Oconee and Altamaha rivers (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). It is generally restricted to North of the Altamaha River (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).
154031		habitat	eng	This species is a primary burrowing species, spending the major part of its life in complex burrows.&#160; Most of the tunnel systems have at least three potential surface exists marked by low, carelessly constructed chimneys, one or more may be plugged.&#160; In as much as the tunnels are largely confined to flatwoods or boggy areas where the water table is near the surface, few of the deep passages extend downward for more than 1.5 m (Hobbs, 1981).
154031		population	eng	This species is believed to be common (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009), furthermore, Hobbs (1981) reported to have collected it from 24 sites. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
154031		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.
154612		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paracaesio caerulea</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, harvest levels and biology of this species.
154612		distribution	eng	The Japanese Snapper<em>, Paracaesio caerulea,</em> has been reported from southern Japan, more recently Taiwan (Shen 1993), and the Chesterfield Islands (Kulbicki <em>et al</em>. 1994).
154612		habitat	eng	<em>Paracaesio caerulea</em> occurs over rocky bottoms at depths greater than 100 m.
154612		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Paracaesio caerulea</em>.
154612		threats	eng	<em>Paracaesio caerulea</em> is an important food fish, which is often seen in markets. This species is caught with handlines and bottom longlines, and is marketed fresh (FAO 1985). There are no seperate catch statistics available for this species.
154613		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for the Grey Cutthroat Eel.
154613		distribution	eng	The Grey Cutthroat Eel, <em>Synaphobranchus affinis,</em> is found in all oceans. In the eastern Atlantic this species is distributed from Liberia to South Africa, and in the western Atlantic this species is known from Cuba and Trinidad and Tobago. In the Indian Ocean it has been recorded from Madagascar, the Comoros and Reunion.  In the Pacific, this species is known from Hawaii, Japan, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and Chile.
154613		habitat	eng	This bathydemersal species is found on the upper continental slope, at a depth range of 290-2,400 m.  This species spends much of its time over rocky substrata.
154613		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154613		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it <em></em>is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species. This species is not likely to be taken as by-catch in significant quantities as it most often found over rocky substrata at bathyl depths, a habitat that is not favourable for trawling.
154614		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em>.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and by-catch of this species is needed.
154614		distribution	eng	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> has been found around southern Australia and New Zealand.&#160; It has also been found in the southern Atlantic Ocean.
154614		habitat	eng	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 37–604 m.&#160; It is typically found on the continental slope in waters deeper than 300 m, but it has occasionally been seen at shallower depths.
154614		population	eng	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> is reported to be common; it makes up a dominant element of the fauna of the region, reflected by high levels of abundance in one or more biomes (CSIRO Marine Research 2001).
154614		threats	eng	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> forms an important component of the Western Australian trawl fishery catch at depths of 300–600 m, generally south of 25°south <em></em>(Australian Fisheries Management Authority 2003).&#160; This species is also taken as by-catch in the southeast Australian otter trawl fishery, where it has been assessed as a medium risk species (Wayte <em>et al</em>. 2004).
154615		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Günther's Flounder.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the population numbers and by-catch levels of this species.
154615		distribution	eng	Günther's Flounder (<em>Laeops guentheri</em>) has been found in the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Thailand and Indonesia.
154615		habitat	eng	Günther's Flounder is a demersal species that has a depth range of 15–329 m.&#160; It is found over sandy, muddy substrates, and sometimes over shell rubble.&#160; It feeds on benthic animals.
154615		population	eng	There is no population information available for Günther's Flounder.
154615		threats	eng	Günther's Flounder is of no commercial importance, however it is taken as by-catch by commercial trawlers (FAO 2001).
154616		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Crown Lanternfish.
154616		distribution	eng	The Crown Lanternfish <em>(Diaphus diadematus</em>) is found between 18°S and 23°S in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, but west of the thermal front which occurs from Benguela Water, Angola, to the south Atlantic central water. This species has a disjunct distribution in the the Indian Ocean; it is known from Sumatra, the Mozambique Channel, and in the Agulhas Current. In the Western Pacific, this species is found in southeast Asian seas and around northern Australia to 20°N.
154616		habitat	eng	The Crown Lanternfish is a bathypelagic, oceandromous species that migrates to the upper 100 m of the water column at night.
154616		population	eng	There is no known population information for Crown Lanternfish, however species from the Myctophidae family are reported to be very common oceanic fishes (FAO 1999).
154616		threats	eng	There is no known commercial fishery for this species. Due to the depths at which this species can be found, it may be taken as a by-catch species of prawn fisheries operating within its range; however due to its small size it will pass through the nets of many trawlers.
154617		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on population, distribution, habitat requirements, and potential threats for this poorly known species.
154617		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Panama, including Gorgona, Malpelo, Galapagos and the Revillagigedo Islands.
154617		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit soft substrata between 3 and 20 m deep. It has been found in the stomachs of yellowfin tuna (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
154617		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154617		threats	eng	There is little known about the major threats for this species. In addition, given its relatively restricted range and shallow water habitat, this species may be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes from future ENSO and global climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) including increased frequency of storm events.
154618		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Oman Gunard.&#160; However, it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas. Further research on its abundance and ecology, and monitoring of the extent of harvest and harvest levels is needed.
154618		distribution	eng	The Oman Gurnard (<em>Lepidotrigla omanensis</em>) is found in the Arabian Sea from the mouth of the Red Sea to south India, but is not present in the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea.
154618		habitat	eng	Gurnards are benthic species found on the continental shelf of tropical and warm temperate regions. This species has been found at a depth range of 56?329 m. Species in the genus <em>Lepidotrigla</em> are typically found to occur on sandy, muddy, rubble or reef-type substrates.
154618		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Oman Gunard.
154618		threats	eng	There is no interest in the Oman Gunard as a food source, probably due to its small size.&#160; It is taken by bottom trawlers and treated as a trash fish.&#160; This is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the population of this species.
154619		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Alcichthys elongatus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154619		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Alcichthys elongatus</em> ranges from the Iwate and Shimane Prefectures of Japan, northwards, in both the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk.
154619		habitat	eng	<em>Alcichthys elongatus</em> is a demersal species with a depth range of 15 - 269 m and inhabits temperate waters. It has been observed to aggregate in winter in the Gamov drop-offs in the western part of the Peter the Great Bay (Izmyatinskii 2006).  Maximum size about 30 cm; found primarily on rocky reef habitats (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).
154619		population	eng	It has been observed to aggregate in winter in the Gamov drop-offs in the western part of the Peter the Great Bay (Izmyatinskii 2006).  Common around Hokkaido (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009).
154619		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Alcichthys elongatus</em>. This species is not targeted directly by any fishery.  It is incidentally caught in gill netting on rocky reefs (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009). The Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk are subject to heavy shipping traffic and its associated threats: bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals; it is unknown if this species is affected by these threats.
154620		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Protomyctophum luciferum</em>.&#160; Further research on the distribution of this species is needed.
154620		distribution	eng	<em>Protomyctophum luciferum</em> is distributed in the Southern Indian Ocean. Froese and Pauly (2006) report that this species possibly has a circumglobal distribution between 34°S and 48°S.
154620		habitat	eng	<em>Protomyctophum luciferum</em> is a meso-/bethypelagic, oceanic species that is found at depths below 140 m at night.&#160; This species is oceanodromous.&#160; Most species of the family Myctophidae are opportunistic carnivores, feeding mainly on crustaceans (FAO 1999).
154620		population	eng	There is no species-specific population information available for<em> Protomyctophum luciferum</em>.&#160; Some species of the Myctophidae are known to be abundant in some areas (FAO 2002).
154620		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Protomyctophum luciferum</span>.
154621		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Aldabra Special Reserve in the Seychelles.
154621		distribution	eng	<em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em> is found from the Island of Rodrigues, the Seychelles, the Chagos Archipelago and from the coast of Mozambique.
154621		habitat	eng	<em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em> is a demersal species that has been found at depths up to 200 m and occurs in coastal areas. It is more commonly seen at depths above 50 m, on sandy flats near coral reefs, and in lagoons.
154621		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em>.
154621		threats	eng	<em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em> is not under any major or widespread threat process.  This species is not known for any commercial trade. However, due to the coastal nature of this species it may be locally impacted by threats affecting its habitat, including destructive fishing practices, coastal development and water pollution.
154622		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may be found in at least one of the five marine protected areas around Madagascar.  Further research on the taxonomy of this species is required with further collections being made at the type locality (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
154622		distribution	eng	<em>Foa madagascariensis</em> is only known from the type locality, Saradrano, Tulear, Madagascar.
154622		habitat	eng	<em>Foa madagascariensis</em> has been collected at a depth range of five to six m in coastal waters.
154622		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Foa madagascarensis</span> is only known from two specimens.
154622		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Foa madagascariensis</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154623		conservation	eng	<em></em>There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Cheilinus trilobatus</em>. However, this species distribution includes a number of marine protected areas within its range. For example, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus </span>was recorded in 5 marine protected areas off Africa: Malindi, Watamu, Mombasa, Kisite and Chumbe Island (McClanahan 2000). More species-specific information on harvest and trade is needed for this species.
154623		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> is broadly distributed in the Indo-Pacific, from East Africa to Tuamoto and from Japan to New Caledonia.
154623		habitat	eng	Juveniles of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> are found on algae reefs and usually around stinging hydrozoans (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), while adults inhabit coral lagoon, coastal reef-flats, seaward reefs and along shallow reef margins with high coral cover (Lieske and Myers 1994; Allen 2000; Kuiter 2006). It is also occasionally observed in grassy areas at depths of 1–30 m (Carpenter and Niem 2001; Gell and Whittington 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> feeds on hard-shelled benthic invertebrates, including sea urchins, molluscs, crustaceans and occasionally small fishes (Myers 1991; Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
154623		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> has been commonly observed on recent surveys throughout Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009.). This is a common species throughout its range (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154623		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no major threats known for <em>Cheilinus trilobatus</em>. This species is caught in multi-species fisheries and marketed both alive and dead, and is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade. At present these are not considered major threats to the population of this species due to the small size of these fisheries.
154624		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the American Harvestfish<em>.&#160;</em> However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
154624		distribution	eng	The American Harvestfish <em>(Peprilus paru</em>) is known from Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the coasts of Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Antilles.&#160; It may infrequently be found in the western Caribbean, but is absent from the Bahamas.&#160; Along the Atlantic coast, it extends from its northerly limit of Chespaeake Bay, south to Uruguay and Argentina (R. Haedrich pers. comm. 2008)
154624		habitat	eng	The American Harvestfish is a pelagic species, found to occur all year round in large schools within coastal bays.&#160; Juvenile forms are found in shallow coastal waters under floating weeds or in association with the Scyphomedusae, <em>Chrysaora quinquecirrha</em> (Mansueti 1963).&#160; Adults will feed on jellyfish, small fish, worms, and crustaceans, while juveniles are primarily plankton feeders.&#160;  This species is found at depths of 50–70 m.
154624		population	eng	There is no population information available for the American Harvestfish.
154624		threats	eng	The American Harvestfish is commercially harvested in the inshore waters of eastern Florida, the northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico, western Venezuela, the Guianas, and occasionally the Campeche Bank.&#160; All fishing activity uses otter trawls.&#160; This species is marketed fresh and frozen and exported predominantly to Japan.&#160; With the exception of a period in the 1960s, landings of this species were historically low until the 1990s, when the fishery off Venezuela developed.&#160; At present, harvesting of this species as a food source is not considered to be a major threat to the overall population.
154625		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis plagiostomus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, ecology, distribution and abundance of this species.
154625		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis plagiostomus</em> is known from a single specimen found off the western coast of Tasmania.
154625		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis plagiostomus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been collected at a depth range of 987–993 m.
154625		population	eng	There is no population information available for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis plagiostomus</span>, as it is only known from a single specimen.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154625		threats	eng	It is unknown if&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis plagiostomus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154626		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tropical Striped Triplefin. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its habitat status should be carried out.
154626		distribution	eng	The Tropical Striped Triplefin, <em>Helcogramma striatum,</em> is an Indo-Pacific species distributed from Sri Lanka and India, east to Kiribati, north to Japan and south to northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef.
154626		habitat	eng	The Tropical Striped Triplefin, <em>Helcogramma striatum</em>, is found resting on live coral at a depth range of 0-30 m. This species feeds on zooplankton that drifts past in the current.
154626		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154626		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is likely to be undergoing localised declines in abundance due habitat degradation as a result of coral bleaching, destructive fishing practices, sedimentation, coastal pollution & development, and Crown of Thorns starfish invasions.
154627		conservation	eng	During this species spawning season, some estuaries are closed to netting (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). The Western Australian Fisheries Department has set a minimum length of capture at 43 cm, which is above the size of maturity of this species (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Conservation measures need to be specific to each estuarine location, as each subpopulation is genetically distinct. Further research is needed to establish if subpopulations interbreed or if they are genetically isolated. If they are in fact genetically isolated then regional extinctions may occur if harvesting is not regulated, and spawning grounds protected.
154627		distribution	eng	The Estuary Catfish (<em>Cnidoglanis macrocephalus</em>) ranges from southern Queensland, to southern Western Australia including Tasmania (McGrouther 2005).
154627		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cnidoglanis macrocephalus</span> occurs in estuaries and silty bays of temperate marine waters (McGrouther 2005) to a depth of 30 m. It prefers sandy areas which have weeds that can be used as protective cover. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cnidoglanis macrocephalus</span> spawns and nests in burrows which the males guard. Each estuary's population is genetically distinct (Blaber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<br/><br/>The breeding habitats of this species has made them vulnerable to over-fishing as they spawn and nest in burrows and the males remain nearby to guard eggs and rear the young. Unlike many fish that spawn prolifically and several times a year, Cobbler spawn only once a year and produce a relatively small number of eggs (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). Recent studies suggest that Cobbler populations do not move far away from their home estuary and there is little interbreeding (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005).
154627		population	eng	This species has shown a decline in abundance throughout most of its range since the 1970s (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003).
154627		threats	eng	This species is one of the most important commercially important species in Australia's estuaries (Blaber<em> et al.</em> 2000).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The Estuary Catfish<em></em> declined in abundance during the 1970s–1980s due to over-fishing (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/> <br/>This species has failed to recover to pre-1970s abundance levels, and several estuaries have recently experienced historically low annual catches <em></em>(Fisheries Research Division Western Australia 2003), including the Swan-Canning, Peel-Harvey and Leschenault estuaries. The annual commercial catch has fallen from more than 400 t in the 1960s to less than 10 t in 1993 (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). However in 2003, Wilson Inlet on the southern coast of Western Australia, reported its highest annual catch since 1985 (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003). However the overall trend seems to be for a decline in abundance, with larger fish becoming scarcer (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). It has also been suggested that the low levels of catch in the Swan-Canning and Peel-Harvey estuaries could be partly due to a shift in target species, away from the Estuary Catfish (Fisheries Research Division Western Australia 2003).<br/><br/>Breeding stock size for this species is determined as 'inadequate' (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2008). Subpopulations within estuaries are said to be genetically distinct, making this species even more vulnerable to exploitation.At all known locations size at maturity is said to be below the age at maturity (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2008).
154628		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Uropterygius fuscoguttatus , however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), including several in New Caledonia, all of which are "no-take" zones.&#160; Monitoring of the coral habitat status should be carried out and steps taken to ensure that further coral reef degradation does not occur.
154628		distribution	eng	<em>Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</em> is distributed from the Maldive Islands and Chagos Archipelago, east to the Pitcairn Islands, and north to the Hawaiian and Johnston Islands.&#160; It has also been recorded from South Africa (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154628		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</span> is associated with coral reefs in lagoons and seaward reefs.&#160; The species is found among rubble with algae cover, at depths of 3–25 m.
154628		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</span> is relatively common and widespread (D. Smith pers. comm. 2009).
154628		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</span> is being affected by any major threats across its entire range. This species' coral reef habitat has been threatened in some areas by coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks, water pollution (sedimentation) and other human pressures.&#160; However, these threats are localised, rather than occurring over its entire range, and in some regions the reefs are still healthy.
154629		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154629		distribution	eng	<em>Siokunichthys nigrolineatus</em> is distributed in the western central Pacific, from southern Indonesia and Papua New Guinea to the Philippines. In Indonesia it is known from the Moluccas Islands, Flores, the Raja Ampat Islands and Sangalakki Island (Dawson 1983; Kuiter 2000).
154629		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical waters and is reef-associated. It is found in coastal reefs, usually along the bottom of shallow drop-offs, and in small groups on solitary coral. These groups comprise mixed sex and sized individuals. <em>S. nigrolineatus</em> is commensal with solitary corals, notably <em>Fungia echinata</em> and <em>Heliofungia actiniformes</em> (Kuiter 2000). The reefs this species inhabits are often adjacent to large lagoons which discharge large volumes of water over reefs on outgoing tides, carrying plankton. Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch, located under the tail.
154629		population	eng	There is currently no available population information for this species.
154629		threats	eng	This particular pipefish is not likely to be harvested for medicinal trade and the only potential major threats are from the habitat specificity of fungiid corals (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).  However, corals of the family that includes Fungia are considered the one of the least threatened of scleractinian corals (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  This species could potentially be harvested for the aquarium trade but there is no evidence that this species is currently exploited for that purpose (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).
154630		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Canthigaster inframacula</em>.
154630		distribution	eng	<em>Canthigaster inframacula</em> is known from only a few specimens found at Johnston Atoll, Ogasawara Islands, Japan, Oahu Island, Hawaiian Islands, and Tonking Bay, Viet Nam.
154630		habitat	eng	<em>Canthigaster inframacula</em> is typically found low in the water column over rock and sand substrates, at depths ranging from 100 - 157 m.
154630		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Canthigaster inframacula</em>. It is known only from a few specimens.
154630		threats	eng	<em>Canthigaster inframacula</em> has no known threats and never likely to be harvested for food owing to its small size.
154631		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Anglefin Whiff, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on possible threats impacting this species is needed.
154631		distribution	eng	The Anglefin Whiff (<em>Citharichthys gymnorhinus)</em> ranges from the Florida Keys to Guyana, including the Bahamas and the Antilles. Larvae have also been collected off the coast of North Carolina, suggesting that the distribution of this species may extend further north than previously thought.
154631		habitat	eng	The Anglefin Whiff is a demersal species that has a depth range of 35-200 m, but it commonly occurs at 30-90 m. The larvae occur offshore off the west coast of Florida, usually between 50 and 200 m. This species is found on the continental shelf (FAO 2002) over sand and mud substrates.
154631		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Anglefin Whiff.
154631		threats	eng	Anglefin Whiff is not specifically targeted by the fishing industry but areas in which it is found, such as the Antilles and Bahamas, have been affected by overfishing; this species may be taken as by-catch (WWF 2003).  These threats however are unlikely to be causing significant declines in the population of this broad ranging species.
154632		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Yves Merlet Special Marine Reserve off New Caledonia.
154632		distribution	eng	<em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em> is distributed from the Bali Strait to Timor.&#160; It has also been reported from Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Mauritius and Sri Lanka.
154632		habitat	eng	The stargazer, <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>, is a demersal species that has a depth range of 1–150 m (FAO 2001, Froes and Pauly 2006).&#160; The Uranoscopidae family are nocturnal, and during the day, bury their bodies into sand or mud, with only the eyes and mouth left protruding (FAO 2001).
154632		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>.
154632		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>.
154633		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Malacocephalus luzonensis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the possible threats and ecology of this species, to determine if it is being impacted by deep-sea shrimp fisheries.
154633		distribution	eng	<em>Malacocephalus luzonensis</em> is a western central Pacific Grenadier, known only from the Philippines.
154633		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malacocephalus</span> <em>luzonensis</em>is a benthopelagic species and has been found at a depth of 315 m.&#160; Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found on upper continental slopes (FAO 1999), feeding on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish, and cephalopods, and are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154633		population	eng	There is no population information available for<em> Malacocephalus luzonensis</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154633		threats	eng	There is no known commercial fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Malacocephalus luzonensis</span>, however it may be taken as by-catch by shrimp trawling fisheries, which are common in the Philippines.
154634		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Johnsonina eriomma</em>.
154634		distribution	eng	<em>Johnsonina eriomma</em> is known from the Northwest Providence Channel of the Bahamas, south through the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and the western Caribbean off Panama and Nicaragua (Tyler 1968).
154634		habitat	eng	<em>Johnsonina eriomma</em> is caught in trawls and therefore found over soft bottoms.&#160;  One unconfirmed report lists this species at 70 m, although it is mostly reported from depths of 225 to 720 m (Tyler 1968).
154634		population	eng	<em></em>Tyler (1968) examined 115 specimens of <em>Johnsonina eriomma</em> from numerous locations across the Caribbean.
154634		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Johnsonina eriomma.</span>
154635		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lestidiops ringens</em>.
154635		distribution	eng	The Slender Barracudina<em> (Lestidiops ringens</em>) occurs from British Columbia in Canada, to central Baja California in Mexico.&#160; Two specimens have also been collected by mid-water trawl from northern Japan (Okamoto <em>et al</em>. 2006).
154635		habitat	eng	The Slender Barracudina<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 0–3,290 m.&#160; It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods.&#160; This species has a number of predators including albacore, salmon, swordfish, and lancetfish.
154635		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Slender Barracudina<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><em> </em>
154635		threats	eng	There is no known commercial fishery for the Slender Barracudina<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>&#160; Due to its extensive depth profile, it is likely to be taken as by-catch by some fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to represent a major threat.
154636		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em>.
154636		distribution	eng	<em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em> is endemic to New Zealand, where it is widespread in coastal waters.&#160; It is found from North Cape to Stewart Island, and the Chatham Islands (Nelson 1978).
154636		habitat	eng	<em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em> is a benthic species that has been found at a depth range of 5–200 m on sand and mud bottoms.
154636		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em>.&#160;  It is common in museum collections.
154636		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em>.&#160; The Hauraki Gulf region has been the target of both major commercial and recreational fisheries for Sparid (<em>Pagrus auratus</em>).&#160; <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em> is probably taken as by-catch, especially by shrimp trawls, but this is not thought to pose a major threat to the species (J. Nelson pers. comm. 2009)
154637		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Whitegill Dragonet. Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance and threats, as very little information is available at present.
154637		distribution	eng	The Whitegill Dragonet (<em>Callionymus leucobranchialis</em>) is a western Pacific dragonet, known from only one locality in the Philippines and two localities in Australia (Western Australia and Queensland).
154637		habitat	eng	The Whitegill Dragonet is demersal, burying into soft substrates. It has been found at depths ranging of 60–137 m. Congeners feed on small, bottom-dwelling organisms such as crustaceans, worms and snails (Fricke 2001).
154637		population	eng	The Whitegill Dragonet is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
154637		threats	eng	It is unknown whether the Whitegill Dragonet is being impacted by any major threat processes. Like its congeners (e.g., <em>Callionymus belcheri</em> and <em>C. filamentosus</em>), this species may be taken as by-catch in commercial prawn fisheries, or may be used for the production of fish meal (Fricke 2001).
154638		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Myctophum lychnobium</em>.<br/><br/>There is uncertainty regarding whether <em>M. lychnobium</em> is a valid species, therefore more taxonomic research is required.
154638		distribution	eng	<em>Myctophum lychnobium</em> is known from China (South China Sea) and Papua New Guinea (Solomon Sea and off Madang).&#160; However, Froese and Pauly (2007) state that the distribution of <em>M. lychnobium</em> ranges from the Mozambique Channel to the eastern Pacific.
154638		habitat	eng	<em>Myctophum lychnobium</em> is a bathypelagic species with a depth range of 0–1,000 m.&#160; Most species of the family Myctophidae migrate vertically to the upper 200 m at night to feed. Species are opportunistic carnivores, feeding mainly on crustaceans (FAO 1999).
154638		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Myctophum lychnobium</em>.
154638		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Myctophum lychnobium</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154639		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico (WDPA 2006). However, it requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
154639		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only found around the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico.
154639		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found near rocky shores and rocky reefs in a narrow depth range between 0 and 10 m.
154639		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154639		threats	eng	This species has a very shallow, narrow depth range and a restricted distribution. This species is therefore susceptible to localized stochastic events, including oceanographic environmental changes during ENSO or future climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
154640		conservation	eng	<p>Ordenance nº 53/05 from IBAMA establishes a minimum size of capture of 20 cm of total length on southern and south Brazilian coast.</p>    <p>The Guaratuba Bay, Parana, where this species is largely found, is an APA – Area de Proteção Ambiental (Chaves,pers. comm.). It is not known whether there are any effective conservation measures within this area.<br/></p><p>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers is needed. Further research is needed to establish the extent of harvest and if fishing effort decreased in the years that landings were reported to be low.</p><p>Catch  is prohibited between January and March (Portaria Sudepe 42/ 18 Out  1984) in Sao Paulo, Santa Catarina, Parana e Rio Grande do Sul States.</p><p>Fishing for this species in Lagoa dos Patos and other estuaries should be prohibited during spawning periods. Research on possible bycatch reduction measures should be conducted.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
154640		distribution	eng	The Guri Sea Catfish (<em>Genidens genidens</em>) can be found off the coast of southern Bahia, Brazil, and Uruguay.
154640		habitat	eng	The Guri Sea Catfish is a demersal species that is typically found in shallow, brackish water over sandy or muddy bottoms, estuaries and coastal lagoons.&#160; Males mouthbreed the eggs and fry until development is complete.&#160; This species has a very low fecundity, with an average litter size of only 5–17 individuals (Froese and Pauly 2007).<br/>  <p>It is common on coastal waters, over sand or muddy bottons, up to 25m, as well as frequent in estuaries and mangroves, with possible excursions on fresh waters (Nóbrega et al, 2009).</p>  <p>Mostly estuarine, but lives on marine environments (Marceniuk and Menezes, 2007). </p>    <p>Chaves and Vendel (1996) studying G. genidens feeding habits found larger incidence of decapods, followed by other crustaceans, molluscs, polychaets, fish, and plant material and noticed the existence of seasonal variation in the diet, in Guaratuba bay, Paraná. Pedra et al (2006) studying the species in northern Rio de Janeiro,&#160; observed &#160;were crustaceans, fish, mollusks and polychaets, (tanaidacea crustaceans being the most representative) as the main feeding itens. </p>   <p>Barbieri et al (1992), sampled individuals on Jacarepagua lagoon (RJ) and found a spawning period extended, from October to February, more intense from December to January, coinciding with high surface water temperature and low salinity in the area. Gomes and Araújo (2004a) also mention a reproductive period on summer and early autumn in Sepetiba Bay (RJ), coinciding with lower salinities and higher temperature and transparency of the water. Chaves (1994) and Hostim-Silva et al (2009) also noticed reproductive activity on summer. In Cananeia the spawning period is also between December and April (Mishima e Tanji&#160; 1983).<br/></p><p>Barbieri et al (1992) found an average length at first maturity for females as approximately 180 mm TL, and at 250 mm TL, all females were mature. Hostim-Silva et al (2009) found an average size at first maturation for females as133.6 mm and 167.9 mm for males, on Itajaí-Açu river (SC). </p>    <p>Still according to Barbieri (op cit), batch fecundity was very low, ranging from 7 to 30 eggs.</p>    <p>After spawning, males mouthbrood the eggs for two to three months until development is completed (Barbieri et al, 1992). Chaves (1994) found that in Guaratuba bay (PR), G. genidens shows incubating behavior during spring and summer, embryo size can reach 59mm of total length and 2.8g in weight and larvae showed exogenous feeding during the incubation period. The same author sampled adults from 192 to 270mm, which seemed not to feed during the incubation period. </p>    <p>Haimovici and Velasco (2000), sampled individuals from 125 to 332 mm and found the following parameters for weight/ length relationship: a= 4,494E-06; b= 3,1062 (r2= 0,989).</p>    <p>Absolon and Andreata (2009) mention G. genidens was the most abundant species on Ribeira bay (Angra dos Reis, RJ) and its abundance showed no relation with temperature and salinity. It was also the most abundant species on Almada river estuary, Bahia (Carvalho-Filho and Rocha, 2007)</p>    <p>Gomes and Araujo (2004b) in Sepetiba bay, RJ, sampled sampled males from 175 to 364 mm TL and females from 141-366 mm TL and found the following parameters for weight-length relationship: a= -11,68 and b= 3,01 for males and a= -11,13, b= 2,91 for females.<br/></p>Graça-Lopes et al (2002) sampled individuals from 130 to 140 mm of total  length (discharged by-catch) from shrimp trawler fleet in São Paulo and  from 280 to 690 mm TL on landed by-catch by the same fleet. <br/> <br/> Schmidit et al (2008) samples individuals from 28 to 227 mm of standard length on the complex bay-estuary of SãoVicente, SP. <br/> <br/> Pina and Chaves (2009) sampled 12 individuals caught as by-catch by  shrimp trawler on south coast of Paraná and found that all of them were  immature (on estage A of maturation).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs between December and April
154640		population	eng	This species is common in estuaries and along the coast to 20m depth. The Guri Sea Catfish is one of the most common catfish species along the south and southeastern Brazilian coast. It can be considered the third most common ariid after <span style="font-style: italic;">Genidens barbus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cathrops spixii</span>. It is abundant in estuaries and lagoons (Barbieri <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/><br/>A study by Araújo <em>et al</em>. (2002) found that this species was one of the most abundant in Sepetiba Bay, Brazil between 1993 and 1996. The data collected from this study also showed that the number of Guri Sea Catfish specimens caught each year has decreased; in 1993/1994, 991.95 kg were harvested, but in 1995/1996, only 141 kg were harvested (Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is unclear if this is due to changes in fishing effort or to a genuine decline in population size.<br/><br/>Absolon and Andreata (2009) mention <span style="font-style: italic;">G. genidens</span> was the most abundant species on Ribeira bay (Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro) and its abundance showed no relation with temperature and salinity. It was also the most abundant species on Almada river estuary, Bahia (Carvalho-Filho and Rocha, 2007)<br/><br/>Andreata et al (1997) caught G. genidens on Rodrigo de Freitas lagoon (Rio de Janeiro) and noticed a strongly irregular pattern of capture, being far more abundant on the first year of sampling, with a pronounced decrease on the third year and no individuals caught on the fourth.<br/><br/>Na regiao sul e sudeste esta especies representa 10% dos individuos da categoria bagre na pesca comercial de parelha e arrastro de camarao rosa de 20-80 metros de profundidade (a pesca atua sobre essa profundidade, mas a especies so ate 20m).
154640		threats	eng	The main threats are capture in targeted fisheries and bycatch. It is vulnerable to catch particularly during spawning periods and migration in estuaries. Longevity is estimated to be 5 years, and therefore, it may be more able to tolerate fishery harvest compared to other members of the genus (i.e. Genidens barbus). However, as other targeted fishes decline, this species may become more common in catches. It is not as interesting commercially, because the meat is of low quality.<br/><br/>  <p>In the early 2000s some cases of mortality, possibly by virus origin, were reported in the south coast of Brazil (Chaves, pers. comm.2011).</p>  <p><br/></p>
154641		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gobiodon histrio</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs) including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP).&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest and habitat status of this species is needed.
154641		distribution	eng	<em>Gobiodon histrio</em> is distributed from the Red Sea to the Samoa Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and south to the Great Barrier Reef.
154641		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histro</span> is a demersal species that is found among the branches of <em>Acropora</em> corals, especially <em>Acropora nasuta</em> colonies (Munday <em>et al</em>. 1997, Munday 2002, Hobbs and Munday 2004).&#160; This species relies on <em>Acropora nasuta</em> for shelter, food and a site for reproduction (Patton 1994, Nakashima <em>et al</em>. 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histro</span> competes with other <em>Gobiodon</em> species for access to colonies of <em>Acropora nasuta</em> (Munday <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; There are rarely more than two <em>Gobiodon histrio</em> individuals present per coral colony.&#160; The species conducts both protogynous and protandrous sex changes (i.e., can change sex in both directions) (Munday and Molony 2002).
154641		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histrio</span> is reported as common in Kimbe Bay (Munday 2000), however its abundance is closely correlated to the abundance of the coral <em>Acropora nasuta</em> (Munday <em>et al</em>. 1997).
154641		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histrio</span> is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, however the harvest levels are not known.&#160; This species is also likely to be suffering localised population declines due to habitat degradation.&#160; Coral reefs in the Red Sea have been severely degraded by coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks, water pollution (sedimentation) and human population pressures.&#160; However these threats are not consistent over the entire range of this species.
154642		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys</span><em style="font-style: italic;"> foliaceus</em>. However, its distribution may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including several in New Caledonia.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, biology, habitat preferences, and potential threats to this species.&#160; In particular, information on the adult stage is required.
154642		distribution	eng	Larvae of <em>Thalassenchelys foliaceus</em> have been found in tropical waters from Madagascar to New Caledonia and the South China Sea. The range of the adult part of the population is not known.
154642		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys</span><em> foliaceus</em>. Other members of the genus are found in the shallow photic zone, at depths of 0–50 m. It is yet to be determined if these are indicative of the depth profile of <em>T. foliaceaus</em>.
154642		population	eng	As&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys</span><em> foliaceus</em> is known only from larvae, no information is available on its population size or trends.
154642		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys foliaceus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154643		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Parenchelyurus hepburni</em>.  This species is known to occur in the National Park of American Somoa, and is likely to be be found within several more marine park areas within its range.
154643		distribution	eng	<em>Parenchelyurus hepburni</em> is a western Pacific blenny distributed from the Ryukyu Islands south to the Great Barrier Reef, and east to the Samoa Islands and Marshall Islands. This species has also been reported from Madagascar, Mauritius, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archipelago.
154643		habitat	eng	<em>Parenchelyurus hepburni</em> lives in the intertidal zone beneath stones and in tide pools near rocky and coral reefs. It is found at a depth range of 1-4 m.
154643		population	eng	This species is relatively common within its range.
154643		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
154644		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Liparis liparis</span>.&#160;  Further research is needed to determine the current extent and severity of threats to this species.
154644		distribution	eng	<em>Liparis liparis</em> is distributed through the northeast Atlantic, off the Baltic countries (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Russia, Sweden, Denmark), Norway, the British Isles, Ireland, Iceland, Portugal, and France (D. Stein pers. comm. 2008).
154644		habitat	eng	<em>Liparis liparis</em> is a small, benthic, inshore species with a short lifespan of 1 year in the most southerly reaches of its range, and to 2 or 3 years in more northerly waters.&#160; A mature adult grows to 10–15 cm.&#160; Spawning takes place in the spring.&#160; This species feeds primarily on crustaceans, and occasionally fishes and polychaetes. &#160; This species is found in the subtidal zone to the epipelagic zone, and is reported to have a broad depth range, from just beneath the surface down to 300 m.
154644		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Liparis liparis</em>.
154644		threats	eng	The near-shore habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Liparis liparis</span> has been impacted by pollution discharges, such as sewage and industrial waste, over much of the last century or more. However, these impacts are thought to be localised and not impacting the species across the full extent of its range.
154645		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus herwigi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology and population numbers of this species.
154645		distribution	eng	<em>Careproctus herwigi</em> is known only from the holotype which was collected off northern Argentina. Species within the family Liparidae are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).
154645		habitat	eng	Congeners, <em>Careproctus rotundifrons</em>, were found on the continental slope over a muddy / silty substrate, and were captured in bait traps set on the sea floor (Sakurai and Shinohara 2008). This species was collected at a depth of 1250 m. It is likely that this is a small species; size of species ranges from 45 mm for <em>C. minimus</em>, to 74 mm for <em>C. georgianus</em> (Stein 2006).
154645		population	eng	Species of the family Liparidae are known to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154645		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is impacted by a major threat process. There is no commercial fishery for the family Liparidae. However it is likely that this species is being taken as by-catch. Due to its small size, it may be overlooked and damaged in tows (Stein 2006).
154646		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, and potential threats to this species, as little information is currently available.
154646		distribution	eng	<em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em> is found in the Red Sea.
154646		habitat	eng	Species of the genus <em>Leptocephalus</em> are found in deep water, but the exact ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptocephalus ophichthoides</span> is not known.&#160; This species is known only from the larvae, which may have been separately described as an adult (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2008).
154646		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em>.
154646		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154647		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Spear-snouted Grenadier.
154647		conservation	eng	There is no information for conservation measures for this species. More data are needed to be able to assess this species here.  However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
154647		distribution	eng	In the western Atlantic, the Spear-snouted Grenadier (<em>Caelorinchus occa)</em> is found from the Florida Straits to northeastern South America. One specimen has been captured off Bermuda. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic from the Faroe Channel to Cape Verde.
154647		distribution	eng	In western central Atlantic, this species occurs from Florida strait to north-east South America. There is one record from Bermuda. In east Atlantic, it is present from Faroe channel to Cape Verde (Geistdoerfer 1990) South Africa. It is recorded from the Levantine basin. <br/><br/>This species is cited (as <em>C. vaillanti</em>) as present in the Ligurian Sea, in the range of depth 600-750m (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986).
154647		habitat	eng	The Spear-snouted Grenadier<em></em> is a bathydemersal  species that has a depth range of 400-2,220 m. It feeds on small fishes, polychaete and crustaceans. Species from the Macrouridae family occur on the continental slope and rise (FAO 2002).
154647		habitat	eng	This is bathydemersal and non-migratory species. Its size may exceed 50 cm TL. This species feeds primarily on small fish (myctophids), polychaete worms and crustaceans (pagurids, crabs, shrimps, ostracods and copepods) (Geistdoerfer 1986).
154647		population	eng	There is no information available on the population of this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
154647		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Spear-snouted Grenadier.
154647		threats	eng	It is unlikely that Spear-snouted Grenadier is being impacted by any major threat processes. Some species from the Macrouridae family are taken in quantity as by-catch in deep-water shrimp trawlers (FAO 2002), however this threat is unlikely to be significantly impacting the entire population due to broad range over which it is found and the depths it can occupy.
154647		threats	eng	This species is important for subsistence fisheries. There is no information on potential threats to the species in the Mediterranean Sea.
154648		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas&#160; including the Bigi Pan Multiple Use Management Area off the coast of Suriname. <br/><br/>Further research on the by-catch levels and abundance of this species is required.
154648		distribution	eng	<em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em> is found off northern South America from Venezuela to Brazil.
154648		habitat	eng	<em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em> is a bottom dwelling species typically found on soft substrates within the continental shelf and at a depth range of 30-90 m. (Froese and Pauly 2009).
154648		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em>.
154648		threats	eng	<em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em> is of minor commercial importance but is taken as by-catch by both the shrimp and finfish industries (Munroe 2002). Many areas of the Brazilian coastline have suffered from overfishing (Gutberlet 2004). It is not known how significant these threats are to the population of <em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em>.
154649		conservation	eng	A monkfish management plan, which includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius gastrophysus</span>, was submitted to the Brazilian authorities to restrict fishing levels to a precautionary amount.&#160; It proposed a 2,500 tonne allowable catch which would reduce removals to 4% of the total biomass and 8% of the spawning biomass.&#160;  It also recommended that only the more selective gill net operations should be used in areas deeper than 250 m.&#160; These conservation measures were not followed in 2002 and instead a chartered gill net ban was established from October onwards (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.
154649		distribution	eng	<em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, south to the northern coast of Argentina, including the Gulf of Mexico.
154649		habitat	eng	<em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is a slow-moving bottom dweller, found on soft bottoms at depths of 200 - 700 m. <br/><br/>Longevity in its congener, <em>Lophius budgessa</em>, is approximately 13 years in males and 19 years in females (Landa<em> et al.</em> 2001).
154649		population	eng	During 2001, deep water fishing removed 10,000 tonnes (15.9%) of the 62,776 tonne total biomass estimate for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius gastrophysus</span>, and 31.6% of the spawning stock (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; Within the main fishing areas of southern Brazil, the biomass reduction for this species was 30 - 60% according to modelling simulations (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>FAO statistics show landings of this species from Brazil, Spain and the United Kingdom, with landings ranging from around 300 mt to over 9,000 mt from 1995 to 2006.&#160;  The peak in 2001 of 9,200 mt was followed by declines down to around 2,500 mt in recent years, with all recent landings from the Brazil fishery.&#160;  These levels of exploitation that are equivalent to around 4% of total biomass, or 8% of spawning biomass (Perez et al. 2005).<br/><br/>Landings of this species in the US are probably lumped under <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius americanus</span>.
154649		threats	eng	<em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is commerically fished throughout its range.&#160; Since 2000, the deep water fishing industry off southern Brazil has increased in intensity due to an expansion of traditional trawling practices to include slope grounds, and the authorisation by the government of chartered fleet operations (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is very sensitive to intense fishing due to slow density recovery rates.&#160; The exploitation rate for this species is greatest for the larger specimens (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005), which could explain the greater decline in the percentage of spawning individuals.
154650		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, ecology and threats of this species, as little information is currently available.
154650		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em> is distributed from the western Laptev Sea to the Bering Straight in the Arctic, and from the Canadian Arctic to Ungava Bay.
154650		habitat	eng	<em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em> is found in Arctic climates, however its specific habitat requirements are unknown at present.  This species has a broad depth profile in the upper to mid euphotic zone, from the surface down to around 51 m.
154650		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em>.
154650		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em> are being impacted by any major threats.
154651		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bathygobius aeolosoma</em>. Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Islands are protected (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009) within Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters) and Norfolk Island National Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species, so that possible threats can be identified.&#160; A taxonomic revision of the <em>Bathygobius</em> genus is also needed.
154651		distribution	eng	<em>Bathygobius aeolosoma</em> is known from only two locations in Australia: Norfolk Island (type locality) and Lord Howe Island (Francis 1993).
154651		habitat	eng	<em>Bathygobius</em><em> aeolosoma</em> is a demersal goby.&#160; Like its congener <em>Bathygobius cotticeps</em>, it is likely that this species is found in tidepools of rock substrates and coral reefs.
154651		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius aeolosoma</span>.
154651		threats	eng	There is no information available on current or potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius aeolosoma</span>.
154652		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, population numbers, and threats of this species.
154652		distribution	eng	<em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em> is only known from a few specimens collected at the Sala y Gomez Ridge, near Easter Island (Parin<em> et al.</em> 1997, Landaeta<em> et al.</em> 2003).
154652		habitat	eng	<em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em> is a bathydemersal species (Parin<em> et al.</em> 1997) which has been found at a depth range of 470-485 m over a seamount.
154652		population	eng	<em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em> is only known from a few specimens.
154652		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. The seamounts within this species range are harvested for a number of commercially important species. While this species is not targeted directly, it may be taken as by-catch by other commercial fisheries.
154653		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em>.
154653		distribution	eng	<em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em> has been found in a number of localities within the Southern Ocean; the Knox Coast, Ross Sea, Queen Maud Land, Lazarev Sea, the Southern Shetland Island, and the South Orkney Islands.
154653		habitat	eng	<em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 200–1,120 m.&#160; This species is known to feed on amphipods, isopods, and molluscs.
154653		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pogonophryne barsukovi</span>.&#160; Species in the genus <em>Pogonophryne</em> are thought to be relatively low in abundance (La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; However, given the deep-water nature of this species and its geographic location, this could be a result of limited sampling effort.
154653		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154654		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis kreffti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the possible threats facing this species, along with information on its distribution and abundance.
154654		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis kreffti</em> is occurs in the north Scotia Sea between South Georgia and Shag Rocks, and also within the Weddell Sea.
154654		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis kreffti</em> is a bathydemersal species, found at a depth range of 850?2,600 m.
154654		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis kreffti</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154654		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
154655		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with several designated marine protected areas.
154655		distribution	eng	<em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em> is found in the Sea of Okhotsk, from the Bay of Penzhinsk to the Shantar Islands.
154655		habitat	eng	The eelpout, <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>, is a demersal species with a depth range of 0?60 m.&#160; It inhabits intertidal and subtidal zones (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009). Eelpouts (family Zoarcidae) are often associated with muddy substrates (Martin and Yamanaka, 2004).
154655		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>.
154655		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>.  Although the Sea of Okhotsk is severely impacted by over-fishing, <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em> is of no importance to commercial fisheries, and occurs primarily in coastal waters which would limit its susceptibility to fishing pressure (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154656		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on population trends is needed, with investigation on the extent of threats to this species across its range.
154656		distribution	eng	<em>Parioglossus neocaledonicus</em> is endemic to New Caledonia (Marquet <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km² (the total area of New Caledonia is less than this threshold), and it is likely to occur in fewer than 10 locations (E. Mundy and A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).
154656		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parioglossus neocaledonicus</span> is a demersal species that is found in slightly brackish and freshwater. It is the first species of the genus to be found in fresh to slightly brackish water (Dingerkus and Seret 1992).
154656		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parioglossus neocaledonicus</span>.
154656		threats	eng	It is unknown whether&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Parioglossus</span><em> neocaledonicus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, it is likely to be affected to some extent by mining activities such as nickel mining within New Caledonia's rivers (H. Larson pers. comm. 2008).
154657		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the current and imminent threats that this species is facing.
154657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Clipperton Atoll, the Galapagos Islands and Lobos de Afuera in northern Peru (Miller and Stefanni 2001).
154657		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow rocky shores and tidepools to depths of two m.
154657		population	eng	This species is most likely common, although it has a restricted range (Robertson and Allen 2006).
154657		threats	eng	This species has a restricted and disjunct distribution, and a very narrow and shallow depth range. For the subspecies found at Clipperton Atoll, the shallow water coral reef habitat is threatened by oceanographic environmental changes such as the ENSO events and global warming (e.g. coral bleaching, degradation of benthic fauna and flora) (Glynn 1991, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Hughes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, D’Croz and Maté 2004). The other two subspecies which are found near the Galapagos Islands and Lobos de Afeura, may also be affected by these threats and other localized events.
154658		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em>.<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to determine the abundance of this species.
154658		distribution	eng	<em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em> has been found off the coast of New Zealand at Bell's Flat, Raoul Island and the Kermadec Islands.
154658		habitat	eng	<em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em> is a demersal species found on rocky reefs at a depth range of 164-270 m. It is found within the continental shelf. This species is likely to be found solitary or in small groups (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154658		population	eng	<em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em> is thought to be known from only a few specimens which may be a result of poor of sampling effort (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154658		threats	eng	As this species is known from deep water rocky reefs it is unlikely to be taken by trawler fisheries operating within this area. Coastal development and pollution are also of no major concern.
154659		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Dzhugdzhursky Strictly Protected Nature Reserve. <br/><br/>Further research into the distribution, abundance, biology, and the impact of potential threats to this species is needed in order to determine if it is likely to be suffering significant population declines.
154659		distribution	eng	<em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em> is known only from the Sea of Okhotsk.
154659		habitat	eng	The sculpin, <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em>, is a demersal species with a depth range of 0–112 m. This is a coastal, benthopelagic species usually found resting on sand and mud bottoms in harbours, bays and estuaries.
154659		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em>.
154659		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; This species may be locally threatened by industrial and domestic pollution discharges and waste oil from the oil mining process (NOAA 2003).&#160; The Sea of Okhotsk is severely over-fished and while this species is not targeted directly, it is likely to be taken as by-catch.
154660		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154660		distribution	eng	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is known from New Zealand and Tonga.
154660		habitat	eng	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is a demersal species found from estuaries to the continental shelf.&#160; Stargazers are sedentary fish that camouflage themselves by burrowing in the sand and mud.&#160; They prey upon animals moving over them and feed on crabs, molluscs, worms, and small fishes.&#160; Occasionally, this species can be found on sandy beaches above the water level at low tide (Forster and Starling 1982).&#160;  This species has a depth range of approximately 10–100 m.
154660		population	eng	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is common in the inshore waters of New Zealand (FAO 2001b).
154660		threats	eng	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is occasionally harvested by gill nets or trawls (FAO 2001b).&#160; However, as this is a small fishery and this species is reported to be common around the New Zealand coast, this is not thought to represent a major threat to this species at present.
154661		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed to determine if it is undergoing significant declines in abundance.
154661		distribution	eng	<em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> is known from southern Australian. It ranges from Shark Bay in Western Australia, to Terrigal in New South Wales, including Tasmania (Gomon, Bray and Kuiter 2008<em></em>).
154661		habitat	eng	<em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 10 to 400 m and is found offshore on the continental shelf and upper slope. Species from the Oplegnathidae family feed on barnacles and molluscs.
154661		population	eng	<em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> is reported to be particularly common in the Great Australian Bight (McGrouther 2004).
154661		threats	eng	This species is taken as by-catch and it is reported that large quantities are taken in the Great Australian Bight shelf waters. Annual catches and catch per unit effort is reported to have increased as effort on the shelf increased in the early 1990s and decreased between 1998 and 2002 (Ward <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is also taken as by-catch in Western Australian trawl fisheries (Australian Fisheries Management Authority 2003) and in south east Australian otter trawl fishery. <em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> has been assessed as a medium risk species in the south east otter trawl fishery (Wayte <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is harvested as a food fish (Gomon, Bray and Kuiter 2008).
154662		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006)
154662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico (Amezcua-Linares 1996) to Peru.
154662		habitat	eng	This demersal coastal species is found in estuaries and shallow inshore bays over muddy and sandy substrata to depths of 30 m.
154662		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species may become abundant seasonally.
154662		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.
154663		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Oneirodes acanthias</em>.
154663		distribution	eng	<em>Oneirodes acanthias</em> is distributed southwards from the Gulf of Alaska, along the western coast of the United States of America, to Mexico.
154663		habitat	eng	<em>Oneirodes acanthias</em> is a bathypelagic species that as been found at a depth range of 595-1,095 m. This species feeds on crustaceans. Unlike some members of its genus, the males are not parasitic to the females.
154663		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes acanthias</span>.
154663		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes acanthias </span>is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154664		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em>.<br/><br/>Further research into the distribution, habitat, population numbers of this species is needed in order to determine if this species is being impacted by any major threat process.
154664		distribution	eng	<em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em> is found from the Gulf of Oman to Western Australia (Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).
154664		habitat	eng	The Blackvent Filefish, <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em>, is a demersal species that has a depth range of 30–200 m.
154664		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em>.
154664		threats	eng	It is unknown if <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em> is being impacted by any major threats, however it may be taken as by-catch like its ecologically similar congener <em>Thamnaconus fajardoi</em> which is taken incidentally by bottom trawls (FAO 1984). Current fishing methods in the Arabian Sea have resulted in overexploitation of coastal resources, and this is mostly due to large fishing vessels that fish illegally near the coast (NOAA 2004).
154665		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias posti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends of this species is needed.
154665		distribution	eng	<em>Eustomias posti</em> is only known from 10° longitude offshore off Brazil.
154665		habitat	eng	<em>Eustomias posti</em> is a mesopelagic species that has been found at depths between 0-660 m, but it mostly found at depths less than 200 m. Some species from the Stomiidae family migrate to surface waters at night (FAO 2002).
154665		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias posti</em>.
154665		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Eustomias posti</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There are major commercial fisheries that operate within this species distribution range, however, <em>Eustomias posti</em> is of no commercial importance and there are no reports of this species being taken as by-catch.
154666		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution and potential threats of this species as little information is available.
154666		distribution	eng	<em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em> has been found in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico.
154666		habitat	eng	<em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em> is a deepwater mesopelagic species found at a depth range of 814 - 997 m. The recorded maximum length of this species, 6.17 cm, is based upon an immature specimen.
154666		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em>.
154666		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
154667		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Spicara axillaris</em>.
154667		distribution	eng	<em>Spicara axillaris</em> occurs from Natal to Cape Town in South Africa; it has also been collected off central Mozambique (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154667		habitat	eng	<em>Spicara axillaris</em> is a pelagic species that has a depth range of 20 m to 160 m and moves inshore during stormy weather (Heemstra 1986).
154667		population	eng	<em>Spicara axillaris</em> has been described as rare (Heemstra 1986).
154667		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <em>Spicara axillaris</em> as it is only rarely captured during line fishing and trawling (Heemstra 1986).
154668		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Linophryne lucifer</em>. Further research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species.
154668		distribution	eng	<em>Linophryne lucifer</em> is a north Atlantic species. It has been found off the coasts of Madeira, Newfoundland, and Iceland.
154668		habitat	eng	<em>Linophryne lucifer</em> is a deep water angler fish showing extreme morphological differences between males and females. The smaller males are obligatory sexual parasites and cannot survive long-term without latching on to a female. The female body is short, with a large head and wide mouth with long, slender asymmetrically arranged front teeth. An illicium and luminescent esca serve as a 'rod' and 'bait' to lure prey. <br/><br/>The reproductive organs of both sexes cannot mature without a parasitic association with a member of the opposite sex, though it should be noted that the female can have more than one male attached.<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Linophryne</em> are benthopelagic and are taken in midwater and bottom trawls (Bertelsen 1982, Swinney 1995).&#160; Bertelsen (1982) relates their benthopelagic nature to a greater abundance of food in this zone, compared to the mesopelagic.<br/><br/>Records of Ceratioid fish are confined to the waters off the south and west of Iceland. Few specimens have been collected in the northern fishing grounds, indicating that the distribution of Ceratioid fish maybe limited to the warmer Atlantic waters (Jónsson and Pálsson 1999). In this study, specimens were taken at depths of 500-1,000 m.&#160; A single specimen was collected by Soviet research vessels at 1,220-1,275 m on the west Australian Ridge.
154668		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linophryne lucifer</span> has been described as "relatively common" in Icelandic and adjacent waters (Jónsson and Pálsson 1999).
154668		threats	eng	Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Linophryne lucifer </span>are taken as by-catch during commercial fishery trawling (Ejsymont 1970). However, it is unlikely that this poses a significant threat to the population, as it is also found to occur outside of commercial fishery zones.
154669		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Archamia buruensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
154669		distribution	eng	<em>Archamia buruensis</em> is distributed from Indonesia to Fiji, and north to Taiwan. Listed localities are: South China Sea, Indonesia, Phillipines, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Santa Cruz Islands, Fiji (Gon and Randall 2003).
154669		habitat	eng	<em>Archamia buruensis</em> occurs in brackish and marine waters on inner coral reefs and mangroves, to a depth of 6 m. It is found over both hard and soft substrates. Individuals exhibit distinct pairing during courtship and spawning, and males mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching.<br/><br/>This species also occurs in the lower reaches of freshwater streams.
154669		population	eng	This species is common in some areas such as Madang, Papua New Guinea, and northern Palawan in the Phillipines, occuring in small groups (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154669		threats	eng	This species is not known to be harvested for commercial trade, either as a food source or for aquariums. It is likely that in areas of this species' distribution it is undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation. Mangrove forests have also undergone widespread decline due to deforestation for timber, shrimp aquaculture, and land reclamation. This not only removes available habitat space for species utilising mangroves, but causes siltation of neighbouring coral reefs and consequently the loss of this habitat. At present this species is not thought to be seriously impacted by these threats as these are localised and not known across the entire distribution range.
154670		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest, and population size of this species is needed.
154670		distribution	eng	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> is distributed from Christmas Island, the Cocos-Keeling Islands and northwestern Australia, east to the Hawaiian and Pitcarn Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and the Rapa Islands.
154670		habitat	eng	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> is found in a variety of different reef zones and habitats, including lagoons, seagrass beds, and on the back reefs, reef-face, and fore-reef slopes, at a depth range of 3–161 m.&#160; Juvenile <em>P. multifasciatus</em> are usually found on rubble, stony, or sandy coral bottoms, whilst adults are associated with macroalgae, rubble, or reef substrate (Michael 2004).&#160; This species feeds during the day and at dusk and occurs either individually or in groups of 2 or 3.&#160; It feeds on crustaceans, small fish, gastropods, polychaetes, and formaniferans.&#160; Juveniles sometimes aggregate in the water column to feed on zooplankton (Michael 2004).
154670		population	eng	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> was reported to be a common coral fish in a study conducted on niche shifts at Lizard Island, on the northern Great Barrier Reef (McCormick and Makey 1997).&#160; However, there are few sightings of this species in the Indo-Pacific region, suggesting rarity (J. Curtis-Quick pers. comm. 2008).
154670		threats	eng	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> is harvested from the wild for the aquarium trade.&#160; It is also a commercial food fish, but is of less commercial importance than larger goatfish.&#160; The harvesting of this species for the aquarium trade and human consumption is not considered a major threat, due to the small scale of the fishery. <br/><br/>This species is associated with a variety of different habitats including coral reefs.&#160; The coral reefs in some areas of this species' distribution (e.g., Japan and the Philippines) have experienced regional and localised degradation due to bleaching, industralisation, water pollution, and other population pressures.&#160; In other areas of its distribution, the reefs are in good condition, and therefore habitat degradation is not considered a major threat to this species.
154671		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to the lack of information further research into the distribution, ecology and threats of this species is needed.
154671		distribution	eng	<em>Solocisquama carinata</em> is known from a single specimen found near the Sala y Gomez Ridge, a deep water volcanic ridge 415 km north-east of Easter Island.
154671		habitat	eng	The single specimen of this species was collected from the bathyl zone between 750-800 m. There is no other habitat or ecology information available for this species.
154671		population	eng	All three species of <em>Solocisquama</em> are considered rare (Bradbury 1999).
154671		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
154672		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.
154672		distribution	eng	<em>Bathycongrus retrotinctus</em> has been recorded from Japan and the Philippines.&#160; This species is thought to be present in the Sea of Japan, due to two specimens being found in the Tokyo fish market (Jordon and Synder 1901).&#160; However, no live specimens of <em>B. retrotinctus</em> have been collected from this region and the market stall records date back to over a hundred years ago.&#160; The six specimens collected from the Philippines were initially misidentified as <em>Bathycongrus megalops</em>, before later being reassessed as <em>B. retrotinctus</em> (Castle and Smith 1999).
154672		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em> is a bathydemersal conger eel.&#160; In the Philippines, this species has been collected at a depth range of 150–450 m.
154672		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em>.
154672		threats	eng	It is not known whether&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; The presence of specimens in a Tokyo fish market indicates that <em>B. retrotinctus</em> may be harvested for human consumption or taken as by-catch; however reference to the Tokyo fish market specimens dates back to 1901, so it is not known if this species is taken in fisheries today.
154673		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em>.
154673		distribution	eng	<em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from the eastern Gulf of Mexico to French Guiana. In the eastern Atlantic it has been found from Cape Verde, the Gulf of Guinea, Namibia and South Africa. It is also found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans from eastern Africa to Hawaii.
154673		habitat	eng	<em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em> can be found in deep water typically over sand bottoms. This species has been collected from depths ranging between 120 m and 1318 m.
154673		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em>.
154673		threats	eng	<em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em> is sometimes caught in bottom trawls as by-catch by the deep-water fishing industry. However this is not thought to be a major threat to the population numbers of this species as harvesting does not occur across its entire broad range.
154674		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lampanyctus jordani</span>.
154674		distribution	eng	<em>Lampanyctus jordani</em> is widely distributed throughout subartic waters from Japan eastwards, including the Okhotsk and Bering Seas.&#160; This species is rarely found within 1,445 km of the North American continent (Wisner 1970).
154674		habitat	eng	<em>Lampanyctus jordani</em> is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 0–3,400 m. At night, it is usually found at a depth range of 0–200 m and during the day it is usually found at depths of 200–1,000 m.
154674		population	eng	<em>Lampanyctus jordani</em> is a common myctophid fish in the western North Pacific (Watanabe <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154674		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lampanyctus jordani</span> is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; There is no known commercial fishery for this species, although it may be taken as by-catch in areas of its range.
154675		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Balistes rotundatus</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, ecology and distribution of this species.
154675		distribution	eng	<em>Balistes rotundatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific triggerfish reported from India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Japan and the Marshall Islands and Cook Islands.
154675		habitat	eng	<em>Balistes rotundatus</em> is a pelagic, coastal species. Species from the family Balistidae can occur from the coastline to a depth of 100 m and feed on bottom invertebrates (FAO 2001). Further information is needed on the specific ecological requirements of this species.
154675		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Balistes rotundatus</em>.
154675		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, the Balistidae family are highly valued as food in many handline fisheries, and also taken as by-catch in commercial trawls (FAO 2001).
154676		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Scarus prasiognathos</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of&#160; marine protected areas.
154676		distribution	eng	<em>Scarus prasiognathos</em> is distributed eastwards from the Maldive Islands through Indonesia to New Ireland in Papua New Guinea, and north to the Ryukyu Islands, including Palau and Micronesia. This species is possibly replaced by <em>Scarus falcipinnis</em> in the western Indian Ocean (Randall and Chout 1980). Other Indian Ocean localities include Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island and western Australia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154676		habitat	eng	<em>Scarus prasiognathos</em> is associated with the outer slope of coral reefs but will enter shallow water in protected areas such as lagoons. This species is often found in large schools, and grazes on benthic algae. It is commonly found at a depth range of 1 - 15 m.
154676		population	eng	<em>Scarus prasiognathos</em> is relatively common in shallow regions of seaward and leeward reefs (FAO 2001b). It often occurs in schools containing more than 100 individuals (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154676		threats	eng	<em>Scarus prasiognathos </em> is harvested throughout most of its range, as a food source. It is harvested using artisinal fishing gear such as nets and traps. This is not thought to be a major threat. Due to the size of this species, it is likely to be taken in other fisheries, as by-catch. <br/><br/>Due to this species association with coral reef habitats it is likely to be undergoing declines due to threats on its habitat including destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, coastal development, pollution, and tourism. However these are localised threats and not considered a major threat to this wide-ranging species.
154677		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scarus festivus</em>, however the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
154677		distribution	eng	<em>Scarus festivus</em> is distributed from the east coast of Africa to the Marshall Islands and French Polynesia, north to the Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. It has not been recorded from Australia.
154677		habitat	eng	<em>Scarus festivus </em> is associated with coral reef habitats and is found in clear lagoons and seaward facing coral reefs on the outer slope at a depth range of 3-30 m. This species feeds on benthic algae and is occasionally seen feeding on the coral.
154677		population	eng	<em>Scarus festivus</em> is usually seen in small numbers and is not common at any locality (Randall 2005; FAO 2001).
154677		threats	eng	<em>Scarus festivus</em> is occasionally harvested by artisanal fisheries in areas of its distribution. It is marketed fresh and is mainly caught with traps, nets and other kinds of artisanal gear (FAO 1983). There are no catch statistics available for this species. The fishing activities are not thought to pose a major threat (G.R. Allen and O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is likely to be undergoing declines due to habitat degradation of its coral habitat. However these are localised threats only and not considered a major threat to the global population.
154678		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Apogon sealei</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the harvest levels of this species for the aquarium trade, and whether it is captive bred or wild caught.
154678		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon sealei</em> is distributed from Malaysia to the Solomon Islands, north to the Philippines, Palau, and south to Ashmore Reef, Australia.
154678		habitat	eng	<em>Apogon sealei</em> is usually found on coastal fringing reefs or patch reefs to a depth of 25 m. It is often found in pairs or in groups among branching corals such as <em>Acropora</em>. <br/><br/>Individuals shelter in amongst the coral during the day and come out to feed at night on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates. This species demonstrates distinct pairing during courtship. The males mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching is ready to occur. In 2007 this species was recorded in high numbers on highly degraded sites (J. Curtis-Quick pers. comm. 2008).
154678		population	eng	<em>Apogon sealei</em> is a common species throughout most of its range often occurring in large aggregations around coral heads (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154678		threats	eng	There are a number of threats impacting the habitat of this species such as coastal development, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, cyanide fishing, water pollution, and coral bleaching. However, this species is known from a number of unimpacted locations throughout the Western Pacific and so threats are only thought to be causing localised declines. This species is harvested for the aquarium trade although it is not believed to be harvested in a significant quantity.
154679		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis tompkinsae</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, ecology, abundance, and distribution of this species.
154679		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis tompkinsae</em> is only known from a few specimens found east of the South Orkney Islands.
154679		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis tompkinsae</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth of 1,976–2,068 m.
154679		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis tompkinsae</span>, as it is currently only known from a few specimens.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154679		threats	eng	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis tompkinsae</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154680		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dentex barnardi</em>.
154680		distribution	eng	<em>Dentex barnardi</em> occurs from Gabon down the west coast of Africa to Angola (Bianchi 1992). This species has also been recorded from Henties Bay, Namibia (Heemstra 1995).
154680		habitat	eng	<em>Dentex barnardi</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs over trawlable substrates on the continental shelf, at a depth range of 40–100 m.
154680		population	eng	<em>Dentex barnardi</em> was found frequently and in fairly large numbers in trawl surveys off the coasts of Congo and Gabon (Bianchi 1992a, 1992b).
154680		threats	eng	In the Gabon and Angola area, related species are the main commercial species (Kilongo <em>et al.</em> 2007). While it is not known if <em>Dentex barnardi</em> is a target species, it is likely to be taken as by-catch in commercial bottom trawl fisheries.
154681		conservation	eng	The Pacific Beakfish is present in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, the Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area, the Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and the Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve.&#160; However, better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard Galapagos species.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population size and harvest levels of this species is needed.
154681		distribution	eng	The Pacific Beakfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oplegnathus insignis</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific and is found from Manta in Ecuador, to Antofagasta in Chile, including the Galapagos Islands (Chirichigno, 1974).
154681		habitat	eng	The Pacific Beakfish is a&#160; reef-associated species.&#160; It is generally solitary, and is known to constantly swim over rocky reefs and boulder strewn slopes, and along walls in shallow waters (Humann and  Deloach 1993).&#160; It has been found to a depth of 30 m.
154681		population	eng	The Pacific Beakfish was studied in different sites in the Galapagos Archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.77 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar et al. 2004).&#160; It is generally uncommon in Galapagos, but locally common in the west and south regions of the Archipelago.&#160; It is considered common in Peru and northern Chile.
154681		threats	eng	<p>This species is often taken as incidental by-catch in commercial fishing activities. It also may be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO or global warming due to its shallow water reef habitat. However,&#160; given its apparent widespread distribution in the Eastern Pacific region, the extent of population decline from its frequent capture in by-catch is unknown.</p>
154682		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pristipomoides freemani</em>.
154682		distribution	eng	<em>Pristipomoides freemani</em> is found in the western Atlantic from southeastern USA to Uruguay.
154682		habitat	eng	<em>Pristipomoides freemani</em> is a demersal species found over rocky and soft substrates at the upper edge of the continental slope (Allen 1985) at a depth range of 50 - 220 m.
154682		population	eng	<em>Pristipomoides freemani</em> is an uncommon species.
154682		threats	eng	This species is taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range but not in any significant quantity (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009). There are no significant threats impacting this species.
154683		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em>. In some regions its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Cartier Island Marine Reserve.
154683		distribution	eng	<em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em> is an Indo-West Pacific snake eel, known from India, the Straits of Malacca, the Philippines, Indonesia and northern Australia.
154683		habitat	eng	Most specimens of <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em> have been collected from shallow turbid estuaries, although some individuals have been found in deeper water over soft substrates (Castle and McCosker 1999).  This species is found to a depth of 180 m.
154683		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em>.
154683		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em> is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species.
154684		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stegastes fuscus</em>, however its distribution may fall into marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the distribution and taxonomy of this species is needed.
154684		distribution	eng	<em>Stegastes fuscus</em> is considered endemic to Brazilian coastal reefs, by some authors (Schwamborn and Ferreira 2002; Allen 1991). This species may in fact be more widespread, but reports from other localities need to verified. <br/><br/>There are reports of its occurrence in the Caribbean Sea and the Eastern Atlantic off Senegal (Froese and Pauly 2006), however some authors consider the population in the Caribbean as another species, <em>Pomacentrus dorsopunicans</em> (Cervigón 1993).
154684		habitat	eng	<em>Stegastes fuscus</em> inhabits both coral and rocky reefs. This species is also occasionally found near the shore in areas with little visibility. This species defends its territory from other herbivorous species. It feeds predominantly upon algae within its territory and may also take animal matter.  This species is found at a depth range of 1 - 40 m.
154684		population	eng	<em>Stegastes fuscus</em> is a highly abundant fish around islands off the south eastern (Ferreira <em>et al</em>. 1998) and north eastern Brazilian coast (Schwamborn and Ferreira 2002).
154684		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. Due to its coastal nature it is likely to be impacted by pollution and coastal fisheries, however due its reported abundance these threats do not appear to pose a significant threat to the population.
154685		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sebastes nivosus.&#160; </em>However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs). Further research is needed on population numbers, biology, ecology and potential threats to this species in order to determine if it likely to be suffering significant population declines.
154685		distribution	eng	<em>Sebastes nivosus</em> is distributed from coastal areas of the Miyagi and Niigata Prefectures to Hokkaido, Japan.
154685		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes</span><em> nivosus </em> is a demersal species that inhabits temperate waters.&#160; Its depth range is currently unknown, however other members of the <em>Sebastes </em> genus have a depth profile ranging from 2 m to around 370 m.
154685		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes nivosus</span>.
154685		threats	eng	The <em>Sebastes</em> genus has been of major importance to commercial and recreational fishing for more than 100 years (Love <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, the impact on&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes</span><em> nivosus</em> is not well understood. This species is likely to be over-fished but it is not known to what extent (W. Eschmeyer pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by pollution. Due to the heavy industries along the Japanese coast, the Sea of Japan has suffered from coastal water pollution, damage to fishery resources, and red tides since the 1960s, although strict laws and standards have since improved the quality of coastal waters (NOAA 2004). This species may also be taken as by-catch in bottom trawl fisheries.
154686		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dicrolene nigra</em>.
154686		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrolene nigra</em> is found in the east Pacific from the Gulf of Panama to northern Chile (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).
154686		habitat	eng	<em>Dicrolene nigra</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been found at a depth range of 600-1,865 m. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154686		population	eng	<em>Dicrolene nigra</em> is reported to be an uncommon species (Nielsen<em> et al</em>. 1999).
154686		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Dicrolene nigra</em>, due to its deepwater nature. There is no directed fishery for this species.
154687		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Iona National Park off Angola.<br/><br/>Further research on the extent to which this species is harvested is required.
154687		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
154687		distribution	eng	<em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> ranges from Scotland south to Angola, including the Azores. This species is also known from the Mediterranean Sea.
154687		distribution	eng	This species is present in east Atlantic from Scotland to Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs along the north-west African coast to Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia), from Spain to Italy (including Sicily) (Bauchot 1987), Adriatic Sea (Jardas and Pallaoro 1987), Ionian Sea (Bini 1968), Greek seas (no precise locality indicated) (Papaconstantinou 1988), Sea of Marmara, Aegean Sea and Levant sea coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002). It does not exist in rest of the Levant basin (i.e. Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Cyprus and Egypt) (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
154687		habitat	eng	<em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 20-350 m. It is found on sand, mud, shell and coral substrates. Its diet consists of polychaete, though like many species in the genus, it probably consumes mainly benthic crustaceans (Jardas and Pallaoro 1987).
154687		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that can be found on sand, mud and shell (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). It generally inhabits depths between 80 to 350 m, but in winter, it is also encountered at shallow coasts with depths up to 20 m (Jardas and Pallaoro 1987). It is more common below 100 m (Bauchot 1987).
154687		population	eng	<em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> is reported to be most common around the Angola/ Congo region.
154687		population	eng	Limited population information is available for this species. It appears to be more common in the west Mediterranean Sea (J.P. Quignard pers. comm.2007, Hureau and Monod 1973). Bini (1968) reported that the species is rare in Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas, and very rare in the Ionian Sea. In the east Mediterranean Sea, it is assumed to be uncommon. Sea of Marmara populations declined significantly, probably due to eutrophication (Unsal and Oral 1993). This species is sometimes sold in markets along with many other small flatfishes caught in trawls. It is a totally discarded species in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001)<br/><br/>Jardas and Pallaoro (1987) report that only three specimens were examined by authors (11.9-14.1 cm total length), mentioning the rare occurrence of the species in the Adriatic.<br/><br/>According to Bello and Rizzi (1988), 51 specimens were captured by bottom trawl from the Adriatic, at depths ranging 30 to 170 m, between 1985 and 1987. Based on the low number of specimens collected from 42 sampling stations during two years of survey, the authors mentioned that the species is rare in the Adriatic.<br/><br/>Abad <em>et al.</em> (2007) mention a total of 28 hauls were carried out at depths ranging from 50 to 640 m, in Alboran Sea (during the fishing season between August 2000 and June 2001). An otter trawl net was used for sampling purposes. Abundance of the species was 0.34 kg/h (at 50-150 m depth).
154687		threats	eng	According to a survey of Portuguese fishing, <em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> is occasionally discarded as by-catch during crustacean trawling, demersal purse seine fishing, mid-water trawling (Borges <em>et al.</em> 2001) however this is unlikely to be driving significant declines across this species entire range.
154687		threats	eng	This is a commercial species in some areas, caught with bottom and pelagic trawls (Schneider 1990). It is captured as bycatch and is not a target fish.
154688		conservation	eng	The distribution of the Half-lined Cardinalfish falls within marine parks including the Iki-Tsushima Quasi-National Park and within these parks this species is listed as a marine protected species (NOWPAP DINRAC 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to on the taxonomy, distribution, population trends and harvest levels of this species is needed.
154688		distribution	eng	The Half-lined Cardinalfish, <em>Apogon semilineatus,</em> is found in the northwestern Pacific from the Izu peninsular Honshu and the Ogasawara islands to Hong Kong.
154688		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that has a depth range of 3 to 100 m. It is typically found within the vicinity of rocky reefs and may enter semi-enclosed sea areas. It forms large schools over rocky substrates (Kuiter and Kozawa 1999).<br/><br/>This species exhibits diel horizontal migration between the rocky substrate areas where they rest during the day, and the sandy substrate areas where they feed during the night (Sudo and Azeta 1992).<br/><br/>Breeding pairs are found in Japan from July to September and mouth brooding is done by the male.
154688		population	eng	This species is common in the Izu Pennisular (Kuiter and Kozawa 1999).
154688		threats	eng	The Half-lined Cardinalfish is known to be taken as by-catch. A survey, conducted in 2005 to 2006, to identify the discards in large-scale set net fisheries in Tateyama Bay, Chiba prefecture, Japan, found that this species was one of the ten most dominant discarded species (Akiyama 2007). It is not currently clear how this is impacting the population of this species.<br/><br/>Like other cardinalfish, it is likely that this species is collected for the aquarium trade, although this is not thought to be a major threat.
154689		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Caelorinchus velifer</em>.&#160;Further research on the threats of this species is needed.
154689		distribution	eng	<em>Caelorinchus velifer</em> is only known from the Philippines (type locality: Mindanao Sea). It is known from the Verde Island Passage (Escarceo Light and Matocot Point in Batangas Bay), Bohol Sea and northern Mindanao (Tagolo Light and vicinity).
154689		habitat	eng	<em>Caelorinchus velifer</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth range of 247-446 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154689		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Caelorinchus velifer</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997). It is known only from specimens collected in 1908-1909 from three sites (Gilbert and Hubbs 1920, Anonymous 2001). It is apparently more abundant in the southern Luzon area than in northern Mindanao
154689		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species is impacted upon. Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters of the continental slope&#160; (<span style="font-style: italic;">e.g.</span>, in depths between 150-800 m) making them susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). It may be caught as by-catch by many of the deep sea fisheries that operate on a commercial scale in the Mindanao Sea.
154690		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Kraemeria tongaensis</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Ha'apai Conservation Area in Tonga.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, biology, ecology, habitat status and potential threats to this species, as little information is available.
154690		distribution	eng	<em>Kraemeria tongaensis</em> is an Indo-Pacific sand goby, known from Tonga, and Ishigaki-jima in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.&#160; It is highly likely that it occurs in other areas, but there is no information available.&#160; This species is very difficult to collect or observe due to its cryptic nature (E. Mundy pers. comm. 2009).
154690		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the habitat and ecology of <em>Kraemeria tongaensis</em>.&#160; Kraemeriids burrow in shallow marine and estuarine areas with fine coral sand or muddy sand substrates (Larson 2001).
154690		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Kraemeria tongaensis</span>.&#160; It is very difficult to collect or observe due to its cryptic nature (E. Mundy pers. comm. 2009).
154690		threats	eng	The threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Kraemeria tongaensis</span> are unknown.&#160; This species is restricted to shallow coastal habitats and may therefore be affected by threats such as coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, its current known localities are not in heavily populated areas, so the impact of these threats should be minimal.
154691		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Claudia's Dragonet.&#160; However, its range includes the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154691		distribution	eng	Claudia's Dragonet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Synchiropus </span><em>claudiae</em>) is found from the Madang Barrier Reef (Papua New Guinea), southwards to Queensland (Australia).&#160; The southern limit of its distribution is 15°45'S.&#160; Although the range in which this species is found is sizeable, its distribution is patchy due to habitat requirements.
154691		habitat	eng	Claudia's Dragonet is reef associated, and is found on small sand patches within coral reefs.&#160; This species is found down to a depth of 5 m.
154691		population	eng	There is no population information available for Claudia's Dragonet.
154691		threats	eng	Claudia's Dragonet is not known to be in any commercial trade.&#160; Coral reefs throughout its range are under threat from a number of factors such as coastal development and pollution, destructive fishing practices, tourism and coral bleaching.&#160; However, given the wide range of this species, it is unlikely that these threats are having a significant impact on the global population at present.
154692		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Stout Infantfish.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Further research is needed on potential threats to this species.
154692		distribution	eng	The Stout Infantfish<em> (Schindleria brevipinguis)</em>, the world's smallest vertebrate, is currently known only from Lizard Island to the Carter reef area of the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia, and from Osprey Reef in the Coral Sea.&#160; However, it is likely that this species is more widely distributed than currently known (Australian Museum 2006).
154692		habitat	eng	Little is known about the biology of the Stout Infantfish.&#160; Specimens of this species have been collected close to coral reefs.&#160; The known depth profile of this species is 15–30 m, in the euphotic zone.&#160; This species is paedomorphic, and may have a life span of about 2 months.
154692		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Stout Infantfish.&#160; The family Schindleriidae is thought to contain the most abundant coral reef fishes in the world (Leis 1978).
154692		threats	eng	Due to the Stout Infantfish's association with coral habitats and its coastal nature, it may be impacted by a number of threats such as coastal development, water pollution, sedimentation, and destructive fishing practices.&#160; However, this species may be relatively tolerant of short-term impacts, due to its short life-span and low population doubling time.
154693		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Spinycheek Scorpionfish.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.
154693		distribution	eng	The<em> </em>Spinycheek Scorpionfish <em>(Neomerinthe hemingwayi)</em> occurs from New Jersey to southern Florida.&#160; This species is also found in the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Campeche, Mexico.
154693		habitat	eng	The Spinycheek Scorpionfish <em></em>is a demersal species that has a depth range of 45–230 m.&#160; Most western Atlantic species from the Scorpaenidae family are found relatively near the shore, over hard bottoms and reefs, or associated with coral rubble (FAO 2002).
154693		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Spinycheek Scorpionfish.<em></em>
154693		threats	eng	The Spinycheek Scorpionfish is not impacted by any major threatening processes. &#160; This species is not commercially fished, although it may occasionally be taken as by-catch by trawl fisheries (FAO 2002).
154694		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP), Mermaid Reef Marine Nature Reserve, Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and Ningaloo Marine Park.
154694		distribution	eng	<em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em> is an Australlasian dottyback, distributed from northern Western Australia, along the northern Australian coast and round to Queensland.
154694		habitat	eng	The dottyback <em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em> is associated with coral rubble (Bradbury and Young 1981) and is found in intertidal pools up to a depth of 3 m. It feeds mainly on crustaceans. Species from the Pseudochromidae family are cryptic diurnal inhabitants of coral reefs and rock bottoms and a few species from this family live in large sponges (FAO 1999).
154694		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em>.
154694		threats	eng	<em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em> is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade, however it is taken in very small quantities.<br/><br/>As this species inhabits intertidal pools, it is also likely to be impacted by habitat degradation caused by coastal development, however this is a localised threat only as much of this species range is unimpacted by coastal development.
154695		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Earle's Splitfin, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Hanauma Bay Marine Life Conservation District in the Hawaiian Islands. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the habitat status and harvest levels of this species are needed.
154695		distribution	eng	Earle's Splitfin <em>(Luzonichthys earlei</em>) is found off the coast of the Maldives, Christmas Island, New Britain, the Marshalls, the Hawaiian Islands and throughout Micronesia.
154695		habitat	eng	Earle's Splitfin is a reef-associated species that forms large, zooplankton-feeding aggregations along steep outer reef slopes. The depth profile of this benthopelagic species is 15-205 m.
154695		population	eng	There is no population information available for Earle's Splitfin.
154695		threats	eng	Earle's Splitfin<em></em> is potentially impacted by habitat degradation and bleaching events on reef systems (Kelty and Kuartei 2004, NCCO 2005). This species is also occasionally collected for the aquarium trade. However, these are localized threats only, and therefore presently do not represent major threats to this species.
154696		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for<em> </em>Humpback Brotula.
154696		distribution	eng	The Humpback Brotula <em>(Grammonus robustus)</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species known from the Red Sea, South Africa, the Philippines, the East China Sea, and Japan (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154696		habitat	eng	The Humpback Brotula is a bathydemersal species that is thought to have a depth range of  45-1,260 m. This species is found on soft bottoms. Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154696		population	eng	The Humpback Brotula is reported to be an uncommon species (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154696		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of the Humpback Brotula, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats. However, this species has been taken in trawls at depths of 45–345 m (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154697		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present in marine protected areas throughout the Caribbean, Brazil and USA.
154697		distribution	eng	<em>Xyrichtys martinicensis</em> is distributed from southern Florida and the Bahamas to northern South America, including the eastern and southern Gulf of Mexico and the Antilles.
154697		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xyrichtys martinicensis</span> inhabits sand and rubble bottoms adjacent to reefs and seagrass to depths of 21 m. Species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Xyrichtys</span> are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007). It feeds on small sand-dwelling invertebrates.
154697		population	eng	<em>Xyrichtys martinicensis</em> is common throughout its range. It can be abundant over sand bottoms adjacent to reefs.
154697		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Xyrichtys martinicensis.</span>
154698		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Lophodolos indicus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of MPA designations.
154698		distribution	eng	<em>Lophodolos indicus</em> has a circumglobal distribution throughout tropical waters.
154698		habitat	eng	<em>Lophodolos indicus</em> is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 750-1,625 m. Species from the Oneirodidae family are known to be solitary (FAO 1999).
154698		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophodolos indicus</span>.
154698		threats	eng	The Oneirodidae family are of no economic interest (FAO 1999), and due to the small size and deep-water nature of <em>Lophodolos indicus</em>, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
154699		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on the abundance of this species is needed with monitoring of the population trends in areas where mangrove forests are being cleared.&#160; Research is also needed to establish whether this species is taken for the aquarium trade.
154699		distribution	eng	<em>Mugilogobius fasciatus</em> is a western Pacific goby, known from Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,425 km².
154699		habitat	eng	<em>Mugilogobius fasciatus</em> is a small, cryptic, benthic goby that can be found in brackish water and inhabits small, shallow mangrove creeks and pools.&#160; It is often found hiding in the leaf litter.
154699		population	eng	There is no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mugilogobius fasciatus</span>.
154699		threats	eng	The extent of mangrove loss across this species' range is as follows: in Singapore, mangrove cover declined from 1,570 ha in 1987, to 500 ha in 1990; in Thailand, mangrove cover has declined from 268,693 ha in 1982, to 244,000 ha in 2000; and in Malaysia, mangrove cover has declined from 641,172 ha in 1990 to 572,100 ha in 2000 (FAO 2003). These losses are attributed to cutting for coastal development, shrimp ponds, and wood (Ong 2002).&#160; In addition to the loss of mangrove forests, the coastal waters surrounding shrimp ponds start to accumulate high levels of ammonia as a by-product of the farming; they become silty as sediments become unstable, and the natural nutrient cycling capacity of the system is lost.&#160; With a loss of nutrient cycling, coastal waters become increasingly more impacted by coastal development and pollution.&#160; This species is further threatened by habitat fragmentation.<br/><br/>Many species within the genus <em>Mugilogobius</em> are popular in the aquarium trade. Further research is needed to establish if this species is also harvested for the trade or if maybe it is taken incidentally during the harvest of other <em>Mugilogobius</em> species.
154700		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of bauxite mining on the population of this species, better enabling conservation measures to be implemented.
154700		distribution	eng	<em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em> is endemic to the Gove Peninsula, south of Cape Arnhem, Northern Territory, Australia (Fricke 1997). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 317 km<sup>2</sup>.
154700		habitat	eng	<em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em> is a coastal species, endemic to bauxite rocks (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
154700		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Enneapterygius namarrgon</span>.
154700		threats	eng	<em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em> is only found on bauxite rocks of the Gove Peninsula, Australia. Bauxite is the most important aluminium ore. Over 85% of the bauxite mined globally is converted to alumina for the production of aluminium metal. Australia is the World’s leading producer of bauxite and alumina. Production totalled 62 Mt of bauxite or 36% of the world production in 2006. The Gove mine contains the world's highest grade deposits of Bauxite. Due to its restricted association with bauxite rock, it is likely that this species is being threatened by bauxite mining (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). It is predicted that the resource life for existing bauxite operations is on average 70 to 75 years, therefore the threat to this species will continue in the future.
154701		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.
154701		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em> is distributed around Australia; northern New South Wales, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island: and in northeastern New Zealand; Cape Reinga to East Cape (Francis 1993, 1996, 2001) and the Kermadec Islands.
154701		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolabrus luculentus</span> is a small species that grows to about 170 mm (SL). It inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water in depths to at least 50 m.&#160; It spawns in New Zealand, reportedly from March to October, and matures after one year (Francis 2001). Food consists of small crustaceans and hermit crabs (Francis 2001). Juveniles are facultative cleaner symbionts (Ayling and Grace 1971)
154701		population	eng	<em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em> is one of the most common wrasses at Lord Howe Island. It is abundant at Kermadec Island but is considered uncommon off mainland New Zealand where they are usually found around offshore islands and coastal headlands (Francis 2001). In general, it is more common around island groups and less common off the Australian and New Zealand mainland.
154701		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em>.
154702		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Coryphaenoides nasutus</em>.
154702		distribution	eng	<em>Coryphaenoides nasutus</em> is found from northern Japan to the East China Sea.
154702		habitat	eng	<em>Coryphaenoides nasutus</em> is a benthopelagic species that is found over sandy and muddy bottoms between temperatures of 1.5 to 5°C at depths ranging from 625-1,180 m.
154702		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154702		threats	eng	<em>Coryphaenoides nasutus</em> is taken as by-catch by trawlers in northern Japan where it is used to make fish paste (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).  However, trawling activities in this area typically do not go deeper than 600 m (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009). The incidental catch of this species is unlikely to constitute a major threat to the global population.
154703		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Siganus magnificus</em>, however this species is well protected in marine protected areas in the Thai part of its range.
154703		distribution	eng	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is known from the Mergui Archipelago in Myanmar, and the Surin and Similan Islands in Thailand. Records from Java and Sumatra need to be confirmed (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Due to a lack of surveys within the vicinity of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, this species range may extend further west than currently known (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154703		habitat	eng	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is found on coral reefs in tropical climates at a depth range of 5-25 m. It is most commonly found on sheltered reefs amongst branching corals. This species feeds on algae and small invertebrates. Adults are often found in pairs, whereas juveniles occur individually and utilise the coral for shelter. This species is allopatric with the closely related <em>Siganus vulpinus</em>, a wide ranging Western Pacific species (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species is thought to have a longevity of approximately 10-12 years, with an age of first breeding at two years (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species has a pelagic larval stage and so is likely to constitute a single population (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154703		population	eng	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is a moderately common species (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Over a three generation period of 15-20 years, this species maybe declining but the rate of decrease is unlikely to be greater than 20% (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154703		threats	eng	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is not a common species within the aquarium trade (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Much of this species suitable habitat is offshore, away from coastal development and associated threats. The 2004 tsunami is not though to have significantly impacted the structure of the reef within this species range (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154704		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within the Torres Strait Protected Zone. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers is needed, to determine the rate of decline and impact commercial harvesting is having on this species.
154704		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Smooth Croaker, <em>Johnius laevis</em>, is restricted to northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea. This species has a relatively fragmented distribution.
154704		habitat	eng	Smooth Croaker inhabit coastal waters. Like other croakers, this species feeds on small crustaceans, fish and benthic organisms. This species is found in the euphotic zone at depths down to around 60 m.
154704		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Smooth Croaker.
154704		threats	eng	The Smooth Croaker is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. From 1990 to 1995, the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics reported a range of yearly catches of around 36,800 tonnes to 50,900 tonnes of croakers from the Western Central Pacific (FAO 2001a). Actual yearly catch may be higher, as available statistics do not cover small scale fisheries. This species is not the most commercially important species in this genus due to its small size.  <br/><br/>This species is a by-catch species of the Torres Strait Prawn Fishery (Torres Strait Prawn Management Advisory Committee 2007). It is also one of the most commonly taken by-catch species in the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf Prawn Fishery (Tonks<em> et al</em>. 2007).
154705		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Blackeye Emperor.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas in the Seychelles.
154705		distribution	eng	The Blackeye Emperor<em> (Lethrinus enigmaticus</em>) has been recorded from Saya de Malha Bank in the Western Indian Ocean, and the Seychelles (Carpenter and Allen 1989).&#160;  It has also been caught off southern Natal, Alawaol Shoal, and off the coast of central Mozambique (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154705		habitat	eng	The Blackeye Emperor is found on coral reefs, seagrass beds and sandy areas adjacent to reefs at a depth range of 10–50 m (Carpenter and Allen 1989). &#160; It feeds on echinoderms, crustaceans, other fish, and molluscs.
154705		population	eng	In the area of the Saya de Malha, 4 tonnes of fish are caught a day, of which the Blackeye Emperor constitutes 90% (Lebeau and Cueff 1975).&#160; A decline in the number of large specimens caught was observed after 1968, which suggests this species was being over-fished.&#160;  This species has a low regeneration time (Lebeau and Cueff 1975).
154705		threats	eng	The Blackeye Emperor is commercially harvested as a food source.&#160; Although this species is associated with coral reefs, it thrives in areas of low coral cover and is therefore not considered threatened by recent declines in coral cover (K. Carpenter pers. comm. 2009).
154706		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scarus dubius</em>, however it is found in a number of marine protected areas around the Hawaiian Islands.
154706		distribution	eng	<em>Scarus dubius</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Reported occurrences outside of Hawaii are misidentifications (Froese and Pauly 2006).
154706		habitat	eng	<em>Scarus dubius</em> inhabits seaward reefs on the outer reef slope, at a depth range of 1 - 20 m. This species feeds predominantly on benthic algae. It is protogynous (changes sex from female to male) and the size at sex change ranges from  26.4 - 39.8 cm total length (TL) (DeMartini <em>et al</em>. 2005).
154706		population	eng	<em>Scarus dubius</em> is a common species throughout the Hawaiian Islands (Randall 2006).
154706		threats	eng	<em>Scarus dubius</em> is harvested on the subsistence scale as a food fish. This is not considered a major threat to the population of this species (G.R. Allen and O. Gon pers. comm. 2009). It may be undergoing localised declines due to coastal devleopment and pollution, however the population currently seems to be stable, abundant and healthy.
154707		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species covers numerous designated marine protected areas.
154707		distribution	eng	<em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em> is found in eastern Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and northern, western and eastern Australia.
154707		habitat	eng	<em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em> is found in coastal waters over sand and mud substrates at a depth range of 10–56 m.&#160; This species feeds predominantly on penaid shrimp.&#160; It is a protandrous hermaphrodite and develops from a male to a female, normally when it reaches 12–14 cm (SL) (Frose and Pauly 2006).
154707		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em>.
154707		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em>.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch in local subsistence fisheries.
154709		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hetereleotris vulgaris</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.  <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the threats to this species should be carried out.
154709		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean from Mozambique, Dijibouti, southern Oman and Pakistan. It is also found in the Red Sea and one specimen has been found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
154709		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species typically found in the intertidal zone in rockpools and on rocky substrates. It has been collected at depths from 1-24 m.
154709		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Hetereleotris vulgaris</em>.
154709		threats	eng	Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted by coastal development and water pollution, however these would be localised threats only and are not common occurrences within this species range.
154710		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, threats, population trends, and distribution of this species is needed.
154710		distribution	eng	<em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em> is known from two specimens washed up on a beach in the Ogasawara Islands to the south of Japan (type locality: Miyanohama Beach, Chichi-jima).
154710		habitat	eng	<em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em> is thought to be a demersal species found over sandy substrates at shallow depths not deeper than 50 m (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).
154710		population	eng	<em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em> is known only from two specimens.
154710		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai </em>is being impacted by any major threats.
154711		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bathydraco joannae</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species to determine if it is synonymous with <em>Bathydraco antarcticus</em>.
154711		distribution	eng	<em>Bathydraco joannae</em> is found to occur on the upper slopes of the Scotia Sea Islands, Patagonian Slope, close to the Falkland Islands, and off the Kerguelen Islands.
154711		habitat	eng	This bathydemersal species is most commonly found on the upper continental slope at depths ranging from 600 - 1,800 m. While there is no available information on the feeding ecology of this species, congeners such as <em>Bathydraco marri</em> have been observed to feed upon mysids, amphipods and copepods, along with euphausiids, isopods and tanaids (Mesa<em> et al</em>. 2007).
154711		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bethydraco joannae</em>.
154711		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Bathydraco joannae</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. It may be taken incidentally as a by-catch species by fisheries operating within its range.
154712		conservation	eng	It is considered a highly migratory species under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea.<br/><br/>In Ecuador, there is a minimum catch size of 70 or 80 cm. In Mexico, there are area-closures for commercial fishing for this species, and a two fish sport limit. In the past, there have been conservation measures implemented by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) for no purse-seine fishing. In Ecuador, 50% of the fishing fleet, including those for tunas, use an experimental sorting grid to release juveniles, small tunas and other bycatch species. In 2005, a recreational fishing limit of five fish per fishermen per fishing day was established for this species in Puerto Rico (Rodrigues-Ferrer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the U.S., there are bag limits and size limits in the recreational fishery and size and trip limits in the commercial fishery (SAFMC 2003).<br/><br/>This species' distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas.
154712		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
154712		distribution	eng	<em>Coryphaena hippurus</em> occurs in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, in tropical to warm temperate waters. It is a highly migratory species, listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994). <br/><br/><em>C. hippurus</em> is widespread throughout the Mediterranean, including Iberian waters (Massuti and Morales-Nin 1997, Garcia-Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, Deudero 2001, Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006), Maltese waters, and the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is not found in the Adriatic, Marmara, or Black Seas.
154712		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in tropical and temperate waters and occurs in the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific Oceans and the Mediterranean, though it is most common in waters between 21–30°C.
154712		habitat	eng	Schools of <span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaena hippurus</span> can be found in open waters and near coastal areas. This species is found to a depth of 85 m. Its diet consists of smaller fishes, zooplankton, crustaceans, and squid.<br/><br/>This species is fast-growing, and matures relatively early. Maximum size is 200 cm, but more commonly is found to 100 cm.The all-tackle game fish record is of a 39.46 kg fish caught in Papagallo Gulf, Costa Rica in 1976 (IGFA 2011). Longevity can reach four years but is usually less than two years (Oxenford and Hunt 1983, Oxenford 1999, Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Age at first maturity is three to four months in the Gulf of Mexico, four months in the Caribbean (Oxenford 1999), six to seven months in the northeastern North Atlantic, and four months in northeast Brazil (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Off North Carolina, males reach 50% maturity at 476 mm, 100% at 645 mm; females reach 50% maturity at 458 mm, 100% at 560 mm (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Oxenford 1999, Ditty 2005, Schwenke and Buckel 2008). In the eastern Caribbean, males reach 50% maturity at 91 cm fork length (FL) (four to five months old) and females at 83.5 cm FL (four to five months old) (Oxenford 1999). In Puerto Rico, 50% maturity is reached at 45 cm FL (greater than 7 months old) (Perez and Sadovy 1991).<br/><br/>Spawning is probably year-round at water temperatures greater than 21°C, and spawning occurs in the open water when water temperature rises. In temperate areas such as North Carolina, peak spawning occurs from April through July. In East African waters, spawning season may last from March to early June and spawning occurs inshore. In tropical regions spawning likely occurs year round. Batch spawning occurs at least two or three times per spawning period. Batch fecundity estimates in the west central Atlantic range from 58,000 to 1.5 million eggs and are strongly influenced by size (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Ditty 2005, Schwenke and Buckel 2008, Oxenford 1999). In southern Brazil, spawning occurs from November to February, at least between 20–28°S (Amorim, pers. comm. 2010).
154712		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, found in open waters but also near the coast (Collette 1995, Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995). It forms schools and feeds on almost all forms of fish and zooplankton, it also takes crustaceans and squid (Eschmeyer 1983). Sexual maturity is reached at four to five months (three for captive fish) (Randall 1995). Spawning occurs in the open sea and is probably approximate to the coast when water temperature rises (Collette 1995). Attracting devices such as floating bundles of bamboo reeds or cork planks are used to concentrate dolphin fish before the nets are set. In the Balearic Sea <em>C. hippurus</em> feeds mainly on schools of <em>Trachurus</em> (Deudero 2001).<br/><br/>In East African waters, the spawning season may last from March to early June and spawning occurs inshore.  In the western Pacific, sex ratios were about equal during spawning season. Spawning in the western Atlantic occurs over an extended period of time.<br/><br/>The species spawns naturally in captivity without artificial inducement (Kim <em>et al.</em> 1993).
154712		population	eng	From 1961 to 2006, the reported worldwide landings for this species from FAO have gradually increased from 17,000 metric t, to a peak of 59,000 metric t (in 2005). In 2005, Japan reported 10,000 tonnes and Taiwan Province of China approximately 15,000 t.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, this species can be locally abundant. Data from the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC 2008) from 1976–2005 widely varies from 200 to 22,000 metric t, with a maximum of 22,000 metric t in 2001. Although there are no data on fishing effort, demand has not decreased. However, there have been many regional fishermen reporting that catches are decreasing, especially in Costa Rica and Ecuador where there are possibly localized declines in catch rates. In Peru, catch of this species is highly fluctuating; there was a catch in 2005–2006 of 2,000 and 4,000 mt by the artisanal fleet, but in 1998 21,000 t were caught after an El Niño event.<br/><br/>There is some evidence of multiple populations based on biological and morphological characteristics (Oxenford and Hunt 1986, Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Duarte-Neto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), however there is genetic connectivity between migratory groups in the Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM 2006) stock assessment recognized the uncertainty about stock structure and conducted separate analyses (one that recognizes separate north and southern stocks and one combining both). The conclusion from all of the assessments was that there was no decline in catch per unit effort (CPUE) indices and therefore the fishery appears sustainable at current levels. They did note the uncertainty and the need for more data from other countries within the stock area.<br/><br/>The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) 2010 stock assessment analysed data from the Caribbean, Venezuela, Brazil and the U.S. that corroborates that this species migrates from northern Brazil to the eastern Caribbean and may also enter the southeastern Caribbean Sea. The standardized CPUE indices for the eastern Caribbean corroborates that the stock is not declining. In Brazil there is evidence of at least two stocks, one in northern Brazil (shared with the Caribbean) and one in the northeastern Brazilian coast (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Although there is uncertainty in the data, the stock assessment in the northeast indicated that the stock is fully exploited (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is widespread and is very common in the Mediterranean, and catches are increasing. The average catch from 2000 to 2009 was about 8,000–10,000 t per year (FAO 2009). Off the coast of Turkey it is seasonally common. FAO landing figures are available from Tunisia, Malta and Spain. Most of the current catch figures are from Tunisia and Spain and are currently increasing. Catches from Malta have remained relatively stable since 1950. The distribution of this species is expanding to the northern part of the western Mediterranean. Catches are much higher in late summer and early autumn.
154712		population	eng	This species is widespread and is generally common in the Mediterranean. Off the coast of Turkey it is seasonally common.<br/><br/>Bannister (1976) collected 420 specimens caught in the Maltese waters.<br/><br/>Massuti and Morales-Nin (1997) collected 410 specimens,  with min FL14.4 cm and max FL 120 cm. These were obtained from commercial catches which used surrounding nets around fish aggregation devices, and long-lines, off Majorca (Balearic Sea), from May to December 1990 and 1991.<br/><br/>Deudero (2001) collected 235 specimens with min FL 24.7 cm and max FL 70.0 cm. These were collected fortnightly in oceanic waters off the eastern Majorcan coast, by means of an experimental purse seine. Data were collected from a total of 133 hauls carried out on 38 sampling dates from April 1995 to February 1997.<br/><br/>Catches in the Mediterranean Sea are relatively stable (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>C. hippurus</em> annual landings in the Mediterranean between 1996 and 2005 (obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database 2007) were:<br/><br/>Malta (Ionian Sea) <br/>307 (1996), 295 (1997), 363 (1998), 349 (1999), 234 (2000), 303 (2001), 347 (2002), 507 (2003), 473 (2004), 447 (2005)<br/><br/>Spain (Balearic Sea)<br/>92 (1999), 137 (2000), 70 (2001), 156 (2002), 225 (2003), 271 (2004), 169 (2005).<br/><br/>FAO landings figures are available from Tunisia, Malta and Spain. Most of the current catch figures are from Tunisia and Spain and are currently increasing. Catches from Malta have remained relatively stable since 1950.
154712		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, it is of high commercial value, with a global catch of 58,076 t in 2005, and is extensively harvested throughout its range (FAO-FIGIS 2005). There have been observed declines in catch in the Eastern Pacific, but this is thought to be a consequence of higher catches during El Niño events.<br/><br/>This species is caught in various types of fishing gear, including longlines, purse seine vessels, and recreational fishing vessels (Palko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1982). It is one of the most important species in artisanal fisheries around the world.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is caught in association with fish attracting devices (FADS), trolling line and sport fisheries. These attracting devices such as floating bundles of bamboo reeds or cork planks are used to concentrate Dolphinfish before nets are set. The use of FADS are increasing the bycatch of this species (Nelson pers. comm. 2010). Small quantities are taken as bycatch in longline and driftnet fisheries.<br/><br/>The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) recognizes that the lack of any institutional framework or regional body for collaborative or shared management of this resource is a concern given the increasing catches of this species in the region (CRFM 2006).
154712		threats	eng	This species has high commercial importance and is caught with a variety of fishing gears. Sometimes it is used in commercial aquaculture. It is a high value species (Eschmeyer 1983).<br/><br/>On the Mediterranean coast of Spain this is an important target species for seasonal catches (Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006).
154713		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from several marine protected areas (WDPA 2006), including Bahia de Loreto National Park, Parque Nacional Bahia de Loreto, and Cabo Pulmo National Park.
154713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California to the central Gulf of California, Mexico.
154713		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits rocky coasts and tidepools with abundant macroalgae in shallow waters to 5 m.
154713		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154713		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species and no reported significant population declines.
154714		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the effect of habitat loss from coastal development and the removal of mangrove habitat on this species population.
154714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Colombia.
154714		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits soft substrata such as mud, sand, or gravel in fresh or brackish water habitats, such as mangroves channels and estuaries (Galván-Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), to depths of 5 m.
154714		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range.
154714		threats	eng	Localised coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect the extent and quality of habitat for this species.   However, given its apparent widespread distribution in the Eastern Pacific region, the extent of habitat loss and  corresponding effect on this species population is currently unknown.
154715		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias vulgaris</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers and potential threat processes of this species is needed.
154715		distribution	eng	<em>Eustomias vulgaris</em> is distributed through the Pacific ocean and has been found by the Hawaiian island of Oahu, from southeastern Australia and the Indonesian island of Sulawesi to New Caledonia (Mundy 2005).
154715		habitat	eng	<em>Eustomias vulgaris</em> is an epipelagic and mesopelagic species that has a depth range of 0 - 750m. This species is most often caught in nets above depths of 160m (Mundy 2005). Some species from the <em>Stomiidae</em> family migrate to near surface at night (FAO 1999).
154715		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias vulgaris</em>.
154715		threats	eng	Due to its deep-water nature it is unlikely that <em>Eustomias vulgaris</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. It may be taken on occasion as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range, however there are no reports of it being a common by-catch species.
154716		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paxton concilians</em>, however the distribution of this species falls within the Monte Bello Islands Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance and distribution of this species.
154716		distribution	eng	<em>Paxton concilians</em> has only been found in northwestern Australia in the vicinity of the Monte Bello Islands (Baldwin and Johnson 1999).
154716		habitat	eng	The cardinalfish <em>Paxton concilians</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 46-80 m.
154716		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paxton concilians</em> as only four specimens of this species have been found. It is known only from the type specimens.
154716		threats	eng	The impacts of major threats on this species are not known.
154717		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anchoa choerostoma</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the North Shore Coral Reef Preserve.
154717		distribution	eng	The Bermuda Anchovy <em>(Anchoa choerostoma</em>) is known only from the waters around Bermuda. Reports of this species from Panama and Puerto Rico were misidentified <em>Anchoa lyolepis</em>.
154717		habitat	eng	Bermuda Anchovy are commonly found in multi-species aggregations in the upper half of the water column. It is planktivorous and suspected to have a summer spawning period.  This epipelagic species ranges in depth from the surface to 50 m in bays and near patch coral reefs.
154717		population	eng	The Bermuda Anchovy, <em>Anchoa choerostoma,</em> is common around the shallow sounds, bays and nearshore patch coral reefs of Bermuda (Parrish 1989).
154717		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Bermuda Anchovy<em></em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  This species may be of commercial interest in the future (Fishbase 2007), but is not known to support any fishery at the present time.
154718		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parma victoriae</em>.&#160; However, it is known to occur in a number of marine protected areas, including Barwon Bluff Marine Sanctuary.
154718		distribution	eng	<em>Parma victoriae</em> is distributed in southern Australia from Dongara, Western Australia to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, including northern Tasmania (Edgar 2000).
154718		habitat	eng	The damselfish, <em>Parma victoriae</em>, is a herbivorous species that inhabits sheltered and moderately exposed temperate rocky reefs at a depth range of 3 – 35 m. Adults of both sexes are territorial and will aggressively defend their home cave area, which also includes a crop of algae which the fish graze continually (Edgar 2000).&#160; Breeding occurs between the months of November and February (Norman and Jones 1984).
154718		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parma victoriae </span>is reported to be common (Hart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005; Norman and Jones 1984).<br/><br/>In a survey conducted in the Bass strait, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parma victoriae</span> was found to be locally abundant (Ocean Rescue 2000). In a study by Norman and Jones (1984) this species was observed in densities of 30 fish per 500m<sup>2</sup>.
154718		threats	eng	<em>Parma victoriae</em> is not known to be of any commercial interest either as a food source, or for the ornamental trade.&#160; It is likely to be regionally threatened by coastal development and degradation.&#160; The dredging of Port Phillip Bay in April 2008 is likely to have caused significant declines in the abundance of this species around this area of Victoria.&#160; However, there are large sections of coastline around Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia which remain undeveloped.
154719		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.
154719		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span> is known only from Indonesia, from the Togean Islands in central Sulawesi and Lembeh Strait off northern Sulawesi.
154719		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span> is suggested to be reef-associated (Froese and Pauly 2008), and has been observed over rubble bottoms from 15 ? 40 m depth (Allen and McKenna 2001).
154719		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span>. This species was occasionally observed over rubble bottoms during underwater visual surveys in the Togean Island, Indonesia (Allen 2001).
154719		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis. </span>
154720		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Suezichthys bifurcatus</span>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, threat from by-catch, and ecology of this species.
154720		distribution	eng	<em>Suezichthys bifurcatus</em> is endemic to south west Australia (B.C. Russell pers. comm. 2009). Its range extends from the Great Australian Bight in South Australia (33 33 S, 132 57 E), to southern Western Australia (Rottnest Island, near Perth).
154720		habitat	eng	<em>Suezichthys bifurcatus</em> is a small species that grows to about 110 mm (SL). It is usually captured in trawls at depths to about 100 m, but has been photographed (Kuiter 2002) and a single specimen collected in deeper water at Rottnest Island, on rubble bottoms near algal covered rocky reefs.
154720		population	eng	Most specimens are taken by trawls. It is considered to be uncommmon within its range(B.C. Russell pers.comm. 2009.).
154720		threats	eng	&#160;<em>Suezichthys bifurcatus </em>has been caught as by-catch from trawlers which enter its habitat (B.C. Russell pers.comm. 2009).
154721		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Masked Triggerfish, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
154721		distribution	eng	The Masked Triggerfish, <em>Sufflamen fraenatum</em>, is distributed from East Africa, through Micronesia to the Pitcairn Islands and Hawaii. The northern and southern limits of this species are Japan and Lord Howe Island, respectively.
154721		habitat	eng	The Masked Triggerfish can be found on coastal rocky reefs, silty habitats and in lagoons over sandy patches. It is also found over sand and rubble patches on seaward facing coral reefs. This species has been found at a depth range of 13-200 m. Individuals feed on echinoids, fishes, molluscs, tunicates, crustaceans, algae, polychaete worms, foraminiferans and detritus. This species displays territoriality especially during breeding season.
154721		population	eng	There is no population information available for Masked Triggerfish.
154721		threats	eng	The Masked Triggerfish is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. It is harvested at the subsistence scale using drive-in nets, gill nets and traps (FAO 2001b). Only the individuals in the upper part of this species range are likely to be captured as this fishing methods tend to be used in the euphotic zone. <br/><br/>This species is associated with coral reef habitats. The coral reefs in some areas of this species' distribution have experienced regional and localized degradation due to coral bleaching, industrialisation, water pollution and other population pressures. As this threat not found throughout this species distribution it is not considered a major threat to the entire population.
154722		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>M. papilio</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Wrangel Island Strictly Protected Nature Reserve in the Chukchi Sea. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
154722		distribution	eng	The Butterfly Sculpin, <em>M. papilio,</em> is known from the Chukchi Sea in the Arctic, and the Kuril and Commander Islands. This species is not found in the Bering Sea, despite many reports of it being found there (D.E. Stevenson pers. comm. 2007).
154722		habitat	eng	The Butterfly Sculpin is a benthic species that has a depth range of 4-320 m and inhabits Arctic to subarctic waters at less than 1°C. Sculpins can be found over all substrate types: rock, sand and mud.
154722		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>M. papilio</em>.
154722		threats	eng	Sculpins are caught incidentally by a wide variety of fisheries and it is likely that the larger sculpin species, including species from the genus <em>Hemilepidotus</em>, are commonly taken by groundfish fisheries (Reuter <em>et al</em>. 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Melletes papilio</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em> occurs in some major fishing areas.
154723		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas affording it some protection from harvesting.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution is needed.
154723		distribution	eng	<em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em> is known from the Andaman Islands (single specimen), the Java Sea, the Philippines, and the Bismark Archipelago just off Papua New Guinea. At present this species appears to occupy a patchy distribution within the Indo-Pacific.
154723		habitat	eng	<em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em> is a pelagic, schooling species typically found inshore in brackish and marine waters to a depth of 50 m. It can also be found in estuaries. Congeners of this species, <em>Anodontostoma chacunda</em>, feed on a mix of diatoms, radiolarians, molluscs, copepods and crustaceans.
154723		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em>.
154723		threats	eng	<em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em> is harvested as a food source at a subsistence scale. At present there is no fisheries catch data on this species (FAO 1999a). It is harvested using lift nets, set nets and purse seine nets (FAO 1999). It is not known how this species is being impacted by threats such as harvesting and coastal development and pollution.
154724		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensi</span>s. However, a large percentage of the population is present a marine protected area in the eastern tropical Pacific region: the Archipelago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve in Mexico (WDPA 2006).
154724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is only found near the Revillagigedo Islands and the Clipperton Atoll. Subpopulations of this species are highly localized in underwater reef-caves in these two locations, and its area of occupancy is therefore estimated to be less than 50 km<sup>2</sup>.
154724		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensis</span> is a reef-associated species that lives in underwater reef-caves at depths of 5-50 m.
154724		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensis</span> was considered abundant in appropriate habitat in the Clipperton Atoll during surveys in 1994 and 1998, and in the Revillagigedo Islands from 1992 and 1994.
154724		threats	eng	Subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensis</span> are highly localized and only found in underwater reef-cave systems in two locations (Clipperton Atoll and Revillagigedos Islands). This species is therefore very susceptible to localized stochastic threats, including oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO or global warming events (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
154725		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caulolatilus williamsi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, threats and abundance of this species is needed.
154725		distribution	eng	This species is known from four specimens taken at Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas, Gran Bahamas Island, and St Croix in the Virgin Islands (Dooley and Berry 1977; J. Dooley pers.comm. 2009).
154725		habitat	eng	<em>Caulolatilus williamsi</em> can be found on the outer slope of coral-reef ledges, over sand and mud bottoms at a depth range of 126-300 m.
154725		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154725		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Caulolatilus williamsi</em>.
154726		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Slope Hatchetfish.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with many marine protected areas.
154726		distribution	eng	The Slope Hatchetfish<em> (Polyipnus clarus</em>) is found in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the Gulf Stream as far north as Nova Scotia, and in the Gulf of Maine.
154726		habitat	eng	The Slope Hatchetfish<em></em> is a mesopelagic, demersal, shoaling species that occurs down to depths of 833 m.&#160;  The upper boundary of its depth profile is not known.
154726		population	eng	The Slope Hatchetfish is an abundant, near-bottom, shoaling species (Gartner <em>et al</em>. 2006).
154726		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Slope Hatchetfish is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It is possible that it is taken as by-catch in some bottom trawls, but due to its small size, this is unlikely to be a major threat.
154727		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
154727		distribution	eng	<em>Bathypterois oddi</em> is known from the type locality in the Tasman Sea, off the south coast of New Zealand. It is also possibly found off South Australia (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1988).
154727		habitat	eng	<em>Bathypterois oddi</em> is a bathydemersal species which feeds on small, planktonic crustaceans and squid. It was found at a depth of 4,400 m, and a temperature of 1.15<sup>o</sup>C. Species within the family Ipnopidae are typically found off the continental slope or over an abyss. They are known to be amongst the deepest living fish species. Individuals commonly feed on zooplankton or benthic invertebrates.
154727		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bathypterois oddi</em>, however another species of this genus, <em>B. longipes</em>, is thought to be possibly the most abundant abyssobenthic species in the northeastern Atlantic, suggesting an important role for <em>Bathypterois</em> as a deep sea fish (Nybelin 1957).
154727		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species, it is unlikely that it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
154728		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amphistichus koelzi</em>. However this species may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas within its distribution range.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is suggested to ensure it does not become over-exploited by both commercial and private fishers.
154728		distribution	eng	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> is distributed from slightly south of the US-Canadian border to northern Baja California, Mexico.
154728		habitat	eng	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> is a demersal species found in the intertidal zone to a depth of 9 m. It is most commonly seen in the surf zone off sandy beaches.<br/><br/>Like congeners, such as <em>Amphistichus argentus</em>, it is likely this species forms small schools, feeds on crustaceans and other benthic invertebrates.
154728		population	eng	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> is one of the dominant species in the surf zone of northern California (Allen and Pondella 2006).
154728		threats	eng	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> has some commercial importance as a food source, and is also a target species by sport fishers (Skinner 1962). <br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by coastal pollution such as sewage, industrial and domestic waste water, and coastal development. However, this is a localised threat and is not known across its entire distribution range.
154729		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
154729		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the White-spotted Lantern Fish.
154729		distribution	eng	The White-spotted Lantern Fish<span style="font-style: italic;"> (</span><em>Diaphus rafinesquii</em>) is found in the Mediterranean and the western Atlantic north of the Gulf Stream. This species is also distributed across the eastern Atlantic from Iceland to Mauritania.
154729		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from the British Isles to Mauritania, including Iceland (Jonsson 1992). In the west Atlantic, it is present north of the Gulf Stream. It is also reported from the Indian and the Pacific Oceans (Norman 1939).<br/><br/>This species is also present in the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987): in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Galician districts (Maurin 1962), Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Deval 2002, Cihangir <em>et al.</em> 2003), Messina Strait (Costa 1991, 1999; Berdar<em> et al.</em> 1998; Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2001), Tyrrhenian sea (Sartor <em>et al.</em> 2001, Biagi <em>et al.</em> 2002), Levantine basin, and in the Adriatic Sea (Stegnar <em>et al.</em> 1978, Costa 1991).
154729		habitat	eng	The White-spotted Lantern Fish is a bathypelagic, oceanodromous species that has a depth range of 40-1,080 m. This species shows diurnal vertical migration patterns (Hulley 1990). During the day it can be found at depths between 325-750 m and at night adults can be found at depths between 300-600 m and juveniles at a depth range of 40-200 m. This species is known to spawn during the autumn and winter months (Hulley 1984).
154729		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic, high-oceanic species that is found between 325 and 750 m during daytime (Hulley 1990). At night, a two layer system occurs: adults are found between 300 and 600 m and juveniles between 40 and 200 m (Hulley 1990).<br/><br/>It was reported between 600 and 650 m in the Ionian Sea.
154729		population	eng	In biodiversity studies using pelagic trawls, low numbers of this species were reported (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2003). The White-spotted Lantern Fish is reported to be rare south to the Gulf of Mexico (FAO 2002).
154729		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
154729		threats	eng	There is no commercial fishery for this species, however it may be occasionally taken as a by-catch species. Due to its small size, this is not likely to pose a major threat as it is only likely to be retained in prawn fishery nets.  There are no other threats to this species.
154729		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
154730		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em>, however this species distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers, threats and possible harvest of this species.
154730		distribution	eng	<em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em> is only known from 5 specimens and is endemic to the Loyalty Islands, France in the western Pacific. It may also be found to occur around New Caledonia (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154730		habitat	eng	The basslet, <em>Luzonichthys williamsi,</em> is a midwater coral reef species that has a depth range of 22 to 50 m. It is seen on the outer-reef slope in groups feeding on zooplankton. It has also been collected over patches of coral rubble. This is a small short-lived species.<br/><br/>This species co-occurs with the very similar <em>Luzonichthys whitleyi</em>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. waitei, </span>and may well occur in mixed-species aggregations.
154730		population	eng	<em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em> is only known from 5 specimens.
154730		threats	eng	<em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em> may be taken for the aquarium trade as small serranids from the <em>Anthiinae</em> sub-family are known to be of particular value within the trade (FAO 1999), but this is unlikely to be driving rapid declines. The restricted range of this species also implies that it may be at risk from intrinsic factors which affect small populations.<br/><br/>Due to this species association with coral reef habitats, it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas impacted by destructive fishing practices. In 2001, the reefs around the Loyalty Islands were impacted by a number of threats including Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching, however they are showing good signs of recovery (Wilkinson 2004). Overall, the coral reefs within this species range are considered to be in good condition. <br/><br/>Studies from the neighbouring island of New Caledonia have shown that surrounding coastal waters are subjected to large inputs of metals, mainly due to nickel production. In addition, natural erosion of the soils associated with tropical rainfall, urban development and lack of efficient wastewater treatment (Ambastian <em>et al</em>. 1997) may pose a threat in the future. <br/><br/>At present there don't appear to be any significant threats or reason to assume the species is undergoing declines.
154731		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Apeltes quadracus</em>.
154731		distribution	eng	The Fourspine Stickleback, <em>Apeltes quadracus,</em> is found close to the shore in the western Atlantic from the Gulf of St. Lawrence off Canada, to North Carolina. This species is also found inland in lakes in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Quebec and Hudson, Delaware and Susquehanna river drainages. This species was accidentally introduced into Lake Superior and the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland. This is an invasive species and has recently been recorded in the state of Ontario.
154731		habitat	eng	The Fourspine Stickleback is a benthopelagic species typically found in marine and brackish waters in the shallow photic zone. It is also seen in backwaters and to a limited extent, freshwater. It can be found in amongst weedy vegetation around the shoreline. Marine specimens feed on a mix of gammarids, isopods, chironomids and plant detritus, while freshwater individuals feed on cladoceran larvae, chironomids, ephemeropterans, arthropods and other insects. <br/><br/>This species displays sexual dimorphism with the females being comparatively larger than the males. With the onset of the mating season, males set up and defend their territory within which they build a multi-tiered nest in available vegetation. Females are then encouraged to lay eggs within the nest which the male then fertilises, guards and aerates.
154731		population	eng	The Fourspine Stickleback is reported to be expanding its range all the time. Within its newly colonised areas, this species has been reported to be increasing rapidly in numbers, often to the detriment of native fish species (Stephenson and Mormot 2000).
154731		threats	eng	The Fourspine Stickleback is used in the public aquarium trade, however there is no evidence that it is harvested in high enough quantities to result in significant population declines. It is likely that many of the individuals used within the aquarium trade, have been bred in captivity and were not taken directly from the wild. This species has a short generation time and so is likely to tolerate moderate harvesting.
154732		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Coral Sea Gregory. However the distribution of this species falls within numerous marine protected areas, including several in New Caledonia all of which are strict "no-take" areas to conserve biodiversity (Lovell <em>et al</em>. 2004). The management of Australia’s Reefs is seen as effective (Miller and Sweatman 2004).
154732		distribution	eng	The Coral Sea Gregory, <em>Stegastes gascoynei</em>, is distributed through tropical and some temperate waters of eastern Australia, from the southern Great Barrier Reef to Sydney, New Zealand and New Caledonia. This species has also been recorded from the Coral Sea (type locality Keen Reef), Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and the Loyalty Islands.
154732		habitat	eng	The Coral Sea Gregory is associated with inshore live coral and rocky reefs.  The depth profile of this species ranges from 2 m to 30 m.
154732		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154732		threats	eng	The Coral Sea Gregory is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats, however it might be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.  <br/><br/>The species is associated with coral reefs. The majority of coral reefs in the South West Pacific are healthy, while others are recovering after coral bleaching in 2000 and 2002. The major signs of reef stress around the major towns are due to over-exploitation and pollution from sediments and nutrients. It is predicted that large areas of coral reefs will remain healthy in the future, with only those around the larger towns being damaged (Lovell <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>The coral reefs of Australia are in a relatively good state despite episodes of degradation.  It is predicted that the coral reefs will remain in good condition in the future, providing protection measures (establishment and enforcement of marine protected areas and improved fisheries management) are maintained (Miller and Sweatman 2004).
154733		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dermatopsoides talboti</em>, however it may be found within a few marine protected areas.&#160; No actions are needed.
154733		distribution	eng	<em>Dermatopsoides talboti</em> is found off the coast of South Africa from Algoa Bay near Port Elizabeth, to False Bay near Cape Town (Moller and Schwarzhans 2006). Specimens have been collected from three to four localities (P.R. Møller pers. comm. 2008). Due to difficulty in sampling, this species may in fact be more widespread (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154733		habitat	eng	<em>Dermatopsoides talboti</em> is a demersal, intertidal species that occurs in shallow water, including tidepools, in the photic zone (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is found at a depth range of 0 - 5 m. This cryptic species is very secretive and hides in rocky reefs during the day and is active at night (P.R. Møller pers. comm. 2008). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous with a small brood size (Nielsen 1999).
154733		population	eng	This species is referred to as 'secretive' and 'uncommon' (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species is known from 6 specimens (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). This species is likely to be uncommon or rare (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154733		threats	eng	This species is likely to be locally impacted by coastal development and related pollution sources in parts of its range.&#160; However, much of its range is not heavily populated (O. Gon. and P. C. Heemstra. pers. comm. 2009).
154734		conservation	eng	There are now a range of conservation measures in place for the long-term sustainability of global Pink Snapper stocks. Most of the commercial and recreational fisheries have imposed TACC and recreational bag limits based on the biological maximum sustainable yield, in an attempt to aid recovery of over-fished stocks. The distribution of this species also covers a number of marine protected areas including the Okakari Point Marine Reserve and the Tawharanui Marine Park in New Zealand. <br/><br/>Since the 1980s, Japan has managed to successfully culture this species on a commercial scale and now obtains 75% of its annual quota from captive bred stock. New Zealand and Australia are both developing their aquaculture industries in an attempt to alleviate pressure on wild populations.<br/><br/>Further research on the stock status of the Queensland and New South Wales fisheries is needed before wild stocks collapse. In consideration of the genetic isolation of stocks, seen on both a global and localised scale, future conservation efforts should seek to protect spawning grounds.
154734		distribution	eng	The Pink Snapper,<em> Pagrus auratus</em>, is distributed around the coastal waters of New Zealand, Australia, China, and Japan. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16, 359, 123 km<sup>2</sup>.
154734		habitat	eng	The Pink Snapper is a demersal species and can be found to depths of 200 m, although is most abundant at depths of 15 m - 60 m. This species forms large aggregations within the continental shelf and inhabits a wide range of habitats from rocky reefs to areas of sand and mud substrates. Individuals prey upon a number of organisms including crustaceans, marine worms, starfish, shellfish, and smaller fishes. This species can live up to 60 years old and has a very low natural rate of mortality. Individuals are capable of substantial migrations (Hayes 1994).<br/><br/>Snapper congregate prior to spawning and move on to the spawning ground around November to December. They are serial spawners, releasing eggs over the spring and summer months. The young will school in shallow waters, and move into deeper waters in the winter months. <br/><br/>The global population of Pink Snapper exists in a number of subpopulations due to genetic isolation of the northern and southern hemisphere (D. Paulin pers. comm. 2008). This is also seen on a regional scale. In New Zealand there is little mixing between the East Northland and Hauraki Gulf Snapper. This is also seen in Shark Bay, Western Australia where there is evidence to suggest that there is little if any mixing between coastal and ocean snapper (Edwards <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1999; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1986; Moran <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2003; Nahas <em>et al</em>. 2003).
154734		population	eng	<em>Pagrus auratus</em> is described as the dominant species in inshore communities of northern New Zealand.
154734		threats	eng	Pink Snapper is one of the most commercially important fisheries in New Zealand (Paul and Tarring 1980), Australia, and Japan. It is also an important recreational fishery. It is harvested using a number of methods including set lines, bottom trawls, pair trawls and midwater trawls.<br/><br/>Over the past 25 years, the snapper fisheries of Australia and New Zealand were described as over-exploited as stocks showed signs of collapse. In New Zealand, snapper landings peaked at 18,000 tonnes, however by the mid 1980s the catches had declined to 8,500 - 9,000 tonnes. Since then New Zealand implemented one of the most comprehensive Quota Mangement Systems to manage the remaining stock and set Total Allowable Commercial Catch limits based on the biological maximum sustainable yield (B<sub>MSY</sub>).<br/><br/>The New Zealand snapper fishery is split into 10 Quota Management Areas (QMA). Four areas of the fishery, SNA1, SNA2, SNA7 and SNA8, account for nearly all of the total landings. Within SNA1, there are 2 sub-stocks, East Northland and Hauraki Gulf/ Bay of Plenty. A stock assessment of the East Northland sub-stock indicates that the population currently meets the B<sub>MSY</sub> reference point and is expected to exceed this (67% probability) come the end of the 20 year projection period. The Hauraki Gulf stock currently falls below the B<sub>MSY</sub> reference point, but there is a 100% probability that it will exceed this point within the projection period. Estimates from SNA2 indicate that the stock is near or just below the B<sub>MSY</sub> but is expected to exceed this level by 2011, assuming fishing effort, landings, and natural mortality remain constant. The stock in SNA7 is thought to be well above the B<sub>MSY</sub> and will continue to further increase even if future landings were significantly larger than at present. The stock in SNA8 is thought to be below the B<sub>MSY</sub>, however estimates from this assessment were considered unreliable due to model error.<br/><br/>Analysis of the Queensland fishery stock, has been controversial. Most data on the stock is derived from recreational and commercial landings. Recreational data imples that the stock is in severe decline and below the B<sub>MSY</sub>, while commercial data would suggest that the stock is in a slow rate of decline. There are at present, concerns about the long-term sustainability of this fishery as fishing effort moves further north to new fishing grounds. <br/><br/>At present there is no evidence to suggest that stocks in the Shark Bay Snapper Fishery are below reference points or limits. Estimates of the stock indicate that 70% of the virgin stock biomass still remains.<br/><br/>In 1988, the Japanese successfully cultured 45,000 tonnes of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Pink Snapper<em></em>, three times the amount that is harvested from wild stocks. Other countries, such as New Zealand and Australia, are running trial aquaculture experiments in an attempt to aid recovery of exploited stocks.
154735		conservation	eng	The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is supporting a Large Marine Ecosystem project in the Yellow Sea to address critical threats to the coastal and marine environment, and to promote ecosystem-based management of coastal and marine resources. Further research to determine the suitable habitat, range, and threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes koreanus </span>should be carried out.
154735		distribution	eng	<em>Sebastes koreanus</em> is known only from the Yellow Sea, South Korea.&#160; It has been collected from Munyae Island, Okdo-myon, Okku-gun, and Chollabuk-do (Eschmeyer 2008).
154735		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes</span><em> koreanus</em> is a demersal species. It is found in the euphotic zone at depths of 2–30 m.
154735		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes koreanus</span>.
154735		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes koreanus</span> is impacted by any major threat processes. The species is known from only a few specimens collected in an area of the Yellow Sea known to be impacted by pollution such as oil and industrial effluents.
154736		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Whitetail Goblinfish.&#160;  However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.
154736		distribution	eng	The Whitetail Goblinfish<em> (Minous quincarinatus</em>) is widely distributed through the northwest Pacific.&#160; Its presence has been documented in the Yellow Sea, off the northern, northeastern and southwestern coasts of Taiwan, in the East China Sea, and the South China Sea including the coasts of Peng-hu Island and Hong Kong, and south of the Misaki Peninsula in southern Japan.
154736		habitat	eng	The Whitetail Goblinfish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 50–154 m and is found on the shelf edge on soft, sandy or mud substrates.
154736		population	eng	The Whitetail Goblinfish has been described a common throughout its range (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1979)
154736		threats	eng	The Whitetail Goblinfish could be locally threatened by oil spills in the future, as there is significant international shipping traffic throughout much of its range.&#160; There is also extensive fishing across much of this species' range, although the Whitetail Goblinfish is not specifically targeted.
154737		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer</span>;&#160;however this species distribution may occur in a number of marine protected areas including the Seaflower Marine Protected Area off Colombia.
154737		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Bright Silverside, <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer,</span> extends from Panama to Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru (Robertson and Allen 2006).
154737		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer</span> is found in coastal habitats such as estuaries, tidal rivers and mangrove creeks, and is present in marine and brackish waters at depths to 10 m. The diet of this species consists of zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae, and pelagic fish eggs (Robertson and Allen 2006).
154737		population	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer</span> is reported to be the third most abundant fish in the mangrove wetland and adjacent tidal river of Palmar, Ecuador (Shervette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The average density of this species in this area, was recorded to range between 0.82-77.73 individuals per 100m<sup>2</sup>.
154737		threats	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer </span>is associated with mangrove habitats which have become increasingly threatened by human population pressures, such as large scale harvest for wood chips, and clearance of the land for conversion to aquaculture ponds (Ong 2002). The degradation of mangrove habitats is not considered a major threat to this species, as in a study conducted by Shervette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007), this species was found to be just as abundant in a tidal river with no mangroves, as in a tidal river with mangroves.<br/><br/>Oceanographic, environmental changes such as El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events threaten this species in parts of its range, such as Peru.
154738		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus comptus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Hawaiian Islands.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of coral reef degradation on the population in the future. Research is also needed on species-specific conservation measures for this species, to try to prevent further negative impacts on the population of <em>C. comptus</em>.
154738		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus comptus</em> is known only from the Hawaiian Islands. The distribution of this species is severely fragmented, because very few areas in the Hawaiian Islands meet its habitat requirements (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). It is estimated that the total range area for this species is less than 20,000 km².
154738		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus comptus</span> is restricted to sand patches on reef crests and lagoon areas, where it buries itself in clean sand. This benthopelagic species is found at depths of 3-28 m.
154738		population	eng	This species is rare (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
154738		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus comptus</span> is associated with coral reef habitats. The coral reefs of Hawaii have been degraded due to pollution, development and dredging. The most significant threats to the reefs are coral bleaching and disease, and invasive alien species (Friedlander <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is predicted that Hawaii's reefs will continue to be degraded in future as human pressures increase, but the rate of decline can be reduced if there is effective protection and management (Friedlander <em>et al.</em> 2004).
154739		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cynoglossus maccullochi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
154739		distribution	eng	<em>Cynoglossus maccullochi</em> is known from the holotype (type locality Hummocky Island, north of Curtis Island) on the east coast of Australia off Queensland. This species is likely to have a wider distribution however due to difficulties in identifying this species the distribution is uncertain (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154739		habitat	eng	The type specimen was a trawl specimen (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Nothing further is known on the biology or ecology of this species. Cynoglossids are difficult to identify due to the similarity between species (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154739		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Cynoglossus maccullochi</em>.
154739		threats	eng	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynoglossus maccullochi</span> is being impacted by any major threats.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species may occasionally be taken as by-catch by trawlers operating within its range (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154740		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or that are needed for <em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em>.
154740		distribution	eng	<em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> has a near circumantarctic distribution from west of the Adelaide Islands round to the Ross Sea.
154740		habitat	eng	<em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> is bathydemersal and lives at temperatures as low as -1.65° Celsius. This species has a depth range of 371-915 m and can be found on the outer shelf and deep in troughs. This species has the lowest fecundity of any known bathydraconid species, producing only 2000 eggs per female (La Mesa<em> et al.</em> 2007). Spawning may occur from mid to late summer (Gon 1990).
154740		population	eng	<em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> has been described as the dominant species in the Gould Bay area (Ekau 1990). This species comprised 3.2% of the catch from a bottom trawl in the Ross Sea (Eastman and Hubold 1999).
154740		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. It may be taken incidentally as a by-catch species.
154741		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however this species is present in several marine protected areas in the Gulf of California, Mexico including Las Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area.
154741		distribution	eng	The Gulf Opal Eye, <span style="font-style: italic;">Girella simplicidens,</span> is endemic to the Gulf of California, Mexico.
154741		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species forms big schools in shallow rocky areas that are rich in algae. It can primarily be found to depths of 15 m.
154741		population	eng	This species is abundant in the northern Gulf of California, but scarce in the southern portion (Robertson and Allen 2006), where relative abundance was between 0.1-1% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). In general, it is considered common through much of its range, with no indication of recent population decline.
154741		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
154742		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Bluestriped Snapper, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed on the population size, harvest levels, and extent of harvest of this species.
154742		distribution	eng	The Bluestriped Snapper<em> (Lutjanus notatus</em>) is found in the Indian Ocean off East Africa, Madagascar, Reunion and Mauritius.&#160; This species has also been reported from Taiwan, however this needs verification.
154742		habitat	eng	The Bluestriped Snapper inhabits coral reefs in tropical climates.&#160; It is found either individually or in groups of 5?10 individuals, at a depth range of 10?50 m.&#160; This species feeds on fish and crustaceans.
154742		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Bluestriped Snapper .
154742		threats	eng	The Bluestriped Snapper is harvested by artisinal fishers throughout much of its range.&#160; It is seen in local markets in relatively small quantities.&#160; It is caught using handlines, traps and gill nets.&#160; More general threats to this species' abundance may include threats to its habitat due to intense coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, these threats are likely to be operating at a localised scale only.
154743		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em></em> the Neglected Grenadier Anchovy, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
154743		distribution	eng	Neglected Grenadier Anchovy,<em> Coilia neglecta, </em>is known from India, Sri Lanka, throughout the Bay of Bengal and from Thailand to Malaysia.
154743		habitat	eng	Neglected Grenadier Anchovy is a schooling species that can be found in saline coastal waters and estuaries to a depth of 50 m. It is often found in the vicinity of mangrove forests. It is tolerant of some degree of freshening and often utilises river mouths for feeding and spawning.
154743		population	eng	Museum specimens suggest that this species is common (FAO 1988).
154743		threats	eng	Neglected Grenadier Anchovy is taken as a by-catch species by subsistence fishers and processed into fish meal for the shrimp farm industry. There are no known catch statistics available for this species, however it is only known to be harvested by small scale fisheries in parts of its range.<br/><br/>This species utilises a habitat that is becoming increasingly degraded by pollution and siltation. Coastal wetland systems are important buffer zones for many coastal fish species. They lower water turbidity, lower nutrient loading from coastal pollution run-off, and provide food and shelter to both adults and juveniles. India has lost 50% of its wetland systems and mangrove cover has been reduced from 700,000 hectares in 1987 to 453,000 hectares in 1995 (Parikh and Parikh 1999). This is a 34% decline in mangrove habitat over 8 years; less than a 10% decline in this species over the same time. However this is only a small part of this species range.
154744		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology of this species is needed to determine habitat specificity.
154744		distribution	eng	<em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em> is found off southern Australia from the state of Victoria, to the state of South Australia including Tasmania.
154744		habitat	eng	<em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em> is mainly found in protected marine habitats with soft bottoms or seagrass beds. This species can be found in small aggregations below three m, however larger schools are found nearer the surface.  This species has not been collected from the upper reaches of estuaries or lagoons (Pavlov <em>et al.</em> 1988).  Individuals exceeding three cm are planktivorous, feeding mainly on copepods.
154744		population	eng	This species is described as moderately common in some sheltered marine habitats of cool temperate southeastern Australia (Pavlov <em>et al.</em> 1988).
154744		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no known directed fishery for this species.
154745		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the taxonomy and ecology of this species, as well on as any potential threats it may face.
154745		distribution	eng	<em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em> has only been found around the waters of Bermuda.
154745		habitat	eng	<em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em> is a pelagic species which has been collected at depths of 200–1000 m.&#160; Most species from the <em>Stomiidae</em> family are mesopelagic, with some species bathypelagic.&#160; Some species from this family migrate to the surface at night (FAO 2002).
154745		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em>.
154745		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptostomias bermudensis</span>, although it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within the coastal waters of Bermuda.
154746		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Trimma fraena</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the distribution and abundance of this species, to monitor its habitat status, and to investigate the impact of threats such as habitat destruction and degradation.
154746		distribution	eng	<em>Trimma fraena</em> has been found around the Chagos Archipelago, Comoros Islands, Maldives and Bali. Although this species is only known from a few localities at present, it is very likely to occur in more areas, as suitable habitat is available for the species.
154746		habitat	eng	<em>Trimma fraena</em> inhabits silty, coral reef habitats and has been found at depths of 9–15 m.
154746		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trimma fraena</span>.
154746		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
154747		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Maurolicus breviculus</em>.
154747		distribution	eng	<em>Maurolicus breviculus</em> is found in the eastern equatorial Pacific, off Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands.
154747		habitat	eng	The hatchetfish, <em>Maurolicus breviculus</em>, is a bathypelagic species that has a large depth range of 50–1,865 m.&#160; Species from the Sternoptychidae family have a diet that consists of small fish and zooplankton, including crustaceans, annelids, chaetognaths, and molluscs (FAO 2002).
154747		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Maurolicus breviculus</em>.
154747		threats	eng	Due to the small size and deep-water nature of <span style="font-style: italic;">Maurolicus breviculus</span>, it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.
154748		conservation	eng	There are some catch limitations for <em>Lophius</em> species off the coast of Namibia (Maartens and Booth 2001b). Management of the Monkfish fishery (which also includes <em> L. budegassa<em>) </em></em>has involved imposing effort limits, including limited access and a restriction of 800 horse power on fishing vessels (Maartens and Booth 2001b). Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.
154748		distribution	eng	<em>Lophius vomerinus</em> occurs from northern Namibia (below 21° S latitude), around the southern coast of South Africa, up to Durban (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
154748		habitat	eng	<em>Lophius vomerinus</em> is found on muddy substrates on the deep continental shelf, upper slopes, and subtidal zone. It feeds on small fish, including Cape Hake <em>(Merluccius capensis</em>) and Herring <em>(Etrumeus whiteheadi)</em>. It ranges from depths of 150 m to around 400 m.<br/><br/><em>Lophius vomerinus</em> is a long-lived, slow-growing species with a life span in excess of 10 years in Namibia (Maartens <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). <br/><br/>Spawning occurs in September in the South African subpopulation (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).<br/><br/>Distribution data indicate that individuals move into deeper water as they grow, and on the south coast of South Africa, this offshore migration is also accompanied by an eastward migration (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
154748		population	eng	Fishery models (age structure production model and length-based cohort analysis model) provide evidence that <em> Lophius vomerinus <em> </em></em>resources are over-exploited, with harvesting levels higher than those concomitant with sustainable yields (Maartens and Booth 2001a).
154748		threats	eng	<em>Lophius vomerinus</em> is an important commercial species for Namibia. Landings of <em>L. vomerinus</em> contribute approximately 90% of the total Namibian<em> Lophius</em> landings (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In 1998, <em>Lophius</em> spp. were the fourth most landed catch in the region, at 17,000 t. This species is also often caught as a by-catch species of the Hake fishery (Maartens and Booth 2001a).&#160; A large number of juveniles are captured each year (Maartens <em>et al</em>. 2002) and models of future catches suggest that catches greater than 12,000 t per year will probably be unsustainable (Maartens and Booth 2001a).<br/><br/>In 1990, the annual catch of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius</span> was approximately 1,500 t. This increased to more than 12,000 t in 1994. Between 1995 and 1997, this decreased to around 10,000 t, but then peaked in 1998 at 17,000 t, falling to 16,000 t in 1999 (Maartens and Booth 2001a). During the 1990s, there was an improved efficiency in fishing vessels and an increase in the number of vessels targeting this species (Maartens and Booth 2001a).
154749		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Petrotyx sanguineus</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number marine protected areas.
154749		distribution	eng	<em>Petrotyx sanguineus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from southern Florida and the Bahamas to Panama, Venezuela and Trinidad.
154749		habitat	eng	<em>Petrotyx sanguineus</em> is found on the outer reef slope of shallow coral reefs in tropical climates at depths of 3 to 15 m. This species is secretive in habit (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is oviparious (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009) and has oval pelagic eggs which float in a gelatinous mass (Froese and Pauly 2007). There is no apparent preference for live or dead coral (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154749		population	eng	This is a common species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
154749		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species. It may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat destruction as a result of coastal development and pollution.
154750		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Shining Tubeshoulder.
154750		distribution	eng	The Shining Tubeshoulder <em>(Sagamichthys abei</em>) is widespread through the northern Pacific, ranging from Japan and the Bering Sea, to British Columbia and California.&#160; It is also known from the coasts of Peru and Chile, but not westward of this point (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1984).&#160; While this species is known from the Sea of Okhotsk (C. Mecklenburg pers. comm. 2008), it is described as rare in this region (Balanov and Il'inskiy 1992, Sazonov <em>et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 1993, Ivanov 1997).
154750		habitat	eng	The Shining Tubeshoulder is most commonly found at depths of 300?500 m, although it has been found at depths down to 1,250 m (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Savinykh <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160; According to Matsui and Rosenblatt (1984), this species prefers a temperature range of 6?8°C, and it is not often found in low-oxygen areas.&#160; While there have been previous claims that the juveniles of this species rise to the surface from depths of 100 m to feed (Fitch and Lavenberg 1968, Savinykh<em> et al</em>. 2005), other studies have found no evidence of any vertical migrations (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1984).&#160;  It is thought that this species' spawning grounds are within subtropical regions.&#160; Immature individuals drift by currents to subarctic waters to feed (Savinykh <em>et al</em>. 2005).
154750		population	eng	Sazonov <em>et al</em>. (1993) and Savinykh <em>et al</em>. (2005) described the Shining Tubeshoulder as "rather rare".
154750		threats	eng	It is likely that the Shining Tubeshoulder may occasionally be taken as a by-catch species.&#160; However, a study of mesopelagic by-catch did not find this species in high numbers (Sinclair and Stabeno 2001).&#160; At present, fishing related mortality is not thought to be a major threat to this species as it is not targeted directly, and this threat is not known across its entire range.
154751		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oneirodes epithales</em>.<br/><br/>Due to the lack of information available for this species, research should be conducted on its distribution, ecology and potential threats.
154751		distribution	eng	A single specimen of <em>Oneirodes epithales</em> was found in the northwestern Atlantic, approximately 800 km south of Newfoundland (Orr 1991).
154751		habitat	eng	<em>Oneirodes epithales</em> is a deep water species. The only known specimen was caught at a depth of 1,829 m.
154751		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes epithales</span>.
154751		threats	eng	It is not known whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes epithales</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154752		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Taylor's Garden Eel. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas including the Maza Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea. <br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of seagrass meadow degradation on subpopulations of this species.
154752		distribution	eng	Taylor's Garden Eel, <em>Heteroconger taylori</em>, is known from Papua New Guinea and Bali, Indonesia.
154752		habitat	eng	Taylor's Garden Eel is found on silty sand and seagrass meadows. This species occurs individually or in small groups.  This species is found in the photic zone to a depth of 10 m.
154752		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Heteroconger taylori</em>.
154752		threats	eng	Taylor's Garden Eel is associated with seagrass meadows. The seagrass habitats of Indonesia are locally threatened by a number of factors, including destructive fishing, pollution and global climate change. As this species is not only associated with seagrass habitats, the localised degradation of seagrass meadows is not considered a major threat to this species.
154753		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
154753		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
154753		distribution	eng	<em>Hypleurochilus bananensis</em> is found from Algeria in the Mediterranean, on the South Atlantic Coast of Spain, and south along the west coast of Africa to the Congo River.  Although the range of this species is large, its distribution is extremely patchy.
154753		distribution	eng	In the east central Atlantic, this species is present in Moanda-Tonde and Crique de Banana, Congo.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present off Naples, Palermo, Alger and along the coast of Israel. It is also present in Tunisia (Gharred <em>et al.</em> 1998).
154753		habitat	eng	<em>Hypleurochilus bananensis</em> is a near-shore species, strongly associated with hard substrate. This species is found in rocky areas of the intertidal zone, where it shelters in crevices and under rocks (Nieto and Alberto 1990) and in shallow waters near harbours (Zander 1986).  This species is oviparous.
154753		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow waters near harbours and on rocky shores of coastal waters (Zander 1986, Bath 1990).
154753		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154753		population	eng	This species is only known from a small number of specimens. There is no information about the population.
154753		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
154753		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Hypleurochilus bananensis</em>.
154754		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Slendertail Grenadier.<em></em>
154754		distribution	eng	The Slendertail Grenadier <em>(Mataeocephalus tenuicauda</em>) is distributed from the Pacific coast of Panama, south to Ecuador. It is also found around the Cocos and Galapagos Islands.
154754		habitat	eng	The Slendertail Grenadier <em></em>is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is found at a depth range of 700–1,600 m.&#160; Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found over upper continental slopes (FAO 1999), and typically feed on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish, and cephalopods.&#160; The Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154754		population	eng	The Slendertail Grenadier <em></em>is considered common in the waters around Panama and Ecuador (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).
154754		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the Slendertail Grenadier.&#160; It <em></em>is of no current interest to fisheries (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990), and due to the depth range at which this species is found, it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch.
154755		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the White Croaker.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends and harvest levels of this species is needed.
154755		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genyonemus lineatus</span> is distributed from Barkley Sound in British Columbia, Canada to southern Baja California, Mexico.
154755		habitat	eng	Adult White Croakers are epibenthic and occur on sandy bottoms. They have been taken to depths of 183 m. Their diet consists of smaller fish, and epibenthic and benthic invertebrates including polychaetes, clams, shrimp and crabs (Meador <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is a multiple spawner.
154755		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genyonemus lineatus</span> is considered common and abundant (Moore 2001). The Californian landing of this species has declined from 150,000 lb to 30,000 lb in two decades (California Department of Fish and Game/ NOAA Fisheries Service 2009). Whilst fishing pressure is being reduced in this region, it is likely that the decline in landings also reflects a population decline. This is likely to reflect about half of the species range (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).
154755		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genyonemus lineatus</span> is of minor commercial importance and the latest Californian landings data from 2004 record approximately 30,000 lb per year (California Department of Fish and Game/ NOAA Fisheries Service 2009). Individuals of this species inhabit nearshore areas including the vicinity of wastewater discharge pipes where there are high levels of PCBs and DDTs. Adults exposed to such pollutants show impaired reproduction and liver disease (Malins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987, Cross and Hose 1988). Therefore this species is threatened by harvesting and pollution.
154756		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, to determine if it is distinct from <em>S. cotticeps</em>, from the Philippines.
154756		distribution	eng	<em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.&#160; It is only known from its type locality.&#160; However, it has been noted that <em>S. cotticeps</em> from the Philippines might be the same species (Eschmeyer and Randall 1975).
154756		habitat	eng	The scorpionfish, <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris,</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 79–134 m, and has been found over coarse sand with broken shells and coral.&#160; Most species from the Scorpaenidae family are known to lead solitary lives and only aggregate for reproduction (FAO 1999).
154756		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em>.
154756		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; The closely related species, <em>S. cotticeps</em>, is of no importance to fisheries (FAO 1999), and due to the small size of <em>S. altirostris</em>, it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch by fisheries.
154757		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus platycephalus</em>. Further research is needed on its distribution, habitat, and threats, as little information is currently available.
154757		distribution	eng	The Flathead Dragonet (<em>Callionymus platycephalus</em>) is known only from its type locality in the Visayan Sea, Philippines. The true distribution of this species is likely to be patchy due to specific habitat requirements (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
154757		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus platycephalus</span> is a demersal species that can be found burying itself in sand.&#160; The depth profile of this species is thought to be 30–48 m.
154757		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus platycephalus</span> is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
154757		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus platycephalus </span>is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It could potentially be impacted by habitat degradation resulting from water pollution, but it is not known from near any heavily populated coastal areas.&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch in commercial fisheries, but again, more information is needed to confirm this.
154758		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astrabe fasciata</em>. Further research is needed on the ecology of this species to determine what threats it may be facing, as well as on its distribution and abundance.
154758		distribution	eng	Specimens of <em>Astrabe fasciata</em> have been collected from north Honshu (Aomori and Niigata prefectures) and Kyushu (Nagasaki prefecture), Japan.
154758		habitat	eng	Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astrabe fasciata</span> have been found under stones on rocky bottoms at a depth range of 1–2 m.
154758		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Astrabe</span><em> fasciata</em>.
154758		threats	eng	There is no information about current or potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Astrabe fasciata</span>.
154759		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for the Blue Sprat, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
154759		distribution	eng	The Blue Sprat, <em>Spratelloides gracilis,</em> is a widespread species distributed from the Red Sea south to Zanzibar and east to the western Pacific (Japan south through the Philippines to southeastern and western Australia, east to Samoa, excluding the Cook, Society and Marquesas islands, and the Tuamoto Islands). This species is also reported to occur off Palau and the Marshall Islands (Myers 1999).
154759		habitat	eng	The Blue Sprat is a pelagic, inshore schooling species, which inhabits clear waters of coastal, lagoon and seaward coral reefs. It feeds predominantly on zooplankton. This species migrates to shallow water areas during the spawning season and deposits adhesive eggs on the substratum (Takeuchi and Gushima 2006). Spawning frequency varies unpredictably with local environmental conditions. Spawning peaks occur in October, around the full moon, in Kirbati (FAO 1999).<br/><br/>This species grows extremely fast, and completes its life history in a few months. Maturity is attained at 50 to 60% of the maximum size. The oldest individual of this species ever recorded reached an age of only 4 months (Meekan <em>et al</em>. 2006).
154759		population	eng	<em>Spratelloides gracilis</em> is a dominant species at Doigahama Beach, Japan (Suda<em> et al</em>. 2002). This species is common throughout much of its range.
154759		threats	eng	The Blue Sprat is an important fishery resource for many coastal communities. It is harvested as a food source and for bait.<em></em> This species is caught using beach seines, purse seines, ringnets and dipnets. Separate statistics for this species are only recorded for FAO Fishing Areas 61 and 71. Landing in these areas are reported at 1,000 tons annually. However, there is no reported significant decline in the population of this species. The rapid population doubling time displayed by this species makes it less vulnerable to moderate threats.<br/><em><br/></em>
154760		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromis alpha</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
154760		distribution	eng	<em>Chromis alpha</em> is distributed from north-western Australia, Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands to Papua New Guinea, the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, north to the Northern Mariana and Marshall Islands and east to French Polynesia. This species has also been recorded from the Spratly Islands (Thi and Quan 2006).
154760		habitat	eng	<em>Chromis alpha</em> occurs on outer reef slopes of coral reefs at a depth range of 18 - 95 m. It is known to occur in loose aggregations.
154760		population	eng	This species is abundant on outer reef slopes throughout its range. It is not unusual to observe hundreds of individuals during a single dive (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154760		threats	eng	In localised patches of this species range, coral reef degradation and loss is occurring due to factors including water pollution, human population pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching. This is a deep reef species with a broad geographic range so is unlikely to be undergoing significant declines as a result of these threats.
154761		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance, and threats this species may be facing.
154761		distribution	eng	<em>Zenarchopterus pappenheimi</em> is known from Bangkok, Thailand and Sandakan, Borneo (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).
154761		habitat	eng	<em>Zenarchopterus pappenheimi</em> is a pelagic species found in coastal marine and brackish waters. It is reported from the vicinity of mangrove forests and estuaries.
154761		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154761		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Zenarchopterus pappenheimi</em>.
154762		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. This species is poorly known, and more research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.
154762		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific. However, it is only known from five individuals, and no additional records have been made since 1988 (Lavenberg 1988). This species distribution may range from the tip of Baja California and from Jalisco, Mexico to Costa Rica. However, its currently known distribution is very disjunct and is represented by the locations of the only known individuals (Lavenberg 1988). These include the holotype from Boca de la Trinidad, Gulf of California; and 3 pelagic leptocephali: 1 from Arroyo de San Luis, Gulf of California; 1 from Costa Rica, and 1 from near Malpelo Island, Colombia.
154762		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be found on sand and coralline-rubble substrata as the holotype was taken with sand by a dredge at 95 m. However, the habitat requirements and ecology of this species are unclear.
154762		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Only five individuals are known.
154762		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats to this species.
154763		conservation	eng	This species is found in the Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the abundance of this species is needed.
154763		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is only known from the Revillagigedo Islands of Socorro and San Benedicto.
154763		habitat	eng	This is a benthic, subtropical reef-associated species that inhabits shallow rocky reefs to depths of 20 m.
154763		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it may possibly be common (one collection included 49 individuals).
154763		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although given its shallow depth range it may be negatively impacted by current or future ENSO events and associated climatic changes. Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO events and global warming may have fatal effects on shallow marine ecosystems and the survival of restricted range species (Soto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
154764		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Mottled Jawfish, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and habitat status of this species is recommended.
154764		distribution	eng	The Mottled Jawfish <em>(Opistognathus maxillosus</em>) occurs in the western Atlantic, from southern Florida and the Bahamas to northern South America, including the eastern Gulf of Mexico and the Antilles.
154764		habitat	eng	The Mottled Jawfish occurs in tropical climates and is associated with coral reefs.&#160; It is usually found at depths of 2 m or less, but has been reported at a depth of 12 m (Michael 2001).&#160; This species is usually found on the protected side of coral reefs, where it inhabits areas of sand, coral, rubble, and seagrass. It builds an elaborate burrow around 30 cm deep, with a terminal chamber and vertical shaft lined with coral and shell fragments.&#160; It exhibits a high levels of site fidelity and rarely relocates or builds a new burrow.
154764		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Mottled Jawfish.
154764		threats	eng	The Mottled Jawfish is taken from the wild to supply the aquarium trade.&#160; At present, this is not thought to be a major threat to this species, due to the low demand for this species.<br/><br/>Due to the shallow water, coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by a number of human-induced threats including water pollution from domestic and commercial sources, coastal development, and destructive fishing practices.&#160; However, these threats are not known across the species' entire range, and so are only likely to be causing localised declines in abundance.
154765		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em>.
154765		distribution	eng	<em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em> is found in the south Caribbean Sea from Nicaragua to the Guianas, including Trinidad and Tobago.
154765		habitat	eng	The large-tooth flounder, <em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em>, is a demersal species that is found on soft bottoms (mud and sand) of the outer continental shelf at a depth range of 70 - 260 m (FAO 2002).
154765		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em>.
154765		threats	eng	<em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em> is caught as by-catch by both the shrimp and finfish fisheries, however due to the deepwater nature of this species and the maximum depth to which these fisheries trawl (100 m), it is unlikely to be harvested in significant quantities (A. Acero. and J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). There is no directed fishery for this species (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).
154766		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including several around the Seychelles.
154766		distribution	eng	<em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em> is an Indo-Pacific snake eel, reported from Mozambique, the Seychelles, Israel, India, the Marquesas Islands, Indonesia, Palau, and the Marshall Islands.
154766		habitat	eng	<em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em>  is a demersal species found in tropical waters.&#160; It is a benthopelagic species, found at a depth range of 2–42 m.&#160; As with many members of the family Ophichthidae, there is little known about its habitat or ecology (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2008).&#160; These species are sand and mud-burrowers, and do not seem to be limited to a small geographic area.&#160; Their rarity in collections is mostly a result of the difficulty in sampling them.&#160;  Many species in the family are widely distributed, and none seem to occupy a unique habitat (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2008).
154766		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em>.
154766		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Xestochilus nebulosus </span>is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154767		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Rough Silverside.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Florida Keys National Marine Park.
154767		distribution	eng	The Rough Silverside,&#160;<em>Membras martinica</em>&#160;is found in the western central Atlantic, from New York to Veracruz in Mexico.&#160; This species has also been collected from the Hudson River, as far north as Peekshill, New York (Smith 1985), a considerable distance upstream of St. John's River in Florida (Nelson <em>et al</em>. 2004), and from a number of river systems in Mexico (Miller 2005).
154767		habitat	eng	The Rough Silverside is a pelagic species found in a number of different habitat types.&#160; It typically occurs off exposed shoreline and beaches, over a firm substrate (e.g., Chesapeake Bay: Murdy <em>et al.</em> 1997).&#160; This species is also known from coastal rivers.
154767		population	eng	A study by Manuel (2005) found that the Rough Silverside was one of the dominant diurnal species in Pueblo Viejo coastal lagoon, Veracruz, Mexico.&#160; There are no other indications of population size for this species across the rest of its range.
154767		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Rough Silverside is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154768		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas including the Peninsula Valdes and Tierra Del Fuego National Park. <br/><br/>Further research on the biology and ecology, and threats of this species should be carried out, as there is little information currently available.
154768		distribution	eng	<em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em> is found in the southwestern Atlantic from Puerto Madryn, south to Tierra del Fuego in Argentina.
154768		habitat	eng	There is very little habitat or ecology information available for <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em>.  It is thought to inhabit the intertidal zone.  This species is found in the euphotic zone and has been found to a depth of 40 m.
154768		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em>.
154768		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. The coastline along which this species is found is relatively under-developed and unimpacted by pollution. There is no directed fishery for this species.
154769		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Silhouettea evanida</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat, biology, abundance, and potential threats for this species, as little information is currently available.
154769		distribution	eng	<em>Silhouettea evanida</em> is known from Darwin, Australia (type locality: Mindil Beach), Bowen and Hervey Bay in Queensland.
154769		habitat	eng	<em>Silhouettea evanida</em> is a small, benthic, cryptic goby found in quiet shallows on a sand or sandy/mud substrate, for example beaches and mangrove creeks (H. Larson pers. comm. 2008).
154769		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea evanida</span>.
154769		threats	eng	The impacts of major threatening processes on <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> evanida</em> are not well understood. However, most gobies are of no commercial importance and if, like its congeners, it is of small size, it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch.
154770		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Peppered Goby<em>.</em>&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and its rate of habitat loss.
154770		distribution	eng	The Peppered Goby (<em>Pariah scotius</em>) has been found in the southern Bahamas and in Curaçao. Suitable habitat for this species (i.e., <em>Spheciospongia vesparia</em>) is common in the western Caribbean in reef lagoon areas.
154770		habitat	eng	The Peppered Goby is found inhabiting sponges, especially the sponge, <em>Spheciospongia vesparia</em>, which is typically found at a depth range of 15-60 m.
154770		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Peppered Gobi.
154770		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threat processes impacting the Peppered Goby.&#160; Threats to sponges include water pollution from coastal development or boat traffic, and harvesting for the pharmaceutical industry.&#160; At present, it is not known if these threats are having a significant impact on the Peppered Goby population. Given that this species associates with sponges such as <em>Spheciospongia vesparia,</em> it may be affected to some degree by habitat degradation, but this sponge is described as rather common in the western Caribbean (S. Zea pers. comm. 2009).
154771		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.
154771		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span> is a Western Central Pacific boxfish, known from Australia from New South Wales and Victoria.
154771		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span> is found within the vicinity of coral reefs but also on deep-water reefs. In a study by Vanderklift <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), this species was collected at both 0 m and 300 m.
154771		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span>.
154771		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. This species is not targeted for food and is not known to be collected as by-catch.&#160; It may be undergoing declines in areas where its habitat borders coastal development and pollution, however this does not occur across its entire range. This species is also found in deep-water where it is likely to be unimpacted by a range of threats.
154772		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology and potential threats.
154772		distribution	eng	<em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em> is endemic to Western Australia and is found 70 km south of the Rowley Shoals (Fricke 2002).&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,616 km<sup>2</sup>.
154772		habitat	eng	<em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em> is a mesopelagic species found at a depth range of 350–420 m.&#160; While there is no available information on the habitat or feeding ecology of this species, congeners have been observed to be benthic, inhabiting sand and mud bottoms, and feeding on small benthic organisms (FAO 1999).
154772		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em>.
154772		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Synchiropus grandoculis </em>is being impacted by any major threat processes<em></em>.
154773		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Ocosia possi</em>.
154773		distribution	eng	<em>Ocosia possi</em> is found in the western Indian Ocean, around the Saya de Malha Bank.
154773		habitat	eng	<em>Ocosia possi</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 143–230 m.
154773		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Ocosia possi</em>.
154773		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Ocosia possi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.
154774		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nematalosa nasus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, affording it some protection from harvest.&#160;  Further research is needed to establish the impact of threats such as mangrove loss on this species.&#160;  Monitoring of harvest levels should also be undertaken.
154774		distribution	eng	<em>Nematalosa nasus</em> is found in the Indian Ocean, from the coast of Iran and the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia, to Malaysia.&#160; It is also possibly present in the Gulf of Aden and Indonesia.&#160; In the Indo-Pacific, it is found from Thailand to the southern tips of Japan and Korea, including the Philippines.
154774		habitat	eng	<em>Nematalosa nasus</em> is is found in the intertidal zone around estuaries and mangrove forests, to depths of 30 m.&#160; It is tolerant of a range of salinities from freshwater to marine.&#160; This species is a filter feeder.
154774		population	eng	<em>Nematalosa nasus</em> is common in mangrove areas of southern India (Kathiresan and Rajendran 2002). <br/><br/>This species was the fourth most abundant species of fin fish to be taken in stake traps in the intertidal zone of the northern Arabian Gulf.&#160; 1,070 individuals were collected over the course of bi-weekly sampling from January 1982 to December 1984 (Abou-Seedo 1992).
154774		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nematalosa nasus</span> is exploited as a food source; it is harvested on a subsistence scale and marketed fresh, dry-salted or boiled.&#160; It is used to make fish balls.&#160; This species is caught using stake traps and hand nets.&#160; Due to the reported abundance of this species and its general resilience, harvesting by this subsistence fishery is not considered to be a major threat to this species at the present time.<br/><br/>Mangrove forests are under pressure for their commercially important resources and as sites for shrimp aquaculture.&#160; However, due to the reported abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nasus</span> within mangroves, this is not considered a major threat.
154775		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Flagfin Blenny.  However, the distribution of this species falls within a number of designated marine protected areas.
154775		distribution	eng	The Flagfin Blenny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Emblemariopsis signifer</span>) is found in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas, south to Santa Catarina, Brazil and west to Belize and Honduras (Froese and Pauly 2007).
154775		habitat	eng	The Flagfin Blenny is a small species that inhabits live and dead coral reefs within tropical climates. This species lines the elliptical hole in which it lives (probably made by <em>Lithophaga bisulcata</em>) with its eggs and stays within close vicinity (de Matos Nogueira 2003). This species is carnivorous. It is found at a depth range of 3-55 m.
154775		population	eng	The Flagfin Blenny is common among the islands off the northern coast of Sao Paulo (de Matos Nogueira 2003), but uncommon in the reefs off the 'hump' of Brazil (Feitoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
154775		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Flagfin Blenny is being impacted by any major threat processes (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154776		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ebinania brephocephala</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, ecology and threats of this species.
154776		distribution	eng	<em>Ebinania brephocephala</em> occurs off the coast of Japan from the Fukushima Prefecture to the Kochi Prefecture.
154776		habitat	eng	<em>Ebinania brephocephala</em> is a demersal species that inhabits temperate waters and has a depth range of 100-350 m.
154776		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154776		threats	eng	Extensive fishing occurs throughout its range but <em>Ebinania brephocephala</em> is not directly targeted, however it may be taken as by-catch. This species may also be impacted by coastal development.
154777		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for the Earspot Cusk Eel, and no marine protected areas are known to overlap with this species' range. Establishment of mangrove habitat marine protected areas is needed in the eastern tropical Pacific, including within this species' distribution. Further research and monitoring of the population size and habitat trends of this species is needed.
154777		distribution	eng	The Earspot Cusk Eel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ophidion fulvum</span>) is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to northern Peru.
154777		habitat	eng	This species occurs in reduced salinity areas such as mangroves, estuaries, and mouths of rivers, on muddy and sandy substrata, to depths of 20 m. Exact generation length is not known, but based on similar species, longevity is estimated to be less than three years (Retzer 1991).
154777		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Earspot Cusk Eel. This species is poorly known and is regarded as uncommon.
154777		threats	eng	The Earspot Cusk Eel is associated with mangrove habitat, which is under serious threat in many parts of its range (Jiménez 1994, Vega and Villarreal 2003). Huge mangrove areas in Panama and Costa Rica (representing at least a third of this species' range) have been completely devastated due to uncontrolled urbanization and high impact tourism in Pacific coastal areas. Surveys in other regions show that the reduction of mangroves can drive some fish species to extinction, with uncommon species  more vulnerable (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2005). According to FAO (2007) there has been at least a 28% decline in mangrove area within this species' range based on country declines reported from Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador over the past 20-25 years, the majority of which has occurred since the early 1990s.
154778		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis megalopus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance, distribution and threats of this species.
154778		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis megalopus</em> is known only from the large Cascadia and Tufts abyssal plains off Oregon, USA.
154778		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis megalopus</em> is a bathydemersal species and individuals have been captured at 559 m and deeper (Chernova 2006).&#160; This species is thought to be a prolonged or continuous spawner (Stein 1980).
154778		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis megalopus</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154778		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
154779		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>A. fernandezianus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species falls within a National Park and a World Biosphere Reserve around the Juan Fernandez Islands. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed on the possible threats to this species..
154779		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aulotrachichthys fernandezianus</span> is restricted to the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernandez Archipelago, off the coast of Chile (Pequeño and Lamillia 2000, Pequeño and Sáez 2000).&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 460 km<sup>2</sup>.
154779		habitat	eng	Individuals of <em>A. fernandezianus</em> have been captured nearshore around the Desventuradas Islands (Pequeño and Lamilla 2000). This species ranges in the photic zone from the surface, to 20 m depth.
154779		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>A. fernandezianus</em>.
154779		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aulotrachichthys fernandezianus</span> has a relatively restricted distribution, which increases the possible impact of indirect and stochastic threats on its population. As an inshore species, <em>A. fernandezianus</em> could be impacted by threats such as pollution discharges, and is potentially at risk from the effects of increasing water temperatures resulting from global warming.&#160;  However, this species is limited to two groups of largely inaccessible islands.&#160; One group, the Desventuradas, is uninhabited except for a military base on San Felix.&#160; The other, Juan Fernandez, is a designated marine reserve which is considered to provide effective habitat protection (J. Moore pers. comm. 2008).
154780		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Siphonognathus beddomei</em>, however this species is known from the Wilsons Promontory Marine Park.
154780		distribution	eng	<em>Siphonognathus beddomei</em> has only been recorded at a few locations around Australia: south coast Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia.
154780		habitat	eng	<em>Siphonognathus beddomei</em> is found on rocky reefs, which have a plentiful growth of brown macroalgae and to a maximum depth of 10 m. It is also found in areas which only have moderate wave action.  This species occurs in aggregations.
154780		population	eng	This species is common in Wilson's Promontory National Park (Plummer<em> et al.</em> 2003). It is also common off southwestern Australia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154780		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Due to the coastal, shallow water nature of this species it is likely that it is undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development. However, the coastlines along which this species is found, are relatively underdeveloped.
154781		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> </em>the Humboldt Grenadier.
154781		distribution	eng	The Humboldt Grenadier, <em>Coryphaenoides ariommus</em>, is distributed from northern Peru to southern Chile. It is also found in the eastern Central Pacific.
154781		habitat	eng	The grenadier, <em>Coryphaenoides ariommus</em>, is a bathydemersal species and occurs along the middle levels of the continental slope at depths of 768 - 1,860m (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).
154781		population	eng	The Humboldt Grenadier is locally abundant and was among the most frequently captured species during a survey of Chilean demersal fishes (Sielfeld and Vargas 1996).
154781		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial value. Some species from the Macrouridae family are taken in quantity as by-catch in deep-water shrimp trawlers (FAO 2002), however this threat is unlikely to be significantly impacting the Humboldt Grenadier across its entire distribution.
154782		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).</p>
154782		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to southern Colombia.
154782		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters, such as estuaries and inshore bays to depths of 50 m. It can be found over sand and mud substrates, and within the vicinity of mangrove forests.
154782		population	eng	This species is common, based on its presence in local artisinal markets.
154782		threats	eng	This species is targeted commercially and by artisinal fishers. It can be found regularly in local markets. Given its relatively restricted distribution in the Eastern Pacific region, the extent of population decline from its capture by commercial and artisinal fisheries is unknown.
154783		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends, ecology, and potential threat processes of this species is needed as little information is available.
154783		distribution	eng	<em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em> is found in Peter the Great Bay, an inlet into the Sea of Japan, Russia.
154783		habitat	eng	<em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em> is a benthic species found over sand and mud substrates at a depth range of 29-70 m.
154783		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em>.
154783		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial interest to fisheries. Due to its small size, it is unlikely to be taken in significant quantities as by-catch.<br/><br/>The marine ecosystem in which this species is found, has suffered from intense shipping traffic and its associated threats including: bilge and ballast water, oil and fuel leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals. Peter the Great Bay is also known for high levels of radionuclides in the sediments and red tides.
154784		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cryptocentrus leonis</em>. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, population numbers and potential threats for this species, as little information is currently available.
154784		distribution	eng	The goby species, <em>Cryptocentrus leonis</em>, is known only from the South China Sea around Thailand.
154784		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocentrus leonis</span> is thought to inhabit brackish water.&#160; Indo-Pacific gobies of the <em>Cryptocentrus</em> genus have important symbiotic relationships with snapping shrimp (<em>Alpheus</em> spp.); this relationship involves the shrimp sharing food and their burrow with the gobies (Larson and Murdy 2001).
154784		population	eng	There is no known population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocentrus leonis</span>.
154784		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocentrus leonis</span>.
154785		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pleuragramma antarctica</em>, however the area in which this species is found is managed by CCAMLR. The convention was established due to concerns on increasing fishing pressure on krill and the impact this may pose to other marine organisms.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
154785		distribution	eng	<em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> has a circumantarctic distribution which includes the Weddell Sea, Bellingshausen, Ross Sea, Davis Sea, Oates, Adelie, Wilhelm, Prydz Bay, Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland and the South Orkney Islands.
154785		habitat	eng	<em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> is regarded as the only truly pelagic fish species in Antarctic waters. Specimens have been collected over mud and sandy mud bottoms, however the morphometrics of this species indicates that it does not feed on the benthos. This species has a depth range of 0-728 m, with the larvae and postlarvae occurring at a depth range of 0-135 m; juveniles at 50-400 m and adults are found at depths below 400 m. All of this vertical distribution is throughout the Antarctic continental shelf (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).This species predominantly feeds on krill and copepods, however amphipods, euphausiids, molluscs, polychaetes, chaetognaths and ostracods are also part of its diet. <em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> may also switch to cannibalism in the absence of an adequate food supply. This species inhabits both open waters and areas of pack ice in mid-water. <br/><br/>With its wide distribution and high numbers, <em>P. antarctica</em> forms a major part of the diet of most large Antarctic predators. This species is an important part of the cryopelagic feeding community (Hureau 1994). It is very slow growing and takes considerable time to reach maturity. Considering its importance, a significant decline in population numbers could have severe ecological ramifications.<br/><br/>Spawning possibly occurs in August-September (Kock and Kellermann 1991).
154785		population	eng	<em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> is described as dominant in the Weddell Sea (Ekau 1990). Guglielmo <em>et al.</em> (1998) describe it as the most dominant pelagic fish in the high Antarctic. It represents about 98% of the total nototheniid ichthyoplankton of the Weddell Sea (Keller 1983). The overwhelming dominance of <em>P. antarcticum</em> is well documented in the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea, accounting for over 90% of the local fish community in number and biomass (DeWitt 1970, Hubold and Ekau 1987). Abundances of postlarvae reach as high as 27,075 specimens per 100 m<sup>3</sup> in the Ross Sea.
154785		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>P. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span>. At present this species is not commercially exploited. The Former Soviet Union has reported catches of <em>P. antarctica </em> four times between 1977 and 1983 (approximately 1,000 t per year). Due to the prominent role of this species in the Antarctic ecosystem food web, any attempts to exploit this fish species in the future will be cautiously approached according to the CCAMLR (Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) rules.<br/><br/>Larvae and juveniles are captured as by-catch in krill fisheries, but this is not considered a major threat (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
154786		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris callopareia</span>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species falls within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.&#160; Further research on the distribution, abundance and potential threats for this species is needed.
154786		distribution	eng	<em>Amblyeleotris callopareia</em> is only known from the proximity of Lizard Island on the Great Barrier Reef.
154786		habitat	eng	Specimens of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris</span><em> callopareia</em> have been collected from sandy reef slopes.&#160; This species shares burrows with the alpheid shrimp.&#160; The shrimp excavates and maintains the burrow, while <em>A. callopareia</em> acts as lookout for predators.&#160; The holotype of this species was found at a depth of 26 m.
154786		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris callopareia</span>.
154786		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris callopareia</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Its range as currently known falls within the Great Barrier Reef marine reserve, meaning its habitat is not under serious threat at present.
154787		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Neobythites franzi</span>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.
154787		distribution	eng	<em>Neobythites franzi</em> is only known from its type locality off Dunk Island, Queensland, Australia.
154787		habitat	eng	Like other cusk eels, <em>Neobythites franzi</em> is a benthopelagic species (Nielsen 2002). To date, specimens have been found at a depth range of 260–373 m. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154787		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Neobythites franzi</span>.
154787		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Neobythites franzi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; However, considering its deep-water nature, it would seem likely that it is not facing any significant threats.
154788		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em>, however it is known to occur within marine protected areas, including the Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Park.
154788		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni </em>occurs throughout most of Oceania, from&#160; the Ogasawara Islands, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, Taongi and Wake Atolls, and throughout Polynesia from the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Island south to Samoa, the Cook, Society and Tuamotu Islands. The distribution of this species may possibly be more widespread (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). This species occurs at depths of 4-300 m.
154788		habitat	eng	The butterflyfish, <em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em>, is found on coral reefs. It is typically seen on the outer-reef, fore-reef slopes and drop-offs. This species occupies a depth range of 4-300 m. This species forms schools high in the water column where it feeds on zooplankton, especially copepods.
154788		population	eng	<em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em> is uncommon throughout its range (Lieske and Myers 1994), although it is moderately common in the Phoenix Islands occurring in aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
154788		threats	eng	<em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, but collecting is not common over most of its range.
154789		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the harvest levels and biology of this species is needed.
154789		distribution	eng	<em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> is broadly distributed in the Antarctic, ranging from the Antarctic Divergence/Weddell-Scotia Confluence to the northern boundary limits (usually considered to coincide with the geographic location of the Subtropical Convergence), and further north in meridional currents: to 32°-33°S in Peruvian Current and to 34°S in Falkland Current. <em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> has also been reported from the Falkland Islands (Hulley 1990) and New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989).
154789		habitat	eng	<em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> is a epipelagic, oceanodromous species that is found at depths of 50-100 m south of the Antarctic Polar Front at night, but deeper (500-600 m) north of the Antarctic Polar Front. At the Subtropical Convergence this species is found at depths greater than 1,000 m. This species is a general plankton feeder, copedods predominate the diet, but it also feeds on euphausiids and amphipods. <br/><br/>This species forms an important part of many species diets including penguins, fur seals and many sea birds.
154789		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range. In some parts of its range, it is the most abundant midwater species.
154789		threats	eng	<em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> is taken as by-catch in krill fisheries. However, this species is one of the most abundant midwater species in the Southern Ocean and is likely to have a rapid population doubling time thereby making it more resilient to harvesting.
154790		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Scissortail Sculpin.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.&#160; Further research is needed on the by-catch levels of this species, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
154790		distribution	eng	The range of the Scissortail Sculpin <em>(Triglops forficatus</em>) extends from the northern Kuril Islands to the Bering Sea, and east to the Gulf of Alaska.
154790		habitat	eng	The Scissortail Sculpin<em></em> is a demersal species that is found at a depth range of 20–470 m.&#160; It primarily inhabits outer-shelf regions over sand, pebble, gravel, and shell substrates.
154790		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Scissortail Sculpin.
154790		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Scissortail Sculpin is being impacted by any major threat processes across its wide range.&#160; There is no direct fishery for any sculpin species in the Gulf of Alaska or the Bering Sea.&#160; However, sculpins are taken as by-catch by a wide variety of fisheries in these regions, with the main fisheries in the Gulf of Alaska being trawl fisheries for flatfish, Pacific Cod, and rockfish, and the Pacific Cod pot fishery (Reuter <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; In the Bering Sea, the main fisheries are trawl fisheries for Yellowfin Sole, Pacific Cod, Pollock, Atka Mackerel, and Flathead Sole, and the Pacific Cod hook-and-line fishery (Reuter and TenBrink 2006).&#160; Sculpins were reported to constitute 19–26% of the Gulf of Alaska 'other' species catches in 2005–2006 (Reuter <em>et al.</em> 2006), and 20% of the Bering Sea 'other' species catch during 1997–2006 (Reuter and TenBrink 2006).&#160; However, it is the larger sculpin species such as <em>Hemilepidotus spp.</em> that contribute the majority of biomass (Reuter <em>et al.</em> 2006, Reuter and TenBrink 2006).
154791		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Halieutopsis tumifrons</em>. Further research on the ecology and distribution of this species is needed.
154791		distribution	eng	<em>Halieutopsis tumifrons</em> is known from two specimens collected within the vicinity of the Galapagos Islands.
154791		habitat	eng	Specimens of <em>Halieutopsis tumifrons</em> have been collected from the bathyl zone at a depth range of 2,418-2,487 m. There is no other information available on the habitat or ecology of this species.
154791		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for this species.
154791		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Halieutopsis tumifrons</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats.
154792		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas affording it some protection from harvesting.
154792		distribution	eng	<em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em> is reported from the Bangladesh, Calcutta (India), Phuket and Songkhla (Thailand), northern Sumatra, Sarawak and Borneo. In earlier literature by authors prior to Wongratana (1983), <em>A. thailandiae</em> was often misidentified as <em>A. chacunda</em> (FAO 1985).
154792		habitat	eng	<em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em> is a pelagic, schooling species typically found inshore in brackish and marine waters to a depth of 50 m. It is likely to be found in estuaries. Congeners of this species, <em>Anodontostoma chacunda</em>, feed on a mix of diatoms, radiolarians, molluscs, copepods and crustaceans (FAO 1999).
154792		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em>.
154792		threats	eng	<em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em> is harvested on a subsistence scale. At present there is no fisheries data relating to the landings of this species (FAO 1999). This species is landed using seine nets, lift nets and set nets (FAO 1999).
154793		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Florida keys Marine National Park.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest, and population numbers of this species is recommended.
154793		distribution	eng	<em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> is found in the western central Atlantic, around Bermuda, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean basin, to Tobago and the Greater and Lesser Antilles.
154793		habitat	eng	The herring, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, is a coastal, pelagic, schooling species found at a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It has been found in the vicinity of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, and bays, and is heavily preyed upon by larger fish, squid, and seabrds.&#160; <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> mainly feeds on zooplankton and in the evenings, it migrates offshore to feed, then returns to inshore waters in the morning.&#160; It shows site fidelity.&#160; It is a small, short-lived species (Friedlander and Beets 1997).
154793		population	eng	<em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> is thought to be the most abundant fish in the West Indes.
154793		threats	eng	<em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> is commercially harvested for use as bait and chum.&#160; However, a relatively small number of boats fish for this species during aggregations, and the dynamics of the fishery are reported to have been fairly stable over time (Friedlander and Beets 1997).&#160; Fishers in the Virgin Islands locate the large schools and harvest them by cast nets (Coblentz 1995).&#160; This species constitutes 55% (weight) of all bait fish harvested from St John and St Thomas in the Virgin Islands.&#160; It may also be taken as by-catch during harvesting of other large commercial fish species.&#160;&#160; Although its strong lunar periodicity and site fidelity during spawning aggregations make it is easily susceptible to heavy fishing pressure, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> does not appear to be heavily exploited by present fishing methods (Friedlander and Beets 1997).&#160; However, Beets and LaPlace (1991) reported declines in the abundance of inshore bait fish due to habitat degradation from coastal and upland development.
154794		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for<em> Oneirodes schmidti</em>. The distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations in the Banda Sea (Wood 2007), however due to the depth profile of this species, it is unlikely that these will afford it much protection.
154794		distribution	eng	<em>Oneirodes schmidti</em> has only been found in the Banda Sea in Indonesia.
154794		habitat	eng	<em>Oneirodes schmidti</em> is a bathypelagic species that is thought to occur at depths of of up to 2,500 m. Species from the Oneirodidae family are known to be solitary (FAO 1999).
154794		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes schmidti</span>.
154794		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Oneirodes schmidti</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, it may occasionally be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range.
154795		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.
154795		distribution	eng	<em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata</em>is is only known from a few specimens found in the waters around the Maldives.
154795		habitat	eng	<em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata</em> is a deep-water benthic species that has been collected at depths of 256–293 m.
154795		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata, </em>as it is only known from a few specimens.
154795		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilopsetta albomaculata</span> is being impacted by any major threats.&#160; The Maldives have experienced dramatic increases in fish catches in recent years (FAO-FIGIS 2007).
154796		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several marine protected areas, including Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico. <br/>However, as this species has not been recorded since 1965, more research is needed on this species population status, habitat preferences, and threats.
154796		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the western Gulf of California and near Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. This species is only known from a few records, and has not been collected since 1965.
154796		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to occur in rubble habitats near reefs to depths of 40 m.
154796		population	eng	This species is rare. There are very few collection records, and the last collection record was in 1965. This species was previously recorded in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, although it was not observed during the course of recent survey work (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
154796		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats for this species.
154797		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on the species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
154797		distribution	eng	This species is located off the southwest coast of Puerto Rico and probably off the north coast of Haiti (Hensley 1985).
154797		habitat	eng	This species is found on mud and clay bottoms, at depths from 720-1,100 m. According to Hensley (1985), of 11 specimens examined, eight females (309-450 mm) were mature (contained vitellogenic oocytes and/or atretic material indicating previous vitellogenesis) and inactive, containing oocytes of 0.2-1.5 mm. Oocytes of 1.0-1.5 were becoming ellipsoid. This probably reflects an early stage of oocyte maturation. Three males (350-384 mm) were mature, containing cysts in various stages of maturation but very few spermatozoa. The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
154797		population	eng	Population information for this species is only known from 12 specimens.
154797		threats	eng	This is a deep water species and no known threats currently exist.
154798		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thalassobathia pelagica</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on this distribution of this species, to establish the full range of <em>T. pelagica</em> in the southeast Atlantic.
154798		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassobathia pelagica</em> is known in the north Atlantic from Ireland, Greenland, Iceland, and Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine.&#160; This species has also been captured in the southeast Atlantic in the Gulf of Guinea.
154798		habitat	eng	<em>Thalassobathias pelagica</em> is bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 500–1,000 m.&#160; This species is often found living with sea nettles (jellyfish) of the genus <em>Deepstaria</em>, and isopods of the genus <em>Anuropus</em> (Robison 2004).&#160; <em>Thalassobathias pelagica</em> is also reported to have a symbiotic relationship with the Scyphomedusa (jellyfish), <em>Stygiomedusa gigantean</em> (Drazen and Robison 2004).&#160; Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154798		population	eng	This species is reported to be uncommon (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154798		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassobathia pelagica</span>, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.
154799		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Serranus tigrinus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Florida Keys Marine National Park.
154799		distribution	eng	<em>Serranus tigrinus</em> is found throughout the Caribbean, from Trinidad and Tobago, to southern Florida.
154799		habitat	eng	<em>Serranus tigrinus</em> is found alone or in pairs in clear waters by areas with rock or scattered coral (Robins and Ray 1986).&#160; The depth range of this species is in the upper euphotic zone, from the surface to 40 m depth.&#160; Its diet consists mostly of crustaceans.&#160; Individuals of this species are known to be synchronous hermaphrodites and pelagic spawners.
154799		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Serranus tigrinus</em>.
154799		threats	eng	It is unlikley that <em>Serranus tigrinus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154801		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Threadfin Smooth-head.
154801		distribution	eng	The range of the Threadfin Smooth-head (<span style="font-style: italic;">Talismania mekistonema</span>) includes both the eastern and western Atlantic, the Indian Ocean (Markle and Quero 1984), and probably the western central Pacific (Sazonov and Markle 1990).&#160; In the eastern Atlantic, this species is distributed from the Azores and western Sahara, to Angola.&#160; In the western central Atlantic, this species is distributed from the Lesser Antilles to the Bahamas and Bermuda.&#160; In the Indian Ocean, this species is known from Western Australia (Hutchins 2003).
154801		habitat	eng	The Threadfin Smooth-head is a benthopelagic species (Sulak 1975) found at a depth range of 600–1,500 m, on the continental slope.
154801		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Threadfin Smooth-head.&#160; However, species of the family Alepocephalidae can be locally abundant at depths beyond 1,500 m (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154801		threats	eng	There is no commercial fishery for the Threadfin Smooth-head (FAO 1999).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by deep-sea fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to constitute a major threat.
154802		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Secutor hanedai</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch levels, and extent of harvest of this species is needed. The full distribution of this species needs to be clarified.
154802		distribution	eng	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is found in southern regions of the South China Sea, and Straits of Malacca. This species is probably more widely distributred in the Indo-Malayan Archipelago (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
154802		habitat	eng	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is a demersal, schooling species that inhabits coastal waters over muddy-sand bottoms to a depth of 40 m. This species is common near mangroves, enters estuaries, and has been recorded up to 6 km offshore (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
154802		population	eng	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is reported to be common near mangroves (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>The Straits of Malacca, which is one of the most heavily used bodies of water in the world, is severly impacted by fisheries, and surveys by the Department of Fisheries have shown that bottom-dwelling fish populations have declined by 60% between 1990 and 1998 (WWF 2007).<br/><br/>However, FAO statistics (2008) show aggregated ponyfish (family Leiognathidae) landings for the western Central Pacific have steadily increased over the last 30 years and in the last 10 years these have been from around 120,000 mt to a leveling off of around 140,000 mt.  These data therefore do not support the contention that ponyfish are presently overexploited in the region but that they have reached a maximum level of exploitation.
154802		threats	eng	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is caught in bottom trawls as a food fish. This species may also be impacted by habitat degradation. The South China Sea is severly impacted in terms of habitat degradation. The main threats include sewage, destructive fishing practices, over-fishing, destruction of mangrove forests.
154803		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Venefica tentaculata</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology and potential threats.
154803		distribution	eng	<em>Venefica tentaculata</em> is known from the western Pacific, off northern Honshu and in the Sea of Okhotsk.&#160; This species also occurs off California, the USA, and Central America (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1992).
154803		habitat	eng	<em>Venefica tentaculata</em> is a demersal species with a depth range of 100–500 m.&#160; Most species in this poorly known eel family, the Nettastomatidae, inhabit the deeper waters of the continental slope or abyss and are captured near the sea bed (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
154803		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Venefica tentaculata</em>.
154803		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Venefica tentaculata</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154804		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Couma Sea Catfish.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of MPA designations including the Ile du Grande Connetable Nature Reserve off French Guiana.&#160; Further research is needed on the potential threats, harvest levels, and population trends of this species, as little information is currently available.
154804		distribution	eng	The Couma Sea Catfish (<em>Sciades couma</em>) is a South American species, occurring from the Gulf of Paria (Venezuela) to the mouth of the Amazon (Brazil) (Acero 2002).
154804		habitat	eng	The Couma Sea Catfish is a demersal species. It is confined chiefly to turbid waters in estuaries and the lower parts of rivers.&#160; Two annual cycles of slower growth are know during the two dry seasons (March and August to November). In the beginning of reproduction, the male's mouth changes to function as a egg repository.&#160; Egg diameter is about 2 cm and females typically lay 100–165 eggs. This species feeds mainly on crustaceans.
154804		population	eng	There is no available information on population size or trends for the Couma Sea Catfish, although it is a common species where it occurs.
154804		threats	eng	The Couma sea catfish is a commercially important species.&#160; Nothing is known about population trends, but it appears to be coping with current fishing pressures. Pollution in estuarine areas is a potential threat to sub-populations in these areas, but nothing is known about the effects of this on the global population (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).
154805		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species lies within the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park, and UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve.
154805		distribution	eng	<em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em> is only known from the Juan Ferdandez Islands, Chile. This archipelago covers a total area less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
154805		habitat	eng	<em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Members of this genus are typically found in rocky intertidal regions, typical of those in the Juan Fernandez archipelago (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154805		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em>.&#160; The only known museum specimen is the holotype USNM 88818 collected in December 1926. This species lives in a habitat that is extremely difficult to sample.&#160; Therefore the lack of additional specimens in museum collections is considered to be related to a lack of collecting effort rather than a genuine rarity of the species (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154805		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting <em>Sicyases hilbrandi</em>.
154806		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tricorn Batfish. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research on the population numbers, habitat, and potential threats to this species is needed, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
154806		distribution	eng	The Tricorn Batfish<em> (Zalieutes mcgintyi</em>) is an Atlantic species found from Florida to the northern coast of South America. It has also been found in the Gulf of Mexico and as far north as North Carolina in the Atlantic (Schwartz <em>et al.</em> 2003).
154806		habitat	eng	The Tricorn Batfish is a demersal species, with a depth range of 90-660 m. However, it is most commonly found at depths of 90-180 m. A few species from the Ogcocephalidae family are found inshore on open bottoms among rocks or reefs, but most are taken well offshore from mud or sand bottoms (FAO 2002).
154806		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for the Tricorn Batfish.
154806		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Tricorn Batfish is being impacted by any major threat processes at present. Species from the Ogcocephalidae family are rarely eaten and are of no interest to fisheries (FAO 2002). This species may be taken as by-catch by bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range. In the area of the Atlantic Ocean off the southeastern USA, the coastal shrimp fishery is highly valuable and accounts for 10% of the total tonnage landed from the South Atlantic region (NOAA 2003). The region off north Brazil has been classified as severely impacted by over-fishing and destructive fishing practices, however these impacts are thought to be decreasing (NOAA 2004).
154807		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caranx crysos</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
154807		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.
154807		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, the Blue Runner <em>(Caranx crysos)</em> is found in the Mediterranean, south to Senegal to Angola (Froese and Pauly 2006). This range has been extended north with the first record for the French Atlantic coast, from Arcachon, Bay of Biscay (Quero <em>et al</em>. 1994), and two more recent records from the coast of Dorset and Cornwall in England (Sawby <em>et al</em>. 1996); this now brings the British records to 13 individuals (D. Herdson pers. comm. 2007). The northward extension of this species' range is thought to be related to increasing sea temperatures in the North Atlantic (Stebbing <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In the western Atlantic this species is recorded from Nova Scotia (Canada), Brazil, Bahamas, throughout the Caribbean (including Antilles) and the Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>the Blue Runner is replaced by <em>Caranx caballus</em> which may be conspecific.
154807		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic, from Senegal to Angola, including the  Mediterranean, St. Paul's Rocks (Lubbock and Edwards 1981), and Ascension Island.  It is also reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005). In the Mediterranean basin this species occurs in southern Tyrrhenian waters (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007), in the southern Tunisia (Ben Souissi <em>et al.</em> 2005), along the Lebanese coasts (Harmelin-Viven <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in the Aegean Sea (Celik and Oehlenschl 2005).  In the western Atlantic, <em>Caranx crysos</em> is found from  Nova Scotia, Canada to Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986), including the Bahamas and throughout the Caribbean (Smith 1997) and Gulf of Mexico (Cervigón 1993).  In the tropical Eastern Pacific, it is replaced by <em>Caranx caballus</em> Günther 1869, which may be its conspecific.
154807		habitat	eng	The Blue Runner is a pelagic species which forms schools primarily inshore; it is not thought to be common around reefs (FAO 2002). It has a depth range of 0-100 m and juveniles <em></em>are found beneath floating <em>Sargassum</em> mats. These mats provide this species both with prey and protection from predators. It <em></em>feeds on shrimps, fishes and other invertebrates. Two spawning peaks have been identified for this species, the main occurring in June, July and August, with a secondary peak in October (Swaby <em>et al</em>. 1996). However, it has also been suggested that spawning occurs throughout the year (McKenney <em>et al.</em> 1958; Goodwin and Finucane 1985).
154807		habitat	eng	This species is mainly reef-associated. It is a schooling species generally found not far from the coast (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).  Juveniles are often found in association with floating <em>Sargassum</em> (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).  It feeds on fishes, shrimps, and other invertebrates.  It spawns offshore from January through August (Smith 1997).  Its range expands into the Aegean Sea in warmer months (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
154807		population	eng	Swaby <em>et al</em>. (1996) state that Blue Runner are common enough in the western Atlantic, to be caught commercially for food and bait. A study by Rountree (1990) found this species to be the second most abundant species off South Carolina, U.S.A. and a study by D'anna <em>et al</em>. (1999) found this species to be one of the most abundant fish in the Gulf of Castellammare, northwest Sicily.
154807		population	eng	This is a relatively common and locally abundant species during certain seasons.
154807		threats	eng	The Blue Runner is harvested as a food source and for bait. It is caught using using bottom and pelagic trawls, ringnets, purse seines, set nets, and line gear. It is marketed fresh, frozen and salted and in the Dominican Republic and USA up to 1,000 tons of this species is landed per year. At present there is no known evidence to suggest the global population is in significant decline.<br/><br/>This species is also used within the public aquarium trade, however much of the demand is met by captive breeding. Wild harvest of this species for the aquarium trade will have no significant impact on the global population of this species.
154807		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species.  <em>C. crysos</em> can be found in public aquariums.  It is often used for bait (Smith 1997).<br/><br/>In certain parts of the Mediterranean it is commonly caught under FADs (Fish Aggregating Devices).  It is also caught with gill nets, beach and boat seines, purse seine, hand and trolling lines.
154808		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Racovitzia glacialis</em>.&#160; Monitoring of this species and its threats is needed, to determine if krill fisheries will have a negative impact on the population of this species in the future.
154808		distribution	eng	<em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> occurs around the Antarctic continental shelf, the insular shelf of the South Sandwich Islands, the South Orkney Islands, Elephant Island, the South Shetland Islands, the Ross Sea, and the Weddell Sea.
154808		habitat	eng	<em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> is a bathydemersal species, typically found on the continental shelf.&#160; It occurs at a depth range of 219–610 m and lives at temperatures ranging of -1.9 to -0.2°C.&#160; This species exhibits a strong dependence on krill as a food source (Eastman and Lannoo 2003).
154808		population	eng	A study by Donnelly<em> et al.</em> (2004) reported that <em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> occurred at greatest densities at a depth range of 450–517 m, where 1,838 individuals were found within 1 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; At depths of 238–277 m, densities were found to be 115 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; Granata <em>et al.</em> (2002) found the juvenile form of this species to be abundant around the Ross Ice Shelf.
154808		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; However, its association with krill means it may be threatened by krill fisheries, either by indirect harvesting as by-catch, or via a reduction in food availability.
154809		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it occurs within the Simangaliso National Park and Maputaland Marine Reserve. Further research is needed on the population trends, harvest levels and threats of this species.
154809		distribution	eng	<em></em> This species is found around Inhaca Island, Mozambique (Pereira 2000) and between Kosi Bay and Aliwal Shoal in South Africa (Michael 2004, Endoh 2007). It is most common at depths of more than 25 m.
154809		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species has been recorded from rocky offshore reefs with abundant sponge growth. It feeds on sponges and tunicates and occurs alone, or in small groups consisting of a male and several females.
154809		population	eng	<em></em>Animals are rarely seen by divers (P.C. Heemstra pers.comm. 2009), although it is not clear if this is a result of its preference for deep reef habitats or natural scarcity (P.C. Heemstra pers.comm. 2009).
154809		threats	eng	The collection of species for the ornamental trade off Mozambique is unregulated at present. Due to the intensity of the artisanal fishing industry off Mozambique, it is likely that this species is occasionally taken as by-catch. Habitat degradation is unlikely to pose a major threat to this species as much of its range is found within a World Heritage Site. At present the reefs within this species' range are in good condition.
154811		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Starksia leucovitta</em>.&#160; However, its distribution falls within the Navassa Island MPA, which covers an area of 1,472 km<sup>2</sup>.
154811		distribution	eng	The Whitesaddle Blenny <em>(Starksia leucovitta</em>) is known only from Navassa Island in the Caribbean.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,472 km<sup>2</sup>.
154811		habitat	eng	The Whitesaddle Blenny<em></em> is associated with coral reefs and is found on rocky reefs and sand and rubble flats (Williams and Mounts 2003) at a depth range of 9–30 m.
154811		population	eng	The population of the Whitesaddle Blenny is stable or expanding, presumably due to heavy fishing pressure on large predators (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This species was found to be very common at Navassa in 1999 (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154811		threats	eng	Navassa Island is isolated and uninhabited.&#160; Fishing by Haitian fishermen is the primary threat to the reefs of Navassa (NOAA 2008).&#160; The Whitesaddle Blenny is not taken by these fishermen and its population is stable or expanding, due to heavy fishing pressure on large predators (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Fishing is primarily hook-and-line, and the Whitesaddle Blenny is not taken as by-catch.
154812		conservation	eng	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> has been bred in captivity. The distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas including the Christmas Island National Park.
154812		distribution	eng	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> is distributed from Christmas Island and Western Australia to Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Melanesia, the Philippines, Palau and northwards to the Ryukyu Islands.
154812		habitat	eng	The anemonefish <em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> has a depth range of 3 - 20 m and is found in lagoons and outer coral reefs. It is most commonly associated with the host anemone species' <em>Stichodactyla mertensii</em> and less frequently with <em>Heteractis crispa</em> (Fautin and Allen 1992). This species is a protandrous hermaphrodite (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species is monogamous (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154812		population	eng	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> is relatively common throughout its range (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species is commensal with sea anemones, usually one adult pair and several juveniles per anemone (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154812		threats	eng	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, and it is caught with hand nets (FAO 2001). The anemone in which this species resides, is also commercially harvested for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In areas of its range it is threatened by habitat degradation due to eutrophication, destructive fishing practices, tourism, coral bleaching, coastal development and water pollution.  <br/><br/>The threats detailed are mainly of a localised nature and do not pose a significant threat to the global population of this species.
154813		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
154813		distribution	eng	<em>Aphanopus mikhailini</em> is found at the Walvis Ridge off the Namibian coast, off the coast of Argentina, seamounts off the coast of Mozambique and along the West Australian Ridges, South East Australia, the North Island of New Zealand and the Challenger Plateau off the northwest of New Zealand.
154813		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species, typically found to occur on the continental slope or over seamounts at a depth range of 905-2,000 m.
154813		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154813		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Within this species distribution, off the coast of Mozambique and western Australia, deep seamount fishing operates at a commercial level for Orange Roughy and Alfonsino. This species may be taken as by-catch but it is unlikely to result in a significant decline in the global population. There are a number of unexploited seamounts across the Southern Ocean.
154814		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sardinella fijiense</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the abundance of this species is needed to ensure that potentially increased demand for this species does not trigger a rapid decline.
154814		distribution	eng	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is a western Pacific sardine known from Papua New Guinea and Fiji. It has also been recorded from New Caledonia (Thollot 1996).
154814		habitat	eng	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is a pelagic sardine found schooling in coastal waters to a maximum depth of 50 m. This species is found within the continental shelf (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154814		population	eng	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is not thought to be an abundant species (FAO 1999), however sardine species are known to undergo large scale fluctuations in population numbers annually.
154814		threats	eng	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. This species is harvested on a subsistence scale by artisinal fishers in Fiji. It is likely to be harvested using beach seines (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). <em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is used as bait in the tuna fishery (Froese and Pauly 2006), and in chinese medicine (Tang 1987). The harvesting of this species is not considered a significant threat to the global population considering the small scale of the fishery and the rapid population turnover time (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154815		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Astronesthes richardsoni</em>.
154815		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Mauritania to central Namibia. It has also been found in the western Atlantic by Georges Bank (Moore <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas and across the Atlantic. One specimen is known from the southwest Atlantic (25°27'S, 35°56'W).
154815		habitat	eng	<em>Astronesthes richardsoni</em> is a mesopelagic species that is thought to occur at depths of up to 1,000m. It is thought that, like most species of this genus, it tends to live deeper than 500m during the day. Some, particularly smaller individuals, migrate up the water column to feed at night (Gibbs 1984).  Its diet may consist of smaller fishes and crustaceans.
154815		population	eng	There is no known population information for <em>Astronesthes richardsoni</em>.
154815		threats	eng	There is no directed fishery for this species. Due to the deepwater and oceanic nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution from urban centres.
154816		conservation	eng	There are country-specific management plans in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella</span>.&#160; In 1996, the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) established a total allowable catch limit of 153,000 t for the NEAFC Convention Area.&#160; In 2001, this was revised to 95,000 t. This species is continually assessed and managed by ICES and NAFO.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population dynamics of stocks within fishing zones to establish if particular stocks are being over-exploited.
154816		distribution	eng	<em>Sebastes mentella</em> has a range that extends across the northern Atlantic, from Baffin Bay down to Nova Scotia on the western coast, across to the Norwegian Sea down to Loften Island.&#160; Its range also includes the western and northern coasts of Spitsbergen, the Iceland-Faroes Ridge, Iceland and Greenland.&#160; In places, its range coincides with the closely related species, <em>Sebastes fasciatus</em>.
154816		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella </span>is a benthic/mesopelagic species that inhabits deep water from 300–750 m, though it may be found deeper to 1,000 m. Catch data indicate that spawning occurs in April to mid-May (Sigurdsson <em>et al</em>. 2006); the females release live larvae which are transported widely through planktonic drift (Pikanowski <em>et al.</em> 1998).&#160; Longevity was determined from isotope ratios and estimated to be at least 65 years for most subpopulations, and at least 75 years in the waters off Nova Scotia.<br/><br/><em>Sebastes fasciatus</em> and <em>Sebastes mentella</em> are hard to distinguish and within fisheries they are occasionally considered the same stock (Roques <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is known to hybridise with <em>Sebastes fasciatus</em> (Roques <em>et al.</em> 2001).
154816		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella</span>.
154816		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella</span> is a major commercial species that is harvested as a food source throughout its range. Global catch statistics for the last 10 years are as follows: <br/><br/>1996 - 4,842 tonnes (t); 1997 - 5,234 t; 1998 - 4,619 t; 1999 - 25,043 t; 2000 - 76,328 t; 2001 - 98,662 t; 2002 - 92,896 t; 2003 - 95,478 t; 2004 - 85,190 t; 2005 - 50,843 t; 2006 - 61,500 t (FAO-FIGIS). <br/><br/>This fishery is continually monitored by both ICES and NAFO. While it is a major commercial fishery, there is no indication that it is being over-exploited at present.&#160; A genetic divide between the populations on either side of the Atlantic is lacking, meaning that overfishing by North America or European countries would likely impact the reproduction of all the stocks (Roques<em> et al.</em> 2002).
154817		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Belted Blenny. However, this species is present in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, the Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area, the Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and the Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
154817		distribution	eng	The Belted Blenny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Malacoctenus zonogaster</span>) is endemic to the Galapagos Islands.
154817		habitat	eng	The Belted Blenny is a reef-associated species, found in shallow rocky and coral reef areas to depths of 10 m, as well as in tidepools.
154817		population	eng	The Belted Blenny is the second most common blenny in the Galapagos Islands (Allen and Robertson 1994).
154817		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Belted Blenny. However, given its shallow reef habitat and restricted range it may be negatively impacted by localized stochastic events, such as oceanographic environmental changes from current or future ENSO events and climate change (Soto <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
154818		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acanthurus gahhm</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas (MPA's). There has been some success in establishing MPA's in the Red Sea, but there is little or no effective regional MPA network, and most of the MPAs have ineffective management (Kotb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/>Research is needed on the distribution of this species, to establish if the range <em></em>extends to the Arabian Sea and western and central Pacific.
154818		distribution	eng	The Black Surgeonfish,<em> Acanthurus gahhm</em>, is thought to be endemic to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. There have been records of this species in the Arabian Sea, but these need further confirmation (Froese and Pauly 2007). There are also records of this species from Mozambique (Pereira 2000) and areas of the western Pacific (Froese and Pauly 2008). The distribution of this species needs to be clarified.
154818		habitat	eng	The Black Surgeonfish, <em>Acanthurus gahhm</em>, has a depth range of 1 - 40 m and is usually found in tropical climates over open sand and rubble bottoms in lagoons or at the base of seaward reefs (Kuiter and Debelius 2001). It is also often found in large groups in open areas near coral or rock, and in small groups which sometimes join to form large loose aggregations.
154818		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154818		threats	eng	The Black Surgeonfish is harvested for the aquarium trade using nets.<br/><br/>This species is associated with coral reef habitats. Urban growth, coastal land reclamation, fisheries expansions and water pollution combined with Crown of Thorns (COTS) outbreaks are placing increasing pressure on the coral reefs of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Kotb <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is predicted that pressures on the reefs of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden will increase over the next 8 years due to major development for mass tourism and industrialization, over exploitation, destructive fishing in poorly managed areas and COTS outbreaks (Kotb <em>et al</em>. 2004). A more serious threat will be posed by the exploitation of fish throughout the region. Further large-scale bleaching events could prove catastrophic to the stressed coral of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>Without a complete understanding of the distribution range of this species, it cannot be inferred how these threats might be impacting the global population of this species.
154819		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Yellow-spotted Tilefish, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends of this species is needed.
154819		distribution	eng	The Yellow-spotted Tilefish, <em>Hoplolatilus fourmanoiri,</em> is an Indo-Pacific species known from Indonesia, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands and Viet Nam.
154819		habitat	eng	The Yellow-spotted Tilefish is associated with coral reefs and is found on silty-sand bottoms with coral rocks. This species feeds upon zooplankton.
154819		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154819		threats	eng	Although harvested for aquarium trade, <em>Hoplolatilus fourmanoiri</em> is not a common species in the trade.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by a number of human induced threats including destructive fishing practice, coastal development, and water pollution from domestic and commercial waste. However, these threats are no known throughout this species range and so are only likely to be causing localised declines.
154820		conservation	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, trawling is banned below 1,000 m by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean Sea. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
154820		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Alepisaurus ferox</em>.
154820		distribution	eng	In the western Pacific, this species is present in Japan, Kuril Islands, the Sea of Okhotsk (Hart 1973) and Australia (Paxton <em>et al. </em>1989). In the eastern Pacific, it is present from Alaska to Chile (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). In the western Atlantic, it is present from Gulf of Maine, USA and north Gulf of Mexico to South America (Robins and Ray 1986). In the eastern Atlantic, this species spread from Iceland to south Portugal, also from Walvis Bay, Namibia to Sodwana Bay, South Africa (Heemstra and Smith 1986).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there are some records for this species in Sicily by Quignard and Tomasini (2000), Professor Doderlein (Costa 1991) and Post (1984) mentioned that it is an occasional species in Sicily. It is also mentioned by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1987).
154820		distribution	eng	The Longnose Lancetfish<em> (Alepisaurus ferox)</em> is widely distributed in subtropical and tropical waters and has been found in the eastern Pacific from the Aleutian Islands to Chile and in the western Pacific, from Japan to Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia (C. Roberts pers. comm. 2009). It also occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean off Natal, South Africa, and possibly the Maldives.
154820		habitat	eng	The Longnose Lancetfish can be found in the epipelagic zone, down to the bathypelagic, ranging from just beneath the surface to 1830 m depth. It is distributed through mostly tropical and subtropical waters, though adults migrate to the subarctic to feed. Individuals feed on fish, cephalopods, tunicates and crustaceans (Post 1984), however diet can vary according to region. Cannibalism has also been seen within this species (Potier <em>et al</em>. 2007). Adolescents are synchronous hermaphrodites (Smith and Atz 1973).
154820		habitat	eng	This species is epi-, meso- and bathypelagic and oceanodromous. It is present from near the surface to below 1,000 m (to 1,830 m), sometimes approaching inshore waters (Post 1984, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986, FAO 1987). It inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical waters; however, during the feeding period adults may migrate to the subarctic reaching as far north as Greenland, Iceland and the Bering Sea (Orlov and Ul'chenko 2002). It is typically found in deep water. It is mainly nocturnal and feeds on fishes, cephalopods, tunicates, and crustaceans (Post 1984). This species is preyed upon by sharks, albacore, yellowfin tuna, and fur seals (Hart 1973). It is oviparous, with planktonic larvae (Ambrose 1996). It is occasionally consumed but of little importance due to its soft flesh (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). Gonads of adolescents are hermaphroditic, but there is no proof that the species is a functional hermaphrodite (Post 1984).
154820		population	eng	Little information is available on population size and trends for this species.
154820		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154820		threats	eng	This species is frequently taken as by-catch by the longline tuna fisheries. Although sometimes eaten, <em>Alepisaurus ferox</em> is not a commercial species as it is not considered to be a favourable food fish. At present, the harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat as it is not targeted directly by the fishing industry, and lives at great depths.
154820		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats for this species.
154821		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology, abundance, distribution and threats.
154821		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span> is known from a single specimen found west of Ireland (Chernova 2001).
154821		habitat	eng	The holotype of <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashev</span>i was caught by a midwater trawl at 800 m.&#160; It is a pale fish with a large, compressed head and long gill slits (Chernova 2001).
154821		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span>, as it is only known from a single specimen.
154821		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span> is impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; However, as this species was captured by a midwater trawl, it is possible that it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range.
154822		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Sundarbans Nature Reserve in the Bay of Bengal.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its harvest levels is needed, to determine the impact of commercial fisheries on the population of <em>P. maculatus</em> in the future.
154822		distribution	eng	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> is found from Sri Lanka and the Bay of Bengal, to Borneo.
154822		habitat	eng	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> is found in coastal waters and estuaries, in the euphotic zone.
154822		population	eng	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> has been described as abundant (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2008)
154822		threats	eng	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> is harvested by the commercial fishing industry.&#160; There are no catch data available for this species, however this threat is not considered to be having a significant impact on the global population size.
154823		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em>, however its distribution range coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
154823		distribution	eng	<em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em> is found in the Red Sea, the Suez Canal, and the Bardawil Lagoon on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt (Fouda <em>et al.</em> 1993).
154823		habitat	eng	<em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em> is a demersal species found inhabiting shallow coastal areas, among sand-covered coral rubble. It feeds upon copepods, polychaetes and nematodes.
154823		population	eng	<em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em> is abundant in the Red Sea and Suez Canal (Fouda 1995; Fouda <em>et al.</em> 1993).
154823		threats	eng	Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted by threats such as coastal development and water pollution from sources such as sewage, industrial and domestic wastewater, and sedimentation. However this is only likely to be causing localised declines in built-up coastal regions. There are no known major threats for this species.
154824		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Laeops cypho</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species, and to determine whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
154824		distribution	eng	<em>Laeops cypho</em> is only known from its type locality at Point Tagolo, Mindanao in the Philippines (Herre 1953).
154824		habitat	eng	<em>Laeops cypho</em> is a bathydemersal species and has been collected at depths of 216–333 m on the continental shelf.
154824		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Laeops cypho</em>.
154824		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Laeops cypho</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It is possible that this species may be taken as by-catch in deep water trawls.
154825		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and fisheries impacts.
154825		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern Australia from the south of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (off Curtis Island) to the eastern Bass Strait, from 100-760 m depth. It is also present around New Zealand, being most abundant around South Island at depths from 1-1,100 m (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010).
154825		habitat	eng	This species is known from shallow to deep waters, on soft bottom shelves and slopes at depths from 1-1,100 m. It can form locally abundant populations and is often associated with inshore reefs (Mincarone and Stewart 2006, Mincarone and Fernholm 2010).<br/><br/>Of eight specimens examined by McMillan and Wisner (1984), a 655 mm female had about 50 large eggs ranging from 29-32 mm long. All were still in the mesentery and the terminal anchor filaments were not present on any egg.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
154825		population	eng	There is limited knowledge of this species' population. It is the most common hagfish species in Australia and New Zealand and can form locally abundant populations (Mincarone and Stewart 2006).
154825		threats	eng	There is no information on type and scale of threats known about this species.
154827		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Inimicus caledonicus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154827		distribution	eng	<em>Inimicus caledonicus</em> is known from New Caledonia, Queensland (Australia), Papua New Guinea, and westward to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
154827		habitat	eng	<em>Inimicus caledonicus</em> is found at a depth range of 15-60 m. This highly venomous species is well camouflaged and can be found resting on rocky, mud and sand substrates within the vicinity of coral reefs.
154827		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Inimicus caledonicus</em>.
154827		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is occasionally taken as by-catch in bottom trawl fisheries (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1990).
154828		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em>, however it may be found in a number of marine protected areas.&#160;  Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species should be carried out to ensure it does not become over-exploited.
154828		distribution	eng	<em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> is found in the Greater Antilles and along the Caribbean coast from Costa Rica to Colombia.&#160; It is likely that this species' distribution is larger than is currently known (Chao 2002).
154828		habitat	eng	<em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> is a demersal species found in sandy areas along beaches and coral reefs, in shallow waters.
154828		population	eng	It is likely that <em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> has a population size greater than 10,000 individuals (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2008).
154828		threats	eng	<em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> is harvested by the commercial fishing industry for local consumption and as bait, however it is not targeted specifically (Chao 2002).&#160; Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely that it is undergoing localised declines due to coastal development, water pollution, sedimentation, tourism, and destructive fishing practices.
154829		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parablennius yatabei</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
154829		distribution	eng	<em>Parablennius yatabei</em> is known from southern Japan, Taiwan, Korea and Viet Nam. There is one record from Pu Taw Island (Zhoushan) China.
154829		habitat	eng	<em>Parablennius yatabei</em>is found in intertidal rocky shore areas to depths of 5 m (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009) where it feeds on algae and detritus. This species is probably gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner, where the male guards the deposited eggs which are demersal and adhesive.
154829		population	eng	<em>Parablennius yatabei</em> is common in rocky shore areas.
154829		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <em>Parablennius yatabei</em>.
154830		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pyramodon lindas</em>.&#160; Further research into potential threats to this species is needed.
154830		distribution	eng	<em>Pyramodon lindas</em> is a western Pacific pearlfish, distributed from Japan to northern Australia.
154830		habitat	eng	<em>Pyramodon lindas</em> is a benthopelagic species, typically found at depths of 250–385 m.&#160; Species of the family Carapidae are oviparous (J. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).&#160; A few species of the family Carapidae have free-living adults, but most are commensals, found in the body cavity of invertebrate hosts, such as bivalves, holothurians, and asteroids (Markle and Olney 1990, Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154830		population	eng	<em>Pyramodon lindas</em> is reported to be uncommon (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154830		threats	eng	Species of the family <em>Carapidae</em> are of no importance to fisheries (Nielsen 1999).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyramodon lindas</span> may be taken incidentally as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range, but this is not likely to be causing any significant population declines.
154831		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Chromis punctipinnis</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas, including including the San Diego-La Jolla Ecological Reserve.
154831		distribution	eng	The Blacksmith Chromis, <em>Chromis punctipinnis,</em> is distributed from Monterey Bay in California, south to central Baja California, Mexico.
154831		habitat	eng	The Blacksmith Chromis is found over steep, rocky banks, reefs and among kelp beds at a depth range of 2-46 m. This species is also found over man-made structures such as oil platforms and bridge pilings. Individuals shelter within rocky crevices of the reef at night and some occupy the same shelter consistently. At dawn, they emerge to feed on zooplankton in open water, over rocky areas, and within kelp beds, migrating to the incurrent ends of reefs where high density zooplankton patches are concentrated (Hartney 1996). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans (mysids and amphipods) and juvenile squid when abundant. Juveniles and adults school or aggregate according to size. An unsexed individual, was found to reach sexual maturity at 2 years.
154831		population	eng	The Blacksmith Chromis is abundant throughout its distribution range (Morris 1983; Hartley 1996).
154831		threats	eng	The Blacksmith Chromis is harvested as a gamefish, however due to its apparent abundance, this is not thought to be a major threat to this species. In areas of intense coastal development, this species may be threatened by habitat destruction and sources of water pollution such as sewage, and commercial and domestic waste. However, this species exhibits a level of tolerance to coastal developed areas as it is found near bridge pilings and oil platforms, so degradation is not thought to be a major threat at present. This threat is not known across its entire range.
154832		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em>. While there are marine protected areas in the Gulf of Aqaba, they are ineffective to problems relating to water quality issues such as eutrophication.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine abundance, population trends, and threats faced by this species.
154832		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em> is only known from two specimens from North Beach on the coast of Eilat (Gon and Golani 2002).
154832		habitat	eng	<em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em> is a cryptic, nocturnal species (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009) found in crevices on rocky and coral reefs. This species has been found to a depth of 1.5 m.
154832		population	eng	A long-term sampling program starting in 1984, conducted more than 200 hauls, including 44 at night: only two specimens of <em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em> were collected (Gon and Golani 2002).<br/><br/>Other species in this genus are known to be rare and usually not more than 1 - 2 individuals per collection (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
154832		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnapogon melanogaster</span> has been found in the vicinity of heavy coastal development therefore is likely to be impacted by pollution. In addition, water quality at the northern end of the Gulf of Aqaba has been deteriorating over the last few decades (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009). It is unclear to what extent these threats have affected the population size of this species.
154833		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bothus mancus</span>. However the distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including the Hawaiian islands National Wildlife Refuge, which covers an area of 2,500 km and is a no-take zone. In the eastern Pacific much of the distribution of this species is contained within marine protected areas.
154833		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bothus mancus</span> is widely distributed in the Indo-pacific, from East Africa to Central America. In the tropical eastern Pacific there are several records scattered from the mainland including the tip of Baja California, southern Mexico, Panama, and Ecuador, and at all the oceanic islands.
154833		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bothus mancus</span> lives on sand near coral reefs and reef flats (FAO 2001), and is also found on gravel substrata. It&#160; feeds on small benthic crustaceans and fishes. This species is commonly observed in shallow water but can be found to 150 m.
154833		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154833		threats	eng	This species is harvested as a food source in some parts of its range, however this is not considered a major threat at present due to the small scale of the fishery. There are no other known major threats to this broadly distributed species.
154834		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Helcogramma inclinata</em>.&#160; This species may occur in a number of marine protected areas around the Ryukyu Islands.
154834		distribution	eng	<em>Helcogramma inclinata</em> is a western Pacific triplefin, known from the Ryuku Islands, Taiwan, and the Batangas in the Philippines.
154834		habitat	eng	<em>Helcogramma inclinata</em> is a demersal species found resting on hard substrates in the subtidal to intertidal zone, to depths of 9 m.&#160; This species is associated with dead and live coral reefs and rocky substrates (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154834		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Helcogramma inclinata</em>.
154834		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Helcogramma inclinata</em>.
154835		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cabillus macrophthalmus</em>. Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, ecology and potential threats.
154835		distribution	eng	<em>Cabillus macrophthalmus</em> is known from only one specimen collected at Djampeah Island, Indonesia (the type locality) (Randall <em>et al</em>. 2007).
154835		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cabillus macrophthalmus</span> is a demersal goby.&#160; The type specimen was collected from a dredge trawl over a coral bottom at a depth range of 120-400 m; very few gobies are collected in this depth range.&#160; The only known specimen was 30 mm, however its congener, <em>Cabillus atripelvicus</em>, is known to reach a size of 41 mm.
154835		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cabillus macrophthalmus</span>.
154835		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Cabillus macrophthalmus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes, however most gobiids are of no commercial or recreational importance (Larson and Murdy 2001).
154836		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154836		distribution	eng	<em>Schindleria praematura</em> is confined to Indo Pacific coral reefs, and is distributed from southern Japan and the South China Sea, south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) and Papua New Guinea, and west to Palau and the Marshall Islands. It has also been reported from Sala y Gómez and Easter Island.
154836		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span> is associated with coral reefs and occurs around lagoons and in adjacent waters.&#160; It is also found on the outer reef slope, near the bottom over sandy substrates.&#160; This species is found to a depth of 130 m. Around Easter Island, this species was found only in shallow water (Landaeta <em>et al.</em> 2002).
154836		population	eng	In a study around Easter Island by Landaeta <em>et al.</em> (2002), the abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span> ranged from 3.5–23.3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>3</sup>.
154836		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span>.&#160; As it is found in the vicinity of coral reef systems, it may be affected in parts of its range by destructive fishing practices such as cyanide fishing, or by coastal development and pollution.
154837		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Threadfin Blenny.&#160; However, it has been found in the Flower Garden National Marine Sanctuary (McEacgran and Fechhelm 2005).
154837		distribution	eng	The Threadfin Blenny <em>(Nemaclinus atelestos</em>) is found in the western Atlantic from the northern Gulf of Mexico and Bermuda to Nicaragua, including the Bahamas and the Antilles  (McEacgran and Fechhelm 2005).
154837		habitat	eng	The Threadfin Blenny is a benthic blenny, known from rocky and coral reef habitats at a depth range of 25–256 m (McEacgran and Fechhelm 2005).
154837		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Threadfin Blenny.
154837		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Threadfin Blenny is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154838		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Lepidion eques</em>.&#160; Fishing activity has been heavily regulated within the Grand Banks since the collapse of many commercially important fish stocks.&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed on the population size and harvest levels of this species to determine if the population is being over-exploited.
154838		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Lepidion eques</em> extends northwards from the Bay of Biscay (west of the British Isles),  along the Iceland-Faroe Ridge to northern Labrador and the Grand Banks (Templeman 1970, Magnusson 2001).
154838		habitat	eng	<em>Lepidion eques</em> is a benthopelagic species found in the greatest abundance at depths of 500–1,300 m.&#160; It prefers temperate waters with a temperature range of 4.5–9.5<sup> o</sup>C (Magnusson 2001).&#160; The main food items for this species include crustaceans, copepods, amphipods and cephalopods.&#160; Spawning takes place between April and May.&#160; This species displays congregatory behaviour, but may also be seen individually (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).
154838		population	eng	<em>Lepidion eques</em> is rare in the western Atlantic (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).&#160; A survey from the Rockall Trough found the greatest mean abundance at 750 m (0.8 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) and the greatest biomass was seen at 1,000 m (0.085 kg per 1000 m<sup>2</sup>).
154838		threats	eng	<em>Lepidion eques</em> can be seen in the by-catch of trawl fisheries operating within its range.&#160; It is caught singly or in aggregations numbering more than 100 individuals.
154840		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>The taxonomy of this genus needs to be further researched.
154840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific Region, and is distributed from the northern and eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador (Bedenbaugh 1988).
154840		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit muddy/ sandy substrata and to feed on mobile benthic worms and crustaceans. It is a relatively deepwater species, and can be found at a depth range of 20 to 150 m.
154840		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154840		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
154841		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Dotalabrus alleni</span>. However, this species range coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and possible threats for this species.
154841		distribution	eng	<em>Dotalabrus alleni</em>&#160; is known only from southern Western Australia, from the Recherche Archipelago to Rottnest Island.
154841		habitat	eng	<em>Dotalabrus alleni</em> is a subtropical species found on rocky reefs, and possibly kelp reefs, usually forming small aggregations comprising a number of females and a single dominant male. It is found at a depth range of 1–15 m.
154841		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
154841		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
154842		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Bonaire National Marine Park.
154842		distribution	eng	<em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em> is a coastal species found from Dominica northwards to St. Barthélemy, and southwards to St. Lucia.
154842		habitat	eng	<em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em> is found in shallow rocky surge zones at depths of less than 1 m.
154842		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em>.
154842		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154843		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Guadalupe Clingfish.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with the Isla Guadalupe Designated Biosphere Reserve.
154843		distribution	eng	The Guadalupe Clingfish<em> (Rimicola sila</em>) is endemic to Isla Guadalupe, Mexico.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,926 km<sup>2</sup>.
154843		habitat	eng	The Guadalupe Clingfish is a demersal species found in inshore waters.
154843		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Guadalupe Clingfish.
154843		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting the Guadalupe Clingfish at present. This species is found around an uninhabited, protected volcanic island and is unlikely to be impacted by any anthropogenic threat processes.
154844		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>Platybelone argalus</em>. However the distribution of this species falls may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
154844		distribution	eng	<em>Platybelone argalus</em> has a circumglobal distribution throughout warm waters of all oceans. It is commonly found around islands.
154844		habitat	eng	<em>Platybelone argalus</em> is neritic and epipelagic.
154844		population	eng	This species is abundant around islands (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).
154844		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <em>Platybelone argalus</em>. It is harvested as a food source in parts of its range, however there is no evidence to suggest that this is resulting in a significant decline in population size.
154845		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Slender Sole, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Maquinna Marine Provincial Park off Vancouver Island.&#160; Continued monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.
154845		distribution	eng	The Slender Sole<em> (Lyopsetta exilis)</em> is distributed from southeastern Alaska to the centre of Baja California, Mexico.
154845		habitat	eng	The Slender Sole is a benthic species found to occur on the continental shelf in deeper waters of the slope, or in rocky areas (Doyle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
154845		population	eng	The Slender Sole is considered relatively abundant in areas of its range, including along the Oregon coast (Doyle <em>et al.</em> 2002).
154845		threats	eng	The Slender Sole has some commercial value, but does not seem to be harvested in large quantities due to its small size.&#160; Harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat at present.
154846		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.
154846		distribution	eng	<em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em> is an Indo-West Pacific goby, recorded from South Africa, the Seychelles, Raphael Islands, Chagos Archipelago, Indonesia (Papua to Sumatra), Ryukyu Islands, Japan, Taiwan, and around the coast of Australia from the west coast, past Northern Australia and around to Queensland.
154846		habitat	eng	<em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em> is a demersal species which burrows in sand adjacent to coral or rock reefs. This species has been found to depths of 12 m.
154846		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154846		threats	eng	Due to the coastal nature of <em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em>, it may be undergoing localised population declines due to the threat of coastal development and water pollution however this is not driving a significant decline in the global population.
154847		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
154847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to Panama (van der Heiden and Mussot-Pérez 1995).
154847		habitat	eng	This benthic fish inhabits sandy substrata at depths between 10 and 45 m (van der Heiden and Mussot-Pérez 1995).
154847		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154847		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is caught as by-catch in industrial shrimp fisheries.
154848		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gnatholepis cauerensis</em>.&#160; This species is known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.&#160; Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, population numbers and potential threats to this species, as little information is available.
154848		distribution	eng	The goby species, <em>Gnatholepis cauerensis</em>, is distributed widely in the Indo-Pacific (Randall and Greenfield 2001).
154848		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnatholepis</span><em> cauerensis</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 3-58 m and occurs on sandy bottoms, often near coral reef or coral rubble.&#160; It has been noted that this species appears to prefer deeper water than its close relative, <em>Gnatholepis anjerensis</em> (Randall and Greenfield 2001).
154848		population	eng	There is no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnatholepis cauerensis</span>, but it is very widespread.
154848		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Gnatholepis cauerensis</span>. Due to its coastal nature, it is likely to be affected by coastal development, water pollution and destructive fishing practices in parts of its range; however these would only be localised threats.
154849		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Springer's Triplefin. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154849		distribution	eng	Springer's Triplefin (<em>Helcogramma springeri</em>) is a Pacific triplefin, distributed from the Philippines to Papua New Guinea and the northern Barrier Reef, including the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia, and Natuna Island, Malaysia.
154849		habitat	eng	Springer's Triplefin is a demersal species found in the intertidal to subtidal zone at a depth range of three to nine m. This species is associated with coral reefs and rocky coastlines, where it can be found in tidepools and resting on coralline rock surfaces.
154849		population	eng	There is no population information available for Springer's Triplefin.
154849		threats	eng	Springer's Triplefin is not harvested for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. This species has a relatively wide distribution and is known from a number of reef systems which are in good condition e.g. Great Barrier Reef.
154850		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Myripristis pralinia</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154850		distribution	eng	<em>Myripristis pralinia</em> is distributed from the east coast of Africa (Mozambique to Kenya), east to French Polynesia.&#160; This species' range extends north to the Ryukyu Islands and south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia.
154850		habitat	eng	The soldierfish, <em>Myripristis pralinia</em>, is a nocturnal species, found in small, loose groups in caves, lagoons or under ledges of coral reef flats and outer reef slopes. It feeds on plankton such as crab larvae.
154850		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Myripristis pralinia</em>.
154850		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis pralinia</span>.&#160; In localised areas, it maybe undergoing declines due to habitat degradation as a result of destructive fishing practices, coastal development, pollution, and tourism such as scuba-diving.&#160; This species is harvested as a food source, but only by a few countries, so this is also considered to be a localised threat only..
154851		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em>.&#160; Further research on its ecology, population numbers and threats is needed.
154851		distribution	eng	<em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em> is found at numerous locations within the Southern Ocean, including around the Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, Heard Islands, Marion Islands, Macquarie Islands, and the Kara-Dag seamount northeast of the Prince Edward Islands.
154851		habitat	eng	<em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em> is a demersal species found over seamounts and on the continental slope.&#160; It spends much of its time on the sea floor, feeding on benthic invertebrates, mainly amphipods.&#160; It is associated with temperate climates.&#160; Waite (1916) observed this species within kelp beds.
154851		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em>.
154851		threats	eng	<em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em> is not known to be commercially harvested, although it may be taken as by-catch, particularly over seamounts where there are a number of commercially important fisheries.&#160; However, as there are no known reports of this species being taken as by-catch, it is unlikely to pose a significant threat.
154852		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, biology and population numbers of this species is needed to determine how it may be impacted by harvesting as by-catch.
154852		distribution	eng	<em>Careproctus cactiformis</em> is only known from southern Argentina. This species is known only from the holotype, which was collected at a depth of  399-536 m;&#160; Coordinates were 43 40 S and 59 34 W (Stein, D. pers. comm. 2009). Species from the family Liparidae are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).
154852		habitat	eng	<em>Careproctus cactiformis</em> is a benthic species that has been found a depth range of 399-536 m. Congeners, <em>C. rotundifrons</em>, were found on the continental slope over a muddy / silty substrate, and were captured in bait traps set on the sea floor (Sakurai and Shinohara 2008). It is likely that this is a small species; size of species ranges from 45 mm for <em>C. minimus</em>, to 74 mm for <em>C. georgianus</em> (Stein 2006).
154852		population	eng	Species of the family Liparidae are known to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154852		threats	eng	It is unknown what major threats, if any, this species is facing.  There is no commercial fishery for the family Liparidae. However it is likely that this species is being taken as by-catch. Due to its small size, it may be overlooked and damaged in tows (Stein 2006).
154853		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Syngnathus floridae</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species habitat is needed.
154853		distribution	eng	<em>Syngnathus floridae</em> has a widespread distribution from Bermuda and Chesapeake Bay (USA), including the northern Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, and the western Caribbean Sea to Panama (Dawson 1982).
154853		habitat	eng	<em>Syngnathus floridae</em> can be found inhabiting coastal seagrass beds to a depth of 22 m. Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
154853		population	eng	<em>Syngnathus floridae</em> is reported to be abundant in Chesapeake Bay (Ripley and Foran 2006). This species is also reported to be a common in Florida Bay (Thayer <em>et al</em>. 1999). A study conducted in Florida Bay in 1984-1985 recorded 33.1 individuals of this species per hectare, this study was replicated in 1994-1995 and 18.6 indiviudals were recorded per hectare (Thayer <em>et al</em>. 1999). This decrease in the numbers of <em>Syngnathus floridae</em> in Florida Bay was linked to the habitat degradation of seagrass meadows.
154853		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus floridae</span> but seagrass meadows are under a number of threats relating to water quality such as sedimentation, coastal run-off, sewage outflows, as well as habitat disturbance from boat traffic and destructive fishing activity.<br/><br/>This species is not known for any commercial trade.
154854		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hephthocara simum</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and taxonomy of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.
154854		distribution	eng	<em>Hephthocara simum</em> has been reported from the Bay of Bengal (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).
154854		habitat	eng	<em>Hephthocara simum</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 1,110-1,650 m (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154854		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154854		threats	eng	Due to its deepwater nature, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Hephthocara simum</em>.
154855		conservation	eng	No information available.
154855		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.
154855		distribution	eng	<em>Hippichthys spicifer</em> is distributed from the east coast of Africa and the Red Sea (type locality), eastwards to Kirabati and the Samoa Islands (Dawson 1985). In the Western Pacific this species is distributed from southern Japan to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia (Randall 2005).
154855		distribution	eng	This is a coastal species, known from throughout the Indo-Pacific, from the Red  Sea and East Africa to Sri Lanka and Samoa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Known  from the Lower Sabaki (Whitehead 1960), it is likely to occur along the Kenyan  and Tanzanian coastlines (Seegers<em> et al</em>. 2003).
154855		habitat	eng	<em>Hippichthys spicifer </em>occurs in shallow coastal waters, including estuarine habitats such as mangroves. This species is also found regularly in tidal creeks (Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the lower reaches of rivers (Eccles 2002; Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Male <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em> carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).
154855		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow coastal and estuarine waters, sometimes among mangroves. Also found regularly in freshwater in the lower courses of rivers (Froese and Pauly 2003).
154855		population	eng	No information available.
154855		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em>.
154855		threats	eng	No information available.
154855		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em>, however like many pipefish species it may be collected incidentally.
154856		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromis pembae</em>, however its range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154856		distribution	eng	<em>Chromis pembae</em> is found from Oman and the Red Sea south to Tanzania. This species has also been recorded form the Maldives and Seychelles.
154856		habitat	eng	<em>Chromis pembae</em> is a coral reef associated species and usually occurs in loose aggregations at a depth range of 25-50 m, although it has been observed at depths of 12 m. This species feeds upon zooplankton, and is found on steep rocky substrata (Allen 1991).
154856		population	eng	<em>Chromis pembae</em> is a common species, especially around Jeddah and the Sudanese Red Sea (Allen and Randall 1980). There is no more recent population information available for this species.
154856		threats	eng	In areas of this species' range, its habitat has undergone severe degradation. Coral reef systems in the Red Sea are being negatively impacted by an intensifying tourism market, eutrophication, destructive fishing practices, shipping traffic, mining for oil, and sedimentation associated with coastal development. East African reefs are threatened by coral bleaching episodes and Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks. However at present these threats are thought to be only causing localised declines. This is a deep reef inhabitant and therefore these threats are probably minimal.
154857		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> nuchipunctatus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, habitat, ecology and potential threats for this species.
154857		distribution	eng	<em>Silhouettea nuchipunctatus</em> has only been recorded from a tide pool at Dumaguete, Oriental Negros, in the Philippines.
154857		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> nuchipunctatus</em> is a demersal goby.&#160; Its congener, <em>Silhouettea sibayi</em>, inhabits sandy terraces and slopes to a depth of about 20 m and also occurs in barren sandy areas as well as among macrophyte cover (Bruton 1997).&#160; It is likely that this species is of small size; the size of it congeners range from 3.5 cm TL (<em>Silhouettea hoesei</em>) to 4.5 cm TL (<em>Silhouettea insinuans</em>).
154857		population	eng	There is no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea nuchipunctatus</span>.
154857		threats	eng	The impact of major potential threats on <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> nuchipunctatus</em> are not known.
154858		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zesticelus bathybius</em>.&#160; Further research is needed its ecology, distribution and potential threats.
154858		distribution	eng	<em>Zesticelus bathybius</em> is known from the holotype and four paratypes found in the northwestern Pacific, off Misaki in the Kanagawa Prefecture, Tosa Bay, Japan.
154858		habitat	eng	<em>Zesticelus bathybius</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 700–1,000 m.
154858		population	eng	<em>Zesticelus bathybius</em> is thought to be a rare species and since the holotype was collected in 1887, only four specimens have been collected, in 1904, 1906, 1988, and 1989 (Yabe and Okamura 1993).
154858		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Zesticelus bathybius</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154859		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lampadena pontifex</em>.
154859		distribution	eng	Specimens of <em>Lampadena pontifex</em> have been found in the Mauritanian upwelling region near St. Helena.&#160; This species has also been recorded from Cape Verde and above the continental shelf at Namibia.
154859		habitat	eng	<em>Lampadena pontifex</em> is a mesopelagic and bathypelagic, pseudoceanic species that has a depth range of 90–750 m. This species displays diurnal vertical migrations.&#160;  During the day, it is found at depths of 275–750 m and at night it migrates to feed at a depth range of 90–275 m.
154859		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lampadena pontifex</span>.
154859		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <em>Lampadena pontifex</em>.
154860		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Facciolella karreri</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.
154860		distribution	eng	<em>Facciolella karreri</em> is known from the Red Sea. This species may also be found to occur along the coast of northern Australia but this has not yet been verified (Klausewitz 1995).
154860		habitat	eng	<em>Facciolella karreri</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 700-2,000 m. It is likely to occur in holes in soft sediments.
154860		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Facciolella karreri</em>.
154860		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Facciolella karreri</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. There is no known directed fishery for this species.
154861		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154861		distribution	eng	<em>Istigobius rigilius</em> is distributed from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), and east to New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Palau, Kiribati, Ashmore and Cartier Reefs, and&#160; the Marshall Islands.
154861		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span> can be found resting on sand patches, amongst living coral and coral rubble, in clear water lagoons and bays.&#160; It occurs at a depth range of 0–30 m.
154861		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span> is reported as uncommon in the Capricorn-Bunker Group (Lowe and Russell 1990). Nevertheless, it is generally the most common <em>Istigobius</em> species found on coral reefs (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
154861		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span>. Due to its association with coral habitats, it is likely to be undergoing localised declines from factors relating to habitat degradation such as destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, sedimentation, coastal development, pollution, and tourism. However, due to the localised nature of these threats, they are not considered to pose a major threat to this broad ranging species.
154862		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> cantoris</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology, population size and status, distribution and threats to this species.
154862		distribution	eng	<em>Scartelaos cantoris</em> is known from only a single locality in the Andaman Islands.
154862		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> cantoris</em> is a demersal goby.&#160; Its congener <em>Scartelaos histophorus</em> is an intertidal, amphibious air breather, that is found on sand and mud flats along bay shores. <span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> </em><em>histophorus</em> has also been found in estuarine areas, swamps, marshy areas, on tidal mud flats and in freshwater tidal zones.&#160; It is found actively shuttling back and forth between rock pools and the water surface.
154862		population	eng	There is no population information for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelao</span>s<em> cantoris</em>. Only three specimens are known.
154862		threats	eng	Nothing is known about major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> cantoris</em>.
154863		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Striped Dartfish.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with several marine protected areas (MPAs).
154863		distribution	eng	The Striped Dartfish (<em>Parioglossus taeniatus</em>) is an Indo-west Pacific species recorded from Aldabra, the Philippines, Palau, Vanuatu, the southern Great Barrier Reef (Australia) and Fiji. Suzuki <em>et al.</em> (1994) also recorded specimens of this species in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.
154863		habitat	eng	The Striped Dartfish is known to inhabit coastal waters with silt, sand, and rocky substrates.&#160; This species has been found in the vicinity of estuaries and mangroves, often with <em>Parioglossus formosus</em>.
154863		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Striped Dartfish.
154863		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Striped Dartfish is impacted by any major threat processes. Habitat degradation is not considered a major threat due to the broad distribution and generalist habitat preferences of this species.
154864		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sciaena callaensis</em>.<br/><br/>Research is needed on the biology and ecology of this species, as little information is currently available. Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of water pollution on the population of this species in the future.
154864		distribution	eng	<em>Sciaena callaensis</em> is known from its type locality of Callao Bay, Peru near the city of Lima (Hildebrand 1946).
154864		habitat	eng	<em>Sciaena callaensis</em> is found in brackish water in estuarine habitats.
154864		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Sciaena callaensis</em>. This species is only known from five specimens. The last reliable record for this species is from 1966 (USNM 219420). Norma Chirichigino (pers. comm. 1983) stated that this species has not been observed since 1966, and despite continual efforts to document the fish fauna of the area, no additional records have been reported (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).
154864		threats	eng	<em>Sciaena callaensis</em> was found to occur in the brackish water of Callao Bay near Lima. These waters are known to be heavily polluted, due to regional human pressures. Surveys of Callao Bay have found it to be impacted by high organic loads and chemical contamination, and to have a lower macrobenthic species abundance than unpolluted areas (Tarazona <em>et al.</em> 2003).
154865		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Monomitopus agassizii</em>.
154865		distribution	eng	<em>Monomitopus agassizii</em> has been found in the western central Atlantic from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.
154865		habitat	eng	<em>Monomitopus agassizii</em> is a benthopelagic species (J. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008) that has a depth range of 48–1,275 m.&#160; Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154865		population	eng	<em>Monomitopus agassizii</em> is known to be common (Nielsen<em> et al</em>. 1999).
154865		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting <em>Monomitopus agassizii</em>, however it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range.
154866		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pholis ornata</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Race Rocks Marine Protected Area off California.&#160; Further research into the population numbers and potential threats to this species is needed, to determine if coastal pollution and run-off are significantly impacting this species.
154866		distribution	eng	<em>Pholis ornata</em> is distributed off the coast of North America from southern British Columbia, to central California.
154866		habitat	eng	<em>Pholis ornata</em> is found in rocky and pebbled intertidal areas as well as mudflats, although its optimal habitat is said to be estuarine habitats.&#160; This species is versatile in its habitat requirements, in that it can tolerate low salinity waters, and readily utilises seasonal vegetation for shelter (Barton 1982).&#160; Its diet consists of small molluscs and crustaceans.&#160; Both the male and females guard the egg mass. &#160; This species is thought to range from the surface down to 50 m depth.
154866		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pholis ornata</em>.
154866		threats	eng	As an intertidal species, the habitat of <em>Pholis ornata</em> could be deleteriously impacted by run-off and pollution discharges in areas of the coastline with high human populations pressures.&#160;  However, due to the broad distribution of this species, this is a considered only as a localised threat.
154867		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends of this species is needed.
154867		distribution	eng	<em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
154867		habitat	eng	<em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 384-1,463 m (Mundy 2005). Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found on the upper continental slope (FAO 1999), and typically feed on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish and cephalopods. Species of Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154867		population	eng	There is no known population information available for<em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154867		threats	eng	While this species is of no commercial interest, it is occasionally seen in by-catch but in very small quantities.  It is not known whether this poses a major threat to the population.
154868		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis</em>. There are no known effective marine protected areas within this species range.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed to ensure that demand for the aquarium trade does not threaten the population in the future.
154868		distribution	eng	<em>Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis</em> is found in the Caroline Islands, and the Marshall Islands (Myers 1999). Vagrants have been recorded in Palau and Saipan.
154868		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis </span>inhabits sand and rubble patches of steep seaward reefs at depths of 35 to 50 m (Allen 2003). This is a secretive species.
154868		population	eng	This species is considered common in the Marshall Islands.
154868		threats	eng	<em></em> There are no known major threats to <em>Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis</em>, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
154869		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myctophum spinosum</em>.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with numerous marine protected areas.
154869		distribution	eng	<em>Myctophum spinosum</em> is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical waters of the Indian, Pacific, Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
154869		habitat	eng	The lanternfish, <em>Myctophum spinosum</em>, is a bathypelagic, oceanodromous species that exhibits diurnal vertical migration.
154869		population	eng	The Myctophidae family are very common oceanic fishes, making up the greatest biomass in mesopelagic zone (FAO 1999).
154869		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Myctophum spinosum </em>is impacted by<em> </em>any major threat processes<em></em>.
154870		conservation	eng	<em>Parapercis colias</em> occurs in many of the marine protected areas (MPAs) around coastal New Zealand.&#160; Since inception of these MPAs, studies have looked at changes in Blue Cod density within these reserves.&#160; Results vary on the effectiveness of such conservation measures.&#160; In the Kokomohua Marine Reserve in the Marlborough Sounds, densities of Blue Cod were 125% more abundant when compared to control sites.&#160; Body size was also found to increase (Davidson 2001).&#160; However, no such increase has been seen within the Te Tapuwae o Rangokako Marine Reserve (Freeman 2005).<br/><br/>The Blue Cod was the first species to be added to the Quota Management Systsem (QMS) in New Zealand.&#160; The government now monitors catches allowing for TAC (Total Allowable Catch) limits to be set if required.<br/><br/>Mesh sizes have been imposed in the BCO5 fishery to minimise the by-catch of under-sized individuals by the Rock Lobster fishery.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels, fishing effort, and size of this species should be continued.&#160; Further research is needed on BCO7 to determine if the TACC is sustainable.&#160; Efforts should be made to protect important spawning aggregations from harvesting.
154870		distribution	eng	<em>Parapercis colias</em> occurs around all coasts of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands.
154870		habitat	eng	<em>Parapercis colias</em> is a demersal species, found around rocky coastlines in areas of high seaweed and kelp density, at a depth range of 0–150 m.&#160; It is particularly sensitive to water clarity and only occurs in very clear waters.&#160; It feeds on small fish, crabs and shellfish.<br/><br/><em>Parapercis colias </em>is a type of Blue Cod.&#160; It has been shown to be a protogynous hermaphrodite.&#160; This species reaches a maximum age of 32 years.&#160; Individuals reach sexual maturity at different lengths and ages depending on their location.&#160; Spawning aggregations have been noted from inshore and mid-shelf waters.
154870		population	eng	The greatest population densities of <em>Parapercis colias</em> are typically seen off the South Island of New Zealand.
154870		threats	eng	<em>Parapercis colias</em> is one of the most important commercial and recreational fish species in New Zealand waters.&#160; The Blue Cod fishery is comprised of 10 sub-fisheries known as BCO1 to BCO10.&#160; Total landings peaked at 954 t in 1985, the year before the Quota Management System was implemented; following that, there was a decline in landings until 1989, when there was a shift in the predominant fishing type from handlines to cod pots, after which annual landings continued to increase and approach the total allowable commercial catch (TACC).&#160; However, annual landings have remained under the TACC limit.&#160; Landings for the commercial fishery in 2006–2007 were reported to be 2,413 t.&#160; The landings and TACCs for BCO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, are considered sustainable.&#160; It is thought these will also encourage stocks to safely reach sizes that will support the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY).&#160; It is unknown if harvest levels in BCO7 are sustainable; there are some indications that abundance has decreased in a few localised areas. <br/><br/>Observations from recreational fishers imply that localised declines may be occurring in a few areas of BCO 3, 5, and 7, where fishing effort is most concentrated.<br/><br/><em>Parapercis colias</em> is also taken as by-catch by other fisheries.&#160; However, offshore by-catch levels are thought to be very low.&#160; By-catch is either discarded or used as bait.<br/><br/>The species responds negatively to changes in water quality (nutrient enrichment, dredging and sediment run-off), through the increased turbidity and release of toxic chemicals in the sediment.&#160; However, this is a localised threat and is not considered to pose a major threat to the entire population of this species at present.
154871		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
154871		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coasts of Suriname and Brazil, and from the lower Rio Amazonas.
154871		habitat	eng	This demersal species is tolerant of freshwater, brackish and marine waters and has been found at a depth range of between 20-40 m.
154871		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ctenogobius thoropsis</span>.
154871		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
154872		conservation	eng	<em>Apogon compressus</em> has been successfully reared in captivity. The distribution of <em>A. compressus</em> coincides with a number of designated marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154872		distribution	eng	The cardinalfish <em>Apogon compressus</em> is distributed from the eastern Andaman Sea, south and east to Vanuatu and New Caledonia, and north to the Ryukyu Islands and Ishigaki Island, Japan.
154872		habitat	eng	This cardinalfish, <em>Apogon compressus</em> is found on a diverse range of continental, shelf and high island reefs at a depth range of 1 - 20 m. It is associated with areas of abundant live coral cover (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). <em>Apogon compressus</em> often hides among branching stony corals during the day. <em>A. compressus</em> is nocturnal and leaves its shelter at night to feed on zooplankton. It is often found in small aggregations, among or near mounds of branching coral such as <em>Porites cylindrica</em> or <em>Porites nigrescens</em>.
154872		population	eng	<em>Apogon compressus</em> is common throughout its range (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154872		threats	eng	<em>Apogonids</em> are not heavily targeted for the aquarium trade owing to their nocturnal nature (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Levels of harvest for this species are unlikely to be driving rapid decline (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation is not likely to be driving a significant population decline due to the localised nature of threats such as coastal development and pollution (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154873		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>.&#160; However, this species' distribution falls coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, and habitat requirements, as well as on the impact of coastal development given the very shallow, near-shore habitat of this species.
154873		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span> is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific.&#160; It is only known only from the four type specimens collected from Colombia, plus a photo, apparently of this species, from the Gulf of Panama (Collette 1995).&#160; Based on these collections, it appears to be restricted to very shallow continental shelf habitat within its range, and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> .
154873		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>. Four specimens have been collected over sandy and muddy substrata, as well as in brackish environments, in a very narrow depth range of 5–10 m.
154873		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>; only four specimens are known.
154873		threats	eng	Although more information in needed to determine the population status and habitat requirements of <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>, it is likely that this species is threatened by habitat loss from extensive and ongoing coastal development within its near-shore restricted range.
154874		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hetereleotris georgegilli</em>. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research on the abundance of this species and its potential threats is needed.
154874		distribution	eng	<em>Hetereleotris georgegilli</em> is found only around the Mauritian and Réunion Islands. The area in which this species occurs is less than 20,000 km² (approximately 5,572 km²). This species is only known from a few specimens. On Mauritius, is was found at three sites (Gill 1998). It was later recorded on Réunion, but information on the number of occupied sites is not available.
154874		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hetereleotris georgegilli</span> is a demersal goby found on a range of substrates including coral, rock, sand and silt. It is found in the intertidal zone to a maximum depth of 10 m. It appears to be restricted to shallow, high-energy habitats (Gill 1998).
154874		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hetereleotris georgegilli</span>.
154874		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hetereleotris georgegilli</span> is an intertidal species and is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to coastal development and water pollution.
154875		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cynoscion acoupa</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large size and commercial importance of this species, continued monitoring of its harvest levels and population numbers is needed.
154875		distribution	eng	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is found in the Western Atlantic from southeast Brazil to Panama.&#160;  It is most common around northeastern South America (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).
154875		habitat	eng	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is a coastal, demersal, and brackish water species that forms schools.&#160;  It is commonly found over mud or sandy mud bottoms near mouths of rivers.&#160;  Juveniles are restricted to brackish and fresh waters and shelter in mangrove swamps as nursery grounds.&#160; <em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> feeds on shrimps and fishes (FAO 2002).  It is an important food fish (Chao 2003).
154875		population	eng	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is locally abundant around northeastern South America (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).
154875		threats	eng	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is an important commercial species, but there has been no apparent reduction in population size over the last 10 years (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  Juveniles are associated with mangrove habitats, however they also associate with soft-bottoms near river mouths.&#160;  Therefore at present, mangrove degradation occurring in this region is not considered a major threat to this species (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).
154876		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Aioliops brachypterus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with El Nido Marine Reserve. Further research should be carried out to confirm the distribution of <em>A. brachypterus</em> and to establish its population size. Conservation measures including the establishment and management of Marine Protected Areas to reduce the rate of coral reef degradation occurring within this species' range, are needed.
154876		distribution	eng	<em>Aioliops brachypterus</em> has been reported from Miniloc Island and El Nido Island, the Philippines. The area in which this species is known to be distributed is approximately 1,000 km². However, it is likely that this species actually occurs in coral reef habitat in a much wider range in the region.
154876		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aioliops</span><em> brachypterus</em> is found near drop-offs on coral reefs. Many species of Ptereleotridae form schools, although others occur in pairs or smaller groups (Larson 2001). This species has been found to a depth of 25 m.
154876		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aioliops brachypterus</span>.
154876		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aioliops</span><em> brachypterus</em> is associated with coral reef environments. The coral reefs within this species' range have been degraded by human population pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching. Coral reef habitat is also threatened by water pollution. The South China Sea is polluted by organic and inorganic wastes from sewage, from agricultural and industrial wastes, and from run-off containing oil, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Oil spills have caused severe marine degradation in the South China Sea, and there have been documented spills in 1992 and 1993.&#160; A combined total of 27,000 t of crude oil was released into the South China Sea from these two spills. Over 100,000 oil tankers and container and cargo vessels travel through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore each year into the South China Sea. There is therefore the potential for more oil spills in the region in the future.<br/><br/>The coral reefs of the Philippines have experienced the greatest degradation of all the reefs in the South East Asia. The percentage of reefs in poor condition has increased from 33% in the 1980s to nearly 40% two decades later (Tun <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is predicted that coral reef condition in South East Asia will continue to decline (Tun <em>et al</em>. 2004).
154877		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Maputaland Marine Protected Area.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the abundance and threats of this species is needed.
154877		distribution	eng	<em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> occurs between Durban, South Africa and Maputo Bay, Mozambique. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 822 km<sup>2</sup>.
154877		habitat	eng	<em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> is a sand-burrowing intertidal species found to a maximum depth of 16 m.
154877		population	eng	In a description of the sand flats at Inhaca Island, Mozambique in 1962, it was noted that <em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> was one of the many frequently netted fishes in directed surveys (Macnae and Kalk 1962).  Common along sandy beaches (Nelson 1986).  Nowadays it is rarely observed in life but can be collected in considerable numbers by ichthyocides.
154877		threats	eng	<em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> may be taken as by-catch in shrimp fisheries although it has not yet been documented (Sousa <em>et al.</em> 2005). Considering the shallow water, inshore nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution.
154878		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pomacentrus smithi</em>, however its distribution falls within a number of marine protected areas.
154878		distribution	eng	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> is found in the Philippines, Indonesia, Sabah, Malaysia and Brunei (Allen 2004).
154878		habitat	eng	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> inhabits silty areas of lagoons, harbours and coastal coral reefs at a depth range of 2 - 14 m. It is found to occur in small to large groups which feed in midwater above live coral heads.
154878		population	eng	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> is abundant throughout its range, occurring in large aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154878		threats	eng	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade. Due to the coastal nature of this species and its association with coral reefs, it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.
154879		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Polyipnus elongatus</em>.
154879		distribution	eng	<em>Polyipnus elongatus</em> is thought to be endemic to the Coral Sea, Australia (Last and Harold 1994).
154879		habitat	eng	The hatchetfish, <em>Polyipnus elongatus</em>, is a benthopelagic species that has been found at a depth range of 440–690 m (Last and Harold 1994).
154879		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Polyipnus elongatus</em>.
154879		threats	eng	Due to the mesopelagic habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyipnus elongatus</span>, it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.
154880		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the by-catch levels of this species is needed.
154880		distribution	eng	Bigeye Rockling, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gaidropsarus macrophthalmus,</span> may be found in the northeast Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay northwards along the west coast of the British Isles to the Faeroe Islands.
154880		habitat	eng	Bigeye Rockling is a non-migratory demersal species that has a depth range of 150-530 m. It is often seen near the benthos where it feeds on crustaceans.
154880		population	eng	There is no population information for Bigeye Rockling.
154880		threats	eng	While this is not a target species, Bigeye Rockling is occasionally taken as by-catch during bottom trawling (Cohen<em> et al</em>. 1990), however at present this is not thought to be having a significant impact on the population.
154881		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance, distribution, and threats of this species.
154881		distribution	eng	<em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is only known from two specimens found off the coast of Venezuela and Brazil.
154881		habitat	eng	<em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is a neritic species.  The two specimens of <em>P. oculofrenum</em> were found at depths of 57 m and 62 m.
154881		population	eng	<em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is only known from two specimens.
154881		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is being impacted by any major threats.
154882		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Slender Brotula.
154882		distribution	eng	The Slender Brotula, <em>Dicrolene multifilis</em>, is found from East Africa to the Bay of Bengal (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).
154882		habitat	eng	The Slender Brotula is a benthopelagic species found at depths ranging from 350-1,700 m.  Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154882		population	eng	The Slender Brotula has been recorded as uncommon (Nielsen<em> et al.</em> 1999).
154882		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting the Slender Brotula, due to the deepwater nature of this species.
154883		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pelotretis flavilatus.&#160; </em>However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Long Sound Marine Reserve.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
154883		distribution	eng	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is endemic to New Zealand.&#160; It occurs around both the North and South Islands, although greater abundances are typically found around the South Island.
154883		habitat	eng	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is a demersal species, generally found at a depth of 150 m.&#160; Juveniles are found inshore within estuaries, shallow mudflats and sandflats, where they remain for up to two years.&#160; Adults feed on cockabullies, shellfish, crabs, worms, and brittlestars.
154883		population	eng	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is described as the most abundant flatfish off the Otago Coast (James 1970).&#160; It is more abundant around the South Island of New Zealand, than the North Island.
154883		threats	eng	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is harvested on a commercial scale as a food source.
154884		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bathymaster derjugini</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats faced by this species.
154884		distribution	eng	<em>Bathymaster derjugini</em> is distributed from the Kuril Islands and Tartar Strait, to Peter the Great Bay, Russia.
154884		habitat	eng	<em>Bathymaster derjugini</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 0 - 65 m. It inhabits shallow water in the upper reaches of the sublittoral zone (Cook <em>et al</em>. 1999) and rocky shore areas.
154884		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bathymaster derjugini</em>.<br/><br/>In the central east Pacific, the larvae of this family were the most abundant comprising 94.6% of the sample (Franco-Gordo <em>et al</em>. 2001).
154884		threats	eng	Due to the coastal nature of this species, it may be impacted by coastal development and pollution, and some areas in which it is found is subject to heavy shipping traffic and threats associated with this such as bilge and ballast water and fuel dumping. It is not known how this species is being impacted by these threats.
154885		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on ecology of this species, in order to better understand the impact of threats such as incidental mortality through by-catch.
154885		distribution	eng	<em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em> is an Indo-Pacific scorpionfish, known from Hong Kong, Taiwan, New Caledonia, and Sumatra to the Bali Strait.
154885		habitat	eng	<em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em> is a bathydemersal species, collected from a depth range of 225–295 m on the top of seamounts.&#160; The biology of this species is 'largely unknown' (FAO 1999b).
154885		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em>.
154885		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial value.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating on the top of seamounts in parts of its range.
154886		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Synclidopus </span><em>macleayanus</em>, however, its distribution may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
154886		distribution	eng	The Narrowbanded sole, <span style="font-style: italic;">Synclidopus </span><em>macleayanus,</em> is only known from eastern Australia in the coastal waters of New South Wales and southern Queensland (Ocean Biogeographic Information System 2009).
154886		habitat	eng	The Narrowbanded Sole is a demersal species found in coastal and estuarine habitats over sand and mud substrates. Species in a closely related genus,&#160;<em>Aseraggodes</em><em> haackeanus</em> and <em>Aseraggodes sp. nov.</em>, inhabit sheltered silty areas, have a depth range of 1 - 30 m and can reach a size of 35 cm (Edgar 2000).
154886		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Synclidopus </span><em></em><em>macleayanus</em>.
154886		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats within its range (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). Due to its small size, it is unlikely to be taken as a food source (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). However, this species is frequently taken as by-catch by prawn trawls (Macbeth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
154887		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span>.&#160; Further research on its distribution, abundance, ecology and potential threats is needed.
154887		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span> is only known from a single specimen collected in the northwestern Atlantic off of Nova Scotia, south of Browns Bank and East of Georges Bank (Chernova <em>et al.</em> 2004).
154887		habitat	eng	The holotype of <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span> was collected from within a depth range of 0–1,008 m.
154887		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span>.
154887		threats	eng	It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154888		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Pomacentrus wardi</em>, however the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154888		distribution	eng	<em>Pomacentrus wardi</em> is endemic to eastern Australia. It ranges from Sydney to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
154888		habitat	eng	<em>Pomacentrus wardi</em> inhabits lagoons and outer reef slopes of coral reefs to a maximum depth of 20 m.. They can be found individually or in small groups. It mainly feeds on benthic algae.
154888		population	eng	<em>Pomacentrus wardi</em> is reported to be abundant at the Capricorn Group (Allen 1975), the Great Barrier Reef (Allen 1975; Ceccarelli <em>et al</em>. 2006) and Nelly Bay, Magnetic Island (Ceccarelli <em>et al</em>. 2005).
154888		threats	eng	It is unlikely that<em> Pomacentrus wardi</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats. General threats to this species may include the degradation of its coral reef habitat, due to coral bleaching and human population pressures. However, the reefs of Australia are in a relatively healthy condition at present (Miller and Sweatman 2004).
154889		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, habitat status, and harvest levels of this species is needed.&#160; The extent of damage caused by indiscriminate fishing practices should also be monitored to determine if the habitat of this species is being significantly degraded.
154889		distribution	eng	This Pacific species has two subspecies which have distinct distributions.&#160; <em>Pseudanthias ventralis ventralis</em> has been found around the southwest Pacific in New Caledonia, the Tumaotu Archipelago, the Marshall Islands, and the Pitcairn group.&#160; <em>Pseudanthias ventralis hawaiiensis</em> is found around the Hawaiian Islands.
154889		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em> is a secretive, coral reef-associated fish.&#160; <em>Pseudanthias ventralis hawaiiensis</em> is found at a depth range of 26–68 m and <em>Pseudanthias ventralis ventralis</em> is found at a depth range of 26–120 m.&#160; Most specimens have been collected from caves or from beneath ledges; other specimens have been found by reef rubble along steep drop-offs or channel walls.&#160;&#160;<em>Pseudanthias</em><em> ventralis </em> will leave its cave to feed on zooplankton such as copepods.
154889		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em>.&#160; However, the life history characteristics of the Anthiinae sub-family (short-lived, high natural mortality rate, high growth rate, and high recruitment rate) (Russ and Alcala 1998) suggest that they are likely to be abundant.
154889		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes across its range.&#160;  This species is harvested for the aquarium trade, but due to its fast life history, this is unlikely to significantly impact population size.&#160; Indiscriminate fishing methods such as blast fishing may be causing habitat degradation.
154890		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Coryphaenoides subserrulatus</em>. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the by-catch levels and population trends of this species is needed to assess any possible change in the conservation status.
154890		distribution	eng	The Four Rayed Rattail, <em>Coryphaenoides subserrulatus</em>, can be found around South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Chile and Argentina.
154890		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 550-1,180 m. It is typically found on the continental slope.
154890		population	eng	In a study by Francis <em>et al.</em> (2002), this species appeared in 49% of 9,857 tows. This species dominated 80% of the by-catch species in trawls along St Patricks Head Ridge off east coast Tasmania (Kloser and Horne 2003).
154890		threats	eng	The genus <em>Coryphaenoides</em> includes some of the most commercially important species of Macrouridae.<em> </em>This species is of minor commercial importance, however it does comprise a large percentage of the by-catch in areas such as Tasmania (Kloser and Horne 2003). Intense exploitation of fishery resources off the coast of Argentina may have impacted this species (Schonberger and Agar 2001). While this species may have undergone declines in parts of its range, these threats are unlikely to have significantly impacted the global population of this broad ranging species.
154891		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus lineatus</span>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research on population trends and abundance across the species range is needed. Monitoring of the harvest levels is also required to better understand how harvesting for the aquarium trade is impacting the population.<br/><br/><em></em>
154891		distribution	eng	<em>Cirrhilabrus lineatus</em> is found around the northern Great Barrier Reef, New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands.
154891		habitat	eng	<em>Cirrhilabrus lineatus</em> is found over coral, rock and rubble, on clear, outer-reef slopes from 20?55 m.
154891		population	eng	<em></em> Currently, population size and trends have not been assessed for <em>Cirrhilabrus lineatus</em>. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
154891		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus lineatus</span>, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade. At present there is no information on the harvest levels of this species and how this is impacting the population, however at least a third of this species range falls within effective marine protected areas therefore providing it with some protection from harvesting.
154892		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
154892		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southern Gulf of California, Mexico to Honduras.
154892		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal waters, lagoons, and estuaries, preferring areas with sandy substrata (Bussing 1995; De La Cruz Agüero 1997) to depths of 30 m.
154892		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is not thought to be very common in La Paz, Mexico.
154892		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
154893		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>S. triophthalma</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels is needed to determine if this species is undergoing a significant decline in abundance.
154893		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solea triophthalma</span> occurs from Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea. It is not found in the south of Cape Lopez, Gabon.
154893		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solea triophthalma</span> is a demersal species that can be found over sand bottoms (Desoutter 1990) at a depth range of 10 to 30 m. It is also known to enter lagoons. Its diet consists of molluscs and other species of invertebrates. This species has a pelagic larval stage (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154893		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>S. triophthalma</em>.
154893		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solea triophthalma</span> is a commercially landed fish and is caught using bottom trawls and beach seines (FAO 1990), however there is no information concerning landings. This species is also likely to be taken as by-catch in other bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range. The Gulf of Guinea is reported to be overfished and several demersal and pelagic fish species are over-exploited. The Gulf of Guinea also shows signs of ecosystem stress (NOAA 2003). Without landings and abundance data for this species it is difficult to determine what impact these threats are having on the population numbers.
154894		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.
154894		distribution	eng	<em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em> occurs from Sagami Bay to the Ryukyu Trough, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The distribution of this species may extend to China (CAFS 2005), although this requires verification.
154894		habitat	eng	<em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 600-1,000 m. Most Alepoephalidae species inhabit water layers above the continental slope, and oceanic ridges and rises (FAO 2001b).
154894		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em>.
154894		threats	eng	<em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em> is of no commercial importance but does constitute landed catch by fishers and may be taken as by-catch in deep-sea fisheries (FAO 2001b).
154895		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Bluefin Gunard.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Research is needed on the taxonomy of this species to determine if there are genetic differences between the three fragmented subpopulations.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is also needed.
154895		distribution	eng	The Bluefin Gurnard (<em>Chelidonichthys kumu</em>) is an Indo-Pacific searobin, distributed from Mozambique to South Africa in the western Indian Ocean. In the Pacific, this species ranges from Vietnam, north to Japan and South Korea.&#160; It is also reported in the Pacific from southern Australia and New Zealand.
154895		habitat	eng	Bluefin Gurnard is a benthic species that is found over open sand, mud and sandy shell bottoms, at a depth range of 1–200 m.&#160; It is a continental species associated with nutrient rich waters, and is often found in rivers, estuaries and transitional waters.&#160; The juveniles of this species may occur in bays.
154895		population	eng	Bluefin Gurnard is common around New Zealand, except for along the Fiordland coast (Waitangi Tribunal 1992).&#160; This species is also reported to be common in Australia.<br/><br/>Landings statistics over the last 20 years generally show a stable trend (FAO Fishstat 2006). <br/><br/>Catch levels of Bluefin Gurnard in New Zealand have been reported as stable since 1986 and have been below the set sustainable quota (New Zealand Government 2007).&#160; Total landings of the species in New Zealand waters were as follows:<br/><br/>1996–1997 - 2,796 t; 1997–1998 - 2,532 t; 1998–1999 - 2,284 t; 1999–2000 - 2,429 t; 2000–2001 - 3,348 t; 2001–2002 - 3,429 t; 2002–2003 - 3,831 t; 2003–2004 - 3,508 t; 2004–2005 - 3,974 t; 2005–2006 - 3,589 t. <br/><br/>The Total Allowable Catch (TACC) for Bluefin Gurnard in 1996–1997 was 5,281 t; from 1997–1998 to 2001–2002 it was 5,143 t; and from 2002–2003 to 2005–2006 the TACC was 4,993 t (New Zealand Government 2007).<br/><br/>Bluefin Gurnard is also known to be taken by trawls off southern Africa and Australia (Richards 1999) but it is unknown if this species is harvested in other areas of its range.
154895		threats	eng	Bluefin Gurnard is a major by-catch species, mainly in the red cod and flatfish trawl fisheries in parts of New Zealand.&#160; This species is also harvested as a commercial food source.&#160; However, in New Zealand, only 6% of the total catch of this species is actually targeted (New Zealand Government 2007).
154896		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed on the abundance and harvest levels of this species.
154896		distribution	eng	<em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em> is only known from Burdwood Bank, Argentina (Balushkin and Stehmann 1993).
154896		habitat	eng	<em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 155 m to 160 m on soft bottoms (sand/ mud substrates). Most <em>Patagonotothen</em> are small species that are assumed to be opportunistic feeders with a generalist diet, which varies according to the available prey (Laptikhovsky 2004).
154896		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em>.
154896		threats	eng	<em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em> is reported to appear in commercial landings as by-catch (Balushkin and Merret 1996), however the extent to which harvesting of this species is impacting the population size is unknown.
154897		conservation	eng	Minimum landing size is in place in some national regulations, for example Spain (11 cm). It is not known from marine protected areas.
154897		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Poor Cod. Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
154897		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the Trondheim Fjord and the Faeroe Islands to Portugal and along the Atlantic coast of Morocco.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in Spanish waters such as Gulf of Valencia (Salome Morte <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Catalan Sea (Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998) and perhaps the Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea (Dremiere <em>et al.</em> 1999), south Adriatic Sea (Dremiere<em> et al.</em> 1999), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Aegean Sea (Mattiangeli <em>et al.</em> 2003) and in particular in the Gulf of Euboikos (Politou and Papaconstantinou 1994), in the Thracian Sea and in the Themaikos Gulf (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005) and in the Turkish waters (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006).
154897		distribution	eng	The Poor Cod (<em>Trisopterus minutus</em>) is distributed across the western Mediterranean Sea and along the coast of Europe, from Morocco and Gibraltar, to Trondheim Fjord (Svetovidov 1986).
154897		habitat	eng	The Poor Cod occurs in small schools over muddy or sandy bottoms at depths of 15-200 m (120 m in the Mediterranean), though it can be found as deep as 400 m (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990). Its diet consists of crustaceans and small fish (Svetovidov 1986). Maturity is reached at one year of age, and spawning takes place from winter to spring.
154897		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs mostly between 15 to 200 m in the Atlantic and to 120 m in the Mediterranean Sea on muddy or sandy bottoms. <br/><br/>A genetic study carried out in the Mediterranean Sea (Mattiangeli <em>et al.</em> 2003) suggests the presence of two reproductively isolated populations of poor cod.<br/><br/>Crustaceans constitute the main food source for this species (Politou and Papaconstantinou 1994) but <em>T. minutus</em> feeds also on small fish (Salome Morte <em>et al.</em> 2001), and polychaetes (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Its feeding habits vary with size (Politpou and Papaconstantinou 1994, Salome Morte <em>et al.</em> 2001).
154897		population	eng	A study of demersal fish populations around the coasts of the UK and northwestern Europe found Poor Cod to be one of the most abundant demersal fish species (Rogers<em> et al.</em> 1998).
154897		population	eng	Salome Morte<em> et al.</em> (2001) mention that 1,276 specimens were collected in the Gulf of Valencia using bottom trawlers from October 1991 to October 1994 at a depth range from 50 to 175 m. The reproductive season is between January-May.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (268 specimens), November 2001 (112 specimens), March 2002 (14 specimens) and May 2002 (258 specimens) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40mm head rope, a 40mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>Meting <em>et al.</em> (2006) mention that a total of 1,527 specimens of poor cod was collected by trawl fishing between April 2001 and March 2002 from the Izmir Bay (middle Aegean Sea).<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) mention that 780 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 8.4 and 22.6 cm.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) mention that 1 specimen with 10.8cm TL was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.4 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls).
154897		threats	eng	The Poor Cod is considered locally abundant and it is not heavily fished (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990). However, studies of Turkish trawlers found that the equipment did not allow juvenile Poor Cod to escape, but took both adult and immature individuals (Ozbilgin<em> et al.</em> 2005). The harvesting of this species is not considered to be a major threat, as it is of minor commercial importance, and harvesting does not occur throughout its entire range. It has also been described as one of the most abundant demersal species throughout most of its range.
154897		threats	eng	This is a species with commercial importance, used in the production of fish meal and in south Europe as a human food (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Landings in France are from 1,000 to 10,000. It is typically caught in trawl nets. <br/><br/>This species does not have high economic value in some areas and catches are not always landed. Discarded individuals do not survive. <em>Trisopterus minutus</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007) show an increasing trend over the last ten years: <br/><br/>603 (1996), 428 (1997), 428 (1998), 926 (1999), 1,562 (2000), 1,218 (2001), 1,478 (2002), 1,191 (2003), 1,205 (2004), 3,534 (2005).<br/><br/>The above figures are heavily influenced by French and Spanish landings, with figures from Italy appearing in 2005, thus landings may be higher than currently reported. There are no other details to help determine population trends in the Mediterranean Sea.
154898		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span>.&#160; However, its distribution <em></em> may cover numerous marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Further research into the harvest levels of this species for the aquarium trade is needed.
154898		distribution	eng	<em>Eviota storthynx</em> is reported from the Philippines, Yap and Palau, Caroline Islands, Seribu Islands, Java Sea, Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia, and south of Japan.
154898		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span> is a small, cryptic goby, found along rocky shorelines, eelgrass patches, coral flats, mangroves and algal reefs.
154898		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span> is very common in northern Viet Nam near Cac Ba, just east of the mouth of the Red River (R. Winterbottom pers. comm. 2008). It is a very widespread species.
154898		threats	eng	<em>Eviota</em> species are used in the aquarium trade, although it is not considered a common genus.&#160; As <span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span> occupies coastal habitats, it is likely to undergo localised declines in abundance as a result of threats such as destructive fishing practices, coastal development, pollution, sedimentation, and tourism. However, these are not thought to pose a significant threat to the global population of this species.
154899		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius</span><em> wheeleri</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the habitat and ecology of this species, as little information is available at present.&#160; Population trends and by-catch levels should be monitored to determine whether there is any impact from fisheries in the region.&#160; Research into other potential threats and the full range of this species should also be carried out.
154899		distribution	eng	<em>Uropterygius wheeleri</em> is known from Cape Verde, Senegal, and islands in the Bay of Biafra (within the Gulf of Guinea).
154899		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius wheeleri</span> is found in shallow photic waters with sandy or rocky substrate (Smith and Bohlke 1990).
154899		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius</span><em> wheeleri</em> is relatively common and widespread (D. Smith pers. comm. 2009).
154899		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius wheeleri</span> may be threatened by trawling activities within parts of its range.&#160; There is a history of over-exploited fisheries in the region, and consequently, this species may be taken as by-catch in some areas.
154900		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>A number of fisheries management measures have been implemented by China to protect fish stocks in the China Sea. These include a fishing license scheme, closed areas and seasons, mesh size limit, and a limit on the percentage of juvenile fish in the catch (FAO 1999c). The success of the majority of these measures has been criticised (FAO 1999c).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on possible reasons for the large fluctuations seen in the annual landings of this species, as well as a more accurate estimate of the overall rate of population decline.
154900		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Japan, the East China Sea, and the northern part of the South China Sea from Viet Nam to the Formosa Strait, and the Philippines. It is also found around northwestern Australia and the Arafura Sea.
154900		habitat	eng	<em>Nemipterus virgatus</em>, is a demersal species which occurs on sand or mud bottoms. Young <em>N. virgatus</em> generally occur in shallower water, between 18 to 33 m, whilst adult fish can occur down to 220 m (FAO 2001). This species feeds on crustaceans, fishes and cephalopods.  <br/><br/>Male <em>N. virgatus</em> have a faster growth rate than the females, therefore females predominate at small sizes (Egglestone 1970, 1973; Hsu and Liu 1977; Kao and Liu 1979). In the southwestern region of the Sea of Japan females mature at a larger size than in the South China Sea (Kobayashi 2004).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemipterus</span> <em>virgatus</em> are rudimentary hermaphrodites, in which all males have functional testes and rudimentary ovarian portions throughout their life (Takahashi <em>et al</em>. 1989). The main spawning season for the Hong Kong fishery is from April to June, but some individuals have a protracted spawning period to July or August (Li 1954, 1960). Liu and Su (1972) however report the main spawning season from February to June with a peak from February to April in the northern area of the South China Sea. And from March to September from the northern area of the East China Sea. The main spawning grounds in the northern area of the South China Sea are located 90-150 miles southwest and 35 miles south of Hong Kong (Liu and Su 1972).    <p>&#160;</p>
154900		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is taken in commercial quantities by handlines, longlines, and bottom trawls (FAO 2005). Juveniles are also caught in considerable quantities by shrimp trawlers using beam trawls (FAO 2005).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemipterus</span> <em> virgatus</em> is one of the most important commercial fish in the East China Sea and northern South China Sea (Li 1954, Eggleston 1973). The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 250,591 t. The countries with the largest catches were China (246,601 t) and Taiwan Province of China (3,990 t) (FAO 2005).<br/><br/>Catch data from the FAO shows an overall decline over the past 20 years for this species. However, the rate of decline of this species has varied over this period. The highest annual catch for this species was recorded in 1974 at 18,011 t. In 1990, the catch was 12,511 t but from 1998-2007 the catch has fluctuated at levels between 4,824 t and 2,670 t (FAO 2009). The variation in the rate of the decline makes evaluating a percentage decline problematic, but an average decline of at least 30% has been inferred. <br/><br/>The Golden Threadfin Bream is very abundant in the northern part of the South China Sea and southern part of the East China Sea (Russell 1990).
154900		threats	eng	This species is one of the most important commercial fishes in the East China Sea and northern South China Sea. This species is caught using handlines, longlines and bottom trawls; Juvenile<em></em> are also caught in large quantities by shrimp trawlers (FAO 2005).
154901		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Smalltoothed Ponyfish, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends of this species is needed.
154901		distribution	eng	The Smalltoothed Ponyfish <em>(Gazza achlamys</em>) has been recorded in the Indo-Malayan-region, from Sumatra to Java, Flores, Sabah, Ambon, Lombok and the Philippines, and the eastern half of New Guinea to the Solomon Islands. In the North Pacific<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> is reported from the southern Marianas, Pohnpei, Taiwan Province of China, and Okinawa in Japan. In the Indian Ocean, it is found off Sri Lanka and southern India. There have also been reports of this species off the east coast of Australia (FAO 2001) and in the waters around Japan (Kimura <em>et al</em>. 2006), however this needs confirmation.
154901		habitat	eng	The Smalltoothed Ponyfish<em></em> can be found on sandy or muddy substrates in brackish and coastal, inshore waters to a depth of 20 m. This schooling species, feeds mainly on small fishes, crustaceans and polychaetes.
154901		population	eng	There is no population information for the Smalltoothed Ponyfish.
154901		threats	eng	The Smalltoothed Ponyfish is of minor importance to commercial fisheries. This species is caught throughout the year, mainly with bottom trawls; also in bag nets and shore seines. Larger specimens may be marketed fresh or dried-salted, but catches are mostly converted to fishmeal or dumped at sea. There is no indication that this species is undergoing a significant population decline as a result of harvesting.
154903		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Xenomystax trucidans</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, ecology, and potential threats.
154903		distribution	eng	<em>Xenomystax trucidans</em> is only known from the holotype and a few paratypes collected in the Maldives and the Laccadives, Lakshadweep, India.
154903		habitat	eng	<em>Xenomystax trucidans</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; Species of the genus <em>Xenomystax</em> are usually found at depths of 400–800 m.&#160; Members of the family Congridae are primarily benthopelagic, occurring on sand and mud bottoms, and feeding on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (FAO 1999).
154903		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Xenomystax trucidans</em>.
154903		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenomystax trucidans</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154904		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres ornatissimus</span>.     <p>However, most of its area of occurrence falls within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument.</p>
154904		distribution	eng	<p>This name used to be applied to a species widely distributed in the central-west Pacific. Recently, genetic evidence indicates that this name should only be used for the Hawaiian Islands population, with the remaining populations now considered part of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. claudia</span> (Randall & Rocha 2009).</p>
154904		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres ornatissimus</span> is a coral reef associated species, and is found from 1-15 m. It inhabits lagoons and outer seaward reefs, and feeds primarily on small benthic crustaceans and molluscs (Randall 1985).
154904		population	eng	This species is abundant in many parts of its range.
154904		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no known major threats known to <em>Halichoeres ornatissimus</em>.
154905		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lepturacanthus pantului</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how may be impacted by threats such as fishing.
154905		distribution	eng	This species is found from the east coast of India, from the Hooghly estuaries to the Gulf of Mannar.
154905		habitat	eng	<em>Lepturacanthus pantului</em> is a benthopelagic species found in estuaries and coastal waters at a depth range of 0–80 m (Nakamura and Parin 1993).&#160; This species feeds on a variety of organisms including young clupeoids, prawns, the Marine Lizardfish <em>(Harpodon nehereus</em>), <em>Trichiurus</em> spp, small fishes, and crustaceans.
154905		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Lepturacanthus pantului</em>.&#160;  Gupta (1966) described this species from a type series of 55 specimens and therefore it is probably not an uncommon species, at least locally.
154905		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepturacanthus pantului</span> is harvested as a food source.&#160; It is marketed fresh and dried salted.&#160; It is harvested using bag nets, shore seines, boat seines, and with trawls.&#160; The extent of the impacts that these threats are having on poopulation size of this species is unknonw at present.
154906		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri</span>. However, this species distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas.
154906		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri </span>has a circumtropical to subtropical distribution. In the tropical eastern Pacific it is found from Costa Rica to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands and other oceanic islands. In the western Indian Ocean it is found from east Africa to India, including the Seychelles and Madagascar. In the eastern Indian Ocean it is found from Indonesia to Western Australia. In the western Atlantic it is found from Florida to Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from Mauritania to Namibia and in the eastern Pacific from Guatemala to Chile.
154906		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri </span>is found between 20<sup>o</sup> S and 25<sup>o</sup> N and is thought to be limited by the 23.9<sup>o</sup>C isotherm (Omori <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). This species is epipelagic and found to a maximum depth of 200 m.
154906		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri</span> is common throughout its range (FAO 2001). There is no landings data specific to this species.
154906		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
154907		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Cetominus teevani</em>.
154907		distribution	eng	<em>Cetomimus teevani</em> is found in the western central Atlantic off the coast of Bermuda and in the Gulf of Mexico.
154907		habitat	eng	Whalefishes are a rare group of deepsea fishes (Tolley<em> et al.</em> 1989). This is a bathypelagic species that feeds primarily upon crustaceans. More than 180 specimens (of this family) have been collected from all three oceans extending from 41<sup>o</sup>N in the Pacific and Atlantic, to 40<sup>o</sup>S in the Atlantic and 57<sup>o</sup>S in the Pacific. Members of this genus have been found at depths ranging from 900-1,300 m.
154907		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Cetomimus teevani</em>.
154907		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species, it is unlikely that it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.
154908		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Normichthys herringi</em>.&#160; Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that it would be afforded much protection from any marine protected area designations within its range. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, ecology, and potential threats to this species, as little information is available.
154908		distribution	eng	<em>Normichthys herringi</em> is known from two specimens collected in the Arabian Sea.
154908		habitat	eng	<em>Normichthys herringi</em> is a deep water species and has been found at depths of 1,100–2,009 m, but its depth range has not been fully determined.
154908		population	eng	Only two speciemens of <em>Normichthys herringi</em> are known.
154908		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Normichthys herringi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154909		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias albibulbus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, and potential threats to this species.
154909		distribution	eng	<em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is only known from specimens captured near Hawaii off Oahu (Clarke 2001).  However, this is likely to be an artifact of collection effort, rather than a genuine restricted distribution (J. McEachran pers. comm. 2009).
154909		habitat	eng	<em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is an epipelagic and mesopelagic species (Mundy 2005) and has been found at a depth range of 0–350 m.&#160; It appears this species is only known from a few female and juvenile specimens (Clarke 2001).
154909		population	eng	<em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is likely to be found at densities of 1 per 1,000–10,000 m<sup>3</sup> (T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008).
154909		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes (J. McEachran pers. comm. 2009).
154910		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>Apogon neotes</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
154910		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon neotes</em> is a western Central Pacific cardinal fish, known from Tonga, the Philippines, Palau, Maumere Bay (Indonesia) and Mandang, Papua New Guinea.
154910		habitat	eng	<em>Apogon neotes</em> is found on relatively pristine reefs in shallow (3 - 25 m), clear waters of the outer reef and lagoons. It is typically seen in areas of Gorgonian fans and soft corals. Individuals form small schools and utilise crevices in the reef for shelter. This species exhibits distinct pairing during courtship and spawning. The males of this species, mouthbrood the young.
154910		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apogon neotes</span> is a common species that occurs in small aggregations.
154910		threats	eng	This species is not known to be directly targeted for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines from factors affecting habitat quality, such as coral bleaching, cyanide fishing, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, and the negative threats associated with tourism and coastal development. However this species has been recorded from a number of reef systems where human settlement is minimal and so threats associated with coastal development and tourism, are considered negligible.
154911		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caelorinchus aratum</em>. Further research into the ecology and possible threats of this species is needed.
154911		distribution	eng	<em>Caelorinchus aratrum</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is distributed from Hawaii Island to O'ahu Island.
154911		habitat	eng	This species is bathydemersal (Mundy 2005) and is found at a depth range of 385 - 730 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154911		population	eng	Species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154911		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon as it is a deep water species and there is no known commercial fishery for this species even though there is a commercial fishery for other species in the family Macrouridae.
154912		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>A. fleurieu</em>, however this species distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154912		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apogon fleurieu</span> is distributed in the western Indian Ocean from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea along the east coast of Africa to Durban, including the Comoros, Seychelles and Madagascar. In the central Indian Ocean, it ranges from the southern tip of India to Sri Lanka and the Maldives. In the eastern Indian Ocean from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, and north to Hong Kong, and west to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.
154912		habitat	eng	This cryptic species is found in the crevices of shallow coral reefs with moderate currents at a depth range pf 1-30 m. The adults usually form small schools, and demonstrate distinct pairing during courtship and spawning. This species is a mouthbrooder.
154912		population	eng	This species is found usually in small to fairly large aggregations in the vicinity of coral and rocks.
154912		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apogon fleurieu</span> is not impacted by any major threat processes. Although habitat degradation may be causing localised declines, this is not considered to be a major threat to the global population of this wide-ranging species.
154913		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Leviprora inops</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of MPA designations, including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the threat processes and habitat status of this species is needed.
154913		distribution	eng	<em>Leviprora inops</em> ranges from Kangaroo Island off South Australia, to Shark Bay in Western Australia (L. Knapp pers. comm. 2008).
154913		habitat	eng	<em>Leviprora inops</em> is a predatory species most commonly found at depths of less than 10 m, in seagrass beds.&#160; There are also some unverified occurrences of this species at depths of 50 m in the Great Australian Bight (J. Baker pers. comm. 2008).
154913		population	eng	<em>Leviprora inops</em> is common within seagrass beds (Vanderklift<em> et al.</em> 2007).
154913		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leviprora inops</span> does not appear to be a commercial species and nor is it specifically targeted by the sport fishery; however there are records of this species being taken by recreational anglers and spearfishers (e.g. in&#160;southern Western Australia) (J. Baker pers. comm. 2009). The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leviprora inops</span> may be somewhat threatened in  bays where seagrasses have been degraded by coastal discharges and developments,  but there are no data specific to this species&#160;(J. Baker pers. comm.  2009).&#160;  It is therefore unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. inops</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes across its range.
154914		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Long Sound Marine Reserve.&#160; Further monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed .
154914		distribution	eng	The flounder, <em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em>, is found in New Zealand.&#160; This species is most abundant in the Tasman Bay and off the southeast coast of the South Island.
154914		habitat	eng	<em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em> is a demersal species, generally found to inhabit depths less than 50 m.&#160; Specimens can be found in harbours, inlets, bays, and open, deeper waters.&#160; This species shows no marked preference for substrate type, having been found on sand, mud, clay, pebbles, and gravel bottoms.&#160; This species is common on mudflats and in pools left by the receding tide.&#160; Adults have been observed feeding on small crabs, shrimps, shellfish, brittlestars, and worms.&#160; Juveniles use the intertidal and sublittoral areas as nursery grounds for the first two years.
154914		population	eng	<em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em> is a common flatfish in New Zealand (Smith 1987). In Whangateau Harbour, it is found at densities of 0.3–43.0 individuals per 100 m<sup>3</sup> (Roper 1986).
154914		threats	eng	<em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em> one of the most important commercial flatfish species in New Zealand (Parrott 1960).
154915		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154915		distribution	eng	<em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em>&#160; is known from the Red Sea, Mozambique Channel, the Seychelles, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China and Japan. The disjunct distribution may reflect trawl captures and this species may be more widespread than current records show.
154915		habitat	eng	<em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em> is found in open sandy patches. This species often occurs in mid-water aggregations which may contain up to several hundred individuals. This species is found at a depth range of 10 - 20 m. In the Gulf of Aqaba it uses small rock outcrops and debris for nesting (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
154915		population	eng	<em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em> is reported to be common in the Gulf of Aqaba on sandy bottoms (Khalaf <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Gulf of Aqaba despite declining condition of habitat this species population appears to remain stable (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
154915		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Trawl fisheries may represent a threat as well as habitat destruction in some parts of the range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154916		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for the Can-opener Smoothdream.
154916		distribution	eng	The Can-opener Smoothdream, <em>Chaenophryne longiceps</em>, is found in the tropical to temperate parts of all oceans. The most southerly specimen recorded was found off the coast of New Zealand (Stewart and Pietsch 1998).
154916		habitat	eng	The Can-opener Smoothdream is a bathypelagic species. Specimens have been collected at a depth range of 1,500-3,000 m. While the males are dwarfed, they are not parasitic.
154916		population	eng	During the period 1973 to 1999, only 32 individuals were reported by commercial fishermen to Iceland's Marine Research Institute (Jónsson and Pálsson 1999).
154916		threats	eng	The Can-opener Smoothdream has been taken as by-catch in deep water trawls however due to the depth range this species occupies, this is not thought to be a major threat at present.
154917		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Favonigobius exquisitus</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.  Further research and monitoring of the threats to this species should be carried out.
154917		distribution	eng	The Exquisite Sand-goby, <em>Favonigobius exquisitus</em>, is found off New South Wales and Queensland, Australia. It is also reported from the North Island in New Zealand (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2005).
154917		habitat	eng	The Exquisite Sand-goby is a demersal species found in lower shore tide pools. It is also found in coastal bays, harbours, sandy estuaries, and sometimes in seagrass beds (Kuiter 1993). It can usually be found resting on soft substrates.This species feeds on amphipods, polychaetes and mysids.
154917		population	eng	<em>Favonigobius exquisitus</em> is reported to be the most abundant lower shore goby at Manly, Moreton Bay (Ford <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>When sampled off the North Island in New Zealand, this species was found to occur in 211 of 305 beach seines in which 11,962 specimens were collected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2005).
154917		threats	eng	Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it maybe impacted by coastal pollution and development including sewage outflow, sedimentation, and dredging activity however much of the suitable habitat in this species range is in good condition. There is no indication that this species is undergoing a significant decline in population numbers at present.
154918		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em>.
154918		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em> is distributed from the eastern coast of Africa, to the western coast of Australia.&#160; This species has also been recorded from New Caledonia.
154918		habitat	eng	<em>Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em> is a benthopelagic species of cusk eel.&#160; Individuals are typically found at a depth range of 200–500 m.&#160; Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154918		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</span> is reported to be uncommon (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
154918		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting <em>Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em>, due to the deep-water nature of this species.
154919		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ateleopus japonicus</em>.
154919		distribution	eng	<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is a Western Pacific Jellynose fish, known from southern Japan, Taiwan (Shen and Ting 1972), China (Chen 2002), Malaysia (Mohsin <em>et al</em>. 1993), Viet Nam (Phung and Thi 1994) and the Chesterfield Islands, New Caledonia (Kulbicki <em>et al</em>. 1994).
154919		habitat	eng	<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 140 - 600 m. At night it moves up to <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 100 m. Little is known about the biology of species in this family (FAO 1999a).
154919		population	eng	<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is reported to be rare in waters around Taiwan (Shen and Ting 1972), but not uncommon in southern Japan (K. Matsuura pers comm. 2009). The population trend appears to be stable.
154919		threats	eng	Species from the Ateleopodidae family are of no commercial importance (FAO 1999), however <em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> may be taken as by-catch in fishery operations in southern Japan (K. Matsuura pers comm. 2009) and probably elsewhere in its range.
154920		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for Yellowfin Damselfish, <em></em>however the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
154920		distribution	eng	The Yellowfin Damselfish, <em>Chrysiptera flavipinnis,</em> is distributed from Samarai Island (southeast Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia,  south to Sydney, including the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.
154920		habitat	eng	The Yellowfin Damselfish <em></em>inhabits rubble and dead coral outcrops situated in sandy areas at a depth range of 3-38 m. This species can be found individually or in small groups.
154920		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Chrysiptera flavipinnis</em>.
154920		threats	eng	The Yellowfin Damselfish <em></em>is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade. This species may also be threatened by a number of other threats upon its habitat, such as destructive fishing practices, eutrophication, sedimentation, tourism, and coastal development. However these are localised threats only and this species is not dependent on live coral cover.
154921		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Bahia de Loreto National Park in the Gulf of California. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the ecology, population numbers, and potential threat processes of this species is needed.
154921		distribution	eng	<em>Liopropoma longilepis</em> is known from the Gulf of California and southern region of the Gulf of Panama. This species is also reported from Costa Rica (Bussing 1980).
154921		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of the basslet, <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em>, however, it is found at depths between 120 - 250 m on coral reefs.
154921		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em>, however, healthy stocks of <em>Serranidae</em> species have been reported in the Gulf of California (NOAA 2003).
154921		threats	eng	It is unknown if <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Some species from the Serranidae family, particularly members from the Liopropomatini sub-family, are of value as aquarium fishes (FAO 1999). <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em> may also be affected by the altering of ecosystem health in the Gulf of California, caused by pollution and increasing numbers of fishing vessels (NOAA 2003).
154922		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Shiretoko National Park in the Sea of Okhotsk.&#160; Further research is needed on the habitat and ecology of this species, as little information is currently available. &#160; Monitoring of the impacts of fishing and pollutants is also required.
154922		distribution	eng	<em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em> occurs in the northwest Pacific from Japan to the Bering Sea, including the Sea of Okhotsk.
154922		habitat	eng	<em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; The depth profile of this species is 160–1,800 m.
154922		population	eng	There is no available population information for <em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em>.
154922		threats	eng	<em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em> inhabits the Sea of Okhotsk, and is therefore likely to be impacted by oil spills, and the threats associated with heavy shipping traffic, such as bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals (GIWA 2008).  Due to its large size, it also is likely to be taken as by-catch.
154923		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Luciobrotula lineata</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and habitat of this species as little information is available.
154923		distribution	eng	<em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is known from one specimen found floating on the surface near a lava flow by the island of Hawaii.
154923		habitat	eng	The cusk eel <em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is likely to be a benthopelagic species. This species may, like other members of this genus, occur on the bottom at upper slope depths. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
154923		population	eng	<em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is likely to be rare (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999): it has not been recorded since the type specimen was collected in 1950, despite significant survey effort in the area (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154923		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes, but if it does inhabit deeper waters like other members of the genus <em>Luciobrotula</em>, it is unlikely that it is threatened. There is little fishing effort in the area owing to lava flows and the lack of shallower shelf waters (O. Gon, G. R. Allen and J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154924		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notopogon macrosolen</em>.
154924		distribution	eng	<em>Notopogon macrosolen</em> is known from southern Namibia to Saldanha Bay, northwest of Cape Town, South Africa. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 150,693 km<sup>2</sup>.
154924		habitat	eng	<em>Notopogon macrosolen</em> is a bathydemersal species typically found on soft bottoms at a depth range of 200 - 500 m.
154924		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Notopogon macrosolen</em>.
154924		threats	eng	<em>Notopogon macrosolen</em> is occasionally taken as by-catch in trawls off southern Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). There is no catch data available for this species. However due to the depths at which this species is found, the incidental catch of this species is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the population.
154926		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em> Xenopoclinus leprosus</em>.&#160; However, in places, its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas.
154926		distribution	eng	<em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em> is found from from Orange River Mouth in Namibia, to Algoa Bay in South Africa.
154926		habitat	eng	<em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em> is a viviparous species, found over sand and gravel substrates in brackish and marine waters.&#160; It is typically found in bays and estuaries.&#160; The main prey of this species is amphipods and isopods.&#160;  It has been found at depths of 1–23 m.
154926		population	eng	<em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em> is common in intertidal and sandy areas at depths of around 20 m (Smith 1986).
154926		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em>.
154927		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Entomacrodus macrospilus</em>. It is found to occur in a number of marine protected areas in part of its distribution.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and potential threats of this species.
154927		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Marquesas Islands.
154927		habitat	eng	<em>Entomacrodus macrospilus </em>inhabits high energy rocky coasts to a maximum depth of 8 m.
154927		population	eng	<em>Entomacrodus macrospilus</em> is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm. 2009).
154927		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
154928		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Antigonia combatia</em>.
154928		distribution	eng	<em>Antigonia combatia</em> is known from the western central Atlantic ranging from New Jersey, USA to northern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.
154928		habitat	eng	<em>Antigonia combatia</em> is a benthopelagic species found within the upper continental shelf at a depth range of 120 - 600 m. This species feeds on small invertebrates.
154928		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Antigonia combatia</em>.
154928		threats	eng	<em>Antigonia combatia</em> is occasionally landed as a food source but is not of any major commercial importance. There are no known major threats for this species. Due to its deep-water nature it is unlikely to be impacted by many human-induced and climatic threats.
154929		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for<em> Benthocometes robustus</em>.
154929		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
154929		distribution	eng	<em>Benthocometes robustus</em> has been found in the tropical west Atlantic, around northwest Africa, the western Mediterranean Sea, Balearic Sea, southern Sardinia, the Adriatic, eastern Ionian Sea, and off Cyprus. In 1994 this species was also described from southern Brazil (Haimovici <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
154929		distribution	eng	<em>Benthocometes robustus</em> has been found in the tropical west Atlantic, around northwest Africa, the western Mediterranean Sea, Balearic Sea, southern Sardinia, the Adriatic, eastern Ionian Sea, and off Cyprus. There is a record of this species from southern Brazil (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1994), but this needs to be verified.<br/><br/>In the west Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999, Quignard and Tomasini 2000)  is it found off Northwest Africa, in south Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2006), in Balearic Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), in south Sardinia (Cau 1979), in Adriatic Sea (Bello and Rizzi 1988), in east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), at Cyprus (Golani 1996) and in Tuscany and Latium coasts (Biagi <em>et al.</em> 2002).
154929		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species mainly found between depths of 500-1,000 m. However, it can be found at a wider ranging depth profile of 385 - 1,200 m. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous and the larvae of this species are epipelagic (Nielsen 1999).
154929		habitat	eng	This species lives in depths of 100-850 m (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987) and of 385-1,200 m in Balearic Sea (Bello and Rizzi 1988, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004). In east Ionian Sea, it occurs at 503 m (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). Young specimens might be found in shallower waters. It feeds on crustaceans, mainly ostracods (Bougis and Ruivo 1954).
154929		population	eng	<em>Benthocometes robustus</em> has been noted as common (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999) but uncommon in the Mediterranean region (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2006).
154929		population	eng	This is a rare (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Mytilineou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) and uncommon benthopelagic species (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its frequency of occurrence is 1.9 (abundance = 0.1/h) in east Ionian Sea in 145 trawl hauls of one hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
154929		threats	eng	Although this species has no commercial interest, it is not known if there are any major threats to this species such as trawling.
154929		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Benthocometes robustus</em>, due to the deep-water nature of this species.
154930		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Batrachoides surinamensis</em>, however this species may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas affording it some protection from harvesting.
154930		distribution	eng	The Pacuma Toadfish<em> (Batrachoides surinamensis</em>) is found along the coasts of Central and South America from Honduras to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil.
154930		habitat	eng	The Pacuma Toadfish is a relatively inactive demersal species found on muddy substrates in shallow warm brackish waters. It has been found to depths of 36 m. This species mainly feeds upon small gastropods and crustaceans.
154930		population	eng	Pacuma Toadfish have been described as abundant and widely-distributed (B.B. Collette pers. comm. 2008).
154930		threats	eng	Pacuma Toadfish is taken by the commercial fishing industry in Trinidad and French Guiana as a food fish, but is of little commercial importance in Venezuela (Collette 2002). It is marketed fresh. Harvesting for food is not considered to pose a major threat to this species at present as it only occurs within a small part of its range.
154931		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em>, however its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154931		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden.
154931		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudochromis sankeyi</em> is a cryptic species found under rock and coralline ledges, and in caves within the vicinity of coral reefs. It is found on the fore-slope reefs at a depth range of 2 - 10 m. It has been seen congregating in groups of up to 100 individuals (Michael 2001).
154931		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It has been seen congregating in groups of up to 100 individuals (Michael 2001).
154931		threats	eng	Species of the <em>Pseudochromis</em> genus are commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, however it is not known to what extent this particular species is utilised. <br/><br/>It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines owing to coastal development and pollution however these threats are not widespread at present.
154932		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
154932		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parupeneus posteli</span> is endemic to Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean. Although it has not been confirmed, it is possible that this species may also occur in Mauritius due to the small distance between the two islands (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,736km<sup>2</sup>.
154932		habitat	eng	Specimens of <em>Parupeneus posteli</em> have been found at depths between 150 m to 250 m. This species is likely to occur over sand substrate (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154932		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154932		threats	eng	This species is likely to be harvested by hook and line, gillnets and traps (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009), however it is unlikely to be intensively harvested due to its small size and the absence of trawler fisheries within its range. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikley to be threatened by coastal development or pollution.
154933		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Humpback Turretfish.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.
154933		distribution	eng	The Humpback Turretfish <em>(Tetrosomus gibbosus</em>) is distributed from East Africa to Indonesia, north to Japan, and south to Australia.&#160; The distribution of this species includes the Red Sea. It has also spread to the Mediterranean, via the Suez Canal.
154933		habitat	eng	The Humpback Turretfish is usually found in deep offshore waters over coastal slopes and sheltered muddy and sandy substrates.&#160; It is also occasionally found near shallow algae and seagrass beds with silty rubble substrates, and areas of part-destroyed coral reefs, and rocky outcrops.&#160; This species has a depth range of 37–110 m, and feeds on macroalgae and invertebrates, including worms, crustaceans, molluscs, and sponges.
154933		population	eng	The Humpback Turretfish has only recently become established in the Mediterranean. While it is relatively uncommon there now, it may increase in population size in the future (Spanier and Goren 1988).
154933		threats	eng	The Humpback Turretfish is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, although it is known to be difficult to maintain.&#160; It is not harvested as a food source due to its poisonous organs and flesh, however it may be taken as by-catch during trawling (FAO 1984). <br/><br/>More general threats to this species include threats associated with habitat degradation.&#160; Around the Red Sea, there has been considerable dredging and pollution associated with the shipping industry.&#160; However, these threats are not known across the entire range of this species, and are unlikely to be causing any significant population decline at present.
154934		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, population trends, and abundance of this species.
154934		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Congrogadus winterbottomi</span> has only been found from Middle Mangrove Island and Exmouth Gulf, Australia.  No specimens were found either north or south despite further searches (Gill <em>et al.</em> 2000).  The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,008km<sup>2</sup>.
154934		habitat	eng	<em>Congrogadus winterbottomi</em> is found in muddy rock pools within the intertidal zone to a depth of 5 m. This species appears to have a small distribution, which is not an uncommon trait in the Pseudochromidae family (Gill <em>et al</em>. 2000).
154934		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154934		threats	eng	There are plans to build on one of the worlds largest salt marshes at Exmouth Gulf, which could lead to habitat degradation and high levels of larvae mortality (Australian Marine Conservation Society 2007). It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats at present.
154935		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anacanthus barbatus</em>.
154935		distribution	eng	<em>Anacanthus barbatus</em> is distributed from western India, east to the Philippines, and south to northwestern Australia.
154935		habitat	eng	<em>Anacanthus barbatus</em> has a depth range of 3-8 m and inhabits sandy, weedy areas of coastal reefs. It is also found over open muddy substrates in estuaries as well as deep coastal bays and mangroves. This is a cryptic species found lining up with ropes, seawhips, large stringy-type sponges, as well as mangrove roots.
154935		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Anacanthus barbatus</em>.
154935		threats	eng	<em>Anacanthus barbatus</em> is of minor commercial importance (FAO 2001b), and so is not likely to be undergoing a significant population decline.<br/><br/>This species may also be impacted by habitat degradation caused by coastal development, however this is only a localised threat and because this species is found in a number of different habitat types this is not considered a major threat.
154936		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for<em> Chaunax flammeus</em>.
154936		distribution	eng	<em>Chaunax flammeus</em> is found in the western Indian Ocean around Madagascar.
154936		habitat	eng	<em>Chaunax flammeus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 195-810 m. Congener <em>Chaunax stigmaeus</em> has been found sitting on the dense rubble beds of dead coral (<em>Lophelia pertusa</em>) off the southeastern USA. Other congeners have been found on soft bottoms (Caruso<em> et al.</em> 2007). Species from the Chaunacidae family occur on continental slopes (FAO 1999).
154936		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for this species.
154936		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats due to the depth range at which it can be found.
154937		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Spotted Velvetfish. <br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, distribution and harvest levels of this species is needed.
154937		distribution	eng	The Spotted Velvetfish (<em>Erisphex pottii</em>) is distributed from Matsushima Bay and Niigata Prefecture, Japan southward to the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This species has recently been reported from the Chesterfield Islands (Kulbicki <em>et al</em>. 1994).
154937		habitat	eng	The Spotted Velvetfish can be found over sand or mud bottoms. Froese and Pauly (2007) state that this species inhabits shallow waters, whilst Masuda <em>et al</em>. (1975) report that this species' is found in fairly deep waters.
154937		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Spotted Velvetfish.
154937		threats	eng	The Spotted Velvetfish is harvested for use in animal feeds and fertilisers (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975). It is not known what impact this is having on the population numbers of this species. Threats cannot be determined without a depth profile for this species.
154938		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bhanotia nuda</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.
154938		distribution	eng	<em>Bhanotia nuda</em> is known from Palau and Maiwara Island, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. The area in which this species is distributed is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
154938		habitat	eng	<em>Bhanotia nuda</em> is a small and secretive species found on shallow algae reef habitats, in tidal pools and in sheltered reef flats (Kuiter 2000). It is also known from the vicinity of mangrove forests, coral reefs, and silty waters. Metamorphosed individuals of this species may be found in tide pools to a depth of at least 14 m (Myers 1991). Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).
154938		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bhanotia nuda</em>.
154938		threats	eng	<em>Bhanotia nuda</em> is known from a number of habitat types including mangroves, silty coastal waters, algal reefs and coral reef systems, some of which are threatened.  However, since this species utilizes a number of different habitats, there are no known specific major threats.
154939		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
154939		distribution	eng	The Western Atlantic Finless Eel<em> (Apterichtus kendalli) </em>is distributed from Venezuela, north to South Carolina including the Bahamas. One specimen of this species has also been collected from St. Helena Island in the eastern Atlantic.
154939		habitat	eng	The Western Atlantic Finless Eel<em> </em>is a demersal species with a depth range of 3 - 400 m. This species burrows into the sand and can be found within the continental shelf. Species from the Ophichthidae family have a pelagic leptocephalus larva (FAO 2002).
154939		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Apterichtus kendalli</em>, however, species from the family Ophichthidae are often extremely abundant (FAO 2002).
154939		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Although no direct fishery exists for finless eels, the larger species' from this family are taken as by-catch by trawls and hook-and-line (FAO 2002). Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution from urban centres.
154940		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Painted Anthias. However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154940		distribution	eng	The Painted Anthias <em>(Pseudanthias pictilis</em>) has been found off New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island, and the southern Great Barrier Reef.&#160;  It is also known from Norfolk Island and Tonga.
154940		habitat	eng	The Painted Anthias occurs in aggregations above steep slopes on the outer reef.&#160;  The depth profile of this species is 12-40 m, in the euphotic zone.
154940		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Painted Anthias
154940		threats	eng	While not considered as major threats to the Painted Anthias, areas within this species' range have been impacted by Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching.
154941		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species distribution, population status, biology, ecology and threats.
154941		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico, and is only known from the holotype taken from the stomach of a White Seabass at Thetis Bank off the west coast of Baja California (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).
154941		habitat	eng	There is little known about this species biology or ecology.
154941		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154941		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
154942		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span>. However, this species' distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
154942		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from the eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
154942		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span> lives in coastal and estuarine waters at depths of 10–30 m.
154942		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span> is considered common, based on shrimp trawls and market surveys in the Gulf of Nicoya in Costa Rica, Panama Bay in Panama, and Colombia.
154942		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, <span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span>  is important in commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh.
154943		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Whitelegg's weedfish.
154943		distribution	eng	Whitelegg's weedfish (<em>Heteroclinus whiteleggii</em>) is endemic to the waters of New South Wales, Australia, from Byron Bay to Jervis Bay.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,248km<sup>2</sup>.
154943		habitat	eng	Whitelegg's weedfish is associated with rocks covered in algae and is found in rockpools, intertidal areas and shallow weed-covered rocky reefs. It is a bottom dwelling species found in shallow waters from the surface to 3 m depth.
154943		population	eng	There is no population information available for Whitelegg's weedfish.
154943		threats	eng	Whitelegg's weedfish occurs in a developed area of New South Wales.&#160;  However, potential threats such as water pollution are thought to be unlikely to impact this species across its entire range.&#160;  There is no documented population decline for this species.
154944		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parapercis striolata</em>.
154944		distribution	eng	The sandperch, <em>Parapercis striolata</em>, is only known from two specimens collected from the Kai Islands, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
154944		habitat	eng	<em>Parapercis striolata</em> is a demersal species which inhabits the continental slope.&#160; Males of other species in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis</span> genus are territorial and maintain harems (FAO 2001b).&#160;  One of the two known specimens was found at a depth of 310 m.
154944		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis striolata</span>.&#160;  This species' habitat is difficult to sample.
154944		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis striolata</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes. There are no known major threats on the deeper continental slope areas where this species has been collected.
154945		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Psudanthias cichlops</em>. However, there are 52 marine protected areas around Japan, some which incorporate this species' rocky reef habitat. There are also conservation management plans for reefs off the coast of Japan, as well as Crown of Thorns starfish extermination projects, which have been met with some success. Further research is needed on threats to this species and its habitat status.
154945		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Pseudanthias cichlops</em> extends south from Japan to the Indian Ocean.
154945		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudanthias cichlops</em> is found in the mid-euphotic zone at depths ranging of 20-40 m on rocky tropical reefs and current-prone soft-bottom slopes.
154945		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudanthias cichlops</em>.
154945		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Pseudanthias cichlops </em>is being impacted by any major threat processes.  Although this species is not harvested for the aquarium trade, other species within the <em>Pseudanthias</em> genus are regularly collected.  Rocky tropical reefs within this species' range are susceptible to habitat degradation from dynamite fishing, but this is currently considered to be a localized threat only.
154946		conservation	eng	The Queensland Fishery is regulated under Queensland's Fisheries Regulations 1995. Regulations include a bag limit of five individuals and minimal size limit of 50 cm, that applies to both commercial and recreational fishers on the East Coast of Queensland. Recreational fishers are also limited to 30 school mackerel per fishing trip. Commercial fishers must also have a licence with a fishery symbol from Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries allowing them to fish for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>school mackerel<em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></em> (CRC 2005). These licenses also regulate fishing practices and gear. While it is likely that the school mackerel harvest is sustainable, its status will remain 'uncertain' until there is greater confidence in the commercial rate date and better quantification of the recreational harvest (SS 2011).
154946		distribution	eng	<em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is distributed from southern Papua New Guinea and northern Australia, south from Shark Bay to Onslow on the west coast and south to Sydney on the east coast (Collette and Nauen 1983).
154946		habitat	eng	<p><em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus queenslandicus</span> is an epipelagic, neritic schooling species, which often inhabits turbid coastal waters in embayments and estuaries (Begg and Hopper 1997, Begg and Sellin 1998). It forms mixed schools with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. commerson </span>over shallow reefs offshore of Queensland. <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus queenslandicus</span> is seasonally migratory and moves into inshore waters, bays and estuaries of Queensland during the southern midwinter and early spring. The depth profile of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. queenslandicus</span> has a lower limit of around 100 m. However, it often inhabits very turbid coastal waters shallower than 30 m. Common length is 50–80 cm fork length (FL).<br/><br/>School Mackerel spawn between October and January along the east coast of Queensland (Begg 1998). Age of maturity is 1.5 years, length of females at 50% maturity is 40–45 cm FL, and length of males at 50% maturity is 35–40 cm FL (Begg 1998). Maximum age is 10 years based on a growth study using otoliths (Begg 1998). Maximum length is 100 cm FL (Collette 1983).<br/></p>
154946		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus queenslandicus</span> is taken with others of its genus in a fishery in Queensland with a reported annual take of 129–144 t in 2006-2010 (ASR 2011).<br/><br/>The catch per unit effort (CPUE) for this species was stable from 1998–2003 (CRC 2005). Commercial catches from 1999–2000 increased significantly, while recreational catches decreased. This led to a change in management in 2002, where commercial net fishers are now prohibited from targeting this species. A formal stock assessment has been conducted (CRC 2005). Total landings in 2006–2010 ranged from 19–144 tons per year; in 2009–2010, 136 tons of which 114 tons were taken with nets and 21 tons by line (ASR 2011).
154946		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus queenslandicus</span> is of commercial importance to fisheries and is marketed fresh. <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus queenslandicus</span> together with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. munroi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. semifasciatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. commerson</span> forms important commercial and recreational fisheries throughout Queensland, the Northern Territory, Western Australia, and to a lesser extent northern New South Wales (Begg and Sellin 1998). In 1999 the Torres Strait Fishery was expanded to include <span style="font-style: italic;">S. queenslandicus </span>(Torres Strait PZJA 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus queenslandicus</span> were caught by commercial fishers with set mesh nets, drift nets or ring nets,&#160; up to 2002, and by recreational fishermen using hook and line. Surveys conducted across Queensland's recreational fisheries, revealed that 40–65% of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. queenslandicus</span> landed are caught by recreational fishers (CRC 2005).
154947		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
154947		distribution	eng	<em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em> is a species known from Brunei, eastern Sabah to the Solomon Islands and in the south central islands of Indonesia.
154947		habitat	eng	<em></em> <em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em> is found on coastal fringing reefs and lagoons to 10 m. It is solitary or in small groups on coral outcroppings.<br/><br/>For most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius, </span>juveniles and adults are almost entirely restricted to subtidal habitats with living coral.&#160; Little information is available on the reproductive habits and the early life history of species of this genus (Springer 1988).
154947		population	eng	<em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em> is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm. 2009).
154947		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius </span>are likely to be collected for the aquarium trade.
154948		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em>.
154948		distribution	eng	<em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em> is known from Japan (Sagami Bay, Suruga Bay, Kumano Nada, Tosa Bay and Okinawa Trough) and the Sulu Sea, Philippines.
154948		habitat	eng	<em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em> is a meso-/bathypelagic species with a depth range of 100-3,178 m. Some species of the Stomiidae family migrate to near surface at night. The diet of this family is thought to consist of midwater fishes (FAO 1999).
154948		population	eng	There is no known population information for <em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em>.
154948		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of <em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em>, it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species.
154949		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology, population numbers and potential threat processes.
154949		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em> is endemic to the west coast of Tasmania, Australia.
154949		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth range of 1,120–1,220 m.
154949		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis atrolabiatus</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
154949		threats	eng	It is unknown if <em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154950		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas, including several in the Virgin Islands.&#160; A seagrass monitoring scheme was established in 2004 which involves the twice yearly assessment of several seagrass sites around the islands (BVI Government 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, to establish if <em>A. amplicirrus</em> does consist of two separate species.
154950		distribution	eng	<em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em> has been found in the western central Atlantic, around the Virgin Islands, Belize and Southern Mexico.&#160; It has also been found around Florida, although it is not certain whether this is the same species (Johnson and Greenfield 1983). Its type locality is in the Virgin Islands.&#160; Specimens from Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados are also recorded in Fishbase, but these records need to be confirmed.
154950		habitat	eng	<em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em> is normally found in shallow waters not exceeding a depth of 1.5 metres, over seagrass beds (Johnson and Greenfield 1983), corals and rocky bottoms, but it has also been collected at a depth of 20 m (Royal Ontario Museum).
154950		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em>.
154950		threats	eng	<em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em> is found in a number of different habitat types, including coral, rocky bottoms and sea grass beds, which is likely to buffer it from the impacts of known threats in this region.
154951		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lethrinus genivittatus.</em>&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of <em>L. genivittatus</em>, to ensure that individuals of this species are not misidentified as other species.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest is also needed.
154951		distribution	eng	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is an Indo-Pacific emperor fish, distributed from Indonesia (including the Indian Ocean side) east to the Caroline Islands and Papua New Guinea, north to southern Japan, and south to Northern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia) and New Caledonia.
154951		habitat	eng	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is a shallow water species associated with seagrass beds, sand flats, mangrove swamps and outer-reef slopes.&#160; It is predominately found on <em>Halimeda</em> beds, and rarely on reefs and <em>Sargassum</em> beds in the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia; this is thought to be related to substrate composition rather than algae presence (Rossier and Kulbicki 2000).&#160; This species also penetrates into rivers in some areas.&#160; Individuals feed mostly on small fishes and crustaceans.&#160; <em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and length at sex change is recorded to be 18.0 cm (TL) (Allsop and West 2003).
154951		population	eng	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> was reported to be the most dominant species associated with the cactus algae, <em>Halimeda,</em> in the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia, with a density of 0.032 fish/m<sup>2</sup> (Rossier and Kulbicki 2000).
154951		threats	eng	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is of minor commercial importance due to its small average size.&#160; It is mostly caught using shore seines and is marketed fresh.&#160; The harvesting of this species as a food source is not considered a major threat.<br/><br/><em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is associated with a variety of habitats which are subjected to a number of threats including water pollution, deforestation of mangroves, over-fishing, tourism, coastal development, and increasing sea temperatures.&#160; However, these localised threats are not known across this species' entire range and so are not considered a major threat to this species.&#160; In addition, this species is known from a number of habitat types.
154952		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>Apogonichthys ocellatus</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154952		distribution	eng	<em>Apogonichthys ocellatus</em> is distributed from the east and south coast of Africa to the Marshall Islands, north to southern Japan and south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. This species is also known from Tonga and throughout French Polynesia.
154952		habitat	eng	<em>Apogonichthys ocellatus</em> is found in shallow lagoons and tidal pools, bays and harbours hiding among rocks, coral rubble or clumps of brown algae to maximum depths of 5 m. It is a nocturnal species, that utilises rocky reefs as a means of shelter during the day. Individuals demonstrate distinct pairing during courtship and spawning.
154952		population	eng	This is a secretive and cryptic species but it is common within suitable habitat.
154952		threats	eng	This species is not known to be harvested for commecial trade. It may be taken incidentally by local fishers using handnets on rocky reefs to capture other species, however this is a localised threat and not known across the entire distribution range of this species. This species does not appear to be linked to a particular habitat type and can be found in harbour areas, indicating a level of tolerance to sources of water pollution. This species is not threatened by any major threats.
154953		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with several marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers and the severity of potential threats to this species as little information is currently available.
154953		distribution	eng	<em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>is found in the Arctic and is distributed from the White Sea of Russia to Hershel Island, Canada, including the New Siberian Islands.
154953		habitat	eng	The eelpout, <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>, is a demersal species that has a depth range of 9–90 m and is found in shallow, inshore waters.&#160; It is found on soft bottoms of brackish water with a salinity range of 15–27 ppt.&#160; This species feeds on a mix of isopods, bivalves and polychaetes.
154953		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>.
154953		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em> is being impacted by any major threatening processes.&#160; This species inhabits relatively shallow inshore areas, and is therefore possibly impacted by coastal pollution.&#160; It may also be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range.
154954		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures known for <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.
154954		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum </span>is found in southern Baja and the Central Gulf of California to Ecuador. It is also known from all the offshore islands except for Clipperton.
154954		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span> forms aggregations that feed on plankton around rocky and coral reefs to depths of 45 m. It also feeds on benthic crustaceans, and fish eggs; and the young sometimes "clean" parasites from other fishes. It is a pelagic spawner, and sex reversal is completed in 2–6 weeks (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987; Warner 1982).
154954		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span> is abundant but there are no specific estimates of population (J.H. Choat, pers. comm. 2008 as pers. comm. from R. Robertson).
154954		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span>. It could possibly be collected for the aquarium trade.
154955		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sillago indica</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the range, abundance and harvest levels of this species.
154955		distribution	eng	<em>Sillago indica</em> is known from the east and west coasts of India, and along the coast of Oman. This species distribution may extend along the coastlines of other countries, however it is difficult to identify and so the full distribution range of this species is not yet known (N. Lang pers. comm. 2008).
154955		habitat	eng	<em>Sillago indica</em> inhabits coastal waters at a depth range of 0 - 30 m.
154955		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Sillago indica</em>.
154955		threats	eng	It is thought that <em>Sillago indica</em> is taken by the commercial fishing industry as by-catch, however considering the difficulties in identifying this species, we cannot be sure of the harvest rate (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). It is unlikely to be taken as a food source due to its small size (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154956		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zeus capensis</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with several designated marine protected areas.
154956		distribution	eng	<em>Zeus capensis</em> is distributed from Namibia, around the Cape to Mozambique.
154956		habitat	eng	The dory, <em>Zeus capensis</em>, is a demersal species found at a depth range of 35-400 m on the continental shelf and slope. It has been found in midwater and close to the seafloor. The diet of this species consists of fish, cephalopods and crustaceans.
154956		population	eng	Bianchi <em>et al</em>. (1999) noted that <em>Zeus capensis</em> was among the dominant fish species on the central shelf along Namibia, an area at the northern most limit of this species' range.  It is also common off the coast of South Africa (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154956		threats	eng	<em>Zeus capensis</em> is an excellent food fish, caught by demersal trawling, and is often taken as by-catch in hake fisheries (Rheeder and Sauer 1998). It is marketed both fresh and frozen. However, this is not thought to represent a major threat to this species at present.
154957		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas within its range. In Costa Rica it is found in Marino Ballena National Park, Isla del Caño Biological Reserve, and Santa Rosa National Park. In Panama it is found in Coiba National Park, Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection, and Coiba National Park (WDPA 2006).
154957		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Central Pacific, and is only known from Costa Rica and Panama. The area of occupancy for this species is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given its restricted near-shore range and very shallow-water habitat.
154957		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on shallow rocky or coral reefs and in tide pools to depths of five m.
154957		population	eng	This species is uncommon, and is rarely recorded despite directed surveys involving appropriate techniques for cryptic species.
154957		threats	eng	Major threats for this species include habitat degradation and destruction due to diving, extraction of corals or live rocks, blast fishing, etc. (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). This species may also be susceptible to current or future ENSO events,  given its very narrow and shallow depth range (Glynn 1991, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Hughes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, D’Croz and Maté 2004).
154958		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Heteroclinus roseus</em>.&#160; However, it may occur within the Lord Howe Island Marine Park.
154958		distribution	eng	<em>Heteroclinus roseus</em> is a Pacifc weedfish known from Western Australia to New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Vanuatu (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154958		habitat	eng	<em>Heteroclinus roseus</em> is a cryptic species that inhabits seaweed and kelp belts along the coast of Western Australia, and is often associated with rocks covered in algae.&#160; It is a bottom dwelling species found in the shallow photic zone.
154958		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroclinus roseus</span>.
154958		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroclinus roseus</span>.&#160; The coastline of Southern Australia is relatively unaffected by coastal development and pollution at present.
154959		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Gorgonian Goby, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
154959		distribution	eng	The Gorgonian Goby <em>(Bryaninops amplus)</em> is distributed from Natal in South Africa, Madagascar, the Maldives and Seychelles, to the Hawaiian Islands, north to Southern Japan, and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and the Northern Territory, Australia.
154959		habitat	eng	The Gorgonian Goby<em></em> is&#160; a demersal species that has a depth range of 1 - 30 m. It lives exclusively on, or in close association with gorgonian seawhips, <em>Juncella fragilis</em> and <em>J. juncea</em>, which usually occur in groups in areas exposed to currents; these can be found in the vicinity of coral reefs. This species may also live in association with other species such as <em>Ellisella maculata</em>, or even on mooring lines. Individuals are benthic spawners.
154959		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Gorgonian Goby.
154959		threats	eng	The Gorgonian Goby,<em> Bryaninops amplus</em>, is harvested for aquarium trade, however this is not considered a major threat to this species as it is only harvested on a small scale in a few areas of its distribution.
154960		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Scarus oviceps</em>, however the distribution covers some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of harvest levels of this species is needed to ensure that any increased demand for this species does not result in a significant decline.
154960		distribution	eng	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Pacific Oceans to the Society Islands and Tuamoto Archipelago. Its range extends west to the eastern Indian Ocean including Western Australia (south to Shark Bay), Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands.
154960		habitat	eng	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> inhabits lagoons and seaward coral reefs on the outer slope at a depth range of 1 - 15 m. This species is typically found individually and in groups (juvenilles and initial phase) (G.R. Alllen pers. comm. 2009). <em>Scarus oviceps</em> scrapes coralline surfaces for microlagae. It is also feeds on the faecal matter of damselfish (Bailey and Robertson 1982).
154960		population	eng	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> is a common species of parrotfish (Bailey and Robertson 1982).
154960		threats	eng	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> is harvested commercially as a food fish using traps, gill nets and spearing. It may be undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and pollution. At present there is no evidence to suggest that this species is undergoing a significant decline as a result of any of the mentioned threats.
154961		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for  <em>Parapercis somaliensis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154961		distribution	eng	<em>Parapercis somaliensis</em> is known from the Red Sea, Somalia, Sumbawa, Indonesia, Taiwan (Chen 2004), Japan (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), Java and Comoros (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154961		habitat	eng	<em>Parapercis somaliensis</em> occurs on deep coastal slopes and is sometimes collected in deep water trawls (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).&#160; Species of the family Pinguipedidae are carnivorous, feeding primarily on benthic crustaceans and occasionally on small fishes (FAO 2001b).&#160; It is expected that all members of the genus are protogynous hermaphrodites.&#160; Males of other species in this genus are territorial and maintain harems (FAO 2001b).&#160; This species is taken in trawls at a depth range of 50–110 m (Russian Academy of Science 2002).
154961		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Parapercis somaliensis</em>.
154961		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting <em>Parapercis somaliensis</em>.
154962		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em></em><br/><br/>Further research on the possible threats of this species is needed to determine if it is taken as by-catch and in what quantity.
154962		distribution	eng	The Upturned Snout Rattail, <em>Caelorinchus mycterismus</em>, is known from the Wanganella Bank and northern and central New Zealand waters including the Chatham Rise and the Challenger Plateau.
154962		habitat	eng	The Upturned Snout Rattail is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 833-1,150 m over plateaus and seamounts. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154962		population	eng	The Upturned Snout Rattail is reported to be an abundant species particularly around the North Island and on the Challenger Plateau.
154962		threats	eng	As this species is known from some commercial fishing grounds, Challenger Plateau, it is possible it may be taken as by-catch by a number of fisheries. However it is reported to be an abundant species in this area and so is not thought to be undergoing a significant population decline at the present time.
154963		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Priolepis sticta</em>. Further research on the distribution, abundance and threats for this species should be carried out.
154963		distribution	eng	<em>Priolepis sticta</em> is known from only eight specimens taken from a single locality off Flores, Indonesia. Winterbottom and Burridge (1992) state that this species "may be more widely distributed than present evidence indicates".
154963		habitat	eng	Like other gobies, <em>Priolepis sticta</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Specimens were collected from muddy substrates at a depth of 16–17 m, but its complete depth range is not known.
154963		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis sticta</span>.
154963		threats	eng	Nothing is known about potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis sticta</span>.
154964		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Duckbill Eel.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Isla de Aves Wildlife Refuge off the coast of Venezuela.&#160; Further research is needed on  its distribution, abundance, and threats, including monitoring of by-catch levels.
154964		distribution	eng	The Duckbill Eel (<em>Hoplunnis schmidti</em>) occurs off the coast of Venezuela.&#160; It has also been reported from the northwest coast of Africa (Maurin and Quero 1982), but this is thought to be a misidentification (D. Smith pers. comm. 2008).
154964		habitat	eng	The Duckbill Eel is a demersal species.&#160; Species from the Nettastomatidae family are known to live on or near the bottom in moderately deep water (Carpenter 2002).
154964		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Duckbill Eel.
154964		threats	eng	It is unknown if the Duckbill Eel is being impacted by any major threats.&#160; Species from the Nettastomatidae family have no commercial value but they are occasionally taken as by-catch in trawls (Carpenter 2002).&#160; Fishing off the coast of Venezuela is intense and the annual landings of fish from Venezuela in the past decade have generally declined indicating the area is being over-fished (Earthtrend 2007).&#160; It is therefore quite likely that the Duckbill Eel is taken as by-catch in some parts of its range.&#160; However, there are no data available to indicate the scale of this by-catch and whether this is causing population declines in this species.
154965		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acreichthys hajam</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>This species appears to be restricted to coral reefs and seagrass beds. Information is needed to determine if threats to these habitats are substantial threats to the species.
154965		distribution	eng	<em>Acreichthys hajam</em> is a northwestern Pacific filefish, known from the Ryukyu Islands and the Philippines.
154965		habitat	eng	<em>Acreichthys hajam</em> is a demersal species, which has been collected near coral reef habitats (Situ and Sadovy 2004) and seagrass beds (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009). Many species of the family Monacanthidae are omnivorous and will feed on almost any food source.
154965		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Acreichthys hajam</em>. It may be locally abundant in seagrass beds (K. Matsuura pers.comm.  2009).
154965		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting<em> Acreichthys hajam.<br/></em>
154966		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology, population numbers, potential threat processes, and distribution of this species.
154966		distribution	eng	The rare filefish <em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em>, is only known from three specimens collected from Fiji, New Caledonia and Kii Peninsula, Japan.
154966		habitat	eng	<em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em> is a demersal species that has been collected at a depth range of 130 to 210 m although its true depth range is yet to be determined.
154966		population	eng	<em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em> is reported to be rare (Matsuura 1999).
154966		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em> is being impacted by any major threats.
154967		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Amblygobius buanensis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations.
154967		distribution	eng	The Buan Goby (<em>Amblygobius buanensis</em>) is distributed from the southern Philippines to Java, Indonesia. This species has also been reported from Palau, Micronesia.
154967		habitat	eng	The species is found in silty, inner tidal flats near mangroves, on inner silty reefs, and in seagrass beds, to a depth of 15 m. This goby feeds on small invertebrates and organic matter.
154967		population	eng	The Buan Goby is very common within the Palau region and is the most abundant species of this genus (R. Winterbottom pers. comm. 2008).
154967		threats	eng	The Buan Goby is associated with, but is not restricted to, mangrove habitats.&#160; The mangroves of the Philippines and Indonesia are threatened by population pressures, large-scale harvest, and conversion to aquaculture ponds (Ong 2002).&#160; It has been estimated that the mangrove area in the Philippines has decreased from 4,500 km² in 1945, to 1,325 km² in 1995 (Valiela <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; The annual rate of mangrove loss in Asia is estimated to be 628 km² per year (Valiela <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; However, since the species occurs in a number of habitat types and has a tolerance for silty inner reefs, the above mentioned threats are not likely to be having a significant impact on the population at present (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
154968		conservation	eng	There are directives in place to manage the pilchard stocks, in which <em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> is included, in South Africa. These include a minimum mesh size of 28 mm, a closed winter season and monitoring at factory landing sites (FAO 2001).
154968		distribution	eng	<em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> occurs in the southeast Atlantic from Walvis Bay in Namibia to Durban in South Africa.
154968		habitat	eng	<em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> is typically found to occur inshore. Juveniles shoal in near-shore upwelling zones, while adults occur in the deeper waters by the continental shelf edge (Agenbag 2003). This epipelagic species ranges in depth from just below the surface to 200 m. This species is likely to have a short longevity and generation length.
154968		population	eng	This species undergoes natural fluctuations in population numbers (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
154968		threats	eng	<em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> is commercially harvested by both South Africa and Namibian fisheries. There have been fluctuations in the landings of this species over the last 20 years, however there does not appear to be any evidence of a decline in the reported FAO landings (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009), assuming fishing effort has been relatively constant. Landings vary between 30,000 to 55,000 tonnes annually (FishStat 2009). The short longevity of these species renders them less vulnerable to moderate exploitation.<br/><br/>The landing data for this species may be confused with <em>Etrumeus teres</em> in southern Africa (Whitehead 1985).
154969		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Kuronezumia bubonis</em>.
154969		distribution	eng	<em>Kuronezumia bubonis</em> has been reported from French Guiana and Suriname in the western Atlantic (Uyeno <em>et al</em>. 1983), South Africa and Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean (Iwamoto and Anderson 1994), Australia (Paxton<em> et al</em>. 1989), New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al</em>. 1989, Iwamoto and Anderson 1994) and Hawaii (Mundy 2005) in the Pacific.
154969		habitat	eng	<em>Kuronezumia bubonis</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 585-1,300 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found on the upper continental slope (FAO 1999), and typically feed on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish and cephalopods. Macrouridae species are usually schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154969		population	eng	Species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
154969		threats	eng	There is no known commercial fishery for this species. Due to the size of this species, it may on occasion be taken as by-catch, however, this is only likely if it is in the upper region of its depth range, and is therefore unlikely to be a major threat.
154970		conservation	eng	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is farmed for aquaculture and may be bred in captivity for this purpose.&#160; The distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
154970		distribution	eng	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is distributed in coastal waters around the western Atlantic from Massachusetts, east to Bermuda, and south to Argentina, including the Northern and Southern Gulf of Mexico, (McEachran and Fechhelm 2005) and the Caribbean Sea.
154970		habitat	eng	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is a coastal species found in sub-tropical climates at a depth range of 0–12 m.&#160; Adults of this species are usually found in clear coastal areas and in the surf zone along sandy beaches where they form large schools.&#160; They are also found around reefs and rocky areas (FAO 2002).&#160; Juveniles are common near clean, sandy beaches.&#160; This species is usually associated with high water salinity (FAO 2002).&#160;&#160;<em>Trachinotus</em><em> goodei</em> feeds on crustaceans, polychaete worms, insect pupae, molluscs, and fishes.
154970		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus goodei.</span>
154970		threats	eng	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is fished commercially, and is caught using seines and by sport fishers with hook-and-line.&#160; This species is not fished selectively and is found in Central and South American markets (FAO 2002).&#160; This species is also farmed for aquaculture, therefore commercial harvesting is unlikely to be a major threat to this species.
154971		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Scarus viridifucatus</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
154971		distribution	eng	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> is distributed in the Indian Ocean from Mozambique to Somalia, and also the Maldives, Seychelles and Madagascar. This species has also been found in Thailand, Bali, and Sulawesi (Satapoomin, Kuiter and Randall 1994).
154971		habitat	eng	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> is found in shallow waters at a depth range of 2 - 15 m. At atoll sites, this species is usually found on coral reef flats or the shallower areas around the front of the reef. This species is also found along rocky shores of islands (Randall and Bruce 1983). This species feeds upon benthic algae.
154971		population	eng	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> appears to be common throughout its range, especially in the western Indian Ocean (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154971		threats	eng	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> is harvested throughout most of its range, as a food source. It is harvested using artisinal fishing gear such as nets and traps. There is no current evidence to suggest that this is causing a significant decline in the global population.<br/><br/>Due to this species association with coral reef habitats it is likely to be undergoing declines due to threats on its habitat including destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, coastal development, pollution, and tourism. However these are localised threats and not considered a major threat to this wide ranging species.
154972		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas. Within the Mediterranean, a Strategic Action Plan has been developed to deal with the impacts of land-based pollution sources on the marine ecosystem. Further research and monitoring of the population size and habitat status of this species is needed to determine the extent to which it is impacted by threats such as pollution.</p>
154972		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (Golani et al. 2006). It is distributed throughout the north-west and east Mediterranean Sea. It is found also in the Balearic Islands, in Ibiza (Fischer et al. 2007).</p>
154972		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky shores, and dimly lit biotopes like overhanging rocks or caves. This species is common in rocky reefs along the Israeli coast. It is found in shallow water, primarily 0-2 m, among algae (Goren pers. comm. 2007, Goren and Galil 2001).      <p>This species grazes on periphyton (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen, 1966). The female deposits eggs inside an empty mussel and the male tends the clutch (Schönfelder 2002).</p>
154972		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Red Blenny.
154972		threats	eng	<p>This bottom-dwelling species is threatened by habitat degradation caused by pollution discharges and oil spills. In the Mediterranean Sea, oil spills occur frequently. The large majority of oil input into the Mediterranean Sea is chronic, stemming from rivers and municipal sources. </p>  <p>&#160; </p>        <p>The Black Sea ecosystem is under severe threat from eutrophication. The sea has a large drainage basin and is impacted by domestic and industrial waste, sewage, agricultural nitrates and phosphates, fisheries waste, coastal development and shipping traffic. There are regular beach closures due to water quality issues. The Mediterranean is also under threat from similar problems, but not on the same scale as the Black Sea.</p>    <p>&#160; </p>    <p>While this species is unlikley to be suffering declines due to direct habitat destruction, many of the pollutants will be impacting this species physiologically or altering the Black Sea food web. It is therefore not known to what extent these threats are affecting this species population.</p>
154973		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this <em>Bassozetus robustus</em>.
154973		distribution	eng	<em>Bassozetus robustus</em> is distributed in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the Atlantic this species is distributed from North Carolina to Colombia, including the Gulf of Mexico. This species has also be reported from the southern coast of Brazil. In the Indian Ocean this species is distributed from Kenya to South Africa. This species has also be recored off the west coast of Australia, and east of the Maldives. In the Pacific Ocean this species has been recorded from the Phillipines, east Australia, New Caledonia, Kermadec Island, and east of New Zealand.
154973		habitat	eng	<em>Bassozetus robustus</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 1,035-4,420 m. Members of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bassozetus</span> genus, are generally bottom living species. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous with pelagic larvae (Nielsen 1999).
154973		population	eng	<em>Bassozetus robustus</em> is reported to be rather common throughout its range (Nielsen and Merrett 2000).
154973		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Bassozetus robustus</em>, due to the deep water nature of this species.
154974		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Galapagos marine reserve. Monitoring of this species, its habitat status, harvest levels and threats is needed to determine if coral reef degradation and the aquarium trade will have a negative impact on populations in the future.
154974		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span>&#160; is broadly distributed in the Pacific. In the eastern Pacific this species is distributed from southern California south to Chile, including Clipperton Island, Cocos Island (Costa Rica), Galapagos islands and Easter Island. In the western and central Pacific this species has been recorded from the Ryukyu islands, Izu islands, Marcus Island, French Polynesia, Pitcairn islands, Wake Island and the Hawaiian islands.
154974		habitat	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span> is found on outer-reef areas and drop-offs. Individuals feed on zooplankton. This species is found at a depth range of 6-131 m.
154974		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154974		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no major threats known to <span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span>. However, it is associated with coral reef habitats which in some areas of its range have been degraded by water pollution, human population pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns outbreaks and coral bleaching. This species is occasionally seen within the aquarium trade.
154975		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anchoa delicatissima</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas including the California Coastal State Sanctuary.
154975		distribution	eng	The Slough Anchovy (<em>Anchoa delicatissima)</em> is found from Long Beach, California south along the coast to Magdalena Bay, Baja California (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988).
154975		habitat	eng	The Slough Anchovy is a pelagic, schooling species that can be found in coastal, intertidal areas, including estuaries, bays and lagoons (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988). Its diet consists of plankton (Allen and Horn 1975).  This epipelagic species is found from the surface to 50 m depth.
154975		population	eng	The Slough Anchovy was found to be among the most abundant in surveys of a lagoon in southern California (Allen and Horn 1975).
154975		threats	eng	The Slough Anchovy is reported to be a target species of subsistence fishers, however this is not considered a major threat to this species at present. As this is a coastal species, it may be impacted by pollution discharge and run-off but this is unlikely to be causing significant population declines as it is a localised threat.
154976		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Drombus halei</em>. However the distribution of this species is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154976		distribution	eng	<em>Drombus halei</em> is known from Exmouth in Western Australia to Shoalwater Bay in Queensland.
154976		habitat	eng	<em>Drombus halei</em> is a demersal species found on inshore rocky reefs. The Gobiidae family are usually very secretive and are typically very small. Species from this family primarily inhabit shallow tropical and subtropical waters but can be found in nearly all benthic habitats from the shoreline to depths exceeding 500 m (FAO 2001). Species within the Gobiidae family typically have a short generation length and low age at maturity, and are therefore reasonably tolerant to moderate threats.
154976		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Drombus halei</em>.
154976		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. Due to the coastal nature of this species it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas of intense coastal development and pollution, however much of this species range is underdeveloped and in good condition.
154977		conservation	eng	Harvesting for this species is carried out under stock management regulations. These regulations are applicable throughout much of this species range. In British Columbia, trawls have been limited to incidental catches only, due to low stock levels. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.
154977		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found from the Aleutian Islands and the Bering Sea coast of Alaska to<span> Islas Los Coronados, northern Baja California, Mexico.
154977		habitat	eng	Adults inhabits sandy and muddy&#160; substrates at depths of 80 to 550 m on the continental shelf and slope. As juveniles, the diet consists of small invertebrates, while the adults feed on fishes including herring and small pollock<em></em>, shrimp and crabs.  Spawning occurs during November to March, depending on the particular spawning ground. Females spawn once a year and fecundity is related to fish size. This species has a pelagic larval stage (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
154977		population	eng	Ten separate breeding stocks have been identified for this species, however mixing of the stocks can occur outside of the spawning season. The stocks in British Columbia were considered to be at low levels by the late 20th century (Fargo and Kronlund 1997). Consequently, annual landings were capped at 479 tonnes (t) in 1997, limiting trawl fishers to incidental harvests only. The proportion of small sized individuals entering the fishery had increased over the period of 1998-2002 (Starr and Fargo 2004). Starr and Fargo (2004) found that the population has been increasing in abundance in recent years and current stock status seems to be at or above the level of maximum yield. Recently an increase of by-catch rates of this species have been recorded by fishermen.<br/><br/>In the USA, this species is not considered to be overfished (Lai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Stocks in the areas between&#160; Vancouver and Columbia (Northern region) and areas south of Columbia (Southern region), reached historical lows in 1992 and 1986 respectively (Lai <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, regional populations of this species can experience periods of low levels of abundance due to adverse environmental conditions. Furthermore, stocks in both regions have increased rapidly in recent years (Lai <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 2005, the estimated spawning biomass of this species was 4960 t for the Northern region and 4667 t for the Southern region.
154977		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is an important commercial food fish, and has been fished throughout its range since the 19th century by bottom trawlers. A substantial portion of the annual harvest is taken from spawning grounds during winter months (November to February). Catches for the USA ranged from approximately 1,400-2,600 t over the period 1981-2004. In Canada, annual landings were capped at 479 t in 1997, limiting trawl fishers to incidental harvests only.<br/><br/>Stocks off both the USA and Canada are said to have increased in recent years (Starr and Fargo 2004; Lai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Recently an increase of by-catch rates of this species have been recorded by fishermen off British Columbia (Starr and Fargo 2004).
154978		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154978		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon indicus</em> is distributed in the Pacific from New Caledonia to Kiribati, from Taiwan south to the Philippines, and east to Palau and the Northern Mariana Islands. In the Indian Ocean this species has been recorded from Mauritius, Comoros, Seychelles, and the Chagos Archipelago.
154978		habitat	eng	<em>Apogon indicus</em> can be found on outer reef slopes in the surge zone, and outside of lagoon areas at a depth range of 2 - 10 m. The reefs on which this species is found, are typically located on the continental slope in nutrient rich waters. During the day it typically shelters in crevices in coral and rock. At night individuals emerge to feed on the zoobenthos. This is a mouthbrooding species.
154978		population	eng	In areas of suitable habitat, this is not an uncommon species (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
154978		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species, however it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.
154979		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bahaba chaptis</em>, however it may be found in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed to ensure the stocks are not being over-exploited. Further research on the biology and ecology of this species is needed to determine how resilient it is to fishing pressure.
154979		distribution	eng	<em>Bahaba chaptis</em> is endemic to the Bay of Bengal (L. Chao pers. comm. 2007). Recorded from India (Hoogly estuary, West Bengal), Bangladesh and from Myanmar.
154979		habitat	eng	<em>Bahaba chaptis</em> is found in the photic zone of coastal and estuarine waters. This benthopelagic species can tolerate lowered salinities.<br/><br/>Inhabits coastal waters and lower parts of rivers.
154979		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bahaba chaptis</em>. This species appears to be very rare being known only by eight specimens.
154979		threats	eng	<em>Bahaba chaptis</em> is taken by the commercial fishing industry using trawls, gill nets and handlines, however it is not targeted directly. There are no available catch statistics for this species, and therefore it is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
154980		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Natal Fingerfin,<em> </em>however the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas off South Africa.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.
154980		distribution	eng	The Natal Fingefin, <em>Chirodactylus jessicalenorum</em>, occurs in the Indian Ocean off the coast of South Africa from 27° to 33°S.
154980		habitat	eng	The Natal Fingefin is a diurnal species, which inhabits coastal waters preferably over rocky banks and has a depth range of 3-20 m. It feeds mainly upon small, benthic invertebrates (marine worms, crabs and molluscs), squid and small fish.
154980		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154980		threats	eng	The Natal Fingerfin is of minor commercial importance. This species is mainly caught using spears and is marketed fresh. It is also caught as a gamefish and by-catch. It it not known what impact these threats are having on the population numbers of this species.
154981		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis copei</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the impact of threats such as incidental or accidental mortality (by-catch).
154981		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis copei copei</em> can be found in both the north and south Atlantic; from the Azores to the northwest Atlantic, and off Cape Point in South Africa. <em>Paraliparis copei kerguelensis</em> is distributed around the Kerguelen and Crozet Islands.&#160; <em>Paraliparis copei wilsoni</em> is only known from off the coast of Gabon, Namibia and South Africa.
154981		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis copei</em> is an epibenthic species that feeds on comb jellies and cnidaria.&#160; Specimens have been collected at a depth range of 200 -1,976 m.
154981		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paraliparis copei</em>.&#160; However, species from the Liparidae family are thought to have low population densities (Stein 2006).
154981		threats	eng	There is no commercial fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis copei</span> or any other Liparidae, although species within this family are often taken as by-catch. Due to their small size, they are easily damaged and overlooked among the masses of invertebrates and fishes with which they are collected (Stein 2006). It is therefore unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis copei</span> is being significantly impacted by fisheries within its range.
154982		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
154982		distribution	eng	Dow's Toadfish is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Puntarenas, Costa Rica to Puerto Pizarro in northern Peru (Collette 1966; Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).
154982		habitat	eng	This demersal fish occurs on sandy or muddy substrata at depths to 60 m inside bays and estuaries (Collette 1995).
154982		population	eng	This species is common in collections taken from Panama.
154982		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
154983		conservation	eng	The Summer Flounder, Scup and Black Sea Bass Fishery Management Plan (FMP), administered by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) and the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council (MAFMC), manages the commerical and recreational fisheries of <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em>. Management of this species' stock is done by means of setting annual commercial quotas, recreational harvest limits, a commercial vessel permit moratorium, minimum fish size and gear restrictions, and a recreational fishery limit (Terceiro 2006). There are 91 marine protected area designations along the central Atlantic coast of the United States, in which this species may be found. Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.
154983		distribution	eng	<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is found from the southern Gulf of Maine to South Carolina and occasionally around Florida (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002).
154983		habitat	eng	The flounder, <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em>, is a bottom dwelling species and generally prefers muddy or sandy substrates. This species is concentrated in bays and estuaries from late spring to the early autumn, however the larger specimens remain further offshore at depths of 70-155 m or deeper. This species has also been found in salt marshes and seagrass beds with muddy or silty substrates. This species is also occasionally found in freshwater rivers (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002).
154983		population	eng	<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is common in the southern Gulf of Maine, east to Nantucket Shoals, and to the western part of the South Channels (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002). This species is rare north of Cape Cod, but is occasionally found as far north as Brown's Bank (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002).&#160; It is abundant from Massachusetts to North Carolina.
154983		threats	eng	<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is both commercially and recreationally valuable. The combined landings from commercial and recreational fishing peaked in 1983 at 26,100 t but in 1999-2004, landings have ranged between 8,600 t and 12,500 t (Terceiro 2006). Biomass indices declined through the late 1970s and into the early 1990s, but since then have increased to the level they were during the mid 1970s (Terceiro 2006). It has been reported that although this species' population is not in an over-fished condition, intense exploitation continues to occur (Terceiro 2006). <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is also an important by-catch species in the small-mesh fishery for squid in Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002). Commercial aquaculture of this species began in 1966.
154984		conservation	eng	There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations in the Indo-Pacific, Bay of Bengal, and off the Western Australian coast.
154984		distribution	eng	<em>Physiculus roseus</em> is an Indo-Pacific Mora, distributed from the Gulf of Aden and the Bay of Bengal, to western Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the South China Sea, Phillipines, and New Caledonia.
154984		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span> is a benthopelagic species, with a depth range of 300–550 m.
154984		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span>.
154984		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span> is harvested as a commercial food source in some areas of its range.&#160; However, it is of minor importance and fishing is not considered a significant threat to the global population.
154986		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em>. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it is affected by threats such as pollution.
154986		distribution	eng	<em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em> is only known from a few specimens in the immediate vicinity of Magdalena Bay, Baja California, Mexico. In 1969, Rosenblatt and Parr took samples at appropriate depths along the coast, and <em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em> was not found in any other areas. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,131 km<sup>2</sup>.
154986		habitat	eng	<em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em> was found at depths of 7-21 m, on rocky substrates.
154986		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em>.
154986		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened by habitat loss from coastal development, urban and industrial pollution, massive tourism development and various potentially harmful extractive activities within its restricted range (Hastings and Fischer 2001). Effluent, including domestic untreated sewage and industrial waste is discharged directly into Magdalena Bay, and intertidal near-shore and wetland areas are being degraded (School for Field Studies 2004). <br/></p>
154987		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research on population trends and potential threats is needed.
154987		distribution	eng	<em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em> is found only in the southwest Atlantic off the coast of Brazil, from 15<sup>o</sup> to 23<sup>o</sup>S (Irigoyen<em> et al.</em> 2008).
154987		habitat	eng	The seabass <em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em> is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 15 to 60m. It has been observed over rocky reefs near offshore islands and outcrops (Irigoyen<em> et al.</em> 2008). The main food items of this species include fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and worms (Irigoyen<em> et al.</em> 2008).
154987		population	eng	<em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em> is only known from nine specimens. Irigoyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) noted that this was an uncommon species occurring in Brazilian waters from Bahia to Sao Paulo. It is observed rarely on rocky bottoms.
154987		threats	eng	This is a rare species. It is not found in areas in which trawling occurs (Heemstra pers. comm.). It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats but the species could be experiencing negative effects from coastal pollution and development.
154988		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or that are needed for <em>Scopelosaurus herwigi</em>.
154988		distribution	eng	<em>Scopelosaurus herwigi</em> has been found in the southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean around southern Africa from Namibia to Kenya, including Madagascar.&#160; It has also been recorded  in the southwest Pacific around New Zealand, and in the southwest Atlantic around Brazil (J. Paxton pers. comm. 2008).&#160; However, there is still some taxonomic doubt regarding the specimen collected in the southwest Pacific, as there are some slight morphometric differences between this specimen and its Indian and Atlantic Ocean counterparts (J. Paxton pers. comm. 2008).
154988		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>Scopelosaurus herwigi</em> are benthopelagic and found on slopes, while the juveniles are epipelagic to mesopelagic.&#160; Individuals are typically found to inhabit warm currents sweeping southwest from the equator.<br/><br/>Congeners of this species, <em>Scopelosaurus harryi</em> and <em>Scopelosaurus adleri</em>, are typically found in the mesopelagic zone at a depth range of 500–1000 m (Balanov 2001).&#160; They migrate to the upper section of the mesopelagic zone to feed during the darker hours of the day.&#160; Both species show a preference for food that is available all year round, and in the greatest quantity.&#160; The younger individuals feed on plankton, while the older year classes shift to a diet of shrimp and myctophid fish. <br/><br/>Savinykh and Balanov (2000) suggested that <em>S. adleri</em> is a mesobenthopelagic species, while <em>S. harryi</em> is a mesopelagic species.
154988		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus herwigi</span>.
154988		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus herwigi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154989		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sardinella longiceps</em>.&#160; However, due to frequent fluctuations in the stock levels of Indian fish, all coastal states have implemented the Marine Fishing Regulation Act which has applied closed seasons and delineation of fishing zones for different categories of fishing methods, in attempt to ensure sustainable management (FAO-FIGIS 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the factors determining population fluctuations and recruitment levels, and to determine if localised or regional extirpations are occurring.
154989		distribution	eng	<em>Sardinella longiceps</em> is distributed from the Gulf of Aden to southeast India, and possibly the Andaman Islands.&#160; It is not found in the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.&#160; Specimens found in the Philippines or in Indonesia were probably misidentifications of <em>Sardinella lemuru</em> (Froese and Pauly 2007).
154989		habitat	eng	The sardine, <em>Sardinella longiceps</em>, is a highly migratory, schooling species. &#160; This pelagic species is found in the photic zone at depths of 20–200 m, along the continental shelf.&#160; This species feeds on phytoplankton and small crustaceans.&#160; It breeds once a year off the western coast of India, when temperatures and salinity are low during the southwest monsoon months.&#160; Spawning peaks in August to September.&#160; This species' population size is highly erratic and fluctuates annually (Sarman and Udupa 2001).
154989		population	eng	The population size of <em>Sardinella longiceps</em> is highly erratic and fluctuates annually (Sarman and Udupa 2001).
154989		threats	eng	<em>Sardinella longiceps</em> is fished throughout its range and is one of the most important species in Indian fisheries.&#160; It is mainly caught off Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and southern Maharashtra (Kumaran <em>et al.</em> 1992).&#160; It represented about 8.35% of marine landings in India in 1997, which was a 100% increase from 1996 (Sarma and Udupa 2001). <br/><br/>FAO statistics show no apparent decline in the annual landings of this species.&#160; There are large annual fluctuations in the catch of this species; 7,400 t was harvested in 1956, and 189,000 t in 1960 (Jhingran 1982).&#160; In 2006, the landings for this species were reported at 385,159 t (FAO 2008). <br/><br/>Due to large annual fluctuations in the population numbers of this species, intense fishing pressure is likely to pose a significant threat to regional sub-populations in years where it coincides with low population size.<br/><br/>Global catch statistics for this species for the time period 1996–2006 are as follows: 1996: 223,355 t, 1997: 298,939 t, 1998:  256,773 t, 1999: 222,228 t, 2000: 417,691 t, 2001:  456,190 t, 2002:  357,207 t, 2003:  365,072 t, 2004: 371,586 t, 2005: 361,097 t, 2006: 385,159 t (FAO 2008).
154990		conservation	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamopteryx jeb</span> falls within the Galápagos Marine Reserve. This reserve, which covers an area of 133,000 km<sup>2</sup> was established in 1986. The Galápagos Marine Reserve is the second largest in the world, and has been declared a World Heritage Site, Biosphere Reserve and a Whale Sanctuary.
154990		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to the Galapagos islands, where it is known from approximately 10 sites.
154990		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calamopteryx jeb</span> is found in rocky areas and coral reefs to a depth of 25 m. This species is cryptic and typically only observed with the use of ichthyocides.
154990		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon. This species is not often observed, and population status and trends are unknown.
154990		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There are no major threats to this species. It is associated with coral reef environments, but is not coral reef dependent.&#160; Despite protection measures, the marine environment of the Galapagos islands still faces significant human threats. These threats include human population increase, invasion and spread of non-native species, increasing pressure from ecotourism, and illegal commercial fishing. However, none of these are likely to affect this species. It is likely to be a hardy species as it survived the El Nino event of 1982-1983.
154991		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tidepool Gunnel.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
154991		distribution	eng	The tidepool gunnel <em>(Pholis nebulosa</em>) is predominantly found on the coast of Japan, from Honshu to Kyushu (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  One record also exists from Pusan in Korea (Calafornia Academy of Science Collection Catalogue CAS-SU 26530).
154991		habitat	eng	The Tidepool Gunnel is found in the intertidal zone in tide pools, on sandy-mud bottoms, and in crevices on rocky reefs.&#160; It may also be found in eelgrass (<em>Zostera marina</em>) beds.&#160; This species has been found at a depth of 200 m, however it occurs more commonly in shallow intertidal areas.&#160;  The report by Nakabo (2002) of a depth ranging down to 200 m is questioned as a typographical error (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
154991		population	eng	The Tidpool Gunnel is abundant in intertidal areas (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009)
154991		threats	eng	The Tidepool Gunnel is an abundant species with no known major threats (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  In certain areas of Japan, there is a seasonal subsistence harvest of this species.
154992		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span>.&#160;  However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).&#160; This species should be carefully monitored, as its persistence will be directly related to its capture by shrimp and other trawl fisheries.
154992		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span> is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is known from central California and the Gulf of California to central Peru, including the Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
154992		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span> is a demersal fish which lives on sandy and muddy substrata at depths of 15–380 m.
154992		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span>.&#160; However, is it known to be widely distributed.
154992		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span> is taken as by-catch in fishing trawl nets.&#160;   According to Caruso (1983), this accidental mortality caused by fishing activities can affect the distribution and abundance of some species.  However, at present, this is not considered to pose a major threat to the global population.
154993		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Pacific Fanfish.&#160; Given that this is an oceandromous species, it is unlikely that it would be afforded much protection from coastal marine protected area designations. <br/><br/>Monitoring of this rare species and its harvest levels should be undertaken.
154993		distribution	eng	The Pacific Fanfish<em> (Pteraclis aesticola)</em> occurs throughout the tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Pacific (FAO 2001a).&#160; Froese and Pauly (2006) state that this species has only been recorded from Japan and California.
154993		habitat	eng	The Pacific Fanfish is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that has a depth range of 0–100 m.&#160; The majority of Bramidae species are epipelagic (FAO 2001a).&#160; The young of this species probably inhabit shallow waters, while adults are found in deeper waters (Froese and Pauly 2006).
154993		population	eng	The Pacific Fanfish is very rare and most commonly seen in the stomach contents of large predatory fishes, such as tuna.
154993		threats	eng	The Pacific Fanfish may be harvested as a commercial food source.&#160; However, the harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat at present, as this species is rarely caught (FAO 2001a).
154994		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectranthias pallidus</em>. Further research on its ecology, distribution, population numbers, and potential threats is needed.
154994		distribution	eng	<em>Plectranthias pallidus</em> is only known from a single specimen found off Townsville, Queensland.
154994		habitat	eng	<em>Plectranthias pallidus</em> is a demersal, deep-water species, closely related to the Indonesian <em>Plectranthias wheeleri</em>. It has been collected at a depth of 220 m.
154994		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Plectranthias pallidus</em>, as it is only known from a single specimen.
154994		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Plectranthias pallidus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
154995		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
154995		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Diaphus holti</em>.
154995		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the Bay of Biscay to Liberia (uncommon between Morocco and Mauritania). Elsewhere in the Atlantic Ocean, it is distributed south of 50°N and east of 45°W to 35°N, but east from 35°W to about 20°N. In the Indian Ocean, two specimens were caught at 29°30'S and 64°56'E.<br/><br/>This species is also present in the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987). In the Strait of Sicily (Baguet and Marechal 1976, Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1998, Costa 1991, 1999, Cuttitta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), Cretan area (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2003), Levantine basin, Strymonikos and Ierissos Gulfs (north Aegean Sea, Greece and Turkey) (Deval 2002, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2004).
154995		distribution	eng	The Small Lantern Fish <em>(Diaphus holti)</em> can be found in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to Liberia. Two specimens have been reported from the Indian Ocean at 29°30'S, 64°56'E (Hulley 1984).
154995		habitat	eng	The Small Lantern Fish, <em>Diaphus holti</em> is a bathypelagic, oceanic species that has a depth range of 40-777 m. This species undergoes diurnal migrations; during the day it can be found at a depth range of 225-675 m and at night it rises to depths ranging from 40-275 m to feed. This species is an opportunistic predator, feeding upon copepods, euphausiids, ostracods and fish (Kinzer 1982). Spawning takes place in spring and summer. Gravid females are typically found at depths of less than 450 m.
154995		habitat	eng	This species is meso- and bathypelagic and highly oceanic. It is found between 225 and 650 m during the day and between 40 and 275 m during the night, exhibiting size stratification with depth and with adult females below 450 m (Hulley 1990). Its depth range from 300-800 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), down to 1,400 m in the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). Large juveniles, sub-adults and adults from the Mediterranean Sea are known to be migratory (Hulley 1984).
154995		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however, species from the Myctophidae family are reported to be very common oceanic fishes (FAO 1999).
154995		population	eng	This is a common species.
154995		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting the Small Lantern Fish. However, this species has been observed within the by-catch of commercial trawls. A study on the Cretan continental shelf has shown that this species is not usually captured by bottom trawling equipment (Kallianiotis<em> et al.</em> 2000). DUe to the depths at which this species can be found, it is unlikely to be significantly impacted by any other major threats.
154995		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
154996		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Calumia godeffroyi</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations.&#160; Further research on&#160; population trends is needed.
154996		distribution	eng	The Tailface Sleeper (<em>Calumia godeffroyi</em>) is an Indo-Pacific sleeper goby, distributed from East Africa to the Society Islands.
154996		habitat	eng	The Tailface Sleeper is associated with coral reefs and can be found resting on coral and rubble substrates. This species occurs at a depth of 7–30 m.
154996		population	eng	Many marine eleotrids are rare (Hoese and Roberts 2005). The Tailface Sleeper is widespread but is not commonly observed (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
154996		threats	eng	The coral reefs in some areas of the Tailface Sleeper's range (e.g., in East Africa and Indonesia) have experienced regionalised and localised degradation due to bleaching, industrialisation, water pollution (sedimentation), destructive fishing practices and other human population pressures. In other parts of its range, the reefs are in good condition, so at present habitat degradation is not considered a major threat to the global population.
154997		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em>.
154997		distribution	eng	<em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em> is found only in subtropical to tropical waters of the Atlantic: the eastern Atlantic from Madeira to Angola, in the western Atlantic from New Jersey to the Guianas including the Gulf of Mexico. A single specimen has been found from the Straits of Sicily and two individuals have been found in the stomach contents of the lizardfish, <em>Saurida undosquamis</em>, off the coast of Antalya, Turkey.
154997		habitat	eng	<em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em> is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. Little is known about the precise depths that <em>B. atlanticus</em> inhabits although it has been collected in the epi-/mesopelagic zone. Since it was found in the stomach of the lizardfish, <em>Saurida undosqamis</em> which is rarely found deeper than 100 m, it may also inhabit shallow waters as well as deep. This species mainly feeds upon crustaceans, but also feeds on zooplankton and phytoplankton.
154997		population	eng	The Lesser Bream is reported to be locally abundant in the northern Gulf of Mexico, but seems to be rare along the east coast of Florida (Dawson 1966).
154997		threats	eng	It is unlikely that major widespread threats are impacting <em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em>. Species from the Bregmacerotidae family are of no commercial importance in the western central Atlantic but specimens of Bregmacerotidae are taken as by-catch in some commercial fisheries (FAO 2002).
154998		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
154998		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Half-naked Hatchetfish.
154998		distribution	eng	The Half-naked Hatchetfish (<em>Argyropelecus hemigymnus</em>) is distributed through the eastern Pacific, and both the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean.  In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from north of the British Isles to South Africa; in the western Atlantic it is found from New Jersey, USA to Argentina.  In the Pacific it occurs throughout the California Current area.
154998		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species. <br/><br/>It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. Records include the Ionian Sea (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 2003), Sicily Strait (Maurin 1962), the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998), the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), and the Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
154998		habitat	eng	The Half-naked Hatchetfish is a bathypelagic species which occurs at depths of up to 2,400 m. During the day this species occurs at a depth range of 200 - 700 m but is concentrated at 350 - 550 m. At night it occurs at depths of 100 - 650 m but prefers a depth range of 150 - 380 m. Adults make daily vertical migrations up the water column, rising at dusk to feed on copepods and small fish. It will spawn multiple times during a season, producing planktonic eggs.
154998		habitat	eng	This is a meso- and bathypelagic species (Badcock 1984). It is found from 50 m (at night) to 2,800 m (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005, Golani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Adults make marked vertical migrations and are found singly or in small groups (Badcock 1984). It is an opportunistic feeder at dusk on calanoid copepods, small fishes, etc. (Badcock 1984). It spawns more than once per season with egg batches containing about 50-500 egg/ovary pair. This number increases with animal size (Badcock 1984).
154998		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154998		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>In the Balearic islands, occurrence of 34 individuals of this species (mean weight = 0.88 g) was recorded in 46 trawl hauls (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence was 4.3-32.7% (abundance = 0.2-0.7/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou<em> et al.</em> 2005). In the Algerian basin, 44 individuals (biomass = 0.04 kg) were fished in 23 trawl hauls (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998).
154998		threats	eng	Due to its deep-water nature and small size, it is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
154998		threats	eng	This is a discarded species (Machias<em> et al.</em> 2001). No major threats are known.
154999		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for<em> Etelis carbunculus</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels is needed with further research on the extent of the fishery. Conservation measures need to protect important spawning aggregations.
154999		distribution	eng	The Ruby Snapper, <em>Etelis carbunculus</em>, is found throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is known from the coast of East Africa to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, across the Indo-pacific, north to Japan and south to Australia. In the Pacific its range extends to Hawaii, including French Polynesia. It has also been recorded from northern New Zealand (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999) and out to both Christmas and Cocos Islands (S. Newman pers. comm. 2010).
154999		habitat	eng	The Ruby Snapper inhabits rocky bottoms on the continental shelf, and feeds on fishes and large invertebrates such as squids, shrimps and crabs. It also feeds on planktonic organisms (Haight <em>et al</em>. 1993). This demersal species is known from a depth range of 90-400 m and is known to occur in aggregations. At Vanuatu (New Hebrides) spawning occurs throughout much of the year, with a peak in activity around November (Allen 1985).
154999		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
154999		threats	eng	Ruby Snapper is an important food fish in some areas. It is mainly caught with bottom longlines and deep handlines, and is marketed fresh or frozen. It is one of the principal species in the Hawaiian offshore handline fishery. There are indications that some fish stocks on Hawaiian banks have been severely overfished (Haight <em>et al</em>. 1993). Fishery reports for the Hawaiian Islands indicate that the catch rates of <em>E. carbunculus</em>  have declined steadily since the 1950s, and have dropped more steeply in the last 10-15 years. As the catch rates have dropped, so have the proportion of mature fish in the catches (DAR 2002). <br/><br/>The Hawaiian landings of this species have dropped from approximately 18,100 kg in 1998 to 10,900 kg in 2003. Moffitt (1980) noted that the CPUE(Catch per Unit Effort) was 0.06-0.08kg/line hr in the North West Hawaiian Islands.&#160;Over the last 40 to 50 years, partial CPUE &#160;has been reduced to half of what it once was (Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy 2005). This species is considered locally depleted in the middle Hawaiian Islands, whilst all bottomfish populations are considered 'relatively healthy in the North Western Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy 2005).<br/><br/>This species<em></em> is also commercially fished in the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDWTF) in south-western Australia. This species has been intensely fished in this area and due to its aggregatory behaviour with preference for restricted continental shelf habitats, it is vulnerable to heavy fishing. As a result it is reported to be overfished in this area and the catch rates of this species are thought to have fallen (Hunter 2008).<br/>In Kimbe, Manus and Oro bay, Rabaul CPUE efforts in the late nineties were 0.57-1.41kg/line hr(Chapman 1998)&#160;and 0.001-0.31kg/line hr respectively (Wellington and Cusack 1998).<br/>This species is harvested throughout most of its distribution range. This species is mostly harvested using deep handlines and bottom longlines (Allen 1985).
155000		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Obliquebanded Stingfish.&#160;  While its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Jebel Samhan Nature Reserve off Oman, these would only provide protection in shallower reaches.
155000		distribution	eng	The Obliquebanded Stingfish<em> (Minous dempsterae)</em> is found from western India, Pakistan and the Gulf of Oman.
155000		habitat	eng	The Obliquebanded Stingfish is a demersal species, typically found over muddy or clay substrates in the photic to deep photic zone, at 5–117 m depth.&#160; Species from the <em>Minous</em> genus may be primarily nocturnal or crepuscular, and may bury themselves in the substrate like other Scorpaenoids (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008). The depths and conditions of turbidity for this species makes visual censusing difficult.
155000		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Obliquebanded Stingfish.
155000		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Obliquebanded Stingfish is being impacted by any major threat processes at present (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008).
155001		conservation	eng	There is no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155001		distribution	eng	<em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em> is an Indo Pacific sand burrower distributed from Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean, to the Mariana Islands and Pitcairn Islands. This species has also been reported from India, but this occurrence outside the distributional range needs confirmation (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002).
155001		habitat	eng	<em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em> burrows into loose coral sand of shallow exposed seaward reefs and sandy shorelines.  This species is found to a depth of at least 10 m.
155001		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155001		threats	eng	There are no known threats for <em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em>.
155002		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em>.  However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Juan Fernandez National Park.
155002		distribution	eng	According to Muñoz <em>et al.</em> (2002) <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em> is distributed from Los Molles to Valdivia off Chile. This species can also be found around the Juan Fernandez Islands (Pequeño and Inzunza 1987).
155002		habitat	eng	Juvenile <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em> inhabit rocky intertidal areas, while adults can be found in deeper water. The diet of this species consists of crustaceans such as amphipods and decapods (Muñoz <em>et al.</em> 2002).
155002		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em>.
155002		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, possible localised threats to this species may include water pollution and coastal development, however these are unlikely to resulting in significant declines in the population as much of this species range is underdeveloped..
155003		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astronesthes nigroides</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers, habitat and ecology of this species as little information is currently available. Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is also needed to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
155003		distribution	eng	<em>Astronesthes nigroides</em> occurs north of Lisianski Island and east of Pearl and Hermes Reef, Hawaii. It is also present in the east Pacific off California, and in the western Pacific off Japan.
155003		habitat	eng	<em>Astronesthes nigroides</em> is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 0 - 50 m and inhabits subtropical waters. Some species from the Stomiidae family migrate to surface waters at night (FAO 1999). This species is found within the vicinity of coral reefs.
155003		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for this species.
155003		threats	eng	<em>Astronesthes nigroides</em> is reported to be taken occasionally as a food fish, however due to its small size it is unlikely that this is driving a significant decline in the population numbers. This species maybe undergoing locaslised declines in abundance due to coastal development and pollution.
155004		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may occur within marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends, abundance, distribution, and threats of this species is needed.
155004		distribution	eng	<em>Congrogadus amplimaculatus</em> is known to occur in the southern portion of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia and the Aru Islands, Indonesia (Eschmeyer 1990). This species appears to have a small distribution, which is not an uncommon trait in the Pseudochromidae family (Gill <em>et al</em>. 2000).
155004		habitat	eng	<em>Congrogadus amplimaculatus</em> is a cryptic species associated with coral reefs and has been collected over sandy and muddy substrate, with sponges and large shell fragments. This species feeds mainly on crustaceans. The eggs of this species have cruciform hooks on the surface.
155004		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155004		threats	eng	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Congrogadus amplimaculatus</span> is being affected by any major threats.
155005		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Coloconger japonicus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed to assess the impact that over-exploitation within the East China Sea has had upon this species.
155005		distribution	eng	<em>Coloconger japonicus</em> is known from the East China Sea.
155005		habitat	eng	<em>Coloconger japonicus</em> is a bathydemersal species of eel that has been found at a depth of 750 m. Species of the genus <em>Coloconger </em>prefer open, muddy bottoms (FAO 1999).
155005		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Coloconger japonicus</em>.
155005		threats	eng	While this species is not directly targeted by the commercial fishing industry, it is found in one of the most intensively exploited marine ecosystems in the world (Chen and Shen 1999), and so may be incidentally taken as by-catch. Pollution, habitat destruction, and overfishing are considered to be the most critical problems to be addressed in the East China Sea.
155006		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
155006		distribution	eng	<em>Coris caudimacula</em> is found from the northern Red Sea and Gulf of Oman, south to East London in South Africa and east to the northwest coast of Australia, extending to Shark Bay; including Green Island. It is also found in east Sumatra and Bali.
155006		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coris caudimacula</span> inhabits areas of sand and rubble near coral in lagoons, bays, and protected seaward reefs. It feeds on benthic organisms including small crustaceans and molluscs.
155006		population	eng	The species is considered to be common across much of its range.
155006		threats	eng	This species is not known to face any major threats, althoug it is likely to be undergoing localised declines in abundance in areas of coastal development and coastal pollution.
155007		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within several marine protected areas, including the Auckland Islands Marine Reserve.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the possible threats impacting this species and the abundance.
155007		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span> is found from the Norfolk Ridge in the Tasman Sea, and southern Australia to New South Wales.<br/><span>
155007		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span> is a demersal, temperate species. Species from the family Diodontidae feed on hard-shelled benthic invertebrates and most species from this family spawn pelagic eggs and pass through a pelagic juvenile phase (FAO 2001).
155007		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatu</span>s.
155007		threats	eng	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span> is being impacted upon by any major threats.
155008		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Seychelles Soldier.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas.
155008		distribution	eng	The Seychelles Soldier <em>(Myripristis seychellensis</em>) is restricted to islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean.&#160; This species has been documented from the Seychelles, Reunion, Madagascar, Comoros and Mauritius.<br/><br/>Specimens collected from Taiwan were originally thought to belong to this species, but these specimens have since been used to describe the new species, <em>Myripristis formosa</em>.
155008		habitat	eng	The Seychelles Soldier feeds on zooplankton at night and shelters under ledges and in caves during the day (J. Moore pers. comm. 2008).&#160; This species is found on coral and rocky reefs and in lagoons at a depth range of 2–21 m.
155008		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Seychelles Soldier.
155008		threats	eng	The Seychelles Soldier may occasionally be harvested by subsistence reef fishers.&#160; In parts of its range, it may also undergo declines as a result of coastal development, pollution, tourism, and destructive fishing practices such as blast fishing.&#160; However, as this species is found in a number of habitat types in regions that are still relatively unaffected by development, and it is not directly targeted, it is unlikely that these threats are having a significant impact on the global population.
155009		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em>.
155009		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em> is known from Iwate prefecture in Japan to the Bering Sea, and from British Columbia to California (C. Mecklenburg pers. comm. 2008, A. Balanov pers. comm. 2008). Mecklenburg (pers. comm. 2008) states that it is also known from the Sea of Okhotsk.
155009		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em> is a mesopelagic/bathypelagic species during its adult life stage, with epipelagic/mesopelagic planktonic eggs and larvae (A. Balanov pers. comm. 2008). This species has a depth range of 0?6,600 m.
155009		population	eng	The larvae of <em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em> have been found to be among the most abundant during April around the Kuroshio-Oyashio region of the western north Pacific (Sassa<em> et al.</em> 2006).&#160; This species has been described as a common mesopelagic fish in the Bering Sea (Balanov and Il'inskiy 1992) and the northwestern Pacific off Kamchatka and Kurile Islands (Ivanov 1997).
155009		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of <em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em>, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155010		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em>.&#160;  However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.
155010		distribution	eng	<em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em> is distributed from Pakistan and Sri Lanka, north to southern Japan, and south to New Britain, New Guinea.&#160; A specimen of this species has also been recorded from New Caledonia (Motomura 2002).
155010		habitat	eng	Individuals of <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em> have been collected from silty, sand, and rocky bottoms, and areas of coral reef.&#160; This species has a depth range of 1–60 m. Most species from the Scorpaenidae family are found near, or on, the bottom, and are known to lead solitary lives and only aggregate for reproduction (FAO 1999).
155010		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em>.
155010		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Most Scorpaenidae species in the western central Pacific are small and dangerous to handle and therefore do not form the basis of large fisheries (FAO 1999).
155011		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus minimus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.
155011		distribution	eng	<em>Careproctus minimus</em> has been found from Burdwood Bank, south of the Falkland Islands. Species within the Liparidae family, are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).
155011		habitat	eng	<em>Careproctus minimus</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 124-128 m.
155011		population	eng	<em>Careproctus minimus</em> is only known from two specimens; the holotype (Andriashev and Stein 1998) and one  additional specimen (Stein 2006) . Species from the Liparidae family are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
155011		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Careproctus minimus</em> is being impacted by any major threats.
155012		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Sternoptyx obscura</em>.
155012		distribution	eng	This species is found from all parts of the Indian Ocean. It is also known from the Pacific Ocean ranging from the Ryukyu Islands in the west, to New Zealand in the south, and Peru in the east. It is also known from the Californian coast.
155012		habitat	eng	<em>Sternoptyx obscura</em> is a bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 500-1000 m. The diet of the Sternoptychidae family consists of small fishes and zooplankton (FAO 2002).
155012		population	eng	This species is common in the Indian Ocean north of 15°S (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155012		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
155013		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for <em>Parablennius parvicornis</em>. This species may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas.  Further research and monitoring of the potential threats to this species should be carried out.
155013		distribution	eng	<em>Parablennius parvicornis</em> is restricted to the Canary Islands, Azores, Madeira, and Senegal.
155013		habitat	eng	The rockpool blenny <em>Parablennius parvicornis</em>, is found in areas of volcanic rock (Fricke pers. comm.) in tidepools to a depth of 2m. A demersal species that feeds exclusively on algae and is found in areas exposed to sunlight. Breeding takes place in male-constructed pebble nests and after eggs are laid, males continue to guard the nest and provide care for the eggs (Santos and Nash 1996).
155013		population	eng	<em>Parablennius parvicornis</em> has been described as one of the most abundant fish species in the intertidal zone of Gran Canaria (Brito 1991).<br/><br/>In a study by Cody (1993) 164 males and 98 females were collected from 82 tidepools. It was described as numerically dominant in 41% of all the surveyed pools.
155013		threats	eng	Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it is likely that in certain areas of its distribution it is undergoing loaclised declines due to coastal pollution and development; however, at present there is no indication that these pose a significant threat to this species.
155014		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>its<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>falls within numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the life history characteristics of this large species to determine vulnerability to potential threats.
155014		distribution	eng	<em>Alectis ciliaris</em> has a circumtropical distribution in marine waters.
155014		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic in neritic and oceanic waters. Adult<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> are usually solitary and frequent shallow coastal waters; juveniles are pelagic and drift. Its diet consists of slow-swimming or sedentary crustaceans, and occasionally small crabs an<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>d fishes. This species is found at a maximum depth of&#160; 60 m. Adults are demersal, however juveniles up to 25 cm are pelagic.
155014		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range such as in the Indo-pacific.
155014		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. This species is sometimes harvested by commercial fisheries, and is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, however there is no current indication of a population decline.
155015		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em>.
155015		distribution	eng	<em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em> is widespread in the northwestern Pacific. It is found in the south-central Bering Sea, the eastern Gulf of Alaska, the western Bering Sea off Cape Navarin to the Pacific Ocean off the Kuril Islands, and in the Sea of Okhotsk.
155015		habitat	eng	<em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been collected a depth range of 200-3,730 m. It is most commonly seen at depths of approximately 800 m.
155015		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em>.
155015		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. There is no directed fishery for this species.
155016		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; However, it may be present in several marine protected areas around Mexico (WDPA 2006).
155016		distribution	eng	The Bronze-striped Grunt (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthopristis reddingi</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to central Mexico.
155016		habitat	eng	The Bronze-striped Grunt is a demersal species that occurs on sand and rubble substrata, at depths of 5–30 m. It usually forms schools (McKay and Schneider 1995), and juveniles can be common in littoral pools (McKay and Schneider 1995).
155016		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Bronze-striped Grunt.&#160; This species may be common within its distribution, but it has not been reported in surveys conducted at Los Islotes in the Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001), Bahía de Navidad, México (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), and Cabo Pulmo in the Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155016		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting the Bronze-striped Grunt.
155017		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Labroides phthirophagus</span>. However, 80 % of this species range is within the&#160;Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a well protected marine park in the Northern Hawaiian Islands (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2010).
155017		distribution	eng	<em>Labroides phthirophagus</em> is found in the east central Pacific, along the Hawaiian Islands chain and at Johnston Island.
155017		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labroides phthirophagus</span> inhabits coral and rocky reef habitats, other than within the surge zone (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species is an obligate cleaner, feeding on the crustacean ectoparasites of other fishes, probably including gnathiid isopods (see Grutter 1997 for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dimidiatus</span>), and also on fish mucus (Masuda and Allen 1993). This species is active in the daytime, and may possibly produce a protective mucous cocoon at night (Tinker 1978). <br/><br/>There is no information regarding sex reversal or hermaphroditism in this species, though it may be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dimidiatus</span> in these respects (see&#160; Robertson 1972; Kuwamura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002; Sadovy and Liu 2008).
155017		population	eng	<em></em> Little or nothing is known about the status of the populations of <em>Labroides phthirophagus</em>, though it is considered to be relatively common within its relatively restricted distribution range (M. Craig, and L. Rocha, pers. comm. 2009; G. Allen, pers. comm. 2010).<br/>Craig (2010) observed no decline in this species population around the Island of Oahu over the time period of 2002-2004 (M. Craig pers. comm.2010).
155017		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Labroides phthirophagus</span>. However, it is occasionally taken in the marine aquarium fish trade. Also, coral habitat degradation may have some localised impacts on this species.
155018		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Geelbuik Sea Catfish, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed in order to determine the severity of population declines in the future.
155018		distribution	eng	The Geelbuik Sea Catfish (<em>Sciades parkeri</em>) is found from Venezuela to northern Brazil.
155018		habitat	eng	The Geelbuik Sea Catfish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 15-20 m (Leopold 2004) and can be found living in muddy, turbid estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers&#160; Its main food items include fishes and crustaceans.
155018		population	eng	The species is commercially fished, but there are no species-specific landings data available to be able to estimate trends or decline rates for this species. It appears to be scarcer than other species within the genus. It is inferred that there has been a decline in the population numbers of this species.
155018		threats	eng	Geelbuik Sea Catfish is the second most harvested Ariid species, in terms of biomass, within the French Guiana region (Leopold 2004). It is exported to a range of countries including Canada, the USA, the UK and Holland (Froese and Pauly 2007). Both Guyana and Brazil have seen declines in fish stocks in general, due to over-exploitation of fisheries (Gutberlet 2004, FAO 2007). This species is harvested using longlines, Chinese trap nets, seines and bottom trawls. This species is thought to have declined at a rate approaching 30% over 15 years (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The Geelbuik Sea Catfish occupies estuarine areas where there is a potential threat from pollution and habitat degradation. However, there are no data to confirm whether the species is affected by this.
155019		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span>.&#160; This species may occur in the Lafken Mapu Lahual Marine Protected Area.
155019		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span> is distributed in Chile from Caleta Leandro in Talcahuano, to Chiloé (Pequeño and Sáez 2005).&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,520 km<sup>2</sup>.
155019		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span> can be found in brackish water and intertidal areas along rocky shorelines (Pequeño and Sáez 2005).&#160; <em>Calliclinus nudiventris</em>is is sympatric with the related species, <em>C. geniguttatus</em>, and it is thought there is some hybridisation between them (Cervigon <em>et al</em>. 1979).
155019		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span>.&#160; <em>Calliclinus geniguttatus</em> was found to be the second most abundant species along a rocky shoreline in the 8th Region, with a total of 70 individuals being collected in 0.38 m<sup>3</sup> (Quijada and Caceres 2000).
155019		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span> is not known to be of any commercial interest.&#160; It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; The coastline along which this species is found is relatively undeveloped.
155020		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri</span>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Alto de Golfo California y Delta del Rio Colorado Biosphere Reserve.   Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
155020		distribution	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri </span>extends from the Gulf of California, south to Ecuador (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2008)
155020		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri </span>is a pelagic species most commonly found in warm, murky waters near shores and in bays near river mouths to depths of 50 m. It is tolerant of lowered salinities (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988, Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sanchez 1995, Robertson and Allen 2006). Like other anchovies, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. walkeri</span> is a schooling species. Larvae and eggs are both pelagic (Robertson and Allen 2006).
155020		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri. </span><em></em>
155020		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is taken as a food source at the subsistence scale.
155021		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for the Glass Goby, however, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.
155021		distribution	eng	The Glass Goby, <em>Coryphopterus hyalinus,</em> is distributed from the Florida Keys and Bermuda to Colombia, including the Bahamas, Haiti and the Lesser Antilles.
155021		habitat	eng	The Glass Goby<em></em> is coral reef-associated species that is found in tropical climates. It is a schooling species that hovers above the substratum mostly in deeper drop-off, and spur-and-groove habitats (Greenfield and Johnson 1999). It is also found near large coral columns and heads.
155021		population	eng	Greenfield and Johnson (1999), found the Glass Goby to be one of the most dominant goby species in coral drop-off habitats in the western Caribbean.
155021		threats	eng	The Glass Goby is occasionally taken for the aquarium trade, however it is unlikely to be collected across its entire range and its short generation length makes it resilient to moderate levels of threats.<br/><br/>This species may also be suffering declines due to habitat degradation caused by coral bleaching, pollution and destructive fishing practices, however this is only a localised threat.
155022		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Whitespotted Stargazer.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155022		distribution	eng	The Whitespotted Stargazer<em> (Uranoscopus polli</em>) is known from the coast of the Congo and Angola, north to Sierra Leone.
155022		habitat	eng	The Whitespotted Stargazer burrows in sand and mud.&#160; While concealed, it attracts its prey by means of a worm shaped lure in its mouth.&#160; This demersal species is found in the deeper shelf area (Bianchi 1992) at depths of approximately 20–200 m.&#160;  Analyses from Bianchi (1992) put this species in a continental shelf habitat grouping, just below the thermocline on sandy bottoms.
155022		population	eng	Trawl data from Bianchi (1992) showed that the Whitespotted Stargazer was not very prevalent in catches, comprising less than 1% of total catch from 18 stations of Gabon and Congo.
155022		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Whitespotted Stargazer.&#160;  However, it is harvested by artisanal fishers within the Gulf of Guinea (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 1999).&#160; This species is also fished commercially (FAO 1999a), but there are no species-specific catch statistics available.
155023		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Callionymus sagitta</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155023		distribution	eng	The Arrow-headed Darter Dragonet (<em>Callionymus sagitta)</em> is an Indo-Pacific species distributed from India and Sri Lanka, east to China and Korea, including Indonesia (Fricke 2002).  Fricke (1983) reports that this species<em> </em>is not present along the coast of Viet Nam where it is replaced by <em>Callionymus hainanensis</em>.
155023		habitat	eng	The Arrow-headed Darter Dragonet is a demersal species, which can be found resting on sandy substrates along coastlines, in estuaries, and in the lower courses of rivers. This species feeds on worms, zooplankton and phytoplankton. This species has a short generation length and population doubling time (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155023		population	eng	The Arrow-headed Darter Dragonet is common on inshore sandy bottoms (FAO 2001b).
155023		threats	eng	Due to the small size of this species, it is of no commercial value as a food source. It is occassionally taken as by-catch and used for fish meal. Due to the inshore nature of this species it may be impacted upon by coastal pollution and coastal development, however this is only likely to be causing localised declines. The low population doubling time and short generation length of this species (Froese and Pauly 2007) means it is resilient to short-term disturbances.
155024		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em>, however, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
155024		distribution	eng	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is distributed along the north coast of South America from Panama to Recife, Brazil.
155024		habitat	eng	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is a coral and rocky reef-associated, demersal species that has a depth range of 0 - 70 m. It is sluggish and inhabits littoral waters. This species is usually found on sandy or rock substrates and even large specimens may be found in waters less than 1 m deep. It is also found hiding in crevices or caves. Its diet mainly consists of molluscs and crustaceans (Collette 2002).<br/><br/>The eggs of <em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> are deposited on the shells of molluscs or stones, and this species is one of the very few marine fishes that guards fry and juveniles (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).
155024		population	eng	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is moderately abundant (Collette 2002).
155024		threats	eng	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is not of commercial importance. It is harvested by local fishers for local trade as a food source. It is caught in traps and by special types of hooks called garrapinos, and is marketed mainly fresh (Collette, 2002). This species may also occassionally be harvested by artisanal and trawl fisheries for fishmeal and oil production.
155025		conservation	eng	<em>Siganus rivulatus</em> is farmed for human consumption and this reduces pressure on wild stocks of this species. The distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas affording this species some protection from harvesting.<br/><br/>Monitoring and further research of the harvest levels and biology of this species is needed.
155025		distribution	eng	The original distribution of <em>Siganus rivulatus</em> ranged from South Africa to the Red Sea, including Madagascar, the Comoros and Seychelles. The distribution of this species has spread to the eastern Mediterranean via the Suez Canal from Egypt, to Libya and Greece. This species has also been recorded from Malta.
155025		habitat	eng	<em>Siganus rivulatus</em> is found in subtropical climates and feeds mainly on green algae. This species forms schools of about 50 to several hundred individuals, in sheltered bays over rocky/ algal covered bottoms to a maximum depth of 60 m. This species is also found in the vicinity of coral reefs.
155025		population	eng	<em>Siganus rivulatus</em> is a common fish in the eastern Mediterranean (Kuiter and Debelius 2001). This is one of the most abundant species in the Levantine rocky shore area off Turkey (Golani and Ben-Tuvia 1995).
155025		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is harvested throughout much of its range and forms an important component of many artisinal fisheries. It is typically harvested using beach seines, gill nets, and occasionally by trawling. However, there are no reported significant declines in the subpopulations. There are no separate catch statistics available for this species. Landings are combined with other siganid species.<br/><br/>In a few parts of this species range, it is being infected with the bacteria <span style="font-style: italic;">Mycobacterium marinum</span>. However, infection mainly occurs in individuals that have become trapped in aquaculture cages where they are exposed to already infected individuals (Diamant <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155026		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pelates sexlineatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas, including the Cod Grounds Commonwealth Marine Reserve.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed to establish the distribution, harvest levels, and population trends of this species, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
155026		distribution	eng	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is distributed south from Singapore to Australia, and north to China and Okinawa (Japan).&#160; The distribution of this species may extend to India, but this requires confirmation (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002).
155026		habitat	eng	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is a benthopelagic, schooling species that has a depth range of 1–30 m and inhabits sheltered seagrass, sand, and coastal reefs.&#160; It occurs most abundantly in weedy areas near the mouth of estuaries (Edgar 2000).&#160; It is also known to inhabit bays and inshore coastal waters.&#160; It frequents large reef areas but is also commonly found on smooth trawling and hauling grounds (NSW DPI 2007).&#160; This species feeds mainly on crustaceans (Sanchez-Jerez <em>et al</em>. 2002).
155026		population	eng	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is a common species in the seagrass meadows of many estuaries along the coast of New South Wales (Sanchez-Jerez <em>et al</em>. 2002, Heithaus 2004, Kwak and Klumpp 2004).
155026		threats	eng	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is of minor commercial importance, and is harvested as a food source using handlines, seines, and other inshore fishing gear.&#160; It is mostly marketed fresh (FAO 2001a).&#160; This species is harvested by the Estuary General Fishery in New South Wales, Australia, and is also taken as by-catch (although it is discarded) in the Estuary Prawn Trawl Fishery in New South Wales.&#160; The annual recreational harvest of striped grunter species, including <em>Pelates sexlineatus</em>, in New South Wales is likely to be less than 10 t (NSW DPI 2007).
155028		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em>.
155028		distribution	eng	<em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em> is found within the Ross Sea of the Southern Ocean.
155028		habitat	eng	<em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em> is a demersal species which is known from a depth range of 84-287 m and feeds primarily upon polychaetes (La Mesa and Vacchi 2005).
155028		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em>.
155028		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species.
155029		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Salarias ceramensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends is needed.
155029		distribution	eng	<em>Salarias ceramensis</em> is found in the coral triangle region, in the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. There are also records from Palau.
155029		habitat	eng	<em>Salarias ceramensis</em> occurs in sheltered bays and lagoons, often amongst mixed algae and coral rubble, in silty habitats at a depth range of 1 - 30 m.
155029		population	eng	This species is relatively common.
155029		threats	eng	<em>Salarias ceramensis</em> is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade. It is also of minor importance to fisheries (Froese and Pauly 2006). The collection of this species from the wild for commercial purposes is not considered a major threat.
155030		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em>.&#160; Changes in net gear size used by the commercial fishing industry is not thought to be viable, as it could be accompanied by a significant loss in the catch of target species. The best solution as proposed by Fonseca <em>et al. </em>in their 2005 study, is to avoid dense schools of <em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em>.&#160; Commercial exploitation of this species was stopped in the 1980s after a significant decrease in abundance.&#160;&#160; Further research is needed on the biology and harvest levels of this species, to help distinguish between natural fluctuations in the population of this species, and fishery-related declines.&#160; Taxonomic research is also needed to determine the validity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Macroramphosus gracilis.</span>
155030		distribution	eng	<em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic off the east coast of the USA and the Greater Antilles, northern South America and Argentina.&#160; It also occurs in the eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Indo-West Pacific, mostly in temperate latitudes between 20<sup>o</sup> and 40<sup>o</sup> N. (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).
155030		habitat	eng	<em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em> is a bethopelagic, subtropical species, typically found on the lower continental shelf over sand substrates (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This species is also known from the upper slope and oceanic seamounts.&#160; While normally found at a depth range of 50–350m, it has also been taken from depths of 600 m.&#160; Food items for this species include copepods, foraminiferans, amphipods, gammarid shrimps, polychaetes, and paguridae.&#160; This species is found in large schools.
155030		population	eng	<em>Macroramphosus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">scolopax</span> is described as usually being very abundant off the coast of Portugal, on the outer continental shelf (Marques <em>et al</em>. 2005, Lopes <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; Surveys from the 1970s indicated a high abundance of this species, in the region of 360,000 t.&#160; During the 1980s, there was a decline in this abundance, followed by an increase again between 1990 and 2003 (Marques <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; More recent acoustic surveys from 1998 to 2003 indicate a decline in abundance from 500,000 t to 175,000 t.<br/><br/>An acoustic survey off the coast of Morocco in 1976 estimated a biomass of 1,300,000 t (Brêthes 1979).
155030		threats	eng	In the early 1970s, <span style="font-style: italic;">Macroramphosus scolopax</span> was commonly taken in purse seine nets with catch rates of 25–30 tonnes per boat per day, with a landing of 10,000 tonnes in 1973 (Morais 1981).&#160; In the late 1970s, landings increased  to 33,000 tonnes, where they peaked in 1978 (Morais 1981).&#160; Efforts were made to implement the commercial exploitation of this species for fishmeal, but fishing vessels geared for this fishery are limited in number.&#160; As this is a schooling species and is found in many fishery zones, it is regularly taken as by-catch. This, in addition to natural variability, is likely to be responsible for much of the decline seen in the biomass of this species in recent years.&#160; Considering the wide distribution and reported abundance of this species, the indirect harvest of this species is not considered a major threat at the present time.
155031		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus whiteheadi</em>.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species as well as the impact of threats such as shrimp fisheries.
155031		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus whiteheadi</em> is a Pacific dragonet, known from only three specimens collected in Indonesia (at Java, Kangean, and Bali).&#160; The area from which this species is known is less than 20,000 km² (around 19,208 km²).
155031		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus whiteheadi</span> is a demersal species and has been recorded at depths of 100–220 m.&#160; It occurs on soft bottoms, burying in soft substrate.&#160; Congeners of this species feed on small bottom organisms such as crustaceans, worms and snails (Fricke 2001).
155031		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus whiteheadi</span> is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
155031		threats	eng	It is unknown<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> Callionymus whiteheadi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Like its congeners (e.g., <em>C. belcheri</em> and <em>C. filamentosus</em>), this species may be taken as by-catch in commercial prawn fisheries or may be used for the production of fish meal (Fricke 2001).
155032		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</span>. This species range overlaps with several marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, and monitoring of the harvest levels of this species.
155032		distribution	eng	<em>Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</em> is found in the Philippines and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Kuiter 2002).
155032		habitat	eng	<em>Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</em> occurs over rubble or shallow patch coral reefs, in areas of current. It is found to a maximum depth of 30 m.
155032		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</em>.
155032		threats	eng	This species is commonly exploited for the aquarium trade, however this is not believed to pose a significant threat to the global population at present. There are no other known major threats for this species.
155033		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres melas</span>. <br/><br/>Further research of the population numbers, potential threat processes, distribution, and ecology of this species is needed.
155033		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres melas </span>is thought to be endemic to Oman, where it has only been encountered at Sawda Island (Kuria Muria Islands) off the coast of southern Oman in the Arabian Sea.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155033		habitat	eng	<em>Halichoeres melas</em> inhabits coastal coral reef systems (Randall and Earle 1994) at depths of 5–10 m. It is solitary and ranges over a wide area, stopping briefly every 2–3 m to pick food from the reef substrate.
155033		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres melas </span>has been described as having a low population density (Randall and Earle 1994). This species is only known from a small number of records.<em></em>
155033		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
155034		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas, including 13 around New Caledonia, all of which operate stringent 'no-take' policies.
155034		distribution	eng	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> is distributed from the Ryukyu Islands, south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, and east to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa.
155034		habitat	eng	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> inhabits shallow, semi-exposed, hard-coral and rocky reefs with rich algal growth.&#160; Like all Blenniidae, this species is gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner.&#160; The males guard the deposited eggs, which are demersal and adhesive (R. Patzner pers. comm. 2008).
155034		population	eng	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> is locally abundant throughout its range (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155034		threats	eng	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> is widely distributed in the western Pacific and it is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat processes (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155035		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Blackflag Sandperch.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155035		distribution	eng	The Blackflag Sandperch<em> (Parapercis signata)</em> is known from the Maldive Islands and the Seychelles (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155035		habitat	eng	The Blackflag Sandperch is found on open rubble/muddy substrates, close to coral reefs.&#160; It feeds on small invertebrates and fish.&#160; There is evidence to suggest that this fish is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with the two smallest paratypes being female and the larger three male (Randall 1984).&#160;  This species is found to a depth of 50 m (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155035		population	eng	There is no population information available for<em> </em>the Blackflag Sandperch.
155035		threats	eng	There is no known major threat processes affecting the Blackflag Sandperch<em></em>.
155036		conservation	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus hubbsi</span> includes a number of marine protected areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
155036		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus hubbsi </span>has been recorded in the Gulf of California in Mexico south to Peru, and the Galapagos Islands (Robertson and Allen 2006). There is an old record of this species from southern California, USA (Dooley 1978), however there are no other records to support that the distribution of this species extends north to California. It is assumed that the species also is found in suitable habitat in between these recorded points.
155036		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus hubbsi</span> is a demersal species, which is found on sand and rubble substrata (Robertson and Allen 2006) from 20-40 m. It occupies the same areas and habitats as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. affinis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. princeps</span>, but prefers shallower waters (Schneider and Krupp 1995). The diet of this species consists of benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods, bivalve, octopus, squid and cuttlefish (Robertson and Allen 2006).
155036		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155036		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
155037		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Physiculus parini</em>.&#160; Further research on potential threats to this species is needed.
155037		distribution	eng	<em>Physiculus parini</em> is found along the Sala y Gomez Ridge near Easter Island.
155037		habitat	eng	<em>Physiculus parini</em> is a bathypelagic species found at depths of 330–360 m over the seamounts of Sala y Gomez Ridge.&#160; Most species of the Moridae family live over hard bottoms and do not form dense aggregations (FAO 1990).&#160; It is likely that this species is endemic to this seamount, as nearly half of all fish occurring on the Sala y Gomez ridge are endemics.
155037		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Physiculus parini</em>.
155037		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus parini</span> is of no commercial importance.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch by seamount fisheries taking commercially important species such as the Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus).</em>
155038		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Percis matsuii</span>.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the impact of threats such as by-catch.
155038		distribution	eng	<em>Percis matsuii</em> is distributed around southern Japan.
155038		habitat	eng	<em>Percis matsuii</em> is a bathydemersal species found over mud and sand substrates at a depth range of 200?500 m.
155038		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for<em> Percis matsuii</em>.
155038		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of <span style="font-style: italic;">Percis matsuii</span>, it is unlikely to be impacted by threats such as coastal development.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch by trawler fisheries.&#160; It is unknown whether this poses a significant threat to this species, but fisheries are over-exploited in this region and by-catch is insufficiently monitored.
155039		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its distribution, ecology, and threats.
155039		distribution	eng	<em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em> is distributed from Japan and the East China Sea, south to the South China Sea (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155039		habitat	eng	<em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Occurrence records indicate that it has been collected from depths of 100–500 m (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155039		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em>.
155039		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurenchelys fierasfer</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Over-exploitation of fish and other living resources is reported to be severe in both the East China Sea (Heileman and Tang 2008) and the South China Sea (Heileman 2008).&#160; In 2004, total reported landings of all marine resources in the East China Sea were four million tonnes (Heileman and Tang 2008), and in the South China Sea, reported landings were six million tonnes (Heileman 2008).&#160; Excessive by-catch is also reported to be a severe problem in the South China Sea (Heileman 2008).&#160; It is therefore possible that <span style="font-style: italic;">S. fierasfer</span> is taken as by-catch in at least some areas of its range.&#160; However, the deep water habit of this species suggests that most of the population may be outside the reach of fisheries in the region (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
155040		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etropus rimosus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Florida Keys National Marine Park. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends of this species is needed.
155040		distribution	eng	The Gray Flounder, <em>Etropus rimosus,</em> is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to southern Florida and the eastern Gulf of Mexico.
155040		habitat	eng	The Gray Flounder is typically found at depths greater than 40 m to a maximum depth of 180 m. The larvae are most common between depths of 20-60 m. This species can be found resting on soft substrates.
155040		population	eng	The Gray Flounder has been described as an abundant species (Dowd 1981).
155040		threats	eng	<em>Etropus rimosus</em> is used in the pet food industry but this is unlikely to pose a major threat to the population numbers of this species (Leslie and Stewart 1986).
155041		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caulolatilus dooleyi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the population numbers, distribution, and threats of this species is needed.
155041		distribution	eng	<em>Caulolatilus dooleyi</em> is only known from three specimens collected from the Caicos Bank, Bimini, and Tongue of the Ocean off the Bahama Islands.
155041		habitat	eng	<em>Caulolatilus dooleyi</em> is a tropical, deep-water species of tilefish that has been found at a depth range of 219 m to 256 m. This species finds shelter in crevices of rock piles or at the base of coral on steep, outer slopes.<br/><br/>This species feeds on a range of benthic invertebrates such as molluscs, crabs, sea urchins and worms.
155041		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155041		threats	eng	This species is not known to be directly targeted for any commercial trade, however other species of this genus are taken by spear fishers and by commercial fisheries as by-catch.
155042		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Plesiops nigricans</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of MPAs throughout its range.
155042		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Plesiops nigricans</em> is restricted to the the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea.
155042		habitat	eng	<em>Plesiops nigricans</em> is found on coral reefs hiding amongst coral rubble and crevices at a depth range of 5–30 m.&#160; This species feeds at night and hides during the day.
155042		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Plesiops nigricans</em>.
155042		threats	eng	<em>Plesiops nigricans</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, however it is not the most common species in the genus <em>Plesiops</em> to be used in the ornamental trade.
155043		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Indian Mackeral Scad. However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed, along with further research on the fishing effort in all the major fishery regions.
155043		distribution	eng	The Indian Mackeral Scad, <em>Decapterus russelli</em>, is broadly distributed throughout the Indian Ocean, from East Africa to Indonesia and in the western Pacific Ocean, from Japan to Australia. This species has also been found in the eastern Mediterranean (Golani 2006).
155043		habitat	eng	The Indian Mackeral Scad is a benthopelagic, coastal species that has a depth range of 40-275 m. It forms large schools in deep water, and is occasionally found inshore in sheltered bays in small to large groups. This species feeds on planktonic invertebrates.
155043		population	eng	The Indian Mackeral Scad, <em>Decapterus russelli</em>, is one of the most common coastal pelagic species in South-East Asia (Perrin and Borsa 2001) and most common <em>Decapterus</em> species in coastal waters and on open banks of the Indian Ocean (FAO 1999).
155043		threats	eng	The Indian Mackeral Scad, <em>Decapterus russelli</em>, is a highly commercial species and is taken in coastal waters throughout its range. This species is very important in the South China Sea region as a cheap source of protein, particularly for lower income groups. This species is mainly caught with purse seine nets and trawls. In Malaysia 96% and 2% of landings are caught with purse seines and trawls, respectively. In the last 10 years the global landings of this species have been as follows: 1997 - 150, 027 tonnes, 1998 - 145, 747 tonnes, 1999 - 162, 437 tonnes, 2000 - 182, 499 tonnes, 2001 - 171, 701 tonnes, 2002 - 195, 422 tonnes, 2003 - 179, 011 tonnes, 2004 - 168, 625 tonnes, 2005 - 167, 975 tonnes, 2006 - 175, 770 tonnes, 2007 - 164, 016 tonnes (FAO-FIGIS 2008). There is no apparent increase or decrease in the population as the landings of this species have fluctuated since the 1950s. This species is<em> </em>marketed fresh or may be dried or salted; also sold frozen and canned.<br/><br/>The stocks of <em>Decapterus russelli</em> are subject to heavy exploitation (Perrin and Borsa 2001) and are reported to be overexploited (Mansor and Abdullah 1995; Atmaja and Nugroho 2005). On the Sunda shelf (extension of the continental shelf of South East Asia) the annual landings of scads have decreased from around 82,500t in 1994 to around 42,500t in 2004 (51.5% decrease), despite an increase in fishery effort of around 50% for the same period (Atmaja and Nugroho 2005). This reported decline is only known from a small part of this species range. In general the global landings of this species appear to relatively steady, however this could be better supported by further information on the fishing effort in this time.
155044		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Buglossidium luteum</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
155044		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155044		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Buglossidium luteum</span> may be found in the eastern Atlantic from Iceland and Scotland to the Mediterranean. Its range includes the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.
155044		distribution	eng	This species is found in the east Atlantic, from Iceland and Scotland southward and also North Sea, Kattegat and the Baltic Sea.  <br/><br/>It occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic Sea, Gulf of Lion (De Morais and Bodiou 1984, De Morais 1985, Blanchard and Boucher 2001, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001, Darnaude <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carlier <em>et al.</em> 2007), Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus.
155044		habitat	eng	<em>Buglossidium luteum</em> is a demersal species that occurs at depths ranging from less than 1 m to 450 m. This small flatfish species prefers shallow, sandy and muddy bottoms near river outflows, though it avoids the low salinity waters of large estuaries (Amara <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its diet varies seasonally, but often includes bivalves, polychaeta, amphipoda and, according to some studies, copepoda (Henrique<em> et al.</em> 2002).  It does not make any pronounced migrations. It is most abundant at depths of 10 - 40 m (Quero <em>et al</em>. 1986).
155044		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on sandy substrata of the continental shelf and slope. It feeds on a wide range of bottom-living organisms, mainly crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, cumaceans), bivalve molluscs and polychaetes (Bauchot 1987).
155044		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Buglossidium luteum</span> is considered abundant in areas of its range including the Portuguese coast (Carbral <em>et al.</em> 2002).
155044		population	eng	This is a widespread, common, and abundant species.<br/><br/>According to Darnaude <em>et al.</em> (2004), 206 specimens were seasonally collected (winter, spring and summer from March 2000 to November 2001) at three sites located at 10, 30 and 90 m depth, seawards of the mouth of Rhone river (Gulf of Lion).
155044		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is caught with seines and trawls.
155044		threats	eng	While this species is not fished commercially, trawls targeting other species, such as the shrimp <em>Crangon crangon</em>, take <em>Buglossidium luteum</em> as by-catch (Berghahn and Purps 1998).  However, this is not considered to be a major threat to this species at this time as it is not affecting the entire population.
155045		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Merluccius hernandezi</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the taxonomy and biology of this species, as well as on its abundance and threats.
155045		distribution	eng	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> is known from the Gulf of California.
155045		habitat	eng	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> inhabits epipelagic and mesopelagic zone waters of the continental shelf, open sea, and seamounts, to a depth of around 300 m.&#160; This is likely to be a small-sized species, as it has been recognised as a 'dwarf' Hake stock (Iwamoto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
155045		population	eng	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> was previously classed as <em>Merluccius angustimanus</em>, and is said to have a low abundance (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).
155045		threats	eng	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> is of no real commercial importance and is only exploited on a local scale by trawlers (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).
155046		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for <em>Apogon margaritophorus</em>. However the distribution of this species coincides with numerous marine protected areas.
155046		distribution	eng	The Red-striped Cardinalfish,<em> Apogon margaritophorus,</em> is distributed from the Indo-Malay Archipelago to the Solomon Islands.
155046		habitat	eng	The Red-striped Cardinalfish <em></em>is found in shallow coral reefs around lagoons and sheltered bays at a depth range of 1-10 m, and it is usually found sheltering near long-spined urchins or large anemones in seagrasses. It occurs in small groups with individuals forming pairs within these aggregations. It is a mouthbrooding species.
155046		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155046		threats	eng	The Red-striped Cardinalfish occasionally shows up in the aquarium trade as an "Assorted Cardinal Fish". The harvesting of this species for the aquarium trade, is not considered a major threat to this species at present owing to the short generation time, broad range and infrequent harvesting for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>This species may be threatened by coral reef and seagrass habitat degradation in areas of its range, however, the majority of coral reefs in the South West Pacific are healthy, while others are recovering after coral bleaching in 2000 and 2002. The major signs of reef stress around the major towns are due to over-exploitation and pollution from sediments and nutrients. It is predicted that large areas of coral reefs will remain healthy in the future, with only those around the larger towns being damaged (Lovell <em> et al</em>. 2004).
155047		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cocotropus roseus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPAs) designations including the Gulf of Mannar National Park off the coast of India.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the ecology, population numbers and potential threats to this species is needed as little information is available.
155047		distribution	eng	<em>Cocotropus roseus</em> is recorded from the western Indian Ocean around India and the Maldives.
155047		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cocotropus</span><em> roseus</em> is a demersal species.&#160; The genus <em>Cocotropus</em> is generally found at depths less than 100 m.&#160; Species from the Aploactinidae family are often found under or between rocks or vegetation (Poss 1999).
155047		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cocotropus</span><em> roseus</em>.
155047		threats	eng	It is unknown whether&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cocotropus</span><em> roseus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; The Aploactinidae family are of no commercial importance (Poss 1999).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range, especially shrimp trawlers, but there are no data available to confirm this. This species is unlikely to be threatened (W. Eschmeyer pers. comm. 2009).
155048		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zoarchias neglectus</em>. &#160; Further research on its abundance, ecology, habitat status, and threats&#160; should be carried out.
155048		distribution	eng	<em>Zoarchias neglectus</em> is known only from Misaki in the Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.
155048		habitat	eng	<em>Zoarchias neglectus</em> is a demersal species typically found in tidal pools.&#160; There is little information available on the ecology of this species or genus.
155048		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Zoarchias neglectus</em>.
155048		threats	eng	It is unknown if <em>Zoarchias neglectus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; Part of its range includes a busy harbour where it may be impacted by threats associated with coastal development, ballast water, boat traffic, oil leaks from ships, dredging, and other sources of water pollution.
155049		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Devil Searobin. Further research on the threats, harvest levels, population numbers, and biology of this species is needed.
155049		distribution	eng	The Devil Searobin (<em>Lepidotrigla kishinouyi</em>) has been documented from the Sea of Japan to East China Sea south of Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, and in the coastal waters of Taiwan (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007).
155049		habitat	eng	Gurnards are benthic species found on the continental shelf of tropical and warm temperate regions. The Devil Searobin has been found at a depth range of 40-140 m. Species in the genus <em>Lepidotrigla</em> are typically found to occur on sandy, muddy, rubble or reef-type substrates.
155049		population	eng	Currently there is no available population information for the Devil Searobin.
155049		threats	eng	There is no major commercial fishery for the Devil Searobin. However, it is taken by bottom trawler fisheries operating within its range. The East China Sea is intensively exploited for both fish and algae, and many fisheries are said to over-exploit; further research is needed to assess how significant a threat this is to the population of this species.
155050		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Callogobius clitellus</em>, however it is known from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
155050		distribution	eng	The Saddled Goby, <em>Callogobius clitellus,</em> is distributed from Indonesia and the Philippines to the Solomon Islands and the Great Barrier Reef.
155050		habitat	eng	The Saddled Goby is a benthic species found amongst rubble and on sandy substrates in bays and on steep coral reef slopes. It has been found at a depth range of between 3-20 m.
155050		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Saddled Goby.
155050		threats	eng	Due to the coastal nature of the Saddled Goby this species maybe undergoing localised declines in abundance due to coastal development and water pollution.
155051		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Marine protected areas targeted at protecting mangrove habitat are needed within the region to protect species that are dependent on this specific habitat type.
155051		distribution	eng	The Taboga Goby (<span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius tabogensis</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from lower Baja California and central Mexico to Ecuador.
155051		habitat	eng	The Taboga Goby is a demersal species, found in mangrove channels with muddy substrata, to depths of 6 m (Birdsong 1981).
155051		population	eng	The Taboga Goby is moderately common within its specific habitat.
155051		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Taboga Goby.&#160; However, localised coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect this species and its shallow water habitat.
155052		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Flying Gurnard,&#160; however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
155052		distribution	eng	The Flying Gurnard, <em>Dactyloptena gilberti</em>, is an Indo-Pacific gurnard, distributed from southern Japan and the Gulf of Thailand to India, the Arabian Peninsula, and Somalia.
155052		habitat	eng	Flying Gurnard is taken inshore over mud-sand substrates at a depth range of 20-71 m. The congener, <em>Dactyloptena orientalis</em>, feeds on benthic crustaceans, clams, and small fishes.
155052		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Flying Gurnard.
155052		threats	eng	The Flying Gurnard forms a minor component of western central Pacific fisheries, and is marketed fresh. This species is harvested in nearshore waters with seine nets, or by trawls. Current levels of exploitation are low and not considered a major threat to the global population.
155053		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Phucocoetes latitans</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with several designated marine protected areas, including the Tierra Del Fuego National Park. <br/><br/>Further research on the abundance of this species and its strength of association with kelp habitats is needed.&#160; Monitoring of any changes in population size associated with El Nino years would also be useful.
155053		distribution	eng	<em>Phucocoetes latitans</em> is found on the shores of Patagonia from Mar del Plata, Argentina, to Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands.
155053		habitat	eng	<em>Phucocoetes latitans</em> is a benthic species found on slopes along rocky coastlines.&#160; It is associated with seaweed and kelp holdfasts.&#160; Spawning occurs within the intertidal zone, where the nests are guarded.
155053		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Phucocoetes latitans</em>.
155053		threats	eng	<em>Phucocoetes latitans</em> is of no commercial value and is not fished.&#160; Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it maybe undergoing localised declines in areas impacted by significant coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, the coastline along which this species is found is relatively under-developed.&#160; Due to this species' association with kelp forests, it is likely to be affected by kelp die-offs that occur in El Nino years.
155054		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em>.&#160;  However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the by-catch levels of this species is needed.
155054		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em> is found from the Great Australian Bight to southwest Western Australia.
155054		habitat	eng	<em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em> is a demersal, schooling species that has a depth range of 95–390 m.&#160; It is found on the continental shelf and slope.
155054		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em>.
155054		threats	eng	This species is discarded as by-catch by a number of southern Australia trawl fisheries; considering the lack of knowledge on species composition, abundance and distribution this is considered to pose a threat to this species (Baker 2009). Daley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006 listed this species as 'at high risk of population impacts' as a result of the trawler fisheries. While this is not a target species, it may become a targeted food source in the future; a number of other rubyfish species are already taken for food (Baker 2009). This species is particularly vulnerable to the impact of fishing as it is a long-lived species, slow-growing, slow to mature, with a low reproductive output (Weeber and Szabo 2004, citing Annala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). It is possible that this species congregates on seamounts like congener  <em>P. rubiginosum, </em>where it is particularly vulnerable to over-fishing<em> </em>(Ivanin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996; Weeber and Szabo 2005).
155055		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Himantolophus cornifer</em>.
155055		distribution	eng	<em>Himantolophus cornifer</em> is found in the tropical waters of the northwestern and central Atlantic, the western Indian Ocean (Natal), the Coral Sea and the central Pacific. This species has also been recorded from the Gulf of Mexico.
155055		habitat	eng	The footballfish, <em>Himantolophus cornifer</em> is a meso and bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 0 to 1,900 m. The larvae of species from the <em>Himantolophus</em> genus are epipelagic, usually occurring less than 50 m below the surface, and at metamorphosis they descend to depths of more than 800 m (Bertelsen and Krefft 1988). This species uses a lure (modified dorsal fin spine) as a means by which to attract prey (FAO 2002).
155055		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Himantolophus cornifer</em>.
155055		threats	eng	<em>Himantolophus cornifer</em> is of no commercial interest, and due to its small size it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch. There are no known major threats for this species.
155056		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for  New Zealand Dory, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
155056		distribution	eng	The New Zealand Dory, <em>Cyttus novaezealandiae</em>, is found off the coast of New Zealand and southeast Australia.
155056		habitat	eng	The New Zealand Dory is a demersal species that has a depth range of 20-450 m and can be found on the continental slope.
155056		population	eng	There is no population information available for the New Zealand Dory.
155056		threats	eng	New Zealand Dory is occasionally seen as by-catch when trawling (CSIRO Report 2001). At present this is not considered a major threat to this species as it comprises less than 1% of the by-catch (AFMA 2005).
155057		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Japanese Stargazer.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155057		distribution	eng	The Japanese Stargazer<em> (Uranoscopus japonicus</em>) is distributed from South Korea to Sagami Bay, Japan, southward to Taiwan, from Shanghai to Fujian in China, and around Singapore.&#160; Reports of this species from Yemen and Australia are thought to be misidentifications (M. Gomon pers. comm. 2008).
155057		habitat	eng	The Japanese Stargazer is a benthic species, found resting on, or burrowed in, sand or muddy bottoms, to a depth of 300 m, in near shore waters.&#160; Individuals feed on animals that move over them, such as crabs, molluscs, worms, and small fishes. The Japanese Stargazer is venomous and has a cleithral spine with a venom gland.
155057		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Japanese Stargazer.
155057		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Japanese Stargazer.&#160; This species is occasionally taken as by-catch, but this is not considered to be a major threat.
155058		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.
155058		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mexican Pacific; from Monterey Bay in California, USA to the Gulf of California (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983,&#160;Galván-Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155058		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It lives on soft sand and sand/mud substrates in coastal areas at depths of 3-140 m (Galván-Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).&#160;&#160;It lives on sandy substrata and preys on mysids and gammaridean amphipods as well as pelagic red crab, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleuroncodes planipes</span> (Ramírez-Murillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<p></p>
155058		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon over much of its range.
155058		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to the population at this time, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp, and other fishing trawlers. <br/><p></p>
155059		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Masked Stargazer.
155059		distribution	eng	The Masked Stargazer (<em>Gillellus healae)</em> is found in the western Atlantic, from South Carolina to the northeast coast of Mexico, including the Florida Keys. This species can also be found in the waters off Aruba.
155059		habitat	eng	The Masked Stargazer<em></em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 21-73 m. This species inhabits soft bottoms, where it buries itself in sand with only its eyes, nose and mouth protruding, waiting for passing prey.
155059		population	eng	Masked Stargazers are often locally abundant (FAO 1999).
155059		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species although it may be taken as by-catch by fishing trawlers operating within its range.
155060		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lepidotrigla venusta</em>. Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, biology and ecology of this species, as well as on its potential threats.
155060		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidotrigla venusta</em> is a searobin, known from only one specimen collected from Luzon, Philippines; described with 34 paratypes (Fowler 1938).
155060		habitat	eng	Like other searobins, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidotrigla</span><em> venusta</em> is a demersal species. The type specimen was collected from a depth of around 82 m (Eschmeyer 1999).
155060		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidotrigla venusta</span>.
155060		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidotrigla venusta</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Like its congeners, this species may be taken as by-catch by trawls throughout its range (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
155061		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pomacentrus callainus</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155061		distribution	eng	<em>Pomacentrus callainus</em> is an eastern central Pacific damselfish, recorded from Fiji and Tonga (type locality, Tongatapu).
155061		habitat	eng	<em>Pomacentrus callainus</em> is found on shallow coral reefs, which it uses for shelter. This species is found between depths of 2 - 8 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155061		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout the Fijian Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155061		threats	eng	Many of the reefs that <em>Pomacentrus callainus</em> inhabits, have been subjected to degradation in populated areas by a number of threats. The coral reefs around Fiji have been locally impacted by sewage, coral harvesting, sedimentation, destructive fishing practices, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks, and eutrophication. <br/><br/>Seventy five percent of Tonga is uninhabited by humans and so development does not pose a huge problem to this part of the distribution. However in areas that are inhabited, infrastructure is poor and so reefs are degraded by untreated sewage and sedimentation. The use of destructive fishing practices in this region is common. <br/><br/>This species may be taken for the aquarium trade, however it is not a major threat.
155062		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em>.<br/><br/>Further studies in deeper water around Ambon Island are needed to determine if this species occupies a deep water habitat.
155062		distribution	eng	<em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em> is known from a single specimen from Ambon, Indonesia.
155062		habitat	eng	<em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em> is a demersal species. The Serranidae family are usually found on coral reefs or rocky substrata and the majority of species occur on continental shelves in depths less than 200 m. Except for occasional spawning aggregations, most groupers are solitary fishes and are generally resident on a particular reef for a long time (FAO 1999).<br/><br/>Like other species within the subfamily Anthiinae, this species may in fact be a deep reef (greater than 50 m) species and quite common. The shallow waters within this area have been relatively well surveyed (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155062		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em>.
155062		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Surveys have found the waters around Ambon Island to be severely contaminated by domestic waste, a stress which has indirectly caused an increased parasite load on some reef fish (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1995). The coral reefs around Ambon and other Indonesian islands are also under threat from 'blast fishing' (Harger 1995). Dive teams have reported significant cracks in the coral reef around Ambon as a result of near constant blast fishing. If this is in fact a deep reef species, then it is unlikely to be impacted by blast fishing activity.
155063		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the extent of this species distribution.
155063		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em> is found in the Timor Sea and off Hawaii (Mundy 2005).
155063		habitat	eng	<em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em> is a benthopelagic species found at depths ranging from 920-1,700 m (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008). Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
155063		population	eng	<em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em> is a rare species (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
155063		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em>, due to the deepwater nature of this species.
155064		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Apogon notatus</em>, however, the distribution of this species may fall within marine protected areas.
155064		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon notatus</em> is distributed in the southern islands of Japan.
155064		habitat	eng	<em>Apogon notatus</em> is found around rocky reefs in bays and harbours, hovering near reef crevices and caves. During certain parts of the year it regularly forms large, dense aggregations during the day.<br/><br/>About two months before spawning, when water temperature exceeds 16<sup>o</sup>C, females establish territories over rocky substrate. Males join the females in these territories and form breeding pairs. During the reproductive season, (June - September in Japan) spawning occurs daily. The males of this species mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until they hatch.
155064		population	eng	<em>Apogon notatus</em> is reported to be common (Kuwamura 1983) and a dominant species (Okuda 2001) in the coastal waters of southern Japan.
155064		threats	eng	<em></em><em>Apogon notatus</em> is associated with rocky reefs in harbours and bays, implying a level of tolerance to polluted conditions and utilisation of a range of habitat types. This species is reported to be common in southern Japan, an area that has experienced severe coastal degradation, providing further evidence that this species is relatively unimpacted by threats relating to reef degradation.
155065		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em>.<br/><br/>As this species is only known from a couple of specimens, further research is needed on the biology, ecology, population numbers, potential threats, and distribution of this species.
155065		distribution	eng	<em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em> is distributed in the Bering Sea including Commander Island and the Aleutian  Islands, at a depth of 32-92 m.&#160; This species and other cottids are usually found  in cold waters (K Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).
155065		habitat	eng	The sculpin, <em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em>, is a demersal species that has been collected at depths of 52–97 m. Little is known about the habitat or biology of this species, but its congener, <em>S. concinnum</em>, reaches a maximum size of 5.1 cm (SL), inhabits rocky bottoms and has been found among rocks covered with calcareous algae, kelp and brown algae, and sea urchins.
155065		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Stelgistrum beringianum</span>.
155065		threats	eng	It is unknown if <em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Sculpins are of no interest to fisheries (FAO 1999).
155066		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Huysman's Righteye Flounder.&#160; Further research is needed on the harvest levels and population trends of this species.
155066		distribution	eng	Huysman's Righteye Flounder <em>(Samariscus huysmani</em>) is found from Myanmar, eastwards to China, and south to Indonesia.
155066		habitat	eng	Huysman's Righteye Flounder is a demersal species found at a depth range of 98–122 m.
155066		population	eng	There is no population information available for Huysman's Righteye Flounder.
155066		threats	eng	Huysman's Righteye Flounder is occasionally taken as by-catch by shrimp fisheries.&#160; It is not known if this poses a significant threat to this species.
155067		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em>.
155067		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em> is found along the Pacific coast of Honshu and the nearby islands, to the Ogasawara Islands (Kuiter and Debelius 2007).
155067		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 50-100 m and can be found over coral and rocky substrates. This species forms schools above the reef (P.C.  Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). This species mixes with other anthiids while feeding on zooplankton above the reef (Kuiter and Debelius 2007).
155067		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em>, however the life history characteristics of the <em>Anthiinae</em> subfamily (short-lived, high natural mortality rate, high growth rate and high recruitment rate) (Russ and Alcala 1998) suggests that this species may be locally abundant.
155067		threats	eng	Due to the deep water nature of this species, it is not commonly seen within the aquarium trade (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). This species largely occurs on offshore reefs where it is unlikely to be impacted by inshore pollution (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). The use of piscicides is prohibited within Japanese waters (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009) so this is unlikely to pose a threat.
155068		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
155068		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and threats of this species.
155068		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remora brachyptera </span>has a circumglobal distribution throughout all warm waters. Its most southerly limit reaches Otago in New Zealand. In the western Atlantic it ranges from Nova Scotia to Brazil.
155068		distribution	eng	<em>Remora brachyptera</em> has a worldwide distribution in warm seas. In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Nova Scotia (Canada) to Brazil. It also occurs in the eastern Atlantic.<br/><br/>Mediterranean:<br/>Remora brachyptera occurs in the western Mediterranean and off the Azores (Lachner 1986). It is mainly known from western Mediterranean basin (Alboran and Catalan Seas, including the Balearics). There is also a record off Italy (Tortonese 1974), but this needs to be confirmed if vagrant.
155068		habitat	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remora brachyptera</span> is commonly found attached on to sharks, particularly blue sharks and in the gill chambers of swordfish and billfishes (O'Toole 2002). This is an epipelagic species, like the host species. This species is found to a maximum depth of 200 m.
155068		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, found on the body and inside gill chamber of billfishes and swordfishes, but rarely on any other fishes (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
155068		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population in the Mediterranean.
155068		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is common.
155068		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
155068		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Remora brachyptera</span>. This species may be indirectly impacted due to the harvesting of its host species.
155069		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Blackpored Eel.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Florida Keys National Marine Park.&#160; Further research into the ecology of this species is needed, in order to better identify any potential threats it may face.
155069		distribution	eng	The Blackpored Eel<em> (Ophichthus melanoporus) </em>has been found from the east coast of Florida, the northwestern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and the Bahamas.
155069		habitat	eng	The Blackpored Eel is found in deep water and the larvae are found inshore. &#160; This species is known to occur at depths of 51 - 460 m.
155069		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Blackpored Eel.
155069		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however it is unlikely that the Blackpored Eel is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155070		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance of this species to determine if known threats are triggering significant declines.
155070		distribution	eng	<em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is known from the South China Sea.
155070		habitat	eng	<em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is a demersal species found in tropical waters. Other species of the genus <em>Samariscus</em> are found at depths ranging from 3-150 m; it is likely that this species falls within a similar range. The maximum size of <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is not known, however the maximum size of congeners range from 5.5 cm to (<em>S. macrognathus</em>) to 16 cm (<em>S. latus</em>). This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
155070		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em>.
155070		threats	eng	It is not known whether <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. It is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in commercial bottom trawls. The South China Sea is severely impacted by overfishing and is reported to have excessive by-catch, discards and destructive fishing practices. The South China Sea is also severely impacted by habitat modification and the effects of pollution (NOAA 2004). It is unknown what impact these threats are having upon this species owing to its small size and the lack of commercial interest (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
155071		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia</span><em> maculata</em>. It is possible that this species may occur in a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), affording it some protection from anthropogenic threats.
155071		distribution	eng	<em>Gorgasia maculata</em> is found in the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific, from the Maldives and the Comoros to the Solomon Islands, and as far north as the Philippines.
155071		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia maculata</span> is a reef-associated species, found living in coral-sand burrows at a depth range of 25–48 m. They are found in colonies with their heads protruding from the burrow to feed on small planktonic organisms in the water current.&#160; Colonies typically are found in areas exposed to a current.
155071		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia maculata</span>.
155071		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia maculata</span> is impacted by any major threat processes at present.
155072		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Southern Conger Eel.
155072		distribution	eng	The Southern Conger Eel, <em>Conger verreauxi</em>, is found in the Indo-Pacific from Western Australia to New South Wales. It is also found in the Southwest Pacific around New Zealand.
155072		habitat	eng	The Southern Conger Eel<em></em> stays hidden during the day in cracks and crevices of moderately exposed coral reefs (Edgar 2000), rubble and wrecks. This species has been recorded to a depth of 500 m but is more commonly found at a depth range of 0 - 100 m. This species main prey items include fish, crabs and octopus. This species migrates to deep water to spawn and die.
155072		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Southern Conger Eel.
155072		threats	eng	Currently the conger eel fishery, within this species distribution range, is known to be small and is not intensively harvested. A number of species however, are regularly taken as by-catch during trawling, potting and lining (New Zealand Government 2005). Recreational fishermen will usually return any by-catch eels back to the sea. Current catches of this species are likely to be below the maximum sustainable yield.<br/><br/>The New Zealand Government believes that "a commercial interest in conger eels will develop in New Zealand" (New Zealand Government 2005).
155073		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155073		distribution	eng	<em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em> is distributed from the Gulf of Thailand to the Solomon Islands and Micronesia, north to the Philippines, and south to Queensland. This species is also known from the Andaman Sea and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean (Kuiter 2000).
155073		habitat	eng	<em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em> is found in tidal pools and sheltered inner reefs, usually in caves with sponges and below large coral plates. <em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em> is an active cleaner and has a cleaning station that is regularly visited by apogonids and damselfishes where adults work in pairs (Kuiter 2000). Males carry eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the trunk (Dawson 1981)   Species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Doryrhamphus</span> typically brood 80-150 eggs (Kuiter 2000).
155073		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Doryhamphus janssi</em>.
155073		threats	eng	This species is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade. It is not known if it is targeted directly or taken as a by-catch species.
155074		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on potential threats to this species is needed.
155074		distribution	eng	<em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em> is found in the southeast Pacific and southwest Atlantic Ocean from Argentina to Chile.
155074		habitat	eng	<em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em> is a demersal species, commonly found over rocky bottoms and around the holdfasts of kelp (<em>Macrocystis pyrifera</em>) in the intertidal zone (Siefeld <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; Most <em>Patagonotothen</em> species are assumed to be opportunistic feeders with a generalist diet that varies according to the available prey (Laptikhovsky 2004).&#160; This species has two spawning peaks throughout the year, and spawning grounds are in the intertidal zone.&#160; Adults guard the nests to ensure survival of the embryos (Rae and Calvo 1995).
155074		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em>.&#160; The suborder Notothenioidei is a dominant group in the coastal fish fauna of the Antarctic, subantarctic and Patagonian regions (Pequeńo 1989).
155074		threats	eng	Species of Nototheniidae from the Southern Ocean are under increasing pressure from commercial fisheries as they are the major fish resource in this area, and Antarctic icefish are reported to be depleted.&#160; At present, this species is not thought to be threatened by harvesting either as by-catch, or directly for commercial purposes.&#160; This is a small species which is most commonly found in the shallow intertidal zone, amongst kelp holdfasts.<br/><br/>Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it may be undergoing declines in areas of intense coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, there is little coastal development within this species' range, and this would be considered a localised threat only.
155075		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens.</span> However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.
155075		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens </span>is widely distributed in tropical waters. In the Eastern Pacific area it is found from San Francisco to Chile, but it is rare north of the state of Baja California in Mexico. It is found in the Indian Ocean including waters around Reunion and Mauritius. In the western Atlantic it is found from Florida to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. It is also found in the Western Pacific Ocean around Indonesia and China.
155075		habitat	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens</span> attaches itself to other species by a cephalic sucking disk on its head. Ninety percent of individuals are found on Manta Rays, but are also associated with 4 other hosts (O'Toole 2002). It is often found inside the gill chambers and mouth of its host. This species is found to a depth of 50 m.
155075		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens</span>.
155075		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is used within Traditional Chinese Medicine, however there is no indication that this is causing a decline in the population. It's association with Manta Rays may result in future population declines should Manta Rays continue to be impacted by anthropogenic pressures.
155076		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There are no species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres notospilus</span>. However, this species distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas.
155076		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres notospilus</span> is found from the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
155076		habitat	eng	<p>This reef-associated species is common in shallow waters to 15 m depth, especially where brown algae exists (Gomon 1995). At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish is found in deep rocky walls, exposed shallow rocky reef and zones of massive coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). This species is also known to enter the mouths of estuaries on hard substrata. </p>
155076		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>                      <p>In the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica this species was found to have a density of less than 0.01 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In the Gulfo Dulce, Costa Rica, a density of 0.033+/-0.071 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> was found, with a relative abundance of 0.879% (Figueroa 2001). Within a survey of five sites near the Catalinas Islands, this species was observed a total of 133 times, but in only two of the five sites (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">H. notospilus</span> could not be found at Los Islotes, Gulf of California. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was also not found, although it has been previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this species was captured just once within 12 one month long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this species (cited as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudojulis notospilus</span>) seems to be abundant in corals and tide pools, and is occasionally found in rocky and sandy substrata. This species is abundant in El Salvador, and common in shallow sheltered rocky habitat types in Galapagos.</p>
155076		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres notospilus.</span>
155077		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em>.
155077		distribution	eng	<em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em> is distributed from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Panama.
155077		habitat	eng	<em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been collected from a depth range of 3,200–4,188 m.&#160; Species of this genus feed on clams.
155077		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em>.
155077		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155078		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.
155078		distribution	eng	<em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em> is distributed from Japan southwards, to the China Sea, Philippines, and northern Australia.&#160; This species is also known from India (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002), Yemen (Al Sakaff and Esseen 1999), and Oman (Randall 1995).
155078		habitat	eng	<em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em> is a demersal species, found resting on the sea floor at a depth range of 10?440 m.&#160; It is found on the continental shelf and in the open sea.
155078		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterygotrigla hemisticta</span>.
155078		threats	eng	<em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em> is harvested as a food fish in subsistence fisheries.&#160; There is no commercial fishery for this species at present, but it is incidentally taken as by-catch in trawls throughout its range (FAO 1999b).&#160; The harvesting of this species by subsistence fisherman is not considered a major threat to this wide-ranging species.
155079		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of MPAs. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and abundance of this species as well as on its potential threats, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
155079		distribution	eng	<em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em> is known from the Chesterfield Islands (Kulbicki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994) and Bali Strait, to Timor in Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984). It has also been recorded off the south Queensland coast, from Flat Island to Moreton Bay (Hardy 1983).
155079		habitat	eng	<em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em> is a demersal species, recorded to depths of 53 m (Hardy 1983). It has the ability to inflate itself, either with air or water, as a deterrent to predators.&#160; Many species from this family are poisonous and excrete toxins from their skin.
155079		population	eng	<em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em> has been described as relatively common across its range.
155079		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. There is no directed fishery for this species.
155080		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Central American Halfbeak.&#160; However, in places, its distribution coincides with marine protected areas, including eight along the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica and three along the Atlantic coast of Panama.
155080		distribution	eng	The Central American Halfbeak<span style="font-style: italic;"> (Hyporhamphus roberti</span>)  is found from Belize south to Rio de Janiero, Brazil (Collette 2002).&#160;  Earlier records of this species from the United States are misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. meeki </span>(Banford and Collette 1993).
155080		habitat	eng	The Central American Halfbeak inhabits marine and estuarine waters and is found in mangrove forests and coastal lagoons.&#160; Specimens have also been reported from freshwaters which have direct access to brackish waters in Lake Izabal, Rio Polochic, and El Estor in Guatamala, and also in Rio Patuca in Honduras (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It has also been found in a landlocked freshwater environment in El Cajon in Honduras (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 2007).
155080		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Central American Halfbeak.&#160; It may be locally abundant (B. Collette pers.comm. 2009).
155080		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Central American halfbeak.
155081		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed along with further research on the biology of this species.
155081		distribution	eng	<em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em> is mainly found in the western Atlantic, though occasionally juveniles are known to drift across to the eastern Atlantic. The most northerly extent of this species range can be seen in Nova Scotia, with the most southerly extent seen off southern Florida and in the eastern Gulf of Mexico.
155081		habitat	eng	<em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em> is a pelagic species that lives over the continental slope. Adults live in deepwater canyons while the juveniles prefer surface waters and may occasionally be found in coastal waters, usually during the summer/autumn months, sheltering in large groups under floating debris. Adults are often seen schooling. Spawning tends to occur in the spring months. This species diet consists of small fish and crustaceans.
155081		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em>.
155081		threats	eng	The harvesting of <em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em> as a food source, has recently commenced off the coast of the United States (Filer and Sedberry 2006). At present this is not considered a significant threat to the population of this species.
155082		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, distribution and threats of this species.
155082		distribution	eng	The Papillose Lumpsucker, <em>Eumicrotremus barbatus</em>, is distributed through the north Pacific. It is found off Abashiri, Japan, off Paramushir Island in the Kuril Islands, and off the shore of Igitkin Island in the Aleutian chain. The full extent of this species range is not known.
155082		habitat	eng	The Papillose Lumpsucker is a benthic species that has a depth range of 74-220 m and inhabits temperate waters. They are found on rocky, sandy and muddy substrates where they feed on benthic invertebrates. Most species from the Cyclopteridae family are found on the continental shelf and upper slope. Most species from this family are thought to spawn in shallow coastal waters, sometimes migrating hundreds of miles.
155082		population	eng	This is a rare species (D. Stein pers. comm. 2009).
155082		threats	eng	This species is not targeted directly by any major commercial fishery and due to its small size it is unlikely to be harvested in significant quantities as by-catch. It may be impacted by water pollution associated with heavy shipping activity.
155083		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
155083		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Oman and Somalia south to East London (South Africa), and east to Madagascar, Seychelles, Comoros, Mauritius, Réunion and the Mascarene Islands (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). It has also been recorded from the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. It has been recorded from 6-70 m in depth.
155083		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in areas adjacent to coral reefs, often hiding between broken coral. This species usually occurs in groups of about ten individuals. Allen <em>et al</em>. (1998) comments that this fish usually occurs in areas of coral and rubble with thick algae growth. It feeds on invertebrates and algae.
155083		population	eng	This species is common off South Africa (Lieske and Myers 1994), and is considered to be relatively common with stable populations throughout most of its range (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).
155083		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however localized habitat degradation may be occurring within its range.  Major coral bleaching similar to that of 1998 and a coastal population of over 20 million people are the two primary threats to East African reefs (Obura <em>et al</em>. 2004). The predictions for the status of East African reefs over the next eight years is poor, with a predicted coastal population of 39 million people and the probability that coral bleaching events of a similar magnitude to the 1998 event will be repeated. A population decline of 25% in association with general habitat degradation following a 1998 coral bleaching event in the Seychelles Islands was reported by Spalding and Jarvis (2002). However this species is found on damaged coral reefs so are seemingly resilient to moderate habitat degradation.
155084		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Champsodon capensis</em>.
155084		distribution	eng	<em>Champsodon capensis</em> is found in the Indian Ocean from the Seychelles and Mauritius, and along the African coastline from Kenya to South Africa, and around the Cape of Good Hope.
155084		habitat	eng	<em>Champsodon capensis</em> is a mesopelagic species that has a depth range of 64-552 m. This species occurs in great shoals and migrates to the surface at night to feed.
155084		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Champsodon capensis</em>.
155084		threats	eng	This species is not threatened by any major widespread threat.  There is no known commercial fishery for this species, however it is possibly is taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range.
155085		conservation	eng	In New Zealand <em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is under the management of The New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries. The department sets fishing quotas for this species, but assessment data is poor so it's unclear whether the quotas are limit fishing pressure to a sustainable level (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). The New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries has recently closed 19 seamounts to fishing, but this species was only previously fished from one of these seamounts (Blue Ocean Institute 2004).<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its harvest levels is needed, to accurately determine the impact of commercial fisheries on the population of <em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em>.
155085		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is found off the coast of Suriname, Argentina and the Falkland Islands. In the south east Atlantic this species is distributed from Namibia to South Africa. In the south Pacific this species is found from southern Chile to the Bellingshausen Sea and throughout the Australian-Antarctic Basin and Australasia. This species is also found in the Mozambique Channel from Mozambique and Madagascar to South Africa.
155085		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species found in deep waters at a depth range of 400-1,500 m. It is typically found on the continental slope and seamounts (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). Adults inhabit the lower depths and the juveniles remain close to the surface.
155085		population	eng	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is reported to be common over some seamounts (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155085		threats	eng	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is commercially harvested as a food source. The main reported fishing area for this species is around New Zealand (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). Within New Zealand the main fishing area is Chatham Rise, but other major fishing areas include Otago-Southland (South Island) and the Bounty/Pukaki area (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). In one area the estimated biomass of this species was less than the biomass necessary to sustain a 'maximum constant yield' (BMCY), but in other areas the estimates were above the BMCY (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). The fisheries around New Zealand are not considered to be in an over-fished state (Blue Ocean Institute 2004).<br/><br/>This species is caught as by-catch from the <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> fisheries (AGDAFFBRS 2004).<br/><br/>This species is vulnerable to over-exploitation due to its low resilience level (Clark 2001), and its tendency to aggregate around seamounts which makes it easy to harvest.
155086		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Omobranchus fasciolatus</span>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
155086		distribution	eng	<em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em> is distributed from Mozambique, Madagascar and Mauritius northwards along the east African coast to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and Gulf of Kutch. It is disputed whether this species occurs in the Seychelles (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155086		habitat	eng	<em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em> is a bottom dwelling species associated with volcanic rock and is found in intertidal coastal rocky reefs. This species has occasionally been found on corals. This species is found to a depth of 3 m.
155086		population	eng	<em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em> is common in shallow estuarine waters.
155086		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for <em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em>.
155087		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Namorado Sandperch.&#160; Further research is needed to determine whether the population is significantly impacted by fishing.
155087		distribution	eng	The<em> </em>Namorado Sandperch (<em>Pseudopercis numida)</em> is found in Brazil from Rio de Janeiro to the coast of Santa Catarina.&#160; It has also recently been found in the Nuevo Gulf, Argentina.&#160; It is currently not known whether this species is native to this area, or whether it has been introduced, possibly via ballast water in freighters or cruise ships (Venerus <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; Reports of this species in Uruguay were thought to be misidentifications of <em>Pseudopercis semifasciata</em> (Venerus <em>et al.</em> 2007), but based on recent collections extending the distribution to the Rio Grande (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009, National Museum of Natural History USNM 203952), we consider the reports from Uruguay and Argentina to be valid records and extend the native distribution southward to Nuevo Gulf, Argentina.
155087		habitat	eng	The Namorado sandperch<em></em> is found on coastal rocky reefs, over a range of substrate types (sand, rubble and rocky bottoms), at a depth range of 15–300 m. However, this species is most commonly found in deeper waters, on the upper continental shelf below 150 m.
155087		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Namorado Sandperch.
155087		threats	eng	<em>Pseudopercis numida</em> is harvested commercially as a food source.&#160; It is caught using bottom long-lines.&#160; Between 1986 and 1995, this species was reported to make up 18.4% of the long-line catch off southeast Brazil (Paiva and Andrade-tubino 1998).&#160; However, it is not known if the long-line fisheries off southeast Brazil pose a significant threat to this species.
155088		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Enophrys taurina</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends and threats to this species is required.
155088		distribution	eng	The Bull Sculpin, <em>Enophrys taurina</em>, is distributed from north of Monterey Bay (37°49'N; 123°3'W), near San Francisco, to Santa Catalina Island in southern California. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,473km<sup>2</sup>.
155088		habitat	eng	The Bull Sculpin is a benthic, coastal species that has a depth range of 11-265 m over rocky and sandy substrates. It is closely related to <em>E. bison</em>, an algae eater (Eschmeyer<em> et al.</em> 1983).
155088		population	eng	Bolin (1944) described this species as rare. The California Academy of Sciences have a collection of only 4 specimens, corroborating its description as rare (D. Neely pers. comm. 2007).
155088		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species but due to the coastal nature of this species, it may be suffering localised declines due to coastal development and pollution.
155089		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lutjanus decussatus</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas. &#160;Further research on population, harvest levels, and threats is recommended; as well as monitoring of fisheries&#160;data and harvest for the aquarium trade to ensure the population is not suffering significant declines.
155089		distribution	eng	<em>Lutjanus decussatus</em> is distributed from southeast India and Sri Lanka, to Papua New Guinea and Micronesia, and north to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan (FAO 2001).&#160; The distribution of this species is also reported to extend south to the Great Barrier Reef (Michael 2004).
155089		habitat	eng	The snapper, <em>Lutjanus decussatus</em>, is found on coastal reef faces and sandy slopes with scattered patch reefs at a depth range of 2 - 30 m.&#160; This species is also less commonly found on offshore reefs.&#160; Fish are typically found to occur individually, but occasionally form schools.&#160; Food items include smaller fishes and crustaceans.&#160; This species can attain lengths of 35 cm, but lengths of around 20 cm are more common.
155089		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lutjanus decussatus</span>.
155089		threats	eng	<em>Lutjanus decussatus</em> is of minor commercial importance, due to its small size.&#160; It is caught by subsistence fishers using handlines, traps and gill nets.&#160; This species is mostly marketed fresh (FAO 2002).&#160; It is also taken for the aquarium trade, but in very low numbers. &#160;In Indonesia numbers have fallen over the last eight years, and fishing pressures, particularly fish fences, have increased (J. Curtis-Quick pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it may also be impacted by coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, this is a localised threat, and not known across the species' entire range.
155090		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for  Spotted Flathead, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Arnovon Islands Marine Protected Area in the Solomon Islands.
155090		distribution	eng	The Spotted Flathead, <em>Cociella punctata,</em> is widely distributed through the western central Pacific from Taiwan, the Philippines, Palau to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides.
155090		habitat	eng	The&#160; Spotted Flathead<em></em> is frequently found in shallow coastal waters resting on the seafloor. This species has been found at a depth range of 10-300m. The juveniles of this species, utilise mangrove habitat and stream mouths as a nursery ground (Knapp pers. comm. 2007). Adults occupy silty/ sandy habitats.
155090		population	eng	The Spotted Flathead is reported to be common off Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea (Knapp 1996).
155090		threats	eng	The Spotted Flathead is of minor commercial importance, but is harvested by trawl fisheries at depths of 23-250 m. As juveniles use mangrove habitat for development, recruitment of this species may be impacted by habitat degradation due to deforestation for timber or shrimp aquaculture. At present, neither of these threats are thought to be causing significant declines in the population numbers as they are not known across the entire range of this species.
155091		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the White-margined Moray. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.
155091		distribution	eng	The White-margined Moray, <em>Enchelycore schismatorhynchus</em>, is known from the Chagos Archipelago in the eastern Indian Ocean, to the Ryukyu Islands and south through to French Polynesia including Wallis and Futuna, Papua and Tonga.
155091		habitat	eng	The White-margined Moray is usually found in lagoons and on the foreslope of reefs in the crevices of coralline and volcanic rocks. This species is a nocturnal feeder (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).  This species is found in the photic zone from the surface to a depth of around 20 m.
155091		population	eng	There is no population information available for the White-margined Moray.
155091		threats	eng	There is no directed fishery for this species. It may be undergoing localised declines in parts of its range that have been heavily impacted by coastal development and pollution, however much of this species suitable habitat over its broad range is in good condition. This species is also less likely to be impacted by threats associated with coral reefs at it is able to occupy both coral and rocky reefs.
155092		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Laeops kitaharae</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the abundance of this species is needed.
155092		distribution	eng	<em>Laeops kitaharae</em> is an Indo-west Pacific flounder, recorded from China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, Korea and Thailand.
155092		habitat	eng	The flounder <em>Laeops kitaharae</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 70 - 300m. This species is likely to be found on sand-mud bottoms (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). The lack of information on the abundance and biology of this species is likely due to their being no commercial interest in this species and its small size.
155092		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Laeops kitaharae</em>.
155092		threats	eng	<em>Laeops kitaharae</em> is taken as by-catch which is processed into fish meal in Taiwan and probably elsewhere (T. Munroe pers. comm. 2008). At present there is no catch data available for this species. The region in which this species can be found has been heavily exploited by commercial fisheries. It is not known what impact this has had on the population size.
155093		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for Narrownecked Oceanic Eel.
155093		distribution	eng	The Narrownecked Oceanic Eel <em>(Derichthys serpentinus)</em> is a widely distributed, but is not common in any ocean.  It was first known from the waters off southern Africa, the central Atlantic and east Pacific, but has since been found in the west Pacific (Castle 1970).
155093		habitat	eng	The Narrownecked Oceanic Eel <em></em>is a epi-/mesopelagic species typically found to occur at depths between 500-2,000 m, although an adult specimen has been taken above 360 m at night (T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008) The pre-metamorphic larvae prefer waters of 1,000-2,000 m (Castle 1970). Individuals feed on small planktonic shrimp, amongst other prey (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). This species larvae and eggs are planktonic.
155093		population	eng	In 1935, Beebe reported that in over 1000 midwater trawls, <em>D. serpentinus</em> was only found in 2% of samples.  While there is no information on the population size of <em>Derichthys serpentinus</em>, it is thought that this species is 'nowhere common' (Castle 1970). Studies on the distribution of eel larvae in the western Sargasso Sea, have reported the larvae <em>D. serpentinus</em> to be among the most abundant species (Castonguay and McCleave 1987).
155093		threats	eng	The only potential known threat to the Narrownecked Oceanic Eel is that of the deepwater trawling industry. However this is a wide ranging species and deepwater species of eels are rarely seen in the by-catch of these trawls and so this threat is not considered to have a major impact upon this species at present.
155094		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for Mosshead Sculpin, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas along the coast of the Pacific northwest.
155094		distribution	eng	The Mosshead Sculpin, <em>Clinocottus globiceps,</em> is distributed from Kodiak Island off Alaska to Gaviota off southern California. While the exact depth range of this species is not known, this coastal species is found in the intertidal zone.
155094		habitat	eng	Mosshead Sculpin occurs in rocky tidepools. Adults exhibit homing behaviour and strong site-fidelity, returning to the same pool over long periods. They are most often found sheltering under rocks or seaweed. This species is capable of aerial respiration and is known to leave water when conditions become hypoxic or otherwise inhospitable (Yoshiyama<em> et al.</em> 1995). Their diets are broad, but they will selectively forage on sea anemones and algae (Yoshiyama<em> et al.</em> 1996). Reproduction occurs in winter and spring.
155094		population	eng	In surveys of the intertidal zone, Mosshead Sculpin comprised approximately 75% of the fish captured in the mid-tidal zone tidepools of Oregon. This species is described as an abundant species within its range (Webster <em>et al.</em> 2007).
155094		threats	eng	The Mosshead Sculpin is an intertidal species and so it is potentially at risk from coastal pollution discharge. However, this is not considered a major threat as it is not impacting this species across its entire range.
155095		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em>. However its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.
155095		distribution	eng	<em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em> is endemic to Australia occuring in temperate marine waters from northern to central New South Wales and the Great Australian Bight off South Australia to the central coast of Western Australia. It is also known from Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island.
155095		habitat	eng	<em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em> is found around rocky and coral coastlines. It usually lives near the bottom in offshore waters.  It is not commonly seen in shallow water.  This benthopelagic species has been trawled at depths between 50 m and 135 m.
155095		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em>.
155095		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. This species is of no commercial interest.
155096		conservation	eng	Drift nets were banned in EU countries in 2002.
155096		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
155096		distribution	eng	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span> extends from Norway to South Africa, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea in the eastern Atlantic, and from Nova Scotia to the northern Gulf of Mexico in the western Atlantic. While it generally does not appear in the Caribbean Sea, it has been found in Colombia and Venezuela (Collette and Nauen 1983). This species has not been recorded in northeast and central Brazil but occurs in south Brazil to Argentina.<br/><br/>Report from the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) also list this species from the Lesser Antilles north to the US Virgin Islands (Oxenford pers. comm. 2010), but these records need to be verified (Collette pers. comm. 2010).
155096		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Oslo, Norway to Port Elizabeth, South Africa.  It is present in the western Atlantic from Nova Scotia, Canada to Florida, USA and northern Gulf of Mexico, then from Colombia, Venezuela, and south of the Amazon River to northern Argentina. It is apparently absent from most of the Caribbean Sea. In the Mediterranean Sea it occurs in Marmara Sea (specimens sampled both juvenile and adult) (Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006), Aegean Sea (Gokce and Metin, 2007), northern Adriatic Sea (Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> 2004), southern Tyrrhenian sea (Campo <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian Sea (Piccione <em>et al.</em> 2004, Tunesi and Molinari 2005). It is also known in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (latter not common).
155096		habitat	eng	<p>  </p>This species is a small epipelagic, neritic species that occurs in schools. It sometimes enters estuaries and has a depth range of 0–200 m. It can adapt to gradual but not sudden changes in the environment and may occur in water temperatures between 12 and 27°C and salinities between 14 and 39. It preys upon sardines, squid, anchovy, mackerel and other small fishes (Collette 2003). This species is migratory (Sabates and Recasens 2001) and spawning season and size of maturity varies between regional populations (Valeiras and Abad 2006). In most parts of the Mediterranean, it spawns between May and July but off Algeria spawning extends to July. In the northwestern Atlantic, it spawns in June and July.<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of an 8.3 kg fish caught off Faial Island in the Azores in 1953 (IGFA 2011).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
155096		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is also an epipelagic, neritic and schooling species that may enter estuaries.  It is known to be cannibalistic; adults prey on small schooling fishes and invertebrates like squid and shrimps and can swallow relatively large prey. A recent study in the Mediterranean Sea (Campo <em>et al.</em> 2006) reported that <em>S. sarda</em> is a piscivorous predator focusing on clupeiformes and especially on <em>Sardinella aurita</em>, <em>Sardina pilchardus</em> and <em>Engraulis encrasicolus</em>. It is able to adapt to different temperatures (12° to 27°C) and salinities (14 to 39 psu).
155096		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span> is considered to be abundant in many localities. FAO statistics (2008) show that landings have fluctuated with no apparent increasing or decreasing trends between around 21,000 mt and 84,000 mt between 1996 and 2006. This pattern extends as far back as 1950.
155096		population	eng	This is a very common and seasonally abundant species in some areas of the Mediterranean. Food and Agriculture Organization landings report a fairly stable but fluctuating catch averaging around 20,000mt from the mid-1980s to mid-2000 with the most recent catches showing dramatic increase to around 75,000mt (but this is questionable). The fluctuation can be explained by seasonal migration which fisheries sometimes successfully exploit (O. Kada pers. comm. 2007). In Turkey, seasonal migrations into and out of the Black Sea are targeted by fisheries (M. Oral pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>1665 specimens (10.4 to 67.0 cm) were collected throughout the period of January 1998 to February 2003 in the eastern Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea, by purse seine and beach seine (Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Campo <em>et al.</em> 2006 collected 201 specimens (32.0 to 60.6 cm FL) on a monthly basis between March and December 2003 off the north-eastern coast of Sicily, between the towns of Milazzo and S. Agata of Militello, by means of a surface gill net measuring 2000 m in total length and 2 m in height. The net was subdivided in three portions having different mesh sizes, respectively of 6, 7 and 8 knots in 25 cm, in order to facilitate the capture of fish of different sizes. The fishing activities were carried out on a monthly basis between 17:00 and 20:00 h.<br/><br/>Estimated landings (t) reported to ICCAT for <em>S. sarda</em> in the Mediterranean in the last 10 years: 2005 = 2007, 2004 =&#160; 5546, 2003 = 11117, 2002 = 15716, 2001 = 22236, 2000 = 21972, 1999 = 28170, 1998 = 29730, 1997 = 14079, 1996 = 17195 (ICCAT 2007). The Mediterranean countries with the highest landings were Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia.<br/><br/><em>S. sarda</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 887 (1996), 824 (1997), 1464 (1998), 602 (1999), 508 (2000), 481 (2001), 1502 (2002), 623 (2003), 341 (2004), 622 (2005).
155096		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span> is harvested in various parts of its range, with the most important fishery being that in the Mediterranean and Black Seas (FAO 2008). Turkey and Mexico landed the highest tonnage of this species: 17,900 t and 2,314 t respectively. Oray et al. (2004) have noted that the majority of fish landed in Turkey are below mature size, indicating that the stock will be unable to renew or sustain itself long-term. This species comprises an important fishery in Argentina (Hansen 1987).
155096		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Landing data in the Mediterranean is mostly from Turkey and ranges from 10,000 to 50,000 tons.  It is caught with seines, gill nets and combined nets.
155097		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caesio caerulaurea</em>, however this species is known to occur in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
155097		distribution	eng	The Blue and Gold Fusilier, <em>Caesio caerulaurea,</em> is widespread in the tropical Indo-West Pacific from East Africa, including the Red Sea but not the Persian Gulf, to French Polynesia; north to southern Japan and south to Vanuatu and New Caledonia.
155097		habitat	eng	The Blue and Gold Fusilier, <em>Caesio caerulaurea, </em>is found in coastal areas on coral reefs on the foreslope, outer reef channel, inter-reef soft substrate, and in lagoons. This species schools in large midwater aggregations, to feed on zooplankton. From what is known of the few species studied, reproduction is characterized by early sexual maturity, high fecundity, small pelagic eggs, spawning prolonged throughout most of the year, and mass spawning on a lunar cycle (FAO 1988).
155097		population	eng	In a study by Ohman <em>et al.</em> (1997) in the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, Sri Lanka this species was found to be common. 576 individuals were collected from 11 <em>Porites</em> dome sites.
155097		threats	eng	The Blue and Gold Fusilier is moderately important in coastal fisheries, and is common in markets in Indonesia and the Philippines (FAO 1988). This species is caught by drive-in nets, gill nets, traps, trawls, and handlines. <em></em>Juveniles are important as tuna baitfish in some areas (Randall 2005). This species is usually taken in multispecies catches of fusilier fish.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, blast-fishing is a common method used by fishers to harvest large numbers of schooling species such as siganids and caesionids (Fox and Erdmann 2000). In this study on blast fishing, a bomb was thrown into a school of caesionids and another at random over a reef slope. The first bomb targeted at the caesionids yielded 2,153 individuals, of which this species comprised 93% by weight. The second random bomb yielded 971 individuals of which only 43 were caesionids. Blast fishing is a significant threat when targeted at large schools of fish. Despite it being an illegal fishing method, it is still widespread through South East Asia (Fox and Erdmann 2000). However this species has a broad geographic range, is only fished in parts of its range, and is resilient to moderate levels of harvest therefore these threats are not considered to pose a significant threat to the global population at present.
155098		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromis flavicauda</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats and population trends of this species is needed.
155098		distribution	eng	<em>Chromis flavicauda</em> is known to inhabit the coastal areas of Bermuda and Brazil (Moura 1994). This is a deep reef species and is probably more widespread than current records suggest (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2009).
155098		habitat	eng	<em>Chromis flavicuada</em>, inhabits offshore coral reefs. The reefs on which it is found are often covered in coralline algae rhodoliths. This species has been found to a depth of up to 61 m.
155098		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Chromis flavicauda</em>. It is only known from a few locations.
155098		threats	eng	<em>Chromis flavicauda</em> is associated with coral reef habitats. Due to the relatively deep dwelling habits of this species, it is unlikely to be affected by degradation in more shallow reef areas of Brazil (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). The coral reefs of Bermuda remain relatively healthy and stable with no apparent change over the past 10 years (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2004). Due to the lack of information available for this species, it is unknown if it is being impacted by any major threats.
155099		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Oyster Blenny, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.
155099		distribution	eng	The Oyster Blenny<em> (Omobranchus anolius)</em> is endemic to Australia and is distributed from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Spencer Gulf, South Australia, excluding Tasmania. This species has also been introduced to east Auckland, New Zealand (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2004).
155099		habitat	eng	The Oyster Blenny<em> </em>is usually found in shallow estuarine waters, down to approximately 5 m (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009), and is associated with oyster shells or calcareous polychaete worm tubes, on tidal mudflats. Females deposit 200–500 eggs in batches on the inside of oyster shells (Francis <em>et al. </em>2004).&#160; Like all Blenniidae, this species is gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner.&#160; The male guards the deposited eggs which are demersal and adhesive.&#160; After hatching, the larvae are planktonic before they settle on the bottom.
155099		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species<em>.</em>
155099		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Oyster Blenny.
155100		conservation	eng	<em>Hippocampus hendriki</em> has been listed under CITES appendix II ensuring that international trade of this species is monitored.<br/><br/>All sygnathids are subject to export controls of the Coomonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 since 1998.<br/><br/>All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the EPBC Act 1999.<br/><br/>This species is known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area, Queensland.
155100		distribution	eng	<em>Hippocampus hendriki</em> is restricted to the inner Great Barrier Reef area, from the Capricorn region to Cape York in Queensland.
155100		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus hendriki</span> has  been collected from trawls on flat substrate at depths of 18 to 25m (Kuiter 2000) Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
155100		population	eng	This species is only known from type specimens.
155100		threats	eng	There are no major threats reported for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus hendriki</span>.<br/><br/>It may potentially be taken as by-catch by shrimp fisheries.
155101		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus mederi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology and population numbers of this species.
155101		distribution	eng	<em>Careproctus mederi</em> is endemic to the Sea of Okhotsk in the northwest Pacific. Species within the family Liparidae are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).
155101		habitat	eng	<em>Careproctus mederi</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth of 20 -950 m. Congeners, <em>Careproctus rotundifrons</em>, were found on the continental slope over a muddy / silty substrate, and were captured in bait traps set on the sea floor (Sakurai and Shinohara 2008). It is likely that this is a small species; size of species ranges from 45 mm for <em>C. minimus</em>, to 74 mm for <em>C. georgianus</em> (Stein 2006).
155101		population	eng	Species of the family Liparidae are known to low population abundances (Stein 2006).
155101		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species faces major threats. There is no commercial fishery for the family Liparidae. However it is likely that this species is being taken as by-catch. Due to its small size, it may be overlooked and damaged in tows (Stein 2006).
155102		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cheilodipterus singapurensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.
155102		distribution	eng	The Truncate Cardinalfish <em>(Cheilodipterus singapurensis</em>) is distributed from the East Indies to the Marshall Islands and Papua New Guinea, south to Australia and New Caledonia and North to Japan.
155102		habitat	eng	The Truncate Cardinalfish is found on the fore-slope of coastal coral reefs, lagoon patch reefs and in silty habitats at a depth range of 2-10 m. Adults of this species are solitary and can be found among boulders, under plate corals, among corals, or in seagrass meadows. Juvenile <em>C. singapurensis</em> often swim among the spines of sea urchins.
155102		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155102		threats	eng	<em>Cheilodipterus singapurensis</em> is not regularly encountered in the aquarium trade, although juveniles may occasionally turn up as an "Assorted Cardinalfish". The occasional harvesting of this species for the ornamental trade, is not considered a major threat.<br/><br/>This species may also suffer localised declines due to habitat degradation caused by pollution and destructive fishing practices, however these threats are not known across its entire range and much of its suitable habitat is in relatively good condition.
155103		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.
155103		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Panama. However, it is only known from seven collection localities, and the current limits of distribution are not well defined.
155103		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit estuaries, mangroves and coastal sandy areas to depths of 20 m.
155103		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155103		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known for this species. However, there may be localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and destruction of mangrove habitat (Jimenez 1994). In addition, this species may be threatened by future ENSO/ climate change events given its shallow water habitat (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004; Soto 2001).
155104		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus</em>, however it may occur in a number of marine protected areas.
155104		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Spain to Liberia, including the Azores, the Canary Islands, Ascension Islands and Cape Verde. In the western Atlantic it is found off Brazil. In the Pacific it is found off California and the Revilla Gigedos Islands. It has also been found around South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.
155104		habitat	eng	This epipelagic species is found in cooler near-shore waters, and around islands. It is able to leap out of the water, and glide over the water surface for long distances. It feeds on zooplankton and small fishes.
155104		population	eng	The subspecies <em>Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus californicus</em> is reported to be common (Discover Life 2007).
155104		threats	eng	There is no known commercial fishery for this species, although it is likely to be taken as by-catch in some areas of its broad range.
155105		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Platycephalus indicus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of the species is needed.
155105		distribution	eng	Recorded from across the Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea and East Africa to the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region>, north to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Korea</st1:country-region>, and south to northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Introduced into the eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean Sea</st1:place>.  <em>Platycephalus indicus</em> has a widespread distribution through the eastern Indian Ocean from the Bay of Bengal and the Gulf of Thailand, south to Northern Australia (L. Knapp pers. comm. 2008). Previous identifications from Japanese and Korean waters, have since been described as a new species' of flathead by Misuhiro Sakashita and Tetsuo Yoshino.<br/><br/>In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Vietnam</st1:country-region> it is found widely with territorial waters, estuaries and freshwater areas such as <st1:placename w:st="on">Lam</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> (Nghe An province), Ma River (Thanh Hoa province) and limestone areas such as<st1:place w:st="on"> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Phong Nha</st1:placename></st1:place>&#160;and Ke Bang (Quang Binh province)
155105		habitat	eng	<em>Platycephalus indicus</em> is found on sandy or muddy bottoms, close to coral reefs in subtropical climates. This species is an ambush predator. Younger life stages use estuaries and freshwater habitats as nursery grounds.
155105		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Platycephalus indicus</em>.
155105		threats	eng	<em>Platycephalus indicus</em> is fished commercially throughout its range by bottom trawlers. It is trawled to depths of 30 m, but more often taken at depths less than 15 m (L. Knapp pers. comm. 2007). It is used as a food source and in Traditional Chinese Medicine. This species may be undergoing varying degrees of habitat degradation. As juveniles utilise estuarine and freshwater habitats, they maybe impacted by coastal run-off, and domestic and industrial pollution sources. At present, neither of these are thought to pose a major threat to the population of this species as they do not occur across the entire distribution range.
155106		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Kali macrodon</em>.
155106		distribution	eng	Specimens of <em>Kali macrodon</em> have been found at a number of patchy locations, including the Indian Ocean off Indonesia, eastern Pacific near Ecuador and California, the south Atlantic off South Africa, the west Atlantic in the Gulf of Mexico, and four individuals in the eastern Atlantic from 24°N to 19°S (Johnson 1969; Johnson and Keene 1986). It is likely that this species appears in the tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans (Johnson and Keene 1986).
155106		habitat	eng	<em>Kali macrodon</em> is a deepwater, bathypelagic species typically caught at depths ranging from 1,500-2,500 m (Johnson 1969).
155106		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Kali macrodon</em>.
155106		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species, or reports of it being taken as by-catch
155107		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Monopenchelys acuta</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas, including Walkers Cay in the Bahamas and the 341,362 km<sup>2 </sup>Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument.
155107		distribution	eng	<em>Monopenchelys acuta</em> has a broad, fragmented distribution.&#160; It has been reported in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas to the Lesser Antilles, including the Caribbean Sea and Mexico.&#160; This species has also been recorded from Ascension Island in southern Atlantic.&#160; In the Indian ocean, this species has been recorded from the Comoros, Seychelles, Agalega Islands, and Mauritius.&#160;<em>Monopenchelys</em><em> acuta</em> has also been recorded in the Pacific Ocean from Fiji and Hawaii.
155107		habitat	eng	<em>Monopenchelys acuta</em> is found on coral heads, rock and coral crevices, and rocky ledges.  This benthic species is found at depths of 13–45 m.
155107		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Monopenchelys acuta</em>.
155107		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Monopenchelys acuta</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, its habitat may be locally impacted by threats such as pollution, tourism, coastal development, storm damage and fishing activity, including abandoned nets.
155108		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em>. However, it occurs in several marine protected areas (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155108		distribution	eng	<em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em> is only known from Western Australia to the Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales (Springer and Gomon 1975).
155108		habitat	eng	<em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em>&#160; is found in coastal, estuarine and rocky habitats (Springer and Gomon 1975).
155108		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em>.
155108		threats	eng	<em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em> is not being impacted by any major threat process.
155109		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however <em>Praealticus dayi</em> may be found in the 2 marine protected areas that surround the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.<br/><br/>Further research is required on this species abundance and distribution.
155109		distribution	eng	<em>Praealticus dayi</em> is only known from a few specimens collected around the Andaman Islands, because collecting is often severely restricted in this area by the government.
155109		habitat	eng	Although there is no information about this species habitat and ecology, all of the other members of this genus are found in shallow water along rocky shores and therefore it is assumed that <em>Praealticus dayi</em> is also found there.
155109		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Praealticus dayi</em>.
155109		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Praealticus dayi</em>.
155110		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Bullseye Jawfish.&#160; However, this species' distributioncoincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).
155110		distribution	eng	The Bullseye Jawfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opistognathus scops</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Panama, and near Gorgona Island, Colombia.&#160; A record from the Galapagos Islands is doubtful, as there is no known specimen, and is likely a misidentification of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. galapagensis</span>.
155110		habitat	eng	The Bullseye Jawfish is a demersal species, which inhabits sand-rubble substrata (Allen and Robertson 1994) at depths of 3–20 m (Escobar-Fernández and Siri 1997).
155110		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Bullseye Jawfish.
155110		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the Bullseye Jawfish.
155111		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Smooth Horsefish<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Further research is needed on the population size and harvest levels of this species.
155111		distribution	eng	The Smooth Horsefish (<em>Congiopodus torvus</em>) is distributed from Namibia to Natal, South Africa (Fischer and Bianchiv 1984).
155111		habitat	eng	The Smooth Horsefish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 5–300 m and inhabits soft bottoms of the continental shelf.&#160; This species feeds on benthic crustaceans (Macpherson 1989).
155111		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Smooth Horsefish.
155111		threats	eng	Although the Smooth Horsefish is not targeted by commercial fisheries, it is sometimes taken as by-catch by trawlers.&#160; The marine ecosystem off Namibia is reported to have been altered by overfishing (Sumaila and Vasconellos 2000).
155112		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em>. <br/><br/>Further research into the biology and ecology of adult specimens of this species should be carried out.
155112		distribution	eng	<em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em> is mostly known from juvenile specimens.&#160; It is found in tropical waters in the western Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans.
155112		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em> have been found to depths of 500 m, whereas the young are found at shallower depths of about 20 m.This is an oceanic species.  Paralepididae species are rapid swimmers that feed on fishes and crustaceans.
155112		population	eng	Paralepididae species are moderately common deepsea fish (Carpenter and Niem 1999).
155112		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. This is a deepsea species with a broad geographic range. There is no directed fishery for this species.
155113		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Saurida pseudotumbil</em>.&#160; It is unlikely that the distribution of this species falls within any Indian marine protected area designations (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, ecology and potential threats.
155113		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida pseudotumbil</span> is known only from the type specimens (collected from Visakhapatnam), and other specimens collected from the east coast of India (Dutt and Sagar 1981).
155113		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida pseudotumbil</span>. The type specimens were collected from the catches of mini-trawlers along the east coast of India at Visakhapatnam, Puri, Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Madras, and Pondicherry (Dutt and Sagar 1981). Probably has similar habits to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida </span>which occur on soft bottoms. Maximum size of specimens examined by Dutt and Sagar (1981) is given as 250 mm (SL).
155113		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Saurida pseudotumbil</em>.
155113		threats	eng	<p>It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida pseudotumbil</span> is being impacted upon by any major threat, however, the type specimens were obtained by trawling (Dutt and Sagar, 1981) and this species forms part of the trawl catch. There is heavy fishing around the Indian coast, but it is unknown to what extent this affects the population.</p>
155114		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em>. Areas of this species distribution may coincide with marine protected areas such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
155114		distribution	eng	<em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em> is a western central Pacific species known from 16 localities. These include northwest Australia, Maluku in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Louislade Archipelago, Santa Cruz Island and Vanuatu, western and 3 localities along eastern Australia (P. R. Møller pers. comm. 2008).
155114		habitat	eng	<em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em> occurs in the shallow photic zone at a depth range of 5 - 25 m. It hides within crevices and caves on the coral reef (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).
155114		population	eng	<em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em> is a common species (P.R. Møller pers. comm. 2008).
155114		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diancistrus novaguineae</span>, like all bythitids, is occasionally taken for the aquarium trade, although it is not a popular aquarium species due to its drab colour. There is no directed fishery for this species (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species may be undergoing localised declines due to coastal development and habitat destruction, however these threats are not known throughout its entire range and are therefore unlikely to be resulting in significant widespread population declines.
155115		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Redsnout Emperor.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, population numbers, and extent of harvest of this species is needed.
155115		distribution	eng	The Redsnout Emperor (<em>Lethrinus reticulatus</em>) is known from Mauritius, Chagos, west Thailand, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, the Philippines and Northern Marianas to Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea and Somoa.
155115		habitat	eng	The Redsnout Emperor is known to occur over soft substrates in the vicinity of coral reefs in shallow photic waters.&#160; This species feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes (FAO 2001a).
155115		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Redsnout Emperor.
155115		threats	eng	The Redsnout Emperor is harvested as a food fish.&#160; This species is caught mostly by trawl and handline, and is marketed fresh.&#160; It is heavily exploited in some regions, while in others it is harvested at a subsistence scale (D. Herdson pers. comm. 2008).&#160; It is not known what impact this is having on the population size of this species.<br/><br/>Due to its coastal, shallow water nature, it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation from destructive fishing practices, coastal development, pollution, and tourism.&#160; However, these are localised threats and not known across this species' entire distribution range.
155116		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sardinella albella</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is recommended.
155116		distribution	eng	<em>Sardinella albella</em> is an Indo-West Pacific sardine, distributed from the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, East African coast and Madagascar, eastwards to Indonesia, the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, north to Taiwan, and south to Papua New Guinea and northern Australia.
155116		habitat	eng	The sardine, <em>Sardinella albella</em>, is a coastal pelagic species that has a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It is a schooling species that feeds on zooplankton and phytoplankton.&#160; <em>Sardinella albella</em> has also been found in mangrove forests in Queensland, Australia (Robertson and Duke 1990).
155116		population	eng	Samonte <em>et al</em>. (2000) state that <em>Sardinella albella</em> is 'thriving' in Philippine waters, along with other <em>Sardinella </em>species.&#160; Despite being highly adapted to highly productive ocean situations, sardines have been found to experience improved reproduction during El Nino years (Bakun and Broad 2003).
155116		threats	eng	<em>Sardinella albella</em> is of commercial importance along the western coast of India, and is caught mainly with purse seines, lift nets, and set nets (FAO 1999).&#160; This species is marketed fresh, dried, dried-salted, and made into fish balls.&#160; This species is also one of the dominant species harvested by the artisanal fisheries of Mozambique (Lopes and Gervasio 1999).&#160; In northern Australia, <em>Sardinella albella</em> is also taken as by-catch in tropical demersal trawls targeting prawn species (Salini <em>et al</em>. 2001).
155117		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Melamphaes spinifer</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas within the eastern Pacific.&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed to determine the population size and impact of by-catch on this species, as little information is currently available.
155117		distribution	eng	<em>Melamphaes spinifer</em> is distributed through the eastern Pacific from 27<sup>o</sup>N to 34<sup>o</sup>S, and westwards to about 130<sup>o</sup>W.
155117		habitat	eng	<em>Melamphaes spinifer</em> is a mesopelagic species that has a depth range of 100–1,109 m.&#160; Adult specimens are typically found at depths of 400–500 m, while juveniles are found higher in the water column at 100–200 m.&#160; Congeners of this species are relatively small, for example <em>Melamphaes longivelis</em> reaches a maximum size of 10.6 cm and <em>Melamphaes pumilus</em> reaches a maximum size of only 2.3 cm.
155117		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Melamphaes spinifer</span>.
155117		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Melamphaes spinifer</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes across its entire range.&#160;  However, it is likely that this species is taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries, as the eastern Pacific is very highly fished, with 18–20% of the world's fish catch coming from the Humboldt Current (NOAA 2004).&#160; Species from the Melamphaidae family are known to be frequently taken as by-catch in deep-water trawls but are of no commercial importance (FAO 1999).
155118		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, harvest extent and habitat status of this species is needed.
155118		distribution	eng	<em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> is distributed from Mozambique and Tanzania, to Madagascar and the Maldives.&#160; This species is also recorded from the Andaman Islands and Indonesia (Timor to Sumatra).
155118		habitat	eng	<em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> inhabits deep reefs to a depth of up to 220 m.&#160; Some congeners of this species occur on sandy bottoms and seagrass beds.&#160; <em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> is a predatory fish, feeding on crustaceans and small fish.&#160; Species from the <em>Lethrinidae</em> family are usually solitary, but also occur in small groups (FAO 2001a).
155118		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lethrinus conchyliatus</span>.
155118		threats	eng	<em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> is fished commercially and recreationally, and is caught using handlines, traps and trawls (FAO 2001a).&#160; However, catch statistics are not available for this species.<br/><br/>This species is also likely to suffer from localised declines due to coral reef habitat degradation caused by pollution, overfishing and human population pressures.&#160; However, this species is mainly associated with deep reefs which are impacted by these threats to a lesser degree than shallow reefs.
155119		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa.</span>&#160; However, it may occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to establish if this species is harvested by fisheries as by-catch or as a target species.
155119		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa</span> is known from the southwest Atlantic, around  Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil.
155119		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa </span>is a<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>demersal species.&#160; It is also found in brackish waters.
155119		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa.</span>
155119		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa </span>is of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>minor commercial importance.
155120		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span>. However, the distribution of this species may fall with numerous designated marine protected areas, including Apo Island Marine Reserve in the Philippines. Apo Island marine reserve is a no-take reserve and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii</span> biomass is reported to have tripled inside the reserve from 1983 to 2001. Outside the reserve, but close to the reserve boundary, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii </span>biomass has increased by a factor of 40 (Russ <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Therefore habitat conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of no-take zones and marine protected areas are needed to effectively conserve populations of this species.<br/><br/>    <p>Monitoring of this species, its habitat status, harvest levels and threats should be undertaken, to accurately determine the </p>  <p>&#160; impact of coral reef degradation and fisheries on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii</span> in the future. Research should also be </p>  <p>&#160; conducted on species specific conservation meaures for <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii</span>, to try and reduce further negative impact on the </p>  <p>&#160; population of this species.</p>
155120		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span> is a wide-spread Indo-pacific unicorn fish, distributed from East Africa to French Polynesia and Hawaii, north to southern Japan, and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. In the Eastern Pacific, this species is only found in the Galapagos Islands.
155120		habitat	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span> occurs in deep lagoons and seaward coral reefs. This species is often found forming loose schools along upper regions of deep drop-offs to depths of 50 m. It forms mid-water aggregations off steep coral slopes to feed upon zooplankton during the day.
155120		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span>.
155120		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no major threats known to this species, however it is harvested by subsistence fisheries and for the aquarium trade. It is associated with coral reefs, a habitat that can be locally degraded by water pollution, human pollution pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns outbreaks and coral bleaching.
155121		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Reef Finspot, although in places, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155121		distribution	eng	The Reef Finspot<em> (Paraclinus integripinnis</em>) is distributed from Santa Barbara County in southern California, USA, to southern Baja California, Mexico.&#160;  The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,251 km<sup>2</sup>.
155121		habitat	eng	The Reef Finspot occurs in the lower intertidal zone along rocky shorelines either on hard substrates or in tidepools.&#160; Its diet consists of isopods and amphipods.&#160; This species is found to a depth of 15 m.
155121		population	eng	The sub-population in the northern part of the Reef Finspot's range appears to fluctuate. While it was previously considered rare, its abundance was observed to increase during El Nino periods, and decline following the event (Davis 2000).
155121		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Reef Finspot. This species  is reasonably resilient to moderate habitat degradation.
155122		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lycodes sadoensis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.
155122		distribution	eng	<em>Lycodes sadoensis</em> is known from the holotype collected in the Sea of Japan.
155122		habitat	eng	The eelpout, <em>Lycodes sadoensis</em>, is a benthic species found in temperate waters.&#160; It has been collected at a depth of 235 m.
155122		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Lycodes sadoensis</em>.
155122		threats	eng	It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycodes sadoensis</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There are a number of commercial fisheries operating within this species' range that may take it as by-catch.
155123		conservation	eng	In response to over-exploitation of stocks in the 1970s, Total Allowable Commercial Catch (TACC) limits were imposed. The current allowable biological catch for 2007-2009 has been set at 194,000 mt (NOAA 2007).<br/><br/>The Biological Maximum Sustainable Yield (BMSY) for this species has been calculated at 629,000 mt, so even with the current estimates of the stock biomass, it is still above this limit. The stock is not reported to be in an overfished condition, and no over-fishing is thought to be occurring (Overholtz 2006).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and stock biomass is needed to ensure limits can be revised should there be changes to the levels of recruitment.
155123		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from northern Bay of Biscay to Iceland and southern Greenland, eastward to Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, including the Baltic. It is also seen along southwestern Greenland and Labrador down to South Carolina.
155123		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic, oceanodromous species, forms large schools in coastal waters. It feeds predominantly upon copepods, migrating up the water column at night to feed in shallower surface waters. The species is divided into several subspecies, with separate spawning times; these include the winter spawning Norwegian and Icelandic herrings, the autumn spawning Icelandic and North sea herrings and the Baltic herrings. Individuals mature at ages ranging from three to nine years. The Atlantic Herring ranges in depth from the surface to 200 m.<br/><br/>Three very large year classes were produced in 1994, 1998 and 2002 (TRAC 2006).
155123		population	eng	A US stock assessment (age classes 2+) of Georges Bank, Nantucket Shoals and the Gulf of Maine, estimated there to be 1.4 million metric tonnes in 2001 (Overholtz<em> et al</em>. 2004). Biomass is now thought to have declined to 1 million metric tonnes in 2005.
155123		threats	eng	In the mid 20th century, the Atlantic Herring was considered to be one of the most commercially valuable food fish species.<br/><br/>Stocks of this species showed a strong reduction in the 1970s from global landings of 4,095,394 t in 1966, to 887,533 t in 1979. This decline was attributed to overfishing. Approximately 10-20% of these landings are taken from Area 21 (Northwest Atlantic) while the rest is taken in Area 27 (Northeast Atlantic). The largest reported catches are from Norway and Iceland. In the last 10 years global catches have shown an increase: 1998 - 2,421,462 t, 1999 -  2,411,408 t, 2000 - 2,381,011 t, 2001 -  1,952,605 t, 2002 - 1,873,503 t, 2003 - 1,958,929 t, 2004 - 2,020,111 t, 2005 - 2,316,050 t, 2006 - 2,244,595 t. While stocks hit critically low levels in the 1970s and showed signs of commercial extinction, they have since recovered (Melvin and Stephenson 2007).       <br/><br/>The Northwest Atlantic stock is treated as two separate stocks: Gulf of Maine stock and Georges Bank-Nantucket Shoals stock. The Georges Bank stock crashed in the 1970s due to overexploitation by foreign fishers, while the Gulf of Maine stock continued to support coastal fisheries. The Georges Bank stock is now said to have fully recovered due to recolonisation from Gulf of Maine and Nantucket Shoals. The Bay of Fundy stock declined from approximately 570,000 mt in 1997 to 460,000 mt in 2000 - 2001, however in 2002/ 2003 it showed an increase (Melvin<em> et al.</em> 2004; NOAA 2005). Despite this increase there are concerns about the stock due to fewer adults in the population. <br/><br/>Current rates of fishing mortality in the U.S. fisheries are calculated to be approximately 10% indicating that stocks are under-utilised, however there is concern that the inshore Gulf of Maine stock is being over-exploited (NOAA 2005).<br/><br/>An average fishing mortality (F) of 0.7 was calculated for the 1970s, this declined to 0.3 in the 1980s, 0.15 in 1991 and has since remained stable at 0.1 since 2002 (TRAC 2006).
155124		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.
155124		distribution	eng	<em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em> has been found in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf and off the coast of Kenya and Tanzania.
155124		habitat	eng	<em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em> inhabits burrows within a sand-rubble substrate in the vicinity of coral reefs. It lives in symbiosis with the shrimp <em>Alpheus bellulus</em> (Froese and Pauly 2007). This species is found at a depth range of 2 to 17 m.
155124		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em>.
155124		threats	eng	This species is reportedly harvested for the aquarium trade (Froese and Pauly 2007), however it does not appear to be a common species within the trade. It is unclear as to whether this is due to lack of commercial interest, or species abundance. This species may be undergoing localised declines due to coastal development and pollution, however this is not a significant threat to the global population.
155125		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scorpaena azorica</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations around the Azores.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the habitat status and population size of this species is needed in order to determine if it is significantly impacted by any major threat processes.
155125		distribution	eng	<em>Scorpaena azorica</em> is only known from the Azores.
155125		habitat	eng	<em>Scorpaena</em><em> azorica</em> is a demersal species that has been found on hard bottoms.&#160; Its depth range remains unknown, but species from the <em>Scorpaena</em> genus occur at depths of 0–800 m.
155125		population	eng	Although there are no population data for <em>Scorpaena azorica</em>, a survey of demersal fish assemblages around the Azores classed this species as rare (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2006).
155125		threats	eng	There are growing problems around the Azores with marine sand extraction, agricultural run-off, and discharge of untreated sewage from tourist resorts and towns.&#160; Fishing limitations are in place, but enforcement is lacking (Depledge <em>et al.</em> 1992). Although the full impact of these threats on the marine environment is unknown,&#160;<em>Scorpaena</em><em> azorica</em> is likely to be suffering from significant habitat quality declines.&#160; It is unlikely that this species is of commercial importance, although like a large number of congeners, it may be consumed locally.
155126		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Black Snapper, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155126		distribution	eng	<em>Apsilus dentatus</em> is distributed from the West Indies, northern Gulf of Mexico (near the West Flower Garden Bank, southeast of Galveston, Texas), and the Florida Keys, to Venezuala and Belize, including the Bahamas and the Greater and Lesser Antilles. It is thought that this species is more widely spread (FAO 2002).
155126		habitat	eng	The Black Snapper<em></em> is coral-reef associated species that has a depth range of 12-300 m. It is mainly found over rocky bottoms (FAO 2002) and deep-reef, slope habitats, often beyond the shelf edge, however the young are sometimes found near the surface. It feeds on benthic cephlapods, tunicates, and ray-finned fishes and apparently spawns during most of the year (FAO 2002).
155126		population	eng	The Black Snapper is reported to be very common in the Bahamas along steep drop-offs (FAO 2002).
155126		threats	eng	<em>Apsilus dentatus</em> is harvested for food using handlines (FAO 2002), this however, is not considered a major threat to this species at present. There is no reported declines in the catch of this species and it remains common throughout much its habitat.
155127		conservation	eng	Oman has developed an interactive CD for all the schools describing the marine environment to enhance environmental education (Wilkinson 2004). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the restricted range of this species, further research on the threats, and population trends of this species is needed.
155127		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal Oman and the Socotra Archipelago.
155127		habitat	eng	This species is found on coral reefs and over reef rubble. It is found at a depth range of 11-15 m.
155127		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155127		threats	eng	The reefs of Oman are in good condition and have remained relatively unaffected by natural and anthropogenic threats (Coles 1996). However the Pseudochromis genus is harvested for the aquarium trade. This species may have been affected by coastal development and pollution within its limited known range.
155128		conservation	eng	There is no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em>.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
155128		distribution	eng	<em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em> has a distribution range extending from North Carolina, Bermuda and Florida, south to Nicaragua, Colombia and Venezuela including the Lesser Antilles, southern Mexico. This species is probabaly found throughtout the Caribbean (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155128		habitat	eng	The tilefish <em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em> is a demersal species found over sandy, muddy and rubble bottoms. It has a depth range of 45 - 495m but is commonly found between 150 - 250m (FAO 2002). It is also found to be associated with <em>Caulolatilus microps</em> and <em>Caulolatilus chrysops</em> (FAO 2002). It feeds on invertebrates and small fishes.
155128		population	eng	<em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em> is rare off North Carolina (FAO 2002).
155128		threats	eng	This species is fished commercially using hook-and-line, and by trawls off Columbia and Venezuela. There are no seperate catch statistics for this species.
155129		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterois lunulata</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park off Queensland.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
155129		distribution	eng	<em>Pterois lunulata</em> is distributed from  Korea and southern Hokkaido in Japan, southward through China, Taiwan, and Indonesia, to northern Australia, Queensland and New Caledonia.
155129		habitat	eng	<em>Pterois lunulata</em> is found on open substrates with remote outcrops of reef, or soft-bottom substrates at moderate depths.&#160; This species feeds on fish and crustaceans.&#160; The spines of <em>P. Lunulata</em> are venomous.&#160; Species from the Scorpaenidae family are typically found on, or near, the bottom, from the surface to a depth of 150 m.&#160; Most species from this family are known to lead solitary lives and only aggregate for reproduction  (FAO 1999).
155129		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pterois lunulata</em>.
155129		threats	eng	<em>Pterois lunulata</em> is utilised as a food source.&#160; The venomous dorsal-fin spines are removed by fisherman when marketed (FAO 1999).&#160; This species is also harvested from the wild for display in public aquariums.&#160; However, neither of these threats are considered to have a significant impact on the population size of this species, as these are localised threats only.
155130		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus, </span>however its distribution range overlaps a number of marine protected area.
155130		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus</span> is broadly distributed throughout the tropical Indo-west Pacific, including Hawaii. <span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus </span>also occurs in the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California, the lower Gulf of California to Ecuador, and all the offshore islands.
155130		habitat	eng	<em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus </span>adults are associated with coral reefs and are found in coastal and oceanic waters to depths of 146 m. Adults school in passes or the outer reef during the day, and disperse at night to feed. Juveniles <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>school in estuaries and harbours. Individuals feed primarily upon fish and crustaceans.
155130		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus</span> is common in waters of the Galapagos islands (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). This species is locally abundant around offshore islands.
155130		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is harvested by artisinal fisheries as a food source, however there is no evidence for a significant decline in the population. There are no other known major threats for this species.
155131		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Spaghetti Eel.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Florida Keys Marine National Park.&#160; Monitoring of the general threats to coral reef habitat should be carried out to ensure that they do not become more widespread and cause problems for this species in future.
155131		distribution	eng	The Spaghetti Eel (<em>Moringua edwardsi</em>) is found in the western Atlantic from Bermuda and Florida, the Caribbean, and the Lesser Antilles to Venezuela (Castle 1979).
155131		habitat	eng	The Spaghetti Eel is associated with reefs and lives on sandy bottoms in subtropical climates where individuals feed on burrowing invertebrates.&#160; Juveniles spend their time buried in the sand, but adults emerge at night.&#160; They display extreme changes in eye and fin shape, and body colour with maturity (Smith 1997).<br/><br/>The smallest larvae are found throughout the main islands of the Caribbean, whilst larger larvae are found at islands further away from the Caribbean (Castle 1979). This suggests that Spaghetti Eels spawn in the Caribbean area.&#160; The species is found to a depth of 35 m.
155131		population	eng	The Spaghetti Eel is scarce in the western Gulf of Mexico (Smith 1997).&#160; There is no population information from elsewhere in its range.
155131		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Spaghetti Eel is under any serious threat at present. More general threats include impacts to its habitat, including coral bleaching from rising sea temperatures, reef structure damage from tropical storms and hurricanes, pollution associated with coastal development and tourism, coral disease and threats associated with the mass die-off of sea urchins in the Caribbean.&#160; However, the species has a large range and it is unlikely that the global population is being impacted by these threats at present.
155132		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias monodactylus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.
155132		distribution	eng	<em>Eustomias monodactylus</em> is found in the north Atlantic.
155132		habitat	eng	<em>Eustomias monodactylus</em> is a bathypelagic species and it is thought to have a depth range of 0-1,820 m. This species has for some time been considered a synonym of <em>Eustomias filifer</em> and its species status has only been recently resurrected (Sutton and Hartel 2004). As such, there is little information on its ecology or range. Related species undertake vertical migrations, ascending at night to shallower waters to feed.
155132		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias monodactylus</em>.
155132		threats	eng	There is no directed fishery for this species and it is not reported to be taken as by-catch within its range. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal pollution and development, and climatic threats.
155133		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em>.
155133		distribution	eng	<em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em> is found in the western central Atlantic from the eastern Gulf of Mexico, south to the mouth of the Amazon river including the Bahamas and the West Indies.
155133		habitat	eng	The conger eel <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 101 - 503 m. Conger eels occur primarily on sand or mud bottoms and many burrow during the day and actively forage at night. Most species from the Congridae family live on the continental shelf or slope and feed on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (FAO 2002).
155133		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em>.
155133		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat process. Some species of conger eels, mainly from the <em>Conger</em> and <em>Ariosoma</em> genus are found in commercial fisheries but on the whole they are of little importance. They are caught by trawls, traps, and by hook-and-line, and are marketed mostly fresh. There is no reported commercial fishery for this species, though it may be taken as by-catch by other fisheries operating within its range.
155134		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and several in the Red Sea.
155134		distribution	eng	The Herring Scad, <em>Alepes vari</em>, is distributed from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf to the western Pacific, from Korea and the Ryukyu Islands, south to Queensland and New Caledonia.
155134		habitat	eng	The Herring Scad<em></em> is a pelagic species and is common in shallow coastal waters where it often swims near the surface. It forms dense schools on clear inner coral reefs, and swims high above substrate. It feeds primarily on shrimps, copepods, decapods and small fishes.
155134		population	eng	The Herring Scad is a common species in shallow coastal waters (Froese and Pauly 2008).
155134		threats	eng	Herring Scad<em> </em>are of minor commercial importance and are mainly taken by hook and line. It is marketed fresh or dry salted. Due to the nature by which this species is harvested and its broad geographic range, fishing is not considered a major threat at present.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted in areas where there is extensive coastal development or pollution, however this is a localised threat for this wide ranging species. It may also be taken as by-catch by other fisheries operating in areas of its range, however there are no reports of it being taken in significant quantity.
155135		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sillago japonica</em>. However, the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas including Sha Chau and Lung Kwu Chau Marine Park near Hong Kong. This species is now reared in a number of aquaculture operations therefore meeting some of the market demand for this species.<br/><em></em><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and abundance of Japanese Whiting, to try and establish the full range of this species. Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
155135		distribution	eng	The japonese whiting <em>Sillago japonica</em>, is distributed the coastal waters off Japan, Taiwan, Korea and South East Asia. The distribution of this species may possibly extend to the Philippines (Yamanda <em>et al</em>. 1995).
155135		habitat	eng	Japanese Whiting is a demersal species which occurs in bays on shallow sandy flats. Juvenile<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span><em></em> feed on calanoid copepods, as individuals of this species increase in size, mysids form a larger part of the diet (Inoue <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is oviparous.
155135		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Sillago japonica</em>.
155135		threats	eng	Japanese Whiting is an important commercial food fish, owing to its highly esteemed flavour (FAO 1992).  This species is commercially fished using beach seines, gill nets and trammel nets in coastal waters, and in deeper nearshore waters using otter trawl and beam trawl nets. Drops in the catches of this species have been observed and attributed to overfishing and changes in the environment (Sulistiono <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is predicted that there will be further decreases in the catches of this species.
155136		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus macclesfieldensis</em>.&#160; Further research on its range and population trends, and monitoring of by-catch levels and habitat status should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact (if any) of fisheries and water pollution on the population.
155136		distribution	eng	The dragonet species, <em>Callionymus macclesfieldensis</em>, is known only from Macclesfield Bank in the South China Sea. The area from which this species is known is less than 20,000 km² (around 19,535 km²).
155136		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus macclesfieldensis</span> is demersal and has been recorded from 77–82 m. It can be found burying in soft sediment. Congeners feed on small bottom-dwelling organisms such as crustaceans, worms and snails (Fricke 2001).
155136		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus macclesfieldensis</span> is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
155136		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus</span> <em>macclesfieldensis</em> may be threatened by pollution and accidental mortality.&#160; The South China Sea is severely over-fished, with excessive by-catch levels. While this species is not targeted directly, it is possible that it could be taken as by-catch, although more information is needed to confirm this.<br/><br/>The South China Sea is polluted by organic and inorganic waste from sewage, from agricultural and industrial waste, and from run-off containing oil, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.&#160; However, as this species occurs in deeper areas far from the coast, the impact of this coastal pollution may be minimal (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
155137		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats and population numbers of this species.
155137		distribution	eng	<em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em> is endemic to the waters of the Hawaiian Islands (Amaoka and Yamamoto 1984).
155137		habitat	eng	<em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em> is a mesopelagic, benthic species found on sand, mud and clay substrates. It has been found at a depth range of 443-640m.
155137		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em>.
155137		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. This species may be taken as incidental catch by bottom trawling fisheries, however it is of no commercial interest at the present time and this threat process is unlikely to be causing significant declines.
155138		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conversation measures in place or needed for <em>Antipodocottus galatheae</em>.
155138		distribution	eng	<em>Antipodocottus galatheae</em> has been recorded from Queensland, New South Wales and Tasmania, Australia, and New Zealand.
155138		habitat	eng	<em>Antipodocottus galatheae</em> is a demersal sculpin found on the continental shelf. The depth range for this species is not known, however, the family Cottidae are typically found at depths ranging from 150-765 m (FAO 1999b).<br/><br/><em>Antipodocottus megalops</em> attains a length of approximately 5 cm.
155138		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155138		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The family Cottidae are of no interest to fisheries (FAO 1999b) and due to the small size of the southern hemisphere sculpins they are easily missed in trawl nets (Nelson 1990) and therefore are unlikely to be taken as by-catch. Due to the deep-water nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by threats such as coastal development and pollution from urban areas.
155139		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em>.<br/><br/>Further surveys need to be made to determine the ecology, abundance and threats of this species.
155139		distribution	eng	<em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em> is known from the Strait of Magellan, between Chile and Argentina.
155139		habitat	eng	<em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em> is a demersal species. It is thought to be found deeper than 100 m, and this has been inferred from related species, however the exact depth range of this species is currently unknown.
155139		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em>. It is only known from the type specimen.
155139		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Patagonotothen</span> are harvested as a food source.
155140		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fishing activity.
155140		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Guajira coast near Puerto Bolivar, Colombia in the Caribbean Sea (Mok <em>et al.</em> 2001).
155140		habitat	eng	This species is found on the upper slope at depths from 300-306 m. It is known only from two type specimens measuring 194-216 mm total length (TL) (Mok <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
155140		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype.
155140		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species. Trawling occurs off the coast of Colombia but no bycatch data is known.
155141		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Shortfin False Moray. However, the distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas including several in New Caledonia, all of which are 'no take' areas to conserve biodiversity.  <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.
155141		distribution	eng	The Shortfin False Moray, <em>Kaupichthys brachychirus</em>, is distributed from Rowley Shoals, Western Australia, north to Papua New Guinea and Papua, and east to the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia. This species has also been recorded in the Pacific from Palau, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Wallis and Futuna Islands, Samoa, American Samoa and French Polynesia. The distribution of this species may be more widespread than currently known (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
155141		habitat	eng	The Shortfin False Moray is associated with muddy environments, where it can be found in the crevices of dead coralline rock and volcanic rock. This species is a noctural feeder which may feed in areas adjacent to reefs (R. Fricke pers. comm.).  This species is found in the photic zone from the surface to 43 m depth.
155141		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155141		threats	eng	There is no directed fishery for this species. It may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation, however this species has a lack of habitat specificity and a broad range so this is unlikely to pose a major threat to the population.
155142		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or&#160; needed, for<em> Laemonema rhodochir</em>.
155142		distribution	eng	<em>Laemonema rhodochir</em> has been found along the Kyushu-Palau Ridge, which extends south-southeast from the southern tip of Japan, around Hawaii to Hancock Seamount, and from the Sala y Gomez Ridge near Easter Island (Melendez and Markle 1997).
155142		habitat	eng	The morid cod, <em>Laemonema rhodochir</em>, is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 95–600 m.&#160; It prefers rocky habitats and may be found sheltering in crevices (Mundy 2005).
155142		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Laemonema rhodochir</span>.
155142		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Laemonema rhodochir</span> is not being impacted by any major threats at present.&#160; It is possible that this species may be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to cause significant declines.
155143		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraulopus maculatus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.
155143		distribution	eng	The single specimen of <em>Paraulopus maculatus</em> was found off the coast of Mombasa in Kenya.
155143		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for <em>Paraulopus maculatus</em>.  The single specimen that was collected was found between a depth between 178 m and 290 m but its depth range is unknown.
155143		population	eng	This species is only known from one specimen.
155143		threats	eng	The impact of any potential threats to this species is unknown.
155144		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155144		distribution	eng	<em>Myripristis trachyacron</em> is a western Pacific soldierfish, known from the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
155144		habitat	eng	The soldierfish, <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em>, shelters under ledges and in caves on coral and rocky reefs.&#160; It is typically seen at depths less than 50 m. It can be found in small aggregations in current-prone channels, feeding on zooplankton.
155144		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em>.
155144		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It may occasionally be harvested by subsistence fishers.
155145		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, threats and harvest levels of this species.
155145		distribution	eng	<em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em> is known only from the Philippines and Samoa, but its distribution is thought to be more widespread (FAO 2001b).
155145		habitat	eng	<em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em> can be found on sand and mud bottoms in shallow coastal waters within the photic zone. This species feeds predominantly upon small fishes and benthic invertebrates.
155145		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em>.
155145		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachirus sorsogonensis</span> is likely to be threatened by trawling activity within its range. It is targeted by artisinal fisheries as a food source. It is also likely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
155146		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures known. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.
155146		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anampses melanurus</span> is found from Indonesia to the Marquesas and Society Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands (Myers 1991; Lieske and Myers 1994) and southern Japan (mainland Kashiwa Jima), south to Scott Reef off northwest Australia (Myers 1991).
155146		habitat	eng	The White-spotted Wrasse, <em>Anampses melanurus,</em> is found in deep coastal, outer-reef slopes and drop-offs. It may also be found in the surge zone to a depth of 40 m, although it is more commonly found between 15 and 30 m. This species aggregates in small groups of several females with a single dominant male. The White-spotted Wrasse feeds on small crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes.  This is a diurnal species that burrows into the sand at night.
155146		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155146		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. This species is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, however it does not do well as an aquarium fish (Fenner 2009).
155147		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.
155147		distribution	eng	<em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em> is known from 25 specimens collected from the Philippines, within the Sibuyan Sea (Matocot Point, Batangas Bay and Luzon Island), Visayan Sea (Pescador Island) and Lopez Bay in the Quezon Province.
155147		habitat	eng	<em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em> is a deepwater, benthopelagic species which has been found at a depth range of 362-549 m. Species of the Hoplostethus genus are typically found in dense aggregations over seamounts, and so are locally abundant.
155147		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em>.
155147		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Like congeners, it is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in fisheries operating over seamounts.
155148		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em>, however the distribution of this species falls within a number of marine protected areas.
155148		distribution	eng	<em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em> is found in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas to Brazil (from Bahia to Espirito Santo states).
155148		habitat	eng	<em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em> is a cryptic species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999) that inhabits crevices within shallow coral reefs and shallow rocky ledges in tropical climates. This species is found deep within the reef during the day to a maximum depth of 16 m. It is a viviparous species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
155148		population	eng	<em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em> is rare around Puerto Rico (Dennis <em>et al</em>. 2004), but reported to be common in other areas of its distribution (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155148		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species. It may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat destruction as a result of coastal development and pollution.
155149		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em>. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species to determine if it is restricted to waters off eastern Luzon only, and on the possible incidental catch of this species by commercial fishery operations within its range.
155149		distribution	eng	<em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em> is only known from the east coast of Luzon, Philippines.
155149		habitat	eng	<em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em> is a bathydemersal species, found living over mud, sand, and rubble substrates. This species has been collected from a depth range of 267-292 m. This species feeds on benthic macrofauna.
155149		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em>.
155149		threats	eng	<em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em> is of no commercial interest to fisheries, and there is no evidence of this species being marketed (FAO 2001b). This species may be taken incidentally as by-catch by other commercial fisheries operating within its range but it is not known if this constitutes a major threat.
155150		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</span>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, population numbers, and distribution of this species is needed.
155150		distribution	eng	<em>Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</em> is known only from the holotype, found at Seguam Pass, by the Aleutian Islands, at a depth of 455 m.
155150		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</span> has been found at a depth of 455 m.&#160; The holotype was found to have ostracods and rocks in its stomach, suggesting it is a benthic-dwelling fish.
155150		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis.</span>
155150		threats	eng	It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155151		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for<em> Apogon rubrimacula</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
155151		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon rubrimacula</em> has been recorded from the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Great Barrier Reef, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. There is also a record (underwater photograph) of this species from the Philippines (Randall and Kulbicki 1998).
155151		habitat	eng	<em>Apogon rubrimacula</em> is a tropical cardinal fish found on reef flats and in shallow lagoons at a depth range of 0-33 m. During the day it typically shelters in the reef structure. At night, individuals emerge to feed on the zoobenthos. <br/><br/>The males of this species mouthbrood the eggs until hatching. This species can be seen forming distinct aggregations.
155151		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155151		threats	eng	This species is not known to be directly targeted for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines from factors affecting habitat quality, such as coral bleaching, cyanide fishing, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, and the negative threats associated with tourism and coastal development. However, many of the reef systems on which this species is found, are still deemed as healthy and relatively unimpacted by the mentioned threats; for this reason the global population of this species is not thought to be threatened.
155153		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155153		distribution	eng	The Bearded Silverside, <em>Atherion elymus</em>, is distributed from southern Japan, south to northern Queensland. It has also been collected from localities close to islands in Micronesia, Melanesia, Fiji and New Guinea.
155153		habitat	eng	Bearded Silverside occur in loose aggregations in the photic zone and are found in tidepools, rocky reefs, along rocky shorelines and reef margins. Eggs of this species are large and self adhesive. This species has a depth profile of 0-6 m.
155153		population	eng	Like other species of silverside, it is likely that this species is abundant and common throughout its range in areas of appropriate habitat.
155153		threats	eng	There is no directed commercial fishery for this species. It is infrequently collected for use as bait, however this is unlikely to be driving a significant population decline. This species is likely to be undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and urban pollution discharge.
155154		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis operculosus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats to this species is needed.
155154		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis operculosus</em> is only known to occur off the Kerguelen Islands.
155154		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis operculosus</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 380?1,010 m.
155154		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis operculosus</span> is said to be common near the Kerguelen Plateau at 380?820 m (Andriashev 1982b; cited in Miller 1993).
155154		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis operculosus</span> is of no known commercial value.&#160; It may be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range.
155155		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chirolophis snyderi</em>, however its distribution range does coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends and threats for this species is needed.
155155		distribution	eng	<em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> is distributed from the Chukchi Sea and the western Gulf of Alaska to the Sea of Okhotsk, Tatar Strait, and the Pacific coast of Hokkaido.<br/><em></em><br/>The depth range for this species is likely to be 0 - 70 m. The record of 490 m is likely to be a result of a previous specimen from a shallower tow (Sheiko pers. comm. 2008).
155155		habitat	eng	<em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 0 - 70 m in nearshore waters (Mecklenburg and Sheiko 2004) over soft and rocky bottoms.<br/><em><br/></em>
155155		population	eng	<em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> is a rare species.
155155		threats	eng	It is unknown what major threat processes are impacting this species. <em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> may be taken as by-catch in the Sea of Okhotsk fisheries. In 1995 the total catch of Russian fishing fleets in the Sea of Okhotsk was 4.3 million metric tons (Stokke 2001). Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted by coastal development and pollution. The Sea of Okhotsk has been heavily impacted by heavy shipping due to bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals.
155156		conservation	eng	This species is found in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA), Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and the Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
155156		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only known from the Galapagos Archipelago.
155156		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in rocky reefs, boulder strewn slopes and walls (Humann and Deloach 1993), to a depth of 15 m. Males occupy territories of less than 50 cm diameter, on vertical or overhanging rock faces, from November through February. Females leave the territory after spawning, but the male continues to court and to spawn with other females in his territory while guarding the previously spawned egg masses from predators, like wrasses and gobies (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
155156		population	eng	This species has been categorized as common to locally abundant, and is one of the most abundant of the Galapagos endemic reef fishes. Mean abundance has been estimated at 1.77 individuals/500m<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
155156		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although given its shallow depth range it may be negatively impacted by current or future ENSO events and associated climatic changes. Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO events and global warming may have fatal effects on shallow marine ecosystems and the survival of restricted range species (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). For example, the only known location of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corallicola</span> lies within the region of strongest El Niño impacts where <span style="font-style: italic;">Azurina eupalama</span>, another endemic species from Galapagos once common in localized aggregations on several islands, declined precipitously after the 1982/83 El Niño event and has not been recorded since.
155157		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Atrobucca kyushini</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch levels of this species is needed.
155157		distribution	eng	<em>Atrobucca kyushini</em> occurs off the northwestern coast of Borneo in the South China Sea. This species is only known from the type locality.
155157		habitat	eng	<em>Atrobucca kyushini</em> is a benthic species that inhabits continental shelves and can be found at depths up to 100 m.
155157		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Atrobucca kyushini</em>.
155157		threats	eng	<em>Atrobucca kyushini</em> is harvested as a food source, although it is not targeted specifically by fisheries.&#160; It is very likely that this species is taken as by-catch in bottom trawls. <br/><br/>The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) has classified the South China Sea as being severely over-fished, with excessive by-catch, discards and destructive fishing practices.&#160; However, the precise impacts on <em>A. kyushini</em> are unknown.
155158		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Psettina hainanensis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance of, and possible threats to this species.
155158		distribution	eng	<em>Psettina hainanensis</em> is found in the South China Sea around Hainan, China.
155158		habitat	eng	<em>Psettina hainanensis</em> is a demersal species that is found resting on sand and mud bottoms in tropical waters. It preys on benthic invertebrates and fishes.
155158		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Psettina hainanensis</em>.
155158		threats	eng	The area in which this species occurs has been heavily fished by trawlers. This species is unlikely to be targeted as a food source (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). It is not known what impact fishing activity might have had on the population of this species.
155159		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus</span>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Galapagos Marine Reserve.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends is needed.
155159		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus</span> is a tropical eastern Pacific species and is distributed from southern California, south to central Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos islands.
155159		habitat	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus </span>inhabits inshore sandy areas and clear waters around reefs and rocky areas. This pelagic species is often observed in large schools, feeding on zooplankton near the surface. This species also feeds on a variety of invertebrate animals and fishes. This species is found to a depth of 30 m.
155159		population	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus</span> is reported to be the most common reef jack in the Sea of Cortez (Thomson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987), and can be locally abundant.
155159		threats	eng	This species is harvested as a food source, however there is no indication that this is causing a significant decline in the population. There are no other known threats to this species.
155160		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for Firefly Lanternfish.
155160		distribution	eng	<em>Hygophum proximum</em> is widespread in warm waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but has not been found in the Atlantic (Wang and Chen 2001).
155160		habitat	eng	The Firefly Lanternfish, <em>Hygophum proximum</em>, is a pelagic oceanic species. It undertakes diurnal vertical migrations, and migrates from water depths of around 500-700 m, to depths shallower than 100 m at night to feed on copepods and other crustaceans (Clarke 1978). Lanternfish make up the greatest biomass of oceanic fish species (FAO 1999).
155160		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155160		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
155161		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Ebony Eelpout, although this species is occasionally used in aquaculture.&#160; The distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Shiretoko National Park in the Sea of Okhotsk.&#160; However, due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unclear whether these afford this species any protection. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, habitat and ecology of this species, as well as on the impact of threats such as by-catch and pollution, as little information is available at present.
155161		distribution	eng	The Ebony Eelpout <em>(Lycodes concolor) </em>is distributed from the Sea of Okhotsk to the western Gulf of Alaska, including Akutan Island and Stalemate Bank in the Aleutian chain.
155161		habitat	eng	The Ebony Eelpout, like other species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Zoarcidae</span>, is a bathydemersal species.&#160; Its depth profile is 100–1,025 m.&#160; There is no other information available on the habitat or ecology of this species.
155161		population	eng	There is currently no available population information for the Ebony Eelpout
155161		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Ebony Eelpout is being severely impacted by any major threat processes across its entire range.&#160; However, its presence in the Sea of Okhotsk means that it is potentially impacted by the threats associated with heavy shipping traffic, such as bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals.&#160; Due to its relatively large size, this species is also likely to be taken as by-catch in benthic and pelagic fisheries (GIWA 2008).
155162		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zebrias crossolepis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species to determine if harvesting and pollution are triggering rapid declines.
155162		distribution	eng	<em>Zebrias crossolepis</em> is distributed from the coast of Guangdong, China, to northern Taiwan.
155162		habitat	eng	<em>Zebrias crossolepis</em> is a demersal species which inhabits tropical waters. Other species of the genus <em>Zebrias</em> are neritic and feed on benthic invertebrates and fishes. Its congener <em>Zebrias zebra</em> inhabits shallow sand or mud bottoms in coastal waters (FAO 2001). This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
155162		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Zebrias crossolepis</em>.
155162		threats	eng	It is not known whether <em>Zebrias crossolepis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Congener <em>Zebrias zebra</em> is a food fish that is caught mainly with bottom trawls on the inner continental shelf (FAO 2001). While this species may not be targeted directly, it is still likely to be taken as by-catch. The South China sea is severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with excessive by-catch, discards and destructive fishing practices, and it is reported that these impacts have shown no change in intensity in more recent years (NOAA 2004).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by pollution. The South China Sea is reported to be severely impacted by pollution due to major coastal and economic development (NOAA 2004).
155163		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Striped Grunt, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas, including the Walker's Cay in the Bahamas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch level and habitat status of this species is needed.
155163		distribution	eng	The Striped Grunt, <em>Haemulon striatum</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from Florida to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, the western Bahamas and the Antilles.
155163		habitat	eng	The Striped Grunt <em></em>is a coral reef-associated species that has a depth range of 10-100 m. This species occurs along exposed outer or deeper reefs and has been found on semi-hard substrates. Throughout the range, adults are most commonly found near the shelf edge in mid-water schools (K. Lindeman pers. comm. 2007). Dense aggregations are often seen on small isolated reefs by day, and at night they disperse to feed individually on plankton and small invertebrates.
155163		population	eng	The Striped Grunt is rare in the northern Gulf of Mexico and has been reported only once in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Fechhelm 2005).
155163		threats	eng	The Striped Grunt is occasionally taken as by-catch by trap or bottom trawls, which is then utilised as a food source. This species is also taken for the public aquarium trade, but this not considered a major threat at present as it is taken in small quantities and is likely bred in captivity.<br/><em><br/></em>This species is also likely to be impacted by localised habitat degradation caused by land-based pollution, disease, coral-bleaching, and destructive fishing practices.
155164		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Polydactylus microstomus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Sirinath National Park, Phuket, Thailand. <br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its habitat status is needed, to determine if the degradation of mangrove habitats will have a negative impact the population of <em>P. microstomus</em> in the future.
155164		distribution	eng	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> is an Indo-Pacifc threadfin.&#160; In the Indian Ocean, this species is known from Tamil Nadu (India), Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Phuket Island, Thailand.&#160; In the west Pacifc, <em>P. microstomus</em> is distributed from Taiwan to New Caledonia (excluding Australia).
155164		habitat	eng	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> inhabits turbid coastal waters, estuaries, mangrove creeks, and mangrove-lined rivers (Motomura and Iwatsuki 2001).&#160; It feeds mainly on small crustaceans, fish, and benthic organisms.&#160; Some specimens of this species are known to be hermaphrodites.&#160;  This species is epipelagic and is found in the euphotic zone at depths of 2–55 m.
155164		population	eng	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> is reported to be relatively common in the western part of Indonesia and the Philippines.
155164		threats	eng	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> is associated with mangrove habitats.&#160; The mangrove habitats of Asia have been significantly threatened by human population pressures, large-scale harvest for wood chips, and conversion to aquaculture ponds.&#160; To date, 36% of Asian mangrove forests have been lost (Valiela <em>et al.</em> 2001).
155165		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>All sygnathids are subject to export controls of the Coomonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 since 1998.<br/><br/>All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the EPBC Act 1999.
155165		distribution	eng	<em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em> is distributed from the Gulf of Oman and Seychelles, eastwards to the Somoa Islands. This species is distributed in the western Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands to the Great Barrier Reef. <em>C. amplexus</em> is also known from Fiji (type locality).
155165		habitat	eng	<em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em> is a demersal species typically found in the tropics and subtropics to a maximum depth of 31 m. It is known from coral reefs, lagoons, harbours, and open sandy-flats. Also reported on rubble along edges of reefs (Kuiter 2000) and in patch reefs surrounded by sandy flats (Nanami and Nishihira 2002).  Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
155165		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em>.
155165		threats	eng	<em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em> has no known major threats.
155166		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Striped Burrfish, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of threats, and population numbers is needed.
155166		distribution	eng	The Striped Burrfish, <em>Chilomycterus schoepfii,</em> is found in the western Atlantic from Nova Scotia, Maine, the Bahamas and the northern Gulf of Mexico, to Brazil. This species is uncommon or absent from most of the West Indies (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155166		habitat	eng	The Striped Burrfish<em></em> is associated with seagrass beds in sheltered, coastal waters. It can also be found on coastal reefs to a maximum depth of 11 m. Individuals are carnivorous but occasionally graze on algae.
155166		population	eng	Striped Burrfish<em></em> are reported to be common in seagrass beds in coastal bays and lagoons (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155166		threats	eng	Striped Burrfish are harvested for the international aquarium trade, however there is no known indication that this is causing a significant decline in abundance.<br/><br/>These species is likely to be undergoing declines in some areas of its range, due to habitat loss and degradation. Due to the this species association with coastal habitats and seagrass beds, it is likely to be threatened by increasing sea temperatures, coastal development, pollution from land, sedimentation, destructive fishing practices, and tourism. However, these are localised threats only and not considered a major threat to the entire population.
155167		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Rosy Blenny. However, its distribution may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas, including Walker's Cay in the Bahamas. This species is also known within the Dry Tortugas National Park, 70 miles west of the Florida Keys. Fishing activity has recently been banned within this designation. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
155167		distribution	eng	The Rosy Blenny<em> </em>(<em>Malacoctenus macropus</em>) is distributed through the western Atlantic from southern Florida and Bermuda to Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles.
155167		habitat	eng	The Rosy Blenny<em></em> is a demersal species that is found on reefs in subtropical climates at a depth range of 0-8 m. It occurs in a wide variety of shoreline habitats and patch reefs, including sponge beds and sea-grass beds. It also occurs in estuaries (Layman <em>et a</em>l. 2004), in areas of rubble and algae, and also in mangroves (Greenfield and Johnson 1990).
155167		population	eng	In the western Caribbean, the Rosy Blenny has been found to be the second most dominant blennioid species in rubble/algae habitats and the most dominant in mangrove habitats (Greenfield and Johnson 1990).
155167		threats	eng	The Rosy Blenny is harvested for the aquarium trade. However, this is not considered a major threat to this species as present.<br/><br/>This species may also suffer localised declines due to pollution and habitat degradation.
155169		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species
155169		distribution	eng	This species is known from the subtropical Atlantic and Indian oceans (Badcock 1988).
155169		habitat	eng	There is little evidence that this species is known from beyond 1,000 m, and scarcity in collections may in fact be due to feeding associations rather than lack of sampling at depth (Badcock 1988).
155169		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155169		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
155170		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Asarcenchelys longimanus</em>. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, abundance and potential threats, as little information is currently available.
155170		distribution	eng	<em>Asarcenchelys longimanus</em> is known only  from two specimens collected off the coast of Brazil.
155170		habitat	eng	<em>Asarcenchelys longimanus</em> is a demersal species and lives over soft bottoms.&#160; The holotype was found at a depth of 55 m. Species from the family Ophichthidae are well adapted for burrowing and many of these species spend most of their adult lives buried in soft sediment; some come out at night to forage.&#160; Ophichthids have pelagic leptocephalus larvae (Carpenter 2002).
155170		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Asarcenchelys longimanus</span>.
155170		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Asarcenchelys longimanusis</span> being impacted by any major threats.&#160; There is no commercial fishery for the Ophichthidae family, but they are sometimes taken as by-catch in trawl and hook-and-line fishery operations (Carpenter 2002).
155171		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Had Chao Mai Marine Park. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and population status of this species.
155171		distribution	eng	The Threefinger Threadfin, <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em>, is known from Thailand (either side of Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea), Malaysia (Malay Peninsular and Kalimantan) and western Indonesia (Java).  However, Motomura <em>et al.</em> (2002) state that this species is 'probably more widely distributed in western Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan)'.
155171		habitat	eng	Little information is available for the habitat of <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em>. However <em>Eleutheronema</em> species generally occur on continental shelves, and are considered to be heavily dependant on large freshwater rivers (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).
155171		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Threefinger Threadfin.
155171		threats	eng	Although species of this genus are harvested commercially, <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em> is too small to be of major commercial importance (Motomura 2004). It is unlikely that <em>E. tridactylum</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
155172		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for The Large-headed Scorpionfish.
155172		distribution	eng	The Large-headed Scorpionfish (<em>Pontinus macrocephalus)</em> is a western Pacific scorpionfish, distributed from Indonesia, east to French Polynesia, north to Japan and Hawaii,  and south to Australia and New Caledonia.&#160; It has also been reported from Malaysia (Mohsin <em>et al</em>. 1993).&#160; The distribution of this species may be more widespread than currently described (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
155172		habitat	eng	The Large-headed Scorpionfish is a demersal species, found on the upper slope of the continental shelf and oceanic islands.&#160; This species is found resting on coralline rock at a depth range of 174–278 m.
155172		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Large-headed Scorpionfish.
155172		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Large-headed Scorpionfish.
155173		conservation	eng	This species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006). In March 2004, legislation was passed to prohibit increased fishing of this species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the harvest levels and population trends of this species.
155173		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is found from the west coast of central Baja and Gulf of California to Laguna Mar Muerto, Chiapas, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It was introduced into the highly saline waters of the Salton Sea in southern California, USA, where it is now likely extirpated (Welcomme 1988).
155173		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 50 m. It may be able to tolerate higher salinities (up to 40ppt). It can be found over gravelly, muddy and sandy substrates.
155173		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155173		threats	eng	This is an important commercial species that is typically caught using gill nets and bottom trawl. However, more information is needed to determine the effect of commercial fisheries on this species population.
155174		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em>, however in places, its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas.
155174		distribution	eng	<em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em> is found from the waters off San Francisco, California, USA, to San Martin Island off northern Baja California, Mexico (Stephens 1961).  The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 7,686 km<sup>2</sup>.
155174		habitat	eng	<em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em> is found over sandy and muddy substrates along rocky coastlines and bays.&#160; It is often found sheltering in rocky crevices and man-made objects such as tires and bottles and is exceedingly territorial (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983).&#160; Both sexes tend the eggs.&#160; This species is found at depths of 3–27 m.
155174		population	eng	Hubbs (1953) reported that <em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em> is "not common anywhere in its range", however Eschmeyer and Herald (1983) state that this species is easily seen around coastal structures such as piers.
155174		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Neoclinus uninotatus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; This species appears to be relatively tolerant to disturbance, as it is often found in areas where coastal development has taken place and in areas littered with rubbish.
155175		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gerres infasciatus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed into the distribution and abundance of this species, and to determine how it may be impacted by threats such as fishing, pollution and coastal development.
155175		distribution	eng	The mojarra, <em>Gerres infasciatus</em>, is known from the Northern Gulf of Thailand (Iwatsuki and Kimura 1998) and Tamil Nadu in India (Fukuhara <em>et al</em>. 2006).
155175		habitat	eng	Three specimens of <em>Gerres infasciatus</em> have been collected over sandy bottoms of shallow, inshore, coastal waters, subject to the outflows of local rivers.&#160; At present, nothing is known of the ecological requirements of this species (Iwatsuki and Kimura 1998).
155175		population	eng	<em>Gerres infasciatus</em> was confirmed to be the most abundant Gerreid species in a number of markets in Madras, India.&#160; However, at present, this species has only been recorded from Tamil Nadu in India (Fukuhara <em>et al</em>. 2006).
155175		threats	eng	The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gerres infasciatus </span>in the markets of Madras (Fukuhara <em>et al</em>. 2006) indicates that this species is utilised as a food source.&#160; However, there are no other records of this fish being harvested for human consumption.&#160; It is not known what other potential threats this species may be impacted by, however like other species in the <em>Gerres</em> genus, it is likely to be taken as by-catch by bottom trawls operating within its range.<br/><br/>As this species is found in inshore coastal areas, it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation caused by pollution and coastal development.
155176		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parupeneus crassilabris.&#160; </em>However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.
155176		distribution	eng	<em>Parupeneus crassilabris</em> is distributed through the eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific, from the Ryuku Islands, south to the Great Barrier Reef, and east to Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, the Caroline Islands, Fiji, Tuvalu, Tonga and Niue.&#160;<em>Parupeneus</em><em> crassilabris</em> has also been reported from Viet Nam.<em><br/></em>
155176		habitat	eng	<em>Parupeneus crassilabris</em> occurs on lagoon reefs, reef faces, and fore-reef slopes.&#160; Juvenile <em>P. crassilabris</em> are more common on sandy reef flats, whilst adults prefer areas of high vertical relief (Myers 1998).&#160;  On the Great Barrier Reef, this species is most often found on shallow lagoon reefs (Michael 2004).&#160;&#160;<em>Parupeneus</em><em> Crassilabris</em> is usually solitary, but can occur in groups of 2 or 3 individuals.&#160; This species hunts both diurnally and nocturnally, and primarily feeds during the day on xanthid crabs, decapod shrimps, and mantis shrimps.&#160; During the night, it feeds on slumbering fish and crab larvae.&#160; It also occasionally feeds on octopuses, polychaete worms, amphipods, and gastropods.
155176		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parupeneus crassilabris</span>.
155176		threats	eng	<em>Parupeneus crassilabris</em> is a commercial food fish, and is mainly caught with shore seines and hook-and-line.&#160; This species is marketed fresh.&#160;<em>Parupeneus</em><em> crassilabris</em> is not targeted specifically by fishers, but is taken in multi-species catches.<br/><br/>More general threats to this species may include threats to its habitat.&#160; Due to the coastal nature of this species, it may be impacted by a number of human-induced threats including coastal development, water pollution from domestic and commercial sources, and destructive fishing practices; however these threats are not known across this species' entire range and so are only likely to be responsible for localised declines.
155177		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Psenopsis anomala</em>. <br/><br/>Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and abundance of this species is needed to ensure it does not become over-exploited.
155177		distribution	eng	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em> is distributed form Japan to the East China Sea, Hong Kong, and northern South China Sea (Yamada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
155177		habitat	eng	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em>, is an epipelagic species that has a depth range of 0 - 370 m.
155177		population	eng	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em> is very abundant and fast growing in the East China Sea (Yamada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  FAO statistics show a peak in landings of around 23,000 mt in 1987 and these landing have fluctuated widely in recent years to around 9-10,000 mt.  However in Japan, landings were stable from 1991 to 1996 and it is known to be presently locally abundant (Yamada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
155177		threats	eng	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em> is a commercially important source of food, harvested by trawlers. In 1999 the total landings were reported at 10,871 tonnes (FAO 2000). The countries with the largest catches were Japan (4,996 tonnes) and the Taiwan Province of China (5,075 tonnes) (FAO 2000).<br/><br/>It is also likely that this species is taken as by-catch in other commercial fisheries. Much of the range in which this species occurs is intensively exploited by fisheries.
155178		conservation	eng	This species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). In Costa Rica, it may be present in Cocos Island National Park, and Cocos Island World Heritage Site. In Colombia, in Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas and Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site. In Ecuador, in Galapagos Marine Reserve; Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area, Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve.<br/><br/>However, more research is needed to properly assess the taxonomic validity of this species. Further research on the population status of this species is needed.
155178		distribution	eng	This species is endemic species to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia, including Cocos Island, Malpelo Island, and the Galapagos Archipelago. However, it is likely that this species is a junior synonym of the widely distributed <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroconger pellegrini.</span>
155178		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clean sandy subtrates to depths of 30 m. It is usually found in large colonies feeding on zooplankton (Allen and Robertson 1994).
155178		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155178		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
155179		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Rhacochilus vacca</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and habitat status of this species is needed to forewarn of any rapid declines in population size that may trigger a threat category in the future.
155179		distribution	eng	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> is distributed from southeastern Alaska to Guadalupe Island, off north-central Baja California, Mexico.
155179		habitat	eng	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> is most commonly found in dense kelp forests over rocky substrates, to a maximum depth of 46 m.&#160; It is also known from rocky coastlines, and from near pilings and underwater structures.&#160; Its diet consists of large-shelled invertebrates such as molluscs and crabs (Alevizon 1975).
155179		population	eng	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> has been described as abundant on the North American Pacific coast (Boulding <em>et al.</em> 2001).&#160; Declines in both adult and juvenile abundance have been observed off the Californian coast, which may be linked to oceanic warming (Stephens <em>et al.</em> 1986, Holbrook <em>et al.</em> 1997).
155179		threats	eng	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> is harvested for aquariums, as a gamefish, and as a food source.&#160; There is a lack of information on current landings.&#160; The kelp habitat of this species is likely to be under threat from oceanic warming (Holbrook <em>et al.</em> 1997) and sea urchin grazing (Tegner and Dayton 2000, Steneck <em>et al</em>. 2002).
155180		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Calamus cervigoni</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
155180		distribution	eng	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> is endemic to the eastern coast of Venezuela.
155180		habitat	eng	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> inhabits mud bottoms, and is most common at a depth range of 25-70 m, but has been recorded down to 90 m.
155180		population	eng	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> is abundant in some areas, such as Margarita Island and north of the Paria and Araya Peninsulas (Carpenter 2002).
155180		threats	eng	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> is harvested by trawlers but is of minor commercial importance. However, at present there is no information to suggest that this threat is causing a significant decline to the population of this species.
155181		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas affording it protection from harvest.
155181		distribution	eng	The Dogtooth Herring, <em>Chirocentrodon bleekerianus,</em> is found from the southern Caribbean and Panama, to the coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State in Brazil.
155181		habitat	eng	The Dogtooth Herring<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a coastal schooling species found in bays and estuaries as well as lagoons and just off river mouths, to depths of 40 m. It is tolerant of lowered water salinity. This is a migratory species that spawns in winter months. This species feeds on larger clupeoid fishes and caridean shrimps. Correa <em>et al.</em> (2005) found this species fed predominantly on copepods and diatomaceous algae.
155181		population	eng	In 1999 - 2000 this species was reported to be one of the most abundant species off the coast of Parana in Brazil. It is also reported to be common in the region of Parangua Bay and adjacent beaches of Shangri-la and Leste, Brazil (Correa <em>et al</em>. 2005).
155181		threats	eng	This species is harvested on a subsistence scale as a food source. There are no known catch statistics for this species, however considering the scale of this fishery and the reported abundance of this species, the harvesting of this species is unlikely to constitute a major threat to this species at present.
155182		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however in places its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population and harvest levels of this species should be carried out. Conservation measures need to focus on minimising the by-catch of this species to prevent this species becoming threatened.
155182		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However this species occurs in marine protected areas.
155182		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Namibia, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe. In the Mediterranean Sea this species is present along whole of southern and eastern coastlines, and in France, Corsica, Sicily, Ionian and the southeastern Aegean Sea.
155182		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean, from the Strait of Gibraltar to Angola, including islands such as the Canary Islands and Madeira.
155182		habitat	eng	<em>Pomadasys incisus</em> is a demersal species, found over sandy/ muddy and rocky bottoms mostly at a depth range of 10 to 50 m but recorded down to 100 m (Kent citation). It is found inshore in estuaries (Kapiris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), harbours, to a couple of miles offshore. It feeds on near-bottom invertebrates. <em>Pomadasys incisus</em>  is a non-seasonal spawner and breeding occurs year round; maturity is reached in approximately 2 years (Pajuelo <em>et al.</em> 2003).
155182		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that can be found over hard substrata (Schneider 1990), and also found over sand. It feeds on benthic and near-bottom invertebrates (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986). Depth ranges recorded for this species are 10 to 40 m maximum, 5 to 90 m over sand and rock substrata (Louisy 2002), and also in shallower waters from 2 to 3 m (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007)
155182		population	eng	<em>Pomadasys incisus</em> has been observed in relatviely high-density schools in the coastal waters of the Canarian Archipelago, and is considered to be among the 20 most abundant demersal species in the area (Pajuelo <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Listed as one of the 5 most abundant fish species in underwater surveys of mostly rocky areas across the Canaries with the highest count of any species on one of the transects (Hajagos and Van Tassell (2001).  This is a fast-growing short-lived species (Pajuelo et al 2003).     A survey of the fisheries of the Canary Islands found that this species was in danger of recruitment-overfishing, as 45% of the individuals caught are below the breeding size (Pajuelo <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In the Canary Islands an 80% reduction in non-exploited equilibrium rates are inferred from a growth-overfishing model. This rate of exploitation is difficult to interpret because exploited rates of decline are unknown in this type of soft-sediment trawling.  Furthermore, this species is abundant over rocky bottoms in the Canary Islands at the same time as growth overfishing is reported.   Abundant in parts of its range in the Mediterranean (Francour <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> Med Red List workshop assessment 2007).  Kapiris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2008) indicate from anecdotal information from fishermen that this species is heavily exploited as by-catch in the Aegean sea.  It is a thermophilic species that apparently is expanding its range into the northern Med because of increasing temperatures (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008). This species is also caught in Angolan fisheries, though not at such high levels (Agostinho <em>et al.</em> 2005).
155182		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, but there are no catch statistics reported for this species from the region. It is locally consumed in some locations in Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007), and is caught frequently in experimental shallow collections in Israel (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).
155182		threats	eng	<em>Pomadasys incisus</em> has no current commercial value, but is taken as by-catch in trawl fisheries in the Aegean Sea and Canary Islands (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008) and presumably also taken as by-catch in trawl fisheries throughout its range.  Some landing reported in FAO statistics for the 1980s and 1990s indicate some commercial utilization.  Most reports suggest that it is discarded, although it is retained and consumed in parts of its range.  In Tunisia, it is caught by artisanal gears such as trammel and gill nets, beach and purse seines, long lines and trawls (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008).
155182		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is caught by trawls, bottom long lines, trammel nets, and gill nets.
155183		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Saint Lucia Marine Protected Area off South Africa.&#160; In Mozambique, there have been a number of proposed measures to control by-catch, but these have not yet been implemented (Fennessy <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed of potential threat processes and population trends of this species.
155183		distribution	eng	<em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em> is known from the western Indian Ocean and the southeast Atlantic.&#160; It occurs from Mossel Bay in South Africa to Delagoa Bay in Mozambique.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 54, 074 km<sup>2</sup>.
155183		habitat	eng	The flounder species, <em>Paralichthodes algoensis,</em>  inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms.
155183		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em>.
155183		threats	eng	The waters around Mozambique are under heavy exploitation by shrimp fisheries (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 2000).&#160; This industry traditionally has a large percentage of discarded by-catch.&#160; In Mozambique, by-catch makes up 80% of the catch (Fennessy <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160;  Despite the high levels of exploitation these waters experience, studies have not found an overall significant change in the size, composition or diversity of Mozambique's demersal fish communities (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 2000).&#160; While this threat may impact <em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em>, it is not considered a major threat to this species at present.
155184		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its potential threats is needed, to determine the impact that a deep-water snapper fishery would have on the population of <em>N. bimaculatus</em> if it is established in the waters off New Zealand.
155184		distribution	eng	<em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em> is known only to occur off New Caledonia.
155184		habitat	eng	<em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species collected from 435–480m (J. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).
155184		population	eng	<em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em> is reported to be rare (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).
155184		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting <em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em>, due to the deep-water nature of this species.<br/><br/>At present, there is no development or management plan for a deep-water snapper fishery in the waters of New Caledonia.&#160; However, a study is being considered that could lead to the development this fishery (Adams and Chapman 2004).&#160; Although <em>N. bimaculatus</em> is not currently threatened, the development of a deep-water snapper fishery could result in this species being taken as by-catch.
155185		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis obliquosus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats to this species.
155185		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis obliquosus</em> is only known to occur off Kerguelen and Crozet Islands.
155185		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis obliquosus</em> is a bathydemersal species and has been found at a depth range of 350?1,345 m.
155185		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis obliquosus</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
155185		threats	eng	There are some major commercial fisheries operating within the range of this species.
155186		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is known to occur in the Cobourg Peninsula Marine Park in the Northern Territory of Australia and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
155186		distribution	eng	<em>Cirripectes filamentosus</em> can be found in the Indian Ocean from northern Madagascar and Mauritius to the southern Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. This species is also distributed throughout the Indo-australian Archipelago, east to the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia, and as far north as Taiwan.
155186		habitat	eng	<em>Cirripectes filamentosus</em> is associated with continental, coral and rocky reefs and coralline rock pools in nutrient rich waters. This is a benthic, herbivorous species known to depths of 20 m. <em>This species</em> is oviparous and displays distinct pairing.
155186		population	eng	This species is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155186		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
155187		conservation	eng	There are no species-speciifc conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas including the Malinidi-Watamu Marine National Park off the Kenyan coast.
155187		distribution	eng	<em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em> is found around Mozambique, Kenya, and the Aldabra Atolls.
155187		habitat	eng	As with many members of the family Ophichthidae, there is little known about the ecological requirements of <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em> (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).  These species are sand and mud-burrowers and do not seem to be limited to a very small geographic area. Many species in the family are widely distributed and none seem to display a high degree of habitat specificity (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).
155187		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em>. Rarity in collections is most likely a result of sampling difficulties (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).
155187		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
155188		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed. Further research should be conducted on possible conservation measures such as closed seasons during peak spawning periods.
155188		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium plumieri</span> is found in around the Caribbean Islands of the Antilles, south of Cuba.
155188		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium plumieri</span> is a demersal, diadromous goby. Adults live in freshwater where they spawn and larvae migrate downstream into marine waters within the continental shelf. The congener, <em>S. punctatum</em> is thought to be long-lived (more than five years) and iteroparous (i.e., it produces offspring in successive—annual or seasonal—batches).
155188		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium plumieri</span> is rarer than its congener, <em>S. punctatum</em>.
155188		threats	eng	The artisanal fishery industry in the Caribbean for <em>Sicydium</em> species is widespread and often intense (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1995). Fishery declines in <em>Sicydium</em> species have been reported in other regions (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1995). The reason for these declines is not clear as no landing statistics are available. Habitat degradation and over-exploitation have both been suggested as potential causes of these declines (Bell 1999).
155189		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em>.
155189		distribution	eng	<em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em> is widely distributed in the tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
155189		habitat	eng	<em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em> is a bathypelagic, oceanic species which generally occurs at depths of 500–600 m (Kotlyar 2004).&#160; However, it can sometimes be found down to depths of 1,450 m.&#160; Species from the family Melamphaidae primarily feed on gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (FAO 1999).
155189		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em>.
155189		threats	eng	Due to the small size of this species, it is unlikely that it is being taken as by-catch in significant quantities.&#160; There are no other known threats to <em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em>.
155190		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Simenchelys parasitica</em>.
155190		distribution	eng	The Snubnosed Eel <em>(Simenchelys parasitica)</em> has a broad geographic range. This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from France to Madeira, Morocco, the Azores, St Helena, Cape Verde, and the coast of South Africa. In the western Pacific, it is found off Japan, Wake Island in the Northern Pacific, Australia, and New Zealand. In the western Atlantic, it is known from the east coast of the USA, to Nova Scotia.
155190		habitat	eng	<em>Simenchelys parasitica</em> is found in temperate marine waters on continental slopes at upper abyssal depths of between 136 m and 2,620 m, however it commonly occurs at depths of 500 m to 1,800 m and at temperatures of 3.5 to 5.2°C (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).  This species feeds on invertebrates including epibenthic copepods and amphipods, and fish.  It may also be parisitic to other fish species.
155190		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Simenchelys parasitica</em>.
155190		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats.
155191		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nessorhamphus danae</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology of this species, in order to better understand any potential threats it may face.
155191		distribution	eng	<em>Nessorhamphus danae</em> is found in tropical waters in the western Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans.
155191		habitat	eng	<em>Nessorhamphus danae </em> is a bathypelagic species and has been found in both oceanic areas and on the continental shelf.&#160; The Derichthyidae family inhabits waters several hundred metres deep and specimens are rarely seen.
155191		population	eng	It is likely that <em>Nessorhamphus danae</em> occurs at very low densities of around 1 individual per 1,000–10,000m<sup>3</sup>(T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008).&#160; This species is only known from a relatively small number of occurrences.
155191		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Nessorhamphus danae </em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There is no known commercial fishery for this species.
155192		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Paperhead Croaker. However, the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Torres Strait Protected Zone.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and threats of this species.
155192		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Paperhead Croaker <em>(Johnius novaeguineae</em>) is restricted to New Guinea and northern Australia.
155192		habitat	eng	The Paperhead Croaker is a demersal species found in estuaries and rivers. This species feeds on benthic invertebrates.
155192		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Johnius novaeguineae</em>.
155192		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Paperhead Croaker is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species and much of the suitable habitat in this species range is in good condition and underdeveloped.
155193		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Coradion melanopus</em>. This species is likely to occur within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.
155193		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs from the Philippines (excluding Palawan) south to Papua New Guinea and Bismarck Archipelago, and Sulawesi, Halmahera, Seram and West Papua in Indonesia. It ranges in depth from 2-50 m.
155193		habitat	eng	<em>Coradion melanopus</em> lives on coastal reefs in sheltered lagoons with poor coral growth, and in outer reef areas where the growth of sponges and hydroids is prolific (Michael 2004). This species is usually seen feeding on barrel sponges (Xestospongia). It can be found to a maximum depth of 50 m. This species lives singly or in pairs when breeding.
155193		population	eng	<em>Coradion melanopus</em> is moderately common and the most abundant member of the genus at Cenderawasih Bay, West Papua, Indonesia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). A total of five to ten individuals per dive were recorded on inshore reefs during a 2008 survey. Members of this genus are usually seen in relatively low numbers which is not necessarily indicative of a declining population (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155193		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
155194		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place, or needed for the Kimberley Blenny.
155194		distribution	eng	The Kimberley Blenny<em> (Cirripectes alleni)</em> is endemic to the Kimberley region of northwest Australia.
155194		habitat	eng	The Kimberley Blenny <em></em>is a benthic species, found at a depth range of 1?15 m, sheltering in crevices.&#160; It is typically associated with turbid coral and rocky reefs. Adults are found in pairs.&#160; Like all Blenniidae, this species is gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner.&#160; The male guards the deposited eggs which are demersal and adhesive.&#160; After hatching, the larvae are planktonic before they settle on the bottom (R. Patzner pers. comm. 2008).
155194		population	eng	The Kimberley Blenny is abundant and the most commonly found blenny in the Kimberley region (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155194		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the Kimberley Blenny. As this species is known from uninhabited localities offshore from mainland Australia, it is not threatened by coastal development or pollution.
155195		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em>.
155195		distribution	eng	Specimens of <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em> have been found in the waters off Baja California in Mexico, south to the Galapagos (Rechnitzer and Bohlke 1958). It is known throughout the California Current, seaward to the continental shelf.
155195		habitat	eng	<em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em> is a bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 2,213-4,938 m. This species probably feeds on planktonic invertebrates. The eggs and larvae of <em>I. irregularis </em>are planktonic.
155195		population	eng	There is no population information avilable for <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em>.
155195		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats.
155196		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Centropogon latifrons</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species. Monitoring of by-catch levels in trawls and other net fisheries, and also the harvest levels of this species for the aquarium trade is needed to determine whether the species is likely to suffer significant population declines.
155196		distribution	eng	<em>Centropogon latifrons</em> is endemic to Australia and is distributed from the western extreme of the Great Australian Bight to Kalbarri in Western Australia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 68,704 km². Its distribution in South Australia is limited (Baker 2008).
155196		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropogon latifrons</span> is a benthic species associated with shallow, coastal seagrass beds. In parts of Western Australia, it has been recorded in sandy surf zones (Ayvazian and Hyndes 1995) and other sandy habitats (Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is also found in estuaries (Hoese <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is reported to occur in similar habitat to its congener, <em>Centropogon australis</em>, which inhabits sheltered reef, sand and seagrass with a depth range of 0–30 m (Edgar 2000).&#160; Species from the Tetrarogidae family are bottom-dwelling predators of crustaceans and fishes.
155196		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropogon latifrons</span> is reported to be more common in south-western Australia than in South Australia, although little is known about the relative abundance of this species in South Australia, which is at the edge of its range (Baker 2008).
155196		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropogon latifrons</span> is not targeted by fisheries, but is reported to be a minor component of the by-catch of some southeast trawl fisheries (SETF).&#160; In the otter trawl subfishery of the SETF, an Integrated Scientific Monitoring Program (ISMP) reported that in eight trawl shots, about 21 kg were discarded. Wayte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) list this species as 'medium risk' to population impacts from trawling.&#160; In Western Australia, it is caught infrequently in nets, in coastal seagrass beds (Hutchins and Thompson 1983).<br/><br/>This species is also used in the international aquarium market and in 2005, specimens for export were selling for US$18–25 per fish, depending on the size (Ryan and Clarke 2005). There are no available data on the numbers taken or locations from which they are taken for the aquarium trade, and therefore there is no assessment of the sustainability of this practice (Baker 2008).<br/><br/>As this species is benthic and associated with shallow marine seagrass beds, it is also likely to be vulnerable to population decline due to habitat degradation in some coastal areas (Baker 2008).
155197		conservation	eng	There are catch limits imposed on fry harvesting of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotylopus acutipinnis</span>.&#160; However, very little is known about the population structure of this species.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, harvest levels and recruitment of this species is needed, to determine how harvesting of the fry is impacting adult populations upstream.
155197		distribution	eng	<em>Cotylopus acutipinnis</em> is well known from the islands of Réunion and Mauritius.&#160; However, the BMNH also holds two specimens of this species collected from the Negombo Estuary, Sri Lanka in 1991.&#160; If the identification of theses specimens is correct, then the range of this species may be much larger than previously believed.&#160; If, however, its distribution really is restricted to Réunion and Mauritius, the area in which this species is distributed would be less than 20,000 km² (approximately 7,916 km²).
155197		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cotylopus acutipinnis</span> is a benthopelagic species, found in clear, well-oxygenated, mountainous rainforest streams.&#160; Hatching and larval stages are found in the sea, whilst post-larvae and adults are found in freshwater (Froese and Pauly 2006).&#160; Adults feeds on green algae (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155197		population	eng	This species has a wide distribution in Réunion, but it is less abundant in Mauritius (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155197		threats	eng	The fry of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotylopus acutipinnis</span> are captured at river mouths, as they swim up stream.&#160; This is an important local food source and is captured using traditional techniques such as trap nets.&#160; Overfishing of fry is known to occur in the river mouths in Réunion (Berrebi <em>et al.</em> 2005).
155198		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sebastes peduncularis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its taxonomy, population numbers, distribution, ecology, and threats.
155198		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes peduncularis</span> is known only from two juvenile individuals taken together in the same trawl between the southern tip of Isla Tiburón and Isla Angel de la Guarda, in the Gulf of California (Chen 1975).
155198		habitat	eng	The two known specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes peduncularis </span>were taken in the same trawl at depths of 440–450 m, but the full depth range of this species is not known.&#160; Like other species in this genus, it likely undergoes significant morphological changes as the juvenile reaches maturity.
155198		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes peduncularis</span>, as it is only known from two specimens.&#160; However, species from the genus <em>Sebastes</em> are generally widespread, abundant, and dominant among their local fauna (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
155198		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <em>Sebastes peduncularis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There are established fisheries within this species' range, so it may be taken as by-catch.
155199		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em>. This species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution and threats of this species.
155199		distribution	eng	<em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em> is known from a few occurrences in the western Atlantic; Gulf of Mexico southwards to Suriname.
155199		habitat	eng	<em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em> is a demersal species found in tropical waters. As with many members of the family Ophichthidae, there is little known about the ecology for this species. These species are sand and mud-burrowers and do not seem to be limited to a very small geographic area. Their rarity in collections is mostly a result of the difficulty in sampling them. Many are widely distributed and none seem to occupy an especially unique habitat (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).
155199		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em>.
155199		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species and it occupies a broad geographic range.
155200		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parapercis xanthozona</em>.&#160; However, it may be found in a number of marine protected areas within its range, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out determine how <em>P. xanthozona</em> is being impacted by habitat degradation.
155200		distribution	eng	<em>Parapercis xanthozona</em> is found along the east coast of Africa, from South Africa to Tanzania.&#160; This species is also distributed in the Pacific, from Indonesia, east to the Solomon Islands and Queensland, and north to southern Japan.&#160;<em>Parapercis</em><em> xanthozona</em> has also been recorded from New Caledonia, Fiji, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands.
155200		habitat	eng	<em>Parapercis xanthozona</em> is found in protected bays and coral reef lagoons, to a depth of 20 m.&#160; It may also be seen amongst boulders.&#160; This species is associated with continental reefs found in nutrient rich waters.&#160; It feeds on small invertebrates and fishes.
155200		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis xanthozona</span>.
155200		threats	eng	<em>Parapercis xanthozona</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, although it is not a common species within the trade.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal locality of this species and its coral-reef association, it is likely that it is undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.&#160; Reefs in areas of this species' range have been impacted by a number of threat processes such as coastal development, water pollution, destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, and tourism.
155201		conservation	eng	No information available.
155201		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or that are needed for <em>Ambassis urotaenia</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas, including the Tampolo Marine Reserve in Madagascar.
155201		distribution	eng	<em>Ambassis urotaenia</em> is distributed from the Seychelles, Reunion, Madagascar, India and the Red Sea, east to the Philippines, Fiji and Caroline Islands, and north to Sagami Bay in Japan.
155201		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Enters lower courses of east flowing rivers along the coast (Maugé 1986).
155201		habitat	eng	<em>Ambassis urotaenia</em> occurs in brackish waters near estuaries and mangroves, and can sometimes be found in upper streams (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984). This species can be found in large schools.
155201		habitat	eng	Fresh and brackish water (Maugé 1986).
155201		population	eng	<em>Ambassis urotaenia </em> is reported to be common in surface waters off Hong Kong (Ni <em>et al.</em> 2000) and in the Pagbilao mangroves in the Philippines (Ronnback <em>et al.</em> 1999).
155201		population	eng	No information available.
155201		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Ambassis urotaenia</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. This species has a broad geographic range and is found in a range of habitat types so it is unlikely to be impacted by any threats specific to a habitat.
155201		threats	eng	No information available.
155202		conservation	eng	There are no species-specififc conservation measures in place for <em>Plicofollis platystomus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Lampi Marine National Park off Myanmar. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.
155202		distribution	eng	<em>Plicofollis platystomus</em> is distributed in south and southeast Asia and is found around India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.
155202		habitat	eng	<em>Plicofollis platystomus</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species that has a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It is found in marine and estuarine waters and feeds mainly on invertebrates.
155202		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Plicofollis platystomus</em>.&#160; However, many species from the Ariidae family are reported to be locally abundant (FAO 1999).
155202		threats	eng	<em>Plicofollis platystomus</em> is reported to be one of the six most most commercially important catfishes within its region (Hafizuddin and Majumer 1995).&#160; It is marketed fresh (Jayaram 1984).&#160; It is harvested using a combination of bottom trawls, stake traps, shore seines, set bagnets, and hook and line.&#160; However, fishing is not considered to be a major threat to this species at present.
155203		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Talismania bifurcata</em>.
155203		distribution	eng	<em>Talismania bifurcata</em> is distributed in the eastern Pacific, from British Columbia to Peru, including the Gulf of Panama.&#160; In the southwest Pacific, this species is found around New South Wales, Australia.&#160;&#160;<em>Talismania</em><em> bifurcata</em> has also been found off the coast of Nambia, and in the South China Sea.
155203		habitat	eng	<em>Talismania bifurcata</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 300–2,000 m, on the continental slope.&#160; The eggs and larvae of this oviparous species are mesopelagic.
155203		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Talismania bifurcata</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Alepocephalidae can be locally abundant at depths beyond 1,500 m (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
155203		threats	eng	There is no commercial fishery for <em>Talismania bifurcata</em> (FAO 1999).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by deep-sea fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to constitute a major threat.
155204		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Paamiut Eelpout.<em> </em>
155204		distribution	eng	The Paamiut Eelpout<em> (Lycodes paamiuti)</em> occurs in Arctic waters, from Baffin Bay to the Norwegian Sea (Moller 2001).&#160; It is also found off Iceland and the Faroe Islands.
155204		habitat	eng	The Paamiut Eelpout<em> </em>is a benthic species found on continental slopes at a depth range of 350–1,300 m (Moller 2001).&#160; It is possible this species has the same general habitat and diet as closely related species<l. pallidus=""> which occur on muddy bottoms and feed on polychaetes, ophiurids, amphipods and small bivalves (Andriashev 1986).</l.>
155204		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Paamiut Eelpout.<em> </em>
155204		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the Paamiut Eelpout<em> </em>.
155205		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006). Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.
155205		distribution	eng	Bighead Tilefish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus affinis,</span> is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos islands.
155205		habitat	eng	This deep water demersal species inhabits rocky and sandy substrata near isolated reefs (Schneider and Krupp 1995) at depths between 30 and 200 m.
155205		population	eng	This species is common at depths below 60 m near Malpelo Island. It is frequently observed on Gorgona Island in artisanal fisheries (Franke and Acero 1996), and in experimental fisheries (0.46 kg per 100 hooks in Gorgona and adjacent areas). It is not abundant in Nicaragua.
155205		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this is a commercially important species. Hooks and lines are the most common fishing methods used (Schneider and Krupp 1995). This species is marketed fresh or frozen, and considered of excellent quality for human consumption (Schneider and Krupp 1995). For example, it is heavily fished in Ecuador (Jimenez-Prado and Bearez 2004). In the Parque Gorgona, Colombia, this species is of great interest for the fisheries of the area (Franke and Acero 1996). It is also heavily fished in the Gulf of California in sport and commercial fisheries, as well as shrimp by-catch.
155206		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, habitat preferences and potential threats to this species, as currently very little information is available.
155206		distribution	eng	<em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em> is only known only from one specimen collected from the Taiwan Strait, Formosa Bank (McCosker and Randall 2001).
155206		habitat	eng	<em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em> is a demersal species which was collected at 50 m. Species of the family Ophichthidae have muscular cylindrical bodies that are well adapted for burrowing and many species spend most of their adult lives buried in the bottom sediment (Smith and McCosker 1999, Carpenter 2002).
155206		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em>.
155206		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Species of the family Ophichthidae may be harvested, although no commercial fishery for this family exists (Smith and McCosker 1999, Carpenter 2002).
155207		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Menidia peninsulae</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Florida Keys National Marine Park.
155207		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic: from northeast Florida to Horn Island off Mississippi (but not from Louisiana and northeastern Texas).&#160; It may also be found in the northern Gulf of Mexico from Galveston Bay in Texas, to the state of Veracruz in Mexico.
155207		habitat	eng	<em>Menidia peninsulae</em> will often form mobile, dense schools when foraging for plankton.&#160; This species prefers salinity levels above 15 ppt (McMullena and Middaugh 1985), and can be found in sea water, tidal creeks and marshes. <br/><br/>This species has three different dietary stages throughout the course of its life (Lucas 1982).&#160; In the earliest stage, plankton and detritus are the dominant food types, while non-reproductive juveniles and adults feed on copepods and larvae.&#160; Gravid females feed on larval fish and amphipods.
155207		population	eng	<em>Menidia peninsulae </em> is common throughout its range (McMullen and Middaugh 1985).
155207		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Menidia peninsulae</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155208		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the designations at Bikar Atoll and Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
155208		distribution	eng	<em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> is only known from around Fiji and the Marshall Islands.
155208		habitat	eng	<em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> occurs in high-energy habitats, on outer reef flats, and surge channels of exposed reefs.&#160; The depth profile from which this species is known is from the surface to 6 m.
155208		population	eng	<em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> is relatively common (H. Motomura pers. comm. 2008).
155208		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155209		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paralichthys schmitti</em>. However, this species may be found to occur in the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance and threats of this species.
155209		distribution	eng	<em>Paralichthys schmitti</em> is only known from the Juan Fernández Islands, Chile.
155209		habitat	eng	<em>Paralichthys schmitti</em> is a demersal species. Congeners of this species occur on sandy bottoms in estuarine areas. This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
155209		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paralichthys schmitti</em>.
155209		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Paralichthys schmitti</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Some species from the Paralichthyidae family are caught in bottom trawls and marketed fresh (FAO 2001).
155210		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span> is present in several marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Gorgona Island Natural National Park.&#160; However, there is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of the species, the current limits of its distribution, and its specific habitat requirements, as well as to identify any potential major threats for this species.
155210		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span> is found from southern Panama to northern Peru, including Gorgona Island, Colombia.&#160; However, the southern limit of its distribution is not well defined.
155210		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span> is a benthic, intertidal species that inhabits rocky reefs and estuaries to depths of 10 m, and possibly coastal streams.
155210		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span>.
155210		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting<span style="font-style: italic;"> Gobiesox multitentaculus</span>.&#160; More information on this species' distribution and specific habitat preferences, such as whether it is present in coastal streams, is needed to further assess the impact of potential threats such as coastal development on this potentially restricted range, near-shore species.
155211		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, potential threats and distribution of this species.
155211		distribution	eng	<em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em> is found from Florida to southern Mexico including the Bahamas.
155211		habitat	eng	<em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 500-1,900 m. Congeners, <em>Synaphobranchus affinis</em>, are found on the upper continental slope over rocky substrata.
155211		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em>.
155211		threats	eng	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no known directed fishery for this species.
155212		conservation	eng	Three are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cosmocampus elucens</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas such as the Florida Keys National Marine Park.
155212		distribution	eng	<em>Cosmocampus elucens</em> is distributed from New Jersey, North Carolina, Bermuda and the northern Gulf of Mexico to the Lesser Antilles, Suriname, and to Brazil (Fritzsche 2002)
155212		habitat	eng	<em>Cosmocampus elucens</em> is typically found in shallow seagrass beds. It is also found in mixed algal beds (Kuiter 2000). Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch under the tail.
155212		population	eng	Common at least in parts of its range (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).
155212		threats	eng	<em>Cosmocampus elucens</em> is not collected for any commercial trade and there are no known major threats.
155213		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
155213		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synodus saurus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Florida Keys Marine National Park. &#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is recommended.
155213		distribution	eng	<em>Synodus saurus</em> is distributed in the eastern Atlantic around the Azores, Canaries, Madeira, and the continental waters off Morocco, and in the Mediterranean Sea (Sulak 1984).&#160; In the western Atlantic, it is found only in the waters around the Bahamas, the Leeward Islands, and the West Indies (Russell 2002).
155213		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic this species is present from Morocco to Cape Verde, including the Azores. It is also present in the western Atlantic: from the Bermuda Islands and the Bahamas to the Lesser Antilles (Leeward Islands).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, Synodus saurus occurred in the Catalan Sea and Balearic Islands (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Raventos et al. 2006, Deudero <em>et al.</em> in press.), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Molinari 2005), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), eastern Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Cicek <em>et al.</em> 2006), Israeli waters (Goren and Galil 2005) and Egyptian waters (Abdullah 2002).
155213		habitat	eng	<em>Synodus saurus</em> can be found to depths of 250 m in the Canaries, but is most abundant at depths less than 50 m.&#160;&#160;<em>Synodus</em><em> saurus</em> is primarily associated with sandy substrates.&#160;  This species is a cryptic predator that feeds mainly on small, pelagic, gregarious fish, remaining camouflaged buried beneath the sand.&#160; However, it is a highly mobile predator, capable of rapidly swimming more than five meters to capture its prey (Soares <em>et al.</em> 2002).
155213		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is primarily found in insular waters (Sulak 1984), on sand and sand-rock bottoms (Brito 1991). It mainly feeds on other fishes, but may also prey on other animals (Göthel 1992).
155213		population	eng	<em>Synodus saurus</em> is regarded as a rare species in the Adriatic Sea, although there is circumstantial evidence that this species is expanding its range (Tutman <em>et al</em>. 2003).&#160;  Soares <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that this species is common around the Azores.
155213		population	eng	It is a very common species in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Abdullah (2002) mentions that 27 specimens with length from 12.8 to 25.2 cm TL, were collected after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period from January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30-200 m.<br/><br/>Cicek et al. (2006) mention that 161 samples, with length from 10.7 to 31.0, were collected in the Babadillimani Bight located at the western entrance of Mersin Bay (Aegean Sea), from May 1999 to April 2000. A total of 36 hauls were conducted from depths of 20 to 100 m, using a typical Mediterranean deep trawl net of 6mm cod-end mesh size and a tow duration restricted to 1h.<br/><br/>Deudero et al. (in press) mention that this species was sampled in July 2002, January, March and April 2003 (respectively with mean abundance and standard error 0.11±0.15, 0.11±0.15, 0.70±0.52, 0.54±0.35 and length from 6.5 and 24.5cm TL), over Posidonia oceanica beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl (1.8 m wide and 0.8 m high, with a body of 8 m, 12 mm square mesh at its first half and 9 mm at the back, and a 2 m long cod end, 6 mm square mesh) during daytime (10:00-13:00h).<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) mention that 25 specimens were caught during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997-1998 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003 mention that 119 specimens, with length from 20.5 and 33.3 cm TL, were collected from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, east Mediterranean Sea), with: (a) gillnets of mesh-sizes 22, 24, 26 and 28 mm (bar length) and longlines of hook sizes no. 11, 12, 13 and 15 (Mustad brand), during October 1997 to October 1998, (b) trammel nets of inner mesh-sizes 20, 24 and 28mm (bar length), during October 1999 to September 2000. Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90 m.
155213		threats	eng	Although not a target species, <em>Synodus saurus</em> is taken as by-catch during commercial trawling (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000, Abdallah 2002).&#160; However, this is not considered a major threat to this species at present, as it only occurs in localised regions of this species' range.
155213		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing<span> and crafts with</span><span> <span class="hps">trawl</span> <span class="hps">nets, <span class="hps">gillnets and</span> <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines,</span> <span class="hps">spears. <span class="hps">Regularly present</span> <span class="hps">in the markets of <span class="hps">Cyprus,</span> <span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">rarely elsewhere (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987)<span>.<br/><br/></span>This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.<br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span><br/></span>
155214		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
155214		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gobius fallax</em>, however its range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the potential future threats of this species is needed.
155214		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mediterranean Sea (Miller 1986, Herler and Patzner 2005).
155214		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic in the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in west Corsica and north Sardinia (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), in Spain (Perez-Ruzafa <em>et al.</em> 2004), in the north part of the Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003), in the Balearic Islands and in the Aegean Sea (Bath 1971).
155214		habitat	eng	<em>Gobius fallax</em> is an inshore species that occurs most often at depths of 2-8 m, but can be found as deep as 32 m. It is usually seen on or near boulders and other rocky shelters (Herler and Patzner 2005). Gobies have a short generation time (Martin and Palumbi 1993).
155214		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore on sand near rock crevices and algae-covered stones.
155214		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This species is difficult to identify.
155214		population	eng	This is a common species in parts of the Mediterranean Sea (Herler and Patzner 2005).
155214		threats	eng	As <em>Gobius fallax</em> is an inshore species, its habitat may be impacted by coastal development and water pollution. These threats are unlikely to be occurring across this species entire range and so will be causing localised declines only. Gobies have a short generation time and so are tolerant of moderate threats.
155214		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
155215		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em>. <br/><br/>Further research on the extent to which this species is harvested, is needed. Monitoring of the harvest levels is also needed in order to determine if there is a significant decline in the population.
155215		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155215		distribution	eng	<em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> occurs from the Bay of Biscay and the western Mediterranean (along the Spanish coast from Gibraltar to Malaga and off Morocco and Algeria), to the Cape of Good Hope (J. Nelson pers. comm. 2009).
155215		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the east Atlantic from Bay of Biscay to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is only known from Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (Bauchot 1987). The record in Ionian Sea by Quero <em>et al.</em> (1986) has not yet been substantiated.
155215		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of <em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> is sandy or sand-mud bottoms at depths of 15 - 40 m or to 115 m along the inner shelf of the Gulf of Cadiz (Jimenez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its diet consists of crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves. It has a long spawning season, beginning in autumn and continuing through till early summer.
155215		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits mainly sandy or sand-mud substrata (Bianchi<em> et al.</em> 1993). It feeds on a wide range of small bottom-living organisms, mainly crustaceans, polychaete worms, bivalve molluscs, etc. (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). Eggs are pelagic and non-adhesive (Breder and Rosen 1966).  A minimum depth of 10 m was reported from Bianchi <em>et al. </em>(1993).
155215		population	eng	The population of <em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> is increasing in the northern part of its range, possibly due to climate change induced ocean warming, and subsequent greater juvenile survival (Désaunay <em>et al.</em> 2006).
155215		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
155215		threats	eng	<em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> is among the main target species along the coast of Spain (Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2001) and of high commercial interest in the Gulf of Cádiz (Baldó <em>et al.</em> 2006).
155215		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is caught with trawls and trammel nets.  Little else is known about potential threats to this species.
155216		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Icelinus filamentosus</em>.
155216		distribution	eng	The Threadfin Sculpin is distributed from the Gulf of Alaska by Chirikof Island, south to Point Loma in southern California.
155216		habitat	eng	<em>Icelinus filamentosus</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 18-800 m and inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms on the continental slope (Love and Yoklavich 2006). Its diet consists of crustaceans, shrimps, and isopods.
155216		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Icelinus filamentosus</em>.
155216		threats	eng	Due to its deepwater nature, it is unlikely that <em>Icelinus filamentosus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats. In some areas however, it may be taken as by-catch during bottom trawling.
155218		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Yellowbar Basslet.&#160; Further research is needed on the range of this species to establish if its distribution extends between Belize, Cuba and the Bahamas.
155218		distribution	eng	The Yellowbar Basslet<em> (Lipogramma robinsi)</em> has been found in the western central Atlantic along the coasts of Belize and Cuba, and off the coast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas.&#160; Belize and San Salvador Island are 1,500 km apart and have unrelated oceanic current environments which suggests that this species could also be found at other locations within the western Atlantic (Gilmore 1997).
155218		habitat	eng	The Yellowbar Basslet is a demersal species that has a depth range of 180–290 m and is often found under sedimentary rock ledges (Gilmore 1997).
155218		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Yellowbar Basslet.
155218		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Yellowbar Basslet is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Species from the Grammatidae family are ideally suited for the aquarium trade, however, the relatively deep-water nature of this species means it occurs too deep for conventional capture and is therefore likely to remain rare in the aquarium trade (FAO 2002).
155219		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paracentropogon vespa</em>.&#160;  This species' distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.&#160; However, without further information on the depth profile of the species, it is unclear how much protection these might afford.&#160; Further research on the ecology of this species is needed.
155219		distribution	eng	<em>Paracentropogon vespa</em> is endemic to Australia, ranging from Shark Bay in Western Australia, to Southport in Queensland.
155219		habitat	eng	<em>Paracentropogon vespa</em> is found in the neritic zone on inshore reefs.&#160;  Data on this Tetraogid are scarce, and it is unclear how closely associated this species is with the reef system.
155219		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paracentropogon vespa</em>.&#160; This species is infrequently collected, although it is collected more frequently than some of the other scorpaenoids, as it occurs in in-shore regions and coral reefs (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008)
155219		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Paracentropogon vespa</em> is being impacted by any clearly identifiable near-term threat processes at present (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Large scale threats to coral reefs are likely to impact Scorpaenoids including this species.&#160; However, its broad distribution also includes habitats in good condition, and it is therefore unlikely that these threats are significantly impacting the global population of this species at present (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008).
155220		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.
155220		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is distributed in the western Atlantic from North Carolina (USA) to Brazil at least as far south as São Paulo state, including Bermuda, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the Bahamas (Rose Island, Nassau [Allen 1980]). It is found at depths of 5-92 m.
155220		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs. Although this species has been recorded at depths of more than 60 m, it is more commonly seen in shallower water. It feeds on polychaete worms, shrimps, amphipods and hydroids. It can occur singly, in pairs (especially during breeding) and in groups.
155220		population	eng	It was occasionally observed at the Abrolhos Islands, Brazil during a survey in 2000 (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). It forms large aggregations on the coast of southeast Brazil (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).
155220		threats	eng	There are no known&#160; major threats.<em></em>
155221		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em>. The distribution of this species overlaps with several marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, and possible threats within this species range.
155221		distribution	eng	<em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em> is found from Sumatra, Indonesia to the Santa Cruz Islands (Solomon Islands), north to the Philippines. It is also found in Palau.
155221		habitat	eng	<em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em> is found in shallow water to depths of 10 m on sheltered coral reefs.
155221		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em>.
155221		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres papilionaceus.</span>
155222		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pentaceros japonicus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.
155222		distribution	eng	<em>Pentaceros japonicus</em> is distributed from Pacific coast of southern Japan (Boso Peninsula southward to Amami Island), Ogasawara Islands, Kyushu-Palau Ridge, Emperor's Seamouts Chain (Pers. comm T. Nakabo 2009).
155222		habitat	eng	The armourhead, <em>Pentaceros japonicus</em>, is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 100–600 m.&#160; This species occurs over seamounts. Its spawning season is from Autumn to Winter (Pers. Comm. T. Nakabo 2009).
155222		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pentaceros japonicus</em>.
155222		threats	eng	<em>Pentaceros japonicus </em> is a commercially important species and it is roughly estimated that the annual global catch of this species is 100,000–500,000 tons (Froese and Sampang 2004).<br/><br/><em>Pentaceros japonicus </em> is also harvested for the aquarium trade, although at present this is not considered a major threat to this species.
155223		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species.
155223		distribution	eng	<em>Gobiopterus mindanensis</em> is an Indo-Pacific goby, known from Western Australia and the Philippines.
155223		habitat	eng	<em>Gobiopterus mindanensis</em> is a demersal species found in the shallow photic zone. This species has been collected near the mouth of the River Daintree and in salt water swamps in the Philippines indicating a tolerance for a range of environmental conditions.
155223		population	eng	There is no known population information for <em>Gobiopterus mindanensis</em>.
155223		threats	eng	There are no known major threats currently impacting this species.
155224		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Hairy Scorpionfish. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Further research and monitoring of the habitat status of this species should be carried out.
155224		distribution	eng	The Hairy Scorpionfish (<em>Scorpaenodes hirsutus</em>) is widely distributed from the Red Sea and east coast of Africa, north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, and south to the Great Barrier Reef and the Cook Islands.
155224		habitat	eng	The Hairy Scorpionfish inhabits lagoons and seaward reefs. It is found in the euphotic zone at depths of 8-58 m. This species has venomous spines.
155224		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Hairy Scorpionfish.
155224		threats	eng	The Hairy Scorpionfish may be undergoing localized declines due to habitat degradation. However, given the broad distribution of this species, this is not considered to be a major threat at present.
155225		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine this species abundance, and to what extent this species is being harvested as by-catch.
155225		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
155225		distribution	eng	<em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em> occurs from west Gibraltar to the Western Sahara. Its range also includes the Canary Islands, the western Mediterranean and Morocco.
155225		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from west Gibraltar to Cape Bojador (West Sahara) and Canary Islands including Morocco. <br/><br/>It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, including Gibraltar to Gulf of Tunis, Adriatic Sea (Nielsen 1986), Ionian Sea and Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), Levantine coasts of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), Israel (Golani 1996) and Egypt (Bauchot 1987).
155225		habitat	eng	<em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em> is a demersal species and can be found at depths of 85 - 897 m on sand and mud substrates. Its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates. Spawning occurs during the autumn.
155225		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species found in the depth range from 85-550 m (Nielsen 1986) and from 288-897 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It lives on sandy muddy substrata and feeds on small fishes and invertebrates.  It spawns during autumn in the Mediterranean Sea.
155225		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em>. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Arnoglossus</span> species, this species is likely to be relatively common in areas of its range.
155225		population	eng	This species is common in the south Adriatic (Bello and Rizzi 1988). <br/><br/>According to D’Onghia <em>et al.</em> (2003), two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off the west Greece), at depths ranging from 300 to 750m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting 1 hour, were made. Average density of the species was 2.57 1n/h, and the biomass was 0.012 kg/h off Greece. <br/><br/>Politou <em>et al.</em> (2003) report that samplings were made at the Greek Ionian Sea during spring, summer and autumn 2000 at depths from 300 to 900m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm mesh size at the cod-end) and a total of 107 hauls were carried out. Regarding the species, CPUE (kg/h) was 0.15 (spring), 0.10 (summer) and 0.01 (autumn), for depths of 300 to 500 m.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that sampling was carried out in the deep waters of the north part of the east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (September 1999, April 2000, July 2000, and September 2000). Two hired commercial trawlers equipped with trawls of 40 mm (stretched) mesh size in the cod-end were used for sampling. In total, 148 hauls were carried out during the four surveys. Specimens of the species were collected at depths between 288 and 897 m, and abundance was 26.0 individuals/h (300-500 m), 0.1 individuals/h (500-700 m) and 0.1 individuals/h (700-900 m).<br/><br/>According to Abad <em>et al.</em> (2007), a total of 28 hauls were carried out at depths ranging from 50 to 640 m, in Alboran Sea (during the fishing season between August 2000 and June 2001). An otter trawl net was used for sampling purposes. Abundance of the species, with respect to depths are as follows: 0.72 kg/h (at 50-150 m depth), 0.05 kg/h (at 151-275 m depth), 0.86 kg/h (at 310-360 m depth).<br/><br/>Moranta <em>et al.</em> (1998) report that a total of 32 bottom trawls were made between depths of 200 and 1,800 m, during October 1996 at the Algerian basin. 23 specimens (0.12 kg in weight) were obtained in two trawl hauls.
155225		threats	eng	<em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em> is taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within the Alboran Sea in the western Mediterranean (Abad <em>et al.</em> 2007). In this study it formed a relatively small portion of the catch. The incidental harvest of this species is unlikely to be a major threat to this species unless it is occurring across its entire range and is being harvested in greater quantities. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution.
155225		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch by trawls. It is a very fragile species, which usually comes out of the trawls very damaged, so it can't be sold on markets. It is a totally discarded species in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001).
155226		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromogobius quadrivittatus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the impact that threats such as pollution may be having on this species.
155226		distribution	eng	<em>Chromogobius quadrivittatus</em> is distributed throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
155226		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chromogobius quadrivittatus</span> is found in shallow intertidal areas, under algae-covered rocks on either rock or sandy substrate. It is also found in inshore waters under stones amongst weeds (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155226		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Chromogobius quadrivittatus.</span>
155226		threats	eng	In parts of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chromogobius quadrivittatus</span>' habitat is likely to be threatened by pollution (e.g., from oil spills and run-off from agriculture and industries) and coastal developments.&#160; In the Mediterranean and Black Sea, oil spills occur relatively frequently.&#160; The majority of oil input into the Mediterranean and Black Sea is chronic (i.e., stems from rivers and municipal sources) rather than accidental (e.g., oil spills from ships) (ITOPF 2003). <br/><br/>In the Black Sea, the three potential sources of oil spills are production activities, loading activities at terminals, and shipping accidents involving tankers.&#160; Between 1974 and 2003 there were major three oil spills from tankers in the Black Sea; these spills alone released 149,000 tonnes of crude oil into the Black Sea (ITOPF 2003). Although spill risk from oil production in the Black Sea seems to be minimal, the region is subject to a substantial and increasing transit trade in crude and refined oil products (ITOPF 2003).<br/><br/>The Mediterranean Sea has a long history of intensive use and is subject to degradation from increasing coastal zone development, chronic pollution from agricultural and industrial run-off, and illegal discharges at sea (ITOPF 2003). Between 1970 and 2003, there were 17 major spills from tankers releasing a total of approximately 466,000 tonnes of crude oil and oil products into the Mediterranean (ITOPF 2003). In August 2006, 15,000 tonnes of oil was spilled into the Mediterranean Sea due to the Israeli bombing of the Jiyyeh power station (BBC 2006).
155227		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species, as there is currently little information available.
155227		distribution	eng	<em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em> has been found off the Canary Islands, around the Bahamas, and around Bermuda in the western central Atlantic.
155227		habitat	eng	<em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em> is a bathypelegic species found at a depth range of 300–2,000 m.&#160; This species feeds on crustaceans.
155227		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em>
155227		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155228		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span>.&#160; Further research on the ecology, distribution, population numbers, and threats for this species is needed.
155228		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span> is known only from a few specimens caught near Cape Verde.
155228		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span> is a demersal species that has been captured at depths of 180–200 m. Its congener, <em>Parapercis colias</em>, is known from rocky coastlines in areas of dense macroalgal growth.&#160; <em>Parapercis colias</em> feeds on small fish, crabs and shellfish.
155228		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span>.
155228		threats	eng	The coastal fisheries around Cape Verde are over-exploited.&#160; However, it is unknown what impact this has had on <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span>, as it is only known from a few specimens.
155229		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemateleotris magnifica</span>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of regional scale threats, and population trends is needed.
155229		distribution	eng	<em>Nemateleotris magnifica</em> is distributed from East Africa to the Hawaiian, Marquesan and Pitcairn Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands and south to New South Wales (Randall 2005).&#160; Fishbase (2007) states that the southern limit of this species' range extends to New Caledonia and the Austral Islands, however there is no reference to support this.
155229		habitat	eng	<em>Nemateleotris magnifica</em> inhabits burrows on the upper portion of outer reef slopes at a depth range of 6–61 m.&#160; This species hovers above the bottom, facing the current to feed on zooplankton: primarily copepods and crustacean larvae. This species does not stray far from its burrow, and occurs individually or in pairs.&#160; This species displays monogamy.
155229		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemateleotris magnifica</span>.
155229		threats	eng	<em>Nemateleotris magnifica</em> is a popular aquarium fish and is harvested from the wild for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>This species is associated with coral reef habitats.&#160; The coral reefs in some areas of this species' distribution (e.g., East Africa and Indonesia) have experienced localised degradation due to bleaching, industrialisation, destructive fishing practices, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, water pollution, and other population pressures.&#160; In other areas of <em>N. magnifica</em>'s distribution, the reefs are in good condition, and therefore the regional degradation of the reefs is not considered a major threat to this species at present.
155230		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species.
155230		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, a damaged juvenile specimen (Fukui and Kitagawa 2006) collected in sub-Antarctic waters in the southeast Pacific.<br/><a href="http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?client=firefox-a&channel=s&hl=en&q=&ie=UTF8&geocode=FaUH1_wdoCl5-Q&split=0" log="miw" onclick="this.blur();openInfoWindow('A');return false;"></a>
155230		habitat	eng	This species is bathypelagic. It is known only from the holotype which was captured at a bottom depth of 2,400 m.  Examinations of other species in this genus suggest that <em>Dolichopteryx</em> spawn iteratively during spawning season (Fukui and Kitagawa 2006).
155230		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155230		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
155231		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.
155231		distribution	eng	<em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is found in the eastern Indian Ocean around the coastline of southern Western Australia to Victoria and Tasmania.
155231		habitat	eng	<em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is typically found in large schools on offshore coastal reefs and deep, rocky estuary reefs in areas of kelp.&#160; Juveniles use jetties and piers for shelter.&#160;  This species is found to a depth of 120 m.
155231		population	eng	<em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is a common species throughout its range (Kuiter 1996).
155231		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.
155232		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em>.
155232		distribution	eng	Specimens of <em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em> have been captured in the Gulf of California by Mexico, the Coral Sea off Australia, and the eastern central Atlantic, suggesting this species is broadly distributed in waters within 25° of the Equator (Paxton 1989).
155232		habitat	eng	<em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em> is a bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 1,000–2,100 m.&#160; It feeds primarily on crustaceans.
155232		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamphocetichthys savagei</span>.&#160; However, whalefishes in general are a rare group of deep-sea fishes (Tolley<em> et al.</em> 1989).
155232		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155233		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Saurenchelys meteori</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the potential threats to this species, as little information is currently available.
155233		distribution	eng	<em>Saurenchelys meteori</em> is found in the Red Sea.
155233		habitat	eng	<em>Saurenchelys meteori</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 695–705 m.
155233		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Saurenchelys meteori</em>.
155233		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Saurenchelys meteori</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155234		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Acromycter perturbator</em>.
155234		distribution	eng	<em>Acromycter perturbator</em> is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from southern New England to the Bahamas and Jamaica.
155234		habitat	eng	<em>Acromycter perturbator</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 787-1,318 m (NAFO 2008). Members of the family Congridae are primarily benthopelagic occurring on sand and mud bottoms and feeding on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (FAO 1999).
155234		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Acromycter perturbator</em>.
155234		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Acromycter perturbator</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, due to the deep-water nature of this species.
155235		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Atlantic Piquitinga.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, affording it protection from some types of habitat degradation and harvesting.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and threats to this species should be carried out to ensure stocks do not become over-exploited, and to better understand the implications of habitat loss.
155235		distribution	eng	Atlantic Piquitinga <em>(Lile piquitinga)</em> has been found off Venezuela and the northwestern coast of Brazil.&#160; It is also likely to occur throughout the intervening area (FAO 2002).
155235		habitat	eng	Atlantic Piquitinga<em></em> is a schooling species that can be found over muddy bottoms in sheltered coastal waters, estuaries and hypersaline lagoons, to a depth of 50 m.
155235		population	eng	Atlantic Piquitinga<em></em> is very abundant in mangrove-lined lagoons, especially south of Margarita Island (FAO 2002).
155235		threats	eng	Atlantic Piquitinga is harvested for bait off western Venezuela (FAO 2002). <br/><br/>Due to the presence of this species in mangrove areas, it could potentially be threatened by loss of mangrove forest.&#160; However, as this species is known from a range of habitat types, these are likely to be localised declines only.
155236		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Austroglossus microlepis</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this particular species is required in order to determine at what rate it is being harvested and if it is undergoing a significant population decline.
155236		distribution	eng	<em>Austroglossus microlepis</em> is distributed from northern Namibia to False Bay in South Africa (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).
155236		habitat	eng	The sole, <em>Austroglossus microlepis</em>, is a benthic species found over muddy substrates. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, molluscs and fish. This species is found at a depth range of 100 - 400 m. The larvae are pelagic.
155236		population	eng	<em>Austroglossus microlepis</em> was historically abundant, but has been declining since the early 1980s (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).
155236		threats	eng	In the past, the catches of <em>Austroglossus microlepis</em> and <em>Cynoglossus zanzibarensis</em> have been grouped together, making accurate stock and catch assessments for each species difficult to decipher (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).  It is generally captured as an incidental species during trawling for targeted demersal species such as hake (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). Catches have been declining since the early 1980s, though this may be a result of a change in mesh size, from a 75 mm mesh recommended for targeting <em>A. microlepis</em>, to a mandated 110 mm mesh for those trawlers catching more than 30% by weight of hake (Diaz de Astarloa 2002). Recent annual landings of this species have been less than 500 tonnes (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).<br/><br/>Over-fishing off the coast of Namibia has altered the ecosystem (Sumaila and Vasconcellos 2000) and most commercially exploited species have not only become far less abundant, but many have experienced population crashes (van Zyl 2001).
155237		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Yellow Triplefin. The distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155237		distribution	eng	The Yellow Triplefin<em> </em>(<em>Enneapterygius abeli</em>) is distributed from South Africa, north to the Red Sea including the Comoros, Seychelles, Mauritius and Réunion.
155237		habitat	eng	The Yellow Triplefin, a small, cryptic triplefin, is found on tropical coral reefs in shallow photic waters. It is a benthic species that can be found on rocky or coral substrates, amongst live coral. This species feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates. The order Tripterygiidae is described as the most abundant and speciose group of fishes to be found on coral reefs (Longnecker and Langston 2005).
155237		population	eng	The Yellow Triplefin is common in the north Red Sea, but rare in the southern Red Sea (Clark 1979).
155237		threats	eng	Due to the small size of the Yellow Triplefin, it is of no commercial value as a food source. It is not used within the aquarium trade.
155238		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Halichoeres binotopsis</em>. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
155238		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis</span> occurs in the western Pacific from Singapore to the Philippines, including Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
155238		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis</span> inhabits shallow coastal coral reef flats and channels, often in algal dominated shallow waters at a depth range of 1-15 m (Kuiter 2002).
155238		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis</span> is common on some reefs of eastern Halmahera (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
155238		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis.</span>
155239		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends and harvest levels of this species is needed.
155239		distribution	eng	<em>Branchiostegus semifasciatus</em> is a an eastern Atlantic species that occurs from Morocco to Angola.
155239		habitat	eng	<em>Branchiostegus semifasciatus</em> is a demersal species that occurs at depths of 50-200 m on sandy and muddy bottoms (Schneider 1990). Congener <em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> inhabits a burrow made in sand and mud substrates on the sea floor. Tilefish predominantly feed on molluscs, polychaete worms, shrimp, squid and small fishes.
155239		population	eng	<em>Branchiostegus semifasciatus</em> is reported to be rare north of Dakar, Senegal. It is also reported to be most abundant from June to October at a 50 - 100 m depth range.<br/><br/>FAO landing from the eastern central Atlantic show Senegal and the Ivory Coast with an overall increase in landings from around 30 to 50 mt from the Ivory Coast in the 1990s and increasing to around 300 mt from Senegal since the turn of the century.<br/><br/>In trawl surveys off Sierra Leone the species constituted 1.2% of the total trawl catch between 50 and 100 m (Guinean trawl survey, edited by Frank Williams c.1960s).
155239		threats	eng	This species is captured by local fishermen, though it is not known whether this is a target species (Afonso <em>et al</em>. 1999). According to FAO statistics, this species is landed commercially in Senegal and the Ivory Coast.
155240		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thryssa mystax</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, affording it some protection from harvesting.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed to assess levels of exploitation.
155240		distribution	eng	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> ranges from the coast of Pakistan to Australia, including the coasts of India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and China.&#160; It is also found in the Gulf of Thailand.
155240		habitat	eng	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> is a pelagic, schooling species, found inshore in estuaries, mangroves, and brackish water.&#160; It can be found to depths of 50 m.&#160; This species is tolerant of a range of salinities.
155240		population	eng	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> is one of the most common anchovy species if identifications to date are correct (Wongratana <em>et al.</em> 1999).
155240		threats	eng	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> is harvested by the commercial fishing industry using both seine nets and bamboo-stake traps (Wongratana <em>et al.</em> 1999).&#160; It is marketed fresh, salted and dried, in fish sauce, fish balls, and as fish meal.&#160; Four percent of by-catch from the north of Viet Nam consists of this species (Son <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; This species is also an important part of the fishery within the state of Kerala and along the Tuticorin coastline (Nalluchinnappan and Jeyabaskaran 1991).
155241		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats faced by this species is needed.<em><br/></em>
155241		distribution	eng	<em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi</em> is distributed from the northern Kuril Islands and the Sea of Okhotsk, to Sagami Bay, Japan.
155241		habitat	eng	<em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi</em> is a bathydemersal species which prefers temperatures between 3-4<sup>o</sup>C.  The depth profile of this species ranges between 200-1,400 m.
155241		population	eng	There is no available population information for <em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi</em>.
155241		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi </em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155242		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Trewavas Croaker.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as pollution and incidental mortality through by-catch
155242		distribution	eng	The Trewavas Croaker (<em>Johnius trewavasae</em>) is known from Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Shanghai. There are only a few known specimens of this species from disjunct localities.
155242		habitat	eng	The Trewavas Croaker is found in shallow coastal waters to a maximum depth of 40 m.&#160; Like other croakers, this species feeds on small crustaceans, fish and other benthic organisms.
155242		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Trewavas Croaker.
155242		threats	eng	The Trewavas Croaker is of minor commercial importance to fisheries, as by-catch. <br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be suffering localised declines from threats relating to water pollution and coastal development.
155243		conservation	eng	Due to a decrease in the catches of <em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em>, a project of red tilefish stock enhancement was initiated in 1984 by the Miyazu Station of Japan Sea-Farming Association (JASFA), now known as Miyazu Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement (NCSE), Fisheries Research Agency (FRA). Yearly production of more than 1,000,000 fertilized eggs and more than 100,000 juveniles was achieved in the 1990s (Yokota <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Over 20,000 fingerlings have been released into Western Wakasa Bay since 1998 (Mitamura <em>et al</em>. 2005). However since this time only 18 of all the released fish were recaptured in May 2004. This low recapture rate is thought to be due to errors in the experimental design (Yokota <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels is also needed. Conservation measures should look at protecting important spawning grounds.
155243		distribution	eng	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> is distributed from Honshu to Kyushu, Japan and in the East China Sea (Yokoto <em>et al</em>. 2007). Dooley (1999) states that the distribution extends from the coast of China to South Viet Nam and the waters around the Philippines. Russell and Housten (1989) reported this species from the Arafura Sea, however there is no recent information to support this.
155243		habitat	eng	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> occurs in the sublittoral zone over sandy-muddy, or shell-sand-mud substrates and has a depth range of 30 - 265 m but is commonly caught at depths of 80 - 200 m (Dooley 1999). This species inhabits a burrow that is constructed in the sea bottom, by digging into the sand and mud. <em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> has been observed to show site fidelity, and use burrows to escape predators and for resting at night (Mitamura <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>There is sexual dimorphism and potentially protogynous hermaphroditism (J. Dooley pers.comm. 2009).  There are also sexual differences in distributions with males typically occupying greater depths (Yamashita 2007).
155243		population	eng	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> is reported to be the most common of Japanese tilefish (Dooley 1999).  According to FAO statistics for the northwest pacific (listed under Tilefishes nei, although this species is considered the bulk of this catch) there was a steady increase to around 8,000 mt in 2002 and then there was a dramatic jump in landings up to about 74,000 mt in 2005 and a subsequent decline to around 64,000 mt in 2006.  Most of the dramatic increases in the landings were due to the Chinese. Landings from Japan and Taiwan Province of China have decreased in recent years while those of Korea and Hong Kong have increased.  Overall, there has been an increase and steady landings for the four countries, excluding mainland China.<br/><br/>Females stock in 2005 calculated as 44% of virgin stock in waters off Yamaguchi prefecture (Kamano 2005).
155243		threats	eng	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> is an important commercial species in Japan. This species is caught using bottom longlines and trawls, and is marketed fresh, canned or frozen. It has&#160;been sold for high prices, similar to red sea bream and Japanese flounder.
155244		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for The Redspine Threadfin Bream.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels, threats and population trends of this species is needed.
155244		distribution	eng	<p>The Redspine Threadfin Bream (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemipterus nemurus</span>) is found in the western central Pacific from Thailand to the South China Sea and south to Indonesia (Russell 1990).&#160; Also reported (unconfirmed records) from the Philippines and the Andaman Sea  (Mohsin and Ambak 1996). The distribution of this species could extend further than currently described (Eggleston 1974).</p>
155244		habitat	eng	<p>The Redspine Threadfin Bream is a demersal species found over soft substrates in coastal waters at a depth range of 0-70 m. Commonly caught at 40 - 50</p>      <p>m depth, very seldom in waters less than 40 m depth. Considered a small species, normal sizes caught about 10 - 22.7 cm (Mohsin and Ambak 1996) This species feeds on crustaceans, fishes and cephalapods</p><p><br/></p><p>        </p><p>In the east coast of Peninsular : Malaysia, common length 16 cm and maximum TL 27.6 cm. Usually abundant in June - August. Growth rate as indicated by VBGF is quite high (K = 1.20). Total mortality rate Z = 2.78. Not well exploited, (exploitation rate (E) 13 - 19%). Length-weight relationships calculated by Said (1988) for specimens from the South China Sea off Trengganu,  Malaysia show a significant difference between the sexes:</p>              <p>Log W = -3.9259 + 3.1104 Log L or W = 0.00012 L 3.110 (for male) and Log W = -2.5849 + 2.6191 or W = -0.0026 L 2.6191 &#160;(for female)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Relationships of various lengths have been   expressed as:  </p><p>&#160;</p>  <p>TL = 1.1407 + 1.4464 SL, r = 0.947</p>  <p>FL = 0.5878 + 1.0619 SL, r = 0.991</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Growth of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nemurus</span> was calculated to be 6.7,</p>  <p>11.2, 15.5 and 18.1 cm in years I, 2, 3, 4, respectively.</p>  <p>K = 0.2331, L∞ = 29.36 and to = -0.0747.</p>  <p></p>  . <p></p>
155244		population	eng	The Redspine Threadfin Bream is the most abundant species of <em>Nemipterus</em> in the South China Sea (Russell 1990).
155244		threats	eng	Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by a number of human-induced habitat threats, including destructive fishing methods, coastal development, and water pollution due to domestic and commercial sources; however these threats are not known across this species' entire range and so are unlikely to pose a significant threat to the entire population.&#160; The South China Sea is also heavily impacted by over-fishing.<br/><br/>    <p>In Malaysia, a very important commercial species that is marketed fresh. According to Said (1988), <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nemurus</span> is the most abundant species in Trengganu; in terms of number and weight, represents 52.5% and 53.1 % respectively of the total nemipterids caught.</p>
155245		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span>.&#160; However, it is present in some marine protected areas in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico (Roca et al. 2003, WDPA 2006).
155245		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span> is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California, to Peru, including around all the offshore islands.&#160;  However, its distribution is somewhat uncertain due to morphological similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. vanicolensis</span>, and lack of awareness of that species in the region until recently.&#160; Regardless, genetic studies at Baja and Clipperton indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. dentatus</span> is likely the most abundant of the two species in the eastern tropical Pacific.
155245		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span> is a reef-associated species, inhabiting sand, mud, and rock substrata to depths of 60 m (Schneider 1995).&#160; This species can be occasionally found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke 1992).&#160; At the Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in the deep zone over middle size rocks and sand, deep rocky walls, zones of massive corals, and deep rocky reef (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
155245		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span> is common throughout its range.&#160; It was studied in different sites in the Galapagos Archipelago, where it was found to have an overall mean abundance of 5.75 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).&#160; However, this fish was not found in surveys in Costa Rica in the Gulf of Papagayo (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) or Catalinas Island (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">M. dentatus</span> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes in the Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency of 30–70%.&#160; In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance of 0.1–1%, and a relative frequency of 25–50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).&#160; In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 9 times within 12 one-month long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez et al. 2001).&#160; A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline bottoms and frequent in rocky and sandy substrata.&#160; Zapata and Morales (1997) recorded a density of 1.255 +/- 7.516 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 20.6% at Gorgona Island.&#160; According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish was commonly seen or collected, and apparently abundant enough to have a resident sub-population at Clipperton Atoll.
155245		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus.</span>
155246		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synaphobranchus kaupii</em>. <br/><br/>Due to reported population declines, monitoring of this species should be carried out.
155246		distribution	eng	The Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel, <em>Synaphobranchus kaupii</em>, is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Faroes and Iceland to Cape Verde, Morocco to Mauritania and along the West African slope (Nigeria, Namibia and South Africa). This species is also found in the western North Atlantic on the middle and lower slopes of the mid-Atlantic USA (Gordon and Mauchline 1996), the Bahamas, Cuba and Brazil. Specimens also occur in the Indo-west Pacific off Japan, Australia and Hawaii.
155246		habitat	eng	Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel is found along the continental slope, down to the abyssal zone (at depths of between 120 m and 4,800 m) but is most common in waters of 400 to 2,000 m (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). This species' diet consists of decapoda, natantia, and amphipods, but it also feeds on fish and cephalopods.
155246		population	eng	While the population size is unknown, Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel is considered an abundant to dominant deepsea species in various parts of the Atlantic (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997; Trenkel <em>et al.</em> 2004). In fine meshed trawls this species can comprise >50% of the total catch at some depth zones (Gordon <em>et al</em>. 1996). Some recent unpublished data indicates that the stock of the west coast of Ireland, has halved due to fishing activity, however it still remains abundant (I.G. Priede pers. comm. 2007).
155246		threats	eng	It is unlikely that Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel is being impacted by any major threats. Research shows that off the west coast of Ireland, the abundance of this species has halved as a result of fishing activity (I.G. Priede pers. comm. 2008).  However due to the broad distribution and reported abundance of this species, fishing is not considered a major widespread threat.
155248		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Starksia guttata</em>, however its distribution coincides with marine protected areas in the region.
155248		distribution	eng	<em>Starksia guttata</em> occurs at Tobago Cays in the Grenadines; specimens have been found just south of St Vincent Island, at Bequia Island, off Tobago Island (J. Van Tassell pers. comm. 2008), and at Curacao (Greenfield 1979).
155248		habitat	eng	<em>Starksia guttata</em> occurs on rocky and coral reefs.&#160; This species is found at depths of 1–20 m.
155248		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Starksia guttata</span>.
155248		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Starksia guttata</em>.
155249		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myripristis formosa</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to establish the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
155249		distribution	eng	The soldierfish, <em>Myripristis formosa</em>, is only known from four collections off Taiwan (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155249		habitat	eng	<em>Myripristis formosa</em> is a demersal fish.&#160; It feeds on zooplankton at night and shelters under coral and rock ledges and in holes during the day (J. Moore pers. comm. 2007).&#160;  This species is found at a depth range of 15–30 m.
155249		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Myripristis formosa</em>.
155249		threats	eng	Due to the lack of population and distribution data, it is unknown whether <em>Myripristis formosa</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, due to its coastal nature, it is possibly impacted by coastal development and pollution.
155250		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Congo Dentex.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.
155250		distribution	eng	The Congo Dentex<em> (Dentex congoensis</em>) occurs along the west African coast, from Senegal to Angola.
155250		habitat	eng	The Congo Dentex is a demersal species that is found on various substrates over the continental shelf and upper slope, to depths of 400 m.&#160; Its diet consists of mainly fish, although it also feeds on tunicates and molluscs.
155250		population	eng	In 1990, a survey of fish species assemblages in commercial landings found that the Congo Dentex contributed the second highest biomass to these catches (Martos <em>et al.</em> 1991).&#160; This species was caught in large numbers in trawl surveys and considered an indicator species for certain species assemblages off Ghana (Korentang 2001), Congo and Gabon (Bianchi 1992).<br/><br/>According to the FAO, the total amount of Congo Dentex officially landed per year varies widely; in 1990, 180 tonnes were landed, while in 2005, just under 1,500 tonnes were reported (FAO-FIGIS 2007).&#160; The 'Guinea 90' survey of the central eastern Atlantic captured 3,100 tonnes in Liberia alone (Martos <em>et al.</em> 1991).
155250		threats	eng	The Congo Dentex is a target species in the fisheries along the West African coast, where it is harvested by means of bottom trawls and longlines.&#160;  The continental shelf stocks of fish in this region have been over-exploited (Ramos <em>et al.</em> 2001).
155251		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Araiophos eastropas</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
155251		distribution	eng	<em>Araiophos eastropas</em> has been recorded from one location in the South China Sea.&#160; Fishbase records that specimens of this species have also been taken from a wider area, but these records require confirmation.
155251		habitat	eng	<em>Araiophos eastropas</em> is a mesopelagic species and has been recorded at a depths of 200–570 m (Museum catalogue vouchers from fishbase).
155251		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Araiophos eastropas</em>, as it is only known from a few specimens.
155251		threats	eng	It is unknown if <em>Araiophos eastropas</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.&#160; Mesopelagic species are unlikely to be threatened as they are not targeted by fisheries.
155252		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudojuloides kaleidos</span>, however its range coincides with a number of marine protected areas. Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.
155252		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudojuloides kaleidos</em> is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from Maldives, Niccobar and Andamen Islands, to southern Indonesia as far east as Flores.
155252		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudojuloides kaleidos</em> is a small species that grows only to about 100 mm (TL). The type specimen was collected from a depth of 30 m (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). This species is found on coral reefs over rubble slopes with a mix of algae and encrusting invertebrates, and in current-prone channels. Juveniles and females form small groups, and males are usually seen singly moving over large sections of reef (Kuiter 2002).
155252		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudojuloides kaleidos </span>is reported to be common in the Sunda Strait (Kuiter and Randall 1995). It is commonly observed in eastern Indonesia (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2009).
155252		threats	eng	<em></em> There are no major threats impacting <em>Pseudojuloides kaleidos</em>. This species may be used for the aquarium trade as the males are very attractive (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2009). This species is likely to be undergoing localised declines in areas of intense coastal development and pollution. This species does not appear to be dependent on live coral cover so moderate structural damage to the reef is unlikely to pose a significant threat.
155253		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Jenkinsia majua</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Central Andros National Park in the Bahamas.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.
155253		distribution	eng	<em>Jenkinsia majua</em> is found in the western central Atlantic, from the Gulf of Campeche, the Bahamas, and the northwestern coast of the Caribbean.
155253		habitat	eng	The herring, <em>Jenkinsia majua</em>, is an inshore schooling species found at a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It is found around coral reefs, bays, and harbours.&#160; Like its congener, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, this is a short-lived species.
155253		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Jenkinsia majua</em>.
155253		threats	eng	While there are no catch statistics available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Jenkinsia majua</span>, it is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in other Clupeid fisheries, and used for baitfish and chum.&#160; However this is not an intensively exploited fishery.&#160; Like its congener, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Jenkinsia majua</span> is also likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation as a result of coastal development.
155254		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Cortez Rockfish.&#160; Further research is needed to establish if this species is commercially harvested or taken as by-catch.
155254		distribution	eng	The Cortez Rockfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes cortezi</span>) occurs in the Gulf of California, along the coast of Baja California, Mexico
155254		habitat	eng	<em>Sebastes cortezi</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; It occurs at depths of 200–1,100 m.&#160; Juveniles are surface-dwelling, morphologically quite different, and are often associated with floating weed and debris (Chen 1975).
155254		population	eng	There is no species-specific population information available for the Cortez Rockfish.&#160; However, species from the genus <em>Sebastes</em> are generally widespread, abundant, and dominant among their local fauna (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
155254		threats	eng	Although species from the genus <em>Sebastes</em> support, or have supported, major world fisheries (Merret and Haedrich 1997), there are no available reports of the Cortez Rockfish  being harvested.&#160; There are established fisheries within this species' range, so it may be taken as by-catch, but this is unlikely to be causing any significant population decline.
155255		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neopomacentrus bankieri</em>. However, the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas.
155255		distribution	eng	There are possibly two separate subpopulations of <em>Neopomacentrus bankieri,</em> but further collections may provide evidence for a continuous distribution. One subpopulation inhabits the South China and Java Seas. Another subpopulation is found from Daru Island off southern Papua New Guinea to eastern Queensland. This species was recently collected at the Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua (G.R. Allen pers. com. 2009).
155255		habitat	eng	<em>Neopomacentrus bankieri</em> inhabits coastal reefs around coral and rock outcrops on soft bottoms. This species has been found at a depth range of 3 - 12 m. It utilises coral and rock structures as a refuge from predators.
155255		population	eng	<em>Neopomacentrus bankieri</em> is reported to be abundant at Orpheus Bay on the Great Barrier Reef (Ackerman and Bellwood 2002). It is also common at the Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155255		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. In areas of its range it may be undergoing localised declines in abundance due to destructive fishing practices, coastal development.and pollution.
155256		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats of this species is needed.
155256		distribution	eng	<em>Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em> is only known from south of New Caledonia on the Loyalty Ridge.
155256		habitat	eng	<em>Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em> is a bathydemersal species and has been found at a depth range of 797-835 m. This species has been found within the continental shelf and on seamounts. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
155256		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
155256		threats	eng	This species is of no known commercial value, however it occurs in an area where there are commercial fisheries and so may be taken as by-catch.
155257		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155257		distribution	eng	The Easter Island Flyingfish, <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em>, is found in the southern tropical Pacific Ocean from New Caledonia, Fiji, and Easter Island. These islands have low human population densities. A single specimen has also been collected in the eastern Pacific, north of the equator.
155257		habitat	eng	The Easter Island Flyingfish is found within the continental shelf in neritic surface waters (FAO 1999) to a maximum depth of 20 m. This species is not known to have any specific habitat requirements. This species feeds on zooplankton and small fish. <br/><br/>Flyingfish are capable of leaping out of the water and gliding for long distances over the water surface.
155257		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em>.
155257		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em> is being impacted by any major threats at present. It is of no interest to fisheries, however due to its size and depth profile it may occasionally be taken as by-catch.
155258		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus gibbsi</span>.
155258		distribution	eng	<em>Scopelosaurus gibbsi</em> is distributed across the South Pacific, between latitudes 20<sup>o</sup> and 40<sup>o</sup>S, and from longitudes 80 to 180<sup>o</sup>W (J. Paxton pers.comm. 2008).
155258		habitat	eng	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for <em>Scopelosaurus gibbsi</em>.<br/><br/>Congeners of this species, <em>Scopelosaurus harryi</em> and <em>Scopelosaurus adleri</em>, are typically found in the mesopelagic zone at a depth range of 500–1,000 m (Balanov 2001).&#160; They migrate to the upper section of the mesopelagic zone to feed during the darker hours of the day.&#160; Both species show a preference for food that is available all year round, and in the greatest quantity.&#160; The younger individuals feed on plankton, while the older year classes shift to a diet of shrimp and myctophid fish. <br/><br/>Savinykh and Balanov (2000) suggested that <em>S. adleri</em> is a mesobenthopelagic species, while <em>S. harryi</em> is a mesopelagic species.
155258		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus gibbsi</span>.
155258		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus gibbsi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155259		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the biology of this species is needed.
155259		distribution	eng	The Atlantic Needlefish <em>(Strongylura marina)</em> is present in the western Atlantic from Maine to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, but is absent from the Bahamas and the Antilles.
155259		habitat	eng	The Atlantic Needlefish, <em>Strongylura marina</em>, is found on reefs in subtropical climates, mangrove lined lagoons and seagrass beds. It is also known to enter freshwaters. Adults and juvenilles are mainly piscovorous, with shrimp being an important food component in the rainy season (Arceo-Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2004). Eggs attach to items in the waters by surface tendrils. The depth range if this fish is unknown.
155259		population	eng	This species is moderately commmon (FAO 2002).
155259		threats	eng	The Atlantic Needlefish<em></em> is commercially harvested, but consumption is restricted to local areas where this species attains a large size (Arceo-Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is mainly caught as a bait source for marlin sport fishing. It is caught by casting or trolling surface or near-surface lures, seines, trammel nets, and by using light as a lure. This species is not of significant commercial importance as the green bones are not considered favourable.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature and large size of this species, it is likely to be taken as by-catch by coastal fisheries operating within its range. However, this is not considered to be a major threat to this species as this threat is not known throughout its entire range. There is no evidence to suggest that this species is undergoing a significant population decline.
155260		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Benthosema pterotum</em>.
155260		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Skinnycheek Lanternfish (<em>Benthosema pterotum)</em> extends from Mozambique to the Gulf of Oman, east to the Bay of Bengal, Indonesia and western Australia, and north to Japan (J.R. Paxton pers.comm. 2008).
155260		habitat	eng	The Skinnycheek Lanternfish, <em>Benthosema pterotum</em>, is a benthopelagic and mesopelagic species that is typically found on the edge of the continental slope and around islands. This species has a depth range of 10-300 m. During the day it is found at a depth of 130-300 m and at night it migrates up to a depth range of 10-200 m. It feeds mainly on copepods and various crustacean larvae.
155260		population	eng	The mesopelagic fish community in the Gulf of Oman is reported to be dominated by Skinnycheek Lanternfish (Dalpadado and Gjøsæter 1988). An estimate of the biomass in the Gulf of Oman ranges from 1- 4 million tonnes (<span class="name"><span class="surname">Valinassab, Pierce and <span class="name"><span class="surname">Johannesson 2007).<br/></span></span>
155260		threats	eng	<em></em>There is large potential for future commercial exploitation of this species for use as fish meal (Dalpadado 1988), however at present the trawling of this species is not economically viable (<span class="name"><span class="surname">Valinassab, Pierce and <span class="name"><span class="surname">Johannesson 2007).</span></span>
155261		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Yellow-dappled Flounder, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the El Nido Managed Natural Resource and Protected Area. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers and harvest levels of this species to ensure it is not being widely exploited.
155261		distribution	eng	The Yellow-dappled Flounder, <em>Brachypleura novaezeelandiae</em>, is an Indo-Pacific flounder distributed from the Persian Gulf through the eastern Indian Ocean to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.
155261		habitat	eng	The Yellow-dappled Flounder is a demersal species, found living on sand and mud substrates.This species is frequently collected from estuaries and is known to be a benthic feeder.  The depth profile of this species ranges from 18 m to 92 m.
155261		population	eng	There is no population information available for Yellow-dappled Flounder.
155261		threats	eng	Yellow-dappled Flounder is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. It is harvested by trawling and is mostly used for the production of fish meal for the shrimp aquaculture industry (FAO 2001b). It is also discarded from trawlers as by-catch. At present there is no information regarding the landings of this species.
155262		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias dinema</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, distribution and threats of this species is needed before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.
155262		distribution	eng	<em>Eustomias dinema</em> is only known from the Hawaiian Islands.
155262		habitat	eng	<em>Eustomias dinema</em> is an epi / mesopelagic species (Mundy 2005) found at a depth range of 200-700 m. Individuals spend the daytime in the mesopelagic zone, but at night migrate to the epipelagic. Species in this family feed on midwater fishes (FAO 1999).
155262		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias dinema</em>.
155262		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at the present time.
155263		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155263		distribution	eng	<em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em> is endemic to the eastern Brazilian coast, from Alagoas, south to Santa Catarina.
155263		habitat	eng	<em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em> is a small cryptic fish that inhabits algae-covered reefs and tidepools with clear water, in tropical climates.&#160; It typically occurs in the upper 10 m,&#160; but may also be found at depths of 14–25 m (Guimaraes and de Bacellar 2002).&#160; This species can be found on both pristine and impacted reefs, indicating that it is resistant to at least mild habitat degradation (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).
155263		population	eng	<em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em> is very common along the southeastern Brazilian coastline.&#160; Hundreds of individuals can be found in a single tide pool (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).
155263		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em>.
155264		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em>.
155264		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em> has been found in the coastal waters of southern and southwestern Australia (Roberts 1987).
155264		habitat	eng	<em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 128-220 m. This species inhabits deep, rocky reefs in subtropical waters on the continental shelf (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155264		population	eng	<em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em> is likely to be an uncommon species (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155264		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be taken as by-catch by trawlers operating within its range, owing to it occurring on deep rocky reefs. Due to the deep-water nature of this species it is unlikely to be threatened by coastal development and pollution (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155265		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Malacocephalus occidentalis</em>.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.
155265		distribution	eng	<em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em> is found from the southern USA to Uruguay, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean.&#160; It is also found on the eastern Atlantic coast from Namibia to the Western Sahara, including the Canaries.
155265		habitat	eng	The grenadier, <em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em>, is found in warm to temperate waters on the continental slope mostly at depths exceeding 350 m, however it can occur at depths of 140–1,945 m.&#160; It feeds on benthic macro-crustaceans, myctophid fishes, and cephalopods.&#160; This species has a low resilience as its minimum population doubling time is estimated to be 4.5–14 years (Froese and Pauly 2007).
155265		population	eng	<em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em> is most abundant in the north of its range (Haimovici<em> et al.</em> 1994).
155265		threats	eng	<em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em> is commercially exploited for fishmeal and oil.&#160; At present, fishing activity is of little threat and is not likely to occur throughout this species' entire range.&#160; However, it may pose more of a threat if fishing effort shifts from the over-exploited coast to deeper waters.&#160; This has already started to occur in southern Brazil and in Newfoundland (Powell and Haedrich 2003, Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Like other species in the Macrouridae family, <em>M. occidentalis</em> is likely to be taken as by-catch by bottom trawl fisheries.&#160; However, this threat is not known throughout its entire range.
155266		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Ariosoma selenops</em>.
155266		distribution	eng	<em>Ariosoma selenops</em> is found in the western central Atlantic from as far north as Nova Scotia, south to the northeastern coast of Brazil, including the northern Gulf of Mexico and the lesser Antilles.
155266		habitat	eng	<em>Ariosoma selenops</em> is a benthopelagic species found at bathyl depths in tropical and temperate waters. Members of this genus, <em>Ariosoma</em>, can attain lengths of 34 cm. Individuals are typically found on sand or mud bottoms on the continental shelf and slope.
155266		population	eng	Species of the Congridae family are known to be abundant.
155266		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial interest. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development or pollution.
155267		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific measures in place for <em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, potential threats and distribution of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.
155267		distribution	eng	<em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is only known from five specimens collected at one locality in the Red Sea.
155267		habitat	eng	<em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is a deepwater, benthopelagic species which has been found at a depth range of 510-520 m. Species of the Hoplostethus genus are typically found in dense aggregations over seamounts, and so are locally abundant.
155267		population	eng	<em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is only known from 5 specimens.
155267		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. If it does congregate over seamounts, then it may be taken as by-catch by a number of fisheries.
155268		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scatophagus argus</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.
155268		distribution	eng	<em>Scatophagus argus</em> is distributed from the Persian Gulf, past India, and into the western Pacific.&#160; Its distribution extends from Japan in the north, to New South Wales, New Caledonia, and Fiji in the south (Randall 2005).&#160; The FAO (2001) states that the distribution of this species also extends further east in the Pacific, to French Polynesia.&#160;&#160;<em>Scatophagus</em><em> argus</em> has also been recorded from Micronesia.
155268		habitat	eng	The scat, <em>Scatophagus argus</em>, is usually found in estuaries, harbours, mangrove sloughs, and the lower reaches of fresh water streams, especially those with high mineral concentrations.&#160; Tiny juveniles float in the surface film (Kuiter and Debelius 2001).&#160; This species feeds on benthic algae, plant matter, and small benthic invertebrates.&#160; It is a schooling species.&#160; Individuals typically grow to 20–30 cm.&#160; Filipino fishers believe the dorsal, anal, and pelvis spines are venomous and capable of inflicting painful wounds.
155268		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Scatophagus argus</em>.
155268		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scatophagus argus</span> is harvested as a food source using traps and nets.&#160; However, due to its small size, it is not thought to be of commercial importance.&#160; It is also used in Chinese medicine and for the aquarium trade.&#160; However, due to the low commercial value of this species and its venomous spines, harvesting is not considered a major threat at present.<br/><br/>This species occurs in some estuarine environments that are subject to high levels of contaminants from shipping (oil and fuel leaks, ballast water, anti-fouling paints), coastal development, and pollution from upstream.&#160; However, these are localised threats, and not known throughout its entire range.
155269		conservation	eng	The Bluespotted Jawfish may occur in a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), and it is protected by law in Mexico. Given its collection for the aquarium trade, population trends should be monitored.
155269		distribution	eng	The Bluespotted Jawfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opistognathus rosenblatti</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific and this is found at the tip of Baja California and the lower three-quarters of the Gulf of California, Mexico.
155269		habitat	eng	The Bluespotted Jawfish is a demersal species, found in sandy rubble areas at depths of 5–25 m.&#160; It can form colonies of up to several hundred fish.
155269		population	eng	The Bluespotted Jawfish is locally abundant at several island locations in the Gulf of California and near Cabo San Lucas.
155269		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat at this time, the Bluespotted Jawfish is collected for the aquarium trade.
155270		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Entomacrodius stellifer</em>. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
155270		distribution	eng	<em>Entomacrodus stellifer</em> is a western Pacific blenny, reported from the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.
155270		habitat	eng	<em>Entomacrodus stellifer</em> inhabits rocky shorelines, reef flats and surge channels in high energy areas to depths of 5 m.
155270		population	eng	<em>Entomacrodus stellifer</em> is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155270		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Entomacrodus stellifer</span> (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155271		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em>, however its distribution falls into some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels is needed to ensure demand for this species does not trigger rapid declines.
155271		distribution	eng	The dottyback, <em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em>, is found in the Red Sea.
155271		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em> is a cryptic species and occupies a number of habitat types including harbours, coral reef-slopes, caves and silt-covered rocks at a depth range of 5 - 60 m.
155271		population	eng	<em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em> is a common species throughout its range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155271		threats	eng	This species is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade although this is not believed to be a major threat to this species owing to its abundance and the small quantities in which its harvested. It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and pollution, however these threats are not known across its entire range.
155272		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Due to the rarity of this species, monitoring of the population is suggested so that significant regional declines can be noted.
155272		distribution	eng	The Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby (<em>Nesogobius hinsbyi</em>) has been found at a number of locations off the Australian coastline: Port Phillip Bay, the South Australian Gulf Coast, and Kangaroo Island. It has also been found around southern, eastern, and western Tasmania.
155272		habitat	eng	The Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby is a demersal species, found on sand (Hoese and Larson 2006), rubble substrates, and in rockpools. It is known to occur at a depth range of 5-60 m, but is usually found at depths greater than 20 m.
155272		population	eng	The Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby <em></em>is abundant in southern Tasmanian estuaries, but rare elsewhere (Edgar 2005).
155272		threats	eng	The subpopulation of the Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby  within Port Philip Bay is likely to be undergoing significant declines with the onset of a multi-billion dollar dredging program, which is expected to proceed for two years as of February 2008. <br/><br/>Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas where there is significant coastal development and pollution. However, these threats are thought to be localized, and they are therefore unlikely to be causing global population declines.
155273		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>O. lateralis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.
155273		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ostorhinchus lateralis</span> is distributed from East Africa (Kenya to Mozambique) to Micronesia and Somoa, north to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands, and south to Lord Howe Island.
155273		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ostorhinchus lateralis</span> is tolerant of a range of salinities. It can be found in mangrove estuaries, freshwater, and shallow sheltered inshore coral reefs. This tropical species is found in shallow water, amongst algal-covered coral rubble. It is typically seen in small aggregations.<br/><br/>Like all cardinal fish, this species forms distinct pairs during mating and mouthbroods the eggs. Individuals feed on benthic invertebrates and small fish.
155273		population	eng	This species is reported to be common in mangrove estuaries (Gon 1986).
155273		threats	eng	This species is not known to be directly targeted for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostorhinchus lateralis</span>, unlike other species of cardinal fish, is less reliant on live reef systems. This species is found in a range of habitats that undergo daily fluctuations in temperature, salinity and pollutant concentrations. <br/><br/>Due to the wide-spread distribution of this species, it is unlikely that localised threats are causing a significant decline in the global population.
155274		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Apogon wassinki</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.
155274		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon wassinki</em> is distributed from the Philippines and eastern Indonesia including west Papua, south to Western Australia.
155274		habitat	eng	<em>Apogon wassinki</em> is usually found on sheltered coastal coral reefs to a depth of 22 m. It is often found in pairs or in small groups among branching corals such as <em>Acropora</em>. Individuals shelter in amongst the coral or in caves during the day and come out to feed at night on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates. This species demonstrates distinct pairing during courtship. The males mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching is ready to occur.
155274		population	eng	This is a common species on coastal reefs throughout its range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155274		threats	eng	There are a number of threats impacting the habitat of this species such as coastal development, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, cyanide fishing, water pollution, and coral bleaching. However, these threats are not known throughout this species entire range and so are only thought to be triggering localised declines. This species is not thought to be undergoing a significant global population decline (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155276		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus atlanticus</span>.<br/><br/>Freire (2009) suggest a capture-release study, involving Caribbean and Brazilian northeastern and southeastern researches to better establish fishing mortality rates and understand migratory patterns.<br/><br/>Better data is needed from fisheries landings to specifically identify and record this species.
155276		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus atlanticus</span> is distributed from Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, south to 26°S in Brazil and the island of Trindade off Brazil (Collette and Nauen 1983), including the wider Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. There is a recent record (2008) from Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago (Travassos, unpublished data).
155276		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus atlanticus</span> is found in coastal waters with a temperature above 20°C. It is an epipelagic species, often found over reefs, bays and offshore. It sometimes occurs in large schools, often with Skipjack Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Katsuwonus pelamis</span>).&#160; It feeds on fishes, squids and crustaceans. The IGFA all-tackle gamefish record for this species was caught off the coast of Florida and weighed 22.4 kg. Maximum recorded length is 110 cm fork length (FL) (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Around Florida, spawning season extends from April to November, with a peak in May, while in the Gulf of Mexico spawning apparently occurs between June to September (Collette 2010). In Brazil, spawning peaks in November and December. The species migrates to Formosa Bay to spawn from October to January (Freire 2009). During the spawning season, there is an annual concentration of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. atlanticus</span> along the southern coast of Rio Grande do Norte during the second half of the year (Vieira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a).<br/><br/>Vieira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005b) found an average length of 61.1 cm for females and 64 cm for males. The total weight ranged from 1,000 to 5,000 g (females) and 1,456 to 8,400 g (males) for individuals caught in Rio Grande do Norte from September 1999 to January 2001, within a depth range of 20–60 m. The same authors report a sex ratio of 2.1:0.5, with a larger abundance of males. Freire (2009) reports captures of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. atlanticus</span> from 36–89 cm FL along the northeastern Brazilian coast between 1998 and 2000.<br/><br/>According to Vieira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005b), the estimated average length for gonadal maturation is 51 cm total length (TL) for females and the absolute fecundity shows a mean of 1,541,841 oocytes for specimens caught in Rio Grande do Norte State, Brazil. Freire (2009) report size at first maturity at 49.2 cm (TL) for females and 51.3 cm (TL) for males.<br/><br/>Tagging data exists from the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) for this species (787 individuals). This data does not indicate migratory behavior (Singh-Renton and Renton 2007). There is evidence of genetic differentiation between the Gulf of Mexico and Northwest Atlantic stocks (Saxton 2009).<br/><br/>Maximum size is 100 cm FL. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 22.39 kg fish caught off Marathon, Florida in 2006 (IGFA 2011).
155276		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus atlanticus</span> is one of the most common tuna species in the western central Atlantic.<br/><br/>FAO landings (2008) indicate that it is harvested by a wide range of countries with catches fluctuating over the last 20 years between 2,400–5,200 mt from 1986–2006. These landings probably do not include the recreational catch which likely comprises a large portion of the fishery (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009). There is some doubt as to whether this includes all catches throughout its range. Large fluctuations reflect discontinued reporting from a number of areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">T. atlanticus</span> was the species with the highest abundance in the pelagic longline fishery in northeast Brazil, with an average catch per unit effort (CPUE) of 0.32 ind/100 hooks, representing 56.2% of all caught tunas (Hazin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001 in MMA 2006).
155276		threats	eng	This species is fished by trolling or drifting longline with live bait. Fish aggregating devices (FADs) are used to increase the capture of this species (Taquet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Males are caught more often than females; in one report males constituted 80% of the catch (Taquet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). The largest fishery for this species is off the southeastern shore of Cuba (Collette 2002). It is the target of hand and line artisanal fisheries in the northeast of Brazil (Freire 2009). This species may also be taken as bycatch in the Yellowfin Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus albacares</span>) fisheries (González-Ania <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). There is also an important sport fishery in Florida and the Bahamas (Collette 2002).<br/><br/>Three of the major fisheries (Cuba, Dominican Republic and Martinique) have ceased reporting landings data for this species (ICCAT SCRS 2009).<br/><br/>Nóbrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) report <span style="font-style: italic;">T. atlanticus</span> captures all along the northeastern Brazilian coast by hand-line artisanal fishery, with catches by state as follows: Bahia (57.6%), Rio Grande do Norte (23.7%), Alagoas and Pernambuco (17.7%), Ceará (0.8%) and Piauí (0.1%). There is an annual concentration of this species along the southern coast of Rio Grande do Norte State during the second half of the year which increases its capture by the artisanal fleet (Vieira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005b). It is fished all over the Brazilian central coast (from southern Bahia to northern Rio de Janeiro State) by trolling and hand-line fisheries (MMA 2006). It is also caught by game fisheries off the coast of São Paulo State (Amorim and Silva 2005).
155277		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Antennarius analis</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, including 18 off the Fijian coast (Wood 2007).
155277		distribution	eng	<em>Antennarius analis</em> is an Indo-Pacific species distributed from Christmas Island and Rowley Shoals to the Society Islands, including Palau, Fiji, and Samoa (Pietsch and Grobecker 1987). The species has also been recorded from both Oahu, Hawaiian Islands (Pietsch and Grobecker 1987) and Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Islands (Kon and Yoshino 1999).
155277		habitat	eng	<em>Antennarius analis</em> has been collected from tide pools and outer reef slopes at a depth range of 1.5 - 21 m.   It is a cryptic lie-in wait predator, mostly found on coral reefs.
155277		population	eng	This species is never observed in visual surveys and typically shows up as 1 or 2 individuals at rotenone stations (J. Williams and G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155277		threats	eng	Species of the genus <em>Antennarius</em> are taken for the marine aquarium trade, however this species is not yet specifically recorded in this trade. This species is of no other significant economic interest. It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.
155278		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span>.&#160; However, this species' distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
155278		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span> is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is found from the northern and eastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama.
155278		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span> is a demersal species, found on sandy-mud and broken-shell substrata (Birdsong 1981), at depths of 3–36 m.
155278		population	eng	There is no information on populations size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span>. However, this species is relatively common within its specific habitat.
155278		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span>.&#160; However, due to its preference for offshore habitat, shrimp trawling may pose a threat to this species in some parts of its range.
155279		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservations measures in place for the Eyestripe Bass, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations. Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
155279		distribution	eng	The Eyestripe Bass<em> </em>(<em>Liopropoma aberrans</em>) is found off the coasts of Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Belize, and North Carolina, and in the Gulf of Mexico.
155279		habitat	eng	The Eyestripe Bass is a demersal species that can be found along deep reefs to a depth of approximately 190 m.
155279		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Eyestripe Bass.
155279		threats	eng	The Eyestripe Bass is not harvested commercially as a food source, but is occasionally taken for the aquarium trade. However, this is not considered a major threat to this species at present.
155280		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the harvest levels of this species, with monitoring on the levels of abundance.
155280		distribution	eng	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> is found off the eastern coast of India, possibly to Myanmar.
155280		habitat	eng	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> occupies a range of habitat types. It is found in coastal waters, estuaries and in rivers up to 20 km from the mouth (Babu Rao 1971) to a maximum depth of 50 m. It is a schooling species. This species is tolerant of a range of salinities.
155280		population	eng	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> is a common coastal species.
155280		threats	eng	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> is caught by artisanal fisherman throughout its entire range. This species is harvested using purse seine nets and bamboo stake traps. <em>Thryssa</em> species contribute greatly to the annual landings of anchovy in India. In 2003, anchovies contributed to 6% of the total annual pelagic landings (Mohanty<em> et al</em>. 2005). It is unknown what impact fishing is having on the population numbers of this species. Further research is needed on the landings of this species.
155281		conservation	eng	New Zealand has implemented a Total Allowable Catch limit for <em>Seriolella caerulea</em>.&#160; There are also a number of MPA designations within this species' range, although it is not likely that these provide much protection for <em>S. caerulea</em>, given its deep-water habitat. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the population, harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.
155281		distribution	eng	<em>Seriolella caerulea</em> can be found in the southwest Pacific around southern Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, the southeast Pacific around Chile and the Juan Fernandez Islands, and in the southwest Atlantic off Argentina.
155281		habitat	eng	Adult forms of <em>Seriolella caerulea</em> typically occur on continental shelves and upper slopes, while juveniles inhabit the surface waters and are typically associated with jellyfish.&#160; This deep sea fish has a depth range of 150–800 m.
155281		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Seriolella caerulea</em>.
155281		threats	eng	<em>Seriolella caerulea</em> is taken incidentally as by-catch by trawlers fishing for hoki, silver warehou, hake, ling and scampi. Landings in the southwest Pacific peaked in 2003 at 3,646 tonnes with a decline to 2,669 tonnes in 2005.&#160; This species is sometimes reported as <em>Seriolella punctata</em>, a related species, making management and accurate landing data difficult to collate.<br/><br/>This species has also been targeted by fisheries around the Mernoo Bank, the Stewart-Snares shelf, Puysegur Bank and on the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand.&#160; However, target fisheries accounted for only 8% of the total <em>Seriolella caerulea</em> catch for the years from 1988–1989 to 1994–1995 (New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 2007).<br/><br/>The total landings of <em>Seriolella caerulea</em> in New Zealand were, in 1998-99, 2,306 t, in 1999-2000, 2,351 t, in 2000-01, 1,897 t, in 2001-02, 1,941 t, in 2002-03, 3,346 t, in 2003-04, 2,357 t, and in 2004-05, 2,863 t. In 1998, a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 3,374 t was introduced for <em>Seriolella caerulea</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> However, it is not known whether recent catches of this species by New Zealand fisheries are sustainable or if they are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield (New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 2007).<br/><br/>Although there are no available catch statistics, it is likely that this species is also being taken as by-catch or targeted as a commercial species throughout the rest of its range.
155282		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
155282		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.
155282		distribution	eng	The Golden Goby, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobius xanthocephalus,</span> occurs in the eastern Atlantic from northern Spain to Madeira and the Canary Islands. It also occurs in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
155282		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Spain to the Madeira and Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean it has been recorded in the south-east part of Italy, from Monaco to Marseille, on the west coast of Corsica and in Medas Islands (Spain). There is a single record from the east Black Sea coast.<br/><br/>Type locality of this species is Banyuls-sur-Mer (south coast of France) (Heymer and Zander 1992). At the north-west Mediterranean Sea, it distributes from France to Gulf of Genoa, including Balearic islands (Herler <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other records given by Louisy (2002) include the long coastline from Italy to Turkey (west Italy, Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, all Greek coasts and Aegean coasts of Turkey) and are doubtful. A recent positive identification was made by Vasil'eva and Bogorodskii (2004) from Abkhazian coast (east Black Sea).
155282		habitat	eng	This inshore, benthic species typically occurs at depths of 0-20 m although it has been found to a depth of 36 m. This species is typically seen sheltering in small, sandy caves, fissures and boulders (Almeida and Arruda 1998) and seagrass (Heymer and Zander 1992). This species has a short generation time (Martin and Palumbi 1993).
155282		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore, among and under stones.
155282		population	eng	In parts of its range, <em> Gobius xanthocephalus</em> is considered common and it is the most abundant species at depths of 3-20 m on the Portuguese coast (Almeida and Arruda 1998). Vasileva and Bogorodskii (2004) consider it to be rare in the Black Sea.
155282		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is only known from a few definite records as it has been often misidentified.
155282		threats	eng	As <em>Gobius xanthocephalus</em> is an inshore species, its habitat may be impacted by coastal development and water pollution. These threats are unlikely to be occurring across this species entire range and so will be causing localised declines only. Gobies have a short generation time and so are tolerant of moderate threats.
155282		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
155283		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Coelophrys arca</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the abundance, distribution and threats of this species is needed.
155283		distribution	eng	<em>Coelophrys arca</em> is known from the Philippines and the Banda Sea.
155283		habitat	eng	<em>Coelophrys arca</em> is a demersal species. This species was found in a midwater trawl in the Banda Sea between 600-1,000 m by Bradbury in 1985. Species from the Ogcocephalidae family are found offshore on continental shelves and upper continental slopes (FAO 1999a).<br/><br/>Bradbury (1988) noted that pelagic larvae are common in ogcocephalids.
155283		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155283		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threat process.
155284		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research and monitoring of this species' habitat status and threats should be undertaken.
155284		distribution	eng	<em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em> is widely distributed in Japan, from the Chiba and Niigata Prefectures, south to Kyushu. &#160; It is also reported from the Korean Peninsula (Froese and Pauly 2006).
155284		habitat	eng	<em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em> utilises <em>Zostera</em> beds as one of its habitats throughout all life stages.&#160; A study conducted by Horinouchi and Sano (1999) found <em>P. zonoleucus</em> to be more abundant in areas of seagrass meadows with sparser or shorter seagrass.&#160; Froese and Pauly (2006) state that <em>P. zonoleucus</em> occurs in schools near rocky shores.
155284		population	eng	<em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em> is reported to be a common species along the coast of Japan (Horinouchi and Sano 1999).
155284		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pterogobius zonoleucus</span> utilises seagrass habitats, which are being increasingly impacted by a number of threat processes; these include sedimentation, water pollution, boat traffic, coastal development, and dredging activity.&#160;  However, due to the broad distribution of this species, these threats are currently only localised and can not be considered as major threats.
155285		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Vanacampus vercoi</em>. It is not known from any marine protected areas off South Australia.<br/> <br/> Future research needs to concentrate on better understanding the population trends of this species.</p>
155285		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vanacampus vercoi</span>’s extent of occurrence (EOO) ranges from Spencer Gulf through to Encounter Bay, South Australia (Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008 and references therein, Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), but may extend wider (J. Baker pers. comm. 2009). The species has been recorded from central Spencer Gulf (including two dredged specimens from 1920, collected about 40 km seaward of Wardang Island, plus more recent specimens from beam trawl sampling during the early 2000s) and southeastern Spencer Gulf (Point Turton); southwestern Gulf St Vincent/southern Yorke Peninsula (e.g., Edithburgh and Stansbury area) and north-eastern Kangaroo Island (American River and Pelican Lagoon), and Encounter Bay. The species was reported to have previously been locally common in Pelican Lagoon, Kangaroo Island, from where the holotype was collected (Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008 and references therein).<br/><br/>The total area (extent of occurrence (EOO)) in which <span style="font-style: italic;">Vanacampus vercoi</span> is distributed is approximately 9,620 km²<sup></sup>, which makes it one of the most geographically restricted Australian syngnathid species (Gomon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). Its area of occupancy (AOO), however, can be inferred to be substantially smaller for two reasons. First, <span style="font-style: italic;">Vanacampus vercoi</span> is restricted to very shallow seagrass and macroalgal beds (Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Previous research has estimated that only 0.04–0.1% of the water area in some coastal Australian lagoons actually contains aquatic vegetation (Pollard 1994). Second, other Australian pipefish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stigmatapora argus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. nigra</span>) have been estimated to have average densities of approximately 0.4 individuals/m² in seagrass beds, with a range from 0.1–0.8 individuals/m²<sup></sup> (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The expected limited habitat area and low densities for similar species indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">Vanacampus vercoi</span> would have, conservatively, an AOO of perhaps only several hundred square kilometres.
155285		habitat	eng	<p><em>Vanacampus vercoi</em> is found in marine vegetation such as macroalgae and seagrass, and may also be found in tidepools (Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). They are restricted to depths of 2–4 m (Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Pogonoski, Pollard and Paxton 2002). Males carry the embyos in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).</p>
155285		population	eng	<p>This species is only known to be common within the Pelican Lagoon of Kangaroo Island (Kuiter 1996). There is no evidence of declines in this species (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</p>
155285		threats	eng	<p><em>Vanacampus vercoi</em> has one of the most restricted geographic distributions of all Australian syngnathids (Gomon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994) with an EOO estimated at 9,620 km²<sup></sup> and a significantly smaller area of occupancy – perhaps of only several hundred km²<sup></sup> – inferred from available habitat and known pipefish densities.</p>  <p>There have been examples of rapid and extensive seagrass die-back in the area where <em>Vanacampus vercoi</em> is found, which was the result of rapid environmental changes (Seddon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.2000). Over 120 km²<sup></sup> of seagrass meadows were lost in Spencer Gulf in one year. With an AOO very likely to be less than 1,000 km²<sup></sup>, this constitutes an extreme fluctuation in the area of occupancy for this species.</p>  <p>In addition, due to the coastal and shallow nature of <em>Vanacampus vercoi</em>’s distribution, it is potentially vulnerable to threats associated with habitat degradation and coastal pollution. Continued loss and degradation of the marine habitat that supports this species is caused by land-based urbanization, coastal development, stormwater runoff, effluent, industrial discharges, dredging, sea-dumping, overfishing, oil spills, antifoulants, and the developing aquaculture industry (Edyvane 1999, Ward and Young 1981), which are known to alter epibenthic seagrass habitat and fauna (Ward and Young 1982).</p>
155286		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Peristedion amblygenys</span>.&#160; Further research on the ecology, distribution, threats, and population numbers of this species is needed.
155286		distribution	eng	<em>Peristedion amblygenys</em> is known from its type locality at San Fernando, Luzon Island, in the Philippines.
155286		habitat	eng	<em>Peristedion amblygenys</em> is a demersal species that has been collected at a depth of 82 m on the continental slope, over rocky substrates.
155286		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Peristedion amblygenys</span>.
155286		threats	eng	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Peristedion amblygenys</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155287		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Antimora microlepis</em>. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed to determine the impact that fishing activity is having upon population numbers of this species.
155287		distribution	eng	<em>Antimora microlepis</em> occurs in the eastern and western North Pacific. While Cohen<em> et al.</em> (1990) state it occurs north of 10° N, Kulka <em>et al.</em> (2003) note that stocks of <em>Antimora microlepis</em> and the closely related Atlantic species <em>A. rostrata</em>, mingle in the waters around the southern tip of South America.
155287		habitat	eng	<em>Antimora microlepis</em> is a bathypelagic species that may be found on continental slopes at a depth range of 175 - 3,048 m (Kulka<em> et al.</em> 2003). Its diet consists of benthic invertebrates.
155287		population	eng	<em>Antimora microlepis</em> is found in 'significant quantities' in some areas (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).
155287		threats	eng	This species is captured frequently by trawlers targeting species the Dover Sole, <em>Microstomus pacificus</em> and rockfish, <em>Sebastes spp. <br/></em>
155288		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lestidiops gracilis</em>. Further research is needed on the ecology of this species, as little information is available. Research and monitoring is also needed on potential threats, to determine if this species is harvested as by-catch by commercial fisheries, and if so, the impact that this is having on the population of <em>L. gracilis</em>.
155288		distribution	eng	<em>Lestidiops gracilis</em> is endemic to New Zealand and can only be found on the East Coast. There are reports of it being found in Cuba, but these are very likely to be misidentifications (N. Merrett pers. comm. 2008).
155288		habitat	eng	<em>Lestidiops gracilis</em> can be found in the mesopelagic to bathypelagic zones. Congeners, such as <em>Lestidiops affinis</em> and <em>Lestidiops jayakari, </em>are found to congregate at the top of seamounts (Pusch <em>et al</em>. 2004).
155288		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Lestidiops gracilis</em>.
155288		threats	eng	If <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestidiops gracilis</span> does congregate above seamounts, it may be threatened by commercial fisheries. The seamounts within New Zealand waters are heavily fished for species such as the Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>), therefore <span style="font-style: italic;">L. gracilis</span> may be taken as as by-catch in commercial fisheries. Consequently, it is unknown if this species is impacted by any major threat processes.
155289		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the<em> </em>Pemarco Blackfish.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of this species, its habitat status, and potential threats is needed, to determine the impact commercial fisheries will have on the population of this species in the future.
155289		distribution	eng	The Pemarco Blackfish <em>(Schedophilus pemarco</em>) has been found along the West African coast from Cape Blanc, Mauritania, to Namibia. Specimens have also been found in the Caribbean, although these are likely to have been transported from western Africa on the North Atlantic Gyre (Haedrich and Cervigon 1969).
155289		habitat	eng	The Pemarco Blackfish<em> </em>is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 50–500 m, and is most commonly found on the continental shelf or slope (Schneider 1990, Haedrich and Cervigon 1969) over a range of substrates.&#160; This species' diet consists of jellyfish, amphipods, krill, and small fish.&#160; As adults increase in size, they seek deeper water (Haedrich and Cervigon 1969).
155289		population	eng	In their description of the<em> </em>Pemarco Blackfish, Haedrich and Cervigon (1969) described this species as 'somewhat rare'.
155289		threats	eng	It is unknown whether the Pemarco Blackfish is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Although this species does not appear to be a target species, it is captured by bottom trawling in the Gulf of Guinea.&#160; Ecosystem structure and function has been dramatically changed in areas of this species range, such as Namibia, due to the pressure of over-fishing (Sumaila and Vasconcellos 2000).
155290		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scarus schlegeli</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia.
155290		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span> is found in the Indo-central Pacific, around the Cocos and Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean, from the Moluccas to the Tuamoto and Austral islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and south to Shark Bay and the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia.&#160; It is also known from Rapa, French Polynesia.
155290		habitat	eng	The parrotfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span>, is found on exposed and sheltered reefs at a depth range of 1 – 50 m, but usually occurs at depths of 5 – 25 m.&#160; This species grazes on the reef and over rubble and sandy reef bases, in small to large schools (FAO 2001).&#160; Juveniles may school with other species, and females are often found in schools of mixed species when feeding.&#160; However, males are usually seen separately and exhibit territorial behaviour.
155290		population	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span> is reported to be common throughout its range (FAO 2001; G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009) and adults are reported to be particularly common in areas with rich coral growth and high vertical relief.
155290		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span>.&#160; In some areas it is harvested as a food source, but this is a localised threat only.
155291		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Mugil incilis</em>.&#160; However, in places, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.  <br/><br/>Monitoring of harvest levels needs to be continued for this species, particularly in Colombia.
155291		distribution	eng	<em>Mugil incilis</em> is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Panama and Haiti to southeastern Brazil.
155291		habitat	eng	<em>Mugil incilis</em> is primarily found in brackish estuaries, coastal waters, and surf zones, but can also be found in marine and hyper-saline waters.&#160; Spawning occurs at the mouths of rivers.&#160; Juveniles migrate large distances to swamps and river mouths to seek food and to protect themselves against predators (Harrison 2002).
155291		population	eng	Between 1994 and 2004, a survey in Colombia showed a reduction in adult <em>Mugil incilis</em> of mature size from 30% of the population to 17% (Barandica <em>et al</em>. 2008).
155291		threats	eng	<em>Mugil incilis</em> is one of the three main species exploited in the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta lagoon, which is one of the most important artisanal fisheries in Colombia (Rueda and Defeo 2003).&#160;  This species is harvested at a low level throughout its range, although may suffer from over-fishing in localized regions (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>In Colombia, this species may also be impacted by re-suspension of substratum caused by using a boliche (an encircling gill net) which can detrimentally affect fish by obstructing their gills and reducing their oxygen intake (Rueda and Defeo 2003, A. Acero pers comm. 2009).&#160; However, this is not known from other areas of its range where fishing pressures are less intense (A. Acero pers comm. 2009).
155292		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sparisoma strigatum</em>, however its distribution may coincide with the Sandy Bay Nature Reserve off St Helena.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed along with further research on the cause of the major fish kills occurring within this species range.
155292		distribution	eng	<em>Sparisoma strigatum</em> is endemic to the Ascension and St. Helena Islands.
155292		habitat	eng	Adult <em>Sparisoma strigatum</em> occur over rocky reefs, grazing on turf algae (Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2000). Adults are usually&#160;at less than 10 m depth near rocks at Ascension, where  occasionally seen in groups of up to six individuals&#160;(Lubbock 1980), and  usually at less than 15 m depth in rocky areas at St Helena (Edwards and Glass  1987) but are occasionally found to 20 m depth at both islands. Juveniles were  noted on rubble adjacent to rocks at 5-20 m depth at Ascension (Lubbock 1980)  and as occasional amongst weed and rubble patches at 15-18 m depth at St  Helena&#160;(Edwards and Glass 1987). This coastal species is found in the euphotic  zone to 20 m depth.
155292		population	eng	Recorded as uncommon at Ascension Island (Lubbock 1980) and moderately common  at St Helena Island in shallow rocky areas less than 20 m deep (Edwards and  Glass 1987).
155292		threats	eng	A report on marine biodiversity hotspots ranked the average threat to reefs in the Ascension and St Helena Islands as low (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is occasionally harvested as a food source.<br/><br/>Unexplained fish kills have been experienced both at St Helena Island (March  2006) when thousands of juvenile butterflyfishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodon sanctaehelenae</span>) were  found floating on the sea surface and at Ascension Island (September 2007) when  large numbers of dead and dying groupers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus adscensionis</span>) were found  on the beaches. The chances of simultaneous mass mortalities of an Ascension-St  Helena shared endemic at both islands appears remote but the situation should be  monitored (A. Edwards pers. comm. 2009).
155293		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span>. However, it may be present in some marine protected areas in&#160; Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico (Roca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
155293		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California in Mexico, to northern Peru.
155293		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is a demersal species that inhabits the sandy substrata of coastal waters (McKay and Schneider 1995) to depths of around 100 m.&#160; In a survey conducted at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this species was considered occasional in rocky substrata, and abundant in sandy substrata (Rubio 1986). &#160; In Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered to be a transient species in an estuary associated with mangroves (Rojas et al. 1994).&#160; It occasionally occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical Eastern pacific (Cooke 1992).
155293		population	eng	According to Robertson and Allen (2006),&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is a common species in Panama, and it is frequently collected in shrimp trawls.
155293		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to global populations at this time, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is considered to be important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004), as well as in El Salvador.
155294		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155294		distribution	eng	<em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em> is found in the western central and south Atlantic Ocean from Venezuela south to French Guiana, then from Rio de Janiero to 12<sup>o</sup>S. It is also known from the island of Trinidade.
155294		habitat	eng	<em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em> is a congregatory coastal species, that may also be found ranging from estuaries to very low salinities upstream (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988). This epipelagic species has a depth range of 0 - 200 m. It is a broadcast spawner.
155294		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em>.
155294		threats	eng	<em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em> is probably caught in estuaries by the artisanal fishing industry (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988) which may be causing local population declines. There are no known major threats impacting this species.
155295		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Similan Island National Park and a number of protected areas within the Maldives.
155295		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> occurs around the Maldives, Similan Islands off Thailand, and Sumatra in Indonesia (Kuiter and Debelius 2007).
155295		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> is a shallow coral reef associated species, and is most frequently found in clear water along the outer reef slopes at a depth range of 3 to 15 m, however. It can be found at depths up to 30 m. It occurs in aggregations and mainly feeds on zooplankton.
155295		population	eng	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> is an abundant species (G.R. Allen and P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155295		threats	eng	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> is likely to have been impacted by localized reef degradation as a result of coastal development and pollution (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). This species is also likely to be collected for the aquarium trade (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009), however there is currently no evidence of a significant decline in the population (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155296		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for Pygmy Argentine.
155296		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic from the continental shelf break off South Carolina to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean.
155296		habitat	eng	The Pygmy Argentine, <em>Glossanodon pygmaeus,</em> is a meospelagic species that has a depth range of 92-458 m and inhabits muddy, gravel or sandy substrates. Species from the <em>Argentinidae</em> family occur on the outer shelf and upper slope and feed on planktonic invertebrates and euphausiids and small fishes (FAO 2002).
155296		population	eng	There is no population information for the Pygmy Argentine, however the Argentinidae family are known to be locally abundant in some places in the western Atlantic (FAO 2002).
155296		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting the Pygmy Argentine.&#160; This species is of no importance to commercial fisheries, although members of the Argentinidae family are taken as by-catch in shrimp trawls (FAO 2002).
155297		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Apocryptodon</span><em> punctatus</em>.
155297		distribution	eng	The goby species, <em>Apocryptodon punctatus</em>, is known only from the inshore coastal areas of mainland Japan.&#160; The species is found in internal seas and bays only, and does not occur around the Pacific or Sea of Japan coastlines (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).
155297		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apocryptodon</span><em> punctatus</em> is a demersal species found in burrows made by crustaceans (<em>Alpheus</em> spp.) within estuaries and intertidal mudflats.&#160; As a result, it is difficult to observe, due to turbid water (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This goby is also tolerant of brackish waters.
155297		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Apocryptodon</span><em> punctatus</em>.
155297		threats	eng	Due to its inshore nature, it is likely that this species is exposed to a number of potential threats including development, pollution run-off and fluctuations in a number of environmental factors such as salinity and temperature.&#160; However, given the habitat in which it is found, this species should be relatively tolerant of fluctuations in salinity and temperature.
155298		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus pallidus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Tierra del Fuego National Park.<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to determine the abundance, ecology and threats of this species.
155298		distribution	eng	<em>Careproctus pallidus</em> is known from two specimens found in southern Chile, on the border with Argentina.
155298		habitat	eng	There is no ecological information available for <em>Careproctus pallidus</em>.  The depth profile of this species is thought to be from 6m to 28m depth, from the collection of the two known specimens.
155298		population	eng	The rarity of Liparid species in South American collections is due to lack of sampling (Stein 2005).
155298		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Careproctus pallidus</em> is being impacted by any major threats.
155299		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
155299		distribution	eng	<em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em> is a filefish found in waters off northwestern Australia.
155299		habitat	eng	<em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 22–82 m.
155299		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em>.&#160; It is known only from 22 type specimens (Hutchins 1977).
155299		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting <em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em>.
155300		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pentapodus emeryii</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, harvest levels, and extent of harvest is needed.
155300		distribution	eng	<em>Pentapodus emeryii</em> is distributed from Java and Borneo to Papua New Guinea, north to the Philippines, and south to northwestern Australia.
155300		habitat	eng	The bream, <em>Pentapodus emeryii</em>, inhabits lagoons and coastal reefs at depths greater than 20 m.&#160; Adults are often found adjacent to coral or rocky reefs, on sand or mixed sand-rubble slopes, alongside sponges, soft coral, and algae.&#160; They typically form small groups.&#160; Juveniles inhabit shallower depths, amongst coral, algae and sponges, and are found solitary.&#160; This species feeds on small fishes, sipunculid worms, and ophiuroids.
155300		population	eng	<em>Pentapodis emeryii</em> is reported to be the thirteenth most abundant reef fish in tropical Western Australia (Travers<em> et al.</em> 2006).
155300		threats	eng	<em>Pentapodus emeryii</em> is occasionally taken in small numbers as a food source (Russell 1990).&#160; However, due to the small size of this species, this is a subsistence scale fishery only.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas impacted by destructive or intense fishing, large scale coastal development, and water pollution due to domestic and commercial sources. However, these threats are not known across the entire distribution of this species, and so are only likely to be causing localised declines in abundance.
155301		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.
155301		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> is distributed from East Africa to French Polynesia, north to southern Japan, and south to northwest and east coast Australia and New Caledonia.
155301		habitat	eng	<em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> can be found in lagoons and on coastal reef slopes.&#160; Although sometimes observed living in holes in the hard reef substrate, it is most commonly seen in sand or mud, or among coral rubble, sometimes with only its head protruding.   <br/><br/>This species tends to be site attached; individuals have been known to stay in the same hole for months or even years.&#160; Juveniles are found individually, but it is not uncommon to find more than one male in the same area.&#160; In some cases, males will even share the same hole within the sandy substrate.&#160; During the day, individuals feed on small fishes that pass close to the burrow entrance.<br/><br/><em>Rhinomuraena</em><em> quaesita</em> has several characteristics that have lead experts to suggest that it should be placed in its own family — the <em>Rhinomuraenidae</em>; these include the positioning of its kidneys and most of its reproductive organs posterior to the anus (a unique condition that has not been reported in any other vertebrate) (Michael 1998).<br/><br/>This species is a protandrous hermaphrodite, <span style="font-style: italic;">i.e</span>., all females are derived from males that have changed sex.
155301		population	eng	<em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> is reported to be common in Indonesia (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
155301		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; In Indonesia, this species is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade using cyanide fishing.&#160; However, this is a localised threat and not significant to the global population.
155302		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nectamia </span><em>annularis</em>. There has been some success in establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Red Sea, but there is little or no effective regional MPA network, and most of the MPAs have ineffective management (Kotb <em>et al</em>. 2004).
155302		distribution	eng	The Ringtail Cardinalfish, <em>Nectamia annularis</em>, is endemic to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
155302		habitat	eng	<em>Nectamia annularis</em> is a small planktivorous coral reef fish, found to a depth of 17 m. During the night, fish of this species forage either individually or in small groups in the shallow waters above the coral reefs. During the day, <em>N. annularis</em> hide in deep crevices and caves. Like other cardinal fish, <em>N. annularis</em> exhibit distinct pairing during courtship and spawning. This species is a mouth-brooder.
155302		population	eng	<em>Nectamia annularis</em> is reported to be a common, nocturnal coral-reef fish in Eilat, Red Sea (Holzman and Genin 2003) and is likely to be common elsewhere in its range (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
155302		threats	eng	This species is not known to be threatened by harvesting for the aquarium trade but may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation. The coral reefs off Eilat are threatened by a number of factors including mariculture effluent, sewage, bilge and ballast water, ship fuel discharge, intense tourism pressure, and discharge of detergents and phosphates. The reefs of Eilat are considered to be in a 'critical state' (Wilkinson 2004), but elsewhere in the range of this species, reefs are likely to be less threatened. Crown of Thorns Starfish is a localized threat. Overall, these localized threats do not appear to be driving rapid population declines (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
155303		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species.
155303		distribution	eng	<em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em> is known from a unique holotype found at 9°23 N, 89°32 W (Nielsen and Larsen 1968) found in the central eastern Pacific, off the coast of central America.
155303		habitat	eng	<em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em> is thought to be bathydemersal, as the only specimen collected was taken from a depth of 3,570 m.<br/><br/>Most species within the Alepocephalidae family can be found near the benthos above oceanic ridges and the continental slope.
155303		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em>.
155303		threats	eng	It is not known if <em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However these is no known directed fishery for species within the family <em>Alepocephalidae</em>. It is unknown whether it is likely to be taken as a by-catch species due to the lack of information on the habitat and distribution of this species.
155304		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found to occur in a number of marine protected areas around the west and north coast of Australia.
155304		distribution	eng	<em>Pomacentrus milleri</em> occurs off northern Australia from Rottnest Island to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
155304		habitat	eng	<em>Pomacentrus milleri</em> inhabits inshore rock and coral reefs mainly on rocky substrates.  This species has been found to a depth of 6 m.
155304		population	eng	<em>Pomacentrus milleri</em> was found to be one of the most abundant <em>Pomacentrus</em> species in a survey of the Jurien Bay Marine Park (Potter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is one of the most common pomacentrids along the west Australian coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).
155304		threats	eng	Species within the genus <em>Pomacentrus</em> are often utilised for the aquarium trade, however there is no record of this species being harvested for the trade. <br/><br/>A study by Watson<em> et al.</em> 2007 found that even if not directly targeted, the abundance of this species was altered by fishing activity within its region by altering the community species composition. This is not considered a major threat to this species as fishing activity is not known across this species entire range.
155305		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oneirodes luetkeni</em>. <br/><br/>Further research into potential major threats, the ecology, distribution and abundance of this species is needed, as little information is available at present.
155305		distribution	eng	<em>Oneirodes luetkeni</em> has been found in the Gulf of Panama.
155305		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes luetkeni</span> is an angler fish, referred to as amongst the most primitive of its family (Pietsch 1969). It has been captured at depths of 1,750 m (Castellanos-Galindo <em>et al.</em> 2006), but its depth range is not known.
155305		population	eng	There is no population information currently available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes luetkeni</span>.
155305		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes luetkeni</span>.
155306		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em>.
155306		distribution	eng	<em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em> is known only from the Notsuke-suido Channel, off the east coast of Hokkaido, Japan.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 742 km².
155306		habitat	eng	The sculpin, <em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em>, is a demersal species found in coastal marine waters at a depth range of 15–157 m. It is found on sandy and mud bottoms. The congener, <em>Ricuzenius pinetorum</em>, is approximately 6 cm (SL).
155306		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em>.
155306		threats	eng	The region from which this species is recorded is not known to be subjected to pollution or any other activities likely to affect this species' habitat, and there are no trawl fisheries in the area (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).
155307		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, and to determine the extent to which it may be impacted by threats such as pollution and by-catch.
155307		distribution	eng	<em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em> occurs in the northwest Pacific off the coast of Hachijôjima, Japan. It is also found in the South China Sea, in the coastal waters of Taiwan.
155307		habitat	eng	<em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits temperate waters.&#160; Its depth range remains unknown, but species from the <em>Scorpaena</em> genus occur at depths of 1–800 m.&#160; Its congeners, <em>S. cardinalis</em> and <em>S. cookii</em>, are both inshore species that occur on rocky reefs (FAO 1999).&#160; The maximum size of <em>S. hatizyoensis</em> is unknown, but <em>S. cardinalis</em> reaches a size of 38 cm (FAO 1999).
155307		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em>.&#160; However, its congener, <em>S. cardinalis</em>, is reported to occur commonly in a wide range of habitats in areas of its range in Australia (Edgar 2000).
155307		threats	eng	<em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em> may be threatened by pollution and intensive fishing, which occur in parts of its range.&#160; It is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in some areas of its range.&#160; However, at present, these threats are not thought to be causing any significant population declines.&#160; Its congeners, <em>S. cardinalis</em> and <em>S. cookii</em>, are of no importance to commercial fisheries, but are both fished locally for food (FAO 1999).
155308		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas in the Pacific,  including 13 sites around New Caledonia all of which are strict 'no-take' areas to conserve biodiversity (Lovell <em>et al</em>. 2004). Monitoring of the harvest levels and habitat status of this species is needed.
155308		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the tropical waters of the central Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001) from the Philippines, east to the Pitcairn Islands (UK), and Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) north to the Northern Marianas Islands and Hawaii (USA), and south to New Caledonia and Queensland (Australia). The species is found at a depth range of 15-60 m.
155308		habitat	eng	It can be found on the foreslope of coral reefs and clear lagoons. This species, which forms harems of three to seven individuals, feeds on algae and is secretive and stays near shelter.
155308		population	eng	<p>This species is considered to be common to abundant, with relatively stable populations (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
155308		threats	eng	This species is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade (FAO 1999). It is frequently taken, although individuals are of relatively low value (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It is only taken in a few areas of its broad geographic range. This species has been bred in captivity. This species may also be impacted by coral reef degradation, caused by destructive fishing practices, coastal development and tourism. However, this is a localized threat only and much of the suitable habitat in this species range is in relatively good condition.
155309		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Isacia conceptionis</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.
155309		distribution	eng	The Cabinza Grunt, <em>Isacia conceptionis</em>, is found from Peru to Chile.  It has also been reported from Nicaragua (Sánchez 1997).
155309		habitat	eng	The Cabinza Grunt occurs over rocky and sandy bottoms and has a depth range of 0-50 m. This species is dominant in shallow rocky subtidal areas (Angel and Ojeda 2001). Its diet consists of small crustaceans, polychaetes and algae.
155309		population	eng	The Cabinza Grunt <em></em>has been described as among the most abundant species in this region, both currently and historically (Reitz 2001; Sielfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002;  Vildo <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Angel and Ojeda (2001) found Cabinza Grunt <em></em>to be the most abundant fish species along the northern Chilean coast. It is thought that, like other species in the region, it suffered population declines during El Nino events (Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 2002).
155309		threats	eng	The Cabinza Grunt <em></em>is harvested commercially as a food source. Landings in the Humboldt Current have ranged from between 1,000 to near 7,000 tonnes over the last ten years: 1995 - 3,282.34 tonnes, 1996 - 2,362.11 tonnes, 1997 - 1,701.67 tonnes, 1998 - 2,545.16 tonnes, 1999 -&#160; 6,119.10 tonnes, 2000 - 3,361.92 tonnes, 2001 - 3,244.06 tonnes, 2002 - 3,842.05 tonnes, 2003 - 2,882.75 tonnes, 2004 - 3,158.12 tonnes. While there are annual fluctuations in the landings of this species, there is no obvious decline assuming the catch per unit effort has remained relatively constant. Fluctuations in the landings of this species might be attributed to El Nino events.
155310		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span>. However, the distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas, including several in Bermuda and the Bahamas. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species, to try and establish the full range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> in the Pacific. Monitoring of this species, its threats and harvest levels is needed, to determine if commercial harvesting and coral reef degradation will have a negative impact on the population of this species in the future.
155310		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> is found in the western Atlantic and is distributed from southern Florida and Bermuda, to Brazil (Lavett-Smith 1997). This species has also been found off the coast of Tumaco (Colombia) in the eastern Pacific. However, this distribution in the eastern Pacific should be verified (Lavenberg and Chernoff 1995).
155310		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> is found in subtropical shallow waters over coral reefs. This species feeds on zooplankton and is found in large schools.
155310		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> is common in coastal waters of the northwestern Atlantic (Suarez-Morales and Aviles-Torres 2003).
155310		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats known to this species. However this species is associated with coral reef habitat, which is threatened by coral bleaching, tropical storms, hurricanes, coral disease, over fishing, water pollution and population pressures in many parts of its range in tropical America.</p>
155311		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Raconda russeliana</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas.
155311		distribution	eng	<em>Raconda russeliana</em> is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific from the eastern coast of India, to Singapore and the Java Sea.
155311		habitat	eng	<em>Raconda russeliana</em> is a pelagic species, typically found in coastal and estuarine waters.&#160; The depth range of this species is unknown, but like other clupeids, it is likely to occur in the shallow photic zone.&#160; This species mainly feeds on prawns and copepods.
155311		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Raconda russeliana</em>.
155311		threats	eng	<em>Raconda russeliana</em> is rarely seen in catches (Whitehead 1985), but is marketed in local trade as a salted fish.
155312		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Tomicodon australis</em>.
155312		distribution	eng	<em>Tomicodon australis</em> is known only from Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina on the southeastern coast of Brazil.&#160; As this species inhabits a high energy, rocky shore environment that is difficult to sample, this species is probably more widely distributed in Brazil than currently known (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155312		habitat	eng	<em>Tomicodon australis</em> occurs in shallow surge zones on rocky shores (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
155312		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Tomicodon australis</em>.
155312		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting <em>Tomicodon australis</em>.
155313		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Canthigaster leoparda</em>.
155313		distribution	eng	<em>Canthigaster leoparda</em> is an Indo-Pacific puffer fish, distributed from Christmas Island and Indonesia (Moluccas to Bali) to the Philippines and Guam. Also present in the Cook Islands.
155313		habitat	eng	<em>Canthigaster leoparda </em>is commonly seen in caves of deep coral drop-offs (Sadovy and Severin 1992).
155313		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Canthigaster leoparda</em>.
155313		threats	eng	<em>Canthigaster leoparda</em> has no known major threats.
155314		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for P<span style="font-style: italic;">seudocheilinus ocellatus</span>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.
155314		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</em> is found in the western south Pacific, including Pitcairn Islands, Tuamotu Archipelago, Rapa, Austral Islands, Society Islands, Johnston Islands (not Hawaii), Marshall Islands, Wake Island, Caroline Is. Also in Fiji, Loyalty Is, Coral Sea, Ryukyu Is and Ogasawara Is. (Randall 1999), Tahiti, Vanuatu, Australia, Cook Is., Line Is, French Polynesia, Micronesia, New Caledonia (Froese and Pauly 2009).
155314		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</span> lives in depths between 20–60 m on coral reefs. It is a cryptic species, and prefers darker areas of the reef (Randall 1999; Munday 2005). It lives in deeper water than other congeners (Randall 1999). This species can be found in caves and overhangs of drop-offs (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
155314		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</em>. This species is cryptic, and is therefore difficult to study.
155314		threats	eng	<em></em>There are no major threats known for <em>Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</em>, although it is collected for the aquarium trade, but not commonly traded.
155316		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius</span>.&#160; Although its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006), enforcement of fishing regulations in these areas is negligible.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to confirm anecdotal evidence of population decline due to fishing pressures and the disappearance of large individuals.
155316		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius</span> is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is found near central Baja California and in the Gulf of California.&#160; The most northwestern record on Baja California needs verification, as a continuous distribution from that record to the tip of the peninsula is suspect.
155316		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius </span>is present in coastal areas at the mouth of estuaries and in brackish water habitats, on soft substrates, at depths to 95 m (Galván-Magaña et al. 2000).
155316		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius</span> is relatively common throughout its range.&#160; However, there has been a decline in mean size of the larger individuals of this species in fishery catches.
155316		threats	eng	<p>This species is commonly caught as by-catch in shrimp trawling activities (Pérez-Mellado and Findley, 1985) and is also directly fished in localised areas (e.g. Puerto Penasco and Bahia Kino in Mexico). Research is needed to address the suggesting evidence of population decline due to fishing pressures and the disappearance of large individuals.</p>
155317		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Flathead Perch.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.&#160; Further research and monitoring of its habitat status, population numbers, and potential threats is needed, as little information is currently available.
155317		distribution	eng	The Flathead Perch<em> (Rainfordia opercularis</em>) is an Australian species distributed around Western Australia and Queensland.
155317		habitat	eng	The Flathead Perch<em> </em>is a secretive, sub-tropical species, found inshore in caves of coral reefs.&#160; Species from the Serranidae family are benthic species and most are found at depths of less than 200 m (FAO 1999).
155317		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Flathead Perch.
155317		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the Flathead Perch is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There are some localised incidents of habitat degradation within this species' range, due to Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and damage from tropical storms, but these are unlikely to be acting as major threats.<br/><br/>It is also possible that this species is taken for the aquarium trade as the sub-family Liopropomatini are known to be of value in this trade (FAO 1999).
155318		conservation	eng	In 1986, the Canarian Government imposed a minimum length of capture (15 cm total length) for the Archipelago (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There are no other known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Serranus atricauda</em>.  However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including Selwo Marine Park off southern Spain.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest and habitat status of this species is needed.
155318		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species in the Mediterranean.   It occurs in marine protected areas in France and Morocco.
155318		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Serranus atricauda</em> extends along the coasts of Europe and west Africa from the Bay of Biscay in the north eastern Atlantic to the Azores, Mauritania and the Canary Islands, the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, Algiers and southern Spain (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2000).
155318		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to Morocco southwards to Senegal and Guinea Bissau, including Madeira and Cape Verdes. It is rare to uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea and is only present in the western basin with records from Port Cros (France) and the coasts of Spain.
155318		habitat	eng	<em>Serranus atricauda</em> is a demersal species that is found over rocky substrates from the subtidal zone to depths of 150 m (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is a generalist species, predominantly feeding on crustaceans and smaller fish. Spawning can take place throughout the year (García-Díaz <em>et al</em> 2006). <em>Serranus atricauda</em> is a hermaphrodite and maturation occurs at 4 years old (Costa 1997). The species is highly territorial (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004).
155318		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found over hard and corallagenous substrata. It is carnivorous (Smith 1981). It occurs at depths of 5-90 m (Louisy 2002).
155318		population	eng	<em>Serranus atricauda</em> is described as relatively abundant but likely to have declined (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Densities of this species have been recorded as 0.04 individuals per 250m<sup>2</sup> in Cabo de Palos Marine Protected Area and 0.3 individuals per 250m<sup>2</sup> in Cabo de Gata Marine Protected Area (Charton <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Significant decreases in catches have been recorded around the Canary Islands since the second half of the 1980s (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004).
155318		population	eng	This species is rare or uncommon in the Mediterranean.
155318		threats	eng	<em>Serranus atricauda</em> is one of the species targeted by the local semi-subsistence fishing industry around the Azores, of which the main catching methods are rod and line from near-shore boat, and coastal nets (Moranto <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Its near-coastal habitat is likely to have been degraded by pollution from human settlements, including agricultural run-off and sewage.<br/><br/>While this species is considered to be relatively abundant (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2000), human fishing pressures have impacted the abundance of this species in islands around the Canarian Archipelago. In the same area, two larger serranid species have been severely overfished and stringent management measures for the area have been recommended (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species is commercially harvested throughout its range.
155318		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It occasionally occurs in markets. This species is mainly caught by longline, spear fishing, and trammel nets. It is fished by some artisinal fishermen in Morocco (O. Kada pers. comm. 2007).
155319		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span>.&#160; Further research is needed on the potential threats to this species, to determine the impact that fishing activity is having on the population.
155319		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span> has been found in the Red Sea and off India.
155319		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span> is a deep-water, benthic gobiid, commonly trawled from depths of 434–496 m (H. Larson pers. comm. 2008).
155319		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span>.
155319		threats	eng	There is no known commercial trade for <span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span>.&#160;  However, many of the countries surrounding the Red Sea have experienced a rapid unsustainable increase in fishing pressure and some countries' marine resources have suffered from over-exploitation (FAO-FIGIS 2007).&#160; Although there is no information suggesting that this species has declined as a result of this activity, it may occasionally be taken as by-catch, or be suffering habitat degradation from trawling activity.
155320		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nannobrachium gibbsi</em>.
155320		distribution	eng	<p>This species has a suggested south tropical semi-subtropical distribution, widespread from the southern half of the Tropical and northern half of the South Pacific Subtropical regions (<span lang="EN-GB">Zahuranec 2000). The distribution of this species occurs slightly north of the equator; there is no consistent variation in extreme eastern and western Pacific ends of this species range (<span lang="EN-GB">Zahuranec 2000). The are no confirmed identifications of this species west of 160<sup>o </sup>east in the Tropical Pacific region (Paxton, J. pers. comm. 2009).</span></p>
155320		habitat	eng	<em>Nannobrachium gibbsi</em> is a bathypelagic species.&#160; Most species of the family Myctophidae migrate vertically to the upper 200 m at night and are opportunistic carnivores, feeding mainly on crustaceans (FAO 1999).
155320		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannobrachium gibbsi</span>.
155320		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannobrachium gibbsi</span>.
155321		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Helcogramma decurrens</em>.&#160; It is likely that this species occurs in a number of marine protected areas around the south and west coasts of Australia, affording it some protection from harvesting.
155321		distribution	eng	<em>Helcogramma decurrens</em> is known from the coastal region of Western and South Australia.
155321		habitat	eng	<em>Helcogramma decurrens</em> is a bottom-living blennioid species, typically found on rocky substrates covered in algae.&#160; It occurs in the subtidal to intertidal zone, and has been recorded at depths of up to 13 m.
155321		population	eng	Fricke (1994) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Helcogramma decurrens</span> as quite common.
155321		threats	eng	<em>Helcogramma decurrens</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, but tis is not thought to represent an major threat to the species.
155322		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectrogenium nanum</em>.
155322		distribution	eng	<em>Plectrogenium nanum</em> is  known from Japan, Taiwan, New Zealand, the Kermadec Islands, New Caledonia, Hawaii, and Madagascar.&#160; This species probably has a more widespread distribution than is currently described (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).
155322		habitat	eng	<em>Plectrogenium nanum</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; It has been collected from a depth range of 250–650 m.
155322		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Plectrogenium nanum</span>.
155322		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Plectrogenium nanum</span>, although it may be taken as by-catch in some areas of its range.
155323		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em>.<br/><br/>Further surveys need to be made within this species appropriate habitat to determine level of abundance.
155323		distribution	eng	<em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em> is known from eight specimens found near Madagascar and in the Saya de Malha Bank, western Indian Ocean.
155323		habitat	eng	It is believed that <em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em> has a preference for rocky outcrop areas. It has been collected at a depth range of 140-190 m.
155323		population	eng	<em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em> is only known from eight specimens. The few recorded specimens is likely to be a result of inadequate sampling (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
155323		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be undergoing a rapid decline in population numbers (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). Its preference for rocky outcrop areas protects it from fishing activity. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by pollution or coastal development.
155324		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis orcadensis</span>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, distribution, abundance, and threats to this species is needed.
155324		distribution	eng	<em>Paraliparis orcadensis</em> is only known from a few specimens found around the Southern Orkney Islands in the Scotia Sea.
155324		habitat	eng	<em>Paraliparis orcadensis</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been collected at a depth of 1,253 m.
155324		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis orcadensis</span>, as it is only known from a few specimens.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).
155324		threats	eng	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis orcadensis</span> is being impacted by any major threatening processes.
155325		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Ogcocephalus pumilus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous marine protected area designations, including seven in Suriname and 31 around the Bahamas (Wood 2007).<br/><br/>Further research into the population size, ecology, and potential threats to this species is needed, as little information is currently available.
155325		distribution	eng	<em>Ogcocephalus pumilus</em> is found in the western central Atlantic off the coast of Suriname, and in the Caribbean Sea.
155325		habitat	eng	<em>Ogcocephalus pumilus</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 35-348 m. Most species from the Ogcocephalidae family occur well offshore on mud or sand bottoms (FAO 2002).
155325		population	eng	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ogcocephalus pumilus</span>.
155325		threats	eng	Species from the Ogcocephalidae family are rarely eaten and there is no commercial fishery for them (FAO 2002). While in the Caribbean Sea, there are significant impacts from over-fishing of reef resources, oil pollution, and land erosion leading to siltation as a result of deforestation (NOAA 2003), it is considered unlikely that these are acting as major threats to <em>Ogcocephalus pumilus</em> at present.
155326		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Eastern Wirrah, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park in Victoria, Australia.
155326		distribution	eng	The Eastern Wirrah, <em>Acanthistius ocellatus,</em> is found along the eastern coast of Australia from southern Queensland through to New South Wales and eastern Victoria.  Its range also includes the coast of northern Tasmania and Lord Howe Island.
155326		habitat	eng	The Eastern Wirrah is found in a range of reef habitats, in caves and crevices of rocky reefs from near-shore rockpools and estuaries, to further offshore. This species has a depth range of 4-100 m.
155326		population	eng	The Eastern Wirrah is one of the more common large fishes on deeper New South Wales reefs (Edgar 2000).
155326		threats	eng	While the Eastern Wirrah is not harvested commercially, it is often caught using hook and line by recreational fishermen. It is not known what impact this is having on population numbers of this species, however there are no reports of this species suffering any significant declines and this is therefore unlikely to be acting as a major threat at present.
155327		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the Gulf of California.
155327		distribution	eng	The Lizard Triplefin is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is found in the western and central eastern Gulf of California.
155327		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores and steep slopes to depths of 40 m.
155327		population	eng	This species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan 1983). In Los Islote, Gulf of California, this species was considered to be both frequent and abundant (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).
155327		threats	eng	This species is not known to be impacted by any major threats.
155328		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em>.&#160; Its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, but the extent of protection that these provide is unclear at present.<br/><br/>In order to determine if this species is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future, further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, and potential threats.
155328		distribution	eng	<em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em> has been found in waters around Tanzania, the Philippines and Australia.
155328		habitat	eng	<em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em> is a deep benthic species (J. Tyler pers. comm. 2008) and has been found at a depths of 183-194 m. Species from the Triacanthodidae family usually occur on flat, sandy, or weed-covered bottoms, and feed on bottom invertebrates (FAO 2001).
155328		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em>.
155328		threats	eng	<em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em> may be experiencing localised threats, but is unlikely to be severely impacted across its broad range.&#160; The Triacanthodidae family are marketed, but are of little commercial importance (FAO 2001).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range, particularly in Tanzania where the major fishing areas are fully exploited.
155329		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Ophichthus altipennis</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas,  including several in Japan.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology of this species, in order to better understand the impact of potential threats.
155329		distribution	eng	<em>Ophichthus altipennis</em> has a patchy distribution from Japan, south to northern Australia, and east to the Marshall Islands.
155329		habitat	eng	<em>Ophichthus altipennis</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Species of the family Ophichthidae have muscular cylindrical bodies which are well adapted for burrowing, and many species spend most of their adult lives buried in the bottom sediment (Smith and McCosker 1999).&#160;  This species has a depth range of 0–40 m.
155329		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>Ophichthus altipennis</em>.
155329		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Ophichthus altipennis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.
155330		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pomadasys maculatus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch levels, the extent of harvest, and habitat status of this species is needed.
155330		distribution	eng	<em>Pomadasys maculatus</em> is found throughout the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, and in the western Pacific from China and Taiwan, south to Australia.
155330		habitat	eng	The grunt, <em>Pomadasys maculatus</em>, is an amphidromous species that is found in coastal inshore waters at a depth range of 20–110 m.&#160; It inhabits sandy bottoms close to reefs, open bays, trawling grounds, and estuaries (FAO 2001).&#160; It feeds on crustaceans and fishes.
155330		population	eng	<em>Pomadasys maculatus</em> is commonly found on prawn trawl grounds (FAO 2001).
155330		threats	eng	<em>Pomadasys maculatus</em> is fished commercially and is taken by bottom trawl, handline, set net, trap, and spear (FAO 2001).&#160; It is also likely that this species is taken as by-catch by prawn trawl fisheries operating within its range.<br/><br/>This species may also suffer localised declines due to habitat degradation and pollution.
155331		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population and on the distribution of this species. The species is protected under the French law.
155331		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is found in the Siagne and the Loup valleys, in the Alpes-Maritimes.
155331		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
155331		population	eng	There are no population data available.
155331		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown. This species might be impacted by the ongoing urbanization in this region and by all the activities from the increasing population.
155333		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries; it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
155333		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries; it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.
155333		distribution	eng	Following the recent revision of the ?Bufo viridis? complex by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006), populations of green toads now allocated to Pseudepidalea viridis are distributed through much of Europe (excluding much of Fenno-Skandia, the British Isles, almost the whole of Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and almost all of Europe west of the Rhine River) eastwards to Kazakhstan. Populations of green toads from the southern tip of Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany were provisionally identified as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006), however it is possible that populations of <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> are also within these areas. The species of green toad on the island of Malta is unclear, and is retained here in <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> pending further research. Populations of green toad from the Eastern Mediterranean countries, and much of Central and Middle Asia are now largely allocated to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006). Populations from North Africa are now included within <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri</em>. Populations of green toads from the Balearic Islands (Spain), Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy) and much of mainland Italy are now recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea balearica</em>. Green toad populations from Sicily, Italy, now mostly comprise the endemic <em>Pseudepidalea sicula</em>, with some populations of <em>Pseudepidalea balearica</em> in the northeast of this island. The status of green toads in Israel, Jordan, Sinai (Egypt) and of the isolated, relict population in the southern Hadramaut in southwestern Saudi Arabia is currently unclear, and it is possible that these populations should be included within either <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> or <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri </em>pending further review.
155333		habitat	eng	This species lives in a wide range of forests, forest steppe, scrubland, grassland and alpine habitats. Animals may be present in modified areas including urban centres (e.g. Bucharest), city parks and gardens - and often benefits from disturbed habitats. Spawning and larval development occurs in a diverse range of temporary and permanent waterbodies including swamps, ponds, lakes, pools in streams and rivers, reservoirs, ditches and puddles.
155333		population	eng	This species is still considered a relatively abundant to common species over large parts of its range, although populations formerly recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> are rare or declining on the fringes of its range in Europe (e.g., Denmark and Sweden). It is extinct in Switzerland despite re-introduction efforts.
155333		threats	eng	The main threat over much of the range (most especially in the north) appears to be the loss of breeding habitats through wetland drainage, desiccation and aquatic pollution (industrial and agricultural). Populations might be locally declining due to mortality on roads.
155334		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions taking place.&#160;It is believed that the majority of population occurs in Slovakia, but the present data does not show this and more species specific surveys are needed to confirm this.
155334		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Slovakia and Czech Republic,  where it is known from 12 sites in Slovakia  and 18 sites in the Czech Republic.&#160;     <p>As yet there have been no systematic surveys for this species in Slovakia, although there are sites in the Slovak part of the White Carpathians mountains (Biele Karpaty Protected Landscape Area) that may hold the species. Formerly the species was recorded only at 3 sites in the Czech Republic, but recent field investigations confirmed its occurrence at 18 sites situated on the Czech side of the White Carpathians mountains (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/></p>      <p>  </p><p></p>
155334		habitat	eng	It is a crenobiotic (dependent on springs) species living in springs, wells, drainage systems and other subterranean waters.
155334		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends of this species.
155334		threats	eng	The species is restricted to cave systems, and as such it is vulnerable to changes in hydrological regimes and water pollution. It is also vulnerable to habitat degradation through human use of the cave systems and water abstraction.
155335		conservation	eng	There are no known coservation actions.
155335		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca </span>is found in Germany, Austria, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Czech Republic in the Alpine-Carparthian region, possibly extending to Ukraine. Boeters (2008) noted that <span style="font-style: italic;">B. austriaca</span> (Frauenfeld, 1857) lives in springs of tributaries of the Danube and that tributaries with springs inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">B. austriaca</span> flow into the Danube roughly between the more upstream situated drainage area with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bavarica</span> and the more downstream situated drainage area with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. schmidtii.</span> It was mentioned from Romania, but recent studies indicate that these records were in fact other <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species (Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <br/><br/>There are 4 subspecies currently recognised by Gloer (2002):<br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca austriaca</span> (Frauenfeld, 1857) : <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca conica</span> (Clessin, 1910):&#160; In Oberbayern and Austria<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca ehrmanni</span> Pax, 1938: Poland and the Czech Republic<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca pavovillatica</span> Canon, 1937: the Czech Republic
155335		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155335		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca&#160; </span>is a widely distributed species. No data are available on population trends.
155335		threats	eng	The species is not considered to be threatened with extinction, but there are threats to the springs where the species is found, such as pollution of water (agricultural sources) and overabstraction of water for domestic supplies and agricultural use (water for stock and irrigation for crops).
155339		conservation	eng	This is a nationally protected species in France. More research on the taxonomy and the distribution range is needed.
155339		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix vitrea</em> is endemic to France where it is recorded from much of the Rhone valley: Departments of Ain, Isère, Rhône, Drôme and Ardèche. It is widespread in the region, however, the records from the subpopulations the area of&#160;Drôme and Ardèche are uncertain in terms of their&#160;taxonomic status.
155339		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean karst waters.
155339		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species.
155339		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Overexploitation of the aquifers may lead to reduction in the water-levels, leading to a degradation of the habitat quality.
155340		conservation	eng	It is protected by law in France. More research on taxonomy and population size and trends is needed.
155340		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Rhône valley, southern France. It is only known from one aquifer, on each side of the Rhône river.
155340		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155340		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155340		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic sources &#160;(sewage and run-off) or agricultural&#160;sources&#160;(nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides). Lack of water in the aquifer changing habitats and ranges maybe another threat if the aquifers become overexploited.
155342		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are proposed.
155342		conservation	eng	None known.
155342		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> is listed as </st1:place></st1:country-region>Near Threatened (CK map, version 5.3.8) in the Italian Red List, based on scattered localities in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place> (14 localities).&#160; Habitat monitoring would be recommended for this species, to assess whether it would meet the Near Threatened status in the future. &#160;</p>
155342		distribution	eng	It is recorded from the Atlantic coast of Europe and Mediterranean France, as well as Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco in Africa.
155342		distribution	eng	<p>Bank <em>et al</em> (2009) gives the range as <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Malta</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is rather localised in the distribution, but widely scattered.&#160; In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> it was lost from 4 sites since 1900’s, and hence it is currently viewed as Near Threatened in the Italian Red List. <br/></p><p>In the Mediterranean, it is also known from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco in Africa.</p>
155342		distribution	eng	The species was recorded from the Atlantic coast of Europe and Mediterranean France, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
155342		habitat	eng	Crenobiont that lives in rivers, streams, ponds, plain streams, water with high levels of organic matter, and is more resistant to pollution and organic load than other related species. It has recently colonized groundwater in wells and lost its pigmentation. When the surface waters dry out, this species follows the water down into the wells (Ghamizi 1998).
155342		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span> has been found to inhabit   coastal streams and rivers.
155342		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont. Also lives in rivers, streams, in ponds, plain streams, water with high levels of organic matter, and is more resistant to pollution and organic load than other related species. Has recently colonised ground water in wells and lost its pigmentation. When the surface waters dry out, this species follows the water down into the wells (Ghamizi 1998).
155342		population	eng	Its populations are abundant.
155342		population	eng	The population status for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span> is currently unknown.
155342		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
155342		threats	eng	In Italy,     the currently known threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span> are pollution of&#160; river waters and habitat degradation at the coast due to urbanisation and land use change.
155342		threats	eng	No major future threats have been identified to the species.
155342		threats	eng	None known.
155347		conservation	eng	The species has been previously assessed as Conservation Dependant, and this species requires protection of the habitat as well as restoration of habitats to lessen the impact of fragmentation.
155347		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary islands, where it is found on area along the coast and southern slopes of the Anaga Mountains of Tenerife (North-east of Santa Cruz). The range may extend north onto the peninsula beyond San Andreas (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).
155347		habitat	eng	This species occurs in typical lowland vegetation of piso baso.
155347		population	eng	There are some impact on the northern populations, as the range is fragmented by the city of San Andreas.
155347		threats	eng	This species is declining due to urbanisation and tourism activities.
155358		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Balearic Catalogue of Threatened Species and of Special Protection under the category of species "of special interest" (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerocrassa claudinae</span>). This category provides a management plan for the species. It is recommended that a Plan of conservation is drawn up for the species. It is also  necessary to control the indiscriminate collection of specimens by  collectors.
155358		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balearic island (Spain) of Mallorca, where it is restricted to  the north of the island, in the northern half of the Serra de  Tramuntana.
155358		habitat	eng	<p><em>Xerocrassa moraguesi</em> is found from the sea level up to 450 m altitude in the mountainous region of Pollensa. It is found in shrub land and under stones (Graack 2005). It is also found in pine forests.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
155358		population	eng	The population size of this species is not known, but studies suggest that it is not easy to find live specimens.
155358		threats	eng	The threats to this species are fires, anthropogenic pressure from tourism and collecting, urban expansion, recreational activities, extension of roads,  temperature extremes and  drought.
155359		conservation	eng	Much of its distribution falls within protected areas (Maciço Montanhoso Central da Ilha da Madeira&#160;Site of Community Importance). &#160;Resurveys are needed at the last known sites to establish if this species is still extant, as recent forest fires and storms may have lead to damage of the laurisilva forest remnants.
155359		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, it is only found on the summit areas of central Madeira at the extreme end of Ribeira do Santa Lucia and Pico Arreiro (Seddon 2008). This species was relocated after surveys in these valleys in 1994&#160;(Seddon 2008) and has a restricted range of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
155359		habitat	eng	This species occurs in remnant patches of laurisilva forest, with some rocky outcrops. The species was found within leaf-litter on crags and at base of trees.
155359		population	eng	There is no recent data to establish trends, although habitats were stable until recent fires in summit regions in August 2010.
155359		threats	eng	The area of habitat is at present very small and as such vulnerable to events that destroy habitat such as storms, grazing and forest fires. Over 8500 ha of habitat were lost in the fire in August 2010, and the impact on this species is unknown. Reseeding has commenced in January 2011, however this species, which requires plant cover for feeding and habitat may have been severely impacted by the fires.
155466		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are known for the area.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155466		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pontobelgrandiella nitida</span> is endemic to Bulgaria and is restricted to 2 freshwater springs, one in Polaten and the second in Glozhene in the district of Teteven in Bulgaria (Stara Planina Mountains).&#160;<p>Even though, the location of the 2 sites where this  species is present are only few kilometres outside the border of the  Mediterranean biogeographical region, this  species is considered here as Mediterranean . This decision has  been taken based on climatic and geological similarities of the region  with the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>.</p>
155466		habitat	eng	This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in caves). It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).
155466		population	eng	There is no data present on the population trends of this species.
155466		threats	eng	<p>A possible threat could be the pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave in the future.</p>
155467		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the species taxonomy, its population, biology, ecology and the potential threats to the population.
155467		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the basins of the river Ob (except Irtysh) and the river Yenissei, in Western Siberia, Russia (Starobogatov et al. 2004 in Kantor et al. 2009). The species is very common in northern parts of Siberia (M. V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011). Korniushun (1996) mentions this species from the Pechora basin (north-east part of European Russia).
155467		habitat	eng	This is a reophilic species. It inhabits large rivers with strong currents and sometimes is found in artificial water reservoirs. This specis prefers sandy substrates (Korniushin 1996).
155467		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population trends of this species. Dolgin (2001) states that this species is rather common and abundant in Northern Siberia. In some waterbodies its abundance reaches 1,000 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
155467		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although it is suggested that Siberian waterbodies are not threatened significantly. However, this suggestion should be corroborated by quantitative studies of abundance and distribution.
155468		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii </span>are known and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155468		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine regions of Lombardia, where it is present in at least 23 locations in an area that covers about 140km x 60km.
155468		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span> is found in the groundwaters within rocks.
155468		population	eng	There are no known data trends for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span>.
155468		threats	eng	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span> inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli et al., 2000).
155469		distribution	eng	Originally Fauna Europea listed <em>Marstoniopsis insubrica</em>&#160;for Italy and Switzerland and&#160;<em>Marstoniopsis scholtzi</em>&#160;for NW Europe, along the Atlantic coasts. Both species are now considered to be the same species, and hence the distribution is merged.&#160;In UK <em>Marstoniopsis insubrica&#160;</em>&#160;is very localised, known only from 7 10km squares. and not&#160;recorded alive at any site since 1982 although it was thought to be&#160;native in Southern England, it was introduced into Canals near Manchester in early 1900’s (Kerney, 1999). &#160;In Italy known from scattered locations throughout northern Italy. In Poland and Germany, a few subpopulations were studied by Falniowski & Wilke (2001).
155469		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis insubrica</span> inhabits lentic and lotic freshwater systems, lakes, rivers and estuaries.
155469		population	eng	No data is available on the population trend for species <span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis insubrica.</span>
155469		threats	eng	There are no known threats for species <span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis insubrica.</span>
155470		conservation	eng	<p>There is no data available on specific conservation actions for this species. Taxonomic research is needed to confirm the species limits as well as research to determine the impact of disturbance of the habitat on this species.<br/></p>
155470		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is found in the Ukraine and Russia, where it is restricted to the estuarine waters of the   Dniepr River system (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>) (Anistratenko and Stadnichenko, 1995) and the Don River system (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) (Son pers. comm., 2009).
155470		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuarine parts of large rivers.
155470		population	eng	There is no data is available on population trends for this species.
155470		threats	eng	<p>Threats are caused, mainly through changing habitats caused by human activity within the catchment basin. There is an ongoing programme of construction of dams and irrigation systems in the river catchments of the Rivers Dnepr, Dniestr, Don and Danube; as well as channel management construction connected to navigation for large boats in the Danube, Dnepr and Dniestr. </p>
155471		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.</p>
155471		distribution	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia karamani </span>is present in a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).&#160; The known AOO is 2 km<sup>2</sup>, but the potential AOO is estimated as less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, based on possible habitats. <strong></strong></p>
155471		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in freshwater in rocky areas in surrounding sublacustrine springs where it lives on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species (Hadzisce 1956) . </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155471		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia karamani</span> is a very rare species, and given the cryptic habitat it is difficult to record during surveys.
155471		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa Lake are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>  <p></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155472		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring water quality would enable the status of the species to be monitored, as it is sensitive to water pollution.<br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>
155472		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Micropyrgula stankovici</span> is recorded from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid where it is found in </st1:placename>the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but at most sites where it is recorded it is present in low abundance.<br/></p>  <p></p>
155472		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater lake species which is restricted to the sublittoral zone.
155472		population	eng	This species is found in low abundances (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
155472		threats	eng	The changes in the habitat quality within the sublittoral zone are not very well studied, and as such the knowledge base relates to generic threats to the lake. At present deforestation in the water catchment leads to erosion and increasing sediment load, which is thought to impact the habitats of this small freshwater gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is also contaminating the water of the lake, leading to declining water quality.
155473		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. more research is needed on the taxonomy, population and distribution.
155473		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella samecana </span>is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Radoman (1983) lists the locality for this species as Plava voda, a large spring and brook in Travnik town and suggests that Clessin's spring "<span style="font-style: italic;">Sameca</span>" cannot be found near Travnik. In 2009 this species was found by Z. Erőss and Z. Fehér in the type locality (Z. Feher, pers. comm. 2009).
155473		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and streams.
155473		population	eng	<p>In 2009 this population seemed to be not very abundant (Z. Feher pers. comm. 2010). Only the first ca. 200 metre section of the stream was searched (after that it flows through private land), and this species was found only within a short (3-5 m) section and was not very abundant.</p>
155473		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella samecana</span> may be restricted to a spring and outlet streams which is&#160;now exploited as a tourist site. &#160;Many of the banks are now artificial, and the creation of the walls as well as the management of the sites may well have a detrimental effect on the species, and as such the species may be threatened.
155474		conservation	eng	The conservation actions are unknown for this species. Research is required on the taxanomic status, distribution and threats to this species.
155474		distribution	eng	This species is found in Romania and Ukraine, however the main range where it has been described from the middle and southern Caspian Sea; 30-81 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968) (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). According to Ciobou (pers. comm. 2010) the species is not extant in the Black Sea, being only recorded as subfossil shells.
155474		habitat	eng	This species is found in muddy bottoms in various habitats, slightly   brackish waters in the limans, at various salinity and depth ranges.   This species is commonly found living on species from the Family   Dreissenidae (the species lays it's eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissenidae byssus</span> threads and hence are found only in Family Dreissenidae habitats typical for the Azov-Black Sea Region).
155474		population	eng	The current population trends for this species are unknown, however not known living in Europe, only in Black Sea.
155474		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155475		conservation	eng	As this species is widespread and not in decline, it is not considered necessary to list any recommended conservation actions for this species.
155475		conservation	eng	It could re-establish in sites which are conserved, but these don't exist currently. It's a beautiful (charismatic?) species.
155475		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No&#160;conservation actions&#160;are required for this&#160;species&#160;at&#160;present.</p>
155475		conservation	eng	The species could re-establish in sites where it is conserved, but these don't exist currently. It is a good looking species that is considered charismatic.
155475		conservation	eng	The species could re-establish in sites where it is conserved, but these don't exist currently. It's a good looking species considered charismatic.
155475		distribution	eng	&#160;This holarctic species is present in the Mediterranean, where it is more widely distributed on the northern parts of the region, whereas in the southern part in northern Africa, it is confined to a few populations in the plains of the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. The most southerly populations in Europe are found in suitable habitats in Spain, Italy, the Mediterranean islands and the Balkans. In South-west Asia, it is recorded from Jordan, Syria, Asiatic Turkey and Lebanon.<br/><br/>The reference from Egypt (Brown 1980) appears to be erroneous (see Brown 1994, Van Damme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160; 2010)
155475		distribution	eng	A widespread species distributed in Asia (central, north and south and southeast), north America, north Africa and New Zealand.&#160;This species also has a widespread European distribution, occurring in all European Mediterranean countries (Yueying Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979)
155475		distribution	eng	This holarctic species has a widespread European distribution, occurring in all European countries. &#160;Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Is. (Denmark), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Reported from the former country of Yugoslavia (total list of countries unknown), Croatia, Ukraine, Greece (including Andikíthira Island, Evvia Island, Ionian Islands, Samothráki Island, Northern Sporades Islands, Thásos Island)&#160;&#160;The species also occurs in south-west Asia (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey and Israel) where Lebanon marks the southern limit of the species' distribution in this region.
155475		distribution	eng	This holarctic species is present in northern Africa, where it is confined to some populations in the plains of the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. It is known only from a few places. The reference from Egypt (Brown 1980) appears to be erroneous (Brown 1994). Historically it was found in Egypt (in tombs/ temples). In Morocco, it is present in three or four locations, where it has been identified as problematic for disease. Many dead shells were found.
155475		distribution	eng	This is a Holarctic species. In northern Africa the species is confined to some populations in Morocco (Atlas mountains, but not in mountains, it is in the plains) in only a few places. The reference from Egypt (Brown 1980) appears to be erroneous (Brown 1994). It was historically found in Egypt (within tombs/temples). In Morocco it is present in three or four locations, and is problematic for disease.
155475		habitat	eng	It is considered to be a problem for disease as it is vector of <em>F. hepatica</em>. It lives on standing and slow running waters as well as temporary pools, lakes and shallow areas.
155475		habitat	eng	The species is found in large permanent water bodies with clean water, slow-flowing rivers, canals, drainage dykes and lakes. Occasionally found in temporary habitats or closed ponds, but not typical habitats.
155475		habitat	eng	The species is found in large permanent water bodies with clean water, slow-flowing rivers, canals, drainage dykes and lakes. Occasionally found in temporary habitats or closed ponds, but not typical habitats (Kerney 1999).
155475		habitat	eng	This species can be a problem for disease - vector of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. hepatica</span>. It is found in standing and slow running waters and temporary pools. It is found in lakes, shallow areas.
155475		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slow or still waters, such as the edge of pools, streams, <span class="definition">reservoirs, amongst others. They like muddy sand or crushed stone bottom, and feed on diatoms, aquatic plants and the remaining tissue of other gastropods.<span class="definition"><span class="definition"> The species can be transported by birds, in part&#160;accounting&#160;for its very wide&#160;distribution.</span>
155475		population	eng	No detailed information on population status or trends is available at the European level, and although there are localised declines, the species is believed to be stable.
155475		population	eng	No information available.
155475		population	eng	No information on population status or trends has been recorded. Although there are localised declines, the species population is believed to be stable.
155475		population	eng	There is no trend data for the region, but in the northern part of the range is not known to be significantly declining.&#160;It is considered to be a vector of&#160;the sheep liver fluke&#160;<em>F. hepatica</em>.
155475		threats	eng	In north Africa the two major problems are water pollution and loss of water due to over-asbtraction of water for irrigation and domestic supplies. There are also problems in some parts of the range with the waste water causing sewage pollution. In the future increased frequency of drought and raised temperatures could impact water flow regimes throughout the Mediterranean zone. However there is a potential rescue effect through return as migrating water birds can carry it from the northern European populations, if suitable habitats remain.
155475		threats	eng	It is a widespread species with no major species-specific threats.
155475		threats	eng	Pollution is the biggest problem together with water abstraction. Drought and raising temperatures are causing climate change. There is a potential rescue effect through return as birds carry it, but the habitats quality it needs is disappearing so even if it comes back, it probably won’t be able to establish, due to agricultural expansion and pesticides pollution. There are also problems with the waste water causing sewage pollution.
155475		threats	eng	Pollution is the biggest problem to this species, along with abstraction of water. Climate change is impacting it with reduced rainfall and increased temperatures. It could return as birds carry it, but the habitats it needs are disappearing so even if it comes back, it probably can't establish, because of agricultural expansion and pesticides. Its habitats are also threatened by waste water (i.e. sewage pollution).
155475		threats	eng	There are localised threats through the region due to water pollution (nitrates and sewage pollution) and loss of water due to over-abstraction of water for irrigation and domestic supplies.&#160;In the future, increased frequency of drought and raised temperatures could impact water flow regimes throughout the Mediterranean zone.
155476		conservation	eng	No information available.
155476		conservation	eng	None in place. It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
155476		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Data is needed on taxonomic status, as well as populations, distribution and threats to enable a conservation assessment for this species.
155476		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been reported from Ethiopia (Brown 1994). The type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been reported from northern Egypt, possibly also Italy.
155476		distribution	eng	The species is present in Egypt, Ethiopia and possibly Italy (Brown 1994). It has only been collected from 3 sites in northern part of Egypt, where it was rare: Alexandria, Ismailia and Suez. Its type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.
155476		distribution	eng	This species is known from Uganda and Kenya, as well as having been recorded from Ethiopia and Egypt. There is one record for the southern tip of Italy, but this needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded as widespread in Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has only been collected from three sites in the northern part of Egypt, where it was rare: Alexandria, Ismailia and Suez.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Ethiopia (Brown 1994).
155476		distribution	eng	Under the name <em>F. wauteri </em>this species has been recorded throughout Europe, usually as occasional  sightings in each country. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) reported it from <span lang="FR">Latvia,  Poland, Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France  (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech  Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Bulgaria,  Romania, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Albania, Slovenia, reported from the former country of Yugoslavia (current country unknown),  Ukraine, Greece (mainland), North Aegean Islands (Vóreion Aiyáion; Greece). The records from Italy were of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. clessiniana</span>.&#160;&#160;<span lang="FR"></span>
155476		habitat	eng	Different habitats. Spread by birds therefore the distribution is changeable. Live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny. Lives on papyrus leaves. River species.
155476		habitat	eng	It is present in different habitats and spread by birds therefore its distribution is changeable. It lives in rivers and lays on all kinds of freshwaters, e.g., stagnant waters. It is very easily overlooked due to its very small size. It lives on papyrus leaves, being found in some parts of the Nile Delta.
155476		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal  pools and irrigation channels. According to van Damme (pers. comm. 2009) it can be found in reasonably polluted  lakes as well as cleaner water.
155476		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
155476		population	eng	No information available.
155476		population	eng	This species seems to be expanding through Europe.
155476		threats	eng	No information available.
155476		threats	eng	No information on threats to the species.
155476		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are unknown. This species seems to be expanding and seems able to tolerate mildly polluted water and disturbed habitats.
155476		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
155477		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place.
155477		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are currently needed.
155477		distribution	eng	This species is found from Germany, Czech Republic, Ukraine, Poland and Slovakia and the range extends to Siberia (Glöer and Vinarksi 2008) . In Germany there are a few sites in Eastern Germany. In the Czech Republic, it is known from two sites in the Elbe Lowland (Beran pers. comm. 2008). The presence in these sites has been confirmed three times in the last 10 years, as there is an active monitoring programme (Beran pers. comm. 2009).
155477		distribution	eng	This species is found from Germany, Czech Republic, Ukraine, Poland and Slovakia and the range extends to Siberia (Glooer & Vinarksi, 2008) .&#160; In Germany there are a few sites in Eastern Germany.&#160; In the Czech Republic, it is known from two sites in the Elbe Lowland (Beran pers. comm. 2008). The presence in these sites has been confirmed three times in the last 10 years, as there is an active monitoring programme (Beran, pers. comm., 2009).
155477		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in &#160;temporary lowland pools on&#160;wetlands.
155477		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155477		threats	eng	The species is not considered threatened across it's range, although the habitats where the this species is found are susceptible to agricultural disturbance and changes in river channel positions on the floodplain and presumably higher than normal flooding events.
155477		threats	eng	The species is not considered threatened across its range, although the habitats where the this species is found are susceptible to agricultural disturbance and changes in river channel positions on the floodplain and presumably higher than normal flooding events.
155478		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, although habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended, to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species, as it is difficult to collect given the cryptic habitat and the low population density. A full survey of all hydrobid species in Bosnia and Hercegovina would be timely in view of the range restricted nature of these species.
155478		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Bosnia-Herzegovina (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006; &#160;Fauna Europea project) where it is restricted to a single site, a cave at Čepelica near Bileća (Sket pers. comm. 2010).<strong> </strong>
155478		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be found in freshwater systems in caves.
155478		population	eng	No recent data on population trends.
155478		threats	eng	Changes to the hydrogeology recharging the aquifer, changing the quality of habitat at the only known site (Sket, pers. comm., 2010)
155479		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed.
155479		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in central and south-east Europe including Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia.
155479		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs
155479		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
155479		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown.
155480		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Research is needed on the distribution and impact of the off-take of water &#160;to this species as this is currently unknown.
155480		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania, where it has only been collected from the freshwater springs of Techirghiol Lake, where it seems to be a rare species as there are only a small number of samples.
155480		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs around a lake. &#160;The lake is highly saline and is used as a resort for health visitors taking the waters.
155480		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155480		threats	eng	There is no data on the threats to this site or species, however the&#160;the lake is used as a resort for health visitors taking the waters, so it is possible that the water supplies for the hotels use the spring for water or the groundwaters supplying the springs, and as such the species may be vulnerable to over abstraction of water from the springs or their feeder sources.
155481		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.</p><strong><br/></strong>
155481		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
155481		habitat	eng	<p>This freshwater species occurs in the littoral zone occurs at the northern and southern sandy beaches of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, as well as in sandy patches along the rocky eastern and western shoreline.</p>
155481		population	eng	This species is found at suitable habitats in high abundances.
155481		threats	eng	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. As a result of this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the highly human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing the suitable habitats for this species. <br/></p>
155482		conservation	eng	Research should concentrate on expanding the known range and monitoring the known habitat to determine any threats that may be impacting. If no further sites are found the known location should be protected by sensitive management.
155482		distribution	eng	<em>Iglica maasseni </em>is endemic to Greece, where it was described by Schütt (1980) from the Islands. It is only known from the type locality at Kalavarda, Rhodes.
155482		habitat	eng	The species was found in freshwater springs however, the species is probably present in the groundwater feeding the spring.
155482		population	eng	The population trend is unknown.
155482		threats	eng	There is no data on threats to the species, however there is tourism in this&#160;village which could be considered as a potential threat. The species is probably present in the groundwater feeding the spring.
155483		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pezzolia radapalladis</span> is not a protected species in Italy, but one site lies in a protected area. There is a <a href="http://www.wwf.it/UserFiles/File/Ecomediterraneo/Progetto%20Toscana/Docdef2008-2009/DOCUMENTO_TARGET_TERRESTRI_maggio2009.pdf">WWF </a>document promoting the conservation of the region, which includes this species, as a notable species requiring protection (WWF 2009). More research on the trends of the population and the habitat is needed.
155483		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is found at three locations: three valleys in the region of Liguria (Rapallo, Camogli and Avegno), all within 10 km² (Bodon <em>et al.</em> 2001).
155483		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species found in groundwater and springs.
155483		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.   The exact status of population is unknown, although the species has been collected on a regular basis from outflows in the area of Rapallo.
155483		threats	eng	The main threats to the species lie in changes to the groundwater, such as pollution (agricultural sources or domestic sources) and over abstraction of water for domestic supplies. Some of the outflow points may be disturbed during improvement for the off-take of water (habitat degradation)&#160;(Ruffo and Stoch 2006, Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em> 2000).<p><em></em></p>
155484		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Croatian List of Threatened Species, however there are no known actions for this species. Further data is required to enable a conservation assessment, including distribution, population trends and threats.
155484		distribution	eng	This species was described from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there are two subspecies known, one from Croatia and the other from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
155484		habitat	eng	This is thought to be a species found in freshwater springs.
155484		population	eng	There is no known data on population trends of this species.
155484		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
155485		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known for this species. More research on taxonomy is needed.
155485		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vinodolia vidrovani </span>was listed by Fauna Europea for the former country of Yugoslavia. Kabat (1993) noted that this was a recent species found in freshwater springs at Vidrovan, 9km of north of Nikšić Town.&#160; Radoman (1983) lists many springs in the area of Nikšićko polje, Uzduh and another spring in Glibavac village, two springs in Rastoci village and others in the basin of Lake Skadar [Scutari], Montenegro.
155485		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155485		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155485		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
155486		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however the species is present in a disturbed habitat, and as such surveys should be carried out to determine if the species is still extant at both sites and habitat management is needed to ensure these are not impacted by pollutants. Population monitoring would identify potential declines of this species.
155486		distribution	eng	<p><em>Bythinella zyvionteki </em>is only known from two localities less than <st1:metricconverter productid="10 km" w:st="on">10 km</st1:metricconverter> apart from each other, near Checho in Kraków-Czstochowa Upland, in Poland.</p>
155486		habitat	eng	<p>This is a freshwater spring species found on stones in the area of Jurassic limestone formations.</p>
155486		population	eng	There is no recent information available on populations and trends.
155486		threats	eng	The species is situated at the fringes of a urbanized and heavily polluted industrial area of coal and ore mining, and zinc and lead metallurgy; it may also be affected by agricultural pollution (nitrates).
155487		conservation	eng	This species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.
155487		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella cylindracea&#160;</span> is endemic to France, where it is only recorded from the department  Aube.
155487		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155487		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155487		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155488		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. The conservation of this species at this site would be improved with an educational awareness campaign about the site and its importance for the species. A programme of systematic habitat monitoring to pick up changes in the micro-climate and changing habitat quality is recommended.
155488		distribution	eng	<em>Paladilhiopsis pretneri</em>&#160;is endemic to Croatia, where it is only found in one location, a cave system at Velika spilja iznad zaseoka Antunavici, at the edge of the Biokovo Nature Park.
155488		habitat	eng	This species is present in freshwater subterranean habitats restricted to a cave system.
155488		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155488		threats	eng	The site is close to a Natural Park, but doesn't lie within the protected area and there is little or no disturbance in the cave. There is a small village below the site, but it is not currently impacting the cave (Janzic pers. comm. 2009).
155489		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that are impacting this species as well as further survey data on the population status.
155489		distribution	eng	<em>Plagigeyeria montenigrina</em> is&#160;endemic to Montenegro, known only from the type locality, a spring in Obodska Pećina cave near Rijeka Crnojevića, area of Skadar Lake. &#160;Not found in recent surveys in the springs of the surrounding areas (Pesic pers. comm. 2009)
155489		habitat	eng	Subterranean karst waters.
155489		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155489		threats	eng	Seepage of waste water into underground waters that are the habitats for this species.
155490		conservation	eng	Conservation actions are not known, however, this species requires more research on population trends, distribution and threats.
155490		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to               central Slovenia; where it is found along Sava River east of Ljubljana. Only dead shells have ever been recorded (Sket pers. comm. 2010).
155490		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat for this species.
155490		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
155490		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155491		conservation	eng	Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review as this species has been identified on basis of shell morphology, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity.
155491		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxurinator orthodoxus</span> is endemic to Montenegro, known only from the type localities (Sources of River Zeta near Straganik and Tunjevo).
155491		habitat	eng	This species is found in Rheocrenic springs, possibly subterranean.
155491		population	eng	No information available on population or population trends for this species.
155491		threats	eng	This species is only known from the type locality.&#160; This spring has been captured for it's water.&#160; In the upper part of River Zeta the problem is infiltration of waste water from local industry of Nikšić city; furthermore the water in upper part of the river Zeta is used for hydro-power “Perućica” (the most important one in Montenegro) which greatly influenced water level regime in the summer period. This has lead to declining quality of habitat since the species was first described.
155492		conservation	eng	No actions are known to be in place for this species, although the valley is in a protected area,   (UNESCO World Heritage Site, for the Railway which uses the valley) and the species is listed for state level protection. Conservation actions are required to prevent run-off into the spring and  to maintain groundwater levels for the species at this site and further  surveys are required to establish if the species is restricted to this  site, and finding other subpopulations would reduce the threats to this species.
155492		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from Austria, where it is restricted to one spring in a limestone valley in the Kalte Rinne (in the Adlitzgraben), west of Schottwien, in state of Lower Austria (Glöer 2002, p.116; Reischutz and Reischutz 2009).</p>
155492		habitat	eng	The species was recorded from a small brook leaving a freshwater spring (Reischutz 2010 pers. comm.), not from underground sources as speculated by some researchers.
155492		population	eng	The current population status at the site is unknown.
155492		threats	eng	Upstream of the site is a recreation centre and this is causing  pollution downstream which is impacting the spring<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> (Reischutz pers. comm. 2010). Further threats come from <span id="result_box" class="long_text">water table reduction (causing the springs to dry out temporarily) and contamination of the groundwater (mainly agricultural sources) Resichutz and Reischutz (2009).</span>
155493		conservation	eng	Further research is required to establish if this species is still extant at the island sites and whether any taxonomic changes will change knowledge of the distribution. If sites are found where the species still exists, then conservation plans will need to be put in place for habitat protection and monitoring. This species was listed by Regnier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) as extinct, however the basis for this assessment was absence at the type locality, so the assessment as Extinct was not based on a full assessment of the range.
155493		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and was described from 'Attika'; Falniowski (pers. comm. 2009) considered that this referred to springs in the vicinity of Athens. Schütt (1980) listed springs in Athens, Kifissia, Pereas, Marathon and Phaleron, but Swarowska and Falniowski (pers. comm. 2009) considered that these sites were now lost . The species had also been recorded from Vravona, however this spring was changed, after a deep and broad drainage ditch was dug through it (Falniowski pers. comm, 2009).<br/><br/>Schütt (1980) also listed sites on Apikia (Insel Andros); Wulakias, Hermopolis (Insel Syra); Argolis, Epirus, (Insel, Milos); Xirokastello, (Insel Zakynthos); Vasiliki, (Insel Levkas); Sidari (Insel Korfu), however there is no data on the status of these subpopulations.
155493		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species.
155493		population	eng	The population status of the species at the site near Athens is unknown, since the spring habitat has been changed. The population status' of the other subpopulations is also unknown.
155493		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the loss of habitat through changes in water courses and urbanisation around major cities.
155494		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation actions are in place for this species. Research actions include further research to monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
155494		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Europe, and Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list it from Norway, Sweden, Latvia, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Finland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sicily (Italy), Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Greece (mainland), and possibly Croatia.
155494		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in lentic waters (standing or still waters) but is also present in small water bodies which are susceptible to drying out.
155494		population	eng	The current population trends are not known, but are believed to be stable.
155494		threats	eng	There are no specific threats across the range of this species, but there are localized threats due to degradation of habitats from changing river channel management and water pollution from agricultural sources (nitrates).
155495		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155495		conservation	eng	This species is widespread and highly invasive, so there are no proposed conservation actions in place for the species.
155495		distribution	eng	This species is native to the drainage basins of the Black, Caspian and  Aral Seas (Birnbaum 2006). It is a highly invasive mussel, and has  spread throughout Europe, to southern Scandinavia and Britain, east into  Eurasia and south to Turkey via shipping canals. Rather than a natural  migration, this spread has been human-mediated and therefore this  species classes as an alien in these regions (Birnbaum 2006).
155495		distribution	eng	This species is native to the drainage basins of the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas (Birnbaum 2006). It is a highly invasive mussel, and has spread throughout Europe, to southern Scandinavia and Britain, east into Eurasia and south to Turkey via shipping canals. Rather than a natural migration, this spread has been human-mediated and therefore this species classes as an alien in these regions (S. Nehring pers. comm cited in Birnbaum 2006). This species has also been discovered in Lake St. Clair in the Laurentian Great Lakes region (in 1988), and has since spread throughout North American freshwaters (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004).<br/><br/>Two subspecies are included: <em>D. p. andrusovi</em> (Andrusov 1897), which is restricted to the northern Caspian Sea; and <em>D. p. aralensis</em> (Andrusov 1897), occurring in waterbodies adjacent to the Aral Sea (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
155495		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of habitats, from freshwater to  oligohaline (low salinity) waters in rivers, estuaries and coastal shallows of large brackish lakes (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). In introduced regions it has been found at depths of below 60 m (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). It is most abundant on hard surfaces in calm waters upstream of dams (Birnbaum 2006). <br/><br/>Due  to its bio-fouling properties, especially of ship hulls and industrial  intake pipes (Birnbaum 2006), this species has had strong negative  economic consequences in countries to where it has spread. It also has  ecosystem-level impacts, including out-competing native taxa, slowing  down eutrophication, and biodeposition, although these seem to manifest  themselves towards the beginning of an invasion (Birnbaum 2006).
155495		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of habitats, from freshwater to oligohaline waters in rivers, estuaries and coastal shallows of the Caspian Sea and other large brackish lakes (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). In introduced regions, it has been found at depths of greater than 60 m (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). It is most abundant on hard surfaces in calm waters upstream of dams (Birnbaum 2006). <br/><br/>Due to its bio-fouling properties (especially of ship hulls and industrial intake pipes, Birnbaum 2006) this species has had strong negative economic consequences in countries to where it has spread. It also has ecosystem-level impacts, including outcompeting native taxa, slowing down eutrophication, and bio-deposition, although these seem to manifest themselves towards the beginning of an invasion (Birnbaum 2006).
155495		population	eng	This species can attain huge densities in parts of its range, sometimes up to 40,000 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Birnbaum 2006).
155495		threats	eng	This species is widespread and highly invasive and is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats.
155495		threats	eng	This species is widespread and highly invasive, so is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats.
155496		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however habitat monitoring and  further surveys to determine the geographical range of this species would  be recommended.
155496		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from from province Huesca in northern Spain:  <p>· 0.5km North of Villareal de la Canal, Rio de Marjones, Province Huesca (UTM grid square XN734236).<br/></p><br/><p><br/></p>
155496		habitat	eng	This species is found in interstitial water. Living animals are sympatric with <em>Moitessieria serveini</em> in interstitial waters of a river bed.
155496		population	eng	There is no information on population trends for this species.
155496		threats	eng	There is no data available on threats to this species, but there are probably generalised threats from groundwater abstraction and pollution.
155497		conservation	eng	&#160;Habitat monitoring is required. No current conservation activities are put in place.
155497		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is   known from one locality in South Dobridza, Black Sea  Coast. According to Bodon (pers. comm. 2009), this species has not been found since 1960 and so the current status is uncertain.
155497		habitat	eng	It is a troglophilic species, which means that it <span class="style1">can live either inside or outside a cave, which is living in a deep well at the seaside.
155497		population	eng	There is no data about the population size of the species.
155497		threats	eng	<p>The pollution as an outcome of agriculture and domestic activities using the well water where this species occurs. A high touristic pressure may be a threat on this species.<br/></p>
155499		conservation	eng	More research needs to be carried out on distribution and threats to this species.
155499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia edlaueri</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> is restricted to <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Bosnia and Herzegovina<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> and Croatia.&#160; It was originally known from from three springs in the Neretva River delta. Schütt (2000) reported that it could be found frequently in outwash from the spring at Ombla, near Dubrovnik (Croatia), and he assumed that it should be found elsewhere in the Popovo Polje.</span>
155499		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater cave systems.
155499		population	eng	There is no data on populations for this species.
155499		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155500		conservation	eng	This species has no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on the population and distribution in Romania, and threats to the species in these localities.
155500		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum carpathica</span> is an endemic of the Carpathian Mountains (Ukraine and Romania). The species was first described from a spring below the Hoverla refuge, on this mountain, which is the highest peak in the Ukraine. It has not been re-found there since, despite searches during the last 20 years. In the Ukrainian Carpathian this species is also found in wells in the Danube Basin (Polischuk and Gerasevitch 1986). In addition it is found in several habitats in the Romanian Carpathian (Grossu and Negrea 1963, 1984; Grossu 1986; Glöer and Sirbu 2005), so it is no longer regarded as restricted to Hoverla.
155500		habitat	eng	This species is described from a freshwater springs, but is likely to be a subterranean species.
155500		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155500		threats	eng	The original type locality wasn't well circumscribed, and hence the threats are difficult to assess, however the likely threats are very small as there are few visitors to the area. The other sites include wells and springs and Son (pers.comm. 2010) considered that there is some habitat degradation, particularly due to tourist traffic.
155502		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for the species.
155502		distribution	eng	Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) regarded the range as restricted to Austria, Germany, Bulgaria, Slovakia and Czech Republic. This species has been spilt from <span style="font-style: italic;">Radix balthica</span>, and appears to be endemic to the Danube Basin.
155502		habitat	eng	This species lives in ponds, rivers and lakes.
155502		population	eng	There is no-Europe wide data showing decline, although there are localised declines, it is considered stable over Europe. However, its exact population is not known.
155502		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.&#160; There are likely to be localised declines due to habitat loss and water pollution but these are not thought to be impacting the species at the European Level.
155503		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although some localities will lie within protected areas, as lagoonal habitats are protected in some countries. More knowledge is needed on the species distribution, life history and ecology.
155503		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from France, Spain as well as the Atlantic Islands. Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) described it as widely distributed on the Atlantic coast, from La Rochelle (France, Paladilhe 1877) to Cadix (Spain), Ria de Arosa (Galicia, Cadée 1968 in Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and Tanger (Morocco, MNHN, leg. Gofas). It is likely to be widespread on the Atlantic shoreline from France to Morocco at 4 detailed recorded locations. Due to a lack of research, further sites need to be added to the range in Spain and Portugal to improve the map.
155503		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in coastal areas, on the edge of lagoons, within interstitial waters on the stony areas of beaches, sometimes covered by salt-tolerant vegetation.
155503		population	eng	There is no specific data on population status.
155503		threats	eng	This species lives in a restricted habitat that is often modified for recreational purposes or for industrial development, however given the widespread distribution only parts of the population are impacted by these threats.
155504		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. This species requires more research on population trends and threats.
155504		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Croatia and Bosnia & Hercegovina. There are two subspecies currently recognised:<br/><em>Plagigeyeria nitida&#160;nitida </em>known from hinterland of Metković in Bosnia & Hercegovina and Croatia<em>.<br/></em><em></em><em>Plagigeyeria&#160;nitida angelovi </em>is<em>&#160;</em>restricted to&#160;Croatia, where it is restricted to the Ombla source (rivers Dubrovnik) in Dubrovnik (Schutt 1972, 2000; Bole and Velkovrh 1986 cited in Croatian Red List, 2010, in press)
155504		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits in freshwater karst cave habitats.&#160;</p><p>The only detailed information from Croatia is for the subpecies from Ombla, where it is not known whether species inhabit the fast-flowing cave streams or stagnant waters (Slapnik pers. comm. 2010)</p>
155504		population	eng	There are no data available on population trends.
155504		threats	eng	No threat information are available for this species, however the subspecies <em>angelovi</em> is threatened at the Ombla site. Hydroelectric operations in the area of Popov fields have decreased the flow of underground water and there is a threat to groundwater pollution with contamination from waste water and solid and liquid municipal waste, due to landfill in the area.
155505		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures known to be in place and none are considered necessary.
155505		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) record the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Latvia, Poland, Lithuania, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Balearic Islands (Spain), Portugal (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Ukraine.<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) note the species has a range extending to western Siberia.
155505		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly in lowlands and basins, in pools, oxbow lakes, ponds, wetlands and along rivers
155505		population	eng	The current population trend of this species is unknown.
155505		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
155506		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for the species. More data is required on population trends, distribution and habitat trends, especially to conduct survey work at other times of the year, than the times when water levels are low to establish whether this species is extinct at the type locality and whether it is still extant at the other site.
155506		distribution	eng	This species is known from Croatia, where it was first described from the freshwater parts of the Zrmanja River&#160;and later recorded from the the lower parts of the Neretva river between Kula and Opazen (Radoman 1983). Recent surveys on the Zrmanja River have failed to find the species (Falniowksi pers. comm. 2009) although there are reports that the habitats are still present. There is no data on the status at the second site on the Neretva River.
155506		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers, close to estuaries (Radoman 1983).
155506		population	eng	There are no recent records of the species at the type locality in spite of searches.
155506		threats	eng	There has been a change in river flow management due to damming which has affected the habitat quality.
155507		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, although habitat monitoring is recommended to pick up future changes and any acceleration in rate of habitat change due to water abstraction.
155507		distribution	eng	<p><em>Belgrandiella bureschi </em>is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found in the Karst spring at the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">village</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Bankya</st1:placename></st1:place>, Tran district (close to the Serbian border). The total area of the site is unknown. </p><br/><p></p>
155507		habitat	eng	Only known from a single cave where it occurs in thermal karstic spring, 19.6° C in Bulgaria, near the village of Bankya (Tran district) not far from the Serbian border. It should be noted that there are 2 villages in Bulgaria with the same name (Bankya).<strong></strong>
155507		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
155507		threats	eng	<p>The spring is vulnerable to future threats including different types of pollution as well as possible water capturing for use for domestic supplies.<br/></p>      <strong></strong>
155508		conservation	eng	There are No known conservation actions for this species.&#160; Further research is required on distribution, populations trends and threats, as this species maybe more threatened, if threats are actively impacting sites, or less threatened if more sites can be established showing a wider range.
155508		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, where Radoman (1983) described it as being present in four springs. One spring lies 15 km west of Skopje (spring at Matka Gorge), the other 3 lie further south near Kiceve, on springs near roads to Ohrid and Bitola.
155508		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155508		population	eng	There is no recent data on the populations of this species.
155508		threats	eng	This species is known from four springs, and as such the threats are likely to be changes in the habitat due to extraction of drinking water to supply villages, groundwater pollution by nitrates from agriculture and changes to precipitation recharging the springs and their groundwater supplies with increased frequency of droughts.
155509		conservation	eng	This species is not listed on the Slovenian Red List and no species-specific conservation actions known.<br/><br/>Actions required include:<br/> <ul><li>Further research on population trends and distribution<br/>   </li><li>Habitat monitoring</li><li>Campaign on the awareness of freshwater biodiversity and impact of water extraction and pollution on species especially given the proximity to a road.</li></ul>
155509		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia. <span style="font-style: italic;">Kerkia brezicensis</span> has been recorded just from one site (karstic spring at&#160;the entry to Dvorce village, south-east of Brežice (Slovenia) 33T&#160;WL48 (Bodon and Cianfanelli 1996). This small spring is close to village and the local road.
155509		habitat	eng	This small species is found in freshwater springs close to the road.
155509		population	eng	No population trend data is available for this species.
155509		threats	eng	This small spring is close to village and&#160;the local road and there is the possible threat from pollution of&#160;groundwater from agriculture sources and domestic sources and threat of changes to the site resulting from pollution from&#160;the road or from alterations to the road.
155510		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring is required to detect any future changes in habitat quality. Appropriate land and water management is needed in the area to protect the site from over abstraction of water in the future.
155510		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Spain, where at present it is only known from the type locality in a spring, province Jaen, (el lado Sur de la carretera J 701 Siles-Cotillas, 2km de Siles, Jaén (UTM: WH3850, 900 m ASL)).
155510		habitat	eng	This species lives in groundwaters feeding springs.
155510		population	eng	There is no data on the population status of this species.
155510		threats	eng	The threats to the species are uncertain, however, the general threats to groundwaterand springs in the region is pollution from agricultural sources, and overabstraction of water for domestic and agricultural purposes.
155511		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
155511		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) record the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland,&#160;Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Bulgaria, Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Ukraine, Russia (all), and the Nearctic region.&#160;Kantor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2009) also noted that the distribution extends to central Asia.&#160;In the Nearctic region, the species exists as an introduced species in the east of North America within the St. Lawrence river system (AnimalBase 2011). This species has also been introduced to North America (Kipp 2012). NatureServe (2009) list the species as also present in the states of Kentucky, New York and Vermont, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. However, data for the distribution of this species in the USA and Canada is incomplete and so it is possible that the species has spread further here (NatureServe 2009).<br/>This a widespread species, however distributional information may include a mix of different species (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. ovale </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. nucleus</span>) as in some areas there has been no revision of the distributional data.
155511		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) record the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Bulgaria, Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Ukraine, Greece (mainland). This a widespread species, however distributional information may include a mix of different species (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. ovale </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. nucleus</span>) as in some areas there has been no revision of the distributional data.<br/><br/>Kantor et al (2009) noted that the distribution extends to central Asia.
155511		habitat	eng	This is a common freshwater species that inhabits pools, lakes, rivers and streams.
155511		habitat	eng	This is a common freshwater species that inhabits pools, lakes, rivers and streams. It occurs up to 40 m deep, living on bottom substrate and also on aquatic vegetation, and is tolerant to moderate pollution but not desiccation (AnimalBase 2011). In Britain it reproduces for the majority of the year, usually giving rise to two generations per year, and some individuals may survive the annual cycle (Dussart 1979).
155511		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155511		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
155511		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species. The species is one of the most tolerant freshwater bivalves (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
155512		conservation	eng	This species and its habitat should be monitored.
155512		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> is endemic to Italy and North Western Slovenia, where it is restricted to a small region, c. 70km x 60km, with at least 15 known locations.
155512		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> is found with the groundwaters in karst regions.
155512		population	eng	The population trend for <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> is not known.
155512		threats	eng	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by  anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al</span>. 2000).
155513		conservation	eng	Although the species is on the list of protected species in Croatia, new survey data are required on distribution, population status, habitat trends and threats in order to make a conservation assessment of this species.
155513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, currently known only at the type locality, but further data is required from collections to establish the range.
155513		habitat	eng	This species has not been recently found and as such the habitats and the trends are uncertain.
155513		population	eng	No specimen of this species have been found&#160; recently and as such the population trends are uncertain.
155513		threats	eng	This species has not been recently found and as such the threats are uncertain.
155514		conservation	eng	No efforts are currently in place for this species, although the species is listed as Category 2 on the Red List for the Netherlands (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Research efforts are required on the taxonomy, population trends, habitat quality and an educational awareness campaign for understanding underground biodiversity and threats to it (de Winter 2006).
155514		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and Glöer (2002), the species is found in Belgium, Germany and the The Netherlands. Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) examined the biodiversity of underground habitats of Belgium, and noted that this species has a range covering south-east Belgium (Basin of the Meuse River), south-west Germany (Rheinland-Pfalz), south-east of The Netherlands (South Limburg) and possibly extending into Luxembourg. There are taxonomic reviews underway at present which may change the range of this species.
155514		habitat	eng	This species inhabits groundwaters in karst areas.
155514		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155514		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Although there is no direct information that this species is being impacted, the subterranean habitats where it lives are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.</p>
155515		conservation	eng	<p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. More research is needed on the population trends, and the agricultural pollution coming from the neighbouring area of Prespa Lake needs to be regulated and reduced.<strong></strong></p>
155515		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the feeder springs of St. Naum, near Lake Ohrid, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), which are estimated to have an estimated subterranean area of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
155515		habitat	eng	<p>This is a subterranean species, hence the living specimens are only found when they are flushed from the underground waters into the springs (Radoman 1983)</p>
155515		population	eng	This is a rare species. Recent surveys in the last six years have not found it in the spring, but as this is a subterranean species it is difficult to observe and record in surveys.
155515		threats	eng	Agriculture adjacent to the Prespa Lake is contaminating the water which feeds the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006), which potentially impacts the species.
155516		conservation	eng	No conservation actions targeting the species are in place. In some countries in the southern part of the range it is considered to be a species of conservation interest, as these habitats could be compromised by climate change; in Great Britain this species is listed as Vulnerable, based on few locations (unpublished manuscript, M. Seddon and I. Killeen pers. comm. 2009).
155516		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, given the widespread distribution of this species, it is likely that it occurs within a number of protected areas.
155516		distribution	eng	This species has a holarctic distribution, but is restricted to cold water, either in circumpolar areas, or at high elevations. In Europe, it has mainly a relictual distribution in high altitude lakes, hence it has a scattered range, wide ranging in Scandinavia but localised further south.   It is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) in the Faroe Islands (Denmark), Norway, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Italy (mainland). This is a rare species in Britain, having been recorded only from Snowdonia in Wales, Helvelyn in the English Lake District, and a few locations in Scotland. In Italy, there are three localities. Five localities are situated outside the Alpine area in Germany.
155516		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across North America and Eurasia (Herrington 1962). In Canada, it is found in Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories, as far north as Great Bear Lake (Herrington 1962). In the United States, it occurs in Alaska, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Wisconsin and Washington. It is specifically known from Cayuga Lake in New York; Lake Superior and Lake Michigan (Herrington 1962). In Eurasia, it is found in the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Siberia, as far north as Novaya Zemlya and in Lake Wigry in Poland (Heard 1963, D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011). This species has also been reported in Japan (Ieyama and Takahashi 2004).
155516		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mostly deep oligotrophic waters. It tolerates a lack of calcium. It is found in the profundal zone (below the range of effective light penetration) of large lakes. It occurs mostly in cold mountain tarns and lakes and also in deep lochs at lower altitudes (e.g. Loch Ness). It is adapted to a narrow range of environmental conditions and its optimum temperature conditions are 3.86°C-6.85°C (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
155516		habitat	eng	This species does not appear to tolerate warm water. At the southern extent of its range, it is only found at high altitudes or in deep waters, but is found down to sea level at more northerly latitudes (Herrington 1962). According to Kuiper (1974), <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium conventus </span>is an arctic species which survives in the cold regions of alpine and deep temperate lakes. This species has been recorded at depths of up to 219 m in the Hearne Channel (Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada) and depths of 230 m in Loch Ness, Scotland (Heard 1963). It is most commonly found in alpine lakes and cold-water tarns, but has also been recorded in swamps near Grange-in-Borrowdale, Cumberland, England and at Ward, Montana, in the United States (Heard 1963). This species is found on a range of substrates including stones, sand and mud (Burch 1975). At depth, this species is not usually found in association with any other bivalve species, although in Lake Geneva, it is found alongside <em>Pisidium personatum</em>. At more moderate depths, this species is frequently found in association with <em>Pisidium lilljeborgi</em>, <em>Pisidium subtruncatum</em> and <em>Sphaerium nitidum</em>.
155516		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155516		population	eng	This species is abundant in arctic and alpine lakes, although the distribution is patchy despite being widespread (D.van Damme pers. comm. 2011). Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1993) cite the species as being the most abundant mollusc in deep waters (more than 200 m) in Loch Ness and Loch Morar, but do not give any values.
155516		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known. The species habitat in lakes and tarns is threatened by conversion of the water bodies into reservoirs, but in general, it is unlikely that the lakes in which this species lives are under threat from pollution or drainage. However, their water temperature may be adversely compromised by future climate change.
155516		threats	eng	There are no major threats causing a significant decline in the global population of this species, however it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation and destruction. Considering the main habitat of this species, global warming may consitute a serious threat in future (D.van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
155517		conservation	eng	Within its range this species can be found in some protected areas. In most countries in western Europe this species is considered to be Least Concern, however it is declining throughout the range. In Germany it is placed as category 2 (Endangered), and in Poland category 3 (Rare). In Great Britain it was listed as Least Concern, although the species is currently declining , it is still widespread (Seddon and&#160; Killeen pers. comm. 2010). In the Netherlands it is considered as Least Concern (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In the republic of Ireland it is considered ‘Not Applicable’ (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Slovakia it is listed as Vulnerable (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Switzerland it is considered to be category 2 (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). Research actions include, further research to establish population and habitat trends and to monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
155517		conservation	eng	Within its range this species can be found in some protected areas. In most countries in western Europe this species is considered to be Least Concern, however it is declining throughout the range. In Germany, it is placed as category 2 (Endangered), and in Poland category 3 (Rare). In Great Britain, it was listed as Least Concern, since although the species is currently declining , it is still widespread (Seddon and&#160; Killeen pers. comm. 2010). In the Netherlands, it is considered as Least Concern (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In the Republic of Ireland, it is considered ‘Not Applicable’ (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Slovakia, it is listed as Vulnerable (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Switzerland, it is considered to be category 2 (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). Recommended activities include further research to establish population and habitat trends and monitoring future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
155517		distribution	eng	This large freshwater gastropod is found mainly in Europe to 62°N (Kerney 1999). It has a Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern Scandinavia. It is generally rare in southern Europe. In northern and central Europe it has been recorded from the UK and  Ireland in the west; Norway, Sweden, Latvia, Estonia and Denmark in  North; Portugal in the south; and Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Slovenia  to Greece and Bulgaria in the east.  Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) list the range as Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, Portugal (mainland), Albania, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Ukraine. According to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) it was originally reported from the former country of Yugoslavia but the full country list is uncertain. <span style="font-style: italic;">V. viviparus penthicus</span> (Servain 1884) is listed as a subspecies by Glo<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); ">ë</span>r (2002) that is restricted to the River Elbe, around Hamburg.<br/><br/>Kantor <em>et al</em>. (2009) report the species from Transcaucasia, except for in the extreme north and south of western Transcaucasia.
155517		distribution	eng	This large gastropod species is found throughout Europe to 62°N (Kerney 1999). It has a Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern Scandinavia. It is generally rare in southern Europe. In northern and central Europe it has been recorded from the UK and  Ireland in the west; Norway, Sweden, Latvia, Estonia and Denmark in  North; Portugal in the south; and Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Slovenia  to Greece and Bulgaria in the east.  Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) list the range as Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, Portugal (mainland), Albania, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Ukraine. According to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) it was originally reported from the former country of Yugoslavia but the full country list uncertain. <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus viviparus penthicus</span> (Servain 1884) is listed as a subspecies by Gloer (2002) that is restricted to the River Elbe, around Hamburg.<br/><br/>KAntor et al (2009) report the species from extreme north and south, western Transcaucasia.
155517		habitat	eng	This species is found in a relatively large range of freshwater habitats, particularly large slow-flowing water bodies and avoids places with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999). It lives in a relatively narrow range of deep, clean, calcareous habitats. In some parts of Europe, it is virtually restricted to canals and large, slow-flowing rivers. It is a bottom-dwelling, suspension feeder that is usually found on a muddy substrate.
155517		habitat	eng	This species is found in a relatively large range of freshwater habitats, particularly large slow-flowing water bodies and it avoids places with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999). It lives in a relatively narrow range of deep, clean, calcareous habitats. In some parts of Europe, it is virtually restricted to canals and large, slow-flowing rivers. It is a bottom-dwelling, suspension feeder that is usually found on a muddy substrate.
155517		population	eng	This species can live to 10 years (occasionally more). Currently this species is declining in parts of its range.
155517		population	eng	This species can live to10 years (occasionally more). Currently this species is declining in parts of its range.
155517		threats	eng	The species has been in decline in western Europe due to changes in river channel management practices as well as pollution from domestic and industrial sources and increased levels of phosphates and nitrates due to fertilizer usage (Kerney 1999). The principal threats to the species in the future remain pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging. Mouthon (1996) showed that this species&#160;was moderately sensitive to biodegradable pollution. This species is also distributed in Europe via the aquarium trade (1.75 EUR/ind) (van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
155517		threats	eng	The species has been in decline in western Europe due to changes in river channel management practices as well as pollution from domestic and industrial sources as well as increased levels of phosphates and nitrates due to fertilizer usage (Kerney 1999). The principal threats to the species&#160; in the future remain pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging. Mouthon (1996) showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">V. viviparus</span> was moderately sensitive to biodegradable pollution
155518		conservation	eng	Firstly, research is needed to establish whether this species is valid or whether it is a synonym of the more widespread<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span style="font-style: italic;">O. glabra </span><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span title="Click for alternate translations">O. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">F. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Müller<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, 1774<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155518		distribution	eng	According to Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) this species occurs in France, however we have no record of this from Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2002). <span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">At present there is no distributional data in France, as it is currently treated as as synonym of<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span style="font-style: italic;">O. glabra </span><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span title="Click for alternate translations">O. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">F. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Müller<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, 1774<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">)<span title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155518		habitat	eng	Listed for an etang (small lake) in the Landes.<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155518		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">At present there is no population data in France, as it is currently treated as as synonym of<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span style="font-style: italic;">O. glabra </span><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span title="Click for alternate translations">O. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">F. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Müller<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, 1774<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">)<span title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155518		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown.
155519		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is in decline in parts of the range (Austria and Germany)  and is listed on the German Red List as category 3 (Gefährdet) (Glöer  2002) and on the Austrian Red List as category 2 (Stark Gefährdet)  (Glöer 2002). However no conservation actions are considered necessary at a Global level.
155519		conservation	eng	This species is in decline in parts of the range (Austria and Germany) and is listed on the German Red List as category 3 (Gefährdet) (Glöer 2002) and on the Austrian Red List as category 2 (Stark Gefährdet) (Glöer 2002). There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155519		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Europe (Gloer, 2002; Bank 2004), extending as far south as Turkey (Schütt and Yıldırım<em> </em>2003). It has also been claimed that this species includes <em>Lymnaea danubialis</em> (Schrank, 1803), which would extend the distribution to the northern Caucasus and Rostov Region (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009 version 2.1).
155519		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and central Europe (Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). In Europe it is listed from the Danube River and the Upper Elbe occurring in south Poland, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, and south Germany. <br/><br/>The range may be more extensive to Russia based on synonyms of other species as noted in Kantor <em>et al. </em>(2009)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
155519		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary water bodies in periodically flooded areas, also in other well vegetated slow-moving waters.
155519		habitat	eng	This species is able to occupy a variety of lentic and lotic freshwater habitats, including temporary waters (Jurkiewicz-Karnkowska 2008).
155519		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.
155519		population	eng	This species is generally common (Beran 2007, Jurkiewicz-Karnkowska 2008).
155519		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
155519		threats	eng	This species is in decline in parts of the range (Austria and Germany) possibly due to habitat degradation associated with land drainage for agriculture.
155520		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. The population and distribution status require review, and the taxonomy  would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.
155520		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandiella haesitans</em> is found in Greece, where it is recorded from Lake Trichonis (Albrecht <em>et al</em>. 2009) and from the spring of Louros (Szarowska 2006), five sites from Reischutz & Sattmann (1990), a spring on the eastern outskirts of the southeast Amfithea, a spring at the bridge below Sakellarion, springs at Xerovouni in Monolithion and springs in Mega Peristeri . These sites are from 5 different catchments in the region (see map in&#160;Reischutz & Sattmann (1990)).
155520		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155520		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155520		threats	eng	Although there  are&#160; threats from over abstraction of water and pollution to many of these locations, these threats are not considered to be major.
155521		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. A review of the taxonomic status of this species is needed, and if considered valid, then research will be required on distribution, habitat preferences, populations and threats.
155521		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Switzerland, but was not recognised by Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) in the Atlas of Switzerland.
155521		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat preference.
155521		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155521		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155522		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use for agricultural purposes needs to be drastically reduced. Measures to reduce the contamination from mining should be taken.</p>
155522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Vegoritis and Lake Patron, in the northeastern part of Greece. However, Lake Petron is now so modified by eutrophication and water fluctuation, that it is not a suitable habitat for this species any more.
155522		habitat	eng	This is a littoral species that lives on stones on lake margins.
155522		population	eng	The population of this species shows extreme fluctuations.
155522		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to water level drop (of several metres), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Water abstraction for filling the reservoir of a hydro-power plant is also resulting in additional major fluctuations of the water level (up to 30 m) (Skoulikidis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Run-off from mining in the south reaches the lake through the Pentavrisos River, carrying heavy metals and sediments. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail.
155523		conservation	eng	<p>The wetlands surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Trichonis</st1:placename></st1:place> are a Natura 2000 site                  (GR2310009-Limnes Trichonida kai Lysimachia). An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. The use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides in agriculture needs to be drastically reduced. Research on population trends and distribution is needed.<strong></strong></p>
155523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is known from only the northeast shore of Lake Trichonis near Mirtia (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but it was once found throughout the lake (Radoman 1985). Regnier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) suggested that this species was extinct, based on information in Szarowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005), and although there are dead shells, there are no recent living records of this species (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155523		habitat	eng	<p>This species is described as living on stones in this freshwater lake, but its depth range is unknown.</p>
155523		population	eng	<p>Radoman (1979) reported populations from the northeastern shore near Mirtia, hitherto this species could not be found during recent surveys (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).</p>
155523		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to a drop in water level related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture, is a threat to this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agricultural practices in the neighbouring area is also responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation to this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. The construction of a road along the northeastern edge of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Trichonis</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> has destroyed some of the surface springs adjacent to the lake and construction material washed into the lake and further deteriorated the quality of the habitat of this small snail.<br/></p>
155524		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species is not protected in France. Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review of this species to evaluate the status compared to the other french range restricted species identified on shell morphology. Further data on distribution, threats and populations status.</p>
155524		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France and Spain, where it is local, only known from the Atlantic Pyrenees from St Jean de Luz to close to Bilbao, Spain ( Falkner <em>et al</em>. 2002).
155524		habitat	eng	This species lives in coastal brackish waters.
155524		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species.
155524		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown. However, its habitat is vulnerable to tourism development, pollution and dams.
155525		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155525		distribution	eng	The species is listed for Germany, but was not originally recognised by Glöer and Meierbrook (2003). The species, along with other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella</span>, have been re-established from their synonym. The type locality for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum sterkianum sterkianum</span> in Baden-Wurttemberg is specified by two localities - Epfenhofen am Randen and Grenzach Horn - the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lauterborni</span> only from the <span style="font-style: italic;">locus typicus</span> "well house at Eichstetten am Kaiserstuhl" a site which must be currently regarded as lost (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008). The presence in Switzerland is uncertain, although one location lies close to the border.
155525		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155525		population	eng	There are no population trend data for this species, but one site has been lost.
155525		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155526		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Research is needed relating to its population size and distribution, and to potential threats.
155526		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Portugal, where it is known from: Fonte das Lagrimas, Coimbra and Fonte dos Amores, both in the grounds of&#160;Quinta de Lagrimas&#160;near Coimbra (Nobre 1930).</p><p>Rolan and Oliviera (2009) reviewed the data for this species and noted that the species is still present at&#160;Fonte das Lagrimas, in the grounds of the Quinta de Lagrimas, province Beira Litoral, Portugal&#160;[grid reference NE4849]. They suggested that it was now only present at a single location, although the grounds were recently restored (2004) and the Fonte dos Amores is still present, the estate is now a hotel, so the second spring has not been recently confirmed. Nobre (1930) listed the species for the Rio de Alcabideque, Condeixa, however this record requires confirmation in view of the recent changes with additional new species descriptions.</p>
155526		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs in ornamental gardens, under plants and stones.
155526		population	eng	No data on population trends, although many specimens were taken in surveys in 1998 and 2008.
155526		threats	eng	Both the known sites are springs within in a hotel garden, with active extraction for watering the gardens; one site is now largely artificial with stone walls and troughs, so habitat disruption due to water abstraction is the most severe threat.
155527		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160; The station of Montecatini Thermal Springs is the only known site for the Pistoia region  and has been detected in waste water of one spring, so an intervention would  therefore be desirable to conserve this environment (Cianfanelli, 2009).
155527		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, found in northern Tuscany where it is known for a few springs in Equi Terme and Montecatini Terme (Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2005) in 3 locations, all closely located thermal springs. Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2000).
155527		habitat	eng	This species inhabits thermal spring waters, where it is often difficult to see due to habit of living covered in mud (Cianfanelli, 2009).
155527		population	eng	As this species is restricted to a small population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155527		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2000).
155528		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Research into the population size, distribution and trends, and threats to the species are recommended. Communication to users about the biodiversity of the springs is recommended to prevent the over-exploitation of the water source.
155528		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it was originally found in two meadows (coldwater springs) at Wilhelmstal (near Degenfeld).
155528		habitat	eng	This freshwater snail lives in coldwater springs (10 to 12° C) situated in meadows.
155528		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trends of this species.
155528		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown, but it is vulnerable to the over-exploitation of the water source for domestic purposes.
155529		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species and survey work is required to confirm distribution, population trends, habitat trends and threats to enable a full conservation assessment for the species.
155529		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) from FYROM (otherwise known as Macedonia). There are little data on recent distribution and as such the species is poorly known.
155529		habitat	eng	The species is thought to be a freshwater spring species.
155529		population	eng	There is no recent data on populations of this species.
155529		threats	eng	As the detailed range of the species is not known, the threats to the species are uncertain.
155530		conservation	eng	<p>This species is present in the Galicica National Park (in the   Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia - FYROM). Futhermore, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. The pollution in the watershed should be managed to decrease the ecosystem degradation and the habitat loss for this species.<br/></p>
155530		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is restricted to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) <st1:placetype w:st="on">and Albania, where it is found in the Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> and in the feeder springs of Sveti Naum and Zagorican.</p><p></p>
155530		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater lake species found in the littoral zone, but it can be found in low abundance in the sublittoral zone. It is restricted to hard substrate.
155530		population	eng	This species is abundant and found at many collecting points.
155530		threats	eng	<p>The water quality in the lake is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted. However, these threats are likely to affect only a part of all individuals because this an abundant species in the&#160;littoral as well as the upper part of the sublittoral zone of the lake and some locations are not threatened.</p>  <p></p>
155531		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species and although the underground fauna is protected, it is uncertain whether this species is subterranean.&#160; Further work is need to establish the presence at known sites and whether it is present elsewhere in the catchment.
155531		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, where it was described from the freshwater spring Glogi, Podugrinac at Bribir (Szarowska and Falniowski 2004). Radoman (1983) also listed the species from two closely adjacent springs: Drist spring near Bribir and a spring in the Javor village close to Rijeka. The area of occupancy is 12 km².
155531		habitat	eng	The species is found at freshwater springs.
155531		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends, although it is believed to be lost at one site (Szarowska and Falniowski 2004).
155531		threats	eng	Szarowska and Falniowski (2004) report that in their surveys in 1999, 2001, 2002 and 2004 there was no water in the&#160;freshwater spring Glogi&#160;and so the species is no longer present at this site. The drying up of the spring is thought to have been caused by over-abstraction of water combined with an increased frequency of drought.
155532		conservation	eng	The species is not considered threatened, except towards the southerly limits of the range; in the United Kingdom it is considered to be borderline for Near Threatened (NT), in Germany it is Category 2, in Spain it is Vulnerable (VU B1ab(iii)) (Verdú and Galante 2009). There is little recent survey data for this species, as like most <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium</span> species it is difficult to identify, however, survey data will be required from southern parts of range to determine future trends in the status of this species.
155532		distribution	eng	This species has a holarctic range occurring principally in northern latitudes and in upland areas in more southerly countries. In Europe it is boreo-alpine. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) report the species from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Is. (Denmark) Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Italy (mainland), Spain (mainland) and Ukraine.
155532		habitat	eng	A boreal relict species found mostly in upland areas from small tarns to very large lakes and lochs, but also occurs occasionally in the sheltered margins of swift-flowing rivers and streams (Killeen<em> et al</em>. 2004). This species <em></em> is tolerant of a wide alkalinity range but occurs more often in soft water. The species lives in a wide range of sediment types but unlike most other <em>Pisidium</em> species it also occurs commonly in coarser sandy or gritty substrates.
155532		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155532		threats	eng	In northern countries thus species is not viewed as being threatened, however towards the southern limits, threats include pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, impounding, and changes to flow regimes. The species' habitat in lakes and tarns is threatened by conversion of the water bodies into reservoirs, drainage, pollution from agriculture, forestry and domestic sources, angling activities, and invasive species (e.g. zebra mussels).
155533		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Data is needed on population status at the known sites and habitats require monitoring to assess the current status and monitor changing habitats.
155533		distribution	eng	<em>Turcorientalia hohenackeri&#160;</em>is endemic to Greece, where it is known as two different subspecies, one on the mainland and the other on the islands in the Aegean sea. &#160;There are no recent published records confirming the presence of these subpopulations.<br/><br/>The records for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Turcorientalia hohenackeri&#160;hohenackeri</span>&#160;include 7 scattered localities:<ul><li>Thessalia (central Greece) [in Velestino Makrinitsa&#160;(Mount Pilion), Vrissia (Farsala), Almyros] on island of Euboea (Loutra&#160;Aidipsou) (Schütt 1980)&#160;</li><li>Thraki (north-east Greece) &#160;(a spring near the delta of&#160;Nestos and another spring nearby Paradeisos Nestou)&#160;(Schütt 1980)&#160;</li><li>central and east Makedonia, north Greece [a spring&#160;near the road of &#160;Olympiada-Arnea (Chalkidiki) in 1985), and another&#160;spring nearby Nea Zichni in 1982] (Reischütz 1988)&#160;</li><li>Thasos (north Aegean Sea) (Reischütz 1983)</li></ul>The records for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Turcorientalia hohenackeri&#160;marginata</span>&#160;include 2 scattered localities:<ul><li>Schütt (1980) found it at springs in Avlochades, Aghios Ioannis (north Euboea, Aegean Sea)</li><li>Frank (1987) at springs in&#160;south-east Scopelos (North Sporades, Aegean Sea).</li></ul>
155533		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155533		population	eng	This species has not been recently collected, so there is no data on population trends.
155533		threats	eng	&#160;All the known sites lie in areas which are subjected to anthropogenic pressures such&#160;as water over-abstraction (for water supply and irrigation), construction&#160;of houses and hotels, road works and tourism.&#160;The tourism pressure could be considered as medium to high (according to&#160;the data from Hellenic Tourism Organization (EOT) and the local&#160;authorities (Radea, pers. comm., 2010).
155534		conservation	eng	Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>&#160;(2000) considered the species to be Least Concern in the Italian Red List therefor no specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155534		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pusilla</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the appenninic regions of Tuscany, Lazio, Campania, Puglia, Molise, Abruzzo and Sicily so widespread, but quite localised within the range.
155534		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pusilla</span> is found within <span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>prings and groundwaters in rocks.
155534		population	eng	There is no population data for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Islamia pusilla</span>.
155534		threats	eng	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pusilla</span> inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It is also found in spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155536		conservation	eng	The water catchment for this species lies within a Parque Natural. The recommended activities in the Andalucian Red List include:<br/><br/>1)&#160; Investigation of cave system to locate new sub-populations<br/>2)&#160; Control of the hydrological regime within the cave system<br/>3)&#160; Information board outside the cave giving information about the threatened species and the conservation needs.
155536		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, <span id="result_box" class="long_text">where it is recorded from one site in the region of Andalucia from the Cueva del Gato, a karst cave in the province Malaga (Parque Natural de Grazalema). It is only known from the specimens taken when it was first described by Boeters (1980), since further field surveys have failed to locate additional specimens (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El curso subterráneo del río Gaduares"><span title="Gato, todo ello dentro del Parque Natural"><span title="de Grazalema."> There are two entrances to the cave:&#160; the huge entrance of this cave, Cueva del Gato&#160; is a  river cave of the subterranean river Gaduares.&#160; The other  entrance of the cave is called Boca de Hundidero, also an enormous  portal, about 4km away. This cave entrance at Boca de Hundidero has several paths and  suspension bridges, along with an old hydroelectric dam where the  Compañía Sevillana de Electricidad, tried to dam the river in the 1920's.  The Cueva del Hundidero is a swallow hole, where the waters of the  river Gaduares enters the cave system. The main passage, the  subterranean river bed, is used for trips by experienced pot-holers.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El curso subterráneo del río Gaduares"><span title="Gato, todo ello dentro del Parque Natural"><span title="de Grazalema."> <span title="Este conjunto de cavidades">This set of karst system<span title="comprendido por zonas de depósito de">s has<span title="materiales aluviales, lagos y cascadas ha"> lakes and waterfalls which have only been explored<span title="sido explorado parcialmente ya que incluye"> in part because it includes regions that are hard to get to, and as such the much of the system remains<span title="inexplorados."> unexplored. The extent of occurrence for <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberhoratia gatoa</span> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El curso subterráneo del río Gaduares"><span title="Gato, todo ello dentro del Parque Natural"><span title="de Grazalema."><span title="Este conjunto de cavidades"><span title="comprendido por zonas de depósito de"><span title="materiales aluviales, lagos y cascadas ha"><span title="sido explorado parcialmente ya que incluye"><span title="inexplorados.">is estimated as under 10 km², based on the length of the river within the cave. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El curso subterráneo del río Gaduares">The underground part of the River Gaduares <span title="Gato, todo ello dentro del Parque Natural">lies within the Natural Park<span title="de Grazalema.">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155536		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to karstic groundwaters, and was found in the outflow from the cave.
155536		population	eng	This species has only been collected at its type locality, and is only known from the original specimens in spite of recent surveys in the last 10 years.
155536		threats	eng	The major threats to the species within the cave are from any alteration to the hydrobiology of the system. This is likely to be a very sensitive species to changes in in the ecosystem, such as pollution of the groundwater (domestic, recreational or agricultural sources) or disturbance of the water channels, such as concreting areas for recreational access to the caves or use of the sites for water extraction<span id="result_box" class="long_text">&#160; for domestic supplies or hydroelectricity (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
155537		conservation	eng	<p>This species is considered to be Vulnerable in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Bole 1988, Bole 1992; Sket & Velkovrh 2002).</p>
155537		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia and Croatia (Fauna Europea, Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;<em>Sadleriana s. sadleriana</em>&#160;was described from Studenica (a pool on the river) in the village of Dol near Borovnica. It is described as being widespread in the region,&#160;and is present in the drainage basins of the Sava River, Ljubljanica River, Kupa River, and Una River. <em>Sadleriana s. robici</em>&#160;(Clessin, 1890) is more restricted, being found in Krka River Drainage, at several springs near the source.
155537		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and possibly groundwater feeding those springs.
155537		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155537		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
155538		conservation	eng	None known of
155538		conservation	eng	None major conservation measures needed.
155538		conservation	eng	There are no major conservation actions known and no measures are needed.
155538		distribution	eng	Introduced from the Americas. In this area, it is found in Nigeria, Benin and Cameroon.
155538		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Europe, where it is found in many countries  including Sweden Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Canary Islands (Spain), Azores (Portugal), Madeiran Islands (Portugal), Italy (Mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Malta, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Romania, Andorra, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (Mainland), Portugal (Mainland), Albania, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia, Montenegro, Ukraine, Greece (Mainland), North Aegean Is. (Vóreion Aiyáion); Greece.  It has also been reported from the former country of Yugoslavia (current country unknown).<br/><br/>It is considered to be Holartic, and hence not restricted to Europe.
155538		distribution	eng	Widespread Holartic species that has been recorded from different regions in Africa. Many of these records pertain according to Brown (1994) to introduced American species. The anatomical studies of Ghamizi (1998) clearly show that Maghrebian populations belong to <em>P. acuta sensus stricto</em>. In northern Africa, it is common in the Maghreb and also has been recorded from the Nile Delta (Van Damme 1984, Brown 1994). It is present all over the Nile from Lake Nasser to Nile Delta (Soliman pers. comm.). It is not known from Libyan Arab Jamahiriya but it is suspected to also be in this country. Its type locality is Garonne River in France.
155538		habitat	eng	Common in stagnant and flowing waters in or near towns. Well tolerant of pollution.<br/>A very fast moving species.<br/>It resembles Bulinus which is a host for shistosomiasis.<br/>It has been suggested that it could be introduced to compete with native snails that carry schistosomiasis as a control mechanism (Dobson, 2004).
155538		habitat	eng	It is a parasite vector that occurs almost everywhere, e.g., in channels, streams, and even polluted places. It's a pioneer species (i.e., first to arrive in new habitats) that is very easily spread by birds.
155538		habitat	eng	This species is common in both stagnant and flowing waters such as in channels and streams, and as it is relatively tolerant of pollution, is found even in polluted places. It is a pioneer species (i.e., first to arrive in new habitats) that is very easily spread by birds. Considered by some authors as an introduction, the species' impact upon  native fauna is currently unknown. It is a vector for parasites that  occur almost everywhere.
155538		population	eng	No information
155538		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable and possibly increasing.
155538		population	eng	Widespread species common in northern Africa.
155538		threats	eng	None
155538		threats	eng	None major threats are known to the species.
155538		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
155540		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155540		distribution	eng	This species is widely spread through South-East Europe and South-West Asia&#160; including Turkey through to Jordan and Syria. The species was also recently reported in Lebanon. In Bulgaria its locality is given as in marshes at Marita River near Plovdiv (Angelov 2000). It is possible that this record is from river floodline debris, and if so the record could come from anywhere in the river catchment.
155540		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus piscinarum</span> occurs in swamps and slowly flowing waters with abundant vegetation. In Bulgaria (Angelov 2000) found it in aquatic vegetation in marshes and 'river floodline debris'.
155540		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend has been provided for this species.
155540		threats	eng	There are no current threats recognised for this species, although pollution may become a threat in the future.
155541		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species.</p>
155541		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>. It is restricted to sublacustrine springs of the south-eastern shore (from Pectani to St Naum) (Radoman 1985).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155541		habitat	eng	<p>This species prefers the rocky shores near sublacustrine springs on the lake bed&#160;(C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>
155541		population	eng	This species is rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
155541		threats	eng	<p>Pollution, from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake, is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the Prespa Lake waters, which feed the aquifer of&#160; <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load in the lake (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Increased frequency of fires in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation)&#160;(C. Albrecht <em>et al</em>. pers. comm. 2009).</p>
155542		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155542		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the Appenine regions of Liguria,Tuscany and Piedmont. It is widespread through suitable habitats in the region.
155542		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ground waters.
155542		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155542		threats	eng	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000).
155543		conservation	eng	If the current intensive pressures on canal and river habitats continue, these could have a devastating effect on the long term prospects for this species. However, if water quality improvement can be achieved under the Water Framework Directive, then the prospects for this species are more positive. However, some decline is likely through loss of habitat as a result of water course management and the continued spread of zebra mussels. <br/><br/>This species is considered as Least Concern (LC) in the UK, Czech Republic and Slovakia. There are no conservation actions targeting the species in place. The conservation status of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio pictorum pictorum</span> is Near Threatened (NT) in Sweden, based on rare and isolated subpopulations. There has been a decrease in range of 25% and the remaining range is possibly fragmented.
155543		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species&#160; This species is considered as Least Concern in the UK, but Near Threatened in Sweden as a result of habitat fragmentation and a range decrease of 25% (Fauna Europaea 2004). Further research is recommended into the population trends of this species across its wide range, and habitat monitoring may be beneficial as an early warning system for habitat quality decreases.
155543		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species. Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Great Britain (UK), Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Turkey (European part), Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Netherlands. It occurs throughout most of lowland England and into east Wales. It is rare in south-west and northern England, and from much of Wales, and is absent from Scotland. In Slovakia, it occurs in the upper and middle Danube and its tributaries and in the Tisza catchment.
155543		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Europe and Russia (Fauna Europaea 2004). It is found in north and northwestern Europe, central and eastern Europe to the Ural region and the Black and Caspian Sea basins (Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It is absent from Scotland and rare in northern England and Wales, but is found throughout central, southern, western and eastern Europe (Fauna Europaea 2004). It is also absent from Spain and Portugal (Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) list the species as being distributed throughout western Transcaucasia (Georgia, Russia, Turkey), the Ural river, Danube basin and to the Ukraine.
155543		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous waters in large,  slow-flowing rivers, canals, lakes and reservoirs in lowlands. Occasionally it is also found in ponds, oxbows and flooded gravel pits. Populations tend to  be concentrated in marginal zones of large rivers where firm,  muddy substrate is available, but it is found less commonly in sand,  fine gravels and soft mud (Aldridge 1999).
155543		habitat	eng	This species lives mostly in calcareous water in large, slow-flowing rivers, canals, lakes and reservoirs in lowlands, and occasionally in ponds, oxbows, and flooded gravel pits. Populations tend to be concentrated in the marginal zones of large rivers where a firm, muddy substrate is available, but it is found less commonly in sand, fine gravels and soft mud (Aldridge 1999). It extends further towards the upper reaches of rivers than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio </span>species.
155543		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the population trends of this species. There is some  evidence of local regional decline in south-east and northern England, as well as in Scotland, but this decline may simply be an artefact of a lack of recording effort. The species has an average age of nine years, suggesting 30 years as a suitable assessment period (Bauer and Wächtler 2001). It is fairly abundant throughout its distribution. Local forms are continuously replaced by uniform forms introduced by gamefish (Falkner 1990; Cucherat 2003). <br/></p>
155543		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data available on the population status and trends of this species. There is some evidence of local regional declines in south-east and northern England, as well as Scotland, but this may be an artefact of lack of recording effort.<br/><br/>The species has an average age of nine years suggesting thirty years for an assessment period.
155543		threats	eng	<p>Several major threat processes negatively impact this species, including river (or canal) modification, river and canal management (dredging  and weed cutting), destruction or over-dredging of large ponds and  lakes, water quality decline, tourism and development pressure (e.g.,  marinas), competition or direct mortalities due to exotic species. This species has also been documented as being sensitive to biodegradeable pollution (Mouthon 1996), although its UK distribution has suggested higher levels of tolerance as it has been found to be the sole large mussel species found immediately downstream of sewage outfalls (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). <br/></p><p>This species is also vulnerable to the continued spread of the introduced zebra mussels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span>) (Bauer and Wächtler 2001). It is also theratened by genetic pollution as introductions of game fish to European rivers means that characteristic local forms are continuously replaced with uniform forms (Falkner 1990; Cucherat 2003).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
155543		threats	eng	<p>The major threats to this species include river (or canal) modification, river and canal management (dredging and weed cutting), destruction or over-dredging of large ponds and lakes, water quality decline, tourism and development pressure (e.g. marinas), competition or direct mortalities due to exotic species. This species is vulnerable to impacts from the continued spread of zebra mussels.</p>  Studies in the UK (see Killeen <em>et al</em>. 2004) have shown that this species is relatively tolerant of polluted waters and can be the sole large mussel species present in waters immediately downstream of sewage outfalls. However, in France, Mouthon (1996) included the species in his list of species with lower tolerance to biodegradable pollution and in Sweden it is considered to have lower tolerance (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).
155545		conservation	eng	<p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. More sustainable water management is needed to ensure the continuing quality of the habitat. The trend in habitat decline should be monitored to determine changes to this species status.<br/></p>
155545		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus fontinalis</span> is restricted to the Feeder springs system (St. Naum, Tusemista and Zagorican) of Lake Ohrid, between Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).<br/></p>
155545		habitat	eng	<p>This species needs a constant water temperature and chemistry to survive. It occurs in places with low flow rate.</p>
155545		population	eng	<p>It is at suitable habitats in low abundances.</p>
155545		threats	eng	<p>Agriculture near the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of these springs, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;  The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, and over-abstraction of water.<br/></p>
155546		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures set for the species, although it is recommended that given the small area, that a habitat monitoring programme be put in place for the species so that future changes in status can be seen.
155546		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica acicularis</span> is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is known from two sites, Dushnik cave near village of Iskrets, and Yamata cave at the village  of Tserovo, both in western Stara Planina mountains in Bulgaria.
155546		habitat	eng	This species is troglobite (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment), it is present in springs and streams in caves. Based on climatic and  geological similarities, this species is considered to be Mediterranean.
155546		population	eng	There is no data on this species population.
155546		threats	eng	<strong></strong>Although at present there is no evidence of habitat degradation, the cave is used, and hence a possible threat could be the pollution caused by visitors (Human or Animals) to the cave in the future.
155548		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.
155548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, and was described relatively recently by Bernasconi (2000), from the Department of Ariege, in the Pyrennees. It was found in two sites, Troye D'Ariege and Sieuras, about 40km apart, in different parts of the region. The species is mapped on the <a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceRepartition.jsp&numero_taxon=162852&date_min=1950&date_max=2010">INPN </a>site.
155548		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155548		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155548		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.
155550		conservation	eng	There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, Lake Ohrid is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Pollution in the watershed should be managed in order to avoid ecosystem degradation and loss of suitable habitat for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended to detect changes to level of threat to the species.
155550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Albania, Macedonia (Bank <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is restricted to Lake Ohrid and adjacent springs at Studenica, Bejbunar, St Naum,   Tušemišta, and Zagori  čan (Radoman 1983). However, in recent surveys, between 2003 and 2009 ( T. Hauffe pers. comm. 2009), the species has only been recovered in the lake and one single spring (Tušemišta), so it has been lost from four adjacent spring sites.
155550		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lake and the surrounding springs where it is mainly found in the littoral zone and springs where it is restricted to sandy bottoms.
155550		population	eng	This is a very abundant and common species in the lake, but in the spring system it is now considered as rare.
155550		threats	eng	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. This eutrophication is enhancing macrophyte growth, and broad reed belts at the highly human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing the area of suitable habitats for this species. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In Albania, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted.</p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155551		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed to confirm that this species is extant, as no specimens have been found in recent surveys.
155551		distribution	eng	<em>Islamia coronadoi</em> is endemic to Spain, where it was found "in the outskirts of Madrid, or at least some of the springs or streams in the&#160;province of Castilla la Nueva " (Bourguignat 1870).&#160;During the successive sampling of recent years it has not been rediscovered in Madrid, so presumably has been extinguished at these sites.
155551		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and streams.
155551		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155551		threats	eng	The sites have been lost, presumably due to urbanisation, and the species has not been relocated in surveys in recent years.
155552		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, as the taxonomic status and hence distribution is uncertain. Further taxonomic research is required.
155552		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) as endemic to Crete, Greece. According to&#160;Reischütz (1988) it&#160;was listed from Elos, however there is no recent data on the Crete populations, so the distribution is uncertain.
155552		habitat	eng	This species is believed to inhabit brackish waters in estuaries.
155552		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155552		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, as the taxonomic status and hence distribution is uncertain.
155553		conservation	eng	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened  Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24  September 2002). There are no conservation actions in place but research  into taxonomy, population and distribution, and habitat trends would be  of benefit.
155553		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella deminuta </span>is endemic to Italy and Slovenia.   In Italy it is known from 3 sites in the groundwater of the river Isonzo (Bodon & Giovannelli 1994).&#160; In Slovenia, the species is found in groundwater of the rivers &#160;Sava near Ljubljana and Savinja near Celje, and some thermal springs in central Slovenija (Bole & Velkovrh 1986).
155553		habitat	eng	<p><span class="longtext">This freshwater species is living in groundwaters of alluvium and the thermal springs. <span class="longtext"></span></p>
155553		population	eng	There are no population data, as it is a species difficult to sample.
155553		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of the water, urbanization, regulations of rivers, construction of motorways near rivers.
155554		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.&#160; Further research is necessary to establish whether there are multiple species in the system, their habitats and their population sizes. This species is proposed for inclusion on the list of Protected Species in the Communidad of Valencia (CVEFA). <br/></p>
155554		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain.
155554		habitat	eng	This species is found in the outflow of a karstic groundwater system, but is believed to be present in the subterranean parts, rather than surface parts of the system (Martínez-Ortí 2007).
155554		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155554		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155555		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although it is listed as "Near Threatened" for Spain (Verdu and Galante 2009) and Vulnerable B2ab(iii), D2 in Castilla_La Mancha (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The species is vulnerable to habitat changes, and so was proposed for inclusion on the list "<em>Catalogo Regionale de Especes Amenzenadas de Castilla-La Mancha</em>' as ''Sensible a la alteracion de su habitat'. Habitat monitoring is required for this species, as the springs are under pressure from overutilisation in the region, as well as increased frequency of drought reducing the recharge.
155555		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrobasis levantina</span> is endemic to Spain, and has been recorded from the provinces of Castellón, Valencia, Alicante, Teruel and Cuenca. The type locality was San Miguel spring, Viver, provinces of Castellón (Arconada and Ramos 2001). There are five locations in Province Cuenca (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/></p><p></p><p></p>
155555		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155555		population	eng	No population trend data is available for this species.
155555		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are overabstraction of water from the springs for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as pollution of the groundwaters from domestic and agricultural sources.
155556		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;The species was considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em>, 2000).
155556		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in western Sardinia, where it is only found in the 'Plentiful karstic spring Su Cologne', at San Giovanni, 100m ASL (UTM 32 T NK4260) (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998).
155556		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to interstitial waters of a spring within a karstic region (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998). It is a strict stygobiont, i.e a species restricted to subterranean groundwater habitats and characterized morphologically by loss or severe reduction of eyes and pigment.
155556		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low. Most records are before 1995. In 1998, Manganelli noted that this  species has not been found living at the spring at Su Cologne since it  was exploited for water, and the bottom surface of the spring cemented  over.
155556		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch, 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli et al., 1998, 2000).&#160; GIven that it only occurs at a single site, it is considered very vulnerable to any human activity that would disturb the groundwater system or the spring. In 1998, Manganelli noted that this species has not been found living at the spring at Su Cologne since it was exploited for water, and the bottom surface of the spring cemented over. Hence, this species is listed as Critically Endangered.
155557		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species, although the site has been recognised as an Important Bird Area in the Birdlife International database. Research is needed to confirm whether or not the species is extant. If the population is extant, then further monitoring on habitats trends should be established to detect changes in the status of the species.
155557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Amvrakia, in the south Adriatic-Ionian region of Greece. This is a small, deep, oligotrophic  lake, (38°45'N;    21°11'E), with steep western shores, whereas the northern part is shallow with small reed beds (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span>).
155557		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a freshwater lake, with fringing <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span> reed beds on the northern side. The species was originally found on sublittoral rocks.
155557		population	eng	This species has not been recorded recently. Surveys since 2000 have found no live specimens, therefore it is now believed to be possibly extinct.
155557		threats	eng	The main threat is the declining quality of habitat, as a result of pollution and over abstraction of water, as the lake is used as a source for both irrigation and domestic water supplies to surrounding villages.
155558		conservation	eng	Monte Fenera is highlighted in the Provinca di Vercelli Conservation Strategy, with <em>Iglica pezzolii </em>mentioned as a species of conservation interest.
155558		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found within the alpine region of Monte Fenera, Piedmont. This species is known from 3 Locations (7 sites) within a small region, and so currently viewed as rare.&#160; &#160;The locations are Grinasco, Valduggia and Borgosesia (UTM MR46 and MR45).
155558		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to groundwaters and outflows (caves, resurgences and springs).
155558		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so the population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155558		threats	eng	<p>The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em>., 2000). &#160;Threats identified in the region also include increased frequency of forest fires (erosion and increased sediment in the water leaching into the groundwater system) and possible disturbance of the caves for recreational activities and illegal excavations.</p>
155559		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known for this species.                 This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Bole 1988, Bole 1992; Sket & Velkovrh 2002).
155559		distribution	eng	<em>Sadleriana schmidtii</em> is recorded from Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina and Slovenia (Fauna Europea, 2006). It was first described from a spring at Susica, near Novo Mesto and is a subterranean form (Radoman 1985).                 According to Bole & Velkovrh (1986) and Radoman (1985) and some unpublished data (Sket pers. comm 2010), it may only be known from southeaster Slovenia and adjacent Croatian area.
155559		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155559		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends for this species.
155559		threats	eng	Although there are threats to groundwater as sources of water for local villages and towns and from drought phases in the summer, the threats are localised.
155560		conservation	eng	Lake Trichonis is a Natura 2000 site. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes, as well as sewage, need to be drastically reduced. Habitat monitoring is recommended due to the effects of agricultural and domestic pollution. <br/><p>&#160;</p>
155560		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. Radoman (1983) reported populations from the north-eastern shore of Lake Trichonis near Mirtia. Schütt (1980) described it from the south coast, hitherto this species could not be found during recent surveys (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It was recently described from Lake Pamvotis (Frogley and Preece 2007).
155560		habitat	eng	This sublittoral species is restricted to rocky banks.
155560		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. Radoman (1983) reported populations from the northeastern shore near Mirtia and Schütt (1980) from the south coast, hitherto this species could not be found during recent surveys (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
155560		threats	eng	Heavy pollution related to intensive agriculture practice (Lake Trichonis) and settlements (Lake Pamvotis) in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lakes. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail.
155561		conservation	eng	The species was assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Spanish Red List for Invertebrates (Verdu and Galante 2009) and is listed on the list of protected species in Aragon. Further work is required on monitoring changes in habitat quality as well as liaising with the resort managers to increase awareness of the species and the need for habitat management for the species as well as the resort (A. Martinez-Orti pers. comm. 2009)
155561		distribution	eng	Endemic to Spain, this species is restricted to the thermal springs around Alhama de Aragón (Zaragoza), namely the thermal springs on the River Jalón (Balneario Martínez and Balneario Pallarés), both with an area of 1 km².
155561		habitat	eng	This species is found in thermal springs, canals and rivers. It requires very clean, well-oxygenated waters, which are high in calcium. It is usually in lentic (still or slow-moving) waters. It tolerates water temperatures between 31–37°C and lives on hard substrates (rocks, cement, stones and gravel).
155561		population	eng	There are few data on population trends, but the species was declining.
155561		threats	eng	<span>The habitats where this species is found are very clean waters and  so are sensitive to habitat change. The species is very scarce at the  sites. The adjacent urban areas have high population pressure which  could lead to declining water quality due to run-off and extraction of  water. Currently the natural habitat of the species has been restricted by the nature of the springs in the resorts, so its survival depends on site management. A recently introduced species <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculata</span> (Müller, 1774) appears to be established at the same site and hence competition may become an issue as well as vulnerability to eradication programmes for the other species.
155562		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place for this species, although taxonomic data and population and distribution data is required for full assessment.
155562		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria baudoniana </span>is endemic to France, where it is known from two isolated locations: the type locality Le Teich, near the Arcachon bassin (France) and Saint-Jean de Luz (Pyrénées Atlantiques), according to Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002). Although the species is present in two isolated locations, it maybe present in suitable habitats on the shoreline between these two locations (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).
155562		habitat	eng	This species lives in brackish  water, estuaries and coastal lagoons.
155562		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155562		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown, but its habitat is vulnerable to urbanisation, coastal development and pollution (both from domestic and agricultural sources).
155563		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species and no conservation actions are needed.
155563		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered on the Polish Red List, however as a non-native species it is not protected by law (Glowaciński and Nowacki 2009). It is also listed as Endangered on the list of threatened species of the Czech Republic (Farkač <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
155563		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species across Central and Eastern Europe reaching from Netherlands and France to Ukraine and Russia, north to Latvia and Poland and south to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) listed it from  Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovenia, Ukraine. It is also known from Serbia (Tomorov, pers. comm., 2009). <br/><br/>In France, Mouthon (2007) noted that <em>Lithoglyphus naticoides </em>was observed for the first time in the north of France at the beginning of the 19th century, but since then this gastropod has only succeeded in colonising the eastern half of the country.<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) reported the species from rivers of Azov-Black Sea maritime areas, the Volga River delta and the rivers in Russia draining into the Baltic Sea.
155563		distribution	eng	This species is originally native to the Ponto-Caspian region, and has since expanded its range across Europe, becoming a common component of&#160; many lakes and rivers (Mastitsky 2007, Tyutin and Slynko 2010). The invasion of species from the Ponto-Caspian region throughout Europe has been facilitated via inland migration corridors (Bij de Vaate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and the main range extension of this species has taken place in the 19th to 20th century (Mouthon 2007). The recent expansion in north-east Europe is spectacular; having been introduced in the Volga delta in the 1990s, the species has presently reached a number of deltas in the Upper Volta (Tyutin and Slynko 2007). This species is widespread, occuring from eastern France and the Netherlands, to Ukraine and Russia, north to Latvia and south to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
155563		habitat	eng	This is a fluvial species, living on solid surfaces (e.g. rocky bottoms) in rivers and streams.
155563		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lower reaches of large rivers, canals and is also found more rarely in lakes. It occurs on rocky, sandy and muddy substrates, feeding upon diatoms, algal debris and particulate organic matter (Mouthon 2007). This species spawns annually from March to June, and females lay eggs on the shells of their congeners. The species has a lifespan of 13-15 months (although lifespans of 16-17 months have been reported in the Netherlands) (Mouthon 2007). This species is known from depths of 0-6 m depth in Lake Lukomskoe (Belarus) (Matitsky and Samoilenko 2006).
155563		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species in central Europe, but declining locally due to pollution, as well other reasons noted below.<br/><br/>In the Saône river, France, <em>L. naticoides</em> is an annual species: spawning occurs from March to June and the juveniles that generally appear in May grow rapidly during the summer then spawn and disappear in the spring of the following year. Different observations suggest that increased water temperatures occurring in the context of global warming and potential/possible interspecific competition are the main reasons for the disappearance of <em>L. naticoides</em> in the Saône river at Lyon since November 2004 (Mouthon 2007).
155563		population	eng	This species is descibed as widespread, common and locally abundant (Arbačiauskas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Tyutin and Slynko 2010), however it is known to be undergoing large localised declines in Poland as a result of water pollution and river regulation (Glowaciński and Nowacki 2009). It has also disappeared from the Saône river at Lyon, France, since November 2004 (Mouthon 2007). This species has been recorded at densities of 466 individuals per m<sup>2 </sup>in France (Mouthon 2007) and 1,000 individuals per m<sup>2 </sup>in Lake Lukomskoe (Belarus) (Matitsky and Samoilemko 2006).
155563		threats	eng	The main threats are pollution and siltation (from dams and soil erosion). However, compared to other fluvial species, it seems to be more tolerant to water pollution and to siltation.
155563		threats	eng	Threats to this species include water pollution and habitat degradation throughout its range; however, the species appears to be tolerant of poor environmental conditions and siltation (László <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
155565		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on population trends and threats
155565		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Slovenia, where it is endemic to northwestern Slovenia (including the cave Babja Luknja near Medvode and other caves and springs area around Medvode, North-West of Ljubljana).
155565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and caves (Sket pers. comm. 2010)
155565		population	eng	&#160;No information on the population is available.
155565		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, but the general threats to habitats in the region are habitat degradation and overabstraction of water.
155566		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures taken for this species. It is recommended that a programme of habitat monitoring be implemented to determine whether potential use of the cave for tourist activities will change the water quality.
155566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found in spring near a sink-hole, close to Polaten village in the western Stara Planina Mountains (Georgiev in litt. 2009).&#160; The total area of the distribution is uncertain, and hence has been estimated as less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
155566		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Insignia macrostoma</span> is a freshwater species living in a cold spring in a cave.  The habitat quality may be in doubt due to exploitation of the cave.
155566		population	eng	There is no information on population trends for this species.
155566		threats	eng	<strong></strong>In the future, the pollution caused by the visitors may affect the cave ecosystem to a limited extent (depending on the accessibility to public).
155567		conservation	eng	There are currently no known conservation actions, however habitat monitoring and    further survey to determine the  geographical range and level of threats of this species are recommended.
155567		distribution	eng	<p><em>Spiralix peguenoensis</em> is a recently described Spanish endemic species known only from Castellón in eastern Spain:  </p><p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Espadilla, bridge at Onda, Rio Pequeno, Province Castellón (UTM grid square YK259349), interstitial water.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155567		habitat	eng	<p>This is a freshwater species found as dead shells in interstitial water, and is sympatric with <em>Palaospeum hispanicum ondaense.</em></p>
155567		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends for this species.
155567		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major  threat processes,                 however subterranean habitats are  vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) and agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. There are several villages and towns in the catchment area. Decline  in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another  threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155568		conservation	eng	As a widespread species, no conservation actions are considered necessary.
155568		conservation	eng	No conservation measures proposed for this Regionally Extinct species.
155568		conservation	eng	No information available.
155568		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155568		distribution	eng	It is a widespread Holartic species which occurred during the Holocene colder phase in northern Africa (Van Damme 1984) but has not been recorded since the 19th Century. It was recorded from Lake Qaron in Lower Egypt (Gardner 1932) and Komombo in Upper Egypt (Leigh and Butzer 1968). However, these are not recent records and the species is now considered as Extinct from these locations (original records are possibly from tombs/temples). It has been recorded in Algeria in the 19th century but this location is now highly urbanized and polluted, being not found there anymore.
155568		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Europe, where it is recorded from Norway,  Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad  region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK),  Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France  (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia,  Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Bulgaria, Romania, Balearic  Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania,  the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Reported from the former country of  Yugoslavia (current country unknown), Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Ukraine, and Greece (including Andikíthira Island, Evvia Island, Ionian  Islands, Samothráki Island, Northern Sporades Islands, and Thásos Island).
155568		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread holartic species present through much of Europe and into north Asia. It is thought to have been present in northern Africa but believed to have been extirpated.<br/><br/>In Europe it is recorded from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Bulgaria, Romania, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ukraine, and Greece (including Andikíthira Island, Evvia Island, Ionian Islands, Samothráki Island, Northern Sporades Islands, and Thásos Island).    <p>In Africa it is only recorded in northern Africa where it was present during the Holocene colder phase (van Damme 1984) but has not been recorded since the 19<sup>th</sup> Century. It is recorded from Egypt but these are no recent records. In lower Egypt it was recorded from Fayoum, Lake Qaron (Gardner 1932) and upper Egypt at Kom Ombo; it is now extinct from these locations (original records possibly came from tombs or temples). It was recorded in Algeria in the 19<sup>th </sup>century but this location is now highly populated and polluted so it is certainly not there any more. Therefore it is believed to be extirpated in northern Africa.</p>    <p>In Asia the species is recorded from Afghanistan, India (Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir states, and is likely to be present in further states), Moldova, Oman, Russia (including Kaliningrad) and Ukraine. It is distributed widely in China (including Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning,  Neimenggu, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Xixi, and Shanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Xizang, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang,  Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces; Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979). There are also records from the Mekong drainage in Indochina (Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam), Nepal and Bangladesh, and the species can be expected in Myanmar.</p><p>The species is introduced throughout the United States and can be expected to have been introduced elsewhere.<br/></p>
155568		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread holartic species which was present during the Holocene colder phase in northern Africa (Van Damme 1984) but has not been recorded since the 19th Century. It is recorded from Egypt but these are not recent records. In lower Egypt it was recorded from Fayoum, Lake Qaron (Gardner 1932) and upper Egypt at Kom Ombo (Leigh and Butzer 1968); it is now extinct from these locations (original records possibly came from tombs or temples). It was recorded in Algeria in 19th century but this location is now highly populated and polluted so certainly not there anymore. Therefore it is believed to be extirpated in northern Africa.
155568		habitat	eng	It can be found in swamps, standing waters, cold areas, with abundant vegetation. Or slowly flowing parts of the river.
155568		habitat	eng	It is a widely spread species inhabiting small puddles, pools, lakes, <span class="definition">reservoirs, brooks, irrigation  canals, wet fields, and brackish lakes. They feed on diatoms and aquatic plants or the remains of other Gastropoda.<br/><br/>The snail is an intermediate host of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica, Ornithobilharzia tukestantica, Trichobilharzia puoi </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sanguinicola shantsuensis</span>.
155568		habitat	eng	It occurs in swamps, standing waters and cold areas with abundant vegetation, as well as slow flowing parts of the river.
155568		habitat	eng	This species is found in ponds, ditches, and in quiet slow-flowing canals and rivers, usually in the shallower parts amongst the water weeds.
155568		population	eng	No information available.
155568		population	eng	The current population trends are not known in detail, however, in most regions the species is considered to be stable.
155568		population	eng	There is no European-wide data on the population status or trend of this species.
155568		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include pollution and climate change.
155568		threats	eng	There are no known overall threats to this species. There are likely to be  localised declines due to habitat loss and water pollution but these are  not thought to be impacting the species at the European Level.
155568		threats	eng	There are no known overall threats to this species. There are likely to be localised declines due to habitat loss and water pollution but these are not thought to be impacting the species. It can adapt to a wide range of anthropogenic habitats and is considered an invasive species.
155568		threats	eng	The species was threatened by water pollution and climate change.
155569		conservation	eng	Given the uncertainty of the species status, there are no conservation actions required, however more research is needed on the taxonomy, specifically, a combination of conchological, anatomical and molecular studies by appropriate experts, and on its distribution.
155569		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two&#160;sites in departments of Vendée and Deux-Sèvres in western France.&#160; Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) noted that it was originally described from a spring close to the mill at Gauchet (commune de Pissotte) and have reviewed the status of the types in Paris and Geneva.
155569		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters and underneath the riverbeds and can also be found in freshwater springs.
155569		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155569		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to water pollution and groundwater absorption.
155570		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Further surveys are recommended to determine whether the species is still extant. If the species is found to be still extant habitat restoration maybe required as much of the habitat has been altered.
155570		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region>, where it was described from the freshwater parts of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Zrmanja</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The river was dammed in its upper course which apparently changed the river bed to a system of stagnant pools (like that at Kaštel Zegarski) intercut with a dry river bed (like that at Ervenik) (Szarowska pers. comm. 2009). The sites have been searched and fresh shells have been found occasionally, in spite of speculation that the species may have only been recorded from sub-fossil shells (P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2009). </p>
155570		habitat	eng	This species is found in the freshwater parts of the Zrmanja River.
155570		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155570		threats	eng	The upper course of the river where this species is found was dammed which has lead to habitat loss, through changing the habitat to a series of stagnant pools intercut with dry river bed.
155571		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been proposed.
155571		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
155571		conservation	eng	No information available.
155571		conservation	eng	<p>  Information on conservation initiatives is not known. </p>
155571		conservation	eng	Research into its distribution in the region is required.
155571		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species and none are considered necessary.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155571		distribution	eng	A widespread species in North America, Europe and Africa. Known in Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa and Madagascar. Possibly present in suitable habitat in western Africa - recorded from northwest Africa by Kuiper (1966) but questionable if present in the Western Africa region (shown as part of Algeria).
155571		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium casertanum</em> is a widespread Paleartic species that occurs in coastal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. It has a disjoint distribution further southwards in Africa till the Cape (Van Damme 1984). According to old reports it was present in Fayoum in Egypt, but it's considered to be gone from that site. Its type locality is Caserta, Italy.
155571		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium casertanum</span> is one of the most widely distributed species of freshwater mollusc in the world. It is widely known from Palaearctic and Nearctic region including some parts of South America, Africa and Australia and&#160; Asia. In Asia, this species is found in India (the upper Indus River basin in Kashmir), China, (Tibet), Thailand  and Nepal (Kavre District, Banepa, small springstream to the lower Chandeshwari Khola, 0.5 km SE of Chandeshwari, elevation 1615 m asl).&#160; It is a cosmopolitan species (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishan and Dey 2007).
155571		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This cosmopolitan species is widespread throughout in Europe and has been recorded at several locations in Syria. It is found living on every continent (except Antarctica).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155571		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Its distribution in the region is unknown due to taxonomic and identification problems.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Presumably distributed in most parts of the world, but this is doubtful (Mandahl-Barth 1988). Northwest Africa and large parts of eastern Africa from Ethiopia in south to South Africa and Madagascar (Kuiper 1964 and 1966a).
155571		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widely distributed, although no specific localities are mentioned. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also documented as widespread in other parts of Africa and world.
155571		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia. No specific localities are mentioned (Daget 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also documented as widespread in other parts of Africa and world.
155571		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in North America, Europe and Africa. It is known within Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa, as well as Madagascar (Kuiper 1964 and 1966).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It occurs in coastal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. There are old reports from Egypt (Fayoum) but it is gone from there.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Sudan and Ethiopia. No specific localities are mentioned (Daget 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It has a disjunct distribution further southwards in Africa to Namibia and South Africa (Van Damme 1984). However its range is not certain  due to taxonomic and identification problems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is possibly present in suitable habitat in western Africa - it is recorded from northwest Africa by Kuiper (1966) but it is questionable if it is present in the western Africa region, and this isn't a reference to the range within part of Algeria.
155571		habitat	eng	Genus is found in lakes, rivers, streams and small water bodies (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
155571		habitat	eng	No information available.
155571		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidia</span> are found both in lakes, rivers and small water bodies. This is a very tolerant species, lives in habitats that may dry out (Seddon, pers. comm.). Tolerant of poor water conditions. In Europe and North America, found in temporary water bodies and ditches.
155571		habitat	eng	The species is cosmopolitan in distribution and found in cold water streams and rivers in fine mud and leaf litters.&#160; They usually attached themselves to aquatic vegetation, sometimes they attached to t he surface film of water by slime threads.
155571		habitat	eng	This species is found in the widest possible range of freshwater habitats, in virtually every type of habitat from the largest lowland calcareous rivers to the poorest quality high altitude flushes. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium casertanum</span> form <span style="font-style: italic;">ponderosa</span> occurs mostly in large rivers and canals.
155571		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
155571		population	eng	No information available.
155571		population	eng	No information available on populations.
155571		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>  <p></p>
155571		population	eng	There is insufficient data on the population trends of this species across the range, although there is a decline in some parts of the region.
155571		threats	eng	Given the cosmopolitan distribution and abundance of occurrence there are few perceived threats to this species. Mouthon (1996) found<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. casertanum</span> to be the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidum</span> species most tolerant of biodegradable pollution. There is a potential future threat to some locations in the future from abstraction of surface water or from pollution.
155571		threats	eng	No information available.
155571		threats	eng	No specific threats known.
155571		threats	eng	No threats are known to the species.
155571		threats	eng	Sedimentation is a likely threat in Tanzania.
155571		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species.
155571		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
155571		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. It is found in the unpolluted waters thus habitat disturbance and anthropogenic activities causing water pollution are potential threat to this species.
155572		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures. More research is needed to solve the taxonomic issues of this genus.
155572		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix collieri</em> is endemic to France and is found in the Rhone region. Although this species has been mapped based on the literature data, the records of the species are unreliable, as identification is difficult, and hence the species records are in need of review.
155572		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean freshwaters.
155572		population	eng	There is no population trend data available.
155572		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155573		conservation	eng	No conservation actions specifically for this species, but conservation management plans for the Lake and habitat monitoring programme would be recommended to assist with assessment of future changes for this species.
155573		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vinodolia gluhodolica</span> is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>.&#160; It was originally known only from the type locality&#160; near Virpazar town, area of  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> </st1:place>(a spring at Velje Oko below the Gluhi Do village).&#160; Zoltan Feher (pers. comm. 2009) has recorded the species (Material determined by Marco Bodon) from another site in 2000 in Montenegro, 3 km from the original locality, suggesting that the species may be at other sites locally. Vladimir Pešić (pers. comm. 2009) observed that the species was not found in numerous other springs around the type locality.
155573		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater springs close to Lake Skadar. However, t<a style="">his species may be a subterranean groundwater species, and as such this may explain the limited recording, especially during the summer months when the freshwater springs dry up.&#160;</a>
155573		population	eng	In April 2000, it was abundant (1000's) at the second site, however in 2008, at a different time of the year (late summer) no specimens were found (Material determined by Marco Bodon).&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>
155573		threats	eng	Vladimir Pesic (pers. comm. 2009) observed that the original spring has been captured for local drinking water and other springs are susceptible to summer droughts, when outflow from the groundwater sources cease.
155574		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, habitat and threats of this species.
155574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and only known from the type locality   in Limni Pamvotis, where it was excavated bottom material. Frogley  & Preece (2004)  note that this species is only known from empty  shells and further  investigations are required to understand if this is  extant or a  subfossil species.
155574		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown.
155574		population	eng	There is no population data available on this species.
155574		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155575		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution, population size and threats to this species. The known site should be monitored for habitat changes.
155575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, where it has been found in Miraca creek near the village of Islam Latinski 20 km south of&#160;Zadar (Radoman 1983).
155575		habitat	eng	This is a brackish water species.
155575		population	eng	There is no information on population tends.
155575		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155576		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.</p>
155576		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. As it prefers habitats such as the&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Chara </span>beds and fine gravels, the&#160;rocky shores in the east and in the west of the lake separate two sub-populations (on the northern and on the southern shores).</p>  <p></p>
155576		habitat	eng	This species is found in a freshwater lake where it is restricted to the belt of Characea and fine gravels.
155576		population	eng	<p>This species can be locally abundant (C. Albrecht <em>et al</em>. pers. comm. 2009)</p>
155576		threats	eng	The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation with this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the high human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing suitable habitats. However, as this is a sublittoral species it is thought that it is largely unaffected.
155577		conservation	eng	No conservation actions is in place for this species. More research is needed at the taxonomic level, as well as on the population and distribution range.
155577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France (near Avignon).
155577		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring-snail.
155577		population	eng	There is no population data available.
155577		threats	eng	Springs in the southern part of France are currently threatened by high pressure on the water resource, leading to temporary flowing springs, or capture of the springs, leading to the destruction of the habitat by concrete.&#160; If the distribution and taxonomy of the species were to be resolved, given the water supply problems in the region, the species is likely to be threatened through over-abstraction.
155578		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no conservation action in place. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Lake Trichonis is a site of the Natura 2000 network (GR2310009-Limnes Trichonida kai Lysimachia).<br/></p>  <p></p>
155578		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is now known only from the northeast shore of Lake Trichonis (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but was once found throughout the lake (Radoman 1985). The lake has a surface area of 92.4 km², and is at its deepest point a 58 m depth (Zacharias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
155578		habitat	eng	Lake Trichonis is a freshwater lake, warm karstic waterbody, with relatively low nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, where the species is found amongst gravelly sand on the lake-bed between 10 and 27 m depth on the north-east shore.
155578		population	eng	This species has declined since 1985, when Radoman reported that it was very common throughout the lake. Szarowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) reported finding few specimens in their fieldwork several years prior to the paper. Similarly Reischütz and Reischütz (2002) found only dead shells. Most recently Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) could only find it at one sampling locality on the lake during their surveys in 2005 and 2007, for the first time in 20 years.
155578		threats	eng	Water pollution from domestic sources is contaminating the lake, as there is insufficient treatment of sewage in some areas. Presence of pesticides and fertiliser from agricultural run-off are also affecting habitat quality. The species is also threatened by a competing invasive mud snail from New Zealand, <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamapyrgus antipodarum</span>. Other potential threats include over abstraction of water from the  lake or lack of rainfall that would lead to changing lake levels as the  species occurs in a narrow belt in the lake.
155579		conservation	eng	The are no known conservation actions for this species, however further survey work to establish the population trend, distribution, and threats are required to make a revised conservation assessment and determine conservation actions.
155579		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Crete (Kriti), Greece. There is no recent data on the specific distribution of this species.
155579		habitat	eng	The habitats for this species are unknown as there are few recent records of the species.
155579		population	eng	The population trends for this species are unknown as there are few recent records of the species.
155579		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown as there are few recent records of the species.
155580		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions focusing on this species in place and none are currently required.
155580		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information on taxonomy and population trends is neeeded to clarify its classification and global distribution.
155580		distribution	eng	Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) regarded this species as a Northern European species found in Denmark (mainland), Latvia, Poland, Great Britain (UK), France (mainland), Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, extending south to Ukraine, Spain (mainland), Greece (mainland) and east into Russia. There is some confusion in the literature in some countries, as for example, this taxon was not recognised as a UK species by Anderson (2005).
155580		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout Europe and is also found in Western Siberia. There are no authenticated records in Britain and Ireland (Killeen <em>et al. </em>2004 cited in Anderson 2005).
155580		habitat	eng	This species inhabits stagnant and lotic environments (Gloer and Sîrbu 2005).
155580		habitat	eng	This species lives in stagnant and flowing waters and does not like fast running waters.
155580		population	eng	Little population information exists for this species, in part due to taxonomic difficulties separating it from congeneric taxa.
155580		population	eng	No information about the population trends of this species is available.
155580		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
155580		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to the species. Water pollution and ecosystems degradation are potential future threats to this species.
155581		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are know for this species, however the species is present in a managed habitat, and the cave where this species occurs is believed to be secure, with no current threats from any specific ongoing activities. The site is currently a tourist venue, and so benefits from these activities in maintaining the habitat.<br/><br/>More data is required on the taxonomy of the species to identify species limits.
155581		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella bouleti </span>is restricted to the region of Méjean, mainly around Grotte de Castelbouc near Sainte Enimie, Lozère, France. It was first described in 2002, so there maybe additional sites locally, but no living animals were found during the expedition. Prie and Bichain (pers. comm. 2009) failed to find specimens of this species.
155581		habitat	eng	This species is found in caves.
155581		population	eng	There is no information on the current population trend of this species.
155581		threats	eng	The cave where this species occurs is believed to be secure, with no current threats from any specific ongoing activities and the aquifer is extensive. The site is currently a tourist venue, and so benefits from these activities in maintaining the habitat.
155582		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and threats.
155582		distribution	eng	Fauna Europaea list this species for 'former Yugoslavia' but the precise locality data needs review (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
155582		habitat	eng	The habitat preference is unknown.
155582		population	eng	There is no data on population.
155582		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155583		conservation	eng	<p>This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species and later&#160;assigned a status of&#160; Vulnerable for the Slovenian Red List 2002 (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). The population and distribution status require review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed.</p>
155583		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandiella&#160;globulos</em><em>a&#160;</em>is endemic to Slovenia, where it is only known from&#160;the&#160;cave Mrzla jama near&#160;Bločice, 3.5 km NNW from Lož (type locality) and springs of Cemun&#160;and Obrh near Cerkniško jezero, Cerknica.
155583		habitat	eng	Freshwater in Karst Subterranean system in caves and emergent springs.
155583		population	eng	No data available on population status or trends.
155583		threats	eng	Slapnik (pers. comm.&#160;2010) considers that the major threats to the species lie in water pollution and urbanization (with increased use of local water sources for domestic supplies).
155584		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Further research is needed to get better data on population trends, distribution and threats. Habitat monitoring is required&#160; to establish whether the species merits a higher threatened listing.
155584		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is restricted to the island of Chios (Schütt 1980). Schütt (1980) recorded it from 4 spring sites on the island (Berg Elias, Kipperi, Thimiana, Wikion).
155584		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155584		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown.
155584		threats	eng	No specific threats are known to these sites, however, springs are vulnerable to exploitation for water sources for villages, and increased frequency of drought has an impact with the loss of springs in the region.
155585		conservation	eng	The species is only known from the Papuk Geopark, where it is restricted to the streams and waterfalls. However, this geopark is protecting the geological history of the region, as well as having several endemic invertebrates such as beetles and snails as well as rare bats and flora. There is on data on population trends so research in this area is recommended through monitoring the habitat quality of the sites.
155585		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Papuk Geopark in south-eastern Croatia, where it is found in Jankovic Stream and on the tuffaceous waterfall. Other sites are all within the area of Mount Papuk. Radoman (1983) listed springs one km from Jankovac by road to Velika; Spomen Cesma, a spring near Tresnjevica (five km from Vocin); a spring south of Papuk, seven km north of Velika and 12 km from Slavonska Pozega.
155585		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater springs, waterfalls and rock crevices in streams.
155585		population	eng	There is no data on population trend, but it has been seen in recent surveys.
155585		threats	eng	The major threats to the species would be disturbance of the flow regime of the stream, waterfall and spring, and water-pollution.
155586		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions specific for this species, although the only known site lies in a protected area.A r eview of the  taxonomic status and distribution is needed.
155586		distribution	eng	<em>Paladilhiopsis tarae</em> is listed by Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006; &#160;Fauna Europea) as an endemic species for Montenegro. Vladimir Pesic notes that this is a groundwater species, found in the canyon of river Tara.
155586		habitat	eng	This species is present in karstic groundwater water (springs and streams in Caves).  It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).
155586		population	eng	There is no recent data on population status for this species.
155586		threats	eng	There is no recent data on threats to the species.
155587		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for this species.&#160; Monitoring of habitat trends to be recommended to identify future changes in habitat quality which may impact the species.
155587		distribution	eng	According to Bank (2006) this species is found in Greece and Bulgaria. In Bulgaria this species is found in spring near a sink-hole, close to Polaten village, western Stara Planina Mountains (Georgiev in litt. 2009).&#160; The total area of the distribution is uncertain, and hence has been estimated as less than 100km. The records from Greece are questionable, as no data is given.
155587		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in a freshwater cold spring in a cave.  The habitat quality may be in doubt due to exploitation of the cave.</p>
155587		population	eng	The population of this species is not known.
155587		threats	eng	<p><strong></strong>In the future, the pollution caused by the visitors may affect the cave ecosystem to a limited extent&#160; (depending on the accessibility to public).</p>
155588		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring and restoration is needed, as well as legislation development and implementation at national level.
155588		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species and none are required, although the species is listed in some parts of range as Threatened, these threats are localised.
155588		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium personatum</em> is a widespread Paleartic species that occurs in Africa in the Atlas and Anti-Atlas region of Morocco and Algeria, in coastal Tunisia and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (Van Damme 1984). Ghamizi has recent collected this species so there is evidence that it is still present, although its distribution is very localised to flowing streams and lakes with clean water. In Morocco, it is currently only at the Upper zone of Atlas (Ghamizi pers. comm.).
155588		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list it from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, Latvia, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Madeiran Islands (Portugal), Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Malta, Bulgaria, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Ukraine, Greece (mainland) and North Aegean Islands (Greece). <br/><br/>According to van Damme (pers. comm. 2010) it has also been recorded in Syria, two springs in Lebanon and in north Africa.
155588		habitat	eng	The species lives in flowing streams and lakes with clean water. It is very sensitive to pollution and needs good water quality to live, being less tolerant to pollution than <em>P. casertanum</em>.
155588		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic of poor quality habitats such as small streams and trickles, roadside ditches, ponds, pools in fields, upland flushes, pools in woodland, and bodies of water subject to desiccation. It lives in both hard and soft water. It is also found in the margins of lowland rivers and large lakes particularly in ephemeral shallows and confluences with ditches. It can live in saturated ground (for example in flushes, fens and bogs) and in pools to depths of a few metres. It has been recorded at altitudes over 900m (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
155588		population	eng	No information available on populations.
155588		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status or trends of this species.
155588		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution, habitat degradation and global warming.
155588		threats	eng	This species is not threatened throughout its range, however localised  threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through  eutrophication or other chemical sources (van Damme, pers. comm., 2009), alteration of water courses,  changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of  invasive species. Water abstraction is a potential threat in the southern countries of the range in Europe.
155589		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. More research on the population and habitat trends is needed.
155589		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia valvataeformis</span> is only known from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The type locality is Vrelo Bosne, near Sarajevo. Vrelo Bosna&#160; is a spring and river at the source of the&#160;River Bosna, with a surrounding recreational park in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, twelve kilometres south-west of&#160;Sarajevo.
155589		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155589		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155589		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are unknown, but the site deteriorated during the 1990's and has now been restored as a park around the spring. The threats are likely to be pollution.
155590		conservation	eng	The species is recently described, and as such there is little sampling effort to establish the wider range around these two locations.&#160; There is a need to undertake a full taxonomic review in light of Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007), as well as more survey and mapping.
155590		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to France where it is known only from 2 populations in Saint-Bris-des-Bois : Fontaine de Houmeau and Fontaine Taillard.
155590		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155590		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155590		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. However, at present the levels of threat to this species are less immediate at the two known sites.
155591		conservation	eng	This species is of uncertain status, and thus further research on taxonomic status is required.&#160; If considered a species, then habitat monitoring will be required.
155591		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella rubiginosa</span> is endemic to France. There are three closely located sites around the Audinac les Bains village, East of St Girons in Ariege, Pyrenees (43"00'22"N, 1"10'56"E). The thermal spring is the type locality. The area of occupancy (AOO) seems to be less than 2 km x 2 km.
155591		habitat	eng	This species is reported from thermal springs and ferruginous springs at same location.
155591		population	eng	No data on population status, although small numbers of shells were collected from this site for anatomical and molecular studies (Bernasconi 2000). In the three Audinac subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rubiginosa </span>specimens from the thermal spring are largest, specimens from the cold spring are smallest, and specimens from the confluence are intermediate suggesting that shell variability may be linked to temperature (Bichain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
155591		threats	eng	Major threats lie is habitat degradation and loss, as Audinac les Bains is a former thermal spa near St Girons which is still in recreational use, with a campsite which has several holiday chalets and bungalows in the grounds as well as swimming pools and lies along a small river valley east&#160; of St Girons.
155592		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Research into other possible sub-populations is required and monitoring of the one known population is needed to assess any impacts the threats may be having on it.
155592		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality&#160;Sidari on&#160;Kerkyra island (Corfu), north Ionian Sea, Greece&#160;(Schütt 1980).&#160;Sidari is a small seaside village. There are no recent records of this species from the island.
155592		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species.
155592		population	eng	There is no data on recent trends in populations.
155592		threats	eng	There is no data on recent threats however this area experiences high tourism&#160;activity since it entertains thousands of visitors annually.
155593		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known for the species in Greece or Albania. Research is needed relating to the taxonomy and distribution of the species.
155593		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia ionica</span> is known from Greece, where it was described from the&#160;brook near the bridge on the Messongi River (Isle of Corfu, Greece). Feher & Eross (2009)&#160;provide records suggesting it is now found in Albania, from&#160;Periferi Delvinė, Syri i Kaltėr, 7 km west of Muzinė, 155 m a.s.l., [UTM Grid&#160;DK31].
155593		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater rivers.
155593		population	eng	No data is available on population status.
155593		threats	eng	There is little data on the status of <em>B. ionica</em> on Corfu, however the area around Messongi has high tourist pressure all year round and the Messongi river is a destination used by tourists, so there maybe potential threats from habitat degradation.
155594		conservation	eng	This species is considered as Data Deficient (DD) in the Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galente 2009). In Andalucia, the species is considered Near Threatened (NT), due to pressure on water resources. No conservation actions are known and further information is required on  threats and population status in order to determine the status of this  species.
155594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and is found in freshwater springs in the Provinces of Granada, Almería and Jaén (Arconada and Ramos 2003).
155594		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is freshwater springs.
155594		population	eng	There is no population data on this species.
155594		threats	eng	No specific threats known to this species, however the general threat of overabstraction of water for domestic supplies and agricultural purposes is a problem within the region.
155595		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive as a protected species on Annex V. This species has a relatively limited range in southern Europe, and is considered Vulnerable in Italy, and Extinct in Switzerland, and Possibly Extinct in Lake Ohrid.&#160; Italian populations remain the stronghold for this species, and surveys continue on the status&#160; in Northern Italy (Nagel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Ex-situ breeding is a possible conservation action for this species, as are surveys and habitat monitoring.
155595		distribution	eng	&#160;The main range of this species is given as Switzerland and Italy in Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006; online database), however records of material in Lake Ohrid cited by Nagel and Hoffmeister (1986) may extend the range to Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia, so the species also inhabits river systems flowing into the Adriatic seas. This species is in decline in Italy, and in Lake Ohrid, despite intensive recent surveys, only a handful of eroded dead shells have been recorded (C. Albrecht, pers. com., 2009). Miensis (Triannual Unionid Report no 20, March 2000) reported that some viable populations within its former range of distribution have been rediscovered in northern Italy (Nagel and Hoffmeister 1986) and Croatia (Fischer 1999). <br/><br/>Graf and Cummings (2007) noted that the range could extend to the Middle-East.
155595		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.
155595		population	eng	This species is in decline in Italy, and in Lake Ohrid, despite intensive recent surveys, only a handful of eroded dead shells have been recorded (C. Albrecht, pers. com., 2009).
155595		threats	eng	The major threats are habitat degradation and pollution.
155596		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation strategies in place for this species. This species is listed on the Czech Republic Red List as Least Concern  (Beran 2008). Further data on population trends  of this species would be valuable, particularly for any future  reassessments of this species. Further data on population trends and distribution of this species would be valuable.
155596		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Czech Republic Red List as Least Concern (Beran 2008), but there are no other species-specific conservation strategies in place for this species. Further data on population trends of this species would be valuable, particularly for any future reassessments of this species.
155596		distribution	eng	The range data for this species is rather incomplete, as at present in some countries the species is not mapped nor recognised as a distinct taxon. It is a rarer species than the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stagnicola</span>. It is found in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia, south to Italy and east to the Ukraine.<br/><br/>Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Latvia, Poland, Lithuania, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Ukraine.
155596		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to Europe, where&#160; it has been recorded from the UK to eastern Ukraine  (Beran 2008, Jurkiewicz-Karnkowska 2008) and from southern Scandinavia  to Italy (Strzelec and Królczyk 2004, Spyra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Welter-Schulte 2009). <br/><br/>The range data for this species is rather incomplete, as at present in  some countries the species is not mapped nor recognised as a distinct  taxon. It is a rarer species than the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stagnicola</span>. It is found in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia, south to Italy and east to the Ukraine. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2006) list the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Latvia,  Poland, Lithuania, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK),  Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany,  Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy  (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of  Macedonia, Montenegro, and Ukraine.&#160; <br/><br/>Kantor et al (2009) note that it occurs in the Dnieper Basin through to the Baltic, but it does not extend further east.
155596		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly in lowland basins, pools, oxbow lakes, ponds, wetlands and along rivers (Beran 2006). In Poland, it has been recorded in polluted and human-modified habitats such as reservoirs and clay pits (Spyra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Michalik-Kucharz 2008).
155596		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly in lowlands and basins, in pools, oxbow lakes, ponds, wetlands and along rivers.
155596		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends of this species.
155596		population	eng	This species is usually widespread and common where it is found (Beran 2008, M. Seddon pers. comm. 2010), although drainage of its clay-pit pond habitat has caused declines in Poland (Lewin and Smolinski 2006).
155596		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
155597		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for the species and none are considered necessary. More data on distribution throughout the range would be useful, but not essential at present.
155597		distribution	eng	Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) listed this species under the name <em>Ecrobia</em> <em>vitrea</em> (Risso, 1826) and give a Mediterranean distribution as:&#160; France (Mainland), Corsica (France), Italy (Mainland), Sardinia (Italy) Sicily (Italy), Malta, Spain (Mainland), Balearic Islands (Spain), Albania and Croatia. <br/><br/>There is a possibility that this species may also occur in north Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) but due to poor recording data and possible confusion with closely related species there are no literature records.
155597		habitat	eng	This species is a brackish water species found in estuarine and lagoonal habitats.
155597		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown.
155597		threats	eng	The main threats include any factors such as barrages, sluices, water flow management schemes that may alter or disrupt the narrow salinity range that this species occupies. Large barrage projects are known to impact this species, changing the estuarine conditions and the mud where it lives. Other localised threats include pollution by nutrient enrichment, industrial chemicals, oil spills, etc.<br/><br/>In the longer term, global warming causing higher sea levels and the greater chances of saline intrusion could disrupt salinity (raise) levels.
155598		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the status of this species, as it maybe subfossil, and if so requires no conservation actions.
155598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and only known from the type locality  in Limni Pamvotis, where it was excavated bottom material. Frogley & Preece (2004)  note that this species is only known from empty shells and further  investigations are required to understand if this is extant or a  subfossil species.
155598		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown as it comes from sediments at the bottom of the lake.
155598		population	eng	There is no population data for this species as it has never been seen living.
155598		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155599		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place specific to the species. Surveys are needed to determine range and population levels, and the threats to other sites if located.
155599		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella angelovi</span> is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is known only from the type locality: a spring in Stara Planina Mts on the Shipka pass, although the exact position of the type locality is not known. However, there are two or three small springs on this pass near a small village and several of the springs have been modified by concreting to allow the offtake of water for the villages. It is possible that this species may have a wider distribution as many of the local springs have not been surveyed.
155599		habitat	eng	It is considered a freshwater, cold spring species.
155599		population	eng	When originally collecting in the 1960s, Pinter found this species to be abundant. However there are no recent data on the status of this species.
155599		threats	eng	This area at the top of the pass has several small springs, which are vulnerable to change, from water use for the village, and by visitors and tourism development. There is a possible risk in the future of fluctuations in populations as the result of changes in water level. The species possibly occurs in other areas in the regions that are hardly accessible, which are less threatened by human impacts.
155600		conservation	eng	There is no data is available on conservation actions for this species. Son (pers. comm. 2010) suggests that this species may be extinct in the Ukraine lakes, therefore surveys are recommended to confirm its presence. If the species is extant, management of the catchment to control the effects of pollution and habitat monitoring to measure its impact are recommended.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Ukraine where it is only present in  two brackish water lakes that are interlinked with&#160; an Area of occupancy  of 400 km<sup>2</sup>, is present in one location and is facing threats  from pollution therefore it has been assessed as Endangered (EN  B2ab(iii)). <br/><br/>In Romania, the status is Data Deficient, as there is no recent information on populations or threats to these sites.
155600		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ukraine and Romania.&#160;&#160; In the Ukraine it is known from Yalpug and Kugurluj estuarine lakes near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Danube</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Son (pers. comm. 2010) comments that the species is either rare or possibly no longer present at the site.&#160; In Romania, it has been collected from the lakes-limans Ialpug, Katalpug and from the Danube Delta, near Sulina.
155600		habitat	eng	It lives in the little brackish water of the limans, on the bottoms covered by silt or shell remains.
155600		population	eng	There is no data is available on the population status of this species.&#160; In Sulina there are large populations, which are predominated by juveniles).
155600		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are from pollution from heavy industry, sewage from domestic sources, agriculture in the catchment and dredging in the channels.
155602		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known or are recommended at present.
155602		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span> has a range on coastal habitats of Northern Atlantic countries, Ireland, United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Germany.
155602		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span> lives in coastal and brackish waters.
155602		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span>, although it can be quite localised and abundant, in some regions habitats are in decline.
155602		threats	eng	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span> are unknown.
155603		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. The range of this species should be reviewed as part of a review of the taxonomy of the  species, including molecular data.
155603		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix puteana</em> is considered to be endemic to the Mediterranean part of France, however there are differences in opinion about the distribution of the species (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010) such that the species cannot be reliably mapped. The data shown is an amalgamation of the available data, and this range should be reviewed as part of a review of the taxonomy of the species, including molecular data.
155603		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater subterranean species.
155603		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends available for this species.
155603		threats	eng	<em>Spiralix puteana</em> is considered to be endemic to the  Mediterranean part of France, however there are differences in opinion  about the distribution of the species (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010) and as a consequence the threats are uncertain.
155605		conservation	eng	A small stygobitic snail from the family Moitessieriidae which is included in the Annex 4 (“Species of fauna strictly protected”) of the Decret 328/1992 of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Tarruella <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160;<span lang="EN-US">
155605		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria olleri </span>occurs in Spain and France. In France it was recorded once by Bertrand (2004), but the French record might not be <span style="font-style: italic;">M. olleri</span> (V. Prie, pers. comm, 2009). In Spain it is recorded from Catalonia, where it is restricted in range to an<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> area of approximately 400 km², with most  located in the 10x10 km square UTM DG22 near the type locality, and the other two sites separated more than 25 km of these towns.
155605		habitat	eng	Believed to be living in subterranean waters, although shell records have come from springs and interstitial waters of the riverbed (V. Prie, pers. comm., 2009).
155605		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species, although it has been recently collected.
155605		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155606		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult. It was listed as Category 2 in Germany by Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008).
155606		distribution	eng	The species is listed for Germany, but was not originally recognised by  Glöer & Meierbrook (2003). The species<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> is found <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">living <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the springs<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">stream <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">above <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Diessener <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Haugensteinmühle, as it is though to be present in the groundwaters feeding these springs <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">(Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008)<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155606		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155606		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155606		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution or over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155607		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation action plans in place. <br/> An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. <br/></p>
155607		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Prespolitorea malaprespensis</span> is restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">smaller Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake, </st1:placetype>Mikri Prespa, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Recent surveys have only found it in within the Greek part of the lake (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009)<br/></p>
155607		habitat	eng	This littoral species lives on the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline of the lake.
155607		population	eng	This species is very rare.
155607		threats	eng	<p>  Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several metres), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. As a consequence, the type locality, on the Albanian side, has been converted to land. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake. <br/></p>
155608		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the taxonomy, habitat, distribution and population information of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
155608		conservation	eng	This species requires taxonomic review. Research relating to the population, distribution and possible threats of this species is recommended.
155608		distribution	eng	<p><span class="yshortcuts">The species is known from the Caspian Sea (found between 20 and 25 m depth) and the Black Sea, but also is found in the brackish waters of the Danube delta. Most records for this species from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Romania</st1:country-region> are dead shells at the mouth of the Danube, from Razelm, as well as from the Romanian sector of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> through dredging, (although the latter provided rare live specimens). The typical form of the species can be found in the Caspian Sea.<span class="yshortcuts"> <br/></span></p>
155608		distribution	eng	This species is known form the Caspian Sea (between 20 and 25 m depth), Avov and Black Sea areas (Kabat and Hershler 1993) <span class="yshortcuts">but also is found  in the brackish waters of the Danube delta. Most records for this  species from Romania are dead shells at the mouth of the Danube, from Razelm, as well as from the Romanian sector of the Black Sea  through dredging, (although the latter provided rare live specimens).  The typical form of the species can be found in the Caspian Sea.
155608		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit large lakes (Kabat and Hershler 1993). It lives in brackish water, in the silt on the lagoon bottom or at the mouth of the rivers flowing into the Black Sea.
155608		habitat	eng	This species lives in brackish water, in the silt on the lagoon bottom or at the mouth of the rivers flowing into the Black Sea.
155608		population	eng	The population trends for this species are unknown.
155608		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
155608		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
155608		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown.
155609		conservation	eng	There are no conservation activities present at the present. Monitoring of the habitat trend is recommended.
155609		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is known from two sites, Dushnik cave near village of Iskrets, and Yamata cave at the village  of Tserovo, both in western Stara Planina mountains in Bulgaria.
155609		habitat	eng	This species is troglobite (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment), it is present in springs and streams in caves.
155609		population	eng	There is no data on population.
155609		threats	eng	<strong></strong>A possible threat could be the pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave in the future.
155610		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for the species, as the taxonomic status and hence distribution is uncertain. Further taxonomic research is required.
155610		distribution	eng	The species is listed by Fauna Europaea for France and Spain (Balearic Islands). The status is uncertain, as it may be conspecific with a more widespread European species, as considered by Pavon and Bertrand (2009).
155610		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish waters in estuaries.
155610		population	eng	There is no recent data on these populations.
155610		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, as the taxonomic status and hence distribution is uncertain.
155611		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and threats to determine if any conservation actions are required.
155611		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea this species is restricted to France and Germany (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). However the species was not recognised under this name prior to 2001, and hence there is little data to make an assessment.
155611		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences are unknown.
155611		population	eng	There is no data on current population status or trends.
155611		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155612		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation actions in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between Albania, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and Greece would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the Prespa Lake.<br/></p>
155612		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Parabythinella macedonica </span>is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename>, found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The main distribution is found on the western shore of the lake.</p>
155612		habitat	eng	This freshwater species lives along the littoral zone on rocky shores within the lake.
155612		population	eng	The species is generally relatively common in the lake. Inter-annual population fluctuations are known for species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis</span> (Falniowski and Wilke 2001) and may also apply to this species (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009)
155612		threats	eng	<p>The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to abrupt drop of water level (of several metres), caused by excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers. These water levels changes impact <span style="font-style: italic;">Parabythinella macedonica</span> which is restricted to the littoral zone of the lake. Pollution caused by intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake.    In addition, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, whic h are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake. </p>
155613		conservation	eng	In some parts of Europe this species is in decline, but not sufficiently across its range to justify conservation actions. It was listed as Vulnerable A2c in Ireland and Rare (Level 3) in Switzerland (Moorkens, pers. comm., 2009) and&#160;in Germany it is considered Rare or Vulnerable in some states, but overall it is not considered to be a threatened species.&#160;Like all species, it would benefit from knowledge on the value of aquatic biodiversity and their role in freshwater systems, as well as habitat monitoring. Further distributional data is required on the presence of this species and closely allied taxa in Eastern and Southern Europe.
155613		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe.   Fauna Europea (Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006) lists the full range as: Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland, Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (Mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (Mainland), Portugal (Mainland), Albania, Slovenia, Croatia and Ukraine. As it was reported from the 'former country of Yugoslavia',&#160; it maybe present in other countries in the region.<br/><br/>The presence in Albania is reported by Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) based on a distribution map drawn by Meier-Brook in 1983 according to Feher and Eross (2009).<br/><br/>Outside Europe the range extends to west Asia.
155613		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is found in clear, weedy water in larger streams, rivers and lakes. It prefers clean well oxygenated water, and in some parts of Europe is most common in hard water. It is usually found amongst weeds but is not tolerant of drying out, unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisus leucostoma</span>. It is mainly a lowland water species, and hence is less frequent in mountains and higher latitudes.
155613		population	eng	In some parts of Europe, this species is in decline. In Great Britain, it is still viewed as a widespread species, with no evidence of significant decline, although the majority of the records for this species pre-date 1975. It is less common in Scotland. In Ireland it has suffered a 63% distributional decline since 1980 (Moorkens, 2009 pers. comm). The species is known to be lost from a number of sites where it was previously recorded. It is a rare species in the major canal systems in Ireland (Royal and Grand Canal) and was rarely encountered in a recent study (Moorkens and Killeen 2005).
155613		threats	eng	Although this species is still widespread, it has suffered localised losses due to various reasons such as habitat loss and changing water quality. For example in Republic of Ireland, declining water quality caused loss of species in parts of the range (Moorkens pers. comm. 2009) and also in Germany (Falkner pers. comm., 2010) whereas due to habitat destruction caused losses in Great Britain (Killeen and Seddon, pers. comm., 2010) and the Netherlands (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
155614		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered (CR B2ab(iii)) on the Croatian National Red List of the Cave Fauna (currently in press). This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (<a href="hbsd.hr/.../Pravilnik_o_proglasavanju_divljih_svojti_zasticenim_i_strogo_zasticenim.pdf">See List of protected species</a>). Some of these sites are planned as part of the Natura 2000 network, but this is not yet implemented.&#160;All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia.
155614		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Croatia, where it is found from at least four locations. Schütt (2000) reported that originally, it was only known from the type locality at Stinjevac, near Vrgorac in Dalmatia. Later, Schütt collected the species from material washed out of the Ombla Cave system, as well as Metkovic, on the lakes of Bacine and Glusci.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Später sammelte ich diese"><span title="Popovo Polje."><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Später sammelte ich diese"><span title="Popovo Polje."></span></span></span>
155614		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from freshwater springs emerging from cave systems.
155614		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">At Ombla spring it was very common, to the point where it is the most abundant species within sediment samples.
155614		threats	eng	Low levels of decline in this species have been observed in the habitats. In the 1970s dam construction in Popovo polje (Herzegovina), impacted the water levels which supply the springs from Metkovic to Dubrovnik. In recent years, the area around Metkovic is now a highly productive agricultural region where pesticides are used.&#160; In addition there is little sewage management and so these waters pollute the groundwater. <br/><br/>A further future threat to the systems is the threat of three dams being constructed upstream of Metkovic, which will have a major impact taking water from the system, as well as increasing the rate of inflow from sea, causing increased salinity, which could lead to species mortality.
155615		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, but research relating to its population, distribution and threats is recommended.
155615		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandia boscae&#160;</em>is endemic to eastern Spain, where it is restricted to scattered localities in Provinces of Tarragona, Castelleon, Valencia and Cuenca (Rolan and Oliveira 2009). The region extends for approximately 200 km by 50 km, and as such the extent of occurrence (EOO) was estimated as 10,000 km². It is known from six locations in the region, three closely adjacent.<br/><br/>The type locality was Gandia (Valencia, Spain), with additional localities in Navajas (Castelleon), Fuente de Nogales (Castelleon), Castelinova  (Castelleon), Segrobe  (Castelleon), and Fuente de la Torre de la Carroba (Tarragona).
155615		habitat	eng	Under leaves and stones in rivers and freshwater springs of very clean water (Rolan and Oliviera 2009).
155615		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
155615		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown, although as some of the sites are freshwater springs, these are under general threat of 'improvement', such as concreting the surroundings, to improve water takeoff for domestic use, and these maybe threats to the species in this region.
155616		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action for this species at present.
155616		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dabriana bosniaca</span> is endemic to Bosnia and was described from a cave Dabarska pećina , near source of Dabar River, south of Sanski Most.
155616		habitat	eng	This species is found in the subterranean freshwater in karst systems.
155616		population	eng	There is no recent population data for this species.
155616		threats	eng	At&#160;present&#160;there&#160;is&#160;no&#160;data&#160;on&#160;the&#160;threats&#160;to&#160;this&#160;species.&#160;This&#160;is&#160;a&#160;large&#160;spring,&#160;where&#160;a&#160;river&#160;comes&#160;out&#160;from&#160;a&#160;large&#160;cave. <br/>The&#160;biotope&#160;seems&#160;to&#160;be&#160;in&#160;a&#160;good&#160;condition,&#160;water&#160;is&#160;crystal&#160;clear,&#160;there&#160;are&#160;no&#160;signs&#160;of&#160;human&#160;disturbance.
155617		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring and data on population trends are required.
155617		distribution	eng	This species is Palearctic in its distribution, mostly in lowland northern Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) reported it from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Hungary and Ukraine.
155617		habitat	eng	This species is found in good quality, clean, calcareous water, in small rivers/large streams, small disused canals, and drainage ditches (especially those with a flow). It is also found in lakes and ponds and occurs much less frequently in large, managed canals and slow-flowing rivers.
155617		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown at a European scale, however it is locally declining in parts of its range.
155617		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. <em>P. pulchellum</em> is considered to be one of the species of <em>Pisidum </em>most sensitive to pollution (Mouthon 1996).
155618		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species. It is found in 3 protected areas in Slovenia.
155618		distribution	eng	<em>Iglica luxurians </em>is endemic to Slovenia, where it is first described from a spring near Podgora (near&#160;                Vrhnika ). &#160;It is listed in the Notranjski Regional Park, on the Ljubljanica river and in a Natura 2000 site with unique underground and surface stream;&#160;Cerknisko Jezero and&#160;Ljubljansko Barje (<a href="http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/species/285443/sites">EUNIS</a> 2010).
155618		habitat	eng	This small freshwater snail is found in groundwater in karst.
155618		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155618		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited
155619		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, however, it is recommended that taxonomic work is undertaken to establish the species limits and relationships to other taxa.&#160; Habitat monitoring would be advised to establish any potential decline that may impact the species.
155619		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Chatillon-sur-Seine.&#160; Bertrand (2004) gives a distribution on the Doubs, Haute-Saone and Haut-Rhin departements in France, but this taxon seems to be localized to only a few karstic systems (V. Prie pers.comm. 2010)
155619		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species living in karstic waters.
155619		population	eng	There is no data on the population status.
155619		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is uncertain whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, in this region, subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.</p>
155620		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. However more research is needed in order to try to rediscover this species and establish trends for habitat decline.<br/></p>
155620		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Zaumia sanctizaumi</span> is present in a very restricted area in the south-east of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).</p>
155620		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the littoral zone on the south-east shore of Lake Ohrid, a large freshwater lake near the church of St. Zaum.
155620		population	eng	This is a very rare species. Recent surveys carried out since 2003 have not found it (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm., 2009) .
155620		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. Agriculture near the Prespa lake are contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Increased fire hazard in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation). </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
155621		conservation	eng	The status of the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Palaospeum bessoni</span> is unknown, and thus recommended conservation actions would be resurvey and also system of habitat monitoring to ensure that any changes in status are known fairly quickly.
155621		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Palaospeum bessoni</span> is restricted to France, where it is only known from the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques.&#160; It was listed from four localities, with type locality being at Haute Soule (Bertrand and Boeters 2001; Bernasconi 1999).
155621		habitat	eng	This species is found in subterrannean freshwaters within a karstic region; it is a stygobite (i.e. an aquatic species that complete its entire life in the cave environment).
155621		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155621		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of the groundwater table may impact this species and hence maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155622		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however habitat monitoring and   further surveys to determine the geographical range of this species are recommended.
155622		distribution	eng	<p><em></em> This Spanish endemic is known from several localities in the provinces of Castellón, Huesca, Zaragoza and Navarra in northern Spain:</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Bridge of Villores, Rio Bergantes, Province Castellón (UTM grid square YL374062), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Aguavuva, close to border Teruel-Castellón, end of road Zorita de maestrazgo-Aquaviva, Rio Bergantes,&#160; Province Castellón (UTM grid square 409192), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 6.2 km off Morella, South-east road Morella-Cinctorres, Mas de Sabtaé, Province Castellón (UTM grid square YK413982), dug well</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Angües, bridge of road north 240 Barbastro-Huesca, Rio Alcanadre, Province Huesca (UTM grid square YM391636), Interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 0.5 km north de Villareal de le Canal, Rio de Majones, Province Huesca 9UTM grid square XN734236), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Puendeluna, bridge, Rio Gallego, Province Zaragoza (UTM grid square XM851695), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Urraul Bajo, Ripodas, bridge at Lumbier, Rio Areta, Province Navarra (UTM grid square XN391274), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 16 km north-north-west of Falset, at Margalef de Montsant, Riu Montsant 3km upstream of Margalef C. 400 m, Province Tarragona (UTM grid square CF17), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 20 km east-north-east of Les Borges Blanques, Nalec, 50 m South of Riu Corb, c. 500 m ASL, Province Tarragona (UTM grid square CG40), well</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 17 km south-east of Vallfogona de Riucorb, at Santa Perpetua de Gaia, Riu Gaia, c. 600 m ASL, Province Tarragona (UTM grid square CF69)</p>
155622		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This species inhabits subterranean waters, mostly interstitial. It is also found in a well. This species is sympatric with <em>M.meijersae</em>, <em>M.seminiana</em> and <em>M.notenboomi</em>. </p>
155622		population	eng	There is insufficient information to determine population trends of this species.
155622		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155623		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions necessary as this is an invasive species.
155623		conservation	eng	This species has a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009), and no species-specific conservation measures are in place, or needed.
155623		distribution	eng	This species is native to the USA, from Chesapeake Bay southward through the Gulf of Mexico (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>It has spread from its native range to other parts of the USA via ship ballast water - invading the Hudson River, New York in the 1930s, the Upper Mississippi River in the 1980s, and southern New England in the 1990s (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). This species is thought to have spread to Europe as early as 1835, and is now found along the North Sea coasts from Germany to France, including the Thames Estuary in England. It was recently identified for the first time from the Dniester Liman, Black Sea basin (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004).
155623		distribution	eng	This species is thought to have spread to Europe as early as 1835 with records from Belgium, where it gradually dispersed along coasts, and  is now found along the North Sea coasts from Germany to France,  including the Thames Estuary and Cardiff&#160; Bay in Great Britain (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). There are records from the Baltic Sea in 2000, when it was found near Rostock. In 2003 it had further dispersed to the Gulf of Finland (Laine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In 1996 it was found at a salinity of 15 ppt in Wales, UK (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998), and in 2003 it was identified from the estuary of the river Guadalquivir in Spain (Escot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In all cases where localities are described these have been man-made, such as ports and canals, or very close to ports.
155623		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish and marine waters, in docks, lagoons and canals. It was found near Rostock in a salinity of 0.7-2.5ppt (Darr & Zettler 2000) and  salinity of 15 ppt in Wales, UK (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
155623		habitat	eng	This species is highly adaptible has broad ecological tolerances, inhabiting freshwater through to oligohaline habitats. It has spread from its native range via ship ballast water and through canals (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). It can also be found in coastal and estuarine habitats, riparian zones and wetlands, even occurring in cooling water conduits of power stations (Global Invasive Species Database 2005).
155623		population	eng	There is no data on population trends, but the range is believed to be expanding.
155623		population	eng	This species is locally abundant throughout its native distribution (NatureServe 2009), and occasionally reaches densities of 15,000 to 28,000 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in introduced parts of its range (Verween <em>et al. </em>2009).
155623		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats, although because of its bio-fouling abilities (causing huge economic damage to industry) it is targeted by biocides and other control measures (Global Invasive Species Database 2005).
155623		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats, although in parts of the range it is targeted for removal.
155624		conservation	eng	Legal protection of springs and reduction of groundwater abstraction are needed.
155624		conservation	eng	The species is found in freshwater springs which are not protected habitats in Croatia. If it is shown to be restricted to Croatia, a programme of habitat protection might be required, give the levels of water abstraction in the region.                 Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status and taxonomic research to determine the nature of the other island populations.
155624		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of springs, reduction of abstraction from water table.
155624		distribution	eng	It is known from wells in Croatia, Tunisia, south Italy, Sicily and Morocco. In Morocco it is found in springs in Ain Aghbal, Aiyoune Oum Rbi, Ouiwane, and Tit Zil, which are all in the middle Atlas.
155624		distribution	eng	The taxon is present in wells in Croatia, Tunisia, south Italy, Sicily and Morocco. In Morocco it occurs in a spring in Ain Aghbal, a spring in Aiyoune Oum Rbi, a spring in Ouiwane, and a spring that becomes a very small pond just above the spring called Tit Zil (i.e., the spring is under the pond), which are all in the Middle Atlas. Only point localities for Morocco and Tunisia are available. Its type locality is in Pago, Corsica.
155624		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europea as endemic to Croatia. &#160;At present, this assessment follows the species concept of Giusti&#160;<em>et al&#160;</em>(1995) who considered the Croatian populations to be<em>&#160;Pseudamnicola conovula</em> and the other records from Italy a different species. &#160;Hence&#160;this species is considered to be endemic to Croatia, where it was described from the island of Pag; &#160;it has since been recorded from other springs close by, on the Island of Cres, Krk and Rab (Radoman, 1985).&#160; There is some uncertainty about the validity of some records &#160;attributed to this species, as some literature cites records from the Vjosa River, Albania (Bequiraj et al, online paper: http://www.balwois.com/balwois/administration/full_paper/ffp-1190.pdf). Other records include Dolines in Apulia, Italy (Ariani <em>et al</em>, 2000).
155624		habitat	eng	Crenobiont that lives near springs and in a small pond over a spring, with very good quality water.
155624		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont, found near springs and in a small pond over a spring, with very good quality water.
155624		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit freshwater springs.
155624		population	eng	No information.
155624		population	eng	No information available.
155624		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155624		threats	eng	Pollution of springs, reduction in ground water level, urbanisation. One spring in Morocco is used for a trout fishery.
155624		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are pollution of springs, lowering of ground water level and urbanization. In addition, one of the springs where it occurs in Morocco is used for trout fishery.
155624		threats	eng	These springs are under pressure from water abstraction on the subpopulations on the island of Pag.
155625		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions are in place in Italy. As this species lies close to the limits of a threatened status, the monitoring of populations and habitat trends would be recommended.
155625		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella ephippiostoma</span> is endemic to Italy and Slovenia. In Italy it is only known from a single site close to the border with Slovenia (<a href="http://www.faunaitalia.it/ckmap/">CKmap</a> version 5.3.8; Spring 1 km in Valle di Bodigoi, UTM UM80). In Slovenia, it is present in at least 13 sites, in four main areas: 11 different springs which occur in two areas (Cerkniško jezero and Ljubljansko barje), and two isolated localities (river Vipava (VL17) and river Idrija (VM 20) Slovenia (Slapnik, pers. comm, 2009).&#160; Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) also collected&#160; it in the Soca Valley near Lozice (UM9201); several springs near Gorenje Jezero - Cemun Spring (VL56) and Obhr Spring (VL56), Mocilnik springs, Vrhnika (VL49) and Verd Village springs (VL48) and noted that it was originally described from Springs near Podgora (near Lublijana).
155625		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella ephippiostoma</span> lives in freshwater springs and groundwaters in the karstic regions.
155625		population	eng	There is no data available on population trends of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hadziella ephippiostoma</span>.
155625		threats	eng	The major threats to this species lie in the over-exploitation of springs where the species is found, and through pollution of groundwaters from both domestic and agricultural sources.
155626		conservation	eng	<p>There are no targetted conservation actions in place for this species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertiliser, pesticide and herbicide use for agriculture purposes needs to be drastically reduced.&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155626		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Parabythinella malaprespensis</span> is restricted to the small <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Mikri Prespa) between Albania and Greece. Recent surveys have not found this species in the Albanian part of the lake, however this was the type locality, so the species was present in the Albania during Radoman's surveys in the 1980's, suggesting that the extent of occurrence has decreased in the last 30 years.&#160;</p>
155626		habitat	eng	This species lives in the littoral zone of large freshwater lakes, where it is found on hard substrates like stones and rocks.
155626		population	eng	This is a rare species that was previously more common and more widely distributed.
155626		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss due to the abrupt drop in water level (of several metres) caused by excessive abstraction of water for agriculture coupled with low inflow from the catchment due to extremely dry summers, is the major threat to this littoral species. In addition, pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>
155627		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether the synonyms of this species are separate valid species.
155627		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Euxinipyrgula lincta</span>:<br/>   The type locality is listed as Lake Katlabuh, near Danube delta, Northwest Black Sea Maritime Territory (Anistratenko 1998a). Son (pers. comm., 2009) reports from the Dniepr and Dniestr estuarine systems and estuarine lakes near Danube (Ukraine). Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists <span style="font-style: italic;">Euxinipyrgula lincta </span>for Romania, but Ciobiou (pers. comm., 2010) did not list it in her list of Romanian taxa.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euxinipyrgula </span>  <span style="font-style: italic;">grigoriev</span><br/>    The type locality is listed as the lower reaches of Dnieper River, sta. 8. Son (pers. comm., 2009) reports from the Dniepr and Dniestr estuarine systems.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euxinipyrgula milachevitchi:<br/></span>The type locality is listed as off Chufutovka, Dnieper-Bug liman.<br/>  Son (pers. comm., 2009) recorded the species from Dniepr and Dniestr estuarine systems, estuarine lakes near <st1:place w:st="on">Danube</st1:place> (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>), but noted that he believes that the species has died out or substantially decline within in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Don</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Basin</st1:placename></st1:place> (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euxinipyrgula </span><span style="font-style: italic;">ostroumovi</span>:<br/>The type locality is listed as the lower reaches of Dnieper River, sta. 8. Son (pers. comm., 2009) reports from the Dniepr and Dniestr estuarine systems. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euxinipyrgula </span><span style="font-style: italic;">ukrainica:</span><br/>The type locality is listed as the lower reaches of Dnieper River, sta. 8. Son(pers. comm., 2009)&#160; reports from the Dniepr and Dniestr estuarine systems.
155627		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
155627		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155627		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155628		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions  known to be&#160; in place. Research on threats, population status and  distribution are required to fully evaluate the status of this species.
155628		distribution	eng	This recently described species was found in northern Spain, where it is currently known from a single location, Río Areta, Puente en Lumbier, Ripodas, Urraul Bajo in Province Navarra.
155628		habitat	eng	This species inhabits interstitial water in river systems.
155628		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this recently described species.
155628		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain. <span lang="EN-US">It is a species  living in  interstitial waters, and  as such maybe vulnerable to water pollution  from  domestic (sewage and  run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads,  herbicide and pesticides)  sources. If  the aquifers are overexploited,  then falling water levels  may also  impact the species.
155629		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155629		distribution	eng	This species is found in Germany in springs in the villages of Staufen and Hurben, in Bavaria.
155629		habitat	eng	This species was found in freshwater springs and probably lives in subterranean water.
155629		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trends.
155629		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to over exploitation of the water source (for domestic purposes) and water pollution. This species requires very clean water.
155631		conservation	eng	This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a threat review is needed. The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. The species is considered Vulnerable&#160;in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002).
155631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is localised to springs in the foothills of Kum, east of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ljubljana</st1:place></st1:city> between 200 m and 600 m ASL. The species is known from an area of about 200 km<sup>2</sup> (20 x 10 km) with presence in at least 6 individual springs in              the Posavsko hribovje area : spring by Prusnik, east of Kum 230 m ASL; Spring by Susnjek, Podkum, 590 m ASL; spring in Jelova, Radeče, 480 m ASL;&#160; Mitovšek spring, Kum 350 m ASL; Spring by Šklendrovec Stream, 320 m ASL. Spring in Quarry at Radeče, 230 m ASL (Slapnik 1997).
155631		habitat	eng	The species inhabits freshwater springs with temperatures ranging from 8 to 9.6 C. ASL (Slapnik 1997)
155631		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
155631		threats	eng	The   main threat to this species is groundwater pollution and abstraction of surface water.
155632		conservation	eng	Conservation measures needed include research and habitat conservation, as well as law enforcement.
155632		conservation	eng	There are no known actions in place for this species, but none are necessary. The species is considered&#160;Vulnerable (VU) in the&#160;Czech Republic and&#160;Stark gefährdet (highly endangered)&#160;in&#160;Germany (Gloer and Meier-brook 2003). The absence of good distributional data from some regions and confusion with other species of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisus</span> genus suggests that further research needs to be undertaken to understand the range and ecology of the species, especially in countries which currently do not recognise the species as being present.
155632		distribution	eng	This Paleartic species is known from Morocco from the marshes of the Lower Loukkos and Dayet Hachlaf, from Chefchaouen, from near Ifrane, Cap Spartel, Aïn Aghbal near Azrou, Aïn El Ghars at Immouzzer Kandar, Dayet Ouhouli and Oued El Malik near Tangier (Ghamizi 1998). It is a much localised species that is disappearing from Moroccan lowlands and declining in the whole Africa due to climate change. It was previously recorded near Constantine in Algeria (Bourguignat 1864), according to records from the 19th century, where it possibly doesn’t exist there anymore as the whole area has been converted to a city.
155632		distribution	eng	This species is listed as being widespread throughout Europe, although it is localised in most countries and not abundant where present. The distributional data is questionable, as different views of the species are taken, and some countries do not recognise the species being present. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (Fauna Europea, 2006) give the range as: Iceland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland, Great Britain (UK), Belgium, France (Mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (Mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Spain (Mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Greece (Mainland), Montenegro, Albania and possibly from the Netherlands and Corsica. It has been reported from the former country of Yugoslavia so it maybe present in other countries in the Balkan region.&#160;<br/>According to Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009), the range extends outside Europe into&#160;<span lang="FR">western Siberia, northern Kazakhstan and the Ural River.
155632		habitat	eng	It inhabits vegetation rich clean standing waters (not flowing). It is present in lake borders where there is vegetation, and in little streams just below springs in the mid-Atlas mountains.
155632		habitat	eng	Mainly found in running water, such as rivers and streams. This species serves as first intermediate host for the parasite, <em>Prosthogonimus ovatus.<br/></em>
155632		population	eng	No information available.
155632		population	eng	There is no population trend information available, but species is widespread, and not thought to be declining throughout the range.<br/><em></em>
155632		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are global warming, pollution and drainage.
155632		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species operating across the range.
155634		conservation	eng	Taxonomic and population size/distribution research would benefit this species.
155634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, and is found in Department Pyrénées-Atlantiques (South-West France).&#160; It is currently only known from a single locality, but the area has not been well recorded.
155634		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155634		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155634		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species. However, the place where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. junqua</span> lives seems to be relatively free of human impact.
155635		conservation	eng	This species is on the <a href="http://www.life-vuk.hr/propisi-i-dokumenti/domaci-propisi-i-dokumenti/pravilnik-o-proglasavanju-divljih-svojti-zasticenim-i-strogo-zasticenim-319.html">list of protected species for Croatia</a>. In the Red Data Book of The Underground Fauna for Croatia (in press)&#160; the following actions will be proposed:<br/><ul><li>monitor the condition of habitats, particularly the quantity and quality of water</li><li>establish management through monitoring species populations and investigation of possible wider distribution</li><li>ex-situ storage in gene banks </li><li>education programme to raise awareness of endangered species</li><li>the state, private and local media to inform about the need and ways to protect species </li><li>implement legislation on illegal visits and illegal waste disposal with high penalties.</li></ul>
155635		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, found in two springs located to close to each other within National Park Krka (R.Slapnik pers. comm. 2009). One spring site lies close to the power plant for the hydro-electric scheme.
155635		habitat	eng	This species is present in freshwater cave habitats. It is not known whether the species inhabits cave streams, stagnant pools or fast-flowing rivers.
155635		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trend of this species.
155635		threats	eng	During the summer many thousands of people visit this site, as it is a popular tourist destination. The springs have travertine barriers creating natural pools which are used for recreational purposes.<br/><br/>In addition direct threats come from changes in the flow regime to recharge groundwaters due to hydro-power projects and extraction of water for drinking . A further threat comes from groundwater pollution by urban waste water and solid and liquid seepages from municipal waste dumping sites.
155637		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.&#160;</p><strong></strong>
155637		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<br/></p>
155637		habitat	eng	This littoral and partly sublittoral species, can be found on various substrates like <em>Dreissena</em> shells, stones and gravel.
155637		population	eng	<p>This species is found at suitable habitats only in very low abundances.</p>
155637		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this gastropod.&#160; However these threats are only impacting populations within the littoral zone of the lake.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155638		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span> is considered to be Endangered &#160;in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Sket & Velkovrh 2002).</p>
155638		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia   subcarinata</span> is endemic in Western Slovenia (and possibly in adjacent Italy), where it is known from springs along upper reaches of Soča river (Sket, pers. comm. 2010). It was first described from                 a freshwater spring in village Ložice near Deske in Soča valley (Slapnik, pers. comm, 2009).<strong></strong>
155638		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span> is a small species and is found in freshwater springs.
155638		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span> has no data on population trends.
155638		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span>, although plausible threats are                  over-exploitation of springs where the species is found, and through pollution of groundwaters from both domestic and agricultural sources.
155639		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Research is needed on this species, particularly relating to its population size, distribution and trends.
155639		distribution	eng	This species was listed from Greece, but its full range is uncertain. It was described from the island of Euboea (Evia, Evvoia), in Greece.&#160; However this is a large island and it is uncertain where the species came from, except that it was in the northern part.    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia&#160;achaja achaja</span> (Clessin, 1879). The spring Kamena Vourla was one of the few localities given by Schütt (1980); if at all present, the snails were inaccessible, as the water from the thermal spring is taken by pipes and pumps to supply the huge health resort at Agios Konstantinos (Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p><p><em>Heleobia achaja sorella</em>&#160;(Westerlund, 1879)&#160;According to Schütt (1980), the spring at Velestino was once a locality of&#160;<em>Semisalsa achaja sorella</em>, however it dried out in the 1990s due to deep wells drilled to supply the nearby cotton fields with water.<br/></p><p></p>
155639		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and wells.
155639		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown, however some sites are believed to be lost (Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009), so it is anticipated that the species is declining.
155639		threats	eng	The threats to this species are loss and degradation of habitat due to extraction of water for domestic and tourist uses.
155640		conservation	eng	Further data is required on population, distribution and threats to the species to refine the conservation assessment.
155640		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, a spring near Novo Selo, in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Radoman 1983). This spring lies just north of Struga town, north of Lake Ohrid.
155640		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs in the river valley of Sateska, draining into the Crna Drim.
155640		population	eng	There is no recent data on the population trends of this species.
155640		threats	eng	The spring where this species is present lies just north of Struga town and therefore maybe capped to provide drinking water. Other threats come from pollution of the groundwater due to intense agriculture and increased frequency of droughts impacting the springs in the region.
155641		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures. more research on the population, distribution and threats is needed.
155641		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006; Fauna Europea), known only from springs Buna and Bunica, south of Mostar.</p>
155641		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat for this species.
155641		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155641		threats	eng	There are no information on the threats for this species.
155642		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in France under the name "<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia minuta</span>".
155642		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia spirata&#160;</span> is endemic from France. It is known only from a restricted area in the upper catchment of the Doubs river, and in the&#160;department&#160;of&#160;Doubs, in the region east of Besançon in France. Bertrand (2004) gives two locations.
155642		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155642		population	eng	There are no data available on the population for this species.
155642		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.
155643		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More sustainable water management is needed to ensure the continuing quality of the habitat. Monitoring habitat trends would be beneficial for this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
155643		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">the </st1:placetype>the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) <st1:placetype w:st="on">part of Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">and in the springs near Ohrid town (north-east of the Lake), and in the Albanian Feeder springs </st1:place></st1:country-region>system (Tusemista and Zagorican) (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009)
155643		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the littoral zone of the lake with sublacustrine springs and cold water springs. It is probably a species needing a specific (and narrow) constant water temperature and chemistry (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009).
155643		population	eng	<p>It is found at suitable habitats in low abundances.</p>
155643		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this gastropod. Agriculture near the Prespa Lake are contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).   The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water.</p>
155644		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place.&#160; Given the uncertain taxonomic status of the species, more research is required, that includes conchological, anatomical and molecular characters (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).
155644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is found in the region of the Jura.
155644		habitat	eng	This small freshwater gastropod lives in subterranean waters.
155644		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.
155644		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited
155645		conservation	eng	Additional surveys should be undertaken at regular intervals in order to try to refind this species.
155645		distribution	eng	<em>Alzoniella galaica</em> has a restricted range in springs at Folgoso do Courel, Provincia de Lugo, Spain (PH40).   It was originally only known from the type locality, with another site discovered later at Os Peares (PH00) near Outeiro. Numerous visit to springs and waterfalls between these two locations have failed to find any other locations for this species (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in Verdu and Galante 2009), although other species of spring snails were found at the sites.<br/><br/>Surveys in 2003, 2005 and 2006 at both known sites failed to find any live specimens (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in Verdu and Galente 2009). At the Lugo site the species is considered to be extirpated, whereas at the Outeiro site, the species is considered possibly extirpated.
155645		habitat	eng	This species is found within clean water of small springs and outflow streams associated with vegetation dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Azolla filiculoides</span> usually in wooded areas (with Oak, Chestnut and some introduced species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span>).
155645		population	eng	There are no current data available on populations, as no living specimens have been collected during recent surveys which have been regular over the last 20 years.
155645		threats	eng	The major threats to these species are changes to the hydrological regime, water quality and vegetation in the streams. Possible sources of threats include agricultural developments adjacent to the streams, as well as canalisation of streams to abstract water, with drastic reduction of remaining water flow (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in Verdú and Galante 2009).
155646		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, although most of the underground fauna of Croatia is protected. More research is needed on distribution, population and habitat trends and threats, as well as review as to whether protected area status will benefit the species.
155646		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia where it is known from five locations. Radoman (1983) lists the species from Vrelo, the main source of the Gacka River, Pucirep in village near Tonkovici, in the east part of the Gacko Polje. He also suggests that it is confined to the Gacko Polje, with additional locations at Majerovo (sping), Klanac in the Zagrevici village and the spring in Lesce village.
155646		habitat	eng	The species is known from freshwater springs and possibly can be found in groundwater feeding these springs.
155646		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends.
155646		threats	eng	The major threats to this species lies in water abstraction to supply the local village, summer droughts and pollution from adjacent fields.
155647		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any conservation actions in place that specifically target this species. It is listed as Least Concern in national Red Lists for the Czech Republic (Beran 1998) and Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155647		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155647		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species across Europe. According to Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) the species is present in Albania, Andorra, Austria, Azores (Portugal), Balearic Islands (Spain), Belgium, Great Britain (UK), Bulgaria, Channel Islands (UK), Corsica (France), Czech Republic, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, France (mainland), Germany, Greece (mainland), Hungary, Iceland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Russia, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Madeira (Portugal), Malta, Northern Ireland (UK), Norway, Poland, Portugal (mainland), Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain (mainland), Sweden, Switzerland, Netherlands, and Ukraine.<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>(2009) noted that the range extended to Lake Baikal and southern Siberia.
155647		distribution	eng	This species has a widespread distribution throughout north-western Europe (Caron 2007, Welter-Schulte 2009, Zealand and Jeffries 2009). Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>(2009) noted that the range extended to Lake Baikal and southern Siberia.
155647		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, creeks, streams, streamlets and stagnant waters. This species has demonstrated degrees of tolerance to pH levels, salinity concentrations and temperature conditions and is prefers calcareous waters (Welter-Schulte 2009). This species has a generation length of 1 year.
155647		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, streams, streamlets and stagnant waters.This is a very tolerant species that can survive in eutrophic waters.
155647		population	eng	This is an abundant species with a stable population.
155647		population	eng	This is an abundant species with a stable population (Welter-Schulte 2009).
155647		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this species, however it may be negatively affected by water pollution and changes in water regime. Competitive pressures by <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea stagnalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Radix auricularia </span>may also exist (Welter-Schulte 2009), although these two species do not have as widespread a distribution as<span style="font-style: italic;"> R. balthica </span>and so the extent of competitive pressures are unclear. It is therefore unlikely that this would be a threat impacting the global population of the species (V. Prie pers. comm. 2011).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155647		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species, although it may be negatively affected by water pollution and changes in water regime.
155648		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, however data is needed on distribution, population trends and habitat loss to determine the conservation status.
155648		distribution	eng	This species is only known from isolated localities in the steppe zone of Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Russia) (Stadnichenko 1990) where it is currently viewed as very rare. In the last decades there is only one record of live specimens in the Southern Bug Basin (Uvaeva 2007).
155648		habitat	eng	Temporary pools in steppe grasslands and and rivers.
155648		population	eng	The population status is unknown.
155648		threats	eng	Loss of habitats due to conversion of steppe to agriculture on floodplains of small steppe rivers.
155649		conservation	eng	Most probably there is no conservation action for this species in place.
155649		conservation	eng	No information available.
155649		distribution	eng	It is recorded from Tunisia in last century (it is known from Oued El Qmor, Tabarca and Khroumiri). People have collected in this area more recently without finding it, so it is presumed to now be Extinct.
155649		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in Europe according to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006). Some older distributional data might refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. troscheli </span>which is now considered to be a distinct species. Fauna Europaea lists the following countries: Austria, Balearis Islands, Belgium, U.K. - Great Britain, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Ukraine, Serbia.<br/><br/>Czech Republic: <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia leachii </span>(Sheppard, 1823) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia troschelii</span> (Paasch, 1842) are both recorded in the Czech Republic, where both species are restricted to South Moravia; in the floodplains along the Morava River and the Dyje River where both species are very rare.<br/>UK:&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia leachii </span>(Sheppard, 1823) is widespread in lowland rivers, but is believed to have declined over the last 50 years (Killeen, pers. comm, 2009).&#160;Slovakia: Mainly the Danube and Morava River. Also in the Latorica River and slow flooding canals and oxbows, and fishponds.Germany: Common in the north part. In the southern part only in the River Rhein, Neckar and Chiemsee.<br/>Bulgaria: <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia rumelica</span> Wohlberedt, 1911 was considered a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia (Codiella) leachii</span> by Angelov (2000). Georgiev (2010) noted that it was described as a new species from a thermal spring (water temperature 20° C) in the Rhodopes Mountains near the town of Krichim (Wohlberedt, 1911). The only known such spring is Krichimski Vircheta, near the Vacha River. <br/><br/>  This species has a Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern <st1:place w:st="on">Scandinavia</st1:place>.&#160; It is widespread within its known range in Europe from Scandinavia to the Iberian Penisula, and from Eire to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155649		habitat	eng	No information available.
155649		habitat	eng	This species lives in different types of habitat, such as oxbows, rivers, streams, fish ponds, slow flowing canals, etc. It is known to inhabit a wide range of habitats such as streams, rivers, canals, large drains, marsh drains and lakes, however, it is less common in smaller ponds. It shows a strong preference for richly vegetated habitats, often with a muddy or silty substrate with a high diversity of molluscs and other aquatic invertebrates.
155649		population	eng	No information available.
155649		population	eng	There is no unified information available on population and trends for this species, although some countries where the species is less widespread have data on population declines over the last 50 years.&#160;There is little evidence of any significant decline.
155649		threats	eng	Its habitats are affected by artificial and natural impacts (i.e. natural sedimentation and water pollution), although it is difficult to state if there is a significant decline on the habitat quality. It is pollution sensitive and there is evidence of some localised decline. <br/>    <p>Other Threats: Pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging.&#160; Mouthon (1996) showed&#160; that <span style="font-style: italic;">B. leachii </span>was one of the species of gastropod most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160;&#160; </p>
155649		threats	eng	No information available.
155650		conservation	eng	Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) considered the species to be category 1 and noted it was an extremely rare species and species with a geographical restriction in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155650		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region>, where it is only known from the type locality, from groundwater on the banks of the Ruhr River, near Schwerte, southeast of Dortmund (Glöer 2002).   There are fossil records from the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Netherlands</st1:country-region>, but there are no recent records to confirm that the species lives today in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Netherlands</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
155650		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species living in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155650		population	eng	<p>The population trends for this species are unknown. It is very difficult to sample, as it lives in groundwater, and is only found in low density. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) and in recent leaflet.</p>
155650		threats	eng	This species is threatened by a possible decline of habitat,   as currently the site is used for water extraction and is also affected by water pollution.
155651		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. &#160;The species was considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (Manganelli <em>et al.</em>, 2000).&#160; The species requires a programme of habitat monitoring and survey work to establish population trends at the last two known sites, as well as information about potentially damaging actions.
155651		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is restricted to western Sardinia. The type locality is the 'Plentiful karstic spring Su Cologne, at San Giovanni, 100m ASL (UTM 32 T NK4260). Also known from a spring on right bank of Cedrino River, S. Leonardo (3km upstream of Orosei, UTM 32 T NK5771) and Spring San Giuseppe, Siniscola (UTM 32 T NK5790) at 55m ASL (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998). The possible loss at the type locality was noted by Manganelli <em>et al.</em> (1998).
155651		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to interstitial waters of a spring within a karstic region (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is a strict stygobiont (i.e. species generally restricted to subterranean groundwater habitats and characterized morphologically by loss or severe reduction of eyes and pigment). Like most spring-snails, the species feeds using a radula, scraping rock surfaces.
155651		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low and the loss of one sub-population suggests a decreasing trend.
155651		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). In 1998, Manganelli noted that this species has not been found living at the spring at Su Cologne since it was exploited and the bottom surface of the spring cemented over.
155652		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>
155652		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ohridohauffenia rotonda</span> is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> and thus only known in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is recorded on the south-eastern shore from Gorica Hill, near Ohrid town, to St. Naum (Radoman 1985) and from the north-west shore (Hauffe T. pers. comm<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009).</p>
155652		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species only found in edges of the lake in the littoral zone on banks and on stones.
155652		population	eng	This species is only  found in a few locations and mainly in low abundance (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).
155652		threats	eng	<p>  Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load changes the lake bed, smothering the rocks with cover of fine sediment. The water quality is also changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) leading to habitat degradation. As eutrophication continues, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod.&#160;</p>
155653		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.
155653		distribution	eng	<p>&#160;This species is present in a very restricted area of the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) part of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>.</p>
155653		habitat	eng	This species is living in rocky areas of the shore of Lake Ohrid where it is found in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species  (Hadzisce 1956) .
155653		population	eng	<p>This species is strictly restricted to the rocky south-eastern shore and is found only in low abundances.</p>
155653		threats	eng	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod, diminishing its ability to filter water. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake.&#160;Agriculture near the Prespa lake are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region, threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).
155654		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It lies in the protected area Natura 2000 (Beigua - Monte Dente - Gargassa - Pavaglione) where it is considered rare. It is listed as an endemic species worthy of note in the Natura 2000 site reports for the valley, and as the freshwater habitats are only c. 2% of of the protected area. It is assessed as Least Concern (LC) in the Italian Red List. Habitat and population trends need to be monitored.
155654		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella finalina </span>is endemic to Italy, specifically in the alpine region of western Liguria. It is known from a single area, the Valle de Rio dei Ponci (in UTM square MP 49; valley less than 10x10 km²), from a spring at Porra  River, Molino. It has only ever been collected 11 times over the last 30 years and all records from fluvial sediments within this valley, although these were from three recording sites (50 m above sea level (asl), 140 m asl, 260 m asl). All outflows come from the groundwater system.
155654		habitat	eng	This mollusc is found on rocks in groundwaters.
155654		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low. It has only ever been collected 11 times over the last 30 years, all records from fluvial sediments within this valley, although these were from three recording sites.
155654		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155655		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this endemic species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between Albania, FYROM and Greece would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the Prespa Lake. Habitat monitoring should be introduced to determine the impacts of sedimentation and declining water quality for this species. The impact of the introduced fish are unknown, but the pea-clams are known to be fish-food in other lake habitats, and so more understanding of the impacts of the native and introduced species are recommended.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
155655		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium maasseni i</span>s restricted to <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Schultheiss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2008). The total surface area is 254km² and it lies between the three countries with190 km² in FYROM, 84.8 km² in Greece and 38.8 km² in Albania.
155655		habitat	eng	This small bivalve, a pea-clam, is found in freshwater habitats where it is found in littoral zone of the lake on soft substrates.
155655		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species in Lake Prespa.
155655		threats	eng	The increase of sediment load as the result of erosion of the neighbouring area impacts this small bivalve and its ability to filter water. The eutrophication related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the adjacent area to the lake results in the growth of macrophytes, covering the soft substrate and diminishing the oxygen availability within the substrate (anoxic). The introduction of alien fish species for recreational fishing has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.
155656		conservation	eng	The conservation action for this species are not known.&#160; Surveys for this species would be recommended to determine the presence continues in this cave system and monitoring of the groundwater quality to determine changes in biotope condition.
155656		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella dabriana</span> is recorded from Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was described by Radoman (1975) from source of the Dabar River, about 6-8 km south of Sanski Most, by the cave, Dabarska pecina (44° 42' 38 N,&#160;16° 38' 17 E).&#160;</p><p></p>
155656		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater karsts, groundwaters and emergent springs in cave (Radoman 1975).
155656		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
155656		threats	eng	<p>Although the species is apparently restricted to a single site, the current condition of the biotope is considered unpolluted, (Z. Feher, pers. Comm. 2010) and as such there is no reason to consider that this species is threatened.&#160;</p>
155657		conservation	eng	The species is not listed on the IUCN list of Globally Threatened species, 1996. It is listed as Endangered Level 2 on the Bayern State list (Falkner <em>et al.</em> 2003). Habitat monitoring is important as spring snails species can be vulnerable to changes in water quality or levels.
155657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany where there are two different subspecies found in 12 localities within 2 different river catchments:<p><em>Bythiospeum puerkhaueri puerkhaueri</em> (Clessin, 1877) has been recorded from in Main-Taber River Catchment. Specific localities include Auswurf der Schandtauber, near Rothenburg, Bayern, as well as in the springs Vorbach, Tauber, Bettenfeld, Ober-Rimbach, Schorzberg, &#160;Krailshausen, Hachtel (Oberamt Gerabronn), Heimberg, Wildenthierbach (Gloer 2002).</p>  <p><em>Bythiospeum puerkhaueri gibbula</em> (Flach, 1886) has been recorded from the type locality at Aschaffenberg (Gloer 2002). </p>  <p><em><br/></em></p>
155657		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from freshwater springs (Gloer 2002), but probably originates from the underlying groundwater system.
155657		population	eng	There is no data on the species' population status.
155657		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown, however the species is likely to be threatened by&#160; changes in water quality (Pollution from agricultural and domestic sources) or changes in groundwater levels due to over-abstraction of water for domestic supplies.
155658		conservation	eng	Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2003) considered the species to be category 1 and noted it was an extremely rare species and species with a geographical restriction in Bayern, Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155658		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bayern in Germany where it is only known from one groundwater system, but collected from an overlying spring.
155658		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155658		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003).
155658		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155659		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in northern Africa.
155659		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions targeting the species in place, and none are needed across its range, although some localised actions may be necessary.
155659		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium nitidum </em> is a widespread Holartic species. In Africa, it has only been recorded from a single locality in the Oued Mikkés near Ifrane, Morocco (Van Damme 1984). The Oued Mikkés is presently heavily polluted and the African population can be assumed to have disappeared.
155659		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed holarctic species found throughout Europe, possibly North Africa and in North America (I. Killeen and M. Seddon pers. comm. 2010). Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list the species from&#160; Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Ukraine and Greece (including Andikíthira Island, Evvia Island, Ionian Islands, Samothráki Island, Northern Sporades Islands, and Thásos Island).
155659		habitat	eng	No information available.
155659		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of moderately clean aquatic habitats, mostly in flowing drainage ditches, streams, rivers and canals, but also in lakes and ponds. The <em>crassa</em> form occurs principally in canals and large slow-flowing rivers (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)
155659		population	eng	No information available.
155659		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data available about the population trends of this species, however it is likely that the population is stable. Where found this it is usually the dominant species.
155659		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat affecting to the species.
155659		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species throughout its range, however localised threats include   pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Mouthon (1996) showed that&#160;<em></em>this species is moderately tolerant of biodegradable pollution.
155660		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. Given that no individuals have been found in recent surveys further research is required to establish if the species is extant. If found to be extant further conservation actions will be needed to prevent the species from becoming extinct, such as water management, habitat monitoring and communicating with users to raise awareness of the biodiversity of the thermal pools.
155660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and was originally known from five locations, all on the island Samothrace: the type locality; Sources and Bach above Therma; and two other sites (Bach Katsabas below Chora, and sources at the roadside near Palaiopolis). Recent surveys in 2004 and 2008 have failed to find the species at the river near Alonia village, the small stream above Therma village, and the two water sources above Hora and Xeropotamos River (Radea and Georgiev pers. comm. 2010). The species is considered Possibly Extinct (<span class="il">Radea pers. comm. 2010).
155660		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155660		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155660		threats	eng	<p>There are no recent data relating to the threats towards this species, but at the time of first collecting it was considered to be highly threatened (Reischütz pers. comm. 2009) as the thermal springs in this area are exploited as a tourist attraction, with small hotels and thermal pools available to visitors, so there is exploitation of the freshwater springs to provide water for domestic purposes.</p>
155661		conservation	eng	<p>This species was protected by law in Styria, Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List, where it is deemed to be Extinct (EX). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
155661		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella kreisslorum </span>is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the type locality, a single spring in Hohenberg, north west&#160;of Graz, Steiermark (Gloer 2002), where <span id="result_box" class="long_text">it was first collected by E. Kreissl and PL <span title="">Reischütz in 1981. As<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> there were only a few shells, the species was not described until 1997. According to <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz & <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz (2008) <span id="result_box" class="long_text">this spring has now been captured, although another spring produced a few empty shells at Melanie-Quelle am Schöckl.&#160;</span></span></span></span>
155661		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that inhabits springs.
155661		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz (2009) noted that the species may have been extinct before it was described, as the the type locality, as spring, has been lost. </span></span>
155661		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater and the lowering of the groundwater level due to inappropriate water management. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.
155662		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although habitat monitoring is recommended, as the species would be vulnerable if the ground water becomes polluted. Surveys to attempt to expand the known range are advised.
155662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-western Hungary, where it is restricted to the karst area of the Mecsek Mountains.
155662		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean karst water.
155662		population	eng	There is no data available on population size and trend.
155662		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to any pollution events that take place on the Mecsek Plateau, as the species lives in the subterranean karst water. Thus any water leaching into the system carrying pollutants from agricultural sources would degrade the water quality and impact the species.
155665		conservation	eng	All the data on population trends, distribution and habitats are mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudanodonta complanata, </span>a  species known to be in decline. Further data is required to confirm  the taxonomic status. Fresh data is required in order to ascertain the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and potential threats.
155665		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europea as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. complanata</span> for UK, France and Germany (Fauna Europea, online version 2010). The status of this species is in question, as many researchers consider this a form of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. complanata</span>.  Although this species is listed by Fauna Europea for UK, France and   Germany, it is not recognised as present in UK. In France it is   currently treated as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. complanata</span> and mapped in two departments on the north borders with Belgium and Germany. In Belgium it is viewed as a subspecies of<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. complanata </span>(on line Belgian Fauna). Much of the distributional data for this taxon is mixed with distributional data for the declining species <span style="font-style: italic;">P. complanata. <br/></span>
155665		habitat	eng	All the data on habitat preference are mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudanodonta complanata</span>.
155665		population	eng	All the data on population trends are mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudanodonta complanata, </span>a  species known to be in decline.
155665		threats	eng	All the data on population trends, distribution and habitats are mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudanodonta complanata, </span>and therefore an assessment of threats to this species is not currently possible.
155666		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions  known to be&#160; in place. Research on threats, population status and  distribution are required to fully evaluate the status of this species.<br/></p>
155666		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is only known from a single site in interstitial waters at Río Bergantes, by the bridge at Villores, province Castellón (UTM: YL374062).
155666		habitat	eng	This species inhabits interstitial waters in a river system.
155666		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is no data on the population status of this species, but it has only been recently described from surveys in the last 10 years.</p>
155666		threats	eng	Species living in subterranean habitats and interstitial waters are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. If the aquifers are overexploited, then falling water levels may also impact the species.&#160; However these are generalised threats, and it is not known whether they impact this species.
155667		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species across the range, although local actions maybe in place (e.g.&#160;In Germany it is listed as specially protected species in Annex 1 in the Federal Species Regulation, Glöer and Meier-Brook (2003)). Although the species is widespread at present, it has been declining in parts of the range. The major threat identified in some areas is due to new invasions of non-native species, and hence further research on the impact of non-native species on <em>Anodonta anatina </em>is urgently needed to determine the likely longer-term threats they present. Following this it can be determined whether further actions are necessary.
155667		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the BArtSchV German scheme (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006) and is present in a protected area in Poland (Lewandowski 2006). There are no other known conservation measures for this species.
155667		distribution	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout Europe, in some parts the species is scarcer.            There are five subspecies recognised by Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) within the region, each with a different geographical distribution:<br/><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta anatina anatina</span>&#160; Distribution: Republic of Ireland (Eire) Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium Luxembourg, France (Mainland) and Germany.</p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta anatina attenuata</span> Distribution: Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary.</p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta anatina radiata</span> Distribution: Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Germany and Czech Republic.<br/></p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta anatina rostrata</span> Distribution: Austria</p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta anatina waterstoni</span> Distribution: Greece (including Andikíthira I., Evvia I., Ionian Is., Samothráki I., Northern Sporades Is., Thásos I.).</p><p>However, as yet there is insufficient data to maintain these as distinct taxa, and as such the data is combined for this assessment.<br/></p><p><em>Anodonta anatina</em> is recorded in Russia (Graf and Cummings 2007), where Kantor <em>et al</em>. (2009) currently list many different taxa, that&#160;Graf and Cummings (2007) recognise as synonyms.</p>
155667		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Europe and Asia, below 65 degrees, down to Portugal, Sicily and Turkey. It can be found from Siberia to the east coast of Asia (Haas 1969).
155667		habitat	eng	This is a filter-feeding bivalves that lives in the beds of lakes, rivers, reservoirs and canals.
155667		habitat	eng	This is a generalist species which can be found inhabiting both flowing streams and standing waters. As a generalist, it is able to exist in both oligotrophic and eutrophic waters (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006). Ponds, flood plains, rivers, lakes and river basins all provide suitable habitat for this species (Mozley 1936) and it is also capable of living in artificial freshwater habitats such as reservoirs, flooded gravel pits and fishponds (Nagel <em>et al.</em> 2006). It lives in areas with sandy and gravel substrate (Bauer and Wächtler 2001).
155667		population	eng	This is a species which has an average longevity of eight years. It is  one of the most common species in rivers and lakes and one of the most  tolerant species to pollution, and gets into the upper parts of river  systems.<br/>However, it is recognised as a species which is declining over parts of the  range, in part due to the presence of the invasive species&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena  polymorpha</span>.&#160;The species is more in decline in Ireland and parts of western Europe&#160;(Moorkens & Killeen 2005). It has reduced greatly some some major river systems in the range and, although there are many identified threats, the precise causes are unknown (D. Aldridge, 2009, pers. comm).
155667		population	eng	This species has been described as the most abundant mussel species in study areas in Germany with more than 1,000 individuals seen, although there have been localised declines due to human influences (Zettler <em>et al. </em>2006). It was also stated as the dominant species in three lakes in Poland (Lewandowski 2006). A population density of 4-5 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> can be found in subsidence reservoirs in south Poland (Lewin and Smolinski 2006).
155667		threats	eng	In the past there have been localised declines and losses as the result of habitat degradation (water pollution from industrial/agricultural sources and channel management for flood protection and navigation), however the most recent threats come from the impact of an invasive mollusc species <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>, smothering the duck mussel. In some parts of Europe this species has been badly impacted by <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em> and is projected to decline even further as a direct result of this invasive species (e.g. in Ireland,&#160;Moorkens and Killeen (2005)).&#160;The species sits partly out of the river bed to enable the filter-feeding, so&#160;a high proportion of shell is exposed to the water column, and hence is vulnerable to settlement by&#160;<em>Dreissena polymorpha </em>seeking a place to anchor. There is an urgent need for more data on the level of impact of this species as the smothering is known to inhibit reproduction.
155667		threats	eng	There are no known current major threats affecting this species although there have been some localised declines due to unspecified human influences (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is possible that in the near future this species may experience competition from the invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta woodiana</span> (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
155668		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place, however surveys are required to establish the absence and possible extinction of the species.
155668		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia varica</span> is restricted to the springs around the Var river delta (near Nice and Cannes, south-eastern France). It is known only from four sites, in one location (Var River).
155668		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring snail.
155668		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
155668		threats	eng	The natural habitats in the  delta of the Var River have been changed by human activities, such as construction of the airport, increased urbanisation and the consequent habitat degradation resulting from pollution, etc., and, as such, most of the sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia varica</span> occurred have changed.
155669		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155669		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the appeninic regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Tuscany, Lazio and Puglia where it is widespread, but locally distributed.
155669		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to thermal spring waters and slow-flowing water.
155669		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155669		threats	eng	Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155670		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat quality would allow the trends in rate of changing habitat quality to be assessed, and hence any change that would impact conservation status could be tracked. <br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>
155670		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
155670		habitat	eng	This is freshwater species lives in the littoral zone, living on various substrates, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena </span>shells, gravels and sand.
155670		population	eng	This is a rare species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009)
155670		threats	eng	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. The decline in the habitat quality is only affecting the littoral range of this species and is not thought to impact the sub-littoral part of the range.
155671		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed as Vulnerable in the Province of Andalucia and Data Deficient in the National Red List.&#160; It lives in freshwater in springs close to human habitation, which are sources of domestic water for these villages.&#160; The major threats lie in 'cleaning’ vegetation from the springs (and concreting the site) disturbing the habitats, and over-abstraction of water for domestic use leading to temporary loss of water in the springs, hence good management of the sites to benefit water supplies and biodiversity are required.
155671		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Spain, where it is known from the Provinces of Albacete and Granada (Boeters 1970, 1988). <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">In Granada it is recorded from Cerro de la Virgen between Galera and Orce (2 springs; Type locality) and Fuente de los dos Caños (Valle del río Castril) and the Fuente en la Ermita de las Santas. This species is also known&#160; from one spring in Sierra de Castril and one in Albacete province.  Current studies in progress (Delicado, Ramos and Machordom, unpublished) have recorded the species in 5 springs around Orce (Granada), 3 more springs in sierra de Castril (Granada), 2 more localities in Albacete and one locality in Almería.
155671		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudamnicola </em><em>(Corrosella)</em><em> falkneri </em>is found in natural springs with sandy bottoms and vegetation. They are fragile ecosystems placed in very arid areas with scarce water resources and intensive agriculture. </p>
155671		population	eng	There is no data on population status for this species, but it has been recorded during surveys in the last 10 years.
155671		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The 3 spring-sites in Andalucia  are found in fragile ecosystems due to the arid environment and the scarcity of domestic water (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). These  features, along with the increased intensity of agriculture with the off-take of water for irrigation, are placing pressure on these populations.&#160; The major threats lie in 'cleaning’ vegetation from the springs (and concreting the site) disturbing the habitats, and over-abstraction of water for domestic use leading to temporary loss of water in the springs. &#160;In addition pollution of the water source from agricultural sources from the fields around the villages is a marginal threat. T<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">here is a possibility that the sites are vulnerable to stochastic events such as fires causing increased sediment loads or road accidents causing pollution events adjacent to the spring sites. The sites adjacent to roads are also vulnerable to road widening schemes.</span>
155673		conservation	eng	This species requires  recent data to validate the distribution of this species, as well as data on population trends, habitats and threats, so that a conservation assessment can be made.
155673		distribution	eng	This species was described from the former country of Yugoslavia however Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) have noted there is no recent data to validate the distribution of this species.
155673		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences are uncertain.
155673		population	eng	This species was described by Schütt (1980) from the former country of  Yugoslavia, and Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) have noted there is no  recent data to validate the distribution of this species.
155673		threats	eng	This species was described by Schütt (1980) from the former country of  Yugoslavia, however there is no  recent data to validate the distribution of this species and hence it is not possible to establish the threats.
155674		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species is considered Near Threatened in Italy (Manganelli <em>et al</em>. 2000).
155674		distribution	eng	<em>Alzoniella cornucopia</em> is endemic to Italy, specifically to an aquifer&#160;in the upper reaches of River Arbia within the Appeninnes of Tuscany (Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 1995).
155674		habitat	eng	<em>Alzoniella cornucopia</em> is found in&#160;groundwaters in alluvial sediments.
155674		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area but population trends are unknown.
155674		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155675		conservation	eng	No conservation actions required for this species
155675		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are proposed.
155675		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
155675		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
155675		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of.
155675		conservation	eng	No information available.
155675		conservation	eng	None known.
155675		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155675		conservation	eng	<p>Research on <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus'</span> biology is recommended and potential threats to this species need to be identified.</p>
155675		distribution	eng	Distributed widely in West Africa. Absence from Central African Republic is considered real.
155675		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides tuberculata</em> is widespread in tropical Africa.
155675		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides tuberculatus</em> is a circumtropical species, native to the Indo-Pacific region, south Asia, Arabia, Near East, and northern Australia. Its southern limits lie near Port Elizabeth (South Africa) and Namibia (Brown 1994). It has also been introduced to the Americas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Although it is widespread in tropical Africa, it is apparently absent from a large western area, including most of the Zaire Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed species in eastern Africa occurring in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Malawi, including Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria and other regional wetlands.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  It is thought to be present in the majority of North Africa countries.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in all countries in the region, and on Socotra.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found throughout Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and the eastern drainages of South Africa southwards to Port Elizabeth. It has also been recorded at a few isolated sites in Namibia (possibly relic populations); one of these is a subterranean lake. It is not found in Lesotho.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed widely in West Africa. Absence It is known from Central African Republic is considered real.
155675		distribution	eng	Regional Distribution: Widely introduced through Europe with scattered populations in central Europe, becoming more common around the Mediterranean.&#160; <br/>Global distribution: Native range - Indo-Pacific region, S. Asia, Arabia, Near East, northern Australia and widepspread in tropical Africa.
155675		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus</span> has a very broad distribution. It is found in northern and southern Africa; eastern Mediterranean countries, Saudi Arabia, south and southeast Asia (including numerous records from, Bangladesh, Nepal and from much of India), southern China (including records from Hong Kong and Hainan), Japan, Malaysia, and northern Australia (Yueying Liu 1979, Brown 1994, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It was introduced to the Americas. It is distributed throughout India except Kashmir.
155675		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Throughout Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and  the eastern drainages of South Africa southwards to Port Elizabeth. It has also been recorded at a few isolated sites in Namibia (possibly relic populations); one of these is a subterranean lake. It is not found in Lesotho.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Native range - Indo-Pacific region, southern. Asia, Arabia, Near East, northern Australia. Widespread in tropical Africa, but apparently absent  from a large western area, including most of the Zaire Basin. Southern limits lie near Port Elizabeth (South Africa) and Namibia (Brown, 1994). Introduced to the Americas.
155675		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from all countries and on Socotra.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is presently a circumtropical species, introduced everywhere by man. The type locality is India.
155675		distribution	eng	The species is presently Circumtropical, and has been highly introduced. Its type locality is in India.
155675		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in eastern Africa occurring in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Malawi. Including Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria and other regional wetlands.
155675		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes and rivers at mud, sand and gravel. Present both within vegetation (<em>Vallisneria</em>) and on bottom without vegetation. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
155675		habitat	eng	It lives in stagnant and slowly running waters, tolerating high salinity to some extent and occurring among vegetation.
155675		habitat	eng	Lakes and rivers at mud, sand and gravel. Present both within vegetation (<em>Vallisneria</em>) and on bottom without vegetation. Perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
155675		habitat	eng	Lives in stagnant and slowly running waters, tolerating high salinity to some extent. Among vegetation.
155675		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides   tuberculatus</span> inhabitats&#160;clear water with rocky or sandy bottom in the rapid flowing mountain streams. It is also found in pools, lakes and ditches. <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus</span> is the intermediate host of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus westermani, Metagonimus trematode</span>&#160;and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Diorchitrema formosanum</span>.
155675		habitat	eng	This species lives in stagnant and slowly running waters, tolerating high salinity to some extent among vegetation.
155675		habitat	eng	Thrives in most habitats in Lake Victoria even in the disturbed and polluted areas it was recorded in high abundance.
155675		habitat	eng	Various permanent water bodies including rivers, lakes, shallow seepages and man-made habitats (Brown 1994).
155675		habitat	eng	Various permanent water bodies including rivers, lakes, shallow seepages and man-made habitats (Brown 1994).<br/>May in fact benefit from human disturbance as can live in degraded habitats.
155675		population	eng	A very widespread and common species.
155675		population	eng	Can be very abundant.
155675		population	eng	In the ongoing freshwater gastropods study of Lake Victoria, Kenya, over 40,000  specimens have been recorded in few sampling localities and the species appears very stable in the lake.
155675		population	eng	It is common and abundant.
155675		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides   tuberculatus</span>, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
155675		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus</span> is parthenogenetic. Females are capable of asexual reproduction,  where growth and development of <span class="mw-redirect">e<span class="mw-redirect">mbryos occurs without <span class="mw-redirect">fertilization by a male. This makes it easy for this species to colonise new areas, as few individuals are required to successful reproduce to start a new sub-population.</span>
155675		population	eng	This is a common species.
155675		threats	eng	No information available.
155675		threats	eng	No major threats for this widespread species.
155675		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
155675		threats	eng	None known.
155675		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus </span>inhabits&#160;clear water with rocky or sandy bottom in the rapid flowing mountain streams, which are impacted in parts of the species range by sedimentation arising form deforestion and agriculture. The impacts of these threats on the species require research.
155675		threats	eng	The invasive thiarid <em>Tarebia granifera</em>  has been introduced to South Africa from Asia by the aquarium trade (Appleton 2003) and appears to be outcompeting <em>M. tuberculata</em> in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa (Appleton pers com). The Asian form of the species has probably been introduced to South Africa via  the aquarium trade but its impact on the indigenous <em>M. tuberculata</em>  is unknown (see Genner et al 2004 for a discussion on an apparently similar situation in Lake Malawi).
155675		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species
155675		threats	eng	There is evidence that the indigenous <em>M. tuberculatus</em> has been displaced by an Asian strain in Lake Malawi and this strain may be more widespread (Genner <em>et al.</em> 2004). Introduced via the aquarium trade.
155676		conservation	eng	&#160;No specific conservation measures are known. This species is assessed as Extinct in the Italian Red List (CK Map 5.3.8).
155676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy. Specifically it was found within the alpine region of Lombardy between Lake Garda and Lake Idro. It has not been recorded since 1850 and hence is considered to be Extinct.
155676		habitat	eng	This freshwater mollusc was originally recorded as living in standing marsh water (CK Map 5.3.8).
155676		population	eng	This species was restricted to a small area and has not been recorded since 1850.
155676		threats	eng	The species is considered Extinct as it hasn't been found again since 1850. The causes of its extinction are uncertain, but the habitat has probably been lost.
155677		conservation	eng	<p>This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species (Bole and Velkovhr 1986, Bole 1992) and later&#160;assigned a status of&#160; Vulnerable for the Slovenian Red List (Slovenian Gazette, September 2002).                Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status.&#160; </p>
155677		distribution	eng	<p>Although this species is listed by Fauna Europea as endemic to Croatia and Slovenia. &#160;The type locality for this species was the cave Raja peč near Sevnica and springs in surroundings (Slapnik pers. comm. 2010), and it is believed to be restricted to these sites (Sket pers. comm. 2010). <br/></p>
155677		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs and caves.
155677		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155677		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is pollution of the groundwaters feeding the springs, with agricultural sources. A secondary threat may be the use of the cave for tourist purposes, with possible changes to the microhabitats to the  cave.
155678		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known, however habitat monitoring and   further survey to determine the geographical range of this species is recommended.
155678		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain.
155678		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
155678		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155678		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155679		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in the region.
155679		conservation	eng	This species is Red listed in several European countries (Netherlands, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and some federal regions of Germany). No conservation actions are known for this species across its range,  although local actions are in place in some areas. Although the species is still  widespread at present, it has been declining in parts of its  range, hence further surveys are needed to determine the decline  levels, and then determine whether further actions are necessary.
155679		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium tenuilineatum </em> is a Paleartic species only known from a single location in northern Africa, the Oued Mikkés near Ifrane, Morocco (Kuiper 1972). It is probably Extinct in Africa. Its type locality is in a canal near Marsworth Church in Ireland.
155679		distribution	eng	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is widely<em> </em>distributed across the western Palearctic from the Mediterranean to southern Sweden and eastwards to Belarus (Drisviaty Lake) and Russia. It has a scattered distribution in many countries (e.g. UK, France, Germany, Poland). This species is also known to occur in Israel, Syria and more recently, from two springs in Lebanon.<br/></p><p>This is a rare and endangered bivalve in the Czech Republic (Beran and Horsak 2001) - only about 15 localities were known before 2000, but a survey of&#160; most of these localities showed the species was missing. However, two new localities were found in 2000 at two brooks (Liběchovka and Pšovka, Central and Northern Bohemia) in the Kokořínsko Protected Landscape Area.</p><p>There are scattered records of this species from Loir et Cher and Jura (Brault and Gervais 2004), but it is known more widely throughout other areas of France; Pas de Calais (Cucherat, 2003) and 23 lakes across France (Mouthon 1993).<br/></p>        <p>There are scattered records of this species from Northern and Central Italy; it was only recorded from twenty 10 km squares. There are no records from Sardinia (Cianfanelli, Giusti and Manganelli, pers. comm., 2009).</p>    <p>This species is considered Extinct&#160; in the Netherlands (de Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), based on absence of records in period 1985-2000, compared to 1965-1984.</p><p>The status of this species in Spain is uncertain. The species was cited with doubts in Spain by Araujo (1995). </p><p>In the UK this species is mainly found in central southern England, principally the Hampshire and Thames basins.&#160; It is also known from south and south-east Wales (Rivers Lugg, Monnow and Usk), Yorkshire (Rivers Wharfe and Ure), the River Mimram in Hertfordshire and the River Axe in Devon. It was formerly known from rivers and canals in the Midlands and from ponds in Sussex, and Herefordshire. The species has not been recorded from Scotland (I. Killeen, pers. comm., 2009).</p><p>In Germany this species is known to the south from North Rhine Westphalia and Brandenburg and sporadically in the southern part of Germany. (Glöer and Meier-Brook 2003)</p>
155679		habitat	eng	In Britain this species <em></em> lives principally in clean, calcareous, unpolluted, lowland rivers, large streams and occasionally in ponds. The species lives in both swift and slow-flowing water, most often in fine sediments that accumulate at river margins, particularly on the downstream side of tall, emergent macrophytes. In Poland Piechocki (1989) records that its characteristic habitats are small lowland rivers with fine bottom sediments, in which it is sometimes abundant. It tolerates low levels of calcium (Glöer and Meier-Brook 2003).
155679		habitat	eng	No information.
155679		population	eng	No information available.
155679		population	eng	This species is in decline in Europe. It has been found to be extinct in some parts of the range, and in other countries thought to have declined (in the UK there have been declines of 39% in the period 1965-1998, and more recently down to 19% and stabilising (M. Seddon and I. Killeen, pers. comm., 2010). Studies in Britain (Killeen and Willing 2004) have shown that this species frequently occurs in low numbers, rarely comprising more than 10% of all <em>Pisidium</em> individuals from a sample, although in some places (e.g. River Whitewater, Pang) it has been found in abundances as high as 80% of all individuals in a sample.<br/><br/>Mouthon (2008) has shown that this small bivalve gives birth to two or three generations per year that emerge from May to September. The sampling in the French Upper Rhône shows the presence throughout the year of gravid individuals and newborns suggests that each individual reproduces several times during its lifetime (iteroparity) of one to two years, and in European <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium</span> this reproduction strategy has only been observed in populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. conventus </span>living in deep zones of lakes, however, it does not appear to endow <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tenuilineatum</span> with any particular advantage since it is most usually represented by only small populations
155679		threats	eng	Global warming is a major threat to the species.
155679		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Mouthon (1996) showed that this species is the species of <em>Pisidum </em>most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160; In Poland Piechocki (1992) highlighted the sensitivity of the species to orthophosphate, and more recently in the UK, studies have shown that the distributional limits within a river are affected by levels of orthophosphate (Killeen and Willing 2004).
155680		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species and no conservation measures are needed.
155680		distribution	eng	<p>In Ukraine this species has died out in some habitats, but has probably remained on some sites in the Dnieper Estuary, however surveys in recent years did not find live specimens. It is also known from the Don estuarine area (Russia). Fauna of Russia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) lists the range as mouths of Dnieper, Don, Dniester rivers and limans of the Black Sea; 0-3 m (Golikov and Starobogatov 1966, Anistratenko 1998a).<br/></p>
155680		habitat	eng	<p>This species is commonly found living on species from the Family Dreissenidae (it lays it's eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissenidae byssus</span> threads, hence it is found only in Family Dreissenidae habitats typical for the Azov-Black Sea Region). <br/></p>
155680		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155680		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
155681		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place, although the species was proposed as an addition to the Emerald List of protected species for Serbia and Montenegro, and it listed as a protected species in the First National Report of the Republic of Serbia to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (Republic of Serbia Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning 2010). Further data is need on population status, distribution, habitat trends and threats to confirm the conservation assessment of this species.
155681		distribution	eng	Radoman (1985) describes the species as restricted to the Kosovo Basin. The type locality was freshwater springs near Cma Zemlja, six km west of Nerodimlje, Kosovo, Serbia. Other locations were 12-13 km west of Urosevac town, a spring as Pridvorica village (near Velji Brijeg), prings at Ribraric-Kosovska Mitrovica, a spring at Crnoljevo village, Gornja Mahal (by the road between Stimlac and Prizren), and a spring between Mala and Velika Reka, at the source of the Nerodimka River (Radoman 1983).
155681		habitat	eng	<p>Although Radoman (1985) described it as restricted to freshwater springs, it is a subterranean species that it also found in springs (Radoman, 1983).<br/></p>
155681		population	eng	There is no recent data on the status of these populations.
155681		threats	eng	Most springs are exploited by the local residents for their domestic water supply or for agricultural purposes and hence the major threat is over-abstraction of water. In some parts of the range water pollution from agricultural sources may also be an issue.
155682		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions
155682		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Brittany (France) to Morocco along the Atlantic coast.
155682		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia glyca</span> species lives in brackish waters.
155682		population	eng	There are no population data available for this <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia glyca</span>.
155682		threats	eng	The threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia glyca</span> are unknown.
155683		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however habitat monitoring and further surveys to determine the geographical range of this species would be recommended.
155683		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from two sites, both wells, in province Teruel in northern Spain.</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 0.8km off Valderrobres, East of road between Valderrobres-Arnés, Province Teruel (UTM grid square BF610287), dug well</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Cretas, 7.6 km off Valderrobres, South of Road Valderrobres-Arnés, province Teruel (UTM grid square BF663308), dug well.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155683		habitat	eng	<p>The living animals are found in interstitial waters in dug wells.</p>
155683		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this recently described species.
155683		threats	eng	No threats are currently known, but this species lives in groundwater in a region where groundwater is exploited as a water source for domestic supplies villages.
155684		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G5 - Secure, and National Status within both Canada and the USA of N5 - Secure (meaning that the species is common, widespread, and abundant) (NatureServe 2009).
155684		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the U.S., Canada, Cuba and Mexico (Beran and Horsak 2002). This species has a broad North American distribution, from Alaska and northern Canada southwards to Mexico (at least as far as Morelos), and from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. It also occurs in Cuba and the Greater Antilles (Thompson 2008). This species has also been introduced to Europe – France, Austria, Germany and the Czech Republic (Beran and Horsak 2002) – and Israel, where it is found in human-dominated habitats (Roll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It was first recorded in the French Upper Rhone in 1994, and has since been recorded as highly abundant (Besacier-Monbertrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155684		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of freshwater habitats, including pools, ponds and lakes (Meier-Brook 2002). It associates with small plants (Besacier-Monbertrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is especially well-adapted to lacustrine habitats in the northern USA and Canada (Dillon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
155684		population	eng	This species is generally common throughout its range (NatureServe 2009).
155684		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
155685		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue.&#160; Habitat monitoring is recommended to establish changes in habitat quality and the conservation status of this species. <br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>
155685		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania. It has a wider distribution range than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ohrigocea </span>species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155685		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in a freshwater lake, where it prefers the rocky shores of the littoral zone.</p>
155685		population	eng	This species is not very abundant (C. Albrecht <em>et al.</em> pers. comm. 2009)
155685		threats	eng	Lake Ohrid is among the nutrient-poor (so called oligotrophic) lakes (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006) and as such the species are adapted to these conditions. Recent surveys of the lake suggest that complete nutrient-enrichment (eutrophication) is taking place, from domestic water pollution and agricultural run-off.&#160;In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod.
155686		conservation	eng	It should be protected from water extraction. Conservation actions would be to change plans for dumping site.&#160; Proper drainage from road is needed to stop seepage to aquifer.&#160;All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia.&#160;&#160;The status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.
155686		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia jadertina</span> is listed by Fauna Europea from Bosnia and Croatia (Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006; Fauna Europea). &#160;One subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia jadertina</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">jadertina&#160;</span>is recorded from both Bosnia and Croatia, although Sket (pers. comm. 2010) doubts the locality data for Bosnia.&#160; The other subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia jadertina sinjana</span>&#160;is endemic to Croatia and at present is only known from one locality, a spring in river valley of Jadro, near Spilt.
155686		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a freshwater spring emerging from a cave system. It is possible that the species occurs within the cave system. The cave water is exploited for drinking water.
155686		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155686		threats	eng	The threats are:<br/><ul><li>extraction of water for drinking (ongoing)</li><li>road passes close to the spring, major road, with traffic with large lorries, oil spills&#160; possibility for&#160; road accidents. </li><li>run-off from road into the underground aquifer - pollution.</li><li>planning to build a refuse disposal about 30 km away, however the site has been tested and links through subterranean waters to this site. [Future large problem- regional disposal].</li></ul>
155687		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.&#160; This species maybe more widespread and would benefit from further survey to establish this.
155687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the middle part of the Hérault valley in southern France, where it is known from at least 14 sites, however it is under-recorded in the region, and so is probably more widespread in suitable habitats (V. Prie 2009 pers.comm).
155687		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs and can usually be found in the subterranean habitats.
155687		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155687		threats	eng	Spring sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155688		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, population size and trends and threats to the species. The number of subpopulations has decreased leaving just one known location. Unless further sites are discovered this should be protected.
155688		distribution	eng	This species was known from the type locality in the north-west of France (Erdre river, near Nantes). Despite several field surveys (Prie, pers. comm. 2009, Bertrand, pers. comm. 2009), the species has never been found again in this locality. But recently, a population attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. armoricana</span> has been discovered in a channel in Brittany (Ille-et-Vilaine) (Prie, pers. comm. 2009).
155688		habitat	eng	This species lives in slow-flowing rivers and channels.
155688		population	eng	There are few population data available, although the subpopulation at Nantes has been lost.
155688		threats	eng	The main cause of the loss of the subpopulation near Nantes is not known.
155689		conservation	eng	Further data is required on population status and distribution.
155689		distribution	eng	The species is listed for Italy by Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006), however in Fauna Italica it is considered to be <em>B. leachi</em>. &#160;According to Bodon and Cianfanelli (Cianfanelli, pers. comm. Feb 2010), <em>Bithynia italica</em>, Paulucci, 1880 is a valid species and this species is widely distributed in Italy and in Corsica.&#160;The type locality for this species is&#160; Angitola river near Pizzo in Calabria, Italy. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is mentioned by Falkner <em>et al.&#160;</em>(2002) from Pietracorbara&#160; in Corsica ("Cape Corse" only) ; and Viareggio and Lago di Massaciuccoli in Italia, where it is syntopic with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. boissieri.</span>
155689		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater rivers.
155689		population	eng	No data on population status although believed to be widespread.
155689		threats	eng	The threats to the species are localised and the wide distribution in Italy and Corsica suggests that the species is unlikely to be threatened.
155690		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although it is listed as endemic for the Mountain. More information is needed on the distribution and the population. Habitat trends should be monitor.
155690		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is known from&#160; Bjelaš-nica, a site that also holds <em>Radomaniola bosniaca</em> and is a mountain in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is found directly to the southwest of Sarajevo.&#160;&#160;It is restricted to the Vrbas River catchment. It was described from 6 springs or brooks within the catchment (Radoman 1983). Spring between Jajce and Mrkonjiće-grad, 8km from Jajce&#160;; spring below Barevo village 8km N of Jajce&#160;; spring between Mrkonjiće-grad and Kljuće, 2-3km from Mrkonjiće-grad, Sredinace spring 5 km of Jezero and 4km N of Šipovo; Žlicino-vrelo by Ćirakovac, 10km from Mrkonjiće-grad.
155690		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155690		population	eng	No data on the population is available.
155690		threats	eng	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer or water extraction is taken directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat destruction, unless they lie in protected areas.
155691		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.</p><p></p>  <p></p>
155691		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>Endemic to Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), this species is restricted to Lake Ohrid, the St. Naum, Zagorican and Tusemista feeder springs of Lake Ohrid, the Drim System at least upstream to the dam Lake Globocicko (approximately 15 km north of Lake Ohrid), and to the Sum spring north-west of Lake Ohrid (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>  <strong></strong><p></p>
155691		habitat	eng	<p>In Lake Ohrid, <span style="font-style: italic;">Radix</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> relicta </span>was recorded between depths from 0 m to 35 m. It lives mainly on hard substrata (e.g. rocks, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena</span> bundles) or on algae of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara </span>belt. (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)</p>
155691		population	eng	This is an abundant species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
155691		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).   In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.</p>
155692		conservation	eng	This species is common throughout Europe and in most countries is not under any management plans.&#160; It was considered to be Least Concern in GB (Seddon and Killeen, pers. comm., 2010) and Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Austria it is given Category 4 and in Sweden Category 3. In Germany, it has a listing of Vulnerable in some states and Category 3 in other states.
155692		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acroloxus lacustris</span> is widespread in Europe mainly in lowland areas north to c. 61°N in Scandinavia (Kerney, 1999);&#160; Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006) lists the species from: Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (Mainland), Sicily (Italy), Bulgaria, Romania, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (Mainland), Portugal (Mainland), Albania, FYROM (also known as Macedonia), Bosnia & Hercegovina, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Ukraine, Greece (Mainland).&#160;  This project also has records from Serbia.<br/><br/>Globally, the species range is from Europe to the east, extending to western Siberia where it is recorded from rivers and permanent waterbodies (Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
155692		habitat	eng	This small freshwater limpet inhabits clean water in canals, slow lowland rivers, lakes and drainage ditches and small ponds. It is usually found attached to vegetation (leaves and stems of aquatic plants) or dead submerged wood and sometimes large freshwater mussel shells. It is generally a calciphile, although tolerant of soft water (Kerney 1999).
155692		population	eng	There are no specific data on population trends across the range, but it is believed to be stable.  In some countries, there has been decline, partly due to habitat loss (Seddon and Killeen, pers. comm., 2010).
155692		threats	eng	It prefers clean water, but threats are localised, mainly losses due to habitat destruction and water pollution (domestic and agricultural sources) and are not likely to impact the species on its whole range.
155693		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species. More research on the distribution of this species is needed to define the real risk of extinction of this species (if this species is proven to be restricted to one single spring, it might qualify for a Critically Endangered category).
155693		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella haicabia</span> is endemic to France, and is known from the Department Pyrenees-Atlantiques (south-west France). This species was described relatively recently, from a spring<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> about 200 m from the sea on the farm Haicabia, north of Route Nationale 10c, between St Jean de Luz and&#160; Hendaye, Pyrenees-Atlantiques, France (UTM: XP00). Boeters (2000) has only found it from 1 location.
155693		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155693		population	eng	The status of the populations at the known site is currently unknown, as no further sampling reported since first collection 10 years ago.
155693		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella haicabia</span> is currently only known from a single spring on a farm, near the sea between two towns.&#160; This site has potential threats from exploitation of the water source, from pollution by use of the spring and over abstraction of water.
155694		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are specifically in place for this species.
155694		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern Italy (see CK Map version 5.3.8), found in most areas of Lombardia, Piedmonte and Liguria. It is not known whether the species is reducing in range, but likely that some populations are threatened through exploitation of sources.
155694		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155694		population	eng	The populations trends are unknown.
155694		threats	eng	This species is widespread through northern Italy, and although some populations may be threatened through exploitation of the springs by nearby villages, it is unlikely to lead to extinction in the near future.   The major threats to this species lie in exploitation of the water sources, either through extraction of groundwater feeding the spring, or capping (off-take) of water from the springs.&#160; There are a variety of purposes in the region, use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies.&#160; A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.
155695		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.</p>
155695		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia hadzii</span> is recorded from a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM)<st1:placename w:st="on">, </st1:placename>from   Pečtani <span color="blue">to the beach at St. Naum (Radoman 1985).<br/></span></p>
155695		habitat	eng	This species is living in freshwater habitats in rocky areas, in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs, where it is found on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species (Hadzisce 1956). <br/><p><br/></p>
155695		population	eng	The population trend is not known.
155695		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155696		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">There are no species-specific conservation  action plans known, however habitat monitoring is recommended.&#160; <br/><br/></span>This species is currently listed as Near Threatened in Italy, based on limited range and a small number of sites but there are no known threats. <br/><br/>In Slovenia, one subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. robiciana kostanjevicae</span>) is present in the River Krka catchment, which<span style="background-color: white;"> is a  Natural Monument. According to the Decree on the Protection of the Krka  River, its tributaries and banks (Dolenjska Assembly Journal, No. 21/72  and ) is included in the European network Natura 2000 as a special area   potential Site of Conservation Interest.&#160;&#160; </span>
155696		distribution	eng	<em>Paladilhiopsis robiciana</em> is recorded from Italy, Slovenia, Croatia.&#160; In Italy it is found in the northeast of Italy, where it is recorded from 5 localities (Extent of occurrence of 400 km<sup>2</sup>), but some sites have multiple outflows. All localities have been surveyed in last 40 years, as the species was first recognised in Italy in 1973. In Slovenia, it is recorded from the springs in northwest Slovenia. One subspecies is known from Croatia.
155696		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155696		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155696		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are overabstraction of water during the summer periods, causing a drop in the water table and degradation of habitats through temporary drying.
155697		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not protected in Greece but some of the areas where it has been found are included in the protected sites of Natura 2000 network: <br/></p><p>GR3000006 'Ymittos-Aesthitiko Dasos Kessaianis-Limni Vouliagmenis'</p><p>GR2420001 'Oros Ochi - Kampos Karystou - Potami - Akrotirio Kafirefs'</p><p>GR2450005&#160; 'Notioanatolikos Parnassos-Ethnikos drymos Parnassou' <br/></p><p>GR2550006 'Oros Taygetos'.</p><p>No other conservation measures are known.Further research is required on population status and possibly taxonomic work, as the genus is known to be complex with many cryptic species (Radea, pers. comm., 2010).<br/></p>
155697		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in all of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> except the islands of central and east Aegean Sea and <st1:place w:st="on">Crete.</st1:place>
155697		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits springs and streams with cold and clean freshwater, crawling on moss, small stones and leaves fallen from the surrounded trees and shrubs. </p>
155697		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.   Only a few specimens were found in the spring at Monastery of Kessariani, Attica, during surveys in April 2008 and 2009.
155697		threats	eng	<p>  The main threat for this species is the disturbance of springs and streams caused by human activities such as pollution of groundwater, over abstraction of water for drinking and irrigation, and tourist pressure.</p>
155698		conservation	eng	<p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>.<a name="OLE_LINK1"> There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue.</p><p><strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong></p>  <strong></strong><p></p>
155698		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania, and to the feeder spring systems on the southern edge of the lake. It is found at four locations including the lake and three independent feeder spring systems. It has a wider distribution range in the catchment area than other species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Ohrigocea</span>.
155698		habitat	eng	<p>This freshwater species is found on hard substrates (stones and rocks) in lake margins and in springs.<br/></p>
155698		population	eng	This species is not very abundant (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>pers. comm. 2009)
155698		threats	eng	Lake Ohrid is among the nutrient-poor (so-called oligotrophic) lakes (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) and as such the species are adapted to these conditions. Recent surveys of the lake suggest that complete nutrient-enrichment (eutrophication) is taking place from domestic water pollution and agricultural run-off.&#160;In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod.   The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water.
155699		conservation	eng	There is no conservation actions known for this species. More research is needed relating to taxonomy, population trends and threats towards this species.
155699		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandia heussi</em>&#160;is listed by Fauna Europea as endemic to Portugal, where it was described from the River Lis (de Mato 2004). It is mainly found in central Portugal, unlike <em>B. lusitanica</em>, a species from the northern and central rivers of Portugal. Rolan and Oliveira (2009) noted that the species was present in other sites in Portugal, Spring of the Ancos River (NE3625); Springs of Abiul (NE3914), Spring of the Lis River, Spring of Alcobertas (ND0864), Springs of Alviela River (ND2466) and at Olha de Mira, in a depression (ND2376).
155699		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs at the head of rivers where it is under stones lying on coarse sandy bottoms, on surfaces devoid of vegetation, in shady areas of running water (Rolan and Oliviera 2009).
155699		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155699		threats	eng	There is no current data on threats on the River Liz and Alcoa (Leiria District).
155701		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the taxonomic status of this species.
155701		distribution	eng	In Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), this species is listed for Romania. In Romania, it is on the River Danube, between Călăraşi and Giurgiu (O. Ciobiou, pers. comm., 2010). In Serbia, it is known from 3 locations on the River Danube (J.Tomovic, pers. comm., 2009).<br/><br/>In Russia it is listed as present in the rivers draining into the northern Black Sea (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)
155701		habitat	eng	This species is found living on the bottom of large water courses, near the banks, on rocky or sandy substrates (O.Ciobiou, pers. comm., 2010).
155701		population	eng	There is no known population trend data for this species although there are recent records for the Danube in Romania (O.Ciobou, pers. comm., 2010)
155701		threats	eng	The threats to this species, which is present in Danube and other rivers draining into the Black Sea, are not known.
155702		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place. It is also not currently protected by Austrian law and is found to be Data Deficient on the Austrian Red List. It is suggested that monitoring of the habitat of this species is conducted, along with research into the population trend.
155702		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum excessum </span>is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is found in the northern Alps in the western parts of the province of Salzburg. It is only known from the type locality in the floodline debris deposits of a brook north-east of Schwandt    .
155702		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater springs and groundwater,&#160;occasionally it is also in water found in rock fissures.
155702		population	eng	There have been no living individuals of this species found recently.
155702		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown. This species could be threatened by pollution from agricultural practices and groundwater extraction as other Austrian endemic species found in the same type of habitat are under these threats.
155703		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Data Deficient (DD) on the Spanish Red List (Verdú and  Galante 2009). In the '<a href="http://www.aragon.es/Temas/Medio-ambiente/Subtemas/Biodiversidad/ci.05_Catalogo_especies_amenazadas_Aragon.detalleTema">Catálogo de Especies Amenazadas de Aragón</a>' this species is considered to be vulnerable to habitat disturbance at the single site in the province, which has been protected. Habitat monitoring is recommended due to the localised threats from water abstraction and pollution.
155703		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola navasiana</span> is endemic to northern Spain. There are more than 25 sites recorded, with records from the provinces of Cuenca (Fuente del Piejo o del Piojo, Monteagudo de las Salinas; Fuente de los Tilos, near Vadillos; Valdemeca a Huerta del Marquesado) Albacete (Minateda, near Agramón), and Guadalajara (Fuente en Medranda; Laguna de Somolinos; Fuente en El Olivar; Arroyo de la Vega, Durón; Regato que va al río Escabas, Tragacete; Fuente de Casa Viejas, El Perchel; Fuente en el camino de Brihuega a Valdesaz; Río Tajo, Morillejo). In the province of Zaragoza, it is only known from a single location, a spring 2 km from the centre of Bulbuente (<a href="http://www.aragon.es/Temas/Medio-ambiente/Subtemas/Biodiversidad/ci.05_Catalogo_especies_amenazadas_Aragon.detalleTema">Catalogue of Threatened Fauna of Aragon</a>).
155703		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and small streams.
155703		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species, but it has been recorded during surveys over the last 10 years.
155703		threats	eng	There are localised threats due to off-take of water (domestic and agricultural use) and as well as pollution (nitrates), however these are not considered to threaten the species over the entire range at present.
155704		conservation	eng	This species requires a full taxonomic review to determine its status as a distinct species.&#160; However, no actions are necessary to conserve the population as the species is widespread and abundant in suitable habitats.
155704		distribution	eng	According to<em></em> Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) this species is endemic to the Madeiran Islands (Portugal) where it is restricted to the main island of Madeira. On Madeira a freshwater limpet is found widely around the island (Seddon pers. comm. 2010).
155704		habitat	eng	This species is often found on grasses in the spray zone of waterfalls, as well as on rocks in rivers.
155704		population	eng	Although the taxonomic status of these populations is uncertain, the population status is considered stable as plenty of habitat is present on the island.
155704		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species, as it is widespread in suitable habitats on the island.
155705		conservation	eng	This species requires species-specific survey work by appropriate specialists, doing surveys at the right season, to determine if the type locality still exists and if the species is still extant.
155705		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia moitessieri</span> is considered to be endemic to France and was found in "la source du Martinet", a single freshwater spring around Montpellier (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009).
155705		habitat	eng	This species lives in a freshwater spring, which is declining in quality as a result of water pollution and drying out. The spring is likely to be no longer perennial.
155705		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, but it is believed to be declining.
155705		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species. Given that the single location for this species is a spring near Montpellier, a rapidly expanding town in southern France, the species is highly vulnerable to urbanization and water resource overexploitation.
155706		conservation	eng	The Croatian underground fauna is protected by law, however the species needs conservation actions to reduce the impact of pollution in the groundwater system. Habitat and population monitoring is needed to measure the potential impact of pollution on this species.
155706		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, where it is recorded from Zrmanja groundwater system, which can be geographically defined as the south-east border of Velebit, with&#160;subterranean flow along which Zrmanja flows into Krka.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
155706		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater groundwaters in karst caves.
155706		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species. Régnier<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2009) considered this species to be extinct, but in error, due to recording at the type locality alone.
155706		threats	eng	This species requires clean water so the major threat to it is from the eutrophication of waters seeping into groundwaters changing the water quality.
155707		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known to be in place for this species, however, monitoring of habitat quality would be recommended for this species.
155707		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia jamblussensis</span> is currently only known from Causse of Quercy, a limestone pavement area  in the department of Lot in south-west France.
155707		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155707		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155707		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Reduction of the water table may become problematic, if the aquifers are overexploited.
155708		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. The species would benefit from population monitoring and education of the local people to raise awareness.
155708		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, and it is known only from the type locality in the Creuze department. &#160;This single location has a small range, and as such it is currently regarded as a restricted species.
155708		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155708		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155708		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.
155709		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galente 2009), as Data Deficient (DD) under the name <em>Bythiospeum gloriae</em> (Rolán and Martínez-Ortí 2003). There are currently no known conservation actions, however habitat monitoring and    further survey to determine the  geographical range of this species would    be recommended.
155709		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix gloriae </em>is endemic to Spain, where it is restricted to the type locality at Font de Castro, Sueras, in the province of Castellón (Rolán and Martínez-Ortí 2003).
155709		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155709		population	eng	As a recently described species there is no recent data on population trends and only about 30 shells have been collected.
155709		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major  threat processes,                 however subterranean habitats are  vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) and  agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline  in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another  threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155710		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Taxonomic review of the species is suggested, as well as habitat monitoring for the known locations to detect future changes in the status of these sites.
155710		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cyprus, where it was described from Yalia in north-west Cyprus. Mienis (1989) extended the range to include the springs at Aphrodites Baths near Polis.&#160; Other springs between these sites may also contain this species, but there is no data to confirm this comment.
155710		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and pools.
155710		population	eng	The current population trends of this species are unknown.
155710		threats	eng	The springs at Aphrodites Baths are exploited as a tourist destination, and thus the populations may be vulnerable to habitat modification, to improve access to the sites and also through pollution.
155711		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, although the species is considered to be least concern, the range and threats need more research, as the species is known to be range restricted.
155711		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France and Andorra (Bernasconi 2000). In France it is known from the Pyrennes where it is widespread recorded from departments of Haute Garonne (Bagnères-de-Luchon) and Ariège (Bernasconi 2000).
155711		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs.
155711		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155711		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155712		conservation	eng	No actions known to be in place for this species.
155712		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic in Spain, and is found in the western part of the province Asturias and in a few localities in León through to Cantabria and Vizcaya. </p>  <ul><li>Unquera, Fuente La      Escalera, Province Santander (UTM grid square UP70).</li><li>West Entrance to Liberdón,      Province Asturias (UTM grid square UP11). Spring with pool.</li><li>1 km South-East Las Rozas,      Province Asturias (UTM grid square).</li><li>Grado, Puebla Lasniella,      Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ30), spring El Banzao.</li><li>3 km south-southwest Exit from Ramales      de la Victoria, Province Cantabria (UTM grid square VN68), old spring.</li><li>About 5 km east of Mendiondo,      Province Vizcaya (UTM grid square WP00), brook with spring.</li><li>About 4 km, west of Artigas,      Province Vizcaya (UTM grid square WP10), old spring and running waters near      by.</li><li>2 km South-West Artigas, Province      Vizcaya (UTM grid square WP20), on wet rock with springs nearby.</li><li>Artigas to Busturia      highway, Province Vizcaya (UTM grid square WP20), brook near road.</li><li>About 2 km north-east Alday,      Province Vizcaya (UTM grid square WN19), torrent.</li><li>West-south-west, Puerto San Glorio between km 131 and 133, Province León (UTM grid square UN57), on wet rocks and soils.</li></ul>
155712		habitat	eng	This species occupies a variety of habitats including springs, spring adajacent to pools and brooks, wet rocks, and fast flowing brooks with wet rocks.
155712		population	eng	No data on population trends.
155712		threats	eng	Some sites where this species is present are threatened by overabstraction of water.
155713		conservation	eng	The species is found in River Krka National Park, which is a protected area and the underground fauna is protected (Janzic, pers. comm., 2009). Research is currently ongoing on the fauna of Croatia (Lajtner &  Slapnik pers. comm., 2010) and as such further data on populations, habitats and threats may provide  information on whether the threats will impact the species.
155713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia and has been found in surveys of caves in the River Krka National Park (Slapnik and Janko, pers. comm., 2009). A further record from the source of the rivers Jadro situated in the Middle Dalmatia region of Croatia was recently reported (Biljana Rađa and Sanja Puljas, 2010).
155713		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater rivers and cave systems.
155713		population	eng	There is limited data on populations, but the trend is unknown. Only dead shells were obtained on the surveys of Jadro Springs (Biljana Rađa, pers. comm., 2011).
155713		threats	eng	Currently any threats to this species are uncertain, as the caves in the River Krka National Park are considered secure. However, groundwater pollution at the source of the River Jadro near Spilt, may have an impact on the species. Research is currently ongoing on the fauna of Croatia (Lajtner and Slapnik pers. comm., 2010) and as such further data may provide information on whether these threats will impact the species.
155714		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures. More research on population is needed.
155714		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandia gfrast</em> is an endemic species from France, where it is only known from the type locality, Saint-Louis in the Department of Jura.
155714		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155714		population	eng	There is no population data available.
155714		threats	eng	This species is known from a single spring site in an area where there is considerable pressure on water resources for domestic supplies with numerous springs captured, but at the moment, this particular site is not significantly altered.
155715		conservation	eng	This species is listed as 'Near Threatened' for Spain by&#160;Verdú and Galante (2009). It is a recently described species, therefore research is needed relating to its population size and distribution. Some of the sites where this species is present are vulnerable to disturbance from human activities, therefore education is needed to make people aware of the species and the potential impacts of their actions.
155715		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Portugal and Spain by Fauna Europea. It is localised in the region between Spain and Portugal, on the coast near Vigo.&#160;This species is known from six locations across four provinces of Galicia and from northern Portugal southward to Coimbra. <br/><ul>  <li>Feira do Tres,      Province A Coruña (UTM grid square GA98), spring known as O Plumar.</li>  <li>Gondomar (Mill 2 km south), Province Pontevedra (UTM grid square NG25).</li>  <li>Carballeira de San      Xusto, Province Pontevedra (UTM grid square NG29), springs near old      sulphur baths.</li>  <li>Beira Baixa,      Portugal (UTM grid square NE25).</li>  <li>Douro Litoral      (highway from Fafe to Póvoa do Lanhosi entering turn-off 5 km from Serafao      to Vilarielho, about 2 km from Lugar de la Igreja), Portugal (UTM grid square      NF62), spring.</li>  <li>Douro Litoral, Serra      do Marão, Portugal (UTM grid square NF95).</li> </ul>
155715		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and springs, the type locality was close to and old sulphur baths, and in the past this site was used.
155715		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155715		threats	eng	Some of these sites are exploited for water sources, others lie close to coast, by roads and thus are vulnerable to pollution and habitat disturbance.
155716		conservation	eng	The species is considered to be Vulnerable (Vu B2ab(iii)) in Region Castilla-La Mancha (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) due to few sites. It is considered to be Least Concern (LC) in Spain overall, due to a widespread distribution and hence there are no known conservation actions in place.
155716		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, and is found in the Provinces of Tarragona, Teruel, Albacete, Guadalajara and Cuenca (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). There are two subspecies currently recognised (<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tricarinata tricarinata </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tricarinata dufouri</span>). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tricarinata tricarinata </span>is found in Provinces of Tarragona, Teruel, Albacete and Cuenca (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tricarinata dufouri </span>is found in Provinces of Albacete, Guadalajara and Cuenca.
155716		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs and pools.
155716		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155716		threats	eng	There are localized threats to this species, as it is sensitive to changes in the habitat quality, so grazing at the pool edges, changes to the sites to abstract water and drying out of the pools due to seasonal droughts increasing and over-abstraction of water are all possible threats.
155717		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measurements in place. However several subpopulations are in protected areas.
155717		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measurements in place. However, several subpopulations are in protected areas.
155717		distribution	eng	<em>Viviparus contectus </em>is a Palearctic species, occurring over most of the European states in the west, north and east, but much rarer in southern Europe. It is widespread<em> </em>in northern and central Europe, and is recorded from the UK in west of the region, to northern countries of Sweden, Latvia, Estonia and Denmark, through to Germany, Switzerland, south to Italy, Slovenia and east to Greece and Bulgaria.This species is P<span class="mw-redirect">alearctic in distribution extending to western Siberia&#160;(Welter-Schultes 2011). However, the species hybridises with <em>V. ater</em>, thus rendering identification difficult (Tr<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); ">üb and Ribi 1997)</span>. It is also spread across Europe via the aquarium trade (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
155717		distribution	eng	<em>Viviparus contectus </em>is a Palearctic species, occurring over most of the European states in the west, north and east, but much rarer in southern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>. It is widespread<em> </em>in northern and central Europe recorded from UK in west of region, to northern countries of Sweden, Latvia, Estonia and Denmark, through to Germany, Switzerland, south to Italy, Slovenia and east to Greece and Bulgaria.This species is P<span class="mw-redirect">alearctic in distribution extending to western Siberia.
155717		habitat	eng	This species lives in generally lentic habitats, in large slow-flowing rivers, large drainage ditches, fenland dykes, ditches on grazing marshes, and occasionally in large ponds and lakes.
155717		habitat	eng	This species lives in generally lentic habitats, in large slow-flowing rivers, large drainage ditches, fenland dykes, ditches on grazing marshes, and occasionally in large ponds and lakes (Welter-Schultes 2011).
155717		population	eng	This species can live up to 10 years, and occasionally more.
155717		population	eng	This species can live up to 13 years. Maturity is reached after 3 months for the spring generation and 8 months for the autumn generation (Welter-Schultes 2011). Despite its widespread distribution, population trends are currently thought to be decreasing in parts of its range.<br/><em></em>
155717		threats	eng	The main potential threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources – especially intensification of agriculture, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging – particularly of drainage ditches on grazing marsh complexes.
155717		threats	eng	The main potential threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources – especially intensification of agriculture, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging – particularly of drainage ditches on grazing marsh complexes. The species is also collected for the aquarium trade (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
155718		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research on population trends, distribution and threats is needed.
155718		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Montenegro, but there is no recent data on range or distribution.
155718		habitat	eng	There are no data on habitats.
155718		population	eng	There are no data on population trends.
155718		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155719		conservation	eng	More research on populations is needed.
155719		conservation	eng	No data available.
155719		conservation	eng	None known.
155719		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species in Europe. This species is regarded as a Endangered (category 2) in Germany, Vulnerable in The Netherlands, Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, and Least Concern in the UK, Republic of Ireland and Hungary.
155719		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from a single dubious 19th Century mention from Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread in the colder parts of the Paleartic realm, in Africa only found in Morocco near Ifrane (extinct) and in an artificial basin (i.e. a pond) near the Museum of Cairo in Egypt (introduced).  Spread by birds. Probably gone from Africa and most of the Mediterranean part of Europe due to climate change. The type locality is in Frederiksdal, Denmark.
155719		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the colder parts of the Paleartic realm. In northern Africa, it was found in Morocco near Ifrane, (where it is now extinct) and in an artificial basin (i.e., a pond) near the Museum of Cairo in Egypt, where it has been introduced. It is spread by birds. It is probably gone from Africa and most of the Mediterranean part of Europe due to climate change. Its type locality is Frederiksdal in Denmark.
155719		distribution	eng	This is a palaearctic species occurring throughout most of Europe but becoming rarer to the north, in Iceland and Scandinavia and in the south-eastern Mediterranean region. The species is present at several locations in Syria and Turkey. It has been introduced to eastern North America.
155719		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the colder parts of the Paleartic realm. In northern Africa it was only found in Morocco near Ifrane (extinct) and in an artificial basin (i.e. a pond) near the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (where it was introduced). It is probably now gone from Africa.
155719		habitat	eng	Found in cold limpid waters.
155719		habitat	eng	It is found in cold limpid waters.
155719		habitat	eng	It lives in cold limpid waters.
155719		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of lowland, permanent, usually flowing habitats: streams, rivers, canals, large drainage ditches, but less often in lakes and large ponds. This species prefers clean, calcareous water.
155719		population	eng	No data available.
155719		population	eng	No information available.
155719		population	eng	There is no available information on the population status or trend of this species. This is a very short-lived species, and as such assessment period would be10 years.
155719		threats	eng	Global warming is a major threat to the species.
155719		threats	eng	It is most threatened by global warming.
155719		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>P. amnicum</em> was one of the species of <em>Pisidium </em>most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.
155719		threats	eng	This species is affected by impacts of climate change. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
155720		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat trends is recommended for this species to check for changes in distribution and habitats. <strong></strong></p>
155720		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> (Bank <em>et al</em>., Fauna European 2006). It is found in sub-littoral zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985). This species has a patchy distribution, and is localized vertically (restricted to a bathymetric depth) and horizontally (restricted area in the north-east of the lake).<br/></p>
155720		habitat	eng	This freshwater lake species is from the sublittoral zone where it is recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena </span>shell belts. The substrate has changed from sandy to mud due to accumulation of organic material (Albrecht pers. comm., 2009).
155720		population	eng	This species is known to be very rare in survey samples (C. Albrecht, pers. comm. 2009).
155720		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. <br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155722		conservation	eng	There is no recent data on the distribution, habitat preference, population and threats to the species. First of all, the species' validity and presence in Croatia should be confirmed.
155722		distribution	eng	This freshwater snail is only known from Croatia. There is no recent data on the distribution of the species, and as such more survey data is required to confirm the presence in Croatia.
155722		habitat	eng	There is no data on the habitat preference of the species.
155722		population	eng	There is no data on the population of this species.
155722		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
155723		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.&#160; Taxonomic research is ongoing to establish the relationships between the subpopulations and the validity of the species.
155723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is known from two departments, <a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceDescription.jsp&numero_taxon=162839">Loir-et-Cher and Charente-Maritime.&#160; </a>Given the difficulties in identification and knowledge about whether these subpopulations represent the same species, it is at present not possible to map the species, nor comment in detail on the range. Currently research is ongoing to establish species status (J.M. Bichain pers. comm. 2009).
155723		habitat	eng	<p>In common with many <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species, this species lives only in springs, hence the natural habitat is very restricted, to one or several spring sites in close proximity. </p>
155723		population	eng	No data is available on the status of the populations.
155723		threats	eng	No threats are known specifically for this species, but as with many spring-snail species, the major threats are use of the spring for water supplies for domestic and agricultural purposes.&#160;Many spring sites are used to supply small settlements with water, and as such maybe improved by concreting the sides to provide a cleaner extraction point.&#160; There are also changes to the water levels throughout the year as water is pumped from the groundwater supply, sometimes to the point of temporary drying of the spring-site during the late summer, prior to groundwater recharge in the winter.
155724		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, although it is listed on the Spanish Red List as Vulnerable (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Recomennded actions include habitat monitoring to measure the impacts of water use and vegetation clearing on the species and communications to raise awareness of the species and consequences of disturbance of the habitat through human activities.
155724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and is only known from six localities in the  province of Asturias.
155724		habitat	eng	This species lives in clear freshwater springs with moderate oxygen levels, under leaves or submerged branches. Its biology is unknown.
155724		population	eng	There is no population trend information for this species.
155724		threats	eng	The main risk factors for this species are alterations to its habitat,  which are usually the result of human actions. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Drying up of springs when intentional tasks such as"cleaning" is performed  frequently for water off-take management, removing the entire plant substrate which is necessary for the  survival of this species. The alteration of natural flow of these  springs by transformation of its regime by pipeline<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">. Other threats include the contamination of the aquifers that feed the springs, and direct  discharges of organic and inorganic pollutants (agricultural,  urban and industrial sources).</span>
155725		conservation	eng	There is little recent distributional data, so surveys are required to establish the range and threats to sites. The species are likely to be sensitive to alterations of their habitat, but until more up-to-date information is available it will not be known if conservation actions such as water management plans that minimise change in the natural flow regime of the habitat are required.
155725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is restricted to the island of Crete. Radea (pers. comm. 2011) noted that in recent surveys shells of this species were found in a spring on Lesvos. More data is required on detailed distribution, as much of the information is over 30 years old.
155725		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit freshwater springs.
155725		population	eng	The species was recently sampled by Radea (2011 pers. comm.), however there is insufficient data to establish population trends.
155725		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to the species. However, freshwater springs are sensitive to increased frequencies of droughts, and spring dwelling species have been recorded to suffer from over-abstraction of water for human activities, such as agriculture, stock farming and tourism.
155726		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"> This species was listed as Extinct (Verdu and Galante 2009), so the remaining measures can only be regular resurvey<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> of last known<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">locality<span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> as well <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">as <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">other <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">sources <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">springs <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">where <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">they could <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">live.<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">It is <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">also necessary <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">to <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">inform <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">population <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">about the importance of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">conservation <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">these hot springs<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">which <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">are home <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">to <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a diversity <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">freshwater species<span title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155726		distribution	eng	This species was only known from Balneario de San Vicente, Lerida (northeastern Spain). <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">The <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Spa <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">San <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Vicente <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">was built <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">near <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a hot spring, and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">origi<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">nal <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">description <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">for this species (<span title="Click for alternate translations">Boeters<span title="Click for alternate translations"> 1969<span title="Click for alternate translations">) <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the site was described as <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">"<span title="Click for alternate translations">on <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a wall <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">... <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">flowing <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">hot water <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">smells <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of sulphur". <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">This <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">spa <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">has <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">been <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">profoundly <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">altered<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"> due to<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">construction of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a road<span title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">so that in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">recent <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">visits to this <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">locality <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">it has not been <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">po<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn">ssible to <span title="Click for alternate translations">f<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">ind <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">this species<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> (Arconada<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al,</span> in Verdu and&#160; <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Galante<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">, 2006 p. 323)<span title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155726		habitat	eng	This species occurred in springs: <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">hot spring where <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations">Boeters<span title="Click for alternate translations"> (1969<span title="Click for alternate translations">)<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> described the species as <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">living "<span title="Click for alternate translations">on <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a wall <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">... <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">flowing <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">hot water <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">smells <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of sulphur".</span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155726		population	eng	In spite of several surveys over the last decade, no specimens have been found. So this species is only known from the original description in 1969. As the species has not been found and the habitat has been altered, <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Arconada<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (in Verdu and <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Galante<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> 2006 p. 323) <span title="Click for alternate translations">consider the species to be extinct.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155726		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">This <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">spa <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">has <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">been <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">profoundly <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">altered<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="atn"> due to<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">construction of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a road as well as future possible changes to the habitat through site management for tourism and water use.<span title="Click for alternate translations"></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155727		conservation	eng	This species is considered as 'Data Deficient' in the Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galante 2009). The Red Book of Invertebrates of Andalucia (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) classifies this species as "Vulnerable". In the 'Catálogo Regional de Especies Amenazadas de Castilla-La Mancha', it was listed in the category, “de interés especial” , a species of special interest. The majority of the sites need careful water management to ensure flow throughout the year, as well as a good strategy to maintain supporting habitats (i.e. not concreting the sites over).
155727		distribution	eng	<p><em>P</em><span style="font-style: italic;">seudamnicola gasulli </span>is known to occur in 9 localities in Almería,&#160;one locality in Murcia&#160;as well as the type locality in Ibiza (Balearic Islands) (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Delicado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press):</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Río Santa Eulalia, a la altura del hotel Fenicia, Santa Eulária des Riu, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) (UTM grid square: 31SCD71) (Type locality)</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Rambla del Puerto de la Cadena, Cuevas del Almanzora (Murcia) (UTM grid square: 30SXG69) </p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Fuente Alamo, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30SWG03) </p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Fuente en una plaza de Huércal-Overa, Huércal-Overa (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30SWG93) </p><p></p><p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Manantial Rambla de Yesos, Alboloduy (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30SWF39) </p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Manantial del castillo de cala San Pedro, Cabo de Gata, Las Negras (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30S590928/4084872)</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Manantial en la rambla de Retamar (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30S563601/4079018)</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Acequia en los Molinos del río Aguas, próximo a Sorbas (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30SWG80)</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Acequia de la Serrata de Turrillas (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30S561885/4102943)</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Manantial de las Cuevas de los Medinas (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30S563376/4085436</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Manantial del valle de cala San Pedro (Almería) (UTM grid square: 30S591108/4085294)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155727		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudamnicola </em><em>(Pesudamnicola)</em><em> gasulli</em> lives in streams and ditches associated with watercourses, provided clean water and oxygen, which have enough vegetation and organic matter for food. Some of these places are close to the coast, in limestone areas and in areas with abundant gypsum. In these areas the water that flows from the springs is quite warm, for example in San Pedro Creek the water comes out at 21°C. Individuals are located mainly stuck to the stones, leaves and branches of the submerged vegetation and even half-buried in silt. They are fragile ecosystems&#160; in very arid areas with scarce water resources, intensive agriculture and human activities including tourism. </p>
155727		population	eng	<p>In the 80s, this species was described in several localities in the provinces of the Balearic Islands (Ibiza), Murcia and Almeria. In the last 5 years, these locations have been visited again by Delicado and the species was not refound at springs in Ibiza nor in Murcia. Thus, no specimens were found in 2008 in the type locality, the river Santa Eulalia in Ibiza. It is suggested that this species may have been displaced by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamopyrgus antipodarum</span> (Smith 1889), since in the sampled section the invasive species was very abundant. The town is very close to the mouth of the river and is also very close to a playground.</p><p><br/> In the town of Murcia, the Rambla del Puerto de la Cadena, the causes of the disappearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola gasulli</span> appear to be the same as in Ibiza, as a large population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. antipodarum</span> was found. In addition, the low water flow presented by the town and its location close to the city of Murcia and&#160; parallel to the highway, could have caused further deterioration of the habitat. The Red Book of Invertebrates of Andalucia (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) classifies this species as "Vulnerable" as there is a high risk of extinction in the wild in the towns of Almeria. Although it has increased the number of locations in the province in recent years with respect to the redescription of the species in 1988 (Boeters, 1988), these localities are very fragile due mainly to human action.</p><p><br/> On a recent visit (2005) to the population of San Pedro Creek (Natural Park of Cabo de Gata-Nijar) no live specimens were found in the main spring next to the castle. This spring flagship, the only natural spring that exists in Cabo de Gata, is currently deteriorating by improper use by tourists. Due to the deterioration suffered by the upwelling and its waters, the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gasulli</span> is extinct in this spring, but there are still some individuals in a second upwelling and intermittent piped a few yards down there. Recently, in 2009, another spring was located in the creek farther from the beach and with fewer environmental problems, with a population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gasulli</span>. These populations could recover with suitable conservation action. Other recent data (2006) confirms the abundance of individuals in a population near Almeria, the Rambla de Retamar. However, in other locations only shells have been found (Serrata Alboloduy ditch of Turrillas) and the source of the Cuevas de Medina, which had water in 1995, is known to be dry in at least 2006.</p>
155727		threats	eng	In two locations where the species has been lost it may have been displaced by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamopyrgus antipodarum</span> (Smith 1889). The major threats to the other locations are                 human use of the water. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola (Pseudamnicola) gasulli&#160;</span> inhabits extremely fragile ecosystem in Andalusia, where populations occupy sites that are subject to pronounced aridity, where in addition there is a growing demand for water by increasing urban area of intensive agricultural uses (greenhouses) and leisure. The presence of populations in artificial habitats is also a major risk due to the fluctuating nature of them. Casing and cementing the traditional ditches and cleaning of arched fountains and pools is also common. The alteration of water regimes, the discharge of aggregates and contaminants of all types and the loss or degradation of vegetation of the seashore are standard practice in certain sites that can lead to local extinction of this fragile species. There is also a threat from the misuse of the springs near the coast, where tourists and bathers wash dishes and clothes, irreversibly altering the water, the substrate and the flora and fauna of freshwater.
155728		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. More research on population, distribution and threats is needed.
155728		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
155728		habitat	eng	There are no data on habitat.
155728		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155728		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155729		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. The lake is recognised as a protected area (GR1340001-Ethnikos Drymos Prespon)&#160;and is listed by Greece as a Natura 2000 site (Radea, pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</p>
155729		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Lake <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> which lies in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160;</p>
155729		habitat	eng	This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zones in rocky habitats.
155729		population	eng	This species has only been found in low abundances in recent surveys in the lake (Albrecht <em>et al</em>, pers. comm. 2010)
155729		threats	eng	<p>This species is vulnerable to habitat loss resulting from abrupt drops in water level (of several metres) related to excessive abstraction of water for agriculture, coupled with extremely dry summers, leading to impact in the littoral zone which is threatening this species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area is also responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation to this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrates of the lake bottom is changing, which is diminishing the habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>
155730		conservation	eng	Given the widespread nature of the species and the ability to colonise temporary habitats there are no current or suggested conservation actions required for this species.
155730		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
155730		conservation	eng	None known.
155730		conservation	eng	No proposed conservation measures.
155730		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155730		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155730		distribution	eng	<em>Lymnaea truncatula</em> is a widespread and common Holarctic species, and is widespread in Europe. In Africa it occurs in cool regions from the Mediterranean to the Cape.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is not native to central Africa, but has been reported from eastern DRC and the Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is believed to be a non-native species, found in the highlands of Kenya and south east Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species only occurs in southern and eastern South Africa, but is common in Lesotho. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia and the Nile Delta, also in Baharia, Kharga and Dakhla Oases (Malke, 1959) where it was rare.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Ethiopia, and possibly also in the region of Lake Nasser (Egypt).
155730		distribution	eng	It is a widespread and common Holarctic species. In Africa, it occurs in cool regions from the Mediterranean till the Cape. In the northern African region, it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the Nile Delta, being also recorded in Baharia, Kharga and Dakhla Oases (Malke 1959) where it was rare. Its type locality is in Thangelstedt, Germany.
155730		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galba truncatula</span> is a widespread species found throughout the world. It is known from North America, Europe, Africa, West, South and North Asia (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
155730		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Only occurs in southern and eastern South Africa, common in Lesotho. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Sporadically in Ethiopia and Kenya and in Northern Africa. It is a holarctic species.
155730		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, and possibly present also in the region of Lake Nasser (Egypt).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Widespread and common Holarctic species. In Africa occurring in cool regions from the Mediterranean till the Cape. The type locality is in Thangelstedt, Germany.
155730		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the world. It is known from North America, Europe, North-west Africa, West and North  Asia, Trans-Himalayan zone of Ganges river system and elsewhere in the mountain  region of Nepal.<br/><br/>In Europe it is recorded from: Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Canary Islands (Spain), Azores (Portugal), Madeiran Islands (Portugal), Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Malta, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Romania, Andorra, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, reported from the former country of Yugoslavia (current country unknown), Bosnia & Herzegovina, Ukraine, Greece (mainland), North Aegean Islands.(Greece).
155730		habitat	eng	An amphibious species and normally occurs in greatest numbers above 800m altitude in South Africa. An outlying population occurs in a canalized river in Durban (Appleton pers com). Survives in small streams, seepages, bogs and temporary collections of rainwater. Not found in main river channels and lakes but is found on the damp mud of river banks and lakes and irrigation furrows. <br/><br/>Intermediate host of <em>Fasciola hepatica</em>, the common liver fluke of cattle, sheep and other domestic stock.
155730		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams  and temporary ponds. In Lesotho, also found in bogs and marshes.
155730		habitat	eng	The species is considered as a vector of the disease <em>Fasciola hipatica</em>. It has been found in all water bodies, including intermittent or long term, man-made, etc. It is spread by birds (make long strings with eggs on that get caught on birds and transported to new water bodies).
155730		habitat	eng	This is a palustrine species that is found in swamps, dumps and polluted waters. It serves as an intermediate host of many trematodes including <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica</span>.
155730		habitat	eng	This species is extremely tolerant of poor habitats. It is found in shallow pools, roadside ditches, marshy grassland, dune slack pools, small wet flushes on hillsides; &#160;it tolerates disturbance such as trampling from livestock in bare mud, although it avoids highly acid ground (Kerney 1999)
155730		habitat	eng	Vector of disease (<em>Fasciola hepatica</em>). Found in all waterbodies, intermittent or long term, man-made etc. Spread by birds (make long strings with eggs on that get caught on birds and so transported to new water bodies).
155730		population	eng	Locally common.
155730		population	eng	No information available.
155730		population	eng	Population status and trend data for this species are not available.
155730		population	eng	This species is common in Lesotho, less common elsewhere in southern Africa and scattered in East Africa.
155730		population	eng	This species tends to be abundant where it is present.
155730		threats	eng	No information available.
155730		threats	eng	No major threats are known to the species.
155730		threats	eng	None known.
155730		threats	eng	No specific threats known.
155730		threats	eng	This is a widespread species with no specific threats.
155730		threats	eng	This species is a widespread species with no known major threats, although it has been the subject of local control (eradication schemes) associated with control of the vectors of disease. As it is tolerant of polluted water it is able to colonise and remain in poor habitats.
155731		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation actions in place at a European Level. However, populations in some countries are threatened, with habitat monitoring in place. In Germany, the Baden Red List places it as Category 2: at Bodensee decline started in the 1960's (Falkner pers. comm., 2010). In the UK the species was originally considered Vulnerable (Bratton 1991) and more recently reviewed and maintained as Vulnerable B2ab(iii) (Killeen & Seddon, pers. comm., 2010) with a very localised range in the Thames Valley. In Switzerland it was listed as Category 1, as it was only present in northern Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). In Slovakia Beran <em>et al</em>. (2005) placed the species as Endangered as it was in Czech Republic.<br/><br/>Conservation actions should include, further taxonomic review of the status of the Scandinavian and European populations to establish the geographical range of each potential taxon, as well as levels of decline to establish the threat status of both taxa.
155731		distribution	eng	This is a central and northern European species occurring from England to the Baltic States, and from the Alps to northern Scandinavia and down to the Ukraine (Falkner <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glöer 2002). The species is unknown in France and Belgium and occurs in the Netherlands only as Holocene fossils.<br/><br/>The global range of this species extends through northern Eurasia, Kantor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2009) note it occurs eastwards to the basin of&#160; Nizhnyaya Tunguska and south to Armenia.
155731		habitat	eng	The species has a preference for slow-moving water and densely vegetated river margins, but is also present in lakes.
155731		population	eng	There is no population data across the range, but there are localised declines within certain countries. However, given the difficulties with separating species, this cannot be confirmed.
155731		threats	eng	Some countries report declines as the result of water pollution, mainly from  agricultural sources. An example is in the UK (Killeen and Seddon, pers. comm., 2010). There are localities which are severely threatened, such as at Bodensee on the Swiss-German border, (Falkner and Niedhoffer 2008).
155732		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. As the species is only known in one locality, monitoring of the population is important to detect a decline. Appropriate land and water management are needed in the area to prevent threats negatively impacting this species.
155732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, only known from the type locality in a spring, Merindad de Río Ubierna, in the province Burgos, Spain.
155732		habitat	eng	This species inhabits groundwaters feeding springs.
155732		population	eng	There is no data on population status of this species.
155732		threats	eng	The threats to the species are uncertain, however, the general threats to groundwater and springs in the region is pollution from agricultural sources, and overabstraction of water for domestic and agricultural purposes.
155733		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella roubionensis</span> has been found in surveys in Mercantour National Park (INPN, Gargimony, pers. comm. 2009).
155733		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella roubionensis </span>is endemic to France, where it is restricted to Alpes-Maritime, SE France, and has recently been recorded from the Mercantour National Park (Gargominy and Ripken 2006).<br/><br/><strong><br/></strong>
155733		habitat	eng	Most <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species live only in springwater. Their natural habitat is thus very restricted.
155733		population	eng	There are no population data available.
155733		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The type locality has been damaged by the construction of a road.
155734		conservation	eng	No information available.
155734		conservation	eng	None known.
155734		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species and none are needed.
155734		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is regarded as in danger of extinction in Ireland due to the vulnerability of coastal lagoons to flooding and storm damage (Fealy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155734		distribution	eng	The Paleartic species is widely spread species, known from Egypt, Tunisia, and the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast of Morocco. In Egypt, it is known from Lake Qaron, northern delta lakes and Siwa oasis.
155734		distribution	eng	This species is widely spread paleartic species, known from Egypt, Tunisia and the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast of Morocco. In Egypt, it is known from Lake Qaron, northern delta lakes and Siwa oasis.
155734		distribution	eng	This species is widespread but localised in Europe and the Mediterranean. The range extends from Ireland and the UK in the west through Finland, Germany and France to&#160; countries such as Russia and Romania in the east.
155734		distribution	eng	This species is widespread but localized throughout the coastal zones of northern Europe and the Mediterranean. The species has been recorded around the shores of the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Dutch Exclusive Economic Zone, European waters (ERMS scope; Costello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Groote Bank, Mediterranean Sea, Muuga harbour (Port of Tallinn, Gulf of Finland), Norwegian Exclusive Economic Zone and Oostende (Barnes 1994, Gofas 2010).<br/><p></p>
155734		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish waters, in estuaries. Spread by birds.
155734		habitat	eng	It occurs in brackish waters and estuaries. It is spread by birds.
155734		habitat	eng	This is a brackish water species found in estuarine, lagoonal and marine environments (Drake and Arias 1995). Hydrobia are deposit feeders, ingesting sediment particles and grazing on solid surfaces such as aquatic macrophytes, assimilating the associated micro-organisms (Casagranda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>Water temperature substantially affects the growth rates and egg production of Hydrobiid species (Drake and Arias 1995). In the southern part of the species range, where water temperatures are >10°C throughout the year, the species reaches sexual maturity at 3–4 months of age and displays two annual periods of reproduction. In the northern part of its range, the species reaches sexual maturity at 9–10 months of age, and one annual period of reproduction is generally observed (Casagranda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
155734		habitat	eng	This species is a brackish water species found in estuarine and lagoon habitats. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobiid</span> snails will ingest any type of particles of the right size. In a natural sediment, they ingest a certain size spectrum of mineral particles and diatoms, as well as other micro-organisms. When on a solid surface (or a mineral grain too large to be swallowed) they ingest smaller particles associated with the surface that are not too firmly attached (Fenchel 1988).
155734		population	eng	No species-specific population data is available, however Hydrobiids are known to be a predominant species in European coastal lagoons (Drake and Arias 1995), and up to 50,000 indivduals/m² have been recorded (Casagranda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
155734		population	eng	The species is very common where it is found.
155734		population	eng	This species is very common where found.
155734		population	eng	This species is widespread but localised, and can be locally abundant where it occurs. There is no information on population trend.
155734		threats	eng	No major threats to the taxon are known.
155734		threats	eng	None known.
155734		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species include any factors such as barrages, sluices or water flow management schemes that may alter or disrupt the narrow salinity range that this species occupies. Large Barrage projects do impact this species, changing the estuarine conditions and the mud where it lives. Other localised threats include pollution by nutrient enrichment, industrial chemicals, oil spills, etc.</p><p>In the longer term, global warming causing higher sea levels and the greater chances of saline intrusion could disrupt salinity (raise) levels.</p>
155734		threats	eng	Threats to this species include changes in land use and the continued development of coastal areas around Europe and the Mediterranean. Other localised threats include sedimentation of estuarine and coastal lagoon areas, particularly around harbours and major industrial areas, pollution from nutrient enrichment, industrial chemicals, shipping, drilling activities, oil spills, water flow management schemes and invasive species (Airoldi and Beck 2007). Excessive flooding and storm damage can also dramatically alter the salinity balance of coastal lagoons, and cause changes in species composition (Fealy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155735		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions.
155735		distribution	eng	Prie (pers. comm, 2009) considers this species to be widespread in southern France.
155735		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters. As it has never been collected alive, it is suspected to be living only in deep waters.
155735		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155735		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155736		conservation	eng	No conservation action needed as an invasive species which is spreading  rapidly, and hence is not considered to be threatened.
155736		conservation	eng	No conservation efforts are required for this species, though it should be monitored as a highly invasive species.
155736		distribution	eng	The species is native to southern and eastern Asia (eastern Russia, Thailand, Philippines, China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan) but has been very widely introduced. This species has been  introduced to several parts of Africa, North America and throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. It is considered one of the worst invaders of aquatic ecosystems. Brandt (1974) reported this species in Thailand from the Chao Praya River and some tributaries.
155736		distribution	eng	This species is not-native to Europe, but is widely recorded as an introduction from Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Luxembourg France (Mainland), Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Spain (Mainland), Portugal (Mainland), Italy (Mainland), Hungary and Romania. It has been introduced in North America, South America and Europe. It is thought to have arrived in Europe in 1970s to  Portugal and spread eastwards to Spain, France, The Netherlands,  Switzerland. Now occurs from the Norfolk Broads broads in Britain and extends to the  Danube in Romania (Minchin, 2008; see download from Daisie Database).&#160; Son (pers. comm, 2009) notes that it is present in Ukraine. It is native to Southern and eastern Asia (eastern Russia, Thailand, Philippines, China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan), Australia, and Africa.
155736		habitat	eng	Oligotrophic to eutrophic flowing streams, rivers and lakes on  oxygenated muddy to sandy sediments, but also occurring among gravel and  cobbles. Also can occur in irrigation and drainage cuts.&#160; It is tolerant of seasonal drying for weeks but intolerant of low oxygen levels and tolerates 2-34 °C and salinities to ~5‰ with short periods of up to 14psu, but intolerant of areas with high nutrient loads.
155736		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, lakes, ditches and pools of fresh or brackish waters. It is often found in the entrance of rivers or lakes to the sea. The substrate is sand, mud or a mixture of the two.<span class="definition"><br/>  <strong><br/></strong>
155736		population	eng	A hemaphrodite (cross- and self-fertilizing) releasing a brooded  non-swimming pediveliger stage at 200µm length. Reproduces at ~15 °C  from about 6-10mm from three months of age with more than one brood a  year with releases from late spring to autumn (Michin, 2008).
155736		population	eng	The exact population size is not known, but it is very common in its native and introduced range. Hence, there may not be any fluctuation in population to a large extent.
155736		threats	eng	Although this species is intolerant of pollution and low oxygen levels in water, it is recognised as an invasive species which is spreading rapidly, and hence is not considered to be threatened.
155736		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species
155737		conservation	eng	The site in Romania is protected legally, but in reality it has very little effect. The legislation relating to the Romanian site needs to be enforced to prevent further habitat degradation and population decline. Habitat and population monitoring is needed to monitor the impacts of human and livestock disturbance on this species.
155737		distribution	eng	Although this species is listed from Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary in Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), Sirbu (pers. comm. 2009) and Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) confirm that this species is endemic to Romania where it occurs in only one thermal spring-fed lake "Baile Episcopiei".<br/><br/>In Bulgaria this species was collected in 1962 by Professor Rusev, probably from the thermal spring  near the Pyasachnik Dam on its western side, however recent surveys have found no individuals or shell remains and according to Gregoriev (pers. comm. 2010)., <span style="font-style: italic;">M. parreyssi </span>can be considered extinct in the country (Gregoriev, pers. comm., 2010). The origin of these records is uncertain, and they may have been introduced ((Feher, pers comm., 2011). <br/><br/>It has been introduced in several thermal springs in Hungary (Fehér&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In Hungary, at Malom-tó, in Budapest, the population had persisted for several years but is now extinct (Feher, pers comm., 2010). Another Hungarian occurrence is a record in the fluvial flotsam of the Körös River near Körösladány.
155737		habitat	eng	This is a relict species which is endemic to a single spring-fed lake, which is a thermal spring.
155737		population	eng	Currently this species occurs in one spring-fed lake. In the early 1980s the population was very abundant in the lake (Majoros pers. comm. 2009) whereas in 2001 only a few live specimens were found after significant survey effort. (Fehér pers. comm. 2009).
155737		threats	eng	The only native locality is in a popular recreation centre near the city  of Oradea, near the Hungarian-Romanian border. The spring-fed lake is  situated in a park area, where there are many tourists and visitors.  Additionally, local people keep their cattle near the lake, as there is a  local belief that cows which are washed in the lake produce more milk,  so the cows are allowed to go into the lake regularly.<br/><br/>In November 2008 and April 2009 the only known Bulgarian locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. parreyssi</span> was visited. The spring on the Pyasachnik Dam bank had been piped and its water flowed into a small pool intensively used for watering of domestic cattle. Cow footprints were visible everywhere on its bottom which was highly disturbed. In the springs there was pollution from plastic and other materials. (This is a non-native site).
155738		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, habitat and threats of this species.
155738		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ukraine where it is known from the delta of Dnieper River (Alexenko and Starobogatov 1987, Anistratenko 1998a).&#160; There are no recent records to confirm where in the delta of the Dneiper River (Son, 2010 pers. comm.).
155738		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown, but believed to be from the delta of the Dneiper River, so probably brackish water species.
155738		population	eng	There is no data is available on the current population status of this species.
155738		threats	eng	There is no data available on threats to this species.
155739		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)</span>  and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>
155739		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)  and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
155739		habitat	eng	This littoral species lives on the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline.
155739		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
155739		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>
155740		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Rare on Red list of Slovenia (Bole & Velkovrh 1986, 1992, Slovenian Gazette, September 2002).
155740		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia wagneri</span> is endemic to&#160; south-eastern Slovenia , recorded from four locations,&#160; a cave Raja peč near Sevnica (type locality), one spring near Sevnica and springs north from Trebnje (springs in the basin of river Mirna). </p>
155740		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in caves and in springs.<br/></p>
155740		population	eng	There is no data on population status for this species.
155740		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is groundwater pollution.
155741		conservation	eng	The conservation actions for this species are unknown. Research is needed relating to the population, habitat and threats of this species.
155741		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania where it has been collected from the Danube Delta and the lower course of the Danube (Ciobiou, pers. comm., based on Museum Collections, 2010).
155741		habitat	eng	The species is lives in fresh water, on silty bottom of rivers, which are rich in plants and especially algae.
155741		population	eng	There is no current population data on this species.
155741		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however there is water pollution in the Danube, as well as river channel management programmes with dredging, but the impact on the species is not known.
155742		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist for this species, however, it does require more research on population trends, status, habitat preference and distribution.
155742		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Montenegro, but there is no information on distribution. Dhora (2009) records the species for Albania, but again there are no details on range. It is presumed to have a range close to Lake Skadar.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155742		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat for this species.
155742		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species,  and there is no data on current range or population
155742		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155743		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and threats.
155743		distribution	eng	The species is listed for the south Dalmatian region and Albania. Feher and Eros (2009) suggest that the records for Albania are uncertain. However there are no records from the last 50 years, possibly due to confusion with other widespread species.
155743		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat preference.
155743		population	eng	There is no data on the population status and there are no records from the last 100 years, possibly due to confusion with other widespread species.
155743		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are unknown.
155744		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine section of the River Isonzo, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and occurs close to the border, and so could occur in Slovenia. It is known from 3 locations, and so currently viewed as rare.
155744		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.
155744		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155744		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155745		conservation	eng	This species requires research on taxonomy, threats, population trends and distribution.
155745		distribution	eng	The real distribution of this species is unknown. This species was originally described from the Rhône alluviums near Lyon, but from floodline debris so the precise location in the river catchment is unknown. According to Boeters (1998), the species lives in springs of the Jura (source de la Loue), but <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>population from this site are considered by Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) as<span style="font-style: italic;"> B. geisserti</span> and as such the distribution remains uncertain.
155745		habitat	eng	This species probably lives in freshwater springs.
155745		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155745		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155746		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known for this species. Survey work is required to establish whether the species is still present at springs around the last known location, and if refound then monitoring will be required and possibly site protection.
155746		distribution	eng	<em>Plagigeyeria tribunicae </em>was described in early 1980's from the cave Dejanova pećina in Bileća, E Hercegovina, and&#160;is endemic to Bosnia & Hercegovina (Sket, pers. comm., 2010).
155746		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be a freshwater spring-snail.
155746		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends.
155746		threats	eng	The only known locality is now below the man-made lake, and as such the springs where the species may have been recorded have been destroyed, and the species status is uncertain (Sket, 2010 pers. comm.).
155747		conservation	eng	There are currently no known conservation actions as this species has not been studied since it was first  collected. However further surveys to determine the  taxonomic status, geographical range of this species and threats would    be recommended.
155747		distribution	eng	This species was described from Mahon, Balearic Islands (Spain), but has not been studied since it was first collected, and as such the distributional status is uncertain.
155747		habitat	eng	This species has not been studied since it was first  collected, and as such the habitats are uncertain, but possibly either a brackish water species or full marine species.
155747		population	eng	This species has not been studied since it was first  collected, and as such the population status is uncertain.
155747		threats	eng	This species has not been studied since it was first  collected, and as such the threat status is uncertain.
155748		conservation	eng	Birdlife International consider Lake Amrakia as a candidate Special Area of Conservation (SAC). Further research into the population trends and distribution of the species is required, particularly as the records from the springs around Lefkada and Lake Amrakia are uncertain.
155748		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia epirana</span> is endemic to Greece, where it was originally thought to be restricted to the springs at Perama on north side of Lake Pamvotis (also known as Lake Ioannina) which dried out in the 1980s. K. Radea (pers. comm. 2010) notes that <span style="font-style: italic;">I. epirana</span> has been found by Schütt (1962, 1980) [in springs north of Lake Pamvotis and in streams on island Lefkada as <span style="font-style: italic;">Horatia</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neohoratia</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;">epirana</span>], Radoman (1973) [in Lake Amvrakia as <span style="font-style: italic;">I. graeca</span>], Reischütz and Sattmann (1990) [in spring on the eastern outskirts of Amfithea southeast of Perama as <span style="font-style: italic;">Horatia epirana</span>],&#160; Reischütz and Reischütz (2002) [in Lake Pamvotis as <span style="font-style: italic;">Horatia cf</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">epirana</span>] and recently by Frogley and Preece (2007) [from northeast shore of Lake Pamvotis (road between Amfithea and Perama) as <span style="font-style: italic;">I. epirana</span>].
155748		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs, streams and lakes and possibly groundwaters supplying the springs.
155748		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing as few specimens have been collected since the spring dried out.
155748		threats	eng	The main threats to the spring sites are habitat destruction, for example through road construcrion and drying out of springs. There are plans to construct a road on the lake shore of Lake Amrakia, as well as&#160;over-abstraction of surface water. At Lake Pamvotis the main threats come from agricultural intensification and building around the lake margins,&#160;as well as&#160;over-abstraction of surface water. Reischutz (pers. comm. 2011) reported very high levels of nitrates in Lake Pamvotis in 2010 and he recorded few living specimens in 2011, suggesting that there may have been a die-off related to these high levels of pollutants.
155749		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are taking place.
155749		distribution	eng	<p>At present <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella micherdzinskii</span> is thought to be endemic to Poland. It is known only from one locality in the Rawka mountain range of the Bieszczady Mountains (Polish East Carpathians). However, as the locality is situated very close to the state border, the species' distribution may possibly extend to Ukraine.</p><br/><p></p>
155749		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella micherdzinskii</span> is a spring species found in very low numbers among fallen leaves in marshy habitats in a deciduous forest.</p>
155749		population	eng	This species lives at low population density. There is no data on population trend.
155749		threats	eng	There is no specific information available about threats to this species. However, given the fragility of spring habitats and their exploitation, the single site is viewed as vulnerable to habitat destruction in the future.
155750		conservation	eng	This species has also been assessed at a regional level:<br/>EU27:&#160; Least Concern <br/>Europe:&#160; Least Concern<br/>Mediterranean:&#160; Least Concern<br/>Italy: Least Concern<br/>Croatia:&#160; Critically Endangered.&#160; All the caves and the cave fauna are strictly protected by law within Croatia.&#160; However the status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.
155750		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North Eastern Italy, North Western Slovenia and Croatia (Schutt 2000). <br/><br/>It is only known from 6 10km squares in Italy (e.g.&#160; Sorgente 1,1 km dal confine di stato, valle del F oSorgente 1,1 km dal confine di stato, valle del Sorgente 1,1 km dal confine di stato, valle de Natisone, a monte di Stupizza, com. Pulfer)<br/><br/>In Croatia, only in a small periodic spring on island of Rab between town of Rab and village of Barbat.<br/><br/>In Slovenia,the range is unknown.
155750		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species found within caves and is regarded as a stygobiont.
155750		population	eng	This species has no known population data.
155750		threats	eng	This species is known in Italy where it is considered Least Concern, however is it susceptible to groundwater pollution and grounwater abstraction.<br/><br/>In Croatia, only in a small periodic spring on island of Rab between town of Rab and village of Barbat. The site is likely to be threatened from pollution, tourist development and infrastructure development.
155751		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific actions in place for this species, however further research is needed on population trends and the impacts of possible threats on species distributions. This species has been assessed at the regional level:&#160; EU27 regional assessment:&#160; Not Applicable, European & Mediterranean regional assessment:&#160; Least Concern.
155751		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adriohydrobia gagatinella</span> is recorded from the Balkan region, from Albania, Montenegro to Croatia. It was originally described from Ljuta Spring, near Kotor, Montenegro. Specimens from the Krka River near Skradin, Croatia, were analysed by Wilke and Falniowski (2001)&#160;in their works on the molecular systematics of the genus.
155751		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwaters, and is recorded from rivers and springs.
155751		population	eng	No data on population trends for this species and more research is needed.
155751		threats	eng	<em>Adriohydrobia gagatinella</em>&#160;occurs in habitats that are under pressure from water pollution and habitat degradation, although the impact on this species is not known.
155752		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.   Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species, as changes in the rate of decline of habitat quality would potentially change the status of the species.   </p>  <p><strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong></p>
155752		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata rhabdota</span> is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, where it is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>  <p></p>
155752		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species found in the sublittoral zone.
155752		population	eng	<p>This species is found at suitable habitats in high abundances.</p>
155752		threats	eng	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, but there is less impact in the deeper waters at present. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) may also impact this gastropod in the future.
155753		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place. There are several subspecies recognised in Catalunya (Spain) and as such the species may require further taxonomic review. The species would benefit from the normal actions to conserve freshwater snails, namely not concreting over spring sites and care in flow management regimes on rivers.
155753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and France (Boeters 1988). In Spain it is known from provinces of Catalunya and Cuenca (Castilla-La Mancha). In Castilla-La Mancha it is only known from two localities in Cuenca, although further surveys are required to determine the status of these populations (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
155753		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs and flowing water such as streams and rivers (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
155753		population	eng	The status of these populations are uncertain as there has been very little recent survey work.
155753		threats	eng	The species is not known to have specific threats, however general threats include concreting over spring sites and loss of water due to flow management regimes on rivers.
155754		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions  known to be&#160; in place. Research on threats, population status and  distribution are required to fully evaluate the status of this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended due to the general threats to freshwater habitats in the region from water abstraction.
155754		distribution	eng	<p><em>Moitessieria lludrigaensis</em>&#160; is endemic to the North-east of Spain, known from Tarragona only.  </p><p>· Fuente Llundriga - approximately 2km South-east of Capafonts and 12km West-north-west of Alcover, province Tarragona.<br/></p>
155754		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits interstitial waters and was discovered in a spring which drains to the Ebro river.</p>
155754		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown.
155754		threats	eng	<p>The specific threats to locations where this species is present are unknown, but there are general threats from water flow management and abstraction in the region.<br/></p>   <p><br/></p>
155755		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, although the presence in some salt-marsh/estuarine areas in the UK, The Netherlands and Belgium may provide protection for the habitats where the species is found. In Ireland, it is probably introduced, and assessed as Not Applicable (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Great Britain, although it has a restricted distribution, it is considered to be stable and listed as Least Concern (Seddon and Killeen pers. comm. 2010). In the Netherlands, it is considered Endangered (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) based on loss of habitats in the last 40 years. Research actions include: further research to establish the taxonomic status of the Italian populations; origin of introduced populations in Ireland; better understanding of the range overlap with the recently described species in the North Atlantic.
155755		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coasts of western Europe, where it is mainly found on the countries bordering the North Sea. Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list the range as Denmark (mainland), Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), and Germany.&#160; The records from Italy (mainland) require confirmation, as there are other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea</span> that have recently been separated. Kerney (1999) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea grayana</span> could be an introduction in Ireland, as it is only found around the Shannon Estuary and the first records were in 1991.
155755		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in salt marshes or estuaries at or just above high tide level, usually crawling on wet mud, under stones and pieces of drift wood and sometimes on the stones under seaweed/vegetation.
155755		population	eng	In Great Britain this species is abundant where present, although localised on the East Anglian and South Yorkshire Coasts in suitable habitats (Kerney 1999).
155755		threats	eng	This species is abundant where present and hence not likely to become threatened given the current range, however, the estuarine sites are vulnerable to development for port and harbour purposes, for tourism (marina construction) and industrial estates. This would provide localized threats to sites.
155756		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population and the habitat trends.
155756		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Bank (2006; Fauna Europea) for Croatia and Slovenia. &#160;Baba (2007) listed the species for Ogulin, Leskovac and Stunjica creeks in the coastal areas of Croatia in his biogeographic region of Ponto-Mediterranean.                Sket (pers. comm. 2010) suggests that it is endemic in central and south-east Slovenia and the adjacent Croatia, systems of rivers Ljubljanica, Krka, Kolpa/Kupa.
155756		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in freshwater rivers close to the coast.
155756		population	eng	No data on population status or trends are available.
155756		threats	eng	The general threats to freshwater molluscs in this region include river flow management (for hydroelectric power production), water pollution (from domestic and agricultural sources) and habitat degradation, where habitats are modified during road construction in the river valleys, however the impact on this species is uncertain.
155757		conservation	eng	<p>The conservation status of this species in Romania has not been evaluated. No conservation measures are needed. <br/></p>
155757		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Romania where it is found in the Apuseni Mountains.&#160; It has been collected from different localities, through interstitial probing or from caves (Vadu Crişului Cave from the basin of the Crişului Repede River, Şuncuiuş Cave from Pădurea Craiului Mountains (Grossu and Negrea 1984)). </p><span class="yshortcuts">
155757		habitat	eng	<p>The species lives in underground water, especially in caves, as well as in cold springs; it is considered a glacial relict. </p>
155757		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends of this species.
155757		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
155758		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species. Further research is necessary to establish whether there are multiple species in the system, their habitats and their population sizes.
155758		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. The species was described from the type locality at Font de Castro, Sueras (Province, Castellón) (Rolán and Martínez–Ortí 2003), the only known site, however it is thought to be found in the underlying karstic groundwater system.
155758		habitat	eng	This species is found within groundwater systems and found at outflow springs from the system (Martínez-Ortí pers. comm. 2009)
155758		population	eng	There is no data available on the population status of this species, although it is believed to be stable based on the abundance of shells found in the outflow of the groundwater system (Martínez-Ortí 2007).
155758		threats	eng	The main threats lie in the pollution of the groundwaters where this species is found, as well as possible over-exploitation of the water source (Martínez-Ortí 2007)
155759		conservation	eng	<p>                  </p><p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place.</p>  An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.<p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155759		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radix pinteri </span>is endemic to the Prespa <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, which lies between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM(also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
155759		habitat	eng	This species has been found on both sandy sublittoral (type specimen ) and sandy littoral (paratypes) (Schütt, 1974). Nowadays <span style="font-style: italic;">R. pinteri</span> is rare and patchy, restricted to the littoral, mainly on stones and occasionally on sand.
155759		population	eng	This species can be found only in low abundances, sympatrically with a more abundant congeneric species <span style="font-style: italic;">(Radix auricularia</span>).
155759		threats	eng	<p>Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>
155760		conservation	eng	The species is listed as on the List of Protected Species in Croatia. Surveys are required to establish the population status, habitat preference, known ranges and threats to this species, before a conservation assessment can be made.
155760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, where it was described from the coast of Dalmatia, and believed to be present on the  lower parts of the river Zernovica, just south-east of Spilt.
155760		habitat	eng	There is no data available on habitats for this species, but other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lanzaia </span>are found in groundwater, and it may be that this species lives in interstitial groundwater as well.
155760		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends for this species.
155760		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species.
155762		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions, however, taxonomy and distribution will need to be researched.
155762		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is known from the catchments around Sarajevo (Radoman 1983). The type locality of the nominate race was a spring near Vrelo bosna (Vruci), close to Sarajevo. Radoman (1983) listed springs at Mokro, Borim (Vruci) and Gornje Bradina for the nominate race. Radoman (1983) listed sites for subspecies<em> S. a.&#160;</em><em>erythropama</em> Schutt 1959 from a captured spring Knjeginjace (6 km from Sarajevo and 2km from Miljevci) and another spring close by (200m);&#160;<em>S. a.&#160;travnicensis Radoman, 1975</em> from Plava voda, a stream in Travnik town, as well as 3 springs within 10km of the town, Vašljiva voda 2km west at Lovrić, Šujica River between Kupres and Livno, and Basinac);&#160;S. a.&#160;<em>driniana</em> Radoman, 1975 from drainage of the Drina River (5 sites, Kaostica village, Čatin potok in Brodari Village 300m above Drina River, Višegrad and Perucac).
155762		habitat	eng	This is a species that inhabits freshwater springs.
155762		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends.
155762		threats	eng	The major threat to water sources in the region is water extraction for domestic supplies.&#160; Although several of the sites are already exploited as water sources for the local villages, the overall trend is uncertain.
155763		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place. More research on the taxonomy, the population, distribution and on the main threats is needed.
155763		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Bosnia and Herzegovina and is known from the type locality at Podgaj, above the road at Zenica, 11 km from Doboj.
155763		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155763		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155763		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown. However, freshwater habitat are under high pressure in this region, in relation with over-abstraction, pollution and drought.
155764		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on population trends, distribution and taxonomy.
155764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France.
155764		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155764		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155764		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155765		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species is listed as Endangered in Italy, due to the number of sites and the degree of exploitation of the water source. Monitoring of the population and habitat trends is recommended.
155765		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine region of Colli Euganei, Friuili-Venezia Giulia, where it is restricted to the thermal springs dei Colli Euganei.&#160; Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(map in CK Map 5.3.8; online source) list the species from 7 locations (Abano Terme, Arqua Petrarca, Battaglia terme, Cartura, Cinto Euganeo, Villaga and Esta-Vo).&#160; Most sites are exploited thermal springs, with some outflow records from lakes and streams near to the sources.
155765		habitat	eng	This species inhabits thermal spring waters.
155765		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155765		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <em>et al</em>. 2000).
155766		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species, however monitoring of the habitat needs to be carried out as does more research into distribution and trends in population.
155766		distribution	eng	Giusti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) described a Holmediterranean distribution for this species, regarding it as conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">Planorbis argraulus.&#160; </span>However it is now considered to be more restricted, from Sardinia, Corsica, possibly Alpes Maritime (Gloer and Zettler 2009, Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). On Corsica it is listed from at least 13 locations (Gloer and Zettler 2009) and as such is not range restricted.
155766		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
155766		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
155766		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
155767		conservation	eng	This species was considered to be Vulnerable (VU D2) in the Spanish Red List, <em></em><em style="font-style: italic;">Atlas</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> de los </span><em style="font-style: italic;">Invertebrados</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> Amenazados de España</span> (Verdú and Galante 2009). It was also listed as Vulnerable D2 for the Andalucian Red List&#160;(Barea-Azcón et al, 2008) .&#160;Appropriate site management and education of site users is needed to prevent further habitat degradation.
155767		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is only known from the type locality (manantial Pilar del Mono, Durcal, Granada) and Fuente del Mal Nombre in close proximity also in Granada. &#160;There have been surveys in the region over the last 10 years, but these have failed to find new populations for this species (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)
155767		habitat	eng	This species has been found only in two relatively close freshwater springs where it lives on leaves, branches, mosses, but also on artificial substrates such as bricks or cement.
155767		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155767		threats	eng	The springs where the species is found are exploited for water. &#160;The threats include overabstraction of water as well as cleaning of the habitats, to improve off-take points, through concreting sites and removing vegetation.
155768		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are known. The species was considered to be Near Threatened for the Red List of Italy. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas, however habitat monitoring would be recommended for this species.
155768		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine region of eastern Friuli-Venezia Giulia.&#160; It is only known from a small area, c. 25 km x 15km where it is recorded at three locations.
155768		habitat	eng	This small freshater species is found in groundwaters in rocks.
155768		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155768		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006).&#160;                <span lang="EN-US"> Living in subterranean habitats which are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.    (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155769		conservation	eng	There is no species-specific conservation actions for this species.&#160; Taxonomic research is required to confirm the status as a full species, and if shown then habitat monitoring will be required.
155769		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum racovitzai </em>is only known from its type locality in the&#160;department of&#160;Jura, France.
155769		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean freshwaters.
155769		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155769		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.</p>
155770		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155770		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy and is found in the alpine regions of Veneto and Lombardy, where it is locally common and some sites have multiple outflows.
155770		habitat	eng	This species lives in groundwaters in karst. Some sites have multiple outflows. It feeds using scrapers.
155770		population	eng	No data on populations trends are available, however, this is a locally common species.
155770		threats	eng	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2000).
155771		conservation	eng	There are no specific actions known for the species, although habitat monitoring and population monitoring would be recommended to check on population decline levels.&#160; <br/><br/>The Cave of Vjetrenica, the site for <em>Lanzaia vjetrenicae</em> <em>vjetrenicae</em> has been protected since around 1900, when the metal gate preventing access was first made. The same gate, slightly modified in early ‘60s, is still there (Ržehak 1965). Legal protection of the cave started in 1914and it was proclaimed a natural monument in 1950.&#160;Speleological Society Vjetrenica - Popovo polje has renewed the pre- war tourist programme, but flashlights are used at the moment, instead of electrical lighting, which is beneficial to the cave fauna.&#160;<br/><br/>The 'Popovo polje/Vjetrenica' is listed in the Emerald Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest.&#160;The B-H Academy made proposal to nominate Vjetrenica as a&#160;candidate&#160;for the World Heritage List.
155771		distribution	eng	<em>Lanzaia vjetrenicae</em>&#160;was first described from Bosnia & Hercegovina, and the nominate race was found in the Vjetrenica cave system. Two other subspecies are listed from Croatia:&#160; <em>Lanzaia vjetrenicae kusceri&#160;</em>Karaman, 1954&#160;recorded from Croatia.<em> Lanzaia vjetrenicae latecostata</em>&#160;Schütt, 1968&#160;recorded from Croatia and in addition Fauna Europea lists the species from Montenegro. The number of subpopulations is uncertain, but there are possibly as few as 4, but it may get up to 9.
155771		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwaters in karst subterranean system
155771		population	eng	Population status is unknown.
155771		threats	eng	At the type locality for the nominate sub-species, the major threats to the cave system where it lives are related to activities that disturb the special microclimate in the cave. &#160;Increased nutrient load in the water may attract other species that would compete with<em> Lanzaia vjetrenicae. </em>Water abstraction from the groundwaters and the springs feeding the cave would lead to change in the water conditions in the cave. Any use of chemicals, either for work in the cave, or from seepage from above the cave would impact the species.
155772		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. more research on taxonomy, population and habitat trends is needed.
155772		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella vimperei i</span>s endemic to France, where it is known from 6 localities in three departments: Deux-Sèvres, Charente and Haute-Vienne.
155772		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155772		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155772		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.
155773		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat trends is recommended for this species to check for changes in distribution and habitats.
155773		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Ohrid, between Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), where it is mainly found in the littoral zone and the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> meadows above 30 m depth&#160; (Radoman 1985).
155773		habitat	eng	This freshwater snail is mainly found in the littoral zone of the lake on various substrates like <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena</span> shells, stones and gravel, and rarely within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> meadows above 30 m depth.<br/><em></em>
155773		population	eng	This is generally found in low abundances in survey samples.
155773		threats	eng	The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. As a result of this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. However these threats are not thought to be currently impacting this species, although they may if pollution levels increase.
155774		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Research is needed on the distribution, population trends and threats of this species.
155774		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Northern part of Evvoia (Euboea), an island off the coast of Greece. It is found upstream of Mantouidi, on subsoil effluence of the Kirefs River.
155774		habitat	eng	This species is presumably a subterranean freshwater species.
155774		population	eng	The original collection only had a few specimens and as such we have no data on abundance.
155774		threats	eng	It is uncertain what the specific threats to this site are and this area is relatively less developed.
155775		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to establish if there are any sites where this species is found within the historical range, as well as taxonomic research on the status of the species incorporating a molecular approach.&#160; Habitat management maybe required at the last known site.
155775		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria sarahae</span> is only known only from 2 localities : an oxbow lake in the Loire, being slowly filled with mud, but still receiving water at high tide, and a second locality around Rochefort (department Charente Maritime, coll. Morgan, MNHN), western France, where it has not been recorded in the last 100 years.
155775		habitat	eng	Freshwater species, in areas with a brackish influence at high tide, such as river oxbow and lagoons.
155775		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155775		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown, although sedimentation is the natural threat to one site.
155776		conservation	eng	Falkner and Niederhof (2008) considered the species to be category R, rare, extremely rare species and species with a geographical restriction in Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155776		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it was described from Waldshut (Rheingenist) and known from a second locality some 60 km away (Falkner and Niederhof 2008).&#160; The presence in Switzerland requires further research, given the taxonomic complexities discussed by Falkner and Niederhof (2008).
155776		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and outflow springs (Falkner and Niederhoefer 2008).
155776		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.&#160; It is described as extremely rare by Falkner and Niederhof (2008).
155776		threats	eng	Main threats lie in groundwater pollution or over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155777		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, habitat and threats of this species.
155777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania, where it is endemic to the            p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal { margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman"; }div.Section1 { page: Section1; }   Razelm Lake (Museum Collection: station 33 collected by PhD. Rodica Leonte, Ciobou, pers. comm., 2010).
155777		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown, but believed to be living in the brackish water of Razelm, on silty or sandy bottom (           p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal { margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman"; }span.yshortcuts {  }div.Section1 { page: Section1; }   Cioboiu, pers. comm., 2010)
155777		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends for this species.
155777		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155778		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to its population trends and threats towards the species.
155778		distribution	eng	This species is now considered conspecific with <em>V. maritima</em>, which is recorded from Evros delta, Greece, Romania,&#160;Ukraine and on the Black Sea coast of Russia.
155778		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish water lagoons and coastal margins.
155778		population	eng	There is no data available on population trends
155778		threats	eng	There are no know threats towards this species.
155779		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. More research is needed on the taxonomy and on the populations trends, as well as the distribution range (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160; Monitoring of habitat trends (water quality and sediment load) would assist is determining changing status for this species. <br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>
155779		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, and is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>
155779		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species is usually found in the sublittoral zone of the lake.
155779		population	eng	<p>This rare species is found only at a few collecting points, and where recorded is usually in low abundance (C. Albrecht<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>
155779		threats	eng	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, although there is a slower decline in water quality in the deeper waters of the lake (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009). Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also potentially impacts this small freshwater gastropod.
155780		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in Romania. There is no information whether or not this site is protected. Being a potential target of increasing recreational activity in the future, the area should be protected and habitat and population trends need to be monitored.
155780		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is: "Rozsály-tömb, Forrásliget, Izvora-fennsík, springs near Molcsány-tanya (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 1,000 m)"  [= Muntii Ignis, Statiunea Izvoare, near the hut of late Gábor Molcsány] (Wagner 1941). This locality is in Romania, and it is almost impossible to figure out where has exactly located the Molcsány's hut in 1941. This species has not been found for a long time and has only been refound a few years ago (by Ioan Sirbu, see Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The area typica was visited by Z. Fehér et al. too (unpublished material in the collection of HNHM), and they found this species in numerous springs and streams in the Ignis Plateau but only within a few square kilometres range.
155780		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and small streams.
155780		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
155780		threats	eng	This species lives only in the Ignis Plateau within a very narrow range. This area (Statiunea Izvoare) is a popular target for recreational activity of the population of Baia Mare city and its surroundings. Now, a covered road goes only to the edge of this area and the infrastructure is poorly developed. However it is a realistic threat that infrastructure will develop rapidly in the near future (covered roads, rest houses, restaurants, hotels, etc.) and the number of visitors will increase rapidly, causing disturbance and pollution of the habitats as well as water abstraction.
155781		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species, however, it does require more research on population trends, distribution and threats.
155781		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radomaniola bosniaca&#160;</span> is endemic to west Bosna in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), where Radoman (1983) listed it for 3 different locations: Miljevci village (by the road between Sanski Most and Bosanska Krupa, a closely adjacent spring at Podbrnjaca and another spring at Neteka, near the source of the River Una. There is no recent data on the range of the species.
155781		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be restricted to freshwater springs.
155781		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species, although Radoman (1983) reported that it was common at one of the three sites.
155781		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155782		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species across its range,  although local actions maybe in place. Although the species is still  widespread at present, it has been declining in parts of the  range, so that further surveys are needed to determine the decline  levels, and then determine whether further actions are necessary.
155782		conservation	eng	There is no information about conservation actions targeting this species. In Bulgaria it is listed as Extinct in the forthcoming Red Data Book of Bulgaria: Volume 2 Animals (in press).
155782		distribution	eng	This species has a Palearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern Europe and southern Scandinavia. It is generally rare in southern Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) listed the species for Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Ukraine. It has a sporadic distribution in Germany, Czech Republic and Poland (Vavrova pers. comm. 2010); in Germany it is mainly present in the northern areas with isolated records in the south .In Great Britain (UK) the species is found principally in central, lowland England – the area often referred to as the canal basin, and the large river catchments in Yorkshire. It is absent from Scotland and there are no recent records from the Welsh borders (I. Killeen pers. comm. 2010).
155782		distribution	eng	This species is known from France, Poland, Germany, Hungary, Switzerland and the UK (Clarke 1981), as well as Central Asia (Kipp 2011). This species has also been reported from the eastern end of Lake Ontario in 1959, most likely introduced from Eurasia. There have been no further reports of this species within the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence system. In 1975, there were collections from Eastmain and La Grande rivers in northern Quebec (Clarke 1981).
155782		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit lotic (rivers) environments, and has a reduced longitudinal extent which corresponds to strict ecological requirements (Mouthon 1999). The numbers of individuals was found to rise with increasing cadmium levels (Reckendorfer<em> et al.</em> 2006), and the species is found only in large rivers (Sommerhäuser<em> et al. </em>2003). This species was found to be most abundant in the top 5 cm layer of sediment, and this is likely to be due to higher oxygen levels (Bódis 2007).
155782		habitat	eng	This species lives in a relatively narrow range of clean, calcareous habitats. In Britain it is virtually restricted to canals and large, slow-flowing rivers. It occurs in a range of substrates from mud through to sandy grit, often in deeper water than for many other <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium</span> species, and is less common in very shallow margins.
155782		population	eng	There is little data available on the population trends across the range of this species. In Great Britain (UK) a survey of 337 sites in southern and south central England in 2000-2002 showed that the species was present and locally abundant in the largest rivers (e.g. Thames, Cherwell and Thame) but very sparse or absent elsewhere (Killeen and Willing 2004)
155782		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare in the UK (Quinn <em>et al.</em> 1996). It can occur in high densities, and 1,088 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> were found during November 2007 in the River Danube. This species was generally found to be abundant in this river (Bódis 2007).
155782		threats	eng	No specific threats to the species have been identified, however water pollution and subsequent ecosystem degradation could negatively influence the species' population.
155782		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to biodegradable pollution (Mouthon 1999). Densities of this species fell during a heatwave in France in 2003, however, they then rose the following year (Mouthon and Daufresne 2006). The reproductive potential of this species is relatively low when compared with that of gastropods (Russel-Hunter 1978). This may make this species vulnerable to global temperature rise, but as yet there is no evidence to show that it will suffer long-term declines.
155783		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be Vulnerable in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Sket and Velkovrh 2002).                 Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review of the allied species including molecular characters, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs and caves for freshwater biodiversity.
155783		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica gracilis</span> is endemic to Slovenia where it is found in the caves and springs in basin of river Krka. Di Mattia (2007) reported finding this species at                 the karstic springs Poltarica near Krška Vas, Grospulje but shows a wider range in his distribution map of the slovenian species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica</span> covering much of the catchment of the river Krka to the junction with the Sava river.&#160;  <strong></strong></p>
155783		habitat	eng	This small freshwater species inhabits caves and freshwater springs (de Mattia 2007;&#160; Sket pers. comm. 2010)
155783		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155783		threats	eng	Direct threats to this species are not known, but its habitat is vulnerable to water pollution.&#160; In  the future abstraction of groundwater water and groundwater pollution  may pose a threat as this could cause the declining quality of the  species' habitats and possible loss if the frequency of seasonal  droughts increases.
155785		conservation	eng	The taxonomic issues of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum </span>need to be solved.
155785		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is unclear, as shells are easily confused with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum </span>species, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">B. diaphanum</span>. However, based on the current records (mainly shells) it is thought to be endemic to France, where it occurs at five localities in the Departments of Ain, Jura, Rhone, Saone-et-Loire.
155785		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155785		population	eng	There is no population data available.
155785		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of the groundwater table may threaten the species through habitat degradation, if the aquifers are over-exploited.
155786		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions required for this species. No conservation measures are needed.
155786		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Grossuana euxina</span> is known from localities in Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Macedonia (Radoman 1983, Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It was also found in Albania recently (Fehér and Erőss 2009).&#160; There are more than 50 reported localities (Radoman 1983). Several new localities were discovered recently (Albania, Greece, Bulgaria) so the number of existing populations is  probably higher than the currently reported range (Feher pers. comm. 2010).
155786		habitat	eng	This species inhabits karstic springs.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
155786		population	eng	Information on the population status or trend is not available for this species.
155786		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of&#160; its spring water habitat, arising from agricultural, industrial and domestic sources.
155787		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions known to be&#160; in place. Research on threats, population status and distribution are required to fully evaluate the status of this species. <br/></p>
155787		distribution	eng	<p><em>Moitessieria foui</em> is a recently described species which is endemic to the North-east of Spain, known only from Tarragona, where it is found in Cova de la Fou - 6km South-west of Falset, approximately 5km South-east of Capcanes, Province Tarragon, which is a small temporary resurgence cave.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155787		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in subterranean groundwaters. <br/></p>   <p><br/></p>
155787		population	eng	<p>No living specimens of this species have ever been found.</p>
155787		threats	eng	There are generalised threats in the region, which could impact the   species, especially the pressure on water resources (extraction for   domestic and  agricultural purposes) and the possibility of impact from  increased  frequency of drought events.
155788		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;It is assessed as Least Concern in the Italian Red List. More research is needed for population and habitat trends.
155788		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in Idume Creek, Torre Castiglione and Bambinello Spring (Wilke 2003), in the Apennines region of southern Puglia.
155788		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal springs, river mouths and oligohaline (i.e. with limited amount of salt) groundwaters in rocks.
155788		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155788		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ferreri in prep.; Ruffo and Stoch 2006). It is also found in areas which are greatly affected by anthropogenic activity, and is therefore threatened by pollution and urbanization (Ferreri in prep.). Morever, its ecological resources are competitively exploited by local, sympatric species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia ventrosa, Mercuria similis, Islamia pusilla, </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Helobia stagnorum</span>) as well as by invasives (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamopygrus antipodarum</span>), thus reducing its chances of survival (Ferreri, in prep.). Where populations of this species inhabit river mouths, they may be affected by anthropogenic river bank damage and/or cementation (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155789		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. <br/></p>
155789		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of Lake Ohrid, in the surroundings of sub-lacustrine springs.
155789		habitat	eng	This littoral species is strictly restricted to hard substrates like rocks and stones.
155789		population	eng	This species is strictly restricted to the rocky south-eastern shore and could be found only in low abundances.
155789		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>
155790		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia where all caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law. It was considered to be threatened in Croatia and  assigned a status of Critically Endangered B1a,b(iii)+2ab(iii) for the  Croatian Red List of Cave Fauna (in press, Bilandzija pers. comm. 2010). The status of the population in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring. Implementation of laws protecting the sites would be beneficial, as would an educational awareness programme on the value of cave biodiversity.
155790		distribution	eng	This species is found in a single cave (Kotlua), close to Vrlika in Croatia (Janzic pers. comm. 2009).
155790		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species found in springs in a cave.
155790		population	eng	There is no information on the species' population.
155790		threats	eng	The species is known from a closed cave system with few visitors. There is a threat from sheep that enter the cave for water. About a kilometre from this cave there is a factory which uses the spring water for bottling. Although this could be a threat in the future, there is no evidence that this impacts the water supply to the cave at present.
155791		conservation	eng	Species is protected by National Legislation in Montenegro and lives within a National Park.<br/>    <p>On-going transboudary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area.</p>
155791		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to   Montenegro, where it is only known from a single site on Vranjina island in Lake Skadar. Despite research in the region, it has not been found in nearby springs.
155791		habitat	eng	This species lives amongst the mosses in the spring on island Vranjina in Lake Skadar, Montenegro.&#160;During 2 year research in the region, there were observed changes in habitat   during the period from July to end of September, due to falling water levels in the spring.
155791		population	eng	The observed population levels of this species are declining (V. Pesic, pers. comm., 2009), based on a two year study of the site. There is a small population living amongst damp mosses, which are most susceptible to changes in habitat   during the period from July to end of September, due to falling water levels in the spring.
155791		threats	eng	The water has been captured for local drinking, a rapid process of eutrophication in Lake Skadar which is connected to the springs during the major part of the year.
155792		conservation	eng	No conservation plans are in place for this species. &#160;A review of taxonomic status and distribution of sub-populations are needed for this species.
155792		distribution	eng	The species is currently viewed as being endemic to France, where it is recorded from the departments of Charente, Gironde and Charente-Maritime (Bernasconi, 2002). The population from Font del Truffe (Quercy) could be attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. ferrussina</span> (Prié and Bichain, unpublished data, 2009).
155792		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155792		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155792		threats	eng	The species is not well-known, but appears to have a widespread distribution within it's range. It is likely to be under-recorded, and as such is viewed as Least Concern.&#160; However the habitats are vulnerable to modification for domestic water abstraction and water quality needs to be maintained.
155793		conservation	eng	More data is needed in the areas of the species' distribution, population trends, habitat preferences and potential threats before any conservation actions can be considered.
155793		distribution	eng	Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>(2009) list the species for the catchments of the Oka, Bug, Orel and Dnieper rivers, in Germany, Ukraine and Russia, however the precise distribution is uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species.
155793		habitat	eng	The precise habitats are uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species, however the records come from large rivers.
155793		population	eng	The precise population trends are uncertain, as there are few recent records of the species.
155793		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155794		conservation	eng	This species is considered 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species (Sket and Velkovrh 2002). This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.
155794		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is known only from the springs of the river Ljubljanica, near Vrhnika.
155794		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwaters in karst caves.
155794		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
155794		threats	eng	This species is considered to be under pressure, as the water source could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agricultural and domestic sources.
155795		conservation	eng	Ecosystem management projects are being implemented in the Skadar lake.&#160;On-going transboundary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. Habitat should be monitor.
155795		distribution	eng	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona</em>&#160;&#160;occurs in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina.&#160;&#160;Most of these subspecies (<em>Plagigeyeria z.&#160;pageti</em>&#160;, &#160;<em>Plagigeyeria z.</em>&#160;<em>vitoja) </em>are&#160;restricted to Montenegro<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">, although one&#160;<em>P. z.</em>&#160;<em>zetatridyma</em>&#160;Schutt, 1960 extends to Bosnia and Herzegovina. &#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona&#160;zetaprotogona</span>&#160;is restricted to Montenegro</st1:country-region></st1:place>, known only from the type locality (source of river Zeta near Tunjevo village). The Zeta River is the most significant tributary of the Morača. The Perućica&#160;Hydroelectric power plant&#160;near Nikšić &#160;uses the waters of the Zeta River to generate power. After that, the river&#160;meanders&#160;through the&#160;Bjelopavlići Valley, until it empties into the Morača a few miles north of Podgorica.&#160;<em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona vitoja</em>&#160;is restricted to the spring at Vitoja.&#160;</st1:country-region></st1:place>
155795		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in springs which flows directly out of the ground, the water directly forming a stream (rheocrenic springs) and it may be present in subterranean areas as well.
155795		population	eng	In one of the sites, Vitoja spring,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona vitoja&#160;</span>is frequently obtained in samples, and as such is not rare although the population trend is not known.
155795		threats	eng	One of the sites (Zeta spring) has been captured. &#160;In the upper part of river Zeta, the Perućica&#160;Hydroelectric power plant&#160;near Nikšić &#160;uses the waters of the Zeta River to generate power&#160;which greatly influenced water level regime in the summer period (<em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona zetadidyma</em>).&#160;Additional problems come from waste water from the city polluting groundwater. &#160;For the other subspecies&#160;<em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona vitoja</em>&#160;the spring is planned to be capture for local drinking (Vitoja).&#160;No information is present for the third site.
155796		conservation	eng	No information.
155796		conservation	eng	No information available.
155796		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, and it is considered as Least Concern (LC) in European Union, Europe and Mediterranean. Given the current status and abundance, no specific conservation actions are required, although general biodiversity awareness of the role of freshwater molluscs is useful for all species.
155796		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species. Given the current status and abundance, no specific conservation actions are required, although general biodiversity awareness of the role of freshwater molluscs are useful for all species.
155796		distribution	eng	<em>Bithynia tentaculata</em> is a widespread and common Paleartic species, whose southern limit was in Israel and northern Africa, where it was recorded in the very early 19th century near Essouira (Morocco) and near Oran (Algeria). However, it has not been recorded anymore during the last decades. It must be assumed that its maghrebian relict populations have become extinct. Ghamizi has surveyed this area extensively without finding it. Possibly, It was never present in Morocco, and it is almost certain that it is not present there now.
155796		distribution	eng	This species has a Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern Scandinavia, extending eastwards into western Asia and is also introduced into North America. It is widespread in Europe from Scandinavia to the Iberian Penisula, and from Eire to Ukraine and the species is still widespread within its known range. The full distribution in Europe is given in Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006): Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland) Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire) Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, Croatia, Slovenia and Ukraine. Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) note that it was reported from the former country of Yugoslavia so maybe present in other countries.
155796		distribution	eng	This species has a Palearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern Scandinavia, extending eastwards into western Asia and is also introduced into North America. It is widespread in Europe from Scandinavia to the Iberian Penisula, and from Eire to Ukraine and the species is still widespread within its known range. <br/><br/>It is reaching the southern fringe of the distribution in Mediterranean and is found in France (mainland), Corsica (France), Italy (mainland), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, Croatia, Slovenia, Turkey, Israel and Ukraine. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) note that it was reported from the former country of Yugoslavia so maybe present in other countries in the region. In North Africa it was recorded in the very early 19th century near Essouira (Morocco) and near Oran (Algeria). However, it has not been recorded there during the last decades. It must be assumed that its maghrebian relict populations have become extinct. Ghamizi (1998) has surveyed this area extensively without finding it. Possibly, it was never present in Morocco, and it is almost certain that it is not present there now.
155796		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common palearctic species. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The southern limit was in Israel and northern Africa, where it was recorded near Essouira (Morocco) and near Oran (Algeria) but not recorded there in more recent decades. It must be assumed that the Maghrebian relict populations have become extinct. Ghamizi has surveyed this area extensively without finding it. It possibly was never present in Morocco, and almost certainly not present there now. Records from very early in 19th century.
155796		habitat	eng	No information available.
155796		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of aquatic habitats - streams, rivers, canals, large drains, marsh drains and lakes, but is less common in smaller ponds. It shows a strong preference for richly vegetated habitats, often with muddy or silty substrates.
155796		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of aquatic habitats - streams, rivers, canals, large drains, marsh drains and lakes, less common in smaller ponds. It shows a strong preference for richly vegetated habitats, often with muddy or silty substrates.
155796		population	eng	It is moderately tolerant to pollution and there is little evidence of any significant decline across the range. Population levels are stable, although localised declines are known.
155796		population	eng	No information available.
155796		threats	eng	No information available.
155796		threats	eng	<p>There are relatively few threats to this species apart from major deterioration in water quality, and significant alteration of water courses, flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging. Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>B. tentaculata </em>was relatively insensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160;&#160; <br/></p>
155797		conservation	eng	This species is a major food source for wading birds and consequently it is listed on some countries Biodiversity Action Plans to recognise this important function. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
155797		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species found along the Atlantic coast, from Scandinavia, and into the Gulf of Bothnia, along the coast (Belgium, Netherlands and the UK and Ireland), south to the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and to Morocco. The presence in the Mediterranean has been reported widely, but there are taxonomic issues with species that have been synominised and then spilt again (e.g. <em>Peringia mabilli</em>) so the distribution in the Mediterranean is less clear.
155797		habitat	eng	This species lives in coastal freshwaters and brackish waters, usually on muddy substrates at the shallow edges and in brackish water parts of large estuaries.
155797		population	eng	There is no detailed population data available for this species, but the species is generally abundant throughout the range, although it is a species that has flutuations in population numbers.
155797		threats	eng	The main threats to this species would be very localised and include habitat changes to tidal areas, such as construction of tidal barrages and oil pollution from ships using ports.
155798		conservation	eng	In the Red List of Czech molluscs (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) <span style="font-style: italic;">B. troschelii</span> was classified as Regionally Extinct (RE); however, this classification should be changed to Critically Endangered (CR). It is not listed for Germany, and it is considered as Least Concern (LC) in Hungary.
155798		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia troschelii </span>is found in the lowland rivers in Eastern Europe from Elbe eastwards. It has been recorded from Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Austria, Romania and Germany. It was originally throught to be extinct in Sweden, but has been re-found in a different location (Von Proschwitz pers. comm. 2010). In Denmark, it is known from a single locality and never been re-found&#160;(Von Proschwitz pers. comm. 2010)&#160;The Hungarian and Romanian (Carpathian basin) populations of both taxa (<span style="font-style: italic;">leachii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">troschelii</span>) seem to be taxonomically isolated from the others (Vinarksi and Glöer, 2008). It is considered to be widespread in central Europe (Hungary, Poland) (Feher pers. comm. 2010). In Czech Republic <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia troschelii</span> was also found in three other sites scattered in Bohemia and northern Moravia, but these occurrences are not indigenous (Beran pers. comm. 2010). In Czech Republic <span style="font-style: italic;">B.troschelii</span> is less abundant than <span style="font-style: italic;">B. leachii</span>, but they co-exist in several sites&#160;(Beran pers. comm. 2010)<br/><br/>Outside Europe, according to Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) the species is recorded from Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the Ural River.
155798		habitat	eng	Wetlands, pools, oxbow lakes, and small slowly flowing canals are preferable habitats for both species.
155798		population	eng	The species is less abundant than <em>B. leachii</em>, but still widespread especially in the eastern part of the range.
155798		threats	eng	This species is not considered to be threatened across the range, although there are localised threats from changes to river management practices (canal dredging) and infilling of ponds for land reclamation.
155799		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place.<em> </em>The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. To prevent further overabstraction of water appriate site management and education to make users aware of impacts on biodiversity are needed. <br/></p>
155799		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, and was described from a freshwater spring at Myli (the ancient Lerna) in the <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese</st1:place>. It is known from only two localities (Myli and Kefalari) neither of which now seem to have the species present. According to Szarowska and Falniowski (2004) the type locality was built over to create a water intake from the spring. In 2004 the snails, though still numerous, were endangered, as water abstraction impacts the water levels, and if more water was taken from the spring, the snails would easily disappear. <br/></p>
155799		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155799		population	eng	<p>The population of this species is declining due to the loss of one site. </p>
155799		threats	eng	<p>The areas of Lerna (Myli) and Kefalari where this species is found are subjected to enormous anthropogenic pressures (over-abstraction of water for water supply and irrigation for fruit orchards, tourism and archaeological excavations). During the period 2006–2008 the springs in Kefalari had no flow while the flow in Lerna was extremely low (data from ΥΕΒ Argolidas May 2008, N. Radea pers. comm. 2010).</p>
155800		conservation	eng	Manganelli <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in Italy. &#160;In Slovenia it is considered to be 'Rare' and R. Slapnik (pers. comm. 2010) suggests this would be equivalent to Vulnerable (VU D2) in Slovenia based on current Red List Criteria. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended, as well as communication campaigns for the local communities.
155800		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"><em>Iglica tellinii </em>is endemic to Italy and Slovenia. &#160;In Italy, it occurs close to the border and is&#160;known from 7 locations and is currently viewed as rare. In Slovenia, it is known from&#160;two sites (spring Perilo and cave Turjeva jama near Robic, Kobarid (Bole and Velkovrh 1986) which could be just one locality, and&#160;alluvial gravels in the valley of the river Natisone.
155800		habitat	eng	The species is known from groundwaters in alluvium, with outflows in Caves and Springs in Slovenia.
155800		population	eng	There are no data on population trends.
155800		threats	eng	The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em>. 2000; R. Slapnik pers. comm. 2010).
155801		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species, but futher information on threats and population status are required to evaluate the status of this species.
155801		distribution	eng	This species is listed as endemic to Spain, where it is found in the                 Provinces of Santander, Álava, Burgos and Asturias (Rolán pers. comm. 2010).
155801		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155801		population	eng	There is no data for estimating population trends of this species.
155801		threats	eng	The threats are uncertain, however, the species is found in freshwater springs which are exploited as water sources for domestic water supplies, so a general threat is present from over exploitation of the water and drying of the springs.
155802		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended to monitor the impact of water extraction in the area.
155802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is known from springs at Aperion, on the island of Karpathos. It has been reported from 3 other nearby springs in addition to the type locality (P. Reischütz pers. comm. 2009).
155802		habitat	eng	This species is found freshwater springs.
155802		population	eng	This species is only known to be abundant at one of the four sites where it has been found (P. Reischütz pers. comm. 2009)
155802		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are extraction of water from the springs for domestic and other purposes, as well as changes in the hydrological regime impacting the groundwater recharge.
155803		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species. There is very  little information available. Research is required to establish the  species' population status as well as its distribution, habitat  preferences and any threats.
155803		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), where it is recorded from the area close to Skopje. However, there is no recent information regarding the species' distribution.
155803		habitat	eng	There is no information regarding habitat preferences for this species, but is probably found in groundwater systems given the habitats of other similar species.
155803		population	eng	There is no recent information regarding the species' population status.
155803		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown, as at present the detailed distribution near Skopje is uncertain, however if the species is restricted to groundwaters, then pollution and overabstraction would be possible threats in the region.
155804		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Avenionia bourguignati </span>is protected by law in France, however, this species does require research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.
155804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, but the current issues with taxonomic limits for this species mean that little data is available for mapping or description.
155804		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155804		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155804		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155805		conservation	eng	Research into the species' native and non-native ranges is needed.
155805		distribution	eng	The species is native to south and southeast Asia (Beran and <span class="st">Glöer  2006, AnimalBase 2011) from Iran to India, Korea, southern Japan, and New Guinea. This species is found in northern Viet Nam, and may have a more extensive range in China, and is also recorded from South Korea (Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">at al. </span>2008). In Viet Nam it is known from Thai Nguyen and Bac Ninh provinces, the Chay River (Lao Cai and Yen Bai provinces), and the Gianh River in Quang Binh Province.<br/><br/>This species has been introduced to Europe, including to the Czech Republic and Great&#160;Britain (Beran and <span class="st">Glöer  2006), and has been found in swamps&#160;and rice fields in several other European countries such as Spain,&#160;Portugal, Italy, France and the Netherlands and in thermal springs in Austria (Falkner 1990). In Germany it was found near Magdeburg (<span class="st">Glöer and Meier-Brook 2003), it is unknown if&#160;this population has survived. It has&#160;also been introduced to West Africa.<br/><br/>The full native and introduced ranges of the species requires confirmation.</span>
155805		habitat	eng	Found in small water bodies (e.g. swamps, rice&#160;fields).&#160;In European countries&#160;<em>G. chinensi</em>s is known from swamps,&#160;rice fields,&#160;fish tanks and&#160;greenhouses (Anderson 2005, AnimalBase 2011).
155805		population	eng	Thought native to the Asia region, this species has been introduced in several European and West African Countries.
155805		threats	eng	No reported or&#160;perceptible&#160;threats to this species.
155806		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Surveys over next few years in adjacent springs should be conducted to assess whether the species should be confirmed as Extinct.
155806		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) (Bank <em>et al. </em>Fauna European, 2006). It was only known from the spring at Studenicista <span color="blue"> (Bej Bunar) near Lake Ohrid (Radoman 1985).&#160;&#160;</span></p><sup> </sup>
155806		habitat	eng	The species lived on stones in a freshwater spring with a constant temperature of   11<sup>o</sup>C.
155806		population	eng	Recent surveys in 2009 did not find any individuals of this species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009)
155806		threats	eng	<p>This species had a restricted range and was extirpated from the   type locality when site was destroyed due to road construction (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., pers. comm<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009).<br/></p>
155807		conservation	eng	There are   no actions in place for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended. The species is listed as Least Concern in Italy (CKMap 5.3.8) and
155807		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> is widespread in central  and western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region> and known in at least 12 locations in the region of <st1:state w:st="on">Friuli-Venezia Giulia</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region></st1:place>. (Bodon & Giovannelli, 1993). (CK Map 5.3.8).                                  Not a range restricted species, although present in small area (extent of occurrence 150 km x 150 km).
155807		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> inhabits cave groundwaters from 5-200 m ASL, and can be found in outflow from springs.
155807		population	eng	The population trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> are unknown.
155807		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> is threatened by loss of springs and pollution of the underlying groundwater systems from agricultural pollution. Other threats that may impact groundwaters include the pumping of drinking water for the villages and towns. Longer term threats are the potential degradation of habitats following changes to rainfall patterns causing changes to groundwater recharge.
155808		conservation	eng	The conservation actions for this species are unknown. Research is needed to determine the real distribution and population trends of this species, and to resolve taxonomic issues.
155808		distribution	eng	This species is currently in need of taxonomic review as some authors considered this to be a form of the widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia ventrosa </span>(Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Caspiohydrobia convexa</span> is found in the Southern Caspian Sea, estuarine areas of the Black and Azov seas, and in the Aral Sea between 0-10 m (Golikov and Starobogatov 1966, Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Andreeva 1987).&#160; Its type locality is Great Kirov Bay, Caspian Sea (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <br/><br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Caspiohydrobia eichwaldiana</span> is found in the Southern Caspian Sea, and the limans of the Black and Azov seas between 0-35 m (Golikov and Starobogatov 1966, Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).&#160; Its type locality was Odessa. Some authors considered this to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia ventrosa</span> (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <st1:place w:st="on">Son (pers. comm., 2009) suggests that </st1:place>only dead shells were found in the estuarine Kujalnik Liman (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>) and also in Don estuarine system (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>).
155808		habitat	eng	The habitats for this species are unknown.
155808		population	eng	The population trends for this species are unknown.
155808		threats	eng	In some areas there is evidence of changing salinities and damning on the river, but these threats are not impacting the majority of the populations. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>
155809		conservation	eng	<p>This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Bole 1988, Bole 1992; Sket and Velkovrh 2002).</p>
155809		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europea for Croatia and Slovenia. Schutt (1974) described this species from the springs near Kostanjevica, 4 0km west of Zagreb, Slovenia (not Croatia as cited by Schutt), and as such the Croatian record seems to be doubtful.   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
155809		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Karst groundwaters in caves and outflow springs.
155809		population	eng	No population trend data is available on this species.
155809		threats	eng	The major threats to the species lie in groundwater pollution and overabstraction.
155810		conservation	eng	As this species is suspected to be extinct, a specific survey should be conducted.
155810		distribution	eng	This spring-snail is endemic to Germany, where it is only known from Baden-Wurttemberg (Treffelhausen, Bissingen und Neidlingen) (Gloer 2002), where it is now considered possibly extinct (Falkner and Niederhofer 2008). Originally this species was recorded from 3 sites in Germany. Falkner and Niederhofer (2008) note that this species was described by G<span id="result_box" class="long_text">eyer 1904 from a few sites, a freshwater spring in the Treffelhausen (<span id="result_box" class="long_text">south of the city), another spring at Bissingen and a third&#160; in Gernhardsberg at Neidlingen and another in a side valley at Treffelhausen. However it is now not found in recent surveys in the region.</span>
155810		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater snail, living in subterranean waters and only seen in outflow at springs, where it has rarely been recorded.
155810		population	eng	This species is possibly extinct as there have been no recent records.
155810		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water extraction maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155811		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acroloxus tetensi </span>was listed as Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species, which Slapnik (pers. comm 2010) suggested equated to Vulnerable (VU D2). Conservation actions include monitoring changes in habitat at known sites, as the monitoring data will provide a proxy for decline of the species, as well as the other freshwater molluscs found at theses sites. Confirmation of the presence of this species in Italy will increase the number of known sites, which may change the conservation assessment.
155811		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is found in the River Krka. The sources of the river Krka are fed by water that flows underground from the broad karst hinterland of the Grosuplje basin. There is a recent record from Italy, believed to be this species (de Mattia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Museum of Natural History of Trieste).<br/><p></p>
155811		habitat	eng	This species clings to rocks within fast flowing water in caves.
155811		population	eng	There are no data on population decline levels.
155811		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats where it lives are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) and agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicides and pesticides) sources. Seasonal droughts impacting water levels in the river maybe become more frequent. <br/></p>
155812		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however, there is a lack of knowledge in taxonomy, distribution and population trends.
155812		distribution	eng	There is no data on the current range for this species, although it is listed for Bosnia and Herzegovina.
155812		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat of this species.
155812		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
155812		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155813		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action for this species.
155813		distribution	eng	<em>Palacanthilhiopsis margritae</em> is known only from the type locality in department Ardèche, southern France.
155813		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155813		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species.
155813		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water extraction maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited degrading habitats. However, this region of France is relatively free of human pressure.
155814		conservation	eng	In most countries this species is not considered to be of conservation interest. In Ireland, it was assessed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).&#160; In Great Britain, although it has declined in the Midlands and the north, it is considered to be stable and listed as Least Concern (Seddon and&#160; Killeen pers. comm. 2010).In Austria and Sweden it is considered as Category 3 (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).&#160; Research is needed to establish the taxonomic status of the different populations of this species.
155814		conservation	eng	This species is Near Threatened on the Czech Republic Red List (although a synonym, <em>A. septemgyratus</em>, is Critically Endangered (Farkac <em>et al. </em>2005)) and Data Deficient on Sweden's Red List (Gärdenfors 2005). In Estonia, it was assessed as Rare using non-IUCN criteria (Lilleleht 1998).
155814		distribution	eng	<p>This Palaearctic species is widespread in Europe recorded to 63°N in Sweden (Kerney 1999) where it is abundant in suitable habitats as defined by Glöer & Meier-Brook (2008). In Europe the range includes Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Northern Ireland (UK), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Netherlands, Belgium Luxembourg France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Spain (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Greece (mainland) and Greece (Kriti; Crete). In Asia it is recorded eastwards to the left bank of the Lena and Nizniya Tunguska Rivers (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and south to Mediterranean Turkey (Sereflisan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and northern Iran (Mansoorian 2000).<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
155814		distribution	eng	This species has a Euro-West Siberian distribution (Michalik-Kucharz 2008), from the UK eastwards to the left bank of the Lena and Nizniya Tunguska Rivers (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009), including Mediterranean Turkey (Sereflisan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and northern Iran (Mansoorian 2000).<br/><br/>In Europe it is recorded to 63°N in  Sweden (Kerney 1999) where it is abundant in suitable habitats as  defined by Glöer & Meier-Brook (2008). In Europe the range includes  Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,  Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Northern  Ireland (UK), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Netherlands,  Belgium Luxembourg France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland,  Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy  (mainland), Spain (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Greece  (mainland) and Greece (Kriti; Crete).<br/><br/>A synonymous species, <em>A. septemgyratus</em>, occurs in southern Europe, the Baltic sea basin, and the Black Sea maritime area to Altai, Russia (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
155814		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow temporary waterbodies (Kantor<em> et al. </em>2009), including lakes where it is found on shallow soft ground (Sereflisan <em>et al. </em>2009).<br/>This snail is host to a number of trematode species, including <em>Australapatemon burti</em>, <em>A. minor</em>, <em>Gigantobilharzia suebica </em>and <em>Echinoparyphium pseudorecurvatum</em> (Faltynkova <em>et al. </em>2008).
155814		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of different water bodies, including lakes, canals, ponds, ditches, temporary water bodies than dry out intermittently (e.g. periodically flooded fields), and sandy banks of rivers (Kerney 1999). It is mostly found in stagnant periodic waters in low and middle altitudes. In Great Britain it is a lowland river species mainly found in hard water areas.
155814		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about population trends available. This is a widespread species with relatively stable populations.
155814		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally abundant, for example, in Lake Gölbaşı, Turkey, where densities of up to 1,500 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> have been recorded (Sereflisan <em>et al.</em> 2009). In some areas it is less common, for example, in Poland it was recorded as "rare and vulnerable" in the Silesian Upland and Polish Jura regions, occurring only sporadically (Michalik-Kucharz 2008).
155814		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species throughout its range, although some populations have shown local declines due to human activities e.g. drainage of suitable habitat (Michalik-Kucharz 2008). In Estonia, this species was listed as Rare due to habitat alteration (channelization, dredging, water level regulation) and degradation (eutrophication) (Lilleleht 1998).
155814		threats	eng	The species is abundant where present and tolerant of drying out and hence survives in a wide range of habitats. However there are localized declines noted in many countries, due to changes in land management practices, usually conversion of marshy ground to agricultural lands (Kerney 1999) and changes in the water regime.
155815		conservation	eng	More research on the species taxonomy is recommended.
155815		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Although the species is tolerant to habitat change (salinity), it is at most risk from water over-abstraction and, as such, education/communication programmes are required for this and other freshwater species in the region. <br/><p>More research on the species taxonomy and distributional surveys are recommended.&#160; The species was assessed as Data Deficient for the Spanish Red List (<span lang="EN-US">Verdú and Galante 2009).</p>
155815		conservation	eng	This species is protected within Ein Gedi Nature Reserve (Heller and Abotol 1997). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155815		distribution	eng	There is still much debate about the distribution of this species as a result of uncertainty about the taxonomic placement of the various morphs of this species. However, the species is widespread and is distributed throughout the Mediterranen, the Middle East and North Africa. It has been collected from the Segura River watershed, Spain (Velasco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), Iran (Farahnak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006),  Ein Gedi Nature Reserve, Irsael (Heller and Abotbol 1997) and Morroco (Mouahid<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1992).
155815		distribution	eng	This is a Circum-Mediterranean species that in northern Africa is present in, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its type locality is in southern Europe.
155815		distribution	eng	This species is now considered restricted to Spain (Bank <em>et al</em>. 2006) where it has been recorded from the southern slope of the Andalucia, Sierra Morena and the Betic Cordilleras to Valencia.&#160; In Anadalucia, most of the known locations are distributed in the Guadaira river and its tributaries in the province of Seville, and the Guadalquivir river basin in the province of Huelva in upper parts of the river and even ditches. According to <span lang="EN-US">Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008), the species has disappeared from the type locality (aqueduct of Sevilla) and its surroundings.
155815		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis praemorsa</span> is found in rivers, lakes, springs and is tolerant to higher levels of salinity compared to other freshwater species.
155815		habitat	eng	The genus <em> Melanopsis</em> is known to occur in agricultural canals, ponds, streams, swamps, ditches (Farahnak et al. 2006), lakes, rivers and springs (Heller and Abotbol 1997).
155815		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater, medium sized species that lives in small and medium shallow streams on stony surfaces. It is rarely found on standing waters.
155815		population	eng	No information available.
155815		population	eng	The genus <em>Melanopsis</em> has been described as abundant in highly oxygenated and marginal surface water of agricultural canals (Farahnak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Furthermore, this genus is said to be abundant in lakes, rivers and springs of the Middle East, and is sometimes correlated with high decomposition rates of <em>Phragmites</em> leaves (Heller and Abotbol 1997).
155815		population	eng	This species is abundant where present.
155815		threats	eng	Freshwater ecosystems within the Mediterranean and North Africa are impacted by many threat processes such as agriculture, over-exploitation of groundwater, construction of dams and water transfer schemes, pollution of surface and groundwater and degradation through recreational activities and development (de Stefano 2004). <br/><br/>Spain in particular has the highest number of dams per capita in the world and several water scheme transfers (de Stefano 2004). Furthermore, freshwater ecosystems within Spain are affected by invasive species, aquaculture and fishing (Elvira and Almodovar 2001).
155815		threats	eng	No major conservation threats are known to the species.
155815		threats	eng	No major conservation threats are known to the species&#160; However the species has been lost from some of the sites in the region due to ‘water flow management’ for irrigation of crops and extraction of water of domestic supplies.
155816		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Surveys for this species would be recommended to determine the presence continues in this cave system and monitoring of the groundwater quality to determine changes in biotope condition.
155816		distribution	eng	<em>Lanzaia bosnica</em> is restricted to&#160;Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fauna Europea, Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Radoman (1983)&#160; noted that although it was described from source of the Dabra River (about 6-8km south of Sanski Most) and nearby Dabarska pećina .
155816		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater karstic groundwaters (and emergent springs in cave).
155816		population	eng	No recent data on population status is available.
155816		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are not known. Although the species is apparently restricted to a single catchment, the current condition of the biotope at the cave is considered unpolluted (Z. Feher pers. comm. 2010) and as such there is no reason to consider that this species is threatened.
155817		conservation	eng	&#160;No specific conservation measures are known for this species. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. minuscula</span> was listed as Data Deficient for Italy. This species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.
155817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the appeninic regions of Marche, Umbria, Molise and Campania, where it is known from 9 widely scattered locations.
155817		habitat	eng	This species occurs in springs and groundwaters. It feeds using raspers.
155817		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
155817		threats	eng	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000). It is also found in spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).
155818		conservation	eng	In most countries this species is not considered to be of conservation interest. No species specific conservation actions are in place. In Ireland, it was assessed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). &#160;In Great Britain, it was listed as Least Concern, as the species is currently stable (Seddon and Killeen, pers. comm., 2010). In the Netherlands it is also considered to be Least Concern, and it is not listed  as a threatened species in the other Red Lists ( Poland, Norway, Sweden,  Finland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Estonia Latvia, Spain). Research actions include: further research to establish population and habitat trends and monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
155818		distribution	eng	This is a palearctic species found throughout the region to 65°N (Kerney 1999). Declines have been observed in parts of the range (e.g. Portugal, Sweden), but these are at the margins of the distribution in Europe. In the former USSR, the range extends to Ural River, western Siberia  plain, eastward to Altai and to Transcaucasia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In the Mediterranean region there are no records south of Turkey, with no reports from Jordan, Syria or Lebanon, but there is a recent record, which is believed to be an introduction in Israel, possibly by migrating waterfowl or possibly with introduced plants (Miensis 2007)
155818		habitat	eng	This species is tolerant of mild pollution and is found in a wide variety of different water bodies, including lakes, rivers, pools, canals, ponds, swampy ditches and avoids places with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999). It is usually found amongst aquatic vegetation (weeds) and on bottom mud. It doesn't require a high level of calcium. In Great Britain it is often the most abundant species in rivers and streams in upland areas (Kerney 1999).
155818		population	eng	In parts of the range, it can be the most abundant species in the habitat.
155818		threats	eng	No known threats to the species and it is tolerant to low levels of pollution. There are some localized declines due to changes in land management practices, usually conversion of marshy ground to agricultural lands or heavy pollution  .
155819		conservation	eng	It is currently listed as Data Deficient, following the decision of Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (in Verdú & Galante, 2009), who considered it as Data Deficient for Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España (Especies en peligro crítico y en peligro).Research is needed regariding its population and distribution, and to potential threats to the groundwater habitat.
155819		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, where it is known only a single locality in the province of Burgos.</p>  <ul><li>Berberane, Murite, Cueva      de Murita, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN 951532), Temporal effluent from      a cave</li></ul>
155819		habitat	eng	Known only from interstitial water within a cave.
155819		population	eng	No data is available for this species.
155819		threats	eng	The level of threats for this groundwater system are unknown.
155821		conservation	eng	In the U.K it is proposed as Near Threatened (NT). The future prospects are possibly good if water quality improves under the Water Framework Directive, but some decline is likely through the loss of habitat as a result of water course management.<br/>In Slovakia the species is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) (Nagel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), as in the Czech Republic (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), where there is protection of the one site where the species is still known to be present. There is likely to be species introduction to suitable sites in the future in this country.<br/><br/>Although sometimes locally rare, this species has a widespread distribution and no conservation actions are required on a species scale at present.
155821		distribution	eng	This is a European species, mostly occurring in northern Europe as far north as southern Scandinavia and stretching to Ukraine, Ireland and Italy (Castagnolo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980, Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Korniushin 1996). In the Czech Republic it is known from only two localities (in 1976), but in 1996 it was recorded only at one site. It is sporadically distributed in the northern and southern parts of Germany. In the United Kingdom this is a locally distributed species found principally in southern and eastern England: the Somerset Levels, Pevensey Levels, Romney Marsh, Kent Levels, East Anglian Broads and Marshes, and occasionally elsewhere (Kerney 1999).
155821		habitat	eng	The species occurs mostly in shallow waters. It is a lowland species that is sometimes a common component in drains and ditches on grazing marsh complexes but is found occasionally in larger drains and ponds. It occurs in richly vegetated, swampy habitats with clean, standing water and a muddy substrate.
155821		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about population available. In the U.K there have been a significant number of new records in the past 10 years as a result of detailed surveys of grazing marsh complexes particularly for other Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) molluscs (e.g. <em>Segmentina nitida</em>, <em>Anisus vorticulus</em>) (Kerney 1999). There is sufficient evidence to indicate that, at present, the species may be increasing within its current range which supports the preferred habitat, although not necessarily outside this range.
155821		threats	eng	The species is threatened by land drainage and pollution, eutrophication, water abstraction, changes in agricultural practice, destruction and infilling of pools, and so on.&#160;<br/>In the U.K the richly vegetated swampy drainage ditch habitat that the species is found in is the sort of habitat that is particularly subject to dredging and clearing often for conservation of other invertebrates which may not necessarily be appropriate for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pseudosphaerium</span> and other molluscs which require these habitats. The future prospects are possibly good if water quality improves under  the Water Framework Directive, but some decline is likely through the  loss of habitat as a result of water course management.
155822		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this  species needs to be checked as the local experts  are not sure about the  exact name nor the distribution if it is a valid  taxon.
155822		distribution	eng	Although this species is listed for Bulgaria, the taxonomy of this species needs to be checked as the local experts are not sure about the exact name nor the distribution if it is a valid taxon.
155822		habitat	eng	Unknown.
155822		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
155822		threats	eng	Unknown.
155823		conservation	eng	Further research is required to establish the status of this species.
155823		distribution	eng	This recently described species is only known only from the type locality, "Source de la Grozonne" in the Department of Jura, France. The type specimens are from the Germain collection in Paris Museum (early 20th century) and as such, the status of the species is uncertain, as it has not been recollected since first collection.
155823		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species living in karstic waters.
155823		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155823		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
155824		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species. It was viewed as category 3 in Germany (Glöer & Meier-Brook 2003).
155824		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Europe, where it is recorded from Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Montenegro, Ukraine and Greece.<br/><br/>The Global range extends from Europe, to southern Siberia eastward to Baikal Lake (Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
155824		habitat	eng	This species is found in ponds, ditches, and in quiet slow-flowing canals and rivers, usually in the shallower parts amongst the water weeds.
155824		population	eng	There is no Europe wide data showing decline, although there are localised declines, it is considered stable over Europe.
155824		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. There are likely to be localised declines due to habitat loss and water pollution but these are not thought to be impacting the species at the European Level.
155825		conservation	eng	Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>&#160;(2000) considered the species to be Least Concern in the Italian Red List.&#160;No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155825		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia piristoma</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically located in the appenninic regions of Tuscany, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna.
155825		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia piristoma</span> is usually found in the groundwaters within rocks.
155825		population	eng	No population data is known for the species  <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia piristoma.</span>
155825		threats	eng	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2000).
155826		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Surveys to attempt to increase the known range are advised as at present the species is known from just one locality. This site requires research into the level of threat to the species through habitat monitoring. If no further sites are found this site may require protection and sensitive management.
155826		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a large spring at Majerovo vrelo in the Gacko polje (Radoman 1983) in Croatia (not the Gatacko Polje as stated by Gloer and Pesic (2010) which lies in Bosnia and Hercegovina close to the border with Monte Negro).
155826		habitat	eng	This species has been found in freshwater springs.
155826		population	eng	There is no population trend information for this species.
155826		threats	eng	Current knowledge suggests this species is only present at a single site, and hence is vulnerable to stochastic and human events such as drying out of the spring due to drought or changing groundwater conditions leading to loss of water, or pollution of water feeding the spring. The location is also exploited as a tourist destination, which adds to the potential threats to the habitat.
155827		conservation	eng	The springs in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) are part of a Protected Area (Galicica National Park).&#160; Monitoring of changing water quality at these sites is recommended in order to determine future changes to the status of the species.
155827		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia gjorgjevici</span> is endemic to freshwater habitats in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Albania.&#160; It is found in a small lake near St Naum and   Tusemista (St Naum,   Tušemišta ; Radoman 1985) adjacent to Lake Ohrid and but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment.
155827		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to springs in the south of Lake Ohrid and is mainly found on stones near the outflow of the spring.
155827		population	eng	Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (pers. comm. 2009)   noted this is found only in a few locations and where it is found it occurs in low abundance.
155827		threats	eng	<p>The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism and other recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water.   Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the waters of Prespa Lake, which&#160; feeds the aquifer of these springs<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load to springs fed in the Lake Ohrid catchment (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>
155828		conservation	eng	In many countries this species is considered to be localised and in decline, so as a consequence, has been listed as threatened although no species specific conservation actions are known to be in place. In Ireland, it was assessed as Endangered based on loss of over 50% of the populations over the last 30 years (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Great Britain it was listed as Near Threatened, as the species has a scattered range with loss of some sites in central England (M. Seddon and&#160; I. Killeen pers. comm. 2010). In the Czech Republic (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and Norway it was listed as Vulnerable (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).&#160; In the Netherlands and Sweden it was listed as Endangered. In Germany and Switzerland it was listed as Category 1 (Highly Endangered) (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Slovakia it is listed as Rare (Steffek and Vavrova 2006, Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
155828		conservation	eng	No information available.
155828		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation strategies in place for this species. In Slovakia, it is considered Vulnerable (Nagel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006); in the Czech Republic, Near Threatened (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Further information on population trends and specific threat impacts is required, specifically for the Eastern ranges, as the species may become a candidate for a Near Threatened listing in the future based on better population data. Because of the threat of pollution (e.g. from agricultural run-off), habitat monitoring should be carried out.
155828		distribution	eng	A Palaearctic species found throughout region to north of the Arctic circle (Kerney 1999). The distribution is very scattered with few localities in many states. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) report the species from Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia, Ukraine, Greece (mainland possibly including Andikíthira Island , Evvia Island, Ionian Islands, Samothráki Island, Northern Sporades Islands and Thásos Island)
155828		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy and limited distribution throughout Central and Eastern Europe, Northern Italy, Spain, Finland and beyond the Arctic Circle and Iceland (Van Damme pers.comm. 2011). Recent anatomical studies (Ghamizi 1998) have confirmed the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. laevis</span> in the Maghreb.<br/><br/>In Britain, no general decline has been  observed as it is partly relict, and partly due to its ability to colonise new artificial habitats. In Norway, it is only known from two locations; it is  extinct in Sweden, critically endangered in Germany and Switzerland,  endangered in Tirol, vulnerable in Austria and Poland, rare in Czech  Republic, Denmark and Norway (Whelter-Schultes 2010).
155828		distribution	eng	This species is widespread paleartic species, also occurring in Morocco (Ghamizi 1998) and possibly Algeria (Bourguignat 1864) but these records are considered doubtful as they date from the 19th century. It is almost certainly no longer in Algeria. Retreating northwards, it is restricted to five locations in mid-Atlas in dayets, a type of small lake found in Morocco left over from glaciation, with fluctuating water levels with rainfall.
155828		habitat	eng	It is found in good quality clear waters with slow flow or stagnant, on the borders of lakes in the vegetated area.
155828		habitat	eng	This species lives in shallow, slow flowing waters, rivers, lakes and ponds, usually found on weeds, but sometimes on muddy bottoms and on stones. It can be found in artificial habitats such as gravel pits, quarries, reservoirs and fish ponds and occasionally in canals and ditches. It tolerates high levels of eutrophication and slightly brackish water (Farkač <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005<span style="font-style: italic;">). </span>It is quite often found in sunny areas in freshwater to oligohaline waters.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>This is a short-lived species, so that generation length is not going to exceed five years (M. Seddon pers. comm. 2012).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
155828		habitat	eng	This species lives in slow flowing waters, such as rivers, lakes and ponds, where it is usually found on weeds, but sometimes on muddy bottoms and on stones. It avoids places with with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999). It can be found in artificial habitats such as gravel pits, quarries, reservoirs and fish ponds. It is occasionally found in canals and ditches. It tolerates high level of eutrophication and slightly brackish water, and so has been found in sand dune pools (Kerney 1999).
155828		population	eng	No information available.
155828		population	eng	On the whole, the population trend of this species is declining. This is generally a  relatively rare and scattered species, even though populations in western Europe may be locally more abundant (Whelter-Schultes 2010). <br/><br/>In the Netherlands, populations have become rare and localised and only abundant in two locations (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Population reduction of this species exceeds 50% in the Netherlands, where according to Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) it is still relatively more abundant than in the surrounding countries. Little is known about the status of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in Russia (including Siberia). <br/><br/>Most of the decline is likely to have occurred between the 1950s and 1980s, when water pollution and habitat modification was at its peak. With this being a short-lived species, the decline curve is believed to have flattened over the past three generations. However, declines may still occur due to the widespread type of threat (agricultural pollution) (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2010).
155828		population	eng	The population trend of this species is declining. This is generally a relatively rare species, even though in the western part of its range, it might be locally more abundant. In Germany it is not abundant on its sites and in Czech Republic and Slovakia it is considered rare.
155828		threats	eng	Since this species is a typical lowland species, threats such as  pollution from agricultural run-off can be assumed to affect the species  over its whole range, and is likely to contribute to past and current declines. Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) cite dessication, sanitation of ditches and pollution as the three major threats in the Netherlands.
155828		threats	eng	The species is very localized across its range in Europe and there are localized declines due to changes in land management practices, usually the loss of temporary habitats, drainage of marshy ground to increase agricultural lands or heavy pollution close to large urban centres.
155828		threats	eng	Threats to this species include; pollution from sheep grazing, abstraction of water from dayets for cultivation and irrigation, and the introduction of carp which eats molluscs and mollusc eggs. In the dayets where carp is present, only large snails are found.
155830		conservation	eng	This species and its habitat should be monitored
155830		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is only known from the type locality, "Fontaine de LaBatte, Lagorce (Ardèche)".
155830		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155830		population	eng	<br/> There is no population data available for this species.
155830		threats	eng	Although detailed threats to the species are unknown, the likely threats will be pollution of the groundwaters from agricultural sources and overabstraction of groundwater.
155831		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155831		distribution	eng	The distributional data is lacking on this species, as in many cases the country may not yet recognise the species. It occurs in the south of Germany<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Sweden and Norway, and probably has a wider distribution, but there is insufficient data to map the range of this species. According to Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) this species is widely scattered in Europe, where it is recorded from Norway, Sweden, Latvia, Poland, Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Romania, Spain (mainland), Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Croatia, Ukraine and Greece.
155831		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of freshwater types, for example found in the upper parts of river catchments near the springs, and in swampy woodland in Scandinavia.
155831		population	eng	&#160;There is no Europe wide data showing decline, although there are localised declines, it is considered stable over Europe.
155831		threats	eng	This species is not considered to be threatened across the range, but it may well be sensitive to eutrophication, so there maybe localised declines.
155832		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place, but part of the range lies within a Natura 2000 site, which should ensure water quality is maintained. More research is needed on taxonomy,&#160; population tends and threats.
155832		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it was originally described from floodline debris of the river Lez (Department   Herault) It is considered to be endemic to the Lez drainage basin. Falkner <em>et al.</em> (2002)   suggested three possible sites; the resurgences along the bed of the River   Lez, springs at Cauquillade, Aniane, Department Herault; Moulin de St   Guilherm-le-Desert. This species is possibly extinct, as it has not been found in recent years (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The EOO is estimated as 49 km<sup>2</sup>, based on observed data from two sites, both fed by the same groundwater source.&#160; There are no records in northern part of the Lez catchment, despite active recording, and no records in southern part, which contains Montepellier, and hence little pristine habitat.
155832		habitat	eng	According to Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002), <span style="font-style: italic;">B. eutrepha</span> should be restricted to the Lez catchment, where it was living in subterranean waters.
155832		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, but it is suspected to be now extinct.
155832		threats	eng	The main threat is from urban encroachment leading to decline in quality of habitat, but other threats in part of the range include water pollution from vineyards (pesticides and herbicides), water pollution from domestic sources (sewage and run-off) and water abstraction for domestic and agricultural purposes.
155833		conservation	eng	There are currently no known conservation actions, however further  surveys to determine the  geographical range of this species and threats are recommended.
155833		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently only known from the type locality, a freshwater spring at Zaspi-Iturieta, Amezqueta, Guipúzcoa in northern Spain.
155833		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155833		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155833		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown, although possible threats include over-exploitation of water sources and pollution of groundwater.
155834		conservation	eng	A taxonomic review of the species limits is  required to establish species limits and review the geographical range. In the mean time, known sites should be under habitat monitoring to ensure that known populations do not decline due to poor spring management.
155834		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella simoniana</span> is endemic to France, where it has an wide range in the central and eastern Pyrenees, with recent records from Haute-Pyrennees, Haute-Garonne, Ariege and Aude. However, the number of springs where it has been confirmed are not large (less than 10), although it is possible that identification issues and lack of detailed recording may hinder the mapping of this species. A current map is available on INPN (Inventaire national du Patrimoine naturel) (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle [Ed] 2003-2010).
155834		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in freshwater springs, but has also been recorded from underground rivers.
155834		population	eng	This species is found in low numbers at most sites (1 to 25 individuals). The current population trend is unknown.
155834		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by the disturbance of the springs, through habitat degradation (to improve the spring for exploitation), overexploitation of the spring (leading to drying during summer periods) and from pollution of the groundwaters feeding the spring.&#160; However detailed threats to the species are unknown across the range
155835		conservation	eng	Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta</span> is listed as Endangered under B2ab(iii,iv) on the Irish Red List (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and as Endangered on the Red List of Malta (under pre-1994 criteria) (Schembri and Sultana 1989). Further research is required into the population trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta</span> elsewhere throughout its range.
155835		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions known for this species and none are considered necessary at a European level. The subpecies&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta</span> is listed as Endangered under B2ab(iii,iv) on the Irish Red List (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) and there are proposed conservation actions where marine developments threat the species.
155835		distribution	eng	Fauna Europaea&#160; (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) give the species a more restricted range, with countries listed as:&#160;  France (Mainland), Italy (Mainland), Sardinia (Italy) Sicily (Italy), Malta, Bulgaria, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (Mainland), Croatia, Ukraine, where it is found on the Mediterranean coastal lagoons and estuaries and treated <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta</span> as a separate species from <span style="font-style: italic;">H. acuta. </span>However Wilke<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al </span>(2001)s show <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta</span> is conspecific which extends the range to the Atlantic coasts, with records from Iceland, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), France (Mainland).&#160; It&#160; is also found in the Sea of Azov, Black Sea and western Russia (Selifonova 2008).
155835		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sea of Azov, Black Sea and western Russia (Selifonova 2008). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. acuta</span> is distributed throughout the western Mediterranean, whilst subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta</span> has a scattered distribution across the eastern English Channel, North Sea, Baltic Sea and Norwegian Sea (Wilke and Pfenninger 2002).
155835		habitat	eng	The species occurs in coastal lagoons and brackish water habitats along the estuaries of the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines.
155835		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow brackish and saline coastal lagoons and estuaries, and in the littoral zones of inland seas (Britton 1985<em></em>, Pantazidou <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is a deposit feeding herbivore, and occurs on aquatic macrophytes, sandy and muddy substrates (Koutsoubas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Evagelopoulos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
155835		population	eng	This species is described as abundant in salt water lagoons (Britton 1985, Koutsoubas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), however <span style="font-style: italic;">H. a. neglecta </span>is known to be undergoing large localised declines in Ireland and has suffered large population losses, particularly in Northern Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The maximum density of 6,000 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> was found in a hypersaline lagoon in the Camargue (France) (Britton 1985).
155835		population	eng	This species is often abundant when present, and not considered to be declining.
155835		threats	eng	Localised threats to this species include lagoonal salination, organic pollution, land reclamation and infilling of coastal habitats (Oliver 2007).
155835		threats	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitats and not considered to be threatened across the range, although there will be localised threats due to harbour developments and other developments which lead to habitat loss across the range.
155836		conservation	eng	All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia. The status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.<br/>The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). <br/>This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.<p><br/></p>
155836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia and Slovenia. In Croatia it lives in the subterranean waters and springs at Tounjčica, Rudnica, Mrežnica with all three sites in the same catchment. There are also comments that it is found in the North-West of Croatia, however this is not a karst country (B. Jalzic pers. comm. 2009), so this requires confirmation.
155836		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subterranean waters and springs
155836		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155836		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155837		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species.
155837		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, where it is found in central and eastern parts of Asturias and with several populations in León. </p>    <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Puente de San Martinen, Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ20), spring</p><p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Town council of Gardo, baselgas, Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ30)</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; SE entrance to Campo de Caso, Province Asturias (UTM grid square UN80), spring</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; N entrance to San Andrés, Province Asturias (UTM grid square TP50), spring with trough</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; About 500 m S. Uphill Villamejin, Province Asturias (UTM grid square TN59), spring</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Pedroveya, Province Asturias (UTM grid square TN59), brooks and springs between 100 and 900 m away</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; N. Entrance to Tabladiello, Province Asturias (UTM grid square TP72), brook</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 6.5km N. Of Berrón, Province Asturias (UTM grid square TP81), spring with trough</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Between Balbordón and Quintana, 1.2 km from La Colla, Province Asturias (UTM grid square TP81), trough</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; S. Entrance to Campo de Caso, Province Asturias UTM grid square UN80), spring with trough</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; S. Entrance to Liberdón, Province Asturias (UTM grid square UP11), spring with pool</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Between Puertas and Colombres, 1km from Noriega, Province Asturias (UTM grid square UP70), spring with river</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Between La Magdalena and barrios de Luna, opposite electricity station, Province León (UTM grid square TN64), on wet rock</p>
155837		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and brooks.
155837		population	eng	No information on population trends.
155837		threats	eng	There are potential threats to this species from over-abstraction of water depleting the groundwater feeding the springs, as well as habitat degradation  of the springs.
155838		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is widespread but local in the Appenninic regions of Abruzzo, Marche, Campania and Lazio.&#160; It is known from at least 26 locations in the region,
155838		habitat	eng	This species inhabits spring waters where it feeds using scrapers.
155838		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155838		threats	eng	This species inhabits spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155839		conservation	eng	Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) considered the species to be category 1 Threatened Species in the region in Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155839		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum clessini</em> is endemic to Germany, where it was described from 'Schönthal Württembergiae in alluviis Jagst fluminis' (Falkner and Niederhof 2008). There are two subspecies currently recognised. One from Schöntal (Jagstgenist) and the other from Backnang (Maubach) in Germany (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008). <em><br/></em>
155839		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters. It is believed to be declining due to groundwater pollution.
155839		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008).
155839		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155840		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. More research is needed relating to the distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
155840		distribution	eng	<p>This species was segregated from <span style="font-style: italic;">V. ventrosa</span> by Boeters (1988). Boeters and&#160;Beckmann (2007) provided additional records from Mallorca (S'Illot, S'Albufera) and from Menorca (Cala Torta).&#160;</p>
155840		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown.
155840		population	eng	The population trends for this species are unknown.
155840		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155841		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in the UK Red Data Book and is a priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) (Bratton 1991, Omerod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is also Critically Endangered on the Red List of Molluscs of the Czech Republic (Farkač <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Further research is recommended into the species population trends, life history and threats.
155841		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in the UK Red Data Book and is a  priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) (Ormerod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is  also Critically Endangered on the Red List of Molluscs of the Czech  Republic (Farkač <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), Endangered in the Netherlands (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) and Category 2 in Germany. Further research is recommended into the  species population trends, life history and biology.
155841		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographical range but has a localised occurrence. This species is widespread across northern and eastern Europe  (Faltýnkova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) report the  species from: Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,  Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands,  Belgium, Luxembourg (presence uncertain), France (Mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria,  Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Ukraine and Greece  (Mainland).
155841		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across northern and eastern Europe (Faltýnkova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but its distribution is very patchy (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011). Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) report the species from Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria (northern Tirol, Ober- and Niederösterreich), Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Ukraine and Greece (Mainland). It has also been found in Anatolia (Ustaoğlu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
155841		habitat	eng	This hermaphroditic species inhabits a wide variety of ecosystems, including marshland, alluvial river flats, marshy littoral areas of lakes, smaller waterbodies with sufficient aquatic vegetation, temporary waters, reservoirs and marshland drainage channels (Watson and Ormerod 2004, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Faltynkova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It prefers a muddy substrate throughout most of its distribution, apart from in Turkey and Spain where it is found under stones in highland brooks (Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It is sensitive to reduction in dissolved oxygen concentration (Zettler, 2000). <br/><br/>The species feeds on Aufwuchs (Van Damme pers. comm. 2011), and adults often die following reproduction (semelparous), however this species' life history and biology is not well known (Faltynkova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
155841		habitat	eng	This species lives in wetland habitats including rivers, canals, oxbows and dykes. Ormerod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) note that sites dominated by floating vegetation are occupied by this species.
155841		population	eng	This species has been described as common within aquatic systems in Northern and Eastern Europe (Faltynkova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, in western Europe the habitats have been in decline for the last 50 years, and overall the European population is recorded as widespread but declining (Wells and Chatfield 1992).
155841		population	eng	This species has been described as common within aquatic systems in Northern and Eastern Europe (Faltynkova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Overall, the population is recorded as 'widespread but declining' (Wells and Chatfield 1992). The following contains some more specific country by country information on its population status, where available.<br/><br/>In the United Kingdom, of the six areas the species was recorded in since the 1970s, it has gone in two and populations have decreased in all the remaining ones (Willing 2001).<br/><br/>In the Netherlands, the species is restricted to a few locations in the eastern part of the country (Gittenberger 2011).<br/><br/>In Sweden, it is restricted to the southern part of the country (Skåne, Jämtland, Öland; von Proschwitz & Bjelke 2008).<br/><br/>In Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Germany (mainly in the northern part of the Lowlands), Lithuania and Luxemburg, the species has a scattered distribution (Zettler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011), and the same can be said for the population in Bohemia, Czech Republic.<br/><br/>In the Russian Federation, Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) list the species as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cincinna macrostoma</span> (Steenbuch in Mörch) and state that it occurs in Europe, but do not give any record from the Russian Federation. In older literature, the species under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata (Tropidina) pulchella</span> is mentioned from the whole northern part of the European USSR (from Kaliningrad over Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania east to the Leningrad region and Finnish USSR, as well in the waters of the Black Sea basin, Volga, Cniester, Dnieper and Don basins, the Caspian Sea basin and Violga and Ural basins, the Arctic basin, Kola peninsula, lakes in the Baikal region, Lena basin, Pacific basin and Amur basin (Zhadin 1952).<br/><br/>In Belarus, the species was only found in three samples of the 30 macrobenthic sampling stations investigated in the Pripyat River near Turov (Oosterbaan 2001). It can be assumed as rare.<br/><br/>In Turkey, the species has been recorded in a few localities in European as well as in Asian Turkey (Yildirim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>In Belgium, a past study by Adam (1960) states that <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata macrostoma</span> Steenbuch, 1864 (= <span style="font-style: italic;">V. macrostoma</span> Steenbuch in Morch, 1864) is very rare and that the only confirmed records are from Brussels and Namur. However, considering that this study was actually written before 1940 and was based on museum collections going back to the 19th century, it is here assumed that the species is probably extirpated in the country. We do not know of any records in the last 50 years.<br/><br/>In France, only twenty records of this species have been collected in the last decades (MNH 2010).Seventeen of these are from the Loire-et-Cher Department (Brault and Gervais 2004). Though it has no official status of protection, the species can be considered as very rare in France.<br/><br/>In Romania, the species is restricted to the upper section of the Danube river; it has not been recorded from any other basins (Cioboiu 2010).
155841		threats	eng	Localised threats to this species include habitat degradation mainly by pollution and eutrophication (Ormerod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
155841		threats	eng	Localised threats to this species include habitat degradation, pollution and eutrophication (Ormerod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The distribution of the species being mainly in northern Europe and the restriction to highlands in the southern part of its range suggests it is sensitive to temperature changes and so climate change may become a potential threat (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011).
155842		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. This species requires more research on population trends, distribution and threats.
155842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, there is no detailed information on current distribution. Wagner described it from type locality of Bosna springs. The spring, Vrelo Bosne, is at the&#160;foothills&#160;of the Mount&#160;Igman, on the outskirts of&#160;Sarajevo (Sket pers. comm. 2010).
155842		habitat	eng	This species is known to to be a freshwater spring snail.
155842		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends
155842		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155843		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for the species. The taxonomic status and distribution is uncertain so this area should be concentrated on.
155843		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea for Croatia (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The status is uncertain, as it may be conspecific with a more widespread European species.
155843		habitat	eng	The species is found in brackish waters in estuaries.
155843		population	eng	There is no recent population information.
155843		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species as the taxonomic status and distribution is uncertain.
155844		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to confirm the findings of Szarowska and Falniowski (2004) and to establish whether the species is still present in the river, and if so whether the threats continue to impact the status of the species. The species is listed on the Croatian List of Protected Species (in press,&#160;Bilandzija, pers. comm., 2010).
155844		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region>, where it was described from the freshwater parts of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Zrmanja</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The river was dammed in its upper course which apparently changed the river bed to a system of stagnant pools (like that at Kaštel Zegarski) intercut with a dry river bed (like that at Ervenik); furthermore, since the beginning of the 1990s and the 20th century the towns and villages in Krajina have been uninhabited and any spot in the area was hardly accessible (Szarowska and Falniowski 2004).</p>
155844		habitat	eng	This species is found in the middle section of the river where it is present (Radoman 1983).
155844		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155844		threats	eng	The current threat status of this species is unknown, however according to Szarowska and Falniowski (2004) the river was dammed in its upper course for hydroelectric power, which apparently changed the  river bed to a system of stagnant pools (like that at Kaštel Zegarski)  intercut with a dry river bed (like that at Ervenik).
155845		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, but data is needed on the taxonomic status, as well as distribution, population trends and habitats and their threats to allow a better informed assessment of the conservation status.
155845		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Ariege, a department in the Midi-Pyrenees in France.
155845		habitat	eng	Freshwater springs are the likely habitat for this species.
155845		population	eng	There is no data on population trends, and most records date from 1995-1997.
155845		threats	eng	There is no data on current threats to these sites.
155846		conservation	eng	The status of this species is unknown, as it has not been re-found since 1872. Klaus Groh is currently reviewing the status and searching for the types to establish whether it maybe conspecific with a widespread species.
155846		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known. It was described by Mousson from the Canary Islands, but there are no recently confirmed records and its status is currently under investigation by Klaus Groh.
155846		habitat	eng	The habitats of this species are unknown, as it has not been re-found since 1872.
155846		population	eng	The status of this species is unknown, as it has not been re-found since 1872.
155846		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, as it has not been re-found since 1872.
155847		conservation	eng	Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) considered the species to be category 0, "probably extinct" and  noted it was an extremely rare species with a geographical  restriction. There are no known conservation actions in place for this  species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish  whether the species is still extant, as sampling of these populations is  difficult.
155847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it is known from the type localities  of two subspecies; Kohlberg bei Nürtingen (Treitschachbrunnen) and  Dischingen (Quelle zwischen Gulde- und Buchmühle).
155847		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155847		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species, but neither subspecies have been recorded since 1961. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008).
155847		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155848		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on population trends and taxonomy.
155848		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Palaospeum nanum</span> is only known from the type locality, Rebenacq in the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, southwest France.
155848		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155848		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
155848		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155849		conservation	eng	Some sites are vulnerable to development of the water source to supply villages and houses.&#160; There should be a programme to educate on keeping part of the water source in the natural state for biodiversity (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). &#160;The species was listed as "Near Threatened" in the Spanish Red List (Verdu and Galante 2009).
155849		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain,   but found from eastern Asturias and Cantabria, the Basque Country, northern León, Burgos and Palencia.  <ul><li>Noriega      (Site 1km W), Province <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Asturias</st1:place></st1:country-region>      (UTM grid square UP70, 1km W) spring near river.</li><li>Piñeres      (Site 2km just before turn off to Roda), Province Cantabria (UTM grid      square UN79), torrent.</li><li>Presilla,      Province Cantabria (UTM grid square VN29), spring.</li><li>Aes      (Chaple Virgen de Gracia), Province Cantabria (UTM grid square VN29),      spring.</li><li>Ramales      de la Victoria (Site 3km SSW), Province Cantabria (UTM griq square VN      68), old spring.</li><li>Valnera      before turn off for Concha (Karrantza), Province Cantabria (UTM grid squae      VN68), brook.</li><li>Arredondo      (Site 4km S), Province Cantabria, (UTM grid square VN59), Cueva de      Coventora.</li><li>Linto      (Site 1.5km N at crossroad to Miera), Province Cantabria (UTM grid square      VN59), torrent.</li><li>La      Vega, Province Cantabria (UTM grid square VN49), several waterfalls.</li><li><st1:place w:st="on">S. Escalada</st1:place> (near Tubilla del Aqua), Province Burgos      (UTM grid square VN33), Brook on mountainside.</li><li>N.      of Covanera, Province Burgos (UTM grid sqaureVN33), large spring.</li><li>Covanera,      Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN33), Pozo Azul.</li><li>S.      exit of Tubilla del Aqua, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN32), springs      in rocks.</li><li>E.      entrance to Orbaneja del Castillo, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN34),      spring.</li><li>Between      Areba and Hoz de Areba, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN45), brook      alongside river.</li><li>Incinillas      (Site 1km NW), Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN45), channel going under      road.</li><li>N.      exit of locality Río de Lasia, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN57).</li><li>Between      locality Río de Lasia and Puerto de Pas, Río de Trueba (Site 4-6km N.),      Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN47), springs.</li><li>Locality Río de Lasia (Site 3km N), Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN57),      spring.</li><li>Exit      of San Zadornil towards Villafría, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN84),      spring.</li><li>San      Zadnoril (3km towards Villafría), Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN84).</li><li>Villafría La Fuentafría (1.5km behind), Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN84),      spring.</li><li>Aguiniga,      Province Alava (UTM grid square VN96), spring.</li><li>Entrance      to Astúlez, Province Alava (UTM grid square VN94), brook.</li><li>Entrance      to Nograro, Province Alava (UTM grid square VN94), spring with pool.</li><li>Turn      off to Quejo, Province Alava (UTM grid square VN84), spring at side of      brook.</li><li>Ambasaguas,      Province Vizcaya (UTM grid square VN78), spring.</li><li>W.      exit of Lebanza, Province Palencia (UTM grid square UN75), spring      alongside river.</li><li>W.      of Santibañez de Resoba, Province Palencia (UTM grid square UN65), spring.</li><li>Valverde      de la Sierra (Site 5km W), Province León (UTM grid square UN45), spring.</li><li>Llesca      (5km W border with Cantabria), Province León (UTM grid square UN56),      under bridge.</li><li>Downhill      Puerto de Sa Glorio (km 131-133), Province León (UTM grid squareUN57), wet      rocks.</li><li>Cobrices,      Province Santander (UTM grid square UP90), spring La Marrana.</li></ul>
155849		habitat	eng	<p>                  </p><p>This species is found in freshwater springs, springs with pools, waterfalls with pools, torrents, wet rocks, brooks, under bridges. It occurs sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">A.ovetensis </span>(Rolán 1993) (UP70) and<span style="font-style: italic;"> A.montana</span> (Rolán 1993) (UN57, VN68)</p>   <p></p>
155849		population	eng	There is no specific data on population trends.
155849		threats	eng	<p>The principal threats to the species lie in pollution from agricultural sources (pesticides and nitrates) and from overabstraction of water for domestic water supplies, which could cause habitat degradation which would lead to species mortality and population declines. </p>
155850		conservation	eng	This species is considered as Data Deficient (DD) in the Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galante 2009) but is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the Andalucian Red Data Book (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It has  been recommended to implement appropriate measures for the protection of the  spring (i.e. not cleaning and not cementing the bottom of it, to avoid  eutrophication and pollution of the water and avoid overexploitation of  the source).
155850		distribution	eng	This species is only known from la Fuente at Carmonilla de Loja, Granada, Province of Andalucia in southern Spain (Arconada in Barea-Azcón&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2008) (Fuente La Carmonilla,&#160;Loja, Granada (UTM: UG9913), 520 m ASL).
155850		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs where they are found in interstititial waters but possibly also present in groundwater.
155850		population	eng	There is no information on population trends for this species.
155850		threats	eng	There are no data on specific threats to the species, however it is likely to be suffering as the result of habitat degradation due to off-take from water sources for domestic use.
155851		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Further research on the distribution of this species is required.
155851		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella saxatilis</span> is endemic to France (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), where is is found mainly in the departments of&#160;Gard and Hérault through to the Tarn and Aude. Although Boeters and Falkner (2009) suggest a restricted range, it seems to be present in nearly every spring within its distribution area (V. Prie, pers. comm. 2009).
155851		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs and occasionally as a subterranean (stygoxene) species.
155851		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155851		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155852		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia. This species was considered to be threatened in Croatia, and assigned a status of Critically Endangered (CR B2ab(iii)) for the Croatian Red List of Cave Fauna (2009).
155852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, where it is found in two locations; Spilja kod Obrovca and Spilja kod mlina na Miljacki. One location (Spilja kod mlina na Miljacki) is now within the Krka National Park .
155852		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from freshwater within cave systems but it is not known whether the species inhabits the cave streams, stagnant, rapids, endogenous or exogenous rivers (Slapnik pers. comm. 2009).
155852		population	eng	There are no data available on the population status and trends of this species.
155852		threats	eng	Currently both locations lie in separate river catchments with few threats. There is no agricultural development within the region. One location lies within a protected area and as such this area has restricted access for protection of the water sources. There are small dams planned for the future on both rivers. The other possible long-term threat is the placement of a gas pipe-line in the catchment.
155853		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species has been listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (extinct in Thüringen; Jungbluth and von Knorre 2009), Endangered in the Czech Republic (Horsák <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Anonymous 2010) and Vulnerable in Poland (Zajac 2005). <br/><br/>Populations of <em>Corbicula fluminea</em> should be monitored to ensure they do not spread throughout the entire range of this species, as this may cause significant declines to the global population through increased competitive pressures.
155853		conservation	eng	This species is included on the regional red list&#160; in Baden Wurtenburg, Germany as (Category 2).<br/><br/>Currently no conservation actions are required for this species.
155853		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive distribution occurring from the Russian Federation, through Europe to England and France (Zhadin 1965). In the U.K. it is absent from Scotland and is rare in southern England (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011). Within the Russian Federation, it is found as far east as the Tobol River, and as far north as Sankt Petersburg (Korniushin 2001). It is also found in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011). However, it has not been found in Scandinavian or Mediterranean countries (Korniushin 2001) except Turkey (Balik <em>et al.</em> 2003). The distibution of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. rivicola</span> was fairly continuous prior to 1990, but now has become patchy in western and central Europe (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011).
155853		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists it from Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and the Ukraine.<br/><br/>Within the Russian Federation it is found as far east as the Tobol River, and as far north as St Petersburg (Korniushin 2001)
155853		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium rivicola</span> lives in a much narrower range of habitats than most sphaeriids, it is principally found in clean, calcareous water in canals and large, slow-flowing rivers, and very occasionally in large canalised drains connected to large rivers (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In mainland Europe it is very occasionally found in lakes. It lives in large, well oxygenated water bodies in association with a rich diversity of other mollusc species such as the large unionoid mussels,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pisidium supinum</span> and the gastropod <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus viviparus</span>. It appears to require deeper water than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium</span> species and is rarely found in marginal habitats less than 0.5 m in depth. The species is found in a wide range of soft, fine substrates from mud to sand and grit, usually with a silty element.
155853		habitat	eng	This species prefers rivers with muddy sediments and low current velocities (Wolff 1970). It can also be found in swamps and wetlands (Beran and Horsak 1998). It favours the deeper parts of rivers and canals and is rare in shallow or standing waters (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It has a very low tolerance to pollution, and has been found in waterways that receive very little water pollution (Wolff 1970). The species is highly sensitive to water pollution that decreases dissolved oxygen concentration (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It also avoids water with high saline levels of over 0.3% Cl (Wolff 1970). The species is the main intermediate host of the trematode <span style="font-style: italic;">Allocreadium isporum </span>(D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
155853		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium rivicola</span> is considered to be declining in parts of its range. For example in Great Britain, there is some evidence of local regional decline in south-east and northern England, and Scotland, but it may be an artefact of lack of recording effort. The species has a life span from a few months to 4 years (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)
155853		population	eng	This species is rare in western and central Europe, but is still relatively abundant in European Russia and the Baltic States (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). The following gives specific population info across the species' range. However, due to its habitat, i.e., deeper parts of larger rivers and canals, collection of this species is not straightforward. This is a major reason why data are not available for all countries where it is been recorded.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>: The species has been extirpated in the Low and Central part of the country, but it is probably still occurring in Upper Belgium, mainly south of the Meuse (Barenbrug and Hofmans 1987). However, the last known recorded date for this species in the region is 1987 (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: In the 19th century, the species was mainly recorded from North and Central France and was already stated to be rare in the Midi and absent from southern France (Welter-Schultes 2010). Presently it seems to have become rare in the northern and central part of the country as well. In northern France, the species has been listed as a flagship species for the restoration/improvement of protected areas (ZNIEFF = zones naturelles d'intérêt écologique, faunistique et floristique) (Boca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) and live specimen were only recorded from one locality (Romelaëre) by Cucherat (2003) in the Department Nord Pas-de –Calais. In the Departement Maine et Loire the species is also listed as ‘Rare’ (Boulord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).   <strong><br/><br/></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands</span>: Population decrease in the Netherlands since 1990 compared to the period 1900-1989 is estimated at ca. 50%; however, the species is still found over the whole country in <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 42 sites (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). The species is decreasing and placed in the category ‘Vulnerable’ in the Red List of the Netherlands (de Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).  <strong><br/><br/></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">Hungary</span>: Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) range this species amongst the rarest freshwater molluscs of Hungary and plead for protective actions. Bódis (2008) also state that it is rare. Recently, the species was discovered in the Bodrogköz region in the northeast of the country (András 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia</span>: The species is probably still fairly common in the Baltics. In five out of twelve Lithuanian rivers that are nutrient-enriched due to agricultural run-off, the species was recorded even in those where concentrations of NO3 or BOD exceeded the legal norm, e.g. in the Daugyvenè River with a concentration of 6.25 NO3-N mg/l (Pliūraitè and Mickènienē 2009). Apparently, in waters with low water temperatures (10–15°C in May and high amounts of dissolved oxygen, i.e., 7.5–12.7 O<sub>2</sub> mg/l) the species is relatively resistant to pollution.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>: The species seems to be still widespread in European Russia where in recent years it was collected in&#160; the Volga Basin (Oka River near Dzerzhinsk) in 2009 (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011), Moskva River basin and the Khopyor Basin (Vorona River) (<a href="http://www.conchology.be/?t=66&family=PISIDIIDAE&species=Sphaerium%20rivicola">http://www.conchology.be/?t=66&family=PISIDIIDAE&species=Sphaerium%20rivicola</a>). It is recorded from southeaster Siberia in the Ob basin (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and it hence may possibly also be present in other river systems east of the Caucasus.  <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>: The species has been introduced in the Dnieper basin and Crimea since 1955 as fish food, hence it is invasive in at least part of the country (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: During a study conducted in the River Peene, 41 stations were set up to sample this species (Zettler 1998). At one such station, up to 400 individuals were found per m².
155853		threats	eng	The principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Mouthon (1996) showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium rivicola</span> was one of the species of freshwater bivalve most sensitive to biodegradable pollution. The invasive species<span style="font-style: italic;"> Corbicula fluminea</span> maybe out-competing this species in parts of its range.
155853		threats	eng	The species is highly sensitive to water pollution that decreases dissolved oxygen concentration. However, this sensitivity to eutrophication seems to decrease with decreasing water temperatures (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>This species lives in the same habitat conditions as the invasive <em>Corbicula fluminea</em>, which is recorded in the Hungarian Danube where this species is also found. Population numbers have recently decreased and could decline further due to competitive pressures posed by this invasive competitor (Bodis <em>et al.</em> 2006). At present, the threat is restricted to a localized area of this species' extensive distribution, so it is unlikely to be causing population declines that are significant to the global population. If <em>Corbicula fluminea</em> extends its range, it may pose a greater future threat.&#160;There are no other known threats that are significantly affecting the global population of this species.
155854		conservation	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">The species is listed as </st1:place></st1:country-region>Near Threatened (Manganelli <em>et al</em>., 2000) in the Italian Red List, but there are no conservation actions in place. Recommended Actions include habitat monitoring and resolving whether the Corsican populations are extant.
155854		distribution	eng	Bank <em>et al </em>(2009) lists this species' distribution as <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> (Corsica) and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy. &#160;In Italy</st1:country-region>&#160;it is only found in <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place>, where it is recorded from the western side of the island in about 12 localities. All localities have been surveyed in the last 30 years. The range in <st1:place w:st="on">Corsica</st1:place> is unknown and there are no records in INPN (French National Inventory of Natural Heritage)
155854		habitat	eng	The species inhabits coastal streams and rivers.
155854		population	eng	The population status for this species is unknown.
155854		threats	eng	The threats to this species are    exploitation of water sources and pollution of groundwaters (Manganelli <em>et al</em>, 2001).
155855		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species although Lake Ozeros, Lake Trichonis and Lake Lysimachia are included in the network Natura 2000 (GR2310008-Limni Ozeros and GR2310009-Limnes Trichonida kai Lysimachia correspondingly).</p>       <p>Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes, as well as sewage from neighbouring villages need to be drastically reduced.&#160;</p><p>Conservation actions should include monitoring of the habitats in the lake, as well as surveys to establish whether the species is still extant in both lakes.&#160;<br/></p><p><br/></p>
155855		distribution	eng	This species is found in Greece, where it is recorded from Lake Trichonis,   Lake Ozeros, and Lake Lysimachia   (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Currently <em>V. klemmi</em> is restricted to the north-east and –west shore of Lake Trichonis as well as west shore of Lake Ozeros (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
155855		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater gastropod found in littoral and partly sublittoral parts of large lakes, where it is found on various substrates like stones, gravel, pebble, sand and mud.
155855		population	eng	This species has declined since 1962, when Schütt reported that the species was also found in Lake Lysimachia. Until 2007, this species could not be found again by several authors.
155855		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to water level drop, related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture, is threatening this species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. <br/></p>
155856		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are in place. Better knowledge of  range, ecology and life history would assist the conservation assessment  of this species. Further work on raising awareness of the value of  freshwater and underground biodiversity within the region particularly  from the over abstraction of water would also benefit this and other  species in these habitats. Monitoring of the population trend to  identify any impacts from the potential threats in the area is advised.
155856		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Schutt (2000) listed it <span title="den dalmatinisch-montenegrinischen Küstenstreifen von Metkovi} bis Kotor."><span title="Von"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">from in the eastern Trebinijca valley just inland from Dubrovnik, but noted it was not found in the Ombla caves system.<br/></span></span>
155856		habitat	eng	This species is known from underground cave rivers.
155856		population	eng	There is no data on population status.
155856		threats	eng	<p>Although nothing is known about the specific threats and population status of this species, there are general threats to habitats in&#160;the eastern Trebinijca valley including habitat degradation due to lake creation for hydroelectric generation and over abstraction of water for both domestic purposes and hotels.</p><p><br/></p>
155857		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>
155857		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus trapezoides</span>&#160;is restricted&#160;&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid, where at present it is only known from the </st1:placename>the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) <st1:placename w:st="on">part of the Lake.</st1:placename></p><p><em><br/></em></p>  <p></p>
155857		habitat	eng	This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zone where it is restricted to hard substrate. It occurs in considerable deeper water than <em>G. lychnidicus</em>. Juveniles live amongst the <em>Chara</em> meadows.
155857		population	eng	It is found at suitable habitats in relatively high abundances (C. Albrecht <em>et al</em>. pers. comm. 2009).
155857		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this gastropod. As a result of this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, which is diminishing the habitat and food availability.&#160;  </p>
155858		conservation	eng	Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) considered this species to be category R (rare), an extremely rare species and species with a geographical restriction in Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155858		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to Germany, where it was described from freshwater spring at Randecker Maar (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008).
155858		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters. It may be declining due to groundwater pollution.
155858		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008).
155858		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
155859		conservation	eng	<p>There are no global level conservation measures in place for this species. The species is listed as Endangered on the Swiss Red List. The conservation status in Italy is Least Concern (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001. </p>
155859		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Europe, and its distribution is mainly southern and eastern Europe including <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Fauna Europaea, 2006). In Italy the species is widespread throughout the northern catchments, becoming infrequent in the central part of the country.<br/></p>      <p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus ater ater</span> (De Cristofori & Jan, 1832) occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p><p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus ater gallensteini</span> (Kobelt, 1892), occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus ater hellenicus</span> (Clessin, 1879) occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Fauna Europaea Web Service 2010).</p><p><br/></p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
155859		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits lakes (Ribi 1986) showing a preference for lentic waters with a weak current and lots of aquatic vegetation.<strong></strong></p>  <p>The females of this species are ovoviviparous and give birth to offspring with a shell width of between 6 to 11 mm (Ribi and Arter 1986). This species reaches sexual maturity in its second year (Ribi 1986), and both sexes can live for ten years or more, growing to approximately 45 mm in shell height (Ribi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986 in Staub and Ribi 1995). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zurich</st1:placename></st1:place> this species<em> </em>remains buried in the sediment for approximately five months during winter (Ribi 1986).</p>  <p>This species and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. contectus</span><em> </em>are sympatric in several places in southern Europe and hybridize naturally where they co-occur, even though they differ in several morphological, karyotypical and life history traits (Ribi and Porter 1995).</p>
155859		population	eng	<p>This species has been described as common in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zurich</st1:placename></st1:place> (Staub ad Ribi 1995).</p>
155859		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that this species is being threatened on a global level. On a local scale it is probably affected to some degree by pollution, and also habitat degradation from recreational activities. The principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources.&#160; Other threats lie in alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging.</p>
155860		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species.&#160; Further data is required to enable a conservation assessment, including distribution, population trends and threats.
155860		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) as present in the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal). There is little distributional data to refine the distribution, although Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) show the genus in the south-west of the Iberian Peninsula.
155860		habitat	eng	This is thought to be a species found in freshwater rivers.
155860		population	eng	There is no known data on population trends for this species.
155860		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
155861		conservation	eng	If water quality improvement can be achieved under the Water Framework Directive to counteract current and future increased pressures on water-bodies then the population status of this species may improve, but some decline is likely through loss of habitat as a result of water course management (unpublished manuscript, I. Killeen & M. Seddon 2009). <br/>&#160;<br/>There has been relatively little survey for <em>Pisidium</em> species in general over the last 10 years. Without up-to-date data it is not possible to determine if the species is a candidate for categorising as Threatened. Hence, further, targeted surveying in areas of decline are required to determine the current status of this species.
155861		distribution	eng	This is a European and western Palearctic species. Its range covers Europe from Ireland to western Russia, and southern Scandinavia. Apart from some places in the Balkans, it is largely absent from southern Europe. The species is also known from Kazakhstan, Israel, Turkey and Syria, and has been introduced into North America (I. Killeen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Ireland <span style="font-style: italic;">P. moitessierianum</span> was thought to be extinct at one time but discovered along the Royal and Grand Canals by Moorkens and Killeen (2005). It has since been recorded from Lough Conn, Co. Mayo (I. Killeen and E. Moorkens, pers. comm., 2009).
155861		habitat	eng	This species is found in a relatively narrow range of habitats - principally in canals and large, slow-flowing rivers. It occurs less frequently in small rivers, streams and large lakes. The species lives in calcareous, generally unpolluted habitats in mud and fine sediments, sometimes in gritty sand (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)
155861		population	eng	There is little data available on the population of this species, so the current population trend is unknown.
155861		threats	eng	This species is not threatened throughout its range, however localised threats are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Mouthon (1996) showed that this species <em></em>was one of the species of <em>Pisidium </em>most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.
155862		conservation	eng	There is no current or recommended conservation action for this species.
155862		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution. Germain (1921-2) notes presence in Syria and Palestine and it is also known in Egypt (Germain 1921-2). In Europe it is known from Italy (Sicily) (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
155862		habitat	eng	This species occurs in different types of standing water and springs, preferably with aquatic vegetation.
155862		population	eng	There is no available information on the population status or trend of this species.
155862		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.&#160;It is widely spread among different habitats and is tolerant to salinity, however, water systems in the region where this species is found are under extreme stress from water abstraction.
155863		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring in the littoral zone would allow the conservation status to be assessed in the future, so that changes in status can be quickly seen.</p><strong><br/></strong>
155863		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> and is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
155863		habitat	eng	This freshwater species found in the   sandy parts of the  littoral zone of the lake.
155863		population	eng	This species is locally very abundant in survey samples.
155863		threats	eng	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation to this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the high human populated northern and southern shallow bays could decrease the suitable habitats for this species in the littoral zone, however there is no evidence that this is currently impacting the species.</p>
155864		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known although the species is listed as&#160;Near Threatened in Italian Red List (Manganelli<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>, 2001). It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155864		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine region of western Friuli-Venezia Giulia. The range lies close to the Slovenia border, but there are no records listed, it is thought to be endemic to Italy. It is recorded from 12 localities in the region.
155864		habitat	eng	This species can be found in groundwaters of karst regions.
155864		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155864		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
155865		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known, although the species is listed as Data Deficient in the Spanish Red List (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Further information is required on threats and population status in order to determine the status of this species.
155865		distribution	eng	This recently described species can be found in north-eastern Spain where it is currently only known from the type locality Cueva de Allí, Allí, Larraún, Navarra [UTM: WN903602, 630 m ASL].
155865		habitat	eng	This species is found in a freshwater spring in a cave.
155865		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155865		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although possible threats include  over-exploitation of water sources and pollution of groundwater.
155866		conservation	eng	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). There are no conservation actions in place but research into taxonomy, population and distribution, and habitat trends would be of benefit.
155866		distribution	eng	This species has been described from Slovenia, with 5 known sites in north and northeast Slovenia. 1) Potoce, near Preddvor, north of Kranj, 2) Paka Village near Velenje, 3) Steska Jama (Cave) near Zalec, 4) a spring near Dobrna, 5) Toplica spring near Celje.
155866		habitat	eng	Freshwater springs sometimes near caves.
155866		population	eng	There is no information on population trend.
155866		threats	eng	The major threats for this species lie in water pollution from urbanisation and the construction of motorways near rivers. Other threats include regulated water flow, changing water flow patterns, and possibly degrading the habitat.
155867		conservation	eng	<p>This species is currently protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. Its habitat should be protected and it is suggested that monitoring of its habitat should be conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
155867		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum bormanni</span> is endemic to the central Alps in Styria, Austria from the region of Graz.&#160; There are records from two caves, Bärenhöhle near Mixnitz and from floodwaters ejected from springs close to Ludwig-Hammer-Höhle (Blaubruchhöhle) in Annengraben (Einödgraben, NNE Graz) (Kreissl and Freitag 1989).
155867		habitat	eng	This freshwater species inhabits caves and springs, and is found in groundwater and within water in rock fissures.                <em></em>
155867		population	eng	This species is considered 'rare' and recently a decline in population trends has been observed.
155867		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater for drinking water and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilisers as a result of agricultural practices, that pose a threat to this species. Some localities are also under pressure from tourism activities.
155868		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended to monitor the impact of tourist pressure.
155868		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. It is recorded from freshwater springs on the mainland by&#160;Schütt&#160;(1980) and&#160;Reischütz and Reischütz (2004). &#160;<br/>Radea (pers. comm. 2009) provides the following list of sites from the literature:<ul><li>Springs near Piana (Arcadia, Peloponnisos) (Schütt 1980)</li><li>Springs&#160;near Levidi (Arcadia, Peloponnisos) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2004)</li><li>Springs at Metoxi (Achaia,&#160;Peloponnisos)&#160;(Schütt 1980)</li><li>Springs at the the village Lambia (Ilia, Peloponnisos)&#160;(Schütt 1980)</li><li>Springs at the Monastery of&#160;Dimiovas (Messinia, Peloponnisos)&#160;(Schütt 1980)</li><li>Springs at Patra (Achaia, Peloponnisos)&#160;(Schütt 1980)</li><li>Springs at Amphissa&#160;(Phokida)&#160;(Schütt 1980)</li><li>Springs at Agrinio (Aitoloakarnania)&#160;(Schütt1980)</li><li>Springs on the island of Kos&#160;(south-east Aegean Sea) between the villages Asphendiou and Zia&#160;(Schütt1980)</li></ul>A recent resurvey at&#160;Levidi in May 2009 failed to locate the species in Levidi, but further surveys are planned in the region of Arcadia in 2010 (Radea pers. comm. 2010)
155868		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155868		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, although the species was recorded at some sites in 2004.
155868		threats	eng	&#160;These freshwater springs lie mainly in mountainous and wooded regions with many ravines and springs. The tourist pressure could be considered as low to medium (mainly ecotourism) according to&#160;Hellenic Tourism Organization (EOT) and the local authorities (Radea, pers. comm., 2010). As such although there are risks of temporary drying through drought phases, there is currently little evidence of decline, however the lack of recent survey data suggests that the species should be subject to a monitoring programme.
155869		conservation	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">The species was first listed in Threatened non-marine molluscs of Europe, Wells & Chatfield (1992) as rare. The species is currently listed as </st1:place></st1:country-region>Near Threatened (CK map, version 5.3.8) in the Italian Red List, but there are no conservation actions in place. Recommended Actions include habitat monitoring and resolving whether the Corsican populations are extant.
155869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted &#160;to northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region></st1:place> and recorded from 6 localities within 310 km squares (EOO 200km2, range restricted species).
155869		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in groundwater in Karst region. <br/></p>
155869		population	eng	The population status for this species is unknown.
155869		threats	eng	<p>Possible threats facing this species are exploitation of water sources (domestic) and pollution of groundwaters (agriculture).</p>
155870		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. Taxonomic review of the species is suggested, as well as habitat monitoring for the known locations to detect future changes in the status of these sites. The species is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) for the Italian Red List (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155870		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radomaniola callosa</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the provinces of Pescara and L'Aquila (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), in the Appennine region of Abruzzo. It is restricted to a few springs in Abruzzo and the type locality was a small spring near Caramanico (Pescara).
155870		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155870		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area but there is no recent data on population trends.
155870		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). The spring waters it inhabits are subject to human exploitation (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155871		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Taxonomic research is needed to determine the species limits.
155871		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Caspian Sea (20-25 m), Black Sea limans and mouths of rivers (8-10 m) (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155871		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Caspian Sea (20–25 m), Black Sea limans and mouths of rivers (8–10 m) (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155871		habitat	eng	This is a brackish water species present in inland seas, coastal lagoons (limans) and possibly the estuarine parts of rivers.
155871		habitat	eng	This is a brackish water species present in limans and estuarine parts of rivers.
155871		population	eng	The population trends of this species is unknown.
155871		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
155872		conservation	eng	This species was recorded by Fauna Europaea as being present in the Canary Islands in Spain (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is possible that it has been recorded as other species, so the distribution, population trends and threats are uncertain and research is required to enable a conservation assessment.
155872		distribution	eng	This species was recorded by Fauna Europaea as being present in the Canary Islands in Spain (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is possible that it has been recorded as other species, so the distribution is uncertain.
155872		habitat	eng	This species was recorded by Fauna Europaea as being present in the Canary Islands in Spain (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is possible that it has been recorded as other species, so the habitats are uncertain.
155872		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends in the Canary Islands.
155872		threats	eng	This species was recorded by Fauna Europaea as being present in the Canary Islands in Spain (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is possible that it has been recorded as other species, so the threats are uncertain.
155873		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Spanish Red List, <em></em><em style="font-style: italic;">Atlas</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> de los </span><em style="font-style: italic;">Invertebrados</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> Amenazados de España</span> (Verdú and Galante 2009) as Vulnerable (VU A2abc; D2). It is listed on the Andalucian Provincial list as Endangered (EN B1ab(iii)) and Vulnerable (VU D2).&#160;It is listed on the provincial lists as Endangered (EN), due to the threats and small number of known localities. The National listing differs with a listing as Vulnerable (VU), although the underlying information is the same, presumably due to a difference in a precautionary attitude.&#160;The subpopulation at Fuente Grande lies in the Parque Natural de la Sierra de Huétor and the subpopulation of Fuente la Mata lies in the Parque Natural de Sierra Mágina. Appropriate site management and education of site users is needed to prevent habitat degradation.
155873		distribution	eng	<em>Boetersiella sturmi </em><span id="result_box" class="long_text">is endemic to three isolated locations in Province Grenada and Province Jaén in southern Spain.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span id="result_box" class="long_text">The three freshwater springs are located as Fuente Grande (Prado Black) and Carmonilla Source (Loja) in Granada, and Fuente la Mata (Mata Bejid) in <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Jaén<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">. It is a species with low dispersal ability associated with a habitat exposed to many changes and fluctuations. There are old records from Cuenca and Albacete, however Bragado <em>et al </em>(2010) note that these are uncertain and the species was not found in their extensive survey work, and hence these records have currently been discounted until research confirms the presence of this species in a wider region.</span></span></span>
155873		habitat	eng	This species has been found only in three freshwater springs where it lives on leaves, branches, mosses, but also on artificial substrates such as bricks or cement.
155873		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This is a species with low dispersal ability associated with a habitat exposed to many changes and fluctuations. making it possible to infer a drastic reduction of their populations in a short period of time. The subpopulation at Fuente de la Carmonilla (Loja) has been recently sampled (M. Ramos pers. comm. 2010).
155873		threats	eng	The springs where the species is found are exploited for water. The threats include over-abstraction of water as well as cleaning of the habitats, to improve off-take points by concreting sites and removing vegetation.
155874		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions known for this species, and none are considered necessary. However, water quality improvements would benefit the species.
155874		distribution	eng	This species is recorded widely in Europe, from Spain to Ukraine. Fauna Europea listed the species from            Norway, Sweden, Latvia, Poland, UK, Netherlands, Belgium,&#160; France (Mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Spain (Mainland), Ukraine (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). A record from Luxembourg was uncertain. It is not considered to be a Russian Species (Kantor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009) and hence maybe endemic to Europe.
155874		habitat	eng	The species is known from lentic habitats (still water), densely and richly vegetated swampy conditions in drainage ditches, and occasionally in lake margins, including turloughs (temporary lakes). It is found in muddy or silty substrate usually with a high organic content. Substrate types vary from mud through to coarse sand or gravel. In Britain and Ireland it appears to prefer better quality habitats and lives mostly in densely and richly vegetated swampy places, often with a diverse suite of molluscs and other invertebrates, including rare beetles and rare mollusc species such as <em>Anisus vorticulus </em>or<em> Pisidium pseudosphaerium</em>. These are often found in old grazing marsh complexes.
155874		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
155874		threats	eng	Some localised declines are likely through loss of habitat as a result of water course management such as dredging sites for drainage of agricultural land.
155877		conservation	eng	This species has the status 'Potentially Endangered' (Category 4) in Switzerland (Turner et al, 1994). As a recently described species, efforts should be focussed on expanding the known range, particularly as Haase (2003) considers that it may also occur in Italy. In the meantime, monitoring of the habitats at the two known springs is also necessary as there are plausible future threats identified.
155877		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Switzerland, where it was found in two springs on Monte San Giorgio, close to the border with Italy in canton Ticino (Haase 2003). Haase (2003) considered that it may also occur in Italy, but at present it is restricted to Switzerland.
155877		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring-snail.
155877		population	eng	There is no population data available.
155877		threats	eng	The major threats arise from the depletion of springs due to the water being captured for settlements, damaging the surrounding flora and fauna. This, at present, is thought to be only a future threat.
155878		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. This species is listed as Near Threatened on the Italian Red List.
155878		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the appeninic regions of Marche, Abruzzo and Lazio, where it is widely but locally distributed. It is recorded from 22 locations.
155878		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ground waters in rocks and is widely recorded in outflows in springs, lakes and cave detritus.
155878		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155878		threats	eng	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
155879		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Research is needed relating to this species distribution, population trends and threats. Habitat monitoring is required to detect potential future changes is habitat quality due to water abstraction and pollution. The species is known to be in several protected areas, e.g. Lake Pamvotis is the site GR2130005-Limni Ioanninon of Natura 2000 network. Additionally, several sites of Natura 2000 network are lying on the islands of Ionian Sea (K. Radea pers. comm. 2010).
155879		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Greece, where it is known from the Ionian islands (Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, Zakinthos, Kephalonia) and also to western parts of Epeirus and Sterea Ellada.
155879		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155879		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155879		threats	eng	No threat data is available for this species, but it is likely to be threatened by water abstraction and pollution.
155880		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;Manganelli <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;<p></p>
155880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found on the coast of south-eastern Sicily, in Fonte Ciane, Syracuse.
155880		habitat	eng	This species lives in springs.
155880		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155880		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). It inhabits spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155881		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. In light of the current restricted distribution, habitat monitoring and population surveys are recommended so that any changes in the status can be acted upon.
155881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, and is restricted to the southern part of department  Ardèche. Four localities are given in the description of the species and a further locality is added by Girardi (cited as pers.comm&#160; in Bertrand 2004).
155881		habitat	eng	This species is found within subterrannean freshwaters within karst regions; it is a stygobite.
155881		population	eng	No date is available on the population status.
155881		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia gloeeri</span> occurs in the tourist area of the Ardèche canyon, and area where there is increasing human pressure which has led to a general decrease of water quality and quantity. This is especially true in summer, during the height of the tourist system. The major threats are from overabstraction of water for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as pollution of the groundwaters from sewage and from agricultural sources (Herbicides and Pesticides).&#160; The general level of threat is lower than some of the other species, although in view of increasing pressure on water resources, the species is listed on a precautionary basis given it's limited distribution.
155882		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed as Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) suggest that there is some taxonomic confusion with this species and it is revised under several different names.
155882		distribution	eng	Falkner and Neiderhöfer (2008) suggest that there is some taxonomic confusion with this species and it is revised under several different names.
155882		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available.
155882		population	eng	The current population trend is unknown.
155882		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155883		conservation	eng	The springs where this species lives are in the Galicica National Park. Habitat monitoring is recommended for this species, unless future taxonomic research shows it to be conspecific with sister taxa in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrgohydrobia. <br/></span>
155883		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the St. Naum feeder spring system in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM)<span class="external text">.</span>
155883		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring-snail living on soft substrate.
155883		population	eng	This is a very rare species in recent sampling (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
155883		threats	eng	Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the waters of Lake Prespa, which in turn feeds the aquifer of these springs<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load which could potentially impact this species (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).
155884		conservation	eng	The species is listed as Least Concern in Italy (Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 2000) and is not listed for Croatia. &#160;No conservation actions are needed given the range.
155884		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia</span> has a transadriatic-transionian distribution, present in the western Balkans, Ionian islands and southern Italy. Transadriatic and transionian distributions are disjunct being divided by the Adriatic or Ionian Seas. </p>  <p>In the western Balkans (Dalmatia, Montenegro, Ionian Islands of Kerkyra and Lefkas; its presence on other Ionian Islands and in Ipeiros requires confirmation (Bodon <em>et al</em>, 1999).</p>  <p>In Montenegro, it is known from a spring (Quelle) Zwebina in Pridvorje, Dubrovnik. </p>  <p>In Italy is in mainly found in southern regions, with one record near the Slovenian border.&#160;</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring near the Grotta di Bussento, Morigerati (Morigerati, Salerno, Campania), <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; well near Fonte Nozzola, ca. 1 km E of San Costantino (Rivello, Potenza, Basilicata),&#160; <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring at Colle San Martino (Civita, Cosenza, Calabria), <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring in Argentino River, ca. 1800 m NE of Orsomarso (Orsomarso, Cosenza, Calabria&#160; <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring inside the Grotta del Tasso no. 207 Pu (Ischitella, Foggia, Apulia), <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring 700 m SW of Case Masella, south of Monte Civita (Ischitella, Foggia, Apulia).</p>
155884		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia</span> is a spring species.
155884		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia </span>but is generally considered as not frequent and localized.
155884		threats	eng	There are no main threats known for <span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia</span>.
155885		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution if this species.
155885		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istriana falkneri</span> is known only from the type locality (Reserve Naturelle de la Ramiere, Drome) in France.
155885		habitat	eng	There are no data available on the habitat of this species. It has only been found in rivers alluviums. It is supposed to be subterranean or spring-dwelling, or living beneath the riverbeds.
155885		population	eng	There are no population data available.
155885		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown.
155886		conservation	eng	There a re no conservation action sin place. More research on the population and distribution is needed.
155886		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia roselloi</span> is only known from the type locality, Sanilhac, in the department of Gard, southern France, where it is present in one aquifer.
155886		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155886		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155886		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. The aquifer maybe reduced degrading the habitats if the aquifers are overexploited.
155887		conservation	eng	Habitat management is needed to ensure the species is not impacted by pollutants and flow management schemes and more population monitoring would identify potential declines of this species using the population decline trend data.<br/><br/>In Poland it is considered Critically Endangered (<a href="http://www.iop.krakow.pl/pckz/opis.asp?id=193&je=en"></a>Glowaciński and Nowacki 2009) and has been added to the official list of protected species.<br/><br/>In Germany the species is considered category 1 (Highly Threatened) (Glöer 2002, Gloer and Meierbrook 2005).
155887		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) reported this species from Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Germany, Austria, Slovakia Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and possibly from other states in the former country of Yugoslavia. Schütt (1965) described the range as occurring from the Baltic to the Black Sea and over to the Ural Mountains. This is a widespread species but declines in number of locations, population size and the quality of its habitat have been observed in parts of the range (Vavrova pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Poland, recent surveys suggest it has been lost from 29/46 locations on the tributaries of the  Vistula River (Wieprz, Bug, Narew, Wda) and in the Warta River at  Orzechowo (Glowaciński and Nowacki 2009).<br/><br/>In Romania, it is present in the middle Danbube, where the river bed has relatively uniform biotopes with a mostly sandy-clayish beds. The gastropod populations are represented by the species <span style="font-style: italic;">Borysthenia naticina</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus transversalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata piscinalis</span>, which are common (Ciobou pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, it is known from basins of rivers Dnieper and Danube (Anistratenko 1998).<br/><br/>Outside Europe, Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) reported it from the river basins of Dnieper, South Bug, Dniester, Danube, Neman, Visla rivers; Kaliningrad Region. Schütt (1965) also reported the species from Turkey, near Anatyla.
155887		habitat	eng	This species typically lives in large and medium lowland rivers  where it lives on the sandy bottom covered with a thin detritus layer.
155887		population	eng	There is limited information available on populations trends for this species, however in some parts of the range (e.g. Poland ) it is considered to be declining.<br/><br/>In Poland, recent surveys suggest it has been lost from 29/46 locations  on the tributaries of the  Vistula River (Wieprz, Bug, Narew, Wda) and  in the Warta River at  Orzechowo (Glowaciński and Nowacki 2009) which is equivalent to decline of around 60%, however the time period over which this is calculated is uncertain.
155887		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is pollution of the river habitats.
155888		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research is needed on the population trends and on the distribution range.<br/></p>
155888		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of Lake Ohrid.
155888		habitat	eng	<p>This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zone where it is restricted to hard substrate.</p>
155888		population	eng	<p>This species can be found at suitable habitats in very low abundances (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009).</p>
155888		threats	eng	<p>  Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/></p>
155889		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place. More research on taxonomy, population and habitat trends is required. The site where this species occur should be protected.
155889		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum rasini</span> is currently only known the type locality in the&#160;department of&#160;Bouches-du-Rhône in Southern France.
155889		habitat	eng	This small freshwater snail lives in subterranean waters.
155889		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trend for this species as it was described in the last 10 years.
155889		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.
155890		conservation	eng	The species was listed as Near Threatened by Verdú and Galante (2009) based on the limited range. The conservation actions for this species are unknown. Research is needed relating to its population trends, habitat trends and potential threats towards it.
155890		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is known from 19 different springs in the southern ranges of the Pyrenees (Arconada and Ramos 2006). This species is widely distributed in the provinces of Lérida and Huesca (Arconada and Ramos 2006)
155890		habitat	eng	Freshwater springs (see list in Arconada and Ramos 2006).
155890		population	eng	This species was reported as abundant, when first described in 1920s, and is still found in numbers at known sites (Arconada and Ramos 2006).
155890		threats	eng	There are limited threats to this species, across the range, as there is some loss of habitat quality where springs have been concreted for take-off of water for domestic supplies.
155891		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures known for this species. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155891		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella macrostoma </span>is endemic to north-western Italy, where it is known from 7 locations within region of Liguria and Toscana. Some sites listed in CK Map have multiple springs from single groundwater source.
155891		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.
155891		population	eng	Restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155891		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155892		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to establish the status of the species.
155892		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) as endemic to Ukraine.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Falsihydrobia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">streletzkiensis&#160;</span> Chukchin, 1975 was originally described from the seas off Sevastopol, in the Black Sea.
155892		habitat	eng	This species lives in brackish waters off Sevastopol in the Black Sea.
155892		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155892		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
155893		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and&#160; more than one species might be conspecific, hence further research is needed to solve this issue. Habitat monitoring is required to determine future changes in the status of the species.</p>
155893		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania, where it is found in sub-littoral zone between 30 and 50 m depth, but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985).</p>
155893		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species living in the sublittoral zone of the lake between 30 and 50 m depth (Albrecht <em>et al.</em> 2009).
155893		population	eng	The species is rare (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).
155893		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Although these threats are leading to an ongoing deterioration in habitat quality, and the rate of change at present is not having a major impact on population levels. <br/></p>
155894		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no&#160; known conservation actions for this species. However actions that are potentially damaging to the species include restoration and cleaning of springs, over-exploitation and pollution of the aquifers, summer droughts leading to lack of recharge in aquifer and changes to habitat quality, and the pollution of the water source, therefore appropriate site management is needed to prevent damage from these actions.
155894		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella onatensis</span> is known from only one site in Guipuzcoa, Northern Spain (Onate, 0.25 km south of Berezano, Province Guipuzcoa (UTM grid square WN 4863)). This is a freshwater spring which is capped.&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
155894		habitat	eng	It is assumed that this species inhabits subterranean waters, with outflow spring in man-made water supply.
155894		population	eng	There is no information on population decline.
155894		threats	eng	Threats to this species include overabstraction of water depleting the groundwater, as well as pollution of the groundwaters.
155895		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are known for the area.&#160; It is recommended that a habitat monitoring protocols are put in place to identify potential degradation of the habitats.</p>
155895		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species is endemic to southern Slovenia and neighbouring areas of Croatia.&#160; Details of the distribution gives records from the&#160;Sava&#160;catchment including &#160;Savinja, Ljubljanica and Krka streams, Borovnica, creek of Iščica river south of Ljubljana; Ribnica river mouth; Kupa river drainage area: the source of Mrežnica river near Ogulin, a spring Vrelce near Jasenak (south-west of Ogulin), the source of Dretulja river near Plaški&#160;(Slapnick, pers. comm, 2010; Lajtner, pers. comm, 2010).</p>
155895		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and caves; some of the cave populations are troglobites and have adapted to the dark surroundings.
155895		population	eng	This species can be abundant where present (Reischutz, pers. comm., 2010).
155895		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.&#160;Some sites where this species is present are locally threatened by water abstraction and pollution.
155896		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species has not been evaluated in Romania. No conservation&#160; measures are needed.
155896		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania, where it is present in at least 8 sites in the Danube Basin. It has been collected from the Retezat Mountains in the Băile Herculane area, where it is found in numerous populations within cold mountain streams and springs, and also from the Semenic  Mountains (Olivia Cioboiu pers. comm. 2009).<span class="yshortcuts">
155896		habitat	eng	It lives in cold water, namely springs and streams from the mountain and alpine areas, especially in the regions with crystalline schists.
155896		population	eng	There are no data on population trends.
155896		threats	eng	There are no threats given for this species.
155897		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Although this species was listed as Extinct by Regnier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>(2009) based on a paper by Szarowska (2006), further discussions with local scientists in Montenegro and Hungary who have sampled these sites suggests that it is still present at more than 10 of the sites reported by Radoman (1983), and that sampling needs to be undertaken at the right season as these springs can dry out during summer periods (Seddon pers. comm. 2010).
155897		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Montenegro, where it is found in&#160;16-17 locations including:<ul><li>Popovo selo, spring in Buljarice near Petrovac town;&#160;</li><li>spring Bostanj in Pelinovo, near Tivat town;&#160;</li><li>spring Smokvijenac near Budva; Studenac spring in Braići vill.,;&#160;</li><li>Golubovići and Dobra Voda springs in Buljarica;&#160;</li><li>Zabrđe spring in Kovač village near Buljarica;&#160;</li><li>Spring Brca, on Sutomore-Bar road;&#160;</li><li>Bunar spring near Stari Bar town;&#160;</li><li>spring Psar near Virpazar, spring Vrelo between Boljevići and Limljani village;&#160;</li><li>Dobra Voda spring in Boljevići village;&#160;</li><li>Mladjenova gumna spring in Brijege village;&#160;</li><li>Smokvijenac spring in Tomići village;&#160;</li><li>spring Joševik near Sotonići village.</li></ul>The type locality was &#160;the freshwater springs at Buljarica, near Petrovac, Montenegro. &#160;&#160; <strong><br/></strong>
155897		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155897		population	eng	There is no population trend data.
155897		threats	eng	<em>Antibaria notata</em>&#160;(Frauenfeld, 1865)&#160;is listed by Pesic (pers. comm. 2009) from about 16-17 locations and his assessment is that this species should be assessed as Least Concern. &#160;However Regnier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) listed it as Extinct, presumably based on Falniowksi and Szarowska appendix to a paper which lists the following sites at which they failed to find it in 2001.<ul><li>Velje oko, Gluhi Do village,&#160;&#160;a locality of&#160;<em>Antibaria notata</em>&#160;(Frauenfeld, 1865); there was a big water intake and no water on the surface.</li><li>Popovo selo (Vodice) in Buljarica near Petrovac na moru, the type locality of&#160;A. notata;&#160;there was nothing left of the natural spring; there was only tap water taken from the spring, available at the monastery</li><li>Other springs along the Adriatic coast&#160;Radoman&#160;(1983) cites as localities of&#160;A. notata.&#160;Falniowksi and Swaroski&#160;found that&#160;the whole area close to the seaside was changed to a holiday and health resort built with numerous hotels, etc. and they did not find any of the localities listed below.</li><li>Bostanj by Pelinovo,&#160;</li><li>Smokovijenac near Sveti Stefan,&#160;</li><li>Golubovici and Dobra voda at Buljarica,&#160;</li><li>Studenac at Braići above the Budva town;&#160;at the this site there was a huge water intake;&#160;</li><li>Spring Smokovijenac at Tomići, the drainage area of Skutari lake, a locality of&#160;A.notata; the very small village seemed to be almost not inhabited, there being a few old, empty houses; the spring was overgrown with dense bushes,&#160;only a thin trickle of its water was accessible, there being no hydrobiids&#160;besides&#160;<em>Litthabitella chilodia</em>(Westerlund, 1886)&#160;and<em>&#160;O. montana</em>.</li></ul>
155898		conservation	eng	Protection of springs is needed.
155898		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be Near Threatened in Spain (Verdú and Galante 2009). No conservation actions are known, although further information is required on  threats and population status in order to determine the status of this  species.
155898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is widely distributed in the Mediterranean zone from northern Spain (Boeters 1988), Madrid, Balearic Islands, Valencia and Catalonia (Arconada and Ramos 2003). The species has also been recorded from the Moyen Atlas in Morocco (Pan-African assessment 2009).
155898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is widely distributed in the Mediterranean zone from northern Spain (Boeters 1988), Madrid, Balearic Islands, Valencia and Catalonia (Arconada and Ramos 2003). The species has also been recorded from the Moyen Atlas in Morocco, where it is only is known from 4 sites, 3 springs at Ain  Aghbal, T Ouiwane, Timdighas and a small stream at Sidi Addi (Pan African assessment 2009).
155898		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast Spain (Boeters 1988) and Middle Atlas in Morocco. In Morocco it is known from springs at Ain Aghbal, T Ouiwane, Timdighas, and a small stream at Sidi Addi.
155898		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont (in springs and brooks). It is found in good quality water.
155898		habitat	eng	This species is found in slow flowing waters or still waters, such as freshwater springs, streams and lakes.
155898		population	eng	No information available.
155898		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
155898		population	eng	There is no data on population trends of this species available.
155898		threats	eng	Some habitats are declining due to off-take of water and drought during summer periods.
155898		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution, and drying up of springs, caused by groundwater abstraction, droughts.
155899		conservation	eng	Assessed as Least Concern in Italy (Manganelli <em>et al,</em> 2000).
155899		distribution	eng	This species is found in Italy, mainly in the northern regions where it is widespread, and the range extends eastwards&#160; to Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia & Hercegovina.
155899		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155899		population	eng	There is no population trend data on this species.
155899		threats	eng	Threats to this species include groundwater pollution and groundwater abstraction.
155900		conservation	eng	The moorland habitat is protected under the Habitat Directive and several sub-populations lie within protected areas. There is no known conservation actions for this species. More data is needed on populations, distribution and threats to enable a better conservation assessment for this species.
155900		conservation	eng	This species' moorland habitat is protected under the Habitat Directive and several sub-populations lie within protected areas. There is no known conservation actions in place for this species. More data is needed on populations, distribution and threats to enable a better conservation assessment for this species. In Germany, the species is listed as Critically Endangered (Glöer and Meier-Brook 2003).
155900		distribution	eng	This species was renamed by Boeters and Falkner (1998), and Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) noted that it can be found in Switzerland, northern Italy, Austria and southern Germany. In Germany the species is declining (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In Italy it is recorded from the northern parts of the country, however there is a note that the few data relating to reports of literature and specimens in the presence of historical collections, require thorough checks as these may also include <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata macrostoma</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata studeri</span>. At present there is little recent data on distribution, however it is  believed to be present in lakes, pools in lowland alpine zones<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) list the species from Ukraine and western Siberia, but note that the specimens require review, as Boeters and Falkner (1988) considered that <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata studeri </span>was restricted to the alpine regions of Europe.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span>
155900		distribution	eng	This species was renamed by Boeters and Falkner (1998), and Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) noted that it can be found in Switzerland, northern Italy, Austria and southern Germany. In Germany, the species is only found in Bavaria (Glöer and Zettler 2005).&#160;The species is declining in the northern parts of its range (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In Italy it is recorded from the northern parts of the country, however there is a note that the few data relating to reports of literature and specimens in the presence of historical collections, require thorough checks as these may also include <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata macrostoma</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata studeri</span>. At present there is little recent data on distribution, however it is  believed to be present in lakes and pools in lowland alpine zones<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) list the species from Ukraine and western Siberia, and Pintér and Suara (2004) recorded the species in Hungary. However,&#160;note that the specimens require review, as Boeters and Falkner (1998) considered that <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata studeri </span>was restricted to the alpine regions of Europe.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>The distribution of this species needs further investigation (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
155900		habitat	eng	The species occurs in low alpine areas and moorlands where it inhabits small shallow standing water and is recorded from alpine lakes.
155900		population	eng	There is no population trend data available as the species was recently described, but the species is considered stable, except in the northern edges of the range where it is thought to be declining.
155900		threats	eng	This species may be affected by habitat degradation in the future, especially towards the northern edge of the range, as the species occurs in areas that may be drained, or affected by seasonal drying.
155902		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for the species and little data  relating to reports of literature and specimens in the presence of  historical collections. More data is required on population trends,  distribution and habitat trends.
155902		distribution	eng	This species is listed from Ukraine, where it is listed by Son (pers. comm. 2009) as present in&#160;  Dniepr-Bug Liman (Ukraine) and the Caspian Sea. According to Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009), the species is present in brackish waters of north-western Black Sea Maritime Territory (Dnieper-Bug and Dniester limans), as well as the Caspian Sea.
155902		habitat	eng	In Europe, this species is found in the brackish water lagoons on edge of Dnieper Basin (Son pers. comm. 2009).
155902		population	eng	Son (pers. comm. 2009) noted that the species is declining in Dneiper Limans.
155902		threats	eng	The main threats lie in declining quality of habitat due to river channel management (dredging) and water pollution from industrial sources.
155903		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. This species is listed as Endangered (EN B2ab(iii)) on the Croatian National Red List of the Cave Fauna. Some of these sites are planned as part of the Natura 2000 network, but this is not yet implemented.&#160;All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia. The status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.
155903		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The species is found in Croatia where it was first described from the Ombla-Hohle. The species is rarely found living, but has <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sie ist auch im hier bearbeiteten Material sehr häufig und">has been found frequently in processed materials<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> from outwash from the cave system, and as such its distribution is difficult to estimate. <span title="Sie ist auch im hier bearbeiteten Material sehr häufig und">It is also occurs in other coastal cave systems in southern Dalmatia (Schütt 2000).&#160;The other localities where it was found are a spring in the South of Svitavsko blato near Metkovic, the spring Izvor kod Mlina near Plat, the Ljuta spring in Konavle and the Jazova cave near Cavtat (Red Book of Croatian Underground Fauna, in press 2010).&#160;<br/><span title="Sie ist"></span></span></span>
155903		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from springs emerging from cave systems.
155903		population	eng	There is no information available about the population trend of this species.
155903		threats	eng	Low levels of decline have been observed in the habitats. In the 1970s dam construction in Popovo polje (Herzegovina) impacted water levels which supply the springs from near Metkovic to Dubrovnik. In recent years, the region around Metkovic is now a highly productive agricultural area, with the use of pesticides. In addition there is little sewage management, and so these waters pollute the groundwater. A further threat for the future of the systems is 3 dams being constructed upstream of Metkovic, which will have a major impact by taking water from the system, as well as increasing the rate of inflow from the sea, causing increased salinity, and hence mortality of the species. The conditions of the Ombla spring will be altered due to the construction of a dam that is in plan. The area around Dubrovnik and Cavtat is under stress during the tourist season, being affected by water extraction and pollution.
155904		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat trends is recommended for this species to check for changes in distribution and habitats.</p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>
155904		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stankovicia wagneri</span> is restricted to Lake Ohrid, between Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), where it is mainly found in the deeper parts of the lake, below 30 m depth&#160; (Radoman 1985).
155904		habitat	eng	This lacustrine freshwater species lives in the sub-littoral zone of Lake Ohrid.
155904		population	eng	This species is rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).
155904		threats	eng	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) could also impact this small gastropod. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.<br/></p>
155905		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions.  More survey is needed to clarify the species distribution.
155905		distribution	eng	In this assessment <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola pisolinus</span> is considered to be endemic to Department of Bouches-du-Rhône in southern France, based on Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2002).
155905		habitat	eng	This species lives in springs.
155905		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
155905		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicides and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.
155906		conservation	eng	Further surveys are necessary to confirm the status of the species on the island and possibly develop a plan for conservation action given the level of pressure on water resources on the island.
155906		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria vindilica</span> is endemic to the island of Belle-île de mer, Western France.
155906		habitat	eng	This species was reported from in small freshwater streams on the island.
155906		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155906		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation from water extraction and urban development.
155907		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are known for the area. Habitat should be monitor.<br/></p>
155907		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bulgaria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, known from a stream in Temnata Dupka cave at Lakatnik, Stara Planina Mts. The cave is about 800 m in length. Even though, the location of this site is only few kilometres outside  the dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region,  we considered this species to be Mediterranean, based on climatic and geological similarities of the region  with the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>.
155907		habitat	eng	<p>This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in Caves). It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155907		population	eng	There is no data on the population of this species.
155907		threats	eng	<p>A possible threat could be the pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave in the future.</p>
155908		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species across the range, although local actions may be in place. Although the species is still widespread at present, it has been declining in parts of the range (Killeen pers. comm, 2009). Hence further surveys are needed to determine the decline levels, and then determine whether further actions are necessary.
155908		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in northern Africa.
155908		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium subtruncatum</em> is a Paleartic species widespread to the north of the Alps. In Africa, it has only been recorded from two localities in Morocco (Ifrane and Tangier) and Algeria (near Algiers and Sebdou) (Van Damme 1984). The last record dates from 1971, being quite possibly extinct in Africa. Its type locality is Qvillebäcken in Sweden.
155908		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe where it is found from Ireland, Iceland and Spain to Latvia and Finland. In southern Europe, it is present although rarer in the Mediterranean region and it has been observed in Turkey and, more recently, in Lebanon (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2010)
155908		habitat	eng	It lives in cold waters.
155908		habitat	eng	The species occurs in different types of freshwater habitats such as slow flowing rivers, canals, oxbows, fish ponds and flooded gravel pits.
155908		population	eng	No information available.
155908		population	eng	The species is known to have declined in some parts of its range. However, no information on the population status or trend over the whole range has been available.
155908		threats	eng	The species is threatened by water temperature rise due to global warming, as it prefers cold water.
155908		threats	eng	While there are no current major threats impacting this species, there are localized threats from pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. However, Mouthon (1996) has shown that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. subtruncatum</span> was moderately tolerant of biodegradable pollution.
155909		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species (Sket and Velkovrh 2002). This species is present in groundwaters that can be difficult to sample, so it may be under-recorded, hence further research into its population and distribution is recommended.
155909		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lanzaiopsis savinica </span>is a narrowly endemic species found in Slovenia. Some specimens were found only in the spring Pecovski izvir north-west from Luce in Savinja Valley. The other localities are small springs and the cave Zavratnikova jama in the surrounding area (R.Slapnik pers. comm. 2010).
155909		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs in a limestone karst area.
155909		population	eng	There is no data available on population status or trends of this species.
155909		threats	eng	The presence of pesticides in the groundwater is believed to exceed permitted levels, and hence provides a threat to this species, which is an indicator of good water quality.
155910		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for this species but habitat monitoring would be of benefit.
155910		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella navarrensis </span>is endemic to France, and is found in Department Pyrénées-Atlantiques (South-West France).&#160; It is currently only known from&#160;two neighbouring wells near Arnéguy, but these two wells are fed by the same aquifer, therefore the species occurs in only one single location.
155910		habitat	eng	This species is found in wells and is considered to be subterranean.
155910		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155910		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. However, this location in the Pyrenees does not seem to suffer from human impacts and no immediate threat is known for the species, although as a single site it is vulnerable to future changes.
155911		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species is considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (CK Map 5.3.8) (Manganelli <em>et al</em>, 2000).&#160; Further survey work on range and threats to the species as well as monitoring of habitat trends are recommended to evaluate future changes in the species.
155911		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy found in the Appeninic region of central Tuscany where it has been recorded from 12 locations (unpublished data compiled for the Italian mapping project CK Map version 5.3.8.).
155911		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments (Manganelli <em>et al,</em> 2000).
155911		population	eng	No data on population decline as there is limited data on this species.
155911		threats	eng	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species is vulnerable to groundwater abstraction for domestic purposes and/or pollution from agricultural sources and domestic sources. (Manganelli <em>et al.</em>, 2000).
155912		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Research is needed to confirm whether or not this species is extant. If the species is found to be extant then site and water management combined with communications to spring users are needed to ensure the habitat does not deteriorate further and the species does not become extinct.
155912		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is known from spring on northeast side of Amitfea, Perama, sited on the northeast side of Lake Pamvotis, in the region of Epirus.            Szarowska and Falniowski (2004)  noted that this spring dried out at the beginning of the 1980s, although Peter Reischütz collected it in the late 1980s (Reischütz pers. comm. 2009, Reischütz, P.L. and Sattmann, H. 1990). Hence at this time the loss of this spring was not permanent. <br/><br/>Regnier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2009) listed the species as extinct, based on the information from Szarowska and Falniowski (2004), however this was an error, as it has been recorded after they believed it had become extinct. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2006) point out that there maybe some confusion in the locations for this species, and thus it could be suggested that inability to locate a certain species at one site is certainly no conclusive evidence for its extinction.
155912		habitat	eng	It lives in the subterranean karstic caves associated with the springs along the northern shore of Lake Pamvotis (Schutt H. in Frogley and Preece 2007).
155912		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
155912		threats	eng	The major threats to this species have already caused its probable extinction. The springs where the species was originally found dried up in the late 1980s due to over-abstraction of water (Reischutz pers. comm. 2009). It has not been collected in recent years, however efforts need to be made at suitable times when the water levels are high to resurvey for this species to establish whether the species has survived.
155914		conservation	eng	There are no documented actions. This species requires more research on population trends and taxonomy.
155914		distribution	eng	This species is listed as a endemic species from France and was described from "Source de la Farre" northwest of&#160; Labastide-de-Virac.
155914		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155914		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155914		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155915		conservation	eng	This species is viewed as Least Concern in many European countries.&#160; It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (Glöer and Meier-brook 2003). There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
155915		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) although rarer in the south-eastern Mediterranean, where it is present at several locations in Syria and Turkey. The range is probably Holarctic, and although it occurs principally in Europe, it has been widely spread elsewhere (e.g. China, Hong Kong).
155915		habitat	eng	<em>Musculium lacustre</em> occurs in a wide range of freshwater habitats in hard or soft water, but it is most frequently occurring in swamps, ponds and marsh drains, or in the well-vegetated margins of rivers and canals (Killeen pers. comm. 2009). The species is tolerant of moderately polluted water or stagnant, poorly oxygenated conditions, and places subject to periods of drought.&#160; In poor environments <em>M. lacustre</em> may be the only bivalve present. <em>M. lacustre</em> occurs on muddy substrates often over anoxic mud, and frequently where there is a dense vegetation cover.&#160; It generally occurs crawling amongst weeds and at the substrate/weed interface. It is mostly a very shallow water, lowland species often occurring in habitats which are subject to some seasonal drying.
155915		population	eng	Information on the population status and trend of this species has not been given.
155915		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this species.   However the types of habitat required by the species are frequently considered to have very little conservation value, and thus, they are especially vulnerable to land drainage and pollution, water abstraction, changes in agricultural practice, and destruction and infilling of pools.
155916		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions known for this species. However, further research on the distribution and trends in Greece is required to confirm that status as 'Least Concern' and to establish if the species Hydrobia haesitans Westerlund, 1881, from Levkas Island In Greece is conspecific with this species (Feher and Eross, 2009a,b).
155916		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Albania and Greece. According to Feher and Eross (2009) this species was known from two Albanian localities: Golobarda spring near Korçë (type locality) and Trifti spring near Zvirinë (Radoman 1983).&#160; According to new data, it seems to be widespread in Albania. They identify other subpopulations on the basis of the material, collected in the Trifti spring.
155916		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155916		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155916		threats	eng	A widespread species in a variety of spring habitats, with only localised threats.
155917		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Monitoring of the spring is recommended to determine future trends in the habitat and population status of this species.
155917		distribution	eng	<em>Vinodolia matjasici</em>&#160;is&#160;endemic to&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it is known only from the type locality, a small spring near the Lipovik village, 31 km west of Podgorica and 49 km north west of Lake Skadar (also known as Scutari and Shkodër). &#160;This&#160;spring which has already been captured for domestic supplies.
155917		habitat	eng	This species is an exclusively subterranean form that lives in this freshwater spring and may extend to the groundwater system feeding the spring.
155917		population	eng	The population status is not known.
155917		threats	eng	Vladimir Pesic (pers. comm. 2009) observed that the freshwater spring has been captured for local drinking water and the spring is also susceptible to summer droughts, when outflow from the groundwater sources cease.
155918		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not protected in Greece. The area where it has been found is included in the protected sites of Natura 2000 network: GR1420002-Delta Pineiou-Tempi and GR1420005-Aisthitiko dasos Koiladas Tempon. Appropriate site management is needed to prevent habitat degradation, and users needed to be made aware of effects of disturbance of the spring on biodiversity. <br/></p>
155918		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is known from the type locality,&#160;from the spring Daphne in the Tempe valley and&#160;two springs close to the railway station Agia.
155918		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155918		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
155918		threats	eng	<p>The main threat for this species is the disturbance of springs caused by human activities such as pollution of groundwater, over-abstraction of water for drinking and irrigating needs, and tourist pressure.</p>
155919		conservation	eng	<p>The distribution of this species lies within a protected area, as Lake Vegoritis is included in the Natura 2000 network (site GR1340004-Limnes Vegoritida-Petron) (Radea pers. comm. 2010). However, at present there is    no species-specific conservation action in place for this species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides used for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Measures also need to be taken to reduce the contamination resulting from the open cast mining.<br/></p>
155919		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Lake Vegoritis, Greece. The surface of this lake has been reduced from 55 km² in the 1950s to 39 km² in 2007 (Albrecht pers. comm. 2009).
155919		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the littoral zone of the freshwater lake where it is found on hard substrates (rocks and stones).</p>
155919		population	eng	This is not a common species and the current population trends are unknown (Albrecht pers. comm. 2009).
155919		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to a drop in water level (of several metres), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening <em>Parabythinella graeca</em>, which lives in the littoral zone of a large freshwater lake. Water abstraction for filling the reservoir of a hydro-power plant is also resulting in additional major fluctuations of the water level (up to 30 m) (Skoulikidis <em>et al</em>. 2008). Run-off from mining in the south reaches the lake through the river Pentavrisos, carrying heavy metals and sediments. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail.<br/></p>
155920		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species but monitoring of habitat and population trends would be of benefit.
155920		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia gibberula</span> is endemic to France, where it is known from 2 localities in the Hérault valley (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009).
155920		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155920		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155920		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilisation for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155921		conservation	eng	In Hungary it is protected by law. In Austria, according to their Red List (2008) the fluvial subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">acicularis</span> is Critically Endangered and the other subspecies is Extinct.
155921		distribution	eng	Widespread in central and eastern Europe, this species is predominantly distributed within the Danube drainage however there are some sub-populations adjacent to the Danube basin (e.g. Greece).
155921		habitat	eng	This occurs in rivers and thermal springs.
155921		population	eng	In the Danube there is an observable decrease of the the population, however there are several stable subpopulations in tributaries.
155921		threats	eng	Pollution is the main threat to this species.
155923		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in northern Africa.
155923		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions targeting the species across its range, and although considered threatened in some countries, it is not the subject of conservation actions, and none are considered necessary over the entire range although local actions maybe necessary.<br/><br/>This species has been assessed for national red lists in some countries. In Czech Republic it is considered Near Threatened (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), in Germany&#160; Category 3 (Near Threatened) (Glöer 2002), in Slovakia Vulnerable (Steffek and Vavrova 2006) and in Great Britain Least Concern (I. Killeen and M. Seddon pers. comm. 2010).
155923		distribution	eng	<em>Psidium milium</em> is a Paleartic predominantly boreal species, rare in southern Europe. It was cited from one location in Morocco (Oued Mikkès near Ifrane) and two locations in Algeria (Bouffaric and Sebdou). The earliest record dates from 1971 (Oued Mikkès), but that population has become extinct due to pollution. It can be assumed that due to global warming and general ecosystem degradation this species is likely to disappear from Africa.
155923		distribution	eng	This holarctic species is widespread in Europe. It is recorded by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Spain (mainland), Ukraine, and Greece.   <br/><br/>Elsewhere it is known from North Africa and North America.
155923		habitat	eng	No information available.
155923		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, both calcareous and non-alkaline, particularly in ponds, marshy pools and drainage ditches with swampy conditions. Although it is found in streams, rivers and canals it usually only occurs where there are densely vegetated margins (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
155923		population	eng	No information on population.
155923		population	eng	This is a widespread species but it usually has small local populations.
155923		threats	eng	The species is threatened by pollution, global warming and general ecosystem degradation.
155923		threats	eng	The threats to this species are very localised and not impacting it throughout its range. In lowland rivers the principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. In ponds, swamps, roadside ditches, fens and marshes, the species' habitat is threatened by destruction of habitat, drainage, pollution from agriculture, forestry and domestic sources. Mouthon (1996) showed that this species is relatively tolerant of biodegradable pollution.
155924		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on taxonomy and distribution.
155924		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia pontmartiniana</span> is endemic to France. It is only known from the type locality(Surgeons des sources des Angles. Gard departement).
155924		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155924		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155924		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowered groundwater tables maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155925		conservation	eng	There is no conservation actions needed for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana</span> but more research on the taxonomy is needed for the species.
155925		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana</span> is a widespread species within France (Bertand 2004).
155925		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana</span> lives in subterranean waters, and possibly in the waters flowing under the river beds.
155925		population	eng	There is no population data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana.<br/><br/></span>
155925		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.<br/><br/>Hyporheic habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption is another important threat for the small stream that may become completely dried out in summer, thus affecting directly the species. Casual droughts, and therefore climate change, are also a potential threat.
155926		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring is suggested for this species, as well as new surveys to determine how many localities occur on Corsica.
155926		distribution	eng	<em>Graziana trinitatis </em>is only&#160;known from only a few localities in France. One is the type locality, La Trinité near Nice, and a few others are given by Falkner <em>et al</em>. (2002) from Corsica.&#160;Because we do not know the exact number of localities, neither AOO nor EOO can be calculated. Nevertheless, it is believed that there are fewer than 5 locations.
155926		habitat	eng	Species from the genus <em>Graziana</em>&#160;&#160;are freshwater spring snails.
155926		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155926		threats	eng	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer ; or they are built for water extraction directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat destruction, unless they lie in protected areas.
155927		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni</span> was not included in the list of species assessed for the Croatian Red List of the Cave Fauna.
155927		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni </span>is listed for southern Dalmacija (Croatia), southeastern Hercegovina (BiH) and Montenegro by Bole and Velkovrh (1986). Schütt (2000) listed the species from the<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Baba cave near Trebinje in Herzegovina (Type locality), as well as from material washed out from the Ombla cave system, where it was not frequent, but consistently represented. The distribution includes the extended area around the Popovo Polje <span title="Zahlreiche Fundorte, an denen">as well as Trsteno, N. Dubrovnik (Schütt <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Zahlreiche Fundorte, an denen">1975).</span></span>
155927		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni</span> is found within groundwaters in Caves.
155927		population	eng	No population trend data on <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni</span>, but the species is never found in large numbers (Schutt, 2000).
155927		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are groundwater pollution, from different sources, within the cave systems.
155929		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for the species and it is not listed on the Italian Red List of threatened animals. Firstly, further research is needed on the taxonomic status, which was in progress according to Haase (2000).
155929		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia zilchi</span> is listed as being endemic to Italy by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is known from Ponte di Castelluccio, Latium, Italy, however was not considered as treated as a species on the national checklist for Italy (Stoch 2003).
155929		habitat	eng	Freshwater springs are the presumed habitat for this species.
155929		population	eng	The population trends are unknown for this species.
155929		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
155930		conservation	eng	Being such a widespread species some of the subpopulations are within protected areas, however in general there are no known conservation actions in place for this species, and none are required.
155930		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155930		distribution	eng	This species has a Palearctic distribution occurring throughout Europe and Russia to the Kolyma River in Siberia (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
155930		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western and central Europe and is common in the western countries. &#160;Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006; Fauna Europea) report the species from&#160;Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia Hungary, Italy (Mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (Mainland), Portugal (Mainland), Albania, Macedonia Slovenia Croatia, Bosnia & Hercegovina, Montenegro, Ukraine and&#160;Kalingrad region (Russia).<br/><br/>The species occurs outside Europe, with a range extending to Siberia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
155930		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow waters of a range of freshwater habitats,  as well as brackish bays and human-dominated habitats such as dam  reservoirs, old river beds and ditches (Carlsson 2006, Michalik-Kucharz  2008).
155930		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow waters of a range of freshwater habitats, as well as brackish bays and human-dominated habitats such as dam reservoirs, old river beds and ditches (Carlsson 2006, Michalik-Kucharz 2008).
155930		population	eng	This species has a wide range and collection data suggests that it is not a rare species.&#160; However in Hungary, during field work the impression was that its frequency had begun to decrease in the past decade (e. g. during the long-term monitoring project of the Kis-Balaton, it was found to disappear gradually, and in the final 4-5 years it has not been found at all) (Feher <em>et al. </em>2006).
155930		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (Aho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1981, Wild about Denmark 2010) but there are no specific population trend data available. Population density of this species was estimated at 50–100 individuals per m² in fish ponds in south-west Poland (calculated from Spyra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
155930		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
155930		threats	eng	Threats to this species include eutrophication of water bodies caused by agricultural fertilisers, inappropriate habitat management&#160; and habitat destruction.
155931		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species (Bole 1988, 1992, Sket and Velkovrh 2002) , although there are no specific conservation actions known for this species in Slovenia. However all cave-dwelling species are protected in Croatia, although again no specific plans are in place for this species. Monitoring of the population and the habitat is recommended.
155931		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Croatia and Slovenia. &#160;In Croatia<em> Iglica langhofferi</em>&#160;is recorded living in Cucerje stream (Medvednica National Park). &#160;In Slovenia ,it is found in the cave&#160;Glija jama between&#160; Celje and Zidani Most and dead shells have been taken from sediment in river&#160; Savinja near&#160; Celje, but these latter records are not considered to represent sites, it is only considered to be living at&#160;Glija jama.&#160;<p><br/></p>
155931		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in groundwater in Karstic regions (Freshwater) in Slovenia and Croatia.&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
155931		population	eng	<p>There is no data on population trends in either Slovenia or Croatia.&#160;</p>
155931		threats	eng	<p>The major threats are considered to be water pollution and urbanization.<br/></p>
155932		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.&#160;This species was listed as Endangered in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España (Especes en peligro critico y en peligro)</span>              (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
155932		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, where it is only known from the island of Majorca (Balearic Islands). It has a limited distribution in the West-North-West of the island close to the Sierra de la Tramontana, with four possible known locations: two most recent records at Estellenches and                 Font de S’Aigueta, and two other springs where it may be extinct. Ramos (pers. comm. 2010) notes that                 she has visited both locations in 2008 trying to collect the species, it was not found (although one <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola</span> species was alive in both places). In the spring of 2009, both locations were dried because of severe drought. No field work has been done in 2010 after a very rainy winter and spring, however until further surveys have been completed, the current status of the species at these sites is uncertain. </p>    <ul><li>Sa      Font de Soller, (UTM grid square DE70), spring (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009))</li><li>Estellenches,      Majorca (UTM grid square DD59), spring. (Rolán 1995)</li><li>S.      exit of Valldemossa, Font de S’Aigueta, Majorca (UTM grid square DD59). <br/></li><li>Camp de Mar, al sur de Andraitx (UTM grid square DD48). <br/></li></ul>                   <em></em>
155932		habitat	eng	<p>This is a freshwater species found in small springs. It can sometimes be found with <em>Pseudamnicola</em> spp. (UTM grid square DD59).</p>
155932		population	eng	The species is declining, having possibly been lost from two sites, and not recorded from surveys in last three years from other sites (Ramos, pers. comm., 2010)
155932		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is through the exploitation of water for domestic purposes; both extant sites are public water sources. Frequently concrete is used to cap off the water to improve water abstraction for domestic use which destroys the habitat and impacts the subpopulations (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
155933		conservation	eng	The wetlands surrounding Lake Trichonis are a Natura 2000 site. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use for agricultural purposes needs to be drastically reduced. Research on population trends and distribution is needed.
155933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is now only known from the northeast shore of Lake Trichonis (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but was once found throughout the lake (Radoman 1985).
155933		habitat	eng	<p>This littoral species lives on the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline.</p>
155933		population	eng	This is a rare species, and the current population trend is unknown.
155933		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to a drop in water level related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. The construction of a road along the north-eastern edge of the Trichonis Lake has destroyed some of the surface springs adjacent to the lake and the construction material washed into the lake deteriorated the quality of the habitat of this small snail.
155934		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, habitat and threats of this species.
155934		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and only known from the type locality in Limni Pamvotis, where it was excavated bottom material. Bank (2006) notes that this species is only known from empty shells and further investigations are required to understand if this is extant or a subfossil species.
155934		habitat	eng	This is probably a freshwater lake species, but the details are unknown.
155934		population	eng	There is no data available on population for this species.
155934		threats	eng	This is probably a freshwater lake species, but details are unknown, and as such it is difficult to know the threats.
155935		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species.This species requires more research on distribution, population trends and threats
155935		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Bosna (near Sarajevo) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
155935		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits freshwater spring.
155935		population	eng	There are no recent data on population trends.
155935		threats	eng	The latest CBD report from Bosnia suggests that there are considerable threats to freshwater species, but no specific information is available for this species.
155937		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
155937		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
155937		distribution	eng	This is a North American species widely introduced to parts of Europe. It was first reported in England in the mid 19<sup>th</sup> century, and also cited from The Netherlands (Kerney 1999).
155937		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the United States and Canada. In the United States, it occurs in Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and Wisconsin. In Canada, it occurs in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Ontario and Quebec (Burch 1975, Mouthon and Loiseau 2000, NatureServe 2009). It also occurs in Mexico (Burch 1975).<br/>It is present as an introduced species in Europe. It was first recorded in Great Britain in 1856, in the Netherlands in 1956, and in France in 2000 (Mouthon and Loiseau 2000).
155937		habitat	eng	This species is known from canals in Germany and The Netherlands.                 In England this species has been recorded only from canals and canalised rivers (Kerney 1999). The records from Europe are also from such habitats. In its native North America the species occurs in a much wider range of freshwater habitats including rivers, creeks, ponds and pools. Kerney (1999) notes that the species prefers a muddy substrate and can tolerate anaerobic bottom conditions. The most recent record from England (Lindley 2006) records specimens from thick mud in a managed canal in north Yorkshire.
155937		habitat	eng	This species occupies a range of habitat types including lakes, slow-flowing rivers, canals and swamps (Burch 1975, Mouthon and Loiseau 2000). It occurs most commonly on muddy substrates, but has also been found on stone and sand sediments. Juveniles can burrow into muddy sediments to depths of up to 16 cm, where they may stay in a diapause for several weeks. This strategy allows the species to regulate its populations and to survive periods of less favourable conditions (Mouthon and Loiseau 2000).<br/><br/>This species is known from some heavily polluted sites, including the Chicago Sanitary District of the Illinois River, which contains high levels of unionized ammonia, petrochemicals, and heavy metals (Sloss <em>et al.</em> 1998). A study by Krieger (1984) also found this species to respond positively to organic enrichment in Lake Erie in North America.
155937		population	eng	In the Mississippi River, this species has been recorded at densities of over 100,000 individuals per square metre (Mouthon and Loiseau 2000). However, in France, the maximum recorded density is 100 individuals per square metre (Mouthon and Loiseau 2000).<br/><br/>In the Illinois River, severe declines in the numbers of this species have been reported since the 1950s. These declines have been attributed to pollution from unionized ammonia, petrochemicals, and heavy metals. This species was thought to have been eliminated from the area of the river around Chicago, until it was rediscovered in the early 1990s. Since then, a substantial sub-population has become re-established, as a result of the evolution of pollution-tolerance (Sloss <em>et al.</em> 1998).
155937		population	eng	The species was more common last century and has been declining in the UK, where it was established in the 19th century (I. Killeen and M. Seddon pers. comm. 2009).
155937		threats	eng	Given the large geographic distribution of this species, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting its global population. However, some sub-populations may be experiencing localized declines due to habitat loss and degradation.
155937		threats	eng	This species is moderately tolerant of polluted habitats and is under no threat in Europe, where it is potentially expanding its range.
155938		conservation	eng	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). <br/><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><br/>This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.</strong>
155938		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia. It is recorded from central Slovenia, only known from springs of the river Ljubljanica in Vrhnika area.
155938		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155938		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
155938		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species include the pressures on the habitat from urban development and water pollution.
155939		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species.
155939		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western and southern Slovenia and the upper Kupa/Kolpa drainage in Croatia (Sket, pers. comm., 2010).
155939		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155939		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155939		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155940		conservation	eng	In most countries this species is not considered to be of conservation interest. No species specific conservation actions are in place. In Ireland, it was assessed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Great Britain it was listed as Least Concern, as the species is currently stable (Seddon and&#160; Killeen, pers. comm. 2010).&#160; In Germany and Switzerland it is considered to be category 3 (endangered). Research actions include further research to establish population and habitat trends and monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
155940		conservation	eng	Prevention of introduction of carp into dayets is needed.
155940		conservation	eng	Within Bulgaria, this species is regarded as being of national importance, although the conservation measures which this bestows are uncertain (Hubenov 2007).&#160; There are no other known species-specific conservation measures in place elsewhere. Threats and population trends of the species require further research.
155940		distribution	eng	<em>Hippeutis complanatus</em> is a Paleartic species with a few relict populations extending into northern Africa. Recently only recorded from Morocco at Aguelman Tifounassine and Oued Tamelelt in the Middle Atlas and from wells at Tahla in the Anti-Atlas (Ghamizi 1998). In Algeria it was recorded in the 19th Century by Bourguignat (1864) from Rassauta, which is now a suburb of Algiers and has been drained, so it is expected to be gone.
155940		distribution	eng	This freshwater species is widespread in Europe from Norway and Sweden to Portugal, east to Greece, Ukraine and Russia.
155940		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across most of mainland Europe and is found in local populations in North Africa. It is reported from Siberia, the Caspian Basin, Armenia and Turkey (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
155940		habitat	eng	The species is found in the Middle Atlas in dayets, a type of small lake found in Morocco left over from glaciation with fluctuating water levels with rainfall. It prefers cold waters.
155940		habitat	eng	This freshwater snail lives more commonly in lowland habitats and is typically found in slow flowing water in canals, rivers, lakes, ponds and ditches. It prefers calcium-rich waters and is usually found amongst vegetation. It avoids places with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999). Often found together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus</span> spp and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acroloxus</span> spp.
155940		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown fluvial and lacustrine habitat (Aho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1981, Vribickas and Pliuraite 2002, Hubenov 2007, Michalik-Kucharz 2008). It has been recorded from shallow waters with a fairly continuous distribution&#160; (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011). It is known to occur in standing waters with abundant vegetation and peaty sediment; estivation (state of dormancy in hot, dry weather) occurs buried in sediment (Girod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
155940		population	eng	No information available.
155940		population	eng	There is no information regarding the current population trends of this species.
155940		population	eng	This species is known to be relatively abundant (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011). Although there are insufficient population data available for this species, some localised declines have been observed. It has been found to be one of the most abundant molluscan species in small Lithuanian rivers (Vribickas and Pliuraite 2002) but contrary to this, no specimens of this species were found in similar rivers of the nearby Kaliningrad region of Russia (Vribickas and Pliuraite 2002). Populations in North Africa are very restricted and the species is considered Endangered there.
155940		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is pollution from a variety of point and non- point sources. Given its wide distribution and range of habitats, this species is unlikely to be threatened by human disturbance in the near future.
155940		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is water abstraction for cultivation and irrigation. As a result of the introduction of foreign carp in some dayets (which eats molluscs and mollusc eggs), only large snails are found in these water bodies, although there is not much settlement around them. In addition, sheep grazing destroys bordering vegetation where snails live.
155940		threats	eng	The species is not showing evidence of significant declines across the range, however there are localized declines due to changes in land management practices, usually conversion of marshy ground to agricultural lands, or from heavy pollution.
155941		conservation	eng	In the Spanish National Red List, it is listed as Vulnerable (VU B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv)) (Verdu and Galante 2009), whereas in the Andalucian Red List it has the status Vulnerable (VU A4c; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)) (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">Further research is needed on  the population status to determine the rate of decline, as well as  habitat monitoring to determine changes. Better information needs to be  available on best practice for managing the water resources to maintain  flow levels without impacting biodiversity (<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).</span>
155941		conservation	eng	In the Spanish National Red List, it is listed as Vulnerable (VU B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv)) (Verdu and Galante 2009), whereas in the Andalucian Red List it has the status Vulnerable (VU A4c; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)) (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Taxonomic research is needed to determine the species limits in this potential species complex, and subsequently research into the population size, distribution and trends of the resulting species is needed to establish the correct categories. .
155941		conservation	eng	Taxonomy should be checked for the species as it is likely to be not only one but a complex of several species with smaller distributions.
155941		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Melanopsis cariosa</em> occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
155941		distribution	eng	This species is found in Spain and possibly North Africa. In Andalucia it is recorded from the Provinces of Sevilla, Cádiz and Huelva (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), where it is found in the middle and lower reaches of the Rio Guadalquivir and the Ríos Guadiara and Guada  (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
155941		distribution	eng	This species is found in Spain and possibly North Africa, in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In Andalucia it is recorded from the Provinces of Sevilla, Cádiz and Huelva (Barea-Azcón 2008), where it is found in the middle and lower reaches of the Rio Guadalquivir and the Ríos Guadiara and Guada  (Barea-Azcón 2008).
155941		habitat	eng	This is freshwater, medium sized species that lives in streams with low water level and stony bottom. It is rarely found on standing waters.
155941		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in the larger river channels, but also in ditches, canals and streams, permanent ponds and lakes. It preferentially colonizes hard substrates like rocks and walls.
155941		population	eng	No information available.
155941		population	eng	The current population trend is unknown as there is no recent data available.
155941		population	eng	The population trends are unknown as there is no recent data available.
155941		threats	eng	A major threat to the species is harvesting by shell collectors.
155941		threats	eng	Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) report that in general the overexploitation of water resources has intensified in recent decades generating a progressive deterioration in freshwater habitats. Pollution from domestic sources, excessive extraction of water from ponds during the summer for agriculture, overexploitation of aquifers for domestic and agricultural use and the disturbance of habitats, for example through cleaning ditches and ponds, are other threats.
155941		threats	eng	Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) report that in general the overexploitation of water resources has intensified in recent decades generating a progressive deterioration in freshwater habitats. Pollution from domestic sources, excessive extraction of water from ponds during the summer for agriculture, overexploitation of aquifers for domestic and agricultural use and the disturbance of habitats ,for example through cleaning ditches and ponds, are other threats. In North Africa, this species is also harvested by shell collectors.
155942		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures. More research is needed to solve the taxonomic issues of this genus.
155942		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is originally recorded from the Pyrenees and Department Aveyron (Bernasconi, 2000), giving a rather disjunct distribution. The Aveyron records are only based on shells, and as such are considered to be possibly not this species (Prie & Bichain, pers. comm. 2009). Therefore the EOO is calculated on the subpopulations from the Pyrenees only.
155942		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species.
155942		population	eng	The population status is unknown at these sites.
155942		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water.
155944		conservation	eng	This species is protected in France. Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of habitat changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status and taxonomic review of the Italian sub-populations, which are possibly not this species (Prie pers. comm. 2010).
155944		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria massoti </span>is now considered to be restricted to the department of Pyrénées-Orientales (France), where it is known from the Agly drainage basin only, and although recorded from a spring, as this is a groundwater species, it is assumed to live in a underlying aquifer system.<br/><br/>The sub-populations from Sardinia are considered to be in need of taxonomic revision and are not included in this assessment, as these may represent a different species (Prie pers. comm. 2010) The range on Sardinia represents 7 different sub-populations scattered  over central-eastern Sardinia. These sites range from 5m ASL to 750 m  ASL, and are largely springs.
155944		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters, but is also found in freshwater springs.
155944		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155944		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. The aquifer where <span style="font-style: italic;">M. massoti</span> lives is slightly salted and suitable for human consumption. Water abstraction for domestic purpose should therefore not be an important threat. The area is at present relatively free of major pollution, but a single event could affect the only locality and the species is therefore very vulnerable.
155945		conservation	eng	Site and habitat protection are needed to ensure the survival of this species. More research is also needed on the taxonomy.
155945		distribution	eng	<em>Graziana provincialis </em>is endemic to southern France where it is restricted to 3 sites.
155945		habitat	eng	<em>Grazina</em>&#160;species are freshwater spring snails.
155945		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155945		threats	eng	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer ; or they are built for water extraction directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling speciezs are threatened with general habitat destruction.
155946		conservation	eng	The species is listed as protected in Toscana, although no specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. It was considered to be Near Threatened on the Italian Red List (CK Map 5.3.8.).&#160; A programme of habitat monitoring is required for this species.
155946		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella manganellii</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically to Tuscan Appeninnes.&#160; It is listed from at least 8 locations, some of which have multiple outlets from a single groundwater system.
155946		habitat	eng	This species can be found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.
155946		population	eng	Restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155946		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
155947		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in France. Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review of the other sites where this species has been identified on shell morphology, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity.
155947		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella eurystoma</span> is endemic to France where it is found in the Mediterranean zone. Molecular analyses have confirmed this species is found from 3 of the 4 localities, with an AOO of 16 km<sup>2</sup> but it could be more widespread in the Causse du Larzac and the Hérault basin (V. Prie,<span style="font-style: italic;"> pers. comm</span>, 2009.
155947		habitat	eng	This is a small freshwater gastropod which is found in springs.
155947		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
155947		threats	eng	Although specific threats to these sites are uncertain, spring sites are vulnerable to exploitation due to water utilization for watering livestock and offtake for domestic supplies. Consequently, these sites get concreted over or are over-exploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.
155948		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. It lies in an area that does not suffer much disturbance but will require habitat monitoring to ensure that the population trends continue to be stable. Further survey work to attempt to expand the known range is advised.
155948		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, where it is found only in one locality in the cave Rudnica spilja VI.
155948		habitat	eng	The species is known from an underground karstic cave.
155948		population	eng	There is no information available about the species' population.
155948		threats	eng	There are currently no threats observed for this species. This is an area of land mines and therefore not affected by any human threats.
155949		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the French law.
155949		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum francomontanum </em>is listed for France and Switerland. &#160;In France it is is known from the departments of Jura, Doubs, Haute-Saône and Haut-Rhin. In Switzerland, it is known from the Neuchatel and Berne cantons.
155949		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species living in karstic waters.
155949		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
155949		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155950		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of this species require confirmation.There are no conservation measures.
155950		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be endemic to France, and not found in Spain (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2002), however range of this species is currently under some doubt, as most of the original records come from Pyrenees-Atlantique, but the French National Inventory of Natural Patrimony (<a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceDescription.jsp&numero_taxon=162862">INPN</a>) shows a record from the Department of Herault, on the Mediterranean coast, without any intervening records. Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) suggest that the range is limited to springs in the vicinity of St Jean de Luz and the Valley of the Nive at Arneguy.
155950		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be a freshwater spring species.
155950		population	eng	Population status is unknown.
155950		threats	eng	The distribution and taxonomic status is unknown in detail.&#160; However springs in the region of St Jean de Luz are largely captured for use either for animal drinking troughs and for domestic supplies, so the habitats in the region have been impacted.
155951		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in France.
155951		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Avenionia berenguieri </span>is endemic to France, where it is restricted to the departments of Ardèche, Drôme, Vaucluse and Gard (southern France).&#160; It has been recorded from more than 10 locations.
155951		habitat	eng	This species lives in springs and subterranean habitat.
155951		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155951		threats	eng	Springs and aquifers linked to the Rhône river suffer from human pressure, i.e. urbanization and water management. Consequently these sites can be overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155952		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (<a href="hbsd.hr/.../Pravilnik_o_proglasavanju_divljih_svojti_zasticenim_i_strogo_zasticenim.pdf">See List of protected species</a>). In compliance with the Red List of Croatian Cave Fauna, it is classified under the Critically Endangered (CR) category.&#160; As with all cave species it is legally protected in Croatia.
155952		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia media&#160;</span>is restricted to Croatia and South Eastern Slovenia (Dolensko Cave).&#160; In Croatia, it is only known from a single locality: Vrlovka Cave, close to the border of Slovenia, with an entrance on the Kupa River (the cave may extend into Slovenia). <em>Hauffenia media</em> was also found&#160; in caves and springs in Dolenjsko, South-East of Slovenia (7 localities around Novo mesto, Brežice, Metlika, Črnomelj).
155952		habitat	eng	It lives in water pools on walls, under rocks and on pieces of rotten wood, and feeds on dead organic matter.
155952		population	eng	There are no population data available.
155952		threats	eng	The Croatian site is a tourist cave where almost the whole cave is used. Species disturbance and decline habitat through creation of walking routes. Small creek where species lives in the cave is alongside the tourist path. Pollution from sewage from adjacent villages and from agricultural on surface (nutrients, pesticides).
155953		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum saxigenum danubiale</span> was considered as category 1 (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) as was <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum saxigenum</span> (Falkner and Niederhof 2008). There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155953		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it is known from the type locality, Mahlstetten (Lippachquelle), and Tieringen, Weiblequelle in Vohbachtal. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum saxigenum danubiale</span> is found in the Donau groundwater in Germany.
155953		habitat	eng	It is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155953		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner and Niederhof (2008).
155953		threats	eng	The main threats lie in groundwater pollution or over-abstraction of groundwater.
155954		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on threats and population trends.
155954		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Cilgia dalmatica </span>is known from freshwater springs near Sopot, south bank of Svitavsko (and elsewhere) and from Plat in S. Dalmacjia (Croatia) and today is considered to be restricted to Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.&#160;</p>
155954		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155954		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown.
155954		threats	eng	There is no knowledge on current threats to this species, although if restricted to these two sites, then the species could be threatened by degradation of&#160; water sources.
155955		conservation	eng	This species was listed on a Council of Europe report on the status of   Emerald Network Pilot Project in Serbia and Montenegro. It was one of several species proposed as an addition to the <a href="https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewBlob.jsp?id=1560185&SourceFile=1&BlobId=1449070&DocId=1517076">Emerald List of Protected Species</a> (2006). However there are no known conservation actions are in place for this species. Research on the population size, distribution and trends, and threats to this species is recommended.
155955		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia and <span id="result_box" class="long_text">the caves at Ombla source (type locality) is the only location where it has been found in quantity, but often the material contains shell fragments, as it is found in material which washes out from the cave system. Schütt (2000) suggests that the three species of <em>Emmercia</em>, including this species, might be present in the <span title="den dalmatinisch-montenegrinischen Küstenstreifen von Metkovi} bis Kotor.">Dalmatian and Montenegrina coastal strip from Metkovia to Kotor.</span>
155955		habitat	eng	This species is found in outflow water from underground rivers.
155955		population	eng	The population trend for this species is unknown, however Schütt (2000) comments that the species was frequent in the Ombla system (type locality).
155955		threats	eng	Although nothing is known  about the specific threats and population status, there are general threats to  habitats in this region from pollution (domestic and agricultural sources) and over-abstraction of  water (domestic and tourism purposes).
155956		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. Surveys and habitat monitoring are recommended, once the species status is confirmed.
155956		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrgohydrobia jablanicensis</span> was endemic to springs at Sum, about 4 km west of the Struga town, Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).&#160; These were dammed during the 1960s to form a small artificial  lake, and this species was once abundant at the site, but between the 1960s and 1980 few specimens were been found. Recent surveys have found it once in 2004.
155956		habitat	eng	This species lived in freshwater springs on soft substrate, but these habitats have been flooded to make a small artifical lake.
155956		population	eng	This species was endemic to these springs, and was once abundant at the site, but between the 1960s and 1980 few specimens were been found. In 1985 Radoman reports two shells from the bottom of the small lake, but was uncertain whether the species would survive to the future (Radoman 1985). Recent surveys have found this species again in 2004, but it is still a very rare species.
155956		threats	eng	These springs were dammed during the 1960s to form a small lake, which has disturbed the ecology of the ecosystem. Further threats exist from the exploitation of the new lake and habitat degradation from agricultural run-off and domestic pollution. Water abstraction for drinking water is a further threat to this species.
155957		conservation	eng	Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) considered this to be a category 1 species in Germany and noted that it was an extremely rare species with a geographical restriction. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
155957		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it is known from the type locality, alluvial gravels of Necker River in Stuttgart Bad-Cannstatt.
155957		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
155957		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008).
155957		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution (nitrates from agricultural sources) and over-abstraction of groundwaters (for domestic supply).
155958		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions known for the species, although habitat monitoring and population monitoring would be recommended to check on population decline levels. The Cave of Vjetrenica has been protected since around 1900, when the metal gate preventing access was first made. The same gate, slightly modified in early ‘60s, is still there (Ržehak 1965). Legal protection of the cave started in 1914and it was proclaimed a natural monument in 1950.&#160;Speleological Society Vjetrenica - Popovo polje has renewed the pre- war tourist programme, but flashlights are used at the moment, instead of electrical lighting, which is beneficial to the cave fauna.&#160;<br/>The 'Popovo polje/Vjetrenica' is listed in the Emerald Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest.&#160;The B-H Academy made proposal to nominate Vjetrenica as a&#160;candidate&#160;for the World Heritage List.
155958		distribution	eng	<em>Narentiana vjetrenicae&#160;</em>is only                known from the type locality and from the cave Vjetrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The type locality was a freshwater spring,                Lukavac  below Vjetrenica cave, near Zavala, Popovo (Radoman, 1985; Kabat & Hershler, 1993). <br/><p></p>
155958		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs emerging from the karst groundwaters of Popovo polje.
155958		population	eng	There is no data on the population status of this species.
155958		threats	eng	The Cave has been a tourist destination since the end of 19th Century. A 1250 m long path to Veliko jezero was created, and by the end of 1950s Vjetrenica was a tourist site with electric lighting set up over 1045 m of the cave with a hotel on-site and tourist guides attracting some ten thousand visitors annually. In the 1990's tourism decreased, and in the last 10 years, has been renewed, without the&#160;electric lighting (Sket 2003).
155959		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for the area.&#160; It is recommended that habitat monitoring protocols are put in place to identify potential degradation of the habitats.
155959		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria. It is known from a stream in Temnata Dupka cave at Lakatnik, Stara Planina Mts. The cave is about 800 m in length.<br/><br/>Even though the location of this site is only few kms outside the  dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region, this species is considered here to be&#160; Mediterranean. This decision has been taken based on climatic and  geological similarities of the region with the Mediterranean.
155959		habitat	eng	This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in caves). It is a troglobite (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).
155959		population	eng	The population size and trend are not known.
155959		threats	eng	<p>A potential future threat could be the pollution caused by visitors to the cave. Visitors to this single site, and the facilities required to accommodate them, may have a detrimental effect on the water quality.<br/></p>
155960		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.</p>
155960		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
155960		habitat	eng	This species is found in the littoral zone of the lake, amongst the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> meadows and on stones/rocks.
155960		population	eng	This is one of the most frequent and widespread   &#160;hydrobiids of Lake Ohrid.
155960		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
155961		conservation	eng	This species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.
155961		distribution	eng	This species was listed for France in Fauna Europea, but is&#160;taxonomically confused (Falkner&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2002). Hence it is impossible to map, as the records cannot be confirmed as this species.
155961		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
155961		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155961		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
155962		conservation	eng	Research on the population size, trends and distribution is needed. It is not known what conservation measures should be taken to protect this species.
155962		distribution	eng	There is confusion in the literature on the range of this species. &#160;According to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) this species is known from Italy and France (Corsica).&#160; However, in Italy the species was originally described from Rome, but listed for Sicily. In Corsica, it is only known from a single site on the northern coast (<a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceRepartition.jsp&numero_taxon=162718&date_min=1950&date_max=2010">INPN</a> 2009).&#160; According to Gloer and Maasen (2009) <span style="font-style: italic;">Paludina boissieri</span> Küster, 1852, was been described from the region of Rome (Kuster 1852: 36) as its type locality, and not Sicily, as given in Beriozkina and Starabogatov (1995).
155962		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater snail found in rivers.
155962		population	eng	There is no information about the population size and trends.
155962		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown as the distribution and taxonomic status is uncertain.
155963		conservation	eng	&#160;Habitat monitoring is recommended, as the species would be vulnerable to exploitation of the springs it inhabits.
155963		distribution	eng	This species is listed as endemic to Croatia and Albania in Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In Croatia the species was first described from a Spring near Ribaric in the Cetina valley and Szarowska and Wilke (2004) confirm that it is also present at a spring of Vrana River, between Vrana and Radosinovci. Feher and Eross (2009) doubt that the record from Albania is from the current geographical region for the country, so the presence there is uncertain. Radoman (1983) noted that it is widespread in springs in the Cetina Valley, as well as other type localities from species now viewed as conspecific (see Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001)
155963		habitat	eng	This species is mainly recorded from freshwater springs.
155963		population	eng	There is no data on population trends, although live material has been collected in the last 20 years at springs.
155963		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species, as although there are hydroelectric dams on the river, the species is mainly found in the freshwater springs, throughout the valley.
155964		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions known forthis species, although in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM),  some sites are located in the Galicica National Park. Habitat monitoring would be recommended in order to evaluate changes in the status of this species. Information to increase awareness of the impact of regular cleaning of these sites and other forms of spring-site management on the species would be beneficial. <br/></p>
155964		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania. It is found in   the Feeder springs (at St. Naum, Tusemista and Zagorican) on the south-east side of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, but not within the adjacent northern springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985). In this area there are   a group of about 10 springs feeding a small lake a few hundred metres from Lake Ohrid. As most of the springs come from the same ground-water sources they are considered as three locations.
155964		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to springs adjacent to the shores on the south-east of Lake Ohrid and is mainly found on stones nearby direct spring effluents.
155964		population	eng	<p>This species is found only in a few locations and mostly in low abundances.</p>
155964		threats	eng	<p>This species has a restricted range and is possibly threatened due to habitat degradation from extraction of domestic water and 'improvements' to habitats where it lives, in order to improve water quality for domestic use. In addition these springs are fed from groundwater sources that are linked to Lake Prespa where there is declining water quantity and quality.&#160; In that lake, eutrophication due to waste water, fish breeding, tourism and waste disposal (Tusemista) is impacting water quality. <em></em></p>
155965		conservation	eng	Τhe village of Pyrgetos and Ag. Paraskevi (valley of Tempi) are parts of the protected sites GR1420001 “Kato Olympos” and GR1420002 “Delta Pineiou-Tempi” of Natura 2000 network, however there are no conservation actions in place for this species (Radea, pers. comm., 2010). Research is needed on the distribution and population of this species as there has been little recording effort in this region, and the species may be present in more sites than currently known. Due to the pressure from water abstraction in the area habitat monitoring is recommended.
155965		distribution	eng	<em></em><em></em><em>Paladilhiopsis thessalica</em> is endemic to Greece (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006). &#160;The species was described from springs at Agia Paraskevi, close to Tempe and later recorded from springs at Pyrgetos (Schütt 1980).&#160;The Tempe valley is 10 km long and as narrow as 25 m in places, with cliffs nearly 500 m high, the&#160;Pineios River flows down it. &#160;The springs at Pyrgetos lie south-west of Thessalonkii, on the slopes of Mount Olympus.
155965		habitat	eng	&#160;This species inhabits freshwater springs.
155965		population	eng	There is no recent data on the population trends of this species.
155965		threats	eng	One spring lies in the tourist valley of Tempe, and as such, water resources are under pressure from abstraction for human use.&#160; Furthermore there are pressues, as there are a lot of human activities requiring the use of water, such as agriculture, forestry, stock farming, hunting and recreation, and as such there is considerable pressure on water stocks (Radea, pers. comm., 2010).
155966		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Farkac <em>et al. </em>2005), and in Sweden under criteria B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii): fragmented and declining distribution (Gärdenfors 2005).&#160; In the UK, it was assessed (pre-1994) as Vulnerable and is a Priority Species on the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP 2007; based on declines) and the English NERC Biodiversity List for restricted geographic range (JNCC 2010). In Estonia, it is listed as "rare" using non-IUCN criteria (Lilleleht 1998) and in Poland as Near Threatened (Glowacinski <em>et al. </em>2002). It has also been listed as "endangered" in Germany, "strongly endangered" in Switzerland, "in danger of extinction" in Austria, and belongs to the "Red List candidates" in the Netherlands (Terrier <em>et al. </em>2006). This species was recently added to Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive (Terrier <em>et al. </em>2006, Niggebrugge <em>et al. </em>2007), requiring special areas for conservation and strict protection.<br/><br/>This species has low dispersal ability and is vulnerable to the effects of habitat fragmentation (Niggebrugge <em>et al. </em>2007). As such, creation of suitable reserve networks is important to halt declines where suitable habitat has been lost, e.g., in marshland drainage systems in England. Reintroduction to former areas may also be essential to the continuing viability of this species. Suitable areas of habitat should be managed by removing weeds and riparian vegetation shading the water; fenced to reduce the effects of livestock grazing; and fertilizers and toxic pollutants prevented from entering the water and causing eutrophication (see Glöer and Groh (2007) for examples in the Elbe, Germany; and Terrier <em>et al.</em> (2006) for an exhaustive list of management prescriptions).<br/><br/>Additional research into the population size and trends, ecology and threats of this species is recommended to aid the listing of this species in an adequate Red List category in the future.
155966		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Annex II and IV of the European Union, Habitat & Species Directive and although species is found throughout Europe, in many countries it is in decline, rare and very localised. <br/><br/>In Great Britain it was originally listed as Vulnerable (Kerney 1999) based on the limited number of known sites and loss. However, the recent update (2010, in prep.) listed the species on a precautionary basis as Endangered, based on the 60% loss of sub-populations in several of the remaining locations (Seddon, Killeen & Willing, pers. comm., 2010). In the The Netherlands it is listed as Vulnerable based on 47% loss of sites since 1965 (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In Germany it is considered as a Category 1 Threatened species, based on the number of sites lost in the southern part of the country where it is now extinct in some of the states (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In the Czech Republic, Beran (2009, in litt) noted that   it is Critically Endangered. He notes it is nearly extinct in Bohemia (Elbe River Basin) and Silesia (Odra River Basin), more sites in Moravia River Basis are declining, based on the decline of suitable habitats. In Slovakia it is only known to occur at 10 localities and is Critically Endangered (Steffek & Vavrova 2006). In Switzerland it is listed as Category 2 (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/>Recommendations are to monitor known habitats and manage areas at risk from the identified threats more sensitively.
155966		distribution	eng	This species is widespread but very localised throughout western and central Europe with listing from Fauna Europaea (Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006) in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands and Ukraine.<br/>Terrier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) provide a full account in their paper, noting that <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisus vorticulus</span> is a Western Palaearctic species with its distribution centred in eastern and central Europe, with sub-populations that are widely separated and localised. Here its European countries of occurrence also include Belarus, Bulgaria and Russia (Terrier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). A locality along the Danube in the former Yugoslavia is given by Frank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1990), but it is not possible to locate this site with enough accuracy to determine if it is in present-day Croatia or Serbia. The known distribution extends in Scandinavia to the Skåne province in Sweden (Wells & Chatfield 1992) and in Russia eastward to the Ob drainage system, where it has been found at Omsk and Tomsk (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).<br/>According to Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel in France it is known from eight widely scattered sites. In Croatia a single record is known from Krka National Park (Beran 2009). In Germany it is common in the northern part and locally distributed in southern part of the country. In the Czech Republic it is only few localities (Elbe, Morava, Dyje) (Beran 2009, in litt)<br/>In Switzerland it is considered rarer in the north than the south (Turner et al, 1998). It is also rare in Slovakia with only 10 recent localities (Danube floodplains, lowlands in the eastern part) (Steffek & Vavrova 2006). Only three localities are known from Serbia (Zasavica, Kovalski rit).
155966		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and eastern Europe to the Ob River in Russia, and north to the Skåne province in Sweden (Terrier <em>et al. </em>2006). It is also reported to be found in northern Kazakhstan (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) and Turkey (Sereflisan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) with local populations occurring sporadically.
155966		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear stagnant waters usually with dense vegetation. It lives in various types of water bodies in river floodplains (isolated pools, former channels and meanders), the edges of lakes, banks of streams and slow rivers and drainage ditches in grazing marshes  (Terrier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>In Great Britain it occurs in ditches on grazing marshes in clean still water where it is found with other rare species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata macrostoma, Segmentina nitida </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pisidium pseudosphaerium</span> (Kerney 1999).<br/><br/>This species can stand highly fluctuating water levels in floodplain water bodies, but does not seem to survive full desiccation (Terrier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
155966		habitat	eng	This species inhabits unpolluted, calcareous waters in well-vegetated marsh drains (UKBAP 1995), as well as other low and clear water habitats such as floodplains, pools, streams, slow rivers and oxbow lakes. It is usually found in the littoral zone of lakes or on river banks. See Terrier <em>et al. </em>(2006) for a complete list of recorded habitats.<br/><br/>Glöer and Groh (2007) characterized this species as a "stenotopic r-strategist", meaning that it is a habitat specialist (can only live in sunlit habitats with clear water), but is ecologically robust with a rapid rate of population growth, breeding from March until July-November. In this way, it can quickly recover after habitat loss as long if there is suitable habitat remaining (Glöer and Groh 2007). This species can also survive freezing and dessication (Glöer and Groh 2007).
155966		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about population available. <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisus vorticulus</span> is a hermaphrodite, usually with an annual life cycle. <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span><strong></strong>There is localised evidence of decline over much of the western parts of Europe. In Great Britain three sub-populations have shown actual decline of around 40% over the last 40 years with sub-populations lost from around 10 sites between 1950-1990 (Killeen, pers. comm., 2010) and recent surveys of Arun Valley (1999-2010) show a substantial decline of around 60% (Willing, 2010 pers. comm). In the Netherlands there has been a decline of 47% over a number of recorded sites since 1965 (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
155966		population	eng	This species is local throughout central and southern Europe (UKBAP 1995). In England, declines have occurred since 1965, with no colonies recorded outside East Anglia since the 1980s, and systematic sampling in formerly well-known sites failing to find any live specimens (UKBAP 1995, JNCC 2007). Some recolonization appears to have occurred as a result of improved water quality in Suffolk (UKBAP 1995, JNCC 2007). In 2008, its status was described as "Fluctuating - probably declining", with seven known populations still existing (UKBAP 2008), although this has improved from a status of "Declining (continuing/accelerating)" in 2005. In Germany, Glöer and Groh (2007) found abundances in excess of 300 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in some populations in Hamburg and Karlsruhe, although most were between 1-50 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>.
155966		threats	eng	Lilleleht (1998) lists threats to this species in Estonia as changes in waterbodies (channelization, dredging, water level regulation), environmental toxins, air pollution, and acidification.<br/><br/>In England, ditch clearance, nutrient enrichment (from fertiliser use), and changing land practices associated with lowering water tables are threatening this species (UKBAP 1995). Recent research also found that this species is highly vulnerable to the effects of habitat fragmentation which is likely to be a major threat throughout its range (Niggebrugge <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>Glöer and Groh (2007) found that the availability of suitable, pristine habitat was the most important determinant of abundance in Germany. Thus, any kind of habitat degradation is likely to be a threat to this species. However, as Terrier <em>et al</em>. (2006) state, "the causes of the decline observed in [this species] are not well understood", and may be due to a range of disparate factors depending on geographic location.<br/>  <p>Invasive water plants will also influence populations through shading, such as the American floating marshpennywort, Hydrocotyle ranunculouides<span style="font-weight: bold; ">, </span><strong></strong>that chokes ditches in Belgium and the Netherlands and the <span class="CharChar3">Himalayan Balsam, <strong style="font-weight: normal; ">Impatiens glandulifera</strong> that grows along ditches across Europe. Destruction of the typical habitat of the species&#160;also occurs over large parts of Europe due to explosive growth of&#160; populations of (introduced) carp and geese<em> </em>(D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).</p>
155966		threats	eng	The causes of the decline observed in some areas are not well understood. It has been attributed to the loss of natural habitat, pollution, eutrophication of water bodies caused by agricultural fertilisers, reduction in ground-water levels and general inappropriate habitat management and modification of the physicochemical character of water bodies (Killeen & Willing 1997, Terrier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
155967		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed, as well as habitat monitoring.<br/></p>
155967		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found in sub-littoral zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>  <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:placename></st1:placetype></st1:place>, but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985). This species has a patchy distribution, and is localized vertically (restricted to a bathymetric depth) and horizontally (restricted area in the north-east of the lake). Its vertical distribution seems to be disjunct, between the "shell zone", between 20 and 35 m and then 70 to 80 m. <br/></p>
155967		habitat	eng	<p>This sub-littoral species is described from <em>Dreissena </em>shell belts. The substrate has changed from sand to mud due to accumulation of organic material (C. Albrecht&#160; pers comm. 2009).</p>
155967		population	eng	This is a rare species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).
155967		threats	eng	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod.
155968		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
155968		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Strugia ohridana</span> is restricted to a large cave-spring, from which the Sum brook originates, south of Zagracani, about 4 km from Struga town, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM)(Radoman 1983). The range is difficult to estimate, as this species lives in subterranean groundwaters, potentially occupying the whole subterranean system, which is inferred to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
155968		habitat	eng	This subterranean species lives in a cave system, on stones in a spring with a constant temperature.
155968		population	eng	The population trends are unknown. Recent surveys did not find it in the cave but this is a subterranean species that is difficult to sample.
155968		threats	eng	The water extraction for domestic use is restricting the habitat available for the species at certain periods of the year. However, this species is probably present in the subterranean cave system, where no threats are thought to occur.
155969		conservation	eng	This species is not currently conserved. Research into potential presence at other locations is required. Appropriate management and protection is required to maintain suitable water levels at the current known site.
155969		distribution	eng	An endemic species to Greece, Bank (2006) noted that <span style="font-style: italic;">Graecorientalia vrissianawas</span> described from a spring near Vrissia on the road between Larisa and Athinia. According to Szarowska and Falniowski (2004) the site at Vrissia (the type locality) has been lost due to the presence of a water intake which was built over the spring, so now there is ' neither water nor snails on the earth surface’.<span> Reichschutz (pers. comm. 2010) found it&#160;living in a tiny spring east of Agios Konstantinos (east of Lamia) in 1987, however this site is also now destroyed. Currently it is restricted to&#160;a single site, a spring  (Szarowska 2006)&#160;found near&#160;Makrinitsa, a village on mount Pilion, Thessalia, Central Greece.
155969		habitat	eng	The species inhabits freshwater springs.
155969		population	eng	The population status is unknown.
155969		threats	eng	<p>The threat to this species is loss of habitat due to water abstraction for domestic purposes.<br/></p>
155970		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place, however the species are both listed on the province and national Red Lists (Martínez-Ortí pers. comm 2009). Actions that are potentially damaging to the species include restoration and cleaning of springs and ditches, summer droughts leading to lack of recharge in aquifer and changes to habitat quality, pollution of the water source, the presence of speleologists in the caves causing disturbances to the ecosystem, and taking specimens for commercial purposes (over-collecting). Recommended conservation actions include site protection and communications to cave users regarding their impacts on the cave system.
155970		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix valenciana valenciana </span>is endemic to the province of Valencia, Spain, where it can only be found in two localities:<br/><ol><li>El Morenillo spring (Gestalgar, Valencia) (UTM: 30SXJ8485).</li><li>Baños de Fuente Podrida, River Cabriel (Requena, Valencia) (UTM: 30S XJ4355).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></li></ol><span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix valenciana castellonica</span> is endemic to the Spanish province of Castellón, where it is only known from three sites; <br/><ol><li>Les Mans cave (Aín, Castellón) (Type locality) (UTM: 30S YK2719).</li><li>Toro cave (Alcudia de Veo, Castellón) (UTM: 30S YK621).</li><li>Vega del Moll, Masía Torreta Gargallo (Morella, Castellón), at the transformer (a dug well) (UTM: 30T YK4696).</li></ol><span style="font-style: italic;">S. v. castellonica</span> is stable at two sites (Les Mans cave and Toro cave),  however no living specimens have been found at the third site of Morella  (Castellón).
155970		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix valenciana valenciana</span> lives in sources from subterranean clean waters, and also in interstitial waters. Well oxygenated waters (7.2 to 9 mg/L), calcium content between 55.89 and 140 mg/L, pH between 7.53 and 8.47, water temperature between 12.5 and 16.9 ºC.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix valenciana</span>   <em>castellonica</em> lives in karstic and interstitial waters. Water temperatures between 14.8 and 15.0 ºC.
155970		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix valenciana valenciana</span> is endemic to the province of Valencia, Spain.   It can only be found in two localities: in one of them (El Morenillo spring), a small number of living specimens, but plenty of shells have been found. The other one has a very poor population (Baños de Fuente Podrida, river Cabriel).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix valenciana</span>   <em>castellonica</em> has recently only been found alive in two of the three known localities. At these two caves we can consider them as good populations, whereas in Morella no live specimens has been found since its description in 2003.
155970		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Both sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. v. valenciana</span> is present are used as sources for domestic water supplies, leading to declining populations of the species.<br/> <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>One of the sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. v.</span>   <em>castellonica</em> occurs is a well, from which water extraction is currently taking water, and no recent specimens have been found. The two cave sites are threatened by habitat disturbance, from cavers using the site for entry to the cave systems.
155971		conservation	eng	Some sub-populations might be present in protected areas (in Montenegro). However, the majority of the populations are not and there are some genetic variations (sub-species). A sustainable management of springs (in particular regulation of spring capture) and revitalisation of springs destroyed are needed for ensuring the survival of this species.
155971		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in western and southern Balkans (Radoman 1985) including Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bank <em>et al</em>., Fauna European 2006). Radoman (1985) noted that it was present in the springs adjacent to Lake Ohrid, not within Lake Ohrid.
155971		habitat	eng	This species is found in springs and flowing waters.
155971		population	eng	The species is generally abundant in the spring it is present in.
155971		threats	eng	<em></em>Localised threats exist to subspecies due to their restricted ranges and threats from habitat degradation from spring exploitation, as well as from agricultural run-off and domestic pollution.
155972		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is listed on the Austrian Red List as&#160;Extinct (EX) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007). It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into population trends.</p>
155972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the type locality, Tiefsteinschlucht at Tiefsteinschlucht at Schleedorf
155972		habitat	eng	This freshwater species occurs in springs.
155972		population	eng	The population trend of this species is not known and it is thought to be possibly extinct.                 Three surveys by Reischutz and Reischutz in 1968, 1973 and 2004 have failed to find this species and other surveys by Seidl, Boeters, Falkner over the last 30 years have also not located specimens, hence it is considered to be extinct.
155972		threats	eng	This species is mainly threatened by the abstraction of groundwater for drinking purposes and habitat degradation.
155973		conservation	eng	This species is currently known to be widespread, and as such is not in need of species-specific conservation actions, however more research is needed on the taxonomy to establish species limits.
155973		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum rhenanum </em>lives in Germany, where it is relatively widespread, in Switzerland (Berne and Neuchatel Cantons) and in France in the departments of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin.
155973		habitat	eng	This small freshwater snail lives in subterranean waters.
155973		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.
155973		threats	eng	Lives in subterranean habitats which are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.
155974		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or currently required for this species.
155974		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species
155974		distribution	eng	This is a circumpolar species. In Europe this species is found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. It is widespread in suitable habitats (Kuiper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989).
155974		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Europe and northern Canada (Kuiper 1975), within northerly regions of Scandinavia  (Økland and Økland 1999), in Idaho in the USA (Frest and Johannes 2001) and Unimak Island in the Aleutian Archipelago (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
155974		habitat	eng	This species is found in lentic and lotic habitats. Within southern Scandinavia, this species is common in cold mountain lakes up to 1,300 m above sea level. This species is described as stenothermal (capable of living or growing only within a limited range of temperature) and can be found below the photic zone (Kuiper<em> et al.</em> 1989). All species of this genus recorded by Jensen<em> et al. </em>(2002) appeared to tolerate soft water rather than hard water, and were found in the northern Scandinavian peninsular mountain ridge (von Proschwitz 1998).
155974		habitat	eng	This species lives at depth in the Profundal zone in cold stenothermal lakes and on mountains up to 1,300 m asl.
155974		population	eng	There is little information available. It is often found in low numbers in Sweden.
155974		population	eng	This species is relatively common in the western division of the USA, but insufficient information regarding population status and trends is available for this species.
155974		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.
155974		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats.
155976		conservation	eng	This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a threat review is needed. The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.<p>The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). </p>
155976		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Slovenia.
155976		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat for this species.
155976		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
155976		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155977		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Invertebrados Endemicos de la Cominitat Valenciana</span> (Domingo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), as well as the <span style="font-style: italic;">Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España (especes en peligro critico y en peligro)</span> (Verdú and Galente 2009).&#160; No conservation actions are known, however habitat monitoring and    further survey to determine the geographical range of this species are recommended.
155977		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Spain, where it is only known from the type locality, Font de Castro, Sueras Province  Castellón.
155977		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in the outflow of a karstic groundwater system, but believed to be present in the subterranean parts, rather than surface parts of the system (Martínez-Ortí 2007).</p>
155977		population	eng	<p>There is no data available on population status, although it is believed to be stable based on the abundance of shells found in the outflow of the groundwater system (Martínez-Ortí 2007).</p>
155977		threats	eng	<p>There are future threats to this species from pollution of the groundwater and over-abstraction of&#160; water for domestic use, leading to habitat degradation and subsequently species mortality and population declines. </p>
155978		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species.
155978		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria heideae</span> is restricted to three cave systems around Les Angles, Department (30), France.
155978		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
155978		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
155978		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides). Lowering of groundwater levels may impact the species, and thus maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
155979		conservation	eng	The subterranean fauna is protected in Croatia. This species is endemic to Croatia, known from a small spring near the entrance to cement works. Further research is required to determine population status, and habitat monitoring will allow the identification of future trends at the site. Unless other locations are discovered this site should ideally be managed more sensitively.
155979		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia where it is known from a small spring near the entrance to a disused cement work in the valley of Jadro, near Spilt.
155979		habitat	eng	The species is known from freshwater springs of the River Jadro.
155979		population	eng	Recent surveys show the species is still present in the groundwater feeding the springs, but the shells are rare and not abundant and no living specimens have been recovered (Biljana Rađa pers. comm. 2011).
155979		threats	eng	This species is known from a small spring near to the entrance to disused cement work in the valley of Jadro, near Spilt. The cement works are unlikely to resume. The major threats come from run-off from nearby roads, over-abstraction of water, as the springs are linked springs and there is polluted water seepage from an overlying waste disposal site.
155980		conservation	eng	An invasive species that potentially threatens other species in similar  habitats and tolerates poor water quality, so no conservation actions in any regions.
155980		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe. It is an introduction, through the movement of ballast water in ships, and originated in New Zealand. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) now recognise the species in Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sicily (Italy), Andorra, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Ukraine and Bulgaria.
155980		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found in lakes, ponds, rivers, lagoons, canals, estuaries, ditches, water tanks and reservoirs and can tolerate saline water (up to 26 psu). It can withstand poor water conditions, is found in turbid or clear water and can live in sewage.
155980		population	eng	A species on the increase in all suitable habitats. In some regions in Spain the species is described as a pest (Soler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2006). A species as prolific as this has potential to be a biofouler at  facilities drawing from infested waters (D.V.Damme pers. comm. 2011).  Abundant populations of introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">P. antipodarum </span>may also outcompete other grazers and inhibit colonization by other macroinvertebrates (Kerans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. antipodarum </span>causes declines in species richness and abundance of native snails in constructed ponds (Strzelec 2005). Data on this species is present on many web-sites dealing with invasive species
155980		threats	eng	An invasive species that potentially threatens other species in similar habitats and tolerates poor water quality, so no threats in all regions.
155981		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, habitat and threats of this species.
155981		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania, where it is one of two endemic species that are found in Lake Razelm complex.&#160; It is also recorded from some pools located on Caraorman Levee, c. 30 km north in the Danube Delta (Ciobiou pers. comm. based on Museum Data 2010).
155981		habitat	eng	It lives in the brackish water from Lake Razelm, on bottoms covered by silt, as well as smaller pools.
155981		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
155981		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although the lake complex where the species is found is a major tourist destination.
155982		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. As this species hasn't been recorded in the last six years, a programme of systematic sampling using different survey methodologies would be recommended. <br/></p>
155982		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Ohrid (Bank <em>et al</em>., Fauna European 2006).   It is found in sublittoral zone of Lake Ohrid (below 30 m depth) but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985 ).
155982		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater lakes where it is sublittoral (found below 30 m depth).
155982		population	eng	Recent surveys carried out since 2003 have not found this species (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
155982		threats	eng	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake.
155983		conservation	eng	This species is protected at national level in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro. &#160;There are&#160;</st1:country-region></st1:place>on-going transboundary projects which will focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. &#160;Monitoring habitat quality if the region would be recommended to detect future changes in water quality and in habitats, both of which could impact the species in the future.<br/><br/>Regnier et al (2009) reported that this species was extinct, but in error.&#160; Pesic (pers. comm) noted that the species is very rare and the type locality is not lost, but that sampling needs to take place at the right season.
155983		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Bracenica spiridoni</em> is endemic to Montenegro, where it is found in the&#160;Skadar area. It is restricted</strong>&#160;to only two sites:  <p></p><ul><li>a small spring ca. 2x2m<sup>2</sup> (Spirov izvor)</li><li>a sublacustrine spring in Skadar Lake (Karuc spring)</li></ul>V. Pešić (pers. comm. 2010) notes that the reports that the type locality for species has been lost (Szarowski, 2006) are in error. <br/><p></p>       <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">   <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>     </st1:placetype></st1:place>
155983		habitat	eng	<em>Bracenica spiridoni</em>&#160;is a freshwater species&#160;in Karst regions, where it has been recorded from&#160;exclusively&#160;subterranean areas and the outflow springs.
155983		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, but it is rare in survey samples, with only a few individuals collected to date (V. Pešić pers. comm. 2009).
155983		threats	eng	The spring at&#160;Spirov izvor is already used to supply domestic water, so overabstraction of water from this source, leading to declining&#160;habitat quality, and potential loss of habitat is considered the primary threat.<br/><br/>The secondary threat include a rapid process of eutrophication which is affecting at the present time the sublacustrine spring Karuc. This site is suffering a rapid declining of the depth in last 25 years due to the use of this sublacustrine spring. Furthermore there is a plan to capture this spring to supply drinking water &#160;along the coastal part of Montenegro.
155984		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. There is very little information available. Research is required to establish the species' population status as well as its distribution, habitat preferences and any threats.
155984		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Germany, where it is only recorded from the type locality and hasn't been recollected recently (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003)
155984		habitat	eng	The habitat is believed to be groundwater and it is considered possibly extinct in Bayern (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
155984		population	eng	There are no data on the species' population and it is considered possibly extinct in Bayern (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
155984		threats	eng	The species is considered possibly extinct in Bayern (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and although threats to the species are unknown,&#160; the causes are likely to have been groundwater pollution.
155985		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions targeting this species across its range although it is considered threatened in some countries. In Czech Republic it is considered Vulnerable (Beran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005), in Spain it is Vulnerable, in Italy it is Near Threatened and in Germany it is Category 3.
155985		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern Europe, where Fauna Europaea (Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006) recorded it from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy (mainland), Spain (mainland) and Ukraine.<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) noted that it was in the central part of Dnieper basin in Russia.
155985		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of aquatic habitats, in both calcareous and soft water (I. Killeen pers. comm. 2009). It lives in rivers, canals and large drains through to ponds, lakes and upland tarns. The species occurs in stagnant waters such as fish ponds and swamps). It can be found in slow flowing rivers with muddy substrates.
155985		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about the population available. In Germany it is sporadically distributed and in Czech Republic it is relatively rare. <br/><br/>A survey of 337 sites in southern and south central England in 2000-2002 showed that the species was still widespread in that area (Killeen & Willing 2004).&#160; However, as appears to be normal for species in lowland rivers, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hibernicum</span> was found to be very locally distributed and usually in low abundance – demonstrating that detailed, systematic sampling is required to locate the species in these habitats.
155985		threats	eng	In lowland rivers the principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. The species habitat in lakes and tarns is threatened by drainage, pollution from agriculture, forestry and domestic sources, angling activities, and invasive species (e.g. zebra mussels). Mouthon (1996) showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hibernicum</span> was moderately tolerant of biodegradable pollution.
155986		conservation	eng	There are localised conservation actions in place for this species. In Germany this species is considered Category 1 (highly threatened) and in most states either 0 or 1, and in Baden Wurtenburg Category 2. In Poland it is considered Endangered. This species was added to the&#160;UK Biodiversity Action Plan list of Priority Species in 2006 and considered Endangered (I.Killeen and M.Seddon pers. comm. 2010). Future prospects are possibly good if water quality improves under the Water Framework Directive, but some decline is likely through loss of habitat as a result of water course management.
155986		conservation	eng	There are localised conservation actions in place for this species. In Germany, this species is considered Category 1 (highly threatened) and in most states either 0 or 1, and in Baden-Wurttemberg Category 2. In Poland, it is considered Endangered. This species was added to the&#160;UK Biodiversity Action Plan list of Priority Species in 2006 and considered Endangered (Killeen and Seddon pers. comm. 2010). Future prospects are possibly good if water quality improves under the Water Framework Directive, but some decline is likely through loss of habitat as a result of water course management.<br/>Continued monitoring of population and habitat and research into observed population trends across its distribution are needed.
155986		distribution	eng	This species is locally distributed in the lowland regions of central and eastern Europe. There are some records from west Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list the species from Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Germany and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Germany, the species is found in the north and central part, with a sporadic occurrence. A decline in population trend has been observed. <br/>In the Czech Republic, the only sub-recent&#160;record is from the River Elbe. It is considered as Extinct in Czech Republic (Beran 1998).<br/>In Great Britain, it has historically been found in a short stretch of the River Witham (Lincolnshire), one part of the Great Ouse (tidal) section, Earith in Cambridgeshire and intermittently along 19 km of the Great Ouse (non-tidal). <br/>In Hungary it is likely to be a recently spreading species.<br/><br/>It is also present in the European and Asiatic parts of Russia, extending to the Yana river basin (north of Eastern Siberia) under different species names that Korniushin (2001) placed in synonym- <em>Cyclas solida</em> and <em>Sphaerium subsolidum</em>.
155986		distribution	eng	This species is locally distributed in the lowland regions of central and eastern Europe. There are some records from west Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) list the species from Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Great Britain (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Germany, Slovakia, Hungary, Spain (mainland), and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Germany the species is found in the north and central part, with a sporadic occurrence. A decline in population trend has been observed. <br/>In Czech Republic the only sub recent&#160;record is from the River Elbe. It is considered as Extinct in Czech Republic (Beran 1998).<br/>In Great Britain it has historically been found in a short stretch of the River Witham (Lincolnshire), one part of the Great Ouse (tidal) section, Earith Cambridgeshire and intermittently along 19 km of the Great Ouse (non-tidal). <br/>In Hungary it is likely to be a recently spreading species.<br/><br/>It is present in Russia, extending to the Yana river basin, basins of Ob and Pechora rivers under different species names that Korniushin (2001) placed in synonym.
155986		habitat	eng	The species lives in canalised rivers and large, deep drains and backwaters of large rivers, and is very occasionally found in lakes (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Zettler and Glöer 2006). The species lives in coarse sandy sediment mainly in large rivers, as well  along the edges and in the middle part of the stream. Since silting&#160;of river  bottoms is severely increasing in large rivers due to a number of threats, and  since natural river edges are being covered to prevent erosion (due to river  traffic) the natural habitat of this species is being&#160;reduced everywhere in the  main European river systems (Danube, Rhine, etc.), except in Russia with its  enormous rivers (van Damme pers. comm. 2012).<br/>Due to the species' rarity in Britain, the details on the species ecology are sparse.&#160; However, the habitats in which it was found in Lincolnshire are generally poor in aquatic vegetation but rich in their associated mollusc fauna, and they are generally found in deep water (as for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium rivicola</span>) (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/>This species is said to have a life cycle of one year (Simpkin 2006).<br/><br/><em></em>
155986		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rivers with fine sediments, very often in the&#160;littoral&#160;zone. The species lives in canalised rivers and large, deep drains and backwaters of large rivers, and is very occasionally found in lakes (Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Zettler and Glöer 2006). <br/>&#160;<br/>Due to the species rarity in Britain, the details on the species ecology are sparse.&#160; However, the habitats in which it was found in Lincolnshire are generally poor in aquatic vegetation but rich in their associated mollusc fauna, and they are generally found in deep water (as for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium rivicola</span>)(Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/><em></em>
155986		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about population trends available. Nevertheless population decline has been observed over the last decade.<br/><br/>Surveys in 2001 and 2002 in Great Britain show a near total collapse of populations of the species on the Witham system in 10-15 years.&#160;Surveys in 2003 – 2004 show intermittent distribution along about 20 km of the Great Ouse but at most sites (sampled to mid-channel of river) only a few freshly dead shells were recovered; 7 sites produced in total only 7 live mussels. One Great Ouse site sampled in 2003 (then showing a healthy population of live individuals) produced no live individuals in 2004. Population size: (1) a few live individuals in drain adjacent to Witham in 2003; absent from Witham sites when surveyed 2002 & 2003;&#160;(2) a moderate population (exact nos. hard to estimate) in a short stretch (perhaps only a few 100 m) of tidal Great Ouse at Earith, Cambridgeshire and very small numbers (few live individuals&#160; in isolated populations) along 19 km of Great Ouse (old channel) downstream of Earith (I.Killeen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Germany the population is in decline.<span style="font-style: italic;">vSphaerium solidum</span> belongs to the rarest molluscs in Poland. The species is protected by law. Now it has 10 confirmed localities at the utmost. Relatively large populations persist in the Szczecin Lagoon, Zegrzyn Reservoir, and in large rivers in eastern Poland: Biebrza and Narew.<br/><h1><br/></h1>
155986		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about population trends available. Nevertheless, population decline has been observed over the last decade.<br/><br/>Surveys in 2001 and 2002 in Great Britain show a near total collapse of populations of the species on the Witham system in 10-15 years.&#160;Surveys in 2003 – 2004 show intermittent distribution along about 20 km of the Great Ouse but at most sites (sampled to mid-channel of river) only a few freshly dead shells were recovered; 7 sites produced in total only 7 live mussels. One Great Ouse site sampled in 2003 (then showing a healthy population of live individuals) produced no live individuals in 2004. Population size: (1) a few live individuals in drain adjacent to Witham in 2003; absent from Witham sites when surveyed 2002 &amp; 2003;&#160;(2) a moderate population (exact nos. hard to estimate) in a short stretch (perhaps only a few 100 m) of tidal Great Ouse at Earith, Cambridgeshire and very small numbers (few live individuals in isolated populations) along 19 km of Great Ouse (old channel) downstream of Earith (Killeen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The species remains common in Russia, while it is strongly declining in the rest of Europe (van Damme pers. comm. 2012).&#160;In Germany, this species is in decline. It is also one of the rarest molluscs in Poland, where it is protected by law, with only ten confirmed localities. However, relatively large populations persist in the Szczecin Lagoon, Zegrzyn Reservoir, and in large rivers in eastern Poland (Biebrza and Narew).<br/>This species became extirpated from two-thirds of its former range in the Netherlands between 1990 and 2005 &#160;(Stichting ANEMOON 2005), and there have been similar contractions throughout the remainder of the species' range, apart from in Russia where populations remain stable (van Damme pers. comm. 2012). This suggests a contraction of 25% across the species' entire range over a 15 year period, and with it a population decline of 25%.
155986		threats	eng	<p>The principal threat to this mussel is water pollution and river regulation, as well as exploitation of sand and gravel from river beds, <span lang="EN-GB">alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species.&#160; <br/></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>Sphaerium solidum</em> was one of the species of freshwater bivalve<em> </em>most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160; <br/></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The recent decline and possible extinction from some of its former known sites in England resulted in its addition to the UK Biodiversity Action Plan list of Priority Species in 2006. There is circumstantial evidence on both Witham and Great Ouse systems suggesting eutrophication as a primary cause; however, excessive sediment clearance could also pose possible threat to local populations.</p>
155986		threats	eng	<p>The principal threat to this mussel is water pollution and river regulation, as well as exploitation of sand and gravel from river beds, <span lang="EN-GB">alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Since silting&#160;of river bottoms is severely increasing in large rivers due to a number of threats, and since natural river edges are being covered to prevent erosion (due to river traffic) the natural habitat of this species is being&#160;reduced everywhere in the main European river systems (Danube, Rhine, etc.), except in Russia with its enormous rivers (van Damme pers. comm. 2012).&#160;</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>Sphaerium solidum</em> was one of the species of freshwater bivalve<em> </em>most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160; <br/></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The recent decline and possible extinction from some of its former known sites in England resulted in its addition to the UK Biodiversity Action Plan list of Priority Species in 2006. There is circumstantial evidence on both Witham and Great Ouse systems suggesting eutrophication as a primary cause; however, excessive sediment clearance could also pose a possible threat to local populations.</p>
155987		conservation	eng	There is no data on conservation actions for this species, however, it does require more research into trends and threats.
155987		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fauna Europea, 2006) where it is found in the                hinterlands of Metković, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (B. Sket pers. comm. 2010)
155987		habitat	eng	There are no data on the habitats of this species.
155987		population	eng	There is no data on the population status for this species.
155987		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155988		conservation	eng	Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
155988		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found on the coast of Tuscany.&#160; On the island of Elba there are 3 known localities.
155988		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters in rocks. The species feeds using its scrapers.
155988		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
155988		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2000).
155989		conservation	eng	In the UK, this species is listed on the Natural Environment and Rural Communities (NERC) Act 2006 'Species of Principal Importance in England', and is a Biodiversity Action Plan Priority Species (BARS 2010). Further research is needed on the status of populations in southern Europe and northern Africa to accurately assess the status of this species.
155989		conservation	eng	None.
155989		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is in need..
155989		conservation	eng	This species is considered threatened in some parts of it's range and has been listed for research and protection (e.g. UK, Willing, pers. com, 2009).<br/><br/>Being regionally assessed in the following countries:<br/>UK:&#160; Critically Endangered B2a,b(iii)<br/>Netherlands:&#160; Vulnerable (equivalent to A2c)<br/>Italy:&#160; Data deficient.<br/>North Africa: Least Concern.
155989		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia stagnorum</span> is viewed as a widespread, but very localised species in Europe.&#160; It is more common in the Mediterranean part of the range than further north in Europe.   Gloer (2002) gives the range as Atlantic-Mediterranean, and comments that it is probably found in suitable habitats along the entire European-Atlantic coast and the entire Mediterranean littoral from <st1:city w:st="on">Morocco</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:country-region> to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Iran</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Boeters 1998).&#160; It is known inland in <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place> only as a subfossil (Mansfelder Saltzseen, Bank <em>et al</em>. 1979). <br/><br/><ul><li>In Belgium, recorded from lagoons on the coast.&#160;</li><li>In France, recorded from lagoons in Pas-de-Calais (Cucherat, 2003, unpublished report) on Atlantic coast and Mediterranean coastal records include lagoons in Aude (Betrand). <br/></li><li>In the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Netherlands</st1:country-region> only some sites in <st1:place w:st="on">Zeeland</st1:place> (Gittenberger <em>et al</em>. 1998 )   is declining as the few remaining sites are threatened by urban pollution and by changes in salinity brought about by coastal control schemes (Kerney, 1999).   Gittenberger <em>et al</em>. (1998) noted a decline from 11 sites to 4 sites, and since 1950 live finds made only in <st1:place w:st="on">Zeeland</st1:place>.&#160; Beside several reports from the brackish water at Zieriksee (Schouwen-Duiveland), the type locality of the species, there are incidental finds from Goeree (at the dyke along the South coast), Schouwen-Duiveland (Ronde Weel, also by Zierikzee) and in Vlanderen (Achterste Creek by Terneuzen in the west outlet of the Braakman Creek (de Bryne, et al, 2003). </li><li>In Italy it is recorded from 19 different sites, mainly coastal, around the country, and on Sicily (Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">el al</span>, data from CK Map 5.3.8)</li><li>In UK, known from a single site, a coastal lagoon in the southern England, where it has recently been refound at brackish water pond in the marsh at Farlington.&#160; It was previously viewed as becoming extinct between 1960 and 1970 (Kerney 1999) (M. Willing, pers. comm, 2009).</li></ul>      <br/><h1></h1>
155989		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Atlantic coastal zones of Europe and the Mediterranean region, extending to North Africa and east to Iran (Gloer 2002). It is rare in northern Europe, with no records in Ireland and just one locality in England (Anderson 2007), although it may be extinct from the Farlington Marshes from where it was formerly known (Gloer 2002). Bank (2004) lists this species as occurring in the UK, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, France and Italy (including Sicily) within Europe. Additionally, <em></em>this species has been recorded from coastal areas of the Aegean Sea (Koutsoubas <em>et al.</em> 1997), <em></em>Catalonia and Spain (Tejedo <em>et al</em>. 2003), and from Turkey and 'Black Sea countries' (Yildirim 1999).&#160; <br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><em></em>
155989		distribution	eng	This species is widely spread paleartic species. In northern Africa it is known from the Bay of Tunisia and coasts of Morocco. Because of uncertainty with misidentification of other similar species, this species may be more widespread e.g. also on the coasts of Algeria.
155989		distribution	eng	Widely spread paleartic species that in northern Africa is known from the Bay of Tunisia and coasts of Morocco. Due to uncertainty with misidentification of other similar species, the species may be more widespread that actually recorded and, e.g., be present also on the coasts of Algeria.
155989		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish waters, a coastal species.
155989		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia stagnorum</span> lives in brackish water lagoons and estuaries and ditches with a brackish influence.
155989		habitat	eng	This coastal species occurs in brackish waters.
155989		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish water habitats, including salt lakes and non-tidal lagoons (Gloer 2002), and modified habitats such as drainage ditches (Schultes 2008).
155989		population	eng	No information available.
155989		population	eng	There are no data on overall population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia stagnorum</span>, although it is known to be localized. Where it occurs, it is locally abundant and is dispersed by birds.
155989		population	eng	This species is very rare in northern Europe, with no records in Ireland and only one locality in England (Anderson 2007), although according to Gloer (2002) this population is probably extinct. It is rare and "seriously declining" in the Netherlands (Schultes 2008). Little information exists for more southerly populations, therefore the aforementioned rarity might be due to these records representing the northern extent of this species distribution.
155989		threats	eng	A brackish water species so no major threats. Brackish waters are often heavily polluted (high nitrates) so if it can stand this then should be able to survive.
155989		threats	eng	Brackish water species that is not facing major threats as it is very tolerant to often heavily polluted (high nitrates) brackish waters.
155989		threats	eng	Populations in the Netherlands have been seriously declining and the few remaining sites are threatened by urban pollution and changes in salinity as a result of coastal control (Schultes 2008).
155989		threats	eng	<p>The main threats, especially in the northern part of the range include any factors such as barrages, sluices, water flow management schemes that may alter or disrupt the narrow salinity range that this species occupies.&#160; Other threats include pollution by nutrient enrichment, industrial chemicals, oil spills etc.</p><p>In the longer term, global warming causing higher sea levels and the greater chances of saline intrusion could disrupt salinity (raise) levels.</p>
155990		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>
155990		distribution	eng	<p><em>Gyraulus lychnidicus</em>&#160;is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, where it is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
155990		habitat	eng	<p>This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zone where it is restricted to hard substrates, including artificial constructions. The juveniles are found amongst the <em>Chara </em>meadows.</p>
155990		population	eng	<p>It is found at suitable habitats in relatively high abundances (C. Albrecht <em>et al.</em> pers.comm. 2009)</p>
155990		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. As a result of this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. <br/></p>  <p></p>
155991		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions. More research is needed on taxonomy, population size, trends and distribution, threats and habitat trends.
155991		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is localised and&#160;restricted to the southern parts of the departments Var and Alpes-Maritime on the south-east Mediterranean coast.
155991		habitat	eng	This species lives in springs.
155991		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species.
155991		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown.
155992		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Endangered on the National Red List for Spain (Verdu and Galante 2009). It is also on the regional protected species lists for Castilla-La Mancha.<br/><br/>There are no known conservation actions for this species, however research is need on&#160; population trends and habitat monitoring is required to establish the extent that the water quality and quantity is declining. The canalisation of springs for water supply needs to be undertaken in hand with plans for protection for habitats of the species.
155992		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">This species is <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">endemic to Spain<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and was originally known from a single location<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">province of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Cuenca at<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Yemeda<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">In 1990 <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">a <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">population <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">was <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">discovered <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Castellon, which <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">has <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">been <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">recently identified as <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">also <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">belonging <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">to this <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">species <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">Arconada <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Ramos<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"> 2002)<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">No new sites have been found for this species, although additional surveys have been undertaken (Ramos pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
155992		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
155992		population	eng	Visits to the la Fuente del Roble, in Yémeda (Cuenca) have shown the populations remain abundant. The status of the populations Fuente de la Pena, in Navajas (Castellon) is very small, and recent surveys have not relocated the species, although the location is in a canyon with multiple springs and waterfalls, so it may be present is low density. Orti-Martinez (pers. comm. 2009) reported that the source at de la Pena has been altered since 1990, and hence the site might also be lost. There is low population recruitment and low population density.
155992		threats	eng	These species are sensitive to alterations of their habitat. The key threats to the survival of this species are related to factors that produce the disappearance or degradation of habitat. The major reasons include over-exploitation of water resources which dries out the springs and over-exploitation of groundwater. Other reasons for habitat alteration include the processes of water pollution by agricultural activity and environmental or industrial waste discharges. The construction of infrastructure for water extraction could completely change this springs. Other threats include prolonged periods of drought and forest fires.
155993		conservation	eng	There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, Lake Ohrid is a World Heritage Site and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999.&#160; A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring and population trend monitoring would be recommended for this species
155993		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Acroloxus improvisus</span> is endemic to Lake Ohrid, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Albania, where it is found only on the rocky eastern and south-western shore. </p>
155993		habitat	eng	This species is living in a freshwater lake, where it is found in rocky areas in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs on the underside of stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon and sublittoral species  (Hadzisce 1956).
155993		population	eng	Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (pers. comm. 2009) noted that   <span style="font-style: italic;">A. improvisus</span>   is strictly restricted to the rocky eastern and south-western shore. It is a very rare species.
155993		threats	eng	Deforestation leads to erosion of the neighbouring area, causing increased sediment loads in the lake which impacts the feeding and resting places for this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake leading to declining water quality. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the water of Prespa lake, which in turn feeds the aquifer of Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load in Lake Ohrid (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.
155994		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Emmericia patula</span> is protected by the Law on Nature Protection of the Republic of Croatia. However there are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. It is also listed as Least Concern on the European and Mediterranean regional red list assessments.
155994		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is listed from France, Italy, Albania, Croatia, Germany and Slovenia in Fauna Europea (Bank <em>et al</em>, 2006). The range of the species suggests that it is not localised, and is adjacent to the range of the other three species in the genus <em>Emmericia</em>. In France it was added as a new species to the french fauna in 1986, following an inventory on the Rivers Doubs in Eastern France. In Italy it is present in scattered localities, mainly in NE Italy, but with odd records in NW Italy and central Italy.&#160; The records for Albania are uncertain and require confirmation.
155994		habitat	eng	Springs and rivers, in the upper parts and middle parts of the river in Croatia.
155994		population	eng	No detailed data on population trends.
155994		threats	eng	There are localised threats from water pollution and habitat degradation with road construction in valleys and river channel management plans, however these are not viewed as threatening the species across the region.
155995		conservation	eng	The species is found in the Carpathian mountains, within a biosphere  reserve, so habitats lie in a protected area, however data is required on taxonomy, population status, habitats and threats to make a revised conservation assessment of this taxon.
155995		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Ugolskoe Forestry, Karpatsky Natural Reserve, Tyachev District, Zakarpatskaya Region, Carpathian Mountains, south-western Ukraine (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
155995		habitat	eng	Noted as a "Hydrobia-like terrestrial gastropod" by&#160; Kabat and Hershler (1993), the habitats and system remains uncertain.
155995		population	eng	No recent data on the status of this species, however shells resembling this species were found in the <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Carpathian Biosphere Reserve <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">Rakhiv <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">rn <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Transcarpathian <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Region) (Sverlova and Gural 2009)<br/></span></span></span></span>
155995		threats	eng	The species is found in the Carpathian mountains, within a biosphere reserve, so threats are likely to be minimal, however details of threats have not been assessed and hence are unknown.<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"></span>
155996		conservation	eng	The population and distribution status of this species requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to the status to be assessed.
155996		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region> where it was described from the springs at the source of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Krupa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype>, the right tributary of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Zrmanja</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>
155996		habitat	eng	This species is   subterranean and is found in the outwash of springs.
155996		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
155996		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
155997		conservation	eng	The species is believed to now be Extinct.
155997		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France. In Falkner <em>et al. </em>(2002), the range is described as 'environs of Toulouse' in the department of Haute-Garonne.&#160;In Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) two locations were considered valid from&#160;Moquin-Tandon, in the 1850's at Bourassol and Blagnac and a third locality from the Locard Collections at MNHN, Paris from 'St Michel s. Touch, près de Toulouse'. &#160;Much of this region is now part of the city of Toulouse, and Boeters (pers. comm. in Falker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2002) has searched for the species in the Bourassol parts of Toulouse and considered that this species has been lost during this century.
155997		habitat	eng	This species lived in freshwater springs.
155997		population	eng	This species is believed to be Extinct. It has not been recorded for over 50 years, despite survey efforts; possibly it became Extinct 30-50 years before that.
155997		threats	eng	The species was recorded from springs in the small villages adjacent to Toulouse in the 1850-1860's, however these locations are now all part of the city of Toulouse, and the sites are believed to have been lost during urbanisation.
155998		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Research is required to determine whether the species is still extant at the site or other closely adjacent sites.
155998		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Greece, where it is found in a small spring 5 km southwest of Githion (Gythion) (Gittenberger 1982).
155998		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species&#160;and is also possibly found in groundwater supplying the springs.
155998		population	eng	The current population trends are unknown as no shells were found at the type locality during recent surveys.
155998		threats	eng	The type locality has been capped for a water intake for domestic supplies which will affect the quality of habitat for this species.
155999		conservation	eng	All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia which includes this species. Lajtner and Slapnik (2009, unpublished list of Threatened Cave Snails) suggested that the species should be listed as Critically Endangered (CR), however this taxon was not included in the Red List for the Underground Fauna of Croatia (in press). Further surveys are required to relocate the species in the region surrounding the last known location and to establish the present location, population status and threats to make an informed conservation assessment.
155999		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dalmatella sketi </span>is endemic to Croatia. It was only recorded from shell deposits found by Sket in a spring under a power station near Skradinski Buk on the river Krka, Croatia in 1970. However, attempts to rediscover this locality have failed, and it is possible that the location was lost to development (Slapnik pers. comm. 2011).<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
155999		habitat	eng	The shells were discovered in freshwater springs.
155999		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There is no data on population trends, although it is thought that the spring may have been lost to development.
155999		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It was only recorded from  shells found at a spring near Skradinski Buk on the river Krka, Croatia,   in the 1970's. Attempts to rediscover the spring in the last few  years have failed, and it is possible  that the location has been lost to  development (Slapnik pers. comm. 2011).
156000		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not protected in France. Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review of the other sites where this species has been identified on shell morphology, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity.</p>
156000		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia bomangiana</span> is known only from the type localities in the south of&#160;department of&#160;Ardèche, southern France. Boeters & Falkner (2003) list 12 sites, but these correspond to only 5 aquifers and as such 5 locations.
156000		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters. It was also be found alive in springs.
156000		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
156000		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to water pollution and reduction of groundwater levels as a result of extraction from the aquifer.
156001		conservation	eng	There are no known actions for this species. Further data is required to enable a conservation assessment, including distribution, population trends and threats.
156001		distribution	eng	This species was described from the 'former country of Yugoslavia" and its current status is uncertain. Further data is required on its range.
156001		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
156001		population	eng	There is no recent population trend data for this species.
156001		threats	eng	As the current range of the species is unknown, we cannot establish the threats for this species.
156002		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (<a href="hbsd.hr/.../Pravilnik_o_proglasavanju_divljih_svojti_zasticenim_i_strogo_zasticenim.pdf">See List of protected species</a>). This species was considered to be threatened in Croatia, and assigned a  status of Critically Endangered B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) for the Croatian Red  List of Cave Fauna (in press). Although all the underground fauna of Croatia is protected, the indirect causes of habitat degradation, such as sewage and pollution are not being prevented, so that the habitat quality is changing. A better system of managing sewage disposal is needed as well as monitoring habitat quality and&#160;population trends.
156002		distribution	eng	The species in endemic to Croatia and is only known from the cave site at Tounjčica.
156002		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater cave species.
156002		population	eng	There is no information on population trend.
156002		threats	eng	In 2003, this site was considered to be within the top 10 threatened karst areas in the world. The species is facing multiple threats, all of which have the potential to threaten this species. Dam construction in the past has altered the hydrological systems, lowering water levels in the cave system. Uncontrolled disposal of waste from local towns is impacting habitat quality at the site. Sewage is discharged directly above the cave system, and seeps down into  the water, degrading the water quality. There is active quarrying  ongoing above the cave, with possible impact, degrading habitat quality.
156003		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for to this introduced species in Europe and none are considered necessary.
156003		distribution	eng	This species is a native of North America and has been introduced to Europe, and is currently known from UK, Ireland and Spain.
156003		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physella gyrina</span> occurs in almost any permanent or intermittent freshwater habitat type, including ponds, lakes, ditches and rivers.
156003		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
156003		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this introduced species in Europe.
156004		conservation	eng	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). . The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed.
156004		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted to two sites, a spring in caves at Cerknesko Jezero (Križna jama and sources around cave near to Lož) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Notranjski</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated as 50 km, based on two locations and restricted range as less than five locations.<br/></p><p>    </p><p></p>
156004		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156004		population	eng	Population status of this species is unknown.
156004		threats	eng	This species is considered to be under pressure as the water source it occupies could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agricultural and domestic sources.
156005		conservation	eng	&#160;The species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.
156005		distribution	eng	This species was described from empty shells collected from Rhone alluviums and neither its taxonomic position nor its distribution are clear.
156005		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156005		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156005		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156006		conservation	eng	In most countries this species is not considered to be of conservation interest. No species specific conservation actions are in place. In Ireland, it was assessed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Great Britain it was listed as Least Concern, as the species is currently stable (Seddon and&#160; Killeen, pers. comm. 2010). In Latvia and Switzerland it was considered to be category 3 (Endangered). Research actions include further research to establish population and habitat trends and monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
156006		conservation	eng	Legislation development and implementation, as well as research and habitat conservation actions are needed.
156006		conservation	eng	No information available.
156006		conservation	eng	None known.
156006		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe status of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009). It is also listed under catergory 3 'gefährdet' (endangered) on the Swiss Red List (FOEN 2007 <span style="font-style: italic;">in</span> Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It is also included in the Red Book of Latvian rare and threatened plants and animals (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Further research is needed into the species' global population trends and threats.
156006		distribution	eng	A holarctic cold water species whose southern limit lies in highlands of northern and north eastern Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Morocco. It is known from the region of Ifrane, and from the Middle Atlas at Lake Hachlaf, Aoua, Afourgagh and Tifounassine, Dayet Ifrha, the sources of Ben Smim and from Aïn Tataw (Ghamizi 1998). In Algeria it was found in the region between Constantine and Mostagenem (Bourguignat 1864). <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> The species also occurs in the Ethiopian Highlands. Algerian records from 19th century It is known from area with large human impacts so probably no longer there. This species is only found in mid-Atlas. Very localised, probably in highlands of Mediterranean.
156006		distribution	eng	<em>Armiger crista </em> is a holarctic cold water species whose southern limit lies in the northern African highlands (Morocco and Algeria). In Morocco, it has been cited from the regions of Ifrane, the Middle Atlas at Lake Hachlaf, Aoua, Afourgagh and Tifounassine, Dayet Ifrha, the sources of Ben Smim and from Aïn Tataw (Ghamizi 1998). In Algeria, it was found between Constantine and Mostagenem (Bourguignat 1864). The species also occurs in the Ethiopian Highlands. Algerian records from the 19th century are from an area undergoing to large human impacts and therefore though to probably no longer been there. It is only found in mid-Atlas. It has a very localised distribution, probably restricted to the Mediterranean highlands. Its type locality is in Germany.
156006		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia near Debra Berhan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> A holarctic cold water species whose southern limit lies in highlands of Northern Africa. The type locality is Germany.
156006		distribution	eng	This small species of Planorbid is found throughout Europe to 62°N (Kerney 1999). Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) report the species from: Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland) Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia Hungary, Italy (mainland),, Bulgaria, Romania, Andorra, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, Slovenia Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Ukraine, Greece (mainland).<br/><br/>In the former USSR the range extends to the Ural River, western Siberia plain, eastward to Altai and to Transcaucasia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156006		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe, Russia and North America (Aho<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1981, NatureServe 2009). It is found in Russia including Siberia and part of Middle Asia, and relict populations are also found in Morocco and Ethiopia.
156006		habitat	eng	It can be found in fresh water of all kinds, even slightly brackish, where there are aquatic plants. Borders of lakes, but not man-made structures. Highland areas. This species likes colder water and is distributed by birds.
156006		habitat	eng	It inhabits a broad range of freshwater habitats of highland areas, even slightly brackish, where there are aquatic plants. It is found on the borders of lakes, but not on man-made structures. It prefers colder waters. It is spread by birds.
156006		habitat	eng	Non-polluted fresh water of all kinds, even slightly brackish, where there are aquatic plants. Borders of lakes, but not man-made structures. Highland areas. Likes colder water. Distributed by birds.
156006		habitat	eng	This species is tolerant of mild pollution and is found in a wide variety of different water bodies, including lakes, canals, ponds, swampy ditches and avoids places with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999). In Great Britain it is often the most abundant species in rivers and streams in upland areas (Kerney 1999).
156006		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters of a wide variety of habitat types including ponds, lakes and coastal lagoons with abundant aquatic vegetation (Heino and Muotka 2005, Zettler and Daunys 2007, Zealand and Jeffries 2009). It ranges from freshwater to water with a salinity of 5.2% (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156006		population	eng	No information available.
156006		population	eng	There is no information relating to population trends of this species.
156006		population	eng	This species is locally abundant and can be found at a density of up to 254 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in subsidence reservoirs in south Poland (Lewin and Smolinski 2006).
156006		population	eng	This species is widespread but only very localised, small populations exist in northeastern Africa and northern Africa.
156006		threats	eng	Climate change and habitat degradation because needs clean cold water. Bottled water companies.
156006		threats	eng	Climate change and habitat degradation due to pollution are main threats to the species due to its dependence on clean cold water. The activities of bottled water companies are also affecting to the species.
156006		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are climate change and habitat degradation because it needs clean cold water. Threats are also posed by encroachment and over-abstraction by bottled-water companies.
156006		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156006		threats	eng	This species is abundant where present and seems to be stable. However there are localized declines due to changes in land management practices, usually conversion of marshy ground to agricultural lands, or heavy pollution.
156007		conservation	eng	Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic statuis of this species as well as the distribution, if still considered to be a valid species.
156007		distribution	eng	This species is described as a French endemic, but&#160; may be synonymised with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pyrenaica</span>.&#160; Accordimg to Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) there are some problems with the locality information given for the species. For the distribution, we include 10 localities for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. darieuxii </span>from Bernasconi (2000) and the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pyrenaica</span>.
156007		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
156007		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156007		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilisation for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
156009		conservation	eng	<em>Belgrandiella croatica</em> is assigned a status of Rare for the Slovenian Red List 2002  (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, tuesday 24 september 2002).&#160;The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed.
156009		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region> where it is restricted to a few springs in the <st1:placetype w:st="on">river basin</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Kolpa/Kupa</st1:placename> in southeastern part of the country on both sides of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region>-Slovenian border. Radoman (1985) first described the species from the village of Lešnica (SW of Delnice along the road of Karlovac-Rijeka at Ogulin).<br/></p>
156009		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156009		population	eng	Population status of this species is unknown.
156009		threats	eng	<p>This species is considered to be under pressure in Slovenia, as the water source could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agriculture source and domestic sources (R. Slapnik, pers. comm., 2010).</p>
156010		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. As surveys have not recorded this species is recent years, it is recommended that targeted surveys are conducted to assess the species status. <br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>
156010		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ohridohauffenia sublitoralis</span> is endemic to Lake Ohrid, which lies between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania.   It is found in sub-littoral zone of Lake Ohrid between 25 and 40 m depth, but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985).</p>  <p></p>
156010		habitat	eng	This is a sub-littoral species found through the sub-littoral zone of the lake below 25 m depth (Radoman 1983)
156010		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Despite recent surveys, this species has not been found since 2003 (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>
156010		threats	eng	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake.
156011		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Spain and lives within a protected area, the enclave called La Esperanza (Segorbe, Castellón), which was given status as "Paraje Natural Municipal” (Municipal Natural Park).Valencian Government Council Agreement, 27 January 2006 (published in Valencian Official Gazette –DOCV- nº 5187, on 31 January 2006).<br/><br/>The Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España (especes en peligro critico y en peligro) (Verdú and Galente 2009) placed the species as Vulnerable A2c+4bc, based on past loss of subpopulations and future loss of subpopulations.<br/><br/>The following actions are recommended:<br/><ul><li>Performing a management plan for this species including the study of both its biology and ecology.</li><li>Informing local people about the importance of this endemism, involving them in its preservation.</li><li>Increasing the availability of tough substrates, which could facilitate a rise in the number of specimens.</li><li>Avoiding the extraction of substrate and mud from the water sources, and also preserving a minimum of water flow in the springs and ditches</li></ul>The following activities could potentially lead to decline in populations: pollution and over-exploitation of the aquifers, pollution dumping at the water source, cleaning and restoring springs, creating irrigation ditches and reservoirs, disturbance of the ecosystem by human presence and activities, and the extraction of specimens for commercial purposes (collecting).
156011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to  Spain, where it is found only in the Valencian Autonomous Community. Presently it is recognised in five springs, all localised within a small area.
156011		habitat	eng	This species lives in springs and irrigation ditches, with clean water and plenty of aquatic vegetation. These are well oxygenated waters (6.4 to 7.8 mg/L), with high calcium content (between 114.70 and 156.32 mg/L), pH between 7.08 and 7.39, and water temperatures from 17.1 to 18.3ºC, depending on the locality.
156011		population	eng	<p>This species is in decline, both in terms of populations and the number of locations. The only stable subpopulations remain at the spring at La Esperanza (Navajas, Castellón) and in the ditches emerging out from this spring. The species has never been found living at the type locality<em>, '</em>El Bañador' (Altura, Castellón).<br/></p><p>Recently it has become extinct at three other sites. Originally rare at 50 Caños spring (Segorbe, Castellón), no living specimens have been found in recent surveys, so it must be considered as declining, possibly extinct at this site. The spring at Ermita N.ª Sra. de la Esperanza was replaced by a new one with a tap, to provide drinkable (chlorinated) water and this led to the disappearance of the subpopulation at this spring. Finally, it is currently extinct in Nova spring (Benifaió, Valencia), which became completely dry in 2008.</p>
156011		threats	eng	At every locality where this taxon was cited (including the 50 Caños spring, according to consulted sources), the water comes from La Esperanza spring. This spring supplies the municipalities of Navajas, Altura and Segorbe with domestic water supplies. The spring is also the only locality from which specimens and/or their shells are dispersed around this area by means of out-flowing ditches and other springs, that use the same artesian source     <p>The scarce number of currently known populations makes this species’ populations quite sensitive to any disturbance of its habitat.</p>    <p>The seasonal droughts, as well as over-exploitation and pollution of the aquifers (mainly by the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides) pose a serious risk for the future of this species; for example, a petrol station was built eight years ago on one site, and two years ago a trailer park was built on another site. Also the restoration and cleaning of the spring, the water sources and the ditches spouting out from them, must be monitored, as these can severely impact the population numbers. Climatic change, namely decline in precipitation levels may also lead to declining populations, as the springs dry out, for example, those in the vicinity of Nova spring (Benifaió, Valencia) became dry during 2008. <br/></p>
156012		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. More research is needed relating to the distribution, habitat and threats of this species.
156012		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania where it is only known from the River&#160;Danube in Sulina area (station 153, PhD. Rodica Leonte; Ciocou, pers. comm., 2010).
156012		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is Riverine, and according to Ciobiou (pers. comm., 2010) it is found both in fresh and brackish water ecosystems.
156012		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
156012		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156013		conservation	eng	&#160;There are no conservation measures for this species. It has not been considered in the recent Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galente 2009). There are generalised threats in the region, which could impact the species, therefore habitat monitoring is recommended. As this species has been recently describes research relating to its distribution is required to confirm it is a range restricted species.
156013		distribution	eng	<p><em>Moitessieria guadelopensis</em> is endemic to eastern Spain, where it is only known from two sites on the Rio Guadelope in the Province of Teruel:<br/></p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Calanda, bridge at Torrevelilla, Rio Guadelope, Province Teruel (UTM grid square YL356349), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Bridge 3 km South of Alcaniz, Rio Guadelope, Province Teruel (UTM grid square YL3944), interstitial water.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156013		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found in interstitial water in river beds where it is found living at 9.6°C.&#160; It occurs in the drainage basin with the species <span style="font-style: italic;">M.lludrigaensis</span> (Boeters 2003).
156013		population	eng	The population trends for this species are unknown.
156013		threats	eng	There are generalised threats in the region, which could impact the  species, especially the pressure on water resources (extraction for  domestic and  agricultural purposes) and the possibility of impact from increased  frequency of drought events.
156014		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;The species was considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>The recommended conservation action is habitat monitoring protocols to check whether the species habitats are declining.
156014		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in western Sardinia. <br/>The type locality is the 'Plentiful karstic spring Su Cologne, at San Giovanni, 100m above sea level (UTM 32 T NK4260). Also known from Cave Su Giana (100m ASL,UTM 32 T NK4360), Cave Sa Oche at Lanaitto (150m ASL,UTM 32 T NK4156),Cave Bue Marino, 1.5m ASL (UTM 32 T NK5255) and a spring on right bank of Cedrino River, S. Leonardo (3km upstream of Orosei, UTM 32 T NK5771) (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). In single catchment.
156014		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to slow flowing groundwater within a karstic region (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is a strict stygobiont. Like most spring-snails the species feeds using a radula, scraping rock surfaces.
156014		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
156014		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo & Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), although it is less threatened than the other species, as it is present through much of the groundwater systems and not restricted to the interstitial waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), however the rate of change is not expected to impact the species over the next 10 years, although any sudden change would change the status of this species.
156015		conservation	eng	There are currently no known conservation actions, however habitat monitoring and    further survey to determine the  geographical range of this species and the actual risk for the identified threats would    be recommended.
156015		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where it is found in the provinces Santander and Burgos:  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Arredondo, Asón, Surgencia Cueva la Cubera, Province Santander (UTM grid square VN511895), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Merindad de Valdevielso, Cereceda, Fuente Sagrero, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN598390), temporal effluent cave</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Merindad de Sotoscueva, spring of Quintanilla de Valdebodres, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN456602), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Valle de Mena, Cadagua, Nacimiento de Rio Cadagua, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN714695), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Merindad de Sotoscueva, Hornillayuso, Cueva la Torcona, Province Burgos (UTM grid square VN504625), interstitial water.</p>
156015		habitat	eng	This species is found in subterranean waters, interstitial water and effluent caves. It is occasionally sympatric with <em>S. affinitatis</em>.
156015		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown.
156015		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major  threat processes,                 however subterranean habitats are  vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or  agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline  in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another  threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156016		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. More research is needed on the population, habitat and threats of this species.
156016		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece.
156016		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown.
156016		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends of this species.
156016		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156018		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for the species, as the taxonomic status and hence distribution is uncertain. Further taxonomic research is required.
156018		distribution	eng	This species is listed as endemic to Croatia by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), but as a synonym by Gofas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001). Consequently the status is uncertain, as it may be conspecific with a more widespread European species, and thus there is no recent data on Croatian populations.
156018		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be found in brackish waters in estuaries.
156018		population	eng	There is no recent data on Croatian populations.
156018		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, as the taxonomic status and hence distribution is uncertain.
156019		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. More research is needed on the population and distribution, especially as the range in Bosnia and Herzegovina is uncertain, and although  it is believed to be restricted in range to a small area, surveys are  needed to confirm this.
156019		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxurinator brandti</span> is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it is regarded as rare and difficult to find.&#160;This slim troglobionte species is has been found rarely in sediments flushed from the underground karst waters at Ombla (Schutt 2000). Sket (pers. comm. 2010) notes it is found in the region of Metković in Herzegovina (in&#160;Bosnia and Herzegovina) and Dalmacija, Ombla spring in southern Dalmacija (in Croatia). However the range in Bosnia and Herzegovina is uncertain, and although it is believed to be restricted in range to a small area, surveys are needed to confirm this. <br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>
156019		habitat	eng	This species was found in detritus expelled from the cave at Ombla and it is presumed to be a groundwater species.
156019		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156019		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
156020		conservation	eng	Italy: Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em> (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;<br/>Slovenia: The species is considered to be Rare in Slovenia and R. Slapnik (pers. comm.,  2010) suggests this would be equivalent to Vulnerable (Vu D2) in  Slovenia based on current Red List Criteria.<br/>Croatia:&#160; This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (<a href="hbsd.hr/.../Pravilnik_o_proglasavanju_divljih_svojti_zasticenim_i_strogo_zasticenim.pdf">See List of protected species</a>).This species was considered to be threatened in Croatia, and assigned a status of&#160; Endangered B1a,b(iii)+2ab(iii) for the Croatian Red List of Cave Fauna (2009). &#160;All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia and the sites require monitoring. Implementation of laws protecting the sites would be beneficial, as would an educational awareness programme on the value of cave biodiversity.<br/><br/>Actions required include:<br/><ul><li>Further research on population trends and distribution<br/></li><li>Habitat monitoring</li><li>Campaign on the awareness of freshwater biodiversity and impact of water extraction and pollution on species.</li></ul><br/>Overall this species is considered to be Near Threatened.
156020		distribution	eng	<em>Istriana mirnae</em>&#160;is endemic to a small region, from Italy, Slovenia and Croatia. &#160;In Italy it is found in two locations, San Dorligo della Valle and Trieste. In Croatia it is restricted to 3 sites in Istria, where it is found in a small area around Grožnjan (where it occurs in small springs around the hill where the town is situated) with a second site at Živa voda&#160;and third site at Sitnica (cave spring about 50m long).
156020		habitat	eng	In Italy it is found in groundwaters in karst and in the outflows. In Croatia it is found in small springs around the hill, where the town is situated.
156020		population	eng	There is no data on population status for this species.
156020		threats	eng	In Croatia the major threats are pollution of groundwaters from runoff and sewage from the local towns and over abstraction of water for agricultural purposes.
156021		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are known and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
156021		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy specifically found in the alpine regions of&#160;southern Piemonte and the western Liguria, where it is restricted in range. In Piemonte it lives in the springs of the Bossea Cave&#160;which outflow through the Corsaglia torrent, about 30 m below the entrance of the cave, although it has not been found in the subterranean complex of this cavity. It may also be present in the main branch of the hypogean stream of the Caudano Caves. It is known from over 25 sites in this region, some of which are springs, others are in caves.
156021		habitat	eng	This freshwater species lives in groundwaters, present in cave springs and in hypogean streams of karstic cavities.
156021		population	eng	There is no population trend information.
156021		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species lie in changes to the groundwater, such as pollution (agricultural sources or domestic sources), and in over abstraction of water for domestic supplies&#160;(Manganelli<em> et al.</em>2000).</p>
156022		conservation	eng	<em>Bythiospeum charpyi</em>&#160;is protected by law in France.
156022		distribution	eng	Based on records from shells,&#160;<em>Bythiospeum charpyi</em> has a wide range in France (départements of Doubs, Jura, Haute Saone and Territoire de Bellfort) and Switzerland (Bern canton). &#160;It is considered as two subspecies by some authors,&#160;<em>B. c.&#160;</em><em>charpyi</em>&#160;(Paladilhe, 1867)&#160; in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>&#160;and&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:country-region>; &#160;<em>B. c.&#160;giganteum</em>&#160;Bernasconi, 1969 which is only found&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
156022		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156022		population	eng	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.
156022		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of the water levels in the aquifer may degrade the habitat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156023		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions: Restoration management strategy requires reduction of the external and internal organic load, control of non-point pollution sources, control of hydrological regime, and establishment of bio-manipulation techniques. Lake Pamvotis and Lake Kerkini are sites of Natura 2000 network (GR2130005-Limni Ioanninon and GR1260001-Limni -Kroussia-Koryfes Opus Beles, GR1260008, Texniti Limni Kerkini correspondingly).
156023		distribution	eng	According to Glöer and Maasen (2009), this species is endemic to Lake Pamvotis, Greece.&#160; However older literature suggests a wider distribution, where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. graeca</span> was also found in Tenaghi Philippon (Macedonia, Northern Greece) (Schütt 1987) and in artificial Lake Kerkini (Serres, Macedonia, Northern Greece) (Eleutheriadis and Lazaridou-Dimitriadou 2001). Lake Kerkini was formed by construction of a dam across Strymon river valley. The water of this lake is used for irrigation purposes. According to Frogley and Preece (2007), the identity of the above specimens need clarification in the light of the taxonomic revision made by Glöer and Pešič (2006).
156023		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater lakes.
156023		population	eng	This population status for this species is unknown, although it has been recently collected.
156023		threats	eng	During the last decades Lake  Pamvotis has been influenced by many man-made impacts, such as sewage discharge and water level fluctuation. Lake  Pamvotis is an eutrophic ecosystem exhibiting also a serious decline of submerged vegetation.
156024		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species.
156024		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radomaniola montana</span> is endemic to Montenegro. It was originally described from the Lukavac Brook, 15 km from Budva. Other records in Radoman (1983), list the species from Studenac spring (in Braići village close to Budva), Vrelo podgorska (Podgor village), Tomići village spring, 3 springs in the region of Crmnica (in the Skutari Basin) and Skruca and other springs in the region of Dobra voda, between Bar and Ulcinj. Radoman noted that the range occupied the mountains between the Adriatic region and the Skadar (Skutari) Lake catchment.
156024		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156024		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
156024		threats	eng	No threats are known for this species
156025		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions targeting the species over the region. In some parts of the range, habitat monitoring may be required to evaluate the changes to the species. If water quality improves under the Water Framework Directive, it would benefit this species, however some decline is likely through the loss of habitat as a result of water course management.
156025		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
156025		distribution	eng	This is a Palearctic species which is widespread in lowland Europe. Its distribution is more scattered in southern Europe and it becomes much less frequent in northern Scandinavia and almost absent from Norway.&#160; <br/><br/>Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) recorded the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia Hungary, Bulgaria, Italy (mainland), Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Ukraine, Greece (including Andikíthira Island, Evvia Island, Ionian Islands, Samothráki Island, Northern Sporades Islands, and Thásos Island).<br/><br/>Kantor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2009) list the species as extending to Siberia, and <em>P. henslowanum</em> also occurs in eastern North America although there is conjecture over its status as a native species as it is a species known to be moved by birds (I. Killeen pers. comm. 2009)
156025		distribution	eng	This species is found across Europe and to a lesser extent in the United States and Canada.&#160; In Europe, this species is found in Hungary, Portugal, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, south east Norway and north east Iceland (Kuiper <em>et al.</em> 1989). Within these countries it has been found in the River Danube, at Kismaros and Göd in Hungary (Bódis 2007); and the River Minho estuary in Portugal (Sousa <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; It is likely to occur in other European countries.<br/><br/>It occurs in Michigan and New York (Mackie 2007) and several localities in the eastern Great Lakes in Ontario, Michigan, and Idaho (fossil) (Herrington, 1962); and Ontario, Canada (Mackie 2007); but was likely introduced to North America having originated in Eurasia including Iceland (Mackie <em>et al</em>. 1980). In the United States this species occurs in New York, the Connecticut River in Massachusetts, Lake Michigan and Grand Haven in Michigan, Lake Superior in Minnesota and Lake Champlain in Vermont (Herrington 1962, NatureServe 2009). In Canada, this species occurs in Quebec, Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba, Lake Ontario, Bay of Quinte, Rideau River and St. Lawrence River in Ontario (Herrington 1962, NatureServe 2009).&#160; This species is believed to be a non-native species of the United States and Canada, however this has been disputed (Smith 1986).
156025		habitat	eng	This species is found in both rivers and lakes, is able to live in soft water and thrives in calcium rich waters (Smith 1986). In the United States, this species is most commonly found in large bodies of water, but in Europe it is found in unpolluted canals and rivers (Clarke 1981).
156025		habitat	eng	This species occurs in several types of freshwater habitats e.g. rivers, fish ponds and lakes. In rivers it prefers a sand-muddy substrate.
156025		population	eng	There is no current information about population trends of this species available. It is a short-lived species and hence needs to be assessed over 10 year period. It is locally abundant in some countries (Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia).
156025		population	eng	This species was the fourth most widespread and the second most frequently found mussel species in a survey of the River Danube in Hungary in 2006 (Bódis <em>et al</em>. 2006) and in a 2007 survey of the River Danube, it was one of the top five most abundant species (Bódis 2007). However, it is reported to be rare in Canada (Clarke 1981).
156025		threats	eng	It is possible that this species is being threatened locally due to eutrophication and pollution of lakes. In 1982, densities of <em>Pisidium</em> species in Lake Estrom, Denmark, were only 5% of what they had previously been in 1957 (Holopainen and Jónasson 1989). Due to the extensive distribution of this species, it is unlikely that it is being threatened at a global level.
156025		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to the species.   The general threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium</span> species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, over-frequent dredging and the effect of invasive species. Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>P. henslowanum</em> was moderately tolerant of biodegradable pollution. Kuiper & Wolff (1970) showed that <em>P. henslowanum</em> was very resistant to pollution.
156026		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions specifically for this species. Data is required on current population status, distribution and threats to enable a full conservation assessment to be made.
156026		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia, and was described from the large spring at Klanac near the source of the Gacko river and three other closely adjacent springs in the Gacka polje (Radoman 1983). These springs still exist and have not been impacted by the hydro-electric extraction further downstream.
156026		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs that lie around the edge of Gasko Polje.
156026		population	eng	There is no available data on the population trends of this species.
156026		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known. The freshwater springs lies at the edge of limestone area, and some sites are exploited for tourism.
156027		conservation	eng	Proposed conservation actions include further surveys to determine the distribution, population trends and threats to this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended to detect any negative impacts on the species from changes in the water regime caused by the Gabcikovo Water Dam.
156027		distribution	eng	This species is currently believed to be endemic to Hungary, although Fauna Europea list the species for Hungary and Slovakia (Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). According to Feher & Solymos (pers. comm. 2009) the entire global population lives in the Szigetköz area (north-west Hungary). It has also been found in floodline drift of the River Danube in several localities, but due to its inaccessible habitats, live specimens have only been found to date in a single site at Kisbodak. Empty, but fresh shells, have been found in other sites, indicating that this species probably inhabits other springs in the region.
156027		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the subterranean part of underwater springs in the riverbed of River Danube.
156027		population	eng	There is no information available on the populations trends of this species.
156027		threats	eng	Changes in the water regime are likely to negatively affect populations although there is no evidence of a direct impact yet. Future hydrological changes (water level) and other possible negative  effects caused by the Gabcikovo Water Dam are the main threats to this species.
156028		conservation	eng	Conservation actions are not in place for this species.&#160; Further survey data are required to establish if this cryptic species is still extant, and&#160; thereafter monitoring to establish any decline in habitat quality. Some species may require a review to decide whether any restrictions on drawdown would be required to maintain suitable habitat if the species is still present.
156028		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Henrigirardia wienini </span>is endemic to a single cave in the Hérault valley in southern France.
156028		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156028		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species. This species has never been found alive and could already be extinct.
156028		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water extraction and impacts lowering groundwater table maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. Concerning the cave where <span style="font-style: italic;">H. wienini</span> lives (if it is still living), the water is abstracted for domestic purposes. Agricultural and housing are very limited in the area, so pollution in probably not an important threat at the moment.
156030		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Croatia, however there are no known conservation actions. Further data is required on distributions and threats to make a fresh conservation assessment.
156030		distribution	eng	<em>Plagigeyeria klemmi</em> is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, however there is little data on modern distributions (Bank <em>et al</em>. 2006).
156030		habitat	eng	This species is reported from freshwater springs.
156030		population	eng	There is no recent population data for this species.
156030		threats	eng	As there is little data on modern distributions, the threats to this species are unknown.
156031		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed as 'Rare' on the Slovenian List of Threatened Species. The Krka River catchment is a Natural Monument,&#160; according to the Decree on the Protection of the Krka River, its tributaries and banks (Dolenjska Assembly Journal, No. 21/72) and is included in the European network Natura 2000 as a special area potential Site of Conservation Interest. </span><span style="background-color: white;">In the CBD <a href="https://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/www.arso.gov.si/narava/poro%C4%8Dila%20in%20publikacije/biotska_raznovrstnost2.pdf">government report</a>&#160; </span><span style="background-color: white;">this species was one of two highlighted and the site at source of the Krka near Trebnja Gorica is one of the most notable cave sites in Slovenia. There should be work undertaken to monitor the changing quality of habitat in these cave and springs for all of the endemic freshwater snails. <br/></span>
156031		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to springs and caves in the upper part of the Krka catchment in the central part of southern Slovenia.
156031		habitat	eng	This species occurs in caves and freshwater springs (Sket pers. comm. 2010). The springs at the upper part of the Krka river are rich in calcium, as this river is the only Tufa forming river in Slovenia.
156031		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
156031		threats	eng	Some decline in water quality has been observed in the region as result  of pollution from percolation of water from the overlying agricultural  area (Slapnik pers. comm. 2009), however the levels of impact on this species are uncertain, and require further investigation, but on a precautionary basis, the species is listed as a result of these threats, as it is known to be rare.&#160;&#160; The impact on non-native species is lighted as a general threat to freshwater molluscs in the Slovenian Government report to the <a href="www.arso.gov.si/narava/poro%C4%8Dila%20in%20publikacije/biotska_raznovrstnost2.pdf">CBD</a>.
156032		conservation	eng	Research on the Skadar lake is needed. The species is protected nationally in Montenegro.&#160;On-going transboundary projects (IBA) focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area.
156032		distribution	eng	<em>Radomaniola lacustris</em>&#160;is only known from small area of beach on the edge of Lake Skadar near Murici, Montenegro.
156032		habitat	eng	<em>Radomaniola lacustris</em> lives in freshwater habitats on the edge of a sandy beach on Lake Skadar. According to Radoman (1983), this is the only lacustrine form in this genus.
156032		population	eng	Unknown. There is no data present about the population.
156032		threats	eng	The threats to this species are mainly resulting from habitat degradation due to eutrophication of Lake Skadar. The littoral zone is subject to lake level changes and habitat degradation.
156033		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions in place for this species, although taxonomic data and population and distribution data is required for a full assessment.
156033		conservation	eng	Protection of springs, development and enforcement of limitations on use of water from springs and water abstraction, and . actions to mitigate the effects of climate change would all benefit this species.
156033		distribution	eng	<p>In Europe, this species is listed from Spain (mainland), Baleares (Spain), Portugal (mainland) and Madeira (Portugal). Given the uncertain taxonomic status, the distribution may well be under-recorded, as many records may well be listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span>. Beckmann (2007) listed the species from Menorca where it is known from Barranc de Cala En Porter, Torrent d'Algender bei Cala Galdana, Platges de Son Saura and Mao am Font d'en Simon. <br/></p>
156033		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mediterranean but not to northern Africa. In Morocco, it is known from spring Ain Jdida and spring Ain Louada, in the region of Tetouan.
156033		habitat	eng	The habitats for this species are unknown.
156033		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont - dependent on springs.
156033		population	eng	No information available.
156033		population	eng	The population size and trends of this species are unknown.
156033		threats	eng	In Northern Africa, this species is threatened by pollution and extraction of water from springs. Climatic change could be a big problem as the springs are cold, and an increase in temperature could seriously impact the species.
156033		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
156034		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however, distribution and taxonomy need to be researched.
156034		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia declinata </span>was   described by Frauenfeld, 1863 from the region of  Montenegro, but there  is  no current data on the distribution or status  of this species.
156034		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat for this species.
156034		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
156034		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156035		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure in place for this species. More research is needed on the population a distribution.
156035		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia umbilicata</span> is endemic to the Trabuc cave system in southern France.&#160; Prie (pers. comm. 2009) reports the species from 3 different groundwater systems within this small region, hence the species should be regarded as a restricted range species.
156035		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156035		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156035		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156036		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known apart from&#160; a programme of habitat monitoring  is recommended.&#160; It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
156036		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella microstoma </span>is endemic to north-western Italy, where it is known from a small area, with 6 recorded sites (CK Map 5.3.8), although this region is actively researched, some new sites may be found.
156036		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.
156036		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so the population numbers are presumably relatively low.
156036		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
156038		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. The remaining population should be monitored.
156038		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malaprespia albanica</span> is now only found in one sublacustrine spring in the Albanian  part of the small Prespa Lake ("Mikri Prespa") (Albrecht, pers. comm.,  2010).&#160; They speculate that the distribution of this species was broader in the past, but has probably declined as a result of abrupt changes of water level changes and accumulation of organic material (mud) on the shallow rocky banks of the lake.
156038		habitat	eng	The species is living in a spring, that was used to be sublacustrine, but due to considerable water level drop, it is now located outside of the current lake (Albrecht, pers. com, 2010).
156038		population	eng	This is a very rare species, so is assumed to live at low density (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., pers. comm., 2009)
156038		threats	eng	This lake was a nutrient-poor lake (oligothropic), but due to pollution related to intensive agriculture practise in the neighbouring area, it is now more eutrophised. Herbicides might impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Abrupt water level drop (of several meters), due to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is thought to have contributed to the disappearing of most of the population range, the remaining population surviving only in one area continuously fed by a spring.
156039		conservation	eng	All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia. This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. This species was considered to be threatened in Croatia, and assigned a status of Critically Endangered (CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)) for the Croatian Red List of Cave Fauna (unpublished manuscript 2009). Recommended conservation actions include habitat monitoring, implementation of water protection (run-off scheme for road and sewage treatment). <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Educational<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">programmes <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">should be <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">introduced to raise <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">awareness <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">endangered species<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, hence the need <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">to set up <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">an educational and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">informative table <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of type <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">sites.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156039		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella rudnicae</span> is endemic to Croatia. It is known from Rudnica rijeka/River, Kamenica, Tounj (UTM: WL20) where it is found in a cave; Rudnica Cave VI .
156039		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater cave habitats, but it is not known whether it is found in cave streams, stagnant, rapids, endogenous or exogenous rivers (Slapnik pers. comm. 2009).
156039		population	eng	There are no data available on populations trends of this species.
156039		threats	eng	Rudnica Cave VI is threatened by the building of access roads and highways, pollution of groundwaters from domestic sources due to the lack of sewage systems, seepage of water from landfill sites and the use of pesticides and fertilizers on the surrounding agricultural land.
156040		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions in place for this species, although taxonomic data and population and distribution data is required for establishing likelihood of extinction at this site.
156040		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis vrbasi</span> is endemic to Bosnia-Herzegovina and is only known from the type locality, a spring in Bočac in Vrbas valley, 28 km S of Banja Luka (Bole & Velkovrh, 1987).
156040		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater springs.
156040		population	eng	There are no recent survey data, so population trends not available.
156040		threats	eng	<p>The landscape is totally altered by hydrotechnical works for the powerplant installations. The freshwater springs are no longer accessible, and may well have been destroyed.</p>
156041		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species and the conservation status has not been evaluated in Romania. No conservation measures are needed.
156041		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania and is currently known from springs in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Apuseni</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Grossu 1981). The samples were collected from cave water and interstitial water from <st1:placename w:st="on">Coiba</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Mare</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype>, Casa de Piatră (<st1:placename w:st="on">Bihor</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype>), <st1:placename w:st="on">Vadu</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Crişului</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype> (the basin of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Crişul</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Repede</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>)  (Olivia Cioboiu pers. comm. 2009).
156041		habitat	eng	The species inhabits springs, cave-water and interstitial water in caves.
156041		population	eng	There is no population data on this species.
156041		threats	eng	There is possibly some water contamination in the region of the Apuseni Mountains, Romania, however it is not known whether it impacts this species.
156042		conservation	eng	This species was considered as Critically Endangered in the 2003 Bavarian Red List (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2003)  considered the species to be category 1 and noted it was an extremely  rare species with a geographical restriction in Bavaria,  Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this  species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish  potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations  is difficult. Surveys to attempt to increase the known range of the species are also advised.
156042		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from a single locality, in Weihermuehle, one kilometre west of Neuessing, in Bavaria (Germany).
156042		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
156042		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species. It is described as extremely rare by Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003).
156042		threats	eng	Any threats impacting this species are unknown. Given that the species is found within a groundwater system there is the potential threat from pollution or over-abstraction of water.
156043		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known in Europe for this introduced species.
156043		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known in the Mediterranean for this introduced species.
156043		conservation	eng	None needed.
156043		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation management strategies in place for this species, and none are considered necessary.
156043		distribution	eng	Regional distribution: An introduced species from America. Now widespread in South Africa. Also found in the Fish River and Karstveld wetlands in Namibia, Lake Kariba (Zimbabwe and Zambia) and southern Mozambique. Of importance in the transmission of fascioliasis (<em>Fasciola gigantica</em> and <em>F.hepatica</em>) in several adopted countries but evidence for this is so far lacking in Africa.<br/><br/>Global distribution: Native - North America. Introduced in Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, some Caribbean islands and possibly Asia.
156043		distribution	eng	This common Nearctic species has been introduced in Europe, New Zealand and different regions of Africa. In Central Europe it is known in Austria, Hungary and Romania. In the Mediterranean it has been recorded from France, Italy, Spain (Balearic Islands, Mainland) and Egypt (Brown 1994) where it is thought to have been introduced in 1944 (Mandahl-Barth 1968).
156043		distribution	eng	This common Nearctic species has been introduced in Europe, New Zealand and different regions of Africa. In the Mediterranean it has been recorded from France, Italy, Spain (Balearic Islands, Mainland) and Egypt (Brown 1994) where it is thought to have been introduced in 1944 (Mandahl-Barth 1968).
156043		distribution	eng	This species is one of the most widely distributed freshwater snails in the world with a high invasive potential (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012). It is endemic to eastern North America generally, Nova Scotia and Quebec west to Manitoba, Minnesota and eastern Kansas south to central Texas and Florida (Burch 1989), and&#160;occurs  almost all over the Neotropical region from Mexico to Brazil as well as much of  Cuba (Pointier <em>et al</em>. 2005) and has been introduced around the world. It has been a successful invasive species in parts of South America (Lobato Paranse 1983, Jarne and Delay 1990), including Argentina&#160;(Zarco&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2011). It has also been introduced in Europe, New Zealand and different regions of Africa. In Central  Europe it is known in Austria, Hungary and Romania. In the Mediterranean it has  been recorded from France, Italy, Spain (Balearic Islands, Mainland) and Egypt  (Brown 1994) where it is thought to have been introduced in 1944  (Mandahl-Barth 1968). In Europe, it has also invaded Latvia (Stalazs 2002), Greece (Welter-Schultes 2011), and the Czech Republic (Horsák <em>et al</em>. 2010). It has also invaded South Africa (Schutte and Frank 1964, De Kock <em>et al</em>. 1989), Australia (Boray <em>et al</em>. 1982) and New Zealand  (Winterbourn 1973). Subspecies <em>championi </em>occurs from central Mexico south  to Panama (Thompson 2008).
156043		habitat	eng	A moderately amphibious species, it commonly occurs on the damp sediments near the air/water interface of permanent streams, pools and lakes . Also occurs in artificial  waterbodies such as  impoundments, ornamental ponds and  drinking troughs.
156043		habitat	eng	This species is found in all kinds of stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies, including rare and seasonal pools (aestivation up to 6 months has been reported).
156043		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of slow and lentic freshwater environments from the margins of freshwater lakes, ponds and swamps, as well as in the southeastern Atlantic drainages, found floating on or emergent on vegetation (Burch 1989).
156043		population	eng	A common species with an expanding distribution within the region.
156043		population	eng	There is no direct population status and trend data available for this species, but it is widespread, highly invasive and apparently expanding, so probably increasing.
156043		population	eng	This is a common species with an expanding distribution within the region.
156043		threats	eng	None known.
156043		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species' survival. This species is considered to be a vector of <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> which affects livestock in Europe and as a consequence it is targeted by control programmes with an aim of eradication, however as the species is an introduction in this part of the range it is not considered to be more than a localised threat.
156043		threats	eng	This species is considered to be a vector of <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> which affects livestock and as a consequence this species is targeted by control programmes with an aim of eradication.
156044		conservation	eng	In Hungary this species is protected, in Slovenia it is considered Vulnerable (VU), however within the Balkans it is widespread and therefore does not require protection.
156044		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Amphimelania holandrii</span> occurs predominantly in the river catchments of the Sava River and the lower part of the Danube River Basin. It is found in Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro, Greece (mainland). The presence in the former country of Yugoslavia (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) suggests it may be present in other countries of former Yugoslavia.
156044		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater river species, often found on hard substrates, such as rocks in the river.
156044		population	eng	The population trends for this species are unknown, however there are several stable subpopulations throughout the Sava drainage.
156044		threats	eng	Although the major threats to the habitats come from pollution and siltation degrading habitat quality, this species is relatively resistant to pollution compared to other riverine species, and so suffers less from this threat than other taxa in the same habitats.
156045		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known specifically for this species, although Cave fauna is protected in Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina.
156045		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The species is from Croatia and<span style="background-color: white;"> Bile (BiH)</span> and has been found at 7, possibly 8 locations.&#160; It has been found in outwash from the springs at Ombla (Croatia). <span title="Ich sammelte">Schütt (2000) collected and found the species to be frequent at the Ljuta source near Dobrota <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">, in the spring at Vrgorac Stinjevac (east of Biokovo)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">, in the springs at Mlini Plat <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">; in Mühlquelle in Zaton Mali <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">, in the spring Bileca (BiH) and&#160; the main springs at of Trebinjica, Bile (BiH). There is a possible record from Montenegro, but this requires further survey data to clarify the presence. <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156045		habitat	eng	This species can be found in Freshwater springs emerging from caves.
156045		population	eng	There is no data on population status for this species.
156045		threats	eng	A Dubrovik tourist development is leading to degradation of the species habitat.&#160; Pollution from agriculture (nitrates), Sewage at Ombla, as well as construction of a dam taking water since the 1970s at Ombla. Water extraction for drinking water and irrigation for agriculture is also another threat to this species.
156046		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. This species is currently covered by legal protection as it is a strictly protected species and lies in protected cave habitats according to the existing Nature Protection Act (NN 70/05, 139/08).<br/><br/>The implementation of monitoring measures and conditions listed in the nature protection plans Tounj space and Karlovac County needs to be improved. Proposed conservation measures include:<br/><ul><li>Implementing protection for biological natural monument.</li><li>Rehabilitating and protecting the construction of a sewerage system for the town to prevent further pollution.</li><li>Preventing uncontrolled use of the quarry in Tounj.</li><li>Preventing the introduction of species and their habitats in water management within the special protection area of the river water slijevnog Zagorske Mrežnica.</li></ul><br/>(Red Book for Cave Fauna of Croatia, in press 2010)
156046		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia. It is known from a single cave system,&#160;<span class="longtext"> Tounjčica Tounj, in Karlovac County near to the city Ogulin (R.Slapnik pers. comm. 2009).
156046		habitat	eng	<span class="longtext">This is a freshwater species living in groundwaters in karst cave habitats. It is not known in stagnant or running waters, rapids, rivers, lakes, or pools.
156046		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown.
156046		threats	eng	The cave at Tounjčica is currently threatened because of mining and quarry expansion in Tounj which is located near the cave and lies directly above the groundwater. There is pollution of groundwater from waste and sewage water from the villages near Oštarija and various pollutants (oil derivatives, oil, waste water) from a quarry and roads near Tounj. Other threats that may impact groundwaters include pumping of drinking water for the villages and towns.<br/><br/>Longer term threats are the potential degradation of cave ecosystems following changes to rainfall patterns causing changes to groundwater recharge.<br/><br/>There is a possible threat from illegal collecting of the cave fauna, as the cave is often visited without any supervision.<span class="longtext"><span title="Važna je ugroza promjena režima podzemnih voda nakon provedenih hidrotehničkih zahvata te crpljenja pitke" onmouseover="this.style.backgroundColor='#ebeff9'" onmouseout="this.style.backgroundColor='#fff'"></span>
156047		conservation	eng	Considered to be Least Concern in Italy (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and Rare in Slovenia. There are no specific conservation actions for this species, although habitat monitoring would be recommended to establish whether the species is suffering from impacts of pollution and groundwater lowering from exploitation.
156047		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii</span> is endemic to North Eastern Italy and Western Slovenia.&#160; In Italy it is recorded from 27 sites over a wide area whereas it is restricted to only Western Slovenia in Slovenia.
156047		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii</span> is found within subterranean groundwaters and the outlets at springs.
156047		population	eng	The population trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii </span>are unknown.
156047		threats	eng	The pollution of groundwater from agricultural sources and domestic sources will threaten <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii</span>, which is considered to require clean waters.
156048		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures. More research is needed to solve the taxonomic issues of this genus.
156048		distribution	eng	This species was originally described from 'springs at Bigorre', Haute-Pyrenees, France. It is only known from the type specimens, a single shell designated as a lectotype and three syntypes (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Haase 2000).&#160; Bernasconi (2000)&#160; noted that attempts to find the species again at springs close to  Bagneres de Bigorre have failed to produce any specimens.
156048		habitat	eng	this species occurs in freshwater springs
156048		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156048		threats	eng	As with most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella, B. pyrenaica</span> is only found living living in freshwater springs. Their natural habitat is thus very restricted. Because springs have often been transformed for water supply, and/or run out of water at least temporarily because of water pumping in summer, we can infer an important and continuing decline in number of locations for all the springsnails species.
156049		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR) (Reischutz & Reischutz&#160; 2007, 2009). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species' population trends.</p>
156049		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. It is known from the limestone Alps in eastern Upper Austria. The type locality is Reutersteinquelle, which feeds into a brook that drains into the Krumme Steyrling river (Glöer 2002). Although recorded from&#160; three sites, the location maybe a single location as the groundwater system underlying may feed all, but treated as 3 sites given the distance between the two main sites (see map in Reischutz & Reischutz, 2009).
156049		habitat	eng	The species inhabits groundwater and rock fissures and is recorded from outflow points such as freshwater springs.
156049		population	eng	There have been no living individuals of this species recorded, only empty shells were found. It is considered to be very rare or possibly extinct.
156049		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also a threat from pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.
156050		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Protected Species in Croatia. There are no conservation actions known for the species. Habitat monitoring and population monitoring would be recommended to determine if the potential threats identified are impacting the species. Efforts to increase the known range of the species are also advised.
156050		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006)as being endemic to Croatia. However, the type locality was a freshwater spring near the north coast of Bacina lake, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also known from the lower&#160;Neretva River&#160;(Radoman 1983): localities include Cevljusa village near Ploce Town, Desilo in Barjevci village (Svitavsko blato), Lukavac near Bajevci, spring near Romici village, 10 km from Metkovic town and at Sladinac below tunnel draining Becinsko jezero.
156050		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs.
156050		population	eng	There is no data on the population status of this species.
156050		threats	eng	There have been great changes in the water regime of the Neretva River and its tributaries, and in particular the disturbance of the natural balance as the consequence of the construction of the hydro-electric power plant Capljina, and in some regions large marshes have been replaced by artificial lakes. In other parts of Croatia springs have been drying out, and may impact the species.
156051		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, although habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended, to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species, as it is difficult to collect given the cryptic habitat and the low population density. Lake Ohrid is a World Heritage Site and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.
156051		distribution	eng	This species is present in a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of Lake Ohrid, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).
156051		habitat	eng	This species is living in a freshwater lake, where it is found in rocky areas in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs on the underside of stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon and sublittoral species (Hadzisce 1956). <br/><p><br/></p>
156051		population	eng	It is strictly restricted to a freshwater lake, where it is found on the rocky bottom of the south-eastern shore and requires specific hydrological conditions. It is found only in very low abundances.
156051		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation leads to erosion of the neighbouring area causing increased sediment loads in the lake which impacts the feeding and resting places for this small freshwater limpet. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake leading to declining water quality. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the water of Prespa lake, which in turn feeds the aquifer of Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load in Lake Ohrid (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In addition, increased frequencies of fire in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>
156052		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, but the species is in need of taxonomic review to determine whether this species is present in the southern Mediterranean or restricted to the Canary islands and the Azores.
156052		distribution	eng	There is some confusion about the range of this species following recent molecular investigations. Bank <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the species as restricted to the Canary Islands, however according to Albrecht <em>et al.</em> (2007)<em> </em>and Pfenninger <em>et al</em>. (2003), the species found in the Canary Islands, has a range extending through the Mediterranean. Fauna Europea (Bank&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) now has the range including the Azores and Canary Islands, but not the Madeiran islands.
156052		habitat	eng	The general habitats for these small freshwater limpets include rivers, streams and other fast-flowing water such as ditches, waterfalls and small outlets from freshwater springs. It is usually found on rocks or submerged wood, and occasionally submerged grasses in the spray-zone of waterfalls (Kerney 1999, Seddon pers. comm. 2010).
156052		population	eng	The status of this species is uncertain, and as such the general information on subpopulation status is uncertain.
156052		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain, given that the range is uncertain, however as the species tends to prefer clean fast-flowing water, then general threats will include changes to flow regimes, sedimentation and changes to the river bed.
156053		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
156053		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
156053		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population numbers, distribution and threats.
156053		conservation	eng	No information available.
156053		conservation	eng	None known.
156053		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
156053		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus truncatus </em> is an Afrotropical species extending northwards till Portugal and southwards till Kenya. It is well distributed across oases of the northern Africa. It is considered as one of the most common and dangerous snails (vector of Bilharziosis) in the region. The type locality is in Egypt.
156053		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus truncatus</em> occurs in northern and western Africa. In central Africa it occurs in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon.
156053		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Northern limit known to be Portugal, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Near East. Main areas of distribution in Africa are in the North-West, lower Egypt, Sudan, and Westwards into Mauritania. Southern limits lie in DRC and Malawi (Brown 1994), but also recorded from Harare in Zimbabwe (DBL database)
156053		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, south Egypt and possibly also in Eritrea and Djibouti. The type locality is in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Afrotropical species extending northwards till Portugal and southwards till Kenya. One of the most common and dangerous snails (vector of Bilharziosis) in the region under consideration.
156053		distribution	eng	The northern limit of this species is known to be Portugal, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Near East. The main areas of distribution in Africa are in the northwest, lower Egypt, Sudan, and westwards into Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Cameroon, DRC and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread. It occurs in western Kenya, Ujiji, Kigoma in Tanzania, Lake Mutanda in Uganda and in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is found in all oases, so is distributed across northern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, south Egypt and possibly also in Eritrea and Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its southern limits lie in Zaire and Malawi (Brown 1994), but it has also been recorded as rare in Zimbabwe (DBL database).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in western Africa.
156053		distribution	eng	The species is widespread, occurring in western Kenya, Kigoma in Tanzania, Lake Mutanda in Uganda and in Malawi.
156053		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Africa, and further afield to southern Europe, and the Middle East.
156053		habitat	eng	Found in all oases in the desert. Also in irrigation channels, pools etc. Transmits <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosomiasis haematobium</span>.
156053		habitat	eng	Found in various water bodies, flowing and standing, some which become seasonally dry.
156053		habitat	eng	It can be found in various waterbodies, flowing and standing, some of which become seasonally dry. Often found in standing waters, irrigation channels, and other man-made structures.
156053		habitat	eng	It is common in all oases in the desert. Also present in irrigation channels, pools and other human-made infrastructures. It transmits the parasite <em>Schistosomiasis haematobium</em>.
156053		habitat	eng	It is found in various water bodies, flowing and standing, including man-made waterbodies. Not so able to withstand drying out in seasonal pools (Kristensen, pers. comm.). It is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma haematopium</span>, causing Schistosomiasis.
156053		habitat	eng	Thrives in various water bodies ranging from permanent lakes and rivers to standing water bodies which occasionally become dry. Has been described as tolerant to some degree of drought through aestivation.
156053		habitat	eng	Various waterbodies, flowing and standing, some of which become seasonally dry.
156053		population	eng	No information.
156053		population	eng	No information available.
156053		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
156053		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
156053		threats	eng	No information available.
156053		threats	eng	No known major threats.
156053		threats	eng	No major threats.
156053		threats	eng	None known.
156053		threats	eng	Snail control.
156053		threats	eng	This species is subject to snail control measures.
156054		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae</span> is a protected species in France.
156054		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae</span> occurs in France, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Hautes-Pyrénées, on the Adour drainage.
156054		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae</span> inhabits in subterranean waters.
156054		population	eng	There are no population data available for species <span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae.</span>
156054		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. In this region of the Pyrenees, neither agriculture nor urbanization can be considered an important threat at present.
156055		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research on taxonomy, population size and trends, and threats would be of benefit.
156055		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France,where it is found at&#160;3 localities in the Department of Vienne.
156055		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
156055		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156055		threats	eng	The main threats remain common to many of the spring-snails in the region, overexploitation of the water source for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as pollution of the groundwater feeding the springs. Due to the need for water, numerous springs in this region are captured and become unsuitable for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species.
156056		conservation	eng	<p>The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. </p>
156056		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella koprivnensis </span>is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it was described from Krčana spring, 2 km of the road of Cazin-Bužin at the village Donja Koprivna (Radoman 1983). </p>
156056		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs (Radoman 1983).
156056		population	eng	Population status of this species is unknown.
156056		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown.
156057		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species.</p>
156057		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus lapicidus</span> is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of Lake Ohrid.
156057		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found in the littoral zone of lakes where it is restricted to hard substrate.
156057		population	eng	<p>This species is found at suitable habitats in relatively low abundances (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>
156057		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>      Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the Prespa Lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. <br/></p><p></p>
156058		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into this species' population status and threats.
156058		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Finland, Norway and Sweden, across to the regions of Transbaikalia, including Lake Baikal and Chita in Russia, northern areas of Western Siberia, the Altai mountains to the Okhotsk Sea (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Mozley 1937).
156058		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater lakes (Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004 in Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It inhabits still and slow running tundra water, and in Norway prefers pH around 7.5-9.5 (Welter-schultes 2009).
156058		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
156058		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
156059		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed. A strong recommendation for site protection especially from the impacts of threats is made for the species conservation in south Asia.</p>     <p></p>
156059		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species in Europe and none are considered necessary. More data on distribution and the impacts of the identified threats is required to confidently assess the species' conservation status.
156059		distribution	eng	Kuiper (1981) first recorded the species from the Mediterranean region, as it was originally described from India. The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium annandalei</span> now includes parts of south-east Europe: Sicily, Greece, southern Italy, Israel and Turkey (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
156059		distribution	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium annandalei</span> includes parts of southeast Europe (Sicily, Greece, southern Italy, Israel, Turkey), to south and southeast Asia (Nepal, India (Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar), Myanmar, Bangladesh, Thailand and Indonesia (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001)).
156059		habitat	eng	It is restricted to springs, and small to medium sized streams.
156059		population	eng	In India, it is found in small numbers along with other bivalves and occurs in unpolluted waters (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Increasing levels of water pollution in the streams is inferred to be a cause of decline in populations.
156059		population	eng	There is little population trend data for Europe, as like as Pisidium species, it is difficult to identify and requires expert assistance to confirm determinations.
156059		threats	eng	Organic pollution and eutrophication have been noted as the major threats to this species in south Asia, and it is thought that these threats also apply in Europe, as well as over-abstraction of water for domestic and agricultural supplies.
156059		threats	eng	Organic pollution and eutrophication have been noted as the major threats to this species in south Asia. It is considered as a good indicator for the water quality assessment (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2001).
156060		conservation	eng	<p>The species is present in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> which is a World Heritage Site, where the Albanian side has been protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and the sites at the spings are in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. There are no current conservation actions in place for this species.   Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species, as changes in the rate of decline of habitat quality would potentially change the status of the species.   <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place></p>
156060		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata stenotrema</span> is endemic to in Lake Ohrid and in the Feeder springs system (St. Naum), and is recorded from Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) (Hauswald<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>
156060		habitat	eng	This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral and partly sub-littoral zones, occurring in the sandy beach in the north and the south of Lake Ohrid, and in sandy patches in the feeder springs.
156060		population	eng	<p>This species can be found at suitable habitats in very high abundances.</p>
156060		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sewage, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; As a result of this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the highly human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing the area of suitable habitat for some species. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.<br/></p>  <p></p>
156061		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.<br/></p>
156061		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>    <p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p></p>
156061		habitat	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral and sub-littoral zone on various substrates such as <em>Dreissena</em> shells, stones and gravel.
156061		population	eng	<strong><em></em></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Ginaia munda</span> is relatively abundant in Lake Ohrid and common in suitable habitat.  <strong><br/></strong><strong><em><br/></em></strong>
156061		threats	eng	<p>&#160;Deforestation leads to erosion of the neighbouring area and increasing sediment load impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from agriculture run-off and from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.  </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156062		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Research relating to the population size, distribution and trends of this species is recommended.
156062		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia mostarensis </span>is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it was originally described from Mostarsko blato, a temporary lake on marshland&#160;near Mostar. Pesic (pers. comm. 2009) considered that&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithnyia mostarensis&#160;</span>is&#160;present in lentic (still water) habitats within the Neretva drainage basin, although at present there is little data on its distribution and ecology, so it maybe more widespread within this drainage basin.
156062		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lake and lentic (still water) habitats in rivers.
156062		population	eng	There is no data on the current status of these populations.
156062		threats	eng	General threats to the lake include a proposed hydroelectric plant to produce hydro power. In addition four hydroelectric power plants are planned in upper part of Neretva River, which could lead to devastation of small lentic (still water) habitats downstream which are probably the most suitable habitat for this species.
156063		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>
156063		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
156063		habitat	eng	This freshwater species found&#160; in the littoral and sublittoral zones of the lake, that can be found on various substrates like<em> Dreissena</em> shells, gravel and stones.
156063		population	eng	<p>It is found at suitable habitats in relatively low abundances (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>
156063		threats	eng	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod within the littoral zone.
156064		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156064		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the small <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> ("Mikri Prespa") and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156064		habitat	eng	This littoral species occurs in rocky habitat.
156064		population	eng	Although the population trend is unknown<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. prespensis</span> is frequently recovered in recent surveys within suitable habitats in the freshwater lake (Albrecht <em>e</em><em>t al, pers. comm</em>., 2009).
156064		threats	eng	<p>Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>
156065		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species.
156065		distribution	eng	This species is listed in Fauna Europea as restricted to Bosnia & Hercegovina and Croatia. Schutt (2000) <em>Pseudamnicola troglobia</em>&#160;was common at the Ombla source and in the floodline debris from outflow in Komolac as well as several sites on the Popovo polje.&#160;It is obviously in the subterranean streams of this area and hence is widespread in the outflow detritus from the systems (Schutt, 2000).
156065		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit subterranean habitat and freshwater springs.
156065		population	eng	This species was common at the Ombla source and in the floodline debris from outflow in Komolac as well as several sites on the Popovo polje.&#160;It is obviously in the subterranean streams of this area and hence is widespread in the outflow detritus from the systems (Schutt, 2000).
156065		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156066		conservation	eng	In Poland, this species has been protected by law since 1995 and is listed as Endangered on the Polish Red List (Zając 2005). This species has special status in Germany by the BArtSchV (Anlage I) legislation (Federal Species Regulation) (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006), and is listed with a status of 2 - 'highly endangered' (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also listed on the local Red List of endangered animals of Brandenburg and of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany with a status of 3 - 'threatened' (Rosińska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The species is classified as Vulnerable under criterion A4ce on the Irish Red List No. 2 (Non-Marine Molluscs) (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is also listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of threatened species of the Czech Republic (Farkač <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and as Endangered on the Norwegian Red List (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Further research is currently needed into the species' global population to assess the impacts of the documented threat processes. <br/>    <p><br/></p>
156066		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species operating across the range, although local actions are in place. In Poland, this species has been protected by law since 1995 and is listed as Endangered on the Polish Red List (Zając 2005).&#160;This species has special status in Germany by the BArtSchV (Anlage I) legislation (Federal Species Regulation) (Zettler&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2006), and&#160;where it is considered to be present in lakes and&#160;listed with a status of 2 - 'highly endangered' (Falkner pers. comm, 2009). It is also listed on the local Red List of endangered animals of Brandenburg and of Mecklenburg-Przedpomorza in Germany with a status of 3 - 'threatened' (Rosińska&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160;The species is classified as Vulnerable under criterion A4ce on the Irish Red List No. 2 (Non-Marine Molluscs) (Byrne&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is also listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of threatened species of the Czech Republic (Farkač&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and as Endangered on the Norwegian Red List (Byrne&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2009).<br/>Although the species is widespread at present, it has been declining in  parts of the range. The major threat identified in some areas is due to  new invasions of non-native species, and hence further research on the  impact of non-native species on <em>Anodonta anatina </em>is urgently  needed to determine the likely longer-term threats they present.  Following this it can be determined whether further actions are  necessary.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Data is required to establish whether the species meets the decline threshold of more than 30% over the last 25 years. It can then also be determined whether further actions are necessary.
156066		distribution	eng	This species can be found throughout Europe as far east as Siberia (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, there are no data to support species presence within Siberia (Vinarski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Mozley (1936) also described this species from northern Asia. It has also been recorded in Iran (Pourang <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Russia, it is found throughout the European part of the state (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
156066		distribution	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout Europe, but scarcer in some parts. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) considered there to be four different subspecies, which may once reviewed using molecular systematics be revealed as concealing cryptic diversity, and hence these are listed for information.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><em><br/>Anodonta cygnea cygnea</em> &#160;(Linnaeus, 1758): Mainly northern European: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland, Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland) and Germany.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><em><br/></em><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><em><br/>Anodonta cygnea deplanata</em> von Gallenstein, 1852: Austria.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><em><br/></em><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><em><br/>Anodonta cygnea gravida</em> Drouet, 1879:&#160; Mainland&#160;Greece.&#160;<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><em><br/></em><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><em><br/>Anodonta cygnea solearis</em> Held, 1839: Eastern European:&#160;Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Greece (including Andikíthira I., Evvia I., Ionian Is., Samothráki I., Northern Sporades Is., Thásos I.).<br/><br/>Outside Europe this species is found as far east as Siberia.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156066		habitat	eng	This species prefers slow flowing or still waters,&#160;lakes and slow-flowing lowland rivers,&#160;canals, drainage dykes and dam reservoirs (Kerney 1999, Killeen<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.</span>&#160;2004,&#160;Zettler&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2006). It is intolerant of poor environmental conditions, and can be used as a biodiversity indicator of clean water (Rosińska&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
156066		habitat	eng	This species primarily inhabits closed off and small waters such as ponds and peatlands, but can also be found occupying lakes and slow-flowing lowland rivers (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also found in canals, drainage dykes and dam reservoirs (Killeen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). The species appears to prefer waterbodies characterised by high concentrations of dissolved oxygen (a likely consequence of the species' fast growth and large size), free from floating vegetation and with fertile bottom sediments (Zając 2002, Rosińska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The species is intolerant of poor enivironmental conditions, and can be used as a bioindicator of clean water (Rosińska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). When present, it is often the only mussel species inhabiting these areas (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006).
156066		population	eng	Although this species is widespread and considered fairly common (Zettler <em>et al.</em> 2006), in Poland this species has been declining since the 1950s due to habitat degradation and pollution (Zając 2005). In Britain, river management strategy includes the dredging of rivers which can remove 20% of British subpopulations (Aldridge 2001). No detailed population trend data is known.
156066		population	eng	The species is known to be declining through parts of the range in western Europe. In parts of Germany considered rare (Falkner pers. comm. 2009), where it is considered to be present in lakes.
156066		threats	eng	In the past there have been localised declines and losses as the result  of habitat degradation (water pollution from industrial/agricultural  sources and channel management for flood protection and navigation),  however the most recent threats come from the impact of an invasive  mollusc species <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>, smothering the swan mussel. In some parts of Europe this species has been badly impacted by <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>  and is projected to decline even further as a direct result of this  invasive species (e.g. in Ireland,&#160;Moorkens and Killeen (2005)).&#160;The  species sits partly out of the river bed to enable the filter-feeding,  so&#160;a high proportion of shell is exposed to the water column, and hence is vulnerable  to settlement by&#160;<em>Dreissena polymorpha </em>seeking a place to  anchor. There is an urgent need for more data on the level of impact of  this species as the smothering is known to inhibit reproduction.
156066		threats	eng	This species has been badly impacted by the zebra mussel <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span> and has suffered localised declines in areas where this species has invaded its habitats (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In the absence of suitable substrate, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta</span> species are known to be a preferred settlement site for zebra mussels. Heavy infestations can affect the feeding, respiration and reproduction of unionid bivalves, causing mortality and eliminating entire populations (Rosell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The continued range expansion of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polymorpha</span> into suitable habitat is likely to further impact this species' population numbers (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Localised declines have been reported in Poland as a result of habitat degradation, water pollution and eutrophication (Dyduch-Falniowska 1992, cited in Mills and Reynolds 2004). The species is also threatened as a result of poaching for supply in artificial basins and garden ponds (Rosińska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In Britain, poor river management is a significant threat to the species: dredging occurs approximately every ten years and can remove 20% of unioid populations (Aldridge 2001).
156067		conservation	eng	This species is listed by the Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galente 2009) as Endangered (EN A2ab; D). One of the sites where this species is found at Ullal de Baltasar (UTM 31TBF90) lies within the Parque Natural del Delta de Ebro. This is a Natura 2000 protected area (Directiva 92/43/CEE), and hence the site lies under strict protection, as part of the reserve. Habitat monitoring is recommended due to the pressures from water abstraction and agricultural pollution.
156067		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, and is known from two localities, both in the Ebro Delta in Province Tarragona. The two sites are at Ullal de Baltasar, which lies within the Parque Natural del Delta de Ebro and the Acequia La Carroba, between San Carlos de La Rapita and Tortosa. (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)
156067		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species includes freshwater springs and subterranean habitat.
156067		population	eng	There are no population trend data for this species.
156067		threats	eng	The major threats to this species come from alteration of the habitat, either by changing water quality of the underlying aquifer as result of agricultural run-off (pesticides, sedimentation), changes to the hydrological regime (water abstraction from the aquifer) or changes in the aquatic vegetation of the areas where the species is found (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
156068		conservation	eng	Data is required on current population status, distribution, and threats to the species to enable a conservation assessment of this species.
156068		distribution	eng	This species is considered to be restricted to Romania where it is only known from freshwater springs of the Danube at Giurgiu (O.Ciobou, pers. comm., 2010)
156068		habitat	eng	It lives in cold freshwater springs and cold streams (Ciobou, pers.comm., 2009).
156068		population	eng	There is no recent data on the population status of this species.
156068		threats	eng	There is no data on possible threats to this species.
156070		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.
156070		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe. It is found in Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (mainland) and Portugal (mainland).<br/><br/>Outside Europe it is recorded from Turkey, and has recently been reported in Lebanon.
156070		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that is found in swamps and slow-flowing waters with abundant vegetation.
156070		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend for this species is known at the European level.
156070		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. There are likely to be localised declines due to habitat loss and water pollution but these are not thought to be impacting the species at the European Level.
156071		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. More data is required on the populations, distribution, habitats and threats, in order to make a conservation assessment of the taxon.
156071		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is listed on INPN (Inventaire national du Patrimoine naturel) as present in the department of Var, but with no locality or date.
156071		habitat	eng	The habitats are not known for this species.
156071		population	eng	There is no recent population data for this species.
156071		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
156072		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions specifically for this species, however surveys and water management plans would be likely to be beneficial to the species.  The Red List status in Germany is Rare but in Bayern it was 4S (Glöer and Meierbrook 2003).
156072		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany and is considered to be rare (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) and is found in springs and groundwaters of Munchner Stadtgebiert (Glöer and Meierbrook 2003).
156072		habitat	eng	This species is found in springs and groundwaters of Munchner  Stadtgebiert (Glöer and Meierbrook 2003).
156072		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare (Falkner  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) but current population trends are not known.
156072		threats	eng	The major threats lie in groundwater pollution from agricultural and domestic sources and over abstraction of water from the underlying groundwaters.
156073		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions and none are required.
156073		distribution	eng	This species is native to North America, but is widely introduced in Europe, where it is found in aquariums, indoor pools and other artificial habitats. The species is often a temporary resident, and may die out.
156073		habitat	eng	This species is found in ponds and aquarium tanks.
156073		population	eng	This non-native species is expanding its range in Europe.
156073		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, but it is a non-native species in Europe.
156074		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population range and trends. No specific conservation measures are known for this species, and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. This species is   listed as Data Deficient in the Italian Red List (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Further research needed on population and habitat trends.
156074		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia latina</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the Bolsena and Bracciano lakes, within the   Appeninnes region of Lazio (Altitude 165-500m ASL).
156074		habitat	eng	This species lives in   freshwater lakes, the tributary streams   and outflows (Acque lentiche: laghi; acque lotiche: potamal).
156074		population	eng	Population trends are unknown. However, the species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low. Collecting records show that the species was extant in 2003 (S. Cianfanelli pers. comm. 2010)
156074		threats	eng	The species is considered to be vulnerable to extinction, as it has a restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Given the habitats are freshwater lakes, the species could be affected by changes in the water quality by eutrophication and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and in disturbance of the lakes for recreational use leading to habitat degradation. It is also found in rivers, which may be subject to anthropogenic river bank damage and/or canalization (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
156075		conservation	eng	V. Prie (pers. comm. 2010) considers that this species requires monitoring, as it is close to the limits for Near Threatened due to the rate of habitat decline. Further data is required to establish the status of these populations in France, to understand whether it is restricted to the region east of the Rhone, or whether it extends to the Pyrenees.
156075		distribution	eng	The Spanish populations of this species have recently been separated and are now regarded as a distinct species <span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia boscae</span>. Hence the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia marginata</span> may now be endemic to France. In France it is known from the region east of the Rhône river, however there is a lack of precise data concerning the distribution, but it is probably widespread (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009). <br/><p><br/></p>  <p><br/> </p>
156075		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
156075		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156075		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
156076		conservation	eng	<p>The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002).&#160; <em></em>The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. </p>
156076		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is restricted to the springs east of Cerkniško jezero. (AOO estimated as 20km2, based on two locations, with 4km buffer around each, and restricted range as less than 5 locations). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156076		habitat	eng	The species inhabits freshwater springs and is probably also in caves (Sket, pers. comm. 2010).
156076		population	eng	The population status for this species is unknown.
156076		threats	eng	<p>This species is considered to be under pressure, as the water source could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agricultural and domestic sources. </p>
156077		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are documented for this species, however, it does need to undergo taxonomic review.
156077		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France. It is known from the springs of Font-Sainte (Ustou), Borde de crue and Chapelle de Bincarède (Seix). A specimen from flood debris of Exergue river (Porté-Puymorens) is attributed to this species.
156077		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156077		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156077		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156078		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156078		distribution	eng	<em>Vinodolia lacustris</em> is restricted to the south-western shore of the large freshwater Lake&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename>, where it is found between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region> and FYROM (as known as Macedonia).&#160;<p>  </p>
156078		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives on&#160;littoral zone of the lake where it is recorded on&#160;the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline.</p>
156078		population	eng	This species is very rare. Recent faunal surveys between 2003 and 2009 did not found it (Albrecht <em>et al.</em>, pers. comm., 2009).
156078		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>
156079		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. &#160;More data on population status, distribution and taxonomy are needed for this species.
156079		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella galerae</span> is restricted to the region of Méjean, mainly around Grotte de Castelbouc, near Sainte Enimie, Department Lozère (48), France. It was first described in 2002, so there may be additional sites locally, but no living animals were found during the expedition. Jean-Michel Bichain and Vincent Prie have undertaken other expeditions into the cave system where the species was originally found, but failed to find living specimens of this species.
156079		habitat	eng	This species was found in the freshwaters within a cave system, but it is mainly recorded from samples taken within 800m of the cave entrance.&#160; It has not been recorded alive.
156079		population	eng	As it has never been found alive, there are no population data available for this species.
156079		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. The overexploitation of groundwater may be a potential risk.
156080		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species, and at present the threats are such that given the widespread nature of it's range, there are unlikely to be problems in the short-term.
156080		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is restricted to the montane region of the Pyrenées. Bernasconi (2000) gives about 30 localities in the departments of Hautes-Pyrenées, Ariège, Aude and Pyrenées-Orientales.<a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceRepartition_en.jsp&numero_taxon=162847&date_min=1950&date_max=2010"> The species is mapped in the Inventaire National de Patrimoine Naturel</a>.
156080		habitat	eng	<p>In common with many <em>Bythinella</em> species, this species lives only in springs, hence the natural habitat is very restricted. </p>
156080		population	eng	No data is available on population trends.
156080		threats	eng	Although there are no known threats to the species, the springs are vulnerable to modifications for use of the water close to villages and fields.
156082		conservation	eng	One site, Cave Sipun is protected as a geomorphologic nature monument and is managed by Dubrovnik-Neretva County. This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. It is&#160; listed as threatened in Croatia, and assigned a status of Critically Endangered (CR B2ab(iii)) for the Croatian Red List of Cave Fauna  (in press). In the species account for the Red L:ist of the Underground Fauna of Croatia it is noted that Cave Sipun is an exceptionally sensitive cave system with the highest number of described species in Croatia, hence the proposed conservation actions for the cave are:<br/><ul><li>closed access to the cave through a gated entrance</li><li>establish a permanent monitoring scheme of the cave</li><li>set up monitoring for monitoring quantity and quality of water </li><li>ex-situ conservation storage in gene banks </li><li>educational programmes to raise awareness of the threats.</li></ul>
156082		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia and found in two locations, an anchialine lake (landlocked water body with a subterranean connection to the ocean) within cave Šipun in Cavtat (town), and <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in a cave <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">near Obrovac (Spilja kod Obrovca, National Park, Krka) (R.Slapnik pers. comm. 2009).</span>
156082		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwaters within cave systems; one site has an anchialine lake (landlocked water body with a subterranean connection to the ocean) within the cave.
156082		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends for this species.
156082		threats	eng	In the coastal area Sipun cave, is a tourist cave, of relatively small size, with extensive lighting operations and large numbers of visitors. This has created&#160; poor environments for the snails including warming cave habitats, light pollution changing water quality, increases in the concentration of carbon-dioxide and waste. The lake where the species is found has become polluted. A future problem lies in the unknown impact from road construction. There are 14 other endemic species restricted to this site, and there is an impact from collectors, as uncontrolled access to the site, and illegal collecting is known.
156083		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place.</p>
156083		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
156083		distribution	eng	This is a very common and abundant species in northern and central Europe and the Balkans across to central Asia. In the south-west part of Europe is becomes rare, and is not present in Spain, however there are records from the Atlantic islands.&#160; As a species found in the aquarium trade, it can be found in small ponds outside the main range. In the Balkans there are two subspecies have been described from the Prespa and Mikri Prespa Lake.<br/><br/>Slovakia: It is known as a common species in large rivers such as the Danube, Morava, Vah, Ipel, Latorica, Tisa, as well as streams and fishponds.<br/>Czech Republic: Common species, and in the second half of the 20th century it has expanded it's range to new localities.<br/>Germany: More common species in the north lowlands, and is absent from central germany and is relatively rare in the south. <br/>Serbia: It is a common species in the Danube and Sava Rivers.<br/>UK: widespread.
156083		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout Europe to western Siberia, including the Ob River drainage (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It is a very common and abundant species in northern and central Europe and the Balkans across to central Asia. In the south-west part of Europe it becomes rare, and is not present in Spain, however, there are records from the Atlantic islands. It is found in Turkey, Armenia and the Caspian Sea region (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011). As a species found in the aquarium trade, it can be found in small ponds outside the main range.
156083		habitat	eng	This  is a large freshwater gastropod, also adapted to semi-aquatic habitats.  The species inhabits different types of habitats - large rivers,  streams, fishponds, swamps, slow flowing waters, flooded gravel pits,  etc. and it is typically found in water which is still, or only moving  slowly, where there is a good growth of many different kinds of pond  weeds, and where there are high levels of calcium dissolved in the  water.<br/>In freshwater lakes, such as Prespa and Mikri Prespa, it is found on a variety of substrates.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. corneus arabatzis </span>is found in the Prespa Lake and occurs on hard substrate like stones and rocks.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. corneus grandis</span> is found in the Prespa and Mikri Prespa Lakes on soft substrate and macrophytes.
156083		habitat	eng	This large planorbid gastropod is found in water which is still, or only moving slowly, and where there is a good growth of many different kinds of pond weeds; it is frequently found in a range of stagnant waters, on a variety of substrates. It also adapts to semi-aquatic habitats, and is found in lakes, shallow rivers, marshes, rice fields and on floodplains (Angelov 2000<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).<br/><em></em>
156083		population	eng	This is a common and abundant species. The sub-species present in the Prespa and Mikri Prespa Lakes are also common and abundant.
156083		population	eng	This is a very common and abundant species in central Europe and the Balkans (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The maximum density is 40 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in fish ponds in south-west Poland (calculated from Spyra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and 26.7 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in small isolated forest ponds in Montenegro (Janicki 2007).  <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea stagnalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Planorbarius corneus </span>were the two most frequently occurring gastropods in fish ponds (present in all ponds) studied in Poland (Spyra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
156083		threats	eng	There are no major recorded threats to this species.
156083		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
156084		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
156084		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the Appennines montane region of western Liguria.&#160; It is recorded from 6 10km squares in the region, and known from about 15 sites within the region.&#160; Many of the sites are small outflow points from the subterranean waters where the species is found.
156084		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subterranean water, and is found in approximately 15 small springs which outflow from the groundwaters within these valleys, between 10m above sea level and 500 m above sea level.
156084		population	eng	There is no data available on&#160; the population status, although it has been sampled on a regular basis over the last 10 years, but it is described as not abundant (less than 2% of all shells recovered from some sites) (See data from <a href="http://wwwbioitaly.casaccia.enea.it/wwwbioitaly/query/dettagli.asp?cod=IT1331718&regione=Liguria">region</a>).
156084		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo & Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 2000).
156085		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation action for this species, and none are required.
156085		distribution	eng	This is a widespread palearctic species throughout Europe. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) record this species from Scandanivia, to Spain, and from Ireland to the Ukraine. Countries include Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland) Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sicily (Italy), Bulgaria, Romania, Andorra, Spain (mainland), Albania, Slovenia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ukraine, and Greece (mainland).<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) record the species from Europe, western Siberia and the central Dnieper basin.
156085		habitat	eng	This species lives in stagnant and slow-moving water, often found amongst weeds, but can also be found in artificial ponds, oxbow lakes, and even in swamps of alluvial forest.
156085		population	eng	There is no information available about this species and its trends, but it is frequently abundant when present.
156085		threats	eng	This species inhabits wetlands and river ecosystems, which are threatened by unappropriate water management and pollution.
156086		conservation	eng	<p><em>Belgrandiella crucis</em> is listed as Rare on the Slovenian Red List 2002  (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). </p><p>The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>   <p></p>
156086		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella crucis</span> is endemic to Slovenia, where it is restricted to a cave (Križna jama) and freshwater springs around cave near to Lož.&#160; Although Radoman (1983) described it from the type locality at Speiquelle Jezerskim near the village Gorenje Jezrom by the east end of the Cernika field, the text for two species, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. crucis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. schleschi</span> was confused (Boris Sket, pers. comm. 2010), and so the range should be restricted to the first two locations.<br/>    <p><br/></p>
156086		habitat	eng	Species found in   freshwater springs, including cave springs.
156086		population	eng	No data on population trends.
156086		threats	eng	<p>This species is considered to be under pressure from future loss of water, as the water springs could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agriculture source and domestic sources, mainly at the freshwater springs around cave near to Lož.</p>
156087		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation action plans in place for this species. Population trends, distribution and threats need to be researched.
156087		distribution	eng	<em>Paladilhiopsis solida</em> is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina&#160; (Bank <em>et al</em>, 2006; Fauna Europea) and                 <em></em>is known from Herzegovina near Mostar and Popovo polje and near Split (Croatia) (Sket pers.comm. 2010).
156087		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species
156087		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends for this species.
156087		threats	eng	There is no data on threats to this species.
156088		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation actions in place. Further research at the lake is required to confirm the species' presence, however as the habitat has been modified significantly site protection and management would not suffice to protect this species if it is still present, instead habitat restoration would be needed.
156088		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Amvrakia, in the south Adriatic-Ionian region of Greece (38°45' N; 21°11' E). This is a small, deep oligotrophic lake with steep western shores.
156088		habitat	eng	Lake Amvrakia is a deep oligotrophic lake with steep western shores. The northern part is shallow with small reedbeds (Phragmites ). This species was described as living in the sub-littoral part of the lake, on soft substrate.
156088		population	eng	This species has declined since 1973, when Radoman reported it from Lake Amvrakia. Szarowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) were unable to find this species during their fieldwork several years prior to their paper being published; there are similar reports from Reischütz and Reischütz (2002). Recent surveys by Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. did not find the species, but only dead shells (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009). This is one of the species that Regnier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2009) considered to be extinct, in their review of Molluscan Extinctions.
156088		threats	eng	Excessive water abstraction for agriculture (tobacco and maize field), coupled with extremely dry summers, led to abrupt changes in water levels, with the disappearance of the northern extent of the lake where the species was originally recorded. Heavy pollution from the surrounding fields resulted in high eutrophication of the water. As a result, nowadays, there is no gastropod species found in this lake.
156089		conservation	eng	The species is listed on a conservation strategy document for Province Vercelli, with a list of potential threats for the region. Manganelli <em>et al.</em> (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in a regional assessment.
156089		distribution	eng	<em>Alzoniella feneriensis</em>&#160;is is endemic to Italy where it is found&#160;on Monte Fenera in region of Piedmont in the southern part of the Alps,&#160;where it is known from two locations (Grinasco and Borgosesia; UTM MR46 and MR45).
156089		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwaters in Karstic regions.
156089		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low. &#160;No data on population trends are available.
156089		threats	eng	The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em>., 2000). &#160;Threats identified in the region also include increased frequency of forest fires (erosion and increased sediment in the water leaching into the groundwater system) and possible disturbance of the caves for recreational activities and illegal excavations.
156090		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. It is listed as Endangered on the Italian Red List. Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species to determine future trends in populations and EIA and surveys for proposed tourist developments at the sites where the species is found.
156090		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the Appeninne region of southern Tuscany at Sarteano (525m ASL) , with three closely localised outflows from the same thermal spring.
156090		habitat	eng	This species lives in thermal spring waters and feeds using scrapers.
156090		population	eng	The population trend for this species is unknown. However, since the species is restricted to a small area, population numbers are presumably relatively low.   Collecting records show that the species was still extant in 1998 (Cianfanelli pers. comm. 2009).
156090		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).   &#160;The other main threats to the species lie in changes to the water quality, such as pollution (domestic sources), and in disturbance of the outflow points to improve them for the off-take of thermal water.
156091		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species.
156091		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, and is mainly found in the western part of the provinces of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lugo</st1:place></st1:city> and <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Orense</st1:place></st1:city> and extends towards the western part of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Asturias</st1:place></st1:country-region>. A few localities were found in the provinces of La Coruña and León.</p>          <ul><li>Bembibre      (4km N), Province A Coruña (UTM grid square NH26)</li><li>Ourol      (2km SW), Province Lugo (UTM grid square PH19), torrent</li><li>O      Courel, from Quiroga to Fisteus shorley after turn-off to Fisteus,      Province Lugo (UTM grid square PH40), brook</li><li>N. Saa, 2.8km before turn-off to Tricastela, Province Lugo (UTM grid square PH44)</li><li>O Courel, ferriros de Abajo, Province Lugo (UTM grid square PH51), brooks</li><li>O      Courel, between Folgoso and Seoane, Province Lugo (UTM grid square PH52,      wet rocks near river Lor</li><li>O      Courel, a little SW. Seoame, Province Lugo (UTM grid square 52), wet rock</li><li>Between      Quiroga and Besarredonda, Province Lugo (UTM grid square PH51), wet rocks      and running water</li><li>Entrance      to A Devesae, at turn off to Noceda (2.9km), Province Lugo (UTM grid      square PJ52), rocks</li><li>San      Martin de la Ribeira, Province Lugo (UTM grid sqaure PH55), La Viarega      spring</li><li>N.      Seoana 4km before turn off to Cereixido and Cuiñas, Province Lugo (UTM      grid square PH56), torrent</li><li>E.      Exit of Castillo de Doiras towards Ancares, Province Lugo (Utm grid square      PH63), spring</li><li>N.      Of Navia de Suarna at turn off to Vilarquende, Province Lugo (Grid square      Ph66), wet rocks</li><li>2km      behind Navia de Suarna on Roa road, Fonte so Cruceiro, Province Lugo (UTM      grid square PH66), in springs nearby</li><li>Between      San Martín de Oscos and Navia, before crossing River Lixou, Province      Asturias (UTM grid square PH79), wet rocks</li><li>Between      San Martin de Oscos and Navia, 1.4km from Illao, Province Asturias (UTM      grid square PH79), wet rock</li><li>S.      of&#160; Pola de Allande, Province      Asturias (UTM grid square PH99), water running down rock</li><li>Penzol,      Province Asturias (UTM grid square PJ61), spring with washing place</li><li>E.      Entrance to Añides, Province Asturias (UTM grid square PJ61), spring</li><li>Between      Boal and Vegadei, 600m from the turn off to Meredo and Molejón, Province      Asturias (UTM grid square PJ61), wet rocks</li><li>Between      Monasterio de Hermo and Narcea springs, Province Asturias (UTM grid square      QH06), wet rocks</li><li>Between      Cangas de Narcea and Puerto fe Leitariegos, 1km from turn off to Palacio      and Naviego, Province Asturias (UTM grid square QH07)</li><li>S.      Exit of Cangas de Narcea at the beginning of highway to Cobos, Province      Asturias (UTM grid square QH08), springs</li><li>Between Pola fe Allende and Canga de Narcea, 4km from Puente del Infierno,      Province Asturias (UTM grid square QH08), wet rocks</li><li>E. of Soto de Luiña, 1km before Castañedas, Province Asturias (UTM grid      square QJ12), waterfall</li><li>Between      Monforte and Ourense, 300, aat road to Frean, near Peares dam, Province      Ourense (UTM grid square PH00), wet walls</li></ul>
156091		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of freshwater habitats including small   torrents, brooks, wet rocks near rivers, wet rocks with running water, waterfalls and wet walls.
156091		population	eng	No data is available on status of populations.
156091		threats	eng	The major threats to these spring-snail species are changes to the hydrological regime, water quality and&#160; vegetation in the streams.&#160; Possible sources of threats include agricultural developments adjacent to the streams, as well as canalisation of streams to abstract water, with drastic reduction of remaining water flow (Arconada <em>et al</em>. 2009). Other threats include pollution from agricultural sources.
156092		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on taxonomy.
156092		distribution	eng	<em>Spiralix hofmanni</em> is endemic to France. It is difficult to differentiate <span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix  hofmanni</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">S. collieri</span>  and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. puteana</span> on the basis of  the original description. Therefore, no distribution map can be  proposed, excepted that inferred from the data of the authors of the  description themselves. We can only map the type specimens, but not the  distribution of the species based on the current survey data by the malacological community.
156092		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156092		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156092		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156093		conservation	eng	This species is not known to exist in a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place. It is not protected by Austrian law. This species is deemed to be Data Deficient on the Austrian Red List. It is suggested that monitoring of the habitat should be conducted, along with research into population trends.
156093		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum excelsior </span>is endemic to Austria.                 This species was recorded from alluvial deposits of the brook Fischach downstream of Maria Sorg (perhaps coming from the mountain Hochgitzen or from the gravels of the brook Fischach), discharge of a spring at the Gaisberg near Guggental and at the Heuberg above Schwandt.  However, Patzner (2006) notes that this species has not been found since it was first collected.
156093		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs, groundwater and the water found in rock fissures.
156093		population	eng	There have been no living specimens of this species found recently. There is no information available on the historic or current population trends for this species.
156093		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possibly threatened by pollution from agricultural practices and groundwater extraction as other <em>Bythiospeum</em> species endemic to Austria that are found in the same type of habitats are under these kinds of threats.
156094		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Invertebrados  Endemicos de la Comunitat Valenciana</span> (Domingo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007), as well as the <span style="font-style: italic;">Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España  (especes en peligro critico y en peligro</span>) (Verdú and Galante 2009). No specific conservation actions are known, however habitat monitoring and   further survey to determine the geographical range of this species are recommended.
156094		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Spain, where it is currently only known from the type locality, Font de Castro, Sueras, Province Castellón.
156094		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found within groundwater systems and found at outflow springs from the system (Martínez-Ortí 2007)</p>
156094		population	eng	<p>There is no data available on the population status of this species, although it is believed to be stable based on the abundance of shells found in the outflow of the groundwater system (Martínez-Ortí 2007).</p>
156094		threats	eng	The principal threats to this species lie in the possible contamination of the groundwaters from pollution, and over-abstraction of groundwaters changing the quality of the habitat (Martínez-Ortí 2007).
156095		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures known for the species in Bulgaria. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended.<br/></p>
156095		distribution	eng	This species is known to live at least in 2 locations, one in Bulgaria, and the second one is the former Yugoslavia, probably in Serbia. The status in Montenegro (Fauna Europea, 2006) is uncertain.
156095		habitat	eng	This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in Caves). It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).
156095		population	eng	There are no data present on the population trends of this species.
156095		threats	eng	<p>In Bulgaria, one site is considered as possibly threatened, as it is in a tourist area, and it is thought to be susceptible to pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave.</p>
156096		conservation	eng	Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003)  considered the species to be category 2, in Bayern  State.&#160; The species  was not assessed for the National Red List. There  are no known  conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat  monitoring  is recommended in order to establish potential changes to  the  populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
156096		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it was described from two locations, Neuessing and Riedenburg (links der Altmühl gegen Gundelfing). The range may be more extensive, but currently known from type localities.
156096		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.&#160; It is believed to be declining due to groundwater pollution.
156096		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species.
156096		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
156097		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, distribution, habitat and threats of this species.
156097		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. Schütt (1980) listed it from the island of Kephalonia and Levkada.
156097		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
156097		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
156097		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156099		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Recommended actions include surveys for distributional data and threats, as well as habitat monitoring at known sites to determine future trends as, occurring in springs, the species could be sensitive to any potential threats.
156099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella d</span><span style="font-style: italic;">rimica</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> drimica</span> subspecies has been described from Macedonia within the Black Drin basin, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">B. d</span><span style="font-style: italic;">rimica</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> alba</span> has been described from Kosovo within the White Drin basin. A few years ago, it was discovered in from flotsam in the Albanian part of the Drin River, downstream from the confluence of the White Drin and Black Drin Rivers. In South Albania extant populations were found within the drainages of the Shkumbin and the Vjosë Rivers too (Fehér and Erőss 2009). Therefore, there are at least six known sub-populations resulting in an area of occupancy of 24 km<sup>2</sup>.
156099		habitat	eng	The species is known from freshwater springs.
156099		population	eng	There is no data on current population trends in Kosovo and Macedonia. Recently discovered Albanian populations were found in small springs but seemed to be stable. Given that at present there are no known significant threats it can be presumed that the overall population is stable.
156099		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain.
156100		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation management strategies being implemented for this species. However, it is listed on the following national red lists: Ireland as Regionally Extinct; Republic of Ireland as Critical and in Great Britain, Netherlands and Sweden as Vulnerable (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Welter-Schulte 2009). It is also recognised as Endangered in Germany, Critical in western Germany and Extinct in Bavaria (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Welter-Schulte 2009). <br/><br/>In the U.K. this species has been listed on the Red Data Book 2 as Vulnerable and has been selected as a species of conservation concern under the U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) (Macadam and Baker 2005). This species is reported to be rare in France, and regionally threatened  in Germany, Ireland, UK and the Netherlands (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In Norway, it is considered stable and listed as Least Concern as it is widespread in suitable habitats.<br/><br/>Further research is recommended regarding the population trends and threats impacting the global population of this species.
156100		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Omphiscola glabra</span> is found south of 61°N  in Scandinavia (Sweden, Denmark), Latvia and throughout central parts  of Western Europe, including U.K., Eire, France, Germany, Spain, the  Netherlands and Belgium. It is however declining throughout its range  and is now localized wherever it occurs (Gloër 2002, Macadam and Baker 2005). It is not known in Russia, except possibly the margin close to Baltic Sea (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: In central  France, this species is localised, but poorly known (Boulord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: Mostly found in north-west Germany, but there are several localities in the southern part (Glöer 2002). It is listed as Category 2, Threatened, and is lost from parts of the range in the south of Germany (Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ireland  (Northern Ireland & Eire)</span>: Regionally Extinct. In 1980 it was present  in three locations. In the latest version of the Irish Red Data book it  states 'One of the rarest of Irish molluscs. A colony was reported from Ballymacar Bridge, Shelmaliere Commons, near New Ross,  Co. Wexford. This site has now been drained and the  colony destroyed.' (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">United Kingdom (excluding Northern Ireland)</span>: In Great Britain over the last 25 years the populations is thought to have declined by 25–49%, reflecting conversion of marginal lands to agricultural use. Decline still continues, with 30% loss in Scotland in the surveys in 2005–6; strongholds are maintained in Yorkshire and New Forest (M.Seddon and I.Killeen pers. comm 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands</span>: There has been a loss of 30% of the sites since 1965 (Bruyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Poland</span>: This species is Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>: It is viewed as widespread in suitable habitats in Norway.<br/>Populations of this species appear to be in decline throughout its range, and it is considered threatened throughout its southern range (with the notable exception of Norway, where it is considered to be widespread and Least Concern). The species has a generation length of around five years, so that population declines have to be assessed in the context of three generation lengths, i.e. 15 years. From the varying population reduction estimates across Europe listed above, a decline of between 20-25% has been inferred over the past 15 years. For example, population declines of between 25-49% were reported in Great Britain over the past 25 years, so that it is likely - given a constant decline - that population declines of between 15-35% have occurred in the country over the past 15 years. However, population declines may be slower (e.g. Netherlands) or unknown in other parts of the range.
156100		habitat	eng	This species is found in challenging water-bodies of poor water quality and dramatically fluctuating conditions such as freshwater marshes, ditches, temporary pools and seepages that may dry up completely in summer months (Boycott 1936, Macadam and Baker 2005). When habitats do recede, further challenges threaten the survival of the snail through dormant periods where it buries to a depth of 1–6 cm in the exposed soft mud (Macadam and Baker 2005). This species shows a habitat preference for uncultivated land with acidic, sandy of gravely substrate such as heaths, commons and unimproved grasslands (Boycott 1936). Although some populations can occur in more permanent water bodies such as swampy dykes, permanent ponds, freshwater rivers and streams, a large majority of this habitat type has been lost as a result of conversion for agricultural use (Macadam and Baker 2005).
156100		population	eng	Generalised declines across this species' range have occurred, although there is insufficient population trend data available in order to infer the rate of population decline. Habitat loss and hence loss of sub-populations has been reported for the last 100 years. This species&#160; is reported to be rare and regionally declining in Spain, France, Germany, Great Britain and the Netherlands. Population estimates are difficult for this species due to its presence in temporary water habitats leading to fluctuating populations (Gloër 2002, Macadam and Baker 2005).<br/><br/>Populations have been lost in Poland and Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) where it is now regionally extinct.
156100		threats	eng	Contributing threats to this species include continuing habitat loss and disruption as a result of improved drainage, land modification and poaching by livestock on agricultural land. Chemical run off as a result of agricultural use of herbicides and pesticides also threatens the species survival (Macadam and Baker 2005). Care must also be taken when implementing conservation management for alternative species such as newts, frogs, toads and dragonflies to ensure that the habitat isn't consequently made unsuitable for <span style="font-style: italic;">Omphiscola glabra</span> (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Welter-Schulte 2009).
156101		conservation	eng	Most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat  destruction, so actions to protect the sites as well as education about the importance of these sites .
156101		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graziana cezairensis</span> is endemic to south-east France where it is found in the alpine regions.
156101		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring snail.
156101		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
156101		threats	eng	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer or they are built for water extraction directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat destruction.
156102		conservation	eng	There is no data on conservation actions for this species. Research on the population size, distribution and trends, life history and ecology, and threats to this species are needed.
156102		distribution	eng	This species was listed for Albania and Greece by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), however, the distribution of the species is uncertain, and the species was not listed for Greece by Glöer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) and Feher and Eross (2009) note that the Albanian record may be erroneous.
156102		habitat	eng	The habitats of this species are uncertain, but it may be found in rivers and streams.
156102		population	eng	The population status and trends of this species are unknown.
156102		threats	eng	There is no data available on threats to this species.
156103		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring is required to determine if the potential threats of groundwater pollution are impacting the species. Research is required on the range, population trends and threats of this species.
156103		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and is thought to possibly occur in Serbia, as the site lies close to Skopje, within the underground Karstic waters (Kabat and Hershler 1993), but further details are required on type locality and research needed on other known sites, as distributional details are uncertain.
156103		habitat	eng	This species is found in karstic groundwater.
156103		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
156103		threats	eng	There are no confirmed threats, however groundwater pollution is a known issue in the region.
156104		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.
156104		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the appeninic regions of Basilicata, Tuscany, Umbria, Marche and Abruzzo, where it is recorded from at least 24 locations, some of which are 'captured' for drinking water.
156104		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
156104		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
156104		threats	eng	This species inhabits spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
156105		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently, however, this species requires more research on taxonomy and distribution.
156105		distribution	eng	This species was described by Schütt (1959) from the region of Montenegro, but there is no current data on the distribution or status of this species.
156105		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat for this species.
156105		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
156105		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156106		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species.&#160;It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue. Monitoring of habitat quality (water, sedimentation) would assist in determining future trends for this species.<br/></p>
156106		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ohrigocea karevi</span> is endemic to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>. It is restricted to sublacustrine springs of the south-eastern shore (from Pectani to St Naum) (Radoman 1985).</p><p></p>
156106		habitat	eng	This freshwater species prefers the rocky shores near sublacustrine springs on the lake bed.<p>  </p>
156106		population	eng	This species is rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
156106		threats	eng	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Increased frequency of fires in the region are threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation) that coats the habitat where the species lives and feeds.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
156107		conservation	eng	There is no known conservation actions for this species.&#160; Data is needed on populations, distribution and threats to enable a conservation assessment for this species.
156107		distribution	eng	This species was listed from 'Yugoslavia' by Radoman (1983). It was recorded from the Vrelo spring, 33 km north of Pirot town, and is believed to be found in Serbia.
156107		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156107		population	eng	There is no data on population trends of this species.
156107		threats	eng	There is no data on threats to this species.
156108		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and at present only awareness of biodiversity campaigns and preservation of water would be required to assist in the conservation of this species.
156108		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Greece. The distribution of this species is updated in the forthcoming review of Glöer (2010 in press), however it is found in East Aegean Islands, Ionian Islands, Crete, Cyclades, North Sporades, Attica, Euboea, Peloponnisos and probably in Epirus as Reischutz and Sattman (1990) tentatively recorded the species in two river systems (Louros and Artharos) (Radea, pers. comm., 2010).
156108		habitat	eng	This species is found in small rivers, brooks, pools and freshwater springs.
156108		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species, but it may be declining due to habitat decline.
156108		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain, but are likely to be pollution in the rivers, as well as seasonal droughts impacting the species during periods of low water.
156109		conservation	eng	<p>This species is present in the Galicica National Park in FYROM. <br/></p>
156109		distribution	eng	<p>This species in present in Lake Ohrid, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania, near St Naum and in springs at St Naum (a group of about 10 springs feeding a small lake a few hundred metres from the main lake (Radoman 1985). It is also recorded from Zagorican&#160; (a group of springs about 2 km from lake with temperature of 12.5 °C) (Radoman 1985) and   Tušemišta     (a group of springs about 200 m from edge of Lake Ohrid).</p>
156109		habitat	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the littoral zone of the lake near sublacustrine springs and cold water springs and lives on stones and rocks. This species needs a precise narrow water temperature range and has a low tolerance to temperature changes.</p>
156109		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species.
156109		threats	eng	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted. However these threats only appear to be impacting individuals in the Albanian springs, which represent only a small number of the total population.<br/></p>
156110		conservation	eng	Some conchologically different populations may represent distinct species, and so it is recommended that further research is carried out in the northern part of the range to establish the nature of these populations. &#160;No other conservation actions considered necessary given the current range.
156110		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the eastern Mediterranean, where it is found in Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southernmost part of Turkey (van Damme, pers. comm, 2009). &#160;Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) list it from Greece in the compilation for Fauna Europea, but the status is uncertain. Heller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) listed more than 40 locations in their review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis </span>species from the region, so it is probably more widespread.  According to Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009), this species is also present in western Georgia.
156110		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the eastern Mediterranean, where it is found in Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southernmost part of Turkey (van Damme, pers. comm, 2009). &#160;Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) list it from Greece in the compilation for Fauna Europea, but the status is uncertain. Heller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) listed more than 40 locations in their review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis </span>species from the region, so it is probably more widespread. According to Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009), this species is also present in western Georgia, and hence this is no longer an endemic to the Mediterranean region.
156110		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs and pools, irrigation&#160;canals, ponds, streams, swamps, ditches.
156110		population	eng	There is no population decline data for this species.
156110		threats	eng	There are no threats operating across the range, although there are localised threats to the species.
156111		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions targeting this species in place. This species is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Slovakia and Czech Republic. In some German states in south Germany where it is largely absent&#160; it is considered as strongly threatened.
156111		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation strategies in place for this species. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Austria, Endangered in Germany  and as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Welter-Schultes 2010). The predominant threat to this species is poor river management, so that management of marginal river zones would greatly reduce threats of habitat loss. Further information gathered on population trends would help elucidate the true status of the species in order to assess the species more accurately in future.
156111		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widely distributed in Europe. According to Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) the species occurs in the following countries: Austria, Belgium, UK, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania,&#160;Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Netherlands, and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Germany it inhabits all suitable habitats although it is missing in the German part of the Danube River (Glöer and Meier-Brook 2003). In the Czech Republic the populations are concentrated in the southern Bohemia (fishponds nearby Trebon) and southern Moravia (Dyje and Morava rivers) (Beran 1998). In Slovakia it occurs mostly in the River Morava, Danube, Tisa, Vah and Hron.(Nagel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is a patchy distribution throughout the UK, principally in the lowlands of England, Wales and Scotland (Aldridge pers. comm. 2010). This is the most widespread of the Unioid species in Sweden and Finland. This species is hardly present in Norway (von Proschwitz pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) reported the species present in Russia, through to the Urals.&#160; It is recognised there under several subpecies and species names (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tumidiana conus conus</span> (Spengler, 1793) Ural river, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tumidiana conus borysthenensis</span> (Kobelt, 1880) Ukraine, Belorussia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tumidiana muelleri</span> (Rossmässler, 1838) Irtysh River basin (within Chelyabinsk district), <span style="font-style: italic;">Tumidiana tumida falcatulus</span> (Drouët, 1881) Ukraine River Kharkov).
156111		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Europe. It is found from northern France to western Switzerland, south and central Enland, eastern Wales, Germany to central Sweden, southern Finland and the western Ural region (Welter-Schultes 2010).
156111		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers, generally concentrated in marginal zones where substrate is firm and muddy. It is also found in canals, drainage channels, river oxbows, fish ponds and flooded gravel pits and are less common on sand, fine gravel and soft mud substrates (Aldridge 1999). It is also found in some lakes, artificial lakes and old river arms, and is mostly restricted to lowlands. It seems to require cleaner and better oxygenated waters than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio</span> species (Welter-Schultes, 2010).
156111		habitat	eng	This species is found in slow flowing rivers,&#160;canals&#160;and drainage channels, river oxbows, fish ponds, water reservoirs, and flooded gravel pits.The swollen river mussel lives principally in large, calcareous lowland rivers and canals, occurring less frequently in lakes and reservoirs.&#160; <br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio tumidus</span> are concentrated in the marginal zones of large rivers where a firm, muddy substrate is available, although <span style="font-style: italic;">U.tumidus</span> can be more abundant in the central channel than other unionid species (Aldridge 1999, Killeen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The mussel is found less commonly in sand, fine gravels and soft mud. <span style="font-style: italic;">U.tumidus</span> lives in a narrower habitat range than <em>U. pictorum</em> being more restricted to larger bodies of good quality, oxygenated water.
156111		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156111		population	eng	There is no comprehensive data about populations available. There is some evidence of local regional declines in south-east and northern England, and Scotland but this may be an artefact of a lack of recording effort. There is evidence of the species extinction in several localities in the Czech Republic.<br/><br/>The average age of this species is 9 years, which suggests an assessment period of 30 years.
156111		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are river (or canal) modification, river and canal management (dredging and weed cutting), destruction or over-dredging of large ponds and lakes, water quality decline, tourism & development pressure (e.g. marinas), competition or direct mortalities due to exotic species. <br/><br/>Conditions within the sediments seem to be decisive for the survival of juvenile mussels and thus for the age structure of the populations.<span> <span>Weber (2005) showed negative influences from sporadically occurring low oxygen and high ion concentrations in the water. Aldridge and McIvor (2003) showed premature evacuation of gills under hypoxic stress. <br/><br/><span>In France Mouthon (1996) showed&#160;<em>Unio tumidus</em>&#160;(along with&#160;<em>Pseudanodonta complanata</em>) to be the bivalve species least tolerant of biodegradable pollution whereas further north in Scandanvia it is considered the most tolerant species. <span></span></span>
156111		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and disturbance through habitat modification for river and canal management, industrial development, dredging and pressures from invasive species (Weber 2005). Some populations have shown tolerance to water pollution while others have appeared sensitive to changes in water quality (Mouthon 1996). In Germany, this mussel was collected in large numbers from small running waters near the villages and boiled as food for pigs and chicken, the shells were crushed and dispersed on crops as fertilizers (Welter-Schultes 2010). Affected by increasing water pollution and habitat destruction, the species is rapidly declining in many countries. In Belgium, it was common but know has become virtulally extict in lower and central Belgium (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011)  <br/><br/><br/><span><span><span></span>
156112		conservation	eng	This species is considered to be Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Sket and Velkovrh 2002).
156112		distribution	eng	This species is a restricted range freshwater mollusc found in groundwater systems in Italy and Slovenia. In Italy it is known from six locations and is currently viewed as rare.  In Slovenia it is known from just a few localities in a very small area (caves and springs north and northwest of Ljubljana; small village Dobeno, 10 km north of Ljubljana) which is also the type locality for <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica hauffeni</span>.
156112		habitat	eng	This species is found in the groundwaters in karst areas.
156112		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
156112		threats	eng	The threats to this species are pollution of groundwater and anthropogenic changes.
156113		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, the population trends and the distribution.
156113		distribution	eng	This species is present in Algeria and France (Corsica) (Falkner <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been misidentified with <span style="font-style: italic;">Peringia ulvae </span>and therefore its actual distribution is unclear. &#160;It is present in at least 3 locations on Corsica, but due to misidentification issues, it maybe more widespread (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
156113		habitat	eng	This species lives in coastal freshwater and brakish waters.
156113		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156113		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown.
156114		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place for this species, although taxonomic data and population and distribution data is required for a full assessment.
156114		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) as present in France, Spain and the Balearic Islands (Spain). There is little distributional data to refine the distribution.
156114		habitat	eng	This is thought to be a species found in freshwater rivers and estuaries.
156114		population	eng	There is no data on the population status of this species.
156114		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
156115		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place for this species, although taxonomic data and population and distribution data is required for a full assessment.
156115		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) as present in the Iberian Peninsular (Spain). There is little distributional data to refine the distribution, although this is thought to be a species found in coastal lagoons and estuaries.
156115		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be from freshwater rivers and estuaries.
156115		population	eng	There is no data on the population status of this species.
156115		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
156116		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. No conservation measures are needed.
156116		distribution	eng	This species is &#160;known from middle Caspian Sea between 50-75 m depth, but also in the mouth of Dnieper river in&#160;Ukraine, as well as&#160;the limans of Black Sea, and the delta of Don River, Russia (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Kantor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010)
156116		habitat	eng	This species is found in muddy bottoms in various habitats, slightly  brackish waters in the limans, at various salinity and depth ranges.  These species are commonly found living on species from the Family  Dreissenidae (the species lays it's eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissenidae byssus</span> threads and hence are found only in Family Dreissenidae habitats typical for the Azov-Black Sea Region).
156116		population	eng	&#160;The population trends of this species are unknown.
156116		threats	eng	There are threats within the estuarine habitats from dredging to keep the estuaries navigable, but in the limans and deeper waters this species should be less stressed. There are minor levels of pollution in these habitats.
156117		conservation	eng	This species requires research on population trends and distribution.
156117		distribution	eng	This species is reported from southern Europe and has a disjunct distribution. In Italy it is found in the northern-central part where it is present in the eastern-most large lakes (Lago de Garda, Lago di Tenno, Lago di Massenza, Lago di Cavedine, Lago di Endine, Lago do Toblino, Lago d'Idro).&#160; Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) suggest that it is present in 32 locations in the region.&#160; It has been recorded from Lake Skadar (Jacobi 1978), in Montenegro & Albania. Although it is suggested as being present in Ombla springs in Dalmatia (Croatia), these records require further confirmation, as most other sites are large lakes. It is known as a Quaternary fossil in Italy (Settepassi and Verdel, 1965).
156117		habitat	eng	Shallow water at edge of lakes and other slow flowing situations (river mouth entering lakes), where found under stones on bed of lake/river.
156117		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends on this species.
156117		threats	eng	This species is viewed as widespread, and hence is at less risk than other more restricted range species, although it is considered Vulnerable in Italy due to habitat degradation from pollution and recreational activities.
156118		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed as 'Vulnerable'  on the Slovenian List of Threatened Species. The river catchment is a  Natural Monument,&#160; according to the Decree on the Protection of the Krka  River, its tributaries and banks (Dolenjska Assembly Journal, No. 21/72)  and is included in the European network Natura 2000 as a special area  potential Site of Conservation Interest.&#160; There are no species-specific action plans known, however habitat monitoring is recommended. <br/></span>
156118		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is found only at the source of the River Krka in cave, where the species is found clinging to rocks.
156118		habitat	eng	Freshwater river in cave, where the species is found clinging to rocks.&#160; Some decline in water quality has been observed in the region as result of pollution from percolation of water from the overlying agricultural area.
156118		population	eng	No data on population status
156118		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is pollution of the groundwater, a current problem, with secondary threat from the use of the cave for Tourist purposes, with possible changes to the microhabitats to the cave.&#160; Only part of the cave is used currently, with part sealed to conserve the environment.
156119		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. More sustainable management of the watershed is needed to reduce the eutrophication of the lake. Habitat monitoring for this species would be recommended.<br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>
156119		distribution	eng	<p>This small freshwater bivalve is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009), where it is mainly found on the northern and southern sandy beaches (Schultheiß<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>
156119		habitat	eng	This freshwater lake species is found in littoral zone and partly in the sub-littoral zone on soft substrates. It is a very small pea-clam (3 to 5 mm), living in the soft substrate.
156119		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
156119		threats	eng	Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small mussel and its ability to filter water. The eutrophication of the lake due to agricultural pollution results in the growth of macrophytes, covering the soft substrate and diminishing the oxygen availability within the substrate (anoxic).
156120		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place and none  considered necessary given the range of this holarctic species, however  it is considered to be locally threatened.&#160; This species is listed as  Near Threatened on the Red List of the Czech Republic (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), and as 'highly endangered' on the Swiss national Red List (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994 cited in Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also listed as 'R' (Rare) on the regional Red List for the Alsace region (France) (<a href="http://odonat-alsace.org/">ODONAT 2003</a> cited in Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156120		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place and none considered necessary given the range of this holarctic species, however it is considered to be locally threatened.&#160; This species is listed as Near Threatened on the Red List of the Czech Republic (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), and as 'highly endangered' on the Swiss national Red List (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994 cited in Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also listed as 'R' (Rare) on the regional Red List for the Alsace region (France) (<a href="http://odonat-alsace.org/">ODONAT 2003</a> cited in Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156120		distribution	eng	This holarctic species is found in North America and Europe. In Europe it is widespread but localised throughout Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (mainland), Albania, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine.
156120		distribution	eng	This species has been described in Europe, extending north to Scandinavia and east into Western Siberia (Taylor 2003, Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). It has also been recorded from the Canary Islands (Taylor 2003) and Turkey (Yildirim 2004).
156120		habitat	eng	This species is found in springs, streams, rivers, ponds, lakes as well as canals and irrigation  ditches (Taylor 2003). It can tolerate (moderately) polluted  water bodies (Appleton and Brackenbury 1998).
156120		habitat	eng	This species is opportunisitic and can be found in (moderately) polluted waterbodies (Appleton and Brackenbury 1998, Whitehead 2008), inhabiting springs, streams, rivers, ponds, lakes as well as canals and irrigation ditches (Taylor 2003). It occurs in nutrient-poor and richly vegetated habitats (Vermonden <em>et al. </em>2009).
156120		population	eng	It is not considered a rare species, although it is localised.
156120		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe and Russia, and has been described as being common with a fairly continuous distribution (Leung <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, D.van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156120		threats	eng	Although this species demonstrates a moderate tolerance to pollution, the impacts of water pollution from a variety of sources are the main threat to the global population of this species (D.van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156120		threats	eng	Although this species demonstrates a moderate tolerance to pollution, the impacts of water pollution from a variety of sources are the main threat to the global population of this species (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156121		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on population trends and status.
156121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
156121		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in freshwater springs.
156121		population	eng	There are no data on population trends.
156121		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156122		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place or deemed necessary at present.
156122		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parks such as the Hohe Tauern National Park (Sturm 2007).&#160; Further work on population trends of the species is required.
156122		distribution	eng	<p>This Palaearctic species is present throughout Europe to high latitudes within the Arctic Circle. Fauna Europea list the species from: Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland, Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, FL, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Italy (Mainland), Spain (Mainland), Portugal (Mainland), Ukraine and Greece (including Andikíthira I., Evvia I., Ionian Is., Samothráki I., Northern Sporades Is., Thásos I.) (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
156122		distribution	eng	This species has a broad and continuous distribution throughout the holarctic realm. It is found in North America (including Alaska), throughout Europe and the Balkans, and in parts of Russia (including Siberia) (Frogley and Preece 2007).
156122		habitat	eng	This is principally a lentic species (standing water). It is found primarily in ponds, but also swampy habitats and marsh drains which usually have very dense aquatic vegetation. It also lives in pools, ditches, fens, marshes and bogs, often in situations which are prone to desiccation. Further sites are known from canals, large rivers and lakes but usually only in swampy margins. The species is tolerant of hard and soft water.
156122		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit a range of freshwater habitats, though it is most frequently found in pools, marshes, peat-bogs and ditches rich in aquatic plants (Frogley and Preece 2007). It shows a preference for shallow standing and slightly acidic water (Kuiper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989), often with swamps and standing water that is becoming land (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It is much less common in large waterbodies, such as lakes, or within running water. It has been reported at altitudes as high as 1,300 m (Castagnola and D’Antonio 1990), in Switzerland up to 1800 m and Scotland to more than 700 m (Welter-Schulte 2009). It is the only <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium</span> species that requires high standing water plants (Cyperaceae, Juncaceae) and tolerates very soft water (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156122		population	eng	There is insufficient data on populations to establish the trends over Europe.
156122		population	eng	This species was found at a population density of 13.3 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in small isolated forest ponds in Montenegro (Janicki 2007). This species appears to be rare (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156122		threats	eng	The types of habitat required by the species are frequently considered not to have any conservation value, and thus, they are especially vulnerable to land drainage and pollution, water abstraction, changes in agricultural practice, destruction and infilling of pools, and so on.
156122		threats	eng	This species has declined in Britain and is threatened by habitat destruction due to intensive farming. It is vulnerable in Spain and large parts of Germany (Nordrhein-Westfalen, Niedersachsen, Hamburg, Thüringen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Sachsen) (Welter-Schultes 2009) and has also declined significantly in the Netherlands (ANEMOON 2005). Cucherat (2003) states that it has not been recorded from northern France since1960 but that it has presently (i.e., 2003) been found in most alluvial valleys in the region.
156123		conservation	eng	The suggested research action for this species is further taxonomic research to clarify the relationships with other closely related taxa.&#160;&#160; No conservation actions are known and none are considered necessary at a regional scale, although local threats may require conservation actions within countries.
156123		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists this species from eastern and central Europe, from  Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland, Germany and Italy. Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) consider the range extends to Altai region of Russia and Kazachstan , and hence it is not a European endemic.
156123		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small standing waters, ponds and swamps; it tolerates temporary droughts.
156123		population	eng	There is a little data regarding the population trends of this species.
156123		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in habitats that have localised threats of habitat degradation (e.g. drainage for agriculture use, channel modifications for flood control), there are areas with little disturbance, hence the threats are not likely to impact this species in the short-term.
156124		conservation	eng	There are no known actions for this species. Further data is required to enable a conservation assessment, including distribution, population trends and threats.
156124		distribution	eng	This species was described by Bole and Velkovrh (1987) from the former country of Yugoslavia, and the current status is unknown. Further data is required on the range.
156124		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
156124		population	eng	There is no recent population trend data for this species.
156124		threats	eng	As the current range is unknown, it is not possible to establish threats to this species.
156125		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known for this species. Research and monitoringof distribution trends would be of benefit.
156125		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, being a recently described taxon, known only from the type locality, "Source de la Loue" in Jura.&#160; This cave system is extensive and so the range may extend in the cave.
156125		habitat	eng	This species is a spring-snail known from one catchment.
156125		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156125		threats	eng	The cave where this species occurs is believed to be secure, with no current threats from any specific ongoing activities and the aquifer is extensive. The site is currently a tourist venue and so benefits from these activities in maintaining the habitat. &#160;However, should this change, the species would immediately qualify for Critically Endangered.
156126		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions. More research on the population and distribution is needed.
156126		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria nezi</span> is restricted to a single location, Rebenacq in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France.
156126		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156126		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156126		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. However, the place where <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nezi</span> lives in the Pyrenees is not affected by human pressure.
156127		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions specifically for this species, but conservation management plans for the Lake which is protected at national level in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Montenegro, but not in Albania. Habitat monitoring and population data would inform future conservation assessments on this species.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>
156127		distribution	eng	<em>Vinodolia scutarica</em> is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar (Scutari) which has banks in Montenegro and Albania. &#160;It is found</st1:placename></st1:place>&#160;along the lake bank near Luka Krnička in Montenegro and in freshwater springs adjacent to the lake in Albania (Feher and Eross 2009).
156127		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to region of Lake Skadar, where it was found   along the lake bank near the place Luka Krnička, in Montenegro (Radoman 1973) and in a spring in Albania (Feher and Eross 2009). The records from Radoman (1973) may be uncertain, as recent records are from springs.
156127		population	eng	This species is very abundant at site in Albania (10,000's).
156127		threats	eng	One of the sites, the Skandar Lake is undergoing rapid eutropication, whereas the springs in Albania could potentially be captured for drinking water supply.
156128		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for the species.&#160; As such further data is required on distribution, population trends,  threats and any taxonomic issues.
156128		distribution	eng	<em>Belgrandia targoniana</em> is listed as being endemic to Italy by Fauna Europea, however it is not listed on the checklist of the fauna of Italy (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001), and so there is no detailed information on the distribution of the species.
156128		habitat	eng	There are no recent records, so the habitats are uncertain.
156128		population	eng	There are no recent records, so the population trends are uncertain.
156128		threats	eng	There are no recent records, so the threats are uncertain.
156129		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Kalkalpen National Park protected area, which is also recognised as an Important Bird Area and a Natura 2000 site. Currently this species is considered one of several species of spring-snail occurring in the park that require conservation action. It is found on the&#160;Austrian Red List, where it is deemed to be 'Critically&#160;Endangered' (CR) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).&#160;It is suggested that the monitoring of habitats and populations is conducted, along with surveying for further populations. This species is not currently protected by law in Austria.
156129		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella aulaei</span> is endemic to the northern limestone Alps of Austria. Specifically it is known from the Steyr and Krumme valleys, between 365-405 metres above sea level. It is currently only known from two springs, Rinnende Mauer and the right spring of the Wunderlucke, a pond on the left bank of the River Steyrling, at Rabach, about 10 km north of Kalkalpen National Park, Ober Österreich (Haase, Weigand and Haseke 2000).
156129		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and pools.
156129		population	eng	This species is abundant at the two sites it is found, however the overall population trend is not known.
156129		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, invasive non-native species and the abstraction of water, resulting in the subsequent lowering of groundwater levels. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers, as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species. About 20 % of the local water supply comes from springs and a further 30% from wells and in&#160;the northern part of the valley there are some problems with nitrates in drinking water (Amt der Oö.Landesregierung 2007, <a href="http://www.ooe.gv.at/cps/rde/xbcr/SID-9D113797-DC138295/ooe/Steyr-_und_Teichltal.pdf">Local information</a>).&#160;<p></p>
156130		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas, although other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella</span> are protected in Toscana. The species was considered to be Near Threatened in Italy. More information on population would be a benefit.
156130		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella lunensis</span> is endemic to north-western Italy (Toscana and Liguria) where it is restricted to the Magra River basin (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2002).
156130		habitat	eng	This species is present in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.
156130		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
156130		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
156131		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, distribution, habitat and threats of this species.
156131		distribution	eng	The species is an endemic species in the Pontic Basin and in Romania, only dead shells from the sediments of Razelm Lake have been recorded (Ciobiou, pers. comm. 2010). Elsewhere it is recorded from the middle and southern Caspian Sea; 35- 200 m depths (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)
156131		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species in Romania is unknown, as only dead shells have been collected, however in the Caspian Sea it is known from bottom sediments to 200 m depth in brackish waters.
156131		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
156131		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156132		conservation	eng	This species is protected by the French law. More research is needed on the taxonomy.
156132		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum dorvani </span>lives in France in the south of the Jura in the Department of Ain and in the Chartreuse and Vercors mountains.
156132		habitat	eng	This species lives in groundwater.
156132		population	eng	There is no population trend data available for this species.
156132		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156133		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions across the range, although the very localised  nature of the locations means some sub-populations are threatened and hence require habitat monitoring (e.g. sub-populations in Germany where the species is listed as Critically Endangered).
156133		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central and eastern Europe, where it is found in France, Germany, Austria, Latvia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, then extending to Russia (Glöer 2002, Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Kantor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). The species has also recently been found in Ukraine, Romania (Son pers. comm. 2010) and Lithuania (Bank pers. comm. 2010).
156133		habitat	eng	This species is found in temporary pools in woodlands.
156133		population	eng	The species seems to be increasing within the European range based on recent records of new distributions.
156133		threats	eng	There are no known threats across the range, although the very localised nature of the locations means some sub-populations are threatened by habitat loss through drainage for land reclamation (agriculture).
156134		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.&#160; Habitat monitoring is recommended to indentify accelerated rates of changes for this species, as well as local awareness raising, and national level protection policies.<br/></p>  <p></p>
156134		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from the lacustrine waters of Lake Ohrid within a narrow belt on the eastern shores from Pestani to St Naum. Two separated sub-populations (on the eastern and on the western shores) are present in the two separated habitats of the sandy beaches in the north and the south of the lake (at Struga and Pogradec bays).<br/></p>
156134		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is only lacustrine and is found along the shore in the littoral zone where it lives in the banks, on stones and on <em>Dreissena </em>shells.
156134		population	eng	This species is found in low abundance (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
156134		threats	eng	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased  sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from  sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water  of the lake. The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation with sedimentation and eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing which is diminishing the habitat and reducing food availability for this small gastropod.
156135		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and&#160; more than one species might be conspecific (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to solve this issue. Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species, as changes in the rate of decline of habitat quality would potentially change the status of the species.   </p>  <p><strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong></p>  <p></p>
156135		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudohoratia brusinae</span> is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> and recorded from both Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).<strong></strong></p>
156135		habitat	eng	According to Radoman (1983) this freshwater lake species is found in the sub-littoral zone, however Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (pers. comm. 2009) noted that it was rare.
156135		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudohoratia brusinae</span> found in low numbers and is considered to be rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
156135		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which could impact this gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, however the level of impact in the deeper water of the sub-littoral zone is not as great as in the littoral zone.</p>
156136		conservation	eng	The species was a candidate for listing on the European Union Habitats and Species Directive Annex.&#160; It is considered to be Vulnerable in Spain, based on populations declines over the last 3 generations (30 years) and it is considered to be declining (Verdu and Galante 2009). Araujo (2009) considered that the decline of this species had  accelerated and recommended for inclusion in  the next Spanish Catalogue of Endangered Species in Category. In Portugal, declines have been reported since 1940, when the species was abundant. In Greece the status is uncertain. In France, it is considered to be a declining species and is listed as a protected species.
156136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. littoralis</span> is a widespread species in southern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. Like other widely distributed freshwater mussel species in the rivers of the western Palaearctic, this one is also highly variable and several subspecies are recognized (Graf and Cummings 2007).&#160; Within Europe it is mainly found in the Iberian Peninsula and France, with one subspecies recorded from Greece. It is not recorded from Italy and so apparently has a disjunct distribution.
156136		habitat	eng	This species occurs in large freshwater rivers, usually in&#160; the&#160; middle to lower river section,s but does not occur in upper parts of the river system. It also has been found in canals and lakes, preferring slowly moving waters, where it is found on the river bed between gravels (or sands) and stones. The species prefers clean waters.<br/> Maturity is reached after 4-5 years (size 4 cm), and, in Spain, pregnant  females were observed in July and August, juveniles hatched in  September, glochidia (0.21 mm) were observed from March to October (Araujo 2009).  Known host fishes are <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus </span>species, perhaps also <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrostoma</span> (<a href="http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/home/species?id=4140">Animalbase</a>, downloaded 2011).
156136		population	eng	In Spain, it is considered to be declining (Verdu and Galante 2009). Araujo (2009) considered that the decline of this species had accelerated in the last 10 years.&#160; In Portugal, it is also reported to have declined significantly (Araujo, pers. comm, 2011).
156136		threats	eng	The major threats lie in river channel management, such as canalisation of the river channel as part of flood prevention schemes and irrigation practices, or navigation of river channels. In the lower reaches of the rivers it is also declining due to water pollution (varied sources including domestic, industrial and agricultural sources). In Spain, Araujo (2009) considered that the decline of this species had  accelerated, with increasing threats on the rivers where it lives (both  natural droughts, flood events changing river channel beds, and domestic  water extraction, dams, eutrophication).
156137		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations, as sampling of these populations is difficult.
156137		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Germany, but was not originally recognised by Glöer and Meierbrook (2003). The species, along with other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella</span>, have been re-established from their synonym. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">The type locality for the species was a spring&#160;<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">between <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Gulde <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Buchmühle <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">at <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Dischingen. This site has been destroyed but the species is still present in the groundwaters, as fresh shell fragments have been recovered from other springs (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008).<br/></span></span></span></span>
156137		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and interstitial waters.
156137		population	eng	There are no population trend data for this species.
156137		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
156138		conservation	eng	More detail on distribution and taxonomic status is required for this species.
156138		distribution	eng	<em>Bythiospeum michaudi</em> is only known from the type locality, the Rhône alluviums north and south of Lyon (France). It is impossible to know where it actually lives, as this range is large, but the species has not been collectedly recently and therefore to map its distribution.
156138		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156138		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156138		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156139		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population size, trends and distribution of this species.
156139		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists the species from the mainland Greece and Crete, but Glöer and Maassen (2009) present only material from Crete (total area: 8336 km<sup>2</sup>) and it is not listed by Glöer et al (2010) for mainland Greece.&#160; It is found in scattered localities across the island of Crete, including nomos Lassithi, Kato Metochi; nomos Rethimnon, valley along river Petres, 9 km W of Rethimnon;&#160; in debris of river Petres, 9 km W of Rethimnon, UTM KV61;&#160; nomos Iraklion, small river near river Gerapotamos near bridge at Phaistos.
156139		habitat	eng	This freshwater snail lives in rivers.
156139		population	eng	No population trend data are available for this species.
156139		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown.
156140		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on population trends and threats.
156140		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella thermalis</span> is endemic to eastern Slovenia and the adjacent region in Croatia.
156140		habitat	eng	This species is present in hypothermal springs.
156140		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
156140		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156141		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, distribution, habitat and threats of this species.
156141		distribution	eng	This species is found in Romania (Bank et al, Fauna Europea), where it appears to be subfossil (Ciobiou, pers. comm., 2010), whilst the main range is in the Caspian Sea (Kantor et al, 2009).
156141		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is unknown as the records are subfossil, but are likely to be brackish water living on the muds, based on habitats in Caspian Sea.
156141		population	eng	The population trends of this species is unknown, as it is believed to be subfossil in the Black Sea (Ciobiou, pers. comm., 2010).
156141		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156142		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p></p>
156142		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, and is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it is found restricted to the rocky eastern and south-western shore. </p>  <p></p>
156142		habitat	eng	This species is resting on the stones in a narrow lacustrine belt at the south-eastern shore of the Lake. <em></em>
156142		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
156142		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability.  </p><strong><br/></strong>
156143		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation  actions for this species, however further survey work in Museums and possible distribution sites to establish the current status of the species and the  population trend,  distribution, and threats are required to make a  revised conservation  assessment and determine conservation actions.
156143		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to Italy; the distributional data is based on museum label data, Falkner and Boeters (2003) provided some review of the data, and it would seem that Sicily is unlikely, but there's another species with the same name but different author from Tunisia... so the exact distribution is unclear. As Falkner and Boeters (2003) point out the actual type locality of the species is uncertain due to confusion with the labelling and the original description. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">The  original label of the collector (A. Orsini), in the Charpmentier collection given as locality "Lake Delfico. Abruzzo" which Kuster then wrote as&#160; "Ascoli in the Papal States". Falkner and Boeters (2003)<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"> have not succeeded in finding the "right" location and the lake is not in the immediate area of ​​Ascoli-Piceno, so they can only correct the erroneous locality data of coast, and offer "Abruzzo", as there is no more precise location of the correct type locality. The type  material was collected as dead and weathered shells which were filled with a marl-like fine gray sediment.</span>
156143		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is uncertain, as, although it&#160; has been listed as a lake in the type description, there the location has not been rediscovered.
156143		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown, as the type locality has not been determined and the species has not been recollected since its first description.
156143		threats	eng	The threats are unknown, as the type location is uncertain.
156144		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.</p>
156144		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia stankovici</span> is present in a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).&#160;  It is found in narrow stony shores between from Pečtani <span color="blue"><span color="blue"> to the beach at St Naum (Radoman 1985).</span></p><p></p>
156144		habitat	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia stankovici</span> is living in freshwater lakes in rocky areas surrounding sublacustrine springs, where it lives on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species (Hadzisce 1956). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156144		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
156144		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa Lake are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156145		conservation	eng	This species requires research on taxonomy, threats, population trends and distribution.
156145		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europea this species is endemic to Slovenia, however Slapnik (pers. comm. 2010) notes that there are no specimens in Museum collections from Slovenia and Sket (pers. comm. 2010) has no knowledge of the species in Slovenia.
156145		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat for this species.
156145		population	eng	There is no data on population trends.
156145		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156147		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research on the distribution and population range is needed.
156147		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia conoidea</span>&#160; is endemic to France and is recorded from Ardus-sur-Aveyron and from flood-line debris from the River Tarn, near Montauban, in the department of Tarn.
156147		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
156147		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156147		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown, but subterranean waters are sensible to water abstraction and pollution. Springs in the southern part of France are currently threatened by high pressure on the water resource, leading to temporary flowing springs, or capture of the springs, leading to the destruction of the habitat by concrete.
156148		conservation	eng	In most countries in western Europe, this species is considered to be Least Concern. In Switzerland, it is listed as Category 3 (Turner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). In Great Britain, it is considered to be Near Threatened, as although it is still widespread in Britain, there have been many local and regional declines (Killeen and Seddon, pers. comm, 2010), with the Kerney (1999) atlas showing a loss of 41% of 10 km<sup>2</sup> up to 1965 and the NBN maps shows around only 50x10 km<sup>2</sup> records since 1990, hence on this basis the species merits listing as Near Threatened. In Slovenia, it was listed as Vulnerable. Conservation actions required include efforts to reduce the impact of pollution and land managements change in its habitats, in order for the status of the species to improve, as well as habitat monitoring.
156148		distribution	eng	This small gastropod species is found throughout Europe to the arctic regions. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (Fauna Europea 2006) list the range as Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (Mainland), Germany, Switzerland, FL, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (Mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (Mainland), Albania, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia and Ukraine. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (Fauna Europea 2006) also note it was reported from the former country of Yugoslavia (current country unknown). <br/><br/>Outside Europe the range extends to the south of Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, eastward to the Altai (Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Taylor (2003) has discussed the range data for the region, noting presence in Turkey and Georgia.
156148		habitat	eng	This species is found in small water bodies amongst aquatic vegetation.
156148		population	eng	There is evidence of decline in some parts of this species range.
156148		threats	eng	The species has been in decline in western Europe due to changes in land management practices as well as water pollution from increased levels of Phosphates and Nitrates due to fertilizer usage (Kerney 1999). The principal threats to the species&#160; in the future remain pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources and drainage of the ditches where it is found.
156149		conservation	eng	<p>Manganelli <em>et al</em> (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;</p>
156149		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found within the alpine regions of Lombardy and Veneto, where it is known from 11 locations, varying from 150m-980m above sea level.
156149		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to groundwaters and outflows (springs, resurgences and caves).
156149		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
156149		threats	eng	The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>., 2000).
156150		conservation	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">This species is listed as</st1:place></st1:country-region> Least Concern on the Italian Red List.
156150		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, mainly on the western central and southern regions, western side of <st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place>. It is also listed as present on <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Malta</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), although the status is uncertain.</p>
156150		habitat	eng	This species inhabits   streams and rivers.
156150		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
156150		threats	eng	There are localised threats of exploitation of water sources and pollution of  groundwaters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2001), however they will not significantly impact this species across the range.
156151		conservation	eng	This species requires more research on population trends, distribution, taxonomy and threats.
156151		distribution	eng	<p><em>Plagigeyeria edlaueri </em>is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina between Metković and Bileća (Sket pers. comm. 2010).</p>  &#160;<em></em>
156151		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156151		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
156151		threats	eng	There are no current data on threats.
156152		conservation	eng	Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008) considered the species to be category 0, a species that is possibly extinct in Germany. There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but survey through groundwater sampling is recommended in order to determine whether these populations are extant.
156152		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany, where it was described from Degenfeld (Quellen der Lauter) (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008).
156152		habitat	eng	This species is found in groundwater and outflow springs (Falkner and Niederhöfer 2008). It is believed to have declined due to groundwater pollution.
156152		population	eng	The population trends are uncertain but few shells are known. It is described as possibly extinct by Falkner and Niederhöfer (2008).
156152		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from groundwater pollution and over-abstraction of groundwaters.
156153		conservation	eng	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring of the habitat trends in the lake may inform as to changing quality of habitats which would inform as the whether the conservation status will change.<br/></p>
156153		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is known only from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, and so is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p></p>
156153		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is found in the sublittoral zone of lakes and is thought to be restricted to sandy or soft substrates (C. Albrecht<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).
156153		population	eng	This species is found in relatively low abundances and patchy distribution (C. Albrecht<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).
156153		threats	eng	The changes in the habitat quality within the sublittoral zone is not very well studied and as such the knowledge base relates to generic threats to the lake.   Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, leading to declining quality of habitat.
156154		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica illyrica</span> was described from the Balkans, but the precise range, threats and habitats are unknown. Surveys are required to establish the range, population trends and threats to the species to enable a conservation assessment.
156154		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Balkans, but the precise locality is unknown.
156154		habitat	eng	The precise habitats are unknown.
156154		population	eng	There is no data on population trend.
156154		threats	eng	This species was described from the Balkans, but the precise range and habitats are unknown. Hence it is not possible to assess threats.
156155		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.&#160;It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue.</p>
156155		distribution	eng	<em>Ohrigocea miladinovorum</em>&#160;is restricted to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, where it is only found in the sublacustrine springs of the south-eastern shore (from Pectani to St Naum) (Radoman 1985).
156155		habitat	eng	<p>This species prefers the rocky shores near sublacustrine springs on the lake bed.</p>
156155		population	eng	<p>This species is rare in survey samples (C. Albrecht <em>et al.</em> pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<br/></p>
156155		threats	eng	<p>&#160;The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Increased frequency of fire in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>
156156		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Galicica National Park, and so part of the range is protected. Lake Ohrid is under a Memorandum of understanding for catchment management between Albania and FYROM. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.
156156		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), where it is found along the edges of Lake Ohrid&#160; and in adjacent springs at St. Naum (a group of about 10 springs feeding a small lake a few hundred metres from Lake Ohrid) and Zagorican&#160; (a group of springs about 2 km from lake with temperature of 12.5 °C) (Radoman 1985). Recent surveys were not able to find this species at the latter site, but did find it at Tusemista.
156156		habitat	eng	It is found in springs and a freshwater lake, most abundantly in the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chara </span>zone, as well as more sparsely on the sandy bottoms.
156156		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species (Albrecht e<em>t al</em>. pers. comm. 2009).
156156		threats	eng	The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted. However these threats are only impacting individuals found in the Albanian springs, which represent only a small percentage of the total population.
156157		conservation	eng	All older localities should be re-investigated and targeted investigations in suitable lakes in the pre-mountain region should be performed to get up-to-date information concerning the species’ status. Current localities should be protected against exploitation. In Sweden, it is classified as Vulnerable (VU) D2, due to its very restricted area of occupancy.
156157		distribution	eng	The species has a northern holarctic distribution, with scattered occurrences from Kamchatka through Siberia to northern Sweden and Norway. It has also been found in Alaska, and the total distribution is probably circumpolar. It has been recorded from three sites in Sweden and approximately ten in Norway. Only two of the Scandinavian records are situated south of the Arctic Circle.
156157		habitat	eng	This species<em> </em>lives in small lakes in the pre-alpine region, in Sweden one record has also been made in the spruce (taiga) zone. Like <em>Pisidium waldeni</em>, <em>Pisidium conventus </em>and <em>Sphaerium nitidum</em> it is a pronounced stenotopic (only able to tolerate a restricted range of environmental conditions) cold water species and is found at depths of 2-10 m. The species' ecology is poorly known.
156157		population	eng	Recent information concerning the population status and trends of this species is lacking, but the population trend is believed to be stable.
156157		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known, however exploitation of lakes for hydroelectricity may, due to the large variations in water level, be a potential threat. The split-up distribution and the few localities of this species makes it vulnerable to chance effects. In Norway, it is also found in isolated localities and it is considered to be a threatened species, although it is not listed on the Red List. Possible longer term threats come from water temperature changes as a result of future climate change.
156158		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. However various actions were recommended by Arconada <em>et al. </em>(2009) who suggested that actions required include communication about the importance of keeping sites with vegetation for the species, as well as not concreting the entire spring area when improving sites for water capture.
156158		distribution	eng	<p>The species is endemic to Spain, where it is known only from a very small area near Grado, Province Asturias.  </p><ul><li>Grado,      Borondes, Fuente La Fontona, Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ30).</li><li>Grado      (6 km SW), Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ30), spring of      Villagarcía.</li><li>Grado,      Bascones (6 km between church and river), Province Asturias (UTM grid      square QJ30).</li></ul>  Current range data suggest that it is only known from three sites within one 10 km grid square. Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001, 2009) also suggest that the majority of the population is based in these sites, although there is an outlying site in the North of Leon that has been tentatively placed as this species. Rolán (pers. comm. 2010)                 noted that recent surveys of the type locality showed that this species has not been found, and it maybe extinct at the type locality, although more sampling is required to confirm this observation.    <p></p>
156158		habitat	eng	<p><em>Alzoniella asturica</em> is found in natural springs with sandy bottoms and vegetation. Two other spring snails also live sympatrically in these habitats. It feeds on decaying vegetation.<br/></p>
156158		population	eng	The population is known to be stable.
156158		threats	eng	<em>Alzoniella asturica</em>&#160;lives in in natural springs with sandy bottoms and vegetation and feeds on decaying vegetation. These springs are close to human habitation, and remain sources of water for these villages. The major threats lie in clearing vegetation from the springs (and concreting the site) disturbing the habitats and over-abstraction of water for domestic use leading to temporary loss of water in the springs. In addition pollution of the water source from agricultural sources from the fields around the villages is a marginal threat.
156159		conservation	eng	No conservation activities are in place but monitoring of habitat trends is needed.
156159		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is only known from a cave at the source of the Petreska River, near Lakatnik, Stara Planina Mts. Total area of the site is unknown but estimated as 4 km<sup>2</sup> based on a single location with 2 km buffer zone.<br/><br/>Even though the location of this site is only few kilometers outside the  dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region,&#160; this species was considered to be&#160; Mediterranean. This decision has been taken based on climatic and  geological similarities of the region with the Mediterranean.
156159		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives within karstic regions where it is restricted to springs and streams within caves.</p><p><strong><br/></strong></p><br/><p></p>
156159		population	eng	No data is available about the population of this species.
156159		threats	eng	<p><strong></strong>There are no current threats at the site, but a potential future threat exists in the pollution of the spring-waters caused by use (and possible development) of the cave for recreational visitors.</p>
156160		conservation	eng	One of the locations where this species occurs is Monte Gazzo, a Natura 2000 site which is designated as a protected zone (site no IT1331615). Conservation actions required would be continued monitoring of the sites where the species is found to ensure that there are no changes in status.
156160		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella sigestra</span> is endemic to Italy, and has a very restricted range to an area west of Genoa, Val Chiaravagna, where it is found in an area of less than 20 km by 10km (CK Map 5.3.8.).&#160; The type locality was springs near Sestri Ponente. Although it is restricted to the valley, there are multiple outflows (springs), where the species has been seen, so it is presumably present throughout the groundwater system.
156160		habitat	eng	This species lives in groundwaters in karstic regions. Like most spring-snails, the species feeds using a radula to scrape food from rocks.
156160		population	eng	No data available on population numbers.
156160		threats	eng	This species is found in groundwater, hence the species is vulnerable to changes in the groundwater through abstraction for domestic purposes and&#160; pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
156161		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are in place. Better knowledge of range, ecology and life history would assist the conservation assessment of this species. Further work on raising awareness of the value of freshwater and underground biodiversity within the region particularly from the over abstraction of water would also benefit this and other species in these habitats. Monitoring of the population trend to identify any impacts from the potential threats in the area is advised.
156161		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it is known from underground river systems. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="den dalmatinisch-montenegrinischen Küstenstreifen von Metkovi} bis Kotor."><span title="Von">Currently it <em></em> is listed from groundwaters of the Dinarides <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="den dalmatinisch-montenegrinischen Küstenstreifen von Metkovi} bis Kotor."><span title="Von">(Komarek 1953: 331), mountain chain in Southern Europe, spanning areas of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia,  Kosovo. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="den dalmatinisch-montenegrinischen Küstenstreifen von Metkovi} bis Kotor."><span title="Von"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="den dalmatinisch-montenegrinischen Küstenstreifen von Metkovi} bis Kotor."><span title="Von">But the original records where from the Neretva river, with the type locality near to Mislina in the River Neretva delta (Bourguignat 1880). <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156161		habitat	eng	The species is found in outflow water from underground rivers.
156161		population	eng	There are no data on population trends for this species.
156161		threats	eng	Although nothing is known about the specific threats and population status, there are general threats to habitats in this region: habitat degradation due to pollution from domestic and agricultural sources and over abstraction of water for both domestic purposes and hotels.
156162		conservation	eng	This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a threat review is needed. The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002).
156162		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia and is only known from Radoman's collection at&#160; 'the small spring in Nova sela (village), at the road Kočevje-Delnice, on the left side of the Kupa river'.   <span class="apple-style-span">No recent surveys have located this spring (Slapnik 2010).  <p><br/></p><p></p>
156162		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156162		population	eng	There are no known population data on this species.
156162		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156163		conservation	eng	The species is currently listed as Endangered in Italy, however no specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status. Extending programmes of awareness of importance of freshwater biodiversity, as these are having impact in parts of Italy.
156163		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola lucensis</span> is endemic to Italy, where it is restricted to two sites, the type locality of the thermal waters of the Bagni di Lucca (Tuscany), where it is known from three outflow points in the basin and another spring at Piteglio about 20 km East of the original locality.
156163		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs and thermal waters.
156163		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
156163		threats	eng	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). This species is also found in spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Bagni di Lucca is an active tourist site for thermal waters, and has been exploited for centuries. The species still survives in some parts of the site with recent collections in 2000 and 2001 (Bagni Caldi and small streams).
156164		conservation	eng	More research needs to be carried out on taxonomy for this species as it has only been identified by a single shell.
156164		distribution	eng	This species is listed as endemic to France collected in the Garonne floodline debris near Toulouse
156164		habitat	eng	This species lives in subterranean waters.
156164		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156164		threats	eng	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.
156165		conservation	eng	This species is considered as 'Data Deficient' in the Spanish Red List (Verdú and Galante 2009). Further data is required on population trends, habitat decline and potential threats to this species.
156165		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is found in the Provinces of Burgos and  Zaragoza (Boeters 1987). In Madrid, it&#160;  has been&#160; found in the stream Sepulchre and Laguna de San Juan de las Huertas (Soler et al, 2006). Delicado (pers. comm., 2010) reported the presence of this species at Calamocha and  Caminreal (Teruel). <span id="result_box" class="long_text">
156165		habitat	eng	This species lives in <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">freshwater springs, ponds and small streams <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">with slow flow and still water (Soler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006)<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"></span></span>
156165		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
156165		threats	eng	There is no specific data on threats to this species, although pressure on water resources from extraction from domestic supplies is a generalised threat to the species.
156166		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
156166		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known or required.
156166		conservation	eng	No information available.
156166		conservation	eng	None known.
156166		conservation	eng	None needed.
156166		conservation	eng	None required.
156166		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
156166		conservation	eng	This is an introduced species in Europe so no conservation measures are deemed necessary.
156166		distribution	eng	<em>Corbicula fluminalis</em> is widespread all over Africa. In central Africa, it is known from the Congo basin, Gabon, etc.
156166		distribution	eng	<em>Corbicula fluminalis</em> is widespread all over Africa. It is known from Eurasia to Africa (Appleton, pers. comm.). It has also been introduced to the United States where it is a problematic invasive species, and possibly also to South America.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Congo basin and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is presumed to be present in all north African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in all northeast countries in the region except Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs throughout southern Africa region, although absent from the arid west.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from throughout western Africa.
156166		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <em>et </em>al. 2006) list the species as present in the Near East, in&#160;Turkey, Caucasian Russian republics, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan, Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), Arabian peninsula, Iran, and Iraq.&#160;This species is not native to Europe, but is found in the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Italy (mainland), Ukraine, and Hungary. This species is originally from East Asia, introduced in 1939 to southern North America, and in 1980 from North America to Europe (Portugal and south of France, 1994 Netherlands, 1999 Austria, 2000 Romania) (Welter-Schultes 2011). The species is known from all of Europe, as an invasive species, and Eastern Transcaucasia, Central Asia and most of Africa makes up its native range (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
156166		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Occurs throughout Southern Africa region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> From Asia to Africa (Appleton pers. comm.). It has also been introduced to the United States where it is a problematic invasive species, and possibly also to South America.
156166		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from all countries except Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Eurasia and northern Africa south to the Great Lakes. Recently rapidly spreading in Europe and north America. The type locality is the Euprates River.
156166		distribution	eng	The species is present in Eurasia and northern Africa, south till the Great Lakes. It is rapidly spreading in Europe and northern America recently. Its type locality is in the Euprates River. It is presumed to be in all northern African countries though this information has not been confirmed.
156166		distribution	eng	This species is not native to Europe, but is found in Netherlands, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Italy (mainland), Ukraine, and Hungary. This species is originally from east Asia, introduced in 1939 to south North America, in 1980 from North America to Europe (Portugal and south of France, 1994 Netherlands, 1999 Austria, 2000 Romania) (Animalbase 2011).
156166		distribution	eng	Within the region it is found from Senegal to Chad.<br/>Elsewhere in Africa it occurs from Egypt and Ethiopia to Senegal, and southwards to Northern Tanzania and Lower DRC.
156166		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and lakes.
156166		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, lakes and dams (Appleton 1996).
156166		habitat	eng	It is present in rivers and lakes.
156166		habitat	eng	The species is tolerant of a range of habitats (likes muddy bottomed waters). It spreads very rapidly and easily.
156166		habitat	eng	This species is found buried in clay at the bottom (Mandahl-Barth 1988) or rivers, dams and lakes (Appleton 1996). It is largely found within the savannah regions of Africa. It has been a major invader in Europe (Muller 2003). It bears live young, tends to exist at high densities. It is able to move through ecosystems quickly (even upstream), and resilient to disturbance.
156166		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and lakes.
156166		population	eng	No data available.
156166		population	eng	No information available.
156166		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown.
156166		population	eng	This species is locally abundant and found in extremely high densities.
156166		population	eng	This species is very common.
156166		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
156166		threats	eng	None known.
156166		threats	eng	No threats identified.
156166		threats	eng	There are no information on current threats to the species, and this species is known to be resilient to threats, so any threats are likely to be localised. Habitat disturbance such as mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
156166		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
156166		threats	eng	This is an introduced species in Europe with no foreseen threats.
156166		threats	eng	This species is an economic pest for the gravel industry. Gravel now needs to be steamed before being used for concrete, otherwise this species, which is dredged together with the gravel, starts tunneling through the concrete before it hardens (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).
156167		conservation	eng	In most countries in western Europe this species is considered to be of conservation interest. In Great Britain it was listed as Endangered, as the species is currently declining and a species action plan is place for several of the known sites as these also host <span style="font-style: italic;">A.vorticulus</span> another threatened species (Seddon and Killeen, pers. comm., 2010). In Slovakia it is listed as Vulnerable (Beran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Switzerland it is considered to be catgeory 2 (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). Research actions include further research to establish population and habitat trends and monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
156167		distribution	eng	This small species of Planorbid is found throughout Europe to 62°N (Kerney 1999). Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) report the species from Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland, Corsica) Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Bulgaria, Romania, Andorra, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), Ukraine, and Greece (mainland).<br/><br/>In the former USSR the range extends to Ural River (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156167		habitat	eng	This species is found in small pools, ditches, grazing marshes or small depressions, former floodplains and ponds It is usually found in places with clean hard water amongst dense vegetation and avoids places with seasonal dessication (Kerney 1999).
156167		population	eng	In Great Britain over the last 100 years it is has declined from the northern part of the range with a few isolated populations remaining in Kent, Sussex, Norfolk and Somerset (Kerney 1999).
156167		threats	eng	The species has been in decline in western Europe. This is due to changes in land management practices, mainly conversion of marshy ground to agriculture, change in dredging frequency of marsh ditches, and increased levels of phosphates and nitrates due to fertilizer usage (Kerney 1999).
156168		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas; 'Els Ports: Port d'Arnes'. P.N. Serrà d'Espadà, P.N. Tinença de Benifassà, P.N.Peñagolosa or Red de Espacios del Plà d'Espais d'Interés Natural (PEIN). Appropriate site management and enforcement of protected area legislation is needed to prevent habitat degradation and disturbance of the species.&#160; Further work is needed on the taxonomy of the species, as spring-snails in this genus have been shown to be complex with more than one species present within similar shell morphologies (Ramos, pers. comm., 2010)
156168		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the east of Spain and is present in seven Spanish provinces: Alicante, Barcelona, Castellón, Cuenca, Tarragona, Teruel y Valencia (Boeters 1988; Tapia 1996; Pujante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
156168		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs and rivers.
156168		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
156168		threats	eng	Threats may include the seasonal droughts; previous springs where the species was located have dried up; as well as the over-exploitation and pollution of the aquifers and rivers.
156169		conservation	eng	Listed as Data Deficient for the Spanish Red List, Atlas de los Invertebrados (Verdu and Galante 2009). Research is needed relating to population trends of the species. Habitat monitoring is required to monitor the impact of pollution and overabstraction of water on the habitat quality, as this could affect the species.
156169		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it only known from the type locality in the interstitial water in the river beds of headwaters of the Guadalquivir, Spain and two other sites in close proximity&#160;in the provinces of Jaen and Sevilla (Arconada <em>et al</em>. 2007):    <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Mogon, Rio Guadalquivir, Province Jaén (UTM grid square VH9714), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 2km upstream of Pueta de Segura, Rio Guadalimar, Province Jaén (UTM grid square WH2345), interstitial water</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; South side of Alcolea del Rio, Province Sevilla (UTM grid square TG6466), dug well</p>
156169		habitat	eng	This species inhabits interstitial groundwaters.
156169		population	eng	There is no information on population trends.
156169		threats	eng	The threats to the species are uncertain, however, the general threats to groundwater and springs in the region is pollution from agricultural sources, and overabstraction of water for domestic and agricultural purposes.
156170		conservation	eng	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). <br/>This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.
156170		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is found in Natura 2000 area in&#160;Kras,&#160;Trnovoski goz, Nanos,&#160;Notranjski triangle, Snežnik.
156170		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater in caves.
156170		population	eng	The population and distribution status requires new data.
156170		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156171		conservation	eng	Further research is required on the taxonomic status of both subspecies, as the range is disjunct. Habitat monitoring to establish potential future threats at either site is recommended, as this would require a revised conservation assessment.
156171		distribution	eng	This species was found in former 'Yugoslavia' in Durmitor Mountains, now Montenegro. It was originally only present in one temporary cold water spring. However, Feher and Eross (2009) have recorded the species from an additional site in Albania, and these records have been confirmed by Bodon, but the record is based on shell characters only.
156171		habitat	eng	This species is found in temporary cold water springs. The sub-population in Albania is found in a spring in a karst area in a cave.
156171		population	eng	There is no data on population trends of this species.
156171		threats	eng	The spring in Durmitor Mountains is frequently visited by tourists, however, there is currently little impact on the site. This is in a National Park, and the site is protected. <br/><br/>In Albania, the spring is inside a karst area, within a cave. This cave is not used by tourists and has no known threats.
156172		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. More research needs to be carried out on trends and status.
156172		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhiopsis bosniaca</span> is listed as endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it is known from the Travnik area, however there is no recent detail on the distribution.
156172		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
156172		population	eng	There is no data on population.
156172		threats	eng	There are no data on threats to this species.
156173		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species. Site management is needed to control water abstraction and pollution, and users of the well need to be made aware of the impacts of their actions on biodiversity of the well and groundwater. Research is needed to establish the distribution and population trends of this species.
156173		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Greece on islands of Kephalonia and Zakynthos (Ionian Sea, West Greece) (Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).&#160; It was originally described from a well at Poros, Kephalonia.&#160; Full estimates of the number of sites where it is found are unknown as this is a cryptic species found only in groundwater, and thus is only found in samples from wells and springs.</p>
156173		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from water in the bottom of a well, so it is assumed to be present in subterranean waters.
156173		population	eng	The population status is unknown.
156173		threats	eng	The major threat to the species will be extraction of groundwaters drying the well, as well as pollution to the groundwaters.
156174		conservation	eng	<p>This species is strictly protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
156174		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella multiformis </span>is endemic to Austria where it was recorded in a single spring in the northern Alps, near Kalten Rinne, Weinzettelwand in Niederösterreich.
156174		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that inhabits springs.
156174		population	eng	&#160;This species has experienced a population decline and is now considered very rare, possibly extinct (Reischutz, pers. comm. 2010).
156174		threats	eng	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella multiformis</span> are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater. Pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, also pose a threat to this species.
156175		conservation	eng	Legislation development and implementation at national level, as well as more research on its habitat trends and conservation are needed.
156175		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species and none are currently required.
156175		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the following National Red Lists: Norway as Data Deficient; Australia and Sweden as potentially at risk (4), which is equivelent to the Near Threatened category of IUCN (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156175		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across the Palearctic region, and is found south of Oslo in Norway and across Europe to parts of North Africa; it is also found as far east as Lake Baikal, Russia (Dussart 1979, Welter-Schultes 2009).
156175		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe, being found in Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Malta, Bulgaria, Romania, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macdeonia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece and Ukraine.
156175		distribution	eng	Wide ranging Paleartic species that in Africa occurs in Morocco and Algeria as far south as El Golea (according to Bourguingat 1884), and in Egypt in the Nile Delta, Giza and the Siwa Oasis. The species is retreating northwards. Most recent data from Ghamizi (1998), states that it is only present in very few locations in Morocco. Data from many more locations is not recent. Its type locality is in Europe.
156175		habitat	eng	It lives in vegetation rich water bodies.
156175		habitat	eng	This species is found in ponds, ditches, and in quiet slow-flowing canals and rivers, usually in the shallower parts amongst the water weeds.
156175		habitat	eng	This species occurs in numerous water body types, but shows a preference for standing water such as ponds, swamps or lakes with slow moving or stagnant waters (Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2010), occurring in shallower waters (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011). It can be found on all substrate types and it is the intermediate host of a number of trematodes (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinoparyphium recurvatum</span>) that have waterfowl, rodents and carnivores as the final hosts (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156175		population	eng	No information on populations.
156175		population	eng	There is no Europe wide data showing decline, although there are localised declines, it is considered stable over Europe.
156175		population	eng	This species has a maximum population density of&#160; 102 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in fish ponds in southwest Poland (calculated from Spyra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and 26.7 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in small isolated forest ponds in Montenegro (Janicki 2007). <br/><br/>Statements about the continuous habitat loss and degradation affecting European populations suggest that the species may be in decline across its European  range. However, comparing its distribution in the Netherlands between  1900 to 1989 and 1990 to 2005 (grid 5 x 5 km) it appears that the  species has declined in some locations but has been found in a number of  others (ANEMOON 2005). Overall, a slight decline may be deduced from these data,  but it is clear that the species is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>still widely and evenly distributed over the whole country. This seems also to be the case in other European countries.
156175		threats	eng	Climate change is a main threat to populations in North Africa, with populations retreating northwards, whilst European populations are threatened by continuous habitat loss and degradation (Welter-Schulte 2009). However, it is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting the global population of this species at present.
156175		threats	eng	Climate change is a major threat affecting to the species.
156175		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species across its range.&#160; There are likely to be localised declines due to habitat loss and water pollution but these are not thought to be impacting the species at the European Level.
156176		conservation	eng	This species is not protected under french law, and to detemine the long-term threats to the species a programme of habitat monitoring and populations trends is recommended given the limited range of the species.
156176		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. p. irubensis </span>being found only in the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques (three locations are known for <em>Alzoniella perrisii irubensis</em> according to Boeters 2000) and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. p. perrisii</span> is known from one locality in the Landes department.
156176		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella perrisii</span> is usually found in freshwater springs.
156176		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156176		threats	eng	Spring sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
156177		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species.
156177		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia gibba</span> is endemic to France, where it is found west of the Rhône valley, however the geographical data is currently incomplete&#160;(V. Prie, pers. comm., 2009).
156177		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
156177		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156177		threats	eng	Springs are affected by human activities: groundwater over abstraction,&#160;groundwater&#160;pollution and urbanisation. Consequently the major threats lie in springs drying out during the year due to over exploitation. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
156178		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the extent of its distribution and to identify any threat processes impacting upon its habitat.</p>
156178		distribution	eng	<p>This newly described species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region>, found in a single site, the Rio Nela, 1.2 km southeast of Escanduso, in Villarcayo, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Burgos</st1:place></st1:city> (Boeters 2003).</p>
156178		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits subterranean waters and is occasionally sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. burgensis</span> (Boeters 2003).</p>
156178		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
156178		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes,                 however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from both domestic (sewage and run-off) and agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.   </p>
156179		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy and the distribution, as the species has not been recorded since the 19th century.
156179		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Pyrenees, France. More research is needed on the geographical distribution, as the species has not been recorded since the 19th century.
156179		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
156179		population	eng	There is no data on the population size or trend.
156179		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.
156180		conservation	eng	<em>Graziana slavonica</em><em>&#160;</em>is only known from the Papuk GeoPark, where it is restricted to the streams and waterfalls. However, this geopark is protecting the geological history of region, as well as having several endemic invertebrates as well as rare bats and flora. This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (Ministry of Culture 2009). It is thought that further sub-populations may be present in the park, so research is recommended in this area.
156180		distribution	eng	<em>Graziana slavonica</em> is endemic to Croatia where it was described from the Jankovic Stream within area of Mt. Papuk (Radoman 1983).
156180		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater springs (Radoman 1983).
156180		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, although the site lies in a protected area.
156180		threats	eng	The major threats to the species would be from the disturbance of the flow regime of the habitat and water-pollution.
156181		conservation	eng	Control pollution and deforestation.
156181		conservation	eng	Pollution control and deforestation and needed.
156181		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further work on taxonomy and population trends is required and management strategies for pollution and deforestation may be necessary.<br/></p><br/><br/>.
156181		conservation	eng	The most urgent conservation action for this species is taxonomic research to establish the nature of this species complex and name the three other taxa identified. Subsequently research is needed to determine the range of each taxa, to establish whether any of them are range restricted species, and whether they qualify as threatened species.
156181		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from control of pollution and deforestation.
156181		distribution	eng	It is a widespread Palearctic species. In northern Africa occurs in the mountainous zone of Morocco (High and Mid Atlas), Algeria and Tunisia as far south as the Oued Souss (Ghamizi 1998), where it is on the edge of its range in Northern Africa. All over Europe. Isolated populations have been recorded in the Hoggar and in the Tassili N'Ajjar (Brown 1994). Its type locality is the Ilm River, Germany.
156181		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus fluviatilis</span> is widespread in Europe. However, range data is difficult to assess at present as recent splits have led to three species being recognised, whereas only one was previously thought to be present throughout Europe.<br/><br/>Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) summarise the range of the species currently recognised within the river limpet:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus fluviatilis</span> (sensu  stricto) Albrecht et al (2007): mainly in northern Europe, but reaching  southern limits in Spain, France, northern Italy and Slovenia. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus</span> sp A Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2007): restricted to small area in southern Portugal.&#160; <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus</span> sp B Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span> (2007): mainly found in the Mediterranean region, from the Canary  Islands, Morocco, Italy, though to Greece and Turkey. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus</span> sp C Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2007): mainly found in the western Mediterranean region, from Portugal,  Spain to Italy.
156181		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, central and northern plateau above 2,200 m (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> This is a widespread Palearctic species occurring in the mountainous zone of Morocco (high and middle Atlas), Algeria and Tunisia as far south as the Oued Souss (Ghamizi 1998). Isolated populations have been recorded in the Hoggar and in the Tassili N'Ajjar (Brown 1994). On the edge of its range in Northern Africa. All over Europe. The type locality is the Ilm River, Germany.
156181		distribution	eng	This species is widespread palearctic species. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the mountainous zone of Morocco (high and mid Atlas), Algeria and Tunisia as far south as the Oued Souss (Ghamizi 1998). Isolated populations have been recorded in the Hoggar and in the Tassili N'Ajjar (Brown 1994). On the edge of its range in northern Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It also occurs in the central and northern plateau of Ethiopia above 2,200 m (Brown 1994).
156181		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe and is also present in north and north-eastern Africa (Geldiay 1956, Durrant 1977, Pfenninger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). It is also known from Caucasus, Armenia, but is not known from the Afrotropical region (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus fluviatilis</span> (sensu   stricto) Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007): mainly in Northern Europe, but reaching   southern limits in Spain, France, Northern Italy and Slovenia. This   species is considered Least Concern in Europe. Most of the remaining   habitats in the Mediterranean could fall into the species listed below,   however the Mediterranean zone is on the southern limit of the   distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus fluviatilis</span>  (sensu  stricto)  in the region, and might be affected by decline   episodes as a result of the effect of climate change and overexploitation of the main rivers.<br/>  <br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus</span>  sp A Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2007): this is restricted to small area in southern  Portugal. The current  range of this population is uncertain, and  although it may qualify as  threatened, given the current status of  distributional knowledge, a  status of Data Deficient (DD) would be  appropriate.<br/>  <br/>   <span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus</span>  sp B Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2007): mainly found in the Mediterranean region,  from the Canary  Islands, Morocco, Italy, through to Greece and Turkey.  This population,  if considered a valid species, would probably qualify  as Least Concern (LC)  given the extensive range in the Mediterranean,  however most of the  habitats in the Mediterranean are under pressure for  exploitation of water sources, and hence the species may be locally  threatened.<br/>  <br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus</span>  sp C Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2007): mainly found in the western Mediterranean  region, from Portugal and  Spain to Italy. This population, if considered a  valid species, would  probably qualify  as Least Concern (LC) given the  extensive range in the Mediterranean, however  most of the habitats in  Mediterranean are under pressure for  exploitation of water sources,  and hence the species may be locally  threatened<br/> <br/> These species  should be monitored as their status is currently uncertain  and some  sub-populations/species maybe threatened as a result of the  effect of  changing rainfall patterns and over-exploitation of water   resources.
156181		habitat	eng	Fast-flowing cold waters of good quality, living on rocks. Spread by birds.
156181		habitat	eng	It occurs in fast flowing waters of good quality, living on rocks. It is spread by birds.
156181		habitat	eng	The river limpet is usually found in clear fast flowing rivers, with the species preferring to cling to rocks.
156181		habitat	eng	This species is rheophilic, preferring to live in fast flowing rivers generally on a rock substrate (Durrant 1977). This species is found in cold running waters on hard surfaces, with a high amount of dissolved oxygen, and is also found in some lake littorals with high wave energy (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011). This species is intolerant to changes in water chemistry and temperature.
156181		habitat	eng	This species lives on rocks in in good quality fast flowing waters. It is spread by birds.
156181		population	eng	No information available.
156181		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status or trend of this species.
156181		population	eng	This species has been documented as occurring in small, localised populations but there are no specific population trend data available. Durrant (1980) recorded 15-30 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>&#160; in the River Lea. This species is abundant in unpolluted waters, but absent in others (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
156181		population	eng	This species is found in small localised populations.
156181		threats	eng	Although no current threats are currently recognised for this species, pollution is suggested as being a potential future threat. Over-exploitation of water and management of river flow for energy production may have localised impacts on populations.
156181		threats	eng	It is very vulnerable to pollution, and possibly to climate change as it is a cold water species. Modification of habitats, (e.g. if there is an accumulation of sediment that covers the rocks) can affect the species. Erosion due to deforestation causes an increase in sediment that would cause this and prevent it from continuing to occur there.
156181		threats	eng	Populations in central Europe and in Africa are threatened by water pollution. African populations are also impacted negatively by habitat degradation and sedimentation as a result of deforestation. Its sensitive tolerance levels make it particularly vulnerable to the future threats of pollution and climate change (Durrant 1977, Geldiay 1956).
156181		threats	eng	This species is very vulnerable to pollution, possibly also to climate change because it is a cold water species. Habitat modification is also a threat, particularly where there is sedimentation leading to the covering of rocks. Erosion and deforestation cause an increase in sedimentation, that covers rocks and prevents this species from inhabiting these areas.
156181		threats	eng	Very vulnerable to pollution, possibly also climate change because it's a cold water species. Modification of habitats, i.e., if there is lots of sediment that covers rocks.  Erosion, deforestation cause an increase in water sediment load that would cover rocks and prevent it living there.
156182		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, however in Greece it lives in&#160;Lake Pamvotis which is a proctected site (GR2130005-Limni Ioanninon) of Natura 2000 network. Further research is needed relating to the population, habitat and possible threats of this species.
156182		distribution	eng	<p>Known from SE Europe, where there are records from Albania, Montenegro, Croatia (Bank et al, 2006; &#160;Fauna Europea) and Greece [Lake Pamvotis, Ioannina, &#160;Epeiros (Frogley & Preece 2007)]. Schutt (1965) reported it from&#160;<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">5 km <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">north east <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Karlovac <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Croatia (subspecies<em>&#160;</em><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><em>carlovacensis</em> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Kobelt<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">1909)&#160;and from Lake Skopje in Montenegro, but more data is required on this species. &#160;There are also records from the Lower Danube (Ciobou, 2010, pers. comm.), however these are not reported in Fauna Europea.</span></span></span></span></span></p>
156182		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are unknown.&#160;In Lake Pamvotis specimens of V. mamillatus were observed on the thick algal mat covering the limestone blocks used to line a quiet and relatively deep water channel serving a pumping station (Frogley & Preece 2007)<p></p>
156182		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species for Albania, Montenegro and Croatia. In Greece&#160;most of the specimens collected from Lake Pamvotis were dead shells (Frogley & Preece 2007)<br/>        .
156182		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown for part of the range, however in Greece&#160;water pollution probably threatens this species in Lake Pamvotis (Radea, pers. comm., June, 2010)<p>&#160;<br/></p>
156183		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population, distribution, habitat and threats of this species.
156183		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is known only from springs at Agios Nikolaos near Naoussa (Reischutz pers. comm. 2010). It is only known from these springs, and was never found in the adjacent springs close by  (Reischutz pers. comm. 2010).
156183		habitat	eng	The species was found at freshwater springs. It may be restricted to these springs or may also be found in the the underlying subterranean waters feeding the springs.
156183		population	eng	There are no population data for this species, however Reischutz (pers. comm. 2010) reports that no shells were found on the last visit to the site in 2009 and other species present in the spring had undergone decline as well, and so a population decline is inferred.
156183		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain, although decline has been observed in other spring-snail species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Graecoanatolica macedonica</span>, at the site, and no shells of this species have been recorded in the last visits to the site (Reischutz pers. comm. 2010). As the other adjacent springs have been observed to dry out, it may be that fluctuating water levels due to abstraction and drought have caused the loss of the spring-snails at this site. The area is an important agricultural zone for fruit trees and the off-take for agriculture and pesticides may also have an impact on the species.
156184		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Although the site has been re-sealed, care must be taken to maintain the unusual water/air  conditions in the cave, as if the site was open to inflow of oxygen it would change  the micro-climate in the cave. Monitoring of habitat trends, education and awareness of the uniqueness of the fauna, protection of the site, species and habitat from habitat degradation are all recommended actions.
156184		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania, where it is only found at Movile Cave in Dobrogea. In 1986, while excavating for a construction project, engineers found an unusual cave near Mangalia (south of Constanta in Dobrogea), a few kilometres from the Black Sea coast. The small cave (12,000 m²), named Movile, is about 300 metres long and less than three metres high. In the cave there is little oxygen but large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere, and a large amount of hydrogen sulphide in the water (Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
156184		habitat	eng	This species is found in a small cave with a small lake in its lower part. The physical and chemical conditions within the cave are unusual: the water is rich in hydrogen sulphide (8–12 mg/l); and the atmosphere is poor in oxygen (7–10%), rich in carbon dioxide (2–3.5%) and charged with a significant amount of methane (1–2%) (Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
156184		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
156184		threats	eng	The small lake in the cave where <span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia dobrogica</span> is found is unusual in its chemical composition, and the species has adapted to these unusual conditions over the last 2.5 million years. This species is vulnerable to any changes in the microclimate and chemical composition of the water of the cave, for example by unsealing the entrance and exposing the cave to air, water and thermal pollution.
156185		conservation	eng	In both the Spanish National Red List (Verdu and Galante 2009) and the Castilla-La Mancha list this species is listed as Vulnerable (VU B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv)) (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In the Andalucian Red List it has the status Vulnerable (VU A4c; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)) (<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population status to determine the rate of decline, as well as habitat monitoring to determine changes. Better information needs to be available on best practice for managing the water resources to maintain flow levels without impacting biodiversity (<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</span>
156185		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where it is known from the provinces of Alicante, Albacete, Murcia and Almeria (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">According to Barea-Azcón<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2008) it is restricted to the <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">Segura <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">River basin. In Castilla-La Mancha it is reported from 18 sites, and has been lost from 2 of these on at least 5 different tributaries of the river <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">(Bragado<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) note that it could be present in the east part of Andalucia.<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"> <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span>
156185		habitat	eng	This species is found in all types of water bodies, including flowing (rivers, <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">ditches, <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">canals <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">and streams<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">) <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">and <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">standing <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps atn">waters (<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">tanks, reservoirs, permanent <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">ponds <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">and <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">lakes<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">). It <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">preferentially <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">colonizes <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">hard substrates <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">like <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">rocks<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">, walls <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">or <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">tree trunks, <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">but <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">moves <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">around on <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">sandy bottoms<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">. <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">It is <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">mainly found in <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">hard (high mineral content) water (Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156185		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) report the species has been declining, and although <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">localities appear to have a very large number of individuals, the populations are widely scattered and often isolated from each other<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">.<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156185		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en">The river basin is normally in a state of semi-drought due to the level of water abstraction for both domestic and agricultural uses. The species is considered threatened, as there has been a decline in population abundance. The river occasionally floods in Autumn so since 1990 the lower reaches of the river have been canalized, removing  meanders and to improve the evacuation of flood waters. This has changed the quality of habitat, although it is uncertain how far it has affected this species which likes hard substrates. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><br/><br/>Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2008) report that in general<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"> the <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">over-exploitation <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">of <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">water resources <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">has <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">intensified <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">in <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">recent decades, <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">generating <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">a <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">pro<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="atn"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">gressive <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">deterioration <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">in the <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">freshwater habitats. Freshwater habitats are under pressure from <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="atn"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">pollution <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">from domestic sources<span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">, excessive<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"> <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">extraction <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">of water <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">from <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">ponds <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">during the summer for agriculture, <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">over-exploitation of aquifers<span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"> for domestic and agricultural use and the disturbance of habitats, for example c<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">leaning <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">ditches<span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"> and <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">ponds<span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156186		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known and none are required.
156186		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (NatureServe 2010). <br/></p>
156186		distribution	eng	The native range of this species encompasses Europe, Caucasus, western Siberia, and Central Asia. It has invaded the United States and Canada and can be found in Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Wisconsin, Ontario and Quebec (NatureServe 2010). It was first recorded in the United States in 1897 in Lake Ontario, New York. It has since spread into Lake Erie, St. Lawrence and Hudson Rivers, Champlain Lake, Cayuga Lake, Superior Bay in Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, and Oneida Lake (Grigorovich <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also found in Turkey (Van Damme, pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Valvata piscinalis alpestris</em> is distributed in Austria, Germany and Switzerland (Fauna Europaea Web Service 2004).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Valvata piscinalis antiqua</em> is distributed in Austria, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Romania, Switzerland, the Netherlands and United Kingdom (Fauna Europaea Web Service 2004).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Valvata piscinalis piscinalis</em> is distributed throughout Europe (Fauna Europaea Web Service 2004).
156186		distribution	eng	This is a widespread palearctic species throughout Europe. Fauna  Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) record this species from Scandinavia to  Spain, and from Ireland to the Ukraine. Fauna Europaea listed the species in Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Bulgaria, Romania, Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of&#160; Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Ukraine, and Greece (mainland).&#160; <br/><br/>Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) record the species from Europe, western Siberia, and lakes and rivers in Armenia. In this volume they consider many species, that have in the past been considered subspecies or synonyms of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. piscinalis, </span>and these would extent the range to the Kurile Islands.&#160; It is also recorded from <a href="http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1043">North America</a>, where it is introduced.  (see Global account of this species).
156186		habitat	eng	This small gastropod is found in freshwater streams, rivers, and lakes,  preferring running water and tolerating water with low calcium levels.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">V. piscinalis</span> is known for its rapid growth and high fecundity. It reproduces as a hermaphrodite, one individual acting as the male and the other as the female, and has no free larval stage (Fretter and Graham 1978; Grigorovich et al. 2005). It may spawn 2 or 3 times in a year, laying up to 150 eggs at a time (Grigorovich et al. 2005) which are deposited on vegetation. Hatching normally occurs in 15–30 days (Fretter and Graham 1978). Individuals breed around the age of 1 and usually die at 13–21 months (Grigorovich et al. 2005). In Europe, breeding occurs from April to September, occurring later at more northerly latitudes (Fretter and Graham 1978).
156186		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits both standing and slightly flowing waters, and is found in lakes, rivers, creeks, canals, ditches and reservoirs (Grigorovich <em>et al.</em> 2005). It prefers a substrate of sand or silt, and feeds upon detritus and diatoms (Van Damme pers. comm. 2011). This species is known for its wide environmental tolerance, rapid growth and high fecundity. It may spawn two or three times per year and can produce up to 150 eggs each time which are deposited on vegetation. Individuals reach sexual maturity at around one year old, and have a longevity of approximately 13 – 21 months (Grigorovich <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is a common first intermediate host for digenean trematodes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinoparyphium</span> (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. recurvatum</span>) (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1981, Grabda-Kazubska and Kiseliene 1991) .
156186		population	eng	The population trends are unknown, but the species is frequently found in surveys.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">V. piscinalis</span> is a hermaphrodite, where one  individual acts as the male and the other as the female, and the species has no  free larval stage (Fretter and Graham 1978). It  may lay up to 150 eggs deposited on vegetation and hatching  normally occurs in 15–30 days (Fretter and Graham 1978). Individuals  breed around the age of 1 and usually die at 13–21 months (Grigorovich  et al. 2005). In Europe, breeding occurs from April to September,  occurring later at more northerly latitudes (Fretter and Graham 1978).
156186		population	eng	This species is described as common in European freshwaters (Grigorovich <em>et al.</em> 2005). Global population is estimated at > 1,000,000 indivduals (NatureServe 2010). Van den Berg et al. (1997) cite a density of ca. 5,000 ind/m<sup>2</sup> in two Dutch lakes and Jakubik (2008) a density of 67 ind/m<sup>2</sup> in rivers in Poland.
156186		threats	eng	As this species is widespread, although there are local threats due to loss of habitats and pollution, these are unlikely to impact the species as a whole.
156186		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156187		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species.&#160; Further data is required to enable a conservation assessment, including information on distribution, population trends and threats.
156187		distribution	eng	This species is listed by Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) as present in the Iberian Peninsular and is restricted to Portugal. There is little distributional data to refine the distribution.
156187		habitat	eng	The species is thought to be present in freshwater rivers and estuaries.
156187		population	eng	There is no known data on population trends for this species.
156187		threats	eng	The threats are not known for this species.
156188		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>
156188		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
156188		habitat	eng	<p>This littoral species lives beneath rocks on sandy substrate.</p>
156188		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. It has a patchy distribution.
156188		threats	eng	<p>  </p><ul>    </ul>Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.<ul>  </ul>
156189		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species.&#160; More research is needed on the specific threats for this species.
156189		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lithoglyphus fuscus</span> is widely distributed between central Slovenia and Bosnia.&#160; Radoman (1983) reported the species from the Rivers Una and Vrbas. The&#160;Vrbas is a major&#160;river&#160;in western&#160;Bosnia and Herzegovina,  originating on the southern slope of the&#160;Vranica mountain, at around  1530 metres above the sea level and feeding into the Sava River.
156189		habitat	eng	This species is found in the middle and lower reaches of large freshwater rivers (Radoman 1983).
156189		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species, although it is thought to be widespread.
156189		threats	eng	There are no data on the specific threats to this species, although the middle and lower reaches of the rivers have been subjected to habitat management and flow management.
156190		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are taking place in Slovakia. There is no information about conservation actions in&#160; Poland. It is recommended that regular habitat monitoring takes place as spring-snails are suspectible to habitat degradation, either through modification of their habitats for water abstraction or drop in water-levels within the river/spring system.
156190		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Poland and Slovakia. In Poland it is known at five localities in the West Tatra Mountains and Pieniny Mountains (Falniowski pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Slovenia it is reported from Pieniny Mountains, West Tatra Mountains, Strazovske vrchy Mountains and Hornad River (Vavrova pers. comm. 2009) so its distribution range may cover the whole (mainly limestone) areas of the West Tatra Mountains and Pieniny Mountains, an area of more than 400 km<sup>2</sup>.
156190		habitat	eng	<p>This<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a freshwater spring species living among fallen leaves in rather small springs in lower parts of limestone mountains. It has also been recorded in the gallery of rivers. <br/></p>
156190		population	eng	There is no information available about&#160; the population and its current trends.
156190		threats	eng	There are no significant threats currently affecting to this species.
156191		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species would benefit from population monitoring and education of the local people to raise awareness.
156191		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, found in only two locations, Fonte di San Cassiano and Giano dell'Umbria within the Appeninne areas of Marche and Umbria.
156191		habitat	eng	This species lives in karstic subterranean freshwater habitats.
156191		population	eng	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.
156191		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006) and given that it is found in groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli<em> et al</em>. 2000).
156192		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (<a href="hbsd.hr/.../Pravilnik_o_proglasavanju_divljih_svojti_zasticenim_i_strogo_zasticenim.pdf">See List of protected species</a>). The species was <span id="result_box" class="long_text">assigned a status of Critically Endangered (CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)) for the Croatian Red List of Cave Fauna (2010, in press). Actions needed include channelling at the edge of the road to control water run-off near the the springs, as well as treatment and control of sewage. It is not possible to monitor the populations, as the site is not accessible, hence water quality and habitat change should be monitored.
156192		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is found in Croatia, where it is known from one location in a cave system at<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte"> Mühlquelle in Izvor kod Mlina u Zatonu Malom<span id="result_box" class="long_text">. It is not possible to enter the cave system as it is closed.<br/><br/><span title="Ich sammelte"></span></span>
156192		habitat	eng	It is known from a freshwater spring emerging from a cave at sea level.
156192		population	eng	There are no current population trend data for this species.
156192		threats	eng	The only known site lies close to a major road, with threats from pollution in the run-off from the road. In addition, there is ongoing tourist development in town, with pollution from uncontrolled discharge of untreated sewage and water abstraction to feed the domestic supplies from the groundwater feeding the springs.
156193		conservation	eng	No conservation actions required until status of the species is known.
156193		distribution	eng	Fauna Europea (Bank <em>et al</em>. 2006) listed this species is endemic to France and Italy, where it has been recorded from Corsica and Alpes Maritimes (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002), and through Liguria (Italy).&#160; However there is doubt as to the validity of the species.
156193		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
156193		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156193		threats	eng	Given the uncertainity about the taxonomic status it is not possible to define the threats.
156194		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions for this species and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status. Developing programmes of awareness of importance of freshwater biodiversity and the restricted range species in Montenegro and Bosnia & Herzegovina
156194		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxurinator montenegrinus</span> is known only from three localities, two in Bosnia-Herzegovina, source of Čepelica river near Bileća town (Bosnia-Herzegovina) and a source near Stepen (near Bosnia-Montenegro border) and another in Montenegro, where it was found in a cave at Risan in Boka Kotorska (Sket pers. comm. 2010).
156194		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs, which flows directly out of the ground, the water forming directly a stream (rheocrenic springs).
156194		population	eng	There are no data on the population trends or size.
156194		threats	eng	Both springs which are the only known localities of the species have been captured for provision of water for domestic purposes.
156299		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156299		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. It is only known by two dead specimens, collected by Fritsch without any precise locality data. This species has probably not been found again since its description, there are no published records.
156299		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156299		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156299		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156300		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place or required for this species.
156300		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Mediterranean part of France as well as in Corsica and in areas of lower altitude in northern Italy; mainly Padan Plain. It should be noted that Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) lists this species erroneously from Spain and the Balearic Islands.
156300		habitat	eng	This species is found in open, dry, shrubby biotopes with scattered herbaceous layer. It also occurs in heavily anthropized and cultivated areas.
156300		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown and there is no data available on population trends.
156300		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown.
156301		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring would benefit this species, as it is close to meeting the threatened species criteria, and as a semi-slug species it is more vulnerable to changes in microc-climate, especially humidity.&#160; The species is found in Natura 2000 and UNESCO sites for "Laurisilva of Madeira', a Special Protected Area in the interior of Madeira.
156301		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is mainly found in central Madeira at intermediate to high elevations, but with some records on the northwestern coast where the ravines with forest extend down to the coast.
156301		habitat	eng	This species is found on vegetation and around rock crags in shaded and unshaded areas, mainly at intermediate elevations, although found in forested ravines near coast. It is often associated with wet habitats on crags.
156301		population	eng	The species was described in the 1980's, unlike the other species, and was overlooked in earlier recording. the population trends are unknown.
156301		threats	eng	The major threats to this species lie in changes to the habitat, reducing the humidity of the habitats (loss of water due to extraction or reduction in rainfall frequency) and loss of the forested, shaded habitats due to road/path construction, forest fires or impacting the species directly possibly an increase in predators.
156302		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). No conservation actions are required.
156302		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in Portugal, north-western Spain, the British  Isles (including the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, the Orkney Islands and the Shetlands), western France, Belgium, western  Netherlands, East Holstein, East Denmark and Öland.
156302		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Candidula intersecta </span>is a xerothermic species requiring dry, fairly warm conditions                 and is found widely on coastal dunes, also on dry field margins, waste places  and quarries inland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156302		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156302		threats	eng	There are no direct threats detected.
156303		conservation	eng	<p>The geographic range and the existing subpopulations of this species is not exactly known, therefore research activity should focus on these points. </p>  <p>The species is protected at national level in Croatia but not protected in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Known sites are out of protected areas.</p>
156303		distribution	eng	This species occurs near the border between Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. It lives in the Southern Dinaric Mountains, more specifically in the Dalmatian - Bosnian border mountains between Vrlika (Croatia) and Prolog (Bosnia-Herzegovina). It has two known occurrences (Vrlika and Prolog) which are 36 km far from each other (Subai 2002). However, according to Stamol (2010), the record from Prolog is doubtful.<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well studied and new&#160; locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156303		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156303		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored,&#160; there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156303		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits hardly accessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is relatively unlikely at the moment.
156304		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place and none needed.
156304		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran Archipelago, where it is found on Porto Santo and islets of Ilheu de Ferro, Ilheu de Baixo, Ilheu de Nordeste, Ilheu da Fonte d'Areia.&#160; It is quite widespread on the south-west and south-east parts of the mainland of Porto Santo (Seddon 2008).
156304		habitat	eng	This species is found on the ground and amongst low growing grasses and herbs in sandy areas in lower parts of Porto Santo (Seddon 2008).
156304		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitats.
156304		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Habitat degradation and impact of non-native species might impact the species locally.
156305		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in the countries where it occurs, however some populations most likely live in protected areas.
156305		distribution	eng	This species lives in Greece, Bulgaria (northern and  southern slopes of Rodópi Mts., Thrakia, Makedonía to Vardar,  Chalkidiki and Thasos). There is also a known locality in Albania.
156305		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky habitats in  mountains.
156305		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156305		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, mining, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
156306		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures required.
156306		distribution	eng	The species lives in the north and the west of the Mediterranean region,  on the Atlantic coasts of Belgium and South England. It is introduced to the Eastern  Mediterranean (Greece, Turkey). It also occurs in Northern Africa. In Spain (Salamanca, Zaragoza, Huesca) and south of Ireland, it also  occurs far from the coast. This snail may have entered the British Isles in the late prehistoric  period (Kerney 1999) but for present purposes is regarded as a native.  Inland, it is scattered across the south central plain of Ireland and is  common everywhere on the coast (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156306		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlicella acuta</span> is well known on coastal sands or well-drained limestone pastures inland. It is very widespread in the loose sand or sparsely vegetated areas of coastal  dunes and inland in limestone quarries and dry pastures in the southern half of  the island (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156306		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to   assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156306		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large  number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole  population significantly.
156307		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in Romania. All known sites are probably outside of protected areas. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known, therefore any research activity should focus on that. No conservation actions are currently required.<br/></p>
156307		distribution	eng	Fauna Europaea indicates that this species is from Albania, however this data is thought to be incorrect (Fehér and Erőss 2009). The occurrence in Serbia is also doubtful. In the opinion of Subai (in prep.) this species occurs only in Romania. The Hungarian record is from fluvial debris so its place of origin is uncertain.<br/>Known locations: Kercesora in the Olt valley, Orlat West of Sibiu (Soós 1943), Olt valley, Bistrita valley, and Costesti in the Southern Carpathians (Munkácsy Museum Békéscsaba, unpublished data). The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>
156307		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.
156307		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on the population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156307		threats	eng	<p>This species is found in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by road construction or by other reasons such as leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely and therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156308		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered (species <span style="font-style: italic;">minacata</span>) in the Italian check-list of 1995. The three known sites require protection from the real threats of habitat destruction.
156308		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-west Sicily, Italy. The localities seem to have always been scattered and isolated one from each other. In the course of the last 150 years, the species seems to have disappeared from the larger western part of its distribution area. The historical extent of occurrence (EOO) is calculated as 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> with nine locations, six of them are lost. Therefore the current inferred EOO is 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO is 12 km<sup>2</sup>.
156308		habitat	eng	This species lives in dune habitats on calcareous substrate close to the sea, on the soil or among low vegetation and stones.
156308		population	eng	The existing populations are rich in individuals, but there is no data on the population trend available.
156308		threats	eng	The dune habitats to which this species is bound, are increasingly threatened by human pressure. The main threats to the species is increasing land use through urbanisation along the coast, and agriculture activities. During the last 150 years, a large part of the distribution area and at least six credibly documented occurrences have been lost.
156309		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed.
156309		distribution	eng	This species is originally an endemic of the Crimean Peninsula, in Ukraine. However, it is now considered as an introduced species in Southern Ukraine (Sverlova and Son 2006, Sverlova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
156309		habitat	eng	This species is able to tolerate a wide range of habitats.
156309		population	eng	This species is abundant and its population is increasing. It is now considered as an introduced species in Southern Ukraine.
156309		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The expansion of the species is connected with transport activities
156310		conservation	eng	First of all more research on the taxonomy is needed to verify the species' validity.
156310		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Alps in eastern Austria (Steiermark) and northern Slovenia (Pecit mountain)<em>. </em>However, there is no material from the Pecit mountain record.<br/><em><br/><br/><br/></em><em><br/></em>
156310		habitat	eng	This species seems to live in forests under dead leaf litter with a preference for dark and shaded areas.
156310		population	eng	There are no data on the population of this species.
156310		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
156311		conservation	eng	A part of the known occurrences is situated in the Parco Nazionale del Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga, Parco Nazionale delle Abruzzi, and Parco Nazionale del Gargano. Research into the distribution of the species and the impacts of the identified threats should be done. The apparent decline should also be monitored.<br/><br/>The taxonomic uncertainties with regard to the new species and the  disjunct occurrence on the Gargano promontory and the observed decline  represent strong reasons for further intensive research.
156311		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Italy. This species is endemic to the central Apennines, perhaps with a disjunct extension to Gargano (Forcart 1965). The distribution area is fragmented and reaches from the Monti Sibillini (type locality: Monte Vettore) southward to the Monti Reatini, the Gran Sasso, and the Monti della Meta (Mainarde) (Giusti 1973). <br/>Records from the northern area, which had formerly been ascribed to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. spadae</span>, belong to an undescribed distinct species (Hallgass pers. comm. 2011). The extent of occurrence (EOO) has been calculated as 16,000km<sup>2</sup> in case the records for this species from Gargano prove to be reliable.
156311		habitat	eng	The species lives on rocky grassland in the sub-alpine and alpine zones up to the summit region.
156311		population	eng	The population size is unknown but the trend is decreasing. Hallgass observed a remarkable decline in the last two decades, caused by a general climatic desiccation in Central Italy (Hallgass pers. comm. 2011).
156311		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism and pasturing. Tourist activities like skiing, king quad and mountain bike, hiking, climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality. Another threat to this species is pasturing that might lead to alteration of the natural vegetation with adverse effects, and the intensity of land-use is supposed to be stable or even increasing in the Apennines. Hallgass observed a remarkable decline in the last two decades, caused  by a general climatic desiccation in Central Italy (Hallgass pers. comm.  2011).
156312		conservation	eng	<p>Several Hungarian subpopulations live in protected areas and/or in Natura 2000 sites. It is thought that some of the Romanian subpopulations also occur in protected sites. At present, no further conservation actions seem necessary.<br/></p>
156312		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lozekia transsilvanica </span>occurs in the Southern Carpathians, to the west of the Fagaras Mountains, at Turnu Rosu (= Rothenturmpass),&#160;in the north-eastern part of the Apuseni Mountains (Gilau Mountains, Cheile Turzii) and in north-eastern Hungary (Medves, Mátra and Bükk Mountains). Its range extends somewhat to Slovakia (Medves Mountains) (Fehér <em>et al.</em> 2009).
156312		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deciduous forest.
156312		population	eng	<p>There was a recent study (Fehér <em>et al.</em> 2009), when numerous subpopulations mentioned in the literature were successfully recollected.</p><p>Population trends are not monitored in Hungary, but experts infer that Hungarian subpopulations are stable.<br/></p>
156312		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation is the main threat to this species, however this is not an ongoing threat. Due to its relatively large geographial range, local logging activities do not affect the population significantly.</p>
156313		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Vulnerable (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156313		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">The species lives in western Europe (in Scotland, northern  England, Wales, Cornwall and northern Ireland, but not Shetlands), in  the north to southern Scandinavia, in the east to central Germany and Austria  (western Niederösterreich) to France and northern Spain.<br/></h4>
156313		habitat	eng	Like the other xerophilous helicids, <span style="font-style: italic;">Helicella itala </span>is found in all kinds of dry, open  habitats such as calcareous grassland and dunes. It can disappear rapidly from a site with abandonment and the  cessation of grazing (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156313		population	eng	This species is declining in southern Britain, but to date there is no  evidence of decline in Ireland. This species has declined by over 60% in distribution since 1980, primarily within the central limestone plain of Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The species was not assessed as endangered since the coastal populations appear stable. However, for the rest of the distribution area, the size and trend within the sub-populations are stable.
156313		threats	eng	Habitat loss and changing agricultural practice in grasslands are the major contributing factors in <span style="font-style: italic;">H. itala</span> decline (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156314		conservation	eng	The habitat needs to be protected, but before any action takes place, a survey of the area and the population is urgently needed to make sure that the species still exists. Research is needed to determine whether the Tagueste site&#160; holds <span style="font-style: italic;">N. propinquus</span> or another species.
156314		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary islands, Island of Tenerife, where it occurs only in a very small area in the south-west of the island.<br/>It is only known from the two type localities, namely Sta. Cruz de Tenerife and the environments of Tagueste (the second locality seems to be doubtful, as Wollaston refers it to Mousson’s 1872 “<span style="font-style: italic;">nitidiuscula</span>” which is not identical to Shuttleworth’s 1852 <span style="font-style: italic;">propinquus</span>, and thus may probably be another species). However, Ibanez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) give only the Tagueste site (Bco. De la Galga) in their distribution map of that taxon. Consequently, the Sta. Cruz population may have gone extinct. If the Tagueste site is indeed doubtful (e.g. it is not the same species), the loss of the Sta. Cruz population may mean that the entire species has gone extinct.
156314		habitat	eng	This species lives in dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156314		population	eng	There are no data on the population size or trend.
156314		threats	eng	There are no data available.
156315		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level. Cakor pass and its vicinity is not a protected site. As this area hosts numerous invertebrates of high conservation concern and should be protected. Research activity should focus on the better exploration of the species' range.<br/></p>
156315		distribution	eng	This species is known from one location in Serbia on the eastern slope of the Cakor pass, around four km West of Kuciste (1600 m asl.). It is assumed that it is very likely to be found in the whole area that has not been properly investigated due to the danger of land-mines.  As long as there are no further records, this should be considered a narrow range endemic species. The type locality is as near the Montenegrin border, therefore its presence in Montenegro can be reasonably supposed.
156315		habitat	eng	<p>This is a forest-living species being found in pine forest on trunks of pine trees. It is thought to live among leaf-litter and decaying dead-wood.<br/></p>
156315		population	eng	<p>There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156315		threats	eng	Deforestation and disturbance of the forests can impact this species, but it is unlikely to wipe out the population entirely.
156316		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Suggested measures include sympathetic habitat management and research on population trends.
156316		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Sicily (Italy). Its distribution is limited to a restricted area between Palermo and Capo San Vito (cf. distribution map in Cianfanelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Observations indicate that, concerning the <span style="font-style: italic;">Schileykiella</span>-species, the actual distribution in each site&#160; is not larger than approx. 20 x 20 m.
156316		habitat	eng	This xerophilous species lives in leaf litter in woody or maquis habitats or under stones in open garigue and steppe; it mainly occurs on calcareous substrate.
156316		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
156316		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the destruction or alteration of its habitat through exploitation, especially pasturing, road construction, etc.
156317		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be addressed for habitat preservation. Research about population size and ecology is needed. The extent of the range should be better defined.
156317		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Basque mountains (north Spain), from the Burgos-Álava border to Aralar mountains (Navarra).
156317		habitat	eng	It inhabits karstic areas, living on the rock surface in open places, between 800 and 1,500 m.
156317		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156317		threats	eng	The only threat to the species is from global warming.
156318		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156318		distribution	eng	The species is known from Greece (Kastelorizo Island, Megisti), south-west&#160;parts of Turkey (Antalya)&#160;and Cyprus (Bank and Hovestadt 1991, Schütt 2001).
156318		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This species is soil-dwelling, usually found in in xeric shrublands (Bank and Hovestadt 1991).
156318		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species. This species is thought to be widespread throughout its range. However,&#160;it is only reported from only one location &#160;in Cyprus (Bank and Hovestadt 1991).</p>
156318		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct current threats for the species in the near future.&#160;</p>
156319		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria and in Turkey. Some sub-populations may be found protected areas.
156319		distribution	eng	According to Hausdorf (2000) the species is known from west Anatolia, the Anatolian north-west-coast, the European part of Turkey and Bulgaria. There may also be some records of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. carascaloides </span>from Greek Thracia and Macedonia must be referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. solidior</span>.
156319		habitat	eng	In the area of Arcutino the species is occurs on the Black Sea Coast among sands dunes (<a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/LBB_0040_0785-0811.pdf">Irikov 2008)</a>. The ecological conditions during the summer season are extreme, strongly expressed xerotermics around the sand surface, but sometimes there is typical a high aerial humidity over the dunes because of proximity of the sea. The winter is soft with a little snow and relatively high temperatures. The animals are found mostly among microhabitats of psammophytic and halophylic grass vegetation.&#160;<br/>During the inactive periods in the summer (at time of a long dry, high temperatures in the day, low aerial humidity) and in the winter, the animals aggregate at the base of stems and under leaves of plants (<a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/LBB_0040_0785-0811.pdf">Irikov 2008)</a>. The leaves with a rosette-form are peculiar umbrellas, ensuring more optimal microclimatic conditions. The psammophytic plant absorbs minimum amounts of dampness even, creating around the succulent and deeply situated in the sand roots a zone with a higher moisture. The sand in the base of the stem remains moist even in prolonged summer dryness and heat. The animals are&#160;concentrated to the base of stems or are buried around the root sometimes at a long depth. The movement of animals on the dunes is facilitated by the presence of moss, covering a sizable part of sands. This species is xerophilic, thermophilic and drought-resistant.
156319		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156319		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156320		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population and distribution of this species.
156320		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the Crimean Mountains, in Ukraine.
156320		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This molluscs is found in Steppe localities - under stones and in the soil.</p>
156320		population	eng	There are no data on&#160; the population of this species.
156320		threats	eng	<p>The quality of steppe habitats outside the protected areas is reduced in connection with the extension of agriculture and urbanisation.</p>
156321		conservation	eng	Some smaller subpopulations of this species received conservation status of differing levels (Critically Endangered in Vorarlberg (Austria), Vulnerable in Spain and Bavaria, Rare in Ireland). Population monitoring is recommended.
156321		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe, from the Arctic to the Mediterranean.<br/>Outside Europe, it is also recorded from Turkey (Schütt 1996), the Caucasus region to the Altai Mountains in Asia (Sysoev and Schileyko 2009).
156321		habitat	eng	In the UK, this species is found around ivy covered walls, usually shaded by trees, as well as dry undisturbed places such as hedges, grassy banks and cliffs (Dance 1969, Kerney 1999). In general, it can be found in drier places. than is typical for most of the other <span style="font-style: italic;">Vertigo</span> species.
156321		population	eng	In the UK, the species range has declined by c. 50% over the last century.&#160; This may reflect areas which have not been recently recorded. Kerney (1999) observed that the Holocene fossil record suggested that decline started with the beginning of prehistoric farming in the Britain.
156321		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance (wall management, changes in grazing practices) is impacting the species.
156322		conservation	eng	<p>The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not exactly known, therefore research activity should focus on these points.     </p><p>The species is not protected at national level in Albania and its known sites are out of protected areas.</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156322		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the Prokletije Mountains in Albania. For a long time, it was known only from its type locality (Maranaj Mountains, 1500 m above sea level). Some recent findings (Fehér and Erőss 2009) extended the known range of the species. These new records are: Periferi Malësia, eight km east of Bogë on the road towards Theth, 1250 m above sea level, and nine km east of Bogë along the road towards Theth, 1450 m above sea level. The potential range of the species is quite unexplored, so it can be assumed that further subpopulations will be found that will increase the extent of occurrence (EOO) as well.<br/>    <p><br/></p>
156322		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. Usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156322		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential range of the species is difficult to access and therefore currently remains unexplored, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156322		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is relatively unlikely at the moment.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156323		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria and in Turkey.
156323		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in southeast Bulgaria and mainly the European part  of Turkey. According to Schütt (2001) the following locations are known in Turkey: Kadiköy, Büyükdere (in the Asian part), Belgrat Ormani, Tekirdag, Sariyer; whereas in Bulgaria it lives in the southeastern part of the country, along the Black Sea coast (Damjanov and Likharev 1975). The species was recently found in the Rodope Mts, Bulgaria (Irikov and Mollov 2006). This&#160;species lives between 0 and 700 m above sea level in Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>, however this range can be  wider in Turkey.
156323		habitat	eng	This species occurs on mountain slopes, hillsides and open grasslands and shrublands, always in a dry environment. However, according to Schütt (2001) and www. animalbase.org, the species lives in humid habitats in valleys and  river plains. However, according to Irikov and Mollov (2006), 'within a hornbeam formation in soil furrows dug up by the rain on a steep slope of south-western layout with xerothermic conditions, xerophilic, thermophilic, drought-resistant'. The presence of this species in wet habitat needs further investigation.
156323		population	eng	The species seems to be relatively rare within its geographical range. It lives in humid habitats which are affected by human activity.&#160;However, the population trend is thought to be stable.
156323		threats	eng	There are no major threats presently known for this species.
156324		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species. Due to the unclear taxonomical situation and lack of knowledge of the species and the subspecies further taxonomic research and studies on the population size are urgently required.
156324		distribution	eng	The species may be found across the central and southern Italian mainland from Marche and Toscana to Calabria.
156324		habitat	eng	This species is adapted to living in dry areas and is found from the foot hills to higher altitudes; marginally penetrating into cultivated zones.
156324		population	eng	Population information for the species is unknown.
156324		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is its collection and commercialisation for alimentary purposes. Another identified threat is habitat destruction.
156325		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, and the province of Treviso. It is recorded from three locations representing three sites.
156325		habitat	eng	This species lives in the leaf litter and soil of moist creek canyons or in the crevices of limestone walls.
156325		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156325		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting the species at the moment, except quarrying.
156326		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Research is recommended to attempt to re-discover the species in the areas that it has been previously found.
156326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to La Palma where it is mentioned only by Wollaston (1878) from Los Sauces and the Barranco de Herradura, and later as the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Helix palmicola</span> and var. <span style="font-style: italic;">minor</span> by Mabille in 1898 from Brena Baya. No extant shells were found by Klaus Groh, although sub-fossil shells were, and it was not re-found or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues (K. Groh, pers. com., 2011). There is no published data since 1898.
156326		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
156326		population	eng	There is no information available.
156326		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
156327		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures; only a few subpopulations are situated in protected areas. Protection of the habitat of this species is requested. Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) considered this species as LR/lc (low risk).
156327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is found on La Palma, and widespread in northern part of the island.
156327		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in Laurel forests (Laurisilva) and Fayal-Brezal.</p>
156327		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156327		threats	eng	Wild fires and expansion of housing, road constructions and change of land use are the main threats to this species.
156328		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action in place regarding the species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species.<br/></p>
156328		distribution	eng	<em>Chondrula bergeri</em> belongs to the species widely distributed on the Greek mainland, and the islands of the Greek coast (e.g. Aigina, Evvoia) but not on the Turkish mainland (Heller 1976b). Nevertheless, the species has not been reported from any recent field studies from any part of the&#160;mainland, and thus the exact distribution of the species remains unknown.
156328		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is not known.
156328		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156328		threats	eng	Due the limited knowledge of the ecology of the species, &#160;possible threats cannot be clearly identified.
156329		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Red List for Carinthia (Austria) (1999).<br/>Further research is required to assess the species' population and distribution and to ascertain the level of threat to the species from the exploitation of habitats for tourism. Taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the taxon need addressing.
156329		distribution	eng	The species is found only in the East-Alps in Austria and Italy.
156329		habitat	eng	This species is found on calcareous scree and boulder slopes on the edge of alpine grassland.
156329		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown.
156329		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism  and pasturing. Tourist activities like skiing, hiking, climbing lead  to a serious decline of habitat quality. Another threat to this species is  pasturing that might lead to alteration of the natural vegetation with adverse effects, and the  intensity of land-use is supposed to be stable or even increasing in the  Alps.
156330		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156330		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northwestern part of the island of Tenerife. It is recorded from seven locations and seven sites.<br/></p>
156330		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal) and open rocky habitats.<br/></p>
156330		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156330		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by agriculture (tomato and banana), quarrying, and increasing land-use by urbanisation and road construction.
156331		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. Most of the known sites are out of protected areas. Due to the large extent of occurrence (EOO) there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/></a></p>    <p>&#160;</p>
156331		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southeastern Alps, in the Dinaric Mountains, in the lowlands of the Sava and Drava rivers as far as to the Banat region (Romania) (Alzona 1971, Klemm 1973, Soós 1943, Grossu 1983, Tomic 1959, Fehér and Gubányi 2001, Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983). It has an introduced subpopulation in Germany (Donaustauf), which was not considered in the extent of occurrence (EOO) here. Some authors believed that&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">F. illyrica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. planospira</span>&#160;are synonyms, and therefore many <span style="font-style: italic;">F. planospira</span> records in the literature in fact refer to this species. Fauna Europaea indicates this species is from Greece, however this is based on misidentified material, and the species is not thought to occur in Greece (Subai pers. comm.). There is no information to assess if the area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156331		habitat	eng	According to Kerney <em>et al.</em> (1983) and Soós (1943), this species lives in rocky habitats. In contrast, along the Drava and Danube Rivers, Hungarian, Croatian, Romanian and Serbian populations live in the gallery forest vegetation on the ground among leaf litter. Sometimes they can be found on rocks, however they are not obligate rock dwellers in this area (Subai personal communication; Fehér personal communication).<br/>It is possible that the species has various habitat preferences in different parts of its range, but it is also possible that literature data are incorrect.
156331		population	eng	There is no information on population trend in general although the Hungarian subpopulations are said to be stable (Z. Fehér observation).
156331		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, urbanisation, etc.). Considering the large EOO and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156332		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. There is no recent information available for the species. Field research is therefore required to ascertain the current population size, distribution and to assess the threat from habitat destruction.
156332		distribution	eng	This species is found across the eastern and southern Carpathians, in the Transsylvanian Mountains and in Germany, where it has been introduced to one locality.
156332		habitat	eng	This species is found in moderately humid woodland of lower altitudes.
156332		population	eng	No recent research into the species means the population of <em>Drobacia banatica</em>&#160;is unknown.
156332		threats	eng	The main identified threat to this species is through habitat destruction in the form of logging.
156333		conservation	eng	Each known occurrence of this species is out of protected areas. There is no information on conservation actions related to this species. More research is needed on the population size and on the distribution.
156333		distribution	eng	The known range of this species is disjunct; there are records from Dalmatia (Peljesac peninsula, Korcula island) and from southwestern Italy (near Catanzaro) (Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989).   It is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future within or out of the known range. There is no reason to suppose that the AOO, extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156333		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats.
156333		population	eng	Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156333		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons such as through leaching from waste disposal sites. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.</p>
156334		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria, and the known localities are not in protected areas. More information on the population size and trend is needed.
156334		distribution	eng	This species is known from a very small area in Eastern Bulgaria. According to the collection of the HNHM the following localities are known: Beloslav, Gebedzensko ezero; Nevscha; Beloslav; Razdelna.
156334		habitat	eng	This species prefers dry grassland and rocky habitats.
156334		population	eng	<p>There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156334		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering that inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
156335		conservation	eng	In Switzerland, this species is listed as Endangered, as some sites have  been lost in the Rhone valley, but there are still known from around 40  localities. In Bayern (Germany), it is considered as Critically  Endangered.&#160; Due to the confusion&#160;&#160; with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pupilla pratensis</span>, more research is needed on the population and distribution of this species.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/> </span>
156335		distribution	eng	This is a European endemic that is found in the Alps and extends to Romania. There are uncertainties about the distribution of this species as it has been confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pupilla pratensis</span>.
156335		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mires and wet meadows, grassland enriched meadows and pastureland.
156335		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There are no data available on the population of this species.</span>
156335		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
156336		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and population of this species.
156336		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Palma. It was found at the Barranco de Galga.<br/></p>
156336		habitat	eng	This species is found in the lowland shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156336		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. This species has not been found back since its description (K. Groh, pers. comm., 2011).<br/></p>
156336		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, as it has not been found since its description.
156337		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156337		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, distributed in the central part of the country&#160;(Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).</p>
156337		habitat	eng	<p><em><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</em>species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</p>
156337		population	eng	<p>The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated appears to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156337		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span></p>
156339		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Turkey and In Bulgaria.&#160;No conservation measures are needed for this species.
156339		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bulgaria and Turkey. This species   lives between 0 and 100 m above sea level in Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>. However the &#160;elevation range is much wider in Turkey, where most of the populations live.
156339		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry shrub, weed and steppe vegetation, often on and around limestone rocks.
156339		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156339		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.
156340		conservation	eng	This species is probably present in the Vercors natural reserve and is recorded from the Ventoux protected area, but there are no species-specific conservation actions. More research on taxonomy, population and distribution is needed.
156340		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pre-Alps of France (Grande Chartreuse, Vercors and Mont Ventoux mountains). It is also recorded from northern Italy, but this has to be confirmed. The French subpopulation from Mont Ventoux might be considered as a distinct species rather than a subspecies (currently <span style="font-style: italic;">Urticicola isaricus ventouxianus</span>), but molecular studies are needed.
156340		habitat	eng	This species inhabits exclusively altitudinal calcareous rocky grassland, under rocks.
156340		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156340		threats	eng	Overgrazing and recreational activities are probably affecting the species. Global   warming, by elevating the isotherm lines, might have a impact on the   lower ceiling and thus decreasing the available ecological habitat.
156341		conservation	eng	The habitat of this species and the Jandia peninsula should be protected. Tourist development, as well as the trampling by wild goats should be restricted. More research is needed on the population and distribution of the species, and habitat trends should be monitored. This species is listed as Endangered on the Spanish Red List by Verdu and Galante (2009), but is not on the register of Endangered Species for Canary Islands, so there is no legal protection.
156341		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is only found on the Jandia peninsula on Fuerteventura where it was recorded from 7 of 15x1 km squares surveyed, but the area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 11 km<sup>2</sup>&#160; based of steep slopes that were not surveyed.
156341		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species which occurs on rocky slopes with typical montane vegetation with the species living on stones, in crevices and on crags/walls. &#160;The species lived on lichens.
156341		population	eng	This species is medium-sized and thus these are less susceptible to disturbance by trampling by goats.
156341		threats	eng	The species is threatened by goats trampling. &#160;Future threats from hotel developments and road linkages if the peninsula is developed.
156342		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Romania on a national level, however several know localities lies within protected areas and national parks. The distribution of this species needs to be researched, especially the range into Serbia.
156342		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Romania (south Carpathians and Transilvania) and in southeast Serbia. The data from Serbia are likely a mistake and need to be corroborated.
156342		habitat	eng	This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is  usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks.  However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156342		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species this species can be very abundant.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156342		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of subpopulations, local events does not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156343		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156343		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the north part of Peloponnese (Hausdorf 1995).
156343		habitat	eng	Mainly in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156343		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.</p>
156343		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future
156344		conservation	eng	This species is widely distributed though the north of Spain and therefore no conservation actions are needed.
156344		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and northeast Portugal (Bragança), widely distributed through the central part of the Cantabrian region, north slope, from Sierra de Courel (Lugo) to the western most part of Biscay.
156344		habitat	eng	This species is common in forest, meadows and areas with rocky substrate, in humid places.
156344		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156344		threats	eng	The threats to this species are habitat alteration.
156345		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the islands the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156345		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed on the island of&#160;Ikaria, Fournoi, Samos and Thymaina (Subai 1996).
156345		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156345		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156345		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156346		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Italy.
156346		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Italy: Bergamo, near the villages of Valbona, Rosciano and Ponteranica.
156346		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156346		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to  assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156346		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by  quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total  destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this  threat is mostly hypothetical.
156347		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are needed.
156347		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland.
156347		habitat	eng	This species lives in moderately humid, temperate forest rich in herbs.
156347		population	eng	The size and trends within the subpopulations are believed to be stable.
156347		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156348		conservation	eng	The species is endemic to Antikythira Island, which is a Natura 2000 site (GR3000008).
156348		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Antikythira Island in Greece (Parmakelis 2003).
156348		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in dry shrublands.
156348		population	eng	The species is relatively abundant, however, there is no information regarding the species' population trend.
156348		threats	eng	There is no direct threat to the species at this time. Future potential threats are grazing by livestock and fire.
156349		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently required for this species.
156349		distribution	eng	The current distribution of this species is the western Alps where it is known from south-western France, western Switzerland, north-western Italy. It is also known from the upper Rhine valley from Schaffhausen to near Mainz in Germany. There is an introduced population in Landsberg (Lech).
156349		habitat	eng	This species lives in mixed and deciduous woods and on rocks in woods. It can also be found in pine-forests. Above the timberline, it lives on grassland with stones and rocks which are mainly carbonate.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>
156349		population	eng	<p>There are usually only a few individuals to find where they occur. The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trend. However, the population is thought to be stable.<br/></p>
156349		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any threats to this species.
156351		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156351		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central Pyrenees, in Spain and France.
156351		habitat	eng	This species inhabits karstic areas, living within crevices or under stones, although in humid environments it can be found on the rock surface.
156351		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156351		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156352		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156352		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is distributed in a small part of the Ligurian Alps, very close to the French border. Four of the sites are situated in the Province of Cuneo, near the type locality Limone Piemonte, and the two other in the Province of Imperia in caves.
156352		habitat	eng	It inhabits the high mountain plains, bound to moist biotopes with tall strong herbs, deciduous woodlands on rocky ground; between vegetated boulders; it can also be subterraneous.
156352		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, but population size seems to be quite small.
156352		threats	eng	The species lives in a restricted area in isolated sparse populations. The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism and pasturing. Forest road construction, and tourist activities like skiing, hiking, climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality.
156353		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156353		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It is only known from a single specimen (and is probably subfossil), collected by Fritsch without precise locality data. Until now, there are no further published records for this species known.
156353		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156353		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156353		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156354		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156354		distribution	eng	The species is widespread on La Gomera. This species is recorded from 11 locations and 14 sites.
156354		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), hidden under rocks or burrowed in the soil.</p>
156354		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. However, the population is probably stable ot only slightly decreasing due to threats in the coastal areas in the south of Gomera.<br/></p>
156354		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
156355		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156355		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia (Italy). It occurs only in the calcareous central eastern inland mountains between Oliena, Orosolo, and the valley of the river Flumineddu which comprise the large massif of Sopramonte d'Oliena. A new disjunct occurrance near Orosei has recently been published by Fiorentino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010). This species is recorded from four locations representing four sites.
156355		habitat	eng	This species is a typical rock-dweller on limestone rocks in Mediterranean vegetation types.
156355		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156355		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the road construction, which causes  damage and fragmentation to the habitats. Tourist infrastructures and  recreational activities like rock climbing add to the threats.
156356		conservation	eng	This species is listed as R - extremely rare in the Bavarian Red List (Germany) and as Least Concern in Austria. It is found in protected areas throughout its range. More information about the species distribution is needed.
156356		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Austria, Germany (Bayern), Slovenia, Italy, Bosnia and Hercegowina, and Greece.&#160; It is a European endemic. There are very few sites in Bayern with only two known sites with few individuals.
156356		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf litter in forests and scree; it is a calceophilous species.
156356		population	eng	This species is rare in Germany where it reaches the northern end of its distribution. There it has declined in the last 20 years.<span style="background-color: white;"> In Austria, th</span>e species is known from several localities, <span style="background-color: white;">in Slovenia, it is widespread and quite common and not believed to be threatened.</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
156356		threats	eng	The sites in Bavaria are threatened by tourism as the species sites are frequented by people and also by garbage disposal. One site is right next to a road and an enlargement of that road would threaten this population.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
156357		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156357		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in the Mediterranean region. It is rare in Cyprus and does not occur in the north of Italy. It also lives in Tunisia and Algeria.
156357		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in sandy habitats at beaches  between plants. It is restricted to localities in coastal vicinity and requires  higher temperatures than the other <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlicella </span>species. It lives in large  colonies.
156357		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to     assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156357		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local    sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe    destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,    mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole   population significantly.
156358		conservation	eng	The species is found in some protected areas throughout its range. Research on the population size and trend is recommended as well as potential threats. No conservation actions are required at present.
156358		distribution	eng	The species is known from Italy, France and Switzerland in the south-western Alps from Cottian and Grajian Alps to Lombardian and Ligurian Alps, Valais to Uri and Graubünden.
156358		habitat	eng	<h1 style="margin: 2pt 0in; text-align: left;" align="left">    </h1><h1 style="margin: 2pt 0in; text-align: left;" align="left">    </h1><h1 style="margin: 2pt 0in; text-align: left;" align="left">    </h1><h1 style="margin: 2pt 0in; text-align: left;" align="left">    </h1>The species lives on moist and shaded silicate rocks, often in gorges but also on drywalls. The sites are often near water.
156358		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown, although it is rare in France. There is no data on population trend.
156358		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
156359		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156359		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Europe, widespread in central and eastern Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Netherlands, Poland, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, and United Kingdom. The distribution focus is alpine-Carpathian.
156359		habitat	eng	This is a calciphilic species that lives in temperate forests.
156359		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156359		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156360		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Montenegro. At least a part of the known subpopulations occur within protected areas (e.g. Durmitor National Park in Montenegro).<br/><br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no further conservation actions currently required for this species.
156360		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Bosnia-Hercegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Albania and Macedonia. Some distribution records are given by Urbanski (1970) indicating that this species is relatively frequent within its range. According to Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) it is doubtful if the range extends to South Albania (Tomor Mountains) as well.<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156360		habitat	eng	This species occurs in different habitat types, such as in rocky  habitats (rocky grasslands, rocky shrublands and forests) as well as in  streamside vegetation (tallgrass or gallery forests).
156360		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156360		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ongoing ecosystem modification or other  realistic threats, such as residential and commercial development. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the  complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed  by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large area of extent of occurrence (EOO) and the fact that  various habitat types are preferred by this species, local activities  do not affect the whole population.
156361		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.
156361		distribution	eng	This is a species living in the northernmost areas of Europe. It ranges from Scandinavia, Siberia to Alaska.
156361		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on acidic, moist soils in well vegetated tundra regions and in marshes and wetlands.
156361		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156361		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown.
156362		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156362		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Greece (Macedonia and Thraki), the island of Thasos, the eastern Aegean Islands and the west and south Anatolian coasts in Turkey (Hausdorf 1996).
156362		habitat	eng	<p>This species is usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;4.8 - 8.1 mm and a width of 2.4 - 3.4 mm.</p>
156362		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;The species is quite widespread, known from a large number of localities.&#160;</p>
156362		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156363		conservation	eng	The species is possibly not protected at national level in Italy.
156363		distribution	eng	The species lives in Italy (Sicily). According to Kokshoorn and Gittenberger (2010) the type locality is Italy, Sicily, Galdo mountain. The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">R.homala massae</span> is the Cófano mountain, at the castle, province of Trápani and that of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. homala falkneri</span>&#160; is Termini, near the road to Caccamo.
156363		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156363		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to     assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156363		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons.
156364		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156364		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro. It was described from a single specimen without precise locality data. This species has probably not been found again since its description, there are no published records.
156364		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156364		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156364		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156365		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action in place for this species. However, it occurs in the core area of the Pyrenees National Park.
156365		distribution	eng	This species is&#160; restricted to a small area across the French and Spanish border, in the Western Pyrenees.
156365		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156365		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156365		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect it.
156366		conservation	eng	Conservation recommendations should be based on preserving the localities where the species is present, as well as to more accurately define its area of occupancy and subpopulation sizes. A large part of the locations are largely within areas managed by Regional Natural Reserves. It is also necessary to conduct studies about its biology.
156366		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted to the higher altitudes (above <st1:metricconverter productid="2.000 m" w:st="on">2,000 m</st1:metricconverter>) in the central <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>. A. Bertrand (pers. comm. 2010) indicates that it also lives in the department of Pyrénées-Orientales.
156366		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on calcareous rocks, in crevices and under stones above <st1:metricconverter productid="2.000 m" w:st="on">2,000 m</st1:metricconverter> of altitude.
156366		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156366		threats	eng	Global warming can be a main threat for this cold-adapted species.
156367		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, but most of the area is in protected&#160; areas. Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) suggested this species was at low risk of extinction.
156367		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is found on La Palma, scattered on the eastern slopes and inside of the Caldeira as well as in a few locations in the southern part of the island.
156367		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly on pine forests and lowland zones.
156367		population	eng	This species has possibly been impacted by recent wild-fires which affected this zone in the last 10 years. The subpopulations are scattered, but widespread on the Island of La Palma.
156367		threats	eng	The major threats are from increased frequency and intensity of wild-fires which have been through this zone in the last 10 years, as well as logging.
156368		conservation	eng	The goats have been removed from Deserta Grande, which will allow the stabilisation of the vegetation and gradual return to past vegetation on the slopes. Hence the species is still considered as possibly extinct, until further data shows the recovery of the vegetation has not lead to recovery of the species. Further work on rehabilitation of the plant communities on the islands are ongoing, and this may benefit the land-snail populations.
156368		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands. It is known from the northern end of Deserta Grande, where it was recorded by Groh and Hemmen (1986), but not refound by Cameron and Cook (1999). The species has had a similar distribution for over 100 years (Wollaston 1878).
156368		habitat	eng	This species was originally described as living amongst lichen growing on rocks (Seddon 2008).
156368		population	eng	There are no records for over 40 years.
156368		threats	eng	Currently overgrazing by introduced goats has been reduced, but it originally caused ground instability and erosion  which covers the entire island. The vegetation is gradually recovering.
156369		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine whether the species is till stable, and a habitat management plan will be required for the areas under fire damage which includes this species as the species still has a restricted range. Habitat monitoring would benefit this species, as it is close to meeting  the threatened species criteria, and as a semi-slug species it is more  vulnerable to changes in microc-climate, especially humidity.&#160; The  species is found in Natura 2000 and UNESCO sites for "Laurisilva of  Madeira', a Special Protected Area in the interior of Madeira.
156369		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is found on the main island of Madeira only, mainly in the intermediate zones in central Madeira (Seddon 2008).
156369		habitat	eng	<p>This is one of the larger of the Madeiran <span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia</span>. The species is very variable in colour, but usually varies from pinky-brown with dark blotches to orange- brown, but is well camouflaged on the ground on leaves, mosses and trunks of trees, in Laurisilva forests. </p>
156369		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
156369		threats	eng	<p>The habitat quality is not declining at present throughout these regions, although localised decline are due to changing forest type, outside the protected areas.</p>
156370		conservation	eng	This species is considered threatened (at very local scales) in Austria, Switzerland and Germany.
156370		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe. In Scandinavia it is found up to 63°N, and to the east towards the Baikal Region (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).<br/>It is also known from the eastern part of the Anatolian plateau in Turkey.
156370		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in wetlands, marshes, fens, reed beds and hillside flushes. It can be found in ground litter bordering ground water around fens, occasionally in dune slacks.
156370		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156370		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the drainage of marshes, fens and wetland areas.
156371		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156371		distribution	eng	This is a mainly east European element reaching the Ukraine, quite common in Hungary. It is recorded from Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine. In Germany, the natural population is extinct and there is one introduced population in Bayern.
156371		habitat	eng	This is a thermophilic species inhabiting usually open warm shrub vegetation, preferably on sheltered southwards exposed slopes and valleys.
156371		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within most of&#160; the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.</p>
156371		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.</p>
156372		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered in Germany. This is mainly due to habitat loss.
156372		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe. It is recorded from Albania, Andorra, Austria,&#160; Bulgaria,&#160; Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine.<br/><br/>It is also known from Turkey, the Caucasus to inner Asia.
156372		habitat	eng	This is a thermophilic species, which lives on open grassland in an rocky environment of limestone.
156372		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156372		threats	eng	There are actually no threats to this species. Quarrying might impact some parts of its range, but it is unlikely that a threat would affect the whole range or population of this species.
156373		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156373		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete and it is distributed in the&#160;south-eastern&#160;part of the island&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156373		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).&#160;</p>
156373		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156373		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"> </span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156374		conservation	eng	The occurrences in the Monte Pollino massif are situated in the Parco nazionale del Pollino.
156374		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy where it is known from an extent of occurrence of 12,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an AOO of 24 km<sup>2</sup>. Over a considerable time span, the only known localities of this species have been the Monte Pollino, Calabrian slope (type locality: Passo del Colle del Dragone), Lagonero and Monte Sirino in Basilicata and the Monte Autore (Monti Simbruini) in Latium (Manganelli and Giusti 1988). Two new sites have been detected by A. Hallgass in the Antiappenino laziale: Monte Semprevisa (1,536 m asl) in the Monti Lepini and Monte Petrella (1,533 m asl) in the Monti Aurunci (A. Hallgass pers. comm. 2011). The distribution area is fragmented.
156374		habitat	eng	The species is found on the Monte Pollino at 1,600-1,900 m asl. It lives between rocks on small grasslands patches with plantain and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sempervivum tectorum</span>. This is a species of the alpine summit area of larger mountains.
156374		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156374		threats	eng	Tourist activities like skiing, hiking, climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality. Another threat to this species is pasturing that might lead to alteration of the natural vegetation.
156375		conservation	eng	Due to its large distribution area, several subpopulations may inhabit protected areas.
156375		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Balkans and Turkey to the southern Crimea and Israel.
156375		habitat	eng	The species lives on limestone habitats.
156375		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason  to      assume that  the population is unstable or extremely  fluctuating.
156375		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by     quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total     destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this     threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
156376		conservation	eng	&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
156376		distribution	eng	Puente (1994), who compiled all the&#160;bibliographical&#160;Iberian records for this species, referred to only two localities: Gibraltar and Tarifa (Cádiz), both in the south of Spain. After the last record in Tarifa (Ortiz de Zárate 1962), it has never been found again. Menez (2005) did not find it after&#160;his&#160;intensive&#160;samplings in Gibraltar during the last years (he only found&#160;<em>O. calpeana</em>). Arrébola (1995), Menez (2008) and Arrébola (in Verdú and Galante 2009) have not found it either in Tarifa and its surroundings despite their sampling efforts. As a result, this species classified as Endangered in the Red List of Andalusian Invertebrates Species by Arrébola and Ruiz (2008) and was later discarded from the Iberian mollusc fauna by&#160;Arrébola (in Verdú and Galante 2009, pag. 46), arguing that it only had an ephemeral and scarce presence in Tarifa and subsequently disappeared (probably also forced by the competition with&#160;<em>O. tarnieri,</em>&#160;very abundant in that area) and that it was surely introduced from Morocco (exchanges between this country and Spain across the Strait of Gibraltar happen every day).
156376		habitat	eng	According to Ortiz de Zárate (1962), it lives in humid lands.
156376		population	eng	There is no population information.
156376		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156377		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place, but monitoring of all subpopulations is recommended.
156377		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic to the northern León province, Spain.
156377		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountains in grasslands, walls, ruderal habitats, rocky areas and  the riparian forest.
156377		population	eng	There are is population data regarding this species. No observed, estimated or projected conclusions can be made regarding this species.
156377		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fires, urban development, road construction, floods (caused by rising river levels) and farming.
156378		conservation	eng	The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.
156378		distribution	eng	Endemic to Europe: This species is endemic to Canary Islands, northeastern part of Tenerife in the middle altitude level in the Anaga mountains.
156378		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156378		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156378		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known.
156379		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156379		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It was described  from three specimens from a small area in the north (type locality: Las Palmas). This species has  probably not been found again since its description, there are no published  records.
156379		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156379		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156379		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156380		conservation	eng	In Switzerland, it is classed as Vulnerable (VU) on the national Red List (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Information on the population size and trend in Italy is required.
156380		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the southern Alps where it is found in Italy and Switzerland. Current distribution information shows this species to be found from the north-west of Torino to Lago di Como and the Monte Rosa region, up to 1,400 m asl (Girod, 1968). There have also been fossil finds in the north-western Alps. The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy is under 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
156380		habitat	eng	The species lives in deciduous forests in the leaf litter or on dead wood under the bark. It is found more on carbonate stone than on silicate.
156380		population	eng	<p>The population seems to be quite abundant but there is little data available. A slight decline has been measured in Switzerland but the trend in Italy is not known.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156380		threats	eng	There are no known threats. In Switzerland, the causes of the population decline are not understood, but one reason could be the logging of the forests intensifying.
156381		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Romania, however several known sub-populations are found in protected areas (eg. the Bucegi National Park).
156381		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern and southeastern Carpathian mountains in Romania (Fehér <em>et al</em>. 2009).
156381		habitat	eng	This species prefers coniferous and mixed forests with wet stream banks with dense vegatation.
156381		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156381		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156382		conservation	eng	The species is assessed as Least Concern (LC) in the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz&#160; 2007).<br/><br/>Research into any potential threats to the species are recommended. However, there are no conservation actions currently required.
156382		distribution	eng	The species is extant in sub-alpine areas of Austria, Croatia, Italy and Slovenia. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
156382		habitat	eng	This is a sub-alpine species and can be found on woodland edges in tall herbs.
156382		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trends.
156382		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown at present.
156383		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156383		distribution	eng	The species is known to be distributed in south-eastern Europe. According to Fauna Europaea the species is present in&#160;Albania, Greece, many countries of former&#160;Yugoslavia. The species is also reported from Romania.&#160;<em>Monacha frequens</em> has also been reported from Bulgaria, but according to Irikov (2008) and Feher and Eross (2009), the species is not present.
156383		habitat	eng	The species is met in a variety of open habitats and in different vegetation types.
156383		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156383		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156384		conservation	eng	Survey on the impact of rodents on adult populations as well as control of rodents are recommended.
156384		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where is only found on Porto Santo on the hills at the eastern end of the island, but where it is abundant (Seddon 2008).
156384		habitat	eng	This species is usually found besides and under rocks on grassland slopes.
156384		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, however the species was recorded as local but abundant in 1980-1990's (Seddon 2008).
156384		threats	eng	The habitat has been subject to changing land-use practice, and as such the quality of the habitat has declined over the last thirty years (Seddon 2008) and the species is vulnerable to predation by small rodents.
156385		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected  at a national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known  sites are out of protected areas.<br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></a>
156385		distribution	eng	The type locality of the nominate subspecies is: "Salurn in Südtirol" (Italy).&#160;This species is distributed from the southeastern Alps (Trentino-Alto Adige, Dolomiti, Prealpi Venete, Karnten, Juli Alps) to southern Albania along the Adriatic coast (Alzona 1971, Bole 1995, Klemm 1939, Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996) and the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. subdola brabeneci</span>&#160;has an isolated occurrence in the Rhodope Mountains Bulgaria (Irikov and Erőss 2008). In the Mollusc collection of HNHM, there are <span style="font-style: italic;">P. subdola</span>&#160;records from around 30 locations in Italy, Austria, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania and Bulgaria, but this probably underestimates the real number or locations/subpopulations. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.<br/><br/>The species is also recorded from the Ligurian Alps in Italy and from Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Hautes-Alpes in France (Gargominy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
156385		habitat	eng	This species prefers rocky habitats in limestone areas where it is  usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks.  However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156385		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species is relatively rare within its range. Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156385		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other  realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the  complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying,  earthquakes, etc.). Considering its extent of occurrence (EOO) and the fact that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is  only a hypothetical threat at present.
156386		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Slovenia. In Croatia the subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. cincta</span><em> elegans</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. cincta melanotica</span> are protected. It is probable that several subpopulations live within protected areas. Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156386		distribution	eng	,According to Schütt (1996) this species is distributed in northern Italy, the Balkans, the Aegian Islands, western and southern Anatolia as far as to Lebanon. Fauna Europea describes this species only from Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Serbia and Albania.&#160;The Albanian occurrence needs confirmation (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996, Fehér and Erőss 2009). Serbian and Macedonian distribution records (Hilendar, Dojran) are provided by Tomic (1959) but need serious re-examination. In spite of this, according to Stankovic <em>et al</em>. (2006) this species does not live in FYROM (former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia). In Croatia it lives only in the coastal zone (Soós 1943).
156386		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in different habitat types, such as in rocky habitats (rocky grasslands, rocky shrublands and forests) as well as in streamside vegetations (tallgrass or gallery forests). According to Schütt (1996) this species lives in humid and lowland areas influenced by marine climates.<br/></p>
156386		population	eng	<p>This species is relatively abundant within its range.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156386		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ongoing ecosystem modification or other realistic threats, such as through residential and commercial development. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). However, considering the large extent of occurrence and the fact that various habitat types are preferred by this species, local activities do not affect the whole population.</p>
156387		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156387		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present on the eastern coast of Spain, including Mallorca, Andorra and the Mediterranean coast of France, including Corsica.
156387		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, mainly in Mediterranean shrubland.
156387		population	eng	This species is common and the population trend is thought to be stable
156387		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
156388		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs. Most of the known sites are outside of protected areas. This species does not require conservation actions at this time.<br/></p>
156388		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Bosnia, northern Montenegro and central Serbia. There are some known occurrences also in the Banat region of Romania which seem to be somewhat isolated from the main area. Fauna Europaea indicates that this species is also from Macedonia.<br/>Published distribution records include Grossu (1983) and Tomic (1959). This species seems to be abundant, as in the HNHM Mollusc Collection there are records from around 40 different locations, which might underestimate the number of existing subpopulations. <br/>    <p>There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156388		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156388		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156388		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the large number of existing subpopulations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>
156390		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156390		distribution	eng	This species is restricted in France (Pyrenees-Orientales) and in Spain (Catalonia).
156390		habitat	eng	This species inhabits karstic areas, living within crevices or under stones, although in humid environments it can be found on the rock surface.
156390		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156390		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156391		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156391		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Europe. It has a large distribution in Central Europe from the Central European Mittelgebirge to the northern Pre-Alps, and disjunct from this area south of the Alps in Italy from Lombardia to Southern Tuscany and the&#160; the Balkan countries Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegowina, and Yugoslawia are listed (Austria, Bosnia Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, France mainland, Germany, Italian mainland, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Switzerland, Yugoslavia).
156391		habitat	eng	This species lives in leaf litter in half open biotopes, in mosses, under broad-leafed herbs, alluvial woodlands and stands of tall strong herbs; the species is bound to a constant humidity in temperate woods.
156391		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, but are supposed to be stable. The species is actually spreading by anthropochorus dispersal.
156391		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156392		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
156392		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern La Gomera in the area of San Sebastian. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. quadricincta quadricincta</span> is known from the lowlands and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. quadricincta subaucta</span> Wollaston, 1878 from higher elevations on the south-eastern slope of Cumbre. Neiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) found it from the same region (Las casetas and Lomo de las Nieves) and give detailed genetic analysis of these two specimens. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) features specimens from Alajeró. Also, Klaus Groh found several sites around San Sebastian. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 60 km² and the extent of occurrence is thought to be less than 20 km².
156392		habitat	eng	This species is known from temperate shrubland areas (Piso basal).
156392		population	eng	The population is presumed to be stable.
156392		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the increased urbanisation of San Sebastian.
156393		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation actions.
156393		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gran Canaria&#160;where it is widespread and common in a range of different habitats and altitudes. It is found at several locations with many sites. AOO is estimated to be greater than 300 km².
156393		habitat	eng	It is found in a range of different habitats from Piso basal to the local pine forests (Pinar).
156393		population	eng	A common species, population trend is believed to be stable.
156393		threats	eng	Although there may be some localised impacts in cultivated and inhabited areas, these are not considered to be threats to the species.
156394		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas i on its region of distribution <span class="apple-style-span">included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156394		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Aegean Sea (Greece), located at the islands of Kasos, Karpathos and Saria (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156394		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This species is usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;5.8 - 7.6 mm and a width of 2.6 - 2.8 mm.
156394		population	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;&#160;The species is known from a number of locations on the islands distributed in the Aegean Sea (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p></span>
156394		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156395		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and population size of this species.
156395		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Crimean Mountains, in Ukraine.
156395		habitat	eng	This molluscs is living in cracks in rocks and under calcareous plates.
156395		population	eng	The population of this species is thought to be stable.
156395		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are unknown.
156396		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at a national level in Slovakia, Poland or Hungary. Some subpopulations are known to live within protected areas such as Zemplén TVK in Hungary. However, no conservation actions are currently required for this species.
156396		distribution	eng	This species is primarily distributed in the northern Carpathians (Lisicky 1991). However, its range extends to south-eastern Germany (Schniebs and Reise 1997), Niederösterreich and Vienna Basin (Austria) (Klemm 1973) and southern Poland (Wiktor 2004). In Hungary it lives in the Medves and Zemplén Mountains (Pintér and Suara 2004). In the Ukraine, there is one published record in Soós (1943): Körösmező [=Jaszinya] and there are two further lots in the HNHM Mollusc Collection (unpublished): Lonka and Munkacevo. According to Soós (1943) there is only one record in the territory of the present Romania: Borszék [=Borsec], however, Grossu (1983) believes that its Romanian occurrence is doubtful. Currently, there is no evidence that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the  number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156396		habitat	eng	<p>This is a silvicol species which if found in a relatively wide habitat range. It occurs in forests or on the edge of forests where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter and decaying dead wood, or among the tallgrass vegetation along creeksides.<br/></p>  <h1>&#160;</h1>
156396		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156396		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests such as from recreational activities are the main threats to this species, as is residential and commercial development. However, considering the relatively large geographical range of this species, local logging or recreational activities do not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156397		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156397		distribution	eng	This species is a local endemic species to Lanzarote. It is only known from the Isthmus de la Pared. Living specimens are only known from an area of occupancy of four km<sup>2</sup>.
156397		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on sand dunes with meagre grass vegetation.
156397		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on on the population size or trend of this species. However, there is only one population known with living specimens, all other records come from fossil sites.<br/></p>
156397		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156398		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions required.
156398		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cernuella cisalpina</span> is a European Mediterranean endemic. It has been introduced to Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.&#160;In Europe, the species has many synonyms and has been confused with other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cernuella</span> in particular with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cernuella virgata</span>. This species is distributed by cars where it attaches to the car and then gets transported widely.
156398		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in dry soil habitats with few vegetation, also in cultivated regions.
156398		population	eng	The population trend is thought to be stable.
156398		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole   population significantly.
156399		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156399		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Europe (alpine and Carpathian distribution) , and is locally abundant. Its main distribution is area is in&#160; Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, and Slovak Republic. Some subpopulations are also recorded from the border areas of these countries: Poland, France, Germany, Liechtenstein,&#160; Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, and the Ukraine.
156399		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fir forests in the mountains, often on slightly acidic soils.
156399		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.</p>
156399		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.</p>
156400		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is reported from three Natura 2000 sites in Cyprus (see http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/). There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156400		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Bank and Neubert 1998).
156400		habitat	eng	This is a soil-dwelling species found under stones and under shrubs, mainly in open, xeric habitats.
156400		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite common (Bank and Hovestadt 1991). There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156400		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156401		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level. It is protected in Israel however, where all mollusc species are protected. Due to the very big distribution of the species it is likely that several  sub-populations inhabit protected or inaccessible habitats, and the locations where the species live is not under pressure of human activity.
156401		distribution	eng	The species lives in a very large area from Israel to Lebanon and Syria to Turkey (Schütt 2001), and western Bulgaria (Damjanov and Likharev 1975) as well as in southern Romania (Grossu 1986).&#160;This species lives between 0 and 300 m above sea level is Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>, however this range can be  wider in Turkey.
156401		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found in the crevices, under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks.</p>
156401		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>  <p></p>
156401		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events does not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156402		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156402		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to and widespread in Europe. It is recorded from Andorra, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Moldova, Republic of, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine.According to&#160;Kantor et al (2009), this species is also found in the&#160;East-European Plain to 61° N in the north, to the Black and Caspian seas  in the south, to left bank of the Volga in the east; isolated findings &#160;are recorded from the Ural (Belaya River basin and vicinities of Ekaterinburg).
156402		habitat	eng	This species is known from hedgerows and temperate shrublands and forests, and also from open rocky areas.
156402		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156402		threats	eng	There are actually no threats to this species.
156403		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs, however some of the known subpopulations occur within protected areas.</p><p>Due to the large and stable population there are no further conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></p>
156403		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the northern part of Balkan Peninsula and extends to the Pannonian and the Carpathian biogeographical regions too.<br/>The borders of its range are the Mecsek Mountains&#160;(Hungary), Apuseni Mountains and the Southern Carpathians (Romania) and the Crni Drin vally (Makedonia) in the South. Although Boeters <em>et al</em>. (1989) indicate that this species is from Croatia (Jasenovac, cit: Tomic (1959)), this record might refer to another Jasenovac, probably in Serbia and therefore the Croatian occurrence of this species needs confirmation.    <p>Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156403		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.
156403		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, and there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156403		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely and therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156404		conservation	eng	More information on population status, distribution and threats is needed.
156404		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Madeiran islands. Wollaston (1878) noted that it was only known from sub-fossil deposits on Madeira. However, Hutterer and Groh (1993) reported that Anton de Winter has recorded the species living at Ribeira do Curral between Fajã de Dentro and Fajã.
156404		habitat	eng	Based on other species in this genus, the species is likely to be found in leaf-litter debris on rock ledges and beneath bushes, however very few living records of this species, and requires leaf-litter sieving techniques to find the species.
156404		population	eng	The population status of this species is uncertain, as most shells are subfossil.
156404		threats	eng	The threats are uncertain, as current distribution is poorly known, as most records are subfossil&#160; shells, and other non-native species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Truncatellina</span> are suspected to be present on Madeira (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006; Seddon 2008).
156405		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156405		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. clausoinflata</span> is found in the Canary Islands. It was desribed by Mousson from Fuerteventura and Tenerife, but is only confirmed for the latter island, where it is supposed to occur probably in a small area on the Jandia penisula (Greve <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)
156405		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156405		population	eng	There are no data on the population size or trend.
156405		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species.
156406		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are currently required.
156406		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central Europe, and locally abundant. It has been recorded from Austria, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein&#160; and Switzerland . It is mainly of an alpine distribution.
156406		habitat	eng	This species lives in moist alpine forests.
156406		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
156406		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156407		conservation	eng	Due to the lack of data, research into the species' distribution, population trends and potential threats is required. Taxonomic revision of the species is also required.
156407		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy, there is one recent finding from Capocaccia (Sassari) reported in naturamediterraneo (www.naturamediterraneo.com).
156407		habitat	eng	The species is known from the herbaceous layer in open, dry biotopes&#160; in mediterranean shrub vegetion.
156407		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trend. However, a recent finding from Capocaccia (Sassari) is reported in Natura Mediterraneo.
156407		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
156408		conservation	eng	Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.
156408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal, where it is recorded from the southern parts of the country.
156408		habitat	eng	This species lives in Mediterranean shrubland and prefers limestone areas. It inhabits stone walls and crevices of larger boulders.
156408		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. However, most subpopulations known have ususally many mature specimens (Kittel, pers. comm., 2011).
156408		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species.
156409		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. Distributional and population data are needed to distinguish between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerosecta introducta.</span>
156409		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is found in the South-East and in Corsica. Fauna Europaea v2.3 (Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006) lists this species from Belgium, as it has been introduced there and is now naturalized (Marquet 1985).
156409		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Mediterranean to sub-alpine calcareous grassland and shrubland.
156409		population	eng	There are no population data available, but it is thought to be stable.
156409		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Fires might be a potential threat locally.
156410		conservation	eng	No data are available.
156410		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gran Canaria. It was described in 1839 and later given several synonyms by Mabille in 1882 and 1883. The last published reference is by Odhner (1932), who describes it to be not rare in the middle heights of Gran Canaria.&#160;The species was not refound or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues, nor found by K. Groh (K. Groh, pers. comm., 2011). Fresh shells are offered by shell dealers such as Femorale in Brazil and Shell Auction in Italy, so apparently living populations of this species still exist, but no data are available.
156410		habitat	eng	No data are available.
156410		population	eng	No data are available.
156410		threats	eng	No data are available.
156411		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are out of protected areas.</p>However, due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156411		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Croatia, Montenegro and Herzegovina. There are over 200 known locations (Subai 2002).  <p>&#160;</p>
156411		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156411		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not seem to be rare. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156411		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitats (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156412		conservation	eng	The species is only known to be protected at a national level in Hungary, although some other&#160;known subpopulations live within protected sites such as Retezat National Park in Romania. Due to the large extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and population there are no conservation actions required for this species at this time.
156412		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern and Southern Carpathians, from southeastern Poland to the Banat region. There are several known locations (Wiktor 2004, Soós 1943, Lisicky 1991, Grossu 1983, Fehér and Gubányi 2001, Kerney<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1983) and there is no evidence that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations  are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156412		habitat	eng	This is a silvicol species with a preference for humid, deciduous forests which are relatively ancient and untouched by humans. It lives on the   ground among leaf-litter, under stones or decaying dead wood.
156412		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. However, due to its special habitat preference, the population is  fragmented.  The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and there  are no data  on population trend. However, forest habitats are known to be diminishing in some regions and therefore one might suppose that number of  subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are declining.</p>
156412		threats	eng	Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this  species. However, considering the relatively large geographial range of  this species, local logging or recreational activities do not affect  the whole population significantly.
156413		conservation	eng	Most populations of this species occur within the Mercantour National Park, and the park managers are aware about this. However there are no specific conservation actions taken. Taxonomic studies are needed to know if all the populations belong to the same taxonomic unit.
156413		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the mountain summits of the southern Alps in France (Alpes-Maritimes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence) with few localities in Italy just across the border.
156413		habitat	eng	This species lives in open, stabilised scree moderately colonised with alpine plants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dryas octopetala </span>L.), exclusively on limestone mountain summit above altitude of 1900 m.
156413		population	eng	There are no demographic studies for this species but where it occurs, it is common and the populations are thought to be stable.
156413		threats	eng	This species apparently does not face any special threats. Global warming, by elevating the isotherm lines, might have a impact on the lower ceiling and thus decreasing the available ecological habitat. Overgrazing by sheep is also a potential threat.
156414		conservation	eng	The species is not protected. Due to the large range of the species it is likely that several sub-populations inhabit protected and &#160;inaccessable habitats.
156414		distribution	eng	This species in known from Croatia and Bosnia to the Republic of Makedonija and Greece (www.animalbase.org) as well as in Albania (<a href="http://www.nhmus.hu/modules/Kutatasok/Balkan/pdf/feher_eross_2009_schriften25_22_38.pdf">Fehér and Erőss 2009).</a>
156414		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks.</p>
156414		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156414		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering that it inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
156415		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where occurs and most of the known sites are out of protected areas.</p>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
156415		distribution	eng	The main range of this species involves the Montenegrian coastal region from the southernmost part of Croatia to the Tarabosh Mt. in Albania. There is one remote occurrence in Kosovo at the Beli Drin Spring (not considered when the extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated due to its remoteness).<br/>The two subspecies have distinct, but somewhat overlapping ranges; in the northern part mainly the nominate form lives, whereas in the southern part it seems to be mainly <em>C. hoffmanni </em><span style="font-style: italic;">walteri</span>.<br/>    <p>There are more than 50 known locations, but this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently there is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156415		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156415		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156415		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156416		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action in place. More research is needed on the threats.
156416		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Italy (Sardinia, Sicily and mainland). It is introduced in the south of France.
156416		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species, in coastal areas.
156416		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the trends are thought to be stable.
156416		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. Urbanization is a possible threat.
156418		conservation	eng	Biokovo is a protected area. Nevertheless, there is no specific conservation measure in place. Monitoring of the population is needed.
156418		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia where it is known from the Mosor and Biokovo mountains. It is present in six sites, in three UTM squares (10 x 10 km) and has an extent of occurrence of 40 km<sup>2</sup>.
156418		habitat	eng	This species lives at high altitude (mostly above 1,700 m asl), in the beech forests and above the tree limit. This species is a habitat specialist.
156418		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
156418		threats	eng	Deforestation can impact this species on some parts of its range. Climate change may also be an important risk for this high altitude specialist in the future. However, currently, there are no major threats impacting the entire range of the species.
156419		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156419		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, reported from various areas of the island (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156419		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.</p>
156419		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156419		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156420		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
156420		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the caldera and its slopes on the island of Tenerife.<br/></p>
156420		habitat	eng	This species lives in high altitudes in the dwarf-shrub vegetation in the caldera.
156420		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156420		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156422		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Albania. Some of the known subpopulations live within protected areas such as those in the Oroshi area in Park Kombetar Bjeshka e Oroshit. The systematic position of this species in terms of its relation to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. cephalonicus</span>&#160;is not absolutely clear and this should be clarified first.</p>
156422		distribution	eng	This species lives within a relatively narrow range in northern and central Albania. It is expected that this species does not occur in southern Albania, as records of Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) refer partly to another species, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. cephalonicus</span>. Published locations: "Mali Sheit bei Oroshi" (type locality of <em>N. merditanus </em><span style="font-style: italic;">merditanus</span>), "Zebiagebirge bei Fandi" (type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. merditanus zebianus</span>), "Munelagebirge bei Oroshi" (type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. merditanus latifianus</span>) and "Fandi bei Oroshi" (type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. merditanus winneguthi</span>). Further distribution records: Bisak, Klos, Ndershene, Nanshene, Bicaj, Bushtrice, Qafa e Murres, 11 km West of Ulez, Kurbnesh, Krej-Lure, Draj-Rec, Zall-Rec (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished data). These records indicate that its range is larger than was previously believed,  and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156422		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156422		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored,&#160; there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156422		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the number of known subpopulations, local activities do not seem to affect the whole population.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156423		conservation	eng	The sites in the Parco Nazionale della Maiella and in the Parco Nazionale delle Abbruzzi are protected; the Gole del Sagittario is a nature reserve.
156423		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy (Abruzzi). The species and its forms are distributed over the Maiella massif and the Montagne del Morrone (type locality: Monte Morrone) in the Parco Nazionale della Maiella, nearly on all high mountains of the Parco Nazionale d'Abbruzzo, and on the summits between the two parks. <span style="font-style: italic;">C.</span> [<span style="font-style: italic;">grovesiana</span>] <span style="font-style: italic;">scissa </span>is a very localised summit form which occurs above 2,700 m on the Monte Amaro (Maiella massif), surrounded by typical <span style="font-style: italic;">C. grovesiana</span>. Special forms are known from the Monte Marsicano (1,950 m), and from the Gole del Sagittario (Alzona and Alzona Bisacchi 1938).
156423		habitat	eng	The species is confined to calcareous biotopes and lives on rocky grassland and sparsely vegetated scree in the sub-alpine and alpine zones up to the summit region.
156423		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size, but the trend within the sub-population is decreasing (Hallgass pers. observ.). There has been a remarkable decline in population densities observed over the last two  decades, and apparently caused by a general climatic desiccation.
156423		threats	eng	The main actual threat to the species seems to be a remarkable decline in population densities observed over the last two decades, and apparently caused by a general climatic desiccation. Another threat, even in the national parks, is from tourism and pasturing. Tourist activities like skiing, hiking, climbing lead to a serious decline of biotope quality and pasturing might lead to alteration of the natural vegetation with adverse effects, and the intensity of land-use is supposed to be stable or even increasing in the Apennines.
156425		conservation	eng	In the past the major threat was from forest management and habitat degradation, but now the forest is protected and managed. However, the species is vulnerable to changing forest management practices. These should incorporate elements specific to the conservation of the species and habitat restoration is encouraged. &#160;Monitoring long-terms trends in habitat change and the species are required.
156425		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single location, Osorio, in the lowland forest on Gran Canaria. It was originally recorded by Lowe and confirmed by Wollaston (1878), with recent records from the 1990's (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
156425		habitat	eng	This species is only known from the degraded lowland laurisilva forest on Gran Canaria (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
156425		population	eng	<p>Only 12 specimens were detected between 1870 and today. Therefore it is not possible to give a population trend.<br/></p>
156425		threats	eng	In the past the major threat was from forest management and habitat degradation, but now, there is low impact (no use of the forest anymore), with the remaining risk from fires.
156426		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156426		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean area. For Europe, it is recorded from Albania, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Gibraltar, Greece, Italy, Portugal,&#160; Spain.<br/><br/>It is also known from Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. It is also recorded from the Mediterranean parts of Turkey.
156426		habitat	eng	This is a thermophilic species. It is known from Mediterranean shrubland, particularly from degraded areas with short grass (Garigue). It also can be found in crevices of calcareous rocks.
156426		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156426		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
156427		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in Cyprus&#160;included in various protection schemes (e.g. three Natura 2000 sites; http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/), there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156427		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Bank & Hovestadt 1991).
156427		habitat	eng	The species is quite common in most the island's area, especially in the coastal ones. This species is found in dry shrubland habitat.<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156427		population	eng	The species is quite common in most the island's area, especially in the coastal ones.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156427		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156428		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156428		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Ustica (Italy) off Sicily. This species is recorded from one location and one site.
156428		habitat	eng	This species lives in open and sparsely vegetated biotopes with typical Mediterranean macchia plants on volcanic substrate near the coast.
156428		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156428		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is reduction of the available habitat by increasing land use like housing areas, etc.
156429		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156429		distribution	eng	The species is known from mainly from the Balkan&#160;Peninsula;&#160;&#160;Greece, Albania, Macedonia the &#160;former Yugoslav Republic, Bulgaria, Romania,&#160;Montenegro and the European part of Turkey. It is also reported from south Italy (Schütt 2001, Irikov and Mollov 2006, Dhora 2009, Hubenov 2007, Fehér and Eross 2009).<br/>This species is currently under revision, and some records my prove to be erroneous, particularly records from Italy and Albania (Subai, pers. comm. 2011).
156429		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in open habitat within forest and shrublands.
156429		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156429		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.&#160;</p>
156430		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Macedonia. Some of the subpopulations live in protected areas such as Galicica National Park, Pelister National Park and Mavrovo National Park. The geographic range and especially the taxonomy of this species is not exactly known, therefore, research activity should focus on that. No conservation actions are currently required for this species.</p>
156430		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Skopje. There are two further published distribution records in Macedonia: East of Prilep and Trkanje valley (Roding 1966). Fauna Europaea indicates this species from Serbia and Montenegro as  well. According to Stankovic<em> et al.</em> (2006) there are voucher specimens in the Natural History Museum of Skopje. According to E. Stojkoska (personal communication) this species is not rare in Macedonia and it was collected in several locations in the surroundings of Skopje, on the lowland in the Vardar Valley and Pelagonija Valley and also in the mountains (Bistra, Galicica, Belasica, etc.) to the altitude of 1600 m and there is also material from the Moraca valley (East Stojkoska, pers. comm.). In the light of the fact that this species was not reported from the neighbouring countries (Tomic 1959, Irikov 2008) its frequency is dubious and questions the reliability of the faunistic records as well as the area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) calculation. Therefore the extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated only on the basis of published records. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156430		habitat	eng	According to Stojkoska (pers. comm.) this species inhabits grasslands, as well as rocky habitats in the mountains.
156430		population	eng	There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156430		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation, but considering the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the number of known subpopulations, local activities do not seem to affect the whole population.
156431		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.
156431		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. Up to today the species has been&#160;anatomically confirmed from a number of islands of Kyklades and East Aegean Islands (Ikaria, Kinaros, Astypalaia with its surrounding islets, and Anafi (Hausdorf 2003, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156431		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in many of the vegetation types of the region and is significantly favoured by human activities (e.g. cultivations) (Mylonas 1982, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).</p>
156431		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156431		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.</p>
156432		conservation	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas on Thasos under various protection schemes (e.g Natura 2000 Site&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">GR1150003, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span>
156432		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Thasos (north Aegean Sea, Greece) (Subai 1996).
156432		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones.&#160;</p>
156432		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156432		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156433		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species.</p>
156433		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterranean species that is recorded from all countries  bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Outside Europe it is also known from   Northern Africa, the Near East, and the Mediterranean coast of  Turkey.  This species is easily distributed by human activities, its  native  range is almost impossible to assess.<br/>This species is a tramp snail, and is introduced in many countries all around the globe.
156433		habitat	eng	This species inhabits all types of maritime influenced Mediterranean  habitats, it is a synanthropic species. Populations introduced to countries north of the  Alps do not survive the continental climate regime.
156433		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable. This is a pest snail outside its European range.
156433		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156434		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes on&#160;the islands that the species is distributed, there is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;</p>
156434		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the island group of Astypalaia (Aegean Sea, Greece) (Subai 1996, Triantis 2006).
156434		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982, Triantis 2006).&#160;</p>
156434		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156434		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156436		conservation	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">O. gularis oreina</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the Austrian Red list (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).<br/><br/>There are no conservation actions required at present for this species as a whole.
156436		distribution	eng	This species is found in Austria, Slovenia, Germany and Italy. Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) also lists Romania as a country of occurrence, however this is considered to be probably erroneous. The species has two separate areas of distribution: in the southern Alps from the north-eastern Dolomites to the Kamniške Alps (Steiner Alpen); and in the north-eastern calcareous Alps from Berchtesgaden (Germany) to Semmering (Austria).
156436		habitat	eng	This species is found on grassy calcareous rock ledges and vegetated semi-open boulder slopes.  The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">O. gularis oreina</span> is found in areas of high altitude.
156436		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trends.
156436		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are currently unknown.
156437		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156437		distribution	eng	This species is endemic for a very restricted area at Grotte di Bossea, Cuneo, Piemonte, Italy. This species is recorded from two locations and two sites (which might represent a single location only).
156437		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subterranean parts of rocky limestone areas.
156437		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156437		threats	eng	There are no threats known affecting the species at the moment, except quarrying.
156438		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and known subpopulations are outside of protected areas.</p><p>  The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156438		distribution	eng	The nominate subspecies occurs in the Kotor Bay area of Montenegro, whereas the subspecies&#160;R. kobelti albanica&#160;is distributed from the Rumija Mountains (Virpazar) to central Albania. The species occurs sporadically with known locations at&#160;Kameno near Herceg-Novi, Dobrota near Kotor in the case of&#160;R. kobelti kobelti&#160;(Boeters <em>et al.</em> 1989), and at&#160;Byshek spring near Elbasan, near Shkoder, Virpazar in the case of&#160;R. kobelti albanica&#160;(Boeters <em>et al.</em> 1989).
156438		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats.</p>
156438		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156438		threats	eng	Potential main threats to this species are the destruction of the habitat by quarrying or by other reasons. Waste disposal sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through the leaching of chemicals. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156439		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania. More research is need on the distribution and population of this species.
156439		distribution	eng	The species lives in the south-western part of Romania. This endemic species has a very narrow range (Baia de Aramă-Tismana-Motru Sec region).
156439		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks, in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
156439		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living  specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and  trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of  individuals declines or fluctuates.
156439		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.  It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by  quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total  destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this  threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
156440		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
156440		distribution	eng	This species occurs in France (from south of river Loire to Lower Rhône drainage), Andorra and Spain (north-est of Catalonia).
156440		habitat	eng	This species lives in relatively wide variety of habitat, with a preference for forested habitats where it can find   places to hide, i.e. crevices in rock boulders or even man-built but old   and rocky walls.
156440		population	eng	There are no population data. This species seems to be common.
156440		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
156441		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on the taxonomy is recommended. Research on the threats and the habitat and ecology of this species is also needed.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156441		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in&#160;Greece (east Aegean Islands), western Turkey, Cyprus, western Syria and Lebanon (E. Neubert in prep. 2011).
156441		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species should be considered as unknown, due to the unresolved taxonomic position of the taxon.
156441		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156441		threats	eng	The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species.
156442		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. The population trend should be monitored and the site protected.
156442		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Sicily (Italy) and at present living specimens are known from only one locality, San Vito Lo Capo, north of Trapani. Other shells, corresponding perfectly to those of San Vito Lo Capo, were found in a nearby site, Mércate Gnarosa, by I. Sparacio.
156442		habitat	eng	This is a xeroresistant species occurring in natural habitats on calcareous substrata.
156442		population	eng	There are no data available.
156442		threats	eng	All alterations of the biotope, such as tourism development, pasturing, quarrying and road construction, can lead to the extinction.
156443		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place, but monitoring of all subpopulations is recommended.
156443		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic and has spread to the west of the Meseta del Duero, Spain. Its northern boundary is the Cantabrian Mountains and the southern  boundary is the Gata and Gredos mountains.
156443		habitat	eng	This species lives in ruderal biotopes, river banks and in the stone walls surrounding fields. This species seems to be indifferent to calcium.
156443		population	eng	There is no population data relating to this species and there are no observed, estimated or projected conclusions for it.
156443		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fires, urban development, road construction, floods (caused by rising river levels) and farming.
156444		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action for this species.</p>
156444		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea the species is distributed in Greece, Albania and Macedonia (the former Republic of&#160;Yugoslav). However, Feher and Eross (2009) in the&#160;Checklist of the Albanian mollusc fauna, suggested that&#160;most probably the species is not found in Albania. Hence, this species will be considered as endemic of Greece and Macedonia.
156444		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is understudied, but the species is&#160;probably&#160;found under stones and piles of stones.
156444		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156444		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156445		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156445		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Spain, France, the principality of Andorra, Balearic islands (Spain) and Sardinia (Italy).
156445		habitat	eng	This species prefers limestones soils, but has a wide range of habitats, such as ruderal, riverbanks, roadsides, crop irrigation and dryland, gardens and to a lesser extent Mediterranean scrub areas.
156445		population	eng	This species is very abundant.
156445		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
156446		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space"> Evvoia<span class="apple-style-span"> island where the species is distributed that are included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species. More research on the taxonomy, the distribution, biology and threats for this species is needed.<br/></span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156446		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the island of Evvoia (Kobelt 1877).
156446		habitat	eng	The species' habitat and ecology is unknown.
156446		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156446		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156447		conservation	eng	<p>Some parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156447		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread on Fuerteventura, Lobos, Lanzarote, La Graciosa and Montana Clara.<br/></p>
156447		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156447		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156447		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats known to this species, except predation by rats.</p>
156448		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas within the range of the species distribution under&#160;various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156448		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyclades, Greece, Aegean Sea (Siros, Tinos, Naxos, Sifnos, Sefiros and some small islets) (Mylonas 1982, Parmakelis 2003).
156448		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Mylonas 1982).</p>
156448		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156448		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.
156449		conservation	eng	<p>This narrow range endemic species is not protected at the national level in Bosnia-Hercegovina and its known site is not in a protected area. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and therefore research activity is required to resolve this issue.</p><p>As the current population is thought to be stable and while further populations are thought likely to occur no conservation actions are currently required.</p>
156449		distribution	eng	This species is distributed within a narrow range in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The only location known at present is on Plasa Mountain near Jablanica (Subai 2002). Considering the preferred habitat and ecology of related species, we can suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO) involves the whole of Plasa Mountain over 1000 m asl., and therefore it should be larger than four km<sup>2</sup>. The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156449		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156449		population	eng	The species is far from being well studied due to the inaccessibility of the potential range and as such there is no specific information on population trend. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156449		threats	eng	<p>Considering the ecology of related taxa, this species is probably not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. The population might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits an inaccessible location, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is unlikely at the moment.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156450		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). Although Gavdos and Gavdopoula are included&#160;various protection schemes (e.g. Natura 2000 Site GR4340013), there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p><p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156450		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Gavdos and Gavdopoula Islands, south of Crete (Welter-Schultes 1998).
156450		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, but mainly in xeric shrublands.
156450		population	eng	The species is quite common in the islands distributed (Welter-Schultes 1998).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species. &#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156450		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156452		conservation	eng	This species is not under protection but the inhabited areas are not under the pressure of human activity. No conservation action is needed.
156452		distribution	eng	The species lives in Bulgaria in the Rapotamo region along the Black Sea coast (Damjanov and Likharev 1975), and in northwest Turkey, near Istanbul Schütt (2001) and in Greece.&#160;This species lives between 0 and 150 meters above sea level is Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>, however this range can be  wider in other countries.
156452		habitat	eng	The species lives mainly under stones and inhabits areas with dense vegetation, and digs itself in the soil (Schütt 2001).
156452		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare, and it inhabits a number of different habitats.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156452		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events does not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156453		conservation	eng	The species is possibly not protected at national level in Italy.
156453		distribution	eng	According to Kokshoorn and Gittenberger (2010) the type locality of<span style="font-style: italic;"> R. rupestris</span> is Palermo and Sciacca. The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. rupestris coloba</span> is Sicily. According to Beckmann (2002) this subspecies is restricted to the island of Lévanzo off the westcoast of Sicily. <span style="font-style: italic;">R. rupestris margritae&#160;</span> lives in the province of Palermo, Isola delle Femmine, on rocks of the castle tower in the town,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">R. rupestris carolae</span> lives in the province of Palermo, Cefalù, castle mountain in Sicily and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. rupestris lamellosa</span> lives in the province of Agrigento, Sciacca (Sicily).
156453		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156453		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to       assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156453		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this   threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
156454		conservation	eng	Research actions include population monitoring and habitat monitoring, especially for the mainland populations
156454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands. It is restricted to Porto Santo where it is found at scattered locations all over the main island and on at least two of the offshore islets (Seddon 2008).
156454		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks in grassland.
156454		population	eng	Population trends are uncertain, but are likely to be stable.
156454		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species, although there is localised loss of habitats due to tourist developments along the coast and adjacent to roads.
156455		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Endangered (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but in Europe, there is no conservation action in place for this species.
156455		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom<span style="font-style: italic;">. <br/><br/></span>It is widely distributed in Ireland but it is absent from most of the north, west  and south-west and nowhere is it common. This species is less rare in the eastern central  plain (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>This species is also known to inhabit the Caucasus countries and northern Turkey, and is also known from the Central and Eastern Atlas Mountain in Algeria.
156455		habitat	eng	This species lives in temperate forests and hedges, and is often found on shaded and moist stone walls. In Ireland, this species is thermophilic, preferring warm, south-facing places and inhabits principally on minimally disturbed calcareous rocks and walls. It is often found in light woodland or scrub. It is a habitat specialist particularly associated with calcareous escarpments and calcareous woodlands (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156455		population	eng	In Ireland, this species has suffered severe declines of 75% in its recorded distribution since 1980 (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). For the remaining European distribution area, size and trend within the subpopulations are believed to be stable.
156455		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species across its range, although there may be some localised threats.
156456		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
156456		distribution	eng	This species lives in France and Spain. It is distributed across the central Pyrenees, where it is found in a few localities on the slopes in France and is more widely spread on the slopes in Spain. The Spanish provinces where it is present are the Aragon  provinces of Huesca and Teruel and Castellón province in the Valencian Community.
156456		habitat	eng	This species lives at high altitudes on pinnates, between the fissures of rocks and on stones.
156456		population	eng	The current population trend of this species is stable.
156456		threats	eng	The threat to this species is mainly fires.
156457		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed.
156457		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from all the islands of the Azores, except Corvo.
156457		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthinula azorica</span> lives in forested habitats, endemic and secondary, although preferentially on mountainous, endemic vegetation. It is found mainly under decaying leaves. On Pico island, for example, it was found from 150 m to over 1000 m ASL (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), and Backhuys (1975) collected it on Flores at about 50 m ASL.
156457		population	eng	Although found throughout the Azores, it is an uncommon species, found primarily in forests, endemic and secondary. Backhuys (1975) attributes its rarity to the destruction of the mountain, endemic habitat, which the species seems to prefer over the secondary forest.
156457		threats	eng	This species is relatively uncommon; however, because it has adapted to secondary forests and is present on almost all islands, no threats are foreseen.
156458		conservation	eng	There are no consevation actions. More research is needed on the distribution, population and threats to this species.
156458		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from the Pyrenees in Ariege (France) and Andorra.
156458		habitat	eng	This is a mountainous species, living mainly in forested habitat.
156458		population	eng	There are no population data.
156458		threats	eng	The threats are unknown. Global warming, overgrazing, logging and recreational activities are potential threats to this species.
156459		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156459		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the central Mediterranean Europe. It is recorded from Albania, Croatia, France, Italy Serbia and Montenegro, and Spain.<br/><br/>It is also known from Algeria and Tunisia.
156459		habitat	eng	This species lives preferably close to the coast, in the vegetation or  sand dunes, or on limestone outcrops under a maritime climate regime.
156459		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable
156459		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
156460		conservation	eng	The species is currently not protected and there are no conservation actions in place. Monitoring of the population is required as it is known to be declining. Due to the ongoing threats to the population, known sites should be protected in an attempt to halt the current decline. From field observations it is known that each population may count between a few single and several ten animals.<br/>Possibly the species is legally protected under the former taxonomic perception of all Corsican <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea </span>as a single species, which has been inscribed in the national list of protected species under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea raspailii </span>(see that species).
156460		distribution	eng	The species is known from 18 localities in Corsica, 10 of them being reconfirmed in the last two decades with an extent of occurrence of around 800 km<sup>2</sup> and area of occupancy of 40 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/>The species agg. is endemic to central Corsica. The four subspecies are disjointed in four montains areas: <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">T. c. cyrniaca</span>: Monte Renoso massif, up to 2,300-2,350 m (loc. typ.), actually two populations have been discovered by B. Recorbet at 1,450 m (Val d'Ese) and 1,950 m (Crête de Scaldasole)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">T. c. omphalophora</span>: Monte Rotondo massif, up to 2,650 m and down to the region of Corte (loc. typ.), actually known in three sparse populations in the Restonica valley between 470 m and 1,080 m (Ripken and Falkner), which have recently been affected by a heavy forest fire <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">T. c. faucicola</span>: Foce - Col de Vizzavona, 1,200-1,400 m (loc. typ.) and Monte d'Oro, actually known from Col de Vizzavona below the ancient fort at 1,190 m (Falkner and Régnier), Forêt de Vizzavona, and Monte d'Oro 2,040 m (B. Recorbet)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">T. c. arusalensis</span>: Col d'Arusala au pied de Manteluccio (loc. typ.), actually rediscovered at Calderamolla north of Col d'Arusula (Falkner, Regnier and Recorbet)
156460		habitat	eng	The species is found in varying habitats depending on the subspecies: from open, rocky surfaces to shady deciduous forests.
156460		population	eng	The species&#160; (including all four subspecies) has been known from 18 localities of which 10 could be re-confirmed during the last two decades. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea </span>have a strictly nocturnal activity; therefore it is nearly impossible to follow up the population trend, but in comparison to historical material, a considerable general decline can be inferred.
156460		threats	eng	The main threats to the species have been identified as deforestation and conversion of suitable habitat to pasture land. Wild-fires, construction of farming and forestry roads and particularly the wild pigs threaten this species.
156461		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156461		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the north and north-eastern part of the mainland (Fechter and Falkner 1990).
156461		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in forest areas, mainly in open habitats within forest, under stones.
156461		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156461		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156462		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Montenegro. Its known sites are outside of protected areas. The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not exactly known, therefore research activities should focus on these two areas.
156462		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to caves around Virpazar in southern Montenegro at the western side of Skadar Lake. The four known localities are the following: Vilina pecina near Donja Seoca, Velika jama near Dupilo, Jabukov do pecina near Komarno (Subai 2008), and old tunnel between Boljevići and Tuđemili in the Rumija Mts (HNHM Collection). It is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156462		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats.
156462		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend. But there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156462		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation or road construction. Waste disposal sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.<br/><br/></p>
156463		conservation	eng	The species is assessed on the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007) as Endangered (EN) and is assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) on the German Red List (Category 1).<br/><br/>There are no conservation actions currently required on a regional level for this species.
156463		distribution	eng	The species has a large distribution in Europe which extends from Lorrain and Palatinat in France in the north-west to Austria and Romania in the east. In France only the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Jaminina quadridens elongata</span> is known to occur.
156463		habitat	eng	This species is associated with dry grassland and poriferous calcareous soils.
156463		population	eng	The population of the species is not known and there is no data to determine any trend in the overall population. However, some edge populations show a certain, sometimes severe, decline.
156463		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to both overgrazing from livestock and the encroachment of shrubs or other vegetation on their grassland habitat.
156464		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Suggested conservation measures include protection of the habitat from quarrying, awareness and communications to people participating in mountain sports, and habitat and population monitoring.
156464		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Sicily, where it lives scattered in the Madonie mountains on calcareous rock outcrops and on rock walls around Pizzo Antenna. Near Rifugio Orestano exists a small hybrid population between <span style="font-style: italic;">M. n. nebrodensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. n. silvestrii </span>(personal unpublished observation of the late K.-H. Beckmann). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">M. n. castellana </span>occurs largely disjunct on the Rocca Busambra, south of Palermo.
156464		habitat	eng	The species lives scattered in the Madonie mountains on calcareous rock outcrops and on rock walls around Pizzo Antenna.
156464		population	eng	There are no data available. The population are generally abundant, but are considered as severely fragmented.
156464		threats	eng	Quarrying, tourist and sportive use of the rocky biotopes are the main threats to this species.
156465		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156465		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the island of Thasos and the north-eastern part of the country, i.e. Macedonia and Thraki (Reischütz 1988).
156465		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in forest areas, mainly in open habitats within forest, under stones.
156465		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156465		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156466		conservation	eng	No conservation actions currently applied. This species needs research on its taxonomy and distribution.
156466		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Aegean Islands, Greek mainland, the&#160;west coast of Turkey, Cyprus, Libya, and Egypt&#160;(Brandt 1959, Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
156466		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric vegetation, coastal regions and cultivated areas.
156466		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156466		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156467		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and there is no information to say how many of the known subpopulations occur within protected areas.</p><p>Research activity should focus on the faunistical exploration of the potential range and known subpopulations habitats should be protected.<br/></p>
156467		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southern Carpathians, in the Stara Planina Mountains (eastern Serbia and Bulgaria) and in the lowlands of the Lower Danube.<br/>There are only a few known locations: Boyanski waterfall in Vitosha Mountains (Damjanov and Likharev 1975), Kotel (Georgiev and Stoycheva 2007), Moldova Noua, Baile Herculane, Padurea Caldarusani, Jurilofca (Grossu 1983), Padurea Prahova, Surdulica (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished), Cerna valley, Motru Sec, Closani, Tismana and Nera gorge near Sasca Montana (Munkácsy Museum, Békéscsaba, unpublished).<br/>          <p>The range of this species is far from being well studied, with new subpopulations being discovered even recently. However, it is a sylvicol species and it is known that&#160; potential habitats are diminishing within its potential range, therefore some of the old literature records might not exist any more. It can be supposed that both the area of occupancy (AOO) and number of locations are declining.</p>
156467		habitat	eng	<p>This is a forest species. It prefers humid, deciduous forests which are relatively ancient and in good condition. It lives on the ground among leaf-litter, under stones or decaying dead wood. This species is habitat specific, requiring virgin beech forests and large decaying trunks.<br/></p>
156467		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species is relatively rare within its range. Due to its special habitat preference, the population is fragmented. The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and there are no data on population trend. However, forest habitats are known to diminish in that region therefore one might suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156467		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests, such as the collection of dead wood, are the main threat to this species. Considering the fragmented occurrence and the limited number of known sub-populations, even local logging or recreational activities might affect the population.<br/></p>
156468		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Vulnerable (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156468		distribution	eng	This is one of the most widespread species for Central Europe, where it lives in Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Baltic countries, Poland, Ukraine, Northern Moldavia, Germany, Benelux countries, central France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Cech Republic, northern Croatia, Serbia, and northern Italy (Sysoev and Schileyko 2009; Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983; Gittenberger 2004).<br/>Special attention should be paid to the Irish distribution, as the species is almost confined to the northern half of Ireland with two outlying sites  in&#160; Cork where it may have a recent origin. Its range in the north of  Ireland suggests that it may have originated from neighbouring areas of  Scotland relatively late in the Postglacial period. A similar&#160; distribution and therefore origin is posited for <em>Arion owenii</em>  and the carabid beetle <em>Carabus nitens</em> (Byrne<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).
156468		habitat	eng	On the continent, this species is abundant in moist woods, there is no  preferred substrate known. In the Alps, this species can even be found  beyond the tree limit on alpine meadows. In Ireland, it occurs in open wet fen margins and open damp woodlands and areas at the base of limestone escarpments. As its name, copse snail, suggests, it is mainly found in woodland. It also favours rich, fenny, unimproved pasture, scrub woods and rocks  in limestone or chalk areas and is rarely found in acid terrain although there are a few records of  very thin-shelled forms in ancient oak woods on the quartzite rocks of  Co. Londonderry (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156468		population	eng	Populations on the continent are stable. In Ireland, this is a declining species with a fragmented distribution (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156468		threats	eng	On the continent, there are no major threats for this species; disturbed habitats are easily re-colonised. In Ireland, the threatened habitats include open wet fen margins and open damp woodlands and areas at the base of limestone escarpments.
156469		conservation	eng	It would be recommended to conduct first biological studies and population estimates, as well as species and habitat monitoring.&#160;Much of its range is part of natural protected sites (Los Alcornocales Natural Park).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
156469		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudotachea litturata</em> occurs in the south of Spain: it is distributed throughout much of Cádiz and the western part of Málaga, being both Andalusian provinces. It is also known in the north of Morocco (from Tanger to Rif and Marrackech) (Puente 1994, Arrébola 1995).
156469		habitat	eng	This species colonizes bushes and brushes preferably in natural sites or areas not heavily influenced by human activities, both in generally calcareous soils. However, it can also be found in more human-modified places and there is not clear relationship between the land uses and its presence (Arrébola 1995).
156469		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. However, based  on general observations, the species appears to be found in great  numbers and high densities.
156469		threats	eng	The major threats to this species is the destruction of its habitat by urban development and/or agricultural activities. However, it seems to be able to cope with a certain level of human influence.
156470		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis&#160;and&#160;Maraghou 2009). &#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;&#160;The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not well known, therefore research activities are recommended on populations studies and distribution and on the ecology of the species.</p>
156470		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Greek Island of Corfu (Kerkyra) (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989).&#160;This species is found in areas other than the type locality&#160;(P. Subai pers. comm. 2010).
156470		habitat	eng	The species was described from individuals found in soil substrate under <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus </span>shrubs  in a dry valley (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989). This is one of the smallest land snails in Europe (size between 1.1 and 1.25 mm).
156470		population	eng	The species is&#160;known&#160;only from the island of Corfu (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989). However, this species is relatively common (P. Subai pers. comm. 2010).
156470		threats	eng	<p>The ecology and the biology of the species is generally unknown.&#160;Destruction of this species' woodland habitat can&#160;reduce localised populations of the species. Possible threats are deforestation and urbanisation. However, since this species is only found from one area,&#160;the reduction of the habitat that <em>Platyla</em> species are usually found could be a potential risk.&#160;</p>
156471		conservation	eng	The site where this species occurs should be protected.
156471		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cernuella hydruntina</span> is endemic to the peninsula of Salento, in Italy. it is a narrow range endemic which occurs only in the north-eastern part of the peninsula of Salento; most finding places are situated in the province of Lecce, only once the species has been found in the province of Brindisi at Torre Santa Sabina in dunes.
156471		habitat	eng	This is a xerotolerant species which lives in open biotopes like dunes, garigues, pastures, and extensively cultured areas.
156471		population	eng	There are no data available.
156471		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the alterations of the biotopes, due to the intensification of land use for agricultural purposes, bushfires, and afforestation of the dunes by pine trees
156472		conservation	eng	This area is already under protection. However, it is highly recommended to control the grazing by goats. A removal of these animals from the area would be the most efficient measure to be taken.
156472		distribution	eng	This species lives in a very restricted area in the central part of the Jandia Pensinsula on Fuerteventura.
156472		habitat	eng	This species is a rock dweller; the habitat consists of lichen-rich vulcanic rocks including a sparse grassy vegetation.
156472		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on on the population size of this species.</p>
156472		threats	eng	The main threats are from goats and tourist recreation, although the  impact on the habitats is more uneven and hence the species is assessed  on limited range.
156473		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Suggested actions include habitat management and protection, population and habitat monitoring.
156473		distribution	eng	In the Italian checklist (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995), the species is indicated as endemic to western Sicily and the Isola di Favignana (Isole Egadi). Liberto<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2010) indicate historical material from the surroundings of Palermo and the Madonie mountains.
156473		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits open and half-open natural and anthropogenic  biotopes like garrigues, grassland and pastures. It is also found in  ruderal vegetation.
156473		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
156473		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are degradation of habitats, due to urbanisation, road construction and pasturing.
156474		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not protected at national level in Croatia nor in Albania, although some of the known subpopulations are within the Velebit National Park in Croatia. The systematic relation of the two taxa is doubtful at present, so research activity should focus on that as well as the species' range and distribution.</p>
156474		distribution	eng	The species is found in Croatia and Albania and is distributed in the Velbit Mountains. Soós (1943) lists eight locations: Mali Rainac 1650 m; the ridge between Oltare and Krasno; Oltare, 1000 m; Stirovaca; Zadicevac; Metla, 1200 m; Filipov kuk&#160;and Jadovno near Gospic. Two further locations are Sv Juraj and Zavizan (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished). The subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Helicigona&#160;albanica</span>&#160;is known only from the type locality: Berisha near Lumi i  Drinit të Mesëm in North Albania. The extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated only for the nominate subspecies.    <p>The species is far from being well studied. However, at the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156474		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156474		population	eng	Due to the inaccessibility of the potential range the species is far from being well studied and there is no specific information on population trend. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156474		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Recreational activities such as rock climbing have only a negligible effect on the subpopulations. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156475		conservation	eng	Taxonomic investigation of the species is urgently needed. The species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria, but some of the  known localities are within protected areas.
156475		distribution	eng	According to the collection of the HNHM the species lives in a very restricted area in the surroundings of Razlog, in the Pirin Mts. According to www.animalbase.org and Fauna Europes (www.faunaeur.org) the species also occurs in northern Greece, however no reference to prove that information has been found.
156475		habitat	eng	This species is found on sunny meadows, at the  bottom or under stones and pieces of wood. It is not found on acending plants like <span style="font-style: italic;">X.  obvia.</span>
156475		population	eng	This species is locally very restricted, but  abundant where present. The population trend is thought to be stable.
156475		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
156476		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156476		distribution	eng	This species is found on Terceira and Pico islands, Azores, Portugal. It was recorded for Pico island by Nobre (1924) as <span style="font-style: italic;">Bulimus pruninus</span>, Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) as <span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus </span>cf.<span style="font-style: italic;"> alabastrinus</span>, and Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010).
156476		habitat	eng	Although not commonly found, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. alabastrinus</span> occupies a wide range of habitats, from clumps of reeds in dune areas, hydrangeas and stone walls by the road side to mixed forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum undulatum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Accacia</span>.
156476		population	eng	&#160;On Terceira this species is relatively common near the town of Praia da Vitória (Fonte Dionísio, Cabo da Praia) and is also found in Quatro Ribeiras and Raminho.&#160; A small colony near Angra do Heroísmo (Silveira), situated by the side of the road, has not been seen since 1987. <br/><br/>On Pico this species is rare; found only near Cais do Pico, Terra Alta and on Cabeço do Monte Escuro (near Piedade).
156476		threats	eng	Due to its capacity to adapt to disturbed environments, no threats are foreseen.
156477		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although the island of Antikythira is part of various protection schemes (e.g. Natura 2000, Site:&#160;GR3000008),&#160;there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p><p></p>
156477		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, restricted in the island of Antikythira (Gittenberger and Goodfriend 1993)
156477		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open, xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156477		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species. The species is absent&#160;from the late Pleistocene 16,000  year-old fossil record form the island&#160;(Gittenberger and Goodfriend 1993).</p>
156477		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156478		conservation	eng	The species is reported from three Natura 2000 sites (see http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/). There is no conservation action regarding the species.<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156478		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus, distributed in the south west part of the island (Gittenberger 1991).
156478		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in open xeric habitats.
156478		population	eng	The species is quite abundant, reported from a significant number of localities.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156478		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Touristic activities, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156479		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are needed.
156479		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Europe. It is widespread in central and eastern Europe, with some fragmented subpopulations in western Europe. It is recorded from Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.
156479		habitat	eng	This species lives in temperate mature forests, in rock crevices or in the leaf litter. Under humid conditions, the species climbs on the trunks of trees, preferably on those of beech wood.
156479		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are believed to be stable.
156479		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Deforestation can be a threat to this species locally.
156480		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Suitable habitats need to be protected from urban development.
156480		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy. <span style="font-style: italic;">Trochoidea cumiae </span>is mostly found in scattered sites near the coast, rather evenly distributed over the island of Lampedusa and the small  adjoining islet Isola dei Conigli. A special form occurs exclusively on  Lampione.
156480		habitat	eng	This snails occurs in wild grassland, herbaceous edges of cultivated land, and Mediterranean garigues.
156480		population	eng	There are no data available on the population trend. The populations are fluctuating, and are normally rich in individuals.
156480		threats	eng	Urbanisation and tourism development are impacting this species, as well as agriculture.
156481		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.&#160; Research relating to the taxonomy and the geographical distribution of the species is recommended.
156481		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal where it is widely distributed from the Algarve northwards to the district of Porto.
156481		habitat	eng	This species lives in ruderal habitats, open forest, grassland, edges of rivers even in dunes under the stones or on the stems of vegetation.
156481		population	eng	The population trends of this species are currently unknown.
156481		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fire and disturbance from human  activities.
156482		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are needed for this species.
156482		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where its is restricted to the north of the Iberian peninsula. It is distributed along the  mountainous north-eastern León until Urbasa and Leire in Navarre,  occupying almost the entire northern half of Burgos province and some locations  in the mountains of Demanda, Urbión and Cebollera.
156482		habitat	eng	This is a calcicolous (likes calcium rich environments) and montane species, which also frequents rocky areas.
156482		population	eng	The current population trend of this species is unknown. Increased sampling may find more populations.
156482		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires and shell collecting.
156483		conservation	eng	There is no information available&#160;on conservation actions.
156483		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to La Gomera where it was recorded by&#160;Fritsch, Wollaston and Lowe in the middle of the 19th century on the slopes above San Sebastian. It was not subsequently found or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues (K. Groh, pers. comm., 2011). It was only found by K. Groh near to San Sebastian, in the eastern part of the island. Only Rachl (in Bank <em>et al</em>. 2002) mentions specimens from the north-west of the island, from between Tazo and Arguamul.
156483		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156483		population	eng	There is no information available.
156483		threats	eng	There is no information available regarding threats.
156484		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Romania. At least a part of the known subpopulations occurs within protected areas such as at Valea Susara near Sasca Montana.&#160;The systematic position of the species is doubtful (Páll-Gergely, personal communication), therefore research activity should focus on this point, as well as attempting to discover new localities. Conservation actions are not currently required for this species.
156484		distribution	eng	This species is known from six localities distributed in the Banat region (Romania). Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156484		habitat	eng	<p>This is a silvicol species (Grossu 1979) with a preference for beech forests where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood.</p>
156484		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively small range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156484		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. However, considering the number of populations of this species, local logging or recreational activities do not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156485		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Research is recommended to attempt to  re-discover the species.
156485		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, but no more information was given when described by Mabille in 1882.
156485		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
156485		population	eng	There is no information available.
156485		threats	eng	There is no information available.
156486		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156486		distribution	eng	This species has been described from the Canary Islands without any further locality specification. Until now, there are no published records for this species known.
156486		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156486		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156486		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156487		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
156487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Santa Maria, Azores (Portugal) (Mordan and Martins 2001).
156487		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary, under dead leaves and rotting branches, and among the rhizomes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>.
156487		population	eng	This species lives throughout the island of Santa Maria (Mordan and Martins 2001).
156487		threats	eng	This species has adapted well to secondary forest, mainly where there is good undergrowth of Hedychium, therefore no threats are foreseen.
156488		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions known for this species. More research is needed to clarify population sizes and trends.
156488		distribution	eng	This species is known from a restricted range in the province of Bergamo (Italy), from the Val Brembana and probably extends towards East in case the taxon <span style="font-style: italic;">Acme lineata </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">subcostata </span>proves to be a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. beneckei</span>. Its extent of occurrence covers ca. 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
156488		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat of this species. Inferring from closely related species, it probably lives in decaying material in rock crevices of larger limestone formations.
156488		population	eng	There is no information available on the population trend.
156488		threats	eng	There are no threats known for this species. However, road construction in the narrow valleys may cause a serious decrease in available habitat area.
156489		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
156489		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Cantabrian mountains in northern Spain and the Pyrenees extending to the upper Garonne drainage in France. It is found at many sites.
156489		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
156489		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156489		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
156491		conservation	eng	Research on the taxonomy is needed for this species.
156491		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania.&#160;According to Grossu (1983),&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Drobatia </span><span style="font-style: italic;">maeotica</span> lives in the Apuşeni Mountains.&#160;Wenz described&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Helicigona&#160;</span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Drobatia</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;">maeotica</span> from Romania as a fossil species in Krejci and Wenz (1926). Lupu (1966) recorded this species from Romania as a living species.
156491		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information on this species.
156491		population	eng	There is no population information for this species and the population trend is unknown.
156491		threats	eng	Threat to this species are unknown.
156492		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156492		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa subvariegata</em> is endemic to Crete, spread in the north-western island &#160;(Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
156492		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found in open xeric schrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156492		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156492		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156493		conservation	eng	The species is widely distributed and hence general conservation actions to maintain habitat will be beneficial to this species. Research to establish the status of the population on the Desertas would be useful to determine whether these merit full standing as distinct species.
156493		distribution	eng	The species is found on Madeira and the Desertas (Seddon 2008). On Madeira, it is mainly found on the south and south-east coastal habitats and occasionally inland in valleys, and isolated locations on the north and western coasts, where it is often found in disturbed habitats (Seddon 2008, map 115, p.175).<br/><br/>There are two subspecies recognised from the Desertas, that merit further investigation:<br/><em><em>Leptaxi</em><em>s&#160;<em>groviana</em></em>&#160;leonina</em>&#160;Lowe, 1852&#160;Cameron and Cook (1999) confirm that this taxon is still widespread on Bugio<em>.<br/>Leptaxi</em><em>s&#160;<em>groviana</em>&#160;vulcania</em>&#160;Lowe, 185 Cameron and Cook (1999) confirm that this taxon is still widespread on Deserta Grande and Chão.&#160;<p><br/></p>
156493		habitat	eng	<p>This species is widespread; it is found on the underside of stones and amongst grasses in shaded and unshaded areas (Seddon 2008) and is tolerant of disturbance, as it is found in gardens and arable land.&#160;</p>
156493		population	eng	The species can be common where there are suitable habitats, and appears to be stable.
156493		threats	eng	There are localised threats to the species, from habitat loss related to increased tourism development and road construction it is not believed to be threatened over the range.
156494		conservation	eng	The range of this species is partly protected by Natural Parks.
156494		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Palma. It lives in higher altitudes in the central part of the island.<br/></p>
156494		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar) and in the relics of Laurel forests (Laurisilva), which is restricted to the northern parts of the island.</p>
156494		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156494		threats	eng	The main threat for this species are wild fires in the pine forests.
156495		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are outside of protected areas.</p>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
156495		distribution	eng	This species is of Illyrian (=West Balkan) distribution. The core of its range is from Slovenia to Epirus, but there are known occurrences in the Mecsek Mountains, in Hungary (unpublished), Tuscany in Italy, Retezat and Tarcu Mountains in Romania and the Western Rhodope Mountains in Bulgaria. For distribution data see Irikov and Mollov (2006) [Bulgaria], Grossu (1983) [Romania]; Alzona (1971) [Italy], Tomic (1959) [Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia], Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) [Albania], Sturany and Wagner (1914) [Balkans], Soós (1943) [Croatia], Sattmann and Reischütz (1994) [Greece]. In the Mollusca Collection of HNHM, there are unpublished records from Slovenia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania and Albania.<br/>Its range is relatively large, there are several known locations and it can be presumed that in museum collections there are much more unpublished records.<br/>    <p>There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156495		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky areas, where it is usually found among leaf-litter, under stones or at the base of rocks.</p>
156495		population	eng	<p>Within the main range it does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156495		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156496		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156496		distribution	eng	The species is known from Greece (Rhodes Island), south Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Syria and Cyprus (see Bank and Hovestadt 1991, Schütt 2001, Heller 2009).
156496		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This species is usually met in dry shrublands, under stones and/or stones.
156496		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a very abundant species. There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
156496		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156497		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, population, ecology and threats to this species.
156497		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Crimean Peninsula, the Western Rhodopes and the Black Sea coasts.
156497		habitat	eng	This molluscs is found in the steppes, the marine coasts and the mountains.
156497		population	eng	There are no data on the population of this species.
156497		threats	eng	The major threats for this species are unknown.
156498		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions. The type locality should be protected.
156498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary islands, in the north-western part of La Gomera. Alonso<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(1995) note that this species is only known from a single location the Montana de Beguira and probably very localised.
156498		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open rocky habitats (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995)
156498		population	eng	There are no data on population and it is known only from a few specimens.
156498		threats	eng	This site is not thought to face any threat: it is considered to be secure from fire and, due to its remoteness, unlikely to face development in the near future.
156499		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria, however some of the sub-populations may be found in protected   areas. Research on possible threats is recommended.
156499		distribution	eng	This species lives in Bulgaria in the Struma region, Skrât W of Petrić, at the Greek-Rep.-Makedonijan-Bulgarian border.
156499		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat of the species, but it may be the same as in other <span style="font-style: italic;">Monacha </span>species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Monacha oshanovae</span> may be xerotolerant species, preferring open habitats.
156499		population	eng	The range is possibly underestimated and there may be more populations within the area.&#160;Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156499		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other   realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the   complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed   by erosion, fire, etc.).
156500		conservation	eng	The species is assessed in the Swiss Red List as Vulnerable (VU) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/><br/>Information about many of the populations is needed, particularly from Italy, Austria, France and Spain. The potential threats to this species should be researched as it has a  declining population trend in Switzerland but the causes are not  understood. The potential influence of global warming should be investigated in particular.
156500		distribution	eng	This is an alpine endemic found in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Switzerland from altitudes from 1,300 to 2,900 m asl. Known sites are in Graian Alps, Savoian Alps up to Salzburg, Kärnten and the western Alps of Steiermark.
156500		habitat	eng	This species lives on grassland with stoneblocks or on scree slopes where vegetation is present. It has also been found in untouched carbonate mountain forests.
156500		population	eng	<p>There is little information regarding the species' population available. Where it occurs the density is quite low. In Germany it is rare and it is known to be declining in Switzerland, but the causes of the decline are not understood.<br/></p>
156500		threats	eng	The threats to the species have not been identified.
156501		conservation	eng	There is no conservation known for this species or the area.
156501		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It is restricted to the area beyond the dune of Maspalomas stretching towards Arguineguin (Wollaston 1878).<br/></p>
156501		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156501		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156501		threats	eng	The type locality of this species (described in 1878) is most probably destroyed by construction of hotels and other tourist infrastructure in the municipality of Maspalomas and Playa del Inglés.
156502		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (VU). &#160;Although there are a number of areas in&#160;the species' distribution&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.
156502		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in&#160;the species' distribution&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.
156502		distribution	eng	This species was&#160;described from the island of Samos (Bank and Butot 1990) and has since been recorded from&#160;several locations along the southern coast of&#160;Turkey and some inland locations&#160;(Gittenberger and Menkhorst 1993, Örstan <em>et al</em>. 2007).
156502		distribution	eng	This species was&#160;described from the island of Samos in Greece (Bank and Butot 1990), which has an area of 477.4 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>Outside of Europe, it is found in several locations along the  southern coast of&#160;Turkey and some inland locations&#160;(Gittenberger and  Menkhorst 1993, Örstan <em>et al</em>. 2007).
156502		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the crevices of the limestone rocks, at high altitudes (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156502		habitat	eng	This species usually lives in the crevices of the limestone rocks, in high altitudes (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156502		population	eng	The species is quite rare.&#160;There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.
156502		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Fires can also have a negative impact on the species habitat. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156502		threats	eng	This species does not have any major threats other than habitat modification.
156503		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures recommended.
156503		distribution	eng	This species was only known from one locality - Gaspra Village (Southern Coast of the Crimean Peninsula). Recent investigation have shown its absence in this locality.
156503		habitat	eng	This species was found in the park on stones and herbs.
156503		population	eng	This species was reported from only one locality - park of the village Gaspra. Recent survey failed to find it again.
156503		threats	eng	The area is a place of excessive recreational influence now.
156504		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009)&#160;Although there are a number of areas in&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">the island (Syros) that the species is distributed</st1:place>&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.
156504		distribution	eng	The species is an endemic to the island of Syros (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, Greece) (Subai 1996). There is an&#160;inconsistency&#160;regarding the type specimens that see to come from the island of Tinos.
156504		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).
156504		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156504		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
156505		conservation	eng	The species is relatively widespread but it is not protected at the national level in the countries where  it occurs. In a few cases the species has been reported in protected areas. No conservation actions are currently required for this species.
156505		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-eastern part of Italy in Modena and Perugia and in the western and central areas of Slovenia (Boeters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1989). In Slovenia, it is found in 50 sites, occurring in 24 UTM grid cells (10 x 10 km).
156505		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean parts of rocky, mostly limestone, areas.
156505		population	eng	The population trend is unknown. This species seems to be rare: between one to 25 shells were found in the soil samples.
156505		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are through the destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156506		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Thasos&#160;</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, (e.g Natura 2000, Site:&#160;GR1150003),&#160;&#160;there is no conservation action regarding the species.
156506		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, restricted on the island of Thasos (north Aegean Sea) (Reischütz 1983).
156506		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156506		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156506		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156507		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156507		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156507		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.
156507		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156507		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.&#160;</p>
156508		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
156508		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Corsica (France), Sardinia and Elbe island (Italy). In Toscana (Italy) and Var (France), it is introduced.
156508		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156508		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156508		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Urbanization, road enlargement and quarrying are potential threats.
156509		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures.
156509		distribution	eng	<em>C. rocandioi</em> is an northern Iberian Peninsula endemic species living in the northeastern edge of the Duero plateau and the North of the Iberic System. It has been mentioned in the east of León, north of Palencia, south of Cantabria, north and south-west of Burgos, west of La Rioja, Soria and one locality in Zaragoza (Puente 1994).
156509		habitat	eng	According to different authors summarized in Puente (1994), this species lives in different habitats like&#160;ruderal vegetation, banks, rocky areas, pastures and, preferentially, xerophilous grasslands.
156509		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156509		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156511		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomic status, the distribution and the population of this species.
156511		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is found in Hérault, Vaucluse, Var and possibly Isère.
156511		habitat	eng	This is a hygrophilous species that lives in valley bottom, edge of rivers, etc.
156511		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156511		threats	eng	Logging and river channelization are potential threats.
156512		conservation	eng	The most important conservation action needed for this species is to clarify its taxonomy and to study its biology and distribution. Once this information is available, appropriate conservation actions can be&#160;suggested.
156512		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Theba andalusica </span>is known from a limited number of sites in the Atlantic coastal area of the extreme south of Spain, &#160;from the valley of the Rio Guadalquivir southward to the Strait of Gibraltar. The species is found at specific locations such as Lebrija in the south of the province of Seville and Chipiona, Rota, Vejer de la Frontera, Río Jara and Tarifa in the province of Cadiz.
156512		habitat	eng	This species shares the same habitats than <em>T. pisana</em> in general: the edges of agricultural fields and roads, riparian and ruderal vegetation.
156512		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156512		threats	eng	The sites where <em>T. andalusica</em> hypothetically&#160;lives are globally characterized by a high anthropic influence due to agricultural, urbanism, tourism, pollution... On the other hand, this species is harvested for food as well as <em>T. pisana</em>&#160;(see Use and Trade).
156513		conservation	eng	The expected area of distribution is not under local protection. Further research is needed on its distribution and taxonomy.
156513		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. Besides the type locality in the south of the Island (Pinar de Tarajana), there are no published records of this species. However, it can be inferred that is is probably more widespread in the southwest of Gran Canaria (Groh pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
156513		habitat	eng	This species lives in the local pine forests (Pinar).
156513		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156513		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to this species.</p>
156514		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Croatia and some of the subpopulations are known to live within protected areas. Due to the large and stable population there are no further conservation actions currently required for this species.
156514		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Istrian Peninsula, along the Dalmatian coastal area (Croatia and Montenegro), Albania and western Macedonia to Epirus, Korfu Island and the Ossa Mountains (Greece). Grossu (1983) provides a distribution record in Dobrogea (Romania) which, due to its distance from the main range, was not considered when the extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated. Besides several published distribution records (e.g. Stamol and Velkovrh 1995, Stamol 1986, Soós 1943, Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996, Urbanski 1970), in the Mollusc Collection of HNHM there are around 150 unpublished records from Dalmatia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Epirus and Albania, indicating that this species is frequent within its range, therefore   there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156514		habitat	eng	This species occurs in different habitat types such as in rocky   habitats (rocky grasslands, rocky shrublands and forests) as well as in   streamside vegetation (tallgrass or gallery forests) or ruderal sites.
156514		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156514		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other   realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the   complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed   by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the fact that   various habitat types are preferred by this species, local activities   do not affect the whole population.
156515		conservation	eng	The sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">clandestinus</span> is under severe pressure with only two known localities. However, the species as a whole does not require any conservation actions at present.
156515		distribution	eng	The species is native to France, Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus clandestinus</span> is found in numerous areas of northern Switzerland and adjacent areas of Germany (Baden-Württemberg) and Liechtenstein, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">putonii </span>is endemic to France (Vosges) and currently only known from two sites.
156515		habitat	eng	Habitat preference varies between the sub-species. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus  clandestinus</span> is found in vegetated areas from semi-open shrubs to humid deciduous forest and also extends into cultivated or ruderal places. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus</span> putonii is known from riparian forests alongside the uppermost Moselle river in tall strong herbs.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
156515		population	eng	The overall population trend can be said to be increasing. However, the sub-species<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. clandestinus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">putonii </span>is in decline.
156515		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Ongoing threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">putonii</span> are from biotope destruction in the form of deforestation. There are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. clandestinus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">clandestinus</span> however.
156516		conservation	eng	Monitoring of extension and size of populations on the three islands is urgently suggested. It should be made evident whether this species is a fossil, or whether it survived in some of the mentioned places.
156516		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Ids., and has been recorded from the Islands of Alegranza, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. The specimen from Fuerteventura is believed to be extant, it originates from the Jandia Peninsula, above Cofete.
156516		habitat	eng	This species lives probably in the soil of the temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), but was screened from soil in abandoned cultivated area.
156516		population	eng	There are no data on the population size. There are only one or two records&#160; per island, but only the one from Fuerteventura is believed to be extant, the others come from Quaternary fossil beds.
156516		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
156517		conservation	eng	The species is native in Britain, but has  become much commoner through human activity, still expanding its range  in Scotland where it was rare in the 1930s. It is listed as Rare in Bavaria, and Low Concern in Switzerland and in Ireland. The species is protected in Hungary.
156517		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species is widespread from Hungary to the north of France and the British Isles (except the Shetlands islands).
156517		habitat	eng	This is a garden pest nicknamed the strawberry snail and typical of synanthropic  (humanly disturbed) habitats. It is locally abundant in woodland, scrub, waste ground and around old  buildings and gardens and is found within sites typically concentrated in nettle beds or along old  walls (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). According to AnimalBase (2010), it lives in humid and natural shady  habitats in forests, shrubs and badlands, road margins, in the north of France and  the British Isles among tall grasses and <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica</span>, often artificially  dispersed, occasionally a pest in gardens. In the north of Switzerland, it occurs between 400  and 800 m, in Austria between 150-2,000 m.
156517		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156517		threats	eng	Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe    destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole   population significantly.
156519		conservation	eng	In some European countries, this species is protected, but these are generally in low levels.
156519		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Europe, and locally abundant.&#160;It is recorded from Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Republic of Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,&#160; Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom.
156519		habitat	eng	This species lives in open temperate forests, in warm shrub lands, vineyards&#160; and hedges.
156519		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156519		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species known. In general, logging may be a threat to local subpopulations, but the species in its European distribution is not threatened.
156520		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
156520		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and is widely distributed in the upper and middle valley of Ebro, from pre-Pyrenees to the Iberian System.
156520		habitat	eng	This species lives in open and sunny places with herbaceous vegetation, found under stones.
156520		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156520		threats	eng	The main threats are agriculture and forestry activities and urban development. Fire is another threat  for sub-populations.
156521		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Turkey and in Albania. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
156521		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Turkey where most of the sub-populations live.  Recent publication of Fehér and Erőss (2009) reports the species from Albania. The presence of the species in Bulgaria is recorded only from a single specimen from the flotsam of the Black Sea (Urbanski 1960). Therefore, it iriginated most probably from Turkey, this species is unlikely to live in Bulgaria.
156521		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found in the crevices, under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks.</p>
156521		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.&#160;The Albanian population is separated from the main area of the species, which can be found in the Asiatic part of Turkey.<br/></p>
156521		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
156523		conservation	eng	In Ireland this species is listed as Near Threatened (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).&#160; Taxonomic research is required to confirm the species' geographical limits.
156523		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">This species is widespread through Europe and is found in Norway, Sweden, Denmark (mainland), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kalingrad region (Russia), Poland, Republic of Ireland (Eire), Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (mainland), Corsica (France), Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Madeiran Islands (Portugal), Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Bulgaria, Romania, Andorra, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland), Portugal (mainland), Greece (mainland), North Aegean Islands (Vóreion Aiyáion; Greece), Crete (Greece), Albania, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Ukraine and Moldova. <br/></h4>
156523		habitat	eng	This species occurs generally in overgrown hedgerows, in woodland edge habitats and in temperate forests. In acidic environments the ‘spines’ along the periphery of the shell  may become worn or decorticated and the finest examples usually occur  on calcareous soils. This species is often associated with hedgerow and fen margin habitats (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156523		population	eng	The size and trends of the subpopulations of this species are believed&#160; to be stable.
156523		threats	eng	This species may be declining due to habitat loss by logging hedgerows and forests and lowering of habitat quality (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156524		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in Romania and Ukraine. Most of the known sites are out of protected areas.</p><p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species inhabits a habitat type (temperate forest) which is much affected by human impact. However, there is no information as to how much this affects the the local subpopulations. Research activity should focus on the monitoring of population and habitat trends.</p><p><br/></p>
156524		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Carpathians in Romania and the Ukraine. The known distribution records are: Torockó [=Rimetea], Kolozsvár [=Cluj], Szamosújvár [=Gherla], Dés [=Dej], Füzesi erdő [=Fizes], Apanagyfalu [=Nuseni], Görgényszentimre [=Gurghiu], Romosz [=Romos], Szvidovec [=Svidovec], Huszt [=Khust], Sztrojna [=Sztrojne] (Soós 1943) Kostej and Brassó [=Brasov] (HNHM Mollusc Collection unpublished data).&#160;Fauna Europaea incorrectly indicates this species from Hungary.
156524		habitat	eng	<p>This is a silvicol species (Soós 1943) with a preference for deciduous forests where it lives among leaf-litter or decaying dead wood. It is not associated with limestone areas and is&#160;known to occur at up to 900 m asl.</p>
156524		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species is not frequent within its range. There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156524		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests through recreational activities are the main threat to this species. However, considering the relatively large geographical range of this species, such threats are not currently thought to affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156525		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Albania. One of its known sites (Zebe Moutains) belongs to the Park Kombetar Bjeshke e Oroshit. Neither the geographic range nor systematic position of this species are known exactly, therefore research activity should focus on these points.<br/></p>
156525		distribution	eng	This species is distributed only in northern Albania. Beside the type locality ("Zebiagebirge bei Fandi" = Mali i Zebes) there are further two records: Korab and Derza (Subai 1995). Therefore, the known range of the species consists of two subareas around 25-30 km from each other.<br/>This species does not seem to be frequent within its range. Indeed, recent collecting expeditions were unable find its subpopulation in the Korab Mountains (Z. Fehér pers. comm.). In spite of this, considering the preferred habitat of this species, there is no reason to   suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156525		habitat	eng	<p>This is a rock-dwelling species associated with rocky habitats in limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the bases of rocks.</p>
156525		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored, there are no data on population trend. However, there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156525		threats	eng	<p>Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, it is probably not affected by any ongoing threat. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.), which is unlikely at the moment.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156526		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research activities are recommended on populations studies and distribution and on the ecology of the species.
156526		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, restricted in the north-eastern part of the country (Thrace) (Subai 1999).
156526		habitat	eng	The species of the genus are usually found in humid and protected habitats such as places close to streams and in the soil of forested areas.
156526		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no information regarding the population trend of this species. This species is thought to be relatively abundant.</p>
156526		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species at the moment, or in the near future.
156527		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level where it lives, however some of the sub-populations are likely found in protected areas.
156527		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bulgaria, Romania and Moldova.
156527		habitat	eng	The species is xero-tolerant and it occurs in open habitats.
156527		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156527		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, mining, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.
156528		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed although it would be interesting to know more about its biology.
156528		distribution	eng	<em>C. lenticula</em> is widespread across the Mediterranean and the Macaronesian islands: Iberian Peninsula, Italy, Mediterranean Islands, Cyprus, France, Croatia, Greece, Ionic Islands,&#160;Aegean&#160;Islands, Malta Islands, Turkey, Israel, Egypt,&#160;Tunisia,&#160;Algeria, Morocco, Canary Islands, Azores, Madeira and Cabo Verde (Puente 1994).
156528		habitat	eng	<em>C. lenticula</em> is a species of great ecological adaptability, that can be easy passively transported and that is welladapted to human-modified environement, such as gardens, edges of fields, wastelands. It is usually found under stones&#160;or under any object that offers protection, e.g., in the grass, walls, fallen logs (Puente 1994, Arrébola 1995).
156528		population	eng	There are no population data about this species but it is frequent and locally abundant.
156528		threats	eng	No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.
156529		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Research is recommended to attempt to re-discover the species in the areas that it has been previously found.
156529		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gran Canaria where it was described by Grasset in 1857 from the Barranco de la Virgen and later by Lowe (1861) as <span style="font-style: italic;">Helix manrinquiana</span>. It has also been mentioned as <span style="font-style: italic;">H. manrinquiana</span> by Wollaston (1878) from the environments of Teror and in hollow old laurel trees in the forest of El Monte. The species has not been re-found or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues and has not been re-found by Klaus Groh (K. Groh, pers. com., 2010).
156529		habitat	eng	There is little information available. Individuals have been found in hollow Laurel trees in the past.
156529		population	eng	There is no information available.
156529		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
156530		conservation	eng	<p></p><p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of regions in the species&#160;distribution&#160;area<span class="apple-style-span">&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p><p></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156530		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the regions of Peloponnese, Sterea, Ipirus and Thessalia (see Westerlund 1889).
156530		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones.
156530		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156530		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156531		conservation	eng	It is difficult to manage a dune ecosystem, but an area which is designated as "traffic-free" should be put in place to minimise the disturbance to the habitats, as trampling and dune-buggies are probably the greatest threats to the species (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).&#160; Thereafter habitat monitoring is required to ensure that the 'traffic free zone' has lead to reduction of the disturbance of this site.
156531		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is found on Porto Santo (and adjacent rocks according to Wollaston 1878, p. 178) but it is localised to the area around Fonte de Areia (Seddon 2008).
156531		habitat	eng	The habitats are vegetated stabilised sand dunes north of the airstrip.
156531		population	eng	The species can be abundant where present.
156531		threats	eng	The habitats are sand dunes subject to  wind erosion and recreational disturbance on the dunes.
156532		conservation	eng	Some of the subpopulations are known to occur within protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and stable populations there are no conservation measures currently needed for this species.
156532		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the southeastern Alps to Northwest Greece. According to Subai (2008) it is clearly an inland species that does not live in the coastal zone southeast of the Kvarner Bay to Greece .
156532		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats and under stones in rocky grasslands.
156532		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there is little data on its population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156532		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats and under stones in rocky grasslands. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by road construction or by other reason such as through leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely and therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.
156533		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;No conservation actions currently in effect. The sub-populations should be monitored and the islets where this species occur should be protected.
156533		distribution	eng	The species was described by Kobelt (1891), with the&#160;island of Kalymnos as its locus typicus. Fuchs and Kaufel (1936) reported the species&#160;from Pserimos. Nevertheless, in the studies of Reischutz (1986) and Bank and&#160;Neuteboom (1988), the species was not located on either of the two islands, although&#160;recently, Orstan <em>et al</em>. (2005) found the species on Pserimos. Triantis <em>et al.</em> (2008) report the species from seven small &#160;islands of the Kalymnos island group. From the main island of Kalymos, Triantis <em>et al</em>. (2008) report a single empty shell. It is also known from Fethiye, on the western Turkish coast (E. Neubert pers. comm. 2010, based on a museum record in Frankfurt-Senckenberg).
156533		habitat	eng	The species is found in shrublands (phrygana and maquis vegetation) (Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156533		population	eng	Despite the restricted distribution of the species, its populations are locally quite dense.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156533		threats	eng	This species was described from the Kalymnos island in 1891, and in recent studies only a few shells of the species were located from Kalymnos Island. The species has quite dense populations on the small islets uninhabited around Kalymnos, therefore we can infer that human activities are causing the decline of the species populations. Over-grazing is a major threat, as shepherds are moving their herds of sheep by boats from one island to the other. Tourist activities and disturbance are also impacting negatively the species.<br/><p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;<br/></p>
156534		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the National Park Berchtesgarden.
156534		distribution	eng	This species reaches the edge of its distribution in Scandinavia but is widespread in Central Europe. It is extending from Spain to the Balkans and Belarus. There are some isolated occurrence in St. Petersburg.
156534		habitat	eng	This species lives in the crevices of rocks.
156534		population	eng	There are no data on the population trends, but it is thought to be stable.
156534		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
156535		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in Crete included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.
156535		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete (Parmakelis 2003).
156535		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
156535		population	eng	There is no&#160;information&#160;available for the species' population trend. This species is thought to be relatively abundant.
156535		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156536		conservation	eng	The species is not specifically protected anywhere, however several populations can be found in protected areas.
156536		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Italy and in the Balkan region (Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Kosovo). Boeters <em>et al</em>. (1989) listed more than 50 localities. <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:eozBAiLZSlAJ:hrcak.srce.hr/file/82825+%22platyla+similis%22+croatia&cd=1&hl=hu&ct=clnk&gl=hu">Stamol  (2010)</a> reported the species from Croatia. In Germany and in Great Britain the species is known from Pleistocene deposits. This species lives between 0 and 800 m above sea level in Bulgaria (Vet and Poppy 2007).
156536		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with mountainous limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones or at the base of rocks. However this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species (Grossu 1986).<br/></p>
156536		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species seems to be abundant. The population is thought to be stable.</p>
156536		threats	eng	<p>This species is not sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156537		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Thasos</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on the threats and distribution is recommended.</p>
156537		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Thasos (north Aegean Sea) (Bank and Menkhorst 1992).
156537		habitat	eng	The species was found in an area of woodland, scrub, grassland and bare rock communities.
156537		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156537		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing, quarrying and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156538		conservation	eng	The range of this species is not large, but the sub-population seems to be stable in places with undisturbed habitat. There are several natural protected areas of forest habitat with allows its preservation. Action plans should be focused on habitat preservation. Research is need to better delimitate its area of occupancy and to know the population density and biology. Taxonomic studies are also needed, in order to know if <span style="font-style: italic;">O. silvae</span> is in fact more than one species.
156538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north of Spain. The range extends along the Cantabrian slope from the west part of the Basque Country to Galicia. It is also present in the Atlantic region of Galicia and in some inner regions of Lugo and Orense provinces.
156538		habitat	eng	This species lives in deciduous and ilex forests, grasslands, river banks and ruderal habitats. This species is found within the leaf litter or under stones in humid places.
156538		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156538		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat alteration by urban growing and plantations. Fire is another threat.
156539		conservation	eng	Biological studies, population estimates and some species and habitat monitoring are needed.&#160;Some of the subpopulations live in natural protected sites (i.e. Sierra Norte of the Sevilla Natural Park).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). It is classify as Near Threatened in the Spanish Atlas of&#160; Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) and as Least Concern in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperón and Moreno 2008).
156539		distribution	eng	The south western Iberian endemic <em>G. gasulli</em>&#160;is known from western Sierra Morena (in the provinces of Huelva and Sevilla) and its northern foothills (Badajoz province)&#160;(Arrébola, Prieto, Puente and Ruiz 2006). Sierra Morena is the main mountain chain in the south-west of Spain.
156539		habitat	eng	Like <em>H. zapateri</em>, it is more frequently found at lower altitudes in the Sierra Morena than in higher ones. It lives in habitats dominated by rockrose (<em>Cistus</em> spp.) and cork and holm oak (<em>Quercus </em>spp<em>.</em>) in a generally non-calcareous area. Within the region <em>S. gasulli</em> lives on river banks, areas with certain anthropic influence and even under pines and eucalyptus. The individuals are usually found hidden under trunks and stones.&#160;<em>H. zapateri</em>&#160;and&#160;<em>G. gasulli</em>&#160;show certain ecological common aspects and occupy similar biotopes in contiguous areas of Sierra Morena&#160;(Arrébola, Prieto, Puente and Ruiz 2006).
156539		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
156539		threats	eng	Because&#160;<em>H. zapateri</em>&#160;and&#160;<em>G. gasulli</em> share certain ecological aspects and occupy similar biotopes in contiguous areas of Sierra Morena, the threats affecting them are also partially common. Despite the fact that the ranges of both species are mainly included in protected natural sites, some of the localities where they have been cited are close to human settlements with some agricultural or livestock development. These and other human activities have strongly degraded these places, where the species could be&#160;progressively&#160;disappearing. It would be important to quantify the proportion of the area of occupancy included in this type of sites and the proportion corresponding to more natural and better preserved places.
156540		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156540		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species is recorded from Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain. It is also known from almost the entire northern coast of Africa from Morocco to Libya.
156540		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Mediterranean shrubland. It is a thermophilic species and prefers limestone substrates.
156540		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156540		threats	eng	There are actually no threats to this species. Potentially, fires and overgrazing may affect the populations, but it is not known whether these threats actually have an influence on the subpopulations.
156541		conservation	eng	<p>Almost half of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156541		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northeast of the island of Tenerife. This range of this species is slightly fragmented, the most continuous area is found in the eastern Anaga Mountains. This species is recorded from 14 locations and 30 sites.<br/></p>
156541		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal and infracanario) and reaching towards the fringes of Laurisilva and Fayal-Brezal.<br/></p>
156541		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156541		threats	eng	<p>There are no significant threats to this species known. However, parts of the range of this species is located in the developing areas of the island, viz. La Laguna, St. Cruz de Tenerefe, and Candelaria, which might cause a problematic situation for these subpopulations.<br/></p>
156542		conservation	eng	<p>Almost the complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
156542		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northwest of the island of Tenerife. This species is recorded from five locations and seven sites.<br/></p>
156542		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal and infracanario).</p>
156542		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
156542		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156543		conservation	eng	<p>Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156543		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northern part of the island of Tenerife. Its distribution area is fragmented with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 250 km<sup>2 </sup>and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 20 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>
156543		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156543		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156543		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156544		conservation	eng	Due to its large distribution area, several sub-populations may inhabit protected areas. No conservation actions are required.
156544		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Central Europe, from Spain to Italy to Mid Germany and Austria. At least 100 sub-populations are known.
156544		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), this species occurs in dry open habitats,  characteristically at limestone rock faces and walls. It is rare above 2,000 m asl,  maximum up to 2,700 m, in Bulgaria 1,800 m. In the , it is restricted to  rocks directly exposed to sunshine, usually south-exposed rocks. It is only active on wet  surfaces or at high humidity. It feeds on endolithic lichens and algae.
156544		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to    assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156544		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by    quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However, the total    destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this    threat is mostly hypothetical.
156545		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine whether the species is till stable, and a habitat management plan will be required for the areas under fire damage which includes this species as the species still has a restricted range.
156545		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madeiran islands, where it is known living on Madeira only; it has been recorded as a Quaternary fossil on Porto Santo (Groh and Hemmen 1986). It is known at over 30 sites scattered over the island.<br/></p>
156545		habitat	eng	This is one of the larger of the Madeiran <span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia</span>, found in Laurisilva forests, on the&#160; ground on leaves, mosses and trunks of trees.
156545		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable.
156545		threats	eng	The habitat quality is not declining at present throughout these  regions, although there are localised decline due to changing forest  type, outside the protected areas.
156546		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should address habitat preservation. Research is needed about population size and ecology.
156546		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north of Spain. It lives in a small region from Asturias and León in the west to the westermost part of Cantabria and Burgos is the east. <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrina kobeltoides kobeltoides</span> is restricted to the cantabrian slope of this region, while <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. k. cliendentata</span> inhabites the south slope (mountains of the north of Duero basin).
156546		habitat	eng	It inhabits karstic areas, living on the rock surface in open places, or less frequently protected under stones.
156546		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156546		threats	eng	The species lives mostly in mountain areas. Thus, the only threats are construction of quarries or roads, activities that have only local impacts.
156547		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156547		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France (Central and Western Pyrenees) and Spain (Eastern Cantabrians, Western and Central Pyrenees).
156547		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156547		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156547		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156548		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2">The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs although some subpopulations are thought to be found within protected areas. Due to the fact that this species was confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastus pupa</span> by several authors and therefore faunistical records are not reliable, research activity should focus on the exploration of the species' range and distribution. No conservation actions are necessary at present.<br/></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"><br/></a></p>
156548		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southern Balkan Peninsula in Greece and Albania. Although thought to be frequent within its range, there is hardly any published faunistical records as this species has previously been confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastus pupa</span> by several authors (Fehér and Erőss 2009). It is probable that each <span style="font-style: italic;">M. pupa</span> record from Albania and Greece refers to this species. <br/>    <p>Based on the material in the HNHM Mollusc Collection, there are 30-50 known locations, but this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156548		habitat	eng	<p>This species prefers rocky habitats in limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156548		population	eng	This species is not rare within the range, therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156548		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications such as quarrying and construction work. However, total destruction of the preferred habitat across the whole range is not very likely, therefore local activities do not affect the whole species significantly.
156549		conservation	eng	The area where this species occur should be protected.
156549		distribution	eng	This molluscs is found in the Crimean Mountains, in Ukraine.
156549		habitat	eng	This species occurs in damp sites near mountainous streams, boggy grounds or shady gorges.
156549		population	eng	There are no data on the population of this species.
156549		threats	eng	Droughts and increase in temperature and light exposure as a result of climate changes impact this species
156550		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action for this species.</p>
156550		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea and Dhora & Welter-Schultes (1996) the species is distributed in Greece and Albania. Nevertheless, Feher and Eross (2009) in the&#160;Checklist of the Albanian mollusc fauna, suggested&#160;due to a misinterpretation of Subai (1995), Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) erroneously included this&#160;species in the Albanian list. Most probably however, this species does not live in Albania. Thus, the species will be&#160;considered&#160;as endemic of Greece (north and west parts of Greece).
156550		habitat	eng	The ecology and the habitat of the species is generally unknown, but the species should be expected to be mainly found under stones and piles of stones.
156550		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156550		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>  <p><br/></p>
156551		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be focused on habitat preservation. <span class="short_text" id="result_box">Cleaning the  undergrowth in pine forests should avoid habitat destruction. Collecting snails activities to trade with other collectors should be limited to dead shells, without disturbing its habitat. Research is need to better delimitate its area of occupancy (AOO), to know the reduction of its habitat caused by residential and tourist activities and to know the current size of its population. Research is also recommended on this species' taxonomy.
156551		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mallorca (Baleares Islands, Spain), where it is widely distributed in the west part of the island. Most records come from the southwest part of the island.
156551		habitat	eng	This species lives in forest places (pine and oaks) as well as in shrub and grassland open areas with rocky calcareous substrate, being protected against dessication under stones.
156551		population	eng	There are many places, particularly in the southwest of Mallorca Island that have been destroyed by the growing of urban constructions and gardening, together with tourist activities, particularly intenses during last decades. The population trend is decreasing.
156551		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat reduction, mainly in coastal places, by urban construction, gardening, and tourist activities. Snail collecting to trade with collectors, and fire are another threats. Sometimes, there are local areas with many stones turned in the ground, probably by fauna researchers or collectors. These activities should be regulated. Shrub and grassland removal from pine forest areas for "forest rehabilitation" are causing habitat degradation locally.
156552		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as&#160;Critically&#160;Endangered&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). There are no current conservation measures in action.
156552		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single cave in the island of Evvoia (Greece) (Gittenberger 1985).
156552		habitat	eng	It is found in caves, in areas of absolute dark  sections at humid limestones (Gittenberger 1985).&#160;The species is small in size (length: 4.2 - 5.2 mm and width: 2.4 - 2.7 mm).
156552		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
156552		threats	eng	Any alteration of the cave where the species is found can pose a direct&#160;threat&#160;for the species. There are no current threats, however mining and quarrying are both serious potential threats to this species.
156553		conservation	eng	There is no information if this "species" is protected in Germany and there is no information to suggest that the only known location is protected. <br/><br/>  There is little information about its taxonomy and distribution, therefore, research activity should focus on these points.&#160;As long as its relationship with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Trochulus hispida</span>&#160;and/or&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Trochulus caelatus</span>&#160;is unclear, there is no sense to assess this as a distinct species and to initiate any conservation actions. This species is listed as Data Deficient on the Austrian Red List.
156553		distribution	eng	Locard originally gave "France, South Germany, Switzerland" as type locations. In its current form, this "species" is considered to be endemic to the Danube Valley between the Suebian Alb and the Wachau. There are large gaps between the records from Bavaria and Austria .The extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated on the basis of the only definite location in Germany, as the two settlements are around 130 km from each other, thus the extent of occurrence was calculated as 130 x 2 km = 260 km². As long as the French and Austrian occurrences of this species are neither confirmed nor refuted, the extent of occurrence is very indefinite.
156553		habitat	eng	This "species" inhabits the floodplain of the Danube River and lives in periodically flooded grassland vegetation, on stands of larger herbs in the riparian forests
156553		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well studied due to the taxonomical and faunistical uncertainty and there is no specific information on population trend. However, from field observations it can be deduced that the trend is slightly declining.<br/></p>
156553		threats	eng	<p>This species inhabits riparian forests along the Danube valley, which is much affected by human impact. In the location this "species" is known from there are many ongoing threats including: residential and commercial development, agricultural activities, deforestation, pollution by waste water, and habitat destruction by increasing river regulation.<br/></p>
156554		conservation	eng	Many of the known populations of this species are included in Natural Reserves  (Nature reserve of the Montseny and Nature reserve of the Serra de  Collserola. <br/>It is recommended that a conservation plan is devised and that studies relating to the population size and the biology  and ecology of the species are performed.
156554		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula in Spain and France. In Spain its range extends from Barcelona, where Bros (2004) has cited it at numerous localities including Collserola's Sawa, the clump of the Montseny, the high basin of the Ter and coming up to Ribes's valley . In France it is known from several localities in the Pyrénées-Orientales (Bertrand 2002).
156554		habitat	eng	This species is typical of mixed forests, oak woods and evergreen oaks, although it can be also found in meadows and pastures if there are refuges (trunks, walls and stones) available. It has been found alive in humus and verbiage, under stones or dead trunks, and occasionally in walls and stones.
156554		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
156554		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is from fire.
156555		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the islands that the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156555		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyclades (Aegean Sea, Greece), being present on the islands of Anafi and Sifnos. The species is also known for subfossils from the island of Folegandros (Mylonas 1982, Subai 1996).
156555		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).&#160;</p>
156555		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a relatively abundant species.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156555		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;Nevertheless, the species must be considered as extinct from the island of Folegandros, from where it is known only from subfossils.&#160;</p>
156556		conservation	eng	The species is not protected. However due to  its large distribution, some subpopulations occur in protected areas.
156556		distribution	eng	This species lives in Greece (Thasos) (van Leeuwen 2005)&#160;and Crimea (Hausdorf 2000). Welter-Schultes (1996) reports the species from Albania. Several localities are known from Bulgaria (Irikov 2008) and from Turkey (Hausdorf 2000). This species lives in Greece in the Dodecanese Islands, in the Greek mainland and in Macedonia (FYROM). However, the annotated checklist of Macedonia (Stankovic <em>et al</em>. 2006) does not contain the species.
156556		habitat	eng	This species prefers shady habitats, below  shrubs in forests and also dry habitats.
156556		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156556		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of subpopulations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.
156557		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More  research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution of this species, to  clearly distinguish its various subspecies and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chilostoma acrotricha</span>.
156557		distribution	eng	This species is distributed mainly in Catalonia, with subpopulations in Huesca province (Spain) and in France (Pyrénées-Orientales and Ariège). The distribution map of this species in Puente (1994:675) includes data for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. acrotricha.</span>.
156557		habitat	eng	This species lives in relatively forested habitats where it can find  places to hide, i.e. crevices in rock boulders or even man-built but old  and rocky walls.
156557		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156557		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by   quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons.
156559		conservation	eng	<p>Only few subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156559		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife, where it is widespread and abundant.<br/></p>
156559		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), but also in salt marshes at sea level and in the pine forests at higher elevations (Pinar).</p>
156559		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156559		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156561		conservation	eng	The species is not protected where it lives. The Bulgarian localities (near Varna) seem to be separate from the Turkish populations.
156561		distribution	eng	This species lives in Bulgaria (surrounding Varna) and along the Black Sea coastal areas in Turkey, eastwards to Sinop. Most of the populations can be found in Turkey where the species is widespread and very common. This&#160;species lives between 0  and 20 m above sea level is Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>, however they live in a much wider elevation range in Turkey.
156561		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry shrub, weed and steppe vegatation, often on and around limestone rocks and buildings.
156561		population	eng	The species lives in dry places (steppe and shrub vegetation) in most cases in huge populations. There is unlikely that human activity has serious impact on the habitat of the species.&#160;The population is thought to be stable.
156561		threats	eng	The species lives in areas which are not seriously affected by human impact. There are no major threats to this species.
156562		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Moliner Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) suggest that the habitat should be protected and that the species is sensitive to disturbance of the habitat. Conservation actions should include protection of the habitat and long-term monitoring.
156562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands where it is restricted to La Gomera at Roce de Aluce, Lomo de Higueral and La Cabezada (see Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995)
156562		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland vegetation (Piso Basa).
156562		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens, so there are no population trends.
156562		threats	eng	No threats are known for this species.
156563		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
156563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sicily, Italy. Rensch (1937) gives a restricted distribution from Grotta dei Giganti to S. Maria di Gesu, Parco, and Oreto-Tal below Monreale (adjacent mountains of the Palermo plain). The Italian checklist (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) gives only western Sicily as distribution of this species. No newer published data are available.
156563		habitat	eng	The animals live on the surface of rocks and have also been found on the trunks of very old olive trees.
156563		population	eng	There are no data available.
156563		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are tourism development, pasturing, quarrying and road construction.
156564		conservation	eng	More research is needed to clearly establish the taxonomic validity of this species.
156564		distribution	eng	This species is found in France, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and in Spain, across the border. It has a restricted extent of occurrence of about 1,500 km² and is known from less than 10 locations: Arneguy, Hendaye (possibly extinct), Bayonne (possibly extinct), Vallee du Clain (France) and unclear localities in Spain.
156564		habitat	eng	The specis inhabits forested habitat and mesophilous shrubland.
156564		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156564		threats	eng	As the species is confined to a small area, it can be impacted by recreational activities, logging, urban development and other human activities. The past extension of the species went probably up to the coast, but nowadays, there is no adequate habitat left for this species in the coastal area of this region. Surveys by Falkner et von Proschwitz in 1995 failed to find any specimen in the Hendaye area (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).
156565		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action for this species.
156565		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece and is today found in numerous regions of the mainland as well the islands of the Aegean Sea (Subai 1996).
156565		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).&#160;</p>
156565		population	eng	The population trend of this species appears to be increasing. According to Subai (1996), it is possible that certain anatomical  features are partly responsible for a greater ecological fitness against  competing species. The species&#160;seems to have expanded its range and replace  neighbouring species, possibly  due to dispersal through human activities.
156565		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;On the contrary the species seems to have expanded its distribution in the region (Subai 1996).&#160;</p>
156566		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
156566		distribution	eng	The species lives mainly in the Asian part of Turkey and the neighbouring parts of Turkey (Vil. Bursa). It can be also found on the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria.
156566		habitat	eng	This species is associated primarily with dry limestone areas, where it  is usually found under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is  not an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156566		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Within its relatively large range&#160;this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population is thought to be stable.</p>  <p></p>
156566		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the  complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed  by erosion, fire, mining, etc.). Ecosystem modification is only a  "hypothetical" threat at the current time.
156567		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Switzerland as Near Threatened (NT), in Bayern (Germany) as Endangered (EN) and in Baden-Wuerttemberg (Germany) as Vulnerable (VU).
156567		distribution	eng	This is a palaearctic species with a distribution ranging from Europe to China.
156567		habitat	eng	This species lives on open rock habitats, screes, and dry grassland.
156567		population	eng	For Switzerland, a slight decline ahs been observed. For Germany, there is not much information available. For most of the subpopulations, the size and trend within the populations are supposed to be stable.
156567		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156568		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in Romania on national level, however  several know localities lies within protected areas and national parks.
156568		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Romania in southwest Transilvania and south Carpathians.
156568		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156568		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species can be very abundant.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156568		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events does not affect the whole population significantly.
156569		conservation	eng	In France this species is under national protection and it occurs in the Mercantour national park. Parts of its range in Switzerland are in protected areas. The site at Maiella in Italy is also a national park and in the protected area Alpe Maritime near the border to France. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). Habitat and population monitoring is recommended, particularly of the subspecies present in Switzerland.
156569		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrina megacheilos</span> is divided into four subspecies which occur very isolated from each other:<br/><br/>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. m. caziotiana</span> is only found in the southern Alps in France, just about extending into Italy. This French subspecies shows high variability and genetic studies are needed.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. m. burtscheri</span> is found in Bürs, Austria.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. m. megacheilos</span> occurs in Switzerland in the Tessin and in Bergamasker Alps in the east.<br/>The fourth subspecies is undescribed and is found in the Parque Nazionale in Maiella, Italy.
156569		habitat	eng	This is a rock dwelling species found mainly on calcareous rocks up to an altitude of 2,500 m.
156569		population	eng	In Switzerland, there are nine locations and it is Critically Endangered and the trend is declining. In France, it can be found in a restricted area of 8,000 km<sup>2</sup> and it is found in many places and the populations are stable. It is probably declining in Italy and there are two localities in Austria but the trend is not known. <span style="background-color: green;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
156569		threats	eng	The main threat to the subspecies in Switzerland is rock quarrying. There are no major threats to the subspecies in France.
156570		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156570		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Gittenberger 1991).
156570		habitat	eng	This species is usually&#160;found in xeric shrublands.
156570		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156570		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Over-grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.
156571		conservation	eng	The only two known locations are well preserved sites belonging to the&#160;Andalusia&#160;Natural Park&#160;Los Alcornocales (Arrébola 1998). This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). More research is needed on the taxonomy, ecology, population and distribution of this species, as well as on the threats it faces and the required conservation measures.
156571		distribution	eng	This is an Andalusian endemic species, only known from a small mountainous area in the western part of the province of Malaga (Arrébola 1998, Arrébola and Ruiz 2008).
156571		habitat	eng	The specimens from the type locality were collected about 15-20 m away from a creek, under various big stones belonging to the ruins of a small house, in a uncultivated area with poor vegetation (Arrébola 1998).
156571		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
156571		threats	eng	Fires, competition (<em>O. ortizi</em>) and stochastic events can severely affect this species, especially because of its very restricted range. More data are needed about the species and also about the threats it faces.
156572		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
156572		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northern part of Lanzarote. This species is recorded from four locations and nine sites, area of occupancy (AOO) is 16 km<sup>2</sup>. It lives exclusively on the ridge of the Riscos.<br/></p>
156572		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs on lichen-rich rocks. </p>
156572		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the sub-populations are stable.</p>
156572		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156573		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Montenegro and its known sites are out of protected areas.     </p><p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points to determine if conservation action is required.</p>  <p></p>
156573		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Tara valley near Bistrica.&#160;In the collection of the HNHM there are material from other locations in the Tara valley and in the upper section of the Moraca valley, on the opposite part of the Sinjajevina Mountains.<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well studied and its range and distribution needs to be studied in the future. At the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156573		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species it is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones or at the base of rocks.</p>
156573		population	eng	<p>There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156573		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.</p>
156574		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in&#160;Amorgos&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species. Research is needed on the threats and distribution of this species.
156574		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece on Naxos Island (Cyclades (Bank and Menkhorst 1992).
156574		habitat	eng	This is a rock-dwelling species, i.e. it is found on rocks and in rock crevices.
156574		population	eng	The species is quite rare.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156574		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing, quarrying and fire can potentially restrict the population of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156575		conservation	eng	Many of the populations of this species are protected in nature reserves. Due to the large number of populations found it is though that this species is not threatened.
156575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is found across the province of Valencia and in the north of the province of Alicante.
156575		habitat	eng	This species lives under rocks and crack, in verbiage and in caves, as does the rest of the species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Suboestophora</span>.
156575		population	eng	The population of this species is stable, with good numbers of specimens present.
156575		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires, quarrying, urban expansion, extension of roads, temperature extremes and  drought.
156576		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Bosnia-Hercegovina and its known sites are outside of protected areas.     </p><p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points.</p>  <p></p>
156576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic in Bosnia, although its range and distribution needs to be studied further in the future. The current known locations are Vrbas gorge near Banja Luka, Krupa na Vrbasu, 15 km South of Krupa na Vrbasu, nine km North of Jajce, Plivsi Jezero near Jajce and Vlasic Mountain near Travnik, 1500 m asl. (Maassen 1985).&#160;There are at least six known locations within a relatively wide range, thus we can reasonably suppose that several undiscovered populations exist, and thus the area of occupancy (AOO) might be higher than 20 km<sup>2</sup> and/or number of locations may be more than five. At the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156576		habitat	eng	<p>Although this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones in rocky grasslands, or at the base of larger rocks.</p>
156576		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species is not frequent within its range. There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156576		threats	eng	This species occurs in rocky, mostly limestone, habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road constructions or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical at present.
156577		conservation	eng	It would be recommended to conduct biological studies and population estimates, as well as some species and habitat monitoring.&#160;Some of the subpopulations live in natural protected sites (Natural Parks: Aracena,&#160;Sierra Norte, Despeñaperros, Cardeña y Montoro...).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
156577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. It has been cited in 92 grids of 10 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;in the provinces of Huelva, Sevilla, Córdoba, Jaén, Cáceres, Madrid, Toledo, Ciudad Real, Badajoz, in Spain, as well as the Algarve and Alentejo in Portugal.
156577		habitat	eng	<em>H. cistorum</em> shows a predilection for Mediterranean shrubs (i.e. <em>Cistus</em> spp.), associated or not with hardwood (<em>Quercus</em> spp. like holm oak and cork) and with frequent low herbaceous cover. It is also found in ruderal vegetation, gardens and orchards in mountain environments. This species can live in certain severe conditions of aridity, sheltered under stones or in rocks crevices. It is common to find isolated individuals. In Andalusia, it is mainly distributed in the Sierra Morena, on soils generally acids and poor in calcium (it seems to be indifferent to calcium) (Muñoz 1992, Puente 1994; Arrébola 1995).
156577		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
156577		threats	eng	Apart from fires, common during the summer months, no general special threats are known for this species. The ecological and habitats preferences of the species and the fact that a large part of its range is in protected natural sites partially characterized by&#160;inaccessibility&#160;and/or unsuitable for human settlements and activities, reduce potential threats.
156578		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Albania and most of the known subpopulations are out of protected areas.<br/><br/>There are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156578		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Central Albania. Subai (2002) provides 14 locations and in the HNHM Mollusc Collection there are 20 unpublished distribution records.<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156578		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156578		population	eng	Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare and therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156578		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering its relatively large range, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.
156579		conservation	eng	<p>In Croatia the subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">C. setosa imberbis</span> is protected<a name="OLE_LINK2">. However, most of the species' known sites are out of protected areas.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2">Due to the large and stable population however, there are no further conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></a></p>
156579		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the Adriatic coast in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia between the Istrian Peninsula and the Neretva valley. There are around 100 known locations (Subai 2002).<br/>    <p>There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156579		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156579		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156579		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the number of known subpopulations, local activities do not seem to affect the whole population.</p>
156580		conservation	eng	This species is found in some national parks. The protection of its habitat and of the known populations are   recommended. Taxonomic research is required to clarify the validity of this species.
156580		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Catalonia, where it is found in the southern half of the province of Tarragona in north-eastern Spain.
156580		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilous (adapted to dry environments) species of steppe environments that has been  collected in pinnates, Mediterranean bushes, groves of evergreen oaks, and by the edges of roads.
156580		population	eng	Recent sampling shows the populations of this species to be stable.
156580		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires, quarries, urban expansion, temperature extremes, extension of roads  and   drought.
156581		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action for this species.</p>
156581		distribution	eng	This species is known from Albania and north-west Greece (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996, Fischer 2003).
156581		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">mainly under stones or piles of stones.
156581		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;&#160;</p>
156581		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156582		conservation	eng	In Great Britain, this species is likely to continue declining outside the reserves given the changes in land management practices. Two known sites are within National Nature Reserves (NNR).&#160; Three sites are Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)’s and two sites are within National Trust properties. In general there is insufficient monitoring of this species to make a formal assessment based on decline data, in spite of known declines.&#160; Surveys should be targeted within known sites to permit trend data to be gathered.
156582		distribution	eng	This is a boreo-alpine species. Its main distribution area is in Scandinavia (Proschwitz 1993). It occurs very localized in Wales, Lake District and Scotland (Kerney 1999, NBN Internet Atlas 2006). It is recorded from two sites on the Pyrenees, on in France and one in Spain (Proschwitz 2004), but is also known from 2 sites in southern Germany, and also recorded from north-western Russia.<br/>In Great Britain, it is known from more than 10   locations. The area of occupancy in Great Britain is 2,700 km<sup>2</sup> (27 squares in 10 km<sup>2 </sup>Atlas, Kerney 1999; NBN Internet Atlas 2006).&#160; A loss from 2,500 km<sup>2</sup> over the last 100 years is suggesting the range may have declined by 45% .&#160; Although, in some regions there has been little recording, the changes in habitat with upland grass improvement schemes and afforestation means that areas of past habitat have been modified.
156582		habitat	eng	This species tolerates acidic conditions, it is found amongst saturated decaying vegetation  in <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus </span>swamps, often at the margins of lakes and rivers,  sometimes in isolated mires (Kerney e<span style="font-style: italic;">t al.</span> 1983, Cameron 1992, Chater 1985, Kerney 1999).
156582		population	eng	In Great Britain, the species range has declined by 45% over the last 100 years. Although this in part reflects areas which have not been recently recorded, it is known that some of these colonies have been destroyed by upland grazing improvements and changing water levels around reservoirs (Kerney 1999).&#160; Local losses in Lake District over the last 10 years (Colville, pers. comm., 2011) may reflect changing agricultural drainage in highland areas.
156582		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are agricultural drainage relating to upland grass improvement schemes in Wales and the Lake District.&#160; Fluctuating water levels in areas adjacent to reservoirs in upland areas, acidification related to deforestation as well as eutrophication, herbicides, and pesticides put this species under pressure. It is described to be extremely sensitive to any human impact and disappears from all places, where habitat structure and quality is changed (Proschwitz 1993: 196).
156583		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions to this species, because of the general lack of information. Further research is need on the distribution, habitat, taxonomy and population size of this species.
156583		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria without any specific locality. Besides the description in 1878, there are no additional published records for this species. <br/></p>
156583		habitat	eng	The species can be expected to live under xeric conditions (Wollaston 1878).
156583		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156583		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats known to this species, because of the general lack of information about this species.</p>
156584		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where occurs, however it is very probable that some of the subpopulations can be found within protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156584		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the Adriatic coast from northern Dalmatia to central Albania. Inland it reaches to northwestern Bosnia, northern Montenegro and southern Serbia. In the HNHM Mollusc Collection there are material from at least 100 different locations. This indicates that this species is not rare within its range and   there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156584		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas where it is usually found in rocky habitats among herbaceous vegetation, or in the crevices or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156584		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156584		threats	eng	<p>This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications which affect either the rocks or the vegetation in their habitats due to forestry, recreational activities, quarrying, construction work, etc. However, total destruction of the preferred habitat across the whole range is not very likely, therefore local activities do not affect the whole species significantly.</p>
156587		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156587		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the&#160;region&#160;of Macedonia (Subai 1990).
156587		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is understudied. The species is possibly found under stones and in piles of stones.
156587		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156587		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156588		conservation	eng	There is a lack of information relation to this species. Research is needed on species ecology, number of sites and population trends and potential threats to the species.
156588		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France where it has a very restricted distribution and is only found in Ardeche. It has been been introduced into Germany by a nature lover who transported them from France to Germany and established them there. It has also been introduced to Haute-Garonne in France.
156588		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry areas in Mediterranean shrubland and grassland.
156588		population	eng	In France, it is present in the lower part of the Rhone valley where it is rather rare and scattered. The current population trend is unknown. The number of collections has decreased in the last decades which could indicate a population decline but could have other reasons too.
156588		threats	eng	There is habitat loss taking place but the causes if this are not known. In one site parking of vehicles is degrading the habitat quality.
156589		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are out of protected areas. The geographic range and the existing subpopulations of this species are not exactly known and therefore any research activity should focus on these points. Conservation actions are currently not required for this species.</p>
156589		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western part of Greece and South Albania. Additional records are known from Epirus (Igoumenitsa area, Ioannina Lake), in Ithaki and Kefallinia Islands, as well as in Lakonia (Peloponnesos Peninsula) (Boeters <em>et al.</em> 1989, Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996). Compared to the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), the number of known locations is not very high, however, it might be underestimated due to the hidden life of the species.     <p>The species is far from being well studied and its range and distribution needs to be studied in the future. At the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156589		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.
156589		population	eng	Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population  trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely  fluctuating.
156589		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone)  habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are  destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons.  However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely,  therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156590		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.
156590		distribution	eng	Endemic to Europe: This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It is known from a small area of distribution in the centre of the island at Pineto de Tarajana above St. Bartholome. This is the type locality, there are no published records of any additional sites for this species.
156590		habitat	eng	This species lives in the local pine forests (Pinar).
156590		population	eng	There are no data on the population size or trend.
156590		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known because of a general lack of information.
156591		conservation	eng	The species is reported from at least five Natura 2000 sites in Cyprus (see&#160;http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/species/287139/sites).
156591		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Bank and Hovestadt 1991).
156591		habitat	eng	This is a soil-dwelling species, usually found in open habitats close to the coastal area.
156591		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156591		threats	eng	The alteration of land-use of the coastal areas due to the increasing tourist activities in Cyprus, along with grazing and fire can potentially restrict the subpopulations of the species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156592		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. Most of the known sites are out of protected areas, however there are no further conservation actions required for this species.</p>
156592		distribution	eng	The main range of this species includes South Montenegro and Northwest Albania and it extends to the territory of Bosnia too (Maassen 1995; Fehér and Erőss 2009) with&#160;known remote locations in Mljet Island (Croatia) far from the main area. There are several known subpopulations mentioned by Maassen (1995) and Fehér and Erőss 2009). There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156592		habitat	eng	This species is associated primarily with limestone areas where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156592		population	eng	<p>Within the main range it does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156592		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156593		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156593		distribution	eng	The species is reported from Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Turkey (Bank and Hovestadt 1991, &#160;Schütt 2001).
156593		habitat	eng	This is a soil-dwelling species usually found in open, xeric habitats.
156593		population	eng	The species is widespread and locally abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of the species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156593		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">The destruction of the species habitat, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species.</a>
156594		conservation	eng	Some of this species range are in a protected area. The protection of the known populations and its habitat is recommended. Research on the population trends of this species is needed.
156594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Pyrenees, where it is restricted to a few localities on the coastlines of north-east Girona (Spanish province) and south-east of Pyrenees-Orientales in France. It is known from 30 sites within its range.
156594		habitat	eng	This species is found between stones on the ground in protected and humid open areas at low altitudes. It is hard to find this species as it is buried in the ground. It is also found in ruderal areas and on the edge of vineyards.
156594		population	eng	There is no population information and the current status of this species is unknown.
156594		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown but fires, tourism and urban developments are potential threats. There is a decline in the quality of its habitat in parts of its range mainly due to tourism.
156595		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2">The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. Some of the known subpopulations are within protected areas, however</a> due to the distribution of this species and the stable population there are no further conservation actions required.</p>
156595		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the southeastern Alps (Prealpi Veneto orientale, Alpi Giulie, Carso in Italy and Karnten in Austria) as far as to Dalmatia (Omis).<br/>Distribution records are provided by Klemm (1973), Alzona (1971) and Soós (1943). Further distribution records: Slovenia: Kamniska Bistrica spring, West of Reka, between Permani and Rupa; Croatia: Paklenica and Mala Paklenica near Starigrad, Omis, Plitvice, Sv Juraj, Fuzine, Obrovac, Zlobin, Dom Brdo near Benkovac (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished). Considering the small size and the hidden life of this species it is probable that this species is more frequent than shown by distribution records.     <p>There is no reason to suppose that Extent of occurrence (EOO), Area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156595		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found in crevices of the rock or among leaf litter at the base of rocks. <br/></p>
156595		population	eng	<p>Due to the small size and hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156595		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications such as through forestry, recreational activities and quarrying. However, total destruction of the preferred habitat across the whole range is not very likely and therefore local activities do not affect the whole species significantly.
156596		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">Kasos under various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156596		distribution	eng	The species is endemic of the island of Kasos (eastern Aegean Sea, Greece) (Subai 1996).
156596		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found mainly under stones or piles of stones.&#160;</p>
156596		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156596		threats	eng	<p></p><p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p><p></p>
156597		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Red List of Bayern, Germany ( Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003) as Critically Endangered (CR).
156597		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution ranging from France in the west to Sweden in the north extending into Russia eastwards. It is a European endemic.
156597		habitat	eng	This species lives in temperate forests at moist and shaded places.
156597		population	eng	The sub-populations are declining around the edges of its range. In France, the presence of the species has been doubtful and it might now be extinct.
156597		threats	eng	There are actually no major threats to this species. Local subpopulations are under threat (see Bavaria) because of habitat destruction and deformation by logging and forest management, but this does not affect the whole species.
156598		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.
156598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera, where it is known from Hermigua and Mancha Yerba.
156598		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156598		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156598		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known because of general lack of information about this species.
156599		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156599		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Palma. It was described from a barranco above Sta. Cruz, and never found again.
156599		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156599		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156599		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156600		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action in place, but it requires further research to determine the status as a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas with no specific threats.
156600		distribution	eng	Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2002) list the species as endemic to Porto Santo only. However the taxonomic issues discussed in taxonomic notes, led Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1996, 2006) and subsequent unpublished surveys (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010) and Seddon (2008) to conclude that only one species <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterostoma paupercula</span> was present on Porto Santo.
156600		habitat	eng	If considered a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas.
156600		population	eng	If considered a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas.
156600		threats	eng	If considered a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas with no specific threats.
156601		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156601		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small area in the Appennin, Liguria, Italy.
156601		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), this species lives in limestone crevices, close to small water currents running in open and rocky terrain, 30-50  cm deep, and also in small caves.
156601		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, butpopulations are believed to be stable.
156601		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species, except quarrying.
156602		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research about the taxonomy of the whole genus<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ponentina</span> should be made in order to better delimitate the species and to know if there are threatened taxa of conservation concern. Research is also needed on the population size and trend of this species.
156602		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. revelata</span>&#160;is present in southwest Europe, including southwest France, west Spain and Portugal. In France it is limited to Landas and west Pyrenees departments. In the Iberian Peninsula it is distributed throughout Portugal and in the neighboring provinces of Spain. In the north of Spain it is extended to La Rioja, while in the south it gets as far as Jaén and Córdoba.
156602		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. revelata</span> lives in a wide variety of habitats, including grasslands, gardens, cliffs, dunes and ruderal environments. Sometimes it is present on stone walls or over stalks of plants, but it is also protected under stones during dry conditions.
156602		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156602		threats	eng	The species lives in natural conditions, in a wide variety of habitats as well as in human altered habitats. The only threat to consider is fire.
156603		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Albania and the whole potential range is outside of protected areas. The geographic range of this species is   not exactly known, therefore research activity should focus on that.
156603		distribution	eng	This species lives in the Tomor Mountains in Albania. There are 11 known sampling sites but some of them are very close together, thus they mean less locations according to IUCN standards. The projected extent of occurrence (EOO) is 16 km<sup>2</sup>, so it seems  to be a narrow  range endemic species. The species is far from being  well studied and further studies might extend its range somewhat. On the other hand, the habitat is in good condition, so there is no reason to  suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of sub-populations are declining or extremely  fluctuating.
156603		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with a limestone   area. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base   of rocks.
156603		population	eng	Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are   difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite   unexplored, there are no data on population trend. However, there is no   reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature   individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156603		threats	eng	This species is probably not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. It might be threatened only by the total  destruction of the habitat such as road and other construction work or quarrying. In the Tomor peak, there is a sanctuary which is visited by crowds every year. However, there is no visible effect of this activity on the quality of the rocky habitat.
156604		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156604		distribution	eng	This species is only found on Santa Maria island, Azores.
156604		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis sanctaemariae </span>is commonly found in forested areas, preferring clumps of undergrowing <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>, but also frequently found under dead leaves and loose stones.
156604		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis sanctaemariae</span> is common throughout Santa Maria island (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991).
156604		threats	eng	Due to the extent of its range and its abundance, no threats are foreseen.
156605		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Turkey and in Bulgaria. However due to its relatively large distribution, some sub-populations most likely occur in protected areas.
156605		distribution	eng	The only "typical" specimens can be distinguished from <span style="font-style: italic;">M. solidior</span> (Mousson) (Hausdorf 2000, Irikov 2008). Unquestionable determination is based on anatomical  characters only. Therefore, the exact range of the species is unknown.<br/>The species is known from several subpopulations in Bulgaria (collection of the HNHM and Irikov 2008) and from northwestern Turkey (Hausdorf 2000). Sturany and Wagner (1914) reports the species from Greece, Chalkidiki and there is one sample in the HNHM from there as well. However, according to Hausdor (2000) the sample of Sturany and Wagner "almost certainly do not belong to this species".
156605		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shady habitats, below  shrubs in forests, also in dry habitats, up to elevations of 600 m in Rodopi and up to 1000 m  in Central Balkan National Park.
156605		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156605		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156606		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. The subpopulations require future monitoring and probably conservation measures have to be considered.<br/></p>
156606		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the southern and western parts of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from seven locations and seven sites.<br/></p>
156606		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156606		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156606		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened due to urbanisation, road construction and agriculture. This particularly relates to the subpopulations in the south of the island.<br/></p>
156607		conservation	eng	On the basis of its range it meets the criteria for a "Species of Conservation Concern" in Spain. The Balearic Islands hold the 100%&#160; of the population of this species, but no conservation action plans are currentlt in place for this species. A large part of its range is within protected areas, particularly in the Sierra de Tramuntana and in Cabrera Archipelago. It allows to preserve the habitat of this species, a priority for its conservation. Nevertheless, more studies are needed about population size, biology and ecological requirements. The taxonomy of the complex needs further studies.
156607		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mallorca Island and Cabrera Archipelago (Spain) and is widely distributed in areas of calcareous rocky substrate.
156607		habitat	eng	This species lives in karstic areas and in old stone walls, being refugee within rock crevices during dry conditions. It is only active on rainy days.
156607		population	eng	There are no population studies, but assumed stable in the areas where the habitat is still not altered.
156607		threats	eng	Threats to this species are construction of new residential areas, tourism development and road construction. Fire is also a threat.
156608		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List and Bayern (Germany) as Endangered (EN) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <br/><br/>The potential threats to this species should be researched as it has a declining population trend in Switzerland but the causes are not understood. In particular, the influence of global warming should be investigated. Monitoring of the whole population is also required to see if the negative trend seen in Switzerland is occurring in other areas.
156608		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Central and eastern Alps in Austria, Germany, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland from Valais to the eastern margin of the Alps. However, the area of occupancy is suspected to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>. The sites have been found from 1,570 to 2,900 m asl.
156608		habitat	eng	This species lives on grassland with rocks and is only occasionally found below the timberline.
156608		population	eng	<p>There is little information available from most of the species' range. In Switzerland, there are 12 known localities and a negative trend is evident as it has disappeared from some valleys in the last 30 years. There is no information for Austria available but it is suspected to be about the same size. Where it occurs the density is relatively low. </p><p>&#160;</p>
156608		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156609		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
156609		distribution	eng	This species lives in northwest Republic of Makedonija and central Albania.
156609		habitat	eng	This species was found on relatively humid meadows.
156609		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156609		threats	eng	This species inhabits wetlands which can be affected by human activity.
156610		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156610		distribution	eng	This species is only found on São Miguel island, Azores.
156610		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus pruninus</span> prefers wooded areas, where it can be found under logs, amidst clumps of dried vegetation, buried in the soil, and sometimes climbing up the branches and leaves.
156610		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus pruninus</span> is abundant in forested areas throughout São Miguel island. <span style="font-style: italic;">N. pruninus</span> is very variable, the shell and the anatomy resembling sometimes either <span style="font-style: italic;">N. alabastrinus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">N. tremulans</span>. It appears also to be some introgression with <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vulgaris</span>, already pointed out by Morelet (1860). The taxon is currently under revision, but here <span style="font-style: italic;">N. pruninus</span> is taken in its current accepted form.
156610		threats	eng	Although sometimes hard to find, this species is dispersed throughout the island in all types of forests; no threats are foreseen.
156611		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156611		distribution	eng	The species is&#160;distributed&#160;in Greece, Albania and Turkey (Schütt, 2001, Irikov and Eross 2008).
156611		habitat	eng	The species is soil-dwelling,&#160;usually&#160;found under stones.
156611		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156611		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats. No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156612		conservation	eng	The species should be reviewed periodically to assess changes in the status.
156612		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands; it is found living on the main island of Madeira and recorded as a Quaternary fossil from Porto Santo.&#160; It is known from more than 30 sites over the island, and is viewed as most common towards the lower-lying areas near the coast (Seddon 2008).
156612		habitat	eng	This species is found undersides of stones and on walls, on rocky slopes and crags amongst grasses and herbs, up to 400 m asl.
156612		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends, but believed to be stable.
156612		threats	eng	It is considered not to be threatened at present due to the availability of habitat and lack of decline in quality of habitat over the range, as it is present on the less developed western and northern coasts.&#160; Around urbanizations the species is possibly declining, as habitats are lost due to hotel and residential developments.
156613		conservation	eng	<p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points.</p>    <p>The species is not protected at national level in Montenegro and its known sites are out of protected areas.</p>
156613		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Montenegrian coast. The six known locations are the following: two locations near Igalo (Herceg-Novi), Kameno near Herceg-Novi, Njegusi near Kotor, Obodska pecina near Virpazar and 17 km W of Tudjemili in the Rumija Mts. (Subai 2008). This species is far from being well studied and new&#160; locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p><p>Fauna Europaea indicates records<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. formosa</span> from Bosnia-Hercegovina and Croatia, but these records refer to occurrences of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. biarmata</span>, thus in fact <span style="font-style: italic;">A. formosa</span> lives only in Montenegro.</p>
156613		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.</p>
156613		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156613		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons such as leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical at present.<br/></p>
156615		conservation	eng	Due to the confusion concerning the taxonomic status no conservation measures are needed, however taxonomic research is highly recommended to verify or falsify the validity of this taxon.
156615		distribution	eng	This species is known from the French Pyrenees (Hautes Pyrenees and Ariege in: Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle [Ed].         2003-2010), Andorra (Bertrand 2000) and Spain, in areas currently  unconfirmed. New sampling efforts are necessary to know its full distribution in in these countries.
156615		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is currently unknown.
156615		population	eng	The population trends of this species are currently unknown.
156615		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown.
156616		conservation	eng	<em>O. lactea</em> represents a true traditional, natural and economic resource to rural populations, and its demand is growing year after year.&#160;Unfortunately, the impact caused by uncontrolled and excessive harvesting, accumulated over a long period, as well as other pressures related to human activities, have led to a reduction of the snail’s population, according to the people that used to harvest them. In our opinion, it is urgent to manage this species like the natural and economic resource that it represents, by establishing appropriate periods and catch sizes, investigating the aspects of the species and its population that are still unknown and promoting the heliciculture. Knowing the personal motivations, politic and social context and the local interest in relation with the species would be useful in order to raise awareness and to involve citizens and public authorities in the management of this resource (Reynolds, Mace, Redford and Robinson 2001)
156616		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western part of the Mediterranean: in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco, Algeria, Balearic and Canary Islands, Malta and Corsica. Its is introduced in the Azores, Madeira and the south-east of the USA (Puente 1994). Due to its popularity as a food source it has been introduced to many areas.
156616		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a great variety of habitats, usually in sunny and dry places (rocky areas, gardens, walls, ruins, wasteland, orchards, mountains, Mediterranean crops, shrubs, bushes...) (Puente 1994). It is well adapted to live in biotopes under human influence. Life history and population studies have been conducted in two places in Andalusia during the last years, as part of the&#160;"Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía) (Arrébola <em>et al</em>. unpublished reports).
156616		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. However, based on general observations, the species appears to be found in great numbers and high densities.
156616		threats	eng	The main threat against&#160;<em>O. lactea</em> is the unregulated over-harvesting as a long-standing tradition, causing important impact on the population. Other threats are the increase in agriculture, habitat degradation, due to pollution and general human activities, and fires.
156617		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
156617		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Western Europe: it occurs from Spain to the United Kindom.
156617		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open habitats.
156617		population	eng	The are no population data, but the trends are thought to be stable.
156617		threats	eng	There ar no major threats.
156618		conservation	eng	The main conservation actions are further research on the ecology and distribution of this species, as well as monitoring of the species and its habitat. Further actions are the management of the area and the development of adequate regulations to protect this species.
156618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from Spain, where it is found in the provinces of Granada, Almería, Murcia, Alicante and Tarragona (Puente 1994, Martinez-Ortí 1999).
156618		habitat	eng	This is a xerophile species, living&#160;&#160;in Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, pines and rainfed crops&#160;in calcareous and steppe areas (Gasull 1975, Martinez-Ortí 1999).
156618		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However, it seems to be well represented in the areas where it lives, especially in Murcia and the south of Alicante.
156618		threats	eng	Agriculture, urbanisation and tourism are the main threats for this species, even though it is able to resist a certain level of pressure.
156619		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156619		distribution	eng	The species is present in Greece (Chios, east Aegean Islands), north-western Turkey and Bulgaria. From Bulgaria is known from a single locality (Hausdorf 2000, Irikov 2008).
156619		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in open habitats of various vegetation types.
156619		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156619		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156620		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">the species' area of&#160;</st1:place>occurrence&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span>
156620		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece and it is found in a number of regions, i.e. Attiki, Peloponnese, Thessalia, and the islands of Methana, Poros and Ydra (Subai 1996).
156620		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones.</p>
156620		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156620		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;According to Subai (1996)&#160;has suffered considerable range reduction during the past centuries, and has been replaced mainly by <em>C. sphaeriostoma.&#160;</em></p>
156621		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Romania and In  Bulgaria. No conservation measures are needed for this species.
156621		distribution	eng	This species lives in Romania and in Bulgaria in the coastal area of the Black Sea (Damjanov and Likharev 1975, Grossu 1987). <br/>This species   lives between 0 and 100 m above sea level in Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>.
156621		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry shrub, weed and steppe vegetation, often on and around limestone   rocks.
156621		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156621		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other   realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the   complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying etc.). Drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical"   threat at the current time.
156622		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action in place for this species.  However, it occurs in the core area of the Pyrenees National Park.
156622		distribution	eng	This species is mostly restricted to the southern slopes of the Pyrenees in Spain. It extends along the coast of Catalonia (Spain). Some scattered localities occur in France (Pyrénées-Orientales, Hautes-Pyrénées and Pyrénées-Atlantiques)
156622		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156622		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where  it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156622		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Urbanization, quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156623		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;There are no conservation actions currently applied.
156623		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in eastern Macedonia (Fauer 1991).
156623		habitat	eng	The species has been found in a stony mountain  slope with low vegetation&#160;(Fauer 1991).
156623		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species. This species appears to be rare (Fauer 1991).</p>
156623		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156624		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
156624		distribution	eng	This European endemic species has a split distribution, known from the Cantabrian range in northern Spain and from a distant location in the Eastern French and Spanish Pyrenees.
156624		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
156624		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156624		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
156625		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not  protected at the national level in Serbia and there is no  information to say how many of the known locations fall within protected  areas.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p>However, there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156625		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in central and eastern Serbia. The type locality is "Gebirge Stol". Subai (2002) lists 20 known locations,  but this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently, there  is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are  declining or extremely fluctuating.
156625		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone  areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the  base of rocks.
156625		population	eng	The species' range is far from being well explored, thus there is no  specific information on population trend, but there is no reason to  suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature  individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156625		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other  realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the  complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitats (quarrying,  earthquakes, etc.). Considering the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the number  of known subpopulations, local activities do not seem to affect the  whole population.
156626		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as&#160;Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action for this species.</span></p>
156626		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, and is found in the region of Epirus (Klemm 1962).
156626		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in limestone areas in shrublands.
156626		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no population trend information for this species.</p>
156626		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct current threats for the species in the near future.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156627		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions required.
156627		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in the north of Spain, south of France and central Italy. It has been introduced to Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic and Poland.
156627		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in rocky dry grasslands and  wastelands, open habitats, gardens, also roadsides, climbs tree trunks  and herbal plants for aestivation.
156627		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156627		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole   population significantly.
156628		conservation	eng	It is recommended to conduct first biological studies and population estimates, as well as moderate species monitoring. This species was classified as NT in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009; pag. 45) and LC in the Andalusia Invertebrates Red Book (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperon and Moreno 2008; pag. 1307). Part of its range is included in Los Alcornocales Natural Parks.&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
156628		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southernmost part of Spain (Cádiz) and North of Africa (Morocco - Tetuan and Tanger - and Ceuta) (Arrébola 1995). It is also known from one&#160;locality in Gibraltar (A. Menez pers. comm.)
156628		habitat	eng	Two kinds of habitats can be found for this species. The first is characterized by a high anthropogenic influence and low altitude (0-200 m) where the specimens appear in ruderal biotopes (i.e. roadside margins), wastelands, surrounding villages... The second type, less frequent, are more humid and shady sites in&#160;Mediterranean&#160;shrub with&#160;holm and cork oak or watercourse banks. In these places,&#160;with&#160;low anthropogenic pressure and&#160;more elevated altitudes, the specimens live under stones or vegetation or even among decaying matter (Arrébola 1995).
156628		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
156628		threats	eng	Part of this species range is affected by human activities (urbanization, agriculture, tourism...).
156629		conservation	eng	Small parts of the distribution area are under protection (Paisaje&#160; protegido de Pino Santo and Roque Nublo).
156629		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread in the northeast of Gran Canaria (El Monte district).<br/></p>
156629		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal and Piso infracanario).</p>
156629		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156629		threats	eng	Parts of the distribution area, particularly the lowlands, are under threat because of increasing spread of urbanisation of the city of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
156630		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas under&#160;various protection schemes that the species is present in, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156630		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Bulgaria, Greece (Aegean Islands) and Turkey&#160;(Parmakelis <em>et al</em>. 2005).
156630		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
156630		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species. This is a relatively abundant species.</p>
156630		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span"><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a></span></p><a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><span class="apple-style-span">
156631		conservation	eng	This species needs habitat preservation. Research on its geographic range, biology and population size is needed.
156631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. It lives in Oviedo Province, where it has been cited in the Sella valley and Picos de Europa Massif (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1985) and in the Nalon Valley (Gittenberger 1991), in one locality placed 100 km west &#160;of Sella Valley.
156631		habitat	eng	It lives in ground litter in areas of limestone rocky sustrate.
156631		population	eng	There are no population studies. The population trend is unknown.
156631		threats	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span title="">Threats include fires and the development of roads and other infrastructures.</span>
156632		conservation	eng	Two endemic subspecies are red-listed in Austria (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007): <span style="font-style: italic;">O. dolium gracilior</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU) and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. dolium infima</span> is listed as Critically Endangered (CR). <span style="font-style: italic;">O. dolium infima</span> is legally protected in lower Austria.<br/><br/>The species as a whole is not thought to require conservation actions at present.
156632		distribution	eng	This species has an extended Alpine-Carpathian distribution with a range extending from France in the east through to Romania and Poland in the west.
156632		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter, and under mossy boulders on wooded slopes as well as on grassy calcareous rock ledges.
156632		population	eng	There is no information on the population of the species, and no data on any trends in the population.
156632		threats	eng	Threats have been identified as biotope destruction through the afforestation of spruce (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>trees.
156633		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.
156633		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Italy (Apulia, Basilicata, and Calabria) and eastern Sicily. A living specimen from the Amphitheatre of Taormina is figured in Falkner (1992).
156633		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry grassland on rocky substrates.
156633		population	eng	There are no population data.
156633		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the alteration of the habitat by pasturing, road construction or tourist activities.
156634		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place.
156634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from the Maures and Esterel mountains, in Var (France).
156634		habitat	eng	This species occurs exclusively in Mediterranean cork oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span>) forests.
156634		population	eng	There are no population data available. This species does not seem to be abundant, but occurs regularly across its range.
156634		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires.
156635		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population size and trends particularly in the southern part of its range are needed.
156635		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Europe extending north to southern Scandinavia (Kerney and Cameron 1976).&#160; It can be abundant when present in dry Mediterranean habitats in loose, dry soil/litter interface. It is much rarer in northern countries.<br/><br/>Outside Europe it is recorded from northern Africa, Turkey and the Caucasus region.
156635		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry, short calcareous grassland on sandy or stony ground (Kerney 1999).&#160; Former records from Yorkshire, Lincolnshire were from coastal sandhills (Kerney 1999). It is typical for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia</span> vegetation types (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).
156635		population	eng	In the UK, this species has declined over the last 100 years. In Bedfordshire: Prior to 2002 good numbers of living shells were found in 1970, 1974, and 1983.&#160; Wall maintenance work was carried out in spring 2003 and it would appear that the habitat was disturbed and&#160; no live snails have been found since 2002. In Durham:&#160; Recent sampling shows that the species is still present in very low numbers. The recent record for Scotland was not of living shells.<br/>The species is also declining in Germany. For the major part of its distribution range, no reliable information is available.
156635		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the changes in grassland management, disturbance of banks and possible impact of climate change.
156636		conservation	eng	Due to its large range, the species may inhabit some protected areas.
156636		distribution	eng	This species is originally reported from  everywhere around the Black Sea in Ukraine, perhaps to  Causcasus. It lives in south and east Bulgaria to Crimea and the&#160; Caucasus. It is found in southern Bulgaria at  elevations of between 300 and 1200 m.
156636		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowlands in walls, ruins, in gardens and parks.
156636		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156636		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156637		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as&#160;Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although the Taygetos mountains are included in various protection schemes (e.g. Natura 2000, Site: GR2550006), there is no specific conservation action regarding the species.&#160;More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species.
156637		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the mountains of Taygetos (Peloponnese) (Westerlund 1894).
156637		habitat	eng	Little&#160;is known about the habitat and the ecology of the species. Most probably this species has the same habitat as other <em>Chondrula</em> species, i.e., rocky areas with low vegetation (grassland or shrubland). It was found on a mountain top.
156637		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156637		threats	eng	Since the habitat and the ecology is&#160;understudied, it is&#160;difficult&#160;to assess the possible current or future threats for the species. Nevertheless,&#160;grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156638		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action in place, but it requires further research to  determine the status as a valid species, then it is abundant in the  grasslands and open sandy areas with no specific threats.
156638		distribution	eng	Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) list the species as endemic to Madeira, where it is present at the eastern end only, and on the Desertas.  However the taxonomic issues discussed in taxonomic notes, led Cameron and Cook (1999) and subsequent unpublished surveys (Cameron, pers. comm., 2010)  and Seddon (2008) to conclude that only one species <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterostoma paupercula</span> was present on Madeira and the Desertas.
156638		habitat	eng	If considered a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas.
156638		population	eng	If considered a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas.
156638		threats	eng	If considered a valid species, then it is abundant in the grasslands and open sandy areas with no specific threats.
156639		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Critically Endangered&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on the distribution of this species is recommended.</p>
156639		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be endemic to Greece, Epirus (Reischütz and Sattmann 1990, Sattmann and Reischütz 1994). The species&#160;may reach the&#160;mountains of southern Albania (Sattmann and Reischütz 1994), although this needs to be verified.
156639		habitat	eng	The species is known from rocky slopes and and has a wide altitudinal range (650 - 2,100 m)&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">(Reischütz and Sattmann 1990, Sattmann and Reischütz 1994).
156639		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no information on the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
156639		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species.</p>
156640		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156640		distribution	eng	The species is currently known only from the island of Rhodes, but it is quite possible that it is present in other south-eastern islands of the Aegean Sea (Hausdorf 2003).
156640		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in many different vegetation types of the region and is significantly favoured by human activities (e.g. cultivations).</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></span></p>
156640		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156640		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.&#160;</p>
156641		conservation	eng	This species is not under protection in Bulgaria, however the population where it lives is in protected area.
156641		distribution	eng	The species is endemic in the Pirin mountains in Bulgaria around the  Vihren peak (P. Subai pers. comm. 2010).
156641		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. Usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156641		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access there are no data on population trend. However, the population is thought to be stable.</p>
156641		threats	eng	<p>Since this species lives in inaccessible areas and is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.).</p>
156642		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
156642		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in France and also occupies the southern part of the Pyrenees in Spain. In France, it is common in the Pyrenees.
156642		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
156642		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156642		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156643		conservation	eng	<p>Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156643		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. It inhabits the central and northern part of the island. This species is recorded from 12 locations and 17 sites.<br/></p>
156643		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal),&#160; Laurel forests (Laurisilva), lowland vegetation and Fayal-Brezal.</p>
156643		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. However, there are only a few living animals were recorded in the course of the last 20 years, although the island was visited by several malacologists. The population size can be estimated as low to very low.<br/></p>
156643		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156644		conservation	eng	The region where this species occurs is protected. More research is needed on the population and distribution of this species.
156644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from the Agna mountains, in Tenerife.
156644		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is likely to be rocky slopes.
156644		population	eng	The species has not been recollected since its description by Grasset in 1857.
156644		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156645		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution of this species, to clearly distinguish it from <span style="font-style: italic;">Chilostoma desmoulinsii</span>.
156645		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central Pyrenees, both from France (Hautes-Pyrénées, Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Pyrénées-Orientales) and from Spain (Huesca and Lerida Provinces). Due to confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. desmoulinsii,</span> it is possible that some subpopulations are still unidentified, for example, the distribution map of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. desmoulinsii</span> in Puente (1994:675) includes data for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. acrotricha.</span>
156645		habitat	eng	This species lives in relatively forested habitats where it can find places to hide, i.e. crevices in rock boulders or even man-built but old and rocky walls.
156645		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156645		threats	eng	This species has less than 10 known locations, which are relatively distant from each other. This fragmentation might result in a possible threat. Other potential threats&#160; are destruction of the habitat by  quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons.
156646		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
156646		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Flores and Corvo islands, Azores (Portugal) (Mordan & Martins 2001).
156646		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary, under dead leaves and rotting branches, and among the rhizomes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>.
156646		population	eng	This species is widely distributed on Flores (Mordan and Martins 2001) and Corvo (A. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
156646		threats	eng	This species has&#160; adapted well to secondary forest, mainly where there is good undergrowth of Hedychium, therefore no threats are foreseen.
156648		conservation	eng	<p>Only small numbers of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156648		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife, where it&#160;inhabits the whole northern part of the island.</p>
156648		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), exceptionally in degraded laurel forests.<br/></p>
156648		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156648		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by urbanisation, agriculture and road construction. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156649		conservation	eng	Research into any potential threats to the species to indicate any  trends in the population is recommended. However, no conservation  actions are currently required for the species.
156649		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout south-eastern Europe; being found in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia.
156649		habitat	eng	This species is found amongst leaf litter in humid woodland.
156649		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trends.
156649		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
156650		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research is needed on the population, distribution and threats to this species. This species  should be protected under the national law in order to prevent a  human-caused extinction.&#160; If a living subpopulation is found, its site should be directly protected.
156650		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France and Italy. In France, it is found near Menton, Alpes-Maritimes, and in Italy, it occurs in Liguria.
156650		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of Mediterranean deciduous forests.
156650		population	eng	There are no population data available. No living specimen is known and fresh shelves are very rare.
156650		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown. This species might be impacted by the ongoing urbanization in this region and by all the activities from the increasing population.
156651		conservation	eng	In Switzerland, this species is classed as Near Threatened (NT) on the Swiss Red List (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Taxonomic research is needed.
156651		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found in the eastern and southern Pyrenees and in the Alps from Tuscany (Italy) to south Kaernten in Austria.
156651		habitat	eng	It lives in leaf litter in humid forest areas often near rivers in the bottom of valleys. It occurs in coniferous montane forests and in gorges.
156651		population	eng	There is stable subpopulations throughout its range; it is found at numerous sites.
156651		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156652		conservation	eng	The species is assessed as Data Deficient on the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).<br/><br/>First of all the taxonomic issues concerning this species must be resolved. Then, more research is needed into the distribution, population, ecology and threats to the species.
156652		distribution	eng	The species has been described from Austria, Italy and Switzerland (Forcart 1965).
156652		habitat	eng	The habitat preference for this species is currently unknown.
156652		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trend.
156652		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
156653		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are currently needed.
156653		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Europe and scattered in some areas in eastern Europe. It is recorded from Austria, Belgium, Croatia, France, Germany, Netherlands, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom.
156653		habitat	eng	This species lives in ruderal areas, roadside ditches, hedges, and sometimes on dunes.
156653		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156653		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156654		conservation	eng	This species is protected under law of the Regione Toscana (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56).
156654		distribution	eng	This "species" is endemic to Italy. It occurs in Tuscany in 3 disjunct areas: southernmost Tuscan mainland, Monte Argentario and Island of Giglio; the largely disjunct occurrences (which have been found to belong genetically to this species) comprise the peninsula of Sorrento and the Island of Capri. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is180 km² (for Tuscany), if extended to the peninsula of Sorrento, the EOO is approx. 25000 km².
156654		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountains of calcareous rocks, rock walls, and lives in the crevices of large calcareous boulders. Its distribution area is fragmented.
156654		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156654		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction by road construction and rock climbing due to increasing recreational activities.
156655		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation action related with the species is currently applied
156655		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete Island. Mainly distributed in the west part of the island (Vardinoyannis 1994, Hausdorf 2003).
156655		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in many of vegetation types of the region and is significantly favoured by human activities &#160;(Vardinoyannis 1994).</p>
156655		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156655		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.</p>
156656		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Also, the area where it is distributed belongs to the Natura 2000 Site (GR4210002). More research is needed on the population of this species, in order to find living specimen.
156656		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from subfossilised shells from <span class="txtblack1">mountain Kali Limni in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Karpathos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> and it is likely to be still alive (Vardinoyannis 1994). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156656		habitat	eng	The species is known from the&#160;<span class="txtblack1">mountain Kali Limni in&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Karpathos</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Island, in rock crevices&#160;</st1:placetype></st1:place>(Vardinoyannis 1994). This is a large species (15.5 - 21 x 31 - 38 mm).
156656		population	eng	The species is known only from subfossilised shells from&#160;<span class="txtblack1">mountain Kali Limni in&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Karpathos</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;and it is likely to be still alive (Vardinoyannis 1994). Hence, the population of the species must be&#160;considered&#160;significantly small.
156656		threats	eng	The species known only from sub-fossilised shells, has certainly a small population, if any. Hence, any modification of its&#160;environment&#160;can rapidly lead to the extinction of the species in the wild. <span class="txtBlack">Grazing and fire are the most important threats in the species' area of of distribution, leading to soil erosion. Moreover there is an increase  of tourism in the area.
156657		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research is needed on the distribution and population of the species.
156657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France (Isère and Drôme).
156657		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156657		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156657		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156658		conservation	eng	On the basis of its reduced range which is restricted to the Island of Mallorca, this species meets the criteria of <span style="font-style: italic;">Species of Conservation Concern</span>, however no action plans have been designed for it. Nearly 10% of its range is within areas of the Natura 2000 networking programme. More research is need to know the population size and trends, as well as to ensure that the ecological requirements of this species are known and that management plans incorporate this information. Conservation actions shoud be focused on habitat preservation.
156658		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). It is widely distributed throughout almost the entire extension of this island.
156658		habitat	eng	This species lives in a wide variety of habitats with rocky substrate, as pine forests, shrublands and grasslands, as well as in other open places.
156658		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156658		threats	eng	The alteration of natural habitat is a major threat for the species. It includes the development of urban areas, tourism and agroindustry. Nevertheless, there are still large areas in which the habitat has not been severely transformed. Another threat is fire.
156659		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Poland. Several known subpopulations live within protected areas in Poland, Slovakia and Hungary, and probably also in the Ukraine and Romania. Monitoring of the population is advised due to the potential for there to be an ongoing population decline. There are no conservation actions required for this species at present however.
156659		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Carpathians (Prockow 2009). Compared to the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), it seems to be rare and sporadical within its range. Known occurrences are: Czarnohore Mountains, Gorgany Mountains in Poland (Wiktor 2004, Soós 1943), Nizke Tatri in Slovakia (Kerney <em>et al.</em> 1983, Wiktor 2004), Nagy-Milic in Zemplén Mountains in Hungary (Pintér and Suara 2004), four locations in the vicinity of the Hoverla Mountain in the Ukraine (Soós 1943) and the Rodna Mountains in Romania (Grossu 1983).<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well explored, its range and distribution needs to be studied in the future. However, at the present moment there is no evidence that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156659		habitat	eng	This species has a preference for humid, deciduous forests which are relatively ancient and untouched by man. It lives on the  ground among leaf-litter, under stones or decaying dead wood.
156659		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species is relatively rare within  its range. Due to its special habitat preference, the population is  fragmented. The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and there  are no data on population trend. However, forest habitats are known to be diminishing in some regions and therefore one might suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining.</p>
156659		threats	eng	Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this  species. Considering the fragmented occurrence and the limited number  of known subpopulations, even local logging or recreational activities  might affect population.
156660		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are needed, however taxonomic research is recommended.
156660		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the Atlantic coast of Spain and France from Asturias, in Spain to the French Basque ledge, although its extent may be greater due to confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">Helicella itala</span>.
156660		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is currently unknown.
156660		population	eng	The population trends of this species are currently unknown.
156660		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown.
156661		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as&#160;Endangered&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species. More research is needed on the distribution, population, ecology and threats.</span></p>
156661		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece. It is only known from three sites in Achaia, in the Peloponnese (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989).
156661		habitat	eng	The species was found at the foot of a rock in a rocky area, at 550 m above the sea level (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1999).
156661		population	eng	The species is known from a single area with three locations, and 11 individuals. This is probably a rare species. There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156661		threats	eng	Habitat destruction from mining and quarrying could potentially severely affect this species since it has only been found in three locations. The population of this species is very small with only 11 individuals found, therefore the species could potentially be seriously threatened.
156663		conservation	eng	There is no information as to if this species is protected at the national level in the countries where occurs but most of the known sites are outside of protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156663		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed around the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea, in Asia Minor, Crimea, the Caucasus, the Middle East and Iran.&#160;Due to the fact that this species can only be distinguished from other species by anatomical examination, records in the faunistical literature are partly doubtful however.&#160;De Mattia (2007) provides a good summary on the known distribution records.&#160;The species has a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and in some places, such as in Dalmatia, it is very common, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>
156663		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky grasslands and rocky shrublands, where it lives on the ground among herbaceous vegetation.
156663		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156663		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be sensitive to any ongoing ecosystem modifications such as residential and commercial development.
156664		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania, but the only known location of the species (Luncaviţa forest) is protected by the law. Research on the taxonomy, population trends and the distribution is needed.
156664		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality in Romania, Tulcea county in the Luncaviţa forest at the Cocoş monastery.
156664		habitat	eng	This species was found among leaf litter at the bottom with some herbal vegetation in a forest, in relatively dry habitat.
156664		population	eng	This species is only known from a single shell and so is most likely very rare. The population trend is unknown.
156664		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. Considering that the species is known from only a single location, local logging might affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156665		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156665		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in Peloponnese and probably in central Greece (Hausdorf 1990).
156665		habitat	eng	Mainly in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana)
156665		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156665		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156666		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, ecology and population of this species. Furthermore, monitoring and management of the harvest trends are&#160; important actions for the conservation of <em>I. marmoratus</em>.&#160;It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent recognition as valid species, it has not been included in the Atlas of the Spainish Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante, 2009) or in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperón and Moreno 2008).
156666		distribution	eng	<em>I. marmoratus</em> is endemic to the south of Spain and is distributed in the eastern end of Cádiz, south of Córdoba,&#160;Málaga&#160;and Granada (Arrébola 1995, Elejalde <em>et al.</em> 2008).
156666		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone mountains, mainly in crevices, but also under stones or at the base/inside of plants and shrubs.&#160;There are many examples of hybridization between <em>I. marmoratus</em> and other geographically close&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;(i.e.&#160;<em>I. cobosi</em>).
156666		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. According to our observations in the nature, a high density can be inferred.
156666		threats	eng	This is not a target species for Andalusia snails consumers, and it is  therefore only harvested occasionally and very locally. At the moment  this threat is negligible. This species occurs in remote limestones mountain areas, which would act as reservoirs ensuring the survival of the species, even if the harvest trends were increasing in the future.
156667		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Its status was estimated by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) as LR/nt (low risk).</p>
156667		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro. It inhabits the central mountains of the island.<br/></p>
156667		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar) and in the relics of Laurel forests (Laurisilva), which is restricted to the central parts of the island. It occurs occasionally in temperate lowland-shrubland (Piso Infracanario) down to 250 m in the North.<br/></p>
156667		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156667		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and fires can be a threat to this species locally. It  is unlikely that a threat would affect the whole range or population of  this species.</p>
156668		conservation	eng	The species is assessed on the Swiss Red List as Near Threatened (NT). There is taxonomic misidentification around this species and its  distribution range cannot be clearly defined so research is required in these areas.
156668		distribution	eng	This is a European endemic with a current distribution known from the western Alps in eastern France, western Switzerland (Jura mountains) and north-western Italy, from an altitude of 300 to 1,670 m asl. However, its distribution range cannot be clearly defined, e.g. presence in Italy.
156668		habitat	eng	The species lives mainly in deciduous forests and gorges, but also in more open biotopes with carbonate rocks.
156668		population	eng	<p>There is little information available regarding the population of this species, and indeed no information for France. However, the density seems to be high and the population as a whole is thought to be stable.</p>
156668		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are currently unknown.
156669		conservation	eng	Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (20001) considered the species to be listed as Vulnerable and proposed&#160; protection of the habitat. Recommended conservation actions are habitat protection and long-term monitoring.
156669		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north-west of La Gomera in the Canary Islands, around the village of Tagaluche.
156669		habitat	eng	This species occurs in piso basa vegetation typical of lowland Canary Islands.
156669		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens. As the species was recently described, there are no population trend data.
156669		threats	eng	The threats are considered to be disturbance from the adjacent village (urbanization with road construction, enlargement of cultivated area, recreation, tourist activities, etc.) , although these are not considered to be severe at present.
156670		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Endangered (EN) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/><br/>Information on the population, distribution, size and trend of the populations in Italy as well as potential threats is needed.
156670		distribution	eng	The current distribution is known from the south-western Alps: Switzerland (South Ticino), North Italy (Alpi Maritime to Lago di Garda), France (Alpes-Maritimes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence). About 80-90% of the range is in Italy.
156670		habitat	eng	This species lives in moist areas in deciduous forests, under stones and in the leaf litter.
156670		population	eng	<p>The density is locally high and the populations are stable in Switzerland and in France.<br/></p><p>There is no information on the populations in Italy.<br/></p>
156670		threats	eng	There are no actual known threats known in Switzerland and France. Intensification of forest use and logging is a potential threat however.
156671		conservation	eng	Moliner Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) list the species as sensitive to the disturbance of the habitat due to goats and they recommend the protection of the habitat. Conservation actions would be protection of the area and regulation of grazing by goats.
156671		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands where it is present in El Hierro, and only known from a small area (6 x 2 km).
156671		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones in low vegetation.
156671		population	eng	There is a slow decline of the population based on evidence from dead shells (Groh, pers comm., 2010).
156671		threats	eng	The area where the species is found is subject to impact by goats grazing and trampling and by expansion of the adjacent urban areas (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).
156672		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007) as Near Threatened (NT). However, no conservation actions are known to be in place or required for the species at this time.
156672		distribution	eng	The species is known from the South-Alpine-Dinaric; from Austria (southern Carinthia) through the Julian Alps to Croatia.
156672		habitat	eng	The species is found in herbaceous layers and in leaf litter between calcareous boulders.
156672		population	eng	The population of the species is currently unknown, and there is no data on the overall population trend, although some areas are known to be in decline (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).
156672		threats	eng	There has been an identified decline of the species in Austria as noted in the Austrian Red List (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007), but the reasons of this decline are not clear.
156673		conservation	eng	Sustainable management of the forests and conservation of its habitat are needed to ensure the survival of this species.
156673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Calabria and Sicily, Italy. Its distribution is limited to a restricted area on northwestern Sicily (Monte Nebrodi) [2 sites] and Calabria (Aspromonte) [1 site]. The only recent records are from one site in Monte Soro (Monte Nebrodi).
156673		habitat	eng	This snail is found in beech woods in high altitudes, up to 1847 m asl (Manganelli and Giusti 2004).
156673		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
156673		threats	eng	The main threats are related to the destruction or alteration of the habitats trough exploitation, etc.
156674		conservation	eng	All French sites are located in the Parc National du Mercantour and are therefore well protected. Any threats to the species need to be identified, particularly due to the isolated occurrences and low population density which may itself form a threat. Its possible distribution in Italy needs to be researched.
156674		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Maritime Alps of France. It was formerly recorded from Italy (Col de Fenestre and Lago Negro). However, in the 19th century, the border between France and Italy was different from now and these former localities are currently situated in France (O. Gargominy, pers. comm. 2011).
156674		habitat	eng	<em>Chilostoma millieri </em>is an alpine species of high altitudes, found amongst large crystalline boulders.
156674		population	eng	This species is known from 11 localities in France; all from the massif du Mercantour in the Parc National du Mercantour (Dép. Alpes Maritimes).
156674		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156675		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not living in a protected area. Monitoring of population size and trends are suggested.<br/></p>
156675		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the southeastern coast of the island of Tenerife and inhabits an area from Candelaria to St. Cruz de Tenerife.<br/></p>
156675		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).<br/></p>
156675		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156675		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction and particularly by extension of the industrial zone of St. Cruz de Tenerife (which is one of the fastest growing urbanization area in the east coast). Additionally, the low coastal areas are target of tourism related construction activities, and thus may severely impact the subpopulations of this species.<br/></p>
156676		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. This species was assessed by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) as LR/ nt (low risk).<br/></p>
156676		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera, where it inhabits the central parts of the island.<br/></p>
156676		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in Laurel forests (Laurisilva) and Fayal-Brezal.</p>
156676		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156676		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156678		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring is recommended.
156678		distribution	eng	The species is only present on a small area of the northern coast of El Hierro in the Canary Islands where it is found in 4 locations.
156678		habitat	eng	This species occur in degraded lowland vegetation (Piso Basal) and is a ground-dweller.
156678		population	eng	There are no population trend available. This species is rare, the population is dispersed in the north and north-west of El Hierro in 4 locations (8 sites).
156678		threats	eng	The major threats lie in the change of habitat, related to agricultural impacts, urban development and  road development, especially in the coastal zone.
156679		conservation	eng	The species has been reported from the Natura 2000 site (Alykes Larnakas;&#160;CY6000002), but&#160;there is no conservation action regarding the species.<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156679		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Gittenberger 1991).
156679		habitat	eng	The species seems to be restricted in the coastal areas of Cyprus.
156679		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156679		threats	eng	Coastal areas are strongly&#160;affected&#160;by human activities, especially on islands like Cyprus, with a lot of tourism activity. Since the species is restricted in the coastal areas of Cyprus, there is a high&#160;probability&#160;that its populations, have been, and will be effected by human activities and the destruction of its habitat.
156680		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions for this species, although Porto Santo does now have protected areas.
156680		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is restricted to three locations in two small areas on the island of Porto Santo (Seddon 2008).
156680		habitat	eng	This species is found on ground, on rocks and amongst low growing grasses and herbs in Porto Santo.
156680		population	eng	There is no recet data on population trends, although this species is abundant in suitable localities (Seddon 2008).
156680		threats	eng	The grassland species has possible threats including impact from introduced species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Theba pisana</span> and the rodents which predate on landsnails as well as changes of land-use possibly impacting the grassland due to tourist activity.
156681		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area, and hence its population is currently considered to be stable. However, it would require a review and monitoring to ensure the status does not change. The status of this species was estimated by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) as LR – nt (low risk)
156681		distribution	eng	This species is known from four sites on the montane areas of La Gomera on the intermediate slopes.
156681		habitat	eng	This species is found in the laurisilva forest.
156681		population	eng	The population of this species is likely to be stable (Groh, pers. comm, 2010). They are scattered and show low densities.
156681		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156682		conservation	eng	There is no information available.
156682		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded by the original author from El Hierro. Later, Wollaston (1878) added La Gomera. Neither author gave precise locality data. This species is only known from a single specimen.
156682		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
156682		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156682		threats	eng	There is no information available.
156683		conservation	eng	This species is listed as R - extremely rare in the Bayern Red List (Germany), as Rare in Slovenia and as Least Concern in Austria. It is found in the National Park Berchtesgaden,&#160; in the National Park Julian Alps in Slovenia and in other protected areas.
156683		distribution	eng	This species  is endemic to Europe and is native to Germany, Italy, Austria, Slovenia. There are around 50 occurrences recorded in those countries all of them quite small but some of those recordings are museum data from several decades ago. But there is no information on the actual number of sites. Taking into account that there might be more sites not found yet, it is still safe to say that the species has an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
156683		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf litter in montane forests.
156683		population	eng	The species is difficult to find and field surveys only reveal a few individuals. Therefore there is hardly any population information available.There are three to four currently known sites in Germany. The main  distribution of the species is in Italy and there is no information for  this country. In Slovenia, it is found in the western part only near the Italian border.
156683		threats	eng	Forest management is the main threat especially heavy machinery that is compacting the soil or the logging of trees causes sunlight to dry out the humid soil that the species requires. Often clearing up of the litter is another practise that threatens the populations.
156684		conservation	eng	Goats should be managed.
156684		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Fuerteventura where it is restricted to a small area of central Jandia mountains.
156684		habitat	eng	This species occurs in and under lichen-rich rocks within sparse grass- and shrub-vegetation at the high region of the Jandia Peninsula.
156684		population	eng	Populations can be abundant but localised.
156684		threats	eng	The main threats are from goats and tourist recreation, although the impact on the habitats is more uneven and hence the species is assessed on limited range.
156685		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution of this species.
156685		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Crimean Peninsula, in Ukraine.
156685		habitat	eng	This is a Steppe species.
156685		population	eng	The population of this species is thought to be stable.
156685		threats	eng	Steppe habitats are impacted by agricultural activities.
156686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure for this species.
156686		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Gran Canaria where it is said to be from the Pinar near San Bartholome and the lowlands near El Charco near Maspalomas, Aguineguin Lowe (1861). Neiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) gives detailed genetic analysis of two specimens from Telde: Barranco de Pueste and San Bartholome de Tirajana: Monte Leon, which has not re-discovered or mentioned by Ibanez<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and his colleagues but has been found by Klaus Groh in the environments of Telde (K. Groh, pers. com., 2011). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 100 km² and the area of occupancy is actually less than 20 km².
156686		habitat	eng	This species occurs from the Pinar near San Bartholome and the lowlands near El Charco near Maspalomas, Aguineguin.
156686		population	eng	Population trends are estimated to be declining, due to the threats pressure. This species is not thought to be frequent.
156686		threats	eng	There are some threats in the south of Gran Canaria due to tourism and urbanization.
156687		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although a number of conservation acts are applied to various parts of Crete, there is no action taken specifically for the species.
156687		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156687		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Parmakelis 2003).</p>
156687		population	eng	This species is abundant across the island of Crete (Parmakelis 2003). There are no data on the population trend.
156687		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156688		conservation	eng	Conservation of the habitat is required. Valido<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1999) considered this species as LR/lc (low risk).
156688		distribution	eng	Thsi species is endemic to the high mountains of Gran Canaria between 900 and 1650 m asl.
156688		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the high montane&#160; local pine forests (Pinar) and in the relics of Laurel forests (Laurisilva). It is also found in barrancos and in humid ruderal areas.<br/></p>
156688		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. The subpopulations are scattered.<br/></p>
156688		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156689		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156689		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, met in the west part of the country&#160;&#160;(Westerlund 1889, Knipper 1939).
156689		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species and its ecology are&#160;understudied but the species is mainly found under stones or piles of stones.
156689		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156689		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156690		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions. More research is needed to confirm the taxonomic validity of this species.
156690		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. atacis </span>is known from three departments in the French North-eastern Pyrenees. The species is most common in the department of Aude. A few localities are known in the departments of Ariège and Tarn-et-Garonne (Gittenberger and De Winter 1985, Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). The Spanish occurrence mentioned in Fauna Europaea v2.3 (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) are doubtful.
156690		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. atacis </span>is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>a Pyrenean gastropod<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>It inhabits the calcareous mountains of the Eastern French Pyrenees, both in natural and man-made habitats. It is also found among short vegetation, in meadows, in limestone ridges, along rivers and roads. It is found to live in a mixed population with <span style="font-style: italic;">Monacha cartusiana.</span> (Gittenberger and De Winter 1985).
156690		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156690		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
156691		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156691		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">This species is widespread in Europe.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It also occurs in Algeria, Asia, and is introduced to South Africa.<br/></h4>
156691		habitat	eng	The grass snails are restricted to open situations. This species is moderately thermophilic preferring light vegetation and the presence  of basic rocks. In northern counties it is restricted to calcareous sands or rocks along  the coast (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156691		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable. <br/><h4 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span></h4>
156691		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156692		conservation	eng	<em></em><em>O. </em><em>punctata</em> represents a true traditional, natural and economic  resource to rural populations, and its demand is growing year after  year.&#160;Unfortunately, the impact caused by uncontrolled and excessive  harvesting, accumulated over a long period, as well as other pressures  related to human activities, have led to a reduction of the snail’s  population, according to the people that used to harvest them. In our  opinion, it is urgent to manage this species like the natural and  economic resource that it represents, by establishing appropriate  periods and catch sizes, investigating the aspects of the species and  its population that are still unknown and promoting the heliciculture.  Knowing the personal motivations, politic and social context and the  local interest in relation with the species would be useful in order to  raise awareness and to involve citizens and public authorities in the  management of this resource (Reynolds, Mace, Redford and Robinson 2001)
156692		distribution	eng	This is a Western Mediterranean species that is found in the south of France, the eastern half of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia and the north of Africa (Puente 1994). Due to its popularity as a food source it has been introduced to many areas.
156692		habitat	eng	<em>O. punctata</em>&#160;lives in&#160;dunes, Mediterranean forests, moorlands and areas of lowland forest. It is well adapted to human-modified habitats.
156692		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. However, based on general observations, the species appears to be found in great numbers and high densities.
156692		threats	eng	The main threat against&#160;<em>O. punctata </em>is the unregulated  over-harvesting as a long-standing tradition, causing important impact  on the population. Other threats are the increase in agriculture,  habitat degradation and fires.
156693		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria and in   Turkey. Some sub-populations may be found protected  areas.
156693		distribution	eng	The species lives in southeast Bulgaria (South Black Sea Coast: camping site "Zlatna ribka" about 5 кm southeastern of Chernomotets (NG59), 2-3 m alt.; firth of Silistar River (NG85), 1-2 m alt.; Strandja Mountain: Mladejko, about 40 km northwest of Malko Tarnovo (NG26), ~ 200 m alt.) (<a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/LBB_0040_0785-0811.pdf">Iriko 2008</a>), and in the European part of  Turkey (Hausdorf 2000).
156693		habitat	eng	According to <a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/LBB_0040_0785-0811.pdf">Irikov (2008)</a> the species occurs in xerothermal habitats in Strandja Mountain and southern Black Sea Coast in southwest Bulgaria. It prefers open habitats with grasses and bushes, but also occurs in sands on the seacoast.
156693		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively narrow range&#160;this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.&#160;This species might have been under recorded as it is difficult to distinguish from similar species based on conchological data only.<br/></p>
156693		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.
156694		conservation	eng	<p>This species is of "national conservation priority" in Bulgaria (Irikov and Georgiev 2008) but its known sites are not currently protected.<br/></p><p>The taxonomy, the geographic range and the existing subpopulations of this species are not exactly known, therefore any research activity should focus on these points.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156694		distribution	eng	<p>Fauna Europaea lists this species&#160; from Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria and Hungary. This is however due to the different systematic concept. According to Subai (in prep.) <span style="font-style: italic;">A. parreyssii</span> s. str. occurs throughout Bulgaria and in one part of Greece (between Xanthi and Drama). Fluvial debris data suggest that there is probably a subpopulation in the Southern Carpathians (Romania), too.<br/></p><p>Subai (in prep) records the species from more than 40 localities. Distribution records provided by Irikov and Georgiev (2008) and Grossu (1987) partly refer to other species.</p><p>    </p><p>Considering that most of the known locations have been discovered recently, it is probable that the species lives in several other locations, too. Its range is far from being well studied, and we see no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p></p>
156694		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats, mainly in crevices (Deli 2010).
156694		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156694		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by road construction or by other reasons such as leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156695		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156695		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in northeastern and central Crete&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156695		habitat	eng	This is a soil-dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156695		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is an abundant species.
156695		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156696		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action regarding the species.
156696		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea the species is distributed across the Aegean Islands, from Crete to the the island in the north. There is also possible the species to be represented only from fossils in Turkey (Schütt 1996).&#160;These reports have to be confirmed after the revision needed for the genus is applied.
156696		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly under stones, &#160;in piles of stones and under shrubs.
156696		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156696		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156698		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. This species was assessed by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) as LR/nt (low risk).<br/></p>
156698		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro.</p>
156698		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in all ecosystems offered by the island.<br/></p>
156698		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156698		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156699		conservation	eng	Huge parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.
156699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands. It inhabits all islands except Lanzarote.
156699		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal) to the Fayal-Brezal.</p>
156699		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156699		threats	eng	<p>There are no significant threats to this species known.</p>
156700		conservation	eng	The majority of the populations of this species are included in protected areas such as EIN (Espais Naturals d'Interés in Catalonia), LIC or Nature Reserves. In addition caves are protected in the Valencian community. The recommended conservation actions for this species are to draw up a Plan of Conservation and to protect those populations not currently found in protected areas.
156700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where it is found in the provinces of Castellón, Tarragona and south of Barcelona.
156700		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones, trunks, humus, in cracks of walls and between the hollows that leave the rocks, up to a depth of 40 cm, where the dampness is higher. It can be found in pine and evergreen oak forests, Mediterranean bushes and caves, principally in the entrances where organic matter has accumulated, between altitudes of 200 and 800 m.
156700		population	eng	This species has a fragmented area of occupation, and its populations present a low density of specimens.
156700		threats	eng	The majority of the populations of this species are in protected areas, nevertheless there are threats that can affect them seriously. The threats include fires, drought, urban expansion, quarrying, road modifications, deterioration of the caves and specimen collecting. The limited dispersal ability and low population density of this species could compound the effects of these threats.
156701		conservation	eng	More than half of the distribution area of this species is situated within the Riserva Natural Especial de Güigü, Parque Natural de Tamadaba,&#160; and the Parco rural del Nublo. Thus no particular conservation actions are needed.
156701		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west coast of Gran Canaria and lives in an area of ca. 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
156701		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156701		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on on the population size of this species.</p>
156701		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species.
156702		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species in Portugal or Spain. Actions should aim to preserve the areas with undisturbed habitat. Research should be conducted to know the places with the best populations of the species and to delimitate its area of occupancy.
156702		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the iberian Peninsula, being present in Spain and Portugal. It ranges from the Tajo river valley in Sintra (Palazzi 1988) to La Coruña and Lugo provinces in Galicia. It has been cited in Asturias (Anadon and Ojea 1984, Puente 1994), but all these reports correspond to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. silvae</span>. It is also present Azores Islands, apparently due to an introduction (Seixas 1992).
156702		habitat	eng	This species lives in the ground of decidous forests, river banks, grasslands, as well as in ruderal habitats, protected from dryness under stones.
156702		population	eng	There are no population studies but it is assumed to be stable in undisturbed habitat sites.
156702		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat alteration by urban growing and plantations. Fire is another threat.
156703		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action in place for this species.<span class="apple-style-span"></span></p>
156703		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in&#160;Greece (Dodekanesse Islands), western Turkey, western Syria and Lebanon. The record from Cyprus is&#160;probably based on a label/shell confusion&#160;(Schütt 2001, Ceylan <em>et al</em>. 2008, E. Neubert in preparation).
156703		habitat	eng	This species is usually found under&#160;shrubs and in piles of stones, in open habitats.
156703		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156703		threats	eng	<p></p><p><span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species now or in the near future.&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p><p></p>
156704		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Endangered (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Sweden, it is considered Near Threatened <span id="ctl00_MainContent_RedListDocumentationText">(A2bc; B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v)) and in Germany (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern): R - extremely rare. This species should be carefully monitored, as Global warming is likely to have a significant and rapid impact on its population.
156704		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">The European endemic species has an oceanic distribution and is found from Ireland,  Britain, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, to Poland and an  old record from Kaliningrad. In Ireland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spermodea lamellata</span> is common only in broadleaf woods in northern  and western counties but not the central limestone plain.  In southern Britain it is extinct except for a small number of  isolated and vulnerable sites and is evidently in decline  over most of Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</h4>
156704		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spermodea lamellata </span>prefers habitats that are older broadleaf woodlands where it inhabits deep, stable leaf litter. It is particularly common in planted beech  wood and in the past it has been able to survive considerable disturbance  including the clear-felling of woods or isolation in tiny broadleaf  strips within large conifer plantations, but recent drier, warmer  decades have seen a steep decline in many areas. On the Atlantic seaboard, it also occurs widely in moss on rocky  headlands or heaths (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Sweden, it can occur in oligotrophic woodlands, preferably beech and als in mixed forest. It needs continuously moist conditions on the ground and is very sensitive to drying out. Many of the occurrences are associated with springs.
156704		population	eng	It has suffered severe distributional decline in the last 30 years in Ireland (73% reduction in records, Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Sweden, there has been a decline of over 50% since 1950s (Swedish Red List - online). The only known population in the Netherlands is red-listed and almost extinct (G. Falkner, pers. comm., 2011). Ireland has a significant proportion of the global population (Byrne<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
156704		threats	eng	Drier summers and woodland habitat management are two likely drivers of the loss of this species. <br/><br/>In Sweden, forestry in particular logging is affecting the species as it needs continuous closed habitat as it is highly sensitive to drying out. Recreational activities (trampling) and grazing of the woodlands causes the species to disappear as the species does not like turbulence in the leaf litter.
156705		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution range and taxonomy of this species. Once this information has been gathered, other information on threats and conservation actions could be inferred.
156705		distribution	eng	This is an Andalusian (Spain) endemic species that has been cited in the provinces of Granada (Alonso 1975) and Almería (Ortiz de Zárate 1962). However, according to our data, this species is endemic to the Sierra de Gádor in the province of Almería (Ruiz <em>et al</em>. 2006), which means that the Granada records belong to other <em>Xerocrassa</em> spp. Thus the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy may change in the future, when more data are collected on this species.
156705		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>X. cobosi</em> is similar to that of <em>Iberus</em> spp. in Sierra de Gador (Almería, Spain). It finds refuge in limestone rocks and shrubs (<em>Stipa tenacissima</em>) (Ortiz de Zárate 1962, Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
156705		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
156705		threats	eng	Loss of habitat does not impact this species in Sierra de Gádor. The other possible threats are not known. Generic threats, such as fires, temperature increase, etc. are likely to influence this species.
156706		conservation	eng	Conservation recommendations should be based on preserving the localities where the species is present, as well as to more accurately define its area of occupancy and subpopulation sizes. A large part of the locations are largely within areas managed by National and Regional Natural Reserves. It is also necessary to conduct studies about its biology.
156706		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted to high altitudes in the central <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>.
156706		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on calcareous rocks and in crevices, as well as within the chasmophitic vegetation, above around <st1:metricconverter productid="1.300 m" w:st="on">1,200 m</st1:metricconverter> of altitude.
156706		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156706		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156708		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania, however most of the locations can be found within protected areas (Domogled Cerna<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>– valley National Park<em></em>).
156708		distribution	eng	The species has a very limited area in Southwest Romania. Its presence is reported from the valley of the Cerna river and from the Domogled Mountains (Subai 2011).
156708		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks, in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
156708		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of individuals declines or fluctuates extremely.
156708		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road contructions or by other reasons. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly „hypothetical”.</p>
156709		conservation	eng	<p>On the basis of a range that incorporates Brittany (France) and Britain, this species meets the criteria for a “<em>Species of Conservation Concern</em>” in the UK, as the country holds a substantial part of the known global range (50-75%), however, no actions are currently in place for the species. A large part of the range in the UK is within areas managed by the National Trust or National Parks.&#160; These areas are close to sea-cliffs and are managed through grazing. If the plans to extend the managed areas in the south-west go ahead, then much of the range will be protected.&#160; However, most grazing management plans are not specifically adapted to this species and more work is needed to ensure that the ecological requirements of this species are known and that the management plans incorporate this information.</p>
156709		distribution	eng	<em>P. subvirescens</em> is a western Atlantic species living in West Wales, Southwest England, the Channel Islands&#160;(Devon,&#160;<st1:city w:st="on">Cornwall</st1:city>, Isles of Scilly) and Brittany in France&#160;(Preece 1984, Kerney 1999, Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
156709		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found on sea cliffs, inland along estuaries and around spoil from old china clay quarries. It is found in grassland, heather and tussocky grass, over well-drained soils on top of cliffs, sometimes near sea thrift (<em>Aremeria maritime</em>), Sea Campion (<em>Silene maritima</em>) (Kerney 1999).
156709		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.&#160;A&#160;large proportion of the European population is found in the UK, where the species is very localised, so it is difficult to establish a trend from the current data, but it is assumed to be stable.
156709		threats	eng	The main threats are its restricted range and changes in the land management near the coast (grazing, trampling).
156710		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;More research on the taxonomy, the distribution, biology and threats for this species is needed.</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><br/></span></span></p>
156710		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, but its exact distribution is problematic. The species is reported from the island of Evvoia but also from parts of Thessaly (Westerlund 1889).
156710		habitat	eng	The species' habitat and ecology is unknown.
156710		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species. There is no study on this species since the original description.<br/><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156710		threats	eng	The ecology and biology of the species is largely unknown.&#160;Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156711		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine whether the species is till stable, and a habitat management plan will be required for the areas under fire damage which includes this species as the species still has a restricted range. Habitat monitoring would benefit this species, as it is close to meeting  the threatened species criteria, and as a semi-slug species it is more  vulnerable to changes in microc-climate, especially humidity.&#160; The  species is found in Natura 2000 and UNESCO sites for "Laurisilva of  Madeira', a Special Protected Area in the interior of Madeira.</p>
156711		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is found in the laurisilva forest on Madeira only. <br/></p>
156711		habitat	eng	<p>This is one of the larger of the Madeiran <span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia</span>.&#160; It is found at intermediate elevations, on ground or shaded crags,&#160; usually on leaves, mosses or trunks of trees in areas of high humidity (Seddon 2008). <br/></p>
156711		population	eng	It is widespread in suitable habitats on central Madeira
156711		threats	eng	The habitat quality is not declining at present throughout these regions, although there are localised decline due to changing forest type, outside the protected areas.
156713		conservation	eng	The species was listed by Ibanez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) was Vulnerable (B1 + B2c, version 2.3). Conservation actions should include the protection of the area and habitats and the future monitoring of the habitat, as well as the reduction of the impact of the goats on the habitat and the restriction of tourist activities to defined areas.
156713		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Fuerteventura.
156713		habitat	eng	This species lives in a shrub dominated psammophilous vegetation of the lowlands and piso basa. There is an observed decline in the quality of habitat with low to moderate impact on the species.
156713		population	eng	This is a recently described species, so there are no population trend data.
156713		threats	eng	Goats, tourism activities and in lowland areas by coast hotel construction are the main threats.
156714		conservation	eng	The subpopulations in Germany are considered Endangered.
156714		distribution	eng	This species is living in Scandinavia and eastern Europe ranging to Russia and the Ukraine. The species has a scattered distribution pattern.<br/><br/>Outside Europe it is also known from the Caucasus region.
156714		habitat	eng	This species lives on calcareous substrates with low grass vegetation; it also occurs on coastal dunes and open forests (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).
156714		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. However, size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156714		threats	eng	There are no threats known to affect the species at the moment.
156716		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in&#160;the species' distribution&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;More research is needed on the threats and distribution of this species.
156716		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the islands of Karpathos and Rhodes (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156716		habitat	eng	This species is usually in the crevices of the limestone rocks, at high altitudes (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156716		population	eng	The species is quite rare.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156716		threats	eng	The main threat for this rare species, with a very restricted distribution, is the modification/destruction of its habitat through quarrying, other human activities and fire.
156717		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. Monitoring of this species is recommended.&#160; Wells and Chatfield (1992) noted that this species was Least Concern in their review of the status of the European Fauna, hence the status of this species is in decline.<br/></p>
156717		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the central western coast of the island of Tenerife, where it is widespread.</p>
156717		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156717		population	eng	<p>The population size is declining due to ongoing threats. <br/></p>
156717		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, tourist infrastructure and road construction. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not likely but should be monitored carefully.<br/></p>
156718		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.
156718		distribution	eng	<em>P. ponentina</em> is an Atlantic species living&#160;throughout the western third and some northern points (Palencia, Burgos, Alava and La Rioja)&#160;of the Iberian Peninsula. It has not been fully elucidated if it is also living in the western part of France or if the <em>Ponentina</em> specimens mentioned there belong to other species, i.e. <em>P. revelata</em> (Michaud, 1831) (except in Brittany) or even&#160;<em>P. subvirescens</em>&#160;(in Brittany). Other records of <em>Ponentina</em> spp. were placed in the north-western part of Africa, specifically in Morocco (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010), Algeria (in Puente 1994) and &#160;recently in Tunisia (Abbes and Nouira 2007). H<span title="">owever, <span title=""><span title=""><em>P. ponentina </em>has a very similar shell to<span title=""><span title=""><em> </em><em>P.&#160;</em><span title=""><em>martigena</em>&#160;(=<span style="font-style: italic;"> Trochulus martigena  </span>(Arrébola & García, 1999)), which lives in the southernmost part of the  Iberian Peninsula (provinces of Sevilla, Cádiz and Málaga) and<span title=""> both have been confused during the last century. <span title=""><em>P. martigena</em>&#160;does not exceed the northern barrier represented by the river Guadalquivir, whereas <em>P. ponentina</em>  does not occur in the south of this limit (Arrébola and García 1999).  The specific identity of the North African <span title=""><span title=""><em>Ponentina</em> specimens still needs to be clarified.<br/><span title=""><span title=""><span title=""><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
156718		habitat	eng	<em>P. ponentina</em> lives in many different habitats: forests, shrubs, orchards, crops, cliffs, dunes, river banks, meadows, groves, etc. and seems indifferent to calcium (Puente 1994).
156718		population	eng	There are no population data about this species, but it is widely distributed in the Iberian Peninsula.
156718		threats	eng	No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.
156719		conservation	eng	<p>Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156719		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the north of the island of Gran Canaria.</p>
156719		habitat	eng	<p>The major part of the subpopulations lives in the degraded laurel forests between 450 and 600 m asl.<br/></p>
156719		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156719		threats	eng	<p>The subpopulations from the lowland may be affected by agricultural activities, the others by uncontrolled logging of the remaining forest.<br/></p>
156721		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156721		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,  Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,  Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg,  Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Moldova, Republic of,  Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia and Montenegro,  Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and United  Kingdom.<br/>Outside Europe it is recorded to the east towards China; the species is also introduced to Northern America, Mexico, etc.
156721		habitat	eng	This species lives in open wet calcareous habitats, grassland, scree, and sand dunes.
156721		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156721		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, increasing  land-use and pasturing, eutrophication of habitats and similar events  may affect the quality of the habitat of this species.
156722		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. Research relating to the population and distribution of this species are recommended.
156722		distribution	eng	<em>C. camporroblensis</em> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occupies almost the entire Iberian Sierra, from Soria to Cuenca in Castilla-La Mancha, Valencia and Castellón in Valencian Community, and the Community of Aragon through the provinces of Zaragoza and Teruel.
156722		habitat	eng	This species lives at the base of the steppe vegetation, in mountain pastures and under stones.
156722		population	eng	There are no data available for this species.
156722		threats	eng	The threats to this species are fires, quarries, urban expansion and the extension of roads.
156723		conservation	eng	More research is needed to resolve the taxonomic issues and to determine the exact distribution of the species.
156723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Istria, in Croatia.
156723		habitat	eng	This species probably lives in open calcareous (rocky) hillsides.
156723		population	eng	There are no data on the population.
156723		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are through the destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156724		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed.
156724		distribution	eng	This species is native from Crimea, in Ukraine. However, it is now a widespread alien species in the Black Sea region.
156724		habitat	eng	This species occurs in steeps and urbanized areas.
156724		population	eng	The population of this species is increasing.
156724		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
156725		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156725		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in Peloponnese (Westerlund 1889).
156725		habitat	eng	It is reported from a great variety of habitats, such as shrublands (maquis and phrygana), as well as from some forested areas (Cameron <em>et al</em>. 2000).
156725		population	eng	The species is quite abundant but there is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156725		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156726		conservation	eng	<p>A few subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156726		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the southeastern coast of the island of Tenerife. This species is recorded from 19 locations and 32 sites.<br/></p>
156726		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156726		population	eng	<p>The population size is supposed to be slightly declining due to its presence in expanding industrial and urban areas.</p>
156726		threats	eng	<p>Some subpopulations are affected by destruction of the habitat by urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156727		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156727		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Western Europe, from Greece to United Kingdom.<br/><br/>This species is also known from Tunisia and Algeria.
156727		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open calcareous meadows and shrublands.
156727		population	eng	This is a common species in the south of its range.
156727		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Urbanisation might affect the species locally.
156728		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156728		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, present on the&#160;central and eastern part of the island&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156728		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).</p>
156728		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156728		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"> </span></p>
156729		conservation	eng	Gomez (2001) proposed that the sites should be protected. &#160;This species is included as Vulnerable D2 on the Red List of Spain (Verdu & Galante, 2006).&#160;At present no conservation actions are known for this species, however protection of the habitat, restoration of the habitats and long-term monitoring are recommended. Meanwhile, additional sites have been recorded thus potentially changing the conservation status of this species (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
156729		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary islands where it is found on the northern part of La Gomera. It is recorded from seven locations and 16 sites.
156729		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open rocky areas covered by lowland vegetation and pine forest. These habitats are probably declining as the sites were threatened by building construction and tourism (path construction, picnic sites and similar types of activity).
156729		population	eng	Probably declining as the sites are threatened by hotel development.
156729		threats	eng	Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995) reported that the sites were threatened by building construction and tourism (path  construction, picnic sites and similar types of activity).
156730		conservation	eng	The geographic range of the species is not exactly known and so research is recommended on the distribution. Some of the known sub-populations occur within protected areas.
156730		distribution	eng	This species lives in west and southwest Bulgaria south of Sofia (Rila, Pirin Mts.), in Eastern Serbia, east and south Macedonia (FYROM), and in a narrow zone in Northern Greece (P. Subai pers. comm. 2010).
156730		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits rocks in broadleaved deciduous  mountain forests, rarely in pinetree forests with high humidity. In west Rodopi it is found at heights between 400 and 1700 m, and the maximum elevation in Bulgaria is 2000 m.</p>
156730		population	eng	<p>Potential locations of this species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored and there are no data on population trend. The population trend is unknown.</p>
156730		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156731		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution, as it is only known from the type locality.
156731		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from the type locality: on rocks opposite the pioneer-camp "Artek-Lazurnyi", 10-20 m above the lower road between Artek and Gurzuf, in the Yalta District, <st1:place>Crimea (Ukraine).<br/></st1:place></p>
156731		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives on rocky habitats.<st1:place></st1:place></p>
156731		population	eng	The population of this species is thought to be stable.
156731		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
156732		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are out of protected areas.     </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1">The geographic range of this species is not exactly known, and therefore any research activity should focus on that. Its taxonomy also needs further research due to ongoing confusion.</a></p><a name="OLE_LINK1">  </a><p></p>
156732		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is "Croatia: Dalmatia, Crkvice  mountains near Kotor" and it is distributed from the southernmost part of Dalmatia to northern Albania. Published locations are: Montenegro: four km South of Arbnesh, 10 km East of Duravci (Subai 2009); 11 locations near Kotor, Virpazar, Cetinje, Podgorica and Shkoder (Klemm 1939).<br/>In the HNHM collection there are unpublished records from Montenegro: Rumija Mountains, near Tudemili, Albania: Qukes-Shkumbin , East of Qafa Priskes, and the debris of Drin River near Koman.
156732		habitat	eng	<p>This species prefers rocky habitats in limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156732		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156732		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seems to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156733		conservation	eng	<p>This species is completely under local conservation schemes. Its status was estimated by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) as LR/lc (low risk). <br/></p>
156733		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the central part of the island of La Gomera.</p>
156733		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in Laurel forests (Laurisilva) and Fayal-Brezal. One subpopulation was found in a chestnut forest.<br/></p>
156733		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable. It occurs in scattered locations and low densities.<br/></p>
156733		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156734		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Data Deficient (DD) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Information on the population size, distribution, trends, ecological requirements and potential threats are needed for this species.
156734		distribution	eng	This species is found in lowland mountainous areas on the South Alpine margins in North Italy and South Switzerland (Ticino).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
156734		habitat	eng	<h1 style="margin: 2pt 0in; text-align: left;" align="left">    </h1>This species lives on meadows and in shrubberies.
156734		population	eng	There is no information on population for this species. The species are very small and can only be found by sieving the soil.
156734		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are unknown.
156735		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in Bulgaria, but most of the known populations are living within protected areas.
156735		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the western and south-western part of Bulgaria (Vitosha, Rila and Rodope mountains). It reaches the border of its northern area by Lakatnik and in the East by Plovdiv.
156735		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderately humid habitats in montainuous regions&#160;(www.animalbase.org). It is a rock-dwelling species.
156735		population	eng	The species occurs in an inaccessible and therefore underexplored area. There is no information on population trends, but it is likely that the population is stable.
156735		threats	eng	<p>Since this species lives in inaccessible areas and is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.).</p>
156736		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
156736		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Fuerteventura where it is restricted to a small area of western Jandia mountains.
156736		habitat	eng	This species occurs in and under lichen-rich rocks within sparse grass- and shrub-vegetation at the high region of the Jandia Peninsula.
156736		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
156736		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156737		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xerosecta</span><em> promissa</em>&#160;is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable&#160;Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). No other conservation actions are needed.
156737		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xerosecta</span> <em>promissa</em> is endemic from the South of the Iberian Peninsula, where it is very common. It has been cited in all the provinces of Andalusia and Castilla-La Mancha, Badajoz in Extremadura and Algarve and Alentejo in Portugal (Arrébola 1995, Puente 1995, Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156737		habitat	eng	This species is well adapted to human-modified environments such margins of roads and edges of cultivated fields, riparian vegetation near villages, orchards, vineyards, wastelands, etc. (Puente 1994, Arrébola 1995).
156737		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However, most of the surveys reported a great number of individuals in almost all the localities visited (Arrébola 1995). It is more abundant than <em>X. reboudiana</em> in most of the Andalusia provinces (Arrébola 1995).
156737		threats	eng	Apart from general and global threats, such as climate change, the increase of intensive agriculture, pollution. There are no specific threats that may affect consistently this species. It is well adapted to human-modified habitats.
156738		conservation	eng	The sub-species are listed on the Swiss Red List<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>with<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. adelozona adelozona</span> as Endangered<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(EN)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">adelozona</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> rhaeticum</span> as Vulnerable (VU) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/><br/>More information on the distribution, size and trends of the populations in Italy as well as potential threats is needed before any conservation actions potentially required are considered.
156738		distribution	eng	This species' distribution includes northern Italy, Austria and southern Switzerland (Ticino). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">adelozonav</span><span style="font-style: italic;">  adelozona</span> is endemic to the southern Alps in Lombardia, Bergamask and Adamello<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>with <span style="font-style: italic;">C.  adelozona</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">rhaeticum</span> being endemic to the eastern Alps, extending from von Landeck to St. Moritz, and also in the valley of Veltlin. The extent of occurrence is thought to be less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
156738		habitat	eng	This species lives on moist, shaded, generally carbonate rather than silicate rocks as well as on old mossy walls. The sites are often near water.
156738		population	eng	<p>There is little population data for the species. However, in Switzerland the populations are slightly decreasing.<br/></p>
156738		threats	eng	<p>In Switzerland there is no actual threat known and therefore the causes for the decline are not understood. In Italy, quarrying of the rocks is taking place in the area where the species is found and this is a potential threat that this may lead to the loss of some populations in this area.<br/></p>
156739		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;Research is recommended on the distribution, taxonomy and population trends of this species.</p>
156739		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea the species is endemic to Greece, reported from the islands of Naxos and Crete (Schultes and Wiese 1990).
156739		habitat	eng	The problematic taxonomic position of the species is not allowing any discussion in respect to habitat and the ecology of the species.
156739		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156739		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156740		conservation	eng	Research is needed to better define this species area of occupancy and subpopulation sizes. A large part of the locations are largely within areas managed by National and Regional Natural Reserves. It is also necessary to conduct studies about its biology.
156740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to n<st1:place w:st="on">orth Spain and lives</st1:place>&#160;in the Cantabrian region.
156740		habitat	eng	This species lives exclusively on calcareous rocks and in crevices, as well as within the chasmophitic vegetation. In the East part of its range it lives between 900 -<st1:metricconverter productid="1.300 m" w:st="on"> 1,300 m</st1:metricconverter> of altitude. In the west part of its range (Picos de Europa and peripheral regions) it lives from 100 to <st1:metricconverter productid="2.600 m" w:st="on">2,600 m</st1:metricconverter>.
156740		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156740		threats	eng	Global warming could be a threat for the species in the east part of its range (e<st1:place w:st="on">ast  Cantabria</st1:place> and Basque country).
156741		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Balearic Catalogue of Threatened Species (BOIB, no. 66, 15/05//2008) under the category of species of 'special interest'. This category provides the species with a management plan. The presence and population size of the invasive black rat on each of the islands needs to be determined, as it spreads the digenean trematode <span style="font-style: italic;">Dollfusinus frontalis</span>, with the eventual aim of eradication from the islands. Controls need to be put in place to prevent the indiscriminate collection of specimens by collectors.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
156741		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xerocrassa ebusitana</span> is endemic to the Balearic islands (Spain), where it is found on Ibiza and Formentera and their surrounding islands and islets, where it has formed several subspecies.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. ebusitana</span> is the form most widely distributed, occupying the southern half of Ibiza, and Conillera, Formentera, Espardell and Espalmador.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. ortizi</span> ia found in the northern part of Ibiza as well as in the islet Tagomago.<br/><br/>The remaining subspecies have extremely limited distributions, restricted to the surrounding islands of Ibiza:<br/><ul><li><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. hortae</span> only live in the approximately 200 m<sup>2</sup> del Illot de S’Hort</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. canae</span> live in the Illa d’es Canar</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. cisternasi</span> in Illa Grossa de Sta. Eulària</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. redonae</span> in the Illa Redona de Sta. Eulària</li><li>In the southern islands of Ibiza live <span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. vedrae</span> (Vedrá) and<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. e. vedranellensis</span> (Vedranell)</li><li>In the west of Ibiza, in the islands of Ses Bledes live<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. e. scopulicola</span> (Na Gorra, Bleda Na Bosc y Bleda Plana),<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. e. conjugens</span> (Escull Vermell)<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. calasaladae</span> en S’Illeta, in front of Cala Saladaand<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. e. margaritae</span> in Ses Margalides, island in front of Santa Agnès</li><li>The northern islands of Ibiza are home to <span style="font-style: italic;">X. e. muradae</span> (Illa Murada),<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. e. calderensis</span> (Illa d’en Calders)and<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. e. mesquidae</span> (Illot de Sa Mesquida).</li></ul>
156741		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in ruderal places (edges of roads and paths), rocky coasts and rocky areas with small amounts of vegetation, where it is found in crevices. It is also found in shrub habitats.</p><p>This species is an intermediate host of the juveniles of the digenean trematode <span style="font-style: italic;">Dollfusinus frontalis. </span>The adults of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. frontalis</span> are found in the Algerian hedgehog (<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelerix algirus</span>) and the  nasal passages of rodents such as the dormouse (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eliomys quercinus  ophiusae</span>) and the invasive black rat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>).</p>
156741		population	eng	There are no demographic studies of this species. Gasull  (1964), referring to the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerocrassa</span>&#160; (found in the Balearic islands in general), noted  that their population density was usually very high. Research is necessary to determine the population status of this species.  Recent visits (Martínez-Ortí, pers. comm., 2011) to various locations on Formentera found two extant populations; on Ibiza only shells were discovered. Schröder (1978) said regarding <em>X. e. hortae, </em> that there is a  danger of extinction in the coming years, with only few specimens  observed alive. This could also be the case on other islands and  subspecies.
156741		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are from&#160; fires and anthropogenic pressure (mainly tourism, specimen collecting, urban expansion, recreational activities and road extension) This species is also an intermediate host of the juveniles of the digenean trematode <span style="font-style: italic;">Dollfusinus frontalis</span>, which is spread by the invasive black rat.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span>
156742		conservation	eng	The systematic position and the distribution of the species are unclear. More research in these areas are recommended.
156742		distribution	eng	The systematic position and the distribution of this species are unclear. This species is found in Greece and Turkey. According to Fauna Europaea the species is present in the north Aegean Islands. The reports for the species are for the island of Lesvos and for the western Turkey (Izmir, Bursa and Antalya) (Schütt 2001, Kebapci 2007).
156742		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is not known. Its habitat is likely to be similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrula </span>species, i.e. rocky areas with low vegetation (shrublands or grasslands).
156742		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species. It is thought to be rare in Greece only found at one location.</p>
156742		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156743		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156743		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, present in Epirus and some parts of south&#160;mainland&#160;Greece (Reischütz and Sattmann 1990).
156743		habitat	eng	The species lives in humid limestone rocks covered by  mosses.&#160;The species is extremely small in size (3 - 4.5 mm length and 1.4 - 1.8 mm width)&#160;(Gittenberger 1978).
156743		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156743		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats. However this species is dependent on some species of mosses, and if the mosses were effected this could be a threat to the snail.
156744		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156744		distribution	eng	This species lives in central and eastern Europe. It is recorded from Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. The populations in France and Italy have probably been&#160; introduced during and after the Roman period.<br/><br/>However, the main distribution range of this species is in Turkey and northern Iran, and some Caucasian countries.
156744		habitat	eng	This species lives in open temperate forests, in warm shrub lands, vineyards and hedges.
156744		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156744		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species known. In general, logging  may be a threat to local subpopulations, but the species in its European  distribution is not threatened. There are no data available on the effect of collections from the wild to the populations on the Balkans.
156747		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156747		distribution	eng	The species occurs, with wide distribution gaps, over a large part of Sicily (cf. distribution map in Cianfanelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). On Malta only a single specimen has been found in 1970. An anthropogenic origin of this is not excluded according to Giusti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995). Observations indicate that, concerning the <span style="font-style: italic;">Schileykiella</span>-species, the actual distribution in each site of is not larger than approx. 20 x 20 m. This species is recorded from 16 locations.
156747		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilous species, living in leaf litter in woody or maquis biotopes or under stones in open garigue and steppe; on calcareous substrata in Mediterranean shrub land.
156747		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156747		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, fire can  destroy the habitat completely, and pasturing and trampling are also  threatening the subpopulations. Road construction can also be important.
156748		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156748		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa mesostena</em> is endemic to Crete. It is distributed across almost the&#160;whole island, except from the eastern and&#160;north-western tip, and the region between Chania&#160;and the Psiloritis mountains (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
156748		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156748		population	eng	The species is known from a significant number of locations across Crete.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156748		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156749		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The species is listed as Least Concern in Ireland (Northern Ireland (UK) and Republic of Ireland) (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and is not listed as a species of Conservation Interest in Spain (Verdu and Galante 2009). More research is needed on the taxonomy, population and distribution of this species.
156749		distribution	eng	This species is not widespread in Europe.&#160; It is only known from Spain (Basque Country to Catalunya), Andorra and France (mainly in Pyrenees, but scattered records from other departments, up to Britanny (Anderson, pers. comm., 2010) and Ireland (Northern Ireland (UK) and Republic of Ireland) .&#160; It has a lusitanian distribution.&#160; In Ireland it has a wide distribution in both Northern and southern Ireland, with records from over 28 x 10 km<sup>2</sup>. In the last century this lively and rather brightly coloured animal was known only from disturbed sites on the borders of Louth and Meath. It has since been found widely across Ireland (Kerney 1999). It is seemingly spreading via forestry operations in the north-east Ireland (Anderson, pers. comm., 2011) and perhaps elsewhere. In Spain it is widely distributed in the Basque region (Altonaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994) to Catalunya: Pyrenees (Cadevall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).&#160; It has not been recorded widely in the French Pyrenees, but this may reflect levels of recording effort.
156749		habitat	eng	In Ireland, this species is typically found in woodland, under logs and dead branches, but also in damp leaf-letter, usually in mixed woodland. It tolerates conifer stands and can be abundant in wet woodlands, such as those found on floodplains (popular, alder, willow).&#160; It prefers undisturbed sites.
156749		population	eng	Despite its large extent of occurrence, this species is rare. There are only a few localities known.
156749		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Drainage of wetlands and increase of agriculture are potential threats to this species.
156750		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs. Some of the subpopulations live within protected areas such as in the Mecsek Mountains and Vértes Mountains in Hungary, however no conservation actions are currently required for this species.
156750		distribution	eng	This is an&#160; Eastern Alpin-Illyrian species, distributed from Steiermark, Kärnten, Alpi Giulie and Carso (Klemm 1973, Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 1995) to central Bosnia and western Serbia (Moellendorff 1873, Soós 1943). Its range includes the drainages of the Drava and Sava Rivers. There are isolated occurrences in the Inovec Mountains&#160;(western Slovakia) and in the Vértes Mountains (Hungary).    <p>There are several known locations (Klemm 1973, Lisicky 1991, Pintér and Suara 2004, Soós 1943, Prockow 2009), but this might underestimate the real number of existing subpopulations. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156750		habitat	eng	This is a silvicol species with a preference for humid, deciduous forests which are relatively ancient and untouched by man. It lives on the    ground among leaf-litter, under stones or decaying dead wood.
156750		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be  rare. However, due to its special habitat preference, the population is   fragmented.  The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and  there  are no data  on population trend. However, forest habitats are  known to be diminishing in some regions therefore one might suppose that  number of  subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are  declining.</p>
156750		threats	eng	Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this  species. However, considering the relatively large geographical range of  this species, local logging or recreational activities are not thought to affect  the whole population significantly.
156751		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information that the species is protected at national level in any of the countries where it occurs. At least a part of the known subpopulations are within protected areas however.<br/></p><p>Due to the large and stable population no further conservation measures are required for this species.<br/></p>
156751		distribution	eng	This species is of Carpathian distribution and is found in the Northern and the Eastern Carpathians (Soós 1943, Grossu 1987, Wiktor 2004, Lisicky 1991). Though Fauna Europaea list this species from Hungary, this record is based on fluvial debris collected material and therefore its exact origin is uncertain (Fehér & Gubányi 2001).<br/><p>There are numerous known locations, and due to the hidden life of this species this might be even higher. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156751		habitat	eng	<p>This is a woodland species (Soós 1943, Lisicky 1991) with a preference for deciduous forests of higher altitude where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood. This species is associated not only to limestone areas.<br/></p>
156751		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156751		threats	eng	Disturbance of the forests through recreational activities and development, uncontrolled logging and deforestation are the main threats to this species. However, considering the relatively large geographial range of this species, local logging or recreational activities do not affect the whole population significantly.
156752		conservation	eng	No conservation action is currently applied. Research on the taxonomy and distribution of this species is recommended.
156752		distribution	eng	Only material from the&#160;Peloponnessos, Crete and the Aegean Islands has been&#160;determined anatomically. Records from Turkey,&#160;Cyprus, Syria, the Lebanon, and North Africa (Brandt 1959) must be confirmed anatomically,&#160;because they might refer to <em>X. durieui </em>(Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
156752		habitat	eng	Usually found in open, xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156752		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156752		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Over-grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.
156753		conservation	eng	<p>The taxonomic position (whether or not distinct subspecies exist) of some local subpopulations is unclear. Research activity should focus on this point. <br/> This species is not protected in any of the countries where it potentially occurs although some subpopulations are known to occur within protected areas (e.g. in Albania: Prokletije National Park in Hungary). No conservation actions are required at present.<br/></p>
156753		distribution	eng	This species is primarily distributed in the western Balkans. According to Fauna Europaea, it occurs in Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, south-western Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia and Bulgaria. In the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum, there are materials from a few Slovenian locations. In Hungary, it is supposed to be native in the south-western part of the country, however there is a further occurrence in Budapest, which is thought to be an introduced subpopulation. <br/>Currently, there is no evidence that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the  number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156753		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found in the crevices, under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks. Though according to (Damjanov and Likharev 1975) in Bulgaria it lives in wooded areas around swamps and rivers, under the leaf litter and under the stones in areas of high humidity.</p>
156753		population	eng	Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be  rare, and therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of  subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or  extremely fluctuating.
156753		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem  modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be  threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation  (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large  extent of occurrence (EOO) and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect  the whole population significantly.
156754		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2">The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. However, some known locations are within protected areas. This species is not thought to require conservation actions at this time.<br/></a></p>
156754		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern Alps. There are at least six known locations, but probably much more. Three known locations are in Slovenia in the Triglav region: South of Bohinjsko Jezero, Kamenica gorge near Tolmin and Staro Selo near Kobarid (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished) and mentioned at least at three Italian subregions: Prealpi Venete, Alpi Giulie and Carso (Alzona 1971). There is one definite Italian occurrence at Friuli, Monte Sabotino near  Görz (AnimalBase).         <br/>Due to its small size and relatively hidden life, real values are probably much underestimated. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156754		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found in rock crevices, under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks. <br/></p>  <p> <br/></p>
156754		population	eng	<p>Due to the small size and the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156754		threats	eng	<p>This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications due to activities such as quarrying. However, total destruction of the preferred habitat across the whole range is not very likely, therefore local activities do not affect the whole species significantly.  </p>
156755		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156755		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central and western Pyrenees, mainly in France, with some subpopulations in Spain.
156755		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156755		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs, especially in the central Pyrenees. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156755		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156756		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be focused on habitat preservation. Research about population size and ecology are needed. The area of occupancy of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. b. marcusi</span> should be investigated in order to better define the threat category of this subspecies with very limited distribution range. <span style="font-style: italic;">G. b. braunii </span>occurs in the French Pyrenees National Park.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
156756		distribution	eng	This species is found in Spain, Andorra, and the southernmost part of France close to the Pyrenees (Hautes Pyrénées and Pyrénés Occidentales). In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. b. braunii</span> is widely distributed along the mountains of the Ebro basin, from North Burgos, Basque country, Navarra, and La Rioja, to Aragon and Catalonia. Also present in the upper Duero basin, in Burgos and Soria. It is particularly common in the valleys placed South of the Pyrenees.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">G. b. marcusi</span> is endemic to the South of Valencia and North of Alicante. The extent of occurance of <em>G. b. marcusi</em> is nearly 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
156756		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous open places with rocky substrate, living at the base of herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. It is found most frequently protected under leaf litter or stones.
156756		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156756		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat degradation by urban enlargement, quarries and road constructions, but these activities have only a local impact.
156757		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area is under local conservation schemes.</p>
156757		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It lives in a small area on the northeastern part of the island.<br/></p>
156757		habitat	eng	This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar).
156757		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156757		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156758		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156758		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, reported from a number of islands in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades-east Aegean Islands) (Mylonas 1982, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156758		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of vegetation types,&#160;usually&#160;in open, xeric environments.
156758		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156758		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156759		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are known to be outside of protected areas.</p><p>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></p>
156759		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Serbia and in the Banat and Apuseni Mountains in Romania. In Hungary it has been found in fluvial debris only so its presence there cannot be confirmed.
156759		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.
156759		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156759		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156760		conservation	eng	This species is protected at national level in Hungary, but not in other countries. Because of the large area several sub-populations may be found in other protected areas.
156760		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern Europe Eastern part of Hungary, Slovakia, Serbia and Poland. It is also known from Romania (Transsylvania), Moldavia and Ukraine.
156760		habitat	eng	This is a moderately xerotolerant species. It inhabits lowland meadows, bushy areas, and is not found in the mountains (Kerney <em>et al</em>. 1983).
156760		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156760		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not effect the whole population significantly.</p>
156761		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156761		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France (central and Western Pyrenees) and Spain (Eastern Cantabrians).
156761		habitat	eng	This species inhabits karstic areas, living within crevices or under stones, although in humid environments it can be found on the rock surface.
156761		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156761		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156762		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at species level in Slovenia nor in Austria, however it is probable that some subpopulations live within protected areas such as Triglav National Park in Slovenia.<br/><br/>Due to the stable population and area of occupancy (AOO) there are no conservation actions required at present.
156762		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southeastern Alps. Its type locality is in Slovenia: "Krain,  Feestritzthal bei Stein" [=Kamnik]. In Austria there are two locations; Loiblpass and Vellachtal (Klemm 1973). AnimalBase provides a Croatian record: "Croatia: Zumblerak mountains,  Jastrobasrko", however this is doubtful according to Stamol (2010).<br/>There might be other, as yet unknown, locations/subpopulations and   there is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156762		habitat	eng	<p>This species is generally associated with rocky habitats. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites, or at the base of the rocks among leaf-litter (Kerney <em>et al.</em> 1983).</p>
156762		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access there are no data on population trend. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.&#160;</p>
156762		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156763		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are outside of protected areas.</p>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
156763		distribution	eng	This species is sporadically distributed along the Dalmatian Adriatic coast from Omis in Croatia to Elbasan in Albania. The known distribution records are: North-East of Shkoder; Rutoci; Kameno near Herceg-Novi; Sutorina Mountain; Dobrota near Kotor; Kotor; Petovac; Virpazar; Velika Jama near Sokol; Ombla near Dubrovnik; Komolac near Dubrovnik; Sustjepan near Dubrovnik; Radmanove Mlinice near Omis; Omis, six km from Kucice (Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989), Tamare; Mirake (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996), Rumija Mountais between Zoganje and Klezna (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished record).<br/>    <p>There are 15-20 known locations of this species and no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156763		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156763		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156763		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons such as leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156764		conservation	eng	This species is not listed in National Red List nor on the Canarian Island government list.&#160; It is considered to be Endangered by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) and Close to Extinction by Moliner Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001). Actions required are the implementation of a protected area and long-term monitoring.
156764		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single location on the north-west side of the island of Gomera, at Montana Bejira.
156764		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species is found on typical lowland vegetation.
156764		population	eng	&#160;The population is very small. There is no trend data for this species.
156764		threats	eng	Agriculture and &#160;pasture might be affecting the species.
156765		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.
156765		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in Thessalia (Hausdorf 1990).
156765		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156765		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156765		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156766		conservation	eng	The single site where the species is known to occur is not protected. Monitoring is needed, and measures to address the threats posed by overgrazing and rat predation may be needed.
156766		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species is endemic to La Gomera. It was described without location data, and rediscovered by R. Hutterer in the 1990s. It is known from one site (one location) in the north-east part of the island, and its area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are inferred to be&#160;4 km².</p>
156766		habitat	eng	The species is found in abandoned cultivated area with rocks.
156766		population	eng	The population size and trend are not known for this species. Based on findings of several dead shells and subfossil shells in the environment, as well as many in Quaternary deposits, it would appear that the species is declining.
156766		threats	eng	Significant threats to the species include overgrazing by goats and predation by rats.
156767		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed. An inventory of the known populations needs to be established and the  trend of the populations needs to be determined, especially for the  Italian part of the range.
156767		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-western Alps extending from the Hautes-Alpes in France to Graian Alps in Italy. In Switzerland, there was one locality known at Zermatt, Monte Rosa, with only one record from 1850.
156767		habitat	eng	The species lives on small rocks in meadows in mountains preferably on silicates.
156767		population	eng	The species is common where it occurs. The Swiss population has disappeared.
156767		threats	eng	This species apparently does not face any special threats. Global  warming, by elevating the isotherm lines, might have a impact on the  lower ceiling and thus decreasing the available ecological habitat.  Overgrazing by sheep is also a potential threat.
156768		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as Vulnerable (VU) in the Red book of Spanish Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2006) as well as in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Arrébola and Ruiz 2008).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).<br/>It is not uncertain if the species is well adapted to live in human-modified sites or if it is only resisting and declining there,  which is the most probable situation. More samplings efforts would be needed, mainly in inland areas within natural protected  sites, to know its true habitat and ecology preferences.
156768		distribution	eng	All known localities are in the provinces of Cadiz in the Southernmost corner of the Iberian Peninsula, concentrated in a small region around the northern side of the Straight of&#160; Gibraltar.&#160;All the records from the southern Iberian Peninsula referring to&#160;<em>G. lanuginosa</em>&#160;have been assigned to&#160;<em>G. gadirana </em>(see Taxonomic notes) (Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).&#160;There are older records for <em>Helix lanuginosa</em>&#160;and other related species from northern Africa (from Morocco to the north-western part of Algeria, with one record in Tunisia). Taking into account that <em>G. gadirana</em> has been an overlooked species identified as <em>H. lanuginosa</em>, there is a possibility that some of the African records belong to <em>G. gadirana&#160;</em>(Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
156768		habitat	eng	<em>Ganula gadirana</em> has been found under stones, half buried in the ground or on herbaceous vegetation associated with Mediterranean bushes and is usually close to permanent (or almost permanent) rivers and streams (Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). The localities where it has been cited are mainly related to ruderal areas, specially along roadsides and highways, in the proximities of livestock and agricultural farms and, less often, edges of natural areas of scrub under woods (<em>Quercus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">genera</span>) where the specimens are not easy to find. Although most of the records are in strongly human-modified sites, the natural habitat could be Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation.
156768		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156768		threats	eng	Although the current data are inconclusive on the habitat of the species, its appearance in ruderal areas and high anthropogenic influence is interpreted as the result of human pressure on its natural habitat. Urban development, tourism and the consequent increase in human activities in <em>G. gadirana</em>'s area of occupancy&#160; (Tarifa, Algeciras, Los Barrios, etc.) have caused a strong pressure on the species and threaten its population.&#160;Some of the cited subpopulations have been recently surveyed and no individuals were found.
156769		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species.&#160; Its range is included in the Karpathian National Park, but this does not prevent the species to be impacted by recreational activities. The range of this species should be specifically protected.
156769		distribution	eng	This species is is endemic from Ukraine and is known only from the type locality - valley of the Zhenets River near Tatarov Village (Karpathian National Park).
156769		habitat	eng	This molluscs was found in a damp leaf litter in a woodland.
156769		population	eng	There are no&#160; population data available.
156769		threats	eng	The area is part of the ecological trail of the Karpathian National Park.
156770		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156770		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the western part of Crete (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156770		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
156770		population	eng	There is no available information on population trend for this species.
156770		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.
156771		conservation	eng	The species is large and is often included as a species to look for in field surveys. It is probably included in some protected areas. This species is included in some regional Red Lists. In Germany in Baden-Wuerttemberg it is considered Extremely rare and in Bayern it is considered Critically Endangered and the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">eximia</span> is considered Extinct (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003) In France this species is still present in eastern parts but it might have become extinct from the most western parts of its distribution. In Austria it is considered&#160; Critically Endangered (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007). <br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions are research and monitoring of the populations.
156771		distribution	eng	In Europe this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is found in central, south and south-west Germany, south and east France, Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Ukraine.<br/><br/>The species is also recorded from the Caucasus, north-eastern Turkey, Iran to Turkmenistan (Kopeth Dag).
156771		habitat	eng	This species is found in scrub and dry semi-arid unimproved grasslands with rocks, sometimes in open forest, and fringe vegetation of dry and warm places.
156771		population	eng	In Europe, the species is rare and field surveys suggest that the subpopulations are declining and have disappeared from several sites. In Austria, historically the species was known from more than 100 sites but&#160; now it is restricted to two very weak subpopulations. It is difficult to define the actual distribution on the Balkans as there have only been occasional recordings.
156771		threats	eng	Deterioration of the habitat is the main threat to this species. This is mainly through an increase in grazing activities that leads to scrub encroaching. Eutrophication due to agriculture also leads to changes in the vegetation, which then cannot be used for the species any more. Change of grassland to agricultural land is another reason for the loss of habitat. Particularly in the Balkans, fire may also be a major threat to the species, as open grass land is often completely burned down by the local population.
156772		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population and distribution of the species.
156772		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in Croatia and Italy. However, the only defined locality for this species is the Italian city of Trieste. It was also listed for the Istria peninsula (Jaeckel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1958), whose area is not only in Croatia. Bank (2007) lists only Croatia for its range, however, this is to be checked (Štamol 2010).</p>
156772		habitat	eng	The habitat is unknown.
156772		population	eng	There are no data available.
156772		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156774		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
156774		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Alegranza north of Lanzarote. This species is recorded from one location and 10 sites on the whole island.<br/></p>
156774		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156774		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156774		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156775		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Poland and several known subpopulations live within protected areas. No further conservation actions are required for this species at this time.
156775		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Carpathians and in the Apuseni Mountains. Distribution data are provided by Polinski (1924), Soós (1943), Grossu (1983), Wiktor (2004), Lisicky (1991), Kerney <em>et al.</em> (1983), Fehér&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2008) and Prockow (2009). There is also a recently found and therefore unpublished Hungarian occurrence (R. Farkas, in prep.).&#160;There are several known locations and at the present moment there is no  evidence that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the  number of locations are declining or  extremely fluctuating.
156775		habitat	eng	This is a silvicol species with a preference for humid, deciduous forests which are relatively ancient and untouched by man. It lives on the   ground among leaf-litter, under stones or decaying dead wood.
156775		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be  rare. However, due to its special habitat preference, the population is   fragmented.  The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and  there  are no data  on population trend. However, forest habitats are  known to  diminish in  that region therefore one might suppose that  number of  subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are  declining.</p>
156775		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. However, considering its relatively large geographial range, local logging or recreational activities do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156776		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;The islands of Gavos and Gavdopoula belong to the Natura 2000 site (GR4340013).
156776		distribution	eng	The species is an endemic of Gavdopoula Island, south of Crete (Welter-Schultes 1998, 1999).
156776		habitat	eng	This species requires a minimum vegetational  cover. It is found mainly in xeric shrublands (Welter-Schultes 1999).
156776		population	eng	The population of the species seems to be very small (Welter-Schultes 1999), probably less than 1,000 individuals, but this would need confirmation.
156776		threats	eng	According to&#160;Welter-Schultes (1999), the main threat for the species seems to be overgrazing by goats which is critically reducing the vegetation cover of this small island.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156777		conservation	eng	Due to its large distribution area, several sub-populations may inhabit protected areas. No conservation actions are required.
156777		distribution	eng	The species lives in Sweden, and from Middle and Southern Europe to the Caucasus (Kokshoorn and Gittenberger 2010). It is also recorded from Turkey.
156777		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species inhabits dry and open habitats on  calcareous sub-ground and rock rubble, usually in mountains. In the Alps, it is&#160;  restricted to rocky surfaces and walls directly exposed to the sun,  usually at south-exposed slopes. Exceptionally, for example during dry  weather periods, beech tree trunks up to 10 m distant from rocks  can be reached by the snails (Klemm 1951). In Bulgaria, it occurs up to 1,900 m.
156777		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to   assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156777		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this   threat is mostly hypothetical.
156778		conservation	eng	The subpopulation in Vorarlberg (Austria) is listed as Endangered. Besides this, there is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on its distribution range is needed.
156778		distribution	eng	This snail is a holarctic species, and is widespread in Europe ranging from Scandinavia (up to 64°  N in Norway) to Greece and Ukraine. It is not found in the southernmost part of Mediterranean Europe (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).
156778		habitat	eng	This snail is commonly found within grass roots in dry base-rich areas, roadside banks, calcareous hillsides although sometimes found in marshes, together with other species of <em>Vertigo</em> (Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Kerney 1999) or sometimes on sand dunes (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983).
156778		population	eng	The size and trend within most of the subpopulations are supposed to be stable. The subpopulations in Bavaria (Germany) seem to decrease.
156778		threats	eng	Habitat loss through changes in land management is impacting the species.
156779		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156779		distribution	eng	The island is endemic to Donousa island, in Cyclades (Aegean Sea, Greece) (Subai 1996).
156779		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).&#160;</p>
156779		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156779		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156780		conservation	eng	Due to its large distribution area, several subpopulations may inhabit protected areas.
156780		distribution	eng	According to Kokshoorn and Gittenberger (2010), this species has by far the widest distribution of all chondrinids. It has even been reported from Ascension island, in the middle of the Atlantic ocean (7.94W 14.36S) (Ashmole and Ashmole 1997). The species is found in Portugal and Spain, in the Mediterranean zone and eastwards to Iran and Afghanistan (Gittenberger 1973: 40) and the Arabian peninsula (Neubert 1998: 365, fig. 51; 367, fig. 52). The record from northern Somalia (Verdcourt 1963: 408–409; Gittenberger 1973: 40) is based on the description of <span style="font-style: italic;">Granopupa somalensis</span> Verdcourt, 1963. However, that species should be classified with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rupestrella</span>. Hence the southernmost records for <span style="font-style: italic;">Granopupa </span>are from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
156780		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species inhabits dry and sunny habitats. It is often  very abundant, on the ground below limestone rocks and in crevices. In the south of  Switzerland , it occurs on south-exposed slopes, up to 1,400 m altitude.
156780		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to    assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156780		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by    quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total    destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this    threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
156781		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156781		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of La Gomera, where it is not rare in the south-western areas of the island. It is known from several locations with numerous sites.
156781		habitat	eng	This species lives in dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156781		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156781		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known.
156782		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is protected in Croatia. Some of the subpopulations occur within protected areas.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1">Due to the large and stable population there are no further conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></a></p>
156782		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Balkan Peninsula from Croatia to Epirus in Greece, along the Adriatic coast. Inland its range extends to Bosnia and Serbia. There are several known locations (Nordsieck 1970) with the HNHM Mollusc Collection describing 150-200 unpublished distribution records. This indicates that within its range this species is very frequent and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156782		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the bases of rocks.</p>
156782		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species seems to be abundant, therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156782		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the large range and the large number of existing subpopulations, such drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156783		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Suggested measures are habitat management and monitoring, and communications to tourists and recreational users of their impact on local biodiversity.
156783		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to central Italy, where it occurs in a restricted sector of the western Reatini mountains, and is known from 7 sites in the higher mountain region.
156783		habitat	eng	This species occurs in clearings or pastures with shrubs, in beech woods of the montane and subalpine zone; in meadows with <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium repens</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago medica</span>.
156783		population	eng	There are no data available.
156783		threats	eng	The main threats tot his species are pasturing and alteration of biotopes by tourism and sport activities.
156784		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in Albania and its known sites are out of protected areas. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and therefore therefore research activity should focus on that. No conservation actions are required currently.<br/></p>
156784		distribution	eng	This species has been described from the Korab and Shkelzen Mountains from high altitudes (1800-2000) between Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. According to recent faunistical investigations in the Korab Mountain this species can be found from 1460 m, but it seems to be associated with limestone areas. As the distribution of high altitude limestone areas is patchy in North Albania, we can suppose that the species range is disjunct.<br/>Neither Stankovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) nor Fauna Europaea mentions this species from Macedonia, however, in the Korab Mountain it was found very near the Macedonian border, so it can be supposed that occurs in Macedonia as well.
156784		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas where it is usually found under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks.</p>
156784		population	eng	<p>Despite its relatively narrow range, the species does not seem to be rare. Thus, there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156784		threats	eng	<p>This species does not appear to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, etc.). Considering that this species does not inhabit easily accessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification are relatively unlikely at this moment.<br/></p>
156785		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Rheinland-Pfalz (AnimalBase 2010).
156785		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Europe, extending from Island, Scandinavia, UK to Spain,  Portugal and its Atlantic islands and east to Czech Republic. It is not recorded from any Balkan countries.<br/><br/>Outside of Europe, it is also recorded from the Baikal area.
156785		habitat	eng	This species lives mainly in forests (coniferous as well as deciduous), and also on acidic grasslands. It is often montane and can be found in relatively dry habitats. It is said to avoid calcareous  habitats and is found on acid soils usually avoided by other shelled molluscs (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).
156785		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156785		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting the species at the moment.
156786		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are needed for this species.
156786		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic distributed across the eastern Mediterranean slope in the Spanish provinces of&#160; Zaragoza, Teruel, Lérida, Tarragona, Murcia, Cuenca, Albacete, Ciudad Real, Granada, Alicante,Valencia and Castellón.
156786		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilous species (adapted to dry environments) of steepe environments that has been collected in pine and oak forests, Mediterranean shrubs and ruderal habitats.
156786		population	eng	The population trend is stable for this species, and populations are usually easy to locate.
156786		threats	eng	The threats to this species are fires, quarries, urban expansion, temperature extremes and the extension of roads.
156787		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species.</p>
156787		distribution	eng	This is a central Mediterranean species that is recorded from France (maritime influenced areas), Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Croatia, Montenegro (only coast), and the coastal areas of Greece including all the major islands. Outside Europe it is also known from Algeria, Tunisia, and western Libya, and the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. This species is easily distributed by human activities, its native range is almost impossible to assess.<br/>This species has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand, where it is a pest snail.
156787		habitat	eng	This species inhabits all types of maritime influenced Mediterranean habitats, it is a synanthropic species (i.e. that live near, and benefit from, an association with humans and the somewhat artificial habitats that humans create around them). However, it is obviously susceptible to frost, so populations introduced to countries north of the Alps do not survive the winter period.
156787		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable. This is a pest snail outside its European range.<br/></p>
156787		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.</p>
156788		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></span></p>
156788		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece. It is reported from the western part of the country and the Ionian Islands (Boeters <em>et al</em>. 1989).
156788		habitat	eng	<p>This species is commonly found in shaded, humid environments such as woodlands. It is usually found in the leaf litter.</p>
156788		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend for this species.&#160;</p>
156788		threats	eng	Destruction of this species' woodland habitat can reduce localised populations of the species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156789		conservation	eng	Roughly one third of the population is under local conservation. Enlargement of existing protected areas is needed, and the further development of the city of St. Cruz has to be regulated.
156789		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It lives in the southern parts of the island (southern slopes of Anaga Mountains, St. Cruz).<br/></p>
156789		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156789		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156789		threats	eng	This species is declining due to urbanisation, as well as quarrying close to the city for building stone, road construction.
156790		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156790		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Santa Maria island, Azores.
156790		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus tremulans</span> lives in dry habitats near the shore, under rocks and amid agave plants, as well as in the moist laurisilva forest up in the mountains.
156790		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout Santa Maria island.
156790		threats	eng	This species is widely dispersed throughout Santa Maria island in almost all types of habitats; no threats are foreseen.
156791		conservation	eng	Conservation actions required for this species include review of the population distribution, as well as habitat monitoring, especially for highland areas vulnerable to fire. The likely area of distribution lies partly in&#160; protected areas (Laurel forest protected area, and the Maciço Montanhoso Central protected area (Central Mountainous Massif).
156791		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is found on Madeira mainly at intermediate elevations on rock crags (Wollaston 1878). It is rare in old records, and as such requires more survey work (Seddon 2008). At present there is only one confirmed location (Seddon 2008).
156791		habitat	eng	This species is found on rock crags, under and around the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sempervivum</span> on the faces. Also found on rock ledges under leaves, around the roots of plants; under dead, loosened bark.
156791		population	eng	There is insufficient data to establish population trends.
156791		threats	eng	This is a rare species which maybe underrecorded (Seddon 2008). The major threats lie in habitat disturbance, for example through intensive bushfires.
156792		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156792		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, distributed across the island (Vardinoyannis 1994).
156792		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.</p>
156792		population	eng	The species is quite abundant across Crete (Vardinoyannis 1994).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156792		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156793		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the population is urgently needed. More research on the main threats are also fundamental to understand the reason of the population decline.
156793		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Croatia where it is found in eight sites on six UTM squares (10 x 10 km<sup>2</sup>).
156793		habitat	eng	This species is a strict rock-dweller, it is found on rock walls, mountains cliffs, etc. This is probably a relict species.
156793		population	eng	Even though there have been no direct studies on the population trend of this species, field observations tend to show a drastic population decline over the last 20 years (A. and P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2010). It is suspected that there is a population decline of more than 30% in the last 10 years.
156793		threats	eng	Despite the considerable decline in population trend, the threats to this species are not known.
156794		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) estimated the status of this species as LR/lc (low risk).<br/></p>
156794		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northern part of the island of Tenerife.</p>
156794		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits almost all types of habitats in the northern parts of the island. However, highest densities are reached in the Laurel forests (Laurisilva).</p>
156794		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable. It is found in moderate to high densities.<br/></p>
156794		threats	eng	This species seems to tolerate all types of threats and is also able to survive in anthropogenic habitats.
156795		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
156795		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span> is native in southwestern England and Wales, Ireland (Gittenberger and Ripken 1987), western France, Switzerland, Morocco and the Mediterranean countries of Europe and Africa. Its habitat in Europe is near the coasts.&#160; In Ireland, it is known since the nineteenth century from a small number of sites on the   coasts of Louth, Meath and Dublin between Clogher Head and Rush.  More  recently, three colonies have been found in West Cork, at   Garrettstown/White Strand, Ownahinchy Strand and Inchydoney Island.  It  has also spread from its north Dublin  sites to the North Bull sands in  the city of Dublin (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>It has been introduced into the Atlantic islands, South Africa, Somaliland, and western Australia. This snail was first noticed in North America in La Jolla, San Diego County, California, in 1914. It soon spread to several locations in Orange and Los Angeles Counties, but apparently was eradicated there by 1940. It was reported by Mead in 1971 that a second infestation in Los Angeles County occurred in 1966 which was declared eradicated in 1972. The snails were found and identified in August 1985 in San Diego, California, at several localities in about a 10 square mile area. In 1966, Hanna stated that <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span> has been introduced into several eastern localities in the United States. There are no published records for North American populations outside of California. <span style="font-style: italic;">Theba pisana</span> is also present in Bermuda but has never been recorded from Florida (Deisler and Stange 2001).Currently, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span> is widely distributed in the semi-arid coastal fynbos region of the South Western Cape, and has been recorded as far east as Port Elizabeth, although it has not been successful in establishing viable populations in the Eastern Cape beyond East London (Odendaal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
156795		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Theba pisana </span>is a terrestrial gastropod, known for its polymorphism in shell banding and its ability to aestivate in the open, mainly during the dry season (Hazel and Johnson 1990). Estimates of variance of dispersal over 100 days suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span> is generally sedentary when compared with the few other snail species for which comparable information is available.&#160;In Southern Austrailia, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana </span>feeds on a variety of agricultural plants and uses the stalks of cereals as aestivating sites. It is abundant in introduced colonies occurring along the coastal sand dunes in Southern Western Australia (Hazel and Johnson 1990). In Israel and South Africa, the species is observed to feed and cause damage to ornamental flowers, vegetables, citrus, almond, olive and grapevines (Baker 1988). In Spain, it is found to swarm in the gardens, feeding mostly on the Aloe <span style="font-style: italic;">(Agave americana) </span>and the Prickly Pear <span style="font-style: italic;">(Opuntia dillenii)</span> near the sea level, and is never found more than 100 feet above it (Gittenberger and Ripken 1987).<br/><br/>In Ireland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Theba pisana </span>is confined to coastal dunes in relatively frost-free localities It has a predilection for climbing dead vegetation or walls during dry  periods and remaining cemented in position for long periods by a copious  chalky secretion used to block the shell opening and reduce water loss (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156795		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span> is known to be in great density of the populations in California (reports of up to 3000 snails per tree, Deisler and Stange 2001). There are no published records outside of California, but the population is thought to be stable. The largest colony on the British Isles occurs in Tenby, Wales.
156795		threats	eng	Past threats to this species include the combined use of poison sprays, poison baits, burning, and hand-picking in California due to the high levels of species infestation and the invasive nature of the species on others. Campaigns to lower numbers of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana </span>were invariably long and costly due, in part, to the way in which this snail hides itself for long periods by climbing up, on, and into bushes, trees, and man-made objects. Any control program would require the use of metaldehyde baits or bran-calcium in conjunction with detailed surveys of the ground, plantings, and structures within the infected areas (Deisler and Stange 2001). However, in Europe, there are no major threats to this species.
156796		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156796		distribution	eng	This specie is endemic to Sardinia (Italy). The species occurs only in the eastern coastal mountain chaine of Sardinia between the plains of Orosei and Tortoli. It is confined to calcareous places which are separated by deposits of vulcanic basalts. This species is recorded from 10 locations and 10 sites.
156796		habitat	eng	This species is a typical rock-dweller on limestone rocks in Mediterranean vegetation types.
156796		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156796		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the road construction, which causes damage and fragmentation to the habitats. Tourist infrastructures and recreational activities like rock climbing add to the threats.
156797		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156797		distribution	eng	The species is present in the&#160;eastern&#160;Aegean Islands from Kos to Rhodos and in the coasts of western Turkey (Bank and Neuteboom 1988, Schütt 2001, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156797		distribution	eng	This species is present in the&#160;eastern&#160;Aegean Islands from Kos to Rhodos and on the coasts of western Turkey (Bank and Neuteboom 1988, Schütt 2001, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156797		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species and is usually found on rocks or in rock crevices. In Kalymnos and the&#160;nearby&#160;island of Telendos above 400 m asl (Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156797		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species and is usually found on rocks or in rock crevices. In Kalymnos and the&#160;nearby&#160;island of Telendos above 400 meters above sea level (Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156797		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite rare. There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156797		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite rare. There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
156797		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156797		threats	eng	G<a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">razing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156798		conservation	eng	The species has been assessed on the Swiss and German Red Lists as Critically Endangered (CR) (Jungbluth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population is necessary.
156798		distribution	eng	The species is distributed mainly in central Europe, but has a scattered occurrence from the island of Gotland to north-eastern Spain. The extent of occurrence is over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
156798		habitat	eng	The species is found in open calcareous or loessic grass and scrublands with sparse vegetation cover on mountaintops as well as on karstic highland plateaus and disturbed pastures, which are thought to constitute ecological refuges. In south-eastern France it inhabits localities from 900 to 1000 m above sea level, but it was also found 370 m above sea level in Mont Vertoux, which is unusual.
156798		population	eng	In many areas the population of this species is thought to be decreasing. In Switzerland there are two localities within a few hundred metres of each other. The first one has been known for five years, and the second since 2009. Other localities have disappeared. However, in Sweden (Gotland) the population is thought to be stable.
156798		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
156799		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;Although Gavdos Island is included&#160;various protection schemes (e.g. Natura 2000 Site GR4340013), there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156799		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Gavdos, south of Crete (Welter-Schultes 1998).
156799		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in&#160;xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156799		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite common on the island of Gavdos (Welter-Schultes 1998).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156799		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.&#160;</p>
156800		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156800		distribution	eng	This species is found on São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Graciosa, Pico and Faial islands, Azores.
156800		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus delibutus</span> prefers wooded areas, where it can be found under rocks, decaying wood and amidst clumps of dried vegetation. The juveniles, and sometimes the adults, can be found climbing up the branches and leaves. It is also found in dry environments, under heaps of rocks and on stone walls.
156800		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus delibutus</span> is abundant throughout the islands São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Graciosa, Pico and Faial, from near the sea level to the endemic forest.
156800		threats	eng	This species is adaptable to different habitats; therefore no threats are foreseen.
156801		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas, although there are no specific action plans for this species. The sites near the coast are not protected, although the inland sites are sufficient at present, to protect the species from extinction.
156801		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Madeiran islands where it is only known living on the northern side of Madeira and in the central valleys at intermediate elevations in&#160;suitable habitats in at least 10 different valleys.
156801		habitat	eng	The species is found at low and intermediate elevations into the laurisilva zone. It is found in damp, shaded wooded areas amongst leaf-litter and mosses. Sometimes at the base of ferns and on wet grasses.
156801		population	eng	This species is present in suitable habitats in at least 10 different valleys on the island in habitats that are protected, which suggests that it is reasonably widespread.
156801		threats	eng	The inland sites are fairly intact, with only the coastal habitats show signs of habitat degradation. &#160;This is due to urbanisation, clearance and disturbance along the roadsides.
156802		conservation	eng	The species lives within a National Park, the highest form of protection of natural areas in Spain. Research is needed on taxonomy, population size and the distribution.
156802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. The species is known only from two localities placed in Picos de Europa Massif in the north of Spain - Santa Marina de Valdeón and Fuente Dé.
156802		habitat	eng	This species lives on the herbage growing on lower mountain slopes.
156802		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.&#160;Gittenberger and Carr (2002) say that it is locally abundant.
156802		threats	eng	The most significant threats &#160;to this species are grazing and fires.
156803		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156803		distribution	eng	The species is present in&#160;Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Iran&#160;(Hausdorf 1996, Schütt 2001).
156803		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in areas with limestone in highlands (Hausdorf 1996, Schütt 2005).
156803		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156803		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species.
156804		conservation	eng	Some populations of this species are included in Nature Reserves. Nevertheless, the protection of this habitat and of the known populations are  recommended. More research is needed to survey old localities of this species, as only 9 living populations have been documented in the last 15 years.
156804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iberia where it is distributed through the calcareous mountain ranges of the north-eastern Prebetic in the Spanish provinces of Valencia and Alicante.
156804		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous rocks, from the proximity of the sea up to an altitude of more than 1,000 m. Sometimes shells are covered in a powder similar in appearance to the rocks, which acts as a camouflage. This can also be observed in other <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrinidae.</span>
156804		population	eng	In the last 15 years, only nine extant populations of this species have been found.
156804		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires (particularly in the summer), quarrying, urban expansion, extension of roads, temperature extremes and drought.
156805		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Data Deficient (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156805		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom. In Ireland, it has been reported that <span style="font-style: italic;">Candidula gigaxii</span> was known at four Irish sites in Cos. Kildare and Roscommon discovered in  the nineteen -thirties but the species has not been seen since (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156805		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. gigaxii </span>is confined to dry, warm soils, for instance on glacial eskers  in midland counties. It prefers, short, well-grazed grassland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and can be found in open dry areas on calcareous ground.
156805		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156805		threats	eng	There are actually no threats to this species.
156806		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are outside of protected areas. No conservation actions are currently required for this species however.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156806		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are outside of protected areas.</p><p>Research is required into the causes of the observed population decline in Dalmatia and ascertain whether this is consistent with the rest of the species' European range.<br/></p><p></p><p>&#160;</p>
156806		distribution	eng	This is a Pontic species which seems to extend from Slovenia and Croatia westwards to Armenia ("Leninakan" [=Gyumri]) and southern Georgia to the east. Due to its conchological similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">Jaminia quadridens</span>, they might be mixed by some authors and therefore faunistical records are not always reliable. This is especially true in the western Balkans region, where the two species' ranges overlap.<br/><br/>Among others, distribution data are provided by Schütt (1996), Likharev and Damjanov (1975), Grossu (1987), Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996), Kantor <em>et al. </em>(2010), Stamol and Velkovrh (1995), Stamol (1986), Stankovic&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2006) and Tomic (1959). In the HNHM Mollusc Collection, there are only a few records from Dalmatia and Bulgaria, one from Hercegovina in Medugorje and one from Romania in Babadag. According to Fauna Europaea, it also occurs in Montenegro and Slovenia.
156806		distribution	eng	This is a Pontic species which seems to extend to Dalmatia westwards (which is the <span style="font-style: italic;">area typica</span>) and Armenia ( "Leninakan" [=Gyumri]) and southwestern Georgia to the east. Due to its conchological similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">Jaminia quadridens</span>, they might be mixed by some authors and therefore, faunistical records are not always reliable. This is especially true in the western Balkans region, where the two species' ranges overlap.<br/><br/>Among others, distribution data are provided by Schütt (1996), Likharev and Damjanov (1975), Grossu (1987), Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996), Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009), Stamol and Velkovrh (1995), Stamol (1986), Stankovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) and Tomic (1959). In the HNHM Mollusc Collection, there are only a few records from Dalmatia and Bulgaria, one from Hercegovina (Medugorje) and one from Romania (Babadag). According to Fauna Europaea, it occurs also in Montenegro and Slovenia.<br/><br/>Within its wide range, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. seductilis</span> does not seem to be rare, and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156806		habitat	eng	<p>Though not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas (including rocky grasslands and rocky shrublands), where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks (Schütt 1996). <br/></p>
156806		habitat	eng	<p>Though not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas, including rocky grasslands and rocky shrubland where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks (Schütt 1996). <br/></p>
156806		population	eng	<p>According to Peter Reischutz (pers. comms. 2010), it appears that there is decline in the subpopulation size in Dalmatia. However, within its large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the overall number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating in the rest of its range.<br/></p>
156806		population	eng	<p>This species seems to be rare and highly fragmented. According to Peter and Alexander Reischutz, (pers. comms., 2010), it appears that there is a decline in the sub-populations sizes in Dalmatia of at least 30%. <br/></p>
156806		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large EOO and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156806		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation such as deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.<br/></p>
156807		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Data Deficient (DD).<br/><br/>Information on the distribution of the species and the population trend as well as potential threats is needed. A DNA study to determine whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Trochulus apicola</span> is indeed a good species would be useful.
156807		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Europe, found in Switzerland. There is a population suspected in Austria but this requires taxonomic clarification. Recorded sites have been between 1,360 and 2,380 m asl. There is also a potential location in Germany.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
156807		habitat	eng	The species lives on alpine meadows.
156807		population	eng	<p>There is little information available regarding the species' population. However, where it occurs the density seems to be quite high and is locally abundant.<br/></p>
156807		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are currently unknown.
156808		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. It was described  from a single specimen from the mountains above San Sebastian. This species has  not been found again since its description.
156808		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156808		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156808		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156809		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however none are  considered necessary, other than taxonomic work to verify the presence  of two distinct species.
156809		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Madeiran islands where two different subspecies are found on Porto Santo.
156809		habitat	eng	It occurs in arid zones close to the ground, under rocks.
156809		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable. It is often abundant at sites.
156809		threats	eng	Habitat loss from tourist development or habitat  degradation due to   invasive species (plants), fire or tipping or loss of  populations due   to introduced rodents are affecting part of the range of this species.
156810		conservation	eng	There are no ongoing, or required conservation actions.
156810		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe.
156810		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in dry meadows and open  lowlands with rocks, south-exposed limestone rocks, dry walls (also in  gardens and vineyards). In Switzerland, it is found up to 2,400 m altitude. Animals  are also active in the winter season.
156810		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156810		threats	eng	There are no direct threats detected.
156811		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in action. Revision of the taxonomy and distribution is recommended.
156811		distribution	eng	The species is reported from Greece, western Turkey and Bulgaria&#160;(Parmakelis 2003).
156811		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually met in xeric shrublands.
156811		population	eng	No information is available for the overall trend of the species' population.
156811		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156812		conservation	eng	The Pico Alto complex should be strictly protected in its entirety, down to its very base; its forested area, including the secondary forest, should be left untouched. Currently only the top of Pico Alto is protected as a natural reserve. The climate in Santa Maria (highest point about 550 m) is becoming drier (A. Martins pers. obs. 2010) and some as yet undescribed taxa, more or less circumscribed to Pico Alto, are becoming dangerously rare or feared to have already disappeared.
156812		distribution	eng	This species is found on the island of Santa Maria, Azores.
156812		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia angulosa</span> lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary, under dead leaves and rotting branches, and among the rhizomes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum. </span>
156812		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia angulosa</span> appears to be restricted to the type locality, Pico Alto, Santa Maria, at around 500 m (Mordan and Martins 2001). It was, however, collected at the base of the mountain in 1974 and on the nearby Pico das Cavacas in 1994 (A. Martins pers. comm 2010) . This species is very rare and has not been collected by the latest missions to Santa Maria, during the last 5 years (A. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
156812		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plutonia angulosa</span> is probably the rarest species of the genus in the Azores. Although it was collected at the base of Pico Alto in 1974 and on Pico das Cavacas in 1994, it is now restricted to the top of Pico Alto, and has not been reported in the collecting trips of the last 5 years. The main threat could be the disappearance of its endemic habitat, as the species adaptation to secondary forest habitat has not been successful.
156813		conservation	eng	Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species. It is recommended that a Plan of Conservation is drawn up for this species, and that its habitat and&#160; known populations are protected.
156813		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain) where it is currently known from four  nearby localities.
156813		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones in pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span>) and oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span>) forests.
156813		population	eng	There is no population information, therefore no observed, inferred or projected conclusion can be drawn. In recent surveys, live individuals were only found in one of the four locations (Quintana and Vilella 2001), and the species might have disappeared from the other three. Therefore it is likely that the population size is decreasing.
156813		threats	eng	The threats facing this species are fires, urban expansion, droughts, road modifications, and collecting of shells. Its limited dispersion and low population density, based on the scarcity of specimens found during surveys, could potentially compound the threats to this species.
156814		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in most of the countries where it occurs. There is little information, but it is very probably that some subpopulations occur within protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156814		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the majority of the European countries. Westwards it reaches the Rhone valley and northwards it reaches Southern Sweden. Eastwards it reaches central Turkey (Schütt 1996). In many locations it is very frequent, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>
156814		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry grasslands, shrublands and in disturbed ruderal habitats where it   lives on the ground among herbaceous vegetation.
156814		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156814		threats	eng	This species prefers partly "man-induced" habitats and it seems to be of wide tolerance. There are neither ongoing nor hypothetical threats that might threaten this species.
156815		conservation	eng	The recommended conservation actions for this species is the protection of its habitat and known populations.
156815		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic found only in Spain, where it is restricted to Aragon in the province of Teruel.
156815		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones, wood or in the base of vegetation in meadows of Alpine type between altitudes of 1,200 and1,600 m.
156815		population	eng	There are eleven known populations of this species. Observations have shown that populations present a good number of specimens.
156815		threats	eng	The threats to this species are fires, quarries, extension of roads, ranching and shell collecting.
156816		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156816		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">This species is widespread in southern Europe, and locally abundant. It has been recorded from Albania, Andorra, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Gibraltar, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.</h4><h4 style="font-weight: normal;">In Ireland, like other xerophilous (adpated to dry environments) hygromiids<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is  found inland only in the south central plain and is entirely coastal  elsewhere.  In north-east Ireland it is rare and known only from  Ballycastle Golf Course, Co. Antrim and Greencastle Point, Co. Down (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</h4>This species lives circum-mediterranean and is also recorded from North Africa, the Near East and Turkey.
156816		habitat	eng	This species lives on the vegetation of sand dunes directly at the coast, but also penetrates the coastal hinterland as long as it falls under a maritime climate regime. It is usually found clustered on tall vegetation or partially buried in sand  or soil in dry grasslands or coastal dunes.  It has spread to some degree in Ireland during the historical period by  colonising the ballast and dry slopes skirting railway lines (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156816		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are believed to be stable.
156816		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156817		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and population of this species.
156817		distribution	eng	This French endemic is only known from the type locality, on the Mount Canigou, near the village of Casteil (Pyrénées-Orientales).
156817		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hydrophilous meadows, under rocks.
156817		population	eng	This species has not been observed since the end of the 19th century.
156817		threats	eng	There main threats are unknown.
156818		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156818		distribution	eng	The species is endemic of Greece and is found in Peloponnese (Westerlund 1889, Knipper 1939).
156818		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species and its ecology are&#160;understudied but the species is mainly found under stones or piles of stones.
156818		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156818		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
156819		conservation	eng	The Rapotoma region is protected in Bulgaria. A monitoring of the population is highly recommended. Research on the species taxonomy, distribution and population trend, ecological requirements as well as potential threats is needed.
156819		conservation	eng	The species is not under protection in Bulgaria and in Turkey. The known subpopulations are very small and can be effected by human activity. Site protection and area management is needed for this species. Research on the threats, population size and distribution is needed.
156819		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Rapotamo region in Bulgaria, and E. Neubert found a single specimen in the Asian part of Turkey (Vil. Kütahya) (Hausdorf 1996). Recent publication showed that the area of the species is much bigger in Turkey than it was thought before (Páll-Gergely 2010). In Europe, there is only one locality known from Bulgaria and there are no records from European Turkey.
156819		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Rapotamo region in Bulgaria, and E. Neubert found a single specimen in the Asian part of Turkey (Vil. Kütahya) (Hausdorf 1996). A recent publication showed that the area of the species is much bigger in Turkey than it was thought before (Páll-Gergely 2010).&#160;There is only one locality known from Bulgaria and there are no records from European Turkey.
156819		habitat	eng	According to www.animalbase.org the habitat of the species is: "Soil of humid and shady  deciduous forests, under leaf litter and rotting wood". This matches with field survey data from Turkey.
156819		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is soil of humid and shady  deciduous forests, under leaf litter and rotting wood.
156819		population	eng	It seems that the species is very rare everywhere where it lives (Irikov and Erőss 2008, Páll-Gergely 2010). There is no information on the population size but it is presumed to be stable.
156819		population	eng	This species is very rare everywhere where it lives (Irikov and Erőss 2008, Páll-Gergely 2010).&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
156819		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threats to this species. Considering the fragmented occurrence and the limited number of known subpopulations, even local logging or recreational activities might affect the population.</p>
156819		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species in Bulgaria are unknown. Its single location is included in a protected area, however collecting of the dead wood is taking place in the area and can potentially affect the species. This impact needs to be studied.<br/></p>
156820		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sicily, Italy. It is recorded from three locations on the island: Palermo, Corleone and Siracusa. The distribution area seems to be seriously fragmented.
156820		habitat	eng	There is no published information available on the habitat of this species.  Inferring from closely related species, it very&#160; probably lives in decaying  material in rock crevices of larger limestone formations, or even subterraneously.
156820		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156820		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species. However, quarrying could destroy the habitat to this species.
156821		conservation	eng	<em>G. simplicula</em> has a relatively wide range and seems to be well distributed, even though it is not found in high densities. Therefore the conservation measures are rather general: management of the area where this species lives, accompanied by activities to raise awareness and communications. Obviously more research needs to be done, as very little is known about biology of the species and the trends of its population and its habitat.
156821		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in Morocco (Gittenberger 1980) and in the south-west of the Iberian Peninsula (Algarve, Alentejo in Portugal, Badajoz, Sevilla, Cádiz, Málaga, Córdoba and Huelva provinces in Spain) (Puente 1994, Arrébola 1995).
156821		habitat	eng	<em>G. simplicula</em> lives under stones or fallen leaves, in the grass, edges of fields, wastelands, &#160;pastures... and other human-modified habitats, where it is found in rather low altitudes. However it also occurs in hardwood oak areas, in higher altitude, where there is less human influence. The latter is probably the original habitat, the former being marginal ones&#160;(Arrébola 1995).
156821		population	eng	There are no population data about this species, but it is frequent and locally very common.
156821		threats	eng	The species appears in ruderal and other modified biotopes but also in habitats less degraded by human influence, which probably reflects the original natural habitat of this species. If this is the case, then the species seems to be resisting (apparently quite well) in places affected by humans.
156822		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to clarify that all subpopulations are part of the same species, furthermore, the population size needs to be studied. Parts of its range are in protected areas (regional reserves).
156822		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north-east of the island of Ibiza (Balearic islands, Spain) and the surrounding islets. (Beckmann 2007).
156822		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks, in crevices, in ruderal areas, on ocean cliffs, and rocky areas.
156822		population	eng	There is no population information for this species and the current population trend is unknown.
156822		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from fires and recreational activities of tourists (e.g. hiking).
156823		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156823		distribution	eng	This species is found on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees mountains in France, with few localities in Andorra and in Spain (Catalonia).
156823		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156823		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156823		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156824		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species. More research on the taxonomy of this species is required.<span class="apple-style-span"></span></p>
156824		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Gittenberger 1991).
156824		habitat	eng	The species is known from three locations on the island.&#160;Akrotiri forest (type locality), Cape Gata to Cape Zevgari (Haas 1934, Gittenberger 1991).
156824		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156824		threats	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is quite unknown and thus a full&#160;assessment&#160;of the possible for the species threats cannot be made. Nevertheless,&#160;grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156826		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156826		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in Italy and Slovenia, north-west  of Croatia, south-east of France, south of Switzerland, Sicily, Corsica, but not Sardinia. it is introduced to France, England and central Europe. It is probably native in Italy and  in the adjacent regions of Slovenia-Croatia and southern France, possibly to the north-east of Spain  (first record there by Graells in 1846). It was first observed in Hungary in the  1930s. it appeared in north-west France in the 1940s and spread rapidly, today  it is found almost in the entire country. It was introduced to Cornwall before 1950 with  nurseries or garden plants and is still spreading rapidly; it has recently  reached Devon and the London area. it was first recorded in Germany and the  Netherlands in the 1990s.
156826		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species prefers pen habitats, lives among low  shrubs and herbs, often at small water currents or in river valleys. In  Switzerland, it is almost exclusively found in cultivated habitats, in gardens with shrubs and herbs, rarely in natural forests, up to 900 m asl; it is  probably not native there. In England, it occurs among grass, <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedera  helix</span>, umbellifers and similar plants on roadsides, under stone walls  and in gardens. In Germany, it is in disturbed habitats of densely populated  regions, rarely surveyed by malacologists, so the species is probably much more widely  distributed than currently known.
156826		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to   assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156826		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local  sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe  destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,  mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large  number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole  population significantly.
156827		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156827		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, found in central Greece (Attiki) and Peloponnese (Hausdorf 1991).
156827		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of vegetation types,&#160;usually&#160;in open, xeric environments.
156827		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156827		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156828		conservation	eng	The extension of its current range indicates that no conservation plans are needed.
156828		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north of the Iberian peninsula. The range extends over the Cantabrian-Mediterranean transition zone from northwest Huesca to north Burgos.
156828		habitat	eng	It lives in open and sunny places, mainly in meadows. It is also found in forests and riverbanks.
156828		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156828		threats	eng	Agriculture and forestry and urban development have reduced some of the natural habitat. Fire is another threat for sub-populations.
156829		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156829		distribution	eng	This species occurs in France, Andorra and Spain, where is is widepread: Lower Rhone drainage, Massif Central and Eastern Pyrenees (France); southern Pyrenees, most of Catalonia and Minorca in the Balearic islands (Spain).
156829		habitat	eng	This species lives in places with calcareous substrate, being sheltered under stones, occasionally it can be found on the rock surface.
156829		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156829		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156830		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156830		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, present in the south part of Peloponnese (Gittenberger 1978).
156830		habitat	eng	The species lives in humid limestone rocks covered by mosses.&#160;<em>Pagodulina klemmi</em>&#160;is an extremely small sized species (2.3 - 2.6 mm height and 1.2 - 1.3 mm width) (Gittenberger 1978).
156830		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156830		threats	eng	There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats. However this species is dependent on some species of mosses, and if the mosses were effected this could be a threat to the snail.
156831		conservation	eng	In Switzerland, the species is listed as Critically Endangered, due to the strong population declines. There is no information available as the taxonomic concept of this species is under debate. A taxonomic revision of this species is necessary and subsequently the  distribution in Europe as well as status of the populations needs to be  researched.
156831		distribution	eng	It is difficult to define the species distribution as different taxonomic concepts have been applied to this species.
156831		habitat	eng	There is no information available as the taxonomic concept of this species is under debate.
156831		population	eng	There is no information available as the taxonomic concept of this species is under debate.
156831		threats	eng	There is no information available as the taxonomic concept of this species is under debate.
156832		conservation	eng	At present the species is not declining and as such, no conservation actions are necessary, other than general protection of the habitats and habitat monitoring for indication of population trends. It is present in one Site of Conservation Interest (SCI) on Pico Branco.
156832		distribution	eng	This small gastropod is endemic to Madeiran archipelago, where it is restricted to higher areas of the island of Porto Santo.&#160; It is found on the summits of all of the small hills, being present at over 26 sites (Seddon 2008).
156832		habitat	eng	This is one of the smaller species of semislug. It is found undersides of stones and on walls, on rocky slopes and crags amongst grasses and herbs.
156832		population	eng	When the sampling conditions are good (humid), then the species is frequent in suitable habitats, but can be well hidden when conditions are dry.
156832		threats	eng	Many of the sites are on small  hills, and so the major threats come from fires and other changes in landscape  management (timber extraction, ploughing, grazing, footpath  construction). The species may&#160; be impacted in the future,&#160; hence it should be reviewed periodically to assess changes in the status.
156833		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. The ongoing and probably increasing threats by urbanisation and road construction need to be monitored in the future.<br/></p>
156833		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. It lives in a small coastal area in the north of the island. This species is recorded from one location and three sites.<br/></p>
156833		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156833		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156833		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by urbanisation and road construction in the nearby Vallehermoso. It can be inferred that the increasing construction activity will severely damage the habitat of this species.<br/></p>
156834		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156834		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the north-western mountains of Peloponnese (Knipper 1939).
156834		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species and its ecology are&#160;understudied but the species is mainly found under stones or piles of stones.
156834		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;&#160;It seems to be rare (Knipper 1939).&#160;</p>
156834		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156835		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and there is no information to say how many of the known locations fall within protected areas.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156835		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Dalmatia and Hercegovina.&#160;Subai (2002) lists 31 known locations, but this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently there is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156835		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156835		population	eng	The species' range is far from being well explored, thus there is no specific information on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156835		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitats (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the number of known subpopulations, local activities do not seem to affect the whole population.<br/></p>
156836		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156836		distribution	eng	This species occur in the Southern Alps in France and Italy. In France, a distinct subpopulation is also found in the Ste-Victoire and Ste-Baume mounts (Bouches-du-Rhône and Var), which is recognized as a different subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">Granaria stabilei anceyi</span>.
156836		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone. This species is found from 800 to 2,600 m asl.
156836		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156836		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156837		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">This species <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">is <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">not <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">threatened <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">but <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">population monitoring is recommended.<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span>
156837		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain where it is known from many localities in the province of Alicante. It was reported from the town of Cartagena (Murcia), but after investigation it was not found alive in this locality.
156837		habitat	eng	This is a xerophytic and thermophilic species living in environments of Mediterranean scrub and pine forests, including roadsides, dry crops and dunes.
156837		population	eng	Some populations of this species have declined because of anthropogenic activities and wildfires.
156837		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from fires, quarrying, urban expansion, extension of roads, temperature extremes,  drought and specimen collecting.
156838		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy. It is only known from a few localities which are scattered from central to the southwestern part of Sardinia with a more dense occurrence in the Iglesiente.
156838		habitat	eng	The species especially lives in litter, under stones on shrubby bolder slopes in more or less matured woodland dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span>; indifferent to the presence of limestone. It is also found in the litter of typical macchia.
156838		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, but field observations showed that the population size is quite low.
156838		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are wild-fires and logging of the Mediterranean woodlands. Forest clearance, i.e. removal of the undergrowth, is a serious destruction leading to a decline of habitat quality. Ongoing pasturing is a threat as is causes alteration of the vegetation and kills specimens by trampling.
156839		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. It is probable that some of the known subpopulations occur within protected areas.</p><p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, any research activity should focus on these points. No conservation actions are thought to be necessary at present.</p>
156839		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southeastern Alps (Friuli Alps) and the Istrian Peninsula. Published distribution records for the species are at Sauris di Sopra, Forni Avoltri, Villa Santina, Höhle Fernitic near Trieste, Veliki dol near Trieste, Zagorje near Pivka, Porozina in Cres Island, Ucka gora in Istria, Buzet in Istria, Medveja in Istria, Veprinac in Istria, five km from Veprinac, Gornje Jelenje, Globocec, Pillersberg and Slepajama (Boeters<em> et al</em>. 1989). There are further unpublished records from east of Socerga; Istria and Mirna valley in Slovenia (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished).
156839		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky habitats with an apparent preference for limestone areas.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156839		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156839		threats	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.
156840		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species, but protection of the complete distribution area seems to be needed (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in Verdu and Galante 2009).
156840		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area in the Pyrenees in France and in Spain. It is recorded from 2 locations and ca. 5-7 sites (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in Verdu and Galante 2009).
156840		habitat	eng	This is an alpine species living in the summit area of large mountains between 1,200 to 2,600 m asl. in fresh and humid places.
156840		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, but it seems that the number of mature individual specimens is low (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in Verdu and Galante 2009).
156840		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the reduction of habitat size and quality, mainly by tourist activities like skiing and hiking and by pasturing (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in Verdu and Galante 2009).
156841		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but habitat monitoring is recommended in order to establish potential changes to the populations.&#160;</p>
156841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran archipelago, where it is restricted to a small area on the southern coastal slopes between Funchal and Ribeira Brava on Madeira.
156841		habitat	eng	This species is found co-existing with <span style="font-style: italic;">Disculella madeirensis</span> on the underside of stones and in litter at the base of crags. It is often present in disturbed habitats around walls and on roadsides.
156841		population	eng	The populations seem to be able to tolerate some disturbance.
156841		threats	eng	<p>This region of the coast is under pressure from a building development for residential use and tourism as well as access roads.</p>
156842		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156842		distribution	eng	<em>Mastus hemmeni</em> is a widespread endemic&#160;species in western Crete and some of the surrounding islets (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156842		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands
156842		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156842		threats	eng	There is no evidence for any direct current or future threat.
156843		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156843		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to and widespread in Europe. It is recorded from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Moldova, Republic of, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom.
156843		habitat	eng	This species lives in moist places hedges, temperate shrublands; it is hygrophilic.
156843		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
156843		threats	eng	There are actually no threats to this species.
156844		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156844		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Greece (central Greece, Thessalia and Peloponnese) and in Albania (Hausdorf 1990, Dhora 2009).
156844		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156844		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156844		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156845		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding this species.</p>
156845		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey and Cyprus (Schütt 2001).
156845		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.
156845		population	eng	The species is quite widespread.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156845		threats	eng	The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156846		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;The area in Crete where it lives, is under&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">various protection schemes. Research on population size and trends is recommended.
156846		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Crete, restricted to the the mountain of Dikti, in the central part &#160;of the island (Maassen 1991, Vardinoyannis 1994).
156846		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in&#160;deep rock crevices (Maassen 1991, Vardinoyannis 1994).
156846		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species seems to be rare with scarce populations (Vardinoyannis 1994).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156846		threats	eng	Any&#160;disturbance&#160;and/or&#160;destruction&#160;of the species' habitat can have a direct and intense impact on the species populations. Therefore potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, road construction, tourist activities or by other reasons. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156847		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered in the Spanish National Red List&#160;(Verdu and Galante 2009), but there is no legal protection for this species.&#160;Conservation of the habitat and control of goats are proposed actions to conserve the species. There is also a need to limit recreational use by tourists to special paths and maintain non-access areas.
156847		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of Fueteventura, Canary Islands, where it is found on the Jandia peninsular.
156847		habitat	eng	<p>This ground-dwelling species is found in montane canary island vegetation under rocks, in crevices and feeds on lichens. <br/></p>
156847		population	eng	This species is suffering decline in known populations.
156847		threats	eng	One of the major threats is the overgrazing and trampling by goats which is leading to habitat destruction. Tourism is also of concern, as the jeep and walking tours take place over this peninsular. Future threats include tourist developments including hotel construction and road linkages, but these developments have not yet commenced.
156848		conservation	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Argna biplicata excessiva</span> is listed in the Austrian Red List as Endangered (EN).<br/><br/><br/>No conservation actions are currently required for the species as a whole.
156848		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argna biplicata</span> has a large distribution with many isolated occurrences. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Argna biplicata biplicata</span> is distributed from south-eastern France to Italy in the south-east reaching the province of Pescara; one very isolated occurrence has been reported from Spain (prov. of Valencia). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Argna biplicata excessiva</span> occurs in northern Italy east of the Etsch valley and the adjacent parts of Austria and Slovenia; the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Argna biplicata</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">ulterior</span> is only known from the Epirus (Greece).
156848		habitat	eng	This species lives in litter in soil and rock fissures.
156848		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156848		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown.
156849		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. Most of the known sites are out of protected areas, however due to the distribution of the species and the stable population there are no further conservation actions required for this species.<br/></p>
156849		distribution	eng	This species lives in Dalmatia and Hercegovina with its range extending between Sibenik and Čavtat along the coast. Inland it reaches Bilek, Imotski and Podvelez. Fauna Europaea incorrectly reports this species from Albania (Fehér and Erőss 2009). There are several known subpopulations (Maassen 1995) and there is no reason to  suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or  extremely fluctuating.
156849		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156849		population	eng	<p>Within the main range it does not seems to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156849		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
156850		conservation	eng	<p></p><p>In Croatia, the subspecies&#160;<em>C.</em><span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;pelagosana</span>&#160;is protected. Most of the known sites are thought to be out of protected areas.</p><p></p><p>There is little information on this species regarding the border of its  range southwards and the number and distribution of its subpopulations. Research activity should focus on these points as well as to resolve the current taxonomical issues.<br/></p><p>No conservation actions are currently required for this species.</p>
156850		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase, this species occurs from north-eastern Italy to Dalmatia and Bosnia. Fauna Europaea lists this species from Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Montenegro and Albania. Though Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) list this species from Albania, they treat it as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrula tridens</span>. In fact at this time, there is no firm evidence that this species lives in Albania and no specific locations were recorded.&#160;According to Manganelli <em>et al.</em> (1995) in Italy it is distributed in only a few locations in the east in part of Friuli-Venezia Giulia.&#160;According to Alzona (1971) the nominate form is distributed in the vicinity of Trieste, in the Istrian Peninsula and southwards to Dalmatia, the subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"><em>C. quinquedentata&#160;</em></span><em>pelagosana</em> occurs in Isola di Pelagosa (=Palagruza).&#160;Soós (1943) does not mention this species from the Croatian coast.<br/>In the collection of HNHM, the species is common in&#160;the following Croatian locations: Sv Kriz near Senj, Senj, Starigrad in Hvar Island, Sv Marija National Park in Mljet Island, Omis, Ombla near Dubrovnik, Metkovic, Sobra in Mljet Island, Rijeka and&#160;Medugorje&#160;in Bosnia-Hercegovina.
156850		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156850		population	eng	<p>There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156850		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem  modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be  threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat  (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species is quite widespread, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is  only a hypothetical threat at present.
156851		conservation	eng	<p>Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. More taxonomic research is needed to assess whether these morphs will be separated into species in their own rights.</p>
156851		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northern part of the island of Tenerife with a particular focus on the Anaga Mountains. There are a few isolated subpopulations in the northwestern coast as far as Palo Blanco.<br/></p>
156851		habitat	eng	This species colonised various habitat types from the sea level to the highest mountains: Piso basal shrubland, pine forest (Pinar), Fayal-Brezal and Laurel forest (Laurisilva).
156851		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156851		threats	eng	<p>There are no significant threats to this species . Only the north-western populations may be affected by increasing urbanisation. This may be important in case these morphs turn out to be separate species.<br/></p>
156852		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in the countries where it occurs, but most of the known populations are known from protected areas or their habitat is largely inaccessable.
156852		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orcula wagneri ljubotinensis</span>  Sturany, 1914 is found in the Shar Planina region (Ljubotin) in the border  region of Macedonia (FYROM) and Kosovo. The nominate species is also known from "East of Anilio, Strassentunel" and from some localities in Albania (Periferi Berat, Periferi Malësia, Periferi Skrapar) (according to the collection of the HNHM).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
156852		habitat	eng	The species lives at high altitude around 2000 m. The habitat type where this species is found is alpine meadow. The snails can be found under limestone rocks (Z. Fehér pers. comm. 2010).
156852		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored, there are no data on population trend. The population is thought to be stable.</p>
156852		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering that inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
156853		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is currently listed as Vulnerable (Byrne<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009), however the species is not threatened in Great Britain (Killeen and Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).&#160; There are no conservation actions known for this species, however none are considered necessary. In UK, the species could be listed as a species of conservation interest.
156853		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">This species is found in UK (GB and Northern Ireland), the Republic of Ireland, Spain and western France. In Great Britain it is widespread in the western and northern parts of the country (South-West England, Wales, Lake District, Yorkshire and Scotland) becoming rarer in central and south-eastern England (<a href="http://data.nbn.org.uk/gridMap/gridMapPrint.jsp#topOfMap">NBN Network download</a> 2010; Kerney 1999). In Ireland (Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) it is widespread in an arc around the south,  west and north of Ireland but rare or very local in the central plain  and in eastern counties (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).&#160; Cucheret (2003) notes that it is present in northern France in Department Nord and Pas de Calais with records from Brittany in western France. Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) noted that the range extended from Brittany, along the Atlantic coast, then inland around the Pyrenees, reaching Auch (Gers), Nérac (Lot et Garonne) and Salies-de-Bearn (Pyrenees-Atlantique).&#160; It is more widespread in northern Spain, present in the Basque Country (Altonaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994) extending west to Asturias-Leon (Hermida <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).<br/></h4>
156853		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zenobiella subrufescens </span>is an old woodland relict and it is confined to old woodland and scrub in glens,  river valleys and scarps. It often occurs in association with the wood rush, Luzula. It appears adept at climbing trees and may often be swept or beaten  off trees such as hazel and beech (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156853		population	eng	This is an old woodland relict species that has shown a decline in Ireland of >60% since 1980 (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). However, it is more widespread in Great Britain and Spain, but there is little data on trends, although it is believed to be stable in these regions.
156853		threats	eng	The species is generally found in well established woodland. Consequently the principal threat to the species is habitat destruction (Byrne<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).&#160; However, this threat is localised and hence will not lead to the long-term extinction of the species.
156854		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.
156854		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the north part of the mainland and the island of Thasos (Reischütz 1988). &#160;<em></em>
156854		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in forest areas, mainly in open habitats within forest, under stones.
156854		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156854		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156855		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
156855		distribution	eng	This species is known from a rather restricted area in the western Alps and Prealps in France, slightly extending to Italy.
156855		habitat	eng	This species lives mainly in calcareous, open, rocky habitats in mountains between 1400 and 2500 m asl.
156855		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
156855		threats	eng	This species apparently does not face any special threats. Global   warming, by elevating the isotherm lines, might have a impact on the   lower ceiling and thus decreasing the available ecological habitat.   Overgrazing by sheep is also a potential threat.
156856		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. Monitoring and scientific research on the subpopulations of this species are strongly recommended for the future.</p>
156856		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. There is no specific locality mentioned by the original author. It is found in coastal areas in the south and east of the island.<br/></p>
156856		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156856		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on on the population size or trend of this species.<br/></p>
156856		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction and agriculture. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156857		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the law of the Regione Toscana (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56).
156857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ligurian Alps in Italy. It has a limited and fragmented distribution area (two regions), which is presumed to cover the Ligurian Alps, where the species is known from four sites, to the Northern Apennines (down to the province of Arezzo), and comprises also the Alpi Apuane from where <span style="font-style: italic;">V. baccettii </span>is described. In the Alpi Apuane and in the Northern Apennines up to 34 sites are known. The extent of occurrence (EOO) for the separated areas have been calculated as follows: Ligurian Alps 50 km² and Northern Apennines and Alpi Apuane 10 000 km².
156857		habitat	eng	This species lives in the leaf litter of mountainous beech woods, in mosses and under broad-leafed herbs; the species is bound to a constant humidity.
156857		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156857		threats	eng	The major threat to this species are local silvicultural activities like logging, afforestation with conifers, and forest road construction.
156858		conservation	eng	This species is widely distributed on the eastern peninsula of Madeira and Porto Santo, so recommended conservation actions include management of the protected areas for maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected areas to ensure no loss of further habitat and subpopulations.<br/><br/>Taxonomic actions include the examination of the two different subspecies to determine that the species limits are correctly identified.
156858		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caseolus innominatus compactus </span>(= <span style="font-style: italic;">C. compactus compactus</span>) (Seddon 2008, Plate 25F Map 91) <br/>This subspecies is endemic to Madeira on the Pta da Sao Lourenco so it has an area of occupancy of 36 km<sup>2</sup>, but with more than 10 localities.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Caseolus innominatus portosanctanus</span> (= <span style="font-style: italic;">C. compactus portosanctanus</span>) (Seddon 2008, Plate 23F Map 159) <br/>This subspecies is endemic to Porto Santo where it is widespread at both ends of the island so it has an area of occupancy of 28 km<sup>2</sup>, but with more than 10 localities.<br/><br/>There are quaternary subspecies on both Madeira and Porto Santo, that are also listed as parts of the species however, the data from Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2006) suggests that these were not extant within historical times, and  hence do not meet the criteria for IUCN Extinct (verson 3.1).
156858		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caseolus innominatus compactus</span> is found on the underside of stones on rocky and grassy slopes.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Caseolus innominatus portosanctanus</span>&#160; is found on the underside of stones on slopes  and at base of crags.
156858		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable.
156858		threats	eng	The species is locally abundant, and although there are declining quality of habitats in some parts of the range, the species seems able to tolerate some disturbance, and hence at present these declines are not impacting the species.
156859		conservation	eng	Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) proposed the protection of the habitat, as the species is sensitive to habitat changes. &#160;This species is included as Vulnerable D2 on the Red List of Spain (Verdu and Galante 2006).
156859		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is found on&#160;Tenerife, near to Bajamar on the north-eastern coast.
156859		habitat	eng	This species occurs in typical Canarian vegetation on the Piso basa.
156859		population	eng	Only 12 specimens are known. Therefore it is not possible to give a population trend. The species is very restricted and the specimen are rare within that region.
156859		threats	eng	The species occurs in a small area of occupancy, within an area of urban development.
156860		conservation	eng	Much of its distribution falls within protected areas however, the  fires in August 2010 may well have impacted this species, and as such  surveys are urgently needed to review the status of this species. Seddon (2008) suggested the status should be Endangered B2ab(iii) (version 3.1).
156860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands. It is only found in the central part of Madeira, usually at intermediate to high elevations (from 600 m asl).&#160;  It is found on the summit ridges around Pico Areiro and Pico Ruivo where it is uncommon (Seddon 2008).
156860		habitat	eng	The species is found under stones on steep grassy slopes, amongst <span style="font-style: italic;">Sempervivum</span> on crags at high elevations and in the litter of ledges and at the base of perpendicular crags
156860		population	eng	There is no recent data on population trends.
156860		threats	eng	As the habitats fall within protected areas, the threats in recent years have reduced, however the recent fires and storms&#160; have lead to potential destabilisation of habitats.
156861		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Research to assess the population size and trends in known localities is proposed as well as to gauge the level of threat of alpine pasturing, tourist activities and afforestation may be causing. The known extent of occurrence (EOO) is relatively small at less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, so research to attempt to identify new sites is also suggested.
156861		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Italy with scattered localities mainly in South Tyrol and adjacent Venetia: north-eastern Dolomites, Schlern and Val di Non Monti Lessini.
156861		habitat	eng	This species is found on grassy calcareous rock ledges and on vegetated semi-open boulder slopes.
156861		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trends.
156861		threats	eng	Probable threats to this species are thought to be through alpine pasturing, tourist activities and afforestation.
156862		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156862		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea the species is endemic to Greece distributed in the&#160;Greek&#160;mainland. It seems that the species is distributed in Thessalia and Ipirus (Sattmann and Reischütz 1994).
156862		habitat	eng	This species is usually in open habitats, in different vegetation types.
156862		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156862		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
156863		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed on the distribution, the population and the threats to this species.
156863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, north of Toulon (Maures mountains).
156863		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Mediterranean shrublands.
156863		population	eng	There are no population data available. This species is relatively rare compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerosecta </span>species.
156863		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
156864		conservation	eng	There are no ongoing conservation actions. This species is currently listed as Least Concern in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156864		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;">According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in Europe except in the southern  peninsulas (in Spain southwards to Madrid region, introduced to Huelva),  eastwards to St. Petersburg, Poltava, Ural, between 50° N and 60° N. <br/></h4>
156864		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in various humid habitats in  light forests, shrublands and cultivated areas, often at <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica  </span>near water bodies. Sometimes also at rock rubble of alpine pastures,  road margins and (in northern Scotland) in disturbed habitats. In Spain it is usually found in  dry places, but it is absent from very dry sites. It can occur up to 2,300 m in Alps and  Pyrenees, but is usually below 1,600 m.<br/><br/>The hairy snail is mostly found in wet, shaded habitats and, unlike <em>T.  striolatus</em>, is not attracted to gardens. However, it is often found in other kinds of 'rich' or eutrophic places  such as nettle beds and waste places. A nearly hairless, flattened form with very wide umbilicus is  frequent in dry calcareous pastures and coastal dunes (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156864		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable. In Ireland, it is abundant throughout except in highland  areas (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156864		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe   destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,   mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole   population significantly.
156865		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). There is no conservation action in place for this species elsewhere.
156865		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern England, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,&#160; Russian Federation, Slovenia, northern&#160; Spain, southern&#160; Sweden, and Switzerland.<br/><br/>It is known in Ireland only from limestone bluffs in the gorge of the River  Blackwater at Carrick-a-Brick Castle near Fermoy, East Cork.  Its status as a native is questionable according to Kerney  (1972), who failed to find living material during a visit to the site in  1971 (Byrne<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).
156865		habitat	eng	In Britain the lapidary snail is known mostly from limestone rocks and  quarries.   Elsewhere it is mainly in hedgerows and woods on well-drained, chalky soils (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). On the continent, it is found in rock crevices, on stone walls, in mature forests, and hedges. It seems not to be bound to limestone rocks here.
156865		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.<br/>In Ireland, no live specimens have been found in recent times. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. lapidica </span>appears to be declining in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156865		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat destruction like logging and quarrying.
156866		conservation	eng	The habitat requires conservation in order to protect the species. Further data would be required for long-term monitoring of the habitat trends. This species is not listed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish Red List by Verdu and Galante (2009) and is not on the register of Endangered Species for Canary Islands. Actions recommended include the provision of a protected area from Monte del Faro to Montana Colorada.
156866		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It lives restricted on La Isleta, a peninsula north of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.<br/></p>
156866		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species found in typical lowland canary island vegetation often under stones or within stone walls.
156866		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156866		threats	eng	The major threat comes from habitat destruction as the result of military activities within the military range. In the future there are proposals to remove the military range and use the site for urban expansion.
156867		conservation	eng	The species is not considered threatened in UK, France nor is it listed in the Spanish Red Data Book (2009). &#160;In Ireland it is considered "Near Threatened" due to a loss of 25% of the sites where the species has been recorded since 1980 (Irish Red List for Non-marine Mollusca 2009).
156867		distribution	eng	<em>Ashfordia granulata </em>is known from UK, Republic of Ireland, France and Spain. &#160;In the UK, which represents 60% of the Global range, where it is widespread in suitable habitats in southern England, more common in SW England and west wales with more local distribution in Scotland and northern Ireland.&#160; (Devon, Cornwall, Isles of Scilly) and west Wales (Kerney 1999, Seddon and Killeen in prep, 2010). &#160;In Ireland, which represents c. 20% of the global range, the species is found in scattered localities across the country (Irish Red List of Non-marine Mollusca 2009). &#160;In Spain the species has been recorded on northern coastal region (Provinces of Oviedo, Santander and Leon), between the Cantabrian Mountains and the coast.
156867		habitat	eng	This snail occurs in a variety of habitats, such as grassland, hedges, Shrubland, temperate forests, etc. It is tolerant of disturbance, so also found on roadside verges, disused quarries etc.
156867		population	eng	The population of this species is generally stable, although it has been lost from some intensively farmed areas of lowland England&#160;(UK-Seddon and Killeen, pers. comm., 2010).
156867		threats	eng	Decline in population abundance has been observed when herbicides used in arable farming areas in UK and Ireland, or where habitat is lost through removal of hedgerows and drainage of marshy habitats.
156868		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
156868		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Madeiran islands where it is found at  widely scattered locations in the coastal regions of Madeira.
156868		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland, scrub and open sandy areas, where it is found on the ground, amongst low growing grasses and herbs and under stones.
156868		population	eng	It is often abundant at sites.
156868		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Habitat degradation and  impact of non-native species might impact the species locally.
156869		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed.
156869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy. Up to now, it is known as extant in Western Sicily and on Capri, and from fossil occurrences on Malta. In Sicily, it is distributed between Palermo and Trapani, on the Aegadian islands, and in the Madonie. In 2007, A. Hallgass (in: Forum Natura Mediterraneo) has found the species for the first time on the Italian mainland in the province Latina: an extant subpopulation in the Ausoni mountains near Terracina and empty shells in the Aurunci mountains near Formia.
156869		habitat	eng	This species occurs on calcareous rocks in mountainous regions, in the Madonie, it is also found under marly stones.
156869		population	eng	There are no data available, however, the population seems to be increasing.
156869		threats	eng	The species seems to be expending and therefore there are probably no major threats to the species.
156870		conservation	eng	More research on the population trend and size, the potential threats as well as preservation of the habitat are needed.
156870		distribution	eng	The main distribution of the species is in east Liguria, Italy.&#160; The few French records under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Pupa amicta</span> L.Pfeiffer 1854 are doubtful (Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002) and recent investigations did not confirm the records of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. pallida</span> for France.
156870		habitat	eng	They are found on exposed calcareous rocks with lichens. Preferably situated in steep cliffs or canyons as they need a certain amount of air humidity.
156870		population	eng	There is no available information on the Italian sub-populations, but there are probably more than 20 localities.
156870		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats available.
156871		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Research is recommended to attempt to  re-discover the species.
156871		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species is endemic to La Gomera, although there are no precise data regarding localities where it has been found. It was found b<span lang="EN-US">y Paiva in the mid 1850s and described in 1864; it is only mentioned later by Mousson in 1872 and Wollaston in 1878. This species was not not refound or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues, not found by K. Groh (K. Groh, pers. comm., 2011).</span></p>
156871		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
156871		population	eng	There is no information available.
156871		threats	eng	There is no information available.
156872		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level where it occurs. Some populations can be found in protected areas.<br/></p>
156872		distribution	eng	This species is known from the following localities: Rep. Makedonija: Kaplan southeast of  Skopje; Kosovo: Katlanovska banja; Greece: "Kerečkoi" near Thessaloniki.&#160; According to <a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/FM%2016%284%29%20Irikov,%20Eross.pdf">Irikov and Erőss (2008)</a> the species lives in Bulgaria. According to  Damjanov and Likharev it lives in Stryma (BG), in Dubrovnik (CRO) and  in Macedonia and Greece. This species lives between 500 and 1,000 m above sea level in Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>. There are about 40 samples in the collection of the HNHM, mainly from Macedonia.
156872		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156872		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not seem to be rare. The population is thought to be stable.</p>
156872		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156873		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156873		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on the taxonomy and distribution is recommended.</p>
156873		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of the species is still under discussion in relation to some taxonomical issues related with the species. This species occurs in Greece (Chios, Rhodes, Nimos, Astypalaia) and Turkey (southern and western parts).
156873		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in sandy habitats near the coast and also in open habitats with limestone.
156873		habitat	eng	The species is usually met in sandy habitats near the coast and also in open habitats with limestone.
156873		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species. In Europe, this species is rare, whereas in Turkey, it is abundant.<br/></p>
156873		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160; In Europe, this species is rare, whereas in Turkey, it is abundant .<br/></p>
156873		threats	eng	Intensive grazing, the&#160;expansion of the cultivated areas and fire can play, and possibly has played in the past, a role in the&#160;restriction&#160;of the species' populations and their local extirpation. An additional threat for the species is the alteration/destruction&#160;of coastal areas mainly for touristic activities.
156873		threats	eng	Intensive grazing, the&#160;expansion of the cultivated areas and fire can play, and possibly has played in the past, a role in the&#160;restriction&#160;of the species' populations and their local extirpation. An additional threat for the species is the alteration/destruction&#160;of coastal areas mainly for touristic activities. These threats are not likely to impact the entire range of the species.
156874		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species.<br/><br/>There is very little information known about this species in terms of its population size and trends, its area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurence (EOO) and therefore research into these areas is required to determine whether this species requires protection through habitat conservation or harvest limitations or both.
156874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central Appenines in Italy.
156874		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rocky biotopes in summit regions of up to 1600 m asl. and rarely below 1000 m asl. and is often associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>shrubs.
156874		population	eng	Not enough information is currently known about this species to determine its population trend.
156874		threats	eng	As with many large Helix-species <span style="font-style: italic;">H. delpretiana </span>is collected and commercialised for alimentary purposes. Habitat destruction is another identified threat to this species. The most common threat is pasturing, and quarrying.
156875		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156875		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species is distributed in Central and Southern Europe from France to Romania.
156875		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in dry open calcareous habitats:  very characteristically on sunny slopes with low grasses, grasslands,  rock rubble, walls. It is sensitive to the modification of its habitats. It occurs rarely  above 1,000 m asl, in Switzerland it is not found above 800 m, but in Bulgaria, it occurs up to 1,500 m.
156875		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason  to    assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156875		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156876		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action for this species.</p>
156876		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the north-western part of the country (Sattmann and Reischütz 1994).
156876		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is&#160;understudied&#160;but the species is probably found under stones and in piles of stones.
156876		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156876		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
156877		conservation	eng	This species is regarded as Critically Endangered in Bavaria (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), lost in Baden-Württemberg (Arbeitsgruppe Mollusken BW 2008), and Endangered in parts of Austria Vorarlberg and Tirol (AnimalBase 2010).
156877		distribution	eng	This is a typical boreoalpine species, which is widespread in the mountains of Scandinavia south of the Arctic circle and northern Russia. It also occurs in the Alps, and has isolated populations on the Crimean Peninsula, and the Tatra Mts.
156877		habitat	eng	This species lives in wet, calcareous meadows and wet, subarctic forests.
156877		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156877		threats	eng	Drainage of meadows for agricultural reasons may be a thread to this species. However, there is no information on actual threats to this species.
156879		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the islands that the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
156879		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the islands of the Skyros Island group and in the island of&#160;Imbros (Gökçeada) in the eastern part of the Aegean Sea (Subai 1996, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2005).
156879		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2005).</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156879		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156879		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156880		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place or needed.
156880		distribution	eng	This species occurs in France (southern Alps and Pre-Alps), with some scattered subpopulations in Italy.
156880		habitat	eng	This snail occurs in a relatively wide range of habitats, from deciduous forests to sub-alpine meadow.
156880		population	eng	There are no population information, but the species is common.
156880		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
156881		conservation	eng	This species is listed by the Annex II of the EUHSD, and is strictly protected in Hungary. In Romania it is not protected due to its recent discovery. Being an Annex II species, habitat trends and population trends are regularly monitored in Hungary. In Romania, the main task should be the surveying of its range, establishing the number and distribution of the subpopulations.
156881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Carpathis Basin. It is distributed in the southeastern part of the Great Hungarian Plane, in the western part of the Apuseni Moutains (Codru-Moma, Padurea Craiului and Zarand Mountains) and in northeastern Hungary (Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). There are several known  subpopulations (Fehér <em>et al.</em> 2009) and there is no reason to  suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or  extremely  fluctuating.
156881		habitat	eng	Generally this species inhabits temperate forests, including gallery forests as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> plantations
156881		population	eng	Hungarian subpopulations are regularly monitored and are stable. However, Romanian subpopulations were discovered more recently so there is no information concerning these trends.
156881		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat to this species, however this is not an ongoing threat. More specifically, compared to its relatively large geographical range, local logging activities do not affect the population significantly.
156882		conservation	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as&#160;Endangered&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). There is no conservation action for this species.&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK1"><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;It is recommended that research be done on the taxonomy and the distribution of this species.</a></span>
156882		distribution	eng	The species is found in&#160;northern&#160;Greece and European Turkey.
156882		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands and canyons.</p>
156882		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156882		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.&#160;</p>
156883		conservation	eng	<p>The species is protected at a national level in Croatia. Its other known sites are out of protected areas.</p><p>    </p><p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. Any research activity should primarily focus on these points, however no conservation actions are currently required for this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
156883		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Dalmatia (between the Peljesac  peninsula and the Kotor Bay). The six known localities are the following: Lapad near Dubrovnik, Komolac near Dubrovnik, Sobra in  Mljet Island (two known sites), Prapatna near Ston, Sutorina mouth near  Herceg-Novi (Subai 2008). The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), or the number of locations are declining or  extremely fluctuating.
156883		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.</p>
156883		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156883		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons such as from the potential danger of leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely and therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical </p>
156884		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156884		distribution	eng	This species occurs mainly in Mediterranean Europe. Scattered populations are known from areas north of the Alps, and in the Central and Eastern Alps. The west-alpine arc in France is well populated by the species and connects to the main distribution area in Southern Europe. There are some records from the southernmost coast of the UK (Kerney and Cameron 1979; Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).<br/>Outside Europe, this species has been recorded from Algeria. It is also known from Northern Caucasus and Central Asia (Sysoev and Schileyko<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2009).
156884		habitat	eng	This species is found in short calcareous grassland on sandy or stony ground. Habitats have to be extremely dry, open rocky limestone slopes are also inhabited. In the UK, it is often present on exposed maritime cliffs or old quarries (Kerney 1999).
156884		population	eng	The species seems to be stable.
156884		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss through quarrying and changing land-use management.
156885		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions. This species should be protected by French law to ensure its survival in the long-term.
156885		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pre-Alps of France (Grande Chartreuse and Vercors mountains).
156885		habitat	eng	This species lives in deciduous forests on limestone.
156885		population	eng	There are no population information. This species is locally abundant.
156885		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown. Potential threats are logging, recreational activities and cleaning of the edges of rivers.
156886		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although it is present in areas<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.<span class="apple-style-span"></span></span></p>
156886		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in almost the whole of mainland Greece and a significant number of islands (Mylonas 1982), Albania (Dhora 2009) and the western part of Turkey (Kebapçi 2007).
156886		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in open habitat within forest and shrublands.
156886		population	eng	The species is quite abundant. &#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156886		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156887		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in Albania. The only know location falls within the area of Park Kombetar Tomorrit. In spite of this, the status of the population is not assured because in Albania there is usually no <span style="font-style: italic;">de facto</span> protection within nominally protected areas. <br/></p><p>The geographic range and the distribution of this species is not exactly known, therefore research activity should focus on that. Population trend as well as habitat trend should be monitored<br/></p>
156887		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the Tomor Mountains in South Albania. It is only known from the type locality "Süd-Albanien, Tomorgebirge, N-Aufstieg Cuka Partisan, Buchenwald". Despite the fact that it was searched in numerous locations in other parts of the Tomor Mountains it has not been found elsewhere to date.<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well studied and its range and distribution needs to be studied&#160; in the future. However, being a forest-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are diminishing in the Tomor region and therefore we can  reasonably suppose that both AOO and EOO are declining.</p>
156887		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in forest habitats. It prefers beech forests of higher altitude where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter or decaying wood.</p>
156887		population	eng	The species is far from being well studied due to the inaccessibility of the potential range and as such there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a sylvicol species it  is known that potential habitats are diminishing in the Tomor region  and therefore one can doubt if the number of mature individuals is stable.
156887		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. Considering the relatively narrow geographical range of this species, local logging might affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156888		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution, population and threats to this species.
156888		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the north-west of Italy (Piemont, Appenins and Liguria) and the south-east of France (Alpes-Maritimes).
156888		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species inhabiting the leaf litter of moist deciduous forests, mostly under ivy.
156888		population	eng	This is a rare species. There is no population trend data available.
156888		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown. This species might be impacted  by the ongoing urbanization in this  region and by all the activities from the increasing population.
156889		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
156889		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in Peloponnese (Knipper 1939).
156889		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is generally understudied but the species should be found under stones and in piles of stones.
156889		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156889		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156890		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156890		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread in the Mediterranean part of Europe, and locally extremely abundant. It is frequently introduced in Central Europe, but cannot survive under continental climate conditions. In Ireland, it is common throughout except inland in the northern half, where it is  strongly synanthropic i.e. tied to disturbed places such as gardens or  the vicinity of houses (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p><p>Outside of Europe it is also known from North Africa, the East Mediterranean countries, and Turkey (only in coastal areas). This species is a global tramp and has been introduced to large areas of the world, where it is a pest snail.<br/></p>
156890		habitat	eng	This species lives in moderately dry shrub land, and is quite resistant against drought. In the Mediterranean, this species is known to survive hot summer periods by aestivation. In Ireland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cornu aspersum</span> is ubiquitous in dryish or base-rich grassland, stone walls or hedgerows. It is strongly synanthropic (tied to humanly disturbed places) in the  northern third of Ireland and in areas of acid bedrock elsewhere. It is most common in gardens and on sand dunes at the coast (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156890		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable. This is a species which might benefit from Global Warming by expanding its distribution area.<br/></p>
156890		threats	eng	<p>There are no major to this species (this species is a threat to others).<br/></p>
156891		conservation	eng	<p>The major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156891		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Lanzarote. It lives in a restricted area along the Riscos from Risco de Famara to Mirador del Rio. There are two isolated sites recorded from the lowlands east of the Riscos (Ibanez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<br/></p>
156891		habitat	eng	This species is a rock dweller on lichen-rich vulcanic rocks.
156891		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156891		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156892		conservation	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Conservation  actions should address habitat preservation. Protected areas of La Garrotxa and Ripollés <span class="short_text" id="result_box">allows the preservation of its habitat. <span class="short_text" id="result_box">More research is needed to know the population size and trends, as well as to ensure that the ecological requirements of this species are known and that management plans incorporate this information. <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">The extent of the distribution needs to be researched.<span class="short_text" id="result_box"></span></span></span>
156892		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, being restricted to La Garrotxa and Ripollés regions, in Girona (Catalunya).
156892		habitat	eng	It lives on the surface of calcareous vertical walls. It is only active on rainy days.
156892		population	eng	There are no population studies, but &#160;the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156892		threats	eng	Main threats are habitat degradation by quarries or road construction.
156893		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156893		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in north-western Greece and south-central Albania (Subai 1999, Feher and Eross 2009).
156893		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found mainly&#160;under shrubs,&#160;under stones and in piles of stones.</p>
156893		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156893		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.&#160;</p>
156894		conservation	eng	The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not exactly known, therefore research activities should focus on these two areas.
156894		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Croatia where it has an extent of occurrence of 50 km<sup>2</sup>. It is present in nine sites, in particular near a camp site at Prapatna near Ston on the Peljesac peninsula, YH14; 0.5 km from Zaradeze in the direction of Orebic, Zagorje Mountains, Carovic Vrh (370 m alt.), Peninsula Peljesac, YH04; west of the village of Ponikve (450 m alt.), Peninsula Peljesac, YH14; on the slope above Trstenik (200 m alt.), Peninsula Peljesac, XH95 and one on Mljet island.<br/></p>
156894		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, areas.
156894		population	eng	There is no information on the population size. However, the population trend is thought to be stable.
156894		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are through the destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Waste sites could also have a negative impact on the species habitat through leaching of chemicals. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.
156895		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;More research is needed on the threats and distribution of this species.</p>
156895		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, found in two sites on the west of the island, in altitudes higher than 1,500 m (Vardinoyannis 1994, Gittenberger 1996).
156895		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the crevices of the limestone rocks, in high altitudes with <em>Pinus brutia</em> (Vardinoyannis 1994).&#160; It is found above 1,500 m.<br/><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156895		population	eng	The species quite rare.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156895		threats	eng	The main threat for this rare species with a very restricted distribution, is the modification/destruction of its habitat, through fire or other human activities (such as quarrying).
156896		conservation	eng	In Ireland, this species is listed as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
156896		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe, and is locally abundant (Kerney, Cameron and Jungbluth 1983).
156896		habitat	eng	In Ireland, it is found mostly in shaded, rocky or humanly disturbed habitats such as gardens. It can be sparsely distributed on acid soils where shells are thin and  fragile. It is most abundant and well developed on coastal dunes and generally prefers sheltered dry places (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156896		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable. In Ireland, it is frequent throughout but most abundant in coastal localities,  particularly dune (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p>
156896		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.</p>
156897		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the &#160;islands that the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
156897		distribution	eng	The species is endemic of Cyclades (Aegean Sea, Greece), present on the islands of&#160;Naxos, Paros, Ios, Sikinos, Folegandros, Keros, Amorgos, Strongilo, Irakleia (Mylonas 1982, Subai 1996).
156897		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).&#160;</p>
156897		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156897		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156898		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. All the known records are from a small area in the uppermost reach of the Vikos Gorge, in Epirus (north-western Greece) (Subai and Fehér 2006).
156898		habitat	eng	The species is known from a single gorge in Greece. It is found in rocky areas.&#160;This is a relatively large species (about 2-3 cm).
156898		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156898		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.
156899		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and currently none are required.
156899		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central Europe, with an east-alpine Carpathian distribution pattern. It is recorded from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Switzerland.
156899		habitat	eng	This species lives in temperate mountain forests.
156899		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
156899		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
156900		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
156900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tenerife, where it is scattered but widespread in the north of the island (Henriquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).
156900		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in a wide range of habitat, from lowland shrub-vegetation over Pinar and Laurisilva forests, between 400 and 1,500 m asl.</p>
156900		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
156900		threats	eng	There are some localised threats, such as logging, tourist activities or road construction, but none is impacting the species on its whole range.
156901		conservation	eng	<p>Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156901		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to north-eastern coastal area of the island of Tenerife. This species is recorded from 12 locations and 35 sites.<br/></p>
156901		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156901		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. The species is abundant with flourishing subpopulation sizes.<br/></p>
156901		threats	eng	The western subpopulations may be threatened by destruction of the habitat due to urbanisation and road construction.
156902		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156902		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread on Fuerteventura, Lanzarote including the smaller islands in the north.<br/></p>
156902		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156902		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156902		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by grazing, urbanisation, and road construction. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156904		conservation	eng	<p>Approximately half of the known number of subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156904		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It is known from the eastern parts of the island, but the distribution area is fragmented. This species is recorded from five locations and 12 sites with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 250 km<sup>2</sup>, and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 15 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
156904		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156904		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are assumed to be stable.</p>
156904		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.</p>
156905		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156905		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France and Spain. In France, it is found in the Eastern Pyreenes. In Spain, it occurs in the Basque country (Orduna).
156905		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
156905		population	eng	The population is disjunct between France and Spain. Where it occurs, it is realtively common. Population trends are thought to be stable.
156905		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
156906		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species.
156906		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in the western central Greece and in south Peloponnese (Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).
156906		habitat	eng	<em><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</em>
156906		population	eng	The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated appears to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.
156906		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span>
156907		conservation	eng	More research on the taxonomy of this species is needed.
156907		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Croatia. It is found in one site at Veli Lošinj, Isle of Lošinj, VK62 and has an area of occupancy of four km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
156907		habitat	eng	The species occurs on the base of&#160; rocks or in the leaf litter in forests or shrubland.
156907		population	eng	It is a rare species. There are no data on the population trend.
156907		threats	eng	Even though fire could potentially negatively impact the species, there is no major threat affecting the entire population at the moment. Tourist activities on the island might become a threat to this species in the future.
156908		conservation	eng	No conservation action plans are needed for this species.
156908		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the North of Spain. It has a wide distribution from León in the West to W Navarra in the East. It is absent from the Cantabrian slope, being  common in the Duero Valley and in the upper Ebro Valley, getting as far  as Valladolid, Segovia, and Soria in the south. There are two additional  localities in Zaragoza (Faci 1991) isolated from the main distribution range.
156908		habitat	eng	It lives in riparian habitats and also appears in ruderal lands. This species is more frequent above 700 m asl.
156908		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156908		threats	eng	The main threats are those activities that would eliminate the habitat such as urban and agriculture development. Fire is another threat.
156909		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research is recommended on the distribution, taxonomy and population trends of this species.</p>
156909		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea the species is present in Cyprus, Crete and the eastern Aegean Islands (i.e Dodekannese Islands). The species has not been reported from the western coasts of Turkey and this is probably due to the problematic taxonomy of the genus.
156909		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.
156909		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156909		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156910		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the ecology of this species and the main threats it is facing. Its habitat should be managed, especially to reduce pollution levels.
156910		distribution	eng	<em>Mastus pupa</em> is the most widespread species of the 32 known species of the genus Mastus (Parmakelis <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is a southern Mediterranean species, present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya (Tripolitania), Egypt, Syria, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Israel, Lebanon, Greece (Ionian Islands, Crete), Albania, Bulgaria, Malta, Italy and south of the Iberian Peninsula. It is also known as a fossil from the Balearic Islands (Giusti 1973; Arrébola 1990, 1995).<br/>There are doubts on the specific identity of those subpopulations recorded for this species from at least&#160; Greece (including the islands), Bulgaria, and Albania. Ditto, all records for the Levantine area need serious re-investigation and are probably based on misidentifications with other species (Neubert, pers. comm. 2011).
156910		habitat	eng	This species lives in many types of biotopes and usually near river banks. It is commonly found in the ground, under stones, leaves, plastic or any other refuge. It seems relatively tolerant to human activities.
156910		population	eng	There are no data on the population trend.
156910		threats	eng	This species is threatened by&#160;urbanization&#160;and pollution.
156911		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This species occurs in protected areas such as Berchtesgarden National Park. In Switzerland it is considered potentially threatened. In Germany in both Bavaria and Baden-Wuerttemberg it is considered endangered. (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003)<br/><br/>Population monitoring and habitat protection are recommended for this species.</span>
156911		distribution	eng	This European endemic species is widely distributed in central Europe, where it is found in France, Germany, Austria (Vorarlberg and Kaernten), Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>In France it has a restricted distribution in the alpine areas, Mediterranean and Atlantic regions but is more widespread in the continental parts (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
156911		habitat	eng	This alpine species is found in litter in woodland (Schlucht- und Blockwaelder) often with beech and maples, and in scree underneath rocks or cliffs, in places that are base rich. It can also occur in meadows.
156911		population	eng	This species is difficult to find as it lives in litter and can only be found by sifting the substrate. Field surveys suggest that it is a rare species. There is not much information on the populations of this species available, however in Switzerland, this species has been well studied and is quite common.
156911		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is changes in its habitat. In the alpine areas changes in habitat come from infrastructure development, particularly recreational infrastructure and roads, as well as through forestry management.
156912		conservation	eng	The species is assessed as Least Concern (LC) on the Austrian Red list (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007) and Category R (extremely rare) on the German Red list. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pagodula altilis</span> is assessed as Critical (CR) on the Red list of Poland. Research into any potential threats to the species to indicate any trends in the population is recommended. However, no conservation actions are currently required for the species as a whole.
156912		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from France in the west through Germany, Austria, Hungary and Slovakia to Poland and Ukraine. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pagodula pagodula</span> is endemic to France (Dordogne) (Jourde 1999); <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pagodula principalis</span> is found in the north-eastern Alps and western Carpathians and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pagodula altilis</span> on border of the eastern Alps and western Carpathians.
156912		habitat	eng	The species is found amongst leaf litter in humid woodland.
156912		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trends.
156912		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
156913		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on its distribution and population and communications to recreational users are needed to inform them of their impact on local biodiversity.
156913		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Italy. It is denoted by Kobelt (1878) as a "character snail of the Abbruzzes"; the centres of the distribution are the massifs of Monti della Laga, Gran Sasso and Maiella. The typical form is present in the border area of the three regions Marche, Latium and Abbruzze.
156913		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits grasslands on calcareous ground in the montane and subalpine zone, at the base of rocks and under stones.
156913		population	eng	There are no data available.
156913		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are pasturing and alteration of biotopes by intensification of land use; mainly related to sportive activities like hiking and skiing.
156914		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be adressed to habitat preservation. Research about population size, ecology, and the range delimitation should be conducted.
156914		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal. Its range is extended along the limestone region of the country, from Braga in the north to Arrábida Mountains in the south.
156914		habitat	eng	It inhabits karstic areas, living on the rock surface in open places, or less frequently protected under stones.
156914		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156914		threats	eng	Main threats comes from road or quarry constructions, as well as from residential construction and tourist growing.
156915		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156915		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eolian Islands, Italy. The number of locations is unknown.
156915		habitat	eng	This is a species resistant to drought. It lives in mediterranean shrubland under stones, dry leaves and pieces of wood, often together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerotricha conspurcata.</span>
156915		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156915		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by alteration of biotopes, particularly through increasing tourist activities on the islands. However, these threats are not known to impact the species at the moment.
156916		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156916		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It is known from a relatively large area especially in the north, e.g. Galdar, El Monte near Barlovento, Las Palmas, and can probably still be considered a common species at medium altitude levels. There are no precise distribution data available.
156916		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso infracanario).
156916		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156916		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
156917		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and some of the known sites are outside of protected areas.</p><p>Due to the large and stable population however, there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></p>
156917		distribution	eng	This species is of Alpine-Carpathian distribution. Fauna Europaea list it as being from France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany, Czech Rep, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine and Romania.&#160;More detailed distribution data can be found. in: Soós (1943), Grossu  (1983) [Romania]; Alzona (1971) [Italy], Lisicky (1991) [Slovakia and Czech Rep.], Klemm (1973) [Austria] and Turner <em>et al.</em> (1998) [Switzerland]. <br/>Its range is relatively large, there  are several known locations and it can be presumed that in museum  collections there are much more unpublished records.<br/>    <p>There is  no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are  declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156917		habitat	eng	This is a silvicol species (Lisicky 1991), with a preference for deciduous and pine forests of higher altitude (over 700 m asl.), where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood.
156917		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156917		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests such as from recreational activities are the main threat to this species. However, considering the relatively large geographical range of this species, local logging does not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
156918		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions considered necessary, as the species is abundant, however further research is necessary to establish the status of the two forms/species <span style="font-style: italic;">S. desertae</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. duplex</span>, as these are not considered valid species by Cameron and Cook (1999) or Seddon (2008).
156918		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Atlantic islands. It is known from the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). On Madeira, it is widely distributed on the eastern end of Madeira, Desertas and Porto Santo (Seddon 2008).
156918		habitat	eng	This species is found amongst short turfed grasses and under rocks.
156918		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable; it is usually abundant in suitable habitats.
156918		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be impacting the species, which is relatively abundant in suitable habitats and tolerant of minor disturbance.
156919		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156919		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northeastern part of the island of La Palma.</p>
156919		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156919		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156919		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156920		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action in place or needed for this species.</p>
156920		distribution	eng	The species is present in Greece (East Aegean Islands) and the south and south west part of Turkey (Heller 1976, Schütt 2001, Örstan and Yildirim 2003, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
156920		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in limestone areas, in a variety of environments.
156920		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of the species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156920		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict populations, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
156921		conservation	eng	Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156921		distribution	eng	This species is primarily distributed in the northern Carpathians. Its range extends to the Moravian Basin westwards, to Silesia northwards and to Munkacevo and the upper Dnester area in the Ukraine eastwards (Kerney <em>et al.</em> 1983, Soós 1943, Lisicky 1991, Wiktor 2004, Prockow 2009).<br/>The centre of the range is in Slovakia, where Lisicky (1991) lists more than 100 known locations, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p><em><br/></em></p>
156921		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in humid forests, where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter and decaying  dead wood. It prefers the tallgrass vegetation in particular along riversides.<br/></p>  <h1>&#160;</h1>
156921		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156921		threats	eng	Deforestation, development schemes and disturbance to the forests from recreational activities are the main threats to this  species. However, considering the relatively large geographical range of  this species, local logging or recreational activities do not affect  the whole population significantly.
156922		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
156922		distribution	eng	This species is found on São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico and Faial islands, Azores (Portugal).
156922		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary, under dead leaves and rotting branches, and among the rhizomes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>. It is carnivorous, and has been seen with the neck greatly extended into a burrow of an earthworm (A.Martins pers. obs. 2010). It was found from about 100 m (Mordan and Martins 2001) to above 1000 m (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
156922		population	eng	This species was described from São Miguel; by synonymising <span style="font-style: italic;">V. mollis</span>, its range was extended to Terceira, but Mordan and Martins (2001) reported it also from São Jorge, Pico and Faial. The species is common in each of those islands.
156922		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is common on each of the islands it lives; no specific threats are foreseen.
156923		conservation	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. leucozona ovirensis</span> is assessed as Vulnerable (VU) on the Austrian Red-list whilst the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. leucozona heteromorpha</span> is assessed as Endangered (EN) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of population trends is recommended as there is no data at present and there are known threats. Although local sub-populations may be threatened, no conservation actions are currently required for the species as a whole.
156923		distribution	eng	This species has a south-eastern Alpine distribution, being found in Austria, Italy and Slovenia. It has a wide extent of occurrence of over 30,000 km<sup>2</sup> (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. leucozona leucozona:</span> approximately 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. leucozona heteromorpha</span>: approximately 22,000 km<sup>2</sup>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. leucozona ovirensis:</span> approximately 400 km<sup>2</sup>).
156923		habitat	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Petasina leucozona leucozona</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. leucozona heteromorpha</span> may be found in mountainous to sub-alpine areas on woodland edges with tall herbs. <span style="font-style: italic;">P.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">leucozona</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">ovirensis</span> is found on higher alpine grassland between boulders and at the foot of rock walls.
156923		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trends.
156923		threats	eng	Threats to the species have been identified as biotope destruction by alpine pasturing and through tourism related activities.
156924		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156924		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece and Albania</st1:country-region>, distributed in the south part of Albania and the north-western part of Greece, along with the island of Corfu (Kerkyra)&#160;(Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005, Dhora 2009).</p>
156924		habitat	eng	<p><em><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</em>species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</p>
156924		population	eng	<p>The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated appears to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.</p>
156924		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span></p>
156925		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
156925		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from all islands of the Azores, except Corvo.
156925		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spermodea monas</span> lives in forested habitats, endemic and secondary, although preferentially on mountainous, endemic vegetation. Relatively uncommon, it is found under dead leaves. On Pico island, it was found from 150 m to above 1,000 m (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)
156925		population	eng	Morelet (1860) mentioned this species only for São Miguel and Faial, and Backhuys (1975) added São Jorge and Flores. Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) extended its range to all but Terceira and Corvo, however <span style="font-style: italic;">Spermodea monas</span> has also been collected on Terceira (unpublished data A.Martins pers. comm. 2010).
156925		threats	eng	This species is relatively uncommon; however, because it has adapted to secondary forests and is present on all but one island, no threats are foreseen.
156926		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs although some of the subpopulations live within protected areas. Due to the large and stable population no conservation actions are currently required.<br/></p>
156926		distribution	eng	This species is primarily distributed from Krain in the southeastern Alps to central Bosnia. The majority of known locations are in Slovenia, and in Croatia and Bosnia there are only sporadic occurrences.     <p>There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156926		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156926		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156926		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons such as through leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore these threats are mostly hypothetical at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156927		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation action is currently in place or needed.</p>
156927		distribution	eng	The species is possibly endemic to the Kefalonia Island (Ioanian Sea, Greece) (Rähle 1980).
156927		habitat	eng	The species was described by individuals found in humid habitat within a&#160;coniferous forest, under bark and decaying wood. The area was between&#160;1,300 and 1,600 m above sea level (Rähle 1980).
156927		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156927		threats	eng	The main threat for species that are&#160;generally&#160;found in forested areas, remains the fragmentation and destruction of their habitat. Nevertheless, the&#160;current&#160;knowledge&#160;does not indicate any direct threat for the species in the near future.
156928		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156928		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, distributed in the north-central part of the island&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156928		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>  <p><br/></p>
156928		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156928		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"> </span></p>
156929		conservation	eng	<p>This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia (<a href="hbsd.hr/.../Pravilnik_o_proglasavanju_divljih_svojti_zasticenim_i_strogo_zasticenim.pdf">See List of protected species</a>). The species is protected at the national level in Croatia. Most of the known sites are out of protected areas. Due to the stable population there are no further conservation actions required at this time.<br/></p>
156929		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in South Dalmatia and Hercegovina. The known distribution records are <span style="font-style: italic;">S. paganettii paganettii</span>: Korcula Island, Paganetti cave; <span style="font-style: italic;">S. paganettii polymorpha</span>: Brac Island (several locations); Osojnik, Mociljska cave; Vrgorac, Jurilj cave; Vrgorac Mala Pecina, Breskula u staroj paski; Ugljane, S. paganettii alphonsi: Ilidza, Vrelo Bosne; Plana near Bileca, Kipino selo (Maassen 1989).<br/>    <p>There are at least 15 known locations, but due to the hidden life of this species, this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156929		habitat	eng	<p>This is a troglobite species which lives in karstic caves and fissures.</p>
156929		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156929		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in karstic cave systems. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156930		conservation	eng	<p>The subpopulations living in the northern parts of the distribution area are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156930		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It lives on the southern&#160; and eastern slopes of the caldera of Tenerife from the coast to moderate altitudes. This species is recorded from 12 locations and 35 sites.
156930		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal) and Fayal-Brezal.</p>
156930		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156930		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, and road construction. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156931		conservation	eng	This species has been considered Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Germany (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998; Jungbluth and Knorre 2009; Red List Baden-Württemberg 2008). The habitats of this species need to be protected from conversion to agricultural land.
156931		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a small range in the border areas of Germany, Switzerland and Austria (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983; Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). In Switzerland, there are three records from river flotsam originating from the same river system and thus probably only representing a single locality; there is a single record from Bavaria in the Danube valley; the number of sites in Baden-Württemberg are not known, but is seems to be a few only; no information is available for the number of localities in Austria. The estimation is that this species is only known from 10 IUCN-defined locations (probably less). These locations are isolated, the distribution area is severely fragmented.
156931		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fens and very wet meadows at low altitude levels.
156931		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. However, there are usually only records of single specimens from these sites, so population density seems to be extremely low.
156931		threats	eng	Threats to this species are destruction of the habitats by drainage of wet meadows and conversion to agriculturally used areas.
156932		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156932		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, reported from Evvoia Island, as well as from parts of the&#160;nearby&#160;mainland (Voiotia) (Heller 1976). According to Sattmann and Reischütz (1994)&#160;<em>Jaminia</em>&#160;has not been&#160;recorded from Epirus, but a number of specimens included in their study resemble&#160;<em>J. thiessianus</em>. The species is also reported from the islands of North Sporades (Liebegott 1986) but the presence of the species in that area has to be confirmed.
156932		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is not well known. It is usually found in limestone habitats, under stones and shrubs.
156932		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
156932		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations. Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;</p>
156933		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research is needed on the distribution, population and threats to this species.
156933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France. It is only known from its type locality which is flood line debris from the river in the valley of Douctouyre, close to the&#160; village of Dun, Department of Ariège. The river valley runs through an area of limestone, with crags and escarpments covered in mixed deciduous forest, and the species could be located anywhere upstream of the bridge. Therefore the exact range of this species is unknown.
156933		habitat	eng	The biotope of this species is not known, but all species of this family are ground-dwelling species.
156933		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
156933		threats	eng	The habitats within the valley and mixed deciduous forest on the valley slopes, and livestock farming in small patches, with few active threats operating, most of which are localized, hence the species is not likely to be threatened, although without knowing the site it is not possible to determine the threats precisely.
156934		conservation	eng	Research is recommended to attempt to  re-discover the species in the areas that it has been previously found to see if it is still not rare where it occurs.
156934		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and western Gran Canaria. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemicycla psathyra psathyra</span> is known from the region of Aldea to Mogan,&#160; Tarajana, maspalomas and Arguineguin, and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. psathyra bituminosa</span> is known from the environments of Galdar. There has been no published data since Wollaston (1878), but at this time it was not rare.
156934		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding the species' habitat preferences.
156934		population	eng	There is no population information.
156934		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
156935		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
156935		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. It lives restricted to a single valley in the north of the island. This species is recorded from four locations and five sites.<br/></p>
156935		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal) and Fayal-Brezal.</p>
156935		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156935		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156936		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on the taxonomy of the various subspecies, as well as on the distribution and population of this species, once the taxonomy is clarified.
156936		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Sicily. It is found mainly in the province of Trapani; a second distribution centre is situated in the south between Castelvetrano and Caltabellotta. The known distributions of the single subspecies are as follows:<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. scabriuscula </span>– region of Trapani, especially around the Monte Erice<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. buelowi </span>– San Vito lo Capo and coastal rocks at the Golfo di Cófano<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. delpretei </span>– Sciacca (Prov. Agrigento)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. demissa </span>– summit area of the Monte San Giuliano (Erice)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. eulasia</span> – between Catalafimi and the ruins of Segesta<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. explanata</span> – mixed with other forms between Trapani and Marsala<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. latebrosa</span> – Caccamo south of Términi-Imerese (Prov. Palermo)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. nadorrica</span> – between Sciacca and Rocca Nadore (Prov. Agrigento)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. paciniana </span>(Philippi, 1836) – between Alcamo and Catalafimi, ruins Segesta on the Monte Barbaro<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. paulucciana</span> – Caltabellotta <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. segestana</span> (Philippi, 1836) – calcareous mountains in the south-west of Alcamo<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. selinuntina </span>(Philippi, 1836) – environs of the ruins of Selinunte (south-western coast of Sicily) and (after Pfeiffer 1931) largely disjunct on the Monte San Calogero near Termini Imerese on the north coast<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. tayae</span> – northern slopes of the Monte Cammauta north of Caltabellotta (Prov. Agrigento)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. s. vieta</span> (Rossmässler, 1836) Temple of Segesta
156936		habitat	eng	This species is found on calcareous rocks with sparse vegetation; on open rock walls at the foot of the mountains and on or under isolated calcareous boulders.
156936		population	eng	There are no population data available.
156936		threats	eng	The main threat to this species are quarrying, pasturing, road construction or tourist activities like mountain-biking, climbing, etc.
156937		conservation	eng	The species is not protected where it occurs. However due to its large range size, some of the populations can be found in protected areas.
156937		distribution	eng	This species lives in Romania and in Bulgaria along the Black see coast (Damjanov and Likharev 1975, Grossu 1983). According to the Fauna Europea and www.animalbase.org the species also lives in Northern Greece.
156937		habitat	eng	According to Grossu (1983) this species prefers dry, sunny places, it can be found on the grass and weed plants and often occurs together with halophilous species.
156937		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156937		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering that inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.
156938		conservation	eng	On the basis of its range it meets the criteria for a "Species of  Conservation Concern" in Spain. The Balearic Islands holds the 99% of  the population of this species, but no conservation action plans are  currently in place for this species. A large part of its range is within  protected areas, which allows to preserve the habitat of this species, a  priority for its conservation. Nevertheless, more studies are needed  about population size, biology and ecological requirements. The taxonomy  of the complex needs further studies.
156938		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands (Spain) living in Menorca, Ibiza and Formentera (Beckmann 2007). It seems to be widely distributed in these three islands, but is restricted to non altered habitats. Besides, there are some reports of the species in mainland Spain (under the name of <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberellus companyoni</span> Aleron 1837, <span style="font-style: italic;">nomen nudum</span>), but they are the result of introductions (Jackel 1952, Gasull 1966). Out from the Balearic Islands it is currently present only in the roman walls of Tarragona old city (Bech 1990).
156938		habitat	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span title="" closure_uid_yi7c6e="262" wc="Vive en muros y roquedos de naturaleza calcárea en ambientes naturales, así como debajo de piedras en ambientes ruderales" xc="He lives in walls and calcareous rocks in natural environments and under stones in ruderal environments">This species lives in walls and calcareous rocks in natural environments and under stones in  ruderal environments. It has also been reported in one locality of siliceous substrate (Quintana 2007).</span>
156938		population	eng	No population studies have been made, but assumed stable in places with suitable habitat.
156938		threats	eng	New residencial areas and tourism development  and road construction are the major threats for this species. Fire is  also a threat. Competition with the alien species <span style="font-style: italic;">Murella muralis</span>&#160;is also a threat to this species.
156940		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in Romania on national level, however the only know exact locality lies within the Cerna-Domogled National Park. Research on the population size and distribution is recommended.
156940		distribution	eng	There are only a few data on the distribution of the species. Grossu (1987) reports the species from the Banat region (e.g. Baile Herculeane), and mentions its present in Bulgaria and in the former Yugoslavia. According to www.animalbase.org the species lives in Romania and in Bulgaria (Marica river deposits). Since the Bulgarian data refers to river deposit specimens, it is not proved that the species occures in the country. Damjanov and Likharev (1975) does not mention the species from Bulgaria.
156940		habitat	eng	According to Grossu (1987) this is a xero-tolerant species, occuring on calcareous, dry areas between stones and grass roots.
156940		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life and small size of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number or mature individuals are declining. The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156940		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in calcareous, xeric areas between stones. It is a potential threat if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying and road constructions. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical. </p>
156941		conservation	eng	The whole range of this species is under protection.
156941		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife and lives in the central part of the Anaga Mountians.</p>
156941		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the humid parts of the local Laurel forests (Laurisilva).</p>
156941		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156941		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156942		conservation	eng	In Ireland this species is considered Vulnerable (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Habitat and population monitoring is recommended to measure any further declines in this species.
156942		distribution	eng	This species is present in Britain, Ireland, France, Spain, Belgium and Germany.
156942		habitat	eng	This is a tiny species living in  deep, stable leaf litter, moss or soil in wooded habitats on base-rich  soils. In Ireland (Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) it is widespread,  sometimes common, in old woods or scrub in limestone areas  eg. central limestone plain. It is local and rare elsewhwere<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
156942		population	eng	A widespread, but declining species that has had a 55% decline in  records since 1980 in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In France, it is relatively common in the Pyrenees and has isolated occurrences in other parts of the country.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
156942		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and modern forest management.
156943		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156943		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, present in the western and northern central part of the island&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156943		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
156943		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
156943		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"> </span></p>
156944		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
156944		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread on Fuerteventura and Lanzarote and the northern islands.</p>
156944		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156944		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156944		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
156945		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are out of protected areas. However, regarding its large range and large number of subpopulations it can be reasonably supposed that some of the subpopulations live within protected areas. No conservation actions are currently required for this species.<br/></p>
156945		distribution	eng	This is a circum-Mediterranean species also known from Northern Africa and the Asian part of Turkey (med. coastal area). The subspecies&#160;<em>Rupestrella philippii moraguesi</em>&#160;occurs only in the Balearic Islands.&#160;There are many known locations with the HNHM Mollusc Collection mentioning 125 from different countries.<br/>    <p>There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156945		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found in crevices or on the bare rock surface.</p>
156945		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156945		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156946		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are needed for this species.
156946		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic, widely distributed in Spain and Andorra. In Spain, it occurs in Andalusia (Eastern provinces), Castilla y León, Madrid, Castilla-La Mancha, Aragón, Catalonia, Comunidad Valenciana and Murcia.
156946		habitat	eng	This snail lives under stones or at the base of the stems of shrubs of ruderal vegetation and pine forests.
156946		population	eng	This species is abundant and there are numerous subpopulations.
156946		threats	eng	The main threats are fires, quarries, urban developments,&#160;extreme&#160;temperatures, extension of roads  and  drought.
156947		conservation	eng	The species is not protected where it lives. It has a relatively large range and inhabits mainly dry rocky habitats, where human impact is not a serious danger.
156947		distribution	eng	According to the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum and Schütt (2001) this species lives from Albania to the European part of Turkey, in the north to the coastal region of Romania, and in the south to Northern Greece. This species lives between 0 and 1,000 m above sea level in Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>.
156947		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with dry limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156947		population	eng	<p>Within its large and continuous range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population is thought to be stable.</p>
156947		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, mining, etc.). Ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat at the current time.</p>
156948		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in those countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are outside of protected areas.</p><p>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation measures required for this species at present.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
156948		distribution	eng	This species is distributed through Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania northwestern Greece and southeastern Serbia. There are at least 40 known locations (Damjanov and Likharev 1975, Hausdorf 1991, Fehér and Erőss 2009) and new&#160; locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  .
156948		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas) where it is usually found in crevices, under stones or among leaf litter at the base of rocks.</p>
156948		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156948		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications which affect either the rocks or the vegetation in their habitats, such as mining. Considering the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
156949		conservation	eng	Some of the sub-populations occur within protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed currently.
156949		distribution	eng	This species is found in Croatia, where it is known from 22 sites, and Slovenia, where it is known from two sites. The extent of occurrence is 60 km<sup>2</sup>.
156949		habitat	eng	<p>Although this is neither an obligate rock-dweller nor a forest species, it is generally associated with limestone areas and deciduous forests or shrubland. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites, or on the ground among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood.</p>
156949		population	eng	Within its narrow range, this species can be relatively abundant. There is no data on population trend.
156949		threats	eng	Deforestation and fires can be a threat to this species locally. Quarrying might also impact some parts of its range, but it is unlikely that a threat would affect the whole range or population of this species.
156950		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There are no conservation action in place for this species and currently none are required.<br/></p>
156950		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) this species is reported from&#160;Greece (mainland, Cyclades, Crete), Croatia, Italy, Bosnia & Herzegovina &#160;(see also Sattmann and Reischütz 1994, Manganelli <em>et al</em>. 1995, Štamol 2004, 2010,&#160;Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).&#160;The presence of the species in Albania has to be confirmed (Dhora 2009). The species is also reported from Israel as introduced (Roll <em>et al</em>. 2009). Note that&#160;Roll&#160;<em>et al</em>. (2009) report Cyprus to be the potential source of the introduced species, but the presence in Cyprus has to&#160;confirmed.
156950		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in open habitats, on the soil and under  stones.
156950		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156950		threats	eng	This species appears to be expanding&#160;its distribution through human activities. There are no known threats to this species.
156951		conservation	eng	Protection of the habitat against ongoing construction is required.
156951		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the east coast of Gran Canaria. Although this area is quite well researched, there is only one location known for this species (Seddon and Aparicio 1998). Obviously,&#160; this species lives in a very restricted area, and the AOO can be considered to be very small (less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>).
156951		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
156951		population	eng	There is no information available on on the population size of this species.
156951		threats	eng	The coastal area is subject to heavy urbanisation, logging, and road construction. These threats might impact the population of this species.
156953		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria and in Turkey. Some subpopulations may be found protected areas.
156953		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Rapotamo region in Bulgaria and from the European part of Turkey (2 km south of Kofcaz) (Hausdorf 2000). There is one known occurrence in Turkey and two localities on the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria.
156953		habitat	eng	This species lives in Bulgaria in the coastal  vicinity, in open habitats covered by grasses. In the summer it is found under  stones, active after rainfall. According to <a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/LBB_0040_0785-0811.pdf">Irikov (2008) </a>the species inhabits open grass spaces in xerothermal habitats near to seacoast in Southwestern Bulgaria. In the summer the animals are concealed under stones and are active only after shower and possibly in the night.
156953		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156953		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of subpopulations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.</p>
156954		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156954		distribution	eng	The main distribution of this species is the Mediterranean coastal area of northern Africa from Algeria to Libya. In Europe it is only present in scattered localities along the coast of the Gulf of Taranto (coastal area of Basilicata, and Puglia), Italy. It is unclear whether the European occurrences are due to past faunistic migrations from North Africa to Italy or whether they originate from an ancient anthropogenic introduction.
156954		habitat	eng	This species lives in sand dunes along the coast.
156954		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156954		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is any alteration of its habitat like increasing tourist exploitation of the sandy beach areas and destruction of the sand dune vegetation.
156955		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures for this species are known however, the species would benefit from habitat monitoring, as a proxy for population monitoring and further survey work to find other small remnants of suitable habitat to establish if the species has a greater distribution.
156955		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Madeira, where it is mainly found on the south side of the island outside the laurisilva zone, in small remnants of suitable habitat, sometimes laurisilva forest in ravines near the coast.
156955		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp shaded ravines and rocky ledges amongst leaf-litter and mosses extending down to sea level.
156955		population	eng	This species is found in a small number of sites, therefore the population size is presumably low.
156955		threats	eng	This species is affected by declining habitat quality, where there are greater pressures from development as urban areas and the road infrastructure expands. Some non-native species of plants are found in these habitats and the impacts are not known.
156956		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156956		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small area in north-western Sicily, Italy. This species is recorded from two locations representing two sites. This species is assumed to&#160; inhabit the limestone area in the north-western part of Sicily.
156956		habitat	eng	This species is living in the soil litter in limestone areas, probably subterranean habitats.
156956		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156956		threats	eng	There are no threats known affecting the species at the moment, except quarrying.
156957		conservation	eng	All of the known populations of this species are within the regional protected area of the Sierra Calderona, however parts of this area (800 ha) were destroyed by a fire in 2004. A conservation plan is considered a necessity for this species.
156957		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic restricted to the Natural Reserve of the Sierra Calderona in the north of Valencia Province, Spain.
156957		habitat	eng	This is species lives in dry environments such as pine forests and Mediterranean shrubs.
156957		population	eng	This population trend of this species is decreasing&#160; after a fire in 2004. Recent sampling has failed to find the species in some of the localities that were affected by the fire.
156957		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires and anthropogenic pressures (such as recreational activities). Other threats include urban developments, temperature extremes, widening of roads, collecting of shells  and droughts.
156958		conservation	eng	Sub-populations in the Monte Pellegrino are partly situated in the nature reserve and those of the Madonie are partly covered by the Parco delle Madonie which protects the vegetation.
156958		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Sicily, where it occurs in a limited area in the North-west, around Palermo and in the adjacent part of the Madonie.
156958		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits open and half-open natural and anthropogenic biotopes like garrigues, grassland and pastures. It is also found in ruderal vegetation.
156958		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
156958		threats	eng	The main threats are the loss of habitats due to urbanisation and development in the environs of Palermo and tourist activities in the Madonie mountains.
156959		conservation	eng	<p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points.&#160; <br/></p>  <p>The species is not protected at national level in Albania.<br/></p>
156959		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from a relatively narrow range in the coastal region of South Albania. Beside its type locality (Llogara pass), two further locations were published recently by Fehér and Erőss (2009); 2 km West of Maja e Qorrës (1840 m asl.) 1 km SE of Maja e Klogjurit (1779 m asl.). These new records extended the known range of the species eastwards and at the same time it suggests that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and the number of locations are still underestimated.</p>
156959		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones or at the base of rocks. <br/></p>
156959		population	eng	<p>The discovery of new subpopulations suggests that the number of subpopulations might be underestimated, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156959		threats	eng	<p>Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Since this species mostly inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat.<br/></p>
156960		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
156960		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Palma and inhabits the southern and eastern part of the island. This species is recorded from two locations and two isolated sites. Each site is less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
156960		habitat	eng	This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar).
156960		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156960		threats	eng	<p>The main threat for this species are wild fires in the pine forests.</p>
156961		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place or needed for this species.</p>
156961		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the north of the island of La Palma.</p>
156961		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
156961		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
156961		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
156962		conservation	eng	The entire population can be found within a protected area.
156962		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to El Hierro where it is found in laurisilva forest in the high mountains of the north, from 800 to 1,200 m asl. It is known from three locations with five sites making the extent of occurrence 45 km² and the area of occupancy less than 12 km² (Alonso and Ibanez 2007).
156962		habitat	eng	The species is found in laurisilva forest in the high mountains in the north of the island, from 800 to 1,200 m asl.
156962		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
156962		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
156963		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Near Threatened (NT) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). The presence of the occurrences in France could ideally do with being verified. No conservation actions are required.
156963		distribution	eng	The species is found in alpine areas of Italy and some isolated occurrences in France (Sacoie) and Switzerland (S Ticino, S Graubünden), up to around 1,700 m asl. In Italy it can be found between Lago di  Como and Lagi di Garda and the upper Adige/Etsch valley (Girod 1968).
156963		habitat	eng	The species lives in moist deciduous forests on carbonate rocks with mosses. It is occasionally found on free rocks, dry-walls or walls in vineyards.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
156963		population	eng	There is no documentation on population but the trend is presumed to be stable. It has a restricted distribution but is locally abundant in Switzerland whereas it is quite rare in France where there are only two historical records.
156963		threats	eng	There is no actual threat known.
156964		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it potentially occurs.&#160;This species is known only from marine debris and as such the actual range of the species is unknown, as well as its size and how many  subpopulations exist. Accordingly, it is not known if the species' range overlaps with protected areas. First of all, research activity should clarify the species' distribution.<br/>    <p><br/></p>
156964		distribution	eng	This species was found as empty shells in marine debris near Ragusa [=Dubrovnik] and Lacroma [=Lokrum]. Wagner (1912) and Sturany and Wagner (1914) hypothesized that those specimens originated from Albania (which at that time was larger than today). However, it is also probable that the shells originated from Croatia or Montenegro. <br/>As far as is known, neither empty shells nor live specimens of this species have ever been found again. Thus, it is unknown where the actual range of this species is, how large it is and how many subpopulations exist. It is also unknown if the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of populations are declining or extremely fluctuating. Considering the exploration status of Dalmatia, Montenegro and North Albania, it can be inferred that the species (if still extant) has a small range and occurs in an inaccessible and relatively unexplored area.
156964		habitat	eng	Based on the related species, we might assume that it is a sylvicol species.
156964		population	eng	This species is known only from marine debris. It is unknown where the exact range of this species is, how large it is or how many subpopulations exist, and there is no information on population trend.
156964		threats	eng	Assuming that this is a sylvicol species,   deforestation and disturbance of forests, such as through recreational activities, would be the main threat. However, we do not know the exact range of this species, and therefore we can only speculate about factual threats.
156965		conservation	eng	This species is not thought to be protected in Romania, however it is probable that some of the subpopulations live within protected areas (e.g. in the Ordinkus valley, Apuseni Mountains). Due to the suspected current population decline research could be proposed to ascertain the validity of this assumption.&#160;However, there are no further conservation actions required for this species at present.
156965		distribution	eng	According to Soós (1943) this species is distributed in the southwestern part of Transilvania and in the Banat region (Romania). The following definite locations are given by Soós (1943): Zalatna [=Zlatna], Vajdahunyad [=Hunedoara], Herkulesfürdő [=Baile Herculane], Stájerlak [=Anina], Detonata [=Detunata], Kolozsvár [=Cluj] and he supposed that other <span style="font-style: italic;">Orcula dolium</span> records (Ordinkus-valley near Aranyosfő [=Arieseni], Kőrösbánya [=Baia de Cris], Vormága [=Varmaga], Nagyenyed [=Aiud], Mézged [=Meziad], Rézbánya [=Baita] from the Apuseni Mountains also refer to this species. This species is not thought to live in Hungary as its Hungarian record is based on a fluvial flotsam.<br/>    <p>Currently there is no reason to suppose that extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156965		habitat	eng	<p>This is a silvicol species which is found among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood.</p>
156965		population	eng	Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be   rare. However, due to its special habitat preference, the population is    fragmented.  The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and   there  are no data  on population trend. However, forest habitats are   known to  diminish in  that region therefore one might suppose that   number of  subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are   declining.
156965		threats	eng	Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this  species. However, considering the relatively large geographial range of  this species, local logging or recreational activities is not known to affect  the whole population significantly.
156966		conservation	eng	<em>X. reboudiana</em> is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable&#160;Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). No other conservation actions are needed.
156966		distribution	eng	In Europe, <em>X. reboudiana</em> occurs in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula: in Spain, it is found in Andalusia (except Almería), Extremadura, Ciudad Real, Madrid and in Portugal, in Algarve and Alentejo. It also lives in Algeria (Arrébola 1995, Puente 1995).
156966		habitat	eng	This species lives in disturbed environments (such as margins of roads and edges of cultivated fields), riparian vegetation and Mediterranean low mountains areas (Puente 1995, Arrébola 1995).
156966		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However, most of the surveys recorded great number of individuals in almost all the localities visited (Arrébola 1995).
156966		threats	eng	Apart from general and global threats, such as climate change, the  increase of intensive agriculture, pollution..., there are no specific  threats that may affect consistently this species. It is well adapted to  human-modified habitats.
156967		conservation	eng	This species is protected under the law of the Regione Toscana (Legge Regionale 6 aprile 2000 n. 56). The site Macchia Grande north of Fiumicino (airport) is a WWF-protected area.
156967		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy. It occurs in two separated areas on the Italian mainland and on Sardinia. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is calculated for both areas (8000 km² for the mainland, 3000 km² for Sardinia).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is known only from six locations on the Italian mainland along the Tyrrhenian coast between Livorno and Terracina and from three locations on the Sardinian west-coast. The indication of Bonifacio (Corsica, France) as type locality was apparently based on shells washed up by the sea on the coast of Corsica (Pollonera 1905).
156967		habitat	eng	This species lives in sand dunes along the Mediterranean coast.
156967		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. The southernmoast occurrence at Terracina has not been reconfirmed since more than 100 years.
156967		threats	eng	The major threat to this species are large constructions for the coastal protection, afforestation of the sand dunes with pine trees, and particularly tourist use of sand beaches with destruction of the typical dune vegetation.
156968		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place. The identified threat to this species is through fire. The complete destruction of at least three populations by forest fire raising could be documented in 2000 (G. and M. Falkner, pers. com., 2011).
156968		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy. The species is endemic to a small part of central eastern Sardinia from Nuoro up to Lanusei; a disjunct occurrence is historically known from the Monte Santo di Pula in the extreme south of the island (type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. carotii melonii </span>(Maltzan, 1886)). Although this occurrence has been confirmed by Pollonera (see Caziot 1917) the note "distribuzione limitata alla Sardegna centrorientale" in Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995) for the species agg. seems to indicate a doubt in the authenticity of this locality. Thus, the extent of occurrence is 1,600 km² (if the Monte Santo di Pula is included this would be 3,500 km²).
156968		habitat	eng	This species inhabits carstic areas and lives in the crevices of rocks and under larger boulders.
156968		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. However, observations from the field suggest that the sub-populations are decreasing.
156968		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation by logging and wild-fire, agriculture and grazing; also building (widespread urbanisation, isolated homes, etc.) and related infrastructures (roads, sewer systems, etc).
156970		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Montenegro and its known site is not protected.</p><p>The species is far from being well investigated, and due to its hidden life, it is conceivable that there is not only one sub-population. Research activity is urgently required and should focus on the exploration of the species' range and its sub-populations in order to determine if conservation actions are necessary for this species.<br/></p>
156970		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Montenegro. It is known only from one location: Montenegro, Radetina pecina, near Ilijino Brdo, 1300 m asl.
156970		habitat	eng	<p>This species was found in the subterranean part of a rocky habitat.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156970		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156970		threats	eng	<p>The main potential threat to this species are the destruction of the habitat by quarrying or construction works. Waste disposal sites can also have a negative impact on the species' habitat through leaching of chemicals. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.<br/><br/></p>
156971		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research in needed on population trends, distribution range and threats to this species.
156971		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Norway, where it has been found on four sites in a limited area in Dovrefjell, Oppland/Sor-Trondelag. This is a relic species, which had a larger European distribution during the cold climatic phases in the Quaternary period (Proschwitz 2003).
156971		habitat	eng	This species lives in open calcareous fens of soligenous or mixed types (Proschwitz 2003, Pokryszko 1993).
156971		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156971		threats	eng	Drainage of the inhabited areas might be a theoretical threat to this species. However, there is no information available whether this environmental change is practised in the particular area.
156972		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Hungary, Serbia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. There is no information about legal species-level protection in other countries where it occurs. This species is not listed by Annexes II/IV of the EUHSD and there is no information on country level red listing.<br/>At least a part of the known populations occur within protected areas, however due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156972		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Carpathians from the eastern part of the Czech Republic as far as to the Banat region and the neighboring Serbian territory (Wikor 2004, Lisicky 1991, Grossu 1983, Soós 1943). The known Serbian occurrences are in the Djerdap Mountains (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpubished data). It has a remote occurrence in Lithuania (Kaunas) which, according to Soós (1943), should be an introduced subpopulation. Both Fauna Europaea and AnimalBase mentions <span style="font-style: italic;">F. faustina</span> from Bosnia-Hercegovina too, but there is no information on the definite location. When the extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated, Lithuanian and Bosnian occurrences were ignored.<br/>This is a widespread and frequent species, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156972		habitat	eng	This is a silvicol species which can be found in mountain forests among leaf-litter or decaying dead wood, at the base of rocks or among streamside vegetation.
156972		population	eng	<p>Within its large range this species is frequent, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156972		threats	eng	Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. However, considering the relatively large geographial range of this species, local logging or recreational activities do not affect the whole population significantly.
156973		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in Crete and Gavdos&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
156973		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island of Crete and the nearby island of Gavdos (Vardinoyannis 1994, Welter-Schultes 1998).
156973		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in forest areas, mainly in open habitats within forest, under stones.
156973		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156973		threats	eng	The species' population will be strongly affected by a&#160;future fragmentation and&#160;destruction of the forested areas of Crete. Nevertheless, currently there is no direct threat to the species that could reduce its population in the next 10 years.
156974		conservation	eng	There is no information as to whether this species is protected at the national level  in the countries where it occurs. Most of the known sites are out of  protected areas, however it can be supposed that some of the  subpopulations occur within protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
156974		distribution	eng	his species is distributed from the Blacks Sea area to Iran. In Romania ii occurs only in Dobrogea (Grossu 1983), in Bulgaria at the Black Sea coast (Damjanov and Likharev 1975) with further populations in Cyprus, Asia Minor, Iran, Crimea (Grossu 1983, Damjanov and Likharev 1975) and Turkey (Schütt 1996).<br/>The species has a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and in some places it is  very common, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or  the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156974		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky grasslands and rocky shrublands where it  lives on the ground, among herbaceous vegetation.
156974		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
156974		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be sensitive to any ongoing ecosystem  modifications such as residential and commercial development.
156975		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156975		distribution	eng	The nominotypical subspecies is endemic to Sicily (Italy). The species seems to be widely distributed in Sicily, with exception of the northeastern part of the island; in total, 14 locations (= 14 sites) are known. The distribution area is considered as fragmented.
156975		habitat	eng	This species lives in leaf litter in half-open rocky biotops in Mediterranean vegetation types.
156975		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. However, field observations suggest that the species is declining.
156975		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the ongoing agricultural and pasturing activities, which alter the quality of the habitat.
156976		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine whether the species is till stable, and a habitat management plan will be required for the areas under fire damage which includes this species as the species still has a restricted range. Habitat monitoring would benefit this species, as it is close to meeting  the threatened species criteria, and as a semi-slug species it is more  vulnerable to changes in microc-climate, especially humidity.&#160; The  species is found in Natura 2000 and UNESCO sites for "Laurisilva of  Madeira', a Special Protected Area in the interior of Madeira.
156976		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where is is known to restricted to the northern and central parts of Madeira, mainly along coast and laurisilva forests at intermediate elevations. </p>
156976		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found from coastal up to intermediate elevations, on ground or on ledges of shaded crags, usually on leaves, mosses or trunks of trees in areas of high humidity.<br/></p>
156976		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable.
156976		threats	eng	The habitat quality is not declining at present throughout these   regions, although there are localised decline due to changing forest   type, outside the protected areas.
156977		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should address habitat preservation.
156977		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north slope of the Cantabrian mountains (north Spain), from the central region of Asturias in the west to Aralar Mountains, Navarra, in the east. In Asturias and Cantabria it inhabites from the coast to inland regions, while in the Basque country and Navarra is restricted to inland zones.
156977		habitat	eng	It inhabits karstic areas, living on the rock surface in open places, or protected under stones.
156977		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
156977		threats	eng	The species lives mostly in mountain areas. Thus, the only threats are construction of quarries or roads, activities that have local impacts.
156978		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
156978		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa amphiconus</em> is&#160;restricted to the easternmost mountain range of&#160;Crete. Most records are from the central region of the&#160;mountain range (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
156978		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
156978		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
156978		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Over-grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species.
156979		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
156979		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sicily and the Maltese Islands. It is also present in Libya (where it is probably introduced); the indication as endemic to Malta in "Muticaria" (2009) is misleading.
156979		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. caruanae</span> is an ubiquitous species, which inhabits natural and anthropogenic sites; it can be found under stones, on walls and rock faces, under plants and bushes and on the stems of low vegetation.
156979		population	eng	There are no data available. But this is a very widespread and abundant species in Sicily and in the Maltese Islands. The origin of the Libyan populations is uncertain and probably due to recent introduction.
156979		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
156980		conservation	eng	There are no ongoing conservation actions.
156980		distribution	eng	The species lives in the Alps without eastern margin, to Pyrenees, England and western German highlands. According to Fauna Europaea, the species is also present in Romania.
156980		habitat	eng	The species lives in various habitats, swampy to  moderately dry deciduous or coniferous forests, also in open forests,  shrublands, reed swamps and moist to moderately dry meadows, alpine  pastures and old ruins. In Switzerland, it is found up to 2,400 m altitude, but it is usually  below 2,000 m.
156980		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
156980		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local    sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe    destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,    mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole   population significantly.
156981		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) estimated it status as LR/lc (low risk).<br/></p>
156981		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the central and western parts of Gran Canaria.
156981		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso infracanario) and the local pine forests (Pinar), but also in cultivated and ruderal land.<br/></p>
156981		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
156981		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and fires can be a threat to this species locally. It is unlikely that a threat would affect the whole range or population of this species.</p>
156982		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population, distribution and ecology of this species.
156982		distribution	eng	This is an Atlantic endemic species, distributed in the western third of Iberian Peninsula (Puente 1994).
156982		habitat	eng	<em>P. inchoata</em> lives in riparian habitats, valleys, forests and meadows, but also in ruderal vegetation, usually in humid and cooler places (Puente 1994, Arrébola 1995).
156982		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
156982		threats	eng	This species is threatened by urbanization, agriculture development and long periods of dry weather. However, these are unlikely to impact the species on its whole range.
156983		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book&#160;as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation actions currently in action.
156983		distribution	eng	The species endemic to Greece and is found in north central Crete&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
156983		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).</p>
156983		population	eng	There is no information available on the population trend of this species.
156983		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
156984		conservation	eng	Studies should be conducted about its range size, as well as its habitat and population size.
156984		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. The species is only known from its type locality, in the province of Asturias. It was sieved from sand in a fountain 1 km south of Grado, west Oviedo city.
156984		habitat	eng	Only empty shells have been collected. Thus, there are not data about its habitat. Nevertheless, it probably lives in leaf litter on calcareous soils as it has been documented for other species of the genus.
156984		population	eng	There are no population studies. The population trend is unknown.
156984		threats	eng	It should be investigated where the species lives before defining threats. The threats to this species are unknown.
156985		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs, however at least some of the known locations are within protected areas such as in the Park Kombetar Theth in Albania. D</a>ue to the distribution of this species and the stable population there are no conservation actions required at present.<br/></p>
156985		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Montenegro to nothwestern Greece. The type locality of the nominate subspecies is in Montenegro, near Cetinje. The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. schmidtii transversalis</span> is Tsumerka [=Athamon Mts.].&#160;Other published locations are: Anilion near Metsovon, Milea near Metsovon (Hausdorf 1987), Loutra near Amarandos (Reischütz and Sattmann 1990), five locations in North Albania (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996), Galicica Mountains, 1800 m (Gittenberger (1978). In the Mollusc collection of the HNHM there are a further 12 unpublished locations from Albania, but it might underestimates the real number of subpopulations.<br/>In Albania it is not rare and therefore there is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156985		habitat	eng	<p>This is neither an obligate rock-dweller nor a silvicol species, but generally associated with limestone areas where it lives in rocky forests or rocky shrublands. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites, or under stones.</p>
156985		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156985		threats	eng	<p>This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications (which affect either the rocks or the vegetation in their habitats) such as through forestry, recreational activities and quarrying. However, total destruction of the preferred habitat across the whole range is not very likely, therefore local activities do not affect the whole species significantly.</p>
156986		conservation	eng	Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) listed the species as sensitive to disturbance of the habitat and proposed protection of the habitat.
156986		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northeastern part of Gran Canaria, where it is restricted to Jardin Canario, which is a garden conserving Canarian plants.
156986		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland vegetation.
156986		population	eng	There are no recent data on population status.
156986		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the habitat degradation due to the urbanisation of adjacent villages.
156987		conservation	eng	Pico Alto is a protected area; however careful monitoring to avoid destruction of the habitat should be a priority.
156987		distribution	eng	This species is found on&#160;o the Pico Alto complex on&#160;Santa Maria island, Azores.
156987		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis minor </span>lives on the native vegetation at the top of Pico Alto, as well as in the secondary forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptomeria</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Accacia</span> that cover most of the mountainous complex.
156987		population	eng	This species is restricted to the Pico Alto complex on Santa Maria island, where it is not commonly found; although it is more frequent at higher altitudes.
156987		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis minor</span> is relatively uncommon and highly restricted, but it has adapted to secondary forests where there is a thick undergrowth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium</span>. However the secondary forest is liable to be cut down, and on the lower half of Pico Alto, there is cattle that is let to enter the forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum</span>, thus destroying  the habitat by grazing and trampling, excluding <span style="font-style: italic;">L. minor</span> from lower altitudes, further restricting its habitat.
156988		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although it is present in areas included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;Research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.</p>
156988		distribution	eng	&#160;This form is endemic to Greece, distributed in the Cyclades (central Aegean Sea) (Mylonas 1982).
156988		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs (Mylonas 1982).
156988		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
156988		threats	eng	<p>The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;</p>
156989		conservation	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Conservation  actions should address habitat preservation. Protected areas of La Garrotxa <span class="short_text" id="result_box">allows the preservation of its habitat. <span class="short_text" id="result_box">More  research is needed to know the population size and trends, as well as  to ensure that the ecological requirements of this species are known and  that management plans incorporate this information. More information is needed on the extent of its range.</span>
156989		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and the French Pyrenees. It lives only in a small region, in La Garrotxa and Alt Empordá regions (Girona, north of Catalonia) as well as in the neighboring French locality of Coustouges.
156989		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">This species is found in soil with  limestone substrate, under stones and dead leaves, as well as within  rock crevices.<span class="short_text" id="result_box"></span>
156989		population	eng	There are no population studies. The population trend is unknown.
156989		threats	eng	Fire can have severe impact on species range, as well as road and urban enlargement at a local scale.
156990		conservation	eng	The species is possibly not protected at national level in Italy.
156990		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality (near Agrigento, south Sicily, Italy).
156990		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
156990		population	eng	There is no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to     assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
156990		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons.
156991		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.&#160;In&#160;Madeira, most of the species' range lies within Parque Natural and enforcement of the protection should be encouraged. In the Azores, no specific conservation measures are needed.
156991		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Atlantic Islands, it is known from Madeira, three islands of the Canaries (Bank, Groh and Ripken 2002) and all islands of the Azores (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010; unpublished information A.Martins pers.comm. 2010). Due to the taxonomic issues with this species, a detailed distribution is not currently known.
156991		habitat	eng	Madeira: On Madeira it is mainly found inland, at intermediate elevations, within the Laurisilva zone (Seddon 2008). It is usually found on the underside of fern fronds, at the base of ferns and in leaf-litter.&#160;&#160; <br/><br/>Azores: This species lives in forested habitats, endemic and secondary, although preferentially on mountainous, endemic vegetation. Relatively common, it is frequently found on the underside of leaves of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>, as well as other plants such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Vaccinium cylindraceum</span>. On Pico island, it was found from 30 m (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) to near 2,000 m (unpublished information A.Martins pers. comm. 2010). On São Jorge, it was found near the sea level (unpublished data A.Martins pers. comm. 2010)
156991		population	eng	Madeira:&#160; This species is found at over 25 sites on the main  island of Madeira, where it is found in the central valleys, and in a few valleys in the North-West. Where it occurs, it is usually found at low  density (Seddon 2008). &#160;<em>Columella aspera</em> also occurs on Madeira, often at lower altitudes, but also mainly in central valleys and north-west of Madeira, and the two species are difficult to separate.<br/><br/>Azores: Morelet (1860) mentioned this species only for São Miguel and Faial, and Backhuys (1975:110) added Santa Maria and Flores, but he did not collect this species on the latter island, and the specimens in our collection appear to be <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aspera</span>. Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) extended its range to all but São Jorge island; however, it was latter collected on this island (unpublished data A.Martins pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Canary Islands: Pilsbry (1926: 234) recorded this species from Tenerife and La Palma, Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002: 103) added La Gomera.&#160; The species seems to be rare there, and more field work is needed to clarify its status on this island group.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
156991		threats	eng	Madeira: On Madeira, this species is found at intermediate and high elevations within the Laurisilva zone. A fair proportion of the range is now within the protected areas on Madeira, and hence the habitat decline is now been largely stabilised. The main threat on this island lies in the nature of its restricted distribution and presence at sites in relatively low density.&#160; These habitats are susceptible to future changes in rainfall patterns which could impact microhabitat if the high humidity levels changes, as most of the habitats were in areas that are used to take water from for irrigation of crops at lower elevations on the island.<br/><br/>Azores: This species is relatively common, has adapted to secondary forests and is present on all islands, therefore no threats are foreseen.
156992		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in  Albania and its known sites are out of protected areas. The geographic range and the existing sub-populations of this species are not exactly known and therefore any research activity should focus on these  point.     </p><p><br/></p>    <p>&#160;</p>
156992		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the Prokletije Mountains, in Albania. For a long time it was known only from the type locality (Cukali Mts. 1723 m above sea level). A recent record extended its known range: Periferi Shkodër, around 1.5 km upstream from the dam at Koman, Liqeni i Komanit (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished). The potential range of the species is quite unexplored, so it can be  assumed that further subpopulations will be found that will increase the  extent of occurrence (EOO) as well.
156992		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. Individuals are usually found on rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
156992		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential range of the species is difficult to access and therefore is remaining quite unexplored, there is no data on population trend. However, there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156992		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is relatively unlikely at the moment.<br/>&#160;</p>
156993		conservation	eng	<p>The species is protected in Poland. Most of the known sites are outside of protected areas. However, due to the relatively wide range (EOO = 67000 km<sup>2</sup>) and with no reason to  suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), number of locations, number of subpopulations or  the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating no conservation measures are required.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
156993		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Northern and Eastern Carpathians. Published distribution records can be found in Soós (1943), Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1989), Lisicky (1991) and Wiktor (2004).<br/><br/>There is a published occurrence in the Kaukasus Mts: Poti, debris of Rioni River (Jaczkiewicz 1974), the voucher material is in the IZPAN, Warsaw. Though, this occurrence is somewhat doubtful, it was not considered when the extent of occurrence was calculated.<br/><br/>There are around 35 known locations, but due to the hidden life of this species this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), the extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating
156993		habitat	eng	This is a forest species, occurring under leaf-litter, among stones and decaying dead wood (Soós 1943, Lisicky 1991).
156993		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species is relatively rare within its range. Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
156993		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation is the main threat to this species, however this is not an ongoing threat. More specifically, compared to its relatively large geographical range, local logging activities does not affect the population significantly.&#160;</p>
156994		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions in place for this species, but the sub-populations should be monitored.
156994		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Europe. It is recorded from Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Due to its habitat (alpine summit areas), the distribution pattern seems to be fragmented, but this has no negative effect to the sub-populations.<br/><br/>This species is also known from Turkey, the Caucasus and Iran.
156994		habitat	eng	This is a high-alpine species living in the summit areas of large mountains. It inhabits alpine grasslands and scree, preferably on limestones.
156994		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
156994		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species, but the tourism industry may be considered a major threat to this species, as the fragile shells break easily from trampling. Alpine pasturing may be considered an additional threat to this species.
156995		conservation	eng	The main threats to this species are not known. More research on the population and ecology of this species is needed, as well as on its main threats. Part of its range occurs in protected areas, but its habitat should be further protected.
156995		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the north slope of the sierra Mágina in the province of Jaén (Andalucia, Spain). Arrébola and Gómez (1998) cited the species in two localities&#160;separated by&#160;only 6 km, while&#160;Kokshoorn and Gittenberger (2010) have added two more&#160;localities, both very close to the type locality (4 and 5 km respectively).&#160;A recent finding of this species, about 45 km away from the type locality, expands slightly the restricted extent of occurrence (EOO) (Ruiz and Arrébola unpublished data).
156995		habitat	eng	<span title="">This&#160;land snail&#160;lives on limestone walls,&#160;<span title="">like other species of this genus, but often in narrow rock&#160;cracks or cavities that offer protection against the sun. Its shell is usually covered with fine material&#160;(dust, lichen) that possibly <span title="">serves to protect&#160;individuals from the sun. The peristome (i.e. the margin of the opening of the shell)&#160;strongly&#160;adheres&#160;to the rock with abundant <span title="">dry&#160;mucus. This species seems therefore to be&#160;<span title="">well adapted to dry environments<span title="">.</span></span></span>
156995		population	eng	There are no population data for this species. However, its density seems to be lower than the ones commonly observed for other species of the same genus in Spain.
156995		threats	eng	The main issue is its limited range and its apparent low density, which make this species specially vulnerable to stochastic events. Long dry periods and fires are potential future threats.
156996		conservation	eng	<p>The geographic range of the species is not exactly known. Known subpopulations occur out of protected area, however, it can not be excluded that some undiscovered sub-populations live in protected areas. Research on the distribution is needed.</p>
156996		distribution	eng	The species lives in southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and in northern Albania. According to www.animalbase.org the species lives in "Bosnia to Albania and Rep.  Makedonija", however in the comprehensive work of Stankovic <em>et al.</em> (2006) the species is missing for the list of the Macedonian fauna.
156996		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
156996		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
156996		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
156997		conservation	eng	This is a problematic species. First of all, its existence should be confirmed on the Trebevic Mountain, near Sarajevo. Research to determine the current range should be carried out as well as to the current threats potentially impacting the species such as from continuing development and recreational activities, as at present this information is unknown. It would also be important to know how the habitat and the population were affected by construction works during the Winter Olympic Games in 1984 and by military activities during the Bosnian War. Conservation actions may be required based on the findings of this research.
156997		distribution	eng	Fauna Europaea lists this species as being from Bosnia-Herzegovina, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Albania. However, according to Stankovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006), this species does not occur in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and indeed the Albanian occurrence is not reinforced to date (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996, Fehér and Erőss 2009b). The species was described from Bosnia, "Trebovic near Sarajevo, 1629 m", but De Winter and Maassen (1992) do not mention further specific distribution record. Therefore, unless the Albanian and/or Macedonian occurrence is confirmed, we might assume that it is a narrow range Bosnian endemic species.<br/>  The species is far from being well studied and its range and distribution needs to be studied&#160; in the future. However, at the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
156997		habitat	eng	Based on the locality data and related species, the habitat requirement and the ecology of this species can only be deduced. It is found in the highest region of a limestome mountain, in rocky habitats among leaf litter or under stones.
156997		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well studied and as such there is hardly any information on population trend.</p>
156997		threats	eng	During the 1984 Winter Olympics Trebević, like the other Sarajevo mountains, was used for a number of Olympic events, such as bobsledding. During the Siege of Sarajevo, Trebević proved ideal positions for besieging artillery and the mountain became a key fighting ground. The effect of these activities on the population is unknown, but considering it is a narrow range endemic species any of them might affect significantly the population. The ski resort might still be developed in the future and recreational activities from the capital might also have a negative impact on the habitat of this species in the future.
156998		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action for this species.</p>
156998		distribution	eng	This species is known from Greece (north-western part) and Albania (probably in south Albania) (Subai 1995, Feher and Eross 2009).
156998		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is understudied but most probably it can be found under stones and in piles of stones.
156998		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
156998		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
156999		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
156999		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia (Italy). It live in an extremely restricted area in the eastern coastal mountains of Sardinia, i.e. a 2 km stretch of the canyon of the torrent Fuili (south east of Dorgali).
156999		habitat	eng	This species is a typical rock-dweller on limestone rocks in Mediterranean vegetation types.
156999		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
156999		threats	eng	The major threat to this species are  recreational activities like rock climbing and probably flood events.
157000		conservation	eng	<p>In Croatia, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. setigera globulosa</span> is protected but m<a name="OLE_LINK2">ost of the known sites are out of protected areas.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a></p>    <p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a> There are no further conservation actions currently required for this species.</p>
157000		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the Adriatic coast from Croatia down to northern Albania, the subspecies <em>Chilostoma setigera</em>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">globulosa</span> occurs only on Mljet Island. There are around 35-40 known locations (Subai 2002). Currently there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157000		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
157000		population	eng	There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that&#160; the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157000		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157001		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are outside of protected areas. Due to the stable population there are no conservation actions required at this time, however, efforts should be made to clear up the taxonomic confusion surrounding this species.<br/></a></p>
157001		distribution	eng	The type locality of&#160;<em>Semifructicicola&#160;costulata serbica</em>&#160;is at Prosjecenica vrata  near Grab at the river Sutjeska; Bielasnica near Sarajevo. Further localities are in South Bosnia and Montenegro (AnimalBase). The type locality of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">S. costulata&#160;costulata</span>&#160;is the Volujak Mountains at high altitude. Other published locations are at Volujak; central Durmitor, near Bobotov kuk (Wohlberedt 1909), Koritnik Mountains, Ljuma (Wagner 1915).<br/>Tomic (1959) does not indicate that this species occurs in Serbia. If this species really lives in the Albanian part of the Koritnik Mountains (Wagner 1915, Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996), then its occurrence in Kosovo seems probable.
157001		habitat	eng	<p>This is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, but associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found in high altitudes in rocky grasslands under stones. <br/></p>
157001		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157001		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>
157002		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157002		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central and adjacent southern Italy. The occurrence of the species agg. reaches from Umbria to northern Campania with numerous sites in all calcareous areas.
157002		habitat	eng	The species agg. is bound to calcareous rocks. The animals live on the surface of rocks and large boulders.
157002		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157002		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism. Tourist activities like hiking, climbing or mountain-biking lead to a serious decline of habitat quality. Also quarrying industry form a serious threat.
157003		conservation	eng	The Pico Alto complex should be strictly protected in its entirety, down to its very base; its forested area, including the secondary forest, should be left untouched. The climate in Santa Maria (highest point about 550 m) is becoming drier (A. Martins pers. comm. 2010) and some as yet undescribed taxa, more or less circumscribed to Pico Alto, are becoming dangerously rare.
157003		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Santa Maria, Azores. Morelet (1860) erroneously stated its presence in São Miguel (Mordan and Martins 2001).
157003		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary, under dead leaves and rotting branches, and among the rhizomes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>.
157003		population	eng	This species can be found throughout the island of Santa Maria (Mordan and Martins 2001). It is relatively common on Pico Alto.
157003		threats	eng	This species has apparently adapted well to secondary forest, mainly where there is good undergrowth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium</span>. Favourable habitats have been dwindling on Santa Maria, thus affecting many species with somewhat restricted distribution. Although distributed throughout the island, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. brevispira</span> is most commonly found around Pico Alto and could thus be affected by this general trend of habitat deterioration, probably due to a change in humidity concentration (A. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
157004		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
157004		distribution	eng	The species lives in Southern Europe (north-west of Spain to Rhône-Alpes in France, Italy and Slovenia to Crete). It also occurs in Algeria. It has a scattered distribution with many gaps, it is probably an old fauna element.
157004		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives between and below rocks and  rock rubble, well hidden, mainly in mountains. It seems to prefer  calcareous substrate. In north-west Spain, it is found in moderately humid habitats in  forests between rocks and soil with dry leaves or branches of shrubs. In  the Apennines, it is not rare above 1,500 m asl.
157004		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable. In north-west Spain, it is abundant where it is present.
157004		threats	eng	Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe      destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion,  fire,  etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large     number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole     population significantly.
157005		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no current conservation action regarding the species. More research is needed on the population and on the threats.<br/></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157005		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus, reported from Kyrenia mountain range in the north part of the island (Schütt and Subai 1996).
157005		habitat	eng	This species is found in limestone areas, in rock crevices.
157005		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
157005		threats	eng	The available&#160;information&#160;from the occupied part of Cyprus is quite limited and the major threat to this species are unknown.
157006		conservation	eng	Possibly the species is legally protected under the former taxonomic perception of all Corsican Tacheocampylaea as a single species, which has been inscribed in the national list of protected species under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea raspailii </span>(see that species)
157006		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Corsica. The information on the distribution of the nominotypical subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">T. r. romagnolii</span> is confusing: The type locality is originally indicated as "... aux environs de Corte" (Dutailly 1867). Hagenmüller (1888) did search the species thoroughly, but unsuccessfully,&#160; in the surroundings of Corte. However an occurrence in the Tavignano valley near Corte is indicated by Scharff (1894). A former occurrence in the Orta valley, as indicated by Germain (1931), seems possible. The largest part of the existing museum material was collected and distributed by the entomologist Revelière. As Revelière kept his collection site secret, his residence Bonifacio is often erroneously indicated as the locality. <br/>Collection samples indicate that the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">T. r. deschampsiana</span> had a larger distribution in the Tavignano valley and its sourroundings west of Corte; in 2004 the <span style="font-style: italic;">T. r. deschampsiana</span> was only found living in the Forêt de Melo.<br/><br/>This species is known only from one location in an area of 0.6 km<sup>2</sup>.
157006		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky habitats in primary Mediterranean woodlands.
157006		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species, the nominotypical subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea romagnolii romagnolii </span>is probably gone extinct already.
157006		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitats by urbanisation, tourism and recreational development, road construction, deforestation, and fire, particularly in the valleys of Tavignano and Orta; a major threat is predation by pigs living in the wild.
157008		conservation	eng	<p>The subpopulations on Tenerife are almost completely under local conservation schemes. On La Palma, only 2 locations are under protection. Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) estimated the conservation status of the species as LR/nt (low risk) on Tenerife and LR/ lc (low risk) on la Palma. <br/></p>
157008		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs on the islands of Tenerife and La Palma. The extent of occurence covers 135 km<sup>2</sup> on Tenerife (with 12 locations and 24 sites of 1 km² each), and 85  km<sup>2</sup> on La Palma (with 5 locations and 7 sites of 1 km² each). It is widespread but severely fragmented. On Tenerife it’s located in the natural forests of the Anaga mountains  (center of occurrence), and scattered in the eastern and western slopes  of the Teide massif and the Teno mountains in a height between 350 and  1700 m. On La Palma it has a much more scattered distribution in the  north-west of the island.</p>
157008		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar), in Laurel forests (Laurisilva), and the Fayal-Brezal. The species's presence is restricted to the northern parts of both islands. <br/></p>
157008		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
157008		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and fires (particularly on La Palma) can be a threat to this species locally. It is unlikely that a threat would affect the whole range or population of this species.</p>
157009		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
157009		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to south-eastern France (Alpes-Maritimes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Var) and Italy (across the French border).
157009		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a relatively wide range of habitats, from Mediterranean shrubland to rocky areas in mountainous valleys.
157009		population	eng	There are no population data, but where it occurs, it is common.
157009		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
157010		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not needed.
157010		distribution	eng	It is endemic to Spain, France, Italy and Switzerland.
157010		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solatopupa similis</span> is a pioneer species that is the first species to colonise a degradated rocky, exposed habitat. It is a rock-dwelling species and is always found on limestone. A typically Mediterranean species.
157010		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solatopupa similis</span> is a pioneer species and the populations are stable in France. It is very rare and occurs at only a few sites in Switzerland.
157010		threats	eng	There are no major threats for the species.
157011		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on taxonomy (particularly genetic studies), population and distribution of this species.
157011		distribution	eng	This French endemic occurs on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees and is currently known from a disjunct distribution between Pyrenees-Atlantiques on one side and Ariège and Aude on the other side.
157011		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deciduous forests.
157011		population	eng	There are no population data.
157011		threats	eng	The threats are unknown. A potential threat is logging.
157012		conservation	eng	<p>More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and biology of this species.<br/></p>
157012		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. The type locality on this island was not specified by the original author.<br/></p>
157012		habitat	eng	There are no information available.
157012		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on on the population size or trend of this species. This species has not been found back since its description (Groh, pers. comm., 2011). <br/></p>
157012		threats	eng	There are no information available.
157013		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although <span class="apple-style-span">the species is distributed in areas included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
157013		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the peninsula of Attiki and Evvoia Island (Subai 1996).
157013		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones.</p>
157013		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157013		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
157014		conservation	eng	Research is recommended to attempt to re-discover the population mentioned in Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002). If this site is re-discovered conservation actions may be required if the site is at risk, unless further sites are found.
157014		distribution	eng	This species was described by Lamarck (1816) from “Porto-Rico” due to Maugé’s given data (Mermod 1951) and as <span style="font-style: italic;">Helix villiersi </span>by d’Orbigny in 1839 as an endemic La Gomera species. The status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. planorbella</span> as the elder name was later rectified by L. Pfeiffer (in Mon. Hel. IV and Novitates I). There were no details on the distribution given. The only known published location is in Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) at Barranco Argaga near Vallehermoso. However, this site has not been re-found or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues, nor found by Klaus Groh (K. Groh, pers. com., 2011).
157014		habitat	eng	There is no information on the species' habitat preferences.
157014		population	eng	There is no information on population trend.
157014		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
157016		conservation	eng	The species is not protected where it lives, however it may be found in some protected areas.
157016		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Greek mainland. However there is no literature which reports this. According to www.animalbase.org the species lives in east Bulgaria and in northwest Turkey. Damjanov and Likharev (1975) present several locality data from Bulgaria and Schütt (2001) reports it also from northwest Turkey.
157016		habitat	eng	This species lives in open habitats with low  vegetational cover. In the summer the snails in sandy coastal habitats are  buried deep inside the sandy soil, with a well developed epiphragm.
157016		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
157016		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, mining, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.
157017		conservation	eng	This species is&#160; listed as Near to Extinction by Moliner Gomez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span>(2001) and Endangered by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1999). Proposed conservation actions include protection of the habitat and long-term monitoring.
157017		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to La Gomera where it is found in a single site on the south-eastern coast between 200 and 600 m asl (Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000 gives a map).
157017		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine forest and in "piso basal", typical lowland vegetation.
157017		population	eng	There is no data on the population, but it is believed to be rare (Groh, pers. comm., 2010).
157017		threats	eng	There are no specific&#160; threats listed in Moliner Gomez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2001), however the site lies close to the capital of this island, and hence the site is potentially vulnerable to encroachment of urban areas.
157018		conservation	eng	More studies are need to delimitate the geographic range and area of occupancy, as well as the habitat and ecology of the species, before recommending conservation actions.
157018		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. This species is only known from its type locality, placed at 8 km southeast of Ramales de La Victoria (Cantabria, Spain).
157018		habitat	eng	The habitat is unknown. It most likely lives in ground litter which is similar to the habitat reported for other species of the genus.
157018		population	eng	Only one damaged shell of a dead specimen has been collected. No live specimens have been reported.
157018		threats	eng	Due to the lack of data for the species, threats to the species are unknown.
157019		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population and distribution of this species, in particular molecular studies.
157019		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south-eastern Alps, in France and Italy. Some subpopulations are also found in Lombardy (Italy).
157019		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid alpine meadow.
157019		population	eng	There are no population data available.
157019		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Global   warming, by elevating the isotherm lines, might have a impact on the   lower ceiling and thus decreasing the available ecological habitat.   Overgrazing by sheep is also a potential threat.
157020		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Research is recommended to attempt to increase the known range of the species to see if any conservation actions are required.
157020		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to La Gomera, but there is no detailed location data. Recently the species has been determined from two different sites (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002): from Vallehermoso and between Tazo and Arguamul, and secondly in Neiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) with genetic detailed analysis also from Vallehermoso, but these may belong to two different species.
157020		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
157020		population	eng	There is no population information.
157020		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
157021		conservation	eng	<p>This species is found in some regional parks. The protection of&#160; this habitat and of the known populations is  recommended.<br/></p>
157021		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Iberia where it is distributed across the calcaerous mountain ranges of the north-eastern Prebtic in the Spanish provinces of Valencia and Alicante.<br/></p>
157021		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives on calcareous rocks and is found between altitudes of 600 and 700 m. Sometimes shells are covered in a powder similar in appearance to the  rocks, which acts as a camouflage. This can also be observed in other <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Chondrinidae</span>.</p>
157021		population	eng	The number of known subpopulations of this species is no greater than 10. There are no population studies, but the population is thought to be declining due to human activities and fire affecting its habitat..
157021		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are fires and urban expansion (housing). Other potential threats are from quarrying and the extension of roads.
157022		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
157022		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Alegranza north of Lanzarote.  This species is recorded from one location and six sites situated in the  central crater.
157022		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
157022		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
157022		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
157023		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Hungary and some subpopulations are known to occur within protected areas. Although the extent of occurrence (EOO) is large (300,000 km<sup>2</sup>), due to its special habitat preference, the population is    fragmented.  The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and   there  are no data  on population trend. However, forest habitats are   known to be diminishing in  that region and therefore one might suppose that   number of  subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are   declining. Therefore research into its population trend are proposed to determine the validity of this assumption.
157023		distribution	eng	This is a Carpathian species, its range extends to northern Moravia (Czech Republic) westwards, to the Bielowicza Forest and the Sudeten (Poland) northwards, and to the vicinity of the Iron Gate (Grossu 1983). There are isolated occurrences in the Pannonian Plane (Bátorliget, Hungary) and in the Nordfrankischer Jura (Pottenstein) (Soós 1943, Grossu 1983, Kerney <em>et al.</em> 1983, Lisicky 1991, Wiktor 2004).<br/>There are several published and unpublished distribution records and there is no evidence that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>
157023		habitat	eng	<p>This is a silvicol species with a preference for deciduous and pine forests of higher altitude (over <st1:metricconverter productid="700 m" w:st="on">700 m</st1:metricconverter> asl.) (Grossu 1983), where it lives on the ground among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood.</p>  <h1><br/></h1>
157023		population	eng	Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be  rare. However, due to its special habitat preference, the population is   fragmented.  The species' range is not satisfactorily explored and  there  are no data  on population trend. Forest habitats are  known to be diminishing in many regions where it occurs and therefore one might suppose that  number of  subpopulations  or the number of mature individuals are potentially declining.
157023		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. However, considering the relatively large geographical range, local logging, residential and commercial development or recreational activities are not known to affect the whole population significantly, although information is lacking.</p>
157024		conservation	eng	In Ireland, it is currently listed as Endangered (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Elsewhere, there is no conservation action in place for this species.
157024		distribution	eng	<h4 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Pupilla muscorum</span> is a widespread species that occurs in almost all countries of the European Union. Its exact distribution is unknown, because parts of the literature records refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratenis</span> rather than to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. muscorum</span>.&#160; In Ireland, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. muscorum </span>is  in decline in most parts of its Irish  range. It is now  local and rare  on northern coasts where it was formerly  common.  It has almost  vanished from the southern part of the central  limestone plain probably  due to the 'improvement' of pastures for  agriculture (Byrne<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).</h4><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
157024		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pupilla muscorum </span>is restricted to dry, warm calcareous habitats and it favours minimally enriched calcareous pasture inland, or coastal dune  pastures in Ireland (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In general it is known from dry meadows and grazed land on calcareous substrata.
157024		population	eng	It has suffered a 66% distributional decline in Ireland. The coastal populations are becoming increasingly rare and local (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). For the other subpopulations, there is no coherent information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157024		threats	eng	Under grazing (reduction of open grassland habitats) may be a major threat to the species (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
157025		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
157025		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species occurs from Europe to central Asia. In the North, it is present beyond the Arctic Circle (AnimalBase Project Group 2010).
157025		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives usually in moderately open  meadow habitats, in moist or dry habitats in coniferous and deciduous  woods, grasslands and waste ground, the driest habitats of all  vitrinids, but with wide ecological amplitude. It occurs also at rocks and  walls, in rock rubble of mountain creeks, in the water margin  vegetation, on alpine pastures. It is sometimes abundant in incompletely  vegetated places. It tolerates acid substrate. In Switzerland, it occurs up to 2,700  m altitude, in Bulgaria up to 1,800 m.
157025		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
157025		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species, but the tourism   industry may impact this species, as the   fragile shells break easily from trampling. Alpine pasturing may be   considered an additional threat to this species.
157026		conservation	eng	The protection of this species habitat and of the known populations is    recommended. It might be found in protected areas.
157026		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic extending to the eastern border of Duero river plateau, Spain.
157026		habitat	eng	This is a mountain species living in forests and mountain pastures.
157026		population	eng	There is no population information for this species and the current trend is unknown.
157026		threats	eng	Fires and urban developments are potential threats to this species.
157027		conservation	eng	Possibly the species is legally protected under the former taxonomic perception of all Corsican <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea </span>as a single species, which has been inscribed in the national list of protected species under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea raspailii </span>(see that species). Measures that might help to prevent wild-fires like closing the area for recreational (picnic), or related touristic activities like hiking, biking, wild camping etc. should be encouraged. Probably the remaining sites should be closed down completely from public access.
157027		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. acropachia</span> agg. is the Corsican <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea </span>species with the largest distribution area in the Ancient Corsica. It reaches from the region of Vezzani in the North to the Montagne de Cagna (type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">acropachia </span>s. str.) and Bonifacio in the South; in the West it has been found at Sartène.
157027		habitat	eng	This species lives in primary mediterranean temperate forests in the lowlands. It does not live in the summit areas.
157027		population	eng	There is no information on the size of the sub-populations. However, the trend is decreasing; the species agg. (including all three subspecies) is known from 22 sites of which eight could be reconfirmed during the last two decades. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Tacheocampylaea </span>species have a strictly nocturnal activity; therefore it is nearly impossible to follow up the population trend, but in comparison to historical material, a considerable general decline can be deduced.
157027		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is local wild-fire. The complete destruction of at least three populations by forest fire raising could be documented in 2000 (personal observation of G. and M. Falkner).
157028		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed on the population, distribution and taxonomy of this species.
157028		distribution	eng	This species occurs in France, near Bourges (Cher). It has a very restricted distribution (EOO of about 95 km²).
157028		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in dry meadows.
157028		population	eng	There are no population data available.
157028		threats	eng	Abandonment of agricultural land and the resulting change in vegetation might affect it.
157029		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
157029		distribution	eng	This species is found on São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico and Faial islands, Azores. Morelet (1860) states that this species is spread throughout the whole archipelago, but Backhuys (1975) restricted it to São Miguel, São Jorge, Flores and Pico (the latter fide Nobre 1924). Unpublished, preliminary research has lead to restrict its distribution as presented above, but further investigation is needed to assert the taxonomical identity of the populations outside São Miguel island; the specimens from Flores appear to be a different species and will not be included in this assessment. (A. Martins pers. comm.&#160; 2010)
157029		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moreletina horripila</span> lives in the drier portions of endemic and, most frequently, secondary forests, where it can be found under dead leaves, fallen logs as well as under loose stones.
157029		population	eng	In São Miguel, this species is abundant throughout the island in the drier environments of forested areas, from sea cliffs to high up in the mountains. On the other islands, however, it is relatively rare, with very few known sites in Terceira, Pico and Faial, although somewhat spread in São Jorge.
157029		threats	eng	Due to its wide range of habitats, no threats are foreseen in the islands of São Miguel and São Jorge. Its localized distribution in Terceira, Pico and Faial makes it more vulnerable on these islands.
157030		conservation	eng	A few parts of the subpopulations might be under local conservation schemes, but the majority is not protected.
157030		distribution	eng	This species is known from Portugal from south of Lisboa to Porto e Norte, possibly also in Galicia. Although widespread, this species is only known from scattered and isolated subpopulations.
157030		habitat	eng	This xerophilous species occurs mainly in Mediterranean shrubland.
157030		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157030		threats	eng	The main thread to this species are eucalyptus plantations, which destroy large parts of the potential and actual habitat of this species. Another thread are road constructions which separate and isolate subpopulations, and devastate potential habitats for the species.
157031		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
157031		distribution	eng	This species is known from western France, through Andorra to north-eastern Spain but has also been introduced in the UK. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Hygromia limbata sublimbata</span> has only been found in a very limited area south of Poitiers, France.
157031		habitat	eng	The species is known from moist shrubland, riparian forests and submontaneous rocky biotopes. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Hygromia limbata sublimbata</span> is specialised to warmer and dryer slopes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Boxus</span> trees.
157031		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown and there is no data on population trends, however the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Hygromia limbata sublimbata </span>is thought to be in decline and is only known from one site.
157031		threats	eng	Any overall threats to this species are currently unknown, however the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Hygromia limbata sublimbata </span>is under pressure due to its proximity to a major city.
157032		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Suggested measures include sympathetic habitat management and habitat and population monitoring.
157032		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lampedusa (Italy), where it has a scattered distribution over the whole island. Material with fresh shells from five sites dating from the 1990th is represented in the Collection K.-H. Beckmann (Museum Stuttgart).
157032		habitat	eng	This snail occurs in wild grassland, edges of cultivated land, and Mediterranean garigues.
157032		population	eng	There are no data available.
157032		threats	eng	Urbanisation and tourism development are impacting the species, as well as agriculture. Another threat is its replacement by the introduced ubiquitous forms of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cernuella virgata</span>.
157033		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157033		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species that is recorded from Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.<br/>It is also known from the mountains at the northern coast of Turkey.
157033		habitat	eng	This species prefers temperate forests in the mountains, where it lives in shaded and moist places in the leaf litter. At higher altitudes it can also be found in more open places.
157033		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157033		threats	eng	There are actually no known threats to this species.
157034		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2">There is no i</a><a name="OLE_LINK2">nformation as to whether the species is protected in Slovenia or any of the Austrian provinces where it occurs. Some of the known subpopulations live within protected areas, however due to the distribution of this species and the stable population there are no further conservation actions required at present.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"><br/></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"><br/></a></p>
157034		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern and southeastern Alps. Its type locality is "Wasserfall Pericnik bei Tolmein am Isonzotale" in Slovenia, but a larger part of its range falls into Austria. There are more than 40 distribution records in Austria (Klemm 1973) and there is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157034		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.</p>
157034		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, there are more than 40 known locations and there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157034		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the number of known subpopulations (>40), drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>
157035		conservation	eng	It is protected under French law, but it does not occur in any protected areas. Protection of its two sites is recommended especially as it also hosts another&#160; mollusc <span style="font-style: italic;">Solatopupa cianensis</span>, which is endemic to the same two valleys. The introduction of bird species for hunting should be evaluated in order to ensure a natural balance of predator and prey.
157035		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France where it is found in only two valleys (Cians and Daluis Gorges). The extent of occurrence is 45 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy is estimated to be about 21 km<sup>2</sup>.
157035		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macularia saintivesi</span> is a rock dwelling species that is adapted to a very peculiar type of red rock ("pelite")<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157035		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
157035		threats	eng	Potential threats are quarrying and road enlargements.
157036		conservation	eng	The entire area of the upper Gibraltar Rock is a nature reserve and is totally protected. It is crucial that the habitats where the species lives are maintained and that development is prevented in these places. That would also benefit other threatened&#160; species (Menez in Perez 2007). More information is also needed on the population and ecology of the species. In Gibraltar the species is protected&#160;under the Nature Protection  Ordinance 1991 (L/N 1991) and the Endangered&#160;Species (Import and Export)  Ordinance 1990&#160;(Menez in Perez 2007).&#160;This species is included in the  "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program"  &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta  de Andalucía).
157036		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oestophora</span><em> calpeana</em> has a restricted range and is only known from the area of the&#160;Strait of Gibraltar, with records from Tanger and Ceuta in North Africa, its type locality&#160;(Puente 1994, 1996; Arrébola 1995). In Gibraltar, it is found on the Great&#160;Sand Slopes and Talus Slopes, the Upper Rock Nature Reserve and Lower&#160;Slopes, Windmill Hill Flats, the slopes around Little Bay and the Europa&#160;Foreshore (Menez 2008).
157036		habitat	eng	This species lives in anthropic habitats (i.e. gardens) and ruderal biotopes (i.e.&#160;roadside&#160;ditches) not exposed to direct sunshine (Arrébola and Ruiz 2008). According to A. Menez (in Perez 2007), it is found under rocks, logs and other types of shelter in steppe, garigue and&#160;maquis. It is occasionally present with <span style="font-style: italic;">Caracollina</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Caracollina</span>)&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">lenticula</span> (Michaud, 1831) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oxychilus</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oxychilus</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;">draparnaudi draparnaudi</span>&#160;(Beck, 1837).
157036		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However it is never abundant, typical densities in sampled areas of 400 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;are 0.1-1 individuals /m<sup>2</sup> (A. Menez pers. comm. 2010).
157036		threats	eng	Despite the fact that<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Oestophora </span><em> calpeana</em>&#160;seems to be more or less adapted to human pressure, being able to live in gardens, its considerably restricted extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) (in Europe, it is restricted to Gibraltar) and&#160;the strong and increasing tourism and urban pressure (causing habitat destruction and species disturbance) threat the&#160;<em>O. calpeana</em> future existence in Gibraltar (in particular, in areas of the lower&#160;levels of the Upper Rock and near Windmill Hill Flats) (A. Menez pers. comm. 2010). It is not known whether a potential cogeneric species invasion should be or not considered like a threat (i.e.&#160;<em>O. tarnieri&#160;</em>lives a few kilometres from Gibraltar Rock).
157037		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be focused on preserving natural conditions of the habitat. Some places of Menorca are included in the Natura 2000 network, and the whole island has been declared Biosphere Reserve. This allows the preservation of its habitat and the traditional uses of land. Studies about the population and biology of this species would be of great interest in order to better design conservation actions. Its area of occupancy should be better delimited.
157037		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). It is widely distributed in the Island, although restricted to localities with unaltered habitat conditions. It is also found in coastal areas and in well preserved habitats of inland.
157037		habitat	eng	This species lives in forest (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Pinus, Oleaea</span>), shrub and grasslands places with rocky substrate, remainig protected from drying under stones during dry conditions. It also lives in dunar areas with shrub and herbaceous vegetation.
157037		population	eng	There are no population studies, but it is assumed to be stable in places with unaltered habitat conditions.
157037		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat alteration by urban growth, new residential areas construction and recreational tourist activities.
157038		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
157038		distribution	eng	The species is present in Cyprus and Turkey (Schütt 2001).
157038		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the soil and&#160;under&#160;stones in forested areas (Kebapçi 2007).
157038		population	eng	The species is quite abundant in Turkey. In Cyprus it is restricted in a few areas.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157038		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157039		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed. This species should be protected under the national law in order to prevent a human-caused extinction of the two known subpopulations.
157039		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the mountainous areas of Alpes-Maritimes in France. It is only known from two (to three) locations situated in two distant valleys (Vésubie and Roya).
157039		habitat	eng	This species lives in relatively forested habitats where it can find  places to hide, i.e. crevices in rock boulders or even man-built but old  and rocky walls. It occurs in non-limestone areas.
157039		population	eng	There are no population data available. However, this is a very rare species, with only few dozens of living individuals found for each subpopulations.
157039		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown. Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Nowadays, this species is known only from the valleys, but the extinct subpopulation on the Col de Fenestre suggests that this species could have occur in alpine pastureland in the past and might have been impacted by overgrazing. Increase in overgrazing might have fragmented and restricted the habitat available for the species.
157040		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas <span class="apple-style-span">&#160;that the species is distributed in included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
157040		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the south part of Peloponnese (Westerlund 1889).
157040		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">mainly under stones or piles of stones.
157040		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157040		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
157041		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Albania but at least one subpopulation falls within the area of Park Komberat Llogara. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and therefore it is proposed that research activity should focus on that to determine if conservation action is required.
157041		distribution	eng	This species seems to be a narrow range endemic in South Albania. Its type locality is the Llogara pass, and Subai (1995) provides another distribution record in the vicinity of the type locality, extending the altitudinal range of the species. Fauna Europaea list this species from Macedonia and AnimalBase<span class="f"> provides a specific Macedonian location: Sveti Stefan near Ohrid, however this is likely to refer to another species.
157041		habitat	eng	<p>This is a rock-dwelling species which is associated with bare limestone areas and rocky shrublands. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites or on the ground among leaf-litter.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157041		population	eng	<p>Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored, there is no data on population trend. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157041		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is relatively unlikely at this time.<br/><br/></p>
157042		conservation	eng	It is classed as Endangered on the Swiss Red List (2002). The species is protected by national law. No conservation actions are required.
157042		distribution	eng	This species' current distribution is in the Southern Alps in Canton Ticino, Switzerland and adjacent areas in northern Italy, near Como. The extent of occurrence is around 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. In Switzerland, 15 localities have been counted.
157042		habitat	eng	This species lives mostly on north facing carbonate rocks (Trias and Lias), and also walls.
157042		population	eng	<p>The species is known to live in big populations on a single sites. Although there is not much information, the population is thought to be stable<st1:country-region style="font-style: italic;" w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157042		threats	eng	There are not thought to be any actual threats to this species.
157043		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157043		distribution	eng	The species is known from the island of Lesvos and Imbros (Gökçeada) and is possibly present in the nearby Turkish coast (Hausdorf 2000).
157043		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in open, xeric habitats.
157043		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157043		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
157044		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Romania, but the whole area of the species lies within the Bucegi National Park. Research is needed on the threats to this species.
157044		distribution	eng	This species lives only in the region of the Bucegi mountains in Romania.
157044		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
157044		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species is quite abundant.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
157044		threats	eng	This species is not particularly sensitive to ecosystem modification or other  possible threats. Considering that inhabits  an inaccessible location, drastic ecosystem modification is only a  "hypothetical" threat now.
157045		conservation	eng	Due to the lack of data on the population and its distribution, research and monitoring is required in this area. It is suggested that the known locations should be conserved and treat it as a Xerobromion (montane xerophile calcareous grasslands).
157045		distribution	eng	The current distribution is known from Roussillon in southern France, to Vallis in Switzerland and northern and central Italy.
157045		habitat	eng	This species lives in warm and dry biotopes, and is mainly associated with Xerobromion (montane xerophile calcareous grasslands) or carbonate-boulders, but also drywalls. It may also be found amongst bushes or in open forests.
157045		population	eng	<p>There is little information on this species. However, populations in Switzerland, although not thought to be numerous, are thought to be stable.<br/></p>
157045		threats	eng	<p>The main biotopes are endangered by building works and agriculture through the intensification and extensification of the poor grassland.</p>
157046		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. Most of its sites are thought to be out of protected areas.</p><p>The main problem is the taxonomic uncertainty which should be resolved first of all.</p>
157046		distribution	eng	According to Westerlund 1887, it was found in Dalmatia (Ragusa, Lakroma and Cattaro = Dubrovnik and Lokrum in present Croatia and Kotor in present Montenegro). Jaeckel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1957 also mentions its presence in Albania, but without any specific data (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996).
157046		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated primarily with limestone areas where it is usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks. However, this is not an obligate rock-dweller.</p>
157046		population	eng	<p>Due to the systematic uncertainties, there are hardly any data on this species including population trend. But if considered as a valid taxon there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157046		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly&#160;hypothetical.</p>
157047		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are currently required.
157047		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central Europe, and locally abundant. It has been recorded from Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine.
157047		habitat	eng	This species lives in temperate forests and moist hedges.
157047		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
157047		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
157048		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in&#160;Amorgos&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on the distribution and threats of this species are recommended.
157048		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece on the the island of Amorgos (Cyclades) (Mylonas 1982).
157048		habitat	eng	This species is rock-dwelling, i.e. it is found on rocks and in rock crevices.
157048		population	eng	The species is rare.&#160;There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157048		threats	eng	Grazing, quarrying and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
157049		conservation	eng	Biological studies, population estimates and basic species monitoring are recommended. This species is classified as Least Concern (LC) in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (pag. 45; in Verdú and Galante 2009) and in the Red Book of Andalusian Invertebrates (pag. 1307; in Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperon and Moreno 2008). Part of its range is included in Los Alcornocales and Grazalema Natural Parks.&#160;This species is listed in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
157049		distribution	eng	<em>P.&#160;</em><span title=""><em>martigena</em>&#160;(=Trochulus martigena (Arrébola & García, 1999)) lives in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula (provinces of Sevilla, Cádiz and Málaga). It has a shell <span title="">so similar to the one of <em>P. ponentina</em>&#160;that both have been confused during the last century. However, <span title=""><em>P. martigena</em>&#160;does not exceed the northern barrier represented by the river Guadalquivir, whereas <em>P. ponentina</em> does not occur in the south of this limit (Arrébola and García 1999). It is still unclear if this species is also present in North Africa where <em>Ponentina</em> specimens have been cited (Arrébola 1995, Arrébola and García 1999).</span>
157049		habitat	eng	<span title="">It has been located mainly in areas dominated by hardwoods (with or without scrub), wastelands, grasslands and the vegetation that grows near roads and waterways. It is often found in soil (inside vegetation) and, sometimes, under stones (Arrébola and García 1999).
157049		population	eng	There are no population data about this species, but it is not&#160;excessively&#160;abundant in the localities where it has been found
157049		threats	eng	Part of the range of this species is affected by human activities (urbanization, agriculture, tourism...) and a certain level of threats can therefore be inferred.
157050		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, life history and population size and trends.</p>
157050		distribution	eng	This species is&#160;endemic to Greece&#160;(E. Neubert in preparation 2010). One population has been introduced to the Finike area in Turkey, and is fully isolated.
157050		habitat	eng	Without having the taxonomic position of the species resolved, the habitat of the species cannot be&#160;accurately&#160;determined.
157050		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157050		threats	eng	<p>The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species now or in the near future.&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
157051		conservation	eng	The species is reported from at least eight Natura 2000 sites in Cyprus (see&#160;http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/). There are no conservation actions in place or required.
157051		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus, found in the south-west part of the island (Bank and Hovestadt 1991).
157051		habitat	eng	This species is a soil-dwelling species usually found in open habitats.
157051		population	eng	The species is quite common.&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK6"><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</a><p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><span class="apple-style-span"></span></a></p>
157051		threats	eng	Alteration of natural habitats, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species currently or in the near future.
157052		conservation	eng	Conservation of habitat and increased scientific research are needed.
157052		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy, where it is know from two sites in the middle part of eastern Sardinia (Tortoli, Lanusei) and one in the South-west (bosco di Marganai). The recent records are from the sites in the east.
157052		habitat	eng	This species is found near calcareous rocks with sparse vegetation.
157052		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
157052		threats	eng	The main threats are related to the destruction or alteration of the species' habitats, trough grazing, exploitation, etc.
157053		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
157053		distribution	eng	This species is found on Faial (type locality), Terceira, Graciosa and Pico islands, Azores, Portugal. Backhuys (1975) and Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) mention this species respectively for seven and eight of the nine Azores islands; however, unpublished, preliminary anatomical work indicates that its distribution should be restricted to the aforementioned islands (A. Martins pers. comm. 2010)
157053		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus atlanticus</span> lives mostly associated with dry habitats, preferring heaps of rocks and stone walls.
157053		population	eng	It appears that this species is not widespread in Faial, its type locality, for it has only been found in few colonies in Horta and surrounding areas, mostly on stone walls (15 m). In Terceira it appears to be restricted to Praia da Vitória (17 m) and Fonte Dionísio (350 m), on stone walls. It is common in Graciosa, from near the sea in Praia (10 m) to Serra das Fontes and Pico Timão. In Pico it was found in Santa Luzia (130 m) and near Cabeço do Caminho Escuro (450 m).
157053		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus atlanticus</span> can live in habitats disturbed by human activity, so no specific threats are foreseen.
157054		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania, however most of the locations can be found within protected areas. More research is needed on the population and distribution of this species.
157054		distribution	eng	<p>The species is endemic to a small area in the so9uth-western part of Romania, the known localities are around caves, between  Baia de Aramă and the river Danube.</p>
157054		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks, in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
157054		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living   specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and   trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of   individuals declines or fluctuates.
157054		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.   It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this   threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
157055		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species and none are considered necessary.
157055		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madeira, where it is widespread in suitable habitats (Seddon 2008)
157055		habitat	eng	The species is ground-dwelling, found on grassy slopes, fields, shrubby areas, rocky slopes and wooded habitats.
157055		population	eng	There are no data on population trends, although the species is believed to be stable.
157055		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species, although there are localised declines within the range due to habitat loss.
157057		conservation	eng	This species had been considered as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). For the major part of the subpopulations, no conservation actions are considered.
157057		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Alps in Central Europe. So far it is only known from eastern Switzerland, Lichtenstein, northern Italy, Bavaria, Austria and the northern Balkans (Bank 2011).
157057		habitat	eng	This species is living on calcareous low grassland and slopes with calcareous rubble (Kerney<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1983).
157057		population	eng	For the major part of its range, the size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157057		threats	eng	There are currently no threats known to this species. However, change in grassland management can affect the habitats and threaten some subpopulations.
157058		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place or necessary for this species.
157058		distribution	eng	This species is known from Austria, Croatia, Italy, and Slovenia. It is widespread&#160; and seems to be abundant in its range.
157058		habitat	eng	This species lives on moist calcareous rocks, in crevices of larger rock formations, on stone walls, etc.
157058		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are supposed to be stable.
157058		threats	eng	There are actually no threats to this species known.
157059		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Endangered in Niedersachsen and Rheinland-Pfalz (Germany), and vulnerable in Switzerland and Bavaria  (AnimalBase 2011). Currently no conservation actions are required, but research into the decline of sub-populations is needed and local conservation actions may become necessary if the rate of population decline shows the species to be threatened.
157059		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Europe, where it is widespread in the western part of the continent. It is recorded from Andorra, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
157059		habitat	eng	This species lives in humid forests, but also inhabits meadows and shrubland on rocky mountain slopes, between rocks, under moist leaf litter and fallen branches, on calcareous and non-calcareous substrates. It requires warm, moderately humid and sheltered habitats.
157059		population	eng	Sub-populations are probably declining overall in south England and south Wales, and also in Germany and Switzerland (AnimalBase 2011).
157059		threats	eng	The major threats to isolated subpopulations of this species are logging of larger parts of their habitat and afforestation with conifers.
157060		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
157060		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Palma. This species is recorded from five locations and five sites, one of them quite isolated. Thus, the overall distribution area is considered slightly fragmented.<br/></p>
157060		habitat	eng	This species lives in the local pine forests (Pinar).
157060		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
157060		threats	eng	<p>The main threat for this species is wild-fires in the pine forests, which occur frequently on La Palma.</p>
157061		conservation	eng	This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Research on the population and&#160;ecology&#160;of this species is needed. Where necessary&#160;(i.e. Cerro de San Antón), its habitat should be protected.
157061		distribution	eng	Besides the two records of the species in Andalusia, Spain (Arrébola and Gittenberger 1993), J.S. Alba has recently discovered two new subpopulations (pers. comm. 2010) in the Malaga province (Spain). Apart from the Spanish records, this species seems to be widely distributed in Algeria and Morocco. In North Africa, the upper altitude limit is more than 1.000 m (Holyoak and Seddon 1986;&#160;Arrébola and Gittenberger 1993).
157061		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on limestone rocks.
157061		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
157061		threats	eng	Due to its very restricted distribution in Europe, this species is very vulnerable to&#160;any stochastic event, such as fires.&#160;Furthermore,&#160;Cerro de San Anton (Málaga), which shows a high diversity of animal species, including&#160;<em>R. dupotetii</em>,&#160;is not protected and is threatened by habitat destruction in relation to&#160;urbanization.
157062		conservation	eng	<p>The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points.</p>   <p>The species is not protected at national level in the countries where it occurs. Known sites are outside of protected areas.</p>
157062		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern Italy. There is a remote distribution record in Montenegro, near Herceg-Novi (Boeters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989). Fauna Europaea also indicates this species from Greece. This record is based on a sample collected by Fauer (Epirus, 30 km North of Filipiada, Louros River valley), which could not be reinforced and thus it is considered doubtful (see notes in Subai (1993)). <br/>The Greek and Montenegrin occurrence was not considered when the extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated.<br/>There are six known locations, but due to the hidden life of this species, this might underestimate the number of subpopulations. Currently there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), the extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157062		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky, mostly limestone, habitats.
157062		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend. But there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157062		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or from other dangers such as through leaching from waste disposal sites. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.</p>
157063		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Natura 2000 site (Kavo Gkreko, CY3000005). There is no conservation action regarding the species.<br/><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157063		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus, reported from various areas of the island (Gittenberger 1991).
157063		habitat	eng	Mainly found in open xeric shrublands, as well as city parks and gardens (Gittenberger 1991).
157063		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157063		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
157064		conservation	eng	It is protected under French law, but it does not occur in any protected areas. Protection of its two sites is recommended, especially as it also hosts another mollusc <span style="font-style: italic;">Macularia saintivesi</span>, which is endemic to the same two valleys.
157064		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it is found in only two valleys (Cians and Daluis Gorges). The extent of occurrence is 57 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 12 km<sup>2</sup>.
157064		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solatopupa cianensis</span> is a rock-dwelling species that is adapted to a very peculiar type of red rock ("pelite")<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. It is more humidity-dependent than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Solatopupa</span> spp.
157064		population	eng	The populations are thought to be stable but no extensive monitoring is in place to undermine this assumption.
157064		threats	eng	Potential threats are quarrying and road enlargements.
157065		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">the two islands that the species is distributed</st1:place>&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157065		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece in the Cyclades in the Aegean Sea (Greece) and it is present on the islands of Amorgos and Naxos (Subai 1996).
157065		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas 1982).
157065		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157065		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
157066		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;The islands of Gavos and Gavdopoula belong to the Natura 2000 site (GR4340013).
157066		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Gavdos Island, in the southern part of Crete (Welter-Schultes 1998). The species is probably found across the whole island.
157066		habitat	eng	The species is usually found under shrubs and pine trees and it is rare in open habitats (Welter-Schultes 1998).
157066		population	eng	The species is usually found under shrubs and pine trees. It is rare in open  habitats (Welter-Schultes 1998).
157066		threats	eng	<p><span class="txtBlack">This species' habitat on Gavdos Island is under a number of threats. The  danger of fire is a current and future threat, and fire would be disastrous for the island. &#160;The pine&#160;tree forests are considered very combustible. The  vegetation is threatened with total destruction since there is nothing to stop  the fire on the island. The increase of tourism on the island is the main  cause of the gradual destruction of the sand dunes and of their typical flora.  This is caused either by camping under the <em>Juniperus</em> trees or by illegal  building near or at the sand dunes (Sarakiniko). Overgrazing by goats is also impacting the habitat of the species.<br/><br/></p>
157067		conservation	eng	It is necessary to keep the habitat open&#160; for the species survival. It is found in protected areas in Sweden. The decline in Sweden was stopped by a LIFE project that opened the habitat. It is listed as Near Threatened in the Swedish Red List and&#160; in Austria: Critically Endangered for the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">austriaca</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">striata</span> and Regionally Extinct for <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span>.
157067		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helicopsis striata</span> is a steppe species that has a very fragmented distribution and is found in Central and eastern Europe to the regions around the Black Sea, such as Ukraine and Moldovia (Kantor et al, 2009). The western-most border of its range is in eastern France (Colmar) and western Germany (Saarlouis). There is an isolated occurrence in Sweden which is the northernmost site.<br/><br/>Outside Europe, this species also occurs <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in the western part of Turkey, where it has a scattered distribution (Hausdorf, 1990).</span>
157067		habitat	eng	This species is living in open dry calcareous habitats, in steppes, limestone pavements. Some sites in Austria are in military training areas which are kept open. It can also be found in sand pits after quarrying.
157067		population	eng	This species has undergone a wide decline over several decades as its habitat, steppes, have disappeared throughout Central Europe. The species is possibly extinct in France, the last observation having been in 1953 (Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002). In Sweden, the populations declined until the 1990 but now the populations are stable thanks to conservation measures. In Austria, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. striata </span><span style="font-style: italic;">austriaca</span> which is endemic to this country, is now only present at one site where a relatively stable sub-population remains. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. striata </span><span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span> is extinct in Austria. Historically it has been recorded from many sites in marshes, but now there is only one extremely weak subpopulation of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. striata striata</span> present.<br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Hungary</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, the species is present but there are no recent data on the actual distribution of the species (Fehér pers. comm. 2010). The same is the case for Slovenia. In Germany, the species is very rare. No data are currently available concerning the situation of this species in Poland, Czech Republic, and Ukraine.</span>
157067		threats	eng	Abandonment of grazing and the subsequent encroachment of bushy vegetation is the main threat to the species.&#160; Urbanisation is also impacting the population of this species.
157068		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in Cyprus&#160;included in various protection schemes (e.g. five Natura 2000 sites; http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/), there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157068		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus (Gittenberger 1991).
157068		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is usually found in open xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
157068		population	eng	The species is quite common in the south part of the island for which available information exists.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157068		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
157069		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria and in Macedonia, but some of the  known localities are within protected areas.
157069		distribution	eng	According to <a href="http://mollusca.sav.sk/pdf/7/7.Dedov.pdf">Dedov (2008)</a> this species lives in the Alibotush Mts. (southern Bulgaria). It was reported from five localities within the mountain range. The collection of the HNHM contains samples from the following localities: Pirin, Banderica; Javorov; Slantcev Brjag. It occurs also in Macedonia (FYROM) according to Stankovic <em>et al.</em> (2006), Damjanov and Likharev (1975) mentions the species from Jugoslavia, however Fauna Europea (www.faunaeur.org) does not mention the species from other countries than Bulgaria.
157069		habitat	eng	This species prefers dry grassland and rocky habitats.&#160;This species lives in high mountains in altitudes  around 1900 - 2200 m.
157069		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
157069		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering that inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.
157070		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in the&#160;countries where it occurs, however some subpopulations are known to occur within protected areas.<br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
157070		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Bosnia and southern Serbia to southern Albania; being present also in Montenegro, Kosovo and Macedonia. Fauna Europaea as well as Stamol (2010) indicate this species also from  Croatia, however, according to Subai (personal communication), this is very unlikely.<br/><br/>Some distribution records are provided by Subai (1995), Wohlberedt (1909), Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) and Stankovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006). Based on the material in the HNHM Mollusc Collection there are over 100 known locations. This species is frequent within its range, and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157070		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives both in forests and in rocky habitats; primarily shrubland. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites, as well as among leaf-litter or decaying dead wood.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157070		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157070		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Due to its relatively large range, the large number of subpopulations and the wide ecological tolerance/habitat preference, this species is not affected by any realistic threat.
157071		conservation	eng	More research is need on the population of this species.
157071		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Crimean Mountains, in Ukraine, and was also found in the Steppe Crimean Peninsula.
157071		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the steppes - under stones and in the soil.
157071		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
157071		threats	eng	The quality of the steppe sites outside protected areas is reduced in connection with the growth of agriculture and urbanisation.
157072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions. Protection of the habitat of this species is urgently necessary, due to the numerous threats the species is facing.
157072		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tenerife, where it is recorded from the Anaga Mountains on the southern slopes.
157072		habitat	eng	This species is present in the piso basa.
157072		population	eng	The population is believed to be declining due to habitat loss.
157072		threats	eng	The population is believed to be declining due to habitat loss, Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) note the species has been declining over the last 10 years with the construction of new buildings associated with the harbour of Santa Cruz. Quarries and road constructions, as well as tourist activities are also impacting the species.
157073		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>A few of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Monitoring of the isolated sites is recommended.<br/></p>
157073		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northern part of the island of Gran Canaria. This species is recorded from seven locations and eight sites. The sites are highly isolated, the distribution area is severely fragmented.<br/></p>
157073		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
157073		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.<br/></p>
157073		threats	eng	<p>The distribution area of this species is a target for ongoing urbanisation, increasing tourism activities, and agriculture. Destruction of single sites is very likely.<br/></p>
157074		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
157074		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to São Miguel island, Azores (Portugal) (Mordan and Martins 2001).
157074		habitat	eng	This species lives in mountain forested habitats, endemic and secondary, under dead leaves and rotting branches, and among the rhizomes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>.
157074		population	eng	This species is widely distributed on São Miguel (Mordan and Martins 2001).
157074		threats	eng	This species has&#160; adapted well to secondary forest, mainly where there is good undergrowth of Hedychium, therefore no threats are foreseen.
157075		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. More research is needed on the distribution and the population of this species.
157075		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North-western Sicily and Isole Egadi. The following distribution data for six of the subspecies (without M. <span style="font-style: italic;">p. spuria </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">florioi</span>) reflect the collecting sites in the K.-H. Beckmann collection in the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart:<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. platychela</span>: Monte Cuccio and surroundings of Palermo<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. excelsa</span>: peninsula of San Vito<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. rosaliae</span>: Terrasini-Favarotta<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. connexa</span>: Capaci-Sferracavallo<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. sicana</span>: Monte Pellegrino<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. iparia</span>: peninsula San Vito<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. florioi</span>: Isole Egadi: Isola di Favignana (Monterosato 1892, loc. typ.) e Levanzo (Alzona 1971)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. p. spuria:</span> "è comune nelle campagne di Calatafimini" (Benoit 1882) commun in the surroundings of Calatafimini
157075		habitat	eng	This species is found on calcareous rocks.
157075		population	eng	There are no population data available.
157075		threats	eng	Activities affecting its habitat might threatened the species, in particular quarrying, constructions and pasturing, as well as&#160; tourist activities like climbing, mountain-biking, etc.
157076		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157076		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in central East Sardinia.
157076		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), this species lives subterraneously and was collected by sieving from soil samples.
157076		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable. The species seems to be frequent.
157076		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting the species at the moment, except quarrying.
157077		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157077		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus, found mainly on the&#160;central&#160;part of the island (Gittenberger 1991).
157077		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found in xeric, dry, shrublands.
157077		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157077		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Over-grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.
157078		conservation	eng	At present the species is not declining and as such, no conservation actions are necessary, other than general protection of the habitats which should be provided by the two Special Protected Area's designated on Madeira:&#160;Laurisilva of Madeira and&#160;Maciço Montanhoso Central da ilha da Madeira.
157078		distribution	eng	This species is found within the Madeiran islands; this species is the most widespread of the <em>Craspedopoma</em> species on the main island of Madeira. It is present throughout the central intermediate elevations, as well as along the northern coast (Seddon 2008). There are Pleistocene fossils from within the Paleosols at Fonte de Areia, Porto do Morena and Pta da Canaveira on Porto Santo (Groh and Hemmen 1984, Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and on Bugio of the Desertas indicating it was more widespread during the Quaternary.
157078		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp shaded wooded areas amongst leaf-litter and mosses and on rocky ledges in damp ravines amongst loose friable soil (Seddon 2008).
157078		population	eng	This species is widespread in suitable habitats. Populations are apparently stable (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010)
157078		threats	eng	Although there are localised habitat disturbances, the widespread range of the species at intermediate elevations on Madeira, means that at present these threats are not impacting the species.
157080		conservation	eng	The species is possibly not protected at national level in Italy.
157080		distribution	eng	The species lives in the central western parts of the Southern Alps (Lago di Como to Friuli). Kokshoorn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) gives additional localities: Bellumo and Bergamo.
157080		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
157080		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to   assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
157080		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by  quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total  destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this  threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
157082		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed.
157082		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Europe, extending from UK to Spain, Portugal and Atlantic islands and east to Czech Republic and Greece.
157082		habitat	eng	This species is found in well vegetated habitats, best in undisturbed places such as wetlands, woodlands and grasslands (Kerney 1999).
157082		population	eng	The population shows little sign of decline.
157082		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157083		conservation	eng	The subpopulations of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. f. beata</span> lives in a protected area on the southern slopes of the Anaga mountains. The nominate subspecies is not protected.
157083		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It lives on the east coast of the island. This species is recorded from nine locations and 14 sites, the extent of occurrence is 400 km<sup>2</sup>, however, the area of occupancy is only 36 km<sup>2</sup>. The distribution area of the nominal subspecies is severely fragmented (half of the sites known for this species are impacted). <br/></p>
157083		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
157083		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
157083		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction. This particularly concerns the nominal subspecies, which lives in the fast developing south-eastern coastal area around St. Cruz de Tenerife. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. f. beata</span> is not affected since it lives in a protected area on the southern slopes of the Anaga mountains.<br/></p>
157084		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently required for this species.
157084		distribution	eng	Current distribution is known from Austria, France, south-west Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland. The species follows rivers north of the Alps such as the Rhein until Mainz and the Donau until Dillingen. Known sites are from 350 to 2,400 m asl.
157084		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in forests and bushes, in biotopes with high humidity. It can also be found in open biotopes.<br/></p>
157084		population	eng	There is little data available on the species' population size and trends but the the density seems to be high in the areas where it occurs and the population is thought to be stable.
157084		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
157085		conservation	eng	This species needs strong protection for its survival and Action Plans should be carried out. In France, it is now forbidden to build on very coastal areas. In Spain, this species occurs in protected areas.
157085		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western Mediterranean area, with a fragmented distribution in France, Spain and Algeria. In France, it is distributed all along the Mediterranean coast (from Alpes-Maritimes to Pyrénées-Orientales). In Spain, it inhabits the coastal area from Valencia to Denia (northern Alicante Province). In Algeria, it seems to be restricted to west of Algier.
157085		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal habitats no more than 500 m from the sea, mainly in dunes with scattered vegetation.
157085		population	eng	The populations of this species are decreasing as some formerly extant populations are now extirpated.
157085		threats	eng	This species inhabits places where land pressure due to tourism and buildings are high. Invasion of the native habitat by exotic plants (<em>Carpobrotus</em> spp.) is also a threat as the species does not support this habitat alteration.
157086		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157086		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe, mainly in Scandinavia and montane regions north of Alps from Switzerland to Poland, Belarus and  Baltic countries. It is known from northern Germany and northern Poland, north and eastern France, and the Carpathians to Bulgaria. In the UK, it is recorded from Wales, northern England and Scotland. There are isolated populations on Iceland.<br/><br/>Outside Europe, this species is known from northern Asia, and some islands off Newfoundland.
157086		habitat	eng	This species is found around old stone walls as well as dry undisturbed places such as hedges, grassy banks and cliffs (Dance 1969, Kerney 1999).&#160; In Scotland, it occurs amongst mosses on scree (Marriot and Marriot 1982, 1984).
157086		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157086		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the destruction of habitats (walls), disturbance of screes and changes in microclimate. However, it is unlikely to affect the species on its whole range.
157087		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on taxonomy is recommended for this species.
157087		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Aegean Sea area, most probably restricted to Kyklades, although this needs confirmation (Hausdorf 2003).
157087		habitat	eng	The species is found in almost all the vegetation types of the region and is significantly favoured by human activities (e.g. cultivations) (Mylonas 1982).
157087		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157087		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.</p>
157088		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
157088		distribution	eng	This species is found on Faial island (type locality) and Pico island (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), Azores (Portugal).
157088		habitat	eng	On Faial island, <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptaxis drouetiana</span> lives in native vegetation as well as in secondarily forested areas, sometimes in heavily disturbed environments, such as giant reed (<span style="font-style: italic;">Arundo donax</span>) rows dividing fields. On Pico island, it was found in secondary forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pittosporum undulatum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Accacia melanoxylon</span> and interspersed <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica scoparia azorica</span>, with undergrowth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>.
157088		population	eng	Morelet (1860) makes no mention of the rarity of the species, but Backhuys (1975:237) stated that “it is said to be very rare”. However, it is found frequently throughout Faial island (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). On Pico island it was found only in two sites: Chão Verde, Cais do Pico (N 38º 29' 00"; W 028º 17' 05"; 550 m) and Cabeço do Caminho Escuro, Piedade (N 38º 25' 25"; W 028º 05' 28"; 450 m) (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)
157088		threats	eng	Due to its wide range of habitats, no threats are foreseen.
157089		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are required for this species.
157089		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2011) the species lives in the Canary Islands to Israel and  Lebanon. In Italy it is only found at a few localities (west Liguria, island of  Capraia, Versilia), and in Spain it is mainly found in central and eastern areas. It was probably originally a west Mediterranean species, that has been historically introduced to the east Mediterranean.
157089		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2011), this species lives from lowlands to high altitudes in mountains. It is xerotolerant (tolerant of dry conditions).
157089		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends, but there is no reason to    assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
157089		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe   destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,   mining, etc.). Considering the large distribution and number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole   population significantly.
157090		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be focused on habitat preservation. Studies on its population size and biology are needed.
157090		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mallorca Island (Baleareic Islands, Spain). It is widely distributed in the eastern part of Mallorca Islands with a few isolated localities in the middle south part of central and west regions of the island. It is more frequent near the east and southeast coast.
157090		habitat	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">This species lives in  coniferous forests with sparse undergrowth, and open areas with sparse  herbaceous and shrub vegetation, in calcareus rocky substrate.
157090		population	eng	No population studies have been made, but it is assumed to be stable in places with undisturbed habitat.
157090		threats	eng	Threats to this species are urban growth, new residential areasconstruction and recreational tourist activities which are reducing the habitat extension of the species.
157091		conservation	eng	A survey on the offshore islets is required to determine whether this species is still extant.
157091		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran island. It is found on the Ilheu dos Embarcadores off the Pta da Sao Lourenco, East Madeira (Seddon 2008). Groh (pers. comm., 2010) has recorded two fresh shells from the peninsula but the origin is uncertain. Quaternary fossils from deposits at Canical on the Pta da Sao Lourenco are abundant.
157091		habitat	eng	The habitat is nknown, but likely to be rocks within grassland and rocky slopes.
157091		population	eng	It is unknown whether the species is still present on offshore islets, where it was last recorded in 1896, but Groh recorded two fresh-looking shells from the mainland, although their origin is uncertain, as these could have been transported by gulls.
157091		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown, as the status on these islets is uncertain.
157092		conservation	eng	Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (20001) considered the species to be listed as Vulnerable  and proposed&#160; protection of the habitat. Recommended conservation actions are habitat protection and long-term monitoring.
157092		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central region of La Gomera in the Canary Islands, around the village of Tagamiche.
157092		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the Piso Baso typical vegetation of lowland Canary island.
157092		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens from one site in one location. The species was recently described, so there are no population trend data.
157092		threats	eng	The threats are considered to be disturbance from the adjacent village (urbanization with road construction, enlargement of cultivated area, recreation, tourist activities, etc.),  although these are not considered to be severe at present.
157093		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are needed for this species.
157093		distribution	eng	This species lives in France, the Principality of Andorra and Spain. It is found in the south-east of France in the Hautes-Pyrénées and in the Pyrénées Orientals (Les Corbières Maritimes, between Narbonne and Perpignan). In Spain it is widely distributed over the Spanish Autonomous Communities of Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre, Castile-La Mancha (provinces of Cuenca, Albacete and Ciudad Real) and Valencian Community (all provinces).
157093		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilous species (adapted to dry environments) that is characteristic of steepe habitats. It lives under stones or at the base of the stems of&#160;  shrubs,&#160; in pine forests, meadows, pastures and rocky areas.
157093		population	eng	This species has a large number of populations and the current population trend is stable.
157093		threats	eng	The threats to this species are&#160; fires, quarries, urban expansion, temperature extremes, extension of roads  and  droughts.
157094		conservation	eng	<p>Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
157094		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the central part of the island of La Gomera.</p>
157094		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in Laurel forests (Laurisilva).<br/></p>
157094		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
157094		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
157095		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy and the exact distribution of this species.
157095		distribution	eng	Bank (2007) considers that the species inhabits Italy, Slovenia and Croatia. However, Subai&#160; (pers. comm. 2009) considers that it does not inhabit Croatia. In Slovenia, it is present in 22 sites, in 13 UTM squares (10 x 10 km). It may be found between 850 and 1,200 m asl.
157095		habitat	eng	This species lives in forests.
157095		population	eng	There is no data on the population trend. In Slovenia, it is relatively abundant within its range.
157095		threats	eng	Deforestation and fires can be a threat to this species locally.  Quarrying might also impact some parts of its range, but it is unlikely  that a threat would affect the whole range or population of this  species.
157096		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions related with the species.
157096		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, present in the islands of Ikaria and Samos (Gittenberger 1978).
157096		habitat	eng	The species lives in humid limestone rocks covered by mosses.&#160;The species is extremely small in size (2.5 - 3 mm length and 1.7 - 1.8 mm width)&#160;(Gittenberger 1978).
157096		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157096		threats	eng	There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats. However this species is dependent on some species of mosses, and if the mosses were effected this could be a threat to the snail.
157097		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
157097		distribution	eng	This species is oly found on Santa Maria island, Azores.
157097		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus hartungi</span> is associated with dry habitats, underneath heaps of rocks and stone walls. It is also found in wooded areas, under decaying logs, the shell frequently covered with mud.
157097		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus hartungi</span> is very common throughout Santa Maria island, from near the sea to the highest mountain.
157097		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species foreseen due to the wide range of habitats it is found in.
157098		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Vulnerable (VU), Bayern (Germany) as Vulnerable (VU) and Austria as Least Concern (LC) (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/><br/>The potential threats to this species should be researched as it has a  declining population trend in Switzerland but the causes are not  understood. In particular, the influence of global warming should be investigated. Known populations should be monitored to see whether the threat/s acting on the Swiss populations applies to the rest of the range.
157098		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from western Ukraine via Slovakia along to south Poland, the Czech Republic and to the Alpes-Maritimes. Known sites are from between 980 and 2,800 m asl. The area of occupancy is expected to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> as the species is restricted to high mountains which are relatively rare in those countries.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
157098		habitat	eng	This species lives on alpine grassland with stoneblocks or in sub-alpine forests. It needs stones for hiding against the sun and is indifferent to geology.
157098		population	eng	<p>There is not much information about the distribution and the population sizes and trends available. Where it is found the density is relatively low.</p><p>In Austria, it is locally common but there is no data on the population trend. However, in Switzerland, the species is found at 93 localities and the  populations are strongly declining. However, the causes are not understood. From this it is inferred that there is probably an overall decline in the population.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157098		threats	eng	The threats to the species are currently unknown.
157099		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, neither are there any considered necessary for the conservation of the species.
157099		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is considered to be restricted to Madeira (although according to Seddon (2008) reporting records from the literature in the 1860-1880 period, it was apparently recorded by Paiva from Bugio in the Desertas but this record remains unconfirmed). On Madeira, it is mainly present on sites on the south coast from Ponta do Pargo to Canical.
157099		habitat	eng	This species occurs in leaf litter and under rocks at low elevations on the south coast (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010).
157099		population	eng	There is no specific data on population trends, although thought to be stable (Seddon, pers. comm., 2010)
157099		threats	eng	This species is not considered to be threatened and appears to be tolerant of disturbed habitats (Seddon 2008).
157100		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Albania and its known sites are out of protected areas.</p><p>The systematic position and the geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its sub-populations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points.</p>  <p></p>
157100		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the Korab Mountains, between Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. In the original description, no exact sampling locality was given. In 2007, it was collected in three locations in the western (Albanian) part of the Korab Mountains along the route from Radomire village to the Maja e Korabit peak (HNHM Mollusca Collection, unpublished data). Though Fauna Europaea does not mention this species from Macedonia and  there are no voucher specimens in the Macedonian Museum of Natural  History in Skopje (Stankovic <em>et al.</em> 2006), it can be supposed that further undiscovered subpopulations exist in the Korab Mountains area and its range might extend to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia too. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157100		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones, among leaf litter or at the base of the rocks.</p>
157100		population	eng	The species is far from being well studied, therefore there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating. This species is not rare in rocky habitats.
157100		threats	eng	<p>This species is not well studied, thus there are no data to indicate how it is affected by ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is unlikely at the moment.<br/></p>
157101		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157101		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria. It was described  from a single locality (area in the West, the type locality being: between Lagaete [=Agaete] and Galdar). This species has  not been found again since its description.
157101		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157101		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157101		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157102		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in Romania at a national level. However   several known localities lie within protected areas, national parks (e.g. Bucegi, Ciucas, Hasmasul Mare). Research on the taxonomy is recommended.
157102		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania. According to Grossu (1987) the species lives in the Bucegi, Piatra Craiului, Ciucas, Hasmasul Mare, Fagarasului and Piatra Mare mountains at high altitudes.
157102		habitat	eng	This species is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is  usually found among leaf litter or under stones or at the base of rocks.  However, this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species.
157102		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species and can be very abundant in places.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
157102		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Most of the populations live inaccessible mountainous places. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the  complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed  by erosion, fire, etc.) and complete or severe destruction of the rocky  habitat (quarrying, earthquake, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and  the large number of sub-populations, local events do not affect the  whole population significantly.
157103		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species. It is recommended that research is carried out on the distribution of this species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157103		distribution	eng	The species is present in south Albania and north-western Greece, including the island of Kefallonia (Rähle 1980, Dhora 2009).
157103		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on limestone rocks and in piles of stones.
157103		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157103		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
157104		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation actions are required for this species. However, as it is only found in three locations, monitoring of these sites is required to indicate any threats to the species.
157104		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Austria and Slovenia. In Slovenia, it is present in 11 sites, in two UTM squares (10 x 10 km) and from only one site in Austria. It occurs above 1,700 m asl.
157104		habitat	eng	This is a rock-dwelling species found living under the stones. It occurs above 1,700 m asl.
157104		population	eng	There is no data on population size and trend.
157104		threats	eng	Any current threats to this species are unknown. However, climate change may be an important risk for this high altitude specialist in the future.
157106		conservation	eng	Due to the taxonomical uncertainties, the forms which where formerly  united as one species under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">M. fuscolabiata</span> are at present in  urgent need of a thorough revision.
157106		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to Italy. The former species agg. <span style="font-style: italic;">fuscolabiata </span>inhabits the region south from the depression between Neapel and Benevento.
157106		habitat	eng	The species agg. is found on calcareous rocks. The animals live on the surface of rocks, from the sea shore up to the mountains, avoiding acid habitats.
157106		population	eng	As this is a species complex, there is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157106		threats	eng	The main threat to the species complex is exploitation of habitats for tourist activities like hiking, climbing, etc., which lead to a serious decline in habitat quality. Another threat is habitat destruction by road construction.
157107		conservation	eng	This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
157107		distribution	eng	<em>O. barbula&#160;</em>&#160;lives in the Azores Islands and the Iberian Peninsula, where it is the most abundant species of the <em>Oestophora</em> genus. In the Iberian Peninsula, it occupies the western half, but no exclusively (Puente 1994, 1996; Arrébola 1995).
157107		habitat	eng	<em>O. barbula&#160;</em>shows a predilection for humid and shadowy places in areas of woods, banks, countrysides, ruderal biotopes and&#160;crop lands (Puente 1994). It is frequently found in&#160;Mediterranean shrubland (i.e.&#160;<em>Cistus</em>&#160;spp.), associated or not with woodlands (<em>Quercus</em>&#160;spp., holm and cork oak) and with frequent low herbaceous cover (Arrébola 1995). It is easy to find it under stones or fallen trees and in holes in the stonewalls.
157107		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
157107		threats	eng	No past, ongoing, or future specific threats are actually known to this species. From a more global point of view, &#160;fires, climate change, intensive agriculture, pollution, etc... have some incidence on this species and on most of terrestrial snails.
157108		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the two islands that the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157108		distribution	eng	The species is&#160;endemic to the islands of Tinos and Andros in Cyclades (Aegean Sea, Greece) (Subai 1996).
157108		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations, and forests) mainly under stones or piles of stones (Mylonas, 1982).&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
157108		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157108		threats	eng	<p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;</p>
157110		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species, and none are receommended.
157110		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands where it is only found on Madeira and has two subspecies, both of which are common on the island. It is mainly found in the coastal and lowland areas, rarely found inland or on the summits (Cameron and Cook 1998, Seddon 2008).</p>
157110		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf-litter and under rocks at low elevations on grassland, scrub areas as well as disturbed habitats.
157110		population	eng	There are no information on populations trends, but it is believed to be stable.
157110		threats	eng	The species will be locally threatened by activities which lead to habitat loss (urbanisation, road construction), however given the wide range these are not considered to threaten the species.
157111		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, but more research on the taxonomy is needed.
157111		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of São Miguel, in the Azores (Portugal).&#160;Until proper taxonomic treatment is given to van Riel <em>et al.</em>’s (2005) evidence of east-west separation in São Miguel, and thus properly assessing the range for each taxonomic unit, the range of <em>L. azorica</em> should include the entire island.<p></p>
157111		habitat	eng	This species lives in the forests and native vegetation, preferentially at high altitudes (for example Pico da Vara, north 37º 48' 24"; west 025º 12' 43"; 1050 m), but has also been found at lower altitudes (for example near Mosteiros, north 37º 52' 31"; west 025º 49' 28"; 240 m).
157111		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species.
157111		threats	eng	<p>This species is widespread on São Miguel, and has quickly adapted to forest of introduced species (e.g. <em>Cryptomeria</em>), therefore no threats are foreseen.</p>
157112		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs, but considering the number of subpopulations it is reasonable that there at least some of them which live within protected areas. Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/><br/></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/></a></p>
157112		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern Alps. Manganelli <em>et al.</em> (1985) indicates its Italian occurrence. Its type locality is "Malborghet in Karnthen", which is most probably in present Italy (Malborghetto). It also occurs in Slovenia and Croatia (Medvednica Mountains (Stamol 1992)). Grossu (1983) mentions its presence in Romania, but it needs confirmation and therefore it was ignored in the extent of occurrence (EOO) calculation.<br/>In Austria it has around 50 known locations (Klemm 1973) and if Slovenian, Croatian and Italian parts of the range are taken into  consideration, the real number of locations should be higher. There  is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are  declining or extremely fluctuating.
157112		habitat	eng	<p>This is a silvicol species which can generally be found in humid and shady habitats, under stones or among leaf-litter or decaying dead wood.</p>
157112		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157112		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and disturbance of the forests are the main threat to this species. However, considering the relatively large geographical range of this species, local logging activities do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157114		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. It status was estimated by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) as LR/lc (low risk).</p>
157114		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It lives in the central part of the island always restricted to the fringe of the caldera.<br/></p>
157114		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar) and in Laurel forests (Laurisilva).</p>
157114		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.<br/></p>
157114		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and fires can be a threat to this species locally. It is unlikely that a threat would affect the whole range or population of this species.</p>
157115		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157115		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudoxerophila bathytera</em> is&#160;frequently found in central and eastern Crete, but also in some cases in the western part of the island, as well as in some of the surrounding islets (Vardinoyannis 1994, Hausdorf and Sauer 2009). The species is also reported from the island of Karpathos&#160;(Vardinoyannis 1994).
157115		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in xeric shrublands and open habitats.
157115		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">A quite an abundant species.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157115		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
157116		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">Recommended  conservation actions include management of the protected areas for  maintenance of this species and monitoring of the protected areas to  ensure no loss of further habitat and subpopulations<em>&#160;</em>as well as more taxonomic research on the status of the species.</span></span></span></p>
157116		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madeiran islands; it is only known from Porto Santo, where its complete range is uncertain, although there are reported records the South-East hills behind the harbour (Seddon 2008).</p>
157116		habitat	eng	The single known site is grassland with rocky areas.
157116		population	eng	There are few specimens known for this species and hence the status is uncertain.
157116		threats	eng	The main threat is changing land management, for example overgrazing by livestock, and possible impact from recreational activities (creation of footpaths along coastal ridge).
157117		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Bulgaria, but most of the known  populations are living within protected areas.
157117		distribution	eng	This species is endemic in Bulgaria, where it lives in the Pirin and Rila Mountains between 1,800 and 2,914 m. The extent of occurrence is 600 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy is 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
157117		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderately humid habitats in  high mountains (www.animalbase.org). It is a calciphile, rock-dwelling species.
157117		population	eng	This species occurs in an inaccessible and therefore underexplored  area. There is no information on population trends, but it is  likely that the population is stable. Currently there are around five known sub-populations.
157117		threats	eng	Since this species lives in inaccessible areas and is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.).
157119		conservation	eng	It is listed in Germany (Bayern) as Endangered (EN). For the remaining subpopulations, there are no data on the population size or trend, so research is needed.
157119		distribution	eng	This European endemic has an eastern distribution with its western limit in Belgium, Netherlands, France and Germany. It extends eastwards to European Russia. In Sweden, it is only found in the northern Baltic islands where it is rather common.
157119		habitat	eng	This snail lives in wetlands in the flood zone of freshwater rivers. The habitat is characterized by areas of bare mud, covered with an important layer of litter and by a sparse community of tall herbs&#160;often including nitrophilous plants species.
157119		population	eng	In France, a few new localities of isolated occurrences have been found. In Germany, the species is very localised and threatened by river channelisation.
157119		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is river channelisation which leads to a total loss of wetlands, and thus loss of the habitat of this species.
157120		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lanzarote on the Canary Islands. The species is restricted to the northeastern part of Lanzarote and the adjacent islet of Graciosa. Specimens have been observed at Isla Graciosa and in Lanzarote: El Risco, Orzola, Malpais de la Corona, Cueva de los Verdes, Jameos de Agua, Haría los Valles, Teneguime, Playa de Famara, Montana Corona, Montana de las Nuevas (Gittenberger and Ripken 1987).
157120		habitat	eng	There are no specific habitat type in the literature, however, it is nearly always sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. geminata. </span>(Shells of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. geminata</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> occur in great abundance locally on the islet Graciosa. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. geminata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. impugnata</span> are sympatric on northern Lanzarote and on Graciosa. Where the two species are found together they are about equally common). This species probably lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
157120		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species. Field observation show that the species is rare and hard to find alive.
157120		threats	eng	There are some threats to this species by goat grazing and tourist activities. The Riscos are a well known recreation spot with barbecue sites, miradors, and similar infrastructure.
157121		conservation	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box">This species is protected by a  resolution of the Balear Department of Environment which includes it in  the Balear Endangered Species List&#160; "(BOIB, no. 66, 15/05/2008)  with the category of species of special concern. Action plans should be defined on the basis of this local resolution. The main conservation  action should be focused to habitat preservation, and to better  delimitate its area of occupancy. Studies about the population and bioloy are also needed. The taxonomic validity of the several subspecies described based on shell morphology should be confirmed. <span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Moreover, the presence of black rats in the different islands and their  threat should be studied to face to its eventual eradication.</span>
157121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain in<span class="long_text" id="result_box">&#160;the Pitiusas Islands (Ibiza and Formentera). It is present mainly in  the south of Ibiza <span class="long_text" id="result_box">and  in Formentera<span class="long_text" id="result_box">, as well as in the several small islands surrounding them, which has led to several  sub-species.&#160;<span title="" closure_uid_mlb5qy="169" wc="También ha sido citada como fósil del Pleistoceno." xc="It has also been cited as a Pleistocene fossil."></span></span>
157121		habitat	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span title="" closure_uid_mlb5qy="187" wc="Xerocrassa caroli es una especie característica de medios áridos, que según Gasull (1964) aparece tanto en bosquetes de pinos, limos rojos, terrenos dunares o acantilados sobre el mar." xc="Xerocrassa caroli is a species characteristic of arid environments, which according Gasull (1964) appears as clumps of pine, red silt, land dunes or cliffs above the sea. ">This species lives in arid environments, which according to Gasull  (1964) appears in pine forets, sand dunes or in cliffs above the sea.  <span title="" closure_uid_mlb5qy="188" wc="Por su parte, Schröder (1978) afirma que es una especie adaptada a distintos biotopos, incluso en lugares donde no pueden vivir otras especies, y que reacciona a las distintas condiciones ambientales desarrollando diferentes formas de concha" xc="For his part, Schröder (1978) says it is a species adapted to different biotopes, even where other species can not live, and reacts to different environmental conditions by developing various forms of shell">Schröder (1978) says that it is adapted to different biotopes,  even to those habitats where other species can not live, and it adapts to different environmental  conditions by developing various forms of shell. <span class="long_text" id="result_box">Schröder  (1984) has suggested that the current distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerocrassa caroli </span>is  determined by climatic factors, particularly temperature and rainfall.  Thus,  in the localities inhabited by the species <span class="long_text" id="result_box">annual precipitation is below 450 mm, and <span class="long_text" id="result_box">the average temperature in summer is 1 or 2 º C higher than in localities where  it is absent.<br/><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span title="" closure_uid_mlb5qy="187" wc="Xerocrassa caroli es una especie característica de medios áridos, que según Gasull (1964) aparece tanto en bosquetes de pinos, limos rojos, terrenos dunares o acantilados sobre el mar." xc="Xerocrassa caroli is a species characteristic of arid environments, which according Gasull (1964) appears as clumps of pine, red silt, land dunes or cliffs above the sea. "><span title="" closure_uid_mlb5qy="188" wc="Por su parte, Schröder (1978) afirma que es una especie adaptada a distintos biotopos, incluso en lugares donde no pueden vivir otras especies, y que reacciona a las distintas condiciones ambientales desarrollando diferentes formas de concha" xc="For his part, Schröder (1978) says it is a species adapted to different biotopes, even where other species can not live, and reacts to different environmental conditions by developing various forms of shell"> </span></span></span></span>
157121		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
157121		threats	eng	Main threats are changes of land management which can alter the natural habitat, but these are acting at a local level. Predation by the black rat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>), an introduced and invasive species in some small islands where the species is found.
157122		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action in place for this species.  However, it occurs in the core area of the Pyrenees National Park.
157122		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the northern slopes of Pyrenees, mainly in&#160; France, with few localities in Spain.
157122		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
157122		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
157122		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
157123		conservation	eng	Investigations on the taxonomy, population structure and biology of this species urgently needs further investigation. A particular focus of further research should be on the discrimination of this species and<span style="font-style: italic;"> X. cespitum</span> in order to produce correct data for an assessment of the conservation status.
157123		distribution	eng	This species is mainly distributed in the Alps and Pre-Alps of south-eastern France and in adjacent Italy, from the maritime Alps to the Ligurian and Tuscan Apennine. There exist 18 taxonomically confirmed records from Parc national du Mercantour (Gargominy and Ripken 2006). The extent of occurrence is larger than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
157123		habitat	eng	The species is known from open biotopes from montanous to sub-alpine zones.
157123		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trend.&#160; However, this species is abundant where it occurs.
157123		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Fires might be a potential threat locally.
157124		conservation	eng	Gargominy and Ripken (2006) propose to list <em>Chilostoma frigidum liguricum</em> as Vulnerable. The Austrian Red List lists the subspecies <em>Chilostoma cingulatum peregrini</em> as Near Threatened (NT).
157124		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Northern and Southern calcareous Alps, the Apennins and south to the Matese Mountains.
157124		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of calcareous and dolomitic rocks.
157124		population	eng	There are no population information available.
157124		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
157125		conservation	eng	The species is possibly not protected at national level in Italy.
157125		distribution	eng	According to Dr. M. Bodon and Prof. Dr. F. Giusti in Kokshoorn and Gittenberger (2010), this Italian endemic species is known from the extreme southeastern part of the province of La Spezia in Liguria, many localities in Toscana, and very few places in Lazio, as far south as the province of Latina.
157125		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species. Snails inhabit exposed rock faces.
157125		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to        assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
157125		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this   threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
157126		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, although part of the range falls into Sites of Community Importance (Ilhéus do Porto Santo, Pico Branco). Further research is required to review the taxonomic status of the two island subspecies, as these are all distinct in shell morphology, and as such merit review to establish whether these maybe distinct species.
157126		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Porto Santo (Madeiran Islands), where it is abundant and widespread over the island.&#160;<br/><br/>Mandahl-Barth (1950) recognised three subspecies from different islands. As these forms are distinct as well as geographically isolated all three are discussed here<span style="font-style: italic;">:<br/></span><em>Leptaxis nivosa nivosa</em>&#160;(Sowerby, 1824) occurs on the main island,&#160;and abundant and widespread<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span><em><br/>Leptaxis nivosa calensis</em>&#160;(Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2002) is only found on the Ilhéu de Baixo, Porto Santo<em>,<br/>Leptaxis nivosa craticulata&#160;</em>(Lowe, 1852)&#160; is restricted to the Ilhéu de Fora, Porto Santo.<p></p>
157126		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found on the underside of stones and amongst grasses on grassy unshaded areas. <br/></p>
157126		population	eng	Widespread and abundant on the main island, this species can be the dominant species in a sample.
157126		threats	eng	<em>L. nivosa</em>&#160;is common in suitable habitats on the main island, and, as such, although there are localised threats to the species, from habitat loss related to increased tourism development, recreational use of the island and road construction, it is not believed to be threatened over its whole range. &#160;Rodent predation is known on this species, but given the abundance on the mainland, at present this has not impacted the species.
157127		conservation	eng	Several sub-populations inhabit protected areas. The species is of Lower Concern in Austria, decreasing (4R) in Bavaria outside the Alps and Lower Concern in Germany (<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Reischütz 2007, Falkner </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al. </span><span style="background-color: white;">2002). No</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> conservation actions are currently required.<br/></span></span></span>
157127		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, which is found from Spain to western Slovakia, Romania and England.
157127		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase, the species inhabits rocks and rock rubble in  forests (not too dark), in trees, on calcareous substrate or on meadows with bare rocks  showing through. It can be found above the timberline, up to 2,700 m asl. In France it is also found in dense populations in dry  and sunny meadows devoid of rocks. In Britain it is usually in unshaded  habitats.
157127		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to  assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
157127		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by  quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. According to AnimalBase (2010) in central Europe it threatened by habitat  destruction in forest management, and in Britain by changes of land use. However the total  destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this  threat is mostly hypothetical.
157130		conservation	eng	Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) suggest that this species is sensitive to habitat disturbance. Creation of protected areas is recommended and monitoring of habitat trends would be necessary to assess the status in the future.
157130		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the far west of northern Tenerife from two isolated lcoations, Masca (four sites, one location) and the other Punta de Teno (one location) (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995).
157130		habitat	eng	This species is found in typical dry lowland vegetation (Piso basal and Piso infracanario) with succulent and thorny shrubs between 40 and 900 m asl.
157130		population	eng	Only 30 specimens are known in total. There are no population trends.
157130		threats	eng	There are permanent influence of tourism and recreational activities in the area (walking trails, 4 x 4 safaris, and general disturbance for creating small facilities) and Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) suggests that this species is sensitive to habitat disturbance.
157131		conservation	eng	<p>Four of the subspecies are included in the Red List of Austria (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007)</p>  The type locality of <em>A. c. tullina</em> is situated in the Triglav National Park and thus strictly protected. <br/>Thus, parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.
157131		distribution	eng	The species is found in the South-Eastern Alps through Austria, Italy and Slovenia. It is living in higher altitudes to the summit areas of large mountains. Thus, populations are highly fragmented, and currently, gene flow between these isolated populations is quite unlikely. <br/><br/>The distribution of the subspecies is as follows:<br/><em>A. c. chamaeleon</em>: Steiner Alps, Karawanken, Julian Alps<br/> <em>A. c. carnica</em>: main chain of the Carnic Alps, Sappada-Group in the Venetian Alps, and Moggio-Group in the Julian Alps <br/> <em>A. c. wiedemayri</em>: localised in the westernmost part of the Carnic main chain<br/> <em>A. c. subglobosa</em>: Gailtaler Alps from Dobratsch to Jauken (type locality), in the north to the Staffberg, in the west passing over the Gailbergsattel to the Lienzer Dolomits<br/> <em>A. c. tullina</em>: only known from the type locality Triglav in the Julian Alps (Slovenia, the indication for Italy in Fauna Europaea is an error)
157131		habitat	eng	The species may be found in open alpine habitats like alpine lowlands, and boulder agglomerations, rockwalls with cavities, herbaceous and shrubby screes,  at higher altitudes  (rarely below 1000 m). This species is strictly bound to calcareous habitats.<strong><br/></strong>
157131		population	eng	There are no population data available. However, in Austria all the subspecies show a decline of approximately 40% (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007). For Slovenia and Italy no data are available. However, this species lives in a heavily used landscape, and this use is the same in Italy and Slovenia (pasturing, tourist activity). For this reason it can be inferred that the decline affects these populations in a similar magnitude.
157131		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism and pasturing. Tourist activities like skiing, hiking, climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality; this threat is ongoing or even increasing in the last 10 years. Another major threat to this species is pasture; large-bodied snail like <span style="font-style: italic;">A. chamaeleon</span> can easily be killed by trampling and thus are seriously affected; pasturing also leads to an alteration of the natural vegetation with adverse effects, and the intensity of land-use is supposed to be stable or even increasing in the Alps.
157132		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation actions for this species. Some of the subspecies are known to be highly endangered. Appropriate conservation actions need to be put in place in such cases.
157132		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Italy including Sicily, although some subspecies have a restricted distribution.
157132		habitat	eng	This is a rock dwelling species and is found in humid and shady habitats, frequently near springs in moderate temperate forests.
157132		population	eng	The species' population is unknown.
157132		threats	eng	Some of the subspecies are known to be highly endangered. No information on the threats is available.
157133		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157133		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the mediterranean Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Albania, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain.<br/><br/>This species is very abundant in Northern Africa, Near East and Turkey.
157133		habitat	eng	This species lives preferably close to the coast, in the vegetation or sand dunes, or on limestone outcrops under a maritime climate regime.
157133		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157133		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
157134		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157134		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Europaea the species is distributed across the Aegean Sea Islands. Similarly,&#160;Schütt (1996) suggested that the reports of the species from Turkey, should be included in&#160;<em>M. proclivis&#160;</em>and thus the species should be considered as being restricted to the Aegean Islands. These reports have to be confirmed after the revision needed for the genus is applied.
157134		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.
157134		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157134		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
157135		conservation	eng	The species is present in a number of areas under various schemes of protection. There is no conservation action regarding the species. More research on the taxonomy is needed to ensure that the distribution, especially in western Turkey, is well understood.<br/><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><span class="apple-style-span"></span></a></p>
157135		distribution	eng	The species is reported from Greece, Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).&#160; Records from western Turkey seem to belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">Helix nucula</span> (E. Neubert pers. comm. 2010). It is usually found on a variety of habitats, from coastal areas (dunes) up to 700 m above sea level (see&#160;Hubenov 2007).<br/><br/>Triantis <em>et al</em>. (2008) report that during three surveys across all the potential areas for the species to be present in the island of Skyros (Aegean Sea) no live&#160;specimens were collected, but a vast number of empty shells were found. This is believed to indicate a recent extinction of the species in the island group.
157135		habitat	eng	This species inhabiting open dry habitats with shrubs. It is found in a variety of habitats, from coastal areas (dunes) up to 700 m above sea level (Hubenov 2007). On the continent, it lives in areas where there are enough sediment, as it is a soil-dwelling species, i.e. it buries itself deep in the soil.
157135		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><span class="apple-style-span">This is a quite abundant species locally.&#160;</a>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157135		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Intensive grazing, the&#160;expansion of the cultivated areas and fire can play, and possibly has played in the past, a role in the&#160;restriction&#160;of the species' populations and their local extirpation. An additional threat for the species is the alteration/destruction&#160;of coastal areas mainly for touristic activities. However, none of these threats is likely to impact the whole range of this species.<br/></p>
157136		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in the countries where it occurs and most of the known sites are out of protected areas.</p><p>However, due to the large, stable population there are no conservation actions required for this species at present.<br/></p>
157136		distribution	eng	<em><span style="font-style: italic;">Cattania trizona</span></em>&#160;is distributed in the southern part of the Banaticum (Romania), in eastern Serbia and in western Bulgaria with records from&#160;Zlot, Sicevo,&#160;Surdulica and Jelašnicka gorge near Nis in Serbia;&#160;Mehadia, Domogled, Cerna Valley, Baile Herculanea, Kazan gorge and Jelaram, "Csernabesnyő" in Romania, and Vratza, between Iskretz and Breze, Zgorigrad, Ledenika and Lakatnik in Bulgaria (HNHM Mollusc Collection and Munkacsy Museum Békéscsaba, unpublished).<br/>    <p>The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157136		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157136		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157136		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157137		conservation	eng	<p>Only few subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Monitoring is suggested to follow the population trends of this species. Valido<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1999) estimated its status as LR/lc (low risk).<br/></p>
157137		distribution	eng	This species is present on Gran Canaria, where it is widespread in the northern parts of the island. However, the subpopulations are separated, which results in a fragmented area of distribution.
157137		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the humid parts of the local pine forests (Pinar) and in the relics of Laurel forests (Laurisilva), which is restricted to the northern parts of the island. Furthermore it is found in Fayal-Brezal, in deep barrancos, and in humid anthropogenic habitats.<br/></p>
157137		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend. The population is thought to be stable.<br/></p>
157137		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation, road construction or by other reasons. Fragmentation is partly caused by increasing urbanisation and overall land use. Urbanisation is an ongoing process in the area and thus might affect the habitats of several subpopulations.<br/></p>
157138		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions in place for this species, but the sub-populations should be monitored.
157138		distribution	eng	The species lives in the Alps, Carpathians, German-Czech highlands. Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1983: 152) reported it also from the Pyrenees, but this was probably not confirmed later and might have referred to&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Semilimax pyrenaicus</span>.
157138		habitat	eng	The species lives in humid habitats in mountain  forests, under leaf litter and stones, prefers creek gorges, but is also  found in open habitats with high precipitations above the timberline.  In Switzerland, it is found up to 1800 m altitude.
157138		population	eng	The size and trend within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
157138		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species, but the tourism  industry may be considered a major threat to this species, as the  fragile shells break easily from trampling. Alpine pasturing may be  considered an additional threat to this species.
157139		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Palma. Wollaston (1878) reported it to be frequent in the central and higher forests of La Palma; it was found by found by him and also by Lowe at the Cumbre above Buenavista, Bco. above Sta. Cruz, Bco. De Agua, Bco. De Galga, El Monte above Barlovento. This species was not subsequently found by Groh nor by Ibanez (pers. comm. 2011), and has probably gone extinct.
157139		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157139		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157139		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157140		conservation	eng	<em></em><p><span class="apple-style-span"><em>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;T<span class="apple-style-span">here is no conservation action regarding the species.</em></span></p><em></em>
157140		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, found in central Greece and Peloponnese (Hausdorf 1990).
157140		habitat	eng	This species is found In high mountains above 1000 m alpine  meadows and rocky elevations (Gittenberger 1993).
157140		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157140		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
157141		conservation	eng	The site where the species occurs is a nature park, but it does not provide appropriate protection from potential threats. Site protection is needed as otherwise this species could quickly become Critically Endangered or Extinct. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species.
157141		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one locality in the Queyras, Hautes-Alpes, France (Gittenberger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
157141		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
157141		population	eng	This species has only been recently described and there are no population data available for this species.
157141		threats	eng	Currently this species does not face any threat, but the whole known population might be extinct with a single quarrying activity or road enlargement.
157142		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157142		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy. It was originally regarded to be endemic to the Matese mountains. Sacchi has described <span style="font-style: italic;">C. claudia</span>, now a younger synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cavannae</span>, from Capri and the peninsula of Sorrent. There is no knowledge, whether the two sub-areas are disjunct relics of a former continuous distribution or whether the species is present on the mountains between the two separated occurrences. The number of locations is unknown.
157142		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky alpine grasslands and calcareous scree in sub-alpine and alpine altitudes.
157142		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157142		threats	eng	Tourist activities like skiing, mountain biking, hiking and climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality. Another threat to this species is pasturing that might lead to alteration of the natural vegetation with adverse effects. These threats, particularly the intensity of land-use, is supposed to be stable or even increasing in the Apennines.
157143		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157143		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, known from the Ioanian Islands and central Greece (Bank and Menkhorst 1992).
157143		habitat	eng	This species is soil dwelling and is usually found under stones in shrublands.
157143		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157143		threats	eng	There is no known threat to this species now or in the future.
157144		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs and t<a name="OLE_LINK1">here is no  information as to how many of the known  locations fall within protected  areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/></a>
157144		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Bosnia, western Serbia and Montenegro (Subai 2002). Its type locality is Sarajevo. The following distribution records are available:&#160;Mt. Igman South Sarajevo (AnimalBase), Jahorina, North of Kijevo and South of Kijevo in Bosnia, South of Savnik, South of Gradac and South of Donja Brezna in Montenegro (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished), Bileg (Tara), Vrujci (Derventa), Gornje Koslje, Drum Dedo, Derventa, Zecki vrh, Javor, Krstaca, Kadijina Stena, Kamenova Koca, Medvednik, Perudzac, Ponor, Panica and Crni vrh (Tomic 1959). This number probably underestimates the number of&#160; existing subpopulations. Currently there   is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are   declining or extremely fluctuating.
157144		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with limestone areas and rocky forests or rocky shrublands. It is usually found in crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites or at the base of the rocks among leaf-litter.
157144		population	eng	The species' range is far from being well explored and therefore there is no   specific information on population trend. However, there is no reason to   suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature   individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157144		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitats (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), local activities do not seem to affect the whole population.</p>
157145		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. Its status was estimated by Valido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) as LR/lc (low risk).<br/></p>
157145		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central parts of La Gomera. This species is recorded from 10 locations and 30 sites.
157145		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives usually in Laurel forests (Laurisilva) and Fayal-Brezal, but was also recorded from a chestnut forest and a ruderal site.<br/></p>
157145		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
157145		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
157146		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions. More research is needed on the taxonomy of this species-complex and on the exact distribution and population.
157146		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. geminata</span> is a common species-complex on the Canary Islands. On Lanzarote, at least two species exist under that taxon name, one of them is yet undescribed and also occurs on Furteventura and on Tenerife (Greve <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010: Theba sp. 1) and further research will lead most probably to further species within that complex. At least three additional undescribed species are known to La Gomera and to Lanzarote and another three new species to Fuerteventura (Greve <span style="font-style: italic;">at al.</span> 2010).&#160; Distribution maps for the complex are given in Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1990), and Ibanez and Alonso (2001). Individuals have been taken from the following specific locations on the Canary Islands, these were recorded in 1987 (Gittenberger and Ripken 1987):<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Lanzarote:</span>&#160; Isla Graciosa, Orzola, Jameos dei Agua, Haría, los Valles, Bajamar (Tías), Playa de Famara, El Mojón, Montana de las Nuevas, Castillo de Guanapay, Tinajo, Tiagua, Teguise, Mozaga, Mozaga, Yaiza, Playa de Janubio, Playa Blanca, Playa Blanca, Punta dei Papagayo, Isla de Lobos. <br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Fuerteventura:</span> Corallejo, La Oliva, Montaria Muda, Playa dei Matorral, Los Molinos, Betancuria, Vega dei Rio de Palmas, Barranco Morra Fénduca, Toto, Cortijo de Chilegua, Playa de Ugán, Gran Tarajal, Istmo de la Pared, Morro Jable, Cofete, Punta de Gandia.<br/><br/>&#160;<span style="text-decoration: underline;">Tenerife:</span> Bajamar Buenavista, Los Silos, La Palma, Gomera, Hierro: Sabinosa (to be confirmed).
157146		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
157146		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157146		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Theba geminata </span>has been seen to be predated on by feral cats (Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) but whether this has a significant effect on the population will have to be researched further due to no data.<br/>Once the species complex is unravelled taxonomically it may turn out that single species have very small distribution areas. These might then be affected by urbanization, agriculture – especially goats – tourist industry, road construction, etc.
157147		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157147		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic o, fMoldova, Republic of, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and United Kingdom. This is a holarctic species.
157147		habitat	eng	This species lives in open dry calcareous habitats, grassland, scree, and sand dunes.
157147		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157147		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, increasing land-use and pasturing, eutrophication of habitats and similar events may affect the quality of the habitat of this species.
157148		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
157148		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in the European coastal regions from the north of  Portugal to the north-western part of the Mediterranean, it is introduced in Belgium, Britain (Cornwall and Wales) and throughout the Mediterranean region (also in Algeria and Egypt). In  Spain, it is also found in the interior (Albacete, Ebro valley, Cantabrian mountains,  not above 700 m asl, not in the Pyrenees).
157148		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in sandy and dry habitats in coastal vicinity and on dunes with grass cover. It lives on the soil between plants and is probably frost sensitive.
157148		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, but there is no reason to    assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
157148		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe   destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,   mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large   number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole   population significantly.
157149		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157149		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Ukraine.
157149		habitat	eng	This species lives in temperate forests of central and eastern Europe.
157149		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157149		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157150		conservation	eng	Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species typically inhabits grassland in river valley lowland which is prone to be affected by human impacts.&#160;However, there is no information to suggest how much this has affected the local subpopulations. Research activity should focus on the monitoring of population and habitat trends.
157150		distribution	eng	This species is a Romanian endemic, distributed in lower altitudes along rivers in the Transilvanian Basin. Distribution records are from the following locations: Berethalom (type locality) [=Biertan],&#160; Szászsebes [=Sebes], Szászfenes [=Floresti], Déva, Nagyenyed [=Aiud], Kolozsvár [=Cluj], Talmács [=Talmaciu], Bázna, Szamosújvár [=Gherla] (Soós 1943); Baisoara, Alba Iulia, Medias, Ibasfalau and Sigishoara (Grossu 1983). According to Soós (1943) this species is of patchy distribution.<br/>There is little information on the present status of these subpopulations and therefore it is uncertain that each of them still exists.
157150		habitat	eng	This species is distributed along the river valleys in the Transilvanian Basin and inhabits grassland biotopes.
157150		population	eng	<p>Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species has a habitat preference for lowland river valleys, which are much affected by human impact. However, there are no data on population decline or extreme fluctuations.<br/></p>
157150		threats	eng	Despite the relatively large extent of occurrence (EOO), this species typically inhabits grassland in river valley lowland which is prone to be affected by human impacts such as industry, constructions, agriculture and various other ecosystem modifications. However, there is no information to assess any impact this has on local subpopulations.
157151		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2">The species is protected in Montenegro.</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"> Most of the known sites are out of protected areas, however d</a>ue to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/></p>
157151		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in eastern Bosnia, northern Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, northern Albania and western Macedonia. <br/>Its type locality is "Moraca, Montenegro". Further distribution records are provided by Tomic (1959) Stankovic <em>et al.</em> (2006) and Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996). <br/>    <p>There are several known locations, and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157151		habitat	eng	This species occurs in different habitat types, such as in rocky habitats (rocky grasslands, rocky shrublands and forests) as well as in streamside vegetation such as tallgrass or gallery forests.
157151		population	eng	Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157151		threats	eng	This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats, such as logging activities. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation. Considering the large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the large number of subpopulations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
157152		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157152		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete and is present in the central-west part of the island (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
157152		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
157152		population	eng	There is no information available on the population trend for this species.
157152		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
157153		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There are no conservation action currently applied.
157153		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in the region of Ipirus (Westerlund 1889).
157153		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is generally unknown, but most probably the species should be found under stones and in piles of stones.
157153		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157153		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of this species, but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
157154		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species. However, the known populations require monitoring to help determine if there are any threats acting on the species in the future.
157154		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Croatia where it has a restricted range, found only on the island of Grgur, in the northeast (UTM: VK86) and in Plase, on the island of Susak (UTM: VK42). The extent of occurrence is thought to be 20 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
157154		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky habitats.
157154		population	eng	There are no data on population.
157154		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157157		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, however none are considered necessary, other than taxonomic work to verify the presence of two distinct species.
157157		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands; it is only known living on Porto Santo, although the status is uncertain, as Cameron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) considered it conspecific with <em>C. punctulatus.&#160;</em></p>
157157		habitat	eng	The taxon is found in largely sandy, bare areas with some grasses and low bushes.
157157		population	eng	The taxon is common in suitable habitats.
157157		threats	eng	These mainland populations are susceptible, given the multiple threats causing habitat degradation and impact of non-native species near coasts in grassland areas and close to tourist developments.
157158		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas included in various protection schemes&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the region that the species is distributed, there is no conservation action regarding the species. <br/></span></span></p>
157158		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece and is currently reported from three distinct areas, i.e. Evvoia Island, Piperi Island in the north part of Aegean Sea, and the central part of Chalkidiki  peninsula (Subai 1996).
157158		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is found <span class="apple-style-span">mainly under stones or piles of stones,<span class="apple-style-span"> in a variety of vegetation types (shrublands, cultivations - olive and citrus trees, and forests) (Mylonas 1982).&#160;</span></p>
157158		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a locally abundant species.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157158		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future. According to Subai (1996) the species&#160;is slowly being replaced by <em>Chilostoma sphaeriostoma</em>.&#160;</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></span></p>
157159		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157159		distribution	eng	The species is widely&#160;distributed&#160;in Greece, Turkey,&#160;Lebanon, Israel, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt (Hausdorf 2000, Schütt 2001, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008, &#160;Heller 2009).
157159		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in xeric, open&#160;open habitats of various vegetation types and also in meadows and cultivations.
157159		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157159		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
157160		conservation	eng	Populations in the Dolomite area are covered by the Parco Nazionale Dolomiti.<br/>Due to a lack of recent information, more research is needed to establish the species' current distribution as well as to identify any trend in the population.
157160		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Italy; found in the Venetian Prealps and east of Trentino. The core of its distribution is found in the Dolomites. The distribution area seems to be fragmented, the species is separated into isolated subpopulations.
157160		habitat	eng	This species has a preference for shaded rocky habitats.
157160		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is not known and there is no data on population trend.
157160		threats	eng	Due to the scattered distribution of the species, some of the isolated subpopulations may be threatened by tourist activities like skiing, hiking, and climbing. This can lead to a serious decline of habitat quality.
157161		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population, distribution and threats to this species.
157161		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is unknown, its locus typicus being situated in Pic du Gar (Fagot 1882), in the French Pyrenees. This species is endemic to central Pyrenees, in France and Spain.
157161		habitat	eng	The is a mountainous species, found up to the summit, but its precise ecological preferences are not known.
157161		population	eng	There are no information in the population.
157161		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
157162		conservation	eng	Research into the population and potential threats to the species is required.
157162		distribution	eng	There are three known populations scattered in the northern area of Sardinia.
157162		habitat	eng	The species is found in the herbaceous layer in open, dry biotopes.
157162		population	eng	There is no data on population trend.
157162		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are currently unknown.
157163		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157163		distribution	eng	The species is known from the southern part of Cyprus (Gittenberger 1991).
157163		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in xeric shrublands.
157163		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157163		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Over-grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.
157164		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation actions.
157164		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Gran Canaria. Numerous synonyms were&#160;given by Mabille in 1882 and 1883 for the Gran Canaria population, &#160;but without localized data (except for <em>Helix bathycoma</em> – Telde). Therefore it is possible that the species was formerly more widespread in cultivated areas and the Piso basal (Odhner 1932 mentions Lomos de Catola, Jinamar, Telde and Agüimes). However, there have been no publications since 1932, and the taxon was not not refound or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues, not found by K. Groh (K. Groh, pers. comm., 2011).</p>
157164		habitat	eng	The species was reported from cultivated areas and temperate shrubland (Piso basal).
157164		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trend.
157164		threats	eng	There is no information on threats.
157165		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania, however most  of the locations can be found within protected areas (Domogled Cerna<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>– valley National Park<em></em>).
157165		distribution	eng	<p>According to Subai (2011), this species is endemic to south-western Romania. It is recorded from the Cerna valley and the neighbouring Mt. Domogled and several other valleys north and northeast of Baia de Aramă.</p>
157165		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks, in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
157165		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living    specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and    trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of    individuals declines or fluctuates.
157165		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.    It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by    quarrying, by road contructions or by other reasons. However the  total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore  this   threat is mostly „hypothetical”.
157166		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Suggested measures include communications with site users to make them aware of their impact on biodiversity, sympathetic habitat management, habitat and population monitoring.
157166		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Messina, Sicily, where it is only known from a small sector of the sandy beach near the strait of Messina.
157166		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sandy biotopes on primary dunes with sparse vegetation.
157166		population	eng	The population data are not available.
157166		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the deterioration of biotopes by anthropogenic pressure.
157167		conservation	eng	The species lives in a very big area across several countries. Some populations can be found in protected areas.
157167		distribution	eng	According to Schütt (2001) this species lives in Greece (Aegean islands), in the Rodope Mts. and in Central Anatolia. This&#160;species lives between 300  and 2,000 m above sea level in Bulgaria (<a href="http://books.google.hu/books?id=3B-Vr1CBpYwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22chondrula+macedonica%22&source=bl&ots=bEkRv5W6ra&sig=9HGztxWw21wsA8i1a1v5CnSsQCY&hl=hu&ei=rDdZTIGiHI2KOOnVwKoJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22chondrula%20macedonica%22&f=false">Vet and Popov 2007)</a>, however this range can be wider in other countries. Reischütz (1988) gives several locations from Northern Greece. According to www.animalbase.org the species also lives also in Serbia.
157167		habitat	eng	This species lives in open habitats or under  Mediterranean  shrubs, among limestones or on calcareous substrate. This species is xerophilic, thermophilic, drought-resistant and distributed in heterozonal mountain sites&#160;(<a href="http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/ecology/irikov/Irikov_Mollov_%282006%29.pdf">Irikov and Mollov 2006)</a>.
157167		population	eng	The species lives in dry places (steppe and shrub vegetation) in most  cases in big populations.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
157167		threats	eng	The species lives in areas which are not seriously affected by human impact. There are no major threats to this species.
157168		conservation	eng	The species is reported from a significant number of Natura 2000 sites on Cyprus (see&#160;http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/). There are no conservation actions in place or needed.
157168		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cyprus, known from a wide number of locations across the island (Bank and Hovestadt 1991).
157168		habitat	eng	This is a soil-dwelling species usually found in open, xeric habitats.
157168		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157168		threats	eng	<p></p><p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species currently or in the near future.&#160;</p><p></p>
157169		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
157169		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. This species is only known from its type locality in the northwestern area of La Gomera.<br/></p>
157169		habitat	eng	This species lives on steep cliffs of volcanic rock,  exposed to wind and fog emerging from the ocean. Animals hide in small  cavities, lichens being the only vegetation on the rock faces.
157169		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
157169		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
157170		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be focused on habitat preservation. Population size and biology of the species have not been studied, and research on these aspects would be necessary, as well as a better estimation of the area of occupancy (AOO).<br/><br/>It occurs in Natura 2000 sites, a national park and some local reserves.
157170		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north of Spain, being limited to the central part of the Cantabrian Mountains, from Asturias and León in the west to Bizkaia and Álava in the east. This species is mainly present in the north slope of the Cantabrian system.
157170		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It  is found in soil with limestone substrate, under stones and dead leaves, as well as within rock crevices. In humid places it can be observed on the vertical wall<span class="short_text" id="result_box"> surface.</span>
157170		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
157170		threats	eng	There are no main disturbances to this species, apart from quarries, which have locally severe impacts.
157171		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157171		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in north-western Greece and southern Albania (Reischütz and Sattmann 1990, Dhora 2009, Feher and Eross 2009).
157171		habitat	eng	The species is&#160;usually&#160;found under stones and piles of stones but also on plants. It is met in a&#160;variety&#160;of habitats, usually in&#160;open grassy spaces, cultivations and other&#160;anthropogenic&#160;systems.
157171		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157171		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157173		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157173		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro, from where it is described from two specimens from a western location towards Savinosa in the forest of El Golfo. This species has probably not been found again since its description, there are no published records.
157173		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157173		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157173		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157174		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in the countries where it occurs. At least a small portion of the subpopulations live within protected area, however due to the large and stable population there are no conservation actions currently required for this species.
157174		distribution	eng	The range of this species involves Albania, the coastal part of Montenegro, western Macedonia as well as northwestern and central Greece. There is one remote occurrence in Gargano, South Italy (Alzona 1971). Fauna Europaea, as well as Stamol (2010), lists this species for Croatia. In the HNHM Mollusc Collection the species is labelled only as "Dalmatia" without more specific locality data.<br/>Within its relatively large range, this species seems to be very common. In the HNHM Mollusc Collection, there are material from around 120 different Albanian and 50 different Greek locations.  There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157174		habitat	eng	Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found among leaf litter, under stones or at the base of rocks.
157174		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species seems to be very common, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157174		threats	eng	<p>Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat and the vegetation, such as through quarrying. Considering the large range and the large number of locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat for now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157175		conservation	eng	This species is included in some regional Red Lists. In Germany, in both Bavaria and Baden-Wuerttemberg, this species is considered Very rare (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). In Switzerland it is considered Endangered, <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in Austria it is considered Vulnerable (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007) and in </span><span style="background-color: white;">Slovenia it is considered Rare.<br/><br/>Population monitoring and habitat protection are recommended for this species.</span>
157175		distribution	eng	This species is found in Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Italy, extending to Slovenia and Croatia and is endemic to Europe (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Its main distribution is in the southern Alps in the Tirol, Salzburg, Kaernten, Bayern and Baden-Wuerttemberg.
157175		habitat	eng	This alpine species is found in leaf litter in woodlands in fresh and wet sites. It prefers maple, elm and ash forests, and is found in scree underneath rocks or cliffs.
157175		population	eng	This species lives in leaf litter and is hard to find, therefore, there is hardly any information available on its population size or trend. It seems to be rare in most of its range. It often occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Acicula lineata</span>. In Slovenia, it is known from a few localities in the western part.
157175		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is changes in its habitat. In the alpine areas infrastructure development, particularly recreational infrastructure and roads, and forestry management are responsible for habitat changes. This species is more sensitive to drying out of their habitat through drainage or groundwater extraction.
157176		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Swiss Red List as Vulnerable. It occurs in protected areas in France. Information on the population distribution, size and trend of the populations in Italy as well as potential threats is needed.
157176		distribution	eng	This European endemic is found in France, Switzerland and Italy. In France, it has two areas of distribution: one on the border of Herault and Gard and the other one in Alpes-Maritimes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence. In Switzerland, it is restricted to valleys of southern Alps. In Italy, it is found in the Ligurian Alps, extending to Lombardia and Südtirol. The largest part of the range is in Italy.<br/>There is one doubtful museum record from Jativa (Valencia, Spain) but the species has never been collected again in Spain and therefore this record has not been taken into consideration for this assessment (A. Martinez-Orti pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
157176		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter and scree in humid decidious forests and prefers limestone substrate.
157176		population	eng	The species is locally abundant and the populations are stable in France and Switzerland. It probably disappeared from the Poschiavo valley (Switzerland) where it has last been found in the 19th century. <br/>There is no information about the Italian populations.
157176		threats	eng	There are no actual known threats in Switzerland and France. Intensification of forest use and logging is a potential threat.
157177		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on the population, distribution and threats to this species.
157177		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean south-east France, extending slightly in Italy.
157177		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Mediterranean calcareous grasslands and shrublands, under rocks. It lives from 500 m to 1500 m asl.
157177		population	eng	The main subpopulation occurs in the south-east of the Alpes-Maritimes, in mountains north of Grasse. There are scattered sub-populations in the Ste-Victoire Mount and in Italy.
157177		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Overgrazing by sheep is a potential threat.
157178		conservation	eng	Conservation action is not needed for this species. Information about its ecology and life history is lacking, and needs research.
157178		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. Its range is limited to the north of Spain, living in the north (Cantabrian) and south slopes (Duero and Ebro) of the cantabrian mountains, from the west of the Basque country and north of Burgos, to the easternmost part of Galicia. Its distribution limits are marked by the river Nervión in the east and river Eo in the West.
157178		habitat	eng	This species lives within forests, in grasslands, river banks, rocky areas and ruderal habitats. It is protected against desiccation under stones or within leaf litter.
157178		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
157178		threats	eng	Main threats are fire and habitat alteration by allochthonous timber plantations.
157179		conservation	eng	The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. First of all, research activity should focus on these points and the systematic relationship of the two subspecies.<br/>    <p>The species is not protected at national level in the countries where occurs. However, some of the known sites are within protected areas such as Durmitor in Montenegro and Park Kombetar Theth in Albania.</p><p>Due to the stable population no conservation actions are required currently.</p>
157179		distribution	eng	This species is sporadically distributed in Bosnia, Montenegro, South Serbia and North Albania. Known distribution records are for: Hercegovina-Montenegro border:  "im Volujakgebirge", Crna Gora: Jeserska Kaar,  Durmitor (AnimalBase), "Bindža Planina im Komgebiet", "South Serbian highlands", Prokletije, Maja e Jeserce, (Bosnien) Berg Bjelasnica and "des Passes zw. Boga und Theth, Aufstieg auf Radoshine, Kalkgeröll, Felsen, 1900-2100 m asl. (Subai 1997).<br/>It seems that the two subspecies have two separate ranges. This species seems to live in the higher regions, therefore it has a scattered distribution.    <p>The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157179		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
157179		population	eng	<p>The potential locations of the species are difficult to access and as such the species’ range is quite unexplored. There is no data on the population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157179		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquake, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.</p>
157180		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable for Austria and Switzerland. More information on its status is needed for the major part of the remaining subpopulations.
157180		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Central Europe with a clear focus in the eastern countries. Outside Europe, it is also found in Turkey and the Caucasus region.
157180		habitat	eng	This species lives on dry calcareous hill and mountain slopes preferably with scattered larger or smaller rocks and stones. This species is characteristic for <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum</span> communities (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983).
157180		population	eng	There is no information&#160;available&#160;on the population size or trend.
157180		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat by encroachment of vegetation due to reduction of grazing.
157181		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
157181		distribution	eng	This species lives in Portugal, France (Corsica) and North-West Africa. According to Fauna Europaea, it also lives in Greece (where it is probably introduced (E. Neubert, pes. com. 2011)), Madeira and in the Canary island.
157181		habitat	eng	The species lives in forests.
157181		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
157181		threats	eng	Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe       destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion,   fire,  etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large      number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole      population significantly.
157182		conservation	eng	The use of biocides should be controlled and more research is needed on the ecology, population and distribution of this species.
157182		distribution	eng	This species is autochthonous from southern half of Sardinia (Italia) from where it was introduced by human in historic times to Balearic Islands, Mallorca and Menorca, and &#160;more recently Ibiza according to Anderson (in Beckmann 2007). It is also living in Corsica. The records of <em>Helix lanuginosa</em>&#160;and other related species from northern Africa (from Morocco to north-western Algeria, with one record from Tunisia) and south of Iberian Peninsula correspond to other species (Muñoz, Almodóvar y Arrébola 1999, Puente 1994).
157182		habitat	eng	<em>G. lanuginosa</em> is found in a wide range of habitats. It likes ruderal biotopes (i.e. roadsides), gardens, meadows and Mediterranean forests, where it can be found under stones or in leaf litter (Puente 1994). In Mallorca, where <em>G. lanuginosa</em> is abundant, it can be found in both dry areas with less human influence or in orchards where the number of specimens can be high. In Menorca, it is less abundant than in Mallorca and it generally occurs in sites where the humidity and vegetation persist throughout the year, as well as in dry and rocky areas, sometimes close to the sea (J. Quintana pers. comm.).
157182		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
157182		threats	eng	This species is well adapted to human-modified habitats and the most important threat would be the use of biocides, specially in roadsides and rocky walls where it is living.
157183		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157183		distribution	eng	<em>Napaeopsis ossica</em> is endemic to Greece and is known from a restricted range in the borderland&#160;of Thessalia and Macedonia, on mount Ossa (Boettger 1885, Bank and Menkhorst 1992).
157183		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in limestone rocks and in piles of stones in a variety of vegetation types.
157183		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is quite common (Boettger 1885, unpublished data).&#160;There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
157183		threats	eng	Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is not ant known direct threat for the species now or in the near future.
157184		conservation	eng	Although often uncommon at a site, the species is widely distributed and hence general conservation actions to maintain habitat will be beneficial to this species.
157184		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, and has not been recorded from Porto Santo or Desertas (Seddon 2008). Wollaston (1878) suggested that Paiva's record from an islet off Porto Santo was probably erroneous. A record from the Azores is erroneous (Backhuys 1975). &#160;On Madeira, it is mainly found in the central valleys and along the northern coasts of the island, from intermediate altitudes down to the coast (Seddon 2008).
157184		habitat	eng	This species is found in damp shady gullies and ravines in intermediate and higher elevations, usually in woodland.
157184		population	eng	This species is not abundant at sites (Seddon 2008).
157184		threats	eng	There are localised threats to the species, from habitat loss related to increased tourism development and road construction. However, the species is not believed to be threatened over its whole range.
157185		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157185		distribution	eng	The species is present in various areas of Greece (eastern central Greece, Peloponnese, North Sporades, some of the Cyclades and the eastern Aegean islands (Rhodes included), and also on Kythira and Evvoia Islands. The species is also present in the Turkish west coast &#160;(Hausdord 1996).
157185		habitat	eng	<p>Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;5.0 - 7.6 mm and a width of 2.2 - 2.9 mm.</p>
157185		population	eng	The species is quite widespread and abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157185		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
157186		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
157186		distribution	eng	This species is found on São Miguel island, Azores.
157186		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus vulgaris</span> lives in the drier portions of wooded habitats, where it can be found under logs and amidst clumps of dried vegetation, as well as under heaps of rocks and stone walls.
157186		population	eng	&#160;This species is abundant throughout the island in dry environments and in forested areas. The true extent of its range, however, awaits revision of the taxon.
157186		threats	eng	Due to the wide range of habitats <span style="font-style: italic;">Napaeus vulgaris</span> is found in, no threats are foreseen.
157187		conservation	eng	More studies should be conducted on&#160; the population estimates. Some of the subpopulations live in protected sites (areas managed by National and Regional Natural Reserves like&#160;Grazalema or Torcal de Antequera).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
157187		conservation	eng	More studies should be conducted on the population estimates. Some of the subpopulations live in protected sites (areas managed by National and Regional Natural Reserves like&#160;Grazalema or Torcal de Antequera).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucía).
157187		distribution	eng	<em>Chondrina calpica calpica</em> is distributed in some&#160;provinces of Andalusia (south of the Iberian Peninsula) and in the north of Morocco. In Andalusia, its presence has only been confirmed in the western end of Granada, Málaga and Cádiz (Arrébola and Gómez 1998; unpublished data). The mentions of this subspecies in Jaén (Gittenberger 1973) belong to <em>Chondrina granatensis&#160;</em>(Arrébola and Gómez 1998).<br/><em>Chondrina calpica altenai</em> is only known from the surroundings of Ceuta, in North Africa (Gittenberger 1973).
157187		distribution	eng	<em>Chondrina calpica calpica</em> is distributed in some&#160;provinces of Andalusia (south of the Iberian Peninsula) and in the north of Morocco. In Andalusia, its presence has only been confirmed in the western end of Granada, Málaga and Cádiz (Arrébola and Gómez 1998; unpublished data). The records of this subspecies in Jaén (Gittenberger 1973) belong to <em>Chondrina granatensis&#160;</em>(Arrébola and Gómez 1998).<br/><em>Chondrina calpica altenai</em> is only known from the surroundings of Ceuta, in North Africa (Gittenberger 1973).
157187		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcareous areas. It&#160;adheres&#160;to exposed rocks surface or is hidden in the crevices (less frequently, at the base of the rocks).
157187		population	eng	Since the known&#160;subpopulations are composed from a great number of individuals and the calcareous mountains where the species lives are widespread in its distribution area, it is possible to infer a stable and numerous population<span class="apple-style-span">.
157187		population	eng	There are no studies and no data on the population trends. Since the known&#160;subpopulations are composed from a great number of individuals and the calcareous mountains where the species lives are widespread in its distribution area, it is possible to infer a stable and numerous population<span class="apple-style-span">.
157187		threats	eng	Currently, no major threats are known, but future studies are needed to better understand the situation of this species (population, biology...).
157187		threats	eng	Currently, no major threats are known, but future studies are needed to know better the situation of this species (population, biology...).
157188		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at national level in Albania and most of its known sites are out of protected areas. However, at least one subpopulation occurs within the territory of Park Kombetar Lura.</p><p>There are no conservation actions currently required for this species.<br/></p>
157188		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North Albania. The known distribution records are: Mali i Shêjtë near  Oroshi, Mali i Munellës, Kurbnesh (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996), one km north of Kurbnesh, Lumi i Urakës, three km west of Qafa e Murrës, Shkëmb i Skanderbeut, Lumi i Varoshit, two km north of Bushtricë along the road towards Lusën, Ura e Lapavësl, one km north-east of Ndërshenë, beneath the Maja e Gurit te Çikut, Mali i Dejës, a limestone hill 1700 m above the spring section of the Lumi i Varoshit, one km west of Cidhnë along the footpath to Gurrë-Lurë (HNHM Mollusc Collection, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be  discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or  the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
157188		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157188		population	eng	<p>The potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored. There is no data on the population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
157188		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157189		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and the population of this species.
157189		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a small area in the west part of La Palma. The type locality is&#160; “calcareous “Llanos” (below Argual) of the Banda, on the western side of Palma”. It has not been re-discovered or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues, nor found by K. Groh (K. Groh, pers. comm., 2011).
157189		habitat	eng	The type locality is calcareous grassland (“Llanos”).
157189		population	eng	There are no data available.
157189		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
157190		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157190		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Theba grasseti </span>is only known to the Island of Gran Canaria. The species might only be confined to La Isleta and the adjacent extreme northeastern part of Gran Canada near Las Palmas. However, specimens have been observed at locations including La Isleta at an altitude of 50-100 m. La Luz, Las Coloradas, Las Palmas, Santa Catalina and Angostura at an altitude of approximately 300 m. All these sites are situated within La Casleta (= 1 location). Greve <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) record two locations in total with three specimens, one of them near Las Palmas, the other in the north-west of the island (= two locations).
157190		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Theba grasseti </span>is a terrestrial gastropod found living apart from the typical <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span>, being practically confined to the highlands and to the topmost ridges of the barrancos, and is never found naturally below an altitude of 130 m, except on the Isleta, where <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pisana</span> does not exist. <span style="font-style: italic;">Theba grasseti</span> is always found feeding on the Balsamiferous Spurge <span style="font-style: italic;">(Euphorbia balsamife</span>r). This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
157190		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157190		threats	eng	Almost nothing is known on the threats to this species. The main area of distribution for this species is in the direct vicinity of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, a flourishing and growing city. Probably, the species is so rare because most of its distribution area is already devastated by urbanisation, road construction, and similar activities. Only La Isleta is currently less affected because it is closed down by the military, the status of the subpopulation there is not clear at the moment. However, in case the area will be released from military purposes, the city will immediately spread to this area and demolish the last probable surviving subpopulations.
157191		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
157191		distribution	eng	This snail is found in the Cantabrians mountains and South-western Pyrenees. It occurs mainly in Spain with some subpopulations in France.
157191		habitat	eng	This species inhabits xerophilous grassland and rocky shrublands.
157191		population	eng	There are no population data available. The population is thought to be stable.
157191		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Fire of xerophilous grasslands can impact the species locally.
157192		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at national level where it lives, however some of the sub-populations inhabit protected areas.
157192		distribution	eng	This species lives in Bulgaria (Rila, Pirin and Rodope mountains) (Damjanov and Likharev 1975), Alibotush (Sandanski Mountains) (<a href="http://mollusca.sav.sk/pdf/7/7.Dedov.pdf">Dedov 2008</a>), in Macedonia (FYROM; Katlanovo) (collection of the HNHM) and in the adjacent region in Greece (www.animalbase.org).
157192		habitat	eng	<p>Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated primarily with limestone areas, where it is usually found under stones or at the base of rocks.</p>
157192		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.</p>
157192		threats	eng	This species lives in areas where human activity is not a serious problem. The species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other    realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the    complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying etc.).    Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations,    drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical"    threat.
157193		conservation	eng	No conservation actions currently in action.
157193		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa siderensis</em> is restricted&#160;to the easternmost mountain range of Crete,&#160;where it commonly occurs near the coast. The westernmost&#160;localities from which specimens were determined anatomically are Agia Fotia, Lithines, and&#160;Kalo Nero (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
157193		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in xeric shrublands (phrygana and maquis).
157193		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
157193		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently the threats to this species are unknown.
157194		conservation	eng	Protection of habitats is required, even if many sites are already in protected areas. Valido<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1999) considered this species as LR/lc (low risk).
157194		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the lowland of La Gomera.
157194		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal),border of Laurisilva, Brezal, extensive meadows, ruderal areas of cultivated land  ruderal areas and humid anthropogenic habitats.
157194		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable. The sub-populations are scattered.<br/></p>
157194		threats	eng	<p>In the borders of the distribution, it is affected by urbanization and  intensifying agriculture, possibly also by tourism, logging and road  constructions.</p>
157195		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. Research on the threats to this species are recommended.</p>
157195		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, restricted to the valley of Aoos river in Epirus&#160;(north-western Greece) (Subai and Fehér 2006).
157195		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas and in rock crevices.
157195		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a very rare species.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157195		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species.
157196		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and population of this species, as well as on the threats it may be facing.
157196		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the Crimean Mountains, in Ukraine.
157196		habitat	eng	This molluscs lives on rocks.
157196		population	eng	There are no data on the population of this species.
157196		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
157197		conservation	eng	This species seems to have declined in parts of the British Islands and in Central Europe. It is listed as Critically endangered in Vorarlberg (Austria), Endangered in Niedersachsen and Bavaria (Germany) and in other parts of Austria, and vulnerable in Switzerland and Germany (AnimalBase 2010 from various sources).<br/>More research on population trends and on the distribution range is needed.
157197		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe. It is known from Scandinavia to the British Isles, from France to the&#160; Pyrenees and northern Spain (isolated in Sierrra Nevada), alpine Italy, Hungary, the Balkans and the Crimean Peninsula and the Caucasus, with an isolated occurrence in the Altai Mountains (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983; Sysoev and Schileyko 2009).<br/><br/>Outside Europe, there are isolated occurrence in the Altai Mountains.
157197		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found hillside flushes, boggy areas, damp woods, marshes and dune slacks, fens and river wetlands although sometimes found in ground litter of woodland (Cameron <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kerney 1999).
157197		population	eng	There are no data on the population size and trend.
157197		threats	eng	This species is threatened by any human impact in habitat structure and quality like drainage of wetlands and conversion to agriculturally used areas.
157198		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Research is recommended to attempt to  re-discover the species in the areas that it has been previously found.
157198		distribution	eng	Described originally from "Canaries", this species is endemic to El Hierro, where it is known from the lowland in the South. The only detailed mentioned locality is Valverde. The species has not been re-found or mentioned by Ibanez and his colleagues, or found by Klaus Groh (K. Groh, pers. com., 2011).
157198		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
157198		population	eng	There is no information available.
157198		threats	eng	There is no information available.
157199		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">This species <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">is <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">currently not <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">threatened, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">but <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">habitat and population monitoring is recommended.<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span>
157199		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north-east of the Iberian peninsula, where it is found in the Spanish provinces of Alicante, Valencia and Murcia. It is widely distributed in Alicante, but rare in Valencia and Murcia. Recent surveys in Mazarrón, Murcia province have found no specimens.
157199		habitat	eng	This is a species living in environments of  Mediterranean scrub and pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span>) and oak forests under stons and trunks.
157199		population	eng	Some populations of this species have declined because of anthropogenic pressures and wildfires.
157199		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires, quarrying, urban expansion, temperature extremes, road extension  and   drought.
157200		conservation	eng	Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.
157200		distribution	eng	Endemic to Europe: This species is endemic to Canary Islands, where it lives in the northern and mainly northeastern parts of Tenerife in the middle altitudes. The distribution area of this species is severely fragmented.
157200		habitat	eng	This species lives in Laurel forests (Laurisilva) and Fayal-Brezal.
157200		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are presumed to be stable.
157200		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known.
157201		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
157201		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in France, Andorra and Spain, along the Mediterranean coast, from the province of Valencia to the Pyrénées-Orientales in France. There is another disjunct subpopulation in the Causses of Lozère (France).
157201		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
157201		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
157201		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Urbanization, quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
157202		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. ronnebyensis</span> is listed as Endangered for Germany (Jungbluth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
157202		distribution	eng	This species lives mainly in Scandinavia, the Baltic States, Russia, Poland and Germany.
157202		habitat	eng	This species lives in pine or deciduous forest in the leaf litter and mosses, often in dense vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vaccinium</span>. It prefers acidic soils (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983).
157202		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157202		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species.
157203		conservation	eng	Parts of the known range of this species are under protection schemes.
157203		distribution	eng	This species is widespread on Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.
157203		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
157203		population	eng	There is no information available on on the population size of this species.
157203		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to ongoing agricultural and touristic activities as well as grazing by goats. However, there are no data on any major influence of these threats to the population.
157204		conservation	eng	There is no information available. Further research is need on&#160; the population size, distribution area, etc.
157204		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera. It has been described from this island without any further precise locality.
157204		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
157204		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157204		threats	eng	There is no information available.
157205		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is included in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concerned&#160;(LC).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in Lesvos&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157205		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in Lesvos&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157205		distribution	eng	The species is found on Lesvos island (Aegean Sea, Greece) (Bank 1985) and in western Turkey (Gümüs and E. Neubert pers. comm. 2010).
157205		distribution	eng	The species is found on Lesvos island (Aegean Sea, Greece) (Bank, 1985) and in western Turkey (Gumus and Neubert pers. comm., 2010).
157205		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in&#160;open habitats with the presence of rocks (Bank 1985).
157205		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species. This species is thought to be abundant within its range.</p>
157205		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;</p>
157205		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats. No conservation action is currently applied.</p>
157206		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157206		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, restricted in the mountains of&#160;Psiloritis and Lefka Ori (Vardinoyannis 1994).
157206		habitat	eng	The species is restricted in mountainous areas of the Crete,&#160;found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.<p></p>
157206		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157206		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
157208		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Ireland as Least Concern (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
157208		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe, and is locally abundant (Kerney, Cameron&#160; and Jungbluth 1983). In Ireland, it has a patchy distribution (Kerney 1999) and common only in  some central and eastern counties (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
157208		habitat	eng	The species has a general preference for temperate forest. Kerney (1999) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hortensis</span> prefers shadier and moister places than <em>C. nemoralis</em>  in Britain. Such a distinction is not clear in Ireland although, unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><em>nemoralis</em>,   it does not favour coastal dunes. While <em>C. hortensis</em> has a Boreal-continental range more typical  of xeric cold-adapted species, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><em>nemoralis</em> has a markedly  western range (Suboceanic Southern-temperate) and seems better adapted  to equable, wet climates (Byrne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
157208		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.</p>
157208		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
157209		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions.
157209		distribution	eng	This species in endemic to the Canary islands where it is widespread all around La Gomera.
157209		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the typical lowland-vegetation of the Canaries (Piso basal and Piso infracanario).
157209		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
157209		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157210		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
157210		distribution	eng	The species is known from Greece (east Aegean Islands), south-west Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria and Cyprus (Vardinoyannis 1994, Ridout-Sharpe 1998, Schütt &#160;2001, Örstan 2004, Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
157210		habitat	eng	This species is found in limestone rocks,&#160;usually&#160;in crevices, &#160;and piles of stones.
157210		population	eng	The species is quite rare locally.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"></a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><span class="apple-style-span"></a></p>
157210		threats	eng	<span class="txtBlack">Grazing and fire are the most important threats in the species' area of of distribution, however they do not appear to be affecting the population at the current time.
157211		conservation	eng	<p>The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;Although Taygetos mountain is included&#160;various protection schemes (e.g. Natura 2000, Site: GR2550006), there is no conservation action regarding the species. More research on the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of the species is needed.<br/></p>
157211		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Peloponnese (Taygetos Mt.) in Greece (Kobelt 1877).
157211		habitat	eng	The habitat and the ecology of the species is largely unknown. The species was found under stones in the Taygetos mountain in Peloponnese (Kobelt 1876).
157211		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157211		threats	eng	Since the habitat and the ecology is&#160;understudied it is&#160;difficult&#160;to assess the possible current or future threats for the species. Grazing and fire could potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species.
157212		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action for this species.</p>
157212		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete and its distributed in the south-eastern part of the island and in some of the surrounding islets (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
157212		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Parmakelis 2003).</p>
157212		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
157212		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"></span>
157213		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
157213		distribution	eng	This species is found on Terceira, São Jorge, Fayal and Pico islands, Azores. Morelet (1860) mentioned this species only for Terceira, but Backhuys (1975) has given the correct account of its actual distribution.
157213		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moreletina vespertina</span> lives in the drier portions of endemic and, most frequently, secondary forests, where it can be found under dead leaves, fallen logs as well as under loose stones. It is distributed from about 150 m (Ribeiras, Pico island: coordinates unavailable) to over 1000 m (Cabeço da Bola, Pico island: N 38º 28' 42"; W 028º 25' 11"; 1040 m) (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)
157213		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout each of the islands it is present on Terceira, São Jorge, Fayal and Pico islands.(Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)
157213		threats	eng	Due to its wide range of habitats, no threats are foreseen.
157214		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although it is present in areas<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.<span class="apple-style-span"></span></span></p>
157214		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, found in islands of the Cyclades and eastern Aegean Islands, such as Astypalaia (Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2008).
157214		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly under stones, in piles of stones and under shrubs.
157214		population	eng	The species is quite abundant.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157214		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The expansion of the cultivated areas, grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.&#160;</p>
157215		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157215		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Island of Crete, distributed in the&#160;south-eastern&#160;part of the island&#160;(Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
157215		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Parmakelis 2003).</p>
157215		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157215		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><p>Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.&#160;</p>
157217		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place or required for this species at present.
157217		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy).
157217		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter and herbaceous layers in semi-open biotopes.
157217		population	eng	There is a large distribution through Sardinia, with a further nine known sites in the southernmost region of Corsica. The population size is not known and there is no data on population trends, although the Corsican population is thought to be partly declining.
157217		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are overgrazing and exploitation.
157218		conservation	eng	The species is possibly not protected at national level in Italy.
157218		distribution	eng	The species is only known from one locality: Taormina castello, Sicily, Italy.
157218		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species.
157218		population	eng	There are no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to      assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
157218		threats	eng	It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons.
157219		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argna valsabina</span> is officially listed as a priority species for Lombardia (Italy).
157219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy where it is found in the Venetian and Lombardian Prealps.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>
157219		habitat	eng	This species is found in calcareous subterranean interstices. It is a troglophile species, which means that it is able to live its entire life in a cave.
157219		population	eng	The exact population size of this species is unknown, but the general trend is declining.
157219		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the habitat deterioration and destruction. Particularly quarrying and road construction may lead to a serious decline in quality and/or availability of the habitat.
157220		conservation	eng	The area where this species occur should be protected.
157220		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Crimean Mountains, in Ukraine.
157220		habitat	eng	This molluscs is found in shady and damp sites or in gorges.
157220		population	eng	There are no data available on the population of this species.
157220		threats	eng	Increase in temperature and light exposure as a result of climate changes is impacting this species.
157222		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species and none are needed.
157222		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Europe, and locally abundant. It is recorded from Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.
157222		habitat	eng	This species lives on meadows and in hedges, it prefers open habitats. In the northern parts of its distribution area, it lives only in dry and sunny places.
157222		population	eng	The size and trends within the sub-populations are believed to be stable.
157222		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
157223		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">The species is not protected at a national level in the countries where it occurs. It is probable that some subpopulations live within protected areas such as in the Triglav National Park in Slovenia. No conservation actions are required currently.<br/></a></p>
157223		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southeastern Alps.&#160;Fauna Europaea indicates that this species is from Italy, Austria, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Serbia, Albania and Romania, but not from Slovenia and Croatia. In contrast, according to AnimalBase, its type locality is in Slovenia, near Moravča ("in  voragine "Boltačev brezen" nec non in specu "Ihanška" regions  "Moraeutscher Gegend" dictae Carnioliae superioris").&#160;More specific distribution data includes: Eisenerzer Alpen and Karawanken in Austria (Klemm 1973), Valle del Isonzo and Carso in Italy (Alzona 1971). Its occurrence in Albania is doubtful (Fehér and Erőss 2009b) as is i<a name="OLE_LINK1">ts occurrence in the Balkan Peninsula and in Romania.</a> Grossu (1983) indicates that this species is from Romania, but this needs confirmation.&#160;There are at least seven definite locations in Austria. If Slovenian and Italian parts of the range are taken into consideration, the real number of locations should be higher and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.<a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/></a>
157223		habitat	eng	<p>This species is generally lives in rocky areas, rocky forests or rocky shrublands. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites, or on the ground among leaf-litter, or decaying dead wood.</p>
157223		population	eng	<p>There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.  </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157223		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local subpopulations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, earthquakes, etc.). Considering the proposed number of existing subpopulations, local activities do not seem to affect the whole population.</p>
157224		conservation	eng	In the Red List of Austria all the subspecies are assessed: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. achates </span>Near Threatened (NT), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. achates sensu </span>Least Concern (LC), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cingulina</span> Near Threatened (NT), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rhaeticum</span> Vulnerable (VU), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stiriae </span>Least Concern (LC). <br/>In the Red Lists of Germany and of Bavaria the species is listed in category R (corresponding to "Rare").
157224		distribution	eng	Endemic to Europe. The species is found across the Eastern Alps in Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Italy, with an extension to Wachau (Austria) and Southern Bohemia (Bohemian Mass, Czech Republic).<br/><br/>The general distribution of the species agg. is eastern alpine; the single subspecies are distributed as follows:<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. a. achates</span>: north of the main alpine divide from Vorarlberg to the Enns Valley and Bavarian Alps in the north; with extensions to the Bohemian Mass (Böhmerwald and Weinviertel).<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. a. cingulina</span>: Lower Austrian Alps from the Enns Valley to the eastern margin of the Alps (except the Flysch zone), northern Styrian Alps, and eastern Carinthia north of the Drau (see map in Reischütz and Reischütz 2009)<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. a. stiriae</span>: endemic to the Grazer Bergland and some adjacent massifs (see map in Reischütz and Reischütz 2009)<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. a. ochroleucum</span>: known only from its type locality in Southern Bohemia (Hojná Voda) near the border of Lower Austria<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ch. a. achates </span>sensu Klemm: this subspecies (for which a valid name has not yet been found) is distributed south of the main alpine divide in East Tyrol, eastern Carinthia, and adjacent Italy.
157224		habitat	eng	<em></em>The species lives in the montane to subalpine zone in shaded and moist rocky biotopes, and also in montane mixed forests; it is not strictly bound to calcareous substrates.
157224		population	eng	The population trend is decreasing. Reischütz and Reischütz 2007 estimate for Austria a decrease between 20% and 50%.
157224		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism and forestry. Tourist activities like skiing, hiking, climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality; this threat is ongoing or even increasing in the last 10 years. Possibly acid precipitation might impact the species too.
157225		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is included in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157225		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece. It is present in a large part of the mainland, e.g. Epirus, Central Greece, Peloponnese (Sattmann and Reischütz 1994).
157225		habitat	eng	This is a soil-dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands.
157225		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157225		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence of any direct threats for the species.
157226		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
157226		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa meda</em> is known&#160;from the Italian mainland, Sicily, and Malta. Its&#160;native range is unclear, because the species is&#160;restricted to anthropogenic habitats. Originally, it&#160;was described from Sardinia, but only a single record&#160;is known from there, and could possibly be the result&#160;of a recent introduction (Giusti <em>et al</em>. 1995). <em>Xerocrassa&#160;meda</em> has also been introduced on Lesvos&#160;(Bank 1988) and Kos (Bank and Neuteboom 1988). On Crete it&#160;was found only once on the old city walls of Chania by&#160;W. J. M. Maassen in 1987 (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009). &#160;Hausdorf and Sauer (2009) note that they could not locate the species in Crete in the location mentioned by&#160;W. J. M. Maassen and they consider that probably&#160;the introduced population became&#160;extinct.
157226		habitat	eng	Mainly restricted in anthropogenic habitats.
157226		population	eng	The population trend for this species is increasing due to recent expansions of suitable habitat. This species lives in anthropogenic habitats.
157226		threats	eng	The species is favoured by man activities and is mainly restricted&#160;restricted to anthropogenic habitats.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
157227		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.
157227		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Croatia and is found in Istria, on the Croatian littoral. <br/></p>
157227		habitat	eng	This species was found on dry grassland.
157227		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157227		threats	eng	The main&#160; threats to this species are unknown.
157230		conservation	eng	This species is not protected on national level in Romania and in Ukraine.&#160;No conservation measures are needed for this species.
157230		distribution	eng	According to Grossu (1983), <span style="font-style: italic;">A aethiops aethiops</span> lives in the Fagaras Mts and in the Retezat Mts. <span style="font-style: italic;">Arianta aethiops petrii</span> lives only in the Rodna Mts. According to www.animalbase.org the species lives in Western Ukraine (Rakhiv and Cernivtsi region). The sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ae. petrii </span>occurs also in the Rarau Mts (Páll-Gergely unpublished).
157230		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aethiops aethiops</span> seems to be an obligate rock-dwelling species in high altitudes (above 1800 m). It can also be found under huge rocks. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. aethiops petrii</span> also occurs in forests.
157230		population	eng	The species is relatively rare everywhere where occurs.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
157230		threats	eng	<p>This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the habitat. Considering that inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic ecosystem modification is only a "hypothetical" threat.</p>
157231		conservation	eng	The total area is situated in the highly protected central zone of Parco Nazionale Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga.
157231		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Gran Sasso, Italy. The species is only known from the central chain of the Gran Sasso above 2,300 m in the regione Abruzzi. It is is recorded from two locations representing two sites resulting in an area of occupancy of 8 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence of 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
157231		habitat	eng	This species lives in crevices of limestone rocks with landslip.
157231		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
157231		threats	eng	The species is only endangered by natural factors. An ongoing decline caused by a general climatic desiccation in Central Italy in the last two decades was observed.
157233		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157233		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It was described  from three specimens from the mountains above St. Cruz de Tenerife. This species has probably not been found again since its description, there are no published records.
157233		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
157233		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157233		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
157234		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Swiss Red List as Data Deficient (DD). There  is taxonomic misidentification around this species and its  distribution  range cannot be clearly defined in France and Italy so research is required in these areas.
157234		distribution	eng	This European endemic is native to France, Italy and Switzerland where it is found at one site near Montreux. It occurs in France, in the areas of Ain, Drome, Isere and Ardeche. It is not known where the Italian sites are.
157234		habitat	eng	This species lives in warm, dry forests and in bushes.
157234		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown, and there is no data on population trend.
157234		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
157235		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures.
157235		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in western Ukraine to northern Carpathians, south of  Poland, eastern German highlands, eastern Alps and nearby highlands, to the west up  to southern Germany (Fränkischer Jura, Oberschwaben), west of Austria (Tirol:  Inntal), and Bosnia.
157235		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase (2010), the species lives in herbal and shrub layers in humid forests, usually in mountains.
157235		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however,&#160;the population trend is thought to be stable.
157235		threats	eng	Local   sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe     destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, fire,  etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the  large    number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the  whole    population significantly.
157236		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
157236		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the southeastern part of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from seven locations and 16 sites.<br/></p>
157236		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
157236		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
157236		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
157238		conservation	eng	Major parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.
157238		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northeaster area of the island of Tenerife.
157238		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), Laurel forests (Laurisilva) and Fayal-Brezal.
157238		population	eng	The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.
157238		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species .
157239		conservation	eng	<p>The whole known range falls within the Park Kombetar Dajti.<br/></p><p>The taxonomy surrounding this species needs to be clearly understood as at present it is unclear whether this species is truly distinct from<em>&#160;Josephinella byshekensis</em>.</p>
157239		distribution	eng	As far as is known this species is a narrow range endemic occurring in the Dajti Mountains near Tirane, Albania. Due to the proximity to the Albanian capital, this area is affected by various ecosytem modifications and stresses such as deforestation, recreational activities and construction work and therefore it could be proposed that both the extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are declining, but this would need further studies.
157239		habitat	eng	<p>Although this  is neither an obligate rock-dweller nor a sylvicol species, it is generally associated with limestone areas and rocky forests or rocky shrublands. It is usually found in the crevices or at the base of rocks in shady and cooler sites, or on the ground among leaf-litter or decaying dead wood.</p>  <h1>&#160;</h1>
157239		population	eng	As far as it is known, this species occurs in only one location near Tirana. Due to the proximity to the Albanian capital, this  area is affected by various ecosystem modifications and stresses such as deforestation, recreational activities and construction work and therefore  it could be proposed that the number of mature individuals could be declining, or extremely fluctuating. This, however would  need further research.
157239		threats	eng	<p>This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications which affect either the rocks or the vegetation in their habitats. These might be deforestation, logging, recreational activities or quarrying. Such threats should only be taken seriously if the range of this species is as narrow as it is currently believed.<br/></p>
157240		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
157240		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, present in areas of the Iraklion&#160;prefecture (Maassen 1995, Parmakelis 2003).
157240		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).</p>
157240		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
157240		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</a><span class="apple-style-span"> </span></p>
157244		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It has been recorded from many protected areas. Further research is needed into the population dynamics and harvest levels for this species.
157244		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from Romania (where it is possibly extinct), through Bulgaria, Albania, Macedonia, Greece (including the islands of Limnos, Paros, Antiparos, Kalymnos, Corfu, Lesbos, Chios and Samos among many others), Turkey (widespread, except in the Black Sea coastal region), eastwards into Iran, Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia and into the Caucasus Mountains of southern Armenia, Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia and southern Russia. It is also present in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Egypt westwards through Libya, Tunisia and Algeria to Morocco. It can be found from below sea level up to 1,700m asl (Lake Van, Turkey).
157244		habitat	eng	This species can be found inhabiting open dry steppes and semi-deserts. It appears to prefer clay and stony soils, and is more rarely it is encountered on stabilized sands and in vineyards and gardens. In the Caucasus it is found at altitudes from 1,500 up to 1,700m asl along the river valleys. On the northern border of its distribution range (in southern Russia) it has been recorded from the sheep's fescue-sagebrush steppe. Habitats everywhere are associated with arid landscapes. It can be found burrowing through the soil and often lives in rodent burrows. It is ovoviviparous, the females produce between six and 20 live young in August - September. Pregnancy continues about 5 months. Period of activity lasts from March - April to the beginning of October.
157244		population	eng	It is generally an uncommon or rare species. In Romania it is known from only a few specimens.
157244		threats	eng	This species appears to be declining in various parts of its range, especially in the west. It is susceptible to intensification of agricultural methods, pollution, overcollection of animals and persecution by people. In Egypt it has been heavily overcollected for the pet trade and suitable habitats have been destroyed, mostly through quarrying and reclamation of land for agriculture.
157245		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is present in protected areas in Serbia and Montenegro and in Greece. There is research needed to confirm the relationships between populations in the western and eastern parts of the species range. Habitat protection is especially needed for the isolated populations. Further information is needed into the distribution and conservation status of this species in Central Europe.
157245		distribution	eng	This species occurs in very fragmented populations, ranging from eastern and southern Serbia, western and southern Romania, much of Bulgaria (except the southwest), and northeastern Greece (a few records from the margin of its range) to European Turkey (Thrace only). It also occurs as a second disjunct population ranging from northwestern Iran, through Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia into southern Russia. It is found up to 2000m asl in Armenia and Georgia.
157245		habitat	eng	This is a largely terrestrial species often found in clearings with lush vegetation, traditional meadows and glades within open broad-leaf woodland. In the Caucasus, the females lays four to eight eggs in a clutch between the middle of June and the middle of July (two clutches during the summer for Georgia and Armenia). The young hatch from August to September. This species goes to hibernation in October.
157245		population	eng	It is rather rare in Central and Southern Europe. Good, stable populations of this species remain within the Caucasus.
157245		threats	eng	Populations in Central and Southern Europe (including Thrace) are significantly threatened by habitat loss and degradation caused by agricultural intensification (conversion of suitable habitat; overgrazing; agrochemical pollution) (CoE, 2003). Threats to the species in the eastern part of its range are unclear, but are presumed to include habitat loss through agricultural intensification.
157246		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Appendix II of CITES. There is a need to protect the coastal habitat of this species. Its range includes many protected areas, for example the following ones in Morocco: Tamga, Saghro, Chekhar, Talassemtane, Trois fourches, Sebkha Bou Areg, Gourougou, Embouchure Moulouya, Béni Snassen, Jbel Moussa, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Brikcha, Koudiat Tidighine, Lalla Outka, Lalla Chafia, Bou Iblane, Bou Naceur, Jbel Tichoukt, and Jaaba. There is a need to monitor and regulate the collection of animals in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). In Spain, barriers have been created in an attempt to prevent mortality on roads.
157246		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Europe, northern Africa and southwestern Asia. In Europe it is found in Malta, and on Crete (although this requires confirmation), Samos and Chios (both in Greece), and in southern coastal Spain and Portugal where it is probably introduced before 1500. It was reportedly introduced to the island of Sicily, Italy, but its presence was never confirmed; a small, probably introduced, population is reported to be present in Apulia in southwestern Italy (not mapped here) (Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are old reports of an introduced population in Crete, Greece but there are no specimens. In North Africa it occurs along the Atlantic coast of Western Sahara, is widely distributed in Morocco, and is present in northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt. In southwestern Asia it occurs on the island of Cyprus, in southern Turkey (and as isolated populations in the Marmaraa region [Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2000; Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2006]), through the Levant region of western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western Jordan, western and southwestern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen. It can be found from sea level up to 1,850m asl.
157246		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species found climbing in bushes in dry habitats. It inhabits shrubland, plantations, open pine woodland, orchards (such as almonds and olive groves) and gardens. In Egypt, it also occurs on vegetation in sparsely vegetated open gravel plains. The females produce a single clutch of between five and forty-five eggs per year, these are buried in the soil.
157246		population	eng	It is a common species in most of its native range. In Spain, the species is most commonly found in densities of 10 to 25 animals per hectare, although up to 50 animals per hectare may be found. It is rare in Western Sahara. In Egypt, it is fairly common in coastal areas, but uncommon in more inland arid areas. In Turkey, it is uncommon (Avci and Kumluta?, pers. comm. 2008).
157246		threats	eng	It is threatened locally by loss of habitat through urbanization and the development of tourist facilities, agricultural intensification, predation by domestic animals, accidental mortality on roads and by illegal collection of animals. It may be used for remedies or as a talisman in North Africa (not in Egypt). Animals are caught, sometimes illegally, for the international pet market and are offered to tourists at local markets. In Turkey, forest fires are also a threat.
157247		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Egypt, there is a need for further research into the impacts of harvesting on this species. Regulation and monitoring of the trade in this species in Egypt may be needed.
157247		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Greece and Turkey (west, southern, southeastern, central, northern central Anatolia to the Black Sea) to Syria, Lebanon, northwestern Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, northern and western Jordan, Israel and northern Egypt (and introduced west of the Nile). In Greece it is found in northern mainland (mainly in Kentriki Makedonia) where it was possibly introduced, and on the islands of Corfu in the Ionian Islands, the Cyclades (Mykonos, Rhineia, Delos, Paros, Despotiko, Antiparos), Naxos and eastern Aegean islands, and islands close to the Turkish mainland (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Ikaria and Rhodes). It is also present in Cyprus, and it has been introduced to Malta (Arnold 2003). It occurs from sea level up to 1,900m asl.
157247		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species that is found in a variety of dry, arid and semi-arid habitats, often in rocky areas. Populations are often present in rocky mountainous and coastal regions. It can be found on rocks, trees, buildings and other habitats that it can climb on. The females lay from three to 12 eggs per clutch (Disi, 2002). In north Sinai it can be found in cultivated areas such as orchards (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
157247		population	eng	It is generally a very common species. In Egypt the species is declining. The populations in mainland Greece were probably introduced after 1500.
157247		threats	eng	There generally appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. In Egypt it is threatened by overcollection for the pet trade and habitat loss in some areas through coastal development (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
157248		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. There is a need to conserve separate evolutionary lineages of this species, as some may represent currently unrecognized species. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
157248		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges southwards from Scandinavia (where the species is patchily distributed in the northern part of the range) and the Baltic region to France and the United Kingdom (not present in Ireland), and eastwards through Europe (excluding Iberia, peninsular Italy and most of Greece) to Russia (as far east as Sakhalin), Mongolia, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea and northwestern China.  On the Balkan peninsula it is largely restricted to montane areas and has a very fragmented distribution. It has been recorded from sea-level up to 2,700m asl (the Alps and in Bulgaria).<br/><br/>[[ASIAN DISTRIBUTION NOT YET MAPPED]]
157248		habitat	eng	It is present in a wide variety of habitats including, open woodland and shrubland, hedgerows, field edges, heathland, moors, grasslands, alpine meadows, dunes and marshes. It generally requires humid habitats. The female produces between three and 18 young.
157248		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat. In some mountainous parts of its range, such as Bulgaria and Greece, it is a rare species (Alexander Westerström pers. comm.). In Germany there have been population declines and some local extinctions. Lowland populations from Po plain in northern Italy are extinct in the past century.
157248		threats	eng	In Europe, populations of this species have been significantly fragmented by the intensification of agricultural methods and development. Populations of this species are susceptible to persecution and collection for the pet trade (Ursenbacher, 1997). It is threatened in Romania by illegal collection of animals for venom extraction (CoE, 2003). In some parts of its range afforestation, and succession as a result of abandonment of traditional agricultural practices, are threats.
157249		conservation	eng	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. Further studies may be needed into the distribution of this species. It is protected by national legislation in some countries of its range (e.g.. Austria, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland). It is categorised as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).
157249		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout much of Europe, generally being absent only from Ireland, northern Scandinavia, central and southern Iberia, most Mediterranean Islands, and Greece (excluding the southern Peloponnese). There are isolated populations outside the main range in several places: near Lisbon in western Portugal; on Kaz Dagi (Ida Mountains, Canakkale and Balikesir) in extreme western Turkey (C.V. Tok pers. comm.); and in the Caucasus region of northeastern Turkey, northern Iran (restricted to the Caspian region), Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and southern Russia. In Northern Euraisa, it is very widespread in the forest zone stretching from the Baltic countries, through Belarus, the Ukraine and Moldova in the west to the left-bank valley of the Tobol River of western Siberia in the far east of its range. Records from North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) might be misidentifications (Schleich <em>et al</em>., 1996). It can be found from sea level up to 2,400m asl.
157249		habitat	eng	Populations of this species can be found in grassy meadows, woodland glades, heathland, at the forest edge, in forest clearings, with alluvial forest, under hedgerows, in parkland and rural gardens. Animals have been found burrowing in loose sand and under rocks.  It is an ovoviviparous species; the female gives birth to between three and 26 young.
157249		population	eng	It can be relatively common, but localized declines are believed to be taking place through the conversion of land to intensive agriculture. Changes in population abundance is difficult to determine as the species spends a considerable time underground (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.).
157249		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by a general loss of habitat due to agricultural intensification and urbanization, fires and reafforestation of clearings. Animals are also killed on roads in parts of its range, and predation by cats is a threat in some areas. Unmediated mitigation projects, such as the translocation of subpopulations, are a threat to some UK populations. It is not collected commercially.
157250		conservation	eng	In general no conservation activities are currently needed for this species as a whole. The distinct, isolated population inhabitating the Sary Kum sand dune close to Makhachkala City in Daghestan, needs urgent conservation action, including the development of a protected area, to prevent further loss of its habitat through mining of these dunes.
157250		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Russia (Dagestan, Kalmykia and the eastern part of Chechnya) in the northwest of its range, through Kazakhstan to northwestern China. In the south of its range it occurs from the Central Plateau of Iran, through Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to Kyrgyzstan to Tajikistan. The species exists as a number of isolated populations. They are found from 45m bsl to around 1,000 m asl.
157250		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with open sand dunes. Animals have also been recorded from flat desert areas, where populations are limited to sandy flats with a low shrub cover, on sandy, gravel strewn hammada and on barren salt flats (Anderson, 1999). Animals are often observed in suitable habitat close to roads (Anderson, 1999). The female lays between two and six eggs.
157250		population	eng	In Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan this is a common species in sandy deserts (found at densities of 18 animals per 2 km2 in Kara Kum, Turkmenistan; at densities of 64 animals per hectare in Kazahstan).
157250		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by the stabilisation of dunes and the conversion of dune habitats to agricultural land (through irrigation), mining (sand extraction) and urban areas.
157251		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is protected in the Borzhomsky, Liakhvsky and Saguramsky reserve of Georgia, in the Girkansky, Zakatal'sky, Pirkulinsky and Turianchaisky reserve of Azerbaijan, in the Khosrov reserve of Armenia. The species was included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) - an endangered species; of Georgia (1982) - category 2. It is included into the Red Data Book of Russian Federation (2001): category 3.
157251		distribution	eng	This species is found over much of Turkey, through Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and the Caucasus region of southern Russia, to northwestern Iran and far northern Iraq, and south to Lebanon and Mount Hermon (in Israeli-occupied Syria). It is presumed to occur in western Syria in the area mapped. It occurs from 100 up to 3,000m asl.
157251		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is largely found in mountainous areas where it occurs on open, rocky slopes, in wooded ravines, wet valleys and at the edges of deciduous woodland. Period of activity lasts from March to October. It can be found among ruins and in traditionally farmed land and rural gardens. The females lay between three and seven eggs in a clutch.
157251		population	eng	It is a fairly common species over much of its range. It is moderately rare on Mount Hermon.
157251		threats	eng	It is locally threatened in parts of Lebanon and Turkey by intensive habitat loss. In Turkey this species is threatened by forest fires in the south-west and development in the coastal areas where it occurs. It is locally threatened at Mount Hermon, Israel by habitat loss. Intensive anthropogenic destruction of the mountainous-arid territories in the eastern part of the Caucasian Isthmus and associated transformation of the vegetation have led to significant declines. This species is sold in the pet trade, although not in large numbers given the difficulty in finding them.
157252		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is protected under Appendix II of Bern and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as part of <em>P. erhardii</em>).
157252		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete and its satellite islands. On the island of Crete it is present only on the western part, mostly to the west of a north-south axis ‘cutting’ Crete at the town of Rethymno. In this area it is found from sea level to 2,000m asl. The satellite islets are: Elaphonisos, Artemis, Gaidouronisi (=Chryssi), Mikronisi (immediately east of Gaidouronisi), Kavalloi, Elasa, Paximada, Dragonada, Prassonisi (immediately north of Dragonada) Avgo, Dia, Karga, Ag. Nikolaos (in the gulf of Souda) and Ag. Theodoroi (=Thodorou)(Lymberakis et al. 2008). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,000 m.
157252		habitat	eng	It occupies shrubland, rocky areas, and dry river beds.
157252		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified. It is common in suitable habitats but very patchily distributed.
157252		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation from urbanization and tourist development are the main threats.
157253		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range it is presumably present in many protected areas. Research into commercial harvest levels in Egypt is needed. As a species with a reducing number it is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, 2001).
157253		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present in North Africa, southern Europe, West Asia and the Caucasus. In North Africa it ranges from Tunisia in the west, through northern Libya to northern Egypt (with an apparently isolated population at Siwa). In southern Europe, it is largely found in the Balkans being distributed along the Adriatic coastal area from Slovenia and Croatia (including some Adriatic islands) to Albania, eastern Macedonia, most of Greece (including some Aegean islands) and southern Bulgaria. There is an isolated population on Lampedusa island (Italy). The species is present on Cyprus, in much of Turkey, in the Caucasus region (and adjacent Kalmykia in southern Russia), western Iran, Iraq and western Saudi Arabia. The species also ranges south from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan.
157253		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid open woodlands, scrubland with low cover, dry steppe, open spaces, stabilized sand dunes coastal dunes, grassland, meadows, flood plains and cultivated land. In the Transcaucasian region it is found in dry rocky semi-desert, preferring places with rough rocky terrain. It is often found near wetlands in the Nile Delta. The females lay between four and 20 eggs.
157253		population	eng	This is generally a common species. In Egypt it is still reasonably common, but declining.
157253		threats	eng	There are overall no major threats to this species. On Lampedusa Island (Italy) populations are heavily impacted by mortality on roads. In Egypt it is collected in large numbers for the international pet trade, and is also threatened by land reclamation for agriculture, overgrazing, collection of firewood, quarrying and urbanization. The species is used by snake charmers and as a souvenir for tourists in Tunisia (Juan M. Pleguezuelos, pers. comm. October 2008).
157254		conservation	eng	The species probably occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>P. algirus</em>). Research is needed to determine the distribution limits of this species.
157254		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian peninsula, where it occurs in Portugal and western and central parts of Spain. The range limits of this species in the east (where it overlaps with <em>P. jeanneae</em>) is imprecisely mapped and requires further clarification.
157254		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal sand dunes, pine and oak forest and shrubland.
157254		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in suitable habitats. Densities of 13-25 specimens per hectare, and up to 178 individuals per hectare, have been recorded (Gil Costa 1992).
157254		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
157255		conservation	eng	Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) report that the wide range and stable numbers of this species indicate that there is no need for any special protection measures. Parts of this species distribution range are likely to coincide with protected areas.
157255		conservation	eng	Szczerbak and Golubev (1996), report that the wide range and stable numbers of this species indicate that there is no need for any special protection measures. Parts of this species distribution range is likely to coincide with protected areas.
157255		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Russia (Kalmykia and Dagestan), Georgia (Tibilisi and Abkhazia, possibly introduced), Armenia and Azerbaijan (from Yerevan to Julfa, Central and Eastern Azerbaijan), Iran, northern Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and southwestern Kazakhstan (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). It is also present on islands in the Caspian Sea. It has possibly been recorded from Syria, however, the record from Heme, South Haleb, needs to be confirmed (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). <br/><br/>The species has almost certainly been transported into the European part of its range by human activity (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It has been recorded up to 1,653 m above sea level in Afghanistan and to a lower elevational limit of 45 m below sea level.
157255		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Russia (Kalmykia and Dagestan), Georgia (Tibilisi and Abkhazia, possibly introduced), Armenia and Azerbaijan (from Yerevan to Julfa, Central and Eastern Azerbaijan), Iran, northern Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and southwestern Kazakhstan (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). It is also present on islands in the Caspian Sea. It has possibly been recorded from Syria, however the record from Heme, South Haleb, needs to be confirmed (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The species has almost certainly been transported into the European part of its range by human activity (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It has been recorded up to 1,653 m asl (Afghanistan).
157255		habitat	eng	This largely crepuscular and nocturnal species is found in rocky areas, on cliff faces and outcrops, among ruins and in buildings (Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded from open steppe habitat in Azerbaijan and it also occurs in takyr-type habitats (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). Sometimes animals are found in the burrows of rodents. The female lays two or three clutches of two eggs in a season (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996); collective laying of clutches has been recorded.
157255		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas, on cliff faces and outcrops, among ruins and in buildings (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from open steppe habitat in Azerbaijan and it also occurs in takyr-type habitats (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). Sometimes animals are found in the burrows of rodents. <br/><br/>It has crepuscular and nocturnal activity, but it does appear during daylight hours in spring. This species hibernates from the end of October to the end of March - early April. The female lays two or three clutches of two eggs in a season (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). Collective layings are known.
157255		population	eng	It seems to be a reasonably common species in suitable habitat, especially on buildings or ruins; it can be numerous in some places.
157255		population	eng	This seems to be a reasonably common species in suitable habitat, especially on buildings or ruins; it can be numerous in some places and is thought to be increasing in Europe.
157255		threats	eng	There appear to be no current major threats to this adaptable species as a whole.
157255		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
157256		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. Appears on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. It is presumed to occur in many protected areas throughout its range. Habitat restoration work is taking place in parts of Austria (CoE, 2003). Conservation projects for this species are in place in Germany (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). Further research into the range and taxonomic status of this species are needed (e.g.. for Yemen and Cyprus). The species has been reintroduced to part of its former range in eastern Germany. In Germany the species is Critically Endangered. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005). Eradication of invasive wetland plant species is an important future measure.
157256		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and it is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It also appears on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. It is presumed to occur in many protected areas throughout its range. Habitat restoration work is taking place in parts of Austria (CoE, 2003). Conservation projects for this species are in place in Germany (B. Schmidt pers. comm.), where the species is listed as Critically Endangered. The species has been reintroduced to part of its former range in eastern Germany. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005). Further research into the range and taxonomic status of this species are  needed (e.g., for Yemen and Cyprus). Eradication of invasive wetland plant species is an important future conservation action.
157256		distribution	eng	In Europe this species ranges from southern Switzerland (and possibly adjacent France), and Germany (where there are isolated populations in the west), eastwards into eastern Austria, Italy (islands excluded), Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine and southern Russia, southwards into Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including the islands of Lesbos, Crete, Rhodes and Samos). In Asia the species ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and northern Egypt (Nile Delta and lower Nile Valley). It also ranges from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan eastwards into Iran, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and northwest China. It might be present on Cyprus, although this requires confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 2,800 m asl.
157256		distribution	eng	In Europe this species ranges from southern Switzerland (and possibly adjacent France), and Germany (where there are isolated populations in the west), eastwards into eastern Austria, Italy (islands excluded), Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine and southern Russia, southwards into Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including the islands of Lesbos, Crete, Rhodes and Samos). In Asia the species ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and northern Egypt (Nile Delta and lower Nile Valley). It also ranges from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan eastwards into Iran, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and northwest China. It might be present on Cyprus, although this requires confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 2,800m asl.
157256		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species associated with rivers, coasts, streams, lakes, ponds and the surrounding terrestrial habitat. It occurs in coastal areas. It appears after hibernation in the middle of March - beginning of April (for Azerbaijan). The species lays a clutch of between five and 37 eggs.
157256		habitat	eng	This is a largely aquatic species associated with rivers, coasts, streams, lakes, ponds and the surrounding terrestrial habitat. The species lays a clutch of between five and 37 eggs.
157256		population	eng	It is common in much of its range. If it occurs on Cyprus, it is extremely rare there. In Egypt the potential range has increased since the construction of the Aswan High Dam, although the species is considered to be declining. It has declined in Israel.
157256		population	eng	This species is common in much of its range. If it occurs on Cyprus, it is extremely rare there. In Egypt the potential range has increased since the construction of the Aswan High Dam, although the species is considered to be declining. It has also declined in Israel.
157256		threats	eng	It appears not to be globally threatened. It is threatened by loss or modification of wetland habitats in parts of its range, for example through river channelization and lakeshore development. This species is considered to be threatened in a number of western and central European range states. It is often killed by road traffic, particularly in the mating season. In Egypt large numbers of this species are collected for the international pet trade (Sherif Baha El Din pers. comm.). As with many snakes this species is generally persecuted by people. Habitat destruction by invasive plant species are a threat in parts of its range.
157256		threats	eng	This species appears not to be globally threatened. It is threatened by loss or modification of wetland habitats in parts of its range, for example through river channelization and lake-shore development. This species is considered to be threatened in a number of western and central European range states. It is often killed by road traffic, particularly in the mating season. In Egypt large numbers of this species are collected for the international pet trade (Sherif Baha El Din pers. comm.), but this is not considered a major threat. As with many snakes this species is generally persecuted by people. Habitat destruction by invasive plant species is a threat in parts of its range, as is pollution.
157257		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. Szczerbak and Golubev (1996), suggest that the populations on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo and in Turkmenistan are in need of protection.
157257		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) suggest that the populations on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo and in Turkmenistan are in need of protection. Quarrying is a threat to this species in parts of its range and conservation measures are needed to reduce the threats impacting its habitat.
157257		distribution	eng	This species is present over much of Central Asia. It has been recorded from southern Russia (in Astrakhan west of the Volga River), central and southern Kazakhstan, northwestern Uzbekistan, northern Turkmenistan, northwestern China and central and southern Mongolia (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This species is not believed to be present in Iran (Anderson 1999) and it is uncertain if the species is present in Afghanistan. It can occur up to 1,550 m above sea level.
157257		distribution	eng	This species is present over much of Middle Asia. It has been recorded from southern Russia (in Astrakhan west of the Volga River), central and southern Kazakhstan, northwestern Uzbekistan, northern Turkmenistan, northwestern China and central and southern Mongolia (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This species is not believed to be present in Iran (Anderson 1999). It is uncertain if the species is present in Afghanistan. It can occur up to 1,550m asl.
157257		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-desert habitats and steppe which has semi-desert areas. It is generally found on slopes, which are covered with large and small rocks, also in areas of weathered rock slabs and less often on clay plains. It has also been recorded from loose sand dunes (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September 2008). Vegetation cover is mostly scanty grasses and herbs (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The female lays clutches of one or two eggs.
157257		habitat	eng	It is found in semi-desert habitats and steppe which has semi-desert areas. It is generally found on slopes, which are covered with large and small rocks, also in areas of weathered rock slabs and less often on clay plains. It has also been recorded from loose sand dunes (Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). Vegetation cover is mostly scanty grasses and herbs (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The female lays clutches of one or two eggs.
157257		population	eng	It is very common under tones in northwestern China and Kazakhstan. It is a common species that can reach densities of up to 10 individuals per 1 m2 (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
157257		population	eng	This is a common species that can reach densities of up to ten individuals per square metre (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It is very common under stones in northwestern China and Kazakhstan.
157257		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. The population at the type locality of this species on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo, Astrakhan, Russia, is being lost through quarrying of rock for gravel production (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
157258		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is included into the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (2001) and Armenia (1987). It is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected on the territory Vashlovansky and Lagodekhsky reserves in Georgia and on the territory of Khosrov reserve (Armenia).
157258		distribution	eng	This species ranges from extreme northeastern Italy southwards along Mediterranean area of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southern Bulgaria, Albania, Macedonia and Greece (including some Aegean islands such as Crete). It is present on the islands of Malta and Cyprus and ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon and Israel in the south. It is also present in the Caucasus Mountains, including in Armenian, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia, Iran and Iraq. This is found from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.
157258		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found amongst rocks in shrubby landscapes. It can also be found in open or degraded woodland, among old walls and ruins, on sandy beaches with plant cover (Turkey and Europe only) and sometimes close to human habitation. Populations have been recorded in the montane-xerophytic steppe, in semi-deserts and, more rarely, at the edges of mountain forest. The females lay between 5 and 9 eggs.
157258		population	eng	It is common in the Mediterranean part of the Balkans, but it is rare in Turkey. It appears to be rare on Malta and it is very local in Italy.
157258		threats	eng	It is persecuted in parts of its range through confusion with viper species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by conversion of land to intensive agricultural use, urbanization, and general mortality of animals on roads.
157259		conservation	eng	Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. In view of the species wide range, it seems likely that it is distributed within several protected areas.
157259		conservation	eng	Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. In view of the species' wide range, it seems likely that it occurs within several protected areas.
157259		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present from Dagestan (Russia) and northeastern Iran (Kopet Dagh mountain range), through Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia.
157259		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present from Dagestan (Russia) and northeastern Iran (Kopet Dagh mountain range), through Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia. Recorded up to 1,500 m asl.
157259		habitat	eng	It is present in clay and stony desert and semi-desert areas, generally with a spare cover of vegetation. Animals can be found in dry stream beds and sandy areas mixed with pebbles (Anderson 1999).
157259		habitat	eng	It is present in clay and stony desert and semi-desert areas, generally with a sparse cover of vegetation. Animals can be found in dry stream beds and sandy areas mixed with pebbles (Anderson 1999).
157259		population	eng	This is generally a common species.
157259		population	eng	This is generally a common species, but local declines may occur due to the conversion of land in Central Asia for agricultural use.
157259		threats	eng	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by overgrazing and habitat transformation to agriculture.
157260		conservation	eng	In view of the wide range of this species outside of Europe, it occurs in numerous protected areas across its range (most current populations are restricted to protected areas which conserve sand dunes). The steppe-runner <em>E. a. potanin</em>i is included into the Red Data Book of Mongolia (1997) as a rare species, it is protected in the Great Gobi reservation. <em>E. a. uzbekistanica</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999) (category 2). <em>E. a. transcaucasica</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987). <em>E. a. deserti</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Moldavia (1999) as a Critically Endangered species. The Armenian subspecies <em>E.a. transcaucasica</em> is an isolated population which occurs surrounding Lake Sevan and is becoming increasingly threatened and needs species conservation attention.
157260		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from eastern Romania (Danube Delta), through southern Moldova, Ukraine (including the Crimean Peninsula), southwestern Russia, the Caucasus (including an isolated population at Lake Sevan, Armenia), northern Iran (known only with certainty from the western slopes of Talysh Mountains and a single locality southeast of Tabriz in East Azarbaijan Province [Anderson, 1999]), through much of Central Asia to northwestern China and southwestern Mongolia. The westernmost locality is Hanu Conachi sand dunes (Romania). It is unclear if this species is present in Turkey.
157260		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species that generally occurs in dry, open areas with some sparse herbaceous vegetation. It is also found in steppe habitat, sandy coastal areas, sparsely vegetated river plains, and on stone walls bordering party cultivated land (Anderson, 1999; Arnold, 2003). Animals often shelter under spiny shrubs and in burrows. In the south of its distribution, this species emerges from hibernation between the end of February and the beginning of March, and emerges in April in the montane and northern parts of its range. The female lays two clutches of between one and 12 eggs (usually three or four) (Arnold, 2003). The young hatch between the middle of May and the beginning of July. The species is reproductively mature following its first hibernation period.
157260		population	eng	It can be a common species in parts of its range (Arnold, 2003; Melnikov, 2003). The density can be up to 60 animals per hectare.
157260		threats	eng	In Romania, the species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation do sand dunes by reforestation, increased tourist, urban, agricultural and industrial development; pesticide pollution; overgrazing and inappropriate afforestation of suitable sandy habitat (CoE, 2003). The threats to populations outside of Europe needs further evaluation.
157261		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies on this species are needed, particularly for populations in the eastern and Arabian parts of its range (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
157261		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed around the Mediterranean Basin, east through West Asia as far as India, often in built-up areas. In mainland Europe it is found in southwestern Portugal, southern and eastern Spain, southern France, much of coastal Italy, and coastal Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southeast to western Albania and most of Greece. It is found on numerous islands in the Mediterranean, including the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete and Cyprus, and many smaller islands in the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas.  In mainland Asia it is found in western and southern Turkey (coastal zones, as far inland as Afyon, with an isolated population at Samsun on the north coast), western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western Jordan. On mainland Africa it is found from northern Morocco through northern Algeria, much of Tunisia, northern Libya, northern and eastern Egypt (including some offshore islands) and the Nile Valley. It was most likely introduced in antiquity through much of its supposedly native range, but it is no longer clear when and where these introductions took place. In more recent times, it has been widely introduced, with introduced populations known from the Canary Islands (Spain), the southern United States, parts of Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Cuba and possibly Belize [not mapped here]. This is a lowland species that is occasionally found up to 1,100m asl. Arabian populations are now referred to <em>H. robustus</em>.
157261		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed around the Mediterranean Basin, east through West Asia, often in built-up areas. In mainland Europe it is found in southwestern Portugal, southern and eastern Spain, southern France, much of coastal Italy, and coastal Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southeast to western Albania and most of Greece. It is found on numerous islands in the Mediterranean, including the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete and Cyprus, and many smaller islands in the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas.  In mainland Asia it is found in western and southern Turkey (coastal zones, as far inland as Afyon, with an isolated population at Samsun on the north coast), western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western Jordan. On mainland Africa it is found from northern Morocco through northern Algeria, much of Tunisia, northern Libya, northern and eastern Egypt (including some offshore islands) and the Nile Valley. It was most likely introduced in antiquity through much of its supposedly native range, but it is no longer clear when and where these introductions took place. In more recent times, it has been widely introduced, with introduced populations known from the Canary Islands (Spain), the southern United States, parts of Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Cuba and possibly Belize [not mapped here]. This is a lowland species that is occasionally found up to 1,100m asl. Arabian populations are now referred to <em>H. robustus</em>.
157261		habitat	eng	It is extremely adaptable species. It is found in shrubland, rocky areas, salt marshes, coastal areas, cliffs, caves, on stone walls in agricultural areas and it is common in urban environments, including inside buildings. The females lay two to three clutches per year of one to two eggs.
157261		population	eng	It is abundant over much of its distribution and its range and population is increasing.
157261		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species. Animals are occasionally persecuted in tourist resorts, and there is some collection of the species for the pet trade, although this does not seem to have a significant impact on the overall population.
157262		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, for example the following ones in Morocco: Saghro, Talassemtane, Jbel Moussa, Beni Snassen, Cap des trois fourches, Gourougou, Perdicaris, Cap Spartel, Tamga, Khnifiss, Chekhar, Trois fourches, Sebkha Bou Areg, Gourougou, Embouchure Moulouya, Beni Snassen, and Koudiat Tidighine.
157262		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in Portugal, Spain (generally absent from the Cantabrian Mountains), southeastern France, and northwestern Italy (Liguria); in North Africa it distributes along northern Algeria, Morocco and coastal areas of Western Sahara. It ranges from sea level up to 2,160m asl.
157262		habitat	eng	A venomous snake, it is found in scrubland with low cover, open spaces, coastal dunes, grassland, meadows and cultivated land. In hot time of summer it has crepuscular-nocturnal activity. The annual activity period seems to be expanding in parallel with the raise of mean annual temperatures (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).
157262		population	eng	It is generally a common species. In human altered landscapes, populations are frequently stable or even increasing, whilst the populations of other snakes are declining (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).
157262		threats	eng	There are overall no major threats to this species. Many animals are killed on roads or are persecuted by farmers. The snake is used by snake charmers, and it is also sold dried as a curio but this is not a major threat.
157263		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is present in a large number of protected areas (especially in the north of its range). There is a need for the development of education programmes about this harmless species. It is included into the Red Data Books of the Ukraine (1994) - category 1 and Kazakhstan (1996) - category 2.
157263		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges eastwards from the Balkan region of Europe to Turkey, the Caucasus region, Central Asia and the Levant. From the Balkans it has been recorded along the Adriatic regions of Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania (common only in coastal areas), the southern Macedonia (through the Vardar valley to the vicinity of Skopje), most of Greece (including the Ionian Islands and the islands of Limnos, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Ikaria and Samos) and southern and eastern Bulgaria. It also occurs in southern Ukraine, southwestern Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, Turkey (in the west, north and south), western Syria, throughout Lebanon, northern Israel, northwest Jordan, Iraq, Iran (restricted to the Caspian region, northern Zagros, the Alborz and Kopet Dagh), and into Central Asia where it is present in southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southeastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, western Tajikistan and Afghanistan. It is found from sea level to around 2,300m asl.
157263		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry, well vegetated rocky slopes, marquis, traditionally cultivated areas and close to human settlements. In Iran, it has been collected in open grassy areas (Anderson, 1999). It occurs in foothill plains and valleys of river, inhabited sparse deciduous forests, tugay-bushes, shrubs, hollows, woodland edges and foothills. Animals may be found hiding under bushes, among stones or in rodent burrows. It is common in gardens, vineyards and is sometimes found in agricultural land. The female lays between six and ten eggs in a clutch.
157263		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
157263		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in Jordan and the southern periphery of its range by habitat loss, mainly through conversion to agricultural use. Animals may be occasionally killed through misidentification with snakes.
157264		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.
157264		distribution	eng	This species is present in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean zones in much of central and southern Italy (excluding Sicily), and in the Balkan region, ranging from Slovenia southwards along the Adriatic coastline (including some Adriatic islands), into much of Albania, Macedonia (mainly in the lowlands), southernmost Serbia, Montenegro and Greece (not in Thrace, but on a number of Ionian and Aegean islands). It is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.
157264		habitat	eng	It is found in hedgerows, close to woodland edges, in open woodland, rocky overgrown areas and traditionally cultivated land. Animals may also be found near to waterbodies but also away from them. Animals tend to have very large home ranges. The females lay between four and 16 eggs, and the generation time is 4 to 5 years.
157264		population	eng	It is not a common species, and it has a fragmented range. It is thought to be in significant decline.
157264		threats	eng	It is mainly threatened by habitat loss due to intensification of agricultural practices and infrastructure development for tourism and urbanization. It is persecuted by humans in many parts of its range.
157265		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. It is included in the Red Data Books of the Ukraine (1994) - category 3; Kazakhstan (1996) - category 4; and of Turkmenistan (1999) - category 3. Because of declining populations in parts of its range, it is also included in the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001).
157265		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Greece (Thrace) northwards through Bulgaria, southern and eastern Romania, Moldova, southern Ukraine and southern Russia to western Kazakhstan, western Turkmenistan, the Caucasus, most of Turkey, northern and western Iran and northern Iraq.  There is also an isolated population in Israel, and Lebanon that may also occur in Syria. It occurs from sea level up to around 2,500m asl (Transcaucasia).
157265		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is often encountered in rocky slopes in Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices. It is normally found in the arid landscapes, in steppes and semi-deserts, as well as in the forest-steppe zone (both on the plain and in the foothills), on the areas of stony and sandy semi-desert, on the slopes with bush vegetation and with rocky outcrops, on forest edges, in open steppe and tugai forests. To the north of the Kara-Bogaz-Gol depression in northwestern Turkmenistan this snake lives on thick loamy soils with thickets of saxaul, saltwort and other xerophytic vegetation. In the central Ustyurt of Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan, animals can be found in areas of solid stabilized sands, at locations with saxaul vegetation in the clay desert, and on solonchaks (saline soils). It is an egg-laying species; the females lay a clutch of between 4 and 16 eggs.
157265		population	eng	It is usually found at low population densities.
157265		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It is generally persecuted throughout its range but not at a level that is of a threat to the species. It is declining significantly in Romania, largely through habitat loss (CoE, 2003). The cultivation of steppe and similar habitats is leading to an overall decline in numbers.
157266		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitat Directive. The species is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Conservation actions, such as ecological research and protection of important areas, and needed for populations in Germany, and presumably other northern parts of the species range (CoE, 2003). There is a need to develop management strategies and protected areas for this species at a national level; it is protected by national legislation in most range states. An EU Action Plan is in place for this species. The species was included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (1984), and the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (2001) - category 2, Georgia (1982) - category 2, and the Ukraine - category 3. This species is listed an Endangered in the German National Red List. This species is currently categorized as Critically Endangered in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).
157266		distribution	eng	This species ranges from its southern limits in northern Spain and central southern Italy, through much of France (except the north and parts of the southwest), southeastern and western Germany (north to Hessen, where it occurs as very fragmented most of the south), to the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Hungary and much of the Balkan region. Populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), western Germany, western Czech Republic, and southern Ukraine are isolated from the main range, and it is possibly localized in Romania and Moldova. It is also present in northern Turkey, western Georgia, southern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. It may occur in southern Poland although this requires confirmation. The species has been extinct in Denmark for around 200 years. It ranges from 60 to 2,000m asl.
157266		habitat	eng	It is found in dry, open woodlands (deciduous, mixed and coniferous), woodland edges, forested ravines, scrubland and thickets, rocky outcrops, road embankments, moist meadows, field edges, traditionally cultivated land, tea plantations, stone walls and old buildings, parks and gardens. The females produce a single clutch of two to 18 eggs in July (Caucasus).
157266		population	eng	It can be common, but many populations are small and isolated.
157266		threats	eng	It is threatened by accidental mortality on roads, especially in areas where the species is relatively common. It is also threatened by fragmentation of habitat through intensification of agricultural practices and afforestation of suitable areas. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people. Eggs are laid in heaps of grass and other vegetation that are frequently cleared by people.
157267		conservation	eng	This species is included into the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan (1996) - category 3, in the Red Data Books of Ukraine (1994) - category 2 and Moldavia (2001) as an Endangered species. It has been included in the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive, and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It is present in many protected areas.
157267		distribution	eng	This species is present from southern Hungary eastwards to Romania, Moldova, southern Ukraine, southwestern Russia and extreme western Kazakhstan. It also ranges southwards through the Balkans from Croatia (Lastavo Island and eastern parts of continental mainland [Ozimec 2005; Trocsanyi and Schafer, 2008]), Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia (where it only occurs below 1,500m asl), Albania (where widespread), Greece (absent from the Peloponnese peninsula, but present on many islands including Andros, Tinos, Syros, Kythos, Kea, Serifos, Ikaria, Samos, Chios, Oinousses, Thasos, Samothraki and Limons), Bulgaria, and Turkey (Thrace and central and western Anatolia). Records from Jordan require confirmation and might refer to another species, since they are far outside the known range. This species ranges from sea level to 2,000m asl (Turkey).
157267		habitat	eng	It is found in dry areas of open scrubland (macchia) and woodland, steppe and other grassland, rocky hillsides, semi-desert, overgrown areas, vineyards, olive groves, rural gardens, stone walls and ruins. In the North Caucasus it has been recorded from sand dune habitats. This species hibernates in large groups (R. Ajtic pers. comm.). In the Crimea, it emerges from hibernation at the end of March - beginning of April; in Kalmykia it emerges in the second part of March. Winter hibernation starts in middle of September - October (sometimes in first part of November). It is active during the day in spring, and in the hot part of summer it has two peaks of activity. Females lay eggs (6 - 18 eggs in the clutch) from middle of June to the beginning of July, with young appearing in the first part of September.
157267		population	eng	It is generally a common species over most of its range.
157267		threats	eng	While there appear to be no major threats to the species, it is often killed by traffic while it is basking on roads. As with many other species it may be particularly vulnerable when it forms aggregations for hibernation. It may be persecuted by people, when they are accidentally revealed during hibernation.
157268		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within the range of this species. There is a need to protect the specific meadow and grassland habitats of this species. The species is included on the Red Data Book of the Ukraine (1994) - category 2 and of Uzbekistan (2003) - status and category 2, VU:D, as well as into the "Annotated List of Taxa and Populations required a Special Attention to their Status in the Wildlife "(Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001).
157268		distribution	eng	It inhabits steppe, forest-steppe and semi-desert zones of south-eastern Europe, Central Asia and north-west of Middle Asia, including the Crimea, the southern Ukraine, steppe regions of Ciscaucasia, and the Great Caucasus, of Kazakhstan, southern Siberia, and into China.  There is an isolated population in Transcaucasia.  In the north the distribution range attains the Volzhsko-Kamsky Territory, in the east - Altai and Jungaria. In the mountains it goes up to 2500m asl.
157268		habitat	eng	It is primarily associated with open meadows and hillsides. Upland subspecies are generally found on well-drained rocky hillsides, steppe and meadows, while the lowland forms are found in either steppe, or dry or damp meadows. It occurs in plain and sagebrush steppes, alpine meadows transformed into steppe, solonchaks (saline land) semi-deserts and stabilized sands. This species is absent in cultivated lands and remains only ravines, roadsides and river banks. Thus, for instance, in the lower left bank area of the Dnieper river in the Zaporozhskaya, Dnepropetrovskaya and Khersonskaya regions the viper is found only in the narrow strip of a steep bank with bush vegetation in the area between water and arable land. It is an ovoviviparous species. Pregnancy lasts up to 3 months. Young appear (up to 17) in July - August. It is active in Azerbaijan from the beginning of April up to beginning of October.
157268		population	eng	It is common in areas of suitable habitat.
157268		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the conversion of traditionally farmed meadows to intensively cultivated and grazed land because it prefers open meadows and other suitable land suitable for agriculture.  Development for agriculture has also led to significant fragmentation throughout its range. There is a small international pet trade of this species which is not a significant threat. Montane populations may be significantly impacted in the future by climate change.
157269		conservation	eng	The subspecies <em>Eryx miliaris nogaijorum</em> is included into the " Annotated list of taxa and population required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001) due to reduction of the area of isolated sand deserts in Kalmykia and Ciscaucasia. It is protected in the "Tschernye Zemli" Reverse in Kalmykia (Russia). This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
157269		distribution	eng	This species ranges through northern Iran, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, the sandy deserts of Middle Asia and the eastern Ciscaucasia of Russia (Kalmykia, Chechnya, Dagestan). It ranges from sea level to around 1,000m asl.
157269		habitat	eng	This species is widely distributed in sandy deserts, in shifting sand dunes and semi-stabilized sand dunes. It prefers relatively loose soils on different types in deserts and semi-deserts (sagebrush <em>Artemisia</em>-glasswort <em>Salsola</em> desert and glasswort desert). Sometimes, animals can be found in clay and loess deserts, on the takyr with patches of vegetation near the sands, on the slopes of the ravines and on the margins of irrigated lands, as well as in the dry foothills on the valleys with sandy-clayish soil. It may also be encountered in vineyards. Animals often hide within the sand and use burrows of rodents and ruins as refuges. It is nocturnal during the hot part of the year; and is common on the surface in spring. The period of activity lasts for March to October over most of its range; and in the area of eastern Ciscaucasia and Kazakhstan from April to September. The species is viviparous, with the female giving birth for 4 to 15 young in July - August.
157269		population	eng	This is generally a common species, however some subpopulations (and the subspecies <em>E. m. nogaiorum</em>) are declining.
157269		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from intensive agricultural expansion, the abandonment traditional agricultural areas, overgrazing of vegetation by livestock, mining and drilling operations (oil, salt, mirabilite, sulphur, natural gas), and industrialization in parts of Middle-Asia (including factories, and chemical plants). The subspecies <em>E.m. nogaiorum is</em> declining rapidly due to habitat loss and conversion of sandy dune habitats through irrigation to intensive agricultural use.
157270		conservation	eng	It is found in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species in Egypt. It is considered to be Vulnerable in Egypt (S. Baha El Din. pers. comm.).
157270		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Aegean islands of Greece (including Leros, Rhodos, Symi, Kalymnos, Kos, Lipsi and Megisti Kastelorizo), to Cyprus, western and southern Turkey, southwards into Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel and western and northwestern Jordan. It also extends eastwards into northeastern Iran, Armenia, northern Iraq, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, eastern Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. There are isolated populations in northern Egypt (close to Cairo and the southern Sinai Peninsula). It is largely a lowland species, but can be found up to around 2,000m asl in Turkey.
157270		habitat	eng	This species is found in open areas, including open dry woodland and shrubland, with some rocks and bushy vegetation. It is adaptable and can be found in both rural and urban areas. The females lay clutches of four to 10 eggs.
157270		population	eng	It is generally a very common species. In Egypt it is a rare species.
157270		threats	eng	This species is frequently killed by people as it resembles a viper. In Egypt it is also threatened by collection for the pet trade and may be threatened by general habitat degradation through overgrazing of its habitat.
157271		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>I. monticola</em>). It occurs in the Lake of Sanabria Natural Park. Further general research is needed for this newly described species as a whole.
157271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Montes de León (Spain): Sierra Segundera, Sierra de la Cabrera, Sierra del Eje or Peña Trevinca and Sierra del Teleno between the provinces of León, Zamora and Orense, where it can be found from 1,000 to 2,000m asl, but probably also occurs at higher altitudes.
157271		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky habitats above the tree line in oro-Mediterranean climatic zones. Animals are very abundant close to glacial lakes and talus tracks crossing shrubland in subalpine areas. It is an egg-laying species.
157271		population	eng	In general it is abundant within its restricted range. It seems to be very abundant in the Sanabria area (Sª Segundera and de la Cabrera Baja), fairly abundant in Sierra del Teleno and is perhaps rarer in the Trevinca Massif (Arribas and Caranza, 2007).
157271		threats	eng	Populations in the vicinity of Teleno are potentially threatened by the development of tourism, including the possible reopening of the Morredero Sky-resort (Teleno Massif, León) or of the Fonte da Cova Sky-Resort (Trevinca Massif, Leon) (Arribas and Carranza 2007). The species is also possibly threatened by disturbance of its talus habitat during cyclist tours (Vuelta Ciclista a España and Vuelta a León) which finish at the Morredero Sky-resort and attract a large number of supporters. The populations in lower parts of the species range are also likely to be impacted by ongoing slate quarrying and similar mining operations within the area (Arribas and Carranza 2007).
157272		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas in Turkey and Greece. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
157272		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Turkey (much of southern Anatolia), Syria, northern Iraq, Lebanon, and on the islands of Rhodos, Kos, Kalymnos, and other southeastern Aegean islands of Greece. It is possibly present in Israel (it may have occurred there in the past, although further studies are needed to confirm this and it is not mapped here). It is not present on Cyprus.  More research is needed to determine its presence in Syria. Recorded from sea level to 1,400m asl in Turkey.
157272		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species found in a variety of sparsely vegetated Mediterranean habitats. It is often found in moist, sandy soils that are easy to excavate and have a high level of humus. It can presumably occur in low intensity agricultural land. The females lay one or two eggs in a clutch.
157272		population	eng	It is abundant in Turkey.  In Greece, it is rather common within its range. It is uncommon in Syria, but more work is needed to verify its status.
157272		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some persecution where it is mistakenly identified as a snake.
157273		conservation	eng	In Greece it is present in the Yalova Pilos protected area. In Egypt it is present in the Burullus protected area. In Egypt, there is a need for the development and implementation of national legislation to protect this species. Monitoring of population trends and the impact of harvesting is also needed. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species.
157273		distribution	eng	This African species has been recorded from Egypt (restricted to the Nile delta and lower Nile valley), Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon. In Europe it is restricted to a tiny part of the southwestern Peloponnese in southern Greece, where it is believed to be an introduction from antiquity possibly from Egypt.
157273		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from salt marshes, sand dunes and maquis shrubland. Animals are found climbing in vegetation such as reeds and shrubs. It has sometimes been found climbing in large trees. It is sometimes found on the ground in sandy areas. It has been recorded from traditionally cultivated agricultural land and rural gardens. In Greece, the females produce a single clutch of between four and 43 eggs per year.
157273		population	eng	In Greece, the single population fluctuates, with estimates of between 150 and 600 individuals over the last decade (Dimaki 2008). It is relatively common in the northern Nile delta, Egypt (Flower, 1933; S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
157273		threats	eng	In Greece, the main threat to the species is loss of sand dune breeding habitat to developing tourism, and illegal collection (as pets). Mortality on roads is also an importantly threat to the Greek populations, especially during the breeding season. In Egypt, the main threat to this species is overcollection for the pet trade. It is also probably threatened by the reclamation of wetlands in the northern Nile delta (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).
157274		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention.  It is found in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Egypt, further research into the range of this species is needed. It is protected on the territory of Khosrov Reserve in Armenia
157274		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, and southern Bulgaria, to Greece (including the Ionian and Aegean islands of Rhodos, Korfu, Salamis, Naxos, Lesvos, Lefkas, Patmos, Samos, Evia, Dilos, Rineia, Andros, Skyros, Kos, Kythera, Kastelorizo), through most of Turkey (though absent from most of the north), western Syria, Lebanon, western Jordan and northern and central Israel. It also ranges eastwards into Iran and Iraq, and northwards into the Caucasus region of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia. It is also present in Central Asia occurring in southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and possibly Pakistan. The species is also found from Cyprus, and has been recorded once from Dugi Otok island (Croatia) where its current presence is uncertain (Du?an Jeli? pers. comm., October 2008). It is present in northern Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It might be present in Bosnia-Herzegovina although this requires confirmation. This species ranges from sea level up to about 1,700 m asl.
157274		habitat	eng	This largely subterranean species is associated with moist, sparsely vegetated, open areas. It is often found in grassy fields and slopes. It is found under rocks and occupying burrows made by worms. Animals are generally only found during the springtime. The females lay between four and eight eggs in a clutch. This species shows an aggregation behaviour for either mating or moisture conservation (Disi, 2002). It is found in traditional agricultural areas, among ruins and even in urban areas. Pairing occurs from the spring to the beginning of summer. The female lays 2 to 10 eggs in underground passages in second part of summer.
157274		population	eng	It is generally a common species. In Egypt it is a rare, localized and declining species. In Macedonia the species has a very patchy distribution.
157274		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species over most of the Mediterranean region. In Albania and Egypt it is threatened by habitat loss through intensive agriculture and land reclamation. Populations of this species in the Caucasus are threatened by the conversion of habitat to intensive agricultural use.
157275		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range, it is likely to occur in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. Additional research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.
157275		distribution	eng	This widespread snake ranges from eastern Ukraine, through southwestern Russia and parts of the Caucasus, to Middle and Central Asia, and from here to eastern Russia, Mongolia and China and possibly Korea. There is an isolated Iranian population in Mazandaran Province and Seman Province (Latifi, 1991). It has been recorded between sea level and 3,580m asl.
157275		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is found in a variety of habitats, including, forests, mountainous areas, fields, rivers and even coastal areas (Latifi 1991). It is an oviparous species, the females lay clutches of 5 to 24 eggs.
157275		population	eng	This is one of the commonest snakes in parts of Russia, Kazakhstan and Middle Asia.
157275		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
157276		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation activities are currently needed for this species as a whole.
157276		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cyprus, where it generally occurs throughout much of the island.
157276		habitat	eng	This species is distributed in a range of rocky habitats, Mediterranean shrubby vegetation, and may be found within rural areas and possibly more urban locations. It is an egg-laying species.
157276		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
157276		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
157277		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. In Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Serbia and Montenegro. As a species with a limited distribution range and reducing number it is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). It is a considered to be a threatened species in Lebanon.
157277		distribution	eng	This species ranges from coastal Croatia southwards into Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, central and southern Bulgaria, Albania, Greece (including the islands of Limnos, Lesbos, Chios, Kalymnos (there is an endemic subspecies on this island) and possibly Samos), Cyprus and Turkey (Thrace and western, southern and eastern Anatolia) southeast to northern and western Syria, Lebanon (above 1,000 m asl), northern and eastern Iraq, western Iran and southern Turkmenistan. It has also been recorded from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, although the identity of these animals requires further investigation. This species ranges from sea level up to 2,200 m asl.
157277		habitat	eng	In general, this species is associated with dry or xerophytic landscapes. It is found on the open parts of stony semi-desert and wermuth steppe, among rocky outcrops and stones. Populations are found at the slopes of foothills and mountain covered with bush vegetation and woods, in thickets of xerophilous bushes, in juniper open woodlands, oak groves, border of forests. It has been recorded from open woodland, garrigue, overgrown areas, gullies, vineyards, gardens, stone walls and old buildings. The females lay between three and 16 eggs in a clutch.
157277		population	eng	In the north of its range it is a common species. It is rare in the south of its range (e.g., in Lebanon). It is reported to be declining in Albania.
157277		threats	eng	This species is threatened by direct persecution in parts of its range (e.g., by farmers in Turkey), and loss of habitat to intensive agriculture and fires. Animals are often killed on roads.
157278		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range it presumably occurs in some protected areas. The subspecies <em>P. g. salsatus</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999): category 3 - rare, narrow-ranged species.
157278		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from western borders of China across the whole northern sub-zone of deserts to the western coast of the Caspian Sea. In the European part of Russia, the species is distributed in Dagestan, Kalmykia, Stavropol Territory, Astrakhan and Volgograd region. The main part of the distribution range is situated in Kazakhstan, but the species also occurs also in Uzbekistan (Kara-Kalpakia) and Turkmenistan. It is found up to 1,000m asl.
157278		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with areas of sandy soil, sometimes with a sparse vegetation cover. The subspecies <em>P. g. salsatus</em> is closely associated with alkali soils, but occasionally it can be found on the slopes of barkhans (sand ridges). It is territorial species, females are more settled but have a smaller home range than the male. Reproduction begins at the end of April, with the eggs laid from May to June, and the young appearing in the middle of July.
157278		population	eng	It is common species found at relatively high densities. It can be a rare species in the Caucasus.
157278		threats	eng	This species is threatened in lowland parts of its range through the conversion of habitat to intensive agriculture and plantation use.
157279		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Further taxonomic studies and research into the distribution of this species (particularly in North Africa) are needed.
157279		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Greece (including the islands of Lesbos, Ikaria, Samos, Patmos, Kalymnos, Rhodes and Karpathos) and southeastern Bulgaria through Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Russia, Iran, northern Pakistan and northwestern India. It is also present in Cyprus; northestern Algeria (isolated population in the Aures Mountains); northeastern Libya, Egypt (northeast Sinai) and central and northern Israel, western and northern Jordan, throughout Lebanon, Syria and northern Iraq. It ranges from 400m below sea level (Dead Sea) up to 2,000m asl, but may be found at higher elevations.
157279		habitat	eng	This is found in arid or dry areas of sparse grassland, shrubland or cropland, and sclerophyllous woodland. In Armenia it occasionally occurs on sands, in central Armenia it is known in sparse oaken woods. In hot time of summer it prefers to be in immediate proximity to water. In Egypt, it inhabits well-vegetated rocky hillsides. It may be found hiding in crevices, dense vegetation and in sand at night. It is an egg-laying species; females lay two clutches of 3 - 6 eggs in a season.
157279		population	eng	It is generally a common and abundant species.
157279		threats	eng	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole  In Israel it is believed to be declining in some areas through the use of agrochemicals. In Egypt, it is threatened by overgrazing, collection of firewood and quarrying.
157280		conservation	eng	The species probably occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>P. algirus</em>). Research is needed to determine the distribution limits of this species.
157280		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Spain and southern France. Its western distribution limits (where it overlaps with <em>P. manuelae</em>) is imprecisely mapped and requires further clarification.
157280		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal sand dunes, pine and oak forest and shrubland.
157280		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in suitable habitats. One population on a small island on the north-eastern coast of Spain has gone extinct.
157280		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
157281		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It has been included in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Ukrainian SSR (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). This may be a species complex containing a number of threatened species. Further taxonomic studies are required to resolve this and to identify any taxa needing conservation measures.
157281		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeast Italy (Apulia and Basilicata), Albania (coastal region from Shkoder to Vlore), Serbia (Prizren), Macedonia, most of Greece (including the Ionian and many Aegean islands), southern and eastern Bulgaria, southern Ukraine (southern Crimea only), much of Turkey (Anatolia), Cyprus, northeastern, northern and western Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel, northwestern Jordan, ranging westwards and possibly into northern Iraq and western Iran. It has been introduced to Hungary (currently known only from a single house in Budapest and a second site at Balatonszeplak-felso). It is not present in Romania (László Krecsák pers. comm.). The species can be found up to 1,700m asl but is typically found at lower elevations.
157281		habitat	eng	This species is found climbing or on the ground in dry, rocky or stony places. It can be found in scrubland, under the bark of old juniper trees, on cliffs, on stone walls and on the outside and inside of buildings.  In Serbia, it is found in old buildings. Over most of Israel and Jordan it is only recorded on tree trunks. The females lays about two eggs in a clutch.
157281		population	eng	It is common over most of its range. In Serbia it is known from only a single town. In Greece, usually it is not found near human populations, but it is very common on small islands.
157281		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species over most of its range. Populations in the southern part of the range are threatened by deforestation through urbanization and agricultural development.
157282		conservation	eng	The Caucasian subspecies <em>G. h. caucasicus</em> was included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1985) as a rare subspecies (category 3); however, it is now excluded from the list of protected species (Red Data Book of Turkmenistan, 1999). This species has been recorded from many protected areas.
157282		distribution	eng	This widespread snake generally ranges from the Caucasus and northern Iran, through Central and Middle Asia, to southeastern Russia, Mongolia and northeastern China.
157282		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of habitats. Populations have been found in scrubland, mountain and hill habitats, forested areas and among rocks (Latifi, 1991). Between 3 to 14 young are born.
157282		population	eng	This species is generally a common species within appropriate habitat; exceptionally it is uncommon in the Caucasus region.
157282		threats	eng	It lowland parts of the species range populations may be threatened by overgrazing of their habitat by domestic livestock. It is generally not threatened in more montane localities.
157283		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this possible species complex (S. Baha El Din Pers. Comm.).
157283		distribution	eng	This very widespread species occurs in northern and northeastern Africa and west Asia, and in a few parts of southern Europe. In Africa it ranges from central Mauritania (single confirmed locality), Western Sahara (a single confirmed locality), southern, central and northeastern Morocco, Melilla and the Chafarinas Archipelago (Spain), through northern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya to northern Egypt, south along the Nile Valley to Sudan, with isolated populations in Chad, Niger, southern Algeria and Somalia. In West Asia it occurs in western and southern Turkey, western Syria, Lebanon, Israel, western and eastern Jordan, coastal parts of the Arabian peninsula (in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Kuwait), and in Iraq, Iran, and southern Turkmenistan to western Pakistan. In Europe it is present in Italy (on the islands of Sardinia, Sicily, Lampedusa, Linosa, Lampione and Conigli; with mainland populations near to Naples), Malta, and a few parts of mainland Greece (and the islands of Crete, Chios, Kea, Euboea, Rhodes and Karpathos). It also occurs on Cyprus. It is found from sea level up to 2,500 m asl (Morocco). Records from Eritrea, Ethiopia and Kenya are now referred to other species
157283		habitat	eng	It is a highly adaptable species that is often associated with arid to moist sandy, open areas or places with sparse scrub. It is found in coastal dunes and stabilized vegetated dunes further inland and It is also found in orchards, vineyards, fields, oases, rural gardens and urban areas. A terrestrial species found close to ground cover such as stones and vegetation. It is largely nocturnal in the summer and diurnal in the winter. The females give birth to between two and twenty fully formed live young.
157283		population	eng	It is a very common species in many parts of its range. Some populations are expanding with land reclamation in arid areas, and the species is well able to colonize new areas wherever it is introduced.
157283		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations may be locally threatened by overgrazing and intensification of agriculture, including the use of agrochemicals. It is heavily collected for the pet trade and scientific research in parts of its range (e.g. Egypt).
157284		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range in most western European states. The species is present in a number of European protected areas. It is included in the national Red Data Books of a number of counties. This species is currently categorized as Vulnerable in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).
157284		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Scandinavia (Norway and Sweden where it is extremely fragmented and rare) and the Baltic region, southwards as scattered populations through western, central and eastern Europe (excluding most of mainland Denmark, parts of southwestern France, and much of southern Iberia), into northern Turkey (much of Anatolia, with some isolated southern populations), the Caucasus region, northern Iran (Central Province) and Kazakhstan. It is also present in southern England (United Kingdom), on the Italian islands of Elba and Sicily. In Spain the species has been recorded from the Sierra Nevada, and there is an voucher specimen in the EBD collection collected in the Cádiz province (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm. October 2008). It is found from sea level up to 2,750 m asl.
157284		habitat	eng	It is found in moorland, rocky coastlines, open woodland (deciduous, coniferous and mixed) and scrubland, hedgerows, woodland edges, heathland, sandy coastal sites, rocky areas, screes, subalpine and open areas with sparse vegetation. On the southern Iberian Peninsula and Greece it is largely restricted to upland or montane areas. Between two and 19 fully formed young (3.9 on average) are born at the end of August - October. The period of activity lasts from end of March - April to September - October but this varies largely according to latitude and altitude.
157284		population	eng	It can be generally common in southern parts of its range, but it can also be rare, with fragmented populations in many northern parts of its range. The species can be hard to detect and populations may be overlooked (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is always rare in southern Sweden, but it is extremely rare on the Baltic island of Åland (Alexander Westerström pers. comm.). In Switzerland, it is still relatively abundant in the Alps but there is a ongoing decline in the lowlands, mainly due to agricultural intensification (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is also extremely rare in the isolated populations of southern Iberian Peninsula (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008); on average, in some populations 500 hours of fieldwork are needed to find an individual (Santos <em>et al</em>. in press).
157284		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by the intensification of agricultural practices, afforestation of open areas (e.g.. in Belgium) and fires in woodland or scrubland. Many populations are vulnerable because of their fragmented nature, and through  overgrowth of the species preferred open habitats (for instance, in abandoned traditional farmland). Populations from the southern Iberian Peninsula (Sierra Nevada) could be threatened by climate change and displacement by more competitive Mediterranean species (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Intrinsic threats for southern populations include poor recruitment capacity, extremely low density, isolation of populations, and global climate warming (for mountain populations) (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). While it is not collected, the species is sometimes persecuted through confusion with vipers.
157285		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Mount Hermon protected area. It is protected by Israeli national legislation.
157285		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from central, eastern and southeastern Turkey, east to the southern Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, through Central and South Asia, into western Mongolia and northwestern China. There are isolated populations in northern Jordan, Lebanon (restricted to montane areas) and Mount Hermon, and it has been recorded from Greece (the island of Kos), but this might be a misidentification and requires further confirmation. In the north and east of its range the species has a continuous distribution, in the Near East it has a relictual montane range. It can occur from about 900m to 2,400m asl.
157285		habitat	eng	This species is found in sparsely vegetated, rocky or stony areas, in montane regions. It is not present in human modified areas. This species lays eggs.
157285		population	eng	In the north of its range it is quite common in montane areas; in the south it is a rare relictual species.
157285		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species in Turkey. Relictual southern populations are possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat. It is regularly persecuted and this might especially impact relictual populations.
157286		conservation	eng	Other than research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole. In view of its wide range, it seems likely that the species is found within a number of protected areas.
157286		distribution	eng	This widely distribtued lizard ranges from the Caucasus region in the west (including Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia), through Iran, Middla Asia and Central Asia, as far east as western China. Within Iran, this species occurs on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, valleys of the Kopet Dagh and scattered localities on the northern and western margins of the Central Plateau (Anderson 1999). In Pakistan, it is found from Waziristan westward through the Quetta region almost to Nushki (Minton 1966). It can occur up to around 2,300m asl (Pakistan).
157286		habitat	eng	This diurnal species has been recorded in Iran from silty alluvium flats, among sparse scrub, steppe and grassland vegetation. It is also found in irrigated areas and dry stream beds (Minton, 1966; Anderson, 1999). In Middle Asia and Transcaucasia, populations are often associated with stabilized and semi-stable sandy soils, rocky steppes and foothills with sparse herbaceous and shrub vegetation. It is not found in extremely arid conditions (Minton, 1966). Animals generally live in burrows at the base of shrubs (Minton, 1966). Females lay two or three clutches of between two and six eggs annually.
157286		population	eng	In general, it is a common, often locally abundant, species (up to 80-200 animals per hectare). It appears to be a common species in Pakistan (Minton, 1966).
157286		threats	eng	In some areas the species is threatened by habitat conversion due to expansion of intensive agriculture and overgrazing of its habitat.
157287		conservation	eng	This species occurs in numerous protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
157287		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Russia where it occurs in the northeastern Caucasus of Daghestan and Stavropol Territory, through eastern Georgia, Armenia, Azerbajian and northeastern Turkey (vicinity of Mount Ararat, eastern Anatolia), and from the Caspian coast of northern Iran into southwestern Turkmenistan (Baran and Atatur 1998; Anderson 1999). The species may be present in Iraq, although this requires confirmation (Anderson 1999). There is an isolated record of this lizard from Shiraz in southeastern Iran for which the identity has been confirmed (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from sea level up to 3,000m asl (Turkey). Until recently an isolated population existed in the area of Cape Pizunda in Abkhazia, Georgia.
157287		habitat	eng	Populations of this species have been found in areas with rushes, clay semi deserts, lowland and montane steppes, brush, shrubs and similar cover. Animals have been recorded from coastal dunes, hilly areas and pastureland containing some shrubby cover (Anderson 1999). In Turkey it is known from sparsely vegetated steppe plains, or slopes sometimes close to forests (Baran and Atatur 1998). The female lays between six and eleven eggs in a clutch (Baran and Atatur 1998), and lays two clutches each season.
157287		population	eng	Over most of the distribution range it is common or even abundant.
157287		threats	eng	In some places in the Caucasus the species is declining due to general habitat destruction.
157288		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Red Data Books of numerous countries in the western part of its range. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in most of its range countries (all EU). This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005). It is present in a number of protected areas over much of its range. Habitat restoration projects (e.g. Estonia) and reintroductions for the species (e.g. UK) are taking place in parts of its range. More research on its biology and threats and monitoring is needed.
157288		conservation	eng	The species is included into the Red Data Books of numerous countries in the western part of its range. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in most of its range countries (all EU). This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005). It is present in a number of protected areas over much of its range. Habitat restoration projects (e.g.. Estonia) and reintroductions for the species (e.g.. UK) are taking place in parts of its range.
157288		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Spain (isolated populations in the Pyrenees at around 1,800 m asl), France, the United Kingdom (isolated and fragmented populations in the south and the northwest), and southern Scandinavia (throughout Denmark and with a patchy distribution in central and southern Sweden), eastwards through Western, Central and Eastern Europe (where it is patchily distributed) into the Caucasus Mountains, Central Asia and Eastern Asia, as far east as northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia. In Europe it ranges south to the Italian Alps (a few populations in southwestern and northeastern Alps only), northern and eastern Albania and northern Greece (where populations are largely isolated in mountain ranges). It occurs up to at least 2,500 m asl (Bulgaria).
157288		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeastern Spain (isolated populations in the Pyrenees at around 1,800m asl), France, the United Kingdom (isolated and fragmented populations in the south and the northwest), and southern Scandinavia (throughout Denmark and with a patchy distribution in central and southern Sweden), eastwards through Western, Central and Eastern Europe (where it is patchily distributed) into the Caucasus Mountains, Central Asia and Eastern Asia, as far east as northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia. In Europe it ranges south to the Italian Alps (a very few populations in southwestern and northestern Alps only), northern and eastern Albania and northern Greece (where populations are largely isolated in mountain ranges). It occurs up to at least 2,500m asl (Bulgaria).
157288		habitat	eng	It can be found in meadows, heathland, coastal dunes, grassland, steppe, subalpine and alpine meadows, shrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, in alpine areas, traditionally managed agricultural land and rural gardens. Sometimes it is present in sandy semi-desert areas. In the northwest of its range (e.g.. UK) it is largely restricted to open heathland and coastal dune habitats. The female may lay one or two clutches of between four and 14 eggs per year. Incubation period lasts 50 - 55 days.
157288		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a wide range of habitat types including meadows, heathland, coastal dunes, grassland, steppe, subalpine and alpine meadows, shrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, in alpine areas, traditionally managed agricultural land and rural gardens. Sometimes it is present in sandy semi-desert areas. In the northwest of its range (e.g. UK) it is largely restricted to open heathland and coastal dune habitats. <br/><br/>It appears after hibernation in March in the North, in March - April in the South and at mountains. The female may lay one or two clutches of between four and 14 eggs per year. Incubation period lasts 50 - 55 days. Young of first generation appear in July - August, second - in September - October.
157288		population	eng	It can be common in suitable habitat. It is locally declining in across its NW range (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). In Sweden occurs along the southern coast in continuous populations, inland populations are tiny (5-10 individuals) and relictual.
157288		population	eng	This species can be common in suitable habitat. It is locally declining in Switzerland (B. Schmidt pers. comm.). In Sweden it occurs along the southern coast in continuous populations, inland populations are tiny (5-10 individuals) and relictual. This species is undergoing local declines in Slovenia and Croatia (M. Vogrin pers. comm.).
157288		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss through urbanization, conversion to intensive agricultural use (especially the loss of hedgerows and other suitable habitats), coastal and alpine tourism development and the loss of traditional forestry practices, and unsustainable management. Many animals are killed on roads in parts of its range (e.g.. Austria). Some populations in Sweden are reported to be suffering from inbreeding depression due to a fragmented distribution (Olsson <em>et al</em>., 1996). There is some predation of animals by cats in urban areas. Open habitats, which this species requires, are being overgrown with vegetation. It is a threatened species in much of the northwest of its range, including the United Kingdom, Scandinavia and northern Germany.
157288		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss through urbanization, conversion to intensive agricultural use (especially the loss of hedgerows and other suitable habitats), coastal and alpine tourism development and the loss of traditional forestry practices, and unsustainable management. Many animals are killed on roads in parts of its range (e.g. Austria). Some populations in Sweden are reported to be suffering from inbreeding depression due to a fragmented distribution (Olsson <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is some predation of animals by cats in urban areas. Open habitats, which this species requires, are being overgrown with vegetation. It is a threatened species in much of the northwest of its range, including the United Kingdom, Scandinavia and northern Germany.
157289		conservation	eng	It is known from protected areas in Tunisia, Egypt and elsewhere in its range. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species. Research into the trade of this species in Egypt is needed. In Egypt the species is under notable decline and may be considered to be locally threatened. It is included into the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987) as a rare species, and is also included within the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982). In Russia it is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001) - "Annotated list of taxa and population required a special attention to their condition in the wildlife". The species is considered to be 'endangered' in Russia where it is found in only two localities within Southeastern Daghestan.
157289		distribution	eng	This species ranges from North Africa, where it is present in northeastern Algeria, central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt (including Sinai), into southwestern Asia where it is found in Israel, west and central Jordan, Lebanon, western Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, northeast into the Caucasus and Central Asian regions, where it is found in southern Russia, eastern Georgia, southern Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan (restricted to the Mekram coast and Ormara and Astola islands [Minton, 1966]) and northwestern India. It also occurs on the island of Cyprus. It can be found up to 1,800 m asl (Turkey).
157289		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of arid habitat types, including Mediterranean shrubland, semi-desert and rocky areas. Animals are not foundin forested habitats. It can be found in open vegetation close to oases, in bushes and steppe grassland, sandy hills, dry cultivated land and semi-desert. The female lays a clutch of between three and 20 eggs.
157289		population	eng	It is locally common in good habitat, however it is usually fairly rare and dispersed. On the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, it is rare and localized.
157289		threats	eng	Numerous subspecies are declining across much of its range from habitat loss due to agricultural conversion. There are minimal threats to the species as a whole, and mostly from habitat loss and urbanization, but overall its status is secure. In Egypt it is threatened by heavy overcollection for the pet trade, and by overgrazing, quarrying, collection of firewood, land reclamation for agriculture and off-road vehicle use.
157290		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. It is recommended that restrictions are placed on visiting the islands, to prevent the introduction of new species that might prey upon <em>P. levendis</em> or destroy its habitat.
157290		distribution	eng	This species is only found on the islets Pori and Lagouvardos, north of the island of Antikythira, between Crete and Peloponnesos (Greece).
157290		habitat	eng	This species occupies rocky areas and Mediterranean-type shrubland (frygana). It is an egg-laying species.
157290		population	eng	Although the population size has not been quantified, it is presumably small overall, even though the species is common on the larger of the two islets.
157290		threats	eng	There are no threats known to affect the species at present, but it would be highly vulnerable to introduced predators (e.g. cats), or to the introduction of goats which would severely overgraze the species' habitat.
157291		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas in Turkey and Greece. No further conservation actions are needed.
157291		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from the islands of Rhodes, Symi, Kos and Samos (Greece) through much of Turkey (except the north). It is found up to 1,200m asl.
157291		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and well vegetated areas that are often close to water. It can be found in cultivated land, among ruins and in rural gardens. It is an ovoviviparous species, the female gives birth to between three and eight young.
157291		population	eng	It is common in Turkey, but is uncommon in Greece (where it is on the edge of its range).
157291		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any threats to this widespread species.
157292		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. The species is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). It is protected on territory of several reserves: Khosrov, Erebuni, Dilijan (Armenia), Vashlovany (Georgia), Gyrkansky, Shakhbuzsky (Azerbaijan).
157292		distribution	eng	This species is found on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Alzonisi, Kalymnos, Leros, Symi and Megisti (= Kastelorizo) of eastern Greece, through most of Turkey (on the mainland and small rocky islands), eastwards into the Caucasus Mountains of south Russia, eastern Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.  Records from Iran (Central Province and Zanjhan Province) and Iraq should be verified.  Records from Israel, Lebanon and Syria are now considered to refer to Eirenis levantinus. It is not present on Cyprus. It ranges up to 2,500m asl (in Anatolia).
157292		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of dry, rocky areas with sparse vegetation. It can be also be found in woodland, fallow agricultural land and cultivated areas. It spends most of its time under stones. The female lays between three and eight eggs in a clutch. Oviposition for Armenia occurs between the second part of June and July; the young appear in July.
157292		population	eng	It is generally a common species.  In Iran, this species is rare. The ecology and status of population has not been investigated widely.
157292		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species over most of its range. In Dagestan, its habitat is being converted to agricultural use.
157293		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and is protected by national legislation in France and Italy. It occurs in several protected areas.
157293		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy), and on most of the adjacent smaller islands. It occurs from sea level to over 1,800 m asl.
157293		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid scrubland, maquis, rocky areas, scree, open woodland, field edges, sandy coastal places with vegetation and occasionally in traditionally cultivated fields. The females lay clutches of six to 12 eggs.
157293		population	eng	The species is locally abundant, chiefly in mountainous areas, but there is some evidence that it might be locally decreasing. It may be abundant on small islands.
157293		threats	eng	The species is not threatened as a whole, but insular populations are potentially threatened by introduction of predators or overcollection. <em>Podarcis siculus</em> (probably introduced in Sardinia in historical times) perhaps out competes this species when the habitat is opened for agricultural land and pastoral land. It is probably also affected by fire and land-use change.
157294		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to establish a protected area for this species and other relictual species in Sinai, Egypt. In the rest of its range, no further conservation actions are needed.
157294		distribution	eng	This species is present in Turkey (widespread in southern and southeastern parts), Greece (the Aegean islands of Rhodos, Symi, Chalki, Tilos, Patmos, Kalymnos, Kos, Leros, Nisyros and Megisti [= Kastelorizo]), Cyprus, much of Syria (except the east), Lebanon  (including Palm ilet), much of Israel (except the southwest), western Jordan, the northeast Sinai Peninsula, Egypt (Gebel El Halal), northern and eastern Iraq, and western Iran. There are possible records of this species from Kuwait (perhaps represent introductions). It is found up to 1,000m asl.
157294		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland mountain areas in a wide variety of habitats including arid open areas, meadows, rocky  and stony regions, swampy areas, open woodland, beaches, vineyards, agricultural land and ruins. The females lay between seven and 11 eggs.
157294		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its range. There is only a single record from Egypt.
157294		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species. There is some local persecution of this species as there is for most snakes. In Egypt it is threatened by quarrying, overgrazing and possibly by collection for the pet trade.  This species is collected for use snake charming performances.  It is considered a useful predator of mice and other agricultural pests.
157295		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from protected areas in Jordan, Lebanon, Cyprus and Turkey. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. The Caucasian subspecies are included into the Red Data Books of Kazakhstan (1996)  (category 2) and the Russian Federation (2001) - category and status 2. There is a need to develop education programmes for the conservation of this species throughout its range. Populations on Cyprus should be monitored. The isolated population in Jordan is considered to be threatened.
157295		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southwestern Jordan (where there appears to be an isolated population) and Israel (where it is extinct), north to southern and eastern Turkey, eastwards through the Caucasus Mountains (in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, southern Russia), Iran, and Iraq to Central Asia as far west as Kashmir. It is also present in Cyprus. Records from Saudi Arabia are misidentifications (W. Böhme pers. comm.). The subspecies, <em>Macrovipera l. transmediterranea</em>, has also been recorded from isolated relict populations in Algeria and Tunisia. However, these North Africa records appear to be based on old specimens without precise distributional details (populations not mapped here), or collection localities, and their occurrence has never been confirmed (R. Sindaco in litt.. October 2008). It can occur from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.
157295		habitat	eng	This species is known from semi-arid stony slopes, rocky ravines, dry foothills and mountain valleys. It is found in the very diverse desert and montane-steppe biotopes. Populations can be found in grassland and cultivated areas, in shrubland, in open pistachio woodlands, on the banks of irrigation channels and it is regularly recorded close to small water courses. It is an ovoviviparous species, females give birth to between 8 and 43 live young.
157295		population	eng	This species is very common in Lebanon, widespread but rare in Turkey and rare in Jordan. The species appears to be very rare in North Africa. It is now extinct in Israel, this extinction may be linked to a recent reduction in precipitation levels. In the Transcaucasian area it is locally a common species, although in the northern Caucasian area it is very rare.
157295		threats	eng	This large viper is generally persecuted throughout its range. The species is heavily persecuted in Cyprus, principally for sport, and may be threatened on the island although new legislation and active public awareness campaigns aim to protect the species. If they are found to exist, the populations in North Africa are relictual with very restricted ranges and may be significantly threatened by persecution. There is some illegal exportation of this species for the pet trade from Turkey. Locally the populations have been seriously affected by intensive collecting for venom. Lowland populations in Central Asia are declining because of habitat conversion from agriculture and associated irrigation schemes; populations in montane regions where there is little development are more stable.
157473		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are needed.<br/></p>
157473		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout much of Europe, from southern Europe and Circum-Mediterranean, extending northwards into central and western Europe. It is widespread in Spain (Verdugo 2004, Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Cyprus and Italy, but in Portugal it is only present in the south, in particular there are only three localities known (Serrano 1981, Zuzarte 1983). In Ukraine it is only found in Crimea. It has been reported from the European part of Turkey without exact locality documented (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). It is also found in all Caucasus, Minor Asia, Iran and northern Africa.    <p><br/></p>
157473		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;Larvae develop in dead wood of a wide variety of tree and shrub species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Cytisus, Pistacea, Ceratonia, </span>rarely some <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>; in Cyprus it has been reared from dead branches of <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>, <em>Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Quercus infectoria ssp veneris. </em>. The adults are active in V-VIII (and in VII as the latest). It lives in temperate forests and shrub-lands, and is common in pre-littoral areas. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Cyprus it is found in<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>   orchards, maquis, garigue and forests. It is very common in old plantations with <em>Ceratonia siliqua.</em>&#160;<em></em></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
157473		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>  It seems to be common in Cyprus and Italy while in Ukraine it is relatively rare. In Portugal there are only three localities known (Serrano 1981, Zuzarte 1983).
157473		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no known major threats to this species.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157474		conservation	eng	<p>The species occurs in several protected areas.   Further studies are needed into the specific habitat requirements, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.</p>
157474		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is endemic to the Balkans. In Greece it is found in Crete and Ikaria (Bense 1995). </span><span style="background-color: white;">Records from Greece are for sub-species: in Ikaria (</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">S. s. similatus</span><span style="background-color: white;">) and Crete (</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">S. s. mehli</span><span style="background-color: white;">) (Sama 2002).</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">This species is also present in Bulgaria and Romania. In Cyprus it is widespread</span><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/></p>
157474		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has been </st1:place></st1:country-region>found in orchards, maquis, garrigue, and forests; adults feed at various flowers especially on white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Its larval development situation is unknown. Its precise habitat is suspected to be similar to that of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. flavicornis </span>however its Extent of Occurrence  is smaller than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. flavicornis</span> so it is suspected that it may have more specific habitat requirements but these are not well known. More research is needed. Adults are active in May - June (Bense 1995).
157474		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout most of its range but it is not common. Trends are unknown.<br/></p>
157474		threats	eng	<p>No information available - more information on specific habitat of species is needed before threats can be understood.<br/></p>
157475		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157475		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Europe in the south of Russia.
157475		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.
157475		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157475		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157476		conservation	eng	<p>It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). No specific measures are needed.<br/></p><p>In the UK the conservation status of this species in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> is 'Nationally Scarce' (Hyman and Parsons 1992); no specific actions are in place but its habitat is covered by the Wood Pasture and Parklands Action Plan of the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157476		distribution	eng	This Eurosiberian species is widespread throughout all Europe except the far south-west. A Palaearctic species, with two subspecies described (one in Japan only) (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine and Hungary it is widespread throughout; also in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). It is widespread in Britain and Ireland.
157476		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the decaying wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and probably other tree species; they pupate at end of season and overwinter in the adult stage. Adults active May and June (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine pupation takes place in VII-VIII; adults have been found on branches of trees or&#160; feeding at flowers of grasses and bushes (Dolin 1988). In Denmark also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span> (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs in all forest ecosystems, also in isolated groups of trees from lowlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of broad-leaved forests, also in pine plantations, orchards, city parks, suburbs wherever dead wood is available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <span lang="EN-GB">Primarily associated with ancient wood pastures in Britain, also widely known from birches around peatlands in Britain and Ireland (Alexander 2002).</span>
157476		population	eng	A common species in at least parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is considered likely to be stable.<br/><br/>It has a very fragmented distribution within its British and Irish ranges, with many small isolated populations (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is very common; also common in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The species is common in all suitable habitats in Hungary, with strong populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is common (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).
157476		threats	eng	<p>This species faces no major threats at present. Loss of old trees and decaying wood can be a threat to this species.</p><p><br/></p>
157477		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.<br/></p>
157477		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species is found in Spain and Cyprus. It has been recorded from the Balearic Islands (Spain), where it is possibly introduced. It is widespread in northern Africa and south-western Asia (Arab countries, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan). Its Area of Occupancy in Spain is 700   <span lang="EN-GB">km² (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). There are seven known sites in Spain. Occurs from sea level to 1,100 m.
157477		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are polyphagous, and occupy (and consume) the deadwood of a variety of woody plant species including date palm (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix dactylifera</span>), tamarisk (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix gallica</span>) and even bamboos. Adults are nocturnal (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). </p>
157477		population	eng	<p>Typically few specimens are found. However, it is not known whether this is because the species is uncommon, or because collecting techniques are inadequate.<br/></p>
157477		threats	eng	This species has relatively generalist habitat preferences and is not thought to face any major threats at present.<p></p>
157478		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157478		distribution	eng	This species is found in Europe only in southern Russia. It is also present in Near East.
157478		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.</p>
157478		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157478		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>No information available. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157479		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It does not appear to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed to determine what current and potential threats are present for this species.<br/></p>
157479		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Endemic to the Canary Islands. Known from Tenerife, La Gomera, and El Hierro. Reported from five sites by Gonzáles Peña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007).
157479		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Found in the deadwood of juniper trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> sp.) in woodland, but no information is available on any requirements for canopy open-ness.<br/></p>
157479		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157479		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157480		conservation	eng	<p>It is present in one protected area. This species is included in the Red List of Poland as Data Deficient (2002), in the Red List of Germany as Extinct (2009) and in the Red List of Finland as Data Deficient (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).</p>
157480		distribution	eng	This is a rare species of north and central-Europe, and is known from Finland, Belarus, European Russia and European Kazakhstan. There is only one record from northern Finland (Lapland) in 1984. Old records from Germany and Poland are doubtful or represent imported specimens but more recent records for Poland show that it is currently present in Poland (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009). There is an old record (after 1950) from Germany in Brandenburg, but now the species is considered Extinct according to the German Red List (2009). This species is also present in Siberia, northern Mongolia, northern China and reported from North Korea; introduced into Japan (Sama 2002).
157480		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is polyphagous on broad-leaved trees. Larvae feed under the bark on dead branches and stems of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>; adults live on the host trees (Sama 2002). On the basis that this species is extremely rare in Finland and rare in Poland, it is suspected to have very specific habitat requirements (P. Tykarski and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009), possibly requiring very old dead broad-leaved trees.
157480		population	eng	<p>This species is extremely rare in Finland and rare in Poland. Due to its very specific habitat requirements of very old broad-leaved trees - which are known to be in decline throughout Europe - it is thought that the population trend is decreasing.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157480		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The major threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality which is a particular concern for this species which requires specific habitat (large, old, dead broad-leaved trees), involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Habitat loss is likely to be driven by exploitation from forestry, and land use changes possibly from road building (P. Tykarski and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009). Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157481		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157481		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2005, it is known from two sites in the centre of the country (Zapata and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).
157481		habitat	eng	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.
157481		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157481		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157482		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157482		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 1995; the type locality (the only site known) is in the extreme southern part of the country (Wurst 1995).
157482		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details are available on its precise habitat requirements.
157482		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157482		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157483		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas and no conservation actions are needed.
157483		distribution	eng	This species is found from Italy to Ukraine, reaching as well southern Russia (Caucasus) and further east into western Asia.
157483		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species known from many regions of forest, forest-steppe, steppe zones (Ukraine) and in Crimea (Drogvalenko 2001). More common in forest than in steppe. It is polyphagous on the fruiting bodies of wood-decay fungi. While it is obligatory mycetophagous, beetles develop on numerous xylotrophic fungi - T<span style="font-style: italic;">rametes, Pleurotus, Polyporus, Laetiporus, Daedaleopsis, Bjerkandera, Antrodia, Exidia, Chondrostereum</span>. Imago often found under dead bark on micellar mould of fungi (Drogvalenko 2001).
157483		population	eng	This is a common species, with adults easy to find on fungi and bark of trees, the population trend is stable because the fungi it requires (obligatory mycetophagous) are common throughout its range.
157483		threats	eng	<p>This species is polyphagous on wood fungi which are common throughout its range so it is not thought to be threatened.<br/></p>
157484		conservation	eng	<p>Research is recommended but no other specific measures are needed.<br/></p>
157484		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern Europe, and is Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995). It is widespread over much of Spain but it is absent from the far west (Vives 2001). In Portugal it is known from three northern sites (only one recent) and one (old) southern site. In France it only occurs in the Mediterranean region, and in Ukraine it is only present in in Crimea. <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it has been reported from the hills and mountains of Troodos Massif (west, south and central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in northern Africa, all Caucasus, northern Iran, southern Turkmenistan.
157484		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a thermophilous species. Larvae develop in dry deadwood of a variety of tree species including <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Ficus, Pistacia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus, Vitis, </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus. </span>Adults are active in VI-VIII. In Cyprus it has been reported from old   orchards, maquis and forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is found in Mediterranean forests in low and medium altitude.<br/></p>
157484		population	eng	<p>This species is widespread and common in most of its range but its population trend is unknown. In particular it is common in Italy and France. However in Portugal it is very scarce as it has been recorded from three old and one very recent locality (Grosso-Silva 2000). In Ukraine it is rare and in Cyprus it is not common although<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/></p>
157484		threats	eng	<p>      </p><p>There are no major threats to this species. Locally, populations can be threatened by fires.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157485		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed, however an effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. It occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). <br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary and it is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009).
157485		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe, in central and south-eastern Europe as far west as France and parts of Spain and Portugal; not present in the north (Bense 1995). It is also found in Minor Caucasus and northern Iran. <br/><br/>In Romania it is widespread, and in Hungary this species is distributed in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it has been recorded from only two sites in the north (one in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the other in the early 1980s) (Oliveira 1893, Zuzarte 1983). In Germany there are only old records before 1900 or 1950 from southern, middle and eastern German states: Bayern, Hessen, Rheinland-Pflaz, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Niedersachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt and Sachsen, and one record after 1950 from Baden-Württemberg. In Switzerland it is only present in the south. It is Extinct in Poland. It has been reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987) and Kırklareli, in European Turkey (Malmusi and Saltini 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157485		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The female beetles lay eggs on the bark of thin dead dry branches (diameter 2-3 cm) attached to dead trees or on living trees, but not fallen branches. The larvae hatch after three or four days and develop in the dead wood. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Ulmus</em><em>, </em><em>Paliurus, </em><em>&#160;Quercus, Robinia, Salix, Castanea, Fagus, Populus, Prunus, Amygdalus</em>). Pupation in spring in the wood, three weeks duration; the adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host plants and feeding at flowers. The life cycle is two or three years.<br/><p>    </p><p>In Hungary it lives in light thermophilous oak forests (Turkey oak and white oak). In Romania it has been reported from oak forests and also occurs in the plain forests, up to beech forest, also in old orchards with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in thermophilic broadleaved forests and open stands. In Slovakia it has been found in orchards. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157485		population	eng	This is a difficult species to find and study as it lives in the canopy level of trees. <br/><br/>In France it is widespread, common in the south but declining in the north. In Italy it is widespread and common, on mainland and Sicily, not present in Sardinia. In Spain it is very localized, not abundant (30 localities). In the Czech Republic is very rare, nearly Extinct and recent records are reported from warmer areas. In Slovakia it is common. In Ukraine it is&#160; local but relatively not rare. In Romania it is not rare. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.
157485		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, it is using a common habitat. Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (e.g. Hungary). Also replacement of native oak forests with others species of trees poses a threat.
157486		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157486		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Caucasus to northern Iran (Sama 1995). Its European range is in south-western Russia.
157486		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.</p>
157486		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157486		threats	eng	<p>No information available. Specific threats are unknown, but likely threats would be habitat loss from logging for timber and fuel.<br/></p>
157487		conservation	eng	Protection of open stands with old <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, as the species prefers thick and sturdy trees, continuation of the stand management and pollarding of trees are conservation measures that should be promoted for the conservation of this species. <br/><br/>In Hungary most of the known localities fall within protected areas; an effective protection of the maple stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy (Sama 2006) and in Germany (2009).
157487		distribution	eng	This species is an Endemic species to Europe that is widespread across central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Hungary it is very rare in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is largely distributed along the north-eastern border of the country (Alsace, Jura, Rhône-Alps); it is not overlapping the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. insubricus</span> (Bense 1995, Villiers 1978). In Germany the records are after 1950 from Baden-Württemberg, Bayern and Nordrhein-Westfalen, and old records from before 1950 from Sachsen-Anhalt, Thüringen and Sachsen. It is extinct in Switzerland.
157487		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dying or dead branches and trunks of broad-leaved trees (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, rarely also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus, Fraxinus, Alnus, Fagus, Salix</span>), and pupate in the wood; the species prefers thick and sturdy trees. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are found on the host-plants. The beetle prefers solitary trees or open stands of trees, at the edges of forests or coppices, and pollarded trees - the trees of the old cultural landscape are important rather than forest trees.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is found in old undisturbed forests where old maples are found. In the Czech Republic it lives in open stand trees, open canopy and does not like shade. In France larvae are xylophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer pseudoplatanus</span>; they use trunks and large branches, also the exposed roots (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).
157487		population	eng	<p>This species is rare throughout its range and has a very scattered distribution.<br/></p>  In Ukraine it is relatively rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but the species is very rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is a rare species but with a large distribution. In Italy there are 30 localized populations in mainland Italy. In Romania there is only one record from before 1900.
157487		threats	eng	<p>Shading of habitat and loss of traditional management systems are major threats to this species.<br/></p>  In Hungary habitat loss is a main threat. Removal of maples from the forests is the main cause if the rarity of this species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France habitat loss, especially of old <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> in hedges of the agricultural landscape and forests.
157488		conservation	eng	In Hungary, old orchards should be protected and sustained. However, as the species occurs in natural habitats, including those in protected areas as well, no more specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it has been found inside protected areas, for example in south-western Romania, near the Danube river, therefore it is expected that a good management plan of these protected areas will be useful (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157488		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout much of Europe from the Mediterranean, south and central Europe to southern Russia. In Ukraine, this species is found from the forest-steppe zone to Crimea. In Hungary, it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountain areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) while in Romania, it is widespread in the plain areas, hills and low mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in the Caucasus, Iran, Syria and Turkey.
157488		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  The larvae of this species develop in thin dead twigs on a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Staphylea, Quercus, Juglans, Castanea, Prunus, Rosa, Rubus, Amygdalis, Morus, Pistacia</em>). The life cycle lasts at least two years. Adults are found in IV-VI, on host plant. This species is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.</p><p>In Hungary, it occurs mainly in old, traditionally cultivated orchards, also in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania this species has been observed during the day on the dead oak branches and leaves, sometimes in association with other longhorn beetles, <span style="font-style: italic;">Exocentrus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">adspersus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leiopus nebulosus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
157488		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracilis</span> is rather rare throughout much of its range and found only in a few localities. <br/><br/>In Germany, this species is only found in eastern states while in Italy it shows a scattered distribution and few populations. In the Czech Republic, it is a very rare species, local and mostly found in the south-east. In Slovakia, it is less rare than in the Czech Republic and found only in the warmer part in the south of the country. In Romania, there has only been a few records, therefore it is suspected that the population is genuinely declining (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracilis</span> is difficult to find, therefore no information is available about population size and trend (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Ukraine, it is a relatively rare species.
157488		threats	eng	The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.<p>In Hungary, habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of the removal of dead wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. The disappearance of old orchards is more threatening (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, logging and human settlement are the major threats (P. Istrate pers.comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157489		conservation	eng	More research on the habitat preference of this species is needed. <br/><br/>Several localities are in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). This species is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic.
157489		distribution	eng	This species is found in patchy distributions throughout much of Europe, in southern, central and eastern Europe; but absent in the north. <br/><br/>It also occurs in Minor Asia, Caucasus, northern Iran and southern Turkmenia.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in the hilly and lower mountainous regions. In Romania it occurs in the warm areas from the south where large forests are preserved. In Italy it is present in mainland, Sicily and Sardinia.
157489		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead decaying trunks of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp., but also in other host-plants such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, often associated with ants. Larval development in ant hills outside of trees might be possible, and has been reported in the Ukraine. In Ukraine larvae develop in ant-hills of <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus</span>, which occur in decayed wood, stubs and the ground of forest; the adults are active in V-VIII, often feeding at flowers in broad-leaved forests and gardens (they prefer glades and edges)  (Medvedev 1964). It flies slow, easy to observe and catch (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens, Quercus cerris </span>forest, spread on limestone areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in thermophilous oak forests, mainly in turkey oak-sessile oak and white oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157489		population	eng	The population size and trends appears to vary across its European range, from common in Ukraine and the south of France (Paulian and Baraud 1982) to Spain where there are a few small isolated populations known (Micó and Galante 2002) and Germany where there are only three old records before 1950 in three States (Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Niedersachsen). In France it used to be very rare in the west (Gironde) 30 years ago, however now the species is very abundant (Paulian and Baraud 1982). The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as not very rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is common only in the south-western part; in the central part it occurs where thermophilous <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> are present, on the slopes of small mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009 ). Probably the same situation in other parts of the Balkans. In Greece it is present in many localities.
157489		threats	eng	As it is not clear precisely what the larvae need - decaying wood, ant nests or both - it is not possible to assess any potential threats. In Hungary its broad habitat, thermophilous oak forests, are threatened by urban encroachment. Dead and hollow trunks are also often removed from the forests as part of the forestry management.
157490		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas in Crimea and in a few small protected areas in Romania.
157490		distribution	eng	This species is found in south-eastern Europe. It has been reported from south-eastern Romania in Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009), in the eastern part of Bulgaria and in Crimea. It is also found in Caucasus and Minor Asia.
157490		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in deciduous broad-leaved forests and the larvae develop in decaying wood.  Imago active in VI-VIII, often in forests (glades, edges) and gardens feeding at different flowers. In Romania, it is only present in the glade forests near the dry valley in Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157490		population	eng	This species is common and the population is thought to be stable.
157490		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157491		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place other than general FSC guidelines. This species occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Hungary, UK).
157491		distribution	eng	This Holarctic species is widespread across much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It is also found in the Caucasus, northern Africa (Algeria) and Iran.<br/><br/>In Britain it has a very disjunct distribution, widespread in the English lowlands and in the Caledonian forest areas of Scotland, but absent elsewhere (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157491		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>Develops in fungal fruiting bodies on various broad-leaved trees. Adults may be found feeding at bracket fungi, irrespective of larval hosts.(Alexander 2000). In Ukraine the larvae usually develop in the wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus obliquus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. cuticularius;&#160; </span>the adult beetles may be found on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Polyporus squamosus, Russula rosea, Flammulina fomentarius, Pleurotus calyptratus</span>, but<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Krasutzky 1996). In Britain, the larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus hispidus </span>on ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>in the south and east lowlands, while preferring <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes fomentarius </span>on birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>in the Caledonian forest areas of Scotland.&#160; Also reported from other broad-leaved trees, without reference to the associated fungus&#160; (Alexander 2000). In Hungary this species occurs almost always on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius.</span><br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various broadleaved forests. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>UK sites include ancient wood pastures and woodlands, historic parklands, and traditional orchards (Alexander 2000).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157491		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in many parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>In Britain there are two large populations, almost certainly genetically distinct; strong numbers in both (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Portugal there is a single recent record from the central area, near the western Atlantic coast (Aguiar and Serrano 1995).
157491		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European scale.<br/></p>
157492		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (e.g. Hungary). This species is considered Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005). In Ukraine, it may be required to create protected areas for this species. FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.
157492		distribution	eng	This Euro-Anatolian species occurs throughout much of Europe, in the north reaching Scandinavia (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians (not in the high mountains) and in the forest-steppe zone. In Spain this species is cited as present without specific localities in a check-list of Iberian Elateridae (Sánchez-Ruiz 1996); presence recently confirmed in the north of Spain (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The species is considered Extinct in Denmark (2005). It is also found in Minor Asia.
157492		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The larvae develop in decayed (red-rotted) heartwood of a wide range of broad-leaved trees, but especially oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>. Pupation take place in VII-VIII; after this the beetles hibernate. The adult is active in V-VII the following year. The adult is usually found during the day sheltering under bark or in cracks of decayed wood; it flies at twilight. In Hungary this species prefers willow galleries along rivers and streams; also in alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus </span>and poplar <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic it inhabits alluvial woodlands and vegetation near rivers in highlands and moist localities of the forest-steppe zone (Laibner 2000). It is reported to be confined to mountainous areas in the south of its range.
157492		population	eng	A few European states hold strong populations, but it is local and rare in most. In Hungary it is widespread all over the country and it is not uncommon and the populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic the species is reported from four or five areas. In the Slovak Republic there are many records from six areas; it is a localized species but its niches are rather numerous (Laibner 2000). In Spain there is a single locality known, in the Pyrenees (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In France it is considered a rare species. In Italy there are five scattered records throughout the country. In Ukraine this species is relatively not rare, but local.
157492		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Hungary the species is not threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157493		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Part of the population occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>
157493		distribution	eng	This species is only found in mainland Greece. There is just one record from Chalkidiki Peninsula (type material).
157493		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It presumably lives in deciduous forests and trees, developing in the deadwood of small trunks and large branches of oaks.
157493		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157493		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157494		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
157494		distribution	eng	This Holarctic species (Laibner 2000) occurs throughout most of Europe; it is absent in far south-western Europe. It is also present in Near East and in the Nearctic region.
157494		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decaying wood (last stages of&#160; decay) in stubs and trunks (Dolin 1988); in heart-rot of pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>; also <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and probably other trees too; pupation at end of June-August; the adult beetle overwinters in the pupal cell and becomes active in V-VI, and is found on grasses and bushes. The life cycle is three years (Dolin 1988). In Denmark larvae develop especially in dead wood and under bark of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span> (O. Martin pers. comm. 2009, National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/><br/>It lives in evergreen forest from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In the UK it can be found in a wide variety of wooded habitats in the cultural landscape, including Caledonian pine forest, but also wooded fringes to raised mires, etc (Alexander 2002). In the Ukraine it lives in conifer forests only.
157494		population	eng	A common species in at least parts of its range. In Denmark it is widespread but not common (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented range, with the main centre of distribution in Scotland, but with many outlying smaller populations across England and Wales (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it only occurs in the Carpathians and is a common species. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is common (Laibner 2000); and in Finland and Sweden it is very common.
157494		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats at present.
157495		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>
157495		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Greek Mediterranean island of Crete. Two specimens have been collected from different localities (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157495		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. One specimen was found in a rotten <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> stump (P. Cate pers. comm. 2009).
157495		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157495		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157496		conservation	eng	As it is found in protected areas&#160; no specific measures are necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania was reported from non-protected areas. The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Italian Red List.
157496		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across south-eastern Europe, from Italy to Turkey. It also occurs in the Caucasus, northern Africa and northern Iran. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lowland regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There are few records in lowlands areas of Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157496		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is mostly found in coastal to hilly situations (up to about 1,000 m); in southern Turkey up to 2,000 m. Larvae develop on <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, occasionally on <span style="font-style: italic;">Cupressus</span>, in Lebanon on <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span>, feeding under bark on weakened, sometimes apparently healthy trees, often at ground level or underground. Adults are active on host-plants after dark (Sama 2002). Juniper is absent in the lowlands in Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The life cycle is two years, with pupation in autumn in the wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cells and emerge in III-VI.<br/><br/>.
157496		population	eng	While this species is rare in Ukraine and Romania, it is locally common in areas of Hungary and the trees it inhabits - Juniper and Cyprus - are fairly widespread and common throughout Europe. Juniper is in decline (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009) but overall this habitat is thought to be stable and the experts infer that the population of the species is stable. In Ukraine, it was recorded in the Carpathian region 60 years ago and 20-30 years ago in Crimea (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157496		threats	eng	In Hungary, this species is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><br/>In Romania, it is threatened by the removal of host trees where it occurs (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157497		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157497		distribution	eng	In Europe the species is found in southern Albania and Greece. It is also known from the northern slopes of the Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Turkey and Turkmenistan.
157497		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in deciduous forests,&#160; predominantly in the decaying wood of old oaks.
157497		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is a local and rare species and it is considered that the population trend is decreasing.<br/></p>
157497		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Loss of deciduous forest is a specific major threat. Over-collection for commercial purposes is also a threat.</p><p></p>
157498		conservation	eng	This species is included in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987); all modern records are from legally protected sites, although this does not protect the beetle from mushroom gathering, etc.
157498		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and central Europe, reaching as well the British Isles. It also occurs in the western part of northern Africa.
157498		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults normally frequent fruiting brackets of the softer polypore fungi on trunks of broad-leaved trees and a variety of shrubs, including gorse and elder in open limestone pasture in southern Britain; the only fungus species identified in Britain is <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus</span>, but other fungi may also be used; in a wide variety of situations including ancient wood pastures, historic parklands and ancient woodlands, as well as scrubby pastures (Alexander 2002). The known localities in Hungary are habitats of relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157498		population	eng	This species is very rare throughout its range. In Britain it has a highly fragmented distribution, with two main centres of population plus a small isolated area where it may now be Extinct; modern records only from the New Forest and four other areas (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is known from very few localities scattered in the western part of the country; the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very rare, and its populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France there are three records for this species; in Spain there is only one; in Slovakia there is one recent record.
157498		threats	eng	Loss of old trees and decaying wood, including excessive scrub clearance on limestone pastures for 'conservation' objectives. Oyster mushroom is also a very popular wild food and collection for consumption may be affecting the beetle populations in the New Forest and elsewhere (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157499		conservation	eng	It is important to ensure habitat continuity and connectivity. <br/><br/>This species is listed in several protected areas in Hungary and in Ukraine (e.g. Chernomorskyi reservation (Kherson region) and Kanevskyi reservation (Cherkassy region).<br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Endangered in Germany (2009) and the Czech Republic and Vulnerable in Slovakia.
157499		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across south, central and eastern Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous areas, and in the river valleys of the lowlands (Nádai 2008). In Romania it has been reported from different parts, especially from the parts with hills (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in forests and forest-steppe zones; in steppe zone only along Dnieper River.
157499		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species develops in cavities, rot-holes in a variety of old ancient trees and sometimes in old traditional orchards. The larvae develop have been found in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix</span> and some other tree species. The life cycle is one year on western and southern regions of Romania and two years in the north-eastern part (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The adults are active in VI-IX and are found on the trunk of trees (usually oak) with flowing sap or feeding at shrub flowers <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum lantana, Crataegus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In central Europe the tree diameter and the habitat quality must be higher than in southern Europe; this is probably related to insulation and climate. In Ukraine found in broad-leaved forests.&#160; In Hungary it occurs in thermophilous oak forests, wood pastures, and riverine hardwood galleries (Nádai 2008). In Romania it lives in the same places with <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia aeruginosa</span>.
157499		population	eng	In Europe this species is rare with a very scattered distribution; the population trend remains unknown. In Spain it is a rare species, only known from one locality. In Poland is rare and in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the populations seem to be small and isolated (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania,&#160; in the central part, many populations exist in the same places with <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia aeruginosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia cuprea</span>. Large populations are spread in the south-western Carpathians in low mountains and in hills (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy presumably it is rare. In Ukraine it is also rare.
157499		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are logging or natural death of the old ancient trees, and habitat fragmentation. The provision of this special habitat is often not secured for the future. <br/></p>In Hungary urban encroachment and removal of dead wood occurs in several localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the species does not seem to be threatened.
157500		conservation	eng	Forest management adapted to the needs of this species such as leaving dead stumps in their original position to decay is recommended.<br/><br/>It is necessary to protect some places (territory) where the beetles occur. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Italy and Slovakia.
157500		distribution	eng	This species is found in patchy distributions in southern and central Europe. It is also found in the Caucasus and Asia Minor (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).  In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the central part of the forest-steppe zone.
157500		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Laibner (2000) states that the larvae develop in decayed roots and stump remnants covered with soil, but (Dolin 1988) says the larvae develop in forest soil under trees, near dead trunks and stubs in relatively humid places.  Pupation takes place in the ground at the end of July-August, the adults overwinter in the pupal cells, and become active in V-VI; they are active in daylight. The adults do not fly far from the places where larvae are developing (Dolin 1988). In forest-steppe formations and open mixed south-facing forests. In Ukraine it occurs in broad-leaved forest. In Hungary this species occurs mainly in open thermophilous oak forests (mainly of turkey oak and white oak), often in ecotonal situation (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157500		population	eng	This species seems to be common over much of its European range, although is rare in certain states, e.g. France and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is common in all suitable habitats, with strong populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France this species is very rare and sporadic; there is one historical record (verified) before 1905 in the border between France and Italy (Mont Cenis, centre of the northern Alps); it has not been seen again at this locality but is indicated in 1960' in the Cote d'Or department in one locality (Leseigneur 1972). In Italy it occurs only in the four mainland regions and the most recent record is from 2001. In Greece it is present but scattered. In Germany it is present in the south and the populations seem to be stable. In Ukraine it is widespread but rare. In the Czech Republic, in Bohemia, it is rare and in Slovakia in South Moravia is common (Laibner 2000).
157500		threats	eng	Wood chipping of stumps (mechanical site preparation) after clear cutting is a major threat to this species.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is not threatened.
157501		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157501		distribution	eng	This species is only found in southern Crimea, Ukraine. It is only known from six specimens from the southern tip of the Crimean Peninsula but the exact localities are unknown (Dolin 1988).
157501		habitat	eng	This is believed to be an obligate saproxylic species, although the larva is unknown, and hence its habitat requirements are also unknown. The adults are active from mid July to the end of August (they presumably pupate in the spring or beginning of summer). Flight occurs at twilight (Dolin 1988).
157501		population	eng	This species is very rare (known from two specimens in collection of Zoological Institute, Kiev and the type series and four exuvia in Zoological Institute of St-Petersburg).
157501		threats	eng	<p>  </p>No information available.<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 48pt;" width="64" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
157502		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157502		distribution	eng	This species is scattered in southern Europe from Spain to Bulgaria.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic it occurs in the south-eastern tip bordering Slovakia and Austria. In Slovakia it occurs in the central part of the country. In Spain it is only present in the north (Recalde Irurzun 2008).
157502		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in white-rotten interiors of lying dead but otherwise intact logs; in shady conditions. It has also been found in a regeneration area with dense regrowth of young trees; in high quality old growth forests with old trees, so good continuity of habitat. Beetles have been reported from a wide range of broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, Castaneus, Fagus, Fraxinus, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> (Muona 1993). <br/><br/>In Hungary the species is known from only one locality; the record is very old, so no information is available about the habitat. However, the extant habitats around the locality are mature oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It inhabits oak and ash (Lucht 1992).
157502		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Typically single records of individual beetles. Population probably stable.<br/></p>  In Hungary the species is known from only one locality in the central part of the country; the record is more than 70 years old. As the species is known from only one locality, no information is available from its population (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France and the Czech Republic it is rare. There are two localities known in Slovakia. In Spain it is rare with eight localities in the north.
157502		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of veteran trees. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157503		conservation	eng	It has conservation status in Britain as Nationally Scarce (Hyman & Parsons 1992); and no specific actions are in place but its habitat is covered by the Wood Pasture and Parklands Action Plan of the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, UK). It is considered Endangered in Italy, Vulnerable in Germany and Near Threatened in the Czech Republic.
157503		distribution	eng	This Eurocaucasian species is widespread across all Europe; absent from Spain and Ireland; also from Fennoscandia and Denmark by Allen 1966.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs almost in all regions with broad-leaved trees, except in the steppe. In Hungary it is widespread all over the country. In Britain it is concentrated in central southern England, with scattered outlying populations across the rest of southern Britain.
157503		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in red-rotten heartwood of living old oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> trees, it has also been reported from beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults; the adults are active from mid May to July, and are attracted to hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>blossom (Alexander 2002), other shrubs and grasses (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>In Hungary and Ukraine it occurs in various broadleaved forests. In Britain it is largely confined to ancient woodlands and wood pastures in the cultural landscape rather than forest.
157503		population	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution in Europe and its population is declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is common but local. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia this species occurs locally across the whole territory except for the mountains (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is quite common in the country and the populations are strong. In Italy it is rare species and in Germany it is widespread and scattered. It has a very fragmented distribution within its British range, but strong populations across central southern counties, with more isolated populations scattered elsewhere. Some outlying populations appear to have been lost in recent decades (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157503		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157504		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. This species occurs in several protected areas and Natura 2000 sites (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009).
157504		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and southern Europe (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous regions covered with oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal there are only two very recent records from the north of the country. In Spain it occurs in the central and northern part. In France it is widespread but rare and localised (Villiers 1978). In Germany it is found in&#160; the south-western German States: Baden-Württemberg, Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz.
157504		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of standing, dry trunks and thick branches of broad-leaved trees, mainly in Q<span style="font-style: italic;">uercus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Stage of eggs lasts between ten or 13 days. Adults emerge in VII-VIII and are crepuscular and nocturnal (attracted to light).<br/><br/>This species is mainly found in thermophilous oak forests. In Hungary it occurs in turkey oak-sessile oak woods and white oak woods (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in thermophilic oak-beech-forests, mainly breeding in thick, sun-exposed canopy branches.
157504		population	eng	As this is a canopy species it might be more frequent than assumed as it has probably been under-sampled. It is considered that the population trend is stable and partially increasing (north). However, Sama (2002) states that it is a local and endangered species. <br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is not rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany and France it is rare, in Romania very rare and in Portugal too (two recent records). In Ukraine (Crimea) it is very rare as only one specimen is known. There is only one locality known in Poland. In the Czech Republic there are very few sites only in the extreme south-eastern part, in warm oak forests, partially floodplain forests. In Slovakia it is present in the south and east with only a few localities. In Greece the populations are widespread but scattered, few localities. In Spain it is rare, eight or nine localities, and not very abundant.
157504		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. Loss of old stands of oak is a potential threat to the species habitat but it does not lead to a decline at the moment. Also habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and removal of dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. <br/></p>
157505		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157505		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Europe.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;"></span>In the Czech Republic it is known from four areas. In Slovakia it is known from two areas; probably across the whole territory, but sporadically (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is found in six States.<br/><p><br/></p>
157505		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Confined to oaks in lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000) and develops in dead wood and may be predatory like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ampedus</span>.
157505		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Germany only five records have been registered in the last 25 years.<br/></p>
157505		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157506		conservation	eng	None needed.
157506		distribution	eng	The species is boreomountane. It is widespread throughout much of Europe from the Eurosiberian subregion to central and north-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). Its southern distribution is more confined to mountains. It is also found in Japan and Korea.
157506		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dying or dead branches and standing and fallen trunks of conifers (especially<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea</span><span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Pinus, Larix)</span>. Life cycle two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, found on host-plants.</p><p><br/></p>
157506		population	eng	<p>The species is common in suitable habitats. In Germany it is present in the low range mountain and alpine forests. In Romania there are few report but the species spread in all the Carpathians Mountains  (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Presumably the population trend for this species is stable.</p>
157506		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. <br/>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
157509		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in a protected area and there is no information on the conservation measures in place.</p>
157509		distribution	eng	This species is described from a single female found in Bavaria (Laibner 2000) in Germany. It has been removed from the German checklist and National Red List, because there is no indication that the type specimen is unique, it is most likely to be an aberrant specimen of another <em>Ampedus</em> species (B.&#160;Büche&#160;pers. comm. 2009).
157509		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It was only once found, 'on cord of oak wood' (Laibner 2000).
157509		population	eng	It is only known from the single type specimen.
157509		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157510		conservation	eng	Research on the taxonomic status of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fuscus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mauritanicus </span>is needed.   No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas. It has not been included in the Red Book of the Invertebrate of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).
157510		distribution	eng	This species is known from western and central Europe, reaching some countries in southeastern Europe.<br/> <br/> In&#160; Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fuscus</span> is widespread all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain this species is present in the north-eastern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004) occupying 25 localities/squares of 10x10 km between 200 and 1,600 m altitude (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).
157510		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fuscus</span> is frequently confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mauritanicus</span> in France where it is found under bark of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. In Spain, it is a strictly forestal species found under bark or dead wood of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> spp.). This seems the most reliable criterium to differentiate it from <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mauritanicus</span> (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, this species occurs  in many types of broad-leaved forests, with a preference to willow and poplar. It is also found in parks, roadside tree rows, wood pastures, poplar plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157510		population	eng	This species is widespread and not uncommon throughout its range. Its population trend is stable. <br/><br/>In Italy, it has been recorded only from the northern part of the country and these records are old. In France it is very common while in Germany is uncommon but found throughout much of the country. In Hungary, although never abundant, it is a common species with stable populations all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain is not scarce and found in 25 localities (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).
157510		threats	eng	There is no information about the threats to this species, although in Hungary this species is not threatened at all (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157511		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures for this species are known. It is not thought to occur in any protected areas. Research on threats and population trends are urgently needed to better inform a future reassessment of this species' status.
157511		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Portuguese archipelago, the Azores, in the Atlantic Ocean. Only four localities (on three islands) are reported by Gonzáles Peña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007). According to Base de dados da Biodiversidade dos Açores (2009) it is present in the islands Pico, Saõ Miguel, Santa Maria and it records the species from twelve 0.5x0.5 km grids, eight of them on Santa Maria island. The grids are situated near coast and in medium altitudes. It is a relict species.
157511		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus azorica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex</span> in montane laurisilva forests. No details are available on size of deadwood required or on open-ness of the habitat.<br/></p>
157511		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157511		threats	eng	<p>No information available. There may be ongoing declines in habitat extent and quality (since the sites for this species are not in protected areas), but better information is needed to confirm this.<br/></p>
157512		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Red Data Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006), rated as Least Concern. It is present in the protection catalogues of several regions within Spain. The species is present in some Natura 2000 areas and in some National Parks.
157512		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Iberian Peninsula.<br/><br/>It is present in all the Mediterranean part of Spain, occupying a total of 40 provinces (GTLI 2003, Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007). Its northern distribution limit is in the surroundings of the Cantabrian Range and Pyrenees, excepting a locality in Guipuzcoa province and a few localities in Huesca province. Most localities are in the north in the 'Meseta' and in the Sistema Central.<br/><br/>In Portugal overall, there are 12 known localities in the north and centre  (only five published: GTLI 2003). Apart from one northern locality, the unpublished records refer to localities concentrated in a relatively small area in the centre, 80 to 100 km north of Lisbon   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009). Most of the unpublished records were obtained after 2000 (the oldest dates from 1975)   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).
157512		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In&#160; Spain it is present in broad-leaved Mediterranean forests, mainly above 400 m and more frequent in forested mountain areas and the middle altitude (750 m) plateaus (GTLI 2003). Also present in bocage open landscapes with scattered trees (GTLI 2003). It can probably live in several species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and other broad-leaved species (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).
157512		population	eng	In Spain there is no systematic data on local abundance or population trends available. A local study in Catalonia reported less than ten specimens per year and four-year fluctuations in abundance (Jeremías and Escolà 2003). There is no data for Portugal (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).
157512		threats	eng	No systematic assessment of threats exists for this species. Being a species of similar size and habitat than <span style="font-style: italic;">Lucanus cervus</span>, it is probably under the same threats, namely, habitat destruction or degradation by removal of old, dead trees and dead wood (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).
157513		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. In Ukraine it is present in the Kanevskyi reservation. It is listed as Endangered in the Czech National Red List and as Near Threatened in the German National Red List.
157513		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe but is absent from the far west and east, and from the Britain and Ireland. In Ukraine it is present in the western region and in the central forest-steppe. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Turkey.
157513		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops under dead bark and in cavities in most broad-leaved tree species; typically in floodplains and broad-leaved forests of lowlands and highlands; the adults are crepuscular (Laibner 2000); the larvae feed on the larvae of Scolytidae and Bostrichidae; they pupate in the autumn, and the adults hibernate in their pupal cells and become active in May (Dolin 1982). In Ukraine, the larvae develop in the dry deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> especially. The known records from Hungary are from various broad-leaved forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only found in white-rotten wood of hornbeam.
157513		population	eng	The status of this species varies wildly country by country, from being common and widespread in Denmark to rare in Ukraine. In the Czech Republic it is known from four areas. In the Slovak Republic there are several records from three areas; rare (Laibner 2000), but recently found at many more sites, almost across the country, except for the high mountains. In Hungary this species is known from a few localities in the hilly and mountainous regions. The populations are sporadic and small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Germany there are recent records in all states. In Sweden it is present on the border and it is the border of the species range, but it is common.
157513		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the species as its habitat, deciduous trees, is abundant (e.g. Hungary). In Ukraine the cutting and loss old trees are threatening this species.</p>
157514		conservation	eng	No information available. This species is listed as Data Deficient in Poland, as Endangered in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
157514		distribution	eng	It is found in central Europe. It also occurs in Siberia and Russian Far East. <br/><br/>In Germany this species is Extinct. In Ukraine it occurs in the eastern part of the forest-steppe zone (Kharkov region), and may be in the Carpathians too (Drogvalenko 2004). <span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>
157514		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in warm deciduous forests of central and southern Europe. In Ukraine beetles have been found on carpophores of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the bracket fung<span style="font-style: italic;">i Inonotus obliquus, I. cuticularis</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 1997, 2004). In Hungary one of the three known specimens was found in a ravine forest on a sporocarp of the bracket fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157514		population	eng	In most countries it is not a numerous species. It is found sporadically, very locally and rarely.<br/>In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary it is known only from three localities (one specimen each) in the central part of the country - one is from 1996, the other two records are more than 70 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) -as there is no extant population known, no information is available about its populations. In Slovenia there are very few records in the last 50 years. In Poland it was only recorded in 1988. In Slovakia there have been three records since 1950.
157514		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157515		conservation	eng	It is required in order to conserve this species to preserve the ancient broad-leaved forests from the Balkan Peninsula (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The species occurs in several protected areas.
157515		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in south-eastern Europe. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus it </st1:country-region></st1:place>is widespread in the lowlands but absent from the higher elevations of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It occurs also in Anatolia and it was reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Ozdikmen <em>et al.</em> 2009).<p>    </p>  <p></p>
157515		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species with little information about its development, but it probably grows in the decaying roots of plane trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus </span>(Bense 1995)<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> and has been found in maquis and  dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span>. <br/></p><p><br/><em></em></p>  <p></p>    <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><br/></p>  <p></p>
157515		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Cyprus the species is locally common (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>
157515		threats	eng	Clearance of dead and tree stumps from the old forests may be one of the threats (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157516		conservation	eng	In the UK it has the conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Ireland, UK, Ukraine, Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in Denmark (2005).
157516		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout much of Europe. It is also found in Caucasus and in western Siberia.<br/><br/>In Spain it is present in the northern half only (Recalde Irurzun 2008).
157516		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dead, dry trunks and stumps in exposed situations, especially beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>; the wood needs to be solid and hard on the surface; <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>larvae bore galleries across the grain; development takes at least two years <span style="font-style: italic;">(</span>Muona 1993). Also found in branches down to five cm diameter; so does not require large old trees. <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Platanus, Populus, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>. Larvae develop especially in beech and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> in Ukraine (Drogvalenko 2001).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest-steppe zone and in mountains of Crimea. In Hungary it occurs in mature broadleaved forests, especially in oak, beech and hornbeam. In UK in the ancient woodlands and historic parklands of the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).
157516		population	eng	Widespread and not uncommon in at least parts of its range. Population trend is unknown.<br/><br/>In Ireland it is only known from two sites, where recorded only once (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it is widely scattered across lowland England, but with some fragmentation of distribution and signs of local declines (Mendel and Clarke 1996)<br/><br/>In Ukraine it appears locally and is not so common. In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions; the populations have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it was found throughout the country in flatlands and lower mountains; not rare. <br/><br/>In Portugal there is only one record from the northern part of the country, almost one century old (Barros 1913). <span lang="EN-GB">In Spain it is widespread in the north, with 20 known localities (Recalde Irurzun 2008).<br/><br/>In Finland there is only one reliable record. In Denmark it is rare and local (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).</span>
157516		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157517		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Ukraine). It is considered Data Deficient in Poland. FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.
157517		distribution	eng	This species is known from most of Europe, excepting the far west - Portugal and the British Isles. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians. In Spain it is present only in the north (Recalde Irurzun and San Martín Moreno 2007). It is also found in Asia Minor (Laibner 2000) and in all of Caucasus (Lobl and Smetana 2007).
157517		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; The larvae develop in decayed wood and under bark of broad-leaved trees, especially favouring stumps; it is a predator or necrophagous. The larvae hibernate and pupate in mid May, and the adult is active in VI-VII and are attracted to lights. This species lives in broad-leaved forests and in open country. In the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic it is found in the forests of the submontane and montane zones (Laibner 2000); in Ukraine it similarly is found in mountain forests. In Hungary it occurs in the cool, shady parts of the forests, mainly in ravines and stream valleys (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). This species is considered to be a strong indicator of good ecological condition of forests.
157517		population	eng	This is an uncommon species across much of its range. In Ukraine it is considered a rare species. In the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic it is locally across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is rare in a few mountainous areas, with small populations, but is not a threatened species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare and local. In France it is uncommon. In Spain there are only three localities in the north (Recalde Irurzun and San Martín Moreno 2007).
157517		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. <br/></p>
157519		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.</a></p>
157519		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Mediterranean island of Sicily.
157519		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnorimus</span> species it probably develops in accumulations of wood mould in cavities in the trunks and main boughs of veteran trees in deciduous woodland (beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>forests).
157519		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157519		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g., cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. It is strongly suspected that this habitat is in decline across Europe due to changing land use patterns and lack of appreciation of their importance for nature conservation.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157520		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas.
157520		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across all Europe, except Britain, Ireland and the far west. It is also found in western Caucasus. It is Extinct in Denmark (1997).
157520		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Ukraine the beetles inhabit carpophores of Pleurotaceae fungi on decaying wood: <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. calyptratus, Leccinum aurantiacum</span> (Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 1997, 2001); the adult beetle is found often under dead bark on beech-trees.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Hungary the species occurs in various broad-leaved forests.
157520		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend is increasing in some areas (e.g. Finland, Germany).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species, sometimes numerous. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities.
157520		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157521		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Vávra 2005).
157521		distribution	eng	This species is scattered in Europe, from the Scandinavian Peninsula to western and central Europe. Endemic to Europe.
157521		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Mainly confined to hornbeam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>) trees in broad-leaved woodland. Found in standing dead wood in small, medium and large-sized trees. Has been reared from rotten wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus cerasifera</span>. Beetles on dead standing <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span>, diameter less than 15 cm, bark fallen off (Muona 1993). In Hungary habitats of the known populations are closed, mature beech forests. Reported to develop in hornbeam (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979); in still rather fresh, hard wood (Vávra 2005).
157521		population	eng	<p>It is a widespread and not infrequent species in at least some parts of its range. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>  In France it is generally widespread but absent from the Atlantic area; many localities are known (20-30 sites). In Germany it is very sporadic in warmer broad-leaved forests at lower altitudes. In Hungary this species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is present in four areas (one to several faunistic grid cells) from central Bohemia (west) to southeastern Moravia (east); fifth area (two faunistic grid cells) with pre-1950 records only (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia it has a scattered occurrence across the country (about&#160; ten areas of one or two grid cells), missing in the north-west (Elateridae 2009).<br/><br/>In Sweden there are two small sub-populations in southernmost Sweden. In Norway it is very localized, restricted to far south.
157521		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.&#160; </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157522		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially with regard to its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>
157522		distribution	eng	The main population seem to occur outside of Europe (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey, Caucasus region, Near East, Iran, Iraq). </st1:country-region>In Europe, this species is reported from Greece (exact distribution unknown) and Cyprus. However it is doubtful if the European population is less than 1%, which would have made this species Not Applicable to the Red List. <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>In Cyprus it has been reported only from Souni (south-western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>, 500 m) (Preiss and Platia 2003). Two specimens have been collected from Turkey (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157522		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> The only specimen collected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> was found in decayed wood of <em>Pinus brutia</em>, in a burned forest area (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157522		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Cyprus it is <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>very rare and local - only one specimen has been collected in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Preiss and Platia 2003). The population of Greece is unknown. <br/></p><p><br/>.</p>
157522		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Forest fires are a specific threat.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157523		conservation	eng	It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987), but no real action on the ground is in place. In Spain it is not included in the Red Book of&#160; Invertebrates of&#160; Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).<br/><br/>It occurs in several protected areas in Hungary and Spain.
157523		distribution	eng	This species is known from much of Europe. It also occurs in northern Africa (Tunis), Syria and Turkey. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, forest and forest-steppe zones; maybe in Crimea too. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas.<br/><br/>In Portugal it was recorded from the country, without geographical detail, in the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Oliveira 1893) and apparently not found ever since. In Spain it was recorded from six provinces, mainly along the northern Mediterranean coast, but also in Guipuzcoa in the Cantabrian side of Spain and Sierra de Andújar (Jaén) in the inner south; no localities mentioned in some of these provinces (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).<br/><br/> In Denmark it is widespread but not common (Hansen 1996). In Britain it has been found across the lowlands on the south and east, but there are few modern localities known. It is absent from Ireland.
157523		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in the burrows of the bark beetles <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleobius vittatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leperisinus varius, </span>and is parasitic on them; mostly in old untreated fencing palings in UK, also on elm and ash trees (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine adults and larvae are predators under bark, mostly conifer trees (firs). The life cycle is one year (Drogvalenko 1999, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). In Spain it lives in both broad-leaved and coniferous trees, under bark, predating scolytids (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). In Hungary the known occurrences are in broad-leaved forests, especially where twigs and branches are left in the forest after logging.
157523		population	eng	A widespread and common species over part of its European range at least, with populations which are increasing, again at least in part of its range.<br/><br/>In the UK it has always been a rare species and largely dependent on the cutting of ash and elm for fencing in the historic period; it has virtually disappeared with the commercial production of chemically treated wood (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are very few records known, probably due at least partly to wrong sampling methods rather than low abundance (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In central Europe it is common but in Hungary all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Sweden it is common. In Germany and Finland this species is expanding its range. In Italy it is not so common and it is considered a bioindicator. In Spain it occupies six squares of 10x10 km.
157523		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However in the UK the commercial production of wooden fencing materials, involving chemical preservatives is a threat as the species was formerly favoured by hand-cutting of fencing materials. Also the destruction of dead and old trees are a negative factor in some range states.
157524		conservation	eng	In the UK, it is recommended to promote interest in veteran trees throughout the country not just in reserves (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and Britain).
157524		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe. It is also known from the Caucasus and Turkey. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions. It is very widespread in England, extending into southern Scotland. It is unknown in Ireland.
157524		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands as well as wood-pastures and hedgerow trees; the larvae develop in certain species of fungus involved in the decay of dead wood of broad-leaved trees.<br/><br/>In Britain, larvae develop in the hard black fruiting bodies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypoxylon fragiforme</span> fungus on dead and dying beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, or <span style="font-style: italic;">Daldinia concentrica</span> on ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>; the pupae are reported from under dead bark and in deadwood (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine the beetles live on wood-decay fungi (Pyrenomycetes) and under bark with fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypoxylon, Daldinia, Xylaria, Ustulina, Nummularia,</span> rarely on <span style="font-style: italic;">Hericium, Fomes, Daedaleopsis </span>(Drogvalenko 2001).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broadleaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech. In Britain suitable trees may be found in a wide variety of situations, throughout the cultural landscape - in woodland margins, hedgerows, wood pastures and parkland.
157524		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it is a widespread throughout England although rare in the west; mainly in the border counties of Wales; present in southern Scotland but rare. In France it is widespread and in Spain it is plentiful in the north at least. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. It is very rare in southernmost Finland. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.
157524		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157526		conservation	eng	None other than standard FSC guidelines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range (e.g. UK, Hungary).
157526		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout<em> </em>all Europe. Its occurrence in Siberia is questionable. It also occurs in the Caucasus.
157526		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <br/><br/>In the UK adults are normally frequent in fruiting brackets of the softer polypore fungi on trunks of broad-leaved trees; it has been reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Piptoporus betulinus</span> (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine adults and larvae occur on many (near 30) species of xylotrophic fungi. Moreover beetles inhabit carpophores of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bjerkandera adusta, B. contragosa, Funalia trogii, Gleoporus dichrous, Hapalopilus nidulans, Lentinus lepideus, Pluteus atricapillus, P. pulmonarius, Panus rudis, P. squamosus, Tricholoma saponaceum </span>(Khalidov 1984, Drogvalenko 1997). Adults have been found in IV-V.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted broad-leaved forests. UK sites include ancient wood pastures, historic parklands, traditional orchards and woodlands generally (Alexander 2002).
157526		population	eng	<p>Reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p>  In Ireland it is rare and has a strongly fragmented distribution with a small number of very isolated sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it is widespread in Britain and it is plentiful. In Ukraine it is a common species and is present in all regions where there is woody vegetation. This species is widespread all over Hungary wherever wooded plant societies occur; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it was recently recorded from two localities in the north-west (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003).
157526		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157527		conservation	eng	In Hungary and Romania some of the localities are in protected areas. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009) and as Data Deficient in Poland. It is recommended that goat willow stands should be left undisturbed (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.
157527		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe; it occurs in central, eastern and north-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in Baden-Württemberg and Sachsen-Anhalt, records after 1950. In Romania it is a rare species spread on the high hills and&#160; mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Finland it is considered uncommon, but widespread.
157527		habitat	eng	In Europe it is a montane species; developing only in the wood of willows&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>sp (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. caprea</span> in Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. fragilis, S. sibirica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. xerophila</span> in Siberia); it develops in the moist heartwood of healthy or weakened trunks and branches (1.8 - 16 cm diameter); the larvae feed deep in the wood; adults are found on the host trees (Sama 2002). In Hungary it is found in undisturbed forests that are free of forestry management, where extensive populations of goat willow <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caprea</span> are found (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported in associations with the other longhorn beetles <span style="font-style: italic;">Saperda similis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aromia moschata</span>, in <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caprea</span>, (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Finland and Germany it is found in various warm habitats where <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span> grows - roadsides, forest edges etc.<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157527		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is quite rare in its localities, and the populations must be small (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania there are only old reports, a few small populations in the south and central parts of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy there are a few recods in the south of the Tirol region.</p>
157527		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the main reason of the rarity of this species, because its host trees are usually selectively removed from forests by foresters (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Land use change and habitat transformation are also threats to this species. In Finland the species is not threatened.
157528		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.  <span lang="EN-GB">
157528		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across all Europe, excepting the British Isles. It is also known from Siberia, Far East and Japan. In Ukraine it is only present in the Carpathians and in the western part of the forest zone.
157528		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in white-rotten heartwood of various tree species, although mostly of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>; the larvae and pupae hibernate. The life cycle is two to three years, with adult beetles active from the end of May into June (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). It requires continuity of dead trees, and is confined to almost undisturbed natural forest. In Finland this species is also present in burnt forests.
157528		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but the species is considered rare in Europe and its population is decreasing. In Finland it is widespread but very rare. In Ukraine it is very rare. In Portugal it has been recorded only once, from the extreme north of the country (Oliveira 1893). <br/></p>
157528		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The species is relatively large and easy to find by collectors.</p>
157529		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Ukraine, Hungary).<br/><br/>In the UK it is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan; also the Ancient Tree Hunt project aims to document all ancient trees across the UK and promote their protection (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987), Endangered in Germany and Sweden, as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005) and as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic.
157529		distribution	eng	This western Palaearctic species (Laibner 2000) is known from Spain across to the east of Europe, and from Italy to Sweden (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is also found in the Caucasus. In Ukraine it occurs in the western part of the forest-steppe zone. In Britain it is only known from small areas in the south-east. It is absent from Ireland (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157529		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A specialist of large, hollow veteran trees. It is an old growth species - an indicator species for undamaged natural forests (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>The larvae develop in black wood mould in the interior of old hollow trunks and boughs of broad-leaved trees, generally live trees; mainly in elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>and horse-chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesculus</span>, very occasionally in oak Quercus (Allen 1966); may prefer white-rot over red-rot; often associated with bird nest material in Britain. The larvae overwinter and pupate in late May or early June; the life cycle is normally 3-4 years but may last up to 6 years. An individual tree can potentially sustain a population of the beetle for several decades. The larvae feed on other invertebrates in the wood mould, especially chafer larvae (Alexander 2002); the adults are active at midsummer V-VIII and are attracted to hollow trees with <span style="font-style: italic;">Osmoderma</span> pheromones (Svensson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004); the adult is short-lived and often said to be crepuscular, attracted to lights, but males also known to swarm around midday; females attract males by pheromone (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; The adult beetles occasionally feed at sap of some trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, Castaneus</span>).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in deciduous forests and groves, also in isolated groups of old trees (limes, willows, poplars, oaks, maples) from lowlands to foothills; frequently along water courses (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is known from old growth forests or wood pastures with ancient trees, but the most records are from riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). UK sites are in the cultural landscape - historic parklands and wood pastures - and also old willows along floodplains (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157529		population	eng	It is a rare species and somewhat patchily distributed throughout its European range. Suspected to be declining, as its habitat is declining. Threatened throughout entire range (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/><br/>It is widespread but not abundant in France, more localised in north (Brustel 2005). In the UK it has a very fragmented range in the south-east, with just a few isolated populations remaining (Mendel and Clarke 1996); six small sites are known plus one large one, Windsor Great Park and Forest; it has been lost from 50% of its known sites due to habitat destruction (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is not common and occurs very locally. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountain regions and along the Danube River; its populations are patchy and small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare and local and it is only in Zealand and Lolland (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Spain the concentration of known sites is in northern Navarra (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).
157529		threats	eng	<p>  This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>In Hungary very old trees are threatened all over the country - also true of most European states - and the known localities are threatened by over-collecting and destruction of microhabitats.
157530		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old hollow trees. This species occurs in protected areas.
157530		distribution	eng	This species is described as a central European species (Laibner 2000) but is also known from northern Europe (Lobl and Smetana 2007) but not from Britain or Ireland.<br/><br/>In France it is very rare and localized to the eastern part of the country below 1,200 m (Leseigneur 1972).
157530		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It typically inhabits old, hollow broad-leaved trees with moist decayed wood. The larvae develop in the wood mould and are predatory.&#160; The adult overwinters inside the tree and becomes active in May - June ; they are found in the evening around the hollows of trees in which they developed (Dolin 1982, Laibner 2000). In France it has been observed that the larvae are never in cavities situated at the contact of the soil (Leseigneur 1972).<br/><br/>In naturally preserved forests of lowlands and highlands, also in parks (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine in forests.
157530		population	eng	Generally rare and localized. Population declines have been noted in at least some parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is rare. In the Czech Republic it is widespread over seven areas; in Slovakia over two areas (Laibner 2000). In Hungary only one locality is known from the westernmost part of the country, which is more than 50 years old - as extant populations are unknown no information on its populations is available. In Denmark it is rare and only present in the east (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Finland there are four known locations, and it is regarded as threatened. In Sweden there are about ten known subpopulations. In Germany it is rare and considered as threatened. In Spain there is only one site known; this is presumed to be a relict species.
157530		threats	eng	<p>The loss of hollow trees is the main threat to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude mowing and/or grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157531		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157531		distribution	eng	This species is described from Sicily, Italy, but this is very probably a label error. This is a Neotropical species. It is not listed in the Italian checklist (Gobbi and Platia 1995). Either this is an introduced species, or it does not occur in the European region at all.
157531		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.
157531		population	eng	<p>No information is available.</p>
157531		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157532		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are necessary.
157532		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe, except the far north (Bense 1995). It is very widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001); also widespread in Hungary, Romania, Denmark and Cyprus. It has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953). It is only present as a synanthropic in the UK, breeding in the structural timbers of buildings.<br/><p>    </p><p></p>
157532		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the dead dry wood of stems and stumps of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Pinus, Abies</span>). The life cycle is two or three years (or more, maximum seven or eight), in building timbers much longer. Pupation takes place in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, IX, and are found on the host-plant or on timber. It occurs in native situations across southern Europe but becomes increasingly confined to seasoned timber within human constructions in the north, in both rural and urban areas.</p><p>    </p>    <p>In European Turkey larvae similarly develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Abies, Pinus</em></strong> and in building timbers (Schimitschek 1953). In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> it is also </st1:place></st1:country-region>reported as a timber pest; found in towns and villages and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> stands; it has been reared from <em>Pinus brutia</em> dead wood. In Germany its original habitat is pine and spruce forests. In Hungary it is found in settlements in building timbers, also in indigenous and planted pine stands. In Romania it is reported from timber storehouses, and also develops in different parts of wooden houses.&#160;In Denmark it is associated with houses and develops in dry wood.  In Finland it is rare and is only present in the southernmost archipelago in buildings.</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157532		population	eng	A widespread and common species. A pest in timber in houses and other buildings. In Denmark this species is rare. In the UK it is well established in building timbers in parts of south-eastern England, where it can cause serious damage; it is occasionally found in posts and stumps outdoors (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as a pest of timber. It is not rare in Cyprus and common in Ukraine. <br/><p>    </p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place></p><p></p>
157532		threats	eng	A threat to timber buildings but the species itself is under no threat.
157533		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information available.</p>
157533		distribution	eng	This species is described from northern Germany and a single record from southern Germany. It was subsequently recognized from the Czech and Slovak Republics (Laibner 2000).
157533		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in&#160;decaying stumps and fallen oak trunks; in oak groves and mixed forests of lowlands (Laibner 2000).
157533		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>The abundance, population size and trends of this species are not known.</p>
157533		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no known major threats to the species, however - with the taxonomic uncertainty - the biology of the species is unknown and the threats cannot be assessed.</p><p></p><p></p>
157534		conservation	eng	<p>More research is needed, monitoring using window traps instead of direct sampling in order to get more information about population sizes. In Italy this species is assessed as Vulnerable (Sama 2006) and in Germany as Critically Endangered (2009).</p>
157534		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be restricted mainly to France and Italy, extending into northern Spain (Bense 1995); in Germany there is one old record (before 1900) from Hessen and one record from Baden-Württemberg after 1950. It is also known from Crimea (Ukraine).<br/><br/> In France the species is sporadic in the north but more abundant in the south (Villiers 1978, Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In mainland Italy it has scattered populations, plus one population in Sardinia and two in Sicily. In Spain there are 12 localities, mainly in the north-eastern and central part of Spain.
157534		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dead wood of branches and trunks of oak species <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus petraea</span>,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. pyrenaica</span> (Bense 1995)<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> especially canopy branches.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The adults are active in June - July. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>
157534		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is hard to find and might therefore be under sampled. In France the species is sporadic in the north but more abundant in the south; recent use of window traps permits the observation of more individuals (Villiers 1978, Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Germany there is one old record (before 1900) from Hessen and one record from Baden-Württemberg after 1950. In mainland Italy it is very rare, and one population in Sardinia, two in Sicily. In Spain there are 12 localities, mainly in the north-eastern and central part of Spain; it is considered rare. In Crimea it is very rare.</p>
157534		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157535		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas (e.g. Romania). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2005).
157535		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe; in the north, central and eastern Europe.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the northern forest zone. In Denmark it is only present in  Jutland (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Sweden it is Regionally Extinct. It is not known from Britain or Ireland.<br/><br/>It also occurs in the Caucasus.
157535		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the dead wood of fir, pine-trees, etc. in the last stage of decay. Pupation occurs at the end of the summer. Larvae and the adults (after pupation) hibernate. The adult is active in V-VI (Dolin 1988). It occurs in both coniferous and broad-leaved woodland, including conifer plantations (it breeds in cut stumps and lying logs). In Ukraine it is also found in conifer forests. For Hungary there is no information is available on the habitat of this species.
157535		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is common in some countries but rare in others.<br/></p>  In Finland it is common and widespread. In Germany it is considered to be one of the most common species. Very few localities are known from Hungary and all are more than 50 years old. In Italy there is little data but there are few known records and the species is presumed to be rare. In Denmark it is very rare and local. In Ukraine it is rare.
157535		threats	eng	<p>Cutting and destruction of old trees, especially lying trunks are threats to this species. <br/></p>
157537		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary, Romania).
157537		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe, absent only from the far north and west (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Germany it is present in all German States. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is widespread in the plain, hilly and mountainous areas, and in European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987). It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula (Verdugo 2004, Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and it is also widespread in Cyprus. It has a scattered distribution across lowland England and Wales, there is one isolated record in southern Scotland; but is unknown from Ireland.<br/><br/><br/><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p>
157537		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>    <p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in and under the bark of freshly dead or dying branches and trunks of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees; mature and veteran trees are colonized. The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring in the wood, occasionally under bark. Adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host-plants. It is crepuscular and nocturnal. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Fagus, Carpinus, Castanea, Ulmus,&#160; Corylus, Salix, Fraxinus, </em>fruit-trees). In European Turkey larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and adults are active in IV-V (Schimitschek 1953). It has been reared from dead branches of <em>Quercus infectoria ssp veneris</em> and<em> Prunus dulcis</em> in Cyprus. In Germany it lives in various broad-leaved tree species. Also in almond trees.<br/><br/>In the UK it mostly lives in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>; preferring open-grown trees or at least trees with well sun-lit trunks; in parklands, hedgerows, and woodlands. occasionally reported from old apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus </span>orchards (Alexander 2002). This species occurs in various deciduous forest types (mainly in oak and beech) in Hungary. It is reported mainly from old oak trees in Romania. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is </st1:place></st1:country-region>found in orchards and forests<em>.</em> <em><br/></em></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
157537		population	eng	This species is relatively common and widespread over much of its European range and there are no indications of any declines.<br/><br/>It is widespread across central and south-eastern England, extending as far north as Yorkshire, and west into Devon and parts of Wales; isolated population at Dalkeith Old Oakwood in southern Scotland; locally distributed but has increased in abundance in recent decades following oak dieback disease (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009)<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as one of&#160; the most common longicorns in the oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania this species is common and well represented. In Cyprus it is locally common. Population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><p>It is considered a potential pest in the Czech Republic.<br/></p>
157537		threats	eng	The species does not face major threats. <br/><br/>In the UK, habitat loss, insensitive land management, clearance of dead and dying trees, for reasons of tidiness and (unjustifiable) forest hygiene as well as canopy closure in woodlands, causing increased shade on trunks and larger boughs are threatening this species. It is nonetheless increasing in abundance.
157538		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. The species does not occur in any protected area. However it is recommended that the areas where this species occurs become protected.<br/></p>
157538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Crete (Bense 1995). It occurs in the western part of Crete.
157538		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in the dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span> (Bense 1995) mainly in trunks.
157538		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species other than that it is a rare species.</p>
157538		threats	eng	Deforestation and conversion of oaks is a major threat to this species. Also charcoal production and grazing goats are a threat.
157539		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine, as Possibly Extinct. This species occurs in several protected areas.
157539		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern Mediterranean and Asia. It is present in Cyprus, Croatia and Greece. In Greece it has been reported from three localities. In Ukraine this species is thought to be Extinct because the last record of it was from 60 years ago (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
157539		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in old decayed wood (rotten trunks) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>in humid places near water basins (streams); they are obligate predators. Imago active in end of May beginning of June. In Ukraine all old <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> have disappeared in the known areas where this species has been found; this habitat has disappeared from this area leading the experts to suspect that the species is now extinct (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It is locally common in Cyprus where it has been reported from the forested areas between 200-1,500 m.<br/>    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region><em></em></p>
157539		population	eng	<p>Declines in some parts of its range indicate that it is likely to be decreasing but this cannot be quantified. It requires specific habitat - old <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> - that are known to be becoming more scarce across Europe so the population is suspected to be in decline. In Greece it is only known from three places with a declining extent and quality of habitat so its population trend there is inferred to be declining. In Ukraine this species is extremely rare, and may be Extinct (last finding was near 60 years ago - in the Red Book of Ukraine it is Possibly Extinct). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus the </st1:country-region></st1:place>population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is common in Turkey.</p>
157539		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened by the destruction and disappearing of habitats with old <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is the largest European click beetle (Laibner 2000) and so may be especially targeted by collectors. Specific information is not known about threats to its habitat throughout the range, but based on complete removal of its habitat in Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009) it is suspected to be seriously threatened by this in the rest of Europe. More research is needed.</p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157540		conservation	eng	Retention of dead standing trees and keeping broad-leaved trees along river systems are recommended measures for this species. It occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic but has been underestimated.
157540		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and western Europe. The presence of this species in France is uncertain - there might be three records from 1885 but it could have been misidentified. Its presence in in Italy is also doubtful - possibly misidentified.
157540		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from hollow, brown-rot in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Cerasus, Populus</span> (Muona 1993). In Hungary all known localities are in lowland soft wood forests, mainly riverine galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It mainly lives in the decaying heartwood of dead trees but in trees with the outer part intact.
157540		population	eng	This species is very rare and scattered in Europe. This species is very sporadic in Hungary, mainly in the lowlands; all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Slovakia there are six populations, in the Czech Republic four and in Germany there is one locality.
157540		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p>Also the removal of dead wood and removal of standing dead trees along the rivers are threatening this species.<br/></p>
157541		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Some of the known sites for this species are within protected areas.</p>
157541		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sicily (Bense 1995).
157541		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occupies oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> sp. woodland in the mountains. No information is available on the size of dead timber required nor on the open-ness of the habitat.<br/></p>
157541		population	eng	<p>This species is known from eight sites in northern Sicily (Sama 2006). Population size and trends have not been quantified.<br/></p>
157541		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157542		conservation	eng	Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity is essential for the conservation of this species. <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). <br/><br/>This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, as Endangered in Slovakia and as Near Threatened in Italy.
157542		distribution	eng	Distributed from Spain through central and southern Europe (Laibner 2000) to Ukrainian Carpathians and Turkey (west part) (Lobl and Smetana 2007).
157542		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the underground parts of decaying, blackened standing oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, also in tunnels of weevils of the tribe Cossonini (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine, larvae develop in humid hollows (decayed wood) near root part of trunk of old <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, sometimes in the ground. They have also been found high up on trunks and branches. This information either means that the species has different preferences across its range or that the information is not right. Essentially the species needs red rot in big trees. Pupation takes place in the autumn; the adults are active from the end of April into May (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>A primeval forest relict. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in naturally preserved forests from lowlands to foothills (Laibner 2000).&#160; In Hungary the only population lives in an abandoned wood pasture (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157542		population	eng	This species is very rare throughout its European range. <br/><br/>In France it is very localized in lowland large and ancient beech forests, less than ten localities known, probably a relict of old-growth forests like <span style="font-style: italic;">Limoniscus violaceus</span> (Leseigneur 1972). In Italy there are only two records from Tuscany region, one very old (1875). In Austria it is only found around Vienna and Niederösterreich, six historic records. In Hungary only one extant population is known in the south-western part of the country, which is small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic there are only a few sites. In Slovakia it has recently been only found in two areas; it is considered rare. In Poland one locality known. In Ukraine this species is rare. The first ever records in Greece and Turkey are from 2006.
157542		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157544		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place.
157544		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Europe reaching north-eastern Europe. It is also found in Siberia, Mongolia and Far East.
157544		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Ukraine it occurs in forests and in north-western part of the forest-steppe zones. In forests it has been found on the wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis confragosa, D. tricolor, Lenzites betulina, Coriolus versicolor, C. pubescens, C. hirsutus, Trametes ochraceus, T. suaveolens, Fomes fomentarius</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Krasutzky 1996).
157544		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is common in Russia but there is not enough information about the species. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span><br/></p>
157544		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157545		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Ukraine). <br/><br/>It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987) but recommended for increase to Vulnerable (Hyman and Parsons 1992).
157545		distribution	eng	A boreal-alpine species. This species is widespread across northern Europe but is restricted to   mountainous areas in central and southern Europe. <br/><br/>It is known from Italy, the eastern Carpathians, Bulgaria, and western Siberia (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is only found in the Alps and Bavarian mountains. In the UK it is confined to the Caledonian pine forest of central Scotland (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157545		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in well-red-rotted heartwood of fallen pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, spruce and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>; the larval stage probably takes three to six years; they are opportunistic carnivores; they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults (Owen and Mendel 1993). In Ukraine larvae also develop in stubs and decayed wood of fir trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>. In Finland mostly in dead conifers, also in stumps.<br/><br/>It lives in relicts of old growth evergreen and mixed forests with firs and pines from submontane zone to upper limits of montane zone. In northern Europe it lives in forest-tundra, where it develops in birches (Laibner 2000).
157545		population	eng	Very common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Fennoscandia) but much rarer in the alpine areas and elsewhere. Overall, population trend is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it occurs only in a restricted area of the eastern Scottish Highlands (Mendel and Clarke 1996); a very vulnerable small population (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In the Czech Republic there are several localities. In Slovakia it is more frequent but nevertheless very rare (Laibner 2000). In Italy it is very rare and decreasing.
157545		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European level. Loss of old trees, dead and decaying wood can be a threat.</p>
157546		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).
157546		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is also known from Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Siberia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in almost all regions, mostly in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions, very rare in the lowlands. In Britain it is widespread across lowland England, and also occurs locally in Wales and in northern Scotland. It has only recently been found in Northern Ireland.
157546		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in soft bracket fungi - <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis, Inonotus, Laetiporus, Polyporus, Abortiporus, Pleurotus</span> - on a wide variety of broad-leaved tree species. The adult beetles feed on wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Piptoporus betulinus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span>) and are sometimes found under dead bark on trees. Imago hibernates and is more active in V-VII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Alexander 2002).<br/><br/> In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech. It is found on mature trees rather generally and especially along alluvial floodplain situations in Britain (Alexander 2002).
157546		population	eng	A widespread and common species in Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a relatively common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities. In Ireland there is a single recent report from north, assumed to be natural colonisation (Anderson 2007). In the UK it is widely scattered throughout the lowlands.
157546		threats	eng	<p>    </p>There are no major threats to this species. The loss of old trees and decaying wood is a potential threat.
157547		conservation	eng	The preservation of veteran trees and dead wood in forests is essential. The species is present in protected areas; however in Hungary the protection is not always effective (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The species is legally protected in Hungary. This species is classed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia and as Endangered in Italy.
157547		distribution	eng	This species is present from France through central Europe to the forest-steppes in Ukraine (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in the Carpathians and in the south of the forest-steppe zone. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is Extinct.
157547		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in red-rotten heartwood of chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and other broad-leaved tree species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; generally with lucanid beetle larvae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceruchus)</span>. A predator of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus scarabaeoides</span> which is itself very rare, but it does not feed exclusively on this species. Pupation occurs in the autumn but the adults remain in the pupal cells in the decaying wood through the winter months. In Hungary the preferred micro-habitats are red-rotten logs of bird cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>, and sometimes oak, always with <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus scarabaeoides </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France, the larvae develop in red-rotten wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> together with Lucanid larvae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus parallelepipedus</span>) (Leseigneur 1972).<br/><br/>Often in remnants of oaks, always inside forests; the preferred habitats are beech-oak woods of lowlands and foothills (Laibner 2000). It prefers dark, shady stands; old growth forest and trees with a large diameter. In Hungary nearly all records are from closed, dark stands deep inside the forests, mainly in ravines <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157547		population	eng	This is a very rare species in Europe and its population is declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a very rare species; only one specimen known from the Kirovograd region in central Ukraine. In the Czech Republic there is only one recent record. In Slovakia it is known from five localities and it is rare (Laibner 2000). In Hungary all known extant populations are restricted to limited areas and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy there is one record from 1977 in southern Italy. In Greece there is a single recent record from the Peloponnesus. In France there are only two localities known; it is considered a relict species (Leseigneur 1972) - there is one locality from 1847 where it has never been found again, and the second locality is from 1965 in the Pyrenees.
157547		threats	eng	Forest exploitation is one of the main threats, including the removal of dead wood. It is dependent on certain prey species that are locally declining. <br/><br/>In Hungary all populations are small and vulnerable. Removal of old logs and especially illegal over-collecting of the wintering adults are serious threats; the latter results in destruction of the red-rotten logs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157549		conservation	eng	This species is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987) and it is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Two of the populations lie within protected sites and SACs, while part of the third is also protected. Also most of the localities in Hungary&#160; are in protected areas, so no specific measures are needed. This species is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic (Vávra 2005) and as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2005).
157549		distribution	eng	This species is widely spread across Europe. It is also found in western Siberia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine mostly in Carpathians and the forest zone. In Hungary it is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions. In Spain it is present in the western Pyrenees and Sistema Ibérico (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Britain it is confined to a few areas in southern England. It is absent from Ireland.
157549		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop only in moist, very soft white-rotten wood, where surrounded by intact, un-decayed sapwood; in dead parts of standing trees (often in hollow live trees); pupae have been found in wood mould beneath a fallen beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>branch; mostly pupae hibernate in wood; adults May-August; development time at least two years, sometimes three (Muona 1993, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 2001, Alexander 2002).&#160; Found in a wide array of broad-leaved trees. In Sweden it develops in standing dead <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus glabra</span>, partly without bark, surface wood hard, inside with white and brown rot. Beetles also reported in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>; and reared from moist white-rotten inner wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>about four metres high. Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>(Russia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>(Germany). In the UK mainly in old beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, also ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>.<br/><br/>It lives in natural and semi-natural broad-leaved woodlands and wood-pasture. In Hungary habitats of the known populations are closed, usually mature forests, mainly oak, beech and hornbeam. UK sites are ancient wood pastures (Alexander 2002) and it has recently been found in an old cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>orchard (K.N.A. Alexander pers comm 2009).
157549		population	eng	Widespread but generally uncommon, and rare in some countries. Population trend is unknown but it is increasing in some areas.<br/><br/>In the UK it is known from three very isolated populations: Windsor Forest and Great Park, the New Forest, and the Severn Vale, with sub-fossils from farther north, at Thorne Moors in Yorkshire (Alexander 2002). In Spain there are seven localities known, all recent (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Hungary all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Ukraine it is also rare. In Denmark it is very rare and local; only in one locality (on Lolland) (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).  <span lang="EN-GB">In Sweden it is very rare and local and present only in southernmost Sweden.<span lang="EN-GB"> In Finland it is rare but increasing; about 20 known localities (most of them recently found). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there are many faunistic grid cells in the west (Bohemia) and east (Moravia), particularly in Bohemia; also many grid cells with records only from the time before 1950 (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia there are 13 faunistic grid cells scattered over the country, four additional ones with records from before 1950 (Elateridae 2009).<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/>&#160;</span></span>
157549		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/><br/></p>
157550		conservation	eng	<p>No information available but data suggests that no conservation measure are needed over much of its range. This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Romania).</p><p><br/></p>
157550		distribution	eng	This species is Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995). It is also present in northern Africa.<br/><br/>It is distributed throughout Portugal and all records are recent. In Cyprus and Italy it is <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>widespread; it is also present in Malta. In France it is present only in the Mediterranean border but it is frequently confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. griseus </span>(Villiers 1978). In Romania it has been reported from Dobroudjia. In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea.
157550		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead and dry wood, mostly of twigs and branches, but also in living twigs to some extent (1.5 - 4 cm diameter). It is a strongly polyphagous species on nearly all broad-leaved trees, and often on conifers. It can cause serious damage to cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus avellana</span> (in Spain), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus mirbecki </span>(Algeria and Morocco), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>(Spain), <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nordmanniana</span> (in Spain) (Sama 2002).<br/>The ecology may be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. griseus. </span>Adults are attracted to light. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>In Romania it especially lives in elder <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>. In <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Italy it is found in plain and mountain forest, mainly Mediterranean element. In Cyprus it is found in orchards, maquis, garigue, forests, villages and towns; it has been reared from dead wood of Lemon tree, <em>Ceratonia siliqua,, Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Pistacia lentiscus</em> <em></em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>
157550		population	eng	In Europe it is rather common and widespread; only in the south (Sama 2002). In Cyprus and Italy it is common. In Crimea it is very rare. In Romania there are only old records. <br/><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>
157550		threats	eng	<p>No information available, but a common and widespread species in much of range, suggesting little threat at present.</p>
157551		conservation	eng	<p>In Spain it does not occur in any protected area. It occurs at least in  one place (Hyères) in a protected area in France.</p><p>The key actions needed are educational, to ensure that beach-cleaning operations only focus on man-made debris and leaves all<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>driftwood in place, including flotsam and jetsam. With so much river regulation, natural driftwood has become much scarcer and the habitat is usefully supplemented by debris from shipping, etc.<br/></p><p>Firewood gathering also needs to be limited such that all driftwood is not removed.<br/></p>
157551		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in southern Europe, primarily along Mediterranean coasts and including some of the Mediterranean Islands. <span lang="EN-GB">In Europe it is present in Spain, France (also Corsica), Italy (also Sardinia), Greece, Cyprus.  <br/> <span lang="EN-GB"><br/>In Spain there are two localities known (Balearic Islands; Grau de Gadía, Valencia). The report from Valencia is old (1960). <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><strong style="font-weight: normal;">In France, the species is  localised in the Parc Naturel Régional of Camargue (Bouches du Rhône) and in a Natura 2000 site<em></em><em> </em>in Var and Haute-Corse. </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Also it has been confirmed from the </strong>  <span lang="EN-GB">Le Canet beach   <span lang="EN-GB">(eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>)<span lang="EN-GB"> and in Corsica in Aleria and Cateraggio. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">It has not been cofirmed in Gard (Le  Grau du Roi) (Leseigneur 1972) and Corse du Sud (Porto-Vecchio, Rondinara's  beach) (Leseigneur 1972). In Saint-Aygulf (Var), the population is extinct  (Leseigneur 1972, P. Berger pers. comm. 2009,&#160; </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">J. Delnatte pers. comm. 200<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>9).</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> <span lang="EN-GB">It is present in the eastern part of Corsica and in the southern part of Sardinia <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">(Leseigneur 1972, Idrissi 1982,  Platia 1994, Mertlik and Platia 2008, Alonso-Zarazaga and Cate  2009). <span lang="EN-GB">In Cyprus it has been reported only from Agia Napa (easter Cyprus) (Preiss and Platia 2003). <br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">It is also present in <span lang="EN-GB">Tunisia, Algeria,   <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region><span lang="EN-GB">, Turkey (Leseigneur, 1972, Idrissi 1982, Platia 1994, Mertlik and Platia 2008).</span></span></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
157551		habitat	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>Some authors do not consider this species as a true saproxylic while others consider it as a psammophile saproxylic species - recent observations tend to support the latter. Larvae can be found in decayed and decomposing drift wood along the strand-line of beaches (and also coastal dunes) in the Mediterranean area. The species' habitat is red (brown) and/or white rot of decaying wood (trunks and tree stumps of broad-leaved trees, especially&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus sp</span>., <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus sp</span>.) lying on the sand of beaches or coastal dunes, near the sea. All the larval instars are represented in the decaying wood (J. Delnatte pers. comm. 2009). The larva is carnivorous, a predator of saproxylic beetles (such as Curculionidae, Cossoninae), and may also be saprophagous, an omnivore (in the first larval instars). Larvae move freely in the sand (Platia 1994) and so can be found away from driftwood - this does not mean that they can survive in isolation from driftwood only that they move between driftwood locations from time to time. Larvae and pupae of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. moreli </span>have been<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found in the soft part of decaying wood (H. Brustel pers. comm. 2009). The larvae pupate in the spring and the adults are found in July and August under debris and at the base of plants; they are crepuscular and are attracted to lights (Leseigneur 1972, Idrissi 1982, Platia 1994, J. Delnatte pers. comm. 2009). The larvae appear also to feed on grass roots to some extent (Leseigneur1972, Platia 1994). Whether or not the species is fully saproxylic, it does seem to depend on the presence of plentiful driftwood. The driftwood also provides protection from the heat and drying aspects of sunshine. In Italy it probably lives in every sandy beach without urbanization. There is no information on the habitats and ecology of this species in Cyprus (O. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><p><strong></strong><strong></strong></p> <p></p><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><p></p>
157551		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Rare species and very localised on the beach in circum-Mediterranean area. <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it is very rare and local - only four specimens were collected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Preiss and Platia 2003). In Spain it does not seem to be abundant.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p>
157551		threats	eng	<p>The species is threatened by the removal of driftwood from beaches and sand dunes, as part of beach-cleaning operations and also beach-combing and firewood gathering for beach fires.<br/></p>
157552		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.   <span lang="EN-GB">It is included in the Red List of Sweden as Endangered (EN) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>2005 and as <span lang="EN-GB">Critically Endangered (CR)<span lang="EN-GB"> in the earlier Red List (2000)<span lang="EN-GB">.<span lang="EN-GB"> Its is also included in the Red List of Finland as Endangered (EN) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">This species is likely to become extinct in the biogeographical region<span lang="EN-GB"> unless conditions change.<span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
157552		distribution	eng	This species is confined to northern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>.
157552		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, associated exclusively with the slime mould <span style="font-style: italic;">Trichia decipiens </span>- a common species dependent on decaying wood - in natural old growth spruce forests in Finland; the host mould prefers mid-decayed aspen and spruce logs, and its incidence grows with both increasing log diameter and stand-level log density (Laaksonen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). The information on the biology of the species is recent but because the species has only been found in old growth forests, it is thought that it may have other specific habitat requirements, such as micro-climatic specificity, but more information is needed.
157552		population	eng	It is only found at a single locality in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sweden</st1:place></st1:country-region>, with the last record from 1996, and at a single locality in Belarus from the 1800s (Laaksonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/>In Finland it is known from more than ten localities, mostly in the eastern parts of the country. It is difficult to estimate the trend because all records are from the last 30 years, and its suitable habitat has decreased due to forestry and logging. The trend is therefore unknown but the suspicion is that it may be declining.
157552		threats	eng	This species is threatened by unsustainable forestry management, in particular forestry clearance and the removal of dead and dying trees. It is also negatively threatened by grazing and drainage.
157553		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.<br/></p>
157553		distribution	eng	This species is only found across some countries in south-eastern Europe. It is common in Asian part of Turkey, but not in its European range.
157553		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that requires large veteran trees as it inhabits decaying heartwood; the beetle has been found on sun exposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009) and in old traditionally managed cherry orchards; adults are attracted to Compositae flowers for feeding (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). Little information is available on the tree landscape types occupied but it is clear that the cultural landscape is important.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p><p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157553		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. However the population is likely to be small and fragmented due to its reliance on veteran oak trees (and cherry orchards).</p>
157553		threats	eng	<p>  This species lives in veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species, as is the lack of new generations of trees developing. Traditional management of old cherry orchards and veteran trees is vital and yet the essential land management systems which produce them are breaking down across the range.</p>
157554		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>In the UK it has conservation status as Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); also legal protection from trade and a few key sites are designated as SAC. It is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan; there has been extensive publicity led by the People's Trust for Endangered Species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Important populations of this species live in protected areas and Natura 2000 areas in Hungary; the species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Also in Romania and in Ukraine the species occurs in large protected areas.<br/><br/>In Spain it is protected at the national level as being of 'Special interest'; also present in regional protection lists. Present in several Natura 2000 areas and national parks. Rated as Least Concern in the Red Data Book (Verdú and Galante 2006).<br/><br/>In Poland, Germany and the Czech Republic it is considered Endangered, in Sweden Near threatened and Least Concern in Spain and Bulgaria. In Denmark this species is Regionally Extinct (2003). The species is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.
157554		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It is also found in Caucasus, Minor Asia, Syria and west Kazakhstan.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it is widespread, mainly in the south. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas. It is much more sporadic on the lowlands, mainly in riverine willow and oak galleries. In Romania it is widespread, especially in the hilly areas with sun exposed slopes. It also occurs in the European part of Turkey and it has been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953).<p>In Italy it is mainly distributed in northern and central regions (for certain southward to Latium) (Bartolozzi and Maggini 2006). In Spain it is present in the northern half of the country and occupies a total of 32 provinces (Galante and Verdú 2000, López-Colón 2000). Its southernmost distribution limit is a south-western and north-eastern line running from Cáceres province to Sierra de Gredos in northern Toledo, Sierra de Guadarrama, Serranía de Cuenca, east of Teruel and north of Tarragona. To the south of this line two isolated localities are known, one of them in Albacete (Galante and Verdú 2000) and the other one in the south of Badajoz (Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007). Within the northern half, the presence of this species in Valladolid province requires confirmation. In Portugal it occurs in the northern half, most records being from the western part (Grosso-Silva 1999, 2005), and there are also two recent (1990 and 2006) records from the centre: Sintra, north-west of Lisbon   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009). In Britain it is largely confined to the south-east of England, where it is widespread.<br/></p>In Denmark this species is Extinct (2003). The last reliable finding is from the 1960s-1970s. Few later findings are all considered introduced<span lang="EN-GB">.</span>
157554		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in moist decaying wood near or below the soil surface, including decaying old stumps, but also in the base of fence posts; always decay from white-rot fungi; and generally in light soils; larval development takes about four years in the UK but five in European Turkey; pupation in IX; adults are active in VI-VII, feed on fruit and sap, and fly mainly in the evening (Lodos 1989, Alexander 2002). In Ukraine larvae mostly live in wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, sometimes other broad-leaved trees. In European Turkey larvae develop in dead wood of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fraxinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Tilia</em></strong>. The species needs big trunks and stumps.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species lives in thermophilous oak woods (mainly in turkey oak woods) in the hills and the lower mountain areas. Important populations occur in wood pastures and riverine forests, where pedunculate oaks occur. Sometimes it develops in other broadleaved trees (e.g. willow) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Sites in the UK are mostly in the cultural landscape and especially in human settlements which tend to be richer in suitable trees, etc, than open countryside (Alexander 2002). In Spain this species is very polyphagous on broad-leaved tree species. In the north, it is present in bocage landscapes, city gardens, riparian forests and forests below 700 m. Towards the south, in Mediterranean areas, it is present at higher altitudes up to 2,000 m, in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forests, including dense forests (Proyecto Ciervo Volante 1996, M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).
157554		population	eng	In Europe the species seems to be more common in the south (except for Italy) and south-eastern part of its range. In the northern part of Europe, this species is decreasing.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a highly fragmented distribution but with one large and strong population centred across the Lower Thames Basin, plus two smaller concentrations; there is no evidence for any substantial decline in recent decades; sub-fossil remains have been found more widely (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain no systematic quantitative data exist on population size. Locally it can be over 100 individuals. The subpopulations in the north are decreasing and the subpopulations in the south are stable. In Andorra no data on populations exist. The three 10x10 squares occupied are data from records before 1980 (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Ukraine is local and not common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became somewhat rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. However, strong populations still occur in mature oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania well preserved populations occur in the oak forests from central and other hilly areas. Much rarer is the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">turcicus</span> from Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic its population is decreasing and in Sweden a 15% decline has been recorded over 15 years. In Italy it is locally quite common but declining.
157554		threats	eng	<p>The overall decrease in the average age of forests due to more intense management and exploitation is a major threat. A future threat in eastern Europe is increased forest exploitation, leading to a decline of this species. Abandonment of coppicing and pollarding will lead to forest closure and will negatively affect the species. Loss of dead wood and old trees, forest clearing and removal of living hedges are also potential threats. In Britain, suitable habitat has been disappearing from the wider countryside to such an extent that the species now has a more urban and suburban distribution pattern. <br/></p><p>The species is also popular with collectors.<br/></p>
157555		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance, ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially in terms of assessing its actual conservation needs.</p>  <p></p>
157555		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Cyprus. It has been reported from a few localities in the upper zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (1,000–1,900 m): Olympos, Platres, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cedar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Preiss and Platia 2003), Platania, Kannoures (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Four specimens have been found in Pafos (P. Cate collection, Vienna).<p><br/></p>
157555		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> In Cyprus it has been f</st1:place></st1:country-region>ound in <em>Pinus brutia</em> and <em>Pinus nigra</em> forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009), although no details are available on the type of deadwood that it requires.
157555		population	eng	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">It is a </st1:country-region></st1:place>very rare and local species (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157555		threats	eng	<p>    </p>  There is no information available on the threats to this species. Presumably the lack of suitably rotten trees and forest fires can be a threat.<br/><p></p>
157556		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information available. It is not known if the species is present in any protected area.</p>
157556		distribution	eng	<em>Ampedus corsicus</em> is endemic to Corsica. Platia (1994) mentions three stations: Bonifacio, Vizzavona, Valdoniello forest, and the typus is labelled 'Corsica'. References to <em>A. corsicus</em> from mainland France are a mistake stemming from the confusion with <em>A. quercicola.<br/><br/><br/></em>
157556		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species occurs in temperate forests in a wide range of suitable wood types (Leseigneur 1972).
157556		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known. However the number of subpopulations is less than ten and they seem to have a fragmented distribution.</p>  <p></p>
157556		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown.</p>
157557		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It is also categorized as threatened in all the countries where it occurs. This species is likely to struggle unless conditions change. It is important to preserve the forest in its natural condition. The species occurs in some protected areas (e.g. in the Poleskyi reserve, Ukraine).
157557		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread across central, northern and eastern Europe. In Ukraine it is present in the forest zone and in the Carpathians. There are old records from 1876 and some disputed ones in the Czech Republic and there are assumptions that it might be present in the Bohemian Forest; it could be Extinct there. In France records need to be validated. In Finland it has a very localised distribution, more frequent in the easternmost part of Finland. It is also found in Siberia, far east Russia, Japan, and north China (Lobl and Smetana 2007).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157557		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in coniferous and mixed forests under the bark of dead conifer trees, occasionally broad-leaved trees; it requires trees with a diameter of more than 7-10 cm at a height of 120 cm, with loose bark and damp under-bark layer (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It only colonises standing dead trees but may still be present after they have collapsed. The species is connected to the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Ophiostoma pini</span> in boreal areas - the larva feeds on the fungus under bark - and it is mainly found in Scots pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris </span>trees (primary habitat), but it is sometimes found in other trees if they have been burnt. The life cycle is two years; larvae and adults hibernate, and the adults are active in VII-VIII (Drogvalenkο 1999, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Ukraine, the beetle is especially associated with pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and sometimes birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, willow Salix, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, and alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. In Finland in addition to the pine dominated old-growth forests the species lives on burned areas in trees killed by fire, sometimes even in stumps.<br/></p>
157557		population	eng	Extinct in western and central Europe and very rare and threatened in Slovakia, Czech Republic (no recent records), Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Sweden (Vulnerable) and Finland (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>In Lithuania there are 57 records across nine districts since its first detection in 1972 (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Finland there is a continuing decline in the Area of Occupancy. It has disappeared from the whole mainland of Sweden, and there has been a reduction of more than 50% during the last 100 years. The last observations in some parts are from the 1920s or 1950s. In Poland there are only two localities in the very east. In Germany not extant within the borders after 1918.<br/><br/>The population trend is decreasing with fragmentation effects and declining habitat.
157557		threats	eng	Cultivation and intense exploitation of forests are major threats to this species (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Other threats include the loss, destruction and harvesting of old dead trees and suppression of forest fires. The lack of self-thinning is a threat in pine forests. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use (sensitive to forest management).
157558		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009).
157558		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995) and southern Russia. In Ukraine, it is present in Crimea and in the lowland of the Dnieper River. In Hungary it is restricted to a few localities in the foothills and lower mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There are only few and old reports from south-western Romania and Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It is also present in the Caucasus and in <st1:place w:st="on">Iran.</st1:place>
157558		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that is known to develop in the dead wood of oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and maples <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>but detailed habitat requirements are not known. It requires open forests and forest edges.&#160; <br/></p><p>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>In Hungary this species lives in light oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches of oak, and adults feed at blossoming shrubs (mainly hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>) (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009<span style="font-style: italic;">).&#160;</span>In Romania it was found at flowers in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Callimellum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stenopterus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine, the imago is active in V-VI. <br/><br/></p>
157558		population	eng	Overall the abundance and trends of this species are unknown. The species is very rare in Hungary, the Slovak Republic and Ukraine, however it is not thought to be declining. While in Romania the trend is suspected to be declining (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009), in Hungary the species may be increasing because it is increasingly frequent. In particular, in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is not uncommon on its localities. In the 1970s it was known from only one locality; now the species seems to be increasingly frequent (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157558		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There appear to be no major threats to this species. In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to the species (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, presumably the use of oak branches and wood for local human use may be a threat, but this is not a major threat (P. Istrate&#160; pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157559		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157559		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2005; the type locality (the only site known) is in the centre of the country (Zapata and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).
157559		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.
157559		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157559		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157560		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>
157560		distribution	eng	This species is found in Greece and Turkey (Adana, Nur daglari, Yarpuz environment). One specimen has been collected from Taygetos and five from Turkey (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157560		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no details are available about its specific habitat requirements.
157560		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157560		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157561		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area.
157561		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Europe only (Bense 1995). It is very widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001). In Portugal there are only a few records from the east, central and northern parts of the country (M.&#160;Méndez&#160;pers. comm. 2009). In France it is only found in the south.
157561		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae feed in the wood of dead branches of <em>Quercus</em> (Chobaut 1893). The adult beetles fly in sunny weather to feed at flowers and therefore require open forest or ecotonal habitat of forest and meadow (Vives 2001)<em></em>.<br/></p>
157561		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species although it is widespread. The population trend remains unknown.<br/></p>
157561		threats	eng	<p>The species is not thought to face any major threats (M.&#160;Méndez&#160;pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157562		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Part of the range of this species occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>
157562		distribution	eng	This species is found in the west and central part of southern Europe.<br/><br/>In Italy it is only present in the centre and south of mainland Italy. The presence of this species in the Balkans needs confirmation from new findings. <br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa and the Caucasus region.
157562		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in sporophores of lignicolous fungus, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span>.
157562		population	eng	<p>In Portugal has been recorded from several sites in Serra da Estrela, a mountain area in northern-central Portugal. Most of the records are very recent (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009). There is no information for Italy and Spain. In France it is only reported from the type locality.</p>
157562		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157564		conservation	eng	In Hungary this species occurs in several protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, the species is well preserved inside large protected parks in the south-western part of country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the northern part of its range, it is important to properly protect and manage forests stands through improved forest management that favours good isolation, using appropriate forest management techniques, including coppicing.
157564		distribution	eng	It is believed that this species is widespread across central and south-eastern Europe, reaching northern Europe including Iceland in the North Atlantic Ocean. In Italy it is only known from two sites situated in the north-western part of the country. In Germany it is only known from three states: an old record before 1950 in Bavaria, a record from before 1900 in Sachsen and a last record after 1950 in Sachsen-Anhalt. In Ukraine is is mostly present in Crimea and in the western hills of the Carpathian Mountains. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and sporadic in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In Romania it is widespread from the low hills up to the mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). All localities in Serbia are in the central and south-eastern part.<br/>This species is also found in the Caucasus.
157564		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that requires temperate broad-leaved forests. It lives in standing but dead broad-leaved deciduous trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, Quercus, Castanea, Fagus, Ulmus, Corylus, Acer</span>) and in fallen branches. It also develops in trunks of trees with smaller diameters. It may develop in wooden fences, construction wood and in log houses but these may be marginally suitable habitat. It develops in wood of diameters from three to 35 cm with or without bark. This species may need sun exposed stands of forest.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157564		population	eng	<p>Overall this species is widespread but not abundant and may have a relatively small population. The adult is difficult to find because it is only active nocturnally. The species has been listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic, as it is considered very local and rare, which suggests a declining trend in the species. It appears to have disappeared from Poland, further suggesting a decline in the northern range of this species.In the Slovak Republic is not very rare in the southern part of the country, but it has declined somewhat. In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified - the species is widespread, but never common (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). Although it is widespread in Romania, it is not common (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157564		threats	eng	<p>      </p><p>In the northern part of its range the main threats are likely to be loss of coppiced sun-exposed forest stands due to changing forest management practices that do not favour coppicing. In the southern part of the range threats may include inappropriate forest management due to extraction of old hornbeam.<br/></p>  <p></p><p>In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the species is mainly threatened by habitat loss due to unsustainable forest management (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>
157565		conservation	eng	This species is dependent on old hollow trees with red rot therefore the maintenance of continuity and connectivity is necessary.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Italy.
157565		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern, eastern and central Europe, extending to some countries in northern and western Europe. <br/><br/>This species is also found in Asia Minor (Laibner 2000) and in Turkey (Lobl and Smetana 2007).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the western and central part of the forest-steppe zone; it is absent in Crimea. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157565		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The life cycle is three years: the larvae develop in decayed stumps and hollows of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>trees; old hollow trees with red rot . Pupation takes place in spring and in the beginning of summer. Adults are active in the evening in VI-VIII, flying to light (Dolin 1988); at dark high on tree trunks and branches or flying short intervals (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>It lives from lowlands to highlands, in enclaves of old broad-leaved forest and groves, mainly oak (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in open broad-leaved forests, also in city parks, orchards and suburbs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157565		population	eng	This species is widespread but rare throughout its range.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there are several localities and in Slovakia several sites in the south. In Hungary the species is sporadic, and the populations are small. In Spain there are five sites known from Navarra, one from La Rioja and one from near Madrid (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In Italy there are 25 localities, most recent records found in 2003. In France it is rare and very localized. In Greece it is extremely rare and is not present in Crete. In Ukraine it is a rare species.
157565		threats	eng	Cut, loss and destruction of old trees and stubs are major threats to this species. In Hungary this species is not threatened.<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 1249px; height: 40px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
157566		conservation	eng	In the UK a new initiative has been started to encourage good conservation practice in traditional orchards through the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan. Traditional orchards are now being inventoried across the country, but no monitoring scheme is yet in place. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Romania, Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2003) and Vulnerable in Britain.
157566		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution throughout almost all regions of Europe (with the exception of the far north). In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread especially in the forests from south and south-western Carpathians. In Portugal it occurs in the northern half, with very few records in the last 50 years. In France it is widespread and common. It is very localised in the UK, with just one large population and a three smaller populations. It is very localized in the south of Sweden and is restricted to a small area near Oslo (Norway).
157566		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood; red- and white-rot provide suitable larval habitat. Larvae normally take two years to develop in the UK, longer where conditions not optimal. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but shade more important under more continental conditions (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the adults are active in&#160; V -VII, often feeding at flowers of elder <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>; the larvae are mainly found in old oaks, but also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix, </span>and fruit trees; the life cycle is one year and the larvae hibernate. In Hungary, larvae develop not only in hollow trees but also in dead lying trunks (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania adults can be found on white flowers, for example <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus ebulus </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the UK, the species clearly needs old open-grown trees; it is not found in closed-canopy shady situations. The majority of sites are traditional fruit orchards, using old hollowing plum <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus domesticus,</span> apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>sp. and pear <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus </span>trees. Also known from hollow forest oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>in two sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species is found in broad-leaved forests where dead wood is abundant, mainly in stream valleys and ravine forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157566		population	eng	In general it seems to be a widespread and more or less stable species in Europe, with the exception of range states on the northern and north-western distribution limits of the species where some very significant declines have been reported.<br/><br/>In the UK it has declined dramatically in recent decades and the range has contracted significantly; one large landscape-scale population survives plus three small isolated populations  (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is very rare and possibly Extinct; there have been very few new findings. In Latvia there is a single population known (D. Telnov pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is restricted to the old wood pastures of the Cordillera Cantabrica and Pyrenees (Micó and Galante 2002); more than 30 localities are known. In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Hungary the extant populations seem to be constant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are stable populations with a high number of individuals in the forests from south-western Carpathians, near the border with Serbia.
157566		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  The loss of old trees in traditional orchards, either through replacement with younger trees, or through complete destruction of the orchard are a main factor causing a negative impact on this species in the UK; also canopy closure is a threat as this cools the wood mould and slows larval development (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157567		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. In particular in Hungary most of the localities are in protected areas, so no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is listed as Endangered (Vávra 2005). FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.
157567		distribution	eng	This species is spread around much of Europe, from central to north and western Europe. In the Czech Republic it is known from central Bohemia (west), northern Moravia (north-east) and southern Moravia (south-east). In the Slovak Republic it is known from several areas, from the west to the east (except high mountains in the north). In Spain there are nine localities known, all in pre-pyrenaic forests (Recalde Irurzun 2008).
157567		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larval development occurs both high up in the tree, in dead branches (diameter 15 cm) and in the trunk - the outer surface of the wood is usually solid, the inner parts with white rot, moist (e.g. with the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Phellinus robustus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Corticium comedans</span>); most larvae develop on the southern, warmer side of the tree and especially areas without bark; development takes two years; it seems to prefer oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, but is also known from hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and small-leaved lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia cordata</span> (Muona 1993), also most frequent in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>in Russia and the Ukraine. The larvae hibernate and the adult is active in VI-VII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Drogvalenko 1999). The adult is mainly found in the canopy.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is known from the Carpathians and forest zone. In Hungary the habitats of the known populations are closed, usually mature forests, mainly oak, beech and hornbeam; sometimes it is present in managed forests too (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France this species prefers <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Alnus, Tilia</span> and other broad-leaved trees; in deciduous forests (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).
157567		population	eng	This species has a large distribution in Europe. Based on known records it has a scattered distribution, most widespread in central Europe, but rarer in the surrounding areas. However it may be under-recorded as it is largely a canopy species (and consequently difficult to find even when present). In Germany&#160; it is widespread across the south and middle of the country (30-50 known localities) but it is likely to be under-recorded; it is not declining; may rather have increased in recent decades. In the Czech and Slovak Republics there are many recent records (approximately 50 in total). In France it is widespread but very localised and very rare, with discontinuity between the stations. At least in 22-95 French departments (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Hungary it is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions and all known populations are very small; however, it does not seem threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Sweden there is one single population in the far south. In Spain there are nine localities known in pre-pyrenaic forests (Recalde Irurzun 2008) and it has only recently been discovered in Spain. It formerly occurred in Britain but became extinct after the Neolithic period (Alexander 2002), presumably lost through deforestation.
157567		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. The species is especially threatened by intensive forest management such as removal of dead trees.Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. <br/></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
157568		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157568		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Greece on the south-west Peloponnesan Peninsula and in northern Africa (Bense 1995); it is also found in Turkey. In Turkey, Greece and Middle East it is the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">inhumeralis </span>(R. di Cialla pers. comm. 2009).
157568		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development inadequately known, up to now only reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia </span>(Bense 1995) although it is believed to be polyphagous. Larvae bore in dead branches of deciduous trees (R. di Cialla pers. comm. 2009). The adult lives on deciduous trees and visits shrub flowers to feed during daytime.
157568		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the abundance or trends of this species.</p><p></p>
157568		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157569		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed and the species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157569		distribution	eng	This species is widespread through a central east-west band across Europe but with populations also scattered to the south on the Mediterranean (Bense 1995). <br/>It is widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly areas but much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in almost all parts of the country, but there are not many reports (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is believed to be present in the south-western states but there are many wrong indications and the distribution needs to be checked. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been reported from the southern and western slopes of Troodos Mountains (0-1000 m) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and it has also been reported from Istanbul (Demelt and Alkan 1962), Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005), Canakkale (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009) in European Turkey. It is also found in Kazakhstan, all Caucasus and northern Iran.<p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p></p>
157569		habitat	eng	<p>      </p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dead branches and twigs of small diameter of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Castanea, Ulmus, Ficus, Prunus, Pyrus,&#160; Crataegus,</em><em> Padus, Frangula, Rhamnus, Pistacia, </em><em>Robinia, Paliurus, Styrax, Cistus</em>). Adults emerge in V-VIII and are attracted to white flowers for feeding. It is known from Mediterranean maquis, temperate shrubland, temperate forest, and orchards. In Hungary it lives in light oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where the larvae develop in dead branches of oak and various shrubs, with the adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany this species lives in thermophilic forest areas. In Romania the larval stages are found inside dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it was found mainly in maquis and garigue on various flowers, especially on white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
157569		population	eng	It is a widespread species, common in warmer regions. The population trend is stable. In Hungary and Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded in Hungary as common on its localities. In Romania it is becoming rarer (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/>    <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is </st1:place></st1:country-region>uncommon and local. In Spain and Italy it is widespread and very common. In the Czech Republic it is very localised and in Slovakia it is widespread as it prefers warmer areas. In Ukraine it is rare.
157569		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this species. In Germany is listed as 'R' which means that it has a restricted distribution (2009), and is therefore threatened only by low number of populations.<br/>    <p><br/></p>
157570		conservation	eng	As it is found in protected areas as well as in planted conifer forests no specific measures are necessary.  It is listed in the British Red Data Book<span style="font-style: italic;"> (</span>Shirt 1987) but this is clearly a mistake due to lack of knowledge at that time (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157570		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread throughout Europe from the Eurosiberian subregion to central, northern Europe and south-eastern Europe. It is absent from south-western Europe and the Mediterranean. In Germany it is widespread. In Hungary this species is widespread in the country wherever indigenous or planted conifer forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread from the plains up to high mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is not common, but distributed throughout most of the country (Thomsen 2007). It is widespread in Ukraine. It is also found in  Korea and Japan. It is regularly imported into countries where it is not native with timber, for example in Britain and Ireland.<br/></p>
157570		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in or under the bark of dead, dry trunks and branches of a wide variety of coniferous trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Pinus, Larix, Picea</span>), only occasionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Quercus, Alnus</span>). Life cycle two years (sometimes longer), with pupation in spring in the wood. For completion of development it is necessary for there to be thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host-plants. In Ukraine the life cycle is one year. It can live in artificial habitats such as the dry wood in constructions. In Hungary it lives in all kinds of indigenous and planted conifer forests, rarely in deciduous forests  (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in coniferous forests. In Romania it lives in  dry coniferous wood, in Carpathian forests, and sometimes in the coniferous parts of buildings (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is often associated with houses, sawmills, timberyards etc. (Thomsen 2007). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
157570		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species over much of its native range, e.g. in Ukraine. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).  In the Carpathian Mountains it is well represented where coniferous forests exist; it is  spread in all parts of Romania with coniferous wood used for different parts of traditional houses (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157570		threats	eng	The species is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over its range (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, Germany).  In Romania it can be considered as a pest of the timber industry (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157571		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information regarding conservation actions for this species. It remains unknown if the species occurs in any protected area. In Germany it is included in the Red Data Book.</p>
157571		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution across Europe, and is absent from many areas. It is not present in Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). It is&#160;considered Extinct in Germany (B. Büche pers. comm. 2009). In France there are about 15 localities in central and south-western France. It was recently found in north-western Greece in 2008 (Mertlik <em>et al.</em> 2009) and in Bulgaria the only record is from 1998 (Elateridae 2009).<p><br/></p><br/><p><br/><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nouvelles%20observations%20de%20Microrhagus%20pyraeneus%20(Bonvouloir%2C%201872)%20(Coleoptera%20Eucnemidae)&rft.jtitle=L'%20Entomologiste&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=2&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.aulast=Brustel&rft.au=H.%20Brustel&rft.au=C.%20Van%20Meer&rft.date=2008&rft.pages=75-78"></p>
157571		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been found in&#160;dry branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus </span>in Germany (Muona 1993).&#160;In France it was found in humid and cold lowland forests, developing in white-rotten wood (branches) of <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Quercus</em>, lying on the ground (Brustel and Van Meer 2008).
157571		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered one of the rarest beetle in Europe (Brustel and Van Meer 2008).</p><p><br/></p><p>      </p><br/><p></p>
157571		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. These are the main threats to the species but their intensity is unknown.</p><p></p>
157572		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005), as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987). Conservation of old-growth trees, protection of known sites, and preservation of traditional coppicing are recommended for the conservation of this species, as well as the provision of substitute habitat by creating trees with cavities. This species would benefit if traditional coppices continue to be managed, but also if forests are being left intact without removing old live trees with cavities.<br/><br/>In the UK, all three known sites are protected under UK legislation and SAC. It has been illegal to collect this species since 1988. A Species Action Plan was developed (1996) and a Species Recovery Programme was initiated by English Nature. Tree mapping and documentation projects are available at all sites. New tree plantings have been carried out at the active wood pasture site; future host trees have been selected for retention from beech natural regeneration at the former wood pasture site. No analysis of tree population dynamics has been carried out however, so there is currently no real understanding of long-term host tree availability. Fallen hollow beech trees have had their trunks re-erected and filled with sawdust and other materials, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Limoniscus </span>larvae and elytra have been found within them after six years of composting (Green 1995, Whitehead 1998) (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Hungary although all known extant populations are in protected areas (or at least in Natura 2000 sites), more effective conservation of the hollow oaks is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary.
157572		distribution	eng	This central European species is known to have a discontinuous distribution across the entirety of Europe except for the outer-most southern and northern areas (Laibner 2000). It is extinct in Denmark and has not been found there in <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span> 100 years (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).
157572		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould, typically in the base of hollow living trees, usually in the trunks, with large cavities containing wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. In most sites the larvae are found in wood mould in close contact with the soil but there is at least one observation of larvae in wood mould a few metres up in the tree. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but shade more important under more continental conditions. Sites may be in forest or in cultural landscapes, e.g., old wood pastures, old coppiced woodlands, etc. (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>In England it occurs in three very different sites: one active old wood pasture dominated by ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, one abandoned old ash coppice, and a former old wood pasture dominated by beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, </span>all part of the cultural landscape rather than old forest<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary most records are from hollow turkey oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris</span> (not necessarily old ones) with near-ground cavities filled with wood mould, but also from lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>and maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is known only from old and ancient beech forests with trees damaged at their base; the larvae live in cavities in contact with soil in living <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> or rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (Leseigneur 1972).</p>
157572		population	eng	This species is very rare throughout its European range. <br/><br/>In Britain there are isolated populations within a very fragmented range; it is only known from two areas in England, with two distinct sites at one of these; there is no information available on population size or trends (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary there are very few records known from the hilly areas; the species is very rare and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic there are several sites scattered across the country. In Slovakia it is found in the south and east, and there are several sites. In Germany there are up to ten localities, half of those have been confirmed several times. In France it is very localized in lowland large and ancient beech forests; 15 known localities. In Spain it is known from four localities in the north, one very old. In Poland it is known from two localities: one from 1870 and one from 1920. It is certainly Extinct in Denmark - not found in <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>100 years (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).
157572		threats	eng	<p>    </p>  In England, natural loss of old trees from the known sites and lack of new generation trees are major threats to this species; also singling of old coppice stools in productive woodland. Canopy closure is a potential threat in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>UK</st1:place></st1:country-region>, as this cools the wood mould and slows larval development (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><p></p>
157573		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157573		distribution	eng	This species is distributed through central-southern Europe (Sama 2002), south and northwestern Europe including the Mediterranean islands.
157573		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in dry dead branches in living broad-leaved tress, in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> etc.<br/></p>
157573		population	eng	<p>In France and Italy this species is common.</p><p>In Spain it is unknown which population is <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span>.</p>
157573		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this species.<br/><p></p>
157575		conservation	eng	It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area. Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat for this species continues to be available in future.
157575		distribution	eng	This species is confined to north-eastern Greece and the European part of Turkey (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It was reported from Edirne (Keşan) in the European part of Turkey (Ranius <em>et al.</em> 2005).
157575		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees may occur in a wide variety of situations, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157575		population	eng	Little information is known but as this species requires decaying heartwood it may be inferred that due to declining extent of habitat this species faces a declining trend.<br/><br/><p></p>
157575		threats	eng	<p>This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g., cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157576		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157576		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cyprus and Turkey (Asia Minor). In the European region it is confined to Cyprus.     <p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it has been reported from a few localities in the upper zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (1,200-1,900 m) in Olympos, Almyrolivado, Prodromos (Preiss and Platia 2003).<br/></p>  <p></p>
157576		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> forests, developing in rotten trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span><em> </em>(Preiss and Platia 2003).
157576		population	eng	<p>This species is very rare and local and only found on Cyprus (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is no information on population trends.<br/></p>
157576		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157577		conservation	eng	In Hungary, this species occurs in several protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. No specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine, no specific measures are needed.
157577		distribution	eng	It is believed that this species is widespread throughout much of Europe, excepting only the north. It occurs in south-western, central and eastern Europe, including the   Mediterranean islands. <br/><br/>In Hungary, it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions, mainly in the western part of the country. It is much rarer in the lowlands where it has been found in a few oak plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it might be found in the south. In Portugal it has only been recorded in 1907, from a single locality. It has been recorded from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953). <br/><br/>It is also found in north Africa, Minor Asia, Turkey, south of west Siberia and Kazakhstan.
157577		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a thermophilous species and develops in the deadwood of a variety of broad-leaved tree species, but especially beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and sweet chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>. Adults are active in V-VII (Schimitschek 1953). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Hungary, this species occurs in xerothermic thermophilous oak woods (namely turkey oak-sessile oak woods and white oak woods) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <strong><em></em></strong>In Germany it also develops in oak forests. In Spain it develops in thin branches on several <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species and also on chestnut, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>.&#160; </p><p></p>
157577		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries in the southern parts of its range, and more restricted towards the northern areas. In Italy it is reported as not rare while in Spain it is not common<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In Hungary, its population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species has stable populations where occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In the Czech Republic, it is not frequent and it is absent from the mountains - this species inhabits the southern warmer parts of the Czech Republic. In the European part of Turkey, its population size and trend have not been quantified.</p>
157577		threats	eng	The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Hungary, habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is not threatened.<br/><p><br/></p>
157578		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information available.</p>
157578		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in south-western Europe (Sama 2002) and in some of the   Mediterranean islands and in the Canary Islands. In particular this species is found in France, Croatia, Sardinia, Portugal, Poland and Spain, including the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Data for the species in France, Italy and neighbouring areas exist (Bense 1995) but the species has subsequently been recognised as comprising two separate species: the true <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> and the newly described <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus </span>(q.v.). It is unclear whether older data for the species applies to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus.</span><br/><br/>In Spain it remains unclarified if the records belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span>.<br/>  In Portugal the species is distributed across the northern half, with few records.<br/>In Italy the species is only found in southern Sardinia, in the municipality of Cagliari. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span> occurs throughout mainland Italy.<br/>In Switzerland and Germany data on the species are most likely records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span>. The species has not been recorded in Germany since 1950 and introductions to Germany have been recorded but without precise data.<br/><br/>This species is also found in northern Africa.
157578		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dry dead branches of various widespread and common tree species (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span>).<br/></p>
157578		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species across its range. In Spain it is not abundant. The only records for Germany are from before 1950 and are from Rheinland-Pfalz and Thüringen. It is no longer present in Germany.</p><p>The trends for this species are not known.<br/><br/><br/></p>
157578		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The specific threats to this species remain unknown.</p><p></p><p></p>
157579		conservation	eng	<p>Not present in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). It is found in at least one protected area.<br/></p>
157579		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Canary Islands, Spain. Present in four islands: La Palma, Hierro, Tenerife and Gran Canaria (Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala 1981, Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
157579		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Pine forests, under the dead bark of fallen trees and branches, where it feeds on other xylophagous insects (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).
157579		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala (1981) recorded only two specimens, one from La Palma and the other one from El Hierro; it does not seem to be a very abundant species. Known from four islands, only four localities known (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157579		threats	eng	<p>Pine forests in the Canary Islands are managed for forestry, so it is possible that the species gets negatively affected if dead trees or large branches are removed from the forest as a part of the 'cleaning' management (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). Forest fires are also a threat.<br/></p>
157580		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, although it occurs in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species, especially its conservation management requirements.</p>  <p></p>
157580		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to Greece. It is recorded from Mt Parnitha, Attiki, Mt Kyllini, Korinthia. However it may occur in western Turkey.
157580		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is restricted to high mountains and lives in fungal fruiting bodies on dead wood of coniferous trees, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span>.
157580		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is a rare species.</p>
157580		threats	eng	<p>The strong decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span> forests is a major threat to this species. Forest fires and grazing of goats (suppression of forest generation) are other threats.<br/></p>
157581		conservation	eng	Conservation of dying trees is recommended. This species is classed as Endangered in Germany.
157581		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern and the south part of central Europe. It is also found in northern Africa, Minor Asia and Caucasus.
157581		habitat	eng	This may be a facultative saproxylic species, rather than obligate, although the evidence is unclear. The adults have been found in dry fruit bodies of the wood-decay fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> fallen to the ground but also other fungi; it appears to be prefer old fruit bodies of lignicolous fungi but is also apparently occasionally found on other fungi - the presence of adult beetles is not evidence that the species developed there however. No reports of rearing have been found. In Ukraine beetles have been found on carpophores of the wood-decay fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus eryngii</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996); adults are sometimes found under bark of beech-trees, presumably as a winter refugium.
157581		population	eng	Information is not available on population size and trends for most of its range. It appears to be common and widespread in some areas, but rare in many countries.<br/><br/>In Greece it is assumed widespread. In France it is not rare but also not common, largely distributed in the country. In Spain it has a fragmented distribution in the Mediterranean part. In Ukraine it is a relatively rare species, especially in the forest-steppe zone, and in the mountains of Crimea. In Hungary there are a very few localities known from the western part of the country, all are more than 50 years old. As there is no extant population known, no information is available about its populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany there is one single recent record. In Portugal it was recorded in the 1920s from two localities in the north; no additional records.
157581		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats.</p><p></p>
157582		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II  of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recommended to maintain the continuity of old growth-forest. As the dispersal ability is slow, reintroductions should be considered. This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, Spain, Greece).
157582		distribution	eng	This species is extremely rare and mainly a southern European species, from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, extending northwards through Hungary and Austria into southern Germany.<br/><br/>This species is very rare in the mountain forests in France (Brustel 2005). It has disappeared from the Alps where it was cited in 1854. Researches in this historical forest area during a three year period (including window trapping) gave no results (H. Brustel and R. Allemand pers. comm. 2009). The species is currently known only from the Pyrenees<em> </em>(< ten localities) and was newly found in the southern part of the massif central (Rousset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Spain it is only known from four localities in the Pyrenees (Gómez-Moreno 1934, Alonso-Zarazaga and López-Colón 2002, Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Italy it is present in north and south central mainland (not present in Sicily and Sardinia). In Ukraine, this species occurs in the the forest and forest-steppe zones in the Carpathians and Crimea.<br/><br/>In Hungary, it is known from a few localities in the hilly and mountainous regions, mainly in the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Last recorded in Sweden in 1863, and the few German records are old. There are no modern records from the British Isles, and it is most recently known c3,000 BP from sub-fossils (Buckland and Kenward 1973).
157582		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae and adults live in large diameter decayed humid wood of lying trunks of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, poplar <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> (including aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>), and some conifer trees. In France, larvae of this species have been found in trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. <br/>The adults feed exclusively on Myxomycetes and therefore need large quantities of dead wood in a humid microclimate (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It needs big trees that are not drying and it seems to prefer montane habitats - in France at least. Pupation occurs during summer; adults hibernate in the pupal cell or under bark. Young adults appear in VI-VIII (Kryzhanovskij 1983, Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary and Spain, most of the known populations are in mature broad-leaved forest, mainly beech. However, it has also been found in planted pine forest (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Normally regarded as a relict species of primary, wholly undisturbed forest (not disturbed by human activity) (Alexander 2002). <br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/> <p><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Description%20of%20larva%20and%20pupa%20of%20Rhysodes%20sulcatus%20(F.)%20(Coleoptera%2C%20Rhysodidae)%20and%20notes%20on%20the%20bionomy%20of%20this%20species&rft.jtitle=Annales%20Zoologici%20Warszawa&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=12&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.aulast=Burakowski&rft.au=B.%20Burakowski&rft.date=1975&rft.pages=271-287"><br/></p>
157582		population	eng	This species is rare and threatened throughout its range (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). Its population trend is unknown. <br/><br/>In Spain this species is found in only four known localities, all in the Pyrenees, until recently the last known record was from 1964 (Alonso-Zarazaga and López-Colón 2002), a recent finding has been reported (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Localities are far apart. There is no information about the population size (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009). This species is very rare in France (Brustel 2005).<br/><br/>In Poland it is found at most in six localities, in Romania in just one, in the Czech Republic in two recent sites, in Slovakia in several sites across the country and in Russia in two - one large site in Karelia and another in the area of Moscow. In Slovenia, the species has been found in three sites, all with recent records.  In Greece, it has only been found in one protected area. In Ukraine and Italy, it is a rare and localised species. In Germany, it is Extinct while in Hungary all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157582		threats	eng	Loss of old trees and decaying wood, and the removal of large old logs are serious threats to this species.
157583		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157583		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Bosnia and Herzegovina.
157583		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information available on the habitat requirements for this species.
157583		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157583		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157584		conservation	eng	No measures needed.
157584		distribution	eng	It is a European species (Laibner 2000). This species is widespread across western, central and south-eastern Europe, but absent from the boreal forests of the north. In Ukraine it occurs only in the Carpathians. In Italy it is only present in the northern part of the mainland. In Germany it is present in six States and has been recorded recently.
157584		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decaying wood and stubs of conifer trees; the adult is active in May - June;.in conifer, preferably spruce forests, from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it occurs in mountain forests and the larvae develop mainly in decayed fir.
157584		population	eng	It is a widespread species in Europe and mostly common in higher mountain ranges but not exclusively so. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is common. It is a usual species in Ukraine.
157584		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
157585		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of old trees of appropriate species, and appropriate habitat management (especially leaving dead wood rather than 'cleaning' it up).<br/><br/>It is included in the British Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Shirt 1987); it is also a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).
157585		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe. It is a west Palaearctic species ranging as far as the Caspian Sea (Laibner 2000).<br/> <br/>This species also occurs in Minor Caucasus in Georgia and Armenia. <br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded from a single locality in the northern part (Barros 1932). In Ukraine it occur in the east area until the Dniper River; in Crimea absent. In Britain its has a very restricted range in the far south of England (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157585		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in relatively soft white-rotten heartwood of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span> (and some other species, including fruit trees); in trunks, logs and boughs, and more rarely in stumps; pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult; adults have occasionally been taken off hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>blossom (Alexander 2002). Larvae <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>are typical predators which eat the larvae of other saproxylic insects: Cerambycidae (Leseigneur 1972), Lucanidae (Husler and Husler 1940, Iablokoff 943), Bostrichidae, Curculionidae and some Diptera (Dolin 1988). The adults are active in V-VI.<br/><br/>UK sites tend to be ancient wood pastures in the cultural landscape, with open-grown trees (old growth) (Alexander 2002). It is also found on floodplains and forest-steppe formations, in preserved deciduous forests of submontane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech forests, mainly open stands and ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157585		population	eng	A not particularly common species that is declining in some range states, but overall it is not declining in Europe.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution, with just a few isolated populations, four main centres; at least one strong population (Mendel and Clarke 1996, K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively not rare. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs locally across both territories (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; the populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare but somewhat widely distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Sweden it is rare and localized and has declined.
157585		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157586		conservation	eng	At present no conservation measures are needed. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy, as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Endangered in Slovakia.
157586		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mediterranean area, including the Mediterranean islands, reaching central Europe, Crimea in Ukraine and some countries in western Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus (Laibner 2000) and northern Africa.
157586		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>Adults occur in stumps and trunks in open, sunlit forests of various composition, and in forest-steppes from lowlands to submontane zones. Frequently seeks burnt wood after forest fires (Laibner 2000). Prefers to be on wood with ant nests as it is preying on them. <br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is an obligate predator. A typical forest species. The larvae develop under bark of decayed wood of broad-leaved trees and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. The adults are inactive under bark and in splits of dead trees by day (Dolin 1982). In Hungary the only extant population lives in an indigenous juniper-birch shrubland (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It the European part of Turkey, larvae develop in the old trunks of felled trees and under bark of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus cerris</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus conferta</em></strong>; overwintering in adult stage; the adults are active early in teh year, in III-IV (Schimitschek 1953). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region></st1:place>adults have been found in rotten wood of <em>Pinus brutia, Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Juglans regia</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p>
157586		population	eng	This species is common and has stable populations in much of the Mediterranean range, but is rare and threatened further north.<br/><br/>In Greece it is widespread but scattered and locally rare. In Cyprus it is widespread and its population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has been recorded from over 100 sites (historic and recent). It is common in Spain and common in southern France with stable populations. It has been reported from Istanbul in European Turkey (Schimitschek 1953).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there is one recent site in southern Bohemia. In Slovakia it has been found in three areas only (Laibner 2000). In Hungary only one doubtful record is known from the central part of the country, which is more than 80 years old; an extant population was discovered in 2008 in the southernmost part of Hungary. There is only one extant population known which is small and restricted to one small area (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a very rare species.<br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>  <p></p>
157586		threats	eng	This species is not threatened in most of its range. Loss of old trunks and felling of trees can be a threat to this species.
157587		conservation	eng	<p>  No specific conservation measures are in place. This species was not included in the Red Book of the Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). Some populations are present in protected areas.<br/></p>
157587		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe; except in northern Europe. This species is not endemic to Europe. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/>In Portugal, it has been recorded from  several areas in the north and centre of the country. Most of the records (10 out of 13) are recent (1995 onwards) but this may reflect a recent higher sampling effort (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. caerulea</span> is widespread but not recorded from Galicia nor the Atlantic coast (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). It occupies 114 localities/squares of 10x10 km (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">T. c.</span> subps. <span style="font-style: italic;">pini</span> is present in Canary Islands (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The presence of this species in the Italian islands is doubtful.
157587		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Spain it is found under bark of pines <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> spp., where they feed on other saproxylic insects (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).
157587		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but its population trend is considered stable. <br/></p><p>This species is common in the Mediterranean part of its range, including Greece, but rare in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.</p><p>In Spain, both subspecies are found in high numbers in the localities known (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).</p><br/><p><br/></p>
157587		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157588		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. The species occurs in Troodos Mountains protected area.   Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.</p>
157588		distribution	eng	In the European Union, this species is only found in Cyprus. Its general distribution is western-Asian (Turkey, Middle East).
157588		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in very dry dead wood (twigs, branches) in coniferous forests. Found in woodsheds as well as in twigs on the ground.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157588		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p>
157588		threats	eng	<p>No information available on specific threats but <span lang="EN-GB">there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157589		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157589		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Spain.
157589		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The adult has been found under bark on deadwood, in riparian and Mediterranean forest, but no details are available about its larval development situations.
157589		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157589		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157590		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic.
157590		distribution	eng	This species is scattered throughout much of Europe, except the Scandinavian Peninsula, British Isles, Baltic States and far western Europe. It was a native species in Britain but died out before the historic period. It is also present in Near East.
157590		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is known from deadwood of various broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>(Scandinavia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>(Russia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(Germany); it has been reared from standing dead trees and snags with hard surface wood but soft heartwood decay within (Muona 1993); in dead standing trunks in moist forests. Relatively thermophilous (Alexander 2002). In Hungary the habitats of the known populations are closed, mature beech forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It prefers beech wood (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1979); in (semi) natural forests (Vávra 1996).
157590		population	eng	The species seems to be scarce in parts of its range but it is believed that it is due primarily to under-sampling.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; the known populations are usually small, although in the late 1990s it was abundant in the Buda Hills (the hills in the capital Budapest) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany there are recent records from the south and east; it is quite rare. In the Czech Republic it is rare and records are scattered across the country; 14 faunistic grid cells with post-1950 records, five with pre-1950 records only (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia it is also rare with records scattered across the country; 12&#160; faunistic grid cells with post-1950 records, missing in the south-western part, except for a single faunistic grid cell with pre-1950 record(s) (Elateridae 2009). In Romania it is common. In Spain records are only previous to 1980 (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In the UK there are sub-fossil records widespread across the England lowlands (Alexander 2002); in deposits dated c 3000 BP (Buckland and Kenward 1973); long Extinct.
157590		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157591		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially into its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>
157591		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Greece. It has been recorded from Aghios Nikolaos, Karpenissi, Varetadha, Amphilochia, Mount Ossa, Larissa but it is possibly present also elsewhere. One specimen has been collected from Mount Taygetos and four from Peloponnesus Peninsula (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157591		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is little information about the ecology of this species. It lives in deciduous forests.
157591		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p>
157591		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The decline of forest is a major threat to this species.&#160;</p><p></p>
157592		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Crimean Mountain Reservation.
157592		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Crimea (Ukraine).
157592		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are found in decayed wood and stubs of beech-trees. The adult is active in the second half of May to June. The larvae are predatory or necro-saprophagous. In the Crimean Mountain Reservation there are a large number of old beech trees, so this species has adequate habitat.
157592		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population is in a small area, but it is stable, and part of its range is protected in the Crimean Mountain Reservation (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>
157592		threats	eng	Potential threats to this species include felling and destruction of old beech but this is not a risk within the Crimean Mountain Reservation. This is not thought to be a major threat at present because cutting of beech trees is forbidden on the Crimean Peninsula, even outside the protected area.
157593		conservation	eng	In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. angulatus </span>occurs in several protected areas, therefore no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, this species is widespread in protected areas in the south-western part of the country and it is quite common in the hilly areas.It is important to preserve small&#160; forest areas undisturbed by human activities (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is listed as Endangered (2009).
157593		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central, western and southern Europe, and the Mediterranean. It is also found in northern Iran. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span><br/>In Hungary, this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it is a common species in the central part of Romania, in Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Its distribution in the European part of Turkey is unknown. In Ukraine the species was present in the Carpathians but there have not been new records in the last 60 years. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>
157593		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the wood of dead branches of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Quercus, Fraxinus, Crataegus, Zelkova, Ostrya, Castanea, Loranthus</span>), pupating in the autumn within the wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cells and emerge in V-VII, attracted to flowers for feeding.</p><p>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. angulatus </span>lives in light oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches of oak, and adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it has been observed in May on different white flowers of shrubs, <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus monogyna</span>, etc. (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157593		population	eng	In Hungary the population size and trend of this species have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, there is no information on the trend of the population but because it was observed during the last five years in many places, it is expected that this species is well represented (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany, this species is only found in southern and central Germany while in Italy, it has a scattered distribution. In the Czech Republic, it is widespread, common and the population is not declining. <br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>
157593		threats	eng	In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this common species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. angulatus</span> is threatened by the removal of dead branches infested by larvae from the forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157594		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place or needed. This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157594		distribution	eng	In Europe this species is widespread from Russia to Portugal and from northern Europe to the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa, Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Sibir, Minor and Central Asia. <br/><br/>It occurs in almost in all Ukraine (except steppe zone). In Hungary this species is widespread in areas covered with oak forests. In Portugal it appears to be widespread but records are few. In France it appears to be widespread but records are few. This species is known from a few localities in Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Çanakçıoğlu 1993, Lodos 1998).    <p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157594		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This beetle inhabits dry trunks and stubs, and can be a pest species in firewood in storehouses. Mainly in wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">sp</span>., rarely in other wood or broad-leaved trees. The adult is active mostly in VI in Ukraine. The life cycle is one or two years. In Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Aesculus hippocastaneum</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea vesca</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Morus alba</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus,</em></strong> and <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Viburnum tinus</em></strong>. It is also found in chairs and tables made of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesculus hippocastanum</span>. <strong><em></em></strong>The adults are active in IV-VI. The life cycle is one year (Canakcıoglu 1993, Lodos 1998). In Germany it has a preference for oak, also in exposed root wood of Rosaceae trees.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of oak woods. In Portugal two of the three recent Portuguese records are not from oak woodlands but from degraded areas where old oaks are practically absent (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).</p><p> British sites are not well documented but at least one, Dunham Park, is an ancient deer park with a large number of old oak trees and rich in old growth beetles and flies; this the last known site for the species in Britain, having been found in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century.</p><p><br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p></p><p>    </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p><span style="font-style: italic;"><p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></p><p></p>
157594		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p>  In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is apparently common (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a common species. Population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey. In Germany it occurs in all States, abundant in thermophilic broad-leaved forests. In Spain it is very common (134 localities). In Italy it is regarded as a pest.<br/><br/>It is Extinct in Britain.
157594		threats	eng	Loss of old oak trees through forestry, tidiness, inadequate natural regeneration or planting are major threats to this species. Also habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of deforestation; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present, because the species is thriving in managed forests as well.
157595		conservation	eng	In Hungary the species occurs in several protected areas so no specific measurements are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). This species is considered as Data Deficient in Poland and as Endangered in Germany (2009). FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.
157595		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout much of Europe; in central Europe, from Pyrenees to the Black Sea (Bense 1995) including some of the Nordic and Scandinavian countries. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is present in the north and there is a record in Calabria (south). It has also been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953). It also occurs in southern Russia and Caucasus (Major and Minor).
157595		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It prefers lime wood <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> for oviposition; reports regarding development in aspen&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>are probably incorrect. Larvae develop under bark on dead branches and pupate in the wood, under or in the bark. Adults are found on the foliage or branches, or flying nearby (Sama 2002). Life cycle two to three years. Adults emerge in V-VIII, found on leaves, branches and stems of the host plant; they feed on leaves and will eat aspen leaves as well as lime. In Hungary it lives in forests where various species of lime occur, especially in ravine and slope forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been founded on the very fresh cut trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>in the south-western Carpathians. It is a nocturnal species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has been also found in thermophylus forests.
157595		population	eng	In Ukraine this species is relatively rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania there are small populations but it is widespread throughout the country. It is common in the Carpathian forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Germany there are new records after 1950 only from Baden-Würtemberg, Bayern, Sachsen-Anhalt, Sachsen and Brandenburg. In France it is not a rare species. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Saperda </span>are hard to find but the use of the feeding signs of the adults in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>leaves have permitted numerous observations in Switzerland (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).
157595		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to the loss of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>trees. In Hungary it is not threatened because its host plants are widely available, and the ravine and slope forest are usually removed from forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania in the low mountainous areas, where there exist large deciduous forests,&#160; this species is not threatened (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157596		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, UK). In the UK this species has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992) although also listed in the out-of-date British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987).
157596		distribution	eng	This species has a Holarctic distribution, inhabiting the north and central zone of the Palaearctic region (Laibner 2000). This is a boreal-alpine species. It also occurs in the Caucasus and North America (Laibner 2000).
157596		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under thick dead bark or in dead wood immediately beneath the bark, usually in fallen trunks; typically in spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, but also in other tree species e.g. birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus </span>and aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; they are predatory, eating the&#160; larvae of numerous deadwood insects; four or five years duration; pupate in spring at the end April or May; pupation takes place between bark and wood or in the bark; adult crepuscular, flying May to August;&#160; the adults feed on aphids and some dead small insect which stick to the bark of trees (Dolin 1982, Owen 1986, Laibner 2000). Larvae have been found only in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>timber in Scotland (Owen 1986) and only conifer trees (mostly fir-trees) in Ukraine (Dolin 1982).<br/><br/>It lives in old mountain evergreen forests (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it is is a mountain forest species. In Scotland however it is found especially in the moister birch-woods in the uplands, at 100-400 m altitude (Owen 1986).
157596		population	eng	A widespread and fairly common species in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>In the UK it is widespread in western Scotland; occasionally reported elsewhere in northern Britain (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is rare. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is locally distributed and is becoming increasingly rare (Laibner 2000). It is fairly common in Finland.
157596		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. However, these are not thought to be a major threat to the species at the European level.<br/></p>
157597		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).
157597		distribution	eng	This species has a wide Palaearctic distribution (Mendel 2004) found in all Europe.<br/><br/>In Britain it is confined to the south-east of England (Mendel 2004).
157597		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in all type of forests in decaying wood. The larvae most frequently develop in red-rotten heartwood, but also in decaying wood generally. The adults fly after dark and are attracted to light; they are active in V-VII (Lodos 1998).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in forests of various composition from lowlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of broadleaved forests.&#160; In Britain it lives in a wide variety of wooded habitats, in the cultural landscape as well as forests (Alexander 2002).<br/><br/> The ecology appears to be the same as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. castanipes</span> (Dolin 1988).<br/><p><br/></p>
157597		population	eng	It is a common species (Laibner 2000) with stable populations in Europe.<br/><br/>It is widespread in the south-east of the UK. In Hungary it is a common and widespread species with strong populations. In Finland it is rare and only present in the southern part. In Denmark it is common and distributed in the eastern part (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Ukraine it is a common species. Population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey and the exact locality is unknown.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"></span>
157597		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. <br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157598		conservation	eng	It is known from many protected sites (e.g. UK, Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (2009). The species is legally protected in Hungary.
157598		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Palaearctic region and occurs throughout much of Europe (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in river valleys and hilly and lower mountain areas. In Romania it is spread along the river valleys from the plains up into the hills and mountains. In Portugal it is widespread, with few records. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987,   Canakcıoglu 1993) and Edirne and KIrklareli (Ozay 1997).<p>In Denmark it is distributed almost throughout the country (Thomsen 2007) and it is widespread in Finland. It is widespread in Britain, but very patchy.<br/></p>
157598		habitat	eng	<p>The status of this species as a saproxylic is unclear as development begins in living woody tissues. <br/></p><p>It develops in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Salix, </em>occasionally <em>Populus, Alnus, Acer</em>). The larvae first develop in the thick but living wood of&#160; trunks and branches, later tunnelling between living & dead tissues; it prefers young healthy growths rather than established trees (Kaufmann 1990). The life cycle is at least three years, with pupation in spring within wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cell and emerge in VI-IX, they fly during periods of warm sunshine although rest of time spent motionless on twigs and branches in the canopy;; they are attracted to flowers for nectar and are also attracted to anything sweet, including discarded wrappers of ice lollies (K.N.A. Alexander pers comm 2009). In Romania it has been observed on old <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> also on <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>; the adult has been found resting on leaves of <span style="font-style: italic;">Typha </span>and at white flowers of Umbelliferae. In European Turkey larvae develop in old trunks and branches of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>; the adults are active in VI-VIII (Canakcıoglu 1993). In Finland the species lives on <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span>. In Germany it lives mostly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>; it uses small diameter branches and trunks (less than five cm).</p><p>Primarily a riverine and floodplain species; the larva is tolerant of submergence for many weeks. It lives in wet woodlands and waterside trees in the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it lives mainly in riverine and swamp willow forests, but occurs also in deciduous forests where goat willows occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). All records from Portugal are from riverine areas.</p><p>    </p>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p></p>
157598		population	eng	A widespread species and common throughout much of its range. Population trend considered to be stable overall, although a significant decline has occurred in some areas, e.g. Britain.<br/><br/>In Ireland it has a widespread but very fragmented distribution; best known in the south-west but with isolated populations in the north.It is widespread across much of Britain, but very localized and becoming increasingly scarce - there are more old records than current ones; the main stronghold is the low-lying area of the former Great Fen of eastern England (Twinn and Harding 1999<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania this species tends to be more frequent near riverside valley from low mountains, defiles, etc. In Germany it is widespread and not rare, occurring in all States. In Finland it is not uncommon while in Italy and Spain it is common. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.
157598		threats	eng	Clearance of waterside trees and wet woodland, as well as habitat loss due to logging of old willows, are threats to this species.
157599		conservation	eng	<p>  There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. </p>
157599		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across the south of central, western and eastern Europe, it is circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Spain it is known only from two areas on the mainland in the Ebro Valley and the arid south-eastern part; also in the Balearic Islands (Vives 2001). In Cyprus it is<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> widespread (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In France it has recently been introduced/arrived in southern France (Pellegrin 1990) and is extending to the north along the Rhône Valley (Cocquempot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Italy this species appears along the central and southern coast and in Sardinia. <br/><br/>It is also present in northern Africa.
157599		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in the dead wood of conifers (Cupressaceae:<em> Juniperus, Cupressus, Thuja, Callitrix</em>). The larvae first develop under bark, later in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are crepuscular and nocturnal.</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has been </st1:place></st1:country-region>reported from maquis with <em>Juniperus phoenicea</em> and forests with <em>Cupressus sempervirens.</em> It is found also in towns, villages and cultivations in association with planted stands of <em>Cupressus sempervirens. </em>It has been reared from dead wood of <em>Juniperus phoenicea </em>and<em> Cupressus sempervirens </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>
157599		population	eng	<p>In Cyprus it<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> is locally common in the lowlands and hilly areas 0-1,500 m (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In France its population is expanding to the north. In Italy and Spain the species may be under recorded. It is believed that the population trend is increasing. In Spain it is known only from two areas on the mainland, also in the Balearic Islands (Vives 2001).</p>
157599		threats	eng	<p>      </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157600		conservation	eng	This species may be protected in two mountains with the Crimean Reservation.
157600		distribution	eng	This species is only known in Europe from Crimea (Ukraine) and the south of Russia. It also occurs in the Caucasus.
157600		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The biology and exact habitat needs of this species are unknown. It may be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">G. oblonga </span>(adults and larvae predators under dead bark of trees).
157600		population	eng	It is very rare in Ukraine.
157600		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The destruction of dead trees and gathering of trunks appear to be the major specific threats to this species.</p><p></p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157602		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. in Hungary and Spain). In Spain it is present in the protected areas of Montseny and La Albera, but it is not Red-listed at the national or regional levels. Within these protected areas, and in the potential distribution area of this species in Spain, conservation measures need to be taken to preserve dead wood in forests (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009). In Poland this species is listed as Endangered an in the Slovak Republic as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. Continuity (maintenance of suitable habitat in the same area without interruption) is very important for this species.
157602		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across all Europe, but absent from the British Isles and far west of Europe. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians, in the west part of the forest-steppe zone and in Crimea. It is also found in all Caucasus and south of Turkmenistan.
157602		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits decaying heartwood in various species of broad-leaved trees. It is typically found in old-growth and ancient and veteran trees (in forest only). This species has very poor dispersal capacity, consequently a critical factor is that habitat remains stable in the long term (that there is a long history with no disturbance). Very little such habitat remains in large parts of Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary it develops in red-rotting heartwood of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, wild cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>, hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>in closed forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine larvae develop in relatively dry wood of beech and oak (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<p>In Spain it is located in fallen branches of 30-40 cm diameter of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> (Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Development takes three years. Adults are present in June (Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It seems to be present only in forests with a presence of old trees (Recalde<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006, Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p><p>In France, larvae are saproxylophagous in red rot of <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>. Also found in small trees (diameter 10 cm) (Baraud 1993). The presence of decaying wood in the long term seems to be a condition for the presence of the species.<br/></p>
157602		population	eng	A rare and localised species throughout much of its distribution. It is restricted to a very specialised habitat type. A continuing population decline can be inferred based on ongoing loss and degradation of suitable habitat. There is no detailed data for the Czech Republic but is very localised and restricted to patches of good-quality old-growth woodland. In Germany there are 15-20 known populations. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lowland regions; most of its localities house strong populations - this species is not threatened here (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a rare species. In the European part of Turkey the exact locality is unknown. In France it is widespread but very localised with discontinuity between the stations (Baraud 1993). In Spain there are only three known localities, very far apart but at least in one of these localities there are a high number of individuals, either in the Catalonian Pyrenees or nearby mountains of Catalonia and Basque Country (Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It reaches its distribution limit in this part of Europe.
157602		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors (particularly in the case of this species which is a weak flier and has poor dispersal capacity).</p><p><br/></p>
157603		conservation	eng	Maintenance of continuity and connectivity of habitat are necessary for the conservation of this species. The species is present in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary). <br/><br/>This species is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987), it is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Italy.
157603		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely across southern and central Europe: the Iberian Peninsula, Britain, France, Italy, south and central Europe, the Carpathians (Laibner 2000). It is also found in the Caucasus. In Ukraine it is only present in the eastern slope of the Carpathians (Uzhgorod region) (Dolin 1988).
157603		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dry red-rotten heartwood of ancient oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, often in the lining of cavities in the trunks & main boughs; the larvae are predatory; they pupate from the beginning of April until the end of May-June. The adults are active in V-VII, in the evening and early night, and are attracted to light (Dolin 1988, Alexander 2002).&#160; <br/><br/>The sole UK site is ancient parkland (Alexander 2002). It also lives in old oaks in groves of the lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000) and develops in solitary trees and open forest, in dead and dying trees. In Ukraine larvae also develop in chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span> (Dolin 1988). In Hungary the only population lives in a wood pasture (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157603		population	eng	This species appears to be rare and threatened across most of its European range, with reasonably strong and stable populations only reported from France.<br/><br/>In Britain this species is confined to a small area within a single ancient parkland; the population is considered small and endangered (Mendel and Clarke 1996). <br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species. In the Czech Republic since 1950 it&#160; has only been recorded from the south-eastern part (one floodplain area). In Slovakia it has a scattered population from west to east and there are very few sites. In Hungary there is only one extant population known, which is small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is present in the north and central regions, 15 localities and the most recent records are from 1990. In France it is relatively common in the south and it forms small and patchy populations in the north. In Greece it is very rare in northern and central Greece, last records from 1975.
157603		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157604		conservation	eng	In the British Red Data Book the species is listed as Rare (Shirt 1987), in the Czech Republic listed as Critically Endangered (Vávra 2005) and in Germany it is listed as Near Threatened by the German Red List 2009. In Hungary, the known localities are in protected areas, therefore no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm.2009).
157604		distribution	eng	This species occurs in all of Europe except for the southern Balkans and north of Stockholm, Sweden.&#160; In the Czech Republic occurs in 8 areas across the country (with records after 1950), of those only one in the western part (Bohemia), the others in three groups in the eastern part (Moravia). Another two adjacent areas at the Slovak border with pre-1950 records only (Elateridae 2009).&#160; In the Slovak Republic the records are after 1950 from 17 areas from the central to the eastern part, in the west only older records (three areas, some distance from each other) (Elateridae 2009). Recently discovered in north Spain, in pyrenaic, pre-pyrenaic and Sistema Ibérico localities (Recalde Irurzun 2008). Also relatively recently discovered in Britain, although regarded as an overlooked long-term resident (Hammond 1974).
157604		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in moist decaying wood, in particular of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, also in poplar <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>and spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979). It has been reared from a log of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvatica</span>, diameter 20 cm, wood hard on surface, inside rotten, brownish; larvae of this species were once found in horse chestnut wood <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesculus</span>  (Muona 1993).&#160; In Ukraine and Russia, this species develops in humid loose wood of lying aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> trees. Its larvae hibernate and the adult is active in VI-VIII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). It inhabits old forests (Freude<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1979) -&#160; in Hungary too, the habitats of the known populations are open forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In England, it is usually found in shady woodlands and particularly those on Chalk hillsides; also known from historic parklands (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is found in the Carpathians and forest zone. This species is also found in floodplains.
157604		population	eng	This species is common, widespread and presumably under-sampled over much of its European range. The population is currently expanding across southern England and under no threat (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). This species is rare in the Ukraine. There are eight localities known from Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Hungary, this species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions. All known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157604		threats	eng	<p>The lack of dead wood in the forest ground layer and on the floor is the major threat to this species.In the UK and in Ukraine the loss of old trees and decaying wood is the major threat. However, this species appears to be strong and expanding at present in the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, this species does not seem to be threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157605		conservation	eng	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
157605		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Spain, France and Great Britain; it is also present in northern Africa.<br/>In the UK there is a&#160;non-native population established in one area of south-eastern England (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009, Harrison 1996).&#160;In Spain, the species is known from six to eight localities, localized in northern Spain, in Navarra and&#160;Álava. In France it is present in the southern part although it remains unclear whether it is native or not (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In French literature it is said that this species is also present in Sicily, but this remains unconfirmed. Without further information about the distribution in northern Africa and the population size it is unclear whether this species is only marginally present in Europe.
157605		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is associated with small wood-decay fungi fruiting from branches and logs of broad-leaved trees; in Britain especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Stereum hirsutum</span> on fallen oak branches (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009); in France especially&#160;on dead branches of beech and hazel (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).
157605		population	eng	There is no information about population size, abundance or trends for this species.
157605		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
157606		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009) and in Denmark (2005).
157606		distribution	eng	The species is widespread across Europe, except in the north and west, and far south-west (Bense 1995). This species is also found in the Minor Caucasus, Minor Asia, northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, but occurs also in riverine hardwood galleries and remnant oak forests in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it is widespread but not common   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Oymen 1987), Edirne (Ozdikmen and Sahin 2006) and Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004, Malmusi and Saltini 2005, Ozdikmen and Demir 2006). In Sweden it is only present in the south. <br/><p><br/></p>
157606		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae first develop under the bark, later in the wood, of dead branches and trunks. The life cycle is two or three years, with pupation in late summer in wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cell and emerge in IV-VIII, found on host plants and at flowers. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Juglans, Quercus, Prunus, Fagus, Castanea, Carpinus, Betula, Ulmus, Salix, Populus, Syringa, Tilia, Corylus, Ostrya</em>). In Romania it has been found on oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks and branches, also at different white flowers of shrubs (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, Ulmus </span>and fruit trees (Erdem 1968). In Denmark it develops in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> in old forests; prefers the wood of dry and sick stems (Thomsen 2007). In Germany it lives in all collin, planar broad-leaved forests. In Hungary it lives in oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches of oak and other trees, and adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157606		population	eng	A widespread and common species in Europe but with a rather fragmented distribution in the north; its population trend seems stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities. In Romania it is well represented but higher number of individuals can be found in protected areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in all the States but it is rare in the north. Generally rare in Denmark; this species is a 'heat-loving' species and is most common in the south (Thomsen 2007). The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>In the UK it is possibly native but if so Extinct; there was a wide scattering of records up until 1902; only casual imports since then.
157606		threats	eng	Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range in Hungary as a result of urban encroachment and forest management, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this common species.
157607		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); the remaining areas of old native pine forest are now all protected.<br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary. Conservation measures are difficult to accomplish, as the localities are outside protected areas, and are in areas devoted to harvesting timber (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157607		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe. It is also known from Siberia, Far East.
157607		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in the deadwood of coniferous trees (plantations as well as natural and semi-natural woodlands).<br/><br/>The larvae develop mostly under bark on freshly dead <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus,</span> more rarely in fir trees; they are found in the burrows of bark beetles Scolytinae; in trunks and branches, while still moist and sappy. The life cycle&#160; is two years. Larvae and adult beetles hibernate under the bark. The adult is more active in IV-V (Mamaev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1977, Nikitsky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1996<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary all known populations are in old pine plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it is widespread in the Caledonian pine forest areas of Scotland (Alexander 2002).
157607		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is believed to be stable (although it has not been quantified).<br/><br/>In Finland it is common. <span lang="EN-GB">In Sweden it is common and in Germany it is common at least in the east of the country; frequently occurs in plantations as well as in natural and semi-natural habitats.<br/><br/>In Hungary a few localities are known from the western part of the country (Transdanubia); all the known populations are small. In Denmark it is not common; occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> ten localities in the country (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In the UK it has a restricted distribution - only in Highland Scotland - but there is no evidence for any decline in recent years (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is local.</span>
157607		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European level.<br/></p>
157608		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in one protected area in Crimea and maybe also in Karadag protected area. <br/></p>
157608		distribution	eng	This species is found in Europe only in Ukraine (Crimea only) and the south of Russia (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). Outside Europe it is found across Caucasus, northern Iran and north-eastern Turkey.
157608		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark of dead wood on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, nut-trees and other broad-leaved trees (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It also occurs in milled wood. Larvae might develop over two or three rears, depending on the conditions. Normal life cycle is two years. Adults are active during the months VI-VIII. </p>
157608		population	eng	This species is relatively rare in Crimea (A.   Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157608		threats	eng	<p>      </p>In Ukraine, its habitat may be declining and it has a very small distribution. <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species which are providing habitat are declining, however in the Crimea reservation the beech trees are in a stable condition (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). Outside Europe, in the Caucasus the situation is thought to be stable (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>
157609		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place, or are needed at present.
157609		distribution	eng	This is a species of Mediterranean Europe, occurring across south-western and southern central Europe, including Cyprus and the southern Ukraine, mostly in Crimea. It is also found in Turkey and in northern Africa. In France it occurs in the Rhône valley, in the Mediterranean sea border and in Corsica (Sainte-Clare Deville 1935-38).
157609		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Probably polyphagous in broad-leaved woody plants. In Ukraine larvae develop in vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis </span>woods.</p>
157609		population	eng	<p>This species is probably widespread in Italy and France. However, there is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Ukraine it is considered as a common species. <br/></p>  <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>
157609		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157610		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2005).
157610		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe, but it is absent from the Britain and Ireland (old reports were mis-identifications). It also occurs in northern Africa and Siberia (to Baikal Lake).<br/><br/>It is widespread is Portugal. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it seems to occur locally across both territories (Laibner 2000).
157610		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Preferentially it lives in decaying wood of oak; also in montane zone spruces, in pine and larch (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood (first stage of decaying) mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, but in the south also in broad-leaved trees (Dolin 1988); the adult beetle is active in V-VI, and lives a concealed life under bark and in splits of wood.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it inhabits alluvial woodlands, forest-steppe formations and preserved stands of submontane and montane zones (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, closed stands of hilly and mountainous oak forests, but also in poplar and other broad-leaved trees in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in all areas where there is <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus.</span>
157610		population	eng	A widespread species that is not uncommon in at least parts of its range. However in some range states at the edge of its distribution it is rare, localised and declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species. In Germany it is very rare and in Denmark too, being only one or two localities in north-eastern Zealand (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Hungary the species is sporadic all over the country; although the species is not very common in the country, the populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157610		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species across Europe as a whole. However some populations may be negatively affected by the loss of old trees.</p><p><br/></p>
157611		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157611		distribution	eng	This species is only found in France. It may have a very restricted distribution.<br/><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
157611		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.
157611		population	eng	<p></p><p></p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p></p><p></p><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">    <table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
157611		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157612		conservation	eng	Research on the population trends and distribution is needed. Protection of old vineyards is recommended.<br/><br/>In Hungary as the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained, no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157612		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern and central Europe, extending to Italy and northern Spain. It is also present in the Near East.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is widespread mainly in hilly regions where old vineyards occur, and rarely also in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is not present in southern Italy and the islands, but common elsewhere. It is widespread in Slovakia. In Switzerland there are only historic records.
157612		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead wood of vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>, and is sometimes regarded as a pest species of this culture. It is also known to develop in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Populus, Salix</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clematis</span>. The adults emerge in V-VI. It is found in: temperate shrubland and macquis, riparian forest, and in vineyards. In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, traditionally managed, but also in more recently established vineyards (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157612		population	eng	In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in vineyards (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>It is common in Italy. There is one record in Prague, introduced, and another record of an introduction. In Slovakia it is widespread in vineyards. In Ukraine it is rare.
157612		threats	eng	There seems to be no major threats to this species (e.g. Italy). In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range, as the European Union encourages removal of vineyards from culture. However, the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157613		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary. It was listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).
157613		distribution	eng	This Eurosiberian and east-Mediterranean species is widespread over much of Europe but absent from Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It has also been reported from Istanbul and Kırklareli (Sekendiz 1974) in Turkey. In Romania this species occurs in the central and north part of the country.<p><br/></p>
157613		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop first under the bark later in the wood of dead, sun-exposed standing or fallen trunks of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Betula, Acer, Tilia, Sorbus, Querscus, Ulmus, Castanea</span>). The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring deep in the wood. The pupal stage lasts three or four weeks. Adults emerge in V-IX, found on host trees. <br/><br/>In the European part of Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus tremula, P. nigra</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>P. </em>x<em> euramericana</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Ulmus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fraxinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Juglans</em></strong>. Pupation takes place in V. Adults active in V. The life cycle is one year (Sekendiz 1974). In Romania many reports are from old <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> trees; adults become active during the day (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs mainly in poplar forests (planted or indigenous) in the lowlands, but also in aspen and other trees in hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany this species is only found in forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> (poplars).<p><br/><strong><em> </em></strong></p>
157613		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p><p>Localized but common in Spain (102 localities); one locality in Portugal; widespread and common in Finland; in Germany the population is increasing and extending its range northwards. In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Romania sometimes a high number of beetles can be found on the old poplars from the lowlands near the bank of rivers; the population size and trend are stable. In Denmark it is rare and very scattered; there are few new finds (Thomsen 2007).</p><p><br/></p>
157613		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p>However this species is not thought to be under major threat at present.<br/></p>
157614		conservation	eng	Some of the well known populations in Bulgaria are inside preserved natural areas from Rodopi, Pirin Mountains, Veleka (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). However action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.
157614		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Europe including some of the islands in the Mediterranean and extending to southern Russia, European part of Turkey and southern Anatolia. It&#160; is widespread in Cyprus (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and has been reported from Istanbul (Canakcıoglu 1993). <p>    </p>Also found in the Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan).<br/>  <p></p>
157614		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in large, dry dead trunks of broad-leaved trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> sp.,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Platanus orientalis</span>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Pinus</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Liquidamber orientalis </em></strong>and <em>Ficus carica</em>. In Cyprus it is found in river valleys, forests and orchards. It requires sun-exposed trees and open forests. This species has only been reported in very large trees. The adult is crepuscular and nocturnal, VI-VIII (Canakcıoglu 1993), and attracted to light (P. Istrate pers.comm. 2009).<br/>    <br/><p>    </p><p>    </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
157614		population	eng	There is little information about the abundance of this species. This species has a patchy distribution and is not common. Many different populations occur in southern Bulgaria, in particular in Veleka River, Rodopi and Pirin Mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The population size has not been quantified but the trend is decreasing slowly but constantly, based on the continuing decline of the large, dead, dry trees that it inhabits. The last record of the species in the European part of Turkey was in 1997, records from Anatolia are more than 12 years old. <p>    </p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>
157614		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened by removal of large trees, particularly replacement of the native oak and <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> old forests with other species. Modern forest management does not benefit this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
157615		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157615		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout much of central and south-eastern Europe.
157615		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that lives in dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and other species in broad-leaved forest; also known from vineyards. The imago is active in IV-V.</p>
157615		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Where it is found it is very localised.</p>
157615		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are unknown at present.</p><p><br/></p>
157616		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157616		distribution	eng	This species was recorded from Spain (Andalucia) by Escalera (1925).
157616		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Precise habitat unknown.
157616		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p>
157616		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157617		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. This species may be in a protected area in the central Asia part of its range in the Altai or Sayani regions (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157617		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the European part of Russia, in the Urals only (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). Although recorded from the Urals, it is unknown whether this record is from a single specimen (I. Mannerkoski pers. comm.   2009).
157617		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The biology of the species is largely unknown; it prefers the deadwood of coniferous trees (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157617		population	eng	<p>This species is extremely rare in the European part of its range (and even more rare in the Altai part of its range in central Asia). The population trend is suspected to be declining based on suspected habitat loss from deforestation in the region (A. Putchkov and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157617		threats	eng	<p>No information available. <br/></p>
157618		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157618		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be found in Europe only on the Black Sea coast (Sama 2002). It also occurs in the Caucasus, Turkey, northern Iran and Minor Asia.<br/>In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea - this is therefore thought to be a marginal species to Europe.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
157618		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead branches and trunks of maples <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>which are very rare in Crimea, the only part of its European range. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Adults are active in VI-VIII. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
157618		population	eng	In Ukraine the species is relatively rare.
157618		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157619		conservation	eng	The areas where the populations occur require protection of floodplain forest and meadow (interspersed trees) habitat. Since 2008 the Czech Ministry of Environment has been taking steps to establish a Protected Landscape Area (the second highest level of protection after a National Park for large size reserves according to Czech legislation) to meet EU requirements for the protection of Natura 2000 sites. However the outcome is unclear as it is facing fierce opposition from local stakeholders including the state-owned forestry company. In Hungary the only known locality is in a protected area. No specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157619		distribution	eng	This species is found across central and eastern Europe, from Czech Republic to Russia. In Hungary the species is known from only one locality in the southernmost part of the country, near the point where Danube River leaves the country; the record is more than 70 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is reported from three areas in the south-eastern tip of the country. Localities are from the floodplain forests but also in drier habitats; all records are since 2000 (Elateridae 2009). In the Slovak Republic there are no reliable records (Elateridae 2009).
157619		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in white-rotten wood in the trunks of various broad-leaved trees, including aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>. It has been reared from a large decaying stump of <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> - the larvae were found in cells in damp white-rotten sapwood 10-30 mm deep; it has also been reared from fallen parts of the crown of a <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia cordata</span> - wood on surface fairly hard, inside with white-rot, dryish (Muona 1993). The life cycle was two years in the hard wood of the aspen tree; the larvae hibernated (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The single Czech population is in the south-eastern tip of the country at the confluence of the Dyje and Morava Rivers (constituting the border to Austria and Slovakia). The climate is warm and semi-arid but humidity is provided by the abundant wetlands. The habitat is floodplain forests dominated by oak, ash and formerly elm (now rare due to Dutch elm disease) at an elevation of approximately 150 m asl;&#160; records not only from floodplains but also from a drier forest in the same area (J. Schlaghamersky pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species is known from only one locality; the record is very old, so no information is available about the habitat. However, the extant habitats around the locality are floodplain forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157619		population	eng	In the Czech Republic there is probably a single population, recorded only recently. In Romania it is rare and in Finland it is very rare, with only one reliably recorded locality, not been found since 1983. In Hungary the species is known from only one locality and no information is available about its population (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157619		threats	eng	<p>Old growth forests have been declining by 30% in the last 10 years in the Czech Republic. On-going logging of mature forest stands and decline of old trees due to a drop in groundwater table as consequence of massive river regulation in the 1970-80s are threats to this species. In Finland urban development affects negatively this species - the only site of the species was in the middle of Helsinki.</p>
157620		conservation	eng	In Hungary the species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is also present in several protected areas in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The species is considered Near Threatened in the German Red List (2009). FSC Guidelines should favour the survival of the species.
157620		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe, but not the far north, far south, or Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is widespread in the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula (Vives 2001), but it seems to be also present in Andalusia (Cadiz, Granada, Huelva) (Verdugo 2004). In Portugal most records are 100 years old or more. It is present in all German states. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in the hilly areas, at the foothills of the Carpathians and sometimes has been reported from the lowlands. The species has also been&#160; reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Erdem and Canakcıoglu 1977, Oymen 1987, Canakcıoglu 1993).<br/><br/>It is also found in  Armenia, Caucasus, Kazakhstan, northern Iran, north-western Africa and Asia Minor.
157620		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus, </em>also in <em>Castanea, Carpinus, Betula, Fagus, Salix, Prunus, Robinia</em>). Larvae develop under the bark of sun-exposed standing and dead fallen trunks and thick branches. Life cycle between one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood or sometimes in the thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VII, on host plant. Pupation 20-30 days.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in oak, beech and hornbeam (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is present in old oak forests, with clearance inside (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the UK this species inhabited ancient forests (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p></p><p></p>
157620		population	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Denmark the species is common; it used to be somewhat rare but is probably becoming more widely distributed in recent years (Thomsen 2007). It is considered a common species in the Transylvanian oak forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a common species. <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland it is rare (edge of distribution). It is widespread across much of France (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey the <span lang="EN-GB">population size and trend have not been quantified. In Britain it is thought to have been native in south-eastern England until the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup> century; established populations formerly in Epping and Hainault Forests; also non-established introductions (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). </span></span>
157620		threats	eng	<p>In general human activity favours the species by creating sunny areas within the forest, and the main threats are conversion of native forest into plantations and minimum intervention management. The species is safe as soon as there are oaks and freshly dead wood in open sunny situations.<br/></p><p>In particular this species is not threatened in Hungary because host plants are available all over its range (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it is not threatened in Transylvania, but the southern populations may be negatively affected by habitat loss (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the UK the reason for extinction is not known, but probably fragmentation and isolation of populations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157621		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157621		distribution	eng	<p>The main distribution of this species is in Asia. It is reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). However&#160;the distribution in Turkey is doubtful.</p><p><br/></p>
157621		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species.</p><p><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157621		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend have not been quantified.</p>  <p></p>
157621		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown.</p>  <p></p>
157622		conservation	eng	<p>None needed at present.<br/></p>
157622		distribution	eng	<p>This species ranges from south-eastern and eastern Europe to the Mediterranean countries, including the Mediterranean islands.</p><p><br/></p>
157622		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dry fresh dead wood of a wide variety of tree species. A list of host genera is supplied by   <span class="postbody">Akşit and Çakmak (2005). This species has been recorded as a potential pest in vineyards on the Crimean Peninsula. <br/></p>
157622		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but it is known to be common in many Mediterranean countries. The population trend is stable. In Portugal this species has   only been recorded from three sites located far apart from each other. In Spain the species is known from 30 localities.<br/></p>
157622		threats	eng	<p>There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
157623		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>The conservation status of this species in Britain is Nationally Scarce but there are no specific actions in place, despite rarity in Britain, but standard good practice recommendations under FSC, etc.; some of the known sites are in legally protected areas although land management even there is not necessarily sympathetic (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). The main conservation action needed is truly sustainable forest management.<br/></p><p></p>
157623		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe except the far west and east.
157623		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults and larvae live beneath the bark on relatively freshly dead trunks and large branches from broad-leaved and conifer trees, while the bark is still firmly attached and the cambial layers still sappy (Alexander 2002). Sites include forest country as well as cultural landscapes, in closed woodlands, open wood pastures and historic parklands, wooded riversides, etc. Its rarity in Britain suggests requirements for very precise conditions, in contrast to the more widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">dermestoides</span>; it possibly lives deeper under bark - away from fracture points, possibly needs larger items of wood, in sheltered sunny glades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). The larvae are said to be predatory on Diptera larvae. It is most widely known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forest across its range. Adults have been reported in flight during the evening. As there are no extant populations known in Hungary, no information is available about its habitat there (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>
157623		population	eng	The species is not common in Europe, regarded as common is a few states, but more generally local or rare. In Denmark this species is widespread in the country (Hansen 1996). In Russia it has been reported from Moscow and it is a rare species (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Hungary , this species is very rare, only a few very old localities are known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Britain it is a rare and elusive species with a very fragmented range, and with just a small number of very isolated populations; conservation status 'Nationally Scarce'; no data on population size or trends, but likely to be declining (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Italy there are only three records.
157623		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>
157624		conservation	eng	This species has conservation status in Britain as Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). It is listed as Least concern in Finland and Sweden, and as Vulnerable in Germany.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).
157624		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It also occurs in northern Africa (Egypt), Caucasus, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine mostly in the forest zone, may be in Crimea. In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is widespread across southern Britain, and there are isolated sites further north, into southern Scotland (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Portugal it was recorded in the 1920s from three localities scattered in the northern half; recently (2006 and 2008) collected in two additional sites, one in the north and the other in the centre   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).
157624		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in red-rotten heartwood, for instance in the decay caused by the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>, the larvae occurring with the fungal mycelium, where the decay is fresh and moist; most if not all larval records are from oak. Adults are attracted to a wide variety of situations for feeding, including the fruit bodies of other bracket fungi, sap-runs and have even been found in garden compost (Alexander 2002). Trees need to be mature or older, e.g. 200 years old or more to have been colonised by the host fungus. In Ukraine larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus, Polyporus, Laetiporus, Pleurotus, Lentinus, </span>sometimes<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bjerkandera adusta; a</span>dult beetles feed on wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes, Piptoporu</span>s); they are active from May. The beetles hibernate often in fungi. The life cycle is one or two years. Pupation is on the ground (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996).<br/><br/>Suitable trees can occur in dense woodland but are more typical of open-grown situations, in ancient wood pastures and parklands in the cultural landscape of the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, in the hills and mountains mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech; in the lowlands it is typical of the soft-wood riverine galleries.
157624		population	eng	A widespread and common species over much of its European range, with stable populations.<br/><br/>It is widespread over much of England and Wales, but absent from far north; one southern Scottish record; the distribution is very fragmented and many of the sites are very isolated; population trend has not been quantified (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Germany it is widespread but not very abundant. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is common.
157624		threats	eng	<p>Overall the species appears not to be under any major threat at the European level.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>In the UK land management which removes trees before they reach biological mature is a threat; fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.
157625		conservation	eng	No measures needed. It is present in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).
157625		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across south-eastern Europe, including France and northern Spain; absent from Scandinavia and Britain (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In France and Romania it is widespread. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly, lower mountainous and lowland regions. It has also been reported from Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) in the European part of Turkey. <br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Africa, Iran, Irak and south-east of Turkmenia.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157625		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; Larvae develop in dead, dry wood. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Castanea, Robinia, Juglans, Prunus, Salix, Paliurus, Pistacia, Ulmus, Ficus, Ostrya</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>).The life cycle is two years. Adults emerge in V-VIII, and feed at flowers. <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in southern slopes and plateaus covered with sparse shrubs or light thermophilous forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<em> </em>In Germany it also lives in thermophilic broad-leaved tree stands (oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and orchard trees -Rosaceae, etc.). In Romania it is found on the sunny slopes with trees, shrubs, where adults are very attracted to flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leucanthemum vulgare. </span>There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.    <p><br/></p><p><br/></p><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><p><br/><strong></strong></p>
157625		population	eng	<p>This species is widespread and common throughout its range. In Portugal it has been recorded from scattered localities from all the country, but all records are old. In Crimea it is a relatively usual species. In Turkey and Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but in Hungary the species is regarded as common in its range. In Romania&#160; there are good preserved populations in the central part of the country, where in June a lot of adults can be found on flowers (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In all German States there are new records and in France it is common.<br/></p>
157625		threats	eng	<p>It is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over is range (e.g. Hungary, Romania, Germany).<br/></p>
157626		conservation	eng	Outside the boreal zone the protection of flood plain forests would be a necessary protection measure. <br/><br/>The species does occur in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). In Germany this species is listed as Vulnerable (2009).
157626		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe, especially in central and north-eastern Europe (Bense 1995) through Eurosiberian subregion and Nordic countries. It is missing in the south-western part and Britain and Ireland. In France and Italy it only occurs in the Alps. It also occurs in Caucasus and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly, mountainous and lowland areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs from the steppe with high grass up to the mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey it is reported from Kırklareli (Sekendiz 1974). In Switzerland it is largely distributed but very localised in suitable places (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<p>In the Czech and Slovak Republics it has a scattered distribution. In Sweden and Finland it is widely distributed but localised.<br/><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157626		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species is found mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, therefore in some parts of Europe it only occurs in flood plains whereas in northern Europe it is widespread following its host-plant. It is a nocturnal species. Larvae develop in and under the bark of sick and dying stems and branches of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, but can be found in other trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus sp</span>., <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Pyrus</span>, and beech), especially colonising the shady sides. Life cycle one to two years, with pupation in spring in the sapwood. Adults emerge in V-VIII, crepuscular, found on leaves, branches and stems of the host-plants, attracted by light. Stage of pupa two to three weeks.<br/>In Hungary it lives in indigenous poplar forest and in other forest types where aspen occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in floodplain forests, coppice with standards forests.
157626		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is locally abundant in some countries. Overall the population trend is unknown, in some parts stable in others slightly declining.</p>  In Ukraine it is a relatively usual species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are only few reports and the population size is small (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Germany there are new records from most states. In France it is not a rare species. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Saperda </span>are hard to find but the use of the signs of the adults in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> leaves have permitted numerous observations in Switzerland (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).
157626		threats	eng	<p>Forest management, especial the removal of <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus sp.</span>, reduces the habitat of this species significantly. In Hungary the species is generally not threatened because its host plants are widely available. However, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> is commonly removed from the forest by forestry practice, which results in habitat loss (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany the loss of floodplain forests and breeding trees is a threat.<br/></p>
157627		conservation	eng	<br/>An effective protection of the white oak stands and old orchards is necessary. The species occurs in several protected areas in Hungary and it is legally protected in Hungary. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is considered Near Threatened and in Germany - listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. spinicornis</span> (Abeille, 1869) - is considered as 'G', which means 'Presumably Endangered' (2009).
157627		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in south, central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995).
157627		habitat	eng	It lives only on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>; records from different trees (e.g. fruit trees) must be regarded as incorrect. It prefers trees of small and medium size (commonly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Q, petraea</span> in central Europe and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. pubescens</span> in southern Europe). The young larval instars interrupt the sap circulation by girdling the attacked living twig. The larvae then continue feeding subcortically on the dying part of the twig and later start consuming even the grain of the twig. Before pupation the larvae build a pupal cell in the living part of the twig (under the first girdle), turn back and cut off the dead part of the twig by girdling it again. Adults are found on the host plants and are attracted to sugar traps (Sama 2002). Adults are active in VI-VIII. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>As the larvae actually cause the death of the twigs in which they develop, this species is not strictly saproxylic.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in&#160; thermophilous oak forests and extensively cultivated old orchards; in the hilly and lower mountainous regions.
157627		population	eng	<p>It is widespread in central Europe but rare.<br/></p>In Germany it is present in most German States and regions, but often only old records. Records after 1950: Bayern, Baden-Württemberg, Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Niedersachsen, Brandenburg and Thüringen -&#160; might be under-sampled. In Spain it is widespread but with very scattered localities, less than 20 localities. In Italy there are 11 localities. In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is widespread but rare. In Ukraine it is very rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but it is considered rare.
157627		threats	eng	The threats to this species are mainly unknown but it is suspected that overall it is not threatened. Habitat loss and fragmentation are occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157628		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005).
157628		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout almost all of Europe, although has been lost from some areas. It is a Transpalaearctic species, absent in Japan (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Portugal for a very long time this species was only known from a single locality in the north (Barros 1896); recently it was recorded from a few sites in the north, centre and south of the country (Cabral 1992). In Britain is is only known from a small number of specimens taken in central southern England in the 1800s (Mendel and Clarke 1996) although these are presumably introductions as the habitat is not native here.
157628		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decayed wood and stubs of conifers. Pupation occurs at the end of summer-autumn and the adult beetles hibernate and appear at the end of April and beginning of May. The beetles live concealed lives under bark (Dolin 1988).although they are known to also feed at hawthorn blossom (Alexander 2002). The larvae <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> feed on the larvae of longhorn beetles Cerambycidae (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). <br/><br/>Predominantly in evergreen (chiefly pine) and mixed forests of highlands and submontane zone (Laibner 2000). <span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary it occurs in the native conifer forests (which are rare in Hungary and restricted to the westernmost parts of the country), and also in pine and spruce plantations (which are much more widespread) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</span>
157628		population	eng	This species is common in at least parts of its range, especially in central and south-eastern Europe.<br/><br/>It is common in the Carpathians and rare in Crimea. In Slovakia and the Czech Republic it is common (Laibner 2000). <span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and has strong populations in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the UK there are 19<sup>th</sup> century records from a restricted area in central-southern England (Mendel and Clarke 1996); possibly not native (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare and very local; only a few localities (Lolland and Bornholm) (  <span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). It is rare in Portugal.</span>
157628		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at the European level. The loss of old trees can be a potential threat.
157629		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas and no specific conservation measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). This species is included in the Danish Red Data Book as Vulnerable (2005) and is considered Vulnerable in the Italian&#160;Checklist and distribution of the Italian fauna (Platia 2006).
157629		distribution	eng	A European species mainly found in western Europe, including the UK and reaching northern Africa and Asia Minor (Laibner 2000), but also reported from some eastern countries. According to an unpublished list generated by data collected by Italian experts the species is also present in Spain, France, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Belgium, Austria, Bulgaria and Romania.<br/><br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>Hungary: a few records are known from the hilly and mountainous regions (if it is regarded as a distinct species, see Taxonomic Notes) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Denmark: only present in two localities in Lolland (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/>Italy: widespread, but not found in Sardinia.<br/>UK: two main centres of population, centred on New Forest and East Midlands (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157629		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;Larvae develop in decayed heartwood of birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus, </span>oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>fruit trees (Rosaceae) and probably other tree species; pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adult; adults are attracted to hawthorn blossom for feeding. <br/><br/>UK sites include cultural landscape situations such as ancient woodlands, wooded fens, old wood pastures, etc, as well as forests (K.N.A Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech and Slovak Republics this species lives in oak groves, deciduous and mixed forests in moist habitats from lowlands to foothills (Laibner 2000).&#160;The main population in Germany is found in beech forests and hilly areas, but it is not strictly associated with beech types. In Hungary it occurs in deciduous forests, mainly oak (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it seems to prefer<span style="font-style: italic;"> Carpinus betulus</span> (O. Martin pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157629		population	eng	This is a widespread species occurring across Europe, but not especially common.&#160;The population trend for this species is unknown.<br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>UK: fragmented distribution, no suggestion of any decline in recent decades (Mendel and Clarke 1996).<br/>Czech Republic: only known from two areas.<br/>Slovak Republic: two areas known; the species is rare (Laibner 2000).<br/>Hungary: the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Germany: it was only found in a few localities in the northern part of the country (flatlands). However it is common in southern and western parts of the country.<br/>Denmark: it is rare and very local.
157629		threats	eng	<p>This species seems to be threatened in some range states (for example in Denmark, UK and Italy). The main threat is likely to be the loss of old trees and the removal of decaying wood. In Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) and Germany the species is not threatened.&#160;</p>
157630		conservation	eng	No available information.
157630		distribution	eng	This species is found in Crimea, Ukraine and in the southern part of Russia (Lobl and Smetana 2004).
157630		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in valley (riverine) forests in hill areas from 100 m up to 500 m above sea level. Larvae develop in decayed wood of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix</span>, and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>) on trunks near water (basin). The adult is active in May - June, but spends most of its time under bark or in tree hollows (Dolin 1988).
157630		population	eng	In Crimea it is a regular species in its appropriate habitat (near rivers in lower elevations). The abundance of the species is unknown because it has relatively restricted habitat requirements but the population is thought to be stable (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157630		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Ukraine, cutting and destruction of trees (especially old trees) in river valleys is a potential threat but it is unknown whether this currently threatens the species (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157631		conservation	eng	Research on its habitat preferences and ecology as well as monitoring are necessary and an effective protection of the maple stands is necessary.<br/><br/>This species is present in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy (Sama 2006).
157631		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern Europe and on the French and Italian borders (Bense 1995). It is also found in central Europe. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions and in Romania it has only been reported from the south, in the lowland area. In France it is localised in the south-eastern Alps (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>Also recorded from the Atlas mountains in northern Africa, but those could relate to a different species. In this case the species could be regarded as European endemic.
157631		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Mostly a montane species; the larvae develop in damaged parts of living trees (big branches or trunks), feeding sub-cortically on dead or dying wood in contact with living tissue (but the young larvae feed on the sapwood under bark of healthy branches or trunks). The host trees are broad-leaves, especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, </span>also in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ficus, Fraxinus, Alnus, Fagus</span>. The larvae pupate in the wood and the adults emerge in June - August. The adults are active in the canopy of the host plants, although are sometimes found hidden amongst moss or in decayed parts of trunks and big branches (Sama 2002). It is suspected that the species needs a warm climate. It can also be found on road verges or in <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> plantations. In Hungary it is found in old undisturbed forests where old maples are found (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania larvae develop on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Acer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudoplatanus</span>, in old oak forests. In southern Europe, on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ficus carica </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157631		population	eng	<p>This species is quite rare in Europe but its population trend is unknown. <br/></p>In Hungary it is very rare, although the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Romania it is also very rare - only one population was discovered 50 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is considered as a rare species but can be common locally in the south-eastern Alps (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and is the rarest of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ropalopus </span>species occurring in France. In Italy there are ten populations, in Spain there are three populations in the south, and in Turkey one population in Istanbul (but it is an old record). In the former Yugoslavia there are several records. In Bulgaria at least two records. In Greece it is only present in the north and it is not rare. In Austria there are only historic and doubtful records. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.
157631		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a main threat. Removal of maples from the forests is the main cause of the rarity of this species in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania forest fragmentation and replacement of native species with new introduced species of trees are affecting the species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157632		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. The UK Ancient Tree Hunt project aims to document all ancient trees and promote their protection (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the UK it is listed in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987) as rare. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).
157632		distribution	eng	European species penetrating into Sweden and in the east reaching the Dnieper River (Laibner 2000). It is also found in northern Africa (Algir), northern Caucasus and Iran (Lobl and Smetana 2007). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest-steppe zones, in steppe in forests near rivers (Dolin 1988). In the UK it occurs across south-eastern England (Mendel and Clarke 1996). It is absent from Ireland.
157632		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist found in veteran trees. The larvae develop in the decaying heartwood of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees, including oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>; in living trees as well as dead trees; probably feed on the larvae of the weevils <span style="font-style: italic;">Stereocorynes truncorum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phloeophagus lignarius</span> as well as of larvae of Anobiidae, Scolytidae; pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult; adults active from middle of April to beginning of June (Alexander 2002, Dolin 1988). <br/><br/>In deciduous and mixed forests, also in parks from lowlands to submontane zone (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it is a typical forest species. In Hungary most records are from old oak, hornbeam or beech forests in the hills and mountains, but it is also known to occur in riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). An old growth species in the UK, sites including ancient wood pastures, historic parklands, and traditional orchards in the cultural landscape as well as old forest (Alexander 2002).
157632		population	eng	A widespread species with a fragmented distribution but not uncommon.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented range but with a good number of known sites (50-60), albeit often very isolated; there is some evidence for a decline (Mendel and Clarke 1996). <span lang="EN-GB"> In Spain there is one single record in the north, which confirms the presence of the species in the country (former, old records were doubtful) (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Sweden there are at least 50 populations and has a fragmented, but not severely. It is rare in Denmark (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Ukraine this species is common. It is scattered across Slovakia and the Czech Republic (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is widespread throughout all the hilly and mountainous regions; this species is not very common in the area but its populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"></span>
157632		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Not regarded as threatened in some parts of its European range, but its dependence on hollowing trees make it very vulnerable.<br/></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</span></p>
157633		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157633		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Azores Island, the Portuguese Archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. Endemic to the Azores (known from the islands of Terceira, Pico and San Miguel).
157633		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Occurs in native, non-native and disturbed woodland. It is commonly found under dead bark of the endemic tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus brevifolia</span> and also in dead branches of other trees. Habitat has been estimated 41 (effective), 113 (potential) 0.5x0.5 km grids. It has been found in 12 of these grids (Hortal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
157633		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157633		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157634		conservation	eng	<p>No specific measures are in place or needed. Probably occurs in many protected areas.<br/></p>
157634		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Mediterranean - southern Spain and Portugal hold the only European populations; but it also occurs in northern Africa (Bense 1995). It occurs throughout mainland Spain (with the exception of the far north-eastern part) and on the Balearic Islands.
157634		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Develops in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees and shrubs, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia, Cytisus, Prunus</span>. Adults are attracted to blossom for feeding (Bense 1995). It is a relatively generalist species that is found in shrubland and in some artificial habitats (e.g. parks and gardens) as well as in deciduous woodland.
157634		population	eng	<p>It is a common species in Spain, where it is widespread with a large number of recorded localities. In Portugal it has been recorded from the north (old records) and centre (in the 1980s).</p>
157634		threats	eng	<p>No information available. It is widespread in Spain and not thought to be under major threat.<br/></p>
157635		conservation	eng	<p>None feasible until a live population is discovered.<br/></p>
157635		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Spanish Archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, the Canary Islands and known from Tenerife only.
157635		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It was reported from beneath the bark of a felled Spanish chestnut- tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>.
157635		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the abundance of this species - the species is known from just one specimen found over 100 years ago.<br/> </p>
157635		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157636		conservation	eng	It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.
157636		distribution	eng	This is a central and south-eastern European species, widespread throughout. It is known from Slovenia and Italy (Laibner 2000). In Italy it is only known in one locality. In Ukraine it is found in the western hills of the Carpathians (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157636		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that occurs in broad-leaved deciduous and mixed forests from the lowlands to the submontane zone (Laibner 2000). Its developmental cycle is mainly in decaying oak or alder stumps (Laibner 2000); some specimens have been found in decayed (white-rot) wood of beech-trees and oak (Dolin 1988).
157636		population	eng	<p>The species is considered to be rare but the population trend is stable.</p>
157636		threats	eng	<p>No threats are known and the species is not thought to be threatened.</p>
157637		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157637		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Cyprus <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nicoclaes</span> very close with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">dalmatinus</span> (R. di Cialla pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is also found in the Middle East up to southern Lebanon and Syria from the western side and from Iraq to Iran on the eastern side. In eastern Turkey, Iraq and Iran (Luristan, Kordestan) a close species or subspecies is found: <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tommasoi</span> Sama, 2001.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
157637		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development inadequately known, up to now only reported from oaks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. conferta</span>) and from fruit trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>). Larvae feed in dying wood in thin twigs (often only of one cm diameter) (Bense 1995). The species is thought to be in low mountains.
157637		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout its range but it is suspected to be common in the coastal part of its range in Croatia.</p>
157637		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157638		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. No specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157638		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across south-eastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean (Bense 1995), including Turkey (exact location unknown). In Hungary it is sporadic found in the hilly and lower mountainous regions, mainly in the central and western parts of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157638		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a polyphagous species that lives on broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Rhamnus, Euonymus, Crataegus, Morus, Ficus, Juglans, Styrax, Quercus</em>). The larvae develop in dead twigs. Adults are active in V-VI, and feed at flowers. In Hungary it occurs in light oak forests, mainly in places where spindle is abundant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157638		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as quite rare, although may be abundant in suitable localities (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Serbia and Montenegro the species is considered rare (Pil 2005).</p>
157638		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and removal of shrub level (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157639		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place in Ireland or in the UK other than general FSC guidelines.<br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Spain, Romania, Ireland, Britain).<br/><br/>In Spain about 23% of the beech forest areas in Spain are in protected areas and the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. cylindricum</span> in protected areas is known. However, even within protected areas dead wood is sometimes managed.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2003).
157639		distribution	eng	It occurs in almost all Europe, and in Siberia and northern China.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the mountain regions. In Romania it is widespread and present in the Carpathians. In Spain it is mainly present in the mountains of the north (Cantabrian Range, Pyrenees, Iberian System) (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006), with an outpost in the Guadarrama Range in middle Spain (Ortuño and Barberá 1993, de la Rosa Maldonado and López-Colón 1998, de la Rosa 2006) and a recent discovery in southern Badajoz, in the south-west of Spain (Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007).<br/><br/>In Britain and Ireland it can be found at all altitudes below the tree line (approx 500 m) and is very widespread.
157639		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Typically found in the decaying wood of broad-leaved trees in both broad-leaved and mixed woodland. It bores in white-rotten heartwood of large broad-leaved trees, but is also known from pine<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus</span>, including stumps. Larval development takes two or three years in the UK, the larvae burrowing even into quite hard timber. It has been reported live from floating timber in both freshwater and seawater. Flies in daylight in early summer in the UK (Alexander 2002). Adults present all year round but a clear maximum in July in Spain and males use their horns to fight; larval development one to two years or two to four years, three larval instars (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006).<br/><br/> It the UK suitable host trees occur in a wide variety of situations and it is widespread in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002). In Hungary all known localities are in old beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>forests. In Romania adults often were recorded from old stumps in beech forests in the Carpathians. In Spain it has mainly been found in beech forests (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006) (never in pine forests), although in the Sierra de Guadarrama has been found on birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>too (de la Rosa 2006).
157639		population	eng	A widespread and common species; population trend is stable or increasing in parts.<br/><br/>In Ireland it has a very fragmented distribution, but a reasonable number of known sites, some of which are protected. In the UK it is very widespread across Britain, the population is strong and with little or no sign of any decline. In Denmark (Hansen 1996), Germany and Finland this species is common.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Romania good populations in size occurs in the south-west. In Ukraine this species is not common. <br/><br/>In Spain there are no quantitative data available; non-systematic observations at the Sierra de Guadarrama, one of the southernmost parts of its Iberian distribution, indicate a fairly high number of exit holes in the populations (in the order of ten) (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009); a total of 89 squares of 10x10 km are occupied (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006, Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007).
157639		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157640		conservation	eng	Protected in Carpathian's reservation with complex of other insects. In Sweden it is listed as Near Threatened on the National Red List, and in Finland it is listed as Least Concern on the National Red List as decline has mainly stopped.
157640		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central, east and northern Europe extending to some countries in south-eastern Europe. It occurs in Norway, Finland and Sweden. According to Lobl and Smetana (2007) it is present in Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus. In Ukraine it is only present in the Carpathians Mountains. Laibner (2000) says it only occurs in the montane and subalpine zones of the Poloninské Karpaty Mountains, but this information is based on two separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">A. karpathicus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. suecicus</span>. In Sweden it occurs in the north and is extremely rare (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. suecicus</span>).
157640		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae probably develop in the decaying wood of dwarf pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo</span> in the montane and submontane zones of central Europe (Laibner 2000<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) but are more widespread in the boreal forests of Fennoscandia, where they develop in coniferous wood - pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> and spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>- but also aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; it prefers red-rotten heartwood<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
157640		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p>In Sweden there are recent records from only half of the formerly known provinces; the population trend is declining. In Finland it is rare, but presumed to be stable. In central Europe it is very localised and in Ukraine it is rare.</p>
157640		threats	eng	<p>In Fennoscandia, the species is found mainly in forest reserves and national parks as this species is dependent on an abundant dead wood resource. The removal of dead wood is a threat to the species habitat. Also the destruction of old trees of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus.</span></p>
157641		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. Additionally, fallen trunks and boughs should be left to decay rather than 'cleaned up'. <br/><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas. <br/><br/>It is regarded as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Slovakia.
157641		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe; absent from Britain and Ireland. A boreo-montane species. According to Fauna Europaea (2004) it is endemic to Europe.
157641		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in old lying sections of large tree trunks with advanced development of red-rotten heartwood decay, either conifers or broad-leaves. In France larvae are saproxylophagous in wet red-rotten heartwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies </span>trunks. Also found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>red rot in Poland. In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood (brown stage of decay) of broad-leaved trees. In Romania reports are from old broad-leaved and coniferous forests. Only found in relatively cold, humid and aged forest with a long continuity of deadwood supply and low level of tree harvesting. Adults emerge during autumn and stay in the trunk during winter. Most of the known localities have not been exploited for 50 years at least. Inhabits forests with a high density of moist red-rotten logs of both conifer and broad-leaved trees, probably dependent on a continuous supply of suitable logs at the landscape scale (Nilsson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.&#160; </span>2000). <br/><br/>Typically restricted to old-growth forests (both broad-leaved and coniferous). It depends upon large lying logs that have been decaying for a long time (e.g. it colonises at a late successional stage). Consequently it requires both old, large trees and a management regime that allows decaying logs to be left lying for many years.
157641		population	eng	Generally rare, declining and localized.<br/><br/>In Sweden it is very rare (Nilsson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000) and only present in the south. In Finland it is very rare and declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathian where it is very rare. In Romania this species has not been deeply investigated but many reports are from the south-western Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic there are few localities, rare and declining.<br/><br/>In France it is very localized (Baraud 1993); it has been found in the mountains of Jura, Alps and the Pyrenees (Baraud 1993); in the Alps there are only seven localities (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009), and less than ten localities for the whole country (Paulian and Baraud 1982). Although it is mentioned as very restricted to the Pyrenaic region (López-Colón 2000), no records exist for Spain (P. Bahíllo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Italy it is also very rare and declining; there are about 20 localities in total in north-eastern Alps and one single old record from the northern part of the central Appenines. In Germany its presence was recently confirmed only in mountains in southern Germany; it is very rare; few recent records only from forest reserves. Seems to have disappeared from exploited or managed areas. In Switzerland there are 19 localities, but some of those from old records.
157641		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157642		conservation	eng	No information available.
157642		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Spain.
157642		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no information is available on its detailed habitat requirements.
157642		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157642		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157643		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>
157643		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Greece. No details on the exact distribution are available. No other specimens are known other than those of the original description (P. Cate pers. comm. 2009).
157643		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no details of its habitat requirements are available.
157643		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p>
157643		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157644		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, UK). In the UK this species has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992).
157644		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe, except the far north. It is a west Palaearctic species, reaching the Altai Mountains (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone and forests of mountains of Crimea. It has recently been found in Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Denmark it is widespread (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Britain it is widespread across southern England and Wales but is only known from one old record in Ireland, in the far south-east (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157644		habitat	eng	&#160;This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae are predators - partcularly of Scolytidae larvae - living in large dead branches in the upper parts of trees (also sometimes in stumps and trunks) of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and other broad-leaved trees (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>); they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults; the adults are active in V-VI and nectar at blackthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus spinosa</span> and hogweed <span style="font-style: italic;">Heracleum </span>in daylight (Dolin 1982, Alexander 2002). <br/><br/>Found in open broad-leaved and mixed forests and parks with groups of old broad-leaved trees in lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly oak and beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the UK primarily in old wood pasture situations in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).
157644		population	eng	It is widespread, and not uncommon in at least some parts of its European range.<br/><br/>In Ireland there in one single record from the south-east, in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, but the area is poorly recorded and the species could still be present (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution across southern Britain but with a large number (at least 50) of isolated populations (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is a rare species. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs sporadically across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; the species has small populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are only four localities known, all in the north (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).
157644		threats	eng	<p>Across Europe as a whole there are no major threats, but there are negative impacts from a number of human activities such as those detailed below.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157645		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place other than FSC guidelines. The species occurs in many&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).<br/><br/>In the UK it has the conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992).
157645		distribution	eng	This Euro-Siberian species is found across much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland.
157645		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>The larvae develop in fruiting bodies of wood-decay fungi, and it is best known in the UK from <span style="font-style: italic;">Trametes versicolor</span>, especially on beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; ancient wood pastures and woodlands, old fen, and historic parklands (Alexander 2002). In Hungary this species occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted forests wherever shelf fungi with hard sporocarps (<span style="font-style: italic;">Trametes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedalea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis </span>etc.). In Ukraine it occurs in forest and in the forest-steppe zone, also in forests in Crimea; it lives in forests of different types on wood-decay fungi; adults have been found in May - August (Drogvalenko 1997).
157645		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution, with about 30 small isolated populations known, plus one or maybe two larger concentrations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it occurs in the north, where it was recorded from just four localities: one record in the 1920s (Barros 1924), two based on data from the 1970s (Grosso-Silva 2005) and one obtained in 2009 (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species. This species is widespread all over Hungary; the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157645		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157646		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed. This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157646		distribution	eng	This species is Circum-Mediterranean, extending northwards to Belgium and southern Poland (Bense 1995). It is widespread in Spain (Vives 2001) and Italy. In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre, and most of the records are recent. In Hungary this species occurs in the south-western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from the central part of country. In Cyprus it is<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> widespread but absent only in the central plain and the east (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in northern Africa, Caucasus, Minor Asia, Kazakhstan.
157646		habitat	eng	<p>The larvae develop under the bark of thin dead branches of woody shrubs such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartium, Sarothamnus</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Calicotoma</span>. The adult is active in V-VII and is attracted to blossom of various plants of the families Compositae and Fabaceae for feeding. It is a thermophilous species. .In Cyprus it is found in maquis, garigue and forests in association with <em>Genista fasselata. </em>Adults and larvae have been found in the dead wood of <em>Genista fasselata</em>. Adults are found on the host plant and more rarely feeding at flowers, especially on the yellow flowers of <em>Ferula communis</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The known localities of this species in Hungary are in acidic meadows where <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarothamnus scoparius </span>is present (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from different host-plants,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Calyotome spinosa, Spartium junceum, Cytisus capitatus </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
157646		population	eng	This is a widespread species and common in the warmer regions (e.g. Cyprus, Spain, Italy, Ukraine). The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Romania but in Hungary it is considered frequent in its localities. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is very rare, locally in the warmest areas.
157646		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species. In Hungary although this species is found in a few localities only, it is not threatened.
157647		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. It is now known if the species occurs in any protected area.</p>
157647		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Europe mainly in Italy and the Adriatic coasts (Bense 1995).&#160;In Switzerland the record is from Tiscino (Germann 2000). It has been very rarely but repeatedly recorded in France near the border with Italy; the most recent record in France is 1953.
157647		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;This species may be polyphagous in deciduous trees, however only <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedera helix </span>has been reported as a host until now.<br/></p>
157647		population	eng	<p>The species is widespread throughout Italy and the Balkan countries but there is little information available on the abundance or trends of this species.</p>
157647		threats	eng	<p>This species has only been found on <em>Hedera helix </em>which is abundant in Europe so no threats are expected to the species.</p>  <p></p>
157648		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). In Germany this species is listed as 'R' which means that it has a restricted distribution.
157648		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eurosiberian subregion and in the eastern part of central Europe. <br/><br/> In Ukraine it only occurs in the Carpathians. In Hungary this species is found only in the westernmost parts of the country, which are the foothills of the Alps. The known records are more than 30 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from the eastern and southern Carpathians but they are old reports (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in Bavaria, Saxony. It is also found in Russian Far East, northern Mongolia, northern China and Japan.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>
157648		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops under bark and in the wood of lower, stunted branches of large trees or trunks or dying tree-tops in conifers (predominantly <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, only occasionally in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>). The life-cycle is typically one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-IX and are to be found on the host-plants where they feed on twigs and needles.</p><p>In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests which are rare in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from native pine and fir forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is found only in montane spruce forests.<br/></p>
157648		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species appears to have a very restricted distribution in many countries. Nevertheless there is no evidence to suggest that the populations are anything other than stable at present. In Romania and Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rare in Hungary and not common in Romania. In Ukraine this species is rare.
157648		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Replacement of the fir and pine native forests in Romania is a threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157649		conservation	eng	It is important to maintain the continuity of the habitat. In the UK one of the two known sites is protected and SAC; it is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987); and it is considered a Priority Species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the known extant populations are in protected areas. In Italy it is listed as Endangered.
157649		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in much of central and southern Europe eastwards to Caucasus (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979). It is a sub-Mediterranean species reaching the Caucasus (Laibner 2000). Also found in Algeria.
157649		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decaying heartwood of hollowing broad-leaved trees; white-rot (Brustel 2005); prefers old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, elms <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, also frequent in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span> (Laibner 2000); elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>a key tree species in England (Allen 2001), but also found in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>(Mendel and Owen 1990); eggs are laid in May/June, and young larvae explore the tunnels bored by beetle larvae; the larvae are active in harder, drier heartwood than <span style="font-style: italic;">Ampedus</span>, feeding on the larvae of other beetle species, including Scarabaeidae, Cerambycidae, Buprestidae and probably on Cossonine weevil larvae; they pupate at end of the season and overwinter as the adult; these adults emerge in late April and early May (Dolin 1988), and are said to be nocturnal but some have also been seen active in daylight; only males are attracted to blossom (Allen 1964), including hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>, holly <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex </span>and nettle <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica</span>. <br/><br/>Its habitats are preserved forests from lowlands to highlands, as well as solitary trees or forest-steppe formations. In Britain, its sites tend to be ancient wood pastures in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002). In Hungary it has been found in oak-hornbeam forests.
157649		population	eng	This species is very rare throughout its range (Laibner 2000). In the UK it has a very fragmented range and currently it is only known from two very isolated populations in England; there are more old sites than current sites (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the north it was collected 150 years ago (Dolin 1988). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia there are several sites. In Hungary there are only two localities known from the hilly areas; the species is very rare in Hungary, and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is widespread, not rare but a hard species to find. In Italy there are 22 localities but most of them are historic records (mainland and Sicily, not present in Sardinia). In Spain there are five localities in the north, close to the Pyrenees, a very recent discovery (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Germany there are not many localities but it is quite widespread and it is considered as threatened.
157649		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Also the removal of dead wood is a threat to this species.
157650		conservation	eng	It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987); remnants of native pine forest are all now protected (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary virtually all known localities are in protected areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is listed as Endangered.<br/><br/>In Spain this species is not included in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). Six localities are within protected areas (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). No conservation actions are in place or projected.
157650		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed Palaearctic species in ancient pine and spruce. It occurs almost throughout Europe (except in the south) and in Siberia, Russian Far East, North Korea, Japan (Nearctic region) (Lobl and Smetana 2007).<br/><br/>It is localised in mountain conifer forests in France (Brustel 2005) and confined to the Caledonian pine forests of Scotland in the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark this species is considered Extinct (Hansen 1996) although a very recent breeding population has been re-discovered in northern Zealand, in Grib Skov.<br/><br/>In Spain it occurs in mountain areas in the Pyrennees, Sistema Central and Jaén (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). Probably present in other suitable mountain areas in Spain (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). It occupies 15 localities/squares of 10x10 km (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, forest and forest-steppe zones. In Hungary this species is known from a few localities in the hilly and mountainous regions.
157650		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the decayed (brown or brown-white stages) wood of fir in Ukraine, sometimes <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus, Betula,</span> aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>. It also lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus picea</span>. The adult beetle is often found on the fruit bodies of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycnoporellus fulgens, Fomitopsis pinicola, Gloeophyllus</span> sp.), usually in V-VIII. The life cycle is two years. Larvae and adults hibernate. Larvae are sapro-xylo-mycetophagous and the imago is mycetophagous (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). In the UK, the larvae feed in the decaying heartwood and sapwood only of large Scots pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> that have been extensively rotted by the bracket fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phaeolus schweinitzii</span>; the adults are usually found under bark on dead trunks (Alexander 2002). In Hungary all known records are from mature broad-leaved forests, mainly beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. In Spain this species live in high altitude forests, under the bark of coniferous trees, where they feed on xylophagous insects (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).  It is characteristic of old pine forest in the UK (Alexander 2002).
157650		population	eng	A widespread and common species over part of its Europe range, with stable populations in northern Europe but declining in central Europe.<br/><br/>In Sweden there are stable populations. In Finland it is widespread and common. A rare and elusive species only discovered in UK in mid 20<sup>th</sup> century; very little known about it. <br/><br/>In central Europe this species is not common. In particular in Hungary this species is sporadic, and all known populations are small. In Germany it is rare but there are recent records (after 1950) in four states. In Ukraine it is not often but locally found. <br/><br/>In Spain it is apparently widespread but located always in small numbers; this is probably due to wrong sampling methods rather than low abundance (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).
157650		threats	eng	<p>The European population appears to be under no major threat.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157652		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157652		distribution	eng	This species has a Euro-Siberian distribution ranging to the Caucasus and Asia Minor (Laibner 2000) it is widely distributed in south, north, central and eastern Europe.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in most parts of the territory, except in the steppe zone (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and lowland regions. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it appears across the whole territory (Laibner 2000).
157652		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decayed white-rotten heartwood, preferably in still-standing trees (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood of numerous broad-leaved trees (prefering oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, </span>birch<span style="font-style: italic;"> Betula, </span>poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>) sometimes in hollows. The adult beetle is active in V-VI, but most part of the time it is concealed under bark and in hollows (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>It lives in broad-leaved and mixed forests, riparian vegetation and orchards (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in willow-poplar forests along rivers and in other wet habitats; also in orchards and rarely in other broad-leaved trees (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157652		population	eng	Generally widespread, locally common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>In Denmark this species is widespread but not common (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Ukraine it is relatively not rare. In Hungary the species is sporadic in the country, and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is rare in the west, less rare in the east. In Italy there are very few records; mainly in the north.
157652		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present, although there may be negative impacts from a number of anthropogenic activities (e.g. inappropriate forest management, for example, removal of large deciduous trees).
157653		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific conservation measures are needed at present. <br/></p>
157653		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across the southern half of Europe. In France, this species occurs throughout all the Mediterranean area northwards as far as Paris (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, this species occurs in lowland and hilly regions and it is apparently widespread, although not many localities are known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it has only been recorded in the 1930s, from a single locality, while - in the European part of Turkey - it is known from a few localities in Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Lodos 1998). In Ukraine it is only found in Crimea. The species is also found in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Iran and Turkey.
157653		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in deadwood of a wide variety of tree species. In the European part of Turkey, larvae have been found in dead wood of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Citrus, Ficus carica</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Morus alba</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Vitis vinifera</em></strong>. Adults are active in VI (Schimitschek 1953, Lodos 1998). In France, larvae have a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus and Morus</span> (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009); tehy are also known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pistacia. </span>In Spain, this species is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Retama monocarpa</span> (a widespread bush). In Hungary, most of the localities of this species fall into populated areas (towns, suburbs, villages, orchards) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157653		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population trend is unknown. In Ukraine this species is common, while in Spain it has been recorded from 30 localities. In Hungary, this species was first recorded in the 1990s; it is apparently widespread although not many localities are known; although very few old occurrences were already known, it apparently became more common in the last two decades  (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it occurs in the Mediterranean area and it has <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>always been found in small numbers (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey, the population size and trend have not been quantified. </p><p><br/></p>
157653		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
157654		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic and Slovakia and as 'R' in Germany, whcih means that the species has a restricted distribution.<br/></p>
157654		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south of central, east and western Europe; it has a restricted distribution in central Europe (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Spain many populations are known from six provinces: Lleida, Huesca, Teruel, Madrid, Granada and Cadiz (Verdugo 2004, González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Germany it is present in only a few German states, mainly old records, and it is very rare. In Italy there are nine localities in the Alps, six of those records are very old (1860). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is very rare.
157654		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species develops in thin branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> spp. This is a tree-top species and probably under-documented as a result.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157654		population	eng	It seems to be a rare species across its range in Europe, and is common nowhere. In Spain it is only known from high quality localities and only very few individuals are known. In Germany it is present in only a few German states, mainly old records and it is very rare (past and present) but the trend is considered stable. In Italy there are nine localities in the Alps, six of those records are very old (1860). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is very rare and declining.
157654		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown, although clearance of native pines must be damaging.</p><p><br/></p>
157655		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania), but further protection of the threatened maple stands is necessary.</p><p>In Germany this species is listed as 'R', which means that the species as a restricted distribution (2009).</p>
157655		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Europe, extending from south-eastern Europe, through central Europe and western Europe, with populations in Scandinavia (Bense 1995). It is also found in Asia Minor  and Syria. <br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous areas, but uncommon (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is only known in the extreme north-east: Girona (Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Romania it is known from some places from the central and the eastern part.  In Germany it has only been recorded from Baden-Württemberg.
157655		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.  Larvae live especially under the bark of sickly and dead twigs and branches from tree-tops (diameter between two and eight cm), only occasionally in trunks. It develops in a variety of broad-leaved trees (especially maple <em>Acer, </em>also elm<em> Ulmus, </em>oak <em>Quercus, </em>hornbeam<em> Carpinus, Ostrya</em>). In Romania it has been reported from elm and oak (Panin and Savulescu 1961). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VI, found on the host plants, occasionally feeding at flowers. In Hungary it lives in various broad-leaved forests where species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>grow (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157655		population	eng	<p>Population status varies in different parts of the range; typically rare or very rare in the west (where it approaches its range limits) but more common in the east. There is no evidence of major population declines, although the overall population trend is unknown.<br/></p>  In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but the species is not quite common and hard to study. In Romania there are only old records.
157655		threats	eng	<p>      </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p><p>Also habitat loss is occurring in many parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and removal of maple from the forests.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157656		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.<br/></p>
157656		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Europe, where it is found on Sardinia (Italy), where there are only a small number of known sites, and also in Spain, where it is widespread but localized. Its area occupied in Spain is 2,600   <span lang="EN-GB">km². It occurs at altitudes above 900 m. Outside Europe, it also occurs in northern Africa and is rather widespread there.
157656		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits Mediterranean deciduous forests. Larvae develop in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees (e.g. cork oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span>, but also in some introduced tree species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span>). Recorded causing technical damage in cork production in Algier.<br/></p>
157656		population	eng	<p>Widespread in Spain, where it does not appear to be rare. Population size has not been quantified, nor has population trend. <br/></p>
157656		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of older trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Mediterranean broad-leaved woodlands inhabited by this species are increasingly fragmented.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157657		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed. It also occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (e.g. Hungary, Romania). In Germany <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sartor</span> is considered as Presumably Endangered (2009).
157657		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across central and southern Europe (Bense 1995) and through western Europe. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rare and absent in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is widespread but not common (Vives 2001) and in Portugal there are only very few records from the north. In Germany it is widespread although missing in the very north and rare. In Poland there are no recent records after 1950. In the Czech Republic it is only in the southernmost, in the warmer lowland areas. In Slovakia it is widespread but is not present in the mountains. It is present in almost all regions in Ukraine and widespread in Romania and Cyprus. In the European part of Turkey it was reported from Tekirdag (Villiers 1967, Oymen 1987, Lodos 1998), Canakkale (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) and Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005). It is also found in Major and Minor Caucasus, Anatolia, Iran, south-western Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan.    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>
157657		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the wood of dead branches on a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Paliurus, Quercus, Ulmus, Crataegus, Eleagnus, Castanea, Robinia, Ficus, Cytisus, Pistacia, Ceratonia, Salix, Fagus, Ostrya, Gleditsia</em>). Adults emerge in V-VIII and are attracted to flowers for feeding. In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been observed on the hills with shrubs and isolated trees, sometimes at the edge of deciduous forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been found in   orchards, maquis, garigue, and forests on various flowers especially at white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Spain in prefers humid deciduous forest. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><br/></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
157657		population	eng	It is a widespread species in Europe, probably common in the warmer regions. Presumably the population trend is stable. In Romania it is considered well represented (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009); also common and well represented in Italy and Spain.    Population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey and Cyprus but in Cyprus the<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> species is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is rare.<p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157657		threats	eng	The species is not threatened, because host plants are available all over its range. In Romania the removal of shrubs and isolated trees from hills can be one threat to this species. <br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
157658		conservation	eng	Old orchards should be protected and sustained. However, as the species also occurs in natural habitats, including those in protected areas as well, no more specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm 2009).
157658		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and south-eastern Europe, from the Alps eastwards, but not in Greece (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus, Minor and Central Asia.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread but sporadic in the hilly and lower mountain areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from Transylvania, and occurs in the high hills (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Recently reported from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Switzerland; historical occurrence also in Austria and Germany. Not present in Poland (Slama 2006). In Italy there are only eight localities in north-western Italy but these data are very old. It has also been reported from the European part of Turkey although without the exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). <br/><p><br/></p>
157658		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae live under bark of dry dead branches with diameter 4-12 mm and are able to exploit a number of different tree species. Up to now it is only certainly known from <em>Rosa, Malus, Amygdalus, Pinus, Abies, Cedrus</em>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerasus</span>. Pupation takes place in late summer in the deadwood, rarely under bark. Adults winter in the pupal cells and emerge in IV-VI, are found on the host plants and are attracted to flowers for feeding. In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, traditionally cultivated orchards, also in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been observed in the beech forest areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it only develops on bushes in mountain areas. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157658		population	eng	The species is regarded as common in the Ukraine. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is not uncommon on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is a very rare species in central Europe and can easily be overlooked. In Romania it is not common and there are only old reports. In Italy it is rare (only eight localities) and it is very old data. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><p><br/> </p>
157658		threats	eng	<p>Local threats could include pesticide use and cutting branches for fire wood. In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. Disappearance of old orchards is more threatening (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157659		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed. In Hungary the species occurs almost exclusively in protected areas.
157659		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it occurs in the western regions. In Hungary it is sporadically found in the westernmost part of the country and in the north-eastern mountains (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from the mountains and a few other places in the central part of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is present in all mountain zones, with boreal coniferous forest (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy the species is present in the Alpine arch. In Germany it occurs in the southern and eastern states.
157659		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Abies, Larix</span>). Larvae first feed under the dead bark, later in the dead wood of thin stems. Adults emerge in June - July, found on the host-plants and feeding on flowers. It is a typical montane species but it also occurs in artificial habitats such as spruce plantations or gardens and is considered by some a potential pest. In Hungary it occurs in old indigenous conifer forests and in old conifer plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is present in the old conifer forests from the Carpathians, and in France in the boreal coniferous forest. In Italy the spcies is present only up to 700 m.<br/></p>
157659		population	eng	It is a widespread species, common in mountainous regions. There is no data on the population trend of this species.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified; however, it is regarded as rare in the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is suspected that the population is declining (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Not a rare species in France but never found in large numbers (less than five individuals in one year of sampling with ten traps in a site) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is common in the Alpine arch and there are two populations in central Italy. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is widespread and common in montane regions. In Ukraine it is considered rare.
157659		threats	eng	In central Europe, including Germany and Italy, there are no major threats to this species. In Hungary, virtually all localities are in protected areas, so no threatening factors exist. In Romania human activities inside old conifer forests can threaten the species.
157660		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157660		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be distributed in south-eastern Europe including Bulgaria, north-eastern Greece, Crete, and Macedonia.
157660		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but the details of its ecology are not well understood.
157660		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157660		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157661		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. It is unknown if the species is present in a protected areas. <br/></p><p>Need to develop a management plan to preserve these species.<br/></p>
157661		distribution	eng	Within Europe this species is known from Cyprus (cf. Sama 1994) and two   <span lang="EN-GB">Greek islands, Rhodes and Samos by recent records (2005 and 1997). It is also found in Syria, Turkey and Lebanon <span lang="EN-GB">(Welnicki and Przewozny 2007). In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> this species was reported only from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pafos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> at the western part of Troodos Massif : Stavros tis Psokas (Sama 1994), Cefyria-Panagia, Cedar Valley, Pomos (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</span>
157661		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been found in Mediterranean pine forests, where the larvae develop in old dead trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span>, sometimes in association with another longhorn beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Ergates faber</span>. This is a nocturnal species, strongly attracted by artificial light. Adults are active during VI-VIII (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is only present in </st1:place></st1:country-region><em>Pinus brutia</em> forests, where adults and larvae have been found in old rotten trunks of <em>Pinus brutia</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p> <br/></p>
157661		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. More than 1% of the total global population occurs in Europe. In Cyprus it is<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> considered very rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p><br/></p>
157661		threats	eng	<p>Extraction of old dead trunks and stumps from the Mediterranean pine forests is a major threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157662		conservation	eng	<p>It is strongly recommended that actions are taken towards the preservation of standing large dead birch trees. In France the unique location known for this species is state-owned and officially protected since 2009 as a strict forest reserve of 2,000 ha with no wood harvesting (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157662		distribution	eng	Boreo-alpine species occurring widely in Europe except the south; also in Siberia, the Far East and Mongolia (Laibner 2000). A species with a large range. <br/>In France there is only one record of one specimen (male) in 1967 in the alpine forest of the Hauts Plateaux du Vercors. Data confirmed by the best elaterid specialist in France (Leseigneur 1972). Never seen again but the forest has not been exploited for a long time.
157662		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, associated with decaying trunks of birch and aspen; in Finland, the larvae develop in birch trunks decayed by <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes fomentarius</span> (J. Mattila pers. comm. 2006). The adults&#160; are very short-lived and are attracted to lights (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>A boreo-montane species - in the Czech and Slovak Republics it inhabits the evergreen and mixed forests of the submontane and montane zones. It seems to be a relict of post-glaciation forest succession in central Europe. It is widespread in boreal forest.
157662		population	eng	<p>This species has its main range in boreomontane Europe where it is getting scarce towards the south of its range. In Fennoscandia it is widespread and it is locally abundant. The population trend is increasing in Sweden, stable in Finland and unknown for other countries. In the Czech Republic it is known from just two areas and in the Slovak Republic from another two areas; rare (Laibner 2000). In Germany there is one old record from Bavaria before 1900, presumably Extinct.<br/></p>
157662		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In Sweden, the species populations are increasing in the north, but in the south the suppression of forest fires could affect the species. Overall, the breeding habitat of the species, birch trees, are abundant. Declining in central Europa probably due to climatic factors.
157663		conservation	eng	Where the species is highly dependent on Juniper heathland, this habitat should be maintained and managed. As the species lives in the branches, the avoidance of cutting those is recommended.<br/><br/>In Hungary as it is found in protected areas no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In Germany it is listed as Vulnerable (2009).
157663		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe extending from the Iberian Peninsula to Poland, Ukraine and the Balkans in the east, but is absent from Scandinavia, Britain and Ireland. <br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lowland regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is Extinct from the Czech Republic and Switzerland. In Germany it is present in all German states except the very north. In Italy there are very few populations and in Spain it has an irregular distribution with local populations in the Basque Country and another few localities in the north (15 localities in total). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Slovakia it is rare and in France it is common.<br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus and north-western Africa.
157663		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dead branches and thin trunks of Cupressaceae (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus,</span> only occasionally in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cupressus, Thuja, Pinus</span>). The species can also develop on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp. The life cycle is one year, with pupation in autumn in the wood. Adults emerge in III-VI, and are found on the host-plants. Its primary habitat is Mediterranean shrubland.<br/></p>
157663		population	eng	The species status is very variable across its European range. It is regarded as common and widespread in France. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In contrast, in Italy there are very few populations and in Spain it has an irregular distribution with local populations in the Basque Country and a few localities elsewhere in the north (15 localities in total). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Slovakia it is rare.
157663		threats	eng	The species is threatened in parts of its range as it depends on Juniper heathland, a habitat that is declining along with the traditional management systems which support it, such as lack of grazing by large herbivores. Afforestation is another cause for the disappearance of this habitat.<br/><br/>In Hungary and Poland it is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over the country.
157664		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Germany. Protection of broad-leaved forest is needed as well as protection against commercial forestry practices.
157664		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout all Europe, except the north and far western Europe. It is also found in Caucasus, Siberia and Russian Far East. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, in forests and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones (Drogvalenko 2004). In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is also widespread across much of England and Wales, but absent from Scotland and Ireland (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Sweden there used to be some subpopulation in the south but now the species is Extinct.
157664		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults normally frequent fruiting brackets of the softer polypore fungi on the trunks and branches of broad-leaved trees; the larvae are assumed to develop in these fungal brackets&#160; (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine the beetles live on fungi of the Pleurotaceae and on some species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus&#160; (P. squamosus</span>) (Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 2004). In Hungary it prefers dying trees with <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span> and fruiting bodies of other tree fungi. <br/></p><p>In Europe it is delimited by the broad-leaved forest zone with high populations of low forest management intensities. UK sites include ancient wood pastures, historic parklands, traditional orchards and woodlands generally (Alexander 2002). In Hungary the species occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009); it prefers old growth forests<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. The species is typically dependent on veteran trees.<br/></p>
157664		population	eng	The species seems to be rare over much of its European range and its population is decreasing. It is however still widespread in certain areas, eg much of lowland England and in Romania it is abundant in the Carpathian beech forest. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Germany and the Czech Republic the species is rare. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.
157664		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157665		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and general ecology of this species.</p>
157665		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and it is found in northern Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt), Minor Asia, Iran and Iraq.<br/><br/>In Europe it is found in the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, mainland France and Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Ukraine and Croatia. <br/><br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>France: it is found in the southern Mediterranean border of mainland France and Corsica (Sainte-Claire Deville 1935).<br/>Italy: there are available only generic regional records (Sardinia and Sicily) and one precise Sicilian locality (Lundberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">al.</span> 1987)<br/>Portugal: this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>was only recorded in 1984 from two localities in the southernmost area.<br/>Spain: it is present in eight localities in mainland Spain and in the Canary Islands it is present in La Palma, La Gomera and Tenerife (Lesne 1904, Machado and Oromi 2000).<br/>Ukraine: it is present only in Crimea.
157665		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  It can live on a broad variety of dry wood (<span style="font-style: italic;">Citrus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix</span>, probably several others) (López-Colón and Baena 1998). Larval development in the midribs of leaves and fruitstalks of date palms (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>has repeatedly been observed (Egypt, Iraq, and also in the Canary Islands) (El-Sherif <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).</p>
157665		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is considered to be rare in Europe, and is likely to be introduced from time to time because of the rather wide larval food plant range. The population trend of this species is unknown.<br/></p>In Ukraine this is a rare species.
157665		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The habitat of this species is quite common, although the population is rather fragmented. This is best considered a natural phenomenon, because in southern Europe, the species is on the northern fringe of its range.<br/><br/>The population from the Canary Islands could be threatened by invasive species which are affecting palm tress.
157666		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157666		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2003, it is known from two sites in the north of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).
157666		habitat	eng	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.
157666		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157666		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157667		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place other than FSC guidelines. The species is very common and occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).<br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2004).
157667		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout most of Europe; it is absent from Ireland. It is also found in Caucasus, Minor Asia and Iran.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. In Denmark it is common and widespread (Hansen 1996). In Germany there are recent records in all States. It is common and widespread across much of lowland England and Wales, but absent from the north.    <p>It is widespread in Spain, with a higher number of records in the northern half of the country. Being so common, no special attention has been given by entomologists and it is not well represented in entomological collections (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). It is present in Andorra (de Torres Sala 1962).</p><p>In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre (Grosso-Silva 1999, 2005), it appears to be less common in the south, from where there is recent unpublished information (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).&#160;</p><p>In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Sekendiz 1974, Lodos 1989, Canakcioglu 1993).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157667		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the decaying heartwood of many broad-leaved tree species, where it is being decayed by a white-rot fungus; overwintering in larval / adult stages. It flies on summer evenings V-VII, and is attracted to light (Alexander 2002) and exposed sap of trees. In European Turkey larvae develop in dead wood of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea, Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Juglans, </em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>; adults active in IV-VIII (Canakcioglu 1993). In Romania adults have been found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Lucanus cervus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerambyx cerdo</span> at the tree sap. In Spain adults have been found all the year round but mainly in V-VIII (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). Limited data on pupation indicate that pupation is in early July and adult within the pupal chamber by late August or early September.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, and in any wooded places, including city parks, suburbs, villages. In Spain present in bocage landscapes, riparian forests and closed forests (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). In the UK suitable trees may occur in a very wide variety of situations, especially across the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).
157667		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species with stable populations across its European range.<br/><br/>It is widespread across much of lowland England; large strong population (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is very common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread and it is considered the most common lucanid species. In European Turkey its population was very high in the 1940s; however the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/><br/>In Spain there is no data on local population size. A study of road casualties revealed local densities in the order of 10-20 individuals (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). Very frequent even in highly humanized environments and rural landscape. In Andorra there is no recent data on the presence of the species.
157667		threats	eng	The species does not seem to be currently threatened. However some local threats can include the loss of old trees and decaying wood, particularly in the UK.
157668		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is present in one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially from the aspect of its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>
157668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. The exact distribution of this species is unknown. One specimen (paratype) was collected in the Peloponnesus Peninsula (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157668		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in the decaying wood of large forest trees.
157668		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p>
157668		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157669		conservation	eng	In Ukraine it is in Crimea's reservations in complex with other insects.
157669		distribution	eng	This species is found in south-eastern Europe, in Crimea, Bulgaria and south-western Russia (Caucasus).
157669		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species found in broad-leaved and mixed forests. Larvae develop in dry but decayed wood of tree trunks. Imago active from April to May.
157669		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance or trends of this species throughout the range. In Crimea it is found locally and not often, but it is not considered rare (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157669		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157670		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.<br/></p>
157670		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Italy.
157670		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a xylophagous species, but no details of its precise habitat requirements are available.
157670		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population size and trend are unknown.<br/></p>
157670		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157671		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species (especially oaks), and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>It is listed as Endangered in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987) and it is a priority species for conservation action   in the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan. It is listed as Endangered in Denmark (2005). The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).
157671		distribution	eng	This Eurocaucasian species (Laibner 2000) is distributed throughout much of Europe; excluding the Iberian Peninsula. Dolin (1988) describes this species as occurring in southern and central Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest-steppe zone. In Denmark it only occurs in Lolland and Zealand (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In the UK it is only known from one site, Windsor Forest and Great Park (Mendel and Clarke 1996).<br/><br/>It is also present in Near East.
157671		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop exclusively in large decayed oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks and boughs, and especially stumps; chiefly ones with red-rotten heartwood (late successional stage); larvae pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults; an adult has been taken at hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>blossom in the UK and so there may be some requirement for pollen and/or nectar on occasion (Alexander 2002).&#160; In Ukraine larvae have also been found in wood of plane <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus </span>and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>; pupation in VII-VIII; adult beetles appearing in May and active until June in the hours of daylight. In Hungary almost all records are from oak trees but it is known also from red-rotten bird cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/> <br/>It is an old growth species. Found in preserved broad-leaf and mixed forests from lowlands to submontane zone; preferentially in oaks (Laibner 2000). The sole UK population occurs within open-grown trees in historic parkland rather than forest (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Hungary almost all records are from mature forests and wood pastures (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157671		population	eng	This species is rare throughout its European range and has a fragmented distribution.<br/><br/>In the UK the sole confirmed population is in Windsor Great Park and Forest (Mendel and Clarke 1996); no suggestion of any decline in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively not rare. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs locally across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Hungary the species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions and the populations are small. In Sweden there is one single subpopulation. In Germany it is widespread but rather rare throughout. In Italy it is considered quite rare, but there are few data and in Denmark it is very rare and local.
157671		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157672		conservation	eng	No actions in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species occurs in many&#160; protected areas (Hungary). It is included in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987).
157672		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland and has a very restricted range in Britain. It is also found in Caucasus and Siberia. It is Extinct in Denmark (1997).
157672		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Ukraine this species develops in the wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius, P. calyptratus, P. ostreatus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leccinum aurantiacum</span>. Pupation takes place on the ground. The adult beetles hibernate (Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Krasutzky 1996, Drogvalenko 2001). In the UK it is usually associated with the fruit bodies of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus</span> growing on dead trunks of broad-leaved trees; the adults hibernate beneath loose bark on the tree trunks, often in large aggregations (Alexander 2002). In Hungary this species occurs almost always on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forests <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and may be in the northern part of the forest zone. In the UK it is found in a wide variety of situations including ancient woodlands and wood pastures, historic parks and wooded places generally (Alexander 2002).
157672		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Britain it has a very fragmented distribution, with one main population and three small isolated ones (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Germany nowadays it is restricted to Bavaria; it formerly also occurred in eastern Germany near the Polish border. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Finland it is widespread and common.
157672		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats at the European scale.<br/></p>
157674		conservation	eng	No information available.
157674		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Europe and partly in central Europe. In Italy it is widespread in western Italy, Sicily and Sardinia. <br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Africa and all Caucasus, and has been introduced in North America.
157674		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead wood beneath bark in branches, typically on living trees; oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, crest-trees and some other broad-leaved trees. Pupation occurs in spring. The adult is active in V-VII,&#160; nocturnal, and is attracted to artificial light. The life cycle is one year.</p><p>In the Iberian Peninsula it is normally linked to oak forests but the distribution is very scattered. <br/></p>
157674		population	eng	This is a rare species across most of its European range. The Ukraine is one of notably few countries where it is regarded at all common.<br/><br/>In Romania it is rare and very localized and the few records are old. It is also localized in Italy. It is rare in France and there are 20 localities in Spain. In the Czech Republic and Switzerland there is only one occurrence in each of the countries. In Austria, Germany and Slovakia it is Extinct.
157674		threats	eng	<p>    </p>The threats to this species are unknown. The species is living on branches of oak trees, a habitat that is not rare, but the species still seems to be rare throughout its range.<p></p>
157675		conservation	eng	<p>Actions should focus on birch trees being maintained and open forests and pastures with birch should be protected or managed to favour birch. In Poland, this species is listed as Data Deficient.<br/></p>
157675		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In the Czech Republic it is known from one record. It occurs in the far western part of Ukraine, on the western slope of the Ukrainian Carpathian mountains. Due to its fairly specific habitat requirements (birch on open forests, and probably sun exposed slopes) the Area of Occupancy is suspected to be small - perhaps not much greater than 2,000   <span lang="EN-GB">km².  It also occurs in western Siberia and Kazakhstan.
157675		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It requires pastures with birch trees or open forests. It is monophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula verrucosa</span>, the larvae occurring in dead wood (Sama 2002) and has been observed to require young but dying trees. The species has been known to colonize birch trees from which the bark had been removed by shepherds to kill them in order to increase their pasture size. While birch occurs commonly throughout the extent of occurrence of the species, the species itself is found only locally (mosaic distribution) and this suggests specific climatic requirements of the species such as slopes that would provide good sun exposure. Adults active in VI-VII.
157675		population	eng	This species is widespread across a relatively large area but only locally found and even locally rare.
157675		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Land use changes that decrease the proportion of birch in the species' range such as afforestation of pastures or deforestation of birch stands. Birch is known to be a low-quality wood and it is usually removed by forest managers and birch forests might be likely to be removed and replaced with more economically valuable wood.</p><p></p>
157676		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157676		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the south of Russia.
157676		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.</p>
157676		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157676		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157677		conservation	eng	Listed as Rare in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987) and the habitat is covered by the Wood Pasture and Parklands Action Plan of the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Sweden it is considered to be Near Threatened. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).
157677		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe including Britain. It is a Trans-palaearctic species widespread across all Europe (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, and in the forest-steppe zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions. In Portugal it has been recorded from one site in the north (Barros 1896) and another in the centre (Barros 1928). In the UK it is confined to a few small regions only, all in the south of England and Wales.
157677		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead and decaying timber of various broad-leaved trees, often within living trees, and mainly in rotten heartwood; they are said to feed preferentially on larvae of the lesser stag beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus</span>, and other beetles; they pupate at the end of the season and hibernate as adult, becoming active the following spring (Alexander 2002). In the Ukraine larvae prefer wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and stubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>; the adults are active IV-V, but live hidden in hollows and under bark of dead trees. The females are sometimes more active and are attracted to flowers for feeding in VI-VII on glades and edges of forests (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>It lives in broad-leaved (chiefly oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>) and mixed forests from lowlands to submontane zone (Laibner 2000). UK sites tend to be ancient wood pastures and historic parklands rather than forests (Alexander 2002). In Hungary it lives in broad-leaved forests, mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>.
157677		population	eng	This species is relatively common in much of Europe although - in parts of its range at least - its populations seem to be declining.<br/><br/>In the UK this species has a very fragmented range, with three main centres of population plus a few outlying small populations. No suggestion of any decline, although a few of the smaller outlying sites only have old records (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Hungary the species is quite common in the country and the populations are strong. In the Czech Republic localities are considerably scattered (Laibner 2000) while in Slovakia it is more frequent; not rare (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is uncommon, but not really rare. In Italy it is more common in the northern part, but with more scattered records in the centre and south. In Denmark it is not common.
157677		threats	eng	<p>The removal of dead trees from forests (as a result of inappropriate management) is the main threat. <br/></p>
157679		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary, Romania). It has Nationally Scarce status in Britain.
157679		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found throughout much of Europe except the extreme south west and west (Bense 1995). It also occurs in northern Africa, all Caucasus, Kazakhstan, northern Iran, northern China and Korea.<br/></p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas. In Romania it is widespread in the areas with oak and beech forests. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943).</p><p>In Denmark it is common and distributed throughout most of the country (Thomsen 2007). It is present in all German States. In Britain it is best known in the mountainous areas of northern England and northern Scotland, but also occurs in the mountains of north Wales.<br/></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
157679		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops under bark on dead branches and stems of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Alnus, Prunus, Juglans, Acer, Sorbus, Fagus, Quercus, Ulmus, Salix, Populus, Betula, Corylus, Ilex, Carpinus, </em>fruit-trees). The life cycle is between one and three years. Pupation occurs in spring in or under bark or in the sapwood. Adults emerge in IV-VIII, and are found on the leaves, branches and stems of the host plant. It is a crepuscular species. The adults spend most of their lives high in the tree canopies where they feed on live leaves; they are not normally attracted to blossom; the females descend to oviposit into bark crevices of recently dead, mainly standing trunks of large diameter (Rejzek 2002).<br/><br/>It is an old growth species that lives mainly in woodlands and old forests. In Germany it lives in floodplain forests, orchards, and forests with at least some broad-leaved trees. In Hungary this species occurs mainly in old orchards where develops in cherry; sometimes in other forest types, especially in alder, or in oak-hornbeam forests where wild cherry is a typical tree. In Romania it has been reported from willow, elm, etc. in forests. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <br/><p></p>
157679		population	eng	<p>A widespread and common species over much of its European range, with stable populations.<br/></p>  In the Nordic countries this species is common with stable populations. In the UK it has a very localised distribution in parts of northern Britain, associated with hill districts of northern England, north Wales and Scotland. There is no evidence for any decline although some areas have no modern records.<br/><br/>In central Europe this species is common. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats. In Romania even if it is widespread nowadays it is quite difficult to find. In Ukraine it is common. In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. <br/><p>In Italy this species is common while in Spain it is localized but common.</p>
157679		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. <br/><br/>In the UK clearance of dead trees and fallen branches are a threat. In Hungary the abandonment and removal of old orchards is a threat, although the species survives in wild cherry, which is widespread in the forests.
157680		conservation	eng	The distribution and population size of this species need to be researched. It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Crimea, Hungary). This species is listed as Endangered in Slovakia.
157680		distribution	eng	This species has its main distribution in central and south-eastern Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Turkey and Iran.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, in the western part of the forest-steppe zone and in Crimea. In Hungary it is known from a few localities in the hilly regions of the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It also is known from France and Italy.
157680		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are&#160; xylomycetophagous in large diameter trunks of various tree species: <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Abies, Fagus</span>; the adults feed exclusively on Myxomycetes and need large quantities of dead wood in a humid climate (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It needs large trees that are not drying out. In Ukraine it inhabits old lying trunks of broad-leaved trees (mostly beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>). All known populations from Hungary are in mature broadleaved forest, mainly beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is a relict species of primary, wholly undisturbed forest.
157680		population	eng	This species is rare throughout its range. It is rare in Ukraine and all known populations from Hungary are small. In Italy it is rare and local, recorded only from southern central mainland (not in Sardinia and Sicily). The first record for the Czech Republic is very recent and is from the south-east (Nakladal and Kmeco 2008). In France it has been recorded but there is no information about recent records. In Romania it is found at the same site as <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhysodes sulcatus. </span>In Austria and Germany there are no recent finding<span style="font-style: italic;">s.<br/><br/></span>
157680		threats	eng	The populations are small and vulnerable, and threatened by removal of old logs. In Ukraine loss of old broad-leaved trees and decaying wood are major threats.
157681		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is recommended that dead wood is not removed from the forests. Adoption of FSC Guidelines should help.
157681		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout central and southern Europe, from France to Bulgaria; rare in Spain (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are only few records, from Transylvania, in the hilly areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in all states except in the north. It has been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Oymen 1987). It also occurs in the Caucasus.
157681		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop first under bark, later in the wood of dead twigs and branches still attached to standing&#160; broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>); it is a canopy deadwood specialist. Life cycle one to two years, with pupation in autumn in the wood. Adults emerge in III-V, and are found on the host-plants. Pupation at early spring. In Hungary this species occurs in thermophilous oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in oak forests.<br/></p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157681		population	eng	Not an abundant species at the European level. In northern Europe is rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as moderately common in the oak forests (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009).&#160; In Romania it is a rare species, but this could&#160; be due to the lack of field data (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<p><br/></p>
157681		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and unsympathetic forest management; however, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merk pers.comm. 2009).
157682		conservation	eng	The necessary actions to preserve this species are&#160; habitat preservation, continuity and connectivity. In Hungary, this species occurs in several protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, this species occurs in national parks. A good selection of old trees is needed in order to preserve this species and keeping some of these inside the broad-leaved forests is important (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157682		distribution	eng	This species is found across central and southern Europe in a east-west band from northern Spain into the Balkans (Bense 1995). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Hungary, this species is widespread all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread only over the Carpathian Mountains and it does not occur in Transylvania. In Ukraine, it is found in the Carpathians and in the steppe zone in Crimea. It has been also reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen 2008) in European Turkey. It is also found in Asia Minor and Iran.
157682		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in moist decaying wood of standing or fallen trunks, often in dead or dying parts of living trees. Pupation occurs in spring or summer in the wood near the surface. The adults are found on the tree host during evening and night, from June into August. The life cycle lasts at least three years. It is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (especially in <em>Populus </em>and <em>Salix, </em>also in <em>Juglans, Acer, Quercus, Alnus, Tilia, Prunus, Platanus, Fagus, Ulmus, Celtis, Fraxinus, Morus, Aesculus, Carpinus, Castanea, Prunus, Malus, Eucalyptus</em>). The adults are crepuscular and nocturnal. The species seems to prefer large diameter trees (> 40 cm) and requires large populations of them; it can also be present in urban areas.<br/></p><p>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scabricorne</span> is most common in riverine and swamp forests, but occurs also in hilly hardwood forests and populated areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it has been found in limes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> sp.). In France, the species has a preference for <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus alba </em></strong>and <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>P. nigra (</em></strong>B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Germany, the species has been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> trees in floodplains and in a few old-growth beech forests. <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong>In the European part of Turkey the larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus nigra</span>&#160;<strong><em></em></strong>(Sekendiz 1974). In France,<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. scabricorne </span>is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>largely distributed in lowland forests (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span></p><p>    </p><p></p>
157682		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries. The overall population trend is believed to be declining and Extinct in some areas although it is stable in others. It is rather a common species in Hungary, Ukraine, France, Spain and Italy while it is rare in Germany, Czech Republic, Romania and Slovakia. <br/></p><p>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scabricorne</span> the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) as in France, where the population is stable and also common in the localities (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, there are small populations and the population is declining slowly. In Bulgaria, this species is less rare than in Romania but there has been a massive habitat loss in recent years (P. Istratu pers. comm. 2009). In Italy, the population is stable and the species is found in several localities in northern and central Italy; the distribution of the species is more scattered in the south and there are few populations in the Italian islands. In Spain, this species is absent in the north-western part but it is found in 56 localities in the north. In Germany this species is found in the south-western corner and in one isolated population in Brandenburg. It is Extinct in Bavaria and Saxony, while in the Czech Republic is found in the south-east and considered Extinct in Bohemia. This species is present in the lowlands in the south and east of Slovakia. In the European part of Turkey, the population size and trend have not been quantified. </p>
157682		threats	eng	The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing or mowing activities. Removal of ancient living or dying trees poses the major threat. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. <br/>In its south-western range, these threats exist but only marginally affect the populations at the moment.<br/><br/>In Hungary, habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, losing large areas of woodland in the Romanian Plain may be the major threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany, this species is Critically Endangered (2009) by loss of large dead trees. In Ukraine there are currently no major threats to this species.
157683		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. Some of the known localities are in protected areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Romania). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009).
157683		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central, eastern and southern Europe; absent from the north (Bense 1995). It also occurs in Caucasus, northern Iran, northern Africa and Armenia.<br/><br/>In Romania it mainly occurs in the south. In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre, but scarcely recorded. In Greece it is only found in coastal islands. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions. It has been reported from Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) and Tekirdag (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157683		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the wood of recently dead branches, thin stems and stumps of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Carpinus, Fagus, Malus, Betula, Pyrus, Ulmus, Crataegus, Populus, Tilia, Morus, Sorbus, Cydonia, Prunus)</span>. The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VIII, found on the host-plants, rarely at blossom (Sama 2002).<br/><br/>It lives in open deciduous forests, old orchards, parks, and pastures with trees. In Hungary it occurs in ecotonal situations of the oak zone; larvae have been found in branches of hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is found in warm oak forests. In Germany it is often in Rosaceae-trees (orchards, in cities). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><p><strong></strong></p>
157683		population	eng	Overall the species is considered common across much of Europe. <br/><br/>The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Turkey, but in Hungary the species is quite rare in its localities, and the populations must be small. In Romania it is a rare species, difficult to find. In Germany it is distributed in almost all German States, but it is scattered, rare and declining. In Italy it is widespread and common in montane forest. In the Czech Republic it occurs in the centre and south-east and has become quite frequent in the last few decades. In Slovakia it is only present in warm areas and is rare to very rare. In Ukraine it is rare.
157683		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. Habitat loss is occurring in some localities as a result of removing shrub level (e.g. Hungary).<br/></p>
157684		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in a protected area.
157684		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern Europe. In Romania the species is present in the floodplain forest and in Baile Herculane (Cerna Valley).  It is also present in Near East.
157684		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>(old Yugoslavia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>(Romania), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(France), <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>(Rumania) (Muona 1993). It also lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. It requires a specific type of rot in dead wood. In Hungary the known habitats are groups of very old oak trees (wood pastures or mature forests) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157684		population	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The population is scattered. In Hungary the species is very sporadic: only three localities are known, one of them is more than 70 years old. All known populations are very small (O. Merkl <span lang="EN-GB">pers. comm. 2009). <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Only one locality in the south of the Czech Republic.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Portugal there is only one old record fom the transition north-centre (Oliveira 1893), requiring confirmation. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Spain there is only one locality (Malaga) and old (Recalde Irurzun 2008). <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In France there are about ten localities (L. Leseigneur pers. comm. 2009, B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).</span></span></span></span></span>
157684		threats	eng	Change of habitat quality and the removal of old trees may be major threats. In Hungary the localities - if the populations exist at all - are highly threatened, because these are not protected, and the old trees are being removed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157686		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The species does not occur in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
157686		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range in Europe. It has only been found in Thassos islands (northern Aegean Islands). This species is also found and described from north-eastern Turkey (Samsun, Manisa, G<a name="OLE_LINK2">ö</a>rdes) and the western part of Turkey in the Izmir area and from Cisme.
157686		habitat	eng	<p>It is doubtful that this is an obligate saproxylic species, as Holzschuh (1981) reports it from <span style="font-style: italic;">Isotis tinctoria </span>(from G<a name="OLE_LINK2">ö</a>rdes) and some <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorophorus</span> develop in woody roots of herbs. This species is very closely related taxonomically to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. trifasciatus</span> which develops in the roots of herbs. <br/></p>
157686		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. However, it appears that the species is currently not uncommon within its restricted distribution.<br/></p>
157686		threats	eng	<p>The island of Thassos where the species occurs seems to be affected by land conversion for agriculture and urbanisation. Therefore the habitat size is declining.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157687		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>
157687		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Italy, where it is known from a single site in the north-central Appenines. Only known from the type locality. Endemic to Italy.
157687		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no more is known other than in occurs in woodland.
157687		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>
157687		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157688		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in many protected areas. In the Czech Republic it is listed as Critically Endangered (Vávra 2005).
157688		distribution	eng	A boreo-montane species, widespread in boreal and montane woodlands across much of Europe.  In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone.
157688		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in in red-rotted standing and lying trunks, branches and stumps. It has been reared from a <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> stump with bark partly fallen off, surface wood hard with brown rot, moist, heartwood dry; also from very soft, fairly dry brown-rot in <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">abies </span>log (Muona 1993). Brown- or red-rot in spruce is usually due to decay of dead heartwood by fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phaeolus schweinitzii</span> (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine and Russia this species develops in humid and loose wood of lying aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, sometimes oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and firs. Larvae hibernate. Pupation in May - June. Adult beetles active in June - August (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). Found on trees including <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Populus, Alnus, Salix.</span><br/><br/>Occurs in coniferous and broad-leaved woodlands.
157688		population	eng	<p>Widespread and common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend is presumed to be stable.</p><p>In Finland it is common in the south with stable population trend.</p>  In France it is widespread and very localised, it has been reported from eight localities; confined to higher elevations. In the Czech republic there are records only from four faunistic grid cells (all with records after 1950) arranged in two groups - one in the south-west, one in the south-east (floodplain forests) (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia there are records only from two faunistic grid cells (both with records after 1950) in the western (close to the cluster in south-eastern Czechia) and central part (Elateridae 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively rare.
157688		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.&#160; <br/></p><p>There are no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>
157689		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area or if there is any conservation measure in place.</p>
157689		distribution	eng	This species' description was based on two males from Germany (Baden, Hessen) (Laibner 2000).
157689		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It was collected under bark on dead wood of oak and pine trees (Laibner 2000).
157689		population	eng	It is only known from two male specimens (Laibner 2000). There is no information regarding the population trends of this species.
157689		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157690		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area or whether there are any conservation measures in place.</p>
157690		distribution	eng	This species is described from one or two specimens in Germany to the south of Hamburg (B.&#160;Büche pers.&#160;comm. 2009).
157690		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. No details of its habitat associations are known.
157690		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.</p>  <p></p>
157690		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on the threats to this species.&#160;</p><p>In Germany this species was excluded from the working (unpublished) checklist and therefore was not included in the German Red List.</p>
157691		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157691		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across southern Europe, in the southern parts of central and eastern Europe. It is also found in the Mediterranean and in the Canary Islands. In Ukraine, it may occur in Crimea, but confirmation is still needed. This species also occurs in northern Africa, the Caucasus, Asia Minor and Turkey.
157691		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead wood of various broad-leaved trees. In Spain, on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siligua</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus</span> species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus,</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera</span>. In Italy, on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species and other broadleaved species. <br/></p>
157691		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Italy, this species is not rare. In Spain there are 93 localities in 81 10x10 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
157691		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157692		conservation	eng	It is important to preserve big hollow oak trees. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g., Hungary).
157692		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania and Latvia (Laibner 2000). It has also been recorded in patchy distributions elsewhere across central, southern and northern Europe (Austria, Slovakia, Norway, Greece and Czech Republic). For many countries, records are missing but occurrence is probable (lack of data rather than lack of beetles). In Denmark it is distributed in Zealand and Lolland; only few localities in Jutland (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).
157692		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This is a typical rot-hole dweller, developing in wood mould in cavities in trunks and stumps of old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>in alluvial woodlands and deciduous vegetation, from foothills to highlands (Laibner 2000). In Hungary all records are from oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157692		population	eng	The species distribution is very scattered throughout its range as it uses mainly old hollow oak trees as habitat. It is inferred that the population trend is declining.<br/><br/>It is very rare in Hungary, being known from only three areas in the country; all populations are small, but it is not considered to be threatened in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is known only from one area and in the Slovak Republic it is known from at least seven areas (Laibner 2000). In Sweden it is rare but it occurs mainly in protected areas.
157692		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, especially old growth with hollow trees and loss of mega-tree continuity. Local populations can be eradicated with the removal of one hollow tree. This includes the cutting down of trees in parks or alleys or in old pastures.<br/></p>
157693		conservation	eng	<p>      </p>  <p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, although it is present in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157693		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cyprus and has been reported from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Platres, Panagia, Pera Pedi, Lagoudera, Kelefos, Vretsia, Roudia) and the southern hilly area (Choirokoitia). <br/><br/>    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></p>
157693		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in old deciduous forests and tree stands.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> Found in orchards, maquis, forests and river valleys with <em>Platanus orientalis </em>and<em> Alnus orientalis</em>. Larvae and adults have been found in decaying wood of <em>Platanus orientalis, Alnus orientalis</em> and <em>Juglans regia</em>. Adults are attracted to light (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157693		population	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> Population size and trend has not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157693		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Degradation of old forests by intense forest management and loss of old trees in urbanised areas are major specific threats to this species.<br/></p><p></p>  <p></p>
157694		conservation	eng	There is no information regarding the conservation actions for this species; probably none are needed at present.
157694		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the Spanish archipelago, the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean.
157694		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaea spinosa</span>, a shrub, growing in near-coast habitats (Israelson 1974). It has also been reared from deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica</span> (Lesne, 1904) and, in Gran Canaria, from dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera</span> (Lesne, 1905). Probably, these are only three of a variety of potential hosts. </p><p> </p><p></p>  <p></p>
157694		population	eng	<p>  In the Canary Islands, the species is recorded from all the islands except for Lanzarote (Machado and Oromi 2000).The population size and trends are unknown, but the species is not restricted to certain habitat types, and perhaps is common at least in some of the islands (Zoological Museum Lund holds 120 specimens).<br/> </p>
157694		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157695		conservation	eng	<p>Old almond plantations should be protected and sustained. Some localities are in protected areas. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157695		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of central and south-eastern Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is sporadic in the lower mountain areas. Most localities are in the region above the Lake Balaton (central part of the western half of the country) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). According to one source (BioLib.cz 2009) this species also occurs in Austria.
157695		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species is found in orchards and gardens, the larvae developing in dead twigs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdalus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>. In Hungary it occurs in old, traditionally cultivated almond <span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdalus </span>plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The species also develops in <span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdalus comunis</span> in Greece, Hungary and Bulgaria. The species has also been reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cefalonica</span>.<br/></p>
157695		population	eng	The species is difficult to find, so little information is available about population size and trends. It is locally common in extensively cultivated almond orchards (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). While no information is known about the population, in eastern Europe traditional orchards are in decline, and traditional methods to manage orchards are being replaced with more modern methods. For these reasons we suspect a slight decline in the population of this species beginning in the past and extending to the future. In Slovakia the species is extremely rare and is only known from several recent records in the south.
157695		threats	eng	<p>In some parts of its range (Hungary) this species is threatened by the disappearance of old almond plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is likely that old, traditionally managed orchards where this species is found are in decline throughout its range but it is unknown to what extent this is affecting this species.<br/></p>
157696		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania, Spain).
157696		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all Europe, except the far west of Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran, Kazakhstan and Siberia.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs only in the westernmost and northernmost mountainous parts of the country. It is Extinct in Britain.
157696		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying wood of broad-leaved trees of various species (Alexander 2002); in white-rotted branches and trunks of diameter greater than five cm lying on the ground. The adults are found in the decaying wood as well as the larvae. In Ukraine, adults are active in V-VI; oak and beech are the typical host trees. In Romania the adult beetles can be found in the early spring and are attracted to flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus spinosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum lantana</span>&#160; at the edge of oak forests sometime in the end of April . <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in old beech forests. In Spain its habitats are mainly mountain areas above 700 m (Á. Quirós pers. comm. 2009).
157696		population	eng	A widespread species; common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>This species is known from very few localities in Hungary; the populations are very small. In Romania it is known from from recent records from the central part of the country. It was reported from hilly areas. In Ukraine it is not common and local. It is common throughout Germany, except maybe in the higher mountains while in France and Switzerland it is common in lowlands areas. In Italy it is not common and is present in the Alps and Appenines. In Denmark it is common and widespread (Hansen 1996). It is rare in southern Finland. In Sweden it only occurs in the south and it is not common.<br/><br/>In Spain it occupies 51 squares of 10x10 km; more than a half of those correspond to observations before 1980 (Á. Quirós pers. comm 2009.); in total 70 localities known. It is present in north-eastern Spain, from northern Catalonia, Pyrenees, Navarra, Basque Country, Rioja, northern Burgos and one site in Cantabria (López-Colón 2000, Á. Quirós pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Fossil evidence for presence in Britain up until Bronze Age, and reports of live specimens across country up until 1839; now clearly Extinct (Cooter 1976).
157696		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157697		conservation	eng	<p>No conervation measures in place, other than standard FSC guidelines. <st1:country-region><st1:place>Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range (e.g. Hungary and UK). <br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>
157697		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe expect Portugal. In the Mediterranean it is mostly found in mountains. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Siberia and Japan.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, much rarer in the lowlands. The reverse is the case in the UK.
157697		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs at bracket fungi on a wide range of broad-leaved trees in woodlands and other habitats.<br/><br/>Usually associated with the fruit bodies of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus</span> in UK, growing on trunks of broad-leaved trees; adults hibernate beneath loose bark on tree trunks, often in large aggregations (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is found on carpophores of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius, Kuehneromyces mutabilis, Trichaptum biforme, Flammulina velutipes, Fomes fomentarius</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The adult is mostly found from IV to VIII - mostly in VII.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forests. In the UK it is known from a wide variety of situations including ancient wood pastures, historic parks and wooded places generally (Alexander 2002).
157697		population	eng	It is a common species in Europe.<br/><br/>In the UK it is very widespread; has increased in abundance and distribution in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a widespread and common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities.
157697		threats	eng	<p>    </p>There are no major threats to this species.
157698		conservation	eng	There is need to maintain old growth coniferous forests and veteran conifer trees to conserve suitable habitat for this species. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.
157698		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern Europe. It is present in Greece and it is known from nine localities on mainland Italy and one locality on Sicily.
157698		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that lives in coniferous temperate forests, and based on its presence in only ten localities throughout Italy, experts suspect that it may have more specific habitat requirements such as old growth coniferous forest or veteran trees. More information is needed.
157698		population	eng	There is no information on the species' abundance in Greece, however in Italy it is in a restricted number of localities (ten).
157698		threats	eng	<p>Very little specific information is known, however the species is listed as Endangered in Italy, presumably because of its fragmentation, small area of occupancy and continuing decline in area, extent and quality of habitat. Threats are unknown for Greece. Experts suspect that it may have specific habitat requirements such as old growth coniferous forest or veteran trees and the extent and quality of such habitats are declining across Europe.<br/></p>
157699		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>
157699		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in Ukraine and also believed to occur in the eastern Mediterranean (Sama 2002). This species also occurs in the Caucasus. There is a doubtful record for Bulgaria in Fauna Europaea. <br/></p>
157699		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Precise habitat associations unknown, although it is polyphagous in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
157699		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but where it is known - in Crimea - it is very rare.<br/></p>
157699		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157700		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Part of the population occurs in a 'protected area' although actual protection of this species is not being achieved.<br/></p>
157700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cyprus (Sama 2002). It has been reported only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Cedar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype> (a small area in <st1:placename w:st="on">Pafos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype> in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>) at 1,100–1,400 m (Sama 1992).
157700		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, found only in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus brevifolia</span> forest. This species has been reared only from dead branches and twigs of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> endemic Cedar, <em>Cedrus brevifolia</em>. (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The endemic cedar forests of Cyprus are represented by only a few hundred hectares.<br/></p>
157700		population	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">It is considered a rare </st1:place></st1:country-region>and local species (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Because <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> trees are declining in Cyprus, it is presumed that the species population is also declining.
157700		threats	eng	<p>      </p><p>This species is monophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> and thereby threatened by the disappearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span>. Goats eat the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> seedlings and germination is inhibited by drought. The species is therefore under severe threat through habitat loss.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157701		conservation	eng	Education about the importance of leaving deadwood in the countryside in recommended. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157701		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe, except the far north, far south and Ireland (Bense 1995). It is also found in Caucasus, Armenia and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In western Europe it is a typical species of the lowlands but it appears to be confined to higher altitudes in parts of the east of its range. In Denmark it is distributed throughout the country, except in western Jutland (Thomsen 2007). In the UK it is widespread across central and south-eastern England, extending into eastern Wales (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Ukraine it is present mainly in the Carpathians in the forest zone and in Crimea. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous forests. In Romania it is widespread in the hilly deciduous forests. In European Turkey it has been reported from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen 2008). <br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157701		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dry wood of dead branches and thin stems (typically in the canopy). The life cycle is two years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults winter in pupal cell and emerge in IV-VIII, on flowers. It is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Fagus, Acer, Alnus, Carpinus, Corylus, Crataegus, Euonymus, Quercus, Rosa, Tilia, Robinia, Ulmus, Sambucus, Juglans</em>). Adults have a strong attraction to blossom, especially hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>, and especially where growing in sheltered open sunny situations. In Romania adults have been found at the flowers of various shrubs, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum lantana</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sambucus nigra</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). UK sites include enclosed woodlands, open wood pastures and parklands, as well as hedgerows (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species occurs in all kinds of indigenous deciduous forests of the country. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p><p></p>
157701		population	eng	Generally widespread and quite common across most of its range; population trend has not been quantified but is thought to be stable overall, with some indications of local declines, as in the UK. In Denmark and Ukraine this species is common. In the UK it is widespread but may be declining (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is very common on the edge of deciduous forests from central Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is widespread and abundant in broad-leaved forests, but also in mixed forests.
157701		threats	eng	Habitat loss and insensitive land management; canopy closure and shading are large threats to this species. Also plantation forestry creating closed canopy conditions, abandonment of active management in woodlands, resulting in canopy closure and abandonment of grazing, resulting in canopy closure   <span lang="EN-GB">are likely to be factors having a negative impact on this species. Also the removal of dead branches, for fuel wood and/or tidiness are additional threats (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers comm. 2009). In Romania the major threat is habitat loss because forest management practices are insensitive, and some poor people use the occupied shrub branches to make domestic fires (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157703		conservation	eng	<p>There appears to be no conservation measures in place but they are not needed. The species has been recorded in protected areas.</p>
157703		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe except the far south and south-west (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, Siberia, Russian Far East, northern  China, Korea and Japan.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous regions where indigenous or planted conifer forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is spread in throughout the Carpathians where conifer forest are present; also, in the inner part of Transylvania where planted conifer forest exists (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris) </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is common and distributed throughout (Thomsen 2007). It has become widely established across lowland England, wherever forestry plantations are available (K.N.A. Alexander, pers. comm.).
157703		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dead branches, thin trunks and exposed roots of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Abies, Pinus, Larix, Cupressus)</span>, only occasionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Betula). </span>Life cycle one or two  years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cells and emerge in V-VIII, found on the host-plants and attracted to flowers for feeding. In Hungary it lives in all kinds of indigenous and planted conifer forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found on the white flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus lantana</span> in central Transylvania (P. Istrate&#160; pers. comm. 2009). Some old reports from <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Spirea</span> flowers (Panin and Savulescu 1961).<br/></p>
157703		population	eng	The species is common and abundant, and the population trend is presumed to be stable. In Ukraine and Germany it is a usual species. In the UK there is a naturalised introduction, which has spread across much of central and south-eastern England. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is well represented in low mountains. Also, time to time it has been observed on the hilly areas from Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157703		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be be no major threats to this species as suitable habitat is widely available throughout its range (e.g. Hungary, Romania, Finland, Germany).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157704		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It is known to occur in protected areas. Conservation measures are needed for this species in the Alpine region.
157704		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across Europe, from western Russia to the north of central, eastern and western Europe. It may occur in extreme north of Ukraine. <br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus, Siberia, Far East of Russia and northern China.
157704		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in and under the bark of&#160; dead conifer trees. It occurs in small as well as large trees.<br/></p><p>In Ukraine and Russia beetles live under dead bark of dry trunks of conifer trees, sometimes on oak too. Larvae develop in the bark (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Finland the species strongly prefers burned forests, where it inhabits dead pine and spruce trees at least during ten years after the fire. It may sometimes be very abundant. <br/></p>
157704		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Its population status varies from infrequent (but locally abundant) to rare in different parts of its range.<br/></p>
157704		threats	eng	<p>Suppression of forest fires and loss of natural fire dynamics in boreal forests is likely to be the main factor having a negative impact on this species.<br/></p>
157705		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old oak trees, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such trees in future.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas in UK and in Hungary. It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987). It is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan.
157705		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution throughout much of Europe, from the north (including Britain) to south-eastern Europe, and from the Iberian Peninsula (excluding Portugal) to eastern Europe. It also reaches perhaps west Siberia (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the western slopes of the Carpathians. In Russia it is only present in the Voronezh region, in the middle part of European Russia. In Hungary it is known from very few localities in the hilly regions, mainly from the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009. In Britain it is known from just one site in the south-east of England.
157705		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, dependent upon decaying heartwood in large, old veteran oak trees. It is an old growth species that develops exclusively in the&#160; red-rotten heartwood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks and main boughs, in living trees as well as dead ones; the larvae thought to feed on the larvae of the beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Mycetophagus piceus</span>; they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter in the adult stage; the adults are active nocturnally  (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine all larvae have been found in decayed stubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus. </span><br/><br/>The beetle inhabits groups of very old oaks in lowlands and highlands, as well as solitary trees in alluvial woodlands (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is known from old growth forests with very old oak trees (mainly pedunculate oak) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Britain the one site is an ancient deer park and forest, part of the cultural landscape.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
157705		population	eng	Generally a rare species with few, scattered and declining populations.<br/><br/>In the UK it has only ever been known from a single large site - Windsor Great Park and Forest - where it continues to thrive (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Spain there is only one recent record, in Navarra (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Italy also only one recent record (four in total but most are very old). In&#160; Germany it is absent from the north and parts of the west; locally Extinct in some areas; 15-20 known localities, perhaps less. The species is very rare in Hungary, and the populations are small. In Slovakia it is present only at a small number of localities (probably fewer than 25). In Sweden there is one single population; in the 1940s there was a second known population. In Ukraine it is rare.
157705		threats	eng	<p>Loss of ancient oaks is the main problem for this species.   This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>
157706		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area.
157706		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Near East and Turkey. In Europe there is just one population, in Cyprus, and this is the unique subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">D. a. troodi </span>(Sama 1994). In Cyprus it has been reported only from the central higher peak of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Olympos 1,600-1,950 m) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157706		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"> It has been f</st1:country-region></st1:place>ound in forests with <em>Pinus nigra</em> and <em>Juniperus foetidissima</em>. Adults and larvae have been found in dead branches and twigs of <em>Juniperus foetidissima</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157706		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus this species is considered </st1:place></st1:country-region>rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population trend is stable.  </p><p></p>
157706		threats	eng	<p>    </p>The evaluation of the threats of the Cyprus population is done on the basis of species, not on the basis of subspecies which presumably is threatened to a higher degree. The host trees where the species lives seem to be not under threat. There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/><p></p>
157708		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157708		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Spain.
157708		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no details are available on its habitat preferences.
157708		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157708		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157709		conservation	eng	No information available.
157709		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few countries in central and southeastern Europe.
157709		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The known habitats are rotting stumps and branches of very old oak trees (wood pastures or mature forests) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) and beech (Bail and Dunk 2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
157709		population	eng	In Hungary the species is very sporadic. All known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157709		threats	eng	Because of the rarity of the species nothing can be said about the threats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.
157710		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas and there are no conservation measures needed for this species.
157710		distribution	eng	<p>In <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, this species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean area. Its region of origin is western Africa, and <em>A. monachus</em> today is very widespread in Africa, South America and the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place>, and in the west of the southern Palearctic region. It naturalized in the Mediterranean and in <st1:place w:st="on">South America</st1:place> a long ago, and was probably introduced in the times of slave-trade.<br/></p>  <p>Records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:country-region> were introductions (Geis 2002), which may be the case as well in some Mediterranean countries, for example in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place> (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
157710		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the wood of a variety of broadleaved trees, and may even enter live tissues of trees. It is considered the most destructive pest of the family Bostrichidae in Israel (Geis 2002).</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157710		population	eng	<p>This species is found throughout Italy which suggests that it is abundant in that country. There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout the rest of its range, although reports suggest that it is plentiful.     </p><p>The trends for this species are not known.</p><p></p><p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
157710		threats	eng	<p>The species appears not to be threatened at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>    </p>  <p></p>
157711		conservation	eng	As this species has a very irregular distribution in central Europe, more research on taxonomy, population size and dynamics as well as potential threat is needed.<br/>In Hungary the two localities of the species are in a protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary; it is also inside some protected areas in the Carpathian Mountains. In Italy this species is listed as Rare on the National Red List (Sama 2006) and in Germany as Data Deficient (2009).
157711		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Hungary the species is known from two localities in the western-most part of the country, where only one specimen each were found in 1992 and 1996 (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is found in the Carpathian Mountains. In Germany it is present only in the southern German states: Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Thüringen, Sachsen.
157711		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark of dead pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and spruce<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea. </span>In Romania it was reported from thin branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus excelsa</span>. The adults emerge in VI-VII and are generally found on the occupied branches, sometimes attracted to flowers for feeding, for example <span style="font-style: italic;">Carduus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Hungary it has been found in indigenous spruce forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany and the Czech Republic it lives in spruce forests and plantations.</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
157711		population	eng	There is little information available on population size and trends. The Czech Republic and Poland are examples of the few areas where it is regarded as widespread and common. In Ukraine it is rare. In Romania there are five or six populations in the mountains forests, although they are old reports. In Hungary as this species is known from two specimens from two different localities, no information about its population is available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Austria it has been found in two localities, once confirmed in 1952 and again in 1980. Probably more widespread than assumed but extremely hard to find (Steiner 1999). In Italy it is very rare, only three localities known in the north-east Alps. In Slovakia there are only a few localities.
157711		threats	eng	There is no information regarding the threats to this species. In Romania the replacement of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea excelsa</span> forest areas with different conifer species poses a threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Poland and the Czech Republic it is not threatened.
157712		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157712		distribution	eng	This species is an oriental species, widespread from the central Urals to Sakhalin and Japan (Sama 2002). Its European range is only in the west-southern part of Russia.
157712		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees.<br/></p>
157712		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The abundance and trends of this species are unknown.<br/></p>
157712		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157713		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place other than FSC guidelines.<br/><br/>In the UK this species has no conservation status and it has been overlooked by UK conservation agencies. It should be graded Nationally Scarce. It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany because of the scarce resource, which is <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina</span>.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).
157713		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Turkey. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the western part of the forest and forest-steppe zones. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions. It is widespread in Britain, as far north as southern Scotland, and scarcer in the far west. In Portugal it was only recorded in the 19<sup>th</sup> century from the extreme north.
157713		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In the UK adults are mainly found at fresh fruiting bodies of the bracket fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina hepatica</span>, but also occasionally <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>; on oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks; also reported from fungi on beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> although this may just be <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sulphureus</span> (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine adults have been found in a wider variety of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina hepatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus, Crepidotus mollis, C. cirrhatus</span>). The adult beetles are active in VI-IX; both adult and larvae hibernate. The life cycle is one year (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina </span>is the main host fungus in Germany.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech. In the UK mainly in ancient wood pastures and historic parklands in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).
157713		population	eng	A widespread and common species in Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In central Europe this species is not uncommon. In Hungary  the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Ukraine it is not very common.<br/><br/>In Sweden the populations are stable and possibly increasing. In the UK it is widespread across lowland Britain but its distribution is increasingly fragmented and populations are increasingly isolated; some evidence for a significant decline has been recorded in recent decades.
157713		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. However the loss of old trees and decaying wood are negative factors.</p><p><br/></p>
157714		conservation	eng	In the UK this species is not regarded as having any special interest but its habitat is covered by the general FSC guidelines; many sites are legally protected as the species tends to be present in most of the richer saproxylic sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany and as Near Threatened in Austria.
157714		distribution	eng	This species is known widely across Europe, except the Iberian and Scandinavian Peninsulas. The core of its distribution appears to be in Britain. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and possibly in the western forest zone. In Italy it has not been recorded from the north, only from the southern part, Sardinia and Sicily.
157714		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults are associated with bracket fungi on large old broad-leaved trees, most often <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina hepatica;</span> most strongly associated with ancient wood pastures and historic parklands in Britain (Alexander 2002). There is no habitat or ecology information available for the other parts of its range - more research is needed. In Hungary as there are no extant populations known, no information is available about its habitat (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157714		population	eng	This species is very rare over most of its European range. However, in Britain is it widespread across much of country and populations appear strong, estimated at least 70 recent sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it is known from two localities only; both records are more than 90 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it may be rare. In Slovakia it has only been recorded from before 1950. In Poland there is one single record for this species. In Greece there is no information, but it is probably present. In Bulgaria and Romania the species has been described from more than 200 years ago, no recent findings. In France it is widespread but very rare. In Germany it is present but there are no recent records. In Austria there are eight recent findings (Jäch<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1986).
157714		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p>Also the loss of old trees and decaying wood is a threat to this species.<br/></p>
157715		conservation	eng	Conservation action should be focused to prevent dead removal from forests. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. in Hungary and Spain). It is listed as Vulnerable in Poland.
157715		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central Europe but thinning northwards; west into northern Spain. It is also found in all Caucasus, Turkey and Iran (Lobl and Smetana 2008). In Hungary this species is very sporadic; apart from a few very old (at least 50 years old) records, there are two areas where extant populations are known. These are the Kőszeg Mountains (in the westernmost part of the country) and the Mecsek Mountains (in the southern part of the country) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are four documented localities, two in the mountains nearby the Catalonian Pyrenees (Español 1963) and two in the Basque country mountains (Martínez de Murguía <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Pagola-Carte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007); a fifth site has recently been discovered in the Cordillera Cantabrica (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it was recorded in the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup>   century from two sites in the same area in the north (Oliveira 1893) and recently (1990s) from a second area in the extreme northeast (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).
157715		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults and larvae live amongst moist red-rot in decayed heartwood of large old tree trunks, including oak, cherry, beech and pine; uses live standing trees as well as dead fallen trunks. Widely regarded as an old growth species across its range, with existing sites old forest areas and ancient wood pastures within the cultural landscape (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Germany the population is scattered. In Hungary the known extant populations are in deep valleys and ravines where old red-rotting logs (mainly beech and wild cherry) cannot be removed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is present in chestnut and oak forests with old trees (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009) also in old wood pastures (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157715		population	eng	Few European countries have existing populations and the species is rare, scattered and declining in most; it has national Red List status in most north European countries, for instance in Norway, Sweden, Poland, Germany. It is believed to be extinct in many countries and subfossil presence only in Britain (many sites) and Ireland (Mid Holocene, 2921-2445 BCE) (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Hungary the known extant populations are small, but the number of the individuals in certain logs may be high (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are only five populations known, across the northern mountain zone (Español 1963, Martínez de Murguía <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Pagola-Carte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) - this species probably reaches its southern distribution limits here; no information on local population size available (J.J de la Rosa pers. comm 2009). It could be present in additional places of the Pyrenees area with large old trees but these places are anyway rare in the area (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered a rare species.
157715		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Loss of old trees and lack of new generations; removal of old, dying and dead trees are key threats to this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary removal of dead wood&#160; (mainly large fallen logs) is a serious threat (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain habitat fragmentation and loss of dead wood are threats to this species (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157716		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but many of the sites where it occurs are in protected areas.<br/></p>
157716		distribution	eng	This species is only found in central and southern parts of mainland Italy.
157716		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits deciduous woodlands in the mountains, although no details are available on host trees, type of deadwood occupied or on open-ness of the habitat.<br/></p>
157716		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Sama (2006) reports eight sites. <br/></p>
157716		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>No specific information is available. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157717		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species is common and occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK). It is considered as Least Concern in Sweden.
157717		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It is also known from the western part of northern Africa (Morocco), Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan, western Siberia and Mongolia.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is also widespread across much of England.
157717		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops most frequently in the fruiting brackets of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span> in the UK; adults are found beneath fungoid bark and at soft bracket fungi more widely; on a wide range of broad-leaved trees in a similarly wide variety of situations (Alexander 2002). The biology is the same as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. ater</span>, but it mostly develops in the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus </span>in Ukraine (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, sometimes also in conifer forests.
157717		population	eng	A widespread and common species in Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In the UK it is very widespread and there are strong populations. It is common in Italy and it is not uncommon in the southern part of Finland.<br/><br/>It is common in central Europe. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Ukraine it is very common, often numerous.
157717		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. However the loss of old trees and decaying wood are negative factors.</p>
157718		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). In Germany this species is listed a 'PR' which means that the species is Presumably Endangered.
157718		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be widely distributed in Europe, through central and eastern Europe, extending into France and southern Sweden (Bense 1995). It is also found in northern and central Caucasus, western and south-western Siberia.<br/><br/>In Spain there is a single locality in Pyrenees (Vives 2001). In France it is probably Extinct; there is only old data (before 1884) that indicates that it was locally a common species in Rhône-Alps (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). It was also common in the Paris surroundings (Villiers 1978). In Germany it is only&#160; present in southern and eastern states. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest-steppe zones. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157718		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dead dry wood of twigs and branches of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Carpinus, Ulmus, Betula, Padus, Crataegus</span>), strictly in the canopy. The life cycle is two or three years, with pupation in spring or early summer in the wood. Adults emerge in VI.VIII, occasionally found feeding at flowers.</p><p>In Hungary it is found in undisturbed forests that are free of forestry management, mainly in ravine and slope forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania adults can be found on white flowers near freshwater in mountain areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France larvae develop preferentially in old <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> trees (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it also develops in <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> and in mesophilic stands.<br/></p>
157718		population	eng	This is a canopy species so it may be under-sampled. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary because the species is very rare. In Ukraine it is not common. In Romania it is quite common in the broad-leaved and coniferous forests in the Carpathians.
157718		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threat to this species. In Hungary habitat loss is the main reason for the rarity of this species as its host trees are usually removed from the forests. In Romania forest management and logging are major threats.
157719		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/></p>
157719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is reported from three localities (Stoch 2003).
157719		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Little information is available on its specific habitat preferences other than that it occurs in Mediterranean woodlands.
157719		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157719		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157720		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary), so no specific measures are necessary.
157720		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe but absent from Britain, Ireland and Portugal. It is also present in Near East.
157720		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the decaying wood of broad-leaved trees (usually white-rotten branches and trunks lying on the ground). It is found in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands. <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in open oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, and in Romania in beech forests.
157720		population	eng	Widespread and common in at least some range states, especially at relatively high altitudes..<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its localities. In Romania this species is widespread in the forests from the Carpathians especially in the southern part. In Finland it is widespread and common and its population is stable. In Sweden it is also widespread and common but some declines have been reported over the last decades. In Switzerland it is widespread and common. In France it is widespread in upland regions.<br/><br/>In Spain there is one single site in a locality close to the Pyrenees and no recent findings (López-Colón 2000); no data on population size. In Italy it is not common and is found in the Alps and Appenines.
157720		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157721		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to mainland Italy.
157721		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a mycophagous species but no details of its precise habitat requirements are available.
157721		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population size and trend are unknown.<br/></p>
157721		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157722		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157722		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Iberian Peninsula and France.<br/><br/>In Portugal it is known from a single locality in the north, not recorded for more than 80 years.
157722		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in sporophores of lignicolous fungus.
157722		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157722		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157723		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. No specific measures are needed.
157723		distribution	eng	This Euro-Asian species (Laibner 2000) is widespread across all Europe except the far south-west. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in almost all regions, except in the south steppe and in Crimea. In Spain it has recently be found (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). It is more or less ubiquitous in suitable habitats across Britain and Ireland.
157723		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under dead bark and in decaying heartwood; it lives in broad-leaved trees and pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>; also other tree species; it is omnivorous, feeding on live larvae as well as woody debris, etc; probably 3 year cycle; pupate in spring; the adults are active in V-Vii and feed on pollen from flowers (Dolin 1982, Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>In the UK it prefers shady woodlands in the cultural landscape as well as forestλ; it also develops on tree-less moorlands in the UK, where larvae are active in the upper peat and moss layers - peat and wood mould are very similar media (Alexander 2002).&#160;In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly is moist places (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157723		population	eng	Generally a widespread and common species; population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>In Ireland and the UK this species is widespread and common (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively common. It is widespread across the Czech and Slovak Republics (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; the species is frequent or even abundant in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is common and distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Spain there are two localities known (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).
157723		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
157724		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in at least one protected area in the Carpathian mountains in Ukraine.<br/></p>
157724		distribution	eng	This species is only found in central Europe, extending east into Ukraine and Hungary. In Ukraine it is only present on the western slopes of the Carpathians.
157724		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is obligatory mycetophagous and beetles occur on wood-decay fungi of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> in beech forests (Drogvalenko 2001), which is still a common tree species in the Carpathians. This is thought to be a relict species associated with ancient forest and has been reported from ancient beech forest. The extent and quality of remaining ancient forests with beech trees in the Carpathian region is not well known but thought to be in good condition. More research is needed on the specific habitat requirements of the species and the remaining ancient beech forest. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>fungi are not confined to deadwood of beech, but also use a variety of other tree and shrub species. The biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Triplax </span>genus is not well known because they eat fruiting bodies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> which occur sporadically and may be difficult to find, so finding the beetle species is also difficult. <br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157724		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. On the outer edge of its distribution in Ukraine it is rare and locally found (only known from two specimens). The host tree is widespread in the range of the species so without further information about the ecology of the species little can be said about its population abundance or trends. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157724		threats	eng	<p>Because beetles occur on wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>sp. in beech forests (Drogvalenko 2001) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>typically grow on larger trees, experts infer that the habitat availability is limited and may be threatened by logging or forest management practices that favour removal of large trees in the future. <br/></p>
157725		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. The sites from which it is known are not in protected areas.<br/></p>
157725		distribution	eng	This species was described in 2003. It is known from two localities in Spain, in Cantalojas (Guadalajara) and Villar del Pedroso, Caceres (Extremadura). It has been recorded from 700 m asl to 1,500 m asl. (Sánchez-Ruiz and de la Rosa 2003, de la Rosa 2008).
157725		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits broad-leaved woodlands, particularly in damp areas. Larvae have been found in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> trees.
157725		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Few specimens have been collected, but this is a very recently described species. Population size and trend is unknown.<br/></p>
157725		threats	eng	<p>The type of habitat occupied by this species is fragmented and there is potentially relatively little suitable habitat for this species (Sánchez-Ruiz and de la Rosa 2003).</p>
157726		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157726		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Iberian peninsula in Portugal and Spain.
157726		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in Mediterranean pine woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus silvestris</span>) but no details are available on its precise habitat requirements. Adults are crepuscular.
157726		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered locally common in a restricted area where it is known from four-five sites (Sanchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></p>
157726		threats	eng	<p>No specific information is available. General threats to the habitat of this species include forest fires, 'cleaning' of woodland to remove dead wood, and destruction and fragmentation of habitat as a result of urbanization and expansion of agricultural areas.<br/></p>
157727		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in Hungary no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania some old deciduous forests from the southern part of country are now protected areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157727		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). Old records from northern Africa, Iberian Peninsula and France are incorrect (Sama 2002). It is also reported from Jordan, Syria and Israel.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is found in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm.). It was reported from the low hills in Transylvania and lowlands in the southern part of Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It was also reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). It is known from only three localities in Greece.
157727		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs on xerothermic slopes and plateaus covered with sparse shrubs or light thermophilous forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<em></em> It is a polyphagous in broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Celtis australis</span> in Bulgaria, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gleditsia triacanthos</span> in Romania, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cercis siliquastrum, Citrus sinensis, Cotoneaster franchettii, Pistacia atlantica</span> in Israel. Development inadequately known - larvae develop in dry wood of dead branches. Biology probably similar to <em>S. rufus.</em> Adults are attracted to blossom for feeding (Sama 2002). The habitat of this species is strictly connected with the distribution of its host plants, listed above, which are usually in southern and south-eastern Europe (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><em></em><em></em>
157727		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities. About 30 years ago it was regarded as rare in Hungary; since then the known localities are rapidly increasing (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey&#160; the population size and trend have not been quantified, and in Romania the size and trend also remain unknown (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157727		threats	eng	<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 307px; height: 1321px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">         <table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 853px; height: 1209px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">There appear to be no major threats to this species. In Hungary, for instance, it is not threatened because suitable habitats are widely available in the hills and mountains (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 390px; height: 1334px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">ROMANIA: Possible the replace of native species of trees in south part of country, which is unfortunately one process in progress, can affect the habitat of species. (P. Istrate, pers. comm. ).<br/>ROMANIA: Possible the replace of native species of trees in south part of country, which is unfortunately one process in progress, can affect the habitat of species. (P. Istrate, pers. comm. ).
157728		conservation	eng	<p>This species is considered as Critically Endangered in Poland (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Laco conspersus). </span>In<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Finland it is considered Least Concern.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
157728		distribution	eng	This species is described as a northern Palaearctic species (Laibner 2000) ocurring in north Europe and in some countries of central Europe. It is widespread in Finland. Little information is known about its distribution in Poland except that it is restricted to montane boreal forests. This type of habitat is limited in Poland so its Area of Occupancy may be limited as well. The trends are not known (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009). Not recorded from the Czech and Slovak Republic but was found on the Polish side of Nízke Beskydy Mtns (Bílý 1985, referred to in Laibner 2000) in southern Poland.
157728		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A boreo-montane species - the species lives in submontane and montane evergreen forests in the southern part of its range (Laibner 2000) and also in boreal spruce and pinewood forests in the northern parts (E. Hyvärinen and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009). The adults are found on cord wood, logs and under bark (Laibner 2000).
157728		population	eng	In Finland, the population trend is stable. This species is widely distributed but only locally found and not common. The trends are unknown throughout the rest of its European range. In Poland it is Critically Endangered, but it is unknown whether this was based on population decline and it was likely to be based on restricted range and declining extent and quality of habitat (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009).
157728		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats for this species.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p></p>
157729		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Part of the range of this species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the population abundance of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157729		distribution	eng	This species is found in Turkey and Cyprus. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it was reported from a few localities in the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (500-800 m): Diarizos (Preiss and Platia 2003), Agia, Panagia (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157729		habitat	eng	It remains unknown if this is a true saproxylic as it is perhaps primarily a forest soil beetle. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>All the known localities of this species in Cyprus are in well vegetated (with <em>Platanus orientalis</em> and <em>Alnus orientalis</em>) valleys in <em>Pinus brutia</em> forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Adults were attracted to light.
157729		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">This species is </st1:country-region></st1:place>rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is considered that the population trend is decreasing.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157729		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Removal of <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> is a threat to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157730		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157730		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from Britain and Ireland.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is known from a few scattered localities in the hilly and mountainous regions. In Spain its presence is not confirmed but very likely because it is present in the French portion of the Pyrenean Irati forest, which continues to the Spanish side (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).
157730		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It requires standing dead or partly dead broad-leaved trees of various species. Found in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands.<br/><br/>The larvae develop under bark and in dead wood of various broad-leaved (oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>) and conifer (pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>) trees; they are predatory, eating larvae and pupae of bark beetles Scolytinae and Anobiidae. The adults are active in May - June, under bark and sometimes at fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">(Pycnoporellus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis)</span>. The life cycle is one or two years (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary all records are from old, relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157730		population	eng	A widespread species; rather common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Finland), but elsewhere rare and localised. Some declines and range contractions have been reported.<br/><br/>It is rather common in southern-most Finland; but its range has significantly decreased (the historical range was much larger). In Sweden it is found only in the south; rare and localised. In Germany it is currently found only in the east; formerly said to have been more widespread; either stable or slowly decreasing. In Hungary all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Italy it is found in the north; one single record from the south.
157730		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157731		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place, other than standard guidelines under FSC. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157731		distribution	eng	This is an Eurasian species (Laibner 2000); present through all regions in Europe except the south-west. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians, and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It occurs in the westernmost and northernmost corners of Hungary; scattered records are known from the central part of Hungary as well (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark the species is common and widespread (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). It is very widespread across Britain although the distribution is very fragmented and most sites tend to be isolated; in Ireland it is very rare and localised, reported from Rathlin Island off the north coast and Kerry in the far south-west (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it has recently been found in La Rioja (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is also found in Siberia and northern Mongolia.
157731		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in red-rotten stumps and boughs of various trees, predominantly oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> but also other conifers and deciduous trees.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In the UK it may develop in peat. It favours wood at ground level or buried, reflecting a need for continuously moist decay. It pupates at the end of season and hibernates as an adult in the pupal cell. It is found in woodlands, old wood pastures and on peatlands, also in old willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> along riversides. Adults have been taken in flight in June and July, and may be found sheltering amongst tree foliage during daylight at this time (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine larvae develop (prefer) conifers, sometimes (in southern part) in wood of some broad-leaved trees (rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>). It is a hygrophilic species - it occurs near lakes, in pine trees on marshes. Adults have daily activity in V-VI. In Hungary most records are from native or planted conifer forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is common in evergreen forests, especially pine (Laibner 2000).
157731		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant and it is considered that the population trend is stable overall. In Britain it is widespread, but has a fragmented range and a large number of isolated populations; believed to be declining at the national level (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a usual species (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is common (Laibner 2000). In Hungary the species is rare, and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there is a single locality known; recently found (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Ireland it is known from just two sites.
157731		threats	eng	<p>There appears to be no major threat to this species at European scale (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, Finland). In the UK loss of old trees and decaying wood is a threat (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157732		conservation	eng	In the UK the best examples of its lowland heath habitats are all now protected (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009); the beetle has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). This species occurs also in protected areas in Hungary.
157732		distribution	eng	This Transpalaearctic species (Laibner 2000) is widespread across almost all Europe.
157732		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae favour subterranean or surface wood, of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calluna</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, etc; adults are attracted to hawthorn blossom for feeding and also found on tree foliage of birch, elder, etc. (Alexander 2002). sometimes larvae occur in the soil near stubs. Pupation at end of&#160; July to September. The adult beetles hibernate and appear in May (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>Occurs in woodlands and heathland. In the UK only on lowland heaths (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is a mesohygrophylic species that occurs near water basin, swamp places, lowland humid forests (Dolin 1988). In Hungary it is typical to soft-wood forests of moist habitats, mainly in riverine and stream-side willow, poplar and alder galleries, marsh forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157732		population	eng	This species is common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is considered likely to be stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it is widespread on lowland heaths in parts of south-eastern England; a few outlying populations; populations strong (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is a very common species. In Denmark it is rare but widely distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. The species is common in all suitable habitats, with strong populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157732		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats at the European level, although there may be negative impacts from human activities such as draining of damp woodlands and logging.<br/></p>  In the UK the destruction of lowland heaths for housing and industrial developments has been a threat to this species.
157733		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic (Vávra 2005).
157733		distribution	eng	Widespread across much of Europe, with the exception of some Balkan and eastern European states, Britain and Ireland, southern Spain and northern Fennoscandia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians. It has recently been discovered in one Pyrenean locality in Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Italy it is restricted to the north.
157733		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Typically develops inside heartwood decay within intact trunks of various broad-leaved and coniferous trees. It has been reared from dead, fallen or standing, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euonymus europea </span>in a moist shaded location, wood on surface solid, inside partly rotten. Also reared from a fallen branch of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvestris,</span> partly without bark, half embedded in leaf litter, with fairly solid wood on surface, inside with brown rot; reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Betula, Carpinus, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Picea, Abies, Fagus</span>; larvae lived in the border of solid and soft wood in inner parts of trunk (Muona 1993). In Ukraine beetles found in loose wood mostly of broad-leaved trees, often aspen. In Hungary larvae in wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica, Carpinus betulus, Quercus spp., Euonymus spp., Abies alba, Picea abies </span>(Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979), where there is moist red-rotted heartwood but intact, undecayed sapwood.<br/><br/>In Hungary habitats of the known populations are mature forests, (oak and beech). Found in broad-leaved and coniferous woodlands.
157733		population	eng	Widespread and relatively common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is presumed to be stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is rare. In Hungary the species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations are very small. In Denmark it is rare and local; only on Zealand and Lolland (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland it is a rare species but with stable trend.<span lang="EN-GB">  In Spain there is only one locality, recently discovered (Recalde Irurzun 2008). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic it occurs in many faunistic grid cells across the country (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia it occurs in many faunistic grid cells, particularly in the central part, not in the south (Elateridae 2009). In Germany it is common and its population trend is increasing.</span>
157733		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>There are no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157734		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). In Germany this species is listed as Presumably Endangered (2009).
157734		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be throughout much of Europe, from central, west (but not the far west) and southern Europe including some of the   Mediterranean islands. It is also found in all Caucasus, Syria, Iraq, northern Iran, Turkmenistan (Kopet-dag mnys), western Kazakhstan, on east to Ural mountains only.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country, mostly in lower areas; in lowlands, it is the most common species of longicorn (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in lower and hilly areas. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987), Canakkale (Malmusi and Saltini 2005), Kırklareli (Lodos 1998), Edirne (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009), Tekirdag (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">It is widespread in Cyprus.</st1:place></st1:country-region>
157734		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  The larvae develop in the deadwood of exposed fine and dry branches (often two or five cm diameter) - it is a very thermophilus species. The life cycle is two or three years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in V-IX, attracted to flowers. Polyphagous in many broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Vitis, Acer, Quercus, Populus, Malus, Crataegus,</em><em> Juglans, </em><em>Robinia, Eleagnus, Ficus, Sesbania, Prunus, </em><em>Pyrus, Morus, </em><em>Castanea, Ulmus, Alnus, Fraxinus, Pistacia, Paliurus, Spartium</em> others). In the the east of its distribution range it lives in herbaceous plants (<em>Salicornia, Achillea, Spartium</em>). </p><p>    </p>    <p>In Hungary this species occurs in light deciduous forests, orchards. farmland and grasslands with any shrub vegetation. In Romania it has been reported from old orchards, grasslands with scattered old trees, and cemeteries (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been found in   orchards, maquis, garigue, and forests on various flowers especially on white Umbelliferae. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
157734		population	eng	A common and widespread species in Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very common on its localities. In Romania it is common and one of the best represented longicorn species. In Ukraine it is a common species. In Cyprus it is very common from 0 to 1,500 m. The population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey.<br/><br/>In Germany it is widely distributed but rare, missing in the very north. In France it is expanding in some areas and decreasing in others. In Spain this species is common. In Finland it is rare.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
157734		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
157735		conservation	eng	There is a need to maintain continuity and connectivity of the habitat. Research on the species distribution, ecological requirements and threats are required. Standard good practice recommendations under FSC, etc. are among the only conservation actions in place. The species occurs in many protected areas in Britain and several&#160; protected areas elsewhere (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark (1997) and Germany (2009), Vulnerable in Italy and the Czech Republic, and Near Threatened in Slovakia.
157735		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely but sparsely across much of central Europe, extending westwards as far as Britain. It also occurs in the Near East.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Britain it is distributed throughout the south, but it is unknown from Ireland (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In France it is very localized and it is confined to high quality sites (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Spain, it was first recorded from the north-west (Galicia) by Otero Gonzalez (1981) and more recently from a few sites in other northern areas.<br/><br/>In Portugal it has recently been recorded from two localities in the north-west of the country (Grosso-Silva 2002, Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003).
157735		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults and larvae live beneath the bark on relatively freshly dead large branches and trunks of broadleaved trees, while the bark is still firmly attached and the cambial layers still sappy (Alexander 2002). Larvae are slow-moving and so are unlikely to be active predators, maybe more of a scavenger and/or feeding on relatively defenseless insects. Its European distribution suggests a requirement for relatively cool and moist conditions but within the temperate zone, and with good habitat continuity over time (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Sites in Britain include forest country as well as cultural landscapes, in closed woodlands, open wood pastures and historic parklands, wooded riversides, etc (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In France it seems to prefer humid and cold forest - northern slopes for example; known from oak and sweet chestnut of small diameter (15-20 cm) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak and beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Müller<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2005) lists this species as an Urwald relict category 2 and it is regarded as a high quality forest species in France; this is much less evident in Britain.
157735		population	eng	The species seems to be rare across Europe with a declining population trend. Only Britain appears to have a strong population with stable trend.<br/><br/>It is widespread across southern Britain, with strong populations and a relatively intact range - well in excess of 150 localities known, no conservation issues (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Portugal it has only recently been discovered (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has a scattered distribution, only few populations: one in Sicily, one in Sardinia and some in mainland. In Germany it is known from seven States but only there are four records after 1950. In Denmark this species is very rare (Hansen 1996).
157735		threats	eng	<p>Lack of old-growth forest stands (specifically Urwald) and probably the loss of continuity of those habitats are the main threats.<br/></p>  In the UK excessive clearance of dead and dying trees, trunks and branches are detrimental for this species but there is no evidence for any decline (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary removal of dead wood is a threat, but this apparently has no serious impact on the species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The habitat is generally widespread and so the reasons for its rarity are unclear.
157736		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Also not known if the species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>
157736		distribution	eng	This species is only found in mainland Spain.
157736		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no information is available on its specific habitat requirements.
157736		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157736		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157737		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the population trends of this species.  The species occurs in a protected area, but is not actually directly protected.    </p>  <p></p>
157737		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Turkey and Cyprus. The population in Turkey has a wider range. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has been r</st1:place></st1:country-region>eported from the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (500-1,200 m): Panagia, Chrysorrogiatissa, Vretsia, Platres, Foini, Pera Pedi (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157737		habitat	eng	&#160; <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it is found in maquis, forests and orchards. The adults are attracted to ripe fruits and to sugar or wine baits, for feeding. Adults also feed at flowers on occasion, especially on <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">spinosissimus</span> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157737		population	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">The </st1:place></st1:country-region>population size and trend for this species in Cyprus has not been quantified (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157737		threats	eng	<p>No information available. The major threat to this species is forest fires. Degradation of its habitat and decline in the extent of suitable habitat are additional threats.<br/></p>
157738		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157738		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Portuguese archipelagos of Azores and Madeira in the Atlantic Ocean. An introduction to the USA has been recorded.
157738		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It can be suspected that <span style="font-style: italic;">S. barbata</span> may use a variety of dry woods for its larval development, and is not dependent on larger diameter classes, as this is the general rule within the genus.</p>
157738		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>In the Azores, the species is present on three islands (Pico, Terceira, Santa Maria), and recorded from 21 0.5x0.5 km grids, mainly near coast (Base Biodiversidade   Açores 2009). This may not reflect the total population. No detailed information is available for the Madeira archipelago. </p>  <p></p>
157738		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157739		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas. This species benefits from controlled fires to increase the amount of dead wood.
157739		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and northern Europe, extending to western and eastern Europe as well. It is a boreomontane species that extends far south. <br/>In central and southern Europe it is confined to the mountains, mainly Alps and Carpathians.
157739		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species is found mainly in pine but also in spruce. Beetles and larvae live under bark of deadwood of conifer trees.
157739		population	eng	The species is considered rare throughout its range and the population trend seems to be declining. However, no information is available on the Russian populations.
157739		threats	eng	Logging and removal of fallen trees are the main threats to this species. In Fennoscandia, scarification in order to prepare the soil for new forest plantations is another threat. In Ukraine destruction and gathering of old conifer trees are threatening this species.
157740		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>
157740		distribution	eng	In Europe this species is only known from Greece. It is reported from north-western Greece (Preveza and Louros river basin) (Zdeněk Malinka collection 2000). It also occurs in Turkey, Near East. Five specimens have been collected from Peloponnesus Peninsula and Crete (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157740		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information about its habitat requirements is available.
157740		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157740		threats	eng	<p>No specific information available.   The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.  </p>
157741		conservation	eng	No information available.
157741		distribution	eng	It is believed that in Europe this species is only found in the Urals. It is also known from one locality in Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It extends eastwards across Asia into northern China (Sama 2002).
157741		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The habitat of this species is known to be temperate forests and maybe as well boreal forests, but no information is available on its specific habitat requirements. <br/></p>
157741		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157741		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry may be a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157742		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the protected Crimean mountain's reservation (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157742		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Crimea (Ukraine) and is thought likely to be severely fragmented because its required habitat is fragmented over most of its range. It is suspected to occur also in Bulgaria but there is no information about its distribution there (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in Minor Asia.
157742		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that occurs in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>forests, the larvae developing in the decaying wood of these tree species.<br/>The larvae hibernate. Adults are seen in glades and feeding at various flowers (mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Compositae</span>) the following spring and summer. The adult beetle is active in June - July. There is one generation per year.
157742		population	eng	This species is relatively rare in the mountain forests of Crimea but its trend is unknown (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157742		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores which has impacts on the species composition of natural regeneration. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. This species is specifically threatened by habitat loss caused by felling of forests. While this is not a threat in the protected mountain reserves of Crimea, most of the species' range is outside of protected areas (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>
157743		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>
157743		distribution	eng	This species is known from Greece and Turkey. No exact locations are known. Four specimens have been found from north-western, western and southern Greece (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157743		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.
157743		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157743		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157744		conservation	eng	As the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained, no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157744		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in south, central and eastern Europe, and also in southern Russia. It is also reported from the European part of Turkey, although the exact locality is unknown. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Asia Minor. <br/><br/>In Hungary the species is widespread mainly in hilly regions where old vineyards occur, and rarely also in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157744		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is best known where it develops in the deadwood of old vines <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>, but it also develops in wood from other species. In the Ukraine it is found in wood of vines, and sometimes in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and nut-groves, but not in a forest setting, mainly in open settings.&#160;In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, traditionally managed, vineyards but also in more recently established ones (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p>    </p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157744		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In the Ukraine&#160;this is a common species and data from 30 years ago show a stable population. It is not thought to be in decline despite the lack of recent data (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified. In the past it was considered a pest of grapevine but now it is much rarer (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160;In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.</p>
157744		threats	eng	Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range, as the European Union encourages removal of vineyards from culture. However, the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157745		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas but there is no information available regarding conservation measures in place.</p>
157745		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea. In Italy it is only in the north-eastern part of the country. <br/>There are new records from south-western Romania, in the south of the Carpathians Mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is reported from the hills and mountains of Troodos Massif (500-1,200 m) (Sama and Makris 2001), in particular from Panagia, Platres, Pera Pedi, Vretsia, Foini (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is also reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953).
157745		habitat	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">This species is thought to be associated particularly with veteran trees, developing in the sapwood of freshly dead or dying areas of living fruit trees like Malus and Pyrus, also hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>and other broad-leaved trees. This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/></p><p>    </p>    <p>In Ukraine adults are active in V-IX and the life cycle is three years.In Romania, it develops mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, and sometimes in fruit trees. Adults have been found feeding at <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus ebulus</span> flowers (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is present in </st1:place></st1:country-region>old   orchards, maquis and forests. &#160;</p>  <p></p>
157745		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, however in some areas it is considered rare. No information is known about the population trend, however because of its association with veteran trees which are known to be in decline, the population is inferred to be in decline.<br/></p>
157745		threats	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">As this species is though to be associated with veteran trees</span><span lang="EN-GB">, one threat is the rate of loss of these trees, which although not quantified, is significant, and it may potentially exceed 20% in the next ten years (= three generations). Moreover, there is very little regeneration of suitable habitat across the species' range. Once the existing veteran trees have died, there will be no replacements in many areas. Even if efforts are made now to re-plant appropriate tree species, there may still be a 'gap' during which time there would be very little suitable habitat available.  </p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157746		conservation	eng	Research on the origin of this species is needed to establish whether it is native to Europe or not.<br/><br/>In Hungary as very few extant populations are known, it is difficult to do anything about conservation. Protection of riverine galleries is necessary.
157746		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout all Europe. Native wild populations of this species are, however, likely only to be found in southern Europe; the species has been imported into central and northern Europe with movements of woven baskets and other wood products (Bense 1995). It is questionable whether this species is native to Europe as the larvae might have been introduced through commercial transport. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is only found in Crimea. In Spain it is widespread although records are localised (Vives 2001), other sources suggest only introduced populations in Tenerife and Azores (Gonzáles Peña <span style="font-style: italic;">et.al. </span>2007). In Portugal it has only been recorded from one area in the centre (Carvalho 1947); additional sites mentioned by Vives (1984) derive from erroneous literature citations. In Germany it is present in almost all states but it has been introduced. This species was formerly widespread in Hungary, but very few new records are known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It has been reported from Istanbul in European Turkey (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953). In Cyprus it is widespread. It is also found in all Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Iran, northern&#160; Africa, Japan.    <p>    </p><p>    </p><p></p>  <p></p>
157746		habitat	eng	<p></p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead branches and twigs of willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> in particular, more rarely oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, nut-tree, crest-tree and some other broad-leaved tree species; in Cyprus it has been reared from dead twigs of <em>Pistacia lentiscus </em>and <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>; very rarely reported from conifers. The adult is active in VI-VIII. The known localities in Hungary are mainly in riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been reported from maquis, garigue and old plantations with <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Germany it was introduced with weaved baskets (willow and other substratum).</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
157746		population	eng	It is a cosmopolitan species and its population in Europe is stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary, Turkey and Cyprus the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rare in its localities in Hungary but not rare in Cyprus. In the UK and many other northern countries it is a rare naturalised introduction. In Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia it is common.<p>    </p><p>    </p><br/><p></p>
157746		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at a continent level. In Hungary the riverine galleries are seriously threatened by invasive trees (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157747		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157747		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Malta.
157747		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details are available on its precise habitat requirements.
157747		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>
157747		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157748		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157748		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. It is a recently described species.
157748		habitat	eng	This species could be an obligate saproxylic species, but this requires confirmation since many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriotes</span> are not saproxylic (the larvae feed on grass roots).
157748		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157748		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157749		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. across Spain, Hungary and Britain). In the Britain the conservation status of this species is Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). In Denmark it is listed as Vulnerable (1997). In Spain it is not included in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).
157749		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe, reaching its distributional limits within the southern states. In Spain and Portugal it is only known from the north. In Portugal it was recorded from the extreme north in the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup> century (Oliveira 1893) but apparently not found since. In Spain it is present in the northern third of the country (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004); it is present in 26 localities/squares of 10x10 km between 700 and 1,500 m of altitude (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). In Britain it has a northern and western distribution extending across to the Weald in southern England, perhaps reflecting a need for hill terrain. In Ireland it is only known from the far south-east (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <span lang="EN-GB">It is also reported from northern Africa (Tunis).</span>
157749		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae and adults are found beneath loose bark on the decaying wood of a wide variety of trees - broad-leaves and conifers - and in the later stages of white-rot decay when the heartwood is dry and soft. The larvae are reported to develop in the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">confragosa </span>on <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, or in the wood of these trees in Russia and the Ukraine, while they are more closely associated with oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>in Britain. The adult is also often found on the fruiting bodies of fungi such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis pinicola, Piptoporus, Cerrena, Bjerkandera, Daedalea, Phellinus, Trametes </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> and are active usually in VI-VII. The life cycle is between one and two years. The larvae probably are sapro-xylo-mycetophagous, while the adult is mycetophagous (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The species is confined to ancient wood pastures and historic parklands in Britain (Alexander 2002). In Hungary it occurs mainly in mature oak forests with abundant dead wood and bracket fungi, sometimes in other forests (beech and hornbeam) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is present in forests at middle altitudes, related to fungi from which they feed (Bercedo Páramo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
157749		population	eng	This species is widespread in a few countries but more generally localised and relatively rare. In the Alps it is reported to be common. Although the species is not commonly found in Hungary, the known populations are strong and the species is not threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Britain the species has a fragmented distribution, but with more than 40 small isolated populations across the north and west (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). Only known from a single population in the south-western part of Ireland discovered in 1898, and not reported since; if it still survives it must be a very small and isolated population (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered a rare species. Rarely cited in Spain and mainly single specimens, probably due to wrong sampling methods rather than low abundance (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Denmark it is rare and local (Hansen 1996).
157749		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157750		conservation	eng	Action is required to study occurrence, biology and abundance of this species. <a name="OLE_LINK3"> It may occur in a protected area (Crimean Mountain Reservation) but this is uncertain.</a>
157750		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Crimea (Ukraine) but is possibly also in southern Ukraine and southwestern Russia.
157750		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its biology is poorly known but it is likely to depend on the availability of a good supply of wood-decay fungi. It occurs in broad-leaved temperate forest.
157750		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The species is considered rare.</p>
157750		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The specific threats to this species are unknown. <br/></p>
157751		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information on any conservation action for this species but it is known that the species occurs in a protected area.</p>
157751		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Crimea but is very poorly known. R<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ecords are given for Turkey, Greece and Crimea (BioLib.cz 2009) but the Greek and Turkish population is regarded as a separate species (or subspecies) <span style="font-style: italic;">semicyaneus</span>.
157751		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development unknown (Bense 1995). In Crimea adults are attracted to flowers for feeding; however the species is not well known. It is only known there from one or two specimens so there is uncertainty as to whether this is the same species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>
157751		population	eng	In Ukraine it is very rare and poorly known.
157751		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157752		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/></p>
157752		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-western Europe: northern Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006) and Italy. Possibly present in France (it looks very similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bouyoni</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. megerlei</span>, so records of these two species may in fact be attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. campadellii</span>).
157752		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Probably lives in oak woods, like other species in its genus, but no details of its precise habitat requirements are known.
157752		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown. A single locality known in Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006) but no information available on France and Italy.<br/></p>
157752		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157754		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas. It is included in the Spanish Red Data Book and is listed as Data Deficient&#160;(Verdú and Galante 2006).</p>
157754		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula.<br/><br/>In Portugal this species occurs in the northern half, with very scattered records, mostly from mountain areas - it is known from the extreme north and from the northern central part (areas 150 km apart) since the 19<sup>th&#160;</sup>century (Oliveira 1893). There are unpublished recent records (1996 onwards) from the two areas and also from an intermediate site (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain it is present in the north-western part of the country, in the Cantabrian Range, and towards the south, mainly in mountain areas (Iberian System, Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra de Gredos, Sierra Nevada, Sierra de Cazorla) (López-Colón 2000, A. Quirós pers. comm. 2009). There are records from 79 10 x10&#160;km²&#160;grid, 30 of them with data from before 1980 (A. Quirós &#160;pers. comm. 2009). This species is known from 105 localities in Spain (A. Quirós pers. comm. 2009).
157754		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;Towards the Mediterranean part of its distribution in Spain, it is present mainly in mountains above 700 and often 1,000 m; in the north-western part of Spain it is also present at lower altitude, even below 100 m (A. Quirós &#160;pers. comm. 2009, M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).<br/><em>P. spinifer</em> lives in forests (beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>) but also in shrubby vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus</span> spp. that are known to grow in degraded habitats (in north-western part of Spain) or <span style="font-style: italic;">Retama sphaerocarpa</span> (in Mediterranean part) (A. Quirós pers. comm. 2009). Habitat preferences, however, have not been systematically assessed.
157754		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><br/><p><br/></p>
157754		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no serious threats to this species. <br/><br/></p>  <p></p>
157755		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures for this species are known to be in place. It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005).<br/></p>
157755		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fennoscandia and from eastern and western Europe. It is endemic to Europe.
157755		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Found in broad-leaved and also coniferous woodland. Usually found in trees that died five or ten years ago (data from Sweden). There appears to be no preference for size of tree.<br/><br/>Develops especially in standing, but also lying trees; <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Betula, Fagus, Populus, Quercus, Picea, Pinus</span>; surface of wood solid, inside moist, fairly solid, greyish blue. Reared from moist, white-rotten log of <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, diameter ten cm; also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Abies</span>; larvae are in inner wood; beetles found in inner wood in galleries of other beetles with fungal growth in them. Larvae and adult beetles are frequently in the area of the wood close to the fruiting body of the fungus; development takes more than one year (Muona 1993).
157755		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is widespread; there are typically only scattered records, but the species is regarded as not rare in at least some range states. May be under-recorded as it is difficult to find even where it does occur.</p><p>In Finland there is only one record. In Sweden it is rare in the south. In Denmark it is rare and local and there are only six localities (all in Jutland) (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Germany&#160; it is present in only a few regions; fewer than ten known localities. <br/></p><p>In France it is localised but not rare. In Spain there are recent records from the Pyrenees and Atlantic regions, but it is considered likely to be present in the whole country (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Italy it is found on the mainland and Sicily. In the Czech Republic there are scattered records (six grid squares) while in Slovakia it is nor rare as it was found in 20-30 grid squares.</p>
157755		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. This species favours relatively long-dead wood, so 'cleaning' of such dead wood from forests has a negative impact on the species.<br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157756		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas, e.g. in Romania. In Hungary the species occurs almost exclusively in protected areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157756		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be widely distributed in Europe from the Eurosiberian subregion to central, western and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Romania and Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathian Mountains and the forest zone. In Hungary this species is found only in the westernmost part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is absent from some of the fringing areas such as the British Isles, Spain and Turkey.
157756		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead branches and thin tree-tops of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Pinus, Larix, Picea, Juniperus</span>), and only occasionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Quercus, Acer</span>). The life cycle takes two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VI (in UA -VI-VII), and are found in the canopy on the host-plants. In Finland larvae are most often found in dying thick branches of large spruce (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span>) trees. In Germany i<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>t is abundant in all conifer plantations and natural forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea. </span>In Hungary, however,&#160; it occurs mainly in old indigenous conifer forests that are restricted in a few westernmost localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Parasites: some species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ichneumonidae </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Sichelia, Xorides</span>)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Braconidae</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Caluptus, Helcon, Opius</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Chalcidoidea</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Chiripachus</span>).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p><p><br/></p>
157756		population	eng	Population levels vary across the continent, with the species widespread in some countries, e.g. Germany, but rare in others. In Ukraine it is a rare species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified. However, it is regarded as rare in the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are only old reports from different parts of country; it is quite rare, but it might be due to lack of information (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Population size is often underestimated as the species lives in the tree canopy.
157756		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
157758		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. No specific measures are needed.
157758		distribution	eng	Holarctic species (Laibner 2000) distributed widely across Europe, the Palaearctic and North America.<br/><br/>A northern and western, upland species in Britain (Mendel 2004).
157758		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae most frequently develop in red-rotten heartwood but also in decaying wood generally, in a wide variety of tree species; they feed on the larvae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhagium </span>longhorn beetles and other insects, taking both live and dead items; they pupate at the end of the summer and the adults appear from late April until mid July; the adult flies after dark and is attracted to light (Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>Ubiquitous in the UK and Ireland, wherever there are trees and decaying wood (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is a typical forest species. In Hungary it occurs in various broad-leaved forests.
157758		population	eng	A widespread and common species; population trend is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Ireland and the UK. In Ukraine it is a common species that occurs in conifer forests of the Carpathians. This species is widespread in the western half of Hungary and its populations are strong. In Denmark it is very common and distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).
157758		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157759		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157759		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Crete, Greece.
157759		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, although no information is available on its habitat requirements.
157759		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157759		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157760		conservation	eng	Found in protected areas in France (a large population protected in Fontainebleau Forest), Spain, Hungary (including strictly protected areas and Natura 2000 sites) and Italy. It is considered Endangered in Germany.
157760		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across the European continent, although absent in northern Europe.&#160; In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous regions covered with oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal there is a single record from the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup> century, without geographic precision. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. varius </span>is largely well distributed in France but only in large beech forests at low altitudes (Sainte-Claire Deville 1935-38). It is also found in northern Africa, Minor Asia, all Caucasus and west Turkmenia.
157760		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a thermophilous species and can be found in the deadwood of all Fagaceae trees, especially beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. The best habitats are provided by standing dead trees with development of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Nummularia bulliardia</span>. Development in small branches (ca. five cm) is possible.  The larval phase may be more than five years. The adult is active from the end of June to September (Iablokoff 1945).&#160; In Hungary it occurs in turkey oak-sessile oak woods and white oak woods (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Germany this species is found in old broad-leaved forests.</p>
157760		population	eng	<p>    </p>  <p>It is a rare species over much of its European range. In France it has always been considered as a rare species (Iablokoff 1945), probably forming small patchy populations in suitable habitats (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is very rare and in Germany it is rare in broad-leaved forests, in some only records from before 1950. In Spain, Portugal and the Czech Republic it is known from just one location each.&#160; </p><span class="Apple-converted-space">In Ukraine it is, however, a usual species and in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is also rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157760		threats	eng	Intensive forest management is a threat but it is not known how much this affects the species. The species does need ancient standing trees at least partly with dead wood in order to survive. In France there are no direct threats actually known but it may be sensitive to the rarefaction of standing dead trees of beech (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is threatened by habitat loss. Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range in Hungary as a result of removing dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the species is not considered to be threatened.
157761		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed.
157761		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in southern Europe and the Mediterranean (Bense 1995). It is also present in northern Africa, Crimea, Turkey, all Caucasus and Iran.<br/>    <p>In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987). In Portugal it has only been recorded from a single locality in the centre, in 1979.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157761		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; The larvae develop under the bark of a wide range of broad-leaved trees, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Salix, Populus, Pistacea, Fagus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica, Prunus, Juglans, Ostrya carpinifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, usually on dying trees but also commonly on dead, even very old wood<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; often breeding in prepared timber, sometimes also in furniture. Adults active in VI-VIII; nocturnal, found on the hosts, and frequently attracted to articifial light (Sama 2002).&#160; The life cycle is usually one year but sometimes two or three year. <br/><br/>A typical inhabitant of Mediterranean maquis.<br/><br/>There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<strong></strong>
157761		population	eng	It is common only in the central Mediterranean; for example it is common and widespread in Italy (Sama 2002). In Ukraine it is rare, and the population size and trend have not been quantified for Turkey.<br/><p><br/></p>
157761		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species.
157762		conservation	eng	Further studies on the distribution if the species in Italy could be useful. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Romania, Hungary). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (2009) and as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).
157762		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe, except the far north, far south, and Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). It is also found in Kazakhstan, northern Iran, Syria, Asia Minor and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is widespread in the hilly areas, at the foothills of the Carpathians and sometimes has been reported from the lowlands; it is very common in Transylvania. In Portugal it is known from four sites in the north, most of which are old records. In Germany it is present in all German States. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943). In Denmark it is Extinct (2005); not found naturally in more than 100 years.
157762		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dead broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus, </em>also in <em>Carpinus, Fagus, Castanea, Betula</em>). The larvae develop under the bark of sun-exposed standing and fallen dead trunks and thick branches. The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood or sometimes in thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VII (in UA VI-VII), and are found on the host plant. In European Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus</em></strong> and <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea</em></strong>; the adults are active in V-VII (Schimitschek 1953).</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary this species occurs in thermophilous oak forests (mainly in turkey oak and white oak) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found in the old oak forests, in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagionotus arcuatus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in mature oak forests, and breeds in dying trunks.<br/></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
157762		population	eng	A widespread species that is relatively common over much of its European range.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities. In Romania it is common in the Transylvanian oak forests. In Ukraine it is common.&#160; In France it is expanding its range from the east and the north to the rest of France. In the Czech Republic it is very common and it is considered a pest. In Spain there are 64 localities. The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey. <p>In Italy there are 12 subpopulations and it is rare. In Sweden it is rare. It is Extinct in Denmark.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157762		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.     <p><span lang="EN-GB">The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157763		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Sweden (2005 and 2000) and Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). However, there is some new information on the occurrence of this species in Finland which will move the species nationally into Vulnerable or Near Threatened.<br/> <br/>The species was first found about 20 years ago in Finland, but is not seen very frequently. The situation may be improving because aspen trees are more often being left dead in open areas, providing habitat for the species.<br/><br/>In Sweden this species is likely to struggle unless conditions change. Its habitat and distribution is very fragmented, with it being found in 11 localities.
157763		distribution	eng	This species is found in Fennoscandia in northern Europe. In Sweden it is in 11 localities, mostly in the east, and in Finland in eight localities.<strong><br/></strong>
157763		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae live in the thick dead bark of old standing aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> trees both in shaded and open areas. It however seems to prefer sun exposed dying or recently dead trees.<br/></p>
157763		population	eng	<p>In Finland the trend is stable. In Sweden the species is thought to be declining and is very fragmented.</p>
157763		threats	eng	There is lack of information available regarding the threats for this species.   The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use ? affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is a key immediate issue and the removal of dead and dying trees is clearly a problem. Forest clearance, unsustainable forest management, grazing, and drainage are also issues. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.&#160; In Finland, the species may become threatened if there were more use or demand for aspen trees which would lead to more removal of the large trees. Additionally, moose eat aspen saplings and may pose a threat to aspen regeneration weakening the future habitat for this species.
157764		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal. It has recently been recorded from the centre of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).
157764		habitat	eng	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.
157764		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157764		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157767		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it occurs in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology to this species, especially into its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>
157767		distribution	eng	This species is found in Turkey and Greece. One specimen has been collected from Morea, Megaspileon (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157767		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species lives in hollow deciduous trees in forests and open areas.
157767		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered a rare species. Presumably the population is declining due to the disappearance of old hollow trees.<br/></p>
157767		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Logging and removal of hollow trees are specific threats.<br/></p><p></p>
157768		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>
157768		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Croatia and south of Russia and in the Caucasus.
157768		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. No information is known about this species' habitat but based on presence in Croatia and southern Russia it occurs in temperate forests.
157768		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157768		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157769		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas in Hungary, so no additional specific measures are suggested (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157769		distribution	eng	This species is found in a patchy distribution through central and southeastern Europe.
157769		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is obligatory mycetophagous (fungus-feeder) and beetles occur on wood-decay fungi such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>sp. in relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forests. It is also found on old cherry trees. The extent and quality of remaining undisturbed forests with beech trees in the Carpathian region is not well known but thought to be in good condition. More research is needed on the biology and specific habitat requirements of the species and the remaining ancient beech forest. The biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Triplax </span>genus is not well known because they eat fruiting bodies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> which occur sporadically and may be difficult to find, so finding the species is difficult.
157769		population	eng	Little information is known about population abundance and trends. In Hungary this species is known from a few localities scattered in the western and northern parts of the country. It tends to be found more often in the south-western part of Hungary. Population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite rare, and its populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157769		threats	eng	<p>Little information is available about threats to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157770		conservation	eng	The species is occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157770		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe, except Britain, Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula. <br/><br/> It is also known from Caucasus, Minor Asia (Syria, Turkey). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present mostly in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions.
157770		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands; the larvae develop in fruiting bodies of certain types of fungus that are involved in the decay of the dead wood of broad-leaved trees.<br/><br/>In Ukraine, larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus obliquus,</span> sometimes <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus, Laetiporus sulphureus.</span> The adult beetles are found feeding on a wide range of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes, Inonotus, Piptophorus</span>) and under bark, mostly of broad-leaved trees. Pupation occurs within the fungi or in ground below. The life cycle is one or two years. The adult beetle is active from May to the end of summer (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech.
157770		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is probably stable.<br/><br/>In Finland it is rather common in the south and its population is stable. In France it is widespread and common.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is rare, Regionally Extinct in most federal States. Old records may, however, apply to wrongly identified <span style="font-style: italic;">M. atomarius</span>.
157770		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157771		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and population trends of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157771		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Crete (Bense 1995). It is recorded from Lygaria, close to Rethymnon, Azogires and from lake Kournas environment.
157771		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development is inadequately known, the larvae are probably polyphagous in dead wood of broad-leaved trees; recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (Bense 1995) and also reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> (G. Novak pers. comm. 2009). Host trees are usually large trees.
157771		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is rare.<br/></p>
157771		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species lives in big trees and a threat may be the loss of these trees and lack of younger trees coming on as future replacements. The population from Lygaria may be affected by fragmentation by road construction and urbanization. More research on the effects of these threats on the species is needed.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157772		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157772		distribution	eng	This species is found in south-western Europe, including the   Mediterranean islands. In Portugal it has only been recorded from two localities in the centre of the country (in 1981 and 2005). In France it is present in all the Mediterranean area including Corsica (Sainte-Clare Deville 1935-38). In Italy it is present in northern Italy and on the islands.<br/><br/>It is also present in northern Africa and Near East.
157772		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dead trees and thin branches. Also lives on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia. </span>Larvae are xylophagous with a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
157772		population	eng	<p>The species is abundant where it occurs - locally common. The population trend is stable.<br/></p>
157772		threats	eng	This species appears to be not threatened.<br/><p></p>
157773		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. <span lang="EN-GB">Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.
157773		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Cyprus. Reported from scattered localities all over <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region> (Orga, Akamas, Mora, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Andreas</st1:placename>, Panagia, Alethriko, Vretsia, Kelefos and Korfi) (Alexis and Makris 2002). There are also records from Amathus and Lemesos.<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
157773		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in stands of old <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus infectoria</span> trees and more rarely in lowland maquis with  old <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> trees. It is often found in linear or solitary stands of old trees, along streets, rivers or in parks, and has also been found in orchards. Larvae have been found in decaying wood of <em>Quercus infectoria ssp veneris </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and <em>Ceratonia siliqua </em>(Pittino and Miessen 2007). Adults are attracted to wine traps but rarely to light.
157773		population	eng	The species is rare and local, found always in small numbers (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and it is considered that the population trend is decreasing.
157773		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>    <p></p><p>The main specific threat is however the loss of habitat, which is old hollow trees, due to extraction, clearing, and destruction of veteran trees. This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species.  In urban areas trees are often ´sterilized´ by burning and filling of the rot holes with concrete or other materials. Recruitment of new generations of trees is a big issue.<br/></p>
157774		conservation	eng	Present in a large number of protected sites in Britain, Hungary, etc.
157774		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout much of Europe, except only the far north and far south (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus, northern Iran, west Turkmenistan, Siberia, Algeria - on east to Ural Mountains only.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is known from all parts of the country, specially in the hilly areas. In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre; few recent records. In Denmark it is distributed throughout and common (Thomsen 2007). In Germany it is present in all the States. In Britain it is widespread across the whole of England and Wales, but with very few records from Scotland. It has been reported from European Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).<p><br/></p>
157774		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae first develop under the bark, later in the wood, of dead trunks and branches. The life cycle is two years (in Ukraine it is one year), with pupation in autumn or spring deep in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VII, and are found on the host plants or at flowers. It is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Quercus, Fagus, Carpinus, Castanea, Corylus, </em><em>Juglans</em><em>, </em><em>Crataegus,</em><em> </em><em>Sarothamnus</em><em>, </em><em>Robinia, Rosa, Ficus, Ostrya, Salix, </em><em>Morus</em><em>, </em><em>Vitis, Fraxinus, Prunus, Ulmus, Ilex</em>). Adults sun-loving and often found apparently basking on foliage and wood in warm sunshine.<br/><br/>Known in Britain from a very wide variety of situations across the cultural landscape, from woodlands through to coastal scrub and hedgerows&#160; (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in ecotonal situations. In Romania it has been found on fresh cut branches, on the edge of forests, and in pastures with old scatter oaks. In Germany it is abundant in all broad-leaved forests. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/></p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157774		population	eng	At the European level this species is widespread and common.<br/><br/> In Britain it is widespread and plentiful over much of the lowlands of England and Wales; but rare in Scotland (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Ukraine it is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Romania it is common in the oak forests of Transylvania. In France it is very common while in Finland it is rare. In Spain it is common. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified but it is regarded as common.<br/><br/>In Ireland it is a rare and very localised species, with possibly two well-established native populations (Alexander 1997); distribution confused by periodic casual introductions.
157774		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. <br/>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157775		conservation	eng	Preservation of suitable habitats is recommended for the survival of this species. It lives in several protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in Greece, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Germany (2009). In Poland it is listed as Least Concern.
157775		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across south and central Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread, albeit sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions, and more sporadic in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in the central part of the country; there are few reports from other parts of the country. In France it is restricted to the north-eastern part (Paulian and Baraud 1982). In Greece it occurs in the centre. In Ukraine it is only present in the Carpathian Mountains.
157775		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>Found in relict forest with dead wood, also in orchards and urban areas, developing in the rotting wood of various broad-leaved trees. In France larvae develop in rotten wood of Alnus (Paulian and Baraud 1982). Does not depend on rot holes and prefers wood on the ground level (trunks and stumps) to provide a minimum of moisture. Prefers a high volume of dead wood and is not found in intensively managed forests. The adults feed on pollen and are attracted to umbel shaped flowers; active in June.<br/><br/>The biology is the same as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fasciatus. <br/></span><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various open broadleaved forests, mainly in mountainous areas, in wooded stream valleys and ravines, but also in the lowlands, sometimes in surprisingly open, warm and dry habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in hilly areas and low mountains, where exist shrubs, rare trees, herbaceous high vegetation (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157775		population	eng	Population numbers and trends appear to be stable in its core areas. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not rare in its localities, but never abundant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is common in its localities; the number of individuals are generally low, but in some years, the number can still be high (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Greece its population is declining. In the Czech Republic it is rare and present in southern, warmer areas. In Ukraine it is a relatively usual species.
157775		threats	eng	<p>Intensive forest management - including removing dead wood - is a threat to this species as it seems to require habitats with a large amount of dead wood. In Greece, anthropogenic impacts especially tourism leading to more traffic, human intrusion, pathways, and garbage are presumably affecting the habitat of this species. In Ukraine and Hungary the species is not threatened.</p>
157776		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157776		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across south-eastern Europe extending to some countries in south-western Europe. It has been reported from some stations in south-western Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Greece, it is only present in Crete and in the Dodecannese (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is only present in the northern part of the country (Carpaneto and Piattella 1995). This species is also found in Israel.
157776		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.  It is known from decaying wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and is found in thermophilic broad-leaved forests - usually near the edges (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157776		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered common in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/></p>
157776		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157777		conservation	eng	In the UK it has conservation status as Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); some of the best sites are protected. In Sweden it is regarded as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, and, as it is common is synanthropic habitats, no specific measures are necessary.
157777		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over much of Europe. It occurs worldwide (except in the Afrotropical region).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is very rare in wild situations in the UK, but known across the lowlands. In Finland some records are more than 100 years old and the species is considered to be Extinct, but a single specimen was found in 2008. It is absent from Ireland.
157777		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits a variety of dry mouldy situations in and about ancient trees, e.g. mildewy cavities, old bracket fungi, wood mould and woody debris generally; it is very occasionally reported from stored products where fungal decay in process, e.g. granary refuse, haystacks, etc. (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it lives on wood-decay fungi and is found under bark on numerous tree species.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is found mainly in synanthropic habitats (stables, chicken pens, etc.), and is much rarer in natural habitats, in wood mould of cavities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the UK, wild sites are primarily historic parklands and other ancient wood pastures - old growth in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).
157777		population	eng	In the UK this species has a very fragmented distribution, with modern records from just four areas, widely scattered and isolated; old records are more widespread and so a serious decline is probable; it was formerly reported from synanthropic situations but is virtually Extinct there due to modern food hygiene practices, etc (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It is not rare in central Europe. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its natural localities; it is common in synanthropic habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is widespread and not rare. In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Italy it is quite common. <br/><br/>In Sweden this species is declining.
157777		threats	eng	<p>Although not threatened at European level, and able to live in synanthropic situations, its wild habitats of old decaying trees are threatened.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157778		conservation	eng	<p>Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future. It remains unknown if this species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>
157778		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the extreme south-east of Europe (Bense 1995). It is present in Crimea, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece (Rejzek and Hoskovec 1999) and the European part of Turkey - it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Demir 2006). It is also found in the Minor Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran and Turkey.
157778		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species found in dying, diseased or stressed trees, but not in dead trees. The species is active during the day but difficult to find. This species is reliant on freshly dead or dying sapwood the larvae developing in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, woods of vine and apricot, cherry, plum, almond and some other stone-fruit trees. Imago in VI-IX and life cycle two or three years duration. <br/></p><p></p><p>    </p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157778		population	eng	There is a substantial trend in the decrease of suitable host trees, and from this we can infer a reduction in the population of the species, but this cannot be quantified. In Ukraine this species is known to be in a very restricted area and the trend may be decreasing. Although the species is not commonly found it may not be as rare as thought because it is known to be more difficult to find than other similar species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157778		threats	eng	The rate of loss of veteran trees has not been quantified, but it is significant, and it may potentially exceed 20% in the next ten years (= three generations). Moreover, there is very little regeneration of suitable habitat across the species' range. Once the existing veteran trees have died, there will be no replacements in many areas. Even if efforts are made now to re-plant appropriate tree species, there may still be a 'gap' during which time there would be very little suitable habitat available.  <p></p>
157779		conservation	eng	River 'conservation' in Britain is a great threat as there is too much emphasis on fencing riverbanks out of grazing, which will ultimately lead to dense thickets rather than the open mosaics favoured by this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). Protection of riverine galleries is necessary for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>It is present in several protected areas.
157779		distribution	eng	It is believed that wild native sites of this species are found in southern, western and eastern Europe, with northern records of imported specimens only (Bense 1995). The species is also found in northern Africa, all Caucasus. It has been introduced to Japan and North America.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Spain but there are few actual records (Vives 2001) and in Portugal it is widespread in the northern half and with a single record from the southern extreme. In Hungary this species was formerly widespread in the country, but very few new records are known.&#160; In Germany it is present in all German States. In Ukraine mostly in Crimea. It has been reported from European Turkey without exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).
157779		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark and in the wood of thin dry dead branches of various broad-leaved trees and bushes, often in branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>spp; also live in wickerwork products, which is their means of import into northern European countries (Ehnstrom 2007). Sama (2002) also says that it may develop in conifers; the life cycle is one year; adults are crepuscular or nocturnal, by day hidden on the bark; active in VI-IX. Bense (1995) says that the life cycle is one or two years. Alexander (2002) says two years in Britain. In Ukraine the life cycle is usually two years (rarely one or three); known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Betula, Quercus, </span>chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, nut-tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plumus</span>, bramble <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus</span>, dog-rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa</span>, some other trees and bushes.&#160; Imago active in VI-IX.<br/><br/>Best known in Britain from habitat mosaics along riversides and floodplains generally, breeding in willow scrub, old fruit trees, and bramble canes. Was once a serious pest of wicker baskets, etc, but this industry is in serious decline (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). The known localities in Hungary are mainly in riverine willow galleries. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157779		population	eng	A widespread and common species in most of its European range, but rare and increasingly scarce in many states.<br/><br/>Formerly widespread in England and extending into eastern Wales, but has declined very dramatically over the last century; it is now best known in the lower river basins of the Thames and Severn, with a few outlying populations elsewhere (Twinn and Harding 1999). It almost<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>meets the British Red Data Book criteria.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rare in its localities. In the Czech Republic it is rare. In Ukraine this species is relatively rare. The population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey.
157779		threats	eng	It appears to be not threatened at the European level although is clearly declining at the local level in some states.<br/><br/>Clearance of scrub along riversides and in old orchards can be a threat to this species; also abandonment of grazing leading to scrub thickening and canopy closure along riverside strips and the loss of old orchards. Tidiness, clearance of bramble around field margins, etc. are also additional threats.
157780		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed. It is unknown whether the species occurs in a protected area.
157780		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across western Europe in the Mediterranean area. It is widespread in Portugal, Italy and Spain. It is also found in northern Africa.
157780		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae have been found in decaying wood  of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica</span> L., <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> L. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix dactilifera</span> L. (Micó and Galante 2003).&#160; Adults active in summer, feeding at flowers and more often on fruits. It is present in open forests, gardens and parklands.
157780		population	eng	In Spain and France this species is considered abundant.
157780		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this species.
157781		conservation	eng	No measures are needed. Monitoring and research on its distribution are recommended.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Data Deficient in Germany (2009).
157781		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Austria there are only a few records in the eastern part, while in Switzerland there are only doubtful historical records. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen 2008) in European Turkey. It also occurs in the Caucasus, northern Iran, Turkey and Minor Asia.
157781		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead branches; mostly of broad-leaved trees (<em>Fagus, Quercus, Juglans, Castanea, </em>Rosaceae) and shrubs. It has also been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>. The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in IV-VIII, and are found on the host-plants and attracted to flowers for feeding. <br/><br/>The species mainly lives in natural habitats. In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has generally been reported from deciduous forests, especially oak, but there are a few records from lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> and willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>. The reports from European Turkey are that larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Alnus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus</em></strong> and Rosaceous plants (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953).
157781		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p>  It is a usual species in Ukraine. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as moderately common in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is quite common in the hills and at the foot of the Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is very rare but there are recent records; is it is only present in Bayern and Sachsen-Anhalt. In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is common, but only in warmer areas. In Poland there are no recent records. The population size and trend have not been quantified for Turkey.<p><br/></p>
157781		threats	eng	<p>No major threats to this species are known. In Hungary habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the replacement of native habitat and some unusual forest management activities are threatening this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157783		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place. This species is not recorded from any protected areas.<br/></p>
157783		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to mainland Italy (Bense 1995).
157783		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits the deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostrya carpinifolia</span> trees in deciduous woodland in the hills and sub-montane regions of the Appenine ridge. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostrya carpinifolia </span>is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>a relatively common species of tree, but no information is available on any requirements for particular types of deadwood or in particular situations. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
157783		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is generally rare and known only from a few scattered localities. Sama (2006) reports 12 localities.</p>
157783		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157784		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in some protected areas.<br/></p>
157784		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-western Europe and northern Africa (Bense 1995); there is a distinct subspecies in Corsica and Sardinia, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. l. corsicus</span> Croissandeau, 1890. In France it is widespread but very localised, with discontinuity between the stations (Villiers 1978).<br/><br/>This species also occurs in the north of Africa.
157784		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, occasionally in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cupressus</span>, the larvae feeding under the bark of weakened, although sometimes apparently healthy trees, often at ground level or underground (Sama 2002). Adults are found on the host-plants, and are nocturnal (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Spain its natural habitat is restricted to the pre-coastal Mediterranean area and it lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus thurifera</span>. Recently it has been reintroduced in the north-eastern part of Spain with the planting of Cupressaceae (Vives 2001).
157784		population	eng	<p>Scattered in the Mediterranean climate zone. In France, known localities produce sightings regularly so the species does not seem to be declining. The adults emerge very early in the year (February to April) - this can explain the rarity of the observations (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Italy it is considered rare.<br/></p><p>The species is increasing due to the increased popularity of ornamental Cupressaceae in gardens.<br/></p>
157784		threats	eng	<p>No information available. This species appears not to be threatened.<br/></p>
157785		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species (especially oaks, but also others), and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is considered as Endangered in Italy.
157785		distribution	eng	This west Palaearctic species (Laibner 2000) is known from south, west and central Europe reaching some countries in north Europe. <br/><br/>It also occurs in west Caucasus, in west Georgia.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the south and west of the forest zone (Dolin 1988, Lobl and Smetana 2007). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas. In Spain its presence has only recently been confirmed (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). It formerly occurred at a number of sites across England but it has not been reported since about 1860 (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157785		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A specialist of veteran trees, especially very large old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. Larvae are predators in semi-dry wood mould; living in the base of hollow trees (Brustel 2005); it is found in open sunlit habitats within forest. In Ukraine the larvae are also known to develop in the soil around trunks, stubs or decayed wood under the soil. The larvae hibernate; the adult beetle is active at evening in twilight, in IV-V; it lives a concealed life (in chinks of bark and wood), rarely appearing on flowers (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species occurs mostly in <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>oak forests. In Hungary it occurs in various broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, but also in lime, maple and poplar (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157785		population	eng	Generally very localized, rare and decreasing across its range.<br/><br/>In Slovakia and the Czech Republic it is very locally and individually reported (Laibner 2000). In Hungary its populations are small. In Germany it has become locally Extinct in several regions. In Sweden there is one single population; the last record is from 2002; formerly more widespread. In Italy it is found only in northern and central parts; around 30 localities (although some of these are based on old data). In Poland there is no precise information on distribution but it is not regarded as threatened at present, but this appears to be based on relatively little data. In France it was described as 'quite common' in the old literature; there is very little recent data. In Spain there are old records with vague mentions of rare but widespread in Pyrenees; only two recent localities known (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). It is a relatively rare species in Ukraine. In the UK it was widely reported in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, but there have been no modern reports, and it is assumed to be long Extinct (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157785		threats	eng	<p>This species is entirely dependent upon very large old trees (veteran trees), a habitat type which is very fragmented and declining across Europe as a result of various human activities. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude mowing and/or grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157786		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).<br/><br/>It is included in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987) although this needs down-grading (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157786		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in north and central Europe (Horion 1953). Endemic to Europe according to Fauna Europaea (2004). Absent from Ireland.<br/><br/>Present in northern Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). Very fragmented distribution in Britain, mainly in south-west, but also in northern England and parts of Scotland and Wales (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157786		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in well-decayed wood of broad-leaved trees; they have been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvestris</span>, a soft log with white-rot in an exposed situation (diameter 30 cm); also&#160; in a branch (diameter 4 cm) on ground, totally covered by leaf litter. Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Picea, Populus, Quercus, Sorbus, Fraxinus, Tilia</span> (Muona 1993); adult on wing sparingly May-September, and usually found at rest amongst ground vegetation (Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, especially in beech and oak, but also in species of willow and poplar. In Britain particularly in old shady oak woodlands and wood pastures (Alexander 2002).
157786		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable to increasing.<br/><br/>In Denmark it is common and widespread (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland it is common in the south where its population is increasing. In Sweden it is not common but increasing. In Slovakia it is widespread. <span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it is a widespread but not really common. <span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution (Mendel and Clarke 1996) but a strong population in southern England has been expanding in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Hungary the species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas; populations have not been quantified, but they must be small. <span lang="EN-GB">In Spain there are 11 localities; quite common (Recalde Irurzun 2008). <br/><br/>In Italy it has been found in the north; possibly present in Sicily (where it is possibly introduced).</span></span>
157786		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157787		conservation	eng	In Hungary there are no conservation measures in place (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). No information is available from Bulgaria and Slovakia.
157787		distribution	eng	This species is only known from southeastern Europe. Just six specimens are known from Europe, from Hungary, Slovakia and Bulgaria.
157787		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species and very little is known about its biology. It is likely to be a predator. Larvae have been found on bark of rotting oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>branches in Bulgaria.
157787		population	eng	In Hungary all populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). No information is available from Bulgaria and Slovakia.
157787		threats	eng	The species does not seem to be threatened in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) although information is very scant. No information is available from Bulgaria and Slovakia.
157788		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157788		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern Europe, in western and eastern Europe, including the   Mediterranean islands. In Ukraine it is only known from Crimea. In Portugal, there are only two records, one from 1924 and one from 2005. In France, this species is found in the Mediterranean area and in the south-west (Sainte-Clare Deville 1935-38). It is also found in north Africa, Syria, Turkey.
157788		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in the dead bark or trees. In Spain this species is found on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus halepensis</span>, a common native and commercially important forest species, as well as on other pine species.<br/></p>
157788		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Ukraine it is a rare species.<br/></p>
157788		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157789		conservation	eng	<p>  There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Presumably the species occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>
157789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean countries, throughout much of south-western Europe.<br/><br/>It is localised in south and south-western France, and in Corsica. It is widespread in Spain. It was recorded in the 1930s from two localities in the north of Portugal.
157789		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in red-rotten stumps of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies alba</span>.
157789		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The main population is in Spain and northern Africa. It is not uncommon in France.</p><p>The population trend is considered stable.<br/></p>
157789		threats	eng	<p>It appears to be not threatened.<br/></p>
157790		conservation	eng	<p>In Germany it is listed as 'R' which means that it has a restricted distribution (2009).<br/></p>
157790		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eurosiberian subregion, central and eastern Europe, and in the western Pyrenees. In Romania it occurs in the Carpathians and high hills around mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in the Alps: Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. In Ukraine it is present in the north-western part. It is also found in Kazakhstan, east of Minor Caucasus, Mongolia, northern China, Korea, Japan, Russian Far East.
157790		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; The larvae develop in the wood of thin stems of maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>in particular<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula, Ulmus, Alnus, salix, Padus, Juglans, Quercus, Tilia, Aralia, Vitis, Fraxinus </span>and many others broadleaved trees<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>more rarely<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus)</span>. It initially develops in the wood of stressed and weakened trees, and later in the dead wood (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The life cycle is at least two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are found feeding at flowers. In Romania it has been found at white flowers alongside a valley with fresh water, inside the mountains (P. Istrate pers. obs. 2009). In Germany it lives in montane conifer forests in the Alps.<br/></p>
157790		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>It is not a common species in Europe. In Ukraine is unusual in that it is common and the population trend is stable. In Russia and Romania it is not commonly found.
157790		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species faces no major threats. However the main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157792		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in protected areas. In Germany is listed as 'R' , which means that the species has a restricted distribution.
157792		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread across Europe, ranging from northern Europe including the Baltic region to central, eastern and western Europe. This species is absent in southern regions of Europe. <br/></p><p>This species is also found in Siberia and far east Russia, and in North America.<br/></p><p>In Italy there are only few records from some of the Alpine regions (Nardi 2006). In France there are only two old records: in Alsace region (Haguenau) and southern Alps (Sainte-Claire Deville 1935-1938). In Germany it is only present in the Bavarian Alps. It might be present in the forest zone of Ukraine. </p>
157792		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in tree bark in dead and decaying conifer trees - pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>- trees and can sometimes be very abundant.. In Finland the species strongly prefers burned forests, where it often occurs together with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. linearis</span> at least during the first ten years after fire. In Germany it lives in open sunny pine stands in the southern slopes in the northern Alps.<br/></p>
157792		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Ukraine it is rare. It is also rare in France and Germany. In the UK it is only known from one specimen taken before 1870 in a wood near Lincoln, England (Fowler 1913); almost certainly an introduction, not native (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
157792		threats	eng	<p>Fire suppression and loss of natural fire dynamics in boreal forests   <span lang="EN-GB">- and conifer forests more generally - are likely to be the main factor having a negative impact on this species.  </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157793		conservation	eng	<p>The species is present in at least one protected area.<br/></p>
157793		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Spanish archipelago, the Canary Islands.
157793		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its name suggests an association with fig trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span>), but probably it can use a variety of dry woods, including small branches, as is the general rule in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Scobicia</span>. It has been collected in woods of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> (Lesne 1904) and has been reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera </span>(Lesne 1905).<br/></p>
157793		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In the Canarian archipelago, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. ficicola</span> is present on all major islands except for Fuerteventura (Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial). The Zoological Museum Lund holds 30 specimens.</p>
157793		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157794		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. The species occurs in several protected areas, especially in Finland.<br/></p>
157794		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central and eastern Europe reaching Scandinavia and the Baltic States. In the Czech Republic it is only found in mountain areas and in Ukraine in forest areas. It also occurs in Siberia, northern&#160; Mongolia, Russian Far East, North Korea, northern China and Japan.
157794		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the deadwood of many species of coniferous trees, at first under bark on dead stems, later within the wood below. Pupation lasts four or five weeks; the full life cycle takes two years. Before copulation, the adult feeds mostly on the bark of conifer trees, but sometimes also <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Betula, </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>. Each female lays about 20 eggs. The adult is active in V-IX (max. in VII). Sometimes it can be regarded as a serious pest species to forestry, especially in Siberia and north of European Russia. In Finland it lives mostly in old-growth forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span>. It is often imported into other countries with Russian timber.<br/></p>
157794		population	eng	<p>In Finland 20 years ago the population was declining, nowadays it is stable. There is little information available on the abundance of this species in other countries. However, in Ukraine and Poland the populations are also known to be stable. <br/></p>
157794		threats	eng	In Finland the species was threatened, considered Vulnerable, by forestry and loss of old growth forests but nowadays it occurs mostly in protected areas. In the rest of Europe where the species occurs there are no known major threats to this species.
157795		conservation	eng	Many of the known localities fall within protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). An effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157795		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout central, southern and eastern Europe, but appears to be rare or very localised in most countries. Examples of countries where it is widespread and not rare include Greece and the Czech Republic. In Germany it is also widely distributed but missing in the northern German states, and very rare but&#160; probably under-documented (B. Büche pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is still present in many populations in Transylvania, but with small numbers (P. Istrtae pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is very rare, with a few sporadic localities known from the hilly regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is rare in the Ukraine and absent from Slovakia. In Spain and Portugal it has a very restricted distribution and it is confined to four known populations in the north (Vives 2001). In Portugal it has been recorded very recently (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003) from a single locality in the northern-most area.<br/>Also reported from the European part of Turkey without exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).
157795		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead trunks and thick branches (especially in the tree-tops) of various broad-leaved tree species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus, Pyrus</span>). Adults emerge in May - July and are found on the host-plants. It is not restricted to veteran trees or old-growth woodland according to recent data; also being found in managed oak stands of medium age. In Hungary it lives in light thermophilous oak forests (turkey oak and white oak) (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found around the mezo-thermophilous forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is a species of thermophilic oak forests. In Greece it has been found in pine trees (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/></p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
157795		population	eng	A widespread species that is quite common in at least some parts of its range, although rare in many other areas. A treetop species; so probably under-recorded (it is difficult to find even where it is present). The population trend is unknown. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century; and most records are older than 50 years (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain and Portugal there are only few known populations in the north. Population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey.
157795		threats	eng	Loss of veteran trees might pose a threat, although the species is not dependent on such trees. In Hungary the main reason of rarity of this species is habitat loss as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania forest management and the use of dead oak branches for fire by local people are threatening this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Poland the species is not threatened.
157796		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157796		distribution	eng	This Euro-Siberian species (Laibner 2000) is known from all Europe, except the far west. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in forests in the northern part of the forest-steppe zone and in the Carpathians. Old records from the UK are assumed to be the result of accidental introductions.
157796		habitat	eng	This may be an obligate saproxylic species, but this requires confirmation as larvae are also found in the soil and anthills close to decaying wood. <br/><br/>Larvae have been found in the soil near dead and decaying trunks and stubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>(occasionally burnt trees), as well as within the decaying wood; sometimes in ant-hills; predatory and necrophagous; adults are active during day time in IV-VI (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>Prefers pine forests from lowlands to submontane (Laibner 2000). The known records from Hungary are from or near pine forests.
157796		population	eng	A common species in at least some parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species; also common in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in a few localities, mainly in the western part of the country; all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare but well distributed (  <span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/><br/>In the UK it was recorded in two areas of south-eastern England in the 19<sup>th</sup> century; these are assumed to have been accidental introductions as the native vegetation is not suitable for the species, now Extinct (Mendel and Clarke 1996).
157796		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157798		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
157798		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Crete (Sama 2002). There are only records from the south-eastern coast, near Mirtos and Pefkos, and in the central-southern coast area near the town of Plakias (J. Hrbek pers. obs. 2008) (Cerambycidae 2009).
157798		habitat	eng	The biology of this species is unclear. It is believed that it is a polyphagous species that lives in the deadwood of deciduous trees.
157798		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157798		threats	eng	<p>No information available. Grazing by goats is a major threat. Additional threats may be urbanisation and tourism.<br/></p>
157800		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species (especially oaks, but also others), and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Vulnerable in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987), and as Near Threatened in Sweden.<br/><br/>In the UK, wood pasture and parkland are a priority habitat that is under the Government Biodiversity Action Plan. Also other conservation measures in place cover general management guidelines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>The species is present in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157800		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout Europe, ranging north to southern Scandinavia and south to Greece (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the central part of the forest-steppe zone, in Donetzkyi mountain-ridge. In Hungary there are very few records known from the hilly and lowland areas. In Denmark it is present in the south. In France it is widespread but very rare and localized (Leseigneur 1972). In Italy there are very few records, mainly from central and southern areas (including Sardinia and Sicily). In the UK there are a small number of sites across lowland England, in the south-east, and the east and west Midlands.
157800		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist, typically found in very large old trees. The larvae develop in red-rotten heartwood of living old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, in smaller boughs as well as trunks.&#160; There is a long larval period and adult dormancy; the adults remaining in their pupal cells from September until the following April, and they may normally be found under loose bark or in hollows from May to July (Alexander 2002). The larvae <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>are&#160; predators or necrophagous&#160; (Dolin 1988). In Italy it is found in coniferous as well as broad-leaved trees. In Hungary virtually all known records are from red-rotten wood of very old oaks. In France larvae are found in the dry powder of red-rot in large trees of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea.</span><br/><br/>It is an old growth species. English sites tend to be historic parklands and the trees are ancient open-grown examples, rather than forest situations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in trunks of solitary old oaks in broad-leaf or mixed forests (Laibner 2000).
157800		population	eng	This is a rare species across its European range, with a very fragmented distribution.<br/><br/>In the UK it is a rare species with a very fragmented range and about 15 isolated populations known from modern records. Little or no suggestion of recent decline but there area a few sites with only old records, unconfirmed recently (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is very rare as it is only known from four specimens. In Hungary it is very rare and the populations are small. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs sporadically in lowlands and highlands across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Germany it occurs sporadically in lowlands across almost the whole territory (with the exception of the north-west), with about 15-20 known localities. In Sweden there are more than 30 sites known from recent records (since 2000) in the southern part of the country. In Denmark it is rare and local.
157800		threats	eng	<p>      </p>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157801		conservation	eng	<p>The species occurs mostly in nature reserves. Restoration of spruce mires is required.</p>
157801		distribution	eng	This species is known from north and central Europe.
157801		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in natural forests surrounded by mires, spruce-swamp forests. Larvae are living under the bark of fallen spruce trees, trees usually a little off the ground. The diameter of trees may be only 10 cm and the bark may be pretty dry. Sometimes living in thinner parts of trees inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pytho kolwensis</span>.
157801		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but it is believed that the population trend is decreasing. In Finland it is restricted to areas where there is a shorter time period for forest management; the main populations are in eastern Finland and the populations are decreasing. It is considered vulnerable. In Sweden it is declining in forest landscape and is regarded as Vulnerable; found at about ten locations in northern Sweden, big range (almost 50% of Sweden); its Area of Occupancy is probably less than 1,000   <span lang="EN-GB">km². In Norway it is present in one location. In Germany there is only an old record which is not validated. <span lang="EN-GB">There is no information about the Russian population.</span></p><p><br/></p>
157801		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Logging and lack of self-thinning are the main threats to this species. Ditching to favour spruce growth and the subsequent drying of the area are other threats.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157802		conservation	eng	No information available.
157802		distribution	eng	This Eurosiberian species is found throughout much of Europe, from central Europe to south-eastern Europe reaching some countries in western and northern Europe.
157802		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species and is polyphagous on the decay fungi of broad-leaved trees. The biology of the species is known more from its Russian distribution than elsewhere. In Ukraine the adult has been reported from carpophores (fruiting body) of many wood-decay fungi - <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes fomentarius, Piptoporus betulinus, P. calyptratus, Pleurotus ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. obliquus, Ischnoderma benzonium, Trametes sp.&#160; </span>In Hungary as no new localities are known, information is unavailable on habitat (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157802		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species and it is rare in central Europe but more common in the eastern part of its range. There is a scarcity of records but this may be due to low sampling.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is very rare, and it is known from one specimen found in the Volyn region; it might also be present in the Carpathians and in the western part of the forest zone (Drogvalenko 1997). In Hungary this species is very sporadic, only a few localities are known from at least 50 years ago - as no new localities are known, information is unavailable on its populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157802		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157803		conservation	eng	In France the principal site is classified and managed for forest preservation (Natura 2000). Important entomological inventories are being conducted in 2009 and 2010. There is an urgent need for the protection of the large forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>. A regulation or a control of the captures is needed for the localities well known by collectors (Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>It is listed as Vulnerable according to the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).
157803		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This Mediterranean species is widespread in south-eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place> and in the south of western Europe. <br/> <br/> It is considered a rare species by extreme fragmentation of the populations. During the last glaciation, <em>P. mirifica</em> was able to survive in a number of areas traditionally regarded as refugia in the Mediterranean region: the southern Iberian Peninsula, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, the Balkans and the <st1:place w:st="on">Middle  East</st1:place> (full inventory and map in Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/> <br/> <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Spain </st1:country-region>it is known from a few isolated locations in the Central and Betic mountain ranges (eight localities). It was discovered in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 1975 by trapping; it is extremely localised. One forest has the biggest population known over the whole distribution area. There are six other sites in the south of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> but only with few specimens found and some of these are yet to be confirmed (<span lang="EN-GB">Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> This species also occurs in <st1:place w:st="on">Near East</st1:place>.</span></p>  <span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Eupotosia%20mirifica%20la%20grande%20c%C3%A9toine%20bleue%2C%20joyau%20menac%C3%A9%20du%20patrimoine%20naturel%20Europ%C3%A9en.%20Propositions%20pour%20la%20protection%20de%20l'esp%C3%A8ce%20et%20de%20ses%20biotopes%20(Coleoptera%2C%20Cetoniidae%20Cetoniinae)&rft.jtitle=Lambillionea&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1-Suppl%C3%A9ment&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.aulast=Tassi&rft.au=F.%20Tassi&rft.au=H.%20P%20Aberlenc&rft.au=J.%20Y%20Rasplus&rft.au=G.%20Curletti&rft.au=M.%20Dutto&rft.au=G.%20Genson&rft.au=G.%20Lemp%C3%A9ri%C3%A8re&rft.date=2004&rft.pages=1-32">
157803		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood; where the type of rot has been identified it is always red-rot. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees occur in a wide variety of situations, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. Adults are active in June, July and August.&#160; <br/><br/>It has been reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> forests and it occurs in the limestone from warm places in south-eastern Europe (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is associated with oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forests. In France it lives only in <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. pubescens </span>forest and this kind of forest is becoming very rare.<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
157803		population	eng	This is a flagship species both for the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of the Mediterranean zone, its rarity is related to the decline of its habitats and its current distribution is a series of relict populations, and probably previously included a range much greater in the Mediterranean region. Its situation in other countries of the western Mediterranean such as Italy and France is also bleak.<br/><br/>The main population is in France and the population in south-eastern Europe is smaller. In Greece the species has been reported from eight localities very rich in old growth forests. In Bulgaria it has been reported from three old localities that have to be confirmed. In Albania it is present in only one locality (in Petrovac). In Bosnia it has been reported from five localities that have yet to be confirmed.<br/>&#160;<br/>It is considered that the population is decreasing.
157803		threats	eng	Loss of hollow trees and lack of future replacement generations is a major threat to this species. Also forest fragmentation and removal of the dead wood are   <span lang="EN-GB">threatening  the species.<br/><br/>Logging of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> is a very important danger for the species. In France, in the biggest locality, trees are well protected by the natural relief (profond lapiaz) but the entomological pressure from amateur collecting is a supplementary threat (surveys are organised during the summer to destroy illegal traps installed by 'entomological tourists') (Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
157804		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. In Hungary the conservation of old trees (especially in wood pastures in the southern part of the country) is necessary. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Romania).
157804		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Europe, reaching the Baltic States and south-eastern Europe but it is not endemic to Europe. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathian Mountains.
157804		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from a moist branch of hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus </span>lying on the ground, the wood solid on the surface, and fairly hard with white rot inside; also from lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>logs in Russia (Muona 1993). In Ukraine larvae develop in hard wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>. The life cycle is one or two years; larvae hibernate; adults have been found under bark on deadwood from April to October (Drogvalenko 2001). <br/><br/>In Hungary the known habitats are old growth oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It also lives in beech forests.
157804		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but its distribution is very fragmented.<br/></p>  In Ukraine it is a rare species. In Hungary this species is known from very few localities in the southern-most part of the country (Baranya and Somogy counties); only a few specimens have been found, so its populations must be very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There is a record in Austria.
157804		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  In particular in Ukraine the destruction of old dead trees are a threat to this species. In Hungary based on the very few localities, not much can be said about threats; however the habitat of the first Hungarian record was destroyed, because the group of very old oaks were completely removed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157805		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.</p>
157805		distribution	eng	This species is found in Greece, Turkey and Syria. Two specimens have been collected from Peloponnesus Peninsula (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157805		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. No information is available on its habitat requirements.
157805		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157805		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157806		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information available regarding any conservation actions for this species.<br/></p>
157806		distribution	eng	This species is only known from north-eastern Europe. It is found in Latvia and in central-western Russia. It is also known from Siberia, Far East, Mongolia and North Korea (Lobl and Smetana 2008).
157806		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information on the habitat requirements of this species but it is likely to require a substantial presence of wood-decay fungi.
157806		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157806		threats	eng	<p>No information available. <br/></p>
157807		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157807		distribution	eng	This species is found across central and eastern Europe, from Poland and Hungary to Russia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is found locally in the Carpathians and in the eastern part of the forest-steppe zone (Drogvalenko 2001). <br/><br/>In Romania it is only known from the type locality (<span lang="EN-GB">Transylvania).    <span lang="EN-GB"><p><span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary the species is known from only one locality in the north-eastern part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p></span>
157807		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives mostly in old, decomposing beech trunks and stumps but is also reported from rotten willow trees; the localities are usually old growth ('virgin' forests) (Elateridae 2009). In Ukraine, the larvae have been found in the dead decayed and humid wood of oak, but eating thin food (sap from decayed wood or plasmodium of myxomycetes). The adult is found under bark on the deadwood of oak and beech (Drogvalenko 2001). In Hungary the species is known from only one locality, which is a park of an old castle (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157807		population	eng	It is a rare species throughout its European range, with notably small numbers of individuals seen in a very few sites.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species, only five specimens known. In Hungary as the species is known from only one locality, no information is available from its population (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic records are known from two sites with a single faunistic grid cell, altogether three specimens have been found on two dates in 1966 and 1973 in a 'virgin forest' and on wood of an old willow, respectively; record made accessible on the internet (Elateridae 2009) in 2008 based on personal communication with the collector and identifier (P. Nohel). An old alleged record is from somewhere in Moravia (eastern part of the Czech Republic) by Hampe, reported in Fleischer (1927-1930) according to the source above (J. Schlaghamersky pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In Slovakia there have been about 50 specimens collected on 12 different localities, many findings are rather recent (since 1990)  (Elateridae 2009). In Bosnia there is one record (Elateridae 2009).
157807		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>
157808		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in protected areas; in Finland nearly all localities are in protected areas. It is red-listed as Endangered in Sweden  (2005), the same as in earlier red-list (2000).
157808		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and central Europe.
157808		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species needs abundant amounts of dead wood, it has poor dispersal abilities (not eager to fly). The diameter of trunks must be 30-40 cm thick at least. It requires productive forest. In Finland it only lives in primeval spruce forests on moist ground with continuity of abundant fallen spruces. Larval stage three to four years and larvae live under the bark of big fallen spruces.
157808		population	eng	In Sweden <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kolwensis</span> is found at a few fragmented localities (ten localities); several of the localities  have weak populations. In Finland there are more than 20 existing localities known but it disappeared from many earlier localities; many populations are weak and decreasing. In Poland there is only one location. In Estonia there are very old records from early   <span lang="EN-GB">20<sup>th</sup>   century. There is no information about the Russian population.
157808		threats	eng	This species is threatened by unsustainable forest management, including forestry clearance, removal of dead and dying trees. Ditching of forests is another threat leading to the drying of the area. In Finland very few suitable habitats for this species are left in managed forests.
157809		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).
157809		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe but absent from the north and extreme south (Bense 1995). It also occurs in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Caucasus, northern Iran, northern Africa and north-western Kazakhstan. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly, mountainous and lowland regions covered with oak forests. In Romania it is widespread and in Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre, but scarcely recorded. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005).<p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
157809		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It usually lives on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, secondarily on other trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>; the larvae feed deeply under bark on deadwood, pupating in the sapwood or under the bark. At least in Italy, larval growth appears to be strictly associated with moulds covering the walls of galleries. Adults are usually found on the host trees, rarely at blossom (Sama 2001). <em></em>In Hungary it has been recorded from<em> Quercus robur </em>and <em>Q. </em><em>p</em><em>etraea</em><em> </em>(Kovács 1997); the larvae develop under the bark and in dead wood of branches and trunks. The life cycle is two years; the adults emerge in V-VIII. In European Turkey larvae develop in trunks of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus conferta </em></strong>(Schimitschek 1953). In France it is monophagous in<em> Quercus </em>including <em>Q. ilex </em>in the south (Villiers 1978). In Romania it has been found especially on the bark of fresh cut oaks near the forest or inside the clear oak forests. In Germany it inhabits mainly oak forests. <br/><p><strong></strong></p>  <br/><p><br/></p><p></p>
157809		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Reports suggest that this species is plentiful in many countries.</p>  <p></p>  In central Europe this species is common and expanding. In particular, in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is common in its localities. In Romania its populations seem to be stable in the central part of the country, where oak forests from hilly areas are very spread. In Ukraine it is common. In France this species has been extending to a large part of the country since 1950-1960; populations are now large and widespread (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). In Spain and Italy it has a scattered distribution and it is not common. In Sweden it is rare but increasing. In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/><p><br/></p>
157809		threats	eng	Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.
157810		conservation	eng	<p>More research on this species' habitat preferences and the threats causing its decline are needed. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and Germany (2009), and Vulnerable in Slovakia and Poland (2002).<br/><br/></p>
157810		distribution	eng	This species occurs mostly in the south of eastern and central Europe, reaching some southern countries of western Europe.<br/><br/>In Portugal it was recorded only once from the central part of the country (Aguiar and Serrano 1995). In Italy it is only present on the mainland. The presence is Greece is uncertain.
157810		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in conifer and mixed forests from the highlands to the montane zone, largely confined to firs and spruces, but occasionally oaks and birches (Laibner 2000). Sometimes related to old-growth but not necessarily. In Austria it is a primeval forest relict, liking cool shady conditions.
157810		population	eng	This species is rare throughout its range and its population trend is declining.<br/><br/>In Italy there are only six records. In the Czech Republic it is rare with only a few sites. In Slovakia it is localized and scattered throughout the country (Laibner 2000). In Germany it its very rare and is present in four states (Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, North Rhine-Westphalia) with records after 1950. In Austria the species as first discovered around 2001.
157810		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>&#160;The species is declining throughout its range but the reasons for this are not known. <br/></p>    <p></p>
157811		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific conservation measures are in place. This species is not recorded from any protected areas.</p>
157811		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the south of the European part of Russia and Ukraine. In Ukraine it is present in Crimea; there is one record from the extreme east of Ukraine in the hills near the Russian border. In the southern part of Russia it is found in the Caucasus region.
157811		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in temperate broad-leaved forest and it has been found locally near rivers where there are relatively large trees. Its life cycle is one year and it is a predator under bark, predating on bark beetles.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The biology of this species is unknown but it may be similar to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemosoma</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">N. caucasicum, N. elongatum). <br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
157811		population	eng	In Ukraine it is considered a very rare species as only a few records exist. There is no information on the trends of this species.
157811		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
157812		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157812		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Cyprus. This species is found in the western part of Cyprus and there is one old record from the north.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; Axinopalpis barbarae barbarae</span> was found only at <st1:placename w:st="on">the Cedar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype> (a small area in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pafos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> ) at 1,100-1,400 m (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; Axinopalpis barbarae consobrinus </span>was reported from a few locations at the west of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place>: Pomos 200 m, Platres 1,200 (Sama 1992), Timi 50 m, Fylagra 800 m (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).&#160; There is also an old record from Akanthou, an area on <st1:placename w:st="on">Pentadaktylos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> at northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Sama 1994).  <p></p>
157812		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.</p>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Axinopalpis barbarae barbarae</span> has been found only in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus brevifolia</span> forest. This subspecies develops only from dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus brevifolia</span> (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Axinopalpis barbarae consobrinus </span>has been<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found in   <em></em>   orchards, maquis, and forests. Develops from <em>Prunus dulcis</em> (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and <em>Rhus coriaria</em> (Sama 1992). </p>
157812		population	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>It is rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population trend is unknown but, because the species habitat is decreasing, then it is presumed that the species is also declining.
157812		threats	eng	<p>The two different subspecies breed in different host plants.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ssp barbarae</span> is reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> which is threatened in Cyprus, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">ssp consobrinus</span> is reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus dulcis</span>, a widespread tree in Cyprus.&#160; Therefore it is considered that the <span style="font-style: italic;">ssp barbarae</span> is threatened by the decline of its host tree, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">ssp consobrinus</span> appears to be not threatened.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157813		conservation	eng	<p>No specific measures are in place or needed. Occurs in at least two National Parks in Spain.<br/></p>
157813		distribution	eng	This species is found across southern Europe including some Mediterranean islands. It may have been introduced into Ukraine and Germany. In Portugal it was only recorded in 1981 from three localities in the southern half. This species has its origin in tropical Africa, and today is pan-tropical and naturalized in Brazil and the southern Palearctic region (southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia Minor).
157813		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in the deadwood of a wide variety of woody plants (including some introduced species such as bamboos, but not in conifers) (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Geis 2002). Adults are crepuscular.<br/></p>
157813		population	eng	<p>This is a relatively widespread species. In Spain alone, 31 localities are recorded. However, few specimens have been collected from each locality (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Population size and trend has not been quantified.<br/></p>
157813		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.<p></p>
157814		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not present in any protected areas. Evaluation of distribution and number of populations are needed.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
157814		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Greece (<st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:place>) (Bense 1995). It is distributed in the northern and central part of <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:place>: Kalavryta environment, Vitina/Menalo Oros environment, and Parnon Oros between Tripoli and Sparti (Hrbek 2007).
157814		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is suggested that the species develops in the dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> and visits flowering shrubs for feeding, especially hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> (G. Novak pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157814		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. There are two subpopulations. The subpopulation in Kalavryta area is small but stable. The northern subpopulation of Vitina (Arcadia) is unclear, presumably declining (J. Schmidl pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157814		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There appear to be no specific major threats to this species. However this species can be affected by forest fires, urbanisation and local land use changes, and these are all impinging on its habitats.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
157815		conservation	eng	No information available.
157815		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2003; the type locality (the only site known) is in the centre of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).
157815		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but the precise habitat requirements are not available.
157815		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157815		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157816		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157816		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be widely distributed in central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it is found throughout the north of the country and also in Crimea. It is also found in Kazakhstan.
157816		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in broad-leaved temperate forests. The imago is active in V-VI.</p>
157816		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout its European range. It is rare in Ukraine although widespread throughout the north of the country. <br/></p>
157816		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157817		conservation	eng	<p>Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity are necessary for the conservation of this species. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Italy.</p>
157817		distribution	eng	This submediterranean species (Laibner 2000) is known from southern Europe and south of central Europe. It also occurs in Asia Minor and Syria.<br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/>In Cyprus it has been </st1:country-region></st1:place>reported from a few localities on the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (500-800 m.): Chrysorrogiatissa (Preiss and Platia 2003), Panagia, Korfi, Laneia, Agia Moni (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p>In France the first identification was in 1992; it is known in 7/95 departments in the Mediterranean climate, always rare (Coache and Delnatte 2007).<br/></p>
157817		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying but compact wood in hollows in deciduous trees including fruit trees; in natural, undisturbed formations of deciduous trees in lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000)<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">. In Cyprus </st1:country-region></st1:place>it has been found in orchards and maquis near <em>Quercus infectoria</em>. Adults are attracted to light and to wine traps (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157817		population	eng	This species is rare in Europe.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic it only occurs in the south-eastern part at very few sites. In Slovakia there is a single small area confirmed (Laibner 2000), probably only one single record from 1995. In Cyprus it is <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>very rare and local. In Italy there is one record only from Sicily (Palermo province) from 1992. In Greece there are sparse records from north and central, locally declining. In Spain there is only one recent record from 2003 in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber </span>(threatened habitat).
157817		threats	eng	Disturbance of natural forests (Laibner 2000), habitat loss, loss of hollow trees and removal of veteran trees are threats to this species.
157818		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Austria, and as Endangered in Germany.
157818		distribution	eng	This species is found sporadically across southern and central Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus and northern Iran.
157818		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found very locally and rarely in warm, broad-leaved, often alluvial forests. In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forests. In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone (Drogvalenko 1997). It lives on carpophores of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotaceae </span>fungi on decaying wood. The adult is found mostly in VII-VIII (Drogvalenko 1997). It has been observed on fungi on elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>and aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>.<br/><br/>It occurs in old growth forest, it is a relic species. <br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
157818		population	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>The species is relatively rare, but widespread and can be locally common. In Slovakia there are four records. In France it is known from more than five sites. In Ukraine it is relatively rare, but locally numerous. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; its population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species may be common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157818		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157819		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157819		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the south of the Volga River to the west into Zaisan lake and to the east into eastern Russia. It is also found in Kazakhstan, western China (Sindzyan), Uzbekistan and Kirgizia. <a name="OLE_LINK3"><span lang="EN-GB">Less than 1% of the total population occurs in Europe. Most of the population occurs in central Asia (</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">A. Putchkov </a><a name="OLE_LINK3">pers. comm. 2009).</a><span lang="EN-GB"></span>
157819		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in steppe forests and occasionally in forests. No information is available on its specific habitat requirements.
157819		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157819		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157820		conservation	eng	More research and monitoring of the species is recommended. It is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (2009) and as Vulnerable in Italy (Sama 2006).<br/>In Hungary the species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157820		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern and central Europe reaching westwards to northern Spain (Bense 1995). The species is widespread in the  the hilly and mountainous areas of Hungary and in the central part of Romania. In Germany it is present in all German states except the very north. <br/><br/>It also occurs in Asia Minor.
157820		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark and in wood in dying and dead, sun-exposed twigs and branches of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus, Prunus, Rubus, Quercus, Juglans, Corylus</span>). Adults emerge in IV-VI, and are found on the host-plants or attracted to flowers for feeding, especially flowering shrubs. In Hungary this species occurs in thermophilous oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has also been found at the edge of forests, and adults have been found on nettle <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica</span> plants (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in broad-leaved forests, prefers thermophilic situations, often on forest edges. In Italy it is restricted to mountains and natural habitats. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
157820		population	eng	It is a usual species is Ukraine. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Romania, although the species is regarded as moderately common in the oak forests in Hungary and quite common in the hilly areas. In the Czech Republic it is rare and its populations are stable with recent records, while in Slovakia it is widespread but localised in southern parts. In Spain it has a scattered distribution and a total of 20 localities. In Italy it is rare with 12 populations only in mainland Italy.
157820		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.<br/></p>
157821		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157821		distribution	eng	This species is only found in southern Russia.
157821		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species.
157821		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157821		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157822		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157822		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and eastern Europe reaching some countries in western Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is only found in the Carpathians, at the fringe of its regional distribution. In Hungary it is found only in the westernmost parts of the country, which are the foothills of the Alps (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs mainly the eastern Carpathians, in native spruce forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Bayern, Baden-Württemberg.<br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>
157822		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark and in the wood of recently dead or sick stems of large diameter (mature but not old) conifers (especially in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea</span>, rarely in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Abies </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus).</span> The life cycle is normally one year, rarely two years, with pupation in V and VI in the wood. Adults emerge in June - September, and are found on host -plants, where they feed on twigs and needles. In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests, which are rare in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the habitat of this species, old spruce forest has largely been lost and continues to decline; many adults have been observed on old trunks of spruces which were recently cut from the forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).  In Germany it lives in montane spruce forests.</p>
157822		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species appears to have a very restricted distribution in many countries. Nevertheless there is no evidence to suggest that the populations are anything other than stable at present. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, but the species is regarded as rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine and Romania this species is considered rare.<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>
157822		threats	eng	<p>The species is not threatened (e.g. Germany, Hungary, Romania). Its population may have declined in the past when large areas of forest in its range were cut following the second World War. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>
157823		conservation	eng	To keep continuous forest areas in the landscape and restore traditional forest management, eg wood-pasture should be promoted. Research on the species ecology and the threats is urgently needed.
157823		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and eastern Europe, extending to some countries in the Scandinavian Peninsula. <br/><br/>There are historical records for Germany (uncertain), Czech Republic, Slovakia, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy and Greece; and recent records for Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, Poland, Belarus and Russia.
157823		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Europe it occurs only in continuous sub-montane forests, living under the bark of deadwood of conifers, mainly on fir; it has also been found on spruce. The species is probably an indicator for continuous conifer forest and there is no secondary habitat. The species seems to depend on veteran trees.
157823		population	eng	The species has been relatively common in the past, but is now rare throughout its range. Recent distribution is relictual, and the species slowly declines on its western border. It is Extinct in the whole of southern Europe, where only old unconfirmed records exist from before 1900. In Fennoscandia it is Extinct.<br/><br/>In Europe as a whole there are between 10 to 14 current sites, while in the EU there are only four confirmed sites, maybe eight.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a very rare species, with just one recent record. In Belarus it is also very rare but there are new records. In Russia there are five recent large sites. In Italy it is very rare, only one to four localities in the southern part (Calabria and Basilicata). In Romania there is one recent record. In the Czech Republic there is only one recent record (five old unconfirmed records). In Slovakia there is only one recent record with a big population (probably one of the most stable populations in Europe). In Poland there are two new localities and about 10-15 historical localities.
157823		threats	eng	Changes in tree composition, loss of primary habitats and its basic characteristics like dead wood supply and sun-exposure are major threats to this species.   Because the habitat of this species is veteran trees any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The species has a tendency to indicate ecological continuity of forests in Europe. The causes of this species decline are not fully understood. It could be related to the decline of fir trees.
157824		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary, France).
157824		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout much of Europe, excepting parts of the south-west, and north and west (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania and France it is also widespread. In Portugal it is widespread in the north, also recorded from one coastal site in the centre (an old record). In European Turkey it was reported from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004). In Finland it has a very restricted distribution in the south-western part of the country. In Denmark it is somewhat rare, but distributed in the east of the country (Thomsen 2007). In Germany it is present in all German States. In the UK it is very localized within its range, which occupies much of the southern half of Britain (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157824		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  Larvae develop in dead, rotten wood, especially at the base of dying or dead stems, in stumps and roots. Polyphagous in conifers (<em>Pinus, Picea, Abies</em>) and broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Fagus, Alnus, Castanea, Malus, Salix, Fraxinus, Betula, Ulmus, Corylus</em>).&#160; The life cycle is at least three years (sometimes four). Mature larvae leave the wood and pupate in early summer in the soil in a cocoon constructed from soil and wood particles. Adults emerge in VII – VIII; they are crepuscular and nocturnal (attracted by light), and remain hidden in the daytime. <br/></p><p>    </p><p>In the UK it favours mature and old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, open-grown, in permanently damp soils, and so tends to be found through the floodplains as well as in historic parklands and wood pastures (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>. In Romania it occurs in both deciduous and coniferous forests; large populations occur in oak and hornbeam in Transylvania; males have been found on the tree trunks, and females on the soil, during the beginning of July. In the Carpathians, the beetles are active during August (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Turkey larvae develop in conifers and broad-leaved trees (Schimitschek 1953); the life cycle is also three years (Canakcıoglu 1993). In Germany it lives on ground level-deadwood in broad-leaved forests, especially in roots and lower trunk parts. In Denmark it develops almost exclusively on roots of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157824		population	eng	A widespread and common species in at least parts of its range; although declines have been reported in some areas this species is not thought to be declining at a high rate across Europe as a whole.<br/><br/>In the UK it is very localized within its range, and it appears to have declined in abundance in recent decades; it appears Extinct across the west Midlands (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a common species. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as common in its habitat. In central Romania, there are large populations but during the last 30 years a small decline has been observed.(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<p><br/></p>
157824		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. <br/><br/>In the UK loss of old oaks through the floodplains, as a result of agricultural intensification and especially destruction of hedgerows are a threat to this species; clearance of dead and dying trees, for reasons of tidiness and spurious forest hygiene practices are also a   main factor having a negative impact on this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Hungary habitat loss and fragmentation are occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the clearance of dead and tree-stump from old forests may be one of the threats.
157825		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157825		distribution	eng	This species is found in mainland Greece, and also occurs in Turkey and Lebanon. Records are known from Taygetos mountains in <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:place> Peninsula and from Falakro area in north-eastern Greece (Thracia).
157825		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a polyphagous species that lives in deadwood of deciduous tress.
157825		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered to be rare.</p>
157825		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality. Climate change may affect some subpopulations in the future.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157826		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157826		distribution	eng	<p>This species has only been reported from Sweden.</p>
157826		habitat	eng	This is thought to an obligate saproxylic species, if it is a separate species at all. No information is available on its habitat requirements.
157826		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the abundance of this species. This species is only known from a single larva from the type locality in Sweden and the validity of this species is in question.</p>
157826		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157827		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place for this species. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157827		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout most of Europe, except Britain and Ireland. It is endemic to Europe.
157827		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, found in coniferous woodland and plantations. The larvae develop in decayed wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus,</span> and are found under bark on dead fallen trunks; the larvae hibernate; pupation in bark of underground parts of pine stumps in May-June; adults active in July - August; crepuscular and nocturnal (first half), and are attracted by artificial light. The adults and larvae are predators or necrophagous (scavenge) (Dolin 1982, Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>Confined to vast pine forest complexes (Laibner 2000). In Hungary all records are from pine plantations where dead wood is abundant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157827		population	eng	Widespread but generally uncommon. However it is a clandestine species that is likely to be under-recorded.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species that occupies western and southern regions. It is found locally in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is known from a few localities in the western part of the country and from one locality in the north; the populations of this rare species are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is usually found in low numbers but it is widespread across almost all of the country (excepting the mountains and the western part). In Sweden there are collections from seven sites in the last ten years. In Spain there is very little information; probably rare.
157827		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
157828		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157828		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be confined to European Russia.
157828		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is polyphagous, but mostly lives in broad-leaved trees. Larvae develop in dry standing or fallen dead trees, feeding under the bark and later pupating within the wood below (Sama 2002).
157828		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157828		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157829		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).<br/><br/>It is listed as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005). In the UK it also has Conservation Status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992).
157829		distribution	eng	A Palaearctic species, distributed as far north as Sweden, and eastwards discontinuously via the Caucasus and Asia Minor, to Iran to Japan (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the western slopes of the Carpathians. In Britain confined to the south and south-east of England, although there is one old record from north Wales (Mendel and Clarke 1996). Absent from Ireland.
157829		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist restricted to veteran trees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; also old fruit trees in orchards.<br/><br/>The larvae develop in soft and very humid white-rotten heartwood and black wood mould, mainly in old open-grown ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, but also field maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">campestre, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, and other broad-leaved tree species; generally beneath bird nests; in live trees as well as stubs and snags; larvae are saprophagous (Leseigneur 1972) or predators and necrophagous (Dolin 1988); pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult. Adults are active in V-VI and are crepuscular (Alexander 2002). <br/><br/>It lives in naturally preserved forest-steppe formations, flood-plain biotopes and old parks (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in oak forests where old trunks and stumps with near-ground cavities filled with wood mould are available; sometimes also in other tree species (maple, ash, elm) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine considered a tertiary relict of primary broad-leaved forests. In Britain the sites are generally ancient wood pastures, historic parklands and traditional orchards within the cultural landscape, as well as old forest (Alexander 2002).
157829		population	eng	Generally a rare species with scattered localities across its distribution. Population declines have been noted in at least some areas.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution with about 30 modern localities known across southern and south-eastern England, mostly very isolated, and with a similar number of old sites with no modern confirmation - estimated 50% loss of sites since early 20<sup>th</sup> century (Mendel and Clarke 1996). <span lang="EN-GB">In Spain there are only five known localities, two of which are based on old data (from 1930s) (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). <span lang="EN-GB">In France there are small number of localities in old-growth sites. <span lang="EN-GB">In Italy there are fewer than ten known localities, mainly from old records. <span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it is locally Extinct in about half of the federal states; around 20-25 localities in the remainder of the territory. In Denmark it is rare and local; only present in the east (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).  <span lang="EN-GB">In Sweden there are only two subpopulations recorded in the last ten years.&#160; <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there are scattered localities; in Slovakia it is more numerous but still relatively rare (Laibner 2000). In Hungary the populations are sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous areas, but sometimes the individuals are numerous. <span lang="EN-GB"> In Poland there are only two recent localities known. In Ukraine it is a rare species. <span lang="EN-GB">There is no detailed information available for the Greek population.</span></span></span></span>
157829		threats	eng	<p>  This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157830		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157830		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Spain and Italy.
157830		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details are available on habitat preferences..
157830		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157830		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157831		conservation	eng	The conservation measures are strongly linked to fighting Dutch Elm Disease. Revitalisation of floodplain forests and re-establishment of diverse (in&#160; tree species) mesophilous or moist forest stands. Research on how the species can survive on other host plants is recommended.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009).
157831		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central, southern and south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995) and extends to some of the Baltic States and to Russia. <br/><br/>In Hungary and Romania this species is widespread in the hilly, mountainous and lowland regions. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Africa and the Caucasus.<p>    </p><br/><p></p>
157831		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of diseased and dying stems and branches of broad-leaved trees (predominantly elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, only occasionally in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>); they pupate in shallow cells in the sapwood in the spring (Sama 2002). The life cycle is one or two years. Adults emerge in V-VII, and are predominantly crepuscular and nocturnal; they are found on the leaves, branches and stems of the host-plant. <br/><br/>In Hungary it lives in forests where various species of elm occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from elm forests and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>lime<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> also<span style="font-style: italic;"> poplar Populus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">It has been reported from </st1:country-region></st1:place><em>Ulmus canescens</em> in Cyprus and in France larvae are only known from elm<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.    <p>    </p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><br/></p><p></p><p></p>
157831		population	eng	<p>It is a widespread, but sporadic species across Europe. There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in some countries but more typically rare and localised..</p>  In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <span lang="EN-US">In the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland it is widespread but rare because it is dependent on elms. In France and Switzerland it is widely distributed but very localized in suitable places. In France, it is more abundant in the western and southern part of the country (Villiers 1978). In Romania the known populations are from the eastern and southern part of the country; it is not too frequent (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is not rare, it is known from a few locations from mainland Italy and two localities from Sicily. In Spain it is rare, there are 18 populations only in the north and north-eastern part; it is also present in the Balearic Islands. <span lang="EN-US">In Germany records after 1950 only from Brandenburg, Sachsen-Anhalt and Sachsen. In Cyprus<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US"></st1:country-region></st1:place><span lang="EN-US"> it is very rare and local; only one very old record (1939); it has not been found recently (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population size and trend have not been quantified for Turkey.     <p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></span></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></p><br/>  <p></p></span>
157831		threats	eng	<p>The species is threatened due to Dutch Elm Disease which affects its main host-plants. The removal of sick elms from the forests as well as the danger of elm trees declining are both affecting the species. It is able to go onto other host trees but they are not as appropriate as elms. Forest management such as cutting branches or logging are a further threat.<br/></p>  The replacement of native forests where this species occurs is a threat to this species in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species is not threatened because its host plants are widely available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157832		conservation	eng	The single and most important population for many decades in the UK is Moccas Park which is a protected site. It is also present in protected areas in Hungary, Romania, etc.<br/><br/>It is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered although this is very out of date (1987).
157832		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across a band from Fennoscandia and Britain to south eastern Europe, through central and western Europe (Bense 1995). It is also found in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Caucasus, northern Iran.<br/><br/>In Germany is is present in all States. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it has been reported mainly from the south-western part. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987).<br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded from four sites in the northernmost area, only one is recent (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003). In Britain it is primarily known from a restricted area in the England/Wales border counties.<br/><p>In Finland it was recorded in Helsinki during 1917-1919 but only a temporary population in imported timber. Not considered as native species.<br/></p>
157832		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead branches and trunks of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, Aesculus, Fagus, Castanea, Ulmus, Malus, Betula</span>). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in autumn or in spring in the wood, sometimes under the bark. Adults are active in V-VI, and are found on the host-plants. In Ukraine adults emerge in IV-VI and eggs are placed under bark and in cracks of wood. The adults are sun-loving beetles, basking in sheltered sunny situations, and active fliers when the air temperature is relatively warm and humid; it is not known to be attracted to blossom. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various types of oak forests, including managed forests. In Germany it lives in oak forests. In Romania it has been reported from old oaks forests; the occupied logs of trees transported between warehouses may favour the development and increase the number of this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). UK sites are mainly historic parklands and ancient wood pastures, but also it is known from a few woodlands. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><p><strong></strong></p>
157832		population	eng	A widespread and common species over much of Europe with some declining population at the edges of its distribution.<br/><br/>In central Europe it is a very common species. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as one of&#160; the most common longicorns in the oak forests. In Romania it is not a common species. In Ukraine it is common, especially in forests and in the steppe-forest zones. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>In Italy and Spain it is common and in France it is very common. In the UK it is confined to a small area of mid Wales and neighbouring English counties, but there area strong population here and its range appears to be expanding, although possibly due to incidental translocation by people (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157832		threats	eng	Clearance of dead trees and fallen branches could be a threat, especially in range edge situations. Also canopy closure in woodlands, leading to loss of sheltered sunny places for the adults.
157833		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed.
157833		distribution	eng	This is a central European species (Laibner 2000). It is absent from the outer north, west, south and east countries.
157833		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in conifer forests from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). The larvae develop in red-rotting dead trees.
157833		population	eng	This species seems to be common with stable populations in its core area, rarer at the fringes. In the Czech Republic it occurs in mountain ranges in the north and south-west with several localities. In Slovakia it is found mainly in High Tatra mountains and central Slovakia with several locations. In Italy it is occurring in the north only with two localities - new records to the Italian fauna. In Germany it is present in the Bavarian Forest and a recent survey registered more than 300 specimens; it is not rare in its habitat (Jarzabek-Müller and Müller 2008).
157833		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157834		conservation	eng	<p>In Finland the recently discovered population has been given protection by the establishment of a protected area (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm.   2009). Habitat restoration and site management are recommended to ensure that this species' habitats are well managed and not drained. Logging is a threat, especially in western Russia and site protection is recommended.<br/></p>
157834		distribution	eng	This species is only found in north-eastern Europe, in the Baltic States and Russia. In Finland, the species was only known from one or two specimens found in the 1950s and considered Regionally Extinct in Finland until recently when a population was recently discovered. In Russia, recent records in Russian Karelia. It is not thought to occur in south-western Russia. Records from Estonia and Latvia are not recent, and no recent records are known. This may be due to declines or lack of survey data. However, this species' habitat is suspected to be in decline.
157834		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species found in the southern boreal zone (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm.   2009). It is associated with aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>. Larvae develop in the soft parts of large standing dead trees with white rot, diameter 110-130 cm. It has been found in dry parts of about 5 m high stump with white rot; also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>stump. Beetles are found in wood and on cut surfaces. Larval development takes more than one year (Muona 1993). In Finland all new records are associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> growing on moist areas.
157834		population	eng	<p>This is a very rare species, and much of its habitat has been destroyed or altered (large aspen trees removed and moist areas for <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> drained) so it is likely to be in decline particularly in Finland and Russia. Declines in Russia are likely due to logging. Throughout the rest of its European range the species is not well known. In Finland has been considered as Extinct, but there are some newly found small populations. In the provisional list, the species is Endangered because although its habitat is protected in the area where it is found in south of Finland, outside this area the habitat is likely to be declining.</p>
157834		threats	eng	<p>    </p>  <p></p><p>Close association with aspen suggests that standard forestry practice of selective removal of non-commercial species may be a threat. In Finland the known localities are in the surroundings of Helsinki and are threatened by many kinds of land use (building roads etc.). Due to the severe fragmentation of this species it is susceptible to stochastic events.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
157836		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place other than FSC general guidelines on deadwood management.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK). It is considered as Endangered in Italy and as Vulnerable in Sweden and Germany.
157836		distribution	eng	This Euro-Caucasian (Laibner 2000) species is found throughout much of Europe.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Germany and southern Britain.
157836		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under loose bark on deadwood of various broad-leaved trees, most frequently in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; and sometimes in the relatively soft rotting heartwood beneath the bark; it is a predator of longhorn beetle (Cerambycidae) larvae and probably other insects; at least two summers are spent in the larval stage in southern England; it pupates in May-June; the adults are very short-lived, active in VII-VIII, crepuscular and nocturnal, attracted to light (Dolin 1982, Alexander 2002). <br/><br/>In naturally preserved forest complexes of various composition, also in old orchards from lowlands to submontane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it lives in broad-leaved forests, mainly oak and beech. In Britain, mostly in ancient wood pastures, historic parklands and traditional orchards in the cultural landscape; but also in old forest (Alexander 2002).
157836		population	eng	A widespread and common species across Europe with stable populations in most of the range. The population size tends to be underestimated because the adults are active at night and regularly recorded by light trapping.<br/><br/>In the UK it is widespread in the central and south-eastern part of England, extending into Wales; its distribution is fragmented but there are strong populations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it appears sporadically and there are new recent records of larvae while in Slovakia it is more common (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and has strong populations in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Sweden there are four subpopulations while in Denmark it is common and distributed especially in the southern part (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Italy it is rare and has a declining population. In Ukraine this species is distributed in the Carpathians and in the central forest-steppe zone.
157836		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157838		conservation	eng	<p>The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Italian Red List. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area. Additional studies are required to determine the extent of occurrence of this species.<br/></p>
157838		distribution	eng	It is believed to be endemic to Sicily (Bense 1995) where it is known from five localities. However, there are also two records in Greece (J. Schmidl pers. comm. 2009) and old records from the European part of&#160; Turkey (exact locality unknown) (Winkler 1924-1932), but some experts believe that these may be mistaken records for other, related, species. It may be present in Cyprus and northern Africa (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).
157838		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Develops in maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>species, the larvae feeding under the bark on dead sections of tree trunks (Bense 1995).
157838		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The species is difficult to find in the wild so it is difficult to make estimates of its population abundance or trends. <br/></p>
157838		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157839		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place.   Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species. The species occurs in a protected area, but does not appear to be covered by that protection.     <p></p>
157839		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Cyprus.<st1:country-region w:st="on"> It has been r</st1:country-region>eported from the south and west slopes of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (300-1,200 m) in Cedar Valley, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Orites</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Eledio, Kellaki, Odou (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157839		habitat	eng	This beetle is found in maquis with <em>Quercus coccifera, </em>also in <em>Pinus brutia </em>and <em>Cedrus brevifolia</em> forests with understory of <em>Quercus alnifolia</em><em>. </em>Larvae develop in branches and twigs of <em>Quercus coccifera </em>and<em> Quercus alnifolia</em>. Adults found on the host plants. Its status as a saproxylic is in doubt as the larvae are thought to develop in live woody tissues rather than dead one.
157839		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">This species is </st1:place></st1:country-region>very rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is considered that its population is decreasing.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157839		threats	eng	<p>This species appears not to be threatened because it develops in twigs of a common maquis shrub. However forests fires and urbanization may severely affect the population.<br/></p>
157840		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157840		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the southern part of central Europe from northern Italy to Austria and Croatia.
157840		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Almost certainly develops in fruiting bodies of wood-decay fungi. The type series was found on old oaks by sifting.
157840		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the abundance of the species. It seems to have been collected in numbers by Reitter in the 1880s, but it is unclear whether it was ever found again. It is possible, that one and the same occurrence (type locality: Trieste) is the basis of all three country records (Trieste was Austria, now Italy from 1818 on, and the territory was claimed by former Yugoslavia as well). <br/> </p>
157840		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157841		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157841		distribution	eng	This species has very restricted occurrence in Europe. It is thought to be found in Russia but the exact distribution through Russia is unknown. Its range through Russia is suspected to be in the west-central region (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It may be present in one locality in southern Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157841		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no specific information known about its habitat requirements.</p>
157841		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157841		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157843		conservation	eng	<p>      There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several protected areas. </p>
157843		distribution	eng	This species has a circum-Mediterranean distribution, mainly in Italy and southern France (Bense 1995). It has been found in Serbia only from Fruška Gora Mountains.<br/><br/>The species also occurs in Africa.
157843		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; Larvae develop in dry wood. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Acer, Quercus, Sorbus, Crataegus, Ilex, Sambucus, Ficus, Robinia, Fagus, Buxus, Prunus, Ulmus, Corylus, Carpinus, Paliurus</em>). The adults are active in IV-VI, and feed at flowers.</p>
157843		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In France is not an uncommon species. In Italy the species is widespread and common. In Spain it is rare as it is only known from one locality. The population trend for this species is considered stable.</p>
157843		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/><p></p>
157844		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157844		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution across most of Europe; absent from Britain, Ireland and the far west of Europe. Endemic to Europe according to Fauna Europaea (2004).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone and in the Carpathians.
157844		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Beetles have been found in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus, Fraxinus, Quercus, Salix</span> (Muona 1993). Larvae inhabit white-rotted heartwood. May be found in small as well as large trees. In Ukraine and Russia this species develops in branches of broad-leaved trees with decay fungi. Larvae may hibernate. The adult beetle is active in June - July (  Nikitsky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1996). <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs mainly in soft-wood lowland forests (willow and poplar galleries), but also in oak forests.
157844		population	eng	Endemic to Europe, where the species is localised, but not uncommon in suitable habitat in some areas (e.g. in France).<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is very rare. In Hungary the species is known from a few localities of the hills and the forested areas of the lowlands; the populations have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as quite rare in its localities. In Sweden only two specimens have been collected from two locations. In Italy it has been found only in the northern part; one doubtful record from Sardinia. In Spain there are only old records (before 1930) (Recalde Irurzun 2008).<br/><br/>It is found throughout most of mainland France, with 40-50 localities known.
157844		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
157845		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Probably none needed.<br/></p>
157845		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from south-eastern Europe to eastern Asia (China, Korea). It is frequently introduced into northern America, but is not yet naturalized there. It occurs in the south of Russia and in the Caucasus: Georgia (Sama 2002). It also occurs in north-eastern Ukraine (Danilevsky 2007).<br/><br/>It is considered a pest imported from China and it remains unknown if the species is native in eastern Europe.
157845		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. campestris</span> has a wide host range (willow, fruit trees, birch, probably others). Larvae develop in drying wood, but eggs may be laid at seemingly healthy trees (it is an early colonizer of dying wood). Development is possible in very dry wood, and the adults may hatch after the wood has been worked. Considered a quarantine pest in northern America.
157845		population	eng	<p>The species is recorded as fairly common in the Orenburg area (Russia) but there is little information available on the abundance of this species in other regions.</p>
157845		threats	eng	<p>This species is considered to potentially be a serious pest, imported from China around the world. <br/>  </p>
157846		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are needed.<br/></p>
157846		distribution	eng	This species is Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995); it is widespread from northern Africa to southern France and Italy; locally in central Europe (Slovakia) and Balkans southward to Peloponnese; old records from Hungary, Romania and Crimea never confirmed (Sama 2002).
157846		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Extremely polyphagous on broad-leaved trees; larval development is in dead dry wood of branches of nearly all broad-leaved trees and shrubs (examples include <em>Pistacia, Ceratonia, Ostrya, Carpinus, Ulmus, Robinia, Prunus, Acacia</em>); adults emerge in VI-VIII and feed at various flowers (Sama 2002). It is also found in tree plantations and orchards.<br/><br/>In France it shows clear preference for <em>Pistacia</em> (Villiers 1978).
157846		population	eng	<p>It is a widespread and common species across much of its European range.</p>In Spain and Italy it is common, with many localities. In Portugal it has been recorded from just four localities in the northern half (two old and two recent). It is rare in Crimea.
157846		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157847		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157847		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two states: Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro.
157847		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a facultative saproxylic species developing either in decaying stumps of broad-leaved trees or in forest soil with deep litter layer. It appears not to be a true saproxylic but has been retained as its ecological requirements are not well known.<br/></p>
157847		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157847		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157848		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas in Hungary, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from non protected areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The species is not considered threatened in Germany. FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.
157848		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe from France to south-eastern Europe; it is absent from much of the north and south (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from the hilly areas in Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It has also been reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).
157848		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Acer, Alnus, Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, Ostrya, Corylus, Prunus, Ulmus, Juglans, Rosa, Malus, </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus, Vitis</span>) and shrubs (vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>, dog-rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa</span>). Larvae develop under the bark of dead twigs and&#160; branches. Life cycle takes two years, with pupation in spring, in the wood. Adults emerge in May - July, and are found on host- plants and feeding at flowers. In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in in oak and beech forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). This species only appears in early spring when entomologists are mostly not out in the field, and hence it tends to be under-recorded.<p><br/><strong></strong></p>
157848		population	eng	The species is uncommon across its range. It is considered uncommon in Italy and in the Balkans (Sama 2002); also in Romania. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but it is quite rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively rare.It is present in all German states, but for Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Schleswig-Holstein there are only old records.
157848		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The major threat in Romania is the replacement of native oak forests with others species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157849		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.<br/></p>
157849		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the Portuguese and Spanish archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean, Madeira and Canary Islands, respectively. Endemic to the Canary Islands and Madeira.
157849		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Occurs in laurisilva forest; typically inhabits deadwood of laurels <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus</span> and willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>; also <span style="font-style: italic;">Persea indica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Apollonias barbujana</span>. <br/></p>
157849		population	eng	<p>This species has a restricted distribution, but it is apparently common where it occurs, with many known localities.<br/></p>
157849		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. This species inhabits <span style="font-style: italic;">Apollonias barbujana </span>trees<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>which are utilized for luxury furniture. However, this species remains widespread in the Canary Islands and is not thought to be under immediate threat, although this situation may change in the shorter term.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157850		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157850		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and southern Europe. It is also found in Caucasus and Turkey.
157850		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is known from the deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>; in standing trees, logs and branches; wood hard, always with cerambycid galleries, presence of the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Poria</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">purpurea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stereum insignitum</span> observed (Muona 1993). In Hungary the habitats of the known populations are closed, mature oak and beech forests (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). The biology of this species in Ukraine is unknown.
157850		population	eng	The species seems to be rare throughout its range. In Hungary the species is known to occur only in the southern part of the country (Baranya county); all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Slovakia known from two localities. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, and is rare. In Slovakia there are only in two faunistic grid cells in the extreme east (border to the Ukranian Carpathians) (Elateridae 2009). In Spain it is known only from one locality close to the Pyrenees (Recalde Irurzun 2008).&#160; In France there are two localities only in the Atlantic Pyrenees (Iraty and Sare) discovered in 1994 and 1995 (Lucht and Chassain 1998).
157850		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157851		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157851		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be confined to the Balkans (Bense 1995) where it is widely distributed. Although it is described from Hungary this species probably does not occur in Hungary (Sama 2002). It has been reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).
157851		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its development is inadequately known; the larvae are said to feed in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>deadwood. Adults have been found feeding at thistle blossom (Bense 1995). This is a relic species (Schmidt 1961). In Greece it has been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in Turkey on oak.
157851		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, however its population may be inferred to be stable on the basis that it requires only oak branches and twigs which are a regularly renewed habitat. It is rare (Sama 2002) but widespread. Very few individuals have been found - the species may be difficult to find, as it lives in branches and twigs and do not require veteran trees.</p>  <p></p>
157851		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
157852		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157852		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It is also reported to occur in Corsica by the CKmap 2000 database (2009).
157852		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details on its precise habitat requirements are available.
157852		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157852		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157853		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia and the Czech Republic and as Vulnerable in Germany (2009). Further studies are needed into the abundance, ecology, and threats to this species. Its status in Britain needs clarification.
157853		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe (on east to the Carpathians). It is also found in northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Romania there are old reports from the eastern part of the country. In Portugal it is widespread in the northern half, undetermined in the south. In Denmark it is very local and there is only one locality in the south. Its British status is unclear and the few records suggest repeated casual introductions into the south-east.
157853		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in hollow trees of broad-leaved species, and the adults feed at flowers. It lives in broad-leaved and mixed forests which is not so scarce in Europe.
157853		population	eng	A widespread species relatively common and with stable populations in Europe.<br/><br/>In France it is widely distributed. In Spain it is quite abundant in mountainous areas around the country. In the Czech Republic it is very rare. In the UK it is an irregular vagrant only, erratic in appearance. <br/><p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>    </p>
157853		threats	eng	<p>The species does not appear to be particularly threatened over much of its European range, but there are certainly significant pressures on its habitat.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157854		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). More research is needed to clarify the distribution and abundance of this species.
157854		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and northern Europe, extending to south-eastern Europe. Also present in the eastern Palaearctic (not a European endemic).
157854		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Found in white-rotted twigs, branches and trunks of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, hazel <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> and other broad-leaved species. Prefers damp areas. Nearly full grown larvae have been found in small, white-rotted twigs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(diameter two cm) on the ground; also in dry, relatively hard surface wood of standing <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus </span>(diameter four cm) with early signs of white rot, larvae at base, which was surrounded by moist leaf litter (larvae small). Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span> in Germany. Full grown larvae live in soft surface wood; development takes at least two years. Evidently the eggs are laid in still hard wood, but already colonised by decay fungi, which is soft by the time the larvae are full grown (Muona 1993). In Ukraine the species develops in humid branches of oak and nut-trees lying on ground (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it has been found in the east forest-steppe (Kharkov region) and in the mountains of Crimea (Drogvalenko 2001). In Hungary the habitats of the known localities are various open forests.
157854		population	eng	Generally appears to be a rare and very localised species (but is possibly under-recorded as it is not easy to find even when it is present). Population trend is unknown.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is very rare. In Hungary this species is known from very few localities in hilly regions; the known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Finland and Sweden it is very rare and scattered with few records; in Sweden it is only found in the south. In Germany it is only found in the south and is present in two federal States (formerly occurred in two additional States but has become Extinct there); considered very rare. In Slovakia it is known from four localities, two of them are known only from old data (pre-1950). In France there are seven known localities. In Italy it occurs in the north.
157854		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157856		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area and there is no information on the conservation measures.</p>
157856		distribution	eng	This species is found in Crete, in the far eastern part of&#160;Ukraine and southern Russia. It is also present in Bulgaria, Romania and Kazakhstan (Özdikmen 2008).
157856		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that lives in temperate shrubland or widely spaced forest. Very little is known about its biology.<br/></p>
157856		population	eng	<p>This species is very rare in Ukraine and there is no information about its trends. Only two specimens were collected from Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157856		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on the threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
157857		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is unknown if the species is present within any protected areas.</p>
157857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the French and Italian Mediterranean Islands of Sardinia and Corsica.
157857		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Presumably larvae develop in decaying wood. Adults are attracted to flowers for feeding.
157857		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p>
157857		threats	eng	<p>No information available.<br/></p>
157858		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures for this species are known.</p>
157858		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across south and south-eastern Europe. It is also present in the old Yugoslavia area (Bense 1995) and in Near East.
157858		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forests, and is particularly prevalent in the lowlands (Sama 2006). No information is available on the size of dead oak timber required nor on the open-ness of trees in its habitats.<br/></p>
157858		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>
157858		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
157859		conservation	eng	Habitat continuity and connectivity are required. It lives in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Endangered in Germany (2009) and the Czech Republic.
157859		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern, central and eastern Europe, and present in the north as well. Sub-fossil material has been found in a peat-bog in Denmark where the species no longer occurs (Paulian and Baraud 1982).<br/><br/>In eastern Europe it occurs from south Belarus, middle Russia to Ural (on east). In Ukraine it lives in forests and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones. In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and in the lowlands where extensive forests occur. In Romania it is widespread in all regions, from lowland with grass and small forests up to the low mountains. In Italy it is present in mainland and Sicily.<br/><br/>In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> <em>Protaetia aeruginosa</em> does not occur<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>; it was reported from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place> erroneously as a result of misidentification of <em>Protaetia</em><em> </em><em>(Cetonischema)</em><em> speciosa</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). <em>Cetonischema speciosa marchei</em> has been described as an endemic subspecies of Cyprus (Alexis and Delpont 1999).
157859		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually in the trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Suitable cavities may occur high up the host trees. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions are not optimal. Suitable trees may occur in a wide variety of situations, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. The adults are active in V-IX, fly during warm days, and are very attracted by sap-runs; they usually live in the canopy of trees.<br/><br/>In central Europe it is linked to thermophilous oak forests. In Hungary it occurs in various broad-leaved forests types where hollow trunks are abundant; especially frequent in riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs especially where there are a lot of old oaks with large hollows. In France this species in found only in large broad-leaved forests in plains (Paulian and Baraud 1982). In Spain it is linked to large forested areas of deciduous species in which their larvae develop. In Ukraine larvae develop in stubs and decayed wood of oak and fruit trees;&#160; in old forests and gardens, the adults are rarely found at flowers.
157859		population	eng	This species appears to be rare over much of its European range and, although the overall population trend remains unknown, it is known that it is declining in some parts while increasing in others. There is recent evidence that it is not as rare as previously thought, in some areas at least, once appropriate trapping techniques have been applied. However, hollow trees are known to be becoming increasingly scarce across Europe and so a downward trend in abundance and number of localities may be expected to be occurring.<br/><br/>The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Romania there are large populations where old forest and meadows are still present - the species needs bright oak forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France the the use of window traps and traps with wine placed at high level in old oaks has resulted in the recent discovery of new populations (R. Allemand pers. comm. 2009).This species is extremely rare in the Iberian Peninsula where rarity is probably related to the decline of the forests they inhabit, and the current distribution is probably a relict population of a formerly much greater range. In Greece it is currently rare and continues declining. In the Czech Republic it is rather rare and is only occurring in a few areas, but although the species is very rare, it is expanding. There is no population data for Italy. In Ukraine it is rare.
157859		threats	eng	<p>Removal of old trees and habitat fragmentation are major threats to this species, for example in Spain. Also the excessive use of insecticides is a local threat (Greece). In Ukraine the destruction of old trees, where larvae develop, are posing a threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aeruginosa.</span> In Hungary, although removing dead wood occurs in several localities, the species does not seem to be threatened; invasive trees in riverine galleries are more dangerous.</p>
157860		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania, UK). There are no specific measures in place; however general management guidelines for forestry operations include retaining old native trees and decaying wood in selected areas, also on cutting regimes appropriate to ride-sides.
157860		distribution	eng	This Eurosiberian species is widespread across nearly all of Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs only in the westernmost part of the country while, in Romania, it is widespread in the low parts of the Carpathians. In Ukraine it also occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Russia it occurs in the forest area. <br/><br/>It is also found in Caucasus, northern Kazakhstan, Siberia, far East, northern China and Japan.
157860		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould of decayed heartwood in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>stumps in Britain; it prefers mixed broad-leaved woods in steep-sided river valleys; adults feed on pollen from tall flowering herbs in open sunny areas close to breeding sites, flying in daylight (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the larvae also prefer <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, but also develop in wood and stubs of aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; one generation per year; adults active in VI-VIII and feeding at flowers of Umbelliferae and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus, Rosa, Filipendula, Leucantheum </span>(Medvedev 1964). In Romania the life cycle is two or three years and the adults are active in VI-IX (Nikitsky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1996); adults can be found on the flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus ebulus</span>. In Spain larvae have been found in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvatica</span>; adults feed on Umbelliferae, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus, Rubus, Cirsium.</span> In Hungary it occurs in mixed (conifer and broadleaved) forests where dead wood is abundant and flowers on clearings are available.
157860		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. fasciatus</span> is a common species in Europe with stable populations throughout its range.<br/><br/>In the UK there are strong populations centred on areas of Scotland and Wales, with no evidence for any declines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively rare - especially in the eastern part. In Russia it is common. In Spain it is quite abundant but only in the forests in the north. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the population is large in size. In Switzerland it is very common, and in Sweden and Finland it is common.
157860		threats	eng	<p>This species faces no major threats at present.<br/></p>Clearance of old birches, as a result of afforestation for commercial forestry for instance, is a potential threat to this species; also loss of flowery glades and ride-sides through, for example, insensitive cutting and mowing. In Spain forest fragmentation and loss of flowery glades are threatening this species.
157861		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157861		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe except in the far west (Bense 1995). It is also found in Siberia, Mongolia, possibly in the Caucasus, Minor Asia, North America and northern Africa.<br/><br/>It occurs throughout the northern half of the Iberian peninsula (Vives 2001); also in the south of the Iberian Peninsula: Andalucia (Verdugo 2004), Extremadura, Castilla La Mancha, Murcia, Valencia (Gonázales<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). In Portugal it is widespread throughout the country, most of the records are recent. In France it is largely distributed but more common in the south (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is widespread in the country wherever indigenous (western Hungary) or planted (in all other parts of Hungary) pine forests occur. Its range is expanding (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in nearly all German States. In Romania it is widespread in the Carpathians where occur pine forests. The exact locality of this species in European Turkey is unknown.
157861		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are mostly monophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus; </span>they develop under the bark and in the wood of dying and recently dead thin stems, branches and trees. The life&#160; cycle is usually one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-IX, found on the wood of the host-plant and on brushwood, where they feed on green bark and on needles. Pupal stage is two or three weeks, in May-June. In Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Pinus </em></strong>(Erdem 1968) and in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Picea orientalis</em></strong> (Schimitschek 1953) - the adults active in VI and the life cycle is one year (Erdem 1968).</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary it lives in native and planted pine forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) and in Romania in native pine forests.&#160;</p>  <p></p>
157861		population	eng	<p>A common species in at least parts of its range, which benefits from forestry practices (plantation of conifers) in many areas. Population trend is increasing.</p>    <p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hungary</st1:place></st1:country-region> the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities; new populations in planted pine forests are continuously becoming known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> this species has been expanding at least since 1945, following the pine plantations (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Villiers 1978). For European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> it is rare. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
157861		threats	eng	<p>This species is expanding in planted pine forests, and not threatened at all. </p>
157863		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157863		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe, throughout much of central and eastern Europe, westwards to western Europe, and reaching northern countries. This species is also found in the Caucasus, Armenia, Iran and north-eastern Turkey.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions of the country, wherever indigenous or planted spruce forests occur. In Romania it is widespread in the Carpathian Mountains. In Denmark it is distributed in the south and spreading (Thomsen 2007) and in Switzerland it is widespread. It is present in all German States. In Spain this species is restricted to the Pyrenees (Vives 2001).
157863		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. <br/></p><p>It develops in conifers (<em>Abies, Picea Pinus, Larix</em>). Larvae develop first in and later under the dry bark of dead, sun exposed branches and stems (often of 15-30 cm diameter). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in spring deep in the wood or in the thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VIII, found on the host plants and flowers. <br/></p><p>In Hungary it lives in indigenous and planted spruce forests. In Romania it has been reported from native and planted spruce forest; the beetles have been found in the hilly and mountain areas.</p>
157863		population	eng	A widespread species with a stable population in Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary and Romania the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. It is common in Switzerland, France, Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. In Sweden and Ukraine it is rare. In the UK it is a naturalised introduction which is widespread in southern and south-eastern England.
157863		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats.
157864		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Part of the population occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>
157864		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Crete (Bense 1995). It is found in the western part of Crete.
157864		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives is <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span> (Kermes oak), developing in the deadwood of stumps and&#160; trunks.<br/></p>
157864		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The species is rare. The population status and trend are unknown.<br/></p>
157864		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation of oaks is a major threat to this species. Also charcoal production and grazing goats are a threat.<br/></p>
157865		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it does not occur in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and threats to this poorly-known species.</p>  <p></p>
157865		distribution	eng	The European population is less than 1% of the total global population. The species ranges from northern Africa to Near East and Turkey.<br/><br/>The exact distribution of this species in Europe is unknown. It is believed to live in the Dodecanes islands, but it remains unknown on which. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>This species is also found in Cyprus, but only a few old records from Nicosia (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157865		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:country-region w:st="on"> </st1:country-region>It lives in old hollow trees (rot holes). There is no information on the habitats and ecology of this species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157865		population	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Greece this species has been reported from Dodecanes islands, there is no information on population.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has not been found </st1:place></st1:country-region>recently. Probably it is extinct from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157865		threats	eng	<p>Lack of old hollow trees is a major threat. Also urbanisation.<br/></p>
157866		conservation	eng	This species is largely neglected by conservation in Britain as habitat conservation there is very polarised, protecting 'woods', 'grasslands', etc, rather than habitat mosaics, and treating thorn as undesirable in grassland reserves; the conservation of traditional orchards is in its infancy (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157866		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across central and eastern Europe, reaching westwards to England, northwards into southern Sweden, and south west into north east Spain (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus, Iran, north-eastern Turkey, south Turkmenistan, Russia on east to south Ural Mountains.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is present in all German States. In Britain it has a very localised and patchy distribution, largely confined to southern England and south-east Wales. In Spain it is found in four localities in the Pyrenees (Vives 2001); also known in Castilla y Leon (Soria) and Galicia (Lugo) (Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
157866		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under bark on dead twigs, branches and thin trunks. The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VII, and are attracted to flowers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rosaceae</span>). It develops in broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Castanea, Malus, Prunus, Cornus, Quercus</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Amelancher</span>, dog-rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa</span>, and bramble <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus</span>). It is mainly associated with woody Rosaceae in Britain; adults are attracted to white blossom of umbellifers, elder <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>, dogwood <span style="font-style: italic;">Cornus</span>, etc.<br/></p><p>In Hungary it lives in light forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches Rosaceae and other shrubs, and adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs. In Britain it favours open sunny situations such as thorn scrub and bramble on the edge of woodlands, in old orchards, old hedgerows, etc (Alexander 2002). In Romania it lives in the high hills, where it is present in <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa canina</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rubus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>; it can also be found in the mountains, very rare.</p>
157866		population	eng	A widespread species relatively common but with a declining population trend in Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities.&#160; In Ukraine it is a common species.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very restricted distribution; about four main English concentrations of reports, one extending into south-eastern Wales, plus a few outliers; the range is apparently contracting, and it appears to have been lost from many areas; only about 25 modern records (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Denmark it is somewhat rare, often near the coasts (Thomsen 2007).
157866		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although local threats in certain areas include: in the UK habitat loss and insensitive land management as well as clearance of thorn scrub, destruction of old orchards, heavy trimming on old hedgerows and wood edges, and loss of rough areas generally, are all threatening this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009); in Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this common species.
157867		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157867		distribution	eng	This species is known to have a patchy distribution in most of Europe; it is absent from Britain and Ireland, and the far west of Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians. In Spain it is present in the north and northeastern part (Recalde Irurzun 2008).
157867		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from large beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>with moist, white-rotten heartwood. Beetles have been found in pupal cells in a large <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>log with white-rotten wood. Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>. Larvae have been found 10-30 cm deep in the wood. Development takes probably two years (Muona 1993). In Ukraine and Russia this species develops in decayed wood (white stage) of lying trunks (without bark) of aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tremula</span>, rarely oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. Larvae hibernate. Pupation at spring. Adults active at May - July (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, especially in beech and oak, but also in species of willow and poplar (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157867		population	eng	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable to increasing.<br/><br/>It occurs throughout most of France, with a large number of known sites; common. In Germany it is considered common, population is increasing and expanding its range.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are six localities, mostly recent (Recalde Irurzun 2008).
157867		threats	eng	<p>This species faces no major threats.<br/></p>
157868		conservation	eng	<p>Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity are measures that should be promoted for the conservation of this species. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Slovakia and as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009).</p>
157868		distribution	eng	This species is found in some countries in central, eastern and southern Europe (Laibner 2000); it appears to be a central European species, and is absent from countries to the north, west, south and east.
157868		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decaying wood; largely confined to old damaged oaks, sometimes poplars and horse chestnuts, scattered in broad-leaved and mixed forests of lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000).
157868		population	eng	<p>The species is rare in Europe. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is locally across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is present in seven States, six of them with records after 1950, its population is declining and it is probably the same situation in Austria. In Italy there is only one record in the north. In France there are approximately 20 localities, with a large and well studied population in the Fôret de Fontainebleau, rare everywhere else in France.<br/></p><br/><p><br/></p>
157868		threats	eng	<p>    </p>Removal of old dead trees and dying off of old veteran trees with rot holes are major threats to this species. In addition, no provision of substitutes because of demographic gap, especially of oak trees suitable to develop rot-holes, lead to very little suitable habitat available for this species. Removal of trees because of road safety, unintended or intended demolition of rot-holes or intensive forest management are additional threats.<br/>  <p></p>
157869		conservation	eng	<p>This species is considered as Endangered in Finland. Maintenance of fire-continue areas in eastern Finland can be beneficial for this species. </p>
157869		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-eastern Europe extending to the European region of Russia.<br/><p><br/></p>
157869		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Based on the limited known records of this species, it is suspected to rely on old growth forests, particularly pine forests. One record has been found in a burned area so it is suspected that this may be a habitat preference or even requirement for the species.
157869		population	eng	<p>This species is a very rare species within eastern-most Finland. Fewer than ten specimens have been found in Finland, from four localities (E. Hyvärinen and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The first record of the species in Finland is from the1920s and a few recent records have been found due to increased intensity of sampling (I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009). There is no information about its distribution and abundance in Russia. No information is known about the trends of this species.</p>
157869		threats	eng	<p>The suspected habitat type is known to be declining and predicted to continue declining due to logging and inappropriate fire management (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157870		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
157870		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of Europe, in central and southern Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Turkey.
157870		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its habitat is broad-leaved forests with veteran trees and wood-decaying fungi. It can live in small dimensions of dead wood. In Ukraine beetles have been found on carpophores of wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus alveolarius, Lentinus tegrinus</span> (Drogvalenko 1997). In other places beetles inhabit fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Lentinus betulina, Pleurotus pulmonarius, P. ostreatus </span>(Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).
157870		population	eng	This species seems to be common in eastern Europe and scarce in other European countries. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, much rarer in the lowlands. Population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is common in the Carpathians. In Germany it has increased the number of records. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is rare. In Ukraine it is relatively a rare species; was collected in the Kharkov region. In Portugal it was first recorded from the country very recently, from the extreme north (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003).
157870		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species. Felling of old trees and destruction of decayed trunks with fungi could be a threat to this species.
157872		conservation	eng	<p>It is present in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). The species is legally protected in Hungary. In Germany this species is listed as Vulnerable (2009).</p>
157872		distribution	eng	Essentially a Mediterranean species; common in its Mediterranean distribution and somewhat more infrequent in countries to the north. It is absent from much of Fennoscandia, also Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in Minor Caucasus, Syria, Turkey and northern Africa.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001) but in Portugal it is scarcer in the south (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is very sporadic in the westernmost part of the country. Another extant population is known from the Bakony Mountains (central part of the western half of the country). It has been reported from European Turkey without exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). It is present in almost all German States. It is occasionally introduced into the UK with timber but has not established itself locally.
157872		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in large diameter dead wood of conifers (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Cedrus, Larix</span>), exceptionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Populus</span>), but sometimes in thin branches and in rootlets. Stage of pupa lasts approximately three weeks. The life cycle is at least three or four years, with pupation in late spring and summer in the wood. Adults emerge in VII-IX, found on the wood, they are crepuscular and nocturnal.&#160; <br/></p><p>The known localities of this species in Hungary are in indigenous forests of Scots Pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span>). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Germany it also lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> forests.<br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157872		population	eng	Common in the Mediterranean countries. In Spain alone there are 185 known locations. In Ukraine it is a common species. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>Much rare in the north of its European range. Although population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century; most localities are older than 50 years, but an extant population was discovered in the 1970s (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157872		threats	eng	<p>      </p><p>There are no major threats to this species at present, although in some parts of its range the loss of mature pines may have a negative impact.<br/></p>  <p></p><p>In Hungary the illegal collection of beetles is an additional threat.</p>
157873		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157873		distribution	eng	This species has only been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina.
157873		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information regarding the ecological requirements of this species.
157873		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
157873		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157874		conservation	eng	<p>Not present in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). It has been found at the Garajonay National Park in La Gomera (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157874		distribution	eng	This is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain. Present in four islands: La Palma and Tenerife (<span style="font-style: italic;">L. l. lauricola</span>) and Gomera and El Hierro (<span style="font-style: italic;">L. l. gomerensis</span>) (Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala 1981, Izquierdo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004).
157874		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Both subspecies are present in the laurisilva forest vegetation belt, under the dead bark of fallen trees, where they feed on xylophagous beetles, probably Colydiidae from the genus <em>Tarphius </em>(P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<p></p>
157874		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It does not seem to be a very abundant species; Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala (1981) report only three specimens of the nominal subspecies and six from the <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerensis</span> subspecies.<br/></p>
157874		threats	eng	<p>Habitat destruction (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009) appears to be a major threat to this species.<br/></p>
157875		conservation	eng	It occurs in a Regional Park, but this does not necessarily guarantee effective protection or appropriate habitat management.   Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.
157875		distribution	eng	This species is only known from northern Sicily, Italy (Audisio<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It is endemic to Sicily. Three sites are reported in the CKmap 2000 database.
157875		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in accumulations of wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Found in mature broad-leaved woodland although no information is available on the canopy open-ness required..
157875		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Little information is known but as this species requires decaying heartwood it may be inferred that - due to declining extent of habitat - this species faces a declining trend.</p>  <p></p>
157875		threats	eng	<p>    </p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g., cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The restricted area of occupancy combines limited population size with reduced habitat availability, bird predation, fires, and frequently unsuitable local techniques of forest management (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
157876		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157876		distribution	eng	This species is found scattered throughout much of Europe except in northern Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians. In France there are six localities in the centre and south-eastern France, including Corsica (Brustel and Aubourg 2008). In Spain its presence has recently been confirmed in a   <span lang="EN-GB">Pyrenean   locality (de la Rosa 2008). It was also recorded from Portugal but without geographical detail in the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Oliveira 1893) and apparently not found ever since.<span lang="EN-GB"> <br/><br/>It is also present in Near East.</span>
157876		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Reared from both standing and lying logs of maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, </span>hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, wood solid and hard. Beetles have been found under bark of a decayed <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>stump in Austria (Muona 1993). In Hungary the species occurs in open broad-leaved forests, especially where dead trunks of maple occur in numbers; also in beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157876		population	eng	The species is rare throughout its European range. In Hungary&#160; it is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions; all known populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is rare but its populations seem stable. In France there is only one locality and very rare. In the Czech Republic there are six recent localities. In Spain only one. In Ukraine it is rare.
157876		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>
157877		conservation	eng	<p>The species is present in at least one protected area.<br/></p>
157877		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.
157877		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus canariensis</span> forests, for example in the Pinar de Garafia reserve in La Palma (800 ha). Because all other members of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stephanopachys</span> are associated with conifers (especially pines), the Canarian pine is likely to be the only host of the species. Larval development is likely to take place in dead bark.</p><p></p>  <p></p>
157877		population	eng	<p>The species is known from the major islands    Tenerife, La Palma, El Hierro and Gran Canaria (Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial). There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It probably is uncommon like other members of the genus (Zoological Museum Lund holds a few specimens only). Population trend is unknown.</p>
157877		threats	eng	<p>Indigenous pine forest are suffering reduction through cultivation and forest fires. Pine forest is commercially managed in the Canary Islands and the traditional management of dead wood is not likely to benefit this species.<br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157878		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed. The species is very common over much of its range and occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2003).
157878		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe; absent in the British Isles and the Scandinavia Peninsula. It is widespread in Ukraine, Hungary, Romania and Cyprus. It is Extinct in Denmark (2003). It also occurs in the western part of northern Africa and the Caucasus.<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157878		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead wood (stump, stub and branch) of various broad-leaved trees (ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Populus,</span> vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>). Pupation mainly takes place in autumn (adults hibernate), others in spring after hibernation. One generation per year. The adults are more active in sunny days, feeding at flowers and young leaves of trees and bushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix, Cornus, Prunus</span> and many fruit-trees) (Medvedev 1964).<br/><br/>In Ukraine adults are active in IV-VIII (in the mountains of Crimea in IV-VI), more usual in V-VII. It lives in broad-leaved forests (often on glades, edges), sometimes in relatively open places but with bushes or with separate trees.&#160; In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, and in any wooded places, including city parks, suburbs, and villages. In Romania it has been found on the edge of broad-leaved forests. In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> it has been found in orchards, maquis, and forests. In Spain adults prefer hygrophilous environments.
157878		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout much of its range and its population trend is stable overall.<br/><br/>In Spain, Ukraine and Romania it is very common. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as very common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is found sporadically and in small numbers (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>
157878		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species (e.g. Ukraine, Spain, Hungary).
157879		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157879		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern Europe throughout the Scandinavia Peninsula, into the north part of western Europe and the Baltic States. It is more abundant in the northern part of its range - northern boreal forest is a more suitable habitat than southern boreal forest (I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009).
157879		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Finland the species strongly prefers burned areas, where it can be very abundant. It is also found in other warm forest habitats. It is a boreal forest species that extends to the southern limit of the boreal forest (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).
157879		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout most of its range. In Finland it is quite abundant in burned areas, and the trend is stable.</p><p><br/></p>
157879		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species is rather common and no decline has been observed.</p>
157882		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157882		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Europe and in one instance in north-western Europe (Belgium). It is reported from Edirne (Adlbauer 1988) and Klrklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) in the European part of Turkey.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"> In Cyprus it was found on </st1:country-region></st1:place>the southern and western slopes of Troodos Mountains (0-1,300 m) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157882		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that is polyphagous in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees. Its specific habitat requirements are unknown and it seems to occupy typical south-eastern European habitats. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus it was found </st1:country-region></st1:place>mainly in maquis and garigue feeding at various flowers especially on white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157882		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout the majority of its range, although it is thought to be relatively uncommon. Its exact habitat needs are unknown but it appears not to have specific needs (polyphagous in deciduous trees) so the population is suspected to be stable as this type of habitat is relatively stable across south-eastern Europe. In Cyprus it is uncommon and restricted to a few localities  (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.</p>    <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157882		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p><p><br/></p>
157883		conservation	eng	<p>  There is need to establish suitably managed protected areas for this species.<br/></p>
157883		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is only known from the state of Carinthia, Austria (Laibner 2000) and thus has a restricted distribution and an Extent of Occurrence of up to 10,000  <span lang="EN-GB"> km²   (size of the state of Carinthia).
157883		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information available regarding its habitat requirements (Laibner 2000).
157883		population	eng	<p>Published information shows it is only known from two records (Laibner 2000) so it is suspected that it is restricted to Carinthia and possibly only in one location, and likely not to be in more than five or ten locations in the area. The population is thus considered to be relatively low, but no information is known about trends.<br/></p>
157883		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157885		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>
157885		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only found in Greece.<br/></p>
157885		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but.there is little information available on the precise habitat requirements of this species.</p>  <p></p>
157885		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157885		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157886		conservation	eng	<p>The species occurs in several protected areas. </p>
157886		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in southeastern Europe. It is also reported from Canakkale (Malmusi and Saltini 2005), in the European part of Turkey.
157886		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is polyphagous in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees like <em>Quercus </em>and<em> Pistacia.</em> However its development is inadequately known. Adults are active in V-VI.&#160; <br/></p><p><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157886		population	eng	There is no information about the abundance or trends of this species.<p></p>
157886		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
157887		conservation	eng	The key conservation measure needed for this species is that veteran trees are protected and appropriately managed, and that measures are taken to ensure that there will be a constant or increasing stock of veteran trees over decades to come. This applies to the whole range of the species.<br/><br/>In the UK both known sites are protected under UK legislation. The wood pasture and parkland habitat has conservation priority under the UK Government Biodiversity Action Plan. Only piecemeal habitat inventory work has been carried out so far and there is no monitoring scheme in place. In Spain and Ukraine studies on the distribution of the population of this species are being carried out. The species occurs in several protected areas: in Hungary nearly all localities are in protected areas; in Romania the most stable populations are in three national parks in the south-western Carpathians. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Ukraine, Moldova, Poland and Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006), as Endangered in Britain, and as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2003).
157887		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the wooded and mountainous regions in Europe, from Britain to the Caucasus. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is sporadic in the mountainous regions of the country. In Romania it is widespread from the lowlands in the south up to the mountains in the south-western part. In Portugal it has been recorded only from a single mountainous area in the extreme north, not recorded for more than 80 years. In France it occurs in the centre and south, especially in mountain and hilly regions (Paulian and Baraud 1982). In Britain it is confined to small areas in the south-east.
157887		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae normally take two years to develop in Britain, longer where conditions not optimal. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but shade more important under more continental conditions. (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). It tends to be restricted to very large old trees and the decay is usually caused by red-rot fungus, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>.<br/></p><p>Typically found in broad-leaved trees (especially oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>) in central and northern parts of its range. In southern Europe it may also be found in conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>). <st1:country-region><st1:place>In the UK </st1:place></st1:country-region>the species clearly needs old open-grown oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trees<st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>; it is not found in closed-canopy shady situations. Occupied trees are invariably in open parkland situations rather than 'forest' (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is associated with oak forest, not necessarily open; also in chestnut forest. In Sweden it lives in wooded pastures with old oaks; flying adults seem to prefer the more sun-exposed canopy and become unable to take off at temperatures below 20ºC if not sun-exposed (Eliasson 2000). In France larvae develop in wood mould of tree cavities, essentially <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, but sometimes (rarely) in <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Fagus sylvatica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus maritima</span> (Paulian and Baraud 1982).</p><p>In Ukraine adults are active in V-VII, feed at flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Umbelliferae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>; the larvae develop in wood and stubs of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, and alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. The life cycle is one year and pupation takes place in the wood. In Hungary the species is found in mountainous broad-leaved forests where voluminous dead trunks are abundant; larvae have been found in dead wild cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. It is not found in wood pastures (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from old forests where trees large big hollows with wood mould; adults can be found on the bark of host trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
157887		population	eng	This species is rare in Europe and has a fragmented population throughout its range. Declines are reported from a number of states.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented range with just two remaining isolated populations: one substantial population in Windsor Great Park and Forest and a smaller one at Parham Park in West Sussex; there is no evidence for any decline in recent years but a number of old sites have been lost in the past (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is very rare and there are only few new finds. It is known from six or seven localities in the Czech Republic. In France it is considered rare (Paulian and Baraud 1982) and populations are probably stable as there are still a large number of old trees. In Italy it is rare and in Switzerland it is considered be rare and mainly restricted to the Tirol. In Germany it has gone locally Extinct in some regions; populations are declining at a slow but persistent rate; almost no large populations are known any more. In Spain it is a rare species whose rarity is probably related to the decline of forest living; it is more or less restricted to the northern fringes (Micó and Galante 2002); apparently decreasing in numbers as many of the records are old. In Ukraine it is relatively rare and in Hungary it is rare, and the populations are isolated and small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the population size is small and it occurs in the forests in the southern part of the country; however in mountains it is common in forests with old trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157887		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  In the UK the loss of old trees in the historic parkland sites and canopy closure are threats to this species, <st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>as this cools the wood mould and slows larval development. In Spain, logging, forest fragmentation and the removal of dead wood from the ecosystem are factors that are having a negative impact on this species. In Hungary the species is threatened by removing dead wood and by illegal collecting that destroys the microhabitat of the larvae.
157888		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157888		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe, from south-eastern to western Europe reaching some countries in northern Europe and central Europe (Lobl and Smetana 2007). Also occurs in the Near East.<br/><br/>It has only recently found in Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006).
157888		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist found in large, old broad-leaved trees. The larvae develop in the decayed wood of broad-leaved trees; pupation at spring to the beginning of summer; the adults are active during the evening in VI-VIII, and are attracted to light (A. Putchkov pers comm). The known records from Hungary are from oak forests in the hills and willow galleries along the Danube River.
157888		population	eng	There are few records of this species. However, it was relatively recently described as new to Science so it is likely to be under-recorded. Moreover there is confusion between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. megerlei</span>.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species that only occurs in the western slopes of the Carpathians. In Hungary it is known from a few localities in the western part of the country; this is a very rare species with small populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there is a single known locality in Navarra (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006).
157888		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157890		conservation	eng	Traditional forest management and coppicing, and protection of traditional orchards and of veteran trees are required to preserve this species, as well as ensuring that new generations of trees are available, maintaining habitat continuity and connectivity. In Hungary as extant populations are unknown, specific measures cannot be launched. Some of the old localities are within protected areas. An effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). No specific conservation measures are in place for this species in Romania.
157890		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern and southern Europe, reaching France and Spain locally (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it is present in Crimea and in the hills of the Carpathians while in Romania it has been reported from the southern part, only in few places (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it is very sporadic in the hills and mountains, and is mainly present in the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is mainly present in the western part but not in Sardinia. It has also been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953).<p><br/></p>
157890		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the woody tissues of living and weakened, sun-exposed trees with a large diameter (at least 30 cm) including stools of coppiced trees; it is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus</em><em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>and fruit trees). Pupation occurs within the wood and the adults emerge in VI-VIII; they are found on the host plant and feeding at flowers. The adult is diurnal and lives in forests and orchards. The life cycle ranges from four or five years in parts of its range to two or three years in Ukraine. In Hungary the known localities of this species are in thermophilous oak woods (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it also has been reported from oak woods and the host plants include fruit trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Also it is believed to live in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerambyx nodulosus</span>. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157890		population	eng	This species is rare in Europe and its population is declining across the continent. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Most localities are older than 50 years. The species can be regarded as being in the verge of extinction (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine is relatively rare and in Romania there are old reports and some populations are Extinct now (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is still relatively common in the south - it seems to be in regression in the northern part of its French distribution area. Only two recent observations (1966 and 2007) in the north of the Rhône-Alps area (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Spain it is present mainly in two areas, one in the centre and one in the southern mountains, in total 22 localities but not common. In Italy it is considered Vulnerable with a declining population. In Slovakia there are three recent sites and several others which have disappeared. The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey.
157890		threats	eng	Loss of traditional management including coppicing is a major threat to this species. Replacement of fruit trees in old orchards to bush forms poses another threat. In Hungary the species is threatened by the removal of old oak trees; and this practice is the main reason of its rarity (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/>In southern Europe, felling in the thermophilous forests is a threat (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157891		conservation	eng	Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity are essential. Research on the species ecology and habitat preferences is needed.&#160; The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Italy.
157891		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern Europe, from central to western Europe.
157891		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives on trunks and in tree cavities, and it probably needs large old trees. It has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus humilis</span> forest in Spain and open oak forests in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In Hungary the two known extant populations live in open thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157891		population	eng	This species is rare throughout most of its range, with France the only country with more than a few sites. <br/><br/>In Hungary there are only two extant populations known in the northern part of the country; the two extant populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is known from three areas in Navarra and one from Cantabria (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In Italy there is one record from the south (Basilicata) probably from 2001. In the Czech Republic there are two sites in the extreme southern corner of the country. In Slovakia there is one locality in the south. In France it is widespread but very localized forming small but dense populations in suitable habitats (Leseigneur 1972).
157891		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157893		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is present in at least one protected area.</p>
157893		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Crete, Greece (Bense 1995).
157893		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species lives in broad-leaved forest, and is associated with Kermes Oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Berberis cretica</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> (presumably <span style="font-style: italic;">orientalis</span>). It prefers open forests and visits flowering shrubs for feeding.<br/></p>
157893		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. There are at least three subpopulations. In the subpopulation of Omalos (northern slopes of Mt Lefka Ori) the host plant of this species is abundant but the species is rare or rarely found. The subpopulation Anopolis (southern slopes of Mt Lefka Ori) is small.<br/></p>
157893		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Felling of the host trees and bushes, and use of insecticide (against <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymantria</span> moths) appear to be the major threats to this species. Wood extraction is also a threat.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157894		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas so no specific measures are necessary&#160; (e.g. Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009).
157894		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe, from the Eurosiberian subregion to central and south-eastern Europe, extending west into northern Spain and Portugal to north Europe including the Baltic region. It is widespread in southern Iberia. In Portugal there was only recorded in 1985 from a single locality in the north-eastern part of the country. In Germany it is present in the southern and eastern states and in Italy is widespread throughout the country (not present in Sicily). In Poland this species is probably Extinct. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) while in Romania it is common in central Romania, in Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the species occurs in the southern regions. It has been reported from Istanbul (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).
157894		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the wood of dead branches that are still attached to the trees; a wide variety of broadleaved trees are used (e.g. <em>Pyrus, </em><em>Quercus, Ulmus, Castanea, Robinia, Betula, Populus, Salix, Viburnum, Pistacia, Carpinus, Crataegus</em>). Pupation occurs in spring or early summer in the wood and adults emerge in VI-VIII; they are attracted to flowers for feeding, especially those of shrubs growing in sunny situations. In Hungary and in Germany it lives in various deciduous forests (mainly in oak-hornbeam and beech forests), and mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found at the edge of deciduous forests, mainly oak (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.</p>  <p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157894		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species across much of its European range. Presumably the population trend is stable. In Romania there are large populations inside the inner Carpathian Mountains and in the south-western part of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Turkey but in Hungary the species is regarded as common on its localities. In Germany it is rather rare and scattered but of no concern.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157894		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removal of dead wood and logging of old deciduous forests (e.g. Hungary, Romania).<br/><br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
157895		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. In Spain it is not included in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). Three localities are within protected areas. In Sweden this species is considered Vulnerable.
157895		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe; absent from the Britain and Ireland. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone and in the Carpathians. In Spain it is only present in the Pyrenees. In France regular localities in the Pyrenees but, in the Alps, it is only known from very old records (<1854) in two localities (probably disappeared) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It formerly occurred in Britain - sub-fossils have been found at Thorne Moors, Yorkshire, dating to c 3000 BP (Buckland and Kenward 1973).
157895		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In France larvae develop in the brown-rotten wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span>, just behind the <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis pinicola</span> fungi with which the species is strictly associated. It inhabits in only mountain forests with no management and a continuous abundance of dead wood of large diameter (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It is also present in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula </span>and alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. It lives in big snucks and high amount of dead wood. In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula,</span> aspen, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and rarely in fir. The beetle is often found on fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis pinicola</span>, rarely <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes)</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> usually in VI-VII. The life cycle is two years. Usually larvae hibernate. Larvae probably are sapro-xylo-mycetophagous and imagos mycetophagous (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Spain its habitat is mountain forests, both larvae and imagos being found under the bark of coniferous trees, where they predate on xylophagous insects (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). Fire favours this species.
157895		population	eng	A widespread species which is not so common in Europe, and in EU has decreasing populations, but considering the Russian population, it is likely that the species is stable overall.<br/><br/>In Finland it is widespread but not common. In Sweden there are 16 subpopulations. In Germany there is only one record in Bavaria in the Alps. In Spain it is found in small numbers, but this could be due to wrong sampling methods (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). It is known from eight localities in six 10x10 km squares (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).
157895		threats	eng	<p>The species is not considered to be threatened at a European level.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157897		conservation	eng	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. This species is considered to be Critically Endangered in Poland and Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).
157897		distribution	eng	This Euro-Siberian species reaching the Caucasus (Laibner 2000) is widespread across eastern and central Europe extending to some countries in northern and western Europe. It also occurs in west Siberia and the Caucasus.<br/><br/>In Denmark it is Extinct, not found in 100 years (<span lang="EN-GB">2005);  also Extinct in Sweden and Germany. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, the forest zone and locally in Donetzk (south-eastern Ukraine). It is not known from Britain or Ireland.
157897		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Restricted to large, old veteran trees. Larvae develop under bark and in decayed wood of broad-leaved forests (rarely under bark of fir); they are obligate predators; the adult beetles hibernate, and emerge in early spring (Delnatte 2008); they are found under bark and in splits of trees during the day (Dolin 1982); adults on low branches and fallen logs of firs, spruces, pines and oaks (Laibner 2000). In France larvae have been found in red rot of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies </span>or rarely in red rot of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. <br/><br/>It lives in relict forest enclaves from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). Only in very old and undisturbed ('primary') mountain forest. Relict species very rare and localized. In Ukraine it is a typical forest species. In Hungary there is no information is available on the habitat of this species. In France it is considered a relict of primary forests.
157897		population	eng	Generally a rare species with a very few scattered records. Declines and local extinctions have been reported from several range states. Population trend is decreasing.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a very rare species; also very rare in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). In Hungary there is only one locality known from the north-eastern part of the country, which is more than 40 years old - as extant populations are unknown no information on its populations is available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Poland there are only few localities. In Finland it has been recorded only once in the north-eastern part near the Russian border.<br/><br/>In France it is extremely rare; about ten known localities in the west Pyrenees and in the centre of the Alps at the border with Italy (Delnatte 2008). In Spain it is very rare. In Italy there are five records, mostly historical.
157897		threats	eng	<p>  This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157898		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive (as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. planula) </span>based on presence in Sweden and Finland but no reports on it exist. Its presence in southern countries is documented since it was synonymized with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. planula.</span><br/></p>
157898		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern and southern Europe. In particular it is present in Sweden, Finland, Hungary, Spain, Greece and Italy. In Italy it is recorded from the central-southern regions and Sardinia (but not in Sicily) (Checklist of the Italian fauna 2009). It is also present in northern Africa.
157898		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in burned areas (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm. 2009). The only Finnish record is from an old-growth forest area in 1975. The habitat where the only Finnish record was found in 1975 has since been severely reduced and degraded. Only small old growth forest fragments now remain.
157898		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>
157898		threats	eng	<p>In Finland the species is known by only one specimen and it is considered Vulnerable, Possibly Extinct.<br/></p>
157899		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information on conservation actions in place. More research on distribution, ecology, habitat preferences and possible threats is necessary. In Poland this species is included in the Polish Red List as Data Deficient, and in the Czech Republic it is listed as Endangered.</p>
157899		distribution	eng	This species is known as a central European species, also recorded from Carpathian Ruthenia (Laibner 2000).
157899		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in forests of submontane and montane zones (Laibner 2000). Possibly in old beech trees.
157899		population	eng	This species has a restricted range and is very rare. In the Czech Republic appears sporadically mainly in the northern mountain ranges (Sudeten) and only in a few sites. In Slovakia it is known from a few localities in the Tatra mountains. In Poland it was found recently for the first time in the south-east.
157899		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The threats are unknown.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157900		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Vulnerable in Slovakia.
157900		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across much of Europe, except the Iberian and Scandinavian Peninsulas and also not in Britain or Ireland.
157900		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. New information shows that the species' main habitats are small dead dry standing <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span> trees in very dense regeneration stands. Few entomologists are attracted to such places to collect insects; this is the principal reason of the rarity of the observations (H. Callot pers. comm. 2009). This species has been found feeding on the fruit bodies of wood-decay fungi such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pleurotus,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus, Inototus, Lentinus, Bjerkandera, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes. Piptophorus,</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Daedaleopsis</span>.&#160;In Ukraine, larvae develop mostly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus,</span> sometimes on <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus, Inototus, Lentinus, Bjerkandera</span>. Pupation takes place often on the ground and the adult hibernates, becoming active next spring&#160; Adult beetles have been found on a similar wide variety of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes. Piptoporus, Daedaleopsis</span>) mostly on broadleaved trees, but presumably just feeding in some cases, not necessarily egg-laying; flight occurs from May. The life cycle is one or two years (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Ukraine it occurs only in the forest zone. In Hungary the known localities are in old growth forests, mainly oak and beech, where the main host fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius </span>occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it has been trapped in the large forests surrounding the Paris area and found in high numbers in Alsace in lowland very young forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus.</span>
157900		population	eng	This species seems to be rare in Europe. The extreme rarity of the species given by ancient authors, however, mainly comes from poor knowledge of its special biology (H. Callot pers. comm. 2009); new observations may be published in the near future.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France there are between 20-30 localities; it has been trapped in the large forests surrounding the Paris area and found in high numbers in Alsace<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> In Ukraine it is rare.
157900		threats	eng	Certain forestry management activities, such as clear cutting large areas, threaten this species.
157901		conservation	eng	Many known sites are in protected areas (there is an obligation under the EU Habitats Directive to designate protected areas for this species). The key conservation measure to be recommended is the protection and appropriate management of ancient and veteran trees (wherever they occur, including in cultural landscapes and urban areas), and measures to ensure that such habitat continues to be available in future. For this poorly-dispersing species, measures to retain connectivity between habitat fragments are essential to ensure long-term survival. In Ukraine it is included in the Red Book and is listed as Vulnerable species. The species is recorded inside protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).
157901		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and eastern Europe, and western Russia (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). However its distribution limits are poorly resolved and further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status and distribution limits. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathian Mountains and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones. In Romania it is widespread in the southern Carpathians, but also, in the hilly part of central Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Finland the identity of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Osmoderma</span> is not entirely clear, so far; there is only one confirmed population.
157901		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species is restricted to decaying heartwood; it is found only in large, old veteran trees of a variety of broad-leaved species (including oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, fruit trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus</span>, and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>) in both relatively open old-growth woodland and traditional cultural landscapes. This species has very poor dispersal capacity (it is a weak flier), and consequently linear habitat features (e.g. avenues of ancient trees) are critically important for retaining connectivity and viable populations. The larvae develop in accumulations of wood mould in hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees may occur in a wide variety of situations where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the strongest populations are in very old willow galleries; others are in mature oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, in the southern Carpathians, it occurs in clear oak and beech forests from sun exposed slopes where large trees with big hollows occur. In the central part of the country it was found in the pastures with old oaks with large hollows (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><span lang="UK"><br/><strong></strong></p>
157901		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but it is believed to be declining in Europe. In Hungary all known populations are small and isolated (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is very rare. In the Czech Republic is quite widespread; known from 50-100 recent sites. In Finland there is one stable population. In Romania there are large populations in the oak and beech forests from the foothills of the southern Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157901		threats	eng	<p>This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In particular, in Hungary, very old trees are threatened all over the country; the known localities are threatened by over-collecting and destroying microhabitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157902		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures needed for this species. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Romania).</p><p><br/></p>
157902		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995) and in some countries of central Europe. <br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa, all Caucasus, Minor Asia, Turkey and Iran.<br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded across the whole country, but from few localities and mostly before 1951. In Romania there are new records that report this species from Dobroudjia, on the Black Sea coast. It is widespread in Cyprus. Occasional occurrence recorded in the Czech Republic but probably from introductions.
157902		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larval development occurs in both living and dead tress, feeding first under the bark, then boring into the dead parts where in contact with living tissues or directly into living tissues with sap circulation. Found on a wide variety of host trees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, eg <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Fagus, Prunus, Pistacea, Acacia</span>. In Romania it is known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra, Ruber nigra, </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. In Cyprus it has been reared from dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica</span><em> </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The stage of pupa is three weeks. The life cycle is usually one year, but sometimes more. Adults active in VI-VIII, crepuscular or nocturnal, often attracted to light (Sama 2002).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><br/>In Greece this species is considered a vector for a fungus disease that destroys <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa.</span><br/><br/>In Cyprus <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>it has been found in orchards, maquis, garigue, forests, villages and towns<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).
157902		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries. In Cyprus and Greece this species is common whlie in Italy it is<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> not uncommon. In France it is common in the Mediterranean border (Villiers 1978). In Ukraine it is relatively rare. In Romania there are few new reports, and it is believed that there are only small populations (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>
157902		threats	eng	<p>There appears to be no major threats to this species. The replacement of native shrubs from warm places in the Balkan region can be a threat to this species.<br/></p>
157903		conservation	eng	<p>More research is needed regarding population trends and threats to this species. In Italy it is listed as Vulnerable on the National Red List (Sama 2006).<br/></p>
157903		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across southern Europe occurring in the whole Mediterranean region. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea. It has been reported from the European part of Turkey, from Canakkale (Gokceada) (Ozdikmen and Demir 2006). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is </st1:place></st1:country-region>widespread in the lowlands, but absent from the higher elevations of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> and the central plain (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p>    </p>In France it is localized in Corsica and only in one continental department (Var) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it is known from the southern half (a few sites, one recent) and from one locality in the northern part (an old record from the 19<sup>th</sup> century).<br/><br/>It is also found from northern Africa to Iran and in western Georgia and Minor Asia.<p></p>
157903		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p>  <p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decayed wood of a wide variety of tree species, including oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, mulberry <span style="font-style: italic;">Morus, Pistacea </span>and cedar-trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span>, developing&#160; under bark and in the wood itself; xylophagous. In France, larvae occur in evergreen <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>of large diameter, probably associated with a special white-rot fungus (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Villiers 1978). The life cycle is two years. Adult beetles are active at night and they have been found in natural and semi-natural areas as well as plantations; sometimes they are attracted to light in villages and towns. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> it is found in maquis and   orchards, and has been reared from dead wood of <em>Olea europaea. </em><br/></p><p><br/></p><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
157903		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>  For Turkey and Cyprus the population size and trend have not been quantified but in Cyprus the species locally is not rare. It is not rare in Crimea. <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>In Italy its populations are very localized and rare. In Spain there are 40 localities.</p>
157903		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the threats available. Fragmentation of the populations could be a threat.<br/></p><p></p>
157905		conservation	eng	In the UK this species is considered Extinct.<br/><br/>In Hungary some of the localities are in protected areas but riverine and lowland poplar stands and slope forests should be left undisturbed.
157905		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across Europe, throughout much of central, eastern and western Europe, as far west as England (although Extinct there) and Spain and north into northern countries including some of the Baltic States (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in all Caucasus, Kazakhstan and north-eastern Turkey.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the lowland poplar forests and also in hilly and lower mountainous areas. In Romania it only occurs in the hilly areas. It is present in all German States except Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. In Britain it formerly occurred in a small number of sites across southern England but the species is now Extinct.
157905		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop first in and later under the dry bark of dead, sun exposed branches and stems (often of 15-30 cm diameter). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in spring deep in the wood or in the thick bark. Adults emerge in IV-VIII, and are found on the host plants and (rarely) at flowers. The adults hardly ever visit flowers and remain on their host tree for most of their short lives. The host is mainly aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; the larva develops in recently dead wood (from twigs to branches of a large diameter) which is always quite dry. The phloem needs to be free from fungal development (Rejzek 2006). Develops in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Populus, </em>also in <em>Salix, Rosa, Quercus, Betula</em>). In Romania adults have been observed in the evening on <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> flowers.</p><p>In Finland it lives on aspen both in sunny and shaded habitats. In Hungary it lives in lowland poplar forests, mainly on white poplar (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span>), and also in the hills and mountains where aspen (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tremula</span>) grows. In Germany it can live in different broad-leaved forests. UK sites included old orchards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>) as well as ancient forest.</p><p>&#160;<br/></p><p><br/> </p>
157905		population	eng	A widespread species common in much of its European range, although it has been lost from outlying regions such as England and is rare in other states.<br/><br/>In Sweden and Finland is not uncommon. In Ukraine it is a common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather rare. In Romania the populations are small and there are only few and old reports. In France it is difficult to find but it is not rare. It is not rare in northern Italy but there are only three records in southern and central Italy.<br/><br/>It was known from south-eastern England in 19<sup>th</sup> century and up until 1905; also isolated reports from Devon in 1928/9 and the Bristol area, in the south-west (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157905		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at European level. It is unclear why it became Extinct in England.
157906		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. It is present in several protected areas.
157906		distribution	eng	This species is a boreal-alpine species, common in forests in northern and Alpine regions (Bense 1995) and also the northern part of central and eastern Europe. In Hungary it is found only in the western-most part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from different parts of the Carpathian Mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France the species is resident in the mountains of the eastern border: Jura and Alps (Villiers 1978).
157906		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A boreo-montane species; associated with conifer trees, preferably on <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>. Larvae develop under bark on fresh-dead, fresh-cut, wind-fallen or standing dying stumps, trunks or branches, often on firewood stacks (Sama 2002). It prefers disturbed trees with abnormally slow growth, thick bark and resin. Adults active in IV-VI. Eggs laid in cracks in bark of various conifer trees. Egg stage near two weeks. Life cycle two or three years. In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania&#160; it occurs in pine and fir forests; sometime it has been found in associations with another longhorn beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthocinus aedilis</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France, larvae are xylophagous in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies alba</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> (preference for spruce). Standing dead trees of small diameter are preferred (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).
157906		population	eng	Common in boreal forests; in southern and central Europe it is present only in montane areas. The population abundance might be underestimated as the species is hard to find as an adult. Overall the population trend is stable. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in the forest zone and it is relatively rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as frequent in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is not rare, but research on new populations is poor (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, in the alpine zone; records are after 1950. In France it is considered as very rare in the literature but the adults emerge very early in the year (January to April) and this may explain the rarity of the observations. In Rhône-Alps, the species is known from patchy populations distant of 50-150 km from each others (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). In the Czech Republic it is rare but not considered as threatened in the latest Red List.
157906		threats	eng	<p>Overall the species is not threatened (e.g. Hungary, Germany, Romania, France).&#160; <br/></p>
157909		conservation	eng	In Ukraine it is protected in Crimea's and Yalta's reservations.
157909		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-eastern Europe and Minor Asia. It is very widespread and a common species. In Ukraine its only in Crimea.
157909		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is polyphagous in broad-leaved forests. The larvae develop in decayed wood of beech trees and rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>. Larvae are predators or necrophagous. Pupation takes place in the end of summer beginning of autumn. The adult is active in V-VI, but typically remains under loose bark on the host tree, and appears on the trunk and feeding at flowers very rarely (Dolin 1988).
157909		population	eng	This is a widespread species. In Crimea it is a usual species and common.
157909		threats	eng	<p>No threats are currently known.</p>
157910		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary).
157910		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe, although currently not in Britain or Ireland. <br/><br/>It is also found in Caucasus, Siberia and far East. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it may be mostly in the forest zone and the Carpathians. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions, and sporadic in the lowlands.
157910		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is usually found under the bark of dead wood with wood-decaying fungi. It can occur on broad-leaved and coniferous trees, hardwoods and softwoods; in more open areas as well as in continuous forest. It prefers lying logs (rather than standing trees).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, beetles live on the wood-decay fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Monodyctis castaneae</span> and are also found under dead bark and in decayed wood of broad-leaved trees. The adult hibernates and is active in V-VI. The life cycle is one or two years (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs mainly in planted and indigenous pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests but also in broad-leaved forests. The old UK records come from Caledonian pine forest.
157910		population	eng	Widespread and fairly common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Finland). Overall it is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic this species is rare but widespread. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities. In Finland it is rather common, widespread and with stable populations. In Germany it has disappeared from large areas; only present now in south and eastern Germany, but still common in at least some areas (e.g. around Berlin). Strong decrease in the past, but now its populations are stable to increasing. In Ukraine it is relatively common.<br/><br/>In the UK the status of this species is uncertain; there are subfossil records from the south and a single 19<sup>th</sup> century locality from Highland Scotland, where it was found in 1865 and 1870.
157910		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
157911		conservation	eng	Probably no conservation measures are needed over much of its range.
157911		distribution	eng	In Europe this species&#160; is widely distributed in the Circum-Mediterranean region (Bense 1995),  from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France to Crimea, and extends north into Hungary. It is also present in northern Africa, Caucasus, northern Iran, Middle East, Middle Asia; imported into America (Sama 2002). <br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded from north to south of the Mediterranean part of the country, also in Madeira. In Spain it is present also in the Canary Islands (introduction) and the Balearic Islands. In France it is localized in the southern of the Mediterranean area including Corsica but may be in extension up to the north. It is<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> widespread in Cyprus. It has been reported in European Turkey from Istanbul (Oymen 1987) and Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004). It has also been reported from south-western Romania; area spread in the warm place up to Craiova (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). This species is very rare in Hungary. Few localities are known from the western half of the country, most are old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<p>    </p>  <p><br/></p><p> <br/></p><p><br/></p>
157911		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in very old dry wood, mostly of broad-leaved trees, and is polyphagous; also found in seasoned timber, furniture, and wooden structures such as roof timbers and fences. The larvae develop in dying oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, willow<span style="font-style: italic;"> Salix, </span>plane <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus, </span>chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castaneus, Pistacea, Cytisus,</span> some fruit-trees, sometimes in coniferous trees. In Cyprus it has been reared from dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans regia</span>, <em>Ceratonia siliqua, Quercus coccifera, Quercus infectoria, Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Pinus brutia</em> <em></em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Adults are active in V-VIII (as the latest in VII). Adults are found on the host wood, and may be attracted to light (Sama 2002), but do not feed. The life cycle is three or four years.<br/><br/>There is little information about the habitat of the species in Hungary; the known localities are in light oak forests. In Romania it has been recorded from timber from old settlements (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it has been found in orchards, maquis, garigue, forests, villages and towns (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.    <p><br/></p>
157911		population	eng	<p>This species is widespread and common in its main Mediterranean distribution.</p><p>In Spain it is very common. In Italy there are 80 localities. In France it is common in the south and might be expanding northwards (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it is a common species. In the European part of Turkey there are recent records, the species is common.</p>This species is very rare in Hungary; only a few localities are known, with small populations (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are records of 40 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Crimea it is rare. <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157911		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species. </p>
157912		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157912		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2003, it is known from a few sites in the centre and southern part of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).
157912		habitat	eng	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.
157912		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>
157912		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157913		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157913		distribution	eng	Across Europe, this species is only found in the southern tip of Spain. It also occurs in north-western Africa (Bense 1995).
157913		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Andalusia it lives in forest of three <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>species: <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span>,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">pyrenaica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">faginea</span> (Verdugo 2004).<br/></p>
157913		population	eng	<p>A predominantly African species with a small outpost in southern Spain. In Spain only five specimen have ever been caught, all in Andalusian provinces: Cadiz (three), Malaga (one) and Granada (one) (Verdugo 2004).<br/></p>
157913		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157914		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas. In the UK it is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987); two of three sites are protected as SAC (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is listed as Critically Endangered (2005). In Hungary most of the localities are in protected areas, so no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157914		distribution	eng	It is widespread across much of Europe. This species is described from Croatia; known from Yugoslavia, Dalmatia and Greece; Sweden and Finland (Allen 1969); localised in France (Brustel 2005). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians. It has recently been found in the north of Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Germany there are recent records from all states, whereas in the neighbouring Czech Republic the species is very rare. Although relatively recently discovered there, the species is regarded as a long-established species in Britain (Hammond 1974).
157914		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the decaying wood within trunks and main branches of a variety of broad-leaved tree species, generally fallen wood lying on the soil surface. It has been reared from a dead log of hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span> - wood solid on surface, somewhat moist, very soft and reddish inside - and from fallen branches of hazel <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus</span> - wood fairly solid with brown rot; also reported from ivy stems <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedera helix, </span>spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> and hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>; wood with red-rot is preferred over white-rot (Muona 1993). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Ukraine beetles were found in loose wood mostly of broad-leaved (rarely conifer) trees, often aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>. In Hungary habitats of the known populations are open forests, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There is no obvious pattern to English sites, which include one ancient wood pasture and two sites with no habitat details (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157914		population	eng	The species is widespread and common in much of its range but rare and local in some countries. The population trend is believed to be stable. In Sweden it is very common. In Britain it is known from just three well-separated sites and it is rarely recorded; populations presumably very small (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary the species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Finland it is only present in the Aland Islands. In the Czech Republic it is very rare; two areas in central Bohemia (west) and one in southern Moravia (south-east) with records since 1950; earlier record(s) from another (adjacent) area in central Bohemia (Elateridae 2009). There are six localities known in Spain; but it is probably under-recorded (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In the Slovak Republic there are known areas from the west to the east (not in the south), all with records after 1950 (Elateridae 2009).
157914		threats	eng	In the UK and Ukraine loss of old trees and decaying wood are threatening this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species does not seem to be threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157915		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).
157915		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs throughout much of Europe, from the Pyrenees across the Alps in central and eastern Europe and Fennoscandia (Bense 1995). It is a boreal-alpine species but is occasionally imported into other areas with timber.<br/><br/>In Spain it is only in the Pyrenees, where it is widespread (Vives 2001). In Hungary this species is found only in the western-most parts of the country, which are the foothills of the Alps (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in the Carpathians, mostly in the southern part. <br/><br/>In Denmark it has occasionally been imported with timber from other European countries; no reproductive population in the country (Thomsen 2007). This is also the case with the UK.
157915		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark and in the dead dry wood of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Pinus)</span>. The life cycle is normally one year, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-IX, found on the wood of the host-plants and on brushwood, where they feed on green bark and on needles. Pupation takes about two or three weeks.&#160; In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests, which are rare in Hungary (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives only in native pine spruce, and sometimes it was recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus cembra</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in montane spruce forests. In Siberia this species is a serious pest.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157915		population	eng	Very common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Fennoscandia). The population trend appears to be stable. In Ukraine it is a common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the species is common.
157915		threats	eng	<p>No serious threats identified.<br/></p>
157916		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information available.</p>
157916		distribution	eng	This species is described from Germany; also found in Czech Republic (Laibner 2000) and extending to other countries in central and northern Europe. In Germany it is only known from the original description.
157916		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying pine trees, in pine forests (Laibner 2000).
157916		population	eng	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.&#160;Individuals have been found at a small number of sites in the Czech Republic (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
157916		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>
157917		conservation	eng	In the UK there has been poor appreciation of the dramatic decline in this species so no actions have been taken. Increase in woodland management for fuel wood may prove beneficial for the species as it can breed successfully in fuel wood stacked for seasoning. <br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2005) and Nationally Scarce in Britain - its British status merits revision to Vulnerable.
157917		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is widespread across Europe, absent only from far north and west (Bense 1995) (nominative subspecies). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It also occurs in all Caucasus, Kazakhstan, northern Iran and Egypt (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">alnoides).<br/><br/></span>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is widespread but not very common. It is present in all German States. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953).<br/><br/>In Portugal it is known from five scattered sites in the north and one in the far south. In Denmark it is rare, and most common and well-distributed in the south (Thomsen 2007). In Britain it was formerly widespread across lowland England, but it has become very rare in the past 50 years or so.
157917		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae feed under the bark of dry dead twigs and thin branches of broad-leaved trees and shrubs (especially in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus, </span>also in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Castanea, Carpinus, Ulmus, Alnus, Rosa, Fraxinus, Acer</span>). The life cycle is one year, with pupation in spring in the wood. Pupation takes place at early spring. Stage of pupa is two weeks. Adults emerge in IV-VI, found on the host-plants. In Germany it lives in canopy branches, especially of old oak stands.</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forest types (mainly in oak). In Romania it has been found in thick branches of thermophilous oaks at the beginning of May (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). UK sites include woodlands, wood pastures and parklands, as well as hedgerows, in the cultural landscape. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
157917		population	eng	A widespread species in Europe with a population that is stable overall but declining in the edges.<br/><br/>In Central Europe this species is common. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as one of&#160; the most common longhorns in the oak forests. In Italy and Spain it is common. In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Finland there is only one locality. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>In the UK it was formerly widespread, although localised, across much of central and south-eastern England; it appears to have undergone a dramatic decline in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it seems to be declining in recent decades; the best known population is is south-western Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157917		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats. However in the UK clearance of fallen branches as well as canopy closure due to changing land management, result in heavily shaded fallen branches unsuitable for breeding&#160; (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157918		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). No specific conservation measures for this species are known to be in place.
157918		distribution	eng	This Eurasian species (Laibner 2000) is widespread across almost all Europe except Britain. In Ukraine it is mostly present in all regions, except in the steppe zone. In Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Portugal it is widespread all over the country. In Ireland it is known from just one site.
157918		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop especially in decaying wood of willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, birches <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, and oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (Laibner 2000). In Ireland larvae develop in soft red-rotten heartwood of birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>growing on peatland; they pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine this is a mesohygrophylic species. Larvae are predators or necro-saprophagous. <br/><br/>It is found in deciduous and mixed forests of lowlands to foothills, especially near streams and in moist localities (Laibner 2000). Often found in wooded mires and swamp forests. The records from Hungary are from various broadleaved forests, mainly in moist habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The sole Irish locality is a peat bog.
157918		population	eng	A widespread species that is not uncommon in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Ireland it is only known from a restricted area in County Kerry (Mendel and Clarke 1996), where the population appears reasonably strong (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the populations are small and in Denmark it is not common.
157918		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species, however there may be some negative impacts on populations from e.g. deliberate drainage of wooded wetlands. In Ireland the loss of old and decaying birch trees is a threat (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
157919		conservation	eng	No measures are needed. Monitoring and research on its distribution are recommended.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009) and as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).
157919		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across a central band of Europe, east to west; absent from Fennoscandia (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Germany this species is widespread but missing in three German states, in six states there are only old records, recent records (after 1950) only in Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Niedersachsen. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; occurs also in riverine forests in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread especially in the hilly areas; some records are from the plain with forests, in the southern part of the country.<br/>In Denmark it is Extinct (2005) and has not been found in the country in over 100 years. Also Extinct in Austria. It has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Erdem and Canakcıoglu 1977, Oymen 1987) and from Edirne (Ozdikmen and Sahin 2006) in European Turkey.<br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Iran, Minor Asia, Caucasus and western Kazakhstan.
157919		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The eggs are laid on dry dead branches and thin tree trunks, and hatch after near two or three weeks. Polyphagous in a wide range of broad-leaved trees (<em>Acer, Alnus, Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, Corylus, Salix, Malus, Prunus, Tilia, Rhamnus, Ulmus, Juglans, Paliurus, Pistacia, Populus</em>). The larvae develop under the bark and pupate in the spring in the wood. The adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on host-plants and feeding at flowers. The life cycle is two years. <br/><br/>The species inhabits temperate forest and shrubland, vineyards and orchards. In Hungary it occurs in various deciduous forest types (mainly in oak and beech) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is especially found in the oak forests, where the larvae develop on the dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer tatarica</span>. Sometimes adults have been found in association with another longhorn beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Purpuricenus kaehleri</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Vitis</em></strong> (Schimitschek 1953).
157919		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.  In Ukraine and Romania it is a usual species. The population size and trend have not been quantified for Hungary and Turkey, although the species is regarded in Hungary as quite frequent in its localities. In France it is common. In Italy it is quite common with many records. In Greece there are many records. <br/><br/>In contrast, it appears to be rare in other countries. In Germany this species is rare and declining. In the Czech Republic it is rare, once believed to be extinct but new records have been found. In Spain it is also rare, there are very old records, only one recent record and only three populations known. <br/><p><br/></p>
157919		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats known and it is assumed that the species has been undersampled. <br/></p>In Hungary the species is not threatened, because host plants are available all over its range. In Romania the clearance of dead branches can be a threat, especially where there are low number of individuals (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157920		conservation	eng	In the UK, this species has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); otherwise reliant on general FSC guidelines. <br/><br/>The species is occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).
157920		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across almost all Europe. It is also known from western Siberia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the southern part of the forest zone and forest-steppe zone. In Hungary this species is sporadic all over the country. It is widely scattered across lowland England and there is a single old record from southern Scotland. It is not present in Ireland.<br/><br/><p><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Des%20nouvelles%20de%20Mycetophagus%20ater%20Reitter%20et%20Mycetophagus%20populi%20F.%20en%20%C3%8Ele-de-France%20(Coleoptera%20Mycetophagidae)&rft.jtitle=L'Entomologiste&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.aufirst=Ch&rft.aulast=Bouget&rft.au=Ch%20Bouget&rft.au=X.%20Pineau&rft.au=L.%20Duchemin&rft.au=F.%20Arnaboldi&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=97-100"></p><p><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Des%20nouvelles%20de%20Mycetophagus%20ater%20Reitter%20et%20Mycetophagus%20populi%20F.%20en%20%C3%8Ele-de-France%20(Coleoptera%20Mycetophagidae)&rft.jtitle=L'Entomologiste&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.aufirst=Ch&rft.aulast=Bouget&rft.au=Ch%20Bouget&rft.au=X.%20Pineau&rft.au=L.%20Duchemin&rft.au=F.%20Arnaboldi&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=97-100"><br/></span></p>
157920		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in the decaying wood of broad-leaved trees in broad-leaved and mixed woodland, as well as in historic parklands within the cultural landscape.<br/><br/>The larvae probably develop within fungal mycelia within decaying wood, although the favoured situations and conditions are not known. Adults are most often found during winter and spring and so were probably not in breeding habitat at the time; reported from under loose bark on dead wood and in soft moist decaying sapwood of elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>and other broad-leaved trees; spring records include an association with fresh sap (Alexander 2002). In France larvae develop in diverse broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Populus, Ulmus</span>) but with a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; they use small white-rotten (probably by <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span>) holes in living trees at two or six metres above the soil (Dodelin 2006). In Finland it is often found in aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> but also in other broad-leaved species.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in mountain broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech, but also from soft-wood riverine forests in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is found in old-growth forests with no management and also in parks in cities, in thermophilous conditions (Dodelin 2006). Sites in the UK are ancient wood pastures and historic parklands - old growth within the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).
157920		population	eng	A widespread species that is rather common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is thought to be stable at the regional level.<br/><br/>In Finland it is rather common, widespread and increasing. In Italy it is found in the north, and in Germany it is widespread throughout but not really common.<br/><br/> In France it is very rare (Brustel 2005); sporadic specimens known from about 11 localities from the centre, east and south. It seems to be absent from the south-west and the Pyrenees. In Britain it has a very fragmented distribution, with only six modern sites known, all small and very isolated; there are more old sites than modern ones, so a severe decline is probable (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities.
157920		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European level. However, in some range states (e.g. UK) the species is potentially seriously threatened by clearing of dead wood in ancient parklands and wood-pastures.<br/></p>
157921		conservation	eng	Forestry certification schemes that prescribe burning are beneficial for this species and are to be recommended; some such schemes are already in place (e.g. in parts of Sweden). This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine).
157921		distribution	eng	This Eurosiberian species is known from almost all of Europe except the far west and Britain and Ireland. This species also occurs in northern China, Mongolia and North Korea (Lobl and Smetana 2007).
157921		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae are obligate predators, developing under bark and in decayed wood of conifer trees. Pupation occurs at the end of summer and in spring. The adult beetles are active in V-VI and are found on grasses, plants, bushes and on the trunks of trees. The adults feed at tree sap, and sometimes take small insects (Aphidoidea, Psyllidae) (Dolin 1982). It lives in old evergreen forests from highlands to mountains (Laibner 2000). It mainly occurs in spruce, birch and aspen in coniferous and mixed forests. Typically found in burnt areas.
157921		population	eng	A boreo-montane species. Generally scarce and localised, although it may be locally not uncommon in suitable habitat in some areas. Declines and local extinctions have been reported from several range states (including those from the core as well as the periphery of the range).<br/><br/>In Finland it has declined and nowadays it is present in the east and north, and has nearly disappeared from the southern parts. In Sweden it too has become locally Extinct in the south, but is still relatively widespread in the north, with 20-30 known localities. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a relatively rare species. In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is found locally and becoming rare (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is extremely scare; restricted to higher mountain areas. In Spain it is&#160;known from two populations in the Pyrenees.
157921		threats	eng	<p>This species is favoured by forest fires, so any decrease in the frequency of fires would be detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157922		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, France).  In France one population is located in an integral forest reserve close to the Parc National de la Vanoise. Appropriate habitat management is needed both in protected areas and forests managed for forestry (there is a need to maintain open areas, to leave dead logs lying, and to maintain the natural fire cycle). <br/><br/>The development of a management plan to discover new populations should be developed in countries like Albania or Romania, and any new areas foudn should be conserved (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is listed as Vulnerable in Finland and Germany (2009).
157922		distribution	eng	A Holarctic species, but a rare boreo-montane species in Europe (Sama 2002). This species occurs in the Pyrenees, across the Alps and into eastern Europe and Fennoscandia (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species has been found only once in the north-eastern part (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Albania one abundant population occurs in the Mt. Arithit (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In France it has been found in the French border in the Swiss Alps in 2007. Known from old data (1855, 1884) from Chamonix where only one population may exist (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Exit holes were recently found in the historical site of Chamonix and in the Var department (southern Alps) (H. Brustel pers. comm. 2005) and in the border of the Vanoise National Park (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2004).
157922		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, also recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> (Sama 2002) they live in the decaying wood of dead fallen trunks, stumps and roots (Bense 1995). They require rotten but dry wood. The adults are mostly crepuscular or nocturnal, by day hidden under loose bark on the host-plants (Sama 2002). In Albania it has been found in the Macedonian pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus peuce</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France larvae are saproxylophagous in dead and sun-exposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus uncinata</span> trunks  with 'pink' rot of Stereaceae fungi. Trunks can be of small diameters (<30 cm) but must always lie in sunny places. In Finland and Germany it lives in old fallen pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span>) trunks, mostly on sun-exposed sites, burned areas etc. <br/><br/>It is a boreo-montane species. In Hungary this species has been found in planted spruce forest.
157922		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. A rare species in Europe (Sama 2002). Population trend is generally declining throughout Europe. <br/></p><p>In Sweden, suitable habitat for this species has declined by 25% in the last ten years (Wikars 2004). <br/></p><p>In its Alpine and Pyrenean distribution, it is now very fragmented and localized. In Switzerland, only one site is known since 2000; only two sites are known in the French Alps.<br/></p>In Hungary this species has been found only once, so no information is available about its populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).
157922		threats	eng	Extraction of old logs from <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. forests where the species occurs, and the loss of old-growth forests and large old trees are major threats to this species.
157924		conservation	eng	<p>The species occurs in several protected areas but there is no information on the conservation measures for this species.</p>
157924		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Sardinia and Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea.
157924		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;<em>Dorcus</em> species can survive in a large variety of habitat types, requiring any type of dead wood without specific requirements. It is assumed that <em>D. musimon</em> will have the same habitat requirements.
157924		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population trend is unknown.<br/></p>
157924		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown.</p>
157925		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157925		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from Turkey, Near East to the Caucasus region, Arabian Peninsula, Iran and Iraq. In Europe this species is only found in Cyprus, Greece and the European part of Turkey. In Greece, the species is reported from southern Macedonia, Asprovalta, Thessaloniki environment, Chalkidike (leg. Kraus 2004, P. Cate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is reported from Pedoulas 1,000 m, a locality on the northern slope of Troodos Mountains (Preiss and Platia 2003)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Recently was found at Alethriko 50 m and Polemidia 50 m, two localities on the southern coastline.
157925		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, developing in old hollow trees. It has been reported from old plantations with <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>. The adults are attracted to light (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>&#160;  <p></p>
157925		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Its population is fragmented and the species is considered very rare and local in Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>
157925		threats	eng	<p>This species lives in old hollow trees, a habitat that it is severely declining in the Mediterrarean area and populations are highly fragmented.<br/></p>
157926		conservation	eng	In the UK there are no conservation actions in place, other than general FSC guidelines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In France some populations are within national parks and natural forest reserves (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). Action is needed to conserve old growth forests throughout its range.
157926		distribution	eng	This species is spread across central and western Europe; it also occurs in North America, northern China, far eastern Russia and Japan; one locality is known in Asian Turkey <span style="background-color: white;">(Mertlik <em>et al. </em>2007)</span>. It has been suggested that it was introduced to Europe but there is no evidence for this in Great Britain, France and Italy, and additionally most sites in Great Britain are long-established and rich in other saproxylics, and it is accordingly regarded as an old growth species (Alexander 2002).&#160;It is only known from one locality in Belgium, from an old growth beech and pine forest (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). Its native status is discussed by Allen (1993).<br/><br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>Italy: it is present in peninsular Italy but it is omitted from the new checklist (A.&#160;Biscaccianti pers. comm. 2009).<br/>UK: fragmented distribution across central England, with many isolated populations; also a single record from southern Scotland (Mendel and Clarke 1996).<br/>France: present in the Pyrenees and the Alps - it is known from ten localities in France, following intensive collection of data up to 2007 (Dodelin and Brustel pers. comm. 2009, Dodelin <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/>Spain: old records from the 1930s (Cobos 1959); no recent findings (Recalde Irurzun 2008).<br/><br/><br/><br/> <p><br/><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Biologie%20et%20distribution%20de%20deux%20esp%C3%A8ces%20d'Eucnemidae%20associ%C3%A9es%20aux%20bois%20morts%20en%20for%C3%AAts%20de%20montagne%20(sud-est%20de%20la%20France)%20(Coleoptera)&rft.jtitle=Bulletin%20mensuel%20de%20la%20Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20linn%C3%A9enne%20de%20Lyon&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=9&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.aulast=Dodelin&rft.au=B.%20Dodelin&rft.au=G.%20Lemp%C3%A9ri%C3%A8re&rft.au=L.%20Leseigneur&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=294-300"><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Biologie%20et%20distribution%20de%20deux%20esp%C3%A8ces%20d'Eucnemidae%20associ%C3%A9es%20aux%20bois%20morts%20en%20for%C3%AAts%20de%20montagne%20(sud-est%20de%20la%20France)%20(Coleoptera)&rft.jtitle=Bulletin%20mensuel%20de%20la%20Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20linn%C3%A9enne%20de%20Lyon&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=9&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.aulast=Dodelin&rft.au=B.%20Dodelin&rft.au=G.%20Lemp%C3%A9ri%C3%A8re&rft.au=L.%20Leseigneur&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=294-300"></span></p>
157926		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying heartwood of various trees, both conifers and broad-leaves. In parts of its distribution it is only known from old growth forests (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). This species&#160;prefers the dry parts of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> logs in French sites, wood rotten by red rot;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> but in Belgium it has been found in&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>&#160;and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> in very old forests. Forests must have a continuous supply of decaying wood. Most of the known localities in France are large forests with no management for 50 years at least (Dodelin&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2003). Sites in Britain are often historic parklands, ancient woodlands and wood pastures, the species associated in particular with oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(Alexander 2002). In Canada it has been associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea sitkaensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pectinata</span>; it is also known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">amabilis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lasiocarpa</span>&#160;(Muona 1993).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
157926		population	eng	It appears most likely that the trend is increasing, based on recent new records of the species.
157926		threats	eng	<p>The principle threats to this species are loss of old trees and decaying wood, and the lack of the continuous supply of decaying wood that it requires (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p>
157927		conservation	eng	Little information available. It occurs in a National Park in the Kharkov region of Ukraine.
157927		distribution	eng	This species is found in several countries in eastern and south-eastern Europe. In Ukraine it is only known from the Carpathian region and from one record on the Crimean Peninsula (in the eastern part of the forest-steppe zone (Kharkov region) (Drogvalenko 1999).<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>
157927		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species known from broad-leaved forests; it has been found living on elm and ash. Adults and larvae are predators of bark beetles (Scolytidae) and live under bark on freshly dead wood (Drogvalenko 1999).
157927		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
157927		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>
157928		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in several protected areas.
157928		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and western Europe in Mediterranean France and Italy, and the Adriatic (Bense 1995). The species is present in the Peloponnese Peninsula and the southern part of Greece.
157928		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Polyphagous and xylophagous (a diet consisting of wood mainly) on broad-leaved trees with a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. Larvae live in dry dead branches of living trees.<br/></p>
157928		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p><p>The population is very fragmented in Spain but present in 23 localities in the northern mountains. It is common locally in France. The population trend it is considered stable. The species is not rare in Italy.</p>
157928		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threat.<br/><p></p>
157929		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
157929		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in south-eastern Europe, Turkey and Syria (Bense 1995). In Romania it is present only in the south-eastern part, specifically in Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is present in the foothills and mountains of Troodos Massif (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is an old record for Spain&#160;(Panin and Savulescu 1961).<p></p>
157929		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species shows a strong preference for dead wood on standing oaks growing on poor stony ground. In Romania, it was found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009), and in Cyprus it was found in   <em>Quercus coccifera</em>  in maquis and forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
157929		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information available on the abundance or trends of this species. In Romania this species was found&#160;once, 40 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is l</st1:place></st1:country-region>ocally common (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  .<p></p>
157929		threats	eng	<p>There is no information regarding the threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
157930		conservation	eng	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, particularly with regard to its conservation needs.</p>
157930		distribution	eng	This species is found in Turkey, Greece and the south of Bulgaria. Four specimens have been collected from four localities in Greece (P. Cate collection, Vienna).
157930		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in decayed tree trunks in forests.
157930		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered to be not rare. <br/></p>
157930		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Unsustainable forest management, extraction of old trees and removal of dead wood are the specific major threats to this species, although these are currently considered to be at tolerable levels. </p>
157931		conservation	eng	In order to conserve this species it is necessary to promote traditional forest management and coppicing, as well as protection of veteran trees and ensure that new generations of trees are available, maintaining habitat continuity and connectivity. In Hungary the recently discovered extant population is in a protected area, but this is a private property. An effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The populations from south-western Romania are preserved inside three major national parks (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157931		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Mediterranean zone of Europe (Bense 1995) and into southern and central Europe. In Ukraine it is present in the southern regions. In Hungary this species is very sporadic in the hills and mountains, mainly in the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It has been recorded from western and southern Romania. It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, except in the northern part and in France it also only occurs in the south. <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it has been reported from the hills and mountains of Troodos Massif (west, south and <st1:place w:st="on">central Cyprus</st1:place>) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  It has also been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987, Ozdikmen and Demir 2006) and it is also found in Minor Asia.<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157931		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This thermophilous species develops in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus</em><em>, </em>also in<em> </em><em>Platanus, Ceratonia</em>). Larvae first develop under the bark and in the woody tissues of living and weakened trees with a large diameter (at least 30 cm) including stools of coppiced trees. It needs sun-exposed trees - the sun-exposed face of the trunk is colonised first (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009. Life cycle is at least three years. Adults emerge in VI-VIII on host plants, and are crepuscular and nocturnal. Adults can be found during the night on the host tree (P. Istrate pers. obs. 2009). Personal observations from Baile Herculane (Romania) show that this species lives in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerambyx cerdo</span>. In Rumania it occurs in oak forests from mountains, hilly places and sometimes in planes. In Hungary the known localities of this species are in thermophilous oak woods and wood pastures (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it was found in old   orchards, maquis and forests, on or near old trees <em>of&#160; Quercus infectoria ssp veneris </em>and<em> Quercus alnifolia</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.</p>    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region><em> </em></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
157931		population	eng	Overall the population trend for this species is unknown but it is declining in some parts. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Most localities are older than 50 years, but an extant population was discovered in 2002 (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Good populations are preserved in south-western Romania, in the Carpathian oak forest. Other populations, in the Romanian Plain are poor (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is common in its distribution area but seems to regress from the most agro-intensive places and from the northern places (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Slovakia there is only one site in the extreme south of the country. In Spain there are 90 localities and in Italy it is widespread with a good number of populations. The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey or Cyprus but the species is not rare.<br/>    <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
157931		threats	eng	Loss of traditional management including coppicing and the degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density are major threats to this species. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Hungary and Romania the species is threatened by the removal of old oak trees.
157932		conservation	eng	In Finland measures are taken to protect aspen trees during felling of adjacent coniferous trees for timber. This protects habitat for this and other species of beetle. The species occurs in protected areas in Hungary, Romania and Ukraine (in the Kanevskyi reserve in the Cherkassy region). This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2003) and as Endangered in Poland (Oleksa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
157932		distribution	eng	This Eurasian species occurs throughout much of Europe from western to eastern Europe extending to the northern countries, but not Britain and Ireland. <br/><br/>In Spain there are only a few localities in forests of the Atlantic Coast. In Denmark it is Extinct (2003). In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and sporadic in the lowlands where extensive oak forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs in many parts of the country, especially in the forest from hills and small mountains.&#160; In Russia it is present in the southern part and in all forest-steppe zones, south Siberia, Far East to Sakhalin islands. In Ukraine it occurs in the north (all forest and northern part of forest-steppe zones); it is absent in Crimea.
157932		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is an old growth species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base or upper parts of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae take one or two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees occur in a wide variety of situations - old wood pastures, orchards, historic parklands, hedgerow trees, old avenues, etc, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. Often found in trees growing in relatively open country, but may also be found in closed woodland. Pupation takes place in spring. The adults show summer activity, VI-VIII; adults have been found feeding at sap oozing from wounds on large oaks, willows and lime trees in large forest patches.<br/><br/>In Poland it occurs in networks of rural avenues in northern Poland; the hollow trees are generally above 200 cm in circumference, with a tendency towards higher occupancies of the larger trees, with circumferences above 300 cm; no preferences for tree species or for exposition, just hollow trees (Oleksa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). In Spain it is associated with large forested areas of broad-leaved trees in which their larvae develop. In Ukraine the adults are often seen on trees with flowing sap (old forests and gardens) usually on glades and edges; larvae develop in old stubs and hollows of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, pear-tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>.&#160; In Romania adults have often been found on the sap flow from scarce big oaks, at high level, in the canopy of trees.
157932		population	eng	Population size and trends vary across its range. It remains widespread in some states but is rare and threatened in others.<br/><br/>Described as threatened over its whole distributional range, including in Germany and Austria; in Sweden its range contracted during the 20<sup>th</sup> century and the species completely disappeared from the south-west (Oleksa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In Spain it is rare, but there is insufficient data.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is regarded as not rare in its localities. In Romania it is well represented in pure oak forests, but as not high number of individuals as <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia aeruginosa </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).
157932		threats	eng	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude both grazing by large herbivores and cutting. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Also the loss of old hollowing trees and lack of future replacement generations of trees are threats to this species.
157933		conservation	eng	<p>Further molecular studies are needed to clarify the presence in Greece of this species. <br/></p><p>In Italy this species is listed as Vulnerable (2006).<br/></p>
157933		distribution	eng	This species is only confirmed from the south of France and Italy. Its status in Greece and Albania is unclear.<br/><br/>The species is known from Corsica and one large locality in continental France (extreme south of the Var department), central and southern Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania and Greece according to Baraud (1993) but <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tetraodon</span> does not occur in Greece (P. Petrakis pers comm. 2009).
157933		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae is xylophagous in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species. It lives in buried decomposing wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. suber</span>. Adults are active and flying between mid-June and mid-August (Baraud 1993).&#160;It lives is broad-leaved forests.
157933		population	eng	<p>This is a flagship species. The species is common in central and southern Italy; there is a recent record from northern Italy; about 100 localities in Italy. Very localised in France but not uncommon.<br/></p>
157933		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Collection of specimens for non-scientific purposes and trade may cause a rapid decline of its population in the future. This is a very big species.</p><p>Degradation of habitat and removal of dead trees are also threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157934		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance and distribution of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
157934		distribution	eng	In Europe this species is only known from Greece and Cyprus. There are records from Mt. Ossa and Katara (Pindus Mountains). It also occurs in Turkey.
157934		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives under the dead bark of various trees, such as pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> etc., where deadwood has been colonised by fungi. It is especially found in old beech forest.
157934		population	eng	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is rare and it is considered that the population trend is decreasing.<br/></p>
157934		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Intensive forest management and removal of dead wood are major specific threats. Global warming appears to be reducing the range of beech forest, the preferred forest formation of this species.<br/></p><p></p>
157935		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species is very common and occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Hungary, UK).
157935		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Palaearctic region and it is widespread across most of Europe.<br/><br/>It has only recently appeared in Ireland, either a natural colonisation from Scotland, or, more likely, an incidental introduction. It is known in Scotland from just a single site in the south. It is however widespread in England and Wales (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).
157935		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in Pyrenomycetes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Diatrype, Hypoxylon, Daldinia</span>). Adult beetles feed on wood-decay fungi more generally (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus, Fomes, Piptoporus, Polyporus</span>) and are also found under dead bark. The adults hibernate and are active in V-VIII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, and in any wooded places, including city parks, suburbs, villages; sometimes also in conifer forests. In the UK suitable sites include a wide variety of wooded situations, including hedgerows (Alexander 2002).
157935		population	eng	A widespread and common species across much of Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In Ireland one population was discovered in 1992, and was assumed to be a recent colonisation (Anderson 1993). In the UK it is widespread, with no suggestion of any decline. It is common in Ukraine. In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very common in its localities. In Portugal it has been recorded from several sites in the northern half and from a single one in the centre, most records being from the 1980s onwards. Probably it is much more widespread in the country than currently known, because of under-sampling (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).
157935		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>
157936		conservation	eng	Overall, there are no conservation measures needed but recommendations for national level: in Italy research is required in the Alpine arch in order to understand the gap of distribution between France and the Balkans; in Hungary old orchards should be protected and sustained; in Romania good management of the thermophilous forests from the south is recommended. The species is legally protected in Hungary. In Italy this species is listed as Vulnerable (Sama 2006).
157936		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south of western, eastern and central Europe. <br/><br/>Common and widely distributed in the Balkans, eastward to Crimea and southern part of European Russia (Sama 2002). In Hungary and the Czech Republic it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountain area.&#160; In Romania it has been recorded from the south but there are only few reports; there is also one record from western Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey it has been reported from Canakkale (Gokceada) (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Italy, there are about 10 localities concentrated in the Karsic region in the north-east, very old records (1940s). In Spain it is very common, except in the north-west and it is known from more than 100 localities. In Portugal it was recorded only once (in the 19<sup>th</sup> century) but&#160; its presence requires confirmation.<br/><br/>This species occurs as well in Minor Asia, in eastern Iran and northern Africa.
157936		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead dry twigs and branches (Sama 2002) of a large diversity of broad-leaved trees, including <em>Prunus, Quercus, Salix, Pistacia </em>and <em>Ulmus</em>. The larvae gnaw very deep passages in the wood. Pupation takes place at the beginning of summer; adults emerge in V-VIII, attracted to flowers for feeding, including&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea scabiosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carduus</span> in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009)<br/><br/>In Hungary it is mainly found in old, traditionally cultivated orchards, also in thermophilous oak forests and suburbs. In Romania it has been recorded from the thermophilous oak forests spread on the lowlands near the Danube river in the south of&#160; Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is present in almost all <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and Mediterranean forest. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<p><br/><strong></strong></p>
157936		population	eng	Common and widely distributed in the Balkans, eastward to Crimea and southern part of European Russia (Sama 2002). In Crimea it is very rare. <br/><br/>In Hungary populations of this species have apparently been declining in the last 20 years (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are no data about the size and population trend, but few populations were reported 40-50 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is very rare; very old records (1940s).<br/><p>In Spain it is very common, except in the north-west and it is known from more than 100 localities. <br/></p>
157936		threats	eng	Overall there are no threats to this species but it can face local threats. In particular the disappearance of old orchards in Hungary may be threatening, but the exact causes of the population decline are unknown (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania and Slovakia forest fragmentation and the replacement of native oaks with others species is a threat.
157939		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not legally protected but it is included in the French Red Data Book tome II.&#160;Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica. The search for new sites is underway.<br/></p><p>Monitoring of the population dynamics and research on the species' biology, resilience and conservation requirements are needed. Furthermore, seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation should be collected.<br/></p>
157939		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula corsica</span> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with European-Orophytic origins. It is a common species in the central mountains of Corsica and a bit rarer in the other parts of the island.
157939		habitat	eng	The species is found in "pozzine" (shallow pools), peat and grass around lakes, runnels, and "fruticées naines" (shrubland) or lands from 1,150 to 1,900 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments. At the moment, there is no information about germination, growing and flowering conditions.
157939		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula corsica</span> is known from more than 30 localities in Corsica (33).  The last observations at the site of Sellola were made in 2007.  The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but a decline could not be quantified. The populations don't seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.
157939		threats	eng	The habitat is submitted to the increase of trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on pozzine, and higher risk of fires. Therefore there are more guards from the Natural  Park around the different lakes. A future reduction in grazing pressure will lead to a change in the species composition and dynamics and shrub vegetation, that might compete with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. corsica</span>, will appear.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Disturbance by wild boar, which dig the soil, impacts on this species.
157951		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Litipo Forest Reserve, Kwamsambia Forest Reserve, and Longuza Forest Reserve.
157951		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern coastal Tanzania and northwards to the Nguru and Usambara Mtns.
157951		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub growing in coastal forest, thicket and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleopsis</span> woodland.
157951		population	eng	Unknown, has not been seen in the wild by Q. Luke (pers. comm.).
157951		threats	eng	There is loss of forest to agricultural expansion.
157952		conservation	eng	Occurs in a few protected areas including Kimboza Forest Reserve, Kwiro Forest Reserve, Kwemnyese Public Forest and Amani Nature Reserve.
157952		distribution	eng	Recorded from the East Usambara, Uluguru and Mahenge mountains in Tanzania. There are also four sight records from coastal Kenya at Chasimba and Pangani (Q. Luke pers. obs.).
157952		habitat	eng	A perennial herb that dies back during the dry season and produces a single leaf in the wet season. Occurs in moist evergreen forest, usually on limestone outcrops.
157952		population	eng	This taxonomic group is often under-represented in herbaria because it is difficult to always collect fertile material (species have a very short flowering period). Appears to be very localized, but may be more common that current records indicate.
157952		threats	eng	The main threat in all the known localities is forest clearance for agriculture (crops), and expanding human settlements.
157957		conservation	eng	Recorded from the following protected areas: Udzunwga Mountains National Park, Chimala Scarp Forest Reserve and Livingstone Forest Reserve.
157957		distribution	eng	Occurs from the Udzungwa Mountains westwards along the mountain chains to Rungwe.
157957		habitat	eng	Grows on the edges of rivers and swamps and in grassy marshes.
157957		population	eng	Probably commoner than collections indicate, as it is a large plant and hard to dry, so probably seldom collected.
157957		threats	eng	Draining of marshy areas for agriculture is the main threat.
157960		conservation	eng	Protection of Kiwengoma Forest is doubtful.
157960		distribution	eng	Known only from a very small area from Kiwengoma Forest in the Matumbi Hills.
157960		habitat	eng	A tree growing in dry scrub and riverine coastal forest.
157960		population	eng	Unknown, but one of the collections cites it as common.
157960		threats	eng	Does not appear to be in any protected area, but if it is, they are not effectively protected. There is selective logging (especially of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus</span>), loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion (crops) and general logging for charcoal production.
157964		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas including Kwamngumi Forest Reserve, Chamanyani Forest Reserve, Nilo Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills, Mtibwa Forest Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve Longuza Forest Reserve, Amini Nature Forest Reserve, Selous Game Reserve and Magombera Forest Reserve.
157964		distribution	eng	Recorded from coastal southern Kenya (Shimba Hills) into northern Tanzania (foothills of the Usambara, Ukaguru and Udzungwa mountain ranges).
157964		habitat	eng	A perennial herb that dies back in the dry months. A moist lowland forest species which seems tolerant of some disturbance as it has been recorded in disturbed forest.
157964		population	eng	Fairly distinctive and likely to be collected more frequently than other species in the family. Seems to be reasonably common.
157964		threats	eng	A number of the forests where it occurs are under pressure from agricultural expansion.
157970		conservation	eng	Not known for certain from any protected area. There is a sight record from Mtwara - Mnazi Bay/Ruvuma Estuary Marine Protected area, but the identity of this still needs to be confirmed.
157970		distribution	eng	A coastal species found in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania as far south as Dar es Salaam and on a small island near Zanzibar. The northern most collection in Kenya is doubtful, as is any putative collections from Eritrea.
157970		habitat	eng	A decumbent succulent herb which grows right on the beach front in the salt spray zone on coral outcrops. Also recorded in sandy soils, in grass and open thickets near the sea shore.
157970		population	eng	Not very common.
157970		threats	eng	The habitat is sensitive as it is a zone impacted by human activities (coastal development, etc.). Has attractive flowers so would also be sought by succulent collectors.
157971		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its range including Kasigau Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills National Reserve, and Nairobi National Park (all in Kenya), Uluguru South Forest Reserve (in Tanzania).
157971		distribution	eng	The typical subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sanguineus&#160; </span>is from the Eastern Cape (Grahamstown area) and Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ballyi </span>is known only from the Nairobi area, Kenya; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">minor </span>occurs at Chila in the Ufipa district of Tanzania, in the Turkana area of Kenya and into Sudan; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">salmonoides </span>is from the Ngong Hills in the Masai district of Kenya; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">wakefieldii </span>occurs from southern Kenya (e.g., Mombassa and Taita Hills) southwards into Tanzania (e.g., Uluguru Mts, and a record from Gumbiro in the Ruvuma district).
157971		habitat	eng	Recorded growing in a variety of habitats including sandy soils in deciduous woodland, rocky slopes, near sea level, grassland, etc.
157971		population	eng	Is presumably common locally.
157971		threats	eng	No major threats known, although given the extensive range is likely to be affected by many threats such as habitat loss because of expanding agricultural activities.
157975		conservation	eng	Occurs in two protected areas: Image Forest Reserve and Kisanga Rugaro Forest Reserve. <br/><br/>It is in cultivation.
157975		distribution	eng	Confined to Tanzania where it is known from only two localities: Image Mtn and Kalimbasi Mtn.
157975		habitat	eng	Found on rocky outcrops (granite) in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland.
157975		population	eng	Unknown.
157975		threats	eng	Possibly sought after by succulent collectors, but not sure if there is much collector activity in this area. Is unlikely to be used medicinally as it is a small species.
157979		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its range.
157979		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. flavescens</span> is classed as Extinct in Belgium and the Netherlands, Endangered in Austria, and Vulnerable in Croatia and Switzerland, whilst   no other conservation measures are in place or apparently needed. The decline of this species in these five countries could be early signs of a broader problem.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is taking place (Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
157979		distribution	eng	<em>P. flavescens</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, from southern Africa and Madagascar north to the south coasts of the Baltic, east through the Caucasus and Middle East, east to Kazakhstan, the western Himalayas and Vietnam. It is also native to eastern North America and California south through Mexico and Central America to northern South America. It is regarded as naturalised in Australia (New South Wales, Queensland). In Europe it occurs from the Azores and Madeira north through Spain and France to the Netherlands, Germany, Poland and European Russia and east through the northern Mediterranean to European Turkey and the Ukraine.
157979		distribution	eng	<em>Pycreus flavescens</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers central and southern Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas and Australia (mainly introduced).
157979		habitat	eng	Grows in a variety of habitats including swamp margins, along rivers and streams, in seasonally flooded grassland and swamp edges.
157979		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. flavescens </span>typically grows in the drawdown zones of lakes and temporary pools, where it is the fluctuating water levels which presumably suppress competition.
157979		population	eng	A very common species.
157979		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. flavescens</span>   appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout most of its European range, except in Belgium, the Netherlands, Croatia, Austria, and Switzerland.
157979		threats	eng	No threats known.
157979		threats	eng	<p>Eutrophication has been described as a threat in parts of its range such as Austria. There are no other known threats to this species.</p>
157980		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Magombera Forest Reserve (see the threats) and West Kilombero Nature Reserve (also known as Matundu Forest Reserve).
157980		distribution	eng	Previously only known only from the Magombera Forest Reserve, which is about 200 ha in size but was recently collected in Matundu Forest Reserve by A. Marshall.
157980		habitat	eng	A small tree growing in groundwater forest, and lowland forest.
157980		population	eng	Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) only found one plant when he collected it, however, it was found to be more common by A. Marshall in Matundu Forest Reserve.
157980		threats	eng	At least half of Magombera Forest Reserve has been lost in the last 10-15 years due to encroachment by people, but there are efforts under the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund to try and include what remains of the reserve  within the Selous Game Reserve. There is a sugar plantation and growing settlement adjacent to the Forest Reserve.
157981		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas: Mafia Island Marine Park, Watamu Marine National Park, Segoma Forest Reserve, Zoraninge Forest Reserve and Litipo Forest Reserve.
157981		distribution	eng	Has a wide range along the coast being recorded from Arabuko-Sokoke (Kenya) in the north southwards to Rondo Plateau (Tanzania).
157981		habitat	eng	Grows in dry bushland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra, Brachylaena, Manilkara, Brachystegia, Julbernardia, Diospyros, Xylopia</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Inhambanella</span>. Also in moist semi-deciduous coastal forest with dominants: <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeos, Cola clavata, C. minor, Ricinodendron, Combretum schumannii, Craibia, Manilkara, Haplocoelopsis, Drypetes, Combretum, Salacia</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dichapetalum</span>. Also in wooded grassland.
157981		population	eng	A common species.
157981		threats	eng	There has been loss of habitat along the coast due to expanding agriculture and urban developments but not sufficient to consider this a major threat.
157982		conservation	eng	Found in some protected areas e.g., Witu, Arabuko Sokoke and Buda Forest Reserves, Shimba Hills National Reserve and Kaya Waa. Does not appear to occur in any  protected areas in Tanzania.
157982		distribution	eng	All records are along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts, with one collection made at the foot of the Usambara Mts.
157982		habitat	eng	A shrub which grows in coastal forests (moist and dry),  thickets, and in coastal <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyphaene </span>woodland.
157982		population	eng	Locally common.
157982		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture, logging, mining, expanding urbanization, and the species is specifically cut for poles.
157984		conservation	eng	Found in possibly two protected areas: Tsavo East National Park and one locality is within or near Ngare Ndare Forest Reserve.
157984		distribution	eng	Recorded mostly in the coastal parts of Kenya (Kwale District, Moyale and Tana River) and extending inland to the Lewa Conservancy. Is probably under-recorded because of difficulties in identifying this species.
157984		habitat	eng	Grows in coastal bush and further inland in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> woodland on rocky ground.
157984		population	eng	Not a common species; occurs in small clumps.
157984		threats	eng	Not sought after by collectors, no other threats known although may be affected in parts of its range by habitat loss because of agriculture, burning for charcoal, etc.
157986		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Ulangambi Forest Reserve, Malindo Extension Forest Reserve, Land 9 Forest Reserve, Mailuganji (Mwalugange) Forest Reserve, Udzungwa Mountains National Park and the Selous Game Reserve.
157986		distribution	eng	Recorded from the southern coastal Kenya southwards into northern Tanzania as far south as the Udzungwa Mountains.
157986		habitat	eng	Grows in a variety of habitats including semi-deciduous forest, riverine vegetation, swamp forest and damp places in grassland.
157986		population	eng	Locally common, but in some places said to be rare.
157986		threats	eng	No major threats known, although is probably impacted by habitat loss and degradation in places.
157988		conservation	eng	Is recorded from several protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve, Shagayu Forest Reserve, Land 9Forest Reserve, West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, and Udzungwa Mountain National Park.
157988		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Taita Hills in southern Kenya, south to the Pare, Usambara and Udzwunga Mountains in Tanzania.
157988		habitat	eng	Found growing in leaf mould and leaf litter in sub-montane evergreen forest, usually growing close to streams.
157988		population	eng	Given the number of collections, this species is more common than other species in the family, but each subpopulation will have a very small population size (10-20 plants).
157988		threats	eng	There is ongoing habitat loss across its range.
157993		conservation	eng	Found in several protected areas: Mwachi Forest Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Udzungwa National Park, Pindiro Forest Reserve, Kaya Gandinia, Kimboza Forest Reserve, Kaya Jibara and Kaya Rabai (all the Kaya occurrences are sight records).
157993		distribution	eng	Found in the coastal forests of Kenya then inland to Kanga, Usambara and Udzungwa Mts in Tanzania (also on Zanzibar and Pemba islands).
157993		habitat	eng	Grows in dry coastal forest on swampy sites and on limestone. Also recorded on white sand with giant heather, and more inland in riverine forest or along streams in evergreen forest.
157993		population	eng	Not common anywhere except perhaps in Kimboza where it occurs in large numbers in a swampy area (a bright blue gecko occurs here living in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plants).
157993		threats	eng	The limestone is being targeted by cement producers, which will cause declines in this species.
157994		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from the Rondo Forest Reserve and Kiwengoma Forest Reserve.
157994		distribution	eng	Known from Mueda Plateau in northern Mozambique, Rondo Plateau in southern Tanzania and north to the Matumbi Hills.
157994		habitat	eng	A small tree or large shrub growing in coastal thicket on deep leached sandy soils. Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) found it in the open in quite degraded bushland.
157994		population	eng	Not common.
157994		threats	eng	There is continued habitat loss from agriculture and logging.
157995		conservation	eng	Is known to occur in a number of protected areas including: Kasigau Forest Reserve, Shagaya Forest Reserve, Mwanihana Forest Reserve, Uluguru National Park and the       Udzungwa Mountain National Park.
157995		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Taita Hills and Kasigau (Kenya), southwards into Tanzania on the Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa mountains as far south as Nyengenge waterfall.
157995		habitat	eng	Grows in or above the ericaceous forest, also in moorland and grassland, usually on ridge tops. Has bright pink/red flowers, and is sometimes found growing on tree trunks or mossy rocks.
157995		population	eng	Unknown but presumably locally common. Has probably not been collected that often because one needs to be there at the time when it flowers.
157995		threats	eng	No major threats known.
157996		conservation	eng	Occurs in Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, near Mkusu Forest Reserve and Vugiri Forest Reserve.
157996		distribution	eng	Known only from the Usambara Mountains.
157996		habitat	eng	A spiny climber to decumbent herb growing in moist forest, forest edge, thicket and rock crevices on rocky slopes.
157996		population	eng	Unknown, but at one locality said to be rare.
157996		threats	eng	Three of the localities appear to be secure with no threats, but the other two are undergoing decline in habitat extant and quality due to expanding agriculture, logging, settlements, etc.
158000		conservation	eng	Is protected in the Chimala Scarp Forest Reserve and in the Ndumbi Valley Forest Reserve.
158000		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Livingstone Mts and from Fulaningi Ridge in the Kipengere Mts.
158000		habitat	eng	A grass aloe which grows in crevices and on ledges of rocky ridges and peaks (basalt) in montane grassland.
158000		population	eng	Probably locally common.
158000		threats	eng	No major threats, most of the localities are now protected.
158001		conservation	eng	May occur in the Kiunga Marine Nature Reserve and the Watamu Marine National Park.
158001		distribution	eng	Has a fairly wide range occurring along most of the northern Kenyan coast and extending northwards well into Somalia.
158001		habitat	eng	A small shrub found growing in open scrub or coastal bushland (e.g., in mixed <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> scrub on red sandy soil with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cordeauxia edulis </span>or with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia cuneata</span>). Also grows on sandy dunes and beach crests (in Kenya).
158001		population	eng	Not common.
158001		threats	eng	Beach crests are under threat in Kenya from expanding tourism. In Somalia little is known about the threats, but little environmental protection can be expected and war damage is probable.
158010		conservation	eng	The only known plants are all in protected areas, namely the Udzwunga Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve.
158010		distribution	eng	Known only from the Udzwunga Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve.
158010		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub that grows on ridges and flat ground in forest. Is a cryptic species if it is not flowering.
158010		population	eng	Known from only about ten trees so far. Occurs in very low numbers where found - 3 plants per locality. Could be more common than is currently known.
158010		threats	eng	It occurs above the altitude to which firewood collectors are allowed to operate in Udzungwa Mountains National Park.
158013		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas, e.g. Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Kanga Mt. Forest Reserve, Kihuhwi-Sigi Forest Reserve, and Saadani National Park (includes Zaraninge Forest Reserve).
158013		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tazania - East Usambara Mts, Zaraninge Forest, Kanga Mtn, and Udzwunga Mountains National Park.
158013		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub recorded from lowland forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland (to 1,100 m).
158013		population	eng	Presumably is locally common.
158013		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat in the East Usambaras due to human activities, e.g. harvesting for firewood, logging for building materials, etc.
158018		conservation	eng	The Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project employs two forest guards to prevent illegal activities.
158018		distribution	eng	The species is confined to an area no greater than 0.1 km² in Kimboza Forest Reserve (4 km²).
158018		threats	eng	The surrounding area is densely populated and there is strong pressure on the reserve because of the demand for land.
158024		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from one locality on or near the boundary of Tsavo East National Park, hence probably also occurs within the protected area.<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.
158024		distribution	eng	Recorded from Ndi Hill, Mbinzau Hill and Katumba Hill in the Chyulu Hills area of southeastern Kenya.
158024		habitat	eng	Grows on rock slabs in dry succulent vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia, Commiphora, Lannea</span>, etc. The surrounding vegetation is deciduous woodland.
158024		population	eng	Very common locally at two localities, but in other places only a few individuals are found.
158024		threats	eng	Is a desirable species to succulent collectors because of the dark red colour of the flowers and the leaves are striated. Rocks are also collected in these areas for building purposes which may have an impact on the habitat.
158037		conservation	eng	The whole population is within the Misali Island Conservation Area.<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.
158037		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area on Pemba Island (Misali Island Conservation Area).
158037		habitat	eng	Grows in very scrubby vegetation right on the beach.
158037		population	eng	Population density does not appear to be high (more than 50 but less than 250 mature individuals).
158037		threats	eng	Is impacted by fisherman through trampling and collection for medicinal purposes. There is also increasing tourism on the island which may have an impact.
158040		conservation	eng	Is known to occur in a few protected areas:&#160; Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Mkungwe Forest Reserve and in Nguru ya Ndege Forest Reserve.
158040		distribution	eng	Recorded from the following mountain ranges in Tanzania: Uluguru, Ukaguru and Udzungwa. In the Udzwungas presumably only occurs on the north facing slopes over-looking the Ruaha Dam
158040		habitat	eng	A fairly small succulent shrub growing on open granite rock slabs on small hills,with deciduous woodland and grasses on deeper soil. Also recorded from woodland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia, Combretum, Sterculia</span>, etc. with outcrops of bare rocks with <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerophyta </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aloe</span>.
158040		population	eng	Very localized but can occur in dense groups.
158040		threats	eng	No major threats at present, but there is potential for the species to be impacted by succulent collectors. There may also be impacts through clearance of the habitat by charcoal burners.
158049		conservation	eng	One locality is within Chome Forest Reserve and one locality is within Kigogo Forest Reserve.
158049		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities. One locality is within Chome Forest Reserve (the identity of this collection cannot be confirmed completely), and the other is the type locality within Kigogo Forest Reserve.
158049		habitat	eng	A saprophyte which at Chome-Shengena grows in leaf litter in forest with high canopy dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea usambarensis, Podocarpus and Syzygium</span>.
158049		population	eng	Unknown, but probably highly localized and very small.
158049		threats	eng	The habitat around the Kigogo River locality is still good. The Chome subpopulation is in an area that has experienced considerable habitat destruction (burning and logging).
158059		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas.
158059		distribution	eng	Known only from two collections - Iringa in Tanzania and from north of Lubumbashi in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
158059		habitat	eng	Grows in Miombo Woodland.
158059		population	eng	Unknown.
158059		threats	eng	Unknown.
158061		conservation	eng	Recorded from Nawenge and Lulanda Forest Reserves.
158061		distribution	eng	Only known from the Mahenge and Mufindi areas of Tanzania.
158061		habitat	eng	A straggling shrub or liane found in sub-montane and montane forest, often on the forest edges.
158061		population	eng	Locally common.
158061		threats	eng	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture.
158066		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Shimba Hills National Reserve.
158066		distribution	eng	Known only from the type collection made in 2002 within Shimba Hills National Reserve.
158066		habitat	eng	A saprophyte growing in an evergreen coastal forest remnant on the roots of <span style="font-style: italic;">Zanha golungensis</span> (Sapindaceae).
158066		population	eng	Extremely scarce being only known from a single place; a distribution typical of the genus. This single population of seven plants (Cheek 2003) was recorded only from a tiny area less than 0.5 m in diameter.<br/><br/>Species in this genus are often very hard to find because of their scarcity, diminutive stature and the fact that unless flowering the plants are invisible above ground. Flowering only lasts for a month or so and plants may not flower every year.
158066		threats	eng	The area was logged in the past (by the Forestry Department) but that had been stopped and the impact of the elephants was being reduced through the removal of animals. However, on a recent visit it was discovered that logging had recommenced and that <span style="font-style: italic;">Milicia </span>was being targeted (Q. Luke pers. comm. 2009). Although the logging itself may not impact the species, the associated activity could.
158068		conservation	eng	Recorded from some protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve., Talagwe Forest Reserve, Uluguru North Forest Reserve and in Uluguru South Forest Reserve.
158068		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Pare, Uluguru and the Nguru mountains.
158068		habitat	eng	A perennial herb found in montane forest and forest patches as an occasional ground layer in glades, also in grass among rocks by streams in partly open forest.
158068		population	eng	Said to be occasional.
158068		threats	eng	The habitat is being affected by expanding agriculture and logging.
158072		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least three protected areas: Udzungwa Mountains National Park, West Kilombero Nature Reserve and Image Forest Reserve area.
158072		distribution	eng	Known from the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, the West Kilombero Nature Reserve and the Image Forest Reserve area.
158072		habitat	eng	Found in montane forest, often on well-drained sandy loams with extensive areas of rock faces.
158072		population	eng	Not uncommon.
158072		threats	eng	Most of the known localities are secure - excepting the Image locality.
158082		conservation	eng	Found in possibly two protected areas: one locality is in on the boundary of Udzungwa Mountain National Park; and one locality is in Lunda-Mkwabi Game Controlled Area.
158082		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Iringa Rural and Kilolo districts of central Tanzania in the Ruaha River Gorge and the gorges of its tributaries.
158082		habitat	eng	Grows in deciduous riverine forest on rocky slopes of gorges at lower elevations.
158082		population	eng	Not very common, occurs in groups of three to four plants.
158082		threats	eng	Populations alongside the roads are accessible and vulnerable. This is a striking species and so would be a target for succulent collectors.
158091		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from Udzungwa Mountain National Park, Ihangana Forest Reserve and Amani Nature Reserve.
158091		distribution	eng	Known from three areas in Tanzania: East Usambara Mts (Amani), Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Dabaga Highlands, near Kibengu.
158091		habitat	eng	An extensive liane which climbs to the tops of canopy trees in riverine forest. Can probably exceed 30 m in length.
158091		population	eng	Population seems to be small, but hard to tell as being a liane in the canopy it is difficult to spot.
158091		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat due to fires and encroaching cultivation, but may not be too severe. Amani was invaded by gold miners in 2005, although they have since been removed. There is also a problem with invasive alien plant species.
158094		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Kwamngumi Forest Reserve and Mlinga Forest Reserve.
158094		distribution	eng	Found in the East Usambaras area of Tanzania.
158094		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree growing in lowland riverine forest, with canopy species <span style="font-style: italic;">Antiaris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorindeia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Synsepalum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Barringtonia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Angylocalyx </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cola scheffleri</span> and an understorey of <span style="font-style: italic;">Costus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mesogyne</span>.
158094		population	eng	Locally abundant.
158094		threats	eng	Threatened by expanding agriculture (there are cocoa plantations in one area) and habitat degradation and loss.
158096		conservation	eng	Recorded in a number of protected areas: Umvinza Forest Reserve, Mkungwe Forest Reserve, Handeni Hill Forest Reserve, Land 9 Forest Reserve, Looguza Forest Reserve, Kwamarimba Forest Reserve and Gonja Forest Reserve.
158096		distribution	eng	This species is primarily found in Tanzania along the northern coast and extending inland as west as the Kigoma district, although that record may require closer scrutiny. Also extends just into southern Kenya with a few records from the Kwale district.
158096		habitat	eng	Grows on rocky hillsides in dense dry evergreen lowland or riverine forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, also in thick succulent/thorn scrub.
158096		population	eng	Said to be common to abundant.
158096		threats	eng	No major threats recorded, although there will be habitat loss in some places because of the impacts of people.
158108		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Shagayu Forest Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Mkindu Forest Reserve, Uluguru South Forest Reserve, Mafwamera Forest Reserve, Ruvu Forest Reserve, West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve and the Udzungwa Mountain National Park.
158108		distribution	eng	A montane species found in the Nguru, west Usambara, Uluguru, Kanga  and Udzwunga mountain ranges of the Eastern Arc.
158108		habitat	eng	A perennial herb found growing in montane forest often in association with bamboo (<span style="font-style: italic;">Arundinaria </span>sp.). Usually grows in rocky areas. Sometimes also associated with ericaceous heath.
158108		population	eng	Reasonably common (even abundant) where found but very localized.
158108		threats	eng	Fairly well protected across most of its range apart from in the northern parts of the range and at Kanga Mtn.
158110		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas including the Shimba Hills, Tana River Primate Nature Reserve, Selous Game Reserve, etc.
158110		distribution	eng	Recorded from coastal central and southern Kenya southwards to northern Tanzania, also occurs on Zanzibar island.
158110		habitat	eng	A perennial herb found in dry and moist lowland evergreen forest on red soil with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erythrophleum, Paramacrolobium, Croton sylvaticus, Xylopia, Pachystela brevipes</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros shimbaensis, D. greenwayi, Tricalysia microphylla</span>. Also found in wooded grassland rowing on termite mounds.
158110		population	eng	Fairly common.
158110		threats	eng	There is habitat loss (due to expanding agriculture and charcoal burning in the drier forests) but as the species is so widespread this is not perceived to be a major threat.
158113		distribution	eng	This species is almost indistinguishable from the West African species <em>D. troupinii</em>.
158116		conservation	eng	Recorded from a few protected areas including Quirimba National Park (Mozambique), Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), Arabuko-Sokoke and Shimba Hills (Kenya).
158116		distribution	eng	Found from central and southern Kenya along the Tanzanian coastal plain and into northern Mozambique.
158116		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span> perennial herb found in dry forest (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra/Brachylaena</span> forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia, Uvariodendron kirkii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Manilkara</span> lower down).
158116		population	eng	Probably not as often collected in the area where it occurs, but is not that common. Appears to have a very patchy occurrence.
158116		threats	eng	Forests are threatened in places by charcoal burning and agricultural expansion.
158120		conservation	eng	Is known to occur in several protected areas including Shimba Hills National Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve, Kaya Muhaka and Kimboza Forest Reserve.
158120		distribution	eng	Recorded from Mangea Hills and Shimba Hills in Kenya also Gongoni and Kaya Muhaka. There are sight records from between the Shimba Hills and Mangea (Q. Luke pers. comm.). In Tanzania it is recorded from the East Usambara Mts and from Kimboza Forest Reserve.
158120		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree grows in coastal forest often near rivers.
158120		population	eng	Grows in clumps due to germination of seeds from fruit on branches amongst leaf litter but otherwise is not common.
158120		threats	eng	The forest on Mangea Hills has all gone, there is severe forest loss on the Usambara Mtns and there is continuing loss of habitat at Kimboza Forest Reserve. This is all mainly due to agricultural expansion and logging for charcoal burning.
158124		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas.
158124		distribution	eng	Found on the coast in central Kenya, then a gap and occurs again in very southern Kenya and into Tanzania along the coast and on all the offshore islands (Pemba, Mafia and Zanzibar) to south of Dar es Salaam. Also supposedly occurs inland in the West Usambaras. There are two disjunct records from Mozambique and an apparent record from Zambia (the latter has been discounted here as it seems unlikely). The species is also cultivated in Jamaica.
158124		habitat	eng	A small shrub, sometimes scrambling, which grows in coastal bushland, scrub, thickets,  grassland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, lowland forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyphaene </span>savanna.
158124		population	eng	Not abundant, but not uncommon in northern coastal Kenya. But in Tanzania is fairly abundant.
158124		threats	eng	In Kenya the species is threatened by coastal development and small scale agriculture, but in Tanzania it seems to have a wider range in a variety of different habitats and hence is less impacted.
158128		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from a few protected areas: Tsavo East National Park; possibly Chyulu National Park; Mkomazi Game Reserve (sight record), and Mwache Forest Reserve. <br/><br/>The plant is fairly common in cultivation.
158128		distribution	eng	Its range extends from the coastal areas of northern Tanzania (Pare Mts) and southern Kenya (Taita Hills) inland to Thika.
158128		habitat	eng	Small succulent shrubs growing on sandy stony soil in dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>woodland and at the edge of deciduous thickets.
158128		population	eng	Occurs in large subpopulations.
158128		threats	eng	Encroachment by agriculture (crops and livestock - especially goats) is the main threat. Uncontrolled collection of plants from the wild for the aloe gel market may also be a problem. Has been targeted in the past for the succulent trade (there are many plants in cultivation). Habitat clearance for charcoal burning is also a growing threat.
158130		conservation	eng	Recorded from several protected areas including the Tana River Primate Nature Reserve, Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, Diani-Chale Marine Nature Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve and Segoma Forest Reserve.
158130		distribution	eng	Recorded from northern Tanzania (East Usambara Mountains) into southern and central coastal Kenya, with a range extension northwards to the Tana River Primate Reserve.
158130		habitat	eng	Perennial herb found in dry lowland forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia, Scorodophloeus, Bombax, Commiphora eminii</span> and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland.
158130		population	eng	Where it occurs is locally very abundant. Is possibly under-collected; it is a very small plant and for most of the year it is not present.
158130		threats	eng	All the places where it is collected have been extensively impacted by expanding agricultural expansion and especially by logging for charcoal burning as these are drier forests.
158131		conservation	eng	No information available.
158131		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Tanzania (including Eastern Arc Mountains, East Usambara Mountains, Lindi, Morogoro, Tanga), Zambia (Kaputa District; Sumbu National Park) and Kenya (including: Kwale Dist. Muhaka Forest, Kaya Miungoni.).
158131		habitat	eng	It occurs in swamps and riverine, in lowlands (below 850 m above sea level).
158131		population	eng	No information available.
158131		threats	eng	No information available.
158138		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from Kasigau Forest Reserve, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, Mkusa Northern Highland Forest Reserve and Talagwe Forest Reserve.
158138		distribution	eng	Recorded from the West Usamabara and Nguru mountains and from Ngorogoro Crater (Tanzania) and from Kasigau Hill (Kenya). Most of the collections appear to be fairly old.
158138		habitat	eng	Grows in montane habitats, in rocky habitats in rocky sites and sometimes on cliffs. Flowers in any month, but usually September to November.
158138		population	eng	Unknown, but appears to be scarce given the low number of collections. The flowering time does not appear to be a factor here.
158138		threats	eng	Unknown and it is not clear why this species is collected so seldom.
158139		conservation	eng	Recorded from a few protected areas e.g.,&#160; the Selous Game Reserve (includes the type locality), Kichi Hills Forest Reserve and may be in Ngarama Forest Reserve.
158139		distribution	eng	Occurs in the coastal areas of southern Tanzania.
158139		habitat	eng	A large shrub or small tree growing in coastal thicket on sandy soils, and in evergreen forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Drypetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Millettia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dialium.</span>
158139		population	eng	Not common, probably has a small population (although in one locality was described as the dominant shrub).
158139		threats	eng	There is habitat loss because of expanding agriculture, logging for charcoal burning, etc.
158144		conservation	eng	Is known from a number of protected areas: Kimboza Forest Reserve, Ruvu Forest Reserve, Uluguru South Forest Reserve, Rupiage Forest Reserve, Selous Game Reserve, Matundu Forest Reserve and Quirimba National Park.
158144		distribution	eng	Found from northern Mozambique into Tanzania where it has been collected in Selous Game Reserve, Kimboza, and the Uluguru, Nguru, and Udzwungu Mts.
158144		habitat	eng	Occurs on rocky banks in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland and in lowland forest, often in transitional areas between deciduous woodland or thicket and riverine forest lowland rain forest. Is a tuberous species, the tubers of which are vertically segmented, which may help in the long-term persistence of this species.
158144		population	eng	An abundant species.
158144		threats	eng	There is some habitat loss and degradation, but the species is not dependent on pristine habitat conditions.
158152		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from the following protected areas: Kaya Bogowa, Kaya Tiwi and Kaya Kinondo (all sight records).
158152		distribution	eng	Found along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts adjacent to the beach. Also recorded from Pemba and Zanzibar islands (Tanzania).
158152		habitat	eng	A tree found growing above the high-tide mark on sandy beaches (dune crests) and on coral near the sea.
158152		population	eng	Not uncommon and fairly common on part of Zanzibar (at Jozani).
158152		threats	eng	Infrastructure for tourism might be a threat, but developers often leave it standing as it is an attractive tree. On Pemba, it is cut-down for thatching.
158159		conservation	eng	Given its wide distribution range, this species undoubtedly occurs in many protected areas.
158159		distribution	eng	Fairly widespread in coastal Kenya, Tanzania and in northern Mozambique. Also reported from Somalia and Madagascar in Flora Somalia.
158159		habitat	eng	An aromatic shrub, small tree or liane found in a variety of habitats including thickets, dry scrubby forest, wetter evergreen lowland forest and woodland. Is often found on forest margins and in clearings.
158159		population	eng	Is presumably a common species.
158159		threats	eng	Although there is likely to have been habitat loss across its range because of expanding agriculture, urbanization, etc., these are not viewed as major threats to this species.
158162		conservation	eng	Recorded from Pugu Forest Reserve, Pande Forest Reserve, Banda Forest Reserve and Saadani National Park (Zaraninge Forest Reserve).
158162		distribution	eng	On the Tanzanian coast north of Dar es Salaam (Saadani National Park) and as far south as Pugu. Records from Kichi/Matumbi Hills are unconfirmed.
158162		habitat	eng	This tree grows in dry evergreen coastal forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Tessmannia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenaea</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus</span>. Usually grows on tops of ridges.
158162		population	eng	The species may be commoner than is currently recognized, because its flowers and fruits are inconspicuous, and its principle flowering and fruiting occurs during the wet season when few collectors are active. Also the species has a strong resemblance to species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros </span>in herbarium material, and sterile material may thus be misidentified in collections. Quentin Luke (pers. comm. has not yet collected this species).
158162		threats	eng	Threatened by conversion of habitat for charcoal burning and collection of building materials, in some areas is also impacted by expanding agriculture. The Pugu Forest for example, is under severe decline.
158163		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.
158163		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring in central, eastern and southern Africa. : DRC, Angola, Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique.
158163		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub or small tree found growing in riverine forest, open woodland, and in secondary evergreen bushland. Often on sandy soils.
158163		population	eng	Unknown, but presumably common given its wide distribution.
158163		threats	eng	No major threats known, although given the wide range is likely to be impacted by habitat loss in places. However, appears to be tolerant of disturbance as often recorded growing in secondary habitats.
158173		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, Ambangulu Forest Reserve, Lulanda and Luhega Forest Reserves.
158173		distribution	eng	Recorded mainly from the Udzungwa Mtn range, but there is one record from the West Usambaras.
158173		habitat	eng	A small tree growing in moist montane forest, often on steep slopes with small streams and swamps, and patches of elfin forest on ridge top.
158173		population	eng	No where common.
158173		threats	eng	There is heavy human population pressure in the Mufindi and Luhega areas and hence the habitat is declining in extent and quality.
158176		conservation	eng	Is known from one locality on the boundary of Wala River and Ugunda Forest Reserves so may be in these protected areas.
158176		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Rubeho Mts and then extends further west. Recorded from areas that have not been well-collected.
158176		habitat	eng	A grass aloe growing in rocky habitats in montane grassland, also recorded growing in clay soils in open woodland, usually near watercourses.
158176		population	eng	Presumably locally common.
158176		threats	eng	The high altitude grasslands in many parts of this region have been converted to cultivated fields, for growing potatoes and other crops.
158183		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its extensive range.
158183		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed, however it is described as extinct in Switzerland   (Welten and Sutter  1982) and probably extinct in Serbia (Stevanović 1999).</p>
158183		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation measures but some populations are found in protected areas such as national parks and forest reserves.
158183		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus rotundus</em> is a subtropical taxon. Its world distribution includes southern Europe, western and southern Asia, Africa, America and Australia. <br/>In Europe, it is present in numerous localities in continental France and Corsica, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Spain and Balearic Islands, Portugal, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Turkey.
158183		distribution	eng	This is a widespread cosmopolitan species.<br/><br/>It has ben recorded in almost all countries in Western Africa extending east to Kenya and south to South Africa, inclusing Madagascar.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa: Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. In Malawi it occurs in Zomba on road to Lake Chilwa from Zomba, Nsanje, Mulunguzi Marsh on Zomba Plateau, Swang'oma harbour on Lake Chilwa, Ulongwe forest  reserve, and Mudi river dam in Blantyre. C. r. merkeri & C. r. rotundus = The species is common and widespread in Kenya  from sea-level to 1850.<br/><br/>North-eastern Africa: Sudan (In arenosis limosis ad marginem planitiei Turensis prope pagum), Ethiopia (Africa, Abyssinia, In campis poae abyssinicae prope Adoam), Somalia (Migiurtinia: Altipiano del Shol, Dudo), Djibouti, Eritrea (Eritrea-Oculè Cusai: Gruppo dei monti Soyrà, Monte Mamahot verso il torrente Arigot, altipiano di Golò, Hamasen: Embatcalla) and Egypt (Lake Nasser).
158183		distribution	eng	Widespread in the tropics and subtropics, worldwide (note: not all countries of occurrence may have been recorded).
158183		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus rotundus</em> is a perennial Geophyte which grows in   wet grasslands, wet or dry areas on mountain slopes, stream margins, along trails, sandbanks, ditch margins, water margins in valleys and seasonally inundated agricultural fields. The habitat requirements differs among the subspecies, some are even ruderal in dry soils and park meadows.
158183		habitat	eng	Marshes and edge of open water. Swamps, damp sites, riverbanks, drainage lines in coastal bush or forest glades, common weed in rice and maize fields, and in seasonally wet grasslands.
158183		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats including seasonally wet grasslands, swamps, bushland. Is tolerant of disturbance and often grows in waste places. (Note: not all habitats of occurrence have been recorded).
158183		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. rotundus </span>appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European distribution, although it is described as Extinct in Switzerland   (Welten and Sutter 1982) and probably extinct in Serbia, in Montenegro only known from Skadar Lake at Dodoši and Crmnica (Stevanović 1999). <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rotundus</span> may be a serious crop pest (Cook 1996).
158183		population	eng	Very common, and has become naturalized in many parts of its range, especially in the Pacific islands.
158183		population	eng	W idespread and common species throughout Africa.
158183		threats	eng	No major threats, is very tolerant of disturbance often growing in waste places.
158183		threats	eng	No threat has been identified but heavily grazed by livestock. It is fodder for domestic animals. Rhizomes and bulbes are used to parfume  water.<br/><br/>In Northern Africa frequent droughts, urbanization, shifting agriculture and livestock of small-holders may threaten the species locally, but these are not major widespread threats.
158183		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
158195		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least one protected area: Kasigau Forest Reserve.<br/><br/>Is in cultivation in botanic gardens.
158195		distribution	eng	Known only from three localities in southern Kenya: Kasigau, Kilibasi, and Kizima (Kirima) Hill.
158195		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland forest and deciduous bushland between and on rocky slabs.
158195		population	eng	Not abundant at any of the localities.
158195		threats	eng	Sought after by succulent collectors.
158196		distribution	eng	Occurs in the South Nguru Forest Reserve.
158196		habitat	eng	Upper moist evergreen forest.
158196		population	eng	A small tree, which appears to be known only from the type collection.
158200		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Amani Sigi Nature Reserve, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, Vugiri Forest Reserve, Biharamulo State Forest Reserve, Pangawe East Forest Reserve, and Uluguru South National Park.
158200		distribution	eng	Recorded from the East and West Usambara Mts, the Uluguru Mts and the most southerly record is from Mahenge.
158200		habitat	eng	Grows in rain forest in area dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari </span>sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Newtonia buchananii</span>. One of the collections was along a road and also occurs along forest edges. It is said to persist in areas that have been logged.<br/><br/>The tuber is replaced annually.
158200		population	eng	Said to be locally frequent.
158200		threats	eng	Forest clearing, especially for exploitation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Newtonia </span>results in habitat loss and disturbance. Below 1,500 m elevation there are many settlements and farms.
158207		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its range.
158207		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
158207		distribution	eng	A widespread species found in the tropical and subtropical parts of the Old World (note, not all countries of occurrence may have been recorded).
158207		distribution	eng	<em>Fuirena ciliaris</em> is an Old-World tropical species occurring from tropical Africa to Australia. Its Mediterranean distribution is limited to Egypt, where it is very rare and only occurs in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum (Boulos 2005).
158207		habitat	eng	Grows in seasonally wet ground, swamps, pools and lake edges. Also in seasonally flooded grasslands and savannas. Appears to be tolerant of disturbance and grows in rice paddies and other very wet cultivated areas.
158207		habitat	eng	This is a tufted annual or perennial species of up to 37 cm height with a short rhizome. It is found in moist depressions and in rice fields (Boulos 2005).
158207		population	eng	A common species.
158207		population	eng	This species is considered a weed in Egypt.
158207		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
158207		threats	eng	No major threats known as is tolerant of disturbance and grows in man-made habitats.
158213		conservation	eng	Is recorded from a number of protected areas across its range including Shimba Hills Nature Reserve, Masai Mara National Park and Serengeti National Park.<br/><br/>This species is widely cultivated.
158213		distribution	eng	The range of the species extends from the coastal area of southern Kenya inland westwards through the highlands of Kenya and Tanzania to near Lake Victoria and then further west into Uganda and Rwanda.
158213		habitat	eng	Recorded in thickets in bushed grassland and on steep rocky slopes in dense riverine woodland. Seems to always occur near rivers.
158213		population	eng	A very common species.
158213		threats	eng	The main threats are land conversion for agriculture (crops and livestock) and succulent collectors.
158215		conservation	eng	Occurs entirely within the Selous Game Reserve.
158215		distribution	eng	Known only from near Kingupira in the eastern Selous Game Reserve, the type collection was made 30 years ago (1977), but it was supposedly collected again in 2005 by Frank Mbago (pers. comm.).
158215		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub found in dense riverine forest and thicket growing with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus tinctorius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Baphia kirkii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops fruticosa</span>, etc.; <span style="font-style: italic;">Asteranthe lutea</span> occurs in the same locality.
158215		population	eng	Not abundant and highly localized.
158215		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
158218		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas in this area.
158218		distribution	eng	Not collected since the type collection was made by Schlieben in 1935 at Mlinguru, 20 km south of Lindi. The area has been surveyed by many botanists (including Kai Vollesen and Quentin Luke), but this species was not specifically looked for and the dry hills may not have been as well surveyed.
158218		habitat	eng	This climbing shrub occurs in what  was described simply as "bushland".
158218		population	eng	Unknown.
158218		threats	eng	Most of the agricultural cultivation is in the valley, but the vegetation on the hills is burnt in the dry season to generate new grazing for livestock.
158221		conservation	eng	Is known to occur in the Shimba Hills Nature Reserve, but there is no other<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span> protection.<br/><br/>Is widely grown.
158221		distribution	eng	Occurs along the southern Kenyan coast and discovered more recently on the northern Tanzanian coast near Tanga.
158221		habitat	eng	An acaulescent succulent growing in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>bushland on shale soils, on coral rocks and on white gritty soils.
158221		population	eng	Locally common in places.
158221		threats	eng	There is considerable habitat disturbance in this area due to agricultural expansion and other human activities in this coastal zone. Sought after by succulent collectors because of the striking flower colour.
158224		conservation	eng	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya is monitoring the species.
158224		distribution	eng	Endemic to the drier parts of Ngangao Forest in the Taita Hills.
158224		population	eng	The species is known only from a small population containing few individuals. A population estimate may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate.
158224		threats	eng	Natural regeneration is not evident.
158226		conservation	eng	In Ruvu Forest Reserve, Kanga, and others (often on the margins of reserves).
158226		distribution	eng	Has a disjunct distribution, found mainly on the Uluguru, Rubeho, Kanga and Nguru mountain ranges.
158226		habitat	eng	Grows in wet montane forest (interior of forests and on edge), also in thicket vegetation.
158226		population	eng	Unknown.
158226		threats	eng	Seems to be tolerant of some disturbance given the collecting notes, but there is certainly ongoing loss of habitat to agriculture in some places.
158236		conservation	eng	Probably occurs in a number of protected areas, definitely recorded from Land9 Forest Reserve, Makangala Forest Reserve and Serengeti National Park.
158236		distribution	eng	A widespread species found through much of Kenya and Tanzania and its range extends southwards to central Mozambique, westwards to Uganda and north to Ethiopia. The variety <span style="font-style: italic;">transiens </span>has a more restricted range being found primarily in central coastal Tanzania with an outlying collection from central Mozambique.
158236		habitat	eng	Grows in open dry grassland and in disturbed areas.
158236		population	eng	A common species.
158236		threats	eng	No threats known.
158241		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas, e.g. in East Africa recorded from   Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, Kisi Forest Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Kihuhwi Forest Reserve, Land 9 Forest Reserve, Kwambai Forest Reserve, Mvuhu Forest Reserve, and Namkutwa Forest Reserve.
158241		distribution	eng	Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">amaniense </span>is confined to the coastal areas of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The range of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">filipendulum</span>, however, occurs throughout the Guineo-Congolian forests of West and Central Africa extending eastwards to Uganda and the western parts of Tanzania and Kenya.
158241		habitat	eng	Occurs in a variety of habitats including sub-montane moist forests on slopes and along streams, in coastal or gallery evergreen dry to moist forest on rocks.
158241		population	eng	Said to be locally abundant in places.
158241		threats	eng	No major threats known, although there will be habitat loss in parts of the range.
158244		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas including the Selous Game Reserve, Kiwengoma Forest Reserve, Namatimbili Forest Reserve, and Kwamngumi Forest Reserve.
158244		distribution	eng	Recorded from Matumbi Hills, East Usambara Mts, edge of the Selous Game Reserve and from various coastal localities.
158244		habitat	eng	Grows in groundwater forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Milicia excelsa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parkia filicoidea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Breonadia salicina</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lettowianthus stellatus</span> and mixed forest and scrub dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia spiciformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus</span> and dry evergreen forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra webberi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>.
158244		population	eng	Said to be common in places but Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) has found it to be uncommon.
158244		threats	eng	The entire coastal area is under threat as a result of extensive habitat loss due to clearance for expanding agriculture and charcoal burning.
158247		conservation	eng	Is widely grown.<br/><br/>Not known to occur in any protected areas.
158247		distribution	eng	Known only from a small area in the southern West Usambara Mountains.
158247		habitat	eng	Grows on rocky slopes and cliff faces.
158247		population	eng	Is locally abundant in places.
158247		threats	eng	The population is accessible so could be impacted by collectors for medicinal use and as ornamentals.
158260		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas in both Kenya and Tanzania.
158260		distribution	eng	A widespread species recorded from Mozambique to northern Kenya.
158260		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub found growing in riverine, coastal and montane forests.
158260		population	eng	Fairly common.
158260		threats	eng	There is habitat loss and disturbance due to expanding agriculture, but given the wide range of the species this is not considered a major threat.
158261		conservation	eng	Recorded from a number of protected areas: one locality within Kanga Forest Reserve; one locality within Talagwe Forest Reserve; and one locality near boundary of Milindo Forest Reserve.
158261		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Nguru, Ukaguru&#160; Mts and more recently its presence has been confirmed from the northeast Udzwunga Mts overlooking the Ruaha Dam (Q. Luke pers. comm.).
158261		habitat	eng	Grows in moist forest on steep sided mountain with a heath at the top. The Udzwunga collection was on sheer cliff faces over-looking the Ruaha River valley.
158261		population	eng	Numbers may be low.
158261		threats	eng	No major threats known. May be some medicinal use by local healers but unlikely to have a major impact. Unknown if this species is sought after by succulent collectors.
158271		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from a few protected areas including: a locality in or near Mwache Forest Reserve, Kaya Singwaya (sight record), Mwalugange Forest Reserve (sight record), and Mkomazi Game Reserve (sight record).<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.
158271		distribution	eng	Has a fairly wide coastal range from northeast Tanzania through&#160; Kenya to the southern corner of Somalia.
158271		habitat	eng	Grows in dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> bushland on sandy soils.
158271		population	eng	Is reasonably common.
158271		threats	eng	Plants are collected for aloe gel and it is used as an ornamental, so would be a target for collectors.
158275		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its extensive range, for example in East Africa is recorded from Ruaha National Park and Tsavo West National Park.
158275		distribution	eng	Extremely widespread (almost Pantropical) found in central and northern South America; west and central Africa; northeast, east and southern Africa; and in southern Madagascar. Some of the subspecies in East Africa appear to have more restricted ranges, but that may simply be an artefact of collecting or specimens not being identified to subspecific level.
158275		habitat	eng	Grows in a large variety of habitats including seasonally wet grassland and woodland, dry sandy places, on shallow soil on rocks, open dry grasslands, shrublands, and marshes adjacent to the coast. Often found in disturbed habitats.
158275		population	eng	Very common.
158275		threats	eng	No major threats known and appears to do well in disturbed areas.
158277		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Rondo Forest Reserve and Shimba National Reserve.
158277		distribution	eng	Recorded from coastal Kenya and Tanzania.
158277		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub/liana found in evergreen coastal forest. Also found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, riverine forest, coastal thicket, and in disturbed areas.
158277		population	eng	A common and fairly widespread species.
158277		threats	eng	Loss of habitat in some places, but appears to be tolerant of disturbance.
158284		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.
158284		distribution	eng	Occurs in the southern part of the West Usambara Mountains.
158284		habitat	eng	Grows on grassed rocky slopes.
158284		population	eng	Does not appear to be very common.
158284		threats	eng	The population is accessible so could be impacted by collectors for medicinal use and as ornamentals.
158286		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of reserves and national parks, including Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve and it was in Kilimanjaro National Park (but appears to no longer be extant in that area).
158286		distribution	eng	Recorded from the west Usambara mountains, at Ngorongoro Crater and a single collection from Mount Kilimanjaro (Andreas Hemp (pers. comm.) confirms that he has not recollected this species from Kilimanjaro despite intensive surveys; hence the latter is considered a historic record and is not included in the current extent of occurrence for this assessment).
158286		habitat	eng	Grows in wet montane forest.
158286		population	eng	As it has been recorded from disturbed forest, it is presumably locally common, although there are few collections.
158286		threats	eng	In the Usambara Mts this species is threatened by habitat loss due to encroaching agriculture, logging for wood, and fires. The same may apply to some of the other sites where it occurs.
158287		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Selous Game Reserve.
158287		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Tanzania (Kilwa and Lindi districts) and from northern Mozambique.
158287		habitat	eng	A perennial herb found in forest (on rocky slopes), in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland and deciduous bushland. Is often found on termite mounds.
158287		population	eng	Easy to recognize, and is not seen very often, so seems to be rare.
158287		threats	eng	The areas outside of the Selous Game Reserve are under threat due to burning for charcoal and conversion to cultivated lands, overgrazing, etc.
158288		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas, but the Tana collection was near a reserve (Arawale National Reserve), but there have been no further collections from that area. There are plants in cultivation.
158288		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Tana River in northern Kenya, northwards into southern Somalia, along the coastal plain.
158288		habitat	eng	Grows in dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> bushland.
158288		population	eng	Said to be very common in southern Somalia.
158288		threats	eng	The area near the Tana River is under pressure from human activities, particularly overgrazing by goats, camels and other agricultural activities. There have been no further collections from the Tana area, so that subpopulation may well be extinct. Overgrazing by goats in Somalia may also be a problem, but this requires confirmation.
158290		conservation	eng	Recorded from Kanga Forest Reserve.
158290		distribution	eng	Known only from four collections in central coastal Tanzania (lower slopes of the Uluguru Mts, Nguru Mts and south of the E. Usambara Mts). The most recent collection was in 1988, the remainder were collected in the 1950s. Mayo (1958) in the species account for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Flora of Tropical East Africa</span> mentions occurrence in additional areas (T4 and T5) but on checking, it appears this was an error.
158290		habitat	eng	A perennial herb found in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland on red sandy soil.
158290		population	eng	Unknown, but given the low number of collections is unlikely to be common.
158290		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to burning for charcoal production and conversion to agriculture.
158292		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Selous Game Reserve, Gonja and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserves.
158292		distribution	eng	Found mostly in southern coastal Kenya and in northern coastal Tanzania, but with two disjunct records from much further south in Tanzania.
158292		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub found in various habitats including moist coastal forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia sericea-Pseudolachnostylis</span> woodland.
158292		population	eng	Not very common; is quite hard to find.
158292		threats	eng	There is loss of forest due to agriculture, mining, and tourism.
158296		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas including the Selous Game Reserve, various forest reserves and sacred forests.
158296		distribution	eng	Occurs in a number of small coastal forest reserves and sacred forests in Kenya and northern Tanzania, with a disjunct occurrence in the Selous Game Reserve.
158296		habitat	eng	Grows as a large shrub or small tree, sometimes partly climbing, or as a liane several metres long. Occurs on coral rock bushland on steep escarpments, and in riverine forest on coral rag soil dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Drypetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rinorea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Saintpaulia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Strychnos henningsii</span>.
158296		population	eng	Not very common.
158296		threats	eng	The forests are impacted by expanding agriculture, mining, and tourism.
158303		conservation	eng	Probably occurs in a number of protected areas across its wide range.
158303		distribution	eng	The nominate subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;"> leptocladon </span>occurs in Tanzania, coastal Kenya and southern Somalia whilst subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis </span>occurs from the Tana River District inland to Baringo District (in Kenya) and there are apparently several records from Ethiopia according to the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The specimens from Somalia are apparently intermediate between subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">leptocladon </span>and subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis </span>(Thulin 1993).
158303		habitat	eng	Has been recorded from a range of habitats including secondary bushland; <span style="font-style: italic;">Markhamia, Commiphora, Steganotaenia</span> scrub; also in cultivated areas; wooded grassland; evergreen woodland and rocky hillsides. Grows as a shrub, small tree or a liane. Is aromatic.
158303		population	eng	Unknown, but presumably fairly common as it appears to be tolerant of disturbance.
158303		threats	eng	Habitat conversion for agriculture is the main threat.
158307		conservation	eng	Image Forest Reserve is close to one of the collection localities, as is Mselezi Forest Reserve..
158307		distribution	eng	Has a restricted range and is only known from three collections - two from the Rubeho Mts and one from Mahenge.
158307		habitat	eng	Recorded as growing in forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Protea</span> grassland glades, grassland with groups of trees and great rocks.
158307		population	eng	Unknown, might be overlooked as the forests in the areas where it occurs have not been as well surveyed.
158307		threats	eng	There is some burning of the forests at Mahenge for farming. Moderate impacts.
158308		conservation	eng	Present in many protected areas.
158308		distribution	eng	The typical subspecies is found in Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania whereas subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">virens </span>is recorded from Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Swaziland.
158308		habitat	eng	An erect or straggling shrub sometimes a liane found in a variety of habitats including montane mist forest, lowland forest, wooded grassland and bushland, often on rocky outcrops.
158308		population	eng	Quite common where found.
158308		threats	eng	There are probably a wide variety of threats throughout its range, with loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion being the prime one.
158309		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least one protected area - Image Forest Reserve.
158309		distribution	eng	Occurs in the highlands of Mufindi and Njombe.
158309		habitat	eng	Grows in grassland and open woodland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, seasonally flooded grassland). Flowers at the end of the dry season or early wet season in November-January.
158309		population	eng	Described as abundant in places, and in others as rare.
158309		threats	eng	There will have been some loss of habitat to agriculture, charcoal burning, etc., but the habitats where this species occurs are still extensive, hence there are no major threats.
158312		conservation	eng	The known population is entirely within Pugu Forest Reserve but there are no effective controls to protect this area.
158312		distribution	eng	Has a highly restricted range found only in the Pugu and Pande Forest Reserves which is almost destroyed. Several collections from coastal Kenya (provisionally labelled as<span style="font-style: italic;"> U</span>. sp aff. <span style="font-style: italic;">lucida</span>) by Quentin Luke and Anne Robertson might be this taxon.
158312		habitat	eng	A woody liane found growing in dry evergreen coastal forest, usually on the ridges and slopes.
158312		population	eng	Was said to be locally common (Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999) and certainly more common than the more widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">Uvaria lucida</span>.
158312		threats	eng	Pugu forest is not in good shape as it is being impacted by cutting of woody plants for fuel, charcoal production, for poles, etc.
158313		conservation	eng	Occurs in Pande, Rondo and Bana Forest Reserves and in Saadani National Park (Zaraninge Forest).
158313		distribution	eng	Occurs along the coast of Tanzania (many collections in the Dar es Salaam area and then further south towards the border), just getting into Mozambique.
158313		habitat	eng	This small tree or large shrub grows in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland, secondary woodland, coastal forest, and coastal thicket.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
158313		population	eng	Locally common.
158313		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to forest clearance for agriculture and charcoal burning.
158318		conservation	eng	Two localities are within Selous Game Reserve and one locality is within Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve.
158318		distribution	eng	Recorded from Kingolwira in the Morogoro district and in the Selous Game Reserve.
158318		habitat	eng	An acaulescent succulent found growing in wooded grassland.
158318		population	eng	Locally common.
158318		threats	eng	Three of the localities are impacted by human activities resulting in the clearance or disturbance of the habitat (agriculture, settlements, charcoal burning, etc.).
158319		conservation	eng	Is known to occur in Kasigau Forest Reserve.
158319		distribution	eng	Known only from southern Kenya from Mt. Kasigau and Kilibasi Hill and more recently it has been seen and collected on the Taita Hills (E. Wabuele and J. Mwachala pers. comm.).
158319		habitat	eng	Grows in mist forest on crystalline mountains, often on rock slabs at the edges of bushes.
158319		population	eng	Common in the Taita Hills, but little is known about the other localities.
158319		threats	eng	Is collected by people for medicinal use but is not as popular as other species.
158322		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of forest reserves and protected areas - Arubuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kisima Gonja Forest Reserve, Amani Forest Reserve, Zaraninge Forest Reserve, Pongwe Forest Reserve, Mtibwa Forest Reserve, Ruvu South Forest Reserve, Pugu Hills Forest Reserve, Pande Game Reserve, Udzungwa National Park and Ruawa Forest Reserve.
158322		distribution	eng	Widespread along the coastal plain from central and southern Kenya through Tanzania to northern Mozambique. Occurs on Zanzibar (on both islands). The range extends inland in Tanzania to the slopes of the Udzungwa Mts.
158322		habitat	eng	Found primarily in dry evergreen coastal forest, but also in lowland and montane rain forest and in woodland.
158322		population	eng	Is a common species.
158322		threats	eng	There is ongoing loss and disturbance of forests across the range of this species due to expanding agricultural activities, growth in urban settlements, timber felling, etc. But as the timber is not used, it tends to persist in areas of secondary forest or areas now outside of forest.
158325		conservation	eng	One of the localities is supposedly within an unamed forest reserve.
158325		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities along the coast of northern Tanzania: north of Ngole and 13 km south. of Moa (Tanga district). There is an unconfirmed report of plants that might be this species in southern Kenya (on the sea front).
158325		habitat	eng	Grew in deciduous bushland near the sea-shore.
158325		population	eng	Unknown, Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) has been back to the Moa area to look for it but did not find it. Has not been seen since 1953.
158325		threats	eng	In the past there was exploitation for salt in the Moa area, but it is not certain if this impacted the species or not.
158332		conservation	eng	Recorded from two protected areas: Pugu Forest Reserve and Pande Forest Reserve.
158332		distribution	eng	Known only from a few coastal forsts in Tanzania - Kibaha, Pugu Forest Reserve and Pande Forest Reserve.
158332		habitat	eng	A shrub or liane found growing in coastal forest, often in clay-bound sandy soil in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>.
158332		population	eng	Abundant in the localities where it is found.
158332		threats	eng	The Pande and Pugu forests are not in good shape; they have been impacted by fuel cutting, charcoal, cutting for poles, and agricultural encroachment.
158335		conservation	eng	Is a popular plant in gardens.<br/><br/>Not known to occur in any protected areas.
158335		distribution	eng	Known only from two localities: 6.5 km south. of Handeni, Kideleko (Kideliko) Rock and from Kwa Mkono (Handeni district).
158335		habitat	eng	Grows on bare rock slabs on inselbergs.
158335		population	eng	Unknown, but the area is heavily populated by people.
158335		threats	eng	Is well-known in cultivation, but it is not known if there is any impact of collectors on the wild population. But there is more than likely ongoing collection of the plant for medicinal purposes given the local human population density.
158336		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from some protected areas: (in or near) Mailujanji Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills Nature Reserve, Kwamngumi Forest Reserve and Segoma Forest Reserve.
158336		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Kenya and northern Tanzania; has a fairly restricted range.
158336		habitat	eng	A perennial herb in coastal evergreen forest on limestone outcrops and also recorded in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland. One location was said to be heavily denuded.
158336		population	eng	Is locally common.
158336		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and clearance of woodland for charcoal burning.
158338		conservation	eng	Has been collected in a number of protected areas including Mtai Forest Reserve, Manga Forest Reserve, Mvuha Forest Reserve, Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, Mwanihana Forest Reserve, Pande Forest Reserve and Shimba Hills.
158338		distribution	eng	Has a wide range along coastal Kenya and Tanzania.
158338		habitat	eng	A perennial herb that dies back during the dry season to an underground storage organ. Occurs in dry forest and Miombo woodland.
158338		population	eng	May be better collected than other species, but appears to be fairly common and abundant.
158338		threats	eng	There is some habitat loss, but appears to be spread wide enough for this not to pose a major threat.
158342		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least two protected areas: Udzungwa Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve.
158342		distribution	eng	Known from the Usambara (Amani), Udzungwa and Uluguru Mountains. The collection from the Usambaras is old and it may no longer occur there.
158342		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub found in sub-montane and montane forest.
158342		population	eng	Not common, seldom collected.
158342		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat in these areas due to expansion of agricultural activities, and from charcoal burning.
158343		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Selous Game Reserve and from near or possibly in Kwambai Forest Reserve.
158343		distribution	eng	Known only from four collections from very scattered localities from central to southern Tanzania. The last collection was made in 1975.
158343		habitat	eng	Perennial herb in lowland evergreen forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sclerocarya </span>woodland and wooded grassland.
158343		population	eng	Unknown.
158343		threats	eng	There is ongoing habitat loss due to burning for charcoal in the dry forests.
158354		conservation	eng	Recorded from at least two protected areas: Rondo and Ngarama North Forest Reserves.
158354		distribution	eng	Restricted to southern Tanzania (mainly Rondo Plateau) and northern Mozambique. Has a very limited range.
158354		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree growing in thickets or in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland usually on sandy soils or termitaria. At one locality was recorded growing on red soils in woodland, dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops, Uapaca nitida, Monotes, Burkea africana, Parinari curatellifolia, Faurea saligna, and Brachystegia spiciformis</span>. At Rondo Plateau it occurs in coastal thicket/forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleopsis, Grewia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Maprounea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenocardia</span> in the valley bottom, on deep white sand.
158354		population	eng	In the areas where this species is known, it is not common.
158354		threats	eng	The woodland outside of protected areas in southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique has been subjected to selective logging for timber, clearance for charcoal burning, and much of the habitat on Rondo Plateau has been impacted by the planting of pine plantations.
158364		conservation	eng	The species is well protected in the type locality - Kitulo National Park and is also known to occur in Chimala Scarp Forest Reserve.
158364		distribution	eng	Has a disjunct record in the Uluguru Mts, all the other records are from further to the west at the north end of Lake Tannganyika (Livingstone Mountains). The subpopulation at the Ulugurus may be gone, it was outside of any protected area, and most of those grasslands have been converted to agriculture.
158364		habitat	eng	Grows in rocky montane grassland.
158364		population	eng	Was reported to be common at the type locality.
158364		threats	eng	There is evidence of removal of orchid bulbs for sale in nearby Zambia, and the bulbs of this species may also be impacted at the same time. At the Uluguru Mtn location there has been extensive loss of habitat due to conversion to agricultural land. The Livingstone Mts area could also be impacted in future by increased conversion of grassland areas to agriculture (potato farming).
158366		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas, e.g., Arabuko Sokoke, Kisarawe, Pugu , Ruvu South, and Mwalugange Forest Reserves.
158366		distribution	eng	Occurs in the coastal forests of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The records from the Udzungwa Mts are not considered here as they were both sterile specimens and may well represent a new undescribed taxon.
158366		habitat	eng	A shrub or small tree growing in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland, or open coastal bushland on sandy soils. Found growing in association with the following canopy taxa: <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachylaena, Brachystegia, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros, Inhambanella, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Manilkara, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tessmannia</span>.
158366		population	eng	Not that common in the Kenyan forests, but common in Tanzania.
158366		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss in many places, e.g. Mangea, Dar es Salaam airport, etc., due to clearance for agriculture, charcoal production, expanding urban infrastructure. This species is not exploited at present for charcoal, but at Pugu Forest it is the only large tree left standing.
158371		conservation	eng	The Mozambique records are from a newly proclaimed protected area - Quirimba National Park; also recorded from Kiwengoma Forest Reserve and Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania.
158371		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Tanzania into northern Mozambique and there is an apparent record from Malawi (Mayo 1985).
158371		habitat	eng	A perennial herb which dies back in the dry season found in coastal woodland, Miombo woodland, wooded grassland and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia-Sclerocarya</span> woodland especially on old termite mounds.
158371		population	eng	Probably overlooked, as its appearance depends on the rains.
158371		threats	eng	The habitats are being extensively logged for charcoal burning.
158377		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Occurs in many Forest Reserves.<br/></span>
158377		distribution	eng	Recorded along the East African coast from Somalia, northern Kenya to southern Tanzania (right on the border with Mozambique). Probably occurs in Mozambique.
158377		habitat	eng	A coastal species. This scandent shrub grows in dry forest on coral rag, in thicket, and in dry forest or thicket in sand; also found in farmed areas, so appears to be tolerant of disturbance.
158377		population	eng	Is very common where it occurs.
158377		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat, but this is not a major problem for this species.
158387		conservation	eng	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas including: Kaya Lunguma, Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve, Kaya Fungo (sight record), Kaya Gandini (sight record), Kaya Mtswakara (sight record), Kaya Puma (sight record), Kaya Sega (sight record), Gonja Forest Reserve (sight record), Mwalugange Forest Reserve (sight record), and Mwachi Forest Reserve (sight record).<br/><br/>Plants are in cultivation.
158387		distribution	eng	Recorded along the coastal plain of southern Kenya, extending inland and occurring on Mt Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
158387		habitat	eng	A tree aloe that grows in dry forest/bushland on hill slopes. Found growing in association with  <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra, Brachylaena, Manilkara, Brachystegia, Julbernardia, Diospyros, Xylopia</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Inhambanella</span>.
158387		population	eng	Locally common.
158387		threats	eng	Is experiencing decline in places due to loss in extant and quality of habitat. At Mangea the subpopulation has almost completely been wiped out by removal of the habitat for expanding agriculture.
158389		conservation	eng	Found in several protected areas.
158389		distribution	eng	Recorded from Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania. Specimens from Mozambique and Malawi identified as this subspecies need checking as they are more likely to be subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">virens</span>.
158389		habitat	eng	An erect or straggling shrub, sometimes a liane found growing in lowland dry evergreen forest, wooded grassland and bushland, often on rocky outcrops.
158389		population	eng	Widespread and presumably fairly common.
158389		threats	eng	Habitat conversion for agriculture is the main threat.
158403		conservation	eng	Supposedly occurred in the Rondo and Chitoa Forest Reserves.
158403		distribution	eng	Confined to Rondo Forest Reserve and Noto Plateau in the Lindi Rural district of Tanzania.
158403		habitat	eng	The type collection was found on a steep escarpment with dense thicket under <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia microphylla</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Albizia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Faurea saligna</span>, on stony-gravelly soil.
158403		population	eng	Very localized, apparently not that common given the lack of collections. Was not found during a recent survey in the area.
158403		threats	eng	There has been clear felling for establishing farms on Noto Plateau, a quarter of Rondo has been clear-felled for pine plantations.
158414		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Shimba Hills, Selous Game Reserve, Udzungwa Mountain National Park, and various forest reserves.
158414		distribution	eng	Primarily a coastal species in southern Kenya to southern Mozambique. In Tanzania also occurs inland to the foothills of the Estern Arc Mountains. - East Usambara,  Udzwunga, etc.
158414		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub or small tree fouynd growing in riverine forest, open woodland, and secondary evergreen bushland. Notes on the habitat recorded on specimen labels say: "riverine forest on coral rag soil dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Drypetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rinorea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Saintpaulia</span>, Scorodophloeus fischeri and <span style="font-style: italic;">Strychnos henningsii</span>"; "forest relicts marginal to deltaic mangrove swamp, dense shade with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenaea</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Afzelia</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros mafiensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Strophanthus petersianus"; "d</span>isturbed forest (heavily), flat, sandy"; "mixed semi-deciduous lowland forest w <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenaea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Afzelia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Manilkara</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops</span>", etc.
158414		population	eng	Unknown, but presumably fairly common where found.
158414		threats	eng	There are pressure on the coastal forests, especially conversion for agriculture, tourism and logging.
158455		conservation	eng	Recorded from Dzombo Forest Reserve and Amani Sigi Nature Reserve.
158455		distribution	eng	Known from a triangle in NE Tanzania and SE Kenya. It is not clear if the records in Somalia are this species or subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis </span>(Thulin (1993) indicates that they are intermediate between the two), hence for now they are not included here.
158455		habitat	eng	A scandent shrub or small tree found in secondary bushland; <span style="font-style: italic;">Markhamia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Commiphora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Steganotaenia</span> scrub; also in cultivated areas (Verdcourt 1971).
158455		threats	eng	The triangle of Same-Mombasa-Tanga has seen much habitat conversion for agriculture.
158462		distribution	eng	Recorded from coastal Tanzania and Kenya.
158462		habitat	eng	See species account.
158462		population	eng	Fairly common.
158462		threats	eng	Some habitat loss throughout range.
158465		conservation	eng	<p>This species is known to occur within Parque Nacional da Chapada Diamantina (J. Cassimiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
158465		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Strabomantis aramunha </span>is currently only known from the vicinity of Mucugê municipality, Serra do Sincorá, Espinhaço range, state of Bahia, Brazil (Cassimiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its known elevational range is between 942-1,207 m asl (Cassimiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It may possibly occur more widely.
158465		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species have been found at night, motionless on exposed rock outcrops in the "campos rupestres" (high altitude rocky open grasslands) environment of Serra do Sincorá, Espinhaço mountain range (Cassimiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158465		population	eng	This species would appear to be rare, but this may be due to the fact that it is not easy to find it (J. Cassimiro pers comm. 2009). Further data are needed to determine its population status.
158465		threats	eng	<p>No threats are currently known for this species.</p><p></p><p><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
158466		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species and its immediate environs. Conservation of remaining forest fragments is a high priority, as well as further survey work to determine whether the species is still extant.
158466		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality: Huamba, 22 km ESE (airline) of Ayabaca, in the northern portion of the Cordillera de Huancabamba, Piura region, in northwestern Peru (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It occurs at an elevation of 2,950 m asl.
158466		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus eusebiodiazi</span> inhabits the cloud forest around Cerro Mayordomo. Individuals have been observed in leaf litter and along small streams (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is presumed to breed in fast flowing montane streams.
158466		population	eng	This species was observed in September 1987 and again in October 1997. However, recent surveys to the type locality and adjacent areas in May and September 2006 were unable to locate this species (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). There is a possibility that this species may be extinct (P. Venegas pers. comm. October 2010).
158466		threats	eng	The cloud forest surrounding Ayabaca and the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. eusebiodiazi </span>is threatened by habitat destruction due to an increase in cattle grazing and agricultural land use. The forest on the western slope of Cerro Mayordomo is fragmented with patches of less than 100 ha. The largest patch of montane forest near Cerro Mayordomo is found in the neighbouring locality of Anchalá. This isolated forest is known as Bosque de Cuyas and is completely surrounded by croplands (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158467		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species, but there is an urgent need to protect the species' type locality and habitat from degradation and alteration caused by water pollution. More information on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats is needed, which would help in the establishment of a monitoring programme to assess and track population status and trends, in the screening for presence of chytrid fungus, and in investigations into whether this species may be amenable to captive breeding efforts, to assess the species' capacity to withstand and adapt to <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conditions.
158467		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality (and single threat-defined location): Quebrada Los Alisos, in the vicinity of Pataz, Pataz province, region of La Libertad, in an inter-Andean valley of the northern portion of the Cordillera Central in northwestern Peru, at an elevation of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 2,500-3,000 m asl (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its extent of occurrence, though unquantified, is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
158467		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane environments dominated by bunchgrass and scattered shrubs. It breeds in streams. A female was found to contain 348 eggs (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158467		population	eng	Live adults and tadpoles could be observed at the type locality until 1999; that year a total of three live adult individuals, five recently deceased individuals and several decomposing bodies were found (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. November 2010). Surveys conducted in 2000 failed to detect adult <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus patazensis</span> and only a single tadpole was found in a small pool along the main stream channel (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). More recently <span style="background-color: white;">(July 2010),</span> extensive surveys were able to locate two individuals of this species again (L. Rodriguez pers. comm. July 2010; J.C. Jahuanchi pers. comm. November 2010).
158467		threats	eng	Individuals collected in 1999 have tested positive for the presence of chytrid fungus. In addition, there was a mining concession in the near vicinity of the stream at the time of earlier surveys (Venegas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), and there are currently informal mining activities that introduce mercury into streams (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. November 2010), as well as domestic waste in the stream itself and on the stream banks (J.C. Jahuanchi pers. comm. November 2010). A report by the Peruvian Ministry of Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Energia y Minas 1997) indicates that heavy metal concentrations exceeded standard concentrations in the nearby localities of Parcoy and Laguna Pias. While Parcoy may be more heavily impacted than Los Alisos due to a greater concentration of larger mines and subsequent runoff (A. Catenazzi pers. comm November 2010), the report acknowledges that there is potential for further spread of water pollution.
158468		conservation	eng	Ensuring the occurrence of viable populations in effectively protected habitat, for every subspecies / evolutionarily significant unit, is highly commendable. Further information on the species' status, population trends and conservation biology would be desirable. In Spain, proposed conservation actions include wetland conservation, control of destructive fishing methods, aquifer management, control of illegal harvest, control of sale of exotic turtles, habitat restoration, and control of feral populations of Trachemys (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is known to occur in protected areas.
158468		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Mediterranean region in both Iberia and northwestern Africa. It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula (except in northern Spain and northern Portugal)  extending to the Mediterranean region of southern France. In the Mediterranean and Atlantic region of northwestern Africa, it occurs in Morocco (where it is widespread), northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia, and northwestern Libya. It possibly extends further south along Atlantic coast. Records of scattered Saharan populations in Mali, southern Algeria, northern Niger, and southwestern Libya need to be confirmed (Iverson 1992:143; Keller and Busack 2001). It is mainly a lowland species but is known to exist up to 1,100m asl. <br/><br/><em>M. l. leprosa</em>: European mainland, northern Marocco to middle Atlas mountains, and northwestern slope of High Atlas near Marrakech [Morocco], possibly to Agadir.<br/><br/><em>M. l. saharica</em>: Oued Noun, Oued Ziz and Oued Draa in the Anti-Atlas Mountains of Morocco.
158468		habitat	eng	It inhabits virtually all available freshwater and brackish waterbodies within its range, while preferring large, permanent waterbodies (Keller and Busack, 2001). Females normally produce two clutches of about five to nine eggs (extremes one to 13). The oldest wild animal documented was 35 years (Keller 1997, in Keller and Busack, 2001:77)
158468		population	eng	It is common in most of Spain and Portugal, but certain populations in Spain and Portugal have declined and in some cases disappeared entirely (Guadalquivir, eastern Castilla-Leon, norheastern Portugal) (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003).  It is less common in northern Africa and its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented.
158468		threats	eng	The main threats in Spain, and presumably elsewhere, are habitat alteration, industrial and agricultural pollution, marsh drainage, aquifer water extraction, and fisheries bycatch, while minor threats are harvest for trade for consumption and pets (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003). Highfield and Martin (1996) recorded use of small numbers of<em> Mauremys leproa</em> shells in the manufacture of tourist souvenirs in Morocco. Competition from the introduced turtles <em>Trachemys scipta</em> and <em>Chrysemys picta</em> has been suggested as a major threat (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003, P. Sá-Sousa pers. comm.).
158469		conservation	eng	Inclusion of the species in pertinent Italian and European protective regulations is needed, as is safeguarding remaining habitat and preventing genetic pollution from other<em> Emys</em> taxa (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).
158469		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the island of Sicily, Italy.
158469		habitat	eng	It is known from a number of sites in Sicily, up to 1000-1400 m altitude (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005). No further ecological information is available.
158469		population	eng	No specific information known; implied to be uncommon to rare (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).
158469		threats	eng	Threatened primarily by the loss of wetland habitat, and perhaps formerly by over-exploitation (Fritz <em>et al</em>., 2005).
158470		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action appears to be required, though confirmation of the occurrence in securely protected areas would be desirable, as would studies of status and conservation biology. It is present in many protected areas (such as Tyr Beach and the Ammiq Marshes of Lebanon). There is a need to initiate legislation in Turkey to protect this species from collection in the wild for the international pet trade. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
158470		distribution	eng	This species ranges frrom coastal Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania, through most of Greece (including many Aegean and Ionian islands), southeastern Macedonia and southern Bulgaria, to the Marmara Sea region, and widely through the Mediterranean regions and river basins of Turkey to western Syria, Lebanon, northwestern Jordan and northern and central Israel. Among the Mediterranean islands it occurs on are Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, and Corfu (Wischuf and Busack 2001, Iverson 1992, Gasperetti <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is found from sea level up to 900 m asl. The Tigris-Euphrates-basin waterbodies in Turkey are inhabited by <em>M. caspica</em>.
158470		habitat	eng	It inhabits slow-moving and standing freshwater bodies, permanent and temporary, usually with muddy bottom and dense aquatic vegetation. The species has also been recorded from swamps and marshes and from fast flowing rivers. It can tolerate saline and polluted conditions, and can take advantage of certain human habitat alterations (irrigation canals, ditches, water storage ponds, etc.) (Wischuf and Busack 2001: 99, 102). Females may produce two clutches of four to nine (exceptionally 12) eggs per year. The age at maturity has apparently not been recorded.
158470		population	eng	This is possibly the freshwater turtle occurring at the highest densities reported, with 19-217 animals per hectare in unpolluted habitats, and over 500 to 2,000+ animals per hectare of eutrophied wetland (Wischuf and Busack 2001:102). <br/><br/>The marginal Bulgarian population, small at about 1,000 animals, appears to have remained stable (Beshkov 1987, in Wischuf and Busack 2001:102). Marginal populations at the edge of the species range and those on small islands are considered are the ones most at risk.
158470		threats	eng	Populations in Turkey have been noted to be impacted by agricultural pesticides and habitat alteration relating to tourism development (Atatur 1995). Drainage of wetlands would be a locally significant impact on populations, but is unlikely to endanger the species as a whole. In Greece, there have been a number of extinctions and declines of island populations, often through the destruction of freshwater habitats (e.g., Paros Island). It is additionally threatened by the overuse and pollution of freshwater habitats, especially temporary freshwaters (e.g., Cyprus). Competition with the introduced <em>Trachemys scripta</em> has been suggested as a possible threat in parts of its range (e.g., Crete). It is considered to be overcollected for the pet trade in Turkey, and it is threatened in Jordan by pesticide use. There are likely to be an increasing number of threats to this species with increasing water demands in the region.
158471		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur at Parque das Neblinas, a private reserve belonging to a local NGO (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158471		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic Forest domain, and is found in four municipalities in the state of São Paulo: Bertioga (Parque das Neblinas); Mogi das Cruzes (Biritiba Ussu district),   Cubatão, and São Paulo (Bororé district) (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is found between   <st1:metricconverter productid="600 a">600 a</st1:metricconverter>nd <st1:metricconverter productid="900 m">900 m asl (B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009). It may be slightly more widely distributed </st1:metricconverter>(B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009).
158471		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found within patches of Atlantic Forest and less frequently within <span style="font-style: italic;"> Eucalyptus </span>plantations. Males can be heard calling from the forest floor amidst the leaf litter in the afternoon and evening hours during the rainy season (September to March) (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is a forest-associated species, more so than congener <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptodactylus marmoratus </span>(B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009).
158471		population	eng	This species is considered to be common in the remaining patches of Atlantic Forest at Parque das Neblinas (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158471		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to urban development is a threat to this species given that it is found in areas that are close to the city of São Paulo (B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009).
158473		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the boundaries of the Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, a 13,000 ha conservation unit managed by the Instituto Estadual de Florestas of the State of Minas Gerais (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). More research is needed to determine the species' geographic distribution, population status, life history and threats.
158473		distribution	eng	The new species is known only from type locality: Lagoa das Bromélias, Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, District of Careço, Municipality of Ervália, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The type locality is associated to the northern part of the Mantiqueira Mountain Range Complex. The species has been recorded at 1,227 m asl (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158473		habitat	eng	The species is found in the vicinity of a temporary pond that completely dries up during the dry season (April to September), but which has <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 250 m² of water surface in the rainy season (October to March). The pond is found within a forest fragment rich in epiphytic flora (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). This species is presumed to breed by laying eggs in foam nests.
158473		population	eng	It is a locally common species during the early wet season. Males have been reported to congregate in densities of up to 20 individuals at the beginning of the wet season (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158473		threats	eng	<p>There is no information available on major threats to this species.</p>
158474		conservation	eng	The only existing conservation measure in the area is the Cordillera del    Cóndor  binational park, but it is not known if the species occurs there (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009). Necessary conservation measures include the protection of remaining forests, and an assessment and mitigation of development and mining projects (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158474		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality: Destacamento Militar Cóndor Mirador, western slope of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador. It occurs between 1,750–1,850 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia and Morales-Mite 2008). It is thought to be endemic to the  Cordillera del Cóndor, as it has not been found in either Cordillera del Cutucu or the Cordillera Oriental (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158474		habitat	eng	The holotype was found  in a mature secondary elfin forest. Active at night, the male was calling among the leaves of riverine vegetation a few cm over water (Cisneros-Heredia and Morales-Mite 2008). It is presumed to breed in streams.
158474		population	eng	While the species is known from the holotype, it was apparently fairly abundant at the time of collection, given the high number of calls attributed to this species that were heard from the canopy along the stream (Cisneros-Heredia and Morales-Mite 2008).
158474		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by deforestation due to highway development projects that would increase human colonization, agricultural expansion and mining projects (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158475		conservation	eng	It can be found in both private and public protected areas. Additional conservation actions for this species include watershed management and protection (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158475		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in southeastern Ecuador (provinces of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe) and two in northeastern Peru (region of Cajamarca). It is found between 1,100-1,500 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is possible that it may occur more widely (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158475		habitat	eng	This species is found in thorn and evergreen forests. Active at night, frogs of this species can be found on rocks on the borders and in the spray zone of waterfalls (Cisneros-Heredia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is thought that this species depends on well-preserved, unpolluted rivers, and that changes in hydrological patterns would likely affect its survival (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm September 2009). It is presumed to breed in streams.
158475		population	eng	This is considered to be a rare species (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158475		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened with destruction due to agricultural expansion, urban development, mining and water retention projects which would modify the hydrological cycles of the Cordillera Oriental (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).
158476		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in two well preserved and protected areas in the northeastern part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul: Parque Nacional dos Aparados da Serra and Reserva Biológica da Serra Geral (Cruz and Fusinatto 2008).
158476		distribution	eng	This species is known from Reserva Biológica da Serra Geral, Barra do Ouro, Municipality of Maquiné, and Itaimbezinho Canyon, Parque Nacional dos Aparados da Serra, Municipality of Cambará do Sul, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Cruz and Fusinatto 2008). It is found between 800 and 870 m asl.
158476		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Atlantic rain forests. Individuals can be found on rocks, in the leaf litter and inside bromeliads about 1.5 m high (Cruz and Fusinatto 2008). It likely reproduces in bromeliads by larval development.
158476		population	eng	There is currently no information on the population status of this species.
158476		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic forests.
158477		conservation	eng	It occurs within a private protected area, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural (RPPN) Serra do Teimoso. The other sites where the species is found are also included within targeted priority areas for biodiversity conservation, given that they house some of the last remaining forest fragments of Atlantic Forest in northeastern Minas Gerais (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158477		distribution	eng	This species is known from Municipality of Santa Maria do Salto, northeastern Minas Gerais, and from Municipalities of Jussari and Arataca, southern Bahia, Brazil. It can be found at about 800 m asl (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158477		habitat	eng	This species is associated with Atlantic Forest fragments. It presumably lays eggs on leaves above the water, with tadpoles later hatching and dropping into the water below.
158477		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>
158477		threats	eng	<p>Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic Forest.</p>
158478		conservation	eng	There is a&#160;conservation movement that seeks to protect the natural resources and habitats within the Serra do Timbó. The Timbó Project is being developed by the Centro Sapucaia, Núcleo Mata Atlântica (Ministério Público), and the municipal government of Amargosa, and includes the creation of a conservation unit with 674 ha of tropical semi-deciduous forest (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158478		distribution	eng	Currently, this species is known only from Serra do Timbó, Municipality of Amargosa, state of Bahia, Brazil, where it has been recorded from 800-900 m asl (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is not known whether the species is just confined to the area of the type locality.<br/><span class="000134400-29062009">
158478		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical semi-deciduous forests. Individuals have been found near a forest stream, 1.7‑2.0 m from the ground (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Reproduction is by larval development and tadpoles complete their development in streams.<br/><span class="000134400-29062009">
158478		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>
158478		threats	eng	The forests of Serra do Timbó are currently threatened by deforestation for the development of banana and cacao plantations, pastures, and selective logging of species of commercial interest. In addition, the springs that arise in Serra do Timbó and support the water supply of the municipalities of Amargosa, Ubaíra, Matuípe, and Jiquiriçá are also threatened (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158485		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158485		distribution	eng	Only the male type specimen of <em>Neodythemis arnoulti</em> is known, collected in the Andohahela National Park.
158485		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158485		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158485		threats	eng	Unknown.
158486		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158486		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion oblongulum</em> is known only from the Analamazotra National Park (type specimens).
158486		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158486		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158486		threats	eng	Unknown.
158487		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158487		distribution	eng	<em>Hemistigma affine</em> is widespread on the island of Madagascar.
158487		habitat	eng	Specimens were observed in and nearby littoral and lowland rainforests.
158487		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158487		threats	eng	Potentially, this species may be threatened by deforestation.
158488		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158488		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion apicale</em> is known from scattered localities from northern Madagascar along the east coast to the south east of the island.
158488		habitat	eng	This species occurs around streams and rivers in forested areas, based on observations in southeastern Madagascar.
158488		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158488		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. However, it is inferred to be threatened by ongoing deforestation in the region.
158489		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158489		distribution	eng	<em>Thermorthemis madagascariensis</em> has a wide distribution range on Madagascar.
158489		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown, however it may occur in a range of habitat types.
158489		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158489		threats	eng	Unknown.
158490		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158490		distribution	eng	Only few specimens of <em>Tatocnemis crenulatipennis</em> are known, from two scattered localities (Anosibe and Ampijoroa).
158490		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus were observed along small running waters in rainforest habitat.
158490		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158490		threats	eng	Unknown.
158491		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158491		distribution	eng	<em>Anax tumorifer</em> has a wide range on Madagascar.
158491		habitat	eng	The larvae seem to live mainly in pools.
158491		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158491		threats	eng	Unknown.
158492		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158492		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Nesolestes mariae</em> is known, from the island of Sainte Marie.
158492		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.
158492		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158492		threats	eng	Unknown.
158493		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158493		distribution	eng	Only two specimens of <em>Pseudagrion ampolomitae</em> are known, collected from Ambatolampy in central Madagascar.
158493		habitat	eng	The collection locality for this species is 1,400 m NN.
158493		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158493		threats	eng	Unknown.
158494		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158494		distribution	eng	<em>Palpopleura vestita</em> is widespread on Madagascar.
158494		habitat	eng	The species has been observed in rice paddies, ponds and swamps.
158494		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158494		threats	eng	Unknown.
158495		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158495		distribution	eng	Only very few specimens of <em>Pseudagrion igniceps</em> are known, collected from scattered localities in Madagascar (Fort-Dauphin, Perinet, Ranohira, Morafenobe).
158495		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158495		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158495		threats	eng	Unknown.
158496		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158496		distribution	eng	<em>Hemicordulia similis</em> is widespread over the island of Madagascar and is also recorded from the Seychelles (Mahé).
158496		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirement for this species are unknown.
158496		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158496		threats	eng	Unknown.
158497		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158497		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis pseudalatipes</em> is known from the island "Ile Sainte Marie" and the Analamazotra National Park. The subspecies is known from Marojejy.
158497		habitat	eng	Collection sites for other species of <em>Platycnemis</em> were shaded habitat from intact to heavily degraded forest.
158497		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158497		threats	eng	Unknown.
158498		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158498		distribution	eng	<em>Nesolestes tuberculicollis</em> is known from only two female type specimens from Perinet and Ambodirafia.
158498		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.
158498		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158498		threats	eng	Unknown.
158499		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158499		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion divaricatum</em> is known from several scattered localities in the eastern rainforest from northern to southern Madagascar.
158499		habitat	eng	Occurs around streams and rivers in forested areas, based on observations in southeastern Madagascar.
158499		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158499		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. However, the species may be affected by ongoing deforestation in the region.
158500		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158500		distribution	eng	Only type specimen of <em>Tatocnemis virginiae</em> is known, without exact locality, in Madagascar.
158500		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus were observed along small running waters in rainforest habitat.
158500		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158500		threats	eng	Unknown.
158501		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158501		distribution	eng	Only very few records of <em>Lokia modesta</em> are known, from scattered localities on Madagascar.
158501		habitat	eng	Habitat is mostly unknown. The species was recorded in littoral forests in southeastern Madagascar.
158501		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158501		threats	eng	Unknown.
158502		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158502		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Pseudagrion hamulus</em> is known, collected from eastern Madagascar (Ambodirafia).
158502		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158502		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158502		threats	eng	Unknown.
158503		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158503		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Pseudagrion cheliferum</em> is known, collected from central Madagascar (Ambositra).
158503		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements are unknown for this species.
158503		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158503		threats	eng	Unknown.
158504		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158504		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion nigrolineatum</em> is known from scattered records in eastern Madagascar.
158504		habitat	eng	In southeastern Madagascar, specimens were observed in littoral and low mountain forests.
158504		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158504		threats	eng	The main threat may be deforestation but more data are required to confirm this.
158505		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158505		distribution	eng	Only the type specimens of <em>Pseudagrion nigripes</em> are known, collected from Analamazotra National Park.
158505		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158505		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158505		threats	eng	Unknown.
158506		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158506		distribution	eng	Only few specimens of <em>Platycnemis hova</em> are known, from scattered localities in Madagascar.
158506		habitat	eng	The collection sites for this species were shaded habitat from intact to heavily degraded forest.
158506		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158506		threats	eng	Unknown.
158507		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158507		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion pontogenes</em> is known from Mayotte and Ngazidja (Comoros).
158507		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
158507		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158507		threats	eng	Pollution from detergents, tree removal and replacement growth.
158508		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158508		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha bispina</em> is known from Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues.
158508		habitat	eng	Occurs in forest streams. The larvae mainly occur in pool sections of small rocky streams. Adults are crepuscular.
158508		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158508		threats	eng	Deforestation.
158509		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158509		distribution	eng	Only from few distinct localities for <em>Zygonyx ranavalonae</em> are known on Madagascar (e.g., Mandoto, Ankarafantsika).
158509		habitat	eng	Forested streams or gallery forest usually with fast running waters, based on the observations made on other Madagascan species of the genus.
158509		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158509		threats	eng	Unknown.
158510		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158510		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum azureum</em> is widespread on Madagascar. The subspecies <em>Orthetrum azureum lugubre</em> Ris, 1915 occurs on Mayotte and Anjouan.
158510		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a range of habitat types, in cluding gardens and degraded forest habitats.
158510		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158510		threats	eng	Unknown.
158511		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158511		distribution	eng	Only few specimens and localities are known from eastern Madagascar.
158511		habitat	eng	The species was observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat in southeastern Madagascar.
158511		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158511		threats	eng	Unknown.
158512		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158512		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Platycnemis longiventris</em> is known, from Ambanja, Sambirano.
158512		habitat	eng	Collection sites for other species of <em>Platycnemis</em> were shaded habitat from intact to heavily degraded forest.
158512		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158512		threats	eng	Unknown.
158513		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158513		distribution	eng	<em>Tatocnemis malgassica</em> has a wide distribution along the east coast of Madagascar. Several recent records exist from southeastern Madagascar.
158513		habitat	eng	The species was observed along small running waters in rainforest habitat.
158513		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158513		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown. However, it is inferred that deforestation may affect this species.
158514		conservation	eng	Only one population is situated within a national park (Black River Gorges National Park).
158514		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagriocnemis rufipes</em> occurs on Mauritius.
158514		habitat	eng	The species occurs around rocky lotic waters, mainly forest streams but also at unshaded parts of rivers. The species is missing from rivers and streams within sugar cane fields and without gallery forest, which form the majority of Mauritian waters (Martens 2001).
158514		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158514		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation and forest degradation.
158515		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158515		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacodes exilis</em> is widespread on the island of Madagascar.
158515		habitat	eng	The species can use degraded habitats, such as ponds and rice paddies.
158515		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158515		threats	eng	Unknown.
158516		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158516		distribution	eng	<em>Protolestes furcatus</em> occurs on Madagascar, but its range is unknown.
158516		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158516		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158516		threats	eng	Unknown.
158517		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158517		distribution	eng	Very few records of <em>Lestes silvaticus</em> are known, collected from the Perinet-Analamazotra National Park on Madagascar.
158517		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158517		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158517		threats	eng	Unknown.
158518		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158518		distribution	eng	Only the types of <em>Pseudagrion deconcertans</em> are known, collected from Ambatolampy in central Madagascar.
158518		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158518		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158518		threats	eng	Unknown.
158519		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158519		distribution	eng	<em>Allolestes maclachlani</em> occurs on the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Praslin and Silhouette.
158519		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest mountain streams with turbulent, running waters.
158519		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158519		threats	eng	Over extraction of stream water for drinking water/tourism, and forest fires.
158520		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158520		distribution	eng	Only very few specimens of <em>Pseudagrion tinctipenne</em> are known, from scattered littoral forests (Tampolo, Fort-Dauphin).
158520		habitat	eng	There are recent records of this species from littoral forest in southeastern Madagascar.
158520		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158520		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown but the species is inferred to be threatened by ongoing deforestation in the region.
158521		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158521		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Pseudagrion vakoanae</em> is known, collected from Andringitra National Park in Madagascar.
158521		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158521		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158521		threats	eng	Unknown.
158522		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158522		distribution	eng	Only the type specimens of <em>Nesocordulia malgassica</em> are known, from eastern Madagascar (Manakara).
158522		habitat	eng	Different species of the genus <em>Nesocordulia</em> were observed near small running waters in rainforest habitat. The type locality is referred to as swamp.
158522		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158522		threats	eng	Unknown.
158523		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158523		distribution	eng	Only very few specimens of <em>Pseudagrion renaudi</em> are known, from scattered localities in Madagascar.
158523		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158523		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158523		threats	eng	Unknown.
158524		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158524		distribution	eng	<em>Rhyothemis cognata</em> is widespread on Madagascar.
158524		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of habitat types.
158524		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158524		threats	eng	Unknown.
158525		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158525		distribution	eng	<em>Isomma elouardi</em> occurs on Madagascar, but the range of the species is unknown.
158525		habitat	eng	Based on the biology of the family, this species is likely to use small streams and rivers.
158525		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158525		threats	eng	Unknown.
158526		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158526		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Nesolestes drocera</em> is known, from the type locality near Maroantsetra.
158526		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.
158526		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158526		threats	eng	Unknown.
158527		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158527		distribution	eng	Only the type specimen of <em>Metacnemis secundaris</em> is known, from Beraty.
158527		habitat	eng	Unknown.
158527		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158527		threats	eng	Unknown.
158528		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158528		distribution	eng	Known localities for <em>Viridithemis viridula</em> are in western Madagascar, southwest of Majunga and in the region of Morondava.
158528		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158528		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158528		threats	eng	Unknown.
158529		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158529		distribution	eng	Few specimens of <em>Calophlebia karschi</em> have been collected along the rainforest belt from the northwest to the southeast of the island. This could be the possible species´range.
158529		habitat	eng	Specimens were observed in littoral rainforest, in gallery forest and mountain lowland rainforest.
158529		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158529		threats	eng	Potentially, deforestation is a threat to this species.
158530		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158530		distribution	eng	Only scattered distribution data from eastern Madagascar is available on the species' range.
158530		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.
158530		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158530		threats	eng	Unknown.
158531		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158531		distribution	eng	The male type specimen of <em>Gynacantha hova</em> was collected in northern Madagascar (Ambilobe).
158531		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158531		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158531		threats	eng	Unknown.
158532		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158532		distribution	eng	<em>Zygonyx elisabethae</em> has a wide distribution in eastern and northern Madagascar.
158532		habitat	eng	Forested streams or gallery forest usually with fast running waters.
158532		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158532		threats	eng	Unknown.
158533		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158533		distribution	eng	Almost no exact localies for <em>Calophlebia interposita</em> are known. The type is labelled "Madagascar". A few specimens were collected in littoral forests in the southeast of the island.
158533		habitat	eng	The species was observed in rainforest habitat.
158533		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158533		threats	eng	Potentially, deforestation is a threat to this species.
158534		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158534		distribution	eng	Only the male type specimen of <em>Ceriagrion madagazureum</em> is known, collected from northern Madagascar (Bas Sambirano).
158534		habitat	eng	Unknown.
158534		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158534		threats	eng	Unknown.
158535		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158535		distribution	eng	Only few specimens of <em>Nesolestes ranavalona</em> are known, from scattered localities in eastern Madagascar.
158535		habitat	eng	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.
158535		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158535		threats	eng	Unknown.
158536		conservation	eng	Unknown.
158536		distribution	eng	Only three type specimens of <em>Crocothemis striata</em> are known, from the type locality in Ranohira, province Fianarantsoa, Madagascar.
158536		habitat	eng	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
158536		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158536		threats	eng	Unknown.
158537		conservation	eng	The species occurs within a protected area, Área de Proteção Ambiental Guaratuba (Cruz<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).
158537		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality: Área de Proteção Ambiental Guaratuba, Serra da Pedra Branca do Araraquara, Municipality of Guaratuba, state of Paraná, Brazil (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158537		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic Rain Forest of Brazil. There is no information available on the microhabitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably breeds in still water and goes through a larval stage.
158537		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>
158537		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic Forest.
158538		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed.
158538		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of Oxapampa, Pasco region, Peru, from 2,600 m asl (Duellman and Hedges 2008).
158538		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid montane forests. Individuals have been found on the ground after rains (Duellman and Hedges 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.
158538		population	eng	<p>A total of two individuals were found in the course of two field surveys conducted in 2007 (N=2 individuals) and 2008 (no individuals) (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009).</p>
158538		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
158539		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed. <br/></p>
158539		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of Oxapampa, region of Pasco, Peru, from 2,600 m asl (Duellman and Hedges 2008).
158539		habitat	eng	This species is known only from humid montane forests, where it was found deep within a mossy bank by day (Duellman and Hedges 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.
158539		population	eng	<p>A total of five individuals were found in the course of two field surveys conducted in 2007 (N=3 individuals) and 2008 (N=2 individuals) (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). <br/></p>
158539		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>
158540		conservation	eng	This species is found at Kapawi Lodge, a lodge run by the Achuar indigenous nation of the upper Amazon basin, who are committed protectors of their biodiversity (Elmer and Cannatella 2008).
158540		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowlands of the Pastaza and Napo rivers in southern Ecuador. It is probably more widely distributed into northern Peru (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It is known to occur between 239-255 m asl (Elmer and Cannatella 2008).
158540		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland primary forests and may presumably also be found in secondary forest. By night frogs are often perched on the leaves of low vegetation between 0.2 and 1.3 m elevation; during daytime they are found in the leaf litter (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It presumably breeds by direct development.
158540		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be a common species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).<br/></p>
158540		threats	eng	<p>This is a forest species, so deforestation for agricultural purposes reduces its available habitat. If it has a similar ecology to that of sister species <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis kichwarum</span> it may have short dispersal distances, so extensive fragmentation would isolate populations (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). However, while the general region where this species is found is subject to pressure from oil exploration, this would not be of sufficient geographic extent to threaten this species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). In addition, the scale of deforestation activities is relatively minor throughout most of its range (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). </p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;</p><p><br/></p>
158541		conservation	eng	<p>This species is found at Estación Biológica Jatun Sacha and may possibly also occur in Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Sangay and Llanganates National Parks (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p>  </p><p></p>  <p></p>
158541		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the humid upland tropical forests of eastern Ecuador, between 400–1,000 m asl (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It may occur further to the north and south of the east Andean slopes, but it is unlikely to be found above 1,200 m asl or below 400 m asl (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).
158541		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland primary and secondary forests. By night individuals are often perched on the leaves of low vegetation, whereas by day they can be found in the leaf litter (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.
158541		population	eng	<p>This is considered to be an abundant species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p>
158541		threats	eng	<p>This is a forest species, so deforestation for agricultural purposes reduces its available habitat. If it has a similar ecology to that of sister species <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis kichwarum</span> it may have short dispersal distances, so extensive fragmentation (e.g., through paved roads) would isolate populations (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). The greatest threat for this species is considered to be the construction of roads and clearing for small-land holdings (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). The elevation range at which this species occurs in the Andes experiences much greater deforestation and population pressure than more lowland regions (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>  <p></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
158542		conservation	eng	<p>It is known at least from Yasuni National Park and from Reserva Faunistica Cuyabeno (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).<br/></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
158542		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern lowlands of Ecuador in the Napo, Orellana, and Sucumbíos provinces, at approximately 500 m asl and below (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It is not expected to occur much more widely given that it seems to be flanked to the west by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis altamnis</span>, to the south by <span style="font-style: italic;">P. achuar</span> and to the north possibly by a different, yet undescribed species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). It is not believed to be found as low as the Iquitos region (110 m asl) (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).<br/><p></p>
158542		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland primary and secondary forests. By night frogs can be found perched on the leaves or stems of low vegetation from 0.2 to 1.5 m elevation; however, they are found amidst the leaf litter by day (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). This species presumably breeds by direct development.
158542		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be an abundant species [see Pearman 1997 for <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus ockendeni</span> (for which most records are suspected to be <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kichwarum;</span> K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009) and Elmer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007].<br/></p>
158542		threats	eng	<p>This is a forest species, so deforestation for agricultural purposes reduces its available habitat. In some regions within the species' distribution, this threat is thought to be negligible. However, in other regions (e.g., upper Napo, Coca), rather large areas are being deforested for colonization by small land holdings, pasture, etc., and the threat may be closer to minor-medium (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). The individual dispersal distance is short (Elmer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), so extensive fragmentation would isolate populations (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). While the general region where this species is found is subject to pressure from oil exploration, this would not be of sufficient geographic extent to threaten this species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;</p><p> &#160;</p>
158543		conservation	eng	This species occurs at a research and conservation centre, the Centro de Pesquisas e Conservação da Natureza (CPCN) Pró Mata (Kwet and Solé 2008). It is also known from Parque Florestal Estadual do Turvo, municipality of Derrubadas, Rio Grande do Sul (A. Kwet pers. comm. June 2008).   <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
158543		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in three localities on the Araucaria Plateau in extreme northeastern and northern Rio Grande do Sul (municipalities of São Francisco de Paula, 950 m asl, and Machadinho, 760 m asl) and western Santa Catarina (municipality of Seara, 550 m asl). Specimens from El Soberbio (department Guaraní, 190 m asl) in the Argentinean province of Misiones, cited as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. imitatrix</span>, are also referred to this species in view of its characteristic dorsal pattern (Kwet and Solé 2008). It may also occur in south and southeastern Paraguay, but this requires verification. However, it is thought to have a wider distribution than currently acknowledged, and may occur over the entire range of the Serra Geral and adjacent regions of northern and northeastern Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and eastern Misiones province (Kwet and Solé 2008). It is thought to occur between 150 and 1,100 m asl (Kwet and Solé 2008).<br/><p></p>  <br/><br/>  <em><span lang="EN-GB"></em>
158543		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species occurring in mountainous and submountainous ranges and inhabiting primary and secondary subtropical rainforests and forest edges, including Araucaria forests. A nocturnal, explosive breeder, this species breeds in still permanent water bodies in the forest or at the forest edge.  Breeding occurs during the summer months (December to February). Eggs and larvae of the new species are not yet known (Kwet and Solé 2008).
158543		population	eng	This appears to be a very rare species throughout its distribution range (Kwet and Solé 2008). However, it is possible that it may not be easily detected given its arboreal habits, so it could be more common than currently thought (A. Kwet pers. comm. June 2009).
158543		threats	eng	It is thought that this species may be sensitive to habitat disturbance (Kwet and Solé 2008). In Rio Grande do Sul there is deforestation due to soy plantations, reforestation with wood (pine and eucalyptus) plantations and flooding of native forests due to the development of hydroelectric dams (e.g., Usina Hidroelétrica Machadinho) (A. Kwet pers. comm. June 2009).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
158544		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is important to implement a public awareness programme to avoid the indiscriminate use of fire in the region (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).
158544		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Serra do Capivarí in the northeastern state of Paraná, Brazil, at elevations above 1,400 m asl. It is likely to be endemic to the Serra do Capivarí (Langone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<span class="000302013-04092009">
158544		habitat	eng	The area where this species occurs is included within the “campos de altitude” in the Atlantic Forest. Individuals can be found during daytime, on the ground or most often inside terrestrial bromeliads. This species deposits its egg clusters in the axils of bromeliads (Langone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is considered to be a habitat specialist (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).
158544		population	eng	<p>It is possibly commonly encountered during the breeding season (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p>    </p>
158544		threats	eng	The montane area where the species occurs undergoes periodical burnings due to unregulated fire use by the local residents (see Langone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008); these fires may be for agricultural purposes (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).
158545		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur within the boundaries of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park. Survival programs inclusive of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures have been suggested for members of this genus (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Monitoring of the population is needed to determine whether chytrid fungus is present and whether it may have affected the species.
158545		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities in the region of Pasco, Peru, all within a distance of 26 kilometers from each other. It is found between 1,770 and 2,200 m asl (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158545		habitat	eng	This species inhabits an area of cloud forests and secondary forests with some open areas that have been converted to grassland. Individuals have been found at night on leaves up to 1.5 m above the ground and in close proximity to a permanent creek (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; E. Lehr pers. comm. September 2009), and in one instance close to a road. It is presumed to breed in streams.
158545		population	eng	<p>It is thought to be a rare species given that as it was recorded/collected in low numbers over a long period (E. Lehr pers. comm. September 2009).<br/></p>
158545		threats	eng	The vegetation of the road side close to the type locality is regularly cut down as part of&#160; road maintenance. In addition, the surroundings of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park are intensively used for plantations (e.g., coffee) or for cattle breeding (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), leading to a lot of soil erosion (Edgar Lehr pers. comm. September 2009). While chytrid fungus has so far not been recorded in this species, other species in this genus inhabiting montane environments have been affected by chytridiomycosis, so it cannot be ruled out as a potential threat.<br/><span class="453300712-21092009">
158552		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required - protection of forest and the watershed.
158552		distribution	eng	The species is found in forest streams in central Africa (Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea). A record from Cameroon in Tsuda's world list could not yet be confirmed, all other country records are based on literature and/or museum material.
158552		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams; eggs and larvae develop in the streams, immature imagos use the forest, while mature imagos return to the streams for mating and oviposition.
158552		population	eng	No information available.
158552		threats	eng	Deforestation (both, clear cutting and selective logging) and pollution threaten the species.
158553		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158553		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality in Odzala, Congo, and from an additional locality in Congo and three localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Buzo-Lite, Buzu-Bambenga, and Bambeza).
158553		habitat	eng	No information available.
158553		population	eng	No information available.
158553		threats	eng	No information, but most likely threatened by habitat destruction.
158554		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158554		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality in the Congo. It is also present in Democratic Republic of Congo (Etoumbi Forest, Makoua). Only two specimens have been caught (the paratype from the type locality almost four years later) and from Central African Republic (Boukoko).
158554		habitat	eng	Most likely found in and around forest streams/rivers, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
158554		population	eng	No information available.
158554		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
158555		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
158555		conservation	eng	None in place. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
158555		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau and Mali to Cameroon and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon.
158555		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau and Mali to west Cameroon and Gabon. All records east of Nigeria are dubious.
158555		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158555		population	eng	No information available.
158555		threats	eng	Forest destruction through logging, agricultural clearance and mining activities.
158555		threats	eng	The species is threatened by forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
158556		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158556		conservation	eng	No information available.
158556		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and monitoring of population trends.
158556		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo Basin to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Gabon; unconfirmed report from the Central African Republic.
158556		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone and Guinea.
158556		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone and Guinea. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, unconfirmed record from Congo.
158556		habitat	eng	Forested rivers.
158556		population	eng	No information available.
158556		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158556		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
158556		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158557		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158557		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in Cameroon (Ambam).
158557		habitat	eng	No information available.
158557		population	eng	No information available.
158557		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by habitat destruction.
158558		conservation	eng	Before any conservation measures can be formulated, the ecology and distribution of A. stygia has to be studied. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would also be valuable.
158558		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo: Eala (holotype); Ubangi, Momenge; Bomboma; Bobey; Busu Bombenga; Banza-Ouest; Ubangi, Dongo; Mahagi-Port; Busu-Bolemo; Lokutu (RMNH). It is recorded in Tsuda's: "A distributional list of world Odonata 1991" for Congo as well, which needs confirmation, as it might be a mixing of the country names.
158558		habitat	eng	It has been found in swamp forests and is assumed to breed in standing waters. No details about the ecology are known.
158558		population	eng	No information available.
158558		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
158560		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158560		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in Gabon: Mvoum, Montagne de Sable, ca 00°14' S 10°07' E. It could be much more widespread.
158560		habitat	eng	No information available, but most likely occurring on rainforest streams.
158560		population	eng	No information available.
158560		threats	eng	No information available.
158561		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158561		distribution	eng	The species is known from various localities of the Congo basin (Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo).
158561		habitat	eng	No information available, but most likely forest streams.
158561		population	eng	No information available.
158561		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by wood extraction is a major threat.
158562		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
158562		conservation	eng	No information available.
158562		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
158562		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from south east Nigeria, Cameroon, Angola, Gabon. Records from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Angola, the Central African Republic, Congo and Gabon; it is assumed in Democratic Republic of Congo.
158562		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and Cameroon.
158562		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria, Cameroon, Angola and Gabon. Records from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Angola, Gabon. Records from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south eastern Nigeria and south western Cameroon.
158562		habitat	eng	Forested rivers.
158562		population	eng	No information available.
158562		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158562		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158562		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
158563		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158563		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type specimen collected at Muni River, Mountains of Cristal, Gabon.
158563		habitat	eng	No information available.
158563		population	eng	No information available.
158563		threats	eng	No information available.
158564		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158564		conservation	eng	Research to gather data on range, population, etc.
158564		conservation	eng	Research to gather data on range, population, habitat status, and monitoring of this species is required.
158564		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species has been recorded only from Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (Pinhey 1984a), but there are no data to confirm this. Globally, it is known from Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and Congo Kinshasa (Shaba Province).
158564		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from a number of localities in Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and Democratic Republic of Congo.
158564		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment) and Congo Kinshasa (Shaba Province).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from a number of localities (3 known and suspected to be more) in Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and Congo Kinshasa (Katanga Province).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded only from Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (Pinhey 1984a), but there are no data to confirm this.
158564		habitat	eng	In streams in forest (Pinhey 1984).
158564		habitat	eng	In streams in forest (Pinhey 1984a).
158564		population	eng	No information available.
158564		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158564		threats	eng	Forest degradation due to agriculture and wood extraction is an inferred threat to the species based on the ongoing activities in the area.
158564		threats	eng	Inferred forest degradation and agriculture, based on activities in the area.
158564		threats	eng	Inferred forest degradation, based on activities in the area.
158565		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158565		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorocnemis interrupta</em> is known only from two localities in Gabon: its type locality in Balé River (M'passa, Makokou) and Kingawela.
158565		habitat	eng	No information, but most likely to occur in rainforest streams.
158565		population	eng	No information available.
158565		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat destruction caused by wood extraction.
158566		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158566		distribution	eng	The species is known from various localities in southern Congo (Dimonika, Makabana, Loufula, Kintele, Djili, Voka). Its occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.
158566		habitat	eng	It is most likely to occur in and around forest streams.
158566		population	eng	No information available.
158566		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction and water pollution.
158567		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
158567		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
158567		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158567		distribution	eng	In the southern Africa region, this species is known from seven localities in coastal river catchments in Angola, and the upper Zambezi catchment in Zambia. Globally, it is known from Angola, Zambia, Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo).
158567		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zambia, Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo). The species is not endemic to the Central Africa assessment region.
158567		distribution	eng	The species is known from Angola, Gabon, Zambia, Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo). Not endemic to the central Africa assessment region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from seven localities in coastal river catchments in Angola, and the upper Zambezi catchment in Zambia.
158567		habitat	eng	Occurs in shady streams with riparian forest (Pinhey 1984).
158567		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158567		threats	eng	Forest degradation is an inferred potential threat.
158567		threats	eng	Unknown, but forest degradation is an inferred potential threat.
158567		threats	eng	Unknown. Forest degradation, water pollution and agriculture are inferred threats.
158568		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158568		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly also present in Congo and Gabon.
158568		habitat	eng	Sandy and silty streams in forest and secondary forest.
158568		population	eng	No information available.
158568		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water pollution are threats to this species.
158569		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158569		distribution	eng	The species is known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Fraser 1949) and assumed to be confined to the Congo Basin (Dijkstra pers. comm.), Congo and Gabon. Specimens from Cameroon (Vick 1999) have been proved to be another  species, but not <em>D. multilineatum</em>.
158569		habitat	eng	Streams in forest and secondary forest.
158569		population	eng	No information available.
158569		threats	eng	Deforestation and water pollution are threats to the species.
158570		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
158570		conservation	eng	More research on biology, distribution and population size, as well as habitat conservation is needed.
158570		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from the coastal lowlands of Cameroon (Vick 1999) and Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from coastal lowlands of Cameroon.
158570		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the coastal lowlands of Cameroon (Vick 1999) and Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.). It is not thought to be present in forested areas.
158570		habitat	eng	Streams in primary forest.
158570		population	eng	No information available.
158570		threats	eng	Deforestation, agriculture and water pollution.
158570		threats	eng	Deforestation and water pollution.
158571		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158571		conservation	eng	No information available.
158571		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required.
158571		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in the Central African Republic to Ghana and probably Guinea. (confirmed records from Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana in west Africa)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in the Central African Republic and Cameroon. Presence is assumed from northern Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.
158571		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Togo and probably Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Central African Republic to Ghana and probably Guinea. The assessor has seen <em>N. pujoli</em> males from Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana (see <em>N. farinosa</em>).
158571		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Central African Republic to Ghana and probably Guinea. The assessor has seen <span style="font-style: italic;">N. pujoli</span> males from Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana (see <span style="font-style: italic;">N. farinosa</span>).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Central African Republic, from northern Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Togo and probably Guinea.
158571		habitat	eng	Open ponds and calm parts of streams and rivers.
158571		population	eng	No information available.
158571		threats	eng	No information available.
158572		conservation	eng	Conservation measures aimed at preserving habitats and developing greater awareness of the public.
158572		conservation	eng	The Pantelleria lake should be preserved from trampling by livestock and tourist activities.
158572		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> ranges from North Africa and the Middle East to Central Asia and favour arid environments. In Europe it is present only in Pantelleria, an Italian volcanic island with a rather warm sulphurous crater lake situated 72 km east of Tunisia and 101 km southwest of Sicily and reaching about 89 km² in area (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Lohmann 1989, Utzeri and d'Antonio 2005)
158572		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> ranges from north Africa and the Middle East to central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia. It is likely also to be present in Libya.
158572		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> ranges from North Africa and the middle East to Central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia. It is likely also to be present in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
158572		distribution	eng	The Oasis Bluetail (<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em>) has a range that extends from Central Asia through the Middle East to North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco).
158572		habitat	eng	Found in arid areas. Breeds in springs and rivers as well as shallow lakes. The larvae are tollerant of high salinity.
158572		habitat	eng	The larvae of <em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> are known to be very tolerant to high salinity and the species favours hot arid areas. This is well exemplified in the Pantelleria population, which is confined to a hot (50°C) sulphurous crater lake showing gas emissions and surrounded by sulphurous springs and a sparse belt of rushes (<em>Juncus</em> sp.).
158572		habitat	eng	The Oasis Bluetail occurs mainly in desert oases and brackish coastal sites. Springs and rivers with little vegetation, shallow lakes, glasswort marsh are all suitable habitats. The species is tolerant of high salinity.
158572		population	eng	Locally abundant.
158572		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends, however it is considered common across its range..
158572		population	eng	The species is abundant in its location on Pantelleria.
158572		threats	eng	Draining and pollution of habitats.
158572		threats	eng	Draining and pollution of habitats are threats to the species.
158572		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution affect this species in parts of its range.
158572		threats	eng	Touristic frequentation and livestock trampling are probably the main threats for this unique population. Climate change and pollution are potential future threats.
158573		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158573		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality Gorilla Mountain, Mamfe, Cameroon.
158573		habitat	eng	Likely to be found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
158573		population	eng	No information available.
158573		threats	eng	No information available.
158574		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place are known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
158574		conservation	eng	No information available.
158574		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required.
158574		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known with certainty only from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. Sierra Leone records pertain to <em>T. aconita.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon.
158574		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known with certainty only from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. Sierra Leone records pertain to <em>T. aconita</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known to occur in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.
158574		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. It is also known to occur in Cameroon, in the central Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known with certainty from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. The records from Sierra Leone pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. aconita</span>.
158574		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and rivers.
158574		population	eng	No information available.
158574		threats	eng	Agriculture and forest destruction.
158574		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158574		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158575		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158575		conservation	eng	No information available.
158575		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
158575		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gabon to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Gabon; Equatorial Guinea is assumed.
158575		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gabon to Guinea and Sierra Leone.
158575		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Gabon to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Gabon, unconfirmed but likely record from Cameroon, in Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.
158575		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158575		population	eng	No information available.
158575		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158575		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
158575		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158576		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158576		distribution	eng	The species is known from few sites in Gabon, Congo, Brazzaville and Democratic Republic of Congo, where it is considered to be widespread.
158576		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158576		population	eng	No information available.
158576		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction caused by wood extraction.
158577		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158577		conservation	eng	Unknown. More research is required on range and population status.
158577		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Angola. It occurs in the Kunene River, the Congo River (outside the region) and the coastal river catchments. This species is known from west and southwest Angola. Currently known from five collections within the region. Last recorded in the 1970s (Pinhey 1975). It is believed to be more widespread than currently known, even within the region.
158577		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to Angola, occurring in the Kunene River, the Congo River and the coastal river catchments.There is a single record from Dundo, within the central Africa region, but this record is highly doubtful. It is questionable whether the the record is within the region, and if present, the species is probably present at below the 5% threshold.
158577		habitat	eng	Small perennial streams and rivers.
158577		population	eng	No information available on population size or trends.
158577		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are unknown. The genus occurs in small streams in forested areas and the main threat may be deforestation, however more data are required to confirm this.
158577		threats	eng	Unknown. The genus occurs in small streams in forested areas and the main threat may be deforestation, however more data are required to confirm this.
158578		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
158578		conservation	eng	No information available.
158578		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
158578		conservation	eng	Not needed.
158578		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is widespread at perennial rivers in the region. It has not yet been found in the arid southwest or in the Orange System. Globally, it has been recorded from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and West Africa.
158578		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia; also present in Cameroon, Congo and Equatorial Guinea.
158578		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa to Kenya and Gambia. Occurrence in Ethiopia and Sudan need confirmation.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Somalia, records from Sudan and Ethiopia need confirmation. Not recorded from northern Kenya, but occurrence likely.
158578		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and Gambia.
158578		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Somalia, records from Sudan and Ethiopia need confirmation. It has not been recorded from northern Kenya, but occurrence is likely.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread at perennial rivers in the region. It has not yet been found in the arid southwest or in the Orange System.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Gambia.
158578		habitat	eng	Lakes and rivers in forest, savannah and woodland.
158578		habitat	eng	Savannah rivers with gallery forest; also large lakes.
158578		population	eng	No information available.
158578		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158578		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
158578		population	eng	Unknown.
158578		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known.
158578		threats	eng	No major threats known so far.
158578		threats	eng	None.
158579		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158579		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality at Makokou in Gabon. It is possibly also found in Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.
158579		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
158579		population	eng	No information available.
158579		threats	eng	Water pollution and deforestation of habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158580		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158580		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality Mayumbe in Democratic Republic of Congo and from numerous specimens stored in the Africa Museum, Tervuren (Dijkstra pers. comm.). The species seems to be endemic to the Congo Basin.
158580		habitat	eng	No information available, but most likely rainforest habitats
158580		population	eng	No information available.
158580		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
158581		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158581		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type specimen collected in Congo (Mbila, Mont du Chaillu).
158581		habitat	eng	No information available.
158581		population	eng	No information available.
158581		threats	eng	No information available, but most likely to be affected by habitat destruction.
158582		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
158582		conservation	eng	No information available.
158582		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
158582		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon.
158582		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon.
158582		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Nigeria.
158582		habitat	eng	Pools in rainforest.
158582		population	eng	No information available.
158582		threats	eng	Agriculture and forest destruction.
158582		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158582		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158583		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy (in particular), population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
158583		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed.
158583		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
158583		distribution	eng	It may occur in the Congo River basin in Democratic Republic of Congo and the Zambesi River basin in northwest Zambia, as well as in the Lake Tanganyika basin, north Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba, Lubumbashi) and Zambia (Upper Zambesi rapids), the record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the range of this taxon is difficult to determine because of taxonomic ambiguities. It forms a group with <em>styx</em> and <em>quirki</em> and more work is needed to determine which species this actually is. Within the southern Africa region it is likely to be a marginal taxon (estimated to be <5% of the global range within the region), found in the upper Zambezi catchment.
158583		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba, Lubumbashi) and Zambia (upper Zambesi rapids), the record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence within Zambia and Republic of Congo is possible.
158583		distribution	eng	The range of this taxon is difficult to determine because of taxonomic ambiguities. It forms a group with <em>styx</em> and <em>quirki</em> and more work is needed to determine which species this actually is. Within the southern Africa region it is likely to be a marginal taxon (estimated to be <5% of the global range within the region), found in the upper Zambezi catchment. Globally, it may occur in the Congo River basin in DRC and the Zambesi River basin in northwest Zambia, as well as in the Lake Tanganyika basin, north Zambia.
158583		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158583		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams (Pinhey 1984a).
158583		population	eng	No information available.
158583		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
158583		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown, but forest destruction is a potential threat.
158583		threats	eng	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction.
158584		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158584		conservation	eng	None.
158584		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
158584		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been described from north-east Gabon (Legrand 1984) and later found by its discoverer on Mt Nimba (Guinee-C) and south-east Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Gabon, likely to be found in Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon as well.
158584		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is found by its discoverer (Legrand) on Mt. Nimba (Guinee-Cote d'Ivoire) and south-east Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described from north-east Gabon (Legrand 1984).
158584		distribution	eng	This species has been described from north-east Gabon (Legrand 1984) and later found by its discoverer on Mt Nimba (Guinea-Cote d'Ivoire) and southeast Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare. Type locality in Gabon (but this is missing from database).<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from central Africa yet, but likely in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon as well.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is found by its discoverer (Legrand) on Mt Nimba (Guinea-Cote d'Ivoire) and south-east Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.
158584		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams. Perhaps it occurs only in hilly terrain (e.g. Nimba, Fouta Djallon).
158584		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams. Perhaps it occurs only in hilly terrain (e.g., Nimba, Fouta Djallon).
158584		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams. Perhaps it occurs only in hilly terrain (e.g., Nimba, Fouta Djallon). Strong fliers and could be more widely distributed than currently shown by the collection records.
158584		population	eng	No information.
158584		population	eng	No information available.
158584		population	eng	None.
158584		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158584		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
158584		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
158585		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
158585		conservation	eng	No information available.
158585		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known from Ethiopia to Chad, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire and Algeria<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
158585		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad and the northern parts of Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. Probably occurs between these locations.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, Chad, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire.
158585		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Chad, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. Often confused with <em>O. taeniolatum</em> (an Asian species), but records for this species within Africa can be included in the inferred range at present.<br/><br/>Its presence in central Africa is not confirmed but likely record from Central African Republic, also assumed for northern Cameroon and northern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Sudan, Egypt, Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and assumed to be present in Djibouti.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Chad and the northern parts of Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. It probably occurs also between these locations.
158585		habitat	eng	Arid areas.
158585		population	eng	No information available.
158585		threats	eng	No information available.
158585		threats	eng	Unknown.
158586		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158586		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in Democratic Republic of Congo (Katwe River, Kundelungu Plateau; Pinhi) and assumed to be endemic to the Kundelungu Plateau.
158586		habitat	eng	The species was recorded from the Katwe River "near Cyperus beds". Nothing is known on the species biology
158586		population	eng	No information available.
158586		threats	eng	No information available.
158587		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158587		conservation	eng	No information available.
158587		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the threats to this species, as well as conservation measures and monitoring.
158587		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from two records from Cameroon.
158587		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.
158587		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon in central Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.
158587		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
158587		population	eng	No information available.
158587		threats	eng	Destruction of forest habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction. Water pollution is also a threat to this species.
158587		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158587		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
158588		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158588		distribution	eng	<em>Malgassophlebia westfalli</em> is known only from six localities in the area around Makokou, Gabon, where it seems to be common (Legrand 1986).
158588		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
158588		population	eng	No information available.
158588		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction caused by change of the land use into agriculture and wood extraction.
158589		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158589		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon and Gabon, but may include more than one species.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Nigeria.
158589		habitat	eng	Swampy rainforest streams.
158589		population	eng	No information available.
158589		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture is a threat to the species.
158590		conservation	eng	No information available.
158590		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the threats to this species.
158590		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
158590		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Possibly present in Cameroon and Republic of Congo.
158590		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo.
158590		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon.
158590		habitat	eng	Open pools in forest and calm sections of forested rivers.
158590		population	eng	No information available.
158590		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158590		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
158590		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158591		conservation	eng	No information available. Further survey to determine the species range, ecology, habitat and population trends is required, and taxonomic clarification.
158591		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
158591		distribution	eng	Only known from Angola (Chimporo) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Musana).
158591		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a record from Democratic Republic of Congo (Musana); also reported from Angola (Chimporo) (outside the central Africa region).
158591		habitat	eng	No information available.
158591		population	eng	No information available.
158591		threats	eng	No information available.
158592		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158592		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to Congo Basin, and has been listed from Nigeria, where its presence is dubious.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo: Eala, Lac Leopold (holotype), Bunia, Bobey, Busu Moto, Busu Lite and Lubumbash.
158592		habitat	eng	Unknown, possibly living in swamp forest.
158592		population	eng	No information available.
158592		threats	eng	No information available.
158593		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158593		conservation	eng	No information available.
158593		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
158593		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is quite widespread, known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. The species has been recorded from Ivory Coast as well, but this record (Legrand 1984) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra <em>pers. comm.</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.
158593		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded once in the region in the Ivory Coast, but this record (Legrand 1982) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Ivorian record must be verified.
158593		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Ivorian record must be verified.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Recorded from Ivory Coast as well, but this record (Legrand 1984) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from one record in the region in the Ivory Coast, but this record (Legrand 1982) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
158593		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158593		population	eng	No information available.
158593		threats	eng	No information available.
158593		threats	eng	Unknown.
158594		conservation	eng	Surveys on distribution and habitat status. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158594		distribution	eng	<em>Tetrathemis fraseri</em> is known only from the type locality in Ipassa, Makokou in Gabon.
158594		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest pools.
158594		population	eng	No information available.
158594		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to logging is a threat to the species.
158595		conservation	eng	No information available.
158595		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.
158595		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
158595		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Sierra Leone to Gabon and possibly further east.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea; presence likely in Congo, possibly Democratic Republic of Congo.
158595		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Gabon and possibly further east.
158595		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone to Congo and possibly further east.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, possibly Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.
158595		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158595		population	eng	No information available.
158595		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
158595		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
158595		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
158596		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158596		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality Kibombo (Maniema district, Democratic Republic of Congo) the exact locality is disputed.
158596		habitat	eng	No information available, most likely primary rainforest and rivers or streams.
158596		population	eng	No information available.
158596		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are water pollution and habitat destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
158597		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158597		conservation	eng	No information available.
158597		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.
158597		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Southern Nigeria to Gabon, the Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (Legrand 1980).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon. Its presence in Congo is assumed. Unconfirmed record from Angola.
158597		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south Nigeria and south west Cameroon. Record from Sierra Leone refers to <em> <br/>E. girardi</em>  (specimen examined by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from southern Nigeria to Gabon, Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (Legrand 1980).
158597		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southern Nigeria to Gabon, Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (Legrand 1980).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, Gabon. The record from Angola needs confirmation and the one from Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from southern Nigeria (type locality) and south west Cameroon. The record from Sierra Leone refers to <em>E. girardi </em>(specimen examined by Dijkstra).
158597		habitat	eng	Probably forested rivers.
158597		population	eng	No information available.
158597		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158597		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158597		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158598		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
158598		conservation	eng	No information available.
158598		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
158598		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from south east Nigeria at least to Gabon but precise range unclear due to confusion with <em>U. saphirina</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.
158598		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria at least to Gabon but precise range unclear due to confusion with <em>U. saphirina</em>.
158598		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria at least to Gabon but precise range unclear due to confusion with <em>U. saphirina</em>.<br><br>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br><br>In western Africa, the species is known from south eastern Nigeria and south western Cameroon.
158598		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158598		population	eng	No information available.
158598		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158598		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
158598		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
158599		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158599		distribution	eng	The species is known from the central Congo Basin (Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo).
158599		habitat	eng	Most likely found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
158599		population	eng	No information available.
158599		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
158600		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158600		distribution	eng	The species was described from west Central African Republic (Lindley 1976), but not reported until recently. In the Tervuren Museum numerous specimens from Democratic Republic of Congo were found: Abumombazi, Bambesa, Kambaye/Luputa, Nzali, Paulis (Isiro), and six sites in the Kungu area: Banza-Ouest, Busu-Bombenga, Busu-Lite, Dongo, Kungu, Sokro. Dijkstra (2007) found the species at three small streams near Lokutu. These records indicate a widespread occurrence in the Congo Basin.
158600		habitat	eng	Muddy and/or sandy rainforest streams.
158600		population	eng	No information available.
158600		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to drainage and destruction/ deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.
158601		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
158601		conservation	eng	No information available.
158601		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
158601		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Listed for Nigeria, but this deserves confirmation, and for Guinea, which is unlikely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo, including Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.
158601		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Nigeria, but the locations are unknown<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Listed for Nigeria, but this deserves confirmation.
158601		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Listed for Nigeria, but this requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Present in Nigeria, but not recorded from Guinea. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, but the locations are unknown
158601		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
158601		population	eng	No information available.
158601		threats	eng	No information available.
158601		threats	eng	Unknown.
158602		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158602		distribution	eng	The species is known only from one locality each on a large river in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic (Congo and Ubangi rivers respectively). It is likely to be widespread in suitable habitat.
158602		habitat	eng	No information available but probably present in rivers and streams in primary forest.
158602		population	eng	No information available.
158602		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be threatened due to habitat destruction and pollution.
158603		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158603		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the eastern half of Democratic Republic of Congo.
158603		habitat	eng	No information available.
158603		population	eng	No information available.
158603		threats	eng	No information available.
158604		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
158604		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
158604		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the type locality in Gabon and a dubious record from Togo (Legrand, 1992). More surveys are needed to get an idea of the species' distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from the type locality in Gabon. Potentially endemic if the Togo record proves erroneous.
158604		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality in Gabon (Legrand 1992) and a possible record from Togo (Lieckweg pers. comm.). More surveys are needed to get an idea of the species' distribution.
158604		habitat	eng	No information available, but most likely rain forest streams.
158604		habitat	eng	No information available, but most likely rainforest streams.
158604		population	eng	No information available.
158604		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and water pollution.
158604		threats	eng	The known threats to the species are habitat destruction and water pollution.
158605		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
158605		conservation	eng	Protection of forest and the watershed, research on the species' ecology, population size and distribution.
158605		distribution	eng	<em>Umma mesumbei</em> is known from only five locations (Vick 1996, Vick pers. comm. 2007). The known extent of occurrence (EOO) is about 1,200 km² in the volcanic Cameroon Highlands region. The area is mostly within the tribal lands of the Bakossi and it is usually called the Bakossi Mountains in the broadest sense. Sites are both east and west of the old border between British and French Cameroons:<br/><br/>In SW Province (department Meme - anglophone):<br/><strong>#1</strong> Mount Kupe, especially Max's Trail: 980 m (04°49' N, 09°41' E), but also collected in other locations on the mountain up to at least 1,300 m.<br/><strong>#2</strong> Okpambe (forest stream): 1,450 m (lat/long not available).<br/><strong>#3</strong> Kodmin (Ndine stream): 1,520 m (04°59' N, 09°42' E).<br/><strong>#4</strong> Muambong (Jide River): 1,100 m (04°58' N, 09°43' E).<br/><br/>In Littoral Province (department Mungo - francophone):<br/><strong>#5</strong> Mount Nlonako (near Nguengue): 1,600 m (04°51' N, 10°03' E).
158605		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from extreme western Cameroon (Kupe Bakossi mountains, Kodmin, and Mt Nlonak), and from Takamanda forest, Nigeria (outside the central Africa region). <em>Umma mesumbei </em>is only known from five locations globally (four in the central Africa region) (Vick, 1996; Vick, pers. comm.). The known area of occurrence is about 1,200 km² in the volcanic Cameroon Highlands region. The area is mostly within the tribal lands of the Bakossi and it is usually called the Bakossi Mountains in the broadest sense. Sites are both east and west of the old border between British and French Cameroons.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from western Cameroon and the Takamanda forest, Nigeria.
158605		habitat	eng	Clear forest streams in pristine forest. Adults are found along the streams and in the surrounding forest, larvae and eggs develop in the streams, possibly particularly in seepage areas.
158605		habitat	eng	The species occupies clear forest streams in pristine forest. Adults are found along the streams and in the surrounding forest; larvae and eggs develop in the streams. All known sites are small rocky streams with fast water and, usually, gravel bed; they flow through very good quality submontane forest and the adults are seen in sunny clearings. All known sites also hold populations of&#160;<em>Pentaphlebia stahlii</em> which is the indicator species for this kind of habitat.
158605		population	eng	No information available.
158605		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
158605		threats	eng	Agriculture, deforestation (both clear cutting and selective logging) and pollution.
158605		threats	eng	Deforestation (both, clear cutting and selective logging) and pollution are threats to this species. Agricultural encroachment has accelerated recently, with large portions of pristine forest being cleard for gardens at Mount Kube and cocoa farms in western Bakossi extending into the pristine forest (Fotso <em>et al</em>. 2001).
158606		conservation	eng	Research into biology and ecology would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158606		distribution	eng	The species is only known from a single locality in Equatorial Guinea (Ebibeyin).
158606		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams.
158606		population	eng	No information available.
158606		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction due to deforestation.
158607		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158607		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality Bioko, Equatorial Africa ("near Moca") (Pinhey 1971) and from adjacent Cameroon (Vick 1999). Not recorded from Bioko in a recent survey (Brooks and Jackson 2001)
158607		habitat	eng	Known from crater lakes.
158607		population	eng	No information available.
158607		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture. Water pollution is also a threat.
158608		conservation	eng	<p>This species is known to occur at Parque Estadual do Pico do Morumbi, in Morretes (R. Lingnau pers. comm. January 2011). More research is needed on this species' population status and natural history.<br/></p>
158608		distribution	eng	This species is known from Marumbi and São João da Graciosa, both in the municipality of Morretes, state of Paraná, southern Brazil, and from the municipalities of Apiaí, Capão Bonito, and Iporanga, state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil (Lingnau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It occurs from 100 to 1,200 m asl (R. Lingnau pers. comm. January 2011). Its current distribution is estimated to be around 2,456 km<sup>2</sup>.
158608		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Atlantic forests (Lingnau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It can generally be found&#160; in shaded areas, on stones along the length of stream banks (R. Lingnau pers. comm. January 2011), where it breeds via larval development.
158608		population	eng	<p>It appears to be a common species, although there is nothing known about population size (R. Lingnau pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
158608		threats	eng	<p>There are small amounts of garbage left over by tourists that visit several of the streams where the species is known to occur, close to Parque Estadual do Pico do Marumbi, in Morretes (R. Lingnau pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
158609		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>
158609		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Pakaraima Mountains in western Guyana, although it is likely to occur in nearby Roraima State, Brazil, and may also occur elsewhere (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; R. MacCulloch pers. comm. May 2009). It is found between 678–1,414 m asl (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158609		habitat	eng	This species inhabits medium-canopy forests. Frogs can be found at night, amidst leaf litter, among rootlets near the base of trees and in ground holes covered by leaves. Males call during afternoons and nights (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). This species is presumed to breed by direct development.
158609		population	eng	<p>This species is considered to be locally common (R. MacCulloch pers. comm. May 2009).<br/></p>
158609		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been observed for this species.   It      occurs in areas of very sparse human habitation (R. MacCulloch pers. comm. May 2009).  </p>
158610		conservation	eng	<p>It is recommended that the sites occupied by the species be designated as of restricted use (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009).<br/></p>
158610		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities (190 and 230 m asl)  separated by about 15 km in the Department of Rivera, northern Uruguay (Maneyro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). These localities' immediate surroundings have been repeatedly surveyed since 2004, but no new reports have been recorded, and the area of occupancy is currently estimated to be less than 10 km² (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009). It is, however, possible that it may occur in other nearby localities close to its currently known range, including the neighbouring state of Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil, although the predominant kind of land use in this state is extensive agriculture, rather than forestry (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009).
158610		habitat	eng	This species is found in a soft hilly area with an open landscape and predominance of grasslands surrounded by small, shallow and seasonal streams; this area is currently modified by eucalyptus and pine plantations. Circumstantial reproductive evidence suggests that reproduction in this species takes place during winter (Maneyro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is presumed to breed by laying eggs in water.
158610		population	eng	Individuals of this species were found throughout the year, but their frequency of capture (about 1/1000 individuals) was the lowest of the 23 anuran species collected in the study area (Maneyro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), suggesting that this is a relatively rare species. It is also possible that the species may not occur at the type locality any more, given that the few water bodies that used to be there have been found dried up in the last few years (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009).
158610		threats	eng	Modification of the original habitat due to plantation of introduced tree species is considered a threat to this species. The localities where this species was found belong to a large-scale forestry company, which cultivates eucalyptus and pine trees (the latter is especially common in the areas where the species was found) (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009). The availability of water bodies at the type locality could also have been affected by dry spells (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009). <br/><br/>  <br/>    <p><br/></p>
158613		conservation	eng	This species has been one of several to be collected for captive breeding efforts at the Valle de Antón (a total of five individuals, including one female; J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009). So far, however, attempts at breeding have not produced positive results (J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009). Local herpetologists continue to conduct surveys regularly (J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009).
158613		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountains in the immediate vicinity of the town of El Valle de Antón, in both Coclé and Panama provinces, central Panama, at elevations between 900 and 1,150 m asl (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). All currently known sites (3-4) are on the Pacific versant, but it is possible that this species may be found on the Atlantic slope near Altos de Maria. It is suspected to be endemic to the vicinity of El Valle (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158613		habitat	eng	A forest canopy dweller, this species inhabits tropical premontane forests. Individuals are most often found in primary forest, but can also occur in secondary forest (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Active at night, males call throughout the year, but there appears to be a peak of reproductive activity at the onset of the rainy season (mid-March to May). Eggs are deposited just above the water line on the exposed wood or bark inside tree holes. Clutches range from about 60-200 eggs. The males remain at the hole in attendance of eggs and tadpoles, while females disperse soon after oviposition (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <br/><p></p>
158613		population	eng	This species was uncommon in the region during field surveys in 2005-2006, although one or two males could be heard calling each night during that time. After the detection of chytrid fungus in the region, the species is much less common. Calls are no longer heard at known localities, but in December 2007, one individual was heard in deep forest on Cerra La Gaita (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158613		threats	eng	The chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been reported for the area where this species is known to occur (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Only one individual has been heard since the chytrid fungus was detected in 2006 (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; J.&#160; Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009). There is some ongoing forest clearing within the species' range for the development of luxury holiday homes, although it has not yet reached critical levels (J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009).
158614		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>
158614		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur over the western and central parts of the department of Pando, northern Bolivia, in the southwestern Amazon basin (Moravec <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It may possibly occur more widely, including in Peru and Brazil. It occurs between 200-300 m asl (J. Moravec pers. comm. June 2009).
158614		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tall evergreen lowland rainforests (Moravec<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). Frogs can be found in very humid swampy or flooded shores of smaller streams running through undisturbed terra firme forest. These places are typically densely overgrown with herbaceous plants, ferns and palms, and also have abundant herbaceous lianas. Where there are long or heavy rains, males descend to 2–4 m above the inundated ground and call hidden from view (Moravec<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). Reproductive mode and larvae are unknown, although it is presumed that the species breeds in water.
158614		population	eng	Population densities of this species are considered to be comparatively low, as observed local assemblages of calling males did not exceed 4–6 individuals (Moravec <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158614		threats	eng	<p>No threats are currently known for this species.</p>
158616		conservation	eng	None
158616		distribution	eng	Known only from off the Rowley Shoals, Western Australia.
158616		habitat	eng	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of ~300 m. Known only from two type specimens.
158616		population	eng	Known only off the continental slope of Western Australia near Rowley Shoals at depths of ~300 m. There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.
158616		threats	eng	Possibly caught as bycatch of the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fisheries, but these fisheries are small with only a few boats in operation, and although details on bycatch are currently unavailable, given the low fishing effort, it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.<br/><br/>Like other deepwater squaloid sharks, this species is likely to have the limiting life history characteristics and may not be sufficiently fecund to withstand high levels of exploitation.
158617		conservation	eng	None.
158617		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: continental slope of Western Australia between Perth and the Rowley Shoals, and in eastern Indonesia (Bali and Lombok).
158617		habitat	eng	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 204?850 m (mostly 300?500 m). Attains at least 87 cm total length (TL), with males mature by 54 cm TL. Viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency.
158617		population	eng	Known to occur on the continental slope off Western Australia at depths of 300?510 m and caught in large numbers in Indonesia. There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.
158617		threats	eng	The Australian range at which this species is known to occur falls within the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fishery areas. However, fishing effort is small with only a few boats in operation, and although details on bycatch are currently unavailable, given the low fishing effort, it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.<br/><br/>Caught in large numbers by deepwater fisheries in Indonesia where it is utilized for its meat, fins and liver oil. Indonesian deepwater fisheries operate throughout the depth range at which this species is most common. Although at present, deepwater fisheries are not operating below 600 m off Indonesia, this is unlikely to be the case for much longer (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Future expansion of Indonesian deepwater fisheries for squaloid sharks is highly likely, and there is already anecdotal evidence to suggest squaloid shark catches have declined rapidly in the last ten or more years at one landing site, Cilacap, despite it being only a relatively restricted fishery (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). There may be some refuge from fishing pressure for this species at the deeper portions of its depth range off Australia.
158618		conservation	eng	This species is found in a nature reserve, Reserva Natural Biotopo Selva Húmeda (Mueses-Cisneros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). However, the reserve requires enforcement to address issues of illegal crop fumigation. The genus is listed on CITES Appendix II. More research is needed into this species' distribution, population status and natural history; however, law enforcement is necessary to allow for herpetological surveys to be safely conducted in this region.
158618		distribution	eng	This species is known only from  its type locality and its vicinities: Reserva Natural Biotopo Selva Húmeda (600 m asl), vereda El Berlín, corregimiento El Diviso, municipality of Barbacoas, department of Nariño, Colombia (Mueses-Cisneros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is possible that this species may occur elsewhere in the department of Nariño and Pasto; however, this requires further surveys (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm. January 2011).
158618		habitat	eng	This frog inhabits humid lowland rainforests. Frogs are diurnal and can be found in the leaf litter (Mueses-Cisneros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species requires water to complete  larval development, although the kinds of water bodies that may be used for reproduction are currently not known. Males have been found carrying two to three tadpoles on their backs (Mueses-Cisneros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158618		population	eng	<p>It is known only from the type series, comprised of 12 specimens collected during the month of July 2006 (Mueses-Cisneros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). These were collected over the course of 10 days of continuous field work, which were interrupted due to internal conflicts between guerrilla and paramilitary groups (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm. January 2011). No further survey work has been possible due to this reason (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm. January 2011).</p>
158618		threats	eng	<p>The Natural Reserve "Biotopo de Selva Húmeda" is threatened by illicit coca crop plantations in the form of pollution due to fumigation. In 2006 the Reserve and its vicinities were fumigated on three occasions (January, April and June), impacting the forest edges bordering coca plantations (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm. January 2011). The foundation that manages the Reserve has denounced fumigation activities occurring since 2005; however, this has so far not translated into any form of action against these activities (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
158619		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur within the boundaries of Floresta Nacional Caxiuanã and Parque Nacional da Amazônia, state of Pará; and&#160; Floresta Nacional do Pau-Rosa and Reserva&#160; Extrativista do Baixo Juruá, in the state of Amazonas (Peloso and Sturaro 2008; P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).
158619		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities in the Brazilian Amazon basin, south of the Solimões and Amazon rivers, in the states of Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Pará, and Rondônia, Brazil (Peloso and Sturaro 2008). Most samples collected came from lowland populations (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).
158619		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species. It can be found in primary forest or in clearings/pastures (Peloso and Sturaro 2008). Frogs usually occur near isolated pools, under leaves or pieces of bark. Individuals may also be found away from water and sometimes they forage exposed on the leaf litter, especially during or after rains (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009). Females carry a large number (around 2,000) of small, pigmented eggs (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009). This species is presumed to breed in water.
158619		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be a common species (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
158619		threats	eng	<p>This species may also occur in areas that are subject to deforestation; however, no threats have been observed for known populations (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).</p>
158620		conservation	eng	This species is found within the Parque Estadual dos Três Picos, a recently created conservation unit that includes much of the Serra dos Órgãos mountain range (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158620		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is known only from the type locality: forested mountain slopes in the district of Theodoro de Oliveira, municipality of Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. This area lies within the Serra dos Órgãos (a subdivision of the Serra do Mar mountain range), in the Atlantic Forest domain (Pombal<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is found between 1,200-1,400 m asl (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158620		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane Atlantic Forest. Of reclusive habits, individuals can be found at night in the leaf litter and within holes at the base of trees (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species is believed to breed by direct development (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158620		population	eng	<p>The cryptic habits of <span style="font-style: italic;">Holoaden</span> make it difficult to find these frogs, thus making them appear rarer than they may actually be (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p>
158620		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic forests.
158624		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is found within the Rottnest Island Marine Reserve.
158624		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porocephalichthys dasyrhynchus</span> has a limited distribution in the eastern Indian Ocean around Rottnest Island and Perth, Western Australia.
158624		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porocephalichthys dasyrhynchus</span> is found in crevices on limestone rock reefs at depths of 3-15 m (Cohen and Hutchins 1982). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).
158624		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porocephalichthys dasyrhynchus</span> is an uncommon species (Nielsen<em> et al</em>. 1999). It is known from approximately 40 specimens (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). The rarity of this species may be a result of poor sampling effort. This species preference for crevices makes it difficult to collect (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).
158624		threats	eng	Rottnest Island is a protected area therefore protecting this species from potential fishing activity. While it is found around the Perth coastline, there is little suitable habitat within this region. Much of the population is likely to be found around Rottnest Island (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). There are no known major threats impacting this species.
158625		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Odontanthias tapui</em>.
158625		distribution	eng	<em>Odontanthias tapui</em> is known from only a few specimens collected in the vicinity of Tahiti and the Cook Islands (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1978).
158625		habitat	eng	<em>Odontanthias tapui</em> is a non-migratory, rocky reef-associated species that has been collected at a depth range of 120-350 m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1979; P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
158625		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
158625		threats	eng	<em>Odontanthias tapui</em> may occassionally be taken for the aquarium trade (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009) but is unlikely to be triggering a rapid decline in the population numbers. Habitat degradation is unlikely to pose a significant threat to this deep-water species.
158626		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
158626		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to the islands of Tonga, Samoa, Phoenix and the Marshall Islands. Its range extends north to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan and south to the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.
158626		habitat	eng	This tropical species can be found on coral reef flats and in shallow lagoons at a depth range of 1 - 5 m. During the day it typically shelters in the reef structure and branching corals species such as <em> Acropora</em>. At night, individuals emerge to feed on the zoobenthos, but are secretive. This species is seen singly or in small groups. Juveniles are found inside sponges (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009). This species is a mouthbrooder and during courtship, individuals form distinct pairs.
158626		population	eng	This species is reported to be common on reef flats and lagoons by Myers (1991) and also on reef slopes (O. Gon. pers comm. 2009). It may be moderately common overall (G. R. Allen pers comm. 2009).
158626		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nectamia fusca</span> is of no known commercial interest as a food source, or for the aquarium trade. It maybe impacted by localised threats such as cyanide fishing, coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, and habitat degradation associated with tourism. However, due to the localised nature of these threats, these are not thought to be causing a significant decline in the population size of this species at present.
158627		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias sheni</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Rowley Shoals Marine Park.
158627		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is widespread through Indonesia and northern Australia (Kuiter 2004).
158627		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is associated with coral reef habitats on the outer reef slope at a depth range of 25 - 46 m. It forms aggregations above the reef where it feeds on zooplankton (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
158627		population	eng	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is common on coral reefs in Indonesia and northern Australia (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).
158627		threats	eng	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, although this is unlikely to be driving a significant population decline. It may be undergoing further localised declines in abundance as a result of habitat degradation owing to coastal development and pollution, however these threats are not known throughout its entire range.
158628		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nectamia zebrinus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas, including the Ras Mohammed Marine Park off Sharm El Sheikh in Egypt.
158628		distribution	eng	<em>Nectamia </em><em>zebrinus</em> is known only from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
158628		habitat	eng	<em>Nectamia zebrinus</em> is found on coral reefs. Usually found singly or in small groups. It is a secretive species and is typically found sheltering in crevices on the reef during the day to a depth of 10 m. It emerges from the reef at night to feed on zooplankton. Males of this species mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching is ready to occur.
158628		population	eng	It is fairly common in its range, but never seen in large numbers (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).
158628		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. It is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation through coastal development and pollution, tourism, and boat traffic.
158630		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cochlefelis insidiator</em>.&#160; However, its distribution range may fall within a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations including the Cartier Island Marine Reserve.&#160; Further research into the abundance, potential threat processes, taxonomy, biology, ecology, and distribution of this species should be carried out.
158630		distribution	eng	<em>Cochlefelis insidiator</em> is a western central Pacific catfish, known from only four type specimens found in the Fly River Delta in Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (east of Darwin).
158630		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlefelis </span><em>insidiator</em> is a demersal species that inhabits marine and brackish waters.&#160; This species is found in shallow mudflats, river mouths and muddy coastal waters.
158630		population	eng	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlefelis</span> <em> insidiator</em>.&#160; In a recent collecting trip to Papua New Guinea, no specimens were found (R. Betancur pers. comm. 2008).
158630		threats	eng	It is not known if&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlefelis</span> <em> insidiator</em> is affected by any major threat processes at present.
158632		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Fringelip Blenny, however, it may occur in several marine protected areas within its range.
158632		distribution	eng	The Fringelip Blenny<em> (Salarias sinuosus</em>) is found from Pinda Island to Delgado Bay, Mozambique to the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean and in the western Pacific it is found from Japan to Australia and has recently been reported from Tonga.
158632		habitat	eng	The Fringelip Blenny is found in tidepools and around rocky shores and coral reefs down to 5 m.
158632		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Fringelip Blenny.
158632		threats	eng	There are no known major threat processes impacting the Fringelip Blenny.
158633		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species.
158633		distribution	eng	This species is found on a stretch (9-17 km) along the road Fakfak Town and Kokas, in the Fakfak Mountains (Günther 2008), in the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, near km 53 along the Nabire-Mapia road, and near Timika, western New Guinea, Papua Province (Irian Jaya) of Indonesia (R. Günther pers. comm. 2009). It is presumed to occur in between known localities. It is found between 600 and 860 m asl.
158633		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the edges of primary forests and/or secondary forests near standing or slowly running water. (R. Günther pers comm. 2009). Individuals can be found at day and at night perching on herbaceous plants, tall grasses and low shrubs (ca 0.5-2 m), near and in small ponds and ditches created near the road (Günther 2008). Calling activity has been heard for the months of April and September. It is not thought to survive in totally cleared areas (R. Günther pers. comm. 2009).
158633		population	eng	This species' population density appears to be high (Günther 2008).
158633		threats	eng	The general area where this species occurs has been cleared of primary forests for road construction, and these forests are now replaced by secondary growth and plantations (Günther 2008).
158634		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species.
158634		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, ca 7 km west of the Umar Bay coast, West Papua Province (Irian Jaya) of Indonesia. It occurs at 500 m asl (Günther 2008).
158634		habitat	eng	This species occurs within primary rain forest. Individuals can be found perching on shrubs close to streams and swamps (Günther 2008). It presumably breeds by laying eggs in water.
158634		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
158634		threats	eng	No threats are currently known for this species.
158635		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Further research into its life history, ecology, population size and threats is needed.
158635		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kewewol/Boulléré, Boké Préfecture, Sangaredi sub-Préfecture, northwestern Guinea (Hillers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), at about 200 m asl (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009). It is likely to be endemic to northwestern Guinea (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).
158635		habitat	eng	It is only known to occur within a gallery forest located in a small depression surrounded by savanna habitat. The forest is approximately 150 m wide where the species is found. The edges are dominated by shrubs, while there is a small number of larger trees in the central section, with a denser canopy and open shrub stratum. The only known specimen was found in the leaf litter of this central area, close to the river (  Hillers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  It presumably breeds in water bodies.
158635		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype.<br/><p></p>
158635		threats	eng	The gallery forest and savanna habitats are highly disturbed due to a number of settlements and agricultural encroachment (Hillers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008); the latter is mostly comprised of shifting agriculture, with a few small-holder exceptions (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009). In addition, there is bauxite mining in the region, so the combined effect of these threat factors is likely to affect the species' area of occurrence (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009). Increasing the number of mining concessions is likely to result in increased pressures on the species' natural habitat (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).
158636		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in Ulu Tahan,  <st1:place><st1:placename>Taman</st1:placename>  <st1:placename>Negara</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Pahang, <st1:place>West Malaysia</st1:place> (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).
158636		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Sungai Lembing, Gunug Benom, Ulu Tahan and Gunung Lawit, central and east Peninsular Malaysia. It is found at 255 m asl (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
158636		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hilly, closed canopy forests. Individuals of this species have been found at night, no more than one metre above the ground from within rock cracks along a rock wall close to small streams, and on the banks and along fast-flowing streams and rivers (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is assumed to breed in streams via larval development.
158636		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).
158636		threats	eng	Logging operations are taking place in the species' distribution range (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), and it has been found in low abundance at sites that had been selectively logged (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).   Clear-cut logging would pose a threat to this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009). There have been no dead animals found, neither are there any reported cases of the chytrid fungus in this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).
158637		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species.
158637		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fraser's Hill and Sungai Pergau,     Peninsular Malaysia, between 1,059-1,125 m asl (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).   Distributions are not expected to be continuous for this species based on the fact that it is only known from high elevations (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).
158637		habitat	eng	This species occurs in hilly, closed canopy forests. Individuals can be found at night, on rocks and small leaves approximately 0.5–1.5 m above the ground near small streams (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is presumed to breed in streams.
158637		population	eng	It is considered to be a rare species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).
158637		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation due to very small scale urban settlements and roads is a possible threat to this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009). Global warming could potentially pose a threat given that the species inhabitis cool montane habitats (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).    There have been no dead animals found, neither are there any reported cases of the chytrid fungus in this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).
158638		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest (Sengupta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). More information is needed on this species' population status, distribution and threats.
158638		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest, Kamrup district, Assam, northeastern India (Sengupta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
158638		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests. Individuals can be found near fast flowing streams and are associated with the splash zone of moist rock crevices with overhead canopy cover. Adults can be found in open areas at night, while tadpoles develop in these streams (Sengupta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
158638		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
158638		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on threats to this species.</p>
158649		conservation	eng	Information on the species habitat and its status on Palau is needed in order to assess whether it requires conservation action. There are no known conservation measures in place at present.
158649		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Micronesia and known from the islands Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) and Palau (Republic of Palau). From Palau only two records are known. From Yap records are known from 1939, 2001 and a series of records from 2005.
158649		habitat	eng	It is not known if this species breeds in running or stagnant waters. Adults are most often seen in the vicinity of trees or shrubs.
158649		population	eng	Information on this species abundance on Palau is lacking. Buden and Paulson (2007) showed that <em>Hemicordulia lulico</em> is not uncommon on Yap: <br/>"It was frequently seen flying (and seldom perched) along roadsides and wherever there were open spaces with at least scattered trees and shrubs. It was occasionally in forest but usually in small, open patches and not under closed canopy. Small groups of 5-15 were often seen flying in roughly circular routes approximately 2-4 m above the ground within areas several meters in diameter, especially during late afternoons in calm, windless days. All six specimens collected from one such aggregation on 22 June were males, and 25 of the 30 <em>Hemicordulia lulico</em> collected during the course of this study were males. A male and female were collected in tandem perched on the frond of a young coconut tree at the edge of a Nypha palm swamp on 17 July 2005."
158649		threats	eng	No information available on major threats to this species.
158650		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or known to be needed for this species.
158650		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia.  It is described as being common by Davies (2002) based on fieldwork in 1981 and 1983.
158650		habitat	eng	Davies (2002) notes this species is common in wooded areas.
158650		population	eng	There are is no detailed information available on the population size or trend although it is described as being common (Davies 2002).
158650		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
158651		conservation	eng	There is no information available on the conservation measures for <em>Trineuragrion percostale</em>.
158651		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand and only found in the northern end of the North Island. It has been found in Kauri forest in Northland and the Coromandel; it has also been recorded near Taumarunui (Rowe 1987).
158651		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to cool streams in heavy forest (Rowe 1987).
158651		population	eng	No information is known on population size and trend for this species.
158651		threats	eng	There are unknown threats to this species.
158652		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of or in place.
158652		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia and Davies (2002) mentions this species as being widely distributed over this area. Detailed information on number of localities is lacking.
158652		habitat	eng	Detailed information on habitat and ecology is lacking, although this species probably lives in streams, similar to the Australian <em>Isosticta</em> species.
158652		population	eng	No information is present on population size or trend.
158652		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
158653		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and it is not known if any are needed due to lack of survey effort.
158653		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha stevensoni</em> is known only from a single male collected on Nukualofa, Tonga, Samoa on 17 February 1925.
158653		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
158653		population	eng	There is no information available for population size or trends.
158653		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species.
158654		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
158654		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Island of Viti Levu (Fiji). Only a handful of specimens have been recorded and details on its abundance and choice of habitat are unknown.
158654		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on the habitat or ecology of this species.
158654		population	eng	No details are known on population trend or size.
158654		threats	eng	There is no information available on the threats to this species.
158655		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
158655		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Marquesas islands, French Polynesia and is known only from the type-series.
158655		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on ecology or preferred habitat for this species.
158655		population	eng	No details are known on population trend or size.
158655		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
158656		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
158656		distribution	eng	This species has a large range occurring from India to Australia.
158656		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit riverine lagoons, ponds (including temporary ponds) and swamps.
158656		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend for this species.
158656		threats	eng	Nothing is known on potential threats to this species.
158657		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place or needed at present.
158657		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and often common species occurring from Peninsular Malaysia and Japan to the Lesser Sundas (Indonesia).
158657		habitat	eng	This species occurs on lakes, in marshes and in rice fields.  It is mainly found in man-made habitats and is absent from well-developed forest.
158657		population	eng	<em>Neurothemis terminata</em> is often common when it is found in its preferred habitat.
158657		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
158658		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
158658		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia.  It is common around streams although possibly confined to the southern half of New Caledonia, found only as far north as the road from Boulouparis to Thio or perhaps the west to east road from Bourail to Canala. In the original description there were 13 localities given.
158658		habitat	eng	<em>Caledopteryx maculata</em> generally occurs in the steeper sections of forested catchments and is normally found near water. Oviposition was noticed to be directly onto steep rock faces, into a small rivulet flowing over a clay bed and into a steep hillside seepage area where leaf litter had accumulated. A teneral female was taken at a rock face approximately 1 m away from the water about halfway up a 3 m waterfall. Larvae were flushed with the point of a stiff leaf from horizontal cracks in the rocks on the faces of waterfalls (Winstanley and Davies 1982).
158658		population	eng	Davies (2002) described this species as common around streams.
158658		threats	eng	The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest and might have declined due to the reduction of the forest cover on New Caledonia.
158659		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
158659		distribution	eng	<em>Synthemis flexicauda</em> is endemic to New Caledonia and known from two localities which are 150 km apart. More fieldwork is needed to establish if this species is genuinely rare or merely overlooked.
158659		habitat	eng	One of the two records is from a pool along a small tributary of a river.
158659		population	eng	No details on population size and trends are known but it appears to be scarce.
158659		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
158660		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
158660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Davies (2002) described the species as being very common and to be seen everywhere in New Caledonia.
158660		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
158660		population	eng	No details known on the population trend or size but described as very common (Davies 2002).
158660		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
158661		conservation	eng	In 1987 (Rowe) it was noted the species had shown a decline but since then no new information on the status of the species has been published.  There are no known conservation measures in place or known to be required.
158661		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand.
158661		habitat	eng	Rowe (1987) noted "Oviposition has often been seen over, and into, flowing waters of streams and rivers, but larvae are rarely collected from such habitats. Larvae and exuviae have been recorded from the detritus areas of raupo beds, small bog ponds alongside streams and pools, backwaters and flood ponds of streams. Adults are often very common in areas where the only permanent water is in streams".
158661		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trends for this species.
158661		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species at present or in the future.
158662		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
158662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from only two specimens: a male from a stream on Mt. Pouedihi, 15 km west of Ouenarou Forest station (5 November 1972) and a female from 18 February 1983 also from "southern New Caledonia between Noumea and Yate" (Davies 2002).
158662		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
158662		population	eng	No details are known about population size and trends.
158662		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to this species.
158663		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
158663		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia and is confined to the northern two-thirds of the island.  It is known to be common at all suitable rocky streams (Davies 2002).  Winstanley and Davies (1982) give 13 localities.
158663		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs in the steeper sections of forested catchments and is normally found near water.
158663		population	eng	No details are known on population size or trend but it is said to be common at all suitable rocky streams (Davies 2002).
158663		threats	eng	The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest and might have declined due to the reduction of the forest cover on New Caledonia.
158664		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
158664		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It seems to be restricted to the Plaine des Lacs in the southern corner of New Caledonia, a low lying area of approximately 50 by 20 km. Detailed information on the number of locations has not been published but at the moment fewer than 10 localities are known.
158664		habitat	eng	The species breeds in both deep rocky ponds and muddy ponds and probably requires reeds for shelter.
158664		population	eng	No details are known on the population size.
158664		threats	eng	The low lying area where this species occurs has rich nickel deposits which has attracted extensive and destructive open-cast mining.
158665		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
158665		distribution	eng	<em>Trineuragrion percostale</em> is endemic to New Caledonia and widespread across the island. Mentioned to be common along forest-edge streams. Lieftinck (1975) states that it is also found in the New Hebrides but I am unaware of the justification for this statement.
158665		habitat	eng	This species has been noted to be common along forest-edge streams (Davies 2002).
158665		population	eng	This species has been noted to be common along forest-edge streams (Davies 2002).
158665		threats	eng	The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest and might have declined due to the reduction of the forest cover on New Caledonia.
158666		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
158666		distribution	eng	This species is known from seven males and one female collected in French Polynesia on the Marquesas islands of Uapou and Tahuata in 1929 and 1930.
158666		habitat	eng	The collected specimens were collected from an altitude of  between 650-1,500 ft. No further details known on actual habitat preference or ecology.
158666		population	eng	No details are known on the population size or trend for this species.
158666		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats affecting this species.
158667		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place or needed.
158667		distribution	eng	<em>Synthemis campioni </em> is endemic to New Caledonia and is described as 'widespread throughout the island' by Davies (2002).
158667		habitat	eng	Noted by Davies (2002) to be frequent on stony rivers.
158667		population	eng	No details are known on the population size or trends of this species.
158667		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to this species.
158668		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures known in place.
158668		distribution	eng	<em>Metaphya elongata </em> is endemic to New Caledonia. Detailed information on number of localities is lacking, although Davies (2002) mentions that it is quite abundant in the right places in the right times. The species has thus far been recorded from the south of the island but the northern parts have been less well explored and it is likely that the species is present there also.
158668		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown although due to its distribution it is likely to be at least partly dependant on forest habitats.
158668		population	eng	There is no information available on population size.
158668		threats	eng	Although no details are known on the habitat preference of this species, it is thought to be partly dependent on forest habitats from its distribution and therefore be affected by habitat degradation in the form of forest extraction.
158672		conservation	eng	Despite the various threats affecting <em>Nesobasis rufostigma</em>, there are no conservation measures in place.
158672		distribution	eng	<em>Nesobasis rufostigma</em> is endemic to Viti Levu, Koro, and Ovalau Islands (Fiji).
158672		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high-velocity streams at higher elevations in forested areas.
158672		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158672		threats	eng	Deforestation/logging, mineral extraction activities, urbanization/habitat alteration and climate change are threats affecting this species.
158673		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
158673		distribution	eng	<em>Hemicordulia oceanica</em> is endemic to Samoa, Tahiti, Society Islands and Raiatea.
158673		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.
158673		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158673		threats	eng	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.
158674		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
158674		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Samoa.
158674		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.
158674		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158674		threats	eng	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.
158675		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
158675		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Samoa.
158675		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.
158675		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158675		threats	eng	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.
158676		conservation	eng	Despite the various threats affecting this species, there are no conservation measures in place at present.  Further research is required to fully understand the status, size and range of the population.
158676		distribution	eng	<em>Melanesobasis maculosa</em> is endemic to Viti Levu (Fiji).
158676		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high-velocity streams at higher elevations in forested areas.
158676		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158676		threats	eng	Deforestation/logging, mineral extraction activities, urbanization/habitat alteration and climate change are all threats affecting <em>Melanesobasis maculosa</em>.
158677		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
158677		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Samoa.
158677		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.
158677		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158677		threats	eng	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.
158678		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and further research is required to fill in the missing information for this species.
158678		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Samoa.
158678		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.
158678		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158678		threats	eng	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.
158679		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for <em>Ischnura buxtoni</em>.  Further research is required to fully understand the status, population size and range.
158679		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Samoa.
158679		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.
158679		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.
158679		threats	eng	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.
158682		conservation	eng	Habitat protection.
158682		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through policy-based actions. Research into habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
158682		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158682		conservation	eng	The species does not require specific conservation actions at the moment. It is however one of several species inhabiting running waters that may be impacted in the long term by climate change and the increasing demand for water.
158682		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum coerulescens</em> is widespread in Europe and southwestern Asia, as well as North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Lybia).
158682		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum coerulescens</em> is widespread in Europe and southwestern Asia, as well as northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya).
158682		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> is a largely western Palaearctic species which is widespread in Europe and the Maghreb and extends to northwest India in the east (Mauersberger 1994) and southern Fennoscandia in the north. It is largely absent from the Baltic states and countries east of Poland.
158682		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> is common around the Mediterranean, more locally in central and northern Europe whilst marginally entering into Russia.
158682		habitat	eng	<em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> inhabits running waters, such as streams and ditches. In the north of its range, mainly runnels in boggy areas.
158682		habitat	eng	Mainly streams and ditches in the region.
158682		habitat	eng	The species is mostly found at largely unshaded, permanent, small, moderately overgrown, running waters like brooks, runnels or ditches. It inhabits also standing waters, springs, seepages near pools or heathland. The habitat preferences seem to vary across its range, for example, lakes in the north, peat bogs in the west, and intermittent rivers in the Mediterranean.
158682		population	eng	Abundant.
158682		population	eng	No detailed information is known on the population size or trend of this species, but it is noted to be common and has extended its range over the past twenty years.
158682		population	eng	The species is widespread within its range and often abundant.
158682		population	eng	This species is abundant.
158682		threats	eng	Ground water extraction and pollution.
158682		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> is the production of crops and then the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158682		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat degradation caused by agriculture, ground water extraction, infrastructure development and water pollution.
158682		threats	eng	This species is currently not under threat, but is impacted by the increased demand for irrigation or drinking water. Groundwater extraction can lead to a decrease of the amount of seepage water. In the south and partly in the centre of its range the species is affected by climate change due to the desiccation of brooks and runnels. The abandonment of traditional use of ditches such as mowing and cleaning, leads to the species decline.
158683		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are only needed in the southern part of its range. Monitoring of these populations and their trend is therefore advisable. When needed local management plans should be made.
158683		conservation	eng	Research into population size, range and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, as well as conservation measures to restore degraded habitat and to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158683		distribution	eng	<em>Leucorrhinia dubia</em> is a northern Palearctic species, ranging eastwards to Siberia. The species is common in north Europe and it is fairly common in suitable habitats in the northern part of central Europe. It is scarcer in the south of Europe where it is confined to mountains such as the Alps (common), the Massif Central and the Pyrenees. There are only four known locations in the Balkans: one in Bulgaria, two in Montenegro and one in Serbia.
158683		distribution	eng	<em>Leucorrhinia dubia</em> is widespread in northern Europe and northwestern Asia although it is now considered to be a relict in the south of its range (less abundant than previously recorded).
158683		habitat	eng	<em>Leucorrhinia dubia</em> inhabits bogs, ponds, tarns, lakes, usually acidic and often in forest. Larvae are sensitive to fish predation, and so the species does better where fish are not present, such as small pools in raised bogs.
158683		habitat	eng	The species occurs most often in acidic forest waters with a <em>Sphagnum</em> vegetation. It is found in fish free waters or avoid fish by living in the <em>Sphagnum</em> vegetation (larvae).
158683		population	eng	Detailed numbers are not known on population size or trends, although in the southern part of its range this species is thought to be decreasing.  It is considered common in the remainder of its range.
158683		population	eng	<em>L. dubia</em> is common in large parts of northern Europe and often occurs in high densities. Although in northwest Germany, the species is declining.
158683		threats	eng	In the northeastern part of its range, the species is not threatened but the species has declined in parts of Central Europe due to habitat destruction and eutrophication of bogs and lakes. These threats are now less significant as eutrophication ceased and many habitats are found in reserves or in areas where there is relatively little human impact. In the south of its range the species is more rare and often exists in isolated populations. Here the species is regionally threatened by infrastucture developments for tourism in the mountains and locally by the introduction of fish as well as groundwater extraction. In northwestern Germany, the population decline is probably caused by eutrophication due to atmospheric input. Climate change also affects these southern populations. <em>L. dubia</em> is affected negatively in the southern part of its range by climatic changes, e.g. in the German federal states Rhineland-Palatnate and Bavaria (Ott 2008).
158683		threats	eng	The destruction of habitat through agricultural production and associated effects of water pollution are continuing threats to this species.
158684		conservation	eng	No information available.
158684		conservation	eng	None needed.
158684		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158684		conservation	eng	The species is naturally fluctuating in relation to the prevailing weather conditions and this is not the sign of a true decline. Therefore, no conservation measures are needed.
158684		distribution	eng	A species of southern Europe, which has increased dramatically in northern Europe since the mid 1990s, first reaching Great Britain in 2002, eastwards to Mongolia and northern China. Maybe absent from areas for a number of years, suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for many years.
158684		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is present in central and southern Europe, and in northern Africa. It is a strong wanderer that ranges east to Mongolia. Although it can be absent during many years from certain areas, it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). <br><br>In northern Africa, it has a patchy distribution in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species aestivates in wet forests.
158684		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is present in central and southern Europe, and in northern Africa. It is a strong wanderer that ranges east to Mongolia. Although it can be absent during many years from certain areas, it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa, it has a patchy distribution in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species aestivates in wet forests.
158684		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> ranges from the Maghreb to the northwest of India, Mongolia and the south of Siberia. To the north it extends over southern, western and central Europe. It is a strong wanderer that shows more isolated and sometimes short-lived populations up to southeast England (since 2002) and north to Lithuania. In the northern half of Europe, it may be absent for many years and then it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years. It shows a northern expansion since the mid 1990s.
158684		habitat	eng	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> inhabits sunny standing waters. The species favours temporary water conditions, which are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune and meadow pools, shallow depressions and delta brackish hydrosystems. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring to autumn but usually hatch after winter, when the temporary pools are filled. Then the larval period is very short (1-2 months) so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation. This is a perfect adaptation to the Mediterranean and related climates, where the rain season is restricted from autumn to early spring.
158684		habitat	eng	The species favours ephemeral conditions even more so than other <em>Lestes</em> species, typically visiting sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune slacks, meadow pools and shallow depressions.
158684		habitat	eng	This species favors ephemeral conditions even more so then other <em>Lestes</em> species; such conditions are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune slacks, meadow pools and shallow depressions (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
158684		habitat	eng	This species favours ephemeral conditions even more so then other <em>Lestes</em> species; such conditions are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune slacks, meadow pools and shallow depressions (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
158684		population	eng	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is common throughout its range and has expanded its range in recent years although detailed numbers and population trends are lacking.
158684		population	eng	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is widespread and fairly common in the main part of its range.
158684		population	eng	Nothing is known about population abundance or trends in northern Africa.
158684		threats	eng	No major threats known.
158684		threats	eng	None.
158684		threats	eng	There are a variety of ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Lestes barbarus</em>and the majority of these threats are rooted in land management, both agricultural and non-agricultural.  Water pollution is also having a direct effect on the habitat of this species.
158684		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats at present at European level. Destruction of habitat by agriculture and tourism infrastructure is a general threat all along the Mediterranean coast.
158685		conservation	eng	Conservation action is not required at present. The taxonomic status of <em>S. nigrescens</em> needs to be resolved.
158685		conservation	eng	None needed at present.
158685		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends of <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158685		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is common and widespread from Europe to Japan and around the Mediterranean.
158685		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is widespread in Europe and the Maghreb and is found eastwards to east Asia where it is represented by several closely related subspecies which are sometimes regarded as full species. The species is very common in most of Europe but becomes scarcer to the north only reaching the southern third of Scandinavia.
158685		distribution	eng	In Africa, <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is restricted to northern areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species is widespread in Europe to central Asia.
158685		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is restricted to northern areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species is widespread in Europe to central Asia.
158685		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> inhabits a wide range of habitats, especially preferring warm, stagnant waters. These are often shallow and bare; this species is a pioneer of newly created ponds. Occasionally found in flowing or brackish waters.
158685		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is found in a large range of largely unshaded, standing waters or seldom in slowly running waters. The species is often found in man-made habitats and is one of the first species to colonise new ponds or quarries. It occasionally occurs in running or brackish waters.
158685		habitat	eng	Wide range of habitats, specially preferring warm, stagnant waters. These are often shallow and bare, this species being a pioneer of newly created ponds. Occasionally in flowing or brackish water (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
158685		population	eng	Common within its range.
158685		population	eng	The species is generally common and abundant throughout its European range; it becomes scarcer and more localised in the Baltic States and Fennoscandia.
158685		population	eng	This species is thought to be common throughout its range although detailed numbers are lacking and so to are trends.
158685		threats	eng	Not known at present.
158685		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is crop production and the associated water pollution also has a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158685		threats	eng	The species is not threatened.
158686		conservation	eng	<em>Aeshna grandis</em> populations are being researched and monitored although further studies are needed.
158686		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures needed.
158686		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna grandis</em> is a largely European species that is found east to the lake Baikal area. Its European range is largely confined to Central and Northern Europe. Its continuous range goes south to the Massif Central, the Alps and the mountains of Romania. Isolated populations are present in the Pyrenees (Spain and France) and Montenegro. In the south of its range, already in the south of Germany, the species becomes largely confined to mountainous areas. It is reasonably common in much of its Central European range but becomes almost omnipresent and abundant in the north and northeast of its range. In the west and south, the species clearly favours forested areas and is lacking in the open landscapes of Hungary. In the Ukraine, it is mostly distributed in the north, becomes more rare in the south and is absent in the Black Sea region.
158686		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna grandis</em> is found in northeastern and central Europe, and east to Lake Baikal in Russia.
158686		habitat	eng	In the northern part of its range it is found in a wide variety of standing and slowly flowing waters. The species is found at a large variety of habitats such as larger pools, lakes, canals, oxbows and fenlands. It is also found in water storage areas, ponds, ditches and peat excavations. Most habitats have in common that they are situated in forested areas and have a rich bank side or submerged vegetation. In the south and west of its European range, the species is absent from habitats in the early stages of succession and seems to need more mature habitats. The numbers of emerging adults found at a single site is generally low which led to the suggestion that several suitable habitats at close distance from each other are needed to have a vital population. This seems to be true for most of Central Europe, however in Eastern Europe the situation might be different. In Central Europe the majority of populations is found in man made habitats, but again this might be different in the east of its range.
158686		habitat	eng	This species breeds in a wide range of calm waters, usually with rich bank-side or submerged vegetation, such as abandoned canals, oxbows and fenlands. Adults are often seen in forested areas.
158686		population	eng	The species is widespread in most of its Central and Northern European range and becomes scarcer and more confined to mountains towards the south. In the south of its range populations are often more isolated and relatively small. Although widespread in much of Central Europe the numbers are often low and at most reproduction habitats only several to a few dozens of emerging adults can be found each year. The species is more common in the north and northeast of its range and the numbers of specimens emerging from a single habitat is often higher there.
158686		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its range although no information on population size or trend.
158686		threats	eng	The destruction of habitat through agricultural practices and pollution, are a threat to <em>Aeshna grandis</em>.
158686		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species. Some of the isolated occurrences in the south, like those in the Pyrenees and Montenegro, might be threatened by climate change.
158687		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed for this species.
158687		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis latipes</em> is an Atlanto West Mediterranean endemic which is known from Iberia and France only, where it is generally common.
158687		habitat	eng	<em>Platycnemis latipes</em> occurs mainly in low to moderately fast running waters in lowlands and hilly areas. It is rarely met in standing waters.
158687		population	eng	The species is common and occurs often in large populations.
158687		threats	eng	The species is common and is not threatened in spite of its restricted range.
158688		conservation	eng	Especially the central European populations should be protected from the impact of grazing by cattle and from tourist activities. There is no need for conservation measures for the northern populations. The main threat is probably climate change. Except from increasing the amount of available habitat there is little which can be done to counterbalance the impact of climate change.
158688		conservation	eng	There are a number of conservation measures already implemented for <em>Aeshna caerulea</em>, including monitoring its population trends and range.  However restoration and conservation of its habitat are required as it is declining in some areas of its range, particularly in central Europe.
158688		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna caerula</em> ranges from Scotland to Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. It has a boreal-alpine distribution being common and widespread in the Taiga and Tundra areas and having a patchy distribution in mountains further south. It is one of the most northerly species in the world extending to the North Cape. In Europe its lowland areal goes south to Scotland, the south of Sweden, northern Latvia and the northern parts of Russia. In the Siberian part of its range its lowland distribution reaches further south to the area of lake Baikal. In central Europe the species is confined to mountains and it is reasonably widespread in the Alps, seemingly scarce and localised in the Sudety mountains from the northern Czech Republic to southern Poland and in the Carpathians in northern and eastern Slovakia. It is scarce in the western parts of the Bohemian Forest (Šumava). In Slovakia it occurs close to the Ukraine border and it is likely to be present in this country as well. The species has been mentioned for the Bihar mountains in Romania but this record has never been confirmed and although the occurrence of this species in Romania is not unlikely it is here regarded as doubtful. A record from Gomelskaya oblast in the south of Belarus was published without further information and is also considered doubtful and assumed incorrect. If true it would constitute the southernmost lowland record in Europe (Buczyński <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In its Central European range it does not occur below 800 m and almost all records are from 1,000 m or above.<br/><br/>In some central European countries the species is limited to a small number of populations making it vulnerable for local extinction. In Poland, Czech Republic as well as in Slovakia it has a very patchy distribution. In France <em>Aeshna caerulea</em> is known with certainty only from four localities from the Haute-Savoie department (municipalities of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Vallorcine and Samoëns), within a range of 1,700-2,200 m. In Italy the species was only known from three localities until 2006. The record above Passo Rolle (Dolomiti) has been confirmed but the two other localities, the Lago di Chiesa in Valmalenco (1,600 m, Lombardy) and a pond in Val Vallaga (2,000 m Alto Adige) are in need of confirmation. From 2006 onwards, six new localities were found in Alto Adige (Libella Group, pers comm.). In Slovenia, the species is only known from one record, and so far, no populations have been found. In Germany the species is limited to Baden-Württemberg (one population in the Black Forest) and two regions in the south of Bayern.
158688		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna caerulea </em> is a boreal species that is numerous in Eurasias polar regions, post-glacial relicts in Scotland, central European mountains (above 1,000 m) and the Caucasus.
158688		habitat	eng	<em>Aeshna caerulea</em> is adapted to live in areas with long, strong winters and short summers with a low air temperature. This enables the species to live in areas where most other dragonflies are unable to live. It seems that in warmer areas it is out-competed by other dragonflies such as <em>Aeshna juncea</em>. In colder areas its range of habitats seems to be broader probably due to the reduced pressure of other species. In the north of Europe, in its lowland range, the species is present in standing waters and sometimes in slowly running waters. Here it can be found in bog pools and sedge swamps in moors, heaths and tundra’s. Above the tree line it is mostly found in peaty pools. In its central European, mountainous part of its range the species is exclusively found in standing waters above 800 m. Here it is found in permanent waters of mostly 5 to 80 m<sup>2</sup> surface and with a water depth of generally 20 cm or less. The vegetation consists of <em>Sphagnum</em>, sedges (<em>Carex</em>) and Cottongrass (<em>Eriophorum</em>). The water is frozen for a large part of the year. The water temperature can however rise quickly during day-time in spring and summer to temperatures above 20 degrees Celsius.
158688		habitat	eng	This species can be found in alpine and arctic moors, heaths and tundra. It breeds in bog pools and sedge swamps, and is seldom found below 1,000 m in the Alps.
158688		population	eng	There is no information known on the population size or trend of this species.
158688		population	eng	The species is common in the northern part of its range where it is one of the most common dragonfly species. To the south of its lowland range it is already getting scarcer being more confined to higher areas and occurring in smaller numbers. The species is scarcer in the central European mountain range, where many populations are isolated and small, although larger population with several thousands of specimens have also been found there.
158688		threats	eng	In the north of its range the species is mainly found in areas with low environmental pressure. Most of the populations in the central European mountains are also located in areas with relatively little human impact. However, populations in farmland or in touristic areas are threatened by the impacts of cattle trampling the vegetation and tourist activities (introduction of fish, boats). <br/>The distribution of the species is largely determined by its need for a cold climate reducing the competition of other species. Climate change is likely impacting the distribution of this species already. The impact is likely to be most severe in its Central European range where there are more isolated occurrences. Especially the populations in the western parts of the Tatra, Sudety mountains and the Bohemian Forest are threatened as there are relatively few populations which mostly lie at altitudes which are already on the verge of its climatological possibilities.
158688		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction; the clear-cutting of forests, changes in management regimes of non-agricultural based land and infrastructure development, especially tourism.  Possible future threats include atmospheric pollution such as global warming.
158689		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss and degradation as none are in place at present.
158689		conservation	eng	The ecology of this species is still not well understood and more research is needed. No further conservation measures are needed at the moment.
158689		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum albistylum</em> occurs from central and south Europe to China and Japan. Its distribution is often patchy but in many areas it is common. The species has recently spread its range northwards to the Baltic Sea coast in Poland.
158689		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum albistylum</em> ranges from western Europe eastwards to Japan and mainly occupies the warmer parts of the temperate region of Europe and Asia. The species is reasonably widespread in eastern Europe where it occurs northwards to central Poland but has a small range in west Europe where it is largely confined to the southern two-thirds of France and northern Italy.<br/>The northern distribution within Europe seems to be determined to a large extent by the summer temperatures. An expansion of its range most probably due to the increased summer temperatures was noted in Switzerland, Poland and the German states of Baden-Württemberg and Bayern (Buczyński <em>et al.</em> 2002, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006, Monnerat 2005, Weihrauch <em>et al.</em> 2003).
158689		habitat	eng	The species is mostly found in largely unshaded, warm standing or slow-flowing waters. It frequently occurs at man-made waters like channels, quarries and ponds. The species is also often found at marshes, pools and oxbows in river systems.
158689		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open ponds and lakes, including man-made habitats.
158689		population	eng	There is no detailed information known on the population size or trend of this species, just that it can be common in areas of its range.
158689		population	eng	The species has a patchy distribution but is generally not uncommon within its European range. The populations are frequently large.
158689		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Orthetrum albistylum</em> is the production of crops and then the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158689		threats	eng	The species does not face any major threats.
158690		conservation	eng	Currently no specific actions are needed.
158690		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
158690		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation is needed.
158690		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends of <em>Sympecma fusca</em> are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158690		distribution	eng	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> is common in large parts of Europe extending to central Asia. It is currently expanding rapidly on the northern edge of its range, although populations appear to be scarce and fluctuating.
158690		distribution	eng	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> is largely confined to the Western Palaearctic and more than half of its area of distribution lies in Europe. The species is widespread and regionally common in southern and central Europe. <em>S. fusca</em> is expanding its range northwards in the Netherlands and Sweden since the 1990s. The species is almost absent from European Russia. Its distribution in Belarus is poorly known.
158690		distribution	eng	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> ranges from North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia) and Europe to Central Asia.
158690		distribution	eng	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> ranges from northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia) and Europe to Central Asia.
158690		habitat	eng	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> inhabits all kinds of well-vegetated standing waters, especially where there are floating dead reeds or rushes.
158690		habitat	eng	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> occurs at standing or slow-flowing waters with abundant vegetation and the presence of dead, floating plants in spring. The latter must have a soft tissue as they are used for oviposition. A wide variety of habitats are used, such as bogs, marshes, large lakes and gravel pits. The species mates and lays eggs in early spring, emerges in summer and hibernates as adult. This has consequences for the preferred habitat. The habitat needs to have a warm local climate allowing the adult to be active already in the period from February to April. Larvae need to develop fast in a period of only several weeks to three months and thus need relatively warm water with a high abundance of prey allowing a fast growth. After emergence the adults need place to feed after which they disperse to their wintering site. The wintering site is often at several kilometres distance from the reproduction site. Wintering often takes place in dead herbs or grasses of half a meter to a meter high near or in open forest.
158690		habitat	eng	Found on seasonal and permanent marshes, ponds and lakes. Winters as adult before breeding in early spring. Rapid larval development ensures emergence in spring (Corbet 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b).
158690		habitat	eng	Seasonal and permanent marshes, ponds and lakes. Winters as adult before breeding in early spring. Rapid larval development ensures emergence in Spring (Corbet 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b).
158690		population	eng	Exact numbers are unknown, but it is common in its range, and expanding northwards although numbers are thought to be sparse and prone to fluctuations there.
158690		population	eng	No information available.
158690		population	eng	The species is generally common in its range and is often abundant. In some countries such as Hungary it is one of the most common damselflies.
158690		population	eng	Unknown.
158690		threats	eng	For unclear reasons the species showed a decline in at least the northwestern part of its range in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s the species had become rare in large parts of Central and western Europe and was deemed threatened on several national Red Lists such as those of Germany, The Netherlands and Belgium. Since then, the species has shown a strong increase and presently it is not believed to be under threat in any of the European states. At the moment there are no threats which are specifically impacting on this species.
158690		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by ongoing agricultural actions and the associated water pollution is having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158690		threats	eng	Habitat modifications such as trampling by livestock, especially cattle, are likely to impact the habitat of this species.
158690		threats	eng	Habitat modifications. Trampling by livestock, especially cattle, is likely to impact upon the species habitat.
158691		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
158691		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. The identification of new protected areas would also be useful.
158691		conservation	eng	Investigations into population numbers and trends of <em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> are in process although extensive fieldwork is still needed in this area of research.  There are no conservation measures in place that deal with the threat of habitat destruction.
158691		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measurements are not needed.
158691		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> is found from northwest Africa (Maghreb) and Europe eastwards through western Siberia and Southwest Asia to the northwestern part of Mongolia. The species is widespread in the southern two thirds of Europe but becomes scarce in the arid regions of the Mediterranean and is absent or rare on the Mediterranean islands. The species is absent from the northern three-quarters of Scandinavia.
158691		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> is generally common all over Europe, except far north and east to Siberia.
158691		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> ranges across large parts of Europe to Siberia. In the south: Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), it is scattered and quite rare.
158691		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> ranges across large parts of Europe to Siberia. In the south (Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa) it is scattered and quite rare.
158691		habitat	eng	<em>S. sanguineum</em> is found in standing or rarely in slow-flowing waters with a rich aquatic and bank side vegetation. It is most often found in marshy vegetation along lakes and ponds.
158691		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> prefers waters with lush marshy vegetation and generally avoids running or acidic waters. Sites are often eutrophic and permanent, but they can also breed in seasonally wet swamps.
158691		habitat	eng	In north Africa, <em>S. sanguineum</em> is a 'summer species'. The eggs undergo embryonic diapause (Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It is found in freshwater marshes, lakes and dunary slacks.
158691		habitat	eng	In North Africa, <em>S. sanguineum</em> is a 'summer species' whose egges undergo embryonic diapause (Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It is found in freshwater marshes, lakes and dunary slacks.
158691		population	eng	It is thought to be common in its range, but detailed numbers are unknown.
158691		population	eng	The species is widespread and common in its range and is one of the most common dragonflies in Central Europe.
158691		population	eng	This species is never abundant in northern Africa.
158691		threats	eng	Breeding habitat modifications caused by groundwater extraction and infrastructure development are threats to the species.
158691		threats	eng	Habitat modifications.
158691		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> is crop production and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158691		threats	eng	The species is not under any specific threat.
158692		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation is required. Does occur in protected areas, but these are not managed or well protected. Effective management is lacking even within protected areas.
158692		conservation	eng	The maintenance and conservation of the habitat and therefore species is needed.
158692		conservation	eng	The species is not threatened on a European level. The species is however rare in some regions and has shown locally a strong decline. At these locations, management plans for the conservation and restoration of habitats are needed.
158692		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> is a largely European species occurring east through Turkey, the Levant to the Caucasus and the border of the Caspian Sea in Iran. The species is rare in North Africa and confined to the northern Maghreb. Except for isolated populations in Norfolk and Suffolk it is absent in Ireland and Great Britain. To the north it is found to the southern tip of Sweden, Gotland and Latvia. Although it is distributed over a large part of Europe it is rare to absent in large areas. This pattern seems to be largely explained by its preference for warmer areas combined with its preferences for extensive reed marshes or beds of Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>). Due to this it is absent from mountain areas and large parts of the north (too cold) while it is rare for instance in the Iberian Peninsula and large parts of Germany, probably due to the lack of extensive reed marshes.
158692		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> occurs in central and southern Europe and in northern Africa. It is very localised across much of its range, especially in the southwest (Iberia and northern Africa). It is often numerous where present.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. The species is known from six localities in Morocco.
158692		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> occurs in central and southern Europe and in northern Africa. It is very localised across much of its range, especially in the southwest (Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa). It is often numerous where present.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. The species is known from six localities in Morocco.
158692		distribution	eng	Largely a central and south-eastern European species; locally also in southwest Europe.
158692		habitat	eng	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> is found around ditches, marshes, ponds and lakes with rich vegetation. It favours swamps of <em>Stratiotes aloides</em> in most of its northern range and sometimes running water in the southern part of its range.
158692		habitat	eng	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> prefers extensive bank vegetation of reed, bullrush (<em>Typha</em>) or Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>). Throughout its range it reproduces at reed beds at standing or sometimes slowly flowing waters like channels, marshes, ponds, and lakes. In the north of its range it is often abundant at vegetations of Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>), which occurs in standing water of good quality, mostly in low peat areas. Preferred are sunny habitats, that have some shelter from the wind and are never largely shaded.
158692		habitat	eng	Usually breeds in large, sunny standing waterbodies with rich vegetation, such as ditches, marshes, ponds and lakes. In Morocco it has been found in fast flowing water.
158692		population	eng	There is no information known on the population size or trend of this species.
158692		population	eng	The species has a large European range although it is in many areas rare to absent. In areas where it does occur it can be very abundant and is often found in high numbers. Regionally the species seems to have declined in the recent past. Good indication for this is known from Belgium and some parts of Germany (De Knijf <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ott and Piper 1998). On the other hand a strong increase has been seen in areas such as Britain, northeast France and the Netherlands.
158692		population	eng	Widespread, but never abundant. In Morocco there six localities, and in Algeria there are two.
158692		threats	eng	Drying of swamps. Habitat loss generally, and pollution from domestic sources and livestock.
158692		threats	eng	The habitat is continually being affected by land management of non-agricultural areas.
158692		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to desiccation of swamps and pollution from domestic and livestock sources are threats to the species.
158692		threats	eng	There is no indication for a major decline throughout its range. However, due to the patchiness of its distribution there are many areas with isolated occurrences and regionally the species is often threatened. In areas where it is mainly found in vegetation with Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>) the species is mainly threatened by a decline of this plant due to decrease of water quality. Especially the increase of phosphate in the water seems to induce major decline of this plant. Also mismanagement of vegetation of Water Soldier is a threat. Without management these vegetations will ultimately disappear and dredging the plants of Water Soldier every two or three years is needed to maintain the vegetation. However mismanagement might lead to the removal of all Water soldier vegetation in an area at once, which has a negative impact on the species. The species is less susceptible for the water quality in areas where the species mainly occurs in vegetation with reed. Here alteration of the habitat or a too intensive use of the banks is a threat.<br/>Especially in Central and Western Europe much suitable habitat went lost in the last century due to the conversion of marshland to farmland or to the further improvement of farmland. This issue has become less pressing in Central Europe, however it is not unlikely that large amounts of suitable habitat are being converted in order to improve farmland in eastern Europe.
158693		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158693		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis dealbata</em> is found in southeastern Turkey to Kashmir and the Caspian coast, it is limited in the south by the Sinai, Syrian Desert and Persian Gulf.
158693		habitat	eng	This species is found in all types of running waters.
158693		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range although the size and trend of the global population is unknown.
158693		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Platycnemis dealbata</em> is the production of crops and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158694		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in place now include habitat conservation and restoration, surveys on distribution and population monitoring.
158694		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
158694		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation required.
158694		conservation	eng	There is no indication of a strong decline anywhere in its range and conservation measures are not necessary.
158694		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> is distributed from Europe eastwards to Mongolia. In Europe its main range is found in the south although it is relatively uncommon in the Iberian Peninsula and parts of Italy. It favours warm summers and in Europe it occurs more northerly in the east of its range probably as result of the higher summer temperatures in that region. The recent increase in summer temperature has led to an expansion of its European range to the north which led to the species becoming established in The Netherlands, northern Germany and being recorded for the first time in Denmark in 2006.
158694		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> is found around the Mediterranean, east to Mongolia, north to The Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Belarus and Lithuania; it is scarce in much of Iberia and north Africa. Hot summers can lead to influxes further north; at time of assessment this species had increased its range northwards in the northern most countries.
158694		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> occurs permanently only around the Mediterranean. It is scarce in most of the Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa. In northern Africa, it is present in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The species is very localised in Algeria. Present in the Riff Mountains in Morocco.
158694		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> occurs permanently only around the Mediterranean. It is scarce in most of the Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa. In northern Africa, it is present in Tunisia, Algeria (very localized) and Morocco (Riff Mountains).
158694		habitat	eng	Prefers standing waterbodies in open areas or forest clearings, that dry up in summer and are often overgrown with vegetation. The species can breed in places seasonally wet locations.
158694		habitat	eng	Prefers standing waterbodies in open areas or forest clearings, that dry up in summer and are often overgrown with vegetation. The species can breed in seasonally wet locations.
158694		habitat	eng	The species exclusively reproduces at standing waters. It prefers shallow, well-vegetated waters sheltered from the wind and exposed to the sun. Many of the habitats dry up partially during summer and become covered with vegetation often including rushes (<em>Juncus</em>), sedges (<em>Carex</em>) or low reed (<em>Phragmites</em>). In Italy, it was also found in rice fields  in the past.
158694		habitat	eng	This species prefers standing water bodies that dry up over the summer that are often overgrown with low rushes, bulrushes or reeds.
158694		population	eng	It is not abundant and populations are dwindling across the region, especially since the 1990s.
158694		population	eng	There is no information known on the population size of this species.
158694		population	eng	The species is rare north of the Alps and the Loire but widespread in South Europe. In the southern parts of the Ukraine it is common but in other parts such as the Iberian Peninsula it is scarce. The number of specimens varies strongly per site, ranging from some specimens to 1,000.
158694		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss, water extraction.
158694		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat degradation and loss caused by agriculture and water extraction.
158694		threats	eng	There are a variety of threats affecting <em>Aeshna affinis</em> including habitat destruction through agricultural development and human settlement.  These threats are ongoing, as is pollution, although domestic and commercial water pollution appears to have now ceased.
158694		threats	eng	The species is currently not threatened. It is able to reproduce in waters that dry up in summer as long as the habitat contains water until the end of spring.
158695		conservation	eng	Control of pollution and of water use for agricultural, urban and industrial purpose, as well as protection and management of sunny riverine forest are needed for the conservation of the present populations.
158695		conservation	eng	Streams are heavily impacted and need efficient conservation measures to protect their forest-gallery.
158695		conservation	eng	Streams are heavily impacted and need efficient conservation measure to protect their forest-gallery.
158695		conservation	eng	There are habitat maintenance and conservation actions in place although more work is required on habitat restoration for this species.  Research on the species itself is underway, including monitoring the population trends.
158695		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> is a west Mediterranean endemic, that is widespread over the south of Europe, including the Mediterranean islands, and the north of Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).
158695		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> occurs in the northern parts of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. It is also present in the western Mediterranean, including the major islands.
158695		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean, including the major islands. It is also present in the northern parts of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
158695		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> only occurs around the western Mediterranean, including the major islands.
158695		habitat	eng	Mostly found in fast flowing and shady streams. According to Dijkstra and Lewington (2006) can also be found in larger waters in full sun.
158695		habitat	eng	The species favours streams and rivers with clear and well oxygenated waters with generaly a swift current speed. It likes lightly wooded banks but when the temperatures are low the adults are frequently found under the full sun.
158695		habitat	eng	This species prefers clear streams and rivers, where it occurs with other <em>Calopteryx</em>, although these are often smaller and more shady habitats. They are also found in larger waters in view of full sunlight.
158695		population	eng	This is the most abundant species of <em>Calopteryx</em> within the northern Africa region and it is common where it is found.
158695		population	eng	This species is common wherever it is found in the Mediteranean area. Scattered small populations or isolated specimens have been recorded recently far north from its traditional range (e.g., the French Jura Plateau), probably as a result of climate warming.
158695		population	eng	Where habitat is suitable,<em> Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> is common although there is no information known on population trend.
158695		threats	eng	Alteration of habitats (pollution, tree-cutting, hydrological changes, exotic fish).
158695		threats	eng	The large majority of threats facing <em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> are agricultural based including habitat destruction and loss through crop production, wood plantations and livestock farming. Water pollution also has an affect on the species, again some of that is from agriculture, but also commercial, domestic and sewage plants.
158695		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is habitat alteration, e.g., due to agriculture, pollution, tree-cutting, hydrological changes, fire and exotic fish.
158695		threats	eng	The species is impacted by a wide range of threats such as: destruction of habitats, water pollution, desiccation of rivers due to irrigation or due to prolonged dry periods, tree-cutting, changes in river and banks structure as well as dam construction.
158696		conservation	eng	No specific action for this species is needed in most of its range as it is common and shows an increase in parts of its northern range. In the east of its range, especially in Romania where it is rare and in the Ukraine where it is in decline, it is needed to map the current distribution in order to judge if conservation measures are needed.
158696		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for <em>Erythromma lindenii</em> however actions are needed to prevent habitat loss due to the effects of water pollution.
158696		conservation	eng	Wetland conservation and public awareness and education.
158696		distribution	eng	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> has its main distribution in the European part of the Mediterranean and in western Europe. It is also present in northern Africa. The species is very common and widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and France. More to the north it becomes scarcer. The core of its range reaches its northern limit in the Netherlands and the southern half of Germany. It has an isolated occurrence in mid-eastern Germany and western Poland. In Eastern Europe it is largely confined to low elevations and areas near the Mediterranean Sea and the species is rare in coastal Romania. The species which is red listed in Ukraine is sometimes rather numerous in delta parts of large rivers in the southern part of the country. The species was also recently found in Crimea (G. Prokopov, unpublished data, identified by L. Khrokalo; V. Savchuk, unpublished data). The species has expanded its range to the north from the 1990s onwards. This has been noted in Belgium, the Netherlands, and central and northern Germany (Bouwman <em>et al.</em> 2008, De Knijf <em>et al.</em> 2006, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006).
158696		distribution	eng	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is fairly widespread in southwestern and southeastern Europe. It is present in northern Africa but there it is confined to the northern parts of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
158696		distribution	eng	<em>Erythromma lindenii </em> is found in southwest and southern Europe and it can be abundant in the Mediterranean region.  It is slowly expanding its range northwards.
158696		habitat	eng	A wide range of habitats, including ponds, lakes, and slow-flowing streams and rivers.
158696		habitat	eng	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is found in running waters such as larger brooks, connected oxbows, rivers, channels and in larger standing waters like lakes, (fish)ponds and gravel pits. Reproduction waters are generally largely unshaded, large, oxygen rich and clear. The species is less common at swift running waters, and in rivers and brooks with a strong current it is often confined to areas where the force of the water is less strong. In most cases there is rich aquatic vegetation but the vegetation on the banks is often poorly developed or even absent. In fish free waters the aquatic vegetation is of less importance suggesting that the vegetation is mainly important to avoid predation. The standing waters where the species occurs are often impacted by wind causing waves or are fed by seepage. This makes that the abiotic condition of the waters resemble those of running waters. Throughout its range the species is confined to lower altitudes and most of the records are from below 500 m.
158696		habitat	eng	Most likely to find this species in larger, well-oxygenated waters, including lakes, gravel pits, slow-flowing rivers and wide canals, with rich aquatic vegetation such as <em>Myriophyllum</em>.
158696		population	eng	A fairly abundant and widespread species in the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
158696		population	eng	<em>E. lindenii</em> is common and widespread in most of its range and often occurs in high densities. The species is more rare and localised, but still abundant in the north of its range.
158696		population	eng	In its range, <em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is common but there is no data available to show population trends or numbers.
158696		threats	eng	Habitat modification is a major threat to the species, especially due to livestock (trampling and eutrophication).
158696		threats	eng	Habitat modifications, especially from livestock (trampling and eutrophication).
158696		threats	eng	The species is at the moment not threatened.
158696		threats	eng	Water pollution is a continuing threat to the habitat of this species.
158697		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, but research into the population size, trends and habitat threats are needed.
158697		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum haritonovi</em> is restricted to higher altitudes in Central Asia and eastwards to Turkey. Its distribution is poorly known due to the inaccessibility of its habitat.
158697		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pools, streamlets and flushed areas around mountain springs; it is not known below 1,750 m above sea level.
158697		population	eng	There is no information known on the population size or trend of this species.
158697		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, most likely due to the inaccessibility of its habitat range.
158698		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves.
158698		conservation	eng	No specific actions are needed for this species.
158698		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends are under way although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158698		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum brunneum</em> ranges from western Europe and northwestern Africa to the Middle East and central Asia. It is common in the Mediterranean and Atlantic countries and becomes rare and sporadic elsewhere in its range, although it is now known to be expanding northwards due to changing climatic conditions caused by global warming.
158698		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum brunneum</em> ranges from western Europe and the Maghreb to Central Asia and northeast China (Jödicke <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is common and widespread in large parts of southern Europe. It is scarcer in Central Europe but has in recent years expanded its range northwards up to Lithuania and Latvia (Bernard and Ivinskis 2004, Kal?in? 2008).
158698		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum brunneum</span> is common around the Mediterranean and the range extends to Mongolia. In Europe it has expanded northwards since 1990s, where it was scarce or extinct due to habitat destruction.
158698		habitat	eng	Mediterranean streamlets, slow-flowing rivers, running ditches, seepages and spring areas, pools, gravel pits. Its general behaviour is often that of a pioneer species, which appears promptly in new man-made habitats, then disappearing sometimes after some years.
158698		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum brunneum</span> mostly inhabits small streams, running ditches and seepages, preferring scantily vegetated sites.&#160; It favours bare runnels in the north, e.g. in chalk or marl quarries.
158698		habitat	eng	The species is found at sunny brooks, slow-flowing rivers, and ditches, seepages and spring areas, pools, and gravel pits. It is mostly found at sites in early successional stages. It behaves as a pioneer species, which appears promptly at new, often man-made, habitats and often disappears as soon as the vegetation gets higher.
158698		population	eng	Although no detailed data is known on population numbers, it is common throughout its range and it is increasing northwards.
158698		population	eng	This species is generally abundant in Mediterranean Europe. It is less abundant in Central Europe where its occurrence is naturally variable in the aspects of extent and abundance.
158698		population	eng	This species is generally common in the Mediterranean area, except in North Africa where it is more scattered within less than 30 locations from Morocco to Tunisia.
158698		population	eng	This species is  scattered in northern Africa, found in less than 30 locations from Morocco to Tunisia.
158698		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum brunneum</span> is the production of crops and consequently the associated water pollution is having an effect on the quality of its habitat.
158698		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution and destruction of habitats, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table and drought in connection to global warming.
158698		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present. The species benefits from climate change and newly created habitats in the north of its range but may decline in parts of its southern range due to desiccation of streams.
158698		threats	eng	Water pollution and destruction of habitats, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, drought in connection to global warming.
158699		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
158699		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis kervillei</em> is endemic in the Levant, from southeast Turkey to Israel (de Marmels 1995) and an extension into northern Iraq (Asahina 1973). The species is most likely the eastern Mediterranean vicariant of the widely distributed <em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> (Pallas, 1771). It seems to be less common than <em>Platycnemis dealbata</em>, probably because it is ecologically less flexible than the latter species.
158699		habitat	eng	<em>Platycnemis kervillei</em> occurs on stagnant or slow flowing waters with rich riparian vegetation. It can also occur in relatively fast moving waters. It is easily overlooked because of the dark blue pruinosity in adults (camouflage) and its habit to fly in river sections shaded by vegetation; this  may account for the paucity of records. Flight period is between April (Jordan Valley) and September.
158699		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
158699		threats	eng	Groundwater abstraction is a current threat to the species.
158700		conservation	eng	<em>C. heros</em> is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Habitats Directive; that implies that their habitat should not be altered. This is clearly not respected in some countries, i.e. in Greece where wild spring capture and water extraction regularly increase for irrigation purpose to compensate rainfall deficit.
158700		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster heros</em> is a central and southeastern European endemic taxon ranging from Austria and Slovakia to a large part of the Balkans. The species was only described in 1979 and only in the last two decades its distribution started to become clear (Adamović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Bedjanic and Salamun 2003, Blaskovic <em>et al.</em> 2003, Bulankova and David 2003, Kotarac 1997, Uboni <em>et al.</em> 2007, Janský and David 2008). Its eastern limit in Romania is unknown and it might even go as far east as the Ukraine. It is locally common but scattered because of its specific habitat, mostly shaded rivulets in mountainous areas. In the south of its range, this species is currently decreasing due to climate change, rainfall deficit, spring capture and desiccation of streams.
158700		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. heros</span> is found at shaded streams in mountains and hills, with sandy and rocky beds (Lang <em>et al.</em> 2001).
158700		population	eng	The species is not uncommon within its range and occurs in small to rather large-sized populations.
158700		threats	eng	Increased drought periods and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change is already a present threat in parts of the southern Balkans, including Romania, so that some previously known localities are now extinct. Some localities have been destroyed due to water capture directly at springs. Wood-logging, forest fire and forest destruction are other threats contributing to stream dessication.
158701		conservation	eng	There are a variety of conservation measures in place however more are needed.  The maintenance and restoration of its preferred habitat is underway, as is the monitoring of the population status and trends.
158701		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed except for further taxonomic research to define the infraranks.
158701		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx splendens</em> extends from western Europe (east of Spain) to Lake Baikal (Russia) and northwest China.
158701		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx splendens</em> is common in a large part of Europe, but is not present in the Iberian Peninsula. It is not found in the northern half of Fennoscandia. The species ranges eastwards into Central Asia.
158701		habitat	eng	Preferred habitats include partially-open running waters, avoiding cold torrents, high mountains and deep shade, and it is scarce on large rivers. Wandering males are often seen far from suitable habitats.
158701		habitat	eng	The species favours brooks and rivers but is largely absent from torrents and shaded waters. It can also occur in flowing ditches and channels.
158701		population	eng	The species is common and abundant in most of Europe although it declined in the 1960s and 70s in large parts of western Europe as a consequence of intensive stream management as well as water pollution. The populations have been recovering since the 1990s and the current population trend is stable.
158701		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.
158701		threats	eng	Chemical water pollution is the main threat to this species but is not causing the populations to decline at the moment.<br/><br/>As the infrarank forms of this species are still under debate, threats in certain areas of its range may be more serious as they may affect a subspecies or form with a strongly more restricted range than the whole collective species.
158701		threats	eng	Major threats affecting <em>Calopteryx splendens</em> include habitat destruction through both non- and agricultural practices and the associated water pollution.
158702		conservation	eng	Although the threats affect the habitat of the species, there are no conservation measures in place but they are needed.
158702		conservation	eng	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is common and not threatened in most of its European range. Isolated occurrences in southern Europe might need attention. Fieldwork and monitoring in order to map the occurrences and to assess their conservation status is needed in southern Italy and the southern parts of the Balkan Peninsula. Local action such as conservation and restoration of habitats might be needed in those areas.
158702		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is a north Eurasian species ranging from West Europe eastwards to Kamchatka and Japan. The specimens from the eastern part of its range have been described as subspecies <em>C. a. amurensis</em>, which is sometimes regarded as a full species (Jödicke <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is widespread and common in the northern two-thirds of Europe. In the Mediterranean southern third of Europe it is scarce and largely limited to mountain lakes and bogs.
158702		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is common and locally abundant in northern Eurasia, in the south it is found locally and mostly restricted to mountain lakes.
158702		habitat	eng	The species is found in standing or, more rarely, slow-flowing waters. Western and southern populations are found mainly at woodland lakes, bogs and heaths. In northern and eastern Europe the species has a wider habitat spectrum. It is also found in man-made habitats such as fishponds, oxbows and gravel pits. The species is only found at permanent, not too shallow waters and is absent from temporary waters.
158702		habitat	eng	This species prefers standing waters, such as large ponds and small lakes in woodlands, bogs and heaths, but also oxbows, gravel pits, fishponds, sluggish rivers and canals.
158702		population	eng	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is common in its range.
158702		population	eng	The species is common across its range and often abundant when present.
158702		threats	eng	The major threat affecting <em>Cordulegaster aenea</em> is habitat destruction from sources including crop-growing and infrastructure development. Water pollution is also an ongoing threat.
158702		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
158703		conservation	eng	Protection of habitats, especially management of livestock.
158703		conservation	eng	Protection of habitats, especially management of livestock and education and awareness.
158703		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present, but they are needed to mitigate the strong possibility of habitat destruction in the future.
158703		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
158703		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma cyathigerum</em> has a wide range covering Europe (extending north of the Arctic Circle), Asia, north Africa and boreal North America. It is present in Syria (one record), and Morocco (in two lakes in the high Atlas). The species is often confused with <em>E. deserti</em>.
158703		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma cyathigerum</em> has a wide range covering Europe (extending north of the Arctic Circle), Asia, northern Africa and boreal North America. It is present in Syria (one record), and Morocco (in two lakes in the high Atlas).
158703		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma cyathigerum</em> is one of the most widespread damselflies in the world. Its range covers Europe, Asia, northwest Africa and northern America. The species is widespread and common in the European part of its range occurring to the far north of Scandinavia. It becomes scarcer towards the Mediterranean being absent from many of the islands and being rare in the low and dry regions of Spain, Italy and Greece.<br/>&#160;In India&#160; the species is found in&#160; Manipur (Lamjao, Bishenpur) , Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal. Besides India these are also found&#160; in&#160; Europe,Central Asia,Tibet, North America and British Isles.
158703		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in large parts of Europe and northern Asia.
158703		habitat	eng	<em>E. cyathigerum</em> commonly occurs at standing and slow-flowing waters. The species is especially common at sites with the lack of fish such as acid bogs or at sites where the vegetation provides shelter from fishes. The species can occur in slightly brackish waters. It is one of several species which commonly reproduces in the Baltic Sea.<br/>The species inhabits stagnent water bodies and also amongsts marshy habitats. It breeds in ponds and marshes.
158703		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enallagma cyathigerum</span> inhabits all types of ponds, lakes and also slow rivers. Huge densities occur in acid waters where fish are unable to survive.
158703		habitat	eng	Stagnant waters (high elevation lakes in Morocco) with dense vegetation.
158703		population	eng	Known from only two locations in Morocco. The exact proportion of the two species in not known. Probably more locations, but uncertain.
158703		population	eng	The species is common and widespread in its European range and only in the south populations are more scattered. The sizes of the populations are generally high. It can occur in very high densities in central and northern Europe.
158703		population	eng	The species is known from only two locations in Morocco. The exact proportion of the two species in not known. Probably it is present in more locations, but this information is uncertain.
158703		population	eng	The species is widespread and common in large parts of its range and in the north it is one of the most common species. There is no information available on population trend.
158703		threats	eng	A threat to the species is livestock grazing of habitats, and water extraction.
158703		threats	eng	Livestock poaching of habitats, and water extraction.
158703		threats	eng	There appear to be no known threats affecting the species currently, but risks of habitat destruction and water pollution are likely to have an effect on populations in the future, especially as the majority of preferred habitat appears to be of marginal use.
158703		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
158704		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently needed.
158704		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus pulchellus</em> is an European endemic species ranging from the whole of Iberia to the western half of Germany, western Austria and Switzerland. Isolated records from Italy refer to vagrants, the records from Croatia and Slovakia might be erroneous or vagrants.
158704		habitat	eng	<em>Gomphus pulchellus</em> reproduces in all kinds of slow and moderately flowing and standing waters, avoiding strong currents. It reproduces also in some peat bogs up to 1,500 m above sea level. It is most common in slow lowland rivers and their backwaters and abandoned gravel pits. The larvae occupy sandy patches, which may be covered with coarse detritus. The adults are found sometimes far from their breeding habitats.
158704		population	eng	The species is generally common throughout its range.
158704		threats	eng	None at present.
158705		conservation	eng	None needed for this species.
158705		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but habitat mitigation actions are needed.
158705		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> is common in northern Eurasia, east to central Siberia and restricted to mountain lakes in the south.
158705		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> ranges from northeast Spain and France to northern Fennoscandia and central Siberia. In the south of its range the species is restricted to mountain lakes in some countries of former Yugoslavia, west Bulgaria and Romania. Two old records from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania may refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Somatochlora meridionalis</span> and have to be checked.<br/>It is important to resolve problems with literature data from the Balkans, as all old records referring to <em>S. metallica</em> may be indeed <em>S. meridionalis</em>.
158705		habitat	eng	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> inhabits various standing and slow-flowing waters such as ponds, oxbows, rocky lakeshores, moorland lakes, canals and sluggish rivers. It often favours some shading by trees and steep banks that suit oviposition; conditions such as these are often found in woodland.
158705		habitat	eng	It occurs in standing and flowing waters, avoiding fast currents.
158705		population	eng	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> is common throughout its range but no detailed data is known.
158705		population	eng	The species is common throughout most of northern Europe where the populations are often large. It is rare in southern Europe where it is mostly confined to mountains.
158705		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Somatochlora metallica</em> is infrastructural development and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158705		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species on European scale. Habitat destruction and desiccation due to climate change  may lead to a decrease in its southernmost localities.
158706		conservation	eng	On a European scale, no specific conservation measures are needed. However, in the south and southwest of its range, monitoring of the species in the best breeding habitats is recommended and new habitats should be created whenever older ones disappear through natural succession or abnormal drought periods. Where livestock presents a threat to the species, those habitats should be preserved.
158706		conservation	eng	There are a variety of conservation measures in place however more are needed.  The maintenance and restoration of its preferred habitat is underway, as is the monitoring of the population status and trends.
158706		distribution	eng	Abundant in many parts of northern Eurasia, but <em>Coenagrion hastulatum </em> is isolated in elevated or bog-like sites towards the west and south.
158706		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion hastulatum</em> occurs from southwest France and Scotland to east Siberia. It is abundant in northern and eastern Europe but is restricted to mountainous regions in the west and the south of its range. Southwestern and southernmost populations from the Balkans, the Pyrenees range and the Massif Central are confined to high elevation peat bogs and acid swamps and pools, are post-glacial relicts and are clearly disjunct of the main range of the species. Besides, the species is regularly scattered over most of the Alps and other mountains in Central Europe, where it is locally common in acid habitats.
158706		habitat	eng	<em>C. hastulatum</em> prefers acid swamps, pools and peat bogs. However, it inhabits a larger habitat spectrum, including also other water bodies with rich and abundant vegetation.
158706		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of <em>Coenagrion hastulatum</em> includes a wide variety of pools and lakes in the north, but it is restricted to somewhat acidic and oligotrophic or mesotrophic habitats in much of its range. It favours well-vegetated borders, e.g. with sedges.
158706		population	eng	There have been declines in parts of its central European range but it is widespread and common in northern Eurasia.
158706		population	eng	The species is abundant in the core of its range and irregularly abundant in the west and south. In the west, it shows locally a very high density in acid pools and swamps and sometimes in true peat bogs.
158706		threats	eng	The majority of ongoing threats facing <em>Coenagrion hastulatum</em> are agriculture based, including habitat destruction through crop-farming and plantations of woodland and water pollution.  In the future, global warming may contribute to the success of this species.
158706		threats	eng	There is no strong threat in the north and east of its range. Present and future global warming and multiple drought periods represent a major threat to breeding habitats throughout west and south Europe. There, some localities are also in risk of degradation by livestock. In Germany, the species is locally declining due to agriculture induced eutrophication and emissions (e.g. pork breeding). A decline in the Biosphere Reserve Palatinate Forest (Germany) was shown as a consequence of climatic changes and lack of water (Ott 2007).
158707		conservation	eng	Conservation of wetlands and in particular streams and rivers.
158707		conservation	eng	Conservation of wetlands and in particular streams and rivers through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
158707		conservation	eng	Despite the threats facing this species, the population is being monitored and currently no conservation measures are necessary.
158707		conservation	eng	The species does not need specific conservation measures.
158707		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion puella</em> is a very common and widespread species which extends from western Europe to the Maghreb and Central Asia. Its northern limit extends from Scotland to south Norway, Sweden and Finland. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range upon about 100 km to the north since 1970, which was attributed to global warming (Hickling <em>et al.</em> 2005).
158707		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion puella</em> is common in most of central and southern Europe to central Asia.
158707		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Coenagrion puella</em> covers northern Africa (north Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and Europe, to central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
158707		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Coenagrion puella</em> covers northern Africa (north Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and Europe, to Central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
158707		habitat	eng	<em>Coenagrion puella</em> prefers a wide variety of waters, especially still but also flowing, although generally scarce on peaty or clay soils. It also favours the presence of aquatic vegetation.
158707		habitat	eng	In the European part of its range this species shows high density populations in standing waters but occurs also in small numbers in streams, rivers and ditches.
158707		habitat	eng	In the northwest of Africa it is largely confined to running waters. In the European part of its range it favours standing waters.
158707		population	eng	<em>C. puella</em> is one of the most common damselflies in Europe, where it generally shows populations with high density.
158707		population	eng	It was localised in the northern parts of northwest Africa, but populations may be great in numbers.
158707		population	eng	Localised in the northern parts of northwest Africa, but populations may be great in numbers.
158707		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, although population trend is unknown.
158707		threats	eng	Degradation of habitats due deforestation, urbanization, hydological changes and pollution are threats to the species.
158707		threats	eng	Degradation of habitats (tree cutting, hydrological changes, pollution).
158707		threats	eng	Human disturbance and habitat loss or destruction are the major threats affecting this species.
158707		threats	eng	The species is not threatened at the European scale.
158708		conservation	eng	Research into population trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed in understanding population size and range, so to are conservation measures to restore degraded habitat, prevent habitat loss and to increase the water quality of streams and rivers as none are in place at present.
158708		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus lefebvrii</em> ranges from southeast Turkey to Afghanistan, Israel and possibly to Egypt.
158708		habitat	eng	<em>Onychogomphus lefebvrii</em> inhabits rocky and largely open streams and rivers.
158708		population	eng	There is no detailed information available on population numbers, although it is thought to be common in its range.
158708		threats	eng	The destruction of habitat through infrastructural development and associated effects of water pollution are continuing threats to this species.
158709		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed for <em>P. p. penipes</em>. With respect to <em>P. p. nitidula</em>, control of water use is needed in the Mediterranean area.
158709		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and trends of <em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.
158709		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> occurs from the Atlantic to the Jenisei in Siberia and is often abundant throughout its range.
158709		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> ranges from West Europe (excluding the whole Iberian Peninsula, except for the north of the Spanish province Catalonia) to Siberia and Anatolia. It is missing in the northern part of Fennoscandia. The subspecies <em>P. p. nitidula</em> is restricted to parts of the Balkans (Adriatic islands and coast from Montenegro to Greece, Peloponnese, Cyclades Islands).
158709		habitat	eng	A very ubiquist and opportunist species which is met anywhere in lowlands and rarely in the mountains, on almost any kind of standing and flowing waters if they are not too torrential: floodplains, oxbows, streams, rivers, fishponds, abandoned gravel pits, etc. It does not colonize acid peat bogs.
158709		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic of floodplains, is dominant on oxbows, rivers and open stretches of streams. Also frequently seen on lakes and a wide range of man-made habitats such as canals, gravel-pits and fish-ponds; the larvae are well adapted to occur with fish. In the north-west (for example Great Britain, The Netherlands, Scandinavia) it is almost confined to flowing waters.
158709		population	eng	<em>P. p. pennipes</em> and <em>P. p. nitudula</em> are widespread and common throughout their range.
158709		population	eng	It is considered abundant throughout its range, even though no detailed numbers of population size or trends are known.
158709		threats	eng	<em>P. pennipes</em> sensu lato is a very adaptable species and is frequently the last species which disappears from areas with very intensive agriculture. It is not under any threat at present. However, the restricted range of <em>P. p. nitidula</em>, makes it more susceptible to threats such as climate change and rainfall deficit.
158709		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> is crop production and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158710		conservation	eng	There is no information available on whether there are conservation measures in place, or if they are needed.  Detailed research into population size, trends and threats are needed.
158710		distribution	eng	<em>Paragomphus lineatus</em> is widespread in northern India and Nepal and occurs west to the Turkish Mediterranean coast.
158710		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>Paragomphus lineatus</em> is poorly known although it does include open, sluggish and often seasonal streams.
158710		population	eng	The species is common in parts of its range and can occur in moderately degraded habitats although no detailed data exists on population numbers and trends.
158710		threats	eng	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Paragomphus lineatus </em> is the production of crops and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.
158711		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are needed and none are in place at present.  Population monitoring is underway that will help discover the extent of damage to the habitat caused by agricultural and non-agricultural actions.
158711		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures needed.
158711		conservation	eng	Not needed.
158711		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
158711		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is present in Iberia and northern Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), where it is widespread and abundant.
158711		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is present in Iberia and northern Africa, where it is widespread and abundant.
158711		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is widespread and abundant within the western Mediterranean.
158711		habitat	eng	All types of running and standing waters.
158711		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. graellsii</span> is found at all types of running and standing waters.
158711		habitat	eng	The species is found around all types of running and standing waters.
158711		population	eng	The species is abundant throughout its range.
158711		population	eng	The species is very common within its distribution range.
158711		threats	eng	None.
158711		threats	eng	None at present.
158711		threats	eng	None known.
158711		threats	eng	There are a variety of threats affecting the habitat of <em>Ischnura graellsii</em> that are ongoing and the majority of these threats are rooted in agricultural development.  The production of crops in the agro-industry and the associated run-offs from the crops are affecting the quality of water within the species range.  Pollution from domestic and industrial development are also contributing to the destruction of its water habitat.
158714		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution is required for <em>Nihonogomphus ruptus</em>.
158714		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amur River basin and Korean peninsula.
158714		habitat	eng	<em>Nihonogomphus ruptus</em> is a stream dweller that prefers big rivers with sandy bottom.
158714		population	eng	This species has been recorded in more than thirty localities.
158714		threats	eng	Water pollution and water harnessing via dams are most likely going to have a negative impact on <em>Nihonogomphus ruptus</em> in future.
158715		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve (Tajikistan).  Data on the current range and population size are needed. Control of water use and establisment of new protected areas are recommended to conserve the habitats of <em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em>.
158715		distribution	eng	<em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em>is known from India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey and several Central Asian states.
158715		habitat	eng	<em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em> inhabits rivers, creeks and irrigation channels.
158715		population	eng	There is not much information on the abundance of the species within the region. It was said to be common in the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris (Fraser 1934).
158715		threats	eng	There are a variety of ongoing threats affecting <em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em> and some possible ones that are expected to affect their survival in the future.  Drought and limited dispersal are threats already existing, as is water pollution, and these are expected to continue.  However the projected extensive water usage (in the form of groundwater extraction and small-scale fisheries) is likely going to cause unknown levels of habitat degradation and loss in the future.
158716		conservation	eng	Activity aimed to the conservation of natural habitats is recommended for the future.
158716		distribution	eng	Common in Japanese and Kuril Islands and also occurs in Southern Sakhalin.
158716		habitat	eng	This species is found in bogs and large pools in marshes and it is a characteristic alpine species in Japan.
158716		population	eng	<em>Enallagma circulatum</em> is common within its range.
158716		threats	eng	Habitat destruction from water pollution continues to affect this species.
158717		conservation	eng	Control of water use and water pollution is recommended for the future.
158717		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to areas along the southern parts of the Caspian Sea and the Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenistan.
158717		habitat	eng	<em>Calopteryx orientalis</em> is common in rivers and streams and also occurs in irrigation channels.
158717		population	eng	There is no data available on the population numbers or trends.
158717		threats	eng	Pollution of water-ways through agricultural farming is an ongoing threat affecting this species.  Change in land-use and the drying of land naturally is also continuing to affect the survival of <em>Calopteryx orientalis</em>.
158718		conservation	eng	The species seems to benefit from human actitivty aimed at irrigation. Control of water pollution and water use is recommended for future.
158718		distribution	eng	Middle East and Central Asia from Israel and South Turkey to Western India.
158718		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes, pools, channels and ponds of irrigation system.
158718		population	eng	More than fifty localities are reported for <em>Sympetrum arenicolor</em>.
158718		threats	eng	Water pollution and intensive water use may threaten the species in future.
158719		conservation	eng	The only reported population is in the protected territory. The data on the present status of the population are required.
158719		distribution	eng	Known only from Caucasian Nature Reserve, Krasnodarskii krai, Russia.
158719		habitat	eng	Unknown due to not being seen since it was first described, but most likely to favour  pools, bogs and marshes.
158719		population	eng	One known locality and it has not been since since its description, therefore the current population size is unknown.
158719		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and climatic changes are thought to be a cause for concern for this species in the future, as they have been in the past.
158720		conservation	eng	Protected in Bashkirsky Nature Reserve (Russia), included to the Red List of Bashkiria. Research and protection measures are needed in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
158720		conservation	eng	The species is probably currently not threatened and information on threats is poor but probably no conservation measures are needed.
158720		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> is a Central Asia species which occurs throughout Kazakstan (Asia) and Bashkortostan (Easternmost European Russia) under rather isolated subpopulations, due to the current dry period (exacerbated by water use by humans). It is expected that it was much more widespread in the region under a continuous range during the wetter periods of the Holocene 9,000-3,000 BP (Yanibaeva <em>et al</em>. 2006).
158720		distribution	eng	The species has a relatively small range and is confined to the area from East Kazakhstan province to Aral Lake. Isolated populations are known from the Southern Ural and Uzbekistan.
158720		habitat	eng	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> is found in lakes in the lower parts of the southern Ural mountains.
158720		habitat	eng	The species inhabits pools, small lakes and marshes.
158720		population	eng	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> is mostly found in low densities.
158720		population	eng	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> was found to be fairly abundant in its known localities.
158720		threats	eng	Drought periods, either natural or due to human influence constitute the main threat of the species in its Asian range, which turned probably extinct in the Aral Sea area and some Central Asia localities due to the drying up of the Aral Sea, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya (a consequence of unadapted cotton culture). Presently, the species is probably not threatened in its five known European Uralian localities.
158720		threats	eng	Habitat destruction from water pollution and abandoned farmland has continued to affect this species.
158725		conservation	eng	Not known within protected areas; searching for further localities needed, as well as studies on biology and ecology.
158725		distribution	eng	South Bolivia to northwest Argentina (Belle 1973, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).
158725		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers. Males patrol sections of stream when sunny, often chasing one another, frequently land on ground or twigs at shore always returning to the same spot (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.
158725		population	eng	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.
158725		threats	eng	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).
158726		conservation	eng	Known to occur in three protected areas (Manu National Park in Madre de Dios department and Tingo María National Park in Huanuco department, Peru, Amboro National Park in Santa Cruz department, Bolivia). Its biology and ecology need to be studied.
158726		distribution	eng	Peru and Bolivia to northwest Argentina (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2007).
158726		habitat	eng	Shady and narrow streams or creeks enclosed within thick rain forest. Adults perch on leaves in small patches of dappled sunlight, opening and closing their wings two or three times after landing (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2007, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.
158726		population	eng	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.
158726		threats	eng	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).
158727		conservation	eng	Known from three protected areas (Baritú and El Rey National Park in Salta province and Reserva El Pantanoso in Jujuy province, Argentina).
158727		distribution	eng	Venezuela and Colombia to Ecuador, Peru, and northwest Argentina (Ris 1913, de Marmels 1988, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007, D R. Paulson personal collection 2007, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2007, R. W. Garrison personal collection 2007).
158727		habitat	eng	Adults fly close to streams and the waters surface, hovering frequently over rapids on narrow enclosed creeks, perching occasionally on grass and twigs or rocks along shores. Pairs in copula perch high in bushes and trees near water (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larvae live at river and stream margins, in areas of abundant aquatic vegetation (von Ellenrieder 2007).
158727		population	eng	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.
158727		threats	eng	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).
158728		conservation	eng	Known to occur within four protected areas (El Ávila National Park in Miranda state, Tamá National Park and Chorro El Indio National Park in Táchira state, Venezuela and Calilegua National Park in Jujuy province, Argentina).
158728		distribution	eng	Venezuela and Colombia to Peru and northwest Argentina (Calvert 1956; de Marmels 1981, 1994; Ris 1918; von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).
158728		habitat	eng	Narrow streams and rivulets within thick mountain rain forest. Male patrols a large territory flying up and downstream; female oviposits alone in moss covered logs and tree twigs in the water to up about 1-2 m above water (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larvae, described by de Marmels (1982), live under stones and on sediment.
158728		population	eng	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.
158728		threats	eng	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging, clear-cutting of forest for agriculture, and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).
158729		conservation	eng	Species has so far not been found within existing protected areas; surveys needed to confirm absence/presence from protected areas, study its ecology, and monitor threats.
158729		distribution	eng	Northwest Argentina, in Jujuy, Salta, and Tucuman Provinces (von Ellenrieder and Muzon 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2007).
158729		habitat	eng	Seepages, pools, and still waters at stream edges with abundant aquatic vegetation, from mountain rain forest to highland grasslands. Males patrol flying close to water’s surface and perching horizontally on leaves of emergent aquatic vegetation, and remain in horizontal position when in tandem. Pairs in copula land on grasses and bushes near water, and females oviposit in water plants while still in tandem (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larvae, described by von Ellenrieder and Muzon (2006), live among aquatic vegetation.
158729		population	eng	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.
158729		threats	eng	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by increased modification and loss of aquatic habitats caused by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2001, Defensor del Pueblo de la Nación 2009).
158730		conservation	eng	Not known within protected areas; searching for further localities needed, as well as studies on biology and ecology.
158730		distribution	eng	Bolivia to northwest Argentina (Dunkle 1987, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).
158730		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers, where males patrol river areas with rapids with swift and straight beat very close over water surface, frequently settling on rocks (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.
158730		population	eng	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.
158730		threats	eng	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).
158805		conservation	eng	Known localities not present within protected areas, but not currently under threat. Surveys to establish breeding habitat, biology, trends and evaluate threats needed.
158805		distribution	eng	Occurs in montane rainforest in Peru (Ris 1918, Bick and Bick 1988).
158805		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest species; no information on breeding habitat, most likely streams as in other species of the genus; larva unknown.
158805		population	eng	The species is known from four localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158805		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158806		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158806		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Para, Brazil (Needham 1944).
158806		habitat	eng	No information is available; female and larva unknown.
158806		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and locality and more research is needed on all aspects of its life history and population status.
158806		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158807		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Natural Bosque, Paraguay (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).
158807		distribution	eng	Occurs in southern Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Calvert 1909, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158807		habitat	eng	Standing water with dense floating vegetation, including ponds, pools and still waters at stream edges; adults  inconspicuous because they perch and fly low over matted aquatic plants (R.W. Garrison 2006 pers. comm.). Larva unknown.
158807		population	eng	The species is known from over 20 localities, several situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158807		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158808		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas along its distribution range: Parques Nacionales Manuel Antonio and Corcovado, Puntarenas province, Parques Nacionales Guanacaste and Santa Rosa, Guanacaste province, Reserva Los Chorros, Alajuela province, and Reserva Forestal El Rodeo, San José province, Costa Rica; Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador; Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru; Reserva El Pantanoso and Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy province, Argentina (Hedstrom and Sahlen 2001, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158808		distribution	eng	Found from Mexico south to northwestern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1918, de Marmels 1988, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158808		habitat	eng	Adults fly in understory of rainforest where they apparently glean spiders and wrapped spider-preys from webs (Fincke 1992). Larvae, described by Ramirez (1995), breed in water-filled holes of trees. Hedstrom and Sahlen (2001) found this species was missing entirely from non-seasonal, tropical wet lowland forest and non-seasonal, tropical moist forest at mid elevation in Costa Rica, while it was active year round in seasonal, tropical dry lowland forest and tropical semi-dry forest, as well as in seasonal, tropical moist evergreen forest and tropical montane moist forest, both at mid-elevation.
158808		population	eng	This species is known from over 50 locations (many being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158808		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158809		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998).
158809		distribution	eng	Found from northeastern Argentina to Brazil, Venezuela, Suriname and Guyana (Calvert 1909, Ris 1919, de Marmels 1989, Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Fleck 2004).
158809		habitat	eng	Adults have an erratic and swift flight, resembling a gomphid, also in the evening (Ris 1919). Fleck (2004) described the larva, which seems to be associated to the aquatic plant <em>Mourera fluviatilis</em> Aublet (Podostemaceae), which grows only in fast moving currents.
158809		population	eng	This species is known from over ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158809		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158810		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158810		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela (Selys 1859, Garrison 1986, de Marmels 1988, Belle 1992).
158810		habitat	eng	Presumably found along rivers; larva unknown.
158810		population	eng	This species is known from over ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158810		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158811		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Ecologica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), Distrito Federal, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2001).
158811		distribution	eng	Occurs in Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais and Distrito Federal states in Brazil (Needham 1904, Borror 1942, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2001).
158811		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small ponds and the larva has been described by Needham (1904) and Costa <em>et al</em>. (2001).
158811		population	eng	This species is known from more than six locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158811		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158812		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158812		distribution	eng	Occurs in Suriname, Napo in Ecuador, and Amazonas States in Venezuela and Brazil (Belle 1966, 1973, 1995; de Marmels 1989).
158812		habitat	eng	Adults fly in shaded areas of creeks (Belle 1966); larva unknown.
158812		population	eng	The species is known from six localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158812		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158813		conservation	eng	Two known localities not situated within protected areas, but probably not threatened. Surveys to establish distribution range, biology, trends and evaluate threats needed.
158813		distribution	eng	Occurs in Ecuador and Peru (Kennedy 1938, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158813		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small streams in forest (Kennedy 1938); larva unknown.
158813		population	eng	The species is known from two localities not situated within protected areas but thought to be widespread in the poorly sampled forests.
158813		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158814		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158814		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andean forest from central Ecuador (Pichincha province) to southern Peru (Ayacucho department) (Belle 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006, University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology 2003).
158814		habitat	eng	Adults fly at dusk along river banks (Belle 1989); larva unknown.
158814		population	eng	The species is found in at least nine locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.
158814		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158815		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158815		distribution	eng	Found from Chile, from Tarapaca to Araucania regions (Needham and Etcheverry 1956, Belle 1973, Carle and Cook 1984).
158815		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams; adults perch on sand at banks (Carle and Cook 1984); larva unknown.
158815		population	eng	The species is known from seven localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158815		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158816		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo and Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, in Argentina (Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158816		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Ris 1913, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158816		habitat	eng	Adults have been collected at streams and marshes (R.W. Garrison 2006); breeding habitat and larva unknown.
158816		population	eng	This species is known from seven locations and thought to be found in unsampled lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.
158816		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158817		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158817		distribution	eng	Found from Mexico south to Bolivia and Brazil (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2003).
158817		habitat	eng	Adults crepuscular in forests, where larvae breed in temporary pools rich in aquatic vegetation (Santos 1973).
158817		population	eng	The species is known from at least 67 localities and thought to be widespread but no data is available on population numbers.
158817		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158818		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158818		distribution	eng	Found from southern Peru to northern Chile along the Pacific coast (Ris 1911, Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158818		habitat	eng	Marshes and ponds with abundant emergent vegetation (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007); larva unknown.
158818		population	eng	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158818		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158819		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158819		distribution	eng	Occurs in Paraguay, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana (Borror 1942, de Marmels 1983, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158819		habitat	eng	Adults fly near the shore of ponds and marshes with abundant palustrine (wetlands lacking flowing water) vegetation (de Marmels 1983). Larva unknown.
158819		population	eng	This species is known from more than 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158819		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158820		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158820		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality and surroundings in Rondonia State, Brazil (Belle 1990, Belle 1994).
158820		habitat	eng	Species seen along trails in forest (Belle 1990); larva unknown.
158820		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158820		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158821		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158821		distribution	eng	Occurs in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo states in Brazil (Selys 1876, Santos 1956, R.W. Garrison 2006)
158821		habitat	eng	Slow moving clear-water streams (Santos 1956). Larva unknown.
158821		population	eng	The species is known only from six locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
158821		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158822		conservation	eng	Localities known not within protected areas, but currently not threatened. Surveys to establish biology and trends and evaluate threats needed.
158822		distribution	eng	Occurs in montane rainforest in Ecuador (Cook 1989).
158822		habitat	eng	Adults collected along rivers and streams within montane rainforest (Cook 1989). Larva unknown.
158822		population	eng	The species is known from nine localities, none situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158822		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158823		conservation	eng	Surveys to study biology and trends, and to establish if present in protected areas and evaluate threats necessary.
158823		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Rio Napo/Rio Pastaza watershed, on eastern slopes of Andes in central Ecuador (de Marmels 2001).
158823		habitat	eng	Adults found along rivers in montane rainforest; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).
158823		population	eng	The species occurs in a very small area although it is likely to be widespread; further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.
158823		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158824		conservation	eng	Surveys to find if it occurs elsewhere along eastern coastal area of Rio de Janeiro are needed; also studies on biology, trends and threats are required to better understand this species.
158824		distribution	eng	Occurs in eastern Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil (Santos 1962, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158824		habitat	eng	Swampy margin of ponds with abundant marginal vegetation (<em>Typha</em>); also within forest (Santos 1962). Larva unknown.
158824		population	eng	The species is known from two localities one of which is where the species was last collected (in 1966).  The population status is unknown and requires urgent monitoring due to continuing decline in habitat quality.
158824		threats	eng	Urban development; known distribution area is situated in an ecological park (Chico Mendez) within populous Rio de Janeiro city.
158825		conservation	eng	Type locality present within a protected area: Parque Nacional Chapada Diamantina, Bahia state, Brazil (Machado 1996).
158825		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bahia and Paraiba states in northeastern Brazil (Machado 1996).
158825		habitat	eng	Adults found at a clear pond with sandy bottom and scarce macrophytes, also close to a waterfall; perching on marginal vegetation and stones near water, and on bushes away from water (Machado 1996); female and larva unknown.
158825		population	eng	This species is thought to be widespread although available data is only from the original description of 9 males.
158825		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158826		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Parque Nacional Mburucuya, Corrientes province, Argentina (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006).
158826		distribution	eng	Occurs from Panama south to northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1911, Souza and Costa 2002, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158826		habitat	eng	Adults fly along forest trails, perching frequently (Ris 1911) and also found near streams, ponds and lakes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva described by Souza and Costa (2002) from permanent and temporary ponds with abundant aquatic vegetation within seasonally flooded grasslands.
158826		population	eng	The species is known from 20 locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
158826		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158827		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158827		distribution	eng	Found in lowland Amazon forest from western Brazil and northeastern Bolivia (Leonard 1977, R.W. Garrison 2006). One possible collection record (female in R.W. Garrison 2006) from Peru, Madre de Dios, Explorer's Inn.
158827		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers according to collection data (R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158827		population	eng	Although this species is known only from 5 locations, the global population is assumed to be more widespread.
158827		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158828		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158828		distribution	eng	Found from Maranhao state in Brazil to Napo province in Ecuador and Madre de Dios department in Peru (Belle 1970, 1988; Paulson 1985).
158828		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in lowland Amazon forest; larva unknown.
158828		population	eng	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158828		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158829		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish if distribution is as restricted as currently known, and if it does occur in any of the protected areas of Suriname.
158829		distribution	eng	Occurs in Para district in Suriname (Geijkes 1963, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158829		habitat	eng	Adults fly along banks of small open creeks crossing grasslands, often settling on tips of dry twigs (Geijkses 1963). Larva unknown.
158829		population	eng	The species is known only from three locations and none are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
158829		threats	eng	The habitat is being disturbed and altered through human use and development which is causing terrestrial and aquatic pollution.
158830		conservation	eng	According to de Marmels (1999) distribution included in well preserved and isolated area, not currently threatened.
158830		distribution	eng	Found in cloud foothill forest and shrub-land on top of Venezuelan tepuis (table-top mountains) in Bolivar state (de Marmels 1985, 1997).
158830		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers, streams and marshes (de Marmels 1985, 1997; R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158830		population	eng	No data is available for the estimated population size or trend.
158830		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158831		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy province, and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Guapi Azu Ecological reserve, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, Parque Nacional Tingo Maria, Huanuco, Peru and Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia, Costa Rica (Jurzitza 1981, Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158831		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Neotropical region, from Costa Rica to northern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1911, de Marmels 1989, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158831		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, pools and swamps (collection data: D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158831		population	eng	This species is known from 30 locations (several being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158831		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is under any threat.
158832		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected area. Surveys to find out if present in any needed, as well as studies on biology and trends, and evaluation of threats.
158832		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in South America, in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and NW Argentina (Williamson 1917, 1918; Garrison 1999; Machado 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158832		habitat	eng	Adults hover just above water surface of streams and rivers, in bright or dappled sunshine, occasionally perching on reeds or grass tips overhanging water's edge (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Williamson (1918) reported females ovipositing in dead grassy debris caught in fences in irrigating ditches, and at water edge in solid mud banks. Larva unknown.
158832		population	eng	This species has a large extent of occurrence and many localities but information not known on population size or trends.
158832		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158833		conservation	eng	Known to occur in a protected area in Argentina: Parque Nacional Iguazu (Jurzitza 1981).
158833		distribution	eng	Found in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and northeastern Argentina (Fraser 1948, Jurzitza 1981, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158833		habitat	eng	Species have been found along rocky streams, settled on leaves, were wary, rare, and took flight to upper story leaves when disturbed -needed long-handled net to secure (R.W. Garrison pers. comm. 2007). Larva unknown.
158833		population	eng	This species is known from at least 11 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158833		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158834		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama; Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador; Parque Nacional Tingo Maria, Huanuco department, and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158834		distribution	eng	Occurs in Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador Peru and Paraguay (Rácenis 1953, Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158834		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, lakes, ditches, where adults perch on marginal vegetation; larva unknown.
158834		population	eng	Thought to be widespread in ten locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.
158834		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158835		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158835		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Rondonia, Brazil (Belle 1995).
158835		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species; no information on breeding habitat available, possibly rivers as type locality states 'Rio Pardo'. Male and larva unknown.
158835		population	eng	More research required on population status as only known from type specimen.
158835		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158836		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981) and Reserva de Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Santos 1968).
158836		distribution	eng	Found from Bahia to Sao Paulo states in Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Selys 1854, Ris 1911, Belle 1973, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158836		habitat	eng	Clear sandy bottomed streams and rivers; larva burrows in sand, described by Santos (1968). Males patrol sections of stream, often chasing one another, only when sunny; land frequently on rocks returning to the same spot (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).
158836		population	eng	The species is known from more than 20 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158836		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158837		conservation	eng	None of the two known localities are situated within protected areas; surveys to establish distribution range and breeding habitat preferences of the species are needed, as well as studies on its biology, trends and threats.
158837		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two localities in Junin department, Peru (Bick and Bick 1985).
158837		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in Andean mountain forest (Bick and Bick 1985); larva unknown.
158837		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158837		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158838		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158838		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in South America, from Ecuador and Peru to Brazil, Bolivia and Argentina (Calvert 1909, Lencioni 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158838		habitat	eng	Habitat includes marshy streams and rivers, ponds and pools (from label data, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva still unknown.
158838		population	eng	There is no data available on population sizes.
158838		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158839		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas; surveys to find more locations, study biology and trends and evaluate threats needed.
158839		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil and Trinidad (Williamson 1915, Geijskes 1932, Calvert 1948, Machet 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158839		habitat	eng	Small muddy streams in forest; adults fly in the shade, and hover almost motionless near water surface; female oviposits in submerged leaves, with apex of abdomen brought almost directly beneath wing bases (Williamson 1915). Larva unknown.
158839		population	eng	The species is known from six localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158839		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158840		conservation	eng	Presence in protected areas needs to be confirmed; probably not under threat due to wide distribution range within areas of virgin forest.
158840		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Trinidad and the Guyanas (Ris 1919, Rácenis 1953, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158840		habitat	eng	Habitat includes pools and ponds within lowland forest (R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.
158840		population	eng	The species has a large occurrence in largely unthreatened areas although population numbers are unknown.
158840		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158841		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama; Parque Nacional Palo Verde, Guanacaste province, and Reserva Biologica La Selva, Herdia province, Costa Rica (Donnelly 1992, Belle 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158841		distribution	eng	Occurs in Belize, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (Calvert 1907, Donnelly 1992, Boomsma and Dunkle 1996, Belle 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158841		habitat	eng	Lowland forest species; adults found on rivers, streams, sloughs, ditches and lakes, and along forest trails and open fields (Belle 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva unknown.
158841		population	eng	The species is known from 16 localities, three situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158841		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158842		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158842		distribution	eng	Subspecies <em>P. incurvatus incurvatus</em> in Lima department, Peru, and <em>P. incurvatus bivittatus</em> in northern Venezuela and Colombia (Belle 1973, de Marmels 1991).
158842		habitat	eng	Larva of <em>Progomphus incurvatus bivittatus</em> live in streams with fine sand beds, where the current is sufficient to prevent deposition of plant debris; adults frequent open forested areas (de Marmels 1991).
158842		population	eng	The species is known from six localities, has two subspecies and no data is available on size or trend of any population.
158842		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158843		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas; in Argentina: Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires province, Parque Nacional El Palmar, Entre Rios province, Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, and in Paraguay: Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department.
158843		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina (von Ellenrieder and Muzon 1999, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).
158843		habitat	eng	Adults perch on marginal vegetation of ponds, pools and lakes; larva described by von Ellenrieder and Muzon (1999) from road-side sloughs with abundant floating vegetation within a marginal forest.
158843		population	eng	The species is known from 15 localities, several situated within a protected area and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.
158843		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158844		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends and confirm absence of threats.
158844		distribution	eng	The species is known so far only from type locality in Loreto, Peru (Santos 1961).
158844		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers (from type locality, Santos 1961). Larva unknown.
158844		population	eng	More research required on population status as only known from type specimen.
158844		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158845		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
158845		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Selys 1873, Belle 1980, Jurzitza 1981, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158845		habitat	eng	Lowland forest species. Breeding habitat and larva are unknown.
158845		population	eng	This species is known from over five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158845		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158846		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Ducke, Amazonas state, Brazil (Santos 1964).
158846		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas forest in Venezuela and Brazil (Santos 1964, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158846		habitat	eng	Adults found flying in the shade, at rivulet flowing out from black water swamp, with dense marginal vegetation of grasses (de Marmels 1989); larva unknown.
158846		population	eng	This species is known from six locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158846		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158847		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Ibera, Corrientes province, and Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires province, Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2000, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
158847		distribution	eng	Occurs in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and southeastern Paraguay (Calvert 1909, Ris 1911, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158847		habitat	eng	Adults perch on tips of twigs, reeds and grasses along shore vegetation of marshes, permanent and temporary ponds and pools found in grasslands, shrub-lands, and open areas of forests; larva described by Souza and Costa (2002), and von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).
158847		population	eng	The species is known from 30 locations and two are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
158847		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158848		conservation	eng	Only two known localities not within protected areas, but area currently not under threat. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and evaluate threats necessary.
158848		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Para and Amazonas states in Brazil (Machado 1964, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158848		habitat	eng	Rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1964); female and larva unknown.
158848		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is described from only two male specimens.
158848		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158849		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area only (Monumento Nacional Pichasca) and distribution range is not confirmed.
158849		distribution	eng	Found from northern to central Chile: Atacama, Coquimbo and northern Valparaiso regions (R.W. Garrison 2006). Old records are vague 'South America' (Selys 1873) and 'Chile' (Martin 1909).
158849		habitat	eng	No information available on habitat and ecology; presumably streams at the foothills of the Andes. Larva unknown.
158849		population	eng	Population data is unavailable; many records for this species are old although recent habitat reduction is inferred so monitoring of population is required to place the species into a higher threat category.
158849		threats	eng	Inferred reduction and fragmentation of habitat by increased human development in metropolitan areas during the last few decades.
158850		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca, Amazonas state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1999).
158850		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela and Guyana (Calvert 1913; de Marmels 1982, 1989, 1997, 1999; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158850		habitat	eng	Adults fly swiftly along forest trails, swampy areas, small streams and creeks, and perch on ends of twigs.  Wings are held outspread and body horizontal, usually in the shade (Calvert 1913). Larva described by de Marmels (1999).
158850		population	eng	This species is known from over 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158850		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158851		conservation	eng	Present in protected area: Reserva de Tingua, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1999).
158851		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, from Paraiba to Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul states (Selys 1869; St. Quentin 1973; Belle 1970, 1984; Costa <em>et al</em>. 1999).
158851		habitat	eng	Small sandy creeks running through grasslands and secondary forest. Larva described by Costa <em>et al</em>. (1999).
158851		population	eng	The species is known from seven localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158851		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158852		conservation	eng	Only known locality not within a protected area, and its conservation status. Field studies necessary to rediscover species, known only from type series collected in 1942, establish its distribution range, study its biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
158852		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, in Santa Catarina state, Brazil (Garrison 1999).
158852		habitat	eng	No information is available; breeding habitat, female and larva are all unknown.
158852		population	eng	Known only from the type locality and population numbers are lacking.
158852		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158853		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158853		distribution	eng	Occurs in Peru and Brazil north to Belize and south to Mexico (Williamson 1923, Boomsma and Dunkle 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158853		habitat	eng	Adults common in lowland forested shaded areas. Adults commonly perched on branches and leaves of shrubs and trees below 5 m. They also breed in vegetation-covered ponds and swamps (Williamson 1923); larva unknown.
158853		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species.
158853		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158854		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Mburucuya and El Palmar, and Reserva de Punta Lara, Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2000, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
158854		distribution	eng	Occurs in Paraguay, southeastern Brazil, Uruguay and north half of Argentina (Ris 1904, 1913; Lencioni 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158854		habitat	eng	Ponds and pools with aquatic vegetation in grasslands and marginal forests; adults perch on twigs and leaves of emergent vegetation close to water surface and on bushes and grass blades near shore, and fly in a slow steady beat when sunny. Bulla (1970) described the larva, which lives among filamentous algae and roots of aquatic plants; von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).
158854		population	eng	Known to be widespread and common over a large area.
158854		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158855		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Surveys needed to establish current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158855		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Peru and southwestern Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1930).
158855		habitat	eng	Adults fly near creeks of muddy bottom in forest (Williamson and Williamson 1930); female and larva unknown.
158855		population	eng	Known only from two localities but thought to be widespread.  Further research is needed into understanding the size of its global population.
158855		threats	eng	One of the localities (Porto Velho) has a past history of rubber production; currently a communications centre and cassiterite mining area. The second location within unthreatened forested area.
158856		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas in Argentina: Reserva Punta Lara, Reserva de Acambuco, Reserva Rincon de Santa Maria, Parque Nacional Calilegua, Parque Nacional El Rey (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158856		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia and northern half of Argentina (Fraser 1948, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Recorded from Venezuela (de Marmels 1990) without locality; presence in that country doubtful and records not included here.
158856		habitat	eng	Standing water with dense floating vegetation, including ponds, pools and still waters at stream edges within forests and in grasslands; adults are inconspicuous because they perch and fly low over matted aquatic plants (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Bulla (1970) described the larva, and Muzon <em>et al</em>. (1990) studied its population dynamics.
158856		population	eng	The species is known from over 30 localities, several situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158856		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158857		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but area not currently threatened. Field studies necessary to find out more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.
158857		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas forest in Para, Rondonia and Amazonas states in Brazil (Machado 1985, Lencioni 2005).
158857		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1985); female and larva unknown.
158857		population	eng	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158857		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158858		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima in Bolivar, Venezuela, Reserva de Tambopata in Madre de Dios, Peru and Reserva Ducke in Amazonas, Brazil (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158858		distribution	eng	Occurs in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana and French Guiana to Peru and Brazil (Ris 1909, Navás 1924, Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2006 D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158858		habitat	eng	Adults fly in forest clearings in small swarms, at head height and higher; slowly and hovering to and fro for hours without settling (Ris 1913); breeding habitats are sandy streams and muddy pools (Garrison <em>et al</em>. 2006); larva described by Fleck (2004).
158858		population	eng	This species is known from more than 18 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158858		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158859		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela and Reserva Privada Peti, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Garrison 1983, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158859		distribution	eng	Occurs in Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (Ris 1911, 1919; Borror 1931; Geijskes 1984; de Marmels 1989; Machado and Machado 1993; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158859		habitat	eng	Forest streams, marginal forest of large rivers, and small to large man-made lakes. Adults fly fast rarely settling for more than a few seconds on emerging snags (Garrison 1983), on leaves or on the ground at shore, with the abdomen horizontal or in the obelisk position (Machado and Machado 1993). Larva described by Machado and Machado (1993) and Fleck (2003) from artificial ponds and reservoirs.
158859		population	eng	Thought to be widespread in at least 35 locations (three of which are within protected areas) but no information is available on size or trend of population.
158859		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158860		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158860		distribution	eng	Occurs in Marowijne and Para districts in Suriname and Madre de Dios and Loreto departments in Peru (Belle 1997, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158860		habitat	eng	Habitat includes swamps in forests; larva unknown.
158860		population	eng	This species is known from at least five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158860		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158861		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158861		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1973).
158861		habitat	eng	No information is available; female and larva unknown.
158861		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158861		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158862		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158862		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, in the Andes of Cuzco Department, Peru (Ris 1918).
158862		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species although in other species' of this genus, adults fly slowly on shaded areas of secondary forest for short distances before perching hanging down (Lencioni 2004); female and larva unknown.
158862		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158862		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158863		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends.
158863		distribution	eng	Occurs in Espirito Santo State in Brazil (Santos 1961, Costa and Garrison 2001).
158863		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species; female and larva still unknown.
158863		population	eng	Since its original description in 1961, this species has only been recorded once more (2001) and data on population status is lacking.
158863		threats	eng	Habitat alteration through clearing of forest and fires.
158864		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158864		distribution	eng	Occurs in Suriname (Belle 1966, 1977, 1992).
158864		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers; larva described by Needham (1944) as "sp.# 15" in collection notes, and assigned to this species and re-described by Belle (1966, 1992).
158864		population	eng	The species is known from six localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158864		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158865		conservation	eng	Localities within Parque Nacional Perija, Zulia state, Venezuela. Surveys to establish distribution area, biology, trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
158865		distribution	eng	The species is known from two localities in Sierra de Perija, Zulia state, Venezuela (de Marmels 2001).
158865		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest species; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).
158865		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description (2001) and thought to be more widespread, however population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158865		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158866		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, Rio Negro, Argentina (Muzon 1997, von Ellenrieder 2000).
158866		distribution	eng	Found from Chile to Argentina, Uruguay and southeastern Brazil (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1989, Muzon 1993, Muzon 1997, Muzon <em>et al</em>. 2006).
158866		habitat	eng	Habitat includes temporary ponds with reeds in grasslands; oviposition is undertaken in tandem (Jurzitza 1989). Larva described by Muzon (1997) and von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).
158866		population	eng	This species is known from over 30 locations (two being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158866		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158867		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158867		distribution	eng	Occurs in Peru, Venezuela, Suriname and Brazil (Ris 1912, Geijskes 1964, de Marmels 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158867		habitat	eng	Adults fly over banks of rivers, streams, lakes, artificial ponds and swamps, and perch on the ground (de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); when in copula male and female hover in the air for a short time, after which female dips off eggs on water surface, watched by male 30 cm above (Geijskes 1964). Larva unknown.
158867		population	eng	The species is known from six localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158867		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158868		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158868		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Suriname and Guyana to Brazil, Ecuador and Peru (Ris 1911; de Marmels 1989, 1992; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158868		habitat	eng	Habitat includes lowland forest; adults found along trails in forest, and on banks of streams, ponds and pools (de Marmels 1992, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.
158868		population	eng	The species is known from 13 locations and three are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
158868		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158869		conservation	eng	Presence in protected areas yet to be confirmed. Surveys needed to study biology, trends and threats.
158869		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andean forest from Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru (Bick and Bick 1985).
158869		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in forest; larva unknown.
158869		population	eng	The species is known from ten localities, none situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158869		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158870		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158870		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1913, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2006).
158870		habitat	eng	No information is available; larva unknown.
158870		population	eng	This species is known from ten locations (two being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158870		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158871		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158871		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1994).
158871		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1994); larva unknown.
158871		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158871		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158872		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158872		distribution	eng	Occurs in Cauca and Antioquia Departments in Colombia (Borror 1942, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158872		habitat	eng	No information is currently available; breeding habitat, female and larva are all unknown.
158872		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats as it is described from only two male specimens.
158872		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158873		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158873		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest of Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and northeastern Argentina (Santos and Machado 1960, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158873		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and creeks within lowland Amazon forest (Santos and Machado 1960). Larva described by Santos and Costa (1987).
158873		population	eng	This species is known from over 20 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158873		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158874		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158874		distribution	eng	Occurs in Minas Gerais, Goias and Mato Grosso states in Brazil (Selys 1874, May 1991).
158874		habitat	eng	Localities situated in the cerrado shrub-land; no data available on habitat preferences. Larva unknown.
158874		population	eng	Known from three locations across a wide distribution but population numbers are unknown.
158874		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is under any threat.
158875		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158875		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Brazil and Bolivia (Calvert 1909, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158875		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva unknown.
158875		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
158875		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158876		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Reserva Florestal Acude do Prata, Minas Gerais state, Brazil, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru and Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (von Ellenrieder and Muzon 1999, Costa and Regis 2005, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158876		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in South America, from Venezuela and Guyanas to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Ris 1930; Rácenis 1953; de Marmels 1989, 1997; von Ellenrieder and Muzon 1999; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158876		habitat	eng	Adults perch on vegetation along margins of pools, ponds, swamps, sloughs and streams in forest. Larva described by Costa and Regis (2005) from a small temporary muddy bottomed puddle devoid of vegetation.
158876		population	eng	The species is known from 50 localities, several situated within protected areas and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.
158876		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158877		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158877		distribution	eng	Occurs in Central Argentina and Uruguay (Bulla 1973, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
158877		habitat	eng	Lotic (moving water) environments; larva described by Bulla (1973) associated to submerged roots of riparian and aquatic plants.
158877		population	eng	Thought to be a widespread species known from at least 13 locations.
158877		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158878		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158878		distribution	eng	Occurs in Ecuador and Peru (Hagen in Selys 1865, Schmidt 1942, Soukup 1954, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158878		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers (label data, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158878		population	eng	This species is known from over 16 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158878		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158879		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158879		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Suriname, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru (Ris 1910, Rácenis 1953, Soukup 1954, de Marmels 1985, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158879		habitat	eng	Adults found on trails in forest and near pools and ponds; de Marmels (1985) mentioned a female ovipositing on a ditch of slow moving water and 20 cm deep in a forest clearing. Larva . Extreme rarity relative to other <em>Orthemis</em>, lack of males at wetlands, observations high in trees, and lack of flange on segment eight of female make me speculate this is usually a tree-hole breeder (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158879		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158880		conservation	eng	Not currently known from any protected area. Surveys needed to establish distribution area, study trends and evaluate threats and protective measures.
158880		distribution	eng	Occurs in Buenos Aires province in Argentina (Rodrigues Capitulo 1992, Muzon <em>et al</em>. 2006).
158880		habitat	eng	Streams and slow moving rivers in grasslands associated with marginal forest (Rodrigues 1992). Larva described by Muzon <em>et al</em>. (2006).
158880		population	eng	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158880		threats	eng	Area subject to human alteration, due to agriculture, industry and increasing human population.
158881		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158881		distribution	eng	Found in lowland Amazon forest from Para to Rondonia states in Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1924, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158881		habitat	eng	Adults reported perching on tip of leaves and twigs of bushes in full sun with wings folded, on clearings along banks of a large creek with firm sand bed and swift current (Williamson and Williamson 1924). Larva unknown.
158881		population	eng	Population trends and size are not known although this species has been found in 2 localities.
158881		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158882		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Tingo Maria, Huanuco department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Surveys needed to establish biology and monitor trends and threats.
158882		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bolivia and Peru (Calvert 1909, Sjoedstedt 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158882		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in mountain and lowland rain forest; female, breeding habitat and larva are all unknown.
158882		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158882		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158883		conservation	eng	Possibly present in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve from the UNESCO (http://whc.unesco.org), which protects 1.6 million ha of primary tropical forest, including upper watershed of the Coppename River and headwaters of the Lucie, Oost, Zuid, Saramaccz, and Gran Rio rivers, covering a range of topography, montane and lowland forests, of notable conservation value due to its pristine state. Surveys needed to establish its current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats and presence in protected area.
158883		distribution	eng	Occurs in Suriname, Sipaliwini district (Belle 1989).
158883		habitat	eng	Species has been found at a small creek along a patch to the airstrip (Belle 1989).
158883		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen in 1989 but thought to be widely distributed, there is no detailed information available on the size of the global population.
158883		threats	eng	None known; Sipaliwini is the largest district of Suriname, and it is mostly unpopulated (except for northern and western areas).
158884		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
158884		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, northeastern Argentina and Uruguay (Fraser 1947; Belle 1970, 1972, 1981; Jurzitza 1981; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006)
158884		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams (Belle 1981, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006). Larva unknown.
158884		population	eng	The species is known from eight localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158884		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158885		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
158885		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina (Borror 1942, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158885		habitat	eng	Habitat includes pools and marshes; larva described by Costa <em>et al</em>. (2001).
158885		population	eng	This species is known from more than 25 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158885		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158886		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends and confirm absence of threats.
158886		distribution	eng	Occurs in Colombia, between Cundinamarca and Boyaca departments (Calvert 1909, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, de Marmels 1997).
158886		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Larva still unknown.
158886		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
158886		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158887		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158887		distribution	eng	Occurs in Peru, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname (Calvert 1907; Ris 1911; de Marmels 1988, 1990; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158887		habitat	eng	Larva described by de Marmels (1990) from a large road side ditch devoid of vegetation. Adults found along banks of rivers and in swamps (Ris 1911, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158887		population	eng	The species is known from 12 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158887		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158888		conservation	eng	Known from a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1982). Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.
158888		distribution	eng	Found from southeastern Brazil to northeastern Argentina (Garrison 1990).
158888		habitat	eng	Larva found among riparian vegetation in stony streams and rivers (von Ellenrieder 2007).
158888		population	eng	The species is known only from three locations since its recent description and is expected to be found in a wider distributed area.  No information is available on population size and trends.
158888		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158889		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but probably not all under threat. Surveys needed to establish if present in protected areas, study trends and evaluate threats.
158889		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, in Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo states (Santos 1962, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158889		habitat	eng	Larvae, described by Santos (1969), found at margin of pond next to forest, rich in decaying vegetation.
158889		population	eng	Adults very abundant, especially from June to September (Santos 1969).
158889		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158890		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, and Reserva Biologica da Boraceia, Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Jurzitza 1981, de Marmels 2001).
158890		distribution	eng	Found from southeastern Brazil to northeastern Argentina (de Marmels 2001).
158890		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within forest; larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).
158890		population	eng	A widespread species known from a variety of locations included 3 within protected areas.
158890		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158891		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158891		distribution	eng	The species is known only from its type locality in Junin department, Peru (Kennedy 1942).
158891		habitat	eng	No information is available; female and larva unknown.
158891		population	eng	The species is only known from its original description and no information is available on population numbers.
158891		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158892		conservation	eng	Known localities seemingly not within protected areas; one of them 'Tapajos' of uncertain location, could be included in the Amazonia National Park, which straddles the Tapajós River near Itaituba, covering 9,935 km² but suffers from inadequate administrative capacity (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0135_full.html); possibly present in other protected areas of Amazonia in northern Brazil (seven new protected areas encompassing 37 acres created in December 2006 in Para state). Surveys needed to establish its current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats and presence in protected area.
158892		distribution	eng	The species is known from two localities in Amazon forest of Brazil, one in Para state, and the second one 'Tapajoz' (river in central Brazil emptying into the Amazon, with headwaters in southern Brazil), of uncertain location (Borror 1931).
158892		habitat	eng	Amazon lowland forest species; adults found along banks of flood creek basin, among grasses and bushes (Borror 1931). Larva unknown.
158892		population	eng	Known only from two localities and not been recorded since 1931.  There is no information available on population trends or numbers.
158892		threats	eng	Known locality (Manaus) subject to human alteration due to mining, clear cutting of forest and growth of city.
158893		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158893		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon region of Peru, Ecuador and Brazil (Borror 1931, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, US National Museum, Smithsonian Institution 2003).
158893		habitat	eng	Banks of rivers and lakes in lowland Amazon forest (from locality data); larva unknown.
158893		population	eng	The species is known from four locations (one occurring within a protected area) but no information is available on size or trend of population.
158893		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158894		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada, Merida state, Venezuela (de Marmels 2001). Surveys needed to establish distribution, study biology and trends, and confirm absence of threats.
158894		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Cordillera de Merida in Eastern Andes of Venezuela (de Marmels 2001, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158894		habitat	eng	Natural lagoons in the 'paramo' above tree line (de Marmels 2001). Larva unknown.
158894		population	eng	The species is known from three localities one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158894		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158895		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158895		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bolivia, Brazil and Venezuela (Belle 1973, St. Quentin 1973, de Marmels 1983, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158895		habitat	eng	Adults perch on ground at margins of ponds, dams and ditches  (St. Quentin 1973) with mud and gravel substrate (de Marmels 1983); larva burrows near edge of water body, described by Limongi (1983).
158895		population	eng	The species is known from more than ten localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158895		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158896		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional El Rey, Salta province and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios, Peru, Reserva Tingua, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, and Estacion Biologica La Selva, Heredia, Costa Rica (Santos 1978, Jurzitza 1981, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158896		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mexico, southern to northern Argentina and Brazil (Ris 1911; Santos 1978; de Marmels 1988, 1989; Donnelly 1992; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; Gonzalez-Soriano and Novelo-Gutierrez 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; Souza and Costa 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158896		habitat	eng	Adults frequent ponds, swamps and pools where they perch on tips of twigs, reeds and grass along shore vegetation with wings set (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva described by Santos (1978), breeds in lentic environments within forest. Behaviour described by May (1980).
158896		population	eng	This species is known from 40 locations (several being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158896		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158897		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia, Costa Rica, Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuado, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158897		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Neotropical region, from Belize and Costa Rica south to Brazil, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1906; Rácenis 1953; Geijskes 1971; de Marmels 1990, 1992; Donnelly 1992; Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158897		habitat	eng	Adults observed flying around pools, ponds, lakes, marshes, swamps, back waters of rivers and streams, also flying along forest edges, trails and clearings (de Marmels 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva described by de Marmels (1990).
158897		population	eng	Thought to be widespread in 40 locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.
158897		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158898		conservation	eng	Localities known not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to study biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158898		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Guyana, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil (Williamson 1915; Fraser 1946; de Marmels 1992, 1997; Pessaq 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158898		habitat	eng	Small muddy streams with banks covered with dense brush; adults found flying near water surface and perching in shade under overhanging bushes (Williamson 1915), and in tandem at a broad river in the forest; tenerals (state after moulting) perching on sunlit bushes in forest away from water (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.
158898		population	eng	This species is known from seven locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158898		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158899		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158899		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guadeloupe, Dominica and Costa Rica to Trinidad, Venezuela and southern Brazil (Selys 1876, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158899		habitat	eng	Ponds and pools with abundant aquatic vegetation (collection labels; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.
158899		population	eng	The species is known from 13 localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158899		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158900		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, ecology and range, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158900		distribution	eng	Found in Panama to Trinidad, Venezuela and Brazil (Williamson 1916, Leonard 1977, Garrison 1985, de Marmels 1989).
158900		habitat	eng	Adults found at small swamp, around water supply reservoirs (Williamson 1916) and at small swamp fed by a stream with abundant emergent vegetation (de Marmels 1989).
158900		population	eng	A widespread species but data on population size and trends are lacking.
158900		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158901		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to find more localities, establish distribution area, study biology and evaluate threats.
158901		distribution	eng	Localities old and vague (McLachlan 1895, Förster1905, Martin 1909); Rio de Janeiro in Brazil to Aguaray river  (most likely in San Pedro province) in Paraguay (Williamson 1923).
158901		habitat	eng	One of the localities refers to the bank of Aguaray river in Paraguay (Foerster 1905); no further data is available.
158901		population	eng	This species is only known from two localities and there is no known population information.
158901		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158902		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158902		distribution	eng	Occurs in Suriname, French Guiana and Venezuela (Needham 1940, Geijskes 1946, Belle 1970, de Marmels 1985, Machet 1991).
158902		habitat	eng	Adults in shady gallery forests of savanna and evergreen jungle, where they roost high on trees; females descend to water to oviposit, males never descend (Belle, 1986). Larva described by Needham (1944) and Belle (1970), breeds in sandy bottomed streams among decaying leaves.&#160; To metamorphose, it crawls to roots and twigs of bank vegetation or steams and leaves of water plants (Belle 1986).
158902		population	eng	The species is known from seven locations and thought to be more widespread across lowland Amazon forest although no population data is available.
158902		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158903		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158903		distribution	eng	Found from central Colombia to Ecuador (Garrison 2006).
158903		habitat	eng	Adults perch on small trees, 3-5 m above the ground, at the head of openings on steep, narrow and shady bedrock streams; larva described by Garrison (2006).
158903		population	eng	The species is known to be common from the ten locations it occurs in.
158903		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158904		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department Peru (Loton <em>et al</em>. 1996, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158904		distribution	eng	Found from Colombia, Venezuela and Suriname south to Peru, Brazil and Bolivia (Ris 1910, 1919, 1930; de Marmels 1989, 1997; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006) [material from Panana and Costa Rica from original series corresponded to other species, see Ris 1930]
158904		habitat	eng	Habitat includes pools, ponds, sloughs, streams of sluggish current and muddy bottom (Ris 1930, Loton <em>et al</em>. 1996, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158904		population	eng	The species is known from 15 localities, two situated within a protected area and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.
158904		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158905		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Calilegua, Jujuy province, and Iguazu, Misiones, province, and Reserva Acambuco, Salta province, Argentina, and Ta (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006), Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, and Reserva Tapanti, Cartago province, Costa Rica (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).
158905		distribution	eng	Occurs in southern USA to northern Argentina (Calvert 1956, Ris 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158905		habitat	eng	Adults strong flyers over ponds and pools with abundant aquatic vegetation where the larva breeds (Calvert 1956).
158905		population	eng	The species is known from 40 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158905		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158906		conservation	eng	Research needed to complete knowledge on taxonomy, biology, establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158906		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Para state, Brazil (Garrison 1990).
158906		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in forest (Garrison 1990). Female and larva still unknown.
158906		population	eng	This species is only known from its type locality and so data is lacking on population size.
158906		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158907		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158907		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador (Mauffray 1999).
158907		habitat	eng	Habitat includes stream tributaries and seepage areas; adults fly in sunlight down from vegetation overhanging water, and up to 1-3 m above landing on leaves (Mauffray 1999). Larva unknown.
158907		population	eng	The species occurs in a very small area although it is likely to be widespread; further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.
158907		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158908		conservation	eng	Possibly present in Chagres Panama Canal National Park but presence not yet confirmed. Surveys needed to find more localities, establish distribution area, study biology and evaluate threats.
158908		distribution	eng	Occurs in Colombia, Antioquia department (type locality) and Panama, Colon Province (Williamson 1923, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158908		habitat	eng	Information from type locality (Williamson 1918, 1923) describes the preferred habitat as a small, sluggish stream within forest of tall trees, spiny palms and lower shrubs and vines, 2-3 m in width and maximum depth of 1 m with a firm muddy bottom.
158908		population	eng	This species is only known from two localities and there is no known population information.
158908		threats	eng	Williamson (1918) indicated that the forest where the holotype was found was being destroyed to furnish fuel for a railroad.
158909		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.
158909		distribution	eng	Found in Andean rainforest in Junin, Peru (Schmidt 1942, Leonard 1977 as <em>Acanthagrion deceptum</em>).
158909		habitat	eng	Previously found on banks of rivers (Schmidt 1942). Larva unknown.
158909		population	eng	No data available on population status or trends.
158909		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158910		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro state and Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo state, Brazil, and Reserva Natural del Bosque, Canindeyu department, Paraguay (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158910		distribution	eng	The species is widespread across South America, from Colombia and Venezuela to Paraguay and Argentina (Borror 1942, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006).
158910		habitat	eng	Common at marshes, ponds and streams with abundant vegetation; larva described by Carvalho <em>et al</em>. (1991).
158910		population	eng	This species is known from more than 25 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158910		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158911		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Waorami, Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2006). Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158911		distribution	eng	Found from Colombia (Fraser 1946) to Ecuador R.W. Garrison 2006.
158911		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species; female and larva unknown.
158911		population	eng	The species occurs in a very small area and further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.
158911		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158912		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158912		distribution	eng	Found from Belize and Guatemala south to Bolivia and Brazil (Calvert 1906, 1948; Ris 1910, 1919; Fraser 1946; Geijskes 1971; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158912		habitat	eng	Adults found at ponds, lake shores, ditches, open fields and forest trails (R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva described by Fleck (2003).
158912		population	eng	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from 32 locations, two of which are within protected areas.
158912		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158913		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish if distribution is as restricted as currently known, as well as surveys to find out if it occurs in any of the protected areas in Brazil.
158913		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Calvert 1946, Westfall 1992, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).
158913		habitat	eng	Adults found along shores of small lakes (Calvert 1946); female and larva unknown.
158913		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
158913		threats	eng	Human development in the area could be causing habitat alteration.
158914		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158914		distribution	eng	Type described from 'Amazon region in South America' (Martin 1909); later found in Amazon forest of Venezuela (Geijskes 1964).
158914		habitat	eng	Habitat and larva are unknown.
158914		population	eng	There is very little known about this species although it is thought to be widespread, however no data is available on population numbers.
158914		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158915		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Callicebus, in Loreto department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158915		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Ecuador, Peru and Brazil (Bick and Bick 1986).
158915		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within forest; adults active all year long except for December (Bick and Bick 1986). Larva unknown.
158915		population	eng	The species is known from nine localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158915		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158916		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158916		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1994).
158916		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1994); larva unknown.
158916		population	eng	The species is known only from the original descriptions and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158916		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158917		conservation	eng	Not possible to design conservation measures if identity of species is not solved first. Unknown location, habitat, biology, trends and threats.
158917		distribution	eng	The species is known only from original description, from Buenos Aires provinces, Argentina (Navás 1920).
158917		habitat	eng	No information is available; habitat, female and larva are all unknown.
158917		population	eng	With a disputed taxonomy, there is no population numbers available for this species.
158917		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158918		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Costa Rica (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158918		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cayman Islands, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, French Guiana and Suriname (Hagen in Selys 1877, Calvert 1902, 1909; Santos 1961, Machet 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158918		habitat	eng	Occurring among littoral vegetation of ponds and marshes (R.W. Garrison pers. comm. 2006). This species thrives in tropical lowlands with well-developed dry seasons, where it apparently siccatates (spends the dry season) as an immature adult (de Marmels 1990, D.R. Paulson pers. obs. 2006) then matures and breeds rapidly as the rains come, with very rapid larval development and two broods during the rainy season. Other populations breed in permanent marshes.
158918		population	eng	This species is known from at least 50 locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158918		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158919		conservation	eng	Area mentioned as being currently protected (Lencioni 2001). Surveys needed to establish trends and confirm absence of threats.
158919		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Sao Paulo, Brazil (Lencioni 2001).
158919		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small streams in flooded areas of Atlantic forest (Lencioni 2001). Larva still unknown.
158919		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species due to recent discovery (in 2001).
158919		threats	eng	Surrounding area subject to deforestation (Lencioni 2001).
158920		conservation	eng	Two known localities not within protected areas, of  conservation status; surveys to find more localities, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
158920		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Loreto department, Peru (Cowley 1941, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158920		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest; habitat requirements, female and larva are all unknown.
158920		population	eng	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158920		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158921		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158921		distribution	eng	Found in the foothills of the Andean forest in Ecuador, from Sucumbios to Napo provinces (Dunkle 1991, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158921		habitat	eng	Shade dwellers of ponds, sloughs and swamps, perching on shaded emergent plants or waterside twigs and foraging among gloomy rainforest undergrowth (Dunkle 1991). Female and larvae unknown.
158921		population	eng	First described in 1991, this species is expected to be more widespread than originally recorded but data is lacking.
158921		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158922		conservation	eng	Type locality situated within a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158922		distribution	eng	So far known only from its type locality in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil (Costa and Santos 2000).
158922		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest species; larva unknown.
158922		population	eng	Known from type locality only, therefore information lacking on population numbers.
158922		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158923		conservation	eng	Localities known not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to study biology, trends, evaluate threats and establish if present within existing protected areas.
158923		distribution	eng	Found from Rondonia and Para states in Brazil to French Guiana (Geijskes 1976, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158923		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within lowland forest; larva unknown. Usually found in rain.
158923		population	eng	Known from only five locations but extent of occurrence is large currently not under threat, therefore the species is expected to be widespread.
158923		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158924		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish if species is still found at its original locality and if it is found elsewhere along eastern coast of Brazil and within protected areas.
158924		distribution	eng	Found along east coast of Rio de Janerio in Brazil; known only from type series which included 40 males and 15 females collected over a lapse of 12 years (from 1953 - 1965; Santos 1965).
158924		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds (Lagoa das Taxas, Santos 1965). Larva unknown.
158924		population	eng	Population status is not known because the species has not been seen since its description in 1965.
158924		threats	eng	Urban development leading to habitat alteration by clearing of forest and pollution. Type locality, and only locality known so far, situated in an Ecological park (Chico Mendez) in populous Rio de Janeiro.
158925		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but currently not under threat. Surveys needed to find out more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
158925		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas forest in Amapa and Para states, Brazil (Machado 1964).
158925		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1964); larva unknown.
158925		population	eng	This species is known from two locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158925		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158926		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas. Surveys needed to study biology and trends, to see if species occurs within protected areas and to evaluate threats.
158926		distribution	eng	Occurs in Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil (Santos 1968).
158926		habitat	eng	Habitat includes slow moving streams, with lentic areas and floating vegetation (Pontederiaceae), scarce marginal vegetation or bushes (Santos 1968).
158926		population	eng	The species is known from three localities not situated within protected areas with a very small extent of occurrence and no data is available on population numbers.
158926		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158927		conservation	eng	Taxonomic status doubtful, needs to be solved before any categorization is possible.
158927		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, in Bahia, Brazil (Machado 1996, Garrison 2006).
158927		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small streams (Machado 1996); female and larva still unknown.
158927		population	eng	Disputed taxonomy, therefore population assessment and information available is lacking.
158927		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158928		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, Reserva de Tambopata, and Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158928		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest of Peru, Ecuador and Brazil (Dunkle 1982; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158928		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, pools, swamps and temporary streams in shady lowland forest (Dunkle 1982, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Dunkle described the egg and early larval stages (Dunkle 1982).
158928		population	eng	The species is known from six localities, three situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158928		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158929		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158929		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mexico, south to Bolivia and Brazil (Belle 1973, 1991; St. Quentin 1973; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158929		habitat	eng	Larva described by Belle (1991), and by Limongi (1983) from rapid sections of stony river with sandy margins, where it burrows.
158929		population	eng	The species is known from 20 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158929		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158930		conservation	eng	Locality not within a protected area; status of conservation . Surveys to establish distribution area and breeding habitat, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
158930		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, in Caqueta department, Colombia (Dunkle 1986).
158930		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest species; no information on breeding habitat available, but most likely streams as in other species of the genus. Female and larva unknown.
158930		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and two male specimens and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158930		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158931		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158931		distribution	eng	Occurs in Para and Rondonia states in Brazil and Amazonas Federal Territory in Venezuela (Belle 1982, de Marmels 1989).
158931		habitat	eng	Habitat includes creeks, adults perch on dead branches and twigs or green leaves over water (Belle 1982). Larva and female unknown.
158931		population	eng	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158931		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158932		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158932		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, in Espirito santo State, Brazil (Ris 1911, Belle 1973).
158932		habitat	eng	No information is available; larva unknown.
158932		population	eng	The species is known only from the type series and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158932		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158933		conservation	eng	Only known location within a protected area: Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Santos 1970, R.W. Garrison 2006). Surveys needed to find out if it is distributed elsewhere in similar environments of Atlantic forest; establish distribution range, study trends and evaluate threats.
158933		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Santos 1970, Lencioni 1999, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158933		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in Atlantic forest (Santos 1970, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158933		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is known from only one location.
158933		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158934		conservation	eng	Species description vague and species validity doubtful, could correspond to another described species; taxonomic revision necessary.
158934		distribution	eng	The species is known only from its type locality in Loreto, Peru (Navás 1924).
158934		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Female and larvae unknown.
158934		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
158934		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158935		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Ecologica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), Distrito Federal, Parque Nacional Serra do Cipo, Minas Gerais state, Parque Nacional Itatiaiia, Rio de Janeiro state, Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo state, and Parque Nacional Aparados da Serra, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Assis and Costa 1994; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158935		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil from Goias to Rio Grande do Sul states (Santos 1953; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158935		habitat	eng	Larva described by Assis and Costa (1994) from temporary ponds.
158935		population	eng	The species is known from 20 locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
158935		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158936		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158936		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, lowland forest in Rondonia, Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1924).
158936		habitat	eng	Adults reported flying above bushes and grass along bank of stream, with irregular jerky flight, and perching with folded wings on tip of grasses in the sun; hard to see and catch - when perched inconspicuous, on the wing do not look like dragonflies but rather like flies (Williamson and Williamson 1924). Also common along forested edges of large oxbow lakes.
158936		population	eng	Although this species is known only from one locality, it is thought to be more widespread.  Population data is lacking however.
158936		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158937		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158937		distribution	eng	Found from S Panama through Peru to Bolivia (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2003).
158937		habitat	eng	Adults fly along banks of rivers at dusk (collection data, University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology 2003, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva and larval habitat could be phytotelmata or temporary pools as in other known species in this genus (Garrison <em>et al</em>. 2006).
158937		population	eng	The species is known from at least four locations although population details are lacking.
158937		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158938		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158938		distribution	eng	Found from lowland Amazon forest from Rondonia, Brazil, to Beni, Bolivia and Madre de Dios, Peru (Garrison 1990).
158938		habitat	eng	Creeks and small streams in forests and clearings of lowland forest (Garrison 1990).
158938		population	eng	This species is known from only four locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158938		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158939		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158939		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest of Brazil and Peru (Santos 1949, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158939		habitat	eng	Adults found along large oxbow lakes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); female undescribed and larva unknown.
158939		population	eng	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158939		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158940		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158940		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest from Guyana to eastern Peru and Brazil (Belle 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158940		habitat	eng	Habitat includes creeks and rivers in Amazon forest. Adults crepuscular (Williamson and Williamson 1930, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva found at small bush creek clinging to a grass blade in process of metamorphosis in the morning described by Belle (1989).
158940		population	eng	Thought to be widespread in at least 22 locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.
158940		threats	eng	None known.
158941		conservation	eng	Present in protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Garrison 1997). Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158941		distribution	eng	The species is known so far only from type locality in Madre de Dios Department, Peru (Garrison 1997).
158941		habitat	eng	Shallow palm swamps with submerged dead tree trunks and snags along margins; adults uncommon and flying low over water surface in and out of vegetation, and along trails within primary rainforest (Garrison 1997). Larva unknown.
158941		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158941		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158942		conservation	eng	Surveys on distribution, biology, trends and threats necessary.
158942		distribution	eng	Occurs in Cochabamba State in Bolivia (Daigle 2004).
158942		habitat	eng	Shaded and tangled forest margin of large lakes (Daigl 2004). Larva habitat is unknown.&#160; Probably coincidentally associated with large lakes; more likely to breed in small water bodies, as seems to be the case with other <em>Metaleptobasis</em>, most or all of which very likely breed in seasonal forest pools and swamps because they are found spread throughout the forest during the dry season (admittedly no confirmation by larval collections).
158942		population	eng	A recently described species that requires further fieldwork looking at population status and trends.
158942		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158943		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica, and Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158943		distribution	eng	Occurs in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador (Ris 1918, Williamson 1919, Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158943		habitat	eng	Adults found along streams and rivers, perching with spread wings on twig tips. During the afternoon come out from the jungle to open places along creek, where they catch prey from advantageous perch, returning always to same spot. Males fight dancing rapidly head on before each other. Females oviposit unattended by males (Williamson 1919). Larva unknown.
158943		population	eng	This species is known from 16 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158943		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158944		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158944		distribution	eng	Occurs in Suriname (Needham 1944, Belle 1966, 1973, 1977), Venezuela (de Marmels 1981, 1989) and Brazil (Belle 1994).
158944		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers and creeks of sandy bottom. Males and females perch on leaves of branches overhanging water, flying swiftly close to water in sunlight; larvae burrow into sand of banks, emerge on bare sandy patches of banks or climbing up plants close to water's edge around midday (Belle 1966). Larva described by Needham (1944) and Belle (1966).
158944		population	eng	The species appears to be common in the ten locations it is found in.
158944		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158945		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected area, but area of distribution not currently threatened, and probably more widespread than known within poorly sampled Amazon forest. Surveys to study biology, trends and evaluate threats necessary.
158945		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Venezuela and Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1924, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158945		habitat	eng	Adults found along creeks within lowland forest (Williamson and Williamson 1924); larva unknown.
158945		population	eng	The species is known from five localities not situated within protected areas but thought to be widespread in the poorly sampled forests.
158945		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158946		conservation	eng	Only known locality not within a protected area; surveys needed to establish distribution range, habitat preferences, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.
158946		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, in Tungurahua province, Ecuador (Bick and Bick 1991).
158946		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in Andean Montane rainforest (Bick and Bick 1991); larva unknown.
158946		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
158946		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158947		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158947		distribution	eng	Occurs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158947		habitat	eng	Habitat includes marshes, ponds and streams (Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Typical of small marshes within forests (Paulson pers. obs. 2007). Larva unknown.
158947		population	eng	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158947		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158948		conservation	eng	Known locations not within protected areas. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
158948		distribution	eng	Occurs in Sao Paulo and Bahia states in Brazil and San Pedro department in Paraguay (Santos 1957, Lencioni 2005, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158948		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within forest (Machado 1957, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158948		population	eng	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158948		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158949		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas (von Ellenrieder 2003): Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta and Parque Nacional Puyehue (Chile); Parque Nacional Los Alerces, Parque Nacional Lanin and Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi (Argentina).
158949		distribution	eng	Occurs in sub-Antarctic forests of the Austral biogeographic region of southwestern Argentina and southern Chile (von Ellenrieder 2003).
158949		habitat	eng	Adults fly along streams, small rivers, and lake shores (von Ellenrieder 2003). Larva described by Calvert (1956) and von Ellenrieder (2001).
158949		population	eng	The species is known from 200 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
158949		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
158950		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158950		distribution	eng	Occurs in Goias state in Brazil south to Paraguay (Calvert 1909, Costa 1978).
158950		habitat	eng	Larva described by Costa (1981) from specimens collected in small temporary pools.
158950		population	eng	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from 19 locations.
158950		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158951		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158951		distribution	eng	Found from Panama south to Peru and Brazil (Calvert 1907, 1948; Ris 1911; Navás 1923; Geijskes 1971; de Marmels 1989; Belle 1998; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158951		habitat	eng	Swamps, banks of rivers, streams and lakes within forest (Ris 1911, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); larva unknown.
158951		population	eng	The species is known from 12 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158951		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158952		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).
158952		distribution	eng	Occurs in Paraguay and southern Brazil (Bulla 1971, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).
158952		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva still unknown.
158952		population	eng	Recently seen again since its first description although data regarding population numbers are lacking.
158952		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158953		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158953		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Santa Catarina state, Brazil (Machado and Costa 1995).
158953		habitat	eng	Habitat includes Atlantic forest in Brazil (Machado and Costa 1995). Female and larva unknown.
158953		population	eng	Known from type locality only, therefore information lacking on population numbers.
158953		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158954		conservation	eng	Several new species described since the species was discovered (in 1877) in the genus; examination of other specimens described by Calvert (1909) and Bayer <em>et al</em>. (1900) is&#160; necessary to confirm specific identity.
158954		distribution	eng	Described based on a single female from 'Amazonas' in South America (Selys 1877); Bayern <em>et al</em>. (1900) assigned a specimen from 'Colombia' to this species, and Calvert (1909) a male from Chapada, Brazil.<br/>Based on the similarity of the species in this genus and the potential difficulty in associating males and females (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006), it might be safer to base knowledge of this species on the type. Most species probably have limited ranges, and it seems unlikely that the Colombia and Chapada specimens are the same species.
158954		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Association of male by (Calvert 1909) in doubt; possibly male still undescribed. Larva unknown.
158954		population	eng	Limited information available from original description and population status is lacking.
158954		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158955		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (Daigle 2003). Surveys to establish trends and confirm absence of threats necessary.
158955		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Sucumbios and Napo provinces in Ecuador (Daigle 2003, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158955		habitat	eng	Eutrophic (water body rich in nutrients) oxbow lakes; adults fly in shaded and tangled rainforest lake margins (Daigle 2003). Larva unknown.&#160; This species is common at the shore of a swampy permanent lagoon and may well breed in it. Abundant there on one visit in 1977 (D.R. Paulson pers. obs. 2006).
158955		population	eng	A new species known from two locations and thought to be widespread but no detail on population numbers are available.
158955		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158956		conservation	eng	Species validity doubtful, could correspond to many of the already described species of <em>Micrathyria</em>. Type specimen apparently lost.
158956		distribution	eng	The species is only known from type locality in Loreto department, Peru (Navás 1922).
158956		habitat	eng	Habitat includes lowland forest; breeding habitat, male and larva are all unknown.
158956		population	eng	Disputed taxonomy, therefore population assessment and information available is lacking.
158956		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158957		conservation	eng	Only known locality is not present within a protected area, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology, trends and evaluate threats.
158957		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Morona Santiago province, Ecuador (Kennedy 1946).
158957		habitat	eng	Habitat includes montane rainforest; breeding habitat, female and larva unknown.
158957		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
158957		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158958		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158958		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Peru and Paraguay (Ris 1913, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158958		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species; no information on breeding habitat available, adults have been found near rivers and lakes (collection data: Ris 1919, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva unknown.
158958		population	eng	This species is known from six locations and thought to be found in unsampled lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.
158958		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158959		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
158959		distribution	eng	Occurs in Uruguay, northeastern Argentina, Paraguay and southeastern Brazil (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1981, Muzon 1993, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158959		habitat	eng	Habitat known to include temporary ponds (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006); larva unknown.
158959		population	eng	This species is known from at least 11 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158959		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158960		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158960		distribution	eng	Occurs in Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil (Hagen in Selys 1854, Selys 1873).
158960		habitat	eng	No information is available; female and larva unknown (Belle 1988).
158960		population	eng	The species is known only from two male specimens and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158960		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158961		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department, and Reserva Natural Bosque, Canindeyu department, Paraguay (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).
158961		distribution	eng	Occurs in Paraguay, Brazil, French Guiana and Venezuela (Ris 1910, 1919; Jurzitza 1982; de Marmels 1985, 1990; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158961		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds and marshes within forest (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158961		population	eng	The species is known from 12 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158961		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158962		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Guaramacal, in Trujillo state and Perija, in Zulia state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1995).
158962		distribution	eng	Occurs in Montane rainforest in the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela (Bick and Bick 1992, de Marmels 1995).
158962		habitat	eng	Streams and little brooks in montane rainforest. Females oviposit on decomposing twigs and pieces of wood fallen on stream bed and on nets of roots barely covered with water (de Marmels 1995). Larvae, described by de Marmels (1995), live under stones and pieces of wood under small waterfalls.
158962		population	eng	This species is known from more than 40 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158962		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158963		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Venezuela (Bick and Bick 1995), and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158963		distribution	eng	Found from Andes from Venezuela to Peru (Bick and Bick 1995, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158963		habitat	eng	Marshes and trails within primary forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); widespread on forest trails in dry season, probably breeds in temporary swamp pools (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2007). Larva unknown.
158963		population	eng	The species is known from six localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158963		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158964		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to complete knowledge on taxonomy, biology, habitat preferences, distribution, trends and threats
158964		distribution	eng	Only known from type locality, in Bartica district, Guyana (Calvert 1948).
158964		habitat	eng	No data is available. Male and larva unknown.
158964		population	eng	No data is available on this species that is known only from its type locality.
158964		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158965		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Biologica da Boraceia, Brazil (Costa and Garrison 2001).
158965		distribution	eng	Found from Minas Gerais to Santa Catarina states in Brazil (Costa and Garrison 2001).
158965		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds and marshes in lowland Atlantic forest; larva habitat unknown but presumed to breed in bromeliads (Santos 1962).
158965		population	eng	This species is known from at least 16 locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158965		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158966		conservation	eng	Present in protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).
158966		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia (Williamson and Williamson 1924, Kennedy 1937, de Marmels 1982, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).
158966		habitat	eng	Adults fly along trails, creeks and streams in dense forest (Williamson and Williamson 1924, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Larva unknown.
158966		population	eng	The species is known from seven localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158966		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158967		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra do Cipo, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (R.W. Garrison 2006). Surveys needed to establish biology and monitor trends and threats.
158967		distribution	eng	Occurs in Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo states in Brazil (Williamson 1919, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158967		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers within Atlantic forest (R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.
158967		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158967		threats	eng	Clear cutting of Atlantic forest.
158968		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Aragua state, Venezuela (Rácenis 1953).
158968		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Calvert 1924; Rácenis 1953, 1959; de Marmels 1982; Bick and Bick 1988).
158968		habitat	eng	Larva lives under stones, described by de Marmels (1982) from a stream of clear water and sandy bottom running through a gallery forest. Males dance head on like <em>Heteragrion</em>, one passing above the other; male holds female entirely by hind lobe of her prothorax; active until 4 PM (Calvert 1924).
158968		population	eng	The species is known from 15 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158968		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158969		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.
158969		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andean mountain forest in Bolivia (Ris 1918, Garrison 2006).
158969		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small rocky streams (Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
158969		population	eng	Due to poor sampling effort, no population numbers are known.
158969		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158970		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158970		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela and French Guiana (Borror 1957, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158970		habitat	eng	Habitat includes marshes and ponds; larva unknown.
158970		population	eng	This species is known from six locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158970		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158971		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158971		distribution	eng	The species is found in Huanuco and Loreto departments in Peru (Ris 1918, Schmidt 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006) and Venezuela (de Marmels 1990, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158971		habitat	eng	Breeding habitat and larva unknown.
158971		population	eng	This species is known from 5 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158971		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158972		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158972		distribution	eng	Occurs in Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil (Borror 1942, Muzon 1995, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
158972		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, pools and marshes; larva described by Carvalho <em>et al</em>. (1991).
158972		population	eng	This species is known from more than 25 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158972		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158973		conservation	eng	Only two localities known not within protected areas, with  status of conservation. Surveys to establish distribution range, study biology, trends and evaluate threats needed.
158973		distribution	eng	The species is known only from original description based on specimens from two locations in Colombia, in Antioquia and Boyaca states (Ris 1918).
158973		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers (Ris 1918); breeding habitat and larva unknown.
158973		population	eng	The species is known only from two locations and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158973		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158974		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to study biology, trends, determine if present in protected areas, and evaluate threats.
158974		distribution	eng	Occurs in Costa Rica, Panama and Peru (Ris 1918, Williamson 1919, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158974		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers and streams in mountain forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); larva unknown.
158974		population	eng	This species is known from seven locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158974		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158975		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas.
158975		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from Mexico south to Colombia and Venezuela (Bick and Bick 1990, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158975		habitat	eng	Stream and creeks within forest. Males defend an oviposition site (piece of decomposing wood fallen on margin or bed of stream), from other males from a perch; females arrive at stream around midday, and copula takes place on shoreline vegetation after a pre-copulatory display from the male; females oviposit unguarded (Gonzalez Soriano and Verdugo Garza 1984). Larva described by Novelo Gutierrez and Gonzalez Soriano (1985) and life history by Pritchard (1996).
158975		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species.
158975		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158976		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158976		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Cuzco department, Peru (Belle 1992).
158976		habitat	eng	Holotype male collected at the Urubamba river, one of the headwaters of the Amazonas; female and larva unknown.
158976		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
158976		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158977		conservation	eng	Present in a protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu and Reserva de Tambopata, in Madre de Dios Department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158977		distribution	eng	Range includes southwestern Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, northern Brazil and eastern Peru (Ris 1911, Geijskes 1971, de Marmels 1989, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, Costa and Oldrini 2003, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158977		habitat	eng	Adults found in deep forest perching on leaves or sticks along small shaded rivulets (de Marmels 1989); also in palm swamps within primary forest (in lowland Peru, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Larvae camouflage with detritus, and were described by Fleck (2003).
158977		population	eng	This species is known from over 13 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158977		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158978		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends and confirm absence of threats.
158978		distribution	eng	Possibly occurs in Suriname (Selys 1876); no known locality.
158978		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva undescribed.
158978		population	eng	Known only from an incomplete holotype and therefore information on population status is lacking.
158978		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158979		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Brazil (Costa 1978, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).
158979		distribution	eng	Found from southeastern Brazil, from Espirito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul states (Costa 1978).
158979		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds and marshes; larva described by Costa <em>et al</em>. (2000).
158979		population	eng	The species is known from only four locations (one inside a protected area) and the population status is not known.
158979		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158980		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas; surveys needed to study biology and trends and evaluate threats.
158980		distribution	eng	Occurs in Tachira state in Venezuela and western Andean cordillera in Colombia (Bick and Bick 1992).
158980		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams in montane rainforest; larva unknown.
158980		population	eng	This species is known from more than 10 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158980		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158981		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Acambuco, Salta, Argentina, and National Park Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
158981		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in South America, from northern Argentina to Brazil and Trinidad (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1981, Muzon 1993, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158981		habitat	eng	Standing water bodies including ponds, pools and marshes within forests and in grasslands; larva described by Muzon and Weigel-Munoz (2006) from shallow temporary pools.
158981		population	eng	This species is known from 20 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158981		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158982		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158982		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (Williamson 1917, Geijskes 1941, R.W. Garrison 2006) to Trinidad (Paulson 2002) and Para State in Brazil (St. Quentin 1960, Garrison 1997).
158982		habitat	eng	Habitat includes swamps, pools and associated streams; adult fly slowly and heavily (Williamson 1917); larva described by Geijskes (1941).
158982		population	eng	The species is known from eight localities and no data is available on population numbers.
158982		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158983		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Estacion Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica (Jurzitza 1981, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158983		distribution	eng	The species is widespread along Neotropical region, from Mexico south to Argentina and Paraguay (Calvert 1909; Ris 1913, 1919; Jurzitza 1981; de Marmels 1992; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006; US National Museum, Smithsonian Institution 2003).
158983		habitat	eng	Adults found at streams and rivers within primary and secondary forest (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996), and hovering over open fields; larva unknown.
158983		population	eng	This species is known from over 34 locations (several being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
158983		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158984		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158984		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Espirito Santo state, Brazil (Belle 1973).
158984		habitat	eng	No information is available; larva unknown.
158984		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158984		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158985		conservation	eng	The Amazonia National Park straddles the Tapajós River near Itaituba, covering 9,935 km² but suffers from inadequate administrative capacity (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0135_full.html); possibly present in other protected areas of Amazonia in northern Brazil (seven new protected areas encompassing 37 acres created in December 2006 in Para state). Surveys needed to establish its current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats and presence in protected area.
158985		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas state in Brazil (Machado 2002).
158985		habitat	eng	Adults crepuscular, flying along river banks in forest (Machado 2002); female and larva still unknown.
158985		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen in (2002) but thought to be widely distributed, there is no detailed information available on the size of the global population.
158985		threats	eng	Gold mining on the Tapajós river near the city of Itaituba (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0135_full.html).
158986		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158986		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas and Bolivar states in Venezuela (de Marmels 1992).
158986		habitat	eng	Adults found in the forest away from water (de Marmels 1992); breeding habitat, female and larva are all unknown.
158986		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158986		threats	eng	According to de Marmels (1992, 1999), the region is completely covered by a closed canopy of virgin rain forest interrupted only by meandering rivers, and it is not threatened due to its difficult access.
158987		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158987		distribution	eng	Found from central Chile from regions Coquimbo in the north to Araucania in the south (Jurztiza 1974, 1975, 1986, 1989; Fraser 1957; R.W. Garrison 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158987		habitat	eng	Adults occur at lotic environments (Jurzitza 1989), and females oviposit in water plants (Jurzitza 1986).
158987		population	eng	There is no population data available although the species appears to be common.
158987		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158988		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Garrison 1983, Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998).
158988		distribution	eng	Found from Panama south to Bolivia and northeastern Argentina (de Marmels and Rácenis 1982; Garrison 1983; de Marmels 1988, 1989; Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
158988		habitat	eng	Adults fly over river banks and open fields, forming small swarms (Garrison 1983, de Marmels 1989). Larva unknown.
158988		population	eng	The species is known from 32 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
158988		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158989		conservation	eng	Present in protected area: Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158989		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Venezuela, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia (Williamson and Williamson 1924; de Marmels 1982, 1989, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158989		habitat	eng	Adults found in forest along creeks and streams, flying close to the ground or perching by hanging with folded wings from tips of leaves (Williamson and Williamson 1924). Larva unknown.
158989		population	eng	The species is known from ten locations over are large area but population numbers are unavailable.
158989		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158990		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy province, Argentina (Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998).
158990		distribution	eng	Occurs from Venezuela to northwestern Argentina along the Andean montane rainforest (Ris 1918, Belle 1983, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158990		habitat	eng	Males patrol sections of stream, often chasing one another, only when sunny; land frequently on rocks and always return to same spot (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva burrows in soft sediments along stream margins and under leaves and detritus behind rocks in middle of rivers; described by Limongi (1983).
158990		population	eng	The species is known from 20 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
158990		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158991		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
158991		distribution	eng	The species is so far known only from type locality in Mato Grosso, Brazil (de Marmels 2003).
158991		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is probably river (Rio Papagaio - from collection labels of same province). Larva still unknown.
158991		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species due to recent discovery (2003).
158991		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158992		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but not currently threatened; field studies needed to find more locations and establish distribution area, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.
158992		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Brazil and Venezuela (Machado 1985, de Marmels, 1989).
158992		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers within lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1985, de Marmels 1989). Female and larva unknown.
158992		population	eng	This species is known from two locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158992		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158993		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158993		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest of Bolivia and Peru (Belle 1973, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158993		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams on primary and secondary lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1973, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996); female and larva are unknown.
158993		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and four locations (two within protected areas) but population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158993		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158994		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158994		distribution	eng	The species occurs in forests from Ecuador and Peru to southwestern Brazil and northern Argentina (Leonard 1977, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158994		habitat	eng	Ponds, streams and rivers of mountain and foothill jungle. Adults perch on leaves and twigs of waterside vegetation, and on grass blades along shores, close to water surface. Females oviposit inside stems of floating plants or masses of algae while in tandem with males, and may go completely underwater to lay eggs (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.
158994		population	eng	A widespread species but data on population size and trends are lacking.
158994		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158995		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158995		distribution	eng	Occurs in South Venezuela to west Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (Calvert 1909, 1961; Leonard 1977; de Marmels 1989b, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
158995		habitat	eng	Adults fly over water and along shore vegetation (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.
158995		population	eng	Unknown population size or trend due to lack of sampling.
158995		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158996		conservation	eng	Present in protected area: Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta, Chile (Schmidt 1941).
158996		distribution	eng	Occurs in Southern Chile, from Valparaiso and Metropolitan regions south to de los Lagos region (Selys 1878, Schmidt 1941, Jurzitza 1989).
158996		habitat	eng	Small streams along shaded ravines (Pirion 1933), larger streams with rocks and large rivers (Jurzitza 1989). Adults perch on stones or on the ground at river banks in the sun, and fly with an undulating pattern (Jurzitza 1975); female lays eggs on leaves of Lingue and Canelo at 40-50 cm over the water (Pirion 1933). Larva described by Needham and Bullock (1943).
158996		population	eng	The species is known from ten locations, one being within a protected area, although details on population numbers are lacking.
158996		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158997		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
158997		distribution	eng	Found from Peru to Bolivia (Fraser 1946, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158997		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers (from label data, R.W. Garrison 2006). Female and larva unknown.
158997		population	eng	This species is known from over five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158997		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158998		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but currently not threatened. Surveys needed to find more locations, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
158998		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Venezuela and Brazil (Rácenis 1955, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
158998		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small rivers and forest streams (Rácenis 1955, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); larva unknown.
158998		population	eng	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
158998		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
158999		conservation	eng	Locality in Perija National Park, Zulia state, Venezuela. Surveys to establish distribution area, biology, trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
158999		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, in the Sierra de Perija, Zulia state, Venezuela, near border with Colombia (de Marmels 2001).
158999		habitat	eng	Adults found at small black water streamlets in upper cloud forest, near a peat bog (de Marmels 2001); larva unknown.
158999		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
158999		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159000		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, Reserva de Tambopata and Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159000		distribution	eng	Occurs in Ecuador and Peru (Hoffmann 1991, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159000		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, sloughs, marshes, and swamps within forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); adults perch on dry twigs and vegetation overhanging shaded areas of ponds at about 1-2 m height (Hofmann 1991). Female undescribed and larva unknown.
159000		population	eng	The species is known from ten localities, three situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
159000		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159001		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159001		distribution	eng	Occurs in Peru and Ecuador (Kennedy 1936, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159001		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.
159001		population	eng	The species is known from four localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159001		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159002		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area in Peru: Parque Nacional Manu (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).
159002		distribution	eng	Found from Ecuador to northwestern Argentina along the Yungas Andean rainforest (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2005, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006).
159002		habitat	eng	Adults frequent forest trails close to mountain streams and seepage areas (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2005, locality data from Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); Beckemeyer (2002) reported females apparently ovipositing by flicking abdomen toward moss covering a cliff with dripping water. Larva undescribed, but most likely semi-terrestrial; larvae that would correspond to this species by association found on a moss covered slope by a dirt trail in Pakitza, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).
159002		population	eng	This species is known from more at least 13 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159002		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159003		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Muzon 1993).
159003		distribution	eng	Occurs in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil to Misiones province in Argentina (Hagen In Selys 1862; Muzon 1993, 1997).
159003		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds; larva unknown.
159003		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
159003		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159004		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159004		distribution	eng	The species is Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil and Peru (de Marmels 1989, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159004		habitat	eng	Breeds in small clear stagnant pools with leaf litter within deep forest; males disappear when cloudy, and perch on leaves in the shade when sunny (de Marmels 1989); larva described by de Marmels (1992).
159004		population	eng	This species is known from more than ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159004		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159005		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159005		distribution	eng	Found from Bahia to Parana states in Brazil (Selys 1871, Machado 2005); recorded from 'Suriname' by Martin (1907) with no locality.
159005		habitat	eng	'Restinga' (coastal broadleaf) forest with trees not higher than 8 m, sandy soil, abundant bromeliads, pools and marshy areas; adults present foraging flight around noon, flying in groups over sunny coastal roads (Machado 2005). Larva unknown.
159005		population	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats are needed.
159005		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159006		conservation	eng	According to de Marmels (1999), area vastly unexplored, isolated and not currently under threat. Surveys needed to confirm absence of threats, establish distribution, and study biology and trends.
159006		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Auyantepui (Guyana highland) in Bolivar state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1994).
159006		habitat	eng	Adults found over swampy strip with grassy vegetation, slowly running and stagnant water, between a small river and a forest (de Marmels 1994). Larva unknown.
159006		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description (1999) and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159006		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is under any threat.
159007		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159007		distribution	eng	Occurs in Rondonia and Mato Grosso states in Brazil (Belle 1994).
159007		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers of lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1994); larva unknown.
159007		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159007		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159008		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159008		distribution	eng	Found from occurs in Lima department in Peru to La Paz province in Bolivia (von Ellenrieder 2003).
159008		habitat	eng	Adults found at the high altitude Andean environments of the Puna plateau, near quieter and shallow sections of streams and adjacent marshy ponds, and at the Titicaca lake. Larva unknown (von Ellenrieder 2003).
159008		population	eng	The species is known from at least 15 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
159008		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159009		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159009		distribution	eng	The species occurs in forest between eastern Brazil, Ecuador south to Peru and Bolivia (Calvert 1909, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159009		habitat	eng	Habitat includes seeps, marshes and streams (R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
159009		population	eng	Appears to be abundant and common in all field surveys.
159009		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159010		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159010		distribution	eng	Occurs in Para state in Brazil (Selys 1854, Belle 1988).
159010		habitat	eng	No information is available on breeding habitat; female and larva unknown (Belle 1988).
159010		population	eng	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159010		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159011		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159011		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Cochabamba department, Bolivia (Belle 1979).
159011		habitat	eng	No information on breeding habitat available; female and larva unknown (Belle 1979).
159011		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159011		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159012		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios state, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159012		distribution	eng	Occurs in Ecuador, Peru and Brazil (McLachlan 1881, Sjoedstedt 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159012		habitat	eng	Adults found along forest trails (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 200, R.W. Garrison 2006); breeding habitat and larva most likely prefer phytotelmata (water-bodies held by plants) as in other species of genus (tree holes, bamboo internodes, bromeliads or fallen fruit or nut husks).
159012		population	eng	This species is known from six locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
159012		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159013		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva Ducke, Amazonas, Brazil (R.W. Garrison 2006).
159013		distribution	eng	Found from southern Venezuela to Brazil (Belle 1977, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159013		habitat	eng	Habitat includes lowland Amazon forest; breeding habitat and larva are unknown. de Marmels (1989) noted that many adults were caught at night.
159013		population	eng	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159013		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159014		conservation	eng	Surveys necessary to establish current distribution, trends and threats, and confirm absence of threats.
159014		distribution	eng	Found from lowland forest from French Guiana to Suriname (Garrison 1990).
159014		habitat	eng	Small creeks in primary forest (Machet 1989); difficult to catch since it seems to prefer to perch on vegetation 5-7 m above the ground.
159014		population	eng	Expected to occur in a wider distributed area than currently surveyed although no detailed information is known on population data.
159014		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159015		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu and Reserva Cunapiru, Misiones province, Argentina, and Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro State and Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159015		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (Ris 1910, Abenante and De Phillipi 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159015		habitat	eng	Swamps, pools, marshes, still waters at edge of streams and rivers, near to forested areas. Adults perch on grasses and reeds; pairs in copula land on bushes; females oviposit unguarded (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva burrows in soft sediments; described by Carvalho <em>et al</em>. (2002) and von Ellenrieder (2007).
159015		population	eng	This species is known from over 30 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159015		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159016		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Garrison 1999).
159016		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909; de Marmels 1989, 1992; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159016		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers in forest; adults fly under overhanging trees along river bank (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.
159016		population	eng	The species is known from nine locations, one being within a protected area, although details on population numbers are lacking.
159016		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159017		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
159017		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Guyana and Rondonia state, Brazil (Williamson 1915, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159017		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within lowland Amazon forest (Williamson 1915, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
159017		population	eng	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159017		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159018		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
159018		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type specimen from Antioquia department, Colombia (Williamson 1919).
159018		habitat	eng	Adult found perching on twig tip of small dead bush on mid stream (Williamson 1919); female and larva unknown.
159018		population	eng	There is no data available on population sizes.
159018		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159019		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159019		distribution	eng	Found from Mexico to Colombia (Hagen in Selys 1853, Garrison 1990).
159019		habitat	eng	Undisturbed streams; larva described by Zloty <em>et al</em>. (1993) who also provided electrophoretic information for 7 loci of adults of this species.
159019		population	eng	This species is known from 21 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159019		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159020		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159020		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Para state, Brazil (Belle 1970).
159020		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species; no information on breeding habitat or biology; female and larva unknown.
159020		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species since its description.
159020		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159021		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159021		distribution	eng	Found in Venezuela and Guyana to southeastern Brazil (Leonard 1977, Lencioni 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159021		habitat	eng	Habitat includes sluggish streams, slow rivers, small pools and marshes (Leonard 1977, collection data D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159021		population	eng	A widespread species known from over 20 locations.
159021		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159022		conservation	eng	Species taxonomy needs to be further studied; so far known only from type specimen - later records probably refer to different species (i.e. Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000)
159022		distribution	eng	Found in Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil (Hagen in Selys 1862).
159022		habitat	eng	Atlantic forest species; female and larva unknown.
159022		population	eng	There is no data available on population sizes.
159022		threats	eng	Urban development leading to habitat alteration by clearing of forest and pollution.
159023		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159023		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guyana, French Guiana, Venezuela and Brazil to Ecuador, Peru and Argentina (Montgomery 1940, de Marmels 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159023		habitat	eng	Ponds and marshes in lowland forests; adults perch with wings asymmetrically set on reeds and grasses (R.W. Garrison 2006 pers. comm.). Larva described by Fleck (2003) by supposition; he also postulates the species is likely univoltine (produce one brood per year).
159023		population	eng	This species is known from over 20 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159023		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159024		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Baritu and Parque Nacional El Rey, Salta province; Parque Nacional Calilegua, and Reserva El Pantanoso, Jujuy province, Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2006).
159024		distribution	eng	Occurs in montane rain forest from S Bolivia to northwestern Argentina (de Marmels 2001, von Ellenrieder 2006).
159024		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers from foothill jungle to mountain forest of Andes cloud forest. Adults perch on vegetation overhanging water or on grass blades on shore. Freshly emerged individuals may perch with wings closed. Tandems perch on vegetation near shoreline. Females oviposit while still in tandem in moss covering rocks at stream margins and on leaves of riparian macrophytes (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva lives under stones and among riparian vegetation, described by von Ellenrieder (2006).
159024		population	eng	The species is known from 16 localities, four situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
159024		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159025		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159025		distribution	eng	Occurs in Federal Territory of Amazonas, Venezuela (Belle 1987, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159025		habitat	eng	Species found along rivers (type locality) so far; female and larva unknown.
159025		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159025		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159026		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
159026		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Selys 1869; Belle 1970, 1984; Machet, 1991).
159026		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers; some adults collected at light; larva described by Belle (1970).
159026		population	eng	The species is known from 13 localities, none situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
159026		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159027		conservation	eng	Known to occur in one protected area: Parque Nacional Ybicuy, Paraguay (Garrsion 2006).
159027		distribution	eng	Occurs in south Brazil to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Garrison 2006).
159027		habitat	eng	Forested areas of narrow (maximum 2 m wide) streams of clear water, with waterfalls and with muddy or stony beds (Garrison 2006). Larva still unknown.
159027		population	eng	The species is known from 30 locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking although it is widespread throughout its large range.
159027		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159028		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina, and Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Brazil (Jurzitza 1981, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159028		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Fraser 1947, Belle 1970, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159028		habitat	eng	Larva described by Costa (1968) from a pond built by a clear stream, with sandy and muddy bottom.
159028		population	eng	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159028		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159029		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006)
159029		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bolivia, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas (Calvert 1909, 1948; Ris 1911; de Marmels 1989; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159029		habitat	eng	Adults found foraging along forest trails and near rivers and ponds (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996); breeding habitat and larva unknown.
159029		population	eng	The species is known from 19 locations and two are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
159029		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159030		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department, Paraguay, and Reserva Natural Rincon de Santa Maria, Corrientes province, Argentina (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
159030		distribution	eng	Occurs in northeastern Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil and Venezuela (Calvert 1909; Ris 1911; de Marmels 1983; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159030		habitat	eng	Permanent and temporary ponds with aquatic floating and submerged vegetation and margined with <em>Gramineae</em>, in open clearings in forest, shrub-lands and grasslands. Larva described by Souza and Costa (2002).
159030		population	eng	The species is known from 12 locations and two are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.
159030		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159031		conservation	eng	Species description vague and species validity doubtful, could correspond to another described species; taxonomic revision necessary.
159031		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Colombia (Navás 1935).
159031		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva unknown.
159031		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
159031		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159032		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish current distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm presence in protected areas and absence of threats.
159032		distribution	eng	Found from central southern Chile, between Concepcion and Hornohuinco in Llanquihue province (Jurzitza 1975, 1989; R.W. Garrison 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159032		habitat	eng	Jurzitza (1975) states 'rare in Valdivia, more common in Concepcion'; wide rivers (Jurzitza 1975, 1989; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva unknown.
159032		population	eng	The species is assumed to occur within some protected areas, appears to be the least common but there is no detailed data available on population numbers and trends.
159032		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159033		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159033		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1994).
159033		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest; no information on particular habitat available. Female and larva unknown.
159033		population	eng	There is no data available on this species and it is known only from the type specimen.
159033		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159034		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159034		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mexico to Venezuela (Leonard 1977, de Marmels 1983, Donnelly 1992, Boomsma and Dunkle 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159034		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, marshes and rivers (collection data, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Female and larva undescribed.
159034		population	eng	A widespread species but data on population size and trends are lacking.
159034		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159035		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas but currently not under threat. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends and evaluate threats needed.
159035		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela (Williamson 1915, de Marmels 1985, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159035		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Williamson 1915, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
159035		population	eng	This species is known from four locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159035		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159036		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159036		distribution	eng	Found from Venezuela (de Marmels 1988, Rácenis 1953) to Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2006) along the Andes.
159036		habitat	eng	Habitat includes marshy areas (Garrison 1984).
159036		population	eng	Population trends and size are not known although this species has been found in 8 localities.
159036		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159037		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Peninsula del Paria, Sucre state, Venezuela. Surveys needed to study biology, establish trends and monitor threats.
159037		distribution	eng	Occurs in Eastern coastal cordillera in Sucre and Monagas states, Venezuela (de Marmels 1989).
159037		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within forest (de Marmels 1989); larva unknown.
159037		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159037		threats	eng	Habitat degradation through clear cutting of forest, forest fires and diversion of streams to build dams, especially on western portion of distribution range (de Marmels 1989).
159038		conservation	eng	Two known localities not within a protected area, surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
159038		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Peru and Brazil (Kennedy 1941, Lencioni 2005).
159038		habitat	eng	Habitat includes creeks within lowland Amazon forest; female and larva unknown.
159038		population	eng	The species is known from two localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
159038		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159039		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159039		distribution	eng	Occurs from Para state in Brazil (Selys 1854, Belle 1992) to Suriname (Belle 1970) and French Guiana (Belle 1972).
159039		habitat	eng	Shaded creeks in lowland Amazon forest; adults perch on muddy banks or twigs, shy and difficult to approach within net-handle reach (Belle 1970). Larva described by supposition by Belle (1970) as <em>A. albinensis</em>.
159039		population	eng	The species is known from 5 locations but no population data is available.
159039		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159040		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas in Costa Rica: Reserva Forestal San Ramon, Alajuela province and Reserva Tapanti, Cartago province (R.W. Garrison 2006).
159040		distribution	eng	Occurs in Costa Rica (Ris 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006) to Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2007).
159040		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, marshes, seepage pools (R.W. Garrison 2006 pers. comm.); larva unknown.
159040		population	eng	The species is known from at least six localities (two are situated within protected areas) and no data is available on population numbers.
159040		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159041		conservation	eng	Surveys to study biology and trends, and to establish if present in protected areas and evaluate threats necessary.
159041		distribution	eng	Occurs in Eastern slope of the Andes from S Colombia to central Ecuador (de Marmels 2001).
159041		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest species; adults collected along rivers; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).
159041		population	eng	The species is known from eight localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159041		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159042		conservation	eng	Eradication of invasive species, strengthening protected areas, and developing strong and effective community outreach programs (http://www.nature.org/wherewework/southamerica/ecuador/work/art5117.html).
159042		distribution	eng	Occurs in Galapagos Islands in Ecuador: Isla San Cristóbal (Chatham), Isla Santa Cruz and Isla Isabela (Albemarle) (Trueman 1967, Belle 1991, von Ellenrieder 2003). Surveys needed to establish and monitor trends.
159042		habitat	eng	Adults found in the Pampa and <em>Miconia</em> zone (collection data, US National Museum, Smithsonian Institution 2003) and summit Grassland (Turner 1967). Belle (1991) reported males flying rather high around trees, and females hunting along the beach. Early larval instar described by Needham (1904).
159042		population	eng	The species occurs in a small area although over eight locations but no information is available on population size.
159042		threats	eng	Modification of habitat by invasive species (pigs, dogs, cats, rats, goats, donkeys, ants, quinine, guava, and blackberries) and increased human population growth on the islands. (http://www.nature.org/wherewework/southamerica/ecuador/work/art5117.html)
159043		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.
159043		distribution	eng	Occurs in eastern Para state in Brazil (Garrison 2006).
159043		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species (Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
159043		population	eng	Inferred as widespread but detailed information is lacking, including population size and trends.
159043		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159044		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Peru (R.W. Garrison 2006).
159044		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest from Venezuela to western Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (Bick and Bick 1995, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159044		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, pools, sandy streams and marshes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown. Common at edge of oxbow lakes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159044		population	eng	The species is known from ten localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
159044		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159045		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159045		distribution	eng	Occurs in Loreto and Huanuco departments in Peru (Belle 1976, Belle 1992).
159045		habitat	eng	Presumably rivers (Paranapura river) in lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1992); larva unknown.
159045		population	eng	Population data is lacking on population size and trends.
159045		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159046		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159046		distribution	eng	Only known from type locality, in Amazonas State, Venezuela (Belle 1976).
159046		habitat	eng	No information available; female and larva unknown. Larvae of other species in this genus inhabit muddy or silt beds and banks of small creeks along gallery forests crossing the savanna (Belle 1966).
159046		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159046		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159047		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place.
159047		distribution	eng	Occurs in Colombia, Guyana, Suriname and Brazil (Williamson 1918, Calvert 1948, Belle 1982).
159047		habitat	eng	Forest with <em>Heliconia</em>, bamboos and palms; adults perch on twig tips, not wary but once flushed flight is difficult to follow (Williamson 1918). Larva unknown. Particular breeding habitat for this species unknown, but most likely streams and rivers based on breeding habitat of other species of the genus and locality labels (Belle 1992).
159047		population	eng	This species is known from over four locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159047		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is under any threat.
159048		conservation	eng	One of the two known localities present in a protected area, Reserva Ecologica Taiama, Mato Grosso state, Brazil (Machado 2002). Surveys to establish its distribution range, biology and trends needed, as well as to evaluate threats.
159048		distribution	eng	Occurs in Pantanal wetlands of Matto Grosso state, Brazil (Machado 2002).
159048		habitat	eng	Adults perch on marginal vegetation of slow moving rivers, or hover close to water surface (Machado 2002); larva unknown.
159048		population	eng	Species reported as very abundant (Machado 2002).
159048		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159049		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish if it still occurs in type locality and in any other locations in Sao Paulo and other states of Brazil urgently needed; as well as establishment of protected area where it occurs.
159049		distribution	eng	Occurs in Sao Paulo state in Brazil (Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159049		habitat	eng	Breeding habitat, female and larva unknown (Borror 1942).
159049		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is described from only two male specimens.
159049		threats	eng	Inferred habitat degradation by human expansion in Sao Paulo area.
159050		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159050		distribution	eng	Found in Venezuela, Suriname and French Guiana (Belle 1983, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159050		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers within lowland Amazon forest; larva unknown.
159050		population	eng	Thought to be more widespread than currently recorded however data on population numbers are lacking.
159050		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159051		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159051		distribution	eng	Found from known only from vague original description, based on one male and one female from Santa Catarina state in Brazil (Navás 1916).
159051		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species; larva unknown.
159051		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is described from only two male specimens.
159051		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159052		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159052		distribution	eng	Found from Rondonia and Para to Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil (Selys 1876, Santos 1961).
159052		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Larva unknown.
159052		population	eng	This species is known from only locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159052		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159053		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159053		distribution	eng	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Rio Grande do Sul states (Selys 1876, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lencioni 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159053		habitat	eng	Lentic (still water) species, including marshes and swamps (Carvalho and Nessimian 1998). Larva unknown.
159053		population	eng	The species is known only from nine locations but population details are lacking.
159053		threats	eng	Area subject to human alteration, possibly for agricultural use.
159054		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Yasuni, Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2006).
159054		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest of eastern Peru and eastern Ecuador (Daigle 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159054		habitat	eng	Adults fly close to water surface near or over quiet pools in shaded rainforest swamps and sluggish streams, from June to November (Daigle 2000). Larva unknown.
159054		population	eng	Thought to be common within its range.
159054		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159055		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159055		distribution	eng	The species is known so far only from original description from Mato Grosso, Brazil (Machado and Costa 1995).
159055		habitat	eng	Amazon forest species (Machado and Costa 1995). Male and larva unknown.
159055		population	eng	Known from type locality only, therefore information lacking on population numbers.
159055		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159056		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to study biology and trends, and to establish if present within protected areas and analyse threats.
159056		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guyana and French Guiana (Williamson 1919, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159056		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers and creeks within lowland forest; female, breeding habitat and larva unknown.
159056		population	eng	This species is known from only three locations (none being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.
159056		threats	eng	Area subject to human alteration, possibly due to agriculture.
159057		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159057		distribution	eng	Occurs in La Paz department in Bolivia (Belle 1995).
159057		habitat	eng	Habitat includes montane rainforest but there is no information on breeding habitat available; female and larva are also unknown.
159057		population	eng	The species is known from two localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
159057		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159058		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Estadual Rio Doce; encompassing 35,976 hectares it contains the largest Atlantic forest patch in Minas Gerais (http://www.ilternet.edu/meetings/panama96/brazil/gustavo.html). Monitoring of species populations in park necessary, as well as surveys to find out if it occurs also in other areas of Atlantic forest in Brazil.
159058		distribution	eng	Occurs in Minas Gerais state in Brazil (Westfall 1992).
159058		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds within Atlantic forest; larva unknown.
159058		population	eng	The species is known only from three locations including one within a protected area.  Population details are lacking and urgently needed due to industrial human disturbance.
159058		threats	eng	A major threat is habitat alteration: the region had a subsistence agriculture and cattle farming economy which has now been developed into an important industrial area.&#160; The growth of large charcoal-based steel industries and accompanying urban growth caused deforestation and planting and managing of Eucalyptus forests with the aim of supplying steel plants with charcoal (http://team.conservation.org/portal/server.pt?open=512&objID=386&mode=2&in_hi_userid=124600&cached=true)
159059		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159059		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mato Grosso and Rondonia states in Brazil (Belle 1980, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159059		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers and streams in lowland forest; larva unknown.
159059		population	eng	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
159059		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159060		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends, confirm absence of threats needed and look at taxonomic issues.
159060		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bolivia, southeastern Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1980, Lencioni 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159060		habitat	eng	Adults perch on leaves and twigs of waterside vegetation, and on grass blades along shores, close to water surface (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Female and larva still undescribed.
159060		population	eng	Exact population details are unknown but assumed to be widespread.
159060		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159061		conservation	eng	Surveys necessary to find out current distribution of species, habitat preferences, and if it is present in some protected area of Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil.
159061		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality, on north coast of Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Borror 1942).
159061		habitat	eng	Locality situated in Atlantic forest, no other information available. Larva unknown.
159061		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats as it is described from only six specimens.
159061		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by alteration of habitat in a densely populated area.
159062		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159062		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana (Ris 1919, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159062		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species; breeding habitat, male and larva unknown.
159062		population	eng	This species is known from only four locations and thought to be found in unsampled lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.
159062		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159063		conservation	eng	Known from males from two locations only, none within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution, habitat requirements, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.
159063		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Venezuela and Brazil (de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159063		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159063		population	eng	This species is known from only two locations and from two males specimens and there is no data available on population sizes.
159063		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159064		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish if it still occurs in type locality and in any other locations in Sao Paulo and other states of Brazil urgently needed; as well as establishment of protected area where it occurs.
159064		distribution	eng	The species is known only from its type locality in Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Machado 1954, 1992).
159064		habitat	eng	Lotic (moving water) environments within forests (Machado 1954). Larva unknown.
159064		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species since its description.
159064		threats	eng	Inferred habitat degradation by human expansion in Sao Paulo area.
159065		conservation	eng	Only known locality not located within a protected area. Surveys to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats needed.
159065		distribution	eng	The species is known only from original description, from Pichincha province in Ecuador (Kennedy 1942).
159065		habitat	eng	No information is available; breeding habitat and larva unknown.
159065		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159065		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159066		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159066		distribution	eng	Found from central Chile from regions Antofagasta in the north to Araucania in the south (Jurzitza 1974, 1975, 1986, 1989; R.W. Garrison pers.comm. 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006) and southwestern Argentina in Neuquen province (Muzon 1995).
159066		habitat	eng	Adults frequent marshes. Jurzitza (1974, 1975, 1986) described females ovipositing in tandem or alone in the fern <em>Blechnum chilensis</em>. Larva unknown.
159066		population	eng	Appears to be a common and widespread species.
159066		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159067		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159067		distribution	eng	Found from Espirito Santo to Santa Catarina states in Brazil (Costa and Garrison 2001, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).
159067		habitat	eng	There is no data available for this species. Larva unknown.
159067		population	eng	This species is known from at least 13 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159067		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159068		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159068		distribution	eng	Occurs in occurs from Costa Rica south to Peru and Brazil (Calvert 1909, 1948; Ris 1910, 1919; Fraser 1946; Rácenis 1953; Soukup 1954; de Marmels 1989; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159068		habitat	eng	Adults found at shallow pools overgrown with low grasses and sedges (de Marmels 1989), and in thinner areas of forest, where they perch high on summits of tall slender twigs (Ris 1910). When perching, wings are closed erect over the body, and brought down suddenly to a deflected position at times (Ris 1910). Adults spend much time in canopy, come down to breeding areas only briefly in midday sun (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2007).  Larva unknown.
159068		population	eng	The species is known from 32 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
159068		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159069		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159069		distribution	eng	Found from southern Brazil to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Garrison 1990, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159069		habitat	eng	Middle reach of streams with marginal vegetation; larva described by Santos (1970).
159069		population	eng	This species is known from more ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159069		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159070		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159070		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest, from Venezuela and the Guyanas' to Brazil and Paraguay (Williamson 1916, Geijkes 1943, Calvert 1948, Leonard 1977, de Marmels 1989b, Garrison 1983, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159070		habitat	eng	Adults fly in vegetation bordering water (Williamson 1916); wary species, perching on small emergent vegetation and difficult to approach and capture (Garrison 1984). Larvae described from a small, partly widened creek, between water plants, along a railroad in the savanna (Geijskes 1943).
159070		population	eng	The species is assumed to be more widespread than recorded, although it is already known from 16 locations over a very large area.
159070		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
159071		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Ibera, Corrientes province, and Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
159071		distribution	eng	Found from Central Argentina north to Paraguay, Uruguay and southeastern Brazil (Ris 1910, 1919; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159071		habitat	eng	Males perch on weed tips or bushes along sides of ponds, pools or ditches from which they take frequent patrol flights along territory chasing other males; female oviposits guarded by hovering male (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007) Larva described by Rodrigues Capitulo and Muzon (1990), lives half buried in sediments of pond bed.
159071		population	eng	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from 32 locations, two of which are within protected areas.
159071		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159072		conservation	eng	Known from three localities, none within a protected area, but currently not under threat. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats needed.
159072		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil (Machado 1989, de Marmels 1992, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159072		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in Amazon forest; adults observed flying under overhanging trees along river bank, where females in tandem oviposited on masses of small floating sticks (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.
159072		population	eng	The species is known from only three locations, none being within a protected area, although details on population numbers are lacking.
159072		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159073		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Tingo Maria National Park, Huanuco department, and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159073		distribution	eng	Occurs in Panama, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159073		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, marshes and sloughs (collection data: D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006). Female and larva undescribed.
159073		population	eng	This species is known from four locations (two being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
159073		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159074		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159074		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bahia state in Brazil (Calvert 1909, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159074		habitat	eng	Adults in this genus fly slowly on shaded areas of secondary forest for short distances before perching by hanging down (Lencioni 2004); no information for this particular species available; larva unknown.
159074		population	eng	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159074		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159075		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.
159075		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andean forest of Ecuador (Muzon and Lozano 2005, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159075		habitat	eng	Only reference to habitat mentions a stream at a lakes edge (Muzon and Lozano 2005). Female and larva unknown.
159075		population	eng	Recently described species and population size is unknown as yet.
159075		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159076		conservation	eng	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
159076		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality in Mato Grosso, Brazil (Calvert 1909).
159076		habitat	eng	No data is available. Larva unknown.
159076		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
159076		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159077		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional El Palmar, Entre Rios province, Argentina (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
159077		distribution	eng	Found from Pernambuco state in Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina (Calvert 1909; St. Quentin 1973; Belle 1970, 1988; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006)
159077		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within gallery forests; larva described by Belle (1992).
159077		population	eng	The species is known from 20 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
159077		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159078		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).
159078		distribution	eng	Occurs in northeastern Argentina, Paraguay and southeastern Brazil (Santos 1968, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159078		habitat	eng	Adults along margins of clear water streams within forest; larva described by Santos (1968).
159078		population	eng	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159078		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159079		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Surveys on biology, trends, and to evaluate threats needed.
159079		distribution	eng	Occurs in montane rainforest from La Paz department, Bolivia to Madre de Dios department in Peru (Bick and Bick 1988, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).
159079		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams within Montane rainforest (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Female, breeding habitat and larva are all unknown.
159079		population	eng	The species occurs in two locations although it is likely to be widespread; further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.
159079		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159080		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159080		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Para state, Brazil (Belle 1984).
159080		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers in Amazon lowland forest; female and larva unknown.
159080		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159080		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159081		conservation	eng	Known locality is situated in pristine Amazon forest (Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana 2001) within a projected protected area (Reserva Comunal del Pucacuro). Surveys needed to establish current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.
159081		distribution	eng	Occurs in northeastern Peru, quebrada de Mishquiyacu (Belle 1989).
159081		habitat	eng	Locality given as Mishquiyacu; according to literature (Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana 2001) stream in canyon (Quebrada de Mishquiyacu) located in the Pucacuro watershed, within Amazon tropical rainforest.
159081		population	eng	Known only from the type specimen in 1989 but thought to be widely distributed, there is no detailed information available on the size of the global population.
159081		threats	eng	None known.
159082		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu, in Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Reserva Tapanti in Cartago province, Costa Rica (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159082		distribution	eng	The species is widespread along Andean slope of South America, from Argentina to Mexico (Ris 1918; de Marmels 1988, 1989; Limongi 1991; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159082		habitat	eng	Adults frequent still waters of stream and river margins and seepages, perching on twigs and snags in open and forested areas (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007); larva burrows in soft sediments; described by Limongi (1991).
159082		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species.
159082		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159083		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159083		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas State, Venezuela (Belle 1984, de Marmels 1989).
159083		habitat	eng	Habitat includes rivers and the larva unknown.
159083		population	eng	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159083		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159084		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159084		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana (Calvert 1909; Ris 1913, 1919; de Marmels 1989; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159084		habitat	eng	Habitat includes banks of rivers and edges of forest; seen hovering together in large flocks for hours without settling (Ris 1913), at morning and evening, females predominate whilst males are rare (Ris 1919). Larva unknown.
159084		population	eng	This species is known from six locations and thought to be found in unsurveyed lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.
159084		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159085		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159085		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Trinidad, Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (Cowley and Gloyd 1938, Rácenis 1955, de Marmels 1997, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159085		habitat	eng	Adults found at small muddy creeks in dark woods, hovering just above the water in dark places (Cowley and Gloyd 1938), and narrow streams shaded by grasses, bushes and large trees (Rácenis 1955). Larva unknown.
159085		population	eng	The species is known from 17 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.
159085		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159086		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional El Palmar, Entre Rios province, Argentina. Surveys to study biology, trends and evaluate threats.
159086		distribution	eng	Occurs in Southeastern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (Ris 1912, Santos 1949, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
159086		habitat	eng	Grasslands of pampas, where adults fly along banks of slow moving rivers and ponds in grasslands (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006). Larva unknown.
159086		population	eng	The species is known from eight localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159086		threats	eng	Southern area of distribution range subject to human alteration of habitat due to agriculture, industry and increasing human population.
159087		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Reserva Tingua, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Santos 1972, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159087		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Suriname, Brazil to Peru, Ecuador Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Ris 1911; de Marmels 1989; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159087		habitat	eng	Adults found near ponds, lakes, and streams in lowland forest. Larva described by Santos (1972); breeds in lentic (still water) environments within forest.
159087		population	eng	This species is known from 20 locations (three being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.
159087		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159088		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Tapanti (Cartago, Costa Rica); Reserva Forestal San Ramon (Alajuela, Costa Rica); Parque Nacional Braulo Carrillo (San Jose, Costa Rica) (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159088		distribution	eng	Described from 'Colombie and Guyane' by Selys (1853) but never found again in the second, and record based most likely on misidentification (Garrison 1990); known by recent records from Costa Rica.
159088		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams and rivers in forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva described by Zloty <em>et al</em>. (1993), who also provided an electrophoretic characterization at seven loci.
159088		population	eng	This species is known from 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159088		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159089		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish current distribution, trends, and threats.
159089		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Orinoco drainage system of the Eastern slopes of the Andes in Trujillo state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1991, 1999).
159089		habitat	eng	Artificial ponds and small lakes in cleared areas of Andean cloud forest. Natural breeding habitat . Males fly erratically over open water rarely approaching shore; oviposition in tandem or by unguarded females among floating vegetation. Emergence from shore to 30 m away from water; larva described by de Marmels (1992) from a fish-free lake; larvae absent at pond with introduced rainbow trout where adults were observed.
159089		population	eng	The species is known from three localities only, has not been collected since 1993 and population numbers remain unknown.
159089		threats	eng	Introduction of rainbow trout (<em>Salmo gairdneri</em>).
159090		conservation	eng	Surveys on biology, trends, and to evaluate threats needed.
159090		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in La Paz department, Bolivia (Bick and Bick 1988).
159090		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest species; no information on breeding habitat available, most likely streams as in other species of the genus; female and larva unknown.
159090		population	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and two specimens but thought not to be under threat; population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159090		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159091		conservation	eng	Identity of species doubtful; described from a female from 'southern Brazil', later references in the literature could refer to other species, since information available not sufficient for positive identification, and numerous new species described before and after then. Taxonomic revision of genus necessary to know where species is distributed, and before being able to design surveys to find out habitat preferences, biology, trends and threats.
159091		distribution	eng	Occurs in southern Brazil (Hagen in Selys 1862).
159091		habitat	eng	Breeding habitat, male and larva are all unknown.
159091		population	eng	There is some doubt over the species identity and therefore population data is lacking.
159091		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159092		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159092		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Guyana,  Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (Ris 1919, Montgomery 1940, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159092		habitat	eng	Lowland forest, along banks of muddy creeks, very hard to catch (Ris 1919); larva unknown.
159092		population	eng	This species is known from five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159092		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159093		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas in Argentina: Parques Nacionales Mburucuya and Calilegua and Reserva  de Punta Lara (Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006, von Ellenrieder 2000).
159093		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in South America, from Guyana and French Guyana (Machet 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006), Bolivia and Brazil to Chile and Argentina (Selys 1876, Jurzitza 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159093		habitat	eng	Ponds, pools and still waters at stream and river edges with abundant aquatic plants; adults perch on leaves of floating vegetation, also on bushes and grass blades near shore; larva lives among aquatic vegetation. Fonseca and Pujol-Luz (1999) and von Ellenrieder and Muzon (2003) described its larva; von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).
159093		population	eng	This widely distributed species is common throughout its range.
159093		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159094		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159094		distribution	eng	Occurs in Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and Peru (Williamson 1923, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159094		habitat	eng	Vegetated margins of ponds, marshes and rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Williamson 1923); larva unknown.
159094		population	eng	This species is known from five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159094		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159095		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina, and Reserva de Tambopata, Peru (Paulson 1985, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
159095		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil to Peru and northeastern Argentina (Navás 1933, Belle 1972, 1992; Paulson 1985, de Marmels 1989, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).
159095		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ditches, sloughs and rivers (de Marmels 1989, Belle 1992); larva described by supposition by Belle (1992).
159095		population	eng	This species is known from over 18 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159095		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159096		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159096		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mato Grosso, Para and Goias states in Brazil (Belle 1970, 1992).
159096		habitat	eng	Presumably rivers in the Cerrado shrub-land of Brazil (Belle 1970, 1992); larva unknown.
159096		population	eng	The species is known from 4 locations but no population data is available.
159096		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159097		conservation	eng	Surveys needed to establish distribution range, biology, trends and threats, and if present in protected areas.
159097		distribution	eng	Occurs in Misiones province in Argentina (de Marmels 2001).
159097		habitat	eng	Probably streams in forest; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).
159097		population	eng	No population data is available; the species is only known from its original description in 1913.
159097		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159098		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159098		distribution	eng	Occurs in Venezuela and Colombia (Ris 1918, Rácenis 1955, de Marmels 1988, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159098		habitat	eng	Small streams and swampy areas in sombre forests; adults hard to see because they fly seldom, and perch staying still  in twigs and bushes, sometimes crawling up slowly on them (Rácenis 1955). Larva unknown.
159098		population	eng	The species is known from six locations due to secretive habitats and no population data is available.
159098		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159099		conservation	eng	Intag has been located within a private reserve (Intag Cloud Forest Reserve) since 1989 (http://www.intagcloudforest.com/index.html). Surveys needed to establish distribution area, habitat requirements, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.
159099		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Intag, Pichincha state, Ecuador (Bick and Bick 1992).
159099		habitat	eng	No detailed information is available; most likely inhabitants of mountain streams as other species of the genus. Larva unknown.
159099		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
159099		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159100		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159100		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazonas states in Brazil and Venezuela (Sjoested 1918, Santos 1961, de Marmels 1997, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159100		habitat	eng	Lowland Amazon forest species (Sjoested 1918, de Marmels 1997). Larva unknown.
159100		population	eng	The species is known from at least four locations and thought to be more widespread across lowland Amazon forest although no population data is available.
159100		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159101		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area (Parque Nacional Guaramacal, Venezuela).
159101		distribution	eng	Occurs in Paramo of Guaramacal range in the Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela. Only known from type locality so far (de Marmels 1994).
159101		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small streams in montane forest (de Marmels 1999).
159101		population	eng	There are no details available on population data for this species.
159101		threats	eng	According to de Marmels (1999) area of distribution is isolated, vastly unexplored and not presently threatened.
159102		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159102		distribution	eng	Occurs in Colombia and Ecuador, southwestern Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (Förster 1914, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159102		habitat	eng	Small sandy streams, perching on exposed vegetation near ponds, also in forest (label data, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.
159102		population	eng	This species is known from at least 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159102		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159103		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159103		distribution	eng	Occurs in forests and grasslands from Bolivia and Paraguay to Uruguay and N Argentina (Calvert 1909; Leonard 1977, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159103		habitat	eng	Frequent at pools, ponds and still waters at stream edges, from highland grasslands to foothill jungle. Larva lives among submerged aquatic vegetation (Pessacq <em>et al</em>. 2005).
159103		population	eng	This species is found in abundant numbers in the field.
159103		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
159104		conservation	eng	The two localities known are within protected areas: Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuana, Amazonas state, and Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela.
159104		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guayana highlands in Bolivar and Amazonas states, Venezuela (de Marmels 2004).
159104		habitat	eng	Streams in Guyana forest; female and larva unknown (de Marmels 2004).
159104		population	eng	Known only from two locations since its recent description (2004) and population surveys are required to better understand the status of this species.
159104		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159105		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional El Rey, Argentina (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2006).
159105		distribution	eng	Occurs in Bolivia and northwestern Argentina (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2006).
159105		habitat	eng	Vegetated ponds, pools and still waters at stream edges. Larva lives among riparian vegetation (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2006).
159105		population	eng	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from ten locations, one included within a protected area.
159105		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159106		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica, Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama, Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru, Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (Dunkle 1982, Donnelly 1992, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159106		distribution	eng	Found from Honduras south to Bolivia and Brazil (Ris 1930, Rácenis 1953, Dunkle 1982, Donnelly 1992, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159106		habitat	eng	Adults perch on marginal vegetation of ponds, lakes, pools, sloughs, swamps and streams; female oviposits on twigs 1-2 inches above water (Ris 1930). Larva described by Santos (1970).
159106		population	eng	The species is known from 32 localities, several situated within a protected area and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.
159106		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159107		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159107		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality in Santa Cruz department, Bolivia (Belle 1973).
159107		habitat	eng	No information is available; female and larva unknown.
159107		population	eng	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.
159107		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159108		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Lanin and Nahuel Huapi, Argentina and Nahuelbuta, Chile. (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159108		distribution	eng	Occurs in south central Chile and southwestern Argentina (Bulla 1973, Jurzitza 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159108		habitat	eng	Lentic (still water) environments in grasslands, including quiet areas of rivers, surrounded with Juncaceae; adults perch on marginal vegetation and on bushes in the sun; females oviposit in tandem or alone on marginal or aquatic plants, and can submerge completely to do so (Jurztiza 1989). Larva described by Bulla (1973).
159108		population	eng	The species is found in at least 28 locations and some of those are in protected areas.
159108		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159109		conservation	eng	Present in several protected areas: Parque Nacional Ybycui, Paraguari department in Paraguay; Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil; Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province,  and Parque Nacional Baritu, Salta province, in Argentina (Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159109		distribution	eng	Found from Venezuela and Ecuador south to northern Argentina and Uruguay; absent from northeastern South America (von Ellenrieder 2003).
159109		habitat	eng	Habitat includes creeks, pools and temporary ponds in forest areas (von Ellenrieder 2003); larva described by de Marmels (1992) and von Ellenrieder (1999).
159109		population	eng	The species is known from over 125 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.
159109		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159110		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas; surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
159110		distribution	eng	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Ecuador, Peru and Brazil (Kennedy 1937, Lencioni 2005, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159110		habitat	eng	Habitat includes creeks and streams within lowland forest (Kennedy 1941); larva unknown.
159110		population	eng	The species is known from two localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.
159110		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159111		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159111		distribution	eng	Found from Andes from Colombia to Bolivia (Selys 1876, Costa 1978).
159111		habitat	eng	Yungas (montane rainforest) species; no data available on preferred aquatic environments. Larva unknown.
159111		population	eng	The species is known from only three locations and the population status is not known.
159111		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159112		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and threats, and presence within protected areas needed.
159112		distribution	eng	Occurs in Goias and Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002).
159112		habitat	eng	Adults collected near small ponds within Atlantic forest (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002); female and larva unknown.
159112		population	eng	A recently described species that has population data lacking.
159112		threats	eng	Breeding habitat within Atlantic forest is likely to be under threat due to human growth and development in the area.
159113		conservation	eng	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela (R.W. Garrison 2006).
159113		distribution	eng	Occurs in Guyana and Venezuela (Kimmins 1943; de Marmels 1985, 1989; R.W. Garrison 2006).
159113		habitat	eng	Adults found in swampy areas within forest and in open swamps with pools (de Marmels 1989). Larva unknown.
159113		population	eng	The species is known only from four locations and one is within a protected area.  Population details are lacking although inferred to be widespread.
159113		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159114		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159114		distribution	eng	Found from Bolivia and Brazil to northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Lencioni 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159114		habitat	eng	Habitat includes ponds, marshes and large rivers in lowland forest (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza and Rácenis 1984, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva still unknown.
159114		population	eng	This species is known from at least seven locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159114		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159115		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159115		distribution	eng	Occurs from Brazil, from Minas Gerais to Rio Grande do sul States (Belle 1973).
159115		habitat	eng	No information is available; larva unknown.
159115		population	eng	The species is known from four localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159115		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159116		conservation	eng	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.
159116		distribution	eng	Occurs in Santa Catarina state in Brazil and Artigas department in Uruguay (Belle 1970, Belle 1981).
159116		habitat	eng	Habitat includes streams; female and larva unknown (Belle 1988).
159116		population	eng	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.
159116		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159117		conservation	eng	Localities known not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to study biology, trends, evaluate threats and establish if present within existing protected areas.
159117		distribution	eng	Occurs in Brazil, Guyanas and Venezuela (Geijskes 1976; de Marmels 1989, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).
159117		habitat	eng	Lowland creeks in savanna, sandy ridges and forest interior. Adults perch on tips of dry twigs in the shade of bush near a creek with wings spread. Oviposition observed in small creeks, with pairs in tandem, males upright while holding females, and females inserting eggs into fallen palm leaves (<em>Euterpe oleracea</em>) during heavy rainfall (Geijskes 1976). Larva unknown.
159117		population	eng	Common in Suriname, adults observed all year long except June, with small peak in February and a maximum in September/October (Geijskes, 1976).
159117		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159118		conservation	eng	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province,  and Parque Nacional Mburucuya, Corrientes province, Argentina, Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department and Reserva Natural de Bosque, Canindeyu department, Paraguay (Jurzitza 1981, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).
159118		distribution	eng	Occurs in Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname (Borror 1942, de Marmels 1983, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159118		habitat	eng	Habitat includes pools, ponds and marshes. Larva described by Muzon and Garre (2005).
159118		population	eng	This species is known from more than 40 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159118		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159119		conservation	eng	Research needed to establish current distribution, trends, and threats.
159119		distribution	eng	Occurs in Delta of Parana River in Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Navás 1927, Bachman 1963).
159119		habitat	eng	Small streams in marshes and vegetated areas of flood plains from Parana River. Adults reported as rare, observed flying alone during the month of February, always in areas with thick vegetation along small streams. Flight fast, at 3-5 m over ground, perching occasionally on aquatic vegetation and trees (Dallas 1941). Larva described by Bachmann (1963).
159119		population	eng	The species occurs in a very small area this is thought to be under threat and further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.
159119		threats	eng	Limited known distribution area possibly endangered by habitat degradation due to increasing human settlement and tourism in the area; not known from any protected area (Muzon & von Ellenrieder 1999).
159120		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas; surveys needed to establish distribution range, habitat preferences, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.
159120		distribution	eng	Occurs in Andes in Antioquia department, Colombia (Ris 1918;  the specimen in R.W. Garrison 2006, mentioned by Bick and Bick (1992) as from Leticia in Amazonas department corresponds to a different species, R.W. Garrison 2007).
159120		habitat	eng	No information on breeding habitat available, most likely mountain streams as in other species of the genus. Female and larva unknown.
159120		population	eng	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.
159120		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159121		conservation	eng	Known localities not within protected areas, but currently not all under threat. Field studies needed to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.
159121		distribution	eng	Occurs in Amazon forest in Brazil and Guyana (Calvert 1909, Williamson 1915, Machado 1985, R.W. Garrison 2006).
159121		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small wooded streams (Williamson 1915). Larva unknown.
159121		population	eng	This species is known from five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.
159121		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
159122		conservation	eng	The Palau Conservation Society (http://www.palau-pcs.org/) is heavily involved in raising community awareness of environment. In addition, a series of conservation areas have been established on the islands, including several in the forests of Babeldaob. Awareness of Palau’s natural resources has increased greatly in recent years as its uniqueness has been well publicized around the world.
159122		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island Palau, Micronesia (recorded from Babeldaob Island).
159122		habitat	eng	Information on the habitat and ecology is unknown but it probably occurs in small forest streams like congeners known from many other islands and the Asian mainland.
159122		population	eng	There is no information available for the population size or trend of this species.
159122		threats	eng	Deforestation is the most likely threat, but the island Babeldaob is apparently still heavily forested and lightly settled.
159123		conservation	eng	There are conservation measures in place, including monitoring the population size and trend of the species.  Whilst research into the biology of <em>Megalagrion koelense</em> is underway, further research is still needed as well as the restoration of its habitat.
159123		distribution	eng	<em>Megalagrion koelense </em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, it is known from Oahu, Molokai, Hawaii, Lanai and a historic record from Maui.
159123		habitat	eng	This species breeds in leaf pockets of water (phytotelmata) of native plants (<em>Astelia menziesiana</em> and <em>Freycinetia arborea</em>).
159123		population	eng	The species is known to be widespread on the Hawaiian Islands.
159123		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include deforestation of habitat and the introduction of exotic plants.
159124		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected area. Conservation Society of Pohnpeis (http://www.serehd.org/html/about_us_.html) is the primary source of conservation actions on the island, mostly through raising community awareness.
159124		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Pohnpei, Micronesia (island-wide at all elevations).
159124		habitat	eng	The species prefers fast-flowing rocky streams at all elevations and sedge marshes that are dominated by <em>Mapania</em> at higher elevations; essentially all freshwater habitats in the interior of island (not in open ponds or  coastal plain).  The breeding ecology is poorly known as mating pairs are rarely seen even where they are abundant. Tenerals (freshly moulted individuals) are found in both habitat types, so both used for breeding.  It is also frequently encountered in forest understorey well away from water.
159124		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species on this rather small island.
159124		threats	eng	Deforestation probably represents a threat, as most populations are found in forested areas. Two-thirds of lowland native forest was lost between 1975 and 1995.  There is continued rain-forest clearing at a slow rate and this may represent a threat over time to both terrestrial and aquatic habitats of this species.
159125		conservation	eng	There are a number of research actions underway, including investigations into population size and range, habitat status and threats, but further research is needed in areas such as monitoring the population trend.&#160;  The restoration of the species habitat is required, through the implementation of management and policy-based plans.
159125		distribution	eng	<em>Megalagrion paludicola</em> is endemic to Kauai Island (Hawaii).
159125		habitat	eng	This species prefers dark pools and ponds in upland bogs.
159125		population	eng	This species has a small range and there are no obvious indications of a decline in population size.
159125		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction, introduced fish and other invertebrates to its habitat.
159126		conservation	eng	There are no <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation measures currently in place for this species. Mount Victoria is subject to mining at its base and has no status as a 'Protected Area' (the local designation for National Parks). However, all plants of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Nepenthes</span> are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
159126		distribution	eng	This plant is known only from Mount Victoria (1,726 m) in central Palawan, Philippines, where it is found on ultramafic slopes from 1,600 m to the summit (Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Three colonies are now known, but the total area occupied by the species comprises a few hundred square metres on each side of the summit region, and therefore is significantly below 10 km² (Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
159126		habitat	eng	This carnivorous plant occurs on nickel/magnesium-rich, ultramafic soils only, and mainly in high altitude shrubland. The species is dioecious (i.e., male and female plants exist), with a slight male bias. Any decrease in the population will therefore have a greater impact on reproductive potential as no single plant can reproduce itself in the absence of plants of the opposite sex.
159126		population	eng	Plants grow singly or in sparsely scattered groups of a few individuals (density less than one plant per 20 m²), therefore the known population of two colonies consists of only a few hundred individuals (Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
159126		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is from poaching; the mountain is relatively inaccessible to casual hikers, therefore potential for habitat destruction is limited, but the monetary value of these plants is high, particularly on the Taiwanese and Japanese markets. A nickel mine operates at the base of the mountain; currently, operations have been suspended but the area, including the summit, has been prospected for other potential mining activities.
159221		conservation	eng	Preservation of old-growth forest and dead wood is recommended to provide habitat continuity for this species. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is considered Endangered in Poland, Slovakia and Germany (2009).
159221		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern and central Europe (Costa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003); reputedly a former native in southern Britain (Allen 1969).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is very rare in the hilly regions and in riverine forests of the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is present in most German States. In the Czech Republic there are several sites and in eastern Slovakia there are recent records. In Italy it is present in mainland and Sardinia.
159221		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decaying heartwood of old broadleaved trees, using both red-rot and white-rot. In France it is found in very large trees (diameter greater than 60 cm) with red-rotten heartwood (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2008). Know host trees are : <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus, Acer, Acacia, Populus, Quercus, Tilia, Juglans, Salix, Platanus, Castanea, Carpinus</span>. It is usually found in open forests, in old parks and similar places (Polish Red Data Book of Animals 2009); also in floodplain forests. It has also been found found in large hedgerow trees. It has been regarded as a typical old forest relict (Allen 1969) and a high quality forest indicator (Brustel 2005). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in undisturbed parts of broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak forests, ravine and slope forests and willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France, more than 20 specimens have been collected in a riverine forest 80 years old, grown on the Rhône river sands, and so the site need not be ancient forest, just have old trees (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2008).
159221		population	eng	<p>This species is very rare over much of its range.</p><p>It is known from just a single locality in Poland where it is likely to have become extinct (Polish Red Data Book of Animals 2009). In the UK, if native then now the species is Extinct. In Hungary this species is very rare, and its populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is very rare. In France it is widespread but very localized with discontinuity between the stations; seems to be more abundant in riverine forests. There is no information about population size or trend in Italy. <br/></p>
159221		threats	eng	<p>Interruption of the continuous supply of suitable dead wood (ecological continuity) is a threat to this species, as this species needs a high volume of dead wood. Largely confined to old-growth forests and parkland with ancient trees (often there is no replacement for these trees once they die off). Regulation of water levels in floodplains reduces the amount of falling dead trees and therefore the habitat. <br/></p><p>In Hungary habitat loss may occur in several localities, but owing to the rarity of the species it is difficult to study the threatening factors (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>
159222		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the realm of a proposed protected area, Pulong Tau National Park (I. Das pers. comm. 2009). Enforcement of the park's boundaries is needed to address logging issues within the park.
159222		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from its type locality: Gunung Murud, Sarawak, East Malaysia (northwestern Borneo), at 2,120 m asl (Das 2008). It is   likely a      summit specialist, known from an area smaller than 5 km<sup>2</sup> (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).
159222		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forests with canopies reaching about 20 m. Individuals have been found at night on the edges of forest trails, up to two metres above ground.&#160; The tadpole remains unknown, although the species is suspected to breed in the pitchers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nepenthes</span> plants (Das 2008).
159222		population	eng	It is a locally common species (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p></p>
159222		threats	eng	Even though this species' type locality is within the proposed <st1:place><st1:placename>Pulong</st1:placename> <st1:placename>Tau</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, it is subject to both subsistence and commercial logging. Clear-felling is also happening within parts of the proposed Park, although the type locality lies just outside the range of commercial hardwoods<u2:p></u2:p> (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).
159223		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the realm of a proposed protected area, Pulong Tau National Park (I. Das pers. comm. 2009). Enforcement of the park's boundaries is needed to address logging issues within the park.
159223		distribution	eng	This species is known from the summit of Batu Linanit, Gunung Murud, Sarawak, East Malaysia (northwestern Borneo), at 2,250 m asl (Das 2008). It is likely a summit specialist, known from an area smaller than 1 km<sup>2</sup> (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).
159223		habitat	eng	It occurs in rhododendron forests. Individuals have been found at night, up to 15 cm above the forest substrate, at the edge of forest trails on exposed, wind-swept slopes. The tadpole is unknown, but the species is suspected to breed in pitchers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nepenthes</span> plants (Das 2008).
159223		population	eng	It is considered to be a   locally common species (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).
159223		threats	eng	Even though this species' type locality is within the proposed Pulong Tau National Park, it is subject to both subsistence and commercial logging.   Clear-felling is also happening within parts of the proposed Park, although the type locality lies just outside the range of commercial hardwoods   (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).
159250		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomic status,  distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p>
159250		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality: Ho Thau village, Ho Thau commune, Tam Duong district, Lao Chai Province, Northwest Viet Nam, between 2,050–2,400 m asl (Orlov and Ho 2007).
159250		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the area around a rapid stream on the slope of Mu Hum mountain, which is covered by primary subtropical forest. Individuals have been found at night on rocky outcrops and bushes along the banks of the stream (Orlov and Ho 2007). It is presumed to breed in streams.
159250		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>
159250		threats	eng	<p>There is no information available on threats to this species.</p>
159251		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomic status, distribution, population status, natural history and threats.<br/></p>
159251		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ho Thau village, Ho Thau commune, Tam Duong district, Lao Chai Province, northwest Viet Nam. It is found between 1,850 and 2,400 m asl (Orlov and Ho 2007).
159251		habitat	eng	It is known from a cascading stream on the slope of a mountain. Frogs were found active at night on rocks in the waterfall area of the stream, on the steep slope of Mu Hum mountain, which is covered by primary forest. Numerous waterfall cascades of of 5-30 m can be found in dark, granite-basaltic canyons, covered with trees, bushes and tree-ferns (Orlov and Ho 2007). It is presumed to breed in streams.
159251		population	eng	The species was seen every day over the course of an eight day survey (Orlov and Ho 2007).
159251		threats	eng	<p>There is no information available on threats to this species.</p>
159761		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
159761		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in the south of Europe: Spain very locally (Cuenca, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees), France (eastern Pyrenees and Hautes Alpes), central Italy, the eastern Alps (Italy, Austria, Slovenia) and further through southwest Hungary to most Balkan countries. 0-2,000 m. It is also found through Turkey to Iran and Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
159761		habitat	eng	The Mountain Small White likes warm and dry places and is found on dry, nutrient-poor grasslands, in rocky places, in open scrub and in large clearings in woods. The flight areas are usually on calcareous soil. The males can sometimes be seen in large groups on damp ground. Compared to other whites, this butterfly has a slow flight. The main larval foodplant is Burnt Candytuft (<em>Aethionema saxatile</em>), but <em>A. orbiculatum</em> and Woad (<em>Isatis tinctoria</em>) are also used. The eggs are laid singly. The pupa is normally fixed to stones and rocks. There are two or three generations a year and the pupa of the autumn generation hibernates. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (18%), screes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
159761		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
159761		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
159763		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required at present. More research is recommended as relatively little specific data is currently available for this species.
159763		distribution	eng	<p>This species is centered on east/central Africa with records from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, United Republic of Tanzania, The <st1:stockticker w:st="on">Democratic Republic of the Congo</st1:stockticker>, and Zambia. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is very large (over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>).</p>
159763		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in woodland and riverine vegetation, often&#160;in the company of butterflies of the genus&#160;<em>Eicochrysops</em>, which indicates that the habitat is not as strongly centered on forest as it is in other members of the genus.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
159763		population	eng	<p>Little&#160;in the way of&#160;specific data is&#160;at hand, but this species is common and&#160;widespread across the northern half of Zambia.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
159763		threats	eng	At present there are no threats to this species or its habitat.
159764		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159764		distribution	eng	This butterfly   occurs in South East Asia, from Burma, through Thailand and the Malaysian peninsula to Java, Indonesia (Corbet and Pendlebury 1992, Pinratana 1996). This gives the species an extent of occurrence well in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species and, although much smaller, the area of occupancy also exceeds the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species
159764		habitat	eng	This butterfly   inhabits dense primary rainforest. Adults favour undergrowth in shady parts of the forest where they rest for long periods on foliage 1-2 metres above the ground. They tend to be fairly inactive unless disturbed.
159764		population	eng	This butterfly is locally fairly common throughout much of its range (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2009).
159764		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
159765		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159765		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly is endemic to the Sulawesi region, Indonesia. This includes the mainland and Kepulauan Banggai to the east of the main island. Although historical deforestation in Sulawesi is high, most of the accessible forest has now already been felled and so the amount of remaining habitat should now be stable. The total remaining forest of all types in Sulawesi is in the region of 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Cannon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and as this species inhabits both primary and secondary forest the area of occupancy (AOO) is probably greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Deforestation within its distribution is projected to reduce rapidly in the near future, since all areas that can be usefully converted have been (Cannon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/></p>
159765		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is commonly encountered at the side of&#160;creeks, where males imbibe moisture from creek beds. Nothing is known of the early stages of&#160;this species.
159765		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
159765		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species, but&#160;deforestation rates within its area of occupancy are projected to slow rapidly in the near future since all accessible or useful forest has been cleared (Cannon&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
159766		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species. However, it would benefit from greater research into its distribution across the DRC and in western Tanzania, where the species is believed to be highly under-reported.
159766		distribution	eng	<p>This species was described from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<em>patria falsa</em>, Carcasson 1981, Libert 2000, Larsen 2005) but is in reality from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zambia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Shaba</st1:place></st1:country-region> in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania,</st1:place></st1:country-region> the records are from between 900 and 1,350 m (Kielland 1990). It is almost certainly under-reported, especially from the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>. Nonetheless, the existing records still give a large EOO well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy cannot be estimated at present, but is likely to be in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given the availability of various suitable forest and woodland habitats across the large EOO and under-reporting of this species across much of its distribution.<br/></p>
159766		habitat	eng	The habitat is dense woodland, riverine forest, and other forest that might be in its area.   Females have been observed laying eggs among lichens on the bark of trees (Kielland 1990).
159766		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
159766		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known, however, it appears to inhabit a range of forest and woodland habitats which would suggest it is fairly resilient to possible threats of deforestation and degradation at present.
159771		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this rare but widespread species.
159771		distribution	eng	This large species is known from the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> (west), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, and western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>. There are numerous records and it has occasionally been found in numbers. Most localities are in mountain country but at levels below the true submontane. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is large and as there are many records from within the EOO the area of occupancy is also  likely to be fairly large.
159771		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest in reasonable conditions and most localities are in mountain country but at levels below the true submontane (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008)<span style="font-weight: bold;">. </span>Larval host plants are thought to include<em> Loranthus</em> sp. <st1:citation w:st="on">(Van Someren 1974)</st1:citation>.<em>Phragmanthera rufescens</em> (<st1:citation w:st="on">Larsen 1991)</st1:citation><em> </em>and<em> Erianthemum</em> sp. <st1:citation w:st="on">(Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001)</st1:citation> from the Loranthaceae.<st1:citation w:st="on"></st1:citation>
159771		population	eng	This is not a common species but this is the trend for other larger species from its genus (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159771		threats	eng	This species needs forest in good condition and so is threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation. These threats may not currently pose a serious risk as this species has a large distribution but that risk could increase in the future if the distribution is reduced.
159772		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159772		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in both forest and woodland from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya (Larsen 1991)</st1:place></st1:country-region> to much of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kielland 1990) and south to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Malawi</st1:place></st1:country-region>. There is also at least one record from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Shaba</st1:place></st1:country-region> in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> and many from northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zambia (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This gives a large EOO well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As a fairly disturbance tolerant species of dry woodland, the AOO across this large EOO is also greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Altitudinally, this species is wide ranging having been recorded from sea level up to 1,600 m in Tanzania (Kielland 1990).</p>
159772		habitat	eng	This is a species of dry woodland and forest margins (Kielland 1990). It can tolerate some habitat disturbance and has even been recorded from gardens along the Kenyan coast (Larsen 1991).   Females oviposit on lichens on the bark of tree trunks (Van Someren 1974), suggesting that lichen may be larval hosts.
159772		population	eng	Kielland (1990) regarded this as one of the most common and widespread species of its genus. However, Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) describe it as widespread but very local and Larsen (1991) describes it as relatively common. It is clearly not a rare species.
159772		threats	eng	This species has a wide distribution and is somewhat disturbance-tolerant. Therefore, it does not face any major threats at present.
159779		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species. The species occurs in protected areas, e.g., Korup National Park.
159779		distribution	eng	<p>This species of wetter forests has a somewhat narrow distribution from the Niger River Delta to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> (so far for certain only west of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Sanaga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype>; the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cross</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> biogeographical sub-region). It seems to be scarce compared with its closest relatives (the <em>Hypolycaena lebona</em>-group) but has been recorded from many different localities in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region></st1:place>, though rather fewer in Cameroon (TL).&#160;<br/></p><p></p>  <p></p>
159779		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary, undisturbed forest (Larsen 2005).
159779		population	eng	This is a rare species with a restricted geographical range (Larsen 2005).
159779		threats	eng	As a primary forest species, this butterfly is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation across its range.
159780		conservation	eng	Most of this species' habitat on the Zimbabwean side of the mountain is under national park management. The Mozambique side is unprotected. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
159780		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from a number of discrete colonies in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Chimanimani</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> of eastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region></st1:place> (5,500 - 6,000 feet) however there are larger areas of similar habitat on the Mozambique side of the border where it is also very likely to occur. This would give an estimated extent of occurrence of under 300 km<sup>2 </sup>with the area of occupancy being much smaller. However, the habitat is extremely remote and there is no continuing decline in distribution or habitat area/quality.<br/></p>
159780		habitat	eng	The genus Lepidochrysops has a remarkable life history, the larvae feed on plants for the first two instars, then induce ants to carry them to their nests where they feed on the ant brood, pupating in the tunnels of the ant nest&#160;(Henning and Henning 1989). The&#160;habitat of this species is montane grassland at 1,800 metres (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).<p></p>
159780		population	eng	This species has been recorded on a number of occasions and also in recent years. The population appears to be stable at present.
159780		threats	eng	The montane grasslands of this species' habitat are characteristically rugged, remote and generally undisturbed (McGinley 2008).
159781		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required at present.
159781		distribution	eng	This species stretches through most of Africa's main forest zone: Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo, Angola, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Ethiopia, United Republic of Tanzania, and Zambia. It does not seem to extend to&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
159781		habitat	eng	This is a savannah species of&#160;butterfly that also extends into denser savannah woodland and riverine vegetation.
159781		population	eng	This is a robust species that is common and often abundant within its habitat.
159781		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
159785		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
159785		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south and central Norway, in large parts of Sweden and Finland as far north as Lapland, in the Baltic States and northeast of Poland. It is furthermore present east to Siberia and North America and down to Mongolia, the Amur region and North Korea in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
159785		habitat	eng	Both in lowland and mountains, the Baltic Grayling occurs in peaty and swampy habitats. Most butterflies are found in damp habitats with a vegetation of grasses and sedges, often with open water in the middle and surrounded by coniferous woodland. The butterflies frequently visit the wood edge looking for flowers, because the peat vegetation is poor in nectar plants. They also rest on the branches or trunks of trees, or on dead wood. The Baltic Grayling shares its habitat with hardly any other butterfly. The female lays its eggs on various grasses, but which ones the caterpillars feed on is not known. The caterpillar’s development takes nearly two years. Habitats: raised bogs (70%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), coniferous woodland (10%).
159785		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland, Latvia, Poland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
159785		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
159787		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159787		distribution	eng	<p>Described from the Ituri area in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">North</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Kivu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, it is almost exclusive to the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> where, according to numerous records, it occupies much of the country. Apparently there is also a record from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The EOO based solely on records from the DRC is still large and well in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<br/></p>
159787		habitat	eng	This butterfly is limited to forest in reasonable condition. There is little other available data on the habitats and ecology of this butterfly.
159787		population	eng	The population status of this butterfly is not well described in available literature, however, it has been widely recorded across the DRC and so appears to be fairly common in suitable habitats.
159787		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest degradation and deforestation. However, its large range is still well forested and so these threats cannot be considered major to the species as a whole. It can also survive some light forest degradation.
159794		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are required for this widespread and common species.
159794		distribution	eng	<p>This forest species occurs widely from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region> to Kivu in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> and northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This gives a huge extent of occurrence and as the species is widespread in forest across this region, the area of occupancy is also large.<br/></p>
159794		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">Its habitat is the forests</st1:place> from Sierra Leone to Tanzania and DRC (Larsen 2005).
159794		population	eng	This is a common butterfly though it is generally less numerous than&#160;<em>Catuna crithea</em> with which it almost invariably flies (Larsen 2005).
159794		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and common species.
159796		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159796		distribution	eng	This butterfly is fundamentally a Sundanian species, occurring in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region>, peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, Borneo, Palawan (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region>) and Sumatra (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>). The extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are both well in excess of the threshold values for threatened species.
159796		habitat	eng	This butterfly<em> </em>inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is rather elusive, remaining at rest for long periods and tending to fly only when disturbed. Adults frequent low-growing vegetation in forest with full canopy cover but sparse undergrowth. When at rest, the adults appear agitated, changing their stance every few seconds and frequently ‘flicking’ their wings. Males may establish loose territories, returning to the same particular bushes on consecutive days. Nothing is known of the early stages of this taxon.
159796		population	eng	This is a fairly common, albeit local, species.
159796		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
159799		conservation	eng	In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
159799		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several separate areas. Its distribution is often not clear, because of confusion with <em>H. fagi</em>. It is found in Portugal, Spain (east and northeast), France (the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Basses-Alpes, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire and Jura), west of Italy (in the mountains), south of Switzerland, Austria, north of Hungary, east of Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, south of Poland, east of Lithuania, southeast of Latvia, south of Norway. 500-1,500 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
159799		habitat	eng	The Rock Grayling can be found at the edge of very open woodland on poor steppe-like grasslands, as found, for example, near open coniferous woods growing on sandy ground. In these habitats, there are usually rockmasses or other forms of open ground. The butterfly often rests on the ground or against tree trunks, where the colours and pattern of the underside of its wings provide excellent camouflage. The eggs are laid on different grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.). The caterpillars grow very slowly and hibernate when half-grown in the litter layer. They pupate in a little hollow in the ground, after spinning a sort of cocoon. The Rock Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (34%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), inland sand-dunes (8%), mixed woodland (8%), broad- leaved deciduous forests (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), heath and scrub (5%).
159799		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
159799		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and open woodlands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
159800		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159800		distribution	eng	This species   is widespread in South East Asia, occurring from the Malaya Peninsula to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Halmahera), Borneo, and the Philippines (Mindanao). This gives a very large extent of occurrence (EOO) and with a widespread distribution in this EOO the area of occupancy is also likely to be large.<em> </em>
159800		habitat	eng	<p>This butterfly occupies open and semi-open habitats in lowland forested areas. It flies with other lowland satyrine butterflies in areas of tall grass bordering forest. It tends to be more active late in the afternoon and early evening, when adults venture into open areas. </p>
159800		population	eng	This is a   generally common and sometimes abundant butterfly.
159800		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
159801		conservation	eng	<p>No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.&#160;</p>
159801		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive, though rather disjunct, distribution which includes parts of southern and northern India, Indo-China, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, the south Andaman Islands, Java, Sumba, Borneo,&#160;Taiwan, and Palawan in the Philippines. Based on these widespread records, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is undoubtedly significantly greater than the threshold of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> required to merit a threatened status under criterion B1, while the area of occupancy (AOO) similarly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
159801		habitat	eng	The taxon inhabits secondary rainforest and areas of advanced regrowth. It appears to prefer semi-open&#160;areas and is most frequently encountered at forest margins. However, some authors have recorded cases where they have a clear preference for primary forest (Cleary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Larvae feed on food plants of the Rhamnaceae family.
159801		population	eng	Although detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this species, the butterfly appears to be relatively stable and common throughout its range. However, it has been noted to have become locally extremely rare in the Andaman Islands (Khatri 1993).
159801		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat at present. It is widely distributed, common, and tolerant of habitat degradation. As such, the main local threats of deforestation and habitat degradation which occur to varying extents throughout its range do not pose a significant concern at present.
159804		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159804		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and then across<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).&#160;</st1:place></st1:country-region>These widespread records give the butterfly a large extent of occurrence (EOO) across Africa's equatorial forest zone, in the order of millions of km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy is not known, but with large areas of forest remaining across its huge EOO it almost certainly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
159804		habitat	eng	This is a forest species   that often remains high in the canopy (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
159804		population	eng	This is a rare species, only one specimen being known from West Africa. It is more common in the equatorial zone (Larsen 2005). The observed rarity may be a result of the specie being a canopy-dweller.
159804		threats	eng	Presumably this canopy species does not tolerate major habitat degradation. However, it occurs across a sufficiently large distribution at present for these threats to be considered only minor to the species as a whole.
159806		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159806		distribution	eng	This butterfly currently occurs in a number of localities across a large EOO from Ethiopia and Sudan to the DRC and Tanzania (Kielland 1990, D'Abrera 1997). Because it flies in montane forests and open grasslands, the distribution is somewhat patchy, making the AOO much smaller than the EOO. However, the total area of just ones of the localities for this species, the Greater Virunga Landscape in the DRC, is in excess of 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and whilst only part of this is suitable habitat for the species, it shows that the total AOO of the species must presently exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> (WCS 2005).   In Tanzania, it is found at altitudes from 1,500 to 2,000 m (Kielland 1990).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>
159806		habitat	eng	<p>This butterfly is linked to forests, forest margins and open grasslands of montane and submontane areas&#160;(mostly above 600-700 m) (Kielland 1990). Both sexes are attracted to flowering shrubs and&#160;herbaceous plants. <br/></p><p>Larval host-plants include <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis</span> species&#160;(Capparaceae) (Van Someren 1974) and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhus</span> species (Anacardiaceae) (Kielland 1990).</p> <p>&#160;</p>
159806		population	eng	This species is locally distributed because of its habitat choice, but is often numerous where it occurs.
159806		threats	eng	The Albertine Rift montane forest forms a part of this butterfly's habitat and is classified as an endangered ecoregion (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Threats of deforestation for farmland and forest degradation by the extraction of fuelwood are causing declines in the extent and quality of this butterfly's habitat. However, this species is not restricted to the Albertine Rift montane forests and so its distribution is fairly large at present. Should these threats continue into the future, the species may move to the category of Near Threatened.
159810		conservation	eng	Further research is required to identify this species' distribution, population status, habitat and threats.
159810		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known only from the male holotype caught about 100 years ago in the famous collecting locality of Bitje/Bitye (Dja River) in southeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Libert 2007). In recent years the African Butterfly Research Institute, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Nairobi</st1:city></st1:place> has obtained much more material on this genus by collecting around <em>Crematogaster</em> ants’ nests in tall trees, but no further records of this species have been obtained<em></em>. The type locality of Bitye is at about 600 m above sea level.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>
159810		habitat	eng	The habitat of the type locality is moist lowland forest. Members of this genus are strongly associated with ants of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span> and presumably the same is true of this species. However, this butterfly is much smaller than most members of the genus and its pattern is most unusual.
159810		population	eng	Nearly all members of this genus are considered extremely rare, but no population data are available for this species which is known only from its type specimen.
159810		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
159814		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
159814		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common in large parts of Europe up to 64° N. It is absent from north and central Norway, Sweden and Finland, the British islands, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, the Ionian islands, Crete and the Cyclades. 500-2,000 m. It is also present in the entire Palearctic Region, except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
159814		habitat	eng	The Black-veined White can be found on many different types of vegetation in a variety of landscapes, but seems to prefer habitats in the neighbourhood of woods or scrub. It is, however, quite a mobile butterfly, that can be encountered everywhere. The numbers of this butterfly species can fluctuate greatly and the reasons for this are not well understood. It may build up huge populations at unusual places, such as hedges along motorways, but can also disappear from large areas for many years. They can often be seen drinking on such nectar plants as thistles. The eggs are laid in large clusters of often sixty or more, on the leaves of trees and bushes of the rose family (<em>Rosaceae</em>), such as hawthorn (<em>Crataegus</em> spp.), Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>), Cherry (<em>Prunus</em> spp.), Apple (<em>Malus</em> spp.), also in orchards. The caterpillars spend their time in a communal silken nest until they pupate, the nest in which they hibernate being more substantial. When they are ready to pupate, they disperse over the foodplant, the yellow pupa with black spots, suspended in a silken girdle. The Black-veined White has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), mixed woodland (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), mesophile grasslands (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), heath and scrub (6%).
159814		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. The species shows strong natural fluctuations, and can be absent in some years and almost a pest in others. It is reported extinct from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, France, Latvia, Norway and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
159814		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
159818		conservation	eng	This species is known from only two type specimens. Further research is needed to elucidate the distribution of the species, population data, the habitat requirements and the threats this species faces. This will allow the species to be moved from the Data Deficient category.
159818		distribution	eng	This tiny species is known only from a pair of types from Beni in Kivu, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), which were&#160;described in the 2005 monograph of the genus (Libert 2005). The distribution of this species is unknown.
159818		habitat	eng	The only specimens of this species (type specimens) were collected from forest.
159818		population	eng	This species is known from only two type specimens, therefore no population data are available.
159818		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
159820		conservation	eng	At least part of the distribution of this species falls within the Ôbo National&#160;Park, a reserve created to protect the high biodiversity of Sao Tome and Principe and which covers an estimated 60% of the islands' territory (Sao Tome and Principe Travel and Tourism Information 2009). While this national park undoubtedly provides some level of protection to part of the distribution of this forest butterfly, it remains insufficient to completely neutralize the ongoing threats of habitat degradation and invasive species encroachment that operate throughout its range. Hence the continued monitoring of the threats affecting this species, alongside any changes in its distribution, are recommended.
159820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Island of Principe in the Bight of Benin. It is widely&#160;distributed on the island though scarce (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). It is closely related to an endemic species on Sao&#160;Tome Island, and both are derived from the common mainland butterfly <span style="font-style: italic;">Neptis serena,</span> but are now well&#160;differentiated. It does not seem to be dependent on the little remaining forest on the&#160;island, but is definitely not found everywhere, and its populations are somewhat dispersed (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The total area of Principe is only 125 km<sup>2</sup> and the species is not present throughout the island. Hence the extent of occurrence is significantly less than the 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> threshold necessary to classify the species as Endangered under the criterion B1.
159820		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the Island of Principe, where it is widely&#160;distributed but scarce (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;It does not seem to be dependent on the little remaining forest on the&#160;island, but is not found everywhere, and its populations are somewhat dispersed. <p>&#160;</p>
159820		population	eng	Detailed quantitative records for this endemic island species are currently lacking. However, it appears to be relatively robust and widely distributed on Principe, albeit scarce (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
159820		threats	eng	<p>This species of forest butterfly is affected by two major threats: damage to its natural habitat and the encroachment of invasive plant species (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). However, the species appears to be relatively robust, and it is not possibly to infer the extent to which these threats pose a significant risk at present. Based on its endemic status, the species may quickly become severely threatened should these threats worsen. <br/></p>
159824		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
159824		distribution	eng	It is widespread in the equatorial forest zone from Cameroon to Uganda and Tanzania (Congdon and Collins 1998) in the east of its distribution and north-west Zambia (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) at the southern edge of its distribution. It is well distributed within forest of reasonable&#160;quality and although there are currently no records from there, it must also be found in Gabon. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is very large and as large areas of forest exist across this EOO the area of occupancy is also large. Both exceed 20,000 and 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> respectively.
159824		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forests of reasonable condition and&#160;adjacent high secondary growth. Nothing is published on the larval host plants of this species.
159824		population	eng	No detailed population data are available for this species, but it is widely distributed in suitable habitat across its range.
159824		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this widespread species.
159849		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159849		distribution	eng	<p>This relatively scarce butterfly is distributed from western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> west to the DRC and south to Zambia. This gives a large EOO much greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although apparently scarce in numbers across this EOO, it is widely encountered in suitable habitats which abound across its distribution. Therefore, the AOO must also exceed&#160; 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
159849		habitat	eng	The habitat is woodland and denser savannahs. Larval food plants include <em>Maesa</em> spp. (Myrsinaceae) (<st1:citation w:st="on">Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998)</st1:citation><em> </em>such as<em> M. lanceolata</em> and<em> M. welwitschii</em> (<st1:citation w:st="on">Heath <em>et al</em>. 2002)</st1:citation>.
159849		population	eng	No quantitative population data are available for this species, but it is described as rare across its large distribution.
159849		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Ample suitable habitat still exists across its distribution.
159852		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159852		distribution	eng	<p><em></em>This species is widely distributed in coastal and subcoastal <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and southern mainland <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">New Guinea. It is found in all Australian states except for Tasmania. This gives a very large extent of occurrence (EOO) far in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and across this large EOO the area of occupancy is certainly greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p>
159852		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits open or shrubby, dry to semi-dry forest throughout its range. Males are notorious hill-toppers, sometimes flying in large numbers and competing vigorously for the same perches on bushes, 1-2 metres above the ground.&#160;The larvae are polyphagous, feeding on plants from a number of families. They are always attended by Coconut ants (<em>Iridomyrmex</em> spp.), which form byres at the bases of the plants, within which the larvae shelter and eventually pupate.</p>
159852		population	eng	Although this is a local species, it is generally common where it occurs and may be abundant.
159852		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
159854		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159854		distribution	eng	<p>This species stretches from coastal Kenya to coastal Tanzania, Mozambique, and northern South Africa, where it extends more inland to cover northeastern Botswana, much of Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, southern Angola, the extreme north of Namibia, southern parts of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, and both sides of Lake Tanganyika (<st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> and Tanzania). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is therefore massively in excess of the threshold for threatened species and as the butterfly's habitat is the widespread miombo woodland, the area of occupancy (AOO) must also exceed the threshold for threatened species.</p>
159854		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest and <em>Brachystegia</em> woodlands and on occasion montane forest up to 2,300 m in Tanzania (Kielland 1990). This species utilizes a huge range of larval hosts from the Fabaceae, in particular <em>Brachystegia</em> spp. (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Van Someren and Rogers 1928, Van Someren 1974).
159854		population	eng	This species is widespread and often common within its miombo woodland habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159854		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
159859		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
159859		distribution	eng	<p>This species was only defined in 2002 (Amiet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002): before then it had been considered a form of <em>E. elabontas</em>. It was split into two subspecies with the nominate inhabiting <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and probably parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Liberia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Ssp. <em>warrengashi</em> is found in the Nimba area and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region> (with one from Ankasa in the extreme west of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>). Within this extent of occurrence (EOO) it has been caught in numerous localities, though it is far from common. The EOO described is greater than the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species and as this species' forest habitat is fairly widespread the area of occupancy is almost certainly also greater than the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<br/></p>
159859		habitat	eng	It is a forest butterfly that is also found in the forest/savannah transition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159859		population	eng	It is normally quite rare and like most members of the genus, it is rarely met with except by collectors specifically looking for it (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159859		threats	eng	This species is well distributed in its large range and does not face any serious threats.
159861		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It would benefit from some further research into its distribution in currently unexplored forest areas across and near its extent of occurrence (EOO).
159861		distribution	eng	This wet forest species was described in western Cameroon, but is also known from Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and the Cross River loop in Nigeria (Larsen 2005). It is expected to inhabit several other regions although exploration of remaining forest areas needs to be undertaken.
159861		habitat	eng	This butterfly only inhabits wetter forests of good condition. When encountered, it is   usually found perched on large leaves at the side of forest paths (Larsen 2005).
159861		population	eng	The Red Forewing, despite the male being instantly recognizable, appears to be extremely rare. It has only been recorded from around thirteen localities. However, virtually all specimens, of which there are only 30-40 known, were collected during the 1990s and 2000s, so it is not unreasonable to assume that this species is considerably under-reported.
159861		threats	eng	As this rare butterfly inhabits good condition wet forest, it is susceptible to deforestation and forest degradation. Therefore this species is threatened by the major drivers across the region of shifting agriculture, livestock grazing, fuelwood collection and to a lesser extent larger scale agrobusiness (Siaw 2001). However, as this species is present even in small forest fragments in largely urban areas and there are large areas remaining of unexplored potential habitat, these threats cannot currently be considered major.
159865		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
159865		distribution	eng	<p>This is one of the species centred on the <em>Brachychystegia</em> woodlands of Malawi, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region>, the southeastern <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, and southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is strongly suspected to occur also in eastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The habitat is widespread which gives this species a large extent of occurrence and as the species is described as well distributed within its habitat, the area of occupancy is also likely to be reasonably large.<br/></p>
159865		habitat	eng	The habitat is primarily <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland and denser savannahs (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159865		population	eng	This species is locally common (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159865		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland still covers a large area, in which this species is well distributed (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008) and so this species does not face any immediate threats.
159870		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159870		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Senegal</st1:country-region> (Basse Casamance), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:country-region>, Côte <st1:country-region w:st="on">d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> (south and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cross</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> loop), and perhaps western <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Although a rather scarce species it is well-distributed in the Western Forest zone giving it a huge extent of occurrence and also a fairly large area of occupancy, both being well in excess of the thresholds for threatened species.</p>
159870		habitat	eng	The habitat is dry forest and forest mosaics (Larsen 2005).
159870		population	eng	This is a rather scarce species (Larsen 2005).
159870		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
159878		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this widespread species.
159878		distribution	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary forest with full canopy practically&#160;throughout the forest zone of Africa: from Sierra Leone to Cameroon and Gabon, then to western&#160;Kenya, northwestern Tanzania, and south to Zambia (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Though not a particularly common&#160;species, it is widely distributed in forest in good condition. Curiously, the species is sometimes absent&#160;from what appears suitable habitat, though it may also survive some degree of habitat&#160;degradation (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). The area of occupancy certainly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, while the extent of occurrence spans at least sixteen countries and several million km<sup>2</sup>.
159878		habitat	eng	<p>This is a rather uncommon species but is nonetheless widely distributed in most of the West African&#160;and equatorial forests in good condition, including evergreen as well as semi-deciduous habitats (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). It is sometimes absent&#160;from what appears suitable habitat, though it may also survive some degree of habitat&#160;degradation (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;In Tanzania, it is found at altitudes from 800 to 1,500 m (Kielland 1990). Larval host-plants include <span style="font-style: italic;">Milletia </span>species (Fabaceae).<br/></p> <p></p><p> </p><p></p>
159878		population	eng	This is a widespread butterfly that is not particularly common. The species is probably stable but its overall numbers will be gradually reduced with&#160;further deforestation (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
159878		threats	eng	The main threat facing this species throughout its extensive range is deforestation, and overall numbers of the forest butterfly are suspected to be in decline (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). However, due to its ability to utilise a variety of forest types, as well as its tolerance of habitat degradation, the species cannot be considered to be at significant risk at present, not least in light of its vast extent of occurrence.
159880		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
159880		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs north of 68° N in Lapland in the north of Scandinavia. 100-1,400 m. It is furthermore present east over the polar tundra of the Palearctic Region to Wrangel Island and Chukotka. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
159880		habitat	eng	The Arctic Fritillary occurs in a harsh environment, the windy, dry, rocky tundra in the far north of Europe, with a vegetation of grass and dwarf shrubs. The foodplant is not certain, but <em>Cassiope tetragon</em> (<em>Ericaceae</em>) and violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) may be used. The butterflies, that only appear for about two weeks a year, fly close to the ground, seeking the shelter of rocks or hollows.  The Arctic Fritillary has one generation a year. The flight period is dependent on the weather. Usually the butterflies are on the wing starting from late June to early July, but the emergence may be delayed until early August in cold years. Habitats: heath and scrub (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%).
159880		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Of the typical arctic butterflies in Fennoscandia, this is one of the more widespread and more abundant ones. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
159880		threats	eng	The species occurs in low densities and has strong population fluctuations. In the long run, the species might be threatened by climate change (Settele <em>et al.</em>, 2008).
159883		conservation	eng	There are no existing or required conservation actions for this species.
159883		distribution	eng	<p>This is a forest butterfly that occurs from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> across equatorial <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> in three subspecies that do not differ greatly. It is found in all the intervening countries from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> to western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Rwanda</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but does not penetrate further south. This would suggest that the extent of occurrence (EOO) is in the region of one million km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) is unknown, but as this butterfly is widely distributed across its EOO, the AOO is also likely to be large.<br/></p>
159883		habitat	eng	The species is dependent on closed-canopy forest but can survive some disturbance that does not affect the canopy (Callaghan 2003).
159883		population	eng	This species is generally rather scarce but there are numerous records, including recent ones, from widely distributed populations (Callaghan 2003).
159883		threats	eng	The species relies on forest with an intact canopy and therefore is threatened by any deforestation that disrupts the canopy (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). However, given the large extent of occurrence of this species and availability of suitable habitat, such threats are not currently significant.
159887		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
159887		distribution	eng	<p>This is a scarce forest butterfly that was described from Sierra Leone and is also known from localities in Côte d’Ivoire , Ghana , Nigeria and Cameroon. Presumably it is one of the species that rarely leaves the canopy since the records cover all types of evergreen forest. During two full months in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Oban</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Hills</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> this assessor (T.B. Larsen) caught only two single males in the same area in March and again in November. This distribution suggests that, although poorly known, this species is widespread in a large extent of occurrence that greatly exceeds the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species. The area of occupancy cannot be accurately estimated. The currently observed distribution appears to be fragmented but this could simply be due to the scarcity of this species, meaning that it is under-reported in much of its distribution.<br/></p>
159887		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The habitat of this species is forest</st1:place> in good condition (Larsen 2005).
159887		population	eng	Despite its widespread distribution pattern this is a universally rare species (Larsen 2005).
159887		threats	eng	This species needs forest habitat in good condition and so is threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation, however, the range of this species is large which should mean that these threats do not currently pose a major risk to the species.
159894		conservation	eng	Further research is needed to identify the distribution, population status, habitat scope and threats for the species.
159894		distribution	eng	<p>This species was first described in 2004 and is known from Dondo and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">the Amatongas</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forests</st1:placetype></st1:place> in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Based on current knowledge, this is one of the five species (out of a total of six in the genus) that is not found anywhere other than in coastal forests. No further details are available.</p>
159894		habitat	eng	According to limited existing records of this species, it inhabits coastal forest (Henning and Henning 2004).
159894		population	eng	This species is only known from two localities in the coastal forest of Mozambique and so nothing is known at present of its population status.
159894		threats	eng	The coastal forests of East Africa are of limited extent and have suffered a good deal of degradation. Therefore, if this species is endemic to these forests it may well be threatened. However, until the actual distribution of the species is known the true extent of any threats will remain unknown.
159898		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159898		distribution	eng	This is a savannah species with migratory capacity that is among the most widely distributed butterflies in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>, probably having been found in all countries. It penetrates to the eastern corner of the Mediterranean in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Egypt</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Lebanon</st1:country-region> and is also found in southern Arabia and extends to <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and southeastern <st1:place w:st="on">Asia</st1:place>, though in a distinctly different subspecies. This gives the species a massive extent of occurrence (EOO) probably in the region of 10s of millions of km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy is also likely to be very large because of the species' wide distribution within its EOO.
159898		habitat	eng	The habitat is grassland and grassy savanna (Kielland 1990), it also occurs in forest margins and transformed grassland in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Lees and Minet 2003). However, it usually does not colonize degraded areas in the forest zone on a permanent basis. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania, this species occurs</st1:country-region></st1:place> from sea-level to 2,300 m (Kielland 1990). Across its range this butterfly uses a very generalist range of larval host plants from the family Acanthaceae and in <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place> adults are often seen on the flowers of <em>Tridax</em> sp (Larsen 2005). Migrations of this species have been recorded by the assessor in Benin and Botswana.
159898		population	eng	This butterfly is widely distributed across Africa and tends to be common in drier savannah habitats (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159898		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species due to its huge distribution, widely distributed habitat and generalist ecology.
159907		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159907		distribution	eng	This species   occurs widely in South East Asia, from Burma and Vietnam, through Thailand and peninsular Malaysia to Borneo, Sumatra and the Lesser Sunda Islands, as far east as Sumbawa (Indonesia) (Tsukada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985, Otsuka 1988, Corbet and Pendlebury 1992, Pinratana 1996). This gives the species a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and its area of occupancy is also well in excess of the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species as its primary and secondary forest habitat is sufficiently common across its distribution.
159907		habitat	eng	This species   inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is a conspicuous insect and flies with rapid wing beats interspersed by gliding, a flight characteristic of the genus, often high in the trees. The insect is most frequently observed at forest margins, or along water courses. Adults frequently settle on the undersides of leaves and males occasionally imbibe moisture from creek beds (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2009).
159907		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2009).
159907		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
159920		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159920		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Whether it is found anywhere east of the Dahomey Gap is doubtful. It is proposed that <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimacraea maesseni</span> replaces this species in the Volta region of Ghana and in Nigeria (Larsen 2005). Nonetheless, the extent of occurrence west of the Dahomey Gap alone covers an area well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as a species of primary and well-developed secondary forest the area of occupancy must also exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although not common, this species is not presently undergoing any major declines or fluctuations in its distribution.<br/></p>
159920		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">This species is found in forest</st1:place>, including well-developed secondary forest (Larsen 2005). Nothing more is known of this specie's ecology.
159920		population	eng	This species is well-distributed in forest across its range and is not rare.
159920		threats	eng	This species is not common and only tolerates a small amount of habitat disturbance. It is therefore threatened by deforestation and degradation across its distribution. This is driven by fuelwood cutting, shifting agriculture, nomadic grazing, logging and other factors. However, this species is sufficiently widespread at present for these threats to be considered only minor.
159925		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It does occur in national parks.
159925		distribution	eng	This butterfly is endemic to <st1:city w:st="on">Sulawesi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>, including <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Peleng</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The assessors have recorded this butterfly from Kanan in Central Sulawesi and there are also records from the Minahassa Peninsula and the Banggai Archipelago (Vane-Wright and De Jong 2003). Based on these records the extent of occurrence is not small and must be greater than the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species under criterion B. It is not an uncommon species with a large amount of pristine habitat remaining and so the area of occupancy probably also exceeds the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.
159925		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Adults are rarely observed, except on semi-open hilltops where males may congregate in small numbers and vigorously defend territories. Otherwise, adults are usually observed at flowers in small clearings in forested areas. The larvae are known to feed on <em>Scurrula</em> species (Loranthaceae) (Igarashi and Fukuda 2000).
159925		population	eng	This is a fairly common butterfly species locally.
159925		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
159927		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159927		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the South East Asian and Australasian tropics, where it occurs from peninsular Burma to Malaysia. It is found across most of Indonesia to mainland New Guinea as far east as Morobe Province. Both the extent of ocurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are far in excess of the respective thresholds for threatened species.<em> </em>
159927		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest, particularly areas of regrowth within the forest. It is most often seen singly or in small groups; adults are most active late in the afternoon, when they fly high along the margins of clearings.
159927		population	eng	This species is locally common in much of its range, becoming less frequent in the east (e.g. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Papua New Guinea</st1:country-region></st1:place>).
159927		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
159930		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
159930		distribution	eng	This species appears to be limited to the Cross River Loop of eastern Nigeria, Cameroon&#160;(Kitta-Bonge and Bitje), and Congo (Mambili). The habitat is wet forest in good&#160;condition and the species seems to be rather uncommon (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Though not the most widespread species in the genus, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is certainly greater than the 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> threshold required to merit a threatened classification, while the area of occurrence (AOO) similarly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;'Cymothoe consanguis</span>' is recorded in a non-specialized Japanese collection  from Tiassale in Côte d’Ivoire. No genuine specimen was&#160;available to Larsen (2005) and it seems biogeographically most improbable . The record can almost certainly be attributed confusion&#160;with the male <span style="font-style: italic;">C. althea </span>(T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).<br/>    <p>&#160;</p>
159930		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in forested regions of Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo. Within the Cross River Loop of Nigeria, it seems to be well distributed within the forest, though generally uncommon (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). It usually flies high up but frequently dips down to bask in a sunspot or to search for fallen fruit.
159930		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this forest butterfly, though it appears to be relatively uncommon throughout its distribution (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
159930		threats	eng	There are no major, immediate threats to this forest butterfly. Though it is generally uncommon, the species is widely distributed across a well-forested region of central Africa. Hence, the main regional threats of deforestation and forest degradation do not appear to pose any considerable concern to the species at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
159933		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159933		distribution	eng	This butterfly is endemic to Borneo. It is widely distributed across the island giving a large extent of occurrence (EOO). The area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller for this locally distributed species but likely to be greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it cannot be accurately estimated. There is no evidence of major decline in EOO or AOO.
159933		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary rainforest. It prefers deep, dark forest with complete, or near&#160;complete, canopy cover. Adults are relatively inconspicuous, flying only occasionally and&#160;remaining at rest in low foliage for long periods, unless disturbed. Males establish loose&#160;territories, and do not stray far. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species.
159933		population	eng	This is a local, relatively uncommon species.
159933		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.&#160;<br/> <p><br/></p>
159937		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
159937		distribution	eng	This butterfly is widespread in the Oriental and Australian regions, ranging across Sumatra, Java, the&#160;Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo, Palawan, Philippines, Taiwan, the Sulawesi region, north and&#160;central Moluccas, New Guinea and northern Australia. This gives a huge extent of occurrence and as this species is found in a range of habitats the area of occupancy is also certainly very large.
159937		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open areas bordered by secondary rainforest as well as village gardens in&#160;forested areas and may occur in large numbers when the foodplants (various Leguminaceae)&#160;are in new growth. The pupae are gregarious and adults may swarm locally when they eclose&#160;simultaneously.
159937		population	eng	<p>This is an abundant species throughout most of its range.</p>
159937		threats	eng	This extremely widespread and abundant species is not under any major threat.
159944		conservation	eng	The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is thought to lie entirely in the Nyanga National Park; however, as the species has only been collected from one locality in one year the actual distribution is uncertain. Further research is required to better ascertain the distribution and threats faced by this species.
159944		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from the Nyanga Highlands in eastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region></st1:place> where a number of colonies were found in 1984 at high elevation (2,500 m) in montane grasslands. Most of the highland area is currently in the 470 km<sup>2</sup> Nyanga National Park (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management 2005), but there is probably suitable habitat also outside the park. The topography of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region></st1:place> and the habitats where the species has been recorded makes it reasonably certain that the species is rather narrowly distributed in the Nyanga Highlands area. However, much potential habitat is still available, and its extent of occurrence is estimated as between 400 and 500 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
159944		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat of this species is submontane and montane grassland. Both sexes feed from flowers (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).</p>
159944		population	eng	Since montane grasslands are not under significant threat and much of the habitat is now a National Park, it is likely that the species has many dispersed subpopulations across a currently estimated extent of occurrence of 400-500 km<sup>2</sup>.
159944		threats	eng	Montane grasslands are not under significant threat and the suspected area of occupancy of this species is now covered by the extended Nyanga National Park. However, given the current political situation, the true protection that the park provides is uncertain and further research into the distribution of this species may help to clarify any threats faced by the Mullin's Copper.
159946		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159946		distribution	eng	This species has a vast extent of occurrence across the Afrotropics and much of Asia.&#160;It has been recorded in&#160;practically all African countries, including most of the islands and has some&#160;migratory capacity.&#160;It is also found in Arabia and most of the Oriental Region. In Tanzania, it has been documented at altitudes from sea-level to 2,400 m (Kielland 1990).&#160;<br/><p>&#160;</p>
159946		habitat	eng	This species is abundant across savanna and grassland, also arising in clearings, disturbed habitats, farmbush and along roads in forest. Both sexes visit flowers and males mud-puddle, sometimes congregating&#160;on damp sand or wet herbivore dung in very large numbers.&#160;Larval host-plants include&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum aethiopicu</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecrista mimosoides</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Senna</span> species,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesbania</span> species,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Albizia</span> species,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> species, and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Tephrosia</span> species.
159946		population	eng	This is one of the fifteen most common butterflies in most of <st1:place w:st="on">Africa and Asia.</st1:place>
159946		threats	eng	There are no threats to this extremely widespread and habitat generalist species.
159947		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required. Additional research is recommended into the distribution and status of this species as well as its threats.
159947		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">This is an endemic species of northwestern Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160;with a fairly widespread distribution. Records are found from Kitale, Uasin Gishu, East Surrey Coffee Estates, and various localities in the Cherangani Hills. It also seems to penetrate down the Rift Valley to Kisii in southwestern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>.&#160;The estimated extent of occurrence is at least 10,000 km<sup>2 </sup>and there are&#160;with numerous records within.</p>
159947		habitat	eng	The genus Lepidochrysops has a remarkable life history, the larvae feed on plants for the first two instars, then induce ants to carry them to their nests where they feed on the ant brood, pupating in the tunnels of the ant nest&#160;(Henning and Henning 1989). This species inhabits not-too-open savannah country.
159947		population	eng	<p>This butterfly is relatively common though localised,&#160;occuring in discrete colonies linked to the joint&#160;presence of its host plant and host ant species. Current population trends are unknown.</p>
159947		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
159948		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
159948		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in south and central Spain and south of Portugal. 100-1,500 m. It is also found in North Africa and West Arabia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
159948		habitat	eng	The False Baton Blue is found in stony areas with flower-rich vegetation and scrub. The foodplant in Europe is <em>Cleonia lusitanica</em>. The caterpillars feed on flower buds and the overwintering stage is the pupae. Larvae are regularly attended by <em>Plagiolepis</em> and <em>Crematogaster</em> ants. In Europe, It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).
159948		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
159948		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
159953		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159953		distribution	eng	This butterfly is known in disjunct, fragmented populations on the Nigeria/Cameroon Mountains, in Ethiopia, and widely from western and central Kenya through parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is generally limited to highland country, over about 1,500 m in elevation on the equator, though lower further south (Larsen 2005). <br/><br/>The type localities and occurrence of each subspecies differs. This nominate subspecies has been recorded from Torrente di Sciotalit in the Ethiopian Highlands<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> bamendanus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is found typically in Bamenda in the Cameroon mountains but is also found on the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Mount Selinda in Zimbabwe is the type locality for ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> felthami</span>, but it is distributed across the rest of the described distribution to the DRC, Mozambique and to Kenya in the north. Due to its largely fragmented distribution the AOO is far smaller than the very large EOO. Nonetheless, there is sufficient habitat across its EOO for the AOO still to exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
159953		habitat	eng	Antinori's Branded Blue is found mainly at the edges of closed submontane forest habitat and generally limited to highland country, above about 1,500 m at the equator. Further south in its distribution it is found at lower elevations. Both sexes of this species feed on small flowers and are sighted mainly in damp patches and on carnivore excrement (Larsen 1991).
159953		population	eng	This submontane forest species is found in fragmented populations across its distribution but these are numerous over a very wide range. It is rarely encountered but widespread in suitable habitat.
159953		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats across its very large EOO. It also inhabits the edge of sub-montane forest is so is not reliant on highly threatened habitat types.
159954		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
159954		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Tundra from the Polar Urals to eastern Chutkotka, in North America from Alaska to the North Territories of Canada. Up to 1,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
159954		habitat	eng	Lowland or mountain tundra are the types of habitat where this butterfly can be found. At higher altitude, it also occurs on subalpine meadows. The caterpillars feed on <em>Polygonum</em> spp. and violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). This species has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).
159954		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
159954		threats	eng	Not examined.
159958		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation plans are in place or required for this butterfly. Research is required to ascertain the taxonomic status of ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">peeli</span>.
159958		distribution	eng	This species is distributed, over two subspecies, from Angola and Zambia (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) through to southern Kenya and Uganda. A distinct subspecies is also recorded from Somalia, but this seems biogeographically anomalous and there are records from Cameroon which must be erroneous.   Altitudinally, records from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania range from</st1:country-region></st1:place> 800 to 1,900 m (Kielland 1990). Nonetheless, excluding the uncertain records from Somalia and Cameroon, the extent of occurrence of this species is still far greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and, as its habitat is widespread and host plants disturbance-tolerant, the area of occupancy is certainly greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
159958		habitat	eng	<p>The species arises in dense woodland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> spp. woodland and also on forest margins (Kielland 1990, Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Larval host plants of this butterfly include   <em>Ritchiea</em> species (Capparaceae) (Kielland 1990).</p>
159958		population	eng	The&#160;species is widespread and often quite common in its core area (southern Tanzania and&#160;Zambia).
159958		threats	eng	The host-plants of this species are common Capparaceae that are robust and allow the butterfly&#160;to survive considerable habitat degradation. It is therefore unlikely to be affected by any major threats.
159960		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this common and widespread species.
159960		distribution	eng	<p>This species is very widespread in savannah country throughout Africa, but is rarely found in forest and does not cope well with the driest type of <st1:place w:st="on">Sahel</st1:place> or with subdesert, though sometimes occurring under oasis conditions. Therefore, it is largely absent from the natural, undisturbed forest regions and is absent from Saharan and north Africa. It is known from most African countries and it has been recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Senegal</st1:country-region> across to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Somalia</st1:country-region>, and stretches south through all of eastern Africa to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Botswana</st1:country-region> and most of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is among the most widely distributed African butterflies giving it a huge extent of occurrence (EOO) and it has increasingly colonized disturbed areas in the forest zone resulting in an increase in its area of occupancy (AOO) with deforestation. Both the EOO and AOO are likely to be far greater than the threshold values for threatened species.  In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place> this species is distributed from elevations of 800 to 2,600 m (Kielland 1990), but across the continent is found down to sea level.&#160; </p>
159960		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is mainly savannah, often with rocky areas being preferred. In <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place>, it moves into the forest zone, where it apparently establishes temporary populations (Larsen 2005). However, generally this species is rarely found in forest and does not cope well with the driest type of <st1:place w:st="on">Sahel</st1:place> or with subdesert, though sometimes occurring under oasis conditions. This butterfly utilizes a large number of larval host-plants from the Lamiaceae.  During warmer spells, the dry-season form often visits gardens to feed from flowers (Larsen 2005).
159960		population	eng	This butterfly is common in savannah habitats across Africa (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159960		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and common species. Its area of occupancy is also thought to be increasing with deforestation as the butterfly moves into degraded forest habitats (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159971		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
159971		distribution	eng	This species is resident in coastal areas of the Canary Islands, except Lanzarote, and in the Malaga province in the south of Spain. In other areas, it is only a vagrant. It is a relatively new species for Europe. It was first reported from the Canary Islands in 1880, but the populations in the south of Spain were only discovered in 1980. Sea level-100 m. This is a strong migrant species, which is found on most continents. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
159971		habitat	eng	There are only a few populations of the Monarch in Europe and these are in the south. However, in America it is famous for its migration behaviour and it can even be found as a rare visitor in the coastal areas of North-west Europe. The populations are situated in warm to very warm dry places, such as erosion gullies. The butterfly can also be seen in parks and gardens. The populations are usually small and surrounded by agricultural areas. In Spain, the eggs are laid on the milkweed <em>Asclepias curassavica</em> and on the Canary Islands also on the related Bristly-fruited Silkweed (<em>Gomphocarpus fruticosus</em>). The butterflies breed continually and may have several generations a year. The use of herbicides and insecticides and the burning of refuse are threatening them with extinction. Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (40%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (20%), scrub and grassland (20%), fallow land, waste places (20%).
159971		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
159971		threats	eng	Not examined.
159972		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159972		distribution	eng	This species is well distributed in the forests of Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and western&#160;Nigeria, where it seems to stop at the Niger River (Ackery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Larsen 2005). A pinkish form has been found once in the Nimba area of Côte d’Ivoire and&#160;once in Sierra Leone (C. Belcastro pers. comm. 2007), which may be a distinct species. Records&#160;from Cameroon (Libert 1992) probably pertain to another species (Larsen 2005). This large distribution gives an EOO in the region of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as it is well distributed in forests across this, the area of occupancy is certainly far greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
159972		habitat	eng	This butterfly arises in forest habitats of various type throughout its wide distribution (Larsen 2005). They are avid feeders at bamboo nectaries, with up to six&#160;individuals on the same stem. On a number of occasions females have&#160;been seen to lay eggs singly on live trees and woody stems covered with green&#160;lichens and moss (Callaghan 1992).
159972		population	eng	This species is well distributed and may vary from uncommon to common in places.   It is the commonest of the cream pentilas (Larsen 2005).
159972		threats	eng	This butterfly can survive a degree of habitat degradation as long as some canopy&#160;survives, but it is found in various forest types and so the species as a whole does not currently face any major threats across its large distribution.
159978		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this rare but widespread species.
159978		distribution	eng	This is a remarkably rare forest butterfly that has been recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Guinea/Liberia mountains, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte   d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from many localities in this large extent of occurrence (EOO), but usually from just a few specimens in each locality. Even major collections usually have no more than a handful of specimens. The area of occupancy will be lower for this butterfly of wetter forests in good condition, but still greater than the threshold for threatened species as this species is widespread despite its rarity.
159978		habitat	eng	The habitat is wetter forests in good condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
159978		population	eng	This is a rare, but widespread butterfly (Larsen 2005).
159978		threats	eng	This species needs wetter forest in good condition and so the species will probably not tolerate much habitat degradation (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The widespread nature of this species in its large extent of occurrence means that deforestation and degradation of forests do not currently seriously threaten this species.
159981		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, it is found in some protected areas. For example, it is noted to be one of the dominant species within the Ton Nga-Chang Wildlife Sanctuary.
159981		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in South East Asia, occurring from northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:country-region>, through the Malay Peninsula to Java (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>), Palawan (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region>) and <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>. This gives the butterfly a very large extent of occurrence (EOO). Both the EOO and the area of occupancy are far greater than the thresholds for threatened species.
159981		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is a large, conspicuous insect. Both sexes generally flying close to the ground in full-canopy, shaded parts of the forest, usually where undergrowth is sparse. Males commonly patrol small territories. It is most prevalent during the peak emergence period of September (Boonvanno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
159981		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
159981		threats	eng	Deforestation and forest degradation are threats to this primary forest species, however, at present its distribution is huge and there remains plenty of intact forest. These cannot be considered anything but very minor threats.
159982		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
159982		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Northern Urals across Siberia, north of Mongolia and north. China to North Korea (Tuzov, 1997). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
159982		habitat	eng	This species occurs on grassy forest places and edges, flowery hills and rocky slopes with meadow and steppe vegetation (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), mixed woodland (50%).
159982		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
159982		threats	eng	Not examined.
159983		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
159983		distribution	eng	<p>This is a widespread West African butterfly that in three distinct subspecies extends from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea-Bissau</st1:place></st1:country-region> round the Gulf of Guinea to Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko). This gives the species a very large extent of occurrence and as the species survives in disturbed forest it also has a large area of occupancy.</p>
159983		habitat	eng	It is a forest butterfly that can also survive in disturbed forest and riverine vegetation (Larsen 2005). Larval food plants include<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Albizia zygia</em> (Fabaceae) and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Theobroma cacao</em> (Malvaceae) <st2:citation w:st="on">(Smith 1965)</st2:citation>.<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> It is also associated with the ant</strong> <em>Crematogaster buchneri</em> (<st2:citation w:st="on">Lamborn 1914<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>)</st2:citation>.  <p>&#160;</p>
159983		population	eng	This is a relatively common species that is met with in ones and twos (Larsen 2005).
159983		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
159984		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
159984		distribution	eng	<p>The species was described from Oshodi (now a suburb of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lagos</st1:place></st1:city>) in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but has also been recorded from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, as well as from from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte   d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region> and several localities in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The distribution stretches from Mt Peko in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region> through <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, giving an EOO well in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) cannot be accurately estimated for this species, but as a relatively widespread and common species from an under-reported genus it can be assumed that the AOO is not sufficiently small for the species to be classified as threatened.<br/></p>
159984		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements of this species are fairly specialised. However, it is essentially a forest species. <em>Iridana</em> colonies tend to be vigorous but rather dispersed since they have some special requirements, including the need for parade grounds in the vicinity of forest, well-established old nests of <em>Crematogaster</em> ants and large solitary trees. Some species are known only from few specimens collected hilltopping and in some cases at lights during the night. All species are certainly under-reported.
159984		population	eng	This species is encountered more frequently than most members of its genus and is relatively widespread. No further population data are available.
159984		threats	eng	The specialised ecological requirements of butterflies in this genus mean that they are fairly locally distributed. However, this species has a larger EOO and is more frequently encountered than most members of its genus and so it does not currently face any major threats.
159997		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures directed towards this species of butterfly. Just one of the three recorded localities for this species falls within an area of conservation activity, the Gola Forest Programme (Forestry Division 2009). Further research is clearly needed to identify the distribution and ecology of this butterfly to better assess the threats it faces and the conservation measures it needs.
159997		distribution	eng	This butterfly is on present knowledge a very rare endemic of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:country-region></st1:place> and is known from only three localities<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>.Two of these localities, the Guma valley and Moyamba are known from old specimens. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city></st1:place><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> A small number were caught more recently in the Gola Forests near the Sierra Leone/Liberia border (Belcastro and Larsen 2006). It may also be found in Liberia, but the country has been insufficiently researched for butterflies. A record from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region></st1:place> is in error for <em>C. jacksoni</em>.<br/><br/><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city></st1:place><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city></st1:place><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>
159997		habitat	eng	All records are from forests in good condition.
159997		population	eng	The present population trend is unknown, but on current knowledge this species appears to be a very rare Sierra Leonean endemic (Larsen 2005).
159997		threats	eng	There are ongoing threats of deforestation and habitat degradation, particularly in Guma Valley, one of the most exploited localities in West Africa, and in the Moyamba area there is no remaining primary forest. These changes are driven by activities such as fuelwood collection, shifting agriculture, livestock grazing and logging (Alieu 2001).
160001		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species, but its entire distribution is found in the protected Aburi Botanical Gardens.
160001		distribution	eng	This species is presently only known from one location, a very vigorous colony, in the Aburi Botanical Gardens, Ghana. The species is encountered, often in the hundreds, on most visits to the gardens. <br/><br/>It was originally described and named in the 1960s after a series of collections from Tiassale in Côte d’Ivoire by collectors for T.H.E. Jackson. Some specimens were also found in the&#160;nearby Agboville. Forests in this area have now effectively disappeared and H. Warren-Gash sent collectors to the area in around 2000 with no luck. Furthermore, no fresh material is known&#160;from Côte d’Ivoire. <br/><br/>The area of the Aburi Botanic Gardens is just 0.65 km<sup>2</sup> (65 hectares). It ought to occur in-between the type locality in central Côte d’Ivoire&#160;and Aburi, but no-one has found it and it is not easily confused with any other species in&#160;the area. Therefore, both the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy (AOO) of this species are extremely small, in the region of 0.65 km<sup>2</sup>. However, this distribution and population is not undergoing any decline or fluctuation and so the butterfly cannot be classified as threatened under criterion B. <br/><br/>However, the AOO is less than 20 km<sup>2</sup> and the anthropogenic threat of maintenance neglect of the Aburi Botanical Gardens as well as stochastic threats to the species mean it fits the criterion D2 for the classification of Vulnerable.
160001		habitat	eng	<p>The species is often abundant in the&#160;Aburi Botanical Gardens near Accra in Ghana. There are no other records.&#160;The behaviour seems&#160;to indicate that it is more of an open habitat species, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Liptena ferrymani</span> (Larsen 2005). At Aburi specimens have been documented&#160;flying about inside the crowns of certain trees on the open lawns, often fighting,&#160;and then descending singly or two at a time to the ground level.</p>
160001		population	eng	The only known population of this species is found in the Aburi Botanical Gardens where they have been under constant observation since 1993. Within the Botanical Gardens this species is common and often vigorous which is indicative of a stable population.
160001		threats	eng	The distribution of this species appears to have declined since its description in the 1960s, due largely to deforestation and it is now only found in one population in the Aburi Botanical Gardens. This Aburi Botanical Gardens population is relatively well-protected but is still stochastically highly vulnerable to extreme weather events or increased frequency of extreme weather events with climate change in the future. The protection afforded by the botanic garden may also decline in the future as its maintenance is already undergoing neglect.
160002		conservation	eng	To change the classification of this species from Data Deficient, further research is required into its distribution, habitats, population status and threats.
160002		distribution	eng	<p>This forest species is known from a single female collected at Ebogo in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> in 1996 by S.C. Collins of the African Butterfly Research Institute, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Nairobi</st1:city></st1:place> as part of intensive field research into this genus. It was only described in 2007 (Libert 2007). Neither the extent of occurrence nor the area of occupancy can be estimated based on this single record.<br/></p>
160002		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected in a forest habitat.
160002		population	eng	No population data are available for this butterfly.
160002		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown.
160012		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this poorly studied species, but further research into threats and the distribution of the species would improve knowledge of its conservations status.
160012		distribution	eng	<p>This is an endemic species of the main Ethiopian plateau where it is widely distributed and not rare (though rarely recorded since publications on Ethiopian butterflies are few). There are records from the northwest, the south and the southwest, many of which are from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Shoa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Some records are almost certainly from within what is now <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Eritrea</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It should be noted that apparent records from Northwest Tanzania on online sites linked to the Web of Life are likely to be mistaken transcriptions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Charaxes grahamei</span>. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is large, possibly several hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup>, but is not accurately known because of poor documentation of Ethiopian fauna. For the same reason, the area of occupancy is not well known.<br/></p>
160012		habitat	eng	In Henning’s monograph on the genus (1989), the habitat is given as montane forest and woodland, but the Ethiopian plateau where the butterfly is found can mostly only be considered submontane and the species also flies in more open woodland, dense savannah, and riverine vegetation (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The larval host plant is thought to be <strong></strong><em>Bersama abyssinica</em> (Melianthaceae) (Van Someren 1974).
160012		population	eng	This butterfly is infrequently recorded as a result of a lack of lepidopteran study in Ethiopia, but is described as widely distributed and not rare in Ethiopia (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160012		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well documented but are unlikely to be significant, as the butterfly still has a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and is not very habitat specific. More research into threats would be helpful for the conservation of the species.
160013		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species; however, it is a poorly known species and would benefit from further research, particularly into its distribution in Tanzania, but also into its ecology and potential threats.
160013		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from four localities in western Kenya, Malawi (Koçak and Kemal 2007) and a number of localities in Zambia as far south as Lusaka (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).&#160;Species of the genus are rarely recorded, most having been captured while&#160;hilltopping. It is extremely likely that it also occurs in parts of Tanzania between western Kenya and Malawi/Zambia.
160013		habitat	eng	The habitat is probably&#160;mainly denser savannah formations and savanna woodland, but little specific&#160;information is available. It does not appear to be a habitat-specialist.
160013		population	eng	This species was only described in 1981 and is almost certainly under-reported. Therefore, no population data are available.
160013		threats	eng	This appears to be a habitat generalist and although poorly known is unlikely to face any major threats across its large range.
160016		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. Further research is required to better understand the distribution, population status, habitat and threats for this species..
160016		distribution	eng	The species is known from the DRC, Uganda, western Kenya, and Tanzania (a&#160;single record from Mt. Meru - Congdon and Collins (1998)). It is certainly more widely distributed than the&#160;number of known specimens imply, especially as it is a species of denser savannas,&#160;woodland, and forest margins. The extent of occurrence, based on current records, is still well in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although the area of occupancy is currently not at all well known, as a fairly habitat-generalist species it is highly likely to be in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><p>&#160;</p>
160016		habitat	eng	The species occurs is denser savannahs,&#160;woodland, and forest margins.
160016		population	eng	There are no available population data for this species.
160016		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, it is thought to be a fairly habitat generalist species which suggests that common threats of habitat degradation and deforestation may not affect this species.
160028		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160028		distribution	eng	This species   is endemic to the Sulawesi region, Indonesia. It   is known from the northern arm of Sulawesi, from a small area in central Sulawesi and Buton Island, a distribution which suggests it may be more widespread than currently known. The extent of occurrence cannot be accurately estimated but is certainly in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160028		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary rainforest and is a very conspicuous insect. Adults fly swiftly through the forest several metres above the ground. Males sometimes imbibe moisture from creek beds, together with other <em>Graphium</em> species. According to Tsukada and Nishiyama (1982) the species flies in the afternoon, while the parapatric <em>G. androcles</em> flies in the morning at the same localities.
160028		population	eng	This species is not uncommon throughout much of its range and may be common at times.
160028		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160033		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species, but large scale deforestation abatement actions across its range will benefit the species.
160033		distribution	eng	<p>This is one of only four members of the tribe Pallini, in which the single genus <em>Palla</em> has affinities with the Neotropical fauna. The species flies in three subspecies and is known from Guinea to Uganda. This gives a large extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy is also likely to be well in excess of the threshold for threatened species.<br/></p>
160033		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary lowland evergreen forest and the species persists poorly in degraded forest (Larsen 2005).
160033		population	eng	This species is rarer than the other three species in its genus as it is more reliant on undisturbed forest. However, it is still not scarce across much of its range apart from in the west of its range in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Larsen 2005).
160033		threats	eng	It is a forest butterfly with less capacity to survive habitat degradation than the other three species in its genus, but it is widely distributed in forest in reasonable condition. Therefore it is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation.
160036		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160036		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Myanmar, Thailand and peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, to Sumatra (Indonesia), Borneo, and the Philippines (Negros Island) (Otsuka 1988, Corbet and Pendlebury 1992, Pinratana 1996). This gives a large EOO and although it is a primary forest species (which means the area of occupancy is smaller) it is still greater than the threshold for threatened species.
160036		habitat	eng	This butterfly   inhabits dense primary rainforest. It is a relatively elusive butterfly that is less inclined to congregate on hilltops than other Euthalia species. It prefers shaded areas. They are fast flyers and very alert to movement. Males establish territories in small clearings, which they defend from elevated perches (Otsuka 1988, Corbet and Pendlebury 1992, Pinratana 1996).
160036		population	eng	This butterfly is   widespread but generally uncommon (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008).
160036		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160038		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Since the butterfly has only been collected from one locality in one year the current distribution is uncertain. Further research is therefore required to better understand the distribution of this species. This should also lead to better understanding of the threats to this species.
160038		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the female type specimen collected in the Eala Province of the&#160;DRC in 1936 and described by Libert in 2005. Due to the lack of information available regarding the present distribution of the species, it is not possible to infer the extent of occurrence (EOO) or area of occupancy (AOO) of the butterfly at present.
160038		habitat	eng	The type specimen of this species (and only record to date) was obtained from moist forest habitat in the DRC. No additional information regarding the habitat or ecology of the species is available at present.
160038		population	eng	With only one definitive record of this butterfly obtained more than 70 years ago, there is insufficient data available to establish the population trend of the species at present.
160038		threats	eng	Since detailed information on the current distribution of the species is lacking, it is not possible to establish any present or future threats with which it may be associated.
160041		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this widespread species.
160041		distribution	eng	Kersten's Ciliate Blue is very widely distributed across the east of Africa from Ethiopia and Uganda to Zimbabwe, South Africa and Swaziland. This gives a vast extent of occurrence (EOO) in the order of magnitude of millions of km<sup>2</sup>. As a common species of several habitat types across this EOO, the area of occupancy must also be large and certainly far in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160041		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a coastal forest and bush butterfly but is also found in more open woodlands. In particular<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found at the edge of forests often perching low down on vegetation in shady spots. It flies all year round but is more common in the summer months. Larval host plants include <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia kraussiana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Albizia adianthifolia,</span> both of the Fabaceae (Clark and Dickson 1971, Larsen 1991, Woodhall 2005).
160041		population	eng	This is a common species that is particularly abundant in the warmer months (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).
160041		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
160047		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160047		distribution	eng	This species was described in 1976 from Hot Springs (80 km north of Mutare), Zimbabwe.&#160;It has also been collected some 100 km south of Mutare. There are several records from&#160;points between Chirundu and Kanyemba along the Zambezi River in the north of the country (Timberlake 1998), as well as from the&#160;southernmost area. In Zambia, it has been found in the Luangwa Valley (near Petauke) and&#160;in the Zambezi Valley (near Chirundu) (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It has been found also in Mozambique (Gogoi),&#160;not far east of Mutare. These records combine to give an extent of occurrence (EOO) in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The savannah and woodland habitats of this species are widespread across this EOO and so the area of occupancy is probably fairly large, and greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, despite the scarce records.<br/><br/>N.B. There is uncertainty as to whether this species should be subsumed under <span style="font-style: italic;">D. doxo</span>, in which case the species becomes&#160;practically pan-African in savannah and woodland country.
160047		habitat	eng	<p>This is a species of savanna and woodland types that predominate in its known extent of occurrence. Timberlake (1998) describes this as a fast-flying butterfly of low-lying regions and thickets. Its habits are thought to be similar to those of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. doxo</span> (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis</span> sp. (Capparaceae) are thought to be among its larval host plants (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p>
160047		population	eng	There is little information on the population status of this species, but a dearth of records and some comment in the literature (Timberlake 1998) suggest that it is a rare species.
160047		threats	eng	Despite its apparent rarity, there are no major threats to this species and large areas of suitable habitat still remain across its distribution.
160057		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160057		distribution	eng	<p>This species has a mainly savannah-based distribution in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>, ranging from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Senegal</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gambia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, across to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, all of <st1:place w:st="on">East Africa</st1:place>, and south to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Swaziland</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Botswana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and at least to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">eastern Cape</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region>. There is a distinct subspecies on the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">island</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Socotra</st1:placename></st1:place>. Torben Larsen has seen it inside the city limits of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gaborone</st1:place></st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Harare</st1:place></st1:city>, Dar-es-Salaam, and <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Addis Ababa</st1:place></st1:city>. Consequently, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is huge and the area of occupancy (AOO) is also likely to be large, with both far exceeding the threshold values for threatened species under criteria B.<br/></p>
160057		habitat	eng	This butterfly is primarily a species of savannah habitats but it is also a weak colonizer of disturbed habitats in the African forest zone<st1:place w:st="on">. It is found in many of Africa's largest cities too. However, it tends to be absent where there are large expanses of intact forest and in the most arid</st1:place> savannah (Larsen 2005). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, it is found at altitudes from sea-level to 2,600 m (Kielland 1990). This species utilizes a range of species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Croton</span> in the Euphorbiaceae as larval host plants (Van Someren and Rogers 1928, Van Someren 1974).
160057		population	eng	The species is often very common in southern and eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> but is curiously rare in most of <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place>, where it may have been pushed into some special niche (Larsen 2005).
160057		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species that can survive in urban areas and gardens.
160059		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160059		distribution	eng	This is a Central and East European species. It occurs from east and central France (Cher and Allier to Ardennes and Savoie) via the southeast of Belgium, north of Germany and of Poland eastwards. It is also found from the north of Italy via the Balkans to the north of Greece and the area in between. Above 400 m in the Ardennes, up to 2,200 m in the Alps. It is also present in Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Urals and S Siberia, the north of China and the north of Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160059		habitat	eng	The Woodland Ringlet occurs in many different biotopes. It can be found on damp, flower-rich grasslands and rough vegetation near or in woodland, in marshes, but also on calcareous grasslands. Its foodplants are various grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Upright Brome (<em>Bromus erectus</em>) and Wood Millet (<em>Milium effusum</em>) and also sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). The caterpillar is active at night and mostly hibernates when half-grown, but at very high altitudes it may hibernate twice. It pupates in the litter layer and usually has one generation a year. However, the development from egg to butterfly may take one or two years. Habitats: coniferous woodland (16%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).
160059		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belarus and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160059		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
160067		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160067		distribution	eng	This butterfly is widespread in the Oriental region from northern India, Myanmar, southern China,&#160;Thailand and Viet Nam to Taiwan and Peninsular Malaysia. As a result, both the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are in excess of the respective thresholds for threatened species.
160067		habitat	eng	The species&#160;inhabits primary and tall secondary rainforest. Males congregate in numbers at the&#160;tops of certain steep-sided, open hilltops, where they aggressively defend territories from the&#160;tops of tall saplings. Females are infrequently encountered.
160067		population	eng	The species&#160;is locally common.
160067		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.&#160;<br/> <p><br/></p>
160070		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160070		distribution	eng	This is a rather rare species known from Liberia, Ivory Coast and Ghana in the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Cymothoe weymeri mulatta</span>;&#160;and Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the western parts of the DRC in&#160;the nominate subspecies (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). It is generally a rare butterfly of wetter forests in good&#160;condition but more common in the equatorial area than in West Africa.<br/>Based on its widespread distribution, it is possible to infer that the area of occupancy (AOO) for this species exceeds the 2,000 km<sup>2 </sup>threshold that would merit a threatened status, while the extent of occurrence (EOO) is significantly greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160070		habitat	eng	The species is a rare forest butterfly that has a widespread distribution across west and central Africa. It only occurs in high quality moist forest and is never numerous, though it tends to be more common in the equatorial area than in West Africa (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;The larva has been documented on a species of Flacourtiaceae.
160070		population	eng	Detailed quantitative data regarding the population of this species are lacking. However it appears to be relatively rare throughout its wide-ranging distribution (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160070		threats	eng	No significant threats appear to affect this species. Though the negative effects of deforestation and forest degradation occur on a regional scale, they do not pose an immediate threat to this widespread forest butterfly at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160072		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species. However, further research is required to elucidate the true distribution, population status and threats faced for this species. This would allow the species to be reclassified from Data Deficient.
160072		distribution	eng	<p>This species was described from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bunyoro</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and has been found in neighbouring areas of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and on the <st1:place w:st="on">North  Kivu (DRC)</st1:place> side of the Albertine Rift, and it has also been found in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). The species may also be found in Rwanda and South Kivu Province in the DRC. There are only a handful of definite records as they are unlikely to be caught by casual collectors and are difficult to identify for certain once collected (needing genitalia dissection). Therefore, they are certainly under-recorded. Nonetheless, based on existing records the extent of occurrence (EOO) is between 50,000 and 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy cannot be accurately estimated based on the existing records of this under-reported species, but may be considerably smaller than the EOO because little forest habitat remains within the EOO.<br/></p>
160072		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species, at least according to collection sites for existing records, is primary forest. It belongs to a difficult group of tiny butterflies with very retiring habits, often high up tree-trunks.
160072		population	eng	No population status data are available for this highly elusive and under-reported butterfly.
160072		threats	eng	The threats to this species are largely unknown at present, although as a species of primary forest it is presumably threatened to some extent by deforestation and habitat degradation. Across its current distribution this is driven largely by fuelwood collection, livestock grazing, shifting agriculture and illegal logging (UN FAO and Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism 2001).
160075		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160075		distribution	eng	This is a lowland forest butterfly distributed from eastern Nigeria through Cameroon to&#160;northwestern Tanzania and western Uganda (probably also Gabon and northern&#160;Angola). Even excluding its probable occurrence in Gabon and Angola, this species has a very large extent of occurrence (EOO) far in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As a species of primary forest, the area of occupancy is much smaller, but across such a large EOO is still certainly greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160075		habitat	eng	<p>The species is a primary lowland forest butterfly. It is not observed outside of wetter forests in good&#160;condition. Both sexes are usually found in the denser parts of the forest and males are often seen flying along paths. Larval host-plants include&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Agelanthus krausei</span> (Loranthaceae) (Congdon and Collins 1998).<br/></p>
160075		population	eng	This species is not recorded outside of wetter forests in good&#160;condition, but it is widespread and common within these forests.
160075		threats	eng	This primary forest species cannot tolerate much degradation of its habitat. However, local threats of deforestation and degradation can only be classed as minor for the species as a whole because it is widespread across a large extent of occurrence.
160082		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Additional research is required to determine population trends, habitat requirements, ecology, and distribution in order to assess any threats faced by this species.
160082		distribution	eng	<p>This species was originally reported in 1923 with types originating from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malawi</st1:country-region> (“Mulanje”) and neighbouring <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region> (“Ruo and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kola</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valleys</st1:placetype></st1:place> 1,700 to 2,000 feet”). No further records have been found outside of these areas.&#160;</p>
160082		habitat	eng	The genus <em>Lepidochrysops</em> has a remarkable life history where larvae feed on plants for the first two instars, induce ants to carry them to their nests where they feed on the ant brood, and eventually pupate in the tunnels of the ant nest&#160;(Henning and Henning 1989).&#160;Very little is known about the ecology and habits of this particular species.
160082		population	eng	<p>Nothing appears to be published about this species since the original description from 1923. However, one vigorous colony was found in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Malawi</st1:country-region></st1:place> a few years ago (A. Gardiner pers. comm. 2008). The species is almost certainly strongly under-reported.</p>
160082		threats	eng	There is no information on possible threats to this species or its habitat.
160084		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly. However, it is not a well known species and so would benefit from further research into its habitat, distribution and the threats it faces. These research requirements are not particularly pressing for what is essentially still a widely distributed and not too infrequently encountered species.
160084		distribution	eng	<p>This is a widely distributed species that has been recorded from many localities in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Libert 1999). It is also thought to be found in the Central African Republic. This gives a large extent of occurrence that is well in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.</p>As with most Epitolini, the species is rarely met with during casual collecting and is almost certainly under-reported. Nonetheless, there are numerous records from within its range and it is also encountered more frequently than most other members of its genus, suggesting that the area of occupancy is likely to be greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160084		habitat	eng	This appears to be a forest species. No other information is available about the habitats and ecology of this species.
160084		population	eng	This species is rarely met with during casual collecting, but is more frequently encountered than other members of its genus. No other information is available about its population status.
160084		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but given its large distribution and the availability of forest within this, it is unlikely to face any major threats to the species as a whole.
160090		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160090		distribution	eng	This species   occurs on mainland New Guinea and in coastal eastern Australia as far south as Grafton, New South Wales. It has been recorded from a number of widely dispersed localities on mainland New  Guinea, including West New Guinea, between 500 and 1,700 m elevation. Parsons’ (1998) view that the species ranges more widely in New Guinea than present records suggest is almost certainly correct. Nonetheless, even based on current records this species has a very large extent of occurrence and, as its habitats are fairly widespread, the area of occupancy is certainly well in excess of the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160090		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This species inhabits secondary rainforest (in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Papua   New Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>), sclerophyll forest and savannah, open woodland and swampland. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia,</st1:place></st1:country-region> it is most frequent in semi-dry open forest. Adults are rather elusive but the early stages are easily located and larvae feed on a number of species of mistletoe (Loranthaceae). Larvae shelter in rolled or dead leaves of the host-plant and may skeletonize the leaves when in large numbers. They are sometimes heavily parasitized (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008). </p>
160090		population	eng	This butterfly is usually common where it occurs and may be locally abundant in eastern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008)</st1:place></st1:state>.
160090		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
160098		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160098		distribution	eng	<p>This species was only separated from the more common <em>P. neptidina</em> in 2002 and is not so well known (Amiet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). There are records from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ivory Coast</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Itu), and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region> (just a single). The assessor also believes it is likely to occur in Cameroon, although there are no existing records. Nonethelss, even without Cameroon the extent of occurrence of this species is large. There are likely to be more sitting in museum series of <em>P. neptidina</em>.</p>
160098		habitat	eng	Members of the genus are forest species, often in the forest transition zone or in forests with a rather open structure. Most of their time is spent high up so that long series of many of the species are not available (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160098		population	eng	This is described as a scarce butterfly (Larsen 2005).
160098		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species. It may be threatened by deforestation but at present this is not significant as the extent of occurrence is large and there is a large availability of habitat.
160109		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place or required for this species.
160109		distribution	eng	This forest species was described from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region> and is not well known. However, there are apparently valid records also from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region> and a few scattered records from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>. A distinct subspecies (ssp. <em>oubanguiensis</em>) was later described from the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Central African Republic</st1:place></st1:country-region>, also recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and perhaps the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oban Hills on the Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> border, although this is a doubtful record (Larsen 2005). The extent of occurrence exceeds the threshold of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species, but the area of occupancy cannot currently be estimated.
160109		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is described as evergreen forest of reasonable condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160109		population	eng	There is no extensive population trend data for this species and only limited evidence suggesting that the butterfly is widely distributed in   Côte d’Ivoire (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008) and quite frequent in Sierra Leone (C. Belcastro pers. comm. 2008).
160109		threats	eng	This is a forest species which will inherently be threatened by deforestation across its distribution. The main driver of this deforestation is agricultural expansion.
160111		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place at present. Since very little is currently known about this species, further research is recommended on its distribution, population status, ecology and threats in order to move this species from its current classification of Data Deficient.
160111		distribution	eng	<p>The species was described from Batanga in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region></st1:place> after a pair that was collected about 100 years ago.&#160;No further <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> records have been traced but Vande Weghe (pers. comm.) has found it in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Crystal</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Mountain,&#160;</st1:placename></st1:place>Tchimbele) where it is extremely localized.&#160;</p>
160111		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This is a forest species, but nothing more of its ecology is known.</p>
160111		population	eng	There is no information on population status or trend.
160111		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species or its habitat.
160116		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species but considerable research is required to determine the distribution, population trends and ecology of this species. In turn, this information would help to identify the threats to the species.
160116		distribution	eng	This species is known from almost simultaneously located records in coastal scrub forest of a female in <st1:city w:st="on">Cape Coast</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region> and a pair at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Bereby</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region></st1:place> in 1998 (Larsen 2005). A few additional females have since been found in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. These localities are about 600 km apart and so it is likely that the species is found in between the sites which would give a reasonably large distribution; however, on present information it is not possible to estimate either the extent of occurrence or the area of occupancy.
160116		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The habitat of this species, based on current limited knowledge, is thought to be forest</st1:place> and coastal scrubland, with large relict trees (Larsen 2005).
160116		population	eng	No population data are available for this recently discovered  and little known species.
160116		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not currently known.
160129		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160129		distribution	eng	eThis species was described from Cameroon and occurs also in Congo, equatorial&#160;Guinea, Gabon, and parts of the southern DRC. A record from Côte d’Ivoire is certainly&#160;a misidentification (Larsen 2005). The extent of occurrence (EOO) across the confirmed distribution is very large and as a widespread species of its similarly widespread habitat across this range, the area of occupancy (AOO) is also large. Both the EOO and the AOO are greater than the threshold values for threatened species under criterion B.
160129		habitat	eng	<p>The species is widespread across its distribution in forests that are not too severely disturbed. There is no available documentation on the larval host plants of this species.<br/></p>
160129		population	eng	The species is not common but is widely distributed in suitable habitats.
160129		threats	eng	This species does not tolerate severe habitat disturbance, but is sufficiently widespread that threats of deforestation and degradation can only be considered minor at present.
160134		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly.
160134		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution covering almost the entire forest zone in three&#160;distinct subspecies. The nominate across Cameroon, Congo, Gabon and the Central African Republic (Larsen 2005). Ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">coomasiensis</span> is found from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Ghana, while ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> xantha</span> occurs from southern Sudan to Zambia (Larsen 1991, Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In Tanzania, ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">xantha</span> occurs from altitudes of 900 to 1,500 m (Kielland 1990). This huge distribution gives a vast extent of occurrence (EOO) and as a widespread species within this the area of occupancy (AOO) is also large. Both the EOO and AOO exceed the thresholds for threatened species under criterion B.
160134		habitat	eng	This rare forest butterfly occurs in dense, primary forest&#160;in good condition. Individuals&#160;spend much of the time in small clusters, roosting on&#160;dry twigs (Larsen 1991).&#160;Larval food includes lichens on tree trunks (Larsen 1991).<p></p><p> </p> <p></p>
160134		population	eng	This is one of the most widely&#160;distributed forest butterflies that is sometimes common but usually rather sporadic. In general it is quite rare in West Africa and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">xantha</span> is far more common than the other two subspecies (Larsen 2005).
160134		threats	eng	This species cannot tolerate much habitat disturbance but because of its wide distribution, threats of deforestation and degradation can only be considered minor to the species as a whole.
160143		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160143		distribution	eng	This species occurs north of 65° N in Norway, Sweden and Finland. 350-500 m. Across the northern areas of Eurasia to the north of Mongolia and the north of China; also in North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160143		habitat	eng	Just like the Lapland Ringlet (<em>E. embla</em>), the Arctic Ringlet is a marsh butterfly, but the two species do not overlap, the Arctic Ringlet avoiding lowland marshes. It occurs above 350 m altitude, on open marshes in woods, namely marshes with a low cover of grasses and sedges without trees or bushes, although surrounded by birch trees. It also occurs at lakesides and near small streams and is also seen in woodland clearings in its search for nectar. Its foodplants are grasses. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: raised bogs (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mixed woodland (16%).
160143		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160143		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
160145		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160145		distribution	eng	<p>This is a rare forest butterfly that is usually met with in ones or twos, but of which there are many records from right across the forest zone from Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana to Uganda and northwestern <span lang="EN-GB">Tanzania (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Larsen 2005). Members of this genus tend to be elusive and their specialized ecology means that they tend to have much smaller areas of occupancy than extents of occurrence; however, they are often also under-reported.&#160;<br/></p>
160145		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The Rare silver-spot inhabits forest</st1:place> (Larsen 2005) across the Afrotropical moist forest zone.<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><em> Alchornea cordifolia</em> (Euphorbiaceae) is thought to be a larval host plant <st2:citation w:st="on">(Van Someren 1974)</st2:citation>.
160145		population	eng	This is a rare forest butterfly (Larsen 2005).
160145		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats at present across its large distribution.
160146		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160146		distribution	eng	This butterfly is widely distributed through South East Asia, from India and Sri Lanka through Thailand (Pinratana 1981), peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo (Seki <em>et al</em>. 1991), the Philippines (Balabac, Palawan, Calamian group) (Treadaway 1995) and Sulawesi (Vane-wright and De Jong 2003). There are also some instances of this species in China, for example in the Fusui Rare Animal Nature Reserve, south-western Guangxi. This gives the species a very large extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy&#160; (AOO) is also likely to be fairly large. The species does not occur above 760 m elevation.<em> </em>
160146		habitat	eng	This   is a shade-loving butterfly inhabiting primary and secondary rainforest. It is most commonly encountered along creeks or in gullies within the forest. Adults generally keep to the undergrowth, where they may remain inactive for long periods (Igarashi and Fukuda 2000). It is reported to rely on the ant species<span style="font-style: italic;"> Anoplolepis gracilipes</span> (Megens <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and larvae feed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Albizia falcate</span> plants. The species is sexually dimorphic.
160146		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout most of its range (Eliot 1992, W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2009).
160146		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat. However, Cleary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>(2004) and Hirowatari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) found that this species did not seem to persist in forest areas that had been subjected to burning.
160151		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research into the distribution of this species would increase the accuracy of classification of the species.
160151		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Papua, Indonesia and some offshore islands including Korido and Jobi.<em> </em>In common with other species endemic to <st1:place w:st="on">West Papua</st1:place>, few current data are available. Insufficient data are currently available to calculate either an extent of occurrence or an area of occupancy but this species is thought to be common and there is still a large availability of habitat in West Papua.
160151		habitat	eng	This butterfly appears to be primarily an inhabitant of primary rainforest. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species (D'Abrera 1990).
160151		population	eng	This butterfly   is believed to be a common species (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008).
160151		threats	eng	This species is believed not to be under any major threat.
160159		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160159		distribution	eng	This is a large forest species that is known from Sierra Leone all round the Gulf of Guinea to Gabon (G. van de Weghe pers. comm.) and western <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>. There are many locality records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region></st1:place> and further east but the species is usually collected in ones or twos. This gives a large extent of occurrence well in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species and as this species can withstand habitat degradation the area of occupancy is probably also reasonably large despite the rarity of the species.
160159		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest and it is quite a robust species that withstands a fair amount of habitat degradation (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).<strong> </strong>The larval food plants are thought to include<em> Loranthus incanus</em> <st2:citation w:st="on">(Farquharson 1921<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>)</st2:citation><em> </em>and<em> Phragmanthera capitata </em>(Bampton <em>et al</em>. 1991) from the Loranthaceae<st2:citation w:st="on"></st2:citation>.
160159		population	eng	Larsen (2005) describes this as an uncommon species.
160159		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this disturbance tolerant species.
160163		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
160163		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of  Portugal, almost all of Spain, the southeast of France from the Pyrenees, via the Cevennes and Provence to the Alps and Italy in the western Ligurian Alps. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
160163		habitat	eng	The Black-eyed Blue occurs in open shrub, or open woodland, whit Genista or large bushes of broom (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.). Eggs are laid on the flowers of various leguminous plants, such as <em>Dorycnium</em> spp., birdsfoot-trefoils (<em>Lotus</em> spp.), <em>Anthyllis</em> spp., brooms (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.) and <em>Genista</em> spp.. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and are attended by ants belonging to one of the species of the genus <em>Camponotus</em>. The Black-eyed Blue hibernates in the pupal stage. It usually has one generation a year, although in Spain, sometimes two. Habitats: heath and scrub (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (40%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).
160163		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160163		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160165		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this widespread species.
160165		distribution	eng	<p>This fine butterfly is widely distributed in no less than nine subspecies with records from Guinea-Bissau (<st1:stockticker w:st="on">ABRI</st1:stockticker>) to Uganda and south to Tanzania and Zambia. One of the distinct subspecies occurs on the island <st1:place w:st="on">Bioko</st1:place>. This gives the butterfly a vast extent of occurrence (EOO) across most of subsaharan Africa north of Zambia and Tanzania well in excess of one million km<sup>2</sup>. The localised distribution of the species makes the area of occupancy (AOO) smaller, but as this is a common species, it is still likely to be large.<br/></p>
160165		habitat	eng	The species is mostly adapted to drier forest systems, at least in <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place> it avoids the wetter forest systems (Larsen 2005).   Kielland (1990) describes the ssp. <em>lisomboensis</em> as occuring from lowland to submontane forest at altitudes from 800 to 1,500 m. The larval host of this species is probably from the Sapindaceae <st1:citation w:st="on">family (Kielland 1990)</st1:citation>.
160165		population	eng	The species is well distributed and often common in drier forest systems (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008), although it is localised across its wide distribution (Larsen 2005).
160165		threats	eng	This butterfly needs forest of a reasonable condition (Larsen 2005) and so may be threatened by deforestation and degradation of its habitat, however, given the huge extent of occurrence of the species this cannot currently be considered a major threat.
160177		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160177		distribution	eng	Pitman's Ciliate Blue is known to occur in western and northern Kenya and parts of Ethiopia and Somaliland. The subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> somalina</span> is currently known be distributed only in Somaliland, whilst the nominate subspecies has a wider distribution in both Kenya and Ethiopia. This butterfly<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is present in Mt. Elgon on the Kenya-Uganda border and so is assumed to also be present in Uganda. Altitudinally, this butterfly has been recorded from over 1,800 m on the slopes of Mt. Elgon.
160177		habitat	eng	Pitman's Ciliate Blue<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> inhabits dry Sudan-type savannah. It is a somewhat reclusive butterfly that is sometimes attracted in numbers to flowering <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>, on which it feeds, or to damp patches. The larval food plant species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia abyssinica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lahai</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stenocarpa</span> and numerous species within the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Dichrostachys </span>(Jackson 1937, Larsen 1991). The ant species <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Crematogaster gerstaeckeri (Formicidae) is known to be associated with this butterfly (Jackson 1937).
160177		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
160177		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is widespread across its extent of occurrence and is not under any major threat. This species utilises several host plants, which also makes it more resilient to potential threats.
160188		conservation	eng	<p>No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. Further research is required to confirm the taxonomic status of this species.<br/></p>
160188		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, as well as Sumatra, Borneo and the&#160;Lingga Archipelago. The extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are in excess of 20,000 and 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> respectively.
160188		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest where it is difficult to observe, adults tending&#160;to spend much time in deep undergrowth. However, males are active hilltoppers and compete&#160;with males of other lycaenids for favoured territory. Nothing is known of the early stages of this&#160;species.
160188		population	eng	The species is not uncommon where it occurs.
160188		threats	eng	<p>This species is not under any major threat.<br/></p>
160193		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160193		distribution	eng	This butterfly occurs from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> (Hainan), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Langkawi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place>). This gives a very large extent of occurrence of over 1 million km<sup>2</sup> and although locally distributed, the area of occupancy across the whole distribution is in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160193		habitat	eng	This species frequents monsoonal forest and vine thicket. It is an inconspicuous species, remaining at rest in shady areas for long periods.
160193		population	eng	This butterfly is local, but not uncommon in most of its range.
160193		threats	eng	Although the monsoon forest habitat of this species are highly threatened by deforestation in many regions (WWF 2009), the extent of occurrence of this species is sufficiently large for the threat to be considered minor to the species as a whole.
160194		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160194		distribution	eng	This butterfly is found in forests west of the Dahomey Gap from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region> to eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, just penetrating the Cross River Loop. It thus has an extent of occurrence far greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As a widespread species of primary and disturbed, wet and dry forests, this butterfly also has an area of occupancy in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160194		habitat	eng	It is a wet and dry forest species that is able to deal with some degree of habitat degradation and that is more ecologically robust than the majority of the West African Lipteninae.   It is usually found in ones or twos and often individuals of this species are seen together at extrafloral nectaries with <em>Liptena simplicia</em> and <em>Micropentila adelgitha</em> (Larsen 2005).
160194		population	eng	This is a relatively common butterfly in most of its distribution west of the Dahomey Gap, but is slightly less common in Nigeria (Larsen 2005).
160194		threats	eng	This widespread species is found in primary and disturbed, wet and dry forests and so does not face any major threats at present.
160197		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160197		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout much of South East Asia, from Assam in India, Myanmar, southern Laos and Thailand to peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra (Indonesia) and Palawan (Philippines). This gives the species a very large extent of occurrence. The area of occupancy is much smaller for this fairly uncommon, primary forest species but certainly well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160197		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary rainforest. Both sexes are usually encountered in small clearings or&#160;on tracks through the forest and males may actively defend small territories. Nothing is known of&#160;the early stages of this species.
160197		population	eng	<p>The species is generally uncommon throughout its range, and is usually encountered singly or in&#160;small numbers. No quantitative data is available at present.<br/></p>
160197		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160199		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is needed to assess the population status of this butterfly, which may require in-canopy monitoring. However, in reality the status of this butterfly will not be known unless its host plant is identified. This is of course easier said than done.
160199		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (Indonesia), including Buton Island, from where it has recently been recorded (Muller, unpublished data). Within this region, it is currently not possible to infer the area of occupancy (AOO) or extent of occurrence (EOO) of the species due to the limited number of records available. However, the island encompasses more than 170,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160199		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are poorly known. Where such data were recorded, adults&#160;have been collected in moist primary rainforest at low to moderate elevations. Nothing is known of the life&#160;history of the species at present.
160199		population	eng	This butterfly appears to be a rare species in nature. There are very few records for this species, which may be due either to a probable strict arboreal habitat or to its genuine rarity. The actual population status of the butterfly will not be known until further sampling has been carried out in canopy habitats or until a host plant has been identified.
160199		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any major threat at present, although too little is known about this species to properly assess threat processes. However, it is endemic to Sulawesi (Indonesia) and does not appear to be common based on the limited records currently available (W. J. Tennent pers. obs. 2009). Hence, the species could quickly become at risk if habitat loss or some other threat were to increase in the future.
160200		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this poorly known butterfly. Further species-specific research is needed into the distribution of the species between Beni and Bangui which will help understand threats to the species.
160200		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from sixteen specimens collected by Robert Ducarme around <st1:place w:st="on">Beni</st1:place> in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kivu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> after which it was described. These are from about four sub-localities or so, not far from <st1:place w:st="on">Beni</st1:place>. Another sixteen were collected in several sub-localities around <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangui</st1:place></st1:city> in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Central African   Republic (Amiet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Collecting anywhere in between <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangui</st1:place></st1:city> and <st1:place w:st="on">Beni</st1:place> has been very light and members of the genus are not readily found except by collectors especially intent upon it. The species must be found elsewhere in the huge area between <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangui</st1:place></st1:city> and Kivu. The extent of occurrence (EOO) based on present knowledge can be estimated at in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> because of the availability of suitable habitat between the records from Bangui and Beni which are about 1,300 km apart. The records from Beni and Bangui alone give an area of occupancy of around 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160200		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is forest (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160200		population	eng	This butterfly has only been caught in eight localities and although it is probably under-reported it is still likely to be rare. Even the more common members of the genus are usually rare in collections and it is difficult to find butterflies from this genus unless they are being looked for specifically (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160200		threats	eng	Although few specimens of this species have been found, they have been found up to 1,000 km apart and there is plenty of available forest between the sites (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). Therefore, the habitat is not seriously threatened at present. Nonetheless further research into the distribution of this species would shed light on potential threats.
160209		conservation	eng	Further research is required to identify the extent of this species' distribution as well as the threats it faces. This will allow the butterfly to be reclassified from Data Deficient.
160209		distribution	eng	<p>This species is limited to western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kibale and Kalinzu forests). The area of Kalinzu Forest Reserve is about 137 km<sup>2</sup> (Hashimoto 1995) and the area of Kibale National Park about 795 km<sup>2</sup> (Arlet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), which gives a total of 932 km<sup>2</sup>. If this is taken as the area of occupancy of this species, then it would meet the first threshold for classification as Vulnerable or seeing as there is no evidence of major distribution decline or fluctuation at least as Near Threatened. However, this is a genus of butterflies that are difficult to collect and identify and there are other areas of suitable habitat in this part of western Uganda where the butterfly could be found. <em></em></p>
160209		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from moist lowland forest in Kibale and Kalinzu Forests. Little else has been published on the ecology of this species.
160209		population	eng	This is a rare and local species, only definitively recorded from two forest reserves in Uganda.
160209		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by deforestation and forest degradation. However, at present it is the lack of knowledge on the species that threatens it. Until the true distribution of the butterfly is identified, the threats it faces will remain unknown.
160213		conservation	eng	In the United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
160213		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Ireland and Denmark. In England, it is only present in Norfolk. In the Netherlands, it occurs mostly in South-Limburg, it is rarer northwards. 0-3,000 m. It is also found in rest of the Palearctic and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160213		habitat	eng	The Swallowtail is a species of flower-rich meadows and small-scale farmland. The males and females meet at hilltops or above high trees, showing a type of behaviour known as “hill-topping”, with the butterflies dancing up and down in the air. The Swallowtail needs a lot of nectar. In the south of the range, they also occur in parks and gardens. Eggs are laid on various umbellifers, including Wild Carrot (<em>Daucus carota</em>) and <em>Rutaceae</em>. The British population in the Norfolk Broads only uses Milk-Parsley (<em>Peucedanum palustre</em>) as a foodplant. The fully-grown larvae are very conspicuous, bright green with black stripes and orange spots. When disturbed they can suddenly show a Y-shaped, orange scent-gland or osmeterium, just behind its head, producing a strong, unpleasant smell. The caterpillars from autumn generations leave the foodplant to pupate on the ground and hibernation takes place as a pupa. The caterpillars of the summer generations pupate low down on the larval foodplant. Depending on the altitude of the breeding ground and its position in the distribution range, the Swallowtail produces one to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), fallow land, waste places (8%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).
160213		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Romania, Serbia, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160213		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160214		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this widespread and relatively common species.
160214		distribution	eng	This is a very widespread butterfly which has been recorded extensively from Guinea-Bissau in the west to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and parts of western Uganda in the east (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Hence, with a range spanning at least fourteen countries, the EOO of this species is likely to span several hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup>. Similarly, the AOO must dramatically exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The species appears to be a relatively robust forest butterfly that withstands habitat degradation and may also occur&#160;in the forest/savanna transition (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160214		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a robust forest butterfly that is very tolerant of habitat degradation and may also occur&#160;in the forest/savanna transition (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). It is often found alongside both <span style="font-style: italic;">Neptis agouale</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. troundi </span>and the behaviour of the three species is indistinguishable. The butterfly flies in all types of forest but does not penetrate poor secondary&#160;forest as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">N. agouale</span> (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Larval host plants are varied, and include&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Abrus canescens </span>(Fabaceae);<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Acacia ataxacantha </span>(Fabaceae);<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Dalbergia hostilis</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Fabaceae);<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Abrus pulabellus </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Fabaceae); and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Allophylus</span> species (Sapindaceae).&#160;</p>
160214		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population data are lacking for this forest butterfly at present, though it appears to be a fairly common species throughout its widespread distribution, as well as being tolerant of habitat degradation (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160214		threats	eng	This species is not affected by any known threats at present. In addition to being highly tolerant of habitat degradation (which occurs to varying extents across its range), the butterfly occurs in a range of habitat types and utilizes a variety of larval host-plants, thereby making it more resistant to changes in habitat composition (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160226		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are in place or needed, at present, for this species.
160226		distribution	eng	This is mainly a submontane butterfly with isolated populations in the Nigerian highlands (Obudu and Mambilla Plateaux), the mountains of southwestern Cameroon, and the central Angolan Highlands. It is also found in many parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Uele, Ituri, Kivu, Maniema, Sankuru), southern Sudan, Uganda, central and western Kenya, and northern Tanzania. Records from Zambia (quoted by Larsen 2005) seem to be in error. The species is mainly associated with submontane forests above 1,300 m, but occasionally also in more open habitats.
160226		habitat	eng	This is mainly a submontane butterfly in and around forest canopies, especially along river courses, above 1,300 m. Occasionally it is found in more open, moist savannah, habitats. <span style="font-style: italic;">Zizyphus</span> is a larval food plant and egg laying has been observed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Gouania</span> another member of the Rhamnaceae family. Males frequently visit mud puddles and may be attracted to horse manure (Larsen 1991).
160226		population	eng	This is a widespead butterfly often found in vigorous colonies within its habitat.
160226		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this widespread species.
160229		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160229		distribution	eng	This is a forest species with an extensive distribution ranging from Cameroon to Gabon, Congo,&#160;Central African Republic, the DRC (Kivu, Shaba, Kwilu), and western Uganda, with&#160;five described subspecies (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). With a range that covers at least seven countries, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is likely to be in the region of several hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup>, while the area of occupancy (AOO) certainly exceeds the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> required to merit a threatened status (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).  The habitat is wetter forests in good condition. <p>&#160;</p>
160229		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in wetter forest that is in good condition, in addition to closed, maturing secondary growth (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Within these habitats it is recorded as being not uncommon, though rarely abundant.
160229		population	eng	&#160;Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this species. However, it is described as being not uncommon, though rarely numerous (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160229		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this forest butterfly, which has a wide distribution in wetter forest across central Africa. Though deforestation and forest degradation do occur widely in the countries of occupancy, they cannot be considered to pose a significant threat to this widespread and relatively common species at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160240		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160240		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of Portugal and large parts of Spain, in the south of France and of Switzerland, north of Italy, from Austria, Czech Republic, south and east of Poland to the south of Finland and further eastwards. It is also present throughout the Balkans, including Greece. Sea level-2,200 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, temperate Asia from Turkey to Mongolia, China and South Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160240		habitat	eng	The Dusky Meadow Brown occurs in many different grassland types. It is important that its habitat is dry and warm. In the north of its range, the grassland is steppe-like and more to the south the butterfly is found in more dense vegetations. It uses various grasses as foodplant, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.) and Feather-grass (<em>Stipa pinnata</em>) and other <em>Stipa</em> species. When the female is about to lay an egg, it first alights on the ground and walks to a foodplant, then it chooses a low-hanging grass blade on which to deposit an egg. The caterpillar hibernates in the first larval instar and only starts feeding in spring. At first, it feeds mainly during day, but when the weather gets too warm, it only feeds at night. Pupation takes place deep in the vegetation or litter layer. The Dusky Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (24%), dry siliceous grasslands (22%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), coniferous woodland (5%).
160240		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Latvia, Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160240		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
160244		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species at present.
160244		distribution	eng	This forest butterfly is an endemic species of the DRC with three subspecies from the Upper Congo and Ituri;&#160;from Uele, Tshopo, Maniema; and&#160;from Sankuru (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). This range covers at least a third of the area of the DRC, such that the extent of occurrence (EOO) probably exceeds 800,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Similarly, the area of occurrence (AOO) is significantly greater than the threshold of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> that would be necessary for the species to qualify as threatened. The species appears to be reasonably common where found.&#160;Robin van Velzen&#160;found a specimen from Moloundou (Cameroon) in the Natural History Museum (London), which would&#160;indicate that the species is also present in the Congo.
160244		habitat	eng	The species is known from forested habitats in DRC, as well as a museum specimen collected from Cameroon. The butterfly appears to be reasonably common throughout its range in forest that is in reasonable condition. However, little else is known about the habitat requirements or ecological traits associated with the species (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160244		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this species. However, it appears to be reasonably common where documented (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160244		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this forest butterfly. Though the majority of records are confined to DRC, the species is widely distributed across more than 800,000 km<sup>2</sup> of well forested habitat. Hence, the main regional threats of deforestation and forest degradation should not pose any immediate concern to the species at present.
160248		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly.
160248		distribution	eng	The species is found from&#160;Senegal and Mauritania to Sudan and southern Arabia and then south to South Africa&#160;and most of Botswana/Namibia under near desert conditions. Like many other species from its genus this butterfly therefore has a huge extent of occurrence (EOO) across the dry zone of Africa, although it is even more of a dry zone specialist than other generic species (Larsen 1991). There is a large amount of suitable habitat across its distribution and so the area of occupancy (AOO) is well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. In Tanzania, the butterfly has been documented at altitudes from 250 to 2,300 m (Kielland 1990).
160248		habitat	eng	This is a butterfly of the dry savanna habitats centered on Sahelian and Sudanian types (Larsen 2005),&#160;with more eclectic choices in eastern and southern Africa, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> spp. woodland (Kielland 1990). It may even be found in&#160;subdesert if the host-plants are available. The species has no&#160;capacity to colonize degraded areas in the forest zone. Records cover all&#160;months of the year, but it is usually only common during the summer months.&#160;The flight is more powerful and higher above the&#160;ground than usual in the genus, often around <span style="font-style: italic;">Boscia</span>-trees (Larsen 2005).<br/><br/>Larval host-plants include&#160;Bamboo (Poaceae);&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis</span> spp. (Capparaceae);&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Ritchiea</span> spp. (Capparaceae);&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Boscia oleoides</span>; <span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua</span> species; and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Boscia albitrunca</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Boscia</span> spp. (Capparaceae) trees are cherished by farmers as shade trees and colonies may be found&#160;on any such trees, even in the middle of cotton plantations or subdesert.
160248		population	eng	This is generally a common butterfly (Larsen 2005), that is occasionally very numerous.
160248		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160249		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160249		distribution	eng	This   is strictly a Sundanian species, occurring in peninsular Malaya, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo.
160249		habitat	eng	This species inhabits secondary rainforest and heavily wooded rural areas, particularly where bamboo is prevalent. Both sexes are active at dawn and dusk, when males establish territories on perches about 1–3 metres above the ground, at the edges of clearings or along tracks through the forest.
160249		population	eng	This butterfly is locally common throughout its range.
160249		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160251		conservation	eng	There is no existing legislation regarding this species and no conservation action is currently required for this species.
160251		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
160251		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. daplidice </span>occurs west of a line from Northwest Europe through West Switzerland and West Italy. 0- 2,500 m. The exact border to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. edusa</span> is not always clearly defined. Furthermore, both species are highly mobile. In the Netherlands, it looks like old records (before 1960) are mostly from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. daplidice</span>, whereas more recent records seem to belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. edusa</span>.&#160; It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160251		distribution	eng	This species occurs from North Africa and some <st1:placename w:st="on">North</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Atlantic</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype> (widespread in the Canary Islands; occasional visitor to Madeira), through southern and western Europe, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region>, and the Middle East to central and eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Asia</st1:place>. This butterfly is extremely widespread and therefore the extent of occurrence (EOO) far exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is also undoubtedly far greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160251		habitat	eng	The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. daplidice)</span>, which mainly occurs in the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Bath White (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. edusa</span>), which is distributed over the rest of Europe. However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field. Their life cycles are also very similar. The adult butterflies are very variable in appearance, not only in their markings, but also in their size. They are very mobile, fast flying and migrate northwards and westwards in warm years. They occur in warm, stony places; often disturbed ground, such as road verges, abandoned agricultural land or quarries. The females lay their eggs on such crucifers as mustards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis</span> spp.), <span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum </span>spp. and also on mignonettes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Reseda </span>ssp.). The caterpillars feed mainly on the flowers and seeds. Pupation takes place on the stalk of the foodplant. The Bath White has two or more generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).
160251		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs<em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span></em>in a wide variety of open habitats, including semi-desert on the northern edge of the <st1:place w:st="on">Sahara</st1:place> desert, and at elevations from sea level to almost 3,000 m. Its diet is generalist and it utilizes a variety of larval host-plants.
160251		population	eng	No population size estimates currently exist, but this butterfly is common and sometimes abundant, especially in the southern parts of its range. Its range is extended as a result of migration when conditions are favourable.
160251		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160251		threats	eng	This species is not affected by any known threats. It occurs in a range of habitats and utilizes a range of larval host-plants which should make it more resistant to habitat loss.
160251		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160256		conservation	eng	This species is very poorly known and so considerable research into its distribution, population data, ecology and threats is required.
160256		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from only a small series of both sexes, collected on several different dates from the type locality in western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> (Zuru, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sokoto</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place> [near the Kainji Dam]). Its savannah type habitat is poorly prospected for butterflies in <st1:place w:st="on">West  Africa</st1:place> and the species might well occur elsewhere.</p>
160256		habitat	eng	The habitat is dry savannah (Collins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Larsen 2005) with the specimens being collected from the transition between Guinea and Sudan savannah, an area poorly explored for butterflies (Larsen 1994). The type locality is in a southern enclave of very dry savannah conditions, where this species flies with savannah species not normally seen that far south (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The larval host plants of members of the genus are all members of the Loranthaceae (Larsen 1994).
160256		population	eng	There are no available population data for this species.
160256		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
160259		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species. The species does occur in protected areas.
160259		distribution	eng	<p>This is a rather rare and localized butterfly that is known from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> (<st1:placename w:st="on">Gashaka-Gumpti</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>), the Cross River Loop (Oban Hills), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> (Mamfe (TL), <st1:placename w:st="on">Korup</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>, and elsewhere), as well as parts of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Despite its rarity this butterfly still has a fairly large extent of occurrence (EOO) in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) is not known but as this butterfly has been collected from numerous localities and is found in an area with ample suitable habitat the AOO must be greater than the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;threshold for threatened species. </p>
160259		habitat	eng	The habitat is wetter forests in good condition (Larsen 2005).
160259		population	eng	This is a scarce and localised butterfly species (Larsen 2005).
160259		threats	eng	This species requires wetter forests in good condition and is threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation. At present these threats are not very significant as large stretches of suitable habitat still remain (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160274		conservation	eng	The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.
160274		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally, but sometimes abundantly, in southeastern and central Spain (from the southeastern and eastern coasts through to Burgos and Salamanca). It is also found in Russia and Ukraine. 0-1,000 m, sometimes to 1,400 m. It is present from North Africa through Southern Europe to Eastern Kazakhstan, the Middle East and the north of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160274		habitat	eng	The Sooty Orange-tip is mostly seen in dry, flower-rich places, waste ground and abandoned agricultural land. Crucifers, such as London Rocket (<em>Sisymbrium irio</em>), the buckler mustard <em>Biscutella auriculata</em>, Hoary Mustard (<em>Hirschfeldia incana</em>) and radishes (<em>Raphanus</em> spp.), are usually abundant in its habitat. They are used by the butterflies for their nectar and as larval foodplants. The butterflies have a quick, zigzagging flight. The Sooty Orange-tip hibernates as a pupa. This pupal stage may last for one, two, or three years. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), fallow land, waste places (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), improved grasslands (10%), water-fringe vegetation (10%).
160274		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160274		threats	eng	In the long term, this species might become threatened due to climate change.
160275		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or required for this species, although it has been recorded from the Mahale Mountain National Park (Kielland 1990).
160275		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic of the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania in the Kigoma and Mpanda Districts, with records from many of forests of the area (Mukuyu (TL), Kasye, Kasoge, Mihumi, Mahale, Ntakatta, and on the Malagazi River; also from Mt Kungwe in Mpanda). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is approximately 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) is unknown, but there are records from many forests in the EOO and so the AOO is not very restricted. Furthermore, it is thought that this butterfly could be found further south than currently realised, in areas that have not currently been searched for butterflies.
160275		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is lowland and, more rarely, submontane forest at altitudes from 800 to 1,500 m (Kielland 1990).<strong> </strong>The larval host plant is thought to be  <em>Scutia</em> sp. (Rhamnaceae) (Kielland 1990)<st1:citation w:st="on"></st1:citation>.
160275		population	eng	There is no population trend data for this species, but it has been recorded from many locations in its extent of occurrence (EOO) suggesting that it is widespread and not uncommon.
160275		threats	eng	This species has a fairly small distribution and so may be threatened by deforestation in the future, however, there are currently no major threats to this species.
160276		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160276		distribution	eng	<p>This is a forest butterfly that ranges from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra  Leone</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Central  African Republic</st1:country-region>, and most of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Mongala, Uele, Ituri, Kivu, Tshopo, Tshuapa, Sankuru, Lualaba) to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, and western <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania giving an extent of occurrence well in excess of the 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;threshold for threatened species</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is widely distributed, though not particularly common.&#160;<br/></p>
160276		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The habitat is forest</st1:place> of good quality (Larsen 2005).
160276		population	eng	This species is apparently scarcer than either <em>H. antifaunus</em> or <em>H. hatita</em> (Larsen 2005) and is described as fairly common (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160276		threats	eng	This butterfly is less tolerant of habitat disturbance than its close relative, <em>H. hatita</em> (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). Due to its large distribution range deforestation and forest degradation do not currently pose a major threat to the species.
160278		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160278		distribution	eng	This butterfly occurs from southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burma</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, through peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, Sumatra and &#160;Borneo, to Mindanao in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
160278		habitat	eng	This species occurs in both primary and secondary rainforest. It is most commonly encountered in clearings or along creeks. Males establish fairly large territories, which they defend aggressively, often on hilltops.
160278		population	eng	This species is generally common throughout its range and is locally abundant.
160278		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160287		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species, although part of its restricted range lies within the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve. Further research to better quantify the distribution of this poorly investigated species would benefit protection of this poorly known species and highlight the scale of threats to the species.
160287		distribution	eng	<p>This is an unusual endemic of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region> and the forests associated with the mountains on the frontier between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Liberia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is best known from the flanks of the Nimba massif in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region> and its immediate neighbourhood (e.g. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Tonkoui</st1:placename></st1:place>). There are few records from Liberia/Guinea mountains, which have been poorly collected. The African Butterfly Research Institute, <st1:city w:st="on">Nairobi</st1:city>, has recent specimens from Tiasssale, which is a lowland locality in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region></st1:place>, quite far from the Nimbas. The total number of known specimens is rather low, but cover a long period. Its closest relative seems to be <em>H. chapmani</em>, the closest populations of which are in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region></st1:place> and with which it is sometimes confused<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>, but the differences are substantial (Larsen 2005).</p><p>Essentially, there are only confirmed records of this butterfly from two montane and one lowland location in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea. If the lowland locality is reliable, then this gives the butterfly an extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It is impossible to estimate the areas of occupancy (AOO) given the scarcity of records, but it is likely to be much smaller than the EOO as the butterfly is thought to be largely restricted to the mountainous areas described above. However, as mentioned above this species may be under-reported.<br/></st1:country-region></p>
160287		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is forest in reasonable condition. Both sexes of this species are also known to be mimics of certain black and white species of the Heliconiinae subfamily from the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acraea</span> (Larsen 2005).
160287		population	eng	This species on the whole is uncommon and certain parts of its populations are probably endangered, however, exact population data is unavailable and the distribution of this butterfly has not been fully explored for butterflies (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160287		threats	eng	This butterfly is threatened by deforestation of its forest habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008), driven largely by logging and small-scale agriculture. This threat is elevated by the restricted area of occupancy of this butterfly.
160289		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species, although some research is needed to assess whether this species is present in Ethiopia and Somalia.
160289		distribution	eng	This is a species endemic to the driest savannah habitats of northern and eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>. From the number of records it would appear to be well distributed within this habitat given that collecting intensity, especially for Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, has not been intensive. It seems likely to occur also in parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Somalia</st1:country-region> and southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region></st1:place> where little collecting has taken place. Nonetheless, even excluding unconfirmed records from Somalia and Ethiopia the EOO from Kenya is well in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy will be lower because of the the habitat specificity of the species but its habitat is widespread in eastern and northern Kenya and this species is widespread in its habitat.
160289		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to arid savannah (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The larval host plants are Loranthaceae that parasitize acacia trees and include <em>Oncocalyx fischeri</em> (<st1:citation w:st="on">Van Someren 1974) and </st1:citation><em>Emelianthe panganensis</em> (<st1:citation w:st="on">Congdon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001)</st1:citation>.
160289		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species but it is said to be widespread within its habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160289		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species that is widespread in its habitat.
160297		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160297		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sulawesi region. It occurs on the main island of Sulawesi and on the Sula Islands (Mangole). There are records of this species occuring in several areas of Lambusango forest (Winarni & Jones, 2007) and Lore Lindu National Park (Fermon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2005). The butterfly has a relatively restricted distribution, but the extent of occurrence (EOO) still exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and although not accurately known, the area of occupancy of this species is likely to be in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160297		habitat	eng	This species frequents secondary rainforest as well as areas of advanced regrowth and grassy places along the margins of forest. It flies weakly between undergrowth and grass blades in open areas and in the understory to a hight of 15 m in virgin and disturbed forest (Fermon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Adults are more active late in the afternoon. Larvae feed on <em>Paniscum psilopodium</em> (Igarashi and Fukuda 2000).
160297		population	eng	This is a generally common species. This species is tolerant of disturbance and inhabits anthropogenic  habitats meaning it is certainly not declining or undergoing major  population fluctuations.
160297		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
160298		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160298		distribution	eng	This butterfly is common in the eastern parts of Africa where it has been recorded in several subspecies from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region>, the eastern and southern <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Somalia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malawi</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Botswana</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Swaziland</st1:country-region>, the <st1:placename w:st="on">Comoro</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype>, and <st1:placename w:st="on">Socotra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Yemen</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The extent of occurrence is well in excess of one million km<sup>2</sup>. Although not currently known, the area of occupancy (AOO) is also likely to be similarly large.
160298		habitat	eng	This is a species of woodlands and savannah, though not of the driest types. This includes open forest such as coastal forest (Kielland 1990). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, it occurs at altitudes from sea-level to 2,000 m (Kielland 1990). The habitat seems to depend on the location, with the butterfly being limited to riverine vegetation in Botswana but elsewhere occurring in more open country. This butterfly is thought to utilize several species from the Poaceae as larval host-plants (Larsen 1991).
160298		population	eng	This species is common across its distribution in eastern Africa (Pringle<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1994).
160298		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats to this widespread species.
160299		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160299		distribution	eng	This butterfly is endemic to the Sulawesi region (and Sula Islands in Maluku), <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found from the Sangihe Islands north of Sulawesi through the mainland to the islands of South East Sulawesi province and also across to the Sula Islands in the east. This gives an extent of occurrence in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as a species of primary and secondary forest the area of occupancy is certainly well in excess of the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<em> </em>
160299		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest. Both sexes frequent clearings and roadsides and fly characteristically slowly, with gliding punctuated by rapid wing beats. They resemble sympatric species of <em>Neptis</em>. The food plant for this species is recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ventilago oblongifolia</span> (Rhamnaceae).
160299		population	eng	This is generally a fairly common butterfly species where it occurs. It is known to be amongst the nine most common species in Lambusango forest, Buton, southeast Sulawesi.
160299		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160304		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this very widespread and common species.
160304		distribution	eng	This species ranges from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:country-region> in the relatively narrow band of forest-savannah transition through West Africa to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region>, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Yemen</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The range also covers most of East Africa to the tropical parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">southern Africa</st1:country-region>, where the habitat is less specialized. There is a distinct subspecies on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Overall, this virtual pan-sub-saharan African distribution gives a very large EOO of around 20 million km<sup>2</sup>. As the butterfly is widespread across this EOO, the area of occupancy is also likely to be large. The altitudinal distribution is wide, based on records from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania, as</st1:country-region></st1:place> it occurs at altitudes from sea-level to 2,200 m (Kielland 1990).
160304		habitat	eng	This is a species of pre-forest and dense savannah that also has a capacity for colonizing disturbed areas in the forest zone. Therefore as a result of increasing deforestation it is being found more frequently inside the forest zone proper. It is also found in open forest, riverine bush and in frost-free savanna (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994). The habitat varies across the distribution. In West Africa, it is found in drier forests and the transition between forest and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region></st1:place> savanna (Larsen 2005), in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> in forests and forest margins (Lees<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Minet 2003) and in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Yemen</st1:country-region></st1:place> it occurs in steep, rocky wadis with little vegetation (Larsen 2005). This butterfly utilizes a wide range of larval host-plants from the Acanthaceae.
160304		population	eng	This butterfly is widespread and common across much of Africa, although it is considered uncommon in west Africa (Larsen 2005). Its population may also be increasing in degraded forest zones (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160304		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to this species and it even benefits from degradation of forests which creates a suitable forest-savannah transition habitat.
160306		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species, but it is distributed within protected areas including the Okomu Nature Sanctuary, <st1:placename w:st="on">the Oban</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Hills</st1:placetype> National Park and the Korup National Park (Larsen 2005). Further research is clearly needed into the taxonomy of the putative subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">simulata</span> which will also clarify the conservation status of the species.
160306		distribution	eng	<p>The nominate subspecies of this strictly forest butterfly is found between the Niger Delta in Nigeria through the Cross River Loop to western Cameroon, where it is well distributed in good forest. <em>B. phantasiella simulata</em> was described from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Katera</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and also recorded from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Minziro</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Excluding the uncertain <span style="font-style: italic;">simulata</span> records, the extent of occurrence of the nominate subspecies is in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<br/></p>
160306		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest and this species is most widely distributed in forest of good quality (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160306		population	eng	Although well distributed, this species is generally rather scarce – certainly much scarcer than the closely related <em>B. phantasia</em> and <em>B. phantasina </em>(T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160306		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this forest species, but as it has a fairly small extent of occurrence (<100,000 km<sup>2</sup>) deforestation must be considered a threat.
160307		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or required for this widespread butterfly.
160307		distribution	eng	<p>The species is the easternmost vicariant of three related species, which is found in the eastern <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Kivu), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Rwanda</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burundi</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> (west), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> (west of the Rift Valley), and northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) both exceed the threshold for threatened species under criteria B1 and B2.<br/></p>
160307		habitat	eng	The main habitat is forest clearings and edges in wetter parts of its extensive extent of occurrence. It is not really a species of dense forest. This may be because larval host plants are thought to be Poaceae which are common in such clearings or edge environments   (Larsen 1991). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania,</st1:country-region></st1:place> it occurs at altitudes from 800 to 2,000 m (Kielland 1990).
160307		population	eng	This species is common in forest clearings and edges in wetter parts of its extensive range (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160307		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats to this species.
160308		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160308		distribution	eng	This butterfly occurs widely in the Oriental Region, from <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burma</st1:country-region>, through peninsula <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, Sumatra, Java (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>) and Borneo, to the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region> (excluding Palawan), Sulawesi and the <st1:place w:st="on">Moluccas</st1:place>, giving a very large extent of occurrence. This forest species can tolerate some disturbance and so there is considerable suitable habitat available across the region. Therefore the area of occupancy is certainly well in excess of the threshold for threatened species.<em> </em>
160308		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is most frequently encountered along creeks or on hilltops, where males establish territories at, or near, the tops of tall saplings. Like other forest lycaenids, males frequently imbibe moisture from creek beds. The early stages are unrecorded. It is a small, inconspicuous species, easily confused with other <em>Nacaduba</em> species.
160308		population	eng	This butterfly is fairly common.
160308		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160310		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place or required for this species.
160310		distribution	eng	<p>This is a relatively common forest butterfly that has been found across the Congo basin from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria </st1:place></st1:country-region>to the DRC<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Angola</st1:place></st1:country-region><st1:stockticker w:st="on"></st1:stockticker>. Records from west of the Dahomey Gap are in error. This gives an extent of occurrence in excess of one million km<sup>2</sup> and as it is fairly widespread across this, the area of occupancy is also likely to be large.<br/></p>
160310		habitat	eng	The habitat is strictly wetter forest types in good condition, but also in secondary growth with a closed canopy (Larsen 2005).
160310		population	eng	The species is well distributed and often common across its forest habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). It is never as common as <span style="font-style: italic;">E.&#160;harpalyce</span> with which it often flies (Larsen 2005).
160310		threats	eng	Although this butterfly is said to need forest habitat of good condition, it also persists in secondary forest with a full canopy therefore it can withstand some forms of degradation, but not loss of canopy cover. Therefore, it is threatened by the main drivers of deforestation. However, these threats are not currently that significant because of the large extent of occurrence of the species.
160314		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160314		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly is endemic to the Sulawesi and Maluku region, Indonesia.&#160;It is known from the main island of&#160;Sulawesi, and from the Sula group (Mangole), to the east. Both the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy of this common species are in excess of the respective thresholds for threatened species.<br/></p>
160314		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest as well as rural gardens within forested&#160;areas. It is most frequently encountered along wide tracks through the forest, where it flies along&#160;the margins of sunlit clearings, usually a few metres above the ground. It is a regular visitor to&#160;semi-open hilltops. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species.
160314		population	eng	This butterfly species is common.
160314		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160317		conservation	eng	This species has no conservation actions currently in place or required at the species level; however, certain subspecies may be threatened. Some putative subspecies need validation.
160317		distribution	eng	<p>This species was described from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> where it is widely distributed down to the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cape Provinces</st1:place></st1:state> and is a lowland butterfly. Further north it is a submontane species and the area of occupancy becomes disjunct, leading to the description of numerous subspecies. There are submontane populations from Nigeria to Eritrea and south to Malawi and Zambia. They fly at lower levels in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Botswana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Swaziland</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and descend to sea level in southern districts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<br/></p>
160317		habitat	eng	The habitat is mostly submontane and montane forest, although it occurs at lower elevations in South Africa. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, ssp. <em>meruensis</em> occurs at altitudes from 1,400 to 2,600 m, ssp. <em>serica</em> from 400 to 2,200 m, and ssp. <em>terrena</em> from 1,200 to 2,000 m (Kielland 1990). It uses a range of host plants from the Asclepiadaceae family (Platt 1921, Kielland 1990, Larsen 1991, 2005, Heath<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2002). It also flies in coastal bush habitats (Pennington <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978).
160317		population	eng	This butterfly is often common where it occurs (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994) across its large but somewhat fragmented distribution.
160317		threats	eng	Some subspecies of this species may be threatened (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). This is probably due to degradation and deforestation of its forest habitat in the north of its distribution where the species becomes more strictly submontane in occurrence.
160318		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160318		distribution	eng	This species   is widely distributed throughout South East Asia. It occurs from Sri Lanka, India, southern China and Taiwan through Indo-China, Thailand, and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra, the Lesser Sunda Islands as far east as Alor, Sulawesi (Indonesia) and throughout the Philippines (Tsukada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985,&#160;Otsuka 1988, Corbet and Pendlebury 1992, Pinratana 1996, Vane-Wright and De Jong 2003). This gives the butterfly a huge extent of occurrence and, as the species is a habitat generalist, the area of occupancy is also very large.
160318		habitat	eng	This species   inhabits a wide variety of habitats including secondary rainforest, monsoon forest, plantations, rural areas and gardens. It is active in bright sunshine and prefers open areas, where it flies close to the ground (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2009).
160318		population	eng	This is a common species (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2009).
160318		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160324		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160324		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species endemic to southern Africa, ranging over most of <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Lesotho</st1:country-region>. However, this much area gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) of around one million km<sup>2</sup>. The butterfly is widely distributed across grasslands over this EOO resulting in a large area of occupancy.<br/></p>
160324		habitat	eng	The habitat is grassland, often on rocky slopes and ridges (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).
160324		population	eng	The exact population trend of this species in currently not known but the species is widely distributed across grassland habitats (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160324		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this butterfly.
160335		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place or required for this species.
160335		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and often common species found in forest of good condition, secondary&#160;forest, and sometimes quite disturbed habitats. It is found in the countries around the Gulf of Guinea from Guinea-Bissau (<span style="font-style: italic;">teste.</span> Jon&#160;Baker pers. comm.) right round to Congo and the westernmost DRC. The type locality was from Ashantee in Ghana. Due to some uncertainty regarding possible subspecies, the presence of the species in some parts of Cameroon, Gabon and DRC is unconfirmed. This species does not occur on Bioko.
160335		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forest habitats and with some tolerance for degraded forest. It is often seen flying down forest paths with an effortless but rapid flight.&#160; Both sexes are fond of flowers, and sometimes up to half a dozen can be found feeding together at a patch of flowers. A number of species from the pepper family (Piperaceae) are known to be larval host plants (Larsen 2005).
160335		population	eng	This species is described as fairly common (Larsen 2005).
160335		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species, which utilises a number of robust host plant species and can tolerate some habitat disturbance.
160339		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. Taxonomic study is recommended to elucidate the status of the different races of this species.
160339		distribution	eng	This species (as currently understood – see taxonomic notes) is widely distributed in South East Asia, from India, Sri Lanka and China through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is known from the Sulawesi region (Salyer, <st1:placename w:st="on">Kalao</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype>) but otherwise does not occur on Sulawesi or on <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>. Nonetheless this species has a very large extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.
160339		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs in a wide range of habitats, including secondary rainforest, monsoonal forest, moist savannah, areas of secondary regrowth, plantations, rural and even urban areas. It may congregate in large numbers at favourable locations. Larvae are polyphagous, having been recorded feeding from numerous genera in Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Moraceae and Periplocaceae.
160339		population	eng	This is a common to abundant butterfly across most of its range.
160339		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160340		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160340		distribution	eng	This butterfly ranges from Myanmar<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region> and peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region> to Borneo, Sumatra (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>) and Mindanao and Mindoro in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<em> </em>Both the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of this species are greater than 20,000 and 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> respectively and according to current knowledge are not undergoing any serious declines or fluctuations.
160340		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and tall secondary rainforest at mid to low elevations. It is a large, conspicuous butterfly that usually flies several metres above the ground, making it difficult to observe at close range. Males may hilltop on low ridges with full canopy cover. They normally occur singly in such situations, in company with other butterfly species. Individuals rest on tree trunks head downwards, defending territories from 10 m or higher on a trunk. They can also be found feeding on dung.
160340		population	eng	This is a fairly common species in lowland rainforest across its range, though it is quite sporadic in its occurence and is almost always only seen singly.
160340		threats	eng	This species is threatened locally by deforestation and severe degradation, but its distribution is sufficiently large for these not to be considered major threats.
160345		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160345		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Miombo&#160;woodlands of Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Although this species is rather locally distributed and generally uncommon, it is a widespread species of Miombo woodland. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of the species is probably in excess of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> and so with plenty of suitable habitat available across this EOO, the area of occupancy is certainly well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. In Tanzania, this species is found from elevations of 1,000 to 1,600 m (Kielland 1990).
160345		habitat	eng	This is a species of woodlands and particularly Miombo (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> spp.). The Annonaceae host-plants are found especially along streams and rivers within the more open woodlands (Kielland 1990).
160345		population	eng	This species is rather local in&#160;distribution and not usually numerous.
160345		threats	eng	The Miombo (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>spp.) habitat of this species is&#160;widespread and relatively robust. There are no major threats to this species.
160346		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species at present. Research is recommended to assess whether there are any plausible threats which may affect the global population of this species.
160346		distribution	eng	<p>Before the revision of the genus Libert (1999) found material from various localities in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>. It must also occur in the Central African Republic. Members of the genus are often missed by collectors not specially attuned to the habits of the genus. Although under-reported, it is known from a large EOO well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It almost certainly has an area of occupancy in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160346		habitat	eng	This is a forest species but it needs open “parade-grounds” and is often found at forest edges. Large numbers of nearly all Epitolini known from east of the Rift Valley were collected on Kere Hill in Minziro Forest, Tanzania by collectors spending entire days with long-handled nets on specially built platforms (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). This gives an indication of the specialised ecology and habits of this species that go some way towards explaining the under-reporting of the butterfly.
160346		population	eng	The population status of this species is not well known, given the fairly limited number of records. It is almost certainly under-reported.
160346		threats	eng	This is not a very well known species, but it is known to occur across a very large range and so is unlikely to face any major threats to its global population. However, this assessment would need to be verified.
160349		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species.
160349		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa, north through a fairly patchy distribution in South Africa and then extending northwards through the east of Africa all the way to Sudan and parts of Ethiopia. Presently, ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">zoroastres</span> is also described from the Cameroon highlands and Bioko, but there is a widespread consensus that it should be a distinct species because of its isolation. The distribution is somewhat patchy, but this species still has a huge extent of occurrence in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and although smaller, an area of occupancy also certainly in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160349		habitat	eng	The species occupies temperate evergreen forest.&#160;Females keep almost exclusively to the shady undergrowth of the forest. The four subspecies found in Tanzania are found at different altitudinal ranges from 250 m up to 2,400 m (Kielland 1990, Congdon and Collins 1998). Both sexes&#160;are fond of flowers, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Impatiens</span> species, and males occasionally mud-puddle.&#160; Males&#160;sometimes come to horse manure or cow pats (Larsen 1991). Larval host-plants include&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Clausena anisata,&#160;Zanthoxylum capense,&#160;Toddalia asiatica,&#160;Zanthoxylum delagoense,&#160;Teclea species,Vepris lanceolata</span>&#160;and <span style="font-style: italic;">Citrus</span> species.
160349		population	eng	This butterfly is distributed patchily in a number of subpopulations. In many of these subpopulations the species is common and robust, though some subspecies are more vulnerable.
160349		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
160353		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160353		distribution	eng	<p>This distinctive and readily identified species has a narrow distribution with the nominate subspecies in the drier forests of eastern Nigeria (Mozum on the Benue River, Obudu Town (common), Anambra Creek, as well as several other localities within this general area). A further disjunct population was found in Ghana in 1994 by Larsen (2005) at Boabeng-Fiema: it was later also caught some 30 km to the north of there at Kintampo and described as ssp. <em>akani</em> Hecq and Joly, 2004. Despite careful search of many collections only a single old specimen was found in the Natural History Museum, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>. The two subspecies make up two discrete populations with a fairly small extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, there is no evidence of decline of the butterfly's distribution or population and it may even be under-reported within the EOO.<br/></p>
160353		habitat	eng	The habitat seems to be forest systems in the forest savannah transition and riverine vegetation, drier than those of most members of the genus (Larsen 2005). It was even recorded in other open habitats including teak plantations and village compounds (Larsen 2005).
160353		population	eng	This species is described as a very localized riverine, forest butterfly by Hecq and Joly (pers. comm. 2004). No other population trend data are available.
160353		threats	eng	There are no major documented threats to this species which can persist in a range of habitats.
160357		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. Greater research is needed to elucidate the true taxonomic relationship between <span style="font-style: italic;">Megalopalpus simplex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. zymna</span>.
160357		distribution	eng	The species flies from Cameroon through Congo, Gabon, most of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to&#160;Uganda and is usually common in forests in good condition. This gives it a large EOO and area of occupancy (AOO).
160357		habitat	eng	The species is common in forest habitats in good condition across a wide distribution in central Africa.
160357		population	eng	Although there is some taxonomic uncertainty regarding this species, both species concerned are common and this species, as described in this assessment, is common in most forests across its range.
160357		threats	eng	This species relies on forests in reasonable condition and so is threatened to some extent by forest degradation and deforestation. However, across its large distribution these threats can only be considered minor at present.
160360		conservation	eng	In Lithuania and the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, (especially Western and Centreal Europe) important habitats should be protected and managed. More research is needed to the ecology of this species, here again, especially in Western and Central Europe. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160360		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species at present and no measures are currently required.
160360		distribution	eng	This butterfly is found in northwest Africa (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Algeria</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:country-region>), central and southern Europe to the Balkans and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The EOO massively exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and is probably in the region of three to four million km<sup>2</sup>. The AOO is also likely to far exceed the threatened threshold of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160360		distribution	eng	This is a species that occurs from the southwest to southeast of Europe: on the Iberian Peninsula, in the southwest and south of France, Italy, south of Switzerland, Austria and all over the Balkans. It also occurs locally in Poland and Lithuania. There are a few scattered and isolated populations in the Netherlands and Germany. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Morocco, Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
160360		habitat	eng	Especially in the northern part of its range, the Tree Grayling is a typical inhabitant of the open steppe. It occurs in very warm, dry and nutrient-poor areas with much open ground and sparse vegetation, such as on rockmasses and at the edge of blown sands. The size and markings of this butterfly are very variable. While remaining on the ground, the female deposits her eggs one by one on withered blades of grass. Grey Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorus canescens</span>), Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), Brown Bent-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis vinealis</span>), bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.), Feather grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pinnata</span>) and other grasses are used as foodplants. The small caterpillar passes the winter in a grass tussock and, if it does not freeze, remains active during the winter. However, growth only begins after hibernation. As development is very slow, the caterpillar only pupates towards the end of the summer in August. The flight period of the Tree Grayling, that only has one generation a year, is therefore very late. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), coniferous woodland (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (7%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (7%), inland sand-dunes (5%).
160360		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rough, rocky ground and (perhaps less frequently) in light woodland. Like most satyrine butterflies, host-plants are various widespread grasses (W.J. Tennent pers. comm. 2008).
160360		population	eng	This butterfly is widely distributed in suitable habitat throughout its range: although never abundant, it is usually fairly common where it occurs (W.J. Tennent pers. comm. 2008).
160360		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the northern part of its range. In the south, it is widespread. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Romania, Slovenia, The Netherlands and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160360		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
160360		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and (in West and Central Europe) open sand dunes and heathlands. Here also nitrogen deposition leads to a faster succession of open sand areas, thus reducing the area of suitable habitat substantially. In some Central European countries the abandonment of former military training areas also leads to the invasion of shrubs and trees, further reducing the habitat.
160365		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160365		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia to the Langkawi Islands, Singapore,&#160;Borneo and Palawan (Philippines). This gives a large extent of occurrence and as the species is even found in the small fragments of forest on Singapore, the area of occupancy must also be fairly large and certainly well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160365		habitat	eng	The species&#160;inhabits primary and tall secondary rainforest. It is relatively elusive, being seldom&#160;encountered other than on semi-open hilltops, where males congregate in small numbers with&#160;males of other species from its genus. They establish territories from the tops of tall saplings, or trees&#160;6-8 m above the ground.
160365		population	eng	The species is relatively common throughout most of its range.
160365		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat. The species can clearly survive in very small forest fragments as shown by its presence in Singapore.
160371		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this butterfly.
160371		distribution	eng	This species is a fairly scarce forest butterfly that ranges through much of the main equatorial forest zone from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Equatorial Guinea</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region> (G. Van de Weghe pers. comm. 2008); <st1:country-region w:st="on">and</st1:country-region> <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> and northwestern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place>. A distinct subspecies is found on Bioko and another on an island in <st1:place w:st="on">Lake Kivu</st1:place>. This gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of three to four million km<sup>2</sup> and the area of ocupancy (AOO) is also likely to be very large as the species is widely distributed across its EOO.
160371		habitat	eng	<p>      </p><p>This is a lowland forest butterfly that never strays from the semi-shade of the forest floor (Larsen 1991).</p><p></p>
160371		population	eng	Although this butterfly is scarce, it seems to be quite widely distributed within suitable habitats (Larsen 2005). There is negligible seasonal variation in populations of this species, as is often the case in forest butterflies (Larsen 1991).
160371		threats	eng	Although this forest species will inherently be under threat from deforestation, this cannot currently be considered a serious threat because of the wide distribution of this species.
160378		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160378		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly is found in two subspecies, one in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region> (ssp. <em>ghanaensis</em>) and the nominate subspecies in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Equatorial Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Most material in museum collections is still confused with the common <em>E. janetta</em>. The two subspecies together give a large extent of occurrence well in excess of the threshold for threatened species. The area of occupancy is not known.<br/></p>
160378		habitat	eng	It is a wet forest species with a capacity to survive also in slightly disturbed habitats with full canopy (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160378		population	eng	This is a rare species that seems to be somewhat localized, especially in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Larsen 2005).   The species is decidedly less common than <span style="font-style: italic;">E. janetta</span> which is similar in appearance and ecology (Larsen 2005).
160378		threats	eng	This butterfly relies on a forest habitat with a full canopy and so any threat that disrupts the canopy will threaten the species. However, this species is currently sufficiently widespread for this not to be a major threat.
160380		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
160380		distribution	eng	The range of this cape endemic of South Africa is limited to the Eastern Cape province (near&#160;Willowmore) and a number of localities in the Western Cape province of South Africa (Swanepoel 1953, Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Woodhall 2005). However, this distribution covers a belt stretching for&#160;some 400 km in the extreme south of country and this species is fairly widespread across this (Woodhall 2005). The extent of occurrence is well over&#160;20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and, although smaller, the area of occupancy must also exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160380		habitat	eng	This species inhabits flatlands, wetlands and rocky ledge habitats. It is often encountered in dry riverbeds (Woodhall 2005).
160380		population	eng	Though patchily distributed, this species is relatively common in the colonies where it is found.
160380		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160390		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160390		distribution	eng	This butterfly   is widely distributed from India and Sri Lanka through Myanmar, Thailand, southern China and Hong Kong to the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java (Indonesia), Palawan (Philippines) and Borneo. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are both very large as the species' habitat is widespread across its large distribution.
160390		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Adults are fairly inconspicuous and elusive, spending much time resting on the undersides of leaves in deep shade. Males occasionally imbibe moisture from creek beds, sap flows or carrion. Females are infrequently encountered. Larvae feed on <em>Celtis</em> species (Ulmaceae).
160390		population	eng	<p>This butterfly is locally common.<br/></p>
160390		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160392		conservation	eng	In the Czech Republic and Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160392		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe: in mountainous areas in the north, southeast and central Spain, in the south of France (from the Pyrenees to the Dordogne and eastwards to the Alps), in the north of Italy and in Southeast Europe from Austria and Slovakia to central Greece and Romania. 100-1,700m. It is also found in Asia Minor and Central Asia to the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160392		habitat	eng	The Twin-spot Fritillary can be found in flower-rich grassland, situated in the shelter of a woodland edge, or in scattered bushes. The most important foodplant is Meadowsweet (<em>Filipendula ulmaria</em>), although different species of <em>Dorycnium</em>, a leguminous plant, are named as a foodplant in Spain. It has one generation a year and passes the winter in the egg or caterpillar stage. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (6%).
160392		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Lithuania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160392		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160393		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly.
160393		distribution	eng	The species is limited to northeastern Tanzania where it was first described from&#160;Morningside near Morogoro. It is now&#160;known from many localities from the hills around Pugu near Dar es Salaam, the Muhulu&#160;Forest in Ulanga District, the Uluguru Mountains, the Nguru and Nguu forests, as well&#160;as the lower parts of the Uzungwa Range near Iringa. It flies from&#160;lowlands to 1,700 m (Kielland 1990). This distribution gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Reasonably large tracts of forest do remain in Tanzania, particularly within the EOO of this species (FAO <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and as this species can survive some degradation and flies in lowland and submontane forests it is highly likely that the area of occupancy (AOO) is in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This species' tolerance of disturbance makes it more resilient to the threats of the region and means that the EOO, AOO and habitat are not undergoing any major declines.
160393		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland to submontane forest of reasonable condition, up to altitudes of 1,700 m. It can survive some degradation of its habitat. Larval host plants are thought to be Santalales (Kielland 1990).
160393		population	eng	Although restricted to eastern Tanzania, this species is widespread across its range. No other details are available on the population trends of this species.
160393		threats	eng	This species can survive some degradation of its habitat. Nonetheless deforestation rates are still fairly high in Tanzania (FRA 2005), despite passing of the Forest Act in 2002 (http://www.nfp.co.tz/documents/forest_act_2002.pdf), and as the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of this species are not huge, deforestation does pose a significant threat. In Tanzania, this deforestation is driven primarily by fuelwood collection, commercial logging and agricultural expansion.
160398		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures currently in place or required for this butterfly. However, despite its large distribution it is poorly known and would benefit from some research into its habitats and ecology. This would also shed light on the threats faced by the species.
160398		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Barombi Station in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and until recently was hardly present in collections. It has since been found in some numbers also in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (e.g. <st1:place w:st="on">Sankuru</st1:place>) and in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bwamba</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is genuinely difficult to find and very localized, but must be found elsewhere in the vast forest zone that separates the known localities. Nonetheless, even from existing records the extent of occurrence (EOO) is very large: in the region of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy cannot be accurately estimated based on available data, but as a localized species must be considerably smaller than the EOO. There is certainly no evidence to suggest that this species is undergoing any major habitat or distribution decline at present.
160398		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known forest species.
160398		population	eng	This is a genuinely rare and localized species.
160398		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. The large distribution suggests that any threats are likely to be minor to the species as a whole.
160404		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this widespread species. Further canopy specimen collection should reveal that the rarity of this species is largely due to it being a strict canopy dweller.
160404		distribution	eng	<p>This is a generally rare species of central <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> that is poorly known. The nominate subspecies is known from Kakamega Forest in Kenya, Uganda (TL N’tebi), northwestern Tanzania (Minziro, Munene, and Kikuru Forests in the same general area), the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)</st1:stockticker> (Lualaba), and Congo, while ssp. <em>fontainei</em> was described from the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Uele, Paulis) and not recorded elsewhere. The EOO is thus large, but the number of actual records is low. The species is almost certainly seriously under-reported since it is a canopy dweller which is rarely caught and therefore occurs more widely than it seems.<em></em></p>
160404		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary dry forests.   The genus is very much an inhabitant of dry zones and feeds on many species of figs. The reason for their rarity is probably that they are strict canopy dwellers feeding on emergent strangler figs and treating the canopy as a savannah habitat (Larsen 1991).
160404		population	eng	This is considered a very rare forest butterfly, however, it is almost certainly under-reported because it is a strict canopy dweller (Larsen 1991).
160404		threats	eng	This rare but widespread species relies on primary forest and is marginally threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation.
160408		conservation	eng	<p>No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.&#160;<br/></p>
160408		distribution	eng	This butterfly is distributed throughout much of Southeast Asia, from Burma, Viet Nam and peninsular Thailand/Malaysia to Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands as far east as&#160;Sumbawa, Indonesia. The species is apparently absent from Borneo. Nonetheless, this species has a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and as it is common and widespread across this EOO, the area of occupancy (AOO) must also be fairly large.
160408		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is most frequently encountered in&#160;clearings within the forest, where its behaviour is characteristic of other <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyrestis</span> species. Both&#160;sexes fly slowly with sailing interspersed by rapid wing beats. They usually settle on the&#160;undersides of leaves and males may imbibe moisture from creek beds.
160408		population	eng	This is a common butterfly species across its distribution.
160408		threats	eng	<p>This species is not under any major threat.</p>
160410		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this common species.
160410		distribution	eng	<p>This is a common forest butterfly that flies in two subspecies between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea-Bissau</st1:country-region> and all of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The nominate subspecies intergrades with ssp. <em>camerunica</em> in the Cross River Loop of Nigeria. It is missing from Bénin. This gives the species a huge extent of occurrence and not much smaller area of occupancy that clearly indicate a classification of Least Concern.<br/></p>
160410		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary forest, but it also occurs in degraded habitats near forest, as long as shade from a canopy is available (Larsen 2005). It is a robust forest species that contrary to most Theclinae always stays near the forest floor and has a weak flight (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and is therefore much more frequent in collections than, for example, even common species of <em>Iolaus</em> and <em>Paradeudorix</em>.
160410		population	eng	This is a common forest butterfly (Larsen 2005).
160410		threats	eng	This species requires a forest habitat with canopy cover and so is threatened by deforestation and degradation. However, these threats are not currently serious for what is a widespread and common species.
160413		conservation	eng	This species is known only from its type specimen and so further research is necessary to identify its distribution, population status, habitats, ecology and the threats it faces. The taxonomy of this species, particularly with respect to the genitalic morphology, also requires clarification.
160413		distribution	eng	<p>This species was described in 1962 from Ouesso in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Following the genus revision by Collins and Larsen (1998), two male specimens from Cameroon were thought to possibly be of this species, however, this could not be confirmed and so the species is only recognised by the type specimen. Consequently, the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of this species cannot be estimated.<br/></p>
160413		habitat	eng	Ouesso is located in a well forested area of the Congo Basin, therefore, presumably the type specimen was collected from a forest habitat. No further information is available about the habitats and ecology of this very poorly known butterfly.
160413		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population status of this species.
160413		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
160419		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
160419		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Ghana’s Volta Region to Nigeria, Cameroon (T. Larsen pers. obs. 2007), Gabon,&#160;northeastern DRC, Uganda and northwestern Tanzania, but the number of&#160;specimens known is not great. Most of the large members of the genus are difficult to&#160;come by and often overlooked. Nonetheless, the extent of occurrence is huge, covering most of the&#160;forest zone east of the Dahomey Gap.   The known actual area of occupancy is limited by the fact that the species is rarely met with in nature and little is known about its habits. However, given that this species has most commonly been encountered in forest clearings and along forest edges, it seems likely that it must tolerate some disturbance. Therefore, the actual area of occupancy is probably much larger than currently known.
160419		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found in and around forest&#160;clearings and edges but very little is known about it.
160419		population	eng	Larsen (2005) describes this as a scarce species. Whether this is due to the habits of the species or genuine rarity is unclear.
160419		threats	eng	This butterfly is too poorly known to understand the threats it faces.
160426		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160426		distribution	eng	<p>This small butterfly is endemic to the southern parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa. Its distribution covers virtually all of the Cape Floristic region across the</st1:country-region> Eastern, Western and <st1:place w:st="on">Northern Cape Province</st1:place>s. This gives an EOO that comfortably exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Its habitat of open savannah is common across its distribution and so the area of occupancy must also exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Furthermore, the unobtrusive habits of this species mean that it is also under-reported.<br/></p>
160426		habitat	eng	This species flies is open savannah country and is very unobtrusive.<strong> </strong><em>Zygophyllum retrofractum</em> (Zygophyllaceae) is thought to be a larval host plant <st1:citation w:st="on">(Heath 1997).<br/></st1:citation>
160426		population	eng	There are little population data available for this species, but its unobtrusive habits mean that it is infrequently encountered. Its similarities to other members of its genus mean that it is also frequently misidentified or overlooked by non-specialist collectors.
160426		threats	eng	There are not currently any major threats to this species.
160432		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required at present.
160432		distribution	eng	<p>This is a rather rare butterfly of wetter forests known from Nigeria, Cameroon, Central&#160;African Republic, Gabon and parts of the DRC (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). In Nigeria, it is effectively submontane in its occurrence and it may have specialized habitat requirements (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Nonetheless, the area of occupancy (AOO) is certainly in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on the broad distribution of the species, while its extent of occurrence (EOO) is also greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The distribution therefore exceeds the thresholds that would be necessary for the species to be listed as threatened under criterion B. <br/></p>
160432		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forested habitats across its distribution in central Africa, and in Nigeria it is effectively submontane in its occurrence (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). However, little else is known about the habitat requirements or ecological habits of the butterfly.
160432		population	eng	The species appears to be a rather rare butterfly of wetter forests in central Africa, though the butterfly may be considerably under-represented in samples based on its tendency to fly high up in the forest canopy (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). There is&#160; insufficient data to make a valid quantitative analysis of the population trend at present.
160432		threats	eng	This species is not affected by any known threats. It is widely distributed in at least five countries, such that the main regional threats of habitat degradation and deforestation do not pose a significant concern to the butterfly at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160437		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action is directed towards this widespread and generally common species.
160437		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed forest species. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">kontu</span> is found in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, and subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">carana</span> in Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Angola, Central African Republic, and parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
160437		habitat	eng	This butterfly is found in most types of closed broadleaf forest within its range. It does not penetrate into the forest/savannah transition or riverine forest. Most males are caught at damp patches. Possibly females stay in the canopy, treating the canopy as if it were the savannahs to which other members of the genus are adapted. The larvae are thought to feed on trees or canopy creepers of the Rhamnaceae family. This forest butterfly can tolerate some degree of habitat degradation as long as some canopy remains.
160437		population	eng	This butterfly is generally common in most types of closed broadleaf forest within its range.
160437		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified.
160442		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species, as despite its small extent of occurrence it is well established (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160442		distribution	eng	This butterfly has a curious distribution, whereby it appears to be genuinely endemic to the forest/savannah transition zone in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte   d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a pattern shared only with <em>Neptis vindo</em><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It has been recorded frequently from the area around Lamto (TL) and Dimbrok since it was described in 1989, and is often numerous (Larsen 2005). It has been collected also further west in Tiassale (Larsen 2005) and as far south as Banco (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Abidjan</st1:place></st1:city>) (H. Warren-Gash pers. comm. 2008). Based on the four records above, the extent of occurrence is only around 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It is likely that the species has always had a fairly limited distribution. Rates of deforestation in the forest-savannah mosaic of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte   d’Ivoire have increased over the last fifty years which has altered traditional forest-savannah dynamics (Goetze<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).&#160;</st1:place></st1:country-region>
160442		habitat	eng	The habitat is the forest savannah transition and so the butterfly is less tied to forest than other butterflies in its genus (Larsen 2005). The larval host plant is thought to be <em>Sorindeia grandifolia </em>(previously<em> S. warneckei</em>) (Anacardiaceae) (Hecq and Vuattoux 1989), although this plant species is widely distributed from Guinea to Sudan (Breteler 2003).
160442		population	eng	This species is endemic to the central part of   Côte   d’Ivoire but is well established (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). No other population data are available.
160442		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species. Deforestation in the forest-savanna mosaic habitat of this butterfly does not pose a major threat as it is not tied to forest habitats.
160443		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160443		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed and common in primary and secondary rainforest throughout Borneo and the Sulawesi region, including Taliabu, Mangole, Sanana, the Talisse Islands, Kalao, Saleyer, the Tukangbesi Archipelago and Sangihe (Yata 1992). Based on this extensive range, the area of occupancy (AOO) of this butterfly undoubtedly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, while the extent of occurrence (EOO) is significantly greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160443		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary moist rainforest, where it is a very conspicuous insect. Unusually for a <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurema</span> species, most of which fly close to the ground in more open areas, this butterfly is largely arboreal, sometimes flying high in the trees. Adults spend much of their time settled on the undersides of leaves.
160443		population	eng	This forest butterfly is generally common throughout its extensive range, and may be abundant in certain localities. The population therefore appears to be stable at present.
160443		threats	eng	There are no major threats associated with this species at present. It has a widespread range, such that any local effects of deforestation or habitat degradation which occur across its distribution do not pose an immediate concern to the species as a whole.
160448		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160448		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Cameroon and Congo, to Kenya and northwestern Tanzania. Whether all populations are&#160;genuinely conspecific remains to be ascertained by DNA analysis. The type locality in Mabira Forest in Uganda and the populations in western Kenya and northwestern&#160;Tanzania all belong to this species <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu stricto</span>, as do those in Kivu Province in the DRC&#160;probably. Records from Congo and Cameroon might be a different species. Excluding the uncertain distribution records, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is still in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and is probably greater than 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> (excluding Lake Victoria). As a species of primary lowland forest the area of occupancy is smaller, however, within the EOO lie a number of forested game reserves (such as Bugiri) which alone cover an area greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160448		habitat	eng	The species occupies dense primary forest (Larsen 1991). Specimens tend to keep to the semi-shade of the forest, though they occasionally venture into forest clearings to feed at flowers.
160448		population	eng	This species is found in low numbers in dense forests across its range (Larsen 1991).
160448		threats	eng	This species rarely ventures into open areas and so is threatened to some extent by deforestation and degradation. However, sufficient habitat remains for these threats to be considered minor to the species as a whole.
160454		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160454		distribution	eng	This butterfly is a Sundanian species, occurring in peninsular&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, Sumatra and <st1:placename w:st="on">Batu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>) and <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>. Both the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are well in excess of the threshold for threatened species.
160454		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary lowland rainforest, where it occurs in deep shade (i.e., full canopy forest), usually in shallow gullies. It is found at elevations of between 200 m and 1,200 m. Despite their brilliant colouration, the adults may be rather inconspicuous, as they seldom fly far, tending to remain at rest for extended periods. Males may establish territories on low bushes. They do not persist in fire disturbed habitat (Cleary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
160454		population	eng	This is a fairly common species within primary lowland rainforest.
160454		threats	eng	This species needs full canopy primary forest and so is threatened by deforestation and forest degradation. However, at present sufficient suitable habitat remains across its range for these threats to be considered minor.
160457		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently existing or required for this species.
160457		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species with a somewhat limited range, being found in eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region>, most of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region> (G. Van de Weghe pers. comm. 2008), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region>, the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Central African Republic</st1:country-region></st1:place> and western parts of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>. However, this probably still gives an EOO of around half a million km<sup>2</sup>. The AOO is undoubtedly smaller but based on values from the UN FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 may still be as much as one hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup>. <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p>
160457		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is wetter forests in good condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160457		population	eng	This is a rather scarce butterfly, but there are a fair number of definite records (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160457		threats	eng	This species requires wet forests in good condition and therefore is threatened by deforestation. Although such threats are not currently of major importance for this species, its relatively restricted AOO means that it could become Near Threatened  or threatened in the future.
160461		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160461		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species of forest in good condition with a distribution that covers eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Central African Republic</st1:place></st1:country-region>, parts of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zambia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (north-west). This distribution covering part of the Congo Basin as well as Nigeria and Zambia gives a large extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of several million km<sup>2</sup>. This species is well distributed across its habitat in this EOO and so the area of occupancy is also likely to be large.<br/></p>
160461		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary forest in good condition (Larsen 2005). The larval food plant is probably a Sapindaceae (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
160461		population	eng	It is not as robust as, and is less common than, its close relative <em>E. eleus</em> but is well distributed within its habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160461		threats	eng	This species needs forest in good condition and so is threatened by degradation and deforestation of its habitat. These threats are not currently very significant as the species is fairly well distributed over a large area. However, the impact may increase in the future.
160465		conservation	eng	There are not currently any conservation measures in place or required for this species, but there should be efforts made to research its distribution further.
160465		distribution	eng	<p>The holotype is a single specimen that was collected near <st1:place w:st="on">Beni</st1:place>, Kivu, <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> by the famous Kenyan lepidopterist T.H.E. <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Jackson</st1:place></st1:city>. It is also known from <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kisangani</st1:place></st1:city> and <st1:place w:st="on">Sankuru</st1:place> further west (600 km) and southwest (1,000 km) in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Amiet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The extent of occurrence from this triangle is more than 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, while the area of occupancy is unknown. Most species of the genus are poorly represented in collections as they are difficult to find unless they are searched for specifically.</p>
160465		habitat	eng	Based on the location of the records of this species, the habitat of this butterfly must be forest.
160465		population	eng	There is no available population data on this butterfly.
160465		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by deforestation in its limited distribution, however, there is still plenty of habitat available across the range of the species (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008) and so deforestation does not currently pose a serious threat.
160466		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160466		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in South East Asia, occurring from southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burma</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:country-region> and Hainan (<st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region>) through the Malay Peninsula to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region> (Sumatra, Java, the <st1:place w:st="on">Lesser Sunda Islands</st1:place> as far east as Alor), the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region> (Palawan) and <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>. This gives rise to a large extent of occurrence (EOO), with the area of occupancy (AOO) also being large as this butterfly is found in a range of habitats. Both the EOO and AOO are therefore well in excess of the thresholds for threatened species.
160466		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits a range of habitats, including secondary rainforest, plantations and rural gardens. It favours open spaces, where adults fly slowly and frequently visit flowers.
160466		population	eng	This is a relatively common butterfly species.
160466		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
160472		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this butterfly. Its conservation status would be confirmed by further specialized searching for the species in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Congo.
160472		distribution	eng	<p>This forest butterfly was described in 2007 from seven localities in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Central African Republic (Libert 2007)</st1:country-region>. Virtually all the 25 specimens known were collected recently by specialized workers for the African Butterfly Research Institute, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Nairobi</st1:city></st1:place>, charged specificially with finding members of the genus on promising “ant trees”. The records from Cameroon are widespread in the forest zone and it must also be found between the localities in Cameroon and the Central African Republic, as well as in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Equatorial Guinea</st1:country-region>, northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region></st1:place> where specialized collecting has not been undertaken. Members of this genus are easily overlooked and normally only encountered on targeted searches. The large extent of occurrence far exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although the area of occupancy is much smaller. However, there are no major declines or fluctuations in habitat and so the species cannot be classified as threatened under criterion B.<br/></p>
160472		habitat	eng	This is a forest species. Like all members of the genus it relies on ant (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span> sp.) trees.
160472		population	eng	Members of this genus are invariably rare as a result of their extremely specialized ecology. However, they may be abundant around appropriate ant trees. No more specific population data are available for this species.
160472		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160473		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this widespread butterfly species.
160473		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Sudan and Ethiopia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and into north-western parts of Tanzania. In Kenya, there are numerous records from both sides of the Rift Valley (Larsen 1991). This gives an EOO of far greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> across which the species is widespread and often common. This suggests that the AOO must also far exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160473		habitat	eng	This species is widely distributed in and around forests below and into the submontane zone. Males are usually found when mud-puddling or coming to cow pats and horse manure (Larsen 1991). The larvae feed on the young shoots of their food plants, <span style="font-style: italic;">Albizia gummifera</span> and species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> (both of the family Fabaceae) (Jackson 1937, Larsen 1991). Jackson (1937) also states that they are usually found among the dense new growth of coppiced saplings in forests and river beds.
160473		population	eng	Within some areas of its wide distribution<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, this species can be quite commonly found (Larsen 1991).
160473		threats	eng	There are not currently any major threats to this widespread species.
160474		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160474		distribution	eng	This butterfly is restricted to the main island of New Guinea (Papua New  Guinea and Indonesia) and many of its satellite islands (Mysol, Waigeo, Mefor, Sariba, Normanby etc.).   It is essentially a lowland species, occurring from Waigeo and Mysol Islands, West Papua, throughout mainland New Guinea to the d’Entrecasteaux Archipelago (Parsons 1998).
160474		habitat	eng	This species   inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest and is most frequently seen flying high above the ground in open spaces, usually along roads and tracks through the forest. In common with many other forest species, nothing is known of the early stages (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008).
160474		population	eng	The butterfly is widespread but generally uncommon (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008).
160474		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160475		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly.
160475		distribution	eng	This small species was described from Etoumbi in Congo and is also recorded from five&#160;localities in Cameroon (Ebogo, Mete, Bitje/Bitye, Sangmelinae and Zamakoe) (Libert 2005). As with all&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Ornipholidotos </span>(a genus of small butterflies often overlooked by collectors), which are difficult to find and where genitalic examination is necessary,&#160;it is likely to be strongly under-reported. However, even based on the recorded localities for this species the EOO is in the region of 15,000 km<sup>2</sup> and due to the under-reporting is likely to be greater still. The area of occupancy cannot be accurately estimated based on current limited records. However, as the distance between the two furthest points is about 600 km and specimens of even the commoner species from the genus are often difficult to find, this species cannot be considered threatened. There are also large tracts of forest across and around the known EOO (FAO <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) which again suggests it is a more widespread species than currently realized.
160475		habitat	eng	<p>The species is known to occur in a narrow triangle of forest from Cameroon and Congo.<br/></p>
160475		population	eng	This poorly known species is recorded from only six localities at present and so population trends are unknown.
160475		threats	eng	Although poorly known, this species is recorded from areas where large tracts of suitable forest habitat still remain and so it does not appear to face any major threats.
160477		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place or required for this species.
160477		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly is known in a number of subspecies from a large area including&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, <st1:city w:st="on">Bioko</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region>, the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Uele, Tshopo, Kivu, Maniema, Sankuru, Lualaba), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region>, and Mount Elgon in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>. However, the distriution is somewhat patchy.<br/></p>
160477		habitat	eng	The habitat is limited to forest in reasonable condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).<strong> </strong>Larval host plants are thought to include <em>Globimetula braunii</em> and<em> Phragmananthera usuiensis</em> (Loranthaceae) <st1:citation w:st="on">(Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).</st1:citation>
160477		population	eng	This species is described as only occasionally common (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160477		threats	eng	This species currently faces no major threats across its large range, although deforestation may have an increasing impact in the future.
160478		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160478		distribution	eng	This butterfly is found in upland Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Kenya and parts of northern Tanzania. In Kenya there are numerous widespread records from highland regions both east and west of the Rift Valley (Larsen 1991). This species occurs at altitudes above 1,500 m. The EOO of this species exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and with numerous records from highland regions across this, the AOO also exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160478		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits forest and dense woodland in good condition at elevations usually above 1,500 m. Males are most often encountered in damp patches, mud-puddling or on excrement as single individuals (Larsen 1991).
160478		population	eng	There is no detailed population information for this forest species, but it is widely encountered across suitable habitats.
160478		threats	eng	The montane and submontane habitats of this species are threatened mainly by population expansion which drives deforestation for farmland as well as logging and other more minor degradative threats. However, at present, sufficient suitable habitat remains for these threats to be considered minor to the species as a whole.
160482		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or required for this species. There are records of this species from numerous protected areas across its distribution, including Okomu Nature Reserve and Korup National Park (Larsen 2005).
160482		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species of wetter forests in good condition that occurs between <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (mainly or only east of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Niger</st1:place></st1:country-region>) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>, northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, most of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Central African   Republic</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zambia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Records from west of the Dahomey Gap almost certainly refer to the endemic <em>C. petersi</em>. It is much rarer than the very common <em>C. etheocles </em>(Larsen 2005). Nonetheless, the species is definitely valid and widely distributed in the main equatorial forest zone. This gives a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and as suitable habitat is still widely available, the area of occupancy (AOO) is also fairly large.<br/></p>
160482		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is wet riverine or swamp forest (Heath <em>et al. </em>2002). Larsen (pers. comm. 2008) emphasizes that this species needs forest in good condition. The larval food plant of this species is <em>Scutia myrtina</em> (Rhamnaceae) <st1:citation w:st="on">(Henning 1989).</st1:citation>
160482		population	eng	This species is much less common than its close relative <em>C. etheocles </em>(Larsen 2005). However, it is not rare and is widely distributed from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> through most of the equatorial forests to eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).</st1:place></st1:country-region>
160482		threats	eng	This species requires forest in good condition and so is threatened by deforestation and degradation of its habitat. The main drivers for this are likely to be urbanization, logging and agricultural expansion. However, these threats are unlikely to pose a major threat at present as there is still available habitat in which this species is widely distributed.
160492		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or required for this wide ranging butterfly.
160492		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This savannah butterfly has a vast range covering the Gambia, Senegal, Guinea, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kabinda, Lualaba), Zambia (widespread), Malawi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland, South Africa (Limpopo Province, Mpumalanga, North West Province, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape Province, Western Cape Province). The species is also present in Arabia (Asir in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Dhofar in Oman). It is also suspected to occur in Somalia and Ethiopia. It is more common in southern Africa than in the west.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
160492		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This butterfly is reported from most types of savannah and poorly cultivated fields and does not penetrate the forest zone.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> It is often found in areas with short grass. Both sexes of the adult butterfly visit flowers and males make visits to damp mud (Larsen 2005). It flies all year but is scarce in the cooler areas in winter (Pringle et al. 1994).&#160;Eggs are laid on buds or young flowers. The larvae feed on many species of the plant family Lamiaceae and the larvae are parasitized by flies of the family Tachinidae (Clark and Dickson 1971).
160492		population	eng	This butterfly is often found in localized colonies.
160492		threats	eng	No consistent threats are noted from the vast range of this butterfly.
160493		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160493		distribution	eng	Occurs only in the alpine zone of southeast France and northwest Italy (from the Maritime Alps to the Hautes-Alpes and Cottian Alps).&#160; Found at altitudes between 1,800-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
160493		habitat	eng	The False Mnestra Ringlet occurs on grassy slopes and near woods. The female lays its eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca paniculata</span>, a fescue that only occurs locally. As it is the only foodplant known, this accounts for the rare occurrence of this butterfly. The False Mnestra Ringlet is single-brooded and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (33%).
160493		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
160493		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160498		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place or required for this butterfly. It is currently poorly known, largely as a result of its seasonal behaviour and so would benefit from further research into its distribution. However, as a currently unthreatened species the need for this research is not urgent.
160498		distribution	eng	The species is an endemic of central and northern Namibia, recorded from numerous localities (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). The distribution is somewhat patchy in rocky terrain containing grasslands, as is the case for most of&#160;the southern members of this curious genus, but it is still fairly widely distributed in Namibia. It is very seasonal and thus recorded less&#160;frequently than might otherwise be the case. Its EOO is estimated as approximately 16,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its distribution may extend to northwestern Botswana and southern&#160;Angola, as the habitat is widespread across the region.
160498		habitat	eng	The species occurs in grasslands situated on rocky terrain. The larval food includes algae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanophyta</span>) on rocks (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).
160498		population	eng	The species may be very numerous within&#160;its discrete subpopulations. The population as a whole is thought to be stable.
160498		threats	eng	Although there are concerns regarding desertification of Namibia's grasslands, the habitat of this species is still currently well distributed and also fairly remote, with no impending threats.
160502		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place for this species. Greater research is needed to elucidate the full extent of this species' distribution, particularly in order to identify whether it occurs in the available habitat both south and north of the currently described distribution.
160502		distribution	eng	This species was described from Kigoma in eastern Tanzania on the eastern banks of&#160;Lake Tangyanika and also found in the neighbouring area of Mpanda. There are several&#160;additional records from the same general area. On present knowledge it is a relatively&#160;narrow endemic of this area (Kielland 1990). The&#160;known distribution is completely disjunct from that of any other<span style="font-style: italic;"> Telipna</span>, with the closest species being&#160;known from several hundred kilometres north in North Kivu and with two species occurring on the&#160;Tanzania/Uganda to the north. There are only around five recorded localities but little collecting has taken place in most of the&#160;appropriate habitat, since Jan Kielland covered only a limited area. The records were taken from between 900 and 1,300 m (Kielland 1990).<br/><br/>The extent of the records listed covers only about 100-150 km along the east side of Lake Tanganyika and the total EOO based on these records is around 2-3,000 km<sup>2</sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. There are tracts of uninvestigated, suitable habitat both north and south of the existing records suggesting that this species may be more widespread than currently realized. Furthermore, as a species of several forest types, including riverine forest it is more robust than most <span style="font-style: italic;">Telipna</span> spp., suggesting again that it may be more common and widespread than current records suggest. However, deforestation rates in the west of Tanzania are high (Miles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and so the actual distribution of this species cannot be accurately estimated at present.<br/><p>&#160;</p>
160502		habitat	eng	<p>The species is a forest/riverine vegetation butterfly, narrowly endemic to the&#160;remaining forests of the Kigoma and Mpanda districts in Tanzania. Kielland (1990) recorded the species between 900 and 1,300 m.<br/></p>
160502		population	eng	Kielland (1990) describes this as a very localized and rare species but it may be more widespread than existing records suggest.
160502		threats	eng	The habitat is forest, but&#160;including riverine forest, indicating a species that is more robust than most <span style="font-style: italic;">Telipna</span> spp. However, deforestation rates are high in Tanzania and particularly in the west of the country in parts of Kigoma and Mpanda regions (Miles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), therefore the habitats of this species are threatened to some degree. The main drivers of this deforestation are small-scale agriculture, fuelwood collection, pastoralism and logging (Miles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
160509		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. The Tanzanian population of this butterfly is extremely rare but there are little data on historical trends of this population, threats to this species or even data on its current distribution.
160509		distribution	eng	This species has a curious distribution. It is found in the Ethiopian and Tanzanian highlands. It is widespread and common in the Ethiopian highlands above 2,000 m and can be&#160;very common inside Addis Ababa (T.B. Larsen pers. obs.). However, the subspecies described from Tanzania is apparently extremely rare. This subspecies is described from the northeastern highlands of Tanzania (Mount Meru;&#160;Oldeani-Ngorongoro Highlands) in what are essentially just two locations (D'Abrera 1997). Both subspecies have only been recorded from above 2,000 m.
160509		habitat	eng	This is a species of montane forest in the Ethiopian Highlands (Carcasson 1964) but is also seen in urban environments in Addis Ababa. Its habitat is driven by the presence of its larval host plant. Larvae of ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">marghanita</span> have so&#160;far only been found feeding on the exotic garden species <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropaeolum majus</span> (Tropaeolaceae), whereas the nominate susbspecies was found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica napus</span> (Brassicaceae) in Ethiopia by Larsen (1986).
160509		population	eng	The nominate subspecies is common throughout the Ethiopian highlands whilst ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">marghanita</span> appears to be extremely rare in Tanzania.
160509		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160511		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions in place for this species. However, this butterfly is an indicator species of Eastern Arc forests and should be monitored to assess the status of these forests (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). This would benefit conservation of both the Eastern Arc forests and this butterfly.
160511		distribution	eng	<p>The nominate subspecies was described from Malawi, where it is widely distributed in the submontane forests of the Malawi highlands (Zomba (TL), Mt. Mlanje, Kuche River; Mzuzu; Ruo Valley; Lichebya, Magunda Estate, Muchenza (Callaghan 2003)). Subspecies&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><em>tanzania</em></st1:place></st1:country-region> occurs in the mountains of northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Usambara, Ngu’u, Nguru, and Uzungwa mountains). The third subspecies,&#160;<em>zanzibarica,</em> is limited to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> at low levels compared to the other subspecies.&#160;<br/></p>
160511		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is submontane and lowland forests east of the main Rift Valley, including the Eastern Arc forests in Tanzania.
160511		population	eng	The two mainland populations are known from numerous records, and therefore although exact population trends are not known it is fair to say that on the whole the species is fairly common across its distribution. However, the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:place></st1:city> population on its own is probably near threatened or vulnerable (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160511		threats	eng	The <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:place></st1:city> population on its own is probably Near Threatened or Vulnerable. This status is likely to be due to deforestation driven by urban expansion and small-scale shifting agriculture (Kindo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
160515		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species at present.
160515		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in forest of reasonable quality through most of the equatorial forest&#160;zone from southern Nigeria south to Gabon and across to Uganda and northwestern&#160;Tanzania (Larsen 2005). This gives a very large extent of occurrence well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as a light disturbance-tolerant species the area of occupancy is also certainly far greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160515		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dark forest and dense secondary growth (Larsen 2005). It tolerates some habitat degradation.
160515		population	eng	It is not a common butterfly and is easily overlooked, but it is well distributed in&#160;forests (Larsen 2005).
160515		threats	eng	This species has a large distribution and has some capacity for surviving less severe habitat degradation, therefore, it does not at present face any major threats.
160519		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species. The main form is fairly common and so is not in need of conservation action. However, there is the need for research into the taxonomy of the <span style="font-style: italic;">composita</span> form. This is particularly important as it is far more scarce than the main form. If the <span style="font-style: italic;">composita</span> form is found to be a distinct species its extinction risk could be very different to the main form <span style="font-style: italic;">E. themis</span>.
160519		distribution	eng	<p>The assessor describes this as a common species in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Togo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, being found in all types of forest except the wettest in the nominate subspecies. It occurs also in eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> but is scarce. It may occur in the extreme west of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but records from east of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sanaga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> all seem to be other species. In west Africa, it tends to be more sporadic than in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but is recorded from the Guinea/Liberia Mountains and from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The main morph alone gives an extent of occurrence in the region of several hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup> and as this species is found in most forest types the area of occupancy is probably also quite large.<br/></p>
160519		habitat	eng	This butterfly is found in all types of forest, including disturbed forest, except the wettest in the nominate subspecies (Larsen 2005).<strong> </strong>The larval food plant may be<em> Deimbollia pinnata</em> (Sapindaceae) <st2:citation w:st="on">(Vuattoux and Blandin 1979), but  this record probably refers to <em>E. laboureana</em> (Larsen 2005)</st2:citation>.
160519		population	eng	This is a common species in the western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">part of its range but is more scarce in the eastern part of its range in eastern Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The <span style="font-style: italic;">composita</span>-form is much less common than the main morph (Larsen 2005).
160519		threats	eng	There are no major documented threats to this fairly disturbance-tolerant species, however, if the<span style="font-style: italic;"> composita</span> morph is found to be a distinct species the threats to it should be reevaluated.
160524		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160524		distribution	eng	<p>This is an endemic of southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> (<st1:state w:st="on">Free State</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Eastern Cape</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Western Cape</st1:state>, Northern Cape Provinces), just reaching southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Namibia</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Lesotho</st1:country-region></st1:place> to the north. This gives it a large extent of occurrence and area of occupancy sufficiently large to fall into the category of Least Concern, since it will not qualify under criterion B.<br/></p>
160524		habitat	eng	Rocky areas in which the larval foodplant is growing, from sea level to 2,500 m (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The larval host plants are from the Crassulaceae and include <em>Cotyledon cuneata</em> <st1:citation w:st="on">(Trimen and Bowker 1887, as <em>Cotyledon cuneatum</em>)</st1:citation><span style="font-style: italic;">, </span><em>Cotyledon orbiculata</em> <st1:citation w:st="on">(Clark and Dickson 197</st1:citation>1)<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span><em>Crassula obvallata</em> <st1:citation w:st="on">(Clark and Dickson 1971)</st1:citation><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and <em>Crassula nudicaulis</em>&#160; <st1:citation w:st="on">(Kroon 1999)</st1:citation>.
160524		population	eng	This is a common species (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160524		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species, other than the loss of its Crassulaceae host plants. However, these plants are not currently threatened.
160526		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly. Further research into its distribution is recommended to enable more accurate estimation of its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.
160526		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a number of localities in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). This gives a large extent of occurrence (EOO) in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy cannot be estimated based on existing records, but this butterfly is under-reported, difficult to identify and easily overlooked. Therefore, it is likely that it is actually fairly widespread in suitable habitat across its large range.
160526		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is tropical rain forest. There is no other published information about the habitat or ecology of this species.
160526		population	eng	It is a forest butterfly that is generally rare, often just recorded in single specimens, but is probably well-distributed within appropriate habitats in its large extent of occurrence.
160526		threats	eng	The threats to this species are largely unknown at present, however, large amounts of intact forest habitat remains across its range and so presumably this species does not face any major threats.
160532		conservation	eng	It is likely that a significant part of this butterfly's distribution is found in the Mrora Forest which is now gazetted as a Forest Reserve (WWF 2009). Further research is needed to identify its actual distribution and the extent of the threats it faces.
160532		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly was described in 1994 from Mrora Forest on Mafia Island off the Tanzania coast and has been found there during at least three months of the year (Kielland 1994, Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Burgess and Clarke 2000). This is a small island of about 500 km<sup>2</sup> (WWF 2009). Currently, this species has only been recorded from the type locality, the 38 km<sup>2</sup> Mrora Forest (Clarke and Dickinson 1995). Whilst it is highly likely that it is genuinely endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mafia</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island because members of this genus are extremely poor fliers</st1:placetype></st1:place>, it is also likely that it is found elsewhere on the island other than Mrora Forest. It is unlikely that the whole island is suitable habitat, but members of this genus tend to survive well in degraded habitats (S. Collins pers. comm. 2010) and so there are likely to be other areas of suitable habitat across the island.</p>
160532		habitat	eng	The forest is described as coastal bush, an almost impenetrable tangle of low trees and bushes, which differs from the other patches of true coastal forest on Mafia. This habitat includes at least one newly described and apparently endemic species of toad (<em>Mertensophryne howelli</em>). However, species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Baliochila</span> tend to survive well in degraded bush habitats.
160532		population	eng	The population trend of this little known species is unknown.
160532		threats	eng	Species of this genus can normally survive fairly substantial degradation of their bush habitat and it is unlikely that this butterfly is restricted to the Mrora Forest Reserve. Habitat loss and extreme weather events pose some threat to this species, even if it is found in other locations across the island. This is a particular problem as the Mrora area is considered an especially fertile area of the island as it is one of the few places where orange trees are able to grow (Clarke and Dickinson 1995). Storm events must pose a risk as the whole population is on this small island and a large proportion must be in the Mrora Forest which lies on the east coast of the island adjacent to the Indian Ocean. It is possible that storm frequency and intensity is increasing with climate change, which could increase the potential threat posed to this species by coastal storms. However, there is no scientific consensus as to the impact of global warming on tropical cyclones and so this threat remains uncertain (WMO 2006).
160533		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160533		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitats from Java to Alor, in the Lesser Sunda Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, giving an extent of occurrence (EOO) and also area of occupancy (AOO) well in excess of the threshold for threatened species.
160533		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits secondary rainforest, plantations, gardens and even urban areas. For example, it is common in the centre of <st1:place w:st="on">Bali</st1:place> city. Adults fly slowly, usually some metres above the ground and spend much time at flowers. Females are often observed close to mistletoe clumps, upon which the larvae feed. Larval foodplants include <em>Dendrophthoe pentandra</em> (Braby 2006).
160533		population	eng	This is a common species that may be locally abundant.
160533		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160545		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160545		distribution	eng	<p>The nominate subspecies occurs in northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> and southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan. Subspecies&#160;</st1:country-region><span style="font-style: italic;">littoralis</span>&#160;is much rarer and is found on the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenyan</st1:country-region> coast, mainly in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Arabuko-Sokoke</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype> and other localities north of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Mombasa (Larsen 1991)</st1:city></st1:place>. Very little is known of the nominate subspecies, to which a specimen from Tsavo National Park may also belong, but very little collecting has taken place within its range.</p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p>
160545		habitat	eng	This species inhabits bush savannah and open woodland. The larval hosts are suspected to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> sp. (Fabaceae) (Larsen 1991).
160545		population	eng	Subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">littoralis</span> is described as very rare on the Kenyan coast (Larsen 1991). The population status of the nominate subspecies is not known.
160545		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and fuelwood collection are major threats to Kenya's coastal forests (WWF 2009) and are the main reasons for ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">littoralis</span> being threatened. The nominate subspecies is not well known, but is found in a range of forest and savannah habitats across a much larger area than ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> littoralis</span>. Therefore, unlike ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">littoralis</span>, it does not face any known major threats.
160548		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required at present for this butterfly.
160548		distribution	eng	This butterfly has been recorded from the west of Nigeria, the Delta and the Cross River Loop of Nigeria (Larsen 2005) as well as from both the coastal plain and parts&#160;of the interior plateau in Cameroon. About 30 specimens were dissected by Libert (2005) for the revision. This gives a fairly large extent of occurrence (EOO) well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although the species is uncommon, it is widespread within this EOO giving an area of occupancy greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160548		habitat	eng	This is a species of forest in good condition. Nothing is known of its larval host plant preferences.
160548		population	eng	This is an uncommon but widespread species that is also probably under-reported.
160548		threats	eng	This species requires forest in good condition and so is threatened to some extent by deforestation and forest degradation. This is particularly true in Nigeria where little forest now remains. However, far more forest remains in Cameroon and to the species as a whole the threats posed by shifting agriculture, logging, mining and infrastructure expansion cannot be considered major at present.
160550		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this poorly known species. Considerable research is needed into the distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology of this species. This will help to document the threats to this species.
160550		distribution	eng	<p>This species was described in 2004 from a single – apparently bred – male from Likpe in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region></st1:place>’s Volta Region. Its pattern differs from other West African species and the genitalia are distinctive in relation to similar East African species. Since it was described additional males and a few females were found at Amedzofe and another <st1:place w:st="on">Volta</st1:place> locality about 35 km from Likpe. A further female was found by Szabolcs Sáfián in the Bobiri Butterfly Sanctuary in the dry semi-deciduous forests of central <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region> (near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Kumasi</st1:city></st1:place>). These limited records give a small triangular extent of occurrence of around 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> (including part of Lake Volta). The area of occupancy cannot be estimated accurately based on these records, but is likely to be much smaller as a result of widespread deforestation in Ghana.<br/></p>
160550		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is presumably forest, which is the dominant habitat in the localities where this butterfly has been found.
160550		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
160550		threats	eng	There is no available data on the threats to this species.
160552		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or necessary for this common species.
160552		distribution	eng	<p>This is a butterfly of savannah and grasslands of mainly eastern and southern Africa, but also with an isolated subspecies in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The distribution includes records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon to</st1:country-region> <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> to South Africa, giving a huge extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of eight million km<sup>2</sup>. The butterfly is common across this EOO which means that the area of occupancy (AOO) is also likely to be large. This means that the species cannot qualify as threatened under criteria B. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, this butterfly is found at altitudes from sea-level to 2,150 m (Kielland 1990).</p>
160552		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is savannah and grassland,   especially along the banks of streams and rivers. The larval food plants of this species are thought to be<em> Ehrharta erecta</em>, <em>Panicum maximum</em> and<em> Pennisetum clandestinum</em> all of which are in the Poaceae (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
160552		population	eng	This species is common across its large range (Larsen 2005).
160552		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this widespread species.
160556		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species although it has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further research into the distribution and ecology of this species will help to identify whether it is genuinely rare or under-reported. It will be important to try and identify host plant and ant associations, as these are likely to determine the species' distribution. This will also help to identify threats to the species.
160556		distribution	eng	<p>This rare forest butterfly is known from a large extent of occurrence across <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> (Ikom in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Cross</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> loop), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region>, <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Tshopo, Kivu), and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region></st1:place> (west- Bwamba). There are many specimens in museums, usually singles from different localities.&#160;<br/></p>
160556		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is forest (Larsen 2005).
160556		population	eng	This is currently considered a widespread but very rare species (Larsen 2005). The disparity between the distribution and the records suggest that it must be under-reported (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160556		threats	eng	There is no available information on the threats to this species, but as a forest species it is presumably threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation. However, the widespread distribution of this species will mean that these threats cannot be consider major at present.
160557		conservation	eng	This species is a virtual unknown. Further research is required to elucidate its distribution, population status, habitat preferences and threats. This would allow the species to be moved out of the Data Deficient category.
160557		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the male holotype from Bitje/Bitye in Cameroon, collected in&#160;1909 and described in 2000 (Libert 2005). The distribution of this species is entirely uncertain.
160557		habitat	eng	The holotype of this species was presumably collected from moist lowland forest, the predominant habitat around Bitje/Bitye.
160557		population	eng	Only known from a single holotype, the population status of this species is totally unknown.
160557		threats	eng	The current or potential future threats to this species are unknown as the species is known from just one specimen, collected over 100 years ago.
160559		conservation	eng	The two main known populations of this species are found in national parks (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). No other conservation actions are required although further research is needed into the distribution of this butterfly in Mozambique.
160559		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the eastern mountains of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> and there are records from the Chimanimani Mts and the Vumba [Bvumba] Mts. It must also be found on the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region> side of the border, which has barely been studied as far as butterflies are concerned and which occupies a larger area than in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Nothing much is known about the species, all material having been collected in traps (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994) but even the relatively localized members of the black <em>Charaxes</em>&#160;butterflies are usually well distributed and relatively common in their area of occupancy (AOO) and this is probably the case for this species as well. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of the known Zimbabwean distribution of this butterfly is approximately 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but this excludes the currently unknown Mozambique distribution which is probably larger. The AOO is smaller still, but the habitat is primarily miombo woodland in the eastern highlands which is fairly extensive within the EOO (Nyoka and Musokonyi 2002).&#160;<br/></p>
160559		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is the montane and submontane forest in Eastern Zimbabwe and probably in neighbouring Mozambique. This includes miombo type woodlands. <em>Albizia adianthifolia</em> (Fabaceae) is thought to be a larval host-plant (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).<st1:citation w:st="on"></st1:citation>
160559		population	eng	There is no reason to expect any population declines and the species is probably stable within its rather small area of occupancy (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160559		threats	eng	The main known populations of this butterfly are found in national parks and there is a large amount of suitable habitat available (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008) and so the most likely threat of deforestation is not currently a major threat to this species.
160564		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
160564		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the northernmost part of the Urals through the arctic and temperate parts of Asia and North America (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
160564		habitat	eng	This butterfly can be found on meadows and rocky tundras. The main larval hostplant is <em>Carex</em> spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%).
160564		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
160564		threats	eng	Not examined.
160576		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may benefit from further research into its distribution; however, this is not an immediate concern given that the current distribution of this species is still very large.
160576		distribution	eng	This species was first described in 1997 from Ebogo in Cameroon, but there are records&#160;from elsewhere in Cameroon (Larsen 2005) as well as from the DRC (Shaba) and Tanzania (west and&#160;north-west). The westernmost record is from Korup National Park, although there are unconfirmed records from east Nigeria and the Volta region in Ghana (Larsen 2005).&#160;&#160;It probably also occurs in the intervening countries. However, members of the&#160;genus are not easy to come by and genital examination is necessary for confident&#160;identification: the species is therefore likely to be under-reported and more widespread than currently thought. Even with this under-reporting the species has a very large extent of occurrence in excess of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The known area of occupancy exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but is probably much larger.
160576		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is forest and forest/savanna transition.
160576		population	eng	As most data on this species are only recently acquired and it comes from an elusive genus, little is known about its population status. However, given this information it seems likely that this is an under-reported species that is more common than current records suggest.
160576		threats	eng	This widespread species is not especially habitat-specific and therefore it does not face any major threats.
160578		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species at present. However, taxonomic research is recommended to clarify the status of the putative subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">dulcis</span>.
160578		distribution	eng	Trimen's Ciliate Blue is found throughout southern and eastern Africa. It was described from South Africa, where it is widespread, and also occurs in the extreme south of Tanzania, Malawi, east Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The nominate subspecies, as currently defined, is found primarily across South Africa although its range also covers the DRC, Tanzania, Malawi, east Zambia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, north Namibia and Swaziland. Putative ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> dulcis </span>is primarily found in Ethiopia although it is also distributed in Somalia and along the Kenyan coast. The nominate subspecies alone gives the species a huge extent of occurrence and as its savannah habitat abounds across its range, the area of occupancy must also be large. Both certainly far exceed the respective thresholds for threatened species under criterion B.
160578		habitat	eng	The habitat is dry savannah country of most types including dry, thorn-veld savannah. In particular, this butterfly is found flying around <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> tree crowns where they breed and also feed on nectar. Multiple host plants from the family Fabaceae act as the larval food source including <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia karroo</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. zanibarica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. seyal</span> and multiple species from the genus <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Dichrostachys </span>(Clark and Dickson 1971, Larsen 1991, Heath et al. 2002). These host plants are associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span> ant species of the family Formicidae which protect the leaves of the plant in a mutualistic relationship (Kielland 1990).<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span></span></span></span>
160578		population	eng	The assessor describes the population of this species as stable. The nominate subspecies does not appear to be that common, but is widespread in Zambia (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dulcis</span>&#160;appears to be common in Kenya, especially in drier regions.
160578		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
160588		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species. Further research on the distribution of this species may be required to confirm its distribution in the forests between Korup and the Sanaga River. The species also occurs in Korup National Park.
160588		distribution	eng	<p>According to present records the species is endemic to the Cross River Loop in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> between the Cross and Sanaga Rivers, where it may be common in the Oban Hills and Korup (Larsen 2005). It has not yet been found in the western parts of the Oban Hills and only sparingly between Korup and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sanaga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The extent of occurrence is not very large, but probably does exceed 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, however, the butterfly may be under-reported southeast of Korup. However, there is no evidence of major decline of the species' distribution and the populations in the Oban Hills and in Korup National Park are thought to be sufficient to maintain the species.</p>
160588		habitat	eng	The habitat is wetter forests in good condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160588		population	eng	This butterfly is actually fairly common where it occurs, particularly in the Oban Hills and the Korup National Park (Larsen 2005).
160588		threats	eng	This species relies on forest in good condition and so is threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation across its limited range.
160590		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160590		distribution	eng	Scattered occurrence in several mountainous regions of Europe: Spain (Cantabrian Mountains., Pyrenees), France (Pyrenees, Massif Central and the western and eastern Alps), central Italy, Romania (Carpathians), Bulgaria (Rila and Pirin Mountains.) and in the mountains of Serbia, Albania and Bosnia. Found at altitudes between 1,600-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
160590		habitat	eng	The Common Brassy Ringlet occurs on dry, grassy slopes, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and scree. The female lays its eggs on dry stalks of grass, close to the ground. Its foodplants are various fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first or second larval instar and pupate the following year between June and August. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (58%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%).
160590		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160590		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160593		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this common species.
160593		distribution	eng	This species is common and widespread across most of the West African and equatorial&#160;forest zone, occurring in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia,&#160;Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria (south), Cameroon, Congo, Central African&#160;Republic, Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Uganda, western Kenya, western Tanzania, and northern&#160;Zambia (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). However, it does not reach Sudan, Ethiopia, or western Kenya. It can withstand&#160;considerable environmental degradation and extends into riverine vegetation. The butterfly also has&#160;significant migratory powers (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Considering the widespread distribution of this species across at least sixteen countries, it is clear that the area of occupancy (AOO) of this species dramatically exceeds the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> required to merit a threatened status, while the extent of occurrence (EOO) is similarly likely to be considerably greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160593		habitat	eng	This species is known in most of the West African and equatorial&#160;forest zone, occurring in forest at various altitudes, as well as heavy woodland (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;The butterfly penetrates open country more effectively than any&#160;other member of the genus and is more at home in secondary habitats than in primary forest. Occasional population&#160;explosions may give rise to mass migrations (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Larval host plants include&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Rawsonia usambarensi</span>s;&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Rawsonia lucida</span>;&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Caloncoba gilgiana</span>;<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Caloncoba glauca</span>;<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Lindaeckeria</span> species;&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Uapaca</span> species; and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Oncoba spinosa</span>.&#160;The larvae are communal and drop&#160;off the tree when interfered with (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160593		population	eng	While specific quantitative population records are lacking for this forest butterfly, it is known to be one of the most common and ecologically adaptable members of the genus (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160593		threats	eng	There are no major, immediate threats to this forest butterfly. The species is highly adaptable, and is common in secondary habitats as well as primary forest (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Hence, the main regional threats of deforestation and forest degradation do not pose a significant threat to this widespread and robust species at present.
160595		conservation	eng	The most urgent action is the protection of the remaining habitat from further destruction by quarrying. Research is also needed on the ecology and habitat requirements of the species to ensure that a proper management plan can be drawn up to prevent the species from becoming extinct. The effects of the management should be monitored closely by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
160595		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the Pletvar Massif near Prilep in the FYR of Macedonia, between 1,000-1,200 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
160595		habitat	eng	The Macedonian Grayling inhabits dry, limestone rocks with grassy vegetation here and there. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).
160595		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The population size is possibly below 10,000 specimens in bad years.
160595		threats	eng	This is a European endemic, restricted to one location globally. The area of habitat for the species is shrinking due to active quarries. Without any intervention the species is critically threatened with extinction.
160607		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly.
160607		distribution	eng	This species is probably the most common member of its genus and is found in forests from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte   d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region> to Ituri in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Larsen 2005). West of Cameroon, this species tends to be found in wetter forest systems. There are also unconfirmed records of this species from Liberia. This distribution gives the species a huge EOO far in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As a fairly common and widespread species in forests across this EOO, the AOO must also exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160607		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary forest and particularly in wetter forests in West Africa (Larsen 2005).   This species is most often encountered while feeding from extrafloral nectaries of Marantaceae.&#160; Here they are found as singles or small groups, often together with other Poritiinae, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Liptena simplicia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eresiomera bicolor</span>. It is evenly distributed through its forest habitat, possibly not being tied to specific ‘ant-trees’. The flight is fast but they rarely fly spontaneously and they most often occur between one and two metres above ground level (Larsen 2005). Nothing is published on the larval hosts of this species.
160607		population	eng	Contrary to most other members of the genus it is often quite numerous and relatively common (Larsen 2005).
160607		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and fairly common species at present.
160609		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160609		distribution	eng	This is a Sundanian species, widely distributed across peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra (Indonesia).
160609		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Males are active hilltoppers,&#160;congregating in moderate numbers together with males of other species from the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rapala</span> genus. They are most&#160;active in the mid-late afternoon bright sunshine, aggressively defending perches at 2-4 m&#160;above the ground. Both sexes frequently visit flowers.
160609		population	eng	The species is generally common where it occurs.
160609		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160612		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160612		distribution	eng	The Anomalous Ciliate Blue<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widely distributed in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, east Nigeria and the extreme west of Cameroon (Larsen 2005). It occurs in all forest formations in west Africa up to the forest/savannah transition belt north and south of the equator, giving an EOO well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although a scarce species of primary forest, it has been widely recorded from primary forest across its large EOO, suggesting that the area of occupancy (AOO) must also exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160612		habitat	eng	The Anomalous Ciliate Blue inhabits good quality,  primary forest habitat (Larsen 2005).
160612		population	eng	This is a widely distributed but scarcely encountered butterfly (Larsen 2005).
160612		threats	eng	Although this primary forest species is infrequently encountered, it has been widely recorded across its large EOO. While deforestation and forest degradation may threaten some populations locally, the overall levels of threat to the species as a whole appear to be small.
160614		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place or required for this common species. It is sure to be found in numerous protected areas across its large range.
160614		distribution	eng	This is a common forest butterfly in virtually the entire main forest zone from the Basse Casamance in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Senegal</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Angola</st1:place></st1:country-region>, throughout the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> south to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zambia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This gives the species a very large extent of occurrence (EOO) and a similarly large area of occupancy (AOO).
160614		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is evergreen forest and it also penetrates drier forest and degraded forest (Larsen 2005). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania,</st1:place></st1:country-region> it is found in forest and riverine vegetation above 1,100 m (Kielland 1990).  T.B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2008) describes it as a robust species that can survive in pre-forest, riverine vegetation, and degraded habitats. It utilizes a wide range of larval host plants from the Ulmaceae, Rhamnaceae and Fabaceae (Van Someren 1974, Henning 1989, Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Larsen 2005).
160614		population	eng	This is by far the most common of the forest black <span style="font-style: italic;">Charaxes</span> in West Africa and is common across the forest zone (Larsen 2005).
160614		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this common, widespread and disturbance-tolerant species.
160618		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160618		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species endemic to <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> west of the Dahomey Gap, known from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Liberia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ivory Coast</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, including the Volta Region and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Togo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, which is unusual for West Africa endemic forest species. This gives the species a large extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy is probably also fairly large in suitable wet forests.<br/></p>
160618		habitat	eng	The habitat is strictly wet forests in good condition (Larsen 2005) and the species is much less numerous than the closely related <em>E. harpalyce</em>, with which it flies. The species does not occur in drier semi-deciduous forests (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160618		population	eng	It is rather scarce in the eastern part of its range, rather more common in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Liberia</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Overall it is not common, but it is widely distributed, except in the drier semi-deciduous forest zone (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160618		threats	eng	Because this species requires forest habitat of good condition, it is threatened by forest degradation and deforestation; however, its extent of occurrence is sufficiently large for this not to be a currently significant threat.
160629		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160629		distribution	eng	This butterfly is a Sundanian species, ranging through peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burma</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region> (including the <st1:placename w:st="on">Langkawi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype>), and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sumatra</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Both the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are fairly large and in excess of the thresholds for threatened species.
160629		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, as well as areas of regrowth and village gardens. It is a conspicuous species that flies with a characteristic ‘bobbing’ flight, often close to the ground. It habitually rests on the undersides of leaves. The life history was recently recorded in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region></st1:place> where larvae feed on <em>Balanocarpus heimii</em> (Dipterocarpaceae), <em>Kurrimia</em> <em>paniculata </em>(Celastraceae) and <em>Fissistigma</em> <em>wallichii</em> (Annonaceae), attended by ants belonging to the genera <em>Tapinoma</em>, <em>Crematogaster</em> and <em>Lasius</em> (Saarinen 2005).
160629		population	eng	This is a relatively common species throughout most of its range.
160629		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160633		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended on the species' distribution and ecological requirements which is currently not well known because of difficulty in distinguishing this species from three others.
160633		distribution	eng	<p>This small butterfly is limited to the driest savannahs and the Sahel of Africa north of the Equator. Its exact distribution is not well known since dissection is necessary to tell it from three other species. However, it&#160;has been recorded from one or more localities in Senegal, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and Somalia.&#160;</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
160633		habitat	eng	<p>This small butterfly is limited to the driest savannahs of Africa north of the Equator. It is usually associated only with very low <em>Zizyphus</em> plants in grassland areas.</p>
160633		population	eng	<p>This species is not well known since dissection is necessary to tell it from three other species, one of which much more common than the others combined. However the extent of occurrence is large and records show that distribution is continuous throughout.</p>
160633		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species or its habitat.
160640		conservation	eng	This is a very poorly known species. Further research is required primarily to identify its taxonomic relationship to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hewitsonia bitjeana</span>, but also to elucidate its distribution, population status, ecology and the threats it faces.
160640		distribution	eng	<p>This is a rare butterfly described from western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and found also in the Cross River Loop of Nigeria. There is a questionable record from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The distribution is very poorly known and so neither the extent of occurrence nor the area of occupancy can be accurately estimated.<br/></p>
160640		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is forest (Larsen 2005). Nothing else is reported on the habitats and ecology of this butterfly.
160640		population	eng	This is a very scarce and localized butterfly (Larsen 2005).
160640		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
160641		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160641		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely in primary and secondary forest across the Sundaland region of Southeast Asia, encompassing Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, and Pulau Laut of Indonesia. While detailed records of the distribution of the species within these regions are lacking, the area of occupancy (AOO) undoubtedly dramatically exceeds the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> required to merit a threatened status, while the extent of occurrence (EOO) is likely to be in the region of several hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup>. This value is inferred from the total area of suitable forest in the regions in which the species has been recorded.
160641		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland primary and secondary rainforest. Both sexes are elusive and tend&#160;to keep to dense vegetation, where they may remain settled for long periods in bushes between&#160;one and two metres above the ground. Males may congregate in small numbers on the tops of&#160;mountains where they aggressively defend small territories. Nothing is known of the early stages&#160;of this species.
160641		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this forest butterfly. However, the species tends to be common where it occurs, particularly on certain hilltops.
160641		threats	eng	There are no major, immediate threats to this forest butterfly. Though some degree of habitat conversion due to deforestation and forest degradation does occur to varying extents throughout its range, the species is widespread and common, such that these effects do not pose a significant threat at present.
160646		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160646		distribution	eng	This is an endemic of the forests west of the Dahomey Gap. It is widespread and quite&#160;common between Sierra Leone and Ghana, but does not cross the Volta River to Togo. The absence of this species from the Volta/Togo mountains is fairly surprising since it is common and ecologically quite tolerant in&#160;Ghana. Nonetheless, the extent of occurrence of this species far exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As a common and disturbance-tolerant species, this butterfly also has a fairly large area of occupancy which must exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160646		habitat	eng	<p>It mainly occurs in primary and seconday forest of good quality but can survive some&#160;degree of habitat degradation. The behaviour and ecology do not differ noticeably from the other members of its genus.<br/></p> <p><br/></p><p> </p>
160646		population	eng	This butterfly is common across its distribution in West Africa (Larsen 2005) and is described as one of the most widespread Lipteninae of the region.
160646		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread, disturbance-tolerant and common species.
160654		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly.
160654		distribution	eng	This is a rather rare and unusual species that has been recorded from eastern Nigeria&#160;(only Cross River Loop), Cameroon, Central African Republic and the eastern DRC in&#160;two subspecies. Larsen (2005) recorded only three specimens from two locations&#160;during 45 collecting days in the Oban Hills National Park, Nigeria, but its rarity is probably&#160;linked to its habits. It must also be in&#160;Congo and probably Gabon. Nonetheless, it has a large extent of occurrence (EOO) in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and this species is probably under-reported and so almost certainly has an area of occupancy of greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, despite its rarity.
160654		habitat	eng	<p>The species occurs in wetter forest habitats in good condition. It is a good indicator species of fairly undisturbed rainforest&#160;– where the species occurs there is almost certainly a high level of biodiversity. The species is always&#160;associated with ant-trees (Larsen 2005). Nothing is published on the larval hosts of this species.<br/></p>
160654		population	eng	This is a rare species (Larsen 2005) that appears to be patchily distributed over its large extent of occurrence.
160654		threats	eng	This species does not tolerate much disturbance and relies on wetter forests. However, despite its rarity, this species has a sufficiently large distribution at present for these threats to be considered minor to the species as a whole.
160659		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or required for this species.
160659		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> (Kigoma, Ufipa), widely in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region> and Shaba (<st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>), and parts of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Mutare, Hwange). It must also be in southeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known to occur between 1,000 and 1,800 m in Tanzania (Kielland 1999). Both the extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are far greater than the thresholds of the threatened species criteria.
160659		habitat	eng	<em>Brachstegia</em> woodland is the primary habitat (Kielland 1990). Kielland (1990) notes that <em>touhilimasa</em> occurs in hilly terrain in Tanzania at altitudes from 1,000 m to 1,800 m, whereas the closely related <em>artaxia</em> is found mostly at the base of valleys. The larval host-plant is thought to be <em>Phaulopsis johnstonii</em> (Acanthaceae) <st1:citation w:st="on">(Heath  <em>et al</em>. 2002)</st1:citation>.
160659		population	eng	The population trend is poorly documented, but this butterfly is common in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland, at least in Zambia (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and Larsen (Pers. comm. 2008) also describes it as being occasionally numerous.
160659		threats	eng	According to the UN FAO, <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland is not currently under significant threat as it still covers a large area (Nyoka and Musokonyi 2002). Furthermore, as this species occurs more commonly at higher altitude its habitat is less at risk from the major threat of deforestation for commercial or agricultural expansion.
160662		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160662		distribution	eng	This butterfly is distributed within the Sulawesi region and northern Maluku, Indonesia.&#160;It may also occur on Biak (see 'Taxonomic Notes'). The extent of occurrence is certainly greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy cannot be accurately estimated for this fairly common species of both primary and tall secondary forest but is likely to be well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160662		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary and tall secondary forest. It is most frequently seen at flowers or&#160;flying along creeks. Males may imbibe moisture from creek banks, where they sometimes&#160;congregate with other species from its genus.
160662		population	eng	<p>This is a fairly common species.<br/></p>
160662		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160665		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160665		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Sundaland, including Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java (Indonesia) and&#160;Borneo. This gives a large extent of occurrence (EOO) and as the species is common in primary and secondary forest across this EOO, the area of occupancy (AOO) is also reasonably large and certainly in excess of 2,000 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>. The species occurs at mid- to low elevations.
160665		habitat	eng	The species inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest but favours semi-open areas within the&#160;forest. Adults are most commonly encountered in such clearings and are highly active. The species is a tree specialist (Hirowatari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007). Cleary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) found that this species showed very high abundances in once and twice burned forest. However, it did less well in logged areas. Males&#160;may occupy hilltops singly, but usually establish loose territories some distance from the summit.
160665		population	eng	<p>This butterfly is considered moderately common locally.</p>
160665		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.&#160;<br/> <p><br/></p>
160674		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species. However, the species could benefit from further research into the butterfly's distribution in the DRC. It should be noted that this research is not an urgent concern as the species is not under any immediate threat.
160674		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the DRC. The type was described from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ikelemba</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Shaba</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Katanga</st1:place></st1:country-region>) and there are records from Tshopo and Equateur provinces as well. A second subspecies is accepted from the Kivu Province to the northeast. The area where it has been found is poorly collected. The true distribution must be much larger than the current records indicate, and it must be found between Kivu in the north and the known records from Shaba and Equateur. Given even this known distribution, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is far greater than the threshold for threatened species. The area of occupancy is smaller, as the species is quite localized due to its reliance on swamp habitats for larval host plants. Nonetheless, this also probably means that the species is under-reported.
160674		habitat	eng	The larvae feed on swampy palms within forest in reasonable condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160674		population	eng	This species tends to be localized due to larval feeding requirements on swampy palms (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). No other population trend data is available.
160674		threats	eng	This species relies on forests in reasonable condition with swampy palms and so is threatened by deforestation. These threats are not currently very serious as the species has a large extent of occurrence and may also be under-reported.
160675		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160675		distribution	eng	<p>This species has a distribution that covers a large proportion of the main African forest zone, except for the south and the East African coastal forests. The range stretches from Guinea to the DRC and Uganda, giving a huge extent of occurrence well in excess of the 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;threshold. Since this butterfly is found in secondary as well as primary forest the area of occupancy is also in excess of the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;threshold for threatened species. </p>
160675		habitat	eng	The habitat is primary forest, and, to a lesser extent, secondary forest with a closed canopy (Larsen 2005). It is a forest species that feeds on the kernels of tree fruits (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160675		population	eng	This is not a very common species and is usually found as singles in and around forests (Larsen 2005). However, this may be under-reporting due to the occurrence of the species predominantly in the canopy (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160675		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species that can survive some habitat degradation.
160676		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160676		distribution	eng	This butterfly species is distributed widely in South East Asia, where it ranges from northern India, through Indo-China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Okinawa (Japan), peninsular Thailand/Malaysia to Sulawesi and possibly Borneo (see Taxonomic Notes). Although the species has been recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, Monastyrskii and Devyatkin (2003) did not include the species in their checklist of the butterflies of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Nonetheless, the species has a very large extent of occurrence and, as inhabitants of primary and secondary forest which is still fairly abundant across its distribution, the area of occupancy is also quite large.
160676		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest. Males are most commonly seen on hilltops late in the afternoon, where they defend territories from perches a few metres above the ground. Both sexes frequent flowers, usually high in the forest canopy. Adults are extremely rapid flyers. Larvae feed on the fruits and flower buds of <em>Gardenia</em>, <em>Randia</em> (Rubiaceae) and other species, where they may cause significant damage.
160676		population	eng	This species appears very local, but is occasionally fairly common.
160676		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160677		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160677		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to coastal eastern Australia, from north of Cooktown in Queensland to Iluka in northern New South Wales. Within this range, the butterfly is widely distributed across a variety of habitats, including primary and secondary rainforest, as well as wet sclerophyll forest and vine thicket behind beaches. While precise records regarding the distribution of the species are lacking, Cooktown and Iluka are over 1,500 km apart and so it is highly likely that the AOO exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2 </sup>and that the EOO is significantly greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160677		habitat	eng	This butterfly occupies a range of habitats, including primary and secondary rainforest, as well as wet sclerophyll forest and vine thicket behind beaches. Adults are relatively inconspicuous and are most commonly observed at flowers or on elevated perches in clearings and along tracks through the forest. The larvae feed at night on the fresh growth of the vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Smilax australis</span> and are attended by ants. The larvae have also been recorded to shelter and pupate in curled dead leaves or in debris at the base of the foodplant.
160677		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records for this species are lacking. However, the butterfly tends to adopt a relatively patchy distribution, though is not uncommon where it does occur.
160677		threats	eng	This species is not affected by any known threats at present. It is widely distributed across eastern Australia and occupies a range of different habitat types, which should make it resilient to any future habitat loss.
160678		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160678		distribution	eng	This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It is absent from Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, north of Lithuania, north of Germany, the Netherlands, north and central Britain, Ireland, Portugal, south of Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In Spain, it is only in the Cantabrian Mts.and the Pyrenees. Sea level-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa and from the Southern Urals across the Caucasus and Asia Minor to the north of Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
160678		habitat	eng	The Marbled White inhabits many different types of nutrient-poor grassland. It is common in the southern part of its range, also on road verges and in agricultural areas. The butterflies need a lot of nectar and are often seen on plants in bloom. Various grass species, mostly fine-leaved, are used as foodplants. The female usually just drops its eggs into the grass, sometimes while flying. The first instar caterpillar hibernates without eating first. In periods of hot weather, the other instars can also go without food. They pupate deep in the vegetation. The Marbled White has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mixed woodland (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).
160678		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160678		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160680		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160680		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in a belt from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Free State</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> across the northern part of the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces to most of the Northern Cape Province and southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Namibia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It should penetrate the southernmost parts of Botswana. This gives an extent of occurrence in the region of one million km<sup>2</sup> and as the habitat is widespread within this the area of occupancy is likely to also be large.<br/></p>
160680		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The main habitat is the southern African habitat known as Karoo</st1:place>, which is an open, flat grassy type of habitat. This includes hilly and mountainous regions (Henning and Henning 1996).&#160; Individuals are scattered over wide areas (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).   In their arid habitat they are commonest around wetter, more lushly grassed depressions. The larval food plant is <strong></strong><em>Ehrharta erecta</em> (Poaceae) (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).
160680		population	eng	This butterfly is common across its large range (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160680		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species.
160685		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160685		distribution	eng	This butterfly   is endemic to the Sulawesi region, Indonesia.    Its range includes mainland Sulawesi, Banggai, Salayar, Muna and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Buton</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place>, giving it an extent of occurrence in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160685		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest, as well as disturbed areas within the forest. Adults are very conspicuous and both sexes fly slowly, usually several metres above the ground. They spend much time feeding at flowers, and females frequent mistletoe clumps searching for oviposition sites.
160685		population	eng	This species is locally common to abundant where it occurs.
160685		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160695		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160695		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species, absent from the northwest and southeast of France, Scandinavia, Britain and Italy. In Spain, it is only found in the eastern Pyrenees.  Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in the temperate forest zone of Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160695		habitat	eng	The Map is a common butterfly of woodland edges, coppices, hedgerows and wood banks. It has two generations a year. The butterflies of the spring generation are predominantly orange and those of the summer generation predominantly black on the upperside of the wings. In warm years, there may be a partial third generation that in colour is somewhere between the spring and summer form. The Map gets its name from the intricate pattern on the underside of its wings. These butterflies enjoy basking in the sun with their wings wide open, often on the ground. The Map has a dainty floating flight, but it settles again quite quickly. The foodplants are Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>) and Small Nettle (<em>U. urens</em>). The eggs are deposited in short chains on the underside of the nettle leaves and look very much like threaded pearls. The caterpillar is black with red-brown spines and two prominent spines or ?horns? on its head capsule, absent in the caterpillar of the Peacock (<em>Inachis io</em>). The caterpillars are gregarious, but do not spin a nest. They pupate on the foodplants and pass the winter as a pupa. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), mixed woodland (17%), urban parks and large gardens (11%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mesophile grasslands (6%).
160695		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It has expanded its original range spectacularly since the middle of the 20th century both in northern and southern direction. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160695		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160696		conservation	eng	This species is not well known and would benefit from research to identify the real extent of its distribution, particularly in the area between Rondo and Amatongas.
160696		distribution	eng	<p>The nominate subspecies was described from southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region> where it is known from the Dondo, Amatongas, and Inhamitanga coastal forests. More recently a distinct subspecies was found in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rondo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (above 600 m) somewhat inland of the southern Tanzanian coast (Kielland 1990) and a third subspecies was described from Kitchi Hills, south of Mchukwi, 40 km from the coast in Tanzania. These localities are the only five localities known for this species, but this still gives the butterfly an EOO well in excess of&#160; 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) cannot be estimated accurately based on these limited records, however, the area between Amatongas and Rondo is virtually unexplored and so  it seems inevitable that with further research the AOO will be confirmed as being greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This is supported by the presence of more than 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> of coastal forest habitats in Mozambique (Kanji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. year unknown).<br/></p>
160696		habitat	eng	The nominate subspecies occurs in coastal forest while subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">subgrisea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">marginata</span> are found in dry montane forest (Henning and Henning 2004).   Specimens fly feebly, up and down the lichen-covered trunks of trees, often about 12 m above the ground.&#160; They will, however, come down to settle on low vines (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). The above behaviour fits with the knowledge that larvae of the liptenines feed on lichen (Brower 2007).
160696		population	eng	This species is known only from five localities and so its population status is unknown.
160696		threats	eng	The coastal forests along Africa's east coast are threatened by deforestation and degradation driven by infrastructural expansion, cutting for fuelwood, livestock grazing amongst other threats. However, this species does not appear to be limited exclusively to coastal forests and sufficient forest habitat still remains at present for threats to be considered minor.
160704		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160704		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species. Not present in the south of Spain, large parts of Portugal, the southern coast of France, north Brittany, Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, large parts of Belgium, north of Germany, Denmark, south of Greece and many Mediterranean islands. In Scandinavia it is only found in the south of Sweden and near the Oslo Fjord. Sea level-1750 m. It is also found across the Caucasus to Asia Minor. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
160704		habitat	eng	The Pearly Heath is found on dry, to moderately damp, grasslands and grassy places at the edges of woodland or scrub. The Pearly Heath is common in some areas. They are active butterflies that fly a lot and are therefore easy to find. The males can often be found, perched in scrub, basking in the sun, from where they chase any females that pass by. In the evening, the butterflies gather to roost communally in scrub or at wood margins. Meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.), melicks (<em>Melica</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and many other grasses are used as foodplants, the preferred species differing between regions. The female lays its eggs one by one, or in short rows, on blades of grass. When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in a tussock of grass, also pupating there later, deep down in the tussock. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), mesophile grasslands (15%), mixed woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).
160704		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Denmark and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160704		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160705		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160705		distribution	eng	<p>This species is mainly Kenyan but it extends into northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> and northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Larsen 1991). This gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) that exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2 </sup>and as a well distributed species in its widespread habitat across this EOO, the area of occupancy must also exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160705		habitat	eng	The habitat is most types of savannah bushland and woodland. The larvae feed on<strong> </strong>galls on <em>Acacia drepanolobium</em> (Fabaceae) and are also closely associated with a certain ant species of the genus<em> Pheidole</em> (Formicidae) <st1:citation w:st="on">(Van Someren 1974)</st1:citation>.
160705		population	eng	This species is well distributed in suitable habitats and is most common in southeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
160705		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160717		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160717		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the central cordillera of New Guinea. It is a mid to upper montane insect, flying from about 1,400-3,000 m. The extent of occurrence can be taken to be around 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which should equal the area of occupancy, since there has been little damage to the habitat at that elevation. <br/></p>
160717		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary montane forest, where it is usually encountered along creeks. In such situations, males imbibe moisture from creek beds, in company with other high elevation <em>Delias</em> species, such as the closely related <em>D. iltis</em> Ribbe, 1900. Females are less frequently observed and are generally seen at flowers, sometimes high in the canopy. The early stages of this species are unrecorded (Parsons 1998).
160717		population	eng	This butterfly is common where it occurs, and may be locally abundant at higher elevations.
160717		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160725		conservation	eng	<p>No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. However, further clarification of its taxonomic status with respect to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. philippensis </span>is needed, although this would not alter the conservation status of this butterfly.<br/></p>
160725		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread in South East Asia, from India, Burma and southern China through the&#160;Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo to central Sulawesi.&#160;</p>
160725		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, as well as swampy areas amid forest. Adults&#160;are most frequently encountered near water courses, where males congregate in small numbers&#160;on muddy sections of creek beds, together with other polyommatine lycaenids. &#160;</p>
160725		population	eng	<p>This butterfly is a generally common, locally abundant species.</p>
160725		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160742		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly.
160742		distribution	eng	The extent of occurrence (EOO) covers northeastern Nigeria and Cameroon, east to Sudan (and even the extreme north of&#160;Egypt), Somalia, Saudi Arabia (Asir), Yemen, and south to the drier parts of East Africa&#160;(northern Uganda, northern and eastern Kenya, and northern Tanzania). This EOO is therefore huge and far in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. There is substantial suitable savannah habitat across this EOO and so the area of occupancy is also well in excess of the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><p>&#160;</p>
160742		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly in dry savannah habitats of the Sahelian type, though its&#160;choice becomes more catholic in East Africa. The habitat in West Africa is primarily Sudan savannah (Larsen 2005). Individuals of this species are attracted to flowers, especially&#160;those of the larval host-plants, which comprise <span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua</span> species (Larsen 1991). It appears, at least in Kenya, to fly at moderate altitudes (Larsen 1991).
160742		population	eng	Although sometimes localized, it is a frequently&#160;common species.
160742		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The larval host plants can survive a fair amount of degradation.
160744		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160744		distribution	eng	This species   is distributed from northern India through south western China, Lao PDR and Taiwan to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula, giving it a huge extent of occurrence. This butterfly is also relatively common in primary and secondary rain forest throughout its range, giving it a large area of occupancy.
160744		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, where it is most frequently observed in clearings and along creeks. Males actively hilltop and imbibe moisture from creek beds. Males are particularly fond of animal dung.
160744		population	eng	This butterfly   is relatively common throughout its range.
160744		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160745		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160745		distribution	eng	This is one of several species that are endemic to the Island of Socotra off the Horn of&#160;Africa. It is a large and most unusual member of its genus. Collecting on the island has&#160;been very intermittent, but most agree that these endemic species are still present over&#160;most of the island. One of the most recent specialists to visit the island was Steve C. Collins in 1994 (African Butterfly Research Institute, Nairobi) who found the species in&#160;many localities on higher ground (above about 300 m) across the island. The area of the archipelago is around 3,800 km<sup>2</sup> which consists primarily of the upland open habitat in which this species is found. Therefore, the extent of occurrence is in the region of 3,800 km<sup>2 </sup>and the area of occupancy probably only slightly smaller. These values are stable and are highly unlikely to decline significantly in the near future.
160745		habitat	eng	<p>The species occupies open country on the island of Socotra with the presence of its robust Capparaceae host-plants.<br/></p>
160745		population	eng	Little detailed information is available about the population status of this species, but this species has been recorded widely across Socotra, where it was occasionally common (S.C. Collins pers. obs. 1994)
160745		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species despite it being endemic to Socotra. The distribution and habitat of this butterfly are stable, its host plants are robust species of the Capparaceae and Socotra is thinly populated.
160748		conservation	eng	In order for this species to be moved from the category of Data Deficient, further research is required to better identify the distribution of this species as well as the threats it faces.
160748		distribution	eng	<p>This forest butterfly is known from the type locality of <st1:place w:st="on">Beni, Kivu Province,</st1:place> <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> and from about 50 km away in Biakatu (Libert 2007). Some 75 specimens of both sexes have been found so far, all by Roger Ducarme. The Kivu area is poorly explored for butterflies and the species must occur more widely in eastern DRC — and possibly on the other side of the Albertine Rift in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Rwanda</st1:country-region></st1:place>. However, based on two localities, neither the extent of occurrence nor the area of occupancy can be accurately estimated at present.<br/></p>
160748		habitat	eng	This is a forest butterfly, but nothing else is known of its habitats or ecology.
160748		population	eng	No population data are available for this poorly known butterfly. Members of this genus tend to be rare as a result of their specialized ecology.
160748		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
160753		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
160753		distribution	eng	In large parts of Europe to 69° N, it is widespread and common. It is absent from parts of southern Spain and southern Portugal, the Balearic Islands, Malta, Crete and Rhodes. 0-2,100 m. Further in the whole Palearctic except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160753		habitat	eng	In Western Europe, the first Orange-tip gives us the feeling that spring has arrived. However, high in the mountains, these butterflies only appear in the middle of the summer. The Orange-tip occurs in damp to quite wet grasslands at the edge of woods, or near thickets. The eggs are laid singly on flowerheads of different crucifers and their bright-orange colour makes them easy to find. At first, the caterpillars feed on the flowerbuds of the foodplant and later on the fruits. They live alone, which accords with their cannibalistic nature. When ready to pupate, they move into rough vegetation, climbing up a little twig and turning into a light-brown pupa, suspended from the plant by a silken girdle. The Orange-tip hibernates in this stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), urban parks and large gardens (5%).
160753		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Romania, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160753		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160755		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. No actions are likely to be required for this rare species but further research into the distribution of the species is needed. Ths will allow further evaluation of the threats this species might be facing.
160755		distribution	eng	This species was described from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Loma</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It was then recorded from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Nimba</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> area of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 1999/2000 (H. Warren-Gash pers. obs. 2002). In both places it was flying at relatively high altitude by <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place> standards. In 2006 it was then found at low altitudes in the Gola Forests in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region>, in two widely separated locations (west and north sections). It is obviously a scarce butterfly, but the records indicate that it must also be in the lowland forests of western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Liberia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (which are very poorly collected) as well as in some of the upland forests of the Liberia/Guinea border mountains. Based even on these limited records the extent of occurrence is greater than the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species. The area of occupancy is unknown for this probably under-reported species.
160755		habitat	eng	The habitat is wetter forests in good condition (Larsen 2005).
160755		population	eng	This is clearly a rare species, but it is also very poorly studied in many of the suitable habitats (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160755		threats	eng	The threats to this rare species are poorly known but it is likely to be threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation. Further research into the distribution of this species will clarify the extent of any threats to the species.
160762		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160762		distribution	eng	<p>Members of the old genus “<em>Diopetes</em>” were recently substantially revised by Libert (2004). Most previous literature records cannot be trusted. There are records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte  d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> (east), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region>, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (<st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC)</st1:stockticker>, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region></st1:place> (west) giving a large EOO. The area of occupancy is smaller but still large than the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> threshold.<br/></p>
160762		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The habitat is forest</st1:place> in reasonable condition (Larsen 2005). This species is a canopy dweller as   the larvae feed on the seeds and kernels of tree-fruits (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160762		population	eng	Most species of this group are rare to very rare in part because they are canopy dwellers (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). This species is rare in West Africa, but commoner in Cameroon (Larsen 2005).
160762		threats	eng	This species relies on forest in good condition and so is threatened by habitat loss and habitat degradation. However, this does not currently pose a major threat as the species is fairly widespread.
160774		conservation	eng	Research is needed to identify whether this is a valid species and if it is, further research is needed into its ecology, distribution, population and threat data.
160774		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from the female type collected near Danané on the fringes of the Nimba Massif in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Larsen (2005) accepted the species since it is not possible to see what it might be an aberration of. The possibility that it is a “phantom species” cannot be ruled out. However, the type specimen is from an area with some degree of local endemicity, where only limited collecting has taken place.<br/></p>
160774		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species cannot be confirmed but the type specimen was found in submontane forest.
160774		population	eng	No population data are available for this butterfly.
160774		threats	eng	There is no data on threats available for this species.
160777		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
160777		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the southeastern Urals across Siberia, northeast Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the north of China to Sakhalin, Korea, Japan (Tuzov 2000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
160777		habitat	eng	<em>Tongeia fisheri </em>occurs on dry stony slopes on small hills and slopes in mountains at about 800-2,000 m. It is also found in rocky river and stream valleys and on glades in coniferous forests. Larval foodplants are <em>Orostachys spinosa</em>, <em>O. malacophylla</em>, <em>Sedum</em> spp and <em>Pseudosedum</em> spp. This species produces two generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
160777		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
160777		threats	eng	Not examined.
160787		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. Clarification of the taxonomy of this species would help to confirm the distribution and verify the conservation status of this species.
160787		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to Sundaland, where it is appears to occur only in peninsular Malaysia and on Borneo. It probably also occurs on Sumatra. The distribution of this species is not entirely clear due to previous confusion with the more common and widespread<span style="font-style: italic;"> Spindasis lohita</span> Horsfield, 1829, which it closely resembles. <br/></p>
160787		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, including abandoned gardens within the forest. It is most frequently encountered in clearings where adults settle on low vegetation for long periods.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Cleary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2004) report that this species is particularly abundant in once and twice burned forest types. It is one of sevaral small generalist species that does increase in abundance following El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) induced burning events (Cleary and Genner, 2004). Males frequently hilltop, appearing in small numbers late in the afternoon, sometimes in company of <em>S. lohita</em>. The early stages of this taxon are undescribed.
160787		population	eng	This butterfly is not uncommon where it occurs and sometimes occurs in numbers on hilltops. It occurs very commonly in forest habitats that have been burned (Cleary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2004).
160787		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160797		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160797		distribution	eng	This species is one of the more widespread members of the genus, with a distribution from Cameroon to Uganda and Tanzania. The nominate subspecies is found in the west of this distribution in Cameroon, as well as in the DRC. Ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> fournierae</span> was described from the east of the distribution in Uganda, the Central African Republic, the DRC and Tanzania (Libert 2005). There is a relative scarcity of records for this species in much of the centre of its distribution but this is due largely to the lack of research that has been carried out for butterflies there. This butterfly is probably also found in Congo. Nonetheless, both the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy for this species are well in excess of the respective thresholds for threatened species of 20,000 and 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160797		habitat	eng	<p>The species has a wide distribution spanning forest habitats in several countries of central Africa.&#160;</p>
160797		population	eng	No population data are available for this species but it is one of the most widespread members of its genus and the number of records suggest that it is not uncommon.
160797		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this widespread species. Large areas of suitable forest habitat still exist across its range.
160798		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly.
160798		distribution	eng	<p>exThis relatively common species has a vast range with records from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Liberia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, across to Uganda and south to Angola and the DRC. Therefore, the extent of occurrence is hugely in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and across this the area of occupancy must far exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160798		habitat	eng	It is well distributed in appropriate forest habitats. There is little other available information about the habitat and ecology of this species.
160798		population	eng	This is a fairly common species (Larsen 2005).
160798		threats	eng	This extremely widespread species faces no major threats.
160805		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level , but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160805		distribution	eng	This species occurs in North and Central Europe to the north of Spain and Portugal, south of France, north of Italy and south of Bulgaria. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands and Ireland. Sea level-2,300 m. It is furthermore found in the whole central Palearctic zone and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160805		habitat	eng	The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary, is found in damp to wet meadows or on low intensity-grazed pastures. It is also found on raised bogs and in swampy habitats. Populations may occur in small, sheltered locations, but also in an open landscape. The butterflies can often be seen taking nectar, prefering various species of thistles. The eggs are laid on violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). When half-grown, the caterpillars hibernate in a rolled-up leaf of the foodplant. They pupate low down on a stalk in the litter layer. At high altitudes and in the north, the Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary has one generation a year, but has two generations a year elsewhere. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (19%), mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), mixed woodland (6%), coniferous woodland (5%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).
160805		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160805		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
160809		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to forests west of the Dahomey Gap where it is widely&#160;distributed and relatively common from Sierra Leone and the eastern mountains of&#160;Guinea, to Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Togo (Larsen 2005, Libert 2005). Despite the taxonomic uncertainty, the extent of occurrence of the agreed distribution in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana is well in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as a disturbance tolerant species the area of occupancy is certainly in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160809		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to forests west of the Dahomey Gap. Its forest habitat can be somewhat disturbed as long as it has a closed canopy.
160809		population	eng	This butterfly is quite   common and often sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. acraea</span> (Larsen 2005).
160809		threats	eng	This species is dependent on a closed canopy but otherwise tolerates&#160;some degree of habitat degradation. It therefore does not face any major threats across its fairly large distribution.
160810		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160810		distribution	eng	<p>This species was originally described from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Togo</st1:country-region></st1:place> and inhabits drier habitats than other members of the genus, mainly occupying the edge of the forest zone in west Africa, though it is more widely distributed further east where ecological zones are less clearly defined. The range stretches from the Fouta Djalon in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burkina Faso</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region> and then south to northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region> via the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> and western <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place> giving an extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of 10 million km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy is harder to measure and is undoubtedly far less than the EOO because of this butterfly's habitat-specificity but is certainly in excess of the threshold for threatened species.<br/></p>
160810		habitat	eng	This butterfly is very habitat-specific to forest-savannah transition or the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region></st1:place> savanna, and hardly penetrates the forest zone, even where this is severely degraded (Larsen 2005). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place> it is found at altitudes between 800 and 1,600 m (Kielland 1990). The larval food plant is probably <em>Sapium</em> species (Euphorbiaceae) (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
160810		population	eng	This is a scarce species in West Africa that occasionally undergoes   population irruptions (Larsen 2005). It is also described as an uncommon species by Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002).
160810		threats	eng	The habitat-specificity of this butterfly makes it a fairly scarce species, but it does not face any major threats across its large range.
160816		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
160816		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> south to Congo and parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (near <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kinshasa</st1:place></st1:city>). This gives a large extent of occurrence (EOO) far greater than the threshold value of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species and its habitat is common across its EOO. Since this butterfly is widespread across its habitat, it must also have a large area of occupancy.</p>
160816		habitat	eng	The habitat is wet forest in good condition (Larsen 2005).
160816		population	eng	Across its range, this butterfly is widely distributed but uncommon (Larsen 2005).
160816		threats	eng	This butterfly relies on forest habitat in good condition and so is threatened by forest degradation and deforestation across its range. These threats do not currently pose a major risk to the species but are likely to become increasingly important in the future.
160837		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly.
160837		distribution	eng	The nominate subspecies flies in parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">South  Africa</st1:country-region>’s Eastern Cape Province and in most of <st1:place w:st="on">Western Cape Province</st1:place>. Another subspecies <span lang="PT-BR">(ssp. <em>extensus</em>) flies widely north of here reaching KwaZulu Natal. It also occurs in Namibia (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008) and Swaziland (Duke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). They are found in much of the area as long as <em>Protea</em> species are present and there are numerous known localities (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The EOO is large and as the species is widespread within this, the area of occupancy is also fairly large.
160837		habitat	eng	The species is found wherever its <span style="font-style: italic;">Protea </span>spp. host plants occur. This is predominantly fynbos and shrubland. A number of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Protea</span> spp. have been identified as host plants by Clark and Dickson (1971), Kroon (1999) and Pringle (1994).<span lang="PT-BR">
160837		population	eng	This is a common butterfly species (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160837		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
160844		conservation	eng	In the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is in decline (mainly in Central Europe) important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
160844		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the north of Europe. In Central Europe, the distribution is much more fragmented and the species occurs south to Central France, south of Switzerland, Central Austria and Slovakia. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160844		habitat	eng	The Cranberry Fritillary inhabits raised bogs and wet heaths, mostly in sheltered places at the edges of woods, or in clearings. Open water is often in the neighbourhood. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaves of Cranberry (<em>Vaccinium oxycoccos</em>) and Marsh Andromeda (<em>Andromeda polifolia</em>). The caterpillar goes into hibernation in the moss layer just after hatching, only beginning to feed and grow the following year. However, in adverse conditions, the caterpillar may hibernate a second time. It pupates low down in the vegetation. It is usually single-brooded. Habitats: raised bogs (43%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), blanket bogs (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).
160844		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Romania, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160844		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160849		conservation	eng	Considerable research is required to determine the distribution, population trends, habitat and threats to this species and also confirm its taxonomy. This should allow the species to be classified in a category other than Data Deficient during future reassessments.
160849		distribution	eng	This species appears to have been recorded for certain only from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Kassala</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> (Erkowit, 1,000-1,300 m) in southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
160849		habitat	eng	No habitat data are available for this species.
160849		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
160849		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
160852		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160852		distribution	eng	This butterfly is found in Algeria and probably also locally in Tunisia and Libya.&#160;   The stronghold of the species is in central and eastern Algeria, where it is reported from some well known localities including El Bayadh, Djebel Amour, Aflou, Djebel Senalba, Guelt-es-Stel. It is almost certainly present in less well known Algerian localities that are seldom if ever visited by researchers and collectors. It has also been reported from Tunisia and Tripolitania (Libya). Reports for the first time from the border region of El-Aioun, west of Oujda, eastern Morocco in 2002 (Tarrier 2002) require confirmation.&#160;The extent of occurrence (EOO), including just the well known localities from Algeria, is already 15,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as there are records from over 500 km away in Tunisia and Libya, this already gives an EOO far in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and this excludes the likely presence of the butterfly elsewhere in poorly studied Algerian localities. This butterfly is found in arid areas at moderate altitude and so it probably occurs in a number of subpopulations. This means that the area of occupancy (AOO) is probably much smaller than the large EOO. Nonetheless, the host plant of this species is widespread and so the AOO is almost certainly still in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160852		habitat	eng	The species is found at moderate altitudes in arid hilly and mountainous areas, which are often remote. It is apparently monovoltine, with adults appearing from late August to October, with a peak emergence in September, although this might be dependent on local conditions. The host-plant is the widespread grass species <em>Lygeum spartum</em>.
160852		population	eng	The number and extent of subpopulations is unknown. Judging from material in historic collections, this species has always been significantly less frequent than its congenor <em>Hipparchia hansii</em>.
160852		threats	eng	Overgrazing by goats, numbers of which increase every year, is a significant threat to many habitats across the Maghreb States, and acutely affects diversity and abundance of vegetation generally. Several species of satyrine butterflies, including <em>H. powelli</em>, appear able to cope better with such degraded habitat than do many other butterflies, probably because of the widespread nature of their larval host-plants and the fact that adults are not so dependent on nectar sources for nourishment.
160854		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160854		distribution	eng	This is a Sundanian species, occurring in peninsular Malaya, Sumatra and <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>, including some offshore islands. The extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are both very large.<em></em>
160854		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. However, it favours dense, shaded forest and rarely ventures into open areas. Selective logging has a negative impact on this species (Willott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Both sexes are often seen puddling&#160; on rotting fruits and carrion. Adults are relatively weak, slow-flying insects that settle frequently. Females lay single eggs on the underside of the food plant. This butterfly closely resembles several other species from its genus.
160854		population	eng	This is a common butterfly species (Orr and Haeuser 1996).
160854		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160856		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly species.
160856		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species covers almost all forests in the equatorial zone, being found from eastern Nigeria to southern Sudan, Uganda, most of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and northern Angola,   though not extending to Kakamega in Kenya or to northern Zambia (Larsen 2005). This distribution gives a huge EOO in excess of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As a common and widespread species of forest across this EOO, the area of occupancy of this species is certainly well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160856		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest of reasonable condition.   Specimens settle on dry twigs, often in twos or threes.&#160; They are evenly widespread in the forest, indicating that they are not tied to specific ‘ant-trees’.&#160; Specimens are attracted to extrafloral nectaries; when ants are present the wings are opened slowly, meeting below the legs, then brought upright rather more quickly (Larsen 2005).&#160; Larsen (2005) speculates that this behaviour may be related to pheromone dispersion in butterfly-ant related communication. Nothing is published on the larval hosts of this species.
160856		population	eng	It is well distributed in forest of reasonable condition and is often common, even very common (Larsen 2005).
160856		threats	eng	This species requires forest of reasonable condition, but it is currently very widespread and common and so at present deforestation and forest degradation only constitute minor threats to the species as a whole.
160863		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Further research is required to better understand the distribution of the butterfly, and this should lead to better understanding of the threats to this species.
160863		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen caught at Kigour Forest, in the vicinity of Kisangani, DRC. However, E. Vingerhoedt (pers. comm. 2008) now considers that <span style="font-style: italic;">Neptis vingerhoedti</span> is a junior synonym of<span style="font-style: italic;"> N. rothschildi</span>, a butterfly recorded in the eastern DRC. These are the only two known specimens of the taxon at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160863		habitat	eng	The two specimens of this species (and only records to date) were obtained from moist forest habitat in the DRC (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). No additional information regarding the habitat or ecology of the species is available at present.
160863		population	eng	With only two records of this butterfly, there is insufficient data available to establish the population trend of the species at present, though it may well be very rare (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160863		threats	eng	Since there is very little information regarding the current distribution of the species, it is not possible to clearly establish any present or future threats with which it may be associated. However, considering that the butterfly may well be very rare (based on the limited number of records) and does not appear to have a widespread distribution (both of the specimens to date were obtained from the DRC), the regional threats of deforestation and habitat degradation might be considered to be a significant concern for the species (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Further monitoring of the distribution of this butterfly will be necessary to clarify this risk.
160866		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly.
160866		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in two distinct subspecies from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Liberia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ivory Coast</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region></st1:place>, and the western <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>. This gives the species a large extent of occurrence (EOO) far exceeding the threshold of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species under criterion B. Although the species has a patchy distribution within this EOO, the area of occupancy (AOO) is also likely to be much greater than the threshold for threatened species of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160866		habitat	eng	The species is found in evergreen and semi-deciduous forests. It survives also in some secondary forests with adequate canopy as in general individuals keep to the darkest places in the forest. This means that the distribution of this species within forests is fairly patchy. It also seems to be somewhat linked to swampy ground (Larsen 2005).
160866		population	eng	This butterfly is uncommon, with localized colonies linked to swampy ground (Larsen 2005). It is also more common in evergreen and semi-deciduous forests.
160866		threats	eng	This species requires forest habitats with intact canopies, however, the very large range means that associated threats of deforestation do not currently pose a major threat to this species.
160874		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
160874		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region> to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region></st1:place> in fairly wet forest country (Collins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Larsen 2005), with an EOO of greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although fairly uncommon, this species is distributed widely in forest habitats across this EOO and so has an AOO in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160874		habitat	eng	This is a species of the forest zone, but is also found in open and swampy areas and along forest edges. It is often encountered perched on low vegetation (Larsen 2005).
160874		population	eng	This is an uncommon forest butterfly (Larsen 2005). Individuals are not frequently encountered, but can be quite common when a colony is found.
160874		threats	eng	Although a species of wet forest habitats, it does tolerate some light disturbance as long as the habitat does not consequently dry out. It is also fairly widespread across its EOO and so habitat change driven by human population growth in this region does not currently pose a major threat to the species as a whole. Such threats may become more serious in the future should current trends continue.
160875		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or required for this butterfly.
160875		distribution	eng	<p>The species is one of the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place> savannah butterflies that is found only north of the Equator, where it is widely distributed. Records stretch from Senegal and the Gambia, across to Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. This gives the species a very wide EOO in the region of five million km<sup>2</sup> and, as the dry savannah habitat is widely distributed, the area of occupancy is also likely to be large.</p>
160875		habitat	eng	This species is strictly a savannah butterfly with no capacity to colonize degraded parts of the forest zone. However, it is found in degraded savannah habitats. It is thought to be sympatric with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bicyclus pavonis</span>. It uses the larval host plants<em> Imperata cylindrica</em> and <em>Pennisetum purpureum</em>, which are both in the Poaceae (Larsen 2005).
160875		population	eng	This butterfly is often common, but localised. It is sometimes found in spectacularly high numbers. The abundance of this species is thought to vary seasonally (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160875		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species and it can tolerate some disturbance in its savannah habitat.
160884		conservation	eng	This species is known from a very limited number of specimens. Further research is needed to identify its distribution, population status, habitats and ecology and also the threats it faces. The taxonomic uncertainty regarding its relationship to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerautola crowleyi </span>also needs to be resolved.
160884		distribution	eng	<p>This species was first recorded from Abak, eastern Nigeria by R.G.T. St Leger and was sitting misidentified in his collection until described by Libert in his genus revision (1999), at which time a fine series of almost certainly bred material was located in the Frank Davey collection. This must also have been from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, quite possibly from a single locality (a good ant-tree). A small series is also known just east of the <st1:place w:st="on">Niger River</st1:place> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Achura</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> nr Lokoja) from the Baker collection (Natural History Museum, London). No specimens of the closely related <em>Cerautola crowleyi</em> are available from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but the female is so different from the two <em>C. crowleyi</em> subspecies in western Nigeria and Cameroon respectively that its specific status must be accepted.</p>
160884		habitat	eng	This is a forest species, but nothing more of its ecology is known.
160884		population	eng	The population status of this butterfly cannot be estimated based on so few records.
160884		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
160887		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for what is still a common species.
160887		distribution	eng	<p>This is essentially a  submontane butterfly that occasionally descends to somewhat lower levels. There is a population in the Nigeria/Cameroon Mountains, a few low level colonies in Gabon with relict submontane vegetation at lowers levels (G. Van de Weghe pers. comm. 2008), the distribution also stretches to Kenya and south to Zambia and Tanzania. The AOO is fragmented and much smaller than the huge EOO which is well in excess of&#160; 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The AOO is still likely to exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160887		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">It is described as a forest</st1:place> species by Heath <em>et al</em>. (2002) and in west Africa as a submontane forest species&#160;often found in the vicinity of mountain streams by Larsen (2005). More specifically it is described as a butterfly that flies in forest clearings and along forest roads by Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998). Larsen also states that it is a mixed habitat species. It is thought to utilize plants of the genus<strong></strong> <em>Plastostema</em> (Lamiaceae) as larval host-plants <st1:citation w:st="on">(Congdon </st1:citation><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span><st1:citation w:st="on">1998)</st1:citation>.<em></em>
160887		population	eng	Precise population data is not available for this species, but it is described as being a relatively common species (Larsen 2005) that flies in forest clearings and along forest roads (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).
160887		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by deforestation particularly as it is restricted to submontane areas and is not a species of more widespread lowland forest. However, this fragmented distribution is still currently large enough for such threats not to be considered serious and this species is also not restricted to true forest habitats.
160893		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species.
160893		distribution	eng	This small butterfly has a practically pan-African distribution and has been found in most countries on the continent:&#160;Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Ghana, Togo, Benin, &#160;Nigeria, Kenya, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Swaziland, Yemen, Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius, Comoros.
160893		habitat	eng	This species is found in grassy, open areas in the savannah, extending into disturbed areas of the forest zone.
160893		population	eng	Despite its large extent of occurrence, this species may be under reported as it may be overlooked due to its similarity to&#160;<em>Zizeeria knysna, </em>a &#160;more widespread common species<em>.&#160;</em>
160893		threats	eng	There are no current threats to this species.
160894		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
160894		distribution	eng	The species has a widespread but highly fragmented distribution that ranges from the Nigeria/Cameroon&#160;mountains and an isolated subpopulation in the mountains of southern&#160;Sudan, south to the DRC (Ituri, Kivu), Uganda, central and western Kenya, and parts of&#160;Tanzania (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). The habitat is exclusively submontane forests, such that the populations are always fragmented and many of the smaller ones are being gradually&#160;whittled away by agriculture (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence is extensive, and is certainly greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> threshold necessary for the species to be listed as threatened under criterion B. However, the area of occupancy is much smaller as a result of the specific habitat requirements of the species, though sufficient records are currently lacking to enable this area to be accurately estimated.
160894		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is exclusively submontane forests, resulting in fragmented subpopulations of the species across its extensive distribution&#160;from Nigeria to Tanzania (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). No other habitat requirements or ecological habits for the species are known at present.
160894		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this butterfly. However, certain subpopulations are being lost due to ongoing agricultural encroachment, such that the overall population trend may be in decline (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160894		threats	eng	The major threat to this butterfly is the loss of isolated subpopulations to agriculture (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). In addition, the species is a habitat specialist, occurring only in submontane forests, and is therefore unable to readily adapt to these changes in habitat composition. However, the butterfly has a widespread range that encompasses at least seven countries and a large number of individual localities, so that this threat does not pose a significant concern at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
160895		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species, however, greater research is needed into the current distribution and population trends of this under-reported species. This should help to better quantify any threats to the species.
160895		distribution	eng	<p>This little known butterfly is has been recorded from between the Fouta Djalon in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region> and central <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:country-region></st1:place> (especially around the Jos Plateau), which makes it one of the relatively few endemic West African savannah species. It has been recorded from several locations from the Labé area of the Fouta Djalon, the northern mountains of Sierra Leone (type locality), once from northern Liberia, but most frequently from the Jos Plateau in Nigeria as well as from other locations in central Nigeria, some at lower altitudes. On present knowledge the species is likely to occur mostly in areas that are poorly explored for butterflies and is probably more frequent and more widely distributed than is thought at present. Although it is difficult to be accurate based on current records the extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species is still likely to be in the region of one million km<sup>2</sup>. The species' dry savannah habitat is fragmented across the EOO and so the area of occupancy (AOO) is much smaller than this, but nonetheless probably greater than the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<br/></p>
160895		habitat	eng	The habitat seems exclusively to be hilly savannah country at some altitude, without the species actually being submontane. Within this habitat it also occurs in stream beds (Larsen 2005).
160895		population	eng	This is a little known butterfly but is probably more common than records suggest. Despite this under-reporting the butterfly is still considered scarce and local in the Jos area where most recent records are from. This butterfly is reported to be commonest  in October and November, before the onset of the dry season (Larsen 2005).
160895		threats	eng	The habitat of this butterfly, although fragmented and not widespread across its range, is robust and is not under threat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008). The species itself is not under threat despite its apparent rarity and may be under-reported. Further research into the distribution of this species should shed more light on possible threats.
160900		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160900		distribution	eng	This species has a distribution stretching from the western shores of Lake Tanganyika to the extreme south, Malawi, most of Zambia (apart from the western parts), as well as eastern Tanzania from the Uluguru and Ngu’u Mountains to the Mozambique border. It is presumably also found in parts of Mozambique, where the north is poorly researched. This gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) approaching one million km<sup>2</sup> and as the habitat is fairly widespread across this EOO, the area of occupancy (AOO) is likely to be well in excess of the 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> threshold for threatened species.
160900		habitat	eng	The habitat is dense savannah and <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland and in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> the butterfly is found at altitudes from 400 to 2,000 m (Kielland 1990). The larval host plants include the species<em> Acacia amythethophylla</em>, <em>Dalbergia boehmii</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">and </span><em>Entada abyssinica</em> from the Fabaceae (Henning 1989).
160900		population	eng	This species is widely distributed and sometimes common in its <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160900		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Its habitat still covers a very large area across its range (Sekeli and Phiri 2002).
160915		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
160915		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in Western and Central Greece. 550-2,000 m, above 1,100 m in the Peloponnesus. It is furthermore present through Turkey to Syria, Northwestern Iran and the Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160915		habitat	eng	The Greek Clouded Yellow is found on dry grasslands with scattered bushes and in open coniferous woodland. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of its larval foodplant, <em>Astracantha rumelica</em> and the milk-vetch <em>Astragalus parnassi</em>, that are often abundant in the habitats. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a young caterpillar, finishing its growth and pupating in spring. Habitats: coniferous woodland (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%).
160915		population	eng	This species is local in part of Europe.
160915		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160920		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160920		distribution	eng	This species   is widely distributed across a large EOO in South East Asia, from Sri  Lanka and India through Thailand, Burma, Viet Nam and peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra, Java, Bali (Indonesia) and Borneo (Pinratana 1981, Seki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, Corbet and Pendlebury 1992).
160920		habitat	eng	This butterfly   inhabits primary and secondary lowland rainforest, as well as areas of advanced regrowth and rural gardens. Both sexes have a conspicuous “bobbing” flight and are most commonly encountered along forest edges or along creeks. Males establish territories 1-3 m above the ground and engage in extended territorial flights with other males (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008). Mature larvae are myrmecoxenes and are often found on the legume tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Saraca thaipingensis</span> (Fielder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
160920		population	eng	This is generally a common butterfly species (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008). However, in some areas it is locally less common (Shamsudeen and Mathew 2010).
160920		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160921		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but its habitat is the subject of significant conservation attention. Precise distribution data is unavailable but the species is likely to occur in protected areas. Further protection may be required in the future should the species' distribution become further restricted or fragmented.
160921		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> with the nominate subspecies being found in the fynbos of southwestern parts of <st1:place w:st="on">Western Cape  Province</st1:place> in open country at some altitude. Ssp. <em>outeniqua</em> is rather more widely distributed in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">northern Cape</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The extent of occurrence covers at least 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, though the distribution is fairly fragmented. The habitat is widely available in the region.</p>
160921		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is slopes and summits of hills and mountains in the fynbos biome for the nominate subspecies and the Little Karoo for ssp. <em>outeniqua</em> (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994). The adults of both sexes are fond of flowers, such as those of mesembryanthemums, <em>Selago serrata</em> and <em>Selago fruticulosa</em> (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994). The larval host-plants are suspected to be the grasses   <em>Hyparrhenia hirta</em> and<em> Lolium temulentum</em> (<st1:citation w:st="on">Pringle <em>et al.</em> 1994)</st1:citation>.
160921		population	eng	There is very little population trend data available on this species even on overall rarity. However, the butterfly is described as being widespread across its restricted and somewhat fragmented extent of occurrence (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160921		threats	eng	The habitat is already fragmented and the major threats to the fynbos and karoo habitats are urbanization and agricultural expansion. Invasive species also threaten plant species upon which the butterfly may depend as larval host plants or nectaring species. Increased frequency of fires could also threaten the habitat (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
160929		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in Spain. No specific conservation actions are needed.
160929		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe in separate areas: Eastern Pyrenees (very local), in the Alps and in Scandinavia (mountainous areas of Norway, Sweden and extreme north of Finland). In central Europe 1,500-2,500 m, in Scandinavia 0-1,100 m. It is also found in South Siberia, Altai and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
160929		habitat	eng	In Scandinavia, the Mountain Fritillary occurs in the mountains on wide, open, dry areas near the tree-line and on grassy, flower-rich slopes. At lower altitudes, it is also found in wet areas where birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.) and willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) are growing. In the Alps, this fritillary can be found on dry, quite flat alpine and sub-alpine grassland on stony soil. As the evening falls, the butterflies roost communally, usually on rough vegetation in a wet place. The female lays its eggs singly on various violets, including Yellow Wood Violet (<em>Viola biflora</em>) and also on Alpine Bistort (<em>Polygonum viviparum</em>), or on plants growing in the vincinity. The caterpillars take one or two years to develop, depending on the climate. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), heath and scrub (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), blanket bogs (11%).
160929		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
160929		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
160930		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160930		distribution	eng	This butterfly occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Burma</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Laos</st1:country-region> through the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra, <st1:placename w:st="on">Nias</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, Java, Kalimantan and the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region> (Palawan, Mindanao and <st1:place w:st="on">Mindoro</st1:place>). This gives the butterfly a large extent of occurrence and as this is a fairly common species across its range, where suitable habitat is still quite plentiful, the area of occupancy must certainly be well in excess of the threshold for threatened species.
160930		habitat	eng	This is an inconspicuous species that inhabits primary and advanced secondary rainforest, essentially at low elevations. Adults remain motionless at rest for long periods, becoming more active in the late afternoon, when both sexes fly at great height along forest edges and in the canopy. It is much reduced in forest that has suffered fire disturbance.
160930		population	eng	This butterfly is fairly common throughout much of its range.
160930		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
160934		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160934		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed on mainland New Guinea and some of its satellite islands (Manam, Yapen etc.). It also occurs on islands of the Torres Straits (Australia). Given this distribution across the majority of New Guinea, the EOO must be in the order of hundreds of thousands of km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
160934		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Males are most frequently encountered in association with creeks, where they imbibe moisture from damp areas. Females are rarely observed. Larvae have been recorded feeding on the foliage of <em>Pommetia pinnata</em> (Sapindaceae) (Parsons 1998).
160934		population	eng	Although this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> is generally uncommon, males may sometimes be encountered in some numbers. Females have been reported as rare (Sands 1986, Parsons 1998) and few specimens are present in museum collections; in common with other forest lycaenids this probably reflects the species’ habits, rather than true rarity (J.W. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008).
160934		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
160939		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species at present.
160939		distribution	eng	This species was described from Cameroon in 2005 after problems over taxonomic confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">O. ntebi</span> were resolved. There are many Cameroon records from across the country, as well as from Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guine and the DRC (Libert 2005). This gives the species a large extent of occurrence and because of the large extent of forest habitat within this a large area of occupancy, in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160939		habitat	eng	This is a forest butterfly.
160939		population	eng	There are no detailed population data on this species, but it is a widespread and, judging by the number of records, not uncommon species.
160939		threats	eng	This forest species may be threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation, but until its host plant is known this cannot be said with certainty. Nonetheless, this is a widespread species and there is plenty of suitable habitat remaining at present for any threats to be considered minor.
160949		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its distribution does fall within some protected areas. However, enforcement in these protected areas is often lacking. It should be noted that this species is regarded as&#160;a good indicator&#160;species for habitat conservation, despite it not being a strict habitat specialist.
160949		distribution	eng	This species is mainly&#160;limited to coastal forests of Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique where it is often&#160;numerous. It does penetrate well inland in Tanzania to the Usambara and Uluguru&#160;Mountains as well as to Malawi. It just penetrates the Somali coast and there is a single&#160;specimen marked “Natal”. This species is normally found from sea level to about 900 m, but has also been recorded on the summit of Bondwa Mountain, Tanzania at 2,140 m (Kielland 1990).
160949		habitat	eng	This species is mainly limited to coastal forests, but is also found in lowland forest and dense woodland (Kielland 1990). The larval host plants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Annona</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Uvaria</span>&#160;species (Annonaceae).
160949		population	eng	Many of the populations of this species are described as vigorous.
160949		threats	eng	The main habitat of this species, the Eastern Arc forests, constitute an endangered habitat type. Therefore, continued deforestation for timber and farmland primarily (Schipper and Burgess 2004) might cause this species to become more threatened. However, these threats are not of immediate concern because the butterfly is not limited to these coastal forests and it is presently quite widespread across a large extent of occurrence.
160961		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
160961		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution ranging from Thailand, through Peninsular Malaysia (including the&#160;Langkawi Islands) to Sumatra (Indonesia) and Borneo. Based on this extensive range, the area of occupancy (AOO) is considerably greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, while the extent of occurrence (EOO) far exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160961		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Males may congregate in small numbers&#160;at, or near, the tops of semi-open hills or mountains, where they establish and defend small&#160;territories. Otherwise, the species is most frequently encountered in small clearings in dense&#160;rainforest. The butterfly also appears to be local in its occurrence.
160961		population	eng	No population size estimates currently exist for this species. However, the butterfly is generally uncommon across its widespread distribution.
160961		threats	eng	This species has a widespread distribution and is tolerant of habitat degradation, therefore is not under any major threat.
160962		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
160962		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to, but widespread in the Bismarck Archipelago, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Papua New Guinea</st1:country-region>, where it flies at elevations from sea level to at least 1,000 m; it is most frequent from sea level to 500 m (Tennent 2006). The Bismarck Islands cover a large area and so, although endemic, this butterfly's extent of occurrence (EOO) is in the region of 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>. As this butterfly is generally common and widespread across lowlands, within this range the area of occupancy is likely to be not much less than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
160962		habitat	eng	This butterfly is essentially confined to primary and secondary rainforest, especially water-logged swampy areas. Its distribution is governed by that of its foodplant, <em>Adenia heterophylla</em> (Passifloraceae) (C. J. Muller: unpublished data), a hanging vine that thrives in the forest canopy. Adults frequent the flowers of <em>Stachytarpheta </em>sp. (Verbenaceae). Males establish and defend territories within small clearings from 2–5 metres above the ground. (Parsons 1998)
160962		population	eng	Although a rather local butterfly,<em></em> it is a conspicuous insect that is generally fairly common where it occurs, especially at elevations below 400 m.
160962		threats	eng	At low elevations along the north coasts of both <st1:city w:st="on">New Britain</st1:city> and <st1:place w:st="on">New Ireland</st1:place>, oil palm plantations have largely replaced the native vegetation. However, there are still significant areas of pristine vegetation in the far west of <st1:city w:st="on">New Britain</st1:city>, south and east of New Ireland and throughout the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tabar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place>. On <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Manus</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, much of the forest is secondary regrowth, but <em>C. obscura</em> is not uncommon there. Land degradation and destruction does not appear to constitute a major threat.
160979		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this largely unknown species. Further research is required on all aspects of the distribution and biology of this species to establish its conservation status and assess potential threats.
160979		distribution	eng	This distinctive butterfly is known only from the type locality near <st1:city w:st="on">Labe</st1:city> in the Fouta Djalon of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region>, where it was found by collectors from the African Butterfly Research Institute, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Nairobi</st1:city></st1:place>. It is likely to be a genuine endemic of the Fouta Djalon upland forest areas. Neither the extent of occurrence or area of occupancy can be estimated with the currently available data.
160979		habitat	eng	The habitat is thought to be dry forest based on the habitat of the type locality (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160979		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
160979		threats	eng	There are no available threat data for this species.
160980		conservation	eng	One of this species' localities is in the Golden Gate Highlands National Park, South Africa. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required. Further research is recommended to assess the distribution and population status of this species and the effects of threats on the global population.
160980		distribution	eng	<p>This is an endemic species of southern Africa, mostly being restricted to Lesotho (Mount Machacha; 12 km from&#160;Butha Buthe; between Langalibalele Pass and Mokhotlong; Black Mountains, 16 km west of Sani Pass; summit of the Blue Mountain Pass; Moteng Pass). It has also been recorded from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Free State</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> (<st1:placename w:st="on">Golden Gate</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Highlands</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National  Park</st1:placetype>) and from <st1:place w:st="on">Eastern Cape  Province</st1:place> (Barkly East district; Lundeans Nek) in South Africa. This gives the species a large extent of occurrence (over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>).</p>
160980		habitat	eng	The genus Lepidochrysops has a remarkable life history, the larvae feed on plants for the first two instars, then induce ants to carry them to their nests where they feed on the ant brood, pupating in the tunnels of the ant nest (Henning and Henning 1989).&#160;This species' habitat is montane grasslands facing the&#160;<st1:time hour="12" minute="0" w:st="on">midday</st1:time>&#160;sun at the foot of hillsides at altitudes between&#160;2,400-3,000 m&#160;(Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).
160980		population	eng	This butterfly is fairly well distributed at montane levels, but the species is local and difficult to come by making it difficult to assess population trends.
160980		threats	eng	The montane grasslands of Lesotho and South Africa are threatened by human disturbance, overgrazing and afforestation (Armstrong and van Hensbergen 1999).
160988		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
160988		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of the Ethiopian highlands about which little is published. It is widely distributed in most of the area giving the species both a large extent of occurrence and area of occupancy greater than the thresholds for threatened species. The (author?) has personally collected the species in the eucalyptus forests north of Addis Ababa, which are almost devoid of any but the most common butterflies. The NHM (<st1:city w:st="on">London</st1:city>) has long series from most of the highlands, though their holdings from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region></st1:place> are far from rich.
160988		habitat	eng	This butterfly has non-specialist habitat choice across the Ethiopian highlands (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160988		population	eng	This species is not rare across its limited distribution. It is also under-reported (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
160988		threats	eng	There are no major documented threats to this species.
160992		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish its distribution on the island and its ability to persist in man-modified forest habitats.
160992		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kepulauan Sangihe on the islands of Sangihe and Siao. These are situated north of Sulawesi, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this butterfly is therefore very small at around 800 km<sup>2</sup>.<em> </em>
160992		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary rainforest, particularly in hilly lowland areas where there has been little clearing. Food plants undoubtedly include various Poaceae, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Centotheca</span>. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species.
160992		population	eng	This butterfly is evidently common in primary rainforest.
160992		threats	eng	Although the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">island</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Sangihe</st1:placename></st1:place> is small and remote, there is currently likely to be sufficient forest on the island to ensure the species' survival. However, other endemic taxa on the island are currently listed as threatened because of high human population densities and the consequent pressures facing the remaining forested habitats.
161001		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or required for this common and widespread species.
161001		distribution	eng	<p>This butterfly occurs over most of the forest zone from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra Leone</st1:country-region> to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region>, south to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malawi</st1:country-region> and northwestern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from all forested countries in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> giving it a huge extent of occurrence. As it is common and widespread over these forested countries the area of occupancy is also large. Therefore neither of these are sufficiently small for the species to qualify as threatened under criteria B. In true coastal forests of <st1:place w:st="on">East Africa</st1:place> it is replaced by <em>Neptidopsis fulgurata</em>, the two only infrequently overlapping.</p>
161001		habitat	eng	<st1:place w:st="on">The habitat of this species is forest</st1:place> edges, secondary forest and dense woodland rather than primary forest, and it seems to be less common in the wettest habitats (Larsen 2005). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place> this includes habitats that occur from near sea level to 2,200 m (Kielland 1990). This butterfly utilizes the larval host plants<strong></strong> <em>Tragia benthami</em> <st2:citation w:st="on">(Vuattoux and Blandin 1979)</st2:citation><em>, Tragia brevipes</em> <st2:citation w:st="on">(Kielland  1990)</st2:citation>, <em>Tragia impedita</em> <st2:citation w:st="on">(Heath  <em>et al</em>. 2002)</st2:citation> and probably <em>Ricinus</em> species (<st2:citation w:st="on">Larsen 2005) all of which are from the Euphorbiaceae.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place></st2:citation>
161001		population	eng	This is a common and widespread butterfly (Larsen 2005).
161001		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this very widespread species and it is able to withstand high levels of forest habitat degradation (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161007		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
161007		distribution	eng	<p>This is a forest butterfly that is widely distributed in all forested areas between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sierra  Leone</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region>, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Like other members of the genus it is very unpredictable in its occurrence, being absent or near-absent from a given area for years and then having massive population explosions that may give rise to mass migration. Nonetheless, the species is still widespread giving a large extent of occurrence far greater than the threshold for threatened species.<br/></p>
161007		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest (Heath <em>et al</em>. 2002).&#160; In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, it is found at altitudes between 800 and 1,500 m (Kielland 1990). This butterfly utilizes the larval host plants <em>Macaranga schweinfurthii</em> Pax. <st1:citation w:st="on">(Van  Someren 1974)</st1:citation>, <em>Sapium</em> species <st1:citation w:st="on">(Fontaine 1981) and</st1:citation> <em>Sapium ellipticum</em> (<st1:citation w:st="on">Kielland 1990).</st1:citation>
161007		population	eng	Like other members of the genus it is very unpredictable in its occurrence, being absent or near-absent from a given area for years and then having massive population explosions that may give rise to mass migration. It is therefore generally uncommon in West Africa and irruptions in Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Cameroon have been reported, leading to migratory behaviour. A major documented migration in Cameroon consisted almost exclusively of males (Larsen 2005).
161007		threats	eng	Despite its unusual habits this is a widespread and not uncommon species with no major documented threats.
161009		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species, although its distribution does include the Korup National Park. Research is needed to confirm the distribution of the species and whether it is under-reported.
161009		distribution	eng	<p>This is a rare butterfly known from <st1:country-region w:st="on">several distinct localities in Nigeria</st1:country-region> and Cameroon from the Cross River Loop to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Korup</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. M. Libert (pers. comm.) also collected eleven specimens from a number of localities between <st1:city w:st="on">Yaounde</st1:city> and <st1:city w:st="on">Douala</st1:city>, which are all near the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sanaga</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> which may constitute the eastern limit of the species. Based on these records, the EOO stretching between the Cross and Sanaga rivers is approximately 25-45,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The Korup National Park, covers 1,260 km<sup>2</sup> (WWF <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the nearby (and likely suitable) Cross River National Park covers over 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> (Fa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). These areas alone give an area well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This combined with the large areas of intact and potentially suitable forest habitats across the EOO (WWF <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) mean that the AOO must exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161009		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest in good condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161009		population	eng	This is described as a rare butterfly by Larsen (2005), but Larsen also states (pers. comm. 2008) that it may simply be difficult to find or even under-reported as there are large swathes of unexplored suitable habitat within its range.
161009		threats	eng	This species relies on forest in good condition and although it may be under-reported from some areas in its range, its fairly small extent of occurrence (EOO) makes it vulnerable to deforestation and habitat degradation. However, large areas of forest still remain intact within the EOO (WWF <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and so logging and plantations are not currently causing major declines in the butterfly's distribution or habitat.
161016		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this widespread and common species.
161016		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from southeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Central African Republic</st1:place></st1:country-region> to much of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (<st1:place w:st="on">Ubangi</st1:place>, Mongala, <st1:place w:st="on">Uele</st1:place>, north Kivu, Tshopo, <st1:place w:st="on">Sankuru</st1:place>). This gives a very large extent of occurrence in the region of several million km<sup>2</sup> and as there is still plenty of suitable forest habitat in the region, the area of occupancy is probably also large.
161016		habitat	eng	The habitat is forest in reasonable condition (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161016		population	eng	It is often common and well distributed within its habitat (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161016		threats	eng	This species needs forest in reasonable condition and so is threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation. However, as this species is presently widespread and common across its large range, these cannot currently be considered serious threats.
161024		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161024		distribution	eng	This is a strictly Sundanian species, occurring in peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, Borneo and <st1:place w:st="on">Sumatra</st1:place>. The extent of occurrence is certainly in excess of the threshold for threatened species. The area of occupancy is likely to be considerably smaller for this primary forest species but not sufficiently small or declining to fall into a threat category.<em> </em>
161024		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary rainforest, where it is relatively elusive. Both sexes prefer shady parts of the forest where they take cover in undergrowth and rest on foliage 1-2 metres above the ground. Individuals tend to be fairly inactive unless disturbed.
161024		population	eng	This butterfly is fairly common locally.
161024		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
161028		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161028		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution throughout Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia), Borneo, and eastern&#160;Mindanao (Philippines). Hence, the area of occupancy (AOO) is significantly greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> while the EOO is in the range of several hundred thousand km<sup>2</sup>.
161028		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It is a small but conspicuous butterfly with&#160;a characteristic flight pattern. Adults are most frequently encountered along forest margins and creeks,&#160;where males may imbibe moisture from creek beds.
161028		population	eng	Though quantitative population records are lacking for this butterfly, the species tends to be common throughout its extensive range.
161028		threats	eng	This species is not affected by any known threats at present. It has a widespread distribution and appears to be tolerant of habitat degradation. Hence, any local effects of deforestation or habitat degradation (which occur to varying extents throughout its range) do not pose an immediate concern at present.
161033		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
161033		distribution	eng	Occurs in Spain (the Pyrenees, particularly in the East), in large parts of Southeast France (eastern Pyrenees, Massif Central, Provence, the French Alps) and in Italy (the western Alps, Apuan Alps and central Apennines). Found at altitudes between 500-1,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
161033		habitat	eng	The Autumn Ringlet occurs in woodland clearings and on grassy vegetation with scattered bushes. The caterpillars feed on different grasses, such as Crab-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Digitaria sanguinalis</span>), Alpine Meadow-Grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>), Smooth Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa pratensis</span>), Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. annua</span>), Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and Meadow Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. pratensis</span>). This species is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), coniferous woodland (33%), screes (33%).
161033		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
161033		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
161036		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
161036		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Alps (from the foothills of the French Alps to the Niedere Tauern in Austria) and in the southwest of Bulgaria (Rila and Pirin Mts.). In the Alps, its elevational range is 900-3,000 m (most numerous at altitudes higher than the tree-line), in Bulgaria 2,000-2,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
161036		habitat	eng	The Cynthia's Fritillary occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grassland with short, grassy vegetation and low-growing shrubs and in rocky areas. They fly quickly, close to the ground and are fond of basking in the sun on rocks or bare patches of ground. The female lays its eggs in clusters under leaves of Alpine Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago alpina</span>) and Long-spurred Pansy (<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola calcarata</span>). The caterpillars are black and bristly with yellow bands between each segment. They can be very numerous and take two years to develop. The first hibernation takes place communally in a silken web. In the fourth larval instar, they hibernate a second time, solitary under stones, where they later pupate. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (30%).
161036		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
161036		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
161037		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161037		distribution	eng	This forest butterfly occurs in peninsula <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region> (Java), the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region> (Palawan) and <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>, giving an extent of occurrence (EOO) well in excess of the 20,000km<sup>2</sup> threshold for threatened status. Additionally, as it is a species of both primary and secondary forest its area of occupancy (AOO) is likely to be well above the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.
161037		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Adults favour deeply wooded areas but may also be seen sometimes flying slowly but directly across open areas, usually high above the ground. Males may establish small territories in clearings, which they defend weakly from perches from 2 – 8m above the ground.
161037		population	eng	There data on the abundance of this species are inconclusive, with some reports that it may be locally rare (D'Abrera 2001, D. Peggie pers. comm. 2008).
161037		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
161038		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservations actions in place or immediately required for this species, but parts of the species' range are protected as part of the Eastern Africa Coastal Forest Ecoregion. Further research to elucidate the distribution of this butterfly in Mozambique is required.
161038		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species of the coastal forests of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Dondo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>) that does not penetrate far inland. It is found in all such forests from where data are available, but is known to not extend south into South Africa. Little is known about the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region></st1:place> fauna and the species is probably widely distributed there. The nominate subspecies is limited to the forests of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> (TL Tamatave).   In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania,</st1:country-region></st1:place> its distribution extends up to altitudes of 500 m, presumably due to the habitat being distributed below 500 m (Kielland 1990). The extent of occurrence is likely to be in the region of 100,000 to 200,000 km<sup>2</sup> (based on WWF data on the Eastern Africa Coastal Forest ecoregion), but based on the poor records for this species there is no way of estimating the area of occupancy.<br/></p>
161038		habitat	eng	The habitat is coastal forest and coastal forest-savanna mosaic and in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region></st1:place> it is found at altitudes up to 500 m presumably where suitable habitat is found (Kielland 1990). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place>, its habitat is forest margins and transformed grassland (Lees and Minet 2003).
161038		population	eng	This species is poorly known but is often common where its habitat still exists in reasonable condition (Larsen 2005).
161038		threats	eng	The coastal forest habitat of this species constitutes a threatened habitat that has been the focus of much concern (WWF electronic reference), but the species is one of its more robust inhabitants. Though the coastal forests are threatened by deforestation, enough habitat remains between northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region></st1:place> for the species to be considered one of Least Concern.
161046		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
161046		distribution	eng	This species   is distributed widely in south-eastern Australia (Queensland, New South  Wales, South Australia), with discrete subpopulations in Tasmania and south-western Australia.   It is distributed widely in south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania. In the east it occurs as far north as Percy Island and Rockhampton, Queensland, and has been recorded as far inland as the Mootwingee National Park, New South Wales. In the west, it occurs from Geraldton in the north to Albany in the south and Esperance in the east. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. merope salazar</span> is restricted to Flinders Island and parts of Tasmania (Common and Waterhouse 1981, Braby 2000). Even the extent of occurrence (EOO) for ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">salazar</span> is in the region of   ± 80,000 km<sup>2</sup> and this subspecies has the smallest range by far. The total EOO of this species is very large and the area of occupancy also large for what is a common, habitat generalist species.
161046		habitat	eng	This butterfly   inhabits a range of biomes, including wet and dry sclerophyll forest, open woodland, grasslands and gardens. The species is on the wing from October to May, with males emerging before females, which emerge late and persist long after the male flight period is over. Adults fly up to one metre above the ground rather directly in open areas. They regularly visit flowers, especially those of Tea Tree (<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptospermum</span> sp.) and daisies. Larvae feed on a range of soft grasses (Common and Waterhouse 1981, Braby 2000).
161046		population	eng	This butterfly   is an abundant species that may be dominant in certain areas (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008).
161046		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
161047		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this species.
161047		distribution	eng	This is a savannah butterfly with a huge African distribution stretching from the Gambia&#160;to Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea mainly in the Sudan savannah ecological zone. In East&#160;Africa it is rather more catholic in habitat choice and is widespread south to KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Cape. It is not able to survive under true desert habitats and is thus missing&#160;from most of Botswana. Altitudinally it is a widely distributed species having been recorded up to nearly 3,000 m in central Kenya (Larsen 1991) and over 2,000 m in Tanzania (Kielland 1990). The huge distribution of this species gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) that is greatly in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>and there is also ample suitable habitat across this EOO, such that the area of occupancy far exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161047		habitat	eng	Generally speaking, this species occurs widely throughout the dry zone of Africa, particularly in dry to mesic, frost-free savannah. However, habitat choice varies across its distribution. In West Africa it is found primarily in Sudan savannah (Larsen 2005). But it also sometimes arises in dry forest, such as in coastal Kenya (Larsen 1991). It is a poor colonizer of disturbed areas in the forest zone&#160;proper.<br/><br/>At&#160;high altitudes, in Kenya, specimens spend considerable amounts of time basking in the&#160;sun in order to raise their body temperature.   Males have a very rapid flight, one to two metres above the ground. Females fly much more slowly and tend to remain in and around thick bush. Both sexes are strongly&#160;attracted to flowers.<br/><br/>Larval host-plants include: <span style="font-style: italic;">Boscia, Cadaba, Capparis</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua</span> species (Capparaceae).
161047		population	eng	Abundance of the butterfly varies from scarce and localized in West Africa to highly abundant in East Africa (Larsen 2005).
161047		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
161058		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
161058		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from numerous localities (more than 150 specimens)&#160;from much of Cameroon east of the Sanaga River, Gabon, Congo, Central African&#160;Republic, and localities in the DRC between Kinshasa, Kasai, and Kivu (Libert 2005). This gives a large extent of occurrence in the region of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as the extent of suitable forest habitat in this area is large the area of occupancy is also fairly large and certainly greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161058		habitat	eng	The species is widely distributed across forest habitats in central Africa.
161058		population	eng	This is one of the more common members of its genus. The multitude of records from across a large distribution demonstrate this.
161058		threats	eng	This widespread and fairly common species faces no major threats.
161059		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
161059		distribution	eng	<p>This species was described from the Ghana/Volta Mountains, where it is widely distributed. The revision of the genus (Libert 2000) established that it was also present in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (possibly just penetrating across the Niger Delta), especially in the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lagos</st1:place></st1:city> area, where the species is scarce but well distributed. The EOO, based on these records, is in the region of 50,000-100,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but is probably larger. The area of occupancy cannot be accurately estimated, but as a widespread and occasionally common species, it is certainly stable and probably greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161059		habitat	eng	This is a forest species. Larsen (2005) noted specimens circling the trunks of trees with a diameter of 6-7 cm, occasionally settling on the bark of the tree trunks. They did not fly high up and were confined to the darker parts of the forest. Nothing is known of the specific larval hosts of this species, however, the larvae of species in this genus tend to be hosted by lichen.
161059		population	eng	This butterfly is widespread across its range and is relatively common in the Volta Region of Ghana and in Togo. It appears to be scarcer in Nigeria (Larsen 2005). No quantitative population data are available for this species.
161059		threats	eng	This forest species is threatened by deforestation and forest degradation across its distribution, however, at present this species is sufficiently widespread and common for any threats to be considered minor to the species as a whole.
161073		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161073		distribution	eng	This butterfly is endemic to the island of&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>.<em> </em>It is known from Sabah and Sarawak and&#160;may also occur in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Brunei</st1:country-region> and in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Kalimantan</st1:city></st1:place>.
161073		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, where it is most commonly encountered along trails in shaded forest. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species.
161073		population	eng	This species is regarded as local and uncommon.
161073		threats	eng	Although deforestation is widespread on Borneo, the ability of <em>Drupadia cindi</em> to persist in secondary forests suggests that there are no major threats to this species.
161074		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species at present.
161074		distribution	eng	<p>This is essentially a <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> butterfly that has been recorded rather sparingly mainly in the southern half of the country, but from at least a dozen localities. There is also a record from Shakawe in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Botswana</st1:place></st1:country-region>, indicating that the species might also be found in southeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Angola</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The records from Mutare indicate a presence in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region> and similarly a record from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Beit</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bridge</st1:placetype></st1:place> its presence in the extreme north of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South   Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Henning and Henning 2004). The described distribution gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) in excess of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as its habitat is very common across this range, the area of occupancy must exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
161074		habitat	eng	The species is one of open savannah, savannah woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> spp. woodland) and bushveld.   Individuals have often been seen flying in the shade of large <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia spiciformis</span> trees (<st1:citation w:st="on">Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994)</st1:citation>. In the dry savannahs the very similar species of the genus <em>Cnodontes</em> suddenly turn up on a single tree in a large area and may be found on the same tree during consecutive years, and so this species is probably often overlooked. The larval food is thought to be   algae (Cyanophyta) found on trees (<st1:citation w:st="on">Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994)</st1:citation>.
161074		population	eng	This species seems to be rather scarce across its distribution and is often found as single specimens. However, it may be under-reported.
161074		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Its habitat predominates across its fairly large extent of occurrence.
161078		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
161078		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Urals and northern parts of Asia and North America. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
161078		habitat	eng	This species can be found on tundras and mountain swamps (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%).
161078		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
161078		threats	eng	Not examined.
161080		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. As a result of the area in which this species is found, it is extremely poorly known. Further research is needed to better characterize its distribution, ecology, population data, threats and ultimately its Red List status.
161080		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to both sides of the Albertine Rift, with records from the DRC (Nyamununye, South Kivu, Tanganika Provinces), Rwanda and Burundi (Davenport 2002).
161080		habitat	eng	The species has been documented in forest and forest margins.
161080		population	eng	There is no available information on the conservation status of this species as there has been little collecting in its extent of occurrence.
161080		threats	eng	This species faces the following major threats to its habitat: Fuelwood collection, mining, shifting agriculture, livestock grazing, logging and ongoing civil unrest.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/>Recent political and civil unrest in Burundi led to widespread deforestation. Extreme poverty drove most of this deforestation as people collected fuelwood and deforested land for agriculture and grazing. As a result, very little forest remains in Burundi and as the country is still one of the world's poorest, any remaining forest is still severely threatened. <br/><br/>The story is different for Rwanda, although it too has a recent history of political unrest. Rwanda is now recovering extremely well and after large scale deforestation in the last century has now implemented a very successful reforestation program. This means that 20% of Rwanda is now forested, although it is unclear how well this forest-dependent species survives in areas of replanted forest. <br/><br/>The horrific events of the Second Congo War which officially ended in 2002/3 forced many people to flee through the forests in the east of the country in Kivu province. Unsurprisingly this took its toll on the forests of this area. Whilst large areas of forest still remain across the DRC, there is ongoing deforestation in Kivu in the east, driven by mining amongst other factors (SarVision 2008) and so forest cover in the range of this butterfly is dwindling.
161092		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
161092		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over Europe to 63° N. It is absent from central and north Scandinavia. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found east to West Siberia and across Asia Minor and the Caucasus to Turkmenia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
161092		habitat	eng	The Meadow Brown is a common butterfly of many different grassland types, both natural grasslands and not too intensively used farmland and semi-natural grassland. The butterflies are noticeable by their lively behaviour. The female deposits its eggs on a large number of grasses, including species of fescue (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-brome (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), cock's-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), dog?s-tail (<em>Cynosurus</em> spp.) and brome (<em>Bromus</em> spp.). Sometimes, it also just drops the eggs in flight. The caterpillar goes into hibernation in the litter layer when half-grown. It also pupates deep in the litter layer. The Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%).
161092		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
161092		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
161097		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this widespread species at present.
161097		distribution	eng	<p>The species has a very widespread distribution encompassing ranging from Guinea-Bissau in the west to Uganda and western Kenya in the east (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). The area of occupancy certainly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, while the extent of occurrence stretches over several million km<sup>2</sup>. Moreover, the species appears to be tolerant&#160;of rather degraded secondary habitats, though not particularly common and somewhat localized in its distribution (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p> <p>&#160;</p>
161097		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open areas in wet forest, but only where canopy cover remains (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Within this habitat, the species is not particularly common and tends to be localized in its distribution. However, the butterfly appears to be tolerant even of rather degraded secondary habitats, and therefore relatively resistant to any habitat degradation that may occur throughout its range (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Larval host plants include&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> species (Fabaceae).
161097		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this species at present, though it is does not appear to be common across its extensive range (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
161097		threats	eng	This species is not affected by any known threats. It has a widespread extent of occurrence and appears to be tolerant of degraded habitats. Hence the regional threats of deforestation and degradation (which occur to a greater or lesser extent throughout its range) do not pose an immediate concern at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
161112		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation plans are currently in place or required for this species.
161112		distribution	eng	<p>This is a strict forest butterfly of the main equatorial forests, but it is fairly widespread from eastern&#160;Nigeria to western Uganda, extending south to Gabon and northern Angola. Records&#160;from Guinea and Ghana are erroneous and must refer to darker specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Belenois theora</span> (Larsen 2005). Nonetheless, this butterfly has a large extent of occurrence (EOO). The area of occupancy is much smaller as this is a primary forest species, but still in total, across the large EOO, the area of occupancy is estimated to be well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161112		habitat	eng	<p>The species occupies dense, primary forest.&#160;The female appears to mimic <span style="font-style: italic;">Mylothris&#160;rhodope</span>, but searches for larval hosts low down in comparison to its model (Larsen 2005). Larval host-plants include <span style="font-style: italic;">Ritchiea</span> species.<br/></p><p> </p>
161112		population	eng	This is a widespread and often common species.
161112		threats	eng	This butterfly does not survive strong forest degradation. However, sufficient primary forest exists across its range for threats of deforestation and forest degradation to be currently considered only minor.
161113		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this butterfly.
161113		distribution	eng	This is a tiny forest butterfly from a genus where most species are scarce, localized and difficult to find in the darkness of the forest. Nonetheless, this species has a huge extent of occurrence (EOO) from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, through <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region> and much of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region> and northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).   It is also certainly more widespread and frequent than actual records would suggest since populations of the small <em>Micropentila</em> are easily overlooked.
161113		habitat	eng	This is a species of primary forest. Little else is known of its ecology.
161113		population	eng	This butterfly is scarce and often difficult to find in the field, but this is true for most species in this genus. No detailed population data are available for the species.
161113		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known, but it appears to have a large range, based even on very limited records, and so any threats are unlikely to be significant at present.
161114		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
161114		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> west of the Dahomey Gap between the western mountains of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>, through <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:place></st1:country-region>, to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ghana</st1:place></st1:country-region> giving it a large extent of occurrence well in excess of the threshold for threatened species. It is widely distributed in all but the wettest forest systems giving it also a large area of occupancy. Most museum specimens of the species are placed either as <em>E. themis</em> or as <em>E. aureola</em>.</p>
161114		habitat	eng	It is widely distributed in all forests of good condition except for the wettest forests (Larsen 2005) and it is distinctly intolerant of habitat disturbance (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).<strong> </strong>The larval food plants are thought to be<em> Deinbollia pinnata</em> (Larsen 2005) and<em> Blighia sapida</em> <st2:citation w:st="on">(Hecq & Vuattoux 1989)</st2:citation> from the Sapindaceae.
161114		population	eng	This species is described as being distinctly uncommon across its wide distribution (Larsen 2005).
161114		threats	eng	This species needs habitat in good condition and so is threatened by forest degradation and deforestation. However, the extent of these threats is unlikely to be great at present because of the large range of this butterfly.
161116		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this butterfly. Some research may be needed in order to identify the larval host plant for this species, as well as to obtain quantitative data regarding its population size and trends.
161116		distribution	eng	This species, although considered rare, is widely distributed across Zambia and Zimbabwe. In Zambia, it is known in the Ikelenge, Mwinilunga, Ndola, Chisamba and Lofu River regions. In Zimbabwe, according to Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002), it is known to be widespread in Hope Fountain near Bulawayo, near Bromley east of Harare and Christon Bank near Harare. This distribution gives it an extent of occurrence (EOO) well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and although considered rare, it is widely encountered in its habitat which is common across the EOO. Therefore, the area of occupancy (AOO) must exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161116		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both bush savannah and open woodland (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and therefore has ample available habitat across its distribution. It flies in the summer and has two broods, one in spring (September) and a larger one in the Autumn (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). The larval hosts are unknown.
161116		population	eng	Although specific quantitative population records are lacking for this species, it is considered rare (Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It is most commonly encountered in September and October (Pringle<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1994).
161116		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is savannah woodland which is widespread across its distribution. Therefore, although a relatively rare species, it does not face any major threats.
161120		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sulawesi and Maluku regions of Indonesia. Although endemic, this butterfly inhabits a range of habitats and so it is likely that both the extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are in excess of 20,000 and 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> respectively.
161120		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, as well as areas of advanced regrowth and&#160;rural gardens. Both sexes fly rapidly along forest margins, often several metres above the&#160;ground and may frequent flowers. Males may sometimes imbibe moisture from creek beds.</p>
161120		population	eng	This butterfly is generally a common species and is occasionally abundant.
161120		threats	eng	This species can tolerate some habitat disturbance and can also inhabit anthropogenic habitats such as rural gardens. It is not under any major threat.
161128		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161128		distribution	eng	This is a Sundanian species, distributed in Peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Singapore</st1:country-region> and in <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>. The area of occupancy of this infrequently encountered species is not known, but the extent of occurrence is well in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<em> </em>
161128		habitat	eng	This taxon inhabits primary rainforest and is infrequently encountered. Males frequent hilltops, often together with other members of the tribe Ioalini. Females are usually seen at flowers.
161128		population	eng	This butterfly is widespread but uncommon and local in distribution.
161128		threats	eng	This species is not under any known major threat.
161130		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
161130		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the southern side of the Alps (Valle d'Aosta), south of Switzerland and southeast of Austria and further eastwards to the south of Poland and Romania. It is also found locally in the south of the Balkans to the north of Greece. 500-1,600 m. It is furthermore present throughout the whole temperate zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
161130		habitat	eng	The Hungarian Glider is a butterfly of light, damp woodland, occurring in deciduous, as well as in mixed woods. It is similar to the White Admiral (<em>Limenitis camilla</em>), which is also a woodland butterfly. The butterflies are rarely seen drinking nectar from flowers. It glides from perch to perch with only an occasional flap of the wings. Goat's-beard (<em>Aruncus dioicus</em>), Meadowsweet (<em>Filipendula ulmaria</em>), Bridewort (<em>Spiraea salicifolia</em>) and <em>S. chamaedryfolia</em> are used as foodplants. The female deposits the eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves. After hatching, the tiny caterpillar first eats the eggshell and then makes a shelter in the tip of the leaf. In four places, it eats out narrow grooves across the leaves and subsequently spins the edges of the leaves together. It only leaves the shelter to feed. In autumn, it makes another shelter in which to hibernate. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (19%), mixed woodland (15%).
161130		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
161130		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
161145		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
161145		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Cantabrian mountains in the northwest of Spain. Found at altitudes of 1,000 - 1,700 m. This is a European endemic species.
161145		habitat	eng	This large ringlet is found in grassy vegetation with scattered bushes, such as broom (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus </span>spp.) and Tree Heath (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>), on acid soils. The caterpillars feed on meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) and fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). Chapman's Ringlet is single-brooded. It is not known in which stage hibernation takes place. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).
161145		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
161145		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
161175		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161175		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Maluku and Sulawesi region, Indonesia. It is widespread in Sulawesi and is also known from Taliabu Island in the Sula Islands. The precise extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are not known for this species. However, Cannon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) suggest that there is little future threat from deforestation in Sulawesi simply as much of the most accessible and convertible sites have already been deforested. This means that although the total forest area in Sulawesi, and hence AOO of this species, is less than 6,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Cannon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), there is unlikely to be a continuing decline in the EOO or AOO of this species and its distribution should remain stable for the foreseeable future. The widespread distribution of this species across Sulawesi also makes the conservation status of this species more robust. Therefore, this species does not qualify for classification as threatened or Near Threatened.
161175		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary rainforest. It is most commonly encountered in shady parts of the&#160;forest, along tracks or on ridges. Males establish territories, which they defend vigorously from&#160;elevated perches, along creeks or at the edges of small clearings. Nothing is known of the early&#160;stages of this species.
161175		population	eng	The species is generally local and uncommon.
161175		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat. Although there has been large scale deforestation and forest degradation across Sulawesi, these threats are now declining as only the most accessible forest areas get converted (Cannon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Furthermore, despite this deforestation, this species remains fairly widespread across Sulawesi.
161180		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place or required for this species.
161180		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed across four subspecies in a huge range from Guinea-Bissau east to Uganda and Tanzania and south to Zambia (Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Libert 1999, Heath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Larsen 2005). This gives a vast EOO well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is widespread across the huge areas of forest in this EOO and so the area of occupancy certainly exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161180		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.   Males have been found low down, perching on tendrils of creepers or on palm leaves. They are also often found in the vicinity of ant-trees (Larsen 2005). The larval food appears to be   foliate lichen according to observations at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lisombo    Stream</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Zambia</st1:country-region></st1:place> <st2:citation w:st="on">(Congdon and  Bampton pers. obs. 2003<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>).</st2:citation>
161180		population	eng	This species is often difficult to find. As a result, its population status is poorly known given its huge range. However, it is likely to be fairly common.
161180		threats	eng	This very widespread species does not currently face any major threats.
161186		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species, although the species has been recorded from the newly designated 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> Ivindo National Park, which alone is sufficient to sustain a viable population of the species. There are limited records for this habitat-restricted butterfly and so further research into its population and distribution would improve knowledge of its status.
161186		distribution	eng	This species was described only in 2005 from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region> and a few specimens were subsequently found, also from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region>, in existing collections. It has been recorded from the Ivindo National Park (White and Vande Weghe 2008). G. Van de Weghe (pers. comm.) also found it recently in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chaillu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (300-1,000 m) of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region> linked to primary forest (with Caesalpinioideae as dominant trees) in one of the ancient forest refuges in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region>. He believes it to be endemic to this type of ancient forests that are still largely intact (Bryant <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and not currently endangered habitats in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Therefore, this gives a small extent of occurrence&#160; in the region of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and a smaller area of occupancy (AOO), although the area of the Ivindo National Park alone is 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which suggests that the AOO probably exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161186		habitat	eng	The habitat is ancient, primary forest in Gabon. It appears to be these forests with Caesalpiniaceae as dominant trees that are the main habitat (G. Van de Weghe pers. comm. 2008).
161186		population	eng	The species is probably generally rare and perhaps with a fragmented distribution in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gabon</st1:place></st1:country-region> (T.B. Larsen and G. Van de Weghe pers. comm. 2008).
161186		threats	eng	Gabon is the most densely forested country in Africa and until now has maintained its economy through its vast reserves of oil and various other minerals. This has kept deforestation rates low and consequently between 69 and 80% of Gabon's original forest remains (Laurance <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). However, with reserves of other resources dwindling, Gabon's timber reserves are likely to become increasingly under threat in the future as the government increases the number of logging concessions. The refuge forests in which this butterfly is found will certainly face threats from this logging in the future, as well as the indirect threats that invariably accompany logging, such as increased access for slash and burn farmers.
161187		conservation	eng	This little known species requires further research to identify its distribution, population status, habitats and threats in order to move it from the category of Data Deficient.
161187		distribution	eng	The species was described after a male from Kelle in Congo (1963). Two more recent&#160;female paratypes were taken from Odzala National Park in Congo which is not far from Kelle (Collins and&#160;Larsen 2000).<p>&#160;</p>
161187		habitat	eng	The records of this species were obtained from forest habitats.
161187		population	eng	This species is known from only three records and so nothing is known of population trends overall.
161187		threats	eng	The threats to this species, which is only known from three records, are unknown.
161189		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, Slovakia, Croatia and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
161189		distribution	eng	The species occurs in many mountainous areas in Europe: in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), the Pyrenees, the Alps, central Italy, Velebit Mountains. (Croatia), Dinarian Alps (Bosnia), mountains of southern Serbia, south of Albania and southwest of Bulgaria, Carpathians (Romania) and the Tatra (Poland / Slovakia). Found at an altitude between 1,600-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
161189		habitat	eng	The Silky Ringlet can be found on screes, sunny, rocky slopes and dry grasslands with scattered rocks. The butterflies often bask in the sun on stones, but, with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. They are rarely seen visiting flowers. The caterpillars are found on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. minor </span>and Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>). The caterpillars take two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (47%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (9%).
161189		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
161189		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
161192		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this butterfly.
161192		distribution	eng	The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species stretches from Senegal to Uganda and Kenya, south to the southern forests of the DRC. This EOO is therefore in excess of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> and as this species is found in all forest types, the area of occupancy (AOO) must also be large and certainly far greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161192		habitat	eng	<p>The species is widespread and common in most of the African forest zone,&#160;especially in somewhat drier forests, though it will be found around the edges of even&#160;the wettest forests.&#160;In West Africa it also occurs in dense Guinea savanna and open areas in the&#160;forest zone.&#160;Males are often observed in mud-puddles, and both sexes are attracted to flowers.&#160;The species occasionally migrates; one such&#160;mixed migration in Lagos, Nigeria in late May, 1967&#160;was recorded (Larsen 1968).&#160;</p><p>Larval host-plants include&#160;most forest Capparidaceae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis, Cadaba, Maerua</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ritchiea </span>spp.).</p>
161192		population	eng	This is a common butterfly across the forest zone.
161192		threats	eng	The species is widespread and robust, its larvae feeding on many species of Capparaceae. It does not face any major threats.
161203		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
161203		distribution	eng	This is a South African endemic which is widely distributed in the Western and <st1:place w:st="on">Northern Cape Provinces</st1:place>, especially in the latter. Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be greater than 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161203		habitat	eng	The habitat is succulent karoo-like vegetation. Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1994) state that the species is found on rocky slopes and hills within this karoo vegetation. The flight period is described as August to October. However, the species has also been reported during autumn from sites further south in its range (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).
161203		population	eng	Barkly's copper tends to be locally distributed, but is often quite common where it occurs.
161203		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
161207		conservation	eng	This species is only known from two specimens and so further research is required to elucidate virtually everything about the biology of this species from distribution, population status, habitat and ecology, threats to ultimately its conservation status.
161207		distribution	eng	This small species was described from Naivasha in Kenya only in 1996 as part of a&#160;major revision of this homogeneous genus by Libert (1996), when numerous new&#160;species were isolated. There is also a record from Burundi.
161207		habitat	eng	Since the species is known from only two records, little is known about its ecology or habitat requirements. The holotype from Naivasha was collected in open savannah in the Rift Valley.
161207		population	eng	This species is known only from two records and so there are no available population data.
161207		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
161209		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
161209		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed from the northern Moluccas (Bacan, Halmahera, Obi, Kai and Aru groups), throughout mainland New Guinea (including Waigeo and the Schouten Islands), to the D’Entrecasteaux and Trobriand groups. It is essentially a lowland species, flying from sea level to about 1,200 m elevation or higher (Parsons 1998). This gives an extent of occurrence in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.<br/></p>
161209		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. Both sexes occur in very large numbers in favourable conditions, flying directly 1-4 metres above the ground through open areas in the forest. They usually adopt a leisurely flight and spend much time flying around foliage in full sunshine. Larvae feed on new growth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Flacourtia ryparosa</span> (Flacourtiaceae) and possibly other species. The early stages develop very rapidly (Parsons 1998).
161209		population	eng	This species is common where it occurs, and often abundant through most of its range. It may occur locally in immense numbers during the summer rains (Parsons 1998).
161209		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
161213		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161213		distribution	eng	<p>This is a widely distributed species that occupies the entire forest zone of Africa, from the Cross River Loop in eastern Nigeria to the coastal forests of East Africa. It is, however, missing from southern Sudan and Ethiopia (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Though detailed records of the precise distribution of the butterfly remain uncertain, the species is widespread and common in at least 21 African countries. Hence, the area of occupancy undoubtedly dramatically exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, while the extent of occurrence is certainly in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161213		habitat	eng	This species<em></em> is a common butterfly in forest and heavy moist woodland. It is relatively tolerant of habitat degradation, though always demanding some intact canopy, and is sometimes found in quite small isolated stands of trees or open cocoa plantations (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009). Females are often seen investigating foliage at the edge of forest clearings and along paths. All host-plant records&#160;are Flacourtiaceae,&#160;including&#160;<em>Caloncoba gilgiana</em>;&#160;<em>Buchnerodendron</em> species;&#160;<em>Rinorea</em> species;&#160;<em>Lindackeria</em> species;&#160;<em>Dovyalis</em> species; and&#160;<em>Lindackeria schweinfurthii</em>.
161213		population	eng	Detailed quantitative population records are lacking for this widespread butterfly species. However, the species is recognized to be one of the most common of all forest butterflies in Africa (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).
161213		threats	eng	<em><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></em>There are no major, immediate threats to this forest butterfly. Though the regional threats of deforestation and forest degradation arise widely across Africa, they do not pose a significant threat to this widespread and common species at present (T. Larsen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em><br/></em>
161219		conservation	eng	Part of this species' range is within&#160;Ankasa National Park, Ghana, where host plants are abundant. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, but further research is recommended to establish the impacts of threat processes on this species.
161219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Africa, its distribution stretches from&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Liberia</st1:country-region>, through Côte&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">d’Ivoire to&#160;</st1:country-region><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It has a very large extent of occurrence (over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>).
161219		habitat	eng	The habitat is strictly wetter forests in good condition, often near small streams and rivers.&#160;Both sexes are strongly associated with the yellow-flowered <em>Costus afer&#160;</em>(Costaceae) larval host-plant, which it rarely leaves&#160;(Sourakov and Emmel 1997).
161219		population	eng	<p>This species is usually common, sometimes abundant, where it occurs, although it is somewhat patchily distributed. There is no information on population trends.</p>
161219		threats	eng	<p>This species appears to be highly specialised and patchily distributed making it vulnerable to habitat disturbance. More information is needed on possible disturbances to this habitat.</p>
161221		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161221		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Sulawesi region, Indonesia. It has also recently been found on the nearby Sula&#160;Islands (unpublished data). The extent of occurrence of this species is in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller for this localised species, however, as around 6,000 km<sup>2</sup> of 'good condition' forest remains across Sulawesi (Cannon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) the AOO is likely to be greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161221		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits primary and secondary rainforest. It flies rather more slowly than many&#160;other <span style="font-style: italic;">Arhopala</span> species and its pale coloured upperside makes it conspicuous on the wing. It is&#160;most active during the mid-late afternoon. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species. &#160;</p>
161221		population	eng	The species is fairly common in small, localised colonies.
161221		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat and can tolerate some degradation of its forest habitat.
161224		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are currently in place for this species, but it would benefit from further research, such as that being carried out by the African Butterfly Research Institute, to better quantify its distribution.
161224		distribution	eng	<p>This forest species is distributed across the equatorial forest zone in two subspecies. The nominate subspecies is known from about 150 specimens from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region> and from six localities near <st1:city w:st="on">Bangui</st1:city> in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Central African Republic</st1:country-region></st1:place>. More than 35 specimens of ssp. <em>depuncta</em> were collected in several localities around <st1:place w:st="on">Beni</st1:place> in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (Kivu). Virtually all the material is due to specialized collecting on ant trees by the African Butterfly Research Institute, Nairobi. The species must be found also in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gabon</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Congo</st1:country-region></st1:place>, as well as more widely in Kivu province, DRC. This distribution gives the species a huge extent of occurrence (EOO) well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This butterfly has specific habitat requirements and so the area of occupancy (AOO) must be far smaller (potentially less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>). However, the species has been widely encountered by collectors across its distribution and it is certainly more widely distributed than current records suggest. Furthermore, with large areas of forest still remaining across its distribution there is no evidence of major decline or fluctuation in the habitat of this species. It cannot qualify as threatened under criterion B, despite its small AOO.<br/></p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>
161224		habitat	eng	This is a species of moist forest. Members of the genus are closely associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span> spp. of ant (Libert 2007).
161224		population	eng	Members of this genus tend to be rare. However, around appropriate ant trees this species may be abundant.
161224		threats	eng	Although this species has a small area of occupancy, it is widely distributed and so does not currently face any major threats.
161231		conservation	eng	Further research is required to elucidate the distribution, population status, habitats and ecology of this species. In turn this will help to identify the threats that this species faces and to shift this species from the category of Data Deficient.
161231		distribution	eng	This tiny butterfly is known with certainty only from the male holotype collected from the Lower Kwa River in the Oban Hills, Nigeria, in 1995. The holotype is in poor condition, but with genitalic characteristics that set it apart from its closest relatives. A few females from eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Korup</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National   Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> may also be this species (Larsen 2005). Neither the extent of occurrence nor the area of occupancy can be estimated based on existing knowledge of the species.
161231		habitat	eng	Nothing is published on the habitat preferences and ecology of this extremely poorly known species, but presumably the holotype was collected in the rain forest which predominates in the Oban Hills.
161231		population	eng	This species is known only from one confirmed specimen and so nothing is known of its population status.
161231		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
161235		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
161235		distribution	eng	<p>This is one of the most widespread and common members of the genus&#160;<em>Iolaus</em>&#160;with records from Senegal all round the Gulf of Guinea to the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (north) and Angola, in the nominate subspecies, with ssp. <em>albomaculatus</em> in Uganda and Kenya. Therefore the total extent of occurrence is vast, and as this species is found in a range of habitats the area of occupancy is also likely to be large.<br/></p>
161235		habitat	eng	This is a rather robust species centred on drier forests, but<st1:place w:st="on"> it</st1:place> tolerates considerable habitat disturbance, occuring also in savannah habitats, and even in cocoa plantations (Larsen 2005).<strong> </strong>The larval food plants are thought to include<em> Loranthus incanus</em> (<st2:citation w:st="on">Farquharson 1921</st2:citation>) and <em>Tapinanthus bangwensis</em> (Larsen 2005) from the Loranthaceae<st2:citation w:st="on"> </st2:citation>.
161235		population	eng	This is one of the most widespread and common species in its genus (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161235		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread, disturbance tolerant and common species.
161242		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161242		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Philippines, including the Sulu Archipelago (Treadaway 1995) and Sulawesi, including the Kepulauan Banggai Archipelago (Peleng) (Detani 1983, Vane-Wright and De Jong 2003). It is common up to 300 m, though it is found up to 2,800 m in the south of Sikkim, India. There are also records of this species occurring in Maharashtra National Park in Mumbai, India (Raut & Pendharkar 2010), the north-western and eastern Ghats (Rajasekaran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002, Padhye<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006), Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala (Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 2001), and across India more widely (Wynter-Blythe 1957). Kahnal (2006) reports this species occurring even more widely into Nepal (Koshi Tappu Nature Reserve), Sri Lanka and Myanmar. This gives an extent of occurrence well in excess of the threshold 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species and, given that this species inhabits both secondary and primary forest, the area of occupancy is also certainly far greater than the respective threshold of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<em><br/></em>
161242		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits both primary and secondary rainforest where it is usually seen flying quite rapidly close to the ground, often along creeks. It visits low flowering bushes and plants like <span style="font-style: italic;">Leea, Blapharis, Alternanthera</span>. The larval food plant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Zizyphus rugosa</span> (Rhamnaceae). It is recorded as persisting in a wide range of habitats including: evergreen forest; scrubland subjected to slash and burn; riparian; grasslands and paddy field with human habitation (Padhaye<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). It is particularly abundant during the monsoon season. Males commonly imbibe from creek beds and mud puddles during the post-monsoon months, often in quite large numbers. Adults have a rapid, fairly erratic flight. Larvae have been recorded feeding on<em> Ziziphus </em>(Rhamnaceae) (Vane-Wright and De Jong 2003). The species occurs up to an elevation of 600m (Khanal, 2006) and seem to be quite restricted to low elevations (Sreekumar &&#160; Balakrishnan, 2001). Seasonally the species is active during the summer, late monsoon, early winter and late winter (Padhye<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>, 2006).
161242		population	eng	This species is locally fairly common. Padhye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2006) reported the percentage abundance of the species to be 2.53% in their study area at Tamhini, north-western Ghats, India. Singh (2010) reports an abundance of 0.4% in the Ankua Reserve Forest, Jharkhand, India.
161242		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
161246		conservation	eng	<em>P. eroides</em> was formerly a separate species listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Important habitats, especially of the former <em>P. eroides</em>, should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.<em> P. eroides</em>: it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in the Czech Republic and Slovakia; not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Bulgaria and Poland.
161246		distribution	eng	The mountain form, the former <em>P. eros</em>, occurs in the Pyrenees, the Alps (from French Alps as far east as Hoch Tauern in Austria), mid-Apennines and in mountains in the southwest of Croatia and the southwest of Serbia. 1,200-2,700 m, mostly higher than 1,800 m. The former <em>P. eroides</em> occurs in scattered populations in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
161246		habitat	eng	The Eros Blue is a mountain butterfly occurring on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, on rocky places with flower-rich vegetation and on scree slopes. Purple Beaked Milk-vetch (<em>Oxytropis halleri</em>) and <em>O. fetida</em> are probably its major foodplants, but other leguminous plants such as <em>Astragalus sempervirens</em>, <em>A. leontinus</em> and Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>) have also been named. The former False Eros Blue occurs on dry grasslands on sand, calcareous soil, or rocky ground and at woodland edges. The males can often be seen in large numbers on damp ground taking in moisture and dissolved minerals. Various milk-vetches (<em>Astragalus</em> spp. and <em>Oxytropus</em> spp.) are used as foodplants and possibly Dyer’s Greenweed (<em>Genista tinctoria</em>). <br>The Eros Blue has one generation a year. Habitats of the mountain butterflies: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (11%). Habitats of the butterflies on hills in Eastern Europe: dry siliceous grasslands (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), mesophile grasslands (7%), coniferous woodland (7%), mixed woodland (7%), inland sand-dunes (7%).
161246		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
161246		threats	eng	The former <em>P. eros</em> is not considered threatened in the European part of its distribution. The former <em>P. eroides</em> is threatened by agricultural improvements and abandonment.
161248		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this species.
161248		distribution	eng	This butterfly   is restricted to mainland New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia).   It flies at moderate to high elevations: from about 1,200 – 2,200 m (Parsons 1998). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is fairly large as the species is widespread in the highlands and suitable habitat is also fairly widespread and so the area of occupancy (AOO) is also not small. Both the EOO and AOO must exceed the respective thresholds of 2,000 and 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> for threatened species.
161248		habitat	eng	This species   occupies both primary and secondary rainforest at moderate to high elevations. It is most frequently encountered flying very slowly in open areas, such as small gardens within the forest. Its flight is characteristically fluttering and slightly bobbing, reminiscent of miletine lycaenid butterflies. Nothing is known of the early stages of this species (W.J. Tennent and C.J. Muller pers. comm. 2008, Parsons 1998)
161248		population	eng	This species   is widespread throughout the central cordillera of New Guinea. Never abundant, it is nevertheless not uncommon where it occurs. Adults are often encountered singly or in small numbers.
161248		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
161254		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
161254		distribution	eng	This is an American species, with a small European distribution in the southwest of Europe. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
161254		habitat	eng	The American Painted Lady can be found on any place with a rich abundance of flowers. The eggs are deposited on a wide range of plants, such as several genera of <em>Asteraceae</em>, <em>Fabaceae</em>, <em>Malvaceae</em>, <em>Boraginaceae</em>, <em>Urticaceae</em>, <em>Balsaminaceae</em> and <em>Scrophulariaceae</em>. Except for February and November, they are on the wings throughout the year on the island of Tenerife. Probably, the adult butterflies can have a diapause in the cold winter months that might be interrupted when temperatures occasionally rise (Tolman & Lewington, 2008). Habitats: scrub and grassland (50%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (50%).
161254		population	eng	This species is local in the southwestern part of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Spain - Canary Islands (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
161254		threats	eng	Not examined.
161255		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161255		distribution	eng	This species has a widespread distribution in southeast Asia from India through Thailand, Burma and Malaysia, to Borneo and&#160;Sumatra (Indonesia). This gives a very large extent of occurrence and as the species is widespread in a number of forest types, the area of occupancy is also large and well in excess of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161255		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary rainforest, as well as dense monsoon forest. It flies&#160;rather erratically, usually about one metre above the ground, but sometimes considerably&#160;higher. It is most abundant along waterways, where the males are often encountered imbibing&#160;moisture from the creek beds.
161255		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout most of its range.
161255		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.&#160;<br/> <p><br/></p>
161260		conservation	eng	Some parts of the range of this butterfly fall within protected areas, such as the Aberdare National park and UNESCO Mount Kenya Biosphere Reserve in Kenya and Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania, although there are no species-specific conservation actions in place.
161260		distribution	eng	This is a truly montane butterfly that occurs in Kenya (Mt. Elgon, Mt. Kenya, Abderdare Mountains, Kikuyu Escarpment), Tanzania (Great Craters Region, Olmoti Crater), and parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Ruwenzori Mountains) in mountain moors and grasslands between 2,500 and 4,000 m.
161260		habitat	eng	This mountain butterfly is found on moors and in grassland at heights between 2,500 and 4,000 m. Both sexes fly weakly, low down, among grasses (Larsen 1991).
161260		population	eng	This montane butterfly seems to be quite widespread, and may be common in suitable habitats. These habitats are only found on mountains between 2,500 and 4,000 m and the population is, as a consequence, fragmented.&#160;Few other species of butterfly have permanent populations at its highest elevations.
161260		threats	eng	Its habitat at these high elevations is not experiencing any major threats at present.
161261		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in-place or required.
161261		distribution	eng	<p>This is a common butterfly covering most of the forest zone east of the Volta River biogeographical boundary; including Ghana,Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Angola, The&#160;<st1:stockticker w:st="on">Democratic Republic of the Congo</st1:stockticker>, Uganda, and United Republic of Tanzania. Clearly the extent of occurrence is very large (over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>).</p>
161261		habitat	eng	This is a species which can survive outside its forest habitat in good conditions, making its populations quite robust and stable.
161261		population	eng	This species of butterfly is scarce in Ghana and Togo, but common throughout other areas of the equatorial forest zone. The population appears to be stable.
161261		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
161266		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species. It would benefit from some further research to clarify its population status and habitat preferences.
161266		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal east through Nepal and Sikkim to Bhutan (Haribal 1992, Smith 1993, Smith 1994, Van der Poel and Wangchuk 2007, Kehimkar 2008). This gives a large extent of occurrence in the region of 3-400,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Within this distribution it flies at elevations from around 975 to 1,950 m (Kehimkar 2008). The Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forest ecoregion, which covers part of the suitable habitat of the species at lower elevations, covers around 38,000 km<sup>2</sup> and around 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> of this is protected (Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Therefore, as this species also occurs in other ecoregions, its area of occupancy must exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161266		habitat	eng	<p>This species frequents monsoonal forest and vine thicket (J. Tennent and C. Muller pers. comm. 2009). It is said to occur between 975 and 1,975 m above sea level (Kehimkar 2008). Nothing is recorded of its early stages, although larvae of members of the genus often feed on grasses (Gay 2008). This species flies close to the ground in May to June and between September and October (Kehimkar 2008).<br/></p>
161266		population	eng	Descriptions of the abundance of this species range from rare in Sikkim (Haribal 1992), through not common in Nepal (Smith 1994) to fairly common/local in Bhutan (Van der Poel and Wangchuk 2007). The status in Bhutan should be treated with caution as this is based on unconfirmed identification of the species. It seems most likely that the species is rare across its distribution.
161266		threats	eng	This species is threatened to some extent by conversion of its habitat for farmland, fuelwood collection and to a lesser degree nomadic grazing (Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). However, it still currently has a large distribution across which large areas of suitable habitat still remain and so these are not&#160; major threats to the species as a whole.
161277		conservation	eng	There are not currently any species-specific conservation measures in place for this butterfly. It may benefit from further research to identify its ant host species which could help to better understand the threats it faces, particularly from the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Linepithema humile</span> (Samways 1993).
161277		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in karoo country of the Eastern Cape Province. This distribution stretches to the northwest of Port Elizabeth and gives an extent of occurrence (EOO) of around 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This may prove to be an underestimate, as much suitable habitat in the area has not been explored. The habitat of this species is also fairly widespread across its EOO and so the area of occupancy is not highly restricted.
161277		habitat	eng	The habitat is gentle slopes in typical karoo country. The flight period is from October to February and unusually for this genus individuals of this species have been recorded feeding on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>spp. flowers some metres above the ground (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994).
161277		population	eng	There is no detailed population information on this species, but members of the genus tend to be elusive and seasonal.
161277		threats	eng	South African Lycaenids do face threats from invasive ant species, land use change and climate change (Samways 1993). However, specific threats from these factors to <em>C. beulah</em> are unknown.
161285		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species.
161285		distribution	eng	This is a butterfly of wetter forests in most of <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place> through <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroun</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>, much of the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker>, and the extreme west of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It does not occur within the Dahomey Gap. It is widespread in the right habitat and then generally well distributed within it, though only sometimes numerous. Nonetheless the extent of occurrence (>20,000 km<sup>2</sup>) and, although smaller, the area of occupancy (>2,000 km<sup>2</sup>) are also sufficiently large for the species to be classified as Least Concern.
161285		habitat	eng	The habitat is wetter forest of good quality (Larsen 2005).
161285		population	eng	This species is rather uncommon but widely distributed in its forest habitat (Larsen 2005).
161285		threats	eng	This species needs forest in good condition and so is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation. However, with a presently huge range, these do not currently present serious risks.
161287		conservation	eng	This species currently has no existing species-specific conservation actions in place. No conservation actions are required.
161287		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed across the rainforest zone of West Africa and through central Africa to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>. This gives an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) in the region of one to two million km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is likely to be similarly large.<em></em></p>
161287		habitat	eng	The habitat of this butterfly is primary and secondary forests. It also occurs in dense farmbush if there is some degree of full canopy cover. The larval host plant for this butterfly is <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Poaceae) (Larsen 2005).<st1:citation w:st="on"></st1:citation>
161287		population	eng	This species is common across its distribution in the rainforest zone of West Africa and through central Africa to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda (Larsen 2005)</st1:country-region>.
161287		threats	eng	This species does not face any serious threat from deforestation, despite the species needing habitats with full canopy cover, because this butterfly has a large distribution with high availability of suitable habitat.
161289		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place or required for this species. The conservation of this little known species would benefit from further research into its distribution.
161289		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>, northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Lualaba in the <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (nominate subspecies), the Mpanda area in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (ssp. <em>extensa</em>), and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Shaba</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> of southern <st1:stockticker w:st="on">DRC</st1:stockticker> (ssp. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><em>shaba</em></st1:place></st1:country-region>) (Amiet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It is most frequently recorded from the Kakamega Forest in Kenya. Overall, there is no evidence of major distribution/population decline or fluctuation and the extent of occurrence is sufficiently large for the species to be classed as Least Concern.<br/></p>
161289		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is forest (Kielland 1990).
161289		population	eng	The species is rather rare and local but little information is available. It has been found regularly in Kenya’s Kakamega forest for many decades (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161289		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
161294		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required for this common species.
161294		distribution	eng	This is one of the fifteen most common and widely distributed African butterflies, having been found in effectively every country and all or most islands. It is centred in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region></st1:place> savannah and similar habitats, but is mobile and rapidly colonizes disturbed areas in rainforests, and it is common in most African cities. It is not at home in the <st1:place w:st="on">Sahel</st1:place> or in subdesert countries but colonizes irrigated vegetation and oasis habitats. As this butterfly is found all over Africa, it has an EOO of around 30 million km<sup>2</sup> and as the butterfly is widely distributed within this EOO, the AOO is probably almost as large.
161294		habitat	eng	The main habitat is Guinea savannah and similar savannah woodland habitats, but this widespread species is also found in rainforests, grasslands (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994), urban environments (Lees and Minet 2003) and even irrigated vegetation in subdesert habitats. The butterfly shows different habitat preferences in different parts its distribution, for example, in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> the butterfly occurs in forest margins and anthropogenic environments and in <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place> it is commonest in cleared areas in the forest zone, as well as on road verges and in city gardens (Larsen 2005). This species is a generalist in terms of larval host-plants and utilizes a wide range of plants from the Acanthaceae. Adult specimens are often seen feeding from flowers in gardens (Pringle <em>et al</em>. 1994) and in <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place> are fond of those of <em>Tridax</em> (Larsen 2005).<em><br/><br/></em>
161294		population	eng	As stated in the distribution section, this is one of the fifteen most common butterflies in Africa (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2008).
161294		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this incredibly widespread and common species.
161299		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place, or generally needed, for this species.
161299		distribution	eng	The nominate subspecies flies widely in southern Tanzania, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kabinda, Lualaba, Shaba), Angola, Malawi, Zambia (common and widespread), Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia (north), and South Africa (Limpopo Province, Mpumalanga, North West Province, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal).&#160; The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">gregorii</span> occurs in much of central and southern Kenya Kenya (Lukenia Hills, Thika, Nairobi, Ol Doinyo Sabuk) as well as in northern Tanzania.
161299		habitat	eng	This butterfly is found in most types of savannah habitats where <span style="font-style: italic;">Zizyphus </span>(in the plant family Rhamnaceae)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is present, and around which it is often seen fluttering. Occasionally males also show hilltopping behaviour but they seldon stay on the summit for long (Pringle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). Males frequently visit mud-puddles and the butterfly is often seen feeding from flowers. It flies all year, but is scarce in South Africa in the winter.
161299		population	eng	This is a widespread and common savannah butterfly. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">gregorii</span> is less common.
161299		threats	eng	No specific threats are noted for this widespread savannah butterfly.
161302		conservation	eng	<p>No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.<br/></p>
161302		distribution	eng	This butterfly is endemic to Borneo. The total area of the island is over 700,000 km<sup>2</sup> of which around 50% is forested. Therefore as a relatively common species of primary and secondary lowland forest, the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of this species are both well in excess of the respective thresholds for threatened species under criterion B.
161302		habitat	eng	The species has been documented in both primary and secondary rainforest.
161302		population	eng	This butterfly is a fairly common species.
161302		threats	eng	<p>This species is not under any major threat.&#160;</p>
161303		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or required for this species.
161303		distribution	eng	This butterfly occurs widely in South East Asia, from northeast <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region> (Sumatra, Java, Bangka) and <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>. This gives a very large extent of occurrence well in excess of the threshold for threatened species. Although smaller, the area of occupancy is also certainly well in excess of the threshold 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161303		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and tall secondary rainforest, and frequently hilltops in company with other nymphalid butterflies.
161303		population	eng	This butterfly is fairly common throughout much of its range.
161303		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
161310		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or required for this butterfly. Its conservation may benefit from further research to identify its ant host species, which in turn will help to quantify any potential threats it faces.
161310		distribution	eng	<p>This is a species of the most arid zones, though with occasional colonies into the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region></st1:place> savannah areas. There are scattered records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">across the Sahel and also into</st1:country-region> <st1:country-region w:st="on">Gambia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:country-region>, northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region> and northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Larsen 1991, 2005). This gives a vast extent of occurrence (EOO) that far exceeds 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The species is not commonly encountered because of its highly seasonal behaviour. Nonetheless, the total area of occupancy must exceed 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161310		habitat	eng	This species is found in sub-desert and desert, in the Sahel and in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> savanna and sometimes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region></st1:place> savanna (Larsen 2005). This species is closely associated with an ant host, although the ant species is unknown. In fact, in the pre-Saharan area, it is often found in areas without any other butterflies as a result of its virtual plant independence but close ant association (Larsen 2005).
161310		population	eng	This is a rare species that is found in localized colonies and is difficult to find since it is not only strongly seasonal, but may skip entire years if rainfall is inadequate, surviving inside ants’ nests where it eats their larvae and pupae (Larsen 1991).
161310		threats	eng	This species occurs at low abundances and is highly dependent on its ant host species, but is currently very widespread. Therefore, it does not face any major threats at present.
161317		conservation	eng	None in place.
161317		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from North Carolina to Florida Keys and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Also Bahamas (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>FAO area: 21, 31.
161317		habitat	eng	Occurs primarily over sandy or muddy substrates (soft fine substrates) in deep waters off the continental shelf, off reef habitats (Ross and Quattrini 2007). Found at depths of 275?922 m. Specifically, the species is known at depths of 646?745 m off South Carolina, at 683?922 m off Florida, and from off the north coast of Cuba at 275?642 m (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/> <br/>Nothing is known of the breeding ecology of the Deepsea Blind Ray, although anecdotal information on size at maturity is available for males. The maximum known length is 49 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003). Size at maturity is reached by approximately 16 cm TL for males (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003). Young are 8?9 cm at birth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161317		population	eng	The Deepsea Blind Ray appears to be abundant as it is caught in large numbers throughout its distribution, when it is taken.
161317		threats	eng	Occasionally taken as bycatch. If fisheries move into deep water the species is likely to be taken by trawlers as bycatch, but this is not considered likely in the foreseeable future. Discarded at sea but chance of survival is low (soft flesh, etc.) so levels of bycatch should be monitored.
161318		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Monitoring of catches and population trends is required.
161318		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: throughout the Gulf of Mexico; from northwestern Florida, USA, to Yucatán, Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Records of this species from Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua (Robins and Ray 1986) may be misidentifications of <em>Leucoraja garmani</em>.
161318		habitat	eng	This skate is found on soft bottoms along the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 53?588 m, but is more common between 60 and 366 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum size of at least 44 cm total length (TL) and 25 cm disc width (DW), but is common to 40 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). This species is oviparous, like other skates, and little else is known of its biology.
161318		population	eng	Unknown.
161318		threats	eng	This species is potentially caught as bycatch in demersal trawls that occur off the southeastern coast of Florida, USA, and in the Gulf of Mexico and probably discarded.
161319		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research is required on this species’ distribution, biology and habitat. Bycatch levels should be quantified.
161319		distribution	eng	Northwest and northeast Pacific: found in the Bering Sea and off the Aleutian Islands (Stevenson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
161319		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths of 90 to 448 m (Stevenson<em> et al.</em> 2004). Maximum recorded size is 76 cm total length (TL) (Stevenson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Females are mature at 76 cm TL and males at 70.2 cm TL (Stevenson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. No other information is available on the habitat or biology of this species.
161319		population	eng	This recently described species is known only from a few dozen specimens.
161319		threats	eng	This species is presumably taken as bycatch of fisheries operating in the Bering Sea, but no specific data are available on its capture.<br/><br/>Industrial trawl fisheries have operated in the Bering Sea for over 100 years, but have dramatically increased in capacity since the 1950s (Vaisman 2001). Bottom trawl and bottom seine fisheries targeting various teleost fishes (Alaska Pollack, cod, Pacific Herring; rockfishes, halibuts, plaices), crabs and shrimp operate in the Russian part of the Bering Sea and this species is likely vulnerable to bycatch in these fisheries (Vaisman 2001). During the 20th Century the rate of take in these fisheries increased to the point catches of target species declined, and effective management of these fisheries reportedly collapsed in during the 1990s. Both Russian and foreign fleets fish in these waters. The scale of illegal fishing activities in these waters is considered very high (Vaisman 2001). Deepwater skates generally have limiting life-history characteristics (slow growth, late maturity and produce relatively few young). These unproductive characteristics, in an area where fishing pressure is high and unregulated point to concern for this species.
161320		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Recommended: Efforts should be made to quantify catch levels and determine population trends, which will require capacity-building, education and training programmes. Measures to protect and restore this species habitat would also be beneficial, such as identification and management of Marine Protected Areas to conserve nursery grounds. Research is needed on the species? life-history characteristics. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region.<br/><br/>A seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species. Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure impacting this species.
161320		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: this species was first described from Accra, Ghana (Norman 1930) and is reported from southern Senegal to Angola (Schneider 1990, Bianchi 1986, Séret in press).
161320		habitat	eng	An inshore guitarfish occurring in shallow coastal waters to about 35 m depth (Schneider 1990). Maximum size is about 80 cm total length (TL) and the species commonly reaches 60 cm TL (Schneider 1990). Males mature at about 46 cm TL, females at about 52 cm TL, size at birth about 15 cm TL. Ovoviviparous with litters of 2?3 pups; a sluggish bottom-dweller feeding on benthic invertebrates mainly shrimps (Séret in press).
161320		population	eng	It has never been abundant but nowadays it has become evidently rare, taken in fisheries on an increasingly rare basis (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).
161320		threats	eng	Captured by bottom trawls, trammelnets and hook-and-line (Schneider 1990). This species is taken as bycatch in such fisheries throughout its range. Inshore fishing pressure is intensive throughout its range along the western coast of Africa. The small-scale fisheries that originally exploited elasmobranchs off western Africa in the 1950s have undergone huge development during the past 20 years in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear. Interviews with fishermen and traders strongly suggest that the shark fin trade is financing the overexploitation of shark resources and leading to declining catches throughout Africa (WildAid 2001, Walker <em>et al. </em>2005). Rhinobatos species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006). The targeting of these species for their fins has already led to population declines in several similar species of elasmobranchs (including R. cemiculus and R. rhinobatos), the extirpation of some Pristis species, and a significant transformation in the structure of small-scale fisheries (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). Extensive coastal shrimp trawl fisheries for pink shrimp Paenus notialis are also known to operate off Cameroon and Benin (IGGC 2007b). This species is likely taken as bycatch of these and other trawl fisheries that operate within its inshore range.<br/><br/>As well as over-exploitation by fisheries, this species coastal habitat is threatened by degradation and destruction through coastal development, pollution (residential, agricultural, hydrocarbon and heavy metals) and mangrove deforestation (IGGC 2007a,b). In Ghana, 55% of the mangroves and significant marshlands around the greater Accra area has been destroyed through pollution and overcutting. In Benin, the figure is 45% in the Lake Nouake area, in Nigeria, 33% in the Niger Delta, in Cameroon, 28% in the wouri Estuary and in Côte d'Ivoire, about 60% in the bay of Cocody (IGGC 2007b).<br/><br/>Serious declines have been documented in other <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp where they are heavily fished. These include, <em>Rhinobatos rhinobatos </em>and <em>R. cemiculus</em> which occur in the Mediterranean Sea along the western African coast, and are both assessed as Endangered, based on observed and inferred population declines as a result of targeted and incidental fishing pressure.
161321		conservation	eng	Further investigation is required to make a more detailed assessment of this species. Monitoring of fishing activities within the known range and habitat of this species may need to be increased to gain more detailed information on its susceptibility and population trends.
161321		distribution	eng	Western central and southwest Pacific: temperate waters of eastern Australia, and possibly New Zealand (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161321		habitat	eng	This demersal shark occurs on the slope at depths of 360–640 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2007). Attains 123 cm total length (TL) (White <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reproduction is viviparous. Very little is known about the biology of this species, however its productivity is presumably low.
161321		population	eng	<em>Cirrhigaleus australis</em> appears to be locally rare which may be a natural characteristic of this species.
161321		threats	eng	The two long dorsal-fin spines make this species particular vulnerable to nets and trawls. The very stout body of this species also most likely reflects a slow moving lifestyle thus making net and trawl evasion more difficult. The Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (including the East Coast Deepwater Trawl and Commonwealth Trawl sectors) operates within this species’ range off eastern Australia (see <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/information/maps/sess_cts.htm">Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery Commonwealth trawl sectors and South Australian coastal waters sector</a>), which it is likely taken as bycatch. Although not utilised commercially at present, the liver is high in squalene oil and is often of high value.<br/><br/>The apparent low numbers of this species within its known range may be a result of the above factors, however, this species may have naturally low populations and more data are necessary.
161322		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and possible importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161322		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic: known only from west of Cape Town, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991, H. Holtzhausen 2004 pers. comm.).
161322		habitat	eng	A large deep-water skate known from a depth of 1,150 to 1,350 m (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2008, Hulley 1988). This species is likely to have a slow growth rate, long life span and low fecundity. Maximum size has been reported at 100 cm TL, 73 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates.
161322		population	eng	Information on population size, distribution and habitat is limited mainly because of limited surveys in deep waters. At present the species is believed to be endemic to South Africa.
161322		threats	eng	Because this skate occurs (1,350 m) deeper than most current deepwater benthic trawling (other than a small number of boats exploiting Orange Roughy) at about 700 m, there is currently little fisheries threat.
161324		conservation	eng	The Galápagos archipelago is covered by the 133,000 km² Galápagos Marine Reserve which includes strictly protected areas and prohibits industrial fishing but allows artisanal fishing (Wood 2007). However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking.<br/><br/>The species was discovered during surveys using manned submersibles, as its habitat is unsuitable for more traditional sampling methods (i.e., trawling) (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further sampling would assist in better defining the distribution and occurrence of the species, which given the isolation of the Galápagos Islands and the associated high level of endemism, is likely endemic to the archipelago (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161324		distribution	eng	Species documented from four scattered locations around the Galapagos Islands in the Southeast Pacific as per the original species description (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006). See Quaranta <em>et al</em>. (2006) for exact collection details.<br/><br/>Quaranta <em>et al</em>. (2006) notes that given the high degree of endemism of fishes around the Galapagos Archipelago, <em>H. alphus</em> is likely to be endemic to the islands.
161324		habitat	eng	All known specimens of the species were collected or observed at depths ranging from 630–907 m, within 3 m of the bottom (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Quaranta <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported habitat adjacent to capture sites as ‘slopes and ledges containing large volcanic boulders, cobbles, and gravels, frequently overlain by, or interspersed with, patches of sand and coarse silt’. Two measured specimens were an adult male of 41.9 cm TL and 24.9 cm body length (BDL), and a sub-adult female of 48.0 cm TL and 24.4 cm BDL (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161324		population	eng	This recently described species is known only from two specimens and an additional two observations, from four locations as recorded in the original species description (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161324		threats	eng	Fishing activities around the Galápagos archipelago are mostly limited to the coastal zone, although pelagic longlining also occurs. The habitat of this species (steep rocky volcanic slopes and ledges) is unsuitable for trawling, and demersal deepwater fisheries are not presently operating within its range.
161325		conservation	eng	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the Northwest and Western Central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.
161325		distribution	eng	Endemic to western north Pacific including southern Japanese waters, central and eastern north China Sea, western Taiwan Straits (Shuyuan 1994), and waters surrounding northern Taiwan (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a, Walsh and Ebert 2007).
161325		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf and caught in fisheries operating down to 600 m (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Maximum total length is 200 cm (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Though life history parameters are unknown, this species is thought to be slow growing and late maturing like other Squatinids.<br/><br/>Individuals are caught at or near the bottom, often in sandy substrate (Compagno 1984). Other species of angel shark are known to bury themselves in sediment and ambush their prey. Reproduction strategy is aplacental viviparity (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161325		population	eng	Population size for this species is unknown, but individuals are found in local fish markets in Taiwan and Japan (H. Ishihara and D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Little data exist due to no known catch records for this species and confusing taxonomic information used to distinguish individuals of this species from other northwest and western central Pacific Squatinids, especially <em>Squatina formosa</em>.<br/><br/>In 1980, one specimen of this species was caught in each of seven surveys that were carried out in the East China Sea between 35 and 500 m (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161325		threats	eng	This species is taken as a retained bycatch in trawl fisheries which operate over large areas of its range. It is found in local fish markets, but it is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations (D. Ebert pers.obs. 2007). This species? bathymetric distribution extends deeper than other northwest Pacific <em>Squatina</em> species?, and may afford it some refuge from fishing in areas not exploited by deepwater fisheries.<br/><br/>The East China Sea and Yellow Seas are intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004ab). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004a). The Yellow Sea was once one of the most intensively exploited Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) in the world and is considered severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with destructive fishing practices (NOAA 2004b).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007b). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007b). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007b). Progress is being made in the introduction of ecosystem based management in the Yellow Sea and a fisheries recovery plan requires the cooperative effort of all countries bordering it. The Yellow Sea LME Project will assess fish stocks and establish TACs (NOAA 2004b). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007b). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g., <em>Squatina californica, S. squatina, S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim</em> and <em>Squatina occulta</em>, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick et al. 2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).
161326		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research is required on the taxonomic validity of this species, in the first instance.
161326		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Southern Japan to Taiwan, Province of China, South China Sea (Mould 1994). The holotype was collected from the coast east of Cape Ashizuri, Kochi Prefecture, Japan (133°07.2'E; 32°43.2'N) (Eschmeyer 2008).
161326		habitat	eng	Virtually no information is available on the habitat and ecology of this poorly known species. The holotype was collected from a depth of 80 m (Eschmeyer 2008).
161326		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
161326		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of trawl fisheries operating within its range.
161327		conservation	eng	None in place. Further surveys and species-specific catch data are required to make a full assessment of threat status.
161327		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from northeastern Taiwan, Province of China (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006).
161327		habitat	eng	Very little known about its habitat or ecology. It occurs between 300 and 600 m deep (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006). Size at maturity is 40.6 cm total length (TL) for females and 35.5 cm TL for males. Maximum recorded size is 40.6 cm TL (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006).
161327		population	eng	Known from four specimens collected in deepwater off northeastern Taiwan, Province of China, as described in Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert (2006). Apparently uncommon relative to other Etmopterid species (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006).
161327		threats	eng	The impact of fishing pressure on this species is unknown. It is occasionally taken in bottom trawls, but uncommon relative to other Etmopterid species (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006). Fisheries on the eastern coast of Taiwan are mainly coastal and deepwater. The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved from 100–300 m fishing depth, to over 300 m currently (2007). The fishery has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161328		conservation	eng	Precautionary conservation measures should include the live release of individuals caught, improved monitoring of fisheries data, identification of important nursery areas and the establishment of protected areas for such demersal species. Research is also required on abundance, threats, population trends and capture in fisheries throughout the species range.
161328		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: from the northern UK, south to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984).
161328		habitat	eng	<em>Torpedo marmorata</em> is benthic, dwelling on soft as well as stony bottoms, sea grasses and rocky reefs and recorded from 10 to 100 m depth (Serena 2005). Avoids temperatures above 20°C. Males reached a maximum size of 38.6 cm total length (TL) and 39.5 cm TL, and females, 61.2 cm TL, 58 cm TL, in studies in Egyptian and Tunisian Mediterranean waters, respectively (Abdel-Aziz 1994, Capape 1979). Males mature at ~21-29 cm TL and females at 31-39 cm TL (Abdel-Aziz 1994, N. Ungaro unpublished data, Capape 1979, Consalvo <em>et al.</em> 2007). Mellinger (1971) reported that females mature at ~12 years and live to 20 years of age, and males mature at five years and live to 12-13 years. Aplacental viviparours with a gestation period of 10-12 months (Abdel-Aziz 1994). Probably breeds every two years, and fecundity appears to increase with the size of the female (Abdel-Aziz 1994, Capape 1979, Consalvo <em>et al</em>. 2007). The breeding season is reported to be in November to December. Females produce 5-32 juveniles, measuring between 10-14cm, the number depending on the size of the female (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Nocturnal, usually burying itself during the day with only the eyes and spiracle jutting out. Feeds mainly on small benthic fishes, but also invertebrates. Can produce electric discharges of up to 200 volts. Electrocytes begin developing when the embryo weighs about 1 g and electric organs are functional before birth and newborns can use their electric organ discharge in capturing prey (Henneman 2001).
161328		population	eng	Found throughout the Mediterranean. This species has been reported to be more common than the other two <span style="font-style: italic;">Torpedo </span>species in the Adriatic Sea (<span style="font-style: italic;">Torpedo torpedo </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Torpedo nobiliana</span>) (Bini 1967). The MEDITS trawl survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean. A total of 6,336 tows were performed during 1994-1999 in depths ranging from 10-800 m. Torpedo marmorata occurred in 317 of 6,336 hauls (Baino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) indicating that it is relatively abundant in the Northern Mediterranean, compared to other elasmobranch species recorded. Bertrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) and Aldebert (1997) both found no evidence for a decline in this species in the northern Mediterranean (southern coast of France). Recent analyses performed using trawl survey data in the Northern Tyrrhenian sea showed that the population is increasing in the coastal zone, probably due to the low commercial value of this species (Ferretti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Preliminary analyses seem to indicate that this species is increasing in abundance off all the Italian coasts (Ferretti unpublished data).
161328		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, coastal trammel nets and bottom longlines. It is not commercially fished and is often discarded at sea due to its low commercial value (Minervini <em>et al</em>. 1985). Little information is available on catches of this species as a result of discarding at sea and aggregation of landings data. Fishing pressure from demersal trawl fisheries is relatively intensive on the continental shelf off western Africa.
161329		conservation	eng	None specific to this species. <br/><br/>Trawl fisheries in the area are under quota management. Fisheries management in Australia is starting to move from single species management to ecosystem management and all fisheries now have Bycatch Action Plans and have to be assessed for ecological sustainability. They are required to meet certain certification standards if they are to continue operating.
161329		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia: found on the continental shelf and upper slope of southern Australia from New South Wales to Western Australia, including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).
161329		habitat	eng	Occurring in depths of 20?470 m on soft bottoms. Females reach maturity at five years of age and 49 cm total length (TL) and males at four years and 47 cm TL (M.A. Treloar unpublished data 2007). Longevity is nine years, with a generation period of five years, and they reach a maximum size 66 cm TL (M. A. Treloar unpublished data 2007). Size at birth is about 15 cm TL. This species feeds primarily on carideans (shrimp) although diet varies with size. Juveniles feed predominantly on shrimp and as they increase in size, octopus and bottom fish become of more importance (Treloar <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161329		population	eng	The independent survey data from southern New South Wales, which documented declines of 83% over 20 years in ?skates? combined do not apply to this species because it is distributed just outside the survey area. However, given that fishing pressure is intense throughout its deepwater range off southeastern Australia, it is highly likely that this species has also declined in abundance in this area.<br/><br/>The species is considered common in the western part of its range. For example, Last and Stevens (1994) describe this as possibly the most abundant skate on the continental shelf of the Great Australian Bight.
161329		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries operating off southern Australia, such as the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark (SESS) fishery. This fishery has operated since the 1900s and targets a number of teleost species such as tiger flathead, jackass morwong, eastern school whiting, John Dory, etc. These target species are under quota management, but sustainable catch levels for this skate will be much lower than for the more productive teleost species.<br/><br/>Independent surveys off southern New South Wales show catch rates for ?skates? combined have declined by 83% over 20 years (Graham <em>et al. </em>2001). These declines do not apply directly to this species because its distribution begins at the southern extent of the survey area, in deeper water (Eden and Gabo). However, trawling is intense throughout this species? deepwater range off southeastern Australia and there is no reason to suspect that it has not also suffered significant declines in this area.<br/><br/>Otter trawl activities, in particular, in the southeast of Australia for target species such as blue grenadier and warehou, render its population susceptible. This species has good quality flesh but only about 2% were retained in 2005 in the Commonwealth Trawl Fishery based on observer information (ISMP data). While most skates caught off southeastern Australia used to be discarded, there is now an increasing trend for the larger (adult) ones to be retained for the local market.  Increasing removals of adults, i.e., the breeding population is of concern.<br/><br/>The species also occupies lightly-trawled grounds along the southern Australian coast, in the Great Australian Bight.
161330		conservation	eng	Given the potential vulnerability of this species, research is needed to better define the species? distribution, habitat requirements (including any important areas for breeding etc.) and life history. The gathering of data on interactions with fisheries operating in the region is essential.
161330		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: restricted to the Florida Straits (USA) and along the north coast of Cuba (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161330		habitat	eng	Benthic on the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 430?613 m. Very little information available on the biology of this species. Reaches ~34 cm TL, and is ovoviviparous bearing litters of two young (Compagno in prep). Females mature at about 28 cm total length (TL) and males at about 27 cm TL (Compagno in prep). Size at birth is >10 cm TL (Compagno in prep).
161330		population	eng	Formerly common in its limited range although no recent surveys (Compagno in prep.).
161330		threats	eng	This species is not targeted and there are no trawl fisheries currently operating at the depths at which this species occurs off Florida (J. Castro pers. comm. 2004). There is little specific information concerning fisheries operating in the species? area of occurrence off Cuba (J. Castro pers. comm.). Shrimp trawl fisheries are reported to operate off Cuba, but target species that primarily occur in relatively shallow continental shelf waters (Penaeus notialis and P. schmitti), placing <em>E. barbouri</em> beyond their range of operation (Baisre <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161331		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161331		distribution	eng	Western central and southwest Atlantic: east coast of Florida (USA), throughout the Gulf of Mexico Guatemala, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela and Suriname (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Also off Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil (Soto <em>et al.</em> 2004).
161331		habitat	eng	A deepwater species that inhabits muddy bottoms on the upper slope, occurring at depths of 315–915 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Brazilian specimens were collected from depths of 360–437 m (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2004). Reaches a maximum size of at least 75 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous, but nothing else known of its biology.
161331		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161331		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deepwater demersal fisheries, although no information is available.
161332		conservation	eng	No conservation and management measures are in place, with the exception of Australian waters. Further research is required on the species? life-history, full range and capture in fisheries. Data need to be collected to allow accurate monitoring of population trends.<br/><br/>An elasmobranch biodiversity study in Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) was initiated in 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), further research should be directed at population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in the region. The fishery is largely unregulated (licences being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.<br/><br/>In Australia, the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).
161332		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean to western Pacific: Red Sea, Persian Gulf and South Africa to Micronesia, Japan, Melanesia and the Arafura sea, Australia, Bangladesh, India, widespread in Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Maldives, Micronesia, New Caledonia, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Thailand, Vietnam (Last and Stevens 1994).
161332		habitat	eng	Found in intertidal lagoons, reef flats and reef faces (Michael 1993), sandy habitats and also inland in rivers (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989), at depths of up to 60 m (Last and Stevens 1994) although it prefers shallow water (including estuarine waters possibly close to freshwater) (W. White and C. Vidthayanon pers. obs. 2007). This species is also found in intertidal mangrove estuaries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Two distinct forms of <em>P. sephen</em> are present in Southeast Asia; a thick-fold tail form and a thin-fold tail form. The thick-fold tail form reaches about 325 cm total length (TL) (Fahmi pers. obs.) (~300 cm TL in the literature (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996)), and 149 cm disc width (DW) (White and Dharmadi 2007). Females probably mature at >100 cm DW and males at 98?100 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007). Size at birth is approximately 18 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Very little is known of the life-history parameters of the smaller, thin-fold tail form, except that males may mature at ~30 cm DW (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). Fecundity is low, with one pup per litter (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007).
161332		population	eng	Unknown.
161332		threats	eng	This species is caught regularly in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, longline, Danish seine and beach seine fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Fahmi pers. obs. 2007), and probably elsewhere throughout parts of its range in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. <em>Pastinachus sephen</em> is also directly targeted (for the high value of its skin) in a bottom longline fishery in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). It is captured in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). Typically all the catch is utilised for the species? meat, skin and cartilage.<br/><br/>The life-history parameters of this species also make it vulnerable to depletion (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels have to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fishermen in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>Catches in inshore fisheries suggest that mangroves estuaries may provide important nursery habitat for this species, and destruction of this habitat is very likely impacting this species. Juveniles and sub-adults are known to be targeted in mangrove areas and destruction of mangrove forest is having a significant impact on this species. Mangrove forests throughout Southeast Asia and large areas of the eastern Indian Ocean have been degraded (FAO 2007). In this region, ~1.9 million hectares of mangroves (or about 25 percent of the total 1980 area) have been lost during the last 25 years (FAO 2007). More than 90% of this loss has been caused by destruction of mangrove area in Indonesia, Pakistan, Viet Nam, Malaysia and India (areas where this species occurs) through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, conversion of land for agriculture or salt pans and degradation through oil spills and pollution (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery (Last and Stevens 1994), but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.
161333		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. If deep water fisheries develop in the future, catches will require careful monitoring. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161333		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: known from only a few records off Luzon, Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a,b).
161333		habitat	eng	This benthic, deepwater shark occurs on continental slopes at depths of 329–431 m, with one record on the outer shelf at 50 m depth (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a). Females mature at 27–30 cm and males at ~25 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a). The species reaches a maximum size of 30 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a). Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161333		population	eng	Known from only few records (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005b).
161333		threats	eng	This species would be vulnerable to capture in trawl fisheries, although no data are available on its capture. Trawl fisheries are not thought to operate within this species’ main depth range off the Philippines at present (B. Séret pers. comm.).
161334		conservation	eng	There are no specific management measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>A set of national regulations, the Mexican Official Standard Rules for Shark and Ray responsible fisheries (NOM-029-PESC-2004-2006) entered into place in May 2007. These rules state that every individual kept aboard commercial shark fishery vessels must be completely utilised, however, oceanic vessels may discard the shark guts and head. They also state that shark finning is prohibited. No information is available on how effectively these regulations are enforced.
161334		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: Cape Mendocino, northern California to Mazatlan in the southeastern Gulf of California (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983, Compagno 1984).
161334		habitat	eng	This species is found both inshore and offshore in warm-temperate to tropical waters. It is demersal, on continental shelves and enters shallow muddy bays (Compagno in prep). It moves into north-central Californian waters, USA in summer, but is resident in warmer waters from southern California and south (Compagno in prep). In California it is usually found in water less than 12 m deep, but has been caught down to depth of 67 m (Sandell 1973, Ebert 2003). In the northern Gulf of California it is abundant mainly at depths less than 100 m, although has been caught from 6?265 m (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). This species is viviparous with a yolk sac placenta, and litters range from 3?16 pups (Talent 1985, Yudin 1987, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Reproduction is annual and gestation takes about 10?12 months (Sandell 1973, Yudin 1987, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Data from central California indicates that males mature at 57?65 cm total length (TL) (Yudin and Cailliet 1990), and data from the Northern Gulf of California suggests they mature at 72?74 cm TL (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Females mature at 70?90 cm TL (Yudin and Cailliet 1990, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Maximum recorded size for this species is 160 cm TL (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). Males mature at age 1?2.5 years, females mature at 2?3 years and longevity is nine years (Yudin and Cailliet 1990, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Size at birth is 20?30cm (Sandell 1973, Talent 1985, Yudin 1987, Yudin and Cailliet 1990, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Average reproductive age is estimated at 4.6 years (Cortés 2000). <br/><br/>This shark tends to move around in schools and has often been observed to congregate with leopard sharks in very shallow water (Ebert 2003). Marquez-Farias (2000) report that this, and another small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. lunulatus</em> and <em>M. henlei</em>), make seasonal migrations in Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California) during the autumn and winter months. Elkhorn Slough and Anaheim Bay, California have both been reported as being nursery areas for this species. In Elkhorn Slough parturition occurs from January to May (Yudin 1987). In Anaheim Bay, mating reportedly occurs from February to June and parturition from March to June (Sandell 1973). In the Upper Gulf of California (the shallow (depth <30 m), tidal area at the head of the Gulf of California) mating and parturition is thought to occur from March to June and the region is considered a nursery area for this species (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). The diet of this species in California waters consist of crustaceans [Grapsidae (Hemigrapsus oregonensis), Cancridae (Cancer spp.), Hippidae (Emerita analoga), Callianassidae], echiuran worms [Urechidae (Urechis caupo)], cephalopods [Loliginidae (Loligo opalescens)], small teleosts, bivalves (Sandell 1973, Talent 1982, San Filipo 1995). In the Northern Gulf of California the diet consist of crustaceans (mainly Stomatopoda), cephalopods and teleosts (Méndez-Loeza 2004). Mustelus californicus is a relatively fast growing species, with relatively short longevity, early age at first maturity (Yudin and Cailliet 1990) and moderate fecundity, and therefore has a higher recovery capability from fishing pressure than other slower growing sharks (Smith 1998).
161334		population	eng	This species is considered common in most parts of its range, but it is rare north of Elkhorn Slough, California. It is common in inshore waters off southern California (Castro 1996, Ebert 2003, Compagno in prep).
161334		threats	eng	In the USA this species is regularly caught by recreational anglers in southern California and is of little economic value (Ebert 2003). In the northern Gulf of California <em>Mustelus</em> species have been caught by the artisanal fishing fleet since the 1980s (Cudney and Turk 1998) and by the medium size trawl fleet since 1996, when 59 shrimp trawler vessels obtained fishing permits to catch finfish and elasmobranch species out of the shrimp fishing season. When they are not being targeted, they are taken as bycatch by the shrimp trawl fleet (Sustentabilidad y Pesca Responsible en México: Evaluación y manejo 1997?1998). No catch data are available but these trawl vessels operate in shallow waters where this species is present. <br/><br/>In the Upper Gulf of California this species is frequently targeted with bottom gill-nets (4?6 inches mesh size) from March to July, especially when most valuable teleost species are not abundant. Neonates are not thought to be vulnerable to the gill-nets used because they are smaller than the mesh size (4, 6, 8 inches) in this area. In this region the catches can be as high as 500 kg per fishing trip. In the northern Gulf of California it is commonly caught by medium size trawl vessels that target finfish and elasmobranchs from April to July (at depths shallower than 100 m), and is bycatch in the shrimp fishery from September to January (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/>Marquez-Farias (2000) report that this, and another small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. lunulatus</em> and <em>M. henlei</em>), in the Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California)  are sometimes caught in numbers as high as 1,200?1,500 individuals per fishing trip. In three regions of the Gulf of California (Southeastern, Central and Northern) the highest catches of <em>M. californicus </em>obtained by a trawler vessel (operating at depths of 1-200 m) were: a) 51 kg/h<sup>-1</sup> during February-March at depths of 41?80 m in the Southeastern Gulf of California (Sonora and Sinaloa coasts) , b) 106.43 kg/ h<sup>-1</sup> during September at depths from 81?120 m in the Central Gulf of California (Midriff Islands)  and, c) 186 kg/h<sup>-1</sup> during May at depths of 81?120 m in the Northern Gulf of California (Ehrhardt <em>et al.</em> 1980). Although these authors state that these catches only included <em>M. californicus</em>, they may also have included <em>M. lunulatus</em> in shallower areas (from 1?80 m) and <em>M. henlei</em> in deeper areas (from 80?200 m). In Santa Rosalillita, Baja California (approximately 400 km south of Ensenada) 4,638 kg of <em>Mustelus</em> species were caught from May to September 2001 (Rodríguez-Medrano and Almeda-Jauregui 2002).
161335		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required.
161335		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: from southern Baja, California and the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, R. Robertson per. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.
161335		habitat	eng	A demersal species found on soft bottoms in coastal waters. This species reaches a maximum total length of at least 46.2 cm, but no other information is available on its biology or ecology (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995).
161335		population	eng	Apparently common (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2007).
161335		threats	eng	No information available but presumably taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries throughout its range and is sometimes utilized for human consumption (De La Cruz 1997). Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005, FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense, for example, coastal fisheries of Costa Rica are generally fished to maximum capacity or over-fished, as in the case of the Pacific shrimp fishery (FAO 2007).<br/><br/><em>Urotrygon</em> species are also taken as bycatch in inshore artisanal fisheries in Pacific South America (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005), where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is significant. <br/><br/>Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ‘marine fishes, nei’, where nei stands for ‘not explicitly identified’ (Cailliet and Camhi 2005).
161336		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species’ life history.
161336		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Caribbean Sea in the western central Atlantic: Caribbean Slope off Barbados, Lesser Antilles, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Jamaica, and the continental slope off Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia.
161336		habitat	eng	Continental and insular slopes, at depths of 329–676 m (Compagno 1984). One specimen collected from 306–676 m by a Colombian research trawl (Saavedra 2000). Virtually nothing known of the species biology. Maximum size at least 54 cm TL and is presumably oviparous (Springer 1979, Compagno 1984).
161336		population	eng	Unknown.
161336		threats	eng	None identified. At present there are no fisheries targeting these deep waters in the region (FAOabc, J.P. Caldas pers. comm. 2008).
161337		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place.<br/><br/>All elasmobranchs were commercially protected throughout Western Australian waters in November 2006, thus prohibiting the retention of their catches and bycatches in most fisheries. This prohibition applies to all commercial fisheries except for the State?s four shark fisheries, and prevents unmanageable by-catches in non-target commercial sectors (Fletcher and Head 2006). See Fletcher and Head (2006) for further information on management measures implemented off Western Australia.<br/><br/>Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
161337		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: endemic to Australian waters, widely distributed between Perth and Broome (Last and Stevens 1994).
161337		habitat	eng	A small deepwater skate, found on the continental slope at depths of 200?460 m. Attains at least 35 cm TL with males maturing at about 32 cm TL and free swimming by about 14 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Its biology is virtually unknown, but small species of skate tend to be more biologically productive than large species (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Like other skates, it is oviparous and deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases (Last and Compagno 1999).
161337		population	eng	The most abundant and widely distributed skate on the upper continental slope off Western Australia (J. Stevens pers. comm. 2007).
161337		threats	eng	Although it is quite common and limited fishing is currently occurring within its range, it may become vulnerable if deep-water trawl fishing increases significantly.
161338		conservation	eng	None in place. Further information is required on this species’ life history parameters, catch levels, population trends and threats.
161338		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: endemic to the Gulf of California, Mexico (McEachran 1995).
161338		habitat	eng	A benthic species found on the inner part of the continental shelf in subtropical waters (McEachran 1995). This species reaches a maximum total length of at least 38.5 cm (McEachran 1995). Males mature at around 34 cm (McEachran and Miyake 1988).
161338		population	eng	Unknown.
161338		threats	eng	This species is a potential bycatch of trawl fisheries operating in the Gulf of California, but no information is available on catches. The Mexican industrial fleet includes 2,407 shrimp trawlers, 70% of which operate on the Pacific coast, and almost all of these are concentrated in the Gulf of California (FAO 2007).
161339		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required to determine this species’ full range, abundance, interaction with fisheries and population trends.
161339		distribution	eng	Occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, mainly in the western part and absent from the Black Sea (Serena 2005). The distribution may extend into the Atlantic Ocean, where it is reported from off Portugal and the northern coasts of Morocco, but these records require verification and may be misidentifications of other <em>Raja</em> species.
161339		habitat	eng	<em>Raja radula </em>is found from coastal waters to about depths of about 300 m (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). In the Balearic Islands, this species is relatively common at less than 40 m depth.<br/><br/>Like all skates, reproduction is oviparous. About 80–154 paired eggs are laid per skate, per year (Walker 1998). Egg-cases measure 5.1–5.7 cm and are laid throughout the year, mainly in spring and summer and embryos develop in about four months (Serena 2005, Stehman and Bürkel 1984). Females mature at 34 cm DW and males at 30 cm DW (Serena 2005, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Maximum size to about 70 cm TL (Serena 2005, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Most captured specimens in the Balearic Islands measure about 30–50 cm TL (G. Morey unpub. data).
161339		population	eng	Recorded in low numbers where data are available from trawl surveys in the Mediterranean Sea, however it may be more common in shallow waters (<40 m depth) which were not sampled by some of the surveys mentioned below.<br/><br/>In comparable trawl surveys of the Gulf of Lions (France) from 1957–1960, 1980–1984, 1992–1995, (from the coast to 800 m depth) this species was only captured during the period 1980–1984, on the shelf and slope (Aldebert 1997). In northern Mediterranean wide MEDITS scientific trawl surveys from 1994–1999 (at 50–800 m depth) <em>R. radula</em> was captured in only 21 of 6,336 tows (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). In surveys conducted in Italian waters, it occurred in only 3.31% of 9281 hauls performed between 1985 and 1998 (at 0–800 m depth). It was only present in two areas (Sardinian and Sicilian waters) and was absent elsewhere in these surveys (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000). It was not recorded during trawl surveys in the Adriatic Sea in 1948 or 1998 (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>At least in the Balearic Islands, Spain, western Mediterranean, the species appears to be common in shallow waters. It was not recorded in 131 hauls during trawl surveys there from 1996–2001, at depths of 40–1,800 m (Massuti and Moranta 2003). However, it is the most abundant skate in shallow waters off the Balearic Islands (<40 m depth), comprising about 25% in abundance and 12% in biomass of total elasmobranch catch in the trammel net fishery there (Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006). Therefore the absence of this species from trawl surveys deeper than 40 m, at least off the Balearic Islands, is considered a result of its preference for shallow waters and perhaps the sampling gear.
161339		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl, gillnet, trammel net and bottom longline fisheries. There is a high level of exploitation over the continental shelf and upper slope in the Mediterranean Sea (Massuti and Moranta 2003, Aldebert 1997). In some areas, such as the Balearic Islands, this species is more common in shallow waters, where it is taken in trammel net (targeting cuttlefish Sepia officinalis and teleost fishes), gillnet (targeting Lobster (<em>Palinurus elephas</em>) and Red Mullet (<em>Mullus surmuletus</em>)) and bottom longline fisheries (targeting groupers <em>Epinephelus</em> spp. and Sparidae) (Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006). Trawl fisheries operating on the upper shelf, targeting red mullet Mullus surmuletus, caramel Spicara smaris and small hake Merluccius merluccius in this area also partially overlap with its range. Species specific data are not available because landings of skates are grouped as ‘rays’.
161340		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology and ecology are required. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161340		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the type locality, in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Pakistan (Lloyd 1906).
161340		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater skate. The holotype was taken on the deep slope at a depth of 1,500 m (Lloyd 1906). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, as for other skates. Virtually nothing is known of the biology of the species.
161340		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161340		threats	eng	The known depth distribution of the species is most likely beyond the depth of current fishing pressure. The species may be more widely distributed than currently known.
161341		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Specimens should be collected and studied. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161341		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic: known only from the holotype collected off Hondeklip Bay off the Northern Cape Province of South Africa (not from off KwaZulu-Natal on the east coast, as suggested by the name), and a paratype (locality and depth unknown). Not recorded from African research cruises along the west coast of southern Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).
161341		habitat	eng	<em>C. durbanensis</em> attains at least 31 cm TL and is known from depths of about 860 m (Hulley 1988).
161341		population	eng	A rare skate known only from two specimens. This southern African endemic may be more common than currently known in waters deeper than currently exploited or surveyed by research vessels.
161341		threats	eng	At least part of its range in an area of high exploitation by the South African and Namibian trawl fishery centred on hake. Although there are no data indicating a decline, its limited distribution, large size and likely limiting life history traits make it vulnerable to fishing pressure. May be impacted by deeper fisheries in the future.
161342		conservation	eng	Total Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) on nets excludes many larger fishes from the trawls which has likely reduced mortality of this species in the northern prawn trawl fishery off northern Australia.
161342		distribution	eng	Indo-West Pacific: northern and eastern coasts of Australia, to New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994), Indonesia and south coast of Papua New Guinea (Compagno 1997). Also in the Arafura Sea (Russell and Houston 1989).
161342		habitat	eng	A demersal species occurring from the intertidal to depths of at least 50 m (Last and Stevens 1994).This species reaches a maximum size of at least 73 cm disc width (DW) or 56 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999, Last and Stevens 1994). Little else is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Feeds on large fish species relative to the size of the animal (fish consumed almost filling entire abdominal and mouth cavities) (I. Jacobsen pers. comm.).
161342		population	eng	Relatively common (but not particularly abundant) in northern Australia.
161342		threats	eng	Of very little commercial interest to fisheries. This species is commonly taken as bycatch by shrimp trawlers within its range (Last and Stevens 1994). Introduction of bycatch reduction devices (BRDs) and turtle exclusion devices (TEDs) on the trawl nets has presumably reduced bycatch of this species. Probably caught in the Arafura Sea by the numerous trawlers (mainly Thai) which operate there but its range in this area needs to be confirmed.
161343		conservation	eng	None known.
161343		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: apparently endemic on the shelf of Boavista and São Vicente, Cape Verde Islands (Stehmann 1991).
161343		habitat	eng	Recorded at depths of 55–102 m (Stehmann 1991). Males and females mature from about 35 cm total length (TL) onwards, reaching a maximum size of 50–55 cm TL (Stehmann 1991). Little else is known of its biology, and it is presumed to be oviparous, like other skates.
161343		population	eng	Moderately common within its restricted habitat range.
161343		threats	eng	Potential bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, although no specific information is currently available.
161344		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on taxonomy, abundance, threats and population trends.
161344		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: found in the Gulf of California, from Costa Rica south to Colombia, Ecuador (including the Galapagos Islands) and Peru (Acero and Franke 1995, McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Béarez 1996, Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
161344		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 35–140 m (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). The species reaches a maximum size of 75.6 cm total length (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates but little else is known of the species biology.
161344		population	eng	Unknown.
161344		threats	eng	<em>Raja velezi </em>is known to be taken in shrimp trawl fisheries operating off Colombia, and is probably captured by trawl and other demersal fisheries operating throughout its range. The shrimp trawl fishery off Colombia operates from the shelf to depths of at least 300 m and this species is a retained bycatch of this fishery (Puentes <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161345		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Expanding deepwater fisheries and bycatch levels should be monitored to ensure that this potentially vulnerable species is not detrimentally affected.
161345		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: Denmark-Strait, off south western Iceland, including Reykjanes Ridge, Rockall Trough along Ireland, in the northern region of the Bay of Biscay and south to off Rio de Oro in Western Sahara. It may occur throughout the area in very deep water and on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Stehmann 1978, Stehmann 1995).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: occurs off the northeastern coast of the USA and Canadian slope, north of 45°N and to the Flemish Cap (Stehmann 1995).
161345		habitat	eng	<em>Rajella bathyphila</em> is found on deeper continental slopes and probably abyssal plains, mainly deeper than 1,400 m (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). Like other skates, it is oviparous with females producing around 40 egg capsules each per year. Size at birth is 11.5 cm (Stehmann 1978). Adults reach sexual maturity at about 65 cm total length (TL) for both males and females, with fully mature females of 83 and 93 cm TL recorded off Canada (D. Kulka pers. comm. 2006). The maximum recorded size for <em>R. bathyphila</em> is 93 cm TL (Stehmann 1978).
161345		population	eng	Moderately rare (McEachran and Stehmann 1977, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Stehmann 1978, Stehmann 1995).
161345		threats	eng	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch in deep-water fisheries locally and seasonally, and is mostly discarded. This species’ deepwater distribution (most records exceed 1,000 m) places them outside of the range of many fisheries.<br/><br/>Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700–1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm.). About 10–20% of the northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm.).
161346		conservation	eng	All elasmobranchs were commercially protected throughout Western Australian waters in November 2006, thus prohibiting the retention of their catches and bycatches in most fisheries. This prohibition applies to all commercial fisheries except for the State’s four shark fisheries, and prevents unmanageable by-catches in non-target commercial sectors (Fletcher and Head 2006). See Fletcher and Head (2006) for further information on management measures implemented off Western Australia.
161346		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: found off Western Australia between Shark Bay and Port Hedland (Last and Stevens 1994).
161346		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental shelf in depths of 10–70 m (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>This ray feeds on the bottom on worms and other small invertebrates. The maximum recorded size is 29 cm TL, with young born at approximately 7 cm TL and females maturing at about 18 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Last and Stevens (1994) suggest that females are gravid throughout the year although only appear to breed between September and October.
161346		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its distribution and is thought to aggregate, suggesting that population levels are relatively high.
161346		threats	eng	There is no significant threat to this species from the relatively limited fishing effort currently occurring within most of its range. There are five relatively small trawl fisheries operating within the species' range. All but one of these are confined to individual embayments and both fishing effort and the operational range of the fisheries are small relative to the species' distribution (R. McAuley pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>If large, shallow water fisheries are developed in the area in the future it will be necessary to monitor the population levels through catch data. If inshore trawling effort becomes high, the species may be impacted.
161347		conservation	eng	Further surveys to better define the species' range and careful monitoring of any fishing activities are required. The collection of further specimens is also needed to learn more about the life history of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161347		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: middle to deep continental slopes off Central West Africa. Known from three types off Gabon (2?3°S) and one postembryo from off Rio de Oro, Western Sahara (23°N) (Stehmann and Seret 1983).
161347		habitat	eng	Benthic at 900?1,550 m (M. Stehmann pers. obs.) depth on the middle to deep continental slope off central and north West Africa. Known from only four types therefore very little is known of the biology of the species. From limited reports, it is estimated that the species is mature from approximately 25 cm total length (TL) (male holotype was fully mature at 28.8 cm TL). The largest specimen reported to date was a female at 30.4 cm TL and the smallest was a postembryo at 13.1 cm TL (Stehmann 1990, 1991). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.
161347		population	eng	Rare deep-water dwarf species (only four specimens known). Population size unknown.
161347		threats	eng	The only specimens recorded to date were taken in an area presently thought to be outside commercial fishing operations. However, as deepwater fisheries worldwide continue to expand, and given the species' potential narrow distribution, any fisheries which operate in the species' area of occurrence in the future will need to be monitored carefully to ensure that the current population is not threatened.
161348		conservation	eng	Protocols for managing any expansion of deep-sea fisheries in Indonesia need to be developed in the near future (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Further surveys are required to better define the species' range and depth distribution and biology. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161348		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: known from the Bali Sea, Indonesia at 7°15'S, 115°15.6'E (Weber 1913).
161348		habitat	eng	A small, bathydemersal deepwater species found at 289 m on the continental slope (Last and Compagno 1999). Reported to 31 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1999). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates but little else is known of the biology of the species.
161348		population	eng	Population size unknown. This species is possibly confined to the tropical Indo-West Pacific, and known from only a few individuals (Last and Compagno 1999).
161348		threats	eng	Indonesia has the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world, however there are few data on the species or size composition of landings (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Commercial trawlers land substantial catches of elasmobranchs as bycatch (White <em>et al.</em> 2006), however trawling is at present restricted to shallower fishing grounds. There is also a small deep-sea longline fishery primarily targeting deep-sea squaloid sharks in Eastern Indonesia, operating from 200-600m but mostly below 300 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not recorded during surveys of deep-sea chondrichthyan catches undertaken between April 2001 and February 2003, and is probably too small to be capture by this fishing gear (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>New fishing methods (e.g., trawling) may be adopted in the future, especially if foreign fishing vessels are allowed access to Indonesian waters (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). According to White <em>et al.</em> (2006), expansion of the deep-sea fishery in Indonesia is highly likely.
161349		conservation	eng	None.
161349		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: recorded from Yemen, Somalia and southwestern India (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003).
161349		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths of 787?1,071 m. Originally reported by Alcock (1898) from the Travancore coast of southern India at 787 m depth. Reported at 1,071 m off Yemen, and 823 m depth off Somalia.<br/><br/>Biology is little known, however males mature between 12?35 cm TL.
161349		population	eng	The Dark Blindray is not collected in abundance and is apparently the rarest representative of the genus <em>Benthobatis</em>.
161349		threats	eng	Future threats may include the expansion of fisheries into deep water. Very little information is available on the depths fished throughout the species? range.
161350		conservation	eng	<em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within Alaskan waters within the ?other skates? assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in Bathyraja spp is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented. Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species? range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.
161350		distribution	eng	Northwest and northeast Pacific: Whiteblotched Skate is found in the Bering Sea, off the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska to southeast Alaska, USA, and Westward to Cape Navarin and the Commander Islands, southward to the Pacific off Kamchatka and Kuril Islands to Sea of Okhotsk and possibly to the northern Sea of Japan, Russia (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ormseth and Matta 2007, Bizzaro in prep, Tokranov <em>et al.</em> 2005, H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).
161350		habitat	eng	Whiteblotched Skate ranges from 73?1,193 m depth, on outer shelves and upper continental slopes (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevenson 2004). Females reach maturity at 7?8 years of age and 94.3?101.1 cm total length (TL) and males at seven years and 88.8?95.8 cm TL (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2005). The species attains a maximum size of 120 cm TL  (Mecklenburg <em>et al. </em>2002) and egg capsules measure 97?110 mm length x 51?66 mm wide (Dolganov 1998).
161350		population	eng	This is a common skate.<br/><br/>This species is common in the western Bering Sea, east Kamchatka and northern Kuril Islands appearing as one of the most abundant skate species in trawl surveys. For the northern Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka, CPUE has increased from 10 kg/hr in 1993 to 70 kg/hr in 2000 in trawl surveys (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Using biomass and mean weight of specimens in the Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka (2.6kg), the population can be estimated at about 165,380 animals in this area alone (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). According to 1977?1997 bottom trawl survey data biomass of whiteblotched skate in Russian waters is estimated as 75,300 t including 24,600 t in the Bering Sea, 4,300 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 46,400 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>In the eastern Bering Sea, this species is the fourth most abundant skate species recorded, and in the Aleutian Islands it was the most common skate recorded in the National Marine Fisheries Service Alaska Fisheries Science Center Surveys (NMFS AFSC) (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006). These surveys operate to 1,200 m depth. However, it is not common in the Gulf of Alaska (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161350		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (Ormseth and Matta 2007), and probably elsewhere throughout its range in the eastern Pacific. Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200 m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Therefore this species? deep bathymetric distribution offers refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species. <br/><br/>Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. These fisheries usually operate down to 600?800 m, i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range (D.A. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). There are no fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands. There has also been interest in this skate as a potential fishery target in Russia (Orlov 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, Japanese trawlers fishing in Russian waters took skate wings, but no information is currently available on historical catch levels. Foreign fisheries were prohibited in Russian waters in 2002.
161351		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The taxonomy and distribution of this species require critical review. Research is also required on population trends and threats.
161351		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: the range of this species is not well defined due to confusion with the Saddled Carpetshark (<em>Cirrhoscyllium japonicum</em>). Compagno (2001) reports this species from the South China Sea off the coast of China between China and Luzon, Philippines, and in the Gulf of Tonkin off Viet Nam (Compagno 2001). However records from the South China Sea may be attributable to <em>C. japonicum</em>. Yano (1999) also recorded <em>C. expolitum</em> from the Nansei Islands, Japan.
161351		habitat	eng	Found on the outer continental shelf on the bottom at depths of 183?190 m (Compagno 2001). Two adult female specimens known measuring 30.6 cm and 33.5 cm (adult). (Compagno 2001). Maximum total length (TL) at least 33.5 cm (Compagno and Niem 1998). Probably oviparous, but eggs are not known (Compagno and Niem 1998).
161351		population	eng	Presumably rare or uncommon (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005)
161351		threats	eng	This species is probably taken as bycatch in offshore trawl fisheries and likely discarded, although no specific information is available on its capture.
161352		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in effect or proposed at this time. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to assess the threat status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161352		distribution	eng	Widely but patchily distributed in warm temperate and tropical seas, but possibly absent from the eastern Pacific (Ebert 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Compagno in prep). Records from Mauritius, Madagascar, southern Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and the island chains, Geyser and Zelee Banks, east of Diego Suarez, Castor and Cordeliere Banks, were originally referred to as <em>H. griseus</em>, but Ebert (1990) re-identified these specimens as <em>H. nakamurai</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Western Indian Ocean: off southern Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Aldabra Island group (Aldabra, Diego Suarez, Castor and Condeliere Banks), Mauritius, Madagascar, Kenya, Geyser and Zeleé Banks (Ebert 1990). Eastern Indian: Australia (Western Australia) (Ebert 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic Ocean</strong><br/>Western central Atlantic: off Florida, USA and the Bahamas, northern Cuba, Cayman and Virgin Islands, Yucatán and Gulf coast of Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Venezuela and the Guyanas (Ebert 1990). Northeast Atlantic: Gulf of Gascony and Bay of Biscay, off France, Spain and Gibraltar. It occurs from the Straits of Gibraltar to Italy in the Mediterranean Sea (Ebert 1990). Eastern central Atlantic: Morocco and possibly Ivory Coast and Nigeria (Ebert 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Pacific Ocean</strong><br/>Northwest Pacific: off Taiwan Island, Japan (including Kochi, Ogasawara Islands and Okinawa). Western central Pacific: the Philippines (Negros, possibly Luzon), Australia (Queensland), New Caledonia, French Polynesia (Tahiti) (Ebert 1990). Southwest Pacific: Australia (northern New South Wales) (Ebert 1990).
161352		habitat	eng	Primarily a deepwater species, found on the continental and insular shelves and slopes from 90–621 m depth, usually on or near bottom, but occasionally moving to near the surface or inshore in the tropics (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). May be more restricted in habitat and distribution than <em>H. griseus</em> and less tolerant of conditions beyond offshore continental habitat in warmer seas (Compagno in prep.). Size at maturity is 142–178 cm in males and 123–157 cm in females (Compagno in prep., Ebert 1990). Maximum size is approximately 180 cm (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with 13–26 pups per litter, measuring 40–45 cm TL at birth (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). Probably feeds on small to medium-sized bony fishes, including hairtails (Trichiuridae), small tuna (<em>Euthynnus</em>), and crustacea (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990).
161352		population	eng	Uncommon to rare where it occurs (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). Number and size of populations is unknown. Rare in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005, Ebert 1990). Misidentification with <em>H. griseus</em> has prevented a better understanding of this species' distribution.
161352		threats	eng	Apparently uncommonly taken on line gear and in trawls, and considered of relatively minor importance to fisheries (Compagno in prep.). Small numbers are caught off Campeche Bank, Yucatán in Mexican shark fisheries, as bycatch of snapper fisheries in the Cayman Islands, and as bycatch of trawl fisheries off Taiwan (Ebert 1990). The species has also been recorded in very low numbers in catches of the artisanal deepwater long-line fishery operating off eastern Indonesia, where all landed elasmobranchs are utilised (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>It probably is a minor component of offshore demersal trawl and line fisheries elsewhere where it occurs, but no catch statistics are available (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>The species may be under growing pressure with the expansion of deep water fisheries and there is an urgent need to collect species-specific catch data to determine accurate population trends.
161353		conservation	eng	None.
161353		distribution	eng	Northeastern Argentina, central Paraguay, Western of Brazil in Mato Grosso found in Rio Cuiabá, Rio Paraguay, and in Rio Paraná (Middle and High) from Guaíra to Entre Rios (Rosa 1985). In Alto Paraná the species is found at Puerto San Jorge and in the Mouth of Uruguay River (Missiones) (Castex 1964, Castex and Maciel 1965).
161353		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the biology or ecology of this species. It inhabits deeper waters in channels with strong current (Castex 1965a in Rosa 1985). Maximum size 485 mm disc width (DW) and 892 mm of total length (TL) (Castex and Maciel 1963).
161353		population	eng	Unknown.
161353		threats	eng	Fishing activities and habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Rio Paraná system for navigation and hydroelectric plants, and the construction of many ports along the river.
161354		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
161354		distribution	eng	Northwest and west central Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan from Hokkaido, south to the east coast of the Philippines, off Boguato Islands (Ishihara 1990).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Areas: 61 and 71.
161354		habitat	eng	A large deepwater skate, with a maximum recorded size of 110.5 cm TL (Ishihara 1990). It is a benthic species living on sand and muddy bottoms at depths of 300–400 m. Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but virtually nothing is known of its biology.
161354		population	eng	This species is thought to be very rare and is known from less than 10 specimens.
161354		threats	eng	This species may be caught by bottom trawl and possibly other fisheries, however no specific information is currently available on its capture.
161355		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation or management measures in place for this species. In Nicaragua, finning is regulated for all shark species. In Mexico, shark fisheries are controlled through a permit program. In Ecuador, finning, as well as fishing in the protected zone of the Galapagos Marine Resources Reserve is prohibited but illegal fishing occurs. Ecuador also requires that fishermen record information on fishing trips.<br/><br/>Recommendations for conservation actions may include:<br/><br/>- Coastal zone management plans<br/>- Analyze and update laws and regulatory frameworks <br/>- Establish cooperative agreements between and among countries that may be sharing the same population (e.g., Mexico -Chiapas- and Guatemala) <br/>- Regular monitoring of all commercial artisanal and industrial landings <br/>- Continue monitoring on the biology of the species (morphometric measurements and biological information is needed)<br/>- Harmonization of regulatory frameworks and standardization of conservation strategies between and among countries of the same region <br/>- Long-term conservation actions may include buying of fishing rights.<br/><br/>There is also a requirement to obtain information on catches where little or no data are available (i.e., South America).
161355		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: from Mexico to Peru including Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), Colombia, Ecuador (including the Galápagos Islands; Grove and Lavenberg 1997). In Mexico is found in the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Baja California, and the Gulf of California in Sinaloa (Compagno 1984, Ocampo-Torres 2001).
161355		habitat	eng	A tropical inshore and offshore shark, normally found over the continental shelves in shallow coastal waters (Compagno 1984, Fischer 1995). It is usually found at depths of 15?24 m, but occasionally can be found down to 192 m depth (Compagno 1984). In Guatemala it has been reported 20?60 miles from the coastline on the continental slope (Ruiz and Lopez 1999). In Mexico, it was also observed close to fresh water river mouths (Hernandez 1971); a few individuals have been observed in the Mexican Central Pacific (Pérez-Jiménez 2005). In Costa Rica they are found in the catches registered at 50?75 miles from the coast, and in demersal fisheries operating on the slopes of the continental shelf (Vargas and Arauz 2001).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, and five to six young in a litter (Compagno 1984, Ruiz and Lopez 1998). It feeds on small bony fishes, including anchovies, and crabs. They reach a maximum size of 165 cm total length (TL) (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000). Size at birth is about 53 cm TL; males are immature at 92?106 cm but adult at 140 cm (Compagno 1984). Reproduction (mating and birth) may occur in the months of May through July, as recently born individuals have been observed towards the end of March (Ruiz and Mijangos 1998).
161355		population	eng	Formerly uncommon to rare where it occurs (Compagno 1984), although it has been recorded in unusually large numbers in the artisanal shark fishery of Puerto Madero, Chiapas, Mexico. No time series of CPUE exist for this species, and it is not possible to deduce population trends. Little is known of the population structure, but nursery grounds are thought to exist in shallow waters close to the coast, and in bays and estuaries.
161355		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch of gill nets and surface long lines in inshore fisheries and in some areas directed shark fishing is increasing (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is reported in the commercial landings of some Central America countries, Mexico, Ecuador and Colombia, but it is not reported in the catches of El Salvador and Panama. In Costa Rica, it is caught by pelagic and demersal long-liners. Adult sharks taken in Costa Rica?s demersal longline fishery are used for local consumption and fins may be exported to Hong Kong. Observations on board one fishing trip that included six sets and 3,400 hooks resulted in the capture of 35 whitenose sharks, constituting 12.1% of the total catch (CPUE = 10.3 individuals/1,000 hooks). It is assumed that in Costa Rica effort is increasing in the directed shark demersal longline fishery that catches this species along the continental shelf, however specific data and fisheries information is scarce (R. Arauz pers. obs.). Pups are incidentally captured on nursery grounds close to the coastal shallow waters, by fisheries operating with drift gill nets.<br/><br/>In the artisanal shark fishery of Puerto Madero, Chiapas (Gulf of Tehuantepec, México) this is the fifth most important shark species by number (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). During the period June 1996 to May 2001, a total of 1,149 individuals were recorded from the shark landings (529 females, 620 males) (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). A preliminary CPUE series indicated a stable trend during the study period (1996?2001), with an average CPUE of 1.74 individuals per trip. The highest average was 15 individuals per trip calculated for July 1998 (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). This unusually high CPUE was perhaps associated with the ENSO in 1998, which affected the oceanography of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, increasing the average seawater temperature, and possibly prompting the migration of a larger number of sharks to GOT (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Artisanal net fisheries operate across the species? South American range, and although species-specific data are not available, the whitenose shark is likely captured by inshore fisheries in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In Peru, pressure on inshore shark species is high, particularly houndsharks, but it is likely that <em>N. velox</em> is also a component of landings there.<br/><br/>The impact of trawl fisheries on this species should be evaluated. Although the species is less likely captured by trawl fishing gear than gillnets and longlines, this species? coastal nursery grounds are probably affected by habitat degradation through destructive trawling practices. Water pollution and coastal sedimentation may also threaten nursery grounds through habitat degradation.
161356		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species, more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. Bycatch levels should be quantified to assess mortality in fisheries and determine population trends.
161356		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from type locality in the East China Sea, 26-31°N, 125-128°E (Deng <em>et al.</em> 1983).
161356		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 200 to 1,000 m. Attains a maximum total length of at least 44 cm (Deng <em>et al.</em> 1983). Very little is known of the biology of the species.
161356		population	eng	Known only from the five specimens collected from the type locality.
161356		threats	eng	Little specific information is available on fisheries operating within this species’ known range in the East China Sea.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is generally intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have generally declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004) (FAO 2007). Although little is known of the full depth range of fisheries operating in the East China Sea, this species may be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating within this area. The lower part of its depth range probably affords it refuge from fishing pressure. The species’ apparently limited range, as presently known, is of concern, particularly as fisheries expand into deeper waters.<br/><br/>In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China, This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW. Although steps to reduce fishing effort will eventually decrease the level of impact on the marine environment, this level of fishing pressure is still very high.
161357		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161357		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Japan, Korea, Okinawa Trough, China, and South China Sea marginal to the Western Central Pacific (where status is uncertain). Possibly found in waters surrounding Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola, 1984).
161357		habitat	eng	A common inshore and offshore species, occurring on sandy muddy bottoms from intertidal habitats to depths of at least 220 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). A carnivorous species that feeds on benthic fauna, shrimp, crab, fish and clams (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>This species attains at least 114 cm disc width (DW) and 150 cm total length (TL) and males mature by 65 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yamada i 2007)). All mylobatids are believed to be ovoviviparous (Compagno 1997) and <em>M. tobijei</em> may produce eight young per litter (H. Ishihara pers. comm.). Little else is known about the biology of this species.
161357		population	eng	Data to determine population trends are not currently available.
161357		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch by bottom trawl, longline and set net fisheries. It is retained for human consumption and used for fish meal (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although there are no species specific catch data, data on distribution and fisheries suggest that eagle rays are important components of the western central Pacific?s utilised batoid catch.
161358		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys and quantification of bycatch are needed to determine population trends. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161358		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: East China Sea to South China Sea, known from  southern Japan, Taiwan Province of China, Hong Kong, China, Vietnam and the Philippines. The species may be more wide-ranging in the area (Last and Compagno 1999, H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).
161358		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate, <em>A. melanosoma</em> can be found at depths of 575-1,100 m (Last and Compagno 1999, H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). Maximum total length is reported at >59 cm and maximum width is at least 38 cm (Last and Compagno 1999).
161358		population	eng	Although the species is apparently widely distributed throughout areas of the north and western central Pacific it is uncommon throughout its range (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).
161358		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish off Japan, which operates at about 100?500 m depth (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). This fishery impacts the species over part of its depth range only.<br/><br/>Deepwater trawl fisheries also operate off Taiwan, Province of China (B. Seret pers. comm. 2007) and possibly elsewhere within the species? range. The incidental catch is retained and marketed (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, from 100 to 300 m fishing depth to over 300 m currently (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries on the southwest coast are mainly coastal, but may range down to 500 m depth (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is no evidence that deepsea fisheries in the Philippines capture this species. Some deepwater fisheries operate off the Philippines, but they mainly use bottomset multiple hook-and-line gear to target dogfish sharks for their liver oil (Flores 2004, Gaudiano and Alava 2003).<br/><br/>The species is afforded some refuge from fishing pressure in the lower part of its depth range and in areas where deepwater trawl fisheries are relatively undeveloped (e.g., the Philippines).
161359		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in effect or proposed at this time. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161359		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southeastern Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba, and Caribbean coast of Nicaragua (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161359		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 503–950 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 36 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161359		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161359		threats	eng	There is no specific information on the threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to being taken as bycatch by deeper trawl fisheries, especially as these expand to greater depths in the future.
161360		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific measures in place for this species. The Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) has, however, introduced the following general measures for deepwater sharks within the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) in recent years, which may benefit this species:<br/><br/>Since 2003, vessels are required to land both the livers and carcasses of all dogfishes to enable accurate landing information to be recorded.<br/><br/>Since 2007, SESS Fishery was closed below 700 m to prevent targeting of deepwater species (750 m in Great Australian Bight Fishery) (See: http://www.mffc.gov.au/releases/2007/07005a.html).
161360		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific: upper to mid continental slope off southern Australia from New South Wales (<em>ca</em>. 35°S) to the Great Australian Bight (33°S, 129°E).
161360		habitat	eng	Found on upper to mid continental slopes at depths of 216–1,360 m (Last <em>et al. </em>2007). Females and males reach at least 83.2 cm total length (TL) and 85.6 cm TL respectively (Last <em>et al</em>. 2007). Males mature by 68.5 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161360		population	eng	A recently described species (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007). The description provides details on the holotype and 14 additional specimens.<br/><br/>Documented declines of approximately 97% of ‘greeneye dogsharks’ between 1976-77 and 1996–97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo Island area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) were reported from a fishery independent survey (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001). Total catches in the abovementioned areas at depths of 220 to 605 m declined from a mean of 44.8 kg/h in 1976/77 to a mean of 1.2 kg/h in 1996-97 (Graham <em>et al. </em>2001). It is likely that <em>Squalus chloroculus, S. montalbani</em> and <em>S. grahami</em> were all caught during these surveys (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007). <em>Squalus chloroculus</em> was possibly the predominant species in the southern survey areas (Ulladulla and Eden-Gabo Island) (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007).
161360		threats	eng	Documented declines in fishery-independent scientific surveys for this species, and two other dogfishes, show that they are vulnerable to rapid population decline where they are heavily fished (see Population section above). Fishing pressure is intensive on trawl grounds around south-east Australia, where there is evidence that this species has been severely depleted. However the rest of the species’ deepwater range throughout southern Australia to the Great Australian Bight (representing about three quarters of the species’ total range) is relatively lightly fished, by comparison. The species’ depth range extends to 1,360 m depth, affording it some refuge from fishing pressure at the lower extent of its range (particularly now that the fishery has been closed below 700 m).
161361		conservation	eng	No measures are in place. Further research is required to determine the true extent of the range of the species. Like many poorly known deepwater species, research is also required into life history characteristics.
161361		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: along the Atlantic Slope from Scotland (including the northern North Sea), to Ireland, southern England, France, Spain, Portugal, Madeira, the Canary Islands, the Azores (Compagno in prep, Azevedo, Sousa and Brum 2003). Also recently reported from the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Hareide and Garnes 2001).<br/><br/>Eastern Central Atlantic: Morocco, Mauritania, Sahara, Senegal, and possibly southwards to the Gulf of Guinea. Not recorded in the Mediterranean (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Based on the presence of this species in the Azores and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a bathybenthic habitat has been suggested, with spring reproductive migrations to the continental shelf. This represents a significant westward extension of its previously known geographic distribution. It is possible that <em>O. paradoxus</em> is continuously distributed along the north-eastern Atlantic floor, deeper than presently known. Alternatively, separate slope and ridge populations may exist (Azavedo <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161361		habitat	eng	An uncommon deepwater bottom shark found on the continental slope at depths from 265–720 m. Its maximum size is about 118 cm total length (TL), while size at birth about 25 cm TL. Reproduction is ovoviviparous.
161361		population	eng	Moderately abundant off the British Isles. Catches in the waters of the British Isles indicate that <em>O. paradoxus</em> is rare in inshore waters (three individuals were reported from Irish inshore waters by Quigley and Flannery 1994), but numerous others have been caught in deeper offshore waters (Ni Mhurachu and O’Connor 1987, Henderson 1996, Quigley and Flannery 1996).
161361		threats	eng	This species is an uncommon bycatch of offshore trawling fleets (Compagno 1984). There is a continuing trend for deepwater fisheries in the northeast Atlantic, with overall concern for the status of deepwater species. Trawl and gillnet fisheries operate throughout the species’ known depth range in areas of the northeast Atlantic (see ICES 2006, 2007 for further information on the fisheries), but no information is available on the bycatch of this species.<br/><br/>The Mid-Atlantic ridge and southern part of the species’ range, off the western Africa coast, may offer some refuge from fishing pressure, particularly if the species’ is continuously distributed along the northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic floor, deeper than presently known.
161362		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, abundance and range, capture in fisheries, habitat status and population trends, as well as other threats to it.
161362		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the rivers Oyapock and Maroni in French Guiana (Deynat 2006).
161362		habitat	eng	Virtually no information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this freshwater species. Two juvenile males, measured 23.8–29.8 cm disc width (DW) (Deynat 2006). The largest specimen recorded is a female of 41.2 cm DW (Deynat 2006).
161362		population	eng	Known only from five specimens.
161362		threats	eng	Unknown at present.
161363		conservation	eng	None in place.
161363		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161363		habitat	eng	Slope on or near bottom, at 450 to 830 m (Yano and Tanaka 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). The holotype was an adult male and measured 101 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep.). Size at maturity is apparently 126 cm for females and 89 cm TL for males. Maximum recorded size is 145.5 cm TL for a female (Yano and Tanaka 1984). Mature females measuring from 126 to 145.5 cm TL had 29 to 56 ova measuring 3 to 5 cm in diameter in their ovary (Yano and Tanaka 1984).
161363		population	eng	No information available. Only known from the holotype and several paratypes (Compagno in prep).
161363		threats	eng	Caught by deepset line surveys and fisheries (Yana and Tanaka 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). A localised fishery targeting deepwater sharks operates in Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, using bottom longlines (Compagno in prep. and S.Tanaka, per. com.). It is unknown whether this species comprises part of the catch in this fishery, but this shark is very rare (S.Tanaka pers. comm.). Given the apparent restricted range of this species, the fact that fisheries operate across its depth range may be cause for concern. Particularly as deepwater squaloids are vulnerable to population collapse from overfishing (directed or bycatch) due to their limited life history characteristics.
161364		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161364		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: southern Japan and East China Sea (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), including Taiwan, Province of China (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). It is also reported from Vietnam, but records from there may be inaccurate (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).
161364		habitat	eng	Found in deep water on or near the bottom (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Suruga Bay, Japan it is reported to occur at depths of 100 m to as deep as 900 m (Horie and Tanaka 2000, Okamura <em>et al. </em>1984). Attains a maximum length of at least 40 cm total length (TL), probably reaching 50 cm (Compagno 1984, Horie and Tanaka 2000). Males mature at about 31–32 cm and females at around 36–37 cm (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005, Horie and Tanaka 2000). Reproduction is oviparous with a single egg laid per oviduct (Compagno 1984, Nakaya 1975). Females carrying egg-cases were observed from October to January (Horie and Tanaka 2000). The species shows sexual segregation in Japanese waters with reported schools of mostly females (Compagno 1984, Nakaya 1975). An immature male observed at a fish market in Taiwan, Province of China, measured 38 cm TL (S. Iglésias pers. obs.).<br/><br/>In Suruga Bay, Japan, females were recorded more frequently than males; yearly average CPUE of females was 1.84 per fishing tow compared to 0.53 per fishing tow for males from 1981 to 1996. This species mainly eats cephalopods and crustaceans, although prey items vary with size (Horie and Tanaka 2000).
161364		population	eng	The species is little known but apparently very common in Japanese waters (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).
161364		threats	eng	This species is a bycatch of commercial deepwater trawl fisheries in the northwest Pacific, but no data are available on its capture (Horie and Tanaka 2000, S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). It is infrequently observed at the Tachi and Nan Fang Hao fish markets in Taiwan, Province of China and is utilized with other bycatch species as fishmeal for aquaculture. The small mesh size of trawl nets means that both adults and most juveniles are captured and retained by trawls (S. Iglésias pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Although the species is taken as bycatch of deepwater fisheries, it is apparently still common off Japan. Furthermore, the species may have some spatial refuge, outside the range of current fishing pressure at the deeper extent of its bathymetric range.
161365		conservation	eng	The capture and the exportation of this species is regulated under a species-specific quota system and monitoring program. <br/><br/>Habitat protection and fisheries monitoring programs are recommended.
161365		distribution	eng	South America Inland Waters: Rio Negro basin in Amazonas State, Brazil, and Orinoco River Basin in Apure State, Venezuela.<br/><br/>FAO Area: 03.
161365		habitat	eng	Food includes small fishes, shrimps, worms and insect larvae. <br/><br/>Inhabits shallow warm waters with temperatures around 25°C. Juveniles inhabit shallow water around sandy beaches and small creeks, and adults occupy main river channels and sandy beaches. It appears to show daily movements between these two habitats.<br/><br/>Reproductive mode is matrotrophic viviparity with trophonemata. The reproductive cycle is annual, with mating between May and August during the rainy season. Gestation period is estimated as six months. Ovarian fecundity is 3?7 and the average uterine fecundity is two embryos. Sexual segregation has been observed in this species. Size at birth 14 cm DW, size at maturity 42 cm DW (males) and 44 cm DW (females). It reaches a maximum size of 54 cm DW.
161365		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trends for this species.
161365		threats	eng	Habitat degradation. Persecution in popular tourism areas due to fear of injury. The species is taken for the ornamental fish trade, but is uncommon.
161366		conservation	eng	Spinytail Skate is not currently protected or regulated, but it is a mid-priority candidate species for detailed status assessment by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada). Continued monitoring is essential to document catch, discard and retention levels.<br/><br/>While quotas exist in Canadian waters for Thorny Skate, there are none in place for Spinytail Skate. The Greenland Halibut fishery in which Spinytail Skate is taken as bycatch is regulated for the target species, and as such this has a secondary effect on levels of bycatch. Effort in fishing for both Greenland halibut and grenadier has decreased in Canadian waters.
161366		distribution	eng	Spinytail Skate is a deep-sea demersal elasmobranch found along the upper and middle continental slope from 140 to at least 1,650 m. In surveys off Canada (from 1995–2005), only 91 fish were taken for every thousand sets at depths <1,000 m, and 401 fish per thousand sets at >1,000 m. Increasing density with depth out to the deepest areas sampled may indicate that a large proportion of the population occurs in waters deeper than those surveyed or fished. Outside Canada, Spinytail Skate is typically reported at 400–850 m depth, but few data exist at greater depths. The species is probably cosmopolitan along the continental slopes (200–2,000 m) of the Arctic and boreal regions of the North Atlantic.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence in the northwest Atlantic, concurrent with the annual survey footprint, is 300,000 km² although the species likely also occupies a large area below the depth of the annual surveys.<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from eastern Greenland, Iceland, along the Iceland-Færoe-Shetland Rise to the coasts of Norway, the northern North Sea, and the Barents Sea (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Krefft 1956, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). In the western Atlantic Ocean, it occurs in the Davis Strait, off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador, the Grand Banks and Flemish Cap, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Scotian Shelf, the eastern slope of Georges Bank south to Nantucket, and occasionally in the Gulf of Maine (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Schroeder 1955, Krefft 1956, Leim and Scott 1966, Scott and Scott 1988, McEachran 2002).<br/><br/>There are also some records in the Southern Indian Ocean in the vicinity of Kerguélen Islands (Scott and Scott 1988, Hureau 1991, Froese and Pauly 2002). However, these Southern Ocean records require confirmation and may represent misidentifications.
161366		habitat	eng	Spinytail Skate is a deep-sea demersal elasmobranch found along the upper and middle continental slope from 140 to at least 1,650 m, but mainly >400 m in Canadian Atlantic waters. In surveys off Canada, only 91 fish were taken for every 1,000 sets at depths <1,000 m, 401 fish per thousand at >1,000 m (from 1995–2005). Increasing density with depth out to the deepest areas sampled may indicate that a large proportion of the population occurs in waters that exceed depths surveyed and depths fished (the continental slope extends to 2,000 m). Murua and Cardenas (2005) found that the range of Spinytail Skate in the area that they surveyed using baited longlines (the Flemish Cap and Pass, and nose and tail of the Grand Banks) was approximately 1,350–1,650 m. Northeast Atlantic records are typically at 400–850 m (deepest locations fished), but few data exist at greater depths. Icelandic deepwater fisheries, operating at 400–1,830 m, caught spinytail skate at depths ranging from 419–1,209 m (Magnússon <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>The species is typically recorded at temperatures <7.5°C (mainly at 2.5–5°C in the northwest Atlantic), and salinities ranging from 34.5–35.5‰ (Krefft 1956, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Haedrich and Merrett 1988, Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Canadian waters it is most densely concentrated where water temperatures are 2.5°–5°C (Kulka, pers. comm.). In the Barents and Norwegian Seas, spinytail skate are commonly found in water >0°C (Andriyashev 1954, Berestovskii 1994).<br/><br/>Spinytail Skate feeds on other skate species, redfish, sea bream, American plaice, cod, and pelagic fish species including capelin and sandlance (Baranenkova et al. 1962, Leim and Scott 1966, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Scott and Scott 1988) and in the Barents Sea were found to feed mainly on benthos as juveniles, switching to predominantly fish, up 90% of the diet of adults (Dolgov 2002).<br/><br/>Age or size at sexual maturation, growth, and lifespan of Spinytail Skate are unknown. This is one of the largest and hence potentially least resilient species of skate reported in the north Atlantic. The largest confirmed specimen in the northwest Atlantic is 172 cm total length (TL) (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and 182 cm TL in the northeast Atlantic (Dolgov 2002). Several female specimens exceeding 150 cm TL were shown to have reproduced (Kulka pers. obs.). The estimated generation time is about 20 years. A record in Baranenkova <em>et al</em>. (1962) of 330 cm TL far exceeds (nearly double) any other record and thus is questionable.<br/><br/>Egg cases thought to be Spinytail Skate have been found off the Labrador Shelf, the Banquereau Bank off Nova Scotia and the southwestern edge of Georges Bank (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953); however, problems exist with accurately identifying skate egg cases. Very recently, several large (>150 cm TL) female spinytail skates from the edge of the Labrador Shelf were found to have stretched oviducts, and fully formed egg cases indicate that reproduction takes place in that area (Kulka pers. comm.). In the eastern North Atlantic, juveniles are typically found in colder waters than adults; adults are believed to move into warmer waters before spawning (Krefft 1956).<br/><br/>There are no data on age or size of maturation for Spinytail Skate. Spawning was observed during June and July off Greenland; however, little is known about spawning elsewhere in the western north Atlantic (Breder and Rosen 1966). In the Barents Sea, females were found to have spawned in the latter half of October (Krefft 1956). The embryos in the egg cases of spinytail skate are very large, approximately 21cm long (Krefft 1956, Berestovskii 1994). Embryonic development is estimated at about 12 months (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). However, recent research on spinytail skate in the Barents Sea has estimated embryonic development in waters 0–5°C to be 3.5–4 years (Berestovskii 1994).
161366		population	eng	Spinytail Skate is the most common slope skate species in areas surveyed off Canada. Records are less common across the northern slope to the northeast Atlantic and the Barents Sea (but surveys are also less intensive here). Population size and degree of fragmentation or migration through its distribution are unknown.<br/><br/>Devine <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported that Spinytail Skate declined in excess of 80% over three generations in Canadian waters of the northwest Atlantic surveyed. However, a large proportion of the population occurs in deeper water than the sampled areas used in this analysis, since abundance increases with depth in areas that are surveyed and it may also be abundant (or more abundant) below survey depths (see depth distribution description and maps attached of distribution and survey coverage). It is unknown, therefore, whether the trend in survey abundance reported in this paper is a reflection of population decline or simply a reduction in local abundance.
161366		threats	eng	Skates (all species) are a minor part of the bycatch in many deepwater fisheries in Canada and elsewhere (e.g., Kulka <em>et al.</em> 1996, Kulka and Mowbray 1999). Trawl fisheries catch the most Spinytail Skate. Skate bycatch, all species combined, made up only 1% of the catch in Canadian commercial offshore fisheries (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Based upon observer data, spinytail skate made up 10% of the skate bycatch in offshore Canadian commercial fisheries 1985–1995, or 0.1% of all catches (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 1996). Spinytail Skate are now taken predominantly in the northern deeper water fisheries, since the closure of several groundfish fisheries. Overall, deep water fishing effort in the northwest Atlantic peaked in the early 1970s and has since been greatly reduced from past years, both in terms of effort and area fished.<br/><br/>Spinytail Skate is a very minor bycatch species in the directed Thorny Skate <em>Amblyraja radiata</em> fishery located in relatively shallow water (average depth 165m) on the Grand Bank (Kulka and Mowbray 1999). The shallow water Scotian Shelf skate fishery does not capture spinytail skate either (Simon and Frank 2000). However, Spinytail Skate is the dominant skate bycatch species in the deepwater fishery for Greenland Halibut (Kulka pers. obs.). Most Spinytail Skate caught in this fishery were discarded; observed discards were 50% or greater than the total observed catch for years 1981–2001. Data provided by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), by fishery (line, trawl and gillnet) for Spinytail Skate 1981–2001 also indicate that trawl fisheries catch the largest proportion of the species. These fisheries reached depths of about 1,600 m, but catches tailed off with increasing depth below 1,250 m. Effort in the Canadian halibut fishery has fallen.<br/><br/>Devine <em>et al</em>. (2006) analysed DFO survey data for the shelf and slope to a depth of 1,485 m, restricting their data analysis to strata consistently sampled for at least half the time period and two years out of the first and last five years. They concluded that Spinytail Skate had declined 87.6% (95% confidence intervals 84.4–95.9%) in Canadian waters of the northwest Atlantic over the 17 year period 1978–1994. Extrapolating this to the estimated three generation period for this species resulted in a decline over 100% (theoretical regional extinction). Furthermore, declines in mean body size 1978–1994 were estimated to be 25.5% (95% confidence interval = 1.3–43.8%). However, other Red List assessors for this species considered that the DFO shelf surveys do not adequately measure the population status of slope species, including Spinytail Skate, which also occur below the depth range of the main survey data and are far more widely distributed than in the area surveyed. Thus, it was uncertain whether the reported reduction in survey index is the result of a change in density that did not occur elsewhere. Further data are required from deeper waters to enable trend analyses to be extended into deeper water.<br/><br/>Outside Canada’s 200 mile limit, skates are the second most common bycatch species in the Spanish trawl fishery for Greenland halibut (1991–1994); however, the majority of the skate bycatch is Thorny Skate <em>Amblyraja radiata</em> (Junquera and Paz 1998, Durán <em>et al.</em> 1996). Skates also make up a significant amount of the bycatch reported in other fisheries to NAFO (Durán and Paz 1997). Most of the skate bycatch of these fisheries is retained (Kulka and Mowbray 1999).<br/><br/>Fishing activities in the northeast Atlantic are moving into deeper water and effort is increasing, which is some cause for concern and requires careful monitoring.
161367		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161367		distribution	eng	The holotype was recorded from Choshi, Japan (Nakaya 1975). The species is distributed from Fukushima to Chiba Prefecture, northern Japan (Nakaya unpub. data). Records south of this (from southern Japan and southern Japanese Islands) are now considered incorrect and have resulted from misidentification with other species (Nakaya unpublished data).
161367		habitat	eng	The Japanese Catshark is reported from depths of 600 to 800 m. Males begin to mature at 51 cm TL and females begin to mature at 55 cm TL. All males are mature at 62 cm TL and all females at 57 cm TL. Reproduction is single oviparous species, with one egg case peroviduct (Nakaya 1975 unpublished data).
161367		population	eng	Apparently rare. No information is available on population size or abundance.
161367		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries operating within its range, but no data are available on catch levels or population trends. Given the species’ limited range and potential biological vulnerability, any bycatch may be of concern.
161368		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Research is required on abundance, biology, population, threats and capture in fisheries.
161368		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: from Okinawa, Japan to Philippines, including the coast of Taiwan, Province of China (Takahashi and Nakaya 2004).
161368		habitat	eng	Probably found in inshore waters (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) at 90–100 m depth (Takahashi and Nakaya 2004). Produces five to eight pups per litter. Size at birth is 24 cm total length (TL). Males reach maturity at 76 cm TL and females at 81 cm TL. Maximum size is 96 cm TL (Takahashi and Nakaya 2004).
161368		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161368		threats	eng	Possibly a bycatch in gillnet fisheries but no information is available at this time (Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).
161370		conservation	eng	None in place. Information is required on the biology of this species, as well as the impact of current levels of bycatch on the population.
161370		distribution	eng	Australian endemic: occurs in southeastern Australia (including Tasmania) north to at least Newcastle (New South Wales) and west to Eyre (Great Australian Bight) (Last and Stevens 1994).
161370		habitat	eng	A small skate, occurring on the continental shelf in depths of 30–390 m. Females reach sexual maturity at 92% of their maximum total length. Although no ageing studies have been conducted the species is likely to be more vulnerable to population depletion than some other small skates because females do not reach maturity until they are almost fully grown. Feeds mainly on shrimp (M. A. Treloar, CSIRO Hobart, unpublished data).
161370		population	eng	An abundant species on the continental shelf of southern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).
161370		threats	eng	It is caught often as bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery, (probably most commonly caught in the Commonwealth Trawl and Great Australian Bight Sector) and is mostly discarded (81% in observed catch from ISMP data), however nothing is known of post discard-survival rates. In 2001, 1,506 kg of Peacock Skate was caught as bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery. This is 5% of the total skate catch, but this represents a large number of individuals based on the small size of this species.
161371		conservation	eng	None.
161371		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the north Atlantic.<br/><br/>Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: sporadic records from about 65°N to 10°N, from western Greenland, Rockall Trough along Ireland, western Bay of Biscay (Spain), northern Morocco, Azores Islands, off Rio del Oro (Western Sahara) and Guinea Conakry, including the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: Canada and USA from the Grand Banks off Newfoundland to the Norfolk Canyon, including the French Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kulka pers. obs.).
161371		habitat	eng	This species is bathydemersal, found at depths of 367–4,156 m (mostly below 1,000 m) on continental slopes, abyssal plains and deepwater rises. The mean depth of existing records is 1,669 m. Like other skates, the species is oviparous. Maximum recorded size is 53 cm total length (TL) (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kulka unpubl. data). Size at birth is estimated at <8.9 cm TL (Stehmann 1995).<br/><br/>Small specimens (9–12 cm TL) captured off the USA, Canadian and western African coasts suggests that the species may reproduce there (Stehmann 1978, 1995).
161371		population	eng	Little is known about the population size or the species’ abundance, but it is apparently rare at sampled depths.<br/><br/>Data are available from trawl surveys (47,141 hauls) conducted from the Grand Banks to the Labrador Shelf, to a maximum depth of 1,550 m. <em>Rajella bigelowi</em> were only rarely captured during these surveys (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2007).
161371		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch by deepwater fisheries operating in areas of its range, and is likely discarded when caught. However, much of the range of this species occurs well beyond the deepest depths currently fished, most likely offering it significant refuge from fishing pressure.
161372		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide and any expansion of fisheries should be closely monitored to ensure that the species is not negatively impacted.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161372		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: found off Japan and adjacent Pacific waters and the Sea of Okhotsk, (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992), and off the southern Kuril islands, Russia (Parin 2001).
161372		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate found on the continental slope at 1,200-2,004 m (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992, Parin 2001, Russian State unpub. data). Maximum recorded size is 120 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 2005), possibly up to 140 cm TL (Russian State unpublished data). Egg capsules are 12.2-13.0 cm in length and 5.5-5.8 cm in width (Dolganov 1998). Virtually nothing else is known about the species’ ecology and biology. Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates.
161372		population	eng	Apparently rare, but very little is known of the population. A bottom trawl survey, covering the entire Sea of Okhotsk (160,343 m²), conducted during 1989 at depths of 300 to 2,025 m recorded catch rates of 0.2 specimens and 0.1 kg per hour for this species (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992). <em>Bathyraja andriashevi</em> comprised 0.8% of the total catch and was captured at depths of 1,980-2,004 m. In Pacific Japan, the species is presently only known from two specimens recorded off Honshu in the original description (Dolganov 1985). A single specimen was recorded from the Pacific waters around the southern Kuril islands in 1998 (Russ. State Data). Few other catalogued specimens are available (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999).<br/><br/>There have been no other surveys since 1989 and no new records of this species (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161372		threats	eng	Offshore bottom trawlers off Japan probably take some species of <em>Bathyraja</em> as retained bycatch (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007), but catch records are not species-specific. The depth range of this species probably lies outside the range of current fishing activity.<br/><br/>There are no deepwater fisheries operating at present at the depths occupied by this species off Russia (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). At depths greater than 1,000 m, the bulk of catches (up to 95% and more) consists of grenadiers with minor bycatch of snailfishes, morids, sculpins and skates. Skates are now imported from Russia to Japan, Korea and China but in very insignificant amounts. Official total Russian catch of skates in recent years does not exceed 200 mt (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161373		conservation	eng	None currently in place. Research is required to provide data on take in fisheries, biology and ecology.
161373		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic: Jamaica, the Lesser Antilles (including the countries of St Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados and Grenada), Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (Menni and Stehmann 2000, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Records of the species south to Mar del Plata (Argentina) apparently refer to <em>R. horkelii</em> and records from tropical waters of West Africa refer to <em>R. albomaculatus</em> (B. Séret pers. comm. 2008).
161373		habitat	eng	Found on shallow, soft bottoms of the continental shelf at depths of 0?110 m. Reaches a maximum of 100 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002, Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 2002). Aplacental yolksac viviparous, but details of reproduction, or any other aspects of its biology are not known.
161373		population	eng	No population or catch data are available for this species. However, the closely-related <em>Rhinobatos horkelii </em>has suffered severe population depletion (>80% between 1986 and 2001) from overfishing in Brazil (Lessa and Vooren 2007). This species is captured by similar, intense fisheries (shrimp trawls, otter trawls, beach seines and gillnets) operating on the northern coast of South America. Therefore it is inferred that <em>R. percellens</em> populations in this area have also decreased.
161373		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is taken as bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries throughout large areas of its range. In some regions of its distribution (e.g. parts of South America) inshore fishing is intense. This species is taken as a utilized bycatch of artisanal trawl and net fisheries in South America (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although the meat is considered of poor quality, it is often salted and consumed (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The continental shelf of Venezuela is thought to be intensively exploited. In Venezuela, demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency during the past 50 years (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). Between 1990 and 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased from about 150 vessels to 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus</em> spp.) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s, from about 150,000 t/year to over 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. No information is available on the composition of catches at this time.<br/><br/>Intensive trawling also occurs in Trinidad and Tobago's waters (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). Bycatch of the shrimp trawl fleet is considerably higher than the target catches. Total bycatch in these fisheries declined from 13,712 t in 1987 to 4,099 t in 2001 and the species composition of this bycatch has not yet been examined (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). Data reporting is poor in these artisanal fisheries and official catches for some species, in some areas or time-periods, may under-represent true catches by 200-500% (Medoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species may also be vulnerable to the artisanal gillnet fishery that targets mackerel in coastal waters off Trinidad and Tobago and takes sharks as bycatch (Chan A Shing 1999).<br/><br/>In Guyana there is a partially directed gillnet fishery for sharks (~600 vessels) which captures both demersal and pelagic inshore species. This fishery operates in estuarine and shallow coastal waters (at depths of <40 m) (Chan A Shing 1999). About 100 industrial shrimp trawlers also take sharks and finfish as bycatch, but no details are available on the composition of the bycatch.<br/><br/>Inshore fishing pressure is also generally intense off Brazil, where significant declines in <em>R. horkelii</em> have been documented. This species is also collected for the commercial aquarium trade in Ceará state, Brazil.<br/><br/>Threats to this species throughout its range off Caribbean Islands (north of Trinidad and Tobago) are not well known. Inshore fisheries appear to comprise beach seines, balahoo seine and gillnets that target small coastal pelagics and traps and handlines that target reef, deep slope and shelf demersals (Zeller <em>et al</em>. 2003). Trammel net fisheries have targeted Caribbean spiny lobster (<em>Panulirus argus</em>) off Grenada since the 1980s and take a significant bycatch. The use of trammel nets is now prohibited in Grenada but still continues illegally (McConney and Baldeo 2007).
161374		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161374		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: recorded from east coast of Florida and Puerto Rico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161374		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species, found at between 457 and 896 m depth on the slope (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported as 38 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of the biology of the species.
161374		population	eng	Known only from a few specimens.
161374		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain. <em> C. cadenati</em> may occur beyond current fishing pressure; however any development of deep-sea fishing in the region should be closely monitored given the apparently narrow range of the species.
161375		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161375		distribution	eng	North Pacific: The Roughtail Skate inhabits waters in northern Baja California, Mexico including the Sea of Okhotsk, Pacific waters of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska (Isakson <em>et al</em>. 1971, Parin 2001, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161375		habitat	eng	The Roughtail Skate is a deep-sea skate that inhabits waters from 213?2,550 m (Ebert 2003, Stevenson 2004) but the bulk of population occurs at greater depths. Dolganov (1998d) reported that the species is most common at 600?1,400 m depth and surveys that sample below 1,200 m depth in the eastern Pacific suggest that it becomes more abundant with depth (D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). Females reach age at maturity at 5?6 years of age and 72.8?81.5 cm total length (TL); males at five years and 71.7?78.3 cm TL (Dolganov 1998c). Maximum size is 91 cm TL (Davis <em>et al</em>. 2007), and size at birth is 9?16 cm (Ebert 2003). Preferred temperature range is 1.9?3.6°C (Dolganov 1998a). Egg capsules measure 68?69 x 59?61 mm (Dolganov 1998c); egg capsule measurements from eastern Bering Sea 67?77 x 63?71 (Ebert 2005). Reported to feed on benthic invertebrates such as shrimps, crabs and worms, and small fishes such as rattails and flatfishes but a more detailed feeding study is needed (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Age at maturity in the eastern north Pacific is 11?14 years for males and 7?13 years for females; size range at maturity is 58.0?72.0 cm TL for males and 58.0?77.0 cm TL for females (from Davis 2006). Reproductive cycle appears to be continuous (Davis 2006). Size at maturity in the eastern Bering Sea is 73.5 cm TL females and 75.5 cm TL males (Ebert 2005).
161375		population	eng	Biomass estimates in Russian waters, based on bottom trawl surveys conducted between 1977 and 1997 comprised 18,500 mt; including 16,700 mt in the western Bering Sea, 100 mt off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka and 1,700 mt in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>The estimated biomass of this skate on the eastern Bering Sea slope was 1,677 mt in 2004 (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006) and 139 mt in the Gulf of Alaska in 2005 (Gaichas 2006). Population numbers cannot be estimated as there are no data on mean body weight.
161375		threats	eng	This species is taken occasionally as bycatch but discarded as it is not commercially valuable (Ebert 2003). There are no species specific data available to determine the quantity taken, however a significant portion of the population is thought to occur beyond the range of current fisheries. Trawl and longline fisheries operate down to 600?800 m depth in Russian waters and may take this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution, but it is more common below these depths (A.M. Orlov pers. obs.). In the eastern Pacific most groundfish fisheries operate at shallower depths. At present, the very wide depth distribution of the species likely offers a refuge beyond anthropogenic affects. The situation should be monitored, and this assessment may need to be re-visited if fisheries expand into deeper waters.
161376		conservation	eng	None in place through much of its range. Fisheries catching this species in northern Australia are relatively well managed and reporting of catches is good.
161376		distribution	eng	This species is wide-ranging throughout the tropical Indo-West Pacific, from South Africa and Mozambique, through the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia, to Australia (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161376		habitat	eng	A common inshore shark, on continental and insular shelves found from close inshore to a depth of at least 140 m (Compagno and Niem 1998e). Common over mud and sand bottom in depths between 20?50 m but also occurs near coral reefs. Occurs throughout the water column but mainly in midwater or near the surface (Last and Stevens 1994). Young prefer very shallow, inshore waters. Attains at least 160 cm total length (TL) and is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Compagno in prep). In Australia, size at maturity 90 cm TL (males) and 95cm TL (females). Age at maturity is 2?3 years. Gestation period of 10 months and a reproductive periodicity of one year. Litter size ranges from 1?8 pups/litter (average three), with size at birth 50 cm TL. Growth rate of juveniles are 20 cm/year for the first year, declining to 5 cm/year when the sharks are about five years old (Stevens and Wiley 1986, Davenport and Stevens 1988). In Indonesia, size at maturity 112 cm TL (males), litter size 3?8 (average five), size at birth 52?55 cm TL in October (White 2007). In Bombay, birth occurs in spring (March-May) (Compagno in prep). Diet consists of bony fishes (e.g., Bonito and sea bass) and cephalopods (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161376		population	eng	Population genetic studies of Indonesian and Australian populations have shown that they are different stocks (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, unpubl. data). Genetic evidence suggested that this species forms one population in Australian waters (Lavery and Shacklee 1989). Tagging studies off Northern Australia have shown that 49% of sharks were recaptured within 50 km of the tagging site, however one shark was captured 1,116 km away (Stevens <em>et al</em>. 2000). These authors also showed that most animals moved along the coastline. Data from this study suggests that although there was sufficient movement to prevent stock differentiation, the degree of movement was not great enough to prevent a reduction in local populations as a result of heavy fishing pressure. This conclusion contradicts those of Lavery and Shacklee (1989) who had concluded that local populations would be well buffered by immigration of sharks from other areas and that under high fishing pressure, total population size rather than local population size was likely to be the limiting factor affecting production.<br/><br/>Further stock discrimination and assessment throughout its whole range is required. Variation in vertebral counts and litter sizes between <em>C. sorrah</em> in the Red Sea and southwestern Indian Ocean may suggest relatively isolated populations there, but this requires confirmation (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Very common off northern Australia. Relatively common off Indonesia but possibly not as common as would be expected (W. White pers. obs).
161376		threats	eng	Regularly taken as utilized bycatch of longlines, gillnets, trawls and other line gear (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). Inshore fisheries are generally intensive throughout this species? inshore range in Southeast Asia and in many parts of the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>Spottail Shark is captured as both a target species and as bycatch in northern Australian shark, finfish and prawn fisheries, although current catch rates are highly unlikely to threaten the Australian population. Historically, Spottail Shark contributed about 20% by number to the Taiwanese gillnet fishery that operated in Australian waters between 1979 and 1986 (Stevens and Davenport 1991). This fishery?s annual catch was about 7,000 t processed weight of shark, tuna and mackerel. Sharks comprised about 80% of the total catch with <em>C. sorrah</em> and <em>C. tilstoni</em> accounting for about 60% (20% and 40% respectively). CPUE of sharks declined from 11 kg/km in 1979 to 3 kg/km in 1984 and then increased to about 6 kg/km in 1986, (Stevens and Davenport 1991). Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities have greatly increased in northern Australian waters in recent years. Indonesian fishers are increasingly fishing illegally in this area, the majority of whom are targeting shark (although a few target reef fish and trepang) (AMFA 2007, Vince 2007).<br/><br/>Spottail Shark is commonly caught in the Indonesian artisanal fisheries and marketed (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) but at a lower level than would have been expected for a typically very common species. Although this suggests a relatively low catch rate, there are no data on CPUE and it is therefore not possible to determine whether the low catches are due to small population size caused by overfishing. However, giving the extremely high level of fishing pressure in the Southeast Asian region and the problem of habitat degradation in inshore waters throughout much of its range (not Australia), this species is likely to be under great pressure. Nursery areas are extremely important for Spottail Shark, with juveniles inhabiting shallow inshore waters until they attain a larger size. These nursery areas are heavily fished in areas such as Indonesia and are also extremely susceptible to habitat degradation and even pollution, especially adjacent to riverine areas. This species is one of the dominant shark species in the landings of fisheries in Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. Most Spottail Sharks captured in these fisheries are immature (SEAFDEC 2006).<br/><br/>Threats to the species? inshore habitat from fishing pressure and habitat degradation are also high in many areas within its range in the Indian Ocean, for example India, where inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, declining recruitment and biomass, and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Sharks are heavily fished in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Fisheries have experienced increased demand for sharks in recent years due to the shark fin trade and effort is increasing in traditional shark fisheries in many areas as a result (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007, Bonfil and Abdullah 2004). Spottail Shark was the third most important species of shark in traditional fishery landings of the Sultanate of Oman during a study from January 2002 to December 2003, although landings between areas were highly variable (Henderson <em>et al. </em>2007).
161377		conservation	eng	None in place. Monitoring of population trends and capture in fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic should be implemented.
161377		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the northwest Atlantic, from the Grand Banks to East Greenland. In the northeast Atlantic, this species is presently known sporadically from south of Iceland, north of the Faroes and Shetland Islands, the Skagerrak, Barents Sea and Spitsbergen (Stehman and Burkel 1984, Dolgov and Igashov 2001).
161377		habitat	eng	This skate is distributed more deeply in the Northwest Atlantic (316–1,455 m, deepest sets fished) than the northeast Atlantic (196–635 m) (ICES 2006). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, producing egg capsules that are 10.7 cm long and 7.7 cm wide deposited in sandy or muddy flats (Funicelli 1972, Breder and Rosen 1966). The species reaches a maximum recorded size of 114 cm (Ponomarenko 1961). Little else is known of its biology.
161377		population	eng	Unknown.
161377		threats	eng	The main threat is fishing. Increasing density with depth in the northwest Atlantic suggests that its center of mass is well beyond areas surveyed and fished, placing them outside of the range of most human threats there. Catches are rare in the northeast Atlantic, where this species is only sporadically reported. It is very infrequently taken as bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries targeting cod, haddock and blue catfish above 300 m depth, and for Greenland Halibut below 300 m in the Barents Sea (Dolgov <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also taken in trawls in the Norwegian Deep and the Skagerrak (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001) and elsewhere in the northeast Atlantic. While this species is thought to have been previously more uncommon in Swedish waters, reports are now increasing from sports fishermen and commercial fisheries. Since Sweden banned landings of <em>D. batis</em> in December 2004 logbooks now report landings of <em>D. linteus</em> instead. These landings need to be further investigated to establish which species is actually landed.
161378		conservation	eng	In US waters this species is managed in the small coastal shark complex under the National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks. There are no specific measures in place elsewhere throughout its range. <br/><br/>It is recommended that population trends continue to be monitored.
161378		distribution	eng	Western Central and Southwest Atlantic: The Blacknose Shark ranges from North Carolina to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. Recorded from North Carolina to Florida, USA, Bahamas, Gulf of Mexico, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Antilles, Guyana, Venezuela, southern Brazil (Compagno in prep, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161378		habitat	eng	A common coastal tropical and warm-temperate shark of the continental and insular shelves, mainly over sandy, shell and coral bottom, depths of 18?64 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The species may possibly reach 200 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Depending on the area, size at maturity is between 84.8 and 100.5cm Fork Length (FL) for females and 84.8?91.8 cm (FL) for males (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Dodrill 1977, Schwartz 1984, Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007, Carlson <em>et al</em>. in press), In US South Atlantic waters males are reported to reach maturity at 4.3 years and females at 4.5 years of age (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Whereas in the Gulf of Mexico, males reportedly mature at 5.4 years and females at 6.6 years of age (Carlson <em>et al</em>. 2007). Longevity is estimated as 19 years in US South Atlantic waters and 16.5 years in the Gulf of Mexico, for females (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Carlson <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007). Generation period is estimated at eight years (Siegfreid and Brooks 2007) Reproduction is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. The species has a biennial reproductive cycle in US South Atlantic waters, but an annual cycle is reported in the Gulf of Mexico and off northern Brazil (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007, Hazin <em>et al</em>. 2002). Females give birth to 1?5 pups after a gestation period of 9?11 months (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Carlson <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007). Size at birth is 31?35 cm FL (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004).
161378		population	eng	Common in coastal waters of the western north Atlantic Ocean from U.S. North Carolina to Florida, and throughout the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Recent stock assessment indicates the population in 2006 is 25% of virgin levels in the 1950s (Siegfried and Brooks 2007). Projections with zero fishing mortality indicates the stock rebuilds by 2019.<br/><br/>Preliminary analyses of data on Blacknose Shark from northern to northeastern Brazil (Recife and Maranhão State) show no indication of population decline and large, mature adults are still present in catches (R. Lessa pers. obs. 2007). This is the most abundant coastal elasmobranch on the Pernambuco coast (R. Lessa pers. obs. 2007). The R.V. Dr. Fridtjof Nansen conducted a survey of the northeast South American shelf in 1988 (the most recent known to date) (Chan A Shing 1999). This survey reported that Blacknose Shark was one of the most dominant species in the catch (with Caribbean Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon porosus</em>) and Bonnethead Shark (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>)) (Chan A Shing 1999). Chan A Shing reports that Blacknose Shark is a common species in landings in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, but no information is currently available to identify temporal trends.
161378		threats	eng	The species is apparently fished in large numbers in parts of its range (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), and its inshore occurrence places it within the range of coastal fisheries throughout its distribution (Hazin <em>et al</em>. 2002). They constitute a substantial portion of the catch in coastal fisheries throughout their range and are often targeted due to their economic value (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In USA waters, this species is caught in coastal gillnets along the eastern coast of the U.S. (Carlson and Bethea 2007, and reference therein), and the directed bottom longline fishery that operates from New Jersey to Louisiana (Hale and Carlson 2007, and reference therein).  The major threat to this species is large removals as shrimp bycatch during juvenile life history stages (Siegfried and Brooks 2007).<br/><br/>This species is captured in coastal fisheries off Brazil, where inshore fishing pressure is often relatively intense. Although declines have been documented in other inshore Carcharhinid sharks off Brazil (e.g., Daggernose Shark (<em>Isogomphodon oxyrhynchus</em>)), this species is wider-ranging, distributed all along the Brazilian coast. CPUE data from northern and northeastern Brazil show no decline and large, mature adults are still present in catches (R. Lessa pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Trawl fisheries for shrimp operate throughout the Gulf of Mexico (mainly in inshore waters) and take a substantial bycatch of elasmobranchs (Shepherd and Myers 2005).<br/><br/>No data are available to determine the impact of fisheries on this species throughout the rest of its range off South America. However, shrimp trawl fisheries are intense in many areas and efforts should be made to collect data on the catches of this species where no data are currently available. Trawl fisheries began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). Demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency; 150 vessels were permitted to operate out of the port by the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture (DGSPAMAC) in 1990, each with 250?650 horse power (hp), giving a total nominal horse power of 37,500?97,500 hp (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition, an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus</em> species) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between five and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch.
161379		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Expanding deepwater fisheries should be monitored. Protocols for managing any expansion in deepsea fisheries in Indonesia need to be developed in the near future with management strategies included in the National Plan of Action for sharks (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Regular surveys of ports are also required to assess to what extent the catch composition of deepsea fisheries changes over the years (White <em>et al. </em>2006).
161379		distribution	eng	Northwest and Western Central Pacific: South China and East China Seas, off Taiwan, Province of China, Philippines, northern Borneo in eastern Malaysia (Sarawak) and the Okinawa Trough off Japan (Last and Compagno 1999, Ishihara 1984).
161379		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater skate known from depths of 475 to >835 m depth (Last and Compagno 1999). Maximum size reported at 35 cm total length (TL) (Yuandung and Qingwen 2001, Shao 2005). Males mature at about 26 m TL (Last and Compagno 1999).
161379		population	eng	Ten specimens are known from Taiwan, Province of China (P.F. Lee pers. comm. 2006). There are little data available in other areas.
161379		threats	eng	The known depth distribution of this species is beyond depths currently fished through most of its geographic range, offering refuge beyond current anthropogenic threats.<br/><br/>There is no evidence that deepsea fisheries in the Philippines capture this species. Some deepwater fisheries operate off the Philippines, but they mainly use bottomset multiple hook-and-line gear to target dogfish sharks for their liver oil (Flores 2004, Gaudiano and Alava 2003). Deepwater fisheries operate on the eastern coast of Taiwan, Province of China. The incidental catch is retained and marketed (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, from 100 to 300 m fishing depth to over 300 m currently (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries on the southwest coast are mainly coastal, but may range down to 500 m depth (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>In eastern Indonesia, deep-sea longline fisheries also only operate to 600 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) and this may also be the case for fisheries operating around Borneo where this species is known to occur. However, this is unlikely to be the case for much longer as new fishing methods (e.g., trawling) may be adopted especially if foreign fishing vessels are allowed access to Indonesian waters (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). According to White <em>et al. </em>(2006), expansion of the deepsea fishery in Indonesia is highly likely.
161380		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on the occurrence, abundance of this species, as well as threats and its capture in fisheries.
161380		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: Malaysia (near the edge of continental shelf off Tanjong Sirik, Sarawak, 4°48?N, longitude.109°56?E to latitude 5°19?N, longitude 111º16?E) and Hainan Island, China (D.A. Ebert and W. White pers. comm.).
161380		habitat	eng	This benthic shark is known from few specimens collected at the edge of the continental shelf at depths of 118-165m. The species reaches a maximum size of 40.8 cm total length (TL); males mature at 32.5?37.2 cm TL and females at 35.4?40.8 cm TL (Yano <em>et al. </em>2005). Very little is known of its habitat and biology. Egg cases observed within the uteri of a pregnant female measured 3.2 cm width by 9.8 cm length (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth is estimated at about 10 cm TL (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161380		population	eng	Unknown.
161380		threats	eng	Bycatch in deep water trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available.
161381		conservation	eng	<em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within Alaskan waters within the “other skates” assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in <em>Bathyraja</em> species is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented. Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species’ range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.
161381		distribution	eng	Northeast and Northwest Pacific: found off Japan, Russia and USA, from the southern Kuril Islands, east Kamchatka, western, eastern (including Aleutian Islands) and southern Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Fedorov <em>et al.</em> 2003, Stevenson 2004, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161381		habitat	eng	Smallthorn Skate is a deep sea skate, found mainly on sandy-gravel (and also muddy-rocky) substrates at depths ranging from 150–1,420 m (Dolganov 1998a, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002). The majority of the population in the Pacific waters of the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka occurs between 300–750 m depth (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Both sexes mature at 5–6 years of age and longevity is eight years for males and nine years for females (Dolganov 1998b, Dolganov 2005). Attains a maximum size of 83 cm total length (TL) (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002). Males mature at 64.0–67.2 cm TL and females at 63.4–68.6 cm TL (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2005). Egg capsules measure 6.6–8 cm in length and 4.6–5.9 cm in width (Dolganov 1998b). This species prefers bottom temperatures of 0.1–4.4°C (mean 2.47°C), and most frequently occurs at 1.5–4.0°C (Orlov <em>et al. </em>2006). Preys upon fish, decapods, and cephalopods (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov 1998, 2003).
161381		population	eng	According to biomass estimates, this is the sixth most abundant species within Russian waters (Dolganov 1999). In Russian waters, biomass estimation based on data from bottom trawl surveys during 1977–1997 comprises 21,700 t including 19,600 t in the Bering Sea, 200 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 1,900 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999). In the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka, CPUE trend appears stable from 1993 to 2000 (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the eastern Bering Sea slope area, the biomass estimate in 2004 was 1,755 mt, the fifth most abundant out of 12 skate species recorded in this area (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161381		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (Ormseth and Matta 2007), and probably elsewhere throughout its range in the eastern Pacific. Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200 m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Therefore this species’ deep bathymetric distribution offers refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species. <br/><br/>Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. These fisheries usually operate down to 600–800 m, i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range (D.A. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). There are no fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands. There has also been interest in this skate as a potential fishery target in Russia (Orlov 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, Japanese trawlers fishing in Russian waters took skate wings, but no information is currently available on historical catch levels. Foreign fisheries were prohibited in Russian waters in 2002.
161382		conservation	eng	None in place. <br/><br/>Where taken, catches should be closely monitored to determine whether fisheries are impacting on the population of this endemic species. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161382		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: endemic to New Zealand (M. Francis pers. obs. 2006).
161382		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 300 m to at least 1,479 m and probably much deeper off New Zealand (Cox and Francis 1997, Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998) Frequency of occurrence in research trawl tows increases steadily beyond 900 m and shows no sign of decreasing before 1,500 m (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998), suggesting that it extends well beyond that depth. Adults inhabit the continental slope and attain a maximum size of at least 140 cm total length (Cox and Francis 1997). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.
161382		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population of this species. Occasionally caught by deepwater bottom trawlers (M. Francis pers. obs. 2006).
161382		threats	eng	Large deepwater trawlers targeting Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>) and Hoki (<em>Macruronus novaezelandiae</em>) operate over this species’ depth and geographic range, in  central and southern New Zealand. This species is undoubtedly taken as bycatch by these deepwater fisheries, but the quantities caught and population trends are unknown. Depths greater than 1,500 m are not commercially fished at present. Given that research trawls suggest that this species’ depth range may extend beyond 1,500 m, it may have a refuge from fishing pressure in deep water. There may also be some mortality in the Ling (<em>Genypterus blacodes</em>) longline fishery.
161383		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends need to be monitored through surveys or collection of species-specific data on catches by onboard observers.
161383		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: known only from a limited range (possibly <10,000 km²) off southern Portugal and Spain, within the Bay of Cadiz (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161383		habitat	eng	Occurs on the upper slope at depths of 270-670m, on fine sand and occasionally muddy sand substrates (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 2008). Attains a maximum size of 32.7cm total length (TL) (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 2008). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Size at birth is unknown, but the smallest neonate measured 5.5cm TL and it is probably close to this (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161383		population	eng	Moderately rare (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is known from 50 type specimens taken in a well-surveyed area (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 2008).
161383		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries and discarded because it is too small to be considered commercially valuable. Although not taken regularly, it occurs in an area that has been commercially fished for groundfish and crustaceans for a long period (Borges <em>et al.</em> 2001, Monteiro <em>et al</em>. 2001, Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008). Fisheries targeting Rose Shrimp <em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em> and Norway Lobster, <em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>, operate off the south coast of Portugal at depths of 200?700 m (ICES 2006). No data are currently available on the capture of this species and nothing is known about post-discard survival rates.
161384		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161384		distribution	eng	Western and eastern Indian Ocean: Somalia (Gulf of Aden), India and Sri Lanka (possibly southwest coast of India and probably Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Northwest and western central Pacific: Japan (Northeastern Honshu, Shikoku, and Okinawa), Taiwan, northern Papua-New Guinea and Indonesia (Compagno in prep, W. White pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Taxonomic revision of <em>Centrophorus</em> is currently underway and may reveal that more than one species is involved across the distributional range.
161384		habitat	eng	A poorly known bathydemersal deepwater species found from depths of 150 to 450 m on the outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes. Size data are available from Indonesia, based on 93 specimens. Maximum size for females was 78 cm total length (TL), and 60.3 cm TL for males (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Males mature at 55?58 cm TL. The smallest pregnant female was 73.5 cm TL (females probably mature at a smaller size) (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Size at birth is 36?42 cm TL (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Reproduction is ovoviviparous. Other size and biological information available for <em>C. atromarginatus</em> may refer to other species.
161384		population	eng	Unknown.
161384		threats	eng	The Dwarf Gulper Shark is targeted by localized fisheries in Japan for its liver oil (Compagno in prep, H. Ishihara, pers. comm. 2006, S. Tanaka pers. comm. 2007). This fishery targets deep water species of shark using gillnets and possibly other gear in Suruga Bay, Honshu. Catch of sharks and rays are cited from the Annual Statistics of Japan fisheries, Statistical Information Center of the Japan Fisheries Agency. However, the statistics are not species-specific but rather reported as ?general sharks and general rays? (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>This species is also caught in bottom trawls off Taiwan. No part of the catch is discarded in Taiwan (B. Séret pers. comm. 2006) and individuals are probably also used in the production of fishmeal.<br/><br/>No information is available on the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range in the Indian Ocean. Industrial deepwater fishing for lobsters is reported off Somalia, perhaps down to 400 m, but the gear type is not reported and no data are available from the fishery. In the mid-1970s, deep-sea trawling was carried out by SOMALFISH, a Somali/USSR joint venture commercial fishing company off Somalia and since then several foreign fishing companies have been given fishing licenses to fish in the offshore EEZ of Somalia (FAO 2007a).<br/><br/>There are also an estimated 700 foreign-owned vessels that are fully engaged in unlicensed fishing in Somali waters (FAO 2007a). This illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing occurs offshore, as well as in the inshore (FAO 2007a). This makes it impossible to monitor total fishery production and the state of the fishery resources they are exploiting (FAO 2007a). There is also strong suspicion of illegal dumping of industrial and nuclear wastes along the Somali coast (FAO 2007a).<br/><br/>Little is known about deepwater fisheries operating off India at present. There were apparently 100 deep-sea fishing vessels in operation off India during 2004 (FAO 2007b). Marine fish production from near shore waters off India has reached almost a plateau and it is likely that fisheries will develop to exploit deeper waters off shore pelagic species further (FAO 2007b).<br/><br/>The threatened status of this species is uncertain, but of concern because of local deepwater fisheries, little knowledge of its biology, and its restricted distribution (Compagno in prep). Given the biological vulnerability of this genus and the rapid population declines observed in other exploited <em>Centrophorus</em> species (for example <em>Centrophorus harrissoni</em>), any bycatch is of concern. There is a need to collect species-specific catch data throughout this species? range, to assess the impact of fisheries on this species.
161385		conservation	eng	Base-line studies are required to acquire more information regarding the life history aspects of this species. More information about the trade is also needed in order to implement management plans, trade management and specific legislation to guarantee that catches are sustainable.<br/><br/>Bycatch captures should also be monitored and quantified in order to determine to what extent target (bony fish) fisheries represent a threat.<br/><br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation should also be considered since freshwater elasmobranchs are more susceptible to impacts due to their more restricted distribution in comparison with their marine counterparts (Araújo 1998, Charvet-Almeida 2001, Charvet-Almeida<em> et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Mojica<em> et al </em>(2002) indicated needed for habitat protection, base-line studies and population evaluation for <em>P. yepezi</em>, which are probably valid recommendations for <em>P. magdalenae.</em><br/><br/>Public awareness is desired to minimize persecution, which probably occurs (as in other places where freshwater stingrays are present).
161385		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the drainages of some rivers in Northern Colombia, including Magdalena, Cauca, San Jorge, Atrato and Catatumbo rivers. It has not been registered in the Sinú River but is also found in the headwaters and throughout the rivers Tibú, el Sardinata and el Zulia (Galvis <em>et al</em>. 1997). The extent of occurrence is very unlikely to be extended.
161385		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of<em> P. magdalenae.</em>. This species was indicated to be found in both headwaters and lower drainages of some rivers within its distribution range (Galvis <em>et al.</em> 1997). These same authors reported that this species prefers muddy substrates, murky and shallow waters.<br/><br/>The stomach contents of specimens collected from the Catatumbo River contained insect larvae stages and detritus (Galvis <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/>Most reproductive biology information available comes from a single research study carried out by Teshima and Takeshita (1992). Apart from them, only Dahl (1971), in a general study of the fish in Northern Colombia, mentioned that this species reached maturity with less than 25 cm of disc width. The information available suggests that this species reaches sexual maturity at a small disc width size and presents a low fecundity. Since most potamotrygonids present a defined reproductive period (Charvet-Almeida <em>et al.</em> 2005), it is possible that Teshima and Takeshita (1992) could not observe this due to the short length of their sampling period.
161385		population	eng	This species was pointed out as common in the lower portion of the Catatumbo River (Galvis <em>et al</em>. 1997) but no further data are available on the population of this freshwater stingray.
161385		threats	eng	There is little information regarding the threats for <em>P. magdalenae</em> but supposedly at least some of them are similar to ones indicated for <em>P. yepezi</em>, another freshwater stingray found in Colombia (Mojica <em>et al.</em> 2002). These same authors indicated <em>P. magdalenae</em> as being a vulnerable species (VU) in Colombia but no details are given concerning the criteria for the selection of this specific status.<br/><br/>This species is currently entering the ornamental trade (Gonella 1997, Ross and Schäfer 2000) without any specific regulation and monitoring. No information is available about how many specimens are exported and to what extent this might represent a threat for this species. Informal reports indicate that this species is also caught as bycatch in fisheries that target some bony fish of economic value in the river basins where <em>P. magdalenae</em> is found.<br/><br/>Intrinsic factors common to other elasmobranchs (Camhi <em>et al.</em> 1998) affect this species too and its restricted range must be taken into account.<br/>Other threats for this species are not well know but considering the main known threats for other potamotrygonids (included the ones cited for <em>P. yepezi</em> by Mojica <em>et al.</em> 2002) it is expected that it is susceptible to water pollution of different origins (agricultural, industrial and sewage pollution mainly), mining, infrastructure development and human disturbances. As in other parts of the North region of South America, it is expected that persecution of this species also takes place.
161386		conservation	eng	There are several marine protected areas (MPAs) within this species’ range (Wood 2007).
161386		distribution	eng	North Pacific Ocean: reported only from Hawaii and Taiwan, Province of China (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Cartamil <em>et al.</em> 2002). The record from Taiwan, Province of China requires confirmation.
161386		habitat	eng	A demersal species found in nearshore waters on sand or mud bottoms and sometimes near coral reefs (Michael 1993). Reaches a maximum size of at least 100 cm disc width (DW) (Michael 1993).
161386		population	eng	Common in nearshore waters of Hawaii (Cartamil <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161386		threats	eng	No known threats. Fisheries off Hawaii are mainly pelagic, targeting tuna (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161387		conservation	eng	None in place. Catch levels need to be monitored and further surveys conducted to determine abundance and population trends. Further research on the species’ life-history is also required.
161387		distribution	eng	Known only from two specimens collected from the Naturalist Plateau off southwestern Australia (Stehmann 2005): 33°42' S, 110°53' E. Probably more widespread at least in the Southeast Indian Ocean and further to the west.
161387		habitat	eng	Known only from two specimens collected at 2,300 m depth. The mature male holotype measured 123 cm total length (TL) and the small juvenile male paratype measured 36 cm TL (Stehmann 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.
161387		population	eng	Known only from two specimens so far, collected during a scientific research survey.
161387		threats	eng	This species is a potential bycatch of the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery, which targets orange roughy and oreos below 700 m depth off southwestern Australia (http://www.affashop.gov.au/PdfFiles/pg204_221.pdf). This relatively small fishery (currently up to 11 vessels and 15 endorsements) takes some elasmobranch bycatch but its composition has not been determined (R. McAuley pers. obs. 2008). It is also a potential bycatch international deepwater trawl and longline fisheries targeting various bony fishes (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2008).
161388		conservation	eng	There are no species specific management measures. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean in February 2005 and this came into force in September 2005. <br/><br/>In Swedish waters (e.g., Skagerrak and Kattegat) bottom-trawls are required to have a selective grid that should help to reduce bycatch of <em>E. spinax</em>.
161388		distribution	eng	Mediterranean Sea: found in the Western Mediterranean (Spain, France, Italy, Albania, Malta, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco). <br/><br/>Northeast, eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Iceland and Norway south to Senegal, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire to Nigeria, Cameroon to Gabon, Azores and Cape Verde Islands (Compagno in prep.).
161388		habitat	eng	<em>Etmopterus spinax</em> is found on the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 70–2,000 m, mostly between 200 and 500 m (Compagno in prep.). In the Mediterranean <em>E. spinax</em> has been recorded from 300–2,000 m depth (F. Serena pers. obs. 2007). In the Adriatic Sea it is reported down to 1,200 m depth (Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the Thyrrenian Sea, Italy, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. (2004) found the typical depth distribution to be 322–633 m. In the Gulf of Valencia, Spain it is commonly caught by commercial bottom trawls between 300 and 675 m, and is slightly more abundant below 550 m (Guallart 1990). In the northeast Atlantic <em>E. spinax</em> has been caught at depths of 400–1,000 m (Merrett <em>et al</em>. 1991a,b; Bridger 1978). In general, smaller (<30 cm) individuals tended to occur at depths of less than 500 m whilst mature individuals were found at mid-depths (500 to 600 m) (P. Crozier pers. comm.). In Sierra Leone <em>E. spinax</em> is found as shallow as 200 m but is a dominant species at depths greater than 400 m (Litvinov 1993). In Morocco <em>E. spinax</em> is captured at depths of 400–800 m, is a resident species at 400–500 m and is dominant at 600 m and sub-dominant at 600–900 m (Litvinov 1993).<br/><br/>Estimated age at maturity is five to six years (Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004), although longevity is unknown for the species. Size at maturity has various estimates: females mature between >30–46 cm total length (TL); 33–36 cm (Compagno in prep); 38–40 cm (Capapè <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004); 46 cm (n=76) in the northeast Atlantic (Crozier unpub. data); 31 cm in South Portugal (Coelho and Erzini 2005); and >30 cm in the Adriatic (Ungaro pers. comm.). Males mature between 25–38 cm: 33–36 cm TL (Compagno in prep.); 35 cm (Capapè <em>et al</em>. 2001); 38 cm (n=105) in the northeast Atlantic (Crozier unpub. data); 25 cm in South Portugal (Coelho and Erzini 2005); and 28–30 cm in the Adriatic (N. Ungaro pers. comm.). The maximum size recorded for <em>E. spinax</em> was a female of 60 cm TL but specimens are rarely larger than 45 cm (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>The velvet belly is ovoviviparous producing 6–20 pups per litter (Compagno in prep, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987), with a mean ovarian fecundity of 18 eggs (n=14) and a mean embryonic fecundity of 10 pups (n=15) (Crozier unpub. data). In the Thyrrenian Sea mature females were observed at 40 cm TL carrying six embryos of 6.5 cm TL in the uterus (Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Females produce a litter once a year (Bini 1967, Tortonese 1956) and pups are between 8 and 14 cm TL at birth (12 to 14 cm (Compagno in prep.); 10–11 cm (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987); 11 cm (n=15) (Crozier unpub. data)). Smaller pups of 8–10 cm TL have been reported for the Adriatic (Marano <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>This species feeds on small fishes, squids, and crustaceans (Compagno in prep.). The diet of <em>E. spinax</em> has been analysed as follows: crustaceans 74.8%, fishes 16.9%, cephalopods 6.9%, polychaetes 0.9% others 0.5% (Bello 1998, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Rockall Trough in the Northeast Atlantic the diet of <em>E. spinax</em> was reported to consist mainly of benthopelagic organisms, with fish and crustaceans of secondary importance (Mauchline and Gordon 1983). Smaller specimens (<39 cm) of this species feed on mid-water fish that were completely absent from the stomachs of larger individuals. The differences in diet were thought to be partly due to prey selection and also because larger fish live at greater depths. In South Portugal a significant ontogenic variation in feeding ecology was observed, with specimens smaller than 17 cm TL feeding mainly on euphausiids, specimens from 17–27 cm TL feeding mainly on euphausiids and natant decapods and specimens larger than 27 cm TL feeding also on teleosts and cephalopods (Neiva <em>et al</em>. submitted). In Angolan waters, off the west African coast, the diet of this species has been described as follows: cephalopods (63%), crustaceans (33%) and teleosts (4%) (Zaera 2005).
161388		population	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Data collected from 1985–2002 by the Italian national GRUND project (Gruppo Nazionale Risorse Demersali) and from 1994–2002 by the MEDITS project (Mediterranean International Trawl Survey) (Relini 1998, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 2000) provided information on the abundance and bathymetric distribution of <em>Etmopterus spinax</em>. Analysis of trends in Biomass Index (BI kg per km²) of <em>E. spinax</em> from 1985–2002 indicated stable populations in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Etmopterus spinax</em> was present at both high frequency (19% of the hauls) and high abundance (between 1 and 10 kg per km²) in the Mediterranean, with a standing stock biomass of 4% (2,248 t). The species was found to have an especially high presence in the western-central part of the Mediterranean basin (Morocco, Spain, France, Tyrrhenian, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily coasts) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Data collected in the Gulf of Valencia (Spain) during 1988–1989 from a bottom trawl fishery for Red Shrimp <em>Aristeus antennatus</em> revealed the presence of <em>E. spinax</em> in 87.5% of trawls carried out between 450 and 675 m depth, with a mean abundance of 1.04 specimens per hour trawl (Guallart 1990). All sizes were represented in the captures (from juveniles to adults of both sexes) and observations made in later years did not reveal any significant change in the abundance of <em>E. spinax</em> in this area (J. Guallart pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Catch rates in Scottish surveys from 1998–2004 were 81% of those in Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) surveys in the 1970s (T. Blasdale pers. comm. 2006). These surveys cannot be directly compared as they used different gear and vessels and fished different depth ranges, but they do appear to indicate that population levels have declined slightly from pre-fishery levels (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In southern Portugal Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) data for captures with deepwater longlines set from 450–780 m depth are 1.71/1,000 hooks (s.d.= 1.83) (R. Coelho unpubl. data). Deep water trawlers in the Algarve capture this species from 200–700 m depth and CPUEs are highest at 500 m depth with a capture rate of 15.74 specimens per hour (Coelho <em>et al. </em>2005b). CPUE (kg per hour fished) from French deepwater trawl vessels in ICES Division VIa (West of Scotland) showed discard rates of this species to peak at 18.3 kg/hr at 500 m and then decline to 1.3 kg/hr at 700 m (ICES WD, Crozier 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species was common off the coast of Northwestern Africa in the 1980s and was still very common in more recent surveys (Gulyugin <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161388		threats	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>This species is caught as a bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries and is known to be discarded by Italian (Abella and Serena 2002) and Spanish (Guallart 1990) fleets. Most specimens discarded are either dead or in very poor condition (J. Guallart pers. comm.). This species occurs at depths of 70–2,000 m, but mostly between 200–500 m in the Mediterranean. The main depth range of this species is within the range of Mediterranean fisheries. However, the ban on bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean, adopted by all members of The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), will  afford protection in the deeper part of its bathymetric range. This measure came into force in September 2005.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/><em>Etmopterus spinax</em> is most abundant in the northeast Atlantic between 400 and 800 m and large mature female <em>E. spinax</em> are found in waters around 600 m. This may suggest that these mature sharks are being affected more by the commercial deep-water fisheries than other life stages of <em>E. spinax</em> that are found in shallower waters. Therefore it is suggested that this species may also be susceptible to heavy commercial fishing in the northeast Atlantic (Coelho 2007).<br/><br/>It is caught as bycatch in bottomtrawls fishing for <em>Nephrops norvegicus</em> and <em>Pandalus borealis</em> in the Skagerrak and Kattegat by Swedish fishermen. It has never been recorded in logbooks and most is probably discarded at sea. Off the south coast of Portugal (Algarve), this species is captured in high quantities as bycatch of the deep water fisheries that operate at these depths, namely the bottom trawl fishery that targets Norway Lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>), Red Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) and Deepwater Pink Shrimp (<em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>), and the near bottom longline fishery that targets European Hake (<em>Merluccius merluccius</em>), Conger Eels (<em>Conger conger</em>) and Wreck Fish (<em>Polyprion americanus</em>). In both fisheries, all captured specimens are discarded (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005a), and even though most are still alive when returned to sea, they usually have severe injuries (due to the long trawling periods or as a result of the hooks) that are likely to impair their survival.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic</strong><br/>In general, very little is known of the threats that affect this species off the African coast. Off the Angolan coast, <em>E. spinax</em> is an uncommon species, captured rarely by bottom trawlers and always discarded. Where this species is common off Morocco (western Sahara), Mauritania, and Sierra Leone it is taken in trawls. However, catches are not recorded because of species identification problems and because this bycatch is discarded.
161390		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
161390		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: an Australian endemic, restricted to the continental slope off Cairns (Queensland) in the Coral Sea (Last and Stevens 1994). Likely to only exist on seamounts offshore from North East Queensland.
161390		habitat	eng	A small, highly distinctive, deepwater skate,&#160;<em></em>this species occurs on the mid continental slope at depths of 800?880 m and attain at least 57 cm TL (Last and Compagno 1999). Its biology is virtually unknown as it is known from type specimens only.<br/><br/>A bottom-dwelling species that probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Oviparous and deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases (Last and Compagno 1999).
161390		population	eng	Population structure of the Eastern Looseskin Skate is unknown. Its range is narrow and the area of its occurrence is rarely surveyed.
161390		threats	eng	<em></em>The Eastern Looseskin Skate is unlikely to be of commercial value but is restricted to a narrow depth and geographical range. There is no current fishing pressure in its area of occurrence. Trawl fisheries could dramatically affect the population if they began to take it as bycatch, due its narrow geographic and depth range.
161391		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of its occurrence is needed. A stock assessment for skates and rays taken as bycatch in the Heard Islands is underway and will provide further information on the status of this species in this part of its range.
161391		distribution	eng	Antarctic and southern Indian Ocean: presently known only from around Kerguelen and Heard Islands (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990).
161391		habitat	eng	A small species, Murray's Skate (<em>Rhinoraja murrayi</em>) can be found at depths from 30–650 m, although it is apparently more abundant at shallow depths (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990). It attains 60 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990). The smallest recorded juvenile measured 11 cm TL (M. Stehmann pers. obs.). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but its biology is virtually unknown.
161391		population	eng	Moderately abundant relative to other species of this genus in the Southern Ocean (M. Stehmann pers. obs.).
161391		threats	eng	Regularly taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries targeting Channichthys (icefish) and Notothens (Antarctic Cod), as well as in longline fisheries for Patagonian Toothfish to some extent. Substantial catches of Antarctic cod icefish have been taken on the Kerguelen plateau since the early 1970s (Hender and Larcombe 2007). Fishing effort in the Patagonian Toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides fishery concentrated in the Southern Ocean, has increased in recent years, largely due to illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in this region (Lack and Sant 2001). Lack and Sant (2001) identified the Kerguelen and Heard Islands, where this species is possibly endemic, as hotspots for IUU fishing activity. High levels of unregulated fishing pressure throughout this species’ range are unlikely to be sustainable, particularly as this species is likely to have limiting life-history characteristics, similar to other deepwater skates.
161392		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>The CCAMLR Working Group recommend that, where possible, all rajids should be cut from the line while still in the water, except on the request of observers, and that areas with high bycatch rates should be avoided by Patagonian Toothfish fisheries.<br/><br/>Information is required to better define the distribution and the impact of fisheries across the species? entire range.
161392		distribution	eng	Antarctic and Southern Indian Ocean: known from just south of the Crozet and Kerguelen Islands and well south of South Africa and Madagascar (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990, Compagno and Ebert 2007).<br/><br/>Southeast Atlantic Ocean: the South African records of <em>A. taaf</em> may prove to be of strays from its known range in sub-Antarctic seas (Compagno and Ebert 2007).
161392		habitat	eng	Thought to be widespread in the Indian Antarctic ocean at depths of 150 to 600 m, though may be found at greater depths (Stehmann and Burkel 1990). Dulvy and Reynolds (2002) give a minimum depth of 320 m and a maximum of 350 m, with a latitudinal range of two degrees. Maximum size is reportedly 90 cm total length (TL) and size at birth is about 17 cm TL (Stehmann and Burkel 1990). Diet appears to be wide ranging from polycheates and crustaceans, to teleosts (Meissner 1987).<br/><br/><em>Amblyraja taaf</em> is reported to display sexual dimorphism (Meissner 1987), with males in general being larger than the females. Fecundity is unknown for this species.
161392		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161392		threats	eng	This species is taken as utilised bycatch by longline and trawl fisheries targeting Patagonian Toothfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dissostichus eleginoides</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>in the Antarctic and Southern Indian Ocean. This species, along with grenadiers <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrourus carinatus</span>, forms the bulk of bycatch of the Patagonian Toothfish fishery in the Crozet Islands EEZ. Bycatch of Rajids (<em>Amblyraja taaf</em>) in this fishery reported to Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) ranged from nothing in 1998/1999, increasing to 95 to 91 t in 2002?2004 and to 163 t in 2005/2006 (CCAMLR 2006).<br/><br/>Actual bycatch levels are likely much greater though as a result of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing for Patagonian toothfish throughout the area. Most IUU fishing is thought to have occurred in the Indian Ocean sector around Crozet, Heard, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands (Lack and Sant 2001). Increased surveillance within the EEZ of these states in recent years means that IUU fishing now occurs mainly outside the EEZ.<br/><br/>This species probably has limiting life-history characteristics similar to other deepwater skates, making it vulnerable to population depletion. Current levels of exploitation may therefore be unsustainable.
161393		conservation	eng	None. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history.
161393		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: found off Choshi, Chiba Prefecture, Japan to Hermanos Island, Philippines (where it is known only from a single record; 18°32'30"N, 122°01'E) (Ishimaya 1967, Ishihara 1987, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161393		habitat	eng	This skate is found on sandy and muddy substrates along continental shelf and slope at depths of 300–800 m. The largest known specimen was the holotype, an adult male measuring 134.5 cm total length (TL) (Ishiyama 1958, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161393		population	eng	Rare.
161393		threats	eng	Bottom trawl fisheries targeting demersal bony fish e.g., flounders are thought to capture this species as bycatch (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). However, no specific information is currently available on its capture.
161394		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on this species? biology, range, population and capture in fisheries.
161394		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: known only from the Gulf of Panama, Panama (McEachran 1995, R. Robertson pers. obs.).
161394		habitat	eng	A benthic species found on soft bottoms (McEachran 1995). Depth range information is not available for this species, but it is likely restricted to shallow inshore waters. This species reaches a maximum size of at least 26.7 cm TL (McEachran 1995).
161394		population	eng	Apparently rare (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).
161394		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom trawl fisheries operating across its range off Panama, although no specific catch data are available. Both industrial and artisanal trawl fisheries operate off the Pacific coast of Panama (FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout this species? range. There are about 232 vessels with licenses in the industrial fleet, targeting shrimp using beam trawls in surface waters down to 200 m depth (FAO 2007). Legislation introduced in 1988 does not permit the replacement of shrimp vessels, so many are >20 years old and between 18-20 m length with engines between 150-380HP and refrigerated holds (FAO 2007). There are about 4959 vessels registered in the artisanal fishery, including canoes, boats and motor boats. Of these, 2937 vessels are authorized to catch fishes, 2022 to catch shrimp (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>The threat status of this species is of concern given its apparent rarity and restricted range in shallow waters, which are extensively fished by shrimp trawlers (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). Although the species may be discarded due to its small size, post-discard survivorship is likely to be very low and the population is strongly suspected to have been depleted through fishing pressure (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation may also pose a threat.
161395		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.
161395		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: southern Russia, Japan, Koreas, China (including Taiwan), (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).
161395		habitat	eng	Found on continental and insular shelves close inshore, on or near the bottom (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Often found in estuaries or shallow bays, on sand, seaweed and eel-grass flats (Nakabo 2002). Tolerant of reduced salinities. An aplacental viviparous species giving birth to 10-24 pups per litter. <br/><br/>Feeds on small fishes and invertebrates and grows to a maximum total length of 150 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the coastal water of Izu Peninsula, Japan, males mature at 93-103 cm TL and 5-6 years old, and females at 106-117 cm TL and 6-7 years old, respectively. The species is born in 18-20cm TL. Longevity is 15 years in males and 18 years in females (S. Tanaka unpublished data).
161395		population	eng	Common to abundant throughout its range (Compagno in prep.).
161395		threats	eng	Commonly fished off Japan in coastal gillnets and set nets, and probably Korea and Northern China. This species is not targeted, but is caught as bycatch and is sometimes used for meat. Also caught in Taiwan, although in lower abundance (D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). The meat is thought of as of inferior quality to other houndsharks in Japan (Compagno in prep). The species is commonly exhibited in Chinese and Japanese aquariums (Y. Wang, pers. comm., Hagiwara 1996). This species is known to occur in rocky, un-fished, nearshore areas off Japan, providing it with refuges.
161396		conservation	eng	The Galapagos Archipelago is covered by the 133,000 km² Galapagos Marine Reserve (established in 1986), which prohibits industrial fishing but allows artisanal fishing (Wood 2007). However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking.<br/><br/>Further surveys would help to accurately define this species, range and provide information on abundance. Further research is required on catches of this species in fisheries, population trends and life-history parameters.
161396		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: known only from Panama (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
161396		habitat	eng	This coastal eagle ray reaches a maximum size of at least 79 cm disc width (DW) (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). Eagle Rays are active swimmers and are generally capable of travelling long distances (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably aplacental viviparous, like other eagle rays, but virtually no information is available on this species? biology or life-history parameters.
161396		population	eng	No information available.
161396		threats	eng	This species is likely taken in coastal artisanal fisheries off Panama and probably in the Galapagos Islands, and is vulnerable to capture in net, line and trawl gear. Coastal artisanal fisheries are relatively intensive off Panama, with 2,937 vessels authorized to catch fishes and 2,022 to catch shrimp (FAO 2007). Extensive artisanal gillnet fisheries probably take this species as bycatch on the Pacific coast of Panama, with fishing pressure increasing during recent decades: studies suggest that the number of gillnets increased from 1,296 units in 1986 to 14,000 in 1995 (FAO 2007).
161397		conservation	eng	Precautionary conservation measures should include the live release of individuals caught, improved monitoring of fisheries data, identification of important nursery areas and the establishment of protected areas for such demersal species. Improvement and implementation of elasmobranch monitoring programmes is required to obtain data from throughout the species range.
161397		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic, including Mediterranean Sea: occurs from the southern Bay of Biscay (records as far north as Belgium are questionable), south to Angola. Also occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).
161397		habitat	eng	This benthic ray is common in tropical waters, found on soft substrates, usually inshore, but also down to 70m or occasionally to depths of >300 m (Gulyugin <em>et al.</em> 2006). The maximum recorded size is reported at about 60cm total length (TL) (Serena 2005), although data from Egyptian waters suggests that maximum size is smaller at 38.6 cm TL (Abdel-Aziz 1994). This study in Egyptian waters reports that size at maturity is 18 cm for males and 22 cm for females (Abdel-Aziz 1994).  Aplacental viviparous. The species appears to have a restricted breeding season, and females appear to breed annually (Abdel-Aziz 1994). Births usually occur between March and September with 3-21 juveniles of 8-10 cm length (Serena 2005). Numbers depend on the size of the female. <em>Torpedo torpedo </em>feeds on small fishes, but also takes benthic invertebrates.
161397		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is more common along the northern African (southern Mediterranean) coasts. Surveys in the northern Mediterranean Sea suggest that it is uncommon and less abundant than <em>T. marmorata</em> there. Standardized index of abundance in Italian ‘Grund’ trawl surveys ranged from 0.01 to 0.1 specimens per hour (Ferretti unpublished analyses). <em>Torpedo torpedo</em> was recorded in 28 of 6,336 hauls conducted during MEDITS trawl surveys in the northern Mediterranean Sea, from 1994-1999 at depths of 10-800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is rare around the Balearic Islands. In some regions <em>T. torpedo</em> was recorded in the past but now are under detectable levels by trawl surveys. For example in the Adriatic sea (northern Mediterranean), it was reported as rare in species lists but has not been recorded in recent trawl surveys (Ninni, 1912, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species has been recorded in trawl surveys along the western coast of Africa (Gulyugin <em>et al. </em>2006), but virtually no other information is currently available from throughout the rest of the species range.
161397		threats	eng	This species is captured in demersal fisheries, including bottom trawls, trammel nets, and artisanal coastal fisheries. Even though it is edible, it is landed in very few fisheries and is most often discarded at sea. Post discard survival may be relatively high because it is often caught in shallow waters. <em>Torpedo torpedo</em> appears to be consistently present in the demersal catch of fisheries on northern Mediterranean shores. No information is currently available on catches throughout the rest of the species’ range in the eastern Atlantic, although inshore fishing pressure is relatively intensive across large areas of this range.
161398		conservation	eng	No species-specific actions are in place for this species. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean Sea in February 2005 (<a href="http://www.gfcm.org/gfcm/topic/16100/en">recommendation GFCM/2005/1 on the management of certain fisheries exploiting demersal and deepwater species</a>) and this came into force in September 2005. <br/><br/>In European Commission waters, a combined TAC is set for a group of deep-water sharks, which includes <em>G. melastomus</em>. In 2007, the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for deepwater sharks (including this species) in ICES Sub-areas V, VI, VII, VIII and IX was 2,472 t (ICES 2007). In 2008, the TAC for these species in these areas was reduced to 1,646 t. In 2007 and 2008, the TAC for deepwater sharks was set at 20 t annually in Sub-area X, and 99 t in Sub-area XII (ICES 2007).
161398		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: from Faeroe Islands and Trondheim, Norway, northern area of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, Reykjanes Ridge, southwest Iceland (Hareide and Garnes 2001), southward to Senegal and Azores (Compagno 1984). <br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: throughout the Mediterranean Sea excluding the northern Adriatic Sea, the northern Aegean Sea and the Black Sea (Bauchot 1987, Serena 2005).
161398		habitat	eng	<em>Galeus melastomus</em> occurs on continental shelves and upper slopes, mainly at depths of 200–500 m, although it has been recorded between 55–2,000 m (Stefanescu <em>et al</em>. 1992, Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999, Moranta <em>et al</em>. 1998, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Found predominantly on slope bottoms (Carasson <em>et al</em>. 1992, Stefanescu <em>et al</em>. 1992, Tursi <em>et al</em>. 1993, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1994, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2001, Abella and Serena 2005) and is less common in shallower areas such as the Northern Adriatic and Aegean Seas (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Size at maturity in females is documented as 38–51 cm and males as 34–45 cm in the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987, Tursi <em>et al</em>. 1993, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1994, Rey <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species reaches a maximum size of about 62–67 cm (Rey <em>et al</em>. 2002, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2005), although Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) documents 90 cm TL. The species is oviparous, with eggs hatching mainly in the spring and summer. Vitellogenesis occurs at any time during the year (Tursi <em>et al</em>. 1990). Females produce 2–8 eggs per litter (Tortonese 1956, Bini 1967).<br/><br/><em>G. melastomus</em> feeds mainly on crustaceans, teleost fishes and cephalopods (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1994, Wurtz and Vacchi 1981). Analysis of the stomach contents of individuals caught in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea also found galley leftovers (Scali 2003).
161398		population	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species segregates by size and sex, with small, immature sharks generally found at depths of less than 500 m (P. Crozier pers. comm.). Norwegian exploratory fishery surveys found this species between depths of 500–1,000 m, where CPUE peaked at 750 m, with a catch rate of 140 kg/1,000 hooks (N-R. Hareide pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species was one of the most abundant elasmobranchs recorded in the Norwegian Sea according to fishery-independent Annual Autumn Bottom Trawl Surveys of the north Norwegian Coast, from 1992–2005 (ICES 2007). The total catch during these years was 8,376 individuals, with annual catch fluctuating widely between 26 and 1,883 individuals per year (averaging a catch rate of 644.3 over all years) (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>Data obtained aboard commercial longline vessels operating off southern Portugal (Algarve) from 1997 and 1998 (Erzini <em>et al</em>. 1999) compared to 2003 (Coelho <em>et al|</em>. 2005) show an increase of 151% in CPUE Official fisheries landings statistics for this species in the Algarve show an increase in landings of 48% during the last decade (DGPA 1988–2001). It should be noted this increase refers only to commercial landings and not actual captures. This increase may be due to a reduction in discards of this species, since a decline in stocks of traditional target species has resulted in increased retention of this species. Despite this, off southern Portugal the population appears to be stable currently.<br/><br/>This species is very abundant in the northern area of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, especially in the Reykjanes Ridge (southwest of Iceland) where the CPUE can be as high as 58.5 kg/1,000 hooks (Hareide and Garnes 2001). It is also very abundant on the Hatton Bank, northwest of Ireland (Hareide unpubl. data).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>This species is apparently relatively common in the Mediterranean Sea. It occurred in 1,702 of 6,336 tows during MEDITS research trawl surveys conducted throughout the northern Mediterranean from 1994–1999 (Alboran to the Aegean Sea, at depths of 10–800 m) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Data from the MEDITS bottom trawl surveys revealed high occurrence (>5% of the hauls) and abundance (>10 kg/km² or >10% of relative biomass) of <em>G. melastomus</em> (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005). Abundance was consistently >100 kg/km² in the Gulf of Lions and in Sardinian waters, with a maximum of 1,040 kg/km² recorded from the Alboran Sea. From estimates of the total biomass, 40% of the Mediterranean stock was found to occur in the Alboran Sea (2,600 t). Elsewhere, the only significant stocks (300–400 t) were in the central Tyrrhenian (off Corsica) and the Sicilian Channel (Serena 2005). In the Alboran Sea, maximum indices, obtained in 1997 and 2002, indicated no specific trend in abundance, whereas the biomass showed a slightly decreasing trend from 1994 (Rey <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>G. melastomus</em> is very abundant off eastern Spain. CPUE from trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Valencia during 1988–1990 captured between 27 and 250 specimens per five hour trawl (Guallart 1990).<br/><br/>Monthly landings data from Viareggio harbour (Italy) from 1990–2001 and trawl surveys (GRUND project) from 1985–2001 (Relini and Piccinetti 1996) suggest a decreasing trend in abundance (expressed as catch in kg/hr), especially over the last three years. However, no robust statistical analysis of the time series was possible due to variability and a lack of data series (Abella and Serena 2005).<br/><br/>Comparable trawl surveys conducted in the Adriatic Sea in 1948 and1998 showed no significant difference in the abundance of this species on the slope (Jukić-Peladić <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>MEDITS survey data presented by Bertrand <em>et al</em>. (2000) showed no apparent trend in density indices between the years, although in some parts of the Mediterranean basin (Tyrrhenian Sea) <em>G. melastomus</em> showed a slight increasing trend and some seasonal fluctuations in biomass, with a maximum in winter and a minimum in summer (Baino and Serena 2000).Data from surveys suggests that juveniles occur in shallower waters, and adults at greater depths. For example, specimens captured at depths of 201–500 m in the Alboran Sea were generally all smaller than 20 cm (although they were also recorded at 501–800 m), whereas specimens larger than 20 cm were generally restricted to the 501–800 m range (Rey <em>et al</em>. 2004). Specimens captured by deep trawl nets (>800 m) tend to be of a larger mean size (Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2001, Massutì and Moranta 2002), similar to results obtained from bottom longline catches (Carasson <em>et al</em>. 1992, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1999). High concentrations of juveniles have also been observed in the Alboran Sea, Sardinian waters and southeastern Tyrrhenian Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161398		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by demersal trawls and longlines throughout large areas of its geographic range. It is generally discarded, but is retained and utilised in some areas.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Although a large portion of the population of <em>G. melastomus</em> avoided most of the commercial fishing pressure associated with the 1970s deepwater trawl fishery for Blue Ling (<em>Molva dypterygia</em>) in the northeast Atlantic at >600 m, it is concerning to note that mature individuals of this species are found at similar depths to the shallowest depth range of this fishery, and that commercial deepwater trawl vessels are now targeting these sharks. The targeting of mature individuals of this species may lead to similar detrimental impacts experienced by other deepwater species in this area (Crozier 2003).<br/><br/>Off the south coast of Portugal (Algarve), this species is captured in high quantities as bycatch of the bottom trawl fishery that targets the Norway Lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>), Red Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) and Deepwater Pink Shrimp (<em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>), and by the near bottom longline fishery that targets European Hake (<em>Merluccius merluccius</em>), Conger Eels (<em>Conger conger</em>) and Wreck Fish (<em>Polyprion americanus</em>). In both fisheries, most captured specimens are discarded (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005). Most specimens are captured and returned to the sea alive, but usually with severe injuries (due to the long trawling periods or hooks) that are likely to impair their survival. However, declines in traditional target species during the last few years mean it is likely that fisherman are now landing larger quantities of “alternative” species, such as this catshark, so it may be increasingly retained and sold.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>The species is caught as bycatch by trawl nets and bottom longlines on slope bottoms. The species appears to suffer greater fishing mortality in the Ionian, south Adriatic and Aegean Seas, compared to along the coasts of Morocco, Spain, France and around Crete. Length Frequency Distributions (LFD) show that along the coasts of Morocco, Spain, France and around Crete specimens were mostly larger than 30 cm (78% of the total), while only 23% of the specimens around the coasts of Corsica, Sicily and in the Ionian, South Adriatic and Aegean Seas were over 30 cm (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>It seems that this species suffers relatively moderate effects from fishing pressure in the south Ligurian and northern Tyrrhenian sea, although it is an important bycatch of the Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus fishery.<br/><br/><em>G. melastomus</em> constitutes a significant portion of the bycatch of the Viareggio fleet’s fishing efforts, but most of the individuals are discarded due to the limited market demand and low commercial value. Only a fraction of the larger individuals (TL>40 cm) are landed at Viareggio (about 700 kg in 2002) (Abella and Serena 2005). Considering the depths at which <em>G. melastomus</em> is caught (250–800 m) and the observed poor condition of the individuals immediately after their capture, it is likely that only a small fraction of the discarded individuals survive. However, it should be noted that the fishing grounds for the Viareggio fleet coincide only partially with the areas where <em>G. melastomus</em> is known to be abundant, and that higher densities of this species are found in deep waters off northern Corsica, where the fishing pressure is moderate. These areas could therefore act as a refuge for this species (Abella and Serena 2005).<br/><br/>In the Alboran Sea, where this species is very abundant, <em>G. melastomus</em> is the most important bycatch species in the recently developed bottom trawl fishery targeting the Deepwater Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) (Torres <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The recently developed ban on bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean Sea probably offers this species some refuge from fishing pressure.
161399		conservation	eng	None in place.
161399		distribution	eng	Widespread in the northeast and eastern central Atlantic from the Shetland Islands and Norway in the north, to western Africa (Morocco, Western Sahara and Mauritania to Senegal, possibly along the Ivory Coast) in the south, including the Mediterranean Sea (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). It does not occur in the Black Sea, although there may be occasional records of this species as a vagrant (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Though there is some spawning in shallow sublittoral habitats, where the eggs are laid on macroalgae, spawning also occurs further offshore on grounds with biogenic fauna (e.g., sponges, hydroids and bryozoans), such as the northern Bristol Channel, around the south and west coasts of Ireland and in the Irish sea loughs (Ellis and Shackley 1997, Sims 2003, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Data from the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) programme indicates that this species occurs extensively throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). These surveys were carried out from the Alboran (western Mediterranean) to the Aegean Sea (eastern Mediterranean), between April and June, from 1994?1999. Across the 40 different survey subsectors and depth strata, <em>S. canicula</em> was caught everywhere with the exception of the northern and southwestern Adriatic Sea, northwestern and northern Ionian Sea and off eastern Sicily. Concentrations of juveniles are located on the upper slopes (~200 m), in particular around northeastern Corsica and northeastern Sardinia, which may be nursery grounds. Nursery grounds may also be found off Livorno, Tuscany (Baino and Serena 2000). The highest numbers of juveniles were found on the edge of the shelf off western Morocco. Length frequency distribution (LFD) data provided by Baino <em>et al.</em> (2001), in combination with other studies (D?oughia <em>et al</em>. 1995 and Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999), suggest that nursery areas are located on the seabed at depths of about 200 m. The species appears to segregate with size (Baino and Serena 2000).They move into coastal waters as they mature, and mature adults then return back to the shelf edge for reproduction.
161399		habitat	eng	This is a small, temperate, bottom-dwelling catshark is found o from the shallow sub-littoral to the edge of the continental shelf to depths of at least 300 m in the north (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005), and occur deeper further south and in the Mediterranean Sea. Around the British Isles they are more common in waters <150 m deep. The species is widespread and abundant on a variety of substrates (sandy, coralline algal, gravelly or muddy bottoms). They are known to aggregate by sex and size, though it is unclear whether this sexual segregation is behavioural or habitat-linked. Within loughs, females exhibit strong philopatric behaviour to refuging sites, while males are wider ranging and less philopatric (Sims 2003). However, studies on the wider continental shelf are lacking.<br/><br/><em>S. canicula</em> is an oviparous species that deposits egg-cases protected by a horny capsule with long tendrils. These egg-cases are often deposited on macroalgae (e.g., <em>Fucus, Laminaria</em> and <em>Himanthalia</em>) in shallow coastal waters (Wheeler 1978, Compagno 1984, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1991). Further from shore, egg-cases are deposited on sessile erect invertebrates, including sponges, hydroids, soft corals and bryozoans (Ellis and Shackley 1997, Rodriguez-Cabello <em>et al</em>. 1998). Extrapolating egg-laying rates in captive specimens to a whole year provides an estimated fecundity of 29?62 eggs/year for Northeast Atlantic populations (Ellis and Shackley 1997). Capapé (1977) and Capapé <em>et al</em>. (1991) estimated annual fecundity at 96?115 and 45?190 respectively for Mediterranean populations. Fischer <em>et al</em>. (1987) estimated that females can deposit up to 100 eggs per year. Fecundity increases with maternal size (Capapé 1977, Ellis and Shackley 1997, Henderson and Casey 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning can take place almost all year round (Capapé 1977, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1991, Ellis and Shackley 1997), although there are seasonal patterns in spawning activity. In the northeast Atlantic, <em>S. canicula</em> has an annual cycle with a protracted 10?11 month breeding season (Ellis and Shackley 1997) In the Mediterranean Seathey breed annually from November to July, or possibly all year round (Capapé 1977).<br/><br/>Gestation lasts approximately 5?11 months (usually eight to nine months), depending on ambient water temperature, and the sex ratio of recently hatched fish is about 1:1 (Ellis and Shackley 1997). In the Northeast Atlantic, the gestation period has been estimated at five to six months (Ellis and Shackley 1997). Size at birth is 7?11 cm total length (TL) (Springer 1979, Ellis and Shackley 1997).<br/><br/>Size at maturity is reportedly 35 to 47 cm total length (TL) for females and 30?44 cm for males (Capapé 1977, Jardas 1979, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2002, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Northeast Atlantic, females reach maturity at 52?65 cm TL, and males at 49?55 cm TL (Ellis and Shackley 1997). Maximum size is reported at 80 cm TL by Ellis <em>et al</em>. (2005b) and Relini (1999), and at 100 cm by Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005). The species generally appears to grow to a larger size in the Atlantic than the Mediterranean (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>They feed on a variety of invertebrates (including polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs) and fishes (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1996).
161399		population	eng	Common throughout its range. This species is one of the most abundant elasmobranchs within the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>The EU-funded Development of Elasmobranch Assessments project (DELASS) concluded that <em>S. canicula</em> would be best assessed as forming local populations (e.g., on the level of an ICES division) because of the limited movements and migrations of the species and its oviparous nature, assuming that immigration and emigration from adjacent populations are either insignificant or on a par (Heessen 2003). Survey trends in most shelf seas (including the North Sea, northwest Scotland, Irish Sea, English Channel, Celtic Sea and Cantabrian Sea) seem stable (Heessen 2003, MacKenzie 2004, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b, ICES 2007). There may be many separate sub-populations of this species, due to its lack of migration between different areas, e.g. Hebrides and west coast of Scotland, southern North Sea and English Channel. Stocks around northern Scotland, particularly the Shetlands and the Hebrides, may be increasing in size (MacKenzie 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Data from the MEDITS trawl surveys indicates that this species is common in the Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). It had a high frequency of occurrence (28% of trawls) and high abundance in these trawl surveys, being particularly abundant in the Gulf of Lions and the Catalan and Aegean Seas. Maximum biomass indices were reported off northeast Corsica between 50 and 100 m depth (340 kg/km²) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Juveniles made up the main proportion of the population (78% of total population) sampled (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). Comparison between trawl surveys in 1948 and 1998 showed no significant differences in distribution and abundance of <em>S. canicula</em> in the Adriatic Sea (Juki?-Peladi? <em>et al</em>. 2001) although there is evidence of constant increasing of trawl fishing pressure. Fishery independent and fishery dependent data from the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas were compared by Abella and Serena (2002) to determine population trends. No clear trends were found and apparent discrepancies for this species were considered attributable to a shift in target species and the range of operation of the fishery.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Atlantic</strong>:<br/>This species is reported as the most frequent and abundant elasmobranch recorded at 25?300 m depth, and as common down to 400 m depth off Morocco and Sierra Leone (Litvinov 1993).
161399		threats	eng	This species is a moderately important commercial species in European waters, particularly around the British Isles. It is primarily taken by bottom trawls, but also fixed bottom nets and pelagic trawls (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Mostly taken as a bycatch in various demersal fisheries (especially trawl and gill net). In some areas larger specimens may be landed for human consumption or they may be landed as bait for whelk fisheries. They have a high survivorship when discarded from trawl fisheries. Revill <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported a 98% discard survival rate from a Western English channel trawl fishery and Rogriguez-Cabello <em>et al</em>. (2005) found a 90% survival rate for <em>S. canicula</em> discarded by commercial trawlers in the southern Bay of Biscay. Another study reports an almost 100% survival rate of released individuals of this species (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2000). <em>S. canicula</em> is frequently recorded misleadingly as ?dogfish? in fisheries landings data.<br/><br/>Although <em>S. canicula</em> has been reported to be locally extirpated from the Wadden Sea between the Netherlands and Germany (Wolff 2000a,b), this area is at the edge of the species? distribution. Therefore this localised depletion is not considered to have had a significant effect on the entire global population.<br/><br/>Portuguese official fisheries statistics for landings of <em>Scyliorhinus</em> spp (<em>S. canicula</em> and <em>S. stellaris)</em> in the Algarve (DGPA 1988-2001), show that average landings were 115,079 kg per year during the years 1988, 1989 and 1990, compared to averages of 154,820 kg per year during the years 1999, 2000 and 2001. These values show that there has been an increase of 34.5% in landings by the commercial fishing fleet of this genus in the Algarve during the last decade. However, this increase in landings could mean that there has been a great reduction in discards (DGPA 1988-2001). Only <em>S. canicula</em> were recorded during bottom longline and trammel net surveys off the Algarve (at depths of 200?550 m and 10?90 m, respectively) analysed by Erzini <em>et al</em>. (1998, 2001). No <em>S. stellaris</em> were reported in either of the surveys and therefore the huge majority of <em>Scyliorhinus</em> spp. landings from the Algarve are considered to be <em>S. canicula.</em><br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>Captured as bycatch in various demersal fisheries and retained for human consumption in some areas. For example, they are a commercially valuable species in Italy and only individuals <36 cm TL are discarded (Abella and Serena 2005). A semi-industrial fishery for this species operates in Spain, the Adriatic Sea, Sicily and Cyprus. Regularly found in fish markets in countries around the Adriatic Sea, Greece and Malta, where it is sold under the generic name of ?Mazzola?. Although demersal fishing pressure is intense in many parts of the species range in the Mediterranean, this species has a high post-discard survival rate. Local depletions may have occurred in some areas. Landings data from Malta indicate that catches fell from 1985?1995, but these may not be directly indicative of population trends.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Also taken as bycatch of demersal fisheries operating off the coast of western Africa, although little specific information is available from this area.
161400		conservation	eng	None. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed.
161400		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: widespread from Japan, southward to through the Yellow Sea to South China Sea; southern coast of Korean Peninsula; southward of Honshu of Japan (Ishihara 1990b, Jeong 1999).
161400		habitat	eng	A medium-sized skate, found at depths of 50?240 m. The species attains a maximum size of at least 75.7 cm TL (Ishihara 1990), but its biology is virtually unknown.
161400		population	eng	Unknown.
161400		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom trawl fisheries in the East China Sea and South China Sea, however no specific information is currently available on its capture. There is concern that the species may have declined, as it was historically (>10 years ago) commonly found on Korean fish markets, but nowadays very few are marketed (C.H. Jeong unpublished data). However no information is currently available on the level of decline and further investigation is required into threats, catch levels and population trends.
161401		conservation	eng	Stingrays are banned as a commercial target species in New Zealand (Francis 1998). Bycatch levels should be quantified and population trends should be monitored.
161401		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean to west Pacific: South Africa, Mozambique (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), southern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994), and North Island, New Zealand (Cox and Francis 1997).
161401		habitat	eng	A large demersal species commonly found inshore (Last and Stevens 1994) but reported to 440 m depth (Cox and Francis 1997). This species is found on soft bottoms in estuaries, lagoons and around reefs (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Thorntail Stingray feeds on crabs, mantis shrimps, bivalves, polychaetes and conger eels and reaches a maximum size of at least 180 cm disc width and 400 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).
161401		population	eng	A relatively common stingray in New Zealand, but nothing is known about population trends.
161401		threats	eng	This species is taken occasionally by recreational fishers and as bycatch of trawl, hook and net fisheries across its range, but the extent of the catch is unknown, although likely to be small. Most are likely to be discarded, although some are retained for local markets. Post capture survival is unknown. A common bycatch in Australia, where it may be persecuted by fishermen and therefore returned to the water dead. It is vulnerable to gill net and trawl fisheries operating in shallow coastal waters of New Zealand. Between 1986 and 1997 less than 15 tonnes of landings annually (combined catch with <em>D. brevicaudata</em>) were reported in New Zealand (Francis 1998), but this does not include unreported discards.
161402		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Monitoring of catch levels and population trends is required.
161402		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Bering Skate (<em>Rhinoraja interrupta</em>) is poorly known outside the eastern Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. It may occur in the Aleutian Islands and elsewhere in the North Pacific (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>, 2002), but records of this species outside this area are unclear due to confusion with the sandpaper skate, <em>B. kincaidii</em> (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data).
161402		habitat	eng	<em></em>The Bering Skate is found in waters less than 1,372 m (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002) but little else is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. The species attains a maximum size of 86 cm TL (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002). Size at birth is ~16 cm TL and reproduction is continuous (Ebert 2005). Females mature at 70 cm TL and 7.5 years of age; males at 67 cm TL and 7 years of age (Ebert 2005, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2007). Longevity is 12 years in males and 13 years in females (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2007). Population growth rates suggest moderate growth potential which makes this species appear to be somewhat resilient (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161402		population	eng	Unknown.
161402		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in groundfish fisheries in the upper part of its bathymetric range. Given that it has a wide bathymetric distribution that extends well below the depths currently fished, it is not thought to be threatened by fishing activities at present.
161403		conservation	eng	No current conservation measures are known.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require close monitoring. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161403		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific to northeast Pacific: Japan along the Kuril Islands, Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea (Russia) to the Chukchi Sea and southward to southern California (USA), and Baja California (Mexico) (Ebert, 2003). Also, recently found off Taiwan (Wang and Yang 2004). Its distribution above the Arctic Circle is unclear and may be misidentified with <em>S. microcephalus</em>. There are some records from off central Chile (Brito 2004) and Uruguay (de Asarloa <em>et al.</em> 1999), however these are probably misidentifications. Large sleeper sharks identified as this species from the southern hemisphere are most likely that of <em>S. antarcticus</em> (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Hulbert <em>et al.</em> (2006) studied the depth and movement behaviour of this species in the Northeast Pacific Ocean using electronic and numerical tagging. Most tags recovered (76%) were within 100 km of release locations, 16% were within 100–250 km and 8% were within 250–500 km.
161403		habitat	eng	A boreal and temperate shark found over continental shelves and slopes. At high latitudes with cold surface waters it ranges into the littoral and even the intertidal (one large individual was found trapped in a tide pool) as well as the surface; however in lower latitudes with temperate water it becomes a deep-water, epibenthic shark, never coming to the surface and ranging down to at least 2,000 m in the extreme southern end of its range (off southern California and Baja California) (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Archived depth data from recent tagging studies in the Northeast Pacific showed some sleeper sharks regularly ascended and descended at rates over 200 meters per hour, traveling below the photic zone during the day and approaching the surface at night (Hulbert <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Development is yolk-sac viviparity, but pregnant females have yet to be found, and for some reason are rare, as in the closely related Greenland shark (<em>S. microcephalus</em>). This is possibly due to segregation of pregnant females beyond the usual fisheries gear that capture these sharks or extremely low fecundity, with a small fraction of adult females pregnant at any one time. Although female sharks with ovaries containing over 300 large unfertilized eggs and many small undeveloped ova have been captured in trawls off Moss Landing and Trinidad, California (Gotshall and Jow 1965, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987). Size at birth is between 40–65 cm TL suggesting that fecundity may indeed be high for this species given the enormous size of the females. Neonates have been taken in midwater trawls indiciating that they occupy this habitat early in life before taking up a more demersal lifestyle (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Mature Pacific Sleeper Sharks have not been reported from the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands or the Gulf of Alaska, but we know of observers who have seen very large Sleeper Sharks, but they are usually just discarded.<br/><br/>The species attains a maximum length of at least 440 cm with unconfirmed records of up to 700 cm total length (TL) or more (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987, Ebert 2003). Adult females are 370–430 cm TL and larger individuals estimated at 700 cm TL or more have been photographed in deep water (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987, Yano <em>et al.</em> 2007). Males are mature by at least 397 cm TL (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>These sharks feed on a wide variety of surface and bottom animals, including flatfish, Pacific salmon, rockfish, harbor seals, octopi, squid, crabs, tritons, and carrion. It is not known if seals and fast-swimming pelagic fish such as salmon are captured alive by these lumbering, sluggish sharks or are picked up as carrion. The small mouths and long heads and oral cavities of these sharks suggest that they are powerful suction feeders, but this has yet to be observed. Pacific sleeper sharks commonly are attracted to traps set at great depths for sablefish (<em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em>), and get trapped themselves or else eat catch and bait-can and escape (Ebert 2003, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987).
161403		population	eng	Biomass estimates are available from the results of bottom trawl surveys in the Bering Sea, off the Aleutians and Gulf of Alaska no deeper than 1,000 m (i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range, where mainly juvenile Pacific sleeper sharks occur). In Alaska, sharks of 1.5–2.5 m are most common (e.g., Sigler <em>et al</em>. 2006) and sharks as large as 4.3 m have been caught (Orlov 1999). Data from the Gulf of Alaska and eastern Bering Sea are not robust enough to make statement about population numbers or changes in actual population size. The short-term fluctuations in biomass trend data presented herein are too large to represent trends in overall shark population biomass, but may be a result of sampling vagaries and/or population movements (i.e. changes in local density) rather than actual changes in population size, and could indicate changes in catchability.<br/><br/>Biomass apparently increased in the western Bering Sea from 1,170 mt in 1999 to 87,500 mt in 2002 (Glebov <em>et al.</em> 2003). On the eastern Bering Sea shelf, Pacific sleeper sharks were not well documented in survey catch until the mid-1990s. Biomass in 1999 was estimated at 2,079 mt and increased to 5,602 mt in 2002. However, biomass estimates have decreased since then and were down to 2,944 mt in 2006 (Heifetz <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>On the slope of the eastern Bering Sea no Pacific sleeper sharks were recorded in 1979 or 1981. In 1982 biomass was estimated at 12 mt and increased steadily through 1991 when the estimate was 1,235 mt. A new slope survey initiated in 2002 showed a very large biomass of sleeper sharks (25,445 mt in 2002, but dramatically decreased down to 2,260 mt in 2004 (Heifetz <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>No Pacific Sleeper Sharks were caught off the Aleutians in 1980. In 1983 biomass constituted about 254 mt. Biomass estimates slowly increased through 1991 when biomass was estimated to be 2,927 mt, but then sharply decreased in 1994 to just over 373 mt. Biomass estimates fluctuated from 1997 through 2004 with the highest biomass estimate being 2,638 mt in 2000 and the lowest estimate being 536 mt in 2002. The 2005 biomass estimate increased to 1,017 mt, and subsequently decreased down to 76 mt in 2006 (Heifetz <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, as previously stated above, large short-term biomass fluctuations may be a result of sampling vagaries and/or population movements (i.e. changes in local density) rather than actual changes in population size.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Alaska biomass in 1984 was estimated as 163 mt. Since then it demonstrates gradual upward trend and reached 57,022 mt in 2005 (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2006b).
161403		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in several fisheries and usually discarded. It is notably affected by bottom trawl fisheries in the western Bering Sea (Orlov 2005), by longline fisheries for sablefish and Pacific halibut in the eastern North Pacific (Courtney <em>et al</em>. 2006a, b). Incidental catch in US waters in 2006 was 435 mt, in some years it has reached ~ 1,400 mt (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2006a, b).<br/><br/>From 1997–2001 in the Bering Sea Aleutian Islands area, Pacific sleeper sharks were caught primarily by the Pacific cod longline fishery (30%), walleye pollock pelagic trawl fishery (26%), Greenland turbot longline fishery (17%), flatfish trawl fishery (12%), and sablefish longline fishery (10%). From 1997–2002 in the Bering Sea Aleutian Islands area, Pacific sleeper sharks were caught primarily in two statistical areas, which made up 57% and 20% of the total sleeper shark catch. There has been an increasing trend in catch of Pacific sleeper sharks from two statistical areas in the eastern Bering Sea between 1997-2002, however, this may reflect a change in fishing effort as opposed to any increase in the population size.<br/><br/>Fisheries in the western Bering Sea catch mainly juveniles of this species, present at shallower depths than adults. Greater depths that are not currently fished may provide some refuge for adult Pacific sleeper sharks, however the situation should be monitored.
161404		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific measures in place for this species. <br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>The below restrictions are in place within the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) in recent years, which may benefit this species:<br/><br/>Since 2003, vessels are required to land both the livers and carcasses of all dogfishes to enable accurate landing information to be recorded.<br/>Since 2007, SESS Fishery was closed below 700 m to prevent targeting of deepwater species (see schedule 20 in the <a href="http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/LegislativeInstrument1.nsf/0/44D2415A87343CBFCA257309000CE12A?OpenDocument">Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (closures) direction 2007</a>).
161404		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: known from Philippines, Indonesia and warm-temperate to tropical Australia (Last <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161404		habitat	eng	Demersal on the continental slope at depths of 154?1,370 m. In Indonesia, attains at least 101 cm; males mature at 62?67 cm and females at ~80 cm; largest embryo observed was 24 cm. Viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency; gives birth to litters of 4?16 pups after an unknown gestation period. Diet consists primarily of small fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>In southeast Australia, mature at ~65?70 cm TL (males), 80?82 cm TL (females), and have between seven and ten pups/litter (K. Graham pers. comm.). Maximum size ~81 cm TL (males) and 96 cm TL (females) (Last et al. 2007). The species is ovoviviparous with size at birth ~25 cm TL (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Across all populations the gestation period may be up to two years (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Maximum ages recorded from counting bands on dorsal fin spines (assuming annual bands) were 18 years (males) and 27 years (females) (Last et al. 2007). It reaches a maximum size of at least 96 cm TL (males) and ~125 cm TL (females) and size at birth is ~21?30 cm TL (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
161404		population	eng	Documented declines of approximately 97% of ?greeneye dogsharks? between 1976?77 and 1996?97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo I. area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) were reported from a fishery independent survey (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Total catches in the abovementioned areas at depths of 220?605 m declined from a mean of 44.8 kg/h in 1976/77 to a mean of 1.2 kg/h in 1996-97 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is likely that <em>Squalus chloroculus</em>, <em>S. montalbani</em> and <em>S. grahami</em> were all caught during these surveys (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007). It is possible that <em>S. montalbani </em>was the worse affected of the species off Sydney and Ulladulla. In the Eden-Gabo Island area, only a single <em>S. montalbani </em>was caught in 1996?97. Elsewhere, no data are available on population trends. No specific information is available on population trends throughout the rest of the species? range, but there is no reason to suspect that similar declines will not occur in other areas of high exploitation.
161404		threats	eng	A small number of vessels targeted dogfish (mainly <em>Centrophorus</em> ?<em>uyato</em>? with a significant bycatch of <em>Squalus montalbani</em>) out of Esperance, Western Australia (WA) during the mid-1990s for squalene (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). This fishery was short-lived, due to dramatic declines in catch rates after two to three years, and had all but ceased by 1999 (R. McAuley pers. comm.). Catches were not reported to species level thus precise trends in <em>S. montalbani</em> catch rates cannot be determined. However, given the fate of the target stock and the similar life-history characteristics of <em>S. montalbani</em>, it is likely that the stock was impacted to some degree. There is currently a negligible catch of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. montalbani</span> in the WA demersal gillnet fisheries, as its range is outside that of the fleet. There may be some continuing bycatch in the Commonwealth-managed trawl fishery (small quantities are sold in Australia under the marketing name of ?Greeneye Dogfish?).<br/><br/>Also caught commonly by demersal longline fisheries operating in deepwater in some parts of Indonesia and the Philippines. Although at present, deepwater fisheries are not operating below 600 m off Indonesia, this is unlikely to be the case for much longer (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Future expansion of Indonesian deepwater fisheries for squaloid sharks is highly likely, and there is already anecdotal evidence to suggest squaloid shark catches have declined rapidly in the last ten or more years at one landing site, Cilacap, despite it being only a relatively restricted fishery (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species has a wide depth range, offering it some refuge from fisheries off Indonesia, Philippines,parts of Western Australia and at the deeper extent of its depth range at present.<br/><br/>The deep-sea fisheries resources of the Philippines are in many cases uncharted and unknown, and are believed to be relatively underexploited, however, dogfish sharks do have a documented history of wide-scale exploitation off this country, being targeted for their liver oil (Flores 2004, Gaudiano and Alava 2003). Fishing for dogfishes for their live oil began in 1967 in San Joaquin, Iloilo, and subsequently expanded and developed into nationwide fisheries. Mostly <em>Centrophorus</em> species are caught, but Squalus species also form part of the catch. They are mainly taken using bottomset multiple hook-and-line (Flores 2004). These fisheries appear to follow a typical ?boom and bust? cycle, with heavy, unregulated exploitation resulting in increasing initial catches followed by collapse after about ten years (Flores 2004). Fisheries following this pattern have been conducted in Batangas Bay, waters off Marinduque and as far south as Sarangani Bay, and the Mindanao area (Flores 2004).
161405		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Research is required on life-history, abundance, interaction with and impact of fisheries and population trends.
161405		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Kenya to South Africa (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1989).
161405		habitat	eng	Found offshore at depths of 68?348 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno unpublished data). The maximum total length recorded for this species is 127 cm for a male specimen (Compagno 1986).
161405		population	eng	Reported as rare by Compagno <em>et al.</em> (1989), although it was recorded in >70% of the shallowest research stations (100?200 m depth) surveyed during recent scientific demersal trawl surveys (between 10th March and 10th April 2007) in waters off Mozambique at 100?700 m depth (Baro <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161405		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries, although no specific information is available on its capture. Industrial offshore trawl fisheries targeting crustaceans, squid and fish operate off South Africa, Kenya and Mozambique (WIOFISH 2008). There are little published data on shark catches within the industrialised or semi-industrialised fisheries of Mozambique (AMAR/EOTH 2007). The prawn trawling industry produced a large bycatch of demersal sharks and rays in Mozambique, with approximately 1,500 metric tons of elasmobranch fishes caught as a prawn fishery bycatch in 1994 (AMAR/EOTH 2007). <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. have been the main elasmobranch group accidentally caught in this fishery (AMAR/EOTH 2007). Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are now required in Mozambique trawl fisheries, which may have reduced bycatch of elasmobranch species, however, in practice uptake of this equipment has been low (S. Pierce pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).
161406		conservation	eng	None currently in place.
161406		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: Taiwan, Province of China and Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b). This species does not occur off southern Japan (K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).
161406		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling catshark of the continental shelves, found on muddy sediments offshore at depths of 60–90 m in the Taiwan Strait and possibly deeper elsewhere (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005b). The species is caught at 100–200 m depth around Guei Shan Island, Taiwan (Chen<em> et al.</em> 1996). Males mature at 35–36 cm total length (TL), females mature at 41–42 cm TL (both 50% maturity) and the species reaches a maximum size of about 46 cm TL (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1996). Reproduction is oviparous, with no more than one egg case per oviduct at the same time measuring about 3.9 x 1.5 cm (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species does not have a well defined reproductive season.
161406		population	eng	The species is very common around Guei Shan Island (Taiwan).
161406		threats	eng	This species is a retained bycatch of bottom trawlers operating off Taiwan and presumably in other parts of its range (Compagno 1984, S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). It is a large component year-round of the incidental catch of shrimp bottom trawlers off Taiwan and is frequently observed in Tachi and Nan Fang Hao fish markets. It is used with all other bycatch species (bony fishes, chondrichthyan fishes, crustaceans), as fish-meal for aquaculture farming of fishes and shrimps. It is caught by trawl with meshes about 2–4 cm diameter, so adults and most juveniles are retained by the trawl (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>It has been observed at fish markets in the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a) and is presumably a bycatch of demersal trawls there also, although no information is available on catches. Demersal trawls were the main fishing gear used in the Philippines for demersal fishes from the late 1940s until the mid-1980s (FAO 2007). Despite the continued expansion of the commercial fishing fleet, total fish catch reached a plateau at around 1.65 million tonnes in the early 1990s. It is thought that the country’s demersal fish stocks reached a peak as early as the late 1960s, except in the offshore hard bottoms around Palawan, Southern Sulu Sea and the central part of the country’s Pacific coast (FAO 2007). As a result of increases in fuel prices and depletion of demersal resources, trawl operations reduced and have been replaced in part by other fishing methods (FAO 2007).
161407		conservation	eng	No conservation measures presently in place and none are recommended at this time.
161407		distribution	eng	Northwest, western central and southwest Pacific: off Australia, New Zealand, Taiwan, Province of China, and Japan. Possibly western Indian Ocean off Mozambique (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).
161407		habitat	eng	Found on outer continental and insular shelves, upper slopes, on or near bottom, at depths of 238–655 m. Adults reach ~46 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161407		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population.
161407		threats	eng	None known at the present time. Occasionally taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries, but generally too small to be taken in other fisheries.
161408		conservation	eng	There are several marine protected areas throughout the species? range (Wood 2007). However, there are no species-specific management measures. Research is ongoing on this species in Omani waters.
161408		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: confirmed reports from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Oman only, but likely occurring off the adjacent coastlines of the Gulf of Aden and Northwestern Arabian Sea (Randall and Compagno 1995). Unconfirmed reports from the Mediterranean Sea (Ben-Tuvia 1966, Ben Souissi <em>et al</em>. 2007), and the coasts of India, Myanmar, Philippines, Vietnam, China, Australia, and West Africa (Fowler 1941).
161408		habitat	eng	Off Oman, juveniles and adults are apparently found in shallow (<5 m) inshore waters, mainly sheltered bays (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). The young of this species appear to stay in very shallow water, sometimes allowing the breakers to wash them up onto the beach (almost completely out of the water), before sliding back down into the water (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is exhibits aplacental viviparity (Compagno 1990). Maximum size is 171 cm total length (TL) (Gohar and Mazhar 1964). Females aggregate in the northwestern Red Sea from May to October give birth in shallow, sandy habitat (Gohar and Mazhar 1964). Females give birth to ?10 pups per litter. Size at birth is about 29 cm TL (Gohar and Mazhar 1964) (Gohar and Mazhar 1964).
161408		population	eng	Common in the northwestern Red Sea during the pupping season, from May to October (Gohar and Mazhar 1964). Frequent misidentification complicates any inference of relative population size. Elasmobranch research has been very limited so far within the northern Indian Ocean (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161408		threats	eng	A target and utilized bycatch in fisheries, but the amount of catch relative to stock size is not known (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Aggregation behavior during spawning may make this species particularly vulnerable to exploitation.<br/><br/>Off Saudi Arabia, in the Red Sea, artisanal fisheries production is almost entirely from handline and gillnet methods, while the industrial fleet utilizes fish and shrimp trawl nets and purse seine nets (FAO 2007). The industrial vessels operating in the Red Sea utilize trawl nets to target both demersal fish stocks and shrimp, with the majority of these vessels belong to Saudi Fisheries Company and operate out of Jizan on the southern Red Sea coast (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Oman has a long established traditional shark fishery, which has experienced increased demand in recent years due to the shark fin trade (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). In Omani waters, elasmobranchs are mainly captured by artisanal fishermen using wooden dhows and fiberglass skiffs with bottom-set longlines, bottom-set gillnets and driftnets (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). The majority of fishing takes place in water shallower than 100 m and is therefore confined to inshore areas (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007). The presence of this species in shallow inshore areas would seem to put them at risk of capture in fisheries, but fishermen in Oman prefer to focus their fishing efforts in deeper waters where they catch grouper and other more valuable species (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). The fishermen operating in shallow coastal waters tend to surface-gillnet around reefs, or cast net for sardines and similar species, so the this species doesn't appear to be under much pressure in Oman (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). It is taken as incidental bycatch in Oman, and these catches appear to be limited to the Gulf of Oman (from Musandam in the north, to Muscat) (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). Landings of this species reported in (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007) all came from a single haul, thus artificially elevating the species' importance in the landings for that region.
161409		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Recommended: Efforts should be made to quantify catch levels and determine population trends, which will require capacity-building, education and training programmes. Measures to protect and restore this species habitat would also be beneficial, such as identification and management of Marine Protected Areas to conserve nursery grounds. Research is needed on the species? life-history characteristics. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region.<br/><br/>A seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species. Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure impacting this species.
161409		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Morocco to southern Angola (Séret in press). A record from Namibia requires confirmation (Séret in press).
161409		habitat	eng	An inshore guitarfish occurring in shallow coastal waters to about 30 m depth (Séret in press). Maximum size is 100 cm total length (TL) and the species commonly reaches 60?66 cm TL (Séret in press). Males mature at about 42 cm TL. Ovoviviparous with litters of 1?3 pups. Feed on benthic invertebrates mainly shrimps (Séret in press).
161409		population	eng	It has never been abundant but nowadays it has become evidently rare, taken in fisheries on an increasingly rare basis (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).
161409		threats	eng	This species is captured by bottom trawls, trammelnets and hook-and-line, like other rhinobatids in this region. It is taken as bycatch in such fisheries throughout its range. Inshore fishing pressure is intensive throughout its range along the western coast of Africa. The small-scale fisheries that originally exploited elasmobranchs off western Africa in the 1950s have undergone huge development during the past 20 years in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear. Interviews with fishermen and traders strongly suggest that the shark fin trade is financing the overexploitation of shark resources and leading to declining catches throughout Africa (WildAid 2001, Walker <em>et al. </em>2005). <em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006). The targeting of these species for their fins has already led to population declines in several similar species of elasmobranchs (including <em>R. cemiculus</em> and <em>R. rhinobatos</em>), the extirpation of some Pristis species, and a significant transformation in the structure of small-scale fisheries (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005). Extensive coastal shrimp trawl fisheries for pink shrimp <em>Paenus notialis</em> are also known to operate off Cameroon and Benin (IGGC 2007b). This species is likely taken as bycatch of these and other trawl fisheries that operate within its inshore range. <br/><br/>As well as over-exploitation by fisheries, this species coastal habitat is threatened by degradation and destruction through coastal development, pollution (residential, agricultural, hydrocarbon and heavy metals) and mangrove deforestation (IGGC 2007a,b). In Ghana, 55% of the mangroves and significant marshlands around the greater Accra area has been destroyed through pollution and overcutting. In Benin, the figure is 45% in the Lake Nouake area, in Nigeria, 33% in the Niger Delta, in Cameroon, 28% in the wouri Estuary and in Côte d'Ivoire, about 60% in the bay of Cocody (IGGC 2007b).<br/><br/>Serious declines have been documented in other <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp where they are heavily fished. These include, <em>Rhinobatos rhinobatos</em> and <em>R. cemiculus</em> which occur in the Mediterranean Sea along the western African coast, and are both assessed as Endangered, based on observed and inferred population declines as a result of targeted and incidental fishing pressure.
161410		conservation	eng	None in place.
161410		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: known only from Java, Bali and Lombok, and possibly Sumatra (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161410		habitat	eng	Presumably found on or near the bottom of upper continental and insular slopes, but no depth information available; probably occurs in shallower water than other members of the genus but likely to be deeper than 100 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006, 2007). Viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency; gives birth to litters of three to ten pups after an unknown gestation period. Diet unknown but presumably consists of small fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Females and males reach at least 78 cm and 52.2 cm total length (TL) respectively (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is 14?17.5 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Braccini (2006) found that female <em>S. megalops</em> matured around 20 years and attain 28 years of age. Generation period for <em>S. megalops</em> was estimated at 24 years using these data and the formula; age of maturity + 0.5*(length of reproductive period in life cycle). As <em>S. hemipinnis</em> and <em>S. megalops</em> are similar species (W. White pers. obs. 2007) this provides a rough approximation of a potential generation period for <em>S. hemipinnis</em>.
161410		population	eng	Can be an extremely common catch of deepwater longliners.
161410		threats	eng	This species is a very common catch component of demersal longline fisheries operating in the deepwater areas off eastern Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Utilised for its flesh, fins and liver oil (high value).<br/><br/>Currently deepwater fishing in Indonesia is restricted to a relatively small number of locations, but this is likely to change in the future. Deepwater fisheries operate to 600 m depth off Indonesia at present (2007), but this is unlikely to be the case for much longer (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Future expansion of Indonesian deepwater fisheries for squaloid sharks is highly likely, and there is already anecdotal evidence to suggest squaloid shark catches have declined rapidly in the last ten or more years at one landing site, Cilacap, despite it being only a relatively restricted fishery (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is no deepwater trawling in this area where this species occurs, but if this was to change in the future it would need to be monitored. As this species is apparently endemic to Indonesia, there would be no refuge from fishing pressure available to it if deepwater fishing practices develop throughout Indonesia in the future.<br/><br/>Other <em>Squalus</em> species have proved vulnerable to population depletion. For example, fishery independent surveys have documented declines of ~97% between 1976/77 and 1996/97 for other species of <em>Squalus</em> in a heavily fished area off southern New South Wales, Australia (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001).
161411		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Research is needed to assess population trends and capture in fisheries, and other threats to this species.
161411		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic and southeast Atlantic: occurs from Senegal to Angola (Capapé and Desoutter 1990).
161411		habitat	eng	This species is found from shallow coastal waters to 50 m depth, on sandy and/or muddy bottoms (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and in the vicinity of estuaries.<br/><br/>Females mature at a larger size than males, at around 35 and 31.5 cm total length (TL) respectively (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).The largest female has been reported at 50 cm TL and the largest male at 38.2 cm TL (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Fully-developed foetuses observed in an adult female allow an estimate of the size at birth of 9.2 to 9.6 cm TL (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>Ovulation probably occurred in May-June and parturition in August or September and consequently, gestation could last four or five months and the reproductive cycle one year (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The phenomenon of occyte growth being blocked during gestation until parturition has been observed in T. Mackayana as in other Torpedos (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>Uterine fecundity ranged from six to 15 and ovarian and uterine fecundity were found to be correlated with the size of females (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
161411		population	eng	Unknown.
161411		threats	eng	Presumably taken as bycatch in demersal fisheries operating within its range, including trawls and trammel nets, although no specific information is available on its capture. Intensive artisanal fisheries and industrial trawl fisheries operate within this species? costal range and although torpedo rays are of little commercial value, they still suffer fishing mortality as bycatch. Fisheries off western Africa have undergone huge development during the past 20 years in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). Parts of the species? coastal habitat is also threatened by degradation and destruction through coastal development, pollution (residential, agricultural, hydrocarbon and heavy metals) and mangrove deforestation (IGGC 2007a,b).
161412		conservation	eng	None in place. Bycatch levels and mortality in fisheries should be quantified and the population monitored. Further information is required on life-history parameters and the level of impact of fisheries on this species.
161412		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: only found in the waters off the southern Izu Peninsula off Shirahama, Southeast Honshu, Japan (K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007, Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).
161412		habitat	eng	Found at depths of 100–317 m (S. Tanaka pers. obs 2007, Shirai <em>et al. </em>1992). Hagiwara (1993) reported data on the biology from sharks bred in captivity. Reproduction is oviparous with a single egg-case in each oviduct. Females reach maturity at 35–38 cm total length (TL) and males at 35–41 cm TL and reach a maximum size of 41 cm TL (Hagiwara 1993, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species spawns all year round in captivity, with mating observed in March and June (Hagiwara 1993). Eggcases measure ~4.5 cm long. Apparently reaches maturity in five years or less (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Feeds on small bottom worms, crustaceans and bivalves (Shirai <em>et al.</em> 1992).
161412		population	eng	No information available.
161412		threats	eng	Taken as unutilized bycatch in gill net fisheries for flounders but no further data are available at this time. Information is required on bycatch, the depths fished, and fishing mortality.
161413		conservation	eng	None in place.
161413		distribution	eng	Western Pacific: one record in the South China Sea off China (in an area east of Hainan Island and south of Hong Kong) at 18°40' to 19°32'N, 112°31' to 113°57'E (Compagno in prep).
161413		habitat	eng	Found on continental slope at a depth of 520 m (Compagno in prep). Distance off the bottom is unknown (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), presumably oceanic or semioceanic. The only known specimen was 44 cm total length (Compagno in prep). Nothing else is known of the biology.
161413		population	eng	Known only from one specimen (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005)
161413		threats	eng	Unknown. The species is not recorded from fisheries catches as far as known (Compagno in prep).
161414		conservation	eng	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.
161414		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: found all along the New Zealand continental slope including the Chatham Rise, Challenger Plateau, Bounty Plateau, and northern Campbell Plateau, and also on the southern Lord Howe Rise (Last and McEachran 2006).
161414		habitat	eng	The biology of <em>Brochiraja leviveneta</em> is virtually unknown. The species is concentrated at depths of 900–1,100 m but extends from 300–1,200 m. <em>B. leviveneta</em> attains at least 51 cm TL (Last and McEachran 2006). Oviparous, like other skates.
161414		population	eng	Uncommon.
161414		threats	eng	<em>B. leviveneta</em> is taken as occasional trawl bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities across its range by deepwater trawl fisheries for orange roughy, oreos and hoki. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently. The species may be declining in some parts of its range, but it is widespread throughout New Zealand (Last and McEachran 2006) and parts of its range are not intensively fished.
161416		conservation	eng	None in place. <br/><br/>Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161416		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: South Carolina to Florida Keys, USA (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161416		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species of skate known from the upper to middle slope at depths of 293–896 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum length reported to 29.4 cm TL (McEachran and Matheson 1985). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, as in other skates. Little else is known of the biology of this species.
161416		population	eng	No information is available on population.
161416		threats	eng	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries. Possible bycatch of deepwater fisheries in parts of its range.
161417		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. A new shark monitoring log-sheet was introduced by the Seychelles Fishing Authority in August 2004 aimed at assessing the stocks of sharks fished locally and identifying the various species caught (Anon 2005).<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161417		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the holotype and paratype collected off Alphonse Island, Republic of Seychelles (Baranes 2003).
161417		habitat	eng	The holotype (female; 65.2 cm TL) and paratype (male; 79.7 cm TL) were collected by trammel net at 1,000 m depth off Alphonse Island (Baranes 2003). Appears to display sexual dimorphism in snout length and shape of the upper jaw teeth (Baranes 2003). Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161417		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype. May be endemic to the region but population size is unknown.
161417		threats	eng	The depth distribution of the species is little known and it is highly probable that <em>C. seychellorum</em> has been caught by Seychellois fishermen without their knowledge that it was a new species (Anon 2005). Given the species’ apparently narrow range, the limited life history characteristics of Centrophorus species and the vulnerability of other <em>Centrophorus</em> species to rapid population depletion in fisheries, any bycatch is of concern. (For example, intensive trawl fishing on the slope off New South Wales, Australia, rapidly depleted stocks of similar species there (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001)). Although some trial deepsea fishing has been conducted in the Seychelles to date, there are apparently no commercial fisheries targeting resources below 600 m at present (M. Isidore pers. comm. 2007).
161418		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific management plan in place for the little skate. In the USA, there is a framework that could implement restrictions to the fishery if biomass levels fall below threshold levels (NEFMC 2003).<br/><br/>Recommendations for future conservation action: Enforce U.S. species-specific landings reporting requirements and increase scientific research and government sea sampling attention to skates; begin developing estimates for target and limit reference points; reduce discard mortality by encouraging and/or mandating more careful handling and discard techniques.
161418		distribution	eng	Northwest Atlantic: occasionally from the Grand Banks and northeast Newfoundland, more common on the Scotian Shelf in Canada, south to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, USA (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Richards <em>et al</em>. 1963, McEachran and Musick 1977, Michalopoulos 1990).
161418		habitat	eng	Habitat ranges from shallow shoal waters to 90 m depth, usually on sandy or gravelly substrates. This species reaches a maximum size of 60 cm total length (TL) (Johnson 1979). Males and females mature at 35?50 cm TL and size at birth is 9.3?10.2 cm TL (McEachran 2002, Richards <em>et al. </em>1963). Females produce 28?33 eggs per year after a gestation period of 9?12 months (Richards <em>et al</em>. 1963, Johnson 1979).<br/><br/>Little Skates make no extensive migrations, although where it occurs inshore the species moves onshore and offshore with seasonal temperature changes (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). Common prey items include hermit and other crabs, shrimps, worms, amphipods, ascidians (sea squirts), bivalve mollusks, squid, small fishes, and even some copepods (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002).
161418		population	eng	The Little Skate (<em>Leucoraja erinacea</em>) is distributed from Nova Scotia, Canada to Cape Hatteras, USA and is one of the dominant members of the demersal fish community in the USA portion of the Northwest Atlantic (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Richards <em>et al</em>. 1963, McEachran and Musick 1977, Michalopoulos 1990). Its center of abundance appears to be the northern section of the mid-Atlantic Bight and on Georges Bank, where it is found year-round (McEachran and Musick 1977). In fact, survey estimates since 1997 have been and continue to be the highest on record for little skates. The 1999?2001 three-year average of 8.47 kg/tow is well above the proposed biomass threshold of 3.27 kg/tow and even above the proposed biomass target. Due to the overall increases in little skate biomass over the last 20 years which was at its highest level (NEFSC 2000). However, recent trawl surveys (2006) conducted by the National Marine Fisheries surface suggest that the little skate is near the overfishing threshold (18.7 vs. 20%) and will likely be above the threshold as of 2007. It is also near the minimum biomass threshold (3.32 vs. 3.27 kg/tow) and may become overfished (NEFMC 2007).
161418		threats	eng	The principal threat to Little Skate is over-exploitation from commercial fishing and bycatch. Otter trawls are the primary fishing method associated with direct and indirect Little Skate catch. Recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total USA fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In US waters, a directed fishery exists for little skates in Rhode Island for utilization primarily as lobster bait. However, vessels from other ports (New Bedford, and Martha?s Vineyard, Massachusetts (MA); Block Island, Long Island, and, to a lesser degree, Chatham and Provincetown, MA) have been identified as participating in the directed skate bait fishery to some extent (NEFMC 2001). The time series of skate landings shows a significant increase in landings in the 1990s (6,700 mt in 1989, about 11,400 mt annually from 1990 to present). Fishermen and state fisheries managers attribute the increase in skate landings in 1990 to better reporting and documentation, rather than a significant expansion of the skate fishery. Total recreational landings for little skate varied between <1,000 and 56,000 fish, equivalent to <1?15 mt, during 1981 to 1998 (Packer <em>et al</em>. 2003).
161419		conservation	eng	There are currently no regulations or conservation actions in place for the Rosette Skate. Rosette Skate is not considered to be overfished (NFSC 2000a, b).
161419		distribution	eng	The Rosette Skate occurs from Nantucket Shoals to the Dry Tortugas, Florida (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953a,b; Bullis and Thompson 1965, McEachran and Musick 1975, McEachran 1977, Stehmann and McEachran 1978). In the Straits of Florida it is found on Pourtates Terrace (Staiger 1970).
161419		habitat	eng	The Rosette Skate is found on soft substrates, including sand to mud bottoms at depths of 33?530 m and is most common between 74 and 274 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Bullis and Thompson 1965, Schroeder 1955, Struhsaker 1969, McEachran and Musick 1975). Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) reported its temperature range as 5.3?15°C. Although some suggestions have been made that the species moves inshore during the summer there is not enough data to evaluate seasonal differences in distribution related to depth and temperature. Size at maturity is reported for males and females combined, at 33.5?43.9 cm TL north of Cape Hatteras (McEachran 1977) and 25.0?31.4cm TL south of Cape Hatteras (McEachran 1977). Maximum observed size is 57 cm TL (Packer<em> et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>McEachran (1977) reported that maximum size and size at maturity increase with latitude. The major food sources are similar to that of the other western Atlantic skate species being comprised of shrimp (<em>C. septemspinosa</em>), Cancer and galatheoid crabs, amphipods, polychaetes, copepods, cumaceans, squids, octopods, and small fish (Stehmann and McEachran 1978, Bowman <em>et al</em>. 2000).
161419		population	eng	Historically, Schroeder (1955) reported the Rosette Skate to be fairly abundant from the eastern slope of Georges Bank to Cape Charles, Virginia while Struhsaker (1969) found it to be very abundant along the outer continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to Florida. As mentioned in the taxonomic notes that these reports may actually come from two distinct species. Currently there is very little information on the populations south of Cape Hatteras. However, NEFSC spring and fall groundfish surveys from Cape Hatteras to the northern edge of the rosette skates range have shown an increasing trend in biomass indices since 1967 (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003, NEFMC 2006).
161419		threats	eng	Skates are commonly taken as bycatch in groundfish trawling, scallop dredging and discarded recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total fishery landings. Landings in the USA are not reported by species, with over 99% of the landings reported as ?unclassified skates.? Skates are retained for the export of skate wings and for utilization as lobster bait. However, wings are taken from Winter Skate and Thorny Skate, whereas bait landings are believed to be primarily from Little Skates. There is no evidence of any directed fishery for the Rosette Skate with incidental bycatch as the primary threat to the species.
161420		conservation	eng	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.
161420		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: New Zealand and adjacent deepsea plateaux.
161420		habitat	eng	The biology of the Prickly Deepsea Skate is virtually unknown. The species is concentrated at depths of 300–1,200 m (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998) but probably extends to at least 1,500 m. The species attains at least 73 cm TL (McEachran 1984).
161420		population	eng	Occasionally caught by deepwater trawlers but not common.
161420		threats	eng	Prickly Deepsea Skate is taken as occasional bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities across its range by deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy, Oreos and Hoki. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently. The species may be declining in some parts of its range, but it is widespread throughout New Zealand (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Last and McEachran 2006) and parts of its range are not intensively fished.
161421		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Bycatch levels (if any) should be monitored.
161421		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from a few specimens from southern Mozambique, Kenya and Tanzania (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).
161421		habitat	eng	An uncommon skate living on the edge of the shelf and the uppermost slope at depths of 200?500 m (Compagno and Ebert 2007). The species attains at least 51.5 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). Little is known about its biology. Presumably oviparous, like other skates.
161421		population	eng	An uncommon species, known only from few specimens collected off East Africa.
161421		threats	eng	The species is only known from a few specimens and is apparently uncommon, therefore very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range. It is a potential bycatch of deepwater shrimp fisheries that operate within its range off Mozambique and Tanzania (www.wiofish.org).
161422		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161422		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: Panama to French Guiana (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161422		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species found on the continental slope at depths of 549–776 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains at least 44 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates.
161422		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161422		threats	eng	A potential bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries, but no information is available.
161423		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place specifically for this species in any portion of its range, although Mexico has developed a national management plan for elasmobranchs, which came into force in 2007 (Mexican Official Standard Rules for Shark and Ray responsible fisheries (NOM-029-PESC-2004-2006)).
161423		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: ranges from southern Sonora, Mexico to Costa Rica and (disjunct) from the southwestern Gulf of California (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Robertson and Allen 2002).
161423		habitat	eng	This species is reported from depths of 0?100 m, and is typically found on soft bottom habitats in shallow, protected areas of the continental shelf between 7.2?48.4 m (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Robertson and Allen 2002).<br/><br/>Biological information for this species is limited. Specimens of around 5.4 cm total length (TL) are free swimming, with very faint yolk-scars (if present) (Carvalho 1999). Males mature at around 19 cm TL, but definitely by 20 cm and females are also thought to reach sexual maturity around 20 cm TL (Carvalho 1999). The species is reported to reach a maximum size of about 60 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995), but specimens >30 cm TL have not been observed (Bizzarro, pers. obs.). In addition, size at maturity information presented by Carvalho (Carvalho 1999) suggests that maximum size is considerably less than 60 cm TL.
161423		population	eng	No information is available on the abundance, population structure, or population dynamics of this species.
161423		threats	eng	This species is threatened by directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries, bycatch in other fisheries (including shrimp trawls) and habitat modification or loss by mobile fishing gears and aquaculture developments. This species was not observed in artisanal elasmobranch fishery landings in the Gulf of California, Mexico, but other narcinid species were captured (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). This, therefore, likely reflects a lack of abundance for this species in this northern fringe of its range and/or reflects inconsistent and incomplete sampling in Sinaloa and Baja California Sur, where it is known to occur. The latter is probably true for at least southern Sinaloa, where <em>N. vermiculatus</em> has been commonly observed among shrimp fishery bycatch (J. Bizzarro per. obs.). More than 12,500 boats are permitted to fish off Sinaloa, including 11,828 artisanal vessels (operating to ~18 m depth) and 785 industrial vessels (operating >18 m depth) (CONAPESCA 2004). Sinaloa is the greatest producer of shrimp in all of Mexico, and the bycatch problem is quite severe and not quantified or reported (J. Bizzarro pers. obs.).There are intensive coastal demersal trawl and gillnet fisheries throughout most of the remainder of its range, but no other fishery information is known to be available for these areas. This species is also likely to be affected by habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in Sinaloa, Mexico are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since <em>N. vermiculatus</em> is thought to frequent these areas, this activity could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.
161424		conservation	eng	No measures in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species? range is required, particularly as fisheries expand into deeper waters.
161424		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan from Chiba Prefecture to the southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk and southern Kuril Islands, off Russia (Ishihara 1990, Nakaya and Shirai 1992). Occurrence in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, and western Gulf of Alaska (Dolganov 1999a) is unverified.
161424		habitat	eng	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slopes, on sandy-gravel, sandy and sludgy-pebbly substrates, at depths of 120?2,000 m (Dolganov 1998a, Sheiko and Fedorov 2000), but is most common at 550?1,300 m depth (Fedorov 2000). The species occurs at temperatures from 0 to 5.5°C (mean 2.82°C), most frequently at 2.5-3.5°C (Orlov unpubl. data). The species reaches a maximum size of 126 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 2005). Females reach maturity at 88.6?104.8 cm TL and at 6?8 years of age, and males at 82.1?108 cm and 6?7 years (Dolganov 1998c). Longevity is estimated at nine years for females (Dolganov 2005). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Size at birth is unknown, but egg capsules measure 8.5?11.3 cm x 5.2?6.9 cm (Dolganov 1998c). Large skates feed mostly on fish, cephalopods, while juveniles feed on worms and small-sized crabs (Dolganov 1998b, Orlov 1998, 2003).
161424		population	eng	Apparently common. Bottom trawl surveys conducted from 1977?1997 (to depths of 2,000 m) in Russian waters estimated that total biomass was 117,600 t, including 32,100 t in the Bering Sea, 8,200 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 77,300 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999b). No data are currently available from other parts of the species? range.
161424		threats	eng	Fishing pressure is thought to be relatively low in the depth range at which this species is most common (550?1,300 m). Some fisheries do operate down to 900?1,200 m depth, for rockfishes and Greenland halibut and this species and other skates may be taken incidentally in these fisheries. However, no species-specific data are available and there is some refuge in deeper waters (>1,200 m), below the range of current fisheries. Within the species? range in Russian waters, there are no fisheries on continental slopes in the eastern and southern Sea of Okhotsk, central and northern Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka. The species is an occasional bycatch of Japanese bottom trawl fisheries (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007) and some Japanese bottom trawl fisheries were conducted in Russian continental slope waters from 1992?2002, but have apparently ceased since then. Overall, fishing pressure is not considered significant throughout this species? range at present. However, if fisheries begin to target species in deeper waters (such as grenadier) in the future the threat to this species could increase significantly. Fisheries within this species? range should be carefully monitored and efforts should be made to collect species-specific data on bycatch levels of skates.
161425		conservation	eng	There is no species-specific management in place for <em>Raja undulata</em>. Tralee Bay is voluntarily closed to commercial fishing to protect regionally important elasmobranchs such as <em>R. undulata</em> and angel shark, which are only found in localised populations on the Irish West coast (ICES 2007). Recreational fishing continues in this area. <br/><br/>The most recent ICES advice (2008) is for no target fishing in the North Sea, English Channel and Celtic Seas. Species-specific monitoring of catches and landings is required to determine the proportion of <em>Raja undulata </em>taken.
161425		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in the eastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean Sea, with discrete areas where it may be locally common (southwestern Ireland, eastern English Channel, southern Portugal).<br/><br/>Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: occurs from southern Ireland and southwestern England to the Gulf of Guinea, including the Canary Islands (Coelho and Erzini 2006).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: western Mediterranean, a few records along the coasts of Israel and Turkey (Serena 2005). It has been recorded in the Ria Formosa coastal lagoon on the south coast of Portugal (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2002), an important nursery ground for many bony fishes (Erzini <em>et al</em>. 2002). Smaller specimens of <em>R. undulata</em> have been reported in this coastal lagoon which may suggest that this species also uses these sheltered areas as nursery grounds (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161425		habitat	eng	This skate occurs in shelf waters to about 200 m depth, on sandy and muddy substrates and appears to be more common in shallow waters (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Coelho and Erzini 2006). Smaller specimens have been reported in coastal lagoons (specifically in the Ria Formosa coastal lagoon on the South coast of Portugal), which suggests that this species may use these sheltered habitats as nursery areas (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Estimated asymptotic maximum size is110 cm total length (TL) (Coelho and Erzini 2002). Significant regional differences have been observed in size at first maturity of this species: In Portugal, females mature (50% maturity) at 76.2 cm TL in the Algarve (southern) region and at 83.8 cm TL in the Peniche (western) region, while males mature (50% maturity) at 73.6 cm TL in the Algarve and at 78.1 cm TL in Peniche. Age at first maturity for the Algarve population has been estimated to occur at 8.98 years in females and 7.66 years in males (Coelho and Erzini 2006). An annual reproductive cycle has been observed, but differences occur between the different populations: In southern Portugal this species breeds mainly during the winter (Coelho and Erzini 2006), while in the Portuguese west coast it breeds during the winter and the spring (Moura <em>et al. </em>2007). These differences seem to be related to water temperature, with reproduction restricted to periods of colder water. The maximum observed age for this species is 13 years old (Coelho and Erzini 2002) but longevity has been estimated at 21?23 years (Coelho <em>et al. </em>2002). The population on the South Portuguese coast has a very slow growth rate (k=0.11) (Coelho and Erzini 2002). Natural mortality for this population has been estimated to be 0.20?0.219 year<sup>-1</sup> (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Generation period for this species varies from 14.9?15.9 years in females and from 14.3?15.3 in males. Generation period was estimated using the following formula: average reproductive age = age at maturity + 0.5* (longevity - age at maturity).<br/><br/><em>R. undulata</em> shows a dietary ontogenetic shift within three major length groups: 20?55 cm TL; 55?75 cm TL and 75?100 cm TL. This shift goes from small semi-pelagic to larger and benthic prey and from a generalised to a specialised diet. Shrimps and mysids are especially important in the diet of smaller specimens, while in larger specimens brachyuran crabs have an increased importance (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161425		population	eng	There appears to be a discrete population of <em>Raja undulata</em> in Tralee Bay (ICES 2007). Angling records from Tralee Bay (Ireland) indicate a peak in records of undulate ray in 1981?1982, with lower (but stable) catches since then (ICES 2007). Undulate ray have traditionally been observed in English beam trawl surveys in the eastern English Channel, but have been absent for the most recent two years (ICES 2008). It is uncommon in the Bay of Biscay (ICES 2007). Determining accurate stock trends in surveys is problematic due to the patchy distribution of the species.<br/><br/>The species is also common off southern Portugal (Coelho and Erzini 2006), where it forms a separate population to that on the Portuguese west coast (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2007). <em>Raja undulata </em>appears to be uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea, with only occasional records (Bertozzi <em>et al. </em>2003, Baino <em>et al. </em>2001).
161425		threats	eng	This species is a bycatch of trawl, trammel net and other demersal fisheries operating within its range. <em>Raja undulata</em> has a patchy distribution and declines have been documented in areas where is it was formerly considered locally abundant. Catch records are available from two charter-angling vessels in Tralee Bay (southwestern Island), where this species forms a discreet population. These data show that catches of this species declined from a high of 80?100 fish per year in 1981 to 20?30 fish per year in the mid 1990s (a decline of 60?70%), before increasing to 40?60 per year in 2001?2003. Catches now appear to be declining again, with less than 20 fish recorded in 2005, although they fluctuate each year (ICES 2007). <em>R. undulata</em> has traditionally been observed in English beam trawl surveys in the eastern English Channel, but has been absent for the most recent two years (ICES 2008). ICES advice (2008) is now for no target fishing in the North Sea, English Channel and Celtic Seas (ICES 2008).<br/><br/><em>Raja undulata</em> is captured in large quantities as bycatch in the mixed species trammel net fishery that operates off the southern coast of Portugal (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species is retained and marketed for human consumption. It is mainly captured in shallow waters, with CPUE values in this fishery decreasing from 1.91 specimens/1000m net at 10-30m depth to 0.03 specimens /1,000 m net at more than 90 m depth (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005). Portuguese official fisheries statistics for landings of <em>Raja</em> spp. in the Algarve have decreased 29.1% between 1988 and 2004 (DGPA 1988-2004). <em>Raja undulata</em> is the most common skate species in this area and its size makes it more vulnerable to depletion than smaller skate species, and these declines may under-reflect changes in the population of this species (Erzini <em>et al.</em> 2001, Coelho <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>It is also a known bycatch of the Spanish demersal trawl fleet operating in the Cantabrian Sea, southern Bay of Biscay, which targets a mixture of gadoids and flatfish at depths of 100?300 m over the continental shelf (ICES 2007). Species-specific French landings data for the Celtic Seas report 12 t of <em>R. undulata</em> in 1995, 6 in 1996, 10 in 1997, after which landings fell to 2 t in 1998, 1 t in 1999, to 0 t in 2000?2001 (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>This species? preference for shallow waters places it within the range of intensive artisanal coastal fisheries operating along the western coast of Africa (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although no specific details are currently available on catches, this species is presumably a utilised bycatch of these, and demersal trawl fisheries operating in this area. Exploitation of the continental shelf is also high in the Mediterranean Sea (Massuti and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>Like many other larger skates, this species possesses life history characteristics that may increase vulnerability to exploitation, reduce rate of recovery and increase the risk of extinction: including delayed age at maturity, long generation time (14?15 years), low fecundity, and consequently slow population growth (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000).
161426		conservation	eng	None known.
161426		distribution	eng	West Indian Ocean: currently reported as India, Pakistan, and the Persian/Arabian Gulf (Compagno 2001). However, the exact distribution of this species and the similar Grey Bamboo Shark (<em>Chiloscyllium griseum</em>) requires clarification; misidentification of these two species, at least in the Persian/Arabian Gulf, is likely to have led to erroneous distribution records for both. Distribution may be patchy: the species is not reported from widespread landings or surveys in Oman (A. Henderson, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, pers. comm., Henderson <em>et al</em>., 2007), or in India (Venkataraman <em>et al</em>. 2003), although the latter may be due to confusion with <em>C. griseum</em>.
161426		habitat	eng	Found in coral reefs, lagoons, rocky shores and mangrove estuaries, between depths of 3?100 m on the bottom (Compagno 2001). This shark is less than 10 cm long when born and grows to a maximum length of 70 cm. Females lay up to four egg-cases on coral reefs, with hatching after 70?80 days (Compagno 2001). It feeds on squid, shelled molluscs, crustaceans and snake eels (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Known to associate closely with coral reefs in the Persian/Arabian Gulf: confirmed records of Arabian Carpetshark from reef environments in Bahrain (Randall 1986), Kuwait (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1997); and Saudi Arabia?s Gulf coast (Krupp and Almarri 1996).<br/><br/>Relatively hardy to capture by trawl and exposure to air (A.B. M. Moore, pers. obs. 2007).
161426		population	eng	Common in summer in the Persian Gulf (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reported as fairly common on reefs in Kuwait, especially in the spring when it is often seen resting among corals (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1997). Apparently reasonably common in trawls in Kuwait (A.B.M. Moore, pers. obs. 2007).
161426		threats	eng	Apparently little utilized in the Persian Gulf (Gubanov and Schleib 1980) but probably is used in Pakistan and India. <br/><br/>Common as bycatch in trawls in Kuwait, where ?cat sharks? (likely to contain most, if not all, <em>C. arabicum</em>) are reported as the second most abundant bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery, accounting for nearly 14% of all bycatch (Bishop 2002). Also reported as bycatch (as ?<em>C. arabicus</em>?) in the Bahrain shrimp fishery (Abdulqader 2001). Despite high levels of bycatch this species is only very rarely observed in local markets, at least in Kuwait (A.B.M. Moore, pers. obs. 2007), suggesting it is discarded. Caught in artisanal intertidal stake-net traps (hadra), at least in Kuwait (McEwan <em>et al</em>. 2001) and likely throughout The Persian/Arabian Gulf.<br/><br/>High levels of PAHs and benzo [a] pyrene reported from this species from Kuwait (Al-Hassan <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation is likely to be an important factor. <em>C. arabicum</em> is known to have close association with coral reef habitats, which are particularly prone to anthropogenic degradation. In the Persian/Arabian Gulf this includes changes due to the damming of the Tigris-Euphrates river system in Turkey and the drainage of the Iraqi marshes (Al-Yamani <em>et al</em>. 2007), chronic and acute (e.g., war-related) releases of oil, rapid large-scale coastal development (e.g. megastructures in the UAE), and changes to benthic communities from demersal trawling. Coastal land reclamation has accelerated in this area in recent years and, as a result, coastal reefs and other habitat have been destroyed. For example, this has resulted in the almost total loss of mangrove areas around Bahrain (Morgan 2006a).<br/><br/>In India, declines in general catch rates, biomass, recruitment and shifts in regular landing patterns in inshore fisheries have been linked to steep increases in the fisher population, number and efficiency of craft and gears, and associated fishing effort, as well as the degradation of coastal habitats (mangroves, coral reefs, etc.) caused by pollution of coastal waters, urbanisation, coastal developments, etc. (Morgan 2006b). Although no specific data are available it is reasonable to assume that this species has been impacted.<br/><br/>Commonly used in aquaria, e.g., in Kuwait (Tony McEwan, Kuwait Scientific Centre, pers. comm. to AB. Moore 30.9.2006), although this is not thought to represent a threat to populations.
161427		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161427		distribution	eng	Western central and southwest Atlantic: eastern and western Gulf of Mexico, Lesser Antilles, and Caribbean coasts of Central and South America (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161427		habitat	eng	Benthic along the outer shelf and upper slope, at depths of 183?549 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).Maximum size at least 77 cm total length (TL); males mature at around 76 cm TL and neonates are 17 cm TL at hatching (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, is oviparous, but nothing known of its biology.
161427		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161427		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deepwater demersal fisheries, although information is not available.
161428		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place at present.<br/><br/>Compagno and Heemstra (2007) suggest that species of electric rays with limited ranges in the tropical-subtropical southwestern Indian Ocean, particularly species of insular <em>Torpedo</em> and quite possibly narkid genera such as <em>Electrolux</em> and <em>Heteronarce</em> and species of narcinids (<em>Narcine</em>) are a major concern for conservation. The Ornate Sleeper Ray would be an appropriate subject for an intensive dive survey project by fish-watchers, professional ichthyologists and conservationists on the numerous dive sites of the northeast coast of the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mozambique to attempt to better understand its distribution and estimate its abundance.
161428		distribution	eng	As presently known this conspicuous, diurnal species is restricted to sandy patches of very limited inshore reef habitat off the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coasts of South Africa at five localities (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Known localities are from dive sites off south-central KwaZulu-Natal. These include from southwest to northeast:<br/><br/>1. Coffee Bay, Eastern Cape (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 31º58?S, 29º9?E); <br/>2. Manaba Beach, the type locality near Margate (30°51.4'S, 30°23.1'E, 6?12 m); <br/>3. Protea Banks, about 8 km off Shelly Beach near Margate (ca. 30°49.8?S, 30°28.8?E, dive depths <em>ca</em>. 28?35 m); <br/>4. Aliwal Shoal, 4.8 km. off Park Rynie (<em>ca</em>. 30°19.2?S, 30°48?E, dive depths <em>ca</em>. 14?30 m.); <br/>5. Tee (or T-) Barge north of Durban and about 3 km off Virginia Beach (an artificial reef habitat at <em>ca</em>. 29°47?S, 31°05?E, dive depths <em>ca</em>. 20?27 m.).<br/><br/>The Ornate Sleeper Ray (<em>Electrolux addisoni</em>) has only been recorded along approximately 310 km of coastline with a very narrow continental shelf (10?36 km wide to the 200 m isobath), but the few sightings were all inside the 50 m isobath. Manaba Beach is the only place that it has been seen on two occasions (or more).<br/><br/>An estimate suggests the real range may be less than 10 km² as currently known. If the areas where the rays were actually observed were less than 100 m², the area of occupancy could prove far smaller.<br/><br/>Although the Ornate Sleeper Ray may be more wide-ranging than presently known, offshore and inshore areas on the east coast of South Africa have been relatively well-sampled and this species has to be considered a rarity at present until we know otherwise (L.J.V. Compagno pers. obs. 2007).
161428		habitat	eng	The Ornate Sleeper Ray occurs in warm-temperate or subtropical waters along a very narrow continental shelf (10 to 36 km wide to the 200 m isobath). The few sightings of the species were all at less than 50 m depth. Found in subtidal environments in sandy and gravely patches on rocky reefs. Apparently sluggish, this sedentary ray belongs to the sleeper ray family.<br/><br/>It is the largest known narkid, with adult males measuring 50?52 cm  total length, and is extremely conspicuous because of its spectacular coloration (which is hard to miss on light sandy patches), diurnal foraging activity and boldness when confronted by divers (Compagno and Heemstra 2007).<br/><br/>Little is known of the biology of this ray. Juveniles are unknown, and the only specimens collected to date are adult males.<br/><br/>This species feeds on the substrate and vigorously thrusts its mouth into loose sand or gravel while walking actively on its spread pelvic fins. It may lie motionless on the substrate, but when approached can arch its back, curl its disk, and raise its tail to perform a possible threat-display directed at the photographer.<br/><br/>Like other South African narkids such as Cape Numbfish (<em>Narke capensis</em>), which mostly eats polychaetes (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989), and the Natal Electric Ray (<em>Heteronarce garmani</em>) (one specimen examined), which had a stomach filled with mud-balls, this species apparently feeds on infauna or meiofauna. Stomach contents of the paratype included the semi-digested and fragmentary remains of polychaete worms (including a tube-worm) and at least one small shrimp-like crustacean.<br/><br/>Compagno and Heemstra (2007) suggest that the bold color and possible threat display may act as a defense against sharks that feed during the day. The conspicuous dorsal color pattern of the Ornate Sleeper Ray, combined with the ray?s possible threat display, may be aposematic (an antipredator adaptation) and indicates that the ray is well-armed with electric organs and should be avoided. On the shallow, well-lit reefs where the Ornate Sleeper Ray has been found, its main potential predators may be large carcharhinoid sharks (requiem sharks, Carcharhinidae, and hammerheads, Sphyrnidae) and lamnoid sharks (ragged-tooth sharks and white sharks). Deepwater electric rays successfully defended themselves from much larger sixgill sharks (<em>Hexanchus</em>) which are apex predators with a broad prey spectrum, and a quick defensive shock apparently minimized damage by aborting such a predator?s attack. For the inshore Ornate Sleeper Ray, aposematic coloration and a threat display might prevent a shark attack if the visual warnings are reinforced by a shock.
161428		population	eng	Apparently rare, there are no trend data for the Ornate Sleeper Ray because there are so few restricted records over a long time period. This species is mostly known by a handful of sighting and photographic records by recreational SCUBA divers, ichthyologists and professional underwater photographers, as well as from two type specimens procured by spear-fishing divers, over two decades from 1984 to 2004 (Compagno and Heemstra 2007).<br/><br/>A live specimen was photographed in 1984 on a patch of sand on Aliwal Shoal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in 1984 and was immediately recognized as an undescribed species of electric ray, but its familial allocation to the Narkidae and recognition as a new genus didn?t come until two specimens were procured twenty years later. The ray was subsequently rediscovered on Protea Banks off Shelly Beach, KwaZulu-Natal in 1997 where a single specimen was videotaped feeding. Another specimen was seen in the late 1990s off the Tee Barge, an artificial reef habitat in north of Durban, while a second specimen was seen at Coffee Bay, Eastern Cape but eluded capture. Two specimens were speared off Manaba Beach near Margate in southern KwaZulu-Natal in 2003 and form the type series. A few additional specimens were sighted at Manaba Beach before the types were collected but numbers are uncertain.<br/><br/>Wallace?s (1967) taxonomic review of electric rays from the east coast of southern Africa did not report any material of <em>Electrolux addisoni</em>. <em>E. addisoni</em> was not taken by the South African Marine and Coastal Management?s (MCM) research vessel Algoa during Cruise 014 off Mozambique in 1994 with 28 stations on soft bottom at 37 to 500 m depth. The Algoa collected torpedinoids in small numbers including the narkid <em>Heteronarce garmani</em> and the narcinids <em>Narcine rierai</em> and a second species of <em>Narcine</em> close to the Malagasy <em>N. insolita</em> but not <em>E. addisoni</em>. The MCM research vessel Africana did not collect <em>E. addisoni</em> in thousands of inshore and offshore bottom trawl stations at 17?200 m during two decades of fisheries survey (ongoing) on the east coast of South Africa from Cape Agulhas to Port Alfred. However, the smaller narkid <em>Narke capensis</em> was commonly caught by the large fisheries research vessel Africana in this area and between 27 m and 90 m depths (average depth 54.8 m). This occurs in shallow inshore waters in the Western Cape, South Africa, where a diver caught one by hand at 4.5 m depth in False Bay in the Western Cape. Divers have so far not seen <em>E. addisoni</em> from Cape seas south of Coffee Bay, nor at Mozambique dive sites. It also has not been recorded by the Natal Shark Board in the anti-shark nets deployed off numerous beaches off KwaZulu-Natal, although batoids are regular bycatch of the shark nets (S. Dudley pers. comm. to L.J.V. Compagno 2007).
161428		threats	eng	The species? known habitat and geographic distribution suggest that the Ornate Sleeper Ray could be at risk from human activities including harassment and disturbance by divers as well as fisheries, pollution, and habitat degradation. It occurs on a heavily utilized and narrow strip of habitat with heavy and increasing human utilization including extensive and intensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing along with runaway coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, holiday-making, beach utilization, shark netting, and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments.<br/><br/>There are no known fisheries that target this species or include it as bycatch, although it has potential interest for the aquarium fish trade, and it would make a spectacular aquarium exhibit provided one could collect live specimens and keep them successfully in captivity. Juveniles are unknown, and the only specimens collected to date are adult males.
161429		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would aid in the collection of data on the wider range and depth distribution of the species. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161429		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the Comoro Islands (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161429		habitat	eng	Found on the sea-bottom, on insular slopes at depths of 200–400 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). The one known specimen was an adult, measuring 46 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161429		population	eng	Known only from one specimen (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161429		threats	eng	This species would be vulnerable to bycatch in trawl fisheries, although no information is available on fisheries operating within its geographic and depth range.
161430		conservation	eng	Since 2005 target fishing has been prohibited for all skate species in the Gulf of Alaska. <em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within the Gulf of Alaska ?other skates? assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in <em>Bathyraja</em> species is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented.<br/><br/>Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species? range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161430		distribution	eng	North Pacific: found in the western Bering Sea, the Commander Islands and Sea of Okhotsk off Hokkaido and in the eastern Bering Sea, possibly including the Gulf of Alaska (Ishiyama and Ishihara 1977, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161430		habitat	eng	The Commander Skate is found at depths of 126?1,193 m (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Males reach maturity at 78.4 cm total length (TL) and females at 84.6 cm TL (Ebert 2005). Maximum size is 93 cm TL (Ebert 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.
161430		population	eng	According to Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC) bottom trawl surveys; this species is the second most abundant deepsea skate on the eastern Bering Sea slope. Biomass estimates on the eastern Bering Sea slope in 2004 were 4,194 mt (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006, Ormseth and Matta 2007).
161430		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ormseth and Matta 2007). Commander Skate makes up a very small proportion of the observed catch of <em>Bathyraja</em> species in Aleutian Island and eastern Bering Sea slope groundfish fisheries (0-2%), with observed catch ranging from 2.11?26.09 t between 2003 and 2006 (Matta <em>et al. </em>2006). A target fishery for skates (mainly Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>) and Big Skate (<em>Raja binoculata</em>)) developed in the Gulf of Alaska in 2003, but <em>Bathyraja</em> species constituted only a small proportion of the catch of this fishery. Directed fishing for skates was subsequently banned in the Gulf of Alaska (2005). Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Therefore this species? deep bathymetric distribution probably offers refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007ab). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species.<br/><br/>No information is currently available on catches of this species in western Pacific waters and further investigation is required into threats to the species there.
161431		conservation	eng	No conservation and managment measures are in place, with the exception of Australian waters. Further research is required on the species? life-history, full range and capture in fisheries. Data need to be collected to allow accurate monitoring of population trends.<br/><br/>An elasmobranch biodiversity study in Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) was initiated in 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), further research should be directed at population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in the region. The fishery is largely unregulated (licences being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem. <br/><br/>In Australia, the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).
161431		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: from the Gulf of Mannar, Sri Lanka along the eastern Indian coast, Bangladesh and Myanmar, Andaman Islands, Thailand and Malaysia.<br/><br/>Western Central Pacific: throughout Indonesia (except southern Sumatra), Malasia (Borneo and Sabah), Papua New Guinea, Vanikoro, Pohnpei, Melanesia, and the Philippines. The range also extends through some Pacific Islands, including Guam and Fiji and along the entire northern coast of Australia. <br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 57, 71
161431		habitat	eng	The species appears to prefer shallow inshore waters, including mangroves, estuaries, sand flats and broken rocky-sandy substrate, although adults may move offshore and it has been recorded to a depth of at least 85 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, B.M. Manjaji and W. White pers. obs 2007). The species also appears to be solitary rather than forming aggregations, like some other stingrays (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species reaches a maximum reported size of 141 cm disc width (DW), >275 cm total length (TL) (White and Dharmadi 2007, W. White pers. obs.) and size at birth is reported at 14?28 cm DW (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Manjaji (2004) reports that males mature at 55?65 cm DW, but the biology and life-history characteristics of this species are generally poorly known.
161431		population	eng	Not very commmon (W. White pers. obs. 2007).
161431		threats	eng	This species is caught irregularly by tangle net, bottom trawl, and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, W. White pers. obs. 2007) and in other parts of its range. All specimens are typically retained and utilised.<br/><br/>This species? preference for shallow inshore waters makes it particularly vulnerable to extensive and intensive artisanal and industrial fisheries operating throughout large areas of its range, as well as habitat destruction and pollution (B.M. Manjaji and W. White pers. obs, Vidthayanon 1997). Juveniles and sub-adults are known to be targeted in mangrove areas and destruction of mangrove forest is having a significant impact on this species (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Mangrove forests throughout Southeast Asia and large areas of the eastern Indian Ocean have been degraded (FAO 2007). In this region, ~1.9 million hectares of mangroves (or about 25% of the total 1980 area) have been lost during the last 25 years (FAO 2007). More than 90% of this loss has been caused by destruction of mangrove area in Indonesia, Pakistan, Vietnam, Malaysia and India (areas where this species occurs) through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, conversion of land for agriculture or salt pans and degradation through oil spills and pollution (FAO 2007). Even in well-managed mangrove areas that are protected from destruction, for example, the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Ranong, Thailand (designated in 1997), this species may still face threats from local fisheries on which the people living in the reserve primarily depend (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>The Sicklefin Lemon Shark (<em>Negaprion acutidens</em>) occurs at similar depths to this species? preferred bathymetric range. <em>N. acutidens</em> is rarely observed in recent times in Indonesia due to the very high level of exploitation of inshore waters and its slow growth rate (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is apparently uncommon compared to other large <em>Himantura</em> species in this region, making it particularly vulnerable. Given that <em>H. granulata</em> is a large stingray, probably with limiting life-history characteristics also, it is inferred that this species has also declined significantly in these areas.<br/><br/>The commercial gillnet fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, Indonesia, takes this species as retained bycatch, which is landed for human consumption (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Artisanal inshore fishing pressure is also very intensive off eastern India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Fisheries throughout India operate on an open access basis and inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported, and increasing ever-increasing bottom trawl effort (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Demersal species, such as this, suffer more fishing mortality than pelagic species on the eastern coast of India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, declining recruitment and biomass, and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Although no species-specific data are available on catches, it is inferred that this species has also suffered declines as a result of high levels of inshore exploitation in these areas also.<br/><br/>No data or information is available on catches in the Pacific Islands, but this species may be taken as bycatch in inshore subsistence and artisanal fisheries there also.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.
161432		conservation	eng	No species-specific management or conservation measures are currently in place.<br/><br/>The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean in February 2005 and this came into force in September 2005. The measure was adopted by consensus by all members of the GFCM, which include: Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, EC, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Romania, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and population trends are required to fully assess the status of this species and any future conservation needs.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161432		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is poorly defined because there are few definite records anywhere (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>:<br/>There are two records of this species from the northwest coast of Cuba (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:<br/>Madeira, Canary Islands, Portugal, France and in the Mediterranean Sea from Catalan Sea, Spain, France; Ligurian Sea off northern Italy; Sicily; Israel (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).
161432		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deep water species reported at depths of 180–2,220 m (Barrull and Mate 2002, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Found on on or near the sea bottom, over sandy mud substrate on the outer continental shelves and upper slopes (Compagno in prep.). Serena (20005) reports that it appears to prefer bathyal grounds deeper than 1,000 m in the western Mediterranean basin.<br/><br/>Attains a maximum size of about 140 cm total length (TL); size at birth is between 21 and 28 cm TL; males are mature at 71 cm TL and females at 80 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with 8–17 pups per litter (Tortonese 1956, Barrull and Mate 2002, Compagno in prep.). Reproductive age, periodicity, gestation time, rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.<br/><br/>This species feeds on mesobathyal cephalopods such as <em>Histiotheuthis</em> spp. and <em>Todarodes sagittatus</em> (J. Guallart pers. obs. 2007). Although specimens of this species are usually captured with bottom fishing gears, the finding of these highly-mobile cephalopods in the stomach contents may be interpreted as an indicator that <em>S. rostratus</em> moves throughout the deeper reaches of the water column, a propensity that may partially explain the scarcity of captures in deep demersal fisheries.
161432		population	eng	An apparently rare, poorly known species (Compagno in prep, L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007). No information exists on the relationship between the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean populations. Mostly known from single records and a few specimens in the scientific literature (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007). This species has not been recorded during the MEDITS (at depths of 10–800 m) scientific trawl surveys conducted throughout the Mediterranean Sea.
161432		threats	eng	Occasionally taken as by-catch on longlines and with bottom trawls in the eastern Atlantic (Compagno in prep.), but often recorded under the general category “sleeper sharks" or simply “sharks”. In the Mediterranean coast of Spain it is regularly discarded at sea and not landed although post-discard survival is likely very low (J. Guallart pers. obs. 2007). No species-specific catch estimates are available.<br/><br/>Intense deepwater fisheries operate in areas of the northeast Atlantic. For example, a target fishery for deep-water squaloid sharks operated off Portugal at depths of 800–1,400 m since 1992 (DELASS 2003). Catches decreased rapidly and, by 1996, only one longliner was engaged in it at full time. Most of the catch consists of <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em>, though other deep-water species such <em>C. squamosus</em> and <em>C. coelolepis</em> are also caught in small quantities (DELASS 2003).<br/><br/>This species is also a bycatch of the general demersal and black scabbardfish fisheries in the Azores, although species-specific data are not available (DELASS 2003). A recent ban on bottom trawling below 1,000 m in the Mediterranean Sea (see Conservation Measures) may afford this species some protection, particularly if it is mainly distributed at greater depths. However, the species is still vulnerable to capture in fisheries in the upper half of its bathymetric range.<br/><br/>This species may be slow growing and slow to mature, like other deepwater Squaloid sharks, making it vulnerable to population depletion in fisheries. The relatively small range of this species, compared to most other sleeper sharks, and rarity in an area, which has been subject to very heavy fishing pressure for a long period, is of concern (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).
161433		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Recommended</strong><br/>Where taken, catches to species level require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161433		distribution	eng	Northwest and central western Pacific: southeast Japan (southeast Honshu to Kyushu) and East China Sea, including the Republic of Korea and Taiwan (Compagno in prep.). Longsnouted forms off Philippines previously identified as <em>S. japonicus</em> have recently been identified as <em>S. nasutus</em> (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161433		habitat	eng	Found on or near the bottom of temperate–tropical outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes. Depth range is reported at 120–340 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and between 52–100 m and 350–400 m in Suruga Bay, Japan.<br/><br/>Goto (1998) studied the biology of <em>Squalus </em>species in Suruga Bay, and provides biological data on <em>S. japonicus</em> from a total of 176 specimens, collected from the catch of a bottom trawl net fishery between 1982 and 1997. Estimated size at maturity for females is 56–80 cm total length (TL) and for males is 50–70 cm TL with a maximum size reported at 95 cm TL (Goto 1998, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Litters increase in size with the size of the mother, from two to eight per litter, with larger dogfish caught off Choshi, Honshu, averaging 5.3 per litter and smaller dogfish caught off Nagasaki, Kyushu, averaging 3.9 per litter (Compagno in prep). Goto (1998) reports a gestation period of 11–12 months and size at birth at 23–24 cm TL. Females reach maturity at seven to nine years of age and males at five years of age (Goto 1998). Longevity is estimated at 15 years for females and 12 years for males (Goto 1998).
161433		population	eng	Apparently common in its range (Compagno in prep.). No catch or survey data are available and the species is probably confused with other <em>Squalus</em> species.
161433		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in fisheries off Japan and Taiwan (Compagno in prep.). Apparently confused with other <em>Squalus</em> species in Japan (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2006). A localised fishery targeting deepwater sharks operates in Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, using bottom longlines and trawls (Compagno in prep. and S. Tanaka, pers. obs. 2007). There are no species specific catch data available to determine the quantities retained or discarded. Off Taiwan, trawling occurs from 200 to 600 m, but mainly above 400 m (B. Séret, and P.F. Lee pers. comm. 2006). The depth distribution of the species lies entirely within the range of fisheries in Taiwan, where it is also likely taken as bycatch by trawl and longline fisheries.
161434		conservation	eng	None in place for this species. <br/><br/>Part of the Eastern Banded Catshark's known range falls within the boundaries of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park where commercial and recreational fisheries are managed by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 2008). Management plans are in place and implemented within the park and surrounding regions and biodiversity surveys are conducted. Approximately one third of this marine park is completely closed to fishing, and should thus provide refuge for this species. <br/><br/>Further information is required on the life-history, habitat preferences and population status of this uncommon species. Additional information is also required to determine the extent of the species? distribution.
161434		distribution	eng	Western Central Pacific: Occurs across northeastern Australia in the Arafura Sea, the Gulf of Carpentaria, the Torres Strait, and on the east coast of Australia south to Gladstone (22°S) (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007). Records of this species are sporadic across this distribution, but it may occur in other areas of northeastern Australia where it has not yet been recorded.
161434		habitat	eng	This demersal shark is known from depths of 11?74 m (mostly <50 m) on sandy to coarse rubble substrates (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007). Very little information is currently available on this species? biology and ecology. The largest recorded specimen is a female, measuring 48.4 mm total length (TL). Females have been recorded as sexually mature at 35.4 cm TL, and males at 34.5 cm TL (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007). No details are available on reproductive biology, although the species is expected to be oviparous (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007).
161434		population	eng	The Eastern Banded Catshark appears to be an uncommon species, as it is known from only a moderate number of specimens, and despite extensive sampling across most of its known range, it is rarely recorded. When Compagno and Stevens (1993) described the Banded Catshark (<em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em>) they included material from the Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and the Torres Straits of what is now considered the Eastern Banded Catshark (<em>A. marnkalha</em>) (<em>A. fasciatus</em> is endemic to northwestern Australia). Until 2002 however, the species went unrecorded on the east coast of Australia, which is somewhat surprising as considerable sampling has occurred in its distribution, habitat and depth range.
161434		threats	eng	Eastern Banded Catshark is a minor bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries which operate across its range. It is caught in very low numbers in both the Northern Prawn Fishery, where it was recorded in only 0.5% of trawls (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002; as <em>A. fasciatus</em>) and in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, where despite extensive surveying, only three specimens have been recorded in the bycatch of the scallop sector (central Queensland coast) (P.M. Kyne, unpublished data). This species is of no commercial value and is discarded at sea.
161435		conservation	eng	None in place.
161435		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: Japan (Hokkaido and Honshu to okinawa), Korea, China and possibly Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161435		habitat	eng	Found close inshore to depths of at least 320 m on the continental shelf and upper slopes. Reproduction is oviparous. This species is at least 8 cm long when hatched and grows to a maximum length of 48 cm, with males maturing at 41?48 cm and females maturing at 39 cm and above (Horie and Tanaka 2002, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Further biological data is available from Horie and Tanaka (2002): Size at sexual maturity appears to increase with declining water temperature (Horie and Tanaka 2002).
161435		population	eng	Thought to be common in its areas of occurrence (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161435		threats	eng	Captured incidentally by commercial trawl, nets, bottom gill-nets and bottom longline fishing, and  usually discarded (Horie and Tanaka 2002). This species comprised 40% of discarded fish in Yamaguchi Prefecture, southern Japan (Horie and Tanaka 2002). Discard survivorship may be high as the species appears to be hardy.
161436		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess this species vulnerability and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161436		distribution	eng	Occurs from about 35°N to 40°S on shallow shelves (M. Stehmann pers. obs.). Western central and southwest Atlantic: from South Carolina, USA south to Patagonia, Argentina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161436		habitat	eng	Found inshore to a depth of at least 181 m (Menni and Stehmann 2000). This species is capable of travelling long distances (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/><br/>This species reaches a maximum size of 99 cm disc width (DW), females mature at around 70 cm DW and males mature at around 45?55 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002, M. Stehmann pers.obs.). Produces around six offspring per litter (M. Stehmann pers. obs.), but little else is known of its biology. Its food consists of crustaceans and bivalves (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161436		population	eng	Apparently moderately common. It is possible that several subpopulations exist (M. Stehmann pers. obs.). Of much higher abundance than <em>M. freminvillii</em> off Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000), but it is easily confused with that species.
161436		threats	eng	This species is caught in artisanal fisheries with trammel nets and longlines. It is also a regular bycatch component in local and regional coastal trawl fisheries for shrimps and finfishes. (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992, McEachran and Carvalho 2002, M. Stehmann pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure on the inshore coastal environment is fairly intensive across large parts of this species? distribution, and its inshore coastal occurrence and low fecundity may make it susceptible to localised population reductions. Across Caribbean South America and parts of Brazil, trawling and inshore netting is intensive and this eagle ray is reported to be a regular bycatch of coastal trawl and other net fisheries in South America.<br/><br/>Snapper and grouper fisheries operate over extensive areas of the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and French Guiana, although no information is available on bycatch (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Approximately 1,000 medium- and long-range vessels target snappers and groupers inside and outside the Venezuelan EEZ using handline and demersal longline gear (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Shrimp trawl fisheries are also intense in many parts of this region. For example, trawl fisheries began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s, subsequently showing considerable increases in both effort and efficiency (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. <br/><br/>Off southern Brazil, where inshore fishing activities are intensive, <em>Myliobatis</em> species are a bycatch of various artisanal and industrial fisheries (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Significant declines have been documented for other batoid species which rely on the inshore environment (i.e. the Brazilian guitarfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinobatos horkelii</span>), but it is uncertain how this fishing pressure has affected eagle rays.
161437		conservation	eng	Further surveys to better define the species' range and careful monitoring of any future deep sea fishing activities are required. The collection of further specimens is also needed to obtain biological data.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161437		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: Tablas Straits and Mindanao Sea (east of Bohol), Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161437		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deep water species known from two specimens collected from the insular slope 673?1,070 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). They are immature at 38 cm total length (TL) and the largest known specimen measures 51 cm TL (Compagno in prep, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Virtually nothing is known of the biology of this species.
161437		population	eng	Known only from two specimens.
161437		threats	eng	<em>P. profundicolus</em> is only known from two specimens and the threats to this species are thus little known. Deepwater fisheries are relatively restricted off the Philippines at present, and this species probably occurs beyond the range of current fishing pressure. The species may be vulnerable to fisheries if they expand in this area in the future.
161438		conservation	eng	None in place. Efforts should be made to collect species specific catch data. Future surveys should aim to further define this species? distribution and identify population trends.
161438		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: southern Japan to the South China Sea including Ryukyu Islands and Viet Nam (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161438		habitat	eng	Habitat and biology are poorly known. The largest catalogued specimen is a female measuring 55.2 cm total length (TL). Adult males measure ~45 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161438		population	eng	Commonly caught in some areas of Japan and Taiwan and appears to be relatively abundant.
161438		threats	eng	Caught by bottom trawls and longlines in some parts of its range. Fisheries off the eastern coast of Taiwan, Province of China have moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, particularly around Ta-Shi, from 100?300 m fishing depth to >300 m currently (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>Squlaus</em> species are recorded in catches off Vietnam (SEAFDEC 2006) but nothing is known of the amount of this species taken or the level and impact of fisheries on this species. For example, bottom longline fisheries operate around the Paracel islands, Vietnam at depths >100 m. Sharks account for 45?100% of the total catch with 400?4,000 kg captured per boat (N. long pers. comm. 2007), however, no species specific information is available. In southern Vietnam, off Phu Quy island only about a 100 boats are still targeting sharks due to a general decline in the level of shark catch (N. long pers. comm. 2007), however no data are available to confirm which species have been impacted. In this area fishing boats have switched to targeting snapper and grouper or cuttlefish and squid (N. long pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Other <em>Squalus</em> species in the northwest and Western Central Pacific are targeted and valuable for their liver oil, however, because of species misidentification and confusion no specific information on the utilization of this species is currently available.
161439		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Further information on the species’ life history would also be beneficial for future assessments.<br/><br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. kuhliii</em> and other chondrichthyans. The capture of mobulid rays in the Philippines was banned with a Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO 193) (known as the “Whale shark and Manta Ray Ban”), issued in 1988.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs.<br/><br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.
161439		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific: the range of this species is not well documented (White <em>et al.</em> 2006b), but it is reported from South Africa (edge of range), Tanzania (Zanzibar), India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Seychelles (Compagno and Last 1997), Malaysia (Ahmed <em>et al.</em> 2004), Oman (Randall 1995), Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996) and Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161439		habitat	eng	An uncommon inshore, primarily shelf pelagic species found in continental coastal areas but not extending into the epipelagic zone (Compagno and Last 1999).<br/><br/>As with all Myliobatiformes, the reproductive mode of <em>M. kuhlii</em> is livebearing and histotrophic, with embryonic nutrition supplied from a protein- and lipid-rich histotroph from highly developed trophonemata. A single, relatively large pup is produced per litter (Compagno and Last 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006b). Long resting periods may account for extended reproductive cycles in mobulid species. This species feeds on planktonic crustaceans and possibly small fishes and cephalopods (Sommer <em>et al</em>. 1996, White <em>et al</em>. 2006b) and reaches a maximum size of about 119 cm disc width (DW) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006b). Size at birth is around 31 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). Males mature at 115–119 cm (DW) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006b).
161439		population	eng	Uncommon (Compagno and Last 1999).
161439		threats	eng	Mobulid rays are taken by surface gill net, longline, purse seine and directed harpoons throughout much of their range, however detailed information on these fisheries is poorly documented (White <em>et al.</em> 2006a).<br/><br/><em>Mobula kuhlii </em>is vulnerable to net gear, in particular gill nets, and is taken as a target or utilised bycatch in Indonesia and likely throughout much of its range. In Indonesia mobulid rays are landed as bycatch by artisanal gillnet fishers who target tuna. White <em>et al.</em> (2006a) conducted a study of the bycatch of mobulid rays in the drift gillnet fishery for skipjack tuna off Indonesia. Of 409 mobulid rays observed at four landing sites in eastern Indonesia from April 2001 to October 2005, <em>M. kuhlii </em>was the most rarely recorded and composed only 2% of the total rays, in this part of its range.<br/><br/>The high value of gill rakers in some areas is driving a dramatic increase in the catch of mobulids in Indonesia, where some fishers are now targeting devil rays, and their meat, cartilage and skin are also utilised (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although specific catch details are unavailable because of poor documentation in fisheries, mobulid rays appear to be particularly susceptible to overfishing as their fecundity is the lowest of all elasmobranchs (with litter sizes of typically only one pup and a gestation period assumed to be 1–3 years) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006a).<br/><br/>Directed mobulid fisheries have also been reported in other areas of this species’ range, including India, Sri Lanka and Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Given the vulnerable life-history characteristics of this species, it is highly unlikely to be able to sustain continued directed fishing. Manta rays were targeted in the Philippines until protection was introduced for them in this area in 1988, as a result of international concern for the sustainability of such fisheries (see Conservation Measures below) (White <em>et al. </em>2006a). Directed artisanal elasmobranch and ray fisheries using surface and bottom gillnet and line, also operate off Tanzania and a variety of artisanal multi-species artisanal net and line fisheries operate off South Africa (www.wiofish.org).Traditional fisheries for rays operate off Oman, using bottom lines and fixed gillnets. Rays are also often caught incidentally using beach seines off Oman (FAO 2008). Furthermore this species’ preference for coastal waters places it within the range of inshore fisheries, which are known to be intensive in many parts of its range, including India, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Indonesia (Young <em>et al. </em>2005, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Mngulwi 2006, Morgan 2006).<br/><br/>A recent review of the state of marine capture fisheries management in the Indian Ocean, noted that directed fisheries for sharks and rays exist in the Maldives, Kenya, Mauritius, Seychelles, South Africa and Tanzania and their status is considered probably fully to overexploited in the southwestern Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). The same review noted that ‘Rays, stingrays, mantas nei’ (a catch category that includes mobulid rays) are moderately to fully exploited in Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia (Young <em>et al. </em>2006). The life-history characteristics of this species, including very low fecundity, make it more vulnerable to exploitation relative to other more productive species of elasmobranchs included under these categories.<br/><br/>Mobulid rays are valuable for their branchial fiter plates, which are exported from Indonesia to Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore and ground down for use in traditional Chinese medicines (White <em>et al. </em>2006a). The skins, cartilage and flesh are also utilised for human consumption and the cartilage also used as a ‘filler’ for low-grade shark fin soup (White <em>et al.</em> 2006a).
161440		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161440		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: from southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Lesser Antilles, Honduras, and Panama (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161440		habitat	eng	A small deep-water skate, found at depths of 412?576 m (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). Attains at least 58 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Its biology is virtually unknown. Presumably oviparous, like other skates.
161440		population	eng	This species may be rare and is known only from a few specimens (McEachran, J. pers. comm.). Population size is unknown.
161440		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries, but no specific information is available.
161441		conservation	eng	The biology of this species is virtually unknown. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit in the collection of data on the wider depth distribution and range of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161441		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (Molokai) (Compagno in prep.).
161441		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species found at 406–911 m on or near the bottom on insular slopes (Compagno in prep.). The holotype is immature at 17 cm TL and maximum size is reported to 46 cm TL; however the species is known from very few specimens and its biology is virtually unknown (Compagno in prep.).
161441		population	eng	Known from very few specimens.
161441		threats	eng	The bottom fish fishery operating in the Hawaiian Archipelago targets deepsea snappers (<em>Etelis</em> and <em>Pristipomoides</em> species), which are most common at <300 m depth (DLNR 2002). This species occurs beyond current fishing pressure. Any development of fisheries to greater depths in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this endemic species is not adversely affected.
161442		conservation	eng	No measures in place. It is recommended that species-specific monitoring of bycatch levels and population trends is carried out, as well as monitoring of fisheries expanding within its range.
161442		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: Portugal, Morocco, Canary Islands, Senegal, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Gulf of Guinea, Cameroon (Compagno in prep). Records of this species from elsewhere may be misidentifications (see ?Taxonomy? for further information).
161442		habitat	eng	Found over the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths between 300 and 1,400 m, and mostly between 300 and 600 m (Compagno in prep.). They have been taken at 370?610 m in the Eastern North Atlantic (Compagno in prep). It has also been reported at depths of 433?500 m off northern Mozambique, although this may refer to another species (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Little information is available on the biology of this species. Maximum size is about 100 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep.). A juvenile male and an adult male both measured 75 cm TL (Compagno in prep.). Four adult females (one pregnant) were 86?95 cm long (Compagno in prep.). Ovoviviparous reproduction, with one to six pups per litter (Compagno 1984). Size at birth is uncertain, but a near-term foetus was 33 cm TL (Compagno in prep.).
161442		population	eng	Little specific information is available on the population of this species. However, information is available on population trends for the similar species, <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em>, which occurs within this species? range (see ?Threats? section).
161442		threats	eng	This species is of concern because of its limited range, extremely low fecundity and subjection to deepwater fisheries in the northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic (Compagno in prep.). This species is utilized in the eastern Atlantic, and captured there in bottom trawls and with fixed bottom nets and line gear (Compagno in prep.). It is potentially threatened in any area where there is a targeted fishery.<br/><br/>The Portuguese longline fishery which targets Black Scabbard Fish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) at depths of 800?1,200 m off the coast of Portugal (ICES Subarea IX) takes a bycatch of the deepwater sharks, including <em>Centrophorus</em> species (ICES 2007). A Spanish longline fishery for <em>Pagellus bogaraveo</em> and a bottom trawl fishery off southern Portugal, which targets some deepwater crustaceans also take a bycatch of deepwater sharks (ICES 2007). In 2006 a new deep-water gillnet fishery was also initiated in this area and in waters northwest of Spain (ICES 2007). Off Portugal (ICES Subarea IX) the target species of this fishery are deep-water crab (283 tons) and several deep-water sharks (135 tons, plus 31 tons of livers and oil) (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>Identification problems mean that this species is commonly confused with its congener <em>C. granulosus</em>. <em>C. granulosus</em> is estimated to have undergone declines of 80?95% where it is fished in the northeast Atlantic. ICES (2006) landings data from the Portuguese coast show a strong estimated decline in <em>C. granulosus</em> catch from about 1,000 t in 1990 to less than 100 t in 2004 (Guallart <em>et al</em>. 2006). As <em>C. lusitanicus</em> is present along with <em>C. granulosus</em> in the Portuguese fishery it is highly likely that it has also been impacted. <em>Centrophorus</em> spp are very slow to mature, have extremely low fecundity and reproductive output, making them intrinsically very vulnerable to population depletion (longevity >30 years and one pup produced every two years). This is a large, heavy-built species (possibly reaches greater than 1 m length) and may therefore be even more biologically vulnerable to depletion than other <em>Centrophorus</em> species.<br/><br/>Deepwater fisheries also operate in the Eastern Central Atlantic and deepwater sharks are known to be targeted in some areas off Senegal. Off Kayar and Dakar, Senegal, an artisanal fishery targets <em>Centrophorus</em> species (including <em>C. lusitanicus</em>) for their liver oil (Direction des Pêches Maritimes du Sénégal 2007). The fishery uses gillnets to target deepwater sharks for part of the year. Fisheries are beginning to operate in deeper waters due to declines in catches of more coastal species (L. Mbaye pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is an upper slope fishery off Mauritania for hake that takes <em>Centrophorus</em> species as a bycatch (Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Important species within this group are <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em>, <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>, <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, <em>Centroscymnus crepidater</em>, <em>Dalatias licha</em>, <em>Deania profundorum</em>, and <em>Deania calcea</em>. In their study of landed bycatch from this fishery from 1992?2001, Fernández <em>et al</em>. (2005) report that the catch of these squalids declined from 158 tons (87% of elasmobranch landings) in 1992 to 22 tons (59%) in 2001, with a minimum of 3.5 tons in 1999. The decline may be attributable to a set of factors, including a shift in the depths fished, economic reasons (the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study) and probable over-exploitation of both the target and bycatch species. The fishery operates from 140?750 m depth, but currently tends to work at increasingly greater depths (with some variation according to the seasonal tides, and a recent average depth of up to 710 m per tide (2003 data from observers on commercial vessels)). Although this species is not currently reported from Mauritania, the trend for fisheries to expand into deeper waters in the Eastern Central Atlantic is of concern. Other fleets from Spain and other countries are also fishing in this area with both fresh and freezer vessels focusing on other demersal and semipelagic stocks, but little information is available to assess their impact on demersal stocks (Fernández <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161443		conservation	eng	None.
161443		distribution	eng	Widespread, but patchy distribution in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. <br/><br/>Western Central Atlantic: northern Gulf of México (USA, México). Southwest Atlantic: northeastern Brazil (States of Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco and Alagoas), southern Brazil, through Uruguay to Argentina. Central south Atlantic: oceanic between Argentina and South Africa. Northeast, eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Portugal, Madeira, Azores, Canary Islands, Liberia, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast to Gabon, Zaïre, Angola and Namibia. Western Indian: South Africa. Eastern Indian: Australia (Tasmania). Southwest Pacific: Australia (New South Wales) and New Zealand. Northwest Pacific: Japan (southeastern Honshu) (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984, Last and Stevens 1994, Cox and Francis 1997, Soto 2001, Compagno in prep. a).
161443		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Etmopterus pusillus</span> is found on or near the bottom of continental and insular slopes at depths of 150?1,000 m (possibly to 1,998 m); also oceanic in the Central South Atlantic from the surface to 710 m (Krefft 1980). In Moroccan waters, <em></em>the species is subdominant and mainly occurs at depths of 400?600 m (Litvinov 1993). The species is very common in Sierra Leone waters at depths of 200?500 m (Litvinov 1993). In Cape Verde this species is frequently caught at Nova Holanda Seamount, Maio, Santo Antao, South Nocolau, and Sal, between 400?1,100 m, but usually from 650?750 m. In Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, mature and immature <em>E. pusillus</em> are segregated by depth. Immature sharks (16.5?32.7 cm TL) are captured by bottom trawl nets at depths of 150?411 m. Mature sharks (<42.3 cm TL) are captured on bottom longlines in deeper water (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Very little is known about this species habitat, ecology and biology. Reproduction is aplacental viviparity. Total length (TL) at first maturity is 38?47 cm in females and 31?39 cm in males (Compagno in prep.). Data from off Portugal in the eastern Atlantic gives estimates of 38.1 cm TL for males and 43.6 cm TL for females (Coelho and Erzini 2005). Considering the observed maximum sizes of this population (47.9 cm for males and 50.2 cm for females), this species matures extremely late in its life cycle: 86.9% of the maximum size for females and 79.5% of the maximum size for males (Coelho and Erzini 2005). Size at birth (taken from final stage embryos) is 12.1?13.5 cm TL (Coelho unpublished data). Ovarian fecundity ranges from 8?18 eggs and uterine fecundity ranges from one to six embryos (Coelho unpub. data). In Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, female size at maturity is estimated at 47 cm TL and male size at maturity 38?41 cm TL (Shirai and Tachikawa 1993, S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Feeds on fish eggs, lanternfish, squid, and other small dogfish (Compagno in prep.). Off the coast of Namibia and South Africa, <em>E. pusillus</em> eats cephalopods, hake (Merluccidae, <em>Merluccius</em> spp.), lanternfish (Myctophidae, <em>Diaphus</em>), and small squaloid sharks (Compagno in prep.).
161443		population	eng	<em>Etmopterus pusillus</em> is much less common than <em>E. spinax</em>, although it may occur within the same depth range off Morocco to Mauritania (Gulyugin <em>et al.</em> 2006). Catch per unit effort data are available from trawls conducted off Portugal in the eastern Atlantic, at depths of 84?786 m; abundance peaked at 400 m depth, with captures of 1.5 individuals per hour.
161443		threats	eng	Although <em>E. pusillus</em> is of little interest to global fisheries, it is a bycatch of bottom trawls operating in the eastern Atlantic, fixed bottom nets, and line gear (Compagno in prep.). Although discarded by fisheries off southern Portugal, it is probably a utilized bycatch elsewhere in the eastern Atlantic. In Suruga Bay, Japan, this species is taken as bycatch by trawlnet fisheries and is usually discarded.<br/><br/>This species is captured in several fisheries off the southern Portuguese coast. Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) data for deep-water longlines set at 200?780 m depth have increased from 2.23 specimens of <em>E. pusillus</em> per 1,000 hooks (s.d.=2.72) in 1997?1998 (Erzini <em>et al</em>. 1999, Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2005) to 4.03 specimens per 1,000 hooks in 2003 (s.d.=2.30) (R. Coelho unpub. data). This represents an increase in CPUE of 80%. All samples were taken aboard commercial fishing vessels, where a number of variables cannot be standardized, namely the number of fishing days per specific depth, the number of fishing days per specific site, the number of fishing days per specific season, the size of the hooks and the bait used. Off southern Portugal, the species is also captured in high quantities as bycatch of the bottom trawl fishery that targets Norway Lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>), Red Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) and Deepwater Pink Shrimp (<em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>), and by the near bottom longline fishery that targets European Hake (<em>Merluccius merluccius</em>), Conger Eels (<em>Conger conger</em>) and Wreck Fish (<em>Polyprion americanus</em>). <em>Etmopterus pusillus</em> are apparently discarded by all fisheries off southern Portugal, and therefore no landings data are available for these fisheries (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Off the coast of western Africa (Namibia) in the southeast Atlantic, <em>E. pusillus</em> is caught occasionally in bottom and midwater trawls (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species is also presumably caught in deepwater trawls off Mauritania and Morocco as a result of the new silver scabbard deepwater longline fishery, which began in 2001, off Morocco (H. Masski pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Little information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries throughout the rest of its range, however these are not thought to pose a significant threat to the global population at present.<br/><br/>This species is utilized (dried-salted) for human consumption and for fishmeal in some areas (Compagno in prep.).
161444		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on this species.
161444		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: off the coast of Tohoku, Japan, and in the Sea of Okhotsk off western Kamchatka, eastern Sakhalin and southern Kuril Islands (Ishihara 1990, Russian Government Data).
161444		habitat	eng	Found on the continental slope at 1,776?2,500 m depth (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999). This species attains at least 94 cm TL (Russian State unpublished data). Virtually nothing is known about the species ecology and biology. Egg capsules measure 85 mm long x 49 mm wide (Dolganov 1998).
161444		population	eng	Apparently rare. Only one specimen is presently known from the Japanese waters (Dolganov 1985). Eight specimens have been recorded in the Sea of Okhotsk (Russian Government data). Frequency of occurrence in the Sea of Okhotsk during 1989 bottom trawl survey comprised 0.8% with catch rates of 0.2 specimens and 0.2 kg per hour trawling, which suggests that this species is very uncommon at the depths sampled (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992).
161444		threats	eng	The very deep distribution of the species means that it most likely occurs beyond the depths of most fisheries. The situation should be monitored if fisheries expand to greater depths in the future.
161445		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. The full depth and distributional range of this species requires further research. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161445		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Pakistan, west coast of India (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999). Eastern Indian Ocean: East coast of India (originally described from Tranquebar, south of Pondicherry), Myanmar (Carvalho 1999) and Sri Lanka (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra) (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999). Occurs in the Gulf of Thailand, although it is apparently rare there (Carvalho 1999). Northwest Pacific: Occurs in the South China Sea, although it appears to be rare there (Carvalho 1999). Occurs off China, Taiwan and Japan (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).
161445		habitat	eng	An inshore and offshore numbfish of continental tropical waters (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999). Males have been reported to mature at over 27 cm total length (TL) in the Gulf of Tonkin and over 24 cm TL off Malaysia (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005). Only one female specimen of 36.4 cm TL is known and is presumed to be mature (Carvalho 1999). Specimens of 5.5 cm TL may be free-swimming as they lack yolk sacs (Carvalho 1999). The maximum size reached by this species is at least 38 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999).
161445		population	eng	Locally common (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161445		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries. Demersal fishing pressure is intensive in areas of its range, although no specific details are available. Pollution and discharge of poor quality, heavily silted riverine waters may also be detrimentally affecting its habitat.
161446		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological, range and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161446		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: Recorded from southern Florida, Cuba, southern Gulf of Mexico, and eastern Yucatán (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161446		habitat	eng	A demersal species found along the continental shelf and upper slope from 32?384 m depth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).This species reaches a maximum size of at least 41 cm total length (TL) and mature males have been known at 41 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002), but may mature at a smaller size). It is presumably oviparous as in other skates, but little else is known of its biology.
161446		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161446		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch by shrimp trawl fisheries, although no information on catches is available.
161447		conservation	eng	None currently in place. Recommended: Monitoring of fishing effort within the region and specific catches of this guitarfish to detect potential declines in population size. Closer look at range of this species and use of specific critical costal habitats.
161447		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: from the northern Red Sea to Oman, including Sudan, Egypt and possibly Saudi Arabia (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004).
161447		habitat	eng	Tropical warm waters areas of the inshore continental shelf at depths of 10–70 (A. Henderson unpublished data). Bottom dwelling like other similar species of guitarfish, feeds on small crustaceans. Reproduction is ovoviviparous and the species reaches at least 88cm total length (TL) (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Maximum litter size is seven and size at birth is ~25 cm TL (A. Henderson unpublished data). The species appears to mature at <62 cm TL (A. Henderson unpublished data).
161447		population	eng	Population size unknown, but this is not a rare species (A. Baranes pers. comm. 2007).
161447		threats	eng	Caught incidentally with bottom trawls in the northern Red Sea and utilized fresh for human consumption (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Target fisheries for guitarfish also currently exist in the Red Sea, especially in the north. The species is taken as bycatch off Oman and sold fresh for consumption, but it is usually only seen in small numbers at the markets (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2008). Taiwanese operated fishing vessels reportedly fish for shark fin off East Africa and the Middle East in the Western Indian Ocean (IOTC 2005). These vessels reportedly target hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish (IOTC 2005). Guitarfish fins are highly valued and these vessels may take <em>Rhinobatos punctifer</em> off Oman, in the northern part of their reported range of operation. Little is known of this species’ biology or habitat but guitarfishes but, like other guitarfishes, their young may use coastal nursery grounds that are easily impacted by habitat degradation through pollution and coastal development.
161448		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161448		distribution	eng	Northwest  Pacific: Japan and Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Western Central Pacific: New Caledonia, Vanuatu (B. Séret. pers. comm. 2006) and possibly Java, Indonesia (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161448		habitat	eng	Probably demersal on outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 120–210 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also reported at depths of 561–564 m off Vanuatu 300–793 m off New Caledonia. Biology is unknown, but reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Attains a maximum size of approximately 30 cm total length (Compagno and Niem 1998). Feeds on squids (Compagno and Niem 1998).
161448		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161448		threats	eng	The depth distribution of the species may lie within the range of fisheries in Japan, Taiwan and possibly Indonesia. It is a rare and inedible species in Japan (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2006) and is therefore not targeted, but may potentially be taken as bycatch and possibly utilized for liver oil. In eastern Indonesia, deepsea longline fisheries operate from 150–600 m with the majority of fishing occurring in depths of less than 300 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Commercial prawn trawlers are known to land substantial catches of elasmobranchs as bycatch. So far trawling is restricted to shallower water, however according to White <em>et al.</em> (2006), in the future, trawl methods may be adopted in deeper water, especially if foreign fishing vessels are allowed access to Indonesian waters. Future expansion of the deepsea fishery in Indonesia is highly likely, with the potential to rapidly deplete the vulnerable deepwater chondrichthyan fauna (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species has been found at greater depths off New Caladonia and Vanuatu. Deepwater fisheries are very uncommon in this region. Like other Etmopterus species, this species is not targeted, most likely discarded if caught, and unlikely to be caught frequently on large commercial fishing hooks.
161449		conservation	eng	Further specimens are required to obtain information on life history.
161449		distribution	eng	Restricted range in the western central Atlantic: USA (southern Florida), Bahamas and northern Cuba (Compagno in prep. b.).
161449		habitat	eng	Upper continental slope at depths of 229?550 m (most records below 366 m) (Compagno in prep. b.). Virtually nothing known of the species? biology. Reaches a maximum size of ~32 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b.).
161449		population	eng	Reported to be uncommon (Compagno in prep. b.).
161449		threats	eng	May be taken in demersal deepwater trawl fisheries, but this species is very rarely caught (J. Castro, pers. comm.).
161450		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed on the species’ full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.
161450		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: collected from the continental slope off Tanimbar Island in the Arafura Sea, Indonesia (Séret and Last 2007).
161450		habitat	eng	Recorded on the continental slope at depths of 840–855 m. The only specimen, a juvenile male, measured 36 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007).
161450		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen.
161450		threats	eng	Uncertain.
161451		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161451		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: Gulf of California, Mexico. East and north of Angel de la Guarda Island in the northern Gulf and west  of Santa Cruz and Monserrat Islands and in Bahia La Ventana in the southern Gulf. (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also off southwest coast of the Peninsula of Baja California, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161451		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Gulf of California from 100?281 m depth. It is thought to occur from 100 m depth in the southern Gulf and below 200 m in the northern Gulf (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al. </em>2005). Males of this species reach at least 109 cm total length (TL) and females at least 118 cm TL (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males and females are thought to mature at between 90?99 and 94?98 cm TL, respectively (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>Reproduction in this species is placental viviparity, and liter size is 3?23 (mean 16); embryos measure 25?34 cm TL (mean 29 cm), suggesting young are likely to be born between 30?35 cm TL (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al. </em>2005).
161451		population	eng	A recently described species; population size is unknown at present.
161451		threats	eng	In some areas of the Gulf of California smoothounds represent 79% of the catch in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Márquez-Farias 2000). These catches have not been recorded for each species as they had not been adequately distinguished previously (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In the Northern Gulf of California, this species was only caught in March of 2003 and 2004 as trawler vessels targeting Hake (Merluccius productus) only fish from January to April at below 150 m. During the rest of the year, the trawl vessels fish at shallower depths to target other teleosts, shrimps and some elasmobranchs (Pérez-Jiménez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). This may offer some refuge from fishing pressure during these periods, although no information is available on the capture of this species in other fisheries. Extensive artisanal coastal gillnet fisheries also operate in the Gulf of California and may take this species as bycatch.
161452		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place for this species.<br/><br/>The trawl fisheries operating off California are slowly closing down and fleets are 25% of what they used to be (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). The Davidson Seamount, located 75 km off the central Californian Coast (within the known range of this species) has been proposed as a Marine Protected Area (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Like many deeper water species more information on biology and ecology are required.
161452		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: from the Navarin Canyon, Eastern Bering Sea to Panama (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Ebert 2003).
161452		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate occurring on the continental slope at depths ranging from 846 to 2,324 m (Ebert 2003). Feeds on cephalopods, crustaceans, and small fishes (Ebert 2003). This species is often seen in ROV footage on deep rocky relief areas (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Males reach maturity at 86 to 83 cm total length (TL) (Ebert 2003). Maximum size is 99 cm TL and size at birth ~23 cm TL (Ebert 2003).
161452		population	eng	The species is only known from few specimens scattered throughout its broad geographic range. Population size is unknown. Commonly seen in ROV footage below 1,500 m, along the whole of the eastern North Pacific Coast (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161452		threats	eng	Potentially taken as bycatch in deepwater sablefish longline fisheries (in southern California to approximately 600 to 1,200 m), operating in the shallower depths of this species’ range, although there are no records of this over the past five years (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). However its wide depth range offers a refuge beyond the depths of most fisheries. This species’ apparent habitat preference for rocky reefs precludes its capture in most trawl fisheries (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161453		conservation	eng	<em>D. pastinaca</em> is protected within five of the six existing Balearic Island marine reserves. Although artisanal fishing is allowed within these marine protected areas (MPAs), these stingrays must be released alive if caught. Accurate monitoring of artisanal catch in those areas where the species is very commonly taken is needed to provide information on the size of the population.
161453		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic: from southern Norway and the UK to South Africa, including the Canary Islands, Madeira, western Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2002, Serena 2005). In Celtic Seas this species is regarded as a vagrant from more southern waters (ICES 2005a). The few observations of this species in the North Sea are restricted to Shetland waters and the southern North Sea, where they are occasionally caught in inshore surveys (ICES 2005b). This ray has a higher presence in the western-central Mediterranean area (coasts of Morocco, Spain, France, Tyrrhenian, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) than elsewhere in the Mediterranean region (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).
161453		habitat	eng	<em>Dasyatis pastinaca</em> is a demersal brackish to marine water species, found over sandy and muddy bottoms from shallow waters to a depth of approximately 200 m (Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1984), although it seems to be most abundant in inshore waters. Bottom trawl surveys in the Mediterranean Sea suggest that it is more common in waters <50 m depth (Morey <em>et al.</em> In review, Massuti and Moranta 2003, Relini <em>et al. </em>2000). This species can sometimes inhabit areas close to estuaries and over rocky reefs. Depth distribution of the biomass index shows values of 1¬?10 kg/km² between depths of 0?100 m, and 0.1?1 kg/km² at depths of 100?200 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>D. pastinaca</em> reaches a maximum reported size of 140 cm disc width (DW) and 250 cm total length (TL) (Bauchot 1987, Fisher <em>et al. </em>1987, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). The size at maturity of females is estimated at about 38 cm DW (Capape <em>et al. </em>1996) and 60 cm TL/28 cm DW (Ismen 2003). Males mature at a smaller size, estimates ranging from 32 cm DW (Capape <em>et al. </em>1996) and 50 cm TL/26 cm DW (Ismen 2003). The age at maturity and longevity of this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Females reproduce twice a year (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998), however the reproductive age and period of gestation is unknown. In the northern Adriatic, reproduction takes place between September and May, during which pregnant females approach the coast. Bini (1967) reported that pupping occurred between July and August, and 4?9 pups/litter are produced (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Several localities where the species aggregates during mid June and July are known in the Balearic Islands. These aggregations of mature stingrays are probably related to reproduction (Morey <em>et al. </em>in review.). Young specimens are common in shallow waters over sandy bottoms, and parturition was reported to occur in early July in the eastern Mediterranean (Ismen 2003). Neonates are approximately 20 cm TL (8 cm DW) (Ismen 2003). The rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.<br/><br/><em>D. pastinaca</em> feed mainly on demersal and benthic animals, such as crustaceans, cephalopods, clams, polychaetes and fish (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Whitehead<em> et al.</em> 1984). In a study by Ismen (2003), crustaceans represented more than 99% of the diet when pooling all size classes, but teleost fish were of increasing importance in the diet of larger stingrays.
161453		population	eng	<strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>There is no information on the size of the population of this species within the Mediterranean, however the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) from 1994?1999 revealed a low frequency of occurrence for <em>D. pastinaca</em>. It appeared in 49 hauls, which was only 0.5% of the total number of hauls, but these surveys only sampled depths from 50?800 m and this species is more common in shallow waters <50 m depth. Comparative trawl surveys conducted in 1948 (Hvar) and 1998 (MEDITS) in the Adriatic Sea (both up to 400 m depth) suggest that the abundance of <em>D. pastinaca</em> may have decreased during this period. The frequency of occurrence (frequency log transformed data) of <em>D. pastinaca</em> on the shelf according to the 1948 survey was ~0.5, whereas frequency of occurrence on the shelf in the 1998 survey was <0.1 (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al. </em>2001). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Northeast Atlantic the common stingray is clearly less abundant than in the Mediterranean. <em>D. pastinaca</em> has reportedly disappeared from the Bay of Biscay (Quero1998), as observed for other demersal elasmobranch species. The average catch rate for this species caught during the quarter 1 IBTS in the North Sea, Skagerrak and Kattegat is 0.0006 (number per hour, 1977?2004) (ICES 2005b). Within UK groundfish surveys, <em>Dasyatis pastinaca</em> was only recorded occasionally in the western English Channel at depths of 17?160 m (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005).
161453		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch and is sometimes targeted in semi-industrial, small-scale and commercial bottom trawl, gillnet, beach seine, bottom longline and trammelnet fisheries. Commercial fishermen often cut off the tails of stingrays following capture and prior to discarding, although it is unclear as to how this affects discard survival (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Little data are available on catches as a result of discarding at sea. The species? preference for shallow waters (<50 m) makes it more vulnerable to small-scale inshore fisheries than to offshore trawling. For example, <em>D. pastinaca</em> made up more than 40% of the elasmobranch biomass captured in the trammel net fishery off the Balearic Islands (Morey <em>et al</em>. in review.). Small scale fisheries operating within this species? shallow water range in the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic make up an important component of the European fishing fleet (Stergiou <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not recorded in recent (1999-2000) experimental fishing trials with trammel nets conducted within several parts of this species? known range in the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic (Stergiou <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is a ban on trawling within 3 nm of the coast for EU countries, however there are some exceptions to this, and both legal and illegal trawling continues to occur in shallow waters in parts of the northern Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Important grounds for reproduction (mating, parturition, nursery areas) seem to be associated with shallow sandy bottoms, which human disturbance (e.g. tourism activities on beaches) or fishing pressure (trammel and gillnets targeting cuttlefish, mullets, bass and flatfishes, and trawling) impact.
161454		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Assessment and monitoring of catches in fisheries and surveys is required to determine population trends throughout this species? range. There is a particular need to collect information on catches and population trends from the southern part of its range.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161454		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: this species occurs off Russia, Japan, China and Korea. It ranges from southeastern Kamchatka, along Kuril Islands south to Okinawa Islands in the East China Sea (Ishihara 1990, Fedorov <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly off Taiwan, Province of China (T.K. Shao pers. comm.). This species is also widely distributed in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1985). In the Sea of Japan it is distributed from Tatar Strait off the western Sakhalin in the north to both coasts of South Korea (Orlov and Tokranov 2005).
161454		habitat	eng	This deepwater skate is found on the continental slope at 370?2,000 m depth (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000). Off Japan it occurs at 450?1,480 m and off western Kamchatka it occurs at 650?1,200 m (Dolganov 1985, Ishihara 1990).<br/><br/>Females are reported to mature at 5?6 years and 67.2?71.6 cm total length (TL) and males at 4?5 years and 62.5?69.2 cm TL, respectively (Dolganov 1998). The species attains a maximum size of 78 cm TL (Dolganov 2005). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Egg capsules measure 64?76 mm long and 46 x 48 mm wide (Dolganov 1998). Little else is known of the biology and ecology of this species.
161454		population	eng	Dolganov (1985) reported that this is the most abundant skate in Pacific continental slope waters off eastern Japan (Dolganov 1985). In a 1989 bottom trawl survey, covering the entire Sea of Okhotsk, conducted at depths of 300?2,025 m, frequency of occurrence of this species comprised 14.8%, with catch rates of 1.4 kg per hour of trawling. This species ranked fourth out of 16 skate species in catches from this area and is therefore assumed to be common here (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992). The abundance of the species in the rest of its area of occurrence is unknown (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).
161454		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch in deepwater demersal trawl and longline fisheries operating within its range, however it is primarily distributed outside the range of fisheries. Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries within the northern areas of this species? range (Japan and Russia) currently operate down to depths of 500?800 m (A.M. Orlov and H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2008), offering the species refuge at the deeper extent of its bathymetric distribution (370?2,000 m). Currently no information is available on the depths at which fisheries operate at the southern extent of its range, off China and Korea, and information on the interaction of this species with fisheries there is required.
161455		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place.<br/><br/>Research is required on the species’ biology, abundance and capture in fisheries.
161455		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: Southern Baja California and Gulf of California, Mexico (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161455		habitat	eng	A little known shark of the upper continental slope and outermost shelf, found on or near the bottom at depths of 155–927 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, with two pups per litter (Compagno 1984). A small shark of about 10 cm when born, and growing to a maximum length of about 28 cm total length (TL). Adult males mature at 19 cm TL and females at 24 cm TL (Compagno 1984).
161455		population	eng	Thought to be abundant in the Gulf of California (Compagno 1984).
161455		threats	eng	A possible bycatch of trawl fisheries operating throughout its geographic range, but no specific information is available. Its depth range may extend beyond the range of current fisheries, offering refuge from fishing pressure. Fishing pressure from shrimp trawlers is intense within this species range, but no information is currently available on the depths fished. The Mexican industrial fleet includes 2,407 shrimp trawlers, as well as 990 vessels catching finfish and other species like octopus (FAO 2007). Of these, 70% of the shrimp trawlers operate on the Pacific coast and almost all of them (around 90% of the Pacific shrimp fleet) are concentrated in the four states surrounding the Gulf of California (Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California and Baja California Sur) (FAO 2007).
161456		conservation	eng	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the northwest and western central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.
161456		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: East China Sea (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a, Walsh and Ebert 2007), continental waters surrounding northern Taiwan, Province of China, and East Taiwan Strait (Shuyuan 1994).<br/><br/>Specimens from the Philippines previously identified as this species were misidentified. These specimens are likely an undescribed species (J.H. Walsh and D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161456		habitat	eng	A little known species, caught at or near the bottom on the continental shelf, usually at depths of 100?300 m, although it is likely to occur in shallower depths also (D.A. Ebert unpublished data). Other angel sharks are known to bury themselves in sediment and ambush their prey.<br/><br/>Though life history parameters are unknown, this species is thought to be slow growing and late maturing like other species of angel shark. Reproduction is aplacental viviparity (D.A. Ebert unpublished data). Size at maturity is unknown, but large, in excess of 100 cm total length (TL) (D.A. Ebert unpublished data). Maximum recorded size is 150 cm TL and size at birth is ~30?40 cm TL (D.A. Ebert unpub. data).
161456		population	eng	No details are available on the population of this species. Individuals are found in local fish markets in Taiwan. Little data exist due to a total lack of known catch records for this species and problems distinguishing individuals of this species from other northwest Pacific angel sharks.<br/><br/>Where population data are available for other angel sharks, declines greater than 80% have been observed in less than three generations, within areas where target or bycatch fisheries take place. For example, <em>Squatina squatina</em> has been extirpated from several parts of its range in the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean, where it is taken as bycatch, as a result of continued intense fishing pressure (Morey <em>et al</em>. 2006, ICES 2004).
161456		threats	eng	Taiwan?s main fisheries operate throughout the entire known range of this species (D.A. Ebert pers obs. 2007). It is caught in bottom trawl fisheries, which operate between 50 and 300 m (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). This species is utilized and is found in local fish markets, but it is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations.<br/><br/>The East China Sea is intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004). Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g. <em>Squatina californica</em>, <em>S. squatina</em>, <em>S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Squatina guggenheim and Squatina occulta, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).
161457		conservation	eng	None in place.
161457		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: ranges from Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Galvan 2000) to Ecuador (Amezcua-Linares 1996), including the Gulf of California (McEachran 1995).
161457		habitat	eng	Found in tropical waters over soft bottom (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941), from shallow, nearshore regions to 112 m depth (Amezcua-Linares 1996). The maximum total length recorded for this species is 89 cm (total length) (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous.
161457		population	eng	Unknown.
161457		threats	eng	Caught by smallscale, artisanal gillnet fisheries off Bahia de Navidad, Mexico (Godınez-Domınguez <em>et al</em>. 2000). Caught in artisanal gillnet fisheries in Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico, especially during spring and summer months in association with reproductive aggregations in shallow nearshore and insular waters (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2007). Also reported in landings from Baja California Sur. Whereas <em>R. productus</em> is the dominant guitarfish in Sonora landings, <em>R. glaucostigma</em> replaces this species in coastal waters and in artisanal fisheries landings of Sinaloa (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161458		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. Research is required on this species’ range, habitat and ecology, population and threats to it.
161458		distribution	eng	Indo-West Pacific: this species is known only from very few specimens and its distribution is not well-defined. The holotype was taken from the “East Indies” but no specific station data are available to confirm the location. Three specimens were recorded from Dumaguete, Oriental Negros Province, Philippines but these require confirmation (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005 a,b). It is also possible that the “East Indies” locality of USNM–43749, collected by the RV Albatross on its 1907 to 1910 Philippine Expedition, was erroneous and that the holotype came from the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005b).
161458		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology are largely unknown. Largest specimen examined measured 36 cm total length (TL), but adult size is unknown (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a).
161458		population	eng	Known only from few specimens (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005 a,b).
161458		threats	eng	Uncertain. This species would be vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl fisheries, but no information is available.
161459		conservation	eng	None. Research is required on taxonomy, occurrence, abundance, life-history and fisheries related mortality.
161459		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: apparently only found on the shelf and upper slope of Madeira (Portugal) (Stehmann 1971, 1973, 1979; Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). Reports of this species elsewhere in the eastern central Atlantic are misidentifications, and the identity of a similar form in the Azores still needs to be clarified (see Taxonomy section).
161459		habitat	eng	This species is found on the upper shelf and slope at depth to at least 150 m (Stehmann 1971, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Attains a maximum size of 70?80 cm (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984) and probably matures at >50 cm TL (Stehmann 1971) but no other information is available on its biology.
161459		population	eng	Moderately common, but no other information is available on the population.
161459		threats	eng	The continental shelf and slope off Madeira is too rough for trawling and this species is only very rarely caught as bycatch in line fisheries (P. Wirtz pers. comm. 2008).
161460		conservation	eng	None. Fisheries operating within this species' relatively restricted range should be monitored.
161460		distribution	eng	Restricted range in the western central Atlantic: Caribbean coasts of Panama and Colombia (Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000).
161460		habitat	eng	A deepwater species of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 431–549 m (Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000). Little known about its biology. Although the reproductive mode of this species had been in question, Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported this species as oviparous. Reaches a maximum size of 34.5 cm TL (largest verifiable size in the literature; Konstantinou and Cozzi 1998).
161460		population	eng	Unknown.
161460		threats	eng	A potential bycatch of trawls, but very little information is available on fisheries operating within its bathymetric range. Deepwater shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Pacific Colombia, but are not known to operate in Colombia’s Caribbean waters (J.P. Caldas pers. comm. 2008). Demersal fisheries for shrimp also exist on the Caribbean coast of Panama, but again, no specific information is available on the depths fished. This species’ apparently restricted geographic and bathymetric range would make it vulnerable to depletion.
161461		conservation	eng	Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g. mesh size regulations, effort reduction).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this rare species (as well as other skates) may benefit from designated non-trawling areas to protect a fraction of the adult population and eggs (often found in the trawl cod-end) (Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161461		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: occurs in the offshore waters of the continental shelf from Madeira and northern Morocco northwards to Iceland, Faeroe Islands and Norway, including the Skagerrak (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). It is an offshore species usually occurring on the outer parts of the continental shelf, and, in the northern part of its range, is typically encountered in the northern North Sea, off North-west Scotland, west of Ireland and Celtic Sea. It does not usually occur in shallower areas (e.g. southern North Sea and Irish Sea).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: western and central-eastern Mediterranean to Tunisia and western coasts of Greece (except the Adriatic Sea). Countries of occurrence; Algeria, France, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain and Tunisia (Bauchot 1987, Bertrand <em>et al. </em>2000, Marano <em>et al.</em> in press, Relini <em>et al. </em>2000, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Tinti <em>et al. </em>2003).
161461		habitat	eng	Benthic in offshore shelf waters and on upper slopes, generally in waters of 30–550 m depth (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a). It is found mainly at depths of around 200 m on sandy and coarse bottoms. In the Mediterranean, this species occurs in relatively cold coastal waters and on upper parts of continental slopes in about 30–550 m, but has also been captured in deeper water down to 800 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Bertrand <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stehmann and Burkel 1987). This species reaches a maximum size of 100–110 cm (Bauchot 1987). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, and egg-cases measure about 8 cm by 5 cm excluding horns (Stehmann and Burkel 1984).<br/><br/>Little is known of the life-history parameters of this species. Age and size at maturity, longevity, size at birth, reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, fecundity, rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown. Leucoraja fullonica feeds on a variety of bottom-dwelling animals, and is thought to mainly eat fish.
161461		population	eng	Accurate determination of abundance trends in the northeast Atlantic are not possible, as most earlier surveys have focused on shelf fishing grounds, with no long-term, standardised surveys sampling off the edge of the continental shelf. Reported French landings for this species were more than 370 tonnes in 1983, but since 1984 annual landings have been more stable and averaged about 75 tonnes. Species-specific landings data prior to this are not available. Trends in surveys are difficult to determine accurately due in part to limited time-series data for this species, and given some uncertainty in the taxonomic identification in earlier survey. English (Cefas) surveys in the North Sea have not recorded this species since 1998, though occasional specimens are taken in the Celtic Sea. Scottish (FRS) surveys continue to record shagreen ray in various surveys around Scotland. Given the low numbers caught in surveys in offshore shelf habitats, it is possible that the main part of the distribution is now in deeper water, such as along the edge of the continental shelf. Indeed, most of the recent captures of this species in Scottish surveys have been made in waters deeper than 200 m.<br/><br/>This species was captured in only seven of 6,336 tows (between 200–800 m depth) of the MEDITS research trawl surveys performed throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea from 1994–1999 in depths ranging from 10–800 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). The MEDITS trawl survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> was not captured in the Gulf of Lions, eastern Mediterranean in a time series of comparative trawl surveys. This time series runs from 1957–1995 and consists of eight separate surveys conducted by a four different of survey vessels (Aldebert 1997). A total of 1,359 tows were conducted in shelf and slope areas between depths from the coast down to 800 m, which includes the known depth range of this species (Aldebert 1997). <em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> was not captured in either recent or historical surveys of the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic 1999). Trawl surveys in the south Ligurian and north Thyrrenian seas suggest that the species is rare there, with few specimens captured between 1985 and 2004 (at depths of 366–549 m) (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161461		threats	eng	Taken as a bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries through much of its range. This species is a bycatch in mixed trawl fisheries operating in the outer parts and edge of the continental shelf in the northeast Atlantic. It may also be taken as a bycatch in gillnet fisheries targeting anglerfish and longline fisheries targeting hake, though information on the catches in these fisheries are poor. The potential threat of deepwater fisheries within the deeper part of the species range is also a possible cause for concern. Due to its offshore habitat, it is of no importance to recreational fisheries. The relatively large body-size (100 cm) would also indicate that this species is vulnerable to over-fishing.<br/><br/><em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> occurs within the range of multispecies trawl fisheries operating on the continental shelf and slope of the Mediterranean sea. It is caught as bycatch by both bottom trawl and longline fisheries there also (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005).
161462		conservation	eng	No management or conservation measures are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Given the species? limited range, catches need to be monitored and further study of the impact of fisheries on this species is required.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161462		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: endemic to Japan, Southern Hokkaido to Choshi, Honshu (Ishihara 1990, Dolganov 1998).
161462		habitat	eng	A medium sized deepwater skate, found on lower shelf and upper continental slope at depths between 100-1,000 m (Ishihara 1990). Maximum recorded size is 87.7cm total length (TL) for females and 85.9 cm TL for males (Dolganov 2005). Females mature at 5-7 years, reaching a total length of 67-70 cm and males mature at 5?6 years, reaching a total length of 64-69 cm (Dolganov 1998). Egg capsules are 10.6-12.0 cm in length and 7.6-7.8 cm wide (Dolganov 1998). Virtually nothing else is known about this species? ecology and biology. Reproduction is presumably oviparous like other skates.
161462		population	eng	Very little is known about the population of this species.
161462		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. This fishery is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). Increased fishing pressure, particularly and expansion of pressure into deeper water, could pose a threat to this species.
161463		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of catches is required. Further research is needed on the species? biology, life-history parameters and population trends.
161463		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: from southern Portugal and along the western coast of Africa, off Morocco, Mauritania and Senegal. Infrequent records from the Mediterranean Sea (M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006, Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The large majority of individuals of this species recorded in the Parc National du Banc d?Arguin (PNBA), Mauritania were immature, suggesting that this National Marine Park may be a nursery area for this species (PNBA unpublished database, B. Séret pers. obs.).
161463		habitat	eng	This species is common in shallow waters on the continental shelf at ~30 m depth (B. Séret pers. obs.), although it may occur to at least 100m depth (it was found at 50-100m depth in MEDITS trawl surveys in the Mediterranean) (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>Limited data are available on the species? life history parameters from the Parc National du Banc d?Arguin, Mauritania. The PNBA database contains records of 1,500 females and 100 males of this species, most of which were immature, ranging from 66?75 cm disc width (DW) (PNBA unpublished database). Males were estimated to mature at 77 cm DW and females at 80 cm DW. Maximum size was 102cm DW, but the species may reach a larger size. Few females were gravid, with only one pup. Parturition appears to take place in April-May and breeding in June (PNBA unpublished database, B. Séret pers. obs.).<br/><br/>No age data are available for this species, but age data are available for its congener <em>R. bonasus </em>to use as a proxy for generation period. Neer and Thompson (2005) that <em>R. bonasus</em> reach age at maturity at 4?5 years and females live to 18+ years in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Using the formula age of maturity + 0.5*(length of reproductive period in life cycle), generation period can be estimated at 11.25 years (4.5+ (0.5*(18-4.5)) =11.25). Although the generation period for <em>R. marginata</em> may prove to differ from <em>R. bonasus</em>, 11 years could be considered a rough proxy.
161463		population	eng	Apparently common along the coast of western Africa, from Guinea to Mauritania (M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006). No data are currently available to analyse trends in abundance.<br/><br/>This species is apparently rare in the Mediterranean Sea and occurred in only two hauls (in the eastern Ionian Sea) of a total of 6,336 in scientific trawl surveys (MEDITS) conducted between 1994?1999 (at depths of 10?800 m) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).
161463		threats	eng	This species is taken by bottom trawls, trammelnets, longlines, and on hook and line (Schneider 1990) and is retained and utilised. They are also easily caught in coastal fisheries along the coast of western Africa, with purse-seines and gillnets (M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006). Rhinopterids have been heavily fished in areas along the western African coast and their aggregating habit makes them susceptible to capture in large schools. This species is most common in shallow waters on the continental shelf, where fishing pressure generally intensive. This species is important in fisheries landings in Mauritania, particularly in the trammel-net fishery (B. Séret, M. Ducrocq pers. obs.). Most individuals recorded in catches in the Parc National du Banc d?Arguin (PNBA) were immature and the species is still captured in gillnet fisheries targeting sciaenids there (PNBA unpublished database, M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006). The Banc d?Arguin is threatened with overfishing, outside the Park, by international industrial-scale exploitation and by neighbouring pirate fishing fleets within it (UNEP-WCMC 2002).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure from commercial trawl fisheries is generally intensive on the continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea (at depths ranging from 50 to 700?800 m), which this species may be vulnerable to, although no data are available (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>This species has very low fecundity, a generation period inferred to exceed 11 years and is relatively large. These limiting life-history characteristics, combined with its vulnerability to coastal fisheries, which are generally very intensive throughout much of its range, suggest that continued fishing pressure is likely to be unsustainable for this species.<br/><br/>Similar species (such as <em>R. bonasus</em>) are known to be destructive to commercial oyster and clam beds, so persecution from aquaculture operators may be possible also.
161464		conservation	eng	Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations, effort reduction).<br/><br/>Future analyses should examine the long-term distribution and relative abundance of this species (ICES 2007). In the first instance, data on the occurrence of this species should be collated to enable this (ICES 2007). Appropriate non-trawling areas should be defined to protect a proportion of both the adult population and this skate’s eggs (which are often found in the trawl cod-end) (Ragonese<em> et al.</em> 2003).
161464		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic, from northern Morocco northwards to Scotland, Iceland, southern Norway and northern part of North Sea and Skagerrak.<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: Western Mediterranean to Libya and absent from the Black Sea. Countries of occurrence include: Albania, Algeria, Croatia, France, Italy, Greece, Montenegro, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998, Serena 2005).
161464		habitat	eng	Benthic in offshore shelf waters and on upper slopes, in waters of 50–800 m depth. Traditionally, it was thought to be found mainly around 100 m depth on sandy and muddy bottoms, though it has been suggested that it is now more abundant in deeper waters. For example, within the Mediterranean, <em>L. circularis</em> was previously found on shelf and slope bottoms between 70 and 275 m (mainly at around 100m) but now it is found in deeper waters between 500 and 800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Reproduction is oviparous with eggcases 90 x 50 mm (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). The spawning period is undefined (Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998). The size at maturity of males is 70–80 cm in the Mediterranean (N. Ungaro pers. comm.) and the maximum recorded size is 120 cm (Serena 2005). This species is piscivorous, feeding on a variety of fishes, including both teleosts (Angulliformes <em>Clopsis bicolor</em>, <em>Osteichthyes</em> n.d) and chondrichthyans (<em>Etmopterus spinax, Galeus melastomus</em>) (Vannucci 2005). Age at maturity, longevity, size at birth, reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, fecundity, rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.
161464		population	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/><em>Leucoraja circularis</em> is comparatively rare in the Northeast Atlantic. Accurate determination of abundance trends are not possible, as most earlier surveys have focused on shelf fishing grounds, with no long-term, standardised surveys sampling off the edge of the continental shelf. Nevertheless, French landings data for this species have declined from about 500 tonnes per year in the early 1990s to about 300 tonnes per year. Species-specific landings data prior to this are not available. Trends in surveys are difficult to determine accurately due in part to limited time-series data for this species, and given some uncertainty in the taxonomic identification in earlier surveys. English (Cefas) surveys in the North Sea and Celtic Sea have not recorded this species since 1996 and 1997 respectively, though Scottish (FRS) surveys continue to record sandy ray in various surveys around Scotland. Given the low numbers caught in surveys in offshore shelf habitats, it is possible that the main part of the distribution is now in deeper water, such as along the edge of the continental shelf. Indeed, most of the recent captures of this species in Scottish surveys have been made in waters of 180–500 m depth. Given the decline in French landings in recent years, and that the distribution has contracted (or shifted) to deeper waters, it is assumed that the population has declined in the Northeast Atlantic. However, there is uncertainty in the magnitude of the decline in abundance for the population as a whole.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) covers the north Mediterranean coast, almost continuously, from west Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows have been performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m. The Sandy Ray was recorded in only 12 hauls in the western area (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). The evidence that this species may now only be found in the western area of the Mediterranean points to a substantial reduction in area of occurrence of this species. Its depth range also appears to have contracted as it was previously found on shelf and slope bottoms between 70 and 275 m, mainly at around 100 m, but now it is found only in deeper waters between 500 to 800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). The overall biomass index assessed through MEDITS in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was 0.1kg/km² (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>The occurrence of Sandy Ray in the Mediterranean appears to have decreased significantly in the last 50 years. <em>Leucoraja circularis</em> was present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys of the Gulf of Lions in 1957–1960 but is now absent from more recent comparable surveys. Between 1957 and 1960 the Sandy Ray was captured in >10% of hauls in shelf surveys and in approximately 17% of hauls in slope surveys. Whereas between 1966 and 1995 it was not recorded at all from 1,295 hauls in eight trawl surveys (Aldebert 1997).<br/><br/>In the south Ligurian and north Thyrrenian seas this species can be considered rare based on capture rates, from 1985–2005 only 10 specimens were caught in the bathyal zone (352–566 m of depth). The size range was 26–91 cm in total length (Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161464		threats	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is a bycatch in mixed trawl fisheries operating in the outer parts and edge of the continental shelf. It may also be taken as a bycatch in gillnet fisheries targeting anglerfish and longline fisheries targeting hake, though information on the catches in these fisheries are poor. The potential threat of deepwater fisheries within the deeper part of the species range is also a possible cause for concern. The relatively large body-size (120 cm) would also indicate that this species is vulnerable to over-fishing. Due to its offshore habitat, it is of no importance to recreational fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>This species is of local fishery importance (Serena 2005). The sandy ray in the Mediterranean is captured as bycatch of multi-species trawl fisheries and offshore bottom longlines. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats with a total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp; more recently effort has increased to a total of 19,940 hp (1974–1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). Although little is known of the life history we can presume from similar species that it will have slow growth, low fecundity and large size of juveniles making it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes, including the eggcases, are taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm (and eggcases reach 90 x 50 mm (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984)). The full retention of the cod end of the currently used gear types and the 20 mm mesh size commonly used in the Mediterranean mean that all life stages of this species are fished.<br/><br/>The potential threat of development of deepwater fisheries within this species is range is a possible cause for concern in the future. Although the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), the main intergovernmental decision-making body on fishery management in the Mediterranean, has made the decision to refrain from expanding deep water fishing operations beyond the limit of 1,000 m, this species is not known to occur below 800 m. For more information, see: iucn.org/places/medoffice/documentos/deepsea_en.pdf.
161465		conservation	eng	None in place. Full assessment and careful monitoring of population trends and catch data are required.
161465		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: known only from Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and southwestern Sabah), and Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, Indonesia (Last <em>et al</em>. 2005, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161465		habitat	eng	This stingray occurs primarily in mangrove estuaries and turbid coastal marine habitats (Last <em>et al</em>. 2005, Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Most commonly occurs in very shallow waters at <10 m depth, but possibly down to 30 m. Attains a maximum size of at least 72cm disc width (DW) (Fahmi unpublished data). Females mature at 50?60 cm DW and males mature at 28?40 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Fahmi unpublished data). Reproduction is presumably viviparous, with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is ~22?23 cm DW (Fahmi unpublished data). One pregnant female observed contained one pup.
161465		population	eng	Population size of this species is unknown.
161465		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are capture in fisheries and destruction and degradation of its shallow water habitat. It is captured in bottom longline fisheries targeting rays in eastern and western Kalimantan (Fahmi unpublished data). It is also caught occasionally by bottom trawl and demersal gillnet fisheries operating off Sumatra and Kalimantan (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). All catches are retained and utilised for meat and probably also its skin (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Fahmi unpublished data). The level of exploitation on its shallow water habitat is very high and it is considered to be at a very high level of threat throughout its range.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and pollution (chemical) through aquaculture (specifically conversion of mangrove habitat into shrimp farms), mining and coastal development is a major threat to this species. This species is known to be associated with mangrove habitat in very shallow water (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007) and is therefore considered highly vulnerable to destruction of this habitat. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms (Malaysia, East Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra), excessive logging, urban development (Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi) (FAO 2007). Indonesia lost about 1,300,000 hectares of mangroves from 1980?2005 (>30% of mangrove area in 1980) and Malaysia lost about 110,000 hectares during the same period (>16% of mangrove area in 1980) (FAO 2007). This represents a loss of >30% of combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia. In addition to loss of mangrove forests, extensive habitat degradation through destructive fishing practices and pollution has also impacted this species? shallow water habitat.
161466		conservation	eng	Measures in place<br/><br/>California?s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18 percent) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing.<br/><br/>Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).
161466		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: known from the Straits of Juan de Fuca off British Colombia, Canada and Washington, USA, as well as Oregon, California, and central Baja California, Mexico. Also, from the Gulf of California (Benson <em>et al</em>. 2001, Miller and Lea 1972, McEachran and Notobartolo di Sciara 1995).
161466		habitat	eng	Found on soft bottoms at depths of 17?671 m (Ebert 2003, Miller and Lea 1972). Males are reported to mature at about 47 cm total length (TL) and females at about 52 cm TL (Ebert 2003). The maximum reported size is 76 cm TL (Jordan and Gilbert 1881). Size at birth is 15?23 cm TL (Ebert 2003). They are reported to feed on small benthic invertebrates including polychaete worms and shrimp (Ebert 2003).
161466		population	eng	Nothing is known on its population structure or status. Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. However, extensive surveys and collation of catch statistics for northeast and eastern central Pacific waters (including California, Oregon, and Washington) have been conducted (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161466		threats	eng	Usually a utilized bycatch in commercial longline and trawl fisheries (Martin and Zorzi 1993). One of three commercially important skate species in California and it is marketed for human consumption (Rodel and Ripley 1950, Matin and Zorzi 1993). Total annual commercial landings data into California for the grouped category ?Skate, unspecified? indicate that landings declined from ~577 t and ~633 t in 2000 and 2001 to ~82 t in 2002. Landings then fluctuated between ~12 t and ~95 t from 2003?2005 (California Department of Fish and Game 2007). However, the proportion of this species in the catches is not known. Given that this species appears to occur on the continental shelf it is likely not as affected as other species may have been, such as the longnose skate, <em>Raja rhina</em>.<br/><br/>The trawl fishery in California has been slowly closing and a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Californian waters is being instigated, in response to declines in rockfish populations which overlap with the habitat of this species (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Most trawlers now have to work in deeper water and mostly in central and northern California. Southern California is largely closed at this time (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Effort in the trawl fishery in California waters has therefore reduced and not nearly as many are being taken as once might have been (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161467		conservation	eng	Research actions are urgently required for this species since so little is known about its life history and population dynamics. Management plans and habitat conservation, possibly including protected areas, are also recommended, despite the lack of information. All fishing activities, if existent, should be monitored also.
161467		distribution	eng	Inland waters of South America: apparently endemic to the Parnaíba river drainage in Northern Brazil (Rosa 1985).
161467		habitat	eng	This species probably migrates downstream along the Poty River (a tributary of the Parnaíba River) during the rainy season, and returns to the upper course in the dry period. Aside from this speculation, life history aspects of this freshwater stingray are completely unknown. It is certainly among the least known potamotrygonids and might present different biological and ecological characteristics since it is apparently more isolated than other species, occurring in a single river basin away from the Amazon and Paraguay-Paraná basins.
161467		population	eng	No information.
161467		threats	eng	Details of threats facing this species are little known and studies are required. However, the species’ area of occurrence is experiencing a large expansion of human activities including urban development and agriculture. Dams are also impacting on its habitat. It is not known whether other threats facing other potamotrygonid species, such as fishing for consumption, the ornamental trade or persecution also affect this species.
161468		conservation	eng	Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161468		distribution	eng	Wide ranging in the Indo-West Pacific, but with spotty records from:<br/><br/>Indian Ocean: reported from the Gulf of Aden (Yemen and Somalia) to Tanzania and India (Gulf of Mannar and Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Northwest and western central Pacific: reported from Viet Nam, Taiwan, Province of China and the Philippine Islands (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007, Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>This species has a much wider range compared to the limited ranges of other members of this genus (Compagno in prep).
161468		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 71?766 m on mud bottoms, on the upper continental and insular slopes and the outer shelves. It is one of the smallest known living sharks. Size at birth is approximately 10?11 cm total length (TL). Males mature at 18?19 cm TL or less and reach 23 cm TL, and females mature at about 15?16 cm TL and reach 24 cm TL. Reproduction is ovoviviparous with one or two young per litter. The species feeds primarily on small bony fishes, crustaceans and squid (Compagno in prep.).
161468		population	eng	Apparently common in southern India and the Philippines (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005). Population size is unknown.
161468		threats	eng	This species is too small to be commercially valuable. It is occasionally taken as bycatch by commercial bottom trawlers in the Philippines, but utilization is unknown (Compagno in prep.). The species may also be taken as bycatch of fisheries operating off Taiwan, Province of China, although no data are available. Fisheries off the east coast of Taiwan, Province of China have moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, from 100?300 m depth to >300 m (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries on the southwest coast are predominantly coastal, but may range down to 500 m (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species? relatively wide depth distribution (71?766 m) probably offers refuge beyond the range of fishing gears throughout most of the species range, in other areas where deepsea fisheries are less developed. Escapement may also be high for this small species.
161469		conservation	eng	<p>Bottom trawling is banned on the Kermadec and Colville Ridges until at least 2013, and part of the population of the Kermadec Spiny Dogfish is protected within a relatively large no-take marine protected area (Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK1">Collection of taxonomic material from suitable areas of habitat in the Southwest Pacific is required to determine the full distribution of this species. Research on all aspects of the species’ biology, particularly age and growth is required.</a></p>
161469		distribution	eng	<p>The Kermadec Spiny Dogfish is known from the Kermadec Islands (north of New Zealand) in the Southwest Pacific, specifically around Raoul Island, and south to at least Curtis and Chesseman Islands. However, this species is potentially widespread on oceanic ridges and seamounts in the Southwest Pacific.</p>    <p>This species is sympatric with the larger Northern Spiny Dogfish at Raoul Island. Bottom longline and dropline catch-effort data and submersible footage indicates that <em>Squalus</em> spp. (probably Northern Spiny Dogfish and Kermadec Spiny Dogfish) are abundant at upper slope depths around the Kermadec Islands (Beaumont <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>
161469		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat and ecology of the Kermadec Spiny Dogfish is poorly known. This is a small, demersal upper slope species, only known from oceanic ridges and seamounts in the subtropical Southwest Pacific. Specimens have been collected at 250–500 m, and it appears to be most abundant above 300 m depth. However, the full extent of the depth range is unknown. Males mature at 65.1 cm total length (TL). Female size at maturity unknown; female paratype was immature at 72.9 cm TL. Diet and reproductive biology are unknown.</p>
161469		population	eng	No data are available on population size, trends and structure of the Kermadec Spiny Dogfish. Given the low level of commercial fishing conducted on the Kermadec Ridge it is likely that abundance in the New Zealand region is at or close to unfished levels.
161469		threats	eng	<p>At present the only potential anthropogenic threat to the Kermadec Spiny Dogfish is commercial fishing. However there is little or no commercial line fishing in demersal habitats on the Kermadec Ridge, and bottom trawling is banned on the Kermadec and Colville Ridges until at least 2013.</p>    <p>With the exception of the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve, the entire Kermadec Arc system is subject to a number of mineral exploration licences, including oil and hydrothermal vent minerals. No mining is being undertaken in this area at present.</p>  <p>The Kermadec Arc has a large number of large, active submarine and subaerial volcanoes.</p>
161470		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. This is especially important in the species' Indian Ocean range where there is presently a lack of data. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
161470		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Somalia, Gulf of Aden, Oman.<br/><br/>Southeast Atlantic: records from Namibia and South Africa are possibly erroneous (Compagno in prep, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161470		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater catshark found on the continental slopes at 1,289 to 1,840 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Biology and life-history parameters are virtually unknown. Immature sharks measure up to 34 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161470		population	eng	Unknown.
161470		threats	eng	Very little is known of the interaction of deepwater fisheries with deepwater sharks throughout the Smallbelly Sharks's known range. Off Somalia, the industrial fishery sector exploits two species of deep-sea lobster (<em>Puerulus swelli</em> and <em>P. carrinatus</em>), which are mainly found at depths of 150 to 400 m (FAO 2007). Deepwater trawling was conducted in the mid-1970s by a Somali/USSR joint venture commercial fishing company and since this partnership ended in 1977 several foreign fishing companies have been given licenses to fish in the offshore EEZ of Somalia. Recipients have included Italian, Korean, Spanish, Japanese, Greek and Egyptian vessels (FAO 2007). Another joint-venture industrial fishing operation was established between Somalia and an Italian high seas fishing company in 1983 and still operates off Somalia today, however they land their fishery products outside Somalia (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing poses a problem in offshore Somali waters, with an estimated 700 foreign-owned vessels that are fully engaged in unlicensed fishing there (FAO 2007).This makes it impossible to monitor fishery production, in general, let alone the state of the fishery resources and consequently no data are available on catches of this species, or other elasmobranchs that may be taken as bycatch by IUU offshore trawlers. There is also strong suspicion of illegal dumping of industrial and nuclear wastes along the Somali coast (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Off Namibia, a fairly small amount of demersal sharks are caught as bycatch by deep-water trawl fisheries targeting hake, mokfish and orange roughy (from 400 to 1,000 m) (NATMIRC 2003). As the catch records are not species-specific, catch trends cannot be calculated (NATMIRC 2003). Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species along the entire coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003) but in 2007 the Namibian government decided not to permit a commercial deepwater shark fishery (H. Holtzhausen pers. comm. 2007). The main species of shark taken by these fisheries are Deepwater Spiny Dogfish (<em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>), Portuguese Dogfish (<em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>), Longsnout Dogfish (<em>Deania quadrispinosa</em>), Shortspine Spurdog (<em>Squalus mitsukurii</em>), and Tope Shark (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>). Reports of Smallbelly Shark off Namibia are yet to be verified and is not known to be associated with any fishery there so far. If the species does occur there, it may be vulnerable to fisheries operating at greater depths.
161471		conservation	eng	Since 2005 target fishing has been prohibited for all skate species in the Gulf of Alaska (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). <em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within the Gulf of Alaska “other skates” assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in Bathyraja spp is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species’ range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161471		distribution	eng	Northwest and northeast Pacific: this species occurs off Japan, Russia and USA, including the Bering Sea and Commander Islands, the Sea of Okhotsk, Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002). Occurrence of this species in the northern Sea of Japan and Pacific Hokkaido is questionable (H. Ishihara and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161471		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths from 17 m to about 400 m (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006), and in the eastern Bering Sea, it rarely occurs deeper than 300 m (Matta<em> et al.</em> 2006). This is mainly a shelf species with some of the population being found on the upper part of the slope, close to the shelf break. It is found on sandy-gravel, muddy-pebble and sandy-muddy substrates and at bottom temperatures of -1.0–6.8°C (most common between 3.0 and 3.5°C) (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Nursery areas are known in the north, central and south eastern Bering Sea Shelf (Hoff 2007). Alaska Skate attains a maximum size of 111 cm total length (TL) (Ebert 2005). Females reach maturity at 8–10 years of age and 80.9–95.4 cm TL and males at 7–9 years of age and 79.5–93 cm TL (Dolganov 1998c, Ebert 2005, Gaichas <em>et al. </em>2006, Matta and Gunnderson 2007). Longevity is 15 years in males and 17 years in females (Matta and Gunnderson 2007). Research on this species in captivity showed that embryo development exceeds 3.5 years and size at birth is 22.4 cm TL (Hoff 2007). Reproduction peaked during summer months and during winter months peaks in hatching occurred (Hoff 1997). The natural mortality rate is 0.14–0.28 (Matta and Gunnderson 2007).
161471		population	eng	This is the most abundant deepwater skate in the North Pacific. This species is the dominant skate species across the eastern Bering Sea shelf (where the main fisheries operate) accounting for more than 90% of the skate biomass. Biomass of all skates increased dramatically from 24,349 mt in 1975, to 442,556 mt in 2006 (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There are no long term data available for this species (Matta and Gunderson 2007). Recent (2004–2006) AFSC bottom trawl surveys on the shelf (max depth 200m) estimate total biomass from the eastern Bering Sea and off the Aleutians to be 443,243 mt (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is not so common in the Gulf of Alaska, where biomass estimates for this species have reduced between 1999 and 2005. In the Gulf of Alaska, total biomass estimates are available for 1999 (1,569 mt), 2003 (1,908 mt), and 2005 (700 mt) (Gaichas <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>Time series data from bottom trawl surveys (at depths down to 500 m) is available for the Gulf of Alaska from 1999–2005, but does not show any trends. Generally the total biomass of all skates increased 41,000 mt in 1984, to 111,000 mt in 2005 (Gaichas <em>et al.</em> 2005). Species specific data are not available for this period.<br/><br/>According to 1977–1997 data from bottom trawl surveys (at depths of 50–2,000 m) in Russian waters, biomass of this species is estimated at 273,600 t including 45,100 t in the Bering Sea, 11,500 t off Kamchatka and Kuril Islands, 211,700 t in the Sea of Okhotsk, and 5,300 t in the Sea of Japan (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>In Pacific waters of the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka, bottom trawl survey (conducted at depths of 100–850 m) catches increased from 1 kg/hr in 1993 to 2.5 kg/hr in 1998, followed by a decrease to 0.7 kg/hr in 2000 (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161471		threats	eng	Fisheries operate throughout large areas of this species’ range and it is taken as bycatch of longline, bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries. The majority of the population is found above 200 m and occurs within the depth range of trawl and longline fisheries (A. Orlov pers. comm. 2007 and Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Bycatch rates of bottom trawl fisheries have increased in the eastern Bering Sea and off the Aleutians from 1,178 mt in 2003 to about 4,000 mt in 2006 (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006). A target fishery for skates (mainly Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>) and Big Skate (<em>Raja binoculata</em>)) developed in the Gulf of Alaska in 2003, but <em>Bathyraja</em> species constituted only a small proportion of the catch of this fishery (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Directed fishing for skates was subsequently banned in the Gulf of Alaska (2005). Trawling also affects the species’ nursery grounds on the eastern Bering Sea shelf by removing egg cases (Hoff 2007).<br/><br/>Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. There are few deepwater fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands.<br/><br/>There has been interest in this species as a prospective fishery target in the Sea of Okhotsk, Western Bering Sea (Orlov 2004). Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting Bathyraja species.
161472		conservation	eng	None in place. Further information is needed on fisheries operating within this species known range, as well as on other potential threats. Future surveys should attempt to locate further specimens.
161472		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from the type locality, Mikawa Bay, Aichi Prefecture, middle Japan (Jordan and Hubbs 1925).
161472		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.
161472		population	eng	No information is available, as this species known only from the holotype. Subsequent records attributed to this species are unverified.
161472		threats	eng	The type locality, Mikawa Bay is a closed bay no deeper than 200 m. No specific information is currently available on the fisheries operating in this area and further investigation is urgently required.
161473		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161473		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: southern islands of Japan (Amami-oshima, the Ogasawara and Izu islands) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161473		habitat	eng	This deepwater species occurs on upper insular slopes at depths of 350?550 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). No adult females have yet been recorded with egg cases or young (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Attains a maximum size of at least 80 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Males mature at ~66?71 cm TL and females at 68?78 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161473		population	eng	Reported as fairly common where it occurs, but little information is available (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161473		threats	eng	This species is probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries, but no specific information is currently available on its capture.
161474		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for the Sharpwing Eagle Ray.
161474		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean and western central Pacific. The range of this species is poorly defined but it is likely to be widespread in the Indo-Malay Archipelago. It occurs off India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, and possibly Indonesia (Compagno and Last 1999). Possibly also from the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161474		habitat	eng	A little-known eagle ray with biology poorly known, probably similar to that of <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> (Compagno and Last 1999). Eagle rays are predominantly inshore and semipelagic, but nothing is known of the depth range of this species. Maximum total length (TL) to possibly 400 cm or more, disc width (DW) to at least 125 cm (Compagno and Last 1999). Nothing else is known of the biology.
161474		population	eng	Unknown.
161474		threats	eng	There are no details of catches of this species throughout its range. Nevertheless its probable small litter size, schooling behaviour, inshore habitat, intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across large parts of the species? range, and its marketability make it vulnerable to population depletion. The size and inshore distribution of this species means it is susceptible to capture in a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl, etc.). The marketability of eagle rays and the generally intense and unregulated nature of fishing pressure across this species? range could make it vulnerable to depletion.This species is infrequently found in markets (Compagno and Last 1999).
161475		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Research is required to evaluate and monitor population size and trends for this species. Any expansion of deepwater fisheries further throughout this species? bathymetric range should be monitored. Further surveys are needed to fully define this species? distribution and depth range, and to collect information on its biology and life-history parameters. Some specimens captured incidentally by fisheries are being retained for scientific study in the port of Sesimbra.<br/><br/>In response to a request from NEAFC in 2007 and building on the response given to an EC request in 2006, WGDEEP made recommendations for the coordination of deep-water surveys in the NEAFC Convention Area. The recommendation included proposals for a number of new, dedicated deep-water surveys and extension of existing shelf surveys to greater depths (ICES 2007b).
161475		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: known only from the continental slope of Portugal (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2005). Seven specimens were captured off the Algarve (south of Portugal, 36?35 N; 8?35 W) and others from off Figueira da Foz (north of Portugal, 40?07 N; 9?45W) (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161475		habitat	eng	The specimens detailed in the description were taken on the continental slope at depths of about 1,600 m (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2005). Of the 13 specimens caught, females ranged from 98.6?117.7 cm pre supra caudal fin length (Lpc) and males from 81.5?95.4 cm (Lpc) (Moura <em>et al. </em>2005).
161475		population	eng	Known only from 22 specimens (including the 13 specimens mentioned in the original description) collected from the Portuguese continental slope (Moura <em>et al. </em>2005, T. Moura pers. comm. 2008). The species may be more common at depths greater than 1,600 m however there are currently no research surveys that sample to such depths; the only information available is from capture in fisheries which may not operate throughout the species? full bathymetric range (T. Moura pers. comm. 2008).
161475		threats	eng	All known specimens of this species were caught by a commercial longliner operating along the Portuguese continental slope.<br/><br/>This species may be  taken infrequently as bycatch by the directed Portuguese longline fishery for Black Scabbard Fish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) with a bycatch of deepwater sharks, although the Portuguese monitoring program on Portuguese longline fleet discards has never reported <em>H. lusitanicus</em> (T. Moura pers. comm. 2008). All specimens are discarded by fishermen at sea when caught. Discard survivorship is most probably very low for a deep-living species such as this. Discarding at sea also means that no information is available on the numbers caught.<br/><br/>The deepwater longline fishery generally operates at depths of 800?1,200 m and is thought to only occasionally fish to within this species? depth range (>1,500 m) at present (Bordalo-Machado and Figueiredo 2007, T. Moura pers. comm. 2008). This species occurs below the depths currently fished by the deepwater demersal trawl fishery that targets crustaceans off southern Portugal.<br/><br/>Very little information is available on this recently described species, although it may have limiting life-history characteristics (slow growth, late maturity), like other deepwater elasmobranchs, making it vulnerable to exploitation.
161476		conservation	eng	The Gulf of Mannar was established as a UNESCO Marine Biosphere Reserve by the Government of India and the State of Tamil Nadu in 1989 and was the first marine protected area to be declared in South and South East Asia (MCS 2007, UNEP-WCM 2007). The Reserve consists of a chain of 21 islets lying off Tamil Nadu on the southeast coast of India between 8°45' N and 9°25' N and 78°05' E and 79°30' E and covers approximately 10,500 km² (MCS 2007, UNEP-WCM 2007), but may not extend to the depths at which this species is present. Nothing is known of the level of management of elasmobranch species within the reserve is unknown.<br/><br/>Research on this species full distribution, population trends, life-history and interaction with fisheries is a priority. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on this species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161476		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: Gulf of Mannar, India (Eschmeyer 1999).
161476		habitat	eng	Deepwater guitarfish known from the upper slope at a depth of 366 m (Eschmeyer 1999). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous. Virtually nothing is known of the biology of the species.
161476		population	eng	Known only from very few specimens.
161476		threats	eng	No data are available on catches of this species. It may be taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries operating off southern India. Fishing pressure is generally very intense with a large number of vessels in operation (FAO 2007). This species is only known from the Gulf of Mannar, a large proportion of which is now a designated Marine Protected Area (see conservation measures below). However, the reserve may not extend to the depths at which this species is present and nothing is known about the level of management of elasmobranch species within the reserve.
161477		conservation	eng	In the United States, there is currently a ban on landing this species.<br/><br/>There are currently no measures for this species in Canada, as its capture is only incidental in Canadian waters. <br/><br/>Recommendations for future conservation action are; begin developing estimates for target and limit reference points and reduce discard mortality by encouraging and/or mandating more careful handling and discard techniques.
161477		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Atlantic from the banks off Newfoundland and southern Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada to New Jersey, USA. The northern most record is at latitude 60° but records beyond latitude 56.5° are rare, and beyond that bound can be considered as vagrant. Similarly at the southern extent of its distribution, occurrences south of latitude 40° are also rare (Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Important sites are; the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Laurentian Channel), southwest Grand Bank, Flemish Cap, northeast Newfoundland Shelf and in a small area of the Labrador Shelf. <em>M. senta</em> is located primarily in the troughs separating shallower banks, from the Hopedale Channel on the Labrador Shelf south to the outer Georges Bank.
161477		habitat	eng	This skate occurs in deep brackish and marine water over soft mud and clay bottoms of the deeper troughs and basins, sands and shells, gravel and pebbles of the offshore fishing banks (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The species is reported from a total depth range of 25–1,436 m, however depth range is narrower at specific latitudes, and 90% of survey sets containing <em>Malacoraja senta</em> occurs between 70 and 480 m (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). <em>M. senta</em> is found over a relatively narrow range of temperatures, from -1.3–15.7°C, with most records from 2.7–10°C, avoiding the coldest of locations (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>M. senta</em> is one of the smallest skates that inhabits the Northwest Atlantic reaching a maximum size of about 70 cm although fish >63 cm are rare in Canadian waters (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is some variation in size data across this species’ range. Females mature at 41–54 cm total length (TL) and between 8–9.5 years of age, and males mature at 49–57 cm TL and between 8 and 10 years of age (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006, Sulikowski <em>et al.</em> in review). Average reproductive age, or generation period, is 10–13 years (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006, Sulikowski <em>et al.</em> In review). Like all skates, reproduction in this species is oviparous, and eggs (5.9 cm long and 3.8–4.5 cm wide, with stiff pointed horns) are deposited in the sand or mud (Funicelli 1972). In the United states this species was found to be reproductively active year round (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006; Sulikowski et al. 2007). Size at birth is ~10cm TL and average annual fecundity is <100 (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In Canadian waters, average size of these skates decreased with depth. Average weight of fish was about 0.6 kg (equivalent to a TL of 50 cm) at 50–150 m, < 0.4 kg (45 cm) at > 250 m and 0.2 kg (35 cm) at 500–600 m indicating a distinct separation of fish with respect to size. This suggests that surveys using larger mesh gear and not reaching similar depths are underestimating the presence of smaller fish.<br/><br/>Feeding studies (McEachran 1973, McEachran <em>et al.</em> 1976, Bowman <em>et al.</em> 2000, McEachran 2002, González <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicate that <em>M. Senta</em> is quite selective in its diet, eating primarily small crustaceans throughout most of its life, and taking fish only at the largest sizes. This selective diet may further constrain where the species distributes and may relate to the size segregation observed (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161477		population	eng	Little is known about the species’ population size or abundance except that it is not caught frequently enough to be of any importance to fisheries in both USA and Canada (McEachran and Dunn 1998). Population declines are described below.<br/><br/>This species is not distributed evenly within its global range. Rather, it forms four (possibly five) disjunct concentrations off Canada, separated by wide areas, where <em>M. senta</em> never occur (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). These four distinct concentrations were identified by Kulka <em>et al.</em> (2006) as Designated Units (Dus) for the purposes of their analysis and include: Hopedale Channel; Funk Island deep, northeastern Newfoundland Shelf; the Flemish Cap/Pass and northeast Grand Bank; Laurentian Channel, southwestern Grand Bank, and eastern Scotian Shelf; Gulf of Maine, Fundy and western Scotian Shelf.
161477		threats	eng	The main human-related threat over the species’ entire range is incidental capture in a variety of fisheries. Species-specific catch levels are not known, but in Canadian waters and it constitutes <1% of the skate incidental bycatch (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Skate landings in the USA are only now being separated by species, so specific catch data will begin to become available in a few years.<br/><br/>Adult (and juvenile in some cases) Malacoraja senta have declined in abundance over much of the species’ range, since the 1970s. However, in some areas, it has subsequently undergone recovery, in some cases reaching near historic high levels over a very short period (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the Hopedale Channel, there is not a sufficient time series to quantify changes in abundance, but preliminary data from the fall 2007 indicates that catch rates are among the highest observed for that area. In contrast, directly to the south, abundance of population on the Funk Island deep, northeastern Newfoundland Shelf underwent the largest decline observed, 91% for both adults and juveniles, based on a log model to fit 28 years (1977–2005). The period of decline corresponds with the coldest period in the area (Colbourne <em>et al.</em> 2006). There has been no sign of recovery during the recent warm period in spite of apparently very low fishing pressure observed since the late 1990s. A decline of 80% was calculated for adults during 1971–2005 for the Laurentian DU (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>The southern-most Gulf of Maine DU straddles the Canada-USA border. The trend in abundance is similar on both sides of the line: the adult Canadian and adjacent spring USA survey trends were similar, undergoing a decline in the 1980s then increasing since the 1990s to where the indices are presently near historic levels. However, over the entire range in the United States, the biomass of this species has not increased and has remained at stable but low levels for the past 20 years.<br/><br/>Although there are no directed commercial fisheries for <em>M. senta</em>, it is taken in mixed fisheries or as bycatch in fisheries targeting other species (NOAA 2000a, Kulka 1986). However, the vulnerability of skates to depletion is well-documented, even when low levels of bycatch are taken. Many elasmobranch species have a low reproductive potential and a low intrinsic rate of increase, characterized by slow growth, late maturation, low fecundity and long reproductive cycles (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998), leading to low resilience to fishing mortality (Hoenig and Gruber 1990, Musick 2004; Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Frisk <em>et al.</em>’s (2001) analyses of several northwest Atlantic skates also suggested that these long-lived, slower-growing species are vulnerable to exploitation.<br/><br/>Average annual catch across this species’ range off Newfoundland and Labrador has declined since 2002. Most bycatch in commercial fisheries appears to be taken from the southwest Grand Bank and Laurentian Channel, by the skate longline, crab pot, cod otter trawl and scallop dredge fisheries. The lowest observed catches occurred in the most recent years, with catches amounting to 2 t (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Fishing grounds overlap extensively with this species’ distribution and fishing mortality has clearly impacted this species.<br/><br/>Trawl effort has not covered the entire shelf but has been concentrated in relatively small areas, particularly in recent years. A comparison of rates of decline in areas of high intensity trawling compared to areas of no trawling indicated no difference in decline rate. However, this analysis only relates to trawls; longlines, gillnets, dredges, seines and pots also capture this species (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). There may also be other factors contributing to the decline (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the United States, there are also no directed fisheries for this species. Despite this, the species is near its biomass threshold (0.19 vs. 0.16 kg/tow), and biomass has not increased, despite reductions in groundfish effort over the last 20 years and a prohibited status since 2003. While the population is considered stable, albeit at low levels, it has the potential to become overfished. Thus, similar to the Canadian population, there appears to be some other cause for the failure to rebound to more sustainable levels.
161478		conservation	eng	None in place. <br/><br/>Information on the full distribution, occurrence, life-history parameters and threats are required to make a full assessment of this species threat status.
161478		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and also possibly from the Gulf (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Bianchi 1985, Assadi and Dehghani 1997, Vossoughi and Vosoughi 1999).
161478		habitat	eng	No information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this guitarfish. Maximum total length is reported at approximately 56 cm (Assadi and Dehghani 1997).
161478		population	eng	Unknown.
161478		threats	eng	This species is presumably taken in a variety of fisheries; including demersal trawls, gillnets, trammelnets and setnets operating within its range, but no information is available on its capture.
161479		conservation	eng	None
161479		distribution	eng	Geographic range is disjunct in the western central Atlantic with a northern population occurring along the southeast and northern Gulf of Mexico coast of the USA (South Carolina to the Mississippi Delta); and, northern Cuba to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. A southern population occurs along the Caribbean coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica together with some neighbouring islands (Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. 2000). Its distribution may not be completely documented.<br/><br/>FAO Area: 31.
161479		habitat	eng	The northern population of the species is recorded from the continental shelf and upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 36-732m; the southern population occurs in deep waters of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 338–613 m (Konstantinou <em>et al. </em>2000). <br/><br/>Little is known about its biology. <br/><br/>Although the reproductive mode of this species has been in question, Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported this species as oviparous, but Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) suggest that this species is possibly ovoviviparous.  <br/><br/>Reaches a maximum size of ~33 cm TL (largest verifiable size in the literature; Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000).
161479		population	eng	The distribution as presently recognised (Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000) is disjunct and may represent separate subpopulations. <br/><br/>These sharks are irregularly distributed along the slope they inhabit and are encountered in large aggregations or are otherwise absent (Compagno 1984). <br/><br/>There may be partial segregation by adults and juveniles based on depth. Few juveniles are collected below 450m, but mixed adults and juveniles can be found in waters less than 450m deep (Compagno 1984). <br/><br/>Springer (1979) suggests that nursery areas may exist on very rough bottom which is un-trawlable.
161479		threats	eng	Uncertain. Any future expansion of deepwater demersal fisheries would require monitoring, particularly as the species is irregularly distributed and intensive fishing may have localized impacts on the species. However, its small size would preclude it from capture in most fishing gear except trawls. <br/><br/>The northern population of this species is most likely taken by trawl fisheries, although no specific data are available on its capture. In the northern Gulf of Mexico, the majority of shrimp trawling effort is found near shore at depths less than 20 m (Shepherd and Myers 2005), so there is probably some spatial refuge for this species in the deeper portion of its bathymetric range. <br/><br/>Shrimp trawl fisheries also operate along the Caribbean coasts of Honduras, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. However, current information suggests that these fisheries are primarily restricted to the shelf at present (<70m), outside the bathymetric range of this species in this area (FAO a,b,c).
161480		conservation	eng	No known measures in place.<br/><br/>An assessment of catches and current abundance of this species throughout its range is required to determine its threat status.
161480		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: Red Sea, Gulf, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Also occurs off Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161480		habitat	eng	A bottom dwelling shark found on the continental shelf inshore and offshore and sometimes on coral reef, at depths of 20?250 m (Compagno 1984). Males mature at 63?67 cm total length (TL) and the species reaches a maximum size of 150 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reproduction is viviparous, and the species gives birth to 6?10 pups per litter (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth is reported as 26?28 cm TL (Bass 1986).
161480		population	eng	Common in its range (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161480		threats	eng	This species is fished with bottom trawls, fixed bottom and floating gillnets, and line gear, and retained for human consumption in some parts of the Red Sea, Pakistan and India (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). It is apparently a particularly important commercial species in Indian waters (Bhathal 1998), but no catch data are available.<br/><br/>The species may also be adversely affected by habitat degradation from dynamiting reefs, tourism and increased siltation of marine areas (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161481		conservation	eng	No measures in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161481		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: recorded from Caribbean coast of Central America, and northern coast of South America (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161481		habitat	eng	This deepwater skate is found along slope between 183 and 915 m depth. Maximum size is 38 cm total length (TL) and males mature by at least 32 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, the species is oviparous but nothing else is known of the biology.
161481		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161481		threats	eng	There are no species-specific data available to quantify catches of this species, however it may form part of the bycatch of deeper trawl and longline fisheries. <br/><br/>For example, snapper and grouper fisheries operate over extensive areas of the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and French Guiana (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Approximately 1,000 medium and long-range vessels target snappers and groupers inside and outside the Venezuelan EEZ using handline and demersal longline gear (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003).
161483		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions for this species. Research is urgently required on its abundance, interaction with fisheries and full range, including species-specific monitoring of catches.
161483		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: this skate may be restricted to southern Korean waters. It is found in a relatively small area of the southwest to southeast coast of the Korean Peninsula, including the Jeju Strait, Heuksan Islands and Cheongsan Islands. Records of juveniles of this species from Goto Islands and Danjo Islands in Japan require verification (Jeong 1999, Jeong and Nakabo 1997, Nakabo 2002, Tokimura <em>et al.</em> 1999).
161483		habitat	eng	<em>Okamejei koreana</em> is found at depths ranging from about 30?80 m (Jeong and Nakabo 1997, H.-M. Kim pers. comm.). This rare skate may hibernate around Heuksan-do Islands from November to April, and then move to inshore to the coast of the Korean Peninsula (H.-M. Kim pers. comm.). This species attains at least 82 cm total length (TL) (female) to 84 cm TL (male) (Kim <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Egg capsules measure about 11.3 cm long and 4.0 cm wide (C.H. Jeong unpublished data). The female releases the egg capsules on muddy and/or sandy substrate. No other information is currently available on this species? biology or ecology.
161483		population	eng	Little specific information is available on the population of this apparently rare skate. It does not seem to be regularly recorded but is observed in low numbers on fish markets. Only about 100 individuals were observed during fish market surveys conducted in southern Korea over 15 months (Sept. 2002?Dec. 2003) (Kim <em>et al.</em> in prep.). There is concern that it is now more rarely observed than historically, but no quantitative data are currently available on the scale or extent of any decline. The Jeju Strait and the area around the southern Heuksan-do Islands (southeastern Korea), where this species is more commonly found, appear to be important sites for this species (Jeong 1999).
161483		threats	eng	This species is both a target and utilised bycatch of commercial fisheries. Skates are targeted using set gillnets off southern Korea. Declining catches have led to a decrease in target fishing in recent years, but no species-specific data are available, so it is difficult to identify which species are involved. No information is currently available on the historical abundance of this species, although there is concern that it may have declined. It is rare throughout its relatively small geographic range, except in relatively narrow areas of habitat around the Jeju Strait and the southern Heuksan-do Islands (southeastern Korea).
161484		conservation	eng	This species is protected in six marine reserves around the Balearic Islands, but further monitoring and protection measures are encouraged throughout its range.
161484		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: distributed from the Shetland Isles and southern Norway in the north, to Senegal in the south. Records further south in the Atlantic, to Gulf of Guinea and Congo may be misidentifications of Scyliorhinus cervigoni. It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but does not occur in the Black Sea. (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984, Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987, Bauchot 1987, Serena 2005).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species appears to be more abundant in the eastern central basin (the Adriatic and Ionian seas and Albanian coasts) compared to the western regions (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was not caught in the trawl surveys conducted off the coasts of Morocco, Spain and France. However, it should be noted that the bottom trawl net is not the most appropriate gear for sampling this species. It is common on rocky bottoms or coralline grounds to 400 m of depth but more common between 20 and 150 m in the coastal areas of the continental platform (Bauchot 1987). The mating and nursery grounds as well as the extent of this species? movements throughout the Mediterranean are not known.<br/><br/>It also occurs in coastal and shallow shelf seas of the Northeast Atlantic, from the Shetland Isles and southern Norway in the north, to north-west Africa in the south. Around the British Isles, it is uncommon in the North Sea, and more common off southern and western coasts. Areas where it seems most abundant include parts of the English Channel and Bristol Channel, Cardigan Bay and around the Lleyn Peninsula and Anglesey (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a). It tends to be most abundant on coarse and rocky inshore grounds, and such habitats tend to be under-represented in trawl surveys.
161484		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 1?2 m to at least 125 m, but is commonest in depths of 20?63 m (Compagno in prep.) or 20?150 m with a maximum depth of 400 m (Bauchot 1987, Serena, 2005). Within the northern Tyrrhenian and southern Ligurian sea, <em>S. stellaris</em> is distributed from 55?409 m depth (Baino and Serena 2000). It often occurs on rough or even rocky bottom or surfaces with algal cover and in the Mediterranean it is apparently prefers coralline algal substrates (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>The maximum reported size for <em>S. stellaris</em> in the Mediterranean is 150 cm (TL), and with a common range of 40?55 cm (TL) (Bauchot 1987). Adults are common to 125 cm (Compagno in prep.). Males mature at 77 cm total length (TL) and females at 79 cm TL (Bauchot 1987).<br/><br/>This is an oviparous species, with a single egg laid at a time per oviduct (Compagno in prep.). The large thick-walled egg-cases (10-13cm long with strong tendrils at each corner) are deposited on algae in the subtidal or extreme lower intertidal zone in spring and summer (Compagno in prep.). Once the eggs are deposited they take up to nine months to hatch (Compagno in prep.) with hatchlings measuring 10?16 cm at birth (Tortonese 1956, Bauchot 1987, Compagno in prep.). Egg-cases are often laid on macro-algae in inshore areas (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005a).<br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. stellaris</em> mostly consists of crustaceans (including hermit crabs, swimming crabs, cancrid crabs and large shrimp), squid, octopi and other molluscs, a variety of bony fish (including mackerel, epigonids, dragonets, gurnards, flatfish, herring, small codfish and other demersal fishes) and other sharks (including <em>Scyliorhinus canicula</em>). Along the Tunisian coasts, <em>S. stellaris</em> is also reported to feed on cephalopods, teleosts and crustaceans (Capapé 1975). There was no seasonal variation observed in the diet of <em>S. stellaris</em>, however adults (both males and females) fed on more cephalopods and teleosts, and less crustaceans in comparison to that of juveniles (Capapé 1975, Ellis <em>et al. </em>1996).
161484		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scyliorhinus stellaris </span>is less abundant than <em>S. canicula</em> (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>This species was reported in only 34 of 6336 (1%) tows conducted during the Mediterranean wide trawl (MEDITS) survey from 1994-1999 (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). Its overall biomass was estimated to be 0.6kg/km², with a higher presence in the eastern central Mediterranean area (Adriatic, Ionian sea and Albania: 1.2 kg/km²). The GRUND project (1985-1998), a series of experimental trawl surveys carried out on the continental and upper slopes of the central Mediterranean, reported 19.42% presence of this species in 22 surveys in Italian waters. Given percentage presence, this species was the 18th most common species, with the first and second most common species being Galeus melastomus and <em>Scyliorhinus canicula</em> (respectively 84.30% and 83.88% presence in trawls (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000)).<br/><br/>No accurate data on population size is available for the Northeast Atlantic, although <em>S. stellaris</em> tends to be caught in low numbers only during trawl surveys. The population may be fragmented, as there are certain areas where they are most abundant. This species is rarely recorded in trawl surveys over finer sediments of the continental shelf, and tends to concentrate on coarse, inshore habitats. Around the British Isles, such areas occur along the coastline of Wales (Anglesey, Lleyn Peninsula, Cardigan Bay, Pembrokeshire, Gower), south-western England (Devon and Cornwall) and also off the French coast (Brittany).
161484		threats	eng	Overfishing, together with habitat degradation, seem to be the major factors responsible for the decline of <em>S. stellaris </em>in the Mediterranean region. In addition, the capacity for population recovery of this species is affected by a low level of interconnectivity between isolated populations around islands far from the continental coast. The true extent of the impacts of fisheries on <em>S. stellaris</em> populations throughout the Mediterranean is difficult to evaluate, partly due to the lack of species-specific reports. In many areas, for example the Balearic Islands fishery and in Italian waters, <em>S. stellaris</em> is reported together with S. canicula or even as ?elasmobranchs?.<br/><br/>Taken as bycatch of the semi-industrial fisheries of Spain, the Adriatic Sea, Sicily and Cyprus and also in artisanal fisheries elsewhere and is regularly present in fish markets in Malta, Tunisia, Greece, Cyprus and Turkey (Compagno in prep.). In European waters, <em>S. stellaris</em> is less important as a fisheries species than <em>S.  canicula</em>, but is regularly taken in bottom trawls, gill nets, bottom set long lines, handlines and fixed bottom nets, and occasionally pelagic trawls (Bauchot 1987, Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, effort in trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean) evolved from a small low powered fleet (total nominal horse power of 2, 700), increasing to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974?1987). In a study of the long-term changes in groundfish diversity in the Gulf of Lions, Aldebert (1997) reports that there was a clear decrease in the abundance of this species since 1970. It was present in catches from the late 1950s to the 1980s and then disappeared from the catches after 1988 Aldebert (1997). Although not abundant, it seems that S. stellaris stocks have decreased in the Mediterranean.<br/><br/>A decline also seems to have occurred around Albania and the Balearic Islands: <em>S. stellaris</em> was frequently caught as bycatch by the bottom long-line and lobster fisheries, but catch numbers have decreased despite no change in the lobster fishing effort and equipment (G. Morey pers. obs.). Also of some concern is that the Balearic population has little connection with other populations of <em>S. stellaris</em> due the species? limited dispersal capacity. In the Balearic Islands S. stellaris was monitored from 131 hauls made between 40?1,800 m depth from 1996?2001 (Massutí and Moranta 2003), and while Galeus melastomus and <em>S. canicula</em> showed the highest abundances of all the elasmobranch species, S. stellaris was absent. Additionally, no specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. stellaris</span> have been captured during 12 trammel net surveys carried out in the Balearic Islands between 2000 and 2003 (Morey et al. in press). Current captures for this species in the Balearic Islands are sporadic. Fishermen report the species as common about 15 years ago, and abundant in lobster gillnet fishery, but becoming very rare to date (G. Morey pers. obs.). Jardas (1984) classified the species as rare in the western half of the Adriatic Sea in 1984, although <em>S. stellaris</em> does appear in trawl surveys carried out in 1948 and 1998 (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In the northeast Atlantic abundance data are insufficient to ascertain the current status, though due to its large size and patchy distribution, it may be at risk of localised depletion.
161485		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed on this species abundance, life-history and capture in and the effect of fisheries throughout its range, particularly from the southern Mediterranean and western coast of Africa. Further information from the southern Mediterranean Sea will become available on the species? biology and ecology shortly (M.N. Bradai pers. comm. 2008).
161485		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: Western Sahara and Mediterranean Sea (absent from the Black Sea) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161485		habitat	eng	The biology of this demersal, coastal shark is poorly known because of confusion with the more common <em>Mustelus mustelus</em> (Compagno in prep). It is found on the continental shelf, on sandy and gravelly substrates and amongst sea grass beds, to 200 m depth (Serena 2005). Reproduction is presumably viviparous. Attains a maximum size of at least 95 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males mature at 50?55 cm TL and females at ~60 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Size at birth is ~31 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161485		population	eng	Very little information is available on populations of this species, partly due to confusion with the more common species of <em>Mustelus</em> within its range, but it seems to be very rare where surveys have been undertaken in the northern Mediterranean Sea. <em>M. punctulatus</em> was recorded in only one of 6,336 hauls during northern Mediterranean scientific trawl (MEDITS) surveys (at depths of 50?800 m) from 1994?1999 (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Jukic-Peladic (2001) compared data from the Adriatic Sea collected during the Medits survey (1998) with that from the Hvar survey (1948). <em>M. punctulatus</em> was not reported from either survey, although <em>M. mustelus </em>and <em>M. asterias</em> were present in both surveys. This species was also absent from bottom trawl surveys conducted off the Balearic Islands between 1998 and 2001, (at depths of 40?1,800 m) (Massutí and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>The percentage presence of this species in 22 GRUND (Italian) surveys carried out from 1985?1998 in Italian waters was also very low (2.48%) and very few specimens of this species were caught in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea, northern-central Adriatic and south of Sicily island (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>The species is apparently more common in parts of the southern Mediterranean Sea. It is common along the Tunisian coasts (Bradai <em>et al.</em> 2002), where it seems to be more abundant towards the south, in the gulf of Gabès and also along the coast of Libya (M.N. Bradai pers. comm. 2008).
161485		threats	eng	This species is caught by demersal trawl and coastal small scale fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea (STECF 2003). There is a semi-commercial fishery for <em>Mustelus</em> spp in the Adriatic Sea (about 11,000 tons/year for <em>Mustelus</em> species). Regular visits to the central fish auction wharf of Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands) have not reported catches of <em>M. punctulatus</em> during 1999?2003 (G. Morey pers. obs.). Trammel nets, gillnets, bottom trawls and longliners operate in this area. Although Bradai (2000) observed that this species is common in the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia), it seems to be very scarce at least in the northern range of the Mediterranean, probably as a consequence of both overfishing and habitat alteration. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustleus </span>spp have shown signs of depletion in the Mediterranean Sea, although they may be locally abundant in some areas (STECF 2003). Landings for <em>Mustelus</em> spp are often grouped as ?smoothhounds nei? in landings statistics and therefore no species-specific data are available on landings. Furthermore, at least for Italian catches, these reported catches do not correspond to the taxonomic group, but often consist of an aggregation of small-sized demersal sharks including <em>Mustelus</em> spp. (the true smoothhounds), <em>Squalus</em> spp., <em>Centrophorus</em> spp., <em>Dalatias licha</em>, <em>Scyliorhinus</em> spp., and <em>Galeus melastomus.</em> This is because these species are usually marketed headed, skinned and eviscerated, and sold under the commercial name of ?palombo?, the Italian name of <em>Mustelus</em> (STECF 2003). Therefore, direct observations are required to collect species-specific data on the volumes of catches for <em>Mustelus</em> spp, whose identification are difficult for non-biologist observers.
161486		conservation	eng	The Davidson Seamount, located 75 km off the central Californian Coast (within the known range of this species) has been proposed as a Marine Protected area (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>At present, the species occurs mainly beyond the depth of fishing operations on rocky untrawlable substrate. It is unlikely then, that deep bottom trawl fisheries will develop in the area, however the situation should be monitored. Like other large deepwater skates, this species is probably intrinsically vulnerable to population depletion and therefore any bycatch would be of concern. Further specimens are required for research on the species’ biology and life-history characteristics.
161486		distribution	eng	Northwest and eastern Pacific: Pacific White Skate (<em>Bathyraja spinosissima</em>) has a patchy distribution from northern South America to off Port Waldport, Oregon, USA, and the Sea of Okhotsk (Ebert 2003, Ebert, pers. obs. 2007 Dolganov 1999, Fedorov <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The distribution map for the Pacific White Skate in McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1995) depicts the species occurring in the Galápagos Islands (apparently also followed by Ebert (2003)). This appears to be an error, and the species has not been recorded around the Galápagos Islands (J.D. McEachran pers. comm. 2007). This species was described by Beebe and Tee-Van (1941) from a location ‘sixty miles south of Cocos Islands’ (04°50′N, 87°W), and it is this record that may have been confused for the Galápagos Islands.
161486		habitat	eng	This is one of the deepest living skate species occurring from 800-2,906m deep on the western US coast continental slope (Ebert 2003). In the Sea of Okhotsk, the depth range is 1,250–2,025 m (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992). ROV photgraphs often show this species swimming 1–3 m off the bottom over rocky substrates (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Attains a maximum length of at least 203 cm (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous (Ebert 2003). An egg case measured 9.2 cm length and 6.65 cm width (Ebert and Davis 2007). Size at birth is reported at ~26 cm TL (Ebert 2003).
161486		population	eng	In the waters of the western coast on the USA, Pacific White Skate is known mostly from photographs from ROV surveys and perhaps only about 4–6 specimens have been captured (Ebert pers. obs. 2007). In the Sea of Okhotsk, this species appears to be uncommon according to bottom trawl survey data. It was caught in 2.3% of 257 hauls in a deepwater survey in 1999 in a depth range down to 2,000 m (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992).
161486		threats	eng	Pacific White Skate is known only from a few scattered records throughout its range occurring to nearly 3,000 m which is beyond the depth range of most trawl operations. Videotape footage of this species from 1,875 m deep off central California suggest that it lives on rocky substrate that also precludes its being caught by trawl fishing operations (D. Ebert pers obs. 2007).
161487		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.
161487		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: southern coast of Korea, Japan to the South and East China Seas and Taiwan, Province of China (Ishihara 1990, Zhu and Meng 2001).
161487		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 30?90 m over sandy and muddy substrates (Ishihara 1990). Attains a maximum size of 38 cm total length (TL) (Zhu and Meng 2001). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Egg cases measure 3.4 cm long by 2.4 cm wide Ishihara 1990).
161487		population	eng	Unknown.
161487		threats	eng	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch of bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries operating in Japanese waters and likely throughout its range although it is not targeted, it is retained for human consumption. It is one of four species of skates commonly seen in the fish markets of Taiwan, primarily on the east coast.<br/><br/>No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161488		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on life-history, the impact of threats and potential and actual levels of bycatch. Surveys are needed to further define this species? distribution and abundance.
161488		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Horn of Africa, Gulf of Aden, Somalia (Compagno 1984). Its restricted known distribution suggests extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km², although the area is relatively poorly sampled.
161488		habitat	eng	A largely unknown catshark, living on continental and insular shelves at depths of 37?91 m (Compagno 1984). This species is born at greater than 7 cm, and reaches a maximum size of 48 cm total length (TL), with male adults ranging from 42?48 cm TL and female adults ranging from 43?47 cm TL (Compagno 1984). The biology of this species remains largely unknown.
161488		population	eng	No information available.
161488		threats	eng	This species is small and would be vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl fisheries and some net fisheries. Sharks are reported to play an important role in both the artisanal and traditional Somali fisheries, although no information is available on the catch species composition and other demersal species are reportedly lightly exploited (FAO 2007). This species is very small and is probably not targeted, although it may be subject to bycatch. Although little specific information is available on artisanal fisheries in Somali waters, small-scale fisheries in nearby countries (such as Oman) tend to be opportunistic, using a variety of net-types to catch as much as possible, and similar practices may be used in Somalia (A. Henderson pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries in Somalia are largely unregulated, with numerous reports of widespread illegal foreign fishing in Somali waters (Young<em> et al. </em>2006, Somali Fisheries Society 2004). The potential for fisheries to expand and increase in effort is also high; Somalia reportedly intends to accelerate fisheries development (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by habitat degradation on the continental shelf, as a result of agriculture, coastal development and pollution.
161489		conservation	eng	Restrictions on recreational gillnetting in some area in Tasmania will afford the species some protection.
161489		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: an Australian endemic, occurring on the continental shelf from Jervis bay (New South Wales) to Beachport (South Australia), including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).
161489		habitat	eng	Occurs in relatively shallow waters from the shore to 170 m, usually found in less than 40 m preferring muddy/silty bottoms (Last and Stevens 2004). Females reach maturity at 42 cm total length (TL) (M.A. Treloar unpub. data 2004), and males at 39 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). The species reaches at least 55 cm TL (M.A. Treloar unpub. data, 2004). They have a gestation period of four to five months and size at birth is 9.5?10.8 cm TL (M.A. Treloar unpub. data, 2007). This species feeds primarily on crabs and squat lobsters; octopus and bottom dwelling fish are of less importance (Treloar <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161489		population	eng	The most common inshore skate of southern Australian waters (Last and Stevens 1994). There are limited species-specific fishing data on skates with most being being lumped together in a category as ?rays?. Batoid sales and landing data from major markets such as Sydney and Melbourne are also limited, with only major categories such as Rajids recorded.
161489		threats	eng	Although <em>Dentiraja lemprieri</em> is caught as bycatch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) at the deeper extent of its range, it is more common at depths of less 40 m. Where otter trawls operate over parts of the species? range, these are considered its biggest threat. It may also be taken as bycatch in shallower waters by the Commonwealth Gillnet and Hook Sectors of the SESSF, although it is a demersal species and is therefore probably less vulnerable to capture with gillnet fishing gear. This species primarily occurs in inshore waters which are considered to provide refuge from fishing pressure to the majority of the population. If fishing pressure increased further throughout the species? relatively limited range it could be severely impacted though, so careful monitoring is required to ensure that it does not move into a higher category in the future.
161490		conservation	eng	The South Georgia Government prohibited fishing in waters <500 m deep within the toothfish longline fishery in 2004.<br/><br/>CCAMLR recommend that whenever possible during longlining operations, live skates and rays should be cut from the line while still in the water, and vessels should be encouraged to develop methods to minimise bycatch of skates SC-CCAMLR (2002).
161490		distribution	eng	Reported as possibly circum-Antarctic in the Southern Ocean, although taxonomic uncertainties preclude an accurate assessment of distribution at this time. Reports from the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the southwest Atlantic appear to be erroneous and are based on another <em>Amblyraja</em> species (J. Pompert pers. comm.).
161490		habitat	eng	<em>A. georgiana</em> occurs on the upper to mid continental slope at depths of 150?800 m (Endicott <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; Endicott 2003). Endicott <em>et al.</em> (2002) also indicate that where <em>A. georgiana</em> is commonly caught, peak captures are found to occur at depths of around 400 m. The species reaches a maximum size of 101 cm total length (TL) and size at birth is 16?18 cm TL (Endicott <em>et al</em>. 2002, Endicott 2003). Size at maturity is estimated at 84 cm TL, but this estimate is based on joint male and female data sets (Endicott <em>et al.</em> 2002). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, but little else is known of its biology. Reproduction takes place in both winter and late summer (Endicott 2003, Endicott <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em>A. georgiana</em>?s feeding ecology appears to be mainly opportunistic, ranging from small teleosts, to polycheates and crustaceans (Endicott, MRAG, unpublished data).
161490		population	eng	Population size is currently unknown.
161490		threats	eng	<em>A. georgiana</em> is taken by commercial longline and trawl fisheries operating within its range and it is caught as bycatch and discarded within the fishery around South Georgia (Endicott and Agnew 2003). The severity of bycatch mortality off South Georgia is thought to be low, due to restrictions on fishing depths implemented in 2004. Until the implementation of these measures <em>A. georgiana</em> was caught frequently. Further information on catches and population trends is required.
161491		conservation	eng	No regulations exist for this species.
161491		distribution	eng	Recent data suggests that the species has a continuous range in the northern Atlantic, from the USA coast to waters off Ireland, including the mid-Atlantic ridge (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: off Canada, slope waters of the Labrador Shelf (60°02’N), the Flemish Cap, the Grand Banks, Scotian,Shelf to southern New England, USA (Alpoim <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953,Templeman 1965, Leim and Scott 1966, Moore <em>et al</em>. 2003, D. Kulka pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Northeast Atlantic: only known from a few records north of Ireland (Gordon and Duncan 1987, 1989; Quero <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Note: <em>A. jenseni</em> may have a wider distribution in slope waters than described above, particularly in the northeast Atlantic as surveys and fisheries may not reach depths where they are distributed.<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Areas: 21, 27.
161491		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal species, occurring at depths of 167 to 2,548 m (at an average depth of 1,213 m) (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the northwest Atlantic the species occurs in shallower waters (167 to 2,311 m, with mean 846 m) and deeper waters in the northeast Atlantic (1,800 to 2,190 m, with mean 2,052 m). Average depth of capture in Canadian waters (Grand Banks to Labrador Shelf) was about 1,100 m where the benthic temperature averaged about 3.5°C.<br/><br/>The species’ size also varies in different areas of its range, with the largest skates recorded on the mid-Atlantic ridge (measuring an average of 92.61 cm total length (TL)) and considerably smaller skates found on the USA and European continental slopes (49.68 cm TL and 46.85 cm TL, respectively) (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). Size range in the northwest Atlantic is 33 to 112 cm TL (n=163, D. Kulka pers. obs.). Overall, mean TL for female skates is 72.31 cm and for males, 80.3 cm TL (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). Maximum recorded size is 112 cm TL (A. Orlov and D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). Like other skates, the species is presumably oviparous.<br/><br/>Prey includes small teleost fishes and crustaceans (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953).
161491		population	eng	Overall, the population size is not known and no data are available to show trends in abundance.<br/><br/>For the Grand Banks to the Labrador Shelf, out of 47,141 trawl survey sets to a maximum depth of the 1,455 m and dating back to the 1950s, only 85 sets contained 147 <em>A. jenseni</em>. Most trawls containing skates were recorded since 1995 when the maximum depths surveyed increased thus the increasing index may not reflect an increasing population (D. Kulka pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A scientific survey expedition during summer 2004, using bottom trawls (to depths of 3,500 m) and bottom longlines (to depths of 4,500 m) off the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, from the Azores to the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone collected only 14 <em>A. jenseni</em> (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Nothing is known of the population structure, but differences found in the external morphology of the species in different parts of its range may indicate that separate populations exist.
161491		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is fisheries and it is probably taken as bycatch by some deepwater trawl fisheries operating in the northwest, and possibly northeast Atlantic. There is no directed fishery. In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and <400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). About 10 to 20% of the northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006).<br/><br/>Although part of the species’ range is fished in the northwest Atlantic, the species’ wide depth range in this area (to 2,311 m), its occurrence over the mid-Atlantic ridge and at great depths in the northeast Atlantic, offer refuges from fishing pressure. Given that the species occurs mainly at depths exceeding 1,000 m, bycatch is expected to be minimal.
161492		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Population trends and bycatch levels should be closely monitored. The impact of the longline fishery for hake on this species should be assessed.
161492		distribution	eng	This southern Africa endemic has been reported from southern Namibia to southern Mozambique at depths of 70–500 m. There are few detailed west coast records and it appears to reach Namibia only in the region of the Orange River. Most records off the west coast are concentrated in an area between Orange River and Cape Columbine and another area from Cape point eastwards to Cape Agulhas (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1991).
161492		habitat	eng	Found widely from southern Namibia to Mozambique on the outer shelf from 70 to 500 m, commonly between 150 and 300 m, all stages of the life history have been collected, particularly from the Agulhas Bank (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1991). This species reaches a maximum size of 92 cm TL, 53 cm DW (Hulley 1988). Both males and females reach maturity at about nine years of age (Walmsley-Hart <em>et al. </em>1999). Size at maturity for males and females is 40 cm DW and 39.5 cm DW, respectively (Walmsley-Hart <em>et al.</em> 1999). Longevity is estimated as 15 years (Walmsley-Hart <em>et al.</em> 1999).
161492		population	eng	Although an endemic species, it is widespread in its range and common in the Eastern Cape, especially the Agulhas Bank where scattered reefs make trawling dangerous in many areas, thereby likely providing refuge to it.
161492		threats	eng	At present, the potential threats are deep water and hake-directed trawling in parts of its range. These skates are taken as a bycatch that is normally discarded. Reef areas not suitable for trawling on the Agulhas bank afford it protection over part of its range. Recent (2004) initiation of a longline fishery for hake that includes fishing in untrawlable grounds means that monitoring of catches is essential.
161493		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on the taxonomy of the species, occurrence, habitat and biology and threats.
161493		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Gulf of Aden.
161493		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected at ~250 m depth. Virtually nothing is currently known about the habitat or biology of this species.
161493		population	eng	Unknown.
161493		threats	eng	Unknown. Potential bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is currently available.
161494		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161494		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: recorded from the northern Gulf of Mexico, and parts of the Caribbean (Bahamas and Lesser Antilles) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161494		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater skate, occurring at depths of 520-1,052 m along the slope (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 75 cm total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Little else is known of the biology.
161494		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161494		threats	eng	May be taken as bycatch, but no specific data are available. The species' wide depth range may afford it refuge beyond the depth of fishing pressure.
161495		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place at this time, although the Members of the West African Sub-regional Fisheries Commission and some other African States are developing National Shark Plans. Other range States should be encouraged to follow suit in order to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region, taking account of the vulnerability of this and other large inshore regional endemics to unregulated fishing activity. There is a need to identify correctly and monitor this species in catches and to clarify its geographic and depth range. There is an urgent need for accurate population surveys, and studies of biology and behaviour. Effective protected areas are needed to combat harvest mortality and habitat degradation for this and other inshore species.
161495		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic/West African coast and islands, definitely from Senegal to Congo. Records outside this range (from Angola to Mauritania and the Canaries) may be based on <em>D. margaritella</em>, which has been confused with this species. As a result, the distribution of <em>D. margarita</em> may prove to be smaller than described here (Compagno and Roberts 1984, B. Séret  pers. comm. 2008).
161495		habitat	eng	Tropical. Formerly reported as common in marine and estuarine habitats (Compagno and Roberts 1984), but records may have included misidentified specimens of <em>D. margaritella</em>. Biology unknown, other than a reported maximum size of 100 cm disc width (DW) (Stehmann 1981). Ovoviviparous, with 1?3 pups (B. Séret pers. comm. 2008).
161495		population	eng	Unknown.
161495		threats	eng	The main threats to <em>D. margarita</em> are fisheries and, to a lesser extent, habitat modification. Inshore rays are susceptible to a wide range of fishing gears. Fishing for <em>D. margarita </em>occurs in inshore waters in all its distribution range along West African coasts off Senegal, Ivory Coast and Ghana, where it is caught mainly by artisanal and small scale commercial fisheries using trammelnets, bottom trawls and beach seines (Stehmann 1981), but also by gill nets, fish traps, beach seines, and line fishing. These threats probably operate virtually throughout its range. Habitat modification/degradation attributed to agricultural chemicals and light industry development may also be a problem in some areas.
161496		conservation	eng	Recommendation: better contemporary data of population size and distribution to evaluate the need to implement management practices. This may need to be done as a matter of urgency to avoid further depletion.
161496		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout southern Australia on the continental shelf, often in the coastal zone from Wollongong (New South Wales) to Albany (Western Australia) including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).
161496		habitat	eng	It is one of few hard bottom dwelling skates occurring on reef but is also found on soft bottoms from depths of 0–170 m. Soft ground habitat, such as sand, mud and gravel is considered to be at moderately high risk from trawling activities (New South Wales Department of Primary Industries 2004).<br/><br/>There may be habitat partitioning between juveniles and adults. Large individuals are often seen on rocky substrates (Peter Last, CSIRO Hobart, pers. comm.). Despite several years of searching for pregnant females around Tasmania and in the southeast non-trawl and trawl fishery, only one individual with egg cases was found by a local fishermen in 5 m of water (Treloar unpubl. data).
161496		population	eng	Populations are patchily distributed around southeast Australia. The species is relatively rare in outlying areas of Western Australia and northern New South Wales; it probably has a narrow home range making it vulnerable to localised fishing (Peter Last, CSIRO Hobart, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fishery independent surveys off southern New South Wales have shown that catch rates have declined by 83% between 1976/1977 and 1996/1997 for grouped “skates” (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). A survey was carried out from 1976–1977 on the upper continental  to 275 m off Ulladulla and Eden mainly comprised <em>Dipturus australis, Dipturus</em> sp. A and <em>D. whitleyi</em>. In 1996–1997 the survey was repeated in the same area and showed that numbers of all skates had depleted. Off Ulladulla the mean catch rate for all species at all depth zones in 1976–1977 was 32.6 kg per hour and in 1996 to 1997, 3.9 kg per hour. Off Eden the mean catch for all species at all depth zones 1976–1977 was 32.4 kg per hour and in 1996–1997, 5.0 kg per hour (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Despite several years of searching for pregnant females around Tasmania and in the southeast non-trawl and trawl fishery, only one individual with egg cases was found by a local fishermen in 5 m of water (Treloar unpubl. data).
161496		threats	eng	Young and sub-adults are caught as bycatch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and eastern Scalefish and Shark fishery. This species is harvested, with 16–55% of the 2002–2005 <em>D. whitleyi </em>catch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector being retained (Treloar unpub. data). There is a strong basis for inferring that sustained trawling over 20 years is the predominant and most likely cause of the observed changes in relative abundance of rays on the New South Wales upper continental slope (Graham <em>et al. </em>2001). Large individuals are most vulnerable to hook and line, but also to gill nets. In 2004, 31% of licences in the Tasmanian State fisheries were in the scale-fish fishery (netting and hooks). There are no trawlers in Tasmanian State waters; these consist of gill netters and hook and line fishers (ABARE 2005).<br/><br/>Based on observer data, standardized CPUE in the Southeast Fishery increased from 1992–1995, showed a decline from 1995–1998, then remained stable from 1998–2002 (Terry Walker, PIRVE, unpublished data). Despite this, the species presence in shallow waters also affords it refuge from fishing pressure. It may be more abundant in shallow water, for example it is frequently captured in inshore waters off Hobart (J. Stevens pers. comm. 2007).
161497		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, more information on the biology and ecology of the species and its importance in fisheries is required to assess the status and future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the biology and wider distribution of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161497		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known from very few specimens taken in the South and East China Sea (off Hong-Kong and near Taiwan, Province of China), and Japan (Ryu-Kyu Isalnds) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161497		habitat	eng	A poorly known deep-water catshark found on the upper continental and insular slopes, on mud bottoms at 540–835 m (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Maximum reported size is 85 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.
161497		population	eng	Known from few specimens. The whole genus is poorly represented in collections and is considered rare.
161497		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is available.
161498		conservation	eng	None.
161498		distribution	eng	Relatively restricted range in the western central Atlantic: Cuba, Cayman Trench (off northern Jamaica), Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico and Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. Its distribution may not be completely documented.
161498		habitat	eng	A deepwater species of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 457–699 m (Konstantinou and Cozzi 1998). Little known about its biology. Although the reproductive mode of this species had been in question, Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported this species as oviparous. Parsons (1986) reported on oviparity in <em>Galeus arae antillensis</em> off Puerto Rico, where <em>G. antillensis</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>G. springeri</em> and so it is not known which species his specimens belonged to. Reaches a maximum size of at least 48 cm TL (largest verifiable record in the literature; McLaughlin and Morrissey 2004).
161498		population	eng	Unknown.
161498		threats	eng	Uncertain. Any future expansion of deepwater demersal trawl fisheries in the species’ restricted range may be cause for concern and would require monitoring. Its small size would preclude it from capture in some fishing gear.
161499		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries is required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deeper fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161499		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Somalia (Compagno in prep). Type locality is Southwest of Cape Guardafui, Somalia (Springer 1968).
161499		habitat	eng	This species is found on the outer continental shelf, where it is thought to occur from 70?170 m depth (Springer 1968).<br/><br/>Maximum total length (TL) is reported at 46 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). The mode of development of this species is uncertain, though the presence of a very thin-walled (rather than thick-walled) large egg-case in each uterus of the holotype suggests that the species may be ovoviviparous rather than oviparous, and if this is the case, the holotype is thought to have had two young in a litter (Compagno 1984).
161499		population	eng	Known only from a few specimens (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and therefore population size is unknown.
161499		threats	eng	This species is small and would be vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl fisheries and some net fisheries. Sharks are reported to play an important role in both the artisanal and traditional Somali fisheries, although no information is available on the catch species composition and other demersal species are reportedly lightly exploited (FAO 2007). This species is very small and is probably not targeted, although it may be subject to bycatch. Although little specific information is available on artisanal fisheries in Somali waters, small-scale fisheries in nearby countries (such as Oman) tend to be opportunistic, using a variety of net-types to catch as much as possible, and similar practices may be used in Somalia (A. Henderson pers. comm. 2007).
161500		conservation	eng	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.
161500		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: known from the continental slope off northern New Zealand from the Three Kings Islands to Wellington (Last and McEachran 2006).
161500		habitat	eng	The biology of <em>B. microspinifera</em> is virtually unknown. This dwarf skate is concentrated at depths of 600?1,200 m and attains at least 33 cm TL  (Last and McEachran 2006). Like other skates, it is oviparous and deposits eggs in quadrangular egg cases.
161500		population	eng	Uncommon.
161500		threats	eng	<em>B. microspinifera</em> is taken as occasional bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities by deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy, Oreos and Hoki. This species is currently only known from a relatively restricted area off northern New Zealand (Three Kings Islands to Wellington in 600 to 1,200 m) and so more information is required on its range and the extent to which it is taken by fisheries. The population may be declining, but no information is available to ascertain the full impact of fisheries on this species at present. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently.
161501		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Where taken, catches require careful monitoring to assess the status of the population. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161501		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: Red Sea and Gulf of Oman to Pakistan and southwest India and in the Bay of Bengal (Compagno in prep.).
161501		habitat	eng	Most commonly found on continental shelves and slopes. Ranges from 110?1,000 m depth and possibly to as deep as 2,195 m in the Red Sea. In the Gulf of Aquaba, males apparently inhabit deeper waters, whereas females prefer shallower waters (300 m). Females also outnumber males in catches (Baranes 2007). The species is mostly caught between 100 and 250 m off Oman (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males are much smaller than females. Reproduction is viviparous with yolk-sac placenta. Females reach maturity at ~40 cm total length (TL) and males at 31?32 cm TL. Maximum size is 58 cm TL for females and pups are born at ~16 cm TL (Baranes 2007). Gestation lasts for 10?12 months and two to six pups are produced per litter (Baranes 2007). The species feeds on bony fish and cephalopods (Compagno in prep.).
161501		population	eng	Apparently quite common off Oman (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161501		threats	eng	Taken by gillnet fisheries in southern India and also caught by hook and line fisheries in the Gulf of Aqaba (mostly artisanal) (Eilat) (Baranes 2007). Fisheries in the Gulf of Aquba take mainly female sharks, whereas fisheries in the Red Sea mainly impact large males in the population. This species segregates by sex with depth, the females occupying a shallower depth range (~300 m depth) than the males (Baranes 2007). Adult females in the population are therefore more vulnerable to capture in fisheries. In the Red Sea small-scale fishing boats are commonly used but in some areas larger vessels with long-range capabilities also take part in the fishery. Shrimp trawlers usually take this species as retained and marketed bycatch (Baranes 2007). Fisheries in the northern Red Sea have recently switched to deeper fishing grounds, which has apparently resulted in a reduction in the number of <em>I. omanensis</em> in the catches (Baranes 2007). In India, meat is utilized fresh for human consumption (Compagno in prep.). Off Oman, this species is caught as bycatch by longline fisheries, but it is mainly distributed outside the target species range (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161502		conservation	eng	Close monitoring of the bycatch of the deepsea shrimp fishery off Madagascar is required to determine whether the species is taken as bycatch and in what quantities.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161502		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from a few records from off south-west Madagascar (Séret 1989).
161502		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species occurring between 600 and 765 m depth on calcareous sandy mud (Séret 1989). The largest known specimen is 41.5 cm TL (Séret 1989). Presumably oviparous, like other skates but no other information is available on its biology.
161502		population	eng	No information available.
161502		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deepwater shrimp trawl fisheries, although no information is available. Given the restricted range and potentially narrow depth distribution of the species, monitoring should be undertaken to determine whether the fishery is impacting on the population.
161503		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Recommended: Investigation into the taxonomy and validity of this species is recommended in the first instance.
161503		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: recorded only from Basargin Cape, off Askold Island, Peter the Great Bay, southern Russia (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Dolganov 1999).
161503		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known stingray, and very little data are available on habitat and ecology. It is thought to reach a maximum size of at least 232 cm total length (TL) and 178 cm disc width (DW) (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Dolganov 1999).
161503		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from two specimens (Dolganov 1999).
161503		threats	eng	This species would be vulnerable to bycatch in trawls, and probably other fisheries, however no specific information is available on fisheries operating within its range.
161504		conservation	eng	Monitoring of bycatch, especially in deep-water longlining, for occurrence of this species.
161504		distribution	eng	Known only from two type specimens found in deep water (1,700?2,240 m) in the southwestern Indian Ocean: southern Mozambique Channel and southernmost Madagascar Ridge (25°07'?12'7''S, 36°49'4''?48'2''E; 32°45'?42'2''S, 45°31'2''E) (Stehmann 2005). Probably more widespread at least in the Southwest Indian Ocean and further to the east.
161504		habitat	eng	A probably benthopelagic deep-water skate species found at 1,700?2,240 m depth in the southwestern Indian Ocean at two type localities. The adolescent female holotype measured 97 cm total length (TL) and a neonate female paratypes, 31 cm TL (Stehmann 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.
161504		population	eng	Only two type specimens known so far, collected during a scientific research cruise.
161504		threats	eng	Potential bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries. There is a commercial fishery for deepwater shrimps etc. along the slope of Mozambique (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2008).
161505		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species. It is a bycatch species, and research is required to improve knowledge of its population size, life history characteristics and to confirm its distribution.
161505		distribution	eng	<p>The Brown Whipray is endemic to inshore waters of eastern and northern Australia from Darwin (Northern Territory) in the north to the Clarence River (New South Wales) in the south. However, its distribution across northern Australia is not well defined and requires clarification and it possibly extends to waters off north-western Australia south to Shark Bay (Western Australia) (Vaudo and Heithaus 2009). In recent years it has not been recorded from its most south-eastern limits (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
161505		habitat	eng	The Brown Whipray is most common in shallow inshore waters from 0 to 10 m, but has been recorded to 41 m (based on museum collection records and field observations; S. Pierce unpubl. data 2011). Little is known of its biology. It attains at least 74 cm disc width (DW) (Last and Stevens 2009). Male maturity occurs at approximately 53 cm DW in Moreton Bay, Queensland (Pierce <em>et al.</em> 2011). Tagging studies in Moreton Bay have shown that some individuals show high short-term site fidelity to intertidal sandflat habitats, with small (&lt;30 cm DW) juveniles particularly common within these environments (Pierce <em>at al</em>. 2011).
161505		population	eng	<p>The Brown Whipray is common near the coast over muddy substrates and mangrove flats (Last and Stevens 2009). It has been recorded as common in intertidal sandflat habitats in Moreton Bay, Queensland (Pierce <em>et al.</em> 2011). There is no other information on its population sizes or trends. </p>
161505		threats	eng	<p>The Brown Whipray is most common in shallow inshore environments. These habitats have been subject to substantial modification and degradation on the highly urbanised eastern coast of Australia. Populations of some sympatric elasmobranch species utilising these habitats, such as the Green Sawfish (<em>Pristis zijsron</em>) and the Estuary Stingray (<em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em>), have been substantially reduced. The Brown Whipray is likely to be affected by many of the same threats as these species. </p>    <p>Specific assessment of the threats affecting the Brown Whipray is hampered by the recent re-description of the species, as much of the existing literature appears to pertain to the related species now known as the Blackspotted Whipray. Habitat modification of mangrove-fringed sandflats is likely to have reduced the carrying capacity of preferred habitat in some areas, and the Brown Whipray is regularly caught as a bycatch of inshore net and prawn-trawl fisheries in south-eastern Queensland. Most large rivers in New South Wales are utilised by estuarine prawn-trawl fisheries and the Brown Whipray is a likely bycatch of these fisheries. The Brown Whipray is caught in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), a fishery that operates in the Gulf of Carpentaria and across northern Australia. Among the NPF elasmobranch bycatch, the population of this species was considered to have a moderate sustainability to the impacts of trawling (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). The introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) in 2000 and other bycatch reduction devices has significantly reduced the bycatch of rays, though more so for large individuals greater than 1 m DW and to a lesser degree for animals smaller than this, such as the Brown Whipray (Brewer <em>et al</em>. 2004). </p>
161506		conservation	eng	Finning of sharks is prohibited in the likely range states of United Arab Emirates and Oman.<br/><br/>No other known conservation measures. None of the range states so far recorded (Persian/Arabian Gulf states, India, Sri Lanka) have an FAO Shark Plan in place.
161506		distribution	eng	Currently documented as North Indian Ocean: Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, west and south coast of India (west of the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat; off Quilon, Kerala; and off Cape Comorin, Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka, and the northeast coast of India (Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Its distribution, however, may be patchy. It is not reported in fisheries landings or surveys from Oman (A. Henderson, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, pers. comm.; Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007) or India (Venkataraman <em>et al</em>. 2003). This may be as a result of misidentification as other hemigaleids species over its range, especially given that it was described only relatively recently.
161506		habitat	eng	Found inshore in shallow water to depths of 18 m on the continental shelf. A viviparous species giving birth to two pups per litter. Pups are 29 cm when born and grow up to a maximum length of at least 81 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161506		population	eng	The lack of elasmobranch monitoring in range states (such as fisheries surveys performing elasmobranch identification to species level, and species-specific landings data/market surveys) means that no population data are available. There are no known population estimates for this species.
161506		threats	eng	Reported in Carpenter <em>et al</em>. (1997) for the Persian/Arabian Gulf as being taken in trawls and gillnets and utilized for human consumption and fishmeal. Known to be caught in trawls in Kuwait (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bishop 2003). Recorded as being marketed whole in the UAE at least (ABMM, pers. obs., based on photograph supplied by Dr. J. Stevens taken in a Dubai fish market summer 2007), and likely in other range states.<br/><br/>Widespread, rapid and intensive habitat loss is likely to have an important effect on this species, which is probably predominantly demersal. In the Persian/Arabian Gulf this includes changes due to the damming of the Tigris-Euphrates river system in Turkey and the drainage of the Iraqi marshes (Al-Yamani <em>et al</em>. 2007), chronic and acute (e.g., war-related) releases of oil, rapid large-scale coastal development (e.g., megastructures in the UAE), and changes to benthic communities from demersal trawling.
161507		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of catch levels and population trends is recommended.
161507		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: China (not in Yellow Sea), southern Korea, Taiwan (Province of China), southern Japan (Compagno in prep). Records from New Caledonia and Indonesia are probably incorrect (W. White pers. obs. 2007).
161507		habitat	eng	This shark is found close to the bottom on the continental shelf, both inshore and offshore, to deeper than 100 m (Compagno in prep). Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with 8?22 pups per litter (measuring ~20 TL at birth) (Compagno in prep.). The species reaches a maximum size of at least 120 cm total length (TL); males mature at ~85 cm TL and four years of age; females at 82?102 cm TL and 4?6 years of age (Yamada 1986).
161507		population	eng	Common in temperate waters (Compagno in prep).
161507		threats	eng	This species is a regular utilised bycatch of gillnet, trawl, bottom longline and setnet fisheries off China, Taiwan, Korea and Japan (Compagno in prep). It is valued for its meat and fins and may be targeted in some areas of its range.
161508		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deepwater species more information is needed on the biology, ecology and importance to fisheries to assess future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161508		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: endemic to Japan (Honshu, eastern Hokkaido), Jingu and Lira Seamounts, northwestern Range (Compagno in prep.).
161508		habitat	eng	Demersal deepwater species found on the slope at depths of 150–1,100 m (Taniuchi and Nose 1987). Females mature at 42–43 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep.) and the species attains at least 43.0 cm TL. Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous.
161508		population	eng	Population size is unknown. No data are available to evaluate population trends.
161508		threats	eng	Deep water sharks are targeted in a localized fishery in Suruga Bay, Japan for their squalene rich-livers (Compagno in prep., Ishihara pers. comm. 2006). This species is captured as bycatch in trawls and may be discarded, however post-discard survival rates are probably very low to nil (K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>While some offshore trawlers are only licensed to fish within their prefecture, others have licenses which allow them to fish beyond these borders and fishing extends out to the Emperor Seamount Chain east of Japan (Ishihara pers. comm. 2006). Species-specific catch data are needed to assess how fisheries may be impacting this species.
161509		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed on the species? full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.
161509		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: known only from northern New Caledonia (Grand Passage) (Séret and Last 2007).
161509		habitat	eng	Recorded on the insular slope, at depths of 590?732 m. The only known specimen is an adult male, measuring 57.7 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007).
161509		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen.
161509		threats	eng	Uncertain.
161510		conservation	eng	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Further research is also required on its life history.<br/><br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. rochebrunei </em>and other chondrichthyans.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs.<br/><br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.
161510		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: from Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986), Senegal (McEachran and Séret 1990), Guinea (Domain 1989), Guinea-Bissau (Sanches 1991), and Angola (Bianchi 1986).<br/><br/>Southwest Atlantic: known only from two records from Brazil in the southwest Atlantic, both from Paraná State (Barletta <em>et al. </em>1989, Charvet 1995, Gomes and Gadig 2003, P. Charvet-Almeida pers. comm.). The first specimen was caught in coastal waters of Baía de Paranaguá (Barletta <em>et al. </em>1989) and the second from off Superagui, close to the border with São Paulo (Charvet 1995, P. Charvet-Almeida pers. comm.).
161510		habitat	eng	A pelagic species that is usually found at the surface or close to the bottom (McEachran and Seret 1990). Like all Mobula, this species is viviparous, giving birth to one young per litter (McEachran and Séret 1990). Both Brazilian records were gravid females bearing a single near-term embryo (Barletta <em>et al</em>. 1989, Charvet 1995, Gomes and Gadig 2003, P. Charvet-Almeida pers. comm.). <em>Mobula rochebrunei</em> attains a maximum size of 133 cm disc width (DW), with near-term embryos 34?35 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987) and feeds on small fish and plankton (Maigret and Ly 1986). No other information is available on its biology.
161510		population	eng	No specific data are available on population or catch trends for this species. This is probably a rare species in the southwest Atlantic.
161510		threats	eng	Mobulid rays are taken by surface gillnet, longline, purse seine and directed harpoons throughout much of their range, but detailed information on these fisheries is poorly documented (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Mobula rochebrunei is of commercial importance to fisheries throughout its range (McEachran and Séret 1990) and is taken either as a target species or a utilised bycatch of gillnet fisheries. Their aggregating habit makes them easy to target in large numbers as they travel in schools. There are no specific data, however, on landings in local fisheries where the species is taken in West Africa.<br/><br/>The northwestern African shelf is considered fully exploited (Zeeberg <em>et al</em>. 2006) and ranks amongst the most intensively fished areas in the world. Foreign industrial freezer trawlers targeting small pelagic fish (Sardinella, sardine, and horsemackerel) operate nearly year-round on the shelf off western Africa, with some of these vessels amongst the largest fishing boats in the world (Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> (2006) examined the bycatch of megafauna in European trawlers operating off Mauritania between 2001 and 2005. They demonstrated considerable bycatch of ?manta rays? which most probably includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula rochebrunei </span>(note that while the authors refer constantly to ?manta rays?, figure 3 in their manuscript clearly shows an entangled <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula</span>, and subsequent communications with the primary author indicated that they observed both <em>Manta birostris</em> and <em>Mobula</em> species). Zeeberg <em>et al. </em>(2006) extrapolated from their results that some 120?620 ?manta rays? are captured annually by the Irish and Dutch trawl freezer-trawl fleet. Actual bycatch levels off Mauritania will be considerably higher are there are also Russian, Icelandic and Lithuanian trawlers operating in the same areas.<br/><br/>The subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26?28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Anon. 2000) noted the high threat to sharks in the west African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. Increased targeting of sharks and rays began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>Mobulid species appear to be particularly susceptible to overfishing as their fecundity is among the lowest of all elasmobranchs (with litter sizes of typically only one pup and an assumed gestation period of 1?3 years (White <em>et al. </em>2006).
161511		conservation	eng	None.
161511		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: southern Australia, from Port Headland (Western Australia) to off the Swain Reefs (Queensland), including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).
161511		habitat	eng	A temperate and tropical offshore torpedo ray, found on continental shelves and slopes at 90 to 750 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Grows to a maximum total length (TL) of at least 107 cm, with males maturing at 60 cm (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994).
161511		population	eng	Unknown.
161511		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch by trawlers in parts of its range but not utilised as far as is known. Nothing is known about post-capture mortality in this species.
161512		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
161512		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southern Florida, throughout Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Lesser Antilles, Colombia and Venezuela (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161512		habitat	eng	A demersal species inhabiting the continental slope at depth of 731–1,280 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 45 cm total length (TL); males mature at 42 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else known of its biology.
161512		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161512		threats	eng	At present, it is unlikely that fishing takes place at the depths at which this species occurs (731–1,280 m). Any future development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.
161513		conservation	eng	None in effect at this time. Research is required on abundance, range, population trends, life-history, threats and capture in fisheries.
161513		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and Western Indian Ocean: Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005), eastern Atlantic southward from Cape Verde Island to Senegal and Angola (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984) and the Indian Ocean (the Red Sea). The species is mostly known from the southern shores of the Mediterranean, with a single record from the northern Mediterranean (Tuscany: Serena <em>et al.</em> 1999), and one from Turkey (Basusta <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>FAO Fisheries areas: 27, 34, 47, 51.
161513		habitat	eng	Benthic on soft bottoms, generally in shallow tropical or warm temperate waters, from shallow waters up to 100 m depth. Maximum size reported to be 100 cm disc width (DW) and 150 cm total length (TL) (Bauchot 1987, Serena 2005).
161513		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding past or present abundance.
161513		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl and trammel net fisheries, although no specific information is currently available on its capture.
161514		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161514		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: east coast of Florida and northern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161514		habitat	eng	Benthic along the slope, at depths of 475?1,079 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size 144 cm total length (TL); males mature between 107 cm and 144 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161514		population	eng	No information available.
161514		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of trawl fisheries but no specific information is available. The species deep bathymetric distribution probably affords some refuge from current fishing pressure.
161515		conservation	eng	The presence of multiple populations needs to be confirmed with genetic analyses. If multiple populations are present, each population must be monitored independently due to the variable intensity of fishing which occurs along its range and the proximity of populations to sources of industrial waste pollution. <em>Poroderma pantherinum</em> is perceived as a pest by line fishers and are frequently killed by them. A public education program must be put into place for both recreational and commercial fishers. This shark is attractive and is sought as a display animal for aquaria. The pressure placed on this shark due to the aquarium trade needs to be determined and fishing and trade may require management.
161515		distribution	eng	Southwestern Indian and southeastern Atlantic Oceans: west of Cape Town to Durban in South Africa.
161515		habitat	eng	Inshore and abundant, <em>P. pantherinum </em>is common on rocky reefs and in kelp forests. It also seems to be readily caught from sandy beaches (Human 2003, 2006a). It occurs from the shore to 50 m depth, but is usually found at less than 20 m depth.<br/><br/><em>Poroderma pantherinum </em>grows to a maximum size of at least 84 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Males are juvenile at 10.0?51.9 cm TL, adolescent at 46.9?67.2 cm TL, and mature at 60.7?77.4 cm TL. Females are juvenile at 9.4?48.5 cm TL, adolescent at 43.0?64.1 cm TL, and mature at 50.7?66.6 cm TL (Human 2003, 2006a).<br/><br/><em>Poroderma pantherinum</em> has an extended single oviparous reproductive strategy, with two egg cases laid at a time and no obvious reproductive season (Bertolini 1993, Dainty 2002, Roux 2002). One shark was observed hatching at 11 cm TL (Dainty 2002). Bertolini (1993) determined that these sharks have a longevity of at least 15 years, and size at 50% maturity was approximately 60.0 cm TL (=10 years). Dainty (2002) found that <em>P. pantherinum</em> lives for at least 19 years, and the age at 50% maturity was estimated to be 17 years. Roux (2002) determined that length at 50% maturity is 60.0 cm TL for males and 60.1 cm TL for females.
161515		population	eng	It is probable that this shark has multiple separate populations along the coastline, suggesting that the population is severely fragmented. This needs to be confirmed and each population monitored (Human 2003, 2006a).<br/><br/>Apparently common at present, although no specific data are available on population numbers. It is commonly sighted by scuba divers and commonly taken in inshore fisheries.
161515		threats	eng	This shark is an inshore endemic of South Africa and occurs in waters with intensive commercial and recreational line fishing activities. Perceived as a pest individuals are frequently killed by line fishers. <em>Poroderma pantherinum</em> is apparently common at present, however, it is probable that this shark has multiple separate populations along the coastline, suggesting severe fragmentation and reduced probability of recolonization. This needs to be confirmed and each population monitored. This species? inshore habitat is subject to heavy and increasing human utilizations, including extensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing along with coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, holiday-making, beach utilization and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments. There is a demand for this species for the aquarium trade, although number of animals taken per year is unknown and needs to be determined.
161516		conservation	eng	None in place.
161516		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific and Indian Ocean: India (Kapoor <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987). However, <em>G. tentaculata</em> identified from Papua New Guinea may have been misidentified <em>G. australis</em> specimens and probably requires further clarification.
161516		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Reaches a maximum size of at least 23.5 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann 1974).
161516		population	eng	Unknown.
161516		threats	eng	Presumably taken as bycatch by fisheries throughout its range. The status of India’s inshore fisheries resources is portrayed as fully exploited, or overexploited (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006), but species specific data are not available.
161517		conservation	eng	None in place at this time and none are currently recommended.
161517		distribution	eng	Northwest, western central and southwest Pacific: confirmed from Japan, South China Sea, Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand. Nominal records from Southeast Pacific, South Atlantic, central Pacific, and some Indo-West Pacific localities require confirmation (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161517		habitat	eng	Found on outer continental and insular shelves, upper slopes, on or near the bottom, at depths of 158–1,357 m (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005). Males mature at 29 cm total length (TL) and females at 34 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Maximum recorded size is ~42 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161517		population	eng	Unknown.
161517		threats	eng	Occasionally taken in bottom trawls, but otherwise this species is generally too small to be taken by long-line or most other fishing methods (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161518		conservation	eng	None in place. In the first instance, on-going research should determine the relationship of <em>M. norrisi</em> with <em>M. canis</em> (Jones unpubl. Data). Given its coastal occurrence and documented declines in other inshore <em>Mustelus</em> in areas of South America where <em>M. norrisi</em> occurs, there is an urgent need to determine population trends and catch status.
161518		distribution	eng	Historically thought not to occur on the U.S. east coast, but recent examination of specimens from South Carolina suggest that <em>M. norrisi</em> is present in these waters.
161518		habitat	eng	This shark is found on continental shelves, near the sea bottom, on sandy and mud sediments (Compagno in prep). It occurs close inshore to at least 84 m depth, although most records are shallower than 55 m (Compagno in prep). They have been observed to segregate by sex and size off Florida, and adult males are more common inshore during the winter. Apparently migratory in the Gulf of Mexico, this species moves inshore into water shallower than 55 m in the winter months and retreats into deeper water in other seasons. Males mature at 76–81 cm, and reach a size of at least 118 cm, and females mature at 76–87 cm and reach a size of at least 123 cm.  Maximum recorded size is 123 cm, and size at birth is 29–37 cm. They are viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, and the number of young range from 7–14 per litter.  They prey mainly on crabs and shrimp, but also small teleosts (Heemstra 1973, Heemstra 1997, Compagno in prep, Jones unpublished).
161518		population	eng	A common shark where it occurs (Compagno in prep.).
161518		threats	eng	This species is taken in unknown numbers in trawl fisheries in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and may be taken in the commercial smooth dogfish fishery off the east coast of the U.S. Throughout its range there are small commercial fisheries for this shark, and they are often taken in fishing nets close to shore (Compagno in prep, Jones unpublished).<br/><br/>Given its inshore and shelf occurrence, the narrowfin smooth hound is likely taken as bycatch in coastal trawl, net and line fisheries across its South American range. Little specific information is available, but inshore fishing pressure is generally intense where the species occurs off Colombia, Venezuela and southern Brazil.<br/><br/>Medina (2002) conducted a study on bycatch from the shrimp trawl fishery in the La Guajira area (Colombia) with an evaluation of 20 sets in Cabo de La Vela but had limited species records. The only record of a <em>Mustelus</em> species was for <em>M. norrisi</em> with low abundance (eight specimens), biomass (10 kg) and occurrence (3.9%). It is also likely that <em>M. norrisi</em> is taken by longline fisheries that operate in this area. It is not known if the species is discarded or retained and utilised when taken as bycatch.<br/><br/>Off northeastern Venezuela, shrimp trawl fisheries began in the late 1960s, subsequently showing considerable increases in both effort and efficiency (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). In addition, an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline, and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus</em> species) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between five and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch.<br/><br/>The very similar Dusky Smooth Hound (<em>M. canis</em>) has declined significantly in catches in fisheries in Venezuela (Cervigón and Alaclá 1999, Tavares 2005). During the 1980s the species was a common component of commercial landings from benthic longlining in the Archipiélago de Los Roques, but now catches are very low to absent (Tavares 2005). There is no reason to suspect that <em>M. norrisi</em> has not faced similar declines.<br/><br/>Coastal demersal species including smooth hounds are commercially important in Brazil, and although specific details are lacking, <em>M. norrisi</em> is likely captured in coastal fisheries off southern Brazil, where inshore fishing pressure is generally intense. The striped smooth hound <em>Mustelus fasciatus</em> is thought to be nearing extinction in southern Brazil due to intense gillnet pressure on inshore habitat (Hozbor <em>et al.</em> 2004). Massive declines have also been documented for that species off northern Argentina and Uruguay, while fishing continues for more abundant species (Hozbor <em>et al</em>. 2004). Shrimp and multi-species trawl fisheries operate off southern Brazil, and pressure on the inshore environment remains intensive. If such declines have been documented for <em>M. fasciatus</em>, it is likely that <em>M. norrisi</em> has suffered a similar fate there.<br/><br/>Research has shown that this species is contaminated by mercury off of Brazil and has mercury concentrations above the limit established by Brazilian legislation (0.5 mu g.g super(-1)), but not as high as found in other co-occurring piscivorous sharks (de Pinho <em>et al.</em> 2002).
161519		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on abundance, population trends, life-history, threats and capture in fisheries.
161519		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: Morocco to Gulf of Guinea (Lloris and Rucabado 1998, Schneider 1990, Ishihara and Kimoto 2006). Records from India seem doubtful.
161519		habitat	eng	A shallow water benthic ray, occurring in coastal waters from 10-60 m depth (but more common in shallow waters at 10-25 m depth in some areas) (Gulyugin <em>et al. </em>2006). Data collected during bottom trawl surveys on the northwestern coast of Africa indicated that total length (TL) ranged from 28-57 cm Gulyugin <em>et al. </em>2006). Reproductions is aplacental viviparous. Maximum size is approximately 100 cm TL (Lloris and Rucabado 1998). Feeds mainly on crustaceans (Patokina and Litvinov 2005).
161519		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population, but the species is regularly reported from trawl surveys (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006).
161519		threats	eng	This species is not targeted, but is captured as utilized bycatch in commercial prawn, mixed species demersal and pelagic, and cephalopod fisheries off Guinea Conakry (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006). Inshore fishing pressure is intense along the coast of western Africa. Throughout the West African region there is a general trend towards decline in the abundance and distribution of elasmobranch fishes, most notably larger coastal species (which are the most biologically vulnerable and occur in areas that have been heavily fished for a long time. However, this is a small species and may be relatively biologically productive compared to larger elasmobranchs, thus able to sustain higher levels of exploitation. Muñoz-Chápuli <em>et al.</em> (1994) noted that all available data suggested that skate and ray populations were decreasing throughout the area, especially those of the larger species (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005).
161520		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time, although the Members of the West African Sub-regional Fisheries Commission and some other African States are developing and implementing National Shark Plans under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks. Other range States should be encouraged to follow suit in order to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region, taking account of the vulnerability of this and other inshore regional endemics to unregulated fishing activity. Further biological, distribution and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.
161520		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: occurs from Cap Blanc, Mauritania to Angola (Séret 1990).
161520		habitat	eng	This tropical demersal species occurs in both marine and brackish waters, where it has been known to enter lagoons and estuaries (Séret 1990). Its depth range is unknown, but may be similar to the 60 m depth of the sympatric <em>Dasyatis margarita</em> (Stehmann 1981).<br/><br/>This species reaches at least 30 cm total length (TL) (Séret 1990). Little else is known about the biology of this species, although it is be ovoviviparous, with 1?3 pups (B. Séret pers. comm. 2008).
161520		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161520		threats	eng	Although little is known about the specific threats to this species, and there are no species-specific catch data, it is possible that the threats to this species are similar to those affecting <em>D. margarita</em>, the sympatric species with which <em>D. margaritella</em> is often confused.<br/><br/>Fishing for <em>D. margarita</em> occurs in inshore waters in all its range off Senegal, Ivory Coast and Ghana, where it is caught mainly with trammelnets, bottom trawls and longlines, and presumably also in other parts of its range. The wings of <em>D. margarita </em>are marketed fresh, smoked and dried salted. (Stehmann, M. 1981). Although the small size of <em>D. margaritella </em>may mean that it is not a targeted species in these fisheries, it is probably still taken in ?catch all? coastal fisheries in the region. <em>D. margaritella</em> is (was) much more common than <em>D. margarita</em>. So most of the ?historical? catches consisted mainly of<em> D. margaritella</em>. Despite efforts (training of the fishery observers) both species are still mixed in fishery statistics.
161521		conservation	eng	This species is included in the total allowable catch (TACs) set for deepwater sharks by ICES in the Northeast Atlantic: In 2007, the TAC for deepwater sharks in sub-areas V, VI, VII, VIII and IX is 2,472 t. In 2008, the TAC for these species in these areas will be reduced to 1,646 t. In 2007 and 2008, the TAC for deepwater sharks is set at 20 t annually in Sub-area X, and 99 t in sub-area XII (ICES 2007). <br/><br/>Recommendations: Like many deeper water species, more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess future conservation needs.
161521		distribution	eng	Northwest Atlantic: Greenland south to Canada (Baffin Island, Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia), United States (Scotian Shelf south to Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, possibly North Carolina and Gulf of Mexico off Alabama). <br/><br/>Southwest Atlantic: Argentina (Beagle Channel). <br/><br/>Northeast Atlantic: Iceland along Atlantic Slope and including Iceland-Faroe Ridge, Faroes, southern Norway, Rockall Trough and Porcupine Seabight.<br/><br/>Eastern central Atlantic: Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>Southeast Atlantic: Namibia and South Africa (west coast of Northern and Western Cape from the Orange River south to Cape Agulhas) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Areas: 21, 41, 27, 34 and 47.
161521		habitat	eng	Unless stated otherwise, this information is taken from Compagno (in prep.).<br/><br/>A deepwater schooling shark of the outer continental shelf and slope found at depths from 180?2,250 m but mostly below 275 m. Off southern Africa the species is found from 275 to >1,300 m, but mostly below 500 m. In the Rockall Trough it has been recorded from the 1,250?1,500 m bathymetric zone (Mauchline and Gordon 1983). Off Iceland the species is most abundant between 800 and 1,200 m (range 436?1,653 m) (Jakobsdottir 2001). Off Greenland it is present from 338 to 1,299 m but more common below 500 m (Yano 1995) and in the NRA it is found from 400?1,400 m depth, with high concentrations between 350?500 m (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>At high latitudes in the north Atlantic it may move near the surface, especially during the winter. In the boreal North Atlantic at the northern extremes of its range, this species does not extend into truly Arctic waters but occurs at the fringe. Most commonly caught at the bottom of the ocean where water temperatures usually range from 3.5?4.5°C, with a minimum of 1.0°C. In the NRA, the largest catches came from the warmest available locations (between 5 and 6.5°C), primarily in the Laurentian Channel (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>Feeds on crustaceans, cephalopods, jellyfish, cod-like fishes and mackerel in the Northern Hemisphere. Off Namibia and the West Coast of South Africa it feeds primarily on crustaceans, especially penaeid shrimp but also euphausiids.  Secondary prey includes cephalopods, lanternfish, barracudinas and unidentified teleosts (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Reported size at maturity differs regionally (see Compagno in prep.; Yano 1995 and Jakobsdottir 2001) from around 51?70 cm and around 46?63 cm in females and males respectively. Maturity stages have been observed during two seasons indicating an undefined breeding season in Iceland waters (Jakobsdottir 2001).The species is ovoviviparous. Reports of litter size also range but has been reported at a mean of 16.4 (range 4?40) (Yano 1995). Size at birth has been reported from 15 cm (Compagno in prep.) and maximum size from 70 cm in South Africa (Compagno in prep.) to possibly 107 cm in the North Atlantic Ocean (Compagno in prep.). It is also sexually dimorphic; females grow to a larger size than males and are larger at first maturity.
161521		population	eng	<strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong><br/>Although not commonly encountered, the species is found on the slope from central Africa to Iceland (Kulka 2006). In Icelandic waters it is most abundant off the west, southwest and southeast coasts (Jakobsdottir 2001).<br/><br/>Exhibits size structure segregation by depth for both sexes off Iceland with the smallest immature specimens found at 1,000 and 1,500 m, and larger individuals at depths in between. The overall sex ratio off Iceland was 1.00:1.19 in favour of females. Males were more numerous in shallower waters but in depths >1,000 m, the sex ratio was significantly in favour of females (Jakobsdottir 2001).<br/><br/>The species is apparently abundant off southern Africa, mainly below 500 m depth. There is some uncertainty as to whether the Southeast Atlantic and the Northeast Atlantic populations are in fact the same species.<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong><br/>Abundant on the upper and middle slope and along the Mid Atlantic Ridge (Kulka 2006). Common off southwest Greenland (Yano 1995) and Baffin Island, in slope waters off Labrador, Newfoundland, the Scotian Shelf and Georges Bank (Kulka 2006). In the Northwest Atlantic Ocean Fisheries Organisation Regulatory Area (NRA), <em>C. fabricii</em> occupy an area of 225,000 km² and are highly abundant in the Laurentian Channel where they are 10 times more densely concentrated than in the Grand Banks or Labrador Shelf slope waters (Kulka 2006). Recent population trends of adults in the NRA have been stable (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>According to Kulka (2006), in Canadian waters, large (pregnant) females migrate to the shallow (<400 m) portion of the Laurentian Channel where pupping occurs. The young then move into deeper waters of the channel. As they mature they move onto the slope, moving great distances north from the Grand Banks to the Labrador Shelf into deeper waters of the slope as they grow. The exception to this pattern is an area west of Greenland where juveniles of all sizes have been found in slope waters (Yano 1995). Kulka (2006) has suggested that there may be two separate stocks off Greenland and Canada even though the distribution is continuous between the two. Little information is available from the Southwest Atlantic at present.
161521		threats	eng	<strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong><br/>The threat status of this species is of concern in the North Atlantic because of intensive fisheries operating on the deep slopes, following depletion of demersal fish stocks on the continental shelves and fishing-banks (Compagno in prep.). In the northeast Atlantic <em>C. fabricii</em> is frequently taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries; however bycatch data is scarcely available.<br/><br/>ICES (2005) gives full description of the mixed trawl, deepwater gillnet and mixed and directed longline fisheries operating in the northeast Atlantic. Many of these fisheries operate throughout much of the species? geographic range in this area and bycatch pressure is likely to be significant. For example, off Iceland, a considerable amount of <em>C. fabricii</em>, are likely to be discarded by the commercial fishery for Greenland halibut <em>Reinhardtius hippoglossoides</em>. Records are rare and purely incidental, but Jakobsdottir (2001) estimated a bycatch of 98 and 109 t in 1996 and 1997 respectively based on trawl surveys in the area. Records of the catch proportions of the fleet in this area are needed for a full evaluation of the level of discarding of this species.<br/><br/><em>C. fabricii,</em> are landed by the French trawl fishery for mixed deep-water species. Initially this fishery was conducted in ICES sub-areas VIa, VIIc,k but in 2001 when the Irish deep-water trawl fishery started to operate in Subarea VII most of the French fishing fleet moved to Subarea VIa (ICES 2005). In sub-area  XII there have been some French landings of deep-water sharks, but it is not possible to detect any trends from the available data (ICES 2005). Note that this Sub-area contains both the western part of Hatton Bank and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (ICES 2005) where this species is known to occur. Landings in France (mainly from division Vb and sub-area VI) decreased from about 250 t in 2000 to nearly 30 t in 2004 (ICES 2005). Iceland reported few landings from division Va and the largest annual landings reported by Spain came from sub-area XII in 2000 (85 Tonnes) and 2001 (91 tonnes) (ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Despite the more northerly distribution exhibited by this species, concerns still exist that this species will be vulnerable to the growing trend of the French deep-water trawl and other fisheries to operate in deeper waters to the west of the British Isles. Furthermore, there is still a lack of data available on incidental catches. Although <em>C. fabricii</em> has higher ovarian fecundities than other squalid sharks of its size, females still attain a large size at first maturity (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005), and therefore this species may also be subjected to overfishing by the deep-water fishery.<br/><br/>The species is occasionally taken as a bycatch off southern Africa, but generally occurs in deepwater beyond the hake fishery zone. The species is not considered to be threatened in this region; however the situation should be monitored if fisheries expand into deeper waters. There is little information on catches of this species in the eastern central Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong><br/>In the northwest Atlantic, the species is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries. In Canadian waters, there is no directed fishery but <em>C. fabricii </em>are taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, primarily the Greenland halibut <em>R. hippoglossoides</em>, crab, redfish, monkfish and witch fisheries where removals averaged a total of 68t annually between 1996 and 2005 (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>In the NRA, there are no data on removals but bycatch would be significant on the <em>R. hippoglossoides</em> fishing grounds (Kulka 2006). Based on distributional information, it is expected that most of the fish that would be captured in the fisheries in the NRA slope waters would be large juveniles or adults (Kulka 2006). Samples from the Russian <em>R. hippoglossoides</em> fleet in the NRA support this (Kulka 2006). Although incidental catch of this species in the NRA has not yet been quantified, recent population trends of adults have been stable (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>Little information is available on threats in the southwest Atlantic Ocean.
161522		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Research is required on the abundance of this species, its life-history parameters and capture in fisheries.
161522		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: North Carolina and northeastern Florida (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161522		habitat	eng	This skate is found on the continental slope at depths of 695?1,010 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum known size is 29 cm total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of its biology.
161522		population	eng	Unknown.
161522		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available. Its wide and relatively deep depth distribution likely offers some refuge from fishing pressure, however this species has a relatively limited range and any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.
161523		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. It is necessary to discover the depth range and full distribution of this species. Further biological and fisheries data are also required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring. Reduction in coastal fishing pressure and pollution should benefit this and many other species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161523		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: South and East China Seas reaching as far north as Shanghai and perhaps further north into the Yellow Sea (Carvalho 1999). Countries of occurrence are Taiwan, China, Province of China and possibly Viet Nam, although its actual distribution may be more widespread in area (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). Off Japan this species is uncommon and often wrongly reported. (Carvalho 1999).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: found off Cambodia (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999) and Thailand (Carvalho 1999), Its presence in the Philippines requires confirmation (Carvalho 1999).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean: known from India and Myanmar (Carvalho 1999). Distribution in this area may be more widespread.<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: found off India and records from Pakistan of a spotted <em>Narcine</em> are probably of this species (e.g., Bianchi 1985, Carvalho 1999).
161523		habitat	eng	An inshore and offshore numbfish of continental tropical waters (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999). Although it is thought to be found in shallow waters (Carvalho 1999), its depth range is currently unknown.<br/><br/>Sexual maturity for males is approximately between 24 and 27 cm total length (TL), whilst for females it is around 25 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).  Small animals are free-swimming by about 10.6 cm TL, and one specimen examined possessed a faint yolk-scar (Carvalho 1999). This species is believed to reach a maximum total length of about 33 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).
161523		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161523		threats	eng	This species occurs in areas that are heavily fished by shrimp trawlers and other vessels, where it is taken as bycatch. The conservation status of <em>N. lingula</em> and other members of this genus is of concern in the northwest Pacific because of their inshore benthic habitat, low abundance, and the presence of intensive demersal fisheries (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore, when captured in trawl fisheries discard survivorship is likely very low, as <em>Narcine</em> species are soft bodied and easily damaged. These species may also be captured by push net and survivorship may be higher with this gear (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Trawl and trammel net fisheries operate across areas of its range off southeast Asia.<br/><br/>Fishing gear impacts, coastal pollution and siltation from rivers also threaten the habitat in which this species occurs (Simpfendorfer and Cavanagh 2005).
161524		conservation	eng	<strong>US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico </strong><br/>Finetooth sharks are managed under the US Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic tunas, swordfish, and sharks and management actions are underway to limit potential increases in fishing. Moreover, gillnet bans in state waters of Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and Texas will give added protection to this species, as it primarily occurs in state waters. See http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/hms/hmsdocument_files/sharks.htm for up-to-date information and the regulations that apply to the small coastal shark complex.<br/><br/><strong>South America</strong><br/>No measures in place. Recommended: The status of this species in South American waters should be investigated. Research is needed into distribution, catch levels, impact of fisheries and population trends.
161524		distribution	eng	Northwest, western central and southwest Atlantic: USA (Possibly north as a vagrant to New York, rare off North Carolina, and normally from off South Carolina, Georgia, the Atlantic coast of Florida and the Gulf of Mexico coast of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Texas). A record from Cuba is apparently erroneous (Compagno in prep, Castro 1993). However, Wiley and Simpfendorfer (2007) recently extended the US range to approximately 25°N which increases the likelihood of exchange between the US and Cuba. In South America, it is known with certainty from São Paulo to Santa Catarina States in southern Brazil (Soto 2001, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also reported from Trinidad and Guyana and may be more wide-ranging than currently documented (Garrick 1985, Castro 1993, Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Records of the species from the eastern central Atlantic, from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, are unconfirmed and probably incorrect (Compagno in prep, M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006).
161524		habitat	eng	A coastal shark, occurring in shallow waters from the intertidal to depths of ~20 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), which is common off beaches, in bays, estuaries and off river mouths. They often form large schools.<br/><br/>Throughout the southeastern USA and Gulf of Mexico, finetooth sharks use coastal bays and estuaries as nursery grounds (Carlson and Brusher 1999, McCandless <em>et al.</em> 2002). Adults and juveniles are common in shallow coastal waters off South Carolina, Georgia, northern states along the Gulf of Mexico during the warm summer months and migrate south when surface water temperatures drop below 68°F (20°C). In the Atlantic Ocean off the USA, they spend the winter months in the waters off the coast of Florida.<br/><br/>Estimates of size and age-at-maturity for male and female sharks from the Gulf of Mexico were different from those in the US Atlantic and northern Gulf of Mexico (Carlson <em>et al. </em>2003, Drymon <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fork length at which 50% of the population reached maturity is 1,022 mm in the US South Atlantic and 990 mm in the Gulf of Mexico for females and was found to be significantly different. Median fork length at maturity for males is 988 mm and 935 mm for the US South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, respectively. Median age-at-maturity was 6.2 and 4.2 years for females, and 4.9 and 3.5 years for males for sharks in the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, respectively (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Drymon <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Size at birth is 55?58 cm TL and fecundity is 4.0 (SD=0.79) pups for sharks in the US South Atlantic (Castro 1993). Off Louisiana, Neer and Thompson (2004) observed three gravid females with litters of three, four and five pups, respectively. The reproductive cycle is currently assumed to be biennial (Castro 1993).<br/><br/>Significant differences between von Bertalanffy growth curves were found between sharks in the US Atlantic and northern Gulf of Mexico for females but not males (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Drymon <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the US Atlantic, growth coefficients (K) were 0.19 yr<sup>-1</sup> for females and 0.33 yr<sup>-1</sup> for males whereas female growth coefficient were 0.24 yr<sup>-1</sup> and males were 0.41 yr<sup>-1</sup> in the Gulf of Mexico. The maximum observed ages, based on vertebral band counts, were 8.2 and 10.3 years for male sharks from the Gulf of Mexico and US Atlantic, respectively (Carlson <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Castro (1993) published descriptive diet data for the finetooth shark in the northwest Atlantic off the coasts of South Carolina and Daytona Beach, FL, and found teleosts (Atlantic Menhaden (<em>Brevoortia tyrannus</em>), Spot Croaker (<em>Leiostomus xanthurus</em>), Spanish Mackerel (<em>Scomberomorus maculatus</em>), and <em>Mugil</em> species) to be the primary prey. In northwest Florida, Finetooth Sharks fed almost entirely on menhaden and showed no ontogenetic shift in diet (Bethea <em>et al.</em> 2004).
161524		population	eng	The population structure of this species is poorly known throughout its range, but it is reasonable to assume that little to no exchange occurs between the population of this highly coastal species off the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico and the population off South America.<br/><br/><strong>US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico </strong><br/>Common in inshore waters off the eastern coast of the USA and the Gulf of Mexico. It is abundant along the coast of the southeastern United States and the Gulf of Mexico (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Wiley and Simpfendorfer 2007). Stock assessments for the US population of finetooth shark indicate that the current status of the population is above maximum sustainable yield and no overfishing is occurring (Cortés 2007).<br/><br/><strong>South America</strong><br/>This species is poorly documented off South America, but is apparently rare throughout its range there (Castro 1993, Soto 2001, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161524		threats	eng	<strong></strong><strong>US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico </strong><br/>Targeted by recreational fishers, small gillnet fisheries and occasionally taken as bycatch in demersal shrimp trawls that occur along the southeast coast of the USA and Gulf of Mexico. Estimated commercial landings were 69,258 lbs dressed weight in 2000 while recreational catches of small coastal sharks were 86,167 lbs (Cortés 2002). Finetooth Shark makes up a small proportion of these landings but the actual number is unknown. The group ?small coastal sharks? includes Atlantic Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon terraenovae</em>), Blacknose Shark (<em>Carcharhinus acronotus</em>) and Bonnethead Shark (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>), as well as Finetooth Shark (<em>Carcharhinus isodon</em>).<br/><br/>The Finetooth Shark is vulnerable to overfishing and depletion because of targeted fishing in gillnet fisheries in the southeastern United States (Carlson and Bethea 2007). Despite this, recent stock assessments have shown that the US population of this species is above maximum sustainable yield, with current fishing levels not threatening its viability (Cortés 2007). This species is also restricted by its limited distribution (both bathymetric and geographic), with the majority of individuals living in shallow inshore waters adjacent to built-up areas, with extensive habitat degradation and some fisheries. However, the coastal nature of this species affords it some protection because many gillnet fisheries in US state waters have been banned (NMFS 2007).<br/><br/><strong>South America</strong><br/>Shark fisheries have increased dramatically in the southern part of the Finetooth Shark?s range during the past half-century (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2008). The species? apparent rarity is of concern in the southern part of its range because rare species captured as bycatch of coastal shark fisheries may become even rarer to the point of local extirpation as the fisheries continue, supported by the more common species (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic, and inshore fisheries are generally very intense off southern Brazil (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005). Intensive fishing by pair trawl, shrimp trawl, gillnet and beach seine in near-shore waters is documented off Rio Grande do Sul State (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Although this species? range does not extend to Rio Grande do Sul, similar fisheries are likely to operate throughout much of the coast of Santa Catarina to São Paulo States, from which it is known.<br/><br/>Fisheries in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago are generally inshore and artisanal (Chan A Shing 1999). Intensive trawling occurs in Trinidad and Tobago's waters (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). Bycatch of the shrimp trawl fleet is considerably higher than the target catches. Total bycatch in these fisheries declined from 13,712 t in 1987 to 4,099 t in 2001 although the species composition of this bycatch has not yet been examined (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). An artisanal gillnet and line fishery targets mackerel in coastal waters off Trinidad and Tobago and takes sharks as bycatch. This is the most widespread fishing method, accounting for over 85% of artisanal shark landings (Chan A Shing 1999).<br/><br/>In Guyana, there is a partially directed gillnet fishery for sharks (~600 vessels) which captures both demersal and pelagic inshore species. This fishery operates in estuarine and shallow coastal waters (at depths of <40 m) (Chan A Shing 1999). About 100 industrial shrimp trawlers also take sharks and finfish as bycatch, but no details are available on the composition of the bycatch. An artisanal demersal longline fishery targets sharks and catfish at depths of 9?20 m (Chan A Shing 1999).
161525		conservation	eng	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the Northwest and Western Central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.
161525		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: South China Sea, waters surrounding northern Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a), and northwestern Malaysia (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2005, Walsh and Ebert 2007).
161525		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf. Very little is known about this species as few catalogued specimens exist. Individuals are caught at or near the bottom, at depths of between 100 and 300 m (D. Ebert unpub. data), often in sandy substrate (Compagno 1984). Other angel sharks are known to bury themselves in sediment and ambush their prey.<br/><br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparity. Size at maturity is unknown, but mature males can reach at least 85.4 cm total length (TL) (Yano et al. 2005) and females may grow to 100 cm TL or more (D.A. Ebert unpub. data). The holotype was a female, measuring 63 cm total length (TL) (Chen 1963). Size at birth is ~30 cm TL (D.A. Ebert unpub. data).
161525		population	eng	Population size for this species is unknown. Market observations of this species in Taiwan, Province of China indicate that it is not as common as <em>S. formosa</em> and <em>S. nebulosa</em>, but was not uncommon at some fish markets surveyed (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The one known record of this species from northwestern Malaysia was by a Department of Fisheries Malaysia Research Vessel in 1998. However, the species was not recorded once throughout market surveys in Sarawak, Sabah (in Borneo) Brunei Darussalam, and Peninsular Malaysia from 2000 to 2004.<br/> <br/>Like other Northwest Pacific Angel sharks, it is misidentified. Little data exist due to a total lack of known catch records and problems with misidentification.
161525		threats	eng	This species is a retained bycatch of demersal fisheries within its range off China and Taiwan, Province of China. It is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations, but it is retained and can been found in local fish markets in Taiwan Island. In Malaysia, it is rarely taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries and not found in local markets.<br/><br/>The East China Sea is intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004). Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g., <em>Squatina californica, S. squatina, S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim</em> and <em>Squatina occulta</em>, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick <em>et al. </em>2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).
161526		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place for this species. Catch levels should be quantified and monitored throughout this species? range.
161526		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: occurs in the Red Sea, off South Africa, Mozambique, Kenya, Madagascar, Aldabra Islands, Mauritius, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: occurs off Indonesia, Taiwan (Province of China), Guam, New Caledonia, Philippines, Palau, Marshall, Solomon and Phoenix Islands, Tahiti, Tuvalu, Papua New Guinea (Compagno in prep). Also Northern Australian waters from Carnarvon (Western Australia) to Bundaberg (Queensland), with the exception of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Arafura Sea (Last and Stevens 1994, MIRC 2007, Jones <em>et al. </em>1991).<br/><br/>Eastern central Pacific: from Southern Baja California, south to Guatemala and Colombia, including the Revillagigedo and Clipperton Islands, Cocos Island and Galapagos Islands (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Possibly also occurs in the western central Atlantic (Mexico, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) (Compagno in prep.), although its presence in that region is unconfirmed (Grace 2001).
161526		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the continental shelf, offshore islands, coral reefs and offshore banks, from surface waters to depths of 600?800 m (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). It is also found inside lagoons, near drop offs and offshore (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk sac placenta (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Females give birth to 1?11 pups per litter (average six) biennially, after a 12 moth gestation period (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Last and Stevens 1994, White<em> et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is reported at 63?68 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005) and 73?81 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Young are found in shallow water closer to shore, whereas adults are more wide-ranging (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). This is a large, slow-growing shark, which reaches a maximum size of 300 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) report that males mature at 160?180 cm TL and females at 160?199 cm TL. White <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that males mature at 190?200 cm TL and females at ~195 cm TL.<br/><br/>This species may not disperse widely between sites, potentially making remote populations vulnerable to depletion (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161526		population	eng	Populations appear to be fragmented with apparently low potential for interchange among them.
161526		threats	eng	This species is subjected to bycatch in high seas fisheries and in artisanal longline, gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout its range. The number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, catch statistics are not available (Holts 1988, Smith 1998) and where they are, they are under-reported. This is one of the nine principle species landed by high-seas longline and net fleets. The majority of these fleets target tunas in all of the world?s oceans and as a result have a large bycatch of pelagic sharks (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species was not considered in Clarke <em>et al.</em>?s (2006a) recent analysis of the global shark fin trade, although this species? fins have been identified in the trade (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). It is a known bycatch of western Pacific tuna fleets (Ward <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Coral reef associated species such as Silvertip Sharks are important in countries such as Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Maldives and Chagos, where reefs dominate coastal habitats (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). In this region elasmobranchs are most commonly taken as bycatch in non-target fisheries or catch-all artisanal fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has been reported, especially in offshore and highseas fisheries targeting tuna (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005).<br/><br/>This Silvertip Shark is landed in local markets in Indonesia, Myanmar and the Philippines (SEAFDEC 2006). In the Philippines it is in the top ten most landed species by number (0.73%) and weight (2.6%) with individuals ranging in size from 210?240 cm TL and averaging 23 kg in weight (SEAFDEC 2006). Most sharks were landed by longliners (~65%) and gillnetters (~30%) in Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. In Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia trawlers caught significant numbers of sharks, ~88%, 97% and 40%, respectively. Meat, jaws and teeth were sold in local markets and fins, cartilage, livers and skins entered the export markets (SEAFDEC 2006). It has been recorded in markets in Indonesia in small numbers (W. White, pers. comm. 2003). In a five year survey of Indonesian fish landing sites, only 95 individuals were observed out of a total of more than 21,000 sharks recorded (W. White pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence from northern Australia that finning can deplete and drive local populations to near extinction. Even remote populations are likely highly vulnerable to target fisheries for meat or fins, particularly given the limited dispersal and localised movement patterns (Stevens 1984). Acoustic and baited camera survey techniques were used to census shark abundance at two northern Australian reefs: Mermaid Reef in Rowley Shoals (a Commonwealth Marine Protected Area closed to all fishing) and Scott Reef (within MOU 1974 Box, where access by Indonesians using traditional artisanal fishing techniques is permitted). Shark abundance was an order of magnitude higher on Mermaid Reef (Meekan and Cappo 2004). Silvertip Sharks, noted to be the main target of shark finning fleets, were common on Mermaid Reef and absent at Scott (Meekan and Cappo 2004). Over-fishing is the most plausible explanation of differences in the composition and abundance of shark assemblages between Mermaid and Scott Reefs. Sharks preferentially targeted by fishermen, such as hammerheads and silvertip whalers were absent from counts at Scott Reef. Furthermore, catches of sharks in the local area (MOU74 Box) declined throughout the early 1990s to the point that Indonesian shark fishing vessels have been relatively uncommon in this area in recent years (Wallner and McLoughlin 1996, Fox and Sen 2002). There has been a large increase in the illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in northern Australia in the last few years (J. Stevens pers. obs.). Several initiatives are underway to identify which species are being taken and in what quantities. Some domestic boats are also suspected to be targeting species for their fins in the Northern Territory.
161527		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161527		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: from east coast of Florida, Bahamas and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161527		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from the upper slope at depths of 366?522 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Maximum reported size is 40 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 32 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) but nothing else is known of the species? biology.
161527		population	eng	Known only from limited number of specimens.
161527		threats	eng	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries; however it could be vulnerable to incidental capture by deep bottom trawl gear. Given its narrow depth range and distribution, any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.
161528		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. <br/><br/>Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161528		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from Bahamas and southern Florida (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002).
161528		habitat	eng	Benthic along upper slope, between 366?411 m (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). Biology is virtually unknown, but the maximum size is reported at 54 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002).
161528		population	eng	No information available.
161528		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is currently available, and this species? bathymetric distribution may place it below most shrimp trawling effort within its range.
161529		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
161529		distribution	eng	Antarctic Atlantic: found in Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic waters, including Orkney and South Shetland Islands to the Antarctic Peninsula, the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea (Ekau 1990, Stehmann and Bürkel 1990, Eastman and Hubold 1999).
161529		habitat	eng	A large deepwater skate, McCain's Skate can be found from the inshore shelf to depths of about 500 m. It attains a maximum size of 120 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.
161529		population	eng	Moderately abundant larger species of <em>Bathyraja</em> in the Southern Ocean (Stehmann pers. obs).
161529		threats	eng	Regularly taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries targeting <em>Chaunichthys</em> (icefish) and <em>Notothenus</em> (Antarctic Cod), as well as in longline fisheries for Patagonian Toothfish to some extent. An increase of fishing pressure in this location would have dramatic effects on this narrow ranging species.
161530		conservation	eng	None at present. More data are required on its biology, ecology, distribution and the extent to which it is taken as bycatch in fisheries.
161530		distribution	eng	Possibly an Australian endemic known only off Arnhem Land (Northern Territory) and eastern Australia from Cairns (Queensland) to Newcastle (New South Wales) but certainly likely to be more widespread in northern Australia.
161530		habitat	eng	Attains at least 86 cm disc width, but little is known of its biology and ecology. Reproduction is viviparous (aplacental) and it probably feeds mainly on invertebrates, cephalopods and small fish. Sometimes netted on tidal mudflats of northern Queensland.
161530		population	eng	Little is known about the abundance of this species.
161530		threats	eng	Vulnerable to gillnetting in the coastal fringe where fishing activities overlap with its range. However, the extent to which it is caught is currently unknown.
161531		conservation	eng	None currently in place. The health of the habitat needs to be monitored, as does the expansion of commercial fisheries. Further research needs to be conducted to assess the species' range north of Kenya.
161531		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: <em>H. grennian</em> is endemic to a section of the east African coastline from northern Tanzania and southern Kenya, extending no more than four degrees of latitude, as is currently known. It is recorded from few localities within this range; off Ras Ngomeni, Kenya, and off the north coast of Zanzibar Island, Tanzania. The R.V. Fridtjof Nansen collected two specimens from an unknown locality, ?off Dar es Salaam?.
161531		habitat	eng	<em>H. grennian</em> is a benthic shark with a depth range between 238?300 m (Human 2006). The life history of this shark is largely unknown. Males grow larger than females, a trait shared with all other <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks. Smallest of the <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks, the maximum size recorded for <em>H. grennian</em> is 273 mm total legth (TL). Males are juvenile at 165 mm TL, and mature at 267 mm TL and 273 mm TL. Females are presumably juvenile at 206 mm TL, however this may prove to be an underestimation of the maturity status, and size at maturity is not known for females. It is assumed that females develop a single egg case per uterus as reported for other <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks (Human 2006).
161531		population	eng	As is currently known, this apparently rare shark is endemic to northern Tanzania and southern Kenya. It is assumed that <em>H. grennian</em> is comprised of a single population.
161531		threats	eng	There appears to be no threat from local fisheries, as its depth range is probably beyond their capabilities, however, its depth range lies within the capabilities of industrial fishing, therefore pirate fisheries, and expansion of commercial fisheries, are also threats to this species. The restricted range of this species means that industrial pollution could have a large impact on it. The relatively deep area in which it occurs may act as a sink for pollutants, such as hydrocarbons.
161532		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.
161532		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: it is reported from Japan to the South China Sea. In the South China sea it is reported from Taiwan (Province of China) to Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands) and the eastern coast of Vietnam.
161532		habitat	eng	This skate is found in shallow waters, at depths of 67?87 m on sandy, muddy bottoms. Attains at least 42 cm total length (TL) (Nakabo 2002). Oviparous, like other skates. Very little information is currently available on its biology.
161532		population	eng	Apparently common throughout its range.
161532		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in shallow water bottom trawl fisheries. Although it is not targeted, it is retained and utilised for human consumption and fishmeal. Areas of this species? range have been subject to intensive fishing pressure (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947-1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al.</em> 2002).
161533		conservation	eng	No known conservation measures in place.
161533		distribution	eng	The distribution of this Indo-West Pacific stingray is not well known, but probably ranges from southern Japan to India, possibly including the Philippines (Compagno 1998, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). One record from Trinidad possibly refers to another species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161533		habitat	eng	The biology and habitiat of Bennett's Stingray (<em>Dasyatis bennetti</em>) are poorly known. The species reaches a maximum size of at least 130 cm total length (TL) and about 50 cm disc width (DW) (Compagno 1998).
161533		population	eng	Apparently more abundant in northwest Pacific than the Indian Ocean (Compagno 1998).
161533		threats	eng	Bennett's Stingray is presumably taken in demersal trawl and net fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is available on catches of this species. Ray fisheries are important in many areas of the western central Pacific, with substantial landings off Thailand and Singapore (Compagno 1998). Stingrays are also taken in various intensive demersal fisheries operating off India (Hanfee 1999).
161534		conservation	eng	None in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species’ range is required. Species-specific assessment and monitoring of catches, as well as research on the impact of fisheries-related mortality is also needed.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161534		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: from Paramushir Island, north of Japan, to the East China Sea, south of Japan (Ishihara 1990).
161534		habitat	eng	A medium deepwater species, the Dapplebellied Softnose Skate (<em>Rhinoraja kujiensis</em>) is found from 450 m depth, probably to 1000m (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). It attains at least 104 cm TL and is mature at this size (Ishihara 1990). Its biology is virtually unknown.
161534		population	eng	There are no time series data to indicate whether past fishing activities have impacted the population, however the species appears to be naturally rare, probably with a patchy distribution (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).
161534		threats	eng	<em></em>This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. However, this is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).
161535		conservation	eng	No species-specific measures in place.<br/><br/>Recommendation: To collect more reliable fishing data for this species. More population and distribution data is needed on this species. Improved catch data records are required throughout its distribution to better establish the status of its population. Close monitoring of the effects of fishing pressure and demand for skate wings is required.
161535		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia. Occurs along the outer continental shelf and upper slope of southern Australia from Shellharbour (New South Wales) to Geraldton (Western Australia) including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).
161535		habitat	eng	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in deep waters. Occurs in relatively deep water on muddy substrates in depths of 160?700 m but most commonly in waters 400?550 m deep (Last and Stevens 1994). Females attain a maximum size of at least 185 cm total length (TL). Males attain at least 156 cm TL and mature at greater than 127 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). They live for at least 16 years (Treloar unpub. data).
161535		population	eng	Fishery independent surveys on the upper continental slope trawling grounds off southern New South Wales have shown that catch rates have declined by 83% between 1976/1977 and 1996/1997 for grouped ?skates? (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001). In 1996 to 1997 the survey was repeated in the same area and showed that numbers of all <em>Raja</em> species had declined. Eight species of skates were recorded during this study, with data pooled into four depth zones. The principle species captured in the three deeper depth zones (330 to 605 m depth), on all trawl grounds were <em>Dipturus gudgeri</em> and <em>Dipturus</em> sp. B. Catch data were pooled for all species. In 1976 to 1977, mean catch rates for skates were similar on all grounds (range 32 to 33 kg per hour) but were substantially lower in 1996 to 1997 (range 4?8 kg per hour) (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is commonly misidentified and incorrectly reported, often as the longnose skate, in fishery data.<br/><br/>Semi-virgin populations exist in parts of the Great Australian Bight. It may congregate but the extent of the distribution is unknown (P.R. Last pers. comm. 2004).
161535		threats	eng	Frequently caught on the Blue Grenadier (<em>Macruronus novaezelandiae</em>) grounds off Tasmania and western Victoria (Last and Stevens 1994). The species is particularly vulnerable to drop lining and trawl fisheries in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark fishery for target species such as Trevalla and Blue Grenadier (P.R. Last pers. obs. 2004). The species is retained for human consumption when taken as bycatch.<br/><br/>Most skates caught off southeastern Australia used to be discarded, but most of the larger ones would now be retained for the local market. In 2005-07, 13 to 22% of <em>Dipturus gudgeri</em> were retained based on observer monitored catches (ISMP data) More recently, increasing management of major commercial species has resulted in fishers looking for alternate species to market, including skates and rays.<br/><br/>At the Melbourne wholesale fish market the only separate sales figures for batoids are for skates (Family Rajidae). For the year 2002, 43 tonnes of ?flaps? were sold which equates to 134 tonnes live weight. At the Sydney market, batoids are sold under a number of categories. Common names make it difficult to determine the exact species but most appear to be myliobatids, rhinobatids, rhynchobatids and smaller amounts of dasyatids.
161536		conservation	eng	None in place. Critical taxonomic revision of this species complex is required in the first instance to accurately define the distribution and make a full assessment of the population of this species.
161536		distribution	eng	Undefined, due to taxonomic confusion with several different species. Nominally from eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: Mediterranean coast of France  (type  locality), possibly Republic of Congo, possibly Mozambique, possibly western Pacific off Japan, China and Taiwan Island, possibly Australia (New South Wales) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Nominal records from Bay of Biscay to Mediterranean and  Black Seas, Morocco, Canaries, Senegal to Namibia  are probably  based  on two or more species. There are also nominal records as <em>S. blainvillei</em> or <em>S. fernandinus</em> from the western and eastern Atlantic, western Indian Ocean, western and central Pacific, and eastern south Pacific but these are based in large part on <em>S. mitsukurii</em> or close relatives (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>FAO fisheries areas: 27, 34, 37, 47, 51, 61.
161536		habitat	eng	A benthic, rather sluggish species (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984) living at or near muddy bottoms, nominally recorded from the continental shelves and upper slopes, at or near the bottom at depths of 16 m to at least 440 m and probably deeper (Compagno in prep.). Off West Africa it is reported on muddy bottom in water of 11?18°C and salinities of 36 parts per thousand (16?255 m depth) (Compagno in prep.). The species apparently ranges from depths of 50?700 m in the Mediterranean (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Details on the biology of this shark are uncertain because of the taxonomic problems discussed above (Compagno in prep). The species is apalacental viviparous. In the eastern north Atlantic and Mediterranean nominal <em>S. blainvillei</em> is reported to form large schools (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Maximum total length of the large high-finned western north Pacific dogfish ascribed to this species by Chen, Taniuchi and Nose (1979) is at least 81 cm, about the same as a somewhat similar high-finned dogfish from Mozambique (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Detailed data on nominal <em>S. blainvillei</em> from the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean is suspect because of confusion with two or more species (Compagno in prep.). Bauchot (1987) reports size at birth as 23 cm, with females maturing at 50?65 cm in total length (TL), and males at 45?50 cm TL. Data from about 119 specimens collected around Crete (Greece) estimated size at maturity as 52 cm for females and 47 cm for males (Chatzispyrou and Megalophonou 2005). In the Mediterranean, Bauchot (1987) estimated three to four pups per litter, while Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported four to nine, with one litter produced every two years. The species apparently feeds on bony fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (Bauchot 1987).
161536		population	eng	Taxonomic confusion with several other species prevents accurate determination of population trends.<br/><br/>Data from the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey program (MEDITS) (scientific trawl surveys undertaken since 1994 along the European Mediterranean coasts at depths of 10?800 m, 10,000 hauls) were analysed by Serena <em>et al</em>. (2005). <em>Squalus blainvillei </em>composed 3% of the total catch of elasmobranchs during this survey (1,500 tons out of a total 55,000 tons). This species appears less abundant than <em>Squalus acanthias</em> which composed 6,700 tons of the total catch. No more than 10% of the individuals of these species sampled weighed more than 2 kg.<br/><br/>It was no possible to determine the trend in abundance of this species in the Mediterranean Sea because the data are highly uncertain (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161536		threats	eng	Taxonomic confusion makes it difficult to assess the full impact of threats on this species. Sharks referred to as <em>S. blainvillei</em> are fished with bottom trawls, gillnets and line gear in the tropical eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, however the catch is probably multispecies and includes members of the <em>S. megalops</em> and <em>S. mitsukurii </em>groups (including high and low-finned species) (Compagno in prep.). Catch levels are uncertain due to identification problems.<br/><br/>Apparently regularly present in fish markets throughout Adriatic ports, including Sicily, Tunisia, Morocco, Greece, Turkey and occasionally elsewhere (Bauchot 1987), although difficulties with identification may pose a problem.<br/><br/>There is evidence for significant catches of <em>Squalus</em> species in the northeastern Mediterranean, particularly in the northern Tyrrhenian sea (Serena pers. obs. 2006). <em>Squalus </em>species are taken as bycatch of the bottom trawl fishery targeting red shrimps in the Strait of Sicily. About one third of the catch of this fishery is chondrichthyan bycatch, of which <em>S. acanthias</em> and <em>S. blainvillei</em> compose about 5% (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2000). In this area both dogfish, <em>S. acanthias</em> and <em>S. blainvillei</em>, are captured in significant numbers due to the good quality of their meat, which is marketed for human consumption (1,200 tons of <em>Squalus</em> species were landed in 1982) (Cingolani <em>et al</em>. 1986).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea <em>S. acanthias</em> and <em>S. blainvillei</em> are taken as bycatch by purse seines targeting pelagic fishes like anchovy, sardines and horse mackerel. The abundance of dogfish in these catches has displayed similar fluctuations to the targeted species. Dogfish catch has gradually decreased and reached  645 metric tons for Turkish area and 430 metric tons for the Black Sea. According to Serena <em>et al</em>. (2005) catch data indicate that the Black Sea and eastern Black Sea catches have decreased to 67% and 62%, respectively (Turkish State Statistics Institute 2004 In: Basusta <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Directed fisheries for <em>S. acanthias</em> undertaken during the 1970s in areas of the northwestern Mediterranean (off the Balearic Islands) have ceased as a result of declines in the stock of <em>S. acanthias</em> (Fordham <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Squalus blainvellei</em> is of limited fisheries importance compared to <em>S. acanthias</em>, but may also have been impacted by fishing pressure in this area.
161537		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, abundance and range, capture in fisheries and population trends, as well as other threats to it.
161537		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: recorded off Shantou, Gwangdong, China, in the South China Sea (Jeong <em>et al. </em>2007).
161537		habitat	eng	No information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this species.
161537		population	eng	No information currently available.
161537		threats	eng	Presumably taken in demersal fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is currently available.
161538		conservation	eng	None in place.
161538		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: only known from St. Vincent’s Gulf, South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).
161538		habitat	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens taken in shallow water; the largest of these measuring 90 cm (Last and Stevens 1994).
161538		population	eng	Very rare, known only from a few specimens taken from St. Vincent’s Gulf (Last and Stevens 1994).
161538		threats	eng	Susceptible to trawl, hook and net fisheries operating in the area (J. Stevens pers. obs. 2007). Given apparent rarity in shallow water, any bycatch would be of concern.
161539		conservation	eng	Northern Australian fisheries are typically well managed.
161539		distribution	eng	Western Central Pacific: northern Australia and possibly Papua New Guinea (White <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161539		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigaleus australiensis</em> is known from the insular and continental shelves of northern Australia from inshore bays to depths of 170 m. Males reach maturity at about 60 cm TL and females from 60–65 cm TL. Young are born at about 30 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2005). Litter size is 1–19 (mean eight) with possibly two pregnancies per year thus a gestation of less than six months. A specialist feeder which feeds almost exclusively on cephalopods (White <em>et al. </em>2005).
161539		population	eng	Not particularly common throughout its range. Appears to be naturally not abundant as with many other hemigaleids (White <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161539		threats	eng	In northern Australia it is commonly taken in trawl fisheries, including those for prawns (including the Shark Bay, Exmouth Gulf, Gulf of Carpentaria and Queensland east coast fisheries) and fish (including the Pilbara trawl fishery) (Last and Stevens 1994, Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 1999). In northern Australia it is also taken in gillnet and longline fisheries, but not in big numbers.
161540		conservation	eng	No conservation and management measures are in place. Further research is required on the species? life-history, full range and capture in fisheries. Data need to be collected to allow accurate monitoring of population trends.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), further research should be directed at population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.
161540		distribution	eng	Indo-West Pacific: Widely distributed in the Indo-Malay Archipelago, including Borneo, Java and Sumatra (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Found throughout the inshore coastal waters off Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia, and in waters around the Indonesian archipelago (Pengaron, Batavia) (Bleeker 1852, 1853). Reports elsewhere in the region, e.g., Sri Lankan waters (Morón <em>et al.</em> 1999) require verification (Manjaji 2004). Not in Bali or Lombok (Fahmi pers. obs.).<br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 57, 71.
161540		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found inshore on continental shelves, frequently in coastal embayment?s near large river mouths and in mangrove habitat (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). It is limited to the shallows, generally found no deeper than 30 m (Famhi pers. obs. 2007). The species reaches a maximum size of about 100 cm disc width (DW), and males probably mature at 43?46 cm DW (Manjaji 2004).<br/><br/>Reproduction is presumably viviparous, with histotrophy, like others of this genus, but biology little-known (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Fecundity is thought to be one pup per litter (Manjaji 2004). End term neonates of 15?16 cm DW have been observed from large females in fish markets (Manjaji 2004).
161540		population	eng	Little information is available for this species, but it is a regionally common bycatch of fisheries off southern Borneo (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161540		threats	eng	This species? inshore habitat is under a very high level of unregulated exploitation throughout its range. It forms a significant component of the elasmobranch bycatch from fish and prawn trawlers, as well as tangle/gillnet, trawlnet, and dropline fisheries operating in Southeast Asia (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). It is also a regionally common bycatch of bottom trawl and beach seine fisheries off southern Borneo (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). All size classes are captured by trawl fisheries and the species is retained and utilised for human consumption and its skin for leather. Even neonates from large specimens have been observed being chopped up on fish markets (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs.). Although no species-specific data are available, catches of stingrays are generally reported to have declined in inshore waters, with fishers having to travel further to sustain catch levels.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and pollution (chemical) through aquaculture (specifically conversion of mangrove habitat into shrimp farms), mining and coastal development is a major threat throughout its range in Southeast Asia. This species is known to be associated with mangrove habitat, extensive areas of which have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms (Malaysia, East Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra), excessive logging, urban development (Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi) (FAO 2007). Indonesia lost about 1,300,000 hectares of mangroves from 1980?2005 (>30% of mangrove area in 1980) and Malaysia lost about 110,000 hectares during the same period (>16% of mangrove area in 1980) (FAO 2007). In addition to loss of mangrove forests, extensive habitat degradation through destructive fishing practises and pollution has also impacted this species? shallow water habitat.
161541		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Assessment of catches and further surveys are required to provide species-specific data on catch levels and population trends.
161541		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: known only from Panama (McEachran 1995). Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification, and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.
161541		habitat	eng	A benthic species found on soft bottoms at depths of 2-15 m (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). This species reaches a maximum total length of at least 24.1 cm (McEachran 1995). Very little is known of its biology.
161541		population	eng	Apparently rare (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).
161541		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom trawl fisheries operating throughout its range, in shallow waters along the Pacific coast of Central America. Most Central American countries do not keep detailed records for reporting catches, neither internally, nor to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ?marine fishes, nei?, where nei stands for ?not explicitly identified? (Cailliet and Camhi 2005).<br/><br/>Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005, FAO 2007). Both industrial and artisanal trawl fisheries operate off the Pacific coast of Panama (FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout this species? range, with approximately 232 licensed vessels in the industrial fleet, using beam trawls in surface waters down to 200m depth targeting shrimp (FAO 2007). Legislation introduced in 1988 does not permit the replacement of shrimp vessels, so many are >20 years old, between 18-20 m in length, with engines between 150-380 HP and refrigerated holds (FAO 2007). There are about 4,959 vessels registered in the artisanal fishery, including canoes, boats and motor boats. Of these, 2937 vessels are authorised to catch fishes and 2,022 to catch shrimp (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>The threat status of this species is of concern, given its apparent rarity and restricted range in shallow waters that are extensively fished by shrimp trawlers (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). Although the species may be discarded due to its small size, post-discard survivorship is likely to be very low and the population is strongly suspected to have been depleted through fishing pressure (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The destruction and degradation of its inshore habitat are also likely to have large impacts on this species.
161542		conservation	eng	<strong>United States</strong><br/>Commercial and recreational fisheries for Thorny Skates are now prohibited in the continental U.S. as per the current fisheries management plan (NEFMC 2003, 2005, 2007). However, landings are not reported by species (even though this is now mandated under the fishery management plan), with over 99% of the landings reported as “unclassified skates.<br/><br/>Recommendations for future conservation action: Enforce U.S. species-specific landings reporting requirements and increase scientific research and government sea sampling attention to skates. Reduce bycatch by closing and/or reducing fishing effort (particularly otter trawling) in areas of high thorny skate concentration (USA and Canada). Reduce discard mortality by encouraging and/or mandating, gear modifications, more careful handling and discard techniques.<br/><br/><strong>Canada</strong><br/>The current quota for skate (90%+ of the catch is thorny so we assess as thorny) on the Grand Banks is 13,500 t inside and outside Canada’s 200 mile limit, managed by NAFO. NAFO is presently setting the quota for the next three years. It has been recently recommended that thorny skate catches in the Grand Banks not exceed current levels. The rationale is that abundance as well as catch levels have remained relatively stable in years. Skates are recorded to species by fishery observers at sea but not reported in logs to species (Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>United Kingdom</strong><br/>Maintain current efforts to reduce the fishing effort of the demersal fleet.
161542		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic: Svalbard, Greenland and Iceland to the English Channel, including the North Sea (except southern part) and the western part of the Baltic (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).<br/><br/>Western Atlantic: Greenland (Davis Strait) and Hudson Bay, Labrador Shelf, Grand Banks, Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shelf (Canada), Gulf of Maine to mid-Atlantic (USA) (Robins and Ray 1986, Kulka and Miri 2003).
161542		habitat	eng	The depth range of Thorny Skate is from approximately 18–1,400 m but is most common in 27–439 m (McEachran and Musick 1975, McEachran 2002, Kulka and Miri 2003). The temperature range for Thorny Skate appears to be from -1.3°C to 14°C. On the Grand Banks, they are concentrated in bottom temperatures between 2.5°C and 5°C. Thorny Skates are found over a wide variety of bottom types from sand, gravel, broken shell, pebbles, to soft mud (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran 2002).<br/><br/>Along with this species’ broad geographic range, marked differences in size exist for specimens captured in different regions of the Atlantic. Moreover, a longitudinally increasing trend in size at sexual maturity in this species as one moves south from Labrador. For example, size at 50% maturity occurred within the ranges of 44–50 cm and 44–47 cm total length (TL), respectively, for males and females captured off West Greenland (Templeman 1984), but size at 50% maturity was about 55 cm for the Grand Banks (del Rio and Junquera 2001, del Rio 2002). In the Gulf of Maine, size at 50% maturity appears to be 87.5 cm TL for females and 86.5 cm TL for males (Sulikowski et al. 2006). In the North Sea size at maturity is reported at 44 cm TL for males and females (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2000) and at 80 cm TL for females in the northern North Sea (Walker 1998). Maximum size in the Gulf of Maine is 111 cm TL (NEFSC 2000), whereas in the northern North Sea the species attains 90 cm TL and in the central North Sea, 60 cm TL (Walker 1998). This skate reproduces throughout the year in the Gulf of Maine and in autumn months on the Grand Banks (Sulikowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, del Rio 2001, 2002). Size at birth is 8–12 cm TL (Berestovskii 1994, Kulka and Miri 2003, Walker 1998). Litters of between 10–45 eggs are reported (Templeman 1987, Walker 1998).<br/><br/>Age estimates are available for the Gulf of Maine: Age at maturity is estimated at ~11 years and longevity at 16 years (Sulikowski et al. 2005). Generation period is estimated at 13 years (Sulikowski et al. 2005, 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span><br/>Prey of Thorny Skate in the western north Atlantic includes hydrozoans, aschelminths, gastropods, bivalves, squids, octopus, polychaetes, pycnogonids, copepods, stomatopods (larvae), cumaceans, isopods, amphipods, mysids, euphausids, shrimps, hermit crabs, crabs, holothuroideans, and fishes. However, the diet of Thorny Skate is size-dependent. Skates of less than 40 cm TL feed mostly on amphipods while fish >40 cm TL fed mostly on polychaetes and decapods. Mysids decreased in the diet while fishes increased with increase in size of the Thorny Skate. Fishes are a major component of the diet of skates >70 cm TL (McEachran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1976). Scavenging behaviour has also been observed, Templeman (1982) recorded that nearly 14% of the stomach contents of A. Radiata >61 cm was composed of fish offal. In the northeast Atlantic the diet of juveniles and adolescents consisted mainly of polychaetes and crangonid shrimps. Upon reaching maturity, a major diet shift to fish, larger shrimps and squat lobsters occurred (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2000).
161542		population	eng	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>Tagging studies (Templeman 1984b for the northwest Atlantic, Grand Banks (Canada); Walker <em>et al.</em> (1997) for the northeast Atlantic) suggest that Thorny Skates are rather sedentary, as most (85%) were recaptured less than 90 km from the initial capture point (some after twenty years at liberty). This information along with differences in size of egg capsules (Templeman 1984a), and the great latitudinal differences in size (length) at sexual maturity among the areas sampled, led Templeman (1987) to conclude that no large-scale migrations of thorny skates occurred between the sampled areas. However, recent distribution studies showed that thorny skate on the Grand Banks undergo a seasonal migration, shifting to deeper waters during the winter/spring and to shallower waters in the summer/fall (Kulka and Miri 2003). They may also undergo a limited migration on the Scotian Shelf.<br/><br/>The centre of concentration of Thorny Skate in the northwest Atlantic is on the Grand Banks where it is managed as a single stock. Spring surveys there indicate a minimum estimate of biomass about 100,000 t, which has been stable or increasing slightly over the last 15 years. This compares to about 350,000 t observed in the 1970s (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Since the mid-1980s, the range of Thorny Skate on the Grand Banks has been contracting (Kulka and Miri 2003). The centre of mass of this species on the Grand Banks underwent a ~68% decline in extent of occurrence (EOO) between the 1970s and early 1990s. Formerly covering the entire area in fairly dense concentrations, 80% of the biomass is now concentrated into 20% of the area along the southwest slope of the Grand Bank. Twenty-five percent of the area (to the north) is now devoid of thorny skate. This “hyper-aggregation” has progressed although the size of the population has been stable or slightly increasing since the early 1990s. The causes for this decline in EOO are unclear since the majority of the decline occurred in an area that is largely unfished. Recent work suggests that the decline coincided with a period of cold ambient temperatures.<br/><br/>Life history characteristics, such as size at sexual maturity, vary by area. Samples from the Scotian Shelf, (the southern most area sampled) indicated some mixing of small and large reproductive size groups, leading Templeman (1987) to suggest that more than one Thorny Skate stock may exist within this area. A more recent study by Simon and Frank (1996) in the Scotian Shelf found results comparable to those of Templeman (1987). Whether mixing of mismatched reproductive groups is occurring or if separate stocks exist, can not be determined based solely on Templeman’s (1984b, 1987) or Simon and Frank’s (1996) data. To some degree these lines of evidence would lend support for some degree of population segregation and sub-division into sub populations.<br/><br/>According to the 44th SAW report (NEFSC 2007), the NEFSC autumn survey biomass indices for Thorny Skate have declined continuously over the last 40 years and the 2005 index was a record low in the United States. The decline in Thorny Skate SSB is similar but more pronounced than for total biomass. In addition, Thorny Skate recruitment indices (number/tow between 25 and 35 cm) were relatively high although variable from 1963 to 1990, but have since declined to very low levels.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Landing statistics (1903–1993), International Bottom Trawl Surveys (1979–1993) and survey data collected in Dutch coastal waters between 1951 and 1994 reported that <em>A. radiata</em> is the most abundant species, representing 80% of the biomass and that showed a marked increase in the central North Sea between 1970 and 1993. (Walker and Heessen 1996).<br/><br/>Scottish trawl surveys in the central and northern North Sea for the period 1929–1956 and 1981–1995 shows that the starry ray was caught throughout the two periods and became more abundant between 1981 and 1995. The length-frequency pattern of the Thorny Skate was unchanged for the two periods (Greenstreet and Hall, 1996, Walker and Hislop 1998).<br/><br/>In and along the northeastern North Sea and the Skagerrak (Norwegian Deep) this species is very common and is the most abundant skate species (Bergstad 1990). In the research cruises carried out in the northeastern North Sea and Skagerrak from 1984–1987 and 1995–1996 the species was caught in 269 of total of 639 trawls (41%). In the central North Sea it has shown a marked increase between 1970 and 1983 (Heesen and Daan 1995) and from 1982–1991 in English groundfish surveys (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Catches of the Thorny Skate occurred in the entire area, but in the Skagerrak the catches were larger. Although a survey of this species indicated a decline recently in the North Sea, this is believed to be a result of a change in survey gear (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The average individual weight was three to six times higher in the Skagerrak that in the North Sea. The larger individuals were most abundant in waters less than 300 m but there were indications of a movement towards deeper waters in winter. Estimates of total biomass of this species in the North Sea are of the order of 100,000 t (Sparholt and Vinther 1991) but the sampling effort was restricted by depth and area hence the results were not representative of the deeper northeastern part of the North Sea and the Skagerrak. The comparatively shallow areas off the west coast of Norway are probably used as nurseries (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2000). The Barents Sea is considered a spawning ground (ICES 2006).
161542		threats	eng	<strong>United States</strong><br/>Skates have been taken primarily as bycatch in groundfish trawl fisheries in New England waters for decades (Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>A. radiata</em> is primarily landed for wings in the U.S. Since 1981, U.S. skate landings have increased substantially, primarily due to the increased export market for ‘skate wings’ and to a lesser extent because of the increased demand for lobster bait. It is thought that the winter <em>Leucoraja ocellata</em>, Thorny Skate (<em>A. radiata</em>) and Little Skates (<em>Leucoraja erinacea</em>) comprised most of this catch (Dulvy 2005). However, in the USA, landings are not reported by species, with nearly 100% of the landings reported as unclassified skates. “Skate landings reached 9,500 mt in 1969, but declined quickly during the 1970s, falling to 800 mt in 1981. Landings for all skates increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and then declined somewhat to 7,200 mt in 1995. Landings have increased again since 1995, and the 1998 reported commercial landings of 17,000 mt were the highest on record (from Packer <em>et al. </em>2003)”. <br/><br/>The biomass of large size skates (>100 cm TL max. Length; including Barndoor Skate, Winter Skate and Thorny Skate) has steadily declined since the mid-1980s. The abundance of Thorny Skate has declined to historic lows and current abundance is about 10–15% of the peak observed in the late 1960s to early 1970s. In addition, the most recent NEFSC autumn average biomass index of 0.55kg/tow is well below the biomass threshold level of 2.2 kg/tow (NEFMC 2007). Thus the Thorny Skate is considered to be overfished (population level is below threshold levels) in the USA.<br/><br/>The principal commercial fishing method used to catch thorny skates is otter trawling. In USA waters these skates are frequently taken as bycatch during groundfish trawling and scallop dredge operations and discarded. Recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total USA fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Canada</strong><br/>The main human induced threat in Canada is a directed fishery on the Grand Banks where an average of about 11,800 t have been removed during the past five years using trawl gears (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thorny Skate are also taken as bycatch in much smaller amounts in other areas from the Scotian Shelf, north to the Davis Strait. Recent work also shows that the decline on the northern Grand Banks is correlated to the period of cooling in that area (Colbourne and Kulka 2004). The cause of the cooling and the likelihood of future similar occurrences are unknown. Summer survey biomass on the Scotian Shelf (which lies between the Grand Banks and U.S. Waters) is less than that on the Grand Banks, but has declined by 80% since 1970, with no obvious environmental cause. Survey biomass has been relatively stable at a low level over the past 12 years, and is correlated with greatly reduced groundfish fishing effort (McPhie 2007). About 3,000 of the 11,800 t of removals from the Grand Banks fishery from the Grand Banks and 100% of the landings are exported as wings to Europe. Most of the remainder of the landings are attributable to Spain, Portugal and Russia in the NRA (NAFO Regulatory area outside of Canada's 200 mile limit). All non-Canadian catches are landed in Europe.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is occasionally landed as bycatch of other demersal fisheries in the northeast Atlantic. Thorny Skates are known to be scavengers (Templeman 1982) and are less susceptible to fishing mortality in this region than other skates because of a low length at first maturity (~44 cm TL in the North Sea). Moreover, this species is distributed outside the major beam trawling areas in the southern and southeastern North Sea (Walker and Heessen 1996). They are bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries in the North Sea, Irish Sea and Barents Sea. They are not considered a desirable species and thus are not targeted.<br/><br/>Thorny Skate is the most abundant skate species in the North Sea and Skagerrak, and populations trends appear to be stable or increasing throughout this area. It is taken as bycatch in the Barents Sea and it is the dominant skate species in this area, comprising 96% by number of total number and about 92% by weight of skates caught in surveys or as bycatch (ICES 2006). Relative CPUE data for <em>A. radiata</em> in the Barents Sea from 1997–2003 indicate that biomass and abundance increased during this time period (ICES 2006). Obtained fishery-independent survey cruise data (from 1998–2001) on stocks of <em>A. radiata</em> in the Barents Sea remained almost unchanged during survey timeframe, possibly suggesting stable stocks in the examined area (Dolgov <em>et al.</em> 2004, ICES 2006).
161543		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures within the range of this species. Catch data are required to assess the impact of fisheries on this species throughout its range.
161543		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: Thailand, Viet Nam, southern China (off Hong Kong), Taiwan, Japan (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Recent investigation suggests that records of this species from Malaysian Borneo and Indonesia refer to a similar, but distinct species.
161543		habitat	eng	This is an inshore species but its depth range has not been reported (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Virtually nothing is known about the biology of this species.
161543		population	eng	Nothing is currently known about the population status of this species.
161543		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in fisheries throughout much of its range, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, Province of China, Japan (D.A. Ebert pers. obs, Compagno in prep.). It is retained and utilised for its meat and fins, but no catch or landings data are available.
161544		conservation	eng	Further information required on life history.
161544		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: known only from Honduras, Nicaragua and Colombia, and between the Honduras bank and Jamaica (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161544		habitat	eng	Outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 190–410 m (Springer 1979). Thought to prefer habitats with fine white calcareous substrate (Springer 1979, Compagno 1984).<br/><br/>Very little known of its biology. Maximum size 35 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Oviparous, probably laying one egg per oviduct (Compagno 1984).
161544		population	eng	Unknown.
161544		threats	eng	None identifiable at present. Shrimp trawl fisheries operate along the Caribbean coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua, but current information suggests that these fisheries are primarily restricted to the shelf at present (<70 m), outside the bathymetric range of this species in this area (FAOab). Deepwater shrimp trawl fisheries are not known to operate in Colombia’s Caribbean waters (J.P. Caldas pers. comm. 2008).
161545		conservation	eng	No specific measures are currently in place. Research is required on taxonomy, life history, population trends, capture in fisheries and other threats.
161545		distribution	eng	Northwestern Pacific: East China Sea off Shanghai China and Taiwan, Province of China and Gulf of Tonkin, Viet Nam (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: Java, Indonesia, Singapore and Andaman Sea, Thailand (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). May also occur off India, thus having a more widespread distribution, but this needs conformation (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).
161545		habitat	eng	This nominal species is found both inshore and offshore in continental waters, probably at 40-100 m (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>It grows to a maximum size of at least 40 cm total length (TL) (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species is presumably ovoviviparous, but little else is known of its biology.
161545		population	eng	Uncommon in Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). <em>Narcine</em> species appear to be less common in general now than historically in Thai waters (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).
161545		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries. Demersal fishing pressure is intensive in areas of its range, although no specific details are available. Pollution and discharge of poor quality, heavily silted riverine waters may also be detrimentally affecting its habitat.
161546		conservation	eng	None in place.
161546		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: Apparently restricted to Sarawak, Borneo and Sumatra in Indonesia. Despite intensive field and market surveys in eastern Indonesia and Borneo, including the more northerly Malaysian state of Sabah, this species has not been recorded north of Bintulu, central Sarawak (Manjaji and Last 2006).<br/><br/>FAO Fisheries Area: 71.
161546		habitat	eng	This species appears to be coastal, is found in brackish water on very muddy substrate and is associated with runoff from large rivers and mangrove forest (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007, Manjaji-Matsumoto and Last 2006). It occurs in very shallow waters, to not more than 30 m deep (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). <br/><br/>Maximum size is 100 cm disc width (DW). Females mature by 70 cm DW, males by 49 cm DW and size at birth is >18 cm (Manjaji-Matsumoto and Last 2006).
161546		population	eng	Common within its restricted range; most common in Sarawak (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007).
161546		threats	eng	Captured in trawls and on bottom longlines (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007) and retained and utilised. Fishing pressure is generally intensive and unregulated throughout this species? range.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and pollution (chemical) through aquaculture (specifically conversion of mangrove habitat into shrimp farms), mining and coastal development is a major threat to this species. This species is known to be associated with mangrove habitat in very shallow water (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007) and is therefore considered highly vulnerable to destruction of this habitat. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms (Malaysia, East Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra), excessive logging, urban development (Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi) (FAO 2007). Indonesia lost about 1,300,000 hectares of mangroves from 1980?2005 (>30% of mangrove area in 1980) and Malaysia lost about 110,000 hectares during the same period (>16% of mangrove area in 1980) (FAO 2007). This represents a loss of >30% of combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia. In addition to loss of mangrove forests, extensive habitat degradation through destructive fishing practices and pollution has also impacted this species? shallow water habitat.
161547		conservation	eng	None.
161547		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: from India to Java, Indonesia (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>FAO fishing areas: 57, 71.
161547		habitat	eng	This inshore stingray occurs on soft substrates, to depths of at least 30 m (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is known to range into rivers and estuaries in Sabah (Manjaji 1997), and one specimen was caught in an ox-bow (saltwater) lake, near the mouth of Kinabatangan River (Sabah) (Manjaji 2004). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species attains at least 119 cm disc width (DW) (300 cm total length), males mature at about 76 cm DW (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is less than 24.2 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007). Nothing else is currently known of the life-history parameters of the species.
161547		population	eng	Unknown.
161547		threats	eng	<em>Himantura uarnacoides</em> is taken in very large quantities in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, trammel net and Danish seine fisheries off India, Indonesia and Malaysia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Authors pers. obs.). It is also captured by bottom longlines in Vietnam (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). In Indonesia, although this species is still caught in large numbers, the fishing vessels have to travel large distances from many cities to sustain catch levels (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Thus, it is apparent that many areas, particularly close to major cities, have been heavily fished. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. In Indonesia, the dried ray meat that is obtained from catches of the rhynchobatid gill net fishery is an extremely important source of protein for the country. This will presumably increase in the future, thus of great concern to batoid species such as <em>H. uarnacoides</em>.<br/><br/>Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species? known range in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia (and presumably in other parts of its range, such as India), most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are usually retained and marketed for human consumption (B.M. Manjaji, W. White, Famhi and Vidthayanon pers. obs.). Artisanal and industrial fishing pressure is intensive off India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Fisheries throughout India operate on an open access basis. Inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported, and increasing ever-increasing bottom trawl effort (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Demersal species, such as this, suffer more fishing mortality than pelagic species on the eastern coast of India and declines in demersal shrimp and fish stocks have led to fishery closures in areas of the western coast (Morgan 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, recruitment and biomass and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Although no species-specific data are available on catches, this species may share the limiting life-history characteristics similar to many elasmobranchs, making it vulnerable to depletion.<br/><br/>Marine pollution and coastal degradation has also impacted the coastal habitat of this species (including estuaries) (Morgan 2006). Extensive trawl and gillnet fisheries also operate off Pakistan (Khan 2006) and in other areas of this species? range in the Indian Ocean.
161548		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Research is required on the species’ occurrence, life-history parameters, capture in fisheries and population trends.
161548		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: India, Myanmar (Gulf of Martaban) and Pakistan (Bianchi 1985, Weitkamp and Sullivan 2003).
161548		habitat	eng	A demersal species found on the deeper part of the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 122–244 m in tropical waters (Bianchi 1985, McEachran and Dunn 1998). The species attains 22 cm disc width (DW). Presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else known about its biology.
161548		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161548		threats	eng	Bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, although no specific information is currently available.
161549		conservation	eng	<strong>In place</strong><br/>There are no specific management measures in place for this species. The use of fixed gillnets at depths of over 200 m has been banned in the archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (ICES 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Recommended</strong><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
161549		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Madeira, possibly Azores, Canary Islands, Namibia, South Africa (Northern Province). Northwest Pacific: Japan and New Zealand (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>May be wider ranging than currently known (Compagno in prep.).
161549		habitat	eng	A little-known benthic and probably epibenthic dogfish of the upper and middle continental and insular slopes, at depths of 471?1,900 m (Compagno in prep, M. Freitas pers. obs. 2007, H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007). Off Namibia, they are most common between 550 and 1,000 m depth, but are also found up to 1,900 m (H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007). Attains a maximum total length (TL) of 111 cm (Compagno in prep.). Males are reported to mature at 81?84 cm and are adult at 84 cm (Compagno in prep.). Females mature at 92?106 cm and are adult at 106?109 cm (Compagno in prep.). Data from Madeira indicates that females range from 75?109 cm TL, while males ranged from 79?94 cm TL (Freitas and Biscoito in prep.). Reproduction is ovoviviparous (Compagno in prep.). Litter size is unknown however one female was found with 12 eggs suggesting a moderate litter size (Compagno in prep.).
161549		population	eng	In Madeira the species is common and was captured with bottom long-lines during two research cruises in 2004 and 2005 (Biscoito <em>et al</em>. in prep).<br/><br/>Data from annual deepwater scientific research cruises conducted off Namibia from 2004?2006 (at 500?2,000 m depth), suggest that <em>Deania hystricosa</em> is the second most abundant shark (after <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>) (H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007). However, the biomass is small at ~2,625 tons throughout Namibian waters. The species is more abundant in the northern part of Namibia than in the south (H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is very rare in New Zealand with only one specimen known (A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006). There are about a dozen records of the species in a trawl survey database in New Zealand but these come from only three trips out of more than a hundred and it is believed that the database records are misidentifications of <em>D. calcea</em> (M. Francis pers. comm. 2006).
161549		threats	eng	<em></em> Rough Longnose Dogfish (<em>Deania hystricosa</em>) is caught minimally with deepset vertical longlines off Madeira, Porto Santo, Seine and Unicorn seamounts (Biscoito <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.) and off the Canary Islands, where it is utilized for liver oil and meat (Compagno in prep.). Off Madeira, this species is taken as bycatch in the Black Scabbardfish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) fishery (operating at depths of 800 to 1,200 m) and used for human consumption (after drying it is reportedly similar to cod fish) and liver oil (M. Freitas pers. obs. 2007). No information on <em>Deania hystricosa</em> is available from the Azores where fishing occurs on the coastal areas, banks and seamounts (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006). The Azores deep-water fishery is a multispecies and multigear fishery (ICES 2007). It is predominantly small-scale (vessels <12 m; 90% of the total fleet) using mainly traditional bottom longline and several types of hand lines operating down to 1,000 m depth and mainly between 200 and 600 m (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>Probably also caught as bycatch of deepwater fisheries elsewhere (Compagno in prep.). The species may be rarely caught by offshore bottom trawlers off Japan (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is very rare in New Zealand (only one known specimen collected at 930 m; A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006) and the threat to this species from fisheries is probably negligible there (M. Francis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Off Namibia, a fairly small amount of demersal sharks are caught as bycatch by deep-water trawl fisheries and recorded as ?sharks? or ?other? (NATMIRC 2003). These fisheries target hake from 400?600 m off Central Namibia (around 100 vessels), monkfish at 600 m off Central Namibia (around 20 vessels) and orange roughy from 600?1,000 m off Northern Namibia (3 vessels) (NATMIRC 2003). Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species along the entire coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003). The main species of shark taken were <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>, <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, <em>Deania quadrispinosum</em>, <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em>, <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>. The exploratory directed deepwater licenses expired in January 2006.
161550		conservation	eng	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.
161550		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: known from the continental slope off northern New Zealand from the Three Kings Trough (Last and McEachran 2006).
161550		habitat	eng	The biology of <em>B. albilabiata</em> is virtually unknown. The species is known from depths of 900?1,000 m, but may range more widely than this. It attains at least 65 cm total length (TL) (Last and McEachran 2006).
161550		population	eng	Uncommon. Known only from five specimens.
161550		threats	eng	<em>B. albilabiata</em> inhabits the depth range fished by trawlers targeting Orange Roughy and Oreos, but its known habitat in northern New Zealand is not fished by this fleet (S. Baird, NIWA, unpublished data), so the bycatch of this species may be low. The impact of fishing, however, cannot be determined until information is available on the full geographic and depth range of the species. This species is currently only known from a very restricted area (Three Kings Trough in 900?1,000 m) and so more information is required on its range and the extent to which it is taken by fisheries. The population may be declining, but no information is available to ascertain the full impact of fisheries on this species at present. The skates are probably not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently.
161551		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
161551		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: USA (Atlantic coast off North Carolina, Gulf of Mexico off Mississippi), and the lesser Antilles (Dominica). Eastern central Atlantic: Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Canary Islands, the Azores, Nigeria, Gabon, Zaire. Southeast Atlantic: Namibia, South Africa (Northern and Western Provinces). Western Indian Ocean: South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Walters Shoal, Gulf of Aden. Western central Pacific: Philippines (Mindinao, Leyte, Luzon, Marinduque, Siquijor and Bohol) (Compagno in prep.).
161551		habitat	eng	The following information is taken from Compagno (in prep.) unless cited otherwise.<br/><br/>A deepwater species of continental and insular slopes found on or near the bottom at depths from 275?1,785 m. In the Northwest Atlantic it occurs at 412?617 m depth; in the Azores from 250?1,100 m, mostly commonly between 700 and 800 m (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006); off the Canary Islands it has been caught at 600?1,500 m; off southern Africa it occurs at 500?608 m; and off the Philippines it is known at 717?1,786 m. It has been trawled on mud and coral bottoms in the Philippines. Observations suggest they may be more common in the deeper end of their bathymetric range (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Size at birth is over 31 cm. Adult males are 43?67 cm. Females are immature at 60?77 cm, adolescent at 65?79 cm and adult at 62?80 cm. Maximum total length (TL) is reported at about 104 cm (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006), but most known individuals are smaller.<br/><br/>The species sometimes occurs in huge aggregations or schools. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. The probable litter size is five to seven judging from fertilized eggs in the uteri of females (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). The species feeds on small benthic and midwater bony fishes, including lanternfish, as well as squids and crustaceans. Off the West Coast of South Africa squids (Ommastrephidae, <em>Abraliopsis</em> species, and unidentified cephalopods) and lanternfish (particularly <em>Diaphus</em>, Myctophidae) are important prey items (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Feeds on small bottom and midwater fish, squid and crustaceans (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 1992).
161551		population	eng	Very little information is available on population throughout this species? range. <br/><br/>This species was recorded in annual deepwater scientific research cruises conducted off Namibia from 2004?2006 (at 500?2,000 m depth), down to 1,000 m (H. Holtzhausen pers. comm. 2007). It appears to be scarce off Namibia, with a small biomass of about 160 tons in the areas surveyed (H. Holtzhausen pers. comm. 2007).
161551		threats	eng	This species is caught on longlines off the Canary Islands and utilized for liver oil and meat (Compagno in prep.). It is probably caught as bycatch by deepwater fisheries elsewhere in its range.<br/><br/>In the Azores, there is no information from the fishery but only a small number of individuals are caught as bycatch, because the core of the species' distribution is outside of the area where the local fleet usually operates (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006). Some deepwater fishing has been conducted for deepwater sharks off Senegal. Off Kayar and Dakar, Senegal, an artisanal fishery targets <em>Centrophorus</em> species for their liver oil (Direction des Pêches Maritimes du Sénégal 2007). The fishery uses gillnets to target deepwater sharks for part of the year. <em>Deania profundora</em> is not reported in the catch and may occur at greater depths than currently fished off western Africa. Fisheries are beginning to operate in deeper waters due to declines in catches of more coastal species (L. Mbaye pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Off Namibia, a fairly small amount of demersal sharks are caught as bycatch by deep-water trawl fisheries and recorded as ?sharks? or ?other? (NATMIRC 2003). These fisheries target hake from 400 to 600 m off Central Namibia (around 100 vessels), monkfish at 600 m off central Namibia (around 20 vessels) and orange roughy from 600 to 1,000 m off northern Namibia (three vessels) (NATMIRC 2003). Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species along the entire coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003). Birdbeaked dogfish were being fished in this experimental deepsea fishery, but the identification of what <em>Deania</em> species was being caught is uncertain (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). The main species of deepwater shark taken by Namibian fisheries are <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>, <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, <em>Deania quadrispinosum</em>, <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em> and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> (NATMIRC 2003). The experimental fishery ended in January 2006.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, there are some fisheries presently operating in deeper water. For example, Royal Red shrimp trawlers, golden crab traps (180?550 m), bottom longline for tilefish (around 150?350 m), deep drop hook and line boats in the Straits and the Gulf. Almost all the bottom longline boats that target deepwater grouper in the Gulf, and sharks in the Straits and in the Gulf, are setting in depths greater than around 150 m. These bottom long liners catch deep water skates and sharks sporadically. There is also a bottom trawler that fishes for butterfish in deep water and catches deep water skates and sharks fairly regularly (G. Davenport pers. comm. 2006). It is unknown whether this species is taken by any of these fisheries.<br/><br/>There are currently no deepwater fisheries operating within the species? range off South Africa or the Philippines; however, given the expanding trend in deepwater fisheries worldwide, the situation should be carefully monitored to ensure that the species is not adversely affected.
161552		conservation	eng	No species-specific management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161552		distribution	eng	Known from only the northwest Pacific, southwest Pacific and possibly the southeast Pacific, but probably much more widespread.<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: central to southern Japan (including Okinawa Island) (about ten specimens or reports (Tanaka 1912, Higashi <em>et al</em>. 1954, Kuroda 1956, Shimma and Shimma 1969, Yano and Kugai 1993, Tanaka 1998, Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004, S. Tanaka unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Southwest Pacific: three specimens from New Zealand (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1988; Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004). Two other unpublished records of this species from New Zealand trawl surveys are unconfirmed (the 500 kg weight of one was too large to be <em>S. longus</em>).<br/><br/>Southeast Pacific: A specimen from the Sala Y Gómez to the Nazca ridges in Chile was reported as <em>S. rostratus</em> but no details were given (Parin <em>et al</em>. 1997); the Pacific Ocean locality suggests that this specimen was <em>S. longus</em>, but its presence in the Southeast Pacific requires confirmation.
161552		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the upper to middle continental slope. The few known specimens have come from depths at least as shallow as 120?150 m (S. Tanaka unpub. data) to as deep as 1,116 m (Yano and Kugai 1993, A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006). Several specimens have been caught in midwater, which may explain the rarity of this species in fishery and survey catches (A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006). Maximum length likely to be 150 cm or greater. Greatest reported length was 143 cm (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1988), but this specimen had shrunk following preservation; furthermore few specimens have been examined. Males are probably smaller than females (males of 98?110 cm TL were mature (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004, S. Tanaka unpub. data). Reproductive mode is unknown but is probably aplacental viviparity as in the closely related <em>S. rostratus</em>. A Japanese female of 128 cm TL was reported as ?having eggs? (Shimma and Shimma 1969), and was presumably mature, as was another female of 130 cm (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004). Size at birth is unknown, but may be similar to the 21?28 cm reported for <em>S. rostratus</em> (Compagno 1984). Litter size is also unknown, but probably low (six to nine embryos reported for <em>S. rostratus</em>, Compagno 1984). Nothing else is known about the biology or ecology of this species.
161552		population	eng	Apparently very rare.
161552		threats	eng	This species been occasionally reported in catches by trawl, longline and crab pot fisheries (M. Francis pers. obs.). It may be slow growing and slow to mature, like other deepwater Squaloid sharks, making it vulnerable to population depletion in fisheries.
161553		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of its occurrence is needed.
161553		distribution	eng	Occurs in the eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific inhabiting soft substrates. Its range is not well defined, but it is known to occur off northwestern Australia, Indonesia and the northern area of the Philippines. It is likely to be more widely distributed through the Indo-Malay Archipelago (Last and Compagno 1998).
161553		habitat	eng	A small, moderately common, deepwater skate found in the mid continental slope in depths from 600?1,200 m and attains at least 54 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1998, Last and Stevens 1994). Abundant at depths of 900?1,100 m (Last and Compagno 1998). Males and females mature at about 40?45 cm TL (Stehmann and Last pers. obs.). Its biology is little known. Like other skates this species is oviparous.
161553		population	eng	Common in some areas but its distribution is probably patchy. Possibly the most abundant skate in depths of 900?1,100 m throughout its known range (Last and Compagno 1998).
161553		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by scampi deep trawlers and could be of minor commercial value but is currently discarded (Last and Compagno 1998).
161554		conservation	eng	None in place.
161554		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the northwest and southwest coasts of Madagascar (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002).
161554		habitat	eng	Found in relatively shallow waters on the continental shelf. Maximum size is at least 27 cm total length (TL). Males probably mature at close to or >27.0 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).
161554		population	eng	Known from only seven specimens.
161554		threats	eng	Local trawls capture <em>N. insolita</em> as bycatch. Industrial and artisanal trawl fisheries for shrimp and fish operate throughout much of this species? range. Relatively intensive shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Madagascar (Soumy 2006). Pollution and oil exploration may also adversely affect the habitat of <em>N. insolita</em> (Carvalho 1999).
161555		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Research is required on life-history, abundance, interaction with and impact of fisheries and population trends.
161555		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Mozambique, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1989).
161555		habitat	eng	Found inshore to a depth of 100 m. Feeds on bivalves, gastropods, shrimps, crabs and small bony fishes. The maximum size recorded for this species is a male specimen measuring 120 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).
161555		population	eng	Apparently rare, known from few records (L. Compagno pers. comm. 2008).
161555		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries, although no specific information is available on its capture. Various net and Inshore trawl fisheries operate off South Africa and Mozambique (WIOFISH 2008). There are little published data on shark catches within the industrialised or semi-industrialised fisheries of Mozambique (AMAR/EOTH 2007). The prawn trawling industry produced a large bycatch of demersal sharks and rays, with approximately 1,500 metric tons of elasmobranch fishes caught as a prawn fishery bycatch in 1994 (AMAR/EOTH 2007). <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. have been the main elasmobranch group accidentally caught in this fishery (AMAR/EOTH 2007). Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are now required in Mozambique trawl fisheries, which may have reduced bycatch of elasmobranch species, however, in practice uptake of this equipment has been low (S. Pierce pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).
161556		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161556		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: South Carolina to southern Florida, northern Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and South America (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa Perez 1996).
161556		habitat	eng	Benthic along upper slope, at depths of 338?685 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reaches a maximum size of at least 32 cm total length (TL), although mature males have never been observed (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161556		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161556		threats	eng	A potential bycatch of demersal deeper water trawl fisheries, although there is no information available.
161557		conservation	eng	No conservation measures currently in place.
161557		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, between Celebes and New Guinea), Borneo (Sarawak), Viet Nam (Compagno 2001).
161557		habitat	eng	Found close inshore to 12 m depth on sandy, muddy bottoms. This shark is 9?12 cm when born and grows to a maximum length of 61 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Males mature at 44?54 cm TL. Oviparous, with eggs hatching in about December (Compagno 2001).
161557		population	eng	No information available. Rare in Indonesia, but more common in catches in Borneo.
161557		threats	eng	Taken in inshore fisheries off Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia and Borneo, and utilised for food. Likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs throughout much of its range.<br/><br/>It is one of the ten most important shark species captured in Malaysian fisheries, using trawl gear, where it is consumed locally and also exported to markets in Hong Kong and Taiwan, Province of China (SEAFDEC 2006). It is also known to be captured, consumed and marketed in Thailand (SEAFDEC 2006). The flesh is marketed fresh for human consumption.
161558		conservation	eng	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the northwest and western central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.
161558		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northwest Pacific including the Sea of Japan, along the south eastern Japan coast, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, waters surrounding northern Taiwan, Province of China, and the Taiwan Strait (Shuyuan 1994, Randall and Lim 2000, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a, Walsh and Ebert 2007).
161558		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat of this species, but as it is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries, it can be assumed to be found over soft substrate on or near the bottom on the continental shelf down to 300 m deep (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Though life history parameters are unknown, this species is thought to be slow growing and late maturing like other angel sharks. Other species of angel sharks are known to bury themselves in the sediment and ambush their prey. Reproduction is aplacental viviparity. The species may grow up to 150 cm in length (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Size at maturity in females is reported at 80 cm total length (TL) (Yamada <em>et al. </em>2007). Size at birth is reported at 22 cm TL (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). They reproduce in spring and summer, with litter sizes of two to ten pups (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Feed on fishes, molluscs and crustaceans (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Research has identified a parasite living in the uterus of females (S. Tanaka pers. comm. 2007).
161558		population	eng	Population size for this species is unknown. Little data exist due to a total lack of known catch records for this species and confusing taxonomic information used to distinguish individuals of this species from other Northwest Pacific angel sharks (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161558		threats	eng	This species is apparently taken in large numbers in demersal trawl fisheries and is also likely caught as bycatch in set net and gillnet fisheries throughout large areas of its distribution (Compagno in prep.). It is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations, but it is retained and can been found in local fish markets in Taiwan Island and Japan (S. Tanaka and D. Ebert pers.obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The East China Sea and Yellow Seas are intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004ab). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004a). The Yellow Sea was once one of the most intensively exploited Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) in the world and is considered severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with destructive fishing practices (NOAA 2004b).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007b). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007b). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007b). Progress is being made in the introduction of ecosystem based management in the Yellow Sea and a fisheries recovery plan requires the cooperative effort of all countries bordering it. The Yellow Sea LME Project will assess fish stocks and establish TACs (NOAA 2004b). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007b). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g., <em>Squatina californica, S. squatina, S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al</em>. 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim </em>and <em>Squatina occulta</em>, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).
161559		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
161559		distribution	eng	Western Central Pacific: Australian endemic known only from the continental slope off Cairns (Queensland) (Last and Stevens 1994). Likely to only exist on seamounts offshore from northeastern Queensland.
161559		habitat	eng	A small deep-water skate, <em>N. ochroderma</em> can be found in the mid continental slope at depths of 400–465 m and attain at least 36 cm TL. Males mature at about 35 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Its biology is virtually unknown, as <em>N. ochroderma</em> is known from type specimens only. A benthic species that probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Oviparous and deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases, like other skates (Last and Compagno 1999).
161559		population	eng	Little is known of the population. Its range is narrow and the area of occurrence is rarely surveyed.
161559		threats	eng	<em>N. ochroderma</em> is unlikely to be of commercial value but is restricted to a narrow depth and geographical range. There is no current fishing pressure in its area of occurrence. However, trawling of <em>N. ochroderma</em> as bycatch could dramatically affect the population due its narrow range.
161560		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. <br/><br/>The full distribution of this species requires further investigation and further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161560		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: occurs off the Philippines (Sibuyan and Visayan Seas), Thailand (locality not specified) (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999), Cambodia, Singapore (precise locality unknown) and Sabah, Malaysia (Carvalho 1999). May also occur off Pinang, Malaysia (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: found off China (Hong Kong), Taiwan Province of China and Viet Nam (Gulf of Tonkin) (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean: found in the western Bay of Bengal off Colombo, Sri Lanka, Madras and Orissa coast, eastern India. Also from Andaman Sea off Rangoon, Myanmar and from Java, Indonesia (Carvalho 1999).
161560		habitat	eng	An inshore numbfish of tropical continental waters that occurs from depths of 30?80 m (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999). Male sexual maturity occurs between 28.2 and 30.2 cm total length (TL) (Carvalho 1999). The largest specimen caught was a female of 39 cm TL which was sexually mature (Carvalho 1999). Small specimens are free-swimming at before 12.5 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).
161560		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161560		threats	eng	<em>Narcine</em> species are captured by trawl fisheries targeting resources such as shrimps, but are discarded at sea and not marketed. These species are benthic and sluggish and probably easily taken in trawls and discarded at sea, although post-discard survivorship is likely low.<br/><br/>This species may be impacted through habitat degradation throughout much of its range as a result of activities including coastal development and destructive fishing methods (Simpfendorfer and Cavanagh 2005).
161561		conservation	eng	Bycatch and discards of this species from trawls should be monitored.
161561		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic: South Africa and Nambia; Agulhas Bank along west coast to Walvis Bay (Compagno <em>et al.</em>1989, D. Ebert pers.comm. 2004, J.A. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2004).
161561		habitat	eng	Found at depths of 250 to 1,020 m. Research is currently being conducted in Namibia on the life history parameters of this species. Feeds on bony fishes such as hake, barracudas, and dragonets, and invertebrates such as squid, octopus and shrimps (Namibia).
161561		population	eng	All stages of the life cycle have been recorded in experimental trawl surveys, but usually in low numbers. The juveniles of this species tend to occur in deeper water >800 m, and if this is generally the case, they will be out of reach of most trawl fisheries. The adults seem to move from deep to shallower (~400 m) water depending on the season of the year (D. Ebert pers comm. 2004). In Namibia, preliminary results show they are more abundant north of Walvis Bay than south.
161561		threats	eng	Continued or expanding trawl fisheries along the west coast are of potential threat. The area where this species occurs is subject to high levels of exploitation. There are currently fisheries targeting hake from 400 to 600 m off Central Namibia (around 100 vessels), Monkfish at 600 m off central Namibia (around 20 vessels) and Orange Roughy from 600 to 1,000 m off northern Namibia (three vessels) (NATMIRC 2003). Collectively, these fisheries operate over the entire depth distribution of the species although effort in the lower part of its depth distribution is minimal (i.e., only three vessels trawling below 600 m). This species is known to be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries (Comagno <em>et al</em>. 1989) and are generally discarded (NATMIRC 2003); however, numbers taken are currently unknown. The juveniles of this species tend to occur in deeper water >800 m, and may be out of reach of hake and monk trawl fisheries.<br/><br/>Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species at 500 to 700 m along the coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003). This species is the most abundant batoid harvested by the exploratory deep-sea shark fishery. Wings are processed and exported overseas (to Asia). One of these vessels landed 10,133 kg of skate wings over three trips during 2002 (NATMIRC 2003). The experimental fishery ended in January 2006 and no decision has been taken as to whether it is to become a commercial fishery (J.A. Holtzhausen pers. obs. Nov 20. 2006).
161562		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Further surveys and research are needed to provide further information on this species’ occurrence, habitat, life-history characteristics, population trends and capture in fisheries.
161562		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic Ocean: recorded from Senegal to Angola (Cadenat <em>et al.</em> 1978, Capapé and Desoutter 1990, Carvalho and Séret in press).
161562		habitat	eng	Found from 5-60 m depth. Very little is known of this species’ habitat and biology. It is ovoviviparous and attains a maximum size of at least 60 cm TL (Carvalho and Séret in press).
161562		population	eng	Unknown, but apparently rare throughout its range.
161562		threats	eng	Presumably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. Intensive artisanal fisheries and industrial trawl fisheries operate within this species’ known range and although torpedo rays are of little commercial value, they still suffer fishing mortality as bycatch. Fisheries off western Africa have undergone huge development during the past 20 years, in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161563		conservation	eng	None in place. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history.
161563		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: off Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan (Province of China), and Viet Nam (Compagno 2001). Records of this species from the Philippines possibly refer to another, undescribed species of wobbegong and require verification (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).
161563		habitat	eng	A temperate to tropical inshore shark, found on rocky bottoms and coral reefs at depths of 1?200 m (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007). A nocturnal shark which measures 21?23 cm when born and grows to a maximum total length (TL) of more than 107 cm (Compagno 2001). Females reach maturity at 101?107 cm TL and males at ~103 cm TL. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with litters of up to 20?27 young after a gestation period of ~12 months (Captive records) (Compagno 2001).
161563		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this species.
161563		threats	eng	Caught in bottom set gillnets in Japan and used for human consumption; also taken in China, Taiwan (Province of China), Korea and Vietnam (Compagno 2001).
161564		conservation	eng	In US waters, under the Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks (National Marine Fisheries Service 2007), <em>Carhcarhinus altimus</em>, is currently listed as a Prohibited Species.<br/><br/>Collection of data and assessment of catches of this species is required throughout its range. This species is taken on the high seas, outside waters managed by coastal States. This species is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard. See http://www.unclos.com for further details. Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for sharks such as <em>C. altimus</em>, whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning, to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines.<br/><br/>The 2004 ICCAT shark stock assessment workshop (ICCAT 2005) reported that the current situation on submission of shark statistics indicates that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals of these sharks and the data are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. It is noted that improvements in the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment into monitoring the overall catch composition and disposition of the overall catch of sharks and other by-catch species. Therefore, the workshop group recommended that larger monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular, and other by-catch species in general, need to be made by the Parties. Above and beyond this main recommendation, the group identified a number of research activities that could provide for improved advice on the status of these species, if implemented. See ICCAT (2005) for further details. This situation applies to all RFOs and is included here as a standard that needs to apply internationally for fisheries that capture pelagic sharks such as this.<br/><br/>Two RFOs, IATTC and ICCAT, have adopted finning (the removal of fins and discard of carcasses at sea) bans, as have several range states (e.g., USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.) and the EU. These bans only affect a limited part of the geographic range of this wide ranging shark at present.<br/><br/>Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this potentially vulnerable shark.
161564		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal, but patchily recorded in tropical and warm seas (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>Western central and southwest Atlantic: reported from Florida, Bahamas, Cuba, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Brazil (Compagno in prep.). Eastern central Atlantic: Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Ghana, and also in the Mediterranean Sea (Golani 2002, Compagno in prep). Indian Ocean: South Africa, Madagascar, India, Maldives, Red Sea and possibly  also Sri Lanka (Compagno in prep.). Northwest and western central Pacific: China, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Compagno in prep., White <em>et al. </em>2006). Eastern central and southeast Pacific: Gulf of California, southern Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Revillagigedo Islands (Compagno in prep.). Also occurs off Australia, in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and Hawaii, in the Central Pacific (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>A transboundary/migratory species that has been tagged travelling distances between 1,000 and 2,000 miles (Kohler <em>et al.</em> 1998).
161564		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly on the edge of continental shelves in deep water (12?430 m), and is more common between 80 and 220 m with very occasional captures in shallow water (Tester 1969). Between North Carolina and Florida, USA, it has a depth range from 12?200 m (Commercial Shark Fishery Observer Program unpubl data). Individuals have been caught at night near the surface over deep water in Hawaii, Maldives, Australia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. Therefore the species is thought to display diurnal vertical migrations (Anderson and Stevens 1996).<br/><br/>Average reproductive age is ~21 years. Males reach maturity at 216 cm total length (TL) and females at 226 cm TL. Maximum size is 282 cm TL and size at birth is 70?90 cm TL (Compagno 1984, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 1995, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 1996). Females give birth to 1?13 pups per litter.
161564		population	eng	The low tag and recapture rate (5.3%) of Bignose Shark (<em>Carcharhinus altimus</em>) does not necessarily reflect a low abundance of this species, but may be due to this species being undesirable or inaccessible to the main body of fishing and tagging effort in the Atlantic Ocean (Kohler <em>et al.</em> 1998). Soto (2001) notes that it is uncommon in Brazil, but that it is probably distributed offshore along the entire Brazilian coast. The species is reported as rare in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005).
161564		threats	eng	Globally, <em>C. altimus</em> is taken in pelagic longline fisheries in deep water (Anderson and Stevens 1996) and is therefore susceptible to capture in widespread tuna longline fisheries. The species is occasionally caught in bottom trawls.<br/><br/>In the US northwestern Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico waters this species is not targeted. It is rarely caught in the US commercial bottom longline fishery (from New Jersey to Louisiana: 46 individuals recorded by fishery observers monitoring ~4% of the fishery during 1994 to 2003) or the US pelagic longline fishery (east coast of the US, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean: 41 individuals observed recorded by fishery observers monitoring ~ 5% of the fishery during 1992 to 2000). There is no indication that catch rates for this species are increasing in either of these fisheries. However, this species is often misidentified by fishermen and biologists (J. Musick pers. comm.). It is related to the sandbar shark, which it may often be mistaken for, and which has been heavily depleted by fishing pressure in the Northwest Atlantic. Although no specific data are available for <em>C. altimus</em>, it is suspected that this species has also been impacted by longline fisheries operating in this region. It is possible non-US longline vessels targeting tuna (deeper sets) may catch this species as bycatch, however there are no data available to confirm this. In the Caribbean, this species is apparently taken on deep-set longlines (particularly off Cuba, but also southern Florida), and there it is utilized for fishmeal, oil and shagreen (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>In the eastern central and southeast Pacific, this species is taken as bycatch of gillnets, bottom longlines and trawls.<br/><br/>In the southwest Atlantic, off Brazil, <em>C. altimus</em> is taken incidentally by commercial fisheries on the outer continental shelf and continental slope. The species was first identified and recorded from the catches of tuna longliners operating out of Santos (São Paulo State, southern Brazil) by Sadowsky and Amorim (1977). They are seldom caught by this fleet but are retained when caught and sold as "other sharks" (Arfelli and Amorim 1994). The bignose shark is also taken in directed artisanal shark longline fisheries around Venezuelan oceanic islands (Tavares 2005).<br/><br/>It is also taken in bottom trawls in the western Indian Ocean and probably by line or gillnet off India. Taken by nearshore pelagic longline around the Maldives; catch rates reported by fishermen to have declined significantly in recent years (C. Anderson pers. comm. 2007). Whole individuals are consumed and traded at local markets in Thailand and the Philippines (Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 2006). In Indonesia this species is caught occasionally by shark longliners and is a utilized bycatch of gillnet fisheries (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). It has been confirmed as present in the shark fin trade through genetic testing of fins collected in Hong Kong (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is not commercially harvested in Australia.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean this species is known to be important bycatch of the pelagic longline fishery operating from eastern Algerian ports (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161565		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161565		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: northern Gulf of Mexico and Nicaragua (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161565		habitat	eng	Benthic along upper slope, between 275 and 476 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Males mature at 96 cm total length (TL) and maximum size is 107 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of the biology of the species.
161565		population	eng	Unknown.
161565		threats	eng	A potential bycatch of fisheries operating on the slope, but no specific information is available. Little specific information is currently available on fisheries operating within this species’ range. Industrial fisheries on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua are apparently less developed than artisanal fisheries at present (FAO 2007).
161566		conservation	eng	In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), efforts in further research should be directed to also obtain the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.
161566		distribution	eng	Widespread in the eastern Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, but distribution is poorly defined. <br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean: occurs from India, Sri Lanka (De Bruin <em>et al.</em> 1995; Morón <em>et al.</em> 1998), and east to Myanmar. Records from elsewhere in the Indian Ocean (west of India) (e.g., Compagno 1986, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989) may represent a separate species, identified as <em>Himantura</em> sp. B (Manjaji 2004).<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: Taiwan, Province of China.<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: South and East China Seas (e.g., Annandale 1909, 1910; Shen 1993; Last and Compagno 1999), Samoa (Fowler 1956), South China Sea and Sulu Sea off Sabah (Fowler <em>et al. </em>1999).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Area: 51, 57, 61 and 71.
161566		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, found on the inner continental shelf, from inshore waters to depths of at least 60 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Presumably occurs on soft substrates (White <em>et al. </em>2006). It appears to occur more frequently in shallow trawls (20?33 m depth) in warmer months on the Tugela Bank, Natal, South Africa and this may be a nursery ground (Fennessy 1994). Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy, and gives birth to litters of 1?4 pups after an unknown gestation period (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Small individuals are present in trawl catches all year round, suggesting that this species is able to reproduce all year round with no reproductive season (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Diet presumably consists of bivalve molluscs, crustaceans and small fishes (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males reach maturity at ~48 cm disc width (DW) (White and Dharmardi 2007). Size at maturity in females is >54 cm DW (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species attains at least 100 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and size at birth is 18?21 cm (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161566		population	eng	Appears to be a naturally common species. For example it is caught in very large amounts in Borneo and Indonesia (W. White pers. obs. 2007, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Population size in Indonesia (and throughout much of its range) is still unknown, market observations were conducted at several landing sites in Java and Kalimantan from 2005 to present, showed that the species is quite common and they were recorded at almost all landing sites (fishing areas including the Java Sea, off southern Java (Indian Ocean), Sunda Strait, Karimata Strait, Makassar Strait, West Kalimantan, southern Natuna Islands).
161566		threats	eng	This species is captured in very large quantities in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, trammel net and Danish seine fisheries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Famhi pers. obs.). Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species? known range in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia (and presumably in other parts of its range, such as India), most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are usually retained and marketed for human consumption (B.M. Manjaji, W. White, Famhi and Vidthayanon pers. obs.). In Sabah (Malaysia), this species constitutes an important component of inshore trawl and longline fisheries (20?50 landed per day). This species is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura gerrardi</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The Rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high.<br/><br/>It is also commonly caught in large numbers by trawl and Danish seine boats operating in the Java Sea. This species is the most important elasmobranch caught by the Danish seine fishery according to the total catch (biomass) (contributing ~ 1950 kg/boat average and also contributed to about 10?40% of the total catch according to the biomass) (Fahmi pers. obs.). Fishermen are having to travel further to maintain catches of the same level as previously throughout Southeast Asia , indicating that numbers have most likely declined in shallower water (W. White pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Artisanal and industrial fishing pressure is intensive off India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Fisheries throughout India operate on an open access basis. Inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported, and ever-increasing bottom trawl effort (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Demersal species, such as this, suffer more fishing mortality than pelagic species on the eastern coast of India and declines in demersal shrimp and fish stocks have led to fishery closures in areas of the western coast (Morgan 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, recruitment and biomass and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Although no species-specific data are available on catches, this species produces only 1-4 pups per litter and likely shares the limiting life-history characteristics similar to many elasmobranchs, making it vulnerable to depletion.<br/><br/>Marine pollution and coastal degradation has also impacted the coastal habitat of this species (including estuaries) (Morgan 2006). Extensive trawl and gillnet fisheries also operate off Pakistan (Khan 2006) and in other areas of this species? range in the Indian Ocean.
161567		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161567		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Japan, including the Ryukyu Islands and East China Sea (Nakaya 1975, Horie and Tanaka 2000, Senou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Shinohara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Yano 1999),
161567		habitat	eng	<em>Galeus nipponensis</em> is reported from depths from 362?540 m (Nakaya and Shirai 1992, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), but has been recorded at depths of 15 0m in Suruga Bay, Japan (Tanaka pers. obs. 2008).<br/><br/>Biological data for this species are available from Suruga Bay, Japan (Horie and Tanaka 2000). Males mature at 51?62 cm total length (TL) and females at 55?61 cm TL (Horie and Tanaka 2000). The species attains a maximum size of 67.5 cm TL and size at birth is reported at 13.3 cm TL (Horie and Tanaka 2000). It is oviparous, and may spawn all year round with a peak in winter (Horie and Tanaka 2000). It is an opportunistic feeder and preys mainly on bony fishes (Sardinops, Engraulis, etc), cephalopods (Sepiolidae, etc.), and crustaceans (Horie and Tanaka 2000).
161567		population	eng	Reported as common in deepwater off Japan (southeast Honshu) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Catch per unit effort data for Suruga Bay, Japan, was 0.84 female sharks per fishing tow and 0.89 male sharks per fishing tow from 1981-1996 (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).
161567		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in deepwater demersal trawl fisheries operating off Japan and in the East China Sea, but no specific details are available.
161568		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Further information is required on catches and population trends, life-history and other threats for future reassessment and this species should be closely monitored. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161568		distribution	eng	Northwest Atlantic: occurs from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA (rarely) to North Carolina. Western central Atlantic: Occurs from North Carolina to southern Florida, in the Northern Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas and the Caribbean coast of northern South America. Southwest Atlantic: Brazil, Uruguay, and northern Argentina. (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161568		habitat	eng	<em>M. freminillii </em>is found most frequently in coastal waters to 10 m depth, mainly in shallow estuaries (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). In the northern part of its range, this species migrates northward during early summer and southward during early winter (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). It is capable of travelling long distances and occasionally leaps out of the water. Its food consists of bivalves, gastropods, and crustaceans (lobsters and crabs) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).<br/><br/>This species reaches a maximum size of 106 cm disc width (DW) (Refi 1975), but is common to 70 cm DW. Males mature at 60?70cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Neonates are around 25 cm DW at birth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). In the north of the species? range a fecundity of six embryos has been reported (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), but little else is known of its biology.
161568		population	eng	Not reported to be common (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and has been reported as scarce off northern Argentina (Refi 1975, Menni and Stehmann 2000).
161568		threats	eng	This species is caught mainly by artisanal fisheries on longlines and with trammel nets, but is also taken as bycatch in industrial trawl fisheries targeting shrimps and finfishes (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). It is marketed, salted, in limited quantities and occasionally consumed fresh.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure on the inshore coastal environment is fairly intensive across large parts of this species? distribution, and its inshore coastal occurrence, apparent low abundance and low fecundity may make it susceptible to localised population reductions. The Gulf of Mexico is the site of both an intensive bottom longline fishery and a demersal shrimp trawl fishery (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Across Caribbean South America and parts of Brazil, trawling and inshore netting is intensive and this eagle ray is likely taken in both coastal artisanal and industrial fisheries throughout its South American range.<br/><br/>Snapper and grouper fisheries operate over extensive areas of the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and French Guiana, although no information is available on bycatch (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Approximately 1,000 medium- and long-range vessels target snappers and groupers inside and outside the Venezuelan EEZ using handline and demersal longline gear (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Shrimp trawl fisheries are also intense in many parts of this region. For example, trawl fisheries began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s, subsequently showing considerable increases in both effort and efficiency (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al. </em>2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch.<br/><br/>Off southern Brazil, where inshore fishing activities are intensive, <em>Myliobatis</em> spp are a bycatch of various artisanal and industrial fisheries (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Significant declines have been documented for other batoid species which rely on the inshore environment (i.e. the Brazilian guitarfish <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em>), but it is uncertain how this fishing pressure has affected eagle rays.
161569		conservation	eng	None in place.
161569		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic Ocean: from Ireland and the North Sea, south to South Africa, including Madeira, Morocco and the Azores, and along the eastern African coast to Angola, Namibia and South Africa. It ranges throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but is absent from the Black Sea (Serena 2005). It is also found off Kenya and South Africa in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>Populations in Europe may be regionally different compared to elsewhere.
161569		habitat	eng	This semipelagic ray is found inshore and offshore, it appears primarily to occur in inshore, coastal areas (<50 m), readily entering shallow lagoons and estuaries, although it has been reported from depths of up to 537 m in some areas (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984). In the Mediterranean Sea it is reported to occur on sandy and muddy substrates, to 200 m depth (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Serena 2005). They can often be found in groups swimming close to the bottom. Reproduction is ovoviviparous (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Life-history parameters appear to vary regionally. In the Mediterranean Sea, M. Aquila reaches a maximum size of 150 cm disc width (DW) and 260 cm total length (TL) (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Females mature at 60 cm DW and males at 40 cm DW (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Serena 2005). Females give birth to 3–7 pups per litter, after a gestation period of 6–8 months (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Whitehead et al. 1984, Serena 2005). Reproduction takes place between September and February (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998).<br/><br/>Off southern Africa, this species reaches a maximum size of 79.1 cm DW, with males maturing at 31.8 cm DW and females at 42.5 cm DW.<br/><br/>It feeds on invertebrates such as crabs, molecrabs and bivalves, and on small bony fishes.
161569		population	eng	This species is common in the southern part of its range (southern Africa) (J.A. Holtzhausen and D.A. Ebert pers. obs.), however it appears to be less common in European waters. In South Africa, data on catches of this species in the Natal Sharks Board beach nets showed no trend from 1981–2001 (Young 2001).<br/><br/>Aldebert (1997) examined long-term changes in groundfish diversity in the Gulf of Lions, France, northwestern Mediterranean Sea. This study analysed trends in both commercial landings in the demersal fishery (mostly trawl) from 1970–1995 and data from bottom trawl survey from 1957–1995. Analysis of commercial landings showed a clear decrease this species during the study period, and after the late 1970s it remained absent (Aldebert 1997). Results obtained from experimental surveys confirmed that decreasing trends were most likely related to the continuous increasing fishing intensity, resulting in a general decline in stocks and not changing patterns of effort in the fishery.<br/><br/>This species occurred in low numbers in MEDITS surveys conducted from 1994–1999 at depths of 10–800 m. It was captured in 37 of 6,336 scientific survey hauls conducted throughout the northern Mediterranean during this period (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>No data are currently available on catch trends elsewhere.
161569		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to a variety of fishing gears, including bottom trawls, purse seines, gillnets and line-gear. It is taken as bycatch in various fisheries, including both commercial and artisanal, throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea and presumably in the tropical Atlantic. There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although it is almost certainly taken in artisanal fisheries in the tropical Atlantic. This species’ schooling behavior means that large numbers could be fished out in one haul, and fishermen are known to target aggregations of rays off western Africa.<br/><br/>Fisheries have increased in both effort and capacity in the Mediterranean Sea during recent decades (Aldebert 1997). The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are subject to high levels of exploitation, down to a depth of 800 m (i.e., throughout much of this species’ bathymetric range) (Massuti and Moranta 2003). Data from trawl surveys and fisheries landings suggest that this species declined in the northern Mediterranean in the late 1970s and was absent from the catches until 1995.<br/><br/>In southern Africa is it only rarely taken as bycatch with bottom trawls, purse seines, longlines, or by shore anglers, and is not subjected to great fishing mortality. About 65–70% of <em>M. aquila</em> captured in Natal Sharks Board beach protection nets are released alive, with presumed high survival (S. Dudley pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation in inshore areas from coastal development and pollution may also affect this species’ in inshore habitat.
161570		conservation	eng	Few specimens occur in museum collections and its current abundance where it was formerly reported as being common (India) needs to be investigated (Compagno in prep.).
161570		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean and West Pacific: Pakistan, India, Burma, Indonesia (Makassar Straits), Sarawak, and China (Compagno in prep).
161570		habitat	eng	Found inshore on the continental shelf (mostly close inshore). A viviparous species giving birth to four to eight pups per litter after an eight month gestation period. Pups are 40?60 cm long when born, and grow to a maximum of 168 cm TL. Males mature at 114 cm TL, whereas females mature at <130 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161570		population	eng	Rare throughout most of its range, but once known to be common off west coast of India (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161570		threats	eng	Taken regularly (but in low numbers) by local fishermen of India (Bombay), Pakistan (Karachi), Sarawak and Kalimantan (Indonesia). Taken in bottom and floating gill nets and with line gear. Meat is utilized for human consumption, fins dried for fin trade and livers used for vitamin oil (Compagno in prep.). Probably threatened by habitat removal and destruction (e.g., inshore mangrove areas) which is prolific throughout much of its range. As this species predominantly occurs inshore, pollution from river outflow is also a possible threat.
161571		conservation	eng	None in place.
161571		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: possibly endemic to Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161571		habitat	eng	Biology and habitat unknown. Demersal on the continental shelf in depths exceeding 60 m. Attains at least 110 cm; males mature at 83–89 cm and females at >92 cm TL (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Mode of reproduction not known.
161571		population	eng	Not particularly common in fish landings and possibly not an abundant species.
161571		threats	eng	Caught occasionally by demersal longliners off Bali (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Utilised for its meat and fins, but of limited use due to its small size (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Possibly occurs deeper than the majority of fisheries but more information required.
161572		conservation	eng	Research actions to obtain baseline information are necessary to establish adequate conservation measures. Habitat conservation and impact mitigation measures are potentially important for the conservation of this species. Adequate management and legislation should be addressed. Education and public awareness are desired due to the negative image associated to this group of elasmobranchs due to fear of sting accidents often leading to persecution.
161572		distribution	eng	South America inland waters: known from the Paraná and Paraguay River basins in Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. This species is probably not present in the Amazon drainage (Guaporé, Beni, Solimões and Marañón River) and reports from Peru and Bolivia (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003, Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2004 and others) probably correspond to misidentification with similar species (author?s personal observations).
161572		habitat	eng	With respect to habitat, ecology and biology, the original description (Castello and Yagolkowski 1969) only mentions that the holotype and paratypes were captured in a lagoon and that sexual heterodonty was absent. There are no further data available concerning habitat and life history aspects of this species.
161572		population	eng	Population size and dynamics have never been estimated and are unknown for this species.
161572		threats	eng	The threats facing this species are not well known. Environmental impacts, including habitat loss and degradation due to infrastructure development, agriculture and water pollution (agricultural wastes) seem to be among the main threats for <em>P. castexi</em>. There are no catch records and apparently this species is not used as a food source, nor often captured for the ornamental trade. International trade information indicates that this species is marketed (Araújo <em>et al.</em> 2004) but quantitative information is not available.
161573		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Habitat protection is recommended in addition to the evaluation of captures by fishing activities including for the ornamental fish trade.
161573		distribution	eng	South America Inland Waters: endemic to the River Catacumbo and its tributaries in Colombia, and the Maracaibo drainage in Venezuela. <br/><br/>FAO Area: 03.
161573		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the biology or ecology of this species. It inhabits shallow waters with muddy bottoms. Diet includes insect larvae and detritus.
161573		population	eng	No information on populations. It has a low abundance around the Catumbo River. In the Catacumbo River the range of this species is the town of La Gabarra and Zulia River, to the municipality Riego de Zulia.
161573		threats	eng	Little information available. Habitat degradation, particularly from agricultural run-off and mining activities may be of concern. Fishing activities, including for the ornamental fish trade.
161574		conservation	eng	Appropriate monitoring of this species in the research trawl surveys that are regularly conducted in the area are sufficient at this time. Currently no specific management for this species is in place, although, under the FAO International Plan of Action for the conservation and management of sharks (IPOA-Sharks), development of a shark management plan for all chondrichthyans is currently being considered in South Africa (finalisation and implementation of this plan should be considered a matter of priority and great urgency) and a shark management plan has recently been implemented in Namibia (Anon 2004).
161574		distribution	eng	Southern African endemic: ranging southwards from approximately 27°S (south of Lüderitz) in the southeast Atlantic off Namibia, continuing southwards and eastwards around South Africa and into the Western Indian Ocean, off Durban, South Africa (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991, Human 2006, Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
161574		habitat	eng	<em>H. regani</em> is a benthic shark that occurs on the continental shelf from a depth of approx. 100–500 m, and exceptionally from 40–910 m (Human 2006, Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2000). There is marked sexual dimorphism in this species and the male is significantly larger than the female, an oddity in chondrichthyan fishes, where the opposite is normally true. Females mature between 40.0–45.0 cm total length (TL) and males mature between 45.0–50.0 cm TL. A single eggcase is found in each uterus in gravid females (single oviparity) and gravid females are present at all times of the year. Ovulation occurs when the ova reach 11 mm in diameter. Richardson <em>et al</em>. (2000) speculated that female fecundity may be high, with other species within the family Scyliorhinidae able to lay one egg pair every 15 days, this however remains to be confirmed for this species. Abundance of this species suggests that <em>H. regani</em> is highly fecund.
161574		population	eng	The Izak Catshark appears to have a minor seasonal migration occurring on the southernmost tip of the Algulhas Bank, South Africa, with sharks migrating closer inshore in autumn (and possibly summer?). On the west coast of South Africa, the mean biomass of <em>H. regani</em> increased from 1,606 t  (for the period 1986–1993) to 3,012 t (1994–1999) as determined by periodic research trawl surveys in the area (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2000). Biomass estimates for the south coast of South Africa are less well known due to non-periodic research trawl surveys in this area. Highest densities of this shark occur in areas where the continental shelf is broad.
161574		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats for this species in the immediate future. A demersal trawl fishery for hake exists within the known range of <em>H. regani</em>, fishing between 200 and 600 m on the Agulhas Bank, south of Cape Town, South Africa. The Izak Catshark is a discarded bycatch species of this fishery. Survival rates are likely to be high due to the increase in biomass, in the presence of this trawl fishery, reported for this species by Richardson <em>et al</em>. (2000). Although biomass of <em>H. regani</em> has increased in recent times, it is endemic to a small area and could therefore be threatened by habitat degradation and localised catastrophic events.
161575		conservation	eng	None in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species’ range is required. Species-specific assessment and monitoring of catches, as well as research on the impact of fisheries-related mortality is also needed.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161575		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: relatively restricted distribution in the southern Sea of Okhotsk and off the southern Kuril Islands, also from Chiba Prefecture to southern Hokkaido Japan (Ishihara 1990, Parin 2001).
161575		habitat	eng	Found on the continental slope, at depths 380–980 m off Japan (Ishihara 1990), and at 300–1,000 m in Russian waters (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000). Prefers bottom water temperatures of 0 to 3.2°C (Dolganov 1998a). Females reach a maximum size of 69 cm total length (TL) and males, 62cm TL (Dolganov 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Size at birth is unknown, but egg capsules measured 5.6–6.8 cm x 3.6–4.6 cm (Dolganov 1998b). Nothing else is known of the species’ biology and ecology.
161575		population	eng	This species is rare. Total biomass estimates from data collected during demersal trawl surveys in Russian waters, off the Kuril Islands from 1977–1997 comprised only 1,200 t (Dolganov 1999). No data available on population status or abundance in the rest of its range.
161575		threats	eng	<em>Rhinoraja longicauda</em> is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. However, this is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).
161576		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
161576		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: occurs off China in the East China Sea and Bohai Sea and off Korea in the Yellow Sea (Zhu and Meng 2001).
161576		habitat	eng	An inshore coldwater stingray, probably occurring at less than 200 m deep although no specific information is available on its depth range (D. Ebert, Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).  Males reach 82 cm TL and females 72.5 cm TL (Zhu and Meng 2001). The biology and habitat of this species are largely unknown. The holotype is an adult male with a disc width of 39.5 cm (DW).
161576		population	eng	No information on population.
161576		threats	eng	Commonly captured as bycatch in demersal trawls operating off China (Zhu and Meng 2001), but only of low value. One of three most commonly marketed of dasyatids in China, although no information is available on trends. There are difficulties with accurate identification of Dasyatid species.
161577		conservation	eng	None in place.
161577		distribution	eng	Endemic to New Zealand. Ranges from the Three Kings Islands to Foveaux Strait (about 10° latitude) but most records are from the northern part of the range (8° latitude) (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998).
161577		habitat	eng	A medium-sized, primarily deepwater skate, Longtailed Skate can be found on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope in depths of 90-800 m; most records are from between 200 and 600 m (Garrick 1954, 1957; Garrick and Paul 1974, Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998). It attains about 75 cm total length (TL) and matures at about 69 cm TL for males (Garrick and Paul 1974). Other biological characteristics are unknown.
161577		population	eng	The species is rare (it was caught in 38 out of more than 19,000 research bottom trawl tows; Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998).
161577		threats	eng	Longtailed Skate is affected by bottom trawling but the level of impact is not known. The species is rare and much of its range is around the northern North Island, which is not intensively fished by deepwater trawlers. It is almost certainly taken as bycatch in the major hoki fishery centred around central New Zealand, but data on the extent of this bycatch are lacking. It is not known if the population of Longtailed Skate in central New Zealand has declined under the impact of trawling, but this is possible. The species is probably lightly impacted in the northern part of its range but may be moderately to heavily impacted in the central part of its range.
161578		conservation	eng	None in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to assess future conservation needs.
161578		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161578		habitat	eng	A deepwater species found on the upper continental slope, near the seabed at depths of 521–1,262 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Very little is known of the biology. Maximum total length (TL) is reported at 30 cm, although the specimen may have been immature (Compagno 1984). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161578		population	eng	Possibly rare (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161578		threats	eng	Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) note that this species is apparently of no interest to fisheries at present. Very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range. India has at least 100 deep-sea fishing vessels (FAO 2007), but specific information on deepsea fisheries in this area is not available.<br/><br/>The wide depth distribution of the species may provide some refuge beyond current fishing pressure, however the situation should be monitored as fisheries expand to greater depths.
161579		conservation	eng	None. This species needs to be monitored in the future due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in Thailand and Indonesia.
161579		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific. Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Borneo), Singapore, Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak, Peninsula), Thailand (Last and Compagno 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006), Cambodia and Vietnam. Also recorded from the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reported off India but most likely confused with <em>Himantura imbricata</em>, thus its westward distribution in the Indian Ocean requires verification (B.M. Manjaji, W. White pers. obs. 2007).
161579		habitat	eng	<em>Himantura walga</em> occurs on the inner continental shelf, in depths of typically <50 m, over flat, sandy substratum, and occasionally found in coastal embayments (Last and Compagno 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Attains at least 24 cm disc width (DW). Both males and females mature at 16?17 cm DW, and size at birth 8?10 cm (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007, Manjaji 2004, Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy. The species produces 1?2 pups per litter, after an unknown gestation period, with no reproductive synchronicity (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Feeds primarily on small crustaceans, but also on small fishes (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161579		population	eng	Apparently more common than other <em>Himantura</em> species (W. White, B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007).
161579		threats	eng	<em>Himantura walga</em> forms a significant component of the elasmobranch bycatch from fish and prawn trawlers operating in the Java Sea (W. White, pers. obs. 2007). This species is also found in Thailand where trawling for batoids is also very common practice (especially in the Gulf of Thailand) and it is also caught in commercial quantities there (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). It is also caught in large numbers by trammel netters throughout much of its range (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Typically all caught are retained and used for human consumption. There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its range and since it is caught in such large numbers (in all size ranges) by trawlers, it is under a severe level of threat within most of its range. However, it is possible that this smaller species is more productive than larger <em>Himantura</em> species. It is still caught in relatively large quantities, although nothing is known of previous abundance levels, and fishermen are having to travel further to sustain catch levels. The size of individuals in the catch has also reportedly decreased.
161580		conservation	eng	Accurate monitoring of catches and research on historical abundance is needed to determine the status of populations of this species. Further research is also required on life-history.
161580		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the Atlantic Ocean. Western Atlantic: from Nova Scotia, Canada, south to Brazil. Eastern Atlantic: from Scotland (rare in North Sea), south to Morocco, including the Mediterranean Sea, and from Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea, and Namibia to Mossel Bay in South Africa (Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1984, <a href="http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Atlantictorpedo/atlantictorpedo.html">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>).
161580		habitat	eng	This species occurs from the surface to depths of ~800 m. Juveniles are mainly benthic occurring on soft substrates and coral reef habitats, from 10-50 m depth (although sometimes considerably deeper). Adults are frequently pelagic or semi-pelagic, swimming singly and reported migrating over great distances. Specimens captured in MEDITS surveys in the Mediterranean Sea were present throughout the depth range surveyed (10-800 m) but found mostly between 200-500 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Reproduction is yolk-sac viviparity. This species reaches a maximum size of about 180 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Up to 60 embryos have been reported in large females, gestation period is about 12 months and size at birth is 20-25 cm TL (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). The diet is predominantly fish, sometimes quite large.
161580		population	eng	Few data are available on population trends in this species across its range. Data from trawl surveys suggest that <em>Torpedo nobiliana</em> is relatively rare in the Mediterranean Sea, with a low frequency of occurrence in bottom trawl surveys. It was captured in 73 of 6,336 hauls conducted throughout the northern Mediterranean during MEDITS surveys from 1994-1999 at depths of 10-800m, and appears to be more common in the western basin (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). During GRUND scientific trawl surveys in Italian seas, this species was reported in low numbers from several locations along the Italian coast, including Sicily, Calabria, Gulf of Taranto, Sardinia and Northern Tyrrhenian sea. It is only very rarely recorded off Tuscany and Corsica (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000, Betrand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Maiorano <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ferretti <em>et al.</em> 2005). Historical records report this species in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea (D?Ancona and Razzauti 1937, Foresi 1939), Ligurian sea (Brunelli and Bini 1934, Ariola 1904) and Gulf of Lion (Aldebert 1997). It is difficult to evaluate previous trends in abundance as most of these reports are qualitative and do not specify catch rates for this species. In the Adriatic Sea, it is captured in small numbers, only in the extreme south and all records are juveniles (N. Ungaro pers. comm.).
161580		threats	eng	This species is occasionally caught with bottom trawls and line gear, including recreational fisheries. Torpedo rays are usually discarded at sea, resulting in very little data on catches of these species. Historically this species was valued for its liver oil for use in lamps, prior to the use of kerosene oil, but a lack of data on catches makes it difficult to determine population trends (<a href="http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Atlantictorpedo/atlantictorpedo.html">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>). This is a large, potentially vulnerable species, and the impact of bycatch on populations needs to be assessed. The species? preference for reef environments for spawning may make it vulnerable to the indirect effects of habitat degradation from destructive bottom trawling practices.
161581		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, more information on the biology and ecology of the species and its importance in fisheries is required to assess the status and future conservation needs. Where taken, catches should be closely monitored to ensure that the current population is not adversely affected.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161581		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: East China Sea, off Japan (southeastern Honshu and Ryu-Kyu Islands) and China near Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161581		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species found on the upper continental to insular slopes at depths of 358–895 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Attains at least 64 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Males are immature at 56 cm TL and females are immature at 59–64 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is presumably oviparous. Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161581		population	eng	Population size is unknown. The whole genus is poorly represented in collections and is considered rare.
161581		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is available.
161582		conservation	eng	None currently in place. Collection of quantitative artisanal catch data on this species and other rare species is needed to provide better data for estimating population trends.
161582		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean to Western Pacific: India and Bangladesh (including Ganges river) (Annandale 1908, Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 1998, Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002), Maldives (Adam 1998), Gulf of Thailand, Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) (Mohsin and Amnak 1996) and Indonesia (Borneo). One record from northern Australia (Last and Compagno 1999, G. Yearsley pers. comm. 2008). Also likely occurs in areas in between (Last and Compagno 1999). This species was also recently recorded from Mozambique, representing a western range extension of more than 5,000 km, indicating that it is likely to be more widespread in the Indo-Pacific than previously considered (Pierce <em>et al.</em>2008).
161582		habitat	eng	A large species found in coastal waters and river mouths (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002). However it is also reported in deeper waters. No specific information is available on the full depth range of this species and its preferred habitat is poorly known. The species may extend into deep water and further investigation is required into its full bathymetric range. Attains disc widths of up to 222 cm (Garman 1913). The very large size of this species suggests that it may be more biologically vulnerable to population depletion than smaller stingrays. Observations of this species in mid-water off Mozambique indicate that this species is possibly a semi-pelagic species which may also account for its rarity in catches throughout its range compared to other dasyatid species (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2008).
161582		population	eng	The scarcity of recorded observations suggests that <em>D. microps</em> is rare and possibly patchily distributed (Pierce <em>et al.</em> 2008). Frequently sighted around reefs in southern Mozambique. In Indonesia it seems that this species is scarce, but no information is available to determine historical population trends.
161582		threats	eng	Probably taken as bycatch by bottom longline, trammel net and trawl fisheries throughout its range. In Indonesia, this species is caught occasionally as utilized bycatch in trawl and the Danish seine fisheries operating in west (between Natuna and Karimata Islands) and south Kalimantan waters (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). This species were recorded only twice at the Danish seine fishery during studies of catches in August 2005 and May 2007 (two individuals were captured measuring 222 cm DW and 245 cm TL). It is utilized for its meat and cartilage in Indonesia. One individual caught by artisanal spear-fishers in August 2006 in southern Mozambique (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2008). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout large areas of its geographic range, but the species may occur deeper than is currently known, offering refuge from fisheries.
161583		conservation	eng	Bottom trawling is banned by EC regulation 1568/2005 within the Azores EEZ.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161583		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: known only from the holotype caught on a seamount of the north Atlantic ridge north of the Azores, 40°22'N, 30°10'W and the second specimen captured south of the Azores, 34°25'N, 30°02'W.
161583		habitat	eng	Mesopelagic deepsea species known from only two specimens (Kukuev and Konovalenko 1988, Kukuev 2006). The holotype (37.7 cm TL) was found at 300 m over a seamount (Kukuev and Konovalenko 1988).
161583		population	eng	Very rare, known only from two specimens.
161583		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. However, it is a very rare species occurring in an area where deep longline fisheries are developing. To date this species has only been recorded from scientific surveys.<br/><br/>Deep-water sharks are caught as by-catch both in the general demersal and black scabbardfish <em>Aphanopus carbo</em> fisheries operating in Azorean waters, however landings data are not collected by species (Heessen 2003). Demersal longline fisheries operate to depths of 700 m, and the black scabbard fishery operates from 600–1,000 m, off the Azores (M.R.R. Pinho pers. comm. May 2007). Surface longlining also occurs but only to 100 m depth (M.R.R. Pinho pers. comm. May 2007). Landings of deepwater sharks reported to ICES are considered underestimated (ICES 2006). Data from observers or fishing logbooks are not available (ICES 2006). Longline fisheries for tuna also operate in this area. A directed fishery for deep-water sharks operated in the Azores from 1972-2001, in which the kitefin shark was targeted by both gillnets and handlines (Heessen 2003).<br/><br/>Trawlers have also operated over the mid-Atlantic Ridge for many years, particularly the Russian fishery targeting Alfonsinos and Roundnose grenadiers at depths from 600–1,000m (ICES 2006).
161584		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in effect or proposed at this time. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further suveys would aid in the collection of data on the wider depth distribution of the species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161584		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: Recorded from North Carolina, southern Florida, Bahamas and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161584		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species found at depths of 366?951 m on the slope (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Maximum size is reported at 29 cm total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Little else is known of the species' biology.
161584		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161584		threats	eng	There is no specific information available on the threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to trawl fisheries, particularly as these expand to greater depths in the future. Information on any deepwater fisheries operating within the species range is required, and bycatch levels need to be quantified.
161585		conservation	eng	The biology of this species is virtually unknown. Like many deeper water species, more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit in the collection of data on the wider depth distribution and range of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161585		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from the holotype, found just north of the area between the Viet Nam coast and Hainan Island, China. (Compagno and Niem 1998).
161585		habitat	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and therefore very little is known about its biology. It is a bathydemersal deepwater species which was found on or near the bottom between 512 and 692 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The adult male holotype was 29 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous.
161585		population	eng	<em>E. decacuspidatus</em> is a very rare species known only from holotype and population size is therefore unknown.
161585		threats	eng	The impact of fishing pressure on this species is unknown. As the species is only known from one specimen it is difficult to make a full assessment of threats to it. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004) (FAO 2007). Although little is known of the full depth range of fisheries operating in the South China Sea, this species may be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating within this area. The species’ limited range, as presently known, is of concern.
161586		conservation	eng	None.
161586		distribution	eng	Eastern Atlantic between about 20°N and 22°S and off southern Madagascar and Mauritius (Hulley 1988).
161586		habitat	eng	Common on the continental shelf of southern Africa and especially South Africa, at depths of 80–690 m. Attains a maximum size of 67 cm TL, 49 cm DW (Hulley 1988).
161586		population	eng	A widely distributed species around southern Africa and abundant in areas such as Orange River to Doring Bay, Saldanha to Cape Point and south to Agulhas point in 100–300 m. Also abundant on the Agulhas Bank to at least Port Alfred. This is the most common species of skate in southern African waters (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991).
161586		threats	eng	Trawling on the continental shelf for teleosts such as hake, although no data available to investigate changes in population size or structure. Commonly taken as bycatch and used for human consumption as “skate wings”, catches should be monitored to investigate any trends over time. (Note “skate wings” is a generic term however, because of size and frequency in catch, the Raja clavata/straeleni species complex probably makes up the bulk of these “skate wings” in South Africa).
161587		conservation	eng	There are no regulations related to this species.
161587		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: from the southeastern part of the Barents Sea (Novaya Zemliya Islands, Russia) to southern Norway, southern Greenland, Iceland, Faeroe Islands to Shetlands, western coasts of British Isles and Bay of Biscay (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: from Greenland to Nova Scotia, Canada, including the Labrador Shelf, Grand Banks and the French Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Gulf of St Lawrence and the Scotian Shelf  (Leim and Scott 1966; Stehmann and Bürkel 1984; D. Kulka, pers. obs.).
161587		habitat	eng	This species is bathydemersal, occurring in deeper shelf and slope waters between 170 and 2,050 m depth. Average depth of capture was about 400–800 m in the Northeast Atlantic and >500 m in the Northwest Atlantic. Very little is known of the biology, but data from the Northwest Atlantic indicate that females are mature at 49 to 50 cm total length (TL) (n=3) and males at 44–47 cm TL (n=4) (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). Maximum recorded size is 57 cm TL (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005). Size at birth is estimated at <11 cm TL.<br/><br/>The species inhabits waters with bottom temperatures >10°C with maximum abundance between 4°C and 60°C (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005, D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). Prey includes benthic invertebrates (mostly shrimps and polychaetes) and fishery discards (Dolgov 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.
161587		population	eng	The population on the Grand Banks and Labrador Shelf has been stable since the 1970s, possibly increasing in recent years (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Catch data from trawl and longline fisheries operating in the Barents sea, indicate that this species was taken at depths of <500 to 600 m and was not taken at depths >700 m. Average catch rate in the trawl fishery was 3 kg per hour haul (0.3% of the catch) and the maximum catch rate was <40 kg per hour haul (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species’ abundance in this area appears relatively stable in recent years.<br/><br/>In Norwegian waters this species is especially abundant in the Skagerrak and off southwestern Norway. During a scientific trawl survey in the Norwegian waters in 1984–1987 this species occurred in 107 of the 639 trawls and with a concentration of catches off southern and southwestern Norway and at depths >240 m. The species was less common on the Norwegian Sea slope, a chartered trawler cruise fished the slope waters in December 1995 recorded only a single specimen (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001).
161587		threats	eng	Presently, there are no directed fisheries for this species. It is captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries using trawls, longlines and gillnets on both sides of the Atlantic that operate within range of this species, and discarded. This species is one of three dominant skates taken as bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries operating in the Barents Sea, at depths of <300 to >800 m (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Although fisheries operate in parts of its range, the species wide depth distribution offers it refuge beyond the reach of most trawl fisheries in areas of its range. Furthermore, deep sea effort in the northwest Atlantic is regulated by quota and is presently much lower than during the 1960s to the 1990s.
161588		conservation	eng	The capture and exportation of this species for the ornamental fish trade is illegal in Brazil. However, local people on Brazilian borders complain that specimens captured in Brazil are exported from Colombia or Peru. An international program to regulate the export of freshwater stingrays in the ornamental fish trade is necessary. <br/><br/>There are no regulations or controls on catches by commercial fisheries.<br/><br/>Habitat protection and fisheries monitoring programs are recommended.
161588		distribution	eng	South America inland waters: Amazon?Solimões River and tributaries in Brazil and the Rio Orinoco drainage in Venezuela, Northern Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador.<br/><br/>FAO Area: 03.
161588		habitat	eng	This species occupies shallow warm waters with temperatures around 25ºC. Juveniles inhabit areas with sandy beaches and small creeks while adults inhabit main river channels and sandy beaches, mainly during the night when it uses these areas to forage. In the Rio Negro, the species apparently shows daily movements between deeper and shallow water.<br/><br/>Information on reproductive biology is known only from Brazil and Venezuela. Reproductive mode is matrotrophic viviparity with trophonemata. The duration of the reproductive cycle is around two years. Gestation period is estimated as nine months. Ovarian fecundity is 3?5 and the average uterine fecundity is two embryos. Sexual segregation has been observed in this species. Size at birth 16 cm DW; size at maturity 60 cm DW (males) and 72 cm DW (females); maximum size is 130 cm DW.<br/><br/>Diet includes small fishes, shrimps, worms and insect larvae.
161588		population	eng	This species is widespread around the Amazonas-Solimões River and tributaries. Around the Rio Negro in Brazil this species occurs in at least 42 tributaries, and is known to occur in high densities.
161588		threats	eng	Habitat degradation. Persecution in popular tourism areas due to fear of injury. This species is taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries with trawl nets along the Solimões-Amazonas River. Commercial fisheries retain and market this species. Its export for the ornamental fish trade is illegal from Brazil, but it is regularly exported from Peru and Colombia.
161589		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation or management measures for this species. Assessment and monitoring of population trends throughout this species’ range is required.
161589		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: Japan, China, Taiwan (Province of China), Korea, Vietnam and may be present in Indonesia (Compagno 1998).
161589		habitat	eng	This benthic ray is found inshore, from the surface to depths of 100 m on rock or rocky sand bottoms, but is most common at 30–40 m depth (Yamada et al. 2007). It prefers coastal areas, on fine sandy substrates (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). It reaches a maximum size of 68 cm total length (TL) (Compagno 1998). A recent study suggests that females reach maturity at 3–5 years of age and 39.2 cm total length (TL), and males at 2–4 years and 37.1 cm TL (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). Longevity in females is reported at 12 years and five years in males (Yamaguchi et al. unpublished data). <em>P. sinensis</em> feeds on small shrimps, mysids and small fish (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>unpublished data).
161589		population	eng	Little specific information is available on the population of this species, although it is reported to have declined in the East China Sea (see Threats section).
161589		threats	eng	This species is taken as utilised bycatch in gillnet, coastal set-net, trawl fisheries, and almost all fishery types operating in shallow waters (Y. Wang pers. obs.). All bycatch is utilised in some areas of the species’ range, whereas it is discarded in other areas (Y. Wang pers. obs., Yamaguchi unpublished data). Yamada <em>et al</em>. (2007) report that this species was formerly caught by bottom trawl fisheries in the East China Sea, but has declined both in terms of abundance and extent of occurrence. However, in Shimoda, Izu Peninsula, southern Japan (at the northern extent of this species’ range), it is reportedly still common (S. Tanaka pers. comm.). Historical fishing pressure has been high throughout the much of its range and exploitation is continuing in many areas of this species’ inshore habitat. For example, fishing pressure on batoids is intensive in the South China Sea. Its preference for shallow waters and slow movement mean it is easily captured in demersal fisheries and vulnerable to depletion.
161590		conservation	eng	None currently in place. Research is required on taxonomy and population trends.
161590		distribution	eng	An apparently wide ranging species found from the Western Indian Ocean to the Eastern Pacific. However, this is considered a species-complex and more than five species in total may be involved. Taxonomic investigation will be vital to identify the species involved and their true distributions (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Reported from: American Samoa, Australia, Cambodia, Cook Islands, Guam, China (Hong Kong), Taiwan, Province of China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Ogasawara Islands, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Micronesia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Marianas, New Caledonia, Palau, Papa New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Vietnam and Yemen (Compagno 1986).
161590		habitat	eng	A demersal species found on sandy bottoms near rocky or coral reefs at depths of 0?90 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is usually found in deeper water but moves onto the reef flat and into shallow lagoons at high tide (Michael 1993). In Indonesia, this species often occurs on sandy mud bottom (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). It occasionally covers itself with sand, leaving only its eyes and tail visible (Myers 1999). <br/><br/>Size parameters differ between regions and areas because this is most likely a complex of more than five species. The Java form attains at least 38cm disc width (DW), with males maturing at 22?26 cm DW and females at 23?27 cm DW (White <em>et al</em>. 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007). Size at birth for the Java form is 11?16 cm (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Bali form attains at least 45 cm DW, with males maturing at 31?35 cm DW (White <em>et al</em>. 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007). Size at birth for the Bali form is ~17 cm. Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy. Java and Bali forms give birth to litters of 1?2 pups after an unknown gestation period and there is apparently no reproductive synchronicity (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Dasyatis kuhlii</em> feeds on crabs and shrimps (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).
161590		population	eng	Population size in Indonesia is still unknown. Market observations were conducted at several landing sites in Java and Kalimantan from 2005 to present, and showed that the species is quite common. They were recorded at almost all landing sites (fishing areas including the Java Sea, off southern Java (Indian Ocean), Sunda Strait, Karimata Strait, Makassar Strait, West Kalimantan, Natuna Islands) (Authors pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Extensive surveys of various fish landings sites in eastern Indonesia, conducted between April 2001 and March 2006 recorded a total of 28,385 individual batoids, comprising 54 species belonging to 12 families. The Java form of <em>D. kuhlii</em> contributed 42.7% by number to the total number of batoids recorded and only 3.9% by biomass. The Bali form of <em>D. kuhlii</em> contributed 3.4% by number to the total number of batoids recorded and only 0.7 by biomass (White and Dharmadi 2007).
161590		threats	eng	This species is of commercial interest to fisheries throughout its range. It is also taken from the wild for use in aquariums (Compagno 1986). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, this species is caught as utilized bycatch in trawl, trammel net and Danish seine fisheries targeting mixed demersal fishes. It is commonly caught in large numbers by trawl and Danish seine boats operating in the Java Sea.  This species is the second most important elasmobranch caught by the Danish seine fishery according to the total catch (biomass) and is the principle elasmobranch in terms of the total number of individuals (contributing ~ 700 kg/boat in average) (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). According to anecdotal observations of artisanal fisheries catches in Java during August 2006?May 2007, the production of <em>D. kuhlii</em> increased (from 231 kg/boat in August 2006, to 724 kg/boat in May 2007). Total production of rays in Indonesian fishery statistics also showed an increasing trend (DGCF 2005).<br/><br/>It is utilised for its meat but of limited value due to its small size. The meat is often smoked and salted or dried for marketing locally. This is a relatively small ray and it may, possibly, be more resilient to depletion in fisheries than some of the other larger ray species in parts of its known range.
161591		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would help to define the species full range and depth distribution. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161591		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from off Quilon, India (Compagno in prep.).
161591		habitat	eng	Bottom-dwelling shark of the uppermost continental slope. The type series, including the holotype and three paratypes, were collected at 300 m depth with an otter trawl. Probably a dwarf species, as the largest known specimen, a male, is adult at 36 cm total length (Compagno in prep.). Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161591		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161591		threats	eng	The species inhabits trawlable grounds and could potentially be vulnerable to bycatch by fisheries operating in deepwater throughout its range. Given the species’ apparently restricted range, any bycatch may be of concern. Little is known about deepwater fisheries operating off India at present. There were apparently 100 deep-sea fishing vessels in operation off India during 2004 (FAO 2007). Marine fish production from near shore waters off India has reached almost a plateau and it is likely that fisheries will develop to exploit deeper waters off shore pelagic species further (FAO 2007).
161592		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to better define the species' range and depth distribution and biology. Information is also required on any fisheries operating within this species’ range, and catch levels, if any, should be quantified.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161592		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: India and Sri Lanka (Eschmeyer 1998).
161592		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species. Holotype was taken at around 1,093 m depth (Eschmeyer 1998). The wider depth distribution of the species is unknown. Reproduction is presumably oviparous. Virtually nothing known on biology of the species.
161592		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161592		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. At present the species is only known from 1,093 m depth, possibly beyond the depth of operation of fisheries in the area.
161593		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deepwater species, more information on biology, ecology, range and depth distribution and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161593		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Arabian Sea, India (Talwar 1981).
161593		habitat	eng	The holotype of this species was collected from a depth of 300 m (Eschmeyer 2007). The biology and habitat of this species are largely unknown (Compagno 1999).
161593		population	eng	Known only from few specimens at present.
161593		threats	eng	It is a potential bycatch of multi species fisheries using gears such as trawls and drift nets, but no catch data are available (Hanfee 1991). The apparently restricted range of this species may make it vulnerable to depletion.
161594		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Assessment of catches and population trends is a priority and further surveys would provide species-specific data.
161594		distribution	eng	North Pacific: the Okhotsk Skate occurs off Russia and Japan, in the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean from the Commander and Kuril Islands to Hokkaido and Sea of Okhotsk. The species has also occasionally been reported from the eastern Bering Sea slope in Alaskan waters (Mecklenburg <em>et al. </em>2002), although recent surveys (1999–2004) have not recorded it (Stevenson <em>et al. </em>2008).
161594		habitat	eng	Okhotsk Skate inhabit continental shelf and slope waters within the depth range 43–1,110 m on sandy-gravel, sandy and muddy-pebbly substrates, although the majority of the population occurs above 600 m (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006, Dolganov 1998a). Preferred bottom temperatures ranged from -0.9 to 4.2°C (mean 2.42°C) and most skates occur within 3–3.5°C (Dolganov 1999, Orlov<em> et al.</em> 2006). Females mature at 5–6 years of age and 61.2–76.4 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 4–6 years of age and 53.9–73.2 cm TL (Dolganov 1998c). The species attains a maximum size of 107 cm TL and is estimated to live for nine years (Dolganov 2005). Size at birth is unknown but egg capsules measured 7–13.2 cm x 5.5–8.6 cm (Dolganov 1998c). Dolganov (1998c) suggested that reproduction takes place year-round, and females have been observed to deposit egg cases in December at depths of 300m (Orlov and Biryukov 2005). Feeds mostly on crustaceans, cephalopods and fishes (Dolganov 1998b, Orlov 1998, Chuchukalo and Napazakov 2002).
161594		population	eng	This is the sixth most abundant skate species in Russian waters (Dolganov 1999). This species is common in the Sea of Okhotsk and the northern Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). The mean total biomass estimate for this species during bottom trawl surveys conducted in Russian waters during 1977–1999 was 60,800 mt; comprising 17,300 t in the Bering Sea, 7,400 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 36,100 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999). Few data are available on historical trends. CPUE data from 1999–2000 showed a gradual decreasing trend (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006), but there have been no further surveys in recent years.<br/><br/>It is not common in the eastern Bering Sea or the Aleutian islands, where it is only occasionally encountered by surveys (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161594		threats	eng	Fisheries operate throughout the entire range of this species and it is a bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries for groundfish and gillnet fisheries for Greenland halibut. It is discarded, but post-discard survival may be low. In Russian waters, the Greenland halibut fishery usually operates down to 650m but most bottom trawl fisheries operate down to 450 m (A. Orlov pers. comm. 2007). Therefore, as the majority of this species’ population is distributed above 600m, it occurs primarily within the depth range of fisheries throughout its entire range. Bycatch rates for this species are low, compared to other more common skate species in the region, such as Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>), Aleutian Skate (<em>Bathyraja aleutica</em>) and Whiteblotched Skate (<em>Bathyraja maculata</em>) (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161595		conservation	eng	<strong>Measures in place</strong><br/>California?s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18 percent) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing.<br/><br/>Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>In Canada, the TAC for trawl in the Hecate Strait (area 5C/D) was set to 47 tonnes in 2002 (DFO 2007). Restrictions are not placed on other areas. As of 2007, directed skate fisheries are no longer allowed (DFO 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of population trends should continue.
161595		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: distributed across the eastern Pacific coast, from the southeastern Bering Sea southward to the Gulf of California (Ebert 2003, DFO 2007).
161595		habitat	eng	This species is found on the shelf to upper slope and inhabits mud-cobble bottoms near vertical relief from nearshore to 1,000 m depth (Ebert 2003). However, records below 400 m are rare. Records of this species from the deeper end of its depth range may actually be that of other large deepsea skates (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Females reach maturity at 70?100 cm total length (TL) and males reach maturity at 61?74 cm TL (Zeiner and Wolf 1993, COSEWIC 2007). The maximum reported length is 137 cm TL but unofficial records indicate that it is likely greater (Zeiner and Wolf 1993, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ebert 2003, COSEWIC 2007). Size at birth is 12?17 cm TL (Zeiner and Wolf 1993).<br/><br/>Age at maturity is estimated at 10?12 years for females and 7?11 years for males (Zeiner and Wolf 1993, COSEWIC 2007). Longevity was reported as 12?13 years by Zeiner and Wolf (1993), but more recent literature suggests they live for a longer period. Maximum age was reported at 26 years (females) by McFarlane and King (2006), 25 years by Gburski <em>et al.</em> (2007) and 22 years by Thompson (2006). This species is preyed upon by sharks and sperm whales (Ebert 2003). The egg cases are preyed upon by mollusks that bore holes in them to feed on the protein-rich yolk-sac. Egg cases of this skate have also been found in the stomach of sperm whales (Ebert 2003).
161595		population	eng	Little is known about the population structure of the longnose skate off Canada or whether it constitutes a distinguishable unit (DFO 2007). The longnose is readily identifiable by its long, pointed snout, although this species was not differentiated from other skates in landing records prior to 1996 off Canada (DFO 2007). The Hecate Trawl Survey and West Coast Triennial Survey indicate that the abundance of longnose skates within the survey area (Canada) is stable and perhaps increasing (DFO 2007). Furthermore, a recent status assessment of this species by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) designated this species as ?Not at Risk?. Survey data suggest that abundance has either remained stable or has increased since the early 1980s. North and south of its Canadian range, the species is either stable or increasing in abundance (COSEWIC 2007). Information on population trends throughout much of the rest of the range indicates that, overall, the population of <em>R. rhina</em> is stable. Analysis conducted for the Gulf of Alaska shows that <em>R. rhina</em> is not declining and similar trends are suspected throughout the rest of the species? range (Ebert <em>et al. </em>2007, D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. Extensive surveys and collation of catch statistics for northeast and eastern central Pacific waters (including California, Oregon, and Washington) have been conducted. Further information should become available in the future, once analysis of this data is complete (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161595		threats	eng	Usually a utilized bycatch in commercial longline and trawl fisheries (Martin and Zorzi 1993). One of three commercially important skate species in California and it is marketed for human consumption (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Martin and Zorzi 1993). Total annual commercial landings data into California for the grouped category ?Skate, unspecified? indicate that landings declined from ~577 t and ~633 t in 2000 and 2001 to ~82 t in 2002. Landings then fluctuated between ~125 t and ~95 t from 2003 to 2005 (California Department of Fish and Game 2007). However, the proportion of this species in the catches is not known.<br/><br/>The trawl fishery in California has been slowly closing and a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Californian waters is being instigated, in response to declines in rockfish populations which overlap with the habitat of this species (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Most trawlers now have to work in deeper water and mostly in central and northern California. Southern California is largely closed at this time (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Effort in the trawl fishery in California waters has therefore reduced and not nearly as many are being taken as once might have been (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Off Canada, this species is caught primarily in the trawl and hook-and-line fisheries and mainly as bycatch within the directed fisheries for groundfish (DFO 2007). Annual catches within the trawl ?eet average between 300 to 400 tonnes, with about 54% being retained. Bycatch and discard mortality is not well known for the hook-and-line ?eet, although it is estimated that the halibut directed fishery may catch upwards of 300 tonnes per year (DFO 2007).  The proportion of catches retained by these fisheries has increased in recent years which may have resulted in increased fishing mortality, depending on the mortality rate of the discarded individuals (COSEWIC 2007). Despite this, survey data suggest that the population has either remained stable or increased (see Population section).<br/><br/>Directed fisheries recently developed for this species (and <em>R. binoculata</em>) in the Gulf of Alaska, but data also indicate that abundance is not declining there (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161596		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several marine protected areas (MPAs) within New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland. In NSW waters these MPAs are mostly small, with limited fully protected areas. Within the species? Queensland range there are larger MPAs (i.e., Moreton Bay Marine Park and the Great Sandy Marine Park in Hervey Bay), but fully protected areas are again limited, and fishing (both commercial and recreational) occurs within the vast majority of these MPAs. At present, only 0.5% of the Moreton Bay Marine Park is fully protected in green zones (no extractive activities, including commercial and recreational fishing allowed). The Moreton Bay Marine Park is currently undergoing a review process, with a proposed 15% to be rezoned as green zones (to be called marine national park zones). The draft zoning plan is presently (February 2008) under public review (EPA 2007).<br/><br/>Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices are mandatory throughout the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery. In trials examining the effectiveness of these devices at reducing bycatch, the probability of capturing Eastern Shovelnose Ray was not significantly lower in nets fitted with a TED, a BRD, or a combination of both a TED and BRD, compared with standard nets (no devices fitted) (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2002, Courtney <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, in the shallow water component of the ECTF eastern king prawn sector, the probability of capture (± standard error) in a net fitted with both a TED and BRD was lower (0.47± 0.06) than in a standard net with no TED or BRD fitted (0.56 ± 0.08) (Kyne <em>et al. </em>2002). TEDs are likely to reduce the capture of larger individuals, but both devices appear to have limited effectiveness at reducing overall capture rates.
161596		distribution	eng	The Eastern Shovelnose Ray is endemic to the east coast of Australia in the western Pacific from offshore of Halifax Bay, north Queensland (18°43?S) south to Jervis Bay, southern New South Wales (NSW) (35°08?S) (Last and Stevens 1994, Kyne and Bennett 2002). Its occurrence across this range is, however, not uniform, and it is particularly scarce in the northern part of its distribution. Its centre of abundance is south of about Bustard Bay, Queensland (24°06?S), through southern Queensland and into NSW waters (Last and Stevens 1994, P.M. Kyne unpubl. data). For example, in a fisheries-independent trawl survey in Queensland waters from 22°36?S to 24°55?S, 91% of <em>A. rostrata</em> individuals were taken between 24°06?S and 24°55?S, while the remaining 9% were taken north of 24°06?S (there was roughly equal effort and similar depths trawled in each of these two areas) (P.M. Kyne unpubl. data).
161596		habitat	eng	The Eastern Shovelnose Ray occurs inshore on the continental shelf in a variety of habitats including the surf zone, bays and estuaries, tidal mudflats and sandflats, seagrass beds, tidal river mouths (for example, the Brisbane River) and around rocky reefs. Bathymetric distribution is from very close inshore (<1 m) to 220 m. However, the species is generally found at depths <100 m (P.M. Kyne unpubl. data). The deepest records of the species are from the far northern part of the species? range where two individuals were collected at 210 to 220 m off northern Queensland (Kyne and Bennett 2002).<br/><br/>Maximum size is reportedly 120 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Sizes up to 85 cm TL are more typical (Kyne and Bennett 2002). The following reproductive information is taken from Kyne and Bennett (2002). Females reach maturity at 54 to 66 cm TL and males at 60 to 68 cm TL. Reproductive mode is aplacental yolksac viviparous with an annual, seasonal reproductive cycle where studied in Moreton Bay, southern Queensland. Ovulation and copulation probably occur in July to September, and parturition in November to December, resulting in a three to five month gestation period. Unlike <em>Rhinobatos</em> species, vitellogenesis does not proceed in parallel with gestation in Eastern Shovelnose Ray. Fecundity is related to maternal size, with litter sizes of 4 to 18. Size at birth is estimated at 13 to 15 cm TL (Kyne 2000).
161596		population	eng	While exact estimates of population size are unavailable, the species is considered to be a ?fairly common? to abundant elasmobranch across the centre of its distribution, particularly in southern Queensland and northern-central NSW (Last and Stevens 1994, P.M. Kyne unpubl. data). In Moreton Bay (southern Queensland) an important site for the species, Johnson (1999) described its occurrence as ?abundant?.
161596		threats	eng	The Eastern Shovelnose Ray is a regular bycatch in both commercial and recreational fisheries. Within Queensland, the species is often the most abundant elasmobranch in the East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF). The ECTF is a multi-sector demersal trawl fishery principally targeting prawns (Penaeidae) and scallop (<em>Amusium japonicum</em>). In surveys of the shallow water component of the eastern king prawn sector (southern Queensland, ~26°30? to 28°00?S), it represented 38.6% by number and 52.5% by mass of the elasmobranch bycatch, and in the scallop sector (~22°30? to 25°00?S), 52.3% by number and 37.8% by mass (P.M. Kyne unpub. data). It is a minor bycatch in the deepwater component of the eastern king prawn sector (which operates outside the core depth range of the species) (P.M. Kyne unpub. data). It is also taken in the Moreton Bay sector of the ECTF. In these trawl fisheries, Eastern Shovelnose Rays and other elasmobranchs are discarded, as they are not permitted to be retained. Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices are now mandatory throughout the ECTF (see Conservation Actions section).<br/><br/>Within the ECTF the species is usually discarded alive, although post-release mortality is not known. There have been reports, however, of shovelnose rays (<em>Aptychotrema</em> and <em>Rhinobatos</em> species) and guitarfish (<em>Rhynchobatus </em>species) having their rostra snapped and broken by fishers before being discarded. This inevitably leads to mortality.<br/><br/>In addition to the ECTF, the species is also a bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Inshore Fin Fish Fishery (gillnet, seine net and tunnel net). Species-specific bycatch data are not available, but it is either discarded or retained and marketed.<br/><br/>Within NSW waters, the species is taken as bycatch in the Ocean Trawl Fishery (both the prawn trawl and the fish trawl sectors). Fishers are permitted to retain sharks and rays (with the exception of protected species, i.e., <em>Carcharias taurus</em> and <em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>) within this fishery, and the Eastern Shovelnose Ray may be retained.<br/><br/>Species-specific recreational catch data are not available, however, given its abundance in a variety of habitats in popular fishing areas (i.e., Moreton Bay), it is regularly caught. Recreational fishing activities are intense in heavily-populated parts of its range, particularly in and around Moreton Bay (an estimated >430,000 recreational fishers reside in the Moreton Bay region; DPI&F 2006). Shovelnose rays are either discarded or retained for consumption, and are reportedly ?good eating? (P.M. Kyne pers. obs.).<br/><br/>The specific impacts of coastal development on the species are unknown, but areas of its distribution (particularly Moreton Bay, but also elsewhere) have been subject to considerable inshore marine habitat loss from urban, commercial and industrial developments. These include canal estates, and shipping port and airport developments (i.e., the Port of Brisbane expansion and the Brisbane Airport).
161597		conservation	eng	This species is mainly taken on the high seas, outside waters managed by coastal States. Family Alopiidae is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard. See http://www.unclos.com for further details.<br/><br/>The FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for pelagic sharks such as <em>Alopias pelagicus</em> whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning (the removal of fins and discard of carcasses at sea), to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines. It is widely recognised that shark catch statistics submitted to RFOs by Contracting Parties do not represent the total removals of sharks and are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. Much greater monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular, and other by-catch species in general, need to be made by the Parties.<br/><br/>Precautionary adaptive collaborative management by regional fisheries organizations and fishing States of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically and behaviourally vulnerable shark.<br/><br/>The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) is developing an agreement for the collaborative management of migratory shark species. This may be a useful supplement to traditional fisheries management measures, particularly since the latter are largely not being applied to pelagic shark stocks.<br/><br/>This animal requires careful monitoring because of its limiting life-history traits and the evidence of declines in parts of its range, although available data are currently insufficient to assess the global status of this species. The highly migratory nature of this species could cause seasonal fluctuations in catches or CPUE. However, for proper interpretation of the status of <em>A. pelagicus</em>, analyses combining CPUE from fleets operating in both international waters and within the EEZ of countries where <em>A. pelagicus</em> is captured should be performed as a matter of urgency.
161597		distribution	eng	Oceanic and wide-ranging in the Indo-Pacific, Indian Ocean: South Africa (Kwa-Zulu Natal), Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (off Somalia, between Oman and India, and off Pakistan), Australia (northwest Western Australia). Western North Pacific: China, Taiwan, Japan (southeastern Honshu). Western South Pacific: New Caledonia, eastern Micronesia, Tahiti. Central Pacific: Hawaiian Islands, equatorial waters north of Howland and Baker, Phoenix and Palmyra Islands. Eastern Pacific: USA (California) and the EEZ of Mexico including the Gulf of California), equatorial waters northwest of French Polynesia, and off Galapagos Islands (Compagno 2001).
161597		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is probably highly migratory and is epipelagic from the surface to at least 152 m depth (Compagno 2001). Factors such as temperature and oceanic currents influence its distribution, for example it is found near the Equator in winter, but not in summer (Dingerkus 1987). Its food preference includes squid.<br/><br/>The Pelagic Thresher Shark is aplacentally viviparous with oophagy, and a litter size of only two very large (158-190 cm) pups. In Ecuador, length at sexual maturity is reported at 140 cm precaudal length (PL) for males and 144 cm PL for females (J. Martinez per. comm.). Age at maturity near Taiwan is estimated as 8-9.2 years in females and 7-8 years in males (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1999). It reaches a maximum length of 330 cm. In the EEZ of Mexico, the breeding season ranges from October to March (Mendizabal-Oriza <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its potential annual rate of population increase under sustainable fishing is thought to be very low and has been estimated at 2-4% (S. Smith pers. comm.), or 0.033 (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2008), (compared with the Common Thresher, which is between 4 and 7% (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998) or 0.254 (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161597		population	eng	Few population data are available for the Pelagic Thresher throughout its epipelagic range. It is unknown whether its Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean populations are partly isolated. It is very likely that this species migrates between Central America and the Gulf of California.<br/><br/>An ongoing population genetic study of <em>A. pelagicus</em> using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial control region indicates gene flow between populations in Mexico and Ecuador (Trejo 2004). However, there is a significant degree of population structure between Taiwan and both populations (Mexico and Ecuador) studied in the Eastern Pacific.
161597		threats	eng	Members of the genus <em>Alopias</em>, thresher sharks, are threatened from a combination of slow life history characteristics, hence low capacity to recover from moderate levels of exploitation, and high levels of largely unmanaged and unreported mortality in target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries.<br/><br/>Thresher shark species (including <em>A. pelagicus</em>) were found to represent at least 2-3% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Thresher shark fins are generally low value compared to other species because of their low fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 350,000 and 3.9 million thresher sharks (<em>Alopias</em> species) are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 12,000-85,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). These estimates are 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than catches of Alopiidae reported to FAO, which since the early-1980s have generally been less than 1,600 tonnes, and around 1,000 mt since 1998 (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catches of thresher sharks are clearly hugely under reported globally. Although trend data are as a result largely lacking, these fisheries are unlikely to be sustainable. A recent FAO analysis states, ?unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider these species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally? (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>Alopias pelagicus</em> has a particularly low (2-4%) annual rate of population increase, which renders it particularly at risk from depletion in fisheries. It is subject to high levels of bycatch mortality from tuna fisheries and is a target of some smaller shark fisheries, for example in the Gulf of California, Red Sea and possibly Southeast Asia. Underreporting of catches means that trend data for this species are largely lacking, but data available for the Common Thresher (<em>A. vulpinus</em>), which is significantly more fecund and resilient to fisheries, indicate declines in CPUE as high as 80% in the northeast Atlantic over two decades (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Sharks have been fished heavily by pelagic fisheries operating in the Indian Ocean and significant reductions are thought to have occurred there as a result of intensive pelagic fishing effort (Compagno, L.J.V. pers. comm.). The area of these fishing operations included known pelagic thresher ranges, and this species is especially vulnerable to fisheries exploitation as it is readily caught in gillnets and on longlines, even getting its tail caught in the nets or on hooks. <em>Alopias pelagicus</em> is a known bycatch of the Spanish longline fleet targeting swordfish in the Indian Ocean (IOTC 2000). It has been fished by longline in the northwestern Indian Ocean, and is or has been caught in large numbers in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, and probably elsewhere in Southeast Asia, <em>A. pelagicus</em> are caught in very high numbers by tuna longliners throughout the region, especially south Java where they fish in or close to Australian waters (W. White pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is also fished in the Central Pacific and is currently an important catch off Taiwan, with about 222 t landed annually. A spawner-per-recruit (SPR) analysis of <em>A. pelagicus</em> in eastern Taiwanese waters suggests mean SPR of pelagic thresher for 1990-2004 was below the biological reference point (BRP) of SPR = 35% suggesting that this stock was slightly overexploited. The authors concede that this assumes a single stock, a hypothesis that cannot yet be accepted or refuted (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2006). This work also provided an untuned Virtual Population Analysis which indicated that the abundance of pelagic thresher stock decreased from 141,398 in 1990 to the lowest level of 97,551 in 2000, and increased thereafter to 153,331 in 2003 (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, the trend of abundance could not be validated with catch per unit effort series because fishing effort data were not available (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2006). The low population growth rate of this species means that the increase to 2003 could not have been caused by recruitment to a closed stock.<br/><br/>Japanese assessment of data from research longline surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans suggests that thresher shark (<em>Alopias</em> species) catch per unit effort increased in the 1990s (to near one shark per 1,000 hooks) over levels in the 1970s (near zero sharks per 1,000 hooks). However, this result is thought to be possibly attributable to an increase in hook depths in the latter period. In recent years, based on logbook data, recorded Japanese catches of thresher sharks worldwide ranged from 252 to 596 mt with an average of 347 mt. The resource is considered stable with no management action required other than ongoing monitoring (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).<br/><br/>Pelagic Thresher is caught by shark fishermen in large numbers in the Gulf of California and the Pacific coast of Mexico. It is taken off Central America by artisanal fisheries and the local tuna fleet. Ward and Myers (2005) estimated the biomass of thresher sharks to be approximately 5% of the virgin biomass and estimated a decline in abundance of 83% in the East tropical Pacific (within the three generation period). These estimates were made by a comparison of pelagic longline research surveys in the 1950s carried out in the tropical Pacific Ocean with recent data (1990s) collected by observers on pelagic longline fishing vessels, which have been standardized to account for differences in depth and soak time (Ward and Myers 2005).<br/><br/>When <em>A. pelagicus</em> occurs off the west coast of the USA during El Niño years, females comprise 83% of the catch, of which 41% are pregnant. This aggregating of females may possibly make them additionally vulnerable to entangling gear such as gillnets (S. Smith pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Off the Pacific coast of Mexico, Pelagic Threshers are bycatch of the pelagic longline fishery west of Baja California Sur and the opening of the Sea of Cortez down to the southern Mexican border. Unstandardised catch rates are relatively high with around three individuals caught 100 hooks (Mendizábal-Oriza <em>et al.</em> 2000). In addition to being caught in the high seas pelagic longline fishery this species is also caught in inshore coastal gillnets and longlines and offshore (but not oceanic) longlines and gillnets (Mendizábal-Oriza <em>et al.</em> 2000). Analysis of longline data from the EEZ of Mexico?s Pacific coast (from 1986-1999) shows that <em>A. pelagicus</em> represented 33% of the sharks and 19% of the total catch of all large pelagics. There is an apparent negative trend in the CPUE (No/100 hooks) from 1986-1999, but these data have not been standardized in order to determine the statistical significance of this trend. This trend is unreported and the data source is unknown. Recently, this fleet (now with fewer longliners) has moved towards the west coast of Baja California and Blue Shark is currently the most important species caught.<br/><br/>In the principal port in Ecuador, Manta, a total of 150,321 individual sharks have been landed between 2003 and 2006, of this <em>A. pelagicus</em> comprised 36%, with <em>A. supercilious</em> comprising 3%. Therefore <em>A. pelagicus</em> make-up 92% of thresher shark landings here.
161598		conservation	eng	None in place.
161598		distribution	eng	Western Central Pacific: known only from Papua (Irian Jaya) (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006). Possibly southern Papua New Guinea (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/>FAO Area: 71.
161598		habitat	eng	Found in coastal marine habitats, over shallow intertidal mud flats, and in estuaries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Depth range is probably from the shore to 10 m depth (W. White pers. obs, Last <em>et al.</em> 2006). Viviparous, with histotrophy. Little else is known of the biology. This is a moderately large stingray, reaching 70.7 cm disc width (DW) (Last <em>et al. </em>2006). Size at birth is <20 cm DW (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161598		population	eng	Common within its restricted range (W. White pers. obs.).
161598		threats	eng	Seine net fishermen targeting prawns are the main fishing threat to this species. Fishers try to avoid catching it, but it is still a regular incidental catch.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species. The removal of large areas of mangrove forest and mining practices (which are intense in this area) are most likely heavily impacting this species? shallow water habitat. Estimated mangrove area in Papua New Guinea fell from 545,000 hectares in 1980 to 380,000 hectares in 2005 (a reduction of >30%) (FAO 2007). This was caused primarily by human pressures for rural livelihoods, commercial activities and overexploitation of mangrove forest for timber for housing and carvings (FAO 2007). Pollution from the rivers also poses a significant threat.
161599		conservation	eng	Further research is needed to better evaluate population structure to improve stock assessment of this species. It is recommended that catches are monitored throughout its range to determine existence and status of the subpopulations.
161599		distribution	eng	Found in the eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and western Indian Ocean where it apparently forms distinct subpopulations (northeast Atlantic from northern Portugal to Madeira, Mediterranean, Angola to southern Namibia in the vicinity of the Orange River in the southeastern Atlantic with an apparent gap in distribution along the Western Cape coast to False Bay, South Africa where it reappears and ranges north-east to KwaZulu-Natal, Mozambique and Kenya (McEachran <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991).
161599		habitat	eng	This small skate is found on the continental shelf, from the shallows to 530 m depth, but mainly at depths of 50?150 m (Serena 2005, Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is common on a range of substrates, from sandy-muddy bottoms to Posidonia beds. Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Egg cases are laid throughout the year with a peak in spring from spring (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at birth in the Mediterranean is 10-11cm TL (Serena 2005). Data from the Mediterranean suggest that females mature at 39?44 cm TL and males at 36?40 cm TL (Jardas 1973, Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999, N. Ungaro unpublished data). Both males and females reach maturity at 2?3 years of age and live for a total of 10 years, according to Abdel-Aziz (1992). Maximum size is reported at 60 cm TL in the Mediterranean and 50 cm TL (35cm DW) off South Africa (Hulley 1988).
161599		population	eng	<em>Raja miraletus</em> is found predominantly on the shelf and appears to be one of the most abundant skates in the Mediterranean. It was consistently caught in northern Mediterranean-wide (MEDITS) trawl surveys conducted from 1994?1999 at depths of 50?800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was one of the most frequently recorded rays during these surveys, captured in 422 out of 6336 survey tows from 1994-1999 and its estimated standing stock biomass throughout the survey region is 1,729 tonnes. It was found throughout the survey area and greatest catch rates were in the western central area (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Although temporal fluctuations of abundance occurred, this species appears to be stable in most parts of the Mediterranean (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000), even over longer time scales from 1948?1999 in the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001, Marano <em>et al.</em> 2003). The overall biomass index assessed with MEDITS surveys (0-800 m deep) in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was to 3.3 kg/km² (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species was also one of most commonly captured in the GRUND and MEDITS surveys of the Adriatic Sea. It appears to be more abundant in the north and central areas of the Adriatic Sea, where it was consistently captured in 4% of hauls. This species was not present in earlier (1985-1992) GRUND surveys in the southern Adriatic but since 1992, it is consistently captured in >2% of hauls (Marano <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In South Africa this species is common in the Eastern Cape, especially the Agulhas Bank where scattered reefs make trawling dangerous in many areas, thereby likely providing refuge to it. Research trawls from Cape Agulhas to Port Alfred commonly capture this species (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991).
161599		threats	eng	The small maximum size of this species suggest it is likely to have a relatively short generation time and a relatively high capacity to replace numbers lost to exploitation (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stevens <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is commonly caught as bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005), but there is no evidence to suggest that it has declined in this area. The species is occasionally caught by fixed gears also (nets, hooks). Most of the specimens are discarded at the sea while the bigger individuals are occasionally marketed.<br/><br/>In South Africa, <em>R. miraletus</em> occurs in areas of the shelf trawled for hake and other teleosts, however it is widespread outside commercial trawl grounds and is therefore not considered to be threatened. <em>R. miraletus</em> may be fished in Namibia in subtidal waters, but this area is poorly sampled. There is a relative lack of deeper water fishing activities off Southeastern Africa at present.
161600		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is currently being conducted on the species' age, growth and reproduction. Monitoring of catch levels and population trends is required.
161600		distribution	eng	Northeast and northwest Pacific: western Bering Sea to the Pacific coast of Kamchatka, Russia and northern Kuril Islands (Dolganov 1985, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002). Kruzenshtern Strait (central Kuril Islands) to the Commander and the Aleutian Islands and in the eastern Bering Sea (Dolganov, 1999 and Stevenson 2004).
161600		habitat	eng	The Mud Skate inhabits outer shelves and upper continental slopes within the depth range 81–1,000 m (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000). The majority of the population occurs between 250–500 m (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Females mature at 61.2–66.3 cm total length (TL) and four years of age; males at 53.1–66.2 cm TL and 3–4 years of age (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2005, Orlov and Tokranov 2005). Maximum size is 77 cm TL (Ebert 2005) and longevity is seven years (Dolganov 2005). It prefers bottom temperatures from -0.2–3.56°C (mean 2.56°C) with most skates occurring between 3–3.5°C (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Dolganov (1998a) found most skates on sandy-gravel (49.8 % of occurrence), sludgy-pebbly (35.4%), and sandy (14.8%) substrates. They feed on decapods, amphipods, polychaete worms, fishes and fisheries offal (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov and Tokranov 2005).
161600		population	eng	This species is one of the ten most abundant skate species in Russian waters. According to bottom trawl survey data  (1977–1999) the total biomass of mud skate in the Russian waters comprised 17,400 t including 14,500 t in the Bering Sea and 2,900t off Kamchatka and Kuril Islands (Dolganov 1999). On the eastern Bering Sea slopes biomass was estimated at 1,677 mt for 2004 (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006). No historical trend information is available for this species.
161600		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries operating within its range. It is quite commonly captured by bottom trawl fisheries targeting groundfishes (cod, pollock, rockfishes, Atka mackerel, flatfishes, etc.) in Russian waters, but it is not taken in large numbers. These fisheries only operate in the upper part of its bathymetric range (mainly <200 m in the eastern Bering Sea, <600 m in Russian waters), therefore the species has a refuge in deeper waters, particularly in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (D. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161601		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and possible importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161601		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic and southeast Atlantic: reported from Senegal to South Africa. It has been reported from off Cunene River, Namibia to just southwest of the Orange River, South Africa (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 1991).
161601		habitat	eng	A deep-water skate found between 163 and 800 m, but is more frequently found deeper than 400 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991). Reaches over 95 cm disc width (DW) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999), or 90 cm total length (TL) but is common to 60 cm TL (Schneider 1990).
161601		population	eng	No information is available.
161601		threats	eng	Because this species occurs at the depth range of commercial trawlers which target teleosts (such as hakes – <em>Merluccius</em> species) (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999), it is taken as a bycatch and may consequently be threatened by deep water trawl fisheries off the west coast of Southern Africa and by EU large-scale commercial trawling in other parts of its range off the west coast of Africa. Should such trawling expand in range or increase in effort, the threat to this species would increase.
161602		conservation	eng	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.
161602		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: found all along the New Zealand continental shelf and on adjacent seamounts and plateaus (Anderson<em> et al.</em> 1998, Last and McEachran 2006).
161602		habitat	eng	The biology of <em>Brochiraja asperula</em> is virtually unknown. The species is concentrated at depths of 300–1,200 m (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998) but probably extends to at least 1,500 m. The species attains at least 64 cm TL (McEachran 1984).
161602		population	eng	Occasionally caught by deepwater trawlers but not common.
161602		threats	eng	<em>B. asperula</em> is taken as occasional bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities across its range by deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy, Oreos and Hoki. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently. The species may be declining in some parts of its range, but it is widespread throughout New Zealand (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Last and McEachran 2006) and parts of its range are not intensively fished, offering refuge.
161603		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Research is required to determine whether the species is valid.
161603		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from the type locality, off Hong Kong in the South China Sea.
161603		habitat	eng	A deepwater species found offshore. Virtually nothing is known of the habitat and biology of this species. Presumably it lives on soft sand and mud bottoms, similar to other skates.
161603		population	eng	Only known from the type specimens. There is no population information available for this species.
161603		threats	eng	Utilization and fishing gear are not recorded for the area this species is known from because these skates are small, uncommon and occur in deep water. But they are thought to be caught as a discarded bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Compagno 1999).
161604		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161604		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: Recorded from east coast of Yucatán, Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161604		habitat	eng	Tropical demersal upper slope skate, between 192 and 457 m depth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 30 cm total length (TL), with males maturing by 26 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161604		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161604		threats	eng	The threats to this species are uncertain and very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range. Given the apparently narrow range of the species, any development in deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored.
161605		conservation	eng	None. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of its occurrence is needed.
161605		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: central Japan to south coast of Taiwan, Province of China.
161605		habitat	eng	A small deepwater species, the Leadhued Skate<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>can be found in depth from 60–900 m and attains at least 48 cm TL (Ishihara 1990). It is known from only a few specimens. Like other skates, it is presumably oviparous, but its biology is virtually unknown.
161605		population	eng	Believed to be a rare species, it is known only from few specimens.
161605		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is currently available on its capture.
161606		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The taxonomy and distribution of this species require critical review. Research is also required on population trends and threats.
161606		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: the range of this species is not well defined due to confusion with the Barbelthroat Carpetshark (<em>Cirrhoscyllium expolitum</em>). Compagno (2001) reports that it is found off Japan, from Shikoku and Kyushu southwest to Yakushima Island and possibly the Ryukyu Islands. Zhu and Meng (2001) also report that it occurs in the South China Sea, off Guangdong and Hainan, China.
161606		habitat	eng	Found on uppermost slopes at depths of 250–290 m. This shark grows to a maximum length of 48.5 cm, with mature females measuring around 44.5 cm and mature males measuring 36.7–40.7 cm (Compagno 2001). The biology of this species is largely unknown. They are apparently oviparous, as cased eggs were discovered in a 445 mm female (Compagno 2001).
161606		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this species.
161606		threats	eng	This species is probably taken as bycatch of offshore trawl fisheries and likely discarded, although no specific information is available on its capture.
161607		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Research is required on the species’ biology, occurrence, population trends and capture in fisheries.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161607		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: recorded from Oman and the Arabian Sea, off India (Compagno and Last 1999) and Pakistan (Bianchi 1985). Eastern Indian Ocean: records from India (at least off Orissa and Madras coasts) (Compagno and Heemstra 2007) and Malaysia (Pinang) (Compagno and Last 1999).<br/><br/>Western Central Pacific: recorded from Singapore, Indonesia (Malacca), Thailand, Viet Nam. Record from the Philippines is doubtful (Compagno and Last 1999, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Northwest Pacific: recorded off China, Taiwan Province of China and Japan (Compagno and Last 1999).
161607		habitat	eng	A small ray found in tropical continental waters both inshore and offshore (Compagno and Last 1999) on sandy and muddy substrates. This species grows to a maximum total length of at least 35 cm total length (TL) (Yamada <em>et al. </em>2007). Females give birth to litters of 4–6 pups, measuring ~10 cm TL. Reproduction takes place from May to July (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161607		population	eng	Unknown.
161607		threats	eng	This species is not targeted but is taken as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries (H. Ishihara pers. obs.) Demersal fishing pressure is intensive in many parts of its range, although no specific information is currently available on its capture. This species may be retained in ‘catch all’ fisheries and may also be discarded at sea or on the dock side.
161608		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at this time. Assessment and monitoring of catches and population trends is required, as well as research on the species’ life-history characteristics.
161608		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: at present the species is only known from the northeast coast of Taiwan between Keelung and Suao (Haas and Ebert 2006). This recently described species may occur elsewhere, but may have been misidentified for other torpedo rays.
161608		habitat	eng	Very little is known about <em>Torpedo formosa</em>. It is a newly discovered species found at depths less than 300m (Haas and Ebert 2006). Members of the Torpedinidae exhibit aplacental viviparity. Size at maturity in males is ~62.2 cm total length (TL) (Haas and Ebert 2006). Size at maturity for females is unknown, but an immature female measured 36.6 cm TL (Haas and Ebert 2006). Size at birth is ~20.0-25.0 cm TL (Haas and Ebert 2006).
161608		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this species.
161608		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch in fisheries and has been observed in fish markets in Ta-chi, Taiwan (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007), although not commonly. No catch data are available. This species is usually discarded or utilized for fishmeal (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Fisheries on the east coast of Taiwan are mainly coastal and deepsea (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved from 100 to 300 m fishing depth to over 300 m currently. The fishery has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161609		conservation	eng	The ornamental trade is regulated by export quota in Brazil.<br/><br/>Required Conservation Measures include development of fishery monitoring programs, specific legislation for the sport fishery, public education to reduce persecution in tourist areas and the protection of nursery areas.
161609		distribution	eng	Inland waters of South America: widely distributed in several river systems of the Amazon Basin. Recorded from the Rio Orinoco drainage in Venezuela, Colombian Amazon, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, to the lower Amazon, Tocantins and Araguaia, Brazil (Rosa 1985).
161609		habitat	eng	The distribution of this species in the Amazon estuary region is influenced by seasonal salinity variations (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida unpublished data). It is found in temperatures ranging from 28 to 35°C (Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996, Araújo, Charvet-Almeida and Almeida unpublished data). Adult specimens exhibit diel movements: during the day they occupy deeper water areas and during the night they are present in shallow areas (M.L. Araújo pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Different biological data have been observed in distinct river basins/regions, according to the following authors:<br/><br/>Venezuelan llanos (Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Size at maturity: 23 cm DW (male), 29.5 cm DW (female)<br/>Maximum size: 31 cm DW<br/>Litter size: 1<br/><br/>Brazilian Amazon Basin (Charvet-Almeida, Araújo and Almeida 2005)<br/>Size at maturity: 39 cm DW (male), 44 cm DW (female)<br/>Gestation time: estimated at six months<br/>Reproductive periodicity: annual, birthing during the rainy season<br/>Litter size: 1?5 (average of 2).<br/><br/>Tocantins Basin (Rincón unpublished data)<br/>Size at maturity: 23 cm DW (male), 26?28 cm DW (female)<br/>Maximum size: 42.8 cm DW<br/>Size at birth: ~25?26 cm TL. The smallest neonate captured was 26.5 cm TL (13 cm DW). <br/>Reproductive periodicity: May breed year-round, but gestation period unknown.<br/>Litter size: 1<br/><br/>The feeding habit of this species includes mainly insects (Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996; assessors unpublished data).
161609		population	eng	Nursery areas have been observed for this species along the shores of some islands located in the Marajó Bay region (State of Pará, Brazil). In this area, 98% (n=276) of the specimens captured corresponded to neonate or young juveniles (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida, unpublished data). Nursery areas have also been observed in sandy beaches of the Negro River tributary (M.L. Araújo pers. obs.).
161609		threats	eng	This species is taken as food and juveniles enter the ornamental fish trade. In some areas, its habitat is threatened by illegal mining activities. The post-capture mortality in the ornamental fishery towards this species is estimated at 10% (Araújo unpublished data). There is also uncontrolled fishing pressure (both through persecution and sports fishing) on this species developed by the tourism industry around Negro River during the dry season. Although widely distributed, this species requires attention due to its apparent low fecundity. <br/><br/>Capture for the ornamental trade has been steady but in small quantities in the last five years (Araújo, personal observation). It has a low value in the ornamental market and so is not highly sought after.
161610		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161610		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: North Carolina to Florida Keys, throughout Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean coast of Central America, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Suriname and northern Brazil (Gomes and Picado 2001, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161610		habitat	eng	Benthic along upper continental slope, at depths of 311–732 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size about 84 cm total length (TL); males mature at 63 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Presumably oviparous, like other skates, but very little is known of this species’ life-history parameters.
161610		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161610		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deepwater demersal fisheries, although no information is available.
161611		conservation	eng	Some small protected areas do exist within the Irrawaddy River Shark's range, but they are lacking proper personnel for effective management (Rao <em>et al.</em> 2001).
161611		distribution	eng	The full extent of this species' range is unknown. The Irrawaddy River Shark is known from only a single specimen collected in the Irrawaddy River delta, near the city of Yangon, Myanmar (Steindachner 1896).
161611		habitat	eng	The Irrawaddy River where&#160; <em>G. siamensis</em> occurs is a very large tropical waterway, lined with mangrove forests in its lower reaches. One of the most heavily silted rivers in the world (Scott 1989), visibility is extremely limited, which potentially is a factor in the evolution of the Irrawaddy River Shark's notably small eyes (Compagno 1989). The species is assumed to be euryhaline, having been recorded from brackish water, and with congeners recorded from inshore marine waters.
161611		population	eng	Known only from one specimen recorded in the original species description (Steindachner 1896).
161611		threats	eng	Mangrove forests, which potentially is important habitat for the Irrawaddy River Shark, are being depleted for fuel, construction materials, and non-timber forest products (Scott 1989, Rao <em>et al</em>. 2002). Pollution in this river system is also a major concern.<br/><br/>This species would be captured in the artisanal fisheries operating in the Irrawaddy River since <em>Glyphis</em> species elsewhere are susceptible to net and line fisheries, but there are no specific records of their presence or abundance in the catch. Fishing pressure is intense in the Irrawaddy River. During surveys for the Irrawaddy Dolphin <em>Orcaella brevirostris</em>, a total of 5,701 fishing gears were recorded in the main channel of the Irrawaddy River (November to December 2002) (Smith 2003). Gillnets accounted for the majority of gear (excluding sticks with multiple hooks). Electric fishing was also reported during the survey (Smith 2003).
161612		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Catches and population trends need to be carefully monitored. Further research on the taxonomy of this species is also required.
161612		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: occurs from the northern part of the Sea of Japan to the western Bering Sea, through the Sea of Okhotsk. In Japanese waters of the Sea of Japan it is distributed south to Oki Island and in Russian waters from Peter Great Bay to Tatarsky Strait. Records of this species from the Pacific coast of Hokkaido (Nagasawa and Torisawa 1991) require confirmation (Ishihara pers. obs. 2004).<br/><br/>The geographic range of the Gloden Skate requires further study, its taxonomy remains uncertain and it has been misidentified with Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>). This skate has not been listed among species found in Russian waters (Sokolovskaya <em>et al</em>. 1998, Parin 2001). However, according to Ishihara (1990) and Novikov <em>et al</em>. (2002) Golden Skate occurs in the northwest Pacific from the northern part of the Sea of Japan to the western Bering Sea, through the Sea of Okhotsk. In Japanese waters of the Sea of Japan it is distributed south to Oki Island and in Russian waters from Peter Great Bay to Tatarsky Strait. Records of this species from the Pacific coast of Hokkaido (Nagasawa and Torisawa 1991) require confirmation (Ishihara pers. obs. 2004).
161612		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 100–1,125 m (Ishihara 1990). This species is born at around 22 cm total length (TL) (Ishihara 1990) and is thought to reach a maximum size of 116 cm TL (Ishiyama 1958). Estimates for size at maturity have been made at 100 and 92 cm TL for males and females respectively (Ishihara 1990). Very little information on species ecology and biology is available. In Japanese waters this species preys mostly upon crustaceans (shrimps and crabs), octopus and fish (Japanese sardine, Pacific saury, Japanese horse mackerel, and rockfish) (Ishihara 1990).
161612		population	eng	A common and dominant skate species in the Sea of Japan (Ishihara 1990). Also common in the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea (Novikov et al. 2002). No other information on the population of this species is available. Its taxonomy remains uncertain and it has been misidentified with Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>), thus populations of this species are uncertain.
161612		threats	eng	This species is a common bycatch of bottom trawl and longline fisheries in the Sea of Japan. It is taken regularly in Japanese fisheries as bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries targeting cod, spiny dogfish and angler fish, and retained for human consumption. Although it is a common bycatch component, fisheries are reportedly only operating in the upper part of this species’ bathymetric distribution, placing the majority of the population outside the range of current fisheries (H. Ishihara and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161613		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. Research on its occurrence, capture in fisheries and distribution is required. Further study of its habitat and biology are also needed.<br/><br/>The implementation of the provisions of the development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Such plans have not yet been implemented in Yemen (Morgan 2006).
161613		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the southern Red Sea at the harbour of Perim, Mocca, Yemen (Steindachner 1898). The true identities of photos of a species from the Sudanese Red Sea (by J. Randell) are uncertain, but it is thought that they may belong to <em>T. suessi.</em> Further specimens from off Port Sudan would be required to clarify this (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161613		habitat	eng	Specific details of this species habitat and depth range are unknown. This species is known to reach at least 29.1 cm total length (TL). Although size at maturity is unknown, the lectotype was a mature female of 29.1 cm TL and the paralectotype, a mature male of 23.2 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002). Little else is known of its biology.
161613		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161613		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. Its apparent endemism to the Southern Red Sea is a potential threat to this species. <em>T. panthera</em> and <em>T. sinuspersici</em>, both of which <em>T. suessi</em> has previously been thought to be a synonym of (see taxonomy) are known to be caught in bottom trawl and line fisheries in the area (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Industrial and artisanal shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Yemen and catches are retained (Morgan 2006).
161614		conservation	eng	Parts of this species? range are protected by prohibitions on inshore trawling. Requires monitoring of catches and bycatch, if any.
161614		distribution	eng	Southeastern Atlantic and southwestern Indian Ocean: South Africa from Cape Point to central Natal (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989). Also recorded from Meob Bay, Namibia, with an unofficial report from Walvis Bay (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). Possibly occurs off Mozambique and Madagascar (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).
161614		habitat	eng	Found in shallow waters down to a depth of 180 m, but mainly shallower than 100 m in muddy bays (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has been caught by hand previously in South Africa at 4.5 m depth (M. Marks pers. Comm. in Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Feeds mainly on polychaetes (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989). Its maximum recorded size is 38 cm total length (TL) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>The size at maturity in males is uncertain, but the largest immature male has been reported at 10.5 cm TL and the smallest adult male at 17.4 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Maturity in females occurs at around 15.5 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007).
161614		population	eng	Mainly recorded from temperate bays of South Africa (eastern and western Cape Province) , where it is reportedly common (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). One specimen has been reported from central Namibia, with a further unofficial sighting (Biachi <em>et al.</em> 2003). A record from Madagascar requires investigation since this is significantly outside the main temperate coastal range of this species and is suspected to be a misidentification. Commonly trawled close inshore in shallow, muddy parts of bays <50 m deep along the Cape south coast, it may be limited by its specialist feeding constraints to particular substrate types.
161614		threats	eng	No fisheries target this species in Namibia, but it may be caught as bycatch by shallow trawling in South Africa. Its inshore distribution makes it vulnerable to pollution from coastal settlements and industries.
161615		conservation	eng	<strong>Malaysia</strong><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range. Further research is also required on the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>The use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Maldives</strong><br/>In 1995, 15 popular dive sites were declared marine protected areas in the Maldives with further protective measures under consideration (Anderson and Hafiz 1997). <em>Himantura fai</em> is one of the species that is fed daily at a popular dive site. The Maldives recognised the large economic value in terms of tourism that ray-watching brought and banned all exports of rays in June 1995 (Anderson and Hafiz 1997).
161615		distribution	eng	This species has a wide, but poorly defined, range (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Western Indian Ocean: South Africa (Last and Compagno 1999), Suez, Egypt (R. Bonfil pers. comm.). Eastern Indian Ocean: Andaman Sea (Kuiter and Debelius 1994), Maldives (Anderson and Hafiz 1997), Myanmar.<br/><br/><strong>Pacific Ocean</strong><br/>Northwest Pacific: Ryukyu Islands (Yoshigou and Yoshino 1999). Western central Pacific: South China Sea and Sulu Sea off Sabah (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 1999), Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and north to Myanmar, northern tropical Australia including the Java Sea, down to New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994, Whittington and Last 1994), Caroline Islands (Homma <em>et al.</em> 1994), Orangere Bay, Papua New Guinea (P. Kailola pers. Comm.), Eiao, Marquesas Islands (J. Randall pers. Comm.), and Apia, Samoa (Jordan and Seale 1906, Manjaji 2004), Philippines, Micronesia.<br/><br/>Large aggregations occasionally occur on atolls of the Great Barrier Reef and throughout the Caroline Islands (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Area: 51, 57, 61, 71.
161615		habitat	eng	Found over soft substrates on the inner continental shelf, from the intertidal to at least 200 m depth. Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males reach maturity at 115.4?122.4 cm disc width (DW), but size at maturity for females is unknown (White and Dharmadi 2007). Maximum size is at least 184 cm DW and size at birth is reported at 30?55 cm DW (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Little is known of its biology and diet, but it is presumed to feed on bottom-dwelling invertebrates (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Images taken by divers indicate that this species aggregates on sandy bottoms and coral reefs (M. Manjaji pers. Obs. 2007). This species has sometimes been observed to sit on top of each other (up to ten animals) (W. White pers. Obs. 2007) and has also been observed "catching a ride" on other larger ray species (in Ningaloo Marine Park, W Australia) (W. White pers. Obs. 2007) .
161615		population	eng	Common but not abundant in some areas in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines (M. Manjaji, Famhi B. Samiengo pers. obs. 2007). Can be relatively common in reef sand adjacent areas along northern Australia (W. White pers. obs. 2007).Large aggregations occasionally occur on atolls of the Great Barrier Reef and throughout the Caroline Islands (Last and Stevens 1994).
161615		threats	eng	This species is captured by demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia and probably throughout other areas of its range (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species known range in Southeast Asia.<br/><br/>This species is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. Obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura fai</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fishermen in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.<br/><br/>This species may be more vulnerable to depletion given its large size at maturity and maximum size compared to other <em>Himantura</em> species (Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007).
161616		conservation	eng	None in place.
161616		distribution	eng	Northeast Indian Ocean: Myanmar (Compagno 2001).
161616		habitat	eng	Habitat and biology are virtually unknown. Eats small bony fish. The one known specimen is an adult male measuring 57 cm TL (Compagno 2001).
161616		population	eng	Only one known specimen, collected off Rangoon/Yangon (Compagno 2001).
161616		threats	eng	Unknown, but presumably utilized in local fisheries (Compagno 2001). Myanmar has a demersal trawl fleet for shrimp and finfish (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). This species would be vulnerable to this fishery and perhaps others in the area but no data are available. Little information is available on fisheries operating off Myanmar (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006).
161617		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161617		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Gulf of Aden and Travancore coast in India. Questionably from near Zanzibar, Tanzania. (McEachran and Dunn 1998).
161617		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 457?549 m (McEachran and Dunn 1998). Very little is currently known about the biology or habitat preferences of this skate.
161617		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161617		threats	eng	It is unknown whether fisheries currently operate at the depths occupied by this species. Given the potential narrow depth distribution and restricted range of the species, any fishing activity should be closely monitored to ensure that the current population is not affected. The species could potentially be taken as bycatch in deep bottom trawl and longline fisheries especially as fisheries expand to greater depths.
161618		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Research is required on this species? life-history and threats. Further assessment and monitoring of catch and population trends is also needed.<br/><br/>Listed as Vulnerable A2d+4d in China, although there are no implemented measures for sharks and rays in China (Wang and Xie 2004).
161618		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Yellow Sea to East China Sea off Japan and sometimes in Taiwan Strait (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006, Zhu and Meng 2001).
161618		habitat	eng	A small stingray found in coastal inshore waters, from estuaries to 50 m depth (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males measure up to 20 cm disc width (DW) and females up to 30 cm DW (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Little else is known of the biology. Presumably only up to one or two young (W. White. Pers. obs. 2007).
161618		population	eng	Apparently common in southern Japan (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006) and northern China (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Stingrays are difficult to identify and this species has been confused with Dasyatis akajei in Japan, making it difficult to determine population trends (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2008).<br/><br/>In China, there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that this species has declined. Historically this species was commonly observed at local markets in China, but it is observed far less frequently now (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).
161618		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in inshore fisheries targeting flat fish and other benthic fish in Japan (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). This species is generally discarded because of its relatively small size, but when they are retained and landed, they are marketed for human consumption (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>This species also is captured and marketed in China and has been observed in Shanghai fish market (Zhu and Meng 2001). This is one of three species of dasyatid captured and marketed in China (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The East China Sea and Yellow Seas are intensively exploited (NOAA 2004ab). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004a). The Yellow Sea was once one of the most intensively exploited Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) in the world and is considered severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with destructive fishing practices (NOAA 2004b).<br/><br/>Pollution and habitat modification may also pose a threat to this species. The Yellow Sea is affected by both land and sea based sources of pollution and habitat loss, resulting from extensive economic development in the coastal zone (NOAA 2004b). Waste water and sewage discharge into the East China Sea, with eutrophication and frequent red tides as results of coastal development also threaten marine life, particularly in coastal areas and estuaries (NOAA 2004a).
161619		conservation	eng	The CCAMLR Working Group recommend that, where possible, all skates should be cut from the line while still in the water, except on the request of observers, and that areas with high bycatch rates should be avoided by Patagonian Toothfish fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>South Georgia</strong><br/>No species-specific management measures are in place for <em>B. meridionalis</em>, however, this species may benefit from the following general measures and research in this area: The South Georgia Toothfish fishery was certified by the Marine Conservation Society (MCS) in 2004 and an assessment of the fishery is expected to conclude in 2009. Assessment of the impact of fishing on skate populations is a condition of this certification and it is anticipated that preliminary advice on assessments for skates will begin in 2008 (Rice <em>et al</em>. 2007). This should include information on IUU fishing effort estimates. A skate tagging programme has been initiated as a part of this work, resulting in just under 400 animals being tagged, with just one return so far (Rice <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong><br/>All licensed vessels in the Falklands are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. However there is no requirement to report species-specific data. Scientific observers do quantify the catch composition by species at some of the stations. Longliners fishing within this species’ range do not report species-specific catch data either. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses (these include the abovementioned longline vessels) are prohibited from targeting skates, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.<br/><br/>Information is required to better define the distribution and the impact of fisheries across the species’ entire range.
161619		distribution	eng	Southwest Atlantic: Argentina (Menni and Lucifora 2007), Scotia Ridge and Falkland/Malvinas Islands (M. Stehmann, J. San Martin pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Southern Ocean: South Georgia Island (Stehmann 1987).<br/><br/>Southeast Pacific: Recently recorded from 32 nm west of Noir Island (Chilean Patagonia) and 251 nm northwest of Cape Horn (P. Reyes and M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Some reports from near Balleny Island in the western Pacific sector of Antarctica provisionally identified as <em>B. meridionalis</em> from photographs suggest that this species may have a circumglobal distribution in the Southern Ocean (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2008).
161619		habitat	eng	Found on slopes and submarine rises. Depth distribution may vary throughout its range but this species is reported at depths of 65 to 2,240 m, although it may occur deeper (confirmed from 650 to 1,900 m in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008)). A skate research programme instigated in 1999 South Georgia and Shag Rocks (CCAMLAR sub area 48.3) reported that this species was found at 400 to 1,900 m depth, with a small increase in captures at around 1,300 m.<br/><br/>Males and females mature at between 115 to 130 cm and 113 to 125 cm total length (TL) respectively and this species reaches a maximum size of at least 150 cm TL (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990, J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.
161619		population	eng	No information available.
161619		threats	eng	This skate is a bycatch of Patagonian Toothfish longline fisheries operating in the Southwest Atlantic and Southern Ocean, including around South Georgia, and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands.<br/><br/><strong>South Georgia</strong><br/>Trawl fisheries began operating around South Georgia in the 1970s. Longlining for Patagonian Toothfish initiated in the area in the late 1980s and early 1990s to allow exploitation of older, mature fish in areas where trawls could not be used (MCS 2007). Longlining is now the principle method used to capture Patagonian Toothfish in this area (around South Georgia and the associated plateau to the west around Shag Rocks, CCAMLR sub-area 48.3), although trawls still operate around some other sub-Antarctic islands outside the area of this fishery (MCS 2007). Bottom set longlines are used to target Toothfish (taking skates as bycatch), only between May and August (winter months) (MCS 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong><br/>In December 1990 the Falklands Outer Conservation and Management Zone (FOCZ) was established, extending to 200nm from coastal baselines. Although this area is too deep for conventional trawling, two licensed longlining vessels targeting Patagonian toothfish operate in this area (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 1999). These vessels are prohibited from targeting skates but are allowed a small bycatch below 10% of the total catch (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008) (see Conservation Measures below). Of the skate bycatch in this longline fishery, <em>B. meridionalis</em> is one of the most commonly caught species (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 1999). Catches are reported grouped with other <em>Bathyraja</em> species, as well as a large unidentified skate species that occurs in the area (Amblyraja cf. georgiana), although information on the species captured is available from on-board observers. Total annual catch of skates in this fishery during 2007 (Jan–Dec) was 42 t (including <em>B. papilionifera, B. meridionalis, </em>and <em>Amblyraja cf. georgiana </em>combined) (FIFD unpublished data). Previously, skates were generally discarded, but recently (since about June 2007) these vessels started to retain them for export to Korean markets (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008).
161620		conservation	eng	None in place. Efforts are required to locate the type specimen, as well as further specimens through surveys at the type locality.
161620		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: Nigeria (Old Calabar River) (Günther 1870), record from Sierra Leone is doubtful (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).
161620		habitat	eng	A large, coastal stingray reaching a maximum size of at least 320 cm TL or 200 cm DW (Capapé and Desoutter 1990). The specimen recorded off Sierra Leone was collected from a depth of 30 m (Springer and Collete 1971) and the holotype was collected from ?Old Calabar? river in Nigeria. One female contained four embryos (Springer and Collette 1971).
161620		population	eng	Unknown. This species is known only from the original description and the holotype is probably lost. There have been no further records to date (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).
161620		threats	eng	There are intensive local marine and riverine fisheries within this species? range in western Africa. Its known range is subject to inshore and brackish water artisanal demersal fisheries. Its presence in shallow waters presumably makes it accessible to a variety of artisanal fisheries. Fishing pressure in inshore and brackish waters is very high and the fisheries are considered over-exploited (FAO 2007). Habitat destruction and degradation are also major threats to this species? habitat, for example, oil pollution is a problem in brackish waters in Nigeria (FAO 2007).
161621		conservation	eng	Research is required to assess catches of Bleeker's Variegated Whipray throughout its range, and to examine its habitat, ecology and life history parameters including confirmation of its distributional range. The fisheries that capture this species are largely unregulated (licenses are issued but catches and landings are not properly monitored), and presently there are no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.
161621		distribution	eng	<p>Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray<em> </em>occurs in the Indo-West Pacific from India to eastern Indonesia, though its distribution is poorly defined as this range is based on current knowledge of this species. There are ongoing taxonomic issues that are being investigated and the outcomes of these may affect the known distributional range. There are no confirmed records of this species from Australia (Last and Stevens 2009, Last <em>et al.</em> 2010).</p>
161621		habitat	eng	Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray is demersal on inshore soft substrates (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The biology of this species is poorly known, partly due to confusion with other species of the ‘<span style="font-style: italic;">uarnak</span>’ species-complex. This is a large whipray that attains at least 130 cm disc width (DW), is born at around 26–27 cm DW with males maturing at 60–70 cm DW. Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy and the diet is unknown but likely comprises small fishes and crustaceans (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>As there is no information on this species’ maximum age and age at maturity, generation length was inferred as 20 years based on data for the congener, the Blackspotted Whipray (<span style="font-style: italic;">Himantura astra</span>). Female Blackspotted Whipray are reported to have a maximum age of 29 years and an age at maturity of nine years (Jacobsen and Bennett 2010). These were used to calculate a generation length of 19 years based on the equation: generation length = (((29-9)/2)+9). The maximum size of Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray is considerably larger (~130 cm DW) than that of the Blackspotted Whipray (80 cm DW) so it is possible the generation length of Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray could be greater than 20 years.
161621		population	eng	<p>This species is caught regularly in Indonesia, but rarely in Malaysia (Manjaji and White 2004). There is no species-specific information about populations or trends, however in a large part of its range there is heavy fishing pressure and extensive habitat degradation, and it is suspected that significant population declines have occurred and are ongoing.</p>
161621		threats	eng	<p>The threats to Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray are many of those faced by other <span style="font-style: italic;">Himantura</span> species within its range. Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray may be more vulnerable than some of its congeners due to its large size at maturity and maximum size and its preference for inshore coastal waters that are heavily fished and degraded in many parts of its range (Manjaji and White 2004).<em><br/> </em><br/> In Indonesia and across large parts of its distribution, Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray<em> </em>is caught by demersal trawl and tangle/gill nets, dropline and longline fishing, Danish seine fishing gear, and coastal artisanal fisheries (Manjaji and White 2004, White and Dharmadi 2007, Last <em>et al.</em> 2010). This species is commercially valuable, with most specimens caught as bycatch landed and sold. Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray<em> </em>is important in the gill and tangle net fisheries in Indonesian waters, which likely also includes adjacent waters. These fisheries, along with trawl fishing are particularly intensive in the Arafura Sea region (W. White pers. comm. 2010). In 2004, it was reported that more than 600 trawlers operated in the Arafura Sea and that catches in inshore waters had declined with vessels travelling further south to maintain catches (Manjaji and White 2004). Although the numbers of trawlers currently operating is unclear this intensive fishing pressure still continues; high levels of Indonesian trawl fishing in the Arafura Sea adjacent to the Australian Fishing Zone have recently been reported (Heazle and Butcher 2007, Northern Territory Government 2009) and thus the level of exploitation of this species could be extremely high.</p>  <p>In recent decades, demersal fishing pressure has increased in both capacity and effort in many areas of this species’ inshore range. For example, demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand went from being lightly exploited to severely over-exploited between 1973 and 1994 (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). On standardized trawl surveys conducted over this 20 year period in the Gulf of Thailand, the abundance (biomass) of the major trawl bycatch groups was recorded. The group ‘rays’ showed a large reduction in biomass over this period and an ecosystem model fitted to the bycatch data indicated that ‘rays’ were one of the groups most severely impacted by the initial increase in fishing pressure (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Species-specific catch data are not available, but Indonesian landings of ‘Rays, stingrays, mantas, nei’ (nei = not elsewhere included) increased from ~10,000 t in 1975 to 58,000 t in 2004 (FAO 2009).<br/> <br/> This species’ preference for inshore coastal waters means it is also threatened by extensive habitat degradation, including pollution and clearing, and destructive fishing practices. Large coastal areas, in particular mangroves, have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through land conversion for urban development, shrimp farms and agriculture. Across Indonesia and Malaysia from 1980 to 2005, the area of mangroves was reduced by &gt;30% (FAO 2007).<br/> <br/> Although data are available mostly only for grouped ‘rays’ and not specifically for Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray<em> </em>and/or other <em>Himantura </em>species, given that Bleeker’s Variegated Whipray<em> </em>is a large species with a preference for shallow waters where threats from coastal fisheries and habitat degradation are highest, significant declines are suspected to have occurred in Southeast Asia, the northern Indian Ocean and elsewhere in areas of high exploitation (Manjaji and White 2004)<em>.</em></p>
161622		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Assessment and monitoring of bycatch levels and population trends. Research is also required on the life-history of this species.
161622		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northeast Atlantic and found from mid-Atlantic ridge to Iceland, Ireland and Faroes EEZ. Most frequently caught off the Rockall Trough, Bill-Baileys, Lausy and Hatton banks and southwestern corner of Faroes EEZ (Dolganov 1985, Clarke 2000, Orlov unpubl. data, ICES 2006).
161622		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal species, found at depths of 775–1,500 m, with the majority of individuals captured at depths greater than 1,000 m (ICES 2006). The average depth of all known records is 1,179 m. Reaches a maximum size of at least 83 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 1985). Presumably oviparous, like other skates but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.
161622		population	eng	Unknown.
161622		threats	eng	Caught occasionally as bycatch in longline and bottom trawl deepwater fisheries. This species is most commonly caught in the Rockall Trough and in waters deeper than 1,000 m (ICES 2006).<br/><br/>Areas of the northeast Atlantic such as the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s, with increasing concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area at depths between 600–2,000 m (Kjerstad <em>et al. </em>2003).<br/><br/>French, Irish Spanish and Scottish deepwater trawl vessels operate within this species’ range, to the west of the British Isles, targeting species such as roundnose grenadier, black scabbardfish, orange roughy, monkfish, hake and siki sharks (ICES 2007). Fishing operations are conducted in a depth range of 800–1,600 m, mainly at depths >1,000 m or deeper (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>This species’ deep depth range may afford it refuge from fisheries in some areas of its range, whilst fisheries operate throughout much of its bathymetric distribution in others. Given that deepwater skates generally have limiting life-history characteristics (slow growth, late maturity and low fecundity), this species is probably biologically vulnerable to population depletion and will not be sufficiently fecund to withstand high levels of exploitation.
161623		conservation	eng	There are no species specific measures in place. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.
161623		distribution	eng	Northwestern Pacific. Found in Japanese waters off Honshu and off Russia in the central and southern Sea of Okhotsk (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000, Parin 2001, Fedorov <em>et al</em>. 2003).
161623		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths 447?2,025 m (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000, Fedorov <em>et al</em>. 2003). The huge majority of individuals have, however, been caught below 800m (Russian State database). The maximum size reached by this species is thought to be at least 150 cm total length (TL) (Russian State database). Size at birth is unknown. Egg capsules reach 75?86 mm long x 40?48 mm wide (Dolganov 1998).
161623		population	eng	This species is apparently rare compared to other skates in the region (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992, Dolganov 1985, Russian Government data), and is known from relatively few specimens. During a 1989 bottom trawl survey, covering the entire Sea of Okhotsk at depths of 300?2,025m, frequency of occurrence of <em>Bathyraja feodovri</em> in hauls was 8.9% in comparison to the most abundant skate captured in the survey; <em>Bathyraja parmifera</em> which occurred in 46.7% of hauls (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992).
161623		threats	eng	This species may be taken as bycatch in deepwater demersal trawl and longline fisheries operating within its range, however it is primarily distributed outside the range of fisheries. Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries within this species? range currently operate down to depths of 500?800 m (A.M. Orlov and H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2008), and this species is more common below these depths, offering it refuge.
161624		conservation	eng	None in place. More research into the status of this and other deepwater species is required in order to develop appropriate conservation and fisheries management plans.
161624		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific. Known only from off Tungkang (22°28.0'N, 120°26.0'E), southwestern Taiwan, Province of China (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161624		habitat	eng	Apparently occurs on the upper continental slope or outer shelf at depths of 300 m or less (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003). Male <em>Benthobatis yangi</em> are sexually mature between 19.1 and 21.5 cm total length (TL). The smallest male paratype (16.1 cm TL) possessed undeveloped claspers which did not project beyond the pelvic fins. The largest male specimen (21.5 cm TL) possessed fully developed claspers with calcified terminal cartilage components. The 19.1 cm TL male possessed claspers that projected well beyond the pelvic fin posterior margins, but was without fully calcified terminal cartilages and appeared to be an intermediate between the smallest and largest males. A large female (25.7 cm TL) was assumed to be sexually mature due to its relatively large size (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161624		population	eng	No information available.
161624		threats	eng	The primary threat to the Taiwanese Blind Electric Ray is shrimp trawling throughout its limited distribution, where it is taken as bycatch. Shrimp trawl fisheries operate along the southwestern coast of Taiwan Island and may range down to depths of 500 m (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Fine mesh nets are used in this fishery, thus it is unlikely that the species can avoid or escape the nets, which may also be causing habitat damage.
161625		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Research is required on this species? occurrence, life-history parameters, capture in fisheries and population trends.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161625		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: Somalia, India (Compagno 1984).
161625		habitat	eng	A little known catshark preferring the tropical offshore waters of the continental shelf and found on or near the bottom at depths of 54?186 m (Compagno 1984). The biology of this species is largely unknown, but size at birth is ~8 cm total length (TL), males mature at 28?35 cm TL and it reaches a maximum size of about 35 cm (Compagno 1984).
161625		population	eng	Unknown.
161625		threats	eng	This species is presumably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl and other demersal fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is available. Demersal fishing pressure is very intensive off India and Somalia but little information is currently available on the elasmobranch catch (Young <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161626		conservation	eng	Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g. mesh size regulations, effort reduction).<br/><br/>Recommended measures: Monitoring of bycatch levels and population trends.
161626		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: occurs off coasts northward from the Shetland Isles and southern Norway in the north, to Morocco in the south, and also reported from Senegal (Stehmann and Bürkel 1989).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: northern, western and central-eastern waters, excluding the Adriatic Sea. Countries of occurrence include: Algeria, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain and Tunisia. (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001, Stehmann and Bürkel 1989, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al. </em>2001, Relini <em>et al. </em>2000, Stehmann and Bauchot 1987, Tinti <em>et al. </em>2003).
161626		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf and slope at depths of 20?500 m, and is more common at ~200 m in the Mediterranean Sea. It is typically an offshore species, occurring further offshore than, for example, Spotted Ray and Thornback Ray. It is abundant on coarse sand/gravel substrates in the Irish Sea and western English Channel. The size at maturity is estimated at 55 cm for both males and females (Walker 1999) with a maximum size of about 72 cm (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b). <em>L. naevus</em> is benthic, occurring in waters of 12?290 m around the British Isles (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005a), though it is occasionally recorded in deeper waters (to 500 m) west of the British Isles and in the Mediterranean. Age at maturity for females and males is estimated at 7.4 years and 6.8 years, respectively, in the North Sea (Walker 1999). Longevity is reported at 12 years (Du Buit 1976b). Females produce about 90?102 eggs per year after an eight month gestation period (Du Buit 1976a, Bauchot 1987, Clark 1922). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans with larger individuals becoming increasingly piscivorous (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1996).
161626		population	eng	<strong>Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is abundant in the northern North Sea, off northwest Scotland, Irish Sea, Celtic Sea and is also one of the dominant rays around the Iberian Peninsula (ICES 2006). It is only rarely observed in the inner parts of the Bristol Channel and in the eastern English Channel and southern North Sea. Preliminary stock assessments were made for the Celtic Sea stock during the DELASS project (Heessen 2003), though the results were inconclusive. Catch rates in trawl surveys in the Irish Sea appear to be increasing slightly, with a decrease in the Celtic Sea (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005b), whereas IBTS data indicate a steady increase followed by a decline in the North Sea (ICES 2006). However, these catch rates refer to all individuals and not just mature fish. Observed increases/declines tend to be of a low magnitude, and overall the population may be stable. Cuckoo ray is a relatively small-bodied species that is most abundant on offshore grounds. It forms a relatively high proportion of skate and ray landings in those areas where it is abundant. More information on stock status is required, and the status of stocks in those areas where it is exploited most (e.g., Celtic Sea) need to be better assessed.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The Cuckoo Ray (<em>L. naevus</em>), is relatively rare in the Mediterranean however, it does not appear to have been previously common in the area. This species was rarely caught in the MEDITS trawl survey from 1994?1999. The MEDITS survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from west Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: western (Morocco, Spain, France), western central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), eastern central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows have been performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10?800 m. This species was recorded in only 42 of 6,336 tows during this survey (frequency of occurrence of 1%) and was more frequently captured in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Leucoraja naevus is now not found in the Gulf of Lions. A time series of comparative trawl surveys in the Gulf of Lions between indicate that <em>L. naevus</em> was historically present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys in 1957?1960 and in 1980?1984 (150?800 m), but was not present on the shelf or slope in comparable surveys in 1992?1995 (Aldebert 1997).<br/><br/>This species does not appear to have been captured in historical and recent trawl surveys of the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic 1999). It is still caught off the Balearic Islands, where Massuti and Moranta (2003) reported it in relatively recent trawl surveys.<br/><br/>Little is known of this species? current distribution and abundance along northwest African coastlines, however, it now appears to be uncommon along the Tunisian coastline.
161626		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries through much of its range. Due to it occurring further offshore than other rays (e.g. blonde and thornback rays), it is of less importance to recreational fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Rajids are an important component of demersal fisheries in the northeast Atlantic and <em>Leucoraja naevus </em>is landed and sold (Holden 1977, ICES 2006). It may be an important component in mixed demersal fisheries where abundant, and is landed as a bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its Atlantic range, though smaller individuals tend to be discarded. This species is one of the more frequent species landed by the commercial fisheries operating in the Celtic Sea and Iberian waters.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>Presumably captured as bycatch of multispecies fisheries. Rajids are an important component of the demersal fisheries of northwest Europe and <em>L. naevus</em> is landed and sold (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Holden 1977). The situation may be similar in the Mediterranean, where the cuckoo ray may be captured as part of the bycatch of multispecies trawl fisheries typical in the shelf seas of the Mediterranean. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope areas of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort in this area has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are highly exploited, with intensive commercial trawling occurring at depths ranging from 50 to 700 to 800 m (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>Moreover, although only adult individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm.<br/><br/>The relatively small size of this ray species suggests that its life history and demography may allow some capacity to withstand moderate fishing pressure (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000, Stevens <em>et al.</em> 2000).
161628		conservation	eng	None in place.
161628		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian and southwest Pacific Oceans: widespread in southeastern Australia from Coffs Harbour (New South Wales) to at least Beachport (South Australia), and around Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994). May also occur further west into the Great Australian Bight (Last and Stevens 1994).
161628		habitat	eng	Around Tasmania, restricted to the continental slope (rarely deeper than 100 m and fairly common near the shore). Further north, mainly on the continental slope in 200–600 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). A medium sized numbfish found on sand or mud bottoms, and sometimes near rocky reefs. Reaches at least 47 cm total length (TL). Males reach maturity at 21–26 cm TL and females at 20–26 cm TL (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpublished data). Aplacental yolk sac viviparous; size at birth is 9–12 cm TL (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpublished data). Litter size averages three and ranges from one to eight (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpub. data). The diet is dominated by polychaete worms but also feeding on garmarid (benthic) amphipods and crabs (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpublished data).
161628		population	eng	Around southern Tasmania, populations of breeding females together with a number of mature males have been collected but no immature males (R. Daley CSIRO pers. comm. August 2004).
161628		threats	eng	Caught as bycatch by trawlers in the South East Trawl Fishery and formerly by scallop dredgers. Discard mortality rate unknown but expected to be small.
161629		conservation	eng	<strong>Measures in place</strong><br/>California’s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18%) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing.<br/><br/>Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).
161629		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: confirmed from off the coasts of northern California, from Eureka to Coronado Bank, northern Baja California, Mexico (Ebert 2003, Miller and Lea 1972). There are no confirmed records or voucher specimens of <em>Raja stellulata</em> from north of California.<br/><br/>Reported to range into the Gulf of Alaska, but these records may be <em>Bathyraja parmifera</em> and not <em>Raja stellulata</em> (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007, Ebert 2003, Mecklenberg <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>Raja stellulata</em> is also reported from British Colombia, Canada, but its presence there is unconfirmed (Benson <em>et al</em>. 2001).
161629		habitat	eng	Occurs mostly in rocky habitats (Ebert 2003). These skates can be found in water depths of 18–732 m (Miller and Lea 1972), although it is more common inshore to 100 m depth (Ebert 2003). Females reach maturity at 68 cm total length (TL) and males at 67 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Maximum size is 76 cm TL and size at birth is 12–16 cm TL (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/><em>Raja stellulata</em> feed on benthic shrimps, cephalopods, and bony fishes (Ebert 2003).
161629		population	eng	Nothing is known on its population structure or status. Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. This species has not been the subject of any research until very recently.
161629		threats	eng	<em>Raja stellulata</em> appears to occur mostly on rocky substrates that appear to preclude its capture by bottom trawler fishing vessels. Therefore, it is only occasionally taken as trawl bycatch (Ebert 2003). Although total annual commercial landings data for grouped catch of ‘Skate, unspecified’ for California show that landings declined from 2000–2005, of the species that form this catch this is probably the least likely skate to be taken. This species is only very occasionally seen in samples of National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) trawl surveys, whereas it is one of the most common species caught in NMFS longline surveys on rocky, un-trawlable reefs (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Given the species’ shallow water occurrence it is likely only taken occasionally as a bycatch in recreational fisheries, but there are no data to confirm this (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Therefore current fishing pressure is not considered a significant threat to this species.
161630		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. Further investigation is urgently required on population trends, catches in fisheries and this species? life-history.
161630		distribution	eng	Northwest and possibly Western Central Pacific: occurs off both coasts of Japan (Hokkaido to Kyusyu) (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007), Korea, China, Taiwan (Compagno 1998), Province of China (Shen 1993), Cambodia (Compagno 1998), Malaysia (Ahmed <em>et al</em>. 2004). Records of this species from Indonesia, Thailand and possibly the Philippines may be misidentifications of other <em>Gymnura</em> species (Compagno 1998, W. White pers. comm. 2008).
161630		habitat	eng	A demersal species which inhabits sandy or muddy bottoms in inshore shallow waters (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Compagno 1998). Attains a maximum size of 145 cm disc width (DW) (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Size at birth is 12.4 cm TL (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007). Females give birth to litters of 2?8 pups (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007). The diet of <em>G. japonica</em> remains poorly documented, however, it is expected to contain a high proportion of teleost fishes as in other gymnurid species (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984, Capapé 1986; Raje 2003, Bizzaro 2005, Jacobsen 2008).
161630		population	eng	Reported as locally common (Compagno 1998). The species is reported to have declined off Japan and China (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007, Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007), but no specific information is currently available on the extent or time period of the declines.
161630		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to a variety of gear types, including demersal trawl, gillnet, trammelnet and setnet fisheries throughout its range. It is commercially fished off China (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007). Catches are retained and utilised for human consumption (Masuda <em>et al. </em>1975). Intensive demersal fisheries operate within this species? inshore range and population declines have been reported in some areas, although no specific information is currently available on the level of these declines. <em>G. japonica</em> is the largest Indo-West Pacific species in the region and, as such, may be an easier or more noticeable target for shallow-water fisheries i.e. net and hand fishing (I. Jacobsen pers. comm. 2008).
161631		conservation	eng	COSEWIC (2005) assessed the Southern Gulf population as Endangered, the eastern Scotian Shelf Population as Threatened, the Georges Bank?western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy population, where the population is stable, as Special Concern (because of the life history characteristics of this species), and the northern Gulf-Newfoundland population, where the species is only infrequently recorded, as Data Deficient. The first two populations are currently being considered for listing on Schedule 1 of the Canadian Species at Risk Act.<br/><br/>In Canada, winter skate landings are under quota control in the Scotian Shelf (the only directed fishery in the Northwest Atlantic). The TAC was reduced from 2000 tons in 1994 to 250 tons in 2002 (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2003), and subsequently 200 t (DFO 2005b).<br/><br/>In the USA, the Skate PDT developed suggestions for potential management measures that would address winter skate management issues. These alternatives recognize the problems caused by skate species mis-identification, high amounts of discards, and present limitations in gear technology. Two suggestions that will be voted on in June of 2008 are a potential possession limit and/or a total allowable catch for this species. These measures are aimed at rebuilding the stock within 10 years to Bmsy.
161631		distribution	eng	Winter Skate has a narrow latitudinal ranges and high degree of endemicity. It is endemic to the shelf waters of the northwest Atlantic, from the Grand Banks, Gulf of St. Lawrence and occasionally to the Northeast Newfoundland Shelf in Canada (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989) and to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in the USA (Robins and Ray 1986, Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002, COSEWIC 2005). The population(s) (structure unknown) appear to be concentrated in four geographic locations: 1) southern Gulf of St. Lawrence; 2) Scotian Shelf; 3) Southern Gulf of Maine/Georges Bank; and 4) the Mid Atlantic Bight.
161631		habitat	eng	Winter Skate is a benthic species. Habitat ranges from shoreline to 317 m, but they are most abundant at depths <150 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran 2002). The temperature range for this species is -1.2?19°C (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran 2002). This species prefers sandy and gravel substrate (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Scott 1982). Substrate type rather than depth appears more important in determining distribution (Scott 1982).<br/><br/>Size, reproduction and age data in life history table below. Winter Skates are slow-growing, produce few eggs each year. Size at maturity increases with latitude (McEachran and Martin 1977). On Georges Bank and Gulf of Maine, individuals mature between 70 and 109 cm total length (TL). The Gulf of St Lawrence population however matures at a smaller size and does not reach as large a size as other populations (McEachran and Martin 1977). Length at 50% maturity for female winter skate on the eastern Scotian Shelf is thought to be around 75 cm (Simon and Frank 2000).<br/><br/>Eggs of Winter Skate are deposited throughout the year off southern New England and from summer to autumn off Nova Scotia (Vladykov 1936, Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). However, a peak in the reproductive season was observed during the summer months in the Gulf of Maine (Sulikowski <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Industry has previously noted females extruding complete purses only in the late summer/early autumn west of Sable Island and suggestions were made that this may be a spawning area (Simon and Frank 2000). Frisk <em>et al. </em>(2002), suggest winter skate fecundity to be between 18?35 eggs per year.<br/><br/>Winter Skate migrate to deeper colder waters during summer months in some areas and the species is sometimes termed a winter periodic (Scott and Scott 1988). Research vessel survey data for the Scotian Shelf, however, show that winter skate appear to be concentrated in deeper warmer waters in the winter and move into shallower waters during spring and summer.<br/><br/>Most important prey items appear to be fish, decapods, amphipods and molluscs. Primary food sources shift from invertebrates to fish as skates increase in size. Moreover, the prey size also increases as the skates become larger and older. Studies of food habits of winter skate and little skate by McEachran <em>et al.</em> (1976) have shown that although the two species occur together over most of their range they avoid serious competition by eating different proportions of the same food resources. Winter Skate tended to eat infauna and Little Skate eat epifauna.<br/><br/>Little is known about predation on Winter Skate, but they are eaten by many predators including sharks, other rays (such as <em>L. erinacea</em>), and Grey Seals (Scott and Scott 1988). Winter Skate are also prone to several parasites, including protozoans, myxosporidian, haematazoa, trematodes and nematodes (Scott and Scott 1988).
161631		population	eng	The Winter Skate is a common species along its geographic range. In Canada, individuals in the Southern Gulf of St Lawrence and on the Eastern Scotian Shelf mature at a significantly smaller size and significantly larger size and a significantly different age, respectively, than those found elsewhere, suggesting population segregation. The species exists only in low concentrations in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the coastal waters off the southern coast of Newfoundland, and on the southern portion of the Grand Bank. A quantitative analysis of spatial and temporal variation in population size is not possible because of the infrequency with which the species is caught.
161631		threats	eng	Like many other elasmobranchs, the winter skate possesses life history characteristics that may increase vulnerability to exploitation, reduce rate of recovery and increase the risk of extinction: including delayed age at maturity, long generation time, low fecundity, and consequently slow population growth.<br/><br/>Otter trawling is the principal commercial fishing method used to target skates in the USA but are also taken as bycatch in gillnets and longlines off Canada. They are also taken as bycatch (and often discarded) in groundfish and shrimp trawls and scallop dredges. Eastern European factory trawlers fished west Atlantic shelf waters during the 1960s (at the beginning of the current three generation period) and into the early 1970s, causing population depletion. The stock possibly rebounded in parts of its range with the adoption of 200 mile EEZs and a reduction in fishing effort, with catch rates of juveniles increasing. The directed fishery in the USA began in the early 1960s, and the targeted Canadian fishery began in 1994.<br/><br/>The status of Winter Skate appears to differ throughout its Canadian range. Skate in the southern Gulf (where there is no directed fishery for Winter Skate) and on the eastern Scotian Shelf (where it is targeted) have shown a 98% and 90% reduction in abundance respectively since the early 1970s when surveys began. The probable cause is an unsustainable rate at which they were captured as bycatch in fisheries directed at other demersal species. In contrast, skate in the most southerly part of its Canadian range (western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy, Georges Bank) appear to have been relatively stable in abundance over the time period for which data are available (COSEWIC 2005). The COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report (COSEWIC 2005) and DFO Recovery Potential Assessments for Winter Skate (DFO 2005 a&b) provide detailed accounts of decline trends in the different population units for this species, which are only outlined in summary here.<br/><br/>DFO (2005a) reports that catch rates of adult winter skates on the eastern Scotian Shelf have declined 90% since 1970. The decline appears to be ongoing and is projected to continue in future at recent fishery removal levels. The area occupied by the population appears to have declined significantly since the mid 1980s. Larger, older individuals have been severely depleted from this population. Juvenile abundance, which was low in 1970s, increased during the 1970s, was fairly stable in the 1980s, but has been declining since the 1990s. At the current high rate of adult natural mortality, no recovery is expected even if target and by catches are held to zero. Recovery of this population is uncertain.<br/><br/>The quota for the directed fishery on the Scotian Shelf was reduced to 200 t in 2003 from 2,000 t at the start of the fishery in 1994, in response to the population decline identified by DFO surveys and is estimated as less than 300 t annually over the past decade, with a low bycatch.<br/><br/>For the Southern Gulf, where there has been no target fishery, DFO (2005b) reports a 98% decline in abundance of mature individuals in surveys since 1971 to the lowest level on record. Catch rates of juveniles increased in surveys from the early 1970s to the mid 1980s, but have since also declined to low levels. Catch rates in the DFO Northumberland Strait survey (conducted since 2000) declined by over 50% between 2001 and 2004. Bycatch is now very low in groundfish and shrimp trawls but is unknown in the scallop fishery. Adult mortality appeared to increase during the 1980s and 1990s. Abundance is projected to decline even with no bycatch.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Canada, winter skate are also taken in low numbers incidentally in fisheries targeting other species. The area of occupancy in the Georges Bank-Western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy, in the centre of this species? range, has been stable and there has been no discernable trend over time (this population is shared with the US area of the Georges Bank).<br/><br/>In USA waters skate landings are not reported by species, with over 99% of the landings reported as ?unclassified skates?. ?Skate? landings in the USA reached 9,500 mt in 1969, but declined quickly during the 1970s, falling to 800 mt in 1981. Landings for all skates increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and then declined somewhat to 7,200 mt in 1995. Landings have increased again since 1995, and the 1998 reported commercial landings of 17,000 mt were the highest on record. Winter Skate abundance is currently about the same as in the early 1970s (within the three generation period for this species), but is about 25% of the peak observed in the mid-1980s (from Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). The U.S. population of winter skate has also declined by almost 50% since the inception of a fisheries management plan (FMP) in 2003 (NEFMC 2007) and a reduction in groundfish effort. However, since the 2004-2006 NEFSC survey index was only 9% lower than the 2003?2005 NEFSC survey index, overfishing is not occurring for this species, but it is in an overfished state (NEFMC 2007). Recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total USA fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161632		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Research is required on this species? biology, occurrence and capture in fisheries.  The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161632		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the Gulf of Aqaba, northern Red Sea (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004), Egypt, Jordan, Israel and Saudi Arabia. Its distribution is not known to extend to the Red Sea proper (A. Baranes pers. comm. 2007).
161632		habitat	eng	Found in depths of 80?200 m on sandy or muddy substrates. The maximum known size of this species is 19 cm total length (TL). Little else is known of its biology (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004).
161632		population	eng	Population size unknown. It is a rare torpedo, confined in deepwater; never collected in the Red Sea proper. (A. Baranes pers. comm. 2007).
161632		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Individuals are discarded at sea and the estimated rate of survivorship is extremely low (M. de Carvalho pers. comm.). The apparent endemism of <em>H. bentuviai</em> to the Gulf of Aqaba is a potential threat.<br/><br/>Egyptian and Israeli catches from the Gulf of Aqaba are minimal comprising around one percent of the total landings for each country (FAO 2003, 2007). This is also true for Jordan with 170 tonnes taken from the Gulf in 2001 by about 40 small artisanal vessels. A decline in overall fisheries catch per unit effort (CPUE) in the Gulf of Aqaba has been noted, but no information is currently available on catches of this species. Increasing recreational fishing and environmental issues such as increased shipping into Aqaba are emerging as significant issues in Jordan?s marine fisheries (Morgan 2006).
161633		conservation	eng	There are no known specific measures in place for this species. Further information is required on the extent of declines and on threats to the species across its range and reassessment should be a high priority. <em>M. manazo</em> should be very closely monitored.
161633		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: Southern Siberia, Russia, Japan, Korea, China (including Taiwan, Province of China), Vietnam (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: Kenya (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161633		habitat	eng	Found in temperate-tropical waters on the continental shelf, on mud and sandy substrates, at depths of 1?360 m. The species is aplacental viviparous, giving birth to 1?22 pups per litter (average is five) with a 10?12 month gestation period (Tanaka and Mizue 1979; Teshima 1981; Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1983; Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>1997, 2000; Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Reproductive parameters appear to vary geographically, with northern populations growing to a larger size and living for a longer period (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>1998, 2000). Females mature at 3?7 years old and at 59.2?97.4 cm total length (TL); males mature at 2?6 years old and at 54.7?92.0 cm TL (Tanaka and Mizue 1979; Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1983; Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000; Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males reach a maximum size of 70.7?104.5 cm TL and live for 5?9 years and females reach 86.5?135 cm and live for 9?17 years (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000; Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Size at birth is 20?35 cm (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>1997, 2000; Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mating takes place in May?July, with parturition in April?July. The diet of <em>Mustelus manazo</em> consists predominantly of crustaceans (Taniuchi <em>et al. </em>1983, Yamaguchi and Taniuchi 2000).
161633		population	eng	Compagno <em>et al.</em> (2005) reports that this species is generally abundant where it occurs. However, Chen <em>et al.</em> (1996) report that significant declines have occurred in Taiwanese waters, to the point where the species has almost completely disappeared, with the exception of the waters off Chinsham and Kueishan Island, northern Taiwan (see Threats below). The catch of <em>M. manazo</em> from the western waters of Kyushu, Japan also reportedly decreased (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161633		threats	eng	Caught in demersal longline and trawl fisheries in the northwest Pacific and likely in other parts of its range, and utilized for human consumption and fish oil (Compagno in prep). It is of considerable importance to coastal fisheries and fishing pressure is high within its known range. Once a common commercial species, that was heavily exploited by coastal trawl fisheries and longliners throughout Taiwanese waters to the point of almost complete disappearance. It is now difficult to find in Taiwanese waters, with the exception of the waters off Chinsham and Kueishan Island, northern Taiwan (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1996). With the expansion of coastal trawl fisheries, <em>Mustelus</em> species have declined in the region, with a noted decline in catch over the past 10?20 years. Species-specific management in this region is problematic due to the multi-species nature of trawl-fisheries (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1996). A decline in catches has also been reported off Kyushu, Japan, and investigation into the extent of these declines is required. Little specific information is available on population trends and catches from elsewhere within the species? range.
161634		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Individual Provinces must apply national regulation within China. They also apply their own regulations on the basis of national regulations (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007).
161634		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: this species is distributed throughout Japan (Southern Hokkido to Ryukido Island), off northern China (and also Taiwan, Province of China) from the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Bohai Sea, and southwest of Korea (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161634		habitat	eng	A sawshark of temperate waters over continental shelves and upper slopes on or near sand or mud bottom (Compagno in prep). Found at depths of 50?800 m (Yano 2000).<br/><br/>Usually produces 12 pups per litter (Compagno in prep.). It grows to a maximum total length of 136?153 cm, with males maturing at 80?100 cm and females maturing at approximately 100 cm (Compagno in prep.). Size at birth is approximately 30 cm TL (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Feeds on small bottom dwelling organisms (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>The species may make vertical migrations, according to water temperature, from shallow coastal waters to the upper continental slope (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). The species can only be collected in coastal waters of the Izu Peninsula, Shizuoka, in early spring when water temperature is at its lowest (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).
161634		population	eng	This species is apparently uncommon throughout its range (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007). No other information is available.
161634		threats	eng	Probably of limited importance to fisheries, though in Japan its meat is considered of high quality and used for human consumption (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/>This species is captured as a utilised bycatch of gill nets, trawl nets and bottom longline fisheries. This is not a commercial species, but it is particularly susceptible to capture in gillnets because of the thorns on the snout (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries targeting spiny lobster set in less than 20 m depth. Although the fishery operates from September-April, the species only occurs as bycatch during March-April. It is thought that the species moves into deeper waters throughout the rest of the year. It is captured occasionally at depth of 200?400 m by trawl net fisheries in the East China Sea (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also an uncommon catch of trawl net fisheries operating in Suruga Bay, Japan (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).
161635		conservation	eng	<strong>Australia</strong><br/>The Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) has introduced several management measures for deepwater sharks within the SESSF in recent years, which may benefit this species. These include:<br/><ul><li>Since 2003, vessels are required to land both the livers and carcasses of all dogfishes to enable accurate landing information to be recorded.</li><li>Since 2005, a ?basket? quota management system was introduced as a result of the difficulties involved in identifying deepwater dogfish. This set a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for 2005 and 2006 at about half the reported 2004 catch (200t) and the TAC was reduced to 22 t in 2007 (See: http://www.mffc.gov.au/releases/2007/07005a.html). This species is included under this quota system.</li><li>Since 2007, SESS Fishery was closed below 700 m to prevent targeting of deepwater species (750 m in Great Australian Bight Fishery) (See: http://www.mffc.gov.au/releases/2007/07005a.html).</li></ul>
161635		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic: Namibia, South Africa (Northern and Western Provinces). Western Indian Ocean: South Africa (Eastern Cape Province), southern Mozambique, Madagascar range of seamounts south of Madagascar and east of South Africa. Western central and southwest Pacific: Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales and Southern Queensland), New Zealand, deepwater between New Zealand, Queensland and New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Loyaute Island and Vanatu Island (Compagno in prep.).
161635		habitat	eng	A little-known deepwater bottom-dwelling dogfish of the outer continental shelves and upper and middle slopes and off seamounts at depths of 150?1,360 m, with most records on the slopes below 400 m (Compagno in prep.). Last and Stevens (1994) report that this species is common at depths of 400?820 m off Australia. Maximum total length (TL) is about 118 cm for females and 96 cm for males. Size at maturity is 80?90 cm TL for males and 85?100 cm TL for females (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). Size at birth is ~25 cm TL, with litters of 5?17 (average 10) pups (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). <em>Deania</em> species have an extended gestation period, probably with a two or three year reproductive cycle that is non-continuous (i.e., with a resting period between parturition and the development of new oocytes) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007).
161635		population	eng	This species does not appear to be as common as other birdbeak dogfish.<br/><br/>Research surveys on the New South Wales slope over a 20 year period have shown a decline from 15.7?1.4 kg/h for <em>Deania quadrispinosa</em> (representing a decline of 87.3%) (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Apparently rare to very rare in New Zealand waters (M. Francis, NIWA, Wellington, pers. comm. 2006).
161635		threats	eng	This species is a discarded bycatch of trawl fisheries off South Africa and Australia (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><em></em>Longsnout Dogfish is captured in the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), which extends across an extensive area of the southern and southeastern Australian Fishing Zone (Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). Deepwater fishing on the slope developed off the east coast of Australia (New South Wales) during the 1970s and off southern Australia (Victoria and Tasmania) in the 1980s. Initial catch levels of deepwater sharks off NSW were reportedly high, as were discarding levels as there was no market for deepwater sharks at that time. The development of a market for liver oil (high value), relaxation of regulations on the mercury content of shark flesh and the introduction of a quota management system for target teleost (bony) fishes, lead to the targeting of deepwater dogfishes. Logbook data and the results of fishery-independent surveys document significant declines in several species, including a >80% decline in this species over 20 years on the NSW slope (total catch declined from 3,849 kg in 1976/77 to 216 kg in 1996/97) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In the southeastern Atlantic this species has been targeted, along with <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em> and <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, by an exploratory fishery using set nets off Namibia since 2000. Exploratory licenses granted by the Namibian government to this fishery have been governed by strict management measures, including monitoring and logbook recording of all individuals caught (NATMIRC 2003, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). Data collected during three trips from January to June 2002 on one licensed exploratory vessel showed that 15.8 t of trunks, 9 t of fillets and 11.8 t of livers from <em>D. quadrispinosa</em> were landed, compared to 131.3 t of trunks and 4.5 t of fins from <em>C. squamosus</em> (NATMIRC 2003, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). The exploratory directed deepwater licenses expired in January 2006. The species is also taken as bycatch by the Namibian non-directed trawl fishery at depths of 400?1,000 m, however species specific catch data are not available (NATMIRC 2003, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007).<br/><br/>Information on deepwater fisheries throughout other areas of the species? range is limited, however, there is evidence that deepwater fishing pressure is rapidly expanding and increasing in some areas. For example, deep water fisheries targeting fish and deepwater shrimp are expanding off Madagascar; since these deepwater fisheries were authorized in 2001, catch of deepwater fish reached 4,157 tonnes in 2002 (Soumy 2004). Low fecundity may make this species vulnerable to overfishing (Compagno in prep.).
161636		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.
161636		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: South China Sea from, Sarawak, Borneo, north to Taiwan, Province of China, and East China Sea, and Sea of Japan to north of the Noto peninsula (Masuda <em>et al.</em>1984, Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995).
161636		habitat	eng	This skate is found on sandy muddy substrates at depths of 75?150 m (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995). Like other skates, it is oviparous. Reproduction takes place in June and July and egg cases are laid in February to June. Egg cases measure 90 x 25 mm. Very little is known of the biology of this species.
161636		population	eng	Apparently common within its range.
161636		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal setnets off Japan, and in bottom trawls off Taiwan Island. Although it is not targeted, it is retained and utilised for human consumption and fishmeal. Areas of this species? range have been subject to intensive fishing pressure (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161637		conservation	eng	None specific to Sydney skate. Trawl fisheries in the area are under quota management.<br/><br/>Fisheries management in Australia is starting to move from single species management to ecosystem management and all fisheries now have Bycatch Action Plans and have to be assessed for ecological sustainability. They are required to meet certain certification standards if they are to continue operating.
161637		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: continental shelf of eastern Australia between Moreton Bay (Queensland) to at least Tathra (New South Wales, c. 36 45) (Last and Stevens 1994, K. Graham pers. comm. 2008).
161637		habitat	eng	This skate occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 50?180 m (Last and Stevens 1994). They reach about 50 cm total length (TL) and adult males and females are similar in size. Males mature at 43?48 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). A bottom-dwelling species that probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous and the species deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases. The biology of <em>Dipturus australis</em> is virtually unknown.
161637		population	eng	The most common skate on the continental shelf of central eastern Australia. Fishery independent surveys off southern New South Wales have shown that catch rates have declined by 83% between 1976/1977 and 1996/1997 for grouped ?skates? (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Eight species of skates were recorded during this study, with data pooled into four depth zones. The principle species captured in the deeper depth zones (330?605 m depth), on all trawl grounds were <span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus gudgeri </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus </span>sp. B. In the upper depth zone (200?275 m), catches mainly comprised <span style="font-style: italic;">D. australis</span>, but also included <span style="font-style: italic;">Raja </span>sp. A and C and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus whitleyi </span>(Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Catch data were pooled for all species and mean catch rates calculated for the mix of species combined. In 1976?77, mean catch rates for skates were similar on all grounds (range 32?33 kg h<sup>-1</sup>) but were substantially lower in 1996?97 (range 4?8 kg h<sup>-1</sup>). Declines in the upper depth zone, where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. australis </span>comprised the majority of catch, where greatest off Eden, in the southern survey areas.<br/><br/>There are limited species-specific fisheries catch data for skates, with most being lumped into the category ?rays?. Batoid sales and landing data from major markets, such as Sydney and Melbourne, are also limited, with only major categories such as ?Rajids? recorded.
161637		threats	eng	Presumably, taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries operating in the area, such as the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark (SESS) fishery. This fishery has operated since the 1900s and targets a number of teleost species such as tiger flathead, jackass morwong, eastern school whiting, John Dory etc.<br/><br/>These target species are under quota management, but sustainable catch levels for Sydney skate will be much lower than for the more productive teleost species. Independent surveys off southern New South Wales show catch rates for ?skates? combined have declined by 83% over 20 years (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Commercial trawling on the upper slope off NSW began in 1968 and by the early 1980s more than 100 trawlers between 15?25 m were operating off NSW, landing about 15,000 t of fish per year. About 60 of these trawlers regularly fished on the upper slope. By the end of the 1990s, the number of trawlers regularly fishing the NSW slope grounds had reduced to about 40 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>D. australis</em> is still impacted on NSW trawl grounds but also occupies large areas of lightly or non-trawled bottom off central and northern NSW (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Most skates caught off southeastern Australia used to be discarded, but most of the larger ones would now be retained for the local market. In 2005, 29% of <em>Dipturus australis</em> were retained based on observer monitored catches (ISMP data) More recently, increasing management of major commercial species has resulted in fishers looking for alternate species to market, including skates and rays. At the Melbourne wholesale fish market the only separate sales figures for batoids are for skates (Family Rajidae). For the year 2002, 43 tonnes of ?flaps?were sold which equates to 134 tonnes live weight. At the Sydney market, batoids are sold under a number of categories. Common names make it difficult to determine the exact species but most appear to be myliobatids, rhinobatids, rhynchobatids and smaller amounts of dasyatids.
161638		conservation	eng	No measures in place.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Research is also required on this species? full distribution, habitat and life-history parameters.
161638		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: known from few specimens collected from four fish landings sites in southern Indonesia (Palabuhanratu in West Java (06°59' S, 106°32' E), Cilacap in Central Java (07°44' S, 109°00' E), Kedonganan in Bali (08°45' S, 115°10' E), and Tanjung Luar in Lombok (08°48' S, 116°28' E)) (Last and White 2008).
161638		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, presumably occurring in deeper waters, probably on the continental slope. Detailed information on the depth range of this species is not available (all known specimens were collected from fish landings sites) (Last and White 2008). Presumably viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). One female measured 47.1 cm total length (TL) and three adult males measured 125.2?134.1 cm TL (Last and White 2008).
161638		population	eng	Known from few specimens (Last and White 2008).
161638		threats	eng	This species is a rare utilised bycatch of demersal longline fisheries operating in continental shelf and upper slope waters (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Possibly an Indonesian endemic, as has not been recorded from adjacent regions. Only limited deepwater fishing currently takes place in Indonesia but if this was to change then this species may qualify for a threat category. Other angel shark populations (e.g. <em>S. squatina</em>, <em>S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for re-colonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al. </em>2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Monitoring of the deepwater fisheries of Indonesia should be established and maintained.
161639		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Further research is required on this species range, abundance, and threats.
161639		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: reported only from Kosi Bay, South Africa (close to the border between South Africa and Mozambique) (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1986).
161639		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow coastal, tropical waters up to 20 m in depth (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its range appears limited and almost nothing is known about the biology of <em>Paragaleus leucolomatus</em>. The species attains a maximum size of 96 cm (TL). It is viviparous and has two pups per litter (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>P. leucolomatus</em> may exhibit slow growth rates and late maturity like other members of the Hemigaleidae family.
161639		population	eng	Known from only one specimen.
161639		threats	eng	Like other members of the family Hemigaleidae it is possibly caught in artisanal and small commercial inshore fisheries within its range and utilised for human consumption (Compagno In prep.). While the full extent of this species? distribution is currently unknown, extensive artisanal fisheries operate in coastal waters of the southwestern Indian Ocean (www.wiofish.org), for example off Mozambique, and this species is a potential bycatch of these fisheries. Presumed life history characteristics would make it vulnerable to fishing pressure, however due to its small size it is of little commercial value (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1986).
161640		conservation	eng	No specific measures. Catches and population trends need to be monitored and species-specific data collected to monitor the impact of fisheries on this shark.
161640		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific: Southern California to Panama (Compagno 1984, Castro 1996, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records from South America appear to refer to an undescribed tropical lunulatus-type Mustelus (Compagno in prep.).
161640		habitat	eng	An abundant, bottom-dwelling shark found close inshore (Compagno 1984). In the Northern Gulf of California it is abundant mainly at depths less than 100 m, although it has been caught from 9?144 m (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/>In the Upper Gulf of California (the northernmost region of the northern Gulf of California) in February and May, observations have mainly consisted of pregnant females with terminal embryos, and ovulatory and postpartum females, indicating that this region is a nursery area for this small shark species (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/><em>Mustelus lunulatus</em> is a fast growing species, with low longevity and early age at first maturity, therefore having a high recovery capability from fishing pressure (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is a placental viviparous species with a relatively high fecundity (Northern Gulf of California: 6?19 pups every one year; with larger females producing more embryos (Pérez-Jiménez 2006)).<br/><br/>In the Northern Gulf of California the diet consists of crustaceans (mainly Stomatopoda), cephalopods and teleosts (Méndez-Loeza 2004), and in the Southern waters of the Gulf of California the diet consists of teleosts [Scorpaenidae (<em>Scorpaena</em> species)], Congridae (<em>Taeniconger canabis</em>), Batrachoididae (<em>Portichthys notatus</em>), crustaceans [Calappidae (<em>Mursia glaudicaudii</em>)], and Albuneidae (<em>Blepharipoda occidentalis</em>) (Galvan-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 1989).
161640		population	eng	Common from southern California to the Gulf of California (Castro 1996).
161640		threats	eng	<em>Mustelus </em>species have been caught by the artisanal fleet operating in the Northern Gulf of California since the 1980s (Cudney and Turk 1998) and by medium size trawler vessels since 1996, when 59 shrimp trawler vessels obtained fishing permits to catch finfish and elasmobranch species during non shrimp fishing season. It is also taken as bycatch of the shrimp trawl fisheries (Sustentabilidad y Pesca Responsible en México: Evaluación y manejo 1997-1998). Although no data are available on the magnitude of catches, this species may be frequently caught because the shrimp fishery operates within this species? depth range. In the Upper Gulf of California <em>Mustelus</em> spp are frequently targeted with bottom gill-nets (mesh size of 4-6 inches)from February to July, especially when most valuable teleost species are not abundant. Neonates are too small to be captured by these gillnets. In this region the catches can be as high as 500 kg per fishing trip. In the Northern Gulf of California this small shark species is commonly caught by medium size trawler vessels, targeting finfish and elasmobranch species from April to July (at depths of less than 100 m) and it is also a bycatch of the shrimp fishery from September to January (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Despite continuing fishing pressure, there is no evidence to suggest that this species has declined.<br/><br/>Marquez-Farias (2000) stated that in the Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California) during the autumn and winter months, this and other small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. californicus</em> and <em>M. henlei</em>) make seasonal migrations, sometimes being caught in numbers from 1,200?1,500 individuals per fishing trip.<br/><br/>In Guatemala <em>M. lunulatus</em> is also taken as bycatch during May to August in drift gillnets, with the largest catches estimated up to 100?200 kg per boat (C. Ruiz pers. obs.). Pregnant females and neonates are captured in these gillnets in coastal waters (C. Ruiz pers. obs.) and the impact of fisheries on this species in this area needs to be investigated.
161641		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of any future deepwater fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161641		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: west Africa on the eastern central Atlantic slope (Senegal, Guinea) (Stehmann 1995).
161641		habitat	eng	A deepwater skate found at depths of 750–2,200 m (Stehmann 1995). Attains at least 87 cm total length (TL). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates. Size at birth is unknown but a full term embryo is reported at 25.9 cm TL (Stehmann 1995). Both males and females mature at >34 cm TL (Stehmann 1995).
161641		population	eng	Only known from the type series (including four specimens and an egg capsule) and nine additional specimens captured during French trawl surveys in 1985 (Stehmann 1995).
161641		threats	eng	This species is thought to occur beyond the depth range of most fisheries currently operating off western Africa. Expanding deepwater fisheries should be monitored.
161642		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to better define the species' distribution, depth range and biology. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161642		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from North Carolina to Florida Keys, Bahamas, northeastern Gulf of Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161642		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species reported at depths from 293–1,024 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size 27 cm total length (TL), and males mature at about 23 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of this species.
161642		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161642		threats	eng	No specific information is available on the bycatch of this species in any fisheries but it may be vulnerable to bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries off southern USA, in the Gulf of Mexico, and potentially elsewhere. There is probably some refuge for this species in deeper water beyond the depth of current fishing activities.
161643		conservation	eng	Not targeted other than in competition angling after which they are generally released alive. They are protected by existing Marine Protected areas (e.g., Tsitsikamma MPA, Sardinia Bay MPA) and by the fact that embayments along the coast (e.g., Algoa Bay) are closed to benthic trawling. The Beach driving ban promulgated in 2000 with amendments in 2002 have made large areas of beach formerly used for fishing inaccessible to fishers thereby extending protected areas.
161643		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: central Angola to at least St. Lucia, Natal, South Africa, possibly extending to Mozambique and beyond (Cowley and Compagno 1993).
161643		habitat	eng	This inshore stingray is often found in shallow bays and sheltered sandy beaches in summer, moving offshore to deeper waters of up to about 100m depth in winter (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species reaches a maximum size of about 75 cm disc width (DW) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). Females are mature at seven years of age and 50 cm DW and males at 40.8 cm DW and five years (Cowley 1990). Females live for 14 years and males for nine years. Females give birth to litter of 1?5 pups after a gestation period of about nine months. Size at birth is 17?20 cm DW (Cowley 1990).
161643		population	eng	This is a commonly caught recreational species. There have been no concerns raised about an apparent decline.
161643		threats	eng	Occasionally caught by shore anglers, but generally they are released alive (Bianchi <em>et al</em> 1999, Cowley 1990, Cowley and Compagno 1993). In the recreational fishery rays are released alive after measuring and/or weighing. Although no post-releases survival experiments have been undertaken, there is no evidence (i.e., direct observation) of high levels of post-release mortality from the sport fishery. This species is not targeted (other than the sport catch and release fishery), but is taken as a bycatch of trawlers (Cowley <em>et al</em>. 1991) including those targeting hakes and soles, but discarded (probably dead). However, there are extensive areas of the Agulhas Bank that are untrawlable, and several inshore bays are closed to trawling along the South African coast, offering it refuge.
161644		conservation	eng	None.
161644		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: south coast of Java and Bali, Lombok. Also Philippines (White <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161644		habitat	eng	This species is known from the continental shelf throughout its range, probably on reef areas. Attains 53 cm and males mature at 40 cm, females mature by 40 cm. Pregnant females with 6–12 egg cases. Some egg cases containing mid-term embryos (approx. 5–6 cm TL) (White <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161644		population	eng	Not known but caught occasionally by fishers throughout its range (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161644		threats	eng	Caught occasionally by fishers throughout their range but usually in low numbers. Members of this genus are most commonly caught by trawlers, which are minimal throughout the range of this species. Habitat removal and destruction possibly are threats but the species is likely to occur in somewhat deeper waters, where the effects of this are minimal.
161645		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.
161645		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: widespread throughout eastern Asian waters. China, from Bohai Sea to Shanghai, Amoi and Taiwan Island; Korea, Baereungdo Islands, Northern Yellow Sea to Jeju-do Islands; Japan from northern Hokkaido to off Kyushu; Yellow Sea, East Sea (Sea of Japan), Sea of Okhotsk, East China Sea, South China Sea (Ishihara 1990, Jeong 1999). Also known to occur in the Western Central Pacific (Last and Compagno 1999), but its extent of occurrence within this region is uncertain.
161645		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on sandy, muddy bottoms. Occurs from 20?120 m depth (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Size at birth is between 8.2 and 9.5 cm TL (Abe 1983, C.H. Jeong unpublished data). It reaches a maximum size of 55?60 cm total length (TL) (Ishihara 1987, C.H. Jeong unpublished data). Ishihara <em>et al</em>. (2002) described the reproductive biology of this species based on 134 female specimens collected from Japanese waters, and observations of three live skates in the Oh-arai aquarium. Females were found to mature at 39 cm total length (TL).<br/><br/>The age at maturity of this species is around three years, which is very rapid compared to many other elasmobranchs, although no separate estimates have been made for each sex. Longevity is at least nine years in captivity .and may not exceed more than four years in the wild, although the lifespan of captive skates may reflect the life span in a natural environment (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ishimaya 1951).<br/><br/>The gestation period is recorded at 63?80 days (at an average daily temperature of 25ºC) (C.H. Jeong et al. unpublished data), 128?146 days (average daily temperature 14.6ºC) and about 130 days (average daily temperature 14ºC in captivity Abe 1983). Females reproduce throughout the year, except in January, and their fecundity is estimated to be higher than many other skates due to a lifetime fecundity of at least 300 capsules, with some individuals producing up to 600 egg capsules over four years (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002). Egg-capsules are produced alternately from left and right oviducts and intervals between egg-laying were usually found to be three to six days (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002). C.H. Jeong (unpublished data) found that one or two egg-capsules were produced per day, with one to three day intervals between egg-laying. The fecundity of this species is aided by a switch from somatic to reproductive growth after it reaches around 55 cm TL (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Eggs are oblong capsules with stiff pointed horns at the corners deposited in sandy or muddy flats. Egg capsules are 4.8?6.6 cm long and 2.9?3.7 cm wide (C.H. Jeong unpublished data).
161645		population	eng	There is no population information for this species but it is reportedly common throughout its range (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).
161645		threats	eng	This species is thought to be one of the most dominant batoid fishes from Korea (especially in the Yellow Sea), and also maybe in northern Japanese and northwestern Pacific waters. <em>Okamejei kenojei</em> is largely taken as commercial target species in South Korea, all year except in midsummer.<br/><br/>This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal set nets in Japan and China, and in bottom trawl in Taiwan. Although it is not a target species in these areas, it is retained and utilised. In Taiwan, Province of China, and China, it is used for fishmeal (Y. Wang pers. comm.). In Japan its wings are eaten dried or processed into fishcakes (Kamaboko), (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Areas of this species? range, including the East China and Yellow Seas have been intensively exploited during past decades (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al. </em>2002).
161646		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed on the abundance of this species, its life-history parameters and capture in fisheries.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161646		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: originally described from off Beira, Mozambique (Lloris and Rucabado 1991), <em>N. rierai</em> is now known to have a wider distribution along the continental slope of eastern Africa to Somalia, with specimens also collected from off Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Carvalho 1999).
161646		habitat	eng	<em>Narcine rierai</em> has been captured in waters ranging from roughly 169–500 m depth. However, it is probably not frequently found beyond around 300m depth, as the continental shelf and slope are very narrow off Tanzania and Somalia where it has been captured (Carvalho 1999).<br/><br/>The size at maturity of this species has been estimated at around 26.5 cm total length (TL) for females and 23.5 cm TL for males (Carvalho 1999). It is reported to reach a maximum size of at least 30.1 cm TL (Heemstra 1995). Size at birth is at least 7.3 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).
161646		population	eng	Unknown.
161646		threats	eng	Bycatch in local and foreign trawl fisheries. Offshore trawl fisheries target shrimp and lobster off Mozambique and may capture this species as bycatch (www.wiofish.org), although no specific information on its capture. Expansion of the deepwater shrimp fishery operating off Mozambique is likely (Afonso 2006). Shrimp trawl fisheries also operate off Somalia and Tanzania and may take this species, but no information is currently available on depths of operation.<br/>Some specimens of this species were captured together suggesting aggregation, which is a characteristic that increases the vulnerability of this taxon to depletion by fisheries.
161647		conservation	eng	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
161647		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: known only from off central Western Australia (between Shark and Nickol Bays) (in an area of possibly <20,000 km²) (Last and McEachran 2006).
161647		habitat	eng	A small deepwater species, the Ghost Skate is found at depths of 590?760 m and attains at least 44.8 cm total length (TL) and 22.2 cm disc width (DW) (Last and McEachran 2006). Males mature at >36 cm TL (Last and McEachran 2006). Its biology is virtually unknown as it is known from only a few localities. Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous.
161647		population	eng	Unknown.
161647		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to capture as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. Exploratory fishing for scampi and deepwater prawns began in the mid-1980s off Western Australia. This species is taken in reasonable numbers as bycatch of the scampi fishery. This fishery has seen a minor decline in the target species and fishing effort may also have affected the population size of this skate. Renewed interest in the prawn fishery could lead to this species becoming more seriously threatened. The Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery operates within this species? range, targeting other bony fishes (including boarfish, ?bugs?, snappers and breams) at depths >200 m, and may take this species as bycatch (http://www.affashop.gov.au/PdfFiles/pg204_221.pdf). This relatively small fishery (currently up to 11 vessels and 15 endorsements) takes some elasmobranch bycatch but its composition has not been determined. The species? narrow geographic and depth distribution means that fishing activities could have a serious effect on the population and investigation is required to determine the impact of fisheries within its range.
161648		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. <br/><br/>There is little effective management of inshore fishing activities in Ecuador and Peru. Specific management regulations have been lacking, but the recent development of a shark plan for Ecuador and recently introduced measures should lead to improvements. In Ecuador, Decree 2130 banned target fisheries and fin trade in 2004, but implementation and enforcement was insufficient and fins continued to be exported illegally. The export of fins is not banned in Peru. Subsequently, Decree 486 permitted trade in fins from bycatch, mandated the full utilisation of all shark meat, and required monitoring of all bycatch and a licensing system for the trade of fins. This decree provided an important means of monitoring shark catches.
161648		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: Coos Bay, Oregon, USA to Gulf of California, Mexico (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). Southeast Pacific: Ecuador and Peru (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>This is one of the most commonly found sharks in bays and estuaries, particularly in San Francisco, Tomales, and Humboldt Bay (Compagno 1984, Love 1991). Nursery areas have been reported from central and northern California, specifically in Tomales Bay (Bane and Bane, 1971), San Francisco Bay (De Wit 1975, Yudin 1987) and Humboldt Bay (Yudin 1987). At the moment there are no known nursery areas for M. henlei in the Gulf of California.
161648		habitat	eng	An abundant inshore to offshore, cold-temperate to warm-temperate or subtropical bottom-dwelling shark of continental shelves, found from the intertidal region to at least 200 m depth, and very common in enclosed, shallow muddy bays (Compagno 1984). In the northern Gulf of California has been caught from 30?266 m but it is mainly distributed at depths greater than 100 m (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). It is seasonally abundant in inshore estuarine waters during the spring and summer when it pups, but moves offshore during the winter months when salinity drops due to increased freshwater runoff (Compagno 1984, Yudin 1987, Flemming 1999, Ebert 2003). Of the three species of smooth hounds off the west coast of North America, it is the most cold-tolerant, being apparently resident in cold-temperate northern California (Compagno 1984, Compagno in preparation).<br/><br/>It is viviparous, with a yolk sac placenta, and litter sizes range from 1?10 (Compagno 1984, Ebert 2003). They grow quite rapidly during the first few years of life, but growth slows at maturity. Age at maturity is 2?3 years for females and three years for males (Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Size at maturity is 51?66 cm total length (TL) for females and 52?66 for males (Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Longevity is about 13 years and the species reaches a maximum size of 100 cm TL (Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Reproduction is annual, with a gestation period of 10?12 months (Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin 1987) and litter size ranging from 1?10 off central California (Compagno 1984, Ebert 2003) and 1?21 (average 11) in the northern Gulf of California (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Size at birth is 19?30 cm TL (De Wit 1975, Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Average reproductive age (generation period) is estimated at 4.7 years (Cortés 2000). Annual rate of population increase is 1.163 (95% C.I. 1.021-1.427) (Cortés 2000) and natural mortality is 0.295 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The movement patterns appear to be fairly localized, although one individual traveled 96 miles in three months. In the Gulf of California, they exhibit seasonal migrations. They move about in discrete groups of sharks of similar age, size, and sex. In San Francisco Bay, the sex ratio changes over time and space, with females predominating at times (4.5:1) and males predominating at other times (1:4). These sharks are an important prey item for the sevengill shark in Humboldt and San Francisco Bays (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Off San Francisco, California parturition period reportedly occurs from March to May (Bane and Bane 1971) or from May to December (De Wit 1975), and between Santa Cruz and San Francisco, California from January to August (Yudin 1987).<br/><br/>Pregnant females with terminal embryos are abundant (sometimes 50% of sampled individuals) northeast and east of Angel de la Guarda Island (Northern Gulf of California) from late January-late April. So, parturition in the northern Gulf of California has been estimated to occur from late January to late April (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/>Because <em>M. henlei</em> is a fast growing species, with low longevity, early age at first maturity (Yudin and Cailliet 1990) and with a relatively high fecundity (1?21 pups every year and more in the largest females, in the northern Gulf of California according to Pérez-Jiménez 2006), it has a high capacity for recovery from fishing pressure (Smith 1998).<br/><br/>The diet of this species in California waters consist of crustaceans, cephalopods, echiuran and polychaete worms, bony fishes and their eggs, tunicates and bivalves (Herald and Ripley 1951, De Wit 1975, Talent 1982, Russo 1975, Haeseker and Czech 1993, Ebert 2003).
161648		population	eng	A common to abundant shark where it occurs. The microdistribution and population structure of this species may be very localized and spotty (Compagno in prep.). It is locally abundant in bays north of Monterey, California, with extensive populations in San Francisco, Tomales, and Humbolt bays (Castro 1996). No decline in catches or population has been observed in any region for <em>M. henlei</em>.
161648		threats	eng	Interest to fisheries is considerable (Compagno in prep.). The species is fished commercially in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Compagno in prep.). Off California they are probably taken as bycatch, although there is no commercial fishery for this species (Ebert 2003). They are primarily caught by recreational anglers in San Francisco Bay and elsewhere along the coast, but not in significant numbers (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>In the northern Gulf of California, Mexico, Mustelus species have been caught by the artisanal fleet since the 1980s (Cudney and Turk 1998) and by medium size trawler vessels since 1996, when 59 shrimp trawler vessels obtained fishing permits to catch finfish and elasmobranch species during the non-shrimp fishing season. This small shark species is also caught as bycatch, although it is believed that only small numbers are caught because the trawling operations for catching shrimp are shallower than the main distribution area of this small shark species (Sustentabilidad y Pesca Responsible en México: Evaluación y manejo 1997?1998).<br/><br/>In the northern Gulf of California it is commonly caught (the highest catches being of 150 kgh<sup>-1</sup>) in demersal trawlers operating from January to June at depths greater than 100 m, which are targeting Pacific Hake (<em>Merluccius productus</em>). The species is very commonly caught by the artisanal fishery in the upper Gulf of California, which targets ?Baqueta? (<em>Epinephelus acanthistius</em>) using bottom set longlines. It is sometimes quite abundant in these catches from November to March (Cudney and Turk 1998). In this region it is less commonly caught in bottom gill-nets.<br/><br/>Marquez-Farias (2000) stated that in the Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California) <em>M. henlei</em> was the most abundant shark species caught with gill-nets by the artisanal fishery at depths greater than 80 m. This mainly occurs during the autumn and winter months when this, and other small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. lunulatus</em> and <em>M. californicus</em>), make seasonal migrations. During this period, catch rates as high as 1,200?1,500 individuals per fishing trip have been reported. In the Pacific, off Santa Rosalillita, Baja California (approximately 400 km south of Ensenada) there are high catch rates of Mustelus species (possibly mainly M. californicus and M. henlei). During the period from May to September of 2001, 4,638 kg of <em>Mustelus</em> species were caught (Rodríguez-Medrano and Almeda-Jauregui 2002).<br/><br/>Various fisheries (mainly artisanal) along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru land sharks, including houndsharks, as bycatch. In some cases sharks have been specifically targeted, however target fisheries for sharks were prohibited in Ecuador in 2004 (see Conservation Measures section).<br/><br/>Catch statistics are generally limited, with inadequate monitoring of fishing activities and landings. Bostock and Herdson (1985) estimated that in the early 1980s small-scale fishers landed some 1,800?2,000 t of sharks per year off Ecuador. Later catch estimates from only a subset of landing ports amounted to ~4,000 t/year for 1993?1995. Martínez (1999) noticed a reduction in shark landings in small-scale coastal fisheries in Ecuador in more recent years when compared with those of the early 1980s.
161649		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161649		distribution	eng	Western Pacific: Japan (southeastern Honshu) and the Philippines (Compagno in prep.). Eastern Indian Ocean: Shark Bay, Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno in prep.).
161649		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species is found at depths of 100–900 m on the upper continental slope (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). The species attains a maximum length of 50 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous. Data from Suruga Bay indicates that males reach maturity at 33 cm total length (TL) and females at 40 cm TL, with size at birth 11–13 cm TL (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). Eight pregnant females observed had 5–13 embryos (average 8.2) (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). In Suruga Bay, the maximum size observed was 44 cm for a male shark and 49 cm for a female (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). Small sharks (less than 20 cm TL) feed on crustaceans, especially Euphausidae and Sergestidae, and cephalopods, and larger sharks feed mainly on fishes (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).
161649		population	eng	Population size is unknown. In Suruga Bay, CPUE (number of sharks per a tow of bottom trawl net) of this shark was 1.01 from 1996 to 1998 (S. Tanaka pers. comm. 2007).
161649		threats	eng	Not targeted in any fishery but may be caught incidentally in deepwater trawl fisheries. Deepwater fisheries are limited off the Philippines at present. Fisheries targeting deepwater dogfish do operate there, but these mainly target <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrophorus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Squalus </span>species (Flores 2004, Guadiano and Alava 2003). In Suruga Bay, Japan, this shark is incidentally caught from 100–450 m depth (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). Off southern Japan, the number of bottom trawlers operating is decreasing with the declining catches of valuable fish (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). This species is probably an occasional bycatch in the Western Deepwater Trawl fishery off Western Australia, but there are few boats in operation and this is not considered to pose a significant threat (J. Stevens pers. comm. 2007, Patterson and Whitelaw 2007).
161650		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present. However the population appears to be stable given the anecdotal evidence. Appropriate habitat and catch monitoring is recommended for the near future.
161650		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic Ocean and Western Indian Ocean. Southern African endemic occurring from north of Lüderitz, Namibia, south along the west coast of South Africa. A recent taxonomic revision of this genus has identified <em>H. pictus</em> ranging eastwards to at least the Storms River mouth, South Africa, southwestern Indian Ocean (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Human 2003, 2007).<br/><br/>No information available is available on its population structure, however it is likely, given the sedentary nature of this species that population sub-structuring may exist (Human 2003, 2007).
161650		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat for this species appears to be kelp forest and rocky reef. Although not observed in sandy habitats, it presumably traverses these to move between rocky outcrops and fragmented kelp beds. Although the depth range is unknown, <em>H. pictus</em> is apparently confined to shallow inshore waters given that all specimens examined by Human (2003, 2007) were collected very close to shore and <em>H. pictus</em> not been taken in any research trawls undertaken by the research vessel ?Africana?, further confirming its inshore habitat.<br/><br/>A breeding season is apparently absent (Bertolini 1993). <em>H. pictus</em> has extended single oviparity, depositing one egg case at a time (von Bonde 1945a, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984b, Bertolini 1993, Dainty <em>et al</em>. 2001, and Dainty 2002). Gestation is six to ten months with hatchlings between 10.2?11.7 cm TL (Dainty 2002). Dainty (2002) determined that at 50% maturity <em>H. pictus</em> is 15 years old and that they live to be 25 years old.<br/><br/>Maximum size is probably about 60 cm TL (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975). Males are embryonic at 10.3 cm TL, juvenile at 16.5?36.9 cm TL, adolescent at 28.2?40.7 cm TL, and mature at 40.0?57.0 cm TL. Females are juvenile at 11.0?30.6 cm TL, adolescent at 43.0?53.3 cm TL, and mature at 35.9?59.7 cm TL (Human 2003, 2007).
161650		population	eng	This is an apparently abundant species, regularly seen by divers and rock and surf anglers (Human 2003, 2007). There are no quantitative data available on abundance or population structuring.
161650		threats	eng	The main threat is recreational fishing where this shark is commonly taken as discarded bycatch, generally regarded as a nuisance by the fishermen, and persecuted as such. Survival rates from recreational angling are unknown, although are presumed to be low (Human 2003, 2007). It is not seen in other inshore fishery activities (Human 2003, 2007). A possible threat, due to the very shallow habitat preference for this endemic species, is this sharks potential vulnerability to habitat degradation. The recreational catch of this species needs to be monitored, and the fishers educated. Habitat loss is a minor threat, as its range in southern Namibia and northwest South Africa coincide with relatively low human population densities, although its range east of, and including, Cape Town, falls within coastline that is relatively densely populated by humans.
161651		conservation	eng	All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State’s managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>Relative to the area known to be occupied by <em>O. parvimculatus</em>, shark fishing effort (mainly demersal gillnet) is sparsely distributed and managed within specific regional limits via time-gear input controls. The managed shark fishery’s catches and fishing effort are routinely monitored through analyses of statutory daily/trip logbook data and the fishery’s target stocks are subject to regular stock assessments.<br/><br/>The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30’ S latitude to 120' E longitude off the north coast, which may includes the northern extent of the species’ range.<br/><br/>The use of metal snoods (gangions) is commercially prohibited throughout Western Australian waters (except for a small amount of demersal longline effort in the managed shark fishery and pelagic mackerel troll lines).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/><br/>This species is potentially protected in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas, Marine Parks and nature reserves:<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA
161651		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: an Australian endemic, known only from the inner continental shelf off southwestern Australia from Shark Bay (26°54′S, 113°00′E) to Mandurah (32°26′S, 115°41′E) (Last and Chidlow 2008).
161651		habitat	eng	Found on the continental shelf at depths of 9–135 m. The species reaches at least 94.3 cm total length (TL). Male specimens were mature by 70.6 cm TL and female specimens by 87.6 cm TL. The smallest early postnatal juvenile known measured 20.8 cm TL (Last and Chidlow 2008).
161651		population	eng	Unknown but is much less frequently observed in gillnet and trawl bycatches than other orectolobids (especially <em>O. hutchinsi</em>).
161651		threats	eng	<em>Orectolobus parvimaculatus</em> is a component of the bycatch of a commercial fishery that targets sharks, primarily with demersal gillnets off the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia. Wobbegongs were also briefly targeted by a few vessels using demersal longlines in the same fishery until the use of that gear was restricted in 2006. That fishery’s mean annual wobbegong catch was about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35–68 tonnes) between 1999 and 2006 (McAuley 2007 unpublished data). Although wobbegong catches are generally not reported to individual species, small wobbegongs (<150 cm) are selectively discarded alive (Chidlow <em>et al. </em>2007, McAuley unpublished data). Thus, <em>O. parvimaculatus</em> is believed to be a minor component of those aggregated catches.<br/><br/>Smaller orectolobids also occur in commercial rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (Chidlow<em> et al.</em> 2007). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, wobbegongs cannot generally be retained by State-managed commercial fishing vessels unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals year<sup>-1</sup> (Sumner and Williamson 1999). Assuming the species composition of recreational wobbegong catches is similar to that of the commercial gillnet fishery, <em>O. parvimaculatus</em> is also likely to be a minor component of recreational catches.
161652		conservation	eng	None currently in place. Recently an offshore observer program has been launched in South Africa, and observers should be placed on demersal trawlers in the KwaZulu-Natal region, and should be trained to identify and record all catches of this species (W. Sawer pers. comm. 2008). Recommend that surveys, including a habitat assessment for KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique be conducted below 200 m.<br/><br/>Under the FAO International Plan of Action for the conservation and management of sharks (IPOA-Sharks), development of a shark management plan for all chondrichthyans is currently being considered in South Africa (finalisation and implementation of this plan should be considered a matter of priority and great urgency) (Anon 2004).
161652		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: the known range of this shark, as assessed from Oceanographic Research Institute , Durban (ORI) records (Human 2006) is restricted to five degrees of latitude along the east African coast, from off Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (north of 30°S), and from off southern Mozambique (south of 25°S) (Human 2006).
161652		habitat	eng	Very little data is available on the habitat and ecology of this shark. It is found on the upper to mid slope at depths of 200–1,000 m. Maximum size for <em>H. favus</em> is 51.5 cm total length (TL). Males are immature at 19.3 cm TL and mature at 51.5 cm TL. Females are adolescent at 29.1 cm TL and mature at 42.3 cm TL. It is probable that this shark develops one egg-case per uterus at a time, as do other members of this genus (Human 2006).
161652		population	eng	<em>H. favus</em> probably exists as a single population. The population size is unknown, although it is presumed to have suffered a substantial decline in recent years.<br/><br/>This shark was historically regularly recorded from fishing trawls within its geographic range, however, it has not been recorded since the mid-1970s. It was historically recorded from commercial and research bottom trawls made at depths of 200–420 m off KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and 240–740 m in southern Mozambique. Examination of data sheets collected for this species by the Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI), Durban, indicates that this shark was not uncommon in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Since the 1970s no specimens have been collected, even with recent biodiversity research cruises (2002 and 2003) and biodiversity trawl surveys in that region as part of the Coelacanth (<em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>) project in progress (P. Heemstra pers. comm.; Human 2006). This species was not recorded from more recent FRS Algoa surveys conducted off Mozambique, or during a Fridtjof Nansen survey cruise off Mozambique during 2007, although other deepwater demersal sharks were captured (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2008). The cause for this apparent decline is not known. Catch rates for this species were stable during the late 1960s to the early 1970s (ORI datasheets), followed by an abrupt lack of occurrence in trawls, therefore the decline does not appear to be related to fishing pressure (although this is uncertain). The ORI data sheets, used to refer to the previous abundance of this species, are species-specific and include morphometric data as well as sketches and notes on the sharks appearance. There is little doubt that these records refer to <em>H. favus</em>, and are indicative of the previous abundance of this species.
161652		threats	eng	An intensive crustacean trawl fishery exists off of Durban, and extends northwards into southern Mozambique. This deep water (100–600 m) crustacean fishery fishes towards the edge of the continental shelf in the area (Fennessy and Groenveld 1997).<br/><br/><em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks from the KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique region are still present in commercial fisheries landings, but apparently only rarely (N. Kistnasamy, pers. comm.), and species identification is not being recorded. It is not known whether the reduced catch is due to fisheries pressure, habitat loss, pollution, or an as yet unidentified threat (Human 2006).
161653		conservation	eng	Research is required to better determine population numbers and range, biology, ecology and habitat status of this species so that appropriate conservation measures can be formulated.
161653		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: from at least as far north as Lüderitz in Namibia, off Port Nolloth and Cape Point and through to the Eastern Cape KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa to Mozambique, Madagascar and Kenya.<br/><br/>FAO fishing areas: 47 and 51.
161653		habitat	eng	Found in deep waters at 50?970 m (Compagno and Ebert 2007), it may be more common in the Eastern Cape and deeper waters with most records from the upper slope at 400?500 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991). Attains up to 190 cm total length (Compagno and Ebert 2007). This benthic species probably exhibits the life history characteristics of large, deep demersal chondrichthyans: slow growth, late maturity, low fecundity and long life span which makes it ?potentially vulnerable to extinction? (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Feeds on fishes including rat tails and round herring, crabs and squids (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).
161653		population	eng	Although relatively widely distributed, it appears uncommon in deep trawls and may be rare. It may be more common in the Eastern Cape and deeper trawls, but more exploratory work is required to determine this.
161653		threats	eng	Potential threats would be increased deep water and hake-directed trawling and long-line fishing on the slope in a greater proportion of its range. This is presently unlikely along the southern and eastern Agulhas bank where the Agulhas Current and reef structure along the shelf and slope makes deep water trawling dangerous. Increased fishing in deep waters is likely given the depletion of more readily accessible shallower resources. However, with the recent increase in fuel price and increase in availability of prawns from aquaculture operations, offshore deepwater trawling off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Dr S.T Fennessy, Oceanographic Research Institute, Durban pers. comm., May 2008), the threat to this species as a bycatch may have diminished locally at least off the east coast. Off Mozambique, there has been some EU exploratory fishing in deep water, but it is currently unclear how this will develop, although diminishing catches by fisheries worldwide will likely cause increased deepwater trawling which is a potential threat to this and other deepwater taxa.
161654		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on this species occurrence, habitat, life-history and threats.
161654		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from the east coast of Taiwan, Province of China (Teng 1959, Chen and Chung 1971).
161654		habitat	eng	No information is available on the biology, ecology or habitat of this species.
161654		population	eng	This species is known only from the type specimens, collected from Keelung fish market, Taiwan, and no information is available on the population.
161654		threats	eng	Presumably taken in demersal fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is available.
161655		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Monitoring of population trends is needed.
161655		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: Australian endemic. Occurs from Geraldton (Western Australia) to Port Lincoln (South Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994).
161655		habitat	eng	Occurs at depths of 50?200 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Males mature at 46 cm total length (TL) and the species reaches a maximum of ~52 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).
161655		population	eng	The species does not appear to be common and is rare in collections (Last and Stevens 1994).
161655		threats	eng	The whole of this species? range off West and South Australia is lightly fished and therefore fishing pressure is not considered a major threat at present. <em>Irolita waitii</em> is caught as bycatch (P. Last CSIRO Hobart pers. obs. 2007.), although infrequently, despite several fisheries in its range that target multiple teleost species. Integrated Scientific Monitoring Program (ISMP) fishery observers noted that of 5,927 kg caught, (over an unknown time period) none were retained. Nothing is known about discard survival in this species. Habitat quality may be being reduced as a result of trawling practices, but the extent of the impact on this species is unknown.
161656		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Further surveys are required to better define the species' distribution, depth range and biology. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region.
161656		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southeastern Florida (USA), Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, and the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, eastern Colombia and western Venezuela (McEachran and Carvalho 2002, J.D. McEachran pers. comm.).<br/><br/>FAO Area: 31.
161656		habitat	eng	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and slope at depths of 56?1,096 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Males mature at 31?34 cm total length (TL) and the species reaches a maximum size of 36 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of its biology.
161656		population	eng	No information available.
161656		threats	eng	No specific information is available on the bycatch of this species in any fisheries but it may be taken as bycatch in deeper water trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico, and potentially elsewhere. There is probably some refuge for this species in deeper water beyond the depth of current fishing activities.
161657		conservation	eng	Policy-based and research actions are required to protect this species. Habitat maintenance and conservation actions are also needed, such as creation and maintenance of protected areas. The construction of hydroelectric plants in the Paraná-Paraguay River system should be controlled. Education and public awareness of potamotrygonids is essential due to the negative image of these species. Monitoring and regulation of harvest levels and trade for ornamental purposes is also needed.<br/><br/>Please also refer to checklist below.
161657		distribution	eng	South America inland waters: endemic to the Paraná and Paraguay River basins. Recorded from Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (Rosa 1985, Nion <em>et al.</em> 2002, Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003, Araújo <em>et al.</em> 2004). Records from Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru and the Amazon basin probably represent misidentifications due to confusion with similar species (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003, assessor?s pers. obs.).
161657		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the life history of this species. Achenbach and Achenbach (1976) suggested that reproduction takes place in the upper portion of the Paraná River. Newborns have been observed in early summer and adults with of 30?40 cm disc width (DW) are common. The maximum weight observed is ~15 kg. Two females from the lower Paraná River (33 and 36 cm DW) contained nine and six embryos, respectively (Soto unpublished data).<br/><br/>Achenbach and Achenbach (1976), in general observations considering this and other species of potamotrygonids in the mid Paraná River system, indicated that neonates feed on plankton and then gradually change their diet to small molluscs, crustaceans (crabs), insect larvae, small fish and other food items.
161657		population	eng	There is no life history or population data for this poorly known freshwater ray. The main area of occurrence for this species is apparently the Paraná-Paraguay River confluence, where it is considered relatively abundant (Soto pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Achenbach and Achenbach (1976) indicate that this species is more abundant in the Paraná and Colastiné Rivers and seems to prefer ?open waters? (probably preferring to wider areas instead of small streams). Seasonal migrations (upstream of the Paraná River) have also been indicated (Achenbach and Achenbach 1976).
161657		threats	eng	This and other southern freshwater stingray species are taken as a food source and are considered to have delicious meat. They are harpooned by fishermen when sighted resting in shallow water.<br/><br/>There is a small amount of fishing for the more attractively patterned juveniles to supply the ornamental fish trade. This species is illegally exported from Brazil and no information is available regarding its captures for the international trade (Araújo<em> et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>The major threats are likely to be from habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Paraná River system for navigation and hydroelectric plants, and the construction of many ports along the river (infrastructure development). Agriculture, various kinds of water pollution, human disturbance and intrinsic factors also are considered threats for this species.
161658		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Biological data for this species is over 50 years old. Before any further recommendation can be made, more life history studies (including age, growth, maturity, and fecundity studies) are necessary. Studies of stock structure are also needed to identify unit stocks.
161658		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Atlantic: found from Massachusetts to southern Florida and eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico. However, this species is rarely captured north of Cape Cod (Packer <em>et al. </em>2003).
161658		habitat	eng	This skate prefers inshore areas and is found from saltwater estuaries to depths of 330 m. However, it is most abundant at depths <111 m (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species prefers inshore areas of 10–21°C and feeds mainly on decapod crustaceans, bivalves, polychaetes, squids and fishes. It breeds inshore, and reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, with oblong egg capsules deposited in sandy or muddy flats.<br/><br/>Both males and females are reported to mature at 49–58 cm total length (TL) (Fitz and Diaber 1963). Females are reported to mature at four to six years of age, and males at two to four years (Fitz and Diaber 1963). Longevity is >5 years (Fitz and Diaber 1963). The species reaches a maximum size of 84 cm TL (Fitz and Diaber 1963) and size at birth is 12–15 cm (Luer pers comm.).
161658		population	eng	No detailed information on population size or subpopulations exists, however, maximum size and size at maturity varies with latitude, the largest individuals occur at highest latitudes (McEachran 2002).The biomass of this species has steadily decreased over the last five years, over its reported range (NEFMC 2006). Average catch rates of this species during NMFS trawl surveys decreased from 0.75 kg/tow in 2002–2004 to 0.63 kg/tow in 2003–2005 (NEFMC 2006). Although the NMFS does not consider this species overfished in its 2006 assessment, the steady decline in biomass during the past five years, coupled with the species’ potentially limiting life-history characteristics suggests that population trends should be carefully monitored. The 2006 NMFS assessment made no projections or forecasts of expected future population trends, and fishing pressure is continuing. Myers <em>et al.</em> (2007) examined trends in abundance for this species along the eastern coast of the USA, from six different surveys and found it to be increasing in three surveys during 1984–2004, 1967–2005, and 1974–2005 (statistically significant, <0.0001), decreasing in one survey during 1966–2004 (statistically significant, <0.0001), with no apparent trend in two others during 1989–2005 and 1988–2004.
161658		threats	eng	The principal commercial fishing method that affects this species of skate (or any other skate species for that matter) is otter trawling. Although no directed fishery exists for this species, this skate is frequently taken as bycatch during groundfish trawling and scallop dredge operations (Packer <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, the quantitative impacts of this fishing method on this species is unknown at this time. Discarded recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the past, imprecise reporting of fishery statistics combined skate species under one category. This has made assessment and monitoring of directed and indirect fishing pressure impossible. However, this has recently changed and should allow for the assessment of individual species and the impacts of commercial fishing practices on their populations.
161659		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Despite this skate occurring in areas protected by CCAMLR, pirate fisheries and accidental captures of this bycatch are a problem that may be mitigated by surface release of this skate.
161659		distribution	eng	Antarctic and southern Indian Ocean: known only from slopes around Kerguelen Islands at present.
161659		habitat	eng	This skate is found at depths of 300–1,200 m (Stehmann and Burkel 1990). Reaches a maximum size of at least 120 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Burkel 1990), possibly larger. Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.
161659		population	eng	Unknown.
161659		threats	eng	This species is threatened by increased longlining and trawling for fishes in the region, particularly the legal and pirate fishery for toothfish. This species is taken as bycatch of toothfish fisheries operating in this area and probably discarded. Fishing effort in the Patagonian Toothfish (<em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em>) fishery concentrated in the Southern Ocean, has increased in recent years, largely due to illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in this region (Lack and Sant 2001). Lack and Sant (2001) identified the Kerguelen Islands, where this species is possibly endemic, as a hotspot for IUU fishing activity. High levels of unregulated fishing pressure throughout this species’ range are unlikely to be sustainable, particularly as this species is likely to have limiting life-history characteristics, similar to other deepwater skates.
161660		conservation	eng	None known.
161660		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean: known from Oman, the Gulf of Oman and from both sides of the Bay of Bengal, off Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Carvalho and Randall 2003).
161660		habitat	eng	A poorly known, inshore species that has been captured to depths of at least 27 m (Carvalho and Randall 2003).Three late-term male pups were extracted from one female caught in the Gulf of Oman (Carvalho and Randall 2003). Sizes ranged from 10.3?11.3 cm TL (Carvalho and Randall 2003). One pup (10.7 cm TL) possessed remnants of the yolk stalk and sac. The size of free-swimming individuals is estimated to be close to 10.7 cm TL (Carvalho and Randall 2003).  The in utero arrangement is unknown as pups were aborted upon capture. Male size at sexual maturity is unknown. Three adult females have been captured, with sizes ranging from 29.8?36.0 cm TL (Carvalho and Randall 2003).
161660		population	eng	Apparently very patchy within range and only very rarely recorded.
161660		threats	eng	Intensive demersal fisheries operate across the known range of this species. Its shallow coastal habitat has been subject to repeated trawling over many years and fishing pressure is continuing. Few specimens have been studied and known specimens come from widely separated and patchy areas. Artisanal fishing pressure is intense in shallow waters of the northern Indian Ocean, for example, more than 15,022 small traditional craft (48% motorised) operate in the lagoons and coastal areas of Sri Lanka (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). No specific information is available on catches of <em>N. atzi, </em>as species-specific data are not recorded, however, the high level of exploitation on its habitat is of concern. As <em>N. atzi </em>is only known to occur in shallow water it is also likely that habitat degradation due to pollution/human interference is impacting it in parts of its range.
161661		conservation	eng	Since 2005 target fishing has been prohibited for all skate species in the Gulf of Alaska (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). <em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within the Gulf of Alaska ?other skates? assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in Bathyraja spp is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented (Ormseth and Matta 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species? range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161661		distribution	eng	Northwest and Northeast Pacific: widespread, from Chiba Prefecture, Japan to Cape Navarin, western and northern Sea of Okhotsk, Russia. In the Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska, USA and British Columbia, Canada and to Cape Mendocino, northern California, USA (Hoff 2002, Ebert 2003, Ishihara 1990, Stevenson 2004, Orlov <em>et. al.</em> 2006, Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Dolganov 1999).
161661		habitat	eng	The Aleutian Skate is a large deepwater skate, reaching a maximum size of 154 cm total length (TL) (Ebert 2005). It inhabits the outer continental shelf and upper slope on muddy substrates (Ebert 2003), and occurs at depths of 15-1,602 m (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ormseth and Matta 2007a,b, Sheiko and Fedorov 2000).Females mature at 9-10 years (Dolganov 1998b), at a size of 112-133 cm TL (averaging 125 cm in the Gulf of Alaska (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2003). Males mature at 8-9 years (Dolganov 1998b), at a size of 108-116cm TL (averaging 113 cm TL in the Gulf of Alaska (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2003).<br/>In the eastern Bering Sea, egg cases are deposited between June and November, at depths of 250-500 m (Teshima and Tomonaga 1986, Ebert 2003), whilst in Asian waters, they are reportedly deposited all year round (Dolganov 1998b, Glubokov and Orlov 2000). Nursery grounds in the southern part of its range are unknown (Ebert 2003). Egg capsules measure 117-136 x 73-97 mm and size at birth is 12-15 cm TL (Dolganov 1998b).
161661		population	eng	The only bottom trawl surveys carried out in Russian waters were between 1977 and 1997, which resulted in biomass estimates of 87,700t for the Aleutian Skate (comprising 27,800 t in the western Bering Sea, 5,100 t off the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka and 54,800 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>A positive CPUE trend was observed in the Pacific waters off the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka between 1993?2000, however a slight decline in CPUE was detected in 2000 (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>Bathyraja</em> species compose about one third of total skate biomass in the Gulf of Alaska, and the majority of these are <em>B. aleutica</em> (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). In the eastern Bering Sea, the Aleutian Skate is the dominant species on the slope (although Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>) dominates skate biomass in shelf waters and overall in this area) (Ormseth and Matta 2007a,b). Biomass estimates of <em>B. aleutica</em> from fishery-independent bottom trawl surveys in the Gulf of Alaska increased from 11,293 in 1999 to 25,255 in 2007 (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). Inconsistencies in survey coverage and species identification were noted though. Nothing is known about the population status or abundance of this species in other parts of its range.
161661		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska (Gaichas 2003, Ormseth and Matta 2007ab), and probably elsewhere throughout its range in the eastern Pacific. A target fishery for skates (mainly Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>) and Big Skate (<em>Raja binoculata</em>)) developed in the Gulf of Alaska in 2003, but <em>Bathyraja</em> species constituted only a small proportion of the catch of this fishery (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). About 30% of the catch of Aleutian Skate is retained in the eastern Bering Sea (Ormseth and Matta 2007a). Directed fishing for skates was subsequently banned in the Gulf of Alaska (2005). Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200 m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007a). Therefore this species? deep bathymetric distribution may offer refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007ab). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species.<br/><br/>In Russian waters, this skate is a common bycatch of bottom trawl and longline fisheries (targeting halibut and rockfishes) (Tokranov <em>et al.</em> 2005). Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. These fisheries usually operate down to 600?800 m, i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range (D.A. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). There are no fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands. There has also been interest in this skate as a potential fishery target in Russia (Orlov 2004).<br/><br/>This species is also regularly taken as bycatch in offshore bottom trawl fisheries around Japan, but no time series data are available to determine catch levels (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>No information is currently available on post-discard survivorship, but this is suspected to be low.
161662		conservation	eng	A moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for R. longurio specifically or most other chondrichthyans in Mexico. However, legislation is currently being developed in Mexico to establish national elasmobranch fishery management.<br/><br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate fisheries in Central America would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. longurio</em> and other chondrichthyans. Proposed measures would include a ban on shark finning and protection of specific shark species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of any fishing in the northern Gulf of California and the Sonora coast is required to ensure there is no extensive removal of pups. Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, and further reproductive studies are required.<br/><br/>There is also a requirement to obtain information on catches where little or no data are available (i.e., South America).
161662		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: USA, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161662		habitat	eng	The Pacific Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>) is a warm temperate and tropical species that occurs from the intertidal to 27 m over soft mud and sand on the continental shelf (Springer 1964, Compagno 1984). Trends in <em>R. longurio</em> landings from Sinaloa and the Gulf of California, Mexico indicate marked seasonal movement patterns (Castillo-Géniz 1990, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). The species is a primary component of artisanal elasmobranch fisheries during the Winter (January, February) and Spring months (March, April, May) but is not captured during the Summer and Autumn, when it is believed to move into deeper waters and possibly into the central Gulf of California (Kato and Hernández 1967, Márquez-Farías <em>et al. </em>2005). A tagged specimen was reported by Kato and Hernández (1967) to have travelled from the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula, north 600 miles along the Pacific coast of Baja California.<br/><br/>This species segregates by size and sex (Castillo-Géniz 1990). The northern Gulf of California and the Sonora coast may serve as an important pupping area for the Mexican Pacific population (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is uncertain whether open coastal areas or estuaries are used for pupping grounds.<br/><br/>The maximum reported total length (TL) of 154 cm was recorded from Peru (Hildebrand 1946), but specimens from Mexico and Colombia are rarely observed at greater than 120 cm TL (Franke and Acero 1991, Márquez-Farías<em> et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth varies between 30 to 37 cm TL (Springer 1964, Compagno 1984, Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Castillo-Géniz (1990) reported that males mature at 93 cm TL and females at 83 cm TL. Earlier studies, however, report that males mature at 58?69 cm TL (Springer 1964, Compagno 1984) and that females are mature at 103 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Estimates of fecundity based on the number of embryos per female range between one and 12, with an average of 7.4 pups per litter (Márquez-Farías <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The gestation period is likely to be 10?12 months (Castillo-Géniz 1990, Márquez-Farías <em>et al.</em> 2005). Evidence of a potential resting period has been provided by Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. (2005), indicating that the species may possess a two year reproductive cycle. However, in the central Mexican Pacific (Nayarit coast) and in the upper Gulf of California gravid females with near-term embryos and postpartum females with extended uterus with oocytes close to being ready for ovulation have been reported. This suggests that the species has an annual cycle (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005), but further research is required to confirm this.<br/><br/>Congeners, including <em>R. taylori</em> and <em>R. terraenovae</em>, have been reported to possess a comparatively greater intrinsic rate of increase, faster growth, and higher fecundity than many elasmobranchs (Márquez-Farías and Castillo-Géniz 1998, Simpfendorfer 1999). It is possible that <em>R. longurio</em> may also be a moderately productive species. The diet of this species is dominated by teleosts and includes, to a lesser extent, cephalopods and crustaceans (Castillo-Géniz 1990, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161662		population	eng	Locally very abundant (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), but no other information is available.
161662		threats	eng	Major threats include bycatch in trawl and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets, longlines, or traps, as well as directed artisanal fisheries for elasmobanchs. This species is taken in directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California and Mexican Pacific using bottom set gillnets and longlines (W.D. Smith, J.F. Márquez-Farias and J.C. Pérez-Jiménez pers. obs.). Industrial trawl fisheries for shrimp are generally intense in areas of the Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific.<br/><br/>Artisanal net fisheries operate across the species? South American range, and although species-specific data are not available, the Pacific sharpnose shark is likely captured by inshore fisheries in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In Peru, pressure on inshore shark species is high, particularly houndsharks (family Triakidae), but it is likely that this shark is also a component of landings there.<br/><br/>Peak landings have been recorded from the Gulf of California and Sinaloa during the winter and spring months. The species? movement patterns, combined with changes in directed fishery effort result in relatively small landings during the rest of the year. Large juveniles and adults dominate the catches of Sinaloa and the northern Gulf of California but all size classes are present among artisanal landings (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some anecdotal evidence suggests that landings of this species may have decreased in some artisanal fisheries (W.D. Smith, J.F. Márquez-Farias and J.C. Pérez-Jiménez pers. obs.). As the northern Gulf of California and the Sonora coast may serve as an important pupping area for the Mexican Pacific population, fisheries operating in this area may pose a specific threat to the population.<br/><br/>Other human factors, particularly water pollution, probably impact this species and its inshore habitat in heavily populated areas.
161663		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, occurrence and capture in fisheries to enable reassessment. Fishery management, including National Shark Plans, and trawl fishery exclusion zones could contribute towards the conservation of this and other benthic species.
161663		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea, the holotypes being from Yemen (Lloyd 1907) and subsequent records are from off Somalia (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). This species may have a wider Arabian Sea distribution, with unconfirmed reports of its occurrence from Kerala State, India (Talwar 1981).
161663		habitat	eng	Found in continental shelf waters of 73–346 m depth (Norman 1939).The maximum size reached by this species is the largest size a female has been recorded at of 25.5 cm total length (TL), with males reaching at least 22 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Males mature between 16.5 and 19.9 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Little else is known of this species biology.
161663		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown, with very few specimens in collections. It appears to be rare.
161663		threats	eng	This species is taken as incidental bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries in areas that have been historically, and are currently, heavily fished, but no specific information is available. Some demersal species in the Gulf of Aden are believed to be heavily exploited, but no landings or catch data are available (Morgan 2006). Batoids are known to play an important role in Somali traditional fisheries (FAO 2008), but it is not known whether these fisheries operate within this species’ range. Further information is required on the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range.
161664		conservation	eng	All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State?s managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>Relative to the area known to be occupied by <em>O. floridus</em>, shark fishing effort (mainly demersal gillnet) is sparsely distributed and managed within specific regional limits via time-gear input controls. The managed shark fishery?s catches and fishing effort are routinely monitored through analyses of statutory daily/trip logbook data and the fishery?s target stocks are subject to regular stock assessments.<br/><br/>The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30? S latitude to 120° E longitude off the north coast, which may include the northern extent of the species? range.<br/><br/>The use of metal snoods (gangions) is commercially prohibited throughout Western Australian waters (except for a small amount of demersal longline effort in the managed shark fishery and pelagic mackerel troll lines).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/><br/>This species is potentially protected in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas, Marine Parks and nature reserves:<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA
161664		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: an Australian endemic, known only from few individuals, all taken from the inner continental shelf off southwestern Australia between Geraldton (29°54?S, 114°30?E) and Augusta (34°33?S, 115°28?E) (Last and Chidlow 2008).
161664		habitat	eng	Found on the inner continental shelf at depths of 42?85 m (Last and Chidlow 2008). All known specimens are either mature or almost mature. Two males are mature at 72.8 cm total length (TL) and 75 cm TL, and females varied from 67.4?71.4 cm TL (Last and Chidlow 2008). The biology of this species is poorly known but, as all known specimens were taken by demersal gillnets and none have been recorded in trawls, it is presumably associated with hard bottom habitats (Last and Chidlow 2008). The species is thought to feed on fishes, crustaceans and possibly cephalopods (Last and Chidlow 2008).
161664		population	eng	Known only from few specimens (Last and Chidlow 2008). Much less frequently observed in gillnet bycatches than other orectolobids (especially <em>O. hutchinsi</em>).
161664		threats	eng	<em>Orectolobus floridus</em> is a component of the bycatch of a commercial fishery that targets sharks, primarily with demersal gillnets off the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia. Wobbegongs were also briefly targeted by a few vessels using demersal longlines in the same fishery until the use of that gear was restricted in 2006. That fishery?s mean annual wobbegong catch was about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35?68 tonnes) between 1999 and 2006 (McAuley 2007, unpublished data). Although wobbegong catches are generally not reported to individual species, small wobbegongs (<150 cm) are selectively discarded alive (Chidlow <em>et al. </em>2007, McAuley unpublished data). Thus, <em>O. Floridus</em> is believed to be a minor component of those aggregated catches.<br/><br/>Smaller orectolobids also occur in commercial rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, wobbegongs cannot generally be retained by State-managed commercial fishing vessels unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery. <br/><br/>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals year<sup>-1</sup> (Sumner and Williamson 1999). Assuming the species composition of recreational wobbegong catches is similar to that of the commercial gillnet fishery, <em>O. floridus</em> is also likely to be a minor component of recreational catches.
161665		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further surveys are needed to assess and monitor abundance. Research is also needed on the species’ biology and capture in fisheries.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161665		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: occurs from off Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan Province of China, and the South China Sea near Hong Kong (Compagno and Last 1999).
161665		habitat	eng	A little-known but locally common inshore and offshore sleeper ray in temperate to subtropical waters (Compagno and Last 1999). Reaches a maximum total length (TL) of at least 37 cm (Compagno and Last 1999). Males mature between 23–37 cm TL and females at ~35 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). Little else is known of its biology.
161665		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161665		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in both inshore and offshore trawl fisheries throughout its distribution where both historical and current fishing pressure is high. Batoids are heavily exploited in the Andaman Sea, where intensive trawl fisheries operate on the western coast of Thailand (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Probably not all bycatch of this species is landed, but survival of discards will presumably be very poor. Electric ray species appear to be generally less common now than previously off Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Despite species-specific data on catches and population trends generally lacking for most electric rays, significant declines have been documented where data are available for species that have been heavily fished (e.g., <em>Narcine bancroftii</em>). The electric ray, <em>N. bancroftii</em>, occurs in the western Atlantic, matures at a very early age (two years) and is relatively fecund (up to 20 pups per litter). Despite this, Shepherd and Myers (2005) documented declines in <em>N. bancroftii</em>, to 2% (95% confidence intervals 0.5–5%) of its baseline abundance in 1972 in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, most probably caused by intense shrimp trawling. Similar declines were also documented in <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcine bancroftii </span>in US trawl surveys and diver surveys off Florida (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161666		conservation	eng	None. Monitoring of catches and further surveys are required to define the species’ full distribution, occurrence and interactions with fisheries.
161666		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: Iceland and slope of Rockwall Trough, northwest of Ireland, Bay of Biscay, mid-Atlantic Ridge (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Quéro <em>et al.</em> 2003).
161666		habitat	eng	Occurs on muddy sand substrates, on the continental slope at depths of 600–1,260 m (Stehmann 1976, Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008). Attains a maximum size of 32 cm total length (TL) (adult male) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Quéro <em>et al.</em> 2003). Like other skates, this species is presumably oviparous, but nothing else is known of its biology. The hydrographic conditions where this species has been found suggest that appears to prefer temperatures higher than 6°C and salinity of more than 35 psu. If this is the case, then the depth range of <em>N. caerulea</em> will be limited to a maximum of about 1,300 m (Stehmann, 1976, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161666		population	eng	Relatively rare species, population size unknown. Since 1976, this species has been known only from the 12 specimens of the type series plus one additional damaged female, but several further records have recently been obtained with the development of deep bottom fisheries on the continental slopes and scientific exploration cruises in the eastern north Atlantic (records attested by specimens deposited in various museum collections).
161666		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch by the expanding deep bottom trawl fisheries operating in the northeast Atlantic, although no data are available on catches. The species’ known geographic distribution appears to lie within the range of deepwater fisheries in this area.
161667		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for <em>H. kistnasamyi</em>. Habitat monitoring should be considered a priority, as habitat degradation is occurring within its known range. Environmental impact assessments need to be made for expansion of various industries around Durban.
161667		distribution	eng	<em>Haploblepharus kistnasamyi</em> occurs in the western Indian Ocean. It is a rare South African endemic with a very restricted range; adults are known only from northern KwaZulu-Natal. The species' extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 100 km².<br/><br/>Individuals tentatively assigned as the juveniles of <em>H. kistnasamyi</em> occur in the Eastern Cape to west of Mossel Bay, Western Cape, (inshore, usually close to the coastline) (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006). These juvenile records require verification and therefore they have been excluded from this assessment.<br/><br/>Specimens have not been obtained from elsewhere, despite trawl surveys conducted between the Western and Eastern Capes (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1984, Buxton <em>et al.</em> 1984).
161667		habitat	eng	This shark occurs inshore, usually close to the coastline. Its preferred habitat appears to be rocky and coral reefs, and sandy habitats, with a depth range from intertidal to 30 m depth (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006).<br/><br/>The life history of <em>H. kistnasamyi</em> is virtually unknown as most of the biological data available for this species is referable to <em>Haploblepharus edwardsii</em>. Males are juvenile at 31.5?35.4 cm total length (TL), and mature at 50.4 cm TL. Females are embryonic at 5.85?10.4 cm TL, juvenile at 10.6?40.1 cm TL, adolescent at 41.5 cm TL, and mature at 481 cm TL (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006).
161667		population	eng	The population size of this rare shark is unknown, but apparently it is small as it is known only from three adults. This species is probably represented by a single population (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006).
161667		threats	eng	With its restricted, inshore range and apparently small population size, the main threat to <em>H. kistnasamyi</em> is habitat degradation (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006). Intensive habitat modification and destruction is known to be occurring within its known range, particularly around Durban, which has a rapidly expanding heavy industry sector, and is also expanding its tourist industry. This expansion includes increased industrial waste output and pollution, and land development for tourist resorts and attractions. The area around Durban is also under intensive fishing pressure from a number of fishing industries, most notably, the prawn fishing industry.
161668		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. A new shark monitoring log-sheet was introduced by the Seychelles Fishing Authority in August 2004 aimed at assessing the stocks of sharks fished locally and identifying the various species caught (Anon 2005).<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161668		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the holotype and paratype off Alphonse Island, Republic of Seychelles (Baranes 2003).
161668		habitat	eng	Known only from the holotype (female: 78.8 cm TL) and paratype (male: 61.5 cm TL) collected during a research cruise by trammel net at 1,000 m off Alphonse Island (Baranes 2003). The biology of the species is little known.
161668		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype. May be endemic to the region but population size is unknown.
161668		threats	eng	The depth distribution of the species is little known and it is possible that <em>S. lalannei</em> has been caught by Seychellois fishermen without their knowledge that it was a new species (Anon 2005). Some trial deepsea fishing has been conducted in the Seychelles to date, but there are apparently no commercial fisheries targeting resources below 600 m at present (M. Isidore pers. comm. 2007).
161669		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further assessment and monitoring of catches in fisheries and population trends is required.
161669		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: China, from Bohai Sea to Shanghai, Taiwan; Korea, Baereungdo Islands, uppermost of the Yellow Sea to Heuksan-do Islands; Japan; from northern Hokkaido to off Kyushu; Yellow Sea, East Sea (Sea of Japan), Sea of Okhotsk, East China Sea (Ishihara 1990b, Jeong 1999). This species is especially abundant in coastal waters around the Daecheong and Heuksando Islands, Korea, and around Hokkaido Island, Japan (Ishiyama 1958, Jeong 1999).
161669		habitat	eng	A temperate water skate found on the shelf, and apparently especially abundant in coastal waters in some areas of Korea and Japan. It is usually caught in coastal waters from about 5m-30m depth (Sea of Okhotsk) to 100m (off the central main island of Japan to the East China Sea)(Chyun 1977, Ishiyama 1958, Ishihara 1990, Ueda <em>et al.</em> 2003). Inhabits waters at 5-15 in the Yellow Sea (Yeon <em>et a</em>l. 1997).<br/><br/>Males mature at 47.3 cm DW (Yeon <em>et al.</em> 1997), and females at 68.5 cm disc width (DW) (Yeon <em>et al</em>. 1997). Maximum size is reported at 111.9 cm total length (TL) (female) (Ishiyama 1958). Size at birth is at least 9.5 cm (Ishiyama 1967).<br/><br/>Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. An adult female produces about 240 eggs (98?556) annually (Yeon <em>et al</em>. 1997). Breeding season is year round, mainly spring (April to June) and November to December, except middle of summer. Egg-capsules measure 14?18.8 cm in length, 70?9.4 cm in width and are rectangular with deep notches on the middle portion of lateral sides, with short flattened horns on anterior and posterior corners. Each egg-capsule usually encloses more than one embryo (C.H. Jeong <em>et al</em>. unpublished data), varying from one to five (Ishiyama 1958). A lot of egg-capsules were found in the culturing cage of scallop farm in Hokkaido, Japan (Ueda <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The stomach contents of 564 specimens of <em>Raja pulchra</em>, caught monthly from July 1991 to December 1995 by the large pair bottom trawl fishery in the Yellow Sea off Korea showed that this species mainly feeds on shrimps, fishes, cephalopods and crabs. The most important prey group was shrimp, which has an index of relative importance value of 93.1 %. Two species of shrimps, <em>Crangon affinis</em> (88.4 %) and <em>Trachypenaeus cuvirostris</em> (3.9 %), and the sandlance, <em>Ammodytes personatus</em> (3.9 %), were major food organisms (Yeon <em>et al.</em> 1999).
161669		population	eng	This species was extremely common about twenty years ago in the northern Yellow Sea (especially around Daecheong-do Islands of Korea) and southern Yellow Sea (especially around Heuksan-do Islands of South Korea) and off the coast of Hokkaido, northern Japan, in historical reports (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).Although data are lacking, the decline of <em>Raja pulchra</em> in the Yellow Sea (South Korea) even exceeds that around northern Japan, where declines have been reported by fishermen (Nakaya, pers. comm, C.H. Jeong unpublished data).
161669		threats	eng	The species is targeted by commercial fisheries in South Korea. It is both targeted by gillnet fisheries and also as taken as bycatch of gillnets targeting flounder. In Japan, this species is also targeted by a fishery localized around Hokkaido (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2005). Although specific data on population size and catch size in fisheries is lacking, there have been reported declines in capture rates by fishermen (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Landings of skates in Korea, taken by fisheries from adjacent waters, have abruptly declined. In Korea, ?skates? are known as ?Hong-eo?, and is usually the species <em>Raja pulchra</em> (Jeong 1999). The average annual catch from 1991?1993 was 2,700 metric tonnes, but the catch in 2001?2003 was 220 metric tonnes (data from homepage of MOMAF of Republic of Korea 2004), reflecting a serious decline in the biomass collected.<br/><br/>This species is one of the most expensive fishes sold in South Korea (Chyung 1977, Jeong <em>et al.</em> 1995; Jeong 1999), reaching US $10 to US $ 30 per kilogram. Skates are also valued in Japan, for their dried wings and meat, but are less expensive than in South Korea (US $ 5). This species of Skate is often served at weddings in South Korea as a traditional feast (Ishihara, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species is not targeted in China, although it is still taken as bycatch in fisheries operating there.
161670		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required to determine whether the species is valid.
161670		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from the type locality, south of China in the South China Sea.
161670		habitat	eng	A deepwater species found offshore. Virtually nothing is known of the habitat and biology of this species. Presumably lives on soft sand and mud bottoms, similar to other skates.
161670		population	eng	Only known from the original type specimen. No information is available on the population.
161670		threats	eng	Utilization and fishing gear not recorded for the area because these skates are small, Uncommon and occur in deep water but thought to be caught as a discarded bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Compagno 1999).
161671		conservation	eng	No measures in place.
161671		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: recorded off southern and northern, and in the Sea of Japan, southwest of Vladivostok, Russia (estimated ca. 40°36'N, 131°14.1'E) (Tokarev in Lindberg and Legeza 1958, Nakaya and Yabe 1989, Nakaya in Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984, Nishida and Nakaya 1990).
161671		habitat	eng	The habitat and biology of this species is poorly known. The specimen from the Sea of Japan was taken in a drift gillnet at the surface over a depth of 3,000 m (Nakaya in Matsuda <em>et al.</em> 1984), suggesting this species may be semi-pelagic as well as benthic. The species is also found on the continental shelf at 40–60 m depth. Attains a maximum reported size of ~120 cm disc width (DW) (Nishida and Nakaya 1990). No other information is available on this species’ biology.
161671		population	eng	Apparently common but no data are available to determine previous abundance (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).
161671		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch in longline, coastal gillnet and set-net fisheries within its range. It is often captured by set-nets and, when caught, the species is retained, landed and marketed. Stingrays are among the dominant batoid components of landings in Japan, however, the relative importance of species on a regional basis is poorly known and species-specific landing data are virtually non-existent (H. Ishihara, pers. obs. 2007).
161672		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
161672		distribution	eng	Western Central Pacific: known only from the holotype taken on the Makassar Straits slope between Borneo and Sulawesi, Indonesia at 00°32' S and 119°39' E (Nakaya 1989).
161672		habitat	eng	Known only from the holotype, a juvenile female measuring 21 cm total length (TL), taken at 655 m on the Makassar Straits slope (Nakaya 1989). The biology of this species is virtually unknown.
161672		population	eng	A rare catshark, only known from the holotype (Nakaya 1989).
161672		threats	eng	There are currently no deepwater fisheries operating in the Makassar Straits (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007) where the holotype (and only known specimen) was taken. The species may have a wider depth distribution than currently known and any future fishing effort should be carefully monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected. It is apparently rare, has a restricted distribution and probably displays similar life history characteristics to other deepwater sharks (slow growth, late age at maturity, low fecundity). These factors may make this species particularly vulnerable to overfishing, should fisheries expand to such depths.
161673		conservation	eng	None in place.
161673		distribution	eng	Endemic in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005). Moderately common throughout the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the western (Morocco, Spain and France) and western central areas (Tyrrhenia, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003, Florio <em>et al.</em> 2003, Follesa <em>et al</em>. 2003, Spedicato <em>et al.</em> 2003, Serena 2005, Mancusi <em>et al.</em> 2005), rare in Adriatic and Ionian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998), common along northern African coasts (Stehmann and Burkel 1984) and eastern Algerian coasts (Bertozzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).
161673		habitat	eng	Benthic, mainly on soft bottoms from 100?400 m (Serena 2005), but with a wide depth range from 20?633 m. Both males and females are estimated to mature at 40?53 cm TL for (Bini 1967, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998, Tortonese 1956, N. Ungaro unpublished data) with a maximum recorded size of 60 cm TL (Bauchot 1987, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005); common at sizes of 30?40 cm TL (Bauchot 1987). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Reproduction is in winter and 20?62 egg cases (depending on size) are laid per year (Bauchot 1987, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005). Egg-cases measure 46 by 35 mm excluding horns (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena, 2005). <em>R. polystigma</em> feeds mainly on crustaceans (<em>L. typicus</em>, Anphipoda and Isopoda), decapods, cephalopods and bony fishes (Vannucci 2005).
161673		population	eng	<em>Raja polystigma</em> is moderately common throughout the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the western (Morocco, Spain and France) and western central areas (Tyrrhenia, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001 Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003, Florio <em>et al.</em> 2003, Follesa <em>et al</em>. 2003, Spedicato <em>et al.</em> 2003, Serena 2005, Mancusi <em>et al.</em> 2005), rare in Adriatic and Ionian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998), common along northern African coasts (Stehmann and Burkel 1984) and eastern Algerian coasts (Bertozzi et al. 2003).<br/><br/>It is found predominantly on the shelf and has been captured in the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) down to depths of 500 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). The overall biomass index assessed with MEDITS surveys (0-800m deep) in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was 1.1 kg/km² (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). It was captured in 171 out of 6,336 survey tows between 1994 and 1999 and its estimated standing stock biomass throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea is 568t. Following <em>R. clavata</em> and <em>R. miraletus</em>, <em>R. polystigma</em> is the third most abundant skate species captured in trawl surveys performed in the south Ligurian and north Tyrrhenian Sea from 1985?2004. In this area it occupies a very wide depth range (20?633 m) concentrating between 300 and 400m. Important catches of juveniles were recorded occasionally (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005). Most of the collected specimens measured between 12 and 49 cm in length (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161673		threats	eng	Caught as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries but is also fished with gillnets, longline and handline in artisanal fisheries (Bauchot 1987). There is a high level of exploitation over the continental shelf and upper slope, down to a depth of 800 m in the Mediterranean Sea (Massuti and Moranta 2003). Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974?1987) (Aldebert 1997). <em>Raja polystigma</em> is known to be retained and marketed along the African coasts of the Mediterranean, where both trawl and artisanal fisheries operate (Bauchot 1987). This species is rarely landed in Italian Seas and it is not possible to monitor catches (C. Mancusi pers. obs.).
161674		conservation	eng	Close monitoring of catches in deep bottom trawl fisheries in the species range is required in order to assess the threats to this species. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161674		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific, and eastern Indian Ocean: South China Sea off China, Taiwan (Province of China), Indonesia, Philippines, Australia (Western Australia off Exmouth Plateau to Shark Bay; also from Queensland off Flinders Reef) (Compagno 1998).<br/><br/>Eastern central Pacific: Hawaii (Compagno 1998).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: off the east coast of South Africa (eastern Cape off Port Elizabeth and Port Alfred, possibly western Cape near Cape Agulhas) (Compagno 1998).
161674		habitat	eng	A deepwater, benthic ray, mostly found on the upper continental slopes at depths of 362?1,120 m, although there have been two records of the species stranding on beaches off South Africa and one additional live specimen photographed feeding at about 30 m depth off Japan by divers (Compagno 1998, H. Ishihara pers. obs.). It is found on sandy mud to rocky bottom substrates (B. Séret pers. obs). <br/><br/>The species is ovoviviparous and females have been observed with up to three term fetuses (Compagno 1998). <span style="font-style: italic;">Hexatrygon bickelli </span>reaches a maximum total length of at least 168 cm (adult female). Males are estimated to mature at 110 cm TL and females are estimated to mature at 113 cm TL (Compagno 1998, B. Séret pers. obs.). Size at birth is about 48 cm TL (Compagno 1998).
161674		population	eng	A rare species with a patchy, wide distribution.
161674		threats	eng	Infrequently captured in bottom trawl fisheries (Compagno 1998), however there are no quantitative data on the numbers caught or landed throughout its range. In Taiwan, Province of China, this species forms part of the bycatch in both coastal and offshore bottom trawl fisheries (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). It is of concern that the species appears in the landed bycatch of deep bottom trawl fisheries much less than it did only a few years ago (B. Séret pers. obs.). <em>Hexatrygon bickelli</em> is a large and presumably slow growing species, with a relatively large size at maturity; traits that make the species particularly susceptible to overfishing. In other parts of its geographic range, this species? bathymetric distribution may extend below the range of fisheries.
161675		conservation	eng	None currently in place. Recently an offshore observer program has been launched in South Africa, and observers should be placed on demersal trawlers in the KwaZulu-Natal region, and should be trained to identify and record all catches of this species (W. Sawer pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Recommend that a habitat assessment for KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique be conducted below 200 m, and the population in Madagascar needs to be assessed and monitored. Madagascar may provide a much needed refuge for this species. Possible bycatch information on this species needs to be sought. Under the FAO International Plan of Action for the conservation and management of sharks (IPOA-Sharks), development of a shark management plan for all chondrichthyans is currently being considered in South Africa (finalisation and implementation of this plan should be considered a matter of priority and great urgency) (Anon 2004).
161675		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: from northeastern South Africa, southern Mozambique and Madagascar (Human 2003, 2006, Séret 1987). It is highly unlikely that this species occurs off Cape Point, Western Cape Province, South Africa as stated in the literature (Bass 1986, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Compagno 1984).
161675		habitat	eng	Its known depth range is 220–420 m. Life history is unknown. Males appear to obtain a greater maximum length compared to females, a trait common to <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks. Maximum record size for <em>H. punctatus</em> is 34.0 cm TL. Males are immature at 17.6 cm TL, adolescent at 23.5 cm TL, and mature at 29.8–32.6 cm TL. Females are immature at 17.6–22.7 cm TL and adolescent at 23.6 cm TL (Human 2003, 2006). Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975) report a gravid female with a single egg-case in each uterus. Juveniles are unknown for this species and Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975) speculate that they may occur in deeper waters.
161675		population	eng	There may be two populations of <em>H. punctatus</em>, one occurring off the coast of South Africa and Mozambique, and the other off Madagascar, however in the absence of data this is speculative.<br/><br/>This species was historically common in commercial and research bottom trawls made at depths of about 220–420 m in its range, off the KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and southern Mozambique coasts (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Bass 1986, Human 2006). Examination of species-specific data collected for this species by the Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI), Durban, indicates this shark was common to abundant in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and yet, only a single specimen has been collected from this area since 1972, despite recent biodiversity trawl surveys in that region as part of the coelacanth (<em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>) project in progress in the region (P. Heemstra, pers. comm., Human, 2006). This species was not recorded from more recent FRS Algoa surveys conducted off Mozambique. A single specimen was collected during a Fridtjof Nansen survey cruise off Mozambique during 2007, but other deep demersal sharks were more common (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2008). The Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI), Durban data is species-specific and included morphometric data, as well as sketches and notes on the sharks appearance, therefore there is little doubt that these data sheets are referring to <em>H. punctatus</em>.
161675		threats	eng	An intensive crustacean trawl fishery exists off of Durban, and extends northwards into southern Mozambique. This deep water (100–600 m) crustacean fishery fishes towards the edge of the continental shelf in the area (Fennessy and Groenveld 1997).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Holohalaelurus </span>sharks from the KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique region are still present in commercial fisheries landings, but apparently only rarely (N. Kistnasamy, pers. comm.), and species identification is not being recorded. It is not known whether the reduced catch is due to fisheries pressure, habitat loss, pollution, or an as yet unidentified threat (Human 2006).
161676		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Assessment and monitoring of catches and population trends is required, as well as research on the species? life-history characteristics.
161676		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: from the Pacific coast of Tohoku District, Japan, southward to the East China Sea, Ryukyu Islands, and Taiwan (Huang 2001, Nakabo 2002, D.A. Ebert unpubl. data).
161676		habitat	eng	A little-known demersal species found in stone, sand or mud habitats at depths of 220-1,100 m (Nakaya and Shirai 1992, Nakaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). Members of the Torpedinidae family exhibit aplacental viviparity. Males mature by 67.5 cm total length (TL) and females are larger (Haas and Ebert 2006). Maximum size is 113.6 cm TL and size at birth is ~20.0 cm TL (Hass and Ebert 2006).
161676		population	eng	Very little is know about the population of this species, but it seems to be uncommon. Very few specimens were caught in an experimental otter trawl fisheries investigation, which was conducted in the 1980s and 1990s. The species was captured in trawls from 220 m deep in Okinawa Trough, East China Sea and 1,100 m deep from the Tohoku slope off northern Japan (Nakaya<em> et al.</em> 1992).
161676		threats	eng	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries off Japan and Taiwan. This species has been observed in fish markets in Tokyo, Japan, and Tachi, Taiwan. In Taiwan, it is only known from these fish markets where it is occasionally seen (usually one or two a day) (D. Ebert pers comm. 2007). The electric discharge emitted by this species makes it unpleasant to handle and the meat is of poor quality. It is often discarded or utilized for fishmeal (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161677		conservation	eng	There are no known measures in place for this species. Research is urgently required on its full range, habitat, biology and interactions with fisheries.
161677		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: the holotype was collected in the mouth of Hooghly River, India (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
161677		habitat	eng	Virtually no information is currently available on this species? habitat or life-history. The holotype was collected in the mouth of Hooghly River, India, at a depth of ~70 m (Norman 1926).
161677		population	eng	Unknown.
161677		threats	eng	Likely taken as bycatch of trawl and gillnet fisheries operating much of its range, although no specific data are available. Inland and inshore marine fisheries in India are intense. Estimates of the number of fishing vessels suggest there are 208,000 traditional craft, 55,000 traditional motorized craft, 1,250 mechanized boats and about 100 deep-sea fishing vessels in operation off India (FAO 2007). Rhinobatids are known to be vulnerable to depletion due to their limiting life-history characteristics and they are often targeted for their fins which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).
161678		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161678		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: occurs off Namibia and the western and eastern Cape coasts of South Africa, from Lüderitz to Algoa Bay and possibly East London (Compagno and Ebert 2007).
161678		habitat	eng	A benthic, upper slope and outer shelf species, found at depths of 39-620 m (Bianchi <em>et al. </em>1999, Compagno and Ebert 2007). Attains about 35 cm disc width (DW) (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates but little else is known of its biology. Feeds mainly on invertebrates such as crabs, shrimps, hermit crabs, squid, and polychaete worms (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).
161678		population	eng	Moderately common (Compagno and Ebert 2007). It is most common along the uppermost slope and outer shelf of South Africa from the Orange River to Cape Agulhas (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991) and on the Agulhas Bank.
161678		threats	eng	Regularly taken as bycatch by hake trawlers in parts of its range (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).The presence of this species on the Agulhas Bank, on un-trawlable grounds caused by rocky reefs and the strong Agulhas current affords the species some refuge.
161679		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. Further study of this species range is required.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161679		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from 12 specimens collected off Kao-hsiung, Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno 2001).
161679		habitat	eng	Found on the outer shelf of Taiwan at about 110 m (Compagno 2001). Maximum recorded size is 39 cm total length (TL) and one adult male measured 35.9 cm TL (Goto and Nakaya 1996, Compagno 2001).
161679		population	eng	Known only from 12 specimens (the holotype and 11 paratypes) collected on bottom longlines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno 2001).
161679		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom longlines and presumably also as discarded trawl bycatch (Compagno 2001). The species? apparently restricted range in an area where fishing pressure is generally intensive if of concern.
161680		conservation	eng	None in place. Research on the species? range, life-history, taxonomy and threats.
161680		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: from Japan to Philippines, including the Koreas, China and Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno<em> et al. </em>2005a, Compagno 1984).
161680		habitat	eng	A small benthic shark found on the continental shelf at depths of 80?100 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Males mature at 36 cm total length (TL) and females at ~40 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Attains a maximum size of 49 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is oviparous.
161680		population	eng	Unknown, but apparently common in offshore waters (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161680		threats	eng	A potential bycatch of demersal trawl and possibly line fisheries operating on the continental shelf, although no data are available.
161681		conservation	eng	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161681		distribution	eng	Western Central Atlantic: Northern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161681		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater skate, benthic along the upper slope from 300 to 512 m depth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum size of 58 cm total length (TL) for males and 62 cm TL for females (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161681		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161681		threats	eng	May be taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries, but no specific data are available. Very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries and further information is required to make a full assessment of potential threats.
161682		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161682		distribution	eng	Patchy in the western central Atlantic: east coast of Florida and the Florida Keys, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean coasts of Central America and South America to Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago) and the Bahamas and Greater and Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161682		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal species occurring on the continental slope from depths of 366?1,007 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 49 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at close to 40 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous, but there is nothing else known of the biology of the species.
161682		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161682		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of deeper water trawl fisheries, although no information is available.
161683		conservation	eng	None in place.
161683		distribution	eng	Northeast and Eastern Central Pacific: sporadic distribution from Washington State to about 300 miles southwest of San Diego, California, USA (Ebert 2003).
161683		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this deepwater skate, which is found in waters between 1,995 and 2,900 m deep (Ebert 2003). Confusion with other deepwater skates such as the Deepsea Skate (<em>Bathyraja abyssicola</em>) and Roughtail Skate (<em>B. trachura</em>) has precluded a better understanding of this species. It appears to assume the ecological niche of the Roughtail Skate (<em>Bathyraja trachura</em>), at the great depths at which it lives. Maximum size is 74 cm (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Females mature at 60–70 cm. The largest recorded male was an immature specimen measuring 35 cm, and size at birth is about 17 cm. Little is known about their diet other than that they feed on deep-water shrimps (Ebert 2003).
161683		population	eng	Appears to be fairly common below 2,000 m depth (Ebert 2003). The only known specimens have come from scientific research cruises.
161683		threats	eng	This species is generally distributed in very deep waters, beyond the range of most fisheries.
161684		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Research is required on this species? taxonomy, biology, life history as well as the distribution and habitat.
161684		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the type specimen, collected from Nosy Marirana Bank, between Ankilibé and Tuléar, west coast of Madagascar (Chabanaud 1929).<br/><br/>Efforts to find additional specimens in fish markets and in underwater surveys in other areas have failed to produce any other individuals.
161684		habitat	eng	The biology and habitat of this species are unknown. It is known only from the type specimen, which may have been collected from a landing site.
161684		population	eng	This poorly known guitarfish is known only from the type specimen, reported from Madagascar. Nothing known of population size or structure.
161684		threats	eng	Restricted range and occurrence in areas frequented by fishing make this species potentially vulnerable to fishing pressure. Traditional fishing techniques are varied off Madagascar with various nets, canoes, baited boxes, tulles gathered by hand and harpooning, with or without diving (Soumy 2006). Industrial shrimp trawl fisheries also operate off Madagascar (Soumy 2006). Most of the bycatch of these trawls is retained and marketed locally (Soumy 2006).<br/>Guitarfish are vulnerable to fisheries given their limiting life-history characteristics and often narrow ranges, and significant declines in some Rhinobatos spp have been documented where they are heavily fished.
161685		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Bycatch levels should be quantified and monitored. Efforts should be made to assess and monitor population trends and collect information on life-history parameters. Research is also needed on threats to this species, particularly in the southern part of its range.
161685		distribution	eng	Eastern central Atlantic: off the western coast of Africa from Mauritania to Gabon (15–3°N) (Stehmann 1995).
161685		habitat	eng	A demersal species occurring in deeper shelf and upper slope waters at depths of 70–600 m. Reaches a maximum size of ~80 cm total length (Stehmann 1990). Presumably oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of its biology.
161685		population	eng	Species-specific catch data are not available; however, landings data for skates and rays combined are available from a study of the elasmobranch bycatch of the Spanish trawl fishery for black hake that operates off Mauritania. Landings of rajids in terms of weight for this fishery fell from 18 tons in 1992, to 9 tons in 2001 Fernández <em>et al</em>. (2005). Although only small amounts are landed in the northern part of this species’ range in any year, the effect on the species’ population in that area is unknown.
161685		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch, along with other deepwater elasmobranchs, in the Spanish deepwater trawl fishery for black hake that operates off Mauritania (Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2005). Landings for all skates (family Rajidae) are grouped under the Spanish commercial name raya in this fishery; including <em>Raja straeleni</em>, <em>Raja miraletus</em>, <em>Leucoraja leucosticta</em>, <em>Rostroraja alba</em> and other species, all found in deeper waters. Landings of rajids are small and decreased between 1992 and 2001 in this fishery (see Population section). Fernández <em>et al</em>. (2005) suggest that the decline and shift in species composition of the landings in this fishery (including in other elasmobranch species) may be attributable to a set of factors, including a shift in the depths fished, economic reasons (the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study) and probable over-exploitation of both the target and bycatch species. This fishery operates from 140–750 m depth, but currently tends to work at increasingly greater depths (with some variation according to the seasonal tides, and a recent average depth of up to 710 m per tide (2003 data from observers on commercial vessels)). Spanish deepwater trawl vessels targeting hake also operate off Senegal (FAO 2004).<br/><br/>Other fleets from Spain and other countries are also fishing in this area with both fresh and freezer vessels focusing on other demersal and semipelagic stocks, but little information is available on them (Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Little information is available on deepwater fishing pressure throughout the rest of this species’ range, to the south and throughout the Gulf of Guinea. Mensah and Quaatey (2002) state that the sea bottom is untrawlable at depths greater than 75 m in the Gulf of Guinea, and demersal stocks in offshore waters (i.e., 75–200 m) therefore remain under-exploited (Williams 1968, Martos <em>et al</em>. 1991). However, this species may be vulnerable to fisheries operating further offshore and in deeper waters.<br/><br/>Coastal waters and heavily exploited throughout the western African coast, and fisheries are expected to expand into deeper waters in response to declining fish stocks on the inner continental shelf. Further information is required to determine the level and impact of fishing pressure on this species.
161686		conservation	eng	None.
161686		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: from off the southeastern coast of Florida, USA, Gulf of Mexico, and Yucatan Bank, Mexico (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).
161686		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marine waters nearshore and offshore up to 183 m and temperatures between 14–28°C (Smith, 1997); however, it most commonly occurs at 15–110 m at temperatures of 16–25°C (McEachran and Fechhelm, 1998).  Young occur in shallow bays whereas adults tend to live offshore (Smith 1997); however, all sizes have been collected in bottom and pelagic trawls in NOAA fishery independent surveys in the US Gulf of Mexico (unpublished data NOAA Mississippi Labs, A. DeBose and A. Hamilton).<br/> <br/>This species is oviparous with a distinct sexual dimorphism between males and females. The ovaries of the female are functional on both sides. Once the eggs are mature, they are released from the ovaries, fertilized in the upper part of the shell gland, are enclosed with yolk and albumen in a capsule formed by the lower shell gland. These capsules vary widely in size and are believed to be associated with parental body size. The capsules are light brown and have the characteristic horns on the four corners. Typically, there is only one fertilized egg found in a single capsule. These capsules are flat on one side and convex on the other. The female will often deposit eggs in sandy or muddy flats. When the young hatch from the capsules, they are fully formed and are similar in appearance to adults (unpublished data, J. Sulikowski).<br/><br/>Analysis of stomach contents from 222 immature (195 non-empty; mean DW = 23.5 cm) and 191 mature animals (167 non-empty; mean DW = 32.2 cm) in the northern Gulf of Mexico indicate shrimp (mostly euphasiids) make up 91% IRI of immature skate diet. Fish make up the remainder of immature skate diet. Mature skate diet was also predominantly shrimp (65 %IRI); however, fishes made up a much larger percentage (25 %IRI). Crabs were also relatively important in the diet of mature animals (4 %IRI). This suggests that roundel skate exhibit ontogenetic changes in diet with size and maturity (Bethea <em>et al.</em> In prep).
161686		population	eng	Unknown.
161686		threats	eng	The species is potentially caught as bycatch in demersal trawls that occur off the southeastern coast of Florida, USA, and in the Gulf of Mexico and probably discarded. It is also taken as bycatch in the butterfish fishery.
161687		conservation	eng	Habitat maintenance and conservation are important measures for this species. The construction of hydroelectric and thermal stations should be controlled or restricted (not only to benefit this species but similar species and other wildlife in the area). Management plans, specific legislation and community management are also recommended in order to reduce and regulate sustainable use as a food resource and for the ornamental trade. Research actions and fishery monitoring are also required. Education and public awareness of potamotrygonids is essential due to the negative image of these species (often resulting in persecution due to fear of injury from the sting).
161687		distribution	eng	South America inland waters: probably endemic to the Paraguay and lower Paraná river basins, it is found in Rio de la Plata, lower-mid Paraná River, mid Uruguay River and Paraguay River in Northeastern Argentina, western Brazil (States of Mato Grosso, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul), central Paraguay and western Uruguay (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003, Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2004, assessor?s pers. obs.). Citations of this species for the Orinoco and Amazon drainages probably represent misidentifications (Rosa 1985, assessor?s pers. obs.).
161687		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species but relative to information available on other potamotrygonid species the information on <em>P. brachyura</em> is significant. Castex and Maciel (1965) observed this species in very shallow waters and obtained most specimens from quiet waters of lagoons, brooks and streams in the region of Santa Fe, Argentina, during August and September 1962, when the Paraná River was at its lowest level, and during March and April in 1963 when water levels started to increase. They also mentioned that by early autumn, when water temperatures started to fall, this was the only species of river ray still found. The reproductive period of this species was indicated as commencing later in the year than <em>P. motoro</em> (pregnant individuals observed in January).<br/><br/>Achenbach and Achenbach (1976) found <em>P. brachyura</em> in all river systems in the mid Paraná River and this was the second most abundant potamotrygonid in their study. Captures took place mainly between mid-October and the beginning of November. During floods, specimens could be observed resting over vegetation, and fishermen took advantage of this behaviour to harpoon them.<br/><br/>An ovoviviparous species with gravid females usually over 40 cm DW. The highest number of births was observed during November and December, and the maximum litter size observed was 19 pups. Only the left ovary seems functional (Achenbach and Achenbach 1976).<br/><br/>According to Achenbach and Achenbach (1976), pups feed on plankton after birth. Juveniles complement their diet with small mollusks (Lamellibranches and Gastropods), crustaceans, larvae of aquatic insects, and fish (Loricariidae, <em>Astyanax</em> spp. and <em>Pimelodella gracilis</em> were recorded from adults).
161687		population	eng	The major concentration area for this species is apparently the middle Uruguay River, where it is considered relatively frequent (Soto pers. obs.).
161687		threats	eng	As with some other species of river stingray in the southern region of South America, the flesh of P. brachyura is particularly highly rated and this species is therefore called ?raya fina? (fine ray) (Achenbach and Achenbach 1976) It is harpooned by fishermen when sighted resting in shallow water.<br/><br/>There is a small amount of fishing for the more attractively patterned juveniles to supply the ornamental fish trade. This species is illegally exported from Brazil but very limited information is available concerning this international trade. Due to its large size it is presumably not among the most commercialised species however it is still necessary to monitor the ornamental catches in order to determine trends and optimise management.<br/><br/>The major threats to the species are likely due to habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Paraná River system for navigation and hydroelectric plants, and the construction of many ports along the river (infrastructure development). Agriculture, livestock and various kinds of water pollution also affect the habitat of this species.<br/><br/>Expressive mortality close to "thermal stations" in Uruguay (generally in the winter months) require more specific studies (Soto pers. obs). These popular tourist sites (for recreation and health treatment) are natural thermal springs which are cleaned by flushing large volumes of hot water, resulting in mortality to river rays due to temperature shock.<br/><br/>Intrinsic factors, including restricted range, may also affect the threatened status of this species.
161688		conservation	eng	None in place. Future surveys should attempt to record this species to determine its full distribution, as well as information on its population and biology.
161688		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: known from a single specimen from the Wanganela Bank on the Norfolk Ridge (south of Norfolk Island) (Last and McEachran 2006).
161688		habitat	eng	The biology of <em>Brochiraja aenigma</em> is virtually unknown. The only known specimen was collected from 422?437 m depth and was 44 cm total length (TL) (Last and McEachran 2006). It is presumably oviparous and deposits eggs in quadrangular egg cases, like other skates.
161688		population	eng	Rare. This species is only known from a single specimen. Further surveys conducted in the type locality aimed to collect it again, but failed to record more specimens (P. Last and J. Stevens pers. obs. 2007).
161688		threats	eng	The Wanganella Bank is rarely fished at depths shallower than 500 m (S. Baird, NIWA, unpublished data), so bycatch of <em>Brochiraja aenigma</em> may be low; however the impact of fishing cannot be determined until information is available on the full geographic and depth range of the species. When caught, these skates are probably not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. Catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it impossible to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently.
161689		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required.
161689		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: southern Baja and the Gulf of California (Mexico) to Panama (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007), and from Ecuador (Béarez 1996) and Peru (M. Love pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.
161689		habitat	eng	A benthic species found in coastal waters over soft bottoms at depths of 5 to 100 m (M. Love pers. comm. via J.D. McEachran, R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). The largest recorded size for this species was a male specimen measuring 42.1 cm total length (McEachran 1995). Life-history is poorly known and no other biological data are available.
161689		population	eng	Locally common from Panama to El Salvador (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).
161689		threats	eng	Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). No specific information is available on catches, but this species is taken as bycatch of these fisheries throughout much of its geographic range. Inshore fishing pressure in this area is generally intense, although this species? depth range extends to 100 m, deeper than other Urotrygon species in this region.<br/><br/>Coastal fisheries of Costa Rica are often fished to maximum capacity or over-fished, as in the case of the Pacific shrimp fishery (FAO 2007). Although stingrays used to be discarded by fishermen because they are dangerous on the deck of fishing vessels, most large individuals are probably now retained and utilised (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Urotrygon </span>species are also taken as bycatch in inshore artisanal fisheries in Peru (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005) and probably elsewhere in Pacific South America, where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is significant and generally unregulated.<br/><br/>Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting catches internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ?marine fishes, nei?, where nei stands for ?not explicitly identified? (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). This limits the available information to assess catches of this and other inshore elasmobranch species.
161690		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are planned or in place for the Bigeye Electric Ray. Research is needed to determine the full extent of the species’ occurrence and details of fishing activities which may take this species as bycatch are required from the Gulf of Aden (which is very poorly sampled for batoids).<br/><br/>Trawling was banned in Oman’s Exclusive Economic Zone in June 2011. Effective monitoring of artisanal fisheries in Oman is required, as is the effective implementation and management of marine protected areas. An education program on sustainable fishing and bycatch mitigation is needed for artisanal fishers.
161690		distribution	eng	At present, the Bigeye Electric Ray is known only from the Gulf of Oman/Arabian Sea off the Sultanate of Oman, and the Gulf of Aden off Somalia in the northwestern Indian Ocean (de Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002a). As such, the currently known range is fragmented, but the species may be more widespread in the region.
161690		habitat	eng	<p>In the Gulf of Oman, the Bigeye Electric Ray has been recorded from both shallow (originally known only from photographs taken by scuba divers and the holotype was collected by hand net while on scuba from 21 m on sandy bottom near rocky reef) and deeper depths (one record taken at a depth of 106–152 m) (de Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002a). Records from the Gulf of Aden come from depths of 33–91 m (de Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002a).</p>  <p>Maximum known size is 35 cm total length (TL). Females mature by 32.5 cm TL and males mature by 24 cm TL; maturity is possibly smaller in both sexes. Reproductive mode is yolksac viviparity. The holotype contained three late-term foetuses (10.5–11.2 cm TL) in the right uterus with a mass of fertilised eggs in the left uterus, suggesting that both uteri are functional but asynchronous (de Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002a).</p>
161690		population	eng	The population size and structure of the Bigeye Electric Ray is unknown. It is known from only a few specimens and photographs, however, this may reflect a cryptic habit rather than abundance, as is the case with other electric rays. It ‘is believed to be relatively uncommon’ around Fahal Island off Muscat, Oman where the holotype was collected (de Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002a).
161690		threats	eng	<p>Fishing activity within the region of occurrence of the Bigeye Electric Ray is generally intense and this may have historically, or may be currently impacting this species through fishery-induced mortality or altered trophic pathways. This species is known to be a rare bycatch on the Arabian Sea trawl grounds off Oman, but exact levels of bycatch in any fishery is unknown. Trawling was however banned from Oman’s Exclusive Economic Zone in June 2011, so there is no threat from that fishing method in Omani waters. Trawling may be a threat to the species elsewhere in the region (for example, Iran) if the species has a wider distribution than is presently known. </p>    <p>Oman has a long established artisanal shark fishery using bottom-set longlines, bottom-set gillnets and driftnets, which includes landings of batoids (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Market surveys did not report any electric rays (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007) which suggests that they are rarely, at if all, taken in this fishery as the majority of catch is landed (one reason for this may be gear and habitat bias as most batoids are taken on longline which are set in moderately deep water away from reefs, while in this region, electric rays are generally seen near reefs; A. Henderson pers. comm. 2012). </p>    <p>There is no information on interactions with fisheries in the Gulf of Aden where Bonfil and Abdallah (2004) noted that there were at least 27,900 artisanal fishermen and 6,400 vessels. There has been a considerable increase in fisheries production in that area (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004), but there are no details of interactions with the Bigeye Electric Ray.</p>
161691		conservation	eng	There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm for skates and rays caught in the inshore waters of various parts of England and Wales, through Sea Fishery Committee bylaws. Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations, effort reduction). <br/><br/>Research is required on population numbers and trends, range, biology, ecology, habitat status and threats.
161691		distribution	eng	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: widely-distributed in shelf waters, from Madeira and Morocco in the south to the Shetland Isles in the north, including the Irish Sea, English Channel and south-western and north-western North Sea (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a, ICES 2006).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: western Mediterranean Sea, including the waters of Spain, France, western Italy, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Bauchot 1987, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Baino<em> et al</em>. 2001, Bertozzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). One doubtful record from the northern Aegean Sea (Serena 2005).
161691		habitat	eng	<em>Raja brachyura</em> is most common on sandy sediments in waters down to about 150 m deep (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a) in the Northeast Atlantic, though may occur deeper in the southern parts of its range. In the Mediterranean Sea it is mainly found at depths of 10?150 m to about 300 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). It reaches a maximum size of ~120 cm (TL) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984) and commonly reaches 40?80 cm TL. Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. They reproduce from February to August and have a gestation period of almost seven months, with females producing about 30 egg cases/year (measuring about 12 x 8 cm, excluding horns) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans (amphipods, natantids), with larger individuals more piscivorous and predating on dragonet and sand eels (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1996). Little is known about its reproductive biology.
161691		population	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>It is relatively common in the inshore and shelf waters (down to about 150 m) in the English Channel and Irish Sea, Bristol Channel and St George?s Channel (Fahy 1989, 1991; Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005a). It is less abundant in the North Sea and Celtic Sea (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a). Blonde ray is also one of the more important ray species recorded in landings around the Iberian Peninsula (ICES 2006).<br/><br/>No formal stock assessments have been undertaken for this species. Although it has a relatively broad geographical range, this species is most abundant from the British Isles to Portugal. There are certain areas where it is locally abundant, for example in parts of the North Sea and Irish Sea. Hence, this species seems to have a fragmented population, possibly due to the fragmented nature of its favoured habitat. This species may have declined over the course of the 20th century (Rogers and Ellis 2000). Rogers and Ellis (2000) compared standardized catch rates of demersal fish from research vessel surveys in three areas around the British Isles (northwestern Irish Sea, Devon, and southern North Sea) from 1901 to 1907 with survey catches in the same areas from 1989?1997. In this analysis, skates of intermediate body size showed marked declines in relative abundance, especially the blonde ray <em>R. brachyura</em> and the thornbach ray <em>R. clavata</em>. Furthermore, the percentage composition of the blonde ray decreased by close to 30% between the two survey periods. Catch rates in beam trawl surveys in the English Channel and Irish Sea appear steady in recent times (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b), and there is no consistent trend in the North Sea (ICES 2006). However, these catch rates refer to all individuals and not just mature fish.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The blonde ray <em>Raja brachyura</em>, is relatively rare in the Mediterranean. It is not certain if it has always been rare there. The species is rare but consistently caught in the MEDITS trawl surveys from 1994 to 1999. The MEDITS survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from west Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). The blonde ray has been recorded in a total of 21 of 6,336 tows performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10?800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was caught between 0?500 m and greatest catch rates were between 100 to 500 m (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>The blonde ray does not appear to have been captured in either historical or recent comparative trawl surveys of the Adriatic Sea or the Gulf of Lions (Aldebert 1997, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001, Marano <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>Little is known of this species? current distribution and abundance along northwest African coastlines, however it appears to be uncommon off Tunisia (Bradai 2000). It also appears to be relatively rare in Italian Seas, with a low frequency of occurrence in GRUND (Italian), MEDITS trawl surveys and other surveys in this area (Follesa <em>et al.</em> 2003, Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003, Spedicato <em>et al.</em> 2003, Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161691		threats	eng	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Taken in targeted fisheries in areas where it is locally abundant and taken as a bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries elsewhere in its range. Also taken in recreational fisheries. Skates are an important component of demersal fisheries in the northeast Atlantic and <em>Raja brachyura</em> is landed and sold (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Holden 1977). This species is one of the more frequent species landed by the commercial fleet on the Portuguese cost, accounting for 44% of the total individuals sampled in Peniche and 18% in Matosinhos (Machado <em>et al. </em>2004).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The blond ray is caught as part of the bycatch of the semi industrial (Spain) and artisanal (Morocco and Greece) fisheries with bottom trawls, gill nets and long lines (Bauchot 1987). Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was historically exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries, comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp). Later effort increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987).  The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are highly exploited, with intensive commercial trawling occurring at depths ranging from 50 to 700 to 800 m (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003).
161692		conservation	eng	Further research is required on taxonomy, as is assessment of catches throughout its range.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), efforts in further research should be directed to also obtain the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.
161692		distribution	eng	Wide-spread distribution in the Indian and western Pacific Oceans, from South Africa to northern Australia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Compagno 1998, W. White and B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: South Africa to India, including the Red Sea and Gulf. Eastern Indian Ocean: India to Indonesia and northern Australia.<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands, southern Japan. Western Central Pacific: Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia and Indonesia.<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: The species is thought to be a Lessepsian immigrant, having entered the Mediterranean Sea from the Red Sea through the Suez Canal (Serena 2005).
161692		habitat	eng	Often found off sandy beaches and in shallow estuaries and lagoons and may enter freshwater; also found in sandy areas of coral reefs. Also occurs offshore to depths of at least 50 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy. Attains at least 148 cm disc width (DW) (White and Dhamadi 2007) (up to 450 cm total length in Compagno 1998). Males mature at 82?84 cm DW and size at birth is 21?28 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007, Manjaji 2004). Fecundity is probably low; one pregnant female observed possessed two embryos (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs.).
161692		population	eng	Uncommon throughout much of its range (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007), but appears to be common in parts of northern Australia (W. White. pers. obs. 2007).
161692		threats	eng	<em>Himantura uarnak</em> faces many of the same threats as other <em>Himantura</em> species within its range, however, its large size at maturity and maximum size and preference for shallow waters (which are being heavily utilised and degraded in many parts of its range), suggest that it may be more vulnerable than its congeners (B.M. Manjaji, Fahmi, W. White, pers. Obs. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is captured by demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and across large parts of its range. Its inshore distribution overlaps with coastal artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout large areas of the Indian and western Pacific oceans.<br/><br/>It is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura uarnak</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>Demersal fishing pressure has increased in both effort and capacity in many areas of this species? inshore range during recent decades. For example, demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand went from being lightly exploited to severely over-exploited between 1973 and 1994 (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Available time series data for grouped biomass of ?rays? for this area and period applied to an ecostystem model for the area, suggested that this group was one of the most severely impacted by the initial increase in fishing pressure, showing a steady declining trend (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Species-specific catch data are not collected, but aggregated landings data for ?Rays, stingrays, mantas, nei? are reported to FAO by some countries. Indonesian landings increased from ~10,000 t in 1975 to almost 60,000 t in 2003. Data are not available for India, but data for Pakistan show that landings increased to a peak of 53,000 t as early as 1982, after which landings dropped to ~10,000 t in 1983 and have not risen above 21,000 t since (FAO 2008).<br/><br/>This species? preference for inshore waters, shallow estuaries and lagoons means it is also threatened by extensive habitat degradation and loss of mangrove forest. It may also be affected by destructive fishing practices and pollution. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, urban development and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (FAO 2007). Between 1980 and 2005 combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia was reduced by >30% (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Although species-specific data are not available, given that this is a large species with low fecundity and a preference for shallow waters (where threats from coastal fisheries and habitat degradation are greatest), significant declines are suspected to have occurred as a result of over-exploitation in fisheries in Southeast Asia, the northern Indian Ocean, and elsewhere in areas of high exploitation.<br/><br/>Conversely, this species has refuge from fishing pressure in areas such as northern Australia, where fishing pressure is light and bycatch mitigation measures are in place. Large specimens are caught as bycatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.
161693		conservation	eng	Further information on the biology, distribution (depth and range) and incidental capture in fisheries is required to make and assessment of the threats to this species and any future conservation measures. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161693		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southeastern Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161693		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater skate found on the slope at depths of 440?869 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 23 cm total length (TL), and males mature at 18?21 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Size at birth is ~7 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous.
161693		population	eng	Unknown.
161693		threats	eng	There is no specific information available on the threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to trawl fisheries, particularly as these expand to greater depths in the future. Information on any deepwater fisheries operating within the species range is required, and bycatch levels need to be quantified.
161694		conservation	eng	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Research is required on this species? life history parameters, abundance and population trends. Efforts should be made to quantify and monitor catch levels.
161694		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: Gulf of California, Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Galapagos Islands, Peru (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Robertson and Allen 2002).
161694		habitat	eng	Occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 20?200 m (Robertson and Allen 2002). Reaches a maximum total length (TL) of 88 cm TL (Robertson and Allen 2002). Like other skates, this species is oviparous but little else is known of its life-history parameters.
161694		population	eng	No information is currently available.
161694		threats	eng	Presumably taken as bycatch of demersal fisheries operating throughout much of its geographic range, but no information on catches of this species is currently available. Shrimp trawl and ground fish fisheries are generally intense in many inshore areas of its range in the Eastern Pacific. For example, the Mexican industrial fleet includes 2,407 shrimp trawlers, 70% of which operate on the Pacific coast, and almost all of these are concentrated in the Gulf of California (FAO 2007). The shrimp trawl fishery off Colombia operates from the shelf to depths of at least 300 m and may take this species, although Puentes <em>et al.</em> (2007) did not record it in a study of the bycatch of this fishery.
161695		conservation	eng	None in place.
161695		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean and northwest and western central Pacific Ocean: the Gulf, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Taiwan, Province of China, Indonesia (Java, Sulawesi) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>FAO fisheries area: 51, 57, 71.
161695		habitat	eng	Found inshore on continental and insular shelves to depths of at least 59 m. Thought to be a viviparous species giving birth to four young per litter. Pups are born at ~20 cm total length (TL) and grow to a maximum total length of around 125 cm TL with males maturing between 83 and 97 cm TL (Compagno in prep., White 2007).
161695		population	eng	Apparently common in some parts of its range (Compagno in prep). Now rare off Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161695		threats	eng	Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout much of this species’ range. Commonly caught in inshore and offshore artisanal fisheries off Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and probably elsewhere in its range. Caught irregularly by fishers off Indonesia. Caught in drifting and bottom gillnets and on longlines. Meat is utilized for human consumption and offal is processed into fishmeal (Compagno in prep). Fins are utilized but of lower value due to their small size (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Gill net and trawl fisheries in Indonesia (especially the Java Sea) are very extensive and many shark species are highly exploited as result. Catches of sharks in south-east Asia are very high but are declining and fishers have to travel much further from the ports in order to sustain and increase catches (Chen 1996). Trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further afield, e.g., in Jakarta the gill net fishery at Muara Baru travels to waters around Kalimantan due to the decline in local shark populations (W. White unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Flewwelling and Hosch (2006) report that generally coastal fisheries in the Eastern Indian Ocean are all overfished and have been under considerable fishing pressures from uncontrolled, open access fisheries management schemes for several years in all countries in the region.
161696		conservation	eng	In Northwest Atlantic US waters, the Bigeye Thresher Shark (<em>Alopias superciliosus</em>), has been listed as a Prohibited Species under the Fishery Management Plan of the Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks (NMFS 2003) since 2000. The U.S Fishery Management Plan for Highly Migratory Species by the NMFS provides a biennial review of the status of Bigeye Thresher with management contingent on the health of the stock (PFMC 2004). No catch guidelines are recommended at this time on the West coast of the USA.<br/><br/>Family Alopiidae is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g., ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the fishing of thresher sharks for their fins alone.
161696		distribution	eng	This oceanic and coastal shark is virtually circumglobal in tropical and temperate seas (Compagno 2001). The below distribution is taken directly from (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Western Atlantic: ranges from New York to Florida, Mississippi and Texas, USA, Mexico (Veracruz to Yucatan), Bahamas, Cuba, Venezuela, Brazil (from Praia do Forte, Bahia to Rio Grande de Sul), Uruguay, and almost certainly Argentina.<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic: from eastern Portugal and Spain, Madeira, near Azores, Morocco, Canary Islands, Senegal, Guinea to Sierra Leone, Angola, South Africa (Western Cape), including the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Indian Ocean: South Africa (Eastern Cape and Kwazulu-Natal), Madagascar, Arabian Sea (Somalia), Gulf of Aden, Maldives, Sri Lanka.<br/><br/>Western Pacific: Southern Japan (including Okinawa), Taiwan, Viet Nam, between northern Mariana Islands and Wake Island, Northwestern Submarine Rise, New Caledonia, Australia (northwestern coast), New Zealand. Also towards the Central Pacific in the area between Wake, Marshall, Howland and Baker, Palmyra, Johnston Islands.<br/><br/>Eastern Pacific: California, USA, Mexico (Gulf of California) to approximately 15°S latitude off Peru, including west of Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; possibly off northern Chile (Compagno 2001). Also Hawaiian Islands, USA, north and south of Hawaiian Islands, off east of Line Islands, and between Marquesas and Galapagos Islands.<br/><br/>The longest straight line movement of a conventionally tagged Bigeye Thresher Shark is reported at 2,767 km, from waters off New York to the Eastern Gulf of Mexico (Weng and Block 2004, Kohler and Turner 2001). A study of two bigeye thresher sharks using pop-up satellite archival tags in the Gulf of Mexico and Hawaiian Archipelago suggest a pattern of diel vertical migration (Weng and Block 2001). Nakano <em>et al.</em> (2003) also report distinct diel vertical migrations from acoustic telemetry studies in the Eastern Central Pacific, with the studied sharks staying at 200 to 500 m depth during the day and at 80 to 130 m at night.
161696		habitat	eng	Found in coastal waters over the continental shelves, sometimes close inshore in shallow waters, and on the high seas in the epipelagic zone far from land; also caught near the bottom in deep water on the continental slopes (Compagno 2001). Ranges from the surface and in the intertidal to at least 500 m deep and has been recorded to 723 m deep (Nakano <em>et al. </em>2003), mostly below 100 m depth (Compagno 2001). Mediterranean captures are typically from offshore continental shelf waters.<br/><br/>Estimated age at maturity is years 12-13 (females), 9-10 years (males) (Liu <em>et al. </em>1998) (data from Taiwan waters, Northwest Pacific). Longevity is estimated at 20 years for females (19 years for males) (Liu <em>et al.</em> 1998). Males mature at 270-300 cm total length (TL) and females at 332-355 cm TL (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997, Liu <em>et al.</em> 1998, Moreno and Moron 1992, Stillwelli and Casey 1976). The maximum recorded size of <em>A. superciliosus</em> is 461 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Size at birth ranges from 64-140 cm TL (Golani 1996, Chen <em>et </em>al. 1997, Bauchot 1987). The gestation period is 12 months with average litter sizes 2-4 pups/litter, usually two (Compagno 2001). Of the thresher sharks, the Bigeye Thresher has the lowest rate of annual increase, estimated at 1.6% under sustainable exploitation (Smith <em>et al. </em>2008), or 0.002-0.009 (Cortés 2008, Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2008). There have been several studies on the biology of <em>A. superciliosus</em> from Brazilian waters in the southwest Atlantic; see (Amorim <em>et al. </em>1998, Amorim <em>et al.</em> in press, Gonzalez and Magenta-da-Cunha in press).<br/><br/>A recent tagging study of two <em>A. superciliosus</em> (one from Hawaii and the other from the Gulf of Mexico) indicates strong diel vertical migration (Weng and Block 2004). These sharks spent most of the nightime in waters warmer than 20°C and commonly spent eight or more hours during the daytime in waters cooler than 10°C, requiring them to be eurythermal. Nakano <em>et al.</em> (2003) undertook acoustic tracking of this species in the eastern Pacific Ocean.<br/><br/>Reported diet consists of pelagic bony fishes including scombroids, clupeoids and small billfishes; hake and cephalopods (Compagno 2001). Uses its tail to stun the pelagic fishes on which it feeds (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Anecdotal reports from Maltese fishermen suggest a strong association between these sharks and highly mobile scombroids such as Bullet Tunas <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span> in the Mediterranean. Observations from Sardinia show that the Bigeye Thresher sometimes interacts with swordfish, receiving fatal wounds (Vacchi and Serena 2000).
161696		population	eng	Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations are presumably largely isolated. An ongoing genetic study of global population structure in <em>A. superciliosus</em> using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial control region indicates no structuring of populations within the Pacific Ocean, but significant genetic structure between Bigeye Threshers in the northwest Atlantic and those in the Pacific Ocean (Trejo 2004). The existence of separate Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean stocks is unconfirmed.
161696		threats	eng	Members of the genus <em>Alopias</em>, thresher sharks, are threatened from a combination of slow life history characteristics, hence low capacity to recover from moderate levels of exploitation, and high levels of largely unmanaged and unreported mortality in target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries. The Bigeye Thresher Shark has the lowest intrinsic rebound potential and least resistance to fisheries of the genus.<br/><br/>Thresher shark species (including <em>A. superciliosus</em>) were found to represent at least 2-3% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Thresher shark fins are generally low value compared to other species because of their low fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 350,000 and 3.9 million thresher sharks (<em>Alopias</em> species) are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 12,000 to 85,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). These estimates are 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than catches of Alopiidae reported to FAO, which since the early-1980s have generally been less than 1,600 tonnes, and around 1,000 mt since 1998 (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). Catches of thresher sharks are clearly hugely under reported globally. Although trend data are as a result largely lacking, these fisheries are unlikely to be sustainable. A recent FAO analysis states, ?unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider these species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally? (Maguire <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>The life history of this species, including a late age at maturity (12-13 years) and very low fecundity (average two pups per litter) (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997), render it highly vulnerable to overexploitation. <em>Alopias superciliosus</em> has the lowest annual rate of population increase of all thresher sharks and is therefore particularly at risk from depletion in fisheries. Its epipelagic habitat occurs within the range of commercial longline fisheries in which it is readily caught. Caught or formerly caught in the oceanic longline fisheries operated by the former USSR, Japan, Taiwan (Province of China), Spain, the USA, Brazil, Uruguay, Mexico, and probably other countries. Especially important areas for these fisheries are the northwestern Indian Ocean, western and Central Pacific, eastern North Pacific, and North Atlantic (Compagno 2001). This species is also taken as incidental bycatch in fixed bottom and pelagic gill nets, in trawls, and as a rare catch of anti-shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It has been caught by anglers with sportsfishing gear (rod-and-reel) in the USA, South Africa, and New Zealand, in some instances by anglers targeting swordfish at night (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>The Bigeye Thresher was formerly a very important component of the Cuban longline fishery, and more recently has been taken in considerable numbers by longliners off the northeastern USA and by gill net vessels off southern California (USA) and the eastern Atlantic (by Spanish vessels), and by longliners off Taiwan (Province of China; where about 220 t per year are landed) (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/><em>A. superciliosus</em> has been caught incidentally in the northwest and western central Atlantic for about four decades. The first longline fisheries in the Atlantic were begun by the Japanese in 1956 in the western equatorial waters (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Fisheries monitoring of bigeye thresher shark catch is extremely limited because they are an incidentally caught species. In Canada and the U.S., less than 5% of the pelagic longlining fleets are monitored by observers, making it difficult to elucidate reliable trends in abundance from these data. Fisheries monitoring in international waters is even more limited. The pelagic longline fishing grounds for the US fleet extend from the Grand Banks (about 45°N) in the northwest Atlantic to 5-10°S off the South American coast, within which geographical areas of longline fishing are defined for classification (Cortés <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>The northwest and western central Atlantic regional assessment is based on several estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S. pelagic longline fishery, between 1986-2000, for thresher sharks (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). The analysis is not species-specific but, based on the location of the catches, the majority of threshers in the dataset are most likely bigeye thresher sharks (K. Goldman pers. comm.), and the sample size of threshers in these data is over 20,000. The estimated decline of thresher sharks combined (<em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. vulpinus</em>) is 80% during this fifteen-year time period, which is just over the length of one generation for bigeye threshers (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). An alternative analysis of the same logbook dataset for 1986?2005 that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>, resulted in an overall decline of 63% (Cortés <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fishing pressure on thresher sharks began over two decades prior to the start of this time series, thus the estimated declines are not from virgin biomass.<br/><br/>A more recent analysis of <em>Alopias</em> spp. trends from scientific observer data between 1992 and 2005 in the same U.S. pelagic longline fishery found an almost identical instantaneous rate of decline (-0.12 up to the year 2000) as in the logbook analysis (Baum <em>et al.</em> unpublished manuscript). For this nine year period (1992-2000), the decline amounts to 68%, therefore the decline back to when the fishery started in the 1960s (less than three generation period of 51 years) would be much greater. However, because of recent increases in the catch rates in 2004 and 2005, the overall trend from 1992-2005 of -0.024 was non-significant, and would amount to only a 26% decline (Baum <em>et al.</em> unpublished manuscript). Cortés <em>et al.</em> (2007) also conducted an alternative analysis of this same observer dataset for the same time period that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>. This analysis of the observer dataset showed a trend opposite to that of the logbook analysis, with a 28% increase since 1992. In contrast, the nominal observer series showed a 39% decline and the logbook index for the same time period showed a decrease of 50%. Furthermore the sample size in the observer analysis was much smaller (n=14?84) than that in the logbook analysis (n=112?1292) and thus the trend estimated should be regarded with caution. Cortés <em>et al.?</em>s (2007) observer analysis was restricted to four out of the 11 geographical areas covered by the pelagic longline fishing fleet to keep a balanced statistical design (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 2007). Their full logbook analysis, which showed an overall decline of 63%, had much larger sample sizes and is thus better to estimate trends with more certainty (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Bigeye Thresher is more biologically vulnerable than the Common Thresher (<em>A. vulpinus</em>), with which it is grouped in the logbook and observer datasets. Given this species? intrinsic rate of population increase is much lower and that fishing pressure on thresher sharks began over two decades prior to the start of these longline time series, the combined analyses may underestimate the decline in <em>A. superciliosus</em>. The area covered by the dataset analyzed, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the confirmed range of bigeye threshers in these two regions (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>This species is a bycatch of the semi-industrial fisheries (swordfish and other pelagic fisheries) of southern Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Sicily and Malta, and of artisanal trammel and gillnet fisheries elsewhere in the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987). However, <em>A. superciliosus</em> has been poorly documented in the Mediterranean and is considered scarce or rare (Barrull and Mate 2002). As a result, no data are available on catch trends for this species in the region. In recent years, increasing numbers of new records from the eastern Mediterranean (sometimes multiple captures) demonstrate that this species also penetrates widely to the east of Malta, occurring in the waters off Israel (Levantine basin), in the Aegean Sea off Turkey and southern Greece, and off southern Crete (I. Fergusson pers. obs., Golani 1996, Clò <em>et al.</em> 2005, Clò <em>et al.</em> 2008). Evidence from offshore pelagic fisheries in southern Sicily and Malta indicate that <em>A. superciliosus</em> is caught in unknown numbers each year, but routinely discarded at sea (hence the vernacular name ?False Thresher?, because of a perceived low local value). Despite the apparent threat posed by bycatch and the species? vulnerable life-history characteristics, there is a lack of records and further information on the population of <em>A. superciliosus</em> in the Mediterranean Sea is required. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Pacific</strong><br/>The California drift gill net fishery for common thresher, <em>A. vulpinus</em> provided strong evidence that thresher sharks are highly vulnerable to rapid population decline when heavily fished, when landings of A. vulpinus declined to 28% of peak landings in 1982 by the late 1980s (Goldman 2005, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). Pelagic fleets operating in the eastern central Pacific are known to take <em>A. superciliosus</em>, for example it is a bycatch of the purse seine fishery operating in the Eastern Pacific Ocean (Román-Verdesoto and Orozco-Zöller 2005). Ward and Myers (2005) estimated the biomass of thresher sharks to be approximately 5% of the virgin biomass and estimated a decline in abundance of 83% in the eastern tropical Pacific. These estimates were made by a comparison of pelagic longline research surveys in the 1950s carried out in the tropical Pacific Ocean with recent data (1990s) collected by observers on pelagic longline fishing vessels, which have been standardized to account for differences in depth and soak time (Ward and Myers 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is caught in tuna and swordfish longline fisheries, and to a lesser extent gillnets, with other wide-ranging oceanic shark species in this region. In the tuna and swordfish longline fisheries some vessels now also target sharks due to the increasing demand and commercial value of fins, particularly in Brazil and Uruguay (Domingo 2000). The landed catch and CPUE of Bigeye Thresher in the Santos (São Paulo) tuna longline fishery increased from 1971 to 1989, and then gradually decreased from 1990 to 1996 (Arfelli and Amorim 1994, Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). In later years a switch to shallower set longlines in the fishery (to target swordfish instead of tuna) reduced the catch of most sharks and may have affected the CPUE time-series which continued to show a decrease to 2001 (A. Amorim pers. obs.). Both <em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. vulpinus</em> are caught in the Brazil Santos longline fishery, with <em>A. superciliosus</em> comprising the large majority of the catch and <em>A. vulpinus</em> only a small proportion of captures (Sadowsky and Amorim 1977). <em>A. superciliosus</em> has also been documented as bycatch in the industrial tuna longline fishery operating out of Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, northeastern Brazil (Hazin <em>et al.</em> 1990). Off Uruguay, CPUE values obtained from the pelagic longline fishery observer program for 2001-2005 are very low and show no clear trend (Berrondo <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also taken by the Taiwanese tuna longline fishery operating in the South Atlantic (Joung <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>This species is taken by a variety of pelagic fisheries throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954-1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The amounts of sharks caught by longliners targeting swordfish in the Indian Ocean have been constantly increasing since the mid-1990s and some have switched to targeting sharks in recent years (IOTC 2006). Large gillnet fisheries operating off India and Sri Lanka have also been taking important catches of pelagic sharks since the 1980s. Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005, IOTC 2006). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al. </em>2006) reported that sharks in this region are considered fully to over-exploited.<br/><br/><em>A. superciliosus</em> is known to be taken by the Spanish surface longline fleet for swordfish and sharks, Korean tuna longline fleet and others operating in the Indian Ocean (García-Cortés and Mejuto 2000, Yang <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mejuto <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that fishing effort in this Spanish fleet has increased since 1993. It is also documented in catches of Spanish experimental cruises in the Southwest Indian Ocean (Ariz <em>et al.</em> 2006). South Africa?s longline fisheries for tuna set a total of 21 million hooks between 2000 and 2005. Observer coverage (14%) indicated that the shark bycatch of this fishery comprised 4% thresher sharks, after Blue Shark, Shortfin Mako and Crocodile Shark (IOTC 2006). It is a known catch of tuna and shark longline and driftnet fisheries operating in the Indian Ocean and areas of the western Pacific (Rajruchithong <em>et al.</em> 2005, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). IOTC collects catch information for sharks, but this is considered very incomplete and cannot be used to estimate total catches of sharks in the Indian Ocean, even for species for which partial data are available (IOTC) (IOTC 2006). Both <em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. pelagicus</em> have been reported in the catches but as noted above, no information is available to estimate the magnitude of catches or trends.<br/><br/>Japanese assessment of data from research longline surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans suggests that thresher shark (<em>Alopias</em> spp.) catch per unit effort increased in the 1990s (to near one shark per 1,000 hooks) over levels in the 1970s (near zero sharks per 1,000 hooks). However, this result is thought to be possibly attributable to an increase in hook depths in the latter period. In recent years, based on logbook data, recorded Japanese catches of thresher sharks worldwide ranged from 252 to 596 mt with an average of 347 mt. The resource is considered stable with no management action required other than ongoing monitoring (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006). Coastal longline fishermen off the coast of Japan report that they retain thresher sharks preferentially over other sharks because of their lower urea content. One fishermen cited values of 250 USD per shark for thresher shark carcasses (Gilman <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Although complete data on are not available for evaluation from this region, this species is a known catch of many fisheries operating throughout much of its range in this region, as described above. Given that this species has high biological vulnerability and a low intrinsic rate of increase, coupled with the declines observed in other areas of its range, declines are inferred based on continuing high levels of exploitation.
161697		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Research is required on life-history, abundance, interaction with and impact of fisheries and population trends.
161697		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: southern Mozambique to the western Cape of South Africa (Compagno 1986).
161697		habitat	eng	A demersal species found offshore to depths of 60?185 m. This species reaches a maximum total length of 81 cm (Compagno 1986).
161697		population	eng	This species is rare, with very few specimens in collections compared to other rhinobatids, despite its presence in a well-sampled area (Compagno 1989, L. Compagno pers. comm. 2008).
161697		threats	eng	This species is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl and net fisheries. Industrial offshore trawl fisheries targeting crustaceans, squid and fish operate off South Africa, and Mozambique (WIOFISH 2008). There are little published data on shark catches within the industrialised or semi-industrialised fisheries of Mozambique (AMAR/EOTH 2007). The prawn trawling industry produced a large bycatch of demersal sharks and rays, with approximately 1,500 metric tons of elasmobranch fishes caught as a prawn fishery bycatch in 1994 (AMAR/EOTH 2007). <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. have been the main elasmobranch group accidentally caught in this fishery (AMAR/EOTH 2007). Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are now required in Mozambique trawl fisheries, which may have reduced bycatch of elasmobranch species, however, in practice uptake of this equipment has been low (S. Pierce pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).
161698		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on this species' biology, abundance and range, capture in fisheries, habitat status and population trends, as well as other threats to it.
161698		distribution	eng	<em>Makararaja chindwinensis</em> is was described from a single specimen from the Chindwin River, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River in northern Myanmar (Roberts 2007).   No one else has sampled in this region since, and nothing further is known in addition to what Roberts reported.
161698		habitat	eng	No information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this species.
161698		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
161698		threats	eng	Potentially taken in small scale fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is currently available. Habitat degradation and destruction is a major threat and the potential impact of these within this species' range needs to be evaluated.
161699		conservation	eng	Most conservation measures for this species still need to be implemented and few are presently under way. Some research actions are being carried out and mainly involve studies on the biology, ecology and population dynamics of <em>P. iwamae</em>.<br/><br/>Conservation measures required for this species involve management plans, specific legislation (both development and implementation) and community management. Formal education and public awareness are essential to prevent persecution and the negative attitude that exists towards freshwater stingrays in general.<br/><br/>Ornamental catches must be regulated, limited by a quota system and properly monitored for sustainable use. Other fisheries should also be monitored.<br/><br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation, including reduction of several environmental impacts, are needed for the conservation of <em>P. iwamae</em>.
161699		distribution	eng	South American inland waters: Amazon drainage, from Ecuador to Manaus, Brazil including Peru. In the Rivers Napo and Solimões (upper to mid Amazon drainage) (Rosa 1985, Rosa <em>et al</em>. 1987), the Içá River (Charvet-Almeida pers. obs.), lower Amazon drainage (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003), and in the Amazon estuary (Charvet-Almeida 2001).
161699		habitat	eng	After its description (Rosa <em>et al. </em>1987), further captures provided measurements that increased the maximum known size of this species to: 65.0 cm DW and 200.5 cm TL (female specimens) (Charvet-Almeida 2001). Sexual dimorphism was also recorded for this species (Charvet-Almeida 2001).<br/><br/>Little information is available on the biology/ecology of this species. Some reproductive considerations are included in Charvet-Almeida<em> et al.</em> (2005) which indicate that copulation occurs during the rainy season; gestation period may last up to eight months; birthing season takes place in the transition from dry to rainy season and lasts three months; ovarian fecundity varies from 1?5 and litter size ranges from 1?4 pups (average two pups). Sexual maturity is attained at ~40 cm DW (males) and 50 cm DW (females) (Charvet-Almeida <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The distribution of this species in the mouth of the Amazon River and Amazon estuary region is highly influenced by seasonal salinity variations (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Almeida 2003 now included in the references). This same variation also seems to directly affect the reproductive cycle of this species in these regions (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Charvet-Almeida <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is thought that pregnant females move towards the inner portion and channels of the Marajó Bay region as salinity levels rise with the approach of the dry season and this movement seems to coincide with the birth season for this species (Charvet-Almeida 2001).<br/><br/>Rosa et al. (1987) examined the stomach/spiral valve contents of three specimens that indicated the presence of catfishes (Scoloplacinae and Trichomicteridae), other teleosts, insects and decapod crustacean (Paleomonidae) remains. Other studies that analysed a higher number of stomachs (n=25) observed that this species feeds mainly on shrimps (Paleomonidae and others), isopods (Sphaeromatidae), fish (Gobiidae) and crabs (Portunidae) (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Bragança 2002).
161699		population	eng	There are no further data on range and subpopulations available for this freshwater stingray.
161699		threats	eng	<em>P. iwamae</em> is captured for the ornamental fish trade (juveniles), however, market demand for it is relatively restricted due to its large size and grayish color pattern (not among the most attractive when compared to other potamotrygonids).<br/><br/>This species is also used as a food source in some regions of the Amazon but is not among the main fishery target-species. It is usually caught as bycatch in longlines and driftnets. Persecution has also been observed for this species in some areas (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.). Any kind of fishery taking this species is of concern since it is not a very abundant species, has a low fecundity and probably has a very long reproductive cycle (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Charvet-Almeida <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation are also threats for this species. The presence and increase of deforestation associated with mining, logging and farming activities certainly affect this species. These activities lead to sediment deposits and water pollution from agricultural wastes. The development of industries, construction of dams, water pollution (various origins), oil slicks, sewage and solid wastes certainly negatively affect its life cycle.<br/><br/>Human disturbances, mainly recreation and tourism, also pose a threat to this species because these activities degrade and disturb the species? shallow inshore nursery areas.
161700		conservation	eng	None in place. At present the area is unfished, but fisheries within this species? range should be monitored.
161700		distribution	eng	Eastern Indian Ocean: occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope off northwestern Australia, from north of Melville Island (Northern Territory) to Lancelin (Western Australia) (Carvalho and Séret 2002).
161700		habitat	eng	Occurs offshore along the continental shelf in depths of 170?350 m. Its biology is poorly known, however this species is born at about 8 cm total length (TL), considered adult at 26 cm TL and reaches a maximum known length of 37 cm TL (Carvalho and Séret 2002). Males and females reach maturity at 26 cm TL or less (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). Females give birth to litters of about two pups (Last and Stevens unpub. data).
161700		population	eng	Unknown.
161700		threats	eng	This species was caught occasionally by prawn and scampi trawling in the early 1990s but effort in this fishery has since declined and it is now rarely taken. It is therefore unlikely to be depleted through bycatch in commercial fisheries. Should deep-water trawl fisheries develop in the area the species would need to be reassessed because of its relatively narrow depth and geographical range.
161701		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.
161701		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Eremo Skate (<em>Bathyraja trachouros</em>) is endemic to northern Japan, from Sendai, northern Honshu to southern Hokkaido (Ishihara 1990).
161701		habitat	eng	A medium sized deepwater skate, <em>B. trachouros</em> can be found at depths of 100?800 m and attains 102 cm total length (TL). The species is mature at ~88 cm TL (Ishiyama 1958, Ishihara 1990), but its biology is virtually unknown.
161701		population	eng	An apparently rare species. No data on population status or abundance are available.
161701		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. However this fishery impacts the species over the shallow part of its bathymetric range only. The deeper extent of its range provides the Eremo Skate with a refuge as this depth is not fished in the area of occurrence. No data are available on catch levels of trends over time.
161702		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.
161702		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from northern Gulf of Mexico, Panama, Suriname, and French Guiana (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161702		habitat	eng	Benthic along the lower slope and continental rise, at depths of 732–2,010 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) but very little information is available on the ecology or biology of this skate. Maximum size is reported at 51 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161702		population	eng	Unknown.
161702		threats	eng	At present, it is unlikely that fishing takes place at the depths at which this species occurs (732–2,010 m). Any future development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.
161703		conservation	eng	None.
161703		distribution	eng	Southwest Pacific: known only from the Tasman Sea, on the Norfolk Ridge and New Caledonia (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).
161703		habitat	eng	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 448–880 m. Attains at least 81 cm total length (TL) males mature by 66 cm TL.
161703		population	eng	Unknown.
161703		threats	eng	It is only known from very restricted areas on the continental slope of the Tasman Sea. These areas are subject to some deepwater fisheries. Thus, the species may be exploited but further information is required. Off southern New Caledonia, they are sporadically caught as bycatch of a small longline fishery targeting deep red snappers on seamounts.
161704		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to better define the species' range and depth distribution and to collect of further specimens for biological data. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161704		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic Ocean: known from a few records from the west coast of South Africa (including the holotype from northwest of Strandfontein) (Compagno and Ebert 2007, Stehmann 1995).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: one record from south of Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape and one from off KwaZulu-Natal (Compagno and Ebert 2007).
161704		habitat	eng	This skate occurs on the slope, at depths of 480–625 m (Compagno and Ebert 2007). All known specimens are juveniles and sub-adults, and adults possibly occur deeper. Males ranged from 13.6–51.7 cm total length (TL) (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2008). The largest male was an adolescent measuring 51.7 cm TL, and the largest female an immature measuring 28.5 cm TL (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2008). Like other skates, it is presumably oviparous but nothing else is known of its biology. Egg cases have not been found for this species (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2008).
161704		population	eng	Apparently rare, although the bulk of the population may be found in deeper waters. Adults are yet to be observed.
161704		threats	eng	Potential threat from deepwater hake trawl fisheries operating within its range on the western coast of South Africa, although no specific information is available.
161705		conservation	eng	No measures in place.
161705		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic and eastern central Atlantic: known from the west coast of Iceland to the Faeroes Channel (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and more recently recorded from Hebrides, Scotland, Ireland, France and Western Sahara, Northwest Africa (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> unpub. data).
161705		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from the continental slopes and reported at depths of 380–1,250 m (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Magnússon <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported it at depths of 656–1,731 m, but the data most probably included another species also, with which <em>G. murinus</em> was confused (see Taxonomy section).<br/><br/>Analysis of 101 specimens collected during fishery surveys on French trawl vessels from 1997–2003, suggests that size at maturity is 41.2 cm for females and 41.6 cm for males (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). Maximum observed size reported by Iglésias <em>et al</em>. (unpub. data) is 49.1 cm TL. Whereas Magnússon <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that the species reaches up to 85 cm, and the holotype of the synonym <em>P. jenseni</em> is reported at 63 cm TL. Taxonomic confusion causes uncertainties in the published life-history data for this species.<br/><br/>Size at birth is unknown but may be ~8-9 cm (TL), based on egg case sizes (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> 2002). Reproduction is oviparous, with a single egg case per oviduct carried at the same time (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>This species mainly feeds on shrimps (<em>Pasiphaea multidentata, Sergestes robustus</em> and small unidentified species), crustaceans (<em>Dorhynchus thomsoni</em>), and other fish (<em>Micromesistius poutassou</em> and unidentified species), and unidentified cephalopods (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007).
161705		population	eng	Apparently common in deepwater on the European slope (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). This species was caught during Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) trawl surveys in the Rockall Trough (Gordon 1999). Between 0.0037 (paired warp) and 0.0008 (single warp) individuals per 1,000 m² were caught at 1,000 m, which made up 0.03% and 0.02% respectively of the total catch of all species. At 1,250 m, 0.0003 (in both paired and single warp) individuals per 1,000 m² were caught, which made up 0.002% and 0.01% respectively (for paired and single warp) of the total catch of all species. This species was not caught in deeper waters than 1,250 m. The mouse catshark was also caught at 1,000 m and 1,250 m in Porcupine Seabight (Gordon 1999). The species is a common species in deep sea along the European slope.
161705		threats	eng	The species is a common bycatch of commercial deepwater trawlers operating on the northeast Atlantic slope. It is a small species and could potentially escape from the meshes of trawls used in northeast Atlantic waters.<br/><br/>Experimental deepwater fisheries have been conducted by Spain and Morocco off western Africa (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007).
161706		conservation	eng	California’s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18 percent) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing. Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Assessment and monitoring of catches of this species is required to determine future population trends.
161706		distribution	eng	Northeast and Eastern Central Pacific: ranges from the Gulf of Alaska to northern Baja California (Ebert 2003).
161706		habitat	eng	The Sandpaper Skate is most commonly found between 200–500 m deep and is usually found in deeper water in the southern portion of its range, possibly to 1,372 m (Miller and Lea 1972, Ebert 2003). Male Sandpaper Skates reach sexual maturity around at 48 cm total length (TL) and reach a maximum length of 53 cm TL; females reach sexual maturity between 46–50 cm TL and a maximum length of 56 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Males and females mature at four years of age and the average reproductive period is estimated at 10 years of age (Perez 2005). It is an oviparous species, like other skates, producing one egg case per oviduct at a time and with a continuous reproductive cycle. Size at birth is 12–16 cm TL (Ebert 2003).
161706		population	eng	Scientific surveys suggest that this species is less abundant than the larger Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>), which also occurs on the western coast of the USA (D.A. Ebert pers. comm.). Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. Extensive surveys and collation of catch statistics for northeast and eastern central Pacific waters (including California, Oregon, and Washington) have been conducted. Further information should become available in the future, once analysis of this data is complete (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).
161706		threats	eng	This species is not presently targeted by commercial fisheries or utilized for human consumption, but is an incidental catch in bottom trawl fisheries that operate within its range along the western coast of the USA.<br/><br/>Total annual commercial landings data into California for the grouped category ‘Skate, unspecified’ indicate that landings declined from ~577 t and ~633 t in 2000 and 2001 to ~82 t in 2002. Landings then fluctuated between ~125 t and ~95 t from 2003–2005 (California Department of Fish and Game 2007). However, the proportion of this species in the catches is not known. The trawl fishery in California has been slowly closing and a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) is being instigated, in response to declines in rockfish populations (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Most trawlers now have to work in deeper water and mostly in central and northern California. Southern California is largely closed at this time (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Effort in the trawl fishery in California waters has therefore reduced and not nearly as many are being taken as once might have been (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>While no information is available on population trends for this species, recent stock assessments and surveys show that populations of the longnose skate Raja rhina (which is larger and possibly more vulnerable to depletion) appear to be stable (COSEWIC 2007, DFO 2007, D.A. Ebert pers comm.).
161707		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Catch levels need to be quantified and monitored.
161707		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout the East Atlantic around the Cape Verde Islands, and from Mauritania down to Angola (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Possibly occurs as far north as Morocco (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005) and as far south as Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999, Carpenter 2008). One northwest Atlantic record from 1906 (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are no further records from the tropical Atlantic, possible that the locality data from this specimen was erroneous (Compagno in prep.).
161707		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The Atlantic Weasel Shark is a demersal species inhabiting both inshore and offshore waters around the continental shelf in tropical to warm-temperate waters. The species occurs in shallow waters up to 100 m, and can be found quite close to land in the surf zone. Common within its area of occurrence, little is known about the biology of this species (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This shark is viviparous, bearing 1?4 pups per litter (mostly two), each about 47 cm in length. Off Senegal most young are born between May to June. This species reaches a maximum size of 138 cm in length, with males maturing at about 80cm and females maturing between 75 and 90 cm (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>It is a specialist feeder, primarily feeding on cephalopods, including squid and octopi. Occasionally preys on small bony fishes such as soles and sardines to make up its diet (Compagno in prep.).
161707		population	eng	Common in the Eastern Atlantic.
161707		threats	eng	Important for commercial fisheries, this species is a common catch of artisanal and small commercial fisheries in the Eastern Atlantic, but also taken by offshore international fisheries. It is caught with a variety of fishing gear and retained for utilisation, including longlines, hook and line, gillnets and bottom trawls(Compagno in prep.). Inshore fishing pressure is generally intensive along the western coast of Africa, and fisheries have increased in both effort and capacity during recent decades (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005). No specific data are currently available on catches of this species, however, and further investigation of the impact of fisheries on <em>Paragaleus pectoralis</em> is required.<br/><br/>The species may have life-history characteristics, such as slow growth that make it vulnerable to depletion.
161708		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161708		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: North Carolina to the Florida Keys, with possible record from northeastern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161708		habitat	eng	Benthic along slope, between 366 and 671 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size at least 33 cm total length (TL); mature males from 33 cm TL. Presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of its biology.
161708		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161708		threats	eng	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries; however it would be vulnerable to incidental capture by deep bottom trawl gear. Given its narrow depth range and distribution, any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.
161709		conservation	eng	As a result of the observed decline in New South Wales wobbegong catches, a discussion paper on wobbegong sharks was produced, seeking the views of various stakeholders on the future management of commercial and recreational fishing of wobbegong sharks (NSW Fisheries 2001). However, the management plan has not been finalised and management measures have not been implemented. NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) also requested commercial fishers to report catches for <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em> individually. Most recently, a review of NSW Recreational Freshwater & Saltwater Fishing Rules and the Fishery Management Strategy (FMS) for NSW Trap and Line Fishery have proposed a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL for wobbegong sharks and a trip limit of 12 wobbegongs caught in fish traps (NSW DPI, 2006). The FMS has also recommended that commercial fishers report their catches of each species separately and to collect additional biological data through the observer program.<br/><br/>Until late 2006, there were no management strategies specifically regulating the wobbegong commercial fishery in NSW. The only regulation in place was a recreational bag limit of two wobbegongs per day (later reduced to zero in September 2007) and a commercial gear limit of no more than ten lines each with a maximum of six hooks when setlining within three nautical miles of the coast. There were no gear limits outside three nautical miles, but as of 2008, amendments to the share management plans will instate a maximum of 1,200 hooks and 30 traps per endorsement holder.<br/><br/>Since September 2006, wobbegongs have been included in the daily trip limit for a specific list of shark species to one tonne for a 24 hour period and two tonnes for 48 hours or greater. NSW DPI also recommended that fishers in the Ocean Trap and Line and Lobster fisheries have in their codes of practice to release wobbegongs less than 130 cm TL caught in fish traps. Since July 2007, the use of wire trace, or other trace made of metal type materials, is prohibited to decrease instances of gut-hooking. Furthermore, a minimum size limit of 180 cm TL and a maximum trip limit of either six or 12 wobbegongs (including <em>O. maculatus</em> and <em>O. ornatus</em>) will also be implemented and is pending approval by the NSW Fisheries minister.<br/><br/>Site attached species may also benefit from habitat protection and suitably designed and implemented "No-take" MPAs, where all forms of harvesting or fishing are excluded. Some protection may be offered by those protected areas already being implemented for grey nurse sharks Carcharias taurus in NSW.<br/><br/>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs:<br/>Moreton Bay Marine Park, Qld <br/>Cape Byron Marine Park, Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, off Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park, north of Coffs Harbour, NSW<br/>Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, north of Sydney, central NSW<br/>Jervis Bay Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Batemans Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Ningaloo Marine Park, WA<br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>All Victorian marine parks<br/>All South Australian marine parks<br/><br/>Possibly also occurs in the following areas:<br/>Great Sandy Marine Park, Qld <br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA<br/>Muiron Islands Marine Management Area, WA<br/>Rowley Shoals Marine Park , WA<br/><br/>Further protected areas might be necessary to ensure stable populations and are likely to be efficient due to the high site fidelity of wobbegong (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers may also have had an impact on this species in the past. An in-possession limit of two wobbegong sharks per person was introduced for recreational fishers in NSW and reduced to zero in September 2007. This new regulation may help to alleviate any adverse affects caused by recreational fishing practices.<br/><br/>Although a PhD project investigated the biology and ecology of wobbegong sharks, catch and effort is still poorly recorded preventing adequate stock assessments. Species-specific catches in addition to accurate effort data is required to correctly determine population status of wobbegong.<br/><br/>The improvement of species identification in catch records and a better understanding of biological parameters, including validation of age and growth are crucial in providing accurate data upon which to base stock assessments and demographic analyses. Outcomes from which can then be used to estimate wobbegong resilience to fishing pressure and recommend future conservation and management decisions.
161709		distribution	eng	<em>Orectolobus halei</em> is an Australian endemic wobbegong. <br/><br/><em>Orectolobus halei</em> has been recorded from warm temperate eastern Australia with confirmed reports from Moreton Bay, Queensland and likely reports from Hervey Bay southwards to Port Phillip Bay (38°14'S, 144°39'E), Victoria and north-westwards to Norwegian Bay (22°54'S), Western Australia (J. Chidlow, unpub. data). However, records from the southern coast of Australia and Western Australia need to be verified (P.R. Last pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Previous sources (Last and Stevens, 1994; Compagno, 2001) show that the global distribution of <em>O. halei</em> (formerly known as <em>O. ornatus</em>) includes Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Japan. However, wobbegongs from these areas are either misidentified <em>O. ornatus</em> or different undescribed species of wobbegongs.
161709		habitat	eng	<em>Orectolobus halei</em> is a common inshore bottom-dwelling shark of continental waters that is found in bays, on macroalgae-covered rocky reef areas, coral reefs (including lagoons and reef flats, reef faces, and reef channels), and around offshore islands (Compagno 2001). In a study in Port Stephens, NSW, a sympatric species of wobbegongs (<em>O. ornatus</em>) was shown to prefer sponge gardens, artificial structures and barren boulders habitats with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). However, <em>O. ornatus</em> did not seem to select habitat on the basis of prey availability and habitat selection may therefore be related to predator avoidance (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). <em>O. halei</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 195 m depth (J. Chidlow unpub. data) and appears to prefer clear-water reefs (Kuiter 1993). It is often found in clearer water than the closely related <em>O. maculatus</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A survey on wobbegongs shows evidence of site-attachment with divers observing individual sharks in exactly the same positions over consecutive dives (The Ecology Lab, 1991). Furthermore, <em>O. halei</em> has been recorded within the same area for over 2.5 years (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2006; Huveneers unpub. data), and a sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. ornatus</em>) has been re-sighted within a 75 hectares area for a period of over 211 days suggesting site fidelity (Carraro and Gladstone 2006).<br/><br/>Compagno (2001) describes this shark as a nocturnal species that rests on the bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches and that undertakes nocturnal excursions away from resting areas. As a primarily nocturnal feeder, it preys on bottom invertebrates and fishes (Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (2001) cites the prey of <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em> as bony fishes, sharks, rays, cephalopods and crustaceans. A NSW study found elasmobranchs (including <em>O. ornatus</em>), osteichthyes (reef, benthic and a few pelagic fishes, and moray eels) and cephalopods as prey items (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2007a), and only teleosts and cephalopods in a WA study (Chidlow 2003 - misidentified as <em>O. ornatus</em>). No crustaceans were found in the stomachs of <em>O. halei</em> caught in the NSW or WA study. Sampled sharks were, however, mostly large juveniles and adults (> 140 cm TL), and it is possible that crustaceans are part of neonates or small juveniles diet.<br/><br/><em>O. halei</em> (misidentified as <em>O. ornatus</em>) was previously believed to mature at about 175 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001). Further studies confirmed this and estimated L50 at about 175 cm TL in NSW waters (Huveneers et al. 2007b) and 182 cm TL in WA waters (Chidlow 2003). Similar to <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. halei</em> as a triennial reproductive cycle with follicles taking two years to enlarge before ovulation. During the first year, follicles remain small, then grow rapidly during the second year prior to ovulation during November. Gestation lasts about 10–11 months with parturition occurring during September–October (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2007b). <em>O. halei</em> is lecithotrophic viviparous (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2007b) with a litter size ranging from 30–45 and a size-at-birth of about 35 cm TL (R. Brislane pers. comm.). Maximum length is about 290 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Age and growth of <em>O. halei</em> was attempted but could not be verified or validated (Chidlow 2003; Huveneers 2007). Furthermore, different age estimations for wobbegongs were obtained if using whole vertebrae or thin cut sections (Huveneers 2007). Juvenile captive <em>O. halei</em> of about 120 cm TL grew about 12 cm TL year<sup>-1</sup> (Huveneers 2007).
161709		population	eng	No evidence of subpopulations. However, as stated above, <em>O. halei</em> population was previously considered the adult of <em>O. ornatus</em>. A genetic study looking at orectolobid phylogeny and phylogeorgaphy and assessing potential stock structure is currently being undertaken (S. Corrigan pers. comm.).
161709		threats	eng	Commercial fishing is probably the main cause of the decline of this species in eastern Australia. Furthermore, observed site fidelity is likely to increase wobbegong’s susceptibility to fishing pressure. On an Australia-wide basis, wobbegong sharks are commonly caught in trawls, beach seines, gillnets, lobster pots and traps, by hook-and-line, and also by spearfishing. The flesh is now highly regarded as food, but in the past has generally been of only limited commercial value. Historically, the attractive skin has been used as decorative leather (Last and Stevens, 1994). However, it is unknown if this practice is still occurring.<br/><br/>In New South Wales, three <em>Orectolobus</em> species (<em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>) are taken in the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (OTL), in the fish and prawn sectors of the Ocean Trawl Fishery, and very few in the Estuary General Fishery. The majority of commercial wobbegong catches occur in the OTL Fisheries, where they have historically been taken as both a target species by setline methods and as by-product by other methods (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data). Serious declines have been observed in NSW, demonstrating the vulnerability of this species to exploitation. The NSW total catch of wobbegongs (genus Orectolobus), combining all fishing methods and Fisheries, has declined from about 120 tonnes in 1990/1991 to about 55 tonnes in 1999/2000, representing a decrease of about 55% in less than a decade (Pease and Grinberg 1995, NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data). However, catches have since stabilised, and range 55–73 tonnes during 1998/1999–2003/2004. Fishing effort is mostly unknown and inaccurate because it has only been reported as the number of days fished. Additionally, the historical aggregation of the wobbegong species in catch data is a further complicating factor. Species-specific catch-per-unit-effort, required to obtain a more accurate estimation of wobbegong catches, is therefore unavailable. Although the strong decline in catches should be of concern for the resilience of wobbegongs to strong fishing pressure, the number of fishers landing wobbegongs has also decreased from about 520 in 1990/1991 to about 250 in 2003/2004 (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data).<br/><br/>Commercial fishing by a variety of methods is potentially threatening wobbegong species in southern Australian waters. In southern Australia, wobbegongs are taken within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) (AFMA logbook data unpub. data). Most of the above fisheries take these species as bycatch, and like many bycatch species they are often utilised. Retained wobbegong from the Commonwealth Fisheries ranged 2.3–5.1 tonnes between 1994 and 1999.<br/><br/><em>O. maculatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em> are a component of the bycatch of a commercial shark fishery utilising demersal gill-nets that target carcharhinid whalers and other sharks along the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia with an average total wobbegong catch between 1999 and 2006 of about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35–68 tonnes) (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998, Penn 2001, McAuley and Lenanton 2003, McAuley and Gaughan 2004, Gaughan and Chidlow 2005, McAuley 2006, McAuley 2007). Smaller catches of orectolobids also occur in commercial and recreational rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (J. Chidlow, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Commercial catches of wobbegong are small in most parts of South Australia (about 0.5–2.5 tonnes) with the highest yearly catch being 3.1 tonnes in 1987/88 <br/><br/>Wobbegongs are not targeted in Queensland. <em>O. halei</em> has been recorded in low numbers in the bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries (Kyne et al., 2002), whereas small wobbegongs are sometimes caught by crab pots in Southeast Queensland and Moreton Bay, but are usually discarded (J. Stead, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Henry and Lyle, 2003) reported that 5,174 wobbegongs (all species combined) were caught and kept by recreational fishers in southern Australian states during the survey time period (May 2000 to April 2001), comprising 1,944 from NSW, 999 from Queensland, 252 from S.A., and 1,978 from W.A. In Western Australia, a WA Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996–1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri, reported that up to 1,000 wobbegongs were caught and kept by recreational fishers during that period (Sumner and Williamson 1999).
161710		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161710		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: one record off Tanzania (McEachran and Fechhelm 1982). Eastern Indian Ocean: one record from the Andaman Sea (Eschmeyer 1998).
161710		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from two specimens collected in tropical waters at depths of 274 m off Tanzania (McEachran and Fechhelm 1982) and 511 m in the Andaman Sea (Eschmeyer 1998). The holoytype is 20.7 cm total length (TL) (Eschmeyer 1998). Like all skates, it is oviparous but little else is known of the species? biology.
161710		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161710		threats	eng	The known depth range of this species is beyond that currently fished off Tanzania; however, various surveys have identified potentially productive trawling grounds in the 200?350 m range (Brownell 1982). Therefore any expansion of fishing pressure into deeper waters should be carried out with species-specific bycatch monitoring. At the time of writing, there was no information available on deep-sea fisheries in the Andaman sea. Any current or future expansion of deep-sea fishing in the region should also be carefully monitored to ensure that this apparently rare species is not adversely affected.
161711		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161711		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southern Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba, and southern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161711		habitat	eng	Found along the slope, at depths of 366-870 m McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum size of 34 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 32 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, <em>C. poeyi</em> is presumably oviparous.
161711		population	eng	No information is available.
161711		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is available.
161712		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161712		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: recorded from east coast of Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161712		habitat	eng	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 512?777 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 34 cm total length (TL) and males appear to mature at 30 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161712		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
161712		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is available. Given the species apparently narrow range, any current or future expansion of fishing into the bathymetric range of this species should be closely monitored.
161713		conservation	eng	In the first instance, taxonomic issues need to be resolved. This will allow accurate mapping of the species? range.<br/><br/>There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes.<br/><br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of
161713		distribution	eng	Possibly endemic to the northwest Pacific, centered off Japanese Archipelago. From Ibaragi and Niigata Prefecture, Japan south to the East China Sea and South China Sea (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). See Taxonomy section for further details.
161713		habitat	eng	Benthic in inshore habitats, reported at depths of 80?230 m. Attains a maximum size of 97 cm total length (TL) (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous with litter sizes from 2?7 pups and a gestation period of 12 months (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Diet consists of fishes, shrimps and cephalopods.
161713		population	eng	No specific data are available on temporal population trends, Due to heavy fishing and bycatch pressures throughout its range this species is suspected to be declining.
161713		threats	eng	Like other rhinobatids, this species? biology makes it highly susceptible to population depletion. It is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, and line. Net and line fisheries operate over much of the known range of this species and as such it is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure and landed where the flesh is utilised. It is unlikely to withstand the present level of fishing pressure across its range and habitat. This level of pressure will increase in the future as areas of the northwest Pacific are more heavily exploited due to an increasing human population and expanding global fisheries.<br/><br/>Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos </em>species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution.<br/><br/>Historical fishing pressure is generally intensive in the northwest Pacific (NOAA 2004ab). However, increases in fuel prices have reportedly led to some decrease in fishing activities in recent years off Japan (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).
161714		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends and changes in habitat quality should be monitored throughout the species? range. Research is also required on the species? biology.
161714		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Japan, northern China, northeastern coast of Taiwan (Province of China), Korea, northern (Compagno 2001, D. Ebert pers. comm.).
161714		habitat	eng	A common, temperate-water, benthic shark found on the continental shelf, at depths of 6?37 m (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942). Appears to prefer rocky areas. Including reefs, and kelp-covered substrates (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942). This species reaches a maximum size of 120 cm total length (TL), males mature at ~69 cm TL and size at birth is 18 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Females lay pairs of eggs among rocks or kelp at depths of 8?9 m, during 6?12 spawnings (from March to September) (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942). Preys on molluscs, small fishes and sea urchins (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942).
161714		population	eng	Little is known about the population of this species, but it is very common in shallow waters of Japan (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).
161714		threats	eng	This species is probably of little interest to fisheries, but is caught as bycatch by gillnet fisheries (Tanaka 2006) and possibly other fisheries in its range (Compagno 2001, S. Tanaka and K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007). In northern Japan, and possibly elsewhere, its inshore habitat is threatened by marine pollution and coralline flats. Algae are declining in abundance, which will affect this species? prey items; Batillus, top shells sea urchins, and in turn may impact populations of <em>H. japonicus</em> (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>It is also a very popular aquarium species in Japan (S. Tanaka and K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).
161715		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Catches and population trends should be very closely monitored. Further research is also required on this species’ life-history characteristics.
161715		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Japan, Koreas, China (South and East China Seas and northeast Taiwan, Province of China), Vietnam (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Unverified record from the Philippines may be another undescribed species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).
161715		habitat	eng	An inshore bottom-dwelling shark found down to at least 51 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005); Also dwells in semi-enclosed sea areas with sand bottom. Teshima (1981) studied the reproduction of this species in Japanese waters and report that females mature at 68–76 cm total length (TL) and reach a maximum size of 107.9 cm TL; males at 70–75 cm TL (Teshima 1981), and reach a maximum size of 91.2 cm TL. Compagno <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that females reach maturity at about 80 cm TL and males at 62–71 cm TL. Mating takes place in July, followed by a gestation period of about 10 months in Japanese waters, parturition in April-May (Teshima 1981, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta (Teshima 1981, D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). Females give birth to 2–20 pups in April-June, and size at birth is 28–30 cm TL (Teshima 1981, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>2006). Probably feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially crustaceans (D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). This species is found in warmer waters than its congener, M. manazo (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161715		population	eng	Common where it occurs (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).
161715		threats	eng	This species is highly valued for meat and fins and is used for human consumption and may be targeted in some areas within its range. It is regularly caught as utilised bycatch off China, Taiwan (Province of China) and Japan in trawl, gillnet and longline fisheries (Compagno in prep, D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007, Yamaguchi et al. 2006). In the western waters of Kyushu, Japan, after 2001, the catch of <em>M. griseus</em> was stable or increased with the decrease of the catch of <em>M. manazo</em>, though no fishing effort remained constant (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161716		conservation	eng	In Mexico, a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993 and a national plan for elasmobranch management was passed in 2007 (NOM-029), but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>N. entemedor</em> specifically. Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>N. entemedor</em> and other chondrichtyans.<br/><br/>Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays.<br/><br/>In addition to species-specific landings and bycatch details, life history information including movement patterns, habitat use, and demographic studies are necessary throughout its range and age and growth and reproductive studies are necessary south of Mexico. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are required to provide estimates of abundance and biomass.
161716		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: reported from the central Pacific coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico through the Gulf of California and south to northern Peru. Found in coastal and inshore waters from Laguna Ojo de Liebre, Baja California Sur, through northern Gulf of California and south to Caleta La Cruz, northern Peru (Love <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also reported (three specimens) from Socotra Islands, Isla Revillagigedos Archipelago, Mexico (de Carvalho 1999).
161716		habitat	eng	<em>Narcine entemedor</em> is a common nearshore species found from intertidal depths to 100 m (Chirichingo 1978). It is associated primarily with sandy substrates (including carbonate sands) (Breder 1928, Valadez-Gonzalez 2000). It may be nocturnally active, moving into shallow bays to feed (Michael 1993). Based on specimens collected near Colima, Mexico, the diet consists of polychaetes, crustaceans (esp. stomatopods), teleosts (Anguilliformes), and mollusks (Valadez-Gonzáles 2000). The diet is similar in Bahía Almejas (polychaetes, anguilliform teleosts, and gastropods; Bizzarro 2005).<br/><br/>This species sexually segregates, with females much more common in shallow embayments than males, especially during late spring and early summer (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Bizzarro 2005). In Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, Mexico, parturition occurs in June and July, with the birth of 4?12 pups, 10?12 months after copulation. The reproductive cycle is believed to be annual. Size at birth ranges from 14-16 cm TL with larger females typically producing larger litters (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000). Males enter Bahía Almejas during July and dominate sex ratios by August (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Bizzarro 2005). First maturity occurs at 43 cm TL for males and 65 cm TL for females, corresponding to ages of four and six, respectively. Maximum age is 11 years for males and 15 years for females (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000). Maximum size is 93 cm TL for females and 67 cm TL for males (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000).<br/>The available biological information from this species is limited to the Mexican Pacific, primarily from the Báhia Magdalena lagoon complex. Life history traits, habitat utilization, and diet may vary significantly for <em>N. entemedor </em>off Central and South America.
161716		population	eng	Little specific information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from anywhere within its range. It is a common species in Mexican artisanal fishery landings, especially during the late spring and early summer (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Márquez-Farías 2002, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). Regional differences in size at maturity, suggest there may be two or more subpopulations, one in the Pacific coast of Baja California, and the other in the upper part of the Gulf of California. Almost nothing is known in its south distribution. It is reportedly very abundant in San Ignacio and Bahia Magdalena. In the Gulf of California it is abundant on the Sonora coasts.
161716		threats	eng	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries are a major threat to this species. In the Bahía Almejas summer batoid fishery, this species is the second most abundant in August (ca. 21% of catch, CPUE (#/vessel/day)=4.6) landings and third most abundant in June (ca. 10%, CPUE=4.2) landings. In Sonora, Mexico, it is the fifth most abundant batoid landed (ca. 5%) in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Márquez-Farías 2002, Bizzarro <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>This species has a relatively high fecundity (4?20), but since Mexican artisanal fisheries typically target gravid females, it is highly vulnerable to overfishing (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Bizzarro 2005).<br/><br/>Indirect landings by demersal trawls (especially shrimp trawlers in Mexico), and gillnets in Mexico and likely throughout the species? range. Extensive artisanal fishery records from north-west Mexico do not indicate that they are captured with longlines. Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. Large sharks are typically grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while all batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Although easily identified, these rays are not currently documented on a species-specific basis.<br/><br/>Habitat modification is also a threat. Many embayments and estuaries in eastern Pacific Mexico are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since this species uses these areas for feeding and reproduction, this could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.
161717		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. <em>Scymnodon ringens</em> is not included in the list of species covered by the European Union Total Allowable Catch for deepwater sharks, thus it is not covered by fisheries measures.<br/><br/>Recommended actions:&#160; The affect of deepwater fishing pressure on this species is of concern, particularly off Mauritania, where this species is taken of bycatch of expanding deepwater fisheries. It is strongly recommended that efforts be made to quantify and monitor bycatch in these fisheries and determine the impact of these on this species.
161717		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: Atlantic slope from Scotland to Spain, Portugal (Compagno in prep). Eastern Central Atlantic: Mauritania and Senegal (Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno in prep).
161717		habitat	eng	A little-known deepwater, temperate to subtropical shark, found on or near the sea bottom at depths of 200–1,600 m (Compagno in prep). Probably ovoviviparous (Compagno in prep.). Maximum size is reported at about 110 cm TL (Compagno in prep.).
161717		population	eng	Compagno (in prep) reports this species as relatively common in the eastern Atlantic. This temperate to tropical species is rarely caught in commercial or research trawling west of Scotland (T. Blasdale pers. obs.) and this is likely the northern fringe of its distribution.<br/><br/>The species is caught in very small numbers in commercial trawl catches and Fisheries Research Services (FRS) deep-water surveys west of Scotland fishing at depths between 500 m and 1,900 m (T. Blasdale pers. obs.). It is not mentioned in the report of the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF) surveys in the 1970s, fishing at depths between 366 m and 1,280 m, indicating that it was not common in this area at that time either (Bridger 1978). There is therefore no information from which to infer trends in this area or other areas of the eastern Atlantic.
161717		threats	eng	Reportedly captured in bottom trawls, with line gear, and with fixed bottom nets in the eastern Atlantic, but apparently of limited interest to fisheries (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). The species is a known bycatch of the longline fishery targeting Black Scabbardfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanopus carbo</span>) at Sesimbra in the northeast Atlantic (ICES Subdivision IXa) (Walker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It is also taken by the Basque artisanal longline fleet targeting deepwater sharks in the Bay of Biscay (Heessen 2003).<br/><br/>Very infrequently caught by French and Scottish deep-water trawlers working west of Scotland (ICES sub-area VIa) (T. Blasdale pers. obs.). Very limited data exists on the catches of gill-netters in this area but one retrieved net did not contain any of this species (in a total catch of 8.5 tonnes) (STECF 2006).<br/><br/>This species is among a wide group of demersal squalids taken as bycatch in the Spanish deepwater trawl fishery for black hake off Mauritania (Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). (Other important species within this group are <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrophorus granulosus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. squamosus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Centroscymnus coelolepis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. crepidater</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalatias licha</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Deania profundorum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. calcea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeus polli</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Heptranchias perlo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oxynotus centrina</span>). In their study of landed bycatch from this fishery from 1992–2001, Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) report that the catch of these squalids declined from 158 tons (87% of elasmobranch landings) in 1992 to 22 tons (59%) in 2001, with a minimum of 3.5 tons in 1999. The decline may be attributable to a set of factors, including a shift in the depths fished, economic reasons (the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study) and probable over-exploitation of both the target and bycatch species.<br/><br/>The fishery operates from 140–750 m depth, but currently tends to work at increasingly greater depths (with some variation according to the seasonal tides, and a recent average depth of up to 710 m per tide (2003 data from observers on commercial vessels)). The deep bathymetric distribution of this species (200–1,600 m) may afford it some protection from deepwater fisheries such as this, and others operating in the eastern Atlantic. However, the trend for this fishery to exploit deeper waters in an attempt to avoid catching small hake (when the Mauritanian government imposed a minimum legal length of 30 cm for black hake in 1996), may be of concern if this species is fished throughout its depth range in the future. Other fleets from Spain and other countries are also fishing in this area with both fresh and freezer vessels focusing on other demersal and semipelagic stocks, but little information is available to assess their impact on demersal stocks (Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
161718		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161718		distribution	eng	Western central Atlantic: northern Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas (USA) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161718		habitat	eng	Benthic along outer continental shelf and upper slope, at depths of 55?384 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Females reach a maximum size of at least 69 cm total length (TL) and mature at around 59 cm TL, with males reaching at least 59 cm TL (J. Sulikowski pers. obs. 2007).
161718		population	eng	Population size unknown.
161718		threats	eng	Possibly bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available.
161719		conservation	eng	None in place.
161719		distribution	eng	Originally described from five specimens collected in the Maekhlong River. Also known from the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya River in Thailand (penetrates 100 km up the Maekhlong River) (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005), and possibly occurs in the Pahang River, Peninsula Malaysia.
161719		habitat	eng	This small, freshwater stingray is found at depths of 5?20 m in mainstream rivers and penetrates into freshwater (Vidthayanon pers. obs. 2007). This species? apparently prefers sandy or sandy-muddy substrates (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005). The largest specimen was a female measuring 28.5 cm disc width (DW) (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005). Males mature between 20?26.8 cm DW (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005).
161719		population	eng	Uncommon (Vidthayanon pers. obs. 2007).
161719		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are capture in inland fisheries and habitat degradation throughout large areas of its known range. It is typically marketed for its flesh. The freshwater stingray <em>Dasyatis laosensis</em>, which also occurs in the Maekhlong and Chao Phraya Rivers, is suspected to have declined as a result of heavy fishing pressure from intensive fisheries for freshwater teleosts and large-scale habitat degradation from dam building and pollution (Compagno 2005). It is highly likely that this recently described species has also been impacted by these threats. Habitat degradation through removal of forest canopy leading to drought upstream and flooding downstream during monsoon conditions, dam building, leading to silt build-up and retention of agrochemicals behind impoundments and land development near rivers leading to destruction of freshwater habitats and run-off pollution are all threats to this species? freshwater habitat (Compagno and Cook 2005).
161720		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, abundance and full range, capture in fisheries and population trends.
161720		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: recorded from the Gulf of Masira, central Oman (Baldwin 2005).
161720		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental shelf, recorded at 72 m depth. Attains a maximum size of 61 cm total length (TL) (female) (Baldwin 2005).
161720		population	eng	Unknown.
161720		threats	eng	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no specific information is currently available on catches (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004).
161721		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161721		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: off eastern Indonesia, (Halmahera Sea and Banda Sea) (Last and Compagno 1999).
161721		habitat	eng	Bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 400?830 m (Last and Compagno 1999). Attains 33 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1999). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.
161721		population	eng	No information is available.
161721		threats	eng	This species would be vulnerable to capture in deepwater trawl fisheries. Although deepwater longline fisheries currently operate off Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006), deepwater trawl fisheries are yet to develop. The potential for deepwater fisheries to expand in depth range and effort off Indonesia is high. Given the species? apparently restricted range and potentially limiting life-history characteristics (like other deepwater skates), any expansion of fisheries within its range should be monitored.
161722		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161722		distribution	eng	Northwestern Pacific: occurs in the Pacific waters of southern Kuril Islands and Japan south to 36°N, Sea of Japan and the southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk (Novikov <em>et al.</em> 2002). A recent record from Taiwan, Province of China (Yeh <em>et al.</em> 2002) is questionable.
161722		habitat	eng	Found on the lower shelf and upper continental slope at 70–900 m (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999). It occurs in areas with a bottom temperature range of -0.1–3.6°C (Dolganov 1998a). The species reaches a maximum size of at least 102 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of its biology. Size at birth is unknown, but egg capsules measure 10.6–13.2 cm in length and 7.6–8.6 cm in width (Dolganov 1998b).
161722		population	eng	From biomass estimates this species seems rare compared to other skates in the region. Biomass in Russian waters is estimated as 3,100 t including 1,900 t off Kuril Islands, 800 t in the Sea of Okhotsk and 400t in the Sea of Japan (Dolganov 1999). Off the Kuril Islands it comprises 4.4% of biomass of skates, 0.2% in the Sea of Okhotsk, 7.0% in the Sea of Japan and 0.5% only of total biomass of skates within the Russian Far Eastern waters. There are no historical data to help determine trends (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).
161722		threats	eng	Captured as an occasional bycatch of bottom trawl and longline fisheries and is discarded. Although some bottom trawling and longlining by Japanese and Russian fisheries for Pacific cod takes place within this species’ range, fishing pressure is much lower in comparison to the main fishing grounds. The majority of fisheries are coastal, targeting flatfishes using Danish seine at depths down to 100 m. There are few fisheries on the lower shelf and upper slope since there are few deepwater resources there. No data are currently available on trends over time.
161723		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The apparently low abundance of this species is unlikely to facilitate targeted research. However, recording and reporting of any specimens of rajids in the Gulf is urgently required.<br/><br/>Formal education and awareness programs, especially for the illiterate people in the rural areas, and capacity-building and training at tertiary levels to facilitate data collection would benefit this species and other poorly known elasmobranchs in the region.<br/><br/>Research is needed on the taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, uses and harvest levels, conservation measures, and monitoring. Data are very limited or do not exist for most of the marine fish species in the region, and only patchy information exists for a number of common and commercial species usually chosen for study.<br/><br/>No protected areas are recognised yet in Iraq. The idea of protected areas is new to Iraqis and a well established education program is required before further steps can be taken to establish such areas.
161723		distribution	eng	The Pita Skate (<em>Okamejei pita</em>) is a western Indian Ocean species. The only known confirmed specimen was recorded from the northernmost corner of the Persian/Arabian Gulf at Fao, Iraq (29°54?N; 48°25'E). Fricke and Al-Hassan (1995) note that distribution is probably limited to mud bottoms along the Iraqi and part of the Iranian coast of the Gulf, possibly including Kuwaiti waters.
161723		habitat	eng	The Pita Skate is known only from one female specimen (46 cm total length), collected in March 1992 by a trawler over a mud bottom, in water not deeper than 15 m (Fricke and Al-Hassan 1995). The specimen did not contain any egg cases. Like other skates, this species is presumably oviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). No other information is available on biology.
161723		population	eng	Although species-specific surveys have not been performed (this would be unfeasible based on the apparent rarity of the species), there was certainly survey/fisheries work done in Iraqi waters prior to conflict in the 1980s. Blegvad (1944) trawled numerous stations along the Iranian coastline including near Iraq; and there are also several Iraqi studies/checklists in the Khor Zubair, which have not recorded this species. Military conflict and tensions since the 1980s has made further scientific collection within the species? known range extremely difficult and no specific information is available on population size, status or trends. However, based on the available evidence of only one confirmed specimen, it is likely that this species is, at the least, uncommon.
161723		threats	eng	Levels of fishing-related mortality are unknown and overfishing and illegal fishing occurs in this region. The main fishing methods used in the area in which this species was captured are longline, driftnet, gargoor (baited mesh cage trap), hadra (intertidal stake-net trap), and trawl (Jawad 2006). For religious reasons local Shia muslins in southern Iraq do not consume elasmobranch fishes, and hence this species is likely discarded if captured.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is increasing within the area where this species was collected. Since 2003, Iraqi fisheries have been expanding southwards, particularly along the east coast of Bubiyan and Warba Islands and are also apparently operating illegally in the waters of Kuwait and, to a lesser extent, the Islamic Republic of Iran (Morgan 2006). These expanding trawl and gillnet fisheries are totally unregulated. As a result of this expansion, it is believed that both fishing effort and landings of marine fish species into Iraq (mainly Basrah and Umm Qasr) have increased significantly during the latter part of 2003 and 2004 (Morgan 2006). Landings have probably returned to high values of about 12,000?13,000 tonnes seen in the late 1990s, but no detailed data are available (Morgan 2006).<br/><br/>Non-fishing anthropogenic impacts may be significant. Extensive damming of the Tigris-Euphrates river system in Turkey and the drainage of the Iraqi marshes during the 1990s are likely to have had implications for the Pita Skate's habitat. Rapid coastal development of previously pristine and uninhabited areas, such as Bubiyan Island in Kuwait, may also have impacts.<br/><br/>Other known or potential sources of anthropogenic threat impacting the area are habitat loss, degradation, and deteriorating water quality (Al-Saadi and Arndt 1973, Hussain <em>et al</em>. 2001, Hussain <em>et al</em>. 1999), including: destructive fishing practices, hydrocarbon pollution of sediment/water (Douabul 1984, Abaychi and Al-Saad 1988, Al-Saad 1990, Al-Saad 1995, Al-Saad <em>et al</em>. 1995, Al-Saad <em>et al</em>. 1996, Al-Saad and Altimari 1993, DouAbul <em>et al</em>. 1987), and radiological, chemical or biotic contamination (Carroll 2005, Birdlife International 2006).<br/><br/>In addition, this species may have intrinsic factors that make it more vulnerable to depletion, such as a restricted range and low abundance. Research is required to determine to what extent these factors may threaten the species.
161724		conservation	eng	None currently in place.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, as well as species-specific information on abundance, capture in fisheries and population trends.
161724		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: from Honshu, Japan, south to Korea and the Yellow Sea, China and Taiwan, possibly to New Guinea (K. Nakaya and S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007, Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).
161724		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling catshark of the continental shelves, found offshore at depths of 90?200 m (Taniuchi 1988). The reproduction and diet of this species was studied in Choshi and Suruga Bay, Japan (Taniuchi 1988, Horie and Tanaka 2002). In Suruga Bay the data collected from 1,377 specimens (992 and 385 specimens from western and eastern of the bay respectively) indicates that the minimum size of adults was 82.4 cm total length (TL) for males and 90.6 cm TL for females. Size at birth was about 18 cm TL (Horie and Tanaka 2002). Reproduction is oviparous. In Choshi, the study of 356 specimens suggests size at maturity is attained at 86?88 cm TL for males and at 92?94 cm TL for females (Taniuchi 1988, Horie and Tanaka 2002). All males measuring greater than 96 cm TL and females over 104 cm were mature (Taniuchi 1988, Horie and Tanaka 2002). The largest observed male in Choshi was 114 cm TL and the largest female was 114.5 cm TL (Taniuchi 1988). The species does not have a well-defined reproductive season (Taniuchi 1988).<br/><br/>In Suruga Bay, the species preyed on a wide variety of marine organisms such as Gnathostomata, Cephalopoda and Crustacea. The diet of the young varies in different locations. In Choshi, the food items of the species consisted of at least 71 prey species, principally fishes. Pacific mackerel and Japanese sardine were the dominant prey. Ten species of Chondrichthyan fishes were also important in their diet (Taniuchi 1988).
161724		population	eng	No specific information is available on the population, but the species is apparently locally abundant.
161724		threats	eng	This species is a retained bycatch of commercial bottom trawl and longline fisheries off Japan (Taniuchi 1988). It is captured incidentally by shrimp bottom trawlers using nets with mesh ~2?4 cm in diameter, so both adults and juveniles are retained by the trawl (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). The species is sometimes observed on the Tachi and Nan Fang Hao fish markets, Taiwan. It is apparently still abundant in areas that are heavily fished by trawlers (S. Iglésias, S. Tanaka and K. Nakaya obs. 2007).
161725		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.
161725		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan from Miyazaki Prefecture to Miura Peninsula (Ishihara 1990).
161725		habitat	eng	This skate occurs on sandy, muddy substrates at depths of 30–60 m. Attains a maximum size of 51 cm total length (TL). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of its biology.
161725		population	eng	Apparently common within its range.
161725		threats	eng	This species is captured as utilised bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal set nets off Japan. It is eaten as dried skate wings and processed into fishcakes (Kamaboko) (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). No information is currently available on catches, however, this endemic species has limited range in shallow waters. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947–1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), but this was mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea, where this species is not present. Further investigation into threats is urgently required and this assessment should be re-visited in the near-term.
161726		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed on the species’ full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.
161726		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific: recorded from the slope off northern New Caledonia (Grand Passage) (Séret and Last 2007).
161726		habitat	eng	Recorded on the slope, at depths of 688–732 m. The only known specimen is an adult male, measuring 41.5 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007).
161726		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen.
161726		threats	eng	Uncertain.
161727		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Bycatch in fisheries should be quantified and population trends monitored. Information is also required on the life-history characteristics.<br/><br/>Restrictions on trawling below 700 m in southern Australia, and basket quotas on deep-water dogfish.
161727		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: Namibia, South Africa (Northern Cape near Hondeklip Bay, Western Cape from Saldanha Bay to Cape Agulhas, Eastern Cape from Plettenberg Bay to Algoa Bay, and northern kwaZulu-Natal) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific: southern Australia (from Perth to in Western Australia to Victoria and Tasmania), seamounts south of Australia including the Cascade Plateau and South Tasman Rise and from New South Wales, north to Taree (Compagno in prep). Yano (1997) recorded <em>E. unicolor</em> from the ridges to the north (Three Kings Ridge and Lord Howe Rise) of New Zealand waters, but further taxonomic study is required to determine whether Northern and Southern Hemisphere populations are con-specific (M. Francis pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: Japan (southeastern Honshu) (Compagno in prep).
161727		habitat	eng	Continental and insular slopes, often at the bottom and sometimes well off it. Found at depths of 402–1,380 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Maximum total length 79 cm total length (TL); size at birth about 17 cm (TL); immature males 23–51 cm (TL), adolescent males 45–51 cm (TL), adult males 48–68 cm (TL); immature females 26–56 cm (TL), adolescent females 37–67 cm (TL), adult females 53–63 cm (TL) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>This species may have similar life-history characteristics to <em>E. baxteri</em>. A recent study by Irvine <em>et al.</em> (2006) on the age and growth of <em>E. baxteri</em> provided unvalidated age estimates for this species. These suggest that females reach maturity between 11.5 and 30 years of age, and males at 10.5–20 years. The lower and upper estimates are based on external growth bands, and internal growth bands, respectively. Although there is a large discrepancy between the preliminary upper and lower estimates, they both suggest that <em>E. baxteri</em> is a long-lived and late maturing species. <em>Etmopterus unicolor</em> may share similar life-history characteristics, making it susceptible to depletion by over-fishing.
161727		population	eng	Common off the west and south coasts of South Africa, off southern Australia.  In these areas this species is caught with the larger <em>E. baxteri</em> (Compagno in prep). Both species were caught together in 29% of 65 short (half-hour) experimental trawls by research vessels on the slopes at 383–1,300 m off the west and southeast coasts of South Africa. In some instances in sufficient numbers to suggest, but not prove, mixed schools (Compagno in prep). It is known only from a few records on the Three Kings Ridge and Lord Howe Rise, north of New Zealand and has not been recorded within the New Zealand EEZ (Yano 1997, M. Francis pers. comm. 2007).
161727		threats	eng	Probably an incidental bycatch of trawl fisheries for Deepwater Hake (<em>Merluccius paradoxus</em>) off the west coast of South Africa, and it used to be caught in deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>, Trachichthyidae) off Australia, although these have now been much reduced through quotas and closed areas. It is also caught in the epipelagic zone, at up to 120 m depth, by Japanese longliners in the open ocean near Australia (Compagno in prep.). This species is sometimes caught in large quantities off southern Australia and discarded. However, discarded catch would probably have very low survival rates (J.D. Stevens pers. comm. 2007).
161728		conservation	eng	This species needs to be monitored in the future due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in Thailand,Indonesia and other areas of its range.
161728		distribution	eng	The range of this species is not well defined due to regular confusion with <em>H. walga</em> (Compagno 1998). Its distribution appears limited and may prove to be restricted to the Indian Ocean (P. Last pers. obs.). Western Indian Ocean: Red Sea, India (shore area, Coromandel coast; lower Bengal).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand. The species? range south of Thailand is uncertain, but includes Indonesia (Java and possibly southern Borneo) (M. Majaji pers. obs. 2007). <br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 51, 57.
161728		habitat	eng	Very little is known of the biology and ecology of this coastal, demersal stingray at present. Maximum size is reported at 65 cm total length (TL) and 22 cm disc width (DW) (Compagno 1998). The largest female examined by Manjaji (2004) (20.7 cm DW) was maturing. Size at birth is about 10 cm DW, and males mature ar 20.5?21 cm DW (Manjaji 2004).
161728		population	eng	Caught in considerable numbers by trawlers operating in the Andaman Sea (P. Last pers. comm.).
161728		threats	eng	This species is a utilised bycatch of demersal fisheries, and is taken in considerable numbers by trawlers operating in the Andaman and Java Seas (P. Last pers. obs.). Levels of exploitation on the habitat in which this species occurs are generally very high and unregulated throughout large areas of its range. As it is caught in large numbers (in all size ranges), it is considered to be under a severe level of threat. Flesh is utilized fresh or salted and dried for human consumption where it is caught.<br/><br/>The alteration of marine habitats by mining and mangrove deforestation poses a threat to many coastal species, such as this. In adjacent areas of Cambodia and Viet Nam, deforestation, residues of warfare chemicals and silting are the one of the main threats to coastal elasmobranch species such as Himantura imbricata (Vidthayanon 1997). Significant areas of mangrove forest have been lost from countries within this species? range (FAO 2007).
161729		conservation	eng	No species-specific measures in place. This species needs to be closely monitored. Efforts should be made to collect species-specific catch data and further monitoring through surveys is essential.
161729		distribution	eng	Northeast Atlantic: fjords of central and southern Norway, southern Iceland, around Rockall Trough, and uncommon in Bay of Biscay. Vagrants are occasionally recorded in Celtic waters off western Ireland (ICES 2007). Records from elsewhere may be misidentifications.
161729		habitat	eng	Found on slopes and submarine rises at 200 m to more than 1,000 m depth (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Stehmann 1990). This is a large skate, attaining at least 200 cm total length (TL) (Stehman 1990). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.
161729		population	eng	Moderately rare. ICES (2007) reports that this species is uncommon in the Norwegian and North Seas and Bay of Biscay. There are historical records from Rockall and the Norwegian Deep, where it was known to have occurred, but there have been no recent records in these areas (ICES 2007).
161729		threats	eng	This species is commercially exploited and occasionally occurs in landing statistics either as a target or utilised bycatch (ICES 2006). Little information is generally available on the landings of deepwater skates, although FAO statistics report landings of 19?393 t for <em>D. nidarosiensis</em> between 1982 and 1993 (Anonymous 1997). Dipturus nidarosiensis also accounted for 1% of skates recorded in biological sampling in Irish ports between 2001 and 2007 (ICES 2007). This is one of the largest skates and as such has low productivity and high catchability, similar to other large skates that have been heavily impacted by even moderate levels of bycatch (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Deepwater prawn trawl fisheries operate within its range. Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough, where there have been no recent records of this species, have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the northeast Atlantic, with effort expanding into deeper water. This species? high intrinsic vulnerability, an absence of management or conservation measures and its apparent disappearance from Rockall and the Norwegian Deep (as described in Population, above) is of concern.
161730		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required.
161730		distribution	eng	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: southern Baja and the Gulf of California (Mexico), throughout Central America to northern Peru (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.
161730		habitat	eng	A benthic species found in coastal waters on soft bottoms at depths of 5-50 m (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). The maximum recorded size for this species is a male specimen measuring 28.8 cm (McEachran 1995). Life-history is poorly known and no other biological data are available.
161730		population	eng	Unknown.
161730		threats	eng	No information is available but this species is taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating in the Eastern Pacific. Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). No specific information is available on catches, but this species is taken as bycatch of these fisheries throughout large areas of its geographic range.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Urotrygon </span>species are also taken as bycatch in inshore artisanal fisheries in Perú (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005) and probably elsewhere in Pacific South America, where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is significant and generally unregulated. <br/><br/>Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting catches internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ?marine fishes, nei?, where nei stands for ?not explicitly identified? (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). This limits the available information to assess catches of this and other inshore elasmobranch species.
161731		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place. Further efforts should be made to gather data from longline fishing vessels and other commercial fishing operations that may encounter this species. Continued research efforts aimed at careful monitoring of populations of this species is required.
161731		distribution	eng	This stingray is widespread, with an almost circumglobal distribution, throughout tropical and subtropical areas of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, between 52°N?50°S and 167°W and 180°E (Mollet 2002).
161731		habitat	eng	This is perhaps the only species of stingray that occurs in pelagic, oceanic waters (Last <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is usually found from the surface to 100 m depth over deep water (Mollet 2002), but has been reported to 238 m (Bester <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a relatively small ray, attaining a maximum size of 80 cm disc width (DW) (Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Females reach maturity at 39?50 cm DW (Wilson and Beckett 1970, Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002, Neer 2008, Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007), and males at 37?50 cm DW (Wilson and Beckett 1970, Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002, Neer 2008). Females mature at 3 years, males mature at 2 years and longevity is about 10 years (Wilson and Beckett 1970, Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002, Neer 2008).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy and the gestation period is less than 2?4 months (Ranzi and Zezza 1936, Tortonese 1956, Wilson and Beckett 2002, Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007). Copulation takes place in spring and females move inshore during summer to give birth (Whitehead et al. 1984, Tortonese 1956, Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007.). Females give birth to 4?13 pups per litter (average 6) (Ebert, 2003, Neer 2008, Tortonese, 1956, Fisher <em>et al. </em>1987), and newborn stingrays measure approximately 14.3?24.1 cm DW (mean range) (Mollet <em>et al. </em>2002, Mollet 2002).<br/><br/>In the northeast and eastern central Pacific there appears to be two discrete populations of this stingray, one migrating from eastern Pacific equatorial waters to off the California coast, and a second central Pacific population that migrates northwards, sometimes as far as Japanese and British Columbia waters (Ebert 2003). This suggests that these stingrays may have a fairly complicated population structure, but unfortunately virtually nothing is known about this or the abundance of this ray at this time. Females in the eastern Pacific population are thought to give birth in winter in warmer water off the coast of Central America, before migrating to higher latitudes nearer the coast including the Southern California Bight (Mollet 2002). Information from the western and central Pacific also suggests that females give birth in November-March in warmer water near the equator (Mollet 2002). In the Mediterranean Sea, the migration pattern appears to be different from that in the eastern Pacific, with females giving birth in the Bay of Naples before the rays migrate to warmer water (Lo Bianco 1909, Ranzi 1933, Mollet 2002). Rays in the Bay of Naples appeared to migrate as the water became colder. In the Southwest Atlantic, the population existing off Brazil possibly carries out its reproductive cycle in water southeast of Brazil and Uruguay on the slope and in oceanic waters, migrating towards the tropical zone to give birth (Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Data from pelagic longline fisheries in the Southwest Atlantic show that the proportion of males in the captures is greater than females (ratio of 1.8:1 (n=1317)). Conversely, other data available for the eastern Pacific and western Atlantic Oceans indicate that there is a significantly higher ratio of females to males observed. Females outnumbered males 2:1 to 7:1 in the eastern Pacific samples and at a ratio greater than 3:1 for the western Atlantic (Wilson and Beckett 1970, D.B. Holts, unpublished data, Neer 2008).
161731		population	eng	The population structure, migratory patterns and reproduction cycles are not well known throughout most of this species? range.
161731		threats	eng	The major threats to pelagic stingray populations are pelagic longline fisheries for tunas, billfishes, and other pelagic shark species (Neer 2008). This species is caught frequently by tuna and swordfish longliners and mostly discarded, but is retained and utilised in some areas (for example Indonesia) (Domingo <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mollet 2002, Vaske 2002, A. Amorim pers. comm., Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007, White <em>et al. </em>2006). The magnitude of regional and indeed global catch is currently unknown.<br/><br/>There is evidence for skewed sex ratios in this species (see Habitat and Ecology above). Whether these ratios are obtained in actual fisheries bycatch is unknown, however if so, an asymmetric take of this species could potentially impact the long-term stability of pelagic stingray populations (Neer 2008).<br/><br/><strong>South Atlantic</strong><br/>Of 2.054 pelagic stingrays captured between 2001?2005 by the Uruguayan longline fleet in the South Atlantic Ocean, 35% were dead when discarded, 50% were discarded alive and the state of 15% could not be determined. However, these stingrays are often smashed against the side of fishing boats to remove the hooks as the fishermen are afraid of being stung. As a result most pelagic stingrays are discarded with serious mouth and/or jaw damage and therefore there is concern that survival is ultimately low, even in the group discarded alive above (Domingo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Forselledo <em>et al. </em>2007.).<br/><br/>Annual CPUE data for the Uruguayan longline fleet, operating in the Southwest Atlantic, between 2000-2006, varied between 0.27 (2001) to 1.2 (2005) individuals per 1,000 hooks (0.76 in 2006), with no significant trend (Forselledo <em>et al. </em>2007). Large aggregations are captured in some areas, resulting in very variable CPUEs and large numbers taken on fewer hooks (78.2 individuals/1000 hooks in the South Atlantic) (Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong><br/>This stingray appears to be very common in the eastern Pacific, although catch data for this species is very uneven. There is some debate as to consistency of reporting of pelagic stingrays. Observers on pelagic shark research cruises and tuna longliners reportedly do not record catch records of these species in a consistent manner and discussions with observers in the North Pacific suggest that stingrays, most likely referable to <em>P. violacea</em>, are not being recorded on a regular basis (L. Jordan pers. comm. August 2004, D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2004).<br/><br/>A study in the tropical Pacific Ocean comparing research surveys conducted with pelagic longlines in the 1950s with recent (1990s) observer data from the commercial pelagic longline fishery suggests that pelagic stingrays have increased in the region (Ward and Myers 2005). Surveys in the 1950s caught no pelagic stingrays, and interviews with scientists who conducted the surveys confirmed that they neither caught nor saw any pelagic stingrays, but certainly would have recorded them if they had (Ward pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Pelagic stingrays are also discarded with serious mouth/jaw injuries off South America in the eastern Pacific and probably low chance of survival (Jimmy Martinez pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, an analysis similar to that in the tropical Pacific Ocean, which compares 1950s research survey data with 1990s observer data from pelagic longlines suggests that there may have been a similar increase in pelagic stingrays in this region (R. Myers and J. Baum unpublished data).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>This species was believed to be rare in the Southwest Indian Ocean, until it was revealed that these stingrays are actually quite commonly caught as bycatch of the longline fleet, but generally unreported (Forselledo <em>et al. </em>2007.). Interviews with commercial longliners in this region have revealed that the fishermen were quite familiar with it, but that scientists were not (D.A. Ebert and P.D. Cowley unpubl. data). This species is scattered throughout Indonesia in open ocean areas, and is caught occasionally by pelagic gillnet and longline fisheries, whre it is retained for human consumption (White<em> et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>This species is captured by pelagic longline fisheries operating in the Mediterranean Sea. This bycatch is almost certainly mostly discarded, with a low discard survival rate due to damage to jaws and/or mouth as a result of treatment on board fishing vessels. Again the magnitude of Mediterranean-wide catches is unknown. Reports of common stingrays Dasyatis pastinaca in pelagic fisheries catches in the Mediterranean may refer to pelagic stingrays <em>Pteroplatytrygon violacea</em>. In Italian seas pelagic stingrays are the most commonly caught elasmobranch species in the Albacore long line fisheries and the second most common elasmobranch catch in swordfish long line fisheries (Filanti <em>et al.</em> 1986, di Natale et al. 1995, Orsi Relini et al. 1999). Total bycatch of <em>P. violacea</em> in the swordfish fishery in the Ligurian Sea was estimated at ~2,000 (up to 20 per boat) in 1995, although the catch was smaller and more variable in 1996) (Mollet 2002). Rey and Alot (1984) reported the results of a swordfish longline surveys in Mediterranean Spanish waters, and recorded only two pelagic stingrays in 11 fishing operations (<0.001). The pelagic stingray is also occasionally taken by recreational fisheries (Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987), which presumably does not have a significant impact on population numbers.
161732		conservation	eng	None in place. Fisheries operating within this species’ relatively restricted range need to be monitored.
161732		distribution	eng	Relatively restricted range in the Western central Atlantic: Straits of Florida and Caribbean from Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico and Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles (Compagno 2002, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its distribution may not be completely documented.
161732		habitat	eng	A deepwater species of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 293–695 m (Konstantinou <em>et al. </em>2000). Little known about its biology. Although the reproductive mode of this species had been in question, it is reported to be oviparous (Springer 1979, Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000). Parsons (1986) also reported on oviparity in <em>Galeus arae antillensis</em> off Puerto Rico. However, <em>G. antillensis</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>G. springeri</em> in this area so it is not known which species his specimens belonged to. Reaches a maximum size ~46 cm TL.
161732		population	eng	Unknown.
161732		threats	eng	Threats to this species are uncertain. Little information is available on deepwater fisheries operating in this area that may take this species. Any future expansion of deepwater demersal fisheries in the species’ restricted range may be cause for concern and would require monitoring. Its small size may preclude it from capture in some fishing gears.
161733		conservation	eng	None in place.
161733		distribution	eng	Northwest and western central Pacific: northwest Java, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Province of China, Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Southeast Japan (Compagno in prep.).
161733		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling shark preferring tropical and warm-temperate continental and insular waters, found on the continental shelf at depths of 50?100 m (Compagno in prep). This species reaches a maximum total length of 65 cm with adult males measuring 42?57 cm and adult females measuring 51?65 cm (Compagno in prep). This is an oviparous species which feeds on bony fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Compagno in prep).
161733		population	eng	Uncommon throughout its range (Compagno in prep.).
161733		threats	eng	This species is probably taken in bottom trawls in the Taiwan Straits and elsewhere throughout its range. Often seen in Taiwanese fish markets as a bycatch species. The conservation status of this species is uncertain but it is of concern due to the intense bottom trawling occurring in its range (Compagno in prep.).
161734		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161734		distribution	eng	Western Indian Ocean: known only from 23°S off Mozambique and off Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Compagno and Ebert 2007, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).
161734		habitat	eng	This deepwater skate is recorded at depths of 65-680 m, with most records below 200 m. Attains a maximum size of 41 cm (total length) TL, and 24 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous, but nothing else is known of its biology.
161734		population	eng	This species is reportedly extremely abundant in deeper waters near Durban (Wallace 1967). Compagno and Ebert (2007) report records from 22 research stations.
161734		threats	eng	There are few trawl fisheries at the depths this species occurs because the strong Agulhas current makes trawling there potentially dangerous (M.J. Smale pers. obs.). Any future expansion of fisheries to greater depths within the species range should be closely monitored given the species' apparently restricted distribution.
161735		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Research is needed to accurately define this species? distribution and abundance. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.
161735		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is not well defined. It has been reported from the northwest and western central Pacific, from Java, Indonesia, north to Borneo, Philippines, South China Sea, Vietnam, Malaysia, East China Sea, China and Taiwan (Province of China), Korea and Japan (Last and Compagno 1999, Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, recent studies suggest that records of this species from the South China Sea and Indonesia could refer to other, as yet undescribed <em>Okamajei </em>spp. (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).
161735		habitat	eng	This poorly known skate lives on muddy, sandy bottoms at depths of 20?175 m (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Attains a maximum size of at least 55 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1999, Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995). Like other skates, it is oviparous. Spawning occurs from January to April in the East China Sea (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995).
161735		population	eng	Apparently common within its known range.
161735		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal setnets off Japan, and in bottom trawls off Taiwan Island. Although it is not targeted, it is retained and utilised for human consumption and fishmeal. Areas of this species? range have been subject to intensive fishing pressure (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).
161736		conservation	eng	None.
161736		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bali. Known only from off Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Possibly has a very restricted range, with an estimated extent of occurrence potentially limited to <20,000 km², as none have been recorded during extensive surveys at localities on neighbouring islands (e.g., Lombok).
161736		habitat	eng	Biology and habitat unknown; presumably reef-dwelling, inhabiting holes and crevices on reefs, like other related catsharks. The species attains 52 cm total length (TL) with males mature by 43 cm TL (White in review). Presumably oviparous. Diet unknown, but probably dominated by small invertebrates as with many other inshore scyliorhinid species (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161736		population	eng	Very little is known of the population of this recently described species.
161736		threats	eng	Caught irregularly by longline (small) and dropline fishers operating over hard substrates off of Jimbaran Bay (Bali). Probably adversely affected by dynamite fishing due to the habitats occupied by this species (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161737		conservation	eng	Assessment of catches and the impact of fisheries on this species throughout its range are required. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs.
161737		distribution	eng	Northwest (marginally), western central and southwest Atlantic: distributed from Cape Lookout, North Carolina (USA), south through the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean to Brazil (including Fernando de Noronha Archipelago) and Uruguay, with one record from Mar del Plata, Argentina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Cousseau and Menni 1983, McEachran and Carvalho 2002, Cousseau and Menni 1983, Soto 1997).
161737		habitat	eng	This species occurs pelagicaly in coastal and occasionally oceanic waters (McEachran and Carvalho 2002), and travels in schools (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1986). As with all myliobatoid rays, the reproductive mode of <em>M. hypostoma</em> is aplacental viviparity, with embryonic nutrition supplied from a protein- and lipid-rich histotroph from highly developed trophonemata. One pup is produced per litter (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Long resting periods may account for extended reproductive cycles in mobulid species. The maximum recorded size is 120 cm disc width (DW); males mature at 114 cm DW and females mature at 111 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Size at birth is 55 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002), but nothing else is known of its life history. Prey items include zooplankton, small pelagic crustaceans, and ray-finned fishes (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161737		population	eng	Little information is currently available on abundance and population trends of this species throughout its range. At the time of writing, information was only available from the southern and northern extent of this species? distribution, and further information is required from throughout the rest of its range. Most published information on this species from Brazil refers to occurrence (Lessa 1986, Juras <em>et al.</em> 1987, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1995, Menni and Stehmann 2000). In Uruguay, towards the southern extent of its range, it is only occasionally captured in longline fisheries. Data from Uruguay?s national observer programme indicate that an average of 4.4 individuals per year were recorded during a 10-year period, 80% of which were released, suggesting that these fisheries are not a threat to the species (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2008). On the east coast of the U.S.A., at the northern extent of its range, the Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program is a research trawl survey that has been conducted each spring, summer, and fall since 1989 from approximately Cape Lookout to Cape Canaveral (available at: http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/mrri/SEAMAP/seamap.html). Through 2005, this survey captured the Atlantic devilray in 15 of the 17 survey years (n = 113), and the estimated instantaneous rate of change in the survey was 0.105 (95% CI: 0.037?0.173), suggesting that the species has been increasing in this region (Myers <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).
161737		threats	eng	None of the Western Atlantic devil ray species are abundant enough to be considered of significant commercial interest to fisheries; however they are taken as bycatch in longline and net fisheries (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). This species may be susceptible to capture in surface gill nets, longlines, purse seines and directed harpoons, like other mobulid species. Very little specific information is currently available on the capture of this species in fisheries throughout its range. It is known to be occasionally taken incidentally in pelagic longline fisheries off Brazil and Uruguay, where it is typically discarded at sea (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998, A. Domingo pers. obs. 2008). The catch per unit of effort of Mobula spp, (probably consisting at least partially of <em>M. hypostoma</em>) by the pelagic longline fishery in an expansive, oceanic area of the southwestern Atlantic during 1998-2007 (among > 2.800.000 hooks) was 0.00001 individuals/ 1000 hooks. Mobulid rays appear to be particularly susceptible to overfishing as their fecundity is the lowest of all elasmobranchs (with litter sizes of typically only one pup and a reproductive periodicity of 1?3 years (White <em>et al</em>. 2006)). Therefore, further information is required on the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range, particularly in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and northern coasts of South America.
161738		conservation	eng	None in place. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history.
161738		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan (Choshi) southward to Miyajaki Prefecture of Japan, East Sea of Korea (Pohang; Sea of Japan), East China Sea (Taiwan) (Chyung 1997, Ishihara 1990, Jeong 1999).<br/><br/>FAO Fisheries Area: 61.
161738		habitat	eng	A large deepwater skate, <em>D. macrocaudus</em> is found on sandy-muddy bottoms from 300-800m depth. The species attains at least 120 cm TL (Chyung 1977, Ishihara 1990), but its biology is virtually unknown. Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous.
161738		population	eng	This species appears to be very rare, with few specimens in collections in Japan and Taiwan, Province of China (Ishihara 1990, Joung and Chen 1989, Chyung 1977, Jeong 1999, Youn, 2002).
161738		threats	eng	This species is a retained bycatch of bottom trawl and possibly other fisheries, however no specific information is currently available on its capture.
161739		conservation	eng	None in place.
161739		distribution	eng	Antarctic Atlantic: reported throughout the Antarctic, but recent studies show that populations in the Atlantic are distinct from populations in the Pacific and Indian Ocean (see Taxonomy). Eaton's Skate may be restricted to Atlantic waters of the Antarctic, around the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, towards the Antarctic Peninsula, and in the north-eastern Weddell Sea.
161739		habitat	eng	An Antarctic skate found at depths of about 200–300 m in the Atlantic (Stehmann 1985). Attains a maximum size of about 120 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1985). Like other skates, it is oviparous, but little else is known of the biology.
161739		population	eng	Unknown.
161739		threats	eng	The increased trawling and longlining fishing for fishes in the region, including the legal and pirate fishery for toothfish, pose a threat for all predators of the Antarctic, including this skate. Despite this skate occurring in fisheries managed by CCAMLR, accidental captures in both legal and pirate fisheries are a problem that may be mitigated by surface release of this skate. Bycatch levels need to be defined and monitored.
161740		conservation	eng	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Data are required to determine whether this species is captured in fisheries operating throughout its range.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161740		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: known only from the Emperor Seamount Chain east of Japan and the Kuril Islands at the type locality, 38°37' to 49°59'N, 171°06' to 170°00'E (Compagno in prep.).
161740		habitat	eng	Found on or near the bottom at depths of 800?1,000 m. Only 21 specimens have been collected and biology is largely unknown. The species attains at least 63.6 cm total length (TL) (Shirai and Nakaya 1990). Mature specimens have measured from 53 cm TL and 52 cm TL for females and males respectively. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. A litter of 10 was found in one pregnant female and size at birth has been estimated at 8?9.3 cm (near-term fetuses). The Highfin Dogfish feeds on bony fishes (Shirai and Nakaya 1990, Compagno in prep.).
161740		population	eng	Only known from 21 specimens.
161740		threats	eng	The restricted distribution of the species may make it vulnerable to deep-sea trawl and longline fisheries, especially those that can accurately target deepwater teleosts on restricted deepwater bottom habitats including the slopes of seamounts (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>While some trawlers off Japan are restricted to fishing within the borders of their prefectures, others conduct fisheries on the Emperor Seamounts (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2006). Fisheries have operated on the Emperor seamount chain since the 1960s. Some of these have led to dramatic declines in the target stock but there is no information to determine whether this species was taken as bycatch. For example, Japanese and former USSR vessels began targeting armourheads (<em>Pseudopentaceros</em> species) with trawls in the Emperor Seamount chain and the northern Hawaiian Ridge areas in 1969 (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). Between 1969 and 1977, the Japanese fleet sent two to five trawlers a year to this area and averaged catches of 22,800 to 35,100 tonnes a year. By 1977 to 1982 catches had fallen to 5,800?9,900 tonnes a year (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Pseudopentaceros</em> species occur to 600 m depth. There is no evidence that either of the fish stocks will recover enough to allow commercially viable fisheries in the near future (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is no information to determine whether this species is taken in fisheries on the Emperor Seamount chain and the Kuril Islands, but any bycatch is of concern given the species? limited range. Furthermore, the species may have limiting life history characteristics, similar to other deepwater shark species, thus will not be sufficiently fecund to withstand high levels of exploitation.
161741		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
161741		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: Yellow Sea, East China Sea, Bohai Sea to northern China and off Taiwan, Province of China (Nishida and Nakaya 1990). Taiwan, Province of China is the southern extent of the range.
161741		habitat	eng	Primarily an inshore species, but no specific information is available on the depth range. Adult males measured 38 cm disc width (DW) (based on the holotype), 60?94 cm total length (TL) (Zhu and Meng 2001). Very little is known of the habitat and biology of this species.
161741		population	eng	Difficulties with species identification among Dasyatids makes it very difficult to determine population trends. This is a cold water species, so is perhaps more common in the Yellow Sea than Taiwan, Province of China (D. Ebert and Y. Wang pers. obs.).
161741		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries, including shrimp trawls operating on the continental shelf (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Habitat destruction through industrialization may also be impacting shallow water species such as this off China and Taiwan Island (D. Ebert, C. Vidthaynon pers. obs.). <br/><br/>Commonly captured as bycatch in demersal trawls operating off China (Zhu and Meng 2001), but only of low value. One of three most commonly marketed of dasyatids in China, although no information is available on trends. There are difficulties with accurate identification of Dasyatid species.
161742		conservation	eng	None in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species’ range is required. Species-specific assessment and monitoring of catches, as well as research on the impact of fisheries-related mortality is also needed.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161742		distribution	eng	Northwest Pacific: endemic to Japan. This species is recorded only from southern Japan, from <500 km of coastline, from Choshi to Kochi (Ishihara 1990).
161742		habitat	eng	<em></em> The Oda Skate (<em>Rhinoraja odai</em>) can be found at depths of 300–870 m. and attains at least 44.5 cm TL and are mature at that size. Its biology is virtually unknown.
161742		population	eng	Unknown.
161742		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. This fishery is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). Increased fishing pressure, particularly and expansion of pressure into deeper water, could pose a threat to this species.
161743		conservation	eng	None in place.
161743		distribution	eng	Southeast USA and coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico from North Carolina to Yucatán and Nicaragua (Sánchez 1997, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).
161743		habitat	eng	Coastal species recorded inshore to 30 m depth, inhabiting sandy and weedy bottom types, sometimes near patch reefs. Aplacental yolksac viviparous. Jordan and Gilbert (1883) reported a litter of five from a single female, Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) reported a litter of 6 in a single female and Hensley <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported a mean litter size of 6.6 from 12 females from Florida and Texas. Parturition possibly occurs during late spring to early summer along the lower Texas coast with fertilization occurring after parturition (Hensley <em>et al</em>. 1998). Feeds primarily on benthic molluscs and crustaceans.
161743		population	eng	Hensley <em>et al.</em> (1998) reviewed the literature and unpublished data, concluding that the species may be relatively rare along the Texas coast, and is only seasonally common at a few locations. This contrasts with Walls (1975) who stated that the species was locally common in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) state that Florida is the species? centre of abundance. Details of seasonal movements are not known although the species appears to display seasonality at least along the Texas coast (Hensley <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Analysis of research surveys conducted in the Gulf of Mexico and along the eastern coast of the USA show no trend for this species. This species was captured in every year that data is available for in the southeast USA SEAMAP survey (from North Carolina to Florida) from 1989?2005. The trend in abundance was not significant (144 individuals were captured in 44 surveys tows, out of a total of ~4223 survey tows sampled) (Shepherd and Myers unpublished data). Only four individuals were recorded during four years, one per year in the northern Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl fishery survey and demersal longline fishery (1972-2002). This species was last recorded in 1994 (Shepherd and Myers 2005).
161743		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Mexico. Shrimp trawl fishing is intense in the Gulf of Mexico, particularly in shallow waters, with 4?5 million trawl hours annually (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Trawl and artisanal fisheries also operate throughout this species? inshore range off Nicaragua (FAO 2008). <br/>Occasionally taken by recreational fishers along the Texas coast (Hensley <em>et al</em>. 1998) and probably elsewhere.
161744		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the SSG together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range. Further research is also required on the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.<br/><br/>In Australia, the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).
161744		distribution	eng	Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: patchy occurrence from southeastern Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Socotra Islands, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, northern Australia and New Guinea (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Heemstra 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Stehmann 1995, Manjaji 2004).
161744		habitat	eng	An inshore ray, usually found at less than 50 m depth (Compagno and Heemstra 1984, Kuiter and Debelius 1994, Stehmann 1995, Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al</em>. 2006), but recently recorded from 100 m depth off northwest Australia (J. Pogonoski pers. comm. 2008). Seen in reef areas off Thailand (Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). Attains a maximum size of at least 104 cm DW (~200 cm total length) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Last and Compagno 1999). Males mature at about 70 cm disc width (DW) and size at birth is between 20 and 27 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007, Last and Stevens 1994). Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy and diet presumably consists of crustaceans and small fishes (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).
161744		population	eng	Uncommon.
161744		threats	eng	Captured in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, occasionally, longline fisheries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species known range in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia.<br/><br/>This species is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and Himantura jenkinsii is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White unpub. data). This species is highly sought after for its valuable skin (W. White pers. obs. 2007) which can fetch high prices  due to the large thorns on the tail.<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, these species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Also taken by the Danish seine fishing gear. In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.
161745		conservation	eng	None known to be in place. Fishery management, including National Shark Plans, and trawl fishery exclusion zones could contribute towards the conservation of this and other benthic species.
161745		distribution	eng	Western central Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean: southern Thai-Myanmar border through the Straits of Malacca and the Malay Peninsula to Singapore and Vietnam, including Thailand (Compagno 1999).
161745		habitat	eng	Found on soft substrates in inshore and offshore waters. The biology is little known, however one female was caught with four foetuses (Compagno 1999). Females are thought to mature at 11–12 cm TL and males at about 11 cm TL (Compagno 1999). Maximum total length is approximately 18 cm TL, although most specimens caught are below 15 cm TL (Compagno 1999).
161745		population	eng	Unknown. Apparently rare off Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).
161745		threats	eng	Inshore and offshore mixed species trawl and possibly other demersal fisheries operate throughout its range. Batoids are heavily exploited in the Andaman Sea, where intensive trawl fisheries operate on the western coast of Thailand (Simpfendorfer <em>et al. </em>2005). Probably not all bycatch of this species is landed, but survival of discards will presumably be very poor. Landed frequently as utilized bycatch in the Phuket market from Myanmar trawl fisheries, although rare in western collections. Although no specific data are available on the capture of this species, intensive trawl fisheries operate throughout its known geographic range. Electric ray species appear to be generally less common now than previously off Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).
161746		conservation	eng	There are a number of Marine protected areas (MPA?s) implemented along the coast of South Africa that coincide with this species range (Wood 2007).<br/><br/>There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Catches require monitoring. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.
161746		distribution	eng	Southeast Atlantic and southwest Indian Ocean: South Africa, found on the continental shelf from Algoa Bay to Natal (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989) and off southern Mozambique (Heemstra 1995).
161746		habitat	eng	<em></em> The Natal Electric Ray is caught in continental shelf waters of 73?329 m depth (Smith and Heemstra 1995). It has been recorded from canyons (at between 100 and 200 m depth) near Sodwana Bay, Natal. Nothing is known of the biology or life-history of this species; it reaches a maximum size of at least 25 cm total length (TL) (Smith and Heemstra 1995).
161746		population	eng	Very few specimens of this apparently rare Southern African endemic electric ray have been caught since this species was described in 1921, despite much scientific sampling having occurred on the shelf and upper slope region.
161746		threats	eng	Fisheries operate throughout this species? depth range, offering it little refuge from fishing pressure. <em>H. garmani</em> is caught as incidental bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries in areas that are historically and currently heavily fished.<br/><br/>Potentially the greatest impact on chondrichthyans in South African waters is from the large bottom-trawl fisheries directing at the Cape hakes <em>Merluccius paradoxus</em> and <em>M. capensis</em> (Japp 1999). The offshore and inshore fisheries target hake, sole and horse mackerel. Annual demersal landings, including all shark and other bycatch in the South African trawl fisheries varies from year to year and in 1995 approximated 180,000 t (In recent years this figure has been reported to be well above 200,000 t). Japp (1997) estimated discards of elasmobranchs in South African bottom trawl operations at between 80?98% (depending on the area), i.e., between 2?20% of those caught in trawl nets are processed (Japp 1999). Fennessey (1994) reported extensively on the elasmobranch bycatch in the Natal prawn fishery, and pointed out that catches were dominated by small rays.<br/><br/>All of South Africa?s main commercial fisheries are believed to be fully exploited with the only possible exception being the mid-water directed fishery for Horse mackerel (Japp 1999). Although there are no species-specific catch data for <em>H. garmani,</em> and it is not known to be utilised, it is taken as bycatch in these fisheries.<br/><br/>Despite species-specific data on catches and population trends generally lacking for most electric rays, significant declines have been documented where data are available for species that have been heavily fished (e.g., <em>Narcine bancroftii</em>). The electric ray, <em>N. bancroftii</em>, occurs in the western Atlantic, matures at a very early age (twoyears) and is relatively fecund (up to 20 pups per litter). Despite this, Shepherd and Myers (2005) documented declines in <em>N. bancroftii</em>, to 2% (95% confidence intervals 0.5 to 5%) of its baseline abundance in 1972 in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, most probably caused by intense shrimp trawling. Similar declines were also documented in <em>Narcine bancroftii?s</em> in US trawl surveys and diver surveys off Florida (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>2007).
161747		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required. A management plan for rays is being developed in Costa Rica.
161747		distribution	eng	Eastern central Pacific: from the central eastern Gulf of California off central and southern Mexico, south to Panama (Miyake and McEachran 1988, R. Robertson unpublished data, Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data).
161747		habitat	eng	This benthic ray is found over soft bottoms at depths of 2-15 m (R. Robertson, R. Rojas pers. obs. 2007) and is found close to mangrove forests (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). This species reaches a maximum total length (TL) of at least 25 cm (McEachran 1995). Data from the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, suggest that these rays reach maturity at 17 cm TL (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). Fecundity is very low, with only one embryo per female (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). Size at birth is ~6 cm TL. Little else is known of its biology.
161747		population	eng	Apparently uncommon in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). From Panama to El Salvador, <em>U. nana</em> appears to be locally common (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).
161747		threats	eng	Taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries throughout its range, targeting shrimp and demersal fish along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005, FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout its range; in Costa Rica, for example, the coastal fisheries are generally fished to maximum capacity or over-fished, as in the case of the Pacific shrimp fishery (FAO 2007). Coastal batoids in Costa Rica face several pressures, including, bycatch by trawl fisheries operations, water pollution, waste deposition, and the sedimentation process by land degradation (R. Rojas pers. obs.). <em>U. nana</em> is known to be captured by multispecies (snappers, grunts and groupers) fisheries operating in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica. Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ‘marine fishes, nei’, where nei stands for ‘not explicitly identified’ (Cailliet and Camhi 2005).
161748		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. In the first instance, further study is required to resolve the taxonomy of this species and to determine its full range. Assessment and monitoring of catches is also needed.
161748		distribution	eng	Reported from the Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Atlantic, however, further study is required to critically compare specimens from the two regions. Recorded from Gulf of Gabes and El Biban lagoon in Tunisia and from Israel in the Mediterranean Sea (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, 1996; Zaouali 1992, Golani and Capapé 2004).
161748		habitat	eng	Found on continental shelves on various types of sandy and muddy substrates from 12?65 m depth (Serena 2005). Males mature at around 30 cm total length (TL) and females at 32?34 cm TL (Capapé 1990, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1996, Serena 2005). The species reaches a maximum size of 60 cm TL (Serena 2005).The species apparently produces four litters per year (after a gestation of three months), with up to nine pups per litter (Capapé 1990, Capapé and Zaouali 1993, Serena 2005).
161748		population	eng	No information currently available.
161748		threats	eng	Occasionally caught as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries (Bradai 2000, Serena 2005). Trawl fisheries and coastal artisanal fisheries operate within this species? range off Tunisia and elsewhere throughout the species? range, which may take it as bycatch. In 2003, about 404 trawl vessels were operating off Tunisia, with more than 46% of the fleet concentrated in southern Tunisia, where this species occurs (FAO 2007).
161749		conservation	eng	<strong>Northwest Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans (NMFS 1993; Joyce 1999).  In the US, this species is included in the Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP). The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 100 t for Shortfin Makos in the longline pelagic shark fishery. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) recently assessed shortfin mako in Canada as “threatened”. It has undergone a Recovery Potential Assessment and it is being determined whether the species will be placed on Sched 1 of the Species at Risk Act. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, by-catch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. <br/><br/>Within the North Atlantic and Mediterranean this species has been identified as a high priority for management. Anonymous (2003) suggested that a collaborative stock assessment should be carried out in the future.
161749		distribution	eng	Western Atlantic: Grand Banks (Canada) to Uruguay and northern Argentina, including Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Eastern Atlantic: Norway, British Isles and Mediterranean to Morocco, Azores, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, southern Angola, probably Namibia, and South Africa (west coast).<br/><br/>Casey and Kohler (1992) suggest that the core distribution in the western north Atlantic is between 20° and 40°N, bordered by the Gulf Stream in the west and the mid-Atlantic ridge in the east (see Habitat and Ecology section for more details). Shortfin Mako in Atlantic Canadian waters represent the margins of the distribution of the population (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the eastern north Atlantic, it is presumed that the Straits of Gibraltar are nursery grounds (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998 and Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The area between 17° and 35°S off the coast of Brazil is an area of birth, growth and mating (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Pregnant females with near term embryos have been found there, but not females in early pregnancy stages (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1995, Costa 1994). The presence of this species in Uruguayan waters year round has been confirmed by the observers on board the Uruguayan tuna fleet. Although a few new borns were captured, no pregnant females have been found (Domingo pers. comm. 2008).
161749		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako,is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al.</em> 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001).This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17–22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern California waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20–21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford, 1992). However,this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>.<br/><br/>Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three Shortfin Makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118–275 cm TL) in June–July 2002 for 2–4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20–911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23–43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviors. Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al</em>. 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7–9 years for males, and 19–21 years for females Bishop <em>et al</em>. (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al. </em>2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29–32 years (Bishop <em>et al</em>. 2006, Natanson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265–280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198–204 cm and females at 301–307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203–215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275–293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15–18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size is 4–25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10-18), which are about 60-70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the Northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos over (3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>). It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).
161749		population	eng	Shortfin Mako in the north and the south Atlantic constitute genetically distinct groups (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996). Casey and Kohler (1992) hypothesized from tag-recapture data that western north Atlantic makos form a separate population from those in the eastern Atlantic although limited intermixing is possible as shown by crossings to the Azores and Europe. Mitochondrial DNA data indicate separation of female makos between the western and eastern north Atlantic, but a lack of differentiation in nuclear DNA suggests male mixing across the North Atlantic (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996, Schrey and Heist 2003). For fishery assessment purposes, mixing between the western and eastern north Atlantic is considered minimal.<br/><br/>Mature males were occasionally caught in the western English Channel in the 1960s and 1970s but are now rarely encountered (J.D. Stevens, pers. comm.), suggesting possible range contraction in the north-east Atlantic.<br/><br/>Analyses of CPUE from US pelagic longline fishery logbooks reported that <em>Isurus</em> species may have declined by about 40% in the northwest Atlantic between 1986 and 2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003). A more recent assessment of observer data for the same fishery found a similar instantaneous rate of decline of 38% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al.</em> in prep). A similar analysis of the same dataset and species grouping that restricted the areas of analysis to account for unbalanced observations, resulted in an overall decline of 48% from beginning to end of the time series (1992-2005; Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press). A 2004 ICCAT stock assessment workshop reported that stock depletions for North Atlantic shortfin mako are likely to have occurred based on CPUE declines of 50% or more. Demographic model results varied widely, with one approach suggesting present stock size is about 80% of virgin level, and another approach suggesting reductions to about 30% of virgin biomass (1950s) (Cortes <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>In the south Atlantic, the magnitude of decline appears to be smaller than in the North Atlantic and the stock size appears to lie above MSY, although only one modeling approach could be applied to the available data and assessments results were more uncertain than for the North Atlantic.<br/><br/>For both north and south Atlantic populations, uncertainties about demographic parameters and catches, and the uninformative nature of available catch data indicate that further analysis is necessary to properly delineate stock status. If historical Shortfin Mako catch is higher than the estimates in this report, the likelihood of the stock being below the biomass at MSY will surely increase (ICCAT 2005). A standardized catch rate index from the commercial large pelagic fishery off Canada suggested a decline in the 1970s and stable abundance since 1988 (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the analysis did not have the statistical power to detect anything less than a severe decline and these sharks represent the margins of the population. The most heavily fished areas lie outside of Canadian waters. The median size of mako sharks in the commercial catch has declined since 1988, possibly indicating a loss of larger sharks (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Off Brazil, the highest and lowest catches of Shortfin Mako from Santos longliners were 235 and 29 t from 1971–2001. The CPUE and average weight decreased from 4.5 to 4.1 kg/1,000 hooks and 60 to 37.3 kg respectively (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 2002). About 20 t/yr were caught by gillnetters in southern Brazil between 1993–94 (Jorge Kotas, pers comm, CEPSUL-IBAMA, Brazil). The unstandardised CPUE in the Uruguayan longline fleet was low and stable (average 35 kg/1000 hooks) from 1983 to 1998 and has increased steadily to 2004 (185 kg/1,000 hooks), lower in 2005 (90 kg/1,000 hooks) (ICCAT data). According to Mourato <em>et al.</em> (in press), based on the landings records and logbooks from the Sao Paulo fleet operating off Southern Brazil, the standardized CPUE for the period 1971–2006 was fluctuating but showed a slight decline. In contrast, the standardization of the CPUE of 29 years in the Brazilian tuna longline fleet showed a slight upward trend (Hazin <em>et al</em>. in press). In Uruguay, the total captures oscillated through the years, mainly in low values (8 to 21 tons per year), and reached maximum values in 2003–2005 (up to 200 tons per year) (Domingo 2002, Domingo <em>et al</em>. 2008). The standardization of the mako shark CPUE in the Uruguayan pelagic longline fleet for the period 1981-2006 show a slight increase between 1989 and 2003, and a decreasing trend towards 2006 (Pons and Domingo in press).<br/><br/>Shortfin Mako contribute some 9.5% to 10% of the pelagic sharks caught by Spanish longline fleets (targeting sharks and swordfish) in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007).
161749		threats	eng	Shortfin Makos have been caught in large numbers particularly on the high seas in pelagic longline fisheries, but also in other commercial pelagic fisheries and recreational fisheries.  The first longline fisheries were prosecuted by Japan in western equatorial waters beginning in 1956 (Uozumi and Nakano 1996).  The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Throughout the Atlantic, the fleet landed mako sharks and fins (Nakano 1993).  In the US and Canadian pelagic longline fisheries, shortfin mako is one of the most commonly caught sharks. The index of abundance in the commercial longline fishery off the Atlantic coast of US has shown a steady decline (Cramer 1996) and other reports on declines are now available (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003, Baum <em>et al</em>., in prep, ICCAT 2005, Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press: see Population section for details). As for recreational fishing, Casey and Hoey (1985) stated that the recreational catch of shortfin makos along the US Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Mexico in 1978 was 17,973 fish weighing some 1,223 t. Between 1987 and 1989, the catch was about 1000 t/year (Casey and Kohler 1992) taken by longline and gillnet in the Southwest Atlantic (see population section). Shortfin mako shark is a high value bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries on the Atlantic coast of Canada and therefore retained (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>In 1989, Bonfil (1994) estimated that 5,932 shortfin makos were caught by Korean longliners in the (mainly equatorial) Atlantic and that 763 t of makos were landed in the Spanish swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Mejuto (1985) noted that 304-366 t of mako shark was landed by longliners operating from northern Spain in 1983-84. More recently, Shortfin Mako sharks have comprised about 7% (~2,500 t) of the total catch of the large Spanish pelagic longline swordfish fleet in the Atlantic (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2005). Munoz-Chapuli <em>et al.</em> (1994) estimated that some 4,500 makos/year are landed from a longline fishery based at Algeciras, southern Spain (given an average weight of 20 kg this would represent about 90 t). The landings of shortfin makos as bycatch from the swordfish fishery of the Azorean fleet also showed a decrease (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). Shortfin mako landings reported to ICCAT from Portuguese surface longline fisheries in the North Atlantic averaged about 698 t during 1993–1996 and 340 t for the period 1997–2002. Off Namibia, the large pelagic fisheries caught an estimated 123 t in 2001, 399 t in 2002 and 393 t in 2003 by means of pelagic longline. The 2001 catch is an underestimate as many boats grouped different shark species as “sharks” (MFMR catch data). Domingo (2002) records high catches of Shortfin Makos by the Uruguayan fleet in the early-mid 1980s (to a maximum of 144 t in 1984), followed by much lower catches (10–20 t/annum) in the 1990s. This does not necessarily reflect stock abundance because changes in the distribution and depth of fishing operations and rising mean temperature of water masses in the area had also occurred.<br/><br/>It has been estimated that in the early 1990s, the Spanish longline fleet caught approximately 750 t/y of Shortfin Mako sharks in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). The Brazilian longlining fleet based in Santos landed between 13.3 and 138.3 t annually between 1971 and 1990 (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1996, Compagno 2001). Despite increasing fishing effort during this period, the CPUE of Shortfin Makos has remained relatively stable with an initial slight decreasing trend followed by a slight increasing trend (Compagno 2001). <br/><br/>No complete data are available for the northeast Atlantic, but the species is taken as a bycatch of the pelagic fishery. The area around the Strait of Gibraltar is considered a nursery area for Central Atlantic Shortfin Makos and most specimens caught are juveniles. This area is heavily fished by the swordfish longline fishery off the western coast of Africa and Iberian peninsula. There is also evidence that shortfin makos are becoming increasingly targeted in the western Mediterranean. EU vessels fishing for small pelagic species off the western coast of Africa are also known to take significant elasmobranch bycatch, including Shortfin Makos in unknown numbers.
161750		conservation	eng	No direct conservation measures in place in the Indo-west Pacific region. <br/><br/>New Zealand included Shortfin Mako shark in its Quota Management System in October 2004.<br/><br/>A vast improvement in the collection of data is required and effective conservation of this species will require international agreements. Fishing pressure must be considerably decreased through reduction in effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture, when released and possibly through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Closed areas can only be effective if overall fishing effort is reduced, rather than merely displacing effort outside of the closed area (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Further informaiton is required on this population, it's range and interactions with fisheries.
161750		distribution	eng	Indo-West Pacific: South Africa (east coast), Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Kenya north to Red Sea and east to Maldives, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Viet Nam, China, Taiwan (Province of China), North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Russia (Primorskiyi Kray), Australia (all states and entire coast except for Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait), New Zealand (including Norfolk Island), New Caledonia, Fiji.
161750		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako,is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al.</em> 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001).This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17–22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern California waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20–21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford, 1992). However,this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>.<br/><br/>Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three Shortfin Makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118–275 cm TL) in June–July 2002 for 2–4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20–911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23–43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviors. Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al</em>. 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7–9 years for males, and 19–21 years for females Bishop <em>et al</em>. (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al. </em>2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29–32 years (Bishop <em>et al</em>. 2006, Natanson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265–280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198–204 cm and females at 301–307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203–215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275–293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15–18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size is 4–25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10-18), which are about 60-70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the Northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos over (3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>). It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).
161750		population	eng	Unknown.
161750		threats	eng	This species is taken by tuna and shark longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954-1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2006). Sharks are targeted in several areas, including off India where they are captured using hook and line and in large mesh gillnets, which are among the worlds largest (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al</em>. 2006) reported that sharks in this region are considered fully to over-exploited. Its distribution overlaps many intensive pelagic fisheries in this area. Although species-specific catch data are not currently available from this region, given the declines observed where it is heavily fished elsewhere, declines in this area are inferred based on continuing high levels of exploitation.<br/><br/>Big-game sports angling for mako sharks is widespread, New Zealand and South Africa being traditional places for offshore sports fishing.
161751		conservation	eng	On the west coast of the US, declines in the coastal driftnet fishery taking thresher and Shortfin Makos led to management actions in 1985. Management now comprises of limited entry, mandatory logbooks, and specific time-area closures. An experimental longline fishery targeting shortfin makos was terminated (Hanan <em>et al.</em> 1993, Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). Bag limits for recreational take of makos in California were introduced in 1991. The draft Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (PFMC 2003) indicates that the shortfin mako population is not overfished and they have set a harvest guideline of 150 t off California, Oregon and Washington.  US west coast based longline fishing for swordfish is currently prohibited and expected to reopen in the fall of 2005 under new restrictions. The Hawaii based swordfish longline fishery recently reopened with restrictions aimed at preventing turtle mortalities. New Zealand included shortfin mako shark in its Quota Management System in October 2004.<br/><br/>In Chile, there are gear regulations for the shortfin mako artisanal fishery and since 2002 fishing areas and register of boats in the National Marine Service is required, the access to the fishery is also regulated (E. Acuña pers. comm.).
161751		distribution	eng	Eastern Pacific: USA (Washington and California) south to Mexico, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru and central Chile, from 20-50° between Australia and Chile, and to ~ 60° southeast of New Zealand.<br/><br/>There are comparatively few records of pregnant females, especially in the eastern North Pacific. However, there are a large number of juveniles and young of the year fish in the southern California Bight indicating that it is a nursery area. In summer, the Southern California Bight is home to a large population of Shortfin Mako sharks (Klimley <em>et al.</em> 2002, Holts and Kohin 2003). Abundance surveys and fishing reports indicate that juvenile mako sharks appear in the Bight in spring when water temperatures rise above 16°C and may depart from the area in fall when water temperatures decline.
161751		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako,is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al.</em> 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001).This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17–22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern California waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20–21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford, 1992). However,this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>.<br/><br/>Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three Shortfin Makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118–275 cm TL) in June–July 2002 for 2–4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20–911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23–43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviors. Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al</em>. 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7–9 years for males, and 19–21 years for females Bishop <em>et al</em>. (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al. </em>2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29–32 years (Bishop <em>et al</em>. 2006, Natanson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265–280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198–204 cm and females at 301–307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203–215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275–293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15–18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size is 4–25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10-18), which are about 60-70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the Northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos over (3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>). It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).
161751		population	eng	In the Eastern North Pacific, tagging studies have been carried out by the California Department of Fish and Game (Anon. 2001), and more recently by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center (Holts and Kohin 2003, Holts <em>et al</em>. 2004). Using a consistent sample size of 28 sets of 200 hooks during each of eight years (1994–1997, 2000–2003), catch per unit effort (CPUE) data showed a slight decline (Holts <em>et al.</em> (2004); y = -0.0696x + 1.0982, R2 = 0.5107). However, it does not appear to be sufficient to warrant serious concern about the population.  The large horizontal (primarily north-south along the coastline, but with some inshore-offshore movements) (Holts <em>et al.</em> 2004) and vertical (up to ~ 500 m) (Holts and Kohin 2003; Sepulveda <em>et al.</em> 2004) movements of Shortfin Makos, a behavior that could make them more or less available to the gear spatially but not necessarily indicating a population decline. Likewise, for males and females, there appeared to be a slight increase in the average size caught over the same eight years (y = 1.8368x + 112.38, R2 = 0.3751). This, combined with the CPUE changes would suggest that the biomass indices had not changed. The variability among years in CPUE can also be attributed to inter-annual oceanographic and climate changes, especially water temperature (http://www.pcouncil.org/hms/hmsback.html). Thus, although there are no precise or accurate population estimates, it appears that the population of shortfin makos in the eastern north Pacific has been relatively stable. (Taylor and Holts 2001, PFMC 2003).
161751		threats	eng	Estimates of mako bycatch in various gillnet fisheries in the North Pacific are given in Bonfil (1994). Bycatch in the Japanese salmon fishery in 1989 was about 15 t, and about 63 t was taken in the squid fishery in 1990. In the Japanese large-mesh driftnet fishery in the South Pacific, about 286 t of Shortfin Mako was caught in 1990. The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific. Shortfin makos comprise about 5% (~600–700 t) of the total catch of this fleet (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Reported average catch rates for shortfin makos vary from 0.3-3.4 sharks per 1,000 hooks (Stevens and Wayte 1999). Stevens (in press) used stratified catch rates in conjunction with fishing effort and average weights to estimate a catch of 4,100 t caught by high-seas longlining in the Pacific in 1994. Longline fleets take about 100-200 t from around New Zealand each year (Ministry of Fisheries Science Group 2006) and about 100 t were taken in Australian EEZ waters by Japanese tuna vessels each season (Stevens and Wayte 1999).<br/><br/>A coastal driftnet fishery for juvenile shortfin mako shark developed during the late 1970s in California; landings reached 242 t in 1982, fluctuated between 102-278 t from 1983-91 and declined to less than 100 t after 1991 (Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). An experimental coastal longline fishery targeting makos took between 50 and 120 t annually durung1988-91 before the fishery was closed. Bycatch will continue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline fisheries until effective measures are developed which reduce the bycatch to close to zero (Crooke 2001).  Although makos are not targeted in these fisheries, they are kept as the third most valuable species. The shortn mako shark was taken by the high seas shark and swordsh drift longline shery, which developed between 1991 and 1994 (Taylor and Holts 2001) outside the US 200-nm Exclusive Economic Zone prior to its closure in spring 2004. A small portion of the catch was landed in California with annual landings ranging from 9,523 to 128,116 pounds between 1991 and 1999.<br/><br/>The present status of the Shortn Mako shark in state and federal waters off California is not known but is of some concern (Taylor and Holts 2001). This is mainly because adult mako sharks do not frequent California’s coastal waters.  A possible threat to the mako population off California and in the eastern Pacic would be the potential for over-development of sheries within the coastal nursery. Therefore, continued efforts to monitor the shortn mako shark juveniles are needed.<br/><br/>Makos have long been prized game fish along the East Coast of the US (Taylor and Holts 2001). In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually: the principal target being Shortfin Mako. After the increase during the 1980s, the sport fishery has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308 pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger fishing vessels run fishing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in southern California.<br/><br/>In Chile, the only target fishery for Shortfin Mako is a spring-summer longline fishery off the northern coast (Acuña <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Ecuador, there is evidence that catches of shortfin makos have declined from a high of 2,000 t in 1994 to lows approaching 100 t in 2000 and 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Off California, early juvenile shortfin makos were targeted by a short-lived experimental drift longline fishery and are a welcome bycatch in the driftnet fishery for swordfish (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993, Compagno 2001). Up to 475 t of Shortfin Makos were taken jointly by these fisheries in 1987, and although CPUE did not show a declining trend there, concerns over the heavy exploitation of immature fish prompted the closure of the experimental longline fishery in 1992 (O’Brien and Sunada 1994, Compagno 2001). Total bycatch of Shortfin Makos in the former high-seas driftnet fisheries in the North Pacific in the early 1990s was estimated at about 360 t/y (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). This species is apparently very common in the tuna fisheries of Indonesia: unconfirmed reports indicate that landings of shortfin makos from Indonesian waters attained 5 200 t in 1995 and that the estimated potential is about 16 000 t/y (Priyono 1998, Compagno 2001).
161754		conservation	eng	<p>The type locality is within a forested area owned by the government, although it has not been given a protected area status. This area is in the midst of town and local residents depend on the forest for resources (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009). The other known locality is also outside a protected area, and the surrounding forests are completely degraded (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009). Further research into this species' population status, life history and threats is needed.</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
161754		distribution	eng	This species is known from two high-altitude (1,700 and 2,000 m asl) localities in the Palani Hills and surrounding areas, south of the Palghat Gap: Kodaikanal, in Tamil Nadu, and Mattupetti, in Kerala, India (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161754		habitat	eng	This species seems to be restricted to disturbed evergreen sholas (isolated montane forest patches). Individuals can be found close to mountain streams, in habitats such as leaf litter, rock patches, tall grass clumps and the undergrowth of shrub vegetation (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Foam nests can be deposited on rock surfaces, on the ground up to 2 m above water level, and near streams, and may contain ca 185 eggs (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161754		population	eng	<p>This seems to be a rare species, and it appears to be declining. However, further field work is required to confirm this (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).</p>
161754		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to this species is the conversion of the forested areas that are its habitat. The species appears to be in decline at the type locality  primarily because of habitat alteration (the forest is within the town limits and is exploited by local residents), likely due to small-scale agriculture, rural and/or urban development and pollution (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).<br/></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
161800		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>
161800		distribution	eng	The type locality was originally considered to be near Juliaca, Puno, Peru. However, the dry habitats of this area are not considered to be suitable for species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynopus sensu lato</span> (De la Riva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, there are suggestions that specimens collected by the original species collector came from the vicinity of the Inca Mine in Santo Domingo, a cloud forest locality at 1,690 m asl on the Andean Amazonian slopes in the Province of Carabaya, northern Puno (De la Riva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Whether specimens were collected at this locality or along the route between Santo Domingo and Juliaca is unknown (De la Riva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008); thus, the location of the type locality is unclear and this species' range cannot be mapped at this time.
161800		habitat	eng	No habitat and ecology information is currently available for this species. Presumably it breeds by direct development.
161800		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
161800		threats	eng	<p>No threats are currently known for this species.</p>
161803		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halimium verticillatum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal.<br/>More information on the population dynamics and size needs to be collected. The sites should be managed in a way that forbids non-selective shrub clearing. Afforestation with Eucalyptus should be avoided (ICN 2006). Furthermore, taxonomic research is recommended to clarify the status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Halimium verticillatum</span>.
161803		distribution	eng	This species is native to the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco and probably Algeria. The geographic range for Portugal is 6,052 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It occurs in the centre-west, centre-south, and southwest (ICN 2006). According to Flora Iberica, the species is absent from the northern third of the Iberian Peninsula and has been found in at least 27 Spanish provinces (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).
161803		habitat	eng	This small shrub flowers in spring. It occurs in heathland among <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> and is characteristic for the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymo capitelati - Stauracanthetum genistoidis</span> (ICNB 2006).<br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2260 "<span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia </span>dune sclerophyllous scrubs". It is mainly present in sandy formations in the south margin of the Tejo River basin   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161803		population	eng	Population in the Portuguese area has been measured as 15,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The species is rare and suffered from a decline in its area of occupancy in the last decades. The remaining populations are in a good state (ICNB 2006).</span>
161803		threats	eng	Agriculture and forestry activities are its main threats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Clearing of shrubs is the main threat according to ICN (2006).
161804		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla delphinensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>All localities are in the Parc National des Ecrins, one is also in a Réserve Naturelle. It is protected at national level and in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) region. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation measures are needed for this species and research on its biology as well as the current population number and trends.
161804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the French eastern Alps, Savoie and Dauphiné (Bensettiti <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its area of occupancy is smaller than 20 km².
161804		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla delphinensis</span> is a light demanding and thermophile species and prefers grasslands on south-facing slopes. Common companions are <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana lutea, Trisetum flavescens</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula glomerata </span>(alliances <span style="font-style: italic;">Polygono bistortae-Trisetion flavescentis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Caricion ferrugineae</span>) (Bensettiti <em>et al.</em> 2002). It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li></ul>
161804		population	eng	It occurs in 15 to 17 localities, the number of individuals and population trend are unknown.
161804		threats	eng	<p>Overgrazing can lead to the disappearance of the plant or can create competition with woody plants and lead to habitat closure. Collection of this attractive plant is a further threat. Agriculture and forest plantations are furthermore potential threats (Bensettiti <em>et al.</em> 2002, Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p>
161805		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium pseudolaetum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
161805		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Its geographic range has been estimated to be 137 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is not clear how that transfers into extent of occurrence or area of occupancy but it can be assumed that the area of occupancy is below 500 km².
161805		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1420 "Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarcocornetea fruticosi</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161805		population	eng	This species has been recorded in five localities with stable populations   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161805		threats	eng	The most important threat for this species is anthropogenic pressure due to leisure and tourism activities   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161806		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola paradoxa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Its area is included in the Madeira Natural Park and in a Natura 2000 site (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
161806		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Madeira, Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 194 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It grows on the central mountain ridge from 1,600 m to 1,800 m asl (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
161806		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculo cortusifolii-Geranion canariensis</span>. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 4050 "Endemic Macaronesian heath"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161806		population	eng	It has been estimated that its population is around 1,000 individuals with an increasing trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, the main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
161806		threats	eng	Apart from a fire in summer 2010 that affected the Central Mountain Massif, the species is subject to collection, construction of paths, trampling, landslides and competition with exotic species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161807		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rouya polygama</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Corsica, it is nationally protected and there are two localities with re-introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">R. polygama</span> on the territory of the Conservatoire du Littoral. All the localities of the species are on private land and therefore difficult to protect but negotiations with the landowners about appropriate protection measures are underway. The eradication of invasive species is necessary to conserve this Mediterranean endemic. Re-introductions and monitoring of the populations is recommended (Bensettiti <em>et al.</em> 2002).
161807		distribution	eng	In Europe, this plant is only found in Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) but it is furthermore native to Algeria and Tunisia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). The area of occupancy in Corsica is 5-10 km², it can therefore be assumed that the overall area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km².
161807		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rouya polygama</span> is a perennial plant that is only found along coasts in fixed sand dunes and sandy-gravelly beaches and seems to withstand salt spray. This plant is an element of back dune vegetation as well as a pioneer plant in open areas. It grows well in light to semi-shade (Bensettiti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). <br/><br/>The species occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats in both islands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2210 <span style="font-style: italic;">Crucianellion maritimae</span> fixed beach dunes</li><li>2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus spp.</span></li><li>2270 Wooded dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span></li></ul>
161807		population	eng	In Sardinia, the species has been recorded in nine localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In Corsica, it has been found at 29 sites in two communes with about 12,000 individuals. The number of mature individuals is declining. <span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en">The Corsican  populations are all very localized around the Gulf of Porto-Vecchio and are sometimes very  close to each other. The seeds are dispersed by wind and therefore the plants grow fairly isolated from each other. On the other hand, the expansion of populations outside the  existing sites is very weak with no establishment of new populations in nearby dune environments<span class="gt-icon gt-icon-listen-off"><span class="gt-icon-text"><span class="gt-icon gt-icon-roman-off"><span class="gt-icon-text"> (Bensettiti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). This affect is worsened by urbanisation and the populations are therefore severely fragmented. The Corsican and Sardinian populations are also quite far from each other.</span></span>
161807		threats	eng	<p>On Corsica and Sardinia, the species is found in areas that are under much pressure from the tourist industry and from urbanisation. The destruction of its habitat for holiday homes, recreational activities, trampling by tourists and the replacement of native vegetation with exotic and sometimes invasive species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus</span> sp.) affects the populations (Bensettiti <em>et al.</em> 2002, Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p>
161809		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is protected by the national legislation and the regional legislation of Asturias, in Spain. In France, it is listed on Annex I of the National List of Protected Species, and is found in the Pyrenees National Park in France.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional Picos de"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional Picos de"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional Picos de"><span title="Semillas sometidas a estudios germinativos"> One population has  been fenced off for four years to prevent sheep grazing and to facilitate  natural dissemination and seed collection for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">There is a subpopulation in <span title="Nacional Picos de"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional Picos de"> Picos de Europa National Park <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional Picos de"> (SCI). <span title="Semillas sometidas a estudios germinativos">Germinating seeds are subjected to studies and genetic affinity in the 'Conservatoire Botanique Pyrénées (France)'. A small number of individuals is preserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in the Atlantic Botanic Garden. The species is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161809		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">This plant <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal">can be found in Spain and France. It<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> has only three subpopulations in Spain, in the Cantabrian mountain range, which are isolated from the subpopulations in the French Pyrenees. The area of occupancy for the Spanish populations is less than 20 km² and is assumed to be much less than 500 km² in total. The populations are severely fragmented.<span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="pers-) sin"></span></span></span>
161809		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is typical of forest fringe, and is regarded as sun-loving, which facilitates the colonization of grassland of anthropogenic origin, grasslands on calcareous substrate. <span title="La población principal">The main population in Spain inhabits communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium pinnatum </span>spp. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span title="rupestre, ocupando antiguos prados">It is present in rock areas, occupying old meadows and limestone substrates. <span title="excelsioris Sigmetum."> <span title="Entre los principales">Major <span title="taxones que le acompañan se encuentran: Bromus">taxa that accompany it are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus erectus, Seseli cantabricum, Scabiosa columbaria, Corylus avellana, Genista hispanica ssp occidentalis, Sanquisorba minor, Astrantia major, Carduus argemone, Serratula tinctoria, Crataegus </span><span title="monogyna, Physospernum cornubiense, etc."><span style="font-style: italic;">monogyna, Physospernum cornubiense</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">In Spain about 90% of individuals flower annually. <span title="De las flores que sobreviven al">Of the flowers that survive&#160;most of them bear fruit. <span title="La">The seed germination is low, with vegetative reproduction dominant. <span title="La">The <span title="supervivencia de individuos maduros es alta.">survival of mature individuals is high. There is a <span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento.">low recruitment rate.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La parte aérea presenta"><span title="Comienza su desarrollo en"><span title="capítulos."><span title="Crecimiento clonal vigoroso.">The presence of goats in times of flowering and fruiting could reduce fruit production and dispersal, both by the direct consumption of the reproductive parts and by trampling.<br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span title="rupestre, ocupando antiguos prados"><span title="excelsioris Sigmetum."><span title="Entre los principales"><span title="taxones que le acompañan se encuentran: Bromus"><span title="monogyna, Physospernum cornubiense, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="De las flores que sobreviven al"><span title="La"><span title="La"><span title="supervivencia de individuos maduros es alta."><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La parte aérea presenta"><span title="Comienza su desarrollo en"><span title="capítulos."><span title="Crecimiento clonal vigoroso.">6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span title="rupestre, ocupando antiguos prados"><span title="excelsioris Sigmetum."><span title="Entre los principales"><span title="taxones que le acompañan se encuentran: Bromus"><span title="monogyna, Physospernum cornubiense, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="De las flores que sobreviven al"><span title="La"><span title="La"><span title="supervivencia de individuos maduros es alta."><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La parte aérea presenta"><span title="Comienza su desarrollo en"><span title="capítulos."><span title="Crecimiento clonal vigoroso.">6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li><li><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población principal"><span title="rupestre, ocupando antiguos prados"><span title="excelsioris Sigmetum."><span title="Entre los principales"><span title="taxones que le acompañan se encuentran: Bromus"><span title="monogyna, Physospernum cornubiense, etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="De las flores que sobreviven al"><span title="La"><span title="La"><span title="supervivencia de individuos maduros es alta."><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La parte aérea presenta"><span title="Comienza su desarrollo en"><span title="capítulos."><span title="Crecimiento clonal vigoroso.">6170&#160; Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li></ul></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161809		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> In Spain, there are three subpopulations: one in Bulnes (Cabrales, Asturias) that has been expanded with the appearance of another large subpopulation at 5 km distance, near  Tielve. It has been also found in Poncebos in 2006 where the subpopulation is quite small<span title="pers-) sin">. In Spain there are   2,950 mature individuals without considering the Poncebos subpopulation (2,500 in Bulnes and 450 in Tielve). <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento.">In Spain, the main subpopulation is fragmented in small groups of 50-150 individuals on average, and a small contingent of small scattered groups. The density of the population appears to be directly affected by the current dynamics of their habitat.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">In France, there are <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal">12 localities with <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">about 2,500 individuals. It was found in five departments (Arrieges, Pyrennees-Orientales, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrenees and Pyrennees-Atlantiques), but is now restricted to only two departments <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Hautes-Pyrenees and Pyrennees-Atlantiques)<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat  principal"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pers-) sin"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010)<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Hábitat principal"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">. In the remaining departements, some new subpopulations have been found.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Baja tasa de reclutamiento."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161809		threats	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Habitat alteration <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La dinámica  progresiva de"><span title="El grado de"><span title="El"><span title="y  una disminución de sus efectivos">due to  modification of agricultural practices (abandonment of traditional pastoralism) <span id="result_box" class="long_text">is a major  threat to this species. <span title="La dinámica progresiva de">The  progressive dynamic vegetation could reduce the number of individuals  and population density. <span title="El grado de">The degree of  disturbance of livestock should be evaluated, as overgrazing is a problem for this species. <span title="El">The  increasing recreational use of the area could affect the demography of the  species and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La dinámica  progresiva de"><span title="El grado de"><span title="El">the  construction of roads has suppressed several localities<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La dinámica progresiva de"><span title="El grado de"><span title="El">. These threats cause fragmentation of the population<span title="y una disminución de sus efectivos">.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p><br/></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La dinámica progresiva de"><span title="El grado de"><span title="El"><span title="y una disminución de sus efectivos"><br/></span></span></span>
161810		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula palinuri</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>All the population except for Capo Scalea, Scoglio Friuzzi Grotta della Madonna are inside the Cilento National Park. This plant is cultivated in several Botanical Gardens: Pietra Corva, Hanbury, Jena, Padova, Parma, Bologna, Napoli, Portici, Cosenza.
161810		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Primula palinuri </span>is endemic to south Italy and extends across the Tirrenic coast</a>. It occurs in three regions: Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. The extent of occurrence (calculated with alpha-hull: alpha = 2) is 9,198.32 km² and the area of occupancy calculated on a 2 x 2 km grid is 60 km²<sup> </sup>(Uzunov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/></p>
161810		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula palinuri</span> grows on calcareous substrate with neutral pH. The species prefers northern, northwestern or northeastern slopes. The vegetation can be described as <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaureo cinerariae-Campanuletum fragilis</span> subass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Primuletosum palinuri</span> of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthion rupicolae</span> (Brullo and Marcenò 1979).<br/>It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1240 "Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium spp.</span>"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161810		population	eng	There are several nuclei of individuals belonging to six main subpopulations which are severely fragmented: <br/><ul><li>Capo Palinuro (10 nuclei); </li><li>Punta degli Infreschi (9 nuclei); </li><li>Punta Caina (8 nuclei); </li><li>Grotta della Madonna (2 nuclei); </li><li>Isola di Dino/Scogliera Fiuzzi (16 nuclei); </li><li>Capo Scalea (2 nuclei). </li></ul>The whole population is estimated to be 18,500 mature individuals +/- 20%. A past reduction of the populations has been estimated to be 50% for Calabria, 50% for Campania and 2% for Basilicata (Uzunov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161810		threats	eng	The most important threat affecting the species is the development of human settlements especially for tourism. Other threats are: invasive species in the growing sites of Capo Palinuri and Scogliera Fiuzzi and the specimen collection in the most accessible sites. Human-induced fires are potential threats (Uzunov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161811		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia oelandica </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized as Endangered in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Tzvelev 2000). This plant is protected by national law in Sweden and is classed as Near Threatened on the national Red List (Gärdenfors 2010).
161811		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia oelandica</span> is native to Sweden and Northwest European Russia. In Sweden, the extent of occurrence is 1,256 km² and the AOO is 368 km². In Russia, it is present in the Luga district, south of the Leningrad region, where it was found in 1993. There are doubts about the identity of the species as it was formerly included in the species group <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia laciniata</span>.<br/><br/>As the species is only found at one site in Russia, the AOO is with certainty less than 500 km².
161811		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia oelandica</span> is a perennial plant with a generation length of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>20 years. It lives in perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes. Oeland is mainly made of limestone with thin soils. The species grows on the edges between the grassland and the limestone. It is dependent on grazing to avoid being outcompeted by other plants.<br/>In Russia, it was found in a meadow with sparse shrubs in a damp sandy esker, covered in light pine fore<span style="background-color: white;">st (</span>Tzvelev 2000<span style="background-color: white;">).</span>
161811		population	eng	In Sweden, 10,000 individuals have been counted with a decreasing trend due to a declining quality of the habitat. The subpopulations are not severely fragmented.<br/><br/>In Russia, there is one locality with many individuals but they are rarely flowering.
161811		threats	eng	Abandonment of pastoral systems and grazing is a potential threat as the species depends on grazing, otherwise it can be outcompeted by shrubs.
161812		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scilla litardierei</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Slovenia, the single site is in a Natura 2000 area and a regional natural park. But despite that negative impacts of land owners are still affecting the plant. On the Red List of Slovenia it is listed as Vulnerable and it is protected by law. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the plant is listed as Vulnerable. Some of populations are situated within the protected area Blidinje Nature Park in Herzegovina. <br/>Information on the population size and trend, as well as potential threats is needed, especially for Montenegro.
161812		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the western Balkan Peninsula, and present in former Yugoslavia. It occurs in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Slovenia. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) reports the species from Croatia, however it is not listed in the Flora Croatica Database (2010). Its extent of occurrence in Slovenia is 1 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and it is only know from one location, Planinsko polje. <br/></p><p>In Bosnia, it is found around Sarajevo, Osenik near Tarčin, near Ilidža, in the velly od Koševo, near Šuica, Livno, Bastaši, Livanjsko polje; and in Herzegovina it occurs near Borak, Mostar, Domanovići, Stolac, around Trebinje, Mountains: Gljiva, Leotar, Bijela Gora, Bjelasnica; carst polje: Gatačko, Duvanjsko, Gatačko, Dabarsko, Imotsko; Buško Blato, Mostarsko blato, Blidinje jezero, Fatničko polje, around Uloško Lake, Jasenovo i Cvijan polje, Mt. Orijen: Željeva, Aranđelovo, Skočigrm etc.<br/></p>
161812		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs on wet meadows in the areas of carst polje (intermittent flooded areas), and also on wet habitats on the mountains.<br/></p>
161812		population	eng	<p>In Montenegro, the plant is found in several localities but the population trend is unknown. In Slovenia, there are several hundred individuals in an intermittent lake area and the populations are declining. No information is available for the populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are several thousand to ten thousand individuals in total.<br/></p><p></p>
161812		threats	eng	The main threat is the abandonment of pastures and grassland followed by natural succession of vegetation. Changes in agricultural practices especially 'improving' of grasslands (melioration, drainage) have negative impacts on the species as does the increased use of fertilisers. Development of infrastructure and urbanisation leads to further habitat degradation and loss.
161813		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularia sublyrata</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. It is protected in Portugal. In Spain, it is included in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Castilla y León and in the catalogue of Extremadura, as species "de interés especial" under the synonym  <span style="font-style: italic;">S. schousboei</span>.
161813		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularia sublyrata </span>is endemic to central western Iberian Peninsula. Its geographic range  in Spain and Portugal is 54,829 km² and its area of occupancy is 3,100 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Decreasing trends have been identified in the distribution of this species in Portugal.
161813		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows in cracks and crevices of granitic rocks. It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1420 "Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarcocornetea fruticosi</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Regressive patterns have been reported for the habitat of this taxon in Portugal. It can be found in usually nitrificated soils, in shady sites, along with ferns (Palacios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
161813		population	eng	This species has been recorded in four localities in Spain   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is no available information about the size or trend of the Portuguese subpopulations.
161813		threats	eng	Fires, competition, low regeneration levels and agriculture and grazing activities, have been reported as threats (Palacios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
161814		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pedicularis sudetica</span> is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and as Least Concern in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm).</st1:country-region><p>In Poland the species is listed as Declining - Critically Endangered in the national Red List (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and as Endangered in the Polish Red Data Book (Kaźmierczakowa and Zarzycki 2001); it is strictly protected at the national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). All the Polish and Czech populations are included in the Karkonosze National Park. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
161814		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pedicularis sudetica </span>is native to Czech Republic, Poland, Novaya Zemlya and Franz-Joseph Land<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>Eastern and Northern European Russia<br/>(Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its area of occupancy for Czech Republic and Poland is 258 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>It is found in the sub-alpine belt of the Polish Karkonosze mountains.  In Poland <span style="font-style: italic;">Pedicularis sudetica</span> has been reported from 29 localities. There are 12 known localities in Czech Republic.
161814		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pedicularis sudetica</span> can occur in subalpine springs, transitional mires, acidic moss-rich fens and snow beds   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>7110 Active raised bogs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oxycocco-Sphagnetea</span>)</li></ul>
161814		population	eng	It has been estimated that there are around 7,700 individuals in Czech Republic   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are assumed to be declining. The estimated population in Poland is around 1,100 to 1,200 individuals. In the  individual populations a slight decline has been observed, but in  general, the Polish population seems to be stable.<br/>There is no information on the Russian populations available.
161814		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>In both Czech Republic and Poland the species is harmed by agriculture and forestry activities, urbanisation, recreational activities including walking, mountaineering, and skiing, the physical effects of erosion, avalanches and landslides, eutrophication, water pollution, acidification, competition and damage by game species.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>In Poland the plants are also threatened by the collection of flora.
161815		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrium abutiloides</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>A species recovery and reintroduction programme is urgently needed for this plant as well as research on its taxonomy, ecology and population dynamics (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: </a>Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161815		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the northern cliffs of Madeira (Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> Its extent of occurrence is 194 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
161815		habitat	eng	This plant is characteristic of secondary laurisilva forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea foetens</span> (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: </a>Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161815		population	eng	The populations are severely fragmented and count less than 50 mature individuals in total. The trend is stable (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: </a>Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161815		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to the invasion of exotic species that also increase competition for this plant. Fires and natural factors such as landslides can affect the species (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: </a>Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
161816		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Azorina vidalii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended for this species (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008):<br/><ul><li>Habitat management, conservation and restoration</li><li>Threat management such as control of invasive species and appropriate planning of the coastal zone</li><li>Species recovery programmes</li><li>Establishment of protected areas</li><li>Raising public awareness</li><li>Research on biology and ecology, population dynamics, taxonomy</li><li>Studies on the impact of conservation actions, threats, and use of the species</li></ul>
161816		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Azorina vidalii</span> is endemic to the Azores where it is found at the coasts of several islands (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its area of occupancy is 252 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161816		habitat	eng	Species can be found in rocky shores, coastal cliffs, pebble and sand beaches, slopes or terraces with volcanic or sedimentary materials or in rocky platforms of compacted lava. It also occurs near human settlements (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1220 Perennial vegetation of stony banks</li><li>1250 Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts</li></ul>
161816		population	eng	The population counts very few individuals, is severely fragmented, and declining. In total, there are less than 1,000 mature individuals (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161816		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to the invasion of exotic species that also increase competition, changes in land use, urban and infrastructure development, and pollution. Trampling, recreational activities and natural factors such as landslides and storms can affect the species (Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161817		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. wahlenbergii</span> is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.   It is classed as Endangered B2ab(iv,v) in Sweden and protected by law and included in the Russian Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (which shows only four sites). In Finland, it is listed as Endangered B2b(iii)c(iv) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and it is protected and named as a species under strict protection in national legislation. In Finland c. 40% of the sites are situated in Natura 2000 areas.<br/><br/>For Russia, control of water pollution is urgently recommended.<br/><br/>Some localities are included in a marine national park in Sweden. In Russia, the subpopulations are included in a protected area in the Finnish Gulf but the level of this protection is unclear.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Finland, Sweden, and western Russia. It can be found in the inner part of the Finnish Gulf in Russia, northern part of Bothnian Gulf in Sweden and Finland, and the third distribution area is in the Lake Mälaren in Sweden.<br/><br/>In Sweden, there are around 17 sites where the species can be found.  Overall the area of occupancy in Sweden is 68 km² and the extent of  occurrence is 40,196 km². <span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, there are c. 100 sites, the extent of occurrence is 8,500 km² and the area of occupancy is 368 km² (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In Russia, the species occurs at 12 localities.<br/><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: yellow;"></span>
161817		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow, sheltered, brackish pools in coastal meadows, over stony, clay or sand substrates; it is found in permanent mesotrophic lakes, ponds and pools but also in euthrophic lakes (Morgan and Leon 1992).  <br/><br/>In Russia, it occurs on sand or loess mud close to the shore of the Gulf of Finland and in the mouths of rivers, that flow into the Gulf. It can be found in the inner part of the Gulf because the water there is only slightly salty (brackish). This species can't survive in salt water. It is also found in the freshwater lake Mälaren. In Finland, it only occurs in the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia, in bays and river estuaries or open coasts, in shallow water. There, 74% of the extant sites are on coastal areas, 26% of the sites are on islands.
161817		population	eng	In Sweden, at least 20,000 reproductive individuals or 100,000 individuals in total have been counted. <span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, the estimated number  of individuals (assumed fertile, because sterile individuals are hard to  be noticed) is c. 364,000 (Commission of the European Communities  2009).</span> <span style="background-color: white;">All populations on the Finnish side of the Finnish Gulf have disappeared due to eutrophication and increase of reed beds. </span>In Russia, the species occurs at 12 localities, each with fewer than 100 individuals. <br/><span style="background-color: white;">This short living plant is   sensitive to changes in the quality of habitats. Fluctuations in the   population size seem to be great. </span><span style="background-color: white;">The populations are decreasing.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
161817		threats	eng	A potential threat to the species is eutrophication as the species needs nutrient rich but clear water. The sources of the water pollution are various and can include sewage from urban areas. Further threats in Russia are industrial constructions such as dykes and hydraulic soil deposition as well as recreational activities.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, the species is furthermore threatened by overgrowing of coastal meadows and open coastal habitats (due to cessation of grazing and due to increase of reed beds), and construction of waterways (embankments, digging ways for boats etc.) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Those threats and eutrophication caused the disappearance of the populations on the Finnish side of the Finnish Gulf.
161818		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia villosa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
161818		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Slovenia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). Its EOO less than 1,000 km² and the AOO is 600 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161818		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.</p>
161818		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia villosa </span>has been recorded in 53 localities across Slovenia   with a stable population (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161818		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are general forestry management, collapse of terrain and landslides   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161819		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne petraea </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Its collection is banned in some regions. The populations are partially included in Natura 2000 sites.
161819		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Italy where it grows in a few localities in the northern regions Lombardia, Trentino-Alto Adige, and doubtfully in Veneto between 700-1,800 m asl   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It occurs at more than 28 localities with an extent of occurrence below 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy below 2,000 km².
161819		habitat	eng	It grows in fissures of calcareous-dolomitic rocks   (Pignatti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2001). This plant occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161819		population	eng	The population might count less than 10,000 individuals but it has a stable trend and is not severely fragmented.
161819		threats	eng	A change in the native species dynamics poses a potential threat to this plant. Collection of the species might still take place.
161820		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea pontica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161820		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea pontica</span> is endemic to Romania    (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).
161820		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
161820		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
161820		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
161821		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cinna latifolia </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>    <p>It is categorized as Least Concern in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> and not protected (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Belarus it is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book (Ermakova 2005).</p>In Sweden, it is classed as Vulnerable B2ab(iii,iv,v)&#160;(Gärdenfors 2010) and nationally protected. Some localities are in reserves and national parks. In Norway, it is listed as Near Threatened approaching A2c+3c (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is also listed as Near Threatened in Finland (Rassi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). It is classed as Rare in Estonia (Lilleleht 2008) and in Latvia (Andrušaitis 2003).<br/><p>Necessary conservation measures are the protection of the habitat and to prevent deforestation.</p>
161821		distribution	eng	This plant has a boreal circumpolar distribution. In Europe it is found in the Baltic States, Fennoscandia, and Russia (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In Sweden, it occurs in the northeast with an area of occupancy of 352 km² and around 100 localities (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway it occurs in the east, and in Russia it is widespread and scattered.
161821		habitat	eng	This plant grows in moist shaded places, in scree, on steep wooded slopes, at the bottom of ravines, in crevices, and in river gorges. It is found in coniferous forests and near river banks.
161821		population	eng	In Sweden, more than 10,000 mature individuals are estimated to be present and the populations are suspected to decline (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, the species has a scattered distribution and the populations are declining. Its range is expanding in the north and west but the plant has been lost from several sites in the south (Artsdatabanken).<br/>In Estonia, 600-700 tufts have been reported. In Latvia, the species occurs at 20 localities, and in Finland 75,000 flowering individuals have been estimated (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In Russia, it is abundant where found.
161821		threats	eng	Deforestation is the past and ongoing main threat. Forest clear cutting leads this shade-loving plant to disappear. Hydro electric power plants or other river regulations are furthermore leading to habitat loss and decline.
161822		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed as Endangered (EN) B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(i); D in the Spanish Red Data Book 2010 (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).</p><p></p><p>It occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. It has been object of population monitoring plans and reinforcement measures. Plant material is stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz. <br/></p><p>Presence of grazing species have to be controlled. Plant material from every subpopulation should be stored&#160; in germplasm banks, for local extinction events could happen. Research about the loss of subpopulations due to hybridisation phenomena. </p><p><br/></p>
161822		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erigeron frigidus</span> is endemic to the highest areas of Sierra Nevada, within the province of Granada, southern Spain (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It can be found at altitudes between 3,000 and 3,400 m asl. Its presence has been reported in two locations, with an AOO of 9 km² and an EOO of 17 km².
161822		habitat	eng	This plant occurs in grasslands in the Sierra Nevada. It grows on the scarce soil available between rocks. It tends to appear facing north but can be occasionally found facing other exposition. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca clementei, Biscutella glacialis, Arenaria tetraquetra </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">amabilis, Leontodon boryi, Chaenorhinum glareosum, Artemisia granatensis, Galium rosellum, Viola crassiuscula, Leucanthemopsis pectinata </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> amethystina</span>.
161822		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated to be 130 individuals (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Former estimations reported thousands of individuals.
161822		threats	eng	Main threat is predation by wild goats and, occasionally, by livestock (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erigeron major</span> is also a threat, for this last seems to dominate in competition. Gathering of flowers, trampling and habitat degradation by visitors is frequent, leading to competition phenomena with more aggressive species. It is highly exposed to natural disasters such as droughts, landslides or storms.
161825		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella bohemica</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Germany it is classed as Critically Endangered (level 1) on the national red list    (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and is under national protection. Populations are included in the national park Bayerischer Wald. In Austria, it is also listed as Critically Endangered (Niklfeld 1999). <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>conservation programmes are underway. In Poland <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella bohemica</span> is included in the Regional Red List of Lower Silesia (Kącki 2003) and is classified as Critically Endangered; it is also strictly protected at national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). Two of the three Polish populations are situated in the area of Góry Stołowe National Park. The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Red List (Holub and Procházka 2000).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella bohemica</span>  needs very specific management, livestock grazing or mowing (or a  combination of both), which is needed in the exact time period. Sites  require constant professional supervision, monitoring and training of  people who carry out management.
161825		distribution	eng	This species is native to Poland, Germany, Czech Republic and Austria    (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). At the present time, the species is found at about 50 localities in Czech Republic and at more than 20 localities in  Austria (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Germany, the species is only found in Bavaria in the border region near the Czech Republic and Austria (Ahlmer 2010). In Poland it occurs between 630 and 720 m asl and is very rare. It has recently been confirmed in three localities in the Central Sudety mountains (Góry Stołowe mountains and Góry Orlickie mountains). It is suspected that the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161825		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella bohemica</span> can grow in meadows and pastures, mesic <span style="font-style: italic;">Arrhenatherum</span> meadows, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynosurus</span> pastures, intermittently wet <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows,<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> submontane and montane <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, dry grasslands, broad-leaved dry grasslands, acidophilous dry grasslands and forest fringe vegetation. It occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6230 Species-rich Nardus grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>6520  Mountain hay meadows</li></ul>It is very difficult keeping sites in good condition. <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella bohemica</span> needs very specific management, livestock grazing or mowing (or a combination of both), which is needed in the exact time period. Extensive grazing by goats, sheep, and cattle was the best type of management, but is very rare nowadays (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2011).
161825		population	eng	In the Czech Republic the species occurs in around 50 localities. This number is only indicative since <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella bohemica</span> can occur in the sites after a longer period of absence. About one third of the sites have very small populations and therefore further losses are expected. Very few new sites have been discovered but overall the trend is declining (D. Turoňová pers. comm. 2011). There were 1,647 individuals in 2003 (which was a very dry year) and 22,296 individuals in 2005. In  Germany it was found at seven localities   (Commission of the European  Communities 2009). It can be concluded that there are extreme fluctuations. <br/><br/>In Austria, there are more than 20 localities in Oberösterreich and Niederösterreich. In Poland, which has a declining population trend, there were <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 350 flowering individuals in 2006 and <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 50 individuals in 2007.
161825		threats	eng	The main threats are abandonment of pastoral systems and subsequent vegetation succession and competition as the taxon needs open grass cover. On the other hand overgrazing, conversion of the habitat into forest plantations, use of fertilisers are leading to habitat loss and degradation. Locally, recreational activities, urbanisation and mining have been reported as threats. Increased droughts affect the species. It is susceptible to weather, and has a reduced rate of germination when is dry vegetation season.
161826		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus kunkelii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Critically Endangered B2ab(iii); D on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/>The species occurs in the protected area SCI Jinamar. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo where the species is also cultivated.
161826		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain (</st1:country-region></st1:place>Navarro<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It grows between 10 and 30 m asl in one single location in Playa de Jinámar on the eastern coast of the island. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 2 km². Regressive trends from the 60's have been reported for its distribution (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/></p>
161826		habitat	eng	This plant grows in sandy coastal hills and sandy clays facing northeast, under constant influence of sea spray. A secondary habitat are sandy valleys in the southwest. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Astydamia latifolia, Chenoloides tomentosa, Limonium pectinatum, Polycarpaea nivea, Aizoon canariense</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaea arborescens</span>.<br/><br/>It is a hermaphrodite species. This entomophilous plant produces flowers from winter to spring.
161826		population	eng	Total population is 41 individuals.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The species presents annual and interannual fluctuations in the number of individuals (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Seed production is low and only a few juveniles have been observed in the population. Historically, the species has suffered a significant decline. Decreasing population trends have been reported (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
161826		threats	eng	The only known location has been affected by works in the surrounding areas (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). This location is as well affected by trampling due to the presence of tracks that go through it. Landslides as well as pollution emitted by a close electric plant, have been also reported as threats.
161827		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago algarbiensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and legally protected in Portugal. It is classed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and as Endangered (EN) in the Red List of Andalucia (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).<br/><br/>In Portugal, it has been recommended to study the affects of mining on the species and discuss the potential threats with mining companies (raise awareness) and to establish micro-reserves to protect the species (ICN 2006).
161827		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, extending from Albufeira to Hinojos</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In Portugal it is found in the Algarve region where it occupies a small area of 30 ha around Tunes, Guia and Algoz (ICN 2006). In Spain, it occurs only in the province Huelva (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The area of occupancy is less than 20 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </p>
161827		habitat	eng	The species occurs on clay soils that are temporarily flooded in winter and spring, and dry out with the opening of cracks in summer. It prefers colluvium areas with upwelling water. It can also be found in shrubland clearings, in acid soils (dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Stauracanthus boivinii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Calluna</span> sp.) (ICN 2006, Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
161827		population	eng	The Portuguese populations are very rare and small and its habitat is declining rapidly which leads to a loss in mature individuals. The populations located within the nature reserve Barrocal have a very restricted effective population that is estimated to be below 10,000 individuals and occupies about 0.05 ha. A more abundant population is located outside the protected site, south of the village of Messines and counts several thousand individuals. It occupies an area of about 29 ha (ICN 2006).
161827		threats	eng	The main threats in Portugal are mining of clay soils for the production of construction materials. Possible consequences are topographic changes that disrupt the natural drainage function of soils. It is not clear how mining affects <span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago algarbiensis </span> as apart from disturbing the species, it can also benefit from the deposition of inert material and from the exclusion of agriculture in the area. Further threats described are urbanisation, trampling and grazing by livestock. Collection of this species leads to further declines (ICN 2006).<br/>The main threats in Andalucia are alterations of the hydrological functioning of its habitat (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
161828		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys lunulata</span>  is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and  under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European  Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).Recommended conservation measures for this species are:  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>                <p></p>
161828		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">      </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Ophrys lunulata</em> is endemic to <st1:state><st1:place>Sicily</st1:place></st1:state> and frequently occurs in the southeast and around <st1:city><st1:place>Palermo</st1:place></st1:city>. </a><a name="OLE_LINK1">Other records from <st1:state><st1:place>Calabria</st1:place></st1:state>, <st1:place><st1:city>Elba</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region>Malta</st1:country-region></st1:place>, the <st1:place><st1:placename>Eolian</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place> and <st1:place>Sardinia</st1:place> have not been verified. The species is found from sea level to 800 m </a><a name="OLE_LINK1">(Pederson and Faurholdt 2007). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 10,348 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,997 km².<br/></a>    </p><p></p>
161828		habitat	eng	Typical habitats of the species are meadows, grassland, garrigue and open woods. It grows in dry to fairly moist, calcareous to slightly acid soil in full sunlight to semi shade. The flowering takes place in March and April with a peak in the first half of April (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). This species is characteristic of the Habitats Directive habitat 6220 "Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea"</span> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161828		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 16 localities within the Italian islands with a stable population trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). But the species' habitat continues to decline <a name="OLE_LINK1">(Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</a>    <p>    </p><br/><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
161828		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are urbanisation and tourism, as well as collection of this orchid   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).
161829		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sventenia bupleuroides</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Endangered B2ac(iv) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de Tamadaba (SCI Tamadaba). Seeds are stored in the Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Grazing species should be banned from the area. Visitors to the protected area should be made aware of the importance of respecting the plant and animal species. Population trend monitoring and research about the reproductive biology of the species should be developed.
161829		distribution	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain (Naranjo Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), where it appears restricted to the <span id="result_box" class="long_text">northwest of the island<span id="result_box" class="long_text">, in Macizo de Tamadaba. The only known population is distributed into four groups: Faneque, Barranco del Palo, Barranco  Oscuro and El Trébol, t<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">hroughout an area relatively wide.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Further individuals appear scattered throughout this area<span id="result_box" class="long_text">. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The species tends to appear restricted to sites out of reach of grazing animals (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
161829		habitat	eng	This is a rupicolous species that <span id="result_box" class="long_text"> settles in cracks and fissures of walls and vertical cliffs, usually in <span title="zonas algo umbrías y húmedas, con clara influencia">shady, moist areas<span title="del mar de nubes, entre 600 y 1.100 m de altitud"><span title="y orientación generalmente noroeste.">, generally facing northwest. <span title="Forma parte">It occurs within co<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="zonas algo umbrías y húmedas, con clara influencia"><span title="del mar de nubes, entre 600 y 1.100 m de altitud"><span title="y orientación generalmente noroeste."><span title="Forma parte"><span title="de la vegetación rupícola, en comunidades de Greenovion">mmunities <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovion aureae</span><span title="Santos ex Rivas-Martínez et al."><span title="1993 (Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosii Sunding"> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosii</span><span title="1972), entre las que destacan como acompañantes">), along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia aurea, Dendriopoterium menendezii, Carlina salicifolia, Babcockia platylepis, Convolvulus canariensis, Chrysoprenanthes </span><span title="pendula, Erica arborea, etc"><span style="font-style: italic;">pendula</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erica arborea</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">This perennial plant presents low germination rates. Hybridization phenomena with species of the genus  <span style="font-style: italic;">Prenanthes </span>L<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> (x <span style="font-style: italic;">Prenanthenia Svent.</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus </span>L. <span style="font-style: italic;">(x Sonchustenia Svent.)</span> with which they usually share habitats, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="zonas algo umbrías y húmedas, con clara influencia"><span title="del mar de nubes, entre 600 y 1.100 m de altitud"><span title="y orientación generalmente noroeste."><span title="Forma parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="zonas algo umbrías y húmedas, con clara influencia"><span title="del mar de nubes, entre 600 y 1.100 m de altitud"><span title="y orientación generalmente noroeste."><span title="Forma parte"><span title="de la vegetación rupícola, en comunidades de Greenovion"><span title="Santos ex Rivas-Martínez et al."><span title="1993 (Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosii Sunding"><span title="1972), entre las que destacan como acompañantes"><span title="pendula, Erica arborea, etc"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">are common<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="zonas algo umbrías y húmedas, con clara influencia"><span title="del mar de nubes, entre 600 y 1.100 m de altitud"><span title="y orientación generalmente noroeste."><span title="Forma parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="zonas algo umbrías y húmedas, con clara influencia"><span title="del mar de nubes, entre 600 y 1.100 m de altitud"><span title="y orientación generalmente noroeste."><span title="Forma parte"><span title="de la vegetación rupícola, en comunidades de Greenovion"><span title="Santos ex Rivas-Martínez et al."><span title="1993 (Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosii Sunding"><span title="1972), entre las que destacan como acompañantes"><span title="pendula, Erica arborea, etc"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sonchus L."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161829		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 825 individuals (Naranjo Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Germination seems to be low and the low number of seedlings <span title="La bajísima proporción de">are predated by <span title="por las cabras1.">goats. Progressive population trends are not expected <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161829		threats	eng	Predation by grazing animals is the most important threat negatively affecting the expansion of the species (Naranjo Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La utilización de vías de">The presence of climbing paths has been also reported as a threat, as well as droughts and landslides.</span>
161830		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/></p>  It has been assessed as Endangered in the Italian national red list    (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and as Vulnerable in the French national red list <a name="OLE_LINK10">(Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995).</a> In France, it is protected by national law and four sites are in Arreté de Protection de Biotope, ten included in a nature reserve, four are in the Conservatoire du Littoral, another four are conserved by CREN Corse, and ten by Parc Marin International des Bouches de Bonifacio. Conservation measures that are currently carried out are the eradication of black rats at one site and control of <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp. development in another locality (ilot de Ziglione).<br/>One site in Italy is included in the Parco Nazionale La Maddalena, the other localities are in Natura 2000 sites.
161830		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene velutina</span> is endemic to the coasts of southern Corsica, France and northern Sardinia, Italy. In Corsica it has been reported from 26 localities throughout four communes. In Sardinia, it has a restricted distribution in the north from 0 - 100 m above sea level. It is found at not more than three localities (G. Bacchetta pers. comm. 2010). The AOO is lower than 20 km² and the EOO is less than 5,000 km².
161830		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is found in coastal calcareous (limestone) and granite cliffs. <br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium </span>spp.</li><li>1430 Halo-nitrophilous scrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pegano-Salsoletea</span>)</li></ul>
161830		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>In Sardinia, it is found in three localities with stable populations (G. Bacchetta pers. comm. 2010). In Morto, there is deposit of organic matter which has helped expand the number of individuals in this one location (Biondi and Bagella 2005).<br/><br/>In Corsica, it has been reported from 26 localities in four communes of which two have recently been discovered. In total, 3,350 individuals have been counted with less than 1,000 individuals in each subpopulation. It is difficult to define an overall population trend, as it is stable and increasing in some parts but there have been important declines and one locality has disappeared. It can only be said that the populations are fluctuating.
161830		threats	eng	<p>Invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus acinaciformis</span> in Sardinia and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp. in Corsica are posing an important threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Silene velutina</span>. Tourism and activities such as climbing are also impacting negatively on the species. Eutrophication and development of nitrophilous vegetation linked to marine bird colonies or rats eating fruits and flowers of the plant are another threat.<br/></p>
161831		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium supinum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In Sweden, it is protected and listed as Near Threatened. Some populations are in protected areas. It is also assessed as Near Threatened in Estonia.<br/>The French Red List classes the species as Least Concern, it is regionally protected in Ile-de-France and Picardie.<br/>In Switzerland, it is classed as Critically Endangered and legally protected. The company controlling water levels has been contacted by the local government and informed about the situation. This species is typically distributed throughout the Baltic countries; more research should be developed to determine how this species reached the lake and how long has it been in there. <br/><br/>The natural habitats occupied by the species are protected. It is recommended to keep the habitat open.
161831		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium supinum</span> is endemic to Central Europe where it extends from France to Estonia and Sweden. It has been described as an adventive species in Northwestern European Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Germany, it is classed as introduced (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).<br/>There is one single occurrence in Denmark. Latvia used to have one locality which is now extinct. In Sweden, it is found on two small islands with an area of occupancy of 672 km². In Switzerland, it can only be found at Lac du Joeux, 1,000 m asl. with an area of occupancy of 6 km². The plant is extinct in the Netherlands.<br/>There are 84 localities (70 locations) in France.
161831		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium supinum </span>is an annual plant but can be rarely biannual. This plant occurs in perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes, almost bare rock pavements, including limestone pavements and recently abandoned above-ground spaces of industrial sites   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).   It has been recorded in dry alvar grasslands with moderate disturbance by wild boars or domestic animals, in open cast mining areas, along paths, grass verges, car parking areas and different grit stone covered places. Potentially coastal limestone cliff areas may be suitable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  <br/>It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats:<br/><ul><li>3270 Rivers with muddy banks with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chenopodion rubri </span>p.p. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidention </span>p.p. vegetation</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6280 Nordic alvar and precambrian calcareous flatrocks</li><li>8130 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li></ul>
161831		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The number of individuals in Sweden is 100,000 - 200,000 individuals and in Estonia 100,000 - 115,000 individuals with a stable population trend in both countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009)</span>.<br/>In France, there are less than 5,000 individuals but the population is stable.<br/>In Switzerland,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>very strong fluctuations have been observed from one year to another because of changes in the water level. During the last 10-20 years the population has been more or less  stable until a water company started to  control the water level.  Now it is estimated that there are less than 100 individuals.<br/><br/>The populations are fluctuating, as it is an annual plant.
161831		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>The modification of cultivation practices or abandonment of pastoral systems and reduced grazing lead to vegetation succession and closure of its habitat. Mining and quarrying leads to habitat loss, forest planting is a potential threat. The management of rivers and canalisation affects this species which grows on muddy river margins. The use of fertilisers and air pollution impact this plant as it can't grow on acidic soil. <br/><br/>In Switzerland, the only population of this species is threatened by the artificial regulation of water level performed by a water company. Concrete walls have been established on some shores of the lake but as shores are a suitable habitat for this species, the establishment of more of these hydraulic structures will destroy more suitable habitat. The species needs the water level fluctuations to progress. Now the water level is artificially controlled by the water company and these  seasonal changes are just occurring every five or six years instead of  every year. The population decreased since this company started to  control the water level.
161832		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. There are protection measures in place in several European countries:<br/><ul><li>Slovenia: protected and Vulnerable, Natura 2000 sites</li><li>Austria: Endangered but not protected and it is included in some <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections.</li><li>Hungary: protected and Near Threatened, most populations are in Natura 2000 sites or protected areas<br/></li><li>Bulgaria: protected and Endangered, found in a Natura 2000 site and protected site</li><li>Slovakia: protected and Endangered and two Natura 2000 sites.</li></ul><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161832		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. carniolica</em> is endemic to Central and East Europe, from Austria east through Hungary to the Ukraine and south to Italy and Croatia.</p>
161832		habitat	eng	It is found in frequently disturbed wet habitats and pioneer vegetation of marsh annuals among them wet fields and river banks. Occasionally it occurs in flooded habitats, moist forest roads, in shady places, and at the shoreline of shallow waters (such as ponds, ditches, etc.). The species is found in the Habitats Directive habitat type 3130 "Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae </span>and/or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span>"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161832		population	eng	Population data has been recorded for a few countries using different units   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Italy: 17 sites</li><li>Poland: 130 individuals</li><li>Slovenia: Six recently confirmed populations</li><li>Slovakia: three confirmed localities with 50-100 individuals<br/></li><li>Hungary: 10,000 to 20,000 individuals, rich populations in some parts of southwest Hungary</li><li>Austria: extinct in Kärnten, three locations in Steiermark</li></ul>It is apparently extinct in Bulgaria and classed as Near Threatened in Hungary.<br/><br/>The population size is hard to determinate as the number of species strongly fluctuates depending on yearly weather conditions.
161832		threats	eng	Some populations are apparently threatened by the factors which affect seasonally inundated habitats throughout the region, however overall there is no evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. carniolica</span> is threatened by extinction in Europe.
161833		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and on Annex I of the French National List of Protected Species. Proper management and protection of the sites or acquisition of the land by the National Littoral Conservatoire would be important for this species.
161833		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes boryana </span>iS endemic to southwestern France (Gironde and Landes, ponds of the Gascogne Gulf). It is known from three localities (three ponds). Its area of occupancy is declining, as several localities have been lost in the Landes. The total geographic range for France (EOO) has been estimated in 854 km² (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Reports of this taxon from Spain appear to involve confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">I. asturicense</span> (Lainz) Lainz.<em></em>
161833		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the sandy edges of ponds, on siliceous substrate. It can be found in the Habitats Directive habitat 3110 "Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletalia uniflorae</span>)".
161833		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this species.</p>
161833		threats	eng	The main threats are related to unfavourable water management, eutrophication due to agriculture (pollution), and water sports.
161835		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In France, it is protected at national level (Annex I). In Spain, it is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, and protected&#160; at regional level in Galicia and in Castilla y León. It is listed as Endangered on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and on the French Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). In France, there is a Species Recovery Action Plan from the CBN of Brest to reinforce the last locality and to search for seeds and plantlets in the soil of the previous localities. If this fails, some cultivated individuals might be reintroduced in the previous localities. One locality occurs in a protected area in France, others are included in national parks in Spain.<br/><br/>The creation of micro-reserves, the monitoring and restoration of the habitat and the translocation of some individuals are the recommended conservation measures.
161835		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium viviparum </span>is native to France, Spain and Portugal. In France, it is only found in Morbihan at a small site of 1 km²<sup></sup>. In Spain, it is present in Galicia and Castilla y León. It occured in the north of Portugal, however the populations in Portugal are considered to be extinct (Reduron 2007). Therefore, the estimated area of occupancy may be 80 km²<sup></sup>.
161835		habitat	eng	<p>The natural habitat of <em>E. viviparum</em> comprises acid depressions in the Atlantic heaths, where it is a pioneer species, intolerant of competition. These sites are generally exploited as winter-inundated pastures, where poaching by cattle enables the plant to survive. In Brittany, the soil is derived from granite (granulite) which results in grey clays irregularly blue or iron-stained, brown soils with elements of quartz and upper organic horizons; such soils tends to retreat in times of drought; their pH is around 6.5. The species colonized temporarily submerged soils, dry during the summer.<br/></p>  This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletalia uniflorae</span>)</li><li>3130 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span></li><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li></ul>
161835		population	eng	<p>The species has undergone a very strong decline over an already small area. Only a few localities remain in the world. The decline has been spectacular in Bretagne, where the plant was abundant 50 years ago with around 50 sites in Brittany between 1975 and 1980 (Half of the localities have been lost in the last 10 years). Populations at Séné et de Saint Philbert have apparently disappeared, and the species has not been seen since at most others. There is now only a single confirmed site in France, with 200-1,500 individuals depending on the year. Although this number may appear high, wetland degradation can lead to the rapid loss of a large number of plants (Reduron 2007). In the Iberian Peninsula, 93% of the population occurs in northwest Spain with 20 subpopulations (eight additional localities have disappeared in recent years), with over 15,000 individuals, mainly in Galicia as a very scattered population; 57% of the population is considered to be threatened and approximately 2% is on the verge of extinction. In Portugal, the population at the locus classicus in Portugal is considered to be extinct, but a new small population has been discovered in the Serra da Nogueira (Reduron 2007, ICN 2006). This population is small with a very low number of individuals and also faces a high risk of extinction (ICN 2006).  </p>
161835		threats	eng	<p>Pools supporting this species tend to disappear due to natural succession of the habitat (invasion by <em>Molinia</em>) and due to a variety of anthropogenic modification and degradation of the habitat; such as drainage and cultivation of maize, conifer plantation, urbanisation, disposal of organic wastes and decline in grazing. Sand extraction is also problematic in some part of its range.<br/></p>  <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
161836		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phagnalon bennettii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira.
161836		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky cliffs across the coast of Madeira, Desertas and Porto Santo islands. It is characteristic of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho ustulati-Artemision argenteae</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161836		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phagnalon bennettii </span>has been identified in 50 localities across Madeira   with a declining population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161836		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are urbanisation, disposal of inert materials, road construction, sport and leisure structures such as golf courses, trampling, landslides, and competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161838		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dracocephalum austriacum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In Czech Republic, it is classed as Critically Endangered (<a name="OLE_LINK13"></a><a name="OLE_LINK12">Holub and Procházka 2000).</a><br/>In France, it is under national protection, and several localities are in Parc National de la Vanoise, Parc National Ecrins, and Natura 2000 sites.<br/>In Hungary, the species is strictly protected, included in a protected area and is listed as Critically Endangered in the national red list (Király 2007).  <br/>In Italy, collection of the species is banned in some regions and it is partially included in Natura 2000 sites. <br/>In Slovakia the plant is classified as Critically Endangered and all the localities are included in six protected areas in total (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/>In Spain, it is listed as Endangered D (Moreno 2008).<br/>The red list in Switzerland lists it as Vulnerable (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and the plant is legally protected.<br/>It is included in Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. It is protected in Galytskij zakaznik and in zakaznik Lysa gora ta gora Sypucha in Ukraine.<br/><br/>Mowing and other activities that keep the habitat open, are recommended.
161838		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dracocephalum austriacum </span>ranges from northeast Spain, to Central Europe and into the Caucasus and Turkey (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). <br/>In Switzerlan<span style="background-color: white;">d, it occurs in Graubünden and in an isolated l</span>ocality in Valais. There is only one locality in Hungary. In Italy, it is found in Piemonte and Trentino-Alto Adige at more than five localities with an area of occupancy of less than 500 km². It is no longer recorded in Valle d'Aosta. In Slovakia it is currently found in eight localities in Slovenský kras Karst and one locality in Spišská kotlina Basin. In the past the species occurred in Slovenský kras Karst also above Drienovec, however, the locality has not been confirmed recently (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
161838		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in xeric steppe and forest steppe rocky habitats on limestone and travertines in hilly areas, more rarely in the submontane vegetation belt. This thermophilous plant is light-demanding and has a prealpine distribution tendency, i.e. it ascends relatively high in the foothills of high mountain ranges, but is missing in the high mountains (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is a member of communities of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> class. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/></p><ul><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span><br/></li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands<br/></li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion</span> or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span></li></ul>
161838		population	eng	The following population information has been provided by the EU member states for their reports under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Austria: 50 individuals have been estimated with a declining population trend</li><li>Czech Republic: the population size has been estimated in 1,804 tufts with a stable trend</li><li>Spain: 126-352 flowering stems with an unknown population trend</li></ul><br/>In France, there are 16 localities in 16 communes, with an estimated 7,000-10,000 individuals and a declining trend due to low recruitment and habitat closure (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010). In Italy, there are less than 1,000 mature individuals and the population is stable but severely fragmented. In Switzerland, the area of occupancy is 17 km² and there are several thousand individuals (A. Gygax pers. comm. 2010). In Hungary, 1,098-1,100 individuals are present (Commission of the European Communities 2009) but there has been a severe decline: formerly about ten localities were known whereas today it is found at only one, with few subpopulations (G. Kiraly pers. comm. 2010).<br/>In Slovakia the size of the populations is small (1 – 75 individuals)  and most of them are moderately decreasing (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/>In Ukraine only ten localities are found in the Podolian upland. Half of the populations are extinct, other populations occupy sites of only a few m² (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).<br/>There is no information for Belarus, Romania or Russia available.
161838		threats	eng	Abandonment of pastoral systems leads to changes in native species dynamics and overgrowth with plants that pose competition to <span style="font-style: italic;">D. austriacum</span> and leads to declines. Conversion of its habitat into forest plantations is a serious threat. Intensive grazing and the use of fertilisers lead to a degradation of its habitat and also directly disturb the species. So do recreational activities such as mountaineering and walking. This plant is also collected (Commission of the European Communities 2009). A further local threat that has been reported for Slovakia is rock mining (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>    <p><br/></p>
161840		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus grossus</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.  <br/><br/>In Germany, it is classed as Critically Endangered (level 1) on the national red list   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and protected under national law. It is also classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland   (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002) with regional extinctions and is potentially extinct now. It is protected in France. In Italy and Austria, it is not included in national red lists, but it is classed as Critically Endangered in the Austrian FLORA<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is underway in the botanic gardens of Brest and Jena as well as in other gardens collections of crop wild relatives.<br/><br/>The main conservation measure for this species would be to maintain traditional agricultural practises.
161840		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus grossus</span> is endemic to central Europe where it is found in Belgium, Luxembourg, northern France, southern Germany, northern and central Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Austria, Czech Republic, Switzerland, and Slovenia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It is extinct in Liechtenstein and Czech Republic and considered extinct in France.<br/><br/>Its presence in Switzerland is uncertain and there is no reliable historic or current data for Slovenia. In Germany, it is classed as introduced (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is likely to be less than 2,000 km² seeing as the species is nowhere really abundant and has gone extinct at many sites.
161840		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus grossus</span> is a winter annual grass that flowers from June to July and is an archeophytic species. It is adapted to Spelt Wheat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Triticum spelta</span>) fields, but is also found within other cereal crops, rarely in ruderal places   (Käsermann and Moser 1999). It is present in chickweed and other field weed communities (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stellarietea mediae</span>).
161840		population	eng	The populations are declining across most of its range. There has been a big decline over the last 50 years of 80% across its range. It is not known what the percentage of decline has been in the last ten years.<br/><br/>In Austria, the species is rare. In Italy, it is declining and suffered a 50% reduction of its range. There is no data on the number of sites available.<br/><br/>In Belgium, it can be found at one to eight sites. The species has been reported from 89 localities in Germany and fluctuations in the populations have been observed (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).
161840		threats	eng	As the species occurs as a weed in cereal fields, improved seed controls and change in agricultural practices (more intensive soil digging, herbicides, fertilisation) are leading to population declines. Moreover, the change from spelt to other types of cereal crops is affecting the species   (Käsermann and Moser 1999).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161841		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga berica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161841		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the region of Veneto in north Italy</a>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga berica </span>has been  recorded in an area called Colli Berici, but mainly in Covolo, near  the press of Barbarano Vicentino in Vicenza (Pignatti  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Its extent of occurrence is less than 100 km² and the area of occupancy has been reported to be only 1 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There are 25 known localities.<br/></p>
161841		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161841		population	eng	The total population counts less than 1,000 mature individuals, has a stable trend but is severely fragmented.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161841		threats	eng	Natural processes have been considered as the only threat to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161843		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum pintodasilvae</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. Its taxonomic status needs clarification.
161843		distribution	eng	This species is an Iberian endemic species. It occurs in the north of Portugal, near Bragança and is widespread in Spain.<br/><em></em>
161843		habitat	eng	This plant is characteristic of subnitrophilous dwarf shrub (chamaephyte) communities on skeletal soils derived from alkaline rocks in the northeast of Portugal. It is found in sandy soils in the northern Iberian mountains. The habitat is decreasing (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161843		population	eng	There is not much detailed information on this species in Portugal available but the populations are common in Spain and assumed to be stable.
161843		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are modification of cultivation practices, urbanisation, garbage disposal, and motorised vehicles (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161844		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p>  <em>C. subtilis</em> is listed as Critically Endangered in Austria and Italy, Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable in Germany and France and is protected at a national level in the latter two countries as well. It is categorized as Critically Endangered in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers.comm. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation of the seeds in gene banks is taking place (Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). To conserve the species, it is necessary to manage its sites in a way that allows fluctuating water levels. Monitoring of the populations is strongly recommended.
161844		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coleanthus subtilis</span><em></em> has a curiously patchy distribution, it occurs from western France through much of central Europe, western Siberia, the Russian Far East and northeastern China and a small area on the border of Washington and Oregon States in western North America where it may be non-native. In Europe, it occurs in Brittany (France), scattered sites in Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and northern Italy. In Norway, <span style="font-style: italic;">Coleanthus subtilis</span> is treated as an adventive species, which was probably spread by birds. It was sampled in the years 1837-1842 and has probably not been reproducing in Norway at any length of time and at least not in the last 150 years (Å. Viken pers. comm. 2010).
161844		habitat	eng	In Europe, <em>C. subtilis</em> is a characteristic species of the drawdown zones of fish ponds, elsewhere it occurs on muddy stream and lake margins and other wet, open habitats. It is a pioneer species and a weak competitor.<br/>It is found in habitat number 3130    "Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span>" of the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>A study by Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2004) demonstrated that even where a species was declared extinct,  seeds can still be stored in the soil banks for a long time. Germination  tests of seeds from soil samples in former localities showed those  seeds to be viable. In most cases they need fluctuating water levels to  trigger germination and a stabilisation of the water levels has led to  local extinctions of mature individuals.
161844		population	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline;">Population estimations</span>:<br/>In France, it is rare and found in four departements: Côtes d’Armor (pools of Coroncq and Rochevel), Morbihan (pools of Duc, Vaulaurent), Ille-et-Vilaine (pools of Trémignon, Bourg à Hédé, Comper, Abbaye, Forges, Rouvre), and Loire-Atlantique (pools of Vioreau, Grand-Auverné, Villate) (Bensettiti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). <br/><br/>In Austria, the species was classed as possibly extinct for several years until it was rediscovered in the year 2000. This triggered research into soil seed banks and the viable seeds of the species have been found. It is currently found at five sites with mature individual<span style="background-color: white;">s (</span>Bernhardt 2005a,b; Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>It was reported from 120 localities in the Czech Republic. But this often refers to one pond and in some regions there are five to ten ponds in one hectare (K.-G. Bernhardt pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/>In Poland, it can be found at one site in a complex of fishponds in Borowa, near Wrocław, where the species is found in four ponds in a total area of 15 ha. The population occurs at the bottom of emptied ponds and the number of individuals fluctuates depending on the fishpond management cycle (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).<br/><br/>In Germany, it is found in the Erzgebirge (Ore mountains) in southeast Germany, in Sachsen-Anhalt along the river Elbe, and in Rheinland Pfalz   (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, Hardtke and Ihl 2010).<br/><br/>There is no detailed information for other countries in Europe. Whilst there has been suspicion of a decline, in fact the number of sites supporting <span style="font-style: italic;">C. subtilis</span> has increased in recent years, whilst the discovery of strong seed-banks in areas where the species had been thought extinct is extremely encouraging.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. subtilis</span> occurs in two locations in the Novgorod region of northwest Russia and in the Volga region of southern Russia where it has apparently undergone a very rapid decline. However, it is known to show massive inter-annual fluctuations in population size (I. Illarianova pers. comm. 2010).
161844		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are changes to the hydrological regime of the water bodies where it is found. This species needs fluctuating water levels and stabilisation of these leads to its disappearance or at least to a reduction of the area where it can develop. Other threats are the application of pesticides or fertilisers, a high input of nutrients (for example to feed fish) and water pollution. The species is not a good competitor and therefore sensitive to changes of surrounding vegetation. The removal of sediment at pool edges is another threat as it affects the soil seed bank.<br/></p>
161845		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria drenovskii</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Greece, it is found in four Natura 2000 sites, but not protected under the law or in included in the national red data book. In Bulgaria, it is protected and in nature reserves and Natura 2000 sites. It is included in the Bulgarian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ab(ii,iii,v) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). <br/>It is recommended to further study the population size and trend and biology of the species, as well as to monitor the existing populations. Collecting of seeds for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation is recommended for Bulgaria. In Greece, there are some genetic studies underway.
161845		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria drenovskii</span> is endemic to </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Bulgaria and Greece</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Bulgaria, the species is present on two localities in  the southwestern part of the country, close to the Greek border: Slavyanka (Orvillos in Greek) and South Piriu mountains. In Greece, it has been found in Pangeon, Menikion, Orvilos and Falakron mountains in the northeastern part of the country (Kamari 1991). In Bulgaria, the area of occupancy is less than 10 km² and overall, it is suspected to be smaller than 2,000 km².<br/></p><p></p>
161845		habitat	eng	This species can be found on dry rocky places in montane and subalpine meadows, between 1,000-1,850 m asl, on limestone or schist. It is a perennial herb, flowering in May and June.
161845		population	eng	<p>In Bulgaria, the subpopulations are small and consist of small groups or few individuals but those populations are at the edge of the species' distribution range. There might be a slight population decrease in some areas of its range due to changes in grazing and succession. The overall population trend is unknown.</p>
161845		threats	eng	Changes in the intensity and frequency of grazing leads to succession and increases the competition for this species. Trampling by livestock is a further threat.
161846		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>The species occurs within the protected areas Parque Natural de Sierra Nevada and Parque Natural de Sierra de Baza, but Sierra de Filabres is not a protected area. Some subpopulations are within the Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. <br/></p><p>Management plans on its habitat should be implemented and the species should be used in revegetation works on batters. Predation and parasitism of fruits should be controlled by biological methods. Population monitoring plans should be developed. <br/></p>
161846		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea pulvinata </span>is endemic to the provinces of Granada and Almería, Spain (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Its main population is located in Sierra Nevada, being also present in the east of Sierra de los Filabres and in the western part of Sierra de Baza. It can be found in six subpopulations, four of them in Sierra Nevada. Its area of occupancy is 12 km².
161846		habitat	eng	This hemicryptophyte occurs within shrublands on open areas, on stony or sandy soils, and in pioneer communities in batters and verges. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia, Adenocarpus decorticans, Prunus ramburii, Erinacea anthyllis, Cytisus galianoi, Genista versicolor, Thymus serpylloides</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gadorensis, Erysimum nevadense, Halimium viscosum, Festuca scariosa, Festuca indigesta, Dactylis glomerata, Dianthus brachyanthus, Paronychia suffruticosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Silene mellifera</span>.
161846		population	eng	Total population size has been reported to be between 30,000 and 40,000 individuals (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
161846		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are overgrazing, the establishment of plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> spp. and cleaning works on batters and verges (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Overgrazing leads to nitrification phenomena and therefore increases competition with nitrophile species. The loss of seeds due to parasitism and predation reduces the reproductive success of the species.<br/>The establishment of communication networks has been also reported as a threat (Commission of the European Communities 2009), as well as fires.
161847		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia handiensis</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, and as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia handiense</span> as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The species occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de Jandía (Marrero Gómez and Carqué Alamo 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La mayoría de sus efectivos"><span title="germoplasma."><span title="para dictaminar la variabilidad genética de las"><span title="poblaciones de la especie, realizar un seguimiento"><span title="incidencia de parásitos."> A conservation programme of threatened flora in Fuerteventura has been developed, which include among other measures, seed collection and storage in germplasm banks.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include population monitoring, a plagues and diseases monitoring plan and research about genetic variability of the populations.<br/><br/><br/><br/></span></span></span>
161847		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia handiensis</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> is endemic to the island of Fuerteventura, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found from 50 to 300 m asl (Marrero Gómez and Carqué Alamo 2004). It occurs in the south of the island at the  Jandia Peninsula, mainly in l<span id="result_box" class="long_text">arge colluvial valleys. It is<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> distributed into two relatively dense subpopulations: Gran Valle and Valle de los Mosquitos. The area of occupancy is 12 km².<br/>A slight expansive trend has been reported for its distribution (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><span title="Localmente,"></span></span>
161847		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It grows on slopes and watercourses of ravines, in stony soils within xerophitic communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum handiensis </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Aeonio-Euphorbion canariensis</span>. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a hermaphrodite plant adapted to conditions of extreme aridity. <span title="La producción seminal y el éxito">Seed production is high and germination rates up to 80% have been observed in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conditions. <span title="No obstante, existen">Seeds are affected by parasites.<span title="juveniles."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El área de"><span title="los 3,5 km2"></span></span></span></span>
161847		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Localmente,">This species can become locally very abundant. Total population has been estimated in 200,000 individuals   (Marrero Gómez and Carqué Alamo 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La producción seminal y el éxito"><span title="No obstante, existen">The populations are well structured, with a relative abundance of juvenile individuals. Genetic exchange between the main populations seems to exist. Population size is believed to be stable or slightly increasing (Marrero Gómez and Carqué Alamo 2004, Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<span title="juveniles."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El área de"><span title="los 3,5 km2"></span></span></span></span></span>
161847		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been described. Uncontrolled grazing and collection are still affecting the species (Marrero Gómez and Carqué Alamo 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="No obstante, los"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="No obstante, los"></span></span>
161848		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina onopordifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is included in the Red Data Books of the Ukraine and of Poland. All the Polish populations are protected as well as some Ukrainian populations. Protection of the other Ukrainian populations is strongly recommended.
161848		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina onopordifolia</span> is endemic to the Ukraine and Poland. In the Ukraine it is confined to the Wolhynian and Podolian plateau. In Poland, it is found in the Lublin and Malopolska plateau. The extent of occurrence in Poland is 500 km² (measured in 10x10 km grid cells; Commission of the European Communities 2009) and the overall area of occupancy is suspected to be less than&#160;2,000 km².
161848		habitat	eng	A perennial plant that grows in steppe communities. This is a monocarpic species that dies down after flowering - the number of individuals per year fluctuates naturally. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6210 "Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161848		population	eng	In Poland, the population has been estimated in 19,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In the Ukraine, it is found at less than 20 sites of which there are only two sites in the Wolhynian plateau. In Poland, it is present in four sites only. The populations are very isolated from each other and therefore severely fragmented.<br/><br/>The population trend in the Ukraine has been declining and is estimated to have been more than 30 % in the last ten years. But the four populations in Poland are under protection and have a stable population trend. The overall decline does not reach 30% therefore.
161848		threats	eng	In Poland, fires and collection pose the main threats    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). From Ukraine, it has been reported that the conversion of the steppes into agricultural land or forest plantations is the main threat to the species.
161850		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linum dolomiticum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Hungarian Red List it is classed as Critically Endangered (Király 2007). It is strictly protected in Hungary and the localities are in protected areas.
161850		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linum dolomiticum </span>is endemic to Hungary with an EOO of 100 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is found only near Budapest, in the Pilis Mountains.
161850		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6190 Rupicolous Pannonic grasslands <span style="font-style: italic;">(Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>91H0 Pannonian woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span></li></ul>
161850		population	eng	The total population for Hungary has been estimated between 30,000-40,000 individuals with a currently stable population trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161850		threats	eng	The main threats described are recreational activities such as walking or vehicle traffic, and damage by game species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161852		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium litorale</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161852		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Sicily, Italy (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). The extent of occurrence in Italy is less than 5,000 km² and the range is decreasing.<br/></p>
161852		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 5330 "Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161852		population	eng	The population for Sicily has been estimated in around 1,000 individuals but its trend is unknown   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161852		threats	eng	The restructuring of agricultural land holding, mines, and vandalism have been described as main threats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). This species suffers from changes in native species dynamics.
161853		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione lusitanica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal. The main conservation measures needed are habitat protection and restoration of the dune habitats, as well as control of urban and tourism expansion (ICN 2006). Information on the population size and trend should be collected.
161853		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the eastern coast of Portugal where it occurs between Caminha and Aveiro (ICN 2006). The extent of occurrence is 2,700 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161853		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione lusitanica</span> grows in coastal dunes, mainly between primary and secondary dunes among open vegetation (ICN 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li><li>2150 Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Calluno-Ulicetea</span>)</li><li>2330 Inland dunes with open <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis</span> grasslands</li></ul>
161853		population	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">The plant is rare north of Esposende, relatively abundant between Esposende and Porto and then becomes rare again southwards of Porto. The population size and trend have not been estimated but the populations are considered fragmented (ICN 2006).</span><br/></p>
161853		threats	eng	The main threats are destruction and degradation of its habitat due to a high pressure from urbanisation and tourism (ICN 2006). This includes the removal of beach materials, the construction of paths and tracks, sport and leisure structures, recreational activities such as walking and horseriding which among others lead to trampling and erosion (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161855		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga presolanensis</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The populations are included in protected areas.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation measures are urgently needed as are further studies on the population dynamics and the species ecology.
161855		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is considered as a southern Alps endemism, present in Lombardia, </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from three localities. The geographic range is 200 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
161855		habitat	eng	It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161855		population	eng	The total number of mature individuals is less than 250. The populations are considered stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161855		threats	eng	The main threats are recreational activities and tourism.
161856		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Boleum asperum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).  It is included as species "de interés especial" in the regional catalogue of protected species of Aragón and as "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue for Cataluña.</p><p>Seeds are stored in germplasm banks and technique for<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span> cultivation has been developed. Part of its subpopulations occur within Natura 2000 Network sites (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/></p>
161856		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Boleum asperum</span> is endemic to the northeast of Spain, mainly Aragón and Cataluña   (Commission of the European Communities 2009<span class="tooltip">). In Aragón its area of occupancy is estimated in 24 grid cells of 10x10 km (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
161856		habitat	eng	It grows in two different habitats: The first one is a non disturbed environment covered by different types of shrubs, with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia lentiscus </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus halepensis</span>,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus oxicedrus</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> J. phoenicea</span>. The second habitat is natural and artificial disturbed land (erosion or ravines) like afforestations, neglected crops or slopes    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161856		population	eng	The population in Aragón has been estimated in 3,123,350 individuals and the population trend is increasing   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161856		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are restructuring agricultural land holding and roads and motorways (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
161857		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span title="Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias).">This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chinamadensis</span> is listed as EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of threatened species of the Canary Islands. All the subpopulations are within the protected area Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI). Plant material from some subpopulations is stored in the germplasm banks of E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos UPM and Servicio Biodiversidad Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><br/>Plant material from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks, reinforcement plans and herbivorous control measures should be implemented, surveillance should be improved. The area of Roque de los Pinos should be proposed as exclusion area ("Zona de Exclusión").<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerae&#160; </span>is listed as CR B2ab(ii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008. It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened species of the Canary Islands. The subpopulations of Los Roques and Cherelepín occur within the protected area Parque Nacional de Garajonay (SCI) and the location Roque de Imada is included in the SCI Barranco del Charco Hondo (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008b). Plant material is stored in the germplasm banks E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos and Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. A recovery plan has been developed in the Parque Nacional de Garajonay, which includes population monitoring and reinforcement measures. Proposed measures in order to ensure the conservation of this taxon include seed storage in germplams banks, the maintenance of reinforcement of natural populations actions and the introduction of new populations in suitable areas for their progress. Herbivorous control measures should be established. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ombriosus </span>is is listed as CR D in the Spanish Red List (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the catalogue of threatened species of the Canary Islands. The only known location is included in the protected area Parque Rural de Frontera. Plant accessions should be stored in germplasm banks, population reinforcement and introduction plans should be developed.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span title="Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias)."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span title="Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span title="Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias)."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span title="Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias)."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="P."><span title="Existen accesiones de"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161857		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> is a taxon endemic to Canary Islands, Spain. Three subspecies have been described: <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chinamadensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerae</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ombriosus</span>. This taxon is present in a total of seven locations and its total area of occupancy is 11 km². Its total distribution range at a species level, seems to have decreased.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chinamadensis</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), where it can be found between 400 and 700 m asl, in Anaga, on the northeastern part of the island. It is present in three locations: <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Roque de los Pinos, Mesa del Brezal and Monte de Aguirre with an area of occupancy of 4 km<sup>2</sup>. Distribution trends for this subspecies have been described as stable or increasing (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerae </span>is endemic to the island of La Gomera, where it can be found between 1,050 and 1,300 m asl, in two natural locations: Los Roques and Roque Imada (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Gobierno de Canarias 2009). One more natural population, known as Lerguito, was reported in the past but it has not been found since 1996. The taxon in also present in Cherelepín, where it was successfully introduced to in 1998. It has been introduced to three more sites but the viability of these populations is not known yet. Its area of occupancy is 6 km² (</span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez </span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">b</span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">) and its distribution is decreasing (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">ombriosus</span> is endemic to the island of El Hierro, where it grows at 1,250 m asl, in one single location near Valle de El Golfo (</span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">). Its area of occupancy is 1 km²<sup></sup>. It is believed that its distribution range was higher in the past (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161857		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The species presents<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> low ecological plasticity and slow propagation dynamics. Its grows within communities of <span id="result_box" class="long_text">sub-humid laurel-like evergreen forests "monteverde" and "fayal-brezal".</span><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chinamadensis </span>grows on ledges of communities of "monteverde" and "fayal-brezal", mainly within shrublands which could be included in <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Telino-Adenocarpion</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> foliolosi</span>. Frequent accompanying species are <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Paronychia canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria varia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum canariense</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia salicina</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina salicifolia</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerae</span> also occurs within scrublands of type <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Telino-Adenocarpion foliolosi</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">, in ledges of communities of "monteverde" and "fayal-brezal" (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez </span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">b</span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">). It can also develop in cracks and less commonly it can progress in shady under-canopy sites. Frequent accompanying species are <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecytisus proliferus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline stenopetala</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Andryala pinnatifida</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicheranthus plocamoides</span>.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">ombriosus</span> grows in gaps within <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya-Erica</span> spp. forests, on crags and cliffs (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">). Frequent accompanying species are <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia diplocycla</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium onopteris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina salicifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria hyssopifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tolpis proustii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus hierrensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">murrayi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceterach aureum</span>.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="y del fayal-brezal, colonizando andenes y"><span title="piedemontes, preferentemente en afloramientos"><span title="foliolosi."><span title="pueden citarse: Paronychia canariensis,"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="constante."><span title="reducida no superando las 2 ha."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="varios miles de ellas."><span title="en el medio natural."><span title="leucophyllus"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161857		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Total population size for this taxon, including the three subspecies described, is estimated in around 2,700 reproductive individuals. Recruitment has been described as slow but constant, but under competition seedlings can not progress. Population trend at a species level seems to be more or less stable, given the trends reported for the three subspecies.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chinamadensis</span> has a population reported to be 2,280 individuals: 2,100 individuals in Roque de los Pinos; 80 in Mesa del Brezal and 100 in Monte de Aguirre <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">(</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Mesa Coello</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">. In 2009 the three known locations were visited and <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">2,186 adult individuals and 2,025 juvenile specimen were recorded (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Population trend for this subspecies is thought to be increasing or stable.<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerae</span> has a population size reported to be 436 and 451 individuals (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez </span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">b</span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">). In 2009, 473 mature individuals and 150 juvenile specimen were recorded (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). It seems that the natural population trend is decreasing, and higher population size is due to developed re-introduction plans.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">ombriosus</span> present a population size of 49 individuals (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">). The only known population has been reported to be well age-structured. In 2009, 47 mature individuals are recorded, and 46 juvenile specimen (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Population trend for the last year seems to be slightly stable.<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161857		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Threats affecting this taxon are grazing, competition with native and exotic species, landslides, fires and droughts. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chinamadensis </span>is affected by grazing and competition with exotic species (</span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Mesa Coello</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The location of Monte de Aguirre is as well affected by logging activities in the area.<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerae </span>is affected by competition <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">with more agressive native species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecytisus proliferus</span>. It was highly affected by a fire in 1983 (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez </span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">b</span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">, Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Grazing has been also reported as a threat.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Cistus chinamadensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ombriosus</span> is not clearly affected by anthropogenic threats. Threats to this subspecies are fires, landslides, droughts and natural competition with more agressive species (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">).<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161858		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis crocifolia</span>. It is included in the Red Data Book of Greece as Endangered (EN) Β1ab(iii,iv,v)+2ab(iii,iv,v) <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Phitosia crocifolia</span> (Kamari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81.<br/>A few plants are cultivated at the botanical garden of Patras University but they do not produce fruits.</span>
161858		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This plant is native to south Greece and found in the Taygetos Mountain range from Mt. Xerovouna in the north towards the summit area of Mt. Profitis Ilias and Mt. Mavrovouna in the south, at the Rindomou gorge and Mt. Parnonas, at the summit area named Megali Tourla. It grows between 1,350-2,130 m altitude (Kamari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;">Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 200 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span></span>
161858		habitat	eng	This species grows on limestone substrate, on dry rocky places, in crevices and on cliffs   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161858		population	eng	It occurs in five scattered and small populations which are declining (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>&#160;<br/>At Mt. Parnonas, there are 150 individuals in an area of 0.02 km². Mt. Xerovouna hosts 50 individuals and Mt. Mavrovouna has c. 1,000 individuals. There are also scattered patches of the plant including usually less then 5 – 15 individuals (Kamari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161858		threats	eng	Grazing causes gradual decline of the number of mature individuals and is the main threat (Kamari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
161859		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. glabrescens</span> is listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and Annex I of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and  natural habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is listed in the Libro rosso delle piante d'Italia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992) and occurs in two Natura 2000 sites: Magredi del Cellina and Magredi di Pordenone (European Environment Agency 2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. glabrescens</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
161859		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. glabrescens</span> is endemic to northeast Italy (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) where it is found in a small region between the torrents of Cellina and Meduna in Fiuli (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006). <span style="background-color: white;">It is present at six localities; </span>its extent of occurrence (EOO) was recorded as 128 km<sup>2</sup> in 2006 and was reported to have decreased during the period 1972–2006 (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161859		habitat	eng	It is a component of pioneer vegetation on gravel between 100 and 200 m asl (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on  Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest  2006). The habitat type according to the Commission of the European Communities (2009) is alpine rivers and herbaceous vegetation along their banks.
161859		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;"></span>The population trend was reported to be decreasing during the period 1972–2006 (Commission of the European Communities 2009)<span style="background-color: white;">. Less than 1,000 individuals are known (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on  Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest  2006).</span>
161859		threats	eng	The Museum  National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest (2006) reported that this species is highly threatened by anthropogenic pressures and that its "locus classicus" was destroyed by the establishment of vineyards. The Commission of the European Communities (2009) reports that the main threats are changes in structures of inland water courses and pollution.
161860		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba dorneri</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable in the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
161860		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba dorneri </span>is found in Muntii Retezatului in Romania (Witkowski<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003)
161860		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
161860		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
161860		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
161861		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aconitum corsicum </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). All localities are within Natura 2000 sites and all populations are regularly surveyed (every eight years).
161861		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Corsica. It is located in 58 localities in four communities of southern Corsica, namely in the Massif de l'Incudine, Plateau du Cuscione, Massif de Bavella and Punta di u Furnellu. The area of occupancy is 4.65 km².<br/>&#160;<strong></strong>
161861		habitat	eng	The species grows in montane and subalpine habitat, rivers and pool banks, meadows, forest clearings and forest edges. The habitat of the species is stable.
161861		population	eng	A population size of more than 100,000 individuals was estimated in 2008, population surveys are to be completed every eight years. The taxon appears to be stable in all localities or increasing, maybe due to changes in agricultural practices. A study is conducted to know the exact reason.
161861		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are an improved access to its sites, motorised vehicles, roads and motorways. Animal breeding affects the species as well as fires.
161862		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsium latifolium</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
161862		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsium latifolium</span> is endemic to Madeira, Portugal   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161862		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid sites of Laurisilva (Laurel Forest) and rocky escarpments of higher altitudes. It can be part of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sibthorpio peregrinae-Clethrion arboreae</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161862		population	eng	The population has been estimated to host 1,000 individuals with an increasing trend    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161862		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species apart from occasional collection of the plant, landslides and competition with native species.
161863		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace mathildae</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>There are no conservation measures in place; information on the population size and trends and potential threats should be collected.
161863		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace mathildae</span> is an amphiadriatic endemic, occuring in central Italy, probably in Campania. It is only known from one old record that has not been confirmed recently (Briganti 1816).<br/><br/>In Montenegro, it was reported from Mt Komovi (SE Montengro) by T. Wraber (1983). However recent molecular analysis confirmed that population from Mt Komovi belongs to a new species named <span style="font-style: italic;">A. komovensis</span> (Schönswetter<em></em> and Schneeweiss 2009).
161863		habitat	eng	This plant grows in western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree.
161863		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
161863		threats	eng	There is no information on threats available.
161864		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
161864		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. quadrifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and   under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Endangered in Croatia, Hungary and Switzerland and protected throughout France.<br/><br/>In Spain, there is a small species recovery programme underway in the Parque Natural del "Delta de l'Ebre"   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). Reintroductions have also taken place in Switzerland   (Käsermann and Moser 1999).
161864		distribution	eng	<em>M. quadrifolia</em> occurs throughout much of southern Europe east to China and Japan. Within Europe it occurs along many of the major river valleys, such as the Loire, Po and parts of the Danube, as well as in complexes of wetlands throughout central and southern Europe.
161864		distribution	eng	<p>This species<em> </em>occurs throughout much of southern Europe east  to China and Japan, including Cambodia and Lao PDR. Within Europe it occurs along many of the major  river valleys, such as the Loire, Po and parts of the Danube, as well as  in complexes of wetlands throughout central and southern Europe.</p><p>It is widespread in China from west to Xinjiang north to Liaoning.<br/></p><p><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsilea_quadrifolia#cite_note-0"><span></a></sup></p> <p><br/></p>
161864		habitat	eng	It grows in still waters such as ponds, rice fields and ditches.
161864		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. quadrifolia</span> typically grows in the shallow margins and draw-down zones of lakes, marshes, river margins, oxbows and sometimes ditches. It is intolerant of competition and usually occurs on otherwise bare soils. <br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats:<br/><ul><li>3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Magnopotamion</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocharition</span> - type vegetation</li><li>3130 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span></li><li>3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletalia uniflorae</span>)</li></ul>
161864		population	eng	The country reports for Article 17 under the Habitats Directive presented the following population information for the EU member states (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Italy: 23 localities with stable populations. The species was recorded in 1867 along the Tirso river in Sardinia but those populations have long disappeared (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).<br/></li><li>France: 93 localities, decreasing populations<br/></li><li>Germany: 2 localities with decreasing populations</li><li>Greece: 1 locality with population trend unknown<br/></li><li>Poland: 1 locality with increasing population trend<br/></li><li>Slovenia 4 localities and a decreasing population trend<br/></li><li>Portugal: one locality and a decreasing population trend<br/></li><li>Hungary: 50,000 to 920,000 shoots and a decreasing population trend<br/></li><li>Slovakia: 9 localities with decreasing populations<br/></li></ul>In Serbia, the species is estimated to be Vulnerable (V.   Stevanovič pers. comm. 2010) and in Croatia it is classed as Endangered in the national red list with declining populations. In Spain, the species is Extinct in the Wild (Moreno 2008).<br/>The species has gone extinct in Switzerland but has been successfully reintroduced and is classed as Endangered on the national red list (Käsermann and Moser 1999,   Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>It is recommended to carry out an in-depth analysis about the rates of decline within the last ten years or three generations.
161864		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends. It is a common species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161864		threats	eng	No major threats have been reported.
161864		threats	eng	There are several threats that lead to population declines. Changes to the hydrological regime of water bodies such as infilling, the constructions of dykes or embankments or management of water levels are a major threat. Water pollution as a result of fertilization and pesticide use in agriculture as well as eutrophication impact on the species. Other minor threats are the disposal of household or industrial waste, species invasion, forest planting, aquaculture, or abandonment of pastoral systems (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In Greece, the complete drainage of Lake Kerkini would also mean the disappearance of this species from its only known location. <br/>The cause of extinction of the Spanish populations was a change in  agricultural land use accompanied by a more intensive use of herbicides  which led to eutrophication of the species habitat and to its loss    (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).
161865		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola delphinantha</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Greece, it is not protected but included in a national park and in Natura 2000 sites. In Bulgaria, it is protected and in nature reserves and Natura 2000 sites. The species is listed as Critically Endangered CR B2ab(ii,iii,v) on the Red List in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).<br/><br/>More information on population size and trend is needed as well as monitoring of the populations. Legal protection in Greece is recommended.
161865		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola delphinantha</span> is believed to be endemic to Greece and Bulgaria. There are unconfirmed records from central Albania  (Strid 1986). In Greece it is found in the Mountain Chelmos, Olimbos Mountain, Athos Mountain, Pangeon, Falakron and Orvilos Mountains. In Bulgaria, it is found in Slavyanka mountain (same as Orvilos). The AOO is estimated to be less than 2,000 km² and it is found at less than ten locations.
161865		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in crevices of limestone rocks, and also in ravines.
161865		population	eng	<p>The population in Bulgaria has low numbers of individuals. The population trend is unknown, but it is severely fragmented.<br/></p>
161865		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Recreational activities such as rock climbing and skiing are potential threats. Climate change might be a potential threat to this species causing warmer temperatures and drought. In Bulgaria, intrinsic factors and the small population size are potential threats for this species.
161866		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula serrata </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>The species occurs in 17 protected areas in Slovakia, comprising 49% of its national distribution (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Poland it is listed as Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) and in the Red Data Book of the Polish Carpathians (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). Most of the localities are protected in the national parks (Tatra and Bieszczady national parks) and in nature reserves. The species is also strictly protected at a national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006).
161866		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula serrata</span> is endemic to the Carpathians and it is found in Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine and Romania. <br/><br/>In Slovakia it inhabits the central mountain ranges of the Western Carpathians and the Bukovské vrchy Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Poland it is found at elevations between 675-1,950 m asl and it occurs mainly in the subalpine belt. It is known from three regions: the Beskid Żywiecki mountains and the Tatra Mts (Western Carpathians) as well as the Bieszczady mountains (Eastern Carpathians) (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). In Ukraine, it is a common species in the Chivcziny mountan massif and found more rarely in the Chornogora and Marmoroshki Alpy mountain massives (Ukrainian Carpathians).
161866		habitat	eng	In Ukrainian Carpathians it is distributed in forest, subalpine and  alpine belts. It is grows in meadows on limestone slopes  as a component of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamogrostidetum villosae, Festucetum, Rhodoretum</span>  and <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardetum </span>communities.<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4060 Alpine and Boreal heaths</li><li>6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li></ul>
161866		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>In Slovakia, there are a few hundred localities and the populations are stable (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is known from three regions of Poland: the Beskid Żywiecki mountains and the Tatra  Mts (Western Carpathians) – a dozen localities as well as the  Bieszczady mountains (Eastern Carpathians) where it is rather  common (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). In Poland individual subpopulations comprise from a few flowering stems to several thousand. Subopulations in the Beskid Żywiecki mountains are in regression because  of abandonment of traditional pastoral management of mountain meadows.  The Tatra subpopulations are stable. The biggest subpopulations, consisting of  thousands of generative individuals, were observed in the Bieszczady  mountains.
161866		threats	eng	Overgrowth of the habitat by woody plants and herbaceous species, forestation, fertilizing, and overgrazing are the main threats in Slovakia (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Poland, the main threats for this species are modification of cultivation practices and abandonment of pastoral systems, paths, tracks, and cycling tracks, skiing complexes and outdoor sports and leisure activities.
161867		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solenanthus albanicus</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The species is protected in Greece by Presidential Decree 67/81 and part or the whole of the population is included in the Natura 2000 sites GR1320002, GR2110002 and GR2130003. Information on the current population size and trend should be collected.
161867		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Solenanthus albanicus</span> is present in the north of Greece, where it is found in the North Pindos range: Gramos Mt (Souflikas peak, near Kotyli); Douskon Mt (southwest side, this location may be at either side of the Greek-Albanian border) and the South Pindos range: Athamanika Ori Mts (Kakarditsa Mt above Athamania village in Aspropotamos at 2,050–2,250 m asl).<br/><br/>It has an extent of occurrence of c. 3,200 km² and an area of occupancy of 16 km², based on a 2x2 km grid.
161867		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry mountain rocks. It flowers in July, but this may be incomplete. The exact altitude range is not known, but it is possibly 800–2,250 m asl.
161867		population	eng	The records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Solenanthus albanicus </span>in Greece are few. It was first collected on Douskon Mt in 1896 (<span style="font-style: italic;">locus classicus</span>). Zaganiaris (1940) collected the plant on Gramos Mt, and later Sfikas (1995) discovered two locations on the same mountain. Aldén (1976) collected the plant on Kakarditsa Mt in 1973 and described it as <span style="font-style: italic;">Solenanthus pindicus</span>. Obviously, <span style="font-style: italic;">Solenanthus albanicus </span>is a very rare plant in Greece, but there is no data on the current population size. It is found at four locations.
161867		threats	eng	Sfikas (1995) reports that grazing causes population decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Solenanthus albanicus </span>because the plant is a favourite forage for cattle and sheep. Grazing is an intense activity in the distribution area of the plant.
161868		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Valencia. It is listed EN A4c; B1ab(i,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,iii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008, Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><br/>The species occurs within a protected area (SCI), and two flora micro-reserves have been established on the location Orxeta. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardí Botànic de València and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>propagation&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> has been developed. <br/><br/>Flora micro-reserves should be urgently established on the location La Nucia. Seeds from every subpopulation should be collected and stored in different germplasm banks. Research about population genetics distribution should be developed. <br/><br/>Attention is being paid by the autonomous  government to stop or reduce the effects of urbanisation and changes in land use on this threatened plant.<p><br/></p>
161868		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the northeast of the province of Alicante, eastern Spain (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It can be found in two locations (La Nucia and Orxeta) in a very restricted area, near the coast, in Marina Baixa and l'Alacantí. Its area of occupancy (AOO) has been estimated in 13 km². Its extent of occurrence is 40 km² (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
161868		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on triasic substrates, poorly structured and with content of clays, gypsum and limestones. It is characteristic of the gypsophile coastal shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo thibaudii-Teucrietum lepicephali.</span><br/><br/>The generation length of this shrub is unknown.
161868		population	eng	Population size has been estimated in 920,000 individuals (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Adult individuals are predominant. Seed production is high but recruitment is very low, probably due to severe drought events during the dry season. In the location La Nucia, constant decrease has been recorded in the number of individuals and some subpopulations have disappeared. In the population of Orxeta some fluctuations were observed. <br/><br/>A reduction in the AOO of about 60% has been noted in the last ten  years. This has affected mostly the biggest population (Orxeta), in  which some subpopulations have been lost forever after urbanisation  activities and/or change of soil uses. Furthermore, a reduction of the  AOO is expected to occur in the coming ten years due to the same factors  (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). <br/><br/>The populations historically linking the two currently known locations have disappeared due to urbanisation (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
161868		threats	eng	The area  naturally occupied by this species is being affected by  local development plans and/or land transformation that seriously affect  the known populations. Main threats are urbanisation, dispersed habitation, discharges and communication networks such as roads and motorways, and sand and gypsum extraction (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Farming activities have been also reported as threats (Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). In the location La Nucia, individuals are continuously lost due to urban expansion; Orxeta is affected by gypsum extraction activities.
161870		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Papaver laestadianum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Sweden, only the species <span style="font-style: italic;">Papaver radicatum</span> has been assessed as Near Threatened and is protected (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, it is classed as Vulnerable B1a(ii)b(iii)+2a(ii)b(iii); D1 (Artsdatabanken 2010).
161870		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Norway and Sweden</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <br/></p><p>Its EOO in Sweden is 73 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The AOO for Sweden is probably 20 km². In Norway, the EOO is less than 5,000 km² and the AOO is less than 500 km² (Artsdatabanken 2010). As the numbers in Sweden are quite low, it is suspected that for both countries the EOO and AOO fall below the same threshold.</p><p>The species is globally known from six to seven locations in inner Troms  and two in Sweden (Artsdatabanken 2010). The Norwegian localities are in Balsfjord (Sohtungaisi), Målselv (Isdal Mountains) and Storfjord (Favresvarri, Markusfjellet, Paras, Gasskamus and Barras).<br/></p>
161870		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is present in alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161870		population	eng	In Sweden, it has been estimated that the population is around 1,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and the population trend is stable. In Norway, the population at Markusfjellet has approximately 1,000 individuals and the other populations are smaller. The overall number of mature individuals is between 250 and 1,000 in Norway. The overall population is declining (Artsdatabanken 2010).
161870		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species in Sweden. For Norway, climate change has been named as a threat as the species habitat is vulnerable to temperature increase (Artsdatabanken).
161871		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola athois</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81.<br/><br/>All of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR1270003 and it is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
161871		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to northeast Greece at Athos Mt (Athos Peninsula, Prefecture of Chalkidiki). There is one subpopulation made up of four locations and the range is estimated to be 6 km<sup>2</sup> (this is the projection of the summit area of Athos Mt above 1,400 m).
161871		habitat	eng	Rocky grassland and rock crevices, on limestone, over the forest line at altitudes 1,500-1,900 m (although once recorded at 2,030 m), mostly at the south side of Athos Mt summit area. More rarely it grows in rocky forest openings or in shaded or semi-shaded sites below the forest line, among trees of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies borisii-regis, Populus tremula, Pinus nigra</span> or among shrubs such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus foetidissima, Juniperus communis.</span>
161871		population	eng	<p>The total population includes several hundreds of individuals scattered at the rocky slopes of Mt. Athos.</p>
161871		threats	eng	Grazing is prohibited on Athos peninsula. The only herbivores present in its area are a few tens of wild mules which occasionally consume parts of the plant. Human activities are few, but since 2006 there is limited building activity for the construction of visitor establishments. Construction works may affect the population of the plant adversely.
161872		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus lopezsocasii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Endangered C2a(ii) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The populations are found in the protected area Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo (SCI) (Reyes-Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include the development of research about the reproductive biology of the species and the establishment of reinforcement and benign introduction actions within its potential distribution area. Plant material should be stored in germplasm banks and botanic gardens. Roaming goats should be eradicated in Riscos de Famara.
161872		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus lopezsocasii </span>is endemic to the island of Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found from 425 to 600 m asl, restricted to the moist cliffs of Famara, distributed into five subpopulations. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 8 km² (Reyes-Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its presence has been also reported in Gran Canaria, but the existence of natural populations in this island is uncertain (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">
161872		habitat	eng	This shrub grows in humid cracks and ledges on steep crags and cliffs, probably taking refuge from grazing pressure. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It p<span title="Participa en las fruticedas">articipates in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulo lopezsocasii-Oleetum cerasiformis</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Accompanying species include: <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span><span title="Participa en las fruticedas"><span style="font-style: italic;">cerasiformis</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Participa en las fruticedas"><span style="font-style: italic;">, Pistacia lentiscus, Phillyrea angustifolia, Lavandula pinnata, Lycium intricatum, Asteriscus intermedius, Bituminaria bituminous </span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> albomarginata, Maytenus senegalensi</span>s and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis pumila.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hermafrodita"><br/><span title="A pesar de"></span></span></span></span>
161872		population	eng	Population has been estimated in 301 individuals, unevenly distributed so number of individuals in each location ranges from three to 266 (Reyes-Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Subpopulations sometimes present low numbers of isolated specimens and recruitment is generally low. Germination levels are generally very low or no germination at all is observed. The species also propagates by cuttings.<br/>Number of mature individuals is reported to be 373 in 2006 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009) and population trends are described as regressive.
161872		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Main threat to this species are landslides that could considerably reduce the number of mature individuals (Reyes-Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="Otras amenazas">Other threats are droughts, trampling and predation by roaming goats, which force the species to appear restricted to sheltered sites.</span>
161873		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis lusitanica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Research on the population biology and distribution of the species is recommended.
161873		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis lusitanica </span>is native to Portugal   where it occurs in the centre and south. Its geographic range is 10,585 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161873		habitat	eng	This species grows in margins of water courses and in swampy areas over flooded sandy soils. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitat: 2190 "Humid dune slacks" and 6410 "<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161873		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this species.</p>
161873		threats	eng	Main threats for this species are canalisation, modifying structures of inland water courses and water pollution as well as human activities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161874		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus camphoratus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal. It is recommended to further study the biology of this species, to estimate the population size, to study the affects of potential threats and to control urbanisation (ICN 2006).<br/>Poor prospects - species likely to struggle unless conditions change (ICNB 2007).
161874		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the southern and </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">southwestern coast of Portugal. The majority of the populations (</st1:place></st1:country-region>60-70%) are found in the southwest Alentejo and the Vicentina coast. The remaining distribution area extends along the Algarve, particularly in the west, with the largest population located north of Faro (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 1,300 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p><p>  </p>
161874		habitat	eng	This small shrub flowers from late March to June. It occurs mainly in sandy calcareous soils and limestones, usually near the sea, heaths, xerophillus shrublands or pine woods. It is often found with <span style="font-style: italic;">Stauracanthus</span> spp. or <span style="font-style: italic;">Santolina impressa</span> (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia</span> dune sclerophyllous scrubs   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161874		population	eng	<p>The area of occupancy is declining. The species has not been observed recently at the sites in Cabo Espichel and Olhão. The population size has not been estimated (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
161874		threats	eng	The most important threat is the expansion of urban and tourism areas and the associated infrastructure (ICN 2006).
161875		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Herniaria maritima</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal. Conservation of its dune habitat, especially protection from trampling, urbanisation and afforestation, is recommended as well as monitoring of the populations (ICN 2006).
161875		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is a coastal species that ranges from Cabo Carvoeiro southwards. It is continuously spread along the coast with some gaps in the northern part of its range and in the southern part where its duneland habitat also becomes scattered (ICN 2006). The area of occupancy of this species is between 1,702 and 2,100 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </p><p>  </p>
161875		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Herniaria maritima</span> is found in unstable sand dunes and on the higher part of beaches. It prefers to colonize open spaces and can also colonise clearings in low woodlands (ICN 2006).<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2120 Shifting dunes along the shoreline with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammophila arenaria</span></li><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li><li>2330 Inland dunes with open <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis </span>grasslands (‘white dunes’)</li></ul>
161875		population	eng	<p>The populations have been described as having a good conservation status but there is no information on their size or trend. Some localities have disappeared in the northern part of its range (ICN 2006).</p>
161875		threats	eng	No significant threats have been noted for this species. It is suspected that habitat degradation due to trampling and urban expansion caused the loss of sites in the north (ICN 2006).
161876		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Minuartia smejkalii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is categorized Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and protected at national level at the highest category. A rescue programme is under preparation but has not started yet. <br/><br/>Forest management that only cuts selected trees is needed for the species.
161876		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Minuartia smejkalii</span> is endemic to the <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Czech Republic its EOO is 268 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The actual area occupied by this species is 50 ha.
161876		habitat	eng	This perennial, tuft forming plant is present in chasmophytic vegetation of siliceous cliffs and boulder screes and Peri-Alpidic serpentine pine forests   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is a weak competitor.
161876		population	eng	Population in the Czech Republic has been measured in 336 tufts   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Only found at four localities with one of them being in a very bad condition. Three localities are close to each other and one is a bit further away.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161876		threats	eng	Threats include trampling by people and forest management. Especially clear cutting for planting new trees, is destroying the subpopulations and the subsequent overgrowth steals the light. Some localities are threatened by mining of the serpentine soils.
161878		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus hartmannianus</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the red list of Cyprus (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/><br/>Machairas National Forest Park, where two locations are located, is a proposed Natura 2000 site. The third location is on a state forest selected for inclusion in this network (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).
161878		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus hartmannianus </span>is an endemic species to Cyprus. Its geographical range is 82 km² (Commission of the European Communities, 2009). The species occurs within the Machairas National Forest Park and at Pentadaktylos forest (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The small colony recorded from a forest station in the Troodos  National Forest Park in 1991, was verified in 2008 (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161878		habitat	eng	This perennial herb of up to 15 cm high that occurs on stony ground on igneous or limestone substrate under <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span> forests in the Habitats Directive listed habitat type 9540: Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>The habitat of the species is mainly small openings in large forested  areas and although the forests are mapped the openings are not. It is a  dynamic habitat and the determination of its trends require specific  monitoring. Data on breeding system, seedling survivorship and seed  duration are currently lacking   (Commission of the European  Communities 2009).
161878		population	eng	There are four confirmed locations, hosting a population of c.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 6,000 individuals (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The minimum viable population (MVP) of the species is 250-500 mature individuals per subpopulation. There is no information about long term population trends available (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161878		threats	eng	One of the subpopulations is threatened by quarrying activities. This threat is expected to continue affecting the species if the license of an adjacent currently non-operating quarry, is renewed (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Natural fires   have been also described as threats (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161880		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed CR B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected areas Monumento Natural de Montaña de Amagro (SCI) and Parque Rural del Nublo (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, where the species is as well cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>.<br/><br/>Plant material from every subpopulation should be collected and stored in germplasm banks. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> cultivation and population reinforcement measures should be implemented in El Sao and El Viso. Dumping must be forbidden in Montaña de Amagro. The subpopulation in El Sao must be included in the protected area Parque Rural de Tamadaba (SCI). In El Sao, hybrid individuals <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> sp.x <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium sventenii</span> should be removed and substituted by non-hybrid specimens.
161880		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium sventenii</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>   (González González<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004), where it grows between 300 and 800 m asl, on the northwestern and western parts of the island. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 5 km². It is distributed<span style="background-color: white;"> into four subpopulations: Montaña de Amagro, El Sao, El Viso and Güigüí (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Increasing trends have been reported for the distribution of the species in the subpopulations of Montaña de Amagro and El Sao, and decreasing patterns for the rest.</span><br/></p>
161880		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows in communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum balsamiferae</span>, at the base of crags. It can also be found at the peak of Montaña Amagro and in steep cliffs and paths within rupicolous communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Prenantho pendulae-Taeckholmietum pinnatae </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009), and in flatter areas within <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbio-Cistetum monspeliensis</span> (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161880		population	eng	Population was estimated in 4,795 individuals in 2003 (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and in more than 14,900 individuals in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Population trends have been reported to be positive for Montaña Amagro (which has been reported to include between 6,250 and 14,500 individuals) and El Sao, where the impact of livestock has decreased. <br/>Some subpopulations have not been recently found (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), probably partially due to the impact exerted by a fire in 2007.
161880		threats	eng	Grazing by goats and rabbits have been reported as the main threat affecting this species (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The presence of a garbage dump near the location of Montaña Amagro could lead to the anthropization of the area and increase competition phenomena with nitrophile species (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In El Sao, hybridisation with ornamental <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> sp. is a potential threat. A fire in 2007 seems to have affected several subpopulations.
161881		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Wagenitzia lancifolia</span>. It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. All of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR2430001and it is included in the Red Data Book as Endangered&#160; under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea lancifolia</span> (Turland in: Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).
161881		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Crete and recorded from two areas of distribution: the Lefka Ori Mts: Mavri Mt (two locations), Andrachos Mt (one location), Volikas Mt (one location), over Kampoi village 1,800 m (may coincide with one of the previous locations); and Dikti Mts: Lazaros Mt (one location).</p>   <p>Total distribution range is approximately 150 km², with an area of occupancy of 12 km² from a maximum of six locations. <br/></p>
161881		habitat	eng	This species is a chasmophyte that grows on vertical limestone cliffs at an altitude of 1,700-1,900 m.a.s.l.  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161881		population	eng	<p>The total population does not exceed 250 individuals. The subpopulations are small, 45 mature individuals were counted at one of the locations on Mavri Mt and 1-2 mature individuals were counted on Lazaros Mt. There has been no observed decline or fluctuation in the number of mature individuals.</p>
161881		threats	eng	It comprises of very small populations which, although not directly threatened by human impacts, they could be threatened by complete destruction of the population from sudden environmental catastrophes, or reproductive collapse, due to lack of genetic diversity   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The plant grows at a stable and usually inaccessible habitat which is not affected by grazing. Over-collection by botanists or horticulturists might be a threat.
161882		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). At regional level it is listed as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>The two locations are included in the protected area Monumento Natural de los Volcanes de Teneguía. Seeds have been collected and are stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo and Banco de Germoplasma de la ETSIA, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. <br/><br/>In order to ensure the conservation of the species a surveillance and control programme has to be developed.
161882		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus junonianus</span> is endemic to the island of La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it grows at an altitude between 200 and 425 m asl. It has two subpopulations in Fuencaliente, on the southern part of the island. Its area of occupancy is 2 km² and its extent of occurrence is lower than the area of this municipality, which is 56 km² (O. Rodríguez, A.García Gallo and G. Cruz pers. comm. 2011).
161882		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. junonianus</span> occurs in xerophilous ruderal shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">(Artemisio-Rumicetum lunariae)</span> that grow in unstable naturally or human modified substrates within the Canarian vegetation community tabaibal-cardonal (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its secondary habitat is the tabaibal dulce <span style="font-style: italic;">(Echio-Euphorbietum balsamifera</span>), on more stable rocky substrates. Its common accompanying species are  <span style="font-style: italic;">Echium brevirame, Periploca laevigata, Rubia fruticosa, Kleinia  neriifolia, Euphorbia obtusifolia, Paronychia canariensis, Aeonium  spathulatum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Monanthes muralis </span>(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161882		population	eng	Its total population size has been estimated in 1,942 individuals and it is considered to have been stable throughout the past decades. A slight trend towards increasing its population size and colonize new areas has been observed (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The species tends to produce a high number of seedlings but these have been reported to show low growth and survival rates (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161882		threats	eng	Tourism has been described as the main threat to the species, including trampling, riding and the presence of non-motorised vehicles   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Occasional landslides and game activities have also been reported as threats (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161884		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia stygia</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book (1995). All of the population of the plant is included in the Natura 2000 sites GR2320002, GR2530001, and GR2550006.
161884		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the Peloponnisos in southern Greece<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found at Chelmos Mt, Kyllini Mt and Taygetos Mt. The extent of occurrence is around 1,200 km² and the area of occcupancy is 20-28 km².</p><p></p>
161884		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia stygia</span> grows in ravines, rock crevices, cliff ledges, open scree slopes, sometimes in semi-shade in mixed <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica-Pinus nigra</span> forest, on limestone or schist at altitudes from 1,150-2,300 m.   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It forms part of the plant community <span style="font-style: italic;">Astero alpini-Globularietum stygiae</span>.
161884		population	eng	<p>There are four to five subpopulations in six to eight locations. The population size has not been counted or systematically monitored but it is locally quite abundant (a cover of often 5-25%) in chasmophytic or Oro-Mediterranean low spiny shrub communities.<br/><br/></p>
161884		threats	eng	The species is not under any immediate threat of extinction, but as it is collected by botanists and shows horticultural potential, it may be in greater demand in the future   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161885		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum corsicum</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is regionally protected (liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Corse complétant la liste nationale; Journal officiel du 15 août 1986; and liste des espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire français métropolitain Annex1). <br/>Twelve of 22 localities are protected: four localities are in a Site Classé, eight in a Conservatoire du Littoral. Seeds are being collected for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation purposes.
161885		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum corsicum </span>is endemic to Corsica, France, where it has a geographic range of 769 km²<span style="background-color: white;"> and an area of occupancy below 20 km².</span> It is found from the southern extreme of Figari Island to Porto-Vecchio, in 22 localities in five communes (five locations).
161885		habitat	eng	It grows in sandy grassland on upper beaches, often in accumulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span>; in winter also found in humidt clay flats in openings of low scrub and shrubland, often with <span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenus nigricans</span>. Its habitat seems stable. <br/>It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 6210 "Xeric sand calcareous grasslands" and 1210 "Annual vegetation of drift lines" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161885		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>It is suspected that there are 2,000 to 3,000 individuals in total of which only about 200-300 are mature individuals. This plant is difficult to count as the flowering period is short. All known populations are self maintained and stable.
161885		threats	eng	<p>Habitat degradation is the main threat to the species and is potentially caused by seashore urbanization, the passage of motorized vehicles (Plateau de Frasseli), and its presence on military  training fields.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
161886		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus callis-viridis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Endangered B2ac(ii,iv) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>The populations are included in the protected areas Parque Natural de Tamadaba (SCI) and Reserva Natural Especial de Güigüi (SCI). It is cultivated in the botanic garden Viera y Clavijo where there are also seeds stored in the germplasm bank.<br/><br/>Population size fluctuations must be monitored and activities within its distribution range must be controlled.
161886		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus callis-viridis</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it grows from 100 to 575 m asl on the western part of the island, distributed into two locations: Andén Verde and Cantiles de Güí-Güí (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The area of occupancy has been reported to be 7 km² and to suffer from fluctuations.<br/></p>
161886		habitat	eng	This plant grows in small paths and ledges of vertical basaltic cliffs on the western coast of Gran Canaria. It occurs within rupicolous communities or sometimes within slightly nitrophile herbaceous communities, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Frankenio ericifoliae-Astydametum latifoliae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonio-Euphorbion canariensis</span> (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium virgineum, Descurainia artemisiodes, Lycium intricatum, Sonchus brachylobus </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Reichardia ligulata.</span><br/><br/>It is a hermaphrodite species. This entomophilous plant produces flowers gradually from winter to spring. It presents high levels of propagation by cuttings and from seeds in nursery.
161886		population	eng	Total population size has been reported to be 26,046 individuals (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals have been observed. The location Andén Verde holds 99% of the total population size.
161886		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is grazing (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Other threats are occasional landslides and droughts which can cause fluctuations in its population size and distribution. Road improvement works have been as well described as a threat to the subpopulation of Andén Verde.
161887		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus capitellatus</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. Information on the population trend is needed.
161887		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to southwest </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Its extent of occurrence is 6,204 km² and the area of occupancy is 3,500 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
161887		habitat	eng	This species preferably occurs in sandy soils or stable marine dunes, in porous dunes within the T<span style="font-style: italic;">hymo capitellati-Stauracanthetum genistoidis</span> association. It colonises disturbed areas in open shrubland, heathland, and pine woods. <br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2150 Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Calluno-Ulicetea</span>)</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia</span> dune grasslands</li><li>2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>2260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia</span> dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li><li>2270 Wooded dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span></li><li>6310 Dehesas with evergreen <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>spp.</li></ul>
161887		population	eng	<p>There is no data on the population size or trends available for this species.</p>
161887		threats	eng	Agriculture and forestry activities, urbanisation and sport and leisure structures are considered important threats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161888		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis azorica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161888		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Azores, where it is found at the islands of S. Jorge, Pico, Faial, Flores and Corvo (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its area of occupancy is around 15 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
161888		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis azorica</span> is an ecotone species associated to natural humid grasslands. It occurs in big naturally disturbed areas. It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6180 "Macaronesian mesophile grasslands"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161888		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population was between 500 and 600 individuals in 2004. There are only a few subpopulations that are fragmented and suffer from strong genetic isolation (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161888		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by agriculture and forestry activities, modifying structures of inland water courses, erosion, and natural catastrophes (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161889		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arctophila fulva</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. <br/>It is categorized as Least Concern in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Sweden, it is classed as Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected at national level. In Norway, it is listed as Critically Endangered D1 (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It is also listed as Endangered A2c; B1ab(iii)c(iv)+2ab(iii)c(iv) in Finland (Rassi </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al.</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 2010). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There, the species is protected by law and named as a species under strict protection (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). All sites in Finland and Sweden are in the Natura 2000 network. </span></span>
161889		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artcophila fulva</span> is a mainly arctic circumpolar species, but is very rare on the mainland of northern Europe west of the White Sea. It is known from three widely separated occurrences: one at the Ponoj east of the Kola Peninsula, a formerly large group along the border between Sweden and Finland and along the coast at the head of Bothnia around Oulu, and in Kautokeino. The species is common in Svalbard and Bear Island (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/><br/> In Finland, the actual occupied area of the population is c. 4,000  m².&#160; Most of the population is in a river estuary in Liminganlahti Bay,  near Oulu, and only c. 350 m² in Tornionjoki River. In Sweden, it has an extent of occurrence of 2,156 km² and an area of occupancy of 48 km². It is therefore suspected that the area of occupancy for the EU 27 is less than 250 km².
161889		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Arctophila fulva</span> is a perennial plant that is found in shallow water and sometimes flooded marshes, usually in deep peat (Lid and Lid 2005). It occurs on the banks of lakes, rivers and streams, littoral mud wet grasslands and swamps. In Sweden and Finland the main habitat today are shallow shores with low salinity and land upheaval on muddy soils.  It is a weak competitor.<br/></p>
161889		population	eng	The populations in Finland and Sweden are rare and declining (Artsdatabanken 2010, ArtDatabanken 2010). The number of mature individuals in Sweden is 2,500 in five sites which are severely fragmented (ArtDatabanken 2010).<br/>In Finland, the estimated population size is between 200,000 and 500,000  individuals. <br/>In Norway, it only occurs at two small localities at the Kautokeino watercourse with less than 50 mature individuals. It is possible that the species has more occurrences along the river, but sporadic investigations have not resulted in new discoveries. The one locality at Gåruvuoppi has gone almost extinct in the early 80s but it now consists of a few colonies (less than ten). It is unclear whether the colonies are the result of seeds or vegetative spread by rhizomes. The species situation improved between 1984 and 1996 (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is rather common on Svalbard, Spitzbergen and islands around, such as Bear Island.<br/>In Russia, this plant is common and only rare on the Kola peninsula. There is no information on the population trend.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
161889		threats	eng	As the species is a weak competitor, grazing abandonment and the subsequent overgrowth is a threat to the species. Overgrazing can have a negative impact. Water pollution such as eutrophication can also be a threat. The Swedish and Finnish localities are on the edge of the species range, and are therefore vulnerable to any changes to its habitat.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Domestic water pollution has been mentioned as a threat to the small occurrence on mainland Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
161890		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "De interés especial" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species and as "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed as EN B2b(iii)c(iv); C2b in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (Cabezudo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).<br/></p><p>Many subpopulations occur in protected areas: SCI Sierras Bermeja y Real, SCI Sierra de Alcaparain y Aguas, SCI Río Fuengirola, SCI Río de Castor), Parque Natural Sierra de las Nieves, Parque Natural Sierras de Tejeda, Almijara y Alhama, Paraje Natural los Reales de Sierra Bermeja.<br/></p>
161890		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, where it can be found in the provinces of Málaga and Granada (Cabezudo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). It is distributed into four locations, comprising 20 subpopulations, with an area of occupancy of 41 km².<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
161890		habitat	eng	This plant grows in hygrophile communities, of shrubs or forbs, close to streams and springs. Frequent associations the species grows along with are <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Holoschoenion, Rubo-Nerion oleandri, Salicion pedicellatae </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Juncion acutiflori.</span>
161890		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 2,143 individuals. <span style="background-color: white;">Extreme fluctuations in the number of reproductive individuals have been observed, due to drought events.<br/></span>
161890		threats	eng	Main threats affecting this species deal with habitat degradation and alteration: fires, droughts, water course modifications and mining (Cabezudo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). Grazing, and recreational activities such as walking or horseriding have been also reported as threats  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161891		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula spectabilis</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Populations are partially included in national parks and Natura 2000 sites, collection is locally restricted.
161891		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy, occurring in the regions Lombardia, Trentino-Alto Adige, and Veneto</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is a neoendemism of the eastern calcareous Alps   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There are more than 350 localities, the extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km².  </p>
161891		habitat	eng	<p> There is no habitat information available for this species.</p>
161891		population	eng	The populations have been assessed as stable and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals.
161891		threats	eng	There is no information on threats available.
161892		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arabis scopoliana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. <br/>In Serbia, it is classed as Data Deficient and in Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is considered as Rare. Several subpopulations are included in Natura 2000 sites. Some populations are situated within protected area Blidinje Nature Park in Herzegovina. <br/>Restricting access of the hikers in the sites of occurrence of this  species would help protecting it.
161892		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species of the Dinaric Alps where it occurs in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Serbia. It does not reach the Italian border (Pignatti 1982). The plant grows up to 2,200 m. <br/>The extent of occurrence in Slovenia is 225 km². In Bosnia, it occurs in the mountains Osječenica, Klekovača, Dinara, Jedovnik, Kamešnica, Prolog, Šator, Plazenica, Vlašić (Smajdin skok, Crni vrh), Vranica (Ločike, Krstac), Bjelašnica (Vlahinja, Veliki kotao), Maglić, and Volujak. In Herzegovina, it is found in the mountains Prenj (Lupoglav), Plasa (Glavica Šišno), Trinača, Čvrsnica, Vran, Čabulja, and Čvrsnica (Pločno, Veliki Vilinac).
161892		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky grasslands, rock crevices and gravel, in the subalpine belt. It is found in pastures on limestone rock crevices.
161892		population	eng	There are no population data available. In Slovenia, there are at least five localities    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Bosnia and Herzegovina it is classed as a Rare species (Šilić 1996).
161892		threats	eng	The main threat for this species is mountaineering and rock climbing. Abandonment of traditional pastoral system leads to the closing of the vegetation and the appearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo</span>.
161894		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa zalesskii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized as Endangered (A4c) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (2009) as Vulnerable and is protected in Luganskij and Ukrainian nature reserves.<br/><br/>Classed as Critically Endangered under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa glabrata</span> in the Red Data Book and Red List of the Czech Republic (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holub and Procházka 2000).<br/><br/>More information on population size, trend and potential threats is needed, in particular for its range in European Russia.
161894		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa zalesskii</span> occupies a disjunctive area in Eurasia, extending from Czech Republic to Siberia, Kazakhstan and the northern part of Central Asia. Its only European occurrence is in Czech Republic, Ukraine, and Russia. In Ukraine, it grows in the eastern part in the forest-steppe and steppe zones in Donecka and Luganska regions. It has been reported from less than five localities in northwest Czech Republic close to Lovosice and Libochovany. Its extent of occurrence for the Czech Republic is   394 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009) . It can also be found in some regions of Russia: Central, Eastern and Southern European Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).
161894		habitat	eng	This species occurs in narrow-leaved dry grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion valesiacae</span>) and broad-leaved grassland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromion erecti</span>) (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Together with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa</span> species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa capillata, Stipa lessingiana</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Stipa pulcherina</span>) it is subdominant of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipetum</span> formation in Ukrainian steppes.
161894		population	eng	In Ukrainian protected areas, the populations are found at sites of 10 -100 ha, in unprotected territories it occupies only small patches. <br/>A population of 1,000 tufts has been reported   for the Czech Republic (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population trend is unknown.
161894		threats	eng	The main threats in the Czech Republic are grazing activities and the abandonment of pastoral systems. The latter is also the main threat in the Ukraine together with infrastructure building and recreational activities.
161895		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monizia edulis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Conservation measures that are needed for this species are habitat protection, restoration, and management, species recovery programmes, and public awareness campaigns. The biology and ecology of the species, population dynamics, and the level of harvesting should be studied (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161895		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monizia edulis </span>is endemic to Madeira and Deserta Grande, Portugal. It is found at two localities in Madeira: in the Central Mountain Massif and in an islet of the north coast, and on rocky cliffs in Deserta Grande up to 300 m asl (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161895		habitat	eng	This plant grows among Macaronesian endemic flora on rocky cliffs and on terraces with soil accumulations (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is characteristic of the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161895		population	eng	The population counts less than 50 mature individuals but has an increasing trend (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161895		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to infrastructure development, recreational activities and the invasion of exotic species which leads to increased competition. This plant is also collected. Fires, droughts, storms, and landslides can all affect this species (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161896		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain.   It is listed as VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The subpopulations occur within the protected areas Paisaje Protegido de La Geria, Paisaje Protegido Barranco de Tenegüime and Parque Natural Archipiélago Chinijo. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo.
161896		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Lanzarote, the Canary Islands (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It can be found distributed throughout six subpopulations: El Jurado,  Riscos de Famara, Barranco del Cuchillo, Barranco de Chafarís, Ladera de  Tenegüime and Malpaís del Sobaco. Its area of occupancy is 13.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
161896		habitat	eng	This species ocurrs in ridges, cliffs and slopes of ravines, within rupicolous communities such as  <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009), <span style="font-style: italic;">Reichardio famarae-Helichrysetum gossypini </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonietum lancerotensis </span>(Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
161896		population	eng	Population has been estimated in 7,076 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The trend is unknown but believed to present certain stability (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). One subpopulation is fragmented.
161896		threats	eng	Threats for the species are predation on seedlings and accessible individuals. Landslides also affect the species and its habitat has been reported to be geologically instable. Road construction or improvement works have been as well reported as negative factors.<br/>Hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Helichrysum monogynum</span> is also a threat (Reyes-Betancort and Léon Arencibia 2009).
161897		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria ficalhoana</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal.<br/>The dune habitat should be protected and restored and access to the habitat should be regulated. The invasive species need to be controlled or eradicated and collection should be restricted (ICN 2006).
161897		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal where it occurs from the estuary of the river Sado southwards along the southwest coast (ICN 2006). The extent of occurrence is 3,100 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,700 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161897		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal sand dunes, often unstable. It grows in nuclei that are naturally separated by gaps in the dune habitat and it colonises open habitat (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia </span>dune grasslands</li><li>2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li></ul>
161897		population	eng	There has been a considerable decline in the number of mature individuals. The current population size is not known (ICN 2006).
161897		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to urban expansion, for example in the area of Aljezur (Valley da Telha and Espartal). Trampling, changes in land use and collection of this plant poses further threats. It is also impacted by the invasion of exotic species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edulis</span>.
161898		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Athamanta cortiana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>With the exception of those populations inside the marble quarries, the species grows in protected areas, i.e. the Regional Park of Alpi Apuane and in the SCIs Monte Sagro (IT 5110006), Monte Tambura - Monte Sella (IT 5120013), Monte Sumbra (IT 5120009), Monte Corchia - Le Panie (IT 5120014).
161898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Italy where it is restricted to the mountain range Alpi Apuane   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Recent surveys confirmed 33 subpopulations on the Alpi Apuane (Ansaldi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The extent of occurrence is 68 km<sup>2</sup>.
161898		habitat	eng	The species grows on rocky slopes of Alpi Apuane between 1,500 and 1,900 m asl. and reaches the lowest altitude in northwestern slopes. It grows in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Valeriano-Saxifragetum </span>Barbero & Bono 1973 (Ansaldi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This plant occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161898		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Not more than 200 individuals have been recorded by Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001). Ansaldi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) reported that <span style="font-style: italic;">Athamanta cortiana</span> grows in 33 isolated subpopulations in which about 5,200 individuals have been recorded. 90% of these individuals are concentrated in two populations: Pania and Passo delle Pecore.<br/><br/>There are sometimes strong fluctuations in the reproductive success. For instance non of the plants produced flowers in 2006 (Bacci 2006).
161898		threats	eng	The main threats described are mines. The exploitation of white Carrara marble is a good example   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Other threats are posed by global warming as some low altitude termophilous populations disappeared, and probably intrinsic low density of the populations and the poor recruitment as in some years there was no flower production  (Ansaldi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
161899		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is protected under the Galician legislation. In the Spanish Red List, the conservation status is Least Concern (Moreno 2008). Local community projects are targeting this species in Portugal. It needs conservation attention in Portugal, as the species is usually found with low numbers of individuals and is therefore likely to struggle unless conditions change (ICNB 2008a).
161899		distribution	eng	This plant is found in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal, it is present near Porto and Viseu and in the provinces of Minho, Douro Litoral, Beira Alta, and Beira Litoral. In Spain, it is found in the four provinces of Galicia (La Coruña, Pontevedra, Ourense and Lugo) (Anthos 2009). In Portugal, the range of the species is 1,430 km² and it has been recorded with an increasing trend between 1997-2004 (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161899		habitat	eng	This species grows in shaded forests, humid grasslands and in banks of low river basins. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li></ul>
161899		population	eng	In Portugal, it occurs usually with low numbers of individuals, and was registered in the mountains of Caramulo, Valongo, Freita, and Bico (ICNB 2006). The population size for Portugal has not been determined. In Spain, this species has been recorded in 34 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009), but new populations have been recently discovered.
161899		threats	eng	The main threats are collecting of the species and forest plantations<span style="font-weight: bold;">.<br/><br/></span>
161900		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus aquilanus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>This species has been listed as Vulnerable in Italy (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Information on the population size and trend should be collected.
161900		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus aquilanus</span> is endemic to Italy, where it has been recorded in Abruzzo. It is no longer reported from Calabria. The geographic range is 1,439 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161900		habitat	eng	It can be found in arid grasslands with south exposure in natural pinewoods or in degraded oak sites    (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6210 "Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161900		population	eng	It has been described in nine localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009). No further information is available.
161900		threats	eng	The main threats are outdoor sports and leisure activities as well as vandalism (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161902		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gypsophila papillosa</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy where it is found in the region of Veneto and was also doubtfully recorded from Trentino-Alto Adige. It occurs at 15 localities with an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km².
161902		habitat	eng	This plant can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8120 "Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspietea rotundifolii</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161902		population	eng	The population counts less than 250 mature individuals with a stable trend but it suffers from severe fragmentation.
161902		threats	eng	Main threats are abandonment of pastoral systems and the subsequent changes in native species dynamics   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161903		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria pseudolaxiflora</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In the Italian Red Data Book it is listed as Lower Risk. In Malta, it is protected at national level.
161903		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">the Mediterranean islands Linosa near Sicily and Malta</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). The total geographic range has been estimated to be 28 km² but only 5 km² belong to Linosa   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is only one location on Linosa.<br/></p><p>It was formerly reported from various Maltese islands but seems to now only persist on Malta, Gozo, and Comino (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/></p>
161903		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria pseudolaxiflora</span> is an annual plant that lives on rocky soils, and coastal rocks including cliff-tops, maritime garrigue, limestone slabs in pavings, old walls, abandoned rural buildings and fortifications. It grows in shallow calcareous soils as well as on volcanic rocks as in the island of Linosa (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161903		population	eng	In Linosa, this species has been recorded in one locality and the population is currently stable. In Malta the population covers 16 km². <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pseudolaxiflora</span> has declined in the Maltese islands in the last three decades. It is now said to be rare to very rare<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161903		threats	eng	It seems that there are no threats to the species on Linosa. In Malta, the species is subject to human disturbance and threatened by competition with native and alien species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161904		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenophyllum maderensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Campaigns for public awareness are recommended for this species. Management and protection of the species habitat and reintroductions of new populations are needed. Research on distribution, biology and ecology as well as population dynamics should be undertaken.
161904		distribution	eng	The plant is endemic to Madeira, Portugal and its geographic range is around 194 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is found at two localities (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161904		habitat	eng	This fern species grows in Laurisilva forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea foetens</span> (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is found in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161904		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenophyllum maderense</span> has stable populations but with only 50-250 mature individuals (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
161904		threats	eng	A decline in habitat due to invasive species which make it difficult for the species to compete, has been observed. Trampling and recreational activities are affecting the species itself as is its collection. Droughts and landslides are potential threats (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). A major fire in summer 2010 might have destroyed several individuals, fieldwork is needed to confirm the impacts of that fire.
161905		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinanthus oesilensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is classed as Rare in the Red Data Book of Estonia (Lilleleht 2008).<br/><br/>Information on population size, the affect of potential threats, and existing as well as required conservation measures are needed.
161905		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinanthus oesilensis </span>is present in Estonia where its extent of occurrence is 900 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009) .
161905		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia </span>meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>7160 Fennoscandian mineral-rich springs and springfens</li><li>7210 Calcareous fens with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cladium mariscus </span>and species of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Caricion davallianae</span></li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li></ul>
161905		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is between 26,000 and 32,000 flowering stems. The population has a stable trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161905		threats	eng	Main threats are drainage and succession   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161906		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Botrychium simplex</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/><ul><li>Extinct in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Estonia (Lilleleht 2008)</li><li>Critically Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)</li><li>Endangered in Denmark (NERI 2007), France (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), Germany (level 2 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007), Norway (Artsdatabanken), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010)</li><li>Vulnerable in Italy (Conti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997)</li></ul>This species is protected by national law in several countries including Germany, France, Switzerland, Sweden. It is found in national parks, protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. Monitoring of the populations is recommended and management of the sites in a way that is favourable to the species.
161906		distribution	eng	This species has a circumpolar northern temperate and boreal distribution, being found in Europe and North America. In Europe, it occurs mainly near the coasts up to 65° N in Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Baltic States, Poland and Russia. It is present in Iceland and southern Norway and is found as glacial relict species in central European mountains (France, Switzerland, Italy). In the south it extends to the eastern Pyrenees to France, to Corsica and to Slovenia   and former Yugoslavian countries (Käsermann and Moser 1999). It is not clear whether this species is present in the Spanish Pyrenees (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986).<br/>The species is extinct in Czech Republic and Estonia.<br/>In France, it occurs at 10 locations in Corse (massif du San Petrone, Niolu), Midi-Pyrénées (Aveyron, plateau de l’Aubrac); Pyrénées-Orientales (massif du Carlit); Rhônes-Alpes (Isère, Haute-Savoie, vallée de Chamonix), and Savoie (Beaufortin) between 1,300 and 2,000 m. In Germany, it is known from only one site in the northern part (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008). In Greece, there is only one location in Smolikas, in the northwest close to the Albanian border at 2,000 m. There is also one locality only in Italy (Trentino Alto Adige), in Lithuania and in Latvia. It disappeared from Flanders and Brussels (Van Landuyt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<p>There were approximately 25 known localities of the species in the past of which only two were found till the 1980s: Wierzchowo Lake near Szczecinek and at Kiedrowickie Lake near Lipnica in Bory Tucholskie (Tucholskie Forests). Both localities have extensively been searched during the last 20 years but the species has not been found again and therefore this plant is considered as possibly extinct in Poland (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). <br/></p><p>In Slovenia, one locality was found mid 20th century in the Julian Alps, but this is now extinct. In Switzerland, one location has been confirmed but in 1970-1980, three to four other locations have been observed at 1,500-2,300 m asl. The species has not been recorded since 1971 and is therefore  believed to have disappeared. But there is potential that there might be undetected  populations (Käsermann and Moser 1999).</p>
161906		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Botrychium simplex</span> is a perennial fern that prefers fresh, moderately dry to wet soils, alkali-poor, sandy clay soils. Its habitats are acidic mat-grass communities, heather and gorse heathlands, meadows, pastureland, shrubland, the banks of rivers and lakes and the edges of bogs. It mainly occurs as single plants. It produces many spores. The reproduction of this plant is dependent on symbiotic fungi and it is therefore difficult to propagate it via spores or vegetatively which makes reintroduction nearly impossible <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>   (Klotz <em>et al.</em> 2002,   Käsermann and Moser 1999).<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6230 Priority Habitat: Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li></ul><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
161906		population	eng	The following population information is available for different countries (Commission of European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Austria: 400-500 individuals</li><li>Denmark: 118-237 indiv.</li><li>Finland: 116 individuals</li><li>Italy: population is stable in the only confirmed site</li><li>Sweden: 2,000 individuals</li></ul>In France, there are less than 200 individuals in 14 localities in 14 communes. In Lithuania, only one single individual is known. Individuals are difficult to count due to their small size and irregular appearance. In Norway, there are less than 2,500 individuals in total that undergo extreme fluctuations (Artsdatabanken 2010). Extreme fluctuations have also been reported from Sweden and Finland. <br/>The populations are declining in most of its range. <br/><p><br/></p>
161906		threats	eng	The modification of cultivation practices such as the abandonment of pastoral systems or increased use of fertilisers is threatening this species. Eutrophication can damage the symbiotic fungi on witch <span style="font-style: italic;">Botrychium</span> species depend. Trampling and overgrazing by livestock has negative affects. The conversion of its natural habitat into forest plantations leads to habitat loss, as does development of touristic infrastructure such as skiing complexes. Changes to its natural habitat and a loss of quality are also caused by landfill, drying out, drainage, or management of water levels. <br/>Collection of the plant and peat extraction are local threats. (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Käsermann and Moser 1999).
161907		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Critically Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), and Endangered in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010). Many sites are situated in a national park. It is recommended to take <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures, and to monitor and survey the known subpopulations and sites.
161907		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This orchid has a Euro-Siberian distribution in the boreal and arctic zones, extending to the temperate zone of Asia. In Europe, it occurs on two adjacent premises in the Abisko National Park in Torne Lapland, in Sweden, Norway, and Finland. In Europe, only the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">oligantha</span> is present. The taxon can be found between 500 and 1,200 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010)</a>. <br/></p>
161907		habitat	eng	The taxon grows in Arctic and subarctic tundras, alpine and subalpine grasslands. It prefers damp, alkaline or decalcified and often calcareous substrates and grows in full sunlight to mid-shade. Flowering time is from May to July (Delforge 1995). It can be found in calcareous mountains, in heaths, birch woods, often on sloping ground where water flows laterally through the soil     (Morgan and Leon 1992).
161907		population	eng	This orchid is very rare. The number of mature individuals is estimated at 200 in Sweden and there is no evidence of significant population change (ArtDatabanken 2010). One locality has been found in Finland with very few individuals (less than 50) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In Norway, it was known from 12 localities in the past and has been refound at six of those. It was furthermore detected at three new sites. However, the total number of individuals is less than 250 and some subpopulations are declining (Artsdatabanken 2010).
161907		threats	eng	Although <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanthera obtusata oligantha</span> grows in a national park, the taxon is still under threat from increasing tourism in the area. The habitat of the taxon is sensitive to trampling by people. Collection of this orchid remains a threat as it is extremely rare. Infrastructure development such as the new rail tunnel through Njulla and new roads (Kiruna-Narvik Road) are, potentially, going to cause declines in habitat quality and numbers of individuals. Overgrazing by deer has been described as reducing numbers in Norway. (Delforge 1995, ArtDatabanken 2010, Artsdatabanken 2010).
161909		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It occurs within several protected areas throughout its distribution.</p><p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis</span> is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain.</p>
161909		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis </span>is endemic to the eastern half of the Iberian Peninsula (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). It includes three subspecies: <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">aragonensis, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nevadensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> bolosii </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nevadensis </span>occurs in the mountains of central, southeastern and eastern Iberian Peninsula. <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> bolosii </span>occurs in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia nevadensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">aragonensis </span>is endemic to the continental mountains of the northeastern Iberian Peninsula.
161909		habitat	eng	This hemicryptophyte can be found in rocky glades and grasslands, sometimes in afforested pinewoods. In Murcia it grows in rocky limestone soils. It can be found with <span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularion sciophilae</span> in <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalictro valentini-Conopodietum thalictrifolii</span>. Habitat Directive characteristic habitat is 8130 "Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It can propagate by stolons.
161909		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 53 to 57 localities but no specific data on number of individuals is available   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161909		threats	eng	Grazing, reforestation, burning, and predation by game species have been reported as threats to this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161910		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene holzmannii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is protected under the Greek law presidential decree 69/81 and listed as Endangered on the Red List of Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Eighteen of the islands where it is found are Natura 2000 sites. It is cultivated in the Diomides Botanic Garden in Athens.<br/><br/>Access to the species sites should be controlled to avoid further damage by grazing. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation of seeds is necessary.
161910		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to small islets in the Aegean Sea, Greece   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is a small island specialist. The area of occupancy is estimated to be smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
161910		habitat	eng	It grows mainly on small islands in coastal areas at sea level. It can tolerate very poor and rocky limestone substrate, even salt spray   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161910		population	eng	The number of individuals is not stable as annual plants often undergo fluctuations. There are some small subpopulations in one locality, while on other islands it can be common. The size of the population is subject to meteorological conditions and human influences. On the island of Stomata which is not influenced by humans, the population was 5-300 individuals in 1996 and a year later it was more than 2,000 individuals due to favourable conditions (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). The populations are often isolated on the islands and thus severally fragmented.
161910		threats	eng	The major threat is grazing by goats and rabbits, that also cause degradation of the habitat due to trampling (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Despite the relatively inaccessible habitat where this species is found, grazing animals are a constant threat to the quality of the habitat of this species, the size of the population and the population size.
161911		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leuzea longifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation measures are needed for this species. Urbanisation and forest plantations should be restricted, especially the use of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span>. A restoration of the historic sites should be intended. Reintroductions have been carried out under a LIFE project but it is not known whether those were successful (ICN 2006).
161911		distribution	eng	In Portugal it occurs in the centre-east, centre-south and southeast in Lisboa and Ribatejo (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161911		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leuzea longifolia</span> is a perennial plant that occurs in shrubland and woodland in sandy soils. It forms part of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbio uliginosae - Ericetum ciliaris</span> (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>6310 Dehesas with evergreen<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus spp</span>.</li><li>6420 Mediterranean tall humid grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Holoschoenion</span></li></ul>
161911		population	eng	This species is very rare. Its historic distribution range as known from herbarium specimen is now almost all occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>plantations. The subpopulations are isolated and only host between 20-30 individuals each (ICN 2006). The total population is around 300 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161911		threats	eng	The main threats are urbanisation, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> plantations, and deforestation (ICN 2006).
161912		conservation	eng	<em>Cephalanthera cucullata</em> is:<br/><ul><li>Included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)</li><li>Included      in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive</li><li>Listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)<br/></li><li>Protected      by Presidential Decree 67/81</li><li>Proclaimed "Endangered" by the Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened      Flora of <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>      (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).</li></ul><span class="species">Conservation and monitoring actions needed to protect <em>Cephalanthera cucullata:</em><br/>    <ul><li>Wardening</li><li>Placement of      information boards</li><li>Fencing of a      large area and 15 additional, small cages for protection from grazing and      safeguarding (and enhancement) of the population<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></li><li>Recording of      climatic parameters (meteorological microstation)</li><li>Annual      counting of individual plants for monitoring the reproductive population      fluctuation</li><li>Measurement of      aboveground plant growth and counting flowering stems per plant</li><li>Seed storage      in the Seed Banks of MAICh and <st1:place><st1:placetype>University</st1:placetype>       of <st1:placename>Athens</st1:placename></st1:place></li><li>Study      of seed germination and the factors regulating annual regeneration of the      species</li></ul>In the framework of the CRETAPLANT project a micro-reserve has been established in a mountain range of  Lefka Ori, where actions for its protection have been applied <span class="species">(<span class="species">Cretaplant 2007).  <p><br/></p>  <span class="species"><br/><span class="species"></span></span>
161912		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>The orchid <em>Cephalanthera cucullata</em><span class="species"> grows in mountainous forest areas on <st1:place></st1:place><st1:place><span class="species">Crete</st1:place><span class="species">, with a few isolated populations in several localities on mountain Ida (Héraklion), Samaria Gorge (Ghania) and the eastern mountains (Lassithi). The species is endemic to <st1:place></st1:place><st1:place><st1:city><span class="species"></span></st1:city><span class="species"> <st1:country-region><span class="species">Greece</st1:country-region></span></st1:place><span class="species"> and<span class="species"><span class="species"> is found from 700 to 1,500 m altitude<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Thanos and Fournaraki 2007, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).<strong></strong></span></span></span></span></p>  <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><p></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span>
161912		habitat	eng	<p><span class="species"><em>Cephalanthera cucullata</em> grows in alkaline dry to cool soils in semi-shade. Typical habitats of <span class="species"><em>Cephalanthera cucullata</em> include mixed forests of oak (<em>Quercus calliprinos</em>), <st1:city><st1:place>Cypress</st1:place></st1:city> (<em>Cupressus horizontalis</em>) and Cretan maple (<em>Acer creticum</em>). The flowering time of the species takes place from May until June. At the end of June, the seeds mature inside the capsules and the overground plant parts die (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Cretaplant 2007, Delforge 1995).</span></p>
161912		population	eng	<p><span class="species"><em>Cephalanthera cucullata</em><em> </em>is very local, extremely rare and<span class="species"> endemic to <st1:place><span class="species">Crete</st1:place><span class="species">. The population has been estimated in 500 individuals </span><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">and it is suspected that each subpopulation holds less than 250 individuals in total. </span><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">In the framework of the CRETAPLANT project, an inventory of the localities and of the population has been carried out (Cretaplant 2007,<span class="species"><span class="species"> Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
161912		threats	eng	<p><span class="species"><em>Cephalanthera cucullata</em><em> </em>is very local, extremely rare and is restricted to very fragile and rare places. The habitats of the species are under serious threat from grazing, drainage, climatic change and deforestation <span class="species">(Cretaplant 2007, Delforge 1995).</span></p>
161914		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinellia pungens</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened species of Spain and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogues of threatened flora of Aragón and protected flora of Castilla y León. It is listed VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Areas where the species is present near Laguna de Gallocanta in Aragón have been purchased through several LIFE projects and rubble has been removed. The area is now a natural reserve. Seeds of the species are stored in the germplasm banks of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
161914		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">and central-eastern Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). It is present in five locations throughout the provinces of Albacete, Segovia, Teruel and Zaragoza. It is considered extinct in Laguna de la Zaida (Zaragoza) and Bazalote (Albacete).</p><p>Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) reported its presence from 33 grid cells of 1x1 km (33 km<sup>2</sup>), but this genus in general and the species, are hard to be recognised in the field. An expert is necessary to distinguish this species from other species of the same genus, therefore subpopulations may remain unnoticed.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
161914		habitat	eng	This species grows in halophile grasslands, with high moisture most of the time but which tend to get dry during the summer. It colonises alkaline soils in lakes.  It is a species characteristic of the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1410 "Saline Mediterranean grasslands" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161914		population	eng	It has been estimated that population is around 56,000,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and increasing, although two locations have disappeared and one more (Masía de La Torre) has been reported to be in a critical situation.
161914		threats	eng	Cultivation, grazing activities, water pollution and trampling have been cited as threats to this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Low genetic variability was proposed as a reason to rise the category of the taxon to Critically Endangered (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), but the category was not risen for this aspect is not within the assessment criteria. Ruderalisation and dumping of rubble may have caused the disappearance of any subpopulation. Drainage of temporal flooded sites has been also cited as a threat.
161916		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</a> It is protected under Spanish national and regional legislation (Catalonia), and French national legislation. It is considered as Vulnerable in France and Critically Endangered in the Italian Red List. <br/>It is categorized Data Deficient (DD) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>  (I. Illarionova pers. comm.  2010).</st1:country-region><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Kosteletzkya pentacarpa</span> is included in natural and national parks in Spain, France and Italy. In France, all localities are either protected or under management by conservation organisms: one locality is in Réserve Naturelle, eight are owned by the  Conservatoire du Littoral. All French subpopulations are monitored. Several <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation actions are conducted in France, Italy and Spain.<br/>    <p><br/></p>
161916		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species occurs in Spain, France and Italy. In Spain, it is found in Valencia, in Catalonia and on the Balearic islands. It is present on Corsica in France and in the Italian regions Latium and Apulia. In Italy, subpopulations occurring in the north are considered to be introduced. The geographic range is 1,192 km² for France and about 2,000 km² for Italy. Due to its economic use, especially in the eastern countries, there was doubt whether this species was native or introduced to Spain, but recent research showed that it is native.<br/>The total area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km² and the populations are severely fragmented.<br/><br/>It is also found in the Russian Federation (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) but it is not clear whether it is native.
161916		habitat	eng	This species occurs in salty coastal marshes, deltas, along rivers, and depressions in sandy dunes. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncetalia maritimi</span>)</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>7210 Calcareous fens with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cladium mariscus</span> and species of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Caricion davallianae</span></li></ul>
161916		population	eng	In Italy this species is present in only two localities nowadays but six localities have been lost in Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Latium, and Campania. <br/>In Spain 620,973 individuals have been recorded (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Apparently, on the contrary to Italy and France, some subpopulations in  Spain are increasing, in particular in Catalonia. <br/>In Corsica, it is found in eight localities in six communes, with an estimated 12,000 individuals (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010). Since the 1980s, two localities (about 20% of the French subpopulations) have been lost.
161916		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, due to drainage, pollution (for example related to the wine growing industry in France) and urbanisation, are the main threat to this species. Cleaning of the beaches is also impacting negatively on its habitat. Abandonment of grazing, tourist activities and the impact of winter storms on fragile dunes are further threats.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
161917		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene rothmaleri</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is also legally protected in Portugal. Measures to halt the loss of genetic diversity within the subpopulations should be undertaken (ICN 2006).
161917		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwest coast of Portugal where its area of occupancy is 400 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>    <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161917		habitat	eng	This plant has a specialised ecology and is found in rock crevices and scree, on stable or semi-stable coastal cliffs and slopes, on compact dolomites of greywacke-schist, phyllite and limestone. It inhabits micro-sites with reduced competition, particularly rocky crevices (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium </span>spp.</li><li>5410 West Mediterranean clifftop phryganas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalo-Plantaginetum subulatae</span>)</li></ul>
161917		population	eng	The total population counts 3,440 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The subpopulations differ in size, ranging from several hundred to not more than 30 individuals. The northern subpopulation is 40 km from the other ones and many of the subpopulations are severely fragmented. A very limited genetic diversity has been noted in some subpopulations (ICN 2006).<br/>This plant was believed to be extinct until it was refound in 1991 (ICN 2006).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The population trend is unknown.</span>
161917		threats	eng	The reduced genetic diversity, fragmentation, and small size of many subpopulations is the main threat factor. Erosion is also affecting those species (ICN 2006).
161918		conservation	eng	This subspecies is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Bellevalia hackelii.</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161918		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellevalia dubia </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> hackelii</span> is endemic to south Portugal with an area of occupancy of 2,940 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161918		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in dry and rocky sites on calcareous de-carbonated soils of the Algarve.<span style="font-style: italic;"> B. dubia hackelii</span> colonizes fissures of rocks and clearings of sclerophyllous vegetation (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p>
161918		population	eng	It is a common species in the Algarve (Barrocal).
161918		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the subspecies are forest planting, removal of forest undergrowth, urbanisation, communication networks, trampling, and natural fires (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><strong></strong></p>
161919		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrimonia pilosa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized as Near Threatened in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Estonia, it is listed as Least Concern in the 2008 Red List. The site in Hollola in Finland has been protected by law. It is listed in Red Data Book of East Fennoscandia (1998) as Endangered in Finland and as rare in Northwest European Russia. It is listed in the Red Data Book of Polish Carpathians (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008) as Low Risk. It does not seem to be threatened in the other European countries neither.<br/>The plant is protected in Biechady National park in Cisniansko-Wetlinski, Jaslinski and Dolina Sanu regional landscape parks in the Polish Carpathians, and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> protection is underway in the Krakow Botanical Garden. <br/><br/>The species is included in protected areas and Natura 2000 sites.
161919		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrimonia pilosa</span> is native to East Europe, temperate and tropical Asia. In Europe, it occurs in Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Poland, Moldova, Romania and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Latvia, the species has the western border of its distribution area. It is rather frequent in the east of Latvia, rare in the western part of the country. The species is not included in the Red Data Book of Latvia. The suitable habitats are widely distributed all around the range of this species. In the east of the country there is usually more than one locality per grid cell. Due to the wide distribution and growing within common habitats, the species is not threatened in Latvia (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The situation is similar in Estonia and Lithuania. In Poland, it is distributed at forest fringes in the northeast and rare but not endangered (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). In Poland, it reaches the western limit of its distribution area in the Biechady Mountains; in Moldova and Ukraine, it reaches the southern limit of its distribution area.
161919		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrimonia pilosa</span> is found in the ecotone of forests and grasslands or shrubland, broadleaved, pine or mixed forests including clear cut areas, on slopes of rivers and lakes, and along paths and roads. It tolerates moderate disturbance and has been reported from areas with anthropogenic disturbance. The locations are often former pastures and meadows as <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrimonia pilosa</span> benefits from grazing, especially by cattle and horses which avoid eating the plant. In the Polish Carpathians, it is a component of meadow plant communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Molino-Arrenatherea</span> class and ruderal communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisietea vulgaris</span> class (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008).<br/>This perennial plant flowers in June and July.
161919		population	eng	The population trend is difficult to define as the species has been found to occupy new areas even of anthropogenic disturbance. The following information is taken from the Article 17 reports (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Estonia: 8,000 - 16,000 shoots, stable populations</li><li>Finland: 1,600 flowering stems</li><li>Latvia: 250-400 localities</li><li>Lithuania: 69-100 localities, assumed stable populations</li><li>Poland: 1,000 individuals</li></ul>There are about 30 localities in the Carpathian Mountains, in the lowland (mainly in lesosteppe/forest steppe zone) and in the eastern part (zone of coniferous and deciduous forest) of Ukraine. The species is rare in the Polish Carpathians where it grows in the Biechudy Mountains near the western limit of its area. The Polish mountain populations are small: the largest populations in the Biechody Mountains have 200 adult individuals and occupy a few m² (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). <br/>In Russia, the populations are declining and it is extinct in Karelia.
161919		threats	eng	The main threat is natural competition as its habitats are also occupied by nitrophilous plants. Grazing abandonment where the species is found in wooded meadows can lead to succession and increase the competition. Wood plantations are a problem as the species needs semi-shadow.
161920		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as CR A3bc; B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occurs within the protected area Parque <span title="Natural de Sierra de">Natural Sierra de Magina, proposed SCI. There is a fenced area in this park protecting the species which has observed a remarkable recovery since its <span title="establecimiento.">establishment. There have been experiences of propagation and reintroduction. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma de Vadillo-Castril (Sierra de Cazorla, Jaén) and Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz.</span>
161920		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the province of Jaén in Spain and more specifically to the Sierra Mágina. Its EOO is 2 km² and its AOO has been reported to be 1 km² (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161920		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Aunque se presenta"><span title="etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="etc."><span title="Silene boryi, etc.">This species lives in rocky areas with steep slopes over calcareous substrates. Although present in gler, its highest density is observed in the circumference of these, where the substrate is more stable. The domain corresponds to <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus sabina</span> series (<span style="font-style: italic;">Daphno oleoidis-Pineto sylvestris S</span>.), coexisting with other unique endemic species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis granatensis, Platycapnos saxicola, Vicia glauca</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> giennense, Andryala agardhii, Arenaria alfacarensis, Mauranthemum arundanum, Erysimum popovii,</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> Saxifraga erioblasta</span>. Also present are <span style="font-style: italic;">Hormathophylla spinosa, Vella spinosa, Erodium cheilanthifolium, Ononis aragonensis, Arenaria grandiflora, Ranunculus ficaria, Erinacea anthyllis, Silene boryi.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The strong rhizomes, represent a successful adaptive type of substrate (gravel and relatively mobile) in which it survives. <span title="Florece entre el 60-70%">Between 60-70% of individuals flower from the second year, predominantly in June. Pollinated by Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera. <span title="El 13% de los">13% of the pollen is sterile and deformed, 83% have normal morphology but are sterile and only 4% are apparently viable. <span title="Solo el 35% de">Only 35% of the flowers produce viable fruit.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161920		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The only known population is severely fragmented in two nuclei that are less than 1 km apart. <span title="sí.">Dispersion is hindered by the high habitat specificity and the difficulties <span title="para la dispersión">in dispersal. Total population has been estimated to be 2,231 individuals (</span>Gutiérrez<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="sí."><span title="para la dispersión"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). A population reduction of 80% is suspected to be met in the future.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="sí."><span title="para la dispersión"><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="sí."><span title="para la dispersión"></span></span></span></span>
161920		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main threat is grazing by and the passage of livestock, which is <span title="abunda en la zona, provocando una alteración">abundant in the area, causing <span title="grave del hábitat, cuyo rasgo más característico">severe habitat fragmentation <span title="es precisamente su fragilidad; aparte del desarraigo">and uprooting many individuals. Nitrification occurs in the substrate and the invasion by nitrophilous species, better adapted to the area, is a further threat. <span title="Por">The expansion of the species is practically prevented, due to low adaptability and low dispersion. The species is weak because of its poor ecological flexibility.</span></span>
161921		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tuberaria major</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is protected under national law. It is recommended to manage the sites, e.g. control urban expansion, the disposal of litter, or closure of the habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation measures are needed. A LIFE project to protect this species is underway (ICN 2006).
161921		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the south coast of Portugal and is found in the region Algarve between Albufeira and Olhão (Euro+Med 2009). Its extent of occurrence is 727 km² and the area of occupancy is 800 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161921		habitat	eng	A perennial plant that flowers from March to May and occurs in sandy soils or acid gravel, especially in the clearings of xerophilous shrubland. A heliophile species that is characteristic of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Tuberario majoris-Stauracanthetum boivinii</span>. It responds favourably to fire and reaches unusual abundance after fires, even in places where it is scarce. This suggests the existence of a soil seed bank and that seed germination is stimulated by heat shock (ICN 2006).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>2260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia </span>dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li><li>4030 European dry heaths</li></ul>
161921		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">The populations are at a high risk of extinction, with a very limited and fragmented distribution area. The known localities show different levels of degradation. The species was once extended over much of the Algarve coast but its range is now reduced to small clusters.<br/><br/>The most dense and extensive populations with population sizes reaching 10,000 individuals, are located on the coast, in sandy soils of the west border of the Ria Formosa, especially in the area of Pontal, Ludo, Campo de Gambelas. Outside this area, particularly in Barrocal, populations with tens to hundreds of individuals exist (ICN 2006).<br/></span>
161921		threats	eng	An increasing pressure from urbanisation and tourism leads to habitat degradation and fragmentation and this poses the main threat on this plant. Furthermore, the disposal of garbage and natural succession degrade the habitat quality (ICN 2006).
161922		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Sensible a la alteración de su hábitat" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as VU C2a(i); D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p>The main population occurs within the protected area Parque Natural S´Albufera des Grau   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Escuela Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid and the species is being cultivated in the botanic gardens Jardín Botánico de Valencia, Jardín Botánico de Córdoba and Jardín Botánico de Soller (Mallorca).<br/><br/>The islet of d'En Colom should be protected as it comprises one of the best populations of the species. Research about the reproductive biology of the species should be developed.
161922		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Menorca, Balearic Islands, Spain, where it presents a highly fragmented distribution (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its area of occupancy has been estimated at 7 km².
161922		habitat	eng	It grows on coastal sand or sandy-clayey soils in sites sheltered from strong sea winds. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Arum pictum, Dranunculus muscivorus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia lentiscus</span>.
161922		population	eng	Population has been estimated at 18,000 individuals and reported to be decreasing       (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161922		threats	eng	The main threat to this species are urbanisation and recreational activities. The species is highly dependant on lizard populations as seed dispersal agents. Fires and habitat degradation are also threats (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161923		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of&#160; threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed as Near Threatened in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p>The majority of populations occur within the protected areas Parque Natural de Sierra Nevada and Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. In Sierra Nevada a species conservation plan is being developed. Seeds are stored in the germplasm Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz.
161923		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Andalucía, Spain, where it is only found in the provinces of Almería and Granada<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It occurs mainly in Sierra Nevada, although it can be found punctually in Sierra de la Sagra and Sierra de Gádor. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in more than 50 km<sup>2</sup> (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). It grows between 1,800 and 3,300 m asl.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
161923		habitat	eng	This hemicryptophyte occurs is psicro-xerophile grasslands at high altitude, where hemicryptophyte and chamaephyte life-forms are predominant (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). It grows on little developed soils with low content of bases, and, less frequently, on limestones. It is found in moist areas, but which get dry very fast after thaw, and thus the species presents xerophytic adaptations. It has broad ecological valence, occurring in different associations. Accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta, Thymus serpylloides</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">serpylloides, Arenaria tetraquetra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">amabilis, Sideritis glacialis, Anthyllis vulneraria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pseudoarundana, Jurinea humilis, Jasione crispa </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> amethystina, Plantago subulata </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">granatensis, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Leucanthemopsis pectinata, Dianthus brachyanthus, Silene boryi </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Agrostis nevadensis.</span>
161923		population	eng	<p>The population size was estimated to be 600,000-800,000 individuals (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).<br/></p>
161923		threats	eng	Threats affecting this species are overgrazing, tourism and impacts related to communication networks (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
161924		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus diutinus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Hungary, it is classed as Endangered on the national Red List and strictly protected (Király 2007). Over 80% of the populations are in protected areas in Hungary. In Serbia the species is protected by law, however, the single locality is not protected. It is classified as Critically Endangered (B1+2cd) on the national Red List (Niketić and Butorac in: Stevanović 1999).
161924		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus diutinus</span> is native to Hungary and Serbia. The area of occupancy is expected to be less than 500 km² and the extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km².<br/><br/>In Serbia it was found in six localities in the sandy steppes in north Vojvodina (Suboti;ko-Horgo Sands) and along the Danube in northeastern Serbia. It is now extinct from five localities, while only one subpopulation survives in the Kladovska Sands in northeast Serbia.<br/><br/>Therefore the overall area of occupancy is still expected to be smaller than 500 km².<br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161924		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus diutinus</span> is found in primary sand steppes, in calcareous sand only.&#160; This is a rare habitat type. In Serbia it inhabits continental sandy-steppe from the alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">vaginatae</span> and it is member of the community <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Festucetum vaginatae.</span> It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>91N0 Pannonic inland sand dune thicket (<span style="font-style: italic;">Junipero-Populetum albae</span>)</li></ul>
161924		population	eng	The population for Hungary has been estimated to be at least 13,000 to 16,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The trend of the population has been stable in the last ten years. Some subpopulations are threatened but they are included in Natura 2000 sites. However, the subpopulations count as severely fragmented.<br/><br/>In Serbia the size of the single remaining subpopulation in Kladovska Sands is  estimated at less than 1,000 mature individuals, distributed over a few hectares only  (Niketić and Butorac in: Stevanović 1999).
161924		threats	eng	The main threat to the Hungarian subpopulations is walking and trampling and some subpopulations are in military areas. Competition with the invasive locust tree is still an issue and leads to slow habitat declines.<br/><br/>In Serbia the main causes of extinction are forest plantations with locust tree on the sandy steppe, transformation of natural habitats into agricultural lands and, to a lesser extent, grazing.
161926		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as Critically Endangered B1b(iv,v)c(iv)+2b(iv,v)c(iv) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/></p>  <p><span class="longtext">This species  has established a new population with only f<span class="longtext">our individuals in an area of the Sierra de Gador, where there were no previous references about the presence of this species. There are seeds in the Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz. The Site of Community Importance (SCI) proposal for  Sierras de<span class="longtext"> Gador and Enix should contribute to the conservation of this species<span class="shorttext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.<span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"></span></span></span></span></p>
161926		distribution	eng	<p><span class="shorttext">This species is endemic to Sierra de Gádor, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Almeria</st1:place></st1:city>, Spain (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its presence has been reported in six scattered and isolated subpopulations<span class="longtext"><span class="longtext">. <br/></span></p><p>A new subpopulation has been recently discovered in the Guadalajara province (López Jiménez and García Muñoz 2006), consisting of only 50 individuals. It might be the result of a recent introduction, maybe with scanty genetic variability for founding effect, which will have to be studied suitably.</p><p><span class="shorttext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext">Its AOO is 6 km² and the EOO is 35 km² (not taking the new subpopulation into account).</span><br/><span class="shorttext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="shorttext"></span></span></span></p>
161926		habitat	eng	<p><span class="longtext">This plant is a hemicryptophyte and grows up to 30 cm. These  species are mainly pollinated by wasps and hoverflies<span class="longtext"> with extremely good rates of fruit production. <span class="longtext">The primary means of dispersal is through passive dehiscence; probably accompanied by dispersion through high wind and exozoocoria, <span class="longtext">when the seeds, mixed with mud, stick to the hooves of cattle. There are some adult s<span class="longtext">pecimens, in which a high mortality rate <span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext">has been observed<span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext">, due to a growth anomaly<span class="shorttext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.<span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>  <p><span class="longtext">It is found in clayey depressions, often man-made to favour seasonal flooding, that are much frequented by herds. It can withstand trampling by livestock, high levels of nitrification and even the freezing of surface water. <span class="longtext">All these disturbances ensure avoidance of competition with other invasive species. It is a characteristic species of the association  <em>Lepidioni-Coronopodetum </em><em>navasii</em><em>, </em><span class="longtext">typical of the areas of Sierra de Gador. It shares its habitat with <em>Polygonum aviculare, Convolvulus althaeoides, Herniaria glabra, Ceratocephala falcata</em> and <em>Aegilops geniculata.</em></span></span></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por la especificidad de su hábitat,"><span title="reproductores y sólo entre un 2-6% (excepcionalmente"><span title="hasta un 20%) se corresponden con individuos"><span title="en estado vegetativo."><span title="En los años favorables"><span title="por encima del 40%."><span title="borde de la extinción."></span></span></span></span>
161926		population	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="situada a 2.150 m."><span title="La mayor parte de los individuos son adultos"><span title="que dos pequeños núcleos poblacionales estén al">There are six distinctive and widely separated subpopulations. <span class="longtext">Of the six subpopulations, only two are significant. Of the remaining four, one is the result of an effective introduction programme completed only a few years ago, where four individuals have since been recorded; the subpopulation of the plains of Balsanueva has been regarded as extinct in recent years, and there are no examples in la Estrella; however recently 13 specimens were found in a locality located at 2,150 m. Due to its specific habitat requirements the actual AOO for this species does not exceed 0,06 km². The majority of the individuals are reproducing adults and only between 2-6% correspond with individuals in a vegetative state. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="situada a 2.150 m."><span title="La mayor parte de los individuos son adultos"><span title="que dos pequeños núcleos poblacionales estén al"><span class="longtext">In good years, the number of seedlings is remarkable, so it is <span class="longtext">possible that previous estimates of the number of individuals may be exaggerated. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="situada a 2.150 m."><span title="La mayor parte de los individuos son adultos"><span title="que dos pequeños núcleos poblacionales estén al"><span class="longtext">Subpopulations can fluctuate greatly, to the point that in two consecutive years the number of recordings may vary by more than 40%. <span id="result_box" class="short_text">Finally, these oscillations may be the cause why the subpopulations at two small sites are on the brink of extinction.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="situada a 2.150 m."><span title="La mayor parte de los individuos son adultos"><span title="que dos pequeños núcleos poblacionales estén al"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
161926		threats	eng	<p><span class="longtext">The subpopulations are under severe anthropogenic threats, including land reclamation, reforestation and overgrazing. <span class="longtext">It is suspected that one subpopulation has disappeared and another one is in critical state due to these threats. Although grazing seems essential for the survival of this species due to its ability to distribute seeds, it is necessary to alter the intensity of grazing to ensure the sustainable management of this species, as it has been observed for some years that livestock consumes practically all the fruit. Fences may be of assistance but these need to be evaluated for negative effects first<span class="shorttext"><span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.<span class="longtext"><span class="longtext"></span></span></span></p>
161927		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tulipa cypria</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) on the national red list. One of the three locations where the species can be found is state forest land and a proposed Natura 2000 site (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
161927		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Tulipa cypria</span> in <a name="OLE_LINK1">endemic to Cyprus</a>, where it can be found at three locations: the Akamas forest, in Kormakiti-Myrtou-Panagra and in Mammari, between 100 and 300 m altitude (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its area of occupancy is 44 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/></p>
161927		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tulipa cypria </span>is a bulbous perennial herb which occurs in cereal fields, pastures and open <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus phoenicea</span> shrubland (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 5210 "Arborescent matorral with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Juniperus</span> spp." and 5420 <span style="font-style: italic;">"Sarcopoterium spinosum</span> phryganas" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161927		population	eng	The total population was estimated to be 2,000 individuals (Commission of the European Communities, 2009), but Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2007) report it to be more than 6,000 individuals. The population trend is unknown.
161927		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overgrazing, overcollection, expansion of urban areas, poor regeneration and by the use of herbicides (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Natural fires are also impacting this plant (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161929		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phalaris maderensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161929		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the islands Madeira and Porto Santos, Portugal.
161929		habitat	eng	This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 5330 "Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161929		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is of 500 mature individuals with a stable trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161929		threats	eng	The main threats described for this species are competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161930		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus massonianus</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. The population on the island of&#160; Porto Santo is protected and included in a Natura 2000 site. On the other hand, the population on the island of Madeira, despite of not being in a nature reserve, it is naturally protected. Seeds from this species are conserved in Madeira Botanical Gardens seed bank.
161930		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus massonianus</span> is endemic to Madeira. There are only two populations, one on the cliffs of Cabo Girão, on Madeira island, and the second one on the cliffs of Pico Branco, on the island of Porto Santo (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006)
161930		habitat	eng	This species only grows on very steep cliffs, on soil accumulated in rock crevices, under direct influence of sea winds (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161930		population	eng	The population in Madeira is estimated to have about 30 mature  individuals, and the population in Porto Santo is estimated to be less  than 250 mature individuals&#160;  (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In total, the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. massonianus</span> is between 200-250 mature individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161930		threats	eng	The main threat is posed by habitat loss and degradation due to urbanisation, garbage dumping, erosion and landslides (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161931		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga cintrana</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
161931		distribution	eng	This species is native to central Portugal where its area of occupancy is 900 km²  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161931		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6110 "Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span>"<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161931		population	eng	<p>No data on the population size or trend is available.</p>
161931		threats	eng	Quarries are the main threat to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161933		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis rehsteineri</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is found in a few small reserves, but it is not known if this offers any protection to this species.<br/><br/>It is classed as Critically Endangered in the national red lists of Austria, Germany and Italy, and as Endangered in Switzerland. It is protected in all the countries except for Italy.<br/><br/>There are some conservation groups that work currently on this plant (e.g. Arbeitsgruppe Bodenseeufer). In Italy it would be useful to do surveys of historic sites.
161933		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis rehsteineri </span>is native to Austria, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its geographic range is 1,280 km² from which 1,200 belong to Germany   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is considered rare in Italy and there are no recent collections since the 1980s. In Italy, the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km² and in Switzerland it is approximately 24 km². The overall AOO for this species is estimated to be less than 500 km² and it is found at four locations only.
161933		habitat	eng	This species is found in oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletalia uniflorae</span>) and also in oligo-mesotrophic waters. This species is strongly influenced by changes in water level. The habitat is normally flooded in summer and dry in autumn. It's a pioneer species.
161933		population	eng	This is a pioneer species. In Germany and Switzerland, the population size is currently increasing, but this might be due to natural fluctuations (A. Gygax pers. comm. 2010). In Switzerland and Austria, it is only found in Lake Constance. The populations are considered to be stable at the moment, but this species experiences extreme fluctuations. This species is very rare in Italy (Galasso unpublished).<br/><br/>The following populations have been estimated (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Austria: 80,000 individuals</li><li>Germany: 21 localities</li><li>Italy: three confirmed localities and one not confirmed</li><li>Switzerland: 24 km²</li></ul>
161933		threats	eng	The major threat to this species are changes to the water regime and  water extraction and pollution (especially at the two localities in  Italy). In Austria, nautical sports have been cited as a threat for this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Recreational activities such as swimming, boats, sailing, camping, disturb the species. Succession due to changes in land management (such as abandonment of mowing) and changes in hydrological regimes are potential threats to this species. Eutrophication can also be a threat to this species. Sand and gravel extraction upriver might be a possible threat.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
161934		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Higher parts of Sierra de Gádor are proposed SCI. A fence is established around the populations that are being monitored. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz.</p><p>Monitoring plans on fenced areas should be established, more plant material should be collected and research about its propagation should be developed (Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
161934		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus tremolsianus</span> is endemic to the Sierra de Gádor (Almería) in the south of Spain<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), where it can be found in one single location, with an area of occupancy of 1 km². The extent of occurrence is 0.016 km².<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span></span>
161934		habitat	eng	This plant grows in valleys of loams within the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Achilleo odoratae-Astragaletum tremolsiani.</span> It appears along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca hystrix</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylis juncinella</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsium gregarium</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla</span> cf. <span style="font-style: italic;">reuteri </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span> cf. <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="reuteri"><span title="y Festuca cf."><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The population structure is dominated mainly by reproductive adults, so that populations are maintained. <span title="Sin embargo, son muy pocas">Very few seeds produce seedlings and low percentages of those survive. <span title="y el 7%"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a hermaphrodite species of insect pollination usually by wasps </span></span></span>(Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="reuteri"><span title="y Festuca cf."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sin embargo, son muy pocas"><span title="y el 7%"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">. <span title="La dispersión"><span title="El número"><span title="se convierten en frutos."><span title="En"><span title="establecimiento."><span title="hojas."></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161934		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 16,000 individuals.&#160;<sub></sub>
161934		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threats are the degradation and conversion of its habitat, which has been ploughed up, and its restricted distribution, along with its low ecological plasticity. <span title="Durante los últimos años se"><span title="puede haber desaparecido."><span title="Este hecho"><span title="sido alterado.">Livestock impact seems to be higher for other species than for this one </span></span>(Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Durante los últimos años se"><span title="puede haber desaparecido."><span title="Este hecho"><span title="sido alterado.">.<br/><br/></span></span>
161935		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. It is protected under regional legislation in Extremadura and the Basque country in Spain and in Pays de la Loire in France.
161935		distribution	eng	This plant is found on the Iberian Peninsula and in western France. It is furthermore present in Morocco and is endemic to those four countries (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). The species occurs in north, central&#160; and southern Portugal (ICNB 2006).
161935		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus bulbocodium </span>grows in Atlantic woodlands and shrublands, medium and high mountain grasslands  and humid heaths of  <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erica tetralix, </span>generally on acid soils. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4020 Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix </span></li><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>6160 Oro-Iberian <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta </span>grasslands</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus </span>grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>7110 Active raised bogs</li><li>7130 Blanket bogs<br/></li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion</span> or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span></li></ul>
161935		population	eng	In Spain, the species has been recorded in 477 to 534 localities and is very abundant. In France, it has been recorded in 205 localities in the Pyrennees and one locality in Pays de la Loire (the latter might be an introduction), with more than 20,000 individuals  (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010). In Portugal, the species is frequent all over the country, and may be locally abundant (Sampaio 1946), but the population size has not been estimated.
161935		threats	eng	Forest plantations, collecting and invasive species are impacting<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus bulbocodium</span>.
161936		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onopordum nogalesii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species, and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands, under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Onopordon nogalesii</span>. It is classed as CR B2ac(iv); C2a(ii) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The whole population occurs in the protected area Parque Natural de Jandía (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo  and in the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.<br/><br/>It is necessary to carry out surveys on the demography and reproductive biology of the species. Proposed conservation measures include the control of livestock in the Parque Natural de Jandía. Seed storage in germplasm banks and reintroduction measures are recommended.
161936		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the island of Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Scholz 2004). It can be found between 250 and 450 m asl, in a single known location, in  Valle or Barranco de Vinamar, in the peninsula of Jandía. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in between 1 and 3 km².
161936		habitat	eng	This species grows in slopes of moderate to low inclination, usually near the bottom of the ravine. It has preference for gullies, carved by runoff water, usually on stony clay soils, probably due to their favourable moisture conditions. Frequent accompanying species <span id="result_box" class="long_text">include <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia regis-jubae, Kleinia neriifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaea arborescens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salsola vermiculata, </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Lycium </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">intricatum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rubia fruticosa</span>. <span title="En el">In winter, dense communities of<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En el"> nitrophilous<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En el"> therophytes such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodium murale, Patellifolia patellaris, Emex spinosa, Echium bonneti, Reichardia tingitana </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Stipa capensis</span>, appear in its habitat.<span title="más"><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a very adaptable species that can tolerate some presence of&#160; herbivores and soil nitrification. <span title="Producción de semillas">Seed production and germination are very irregular, depending on <span title="episodios de lluvias fuertes.">heavy rains and seed predation by several insects. Pollination is by Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.<br/><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunos"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161936		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La">Total population size fluctuates between 50 and 150 individuals (S. Scholz pers. comm. 2011), mainly affected by climatic factors. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La">Scholz<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>reported <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La">70 individuals (2004). In the last few years a decline in the number of individuals has been observed.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="La"><span title="ejemplares."><span title="unos 300 a 500.000 m2"><sup><br/></sup></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161936		threats	eng	This species takes profit from the presence of a certain amount of grazing species, due to its nitrophilous character. As livestock pressure increases, an important negative effect on the population can be observed, for flowers are predated (Scholz 2004). Seed predation by birds and insects, low germination rates and low survival of seedlings have also a great influence in population dynamics. A nearby passageway and the <span id="result_box" class="long_text">construction of tourist infrastructures located 2-3 km from the population is a <span title="amenaza potencial.">potential threat. Moreover, it has been observed that it has been collected illegally for ornamental purposes and by scientists.</span>
161937		conservation	eng	This species is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a> and Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International   Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of   the brassica complex. <br/><br/>It is included in the Rural Park Teno and in the SCI with the same name. For its conservation, the control of livestock and measures to avoid the possible hybridization with other species of the same genus are required. It is recommended that the status of the species is clarified with regards to the species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. scaberrima</span>, a species also endemic to southwest Tenerife.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. laevigata</span> which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
161937		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe laevigata</span> is endemic to Tenerife (Macizo de Teno), one of&#160; the Spanish Canary Islands. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is  100 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">There are three subpopulations located in one municipality northwest of the island and they each occupy between 500 and 1,500 m². The total area of occupancy (AOO) is 0.003 km².
161937		habitat	eng	This plant has a woody base and grows to 170 cm. It exists within communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonietum canariensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vieraeo-Polycarpaeetum carnosae</span>. It can be found on north-facing basaltic cliffs which are frequently humid due to the influence of trade winds. It is also possible to find it in<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Echio-Retametum rhodorhizoidis (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It seeks shelter in almost vertical deep ravines in west Tenerife. There is a high competition for the scarce soil on the narrow platforms where it is located, which limits the survival of seedlings.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Refugiada en ambientes casi verticales de algunos"><br/><span title="de las plántulas."><span title="distribución2."><span title="abarca 3.000 m2"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161937		population	eng	The population has been determined in three different localities within the same municipality and has been estimated at 700 individuals.
161937		threats	eng	The main threats are grazing (in the Parque Rural de Teno), tourist paths and routes and the occasional natural events like landslides. <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">
161938		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica oetaea </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. All of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR2440004 and within the National Forest Park of Oiti and it is included in the Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (Karetsos in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
161938		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Greece on Oiti Mt (Sterea Ellada). It is known only from two small vernal pools (total area 200 m<sup>2</sup>) at 1,850 m and 1,950 m (base of Greveno peak), at a distance of 900 m from each other, on opposite slopes. The whole population comprises one subpopulation at one location. Its range is calculated at 0.04 km<sup>2</sup>.
161938		habitat	eng	This species grows in melt-water pools between an altitude of 1,850 and 1,950 m. The shallow pools, 5 – 15 cm deep, periodically inundate when the snow melts and dry up by the end of May. <span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica oetaea</span> appears when water evaporation starts and the lake bottom becomes muddy. The first stage of plant succession in the pools includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Myosurus minimus</span> followed by <span style="font-style: italic;">V. oetaea</span>. Both plants complete their life cycle within two weeks and then disappear. Plant succession continuous with thick mats of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum aviculare</span> on the pulverised material of the lake bottom and with <span style="font-style: italic;">Corrigiola litoralis, Limosella aquatica, Lythrum thymifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis palustris</span> towards the peripheral zone.
161938		population	eng	The plants are small, up to 5  cm, and it is estimated that 50,000 or more individuals may appear in each lake. There is an inter-annual variation in the number of individuals, depending on the duration of winter and on the conditions during the drying up of the pools. The size of these fluctuations has not been estimated.
161938		threats	eng	Due to the prohibition of grazing applied since 1966, there is a gradual expansion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span> forest at the expense of the pastures neighbouring the area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica oetaea</span>. This process starts with pioneer colonisation by <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus communis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpina</span> shrubs and may result in the loss of the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. oetaea</span>. Also, erosion of the flysch soils of Greveno peak may result in the destruction of the small pool (less than 20 m<sup>2</sup> in size).    <p>The area where the plant is recorded is managed by the Forestry Service as a National Park but ignorance results in measures incompatible with conservation objectives such as road construction very close to the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. oetaea</span>. Moreover, there is quite frequent off road vehicle traffic in the habitat of the plant. </p>   <p>Illegal grazing in the area of the plant is not necessarily a threat, but large cattle (ox) may trample the plants and destroy them before seed set.</p>   <p>Currently, bauxite mining takes place at the periphery of the core of the National Park. However, these activities have been intensified and both further road construction and establishment of new extraction sites even within the core area of the National Park are possible since bauxite mining is considered a matter of national interest.</p>   <p>&#160;</p>
161939		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus etruscus</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The species is protected by law at the national and sub-national level. Research is being carried out into the taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status and threats. It is recommended that further research is carried out in these areas, together with a monitoring programme.
161939		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This Italian endemic is found in central-southern Tuscany, in the provinces of Grosseto, Livorno, Pisa and Siena. The major localities where the species is found are Monte Calvi (Livorno), Monte Leoni (Grosseto), Monte Amiata (Grosseto) and Massa Marittima (Grosseto). The species records for Isola d'Elba (Tuscany) and Emilia-Romagna are wrong and refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">C</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">ilvensis </span>(Peruzzi and Carta 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus etruscus</span> has an extent of occurrence of 1,892 km² and an area of occupancy of 120 km².
161939		habitat	eng	The plant, which flowers from February until April, grows mostly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Querco robori-Fagetea sylvaticae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetea ilicis </span>woods. It occurs also in woods dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">sativa</span>.
161939		population	eng	The mean density of the individuals is about 10 individuals/m² and they occur in isolated subpopulation nuclei. The populations are stable.
161939		threats	eng	The plant is potentially threatened by habitat degeneration and reduction and by predation by wild boar (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa)</span>. Small-scale wood plantations may threaten this plant in the future.
161940		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bassia saxicola </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>It is protected under regional laws and partially included in Natura 2000 sites.
161940		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Bassia saxicola</span> is an endemic species from </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Capri Island (</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Campagna, </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">south Italy)</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> and the Lipary archipelagos of<st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> </st1:place></st1:state>Sicily</strong> (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). There are three subpopulations found at two locations.<br/>The area of occupancy is less than 10 km².
161940		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on maritime rocks and calcareous or volcanic cliffs between 5 to 90 m        (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 82 "Rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
161940		population	eng	The total population counts 135 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are stable and not severely fragmented.
161940		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats are landslides and invasive alien species. The limited dispersal and restricted range of the species are unfavourable in itself.<br/></p>
161941		conservation	eng	This plant is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontites holliana</span> (Lowe) Benth.
161941		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontites hollianus</span> is endemic to Madeira, Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 294 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161941		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4050 Endemic Macaronesian heaths</li><li>6180 Macaronesian mesophile grasslands</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
161941		population	eng	<p>The species has been recorded in 25 localities across the islands with an unknown but assumed increasing population size (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, the main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.<br/></p>
161941		threats	eng	There was a major fire in summer 2010 that might have led to the loss of individuals. Further threats are collection of the plant, natural catastrophes such as landslides, and competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161942		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Andryala crithmifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Despite the need for taking steps to remove the exotic species, the steepness and instability of the cliffs makes it an extremely difficult task to carry out. Plants from the two populations are in cultivation (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Seeds have been collected along the cliffs and conserved in the seed bank of the Madeira Botanical Garden (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) along with cultivation of plants in the Botanical Garden of Madeira (J.A Carvalho and F. Fernandes, unpublished data).
161942		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. crithmifolia</span> is endemic to Madeira, Portugal where it is found at two localities only. It has an area of occupancy of 10 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161942		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky slopes at the south coast of Madeira. It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161942		population	eng	The distribution of this large perennial or biennial has always been very small. It is known from two populations, one is rather sparse and widely spread on the large cliffs of Cabo Girão. This population was estimated to about a hundred mature plants in 1998, from the summit  down to the rocky bottom of the cliffs (30-400 m). It is certainly viable since the cliffs act as a natural protection and most of them are out of reach. The second population occurs at Funchal on the cliffs of Pináculo down to the bottom of the cliffs. This population was estimated to be less than 50 mature plants in 2006 (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The total estimated number of mature individuals is between 50 and 250. <br/>Both populations are far apart from each other, separated by dense urban areas and with no genetic exchange between them. They are therefore severely fragmented.<br/>The populations had a stable trend in the last 20 years but are undergoing extreme fluctuations. As an biennual or short perennial plant it undergoes fluctuations depending on the specific variation of climatic conditions. The fluctuations are becoming extreme as the conditions favourable for this species are also favourable for the invasive species which become more abundant and pose strong competition on the sites (J.A. Carvalho and F. Fernandes pers. comm. 2010).
161942		threats	eng	Formerly, the plant was probably widespread along the southern coast which is now densely populated and also invaded by exotic species (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Major threats are the collection of this plant, urbanisation, waste disposal, roads, landslides and competition with exotic vegetation (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/>The two populations are located on very steep cliffs with a history of some large landslides that can affect the population size significantly and, therefore, the long term survival of the population. On the other hand, the location of these two populations on inaccessible places for humans reduces its chance to be affected by human activities.
161943		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of  threatened species. It is listed as CR B2b(ii,iii,iv,v)c(ii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The species occurs in the protected area SCI Acantilado Costero de Los Perros.<br/>Its locations must be fenced as protection against predators. Rubble must be removed and reintroduction measures implemented. Seeds should be stored in germplasm banks and research about the reproductive biology of the species should be developed.
161943		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Kunkeliella subsucculenta</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 15 and 100 m asl, in the northwestern part of the island, in Icod de Los Vinos and La Guancha (González González<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). It can be found in two severely fragmented locations: Punta Juan Centellas and Santo Domingo. Its area of occupancy has been calculated in 2 km², and is believed to have been higher in the past.<br/></p>
161943		habitat	eng	This halophyte plant occurs within <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio-Rumicion</span> shrublands in coastal cliffs with high marine influence. It grows in loose soils with materials of different granulometry   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Common accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum frutescens </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> succulentum, Neochamaelea pulverulenta </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Schizogyne sericea </span>(González González<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). It also occurs associated to elements of the more halophitic communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Frankenio-Astydamietum latifolae</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmo-Staticetea</span>), along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium pectinatum, Salsola divaricata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Frankenia ericifolia</span>; and in shrublands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Periploco-Euphorbietum canariensis</span>.<br/><br/>Regressive patterns have been observed for its habitat.
161943		population	eng	Its population size has been estimated in 871 individuals   (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). Negative trends have been reported for its total population size (Gobierno de Canarias 2004) though it presents appropriate recruitment levels (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161943		threats	eng	Predation by rabbits on young sprouts and disposal of inert materials have been described as important threats to the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The biggest subpopulation is fragmented by rubble dumping, its habitat  has been modified by agriculture and it is very close to a construction site. The existence of several paths in the area used by fishermen is also a pressure on the subpopulations (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161945		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>This species occurs in firewalls within the protected area Parque Natural Acantilado y Pinar de Barbate. The maintenance of grazing activities in the area of distribution of the species is positive for its survival.</p>
161945		distribution	eng	This species is native to south Spain, Gibraltar, Algeria, Libya and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).<br/>In Spain, the species is restricted to four isolated locations, three on the coast of Cádiz and one in the province of Murcia (Balao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), which in turn are highly fragmented in small cores with few individuals. Its presence in Cabo de Gata (Almería) has been recently confirmed (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), where it is very rare. Regressive trends have been reported for its distribution range.
161945		habitat	eng	This annual plant grows on sandy soils formed by the action of the sea, particularly on nitrificated sites, from areas dominated by forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea</span> to the beaches (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Its primary habitat has to be areas occupied by cattle, for it is commonly found in sites where cows graze. It is a characteristic species of the community <span style="font-style: italic;">Linario viscosae-Carduetum meonanthi</span>, subnitrophile coastal grasslands.
161945		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The total number of subpopulations is four (</span>Balao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">), besides that of Cabo de Gata. Total population size has been reported to be 3,618 individuals (</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span>Balao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">) for the supopulations of Cádiz and Murcia. </span><span style="background-color: white;">The number of individuals has not been evaluated in the population of Cabo de Gata (Almería), but it must be very low.</span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><br/></span></span>
161945		threats	eng	As a nitrophile species, it appears well adapted to urban areas (Blanca<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000), but asphalting and pavement establishment due to urban expansion are threats to the species. The presence of grazing species is positive for this plant.
161946		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is included in the catalogue of threatened species of Andalucía and protected by Law. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(i,ii,v)+2ab(i,ii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Most of its range is within the protected area Parque Natural Cabo de Gata-Níjar. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks Bancos de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz. <br/><br/>Grazing species exclusion areas should be established. Apiculture activities should not be developed in the surroundings of the distribution areas of the species. Research about its ecology and population monitoring should be developed (Cueto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161946		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra de Cabo de Gata, Almería, Spain (Cueto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), where it can be found growing from 70 to 430 m asl. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 33 km² and its extent of occurrence smaller than 100 km².
161946		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on volcanic rocks with variable slope. It colonizes fissures with accumulation of soil, along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis osteoxylla, Asteriscus maritimus, Launaea lanifera, Lavatera maritima </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lapiedra martinezii.<br/><br/></span>This hermaphrodite species can present flowers continuously throughout the year (Cueto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161946		population	eng	Traditionally several subpopulations have been cited, but the distance between them is always lower than 1 km (Cueto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Individuals appear scattered or distributed in groups. Total population size has been reported to be 22,559 individuals.
161946		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are grazing by goats and loss of natural pollinators (Cueto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Individuals settled in accessible sites are strongly damaged by predators. Apiculture in the area causes the loss of natural pollinators due to the pressure exerted by bees.
161947		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula bohemica</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>The Polish populations are all included in the Karkonosze National Park (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). The species is included in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) and in the Atlas of Polish Endemics (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa in prep.) as Endangered. In the regional red list of Lower Silesia (Kącki 2003) it is classified as Vulnerable/Endangered. It is also strictly protected at the national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Red List (Holub and Procházka 2000).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161947		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Karkonosze Mountains (Sudeten Mts.) in the Czech Republic and Poland (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). It is found between 800-1,600 m asl. The geographic range for both countries is 793 km² and it can therefore be estimated that the EOO is less than 5,000 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161947		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane and alpine meadows and in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of the montane&#160; to alpine levels</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsacetalia alpinae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeopsietalia ladani</span>)</li></ul>
161947		population	eng	In the Czech Republic, it is known from 50 localities with a stable population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Poland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula bohemica</span> is found at 60 localities. The subpopulati<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">ons in montane hay meadows show declining trends caused by abandonment of traditional management of meadows (cessation of grazing). Subpopulations in natural localities in alpine grasslands, mainly in the subalpine belt, are stable (Perzanowska 2010).<br/></span></span>
161947		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are abandonment of grazing activities and subsequent competition by encroaching vegetation, mowing or cutting, eutrophication and recreational activities.
161948		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula glaucescens</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>The populations are partially included in parks and Natura 2000 sites. Collection of the species is locally restricted.
161948		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> and is found in the regions Lombardia and Trentino-Alto Adige. Its EOO is less than 20,000 km² and the AOO is less than 500 km².<br/></p>
161948		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161948		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 20 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are stable and there are less than 10,000 mature individuals in total.
161948		threats	eng	The collection of this species poses a threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Furthermore, changes in the native species dynamics are impacting the habitat, so are recreational activities.
161949		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apium repens</span> is listed under the Annex II of the Habitats Directive because of its scarcity and decline in Europe (McDonald and Lambrick 2006). Monitoring will need to be continued under present protocols at existing sites. Further monitoring of the restoration site at Langel Common, to be followed, if the species does not reappear, by a reintroduction at this or another site.<br/><br/>Categorized Critically Endangered (CR) in Slovakia and in Switzerland.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apium repens</span> has been included within the Species Recovery Programme between 1995-2005 in the UK.
161949		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the Appendix I of  the Bern Convention and in Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. In France, the species is listed as protected at the national level. In North Africa (Morocco), there are no conservation measures in place.<br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)  <br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment)<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the existing sites   <br/>- To study the population dynamics towards an understanding of protection<br/>- Development of identification guidance to receive information on short-lived populations
161949		distribution	eng	<em>A. repens</em> is endemic to Europe and the Mediterranean and is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, and Morocco. There are also possibly populations of this species in Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Crete, Greece, and Turkey. The species is found in Slovenia but outside the Mediterranean region. <br/>The area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
161949		distribution	eng	<em>A. repens</em> occurs in Europe and North Africa. In Europe, it occurs in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain including the Canary Islands, Switzerland, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.<br/><p><br/></p>
161949		habitat	eng	<em>A. repens </em>is a pioneer species that characteristically occurs in wet grassland, the margins and into the channels of streams, in oxbows and on bars of larger rivers, usually in meso-trophic or eutrophic conditions. It is therefore probably dependent upon naturally meso-eutrophic floodplain wetlands with a degree of natural dynamism or grazing by large herbivores.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apium repens</span> flourishes where there is plenty of light, including high levels of summer sunshine, and the soil is moist. It tolerates winter- flooding but it and its associated species are killed by early summer- flooding with soil anoxia. On these occasions there is an increase in the extent of bare ground and annual species as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. repens</span> germinate. Grazing is essential to keep down the accompanying vegetation and does not inhibit <span style="font-style: italic;">A. repens</span> which generally lies below the level of grazing teeth (McDonald and Lambrick 2006).
161949		habitat	eng	This is a perennial helophyte plant that grows in wet places, such as streams, ditches, marshes and pools (France); mires and banks of ditches (Italy), lakes and clayey wet grasslands (Morocco) at an altitude of 0 to 2,300 m. The flowering season is between June and September in France, and between June and August in Italy and Morocco.<br/>This plant is an opportunistic species, that often establishes as a first colonizer after disturbance.
161949		population	eng	The overall population trend is difficult to define as it is declining in some parts but stable populations have been observed in others. <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">A. repens</span> is scarce throughout  its range with very few populations in each country of occurrence.<br/>     <ul><li>Austria: Occurring at 12 sites.</li><li>France: Apparently scattered throughout, it has national protection, as well as protection in two regions: Bourgogne and Picardie; it has not been found recently in the Mediterranean part of France. Population and extent declining everywhere in the country.</li><li>Germany: Known from one or more site(s) in lake Müritz near Waren,  Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.</li><li>Hungary: The species can be found in six locations, three on the southcentral part of the country and three on the northwest, next to the border with Slovakia. Remarkable fluctuation in number of individuals from one year  to another.</li><li>Italy: Apparently extinct.</li><li>Poland: Between 1985 and 2000 the species was observed at 9 localities in Gniezno Lake District and 2 localities in Leszno Lake District (Natura 2000 Shadow List in Poland). The largest population is situated on Brenno Lake in Leszno Lake District. It consists of several hundreds of flowering and fruiting individuals. A systematic observation proves that the population is stable. At the other locality in the Leszno Lake District the species has probably become extinct. A size of 9 closely situated populations in Gniezno Lake District varies from several to several dozen individuals.</li><li>Portugal: It is found in Baixo Alentejo, but the  presence  in Algarve is unconfirmed.</li><li>Slovakia: About 15 locations (one between Vel'ky Grob and Puste Ul'any; two in Dolny Sta'l; five in the vecinity of the Danube-Podunajska' lowland; Bratislava-Petrzalka, Dobrohost, Bodiky, Zemianska Olca, Bu'c; six-eight in Nitra, Boheov, Kl'ucovec).<br/></li><li>Slovenia: Populations found along  the Drava river in 2004. </li><li> Spain:  Very scarce  in central Spain, but present at a reasonable number of  sites. There has been a decline of more than 30 percent in the last 10  years.</li><li>Switzerland: Found at one site.<br/></li><li>United Kingdom: Two populations, one  found since 2005. The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Apium repens</span> has varied widely from year to year in its numbers and its distribution. Summer fouling (soil anoxia) in some years caused loss of mature plants which were made up by vegetation spread and by seedling emergence in July and August. Germination during June- August was abundant in some years, often following soil anoxia events. For reasons which are unclear, flowering varied between sites and years.</li></ul>In Bulgaria the species has not been recorded for a long time but it  is known to be present in the country and therefore included in the  national red list. In Denmark <span style="font-style: italic;">Apium repens</span> in classed as Regionally Extinct.<br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161949		population	eng	The populations are scattered within the Mediterranean Region. <em></em>In Morocco, it occurs in the Great Atlas, Middle Atlas, Middle Atlantic Morocco (Souss, Haouz), Mediterranean cost (Bkkoya) and in the Rif mountain (central of the Rif, Targuist, Tazzeka). The populations are in slow regression particularly in middle Atlantic Morocco and at the Mediterranean coast where the anthropogenic pressure is high and will increase in the near future. <br/>In Italy, <em>Apium repens</em> was considered Critically Endangered. It was previously indicated in four Italian regions (five sites) but is hat not been found recently and is suspected to be extinct (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). There is no information available about the species occurrence in Greece.<br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, the species is very scarce in central Spain, but present at a reasonable number of sites although there has been a decline of more than 30 percent in the last 10 years. In Portugal, it is found in Beixo Alentejo, but the presence in Algarve is unconfirmed. In France, it has not been found recently in the Mediterranean part of France and is declining everywhere in the country.
161949		threats	eng	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. repens</span> are uncontrolled exploitation of river floodplain habitats, including river channelisation, drainage of oxbows and agricultural improvement of pasture.<br/><br/>In the UK, summer flooding causes loss of plants but is beneficial because it opens the sward created associated bare ground thus providing germination sites. However, too many of these events may deplete the seedbank. Grazing is essential to maintain a low sward with trampled areas and provide plenty of light. The invasive alien <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassula helmsii</span> is a potential threat.
161949		threats	eng	The threats to this species in Europe are intensification of agriculture and the subsequent effects of drainage, enlarging field areas and homogenisation of crops. Grazing is beneficial to this species and a change of grazing regimes, increase as well as abandonment, can lead to declines. Modification of water bodies to hold water for reservoirs is also potential threat.<br/>In North Africa (Morocco), the major threats are agriculture, water pollution and tourism infrastructure along the Mediterranean coast, threats that will increase in the future.
161950		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aquilegia bertolonii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected under the national legislation in France (Annex I) and in regional legislation in Italy. Several sites are found in protected areas (Parc National du Mercantour, Natura 2000, Arreté de Protection de Biotope, etc.). It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy and Rare in Slovenia.
161950		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern France, northern and central Italy and in the Slovenian Alps.<br/>In France, there are more than 67 sites and the range is 13,000 km<sup></sup>². In Italy, the range is less than 20,000 km²<sup></sup> and has declined by 28% in the past. In Slovenia, there are three disjunct areas in the Alps with 49 localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161950		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>This species grows on cliffs or limestone, steep slopes, rocky areas, stabilised screes and woodlands.<br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8120 Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspietea rotundifolii</span>)</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>9150 Medio-European limestone beech forests of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthero-Fagion</span></li><li>9420 Alpine <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix decidua</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus cembra</span> forests</li><li>9430 Subalpine and montane <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus uncinata</span> forest</li></ul><p><br/></p>
161950		population	eng	This is not a rare species and can be locally frequent.
161950		threats	eng	Collecting, closing of the habitat due to abandonment of traditional pastures, conifer plantations, recreational activities such as mountaineering, and in some parts of its range, climate change, are the main threats to this species.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
161951		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium saxatile</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In France, it is under regional protection in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and Rhône-Alpes. Eleven localities are included in the in national parks of Ecrins or Vanoise and there are several localities that are well surveyed. Seeds from four localities have been collected for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation. In Italy, it is classed as Lower Risk on the Red List and some populations are protected in a national park. In Switzerland and Austria, it is classed as Vulnerable on the national Red Lists.
161951		distribution	eng	This species is native to the alpine regions within Austria, France, Italy and Switzerland (Commission of the European Communities 2009,   Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In France, it is found in Haute-Savoie, Savoie, Isère amd Hautes-Alpes.
161951		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium saxatile</span> is found in sub-alpine and alpine moraines and glacial sediments from 400-3,000 m altitude. It grows on rocky and siliceous substrate.<br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><br/><ul><li>3220 Alpine rivers and the herbaceous vegetation along their banks</li><li>8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsacetalia alpinae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeopsietalia ladani</span>)</li><li>8340 Permanent glaciers</li></ul>
161951		population	eng	In Austria, recorded population is between 1,000 and 3,000 individuals and it is known from three localities (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Italy, the species has been recorded in six localities (and two need to be confirmed). In France, it has been reported from 12 localities with more than 40,000 individuals in 2003 and the trend seems  stable (N. Juillet pers.  comm. 2010). The populations in Italy are decreasing. In Switzerland, the area of occupancy is 36 km² and stable in some parts while decreasing along the edge of its range. <br/>Overall, there is a small decline of the populations.
161951		threats	eng	<p>Recreational activities such as skiing and construction work to stabilise the slopes are a threat to the species. Grazing might be a threat in certain areas. Changes to river banks, such as to stabilisation measures or changes in hydrological regimes, the construction of dams etc. that lead to changes in river flow are a threat to the habitat. Quarrying and the removal of rocks is a threat in some areas. </p>
161953		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea pinnata</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea boissieri </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">spachii. </span>It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Aragonian catalogue of threatened species. It is classed as Near Threatened in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>SCIs proposed in Aragón for the Natura 2000 network would comprise 90% of the distribution in the region (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/></p><p>Research should be developed to clarify relationships between hybrids and distribution range of related species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> cultivation and reintroduction measures should be considered.<br/></p>
161953		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northeast of Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), being present in the provinces of Zaragoza, Teruel, Soria and Guadalajara.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 110 km²<sup></sup>.<span class="tooltip">
161953		habitat	eng	Pioneer species in rocky sites, forest clearings, firewalls, track edges and road batters (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It can develop on any kind of soil, but it tends to grow on acid soils where competition with other species is lower. It can be found on gypsum materials or stony substrates.<br/><span class="tooltip">
161953		population	eng	The population has been reported to be higher than 10,000 individuals (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), estimated in between 11,000 and 400,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009), and increasing.
161953		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are urbanisation and the modification of cultivation practices (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It tends to present hybridisation phenomena. No important threat affects the conservation of this species (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
161954		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Seseli leucospermum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is strictly protected in Hungary and most of the localities are in protected areas. The plant is listed as Near Threatened on the Hungarian Red List (Király 2007).
161954		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Hungary where it is only found in the Transdanubian Mountain Range (Dunántúli-középhegység), but there it is frequent. Its EOO is 5,948 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><p>  <br/>  </p>
161954		habitat	eng	This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6190 "Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161954		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population in Hungary is stable and has between 50 million and 150 million individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161954		threats	eng	The main threats are natural succession, human habitation and tourism, planting of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span>, and damages caused by wild animals.
161955		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea corymbosa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is classed as Vulnerable on the French Red List and is protected at national level (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010). The populations are included in the Site Classé de la Clape, a part of the distribution area is owned by the Conservatoire du Littoral.
161955		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea corymbosa</span> is an endemic species to the south of France   (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010<span class="tooltip">). It has an extent of occurrence of 345 km²<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and area of occupancy that is smaller than 20 km².<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161955		habitat	eng	<p>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/></p><ul><li> 6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span><br/></li><li> 6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
161955		population	eng	The species is found at one to five localities (depends on how localities are counted) in two communes. There are about 1,000 individuals which are regularly counted and the population is stable.
161955		threats	eng	<p>The plant is potentially impacted by climbing. Further threats are changes to its habitat coming from the abandonment of pastoral systems or conversion into forest plantations (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
161956		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. It is protected under regional legislation in Castilla y Leon and Extremadura, in Spain. More sustainable management of woodlands is needed to ensure the future of this species.
161956		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leuzea rhaponticoides </span>is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its European distribution extends to Spain where it has a range of 1,600 km² and to centre west Portugal where it has a range of 196 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161956		habitat	eng	This plant occurs in edges and glades of woodlands, preferably with chestnuts and oaks but also pine woods associated to <span style="font-style: italic;">Orieganietalia.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
161956		population	eng	This species has been recorded in six localities in Spain and four in Portugal   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population is estimated to be 300 individuals in Portugal.
161956		threats	eng	In Spain, main threats are general forestry management, burning and grazing. In Portugal, forest planting, removal of forest undergrowth, forest exploitation without replanting, burning and communication networks have been described as important threats    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Urbanisation might impact some part of the range.
161957		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><em>Hippuris tetraphylla</em> is included in the Habitats Directive Annexes II and IV. The species is classed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii,iii,iv,v) in Sweden, Endangered (EN) B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)  in Finland, and Near Threatened in Norway. In Iceland, it is not on the  list of protected plants. In Russia, it has been categorized as Least  Concern in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/>The species is protected in Finland under national legislation and 76% of the sites are in Natura 2000 areas. About 80% of the shoots are situated in the three biggest populations that are all in Natura 2000 areas, in the northernmost part of the Bothnian Bay.<br/>The water quality of the Baltic Sea needs to be improved. The sites of <em>H. tetraphylla</em> need active management (e.g. preventing overgrowth by removing vegetation, e.g. by cattle grazing). The present status and distribution of <em>H. tetraphylla</em> and the hybrid <em>H. x lanceolata</em> needs to be clarified.<br/><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><p></p>
161957		distribution	eng	<p><em>Hippuris tetraphylla</em> has a circumpolar distribution and occurs on coastal areas of Finnmark (Norway) and Iceland, Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, Alaska and on Russian coasts of&#160; the Pacific Ocean, Kola Peninsula and White Sea. In Europe, this species is native to Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Novaya Zemlya and Franz-Joseph Land, Northern European Russia, and Northwest European Russia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2010). <br/></p><p>In the Baltic Sea, it has historically occurred along the whole coastline of Finland. Populations in southern Sweden were probably never established. There have been several attempts of colonisation but now only one site remains in the Kronören with an area of occupancy of 8 km². It has declined strongly in its previously most abundant areas along Finnish coasts, and is currently known to exist only in the Bothnian Bay and the Bothnian Sea. From the Gulf of Finland it has disappeared (Ryttäri 2010). In Iceland, it is found at one location in the north. <br/></p>In Russia, it occurs along the Arctic ocean.
161957		habitat	eng	<em>H. tetraphylla</em> typically occurs in open shallow coastal waters with at least partly soft sediment, nearly always in sheltered sites on islands or peninsulas. It typically grows c. 20 cm below mean sea level, in very soft sediments. Most populations are naturally lost as they become terrestrialised through land rise, new ones then establish as fresh sediment becomes available. It is possible that one of the reasons for the decline in Finnish  populations is that sea level rise as a consequence of climate change is  precluding exposure of sediments on the sea bed as the land rises.<br/>From Sweden, it has been reported that the natural process of land rising turns rivers into lakes, saline habitats or muddy waters. It needs new colonisation from Finland. It gro<span style="background-color: white;">ws in substrate 20 cm below water level and the stolon extends 20 cm further below. It can be found in soft bottoms in sheltered positions in slightly brackish water.</span><br/>In Russia, it is found in salt marshes at the sea shores and slightly salty lakes&#160; - salt is essential for the species survival. In Iceland, it has been reported from ponds and lake inlets as well as flooded marshland (Kristinsson 1986).
161957		population	eng	<em>H. tetraphylla</em> is classified as Critically Endangered in Sweden, Endangered in Finland, and Near Threatened in Norway. There is no information on the size or stability of other European populations.<br/>The shoot morphology depends on water level. If the water level is unusually high during early summer, most shoots will develop into sleek, submerged shoots which are very difficult to count.<br/>The population trend is stable in Sweden and <span style="background-color: white;">unknown in Norway.</span><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In  Finland, most of the distribution area is situated in the northern part  of the Bothnian Bay and most of those populations are dependent on  management (cattle grazing and mowing). However, in the whole  distribution area, the amount of crossing of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tetraphylla</span> with <span style="font-style: italic;">H.  vulgaris </span>and thus the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippuris x lanceolata</span> is not  known. It is likely, that many (or even most) of the known 110 sites (or  ca. 60 localities) of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tetraphylla</span> populations are actually mixed  populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tetraphylla</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. x lanceolata</span>, or even only <span style="font-style: italic;">H. x  lanceolata</span>. Pure <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tetraphylla</span> populations can be found only in the  most marine parts of the area. The populations are generally declining  (E. Kemppainen pers. comm. 2011).</span></span></span></span><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>     </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161957		threats	eng	<p>Eutrophication of the sea is the biggest threat to this species. It is followed by overgrowth with reeds, especially<span style="font-style: italic;"> Phragmites australis,</span> and other strong competitors changes the habitats of <em>H. tetraphylla</em>. The abandonment of cattle grazing has accelerated the overgrowth. Reasons for local disappearances include road construction, harbours, marinas&#160;and summer cottages as well as dredging of waterways (Ryttäri 2010). Hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> seems to cause further population declines.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p><p>It is possible that one of the reasons for the decline in Finnish  populations is that sea level rise as a consequence of climate change is  precluding exposure of sediments on the sea bed as the land rises.</p>
161958		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is included as species "vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed EN B1ab(iii,v); D2 in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Espacio Natural de Sierra Nevada. It is object of conservation plans such as RAJBEN and the Programa de Conservación de Flora de Altas Cumbres de Andalucía.<br/><br/>Grazing species control measures should be implemented, recreational activities in the area should be managed and visitors informed about the situation. Population monitoring should be developed.
161958		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it can be found only in the mountains of Sierra Nevada, within the province of Granada (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It occurs in one single location, with a total area of occupancy of 262 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
161958		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This insectivorous plant occurs in the highest mountains of Sierra Nevada, on grasslands permanently flooded during the summer season, called "borreguiles", on poorly developed soils with low content of nutrients. It grows along with other species characteristic of these mountain areas, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana sierrae, Scorzoneroides microcephala, Agrostis canina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">granatensis, Gentiana pneumonanthe </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> depressa, Primula elatior</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lofthousei, Plantago nivalis, Viola palustris, Botrychium lunaria, Saxifraga stellaris </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> robusta </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex nevadensis</span>.
161958		population	eng	Total population size has been reported to be 25,872 specimens (Bañares<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). The only known population is distributed in a discontinuous ring over the mountains. Decreasing population trends have been reported.
161958		threats	eng	Overgrazing has been highlighted as an important threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009), for it prevents recruitment (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Grazing species in the area are cows, horses and wild goats. Trampling by visitors and the use of camping tents have been also reported as a threat. The low ecological plasticity of the species is also a factor affecting its conservation, as well as drought events which affect the "borreguiles", and occasional landslides.
161959		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus nitidus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Montenegro, the species is protected by national law (Official Register of the Republic of Montenegro, no 26/06). It is classed as Critically Endangered in Montenegro and Serbia. <span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus nitidus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nitidus </span>occurs in eight protected areas (SACs), covering 100% of its localities in Slovakia. The status in Slovakia is Near Threatened (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
161959		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus nitidus </span>is a European endemic. It is native to Slovakia, with a defined&#160; geographic range of 1,800 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Poland, the plant was recorded in Mt. Pieniny in the 19th century but has never been observed there again and is now very probably extinct.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, it has been recorded recently at approximately 30 localities  in the Krivánska Malá Fatra Mts, the southern part of the Veľká Fatra  Mts, the Chočské vrchy Mts, Západné Tatry Mts and in the limestone parts  of the Nízke Tatry Mts. An isolated occurrence has been recorded in the  Súľovské skaly rocks (as a&#160;relict at an altitude of 370 m asl) and in  the Lúčanská Malá Fatra Mts. In the past the species also grew in the  Strážovské vrchy Mts, the Súľovské vrchy Mts, in the northern part of  the Veľká Fatra Mts, in the surroundings of Mt. Choč, in the eastern  part of the Nízke Tatry Mts, in the Slovenský raj Mts and on the Slovak  part of the Pieniny Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>It is represented in Montenegro and in Serbia (Mt Prokletije) by the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lakusicii</span> T. Wraber (V. Stevanović pers.comm. 2010). The small range of the ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lakusicii </span>is more than 800 km south from the main range of the species in Mts Velika and Mala Tatra.
161959		habitat	eng	The plant is found in clear-cut areas, rock pastures, rocks and scree in montane to subalpine vegetation belt on limestones and dolomites (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>In Serbia and Montenegro it grows both on limestone and siliceous rocky grounds in the subalpine zone, between 1,250 and 1,750 m asl, inhabiting ass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiano-Anemonetum elatioris</span> from class <span style="font-style: italic;">Caricetea curvulae</span>, order <span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerietalia comosae</span>, alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasionion orbucularis</span>. In Slovakia it is a member of ass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerieto-Sempervivetum fatrense</span> on subalpine limestone and dolomite bedrocks. <br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>91Q0 Western Carpathian calcicolous <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> forests</li></ul>
161959		population	eng	There are no data on the number of individuals but it has been recorded in 31 localities in Slovakia   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In spite of a&#160;long term decrease in the number of localities in Slovakia, the species  is not threatened with extinction  (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <br/><br/>There is no information on the population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus nitidus </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lakusicii</span>. It is recorded at a single locality in  both Montenegro and Serbia. The extent of occurrence is 100 km<sup>2 </sup>in each state, while the area of occupancy is significantly smaller and is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> in both cases. In Montenegro, it is classed as Critically Endangered D which implies   that there are less than 50 mature individuals in total (Petrović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
161959		threats	eng	The main threats are the collection and trampling of the plants near tourist trails, altering of the ground by erosion and falling of rocks, the abandonment of pastoral systems leading to overgrowth by woody plants and forestation by dwarf pine (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>The species is also threatened by the development of outdoor sport and leisure facilities, for example, in Serbia the construction of skiing complexes is one of the main threats.
161960		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>This orchid is included in several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Norway<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary<br/></li><li>Endangered in Austria, Belarus, Germany, Russia, the United Kingdom<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in France, Lithuania, Sweden and Switzerland<br/></li><li>Near Threatened</li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia<br/></li></ul>    <p>In Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia, a<st1:country-region w:st="on">ll the locations are within Natura 2000 sites and other protected areas.</st1:country-region> This orchid is found in numerous protected areas throughout its range and is often protected by national law.<br/></p><p>In Lithuania, Hungary and Switzerland, management plans for example targeting the control of potential competitive shrubs and monitoring activities are in place.</p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>
161960		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Liparis loeselii </span>is widespread across Europe   and extends its range into Central Asia and North America. It became extinct in Bulgaria and Norway where it was last seen in 1936 (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In Czech Republic, it can be found in the northern central part of the country. There are less than ten locations (13 including microlocalities) in the country covering an area of 13 km². In Slovakia, it is known from only on three localities, two of them on  the Záhorská nížina Lowland and one in the Nízke Beskydy Mts in Čertižné  (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <br/>In Hungary, it can be found on four  localities with an area of occupancy under 10 km². It is restricted and fragmented. Three more  localities were recorded in the 19th century and one disappeared in the  last twenty years.<br/>In Lithuania, it is more common in the southeastern and western part of the country, but is missing from the central part. In total, it has been recorded in 50-60 localities - its habitat is not very common.<br/>In Poland, there are approximately 200 historically known localities. After 1980 however, the species was observed in 50 scattered localities in lowland Poland, especially in young glacial lakeland areas. The most abundant populations of the species occur in the peatlands of Augustowska Forest and Sejny Lake District, and in Gniezno Lake District (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).<br/>In Switzerland, it is scattered throughout the lowlands with a geographic range of 160 km². The number of locations is unknown. In Sweden, it is found at 100 localities with a restricted area of occupancy of 400 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010).
161960		habitat	eng	This perennial geophyte is characteristic for wetlands with neutral or alkaline (calcareous) soil. It can be found in wetlands such as transitional mires, fens, peatland and lakeside marshes. This plant prefers open, sunny places. In Czech  Republic, the  best populations are on secondary stands resulting from peat mining in an  extensive way. In Hungary, it was reported occurring on floating mats of vegetation in deep-inundated reedbeds with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Thelypteris palustris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex pseudocyperus</span>. In Switzerland, it is present in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Caricion davallianae</span>.<br/><br/>It is not a long living species but the individuals can remain at a  juvenile status without reproducing for some years (less than five).  Regeneration is mainly by seeds, but it can also propagate asexually. &#160; <br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):&#160; <br/><ul><li>2190 Humid dune slacks</li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li><li>7150 Depressions on peat substrates of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchosporion</span></li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li></ul>
161960		population	eng	The total number of individuals will be beyond any threshold for a threatened category. This orchid has undergone severe declines in the past and is still declining in most countries of its range.<br/><br/><ul><li>In Czech Republic, there are around 1,000 individuals remaining with a declining population trend. <br/></li><li>In Slovakia, one site hosts 0-10, the second has c. 50-400 and the third locality hosts approximately 50 plants. In the past, the species was known from 20 localities and the populations have therefore been declining (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).</li><li>In Hungary, the total population counts 2,540 - 2,800 individuals, however, strong  fluctuations have been registered. One locality can shelter 1,000 individuals in good years  (Velence Lake) and at others only one hundred individuals or dozens of  them can be observed. The habitat conditions  have remained stable during the last ten years but the population size  suffers severe changes.</li><li>In Lithuania, it is very difficult to count the number of individuals but the populations are slowly decreasing. The species can grow isolated or forming groups of up to one hundred individuals or more. </li><li>In Sweden, 35,824 individuals have been reported (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are declining due to reductions in its area, habitat quality, as well as number of mature individuals (ArtDatabanken 2010).</li><li>In Switzerland, the total population is estimated between 1,000 and 3,000 individuals (about more than 200 in each locality). There has been a strong decline in the past and the population is still declining but less severe. The populations are fragmented. <br/></li><li>There are less than 1,000 individuals in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).</li><li><span style="background-color: white;">From Denmark</span> 1,449 individuals have been reported in 2001 (NERI 2007).</li></ul>Further population information has been provided for other countries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Austria: 1010-1420 individuals</li><li>Belgium: 5 - 8 individuals</li><li>Estonia: 1,000 - 5,000 flowering stems</li><li>France: 60 localities</li><li>Germany: 248 localities</li><li>Italy: 28 localities</li><li>Lithuania: 38 - 63 localities</li><li>Latvia: 60 - 70 localities</li><li>Netherlands: 20,000 - 50,000 individuals</li><li>Slovenia: 24 localities</li></ul>
161960		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are natural  succession due to decreasing grazing activities and subsequent invasion of reeds and tall  herbs that lead to increased competition. Changes to the hydrological regime such as the construction of new channels or drainage systems are furthermore destroying the habitat. So is the use of fertilizers in agriculture that can lead to eutrophication of the water bodies. The species can withstand extensive peat  mining but an intensified use of its habitat leads to its disappearance.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <br/></p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><strong></strong></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><strong></strong></st1:place></st1:country-region>
161961		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla slavica</span> is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/> The species occurs on 23 Natura 2000 sites (SACs), covering approximately 66% of its localities in Slovakia. It is classified as Endangered (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
161961		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla slavica </span>is endemic to Poland and Slovakia. Its extent of occurrence is around 7,000 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Poland, it is found only in the Koryciska Wielkie gorge in the Western Tatra Mountains (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). In Slovakia its centre of distribution (without transient types to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. subslavica</span>) is in the Krivánska Malá Fatra Mts and the adjacent part of the Západné Beskydy Mts, in the Chočské vrchy Mts, Západné Tatry Mts (Mt.Osobitá, the Sivý vrch mountain group) and in the northern part of the Nízke Tatry Mts (where the type locality is). In addition it occurs (together with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. subslavica</span>) in the Veľká Fatra Mts, in Slovenská Ľupča surroundings, on the Muránska planina Plateau, in the Slovenský raj Mts, Spišské kotliny Basins, Spišské vrchy Mts, Slovenské rudohorie Mts and in the Stredné Pohornádie region. It is necessary to revise the data on occurrence eastward from the Lúčanská Malá Fatra Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In the Czech Republic it is occasionally planted even into the wild (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
161961		habitat	eng	In Slovakia the plant is found on grassy rock slopes and relict pine forests, rarely also in beech forests on limestones and dolomites from hilly areas to the sub-alpine vegetation belt (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>This plant has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6210&#160; Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>9150 Central European calcicolous beech forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthero-Fagion</span>)</li><li>91Q0 Western Carpathian calcicolous <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> forests&#160; (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatillo slavicae- Pinion</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></li></ul>
161961		population	eng	The population in Poland is stable with 200 individuals. In Slovakia, between 100,000 and 600,000 individuals have been counted and the population trend is declining   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Populations of the Slovak Pasque Flower number tens to thousands of individuals (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). The plant occurred in 183 sites in 2005, with no signs of severe fragmentation (V. Ferakova pers. comm. 2011).
161961		threats	eng	Collection of this plant has been noted as an important threat in Poland (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Slovakia, it is threatened by loss of habitat due to overgrowing or forestation by woody plants (mainly Scots Pine and Black Pine) and herbs, soil erosion and trampling around the tourist trails, collecting of the plants and quarrying (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
161962		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria conica</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book as Endangered (Kamari and Phitos in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).  <p>The subpopulations at Sapientza and near Dimiovi monastery are within the NATURA 2000 sites GR2550003 and GR2550006, respectively. The plant is cultivated at the Botanical Garden of the University of Patras and at Ioulia & Alexandros Diomidis Botanical Garden in Athens.</p>
161962		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to Greece</a> in the south and southwest of Peloponnisos. Four locations (four subpopulations) are known: Agios Nikolaos hill between the towns of Pylos and  Methoni, Sapientza islet off Methoni, Kalathi Mt (east of Kalamata city )  near Perivolakia village and near Dimiovi Monastery. </p>The extent of occurrence is estimated at 400 km<sup>2</sup> and area of occupancy is 12-16 km<sup>2</sup>.
161962		habitat	eng	It grows on rocky, calcareous hills by the sea covered with shrubs, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia lentiscus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis fruticosa</span> predominate at an altitude of 400 m asl. On Sapientza island, it is found in clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span> forest   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161962		population	eng	The largest subpopulation at Agios Nikolaos hill consists of less than 1,000 mature individuals growing under spiny shrubs and are protected by overgrazing. On Sapientza islet, it grows scattered in shrub openings. In 1991, 200 individuals were counted but in 2004 and 2006 there were just 10 individuals, only two of them with intact flower stalks. The subpopulation near Perivolakia village consists of 15 individuals and the one near Dimiovi Monastery consists of 150 individuals. <br/><p>&#160;At higher altitudes (above 800 m) of Kalathi Mt there is a hybrid population <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria conica</span> x <span style="font-style: italic;">F. graeca</span> which consists of 150 individuals.</p>
161962		threats	eng	Overgrazing constitutes a significant stress for the subpopulation of Agios Nikolaos because flowering stalks are consumed and as a result seed set and reproduction from seed&#160; are limited. Besides, vegetative reproduction from bulbs is very slow. This has caused significant population size reduction during the period of 20 years that the population has been monitored.   <p>Sapientza islet is currently used as a controlled hunting area and approximately 500 wild goats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capra aegagrus cretica</span>) and more than 600 wild sheep (mouflon) have been imported since the early 1990s. This has led to significant reduction in the population size of the plant.</p>
161963		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures<br/>- Scientific research: inventory of its habitats, existing populations, biology, and taxonomy
161963		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus valvatus</span> is listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/>Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. Conservation of the habitat and monitoring of the existing sites is recommended. More research on the species population size, biology, and taxonomy is needed.
161963		conservation	eng	The species is listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/>Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures in North Africa<br/>- Scientific research: inventory of its habitats, existing populations, biology, and taxonomy
161963		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is endemic to Portugal, Tunisia and Algeria. <em>Juncus valvatus</em> var. <em>echinuloides</em> (Brot.) Coss. is limited to central and south Portugal. In North Africa, it is known as var. <em>caricinus</em> Coss. & Dur. <em></em><br/>In Tunisia, only one site is indicated. In Algeria, it is scattered among 12 localities in the centre and east of the country, especially inland and on mountains up to 2,000 m. It is considered as rare (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1961).<br/>In Portugal, the estimated geographic range for this species is 5,402 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence of <em>Juncus valvatus</em> is about 140,000  km². Since it is rare, its area of occupancy is probably less than 500 km² .
161963		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is endemic to Portugal, Tunisia and Algeria. <em>Juncus valvatus</em> var. <em>echinuloides</em> (Brot.) Coss. is limited to central and south Portugal. In North Africa, it is known as var. <em>caricinus</em> Coss. & Dur. <em></em><br/>Its Portuguese populations are found in the centre-east of the country, around Lisbon, from the Saloia region in the west to eastern Ribatejo, towards Santarém. There might be populations in the southwest of Portugal but no information is available about them (ICN 2006). The estimated geographic range for this species is 5,402 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161963		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> var. <em>echinuloides</em> (Brot.) Coss. is limited to central and south Portugal. In North Africa, it is known as var. <em>caricinus</em> Coss. & Dur. <em>J. valvatus</em> is endemic to Portugal, Tunisia and Algeria.<br/>In Tunisia, only one location is indicated. In Algeria, it is scattered among twelve locations in the centre and east of the country, especially inland and on mountains up to 2,000 m. It is considered as rare (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1961).
161963		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte with a stem of 10-50 cm height. It is found in moist meadows, flooded depressions, banks of freshwaters of limestone and siliceous mountains. It is characteristic of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncetum acutiflori - valvate</span>.<br/><br/>Water stress caused by low rainfall or soil drainage is the main factor affecting this species' development. The abundance of the species is highly influenced by the duration of soil saturation, which requires flooding until late spring. It disappears in drought years (ICN 2006).
161963		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte with a stem of 10-50 cm height. It is found in moist meadows, flooded depressions, banks of freshwaters of limestone and siliceous mountains, until about a height of 2,000 m.
161963		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte with a stem of 10-50 cm height. It is found in moist meadows, flooded depressions, banks of freshwaters of limestone and siliceous mountains, up to an altitude of approximately 2,000 m.<br/>Flowering in Algeria and Tunisia is from May to July.
161963		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus valvatus</span> has very small populations, that usually form small clusters of one to six tufts. The only bigger population with more than 100 individuals (in 1996) is Algueirão (ICN 2006).
161963		population	eng	The populations are limited in the Mediterranean to Portugal, Tunisia (one population: Dorsale tunisienne) and Algeria (12 locations at least). They are distributed along a strip of mountains from Guelma-Constantine to the Ouarsenis massif. The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of <em>Juncus valvatus</em> is about 140,000 km². Since it is rare, its Area of Occupancy (AOO) is probably below 500 km² .
161963		population	eng	The populations in the Mediterranean are limited to Portugal, Tunisia, with one population in the Dorsale tunisienne, and Algeria, with at least 12 sites. They are distributed along a strip of mountains from Guelma-Constantine to the Ouarsenis massif.
161963		threats	eng	<em></em>Drainage of soils for agricultural use, urbanisation, sealing of rural roads and their verges, and waste disposal are all leading to habitat loss and decline (ICN 2006).
161963		threats	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is not threatened in the short term in Algeria, because it is found at a number of locations. However, surveillance of the Tunisian population is needed. Its mountain habitats constitute a protection, but this species might be threatened, if the wetlands are not legally protected.<br/>In Portugal, cultivation, forest planting, urbanisation, discharges and drainage are the main threats to this species     (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161963		threats	eng	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is not threatened in the short term in Algeria, because of the numerous locations but surveillance of the Tunisian population is needed. Its mountainuous habitats constitutes some degree of protection but the species will be threatened, if the wetlandsare not legally protected.
161964		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula carniolica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected and is found in Natura 2000 sites. Monitoring of the populations is underway.
161964		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Euro+Med Plantbase (2006-2011) reports it as being native to Croatia too but in Flora Croatica (2010) no entry of this taxon was found.<br/></p><p>Its extent of occurrence in Slovenia is around 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
161964		habitat	eng	<p>This perennial plant grows on wet vertical calcareous cliffs and is found mostly in gorges from 250 to 1,400 m above sea level.<br/></p>
161964		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 50 localities in Slovenia   where populations seem to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In all known localities it is protected by the inaccessibility of the sites.
161964		threats	eng	Threats reported are forestry management and the removal of trees which causes exposure to sun, collection of the species, and recreational activities such as walking, mountaineering, or rock climbing (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161965		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Calypso bulbosa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It is categorized as Critically Endangered in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) and protected in nearly all the regions of the European part of Russia. In Sweden, it is classed as Vulnerable B2ab(iii,iv,v) and is protected by national law (Gärdenfors 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> In Finland, it is classed as Vulnerable A3c (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><br/>More information on reproductive mechanisms of the plant is needed.
161965		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calypso bulbosa </span>is native to the subarctic and temperate northern Hemisphere. In Europe, it occurs in Finland, Sweden, and Russia where it can be found in central, east, north and northwest European  Russia. In Russia, it is distributed rather widely but scattered into  central Ural and western Siberia. The area of occupancy in Sweden is<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 1,787 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>In Finland, the main distribution area is in Central Lapland in the north, but there are single populations outside of this range from north to east-central Finland (A. Jäkäläniemi pers. comm. 2011). <br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
161965		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calypso bulbosa</span> has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> spp. taiga boreal woodland   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It grows in base-rich, semi-open forests, mainly coniferous or rarely in mixed forests on calcareous soils. The colonisation of this plant is poorly known. Its flowers are pollinated by bumblebees.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The species flowers very early in summer and is dependent on queen bumblebees, that wake from winter hibernation. The fruit production varies considerably between the years, being very high in some years and reaching up to 80%. The peak fruit production years occur, when the main nectar sources of bumblebees, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> species, have a short flowering period due to warm weather. In that case <span style="font-style: italic;">Calypso bulbosa</span> is the only flowering plant around and the bumblebees visit its nectarless flowers quite often. In other years, it suffers from pollen limitation, but the Finnish populations still have a remarkably higher fruit production than Swedish or US populations. The species needs a long time to produce a flower, about 10-15 years. Dormancy is quite often present in its early years and typically lasts 1-3 years, rarely longer (A. Jäkäläniemi pers. comm. 2011). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Calypso bulbosa</span> can colonize nearby sites if a larger source population is nearby. In those situations it can recolonize the habitats which have been under forest management such as clearcuttings (A. Jäkäläniemi pers. comm. 2011)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161965		population	eng	The total population in Sweden counts between 5,000 and 20,000 mature individuals with a slightly decreasing trend. It is known from 500-800 localities (ArtDatabanken 2010).<br/>&#160;<br/>In Finland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Calypso bulbosa</span> has 145 000- 150 000 individuals, spread over 1,143 sites. The sites can be in quite close proximity (100-200 meters), so they can count as patches of bigger populations. The best estimate of the number of populations is 900-1,000. In addition to extant populations there are 69 extinct populations and 87 populations of which the status is unknown (A. Jäkäläniemi pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>In Russia, the populations are decreasing in the St. Petersburg region, and some populations of European Russia have gone extinct. The number of known populations is small; they are usually found solitary or in small g<span style="background-color: white;">roups (</span>Tzvelev 2000<span style="background-color: white;">).</span>
161965		threats	eng	This plant is dependent on snow cover in the winter as the buds are on the surface. If  there is no snow, the buds will freeze and therefore climate change could pose a  threat to the species (S. Ericsson pers. comm. 2010). Climate change may threaten the southern Finnish populations (A. Jäkäläniemi pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>In Sweden, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> loss of forest dynamics could pose a bigger threat than forest management or clearance (S. Ericsson pers. comm. 2010). In Russia, the deforestation for settlements (e.g. holiday homes) and for agriculture, construction of power lines, quarrying, and the collection of this species for trade, pose the biggest threats (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In Finland, voles are perceived as the main threat. In peak vole years, they can eat over 90% of plants. In 2011, the damage caused by voles was very high and many populations have been badly eaten during winter and spring. However, since the decade that the populations have been monitored, this is the first bad year, and it remains to be seen how the populations recover from the herbivore attack (A. Jäkäläniemi pers. comm. 2011). Although other experts agree that voles affect <span style="font-style: italic;">C. bulbosa</span>, they do not agree that they are posing a threat to the species. Voles eat the leaves but seldom eat the underground part of the orchid and most species survive vole attacks and show an increased production of flowers in the following year (R. Alexandersson pers. comm. 2011).
161966		conservation	eng	<em>M. batardae</em> is protected at European level under the Habitats Directive 92/43/CEE (annexes II andIV) and included in   Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In Spain it is furthermore protected at regional level (Andalusia, Castilla-la-Mancha, Extremadura) and is included in the national Red List (EN A2ace+3ace+4ace; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv)).<br/>In Portugal, the species is protected under decree-law n°140/99 (annexes B-II b/ e B-IV b/) and decree-law n°316/89 (Annexe I). <em>Marsilea batardae</em> is included in the seed bank project for the flora affected by the Alqueva dam.<br/><br/>The following future conservation measures are being proposed:<br/><ul><li>Control of the water quality and of the hydrological regimes of concerned streams</li><li>Monitoring of the sub-populations, notably the ones affected by the Alqueva dam (Portugal)</li><li>Evaluation of the size of the subpopulations</li><li>Study of the dynamics of the subpopulations, in relation to drainage, irrigation and other hydrological modifications</li></ul>
161966		distribution	eng	<em>Marsilea batardae</em> is an endemic of the Iberian Peninsula, where it is limited to the southwestern quarter, mainly in the hydrological basins of the rivers Tejo, Sado, Guadiana and Guadalquivir.<br/>In Portugal, it occurs in the Alentejo region (Alqueva dam) and São Miguel do Pinheiro region, east of the Parque Natural do Vale do Guadania. In Spain it is found in the southwest, provinces of Badajoz, Ciudad Real, Huelva, Caceres and Córdoba (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Its presence is uncertain in the provinces of Toledo and Valencia (Rosselló-Graell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be smaller than 500 km².
161966		habitat	eng	<em>Marsilea batardae</em> is a perennial species growing at low altitudes, on clays and sands deposited in temporarily flooded areas (e.g. banks of streams) but also in rock fissures and in stony riverbeds. Its development is dependent on groundwater level and quality. The species prefers water that is poor in nutrients and salts but the biggest population is found in a rather eutrophic reservoir. It is probably a characteristic species of the class <em>Littorelletea</em> (Tüxen 1947).<br/><em></em>
161966		population	eng	<em>Marsilea batardae</em> presents a divided distribution area. The number of localities is close to 25.  In Portugal, the number of individuals, though not precisely estimated, may be considered as low (ICN 2006). On one hand about five  localities have disappeared due to the construction of the Alqueva  reservoir in Portugal, on the other hand around seven new localities have been found  in Spain since 2004, especially in the area of Andalucia (L. Medina pers. comm. 2010). The population for Spain has been estimated in 115,838 individuals     <a name="OLE_LINK1">(Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)</a>.<br/>In Spain, most of the populations extinct are  from the same area (Extremadura) due to river and basin transformations  for dams. Only a few populations from other areas disappeared due  to others reasons. In Portugal, some of the populations are disappearing  due to changes in crop areas in the Alentejo province.<br/><br/>The subpopulations are considered as severely fragmented as the population exchange is due to river water flow and an exchange is therefore mostly taking place downstream and linked to rainfall periods. In the past, it is suspected that the genetic exchange was due to traditional cattle movements (in Spanish "trashumancia"), when sheep move to high green areas in spring and return to low areas for the winter. This kind of cattle movement is not practised anymore.
161966		threats	eng	<em>Marsilea batardae</em>, previously considered as Vulnerable in Portugal (Dray 1985, Walter and Gillett 1997), was proposed as Endangered on the basis of the reduction of area induced by the construction of the Alqueva dam (Rosselló-Graell <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Spain, it was considered as Critically Endangered (Dominguez Lozano 2000), and more recently as Endangered (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004, Moreno 2008).<br/>The main threats are related to the general destruction and degradation of standing water bodies, the modifications of hydrological networks, notably through the construction of dams and the embankment of streams and the degradation of water quality. All these factors lead to a reduction of the natural habitat of <em>Marsilea batardae</em>, and seriously threaten its long-term survival.
161967		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed CR B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species, and in the regional catalogue of protected species.<br/><br/>It is found within the protected areas Reserva Natural Especial de Azuaje (SCI), Reserva Natural Integral del Barranco Oscuro (SCI), Reserva Natural Especial de Los Tilos de Moya and Parque Rural Doramas, as well as in the SCI Barranco de La Virgen.<br/>&#160;<br/>Seeds of the species are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de La Laguna. It has been included in a LIFE project and reinforcement plans have been locally developed. <br/><br/>Recuperation measures must be promoted, including the re-introduction of the species in the location currently extinct. Seeds from the different locations should be collected and stored.
161967		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span class="tooltip"><span style="font-style: italic;">Isoplexis chalcantha</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 400 and 900 m asl in the northern part of the island. It is found in four locations: Zumacal, Barranco la Virgen, Los Tilos and Los Propios. Two more locations were cited in the past but not recently found: Barranco Oscuro and Azuaje-Garañones, and one more reference has not been confirmed <span class="tooltip"> <span class="tooltip">(</span><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Marrero and Naranjo</span></span></span></span></span></span><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2004). <span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">It has been reported to present high fragmentation and regressive trends for its distribution (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). <br/>Its extent of occurrence has been estimated in around 12 km² (Á. Marrero pers. comm. 2011) and <span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">its total area of occupancy has been estimated in 2 km²<sup></sup> (Marrero and Naranjo 2004).<span class="tooltip"> </span></span></span></span></span></span>
161967		habitat	eng	It grows on slopes or understorey sites, on basaltic well-developed substrates, on the potential distribution range of laurel-leaved forests known as monteverde, within communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrico fayae-Ericetum arboreae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Visneo mocanerae-Arbutetum canariensis</span>. It tends to grow in rupicolous communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonietum virginii</span>, but currently it is found in marginal and degraded areas of these communities (<span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Marrero and Naranjo</span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/>Common accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus novocanariensis, Sonchus congestus, Rubus bollei, Chamaecytisus proliferus, Semele gayae, Erica arborea, Dryopteris oligodonta, Brachypodium sylvaticum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium virgineum.</span>
161967		population	eng	Total population size is estimated in 392 individuals: 230 individuals in Zumacal, 62 in Barranco La Virgen, 99 in Los Tilos and one single individual at Los Propios. Its population size has been reported to suffer important fluctuations and decreases. Fruits are frequently aborted during drought events and the expansion of the species is limited by its restricted dispersion capacity and low germination and recruitment levels (<span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Marrero and Naranjo</span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>
161967		threats	eng	Threats are taking and removal of flora and eutrophication  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Droughts are an important threat for the species (<span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Marrero and Naranjo</span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2004). The predation by rabbits <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryctolagus cuniculus</span>, mainly on seedlings and young individuals, along with periods of low precipitations also appears as an important population decreasing factor, as well as agriculture and occasional landslides.
161970		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>The site Carregal do Sal was mainly established because of the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus scaberulus</span>. It is recommended to control changes in land use such as afforestation and grazing by goats and to forbid quarrying on the sites (ICN 2006).
161970		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northcentral Portugal, where it occurs in the basin of the rivers Mondego, Seia and Cobral   (Sampaio 1946, Franco and Afonso 1994). Its geographic range is 1,043 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is very abundant along the Seia river valley and also abundant along  the Mondego, but becomes more scarce along the river Cobral. It also  occurs outside this area spread over the Mondego valley, until at least  30 km to the north. The area occupied by the species reaches at least  7,000 hectares. The sites outside the Mondego river were not surveyed,  so that the occupied area might be bigger than expected (ICN 2006).
161970		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus scaberulus</span> grows preferably in rocky outcrops of granitic origin. It is also frequent in poor soils or in scrubby sands. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>5230 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus nobilis</span></li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion</span> or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span></li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9330 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> forests</li></ul>
161970		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is around 10,000 individuals with an unknown population trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are not fragmented (ICN 2006).
161970		threats	eng	The threats are negligible. Expansion of forest plantations could reduce its range. As the species prefers poor soils there are no conflicts with agricultural expansion expected.
161971		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus umbellata</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
161971		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Portuguese islands of Madeira and Porto Santo (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
161971		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>9320<span style="font-style: italic;"> Olea</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ceratonia</span> forests</li><li>9360 Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)</li></ul>
161971		population	eng	Population has been recorded in 50 localities with a stable trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161971		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are urbanisation, disposal of household waste, construction of roads and tunnels, erosion and landslides (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161972		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The taxon is included in the regional catalogues of protected species of Galicia and Castilla y León. It is listed as VU D2 in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (</span>Carbajal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The majority of subpopulations occur in the protected area Parque Natural </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Serra da Enciña da Lastra, Ourense. In León, the species occurs within the SCI </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Montes Aquilianos-Sierra del Teleno. </span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">Climbing activities should be forbidden on walls where the species is present and quarrying has to be controlled. The location Sobrado, in León, should be object of strict protection (micro-reserve). Plant material should be collected and monitoring and research about variability should be developed. </span><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span>
161972		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocoptis grandiflora</span> is endemic to the provinces of Ourense and León, Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). It can be found in five locations, with an area of occupancy of 26 km² (Carbajal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
161972		habitat	eng	This pioneer hermaphrodite herb grows on cracks and ledges of calcareous-dolomitic walls (Carbajal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Leontodon farinosus, Saxifraga trifurcata, Campanula adsurgens, Erinus alpinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnus pumila </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> legionensis</span>, among others.
161972		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 48,740 individuals (Carbajal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The number of specimens in each subpopulation ranges from 407 to 21,680 depending on habitat availability. The population is in general stable and it seems that recruitment is appropriate (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161972		threats	eng	Open cast mining, mountaineering and rock climbing have been described as threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161973		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. There are no other conservation measures needed.
161973		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus calcicola</span> is found in central, southern and western Portugal and in the Spanish provinces of Badajoz, Granada and Almeria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010, Anthos 2009).<br/>The range in Portugal is 5,369 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161973		habitat	eng	It grows in limestone rock crevices, open shrub vegetation under <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span>, road sides, and rocky soil with humus accumulation (ICNB 2006). This species can grow in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
161973		population	eng	<p>  In Portugal, it is considered as relatively abundant and several populations are in places protected, and difficult to access (ICNB 2006). In Spain, there are only very few populations known, with a disjunct distribution. <br/></p>
161973		threats	eng	Main threats described for Portugal are quarries, other industrial/commercial areas, motorised vehicles, mountaineering, and rock climbing (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Collecting and grazing are also impacting this species.
161974		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus lotocephalus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus cephalotos</span>. This plant is legally protected in Portugal. The control of urban and agricultural expansion is recommended, as well as site management to control natural succession (ICN 2006).
161974		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the eastern Algarve in </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region> (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 1,838 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,600 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p><p>  </p>  <p>  </p>
161974		habitat	eng	This small shrub is present in open spaces of pine woods and xerophile shrubland&#160; on calcareous soils with clayey loam or sandy acid soils. Other habitats are thermo-Mediterranean shrub habitats and less frequently in coastal dune scrub, and coastal dune woods. It is found in the community <span style="font-style: italic;">Tuberario majoris-Stauracanthetum boivinii</span> (ICN 2006).<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia</span> dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li><li>2270 Wooded dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span></li><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li></ul>
161974		population	eng	<p>In the area of Pontal, the largest and most continuous population can be found. In the Ria Formosa Natural Park are some populations of good size and a large number of individuals. There are numerous small scattered populations, that have been isolated for decades in the agricultural mosaic of the Algarve countryside, before the expansion of orange groves (ICN 2006). The populations are severely fragmented and this fragmentation is continuing due to urban and agricultural expansion.<br/></p>
161974		threats	eng	The main pressure on the species are posed by urban and tourism expansion, including the creation of new golf courses, that leads to destruction and fragmentation of its habitat. Garbage disposal further degrades the habitat, whereas natural succession increases the competition for the species (ICN 2006).
161975		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis arbuscula</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/>The species occurs in the protected area Parque Natural Archipiélago Chinijo (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo. Proposed measures include development of population trend monitoring and establishment of more <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures. The population in Gran Canaria requires site protection <span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
161975		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis arbuscula</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain, being present in Gran Canaria (<span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis arbuscula</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">schizogynophylla</span>) and Lanzarote (<span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis arbuscula </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arbuscula</span>) (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). There are three known locations, one in Gran Canaria: Santa María de Guía; and two in Lanzarote: Teguise and Haría. The area of occupancy is 5 km².<br/>Regressive trends have been reported for the distribution of this species since the 1970s (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
161975		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">In Lanzarote it grows within coastal scrublands, on sandy substrates or sandy-stony ground within the community <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenoleo-Salsoletum vermiculatae</span> (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Frequent accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Salsola vermiculata, Lycium intricatum, Suaeda ifniensis, Ononis hesperia, Helianthemum canariense, Lavandula pinnata, Kleinia neriifolia, Euphorbia regis-jubae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cenchrus ciliaris.</span><br/><br/><span title="maresía."> In Gran Canaria, the species grows on slopes and edges of coastal cliffs as part of communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astydamio-Euphorbietum aphylla</span>e. Common accompanying taxa include: <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia aphylla, Astydamia latifolia, Euphorbia balsamifera,Limonium pectinatum, Lycium intricatum,Kleinia neriifolia </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Neochamaelea pulverulenta.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a hermaphrodite plant with pollination and dispersal by wind. <span title="La floración">Flowering occurs mainly in spring, peaking after the rainy season, when<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> many seedlings can be observed, though they present low rates of survival. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La floración">Fructification is concentrated mainly in <span title="mayo y julio.">May and July. High germination levels have been identified.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161975		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2.">I<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">n Gran Canaria, i<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2.">t has <span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">disappeared  from elsewhere in the north of the island where it had been collected  or observed in the past, but in the location of Santa María de Guía. <span title="Por"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por">The populations <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por">in Lanzarote<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por"> show slow expansion.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"> The total population is 2,952 individuals, and only 202 individuals were recorded in Gran Canaria (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161975		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">In Lanzarote the populations are affected by urbanisation and tourism, mainly due to construction of residential properties nearby the species locations. It is also affected by landslides and natural competition.&#160;<span title="vegetal natural.">In Gran Canaria, threats include changes in land use to agricultural uses and <span title="produce por las obras de acondicionamiento">landslides.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="maresía."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10.000 m2."><span title="schizogynophylla"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161976		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as CR A2abde; B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>It occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada (SCI), where a recovery plan is being developed by the regional government (Junta de Andalucía). Its main subpopulation is fenced, tracks have been modified, competition phenomena have been eliminated. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz and&#160; Banco de Germoplasma de Sierra Nevada.<br/></p>
161976		distribution	eng	This species is native to the south of&#160; Spain  (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010), endemic to the northwestern part of Sierra Nevada (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It can be found in one single location, distributed intro three small subpopulations, though most of the individuals occur in one of them (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Its area of occupancy has been reported to be lower than 1 km<sup>2</sup>.
161976		habitat	eng	<p>This annual herb occurs within scrublands<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> and woodlands<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, which provide shelter against hervibores, on calcareous substrates in slopes facing north or northwest (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus sabina, Juniperus communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hemisphaerica, Astragalus granatensis, Erinacea anthyllis, Satureja intricata, Berberis hispanica, Conopodium thalictrifolium, Festuca indigesta, Inula montana,</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> Scabiosa turolensis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">turolensis, Amelanchier ovalis, Festuca hystrix, Koeleria crassipes </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus ramburii</span>.</p><p>It is a hermaphrodite species. In absence of predators more than 90% of the flowers produce viable fruits.<br/></p>
161976		population	eng	<p>Total population size has been reported to be 44,063 individuals   (Gutiérrez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). Population trend is increasing due to the fencing of the main population nuclei.<br/></p>
161976		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the presence of herbivores, which prey on the species and cause soil nitrification and trampling (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The low ecological plasticity of the species is also a threat. Other reported threats are urbanised areas and human habitation   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161978		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vincetoxicum pannonicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>This plant is classed as Endangered on the national Red List (Király 2007). It is strictly protected and all localities are on protected areas.
161978		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Hungary, where it is rare in the Buda Hills and in the Villányi Hills of southern Transdanubia. The AOO is less than 200 km². It is found at not more than five locations in two small regions (G. Király pers. comm. 2010).
161978		habitat	eng	Dry, rocky grassland on limestone and dolomite are the preferred habitat. This species is characteristic of the Habitats Directive listed habitats 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" and 6190 "Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (S<span style="font-style: italic;">tipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161978		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is between 2,100 and 2,200 individuals with a stable population trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The subpopulations are fragmented.
161978		threats	eng	The use of pesticides, open cast mining, and recreational activities such as walking, horse riding, paragliding or ballooning have been described as important threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161979		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trisetum subalpestre</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened (B2a) (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected by national law. The same category, Near Threatened, has been applied to the species in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010) where the species is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). Over 30% of the sites are in the Natura 2000 network. It is also protected in Norway and listed as Endangered B1a(i,ii)b(ii,iii,iv,v)+2a(i,ii)b(ii,iii,iv,v);C1 (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
161979		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trisetum subalpestre </span>is native to Finland, Norway and Sweden. The global distribution of the species is very disjunct with one part in Fennoscandia and a wide distribution in Siberia. The Norwegian Red List (Artsdatabanken 2010) states that there are more than 2,000 km to the nearest sites, the Yenisei and Sajanfjella in southern Siberia and that the species is extremely rare in Siberia.<br/>In Sweden, the extent of occurrence is 5,368 km² and the area of occupancy is 80 km². It is found along two major rivers at around 20 localities (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, it is found along three rivers in the north: Reisa river, Kautokeino and Western Jakobselv. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km². It is found at less than five locations and is severely fragmented (Artsdatabanken).<br/>The surface range of the species in Finland is 2,066 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and the area of occupancy is around 20 km²<span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It can therefore be suspected that the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² in Europe.</span>
161979		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trisetum subalpestre</span> is found along rivers and rivulets in gravel and in cliff ledges, within the upper inundation zone of large rivers (seasonally submerged).
161979		population	eng	In Finland, there are 29 sites with 610 individuals (tufts) and a total number of 1,400 flowering stems have been recorded. The populations are situated along two main rivers. The stands are fairly small, but no decline in the populations has been noticed. <br/><br/>In Sweden, the population is around 50,000 individuals and is considered to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Norway, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trisetum subalpestre</span> has a very limited number of occurrences within a small area and a few individuals at each locality, with certain fluctuations. In 1983, the main population was lost through construction of a dam and regulation of the Alta/Kautokeino watercourse. Before the regulation approx. 40 individual occurrences were known, afterwards only one locality was discovered by Virdnegoika. At the Reisa river one plant was found in 2006, but three new deposits were found in 2009. It is suspected that there might be more localities upriver. The site at the West Jakobselv was discovered in 1867, and rediscovered only in 1966. It was still remaining in 2006, perhaps with a hundred plants. The number of individuals in Norway in total probably exceeds 1,000 (Artsdatabanken 2010).
161979		threats	eng	Management of the water level is a serious threat to this species but it is not clear whether this threat is ongoing. It is not an actual threat in Sweden as the two watersheds where the species occurs have been excluded from hydroelectrical exploration by law. <br/>The threats in Finland are random factors (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010).<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
161981		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria pseudarmeria</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and is legally protected in Portugal.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations">The populations at Azóia and Cabo da Roca should be monitored regarding the harvest levels. Further measures for the species sites include the promotion of traditional agriculture and extensive grazing, control and removal of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edulis</span>, and protection of the sites where needed (ICN 2006).<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161981		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Portugal where it occurs in the region around Lisbon and Sintra (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 557 km²    and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161981		habitat	eng	It is found in soils originated from granular igneus rocks. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic Limonium spp.</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>Also present in arable land with unmixed crops grown by low-intensity agricultural methods. It sometimes behaves like a colonising species after disturbance, but it does not show invasive characteristics (ICN 2006).
161981		population	eng	The biggest subpopulation is estimated to host around 80,000 individuals, distributed more or less continuously from Rebolo to Vale da Ribeira da Ursa. The second biggest population is located on basaltic soil in Magoito/Samarra, and is thought to have several thousand individuals. Of further importance are the populations located in the region of Malveira (Loures). The remaining subpopulations are isolated from each other by a few kilometres and have sizes in the order of hundreds of individuals (ICN 2006).<br/>The populations are declining. The subpopulations are severely fragmented, one of the reasons might be the loss of ecological corridors by removing dry stone walls that traditionally separated the agricultural fields.
161981		threats	eng	Abandonment of the traditional mosaic agriculture with forestry and pastoral activities, leads to vegetation succession and the encroachment of shrubs which pose a competition to <span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria pseudarmeria</span>. It is also competing with the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edulis</span> which limits the growth of juveniles and affects population dynamics. Collection of the plant is a further threat, as is overgrazing (ICN 2006), urbanisation, and instalment of wind turbines.
161982		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> leptocarpa</span> is included as "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Castilla-La Mancha. It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) B2ab(iii); D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). Eight subpopulations of Campo de Montiel occur within the protected area SCI Sierra del Relumbrar y estribaciones de Alcaraz". Grazing activities should be controlled and the use of insecticides in the surrounding areas should be regulated, for it may affect pollinators.</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rupestris</span> is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the catalogue of threatened species of Spain and in the regional catalogue of Castilla-La Mancha. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ac(iv) in the Spanish Red List. The two biggest populations are included in a SCI Estrecho de Hocino y la Molata. A recovery plan is in place and the area has been declared a micro-reserve. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz, Córdoba, and ETSIA, Madrid. Reintroduction actions have not been successful.&#160;</p><p>During flowering, grazing species access and insecticide and pesticide use should be avoided.<br/></p><p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/></p>
161982		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>is present in south-central Spain. Two subspecies have been considered.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Coincya rupestris </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> leptocarpa</span> is endemic to Campo de Montiel and Campo de Calatrava, in the provinces of Albacete and Ciudad Real, Spain (Copete<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is distributed into five locations, comprising 12 subpopulations. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 19 km².<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rupestris</span> is endemic to the provinces of Albacete and Ciudad Real, Spain (Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It is distributed into four locations: Alcaraz, Salobre, Moral de Calatrava and Torre de Juan Abad. It area of occupancy has been reported to be 6 km².
161982		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> leptocarpa </span>grows within rupicolous communities in two typical ecological situations: in crags and cracks, along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Umbilicus rupestris, Sedum brevifolium, Linaria saxatilis, Digitalis purpurea </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> mariana, Dianthus lusitanus, Ceterach officinarum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium trichomanes</span> ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. quadrivalens</span>; or on fallen materials at the foot of the crags, along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex induratus, Phagnalon saxatile, Lamarckia aurea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercurialis annua </span>(Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>When pressure by grazing is low the species can also be found in grasslands. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>Coincya rupestris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rupestris </span>grows in rocks, including fissures and escarpment edges (Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Under limited grazing pressures it can colonize nearby grasslands and shrublands. Some subpopulations grow in limestone shaded rocks coexisting with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium arundanum, Umbilicus rupestres, Jaasonia glutinosa, Linaria anticaria</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species can also be found in quartz shaded rocks associated to <span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus lusitanicus, Pasiones mariana, Linaria saxatilis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex induratus</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La germinación tiene lugar">During the summer half of the seedlings die, with sufficient survivors to ensure continuity of populations in the absence of external disturbances. Both subspecies show good germination percentages in laboratory and form viable seedbanks (J.M. Herranz pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><span title="externas."><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="semillas."><span title="En Salobre"><span title="lepidópteros, así como mayor herbivoría por la"><span title="presencia de cabra montés."><span title="leptocarpa, siendo C."><span title="y C."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161982		population	eng	Total population size for <span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> leptocarpa </span>has been estimated in 10,391 individuals (Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It seems to present a good population structure in terms of age classes.<br/><br/>Population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> rupestris</span> has been reported to be 3,750 individuals (Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La germinación tiene lugar"><span title="externas.">High interannual variability in population size has been observed.<br/></span></span>
161982		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threat to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is grazing, which leads to low reproductive success (Copete<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, 2008). Tourism has been also reported as a threat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Coincya rupestris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rupestris</span>, for it occurs in areas with high value as landscape.<br/>Herranz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) report that anthropogenic pressures on the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">leptocarpa</span> are not very important because of the ecology of the plant, although overgrazing has been observed. <br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><span title="Incrementos"><span title="perjudiciales."></span>
161983		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinellia phryganodes</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>    <p>This plant is listed as Critically Endangered A2ac in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). The species is protected by law and named as a  species under strict protection (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005).  All known seven sites are situated in Natura 2000 areas. </p><p> It is categorized as Near Threatened (NT) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). It is not protected in Norway or Svalbard and listed as Least Concern (Artsdatabanken 2010).</p><p><br/></p>
161983		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Puccinellia phryganodes </span>has a circumpolar distribution and is native to Finland, Norway, Svalbard, Northern European Russia, and Novaya-Zemlya   (Lid and Lid 2005). Its extent of occurrence in Finland is 650 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009) but the area of occupancy is less than 10 km².
161983		habitat	eng	<p>In Norway, it has been reported from salt marshes and meadows bordering the sea. In Russia, it grows in swamps near the sea. It is found in flat saline patches in Finland: if the water level rises then the soil releases salts. The largest subpopulation in Finland is on the seaside, on newly risen land. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
161983		population	eng	<p>It is common in Norway and Svalbard. In Norway, it is always found by the sea but in Svalbard it can be further away from the shore (Lid and Lid 2005). The population trend is stable. In Novaya Zemlya it only reproduces vegetatively and there is no population trend for Russia.<br/></p><p>In Finland, the population of the species has declined dramatically. There are  remarkable yearly variations in the population size. However, over 90%  of the total area of the population has disappeared during the last 40  years. The species is nowadays found at seven localities only occupying an actual area of 1 ha.<br/>  </p><p><br/></p>
161983		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for Norway and there is no information on threats in Russia.</p><p>In Finland, the most severe threats are overgrowth of meadows and other open habitats, eutrophication of the Baltic Sea and coasts and construction.<br/><br/></p>
161984		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dryopteris fragrans</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed as Near Threatened in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). It is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree  913/2005) and nearly all the known sites are in Kevo Strict Nature Reserve.
161984		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dryopteris fragrans </span>is a fern native to Finland that has an extent of occurrence of 800 km² and an area of occupancy of 44 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The nearest population of this plant is situated in the Ural mountains in Russia.
161984		habitat	eng	This fern grows in alpine rock outcrops and boulder fields (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The species grows in the middle of block of stones, sometimes hidden by rocks. It also grows on the surface of rocks covered by lichens. It does not grow on recently disturbed rocky landslides. The undisturbed habitat is indicated by thick cover of lichens and mosses.
161984		population	eng	The population has been calculated as 2,700 tufts and is stable <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is one large and one small subpopulation.
161984		threats	eng	There are no actual threats now, but climate change may become a threat in future.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
161985		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is also protected under national law in Portugal (ICNB 2006).
161985		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwest of Portugal (Algarve, Estremadura and Alentejo), where its extent of occurrence is increasing. It is introduced in the southwest of France and in northeast Italy.
161985		habitat	eng	It occurs on sandy wet soils, in sand dunes, in forest clearings and it apparently disappears when the forest encroaches (ICNB 2006). It is sometimes found as a semi-ruderal species along road sides. This species can withstand moderate trampling.
161985		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
161985		threats	eng	The main threats are urbanisation, sport and leisure infrastructure, such as golf courses for example.
161986		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Antirrhinum lopesianum</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. <br/><br/>It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Castilla y León. It is listed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(v); C2a(i); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de Arribes del Duero. The location in Salamanca is expected to be included in an SCI.<br/><br/>In Portugal, the species presents poor prospects and it is likely to struggle unless conditions change. It is classifiable as Critically Endangered in this country (Bernardos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), based on IUCN criteria, i.e., area of occupancy less than 10 km²<sup></sup>,  severely fragmented, number of mature individuals declining, and only  284 mature individuals in total: CR B2ab(v) (Bernardos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>Seeds should be collected and stored in germplasm banks, education and awareness programmes for visitors should be developed. Population trend monitoring should be kept in place.
161986		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, occurring at the northeastern border of Portugal with Spain. Its main population is located in Portugal. In Spain, the species is known from four subpopulations (Iriondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). According to Bernardos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) there are four subpopulations in Portugal, in the rivers Sabor-Maças and five-six more subpopulations can be found in the border of Portugal and Spain, along Duero river. Total number of subpopulations is, therefore, around ten. Areas of occupancy of around 0.029 km² in Portugal and 2 km² in Spain, have been reported.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161986		habitat	eng	This perennial chamaephyte grows on calcareous rocks on the banks of the River Duero (northeast Portugal and central western Spain) and River Sabor (northeast Portugal). It has a linear spatial distribution of individuals along the banks of rivers. Flowering occurs in spring (April-May), and fructification in summer (July-September); it is insect pollinated.<br/><br/>In Portugal, this herb grows in fissures in more or less  overhanging granitic walls with carbonate crusts, facing north or east,  in association with <em>Rumici-Dianthion lusitani</em> communities. In Spain, it occurs on steep granitic walls with carbonate crusts, within casmophytic communities. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Phagnalon saxatile</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex induratus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus lusitanus</span>. In Salamanca, the Iberian endemism <span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularia valdesii</span> can also be found growing along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Antirrhinum lopesianum</span>.
161986		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">In Spain, total population size has been reported to be 248 individuals,  from which 242 specimens occur in the location Corporario (Salamanca),  which appears fragmented. Extreme annual fluctuations have been observed  in the number of mature individuals due to drought events (González Talaván </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2004). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Four subpopulations occur in Portugal, in the rivers  Sabor-Maças and five-six more subpopulations can be found in the border  of Portugal and Spain, along the Duero river. The total number of subpopulations  is therefore around ten.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Total number of individuals thought to exist is only 768 (Bernardos</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> et</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> 2006), distributed along the valley of the River Duero on the Spanish-Portuguese border (562, 71.2%), and in the Portuguese Sabor River valley (206, 26.8%).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161986		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is loss of habitat: about one third of the Iberian populations can be considered threatened (Bernardos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). In Portugal, main threats affecting the species are collection, leisure and tourism impacts, trampling caused by the use of paths and cycling tracks, forest planting activities, water pollution and drying out (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Spain, main threats to the species is its poor reproductive strategy (González Talaván <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Furthermore, the location in Salamanca is close to a recreational area and it is easily accessible.
161987		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia genipi</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive and collection of this species is controlled.<br/><br/>In some regions of Austria, a permission is needed to collect the species. In Switzerland, it is protected and classed as Least Concern. It is also protected in Slovenia and classed as Rare in the Red Data Book. In Italy, it is listed as Vulnerable at regional level. There is no national protection in France, but in some departements and collection is controlled in Hautes-Alpes. This plant is partially found in protected areas.
161987		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia genipi</span> is endemic to the Alps and can be found in Austria, France, Italy, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. There are unconfirmed samples from the Pyrenees.
161987		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>This plant prefers calcareous and moist rocky habitats from alpine up to subnival level (1,400 to more than 2,500 m altitude). It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/></p><ul><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>8120 Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspietea rotundifolii</span>) <br/></li><li>8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsacetalia alpinae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeopsietalia ladani</span>)</li><li>8340 Permanent glaciers</li></ul>      <p><br/></p>  <p></p>
161987		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable and the species is common.<br/><br/>In Austria, 100,000-1,000,000 individuals have been counted (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Slovenia, there is only one small subpopulation, but Italy hosts many subpopulations and it is common in Switzerland.
161987		threats	eng	Locally, the collection for the use in drinks and medicine can affect this species. Mountaineering might be a potential threat as well as skiing tourism. Climate change might be a potential future threat.<span style="background-color: green;"></span><span style="background-color: green;"><br/></span>
161989		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria rouyana</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal. The following conservation measures are recommended (ICN 2006):<br/><ul><li> Encouraging sustainable forestry practices, i.e. keep the cycles of forest clearing to 3-5 years and avoid activities between November and July</li><li>Keep clearings in pine forests open</li><li>Regulate changes in land use for intensive agricultural uses or urban expansion and tourism</li><li>Contain and convert <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> stands in the area of the lower Sado basin and <span class="tooltip">Tróia-Sines</li><li>Halt the spread of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edulis</span></li><li>Promote micro-sites to increase the connectivity between the centres of abundance</li></ul>
161989		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Portugal where it is found in the southwest, in the lower basin of the Tejo, the river Sado, and the southwest coast (ICN 2006). The extent of occurrence is 6,200 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161989		habitat	eng	This small perennial occurs on very porous substrates and dry paleodunes and less frequently in sandy soils derived from tertiary sandstones. This plant demonstrated a preference for open areas in low and sparse shrublands (often associated with pine trees). It often behaves as a pioneer and colonizes clearings resulting from disturbance. It is found in shrublands dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Halimium commutatum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Stauracanthus</span> spp. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulex australis</span>. Once the pine canopy closes and the understorey becomes more dense, the species becomes less abundant (ICN 2006).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2150 Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Calluno-Ulicetea</span>)</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia </span>dune grasslands</li><li>2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>2260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia</span> dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li><li>2270 Wooded dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span></li><li>2330 Inland dunes with open <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis</span> grasslands</li></ul>
161989		population	eng	<span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">This plant has a relatively broad distribution. It has several "centres of abundance" but can also be found outside those in smaller and less dense populations. The subpopulations host normally tens of individuals and have different distances to each other. <br/><p><span class="tooltip">There are three main subpopulations: The centre of Ribatejo in the area of Muje-Salvaterra de Magos, Moita-Coina-Palmela and the lower basin of the Sado, and the coast of Tróia-Sines. The latter two subpopulations seem to be connected to the Setúbal region via small populations that are far apart from each other. The distribution patterns between the three subpopulations differ considerably. The Tejo basin populations are significantly dispersed and become more rare in the central zone. In the lower Sado basin and the coast of <span class="tooltip">Tróia-Sines<span class="tooltip"> two distinct behaviours are prevalent: in the south bank of the Sado estuary the localities are almost one big one comprising thousands of individuals. Upstream along the Sado and south along the coast of <span class="tooltip">Tróia-Sines<span class="tooltip"> the population nuclei are more distinct, remote and hold up to several tens of individuals. The southern limit of the distribution is marked by a small peripheral population south of Sines (ICN 2006).</span></span></p><p><span class="tooltip">The subpopulations in the areas of Muje-Salvaterra de Magos and Moita-Coina-Palmela show signs of reduced polymorphism and  variability in the "centres of abundance". It is difficult to predict the rates of extinction versus new colonisation in the lower Sado basin <span class="tooltip">and the coast of Tróia-Sines <span class="tooltip">(ICN 2006)<span class="tooltip">.</span></span></p></span>
161989		threats	eng	In the area of ​​Muje-Salvaterra de Magos the area of ​​suitable habitat has been reduced due to changes in land use, specifically the expansion of intensive agriculture that involves the use of large areas, topographical adjustments or irrigation of formerly dry land. Pine plantations lead to overgrowth of the shrubland which affects the regeneration cycle of this species.<br/>In the area of Moita-Coina-Palmela the main threat is posed by urban expansion.<br/>In the lower Sado basin and the coast of <span class="tooltip">Tróia-Sines, the most significant threat is the conversion of the shrubland habitat into <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> plantations and the presence of extensive stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>. As resin tapping is a main vocation in the heathland pine stands, there is a tendency to have large and high pine stands which causes the problem of overshading.<br/>Although the species benefits from a certain level of disturbance (e.g. cutting of woods and moving of soil), an intensification of the disturbance can be harmful. Frequent and large-scale shrub clearing can lead to depletion of the soil seed bank.<br/>The change of land use through the implementation of tourism projects is another major threat (ICN 2006).
161990		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed as VU B2ab(iii,v); D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p>It occurs within the protected areas Parque Natural de Sierra Nevada and Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, where a species conservation plan is developed. Degradation and conversion of its habitat has to be avoided in order to ensure the conservation of this species. Areas of special conservation should be established and presence of grazing species has to be controlled. Population trends should be monitored and corrective measures should be implemented according to the results.
161990		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra Nevada, provinces of Granada and Almería, southern Spain (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Its distribution has been described as fragmented, and it is present in five locations (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 35 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
161990		habitat	eng	This plant occurs on deep, well developed soils with high content of organic matter and certain waterlogging, within grassland communities called "borreguiles". The species grows on areas not flooded on surface. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta, Festuca iberica, Plantago nivalis, Sagina nevadensis, Campanula herminii, Euphrasia willkommii, Lotus glareosus, Trifolium repens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadense, Carex intrincata, Gentiana boryi, Gentiana sierrae, Botrychium lunaria </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vaccinium uliginosum </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nanum.</span>
161990		population	eng	Total population size has been reported to be between one and two million individuals, from which 480,000-640,000 produce flowers in the year (Blanca<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000). Regressive patterns have been identified for its population size.
161990		threats	eng	Overgrazing has been described as an important threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The ecological specificity of the species and the discontinuity of its habitat determine the restricted and fragmented distribution of the taxon (Blanca<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000). Alteration of water courses and tourism have been reported as threats. The species presents small size and tends to appear in groups over a small area, so the alteration of a small portion of its habitat may imply the destruction of several hundreds of individuals.
161991		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula sadleriana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Hungary, it is strictly protected and classed as Endangered on the national Red List (Király 2007). It is found in several botanic gardens as it is easy to cultivate. Most populations are found in protected areas (more than 95% of individuals are in protected areas in Hungary).<br/><br/>The species occurs in two Natura 2000 sites covering 100% of its localities in Slovakia and it is classified as Critically Endangered (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>Conservation measures that are needed is appropriate protection against grazing such as fencing.
161991		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Carpathian basin and found in Hungary, Slovakia and Romania (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). <br/><br/> The AOO is estimated to be less than 100 km² in total and less than 10 km² in Hungary. In Hungary, it is known from five localities in the mountains and it is fragmented. The plant has been found in only one locality in Romania, in the Cheile Turzii Gorge, in Transylvania (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Slovakia, which is at the northern limit of the range, there are three subpopulations on two localities in the Slovenský kras Karst: one subpopulation above Pašková village (the Koniarska planina Plateau) and two subpopulations above Slavec (the Plešivecká planina Plateau) (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
161991		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula sadleriana</span> is found in grasslands and forest edges but also in secondary habitats such as road sides and stone mines.<br/><br/>In Slovakia it occurs on limestone and dry rock slopes immediately under the plateau edges with steppe grassland, scrub to forest-steppe vegetation in the altitudes of 480-620 m (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>It occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li></ul>
161991		population	eng	In Hungary 5,000 to 6,000 flowering stems have been recorded   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>In Slovakia the number of flowering individuals in the (micro) localities  ranges from 4-159, the number of sterile individuals from 275 to 756. Subpopulations were artificially reinforced by the planting of  individuals cultivated in the Botanical Garden of the Pavol Jozef  Šafárik University in Košice from locally sourced seeds. In spite of efforts to preserve the species, the number  of subpopulations has been decreasing and the species is  in danger of extinction. (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). The overall population trend is decreasing and it is severely fragmented.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161991		threats	eng	The main threat is grazing by mouflon in Hungary. One population was threatened by a stone mine, however the stone mine has been abandoned. Natural succession on the secondary sites (such as road sides) and human trampling are potential threats.<br/><br/>In Slovakia the plant is threatened by the encroachment of woody plants and expansive herbs, grazing and trampling by animals (especially by the introduced mouflon), and mildew infection of seeds (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
161992		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe conioides</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is classed as Critically Endangered (level 1) in the German Red List (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). A monitoring programme is in place. <br/><br/>Protection of the remaining sites and ensuring natural dynamics of the Elbe floodplain are most important to conserve this species. This includes that no construction on its sites should take place and that degraded habitats should be restored (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008).<br/><br/>Information on population size,  number of localities, whether they are severely fragmented or  whether there are extreme fluctuations, or the rate of decline in the last three generations is required, in order to carry out a threat assessment
161992		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe conioides</span> is endemic to Germany   where it can only be found at the river Elbe and its distributaries under tidal influence, in the federal estates Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, and Niedersachsen (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008). Its EOO is around 2,000 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161992		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe conioides</span> grows on areas influenced by tides with periodically flooded mud flats or sometimes also sandy soils. It can temporarily inhabit newly dredged areas. This species is a pioneer on sites that are poor in or free from vegetation (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008).
161992		population	eng	There is no information on the size of the population or number of localities available. Subpopulations have been lost in the past.
161992		threats	eng	The main threat is a loss of its tidal habitat. A significant number of localities was destroyed or degraded in the past due to measures to improve flood prevention or the navigation of ships. Further construction in this area poses a significant threat.
161993		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the Habitats Directive 43/92/CEE. The plants community where it lives is listed in Annex I of the same Directive (habitat code 8210).</p>  <p>The greater portion of its distribution range is included in protected areas such as the Alto Garda Bresciano Park and in several Sites of European Interest (e.g. SIC: IT2070021-Valvestino, IT2070022-Corno della Marogna,&#160; IT3120093-Crinale Pichea- Rocchetta, IT3120094-Alpe di Storo e Bondone, IT3120103-Monte Baldo di Brentonico, IT3120104-Monte Baldo – Cima Valdritta, IT3120116-Monte Malachin, IT3120127-Monti Tremalzo e Tombea, IT3210039-Monte Baldo ovest).</p>    <p>During a LIFE project (LIFE03NAT/IT/000147) an experimental restoration plan of the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> was carried out. The LIFE Project promoted a series of investigations to identify the main growth sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> with the aim to monitor their ecological characteristics and the morphological and vegetative conditions of the species. </p>  Selective tree and shrub clearings were carried out at medium-altitude sites to increase the amount of light getting to the cushions and to re-establish ecological conditions more favourable to the growth and reproduction of the species. Seeds are stored in seedbanks (Lombardy and Trentino Alto-Adige).
161993		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the Italian Alps where it can be found in Lombardia, Veneto, and Trentino Alto-Adige.</p><p>    </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">It is present in the southeastern </a>Alps, mostly in the eastern Lombardy Pre-Alps and Raethian Alps. It can be found in the Garda Pre-Alps, particularly in the Tremalzo-Caplone-Tombea group and the Cadria-Tofino group, marginally in the Bondone-Stivo-Baldo group. Some populations are also present in the Brescia Pre-Alps (C.ma Caldoline, Sonclino) and in the Southern Rhaetian Alps (Val di Non Alps).<br/></p>    <p>The extent of occurrence, measured by means of a GIS database, is 1,449 km<sup>2</sup>, while the area of occupancy is 120 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>  <p></p>
161993		habitat	eng	<p>This is a chasmophytic species (cushion plant) that grows on limestone and dolomitic vertical cliffs. The cushions of this species can be found in rocky soils: rocky edges and longitudinal cracks of rocky walls. In these ecological niches <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> is present along with lithophylous species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla caulescens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne petraea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Physoplexis comosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex firma</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Primula spectabilis</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paederota bonarota</span>. Its altitudinal distribution ranges from 700 m to 2,150 m. The subpopulations growing under 1,600 m of altitude, below the present treeline, show mainly a northern exposure.</p>
161993		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> Boiss. ex Engler are severely fragmented and the species is rare within its range. The number of subpopulations with a mutual distance of more than 500 m are less than 40. There are no quantitative data about all of the subpopulations. Some studies conducted in the Garda Pre-Alps have estimated the presence of 1,000-1,500 cushions. The estimated population size is about 5,000 mature individuals.</p>
161993		threats	eng	<p>This plant has a low degree of seed germination in nature and a low density of individuals within the subpopulations. Currently, a change in native species dynamics due to competitors such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostrya carpinifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mugo</span> takes place in its habitat and negatively impacts the survival of this species. It is also harvested by collectors and gardeners. </p>  <p>Global warming is another threat to this species. The trend of global warming has regionally been measured by a strong increase of the mean annual temperature in the last 30 years, which has been recorded in the meteorological stations close to the distribution range of the species. </p>
161994		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<span style="font-style: italic;"> B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">hilarionis </span>is listed in Annex I of the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is classified as Endangered in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus  (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. hilarionis</span> held in European genebanks. One is stored in the National Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus and another in Warwick HRI Genetic Resources Unit, United Kingdom (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). The location of the other two accessions is not provided. Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <p>The inaccessibility of the habitat of this species provides some protection (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It also occurs in one National Forest Park. However, due to the small population size and decline, measures need to be put in place to monitor this species.<br/></p>
161994		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">hilarionis </span>is endemic to Cyprus where it is restricted to the west part of Pentadaktylos range. It is known from seven localities, most of which are in state forest land from Kornos peak in the west to Giailas in the east (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Its <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 350 km<sup>2</sup></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> and i</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">ts extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
161994		habitat	eng	It is found on limestone cliffs at altitudes of 400–850 m (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
161994		population	eng	Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded three subpopulations of this species. The overall population is estimated to be 600 plants (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals and there are less than 250 mature individuals in each subpopulation.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span></span>
161994		threats	eng	It is threatened by overgrazing, potentially also by hybridization with cultivated cabbage and due to small population size, by stochastic environmental events (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Inbreeding depression is also likely to be taking place (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
161995		conservation	eng	It is listed as priority species on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and has been listed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(i,ii,iii); C2a(i) <span style="background-color: white;">(Corvelo 2010).</span><br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. watsoniana </span>are reported by EURISCO to be stored in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, it is in cultivation in the botanical garden of Faial, Azores, where seeds are also stored.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas but this does not stop invasion by exotic species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrangea macrophylla</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardnerianum</span>, which greatly reduce its habitat, and invasive rabbits that feed on it and might be especially problematic for seedlings and young plants (H. Schaefer pers. comm. 2010). It is currently monitored by the local conservation department and the Azorean biodiversity group of the Universidade dos Açores.
161995		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. watsoniana </span>is endemic to the Azores where it has been collected from Faial, Pico, São Miguel, Terceira and São Jorge (Schaefer 2002, 2003).&#160;<span style="background-color: white;"></span>Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
161995		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">It grows in volcanic   craters and deep narrow ravines, in juniper forests between 500 and 870 m   (Feráková 1977, </span>Schaefer <span style="background-color: white;">2002, 2003), and in scrublands. </span>It favours habitats rich in water and nutrients and has a preference for altitude—55 % of the populations studied were between 800 and 900 m (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Habitats Directive habitats where this species can occur are: Macaronesian mesophile grasslands and endemic forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus brevifolia</span> (a priority habitat) (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
161995		population	eng	It has been recorded at eight localities   (Universidade dos Açores 2008) and has been described as scattered, very rare and in danger of extinction (Schaefer 2002, 2003). Sjögren (2001) noted that in the few localities in which it is found, there is a small number of plants and Schaefer (2005) recorded a total of 500–1,000 plants. There are very few young plants in the population; the reason is unknown, but it might be related to herbivore pressure (introduced rabbits) or a decrease in pollinators (H. Schaefer pers. comm. 2010<span style="background-color: white;">)</span>.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/> <br/>The Commission of the European Communities (2009<span style="background-color: white;">)</span> reported that this species has "poor propects" and is "likely to struggle unless conditions change", but also that its range trend was stable during the period 1992–2006 and that the population trend was increasing during the period 1992–2005. However, this information is erroneous; according to H. Schaefer (pers. comm. 2010) this reported increase was due to some new populations that were recorded after monitoring began recently that had previously been overlooked and does not represent an increase in the population. The population has been decreasing during the past two centuries (Schaefer 2003).
161995		threats	eng	The main threats are livestock grazing and invasive species leading to a reduction in suitable habitat.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> Threats reported by the Commission of the European Communities (2009) include:<br/><ul><li>Restructuring agricultural land holdings.</li><li>Agriculture and  forestry activities.</li><li>Erosion.</li><li>Collapse of terrain / landslides.</li><li>Volcanic activity.</li><li>Invasive species.<br/></li><li>Damage by game species.</li></ul>
161997		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cerastium alsinifolium</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000).
161997		distribution	eng	This species is native to the Czech Republic where it has an extent of occurrence of 133 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161997		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cerastium alsinifolium</span> can be found with chasmophytic vegetation of siliceous cliffs, serpentine pine forests, different habitat on shallow serpentine soils (dry and also wet) – meadows, heaths, springs and forest ways   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161997		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cerastium alsinifolium</span> has been recorded in 37 localities and its population trend is stable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161997		threats	eng	The main threats are abandonment of pastoral systems, forestry management, eutrophication, and invasion by a species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161998		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> It is listed EN B1ab(iii,iv,v)+2ab(iii,iv,v); C1</span> in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). At regional level it is listed as species "En peligro de extinción".<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
161998		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus ghomerythus</span> is an endemic species to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain. It occurs in two locations on the northern part of the island: Cuevas Blancas-Riscos de Taguluche and Riscos de Agulo (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). One more location has disappeared and two more have not been recently foun<span style="background-color: white;">d. Its extent of occurrence is lower than 20 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy has been estimated in 1.75 km<sup>2</sup>. Decreasing trends have been observed for its distribution.</span>
161998		habitat	eng	This species grows on cliffs and basaltic ancient ridges. It grows within the vegetation community <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Greenovietum diplocyclae</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It currently occurs on restricted areas of difficult access where the species finds shelter against predators. The quality of the habitat is decreasing (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
161998		population	eng	Its total population size has been estimated in 978 individuals    (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Gobierno de Canarias 2009) and has a decreasing trend (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
161998		threats	eng	Main threat for this species is grazing. Subpopulations still existing are those that remain inaccessible to grazing livestock   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Erosion and landslides due to livestock trampling have been also reported as a threat (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
161999		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago malato-belizii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Managing the species sites and raising public awareness are necessary conservation actions. The biology and ecology of the species and its population dynamics should be studied (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
161999		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madeira, Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>, where it is found in the Central Mountain Massif above 1,500 m asl (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its extent of occurrence is 294 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
161999		habitat	eng	It grows in ravines and on terraces with soil accumulations and in high altitude heathland (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bystropogono punctati-Telinion maderensis </span>and is found in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 4050 "Endemic Macaronesian heaths"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
161999		population	eng	The populations are small and scattered with probably more than 1,000 mature individuals and the population trend was thought to be stable (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
161999		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to the invasion of exotic species which also increases competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. malato-belizii</span>. Trampling, recreational activities, fires and natural factors such as droughts and landslides are affecting the species (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). A major fire took place in summer 2010 in the species range.
162000		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium multiflorum </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. This plant requires further taxonomic research as well as the collection of information on population size and trend. The use of paths near this plant should be regulated to avoid trampling (ICN 2006).
162000		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region> where it occurs along the west coast between Cabo Mondego and Cascais (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 900 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162000		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows in rocky coastal cliffs up to 50 m asl. It is characteristic of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonietum multiflori virgatae</span>, alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmo-Daucion halophili</span>, class <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmo-Staticetea</span> (ICN 2006). <span class="tooltip">This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li><span class="tooltip">1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> spp.</li><li><span class="tooltip">1330 Atlantic salt meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Glauco-Puccinellietalia maritimae</span>)</li><li><span class="tooltip">5410 West Mediterranean clifftop phryganas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalo-Plantaginetum subulatae</span>)</li></ul></span>
162000		population	eng	<p>This species is not abundant, but there is no more information on the population size or trend (ICN 2006).</p>
162000		threats	eng	The main threat is trampling by tourists, especially in the holiday season (ICN 2006).
162002		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularia herminii</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. It occurs within the protected area Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela, in Portugal. It is listed in the checklist of protected plants in Galicia.<br/><br/>It is recommended to collect information on the size of the population and number of locations, on potential threats, and to regularly monitor the population trend.
162002		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularia herminii </span>is native to Spain and Portugal, mainly present in the north of Portugal and north-western Spain   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Spain, it is found in La Coruña, Lugo, Orense and Pontevedra, León and Zamora; in Portugal in Beira Alta, Douro Litoral, Minho, and Tras-os-Montes (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Ortega and Devesa 1993). The area of occupancy is bigger than 2,000 km² measured in 10x10 km grid cells (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its distribution seems to remain stable.
162002		habitat	eng	This perennial herb occurs in shaded stream banks, walls and granitic crevices. It prefers granitic substrate but it can also grow over slates. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6430 "Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162002		population	eng	In Spain this species is present in 28 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and population trends have been identified as stable. Other sources include herbarium data and report that the species is found around 40 localities in Spain and 15 localities in Portugal (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Ortega and Devesa 1993).
162002		threats	eng	Restructuring agricultural land holding, burning and modification of hydrographic functioning have been described as main threats to   the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162004		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria berlengensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. Control and eradication of invasive species is recommended. The species is frequently being monitored and its localities are inaccessible to humans which provides protection in itself (ICN 2006).
162004		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria berlengensis</span> is endemic to the Berlenga archipelago, off the Portuguese coast. It occurs on the islands Berlenga, Estelas and Farilhões (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is smaller than 200 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 10 km² as the geographic range for this species has been reported to be 0.95 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The largest of the islands has an area of 1 km².
162004		habitat	eng	This sub-shrub is dispersed along the periphery of the islands. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1230 "Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic Coasts" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162004		population	eng	This plant has once been described as common in almost all of the islands, but significant declines have been measured in some areas (ICN 2006). The subpopulations count as severely fragmented as there is no assumed genetic exchange over the distance of the islands.
162004		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">There are two main threats. First, the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">overcrowding <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">seagulls which leads to eutrophication and the gulls also use this cushion-formed plant to create their nests<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">.<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"> Secondly, the expansion of the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edulis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mesembryathemum crystallinum</span> leads to increased competition. However, the latter seems to be less of a problem nowadays (ICN 2006).&#160;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162005		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa riphaea</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered on the national red list (Holub and Procházka 2000).<br/><br/>There is no information available on whether the only location is adequately protected.
162005		distribution	eng	<p>This species is a Czech endemic that only occurs in the Hrubý Jesenik Mountains. Its extent of occurrence in the Czech Republic is 134 km² and the area of occupancy is 100 km². It is found in one location (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
162005		habitat	eng	The species grows among acidophilous vegetation of alpine cliffs   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162005		population	eng	Population is between 148 and 150 tufts. The area of the tufts is 0.4256 m² and 1,823 flowering stems have been counted in 2006. The population trend is unknown (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162005		threats	eng	Some important threats described are mountaineering and rock climbing, trampling, overuse, eutrophication and other natural processes   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162007		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus verrucosus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>The population is included in a Site of Community Importance “Is Arenas S’Acqua e S’Ollastu” (ITB032229).<br/>The species is the subject of an INTERREG IIIB Project&#160;of the Center for the Biodiversity Conservation (CCB) of the University of Cagliari. Since 2004 the population trend is monitored (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/>About 60.000 seeds were stored in the Seed Bank of Sardinia (BG-SAR). Other seeds are stored in Soller (Spain), Catania and at the Millenium Seed Bank, Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew (UK).
162007		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus verrucosus</span> is an endemic species from Sardinia, where it occurs in only one population in the Arbus municipality. It has an extent of occurrence of 0.7 km² and an area of occupancy of 4 km².
162007		habitat	eng	This plant is a termophilous species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>typical of coastal grassland<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Other co-occuring species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa bromoides </span>(L.) Doerfl., <span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylis hispanica </span>Roth and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span> (Pers.) Beauv. (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>A. verrucosus </span>occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6220 "Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span>" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162007		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. verrucosus </span>occurs in only one population of about 220 individuals. The population is believed to be stable, but it is possible that it will decrease in a near future due to natural vegetation dynamics and urbanization (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The habitat quality is decreasing.
162007		threats	eng	Main threat is development of leisure and tourism in the locality called Torre dei Corsari. Modification of cultivation practices is also considered as a threat, along with changes in native species dynamics (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Also intrinsic factors like inbreeding depression and low reproductive effort are considered a threat for the species (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
162008		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica micrantha</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. Reintroductions and restoration of the natural habitat are needed for this species. Sites should be protected (ICN 2006). In Spain, it is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, as species "de interés especial" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of&#160; Extremadura, and as "Vulnerable" in the catalogues of Galicia and Castilla y León. It occurs in several protected areas: Parque Regional Sierra de Gredos, SCI Sierra de Gredos y Valle del Jerte, Reserva de la Biosfera Las Sierras de Béjar y Francia, Espacio Natural Rebollar, Espacio Natural Las Batuecas-Sierra de Francia and Espacio Natural Quilamas. It is listed as VU B2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Surveillance on its habitat in order to control forest managemente and grazing should be developed. Other proposed measures include population monitoring, seed collection from El Rebollar-Southwestern Salamanca and storage in germplasmbanks, and establishment of a micro-reserve in Peñaparda 1, where individuals appear well developed.
162008		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica micrantha </span>is endemic to central-western and northwestern Iberian Peninsula, being found in <span class="tooltip">Portugal and Spain. <span class="tooltip"><br/>In Portugal it occurs in the regions Minho, Trás-os-Montes, Beiras (ICN 2006) and Ribatejo (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<span class="tooltip">The area of occupancy in Portugal is 1,300 km² (10x10 km grid) (Commission of the European Communities 2009<span class="tooltip">). <span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><br/><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">In Spain, it can be found in the provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense, León, Zamora, Salamanca, Cáceres and Ávila (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and its area of occupancy has been estimated in 16 <span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">km²<span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"> (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/><br/><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162008		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open spaces of deciduous forests and dry heaths. It is found in oak woods within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Holco mollis-Quercetum pyrenaicae</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Querco-Fagetea</span>), between 500 and 1070 m asl, in herbaceous communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolio-Geranietea</span> of this forests, in areas with moderate inclinations (15º) (ICN 2006). In Spain, it occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Linarion triornithophorae </span>communities and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Filipendulion ulmariae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncion acutiflori </span>grasslands (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4020 Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erica ciliaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span></li><li>9160 Sub-Atlantic and medio-European oak or oak-hornbeam forests of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinion betuli</span></li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa </span>woods</li></ul>
162008		population	eng	This species occurs in many subpopulations of small size. In Spain, population size is 278 individuals, distributed into 15 subpopulations, comprising less than 50 individuals each (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Population is stable, although it presents a fragmented distribution (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Portugal, 500 individuals have been noted   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The number of individuals is very low, the subpopulations are severely fragmented and decreasing trends have been observed in population size.
162008		threats	eng	In Spain<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>general forestry management, artificial planting and burning have been reported as threats to the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Overgrazing and trampling due to grazing species have been also reported as threats (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Drying out of the humid habitats where it occurs has been also reported as a threat to the species (Palacios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/>In Portugal, the loss of oak forests also led to a decline in the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica micrantha</span> which is characteristic for those forests. The creation of new and widening of existing communication networks also affects this plant (ICN 2006).
162010		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anarrhinum longipedicellatum</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
162010		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of Portugal in the basins of the rivers Paiva and Vouga. The AOO is 900 km² and the EOO is 1,066 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162010		habitat	eng	This plant occurs at edges of forests, in schist soils of the Precambrian and  Paleozoic, normally facing to the south. It also grows on slopes, road  verges and river banks. This species is found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>5230 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus nobilis</span></li><li>9330 <em>Quercus suber</em> forests</li></ul>
162010		population	eng	The total population counts 20,000 individuals that have a stable population trend (ICN 2006).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162010		threats	eng	The main threats are agriculture and forestry activities such as forest plantations. The construction of roads and motorways leads to further habitat loss. Where the species occurs on river banks, the management of the bank vegetation for drainage purposes affects the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009)
162011		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe arborea</span> is listed on Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and as a priority species on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It is classed as Vulnerable D2 on the Spanish red list (Moreno 2008). The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International   Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of   the brassica complex. <br/><br/>The conservation status for the three populations is good. All are within the Parque Nacional de la Corona Forestal, an in the SCI with the same name.<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only six germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. arborea</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
162011		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe arborea</span> is endemic to the southeastern part of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, Spain. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"> its area of occupancy (AOO) is only 3 km². <span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is located in several canyons and cliffs of the municipalities of Candelaria and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera">Güímar<span id="result_box" class="long_text">, with two main localities at Bco. <span title="de Chacorche y Ladera">of Chacorche and Ladera of Güímar, and a third minor locality  at Bco. del Madroño.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"></span></span></span></span>
162011		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. arborea</span> grows in crags and old basaltic cliffs with a certain degree of shade and which are north-facing, from 300 to 850 m above sea level. A characteristic association of this species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallido lanatae-Sonchetum gummifer</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It belongs to the semi-arid, thermo-Mediterranean association characterized by <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus gummifer </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis </span><span style="font-style: italic;">lanata, </span>and other local endemics such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe arborea </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Monanthes minima</span>. <span title="Esta"><span title="dominio del pinar."> They usually grow on cliffs and foothills, accompanying other species from the class  <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-class Aeonietea </span>in addition to <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium arboreum </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">holochrysum, Hypericum reflexum, Micromeria teneriffae, Parietaria filamentosa, Sonchus acaulis, </span><span title="Tinguarra cervariaefolia, etc."><span style="font-style: italic;">Tinguarra cervariaefolia</span>, etc. This plant c<span title="Asimismo, en">an also flourish on anthropogenic slopes and in the beds of gullies, often accompanied by<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bituminaria bituminous, Carlina salicifolia, Cistus monspeliensis, Euphorbia lamarckii, Kleinia neriifolia, Rumex Lunaria </span>and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta"><span title="dominio del pinar."><span title="Tinguarra cervariaefolia, etc."><span title="Asimismo, en"><span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia maxima</span>, among others.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">C. arborea</span> is a hermaphrodite plant with insect pollination.<br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
162011		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="de Chacorche y Ladera">The population has been estimated to comprise 4,027 individuals (<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Tiene dos poblaciones principales, de más de"> It has two main subpopulations of more than 2,500 individuals each, separated by about 10 km by various towns and agricultural lands. However, there may be individuals scattered between the two although this has not been observed yet.<span title="A las anteriores se suma una tercera"> The third subpopulation comprises 250 individuals. <span title="Ocupa una docena de cuarteles">It occupies twelve 500 x 500 m grid squares and the population has been <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Tiene dos poblaciones principales, de más de"><span title="A las anteriores se suma una tercera"><span title="Ocupa una docena de cuarteles">stable <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Tiene dos poblaciones principales, de más de"><span title="A las anteriores se suma una tercera"><span title="Ocupa una docena de cuarteles"> in the last decade (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2008)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de Chacorche y Ladera"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Tiene dos poblaciones principales, de más de"><span title="A las anteriores se suma una tercera"><span title="Ocupa una docena de cuarteles">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162011		threats	eng	There are no anthropogenic threats to this species. Grazing abandonment in the area has notably improved the conservation status of populations   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Landslides, common in the ravines and hillsides where the species grows and prolonged drought are significant natural threats. Plant competition, both with alien and native species is a large problem.
162013		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as EN A4c; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (Agulló <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It is protected at regional level in the Balearic Islands and in Valencia.</p><p>Seeds are stored in germplasm banks and the species is cultivated in botanic gardens. In Valencia, five microreserves have been established.<br/></p><p>Seeds from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks. Microreserves should be created in the Balearic Islands and Melilla. <br/><br/></p>
162013		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sardinia, Italy and Spain (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Spain, it can be found in five locations, in northeastern and southern Alicante, southwestern of Mallorca, western Ibiza and in the Spanish exclave Melilla, always in areas close to the coast (Agulló <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It extends its range into Al Hoceima in northern Morocco. Its total area of occupancy in Spain is 38 km². A location near Santa Pola in Alicante is thought to have disappeared.
162013		habitat	eng	This plant grows on calcareous or sandy soils, in cliffs, slopes and dunes, always in sunny  in dry or semi-dry sites close to the sea (Agulló <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It occurs within heliophile shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosmarinion officinalis (Halimienion halimifolii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrio-Thymenion piperellae), Thymo moroderi-Sideritidion leucanthae </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ulico africanae-Rosmarinion tournefortii.</span> It colonizes degraded and rocky limestone soils in areas close to the sea. It can be found within associations <span style="font-style: italic;">as Erico</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">multiflorae-Saturejetum fontanesii</span> subass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemetosum capitis-felis, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Canescentis-Cistetum albidi</span> subass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideretosum littoralis</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162013		population	eng	Population size in Italy has been estimated in 400-500 individuals and stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In Spain, total population has been reported to be 30,710 individuals (Agulló <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). In Alicante, important decreases in population size and in the number of subpopulations where this species occurs, have been reported (higher than 50%) due to urbanisation. Populations in Baleares and Melilla seem to be stable. Adult individuals are dominant in all the subpopulations. Seed production is high but recruitment is low, probably because of factors such as droughts and sea breeze.
162013		threats	eng	In Italy, main threats to this species are urbanisation and outdoor and leisure activities (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Spain, urbanisation is also one of the most important threats affecting the species (Agulló <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Presence of visitors has been also reported as a threat. In Melilla, the expansion of a port could affect the subpopulations of this species.
162014		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla grandis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p>  The species is protected in Hungary but not listed as threatened on the Red List. It is also classed as Least Concern in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). In the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), and Slovenia (Skoberne 1996), it is classed as Endangered on the national Red Lists and protected at national level. In Slovakia, it is classified as Vulnerable (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">(Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable, and is protected in the Medobory reserve, in the national park Podilski Tovtry, in some protected areas and nature monuments.<br/><br/>Most sites are included in protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. Monitoring and management are in place for many sites at the edges of the range.
162014		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla grandis </span>is native to central and eastern Europe. The stronghold of the populations is in Hungary. In Ukraine, it grows in the Volhynian-Podolian, Chotyn and Pridnieprovian uplands.<br/><br/>The species occurs in the Pannonian region of southern Slovakia and in the foothills of the southern part of the Western Carpathians. The northern limit of its distribution area passes from Skalica through the Brezovské kopce Hills, southern parts of the Strážovské vrchy Mts, Slovenské rudohorie Mts and the Nízke Beskydy Mts to the Vihorlat Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011)
162014		habitat	eng	This perennial plant can be found in dry grasslands, rocky outcrops, open thermophilous oak and pine forests (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It also grows in shrubland, sometimes forest clearings or orchards and is found among vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetae pubescenti-petrae</span> class or in steppes in communities of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> class.<br/><br/>In Slovakia this plant is found in dry, rocky scrub and grassland slopes, and, rarely, in clearings in oak forests, on different substrates (andesites, dolomites, limestones etc.) from lowland to the submontane vegetation belt (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>) (* important orchid sites)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>6250 Pannonic loess steppic grasslands</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>91H0 Pannonian woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span></li><li>91I0 Euro-Siberian steppic woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus spp</span>.</li></ul>
162014		population	eng	The population has been estimated for the following countries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Czech Republic: 200 localities with several tens of thousands individuals and a slowly declining trend.<br/></li><li>Hungary: Between 4,000,000 and 5,500,00 individuals and a slowly declining trend.</li><li>Slovenia: four confirmed subpopulations with a few hundred plants but less than 2,000 individuals in total. The trend is stable since the subpopulations are protected.<br/></li></ul>In Germany, the species is only found in Bavaria where it is rare but apparently stable (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). The Ukrainian populations are small in area (20-50 m²) and host a low number of individuals (50-100 individuals). Population density is 1-9 mature individuals/m² (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). In Croatia, it is not threatened and in Bosnia and Herzegovina it is considered rare (Flora Croatica Database 2010).<br/><br/>In Slovakia the population size ranges from tens to thousands of individuals (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162014		threats	eng	Modification of cultivation practices and abandonment of pastoral systems are the main threats. Habitat alteration due to  overgrowth or forestation with woody plants (mainly Scots pine and black  pine) is a further threat reported from Slovakia.  Invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailanthus altissima</span> also affect the species. <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Trampling of the species by people that are attracted to the plants is an issue. It is also impacted by burning, either accidentally from recreational activities or deliberately to remove dry grass and shrubs to prepare pasture land. Urbanisation is a minor threat as is agriculture and the use of fertilisers. Quarrying and mining are threats in calcareous soils but on the other hand it can create new habitats for the species.<br/><br/>Another threat is the collection of the plants. Cultivated species from the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla vulgaris</span> group are often planted in gardens and hybridisation is a potential threat to the species but there is no current evidence that this is affecting the populations.
162016		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris lusitanica</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. It is classed as Data Deficient in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). Information on population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed.
162016		distribution	eng	This species is native to Portugal   <span class="tooltip"> and Spain (Anthos 2009<span class="tooltip">). The geographic range for Portugal is 8,908 km² and the area of occupancy is 2,100 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Anthos (2009) has 50 registers for this species on the Iberian Peninsula.</span>
162016		habitat	eng	This species can be found in calcareous and schist soils, exceptionally in granites, mainly in dry, warm and rocky places. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia </span>meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>6420 Mediterranean tall humid grasslands of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Molinio-Holoschoenion</span></li><li>8130 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li></ul>
162016		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for Portugal or Spain.<br/></p>
162016		threats	eng	There is no information on threats available.
162017		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria ricardoi</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal. <br/>Habitat maintenance with traditional agriculture and the control of herbicide use, as well as reintroductions, are recommended measures. Continue research on the ecological requirements of this plant (ICN 2006).
162017		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria ricardoi </span>is endemic to the southeast Alentejo in Portugal (ICN 2006). The extent of occurrence is 851 km² and the area of occupancy is 700 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162017		habitat	eng	This annual plant flowers in March and April. It occurs in wheat and oat fields with little human intervention, in the undergrowth of olive tree plantations or on road sides. It prefers acid soils of loam or clay. This plant is characteristic of the order <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaureetalia cyani</span>, class <span style="font-style: italic;">Stellarietea media</span>. This species has dormant seeds and seed soil banks might exist in some places (ICN 2006).
162017		population	eng	The total population has been estimated in 10,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population might be decreasing although the species has already been described as rare in the 50s and 60s with a few hundred individuals in the few known subpopulations. Surveys carried out between 1994 and 1995 in the Alentejo only detected two localities (ICN 2006).
162017		threats	eng	The main cause of population declines has been agricultural intensification and the related increase in herbicide use. Overgrazing poses a threat in other areas. Droughts can also affect this plant (ICN 2006).
162018		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria gussichiae</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Greece, it is not protected but occurs in one Natura 2000 site. In Bulgaria, it is protected and classed as Near Threatened on the red list (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is included in two national park, two natural parks, one protected area and some Natura 2000 sites. The species is protected by law in Serbia but the species habitats are not situated in protected areas with the exception of the valley of the Pčinja river in southeast Serbia. It is classified as Vulnerable (Stevanović 2005-2011).<br/><br/>Monitoring and more detailed survey of the populations is needed as well as information on population size and trend.
162018		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">the Balkan Peninsula, being present in Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece</st1:country-region></st1:place> and FYR Macedonia.&#160;</p><p><span style="background-color: white;">In Serbia the </span>species has been recorded in Mt Kozjak, Mt Krstilovica, Mt Pljačkovica, Preobraženje village near Vranje, Sobina village near Vranje and Mt Rujan. Recently, it has also been found at Preševo: Miratovac village, Bujanovac: in the surroundings of Lučane village and Vladičin Han: Balinovce village (Tomović et al. 2007). All records cited in the old literature of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. graeca</span> in Bulgaria, Serbia and the majority in Macedonia refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">F. gussichiae</span>.<br/></p><p>In Greece the species has a mainly north central and northeastern distribution.</p><p>In Bulgaria it is found mostly in the southwestern part of the country. However, chorological differentiation between <span style="font-style: italic;">F. gussichiae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. pontica </span>in eastern Bulgaria is not clearly confirmed. Namely, Janev (1964) cited both species in the central and eastern part of the country, even at same localities. It seems that <span style="font-style: italic;">F. pontica</span> has an eastern distribution in the country, while the range of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> F. gussichiae</span> covers the southwestern and south-central part of the state including the Strouma valley, Mt. Belasica, Mt Slavyanka (= Mt Ali Botush = Mt Orvilos), Mt Sredna Gora, central Rhodope, Mt Rila (probably foothill and mountain zones) and the Thracian Lowland (Petrova 2006).&#160;&#160;&#160;</p><p>In FYR Macedonia it is distributed in almost all parts of the country. It is recorded in Mt Ostri, Mt Kitka, the River Matka gorge, Mt Babuna, Mt Radobilj, Mt Babuna, Mt Pelister, the River Crni Dim gorge in the vicinity of village Lukovo, surrounding of Doiran Lake, etc.<br/></p><p>The area of occupancy for the EU 27 region is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
162018		habitat	eng	The species is found on rocky slopes in clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forest, usually on limestone substrate   (Commission of the European Communities 2009), but also on siliceous and serpentine substrate. It is also found in woods and subalpine pastures. The species grows in various types of thermophilous habitats. In Bulgaria, it inhabits xerophilous pastures and rocky ground, as well as forests and scrub formations at altitudes from 300 to 1,320 m asl; only in the Rila Mts does it reach 1,800 m asl (Yanev 1964). In south Serbia, it inhabits thermophilous oak forests (ass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetum frainetto-cerris</span>, ass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orno-Quercetum pubescentis</span>, ass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetum montanum subass</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">carpinetosum orientalis</span>) and scrub communities on siliceous, serpentinite, granite, and limestone bed rocks, at altitudes between 450 m and 800 m asl. Also, it grows in a steppe-like formation of ass. <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Chrysopogonetum</span> grylli&#160; (Tomović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)
162018		population	eng	<p>In Serbia the species is recorded in 10 squares of 10x10 km while its area of occupancy is ten times less due to its severely fragmented population. The most abundant subpopulation does not exceed 1,000 mature individuals and the total population in Serbia is estimated to be of a few thousand mature individuals. The populations are stable. <br/></p><p>There is no population information for Greece or Bulgaria available, but the subpopulations are fragmented and it is not a common species.</p>
162018		threats	eng	Grazing has been described as main threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Clear cutting of the forests which changes the habitat as well as artificial forestation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> spp. leads to habitat degradation. Forest fires are a potential threat.
162019		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum thalassophilum </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162019		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Selvagens Islands, Portugal   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).
162019		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum thalassophilum</span> can be found in rocky areas    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162019		population	eng	Population has been estimated to have less than 250 individuals with a stable population trend (Martín<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).
162019		threats	eng	The main threats include erosion, competition and other natural processes (Commission of the European Communities 2009)
162020		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis preauxiana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008), and included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occurs in the protected areas Sitio de Interés Cientifico del <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">Acantilado de La Hondura (SCI), <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Sitio de Interés Cientifico del <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">Tabaibal del Porís, <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Sitio de Interés Cientifico de <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">Tufia (SCI), Monumento <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">Natural de Montaña Amarilla, Monumento Natural de Arinaga (SCI), and SCIs Lomo Pumítico de Las Eras and Punta de La Sal </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><br/>Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo. Specimens have been introduced to Tabaibal del Porís, with low survival rates (less than 5%). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">Following the species recovery plan, published in 2007, several subpopulations have been fenced&#160; </span>and seeds have been collected to develop reintroductions in Punta de Agache (Güímar) and Montaña Roja, and reinforce the subpopulations in Playa del Vidrio, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Semillas conservadas"><span title="El hábitat está recogido"><span title="en la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><span title="Tabaibal del Porís.">Tabaibal del Porís and Montaña Amarilla (GESPLAN 2008).<br/><br/>Proposed measures include the establishment of control measures on urbanisation expansion, parking and camping in the proximity of the protected areas, and on fishermen access to the area of distribution of this taxon. The modification of existing paths in order to avoid population fragmentation is also a proposed measure in order to ensure the conservation of this taxon.<br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162020		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis preauxiana</span> is an endemic species to the Canary Islands, Spain, where it is found in the southeastern part of the islands of Gran Canaria and Tenerife, from 5 to 50 m asl (<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Rodríguez Delgado<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It appears distributed into five locations: Agüímes and Telde (Gran Canaria), and Fasnia, Arico and San Miguel de Abona (Tenerife). It is considered extinct in the coast of Güímar in Tenerife, and in Melenara in Gran Canaria, and its current presence is uncertain in San Miguel de Abona. The area of occupancy has been estimated in 14 km².<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="oscila entre 3 y 656."><span title="como en la costa de San Miguel de Abona."><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></span>
162020		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This shrub appears in Gran Canaria within coastal scrublands, on sandy or sandy-stony substrates, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenoleo-Salsoletum vermiculatae</span> subas. <span title="atractyletosum)."><span style="font-style: italic;">atractyletosum</span>. Accompanying species include <span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus caput-medusae, Chenoleoides tomentosa, Herniaria fontanesii, Suaeda vermiculata, Polycarpaea nivea, Artemisia reptans, Atriplex glauca </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ifniensis, Launaea arborescens, Lycium intricatum, Schizogyne glabrerrima </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Schizogyne sericea</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>In Tenerife it is part of chamaephytic and hemicryptophytic shrublands <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span style="font-style: italic;">Frankenia-Astydamion latifoliae</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum).">, on coastal cliffs and rocky environments, preferably on basaltic substrates. <span title="Sus principales">Its main accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia balsamifera, Frankenia ericifolia, Zygophyllum fontanesii, Reichardia crystallina, Gymnocarpos decander, Kickxia urbanii, </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span style="font-style: italic;">pectinatum, Lotus sessilifolius, Reseda scoparia, Salsola divaricata </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span style="font-style: italic;">Schizogyne sericea</span>. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En San Miguel de Abona"><span title="El"><span title="engloban el 95% de la superficie total.">A<span id="result_box" class="long_text">nts act as vectors of pollination. <span title="La floración se produce durante">Flowering occurs all year, with a peak after the rainy season from March to late June. Highest fructification occurs from June to August </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En San Miguel de Abona"><span title="El"><span title="engloban el 95% de la superficie total."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La floración se produce durante">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162020		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="oscila entre 3 y 656."><span title="como en la costa de San Miguel de Abona.">The total number of individuals was estimated in 16,017 </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="oscila entre 3 y 656."><span title="como en la costa de San Miguel de Abona.">, <span id="result_box" class="long_text">distributed into 12 severely fragmented subpopulations which comprise a number of individuals  that ranges from <span title="oscila entre 3 y 656.">3 to 656.<span title="como en la costa de San Miguel de Abona."> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="oscila entre 3 y 656."><span title="como en la costa de San Miguel de Abona."><br/>In the recovery plan of the species, published in 2007, a much higher population size is reported: more than 144,000 individuals in Gran Canaria and 1,600 in Tenerife. These data come from estimations and do not seem to accurately reflect the total population of the taxon (O. Rodríguez, A. García Gallo and G. Cruz pers. comm. 2011). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En San Miguel de Abona"><span title="El"><br/><br/><span title="engloban el 95% de la superficie total."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> A high number of seedlings is produced in humid winters, but survival rates are low. The population trend is thought to be regressive. The  subpopulations of Tenerife are strongly fragmented and aged, dominated by adult<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> in<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="atractyletosum)."><span title="Sus principales"><span title="Schizogyne sericea"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">dividuals. <span title="En San Miguel de Abona"><span title="El"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162020		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The small number of specimens in several subpopulations may lead to their disappearance in a short term period, mainly because of anthropogenic pressures, such as coastal urban expansion,  hiking and presence of trails, accumulation of trash and rubble, changes in land use into agricultural uses, mining and quarrying <span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text">. Strong rains and landslides cause individuals to detach and crush.<span title="Entre las causas naturales destaca"></span>
162021		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is also listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). This orchid is included in several national red lists as threatened:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Bulgaria, Serbia and the United Kingdom<br/>   </li><li>Endangered in Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Russia, and Spain<br/>   </li><li>Vulnerable in Austria, Belarus, Denmark, France, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Switzerland<br/>   </li><li>Near Threatened in Finland and Norway<br/>   </li><li>Least Concern in Sweden<br/>   </li></ul> It is protected at national level in most countries (e.g. France, Hungary) and collection of the species is forbidden (e.g. Lithuania). Many populations are included in Natura 2000 sites and other forms of protected areas. The protection of the sites and appropriate management are essential.<br/><p>&#160; <br/></p>  <p></p>
162021		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cypripedium calceolus</span> known as Lady's Slipper orchid ranges from Europe to Japan. It is widespread in Europe. This species does not occur in Greece, despite earlier reports (Tsiftsis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
162021		habitat	eng	<p>This geophyte species can grow in many habitats: Forests with oak, hornbeam, beech, spruce and pine and ravine forests, thermophile woodland fringes, <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> taiga woodland. The species needs light and therefore the forests cannot be very dense. Furthermore, it grows in narrow-leaved dry grassland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion valesiacae</span>), broad-leaved dry grassland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromion erecti</span>). It is found in fens, including eutrophic tall-herb fens and calcareous flushes and soaks as well as broad-leaved swamp woodland not on acid peat. The seeds are easily transported by wind over several hundred kilometres. In Czech Republic, it is suspected that the forests where this species is found were coppice forests before.</p><p>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/></p><ul><li>9020 Fennoscandian hemiboreal natural old broad-leaved deciduous forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Tilia, Acer, Fraxinus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>) rich in epiphytes<br/></li><li>9050 Fennoscandian herb-rich forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span></li><li>9150 Medio-European limestone beech forests of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthero-Fagion</span></li><li> 9160 Sub-Atlantic and medio-European oak or oak-hornbeam forests of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinion betuli</span></li><li>9180 <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilio-Acerion</span> forests of slopes, screes and ravines</li></ul>The generation length is thought to be 10 years (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162021		population	eng	The species is widespread but has undergone severe declines in the past, especially due to its collection by enthusiasts. Now the populations are still declining in parts of its range but are stable or even increasing in other parts due to conservation measures that were taken. The number of mature individuals is 1,000,000 in Sweden alone.<br/><br/>In Czech Republic, there are many localities (thousands) but they are  generally very small in size (about 13 km² throughout the country). Many  Natura 2000 sites have been  established around the populations. The number of individuals in each  location is usually low, and the total population does not exceed 3,000 individuals. There is an average of 100 individuals in  each locality but only nine localities have larger populations (100-400  individuals) and some localities have only a few dozen individuals. The populations are commonly fragmented, forming small  scattered patches. <br/>In Hungary, it occurs at no more than eight  localities where it was formerly known from more than 20. This decrease  has happened during the last century. The number of localities has  remained constant over the last ten years but the number of individuals  has been continuously&#160; decreasing. There are 1,400-1,700 individuals in total. <br/>In Lithuania, the species is  fragmented and has restricted populations. There are 50 sites mostly   restricted to the southeast, central and northern part of the country.  Ten sites host over  200 individuals; one has more than 3,000  individuals and the rest are  very variable, from a few dozens up to a  few hundreds individuals.<br/>In Poland, there are historical records  for over 200 localities in the Polish lowlands, but most of them have  been lost especially in western Poland. At present it can be found at  several tens of scattered localities with a higher concentration in the  Kraków-Częstochowa Jura Upland, the Lublin Upland, Roztocze region and  the Biebrza River Valley. In the Carpathian mountains, the populations  are small and have been reported from the Tatra Mts., the Pieniny Mts.  and the Słonne Mts. (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).<br/>In Switzerland, it  has a geographic range of 580 km², the population has several thousand  individuals, and it is found throughout mountains and flat areas. On the flat  areas the population seems to be slightly fragmented. In the lower regions the population is slightly declining and in others it is more or less stable.<br/>In Slovakia, it occurs in more than 100 localities from the Biele Karpaty Mts to Humenné. It is found sporadically in the central Carpathians populations range from a few tens to hundreds of plants. It becomes more rare in the rest of the country. The populations are more or less stable. <br/>In Bulgaria and the UK, the plant is assessed as Critically Endangered under D which means that there are less than 50 mature individuals (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009, Cheffings and Farrell 2005).<br/>In Norway, a population decline of 15-30% has been observed in the past and is assumed to continue in the future (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In Spain, the plant reaches the western limit of its range. There are 1,296 mature individuals in total with decreasing populations (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>Furthermore, the following population data has been provided (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>Austria: 51,000 to 102,000 individuals</li><li>Denmark: 247-1,440 shoots, 426 individuals in 2003</li><li>France: 518 - 537 localities</li><li>Estonia: 10,000 - 75,000 individuals</li><li>Italy: 199 localities</li><li>Latvia: 23 localities</li><li>Lithuania: 43-50 localities</li><li>Poland: 16-20 localities and 20,000-50,000 individuals</li><li>Sweden: 1,002,000 individuals</li></ul>
162021		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is collection which led to major declines in the past. Although this is forbidden now, it is still a serious threat. The habitat of the species is threatened by inappropriate forest management such as clear cutting or the use of herbicides and pesticides. <br/>Replacement of the natural forest with spruce plantations has caused habitat degradation as the soil is affected by de-calcification processes and this species is linked to calcareous soils. Grazing can pose a threat in two different ways: overgrazing affects the individuals whereas the abandonment of traditional grazing activities leads to natural succession processes and therefore increased competition for this orchid.
162023		conservation	eng	In Europe, there are several conservation measures in place: <br/>- Protected by the Bern Convention (Annex I) <br/>- Habitat Directive of the EU (Appendices II and IV) <br/>- France: National and regional protection, Red List, Natural reserve statute for the site of Roque-Haute, <em>ex situ</em> Conservation: of the sporocarps by the Conservatory Botanical National Mediterranean of Porquerolles. <br/>- Italy: Red List (Vulnerable) and <em>ex situ</em> conservation (the species is cultivated in the Botanical Garden of Padova) <br/>- Spain: listed as threatened on regional lists, some localities are included in perimeters of Natura 2000 sites, creation of two micro-reserves (Province of Valencia, Balearic Islands), <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the sporocarps. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- To maintain the traditional uses of the sites (extensive grazing) in order to limit competition by tall perennial species<br/>- Protection of the sites with a backing of the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness
162023		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- To maintain the traditional uses of the sites (extensive grazing) in order to limit competition by tall perennial species<br/>- Protection of the sites with a backing of the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness
162023		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</p>  There are several national level conservation measures in place: <br/>In France, it is under national and regional protection and included as Vulnerable in the red list   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). Furthermore, it is protected in a natural reserve in Roque-Haute and there is <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the sporocarps by the Conservatory Botanical National Mediterranean of Porquerolles. <br/>In Italy, the species is classified as Vulnerable on the Red List and <em>ex situ</em> conservation, for example in the Botanical Garden of Padova, is in place. <br/>In Spain, there is national legislation to protect the species and it is listed as threatened on five regional lists. Some localities are included in Natura 2000 sites, the creation of two micro-reserves (Valencia and Balearic Islands) is planned, <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the sporocarps is in place.<br/><br/>Monitoring of all the sub-populations should be implemented.
162023		distribution	eng	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> has a mostly west-Mediterranean distribution, with localities in the north of the Caspian Sea. It is present in Spain (in 14 provinces but localized especially in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almeria, Extremadura and Castilla-Léon, Balearic Islands), France (Saint-Estève in the Pyrénées Orientales, Plateaux of Roque-Haute and Vendres in the Hérault), Italy (in Sardinia and in the south of the peninsula with some localities in the Province of Puglia, Region of Taranto), Morocco (Moyen-Atlas, Haut-Atlas, Anti-Atlas and the Atlantic plains in the Loukkos, Benslimane-Sidi Bettache, Haouz), Algeria (coastal sahels of the regions of Algiers and of Oran, coastal plains, Atlas Tellien), Egypt (valley and delta of the Nile), Romania and Ukraine (Crimea). <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence is about 2,500,000 km².
162023		distribution	eng	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> has a mostly west-Mediterranean distribution, with localities in the north of the Caspian Sea. It is present in Spain, in 14 provinces but localized especially in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almeria, Extremadura and Castilla-Léon, Balearic Islands. In France, it occurs in Saint-Estève in the Pyrénées Orientales, Plateaux of Roque-Haute and Vendres in the Hérault, and in Italy, it can be found in Sardinia and in the south of the peninsula with some localities in the province of Puglia, region of Taranto.<br/><br/>Outside of Europe, it is present in Egypt, Algeria, Morocco and Russia.
162023		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to North Africa, only recorded from Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. Globally, <br/><em>Marsilea strigosa</em> has a mostly west-Mediterranean distribution, with localities in the north of the Caspian Sea and in Europe.<br/><br/>In Africa, it has been recorded from Morocco (Moyen-Atlas, Haut-Atlas, Anti-Atlas and the Atlantic plains in the Loukkos, Benslimane-Sidi Bettache, Haouz), Algeria (coastal sahels of the Regions of Algiers and of Oran, coastal plains, Atlas Tellien), Egypt (valley and delta of the Nile).<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of <em>Marsilea strigosa</em> in North Africa is about 940,000 km² with an area of occupancy (AOO) of 10 to 20 km².
162023		habitat	eng	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> is found mainly in oligotrophic and poorly mineralized temporary pools in Spain and perennial ponds in France and Italy. It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizomes) but able to behave as an annual (Therophyte). The opening of the sporocarps and the sexual reproduction takes place within a shallow water blade, or even on saturated soil.<br/><br/>This species can colonize the Habitats Directive listed habitats 3170 "Mediterranean temporary ponds" and 3120 "Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals generally on sandy soils of the west Mediterranean, with <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes spp</span>."   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>This species reproduces mainly by vegetative multiplication (rhizome) in Italy and France, but most probably by sexual reproduction in Spain. One individual can live for several tens of years.
162023		habitat	eng	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> is found mainly in oligotrophic and poorly mineralized temporary pools. It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizomes) but able to behave as an annual (Therophyte). The opening of the sporocarps and the sexual reproduction takes place within a shallow water blade, or even on saturated soil.
162023		population	eng	The populations are globally in decline and those that maintain themselves are in general very threatened because they are situated in fragile biotopes. <br/>- France: the species is very rare with three known localities occupied by populations of small size and scattered. It disappeared from some sites (Agde, Aigues-Mortes, Vendres, Saint-Estève) and of the fallow lands of Torremila. <br/>- Italy: considered as very rare (some localities only). <br/>- Spain: about 50 localities in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almeria and Extramadura, of which five are today extinct; very rare species on the Balearic Islands (some localities in the south of Mallorca and in the north of Menorca). The species is in regression (province of Valencia in particular) and a disappearance of 10% of the sites is expected in the next 20 years. <br/>- Morocco: the species is present in about 10 localities occupied by populations often isolated and at low density (in the mountains of the Atlas, the pre-Rif and the Atlantic plains). Some sites of the Atlantic plains have been destroyed these last years by road infrastructures and agriculture. <br/>- Algeria: the species is rare with eight to 10 localities and sites completely destroyed around Algier.
162023		population	eng	The populations are globally in decline and those that maintain themselves are in general very threatened because they are situated in fragile biotopes. <br/>In France, the species is very rare with four known localities occupied by populations of small size and scattered. It disappeared from some sites (Agde, Aigues-Mortes, Vendres, Saint-Estève) and of the fallow lands of Torremila. In Italy, it is considered as very rare and found at some localities only. In Spain, there are about 50 localities in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almeria and Extremadura, of which many are today extinct (probably more than 50% of the former localities). It is a very rare species on the Balearic Islands with some localities in the south of Majorca and in the north of Minorca. The species is in regression, in particular in the province of Valencia, and a disappearance of 10% of the sites is expected in the next 20 years.<br/><br/>Overall, between 30 and 50% of the subpopulations have been lost in the last 20 years. It is complicated to define a precise generation length as one individual can live several tens of years. The number of individuals is thought to have decreased in the remaining subpopulations.
162023		population	eng	The populations are globally in decline and those that maintain themselves are in general very threatened because they are situated in fragile biotopes.<br/>- Morocco: the species is present in about 10 localities occupied by populations often isolated and at low density (in the mountains of the Atlas, the pre-Rif and the Atlantic plains). Some sites of the Atlantic plains have been destroyed these last years by road infrastructures and agriculture. <br/>- Algeria: the species is rare (eight to 10 localities) with sites completely destroyed around Algier.
162023		threats	eng	The habitat of the species knows numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, cultivation and road infrastructures. <br/> <br/>In European countries, the abandonment of extensive grazing and the resulting emergence of shrubs or Helophytes (Roque-Haute, France) threaten the populations of <em>Marsilea strigosa</em> by competitive exclusion. <br/> <br/>Other threats are bound to the dynamics of its populations. Their much reduced dispersal capacity results in a weak ability to colonize new sites, in genetic isolation of populations and increases the risk of extinction.
162023		threats	eng	The habitat of the species knows numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, cultivation and road infrastructures.  Other threats are bound to the dynamics of populations. Their much reduced dispersal capacity results in a weak ability to colonize new sites, in genetic isolation of populations and increases the risk of extinction.
162023		threats	eng	The habitat of the species knows numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, cultivation, urbanisation and road infrastructures. <br/> <br/>In European countries, the abandonment of extensive grazing and the resulting emergence of shrubs or Helophytes (Roque-Haute, France) threaten the populations of <em>Marsilea strigosa</em> (heliophilous species) by competitive exclusion. <br/> <br/>Other threats are bound to the dynamics of populations. Their much reduced dispersal capacity results in a weak ability to colonize new sites, in genetic isolation of subpopulations and increases the risk of extinction.
162024		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/><br/>It is listed VU D1 in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008) and as "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened species of the Canary Islands. The subpopulations are within the protected areas Parque Rural del Nublo and Reserva Natural Integral de Inagua, also SCI.<br/>Seeds have been collected and are stored in the germ plasma bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. Areas where grazing is excluded should be established.
162024		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dendriopoterium pulidoi </span>is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 200 and 1,100 m asl on the western part of the island. Its presence was reported in nine subpopulations, in the areas of La Aldea-Tejeda and Barranco del Pino Gordo (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is 9 km². In 2007, a fire caused a regression of about 17% of the distribution range of this species and the subpopulation El Parralillo disappeared (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
162024		habitat	eng	It is a shrub that grows on steep slopes within rupicolous sclerophyll scrublands in the  lower distribution range limit of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus canariensis</span> forests. Frequent  accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium manriqueorum, Atalanthus pinnatus,  Carlina canariensis, Hypericum reflexum, Micromeria leucantha,  Pancratium canariense </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus canariensis</span>.
162024		population	eng	Its subpopulations have been reported to include individuals of different ages, to be more or less stable and to present acceptable levels of regeneration (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its total population size was estimated in 5,700 individuals and believed to be increasing. After the fire of 2007, the total population size was 796 individuals, and one subpopulation was lost (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). However, these data are not comparable, for different methods were used in the two census.
162024		threats	eng	Grazing appears as the main threat to the majority of the subpopulations. Ocassional landslides and droughts have been also reported as threats (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2004). In 2007 a fire caused severe damage to the subpopulations of this species (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
162025		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened species of Spain. It is protected by law in the region of Aragón. It is listed VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Some subpopulations occur within the protected areas SCI Sierra de Chía-Congosto de Seira and SCI Congosto del Ventamillo. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and Jardín Botánico de Córdoba. A conservation plan "Plan de Acción para plantas rupícolas en Aragón" is in preparation.</p><p>Alternatives to the proposed projects to develop works on the road N-260 have to be found and climbing activities should be regulated. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
162025		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the province of Huesca, Spain, where it occurs on the Pyrenees mountains, in Valle del Ésera (Villar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is distributed into five locations, with an area of occupancy of 11 km², along 20 km of the valley.
162025		habitat	eng	This rupicolous herb occurs on calcareous rocks on steep walls   (Villar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011) and in caves (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium ruta-muraria, Asplenium fontanum, Asplenium csikii </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium trichomanes</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pachyrachis</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Lonicera pyrenaica, Saxifraga longifolia, Chaenorhinum origanifolium, Sarcocapnos enneaphylla, Hieracium phlomoides, Cystopteris fragilis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum angulosum.</span><br/><br/>It is a hermaphrodite species and does not develop asexual propagation. Predation on fruits has been reported to be variable: it can be negligible or affect half of the total fruit production.
162025		population	eng	Total population size throughout the five known locations has been estimated in 55,665 individuals (Villar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Most of the subpopulations are stable and well structured, considering the high longevity of the species. The number of individuals present in each location ranges from 100 to 50,600.
162025		threats	eng	Mountaineering and rock climbing have been described as threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Maintenance works on the road N-260, which goes through an area where 90% of the individuals occur, have affected and may further affect, this species.
162026		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsium brachycephalum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is protected under national law in several of the countries where it occurs. This plant is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and protected at highest level. It is Endangered in Slovakia and 37% of its populations are protected in 13 sites (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Croatia, it is classed as Data Deficient.
162026		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsium brachycephalum</span> is endemic to the Pannonian Basin and is native to Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia and Romania. Its presence in Croatia is doubtful (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010, Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162026		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. brachycephalum</span> is a biennial plant that grows in reed and marginal parts of fields, channels, wet grasslands. It is often found in wet arable fields as a weed. The plant grows in salt marshes and salt meadows, needs to be regularly flooded and have a high groundwater table (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is present in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1340 Inland salt meadows</li><li>1530 Pannonic salt steppes and salt marshes</li><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>6440 Alluvial meadows of river valleys of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cnidion dubii</span></li><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li></ul>
162026		population	eng	The following population information has been provided in the Article 17 reports (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>In the Czech Republic, there are 600 individuals at two localities and the populations are declining.</li><li>In Hungary, 30,000,000-100,000,000 individuals have been counted with stable populations, in some regions even increasing and it has been reported from new sites in the last ten years.</li></ul>In Slovakia, it was reported from 34 localities in the southwest (Podunajská nížina Lowland) and from around three sites in the southeast (Východoslovenská nížina Lowland) (P. Eliáš pers. comm. 2011) with a slowly decreasing population trend. Historically c. 60 localities were known, especially from its central and southern part. About half of the localities have low numbers of individuals with less than 50, the other localities have tens to hundreds of individuals (Mereďa and Hodálová in prep.).<br/><br/>In Serbia, it is estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). In Romania, it was reported from 15 localities since 2000 but none of them has been confirmed (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162026		threats	eng	Threats to wetlands can affect the species but it is very common in Hungary and those threats don't lead to major population declines at the moment. This species needs disturbance as it likes open wet soil surfaces and is found in a number of secondary habitats. A minor threat is hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsium arvense</span>.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span><br/>In the Czech Republic, it reaches the edge of its range and suitable salty habitats are rare - destruction of those habitats affects the species. Urbanisation and agriculture are the main causes for habitat loss. Garbage disposal and peat mining have been reported as further threats in Slovakia (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162027		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asyneuma giganteum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and listed in the National Red Data Book as Vulnerable D1+2.
162027		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asyneuma giganteum</span> is endemic to the East Aegean Islands of Greece. There are six locations on Rhodes island (Profitis Ilias Mt, Attavyros Mt, Akramytis Mt), one location on Chalki island, and one location on Karpathos island (Kali Limni). The area of occupancy is 12 km² and the extent of occurrence is 137 km².
162027		habitat	eng	This plant grows in crevices and ledges on limestone rock of northeast to northwest exposition.
162027		population	eng	The total population is 500-1,000 individuals. In Rhodes there are only a few mature individuals at each location (10-20 individuals counted at each of four locations). In Karpathos, only one mature individual was counted in 2003. The size of the population in Chalki is not known.
162027		threats	eng	The species grows at inaccessible places and is not threatened by tourism activities or developmental works. It is sensitive to grazing. Grazing at its areas is moderate in Rhodes and intense in Karpathos. Forest fire may be a threat at the sites of Profitis Ilias and Atavyros neighbouring pine forests.
162030		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Angelica palustris</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. This taxon is included in several national red lists:<br/></p><ul><li>Belarus: Vulnerable (Ermakova 2005)</li><li>Croatia: Data Deficient (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</li><li>Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000)</li><li>  Germany: It is classed as Endangered in Germany   (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>Hungary: Strictly protected and Endangered (Király 2007) due to the small area in Hungary. All populations are in Natura 2000 areas. <br/></li><li>Slovakia: The species occurs in one Natura 2000 site covering 100% of its  localities and it is classified as Critically Endangered (Mereďa and  Hodálová 2011).</li><li>Russia: Categorized Least Concern (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>In Ukraine, it is protected in a hydrological reserve (Zokarnice Vorozbjanslij) and in a landscape reserve (ZokuznikVerchnjojesmonskij).</li></ul>
162030		distribution	eng	<em>A. palustris</em> is an Eurasiatic species extending from central Europe to east Siberia. In Europe, its range extends from the Baltic states to Serbia in the Balkans and from east Germany to Russia in the east.<br/>In Hungary it is found in the northeastern lowland areas at 15 to 20 localities. In Ukraine, it grows in the lowland part from the zone of deciduous and mixed forests across the forest-steppe zone to the steppe zone. Most of the populations are concentrated in northeast Ukraine, east of the Dnieper. Some isolated localities are found in Volhyinian Polesie and at the Black Sea shore in Chersons’ka and Mykolaivs’ka regions.<br/>In Poland, around 100 localities have been reported in the past in the central part of the country with the most populations being found in the Wielkopolska Lake District, Kujawy Lake District and Lublin Upland (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). In Slovakia there is a single (but not verified) locality on the Záhorská nížina Lowland near the village Vysoká pri Morave, found in 2000. In the past the species occurred on the Záhorská nížina Lowland near Plavecký Štvrtok. A dubious historical record of the species' occurrence is from the Trnavská pahorkatina Hill Land near the village of Trnávka (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162030		habitat	eng	This herbaceous plant flowers from June to September. It is mainly found in meadows such as fen meadows and bogs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula pubescens</span>.<br/>In Ukraine, it grows in wet bogs and meadows, in ecotones among alder forests and bogs, in flood-plains of rivers as component of the communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinietum coeruleae</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Caricetum acutiformis</span> associations (Vinichenko 2006). In Slovakia, the species occurs on wet, often fen, meadows on neutral to moderately alkaline, mineral-rich soils, with a high organic carbon and calcium content and sometimes in moderately salted soils, in the lowland vegetation belt. The species requires a high underground water table but does not tolerate long-term flooding (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162030		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. palustris </span>is a monocarpic plant. This fact, and the influence of changing weather conditions cause fluctuations in the number of individuals.<br/><br/>The following population information is available (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Czech Republic: 1,000-3,000 individuals (fertile and sterile individuals counted)</li><li>Estonia: 6,000-10,000 shoots</li><li>Hungary: 70,000-100,000 individuals</li><li>Latvia: 20 localities</li><li>Poland: 10,000-15,000 individuals</li></ul>It is estimated to be Vulnerable in Serbia (V. Stevanović pers.comm. 2010).<br/>For Germany, it has been reported from 12 localities in the east and centre   (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). It is still present in the federal estates Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Thüringen, Sachsen-Anhalt and is probably extinct in Berlin and Sachsen.<br/>In Ukraine, the populations are found in very small sites. In Slovakia, an exact number of individuals at the one locality is not known, the author of the finding  characterized the population in a published study as “rather small“ (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162030		threats	eng	The main threats are modification of the hydrographic functioning of water courses such as drainage and management of water levels, canalisation. The modification of cultivation practises, such as the abandonment of pastoral systems, an increased use of pesticides and fertilisers, leads to vegetation succession and increased competition. Habitat conversion into forest plantations or urban areas pose problems to this taxon (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162031		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum arenarium</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the  Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern  Convention) under the names <span style="font-style: italic;">C. arenarium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. fominii</span>. In Hungary, it is assessed as Near Threatened and strictly protected. More than half of the localities are protected and 75% are in Natura 2000 sites. All the Slovak individuals occur in one protected area. It is classified as Critically Endangered in Slovakia (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is estimated to be Vulnerable in Serbia (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). It is considered as Data Deficient in Croatia (A. Alegro pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>It is included in the Ukrainian Red Data Book (2009)  and the Red List of Romania as Vulnerable and in the Red Data Book of  Moldova (2002) as Endangered. Some populations are in the regional  nature monument Grebeniki in the Odessa region in Ukraine. It is  protected in the area of multifunctional management in the north of  Bugeac in Moldova, and in the natural reserves Dealul Alah Bair and  Recifii Jurasici Cheia in Dobrogea region in Romania. There is a  proposition for establishing a natural reserve Măgurele Nord-Vest in the  Dobrogea region in Romania.
162031		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum arenarium</span> is native to Croatia, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Ukraine. In Hungary, it is found in the inner lowlands between the Danube and the Tisza rivers. The plant occurs in a single locality in Slovakia in the Čenkovská step steppe National Nature Reserve. There is an uncertain record of a historical occurrence from the sands near Komárno (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>It occupies a  narrow territory near the northwestern part of the Black Sea maritime  zone from Dobrogea to the Podolian uplands in Moldova, Romania and the  Ukraine. In the Ukraine, the plant is very rare and only found in  the Odessa region at ten sites. In Moldova, the species is known from  three localities near the towns Comrat, Chirsova and Chisinau. In  Romania, it is found at three localities in the Dobrogea region.
162031		habitat	eng	This perennial geophyte grows in the steppe of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa ukrainica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca valesiaca</span> communities, in shrubby communities and in the ecotone between steppe and forest communities, such as the edge of oak forest steppes. It blooms in autumn. In Slovakia the plant is found on xeric sand grasslands and also in stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">pseudacacia </span>(Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/> <ul><li>6120 Xeric sand calcareous grasslands</li><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>91N0 Pannonic inland sand dune thicket (<span style="font-style: italic;">Junipero</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Populetum albae</span>)</li></ul>
162031		population	eng	The population for Hungary is very large (between 5 millions and 8.3 million individuals). Within its range, it is found wherever the habitat is suitable. In Slovakia there are four micropopulations, numbering together about 500 flowering  individuals. The numbers of individuals in the national nature reserve are more or less stable but due to the small scale occurrence on the rare sand habitats, these subpopulations are classed as Critically Endangered (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, the populations are small in number of sites and  individuals. In the largest Ukrainian subpopulation near the villages  Grebeniki and Kardamiczeve in the Odessa region, the density is 5-25  individuals per 1 m². The largest Moldavian subpopulation near the village  Comrat consists of 70-100 individuals. The density of this subpopulation is  0.2 individuals per 1 m². The density is decreasing and the subpopulations are overall declining. <br/><br/>There is no information for Croatia, Serbia or Romania available.
162031		threats	eng	One of the main threats is forestry management, e.g. in <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia </span>stands, using methods digging up the soil. Plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus silvestris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span>, pose another threat. And the abandonment of pastoral systems leading to succession and invasion of the habitat. In some military areas, trampling and discharge by motorised vehicles impacts on the subpopulations. The construction of a motorway might destroy a minor parts of its population.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> In Slovakia the species is threatened by changes in the tree layer composition, overgrowing by woody plants and expansive herbs, and the digging out of tubers by boars (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, gathering of flowers and  digging the tubers out of the soil is one of the main threats. Furthermore, the building of hydrological constructions affects the species.
162032		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea kartschiana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Vulnerable in Italy (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/>More information on the population size and the affects of potential threats is needed.
162032		distribution	eng	This plant is a restricted endemic with an extent of occurrence of 1 km² in the northeast of Italy (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It has been reported from Croatia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010) but there is no indication of its occurrence in the Flora Croatica Database (2004).
162032		habitat	eng	This species grows on fissures of calcareous rocks which have been degraded by coast erosion   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162032		population	eng	It has been described in five localities in Italy with a stable trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162032		threats	eng	The main threats are collection of the species and impacts from leisure activities and tourism   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162033		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula morettiana</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The collection of the species is banned in some regions. Its populations are partially included in Natura 2000 sites.
162033		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula morettiana</span> is endemic to north Italy, where it occurs in the regions Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto, and Friuli-Venezia Giulia. It occurs at more than 180 localities. The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
162033		habitat	eng	It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162033		population	eng	This species has stable populations although the size is unknown.
162033		threats	eng	The collection of this plant has been considered as a threat    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162034		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula scandinavica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Vulnerable B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v) in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010). In Norway, it is assessed as Near Threatened approaching A4c (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162034		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Primula scandinavica </span>is endemic to Norway and Sweden. It occurs on two regions west to the mountains between Sweden and Norway. It is rare in Sweden and more common in Norway. In Norway, it is found from Rogalandsheiene to Tromsø (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/><br/>The AOO in Sweden is 200 km² and the EOO is 26,000 km². It occurs at 50 localities and grows up to 1,400 m asl (ArtDatabanken 2010). There are no numbers for the geographic range in Norway available.
162034		habitat	eng	This perennial herb species is characteristic for alpine environments in Sweden and is found in alkaline alpine and subalpine grasslands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is also found in rocky coastal areas, rock ledges (especially south-facing limestone cliffs), on established sand dunes, along streams and rivers, and in pastureland (Artsdatabanken 2010, ArtDatabanken 2010).
162034		population	eng	In Sweden, there is a population of 5,000 individuals and a decline in AOO, quality of habitat, number of locations  and the number of mature individuals&#160;was suspected in the past and seems  to continue. Climate change could lead to future population declines (ArtDatabanken 2010). <br/><br/>In Norway, <span style="font-style: italic;">Primula scandinavica</span> has experienced a strong decline since the 1950s, that still continues at a lower rate though, and most of its habitat is threatened. It increased its AOO strongly when outfield grazing became popular but with the abandonment of those activities it is only found in natural habitats again. The generation length was set to five years and a continuing decline of 10-20% is suspected in the next 15 years (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162034		threats	eng	In Norway, the abandonment of grazing activities and subsequent overgrowth is the main threat to the species (Artsdatabanken 2010). From Sweden, no actual threat has been described and the reasons for the decline are not clear. Climate change has been named as a potential future threat (ArtDatabanken 2010).
162035		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla emilii-popi</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Bulgaria, it is protected and as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ab(ii,iv);C1;E (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). The species is found in Natura 2000 sites and one locality is in a natural park. <br/><br/>Research of the distribution and monitoring of the known population, as well as protection of all localities is needed.
162035		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla emilii-popi </span>is native to Bulgaria and Romania   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). In Bulgaria, it is found in the northeastern part of the country. The area of occupancy there is estimated to be less than 10 km²<sup></sup> and it is severely fragmented.
162035		habitat	eng	Dry rocky places also dry grassland on stony areas. It was found in abandoned vineyards.
162035		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend for Bulgaria. Historically, it was found at six localities and two recent localities are known: one of them near the village of Karapelit (100 up to 500 individuals) and the other in Russenski Lom Natural Park (small population). For Romania, no information is available.
162035		threats	eng	The main threats known from Bulgaria are intensive grazing and trampling by sheep. Rock quarries cause the destruction of part of the population near Karapelit village.
162036		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium candicans</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162036		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium candicans </span>is endemic to the island of Madeira <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>(Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its extent of occurrence is around 362 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162036		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium candicans</span> lives in rocky cliffs and terraces where soil from the central mountainous area accumulates. It forms part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bystropogono punctati-Telinion maderensis.</span> This plant can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4050 Endemic macaronesian heaths</li><li>9360 Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)</li></ul>
162036		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 20 localities with an increasing population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
162036		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by collection of the plant, infrastructure works such as roads or communication networks, recreational activities and associated construction of path, and natural catastrophes such as landslides (Commission of the European Communities 2009). A major fire occurred in its population range and might have destroyed several individuals.
162039		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onosma tornensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, it is listed as Critically Endangered and it is protected by law. It occurs in a national park and some reserves, and also in one <span style="font-style: italic;">Natura</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">2000 </span>sites (which covers 25% of its localities in Slovakia). In Hungary, it is also listed as Critically Endangered and it is strictly protected. All of the populations are in national parks and <span style="font-style: italic;">Natura 2000</span> areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation for this plant is easily done and research on the taxonomy is underway.
162039		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Hungary and Slovakia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010) where it is found along the border between the two countries. There are four localities in Slovakia. It has an estimated AOO between 10 and 100 km². The EOO is estimated to be less than 1,000 km² and it is found at approximately five locations in total.
162039		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onosma tornensis</span> is found on sunny, dry, southerly orientated cast slopes and on limestone substrate at<span style="background-color: white;"> 200</span> to 500 m altitude. It occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>This species is a weak competitor and it does not tolerate shading.
162039		population	eng	In Hungary, the population consists of 3,152 to 10,000 individuals. In Slovakia, it has been estimated that between 2,000 and 3,500 individuals are left   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The number of individuals is generally low in Slovakia and there is an estimated decline of 30% in the population size. Two localities in Slovakia have fewer than 10 individuals. It was thought that this plant is rare. There seems to be a decrease in the population size, however further research is needed to quantify this decline.
162039		threats	eng	In the past, intensive pasture, grazing and trampling were major threats to this plant. Currently, forestation of sites (tree plantations etc.) and natural succession due to changes in agriculture and management causing competition with other plants are the main threats. The invasive species, Tree of Heaven (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ailanthus altissima</span>), from Asia causes shading and replaces natural vegetation. This invasive species is difficult to remove once it is introduced. Some substrate disintegration is necessary for growing of seedlings. It is also threatened be limestone quarry and cement factories at some locations. There is also cement dust which might cause a decline in the quality of its habitat. Collection of samples for herbaria might be a threat.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162040		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria sampaioi </span>is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
162040		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern and central Portugal (Serra da Estrela). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Its area of occupancy is less than 1,600 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162040		habitat	eng	This plant is found in acidophilous grassland, on granite outcrops, or in horizontal cracks of granitic rocks. This species typically occurs in high mountain meadows with <span style="font-style: italic;">Minuartia recurva</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria querioides</span>, and is characteristic for <span style="font-style: italic;">Teesdaliopsio-Luzulion caespitosae</span> (class <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetea indigestion</span>). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6160 "Oro-Iberian <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta </span>grasslands" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162040		population	eng	The total population has between 251-500 individuals   with an unknown population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162040		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by recreational activities in the mountains, such as trampling by tourists or skiing. Communication networks have also been reported as a threat (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162041		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. There are no other measures in place or needed.
162041		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the north of Portugal and Galicia in Spain<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its extent of occurrence in Portugal and Spain is 3,904 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162041		habitat	eng	This plant is a woody chamaephyte that grows up to 60 cm and can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion </span>or of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span></li></ul>
162041		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Santolina semidentata</span> is a relatively common species and is present in 36 localities in Spain and has been counted to have 10,000 individuals in Portugal (Commission of the European Communities 2009, ICNB 2006).
162041		threats	eng	The main threat is posed by an alteration of the chemical composition of the soil due to abandonment of traditional or the adoption of inadequate agricultural practices (ICNB 2006).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162043		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia lateriflora</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Estonia: Endangered (Lilleleht 2008)</li><li>Finland: Near Threatened (Rassi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010)</li><li>Norway: Vulnerable A4c (Artsdatabanken 2010)</li><li>Sweden: Vulnerable B1ab(iii,iv)+2ab(iii,iv); D2 (Gärdenfors 2010), it is protected by law and some populations are in a national park.</li></ul><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/>In Russia, it is considered as Least Concern.</st1:country-region><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></p>
162043		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia lateriflora </span>ranges from  Europe to Siberia, Central Asia, the Far East, and North America. The European  range is mainly in Scandinavia and the northern and central part of  East-European plain. This species is native to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Norway, Sweden, Ukraine, and Central, Eastern, Northern and Northwestern European Russia. <br/>In Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia lateriflora</span> reaches southern limit of area. It is known only from three localities near northern boundary of Chernigivska region. In Sweden, it occurs in the northeast only and is found on four islands with an area of occupancy of 24 km². In Lithuania, it went probably extinct 50 years ago due to the passing of electricity power cables. In Estonia, there is only one location in the northeast. In Norway, it occurs in Finnmark only in at least twelve locations.
162043		habitat	eng	This species grows in non-riverine woodland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus aucuparia</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Ukraine it was found in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests.
162043		population	eng	In Estonia, 700 individuals have been counted (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, there are 2,500 reproductive individuals that are severely fragmented as they occur on a few islands, and the populations are slowly declining (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, the populations underwent a major decline due to river regulation in 1959 but new populations have been found since then. Overall, the populations still have a declining trend. <span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia lateriflora</span> was found in Ukraine in the 19th and first half of the 20th century. The current state of the populations is unknown. It is possible, that this species is extinct in Ukraine.
162043		threats	eng	The main threats are urbanisation, and modification of hydrographic functioning, such as management of water levels. A<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>bandonment of pastoral systems and forestry clearance have also been described as threats (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162044		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa bavarica</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered (level 1) on the German red list (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and on the Bavarian red list (Ahlmer 2010).<br/>&#160;<br/>Conservation measures should focus on protecting the site and control succession with appropriate management. It is furthermore recommended to close the site for the public in order to avoid trampling or pollution (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008).
162044		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Germany where it is found at only one location in southern Frankenalb, Bavaria. Its extent of occurrence is 137 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162044		habitat	eng	<p>This perennial plant grows on rock spurs and mountain tops where fine substrate accumulates in crevices and shallow pits. This plant starts flowering in its third year (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008).<br/></p>
162044		population	eng	The species has been recorded in only one locality and the population trend seems to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The number of individuals is unknown.
162044		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to its low number of individuals and its single locality. Succession poses the main threat, as the encroachment of woody shrubs from surrounding areas makes it difficult for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bavarica</span> to compete. Further potential threats are collection of this extremely rare species and introduction of other <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa</span> species (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008).
162046		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia eriantha</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Poland, all the sites are situated within a protected area, the Tatra National Park, which also hosts the majority of the Slovak populations. Two populations are monitored   (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001). In Slovakia, the species is protected and currently classed as Vulnerable, and apart from the Tatra National Park, localities are included in small scale nature reserves.<br/>In Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Italy, it is considered as a Vulnerable species (Šilić 1996, Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).<br/>In Bulgaria, it is listed as Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii,iii); C2a(i) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). In Serbia, it is classed as Lower Risk but conservation dependent <span style="background-color: white;">(Stevanović <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2005-2011); it has the same listing in Montenegro. The species is not included in the red lists of Albania, Greece, FYR Macedonia, and Spain.<br/><br/>In Montenegro, the majority and most abundant populations are situated in the National Park Durmitor, while in Serbia part of the Balkan populations are restricted to limestone peaks of Mt Šarplanina inside of the National Park with the same name. In Bulgaria, whole populations are situated inside two national parks “Rila” and “Pirin”. Parts of the populations in FYR Macedonia (Mt Šarplanina, and Mt Korab), Albania (Mt Prokletije and Mt Korab), Bosnia and Herzegovina (Mt Dinara and Mt Prenj) and in some localities in Greece (Mountains of Epirus -Tymphi, Smolikas and Gramos) are not protected. The population growing on Mt Olympus in Greece is under protection and is proposed for a National Park Olympus.
162046		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">European alpine species that is distributed in the Pyrenees, southwestern Alps, central Apennines, Carpathians and Balkan mountains. The species is present in Spain, France, </span>Poland, Slovakia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, FYR Macedonia, Romania and in Greece (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the whole Balkan peninsula, it is found at more than 15 localities measured in 10x10 km grid cells. <br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162046		habitat	eng	This plant grows in alpine grassland, gravelly plateaus, rocks and stabilized screes on limestone, rocky crevices, granite, often mylonitized granite, flysch and serpentine. It is found at an altitude from 1,900-2,800 m. It is a characteristic species of the class <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenietea rupestria</span>, and forms part of the alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion versicoloris</span>. <br/>In the southeastern Dinaric Alps it inhabits limestone rock crevices and stable screes, usually on north-facing rocks. It belongs to the rare siliceous rocks alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxiragion cymosae</span> as well as the alliances <span style="font-style: italic;">Petasition doerfleri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerion juncifoliae</span>. In Mt Olympus in Greece, it is a member of high-mountain chasmophytic community <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla deorum – Saxifraga scardica</span>, order <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilletalia speciosae</span>. In the Balkans the species rather prefers calcareous than siliceous rocks.<br/><br/>The species is found in the following habitats listed on the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsacetalia alpinae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeopsietalia ladani</span>)</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>  8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>    <br/><br/><p><br/></p>
162046		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">In Poland, the plant is found in the Western Tatra Mountains and the High Tatra Mountains in small populations of up to tens of individuals at few localities probably not more than 500 tufts in total. </span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Slovakia, it occurs in the Western, High and Belianske Tatra Mountains at about 30 localities (incomplete information from the database of the Institute of Botany, Slovak Academy of Sciences). It is usually found in small populations, but some with hundreds of individuals. </span><br/>In Spain, it has been noted at 46 localities in the Pyrenees (Anthos 2009).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The population trend is stable in France, Poland and Slovakia.<br/><br/>In the whole Balkan peninsula it is found at more than 15 localities In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it occurs on Mt. Dinara (Troglav - Bosnia) and on Mt. Prenj (Otiš - Herzegovina). The</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> size of both populations has not been estimated but as the one on Mt. Dinara is restricted to the north facing mountain peak, it is probably small. In Montenegro, the plant is found on the Durmitor mountain and  Prokletije mountain but the population size and trend are unknown.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> At Mt Durmitor there are several micro-localities and it is probably the most abundant population in the Dinaric Alps, estimated to have a few thousand tufts. Populations in Mt Prokletije in Montegero, Albania and southwest Serbia (Kosovo) have not been estimated but could be abundant due to numerous favourable habitats existing in this mountain massif. In the central part of the Balkan peninsula, it is distributed in limestone peaks of M Šarplanina in southwest Serbia (Kosovo) and Korab (FYR Macedonia and northeast Albania). Populations in Bulgaria are restricted to Mt Rila and Mt Pirin, while in Greece it has a scattered distribution on Mt Olympus and mountains of Epirus. </span><br/></span></span>
162046		threats	eng	<p>Different threats have been described for this species such as collection and trampling. Its habitat faces threats from tourist development (skiing, paths, cycling tracks) and recreational activities such as mountaineering or rock climbing. Quarries and natural disasters such as landslides or avalanches are also impacting on the habitat.</p>In Poland, for example, it is classed as lower risk and only threatened by the rare occurrence. In Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species inhabits inaccessible habitats that are far from strong human impacts (e.g. ski paths), except rare grazing. No serious threats have been observed in the field.
162047		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "de interés especial" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain. It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía and as species "de interés especial" in the regional catalogue of Castilla-La Mancha.<br/></p>Most of the populations occur within the protected area Parque Natural de Despeñaperros. Plant material is stored in different germplasm banks. Nitrification levels should be controlled through the control of reforestation activities with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. Cleaning works in road edges and firewalls should be developed with care.
162047		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra Morena, occurring near Despeñaperros (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It can be found from Santa Elena to Aldeaquemada, province of Jaén, and also in adjacent areas in Ciudad Real. In Andalucía, it is present in four locations, with an area of occupancy of 21 km²<sup></sup>.
162047		habitat	eng	This pioneer plant grows in heliophile open communities such as as cleared shrublands, edges of roads and firewalls (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It cannot stand high levels of nitrification, disappearing in the surroundings of urban areas. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia, Quercus faginea, Pinus pinaster, Arbutus unedo, Phyllirea angustifolia, Erica arborea, Cistus ladanifer, Cistus populifolius, Cistus monspeliensis, Daphne gnidium, Thymus mastichina, Lavandula stoechas, Helichrysum stoechas, Hypericum perforatum, Agrostis stolonifera, Campanula rapunculus, Andryala arenaria,</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis vesicaria</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina corymbosa.<br/><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162047		population	eng	Population size has been estimated in between 30,000 and 100,000 individuals (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). It is believed to be in expansion.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162047		threats	eng	Use of pesticides and presence of roads have been reported as threats to the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Reforestation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. is also a threat, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea tricolor </span>cannot develop under the canopy of these forests (Blanca<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000).
162050		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected under regional legislation in the Basque country in Spain. In France, it is listed in Annex I of the National List of Protected Species and the most part of the French subpopulation is in a protected area and is subject to a species recovery plan.
162050		distribution	eng	This Narcissus species is found at the Iberian Peninsula, mainly in the northern half and rarely in the south (Anthos 2009). It also occurs in the Bretagne region in France, departement Finistère (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010). In Portugal, it is present in the northern part half of the country and in <span style="background-color: white;">Serra de Monchique (Algarve) (Franco and Afonso 1994).</span>
162050		habitat	eng	This species grows in rocky grassland, woodlands, heathlands and forest glades or scrubland over fresh siliceous substrates. In France, it is found in "grey" dunes, i.e. humus-bearing sands. It is found in the following Habitats Directive habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>4040 Dry Atlantic coastal heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica vagans </span></li><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion</span> or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span></li><li>9180 <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilio-Acerion</span> forests of slopes, screes and ravines</li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa </span>woods</li><li>9330 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> forests</li><li>9340 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests</li></ul>
162050		population	eng	This is a very abundant species in Spain and Portugal. In Spain it has been recorded in 379 localities, in Portugal in 177 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and in France, there is only one locality (Glenans islands, Finnisterre). In 1985, there were 6,500 individuals in France and now there are more than 152,000.
162050		threats	eng	The main threats are grazing, changes in agricultural practices, forest plantations and in some part of its range, invasive species.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>In France, seabirds and coypus are eating the bulbs and are a serious threat.
162051		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace pyrenaica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/><br/>In France, it is protected under national legislation and populations  are often found in protected areas such as national park of the Pyrénées  or nature reserves. It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species and also as "Vulnerable" in the regional Aragonese catalogue of protected species. It is listed as Near Threatened on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>Several subpopulations occur within the protected areas Parque de Ordesa y Monte Perdido and Parque de Posets-Maladeta. Seeds are stored in different germplasm banks (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
162051		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pyrenees and is found in France and Spain. In Spain it is present in the province of Huesca and its area of occupancy is 35 km² (J.C. Moreno Saiz pers. comm. 2011). In France, the area of occupancy is more than 30 km².
162051		habitat	eng	The species is found in fissures in rocks with a preference for shielded "extraplomos". It prefers siliceous rocks: granite, sandstone and quartzite, although it sometimes appears on calc-schists, but never on limestone. It is often found on south-facing walls but not exclusively.<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162051		population	eng	In France, the species is known from 19 localities, is quite widespread and does not undergo a decline.<br/>In Spain, 26 populations have been found in Aragón (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Population size has been estimated in more than 18,000 individuals, from which 11,000 are reproductive specimens. The habitat of this species is very inaccessible and new locations have been discovered over the last years.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162051		threats	eng	The main threats to this species in France come from mountaineering and rock climbing. Collection of the plants could be another threat. This species can also be affected by collapse of the terrain or landslides.<br/>In the Spanish Pyrenees, a skiing complex poses a major threat.
162052		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearia tatrae</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Endangered in Slovakia and all of its localities are included in a protected area. In 1968 the species was artificially sown on various sites in the central part of the Nízke Tatry Mts in Slovakia, but without success (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Poland it is listed as Vulnerable in the Red List (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) and in the Red Data Book of the Polish Carpathians (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). The species is also legally protected (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006) and all Polish populations are situated in the area of the Tatra National Park.
162052		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearia tatrae </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is endemic to the Tatra Mountains in Poland and Slovakia and has an AOO of 700 km². In Poland, this species is restricted to a very small area in the high Tatras, between 1,595 and 2,390 m asl. The species is scattered in 12 sites in the environs of the Morskie Oko Lake. It occurs predominantly in alpine and subnival belts (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). In Slovakia, it is known from at least 30 localities in the Západné,  Vysoké and Belianske Tatra Mts. It is found at altitudes of 2,605 m asl. In 1926 it was observed also in the  surroundings of Liptovská Teplička in the Nízke Tatry Mts, however, the  locality was not confirmed later (Mereďa and  Hodálová 2011).
162052		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearia tatrae</span>, which flowers from April to September, is found in moist crevices and scree of mylonite and granite rocks, around mountain springs, streams and tarn banks (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <br/><br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8110 "Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsacetalia alpinae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeopsietalia ladani</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162052		population	eng	The population in Poland has been estimated at 600 individuals and is believed to be stable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).&#160; The sites are severely fragmented (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). In Slovakia it is present in at least 30 localities and the populations are stable (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162052		threats	eng	Erosion, grazing by animals and damaging activities by tourists are the main threats (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). Avalanches have been noted as an additional threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162053		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed as Critically Endangered on the Bulgarian Red List (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). <em>Dactylorhiza kalopissii</em> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and can be protected by:</p><ul><li>Protection of the<em> </em>natural habitats by the supply of enough water and mowing in the autumn. </li><li>The habitat should be kept open and enlarged by clearing.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;<span class="species"></li></ul><span class="species">(Phitos <em>et al.</em><span class="species"> 1995, Delforge 1995).</span>
162053		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylorhiza kalopissii </span>is endemic to Greece. It is only  known from several localities in the northern Greek mountains: the <st1:place><st1:placename>Katara</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>Pass</st1:placetype></st1:place> area, <st1:place><st1:placetype>Mt.</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename>Vermion</st1:placename></st1:place> and <st1:place><st1:placetype>Mt.</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename>Olimbos</st1:placename></st1:place>. This species is found from 1,100 m to 1,600 m altitude <span class="species">(Phitos <em>et al.</em><span class="species"> 1995, Delforge 1995). The area of occupancy is 15 km² and the extent of occurrence is 7,614 km².<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
162053		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza kalopissii</em> occurs only in wet meadows near springs and rivulets. It<em></em> grows in neutral to slightly acid damp to marshy soils in full sun and flowers from mid-May to July <span class="species">(Phitos <em>et al.</em><span class="species"> 1995, Delforge 1995). </span></p>
162053		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza kalopissii </em>is quite local and somewhat abundant where it occurs. <span class="species">The population size is decreasing (Phitos <em>et al.</em><span class="species"> 1995, Delforge 1995). </span></p>
162053		threats	eng	<p><em></em><span class="species">The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza kalopissii<em></em></em><span class="species"><span class="species"> has undergone significant declines recently through soil drainage, tourist development, reservoir construction and intensive grazing. Collection of this orchid is a threat to the species. Within the genus <em>Dactylorhiza </em><span class="species">the tendency of hybridization <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">with other taxa of the genus <span class="species"><span class="species">is enormous and therefore poses a threat to the species<em><em></em></em><span class="species"> (Phitos <em>et al.</em><span class="species"> 1995, Delforge 1995). </span></span></span></span></span></p>
162054		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria algarviana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal. Appropriate site management for this species including traditional grazing activities or control of urban and tourism expansion should be established. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation in botanic gardens is recommended (ICN 2006). And information on the population trend and size should be collected.
162054		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Algarve in Portugal (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 2,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,400 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162054		habitat	eng	This annual plant flowers from March to April and is found in clearings in shrublands, vineyards and pine forests, on sandy soils (ICN 2006). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia</span> dune grasslands (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162054		population	eng	<p>The species is frequent in various sites but with annual population fluctuations (ICN 2006). There is no information on the population size or trend available.<br/></p>
162054		threats	eng	The main threats are changes to traditional land use management and tourism activities (ICN 2006).
162055		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is listed as Endangered in the Italian Red List (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>) and as Data Deficient in the Croatian Red Data Book (Flora Croatica Database 2010). Most subpopulations in Italy and Slovenia occur in Natura 2000 sites.
162055		distribution	eng	This European endemic is found in Croatia, Italy and Slovenia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). The geographic range for Slovenia is 50 km² and for Italy only 1 km² (which can be interpreted as an area of occupancy below 500 km²) - there are three locations in those two countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is found at several sites along the coast in Croatia (Flora Croatica Database 2004).
162055		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly on rocky wind-exposed grasslands and stabilised screes. It is found in the following Habitats Directive habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>8160 Medio-European calcareous scree of hill and montane levels</li></ul>
162055		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genista holopetala</span> is an extremely rare species. There is just one subpopulation of 850 individuals in Italy, two connected localities are found in Slovenia, but there are no population estimates. The populations are stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Croatia, there is no population data available.
162055		threats	eng	The main threat is trampling by mountaineers. Some locations near Trieste were lost at the beginning of the 20th century, due to forest plantations.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>
162056		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula apennina</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162056		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula apennina</span> is endemic to the north of the Apennine mountain range in Italy where its area of occupancy is less than 500 km². There are ten localities in the regions Emilia-Romagna and Toscana (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
162056		habitat	eng	This <span style="font-style: italic;">Primula</span> sp. grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8220 "Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162056		population	eng	The total population size counts less than 1,000 mature individuals but the population is stable.
162056		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are collection of the plant, grazing activities, and tourism impacts   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162057		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) A2ad; B1ab(iv,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).</p><p>It occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, where a recovery programme is established. <span style="font-style: italic;">In vitro</span> cultivation has been developed. Plant material is stored in several germplasm banks.<br/></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional de Sierra"><span title="Se ha conseguido poner">Illegal collection should be efficiently controlled through awareness campaigns. Cultivation and propagation have to be enhanced in order to satisfy the needs of population reinforcement plans and traditional uses. Variability in germplasm banks should be increased </span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Hernández Bermejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional de Sierra"><span title="Se ha conseguido poner">.</span>
162057		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">This species is endemic to the mountains of Sierra Nevada, southern Spain (Hernández Bermejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It can be found in two locations: one in the province of Granada, comprising 10 subpopulations; and one in the province of Almeria. A wider distribution was reported in the past, being currently described as severely fragmented. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 15 km².
162057		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="etc.">This herb is found in grasslands on steep slopes of high Mediterranean mountains. It occurs in dry, rocky sites, screes, ledges and crevices and rock fissures. It is commonly associated to other endemic species. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca clementei, Erigeron frigidus, Hormathophylla purpurea, Arenaria tetraquetra, Sempervivum minutum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Papaver lapeyrousianum.</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Flowers are unattractive to insects. <span title="El porcentaje"><span title="Los aquenios presentan gran capacidad de germinación,">The achenes have great capacity for germination, <span title="aunque pierden viabilidad con el tiempo.">but lose viability over time </span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Hernández Bermejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El porcentaje"><span title="Los aquenios presentan gran capacidad de germinación,"><span title="aunque pierden viabilidad con el tiempo.">. <br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El número de individuos"><span title="del terreno."></span></span></span></span>
162057		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="Actualmente se conocen 10">Total population size is <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Actualmente se conocen 10"><span title="la zona almeriense.">452 individuals (Hernández Bermejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The population size is thought to be higher, although less than 2,000 individuals. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Actualmente se conocen 10"><span title="la zona almeriense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="etc."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El porcentaje"><span title="Los aquenios presentan gran capacidad de germinación,"><span title="aunque pierden viabilidad con el tiempo."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Comparing previous census (1994), a decrease in the number of mature adults of more than 50% can be observed up to the year 2003, as well as the disappearance of some subpopulations. <span title="Es más frecuente"><span title="El número de individuos"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Actualmente se conocen 10"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Actualmente se conocen 10"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Actualmente se conocen 10"><span title="la zona almeriense."><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162057		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The lack of popular awareness appears as the main factor threatening this species, which has been often collected for medicinal purposes (Hernández Bermejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Predation by<span title="infusiones3."><span title="y de herbívoros silvestres, que consumen los"> herbivores has been also reported as a threat. <span title="Presenta">The species presents low genetic variability between populations, which has been thought to be due to low capacity of adaptation to adverse climatic conditions. <br/></span></span>
162058		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under  Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife  and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as CR B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008) and included as "vulnerable" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Their populations are included in the protected area Parque <span title="Natural">Natural Jandía (SCI) (Scholz 2004). There are seeds stored in the germplasm banks of the <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="de Ingenieros"><span title="Agrónomos de Madrid.">Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="de Ingenieros"><span title="Agrónomos de Madrid."><br/><br/>Proposed measures include recovery and reenforcement of wild populations, through creation of grazing activities exclusion areas and management of the number of grazing animals in the area. Plant material should be stored in germplasm banks.<br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162058		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum winteri</span> is restricted to the Jandia Peninsula, in the south of Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, Spain. It is found growing between 500 and 800 m asl, distributed into three <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres">known locations<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía).">: <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">Crestas de Jandía, <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">Solana del Ciervo and <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">Degollada del Culantrillo<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2."><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía).">.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."> <span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">Its area of occupancy is 4 km².&#160; <br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162058		habitat	eng	This shrub <span id="result_box" class="long_text">grows on steep slopes with more or less well developed soils, and also on cliffs, but its size remains smaller in these sites (Scholz<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004). It can be found mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Andryalo variae-Astericetum sericei</span> <span id="result_box" class="long_text">community.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Frequent accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Nauplius sericeus, Sideritis pumila, Senecio </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">bollei</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">, Maytenus canariensis, Ononis christii, Echium handiense </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum </span><span title="handiense."><span style="font-style: italic;">handiense</span>.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."> <br/><br/>It looses its leaves in summer as mechanism of adaptation to xerophitic conditions. Fructification and germination present appropriate levels. It can propagate by cuttings. <br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162058		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"> <span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">A total population of 272 individuals was reported by Scholz <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(2004): 150 in Crestas de Jandía, 110 in Solana del Ciervo and 12 in Degollada del Culantrillo. The p<span id="result_box" class="long_text">opulations have been in serious decline over the past ten years. The subpopulation of Solana del Ciervo has experienced a 90% reduction of its size in this period. About 100 seedlings were observed in June 2002, but have an <span title="futuro incierto debido al pisoteo del ganado.">uncertain future due to trampling by livestock.<br/><br/>In 2006, 510 individuals were recorded: <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">422 in Crestas de Jandía, 76 in Solana del Ciervo and 12 in Degollada del Culantrillo. It is thought that this increase <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">in Crestas de Jandía <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2.">is due <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="futuro incierto debido al pisoteo del ganado.">to improved monitoring methods rather than to population progressive patterns (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), and that the species has experienced strong regression in its population size since the 1980s.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="Tres"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="(años de sequía)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="handiense."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="al borde de la extinción."><span title="la especie es de aproximadamente 8.500 m2."><br/> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162058		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threat is trampling by livestock, that affects plants directly and fractures the topsoil layers, causing loss of stability and shifting of the slope, which can be exacerbated by <span title="y las lluvias del invierno.">winter rains (Scholz 2004). Nitrogen accumulation leads to the spread of ruderal <span title="de plantas anuales ruderales que no consiguen">annual plants that fail to halt<span title="frenar la erosión."> erosion. <span title="por años climáticamente desfavorables."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="y las lluvias del invierno."><span title="de plantas anuales ruderales que no consiguen"><span title="frenar la erosión."><span title="por años climáticamente desfavorables.">Predation <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="y las lluvias del invierno."><span title="de plantas anuales ruderales que no consiguen"><span title="frenar la erosión."><span title="por años climáticamente desfavorables."><span title="lado y aunque A."><span title="cuando hay escasez general de alimento.">has been also reported as a threat when there is general shortage of available food<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="y las lluvias del invierno."><span title="de plantas anuales ruderales que no consiguen"><span title="frenar la erosión."><span title="por años climáticamente desfavorables.">, although the shrub is not highly <span title="lado y aunque A.">desired by herbivorous<span title="cuando hay escasez general de alimento.">. Drought events also exert impact on the species.<br/><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162059		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium sudeticum</span> is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Poland the species is listed as Rare in the Red List (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), as Critically Endangered in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) and in the regional Red List of Lower Silesia (Kącki 2003); it is also strictly protected at the national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). It is included in the Atlas of Polish endemics (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek in prep.). All the Polish populations occur exclusively within the Karkonosze National Park. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000).
162059		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium sudeticum </span>is endemic to Czech Republic and Poland. The area of occupancy for this species is 700 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Poland it occurs between the altitudes of 1,240 and 1,485 m asl and it is a very rare species, restricted to the Karkonosze mountains. It is found in four localities situated in the subalpine belt. It is also found at only four localities in Czech Republic (Čeřovský<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999)<br/><br/>In Bavaria in Germany, it is only known from a herbarium specimen (Ahlmer 2010); there is no information on other occurrences.
162059		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium sudeticum</span> grows in chasmophytic vegetation of siliceous cliffs and serpentine pine forests. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands</li><li>6230 Species-rich Nardus grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsacetalia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">alpinae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeopsietalia ladani</span>)</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162059		population	eng	In the Czech Republic, the area covered by the population   is 0,0033 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The Polish population has been measured as a few thousand tufts. The population is stable.
162059		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>In the Czech Republic, the plant is threatened by grazing, but also by the abandonment of pastoral systems, leading to invasion by species and competition. It is also damaged by general forestry management, and natural effects such as avalanches, collapse of terrain and landslides.&#160; Habitat damage also occurs from drying out and eutrophication.<br/><br/>In Poland, the plant is additionally threatened by the collection of the plant, air pollution and recreational activities such as mountaineering and rock climbing.
162060		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I and V of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered (EN) B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">There is a recovery plan for the species in Andalucía. <span title="In P.">The species occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de Sierra Mágina (proposed SCI)<span title="Natural"> and is partially fenced off. Sierra de la Sagra is included in the SCI Sierras del Nordeste. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is">Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="In P."><span title="Natural"><span title="There is">Herbivores should be controlled. Cultivation and propagation measures should be kept in place. Research about its reproductive biology should be continued. The species should be reintroduced to the protected area Parque Natural de las Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162060		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis granatensis</span> is endemic to the mountains of southern Spain, with an EOO of 125 km²<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> and an AOO of 8 km².<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Endemic to such ranges as the Sierra de Magina (Jaén) and Sierra de la Sagra (Granada). <span title="Se ha citado además en varias">Its presence has also been reported in several locations in the mountains of Cazorla-Segura (Jaén) and Sierra de Gádor (Almería)<span title="no se ha localizado recientemente.">, where it has not been recently found.</span>
162060		habitat	eng	It grows specifically in calcareous rocky areas and limestone areas of high mountains with steep inclinations where there are often constant movements of rocks. It coexists with <span style="font-style: italic;">Platycapnos saxicola, Lactuca perennis </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">.granatensis, Jurinea fontqueri, Andryala agardhii, Vicia glauca </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> giennensis, Rumex scutatus, Silene vulgaris </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> commutata, Bunium alpinum </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> macuca, Cerastium gibraltaricum, Vella spinosa </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erinacea anthyllis.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="parte de su área de distribución."><span title="que su área de distribución sea más amplia."><span title="La"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The rhizomes are able to come through loose and fragile surface cover. It is a <span title="Flores hermafroditas,">hermaphrodite, pollinated by insects, often Hymenoptera <span title="y lepidópteros.">and Lepidoptera. It is known <span title="vilano.">to produce a high percentage of empty seeds, obtaining a maximum of 40% germination under <span title="experimentales de temperatura alternante">experimental temperatures alternating between 20/26ºC. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="parte de su área de distribución."><span title="que su área de distribución sea más amplia."><span title="La"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Flores hermafroditas,"><span title="y lepidópteros."><span title="vilano."><span title="experimentales de temperatura alternante"><span title="20/26 ºC y fotoperiodo de 16 horas de luz; la">Seedling survival is low even in controlled conditions.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162060		population	eng	Regressive patterns have been observed in its population size. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It has disappeared from a good <span title="parte de su área de distribución.">part of its previous range. Total population size has been estimated in <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="parte de su área de distribución."><span title="que su área de distribución sea más amplia."><span title="La">17,508 individuals (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="parte de su área de distribución.">Only two of their subpopulations are over 2,000 individuals. The high specificity of its habitat prevents it from spreading to a wider area. <span title="que su área de distribución sea más amplia."><span title="La"><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
162060		threats	eng	One of the main threats is its dependency on a very specific habitat, which can be easily disturbed by grazing animals. Grazing animals produce constant movement of rocks which can damage plants. On the other hand, deposition of animals increases nitrification and reduces habitat quality.
162061		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa danubialis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable in the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
162061		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Muntii Mehedinti in Romania<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011, Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).</p>
162061		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
162061		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
162061		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
162063		conservation	eng	It is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is classed EN A2ce in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>The subpopulations occur in the protected areas Paisaje Protegido Acantilados de La Culata (SCI), Sitio de Interés Científico de Interián (SCI), Paisaje Protegido Costa de Acentejo, Sitio de Interés Científico Barranco de Ruiz (SCI), Parque Rural de Teno (SCI) and Reserva Natural de Guelguén (SCI) (Mesa Coello<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Proposed measures include seed collection from every subpopulation and storage in germplasm banks, implementation of grazing species access control measures, and control of hybrid cultivars used in gardening in the island. Research is necessary to clarify taxonomical doubts about <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium frutican</span>s and <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium arborescens</span>.
162063		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium arborescens</span> is endemic to the islands of Tenerife and La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain<st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place> (Mesa Coello<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). In Tenerife it can be found in cliffs and crags on five locations in the northern part of the island, from Valle de La Orotava to Teno. In La Palma, it is found in one location in Garafía. Its total area of occupancy is between 4.75 and 16 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
162063		habitat	eng	This shrub grows in cliffs and shady rocky slopes, on sites with some accumulation of humic soil. It occurs within the communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho radicati-Aeonietum tabulaeformis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio thusculae-Rumicetum lunariae</span>. Its altitudinal distribution range is wide, from the coast up to thermophile forests (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia thuscula</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rhamnus crenulata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus acaulis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Astydamia latifolia</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sideritis</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum</span> spp.
162063		population	eng	Population size was estimated in around 4,500 individuals  (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). Some subpopulations present expansive dynamics. In 2007, its total population size was estimated in 8,226 specimens (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
162063		threats	eng	Main threats are  natural competition with other species, grazing and stock trampling   (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Grazing pressure has decreased in the last years and it does not seem to currently threat the conservation of the species.<br/>A risk of hybridisation with the endemic species <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium fruticans</span> and gardening species present in surrounding areas exists. Seeds are frequently infested by parasites (insects). Changes in land use, construction of roads and competition with exotic species have been also reported as threats.
162064		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia pancicii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Czech Republic and Serbia it is classed as Critically Endangered in the national red lists and legally protected (Holub and Procházka 2000, Stevanovič 1999). The Austrian Red List lists it as Endangered (Niklfeld 1999).<br/>A necessary management practice for the species is extensive mowing. Burning can also be beneficial to the vitality of the species. Grazing to open the shrubland is already practised in Austria.
162064		distribution	eng	This species is native to Austria (200 km²), Czech Republic (404 km²) and Serbia. Its area of occupancy is 200 km² in Austria and 404 km² in Czech Republic. Therefore it can be assumed that the total area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162064		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia pancicii</span> is a perennial plant with a rosette that grows on the edges of forests, such as thermophile oak forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>), in forest steppe, in broad-leaved dry grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromion erecti</span>), on basic soils, limestones, loess, etc. It avoids being exposed to the south.
162064		population	eng	In Austria, there are 500-1,000 individuals found at three localities, one north of Vienna and two north of the Neusiedlersee. In Czech Republic, 350 individuals have been reported from three localities. It is only found in the Pannonian part of Czech Republic. The population trend is declining as it was known from six localities of which three have disappeared.<br/>In Serbia, it occurs in the Vojvodina and Deliblatska sand steppe area.
162064		threats	eng	In Czech Republic, the main threat is abandonment of grazing regimes and invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span> which was introduced for honey production. A minor threat might be trampling as there are only a few localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162065		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Spanish Red List as Vulnerable B1ac(iv)+2ac(iv); D1+2 (Moreno 2008). At regional level it is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the regional catalogue of protected species for the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>All the populations are included in the protected areas Parque Nacional de Garajonay and Parque Natural de Majona, and a recovery programme is being developed at the Parque Nacional de Garajonay. Two locations have been fenced.<br/><br/>Proposed measures in order to ensure the conservation of the species are: The maintenance of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> actions included in the recovery programme of the species, the creation of a plan for the conservation of its habitat and the establishment of fences around the populations in order to protect them against potential herbivorous predators (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
162065		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium gomerense</span> is endemic to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Its presence has been recorded from 600 to 1,100 m asl., in six localities in the central western part of the highest part of the island, between the valleys of Hermigua and San Sebastián. Four subpopulations are native: Cumbre de La Carbonera, Bajo de la Carbonera, Espigón del Negrito and Enchereda; the other two have been introduced: Fuente de la Araña and Lomo de La Horca. <span style="background-color: white;">Its extent of occurrence is lower than the area of La Gomera, lower than 500 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of occupancy has been estimated in 5 km² (O. Rodríguez, A.García Gallo and G. Cruz pers. comm. 2011).<br/></span>
162065		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. gomerense</span> is a perennial sub-shrub that grows on rocky habitats on slopes, cliffs and crags, mostly north-facing, within the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Greenovietum diplocyclae</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonietea</span>), characterised by the presence of species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia diplocycla, Aeonium castellopaivae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. subplanum, A. viscatum, Monanthes</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> laxiflora </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sonchus gonzalez-padronii</span> (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Its ecological optimum are humid monteverde associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Lauro novocanariensis-Perseetum indicae</span>, but <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>in its lower limit of distribution<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it can also progress along with aggressive thermophile species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia lamarckii, Echium</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> aculeatum, Carlina salicifolia, Micromeria varia </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Paronychia canariensis</span><span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/><br/></span>Hermaphrodite plant, autogamous and allogamous that can propagate well asexually.
162065		population	eng	The number of individuals has been estimated in 4,672 (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Decreasing patterns have been observed in some subpopulations (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The locations are mainly populated by adult individuals and poor regeneration levels have been observed (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Flowering occurs sporadically and a given individual may not produce flowers during several years. <br/>In natural populations, though, mortality and development of young individuals are balanced.
162065		threats	eng	The main threats affecting this species are intensive grazing and competition with exotic species, mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia ficus-indica</span>. Other threats are landslides, collection and phenomena of hybridisation with the native species <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium castello-paivae </span>(Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162066		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene longicilia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is protected under Portuguese national law. For the populations on acid substrate, micro-reserves should be created and the habitat should be kept open and managed appropriately (ICN 2006).
162066		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene longicilia</span> is endemic to west central Portugal. It is found on limestone in the west from Figueira to Foz and Coimbra, around Lisbon and Sesimbra, and in the Alentejo. It stretches from the coastal massif of Sintra to the eastern end of the Serra da Sintra (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 10,558 km² and the area of occupancy is 3,900 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162066		habitat	eng	The plants on limestone occur in open or closed woodland, in loamy soil or marly limestone and rock crevices, from sea level to 650 m asl. It is characteristic and common in the alliances <span style="font-style: italic;">Melico arrectae - Quercetum cocciferae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Calendula lusitanicae - Antirrhinion linkiani</span>. This plant benefits from fires and cutting of woods. It is common in rock crevices as that kind of habitat puts constraints on vegetation succession and therefore reduces the competition with other species. It becomes more rare on slopes with deep soils under closed canopies of coniferous trees (ICN 2006).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>8130 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li><li>9240 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus faginea</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus canariensis</span> Iberian woods</li><li>9340 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests</li></ul>
162066		population	eng	<p>The populations on limestone are relatively abundant and mostly in good condition in the Serras de Aire, Candeeiros, Sicó, Montejunto and Sintra. The populations of the Serra da Arrábida are isolated. The populations that occur on soils derived from volcanic rocks, on the other hand, have a wide distribution but are less populated and have less individuals per subpopulation, suggesting a phenomenon of scarcity. <span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">Those small populations have often <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">less than <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">10 individuals up to more than 60<span title="Click for alternate translations">, and are sometimes<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">geographically <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">isolated. There is one lcoation with <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">several hundred <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">individuals<span title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></p><p>The small population nucleus of Peninha is probably extinct.</p>
162066		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting the populations on limestone apart from the ones in the Serra da <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Arrábida which are very isolated. The populations on acid substrates suffer from successive reforestation which inhibits their dispersal (ICN 2006).</span>
162067		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana lutea</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive and under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, bark and fruits are subject to this regulation.<br/><br/>In several countries, e.g. Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Montenegro, Italy, Slovenia, special collection permits are required from the government. In Serbia and Croatia, the collection of this species is  forbidden.  It is recommended to replace wild collections by increasing cultivation of the species, to control the harvesting and maintain traditional agriculture.<br/><br/>Measures at national level are in place for various countries, for example:<br/><ul><li>France: Listed in la liste des espèces végétales protégées en région  Champagne-Ardenne (21) (Arrêté du 8 février 1988) and listed as protected  species in 7 Départements (Alpes-Maritimes, Haute-Corse,  Alpes-de-Haute-de-Provence, Jura, Corse-du-Sud, Corse-du-Sud,  Haute-Corse).</li><li>Germany: It is listed as Vulnerable (level 3) on the national red list   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and is under national protection.</li><li>Greece: It is protected under the Presidential Decree 67/81, and found in seven Natura 2000 sites</li><li>Italy: It is partially included in parks and Natura 2000 sites. In Sardinia, a project to recover the population is underway.</li><li>Slovenia: It was formerly protected by law and is listed as Vulnerable in the national red list (Čušin <em>et al.</em> 2004).</li><li>Serbia: It is estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Switzerland: Classed as Least Concern in the national red list (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002), partially included in protected areas.</li><li>Ukraine: It is included in the Red Data Book (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable, and protected in the Carpathian reserve, Carpathian national park, in Apchineckij zakaznik.</li></ul>
162067		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana lutea</span> is an element of montane-subalpine deciduous and coniferous forests of European mountain ranges. This species is mainly found in the Balkans, middle and southern Europe, Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians and Minor Asia (Turkey). It is native to many European countries: Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, France (mainland and Corsica), Greece, Italy (mainland and Sardinia), Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).<br/><br/>In France, it is found in at least 60 localities (rest of the data  are not clear). It has a scattered distribution in north western and central Greece. It can be found in the northern and  central mountain range of Italy and in Sardinia and Sicily at more than 500 localities. In Slovenia, it has been reported from three localities, it is widespread&#160; in the western part of the country and  scattered elsewhere. In Spain, it occurs at 120 - 122 localities. In Switzerland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana lutea</span> is found in the Alps and Jura at many sites. In Ukraine, it grows in the Chornogora, Gorgany, Svidivec and Marnaroski Alpy mountain massifs of the Carpathians.<br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162067		habitat	eng	It is a perennial single stem species with yellow flowers at the tip. Flowers first time in the third year of its life. It occurs in the mountains at high altitude and prefers calcareous soils in meadows. This species grows in glades of humid pine forests, rocky and shaded grasses. It does not stand high temperature and needs high precipitation.<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/>    <ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>4060 Alpine and Boreal heaths</li><li>5120 Mountain <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus purgans</span> formations</li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands<br/></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareoussubstrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6230 Species-rich<span style="font-style: italic;"> Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)<br/></li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li></ul>In Ukraine it grows in shrubland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo, Juniperus sibirica, Duschekia alnobetula</span> and in herbaceous communities dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>.<br/>  <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162067		population	eng	The population trend in the Balkans, where most of the European populations are found, is declining, especially in Bosnia, Albania and Montenegro. In the other European countries the populations are stable as they are not collected in the wild. The subpopulations are isolated and severely fragmented and there is very little seed exchange between them. The species is confined to mountain slopes. It is mainly found in isolated patches with a few individuals. The Balkan populations declined by c. 30% in the last 15 years.<br/>In France, the populations are mainly stable but may be in decline in some places at low altitude. The situation is similar in Italy, where the populations are&#160;stable but there are local declines e.g. in Sardinia from collection. The Slovenian populations are stable, and in Switzerland, it is widespread, stable or even increasing as people used to collect it and this collection has ceased.<br/>In the past the area occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana lutea</span> was bigger in the Ukraine than it is now. It occupied all the Carpathians high mountains from Gorgany to Chivehiny mountain massifs. Now, isolated populations occupy 10-15 m² and the total area of this species in the Ukrainian Carpathians is only 167 ha.
162067		threats	eng	Overharvesting of the wild populations for medicinal and food purposes is the main threat to the species. Furthermore, the <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> modification of cultivation practices including an increased use of fertilisers and the abandonment of pastoral systems that leads to vegetation succession, are impacting this species. Locally, the conversion of shrubland and grassland into forest plantations leads to habitat loss. Overgrazing and recreational activities are further local threats.
162068		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus aeolicus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is classed as Endangered in Italy (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and included in protected areas. This plant is also subject to a LIFE project.
162068		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus aeolicus</span> is native to Sicily, restricted to the Aeolian islands. It occurs at three locations with an area of occupancy of 7 km² and an extent of occurrence of 38.8 km².
162068		habitat	eng	In the area of Stromboli, it grows in piroclastic deposits. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus aeolicus</span> can be found in scrublands and garrigues. It can also grow in disturbed agricultural soils   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).  <br/><br/>It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9330 "<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> forests" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162068		population	eng	Three subpopulations, with isolated stands and therefore severely fragmented, have been found with less than 10,000 mature individuals in total. The population is declining.
162068		threats	eng	The main threats are grazing, mowing, and natural fires.
162069		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ligularia sibirica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in several national red lists and various conservation measures are in place:<br/><ul><li>Austria: Endangered but not protected, found in a landscape conservation area</li><li>Bulgaria: Critically Endangered and protected, Natura 2000 area designated for this plant species<br/></li><li><st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia: Critically Endangered and found in a national park</st1:country-region></li><li>Czech Republic: Critically Endangered and protected, found in protected areas</li><li>Estonia: Vulnerable</li><li>France: nationally protected, three localities are in the Arreté de  Protection de Biotope, two in a Réserve Naturelle, two in a Site Classé.</li><li>Latvia: very rare in the Red Data Book</li><li>Poland: protected (only three populations)</li><li>Russia: listed in local Red Data Books but not nationally</li><li><st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovakia: protected and Vulnerable, found in many nature reserves and four areas of European importance</st1:country-region></li><li>Ukraine: Vulnerable, protected in the Buchczanskij and Cheremochskij reserves</li></ul>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> collection of seeds is in place. <st1:country-region w:st="on">Research on the relationship of the wild populations with cultivated populations is recommended. The rate of population decline at European level needs to be determined.<br/></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></p>
162069		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ligularia sibirica </span>is a boreal Eurasian species and has a disjunctive area that extends from France to the Far East. <br/>This species is mainly found in Russia. In Ukraine, it occurs in the Carpathians Mountains, Rostocza, in the  northern part of the Podolian upland and in the western part of the  Polesian lowland. It is found at one locality in Bulgaria (size of 300 m²), and four localities in Slovakia that consist of micropopulations. The origin in Austria is unknown, it might be from cultivated populations. It is extinct in Hungary where it was known from one locality.
162069		habitat	eng	This species can colonize a wide range of habitats such as wet forests fringes and shrublands, calcareous fens, acidic moss-rich fens, intermittently wet <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia </span>meadows or alder swamp woods, banks of rivers and rivulets. <br/>In Ukraine it is a member of communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Arrhenatheretea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scheuchzerio-Caricetea nigrae</span>.&#160; <br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia </span>meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>6450 Northern boreal alluvial meadows</li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li><li>7160 Fennoscandian mineral-rich springs and springfens</li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li></ul>
162069		population	eng	Populations have been estimated using different units (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Austria: 800 - 1,000 individuals, more or less stable</li><li>Estonia: 1,700 -1,800 individuals, extremely decreasing</li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Latvia: 2 localities, increasing trend<br/></span></li><li>Poland: 5,055 - 6,055 individuals. Found in four localities with one strong and increasing population (near Pakosław) which holds 90% of the Polish range and counts more than 1,100 individuals (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).</li><li>Slovakia: 23 localities, more or less stable</li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Russia, approximately 50% decline in population size are suspected. In Ukraine, the populations are small in sites and number of individuals (up to 100 individuals in populations). The largest population is in the Chornogora massif in Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains and counts 1,500 adult individuals. Some populations in the lowland part of Ukraine are extinct. <br/></span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Bulgaria, there are 200 individuals with a decreasing trend. The populations are also declining in Croatia. Five localities and 200,000 individuals in a protected area were noted for the </span><span style="background-color: white;">Czech Republic. In </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">France, there are 45 localities in 25 communes, 5,000-15,000 individuals estimated with a stable population but the habitat is declining.</span></span></span>
162069		threats	eng	The abandonment of grassland communities are a threat to the species as this leads to succession, overgrowth and competition. Overgrazing on the other hand has negative impacts on the species. Changes to the hydrological regimes of water bodies such as drainage are another major threat. Pollution is affecting the species. Roadside works are a local threat.<br/><p></p>
162070		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Goodyera macrophylla</span> is l</a>isted on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species habitat is protected by regional and EU legislation (Habitats Directive) and its range is completely included in the Natural Park of Madeira. Conservation measures that protect this species habitat from collapsing and landslides are in place. The species is legally protected from collection.&#160; <br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Goodyera macrophylla</em>;</a><p> </p>  <ul><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from trampling.</li><li>Control of invasive species.<br/></li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species">Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).</span></li></ul>
162070		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Goodyera macrophylla</span> is endemic to Madeira, Portugal. The species is known from a few ravines in central and northern parts of the islands. Its extent of occurrence is 188 km² and the area of occupancy is 36 km². The species can be found between 300 and 1,400 m altitude (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).<a name="OLE_LINK1">  </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><em></em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>  <p></p>
162070		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Goodyera macrophylla</em> requires a specific habitat: cliffs and ravines but also flat areas in evergreen forest in the trade-wind cloud forest zone. This orchid grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<em>Laurus, Ocotea</em>)" (<span class="species"><span class="species">Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span></a> <em>Goodyera macrophylla</em><em> </em>prefers damp to wet acidic substrates and grows mostly in mid-shade. The flowering in this species is very sporadic, extremely rare and apparently may not take place for 10 to 15 years. However, when it does occur it is from August to October <span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species">Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).</span></p>
162070		population	eng	<p><em>Goodyera macrophylla</em><span class="species"> is very local and extremely rare. The total number of subpopulations is seven, the number of individuals per subpopulation ranges from 2 to 1500 individuals and there are also reports of some isolated individuals. Subpopulations show extreme fluctuations in the total number of individuals (F. Fernandes unpublished data). <span class="species">The subpopulations show a very low number of flowering plants and the total p<span class="species">opulation size estimated to number fewer than 50 mature individuals.<br/></span></p><p><span class="species">T<span class="species">he trend of the population is stable and a few plants are preserved in Ribeiro Frio Botanic Gardens <span class="species">(<span class="species">Commission of the European Communities 2009, <span class="species">Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).<span class="species"><span class="species"></span></span></span></span></p>
162070		threats	eng	<p><em></em><span class="species">The main threats to this species are trampling, collapse of terrain, landslides and invasion by a species. It could also be affected by tourism and plant collection. <span class="species">(<span class="species">Commission of the European Communities 2009, <span class="species">Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).</span></span></p>
162071		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "De especial interés" in the regional catalogue of threatened flora of Asturias, where a species management plan has to be developed. It is listed as Least Concern in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162071		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the regions of Asturias and Cantabria, northern Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), and it is considered to be in expansion. Its presence has been reported in 14 locations (Commission of the European Communities  2009).
162071		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows in forest clearings and moist <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica</span> sp. scrublands, on siliceous substrates. It occurs within associations of <em>Quercion robory-pyrenaicae</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. It is probably a recent species, with a hybrid origin (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). It is currently in expansion, colonizing shrublands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica </span>sp., which are abundant within its distribution range.
162071		population	eng	The population trend has been reported to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162071		threats	eng	Main threat to this species is degradation of its habitat due to forest management (aforestation, reforestation) (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Other threats are fires and communications networks.
162072		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tulipa hungarica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is situated in the Iron Gate National Park in Romania and Serbia. The species is protected by law in Serbia and will be reintroduced with the help of experts from the Iron Gate National Park  in Romania.
162072		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Romania and Serbia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species is found around the Iron Gates of the Danube. It is classed as Extinct in Serbia.<br/></p>
162072		habitat	eng	It grows in open mixed deciduous forests, shrubs and steep stony limestone slopes.
162072		population	eng	In Romania, there are over 1,000 mature individuals on the southern slopes of Iron Gate, although there are only a few of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Tulipa hungarica </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. undulatifolia</span> (S. Milanović pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In Serbia, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. hungrica </span>was rare on the north faced side of Iron Gate but has not been recorded in last ten years. Only herbarium specimens are proofs of occurrence of the species in Serbia.
162072		threats	eng	Flooding caused the extinction of the species in Serbia. In Romania, all localities are situated above the zone of flooding of an artificial lake. However, the species might be threatened by collecting for local gardening.
162073		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). This species is included&#160; as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened flora of Cataluña. It occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de El Montseny.<br/></p>
162073		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Les Guilleries and Macizo de El Montseny, eastern Spain<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>, in the provinces of Barcelona and Gerona. Its extent of occurrence is 904 km<sup></sup>²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its distribution area extends through at least 123 UTM squares of 1x1 km. <br/></p>
162073		habitat	eng	<p>This plant grows on stony sites and fissures in silicon crags. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162073		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Saxifraga vayredana </span>has been recorded in nine localities in Spain   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It presents rather stable dynamics.
162073		threats	eng	There are currently no significant threats affecting the population. Human presence has been cited as a factor impacting on the species. Climate change is a potential threat.
162074		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Hypochaeris oligocephala</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species.</span> <span style="background-color: white;">It is listed as CR B2ab(iii)c(iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). </span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">It occurs within the protected area Parque Rural de Teno (SCI)<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">. There are seeds deposited in the germplasm banks of Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.<br/><br/>Monitoring and research about the biology of the species are recommended.</span>
162074		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypochaeris oligocephala</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain (Martín Osorio and Wildpret de la Torre 2004). It is located exclusively in the northwest, in El Fraile, Buenavista, on cliffs among the oldest of the island. Its area of occupancy is 1 km².<span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span>
162074		habitat	eng	This plant is a chasmo-comophyte that grows in fissures of humid and shaded basaltic cliffs, with water coming from sporadic streams. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is also found in the shade. <span title="A la sombra del sol de"><span title="Las">The most common accompanying species include: <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus radicatus, Aeonium tabulaeforme, Vieira laevigata, Brachypodium arbuscula, Argyranthemum coronopifolium, Tolpis crassiuscula, Frankenia ericifolia, </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="A la sombra del sol de"><span title="Las"><span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="A la sombra del sol de"><span title="Las"><span style="font-style: italic;"> pectinatum, Lotus mascaensis, Cheirolophus c</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="A la sombra del sol de"><span title="Las"><span style="font-style: italic;">anariensis </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="A la sombra del sol de"><span title="Las"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Monanthes </span><span title="laxiflora."><span style="font-style: italic;">laxiflora.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="El mecanismo">The mechanism of dispersal of this species is through wind and vegetatively through a small rhizom.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162074		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The population is more or less stable, sheltered in areas out of reach of grazing species. The single population holds 1,330 individuals (</span>Martín Osorio and Wildpret de la Torre<span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> 2004). Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals have been observed mainly due to landslides.</span>
162074		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Dada la inmediata cercanía de la población existente">Given the immediate proximity of the existing population to roads, it is affected by traffic, road repairs and the creation of new communication networks. <span title="de nuevas vías de comunicación."><span title="También los">L<span title="accidentes potenciales, como temporales, desprendimientos,">andslides have been also described as threats.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Dada la inmediata cercanía de la población existente"><span title="de nuevas vías de comunicación."><span title="También los"><span title="accidentes potenciales, como temporales, desprendimientos,">Volcanic activity is a potential threat to this species.</span></span></span></span></span>
162075		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Albania, the species is listed as Vulnerable and parts of populations are probably situated in protected areas, but more information is needed.<br/>In Bulgaria, the species is classed as Endangered and all localities occur within protected sites.<br/>In Greece, the species is listed in the Red Book as Vulnerable. The species is protected and occurs within four protected sites and a national park.<br/>In FYR Macedonia, populations are mainly situated into two national parks (Bista-Mavrovo and Galičica).<br/>In Montenegro, this plant is protected by national law.<br/>In Serbia, the species is assessed as Vulnerable and on the list of protected plant species in Serbia and most of the populations are situated in natural reserves (Zlotska klisura, Jelašnica gorge), Parks of Nature (Sićevačka gorge), National parks (Šarplanina). <br/><br/>More data on the population numbers and monitoring of selected  populations is needed, together with<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span> conservation in seed banks and botanical  gardens.
162075		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Balkan Peninsula, occurring in Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. <br/><br/>The total area of occupancy of the species is approximately 500 to 750 km<sup>2</sup> (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>In Albania, the species is distributed throughout the country and it is  recorded in 38  squares of 10x10 km. The localities in Albania are listed  in the Red Book of  Albania (Marku 2007).<br/><br/>In Bulgaria it is found in a small area in the northwestern part of the country (between 350-900 m asl). The extent of occurrence for Bulgaria is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>In northeastern and eastern Serbia, the species occurs in the canyon of Lazereva river near village Zlot, Mt  Rtanj, the gorge of river Miljkovačka river, the northern  slopes of Mt Svrljiške planine, the gorge of Nišava river (Sićevačka  klisura), Ćiflik near Bela Palanka, and the gorge of the river Jelašnica. In the Kosovo and  Metochia provinces, the species occurs in the gorges of the river Pećka Bistrica (several localities), the gorges of the  river Sušica, Radavac, and the gorge of Prizrenska Bistica. The species is also found on the slopes of Šarplanina  above the village of Ljubinje and the northern slopes of Mt Ošljak. The species in Serbia is recorded in 23 squares 10x10 km, while the area of occupancy is considerably less. <br/> <br/>In Montenegro the distribution is restricted to the southeastern part of the country and it is found in the Mala Rijeka canyon, the left tributary of river Morača, canyon of the river Cievna,  the northern slopes of Mt Rumija above Skadar Lake (village Murići), and above  Bar (Mikulić Mali, Lisinj). The species is also found in the northeast part of the state,  between Rožaje and Ribarići. It is recorded in six UTM  squares of 10x10 km .<br/> <br/> In the FYR Macedonia it is distributed in the western part of the state in gorges  and canyons of the river Radika southward to the gorge of the river Crni Drim near  the village of Lukovo and Mt Galičica. The distribution of the species in FYR  Macedonia is restricted to the gorges and canyons of the rivers of the Adriatic  river system (Stevanović and Niketić 1991). It is recorded in six squares of 10x10 km (600 km<sup>2</sup>).<br/> <br/> It is present at numerous locations in northwestern Greece (northern Pindos mountain range - Mt Timphi, Mt Trpezica, Mt Mitsikeli, Vikos, Aoos and Voidomatis river gorges) and also Voras and Varnous mountains (Kalo Nero) south from Prespa Lake. In Greece, the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
162075		habitat	eng	This species has a very specific, small and restricted habitat requirement and it belongs to a group of rare resurrection vascular plants in  Europe. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ramonda serbica </span>is a perennial herb, which can be found in humid and shady areas and it flowers from mid April until the second half of May. The species occurs in shady crevices of limestone rocks between 400-1,500 m asl   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It usually inhabits north-northwest crevices but is occasionally found in northeast facing   crevices.<br/><br/>Despite occurring in north facing and wet rock  habitats, in almost all  localities in the range,  particularly at lower  altitudes, populations are in anabiosis during the dry  summer months and  sometimes even in April or May. Some years with an unusually dry April or May the species can be in a completely dry stage (anabiosis) during the flowering period. <br/><br/>It is found in the following plant communities: <span style="font-style: italic;">Cetereto-Ramondaetum serbicae</span> R.Jov. (northeast and east Serbia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Musco-Ramondaetum serbicae</span> Janković & Stevanovič (Kosovo), <span style="font-style: italic;">Geranio-Ramondaetum serbicae</span> (Stevanović and Bulić 1992) <span style="font-style: italic;">Silene schwarzenbergiana-Ramonda serbica </span>(Quezel 1968) (north Pindhos) etc. A particularly interesting community occurs in a syntopic (sympatric) site where both Balkan <span style="font-style: italic;">Ramonda </span>species (<span style="font-style: italic;">R. serbica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. nathaliae</span>) grow together in eastern Serbia (gorges of rivers Nišava and Jelašnica) (Stevanović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1986).
162075		population	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Throughout the species' range the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. serbica</span> are fragmented and restricted to canyons, gorges and ravines.</st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania contains probably the most abundant part of the population. In Greece it is hard to estimate the exact number of individuals because they are located in remote areas. However, an estimate of 8,000-10,000 individuals has been made and the populations seem to be stable.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Bulgaria, the population is fragmented with the subpopulations ranging from a few tens to a few hundreds of individuals. Changes in hydrology and a decrease in water has led to a decrease of the population.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p>In Montenegro, there are between 500 and 3,000 mature individuals per locality<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">. The population in Montenegro is not large but it is stable (D. Petrović pers. comm. 2011). </st1:place></st1:country-region>Estimation of the total population size in Montenegro  is more than 10,000 mature individuals. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In FYR Macedonia, there are between 1,000 and 5,000 mature individuals per locality. In Serbia, there are between 100 and 20,000 mature individuals per locality</st1:place></st1:country-region> (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).</p>
162075		threats	eng	Changes in hydrological regimes from dam construction could have an impact on the species. In Albania populations have already been flooded by the construction of a dam on the Drin river. Drying out caused by dam construction is less of a threat as the plant can survive a drought. Wild forest fires in Greece are not a serious threat as the plant does not inhabit the forest floor. Also the collection of the plant for scientific or horticultural purposes could pose a threat.
162076		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspi jankae</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Hungary but it is not on the Red List. It was a qualifying species for Natura 2000 sites (more than half of the localities).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, it is classified as Critically Endangered and occurs in three Natura 2000 sites, covering 87% of its localities (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162076		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to<span style="background-color: white;"> Romania, </span>Hungary and Slovakia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). The natural range of this pre-Carpathian endemic plant species is disjunctive. It occurs in two areas: on the boundary of Slovakia and northeastern Hungary and in the Iron Gates in Romania.<br/><br/>The species occurs in two subareas: in the Zobor group of the Tribeč Mts in Slovakia and in the Slovenský kras Karst, where it reaches from Slovakia to the Hungarian part of the mountain range (the karst area near Aggtelek and Jósvafő). The occurrence in other localities in Hungary and from the Danube surroundings in Banát (Porţile de Fier) in Romania, needs verification. In Slovakia there are approximately 20 localities in the southern part of the Tribeč Mts and in the Slovenský kras Karst (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162076		habitat	eng	This plant is found among grassland communities on sunlit rocky slopes, oak dry forests and their margins, and on carbonate rocks (limestones, dolomitic limestones) in hilly regions (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). Occasionally it grows in abandoned orchards and vineyards. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspi jankae </span>can also be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li> 6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>6250 Pannonic loess steppic grasslands</li></ul>
162076		population	eng	This plant can be locally abundant. In Hungary, the population is between 139,000 and 140,000 individuals with a positive trend. In Slovakia, there is a stable population of 20,900 to 69,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/> In Slovakia, where the species is found in approximately 20 localities, there are hundreds of individuals in a single locality, with a density of  as many as 200 individuals per m².  Within a wider locality the species typically creates several micropopulations. The size of subpopulations and their  number in Slovakia are more or less stable (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162076		threats	eng	The main threat is the abandonment of grazing leading to natural succession and succession of invasive species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia</span> sp.). Apart from that there are minor threats impacting the species such as quarries, forestation, fires, urbanisation, recreational activities and eutrophication.<br/><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162077		conservation	eng	It is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sabatia</span> is listed among the species under strict protection in the local legislation of Liguria (L.R. 28/2009 Liguria) (Anchisi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). It is classed as Vulnerable on the Italian Red List of Vascular Plants (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).<br/><br/>Researches on in-vitro micropropagation are currently ongoing as well as attempts of population reinforcement in Liguria.
162077		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula sabatia</span> is endemic to northwest Italy<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>It grows in Liguria and Piedmont in several sites from sea level up 1,000 m asl in the Maritime Alps. Most of the populations are in Liguria (Marsili <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/>The species has a restricted distribution with an extent of occurrence of 821 km² and an area of occupancy of 252 km².
162077		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. sabatia</span> grows on calcareous substrates, in rocky areas along the coast and in rocky grasslands and/or shrublands in the mountains (Marsili <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162077		population	eng	Following Marsili <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) the number of individuals has been declining by 10% as some coastal populations disappeared in the last five years. This decline is suspected to continue due to infrastructure development like roads and golf courses - projects that have already been approved. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. sabatia</span> is entomophilous and the seed production is moderate (Marsili <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2010).<br/><br/>It has been recorded in 23 localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009) but the species is probably more widespread.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162077		threats	eng	The main threats for the coastal populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sabatia </span>are human settlements and infrastructure development. In two small islands of the Ligurian coast (Island of Bergeggi and Island of Gallinara) the species is affected by the accumulation of gull's guano on the cliffs that lead to a high plant mortality (Mariotti 1993).
162079		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis retusifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. The taxonomy of this plant should be studied further, monitoring activities should be continued, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures are needed as well as appropriate site management (ICN 2006).
162079		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwest Portugal. It occurs in the south of Estremadura and the coastal Alentejo and extends into Santiago do Cacém, Odemira, and Castro Verde (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 1,559 km² and the area of occupancy is 900 km²  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162079		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis retusifolia</span> is an annual plant of up to 50 cm height that flowers from April to June. It <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs along water courses in sub-halophile conditions (ICN 2006).
162079		population	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">This is a rare plant with low numbers of individuals. The populations have been declining particularly in the last two decades (ICN 2006).</span><br/></p>
162079		threats	eng	The main threats are the expansion of communication networks and an increasing pressure from urbanisation and tourism (ICN 2006).
162080		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species. It is listed as EN B2ab(iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs in the protected areas Parque Natural de Tamadaba (SCI), Parque Rural del Nublo (SCI), Paisaje Protegido de Las Cumbres, Reserva Natural Especial de Los Marteles, SCIs Hoya del Gamonal and Barranco de La Virgen and Reserva Natural Integral de Inagua (SAC Ojeda, Inagua y Pajonales).   <br/><br/>Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo, where the species is cultivated. Some plantations have been introduced within the potential habitat of the species.<br/><br/>Grazing and plant collection must be controlled. The species should be reintroduced to the sites where it has disappeared.
162080		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoplexis isabelliana </span>is endemic to the Island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain (Salas Pascual <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<span class="tooltip">. It is found in the western, northern and northeastern part of the island, between 790 and 1,600 m asl, distributed throughout four locations, one of which is the result of the reintroduction of the taxon in the site: <span class="tooltip">Llanos de la Pez<span class="tooltip">. It is extinct in the eastern part of the island. Its area of occupancyis 19 km². Negative trends have been reported for its distribution and some subpopulations have disappeared (<span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Gobierno de Canarias 2004).</span></span></span>
162080		habitat	eng	This shrub is found in scrublands<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chamaecytiso canariae-Adenocarpetum villosi</span>, which potentially grow on the most sunny and rocky areas of the "monteverde" and the humid native pine forest<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Salas Pascual <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). Under human-induced pressures it forms the substitution shrubland of these communities. Within the humid pine forest it grows along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus symphytifolius</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecytisus proliferus </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis, Micromeria pineolens, Erica arborea </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Phyllirea angustifolia</span>.<br/><br/>It can also be present in degraded stages of the shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromerio-Cytisetum congesti</span>, along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis dasignaphala, Erysimum scoparium, Argyranthemum adauctum </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> canariense</span> and rupicolous species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium simsii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia aurea</span>.
162080		population	eng	Total population has been estimated in 1,121 individuals   (Santana and Naranjo 2007), from which 476 are natural population and 645 occur in the introduced subpopulation Llanos de la Pez. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Its subpopulations include abundant seedlings but these frequently do not reach maturity (Salas Pascual <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The reintroduced subpopulations are dominated by senescent individuals, perhaps due to the presence of pines that limits its regeneration.<br/><br/>The subpopulation of Pino Gordo was destroyed in a fire in 2007 and only three individuals survived. No regeneration has been observed, not even after the establishment of a fence to protect the subpopulation against herbivores. However, in Inagua, after the fire one more subpopulation was discovered: Barranco de las Magarzas, comprising 66 individuals (Santana and Hernández 2008).
162080		threats	eng	Main threats are predation and grazing by rabbits and goats, and habitat fragmentation  (Salas Pascual <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Some subpopulations have been as well affected by road and motorway development and house building.
162081		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium adulterinum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/><ul><li>Austria: It is listed as threatened on the Austrian Red List (Niklfeld 1999) but not protected</li><li>Czech Republic: Listed as Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000) and protected by law</li><li>Finland: Classed as Vulnerable (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<br/></li><li>Germany: Classed as Endangered (level 2) on the red list (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and protected by national law (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010)</li><li>Italy: In some regions under the highest protection level</li><li>Norway: Endangered (Artsdatabanken 2010)<br/></li><li>Serbia: Estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanovic pers. comm. 2010) </li><li>Slovenia: Rare (Skoberne 1996) and protected by law</li><li>Slovakia: Listed as Critically Endangered (Mereďa and Hodálová  2011) </li><li>Sweden: Protected and listed as Vulnerable (Gärdenfors 2010)</li><li>Switzerland: Near Threatened (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002)<br/></li></ul>It occurs in protected areas in Austria, Slovenia (Natura 2000), Slovakia (one nature reserve and Natura 2000 sites), Czech Republic (several small protected areas), Germany (mostly in protected areas), Italy, Sweden (one locality is a nature reserve).
162081		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium adulterinum</span> is found in Europe and also in Canada. It is an element of montane-subalpine forests in south, central and  eastern European high mountains and has a disjunct distribution.This fern species is present in Italy, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland, Austria, Norway and Romania.<br/><br/><ul><li>Austria: Common within its habitat</li><li>Czech Republic: Approximately 20 localities. 10 sites of European importance</li><li>Finland: Three to four localities</li><li>Germany: Found in two federal estates with four to five small localities</li><li>Italy: Present at more than six localities in the regions Valle d'Aosta, Piemonte, Lombardia, Liguria, and Emilia-Romagna.</li><li>Norway: Approximately 20 localities</li><li>Poland: Seven localities are known in Lower Silesia (Kalinka and Nowak 2004)</li><li>Slovakia: The species was known for a long time only from one  locality, the Dunitová skalka rock Nature Reserve near Sedlice in the  Šarišská vrchovina Upland. In 1994 and 1998, two other localities from the  Slovenské rudohorie Mts were reported (Prakovce, Mokrá Lúka near  Revúca). In 1930 two individuals were found near Ondrej; since then it has not been found at this locality (Mereďa  and Hodálová 2011)</li><li>Slovenia: Area of occupancy is less than 1 km²</li><li>Sweden: Area of occupancy is 8 km²</li><li>Switzerland: Area of occupancy is 18 km²</li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162081		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium adulterinum</span> is a perennial small fern that is found in basic and ultra-basic cliffs and rocks mainly consisting of serpentinite, more rarely on rocks with a higher magnesium  content, such as dunite, phyllite, mica schist gneisses, melaphyr. It grows in shaded rock crevices, forest scree  soils or ancient slag heeps from hilly areas to the submontane  vegetation belt. The species is characteristic for <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenietum serpentenii</span> societies but is also found with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium</span> species (Käsermann and Moser 1999, Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8220 "Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>
162081		population	eng	The population trend is stable across most of Europe. The following population information is available: <br/><ul><li>Austria: Stable populations and many individuals</li><li>Czech republic: Stable, 3,400 tufts</li><li>Finland: 1,700 tufts</li><li>Germany: Small populations</li><li>Poland: Around 200 tufts: 27 individuals are known to exist in Popiel Hill, 14 in  Przygórze, another 14 in Żmijowiec, three populations in Wzgórza  Kiełczyńskie consisting of 125 individuals, and 35 in Kamionki. This last populations is decreasing in number (Kalinka and  Nowak 2004).</li><li>Slovakia: Several tens of individuals in the  localities, size and number of the populations is stable (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). </li><li>Slovenia: Three locations, stable but small populations (100 plants) </li><li>Sweden: Stable, 400 tufts</li><li>Switzerland: Stable and some very large populations with several thousand individuals</li></ul>
162081		threats	eng	Mining and quarrying is a threat to this species. Forest clearing and forest plantations and the introduction of cultivated and non-native species affect this species' habitat. Urbanisation and infrastructure development cause further habitat loss and degradation. Land  abandonment leading to succession and subsequent competition by native  species is a threat. Locally, air pollution, eutrophication, collection and recreational activities have been reported as threats (Käsermann and Moser 1999, Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162082		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hladnikia pastinacifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>Information on the number of locations, size of the populations and existing as well as required conservation measures is needed.
162082		distribution	eng	This species is native to Slovenia with a geographic range of 125 km²  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162082		habitat	eng	There is no information on the ecological requirements available.
162082		population	eng	The population is stable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162082		threats	eng	Threats described for this species are abandonment of pastoral systems, general forestry management and mountaineering and rock climbing   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162083		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lythrum flexuosum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, as species "De atención preferente" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Castilla y León, and as species "Sensible a la alteración de su hábitat" in the Aragonian catalogue.<br/><br/>Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and Jardín Botánico de Córdoba.
162083		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to central Spain, where it can be found in Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Madrid and Comunidad Valenciana. It is known from 27 grid cells of 10x10 km, so its area of occupancy is estimated in 2,700 km<sup>2</sup>.</p><p><span style="background-color: yellow; font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow; font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></p><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><p>&#160;</p></span>
162083		habitat	eng	This annual species forms grasses which are generally halophile and nitrophile in temporarily flooded areas, in compacted soils. It grows from 500 - 1,000 m asl. These grasses appear at the beginning of summer when the pond is drying out but there is still moisture in the soil. It occurs in the prioritary habitat 3170 "Temporary Mediterranean Ponds" (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
162083		population	eng	<p>Extreme fluctuations have been observed in the population size of this species, even to make temporary disappear a subpopulation. <br/></p>
162083		threats	eng	Modification of cultivation practices, livestock, quarrying, urbanisation, water pollution, drainage as well as modifications in water regimes and courses, and competition have been reported as threats to this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162084		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Russia, it is categorized as Data Deficient<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In Lithuania, it is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book </st1:country-region>(Rašomavičius 2007). It is listed as Rare in L<st1:country-region w:st="on">atvia. In Germany, it is not on the Red List but strictly protected </st1:country-region>(Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/>In Poland it is listed as Vulnerable in the national Red List (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001), and in the Atlas of Polish Endemics (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa in prep.); it is also strictly protected at a national level (Piekoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria loeselii</span> is included in some protected areas such as Słowiński National Park in Poland.
162084		distribution	eng	This Baltic Sea endemic is native to Germany, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania and Russia (Kaliningrad)   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).<br/><br/>It is only found on the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The AOO is <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>likely to be less than 2,000 km².
162084		habitat	eng	This species grows in sands of the Baltic coastline and is dependent on natural sand movements. <br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2110 Embryonic shifting dunes</li><li>2120 Shifting dunes along the shoreline with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammophila arenaria</span> (‘white dunes’)</li><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li></ul>
162084		population	eng	The population has been estimated in some countries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>In Latvia, it is found at 27-40 localities with a slowly decreasing population trend.</li><li>In Lithuania, the species only occupies 4 km² on the Curonian spit and on the seacoast, the population is also slowly decreasing.</li><li>In Poland, 30,000 individuals have been counted. It is abundant with several thousand individuals in the dunes of Mierzeja Wiślana (Vistula Spit) and Pobrzeże Słowińskie (Słowińskie Coastland; Słowiński National Park). There is a marginal locality in the west on the sand-bar of Lake Jamno near Unieść (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).<br/></li></ul><br/>There is no information for Germany and Russia available.
162084		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are recreational activities at the beach. Infrastructure development on the dunes is a habitat threat.
162087		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Su hábitat está"><span title="Se han"><span title="Pajonales."><span title="Agrónomos de Madrid."><span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum bystropogophyllum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is listed as CR B2ab(iii)c(iv) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008) and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The species occurs within the protected areas Reserva Natural Inagua (SCI) and Parque Rural del Nublo (SCI) (</span></span></span>Martín Osorio<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Su hábitat está"><span title="Se han"><span title="Pajonales."><span title="Agrónomos de Madrid."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="Su hábitat está"><span title="Se han">Cultivation has been developed with limited success, while there have been good results in micropropagation in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and the forest home of Cortijo <span title="Pajonales.">de Pajonales. Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include cultivation and micropropagation of the species, reintroduction, storage of seeds in germplasm banks, establishment of fences and population monitoring.<br/><span title="Agrónomos de Madrid."><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162087		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H<span style="background-color: white;">elianthemum bystropogophyllum</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), where it grows from 1,100 to 1,350 m asl. Its presence has been reported in two locations: Montaña de los Hornos (La Aldea de San Nicolás) y Montaña de las Brujas (Tejeda) (Á. Marrero pers. comm. 2011), both in the massif of Inagua 2.5 km from each other. The location Montaña de las Brujas comprises three subpopulations, 200 to 700 m from each other.<br/>Its distribution appears highly fragmented (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). Its area of occupancy is 2 km².<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><sup><br/></sup></span></span>
162087		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occurs primarily in phonolite ignimbrite substrates with low <span title="suelo de retención, formando parte de comunidades">soil retention. Also part of rupicolous communities in the domains of pine forest, on slopes with 80-85° and 5-10% <span title="cobertura arbustiva.">shrub cover. It is most commonly accompanied by the following species: <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia aurea, Chamaecytisus proliferus, Babcockia platylepis, Hypericum reflexum, Aeonium simsii, Asparagus scoparius, Echium onosmifolium, Sonchus acaulis, Descurainia preauxiana </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lobularia canariensis.</span> <span title="El">The secondary habitat corresponds to platforms and <span title="pie de riscos del pinar.">foot cliffs of pine forest <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromerio pineolentis-Pinetum canariensis</span> communities and <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosi</span> rupicolous communities.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="suelo de retención, formando parte de comunidades"><span title="cobertura arbustiva."><span title="El"><span title="pie de riscos del pinar."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Seedlings were observed in the immediate environment of mother plants and by observations in subsequent years it is clear that the population evolved in cohorts, showing extreme fluctuations in the number of <span title="número de individuos adultos.">adult individuals. <span title="de la especie no sobrepasa los 60 m2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="dispersión.">It blooms in spring, May or April and fruits from May to July, although it may withhold some seeds in the capsules until August. It does not develop vegetative propagation.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162087		population	eng	Total population has been estimated in 330 individuals: 32 specimens in Montaña Los Hornos (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and 298 individuals in Montaña de Las Brujas (Almeida and Marrero 2004), comprising three subpopulations with 240, 28 and 30 adult individuals each. <br/>The populations suffer from extreme fluctuations which cause the individuals to nearly completely disappear every eight to 12 years (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007); the survival of the species depends on the seed bank of the soil.
162087		threats	eng	Main threats are grazing, natural competition, limited ecological resilience, poor reproductive strategy, drought, landslides and natural fires   (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162088		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> patula</span> is listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The islands on which the species occurs are protected by the Parque Natural da Madeira, which is designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and Special Protected Area (SPA) under the Birds and Habitats  Directives<span style="background-color: white;">. The sites require management to protect this species and ongoing population and habitat monitoring</span> is needed. The development and implementation of a species action plan is recommended.<br/><p>    </p><p>The International Data Base for Beta (IDBB 2010) reports a number of accessions of which 10 very likely exist as viable seed samples in the following holdings: IPK Genebank, Germany (five), collection of the University of Birmingham, UK (one), Polish Genebank Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (IHAR), Bydgoszcz, Poland (one), National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), USA (three). As is it not known whether any of these accessions were collected after 1954 (Coons 1954), all accessions may descend from a single seed source exchanged between genebanks. <br/></p><p>More recently, seed samples have been collected  from all known sites and are stored in the ISOPlexis Genebank at the University of Madeira, Funchal. Four accessions were collected from Ilheu Chão in 2008 and 2009 and 12 from Ilheu do Desembarcadouro between 2007 and 2009. The sampling strategy employed aimed to collect representative diversity by collecting seed from specimens that compose neighbour's patches at each locality. </p>  <p></p>
162088		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>eta <span style="font-style: italic;">patula </span>is endemic to two islets in the Madeira archipielago,  Portugal: Ilhéu do Desembarcadouro in the region of   Ponta de São Lourenço in the eastern part of mainland Madeira, and   Ilhéu Chão in the Desertas Islands to the southwest of mainland Madeira—both small, uninhabited islets.   Ilhéu do Desembarcadouro covers an area of 1.8 km²<sup></sup>, while     Ilhéu Chão covers an area of approximately 0.5 km²<sup></sup>. On  Ilhéu do Desembarcadouro, wild beets show a patchy distribution pattern. <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">patula </span>has been recorded at six sites on the islet and shares the habitat with <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vulgaris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Patellifolia procumbens</span> at five of these sites. On Ilhéu Chão, <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">patula </span>is found only at one site where it grows alongside <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vulgaris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Patellifolia procumbens</span> (Frese and Carvalho in prep.). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is approximately 70 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km².<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>
162088		habitat	eng	<strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">patula</span> grows in dry and rocky localities by the sea coast. It is a partially inbreeding, self-pollinated hermaphrodite (Frese 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162088		population	eng	Four hundred individuals were counted at the single site on   Ilhéu Chão in <span style="background-color: white;">2009</span>. The total population of Ilhéu do Desembarcadouro is estimated to be 2,500 individuals across six sites, with counts per site ranging from three to 223 (M. Carvalho pers. comm. 2010). This is a biennial species and the number of mature individuals fluctuates.
162088		threats	eng	<p>The main site is threatened by invasive alien species and the increasing presence of seagulls. According to the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest (2006), threats to this species also include tourism and recreation, and grazing by introduced animals—particularly rabbits; the authors also note that Ponta do Sao Lourenço is heavily invaded by exotic species. However, as the sites are protected and not easily accessible, tourism and recreation are not serious threats (M. Carvalho pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
162090		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is also listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, the species is considered as Critically Endangered. All the  populations are included in three protected areas (SACs) (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Hungary, the species is classed as Endangered on the national red list (Király 2007). In Bulgaria, it is listed as Vulnerable B2b(ii,iv)c(iv) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and is protected under national law. It is found in three natural parks, at least three natural reserves and some protected areas, and it is furthermore included in many Natura 2000 sites (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010). In Serbia, it is also estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).<a name="OLE_LINK8"><br/><br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Himantoglossum caprinum</em>;</a><p> </p>   <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from inappropriate management and afforestation.</li><li>Moderate grazing and support of pastoral system to limit the spread of woody shrubs and herbs. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals and from collection.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</li></ul>
162090		distribution	eng	<em>Himantoglossum caprinum</em> is a Balkan species native to the Czech Republic, Greece and Crete, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary and Ukraine, extending into Asiatic Turkey and the Caucasus. The species can be found up to 1,500 m altitude&#160; (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
162090		habitat	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum caprinum</em> grows in short, poor grassland, woodland edges, forest-steppes, and open woodland such as oak groves. It&#160;<em></em>prefers dry and calcareous soils. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from June to August (Delforge 1995, Mereďa and Hodálová 2011, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/></p><ul><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>6250 Pannonic loess steppic grasslands</li><li>91H0 Pannonian woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span></li></ul>
162090		population	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum caprinum</em><em> </em>is very fragmented, local and rare. The species grows as solitary individuals in very small groups. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing in numerous sites due to numerous threats and extreme fluctuations have been<span class="species"> noted. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/></span></p>In Slovakia, the species reaches the northern border of its range and occurs at five localities in the Podunajská nížina Lowland, the Malé Karpaty, Považský Inovec and Tribeč Mts. The subpopulations only host very few individuals, often one to two plants only, which do not appear every year. The number of mature individuals and the number of subpopulations have considerably decreased over the last decades (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>The number of individuals in Hungary is less than 500 with a decreasing population trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it is found in many locations and is probably the centre of distribution of the species. The subpopulations are decreasing and are quite small. Most of them have not more than 100 individuals and only some reach up to 300 individuals. In Bulgaria, less than 5% of the total population are flowering at one  time. Plants can survive as tubers below ground without developing  overground parts. There can be very strong population fluctuations in  the number of individuals (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010).
162090		threats	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum caprinum</em><em> </em>is threatened by afforestation, intensive grazing, abandonment of pastoral systems and subsequent competition. It is furthermore affected by tourism and plant collection. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p>In Bulgaria, afforestation with pine trees was the main threat in the past. Collection is still a minor threat today. The species can withstand moderate grazing but intensive grazing leads to declines. Today, the main threat is abandonment of grazing which reduces the population numbers (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010). In Slovakia, abandonment of pastoral systems and subsequent succession of natural vegetation increases the competition with woody shrubs and herbs. Forest plantations, soil erosion, and plant collection are further threats (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). Similar threats have been described from Hungary (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
162091		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Herniaria algarvica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal.<br/>Necessary conservation measures are the regulation of traffic and parking outside designated areas, protection of the populations, increase the habitat quality required by this species, benign introductions to secure sites (ICN 2006).<br/>Poor prospects - species likely to struggle unless conditions change.&#160;&#160; (ICNB 2007).
162091		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region> and is mainly located in the south, in the Vicentino plateau. The extent of occurrence is 24 km² and the range of potential habitat available is only 2 km²    (Commission of the European Communities 2009, ICN 2006). It can therefore be assumed that the area of occupancy is less than 20 km². The number of locations is not known.</p>
162091		habitat	eng	This plant occurs in sandy substrate along the coastal zone and colonizes open spaces, open grassland, wide clearings, or the sides of tracks. The populations can be separated be several kilometres. Only one subpopulation has been observed germinating in the year following the initial observation, which could point to an extreme ecological specialization and that this plant needs conditions that only rarely come together in specific locations (ICN 2006).<br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2230<span style="font-style: italic;"> "Malcolmietalia</span> dune grasslands" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162091		population	eng	<p>This plant is rare and has scattered populations with low numbers of individuals. A maximum of 100 individuals has been measured per subpopulation. A significant habitat decline took place between 1994 and 1995 due to infrastructure development (ICN 2006).</p>
162091		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by traffic and car parking along the coastal strip (ICN 2006).
162093		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spiranthes aestivalis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">It is included in the following national red lists:<br/></a><ul><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Extinct in Belgium (Van Landuyt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), Hungary (Király 2007), the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8">Endangered (level 2) in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996);</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8">Vulnerable in France (VU A2ac+4ac; UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and in <span style="font-style: italic;"></span></a><a name="OLE_LINK8"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).</a></li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Spiranthes aestivalis</em>;</a>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, extensive use of fertilisers and other agricultural uses; </li><li>Fencing of vulnerable sites.</li><li>Ensure adequate sunlight.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Continuing management and mowing of the fens and avoidance of eutrophication.</li><li>Maintenance of&#160; a suitable water regime: drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site in spring. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics</li></ul><p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
162093		distribution	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes aestivalis</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic, Central and South European species that extends to North Africa. It is found north to Germany and northwest France, east to the Czech Republic and the Balkans, and south to the Mediterranean, including the Balearic  Islands, Corsica and Sardinia. It can be found up to 1,400 m asl. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
162093		habitat	eng	This species grows in sunny spots in humid substrates, neutral to acid soils, oligotrophic or mesotrophic. It also grows in damp depressions of coastal dunes, peatlands, damp grasslands <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia caerulea</span> and sub-steppe areas of annual graminoids within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodiea</span>.   This plant occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncetalia maritimi</span>)</li><li>2190 Humid dune slacks</li><li>3170 Mediterranean temporary ponds</li><li>4020 Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li><li>6410 Molinia meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>6420 Mediterranean tall humid grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Holoschoenion</span></li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li><li>7150 Depressions on peat substrates of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchosporion</span></li><li>7210 Calcareous fens with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cladium mariscus</span> and species of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Caricion davallianae</span></li><li>7220 Petrifying springs with tufa formation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cratoneurion</span>)</li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li></ul>This orchid prefers full sunlight and flowers from May to August. <br/>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
162093		population	eng	<em>Spiranthes aestivalis</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rare and very rare in the north of the range, declining in much of <span class="species">Europe<span class="species">. The population has been measured in some European countries using different units (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Austria: 330-440 individuals, unknown trend</span></li><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">France: 117 localities, negative trend</span></span></li><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Germany: 58 localities, stable trend</span></li><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Italy: 63 localities, stable trend</span></span></li><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Slovenia: 1 grid, unknown trend</span></li><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Spain: 151 localities, unknown trend</span></span></li></ul><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">In Switzerland, the area of occupancy is 117 km² and there are some fairly large populations of several thousand individuals. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">This species is extinct in the Netherlands, Hungary, Belgium and the United Kingdom. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <br/><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162093		threats	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes aestivalis</em><span class="species"> is threatened by <span class="species"><span class="species">habitat destruction, <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">ploughing, and extensive application of fertilisers<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">, drainage, urbanisation and <span class="species">collection of the species for herbaria. Moreover, afforestation and shading affects this species. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></span></span></p><p><br/></p>
162095		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paeonia parnassica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is classed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ac+2ac; C1+2(a i) in the National Red Data Book <a name="OLE_LINK1">(Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</a>
162095		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This species is endemic to Greece where it is known from a few scattered localities on Parnassos Mt and Elikonas Mt </a><a name="OLE_LINK1">in the region of Sterea Ellas (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The AOO is 600 km² and the EOO is less than 5,000 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/></a></p>
162095		habitat	eng	This species grows in margins and openings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span> forest, damp grassy meadows and sheltered places, between limestone rocks on southwestern slopes at an altitude of 800-1,300 m asl.   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162095		population	eng	<p>The total number of mature individuals is less than 2,500 <a name="OLE_LINK1">(Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and no more than 200 individuals have been counted at a location.<br/></a></p>
162095		threats	eng	The main threat to this plant is collection of rhizomes and the entire plants for cultivation due to its natural beauty and the fact that it is easily accessible. Changes in land use are a further potential threat (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Commission of the European Communities 2009, Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009</a>).<a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/></a>
162096		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is under national protection in France. In Spain, it has been listed as Critically Endangered under Criterion B (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Monitoring of the populations and its habitat are strongly recommended.<br/></p>
162096		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and the west of France. In Spain, it is only present in Huelva and in Portugal it can be found in Baixo Alentejo, Beira Litoral, Douro Litoral and Estremadura (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <br/>T<span style="background-color: white;">he area of occupancy is below 2,000 km² and the populations are severely fragmented.</span>
162096		habitat	eng	<p>  <em>T. verticillato-inundata</em> occurs in seasonally or occasionally permanently inundated water-bodies at 0.5-1 m of usually acid water on organic loam or sometimes sandy substrate, on the margins of marshes, lakes, wet clearings in scrub, often with <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>, <em>Hydrocotyle vulgare</em>, <em>Hypericum elodes</em> and occasionally <em>Drosera intermedia</em>, as well as in swards of <em>Eleocharis multicaulis</em>, between stands of <em>Myrica gale</em> (Reduron 2007). This species needs to be out of the water to flower, like other aquatic <span style="font-style: italic;">Umbelliferae</span>, so the habitat behaves like temporary water-bodies.<br/></p><p>It occurs in the following Habitats Directive habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):&#160;</p><ul><li>2190 Humid dune slacks  </li><li>3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletalia uniflorae</span>)</li><li>3170 Mediterranean temporary ponds</li><li>6410 Molinia meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>7150 Depressions on peat substrates of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchosporion</span></li></ul><p><br/></p>
162096		population	eng	<p>In France, 25 localities are known from 20 communes, maybe more in Aquitaine (lack of prospections), no sensus data, except one population with 500,000 individuals estimated. The trend of the populations is declining. The Portuguese records are from historic collections and it is possible that the plant is now extinct in Portugal. In Spain, it is only present in the province Huelva and is classed as Critically Endangered on the national Red List which indicates a declining population trend (Moreno 2008). A detailed survey in the Parque Nacional de  Doñana in southwest Spain, led to more populations being found. However, Doñana is a strictly protected area and most wetlands in the Mediterranean are of declining habitat quality. Overall, the populations are therefore assumed to be declining.</p><p><br/></p>
162096		threats	eng	<p>The main threats in France are drainage, agriculture, and forest plantings. Further threats include water and soil pollution due to the use of fertilisers and pesticides, urbanisation, road and tourism infrastructure, infilling of water bodies, changes in the hydrological regime such as stabilisation of the water levels.<br/></p>
162097		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helichrysum monogynum</span> is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as EN B2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Its populations occur within the protected areas Parque Natural Archipiélago Chinijo (SCI) and Paisaje Protegido de La Geria. Tracks created through the range of distribution of the species should be eliminated and restored.
162097		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the northeast of the island of Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found from 40 to 575 m asl, distributed into three locations: la Florida, Las Nieves and Montaña Cavera. The area of occupancy is between 3.5 and 8 km² (Santana and Naranjo 2004). Progressive trends observed for its distribution seem to be due to better monitoring methods (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="El área de ocupación de la"></span>
162097		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Helichrysum monogynum</span> is a small shrub that occurs within xerophytic communities, on lava-fields and sandy areas near the coast as well as in more developed soils on the highest areas of the island of Lanzarote. <span title="Posee cierta">It has nitrophilous preferences, colonizing abandoned crop fields and edges of paths and roads<span title="y carreteras.">. Frequent accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> Aeonium lancerottense, Helianthemum canariense, Launaea arborescens, Kleinia neriifolia, Sonchus pinnatifidus, Asteriscus intermedius, Spergularia fimbriata, Scilla latifolia, Euphorbia regis-juba, Chenoleoides tomentosa, Salsola vermiculata, Heliotropium bacciferum, Lotus lancerotens</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Policarpea nievea.<br/><br/></span>It is a hermaphrodite species which seems to present low rates of germination.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="20%."></span></span>
162097		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="El área de ocupación de la">Total population has been estimated in 64,423 individuals (</span>Santana and Naranjo <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="El área de ocupación de la">2004). Reported increasing populations trends seem to be due to better monitoring methods (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).</span>
162097		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas las poblaciones se encuentran en zonas de">Anthropization is an important threat to this species<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas las poblaciones se encuentran en zonas de"> for all populations are in areas of easy access, close to urban areas, roads and fields, furthermore, works to expand or modify these would affect the species. Predation by grazing animals poses a further threat. The subpopulation of Montaña <span title="En la población de Montaña">Cavera, suffers from degradation by 4x4 vehicles that are frequent in the area (</span></span>Santana and Naranjo<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas las poblaciones se encuentran en zonas de"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas las poblaciones se encuentran en zonas de"><span title="En la población de Montaña"> 2004).<span title="población"><br/></span></span></span>
162098		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. There are no other major conservation measures recommended.<br/>  It is found in a protected area in Portugal<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162098		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus asturiensis</span> is found in the northern half of Spain and in central and northwest Portugal in mountains above 800 m (Anthos 2009, Commission of the European Communities 2009<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>). This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and its extent of occurrence is of 11,400 km² most of it in Spain   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The range of the species in Portugal is 2,427 km² and increasing (1991-2005) <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162098		habitat	eng	This species is present in glades of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>woods or "Quejigares" which are forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus faginea</span>. It can also grow in Atlantic woodlands and shrublands, medium and high mountain grasslands  and humid heaths of  <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erica tetralix</span>, and in   rocky meadows, In Portugal, it was also reported from grasslands dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> spp.<span style="background-color: white;"> (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </span><br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats:<br/><ul><li>4020 Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span></li><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li><li>9180 <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilio-Acerion</span> forests of slopes, screes and ravines</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur and Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9380 Forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex aquifolium</span></li><li>9580 Mediterranean <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus baccata</span> woods</li></ul>
162098		population	eng	This species has been recorded in Spain at between 190 to 210 localities. In Portugal, the population is over 10,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009), and it has been recorded in seven mountains (ICNB 2006).
162098		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are the (commercial) collection of the plants, modifications of woodland management and changes in agriculture uses.
162099		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p>  In France, it is protected at national level and there is a national action plan in place since 2009 which recommends habitat restoration of a polluted pond, and manual removal of shrubs to open the habitat.<br/>    <p>It is categorized as Vulnerable (A4c) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova, pers. comm. 2010). It is included in the Red Data Book of Belarus as Critically Endangered and in the Red Data Book of Ukraine as Vulnerable. It is protected in the national park Belovejskaja Pucza and in Beresinskij biosphere reserve in Belarus, in the reserve Roztocza and Chom-gora nature monument in Ukraine. <span style="background-color: white;">In Germany, it is classed as  Critically Endangered (level 1). In Denmark, Lithuania, Norway, and the  UK, it is listed as Vulnerable and Sweden lists it as Near Threatened.</span></p><p>The one Swiss locality is in a protected landscape. The plant is legally protected and listed as Endangered<span style="background-color: white;"> (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It was reintroduced to two localities in 1998 but it is not known if this was successful (Käsermann and Moser 1999<span style="background-color: white;">).</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Monitoring at European level to determine the overall rate of population decline is needed.<br/></span></p>
162099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga hirculus</span> is widespread across Europe. It can be found from France in the west to some regions of Russia and reaches the southern limit of its range in Belarus and Ukraine. In Belarus, isolated localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga hirculus</span> occur in all the territory. In the Ukraine, it grows in the Polesian lowland and the Volhynian upland.&#160;<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162099		habitat	eng	<span>The yellow marsh saxifrage occurs in transitional mires and rich fens, including eutrophic tall-herb fens, calcareous flushes and soaks. It is also present in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li><span>7110 Active raised bogs</li><li><span>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</span></li><li><span>7160 Fennoscandian mineral-rich springs and springfens</li><li><span>7220 Petrifying springs with tufa formation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cratoneurion</span>)</li></ul><span><br/>It is accompanied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex</span> spp.&#160;<span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypnum</span> spp., in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Caricion lasiocarpa</span> alliance, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schenchzerio-Cariceta nigrae</span> class.<br/><span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><p>&#160;</p></span></span>
162099		population	eng	Population information has been recorded for several countries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Denmark: 7 localities and 8,000 individuals, declining trend<br/></li><li>Estonia: 200 to 1,000 flowering stems, declining trend<br/></li><li>Finland: 992,600 flowering stems, declining trend<br/></li><li>France: 300 individuals, declining trend<br/></li><li>Ireland: 9 localities, increasing trend<br/></li><li>Latvia: 15 localities, stable trend<br/></li><li>Lithuania: 5,000 to 10,000 individuals, declining trend<br/></li><li>Poland: 30,000 individuals, declining trend<br/></li><li>Sweden: 5,025,000 individuals, increasing trend<br/></li><li>United Kingdom: 16 localities, stable trend<br/></li></ul><br/>In France, there is one remaining population with 300 individuals. Two localities have recently declined and may be extinct now (to be confirmed) due to pollution of its pond habitat. The number of flowering individuals is fluctuating.<br/>In Germany, the species is extinct or believed to be extinct in all federal estates (Ahlmer 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).&#160; <br/>In Norway, the number of individuals has been declining between 30-50% in the last 30 years (generation length set at 10 years) (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In Switzerland, it is now found at only one locality in the southern Jura at 1,300 m with an estimated 10,000 individuals and a stable population<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. The decline and loss of po<span style="background-color: white;">pulations happened in the past, </span>there were about 20 localities in the 1950s<span style="background-color: white;"> (</span>Käsermann and Moser 1999<span style="background-color: white;">).</span><br/>In Belarus and the Ukraine, the populations are very small and the number of individuals usually reaches not more than 10 individuals per population.
162099		threats	eng	The modification of cultivation practices and the abandonment of pastoral systems including grazing, leads to overgrowth of the habitat and increased competition. Pollution is another major threat caused by the use of pesticides and fertilisers, leading to eutrophication. Peat extraction has negative impact, so has drainage of the wetland habitat or other measures to manage water levels.
162100		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Vulnerable on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). Protection and restoration of the natural habitat are needed for this species.
162100		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orobanche densiflora </span>is endemic to the Mediterranean being native to Algeria, Morocco, Spain, Portugal, Malta, Sardinia and Sicily   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Spain, it is only found at the coast of the province Cádiz.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Orobanche densiflora </span>is considered as native to Malta, and occurs as an endemic form: <span style="font-style: italic;">Orobanche densiflora</span> forma <span style="font-style: italic;">melitensis </span>Beck (Sommier and Caruana Gatto 1915). It should be noted that Lojacono (1880, as quoted in Sommier and Caruana Gatto 1915) also mentions <span style="font-style: italic;">O. densiflora</span> from Sicily; nevertheless, he does not re-quote this in later works, including the Flora Sicula (Lojacono 1904). Pignatti (1982) confirms <span style="font-style: italic;">Orobanche densiflora</span> only from Malta, but quoting the records from Sicily and Sardinia as ‘to verify’ (“da verificare”). <span style="background-color: white;">Its range in Malta is 8 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Flora Iberica states that records from Italy and Malta are erroneous and might correspond to </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">O. crinita</span><span style="background-color: white;"> (Castroviejo </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2009). Ho</span>wever, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orobanche crinita</span> is also recorded from Malta, but is often cited  as a possible mistake for <span style="font-style: italic;">O. densiflora</span> s.l. and not vice-versa (D.T. Stevens pers. comm. 2011).
162100		habitat	eng	This species is an epiphyte of Leguminosae. It is probably a perennial herb, parasite on <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus </span>spp., generally found on coastal sandy dunes.<br/><br/>In the Maltese Islands, the species is found as the endemic form <span style="font-style: italic;">melitensis</span> Beck, Sommier & Caruana Gatto (1915). This is dependant on its host species, notably <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus</span> spp. 20th century authors of the Maltese flora refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus halophilus</span> Boissier et Spruner (=<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lotus pusillus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviani </span>non <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicus</span>) as its host, but this species is now critically endangered, and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. densiflora</span> has not been observed on this species in the last three decades. Recent individuals have always been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus cytisoides</span> L., which is known from rocky coastal habitats and sand dunes   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162100		population	eng	This species has not been seen in Portugal for several years (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 2009). There are no data available on population size or trend for Spain but the number of individuals is fluctuating extremely as it depends on the host and on the climatic conditions.<br/><br/>In Malta, the species is found in the Marfa Peninsula, in Mellieħa and eastern Malta. It is rare with a restricted distribution. A decline of the populations has been observed in the sand dune areas in the Marfa Peninsula, where it is now confined to the Ramla tat-Torri sand dunes due to severe human interference/habitat destruction in the peninsula. Populations with few individuals have been found at Aħrax and Ġnien Ingraw and Pembroke (although no observations in the latter for the last five years) and it is therefore likely that there are more populations present in the area than formerly assumed. Similarly, a host switch between the formerly frequent <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus halophilus</span> (and now critically endangered and possibly extinct from the island of Malta), to the commoner <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus cytisoides</span>, which is not confined to sand dunes and is locally also found in rocky coastal habitats, cannot be excluded, explaining the new records. Overall it is assumed that the populations are declining (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162100		threats	eng	The habitats, where both the host and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orobanche densiflora</span> are known to co-occur, are generally declining due to urbanisation, invasion by invasive species or habitat alteration/deterioration, related to trampling, tourist activities and infrastructure development. Fires are a further threat to the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162101		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus juncifolius</span>.<br/>It occurs in several protected areas throughout its distribution.
162101		distribution	eng	This plant is found in 522 localities in the south of France (Pyrennees, Rhone-Alpes and north of Cote d'Azur, Massif Central) <span class="tooltip">(Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010,   Commission of the European Communities 2009<span class="tooltip">). The species is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span>
162101		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky grasslands, dry pastures, in mountainous areas. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li></ul>
162101		population	eng	This is a very common species.
162101		threats	eng	<p>Main threats described for this species are abandonment of pastoral systems and quarries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Urbanisation could become a threat in the future in the region Languedoc-Roussillon. </p>
162102		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Geranium maderense</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is recommended to raise public awareness. Furthermore, the sites where the species grows should be managed, e.g., control of threatening factors such as invasive species, and protected, and the habitat needs to be restored. Reinforcement of subpopulations combined with reintroductions is furthermore recommended. Seeds are stored in Madeira Botanical Gardens seed bank.
162102		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Madeira, Portugal, where it is found on north-facing slopes (Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). The extent of occurrence is 267 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and it is found at three locations.
162102		habitat	eng	This plant grows on rocky cliffs and terraces with accumulation of soil (Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162102		population	eng	There are less than 50 remaining mature individuals, however, the population is stable (Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162102		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat degradation due to urban and infrastructure development as well as invasive species which cause competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Geranium maderense</span>. Natural factors such as storms and landslides can also affect this species (Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162103		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus teodori </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is classed as Critically Endangered D1 under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">S. meinichii </span>on the Finnish Red List (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). There, the species is protected and named as a species under  strict protection in Ålands legislation. Most of the known sites are  within the Natura 2000 network.<br/>On the Swedish redlist, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus teodori</span> is included in <span style="font-style: italic;">S. meinichii</span>, which is listed as Vulnerable. It does not appear on the Latvian red list.
162103		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus teodori </span>is native to Sweden (Gotland, Södermanland and Uppland), Finland (Aland Islands), and Latvia (Staldzene), but populations differ in minor details, and are probably of different origin. As different species concepts have been applied, its geographic range is difficult to define.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162103		habitat	eng	The first records on Gotland, were made in anthropogenic habitats, such as settlements, meadow edges and roadsides. Nowadays, after the grazing of forest has ceased, it is slowly spreading into open pine woodland on limestone or moraine.
162103		population	eng	In Finland it is only found on Åland Islands, where c. ten sites/small trees are known. The number of mature individuals in Sweden hardly exceeds 400 (slightly less than 400 on Gotland, one in Södermanland and two in Uppland). Only one locality is known in Latvia.
162103		threats	eng	Modification of cultivation practices, removal of hedges and copses and, general forestry management have been considered as important threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The main threat in Finland is overgrowth.
162104		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis infernalis</span> is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>All the populations occur in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial del Barranco del Infierno. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation measures are recommended.
162104		distribution	eng	<p>This <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">plant is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain. It is restricted to several ravines of the southern part of the island, in <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Adeje and Arona, distributed into five locations. The area of occupancy is 8 km².<br/></span></p>
162104		habitat	eng	It is found in scrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Gonospermo fruticosi-Lavateretum acerifoliae</span> in dry and shady environments, settled in small platforms on basaltic substrates sometimes not fully stable. It develops in the domain of thermophile forest, within associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Junipero canariensis-Oleetum cerasiformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Periploca laevigatae-Euphorbietum canariensis</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum atropurpureae</span>.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="estabilizados."> Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavatera acerifolia, Rumex Lunaria, Carlina salicifolia, Atalanthus microcarpus, Descurainia millefolia, Convolvulus floridus, Argyranthemum </span><span title="gracile, Rubia fruticosa, etc."><span style="font-style: italic;">gracile </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rubia fruticosa</span>. It also grows in scattered crags and cliffs, as part of rupicolous communities with <span style="font-style: italic;">Tolpis lagopoda, Aeonium </span><span title="urbicum, Sonchus fauces-orci, etc"><span style="font-style: italic;">urbicum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sonchus fauces-orci.</span><br/>&#160;<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">It is a hermaphrodite plant. It presents insect pollination generally, mainly by wasps, <span title="en la que no se aprecia ninguna adaptación obvia">in which there is no discernible obvious adaptation <span title="a la dispersión.">to dispersion. Low germination in cultivated species has been observed.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span></span></span></span>
162104		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Total population size has been estimated as more than 2,072 individuals, mostly adult specimens, throughout the five known locations <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160;<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It has not suffered from big fluctuations in recent years and <span title="una cierta recuperación.">a certain recovery has been observed.</span></span></span>
162104		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is affected by three main threats: competition with more aggressive species (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex lunaria, Rubus </span>spp<span style="font-style: italic;">., Opuntia </span>spp.), poor reproductive strategy and the risk of landslides. In addition to that, there is a tourist path with a high number of visitors affecting the population at Barranco del Infierno<span title="A ello">.</span>
162105		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium russicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>In Serbia and Russia it has been listed as Least Concern. In Hungary, it is listed as Near Threatened (Király 2007) and protected by national law. Bulgaria, lists the species as Vulnerable B2ab(iii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and protects it under national law. The Czech Republic, lists it as Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000) and it is protected in the highest national category. It is also classed as Critically Endangered in Austria (Niklfeld 1999).&#160;In the Slovakia, it is classified as Endangered<st1:country-region w:st="on"> and occurs in nine Natura 2000 sites in Slovakia, covering 50% of its localities (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/></st1:country-region>
162105		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium russicum </span>is native to Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and central European Russia and extends its range further into Turkey and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/>It has recently been found in Austria at one locality near the border with Hungary (Fischer and Niklfeld 2008)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>.<br/>In Bosnia-Herzegovina, recent findings confirm the species for Mt Borja and Mt Ozren. In Serbia, it is present in the west and in the east of the country (Vladimirov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In the Czech Republic, it was found at 14 sites with about 700 individuals but the country is on the edge of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. russicum</span>'s European range. In Hungary, it is found eastwards from Gerecse and is scattered in all the mountains to the Ukrainian border. In Poland, it is only found at two localities, in Dobużek near Łaszczów and Czumów on the Bug River (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). In Sl<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">ovakia, the species is found in 16 localities in the southeastern part of the Podunajská nížina Lowland, the southern part of the Štiavnické vrchy Mts, Krupinská planina Plateau, Drienčanský kras Karst, Slovenský kras Karst and in the Demjatské kopce Hills NR near Prešov. The occurrence in several other localities (Holíč, wider surroundings of Bratislava and Nitra, Vígľaš, Zemplínske vrchy Mts. Vinné, etc.) has not been confirmed rec</span>ently (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162105		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium russicum</span> is a biennial, monocarpic, short lived plant that grows in narrow-leaved dry grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion valesiacae</span>) and broad-leaved grassland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromion erecti), </span>sunlit slopes, steppe meadows, deserted vineyards in lowlands and hilly areas. It has a preference for serpentine soils in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, but is also found on limestone. In the Czech Republic and Hungary, it is especially found on basic soils, such as limestone, dolomite, andesite, rarely also on loess; in Bulgaria also on silicate. <br/>The species originally occurred mainly on the flat steppes of the Pannonian region, from which it has been gradually driven out to extensively used rock slopes with xeric grassland to forest-steppe vegetation (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>6250 Pannonic loess steppic grasslands</li><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li></ul>
162105		population	eng	The total population for Slovakia, Hungary, and Czech Republic has been estimated to be more than 31,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Poland, the two populations total around 100 individuals thanks to reintroductions (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). In Serbia, the species is common but restricted to serpentine soils in west Serbia, whereas it is scattered and rather rare in east Serbia where it is restricted to limestones (Vladimirov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text">The populations are slowly declining in the Czech Republic. In Hungary, which is the stronghold of the populations in Europe, the populations are stable apart from the border at its range where they show fluctuations especially west from the Gerecse mountains.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, the species forms populations normally composed of 5 – 50 individuals, the richest locality (Demjatské kopce Hills NR) has a&#160;few hundreds of individuals. The size and number of populations in Slovakia have been markedly decreasing over the last few decades, but it is not in danger of extinction (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).   <p><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text">In Bulgaria, it has a limited and fragmented distribution in many regions of the country from 0 to 1,200 m altitude. The population size was difficult to estimate as there were nearly no observations but in the last five years at least 10-15 localities were observed. Some of them have populations between 100-200 individuals, but usually they consist of single or a few tens of individuals only. At one site some fluctuation was observed. The trend is unknown.</span></p></span></span>
162105		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>The main threat to this species is the abandonment of grazing activities and subsequent vegetation succession. Habitat is also lost due to activities such as enlargement of agricultural fields and vineyards or rock mining (Mereďa  and Hodálová 2011). Further threats are posed by eutrophication, trampling, but also unsuitable management as the species needs, for example, mowing in late summer and disturbed soil. Plantations of pine forest have been described as a threat in the past.
162106		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arabis sadina</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. This plant is legally protected in Portugal.<br/>More information about the current population size and trend of the species and the taxonomic relation to <span style="font-style: italic;">Arabis planisilqua</span> is recommended. Appropriate management of the sites where the species occurs is needed, especially where it is threatened with afforestation projects and antennas (ICN 2006).
162106		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arabis sadina</span> is endemic to the centre-west of Portugal, occurring in the regions Beira Litoral, Estremadura, and Ribatejo (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 3,596 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 1,300 km².
162106		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is found in rocky habitats, borders and open areas of oak stands. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li><li>9340 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests</li></ul>
162106		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown. The flora of the centre-west was investigated between 1994-1996, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Arabis planisiliqua</span> was frequently observed whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sadina</span> was hardly even located in the places it was reported from earlier (ICN 2006).
162106		threats	eng	Those populations situated in the mountains of Aires and Candeeiros have a moderate conservation status, but are affected at the top of Serra de Aires by the installing of antennas. In the mountains of Montejunto and of Candeeiros, its sites are subject to afforestation plans (ICN 2006). Recreational activities such as rock climbing and gliding, or natural fires can furthermore affect the populations (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162107		conservation	eng	In Europe, the species is protected at different levels. It is included in Annex I of the Bern Convention and is classified as a priority species in Annex IIb of the Habitats Directive. The plant is classified as Endangered in the Andalusian and the Spanish Red List (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/>An important part of the distribution of this species is included in the Doñana National Park: the important core is in the most protected area of the Park (the Biosphere Reserve).<br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of Protected Species) <br/>- Enforcement of legal measures for the protection of the habitats <br/>- Conservation of the species in gene banks
162107		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micropyropsis tuberosa</span> is classified as priority species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The plant is classified as Endangered on the Andalusian and the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>An important part of the distribution of this species is included in the protected area Parque Nacional de Doñana: the important core is in the most protected area of the Park (the Biosphere Reserve).
162107		distribution	eng	<em>Micropyropsis tuberosa</em> is a Morocco-Iberian endemic species. It is found in southwest Spain, in the Guadalquivir freshwater swamp in Ayamonte and the Rocina river in Moguer, both in the province of Huelva, and in northwest Morocco at Loukkos. <br/><br/>In Spain, there is one metapopulation. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="dulce."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="que se extiende por todo el margen de la marisma"><span title="dulce de Doñana, y por la Rocina hasta los Ordenados"><span title="de Moguer."><span title="La longitud de esta metapoblación">The length of this metapopulation is 58 km and the average width of the strip where the species lives is 50 m. <span title="La extensión de presencia es de 500 km2">The  area of occupancy is less than 60 km² and the <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="dulce."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="que se extiende por todo el margen de la marisma"><span title="dulce de Doñana, y por la Rocina hasta los Ordenados"><span title="de Moguer."><span title="La longitud de esta metapoblación"><span title="La extensión de presencia es de 500 km2">extent of occurrence is 500 km². It occurs at two locations.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162107		distribution	eng	<em>Micropyropsis tuberosa</em> is a Morocco-Iberian endemic species. It is found in southwest Spain, in the Guadalquivir freshwater swamp in Ayamonte and the Rocina river in Moguer, both in the province of Huelva, and in northwest Morocco at Loukkos. <br/>Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km², with an area of occupancy of less than 60 km² and it occurs at three locations.
162107		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, herbaceous plant (tuberous and rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits freshwater swamps, riverbeds and sometimes ecotones between heathers and freshwater swamps. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).
162107		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, herbaceous plant (tuberous and rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits freshwater swamps, riverbeds and sometimes ecotones between heathers and freshwater swamps. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">More specifically it lives in thickets of willow, ash, in perennial pastures on the edge of the lagoons and between scrubland and marsh. Accompanied by </span><em>Lotus uliginosus, Danthonia decumbens, Hypochaeris radicata, Silene laeta, Molinia caerulea, Quercus suber, Carex cuprina, Anagallis parviflora, Juncus emmanuelis, Lolium multiflorum, Carex divisa, Lythrum junceum, Ulex minor, Hypericum humifusum </em>and<em> Fraxinus angustifolia</em><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="dulce."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Given its nature and distribution of where it was found, the presence of the species can be considered a single population <span title="que se extiende por todo el margen de la marisma">spanning the full margin of the marsh <span title="dulce de Doñana, y por la Rocina hasta los Ordenados">Dulce de Doñana, and for the Rocina until the Ordenados de Moguer. <span title="de Moguer."><span title="La longitud de esta metapoblación"><span title="La extensión de presencia es de 500 km2"><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Low fertility of the flowers in greenhouses has been observed and this suggests that reproduction is primarily sexual. <span title="Una sola planta sexuada">A single plant may result in 20 cm in diameter of vegetative growth in less than a year.</span></span></span></span></span>
162107		population	eng	In Morocco, it is very rare and threatened, occurring in only one location. The population is small and has recently experienced a decline due to the partial destruction of its habitat by drainage.<br/>In Spain, there is only one metapopulation, with an estimated 549,650 individuals, that is spread out along the edges of the Doñana freshwater swamp.
162107		population	eng	In Spain, the population has an estimated 549,650 individuals, and is spread out along the edges of the Doñana freshwater swamp.
162107		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are the sealing of humid soils, the decrease in groundwater levels and overgrazing that leads to a limited sexual reproduction. An increase in nutrient loads in the soil furthermore favours the growth of competitor plants that slowly out-compete the species (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
162107		threats	eng	The sealing of humid soils, the decrease in groundwater levels and overgrazing that leads to a limited sexual reproduction, strongly threaten this species. An increased nutrient load in the soil furthermore favours the growth of competitor plants that slowly out-compete the species (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por otra parte, la fragilidad">Moreover, the fragility and deterioration of the marsh-shrub ecotone, attached to the wetlands, endanger the habitat in which it develops.<span title="planta"></span>
162108		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as <span style="font-style: italic;">Gonospermum ptarmicaeflorum</span> in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008) and listed as Endangered B2ab(iii,v). It is listed as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Subpopulations are included in the protected area Paisaje Protegido de Las Cumbres and Monumento Natural Riscos de Tirajana (SCI). Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Presence of hikers should be controlled and population trend monitoring programmes should be developed.
162108		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>, where it grows from 1,350 to 1,900 m asl. It is distributed into five locations, throughout four municipalities, in the centre of the island: Gáldar, Tejeda, San Bartolomé de Tirajana and Los Lajiales. Its total area of occupancy has been estimated in 4 km² (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). One more location in Cueva del Caballero (Artenara) was reported in 2003, but it was not founded in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/></p>
162108		habitat	eng	This species grows within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromerio-Telinetum microphyllae</span> that occurs in monteverde and pine forest. As a secondary habitat, it can occur in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span>, growing in cliffs and in rock faces. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline microphylla, Erysimum scoparium, Micromeria benthamii, Salvia canariensis, Echium onosmifolium, Paronychia canariensis, Pinus canariensis, Sideritis dasygnaphala, Tinguarra montana, Sonchus acaulis, Carlina texedae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria lanata</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Secundariamente puede aparecer en comunidades"><span title="entre otras"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a hermaphrodite plant. It presents pollination by insects, generally by bees. Fructification is high,<span title="Posee una elevada"> compared with its low germination rates<span title="de sus semillas.">. Survival in <span title="cultivo resulta difícil2">cultivation is difficult. <br/><br/><br/></span></span></span>
162108		population	eng	Total population size was reported to be 479 individuals, distributed throughout five known locations (Rodríguez Delgado<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). In 2007, the total number of individuals recorded was 541, due to a slight increasing trend in the location of Tejeda, but the general population trends have been indentified as decreasing and the location of Artenara was not found (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The population appears severely fragmented (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha observado una elevada producción">High production of seedlings <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha observado una elevada producción">has been observed<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha observado una elevada producción"> in fertile soils, but not in their natural environment, on rocks and slopes of ravines.<br/><br/></span></span></span>
162108		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threats to this species are trampling by hikers and natural factors such as fire and landslides (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="A causa">In one of the subpopulations, the collection for ornamental purposes poses another threat.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha observado una elevada producción"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha observado una elevada producción"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha observado una elevada producción"><br/>  <p><br/> </p></span></span></span></span>
162109		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea peucedanifolia</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the Red Data Book of Greece as Vulnerable (VU) D1+2 (Karydas and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81.
162109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea peucedanifolia </span>is a endemic to Greece where it is known only from two coastal locations on the Peninsula of Athos. One locations is situated along the road from Dafni port to Xiropotamou Monastery and the other one is near Agios Pavlos Monastery. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>There are specimens from the Kozani prefecture (Greece) and the neighbouring parts of FYR Macedonia which approach <span style="font-style: italic;">C. peucedanifolia</span> morphologically, but they need further investigation.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162109		habitat	eng	The species grows on rocky schistose slopes with steep inclination (four such rocky clusters with a height of 20 m) along a road. In the second location it is found on sandy and gravelly soil, around the ruins of an old tower   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162109		population	eng	The total population is smaller than 1,000 individuals. One location is formed of four patches with a total of 391 individuals, and the second location hosts a small number of plants.<span style="background-color: white;"> The population trend is unknown.<br/></span>
162109		threats	eng	The main threats described are collection of the plant, and paths and cycling tracks near its sites which are frequented by visitors. The widening of the existing main road of the  region, would pose a significant threat to this plant (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162110		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Borderea chouardii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive. It is included as species "En Peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species and in the regional Aragonese catalogue of threatened species, and a legal Recovery Plan was passed in 1994, being the first European legal plan approved for a plant. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ab(v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p><p>It occurs within the proposed SCI Congosto de Sopeira. Its area of distribution has been removed from the climbing guide of the surroundings of Embalse de Escales. Plantations have been introduced and seeds are stored in germplasm banks. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>cultivation has been developed, as well as population reinforcement measures. These actions were unsuccessful. <br/></p><p> Benign introduction has been developed with results <span style="font-style: italic;">a priori</span> favourable. Population reinforcement should be developed. <br/></p>  <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se ha contactado con escaladores"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se están"><br/></span></span>
162110		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Borderea chouardii </span>is an endemic species to the Pyrenees. It is restricted to one slope in a narrow pass by the Noguera Ribagorzana river in the region of Aragón (Goñi and Guzmán 2004), this location is known as Sopeira. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 1 km².
162110		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This geophyte grows in vertical limestone crags and overhangs facing north, usually well protected from sun exposure and affected by Mediterranean climate conditions. <span title="Comparten">It shares its habitats with <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla caulescens, Sarcocapnos </span><span style="font-style: italic;">enneaphylla </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Antirrhinum molle. </span><span title="Como">Its secondary habitat is also found on rocky slopes, growing among <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifragion mediae (Saxifraga</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">longifolia, Bupleurum angulosum, Campanula hispanica)</span>.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="La polinización"><span title="pedicelos, tras la fecundación, se recurvan hacia"><span title="la roca, aumentando así la posibilidad de que las"><span title="semillas queden depositadas en el interior de una"><span title="grieta."><span title="pequeños caracoles"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los masculinos"><span title="semillas se pierden."><span title="tamaños mayores."><span title="115 registros durante 6 años."><span title="calculadas se encuentran siempre muy"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162110		population	eng	Total population is estimated in between 3,800-5,200 individuals (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Research developed over more than ten years have revealed that one third of the reproductive individuals are female specimens and two thirds are male specimens. Recruitment is low but adults present a extremely high longevity, of even more than 300 years. Its population is distributed into two subpopulations.<br/>Population is considered stable but some mature individuals have been lost in the last decades due to public works.
162110		threats	eng	The main threat is the degradation of its habitat, due to the extension of the road that crosses the population and by tourism and rock climbing.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">
162111		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus caput-medusae </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered A2c in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as "vulnerable" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>In Gran Canaria, a small proportion of its populations is included in the protected areas Monumento Natural de Arinaga (SCI), Sitio de Interés Científico de Tufia (SCI) and SCI de Punta de la Sal. In Fuerteventura, large proportions of the populations are included in Parque Natural de Jandía (SCI) and Monumento Natural de Montaña Cardones (SCI) (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In this island, there are also populations occurring in military exclusion areas.<br/><br/>Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo, where cultivation and micropropagation of the species is developed.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include storage of seeds in germplasm banks and implementation of benign introduction, reintroduction and reinforcement measures in areas expected to be urbanised and populations with low number of specimens.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Fuerteventura."></span>
162111		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus caput-medusae</span> is endemic to the islands of Gran Canaria and Fuerteventura, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows from 5 to 450 m asl (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In Gran Canaria it is <span id="result_box" class="long_text">distributed in several locations on the eastern coast, the largest populations <span id="result_box" class="long_text">being <span id="result_box" class="long_text">in the areas of Faro del Arinaga and Ojos de Garza. Main subpopulations in <span title="Las poblaciones">Fuerteventura are located in the area of the isthmus of La Pared and Jables de Vigocho. The area of occupancy has been estimated in 32 km².<br/><br/>In Gran Canaria, regressive trends have been identified for the distribution of this species over the last ten years (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Its range decrease has been estimated in 47% over this period. In Fuerteventura, populations remain large and stable.</span></span>
162111		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This plant grows in coastal areas usually covered by calcareous sands swept in by the wind, although it can sometimes be found inland in sandy or sandy-rocky plains. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Participa en"><span title="Participa en">It participates in following associations: <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenoleoideo tomentosae-Salsoletum vermiculatae, Frankenio capitatae-Zygophylletum fontanesii, Polycarpaeo niveae-Lotetum lancerottensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbio paraliasi-Cyperetum capitatii.</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>In psammophyte communities it is found with <span style="font-style: italic;">Polycarpaea nivea</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Heliotropium bacciferum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">erosum</span>. In the halophytic coastal belt of Gran Canaria, it grows together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus arinagensis, Astydamia latifolia</span>, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Atractylis preauxiana</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Herniaria fontanesii</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Zygophyllum fontanesii</span>. Sometimes it is found in ruderal and nitrophile areas with <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaea arborescens, Salsola vermiculata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bassia tomentosa</span>. <br/><span title="Participa en"><span title="Participa en"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus vistosas flores">Pollination is performed by insects (Diptera). Flowering and fructification occur generally during the winter and spring, from January to June. It is common to find <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Participa en"><span title="Participa en"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus vistosas flores"> simultaneously <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Participa en"><span title="Participa en"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus vistosas flores">flowers and ripe fruits. <span title="La viabilidad"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162111		population	eng	A total population size of around 90,000 individuals (89,065 individuals counted) has been reported (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), 70,000 in Fuerteventura and 20,000 in Gran Canaria (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). <br/>Population size presents decreasing trends in Gran Canaria. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Seedlings have been observed in Arinaga, which usually thrive, although growth is slow. Some seeds are affected by parasites (Coleoptera larvae). The populations in Gran Canaria are heavily fragmented due to urbanisation, agriculture, roads and other infrastructure. Populations in Fuerteventura are generally healthy and regenerating well. Seed predation has not been studied in this island (S. Scholz pers. comm. 2011).<span title="El"></span>
162111		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">In general terms, main threats to this species are anthropogenic pressures on its habitat (Navarro<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), being much stronger in the heavily populated Gran Canaria than in Fuerteventura.<br/>Main threatening factors are urbanisation and infrastructure development, for they can very quickly destroy a huge amount of individuals. Predation on plants and seeds, quarrying, and trampling have been also reported as threats.<span title="A pesar de contar con"><span title="Otros factores de amenaza"><span title="de su hábitat"></span></span>
162112		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is protected (67/81) at national level and listed as Vulnerable in the Greek Red List (Phitos <em>et al. </em>1995).</p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK3">&#160;The habitats on the region and the species attractiveness are subject to threats. Therefore, we can protect the species by:  </a></p>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation and legal protection which ban the species not to be picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Type of habitat management that imitates the traditional agriculture or forestry of the locality of the species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>The species tolerates extensive grazing, this could be used   to prevent successional vegetation developement in certain habitats and to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995, Pederson and Faurholdt 2007). <br/><br/><p><a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a></p>
162112		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Greece. It is found on the Peloponnese, Atica (near Athens) and at one site in Kythira Island (Tan and Iatrou 2001). It is found at less than ten localities and the estimated area of occupancy is less than 500 km²  and the extent of occurrence is under 20,000 km².<br/></p><p><br/></p>
162112		habitat	eng	<p><em>Ophrys argolica</em> grows in grassland, garrigue and old, pesticide-free olive groves, roadside slopes, coniferous woodlands, meadows, open oak and pine woods. It is mainly found on limestone and grows in calcareous, dry to moist soils, rarely wet in full sunlight to light shade (Tan and Iatrou 2001)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>.<br/></p>  <p></p>
162112		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys argolica </em>is quite local and often rare.   The population trend is unknown but the scattered localities host only very small populations (<span class="species">Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
162112		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys argolica</em>   has most of its distribution area in southern <st1:country-region><st1:place><st1:country-region><st1:place><st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. However, the species in the region is subject to threats such as urbanisation, construction work, residential building, and tourism activities. The<span class="species"> use of herbicides and pesticides affects the species indirectly as this leads to a reduction of pollinators (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</p>
162113		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula crystallina</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Cyprus all subpopulations occur in protected forest areas, proposed Natura 2000<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>sites and the species is categorized as Vulnerable (VU) D2 on the national red list (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). There is an ongoing monitoring project for this species in parts of its range.<br/>It is not protected in Greece but it occurs in some Natura 2000 sites. In Italy it is classified as Vulnerable in the Red List. It is protected by law in Montenegro and Serbia. However, the two localities in Kosovo are not within protected areas. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species is classed as Vulnerable (Šilić 1996) and in Serbia as Critically Endangered/Data Defiicient (Tatić 1999).<br/><br/>Information on the population size and trend and potential rates of decline is needed for many parts of its range.
162113		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">This plant is present in Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Turkey</span><st1:place style="background-color: white;" w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><span style="background-color: white;"></span>. <br/><br/>It occurs in eight locations in Cyprus (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Greece it is found in more  than 20 localities. It is found in southern Italy at four localities. <br/><br/>In  Bosnia and Herzegovina it is known from only two localities and one  of them is an old record not recently checked in the field. In  Montenegro it is known from only two localities (Pulević and Bulić  1990) and in the disputed territory of Kosovo <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>it is known from two localities (Stevanović 1999).<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km².<br/><br/><em style="font-style: italic; background-color: yellow;"></em>
162113		habitat	eng	In Cyprus it occurs on open, sparsely vegetated, permanently wet but not flooded rocks or stones, at springs and along streams or canals with perennial water flow on ophiolithic substrate (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Greece it is found in the spray zone of permanent springs, rivulets and waterfalls, rocky mossy places, on serpentine limestone, tufa and conglomerate. In Italy it is found on calcareous cliffs with water dripping or water flow through the cracks.<br/><br/>Habitats in Bosnia and Herzegovina are wet limestone or dolomite rocks, while in Montenegro it grows on wet dolomitic rocks or travertine. In the gorge of the river Cijevna in Montengro, very close to the Albanian border, it forms a specific community <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantho-Pinquiculetum hirtiflorae</span> on travertine rocks with seeping water. In Serbia it inhabits wet serpentine rocks.
162113		population	eng	The total population size in Cyprus, with the exception of one location at Kyparissia, was estimated accurately in 2003 when 47,722 mature reproductive individuals and 19,685 rosettes were counted. Since 2006 selected colonies of the plant have been monitored but it is too early to determine any population trend. In Cyprus, there are eight extant locations of the species, with adequately large individual numbers at almost all of them (minimum viable population is not reached at only 1 location). Data on breeding system and seed duration are currently lacking (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population size is approximately 67,400 individuals in Cyprus (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>There is no information about population size in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Montenegro the size of one subpopulation in the river Cijevna gorge is not more than 500 mature individuals. There is no information on the population in Kosovo. There is also no information on the populations in Albania, Greece, and Italy. <br/><br/>It can be said that the populations are severely fragmented.
162113		threats	eng	The plant is vulnerable to changes in hydrological conditions resulting from piping spring water, road construction and natural drought (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007). Climate change and natural fires have been highlighted as relevant threats as well (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Dam construction affects the species as well.
162116		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue for Comunidad Valenciana. It is classed Endangered A2ac; B1ab(ii,iv,v)+2ab(ii,iv,v); C2a(i) in the Spanish Red Data Book 2010 (Blasco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/></p><p>A recovery plan has been approved, including the storage of plant material in germplasm banks, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, population management, reinforcement measures and benign introduction.</p><p>The species occurs within the protected areas Parque Natural de Montgó, Parque Natural de Penyal d’Ifac and Parque Natural de Serra Gelada, and Microrreserva de Flora. In the Balearic Islands, however, the species is not included in any protected area. In Ibiza, population control and monitoring plans should be established, plant material should be stored in germplasm banks, reinforcement and reintroduction plans should be put in place, education and awareness programmes should be developed and presence of herbivores should be controlled.<br/></p>
162116		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Spain (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010), where it occurs in the north of the province of Alicante (between Montgó and Morro de Toix) and in the west of the island of Ibiza, Balearic Islands (Blasco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It can also be found in some islets near the coast of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands: S’Espartar, Es Vedrà and Illeta Mitjana in Benidorm. It is distributed into five locations, comprising a total of 14 natural subpopulations and three introduced subpopulations. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 19-20 km². <br/>Its extent of occurrence is 820 km²<sup></sup> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162116		habitat	eng	This chamaephyte grows in cracks and ledges of coastal crags and cliffs. It can also be found on deeper and better developed soils at the foot of the cliffs. Flowering occurs in spring and fructification in summer. The species can propagate through stolons.
162116		population	eng	This species was believed to be extinct in the Iberian Peninsula until it was re-found in 1987 (Blasco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The six subpopulations in Alicante comprise 91 individuals, while 695 specimens can be found in the 11 subpopulations in Ibiza. Important decrease in the number of individuals has been identified for the last ten years (between 20-77%). One location has become extinct, three subpopulations have disappeared and ten subpopulations comprise less than 20 individuals.
162116		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are natural hazards such as droughts, sea storms, fires and landslides, as well as competition, predation by goats and small population size (Blasco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
162117		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bencomia sphaerocarpa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed Critically Endangered CR D in the Spanish <strong></strong>Red List (Moreno 2008), and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/>The species occurs within the protected area Parque Rural de Frontera (SCI). Seeds from every subpopulation have been collected and stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. A monitoring programme has been developed for the subpopulation in Fileba and 20 individuals have been re-introduced in Tábano. Both subpopulations are considered the most threatened and have been fenced (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).  <p>In order to ensure the conservation of the species grazing exclusion zones must be designated, the activities of reintroduction, reinforcement or transfer of individuals must be kept in place, disease control programmes have to be implemented and population monitoring and research in reproductive dynamics have to be developed.</p>
162117		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>  <p>  </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bencomia sphaerocarpa</span> is endemic to the island of El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it can be found on the northern side of the island, from 400 to 1,200 m asl, in three locations: Tinco, Hoya de Fileba and Tábano. Only one of them shows an acceptable degree of conservation. The presence of the species in the island of La Palma has been reported in the past, but it has not been recently confirmed. <br/>The area of occupancy of the species has been calculated to be between 0.75 and 3 km<sup>2</sup>. Decreasing trends have been reported for the distribution of the species (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/>    <p></p>
162117		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>This species grows isolated and scattered on slopes and distributed in small groups of several medium size individuals in more sheltered areas. <br/></p>  <p>  </p><p>It grows preferably in very humid valley floors and basaltic shady crags, on deep well developed substrates, within the potential distribution of evergreen laurel-leaved tree forest (monteverde), always under the influence of low clouds. Frequent accompanying species are <em>Erica arborea, Teline stenopetala, Phyllis nobla, Rumex maderensis, Sonchus hierrensis, Greenovia aurea, Pericallis murrayi, Aichrysom punctatum </em>and <em>Carduus baeocephalus.</em> It is linked to the associations <em>Visneo mocanerae-Arbutetum canariensis </em>and <em>Pericalli murrayi-Myricetum fayae</em>.</p><p>The range of dispersion of the seeds of this species has been reported to be low. The birds that eat the fruits acting as vectors for the dispersion have a restricted distribution. When not eaten by birds, ripe fruits fall down close to the plant.  </p><p>&#160;</p>
162117		population	eng	The population size has been reported to be 24 individuals: six individuals in Tinco and surroundings, three at Hoya de Fileba and 15 in Tábano (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Decreasing trends have been reported for the population size (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
162117		threats	eng	The main threats affecting the species are fires, storms and landslides, and drought events (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The subpopulation of Tábano is also affected by small herbivorous predators and possible works on surrounding roads. The subpopulation of Fileba is as well threatened by grazing.  <p>&#160;</p>
162118		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus palhinhae</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and legally protected in Portugal. It is recommended to restrict access to the sites and provide appropriate protection and to improve connectivity between populations (ICN 2006).
162118		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus palhinhae </span>is endemic to the Algarve in southwestern Portugal with an area of occupancy of 495 - 900 km²   (ICN 2006, Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>The available habitat area has been estimated to be 45 km² (ICNB pers. comm. 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/> </span>
162118		habitat	eng	This plant is found in crevices of compact limestone soils. It prefers to colonise micro-habitats where it does not have to compete with other plants, and can tolerate extreme environmental conditions. The species is a colonizer without invasive characteristics, and regresses when its habitat is subject to catastrophic events such as fire or artificial uprooting. It is a characteristic species of the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 5140 "<span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus palhinhae</span> formations on maritime wet heaths"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162118		population	eng	The species occurs localised and the number of subpopulations as well as the number of mature individuals are decreasing (ICN 2006).
162118		threats	eng	The habitat is significantly declining due to illegal transit of 4x4 vehicles and the disposal of debris and soil in Carrapateira and Sagres- S.Vicente. Fires can also pose a threat.
162119		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa styriaca</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Austrian Red List. The plant is protected in Steiermark and the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa</span> is protected in Austria. It is found in a protected area.<br/></p>Research on taxonomic issues is recommended.
162119		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its presence has only been reported for one area in the Steiermark Alps and in Kärnten. There are two localities in total (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The EOO is 100 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162119		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa styriaca</span> is a longliving perennial that grows in inner alpine dry meadows. It is found in <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Potentillo puberulae-Festucetum   associations (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span>
162119		population	eng	Population has been measured as 10,000 to 20,000 shoots   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In total, there are no more than 100 mature individuals. The current population trend is not known.
162119		threats	eng	<p>Fertilisation, abandonment of pastoral systems and subsequent succession and competition, and forest replanting have been described as important threats to this species. Collection for research is affecting this species as there are only a few individuals left.<br/></p>
162120		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria coutinhoi </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. More fieldwork should be carried out to establish a population size and trend, and to collect more information about the biology and ecology of this plant. The known individuals should be protected and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures should be taken (ICN 2006).
162120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal it was believed to be extinct but was recently rediscovered in Serra da Nogueira and in the region of the river Douro (ICN 2006). It has an AOO of 500 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162120		habitat	eng	This species grows in open habitats at low altitude. It is adapted to recently burned areas as it prefers very light textured soils. This plant can be easily observed in one year, but disappeared in the following one (ICN 2006). In the Douro valley it has been found in silty areas where sediments are dragged out (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162120		population	eng	<p>This is a rare species (ICN 2006). There is no information on population size or trend available.<br/></p>
162120		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known (ICN 2006).
162121		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis pusilla</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. <br/>It is classed as Vulnerable (D2) in the Red Data Book of Cyprus. The location of Akamas Peninsula (300 individuals) is a proposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Natura 2000</span> site (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/>In Spain, the species is classed as Data Deficient (Moreno 2008) as the species is insufficiently known and suspected to have been overlooked in field surveys (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).<br/>In Greece it is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81. A considerable part of its locations is included in Natura 2000 sites (Karpathos: GR4210003, Kastellorizo: GR4210004, Kos: GR4210008, Crete: GR4320006, GR4340002, GR4340003, Gavdos: GR4340013).
162121		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis pusilla </span>is a Mediterranean element, found in Portugal, Spain (Balearic Islands), Malta, Cyprus, Greece and Turkey.<br/><br/>In Portugal, it occurs in the western centre, from Sintra and Ericeira inland, and south to the Arrábida mountain (Franco and Afonso 1984).<br/><br/>In Spain, the species is only found on Ibiza and Mallorca (Anthos 2009).<br/><br/>The species was first discovered in Cyprus in 1997, at two locations and was later (2005, 2007) found at another two widely apart locations. The species is rare but might be found more locations (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) four locations are reported in Cyprus: Akamas Peninsula, Episkopi, Polemidia and Sotira Ammochostou. <br/>The species occupies several sites in Greece. On the mainland, it has been reported from Attiki (Terpsithea, one locality) and southeast Peloponnisos (Maleas peninsula, one locality). In Crete, it is found in the following places: in Nomos Chanion east of Souda, Akrotiri peninsula; Rodopos peninsula at the coast opposite of Elafonisos; in Nomos Irakleiou in the Asterousia Mts; in Nomos Agiou Nikolaou on the Thrypti Mt (Askordiala), northwest of Palaikastro; and on the Idi Mts at Anogeia, Chondrada Mt, and Voskero Mt. It also occurs in the islands  Gavdos, Karpathos, Saria, and Kasos nearby Crete. In the East Aegean Islands, it has a presence in Kastellorizo, Kos, and Kalimnos. And there is one locality in Aigina in the Saronikos Gulf Islands. The extent of occurrence with mainland Greece and the islands is 15,000 km² with area of occupancy at approximately 100 km². On the other hand, it has been recorded as a regular component of therophytic grassland  and temporary pond communities in Crete. It is reportedly very scattered  on Gavdos (Bergmeier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and Kastellorizo (Greuter 1979), but it is possibly overlooked.
162121		habitat	eng	Throughout its range in the Mediterranean, the species occurs on sandy or clayey, stony, compacted  soils, at flat, usually trampled places. It has been found in temporary ponds, dolines, grasslands   and on flat clayey areas, hard stony ground or abandoned terraces (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is most often found at an altitude between 0-780 m, but has been recorded at 1,185 m.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
162121		population	eng	In Cyprus, the size of the population is estimated to be c.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>23,000 individuals in four localities (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). In Portugal, there is one known population in Serra da Arrábida with over 1,000 individuals (M. Porto pers.comm. 2011).<br/><br/>There is no data available for Greece, Malta or Spain. The overall population trend is unknown.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162121		threats	eng	Some populations in Cyprus have been reported to be threatened by the expansion of built-up areas and construction works (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). There is no information on threats in the other countries.
162122		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tataria</span> is listed in Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It's national threat and conservation status has been reported for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Critically Endangered (CR) (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).</li><li>Hungary: Endangered (EN). It has been a strictly protected species since 1982 according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant  and animal species and the Goverment decree on the Natura 2000 sites  for the restoration of natual habitats and the maintenance of viable  populations of protected species. It has been propagated and reintroduced in Tiszafüred, Kisújszállás (Harka and Tóth 1989) and Rád (Kereszty and Galántai 2001).</li><li>Serbia: Critically Endangered (Stevanović 1999).</li></ul>EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tataria </span>held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe: one from Hungary (stored in Institute for Agrobotany, Hungary) and one from Romania (stored in External Branch North of the Department Genebank, IPK, Oil Plants and Fodder Crops in Malchow, Germany) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
162122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. tataria </span>is a native to middle, east and southeast Europe, as well as to parts of temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010, Marhold 2011).<br/><br/>The Commission of the European Communities (2009) provides geographic range information for four countries:<br/><ul><li>Italy: 110 km<sup>2</sup></li><li>Czech Republic: 873 km<sup>2</sup></li><li>Hungary: 478 km<sup>2</sup></li><li>Slovakia: 5 km<sup>2</sup></li></ul>In Slovakia, three subpopulations were recently found in the southwest of the country (P. Eliáš pers. comm. 2010):<br/><ol><li>Starý vrch Hill near the Belá village (Belianske kopce Hills)</li><li>Dankov vrch Hill near the Nána village (Belianske kopce Hills)</li><li>The Sovie vinohrady Nature Reserve near the Salka village</li></ol>The population trend is stable in Slovakia but large fluctuations in the number of flowering/mature individuals has been recorded (P. Eliáš pers. comm. 2010). Seeds from locality no. 1 were collected in 2009 and they are stored in the Slovak Gene Bank in Piešt'any and in the Millennium Seed Bank, Kew.<br/><br/>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tataria</span> occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains at the following localities    (Soó 1966, Simon 1992): <br/><ul><li>Szerencs mountain: Szentistvánbaksa, Megyaszó</li><li>South Cserhát: Rád</li><li>Danube region: Bölcske</li><li>Great Hungarian Plain: Mezőföld Plain and surroundings</li><li>Dunaföldvár and Transdanubia: Seregélyes</li><li>Balaton region: Balatonkenese</li><li>Várpalota region: Berhida</li></ul>
162122		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. tataria</span> grows in narrow-leaved dry grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion valesiacae</span>), broad-leaved dry grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromion erecti</span>), as well as in vineyards and gardens.<br/><br/>In Hungary, this species prefers calcareous, warm, dry, loose soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals, poor in humus, and loess (clay, marl) soils. Here, it is a postglacial steppe relict species which grows in loess grassland steppes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crambo-Tussilaginetum, Salvio-Festucetum sulcatae</span>), loess walls (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyro-Kochiaetum prostratae</span>), loess steppe oak woodlands, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyro-Kochion</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion rupicolae</span> species   communities (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
162122		population	eng	Population data are reported by The Commission of the European Communities (2009) for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Italy: seven localities</li><li>Czech Republic: 10,000–15,000 individuals</li><li>Hungary: 2,500–3,000 individuals</li><li>Slovakia: 500–1,400 individuals</li></ul>However, according to P. Eliáš (pers. comm. 2010), there are three subpopulations in Slovakia, in total comprising more than 2,000 individuals:<br/><ol><li>Starý vrch Hill near the Belá village (Belianske kopce Hills): the subpopulation comprises more than two thousand individuals</li><li>Dankov vrch Hill near the Nána village (Belianske kopce Hills): the subpopulation comprises <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 500 individuals</li><li>The Sovie vinohrady Nature Reserve near the Salka village: the subpopulation comprises<span style="font-style: italic;"> c.</span> 250 individuals. <br/></li></ol>
162122		threats	eng	The Commission of the European Communities (2009) reports the following main threats to this species:<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><ul><li> Sand and gravel extraction</li><li>   Modification of hydrographic functioning<br/></li><li> Use of fertilizers and accumulation of organic material<br/></li><li>Mowing / cutting</li><li>Grazing</li><li>Invasive species</li><li>Fires<br/></li><li>  Abandonment of pastoral systems</li><li>  Artificial planting</li><li>  Agriculture and forestry activities</li><li>Recreational activities</li></ul> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162123		conservation	eng	The synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cousturieri </span>is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Information on population size and trend as well as use and threats is needed for its whole European range.
162123		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. cousturieri</span> was thought to be endemic to the offshore islets of eastern  Crete: Koufonisi, Chrysi, and Mikronisi (Persson 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> However, as it has been established as a&#160; synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cupani</span> subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cupani</span> its range includes<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs  in northwest Africa, central north  Mediterranean (Malta to southern  Italy, Liguria), Cyclades, South Aegean Islands,  and Crete (Persson  2007).
162123		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in grasslands with xerophytic thermophytes on limestone substrate, at sea level.
162123		population	eng	Due to unresolved taxonomic issues, population size and trend are not known.
162123		threats	eng	If following Persson (2007), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cousturieri</span> occurs on uninhabited islands; however these are very much visited by tourists in the summer who camp within its habitat. Because of its rarity, the species is subjected to collection by botanists, which also poses a threat to its population. Therefore taking or removal of flora and other leisure and tourism impacts have been described as main threats for this species&#160;  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is no information on potential threats in other parts of its range.
162124		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in Annex C1 (Species of native flora protected in a stringent way) of the regional law in Lombardy, L.R. 10/2008. <br/><br/>There are no conservation measures in place. However, the ecology, reproductive biology and genetics of the species have been studied by the University of Pavia, Milano-Bicocca and Turin. <br/>Few plants of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. malinverniana </span>are currently cultivated at the Botanical Garden of the University of Pavia and at the University of Turin but <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation of the species could be increased. Appropriate management of its sites such as replacing mechanical with manual brushing and managing nutrient levels are needed. Furthermore, species recovery and reintroduction programmes should be considered. Monitoring of the population and habitat trend are recommended.
162124		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the Piedmont and western Lombardy in </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">northern Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>, its extent of occurrence is 305 km² and the area of occupancy is 36 km². A comparison of the historic with the current range revealed a decline of 88% in the last ten years. Therefore, it is suspected that the population declined over 80% in the last ten years. There was a particularly strong reduction in the last year when four localities near Pavia were destroyed and a similar number of localities has disappeared in Piedmont in the last decade (Barni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p>
162124		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes malinverniana</span> is a Hydrophyte that is found in clear, fresh and running spring water. It is adapted to survive dry periods and can withstand very low temperatures. The plant prefers loamy-sandy soils with a high sand content. This species grows in the Habitats Directive habitat 3170 "Mediterranean temporary ponds" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162124		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>New surveys of the research team of the University of Pavia and Tourin counted 12 growing sites in 2009, most of them (10) occur in a restricted area around the town of Arborio (Piedmont). Two small growing sites have been found close to Vigevano (Lombardy) and Novara (Piedmont) (Barni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/>Genetic analysis revealed that <span style="font-style: italic;">I. malinverniana</span> has a low between-population genetic diversity, and a moderate level of within-population genetic variability (Gentili <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/>The generation length of this species is unknown.
162124		threats	eng	The main threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">I. malinverniana</span> come from the rice cultivation, as a consequence of inappropriate channel management practices and nutrient load into the water. The first threat that directly affects the species through the winter dry period in some populations, is mechanical bank adjustment and mechanical brush that remove the channel sediments affecting the adult plant survival, sporelings establishment and the formation of a spore bank in the soil. Manual brush seems to have a positive effect as it removes other faster-growing species that can compete with <span style="font-style: italic;">I. malinverninana</span> for light and nutrients (Amosso 2010).<br/>Increased nutrient concentration into the water indirectly affect <span style="font-style: italic;">I. malinverniana </span>through the competition with other aquatic macrophytes that better compete for light and nutrients (Amosso 2010).<br/>On the other hand, the artificial channels dug for rice field water supply increased, in the past, the surface of suitable habitat available for the species. Thus, the rice cultivation is of primary importance for the species survival.
162125		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria soleirolii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected at national level in France. <span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip">The species sometimes grows in protected areas (Réserve Naturelle de Scandola, Site Inscrit de Revelata and Galeria, Site Classé Cap Senino, CDL).
162125		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria soleirolii</span> is endemic to Corsica island<span class="tooltip">. Its extent of occurrence is 114 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 20 km² and it is found at five locations.
162125		habitat	eng	This species is found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1240 "Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> spp." (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162125		population	eng	There are five known locations distributed over three communes. The population counts 10,000-25,000 individuals with a decreasing trend.
162125		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to the species and its habitat are local invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp., recreational and tourist activities, and goat grazing in some areas.<br/></p>
162126		conservation	eng	Arctagrostis latifolia is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized Least Concern in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/>In Norway, it is listed as Near Threatened approaching B1b(iii)+2b(iii) (Artsdatabanken 2010), but it is not protected. <br/>It is also listed as Near Threatened in Finland  (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010) and is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). Six out of seven existing sites and over 90% of flowering stems are in the Natura 2000 network.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162126		distribution	eng	This plant has a circumpolar distribution. In Europe, it is found in Finland, Norway, Svalbard,  North European Russia, and Novaya Zemlya (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). <br/><br/>Its area of occupancy in Finland is 900 km²    (measured in 10x10 km grid cells - Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Norway, the species is restricted to Svalbard and eastern Finnmark where most sites are located in the lowlands and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km².
162126		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arctagrostis latifolia</span> is a perennial plant and graminoid that forms mats (clonal plant). It grows at the edges of water bodies and marshes, in swamps, river banks, lakes, wet peaty soil, mire edges, marshy land, shrub, tundra, and birch forests. The species is eaten by deer.<em></em><strong></strong>
162126		population	eng	In Finland, 28,000 flowering stems have been reported    with a stable population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>The plant is considered rare for Svalbard. In mainland Norway, it occurs in a restricted area but is quite frequent there. The populations are suspected to be slightly declining (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>There is no information on population size or trend in Russia.
162126		threats	eng	In Finland, road construction has been described as a threat. In Norway, overgrazing by reindeer and sheep has negative impacts on the reproduction.
162127		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearia polonica </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is included in the Red List (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and Red Data Book of Poland (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) as Extinct in the Wild and in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Endangered. In the Ukraine, it is furthermore protected in the landscape reserve Verchnobuzski Bolota. There is very good experience with <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearia polonica</span> in Poland in the wild and in botanic gardens. It is also strictly protected at national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006).
162127		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearia polonica </span>is native to Poland and the Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Poland, it was known from one natural locality (locus classicus) in the river head of the Biała Przemsza River in Pustynia Błędowska around Olkusz in the Krakow-Czestochowa Upland, which is now extinct. The species has been subject to benign introductions of which the most successful is at one locality at the river head of the Centuria river. There are two more localities with weak secondary populations: one at the source of the Wiercica River and one at the source of the Rajecznica River (tributary to Żebrówka) between Prądle and Szczekociny (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). <br/><br/>In the Ukraine, it is also found at a single locality near the villages Kaltiv and Verchobuz, Zolochivskij district, Lviv region at the river head of the Western Bug river. This locality is smaller than 4 km².<br/><br/>The total area of occupancy is likely to be less than 20 km².
162127		habitat	eng	The plant inhabits springs and small shadowed brooks on sandy substratum or emergent patches of wet sand in sun-lit places, with very clean water of neutral pH. In Poland, it created its own association <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlearictum polonicae</span> at the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cardamino-Montion</span> alliance. In Ukraine, it is a component of <span style="font-style: italic;">Magnocaricion</span> plant alliances.<br/><br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 7220 "Petrifying springs with tufa formation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cratoneurion</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162127		population	eng	In the first half of the 20th century, the Polish population had 0.5 million adult individuals in an area of 4 km². In 1960, drainage and melioration caused the near extinction of the species in Poland. In 1970, a few individuals were transferred from its natural habitat to similar conditions at the river head of the Centuria river. Now, in an area of 0.002 km², about 30,000 adult individuals are surviving. The populations have a declining trend.<br/><br/>In Ukraine, the single locality does not hold more than 400 mature individuals. The population trend is stable.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162127		threats	eng	In Poland, mines and drainage have been described as main threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Changes to the hydrological regime of the species habitat are a major threat in the Ukraine.
162128		conservation	eng	This plant is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats  Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of  European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea horrida</span> was listed as Vulnerable on the last national red lists    (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001, Conti <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/>Three subpopulations are within protected areas (the Regional Park of Porto Conte, established in 1999; the National Park of Asinara, established in 1997; the Protected Marine Area of Tavolara-Punta Coda Cavallo, established in 1997). Two subpopulations have no effective protection, even though they are located in two “Natura 2000” sites (ITB010043: coasts and islets of northwest Sardinia; ITB010082: Piana Islet). There are 150 seeds stored in the Seed Bank of the University of Cagliari (BG-SAR).
162128		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea horrida </span>is endemic to Sardinia. It grows between 0-240 m above sea level (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). <em></em>Its distribution is limited to sea-cliffs in islands and peninsulas where it forms patches of isolated populations, both in primary and secondary dwarf communities (Biondi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/>The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are therefore very restricted and are 172 km² and 42 km² respectively with a total of four locations (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
162128		habitat	eng	It is an heliophylic and xerophytic plant who grows in coastal areas and on different substrates on calcareous, dolomitic, granitic or metamorphic rocks    (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea horrida</span> can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> spp.</li><li>5320 Low formations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia</span> close to cliffs</li></ul><span style="background-color: white;">The coastal habitat occupied by </span><em style="background-color: white;">C. horrida</em><span style="background-color: white;"> has decreased from 36.67 km in 1956 to 29.84 km in 2006. Therefore, the extent of habitat has undergone a continuous decline of 18.62% in 50 years (Pisanu </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009).</span>
162128		population	eng	The species is present in five subpopulations, defined as geographically distinct groups within the population: <br/><ul><li>Isola Asinara, Provincia di Sassari, Comune di Porto Torres; </li><li>Isola Piana, Provincia di Sassari, Comune di Porto Torres; </li><li>Penisola di Stintino, Provincia di Sassari, Comune di Stintino; </li><li>Penisola di Capo Caccia: Provincia di Sassari, Comune di Alghero; </li><li>Isola Tavolara, Provincia di Olbia-Tempio, Comune di Olbia (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</li></ul><span style="background-color: white;">The five sites differ in terms of geography, substrata and land use (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi <em>et al.</em> 2008; Pisanu <em>et al</em>. 2009).</span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The population trend seems to be stable, but a strong decrease of the habitat, about 20% in the last 50 years has been recorded, due to change of management regime and infrastructure development (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">2008)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span>
162128		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The main threat to the species is habitat loss either due to the change of management regime such as abandonment of pasture activities that lead to vegetation succession and overgrowth with </span><em style="background-color: white;">Juniperus phoenicea </em><span style="background-color: white;">L. ssp. </span><em style="background-color: white;">turbinate</em><span style="background-color: white;"> (Farris </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al.</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 2009) or due to infrastructure development, especially for tourism. The latter has led to a  documented habitat loss of 27.2% in 50 years, measured as a  decrease in coastal perimeter, after construction and tourist use of the  cliffs (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al.</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 2008, Pisanu </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009). Furthermore, the grazing by introduced or nati</span><em style="background-color: white;"></em><span style="background-color: white;">ve ungulates impacts on this plant (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al.</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 2008, Pisanu </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009). On Tavolara Island, </span><em style="background-color: white;">C. horrida</em><span style="background-color: white;"> is hybridising with the congeneric </span><em style="background-color: white;">Centaurea</em><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em style="background-color: white;">filiformis</em><span style="background-color: white;"> Viv. (Pisanu </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009, Pisanu </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2010).  </span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Moreover, the plant has a very limited dispersal ability</span><em style="background-color: white;"></em><span style="background-color: white;">: more than 60% of the seedlings grow very close to the mother plant (Pisanu and Filigheddu in: Rossi </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al.</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 2008, Pisanu </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009) and genetic analysis revealed a very low genetic flow among populations (Mameli </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2008).</span>
162131		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scilla madeirensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162131		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the Portuguese islands Madeira, Porto Santo, and Selvagens<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). <br/></p>
162131		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1250 Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts</li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia </span>forests</li></ul>
162131		population	eng	The total population is around 1,000 individuals with a stable trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162131		threats	eng	The main threats described for this species are urbanisation, road construction, erosion and landslides and competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162132		conservation	eng	<em>Persicaria foliosa</em> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive, it is classed as Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) in Norway, Vulnerable B2ab(ii,iii,v)c(iv) in Sweden and Near Threatened in Finland.   It is categorized as Near Threatened in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/></st1:country-region><span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span> is a protected species in Sweden and is reported to occur on 26 Swedish Natura 2000 sites.<br/>Examples of measures implemented in Sweden over the period 2007-2011 are:<br/>• Gathering of knowledge through inventories; re-inventory of known localities where new (sub-)localities are searched for and an annual inventory of at least ten unmanaged pastureland localities spread across the country.<br/>• Grazing should take place at the localities that are grazed at present, and the number of grazed localities should increase by five by 2011.<br/>• New water regulation schemes should be guarded to make sure that conditions for the species do not worsen.<br/>• In the review of water rulings that affect localities where <span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span> is present or has been present, an adjustment should be made to the water regime to favour the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span>.<br/>• Landowners and users of localities where <span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span> is present should be informed by the county administrative boards concerned.<br/>• No general measures are required with regard to the coastal localities, other than monitoring how the localities develop.
162132		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria foliosa</em> occurs from Scandinavia east through Siberia to Japan and China. In Europe, it is restricted to Finland, Norway, Sweden, North and Northwest European Russia. A presence reported from Estonia is doubtful.
162132		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span> is annual and grows far down on shorelines. These areas of shoreline are flooded for a large part of the year. It grows in littoral mud, periodically inundated shores with pioneer and ephemeral vegetation and unvegetated or sparsely vegetated shores with soft or mobile sediments. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. foliosa</span> is an excellent indicator of well-developed alluvial  mud shore vegetation. The seeds of the species appear not to germinate until the growing sites have emerged from the water, which means that the number of plants is extremely variable from year to year depending on the level of water during the growing period. The number of plants found varies between one and more than 100,000 in the different localities. In around 10 of the localities at least 500 individuals have been encountered. In an almost equal number of localities no more than ten individuals have been recorded.<br/>Grazing by cattle is an important disturbance factor. Some disturbance is desirable at the sites where the plant grows and takes place in most of the localities, for example movement of the icecap can affect growing sites. The most important effect of grazing, or rather trampling, is to create gaps in the continuous plant cover and to rub away accumulated litter (Stridh 2008,   Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162132		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span> is principally known from Finland, Norway and Sweden. There is only sparse information attesting to the presence of the species outside the Nordic countries. Sweden probably has more than half the known localities in the world and therefore has great responsibility for the species (Stridh 2008).<br/><br/>Jonsell (2000) considers that populations throughout Norden are decreasing and locally extinct. In Russia, only a few locations have been recorded. Overall the sites are highly fragmented, extremely fluctuating and have declining populations. <br/><br/>In Sweden, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. foliosa</span> has been found in 141 localities since 1980 in the counties of Västra Götaland, Värmland, Örebro, Västmanland, Uppland, Gävleborg, Västernorrland, Västerbotten and Norrbotten. Fortytwo of the localities are found in the lowland bordering the Gulf of Bothnia, from Medelpad northward (Stridh 2008). The population count showed around 250,000 individuals.<br/> In Norway, it is found at a few rivers in the south - it is rare and has a very local distribution.<br/>In Estonia, the specimen found were probably misidentified.
162132		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. foliosa</span> has only been differentiated as a separate species for just over 100 years. During this time many localities alongside freshwater have been lost, with water regulation in connection with expansion of hydropower generation being the single factor that has had the greatest adverse impact. Reduced keeping of livestock on shorelines and overgrowth due to eutrophication are other reasons for the decline of the species. There is no proven trend with regard to the coastal localities, which is partly due to many of the localities having been found relatively recently. Changes in the water level in the Bay of Bothnia due to the combined effect of land uplift and climate change may affect how large an area of suitable habitat there will be for the species.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>To some extent grazing and trampling can also affect the lower limit of continuous  plant cover and consequently displace this zone slightly further up the  shoreline, which also benefits <span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria foliosa</span>. However, excessively  heavy trampling has an adverse effect as the level of disturbance  then becomes so great that the plants are trampled before they have  had time to fruit. At a handful of localities there is impact from  boat moorings, tractor driving or footpaths.
162134		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive   and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is also protected by national policies/laws (e.g. France, Sweden). It is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and Endangered in Spain (Moreno 2008), Germany (level 2) <a name="OLE_LINK3">(Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), and Sweden.</a><br/><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><br/>The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Czech Republic, Spain, UK). Some important populations are not protected and require conservation measures such as the Polish populations in Jeziora Wdzydzkie (Wdzydze Lakes), in <span style="font-style: italic;">Lobelia</span> lakes near Bobęcino, in Jezioro Krasne (Lake Krasne), and in Puszcza Drawska (Drawska Forest) are not covered. Silesian localities are also completely omitted.
162134		distribution	eng	<p><em>Luronium natans</em> is endemic to west and central Europe. The quality and coverage of data on its distribution and abundance varies throughout its range. The literature and a number of databases were reviewed, employing an approach described as ‘high dispute tolerance’ (IUCN 2001), which involves relying strictly on records that can be confirmed. Cook (1983) disregards records in Tutin <em>et al</em>. (1980) from Bulgaria, Italy and the former Yugoslavia. In addition, this review shows that in spite of claims to the contrary, there are and have been no confirmed records of <em>L.natans</em> for Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia (I. Jarolimek pers. comm. 2010), Slovenia, Austria (I. Bagi pers. comm. 2010) the Transcarpathian region of the Ukraine and Transylvania. These areas are therefore considered to be outside the natural range of the species. As a result of this review, the global range of <em>L. natans</em> has been revised. Based on confirmed records, its range can be described as extending from southern Norway and Sweden in the north, through the Republic of Ireland and France to northern Spain, east to Poland and the Czech Republic.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p>
162134		habitat	eng	The species can be found in and along a wide range of water bodies. In Sweden, for example, it inhabits shallow poor clear waters, small water bodies, sand, non-eutrophic water. In Spain, this small hydrophyte develops at the edges of pools and lakes as well as in dead-waters of streams and rivers. Sometimes it can create mono-specific communities, especially when it acts without competitors. Depending on the environment in which it develops (lotic or lentic) and the volume of water, it can appear with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea alba, Sparganium erectum, Isoetes velata, Pilularia globulifera </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Baldellia alpestris</span>. The populations are often fluctuating. When the plant acts as a pioneer species without competing with others, it can be very dense. When the number of species is balanced, the abundance of the species is less. The vegetative reproduction gains importance once the species has been well established (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Luronium natans</span> can be found in the following Habitats Directive habitats:<br/><ul><li>3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains</li><li>3120 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals generally on sandy soils of the West Mediterranean, with <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes</span> spp.</li><li>3130 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span></li><li>3140 Hard oligo-mesotrophic waters with benthic vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> spp.</li><li>3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Magnopotamion</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocharition</span> type vegetation</li><li>3160 Natural dystrophic lakes and ponds</li><li>3170 Mediterranean temporary ponds</li><li>3220 Alpine rivers and the herbaceous vegetation along their banks</li><li>3260 Water courses of plain to montane levels with the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculion fluitantis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Callitricho-Batrachion </span>vegetation</li><li>3270 Rivers with muddy banks with <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodion rubri</span> p.p. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidention</span> p.p. vegetation</li><li>3280 Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalo-Agrostidion</span> species and hanging curtains of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span></li><li>4010 Northern Atlantic wet heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span></li><li>4020 Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span></li><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>7120 Degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration</li><li>7130 Blanket bogs</li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li><li>91F0 Riparian mixed forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus laevis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus minor</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus angustifolia</span>, along the great rivers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmenion minoris</span>)</li></ul>
162134		population	eng	There are very few localities only in Scandinavia: two to three localities for Norway (one of which is a cluster of four lakes), three small localities in Sweden (20 km² occupied area) and three localities in Denmark.<br/>In Ireland it is known from two localities that are 500 m apart. It can be found at higher altitude (450 m) in the western UK (Wales) (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/>In Czech Republic, it is found in two pools of less than 1 km² (Natura 2000). In Poland, the species occurred in more than 100 localities in the past, now it inhabits no more than several tens of lakes in the Pomeranian Lake District. Two isolated localities were recorded in 2004 on Lower Silesia, in Żwirownia w Starej Olesznej (a gravel pit in Stara Oleszna) and in Starorzecze Potok in Nysa Łużycka River Valley, and in Zgorzelec-Osiecznica Forest. In Germany, there are around 115 localities and the species is common in the northwest.<br/>In France, it occurs everywhere except for the Mediterranean or the Alps, there are 416 localities in total. In the Netherlands, it is known from more than 100 sites. In the Iberian Peninsula, its population is confined to five areas that are very spread apart summing up to 13 known populations that are often fluctuating. In Galicia, where this species was considered extinct, recent localities have been found in A Terra Cha (Lugo) (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/>The populations are decreasing in Belgium, Germany, France, Netherlands, and Poland and stable in Sweden, Czech Republic and Spain   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162134		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are due to habitat destruction or degradation. Water and soil pollution due to the use of pesticides and fertilizers as well as eutrophication are leading to population reductions. One of the main threats is the change of hydrological regimes, be it canalization and the modification of water courses, management of water levels, drainage, management of bank vegetation. The filling of water bodies or removal of sediment affect the populations. Changes in agricultural practices, abandonment of pastoral systems as well as unfavourable forest management are threatening the species survival. Negative impacts come from aquaculture and from recreational activities such as fishing, nautical sports, walking, horseriding and non-motorised vehicles (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162136		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis hadrosoma</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is listed as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is included as Critically Endangered CR B2ab(iii); C2a(i); D on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs in the protected areas Paisaje Protegido de las Cumbres, SCI Hoya del Gamonal and Reserva Natural Especial de Los Marteles (Location Tenteniguada) and SAC Los Marteles. It is cultivated in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. There have been reintroductions of this species with some success in one of the subpopulations.<br/><br/>Population trends must be monitoring and research about parasitism on seeds and its consequences on reproductive success must be developed.
162136		distribution	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">This plant is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain (Santana and Naranjo<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004)</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is located in the central sector of the island, growing from 1,600 to 1,750 m asl. It occurs in five locations not far apart: <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">La Portillada, Roque Sardina, Roque Caído, Tenteniguada and El Salado<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> (I. Santana pers. comm. 2011). The area of occupancy has been estimated in 4 km².</span></span></span></p><p><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></p><p><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/></p><p><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></p>
162136		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species grows within rupicolous communities in cracks with poor soil and high levels of humidity (<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Santana and Naranjo</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> 2004). Most common accompanying plants include <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia aurea, Babcokia platylepis, Aeonium simsii, Tolpis lagopoda, Ranunculus cortusifolius, Hypericum grandifolium, Argyranthemum adauctum</span> ssp. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis dasignaphala.<br/><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Its propagation is primarily vegetative. <span title="Sus frutos se encuentran">Its fruits are infested by the parasite of the larva of the endemic diptera <span style="font-style: italic;">Oedosphenella canariensis</span> which could cause the low germination rates observed. It spreads easily from cuttings and <span style="font-style: italic;">in vitro </span>cultivation.<br/><br/>It is a long-lived plant with very low recruitment (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).</span></span>
162136		population	eng	Total population size has been reported to be 15 individuals: 2 in Tenteniguada; 4 in Roque Sardina (one has been introduced); 1 in Roque Caído; 2 in El Salado and 6 in La Portillada (I. Santana pers. comm. 2011). These individuals presumably survive through vegetative propagation (<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Santana and Naranjo 2004). Very low or no signs of sexual reproduction have been reported (Gobierno de Canarias 2004) and decreasing population trends are inferred for the species.<span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span title="El área de"></span>
162136		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">The main threat to this species is its extremely low number of specimens (<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Santana and Naranjo</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> 2004). P<span title="El parasitismo">arasitism negatively affect the seeds and therefore the regeneration of this species.</span>
162137		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga florulenta</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/>In France, it is protected at national level and classed as Vulnerable (VU) D2 on the national red list (Valentin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Most of the localities are in the Mercantour National Park and the Park of Argentera.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation of this species has proven to be difficult (Bensettiti <em>et al.</em> 2002).
162137		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France and Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In Italy, the species occurs on both sides of the Maritime Alps which are protected areas and therefore the species grows under a high level of protection   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The are 80 known localities of this plant in Italy.<br/></p>
162137		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows in rock fissures and is characteristic of the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162137		population	eng	This total population size in Italy is less than 1,000 mature individuals but the trend is stable to increasing. In France, it occurs in seven localities in hardly accessible habitat with no direct threats and the species is common there. Fluctuations in the number of individuals have been noted in France.
162137		threats	eng	In France, the habitat of the species is stable and there are virtually no threats as the populations are in very remote places. There are no threats known from Italy.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162138		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus fernandesii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and legally protected in Portugal. It is recommended to protect the species from habitat loss due to urbanisation, to study the impacts of grazing, and to carry out species recovery measures. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation of the seeds should be put in place (ICN 2006).
162138		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus fernandesii</span> is endemic to Portugal where it is restricted to the coast between Sesimbra and Cabo Espichel. It has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km² and an extent of occurrence of 52 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162138		habitat	eng	This plant is ecologically very specialized. It forms clusters in crevices of limestone outcrops and unstable substrates along the dolomitic limestone cliffs formed in the Jurassic. It prefers a south and east exposure, and is even found in abrupt overhanging cliffs, but it also requires shelter. It sometimes occurs in vegetation thickets and acts as a climber (ICN 2006).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5320 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus nobilis</span></li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation.</li></ul>
162138		population	eng	The populations can be separated from tens of metres to several kilometres and are generally composed of a few individuals. This plant is rare because it is only found where its specific habitat requirements are met and this also reduces its possibilities of expansion. The population trend is unknown.
162138		threats	eng	The main threat is the potential expansion of the urbanised areas in Serra da Azóia, Aldeia Nova, Pinheirinhos and Pedreira do Cavalo which could lead to further habitat loss along the coast. It is possible that significant reductions in the past were caused by grazing goats and fires but there is no actual data to confirm this hypothesis. Trampling could pose a problem but most of the populations are now in areas inaccessible to humans (ICN 2006).
162139		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrocarpa</span> is listed as a priority species in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and in Annex I of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and  natural habitats (Bern Convention). The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>It has been assessed as Critically Endangered at national level   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and was reported by the <span style="background-color: white;">Commission of the European Communities (2009) </span>to have poor prospects (the species is likely to struggle unless conditions change).<br/><br/>It occurs in three Natura 2000 sites: Isola di Marettimo, Isola di Favignana and Arcipelago delle Egadi – area marina e terrestre (European Environment Agency 2010). Genetic analysis using SSRs from both populations is being carried out to plan for the establishment of a genetic reserve.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrocarpa</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A full review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
162139		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrocarpa</span> is restricted to two small islands in the Egadi archipelago (Favignana and Marettimo), located off the west coast of Sicily (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990, Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). At the beginning of the last century it was also present on Levanzo but it has now disappeared from this island (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).<br/>Its extent of occurrence (EOO0 is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
162139		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It grows on limestone cliffs and rocky slopes close to the sea (Snogerup </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 1990, Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The altitudinal range is 0–300 m asl (Museum National d’Histoire  Naturelle/European Topic Centre on  Biological  Diversity and  Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest  2006)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span>
162139		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded three subpopulations ranging in size between 101–500 and >1,000 individuals. According to the <span style="background-color: white;">Museum National d’Histoire  Naturelle/European Topic Centre on  Biological  Diversity and  Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest  (2006</span><span style="background-color: white;">), the subpopulation on Favignana comprises 750 individuals, while on Marettimo it occurs at three localities and the subpopulation comprises less than 500 individuals</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. The subpopulation on the island of Levanzo is now extinct but the remaining two sub</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">populations were reported to be <span style="background-color: white;">stable in the period 2004–2005 (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and are currently stable though at risk of fragmentation. Grazing pressure is causing a decrease in the number of new recruitments to the population.</span><br/></span></span></span></span>
162139		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The main threats are </span><span style="background-color: white;">grazing (which </span><span style="background-color: white;">is causing a reduction in the number of new recruitments to the population each year), </span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">reforestation, construction of holiday resorts and associated improvements to the road infrastructure</span><span style="background-color: white;">. Trampling due to improved access to the sites was also reported by Pignatti </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. (2001) and the Commission of the European Communities (2009). Reforestation activities undertaken 20 years ago have also impacted negatively on the habitat of this species. Fire is a further threat reported by the Museum National d’Histoire  Naturelle/European Topic Centre on  Biological  Diversity and  Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest  (2006).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span>
162140		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain. It is listed VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p><p>Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of E.T.S.Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid and Jardín Botánico de Córdoba.<br/></p>
162140		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus weyleri</span> is endemic to Mallorca, Balearic Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Its area of occupancy has been estimated at 3 km². It is present in two locations: north of Puig Mayor and in Serra de Llevant.&#160;</a></p><p></p>
162140		habitat	eng	<p>This  hemicryptophyte grows in cracks in shady calcareous rocky sites.&#160; <br/></p>
162140		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population has 500 individuals with an unknown trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162140		threats	eng	Grazing, burning and collection are the main threats to the species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162141		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris marsica</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162141		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy and found in the provinces of Abruzzo and Molise</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  <span style="font-style: italic;">Iris marsica </span>covers a geographic range of 4,083 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162141		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6210 "Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162141		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 12 localities with a stable population trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162141		threats	eng	Its collection has been described as an important threat for this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162142		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba cacuminum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>In Sweden it is classed as Vulnerable D1 on the national Red List and is protected under national law (Gärdenfors 2010). In Norway, it is classed as Endangered B2a(i)b(ii,iii,iv,v)c(iv,v) on the national red list (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162142		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba cacuminum </span>is endemic to Sweden and Norway. In Sweden, the extent of occurrence is 4,500 km² and the area of occupancy is 48 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162142		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba cacuminum</span> is a small (1-8 cm height), extremely slow growing, perennial plant. This species grows in basic and ultra-basic inland cliffs, almost bare rock pavements, including limestone pavements, weathered rocks and outcrop habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is thought to be a top specialist growing on the tops of mountains, but not exclusively. It prefers very barren habitat.
162142		population	eng	The population has been estimated in 300 mature individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) but this number might be widely underestimated (S. Ericsson pers. comm. 2010). The species is found in a few patches only and is very rare. The population trend is stable.<br/>It is found in six isolated areas over its range and is severely fragmented in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162142		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species as it is found in areas with no human pressure.
162143		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus lumnitzeri</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. <br/>In Slovakia and Austria, it is protected and classed as Vulnerable in the national red lists. It occurs in many nature reserves and four areas of European importance (89% of localities) in Slovakia and is also found in protected areas in Austria. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is carried out by the University of Vienna. In the Czech Republic, it is listed as Endangered, is protected, and found in sites of community importance and protected areas. It is also strictly protected in Hungary, but classed as Data Deficient. All the Hungarian localities are in Natura 2000 sites and protected areas. <br/>Taxonomic research to determine its status of species or subspecies is underway.
162143		distribution	eng	This species is a pre-Carpathian subendemic and native to Slovakia, Czech Republic, Austria and Hungary. Total geographic range is 1,194 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Slovakia, 46 sites are recorded (Polák and Saxa 2005), 12 of them were selected for monitoring in five year intervals. The pure type is supposed to occur only at the <span style="font-style: italic;">locus classicus</span> (Devin castle rock near Bratislava). There are about 20 microlocalities in the Malé Karpaty Mts.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic, it is found at four sublocalities. In Austria, it occurs only in Hainburger Berge, where it is quite common. The information for Hungary is for <span style="font-style: italic;">D. plumarius</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">regis-stephani</span>, but there is no data for the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lumnitzeri</span>.
162143		habitat	eng	This plant grows in tufts and usually occurs on rock-outcrop vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca pallens</span>, narrow-leaved dry grasslands, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria</span> grasslands, shallow rock soils on limestone in hilly areas. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>8160 Medio-European calcareous scree of hill and montane levels</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162143		population	eng	The overall population size is stable.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, the populations are stable at most places. According to Polák and Saxa (2005) most of the localities have hundreds of individuals, on only seven sites there are less than 50 individuals. In Czech Republic, there are less than 300 individuals with a stable trend. There are two localities where it was planted. In Hungary, it is found in five small regions but there is no actual data about this species. The populations have a stable trend in Austria.
162143		threats	eng	There are a few threats affecting this plant. Small scale collection from the wild for horticultural use is minimising the number of individuals. Invasive species, closing of the tree canopy, high numbers of game species, and recreational activities impact this plant. Forestation with pine poses a threat at some sites. Natural succession in steppic grassland communities leads to increased competition.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162147		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. insularis</span> is listed in <span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><br/>The national threat and conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">insularis</span> <span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">has been recorded as follows:<br/><ul><li>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) as Vulnerable (V) in Corsica and Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk) in Sardinia.</li><li><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Italy: Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"></span></li><li><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip">Listed in Annex 1 of the Protection Nationale Française statute   <span class="tooltip">(Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010</span><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">).</span></span></span></li><li><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Listed in Annex I.1 (priority species) of the Livre Rouge de la Flore Menacée de France (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).</span></span></li></ul><span style="background-color: white;">The Commission of the European Communities (2009)</span><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"> list five Natura 2000 sites in France and 23 in Italy in which this species occurs.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 33 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. insularis</span> held in European genebanks, 20 of which originate from within Europe (nine from France and 11 from Italy) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><span id="__autoId1" title="" class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162147		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. insularis</span> is native to Sardinia (14 localities), Corsica (eight localities), Pantelleria, Sicily (one locality), Algeria and Tunisia (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). According to Association Tela Botanica (2000–2010) it is also found in the mainland department of   Bouches-du-Rhône. However, it may be introduced here.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) in Corsica was reported to be 1,213 km<sup>2</sup> in 2006 and the range trend increased during the period 1990–2006, while in Sardinia, the EOO was reported to be 24,211 km<sup>2</sup> in 2006 and the range trend was stable during the period 1960–2006 (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It can be found from sea level to 1,200 m asl and along a great part of Sardinia's coastline   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
162147		habitat	eng	Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) note that this species grows on limestone cliffs and rarely on porphyr or basaltic rock, usually in open, sunny places. The authors also note that individuals can sometimes be found growing below the cliffs and that it occurs on rocky limestone islets off the coast of Sardinia in open vegetation.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> The habitat trend in Corsica has been reported to be increasing <span style="background-color: white;">(Commission of the European Communities 2009)</span>.
162147		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded 17 subpopulations of this species—the population size varied between 1–10 plants (two subpopulations) and >1000 plants (three subpopulations). The population trend is stable in Sardinia and it is considered to have good prospects (the species is expected to survive and prosper) in both Corsica and Sardinia (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sicily it is very rare and the population is believed to be decreasing.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Overall, the population trend is stable.</span></span>
162147		threats	eng	<p>In Sicily, grazing is thought to be the major threat. Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) noted grazing and pressure from tourism to be threats in Sardinia. However, many of the sites where the species grows are inaccessible.</p><p><span style="background-color: white;">The Commission of the European Communities (2009) reported the following threats in Corsica:</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Main threats</span><br/></p><ul><li>Abandonment of pastoral systems.</li><li>Roads, motorways.</li><li>Mountaineering, rock climbing, speleology.</li></ul><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Other threats</span><br/><ul><li>Other leisure and tourism impacts not referred to above.</li><li>Trampling, overuse.</li><li>Modification of hydrographic functioning.<br/></li><li>Erosion.</li><li>Fire (natural).</li><li>Genetic pollution.</li></ul><p>    </p><p><br/></p><br/><p></p>
162148		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physoplexis comosa</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/><br/>The species is not classed as threatened on any of the national red lists. In Italy, it is classed as Lower Risk and in Slovenia, it is protected. It can be found in Natura 2000 sites and national parks throughout its range. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation of seeds takes place in the Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Italy.<br/><br/>No conservation measures are needed for this species.
162148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physoplexis comosa </span>is native to Austria, Italy and Slovenia   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) where it grows from 300 to 2,000 m altitude.      Its range for Italy, Austria and Slovenia is 21,578 km² from which 21,183 km² belong to Italy (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km². This plant is difficult to find.
162148		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physoplexis comosa</span> grows on humid and shady calcareous rocks. It is characteristic for the Habitats Directive listed habitats 8210 "Calcareous rocks with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).     <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162148		population	eng	In Austria, there are five to 50 individuals at one or two locations only. In Italy, the species has been found at 170 localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Approximately 50 localities have been counted in Slovenia. The overall population trend is stable.
162148		threats	eng	Potential threats are global warming, rock climbing in its habitat, and collection by botanists.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162149		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis brevibracteata</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Three subpopulations are located on proposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Natura 2000</span> sites. It is listed as Vulnerable C2a(i) on the Cyprus Red List (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).
162149		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis brevibracteata</span> is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). The number of locations where the species can be found is 16 with a presence confirmed at 14  of them (Commission of the European Communities, 2009). In Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007),&#160; it is reported that the species can be found at 13 locations: Oreites, Kato Archimandrita, Alassa dam, Trimiklini-Laneia, Asgata-Pentakomo, Lefkara-Kato Drys, Agios Theodoros Larnakas, Akanthou, Flamoudi, Kantara-Gerani-Davlos, Ardana, Mandres Ammochostou, and Panagra.<br/></p><p>Its extent of occurrence is 495 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </p>
162149		habitat	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis brevibracteata</span> is a </a>lax shrub up to 1.5 m high that occurs in low maquis, on limestone. Its presence has been reported in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5420 <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarcopoterium spinosum</span> phryganas</li><li>9290 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cupressus </span>forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acero-Cupression</span>)</li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia </span>forests</li><li>9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines</li></ul>
162149		population	eng	Population has been reported to be around 5,000 individuals. The total population has never been estimated with accuracy. The plants were counted in part of the locations, only once at each location and therefore it is not possible to estimate a population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Population size has been also reported to be 2,900-3,200 individuals (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).
162149		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss due to the expansion of urban areas, road construction and improvement and fires. Some subpopulations have already been partly destroyed or damaged as a result of these activities (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).
162150		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onopordum carduelinum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is classed CR B2ab(iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Reserva Natural Especial Los Marteles (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Natural population reinforcement measures should be developed, as well as reintroduction actions. Seeds have to be stored in germplasm banks and specimens should be grown in botanical gardens. Goats should be eradicated in the distribution range of the species. Research about its reproductive biology should be developed.
162150		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found only in the central-eastern part of the island (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Since its rediscovery it has not been seen in its <span style="font-style: italic;">locus classicus</span> of  Roque Grande in Rincón de Tenteniguada. Currently it is only  known from the area  close to Caldera de Los Mateles. Populations mentioned in Guayedra and Agaete have not been seen again for decades, nor the closest ones to the Base of Roque Grande, Tenteniguada, from which it  may have disappeared due to the closure of the clearings in a  <span title="de los claros del matorral de Teline"> <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline microphylla </span>shrubland because of abandonment of grazing activities. The area of occupancy is 4 km².</span>
162150		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Característica de las"><span title="ruderal-nitrófilas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Característica de las"><span title="ruderal-nitrófilas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Onopordum carduelinum</span> is a tuberous<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Característica de las"><span title="ruderal-nitrófilas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> geophyte, hermaphrodite, and its main pollination vector are insects. It grows in open areas in scrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromerio-Telinetum microphyllae</span>. It is characteristic of thermo-Mediterranean communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Onopordenea acanthi</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Carthametalia lanati. </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Característica de las"><span title="ruderal-nitrófilas.">Frequent accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia regis-jubae, Sonchus acaulis, Erysimum scoparium, Teline microphylla, Cynara cardunculus, Marubium vulgare, Carduus tenuiflorus, Galactites tomentosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria benthamii.</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Característica de las"><span title="ruderal-nitrófilas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Característica de las"><span title="ruderal-nitrófilas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En su"><span title="En ensayos de germinación"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162150		population	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="juvenil.">It has been estimated that the population counts 1,599 individuals (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">The population is well structured, with high recruitment of young individuals observed. <span title="juvenil.">There is only one subpopulation that lies in a ridge between two ravines. <br/></span></span></p>
162150		threats	eng	Trampling and predation by grazing species are the main threats to this species (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Other threats are droughts, interspecific competition and predation of floral stems by ants. The population is crossed by a road.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162152		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis lemanniana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Its habitat is under protection in the Parque Natural da Madeira (Buord and Lesouëf 2006) and in the Natura Network 2000 (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
162152		distribution	eng	<em>A. lemanniana</em> is endemic to Madeira, Portugal. This species occurs between Serra de Agua, Pico Ruivo and Pico do Areiero (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
162152		habitat	eng	This species is a rare plant growing in rocks out of reach of introduced grazing mammals such as rabbits or goats (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). It is a small perennial herb of 15-40 cm height, with pink, red and cram flowers.
162152		population	eng	The total population counts 1,000 individuals, with an increasing population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, the main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
162152		threats	eng	The main threat climate change (Buord and Lesouëf 2006) and fires (J.A. Carvalho, unpublished data). Further potential threats reported are collection of the plant, and natural catastrophes such as collapse of the terrain (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There was a major fire in the Central Mountain Massif in summer 2010.
162153		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria humifusa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened on the national red list (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected by law.<br/>In Norway, it is also classed as Near Threatened, approaching Criteria A4c; B1a(ii)b(iii)+2a(ii)b(iii) on the national red list and in Svalbard as Vulnerable D1+D2 (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162153		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria humifusa</span> extends from North America, Greenland to northern Europe. It is found in Sweden, Svalbard, Northern European Russia and Norway, where it hosts the most populations. In Sweden, the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 2,556 km² and 52 km² respectively. In Svalbard, it occurs at a few sites in Spitzbergen with an area of occupancy of less than 20 km². In Norway the area of occupancy is less than 500 km². In Russia, it is found in the Rybachij peninsula.
162153		habitat	eng	The species has very special ecological demands and is only found on basic and ultra-basic scree and rocks in the alpine zone. It grows in open and often damp clay soil and snow patches (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Artsdatabanken 2010). The plant is difficult to identify and to find in nature. Little information is available about it.
162153		population	eng	The populations in Sweden count 2,000-5,000 mature individuals with a very stable population trend. The localities are very fragmented and isolated as it is only found on ultra-basic rocks and this is a scarce habitat. There are 15 localities in total (ArtDatabanken 2010)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Norway, 17 occurrences scattered in five separate areas have been reported from northern Norway. The sites are small and vulnerable especially to temperature rise and overgrowth because they grow in open and often damp clay soil and snow patches. A population decline of 15-30% is expected for the near future. In Svalbard the whole population is smaller than 1,000 individuals (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/></span>No information for Russia available.
162153		threats	eng	There have been no threats recorded for Sweden, as species is found in remote areas with no human pressure. The only potential future threat could be mining of the rocks. In Norway, climate change and the rise of temperatures has been identified as a future threat that will lead to habitat degradation (Artsdatabanken 2010). However, climate change will probably have very little impact on the Swedish sites as the ultra-basic rocks and screes are very unfriendly for other species and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. humifusa</span> is nearly the only vascular plant growing in the sites. Most scenarios for climate change will instead improve the situation for the species (M. Aronsson pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>There is no information for Russia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162154		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria neglecta</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal and the investigation to determine whether this species is still present should continue. There are also taxonomic uncertainties around its status and this should be investigated and clarified.
162154		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species from Portugal and was reported from around Beja. <span class="tooltip">
162154		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria neglecta</span> is a perennial, creeping plant that flowers from April to May. It was described from shrubland on siliceous soils, from 200 to 300 m asl.
162154		population	eng	No individuals have been found or recorded, it is believed to be extinct   <span class="tooltip"> (ICN 2006).
162154		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
162155		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calendula maderensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162155		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calendula maderensis</span> is an endemic species to Madeira, Portugal. The extent of occurrence is 454 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162155		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calendula maderensis</span> has been found among native flora of the Macaronesian coast as part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemo suculenti-Calendulion maderensis</span> association   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162155		population	eng	Approximately 1,000 individuals have been recorded in Madeira with a stable population trend.
162155		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, but it can be affected by urbanisation, road construction, natural catastrophes such as landslides, and competition with native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162156		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne arbuscula</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Endangered in Slovakia and occurs in two protected areas (SACs) including 100% of the population (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162156		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne arbuscula </span>is endemic to Slovakia, where it is found in the Muránska planina Plateau. In the past it was more widely distributed, but nowadays only occurs in an area of around 95 km² (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162156		habitat	eng	This plant is an evergreen shrub that grows on rock escarpments, edges, crests, terraces, sometimes scree, on limestone and dolomite substrate, from 590 to 1,330 m asl. It prefers southerly exposed open or little shaded slopes, but is also frequent on northern slopes and more rarely in relict pine forests (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>It occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>91Q0 Western Carpathian calcicolous <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> forests</li></ul>
162156		population	eng	There are around 35 localities with a population size from 10 to 500 individuals (shrubs). The population has a stable trend (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). The total population has been estimated to be 5,000 to 5,700 tufts    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162156		threats	eng	The main threats are collecting of the plants, droughts, and air pollution. The latter threats weaken the plants and make them more vulnerable to pests (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). Recreational activities such as mountaineering and rock climbing could also affect this plant (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162157		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga valdensis</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and&#160;is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/>In France, the species is under national protection and is assessed as Vulnerable D2 (Valentin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Two localities are included in the Vanoise National Park and in another protected area.
162157		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the alpine region between France and Italy</a> where it is found in the regions Hautes-Alpes, Savoie and west Piemont. The area of occupancy is around 20 km².<br/></p>
162157		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>          This perennial plant occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands </li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation </li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>  <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162157		population	eng	In France, this plant has been recorded in ten localities in five communes. Fifty to 100 individuals have been counted in three localities and it can be suspected that there are more than 1,000 mature individuals in total. No declines in habitat and population size has been noted. In Italy, it is only present in one locality   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162157		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">  The main threats are infrastructure development for tourism such as skiing complexes, recreational activities such as mountaineering and rock climbing. Furthermore, the habitat faces local threats such as quarries, trampling and grazing, and natural disasters such as landslides. Collection of the plant poses a further threat (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162158		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species. It is included as "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogues of threatened species of Madrid and Castilla-La Mancha. It is listed as EN B2ab(v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p>In Castilla-La Mancha, this species has a passed conservation plan and the reserve Microreserva de los Cerros Volcánicos de La Miñosa has been created to preserve its population. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid.
162158		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erodium paularense </span>is endemic to central Spain. It occurs in Madrid in Valle de Lozoya and in the province of Guadalajara (Castilla-La Mancha) it can be found between the Sierra del Alto Rey and the Sierra del Bulejo. Its presence has been reported in five locations and its AOO has been reported to be 5 km²<sup></sup> (Albert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/>More subpopulations have been found in Soria (Castilla y León) and Zaragoza (Aragón), which have to be studied (J.C. Moreno Saiz pers. comm. 2011).
162158		habitat	eng	This species can be a dominant species in some dolomitic outcrops of silicieous landscapes from the Guadarrama mountain range. It grows in crevices and cavities of dolomitic rocks. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. paularense </span>can coexist with <span style="font-style: italic;">Chaenorrhinum origanifolium</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">origanifolium,</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> Asplenium ruta-muraria, A. trichomanes</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pachyrachi</span>s, <span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia vulgaris, Helianthemum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> oelandicum</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> incanum, Seseli montanum</span>.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/>In Guadalajara it occupies somewhat less than 200,000 m²<sup></sup><span title="rocosas y suelos muy poco evolucionados sobre"><span title="afloramientos de andesitas.">. Among the species that accompanies it, are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione montana, Leucanthemopsis pallida, Sedum amplexicaule</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">amplexicaule</span> or<span style="font-style: italic;"> Fumana procumben</span>s.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a hermaphrodite plant, partially self-compatible, and generally insect-pollinated. <span title="Frutos"><span title="Los individuos son">Individuals are reproductive from the basal rosette and reach a diameter of 4-6 cm. <span title="Presenta una">There is a low production of seeds per plant. <span title="Un elevado">A high percentage of seeds is preyed upon by ants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Messor capitatus).</span> <span title="El pastoreo">Grazing by sheep and cattle also eliminates part of the reproductive potential.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="La aparición">The appearance of seedlings varies yearly, but is generally low. <span title="Las">The mature plants produce, on average, 68 flowers, 11 nuts and four seeds per plant.&#160;<span title="por fruto)."></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162158		population	eng	It is known from seven subpopulations. Surveys determined a population of 86,200 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and 210,650 individuals (Albert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). More recently total population size has been estimated in 211,350 individuals (Iriondo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="rocosas y suelos muy poco evolucionados sobre"><span title="afloramientos de andesitas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Frutos"><span title="Los individuos son"><span title="Presenta una"><span title="Un elevado"><span title="El pastoreo"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La aparición"><span title="Las"><span title="por fruto).">The most important factor conditioning population growth is survival of reproductive individuals, especially the ones with bigger size. The populations show a slightly declining trend caused mainly by stochastic events. </span></span></span></span></span></span>
162158		threats	eng	Predation, grazing, quarries and, in less extent, road development   are the main threats. Ants are a significant problem for seeds. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de semillas."><span title="localidades.">Collection by humans and habitat destruction are also significant problems.</span>
162159		conservation	eng	Listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The population is included in protected area Parque Nacional de <span title="Nacional de">Sierra Nevada (SCI). An action recovery plan is been promoted that incorporates monitoring. There are seeds in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz and Banco de Germoplasma de Sierra Nevada.</span>
162159		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erodium astragaloides </span>is endemic to  the northwestern sector of Sierra Nevada, Granada, south of Spain (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its presence has been reported in more areas, but it could be a different species. Its AOO is 1 km².
162159		habitat	eng	This species can grow in sparse grasslands on less developed rocky-sandy dolomitic soils. Associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus phoenicea (Rhamno myrtifolii-Junipereto</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">phoeniceae S.)</span>, as part of communities which are rich in endemic species. It coexists with <span style="font-style: italic;">Santolina elegans, Rothmaleria granatensis, Helianthemum pannosum, Silene boryi, Convolvulus boissieri, Scabiosa pulsatilloides </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pulsatilloides, Anthyllis tejedensis, Centaurea boissieri</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">funkii, Trisetum velutinum, Thymus granatensis, Armeria filicaulis </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> trevenqueana </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Saxifraga erioblasta.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="Los estigmas"><span title="la polinización cruzada."><br/><span title="de girar sobre su eje cuando se humedece,"><span title="facilitando el enterramiento de los mismos."><span title="La"></span></span></span>
162159		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">There is only one population, the specific habitat requirements prevent this species to expand its range. Population has been estimated as 12,293 individuals.&#160;<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="más amplia."></span>
162159		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are grazing pressure, very reduced ecological plasticity and lack of adequate habitat. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Drought and erosion are significant threats, especially due to the specificity of the habitat.<br/><br/><span title="El hábitat es muy específico,"></span>
162161		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia maderensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural<br/>Habitats (Bern Convention). Its area is included in Madeira Natural Park and in a Natura 2000 site.
162161		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia maderensis</span> is a graminoid endemic to Madeira islands being restricted to the central mountain ridge (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 294 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162161		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6180 "Macaronesian mesophile grasslands"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162161		population	eng	This species can be found in ten localities but no numbers of individuals have been provided   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
162161		threats	eng	A major fire in summer 2010 might have affected the species. Further threats reported are recreational activities, erosion and landslides (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162162		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía.<br/><br/>Some of the subpopulations occur within the protected areas Parque Natural de Cabo de Gata-Níjar and Paraje Natural de Sierra de Alhamilla.
162162		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the southeast of the province of Almería (Andalucía, Spain) (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), where it occurs between 0 and 450 m asl (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). <br/></p>
162162		habitat	eng	<p>This perennial plant occurs within xerophytic, thermophyle and heliophile chamaephyte communities and shrublands, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllido-Salsolion genistoidis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo almeriensis-Siderition pusillae</span>. It can also occur within rupicolous communities. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Anabasis articulata</span><span style="font-style: italic;">, Limonium insignis,Ifloga spicata, Frankenia laevis</span><span style="font-style: italic;">, Lavandula multifida, Lycium intricatum, Dianthus charidemi, Lapiedra martinezii, Salsola genistoides, Salsola papillosa, Thymus hyemalis, Phlomis almeriensis, Helianthemum violaceum, Sideritis osteoxylla, Lavatera maritima, Asteriscus maritimus, Caralluma europaea </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lobularia maritima</span>.<br/></p>
162162		population	eng	<p>Increasing population trends have been reported for the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p>
162162		threats	eng	Threats to this species are land use changes due to urbanisation, agriculture and silviculture, mining, ethnobotanic use of plants occurring along with this species and recurrent fires (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Grazing has been also reported as a threat (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
162163		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aster sorrentinii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162163		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sicily, Italy where it is found at nine localities. The extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km².
162163		habitat	eng	It grows in humid grasslands on clay soils.
162163		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aster sorrentini </span>has been recorded in nine localities within Sicily. The populations have a stable trend, but are severely fragmented and count less than 250 individuals in total.
162163		threats	eng	Main threats are vandalism and grazing (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162164		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus carnosus</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed as CR B1ab(ii,iii,v)+2ab(ii,iii,v) in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is legally protected in Portugal.<br/></p><p>Most of the populations occur within protected areas: Paraje Natural de los Enebrales de Punta Umbría, Paraje Natural Marismas del Río Piedras y Flecha del Rompido, Reserva Natural Laguna de El Portil, Parque Natural de las Marismas del Odiel. <br/></p><p>Proposed measures include population monitoring, regulate access to the coast and urban expansion, and expansion of protected areas.<br/></p><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162164		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula</a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Bañares<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010), being present in Spain and Portugal (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Portugal it is found from the south of Lisboa to Vila Real de Santo António (regions of Extremadura, Baixo Alentejo and Algarve). In Spain, it only occurs in the coast of Huelva, from the Odiel river to the Guadiana.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span></p><p>In Spain, it is distributed into five locations, with an area of occupancy of 15 km². Decreasing trends have been observed in its area of occupancy.</p><p>In Portugal, range trend magnitude is 61 km² (ICNB 2007). Decreasing trends have been reported for its distribution (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p>
162164		habitat	eng	In Portugal, it occurs in fixed or semi-fixed coastal dunes and is sensitive to habitat alterations. This species is characteristic of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio crithmifoliae-Armerietum pungentis</span> (ICN 2006). In Spain, this shrub also colonizes slopes of coastal dunes. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Retama monosperma, Helichrysum picardii, Ammophila arenaria, Crucianella maritima, Malcolmia littorea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pancratium maritimum</span>. It is mainly present in coastal stable dune grassland (grey dunes) and grows in Habitats Directive listed habitat 2130 "Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162164		population	eng	In Portugal, populations is in decline and the species has already disappeared from a few beaches (ICN 2006). Population size has been estimated in 10,000 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain, total population size has been estimated in 198,432 individuals and decreasing population trends have been observed (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  In 2008 the species was re-introduced to the location Isla Cristina,  where it was extinct and within the protected area Paraje Natural de las  Marismas del Odiel.
162164		threats	eng	In Portugal, main threats to the species are   pressure from expanding tourism, trampling by pedestrians and by vehicles outside marked roads, and garbage disposal that lead to habitat degradation. Competition with invasive species further affects this plants (ICN 2006).<br/><br/>In Spain, main threats to this species are habitat reduction and degradation due to urbanisation and high presence of visitors during the summer season, when flowering and fructification are occurring (Bañares<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). Predation by goats has been also reported as a threat.
162165		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendrum luteum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>It is included in the Polish Red Data Book (2001) as Critically Endangered and is protected in the Kolanezania reserve. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is underway in the reserves Parkowe, Nibieskie Srodla, and in the forest inspectorate Rudka. It is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable D2 and is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81. Part of its populations fall within a Natura 2000 site (Bazos and Yannitsaros in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/>In Belarus, it is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book (2005) and is protected in the Prypjatskij national park, in two nature monuments.<br/>In the Ukraine, plant communities with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron luteum</span> are included in the Green Book of Ukraine (2009), a book of rare, threatened and typical plant communities, who are the subject of protection. It is protected in the Poliskij and Rivnenkij reserves, in the Nadsluczanskij regional landscape park, in the Gorodnickij and Sloveczanskij reserves in the Ukraine. The main problem here is how to protect the small and isolated populations in the Ukraine. In Austria, the one existing plant in Carinthia (Lendorf, Drautal) is protected and has natural monument status (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162165		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron luteum</span> has a disjunctive range that includes the Caucasus, Asia Minor which presents the main part of its range, and some localities in Europe. The largest European locality is in Polesia, in the Ukrainian regions of Rivnenska and Zitomyrska, and measures 15,000 km². Around this area additional small and isolated localities can be found. There are six small localities in the Gomelska region in southern Belarus. A single Polish isolated locality is in the vicinity of the village Wola Zarczycka, near Lezajsk in the southeastern part of the country. Furthermore, isolated localities are found in the Alps in Austria and Slovenia and in the Greek East Aegean Island of Lesvos. In Austria, the species is not native and has a local distribution. <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162165		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron luteum</span> is a shrub with an average height of 2 m but reaching up to 3.5 m. It is strongly branched and numerous offshoots grow from shallow roots proliferating in the soil.<br/>It is found in podsol, loamy or sandy-loamy skeleton soils above rocks such as granite, gneiss, sandstone or in fluvio-glacial deposits. A strong acidification of the substrate is characteristic for these soils and the pH is lower than 4. This species prefers streambanks, streambeds and stony but humid places.<br/>In the Polesian lowland in the Ukraine and Belarus, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron luteum</span> grows in pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nigra)</span>, oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span>) and mixed oak-pine forests. It is also found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span> forests in Greece, on stream banks and on volcanic substrates (Bazos and Yannitsaros in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162165		population	eng	In the Ukraine, the number of individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron luteum</span> is sufficiently high. Despite a high seed production in some years, seedlings are very rare in the Ukrainian populations and large clones with vegetative propagations prevail in the populations.<br/>In Poland, 140 to 150 individuals have been recorded with an increasing population trend. In Slovenia, there are between 500 and 1,000 individuals and the populations are stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Austria, there is one individual known in Lendorf, Kärnten (Carinthia) and a few more in lower Austria and Styria. <br/>In Greece, it is found on the western part of Lesvos in a small area surrounded by the villages of Pterounda, Vatoussa, Anemotia, Parakila and Chidira. The extent of occurrence in Greece is 40 km² (Bazos and Yannitsaros in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162165		threats	eng	<p>In the Ukraine, there is no threat for the biggest population in Polesia. The surrounding smaller populations are affected by inadequate forestry management.</p>  In Poland, burning and sand or gravel extraction have been described as threats. In Slovenia, recreational activities as well as forest clearance are impacting the populations (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162166		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.</span> <span style="background-color: white;">It is listed as CR B2ab(ii,iii,v)   in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). </span><br/><br/>Its populations occur in the protected area Parque Rural de Teno (SCI) (Acevedo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), but not the totality of the individuals are included. Seeds are stored in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include the storage of seeds from every subpopulation in germplasm banks, eradication of grazing species, and expansion of the existing restricted use area ("zona de uso restringido") of the protected area, from Barranco de Masca to Barranco del Jurado so every specimen would be included. Research about its reproductive biology should be developed and control plots should be established in order to analyse its population trends. Research about its genetics should be developed in order to implement reintroduction actions.
162166		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium spectabile</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain,</st1:country-region></st1:place> where it can be found between 5 and 400 m asl in Teno. It appears restricted to three localities: Guergue, La Fortaleza and Barranco Seco. Its area of occupancy is 3 km² (Acevedo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Regressive patterns have been reported for its distribution.<br/></p>
162166		habitat	eng	This species grows in a habitat characterised by high insolation and temperatures, high salinity in soil and air and scarce and poorly developed soil (Acevedo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), within communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Frankenio ericifoliae</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Astidamietum latifoliae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonio</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbion canariensis</span>. Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyparrhenia hirta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Vieraea laevigata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Polycapaea carnosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula buchii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Astydamia latifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium pseudourbicum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe</span> cf. <span style="font-style: italic;">laevigata</span>.
162166		population	eng	Population has been estimated in 160 individuals   (Acevedo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). In 2007, the presence of seedlings was reported only in the location Barranco Seco (A. Acevedo pers. comm. 2011). Decreasing trends have been observed in population size.
162166		threats	eng	Main threats are predation and landslides    (Acevedo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162167		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium lanceolatum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. Taxonomic clarification whether it is a distinct species from <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ovalifolium</span> is required (ICN 2006).
162167		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is found along the coast of Portugal and Spain. The area of occupancy is not known but the extent of occurrence is larger than 20,000 km². In the Iberian Peninsula it is not common, being known only from the coast of Cantabria, Bizkaia, Cádiz and southwestern Portugal. <br/></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/></a></p>
162167		habitat	eng	This perennial plant flowers from June to August. It is found along the coast, on rocky shores and in high salt marshes. It is characteristic of the sub-alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Suaedenion vera</span>, and found in the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Inula chrithmoides-Arthrocnemetum glauca, Cistanche phelypaeae-Suaedetum vera</span> and&#160;<em>Polygono equisetiformis-Limoniastretum monopetali</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(ICN 2006).<br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK1">It also appears in areas of contact of marsh and dunes ecosystems. Frequent accompanying species are </a><a style="font-style: italic;" name="OLE_LINK1">Limonium binervosum,  Armeria maritima </a><a name="OLE_LINK1">and, occasionally,</a><a style="font-style: italic;" name="OLE_LINK1"> Frankenia laevis.</a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/><br/>&#160;</a>
162167		population	eng	In the north of Spain, the species has been recorded in 17 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population size and trend in Portugal are not known but it is not assumed to be threatened (ICN 2006).
162167		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this plant in Portugal (ICN 2006).<br/>In Spain, the fragility of its habitat against factors such as pollution and floods, has been reported as the main threat affecting this species.
162168		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), under Annex B of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008 and on Annex V of the EC Habitats Directive 92/43.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> is included in the Red Data Books of the following countries: Austria (Niklfeld 1999), Italy (Conti <em>et al</em>. 1997), Italy / Sicily (Conti <em>et al</em>. 1997), Italy / Sardinia (Conti <em>et al</em>. 1997), Netherlands (van der Meijden 2000), Romania (1994),  It has been assigned different threat ratings in several countries: <br/><ul><li>Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)</li><li>Vulnerable in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Šilić 1996), Czech Republic (Procházka 2001), and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Switzerland (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Slovakia (Feraková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001)</li><li>Rare in Greece (Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995), Moldova (Postolache 1995) and Ukraine (Schelag-Soconko 1996)</li><li>Least Concern in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</li></ul><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> populations are found in several protected areas throughout Europe including:<br/><ul><li>Volcan Montsacopa, Partial Nature Reserve, Spain</li><li>Massis del Montseny Nature Park, Spain</li><li>Micro-reserve network in Valencia, Spain</li><li>Ecrins National Park Buffer Zone, France</li><li>Poondri Protected Landscape Area, Czech Republic</li><li>Litovelske Pomoravi Ramsar Site, Czech Republic</li><li>Labske Piskovce Protected Landscape Area, Czech Republic</li><li>Central Balkan National Park, Bulgaria</li><li>Rila National Park, Bulgaria</li><li>Several Ramsar Sites in Germany and Austria, including Wattenmeer and Unterer Niederrhein, Wadden Sea (European PSSA)</li></ul>
162168		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> is found throughout Europe: eastwards from the Pyrenees and northern Spain to the Ukraine, and southwards from Germany and Poland to southern Italy, Albania and northern Greece. <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> does not occur in Turkey or in the Caucasus mountains. It is doubtfully native in many locations in northwestern Europe above 50ºN latitude and is introduced and naturalised in the UK, Netherlands and other countries of northern Europe. Although found over a wide altitude range, most populations are found below 900 m asl.
162168		habitat	eng	Most frequently occurring in moist conditions in deciduous woodland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span> spp. etc.), and occasionally in coniferous woodland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> spp.). Also occurring in meadows, pasture, amongst scrub, near rivers and on stony slopes, particularly on calcareous soils. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> is a cross pollinating plant, but sometimes self-pollination takes place. It is pollinated by bees. Seeds have elaiosomes which are eaten by ants and they carry seeds through underground tunnels, helping to distribute them.
162168		population	eng	Native populations are believed to be relictual. <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> has been described as a relict species in the community of Valencia, Spain, where only three wild populations are known (Estrelles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Specific population data is available for several subpopulations, such as that in the East Carpathians (Budnikov and Kricsfalusy 1994):<br/><br/>Seed productivity studies of various populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. nivalis</span> in the East Carpathians showed that population age structure remains stable due to regeneration through seed. Lowland-foothill populations appear to have the highest generative reproduction capacity. Lowland populations are also predominated by juvenile plants (about 40%), with mature plants in lower numbers. This is thought to be caused by a large amount of harvesting in these lowland areas. The upper mountain belt has a much higher percentage of mature (58%) than juvenile (11%) plants. These populations are considerably less “affected” by human pressures and likely to represent a “normal” age structure.
162168		threats	eng	The survival of many <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> species is threatened in nature due to habitat destruction and collecting for the horticultural trade. <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> is the most heavily traded wild-collected bulb genus in the world. However, all species have been listed in CITES Appendix II since 1990 and trade in wild specimens is now heavily restricted. In addition, most nurseries are selling stock which has been raised from selected reliable clones, therefore avoiding the use of wild populations (Davis 1999). Reported trade in wild specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. nivalis </span>virtually ceased in 1995, with the cessation of reported exports from Hungary.<br/><br/>CITES-reported exports of live/bulbs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span>:<br/><br/>Hungary: 200,000 (1992), 120,000 (1993), 150,000 (1994)  <br/>Romania: 41 kg (2000)<br/>Turkey: 28,670 (1994) [not <span style="font-style: italic;">G. nvalis</span>]<br/>Netherlands: 300 (1995), 1,325 (1998), 219 (1999)<br/><br/>Some populations are more threatened than others, an example from Ukraine is outlined below: <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> was formerly widely distributed in the East Carpathians but during the last decade its area has been considerably reduced as a result of destruction of its primary habitats (particularly the lowland-foothill zone where populations are close to populated areas or recreational areas) and direct destruction by picking its flowers and digging out bulbs. Threatened by extinction in certain areas, it has been included in the "List of Rare and Disappearing Species of the Ukrainian Flora" and listed as a species in decline in the “Red Data Book of the Ukraine” (1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus nivalis</span> is protected, and has been included in the national Red Data Books or lists of all the neighbouring countries of the Carpathians region – Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. Illegal exports of <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus plicatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">G. nivalis</span> were reported from the Ukraine in 1997, however.<br/><br/>.
162169		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichomanes speciosum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Ireland <span style="font-style: italic;">Trichomanes speciosum </span>is protected under the Wildlife Act, 1976-Flora   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  In France, it is protected at national level. In Italy it is included in the Tuscanian Regional Law for the Protection of the Flora LR 56/2000, but is not included in any protected areas.<br/>In Germany, the species is considered as not threatened and it is classed as Least Concern in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is not included in the Belgian red list.<br/>In Czech Republic, the taxon is listed as Critically Endangered in the national red list under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Vandenboschia speciosa</span> (Holub and Procházka 2000). In Spain, it is classed as Vulnerable B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); D2 on the national red list (Moreno 2008).<br/>Recommended conservation measures are a constant monitoring of the  populations and guidelines for forest management and water abstraction  nearby the populations.
162169		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichomanes speciosum</span> is a European endemic fern, restricted to western Europe and Macaronesia.<br/><br/>In France, it occurs in Brittany, Alsace, and Pyrénées Atlantique. In Italy it grows in Tuscany and Liguria. The gametophyte grows in about 200 subpopulations in Tuscany and Liguria between 20 and 600 m asl. The sporophyte has been recorded in about six localities in the Alpi Apuane between 165 and 275 m asl (Foggi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In Portugal, it is found at two locations close to each other in the Serra de Santa Justa, region Valongo (ICN 2006). In Spain, it occurs in the provinces A Coruña, Asturias, Cadiz, Guipuzcoa, Navarra, Santander, and Vizcaya (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1986, Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). In Germany, only the gametophyte is present (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). In the UK, it is found in at least 14 localities in Northern Ireland, England, southwest Scotland, and Wales (UK Biodiversity Group 1995). It also occurs in Ireland and Czech Republic.
162169		habitat	eng	This fern occurs in shady and humid places near water (ICN 2006). It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8310 Caves not open to the public</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno- Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li><li>9120 Atlantic acidophilous beech forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex </span>and sometimes also <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus </span>in the shrublayer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercion robori-petraeae or Ilici-Fagenion</span>)</li><li>9180 <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilio-Acerion</span> forests of slopes, screes and ravines</li></ul>
162169		population	eng	The following population data has been provided in country reports for the Article 17 consultation under the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Belgium: occupying seven grid cells with an unknown trend</li><li>Czech Republic: 230 localities with an increasing trend</li><li>Germany: 128 localities with stable populations</li><li>Ireland: 66 localities with a stable trend</li><li>Luxembourg: 130-150 localities with a stable trend</li><li>Poland: five individuals and declining</li><li>Portugal: 23 tufts with a declining population</li><li>Spain: 16 localities with a stable trend and more than 1,000 individuals on the Canary Islands</li><li>United Kingdom: 162 localities with an unknown trend</li></ul><br/>In Italy, the sporophyte is found at six localities, has a population size of 2,500 individuals and a stable trend that is expected to decline in the future. In France, the species is found at 172 localities. In Poland, the species is found at two localities with few individuals only (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).
162169		threats	eng	This species has a very specialized ecology and habitat preferences and is very slow growing. Therefore it is potentially threatened by a number of factors including sample collection, recreational activities, habitat destruction and desiccation. Unfavourable forest management (such as removal of forest undergrowth), overgrazing, outdoor sports and leisure activities such as climbing, and modification of hydrological conditions have been reported as threats by some of the EU 27 member countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009). For Italy, additional threats of logging, drought (probably more important in the future and due to surface water abstraction and climate warming) and domestic waste and garbage discharge have been reported (Foggi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In Portugal, invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia melanoxylon </span>poses a threat (ICN 2006).
162170		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria rhodocanakis</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by Presidential Decree 67/81.
162170		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece and found in the</st1:country-region></st1:place> Peloponnisos. Pure populations are found on Ydra Island and the islets between Ydra-Argolida district (e.g. Dokos, Petrothalassa) and hybrid populations are found in the Argolida district (from Ermioni village to Poros island) and the Korinthia district (north to Sofiko village).<br/></p>The total extent of occurrence is c. 1,400 km² and the extent of occurrence of the pure populations is less than 100 km². The area of occupancy is smaller than 100 km².<br/><br/><p><br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place></p>
162170		habitat	eng	The species is found in rocky limestone areas with phrygana or low maquis and clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span> forest, at the edge of vineyards; it is usually in open vegetation but often under shrubs. It is found at altitudes of 10–500 m asl over its total distribution area and at 10–100 m asl in Ydra Island and the islets between the Ydra-Argolida district.
162170		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 500 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria rhodokanakis </span>forms genetically pure populations only on Ydra Island and on the islets between Ydra-Argolida. On Ydra it has been found at two locations (1-2 subpopulations). On Dokos islet there is a small subpopulation of c. 20 individuals.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria rhodokanakis</span> hybridizes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria spetsiotica</span> in the south part of Argolida up to Poros island and with <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca</span> in the north part of Argolida and at Korinthia. As a result, throughout its distribution on mainland Peloponnisos where it forms scattered, small population patches, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rhodokanakis </span>has variable populations with morphological characteristics intermediate between the different species.<br/>Based on some of these hybrids, Zacharof (1987), mistakenly declared the existence of a new subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rhodokanakis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">argolica</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
162170		threats	eng	Hybridization is probably the main threat for the species, since pure populations are restricted to Ydra Island and islets.<br/><br/>Tourism and habitation activities constitute a threat for all the locations of the plant in Argolida and Korinthia and are even more intense on Ydra Island. The populations in Argolida and Korinthia are also threatened by grazing.<br/><br/>Bulb collection is a threat.
162171		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in  the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente (Gobierno de canarias 2009). It occurs also within the proteced areas SCI Barlovento, Garafía, El Paso y Tijarafe, Reserva Natural Integral del Pinar de Garafía and Parque Natural de Las Nieves. A population reinforcement plan has been developed in this area and the species has been successfully introduced to several sites.
162171		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Echium gentianoides</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is endemic to the island of La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows at high altitude, above 1,800 m asl. It occurs in one location comprising up to five scattered subpopulations on the high areas of Caldera de Taburiente (M. Marrero. pers. comm. 2011). </span><span style="background-color: white;">The area of occupancy has been estimated in between 13.75 km</span><sup>2</sup><span style="background-color: white;"> (55 grid cells of 500x500 m) and 28 km<sup>2</sup> (28 grid cells of 1x1 km) </span><span style="background-color: white;">(Gobierno de Canarias 2009).</span>
162171		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Echium gentianoides </span>grows in sunny rocky sites at altitudes higher than 1,800 m asl. It is commonly associated to shrublands on peaks within communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Tolpidetum calderae</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and <em>Spartocytision nubigeni </em>(Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162171		population	eng	Its population size has been estimated to be between 2,300 and 3,355 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In 2005, 6,797 individuals were recorded (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The population trend is increasing due to a decrease of certain threat factors.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162171		threats	eng	The main threat described for this species is predation by goats  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162172		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria tonzigii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. The populations are partially included in protected areas.
162172		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the Italian northern Alps and is found in the region Lombardia</a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). There are four localities with an extent of occurrence below 100 km² and an area of occupancy below 10 km².  </p>
162172		habitat	eng	This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8130 "Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162172		population	eng	The population size is less than 250 mature individuals, the population is stable but severely fragmented.
162172		threats	eng	The main threat is infrastructure development for tourism. Collection of the species poses a further threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162173		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species. It is listed as CR B2ab(iii,v); C2a(ii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Parque Rural de Teno (SCI) (Acevedo Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Seeds are stored in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. The species is under monitoring and three reintroduction plans have been developed, but with no success.<br/><br/>Plant material should be stored in germplasm banks, new species reintroduction plans should be implemented, surveillance on its population should be increased and its area of presence should be considered a grazing exclusion area. Research about its taxonomy should be developed, involving genetic analysis.
162173		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain, where it can be found between 200 and 435 m asl. It is restricted to one single location on a coastal cliff in the Teno massif</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Acevedo Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its area of occupancy is 2 km². </p>
162173		habitat	eng	This species grows in steep coastal areas on scarce, geologically unstable soils, on sites affected by strong winds blowing from the sea. Its main habitat are xerophytic communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegio dichotomae-Euphorbietum aphyllae</span>   (Acevedo Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Tolpis crassiuscula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypochoeris oligocephala</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Reichardia crystallina</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vieraea laevigata</span>.
162173		population	eng	Its total population has been reported to be 156 individuals (Acevedo Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). It presents high reproductive incompatibility and flowering is very irregular, which affects viable seed production. Increasing trends have been observed for the number of individuals recorded due to the improvement of the monitoring methods and not as a result of the expansion of the species (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
162173		threats	eng	Its main threats are predation and landslides. Livestock trampling increases the instability of a substrate already affected by wind erosion. Hybridisation phenomena with <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline osyrioides</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">osyrioides</span> have been frequently observed     (Acevedo Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162174		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace cylindrica</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/><br/>In France, it is protected by national law. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cylindrica </span>is classed as Endangered D and the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">hirtella</span> as Least Concern<em></em> as it is widespread in a national park. <br/><br/>In Spain, it is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cylindrica</span> is included as species "de interés especial" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Aragón. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">willkommi </span>is included as "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Aragón and <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). A high proportion of its population occurs within the protected areas Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido and Paisaje Protegido de Monte Oroel (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the populations is recommended.
162174		distribution	eng	This species occurs in France and Spain and is endemic to the Pyrenees.
162174		habitat	eng	This plant occupies fissures in vertical rock faces and "extraplomadas" of limestone rocks and calcareous conglomerations, at an altitude of 1,400 to 2,600 m, predominantly facing north. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8130 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162174		population	eng	In Spain, it has been reported from 12 locations and is found at the same number of sites in France. The population trend is stable as the sites are difficult to access.
162174		threats	eng	The main threats to this species come from mountaineering and rock climbing. Collection of the plants could be another threat. This species can also be affected by collapse of the terrain or landslides.
162175		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocoptis montsicciana</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain and classed as "Vulnerable" in Aragón and Cataluña, although in this region it is considered comprised by the taxon <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pardoi</span>. It is listed NT in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Cataluña, it occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de la Sierra del Montsec, and five subpopulation in Aragón occur within the SCI Sierra de Mongay (Alcántara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of <span style="background-color: white;">Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and Jardín Botánico de Córdoba.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/> </span></span></span>
162175		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocoptis montsicciana</span> is endemic to the provinces of Huesca and Lleida, northeastern Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 22 km<sup>2</sup> in Huesca and 32 km<sup>2</sup> in Lleida. It is present in nine locations in Huesca, and more than nine in Lleida.
162175		habitat	eng	This species occurs in crevices of rocky calcareous areas, always on overhangs and extremely vertical walls, mainly facing south, between 300 and 1,100 m asl (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162175		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is around 18,008 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and stable.
162175		threats	eng	Mountaineering and rock climbing have been reported as threats to the species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162178		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polystichum drepanum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Much needed conservation measures are habitat management and protection, species recovery and reintroduction programmes, and campaigns to raise public awareness. The biology and ecology as well as population dynamics need further research (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162178		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, Portugal, where it is found at five localities in the northeast (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its EOO is 219 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162178		habitat	eng	This fern is characteristic of the laurisilva forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea foetens</span>. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162178		population	eng	The total population is less than 50 mature individuals and has a stable trend (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162178		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to the invasion of exotic species that also increase competition for this fern. Collection, recreational activities, fires and natural factors such as landslides can affect the species (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162179		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. magyarica</span> is listed as a priority species in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It is strictly protected and classified as Critically Endangered (CR) in Hungary  (Király 2007). It occurs in a protected area and it is recommended that a monitoring program and any necessary management actions are incorporated into the existing management plan of this site.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. magyarica</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>Population monitoring and the development and implementation of a conservation management plan are also recommended.
162179		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">P. magyarica</span> is endemic to Hungary (Kurtto 2009), where its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 700 km<sup>2</sup> (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is found at the following localities: <br/><ul><li>The Transdanubian Mountains (Szentendre-Visegrád Mountain, Pilis Mountain)</li><li>Pilisszentlászló: Öreg-Pap Mountain, Öreg-Nyilas Valley, Horuba, Delmárkúti Accommodation Road, Bánya Mountain, Szent László Mountain, Rózsa Mountain, Hegytető, Szarvasszérű, Pap Meadow (Terpó 1960, Bőhm 1998, Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Visegrád: Fekete Mountain (Terpó 1960, Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Dunabogdány: Barát heap(Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Tahi: Öregbükk hilltop (Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Leányfalu: Rekettyés Lake surroundings (Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Szentendre: Sztaravoda Valley (Tegez Street, Büdöskút side) (Bőhm 1998, Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Pócsmegyer: Szentendre Island (Bőhm 2010)</li><li>Pomáz: under Messalia, Kartáliák, Kiscsikóváralja, Kő Mountain (southwest side), János fountainhead, Zengő Valley (Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Pilisszentkereszt: Fagyoskatona, Peres Mountain, Szent fountainhead, Kopanyica, Magas Mountain, Pilis hillside, Pilis hilltop, Dobogókő surroundings (Barna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)</li><li>Kesztölc-Klastrompuszta: Klastrom Cliffs and eastern Bakony Mountain <br/></li><li>Isztimér (Mellári hillside, Királyszállás, above the Burok Valley) (Bőhm 2010).</li></ul>
162179		habitat	eng	This species occurs in oak forests and Pannonian woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetum petraeae-cerris</span>). It favours warm, medium–dry soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals and can also grow in neutral, humic, loam-, clay-, debris soils<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
162179		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population comprises 30 to 40 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Each subpopulation is very  small, with a sporadic distribution and often solitary plants—few plants are adults (Museum  National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162179		threats	eng	The main threats are urbanization and agricultural development.
162181		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum pyrenaicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected at national level in France and the locality is in a nature reserve, although no particular conservation actions are in place.
162181		distribution	eng	<em>A. pyrenaicum</em> occurs in the southern Pyrenees in France.
162181		habitat	eng	This woody plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162181		population	eng	There was one locality of 1,000 individuals in 2006. As this was the first count of the number of individuals, the population trend is unknown.
162181		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is its collection in accessible parts of the population.
162182		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium jahandiezii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>    It is protected at national level in France (Annexe I) (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010)<span class="tooltip">.
162182		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeast France   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The extent of occurrence is 830 km² and the area of occupancy is between 20-30 km².
162182		habitat	eng	This fern is found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8310 Caves not open to the public</li></ul>
162182		population	eng	This plant is present in eight localities in eight communes. There are more than 100,000 individuals estimated, with an apparently stable population trend and the habitat is stable too.
162182		threats	eng	<p>The main threats described are mountaineering, rock climbing, and modification of hydrographic functioning. Roads and motorways are also posing a threat.</p>
162184		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Angelica heterocarpa</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>  <span class="tooltip">It is protected at national level in France (Annexe 1). Conservation actions are conducted in Nantes and southwest estuaries, coordinated by the Botanical Conservatories of Brest and Sud-Atlantique.
162184		distribution	eng	This species is found along the western coastline of France. Its extent of occurrence is 25,000 km².
162184		habitat	eng	This plant grows along the edges of rivers and estuaries (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010)   and can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>  91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<em>Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</em>)</li></ul>
162184		population	eng	The species has been found in 145 localities during recent surveys and may total more than 65,000 individuals. The knowledge about this species has been recently greatly improved from 2004-2008 so the overall population trend is not known. However, a possible decline in the Loire estuary and southeast part of the distribution area are suspected. Annual variations in numbers of individuals are reported in the Loire estuary.
162184		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are forest exploitation without replanting, infrastructure development in urban and industrial areas (ports), and modification of the hydrographic functioning such as construction of embankments, creating shipping lanes, or reclamation of land from sea (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162185		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudarrhenatherum pallens</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. The following conservation measures are recommended (ICN 2006):<br/><ul><li>Further fieldwork to find populations and monitor the known ones</li><li>Study the reproduction and population biology of the species</li><li>Reintroduction programmes</li><li>Site management that keeps clearings open to reduce competition with other species</li><li>Improve selectivity in scrub clearing in Eucalyptus plantations and road sides</li><li>Prohibit afforestation on the three sites of occurrence</li><li>Promote <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation</li></ul>
162185		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the centre-west and southwest Portugal (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 400 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162185		habitat	eng	This species grows in soil pockets over calcareous rocks at the edges of scrublands (ICN 2006).
162185		population	eng	<p>Fieldwork confirmed only three populations: two in the Serra da Arrábida and one in the Serra de S. Luís. The plant was not found in several limestone formations where it once was observed. The populations are in decline  (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
162185		threats	eng	In the Serra da Arrábida, competition with other species, cleaning of roadsides or widening of existing communication networks, in particular the erection of antennas are the major threats. In Serra de S. Luis, the cleaning of Eucalyptus plantations (ICN 2006).
162186		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Braya linearis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>It is classed as Vulnerable B2ac(iv) on the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected by national law. In Norway, it is classed as Endangered B2b(iii)c(v) (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162186		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Braya linearis</span> is endemic to Scandinavia and Greenland. In Europe, it is found in Norway and Sweden It is more common in Norway which holds over 50% of the European populations.<br/>In Sweden, the area of occupancy is 40 km² and the extent of occurrence is 5,000 km². It is found at 11 localities (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² and it is restricted to two municipalities in southern Norway (in Op Vågå and Lom) and a larger area in the north extending from Helgeland to North Cape (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162186		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Braya linearis</span> grows on stable ground screes and on limestone rocks. It can be found on <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes and sometimes in calcareous alpine and subalpine grassland.
162186		population	eng	Population size has been counted for Sweden as 3,000 mature individuals. The population trend is very stable, but extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals have been observed. The localities are severely fragmented as the habitat where the species can exist is rare (ArtDatabanken 2010).<br/>In Norway, the species has only been recorded in 40% of previously known localities since the 1990s and a declining trend is therefore assumed. The species is rarely found in northern Norway. However, the largest population in southern Norway, in Høyrokampen in Lom, varies greatly in the number of individuals from year to year. The reason for the decline and the fluctuations might be overgrowing of its habitat (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162186		threats	eng	The species is found in areas with no human settlement or other pressures and there are no major threats to the species in Sweden. In Norway, the abandonment of grazing activities that helped keeping the habitat open, is now leading to succession and competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Braya linearis</span>.
162187		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium cracoviense</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is listed as Rare in the national Red List (Mirek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006), as Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) and in the Red Data Book of the Polish Carpathians (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). It is also included in the Atlas of Polish Endemics (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa in prep.) and strictly protected at national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006).
162187		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium cracoviense</span> is native to Poland with an extent of occurrence of 300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The species is a narrow endemic to Poland, found between 270 and 300 m asl. It is a very rare species known from only seven localities concentrated in the Jura Krakowsko-Wieluńska in southern Poland.
162187		habitat	eng	This Hemicroptophyte species flowers in May and June. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6210 "Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)"  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162187		population	eng	The population is between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals   and the population trend is unknown (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162187		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the abandonment of traditional pastoral systems, by trampling by walkers and horse riders, damage from motorised and non-motorised vehicles and overuse of paths, tracks and cycling tracks. It is also threatened by ecological succession.
162188		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gladiolus palustris</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>The following national listings and conservation measures are in place:<br/><ul><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Belarus: listed as Extinct</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Bulgaria: Data Deficient, the two known localities with recent data are in Natura 2000 sites</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Croatia: listed as Data Deficient</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Czech Republic: listed as Critically Endangered and protected in the strongest category, the one locality is a site of community interest and in a protected area</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>France: nationally protected, conservation actions are taking place on 12 localities (no precise data)</li><li>Germany: classed as Endangered (level 2)<a name="OLE_LINK3"> and under national protection</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Hungary: classed as Endangered</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Italy: it is protected at regional level</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Poland:</a> listed as Critically  Endangered and strictly protected at national level; the only population existing in Poland is situated in a nature reserve (Łąka Sulistrowicka)</li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Switzerland: classed as Endangered<em></em>; reintroductions have taken place</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Slovakia: listed as Critically Endangered;</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> the species occurs in one Natura 2000 site, covering 80% of its localities (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK3">Ukraine: listed as Endangered</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">&#160;</a></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK3"> </a><br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>
162188		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Europe. North of the Alps, it ranges from eastern France and the Alsace, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland eastwards with fragmented patches in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. South of the Alps, it extends from the Appenines in Italy to eastern Austria and Hungary where it extends to western Bulgaria and Albania in the Balkans (Käsermann and Moser 1999, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).
162188		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gladiolus palustris</span> is found in coniferous, mainly pine forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erico-Pinion</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (Klotz <em>et al.</em> 2002) and wooded wet meadows. It prefers  periodically wet meadows but is tolerant to dryness. If the habitat is  not periodically wet the populations decrease due to competition from other plants (Käsermann and Moser 1999). It grows on calcareous, moderately humic and nutrient-poorer soils. The species occurs also on steppe-character meadows and in oak groves with moor grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span>) (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>62A0 Eastern sub-Mediterranean dry grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scorzoneratalia villosae)</span></li><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>6440 Alluvial meadows of river valleys of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cnidion dubii</span></li><li>91M0 Pannonian-Balkanic turkey oak-sessile oak forests</li></ul>
162188		population	eng	The following population sizes have been determined in some countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Germany: 89 localities, stable trend<br/></li><li>Hungary: 52,000 - 55,000 individuals, increasing trend<br/></li><li>Poland: 4-8 individuals, declining trend<br/></li><li>Slovakia: one locality, stable trend<br/></li><li>Slovenia: 7 grids, declining trends<br/></li></ul>In Bulgaria, there are five localities with recent data from two localities and the other  three localities have no confirmed data since early 1900 because of  identification problems. In Czech Republic, there are now 323 flowering species, 98 in 2009, at one locality. The population trend is unknown. In Italy, it is found at more than 90 localities with a stable population trend.<br/><br/>In France, it occurs at 33 localities in 24 communes with more than 25,000  individuals estimated. The species is declining because of mowing and habitat drainage. In Serbia, it is estimated to be Vulnerable (Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). In Switzerland, a slight to moderate population decline has been noted over the last 20 years.<br/><br/>In Ukraine, only one locality was found near Dmitrivka village,  Novgorod-Siverskij district, Chernigivska region. This finding dates to 1912 and is now probably extinct. One locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gladiolus palustris</span> was found in Belarus in Duroviesy village, in Mogylov region in the 19th century, and is now extinct.<br/><br/>In Slovakia its occurrence was confirmed in only three localities on the    Záhorská nížina Lowland: in Abrod NNR, near Sološnica and between    Gbely-Adamov and Holíč. In the past the species was recorded in about   ten localities in the Záhorská nížina Lowland and on the Malé Karpaty   Mts foothills; the other localities were in central Slovakia (Pukanec,   Poľana massif, Pohronie region) and there is a dubious record from the   surroundings of Poprad. In the remaining three localities on the  Záhorská nížina Lowland approximately  1,000, 30 and three individuals  were recorded respectively. The size of subpopulations and their number have  rapidly decreased over the last decades and the species is now in  danger of extinction (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>In Poland the  species was reported in 20 localities, mainly in the 19th century. Since  2000 it has been confirmed only in the locality in the Sudety Foothills  (Kaźmierczakowa and Zarzycki 2001). There are now 20 individuals, with a declining trend (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2008).
162188		threats	eng	The main threat is the modification of cultivation practices such as mowing, grazing, abandonment of pastoral systems, forest planting. This often leads to a change in vegetation and competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gladiolus palustris</span>. The management of water systems and drainage or canalization have negative impacts and are another important threat. Conversion of its meadow habitat into arable land causes habitat loss. Collection leads to further population declines. Pollution from the use of pesticides and fertilizers as well as eutrophication affect the species. Locally, threats such as aquaculture, roads and railway lines, exist.
162189		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, and in the regional catalogues of threatened species of Castilla-La Mancha and Madrid. It is listed as VU B2ac(ii,iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List (2008).<br/></p><p>The subpopulations of Albacete occur within the protected area SCI&#160; La Encantada, El Moral y Los Torreones and the reserve of La Encantada has been created to ensure the maintenance of agricultural activities in the area. In Madrid it occurs within the SCI Vegas, cuestas y páramos del Sureste. Plantations were developed in El Moral (Albacete) in 2004.</p><p>Population reinforcement measures should be implemented. Plan material should be collected from every subpopulation and stored in germplasm banks and cultivation should be developed in botanic gardens.<br/></p>
162189		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium cavanillesianum</span> is e<span id="result_box" class="long_text">ndemic to central and southern Iberia. There are only two disjoint nuclei in the provinces of Madrid, Toledo and Albacete, without any continuity found between these two areas (Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Its populations appears distributed into six locations: three in Madrid-Toledo and three in Albacete, with an area of occupancy of 17 km². There are also citations for Ciudad Real, Zaragoza and Granada, but they have not been reported again for decades or have been searched for without success.
162189		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It grows currently in secondary habitats, on clays or loams, frequently close to streams, within ruderal communities or communities associated with crop areas. Accompanying species are, among others, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium runcinatum, Sisymbrium</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">austriacum </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> hispanicum, Salsola vermiculata, Marrubium vulgare, Asteriscus aquaticus, Scolymus hispanicus, Thapsia villosa, Ziziphora aragonensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis pectinata.</span><span title="Iberis pectinata, etc."><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Annual or biennial herb that reacts quickly to rains in spring and autumn, germinating profusely and quickly completing the reproduction cycle. <span title="reproductivo.">For the small size of their flowers, autogamy has been suggested.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span></span></span>
162189		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han confirmado cinco poblaciones, tres de">Its presence has been confirmed in six subpopulations (Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The census of 1995 showed significant decreases in population size caused by drought events. <span title="En 2005 bajó notablemente el">It tends to present fluctuations in population size due to climatic conditions and perturbations related to agriculture. Total population size has been estimated in 636,408 individuals.</span>
162189		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Agricultural land abandonment threatens this plant as it is linked to agricultural activities, and changes in land use could affect it. Two subpopulations of El Moral (Albacete) occur in fields abandoned for the installation of wind turbines. Other potential threats include herbicide use and excessive trampling. <span title="Puede">It can also suffer from the natural competition with other species, like <span style="font-style: italic;">S. runcinatum.<br/><br/></span>Subpopulations in northern Toledo have been affected by the construction of railroads for high speed transportation.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span>
162190		conservation	eng	It is listed as priority species on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. Education of local communities, sustainable management of the woodlands and of the pesticide use of the orchards are also critical to ensure the survival of this species. As the area of occupancy is very small, it would be worthy to have some protected areas (or micro reserves) created to protect the habitat of this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, the population size and trends  and the threats, especially for the Spanish populations.
162190		distribution	eng	This European endemic occurs in Serra da Gardunha, central Portugal in an area of only 7 km²  (ICNB 2006). It also present in the Salamanca province in Spain (Anthos 2009).
162190		habitat	eng	It is mainly present in north to northeast facing slopes and found in deep soils and open areas, where it is found at higher densities. It occurs along the edges of oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span>) and chestnut (<span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>) forests, often reaching the herbaceous edges of these woods. Sometimes, it survives in pine forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span>, mixed woods and slopes or roadsides and in lower abundances in scrubby vegetation (ICNB 2008).<br/><br/>It can be found at the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus robur </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa </span>woods</li></ul>
162190		population	eng	Population has been estimated in 10,000 individuals for Portugal. There is no population data for Spain.
162190		threats	eng	This species survival is threatened by forest fires and the conversion of woodland into cherry orchards, and the fruit growers’ extensive use of herbicides. The plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudotsuga menziesii</span>, as well as urban sprawl, have decreased the extent and quality of its habitat. It is also confronted with invasive plants, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia dealbata</span>.
162191		conservation	eng	This species is listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula arctica</span> on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>    <p>It is categorized as Least Concern (LC) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened (B2a) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula arctica</span> on the Red List (</st1:country-region>Gärdenfors 2010) <st1:country-region w:st="on">and protected by national law. <span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula nivalis</span> is classed as Near Threatened (A4bc; B2b(ii,iii)) on the Norwegian Red List (Artsdatabanken 2010). <br/></st1:country-region></p>
162191		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula nivalis</span> has a subarctic distribution. In Europe, it is present in Sweden, Svalbard, Norway, and Russia (Franz Joseph Land, Novaya Zemlya and Northern European Russia) (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Scandinavia, the population is disjunct in two major areas.<br/>The extent of occurrence in Sweden is 8,880 km² and the area of occupancy is 100 km² and it is found at ca. 25 localities (ArtDatabanken 2010).<br/>In Norway, it is found in Finnmark, Troms, Hedmark and Sør-Trøndelag with an area of occupancy of less than 500 km² (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162191		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula nivalis</span> can be found in alpine and subalpine grasslands and in temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It occurs on rock slopes, snow patches, dry and moist tundra only on base rich ground. This plant is distributed by ants.
162191		population	eng	The population has been estimated in 2,000 mature individuals and it is believed to be stable   (ArtDatabanken 2010). The species is common in Svalbard. In Norway, the populations are declining due to a habitat decline. It is suspected that the decline of the populations will continue at a rate of 15-30% in the future (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>There is no information on the population size or trend for Russia.
162191		threats	eng	There are no major threats as it is found in very stable alpine vegetation and there is no human pressure at the moment. However, in Norway climate change and an increase in temperatures has been identified as an ongoing threat.
162192		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus marizii </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and protected by national law in Portugal.<br/>The plan for the Natura 2000 network in Portugal (ICN 2006) recommends to manage the species' sites in a way that controls urbanisation, quarrying and forest planting in its habitats. Controlled fires to stop vegetation succession is also suggested.
162192		distribution	eng	This species is native to northeast Portugal where it is found in the massifs of Bragança-Vinhais and Morais   (ICN 2006). The area of occupancy is less than 1,000 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009)
162192		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus marizii</span> is a woody shrub of up to 30 cm height. This species is characteristic to xerophile communities on skeletical soils originated from ultrabasic rocks. Other habitat where this species can develop is Oro-Iberian acidophilous stripped grasslands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162192		population	eng	The plant is abundant on the ultrabasic rocks of Bragança-Vinhais but becomes less frequent in Morais towards the south. There is no information on the population size or trend available.
162192		threats	eng	Urbanisation is one of the main threats to the species together with the planting of forest in its habitats. The plant is found on ultrabasic rocks and therefore extraction and disposal of the inert material also leads to a degradation of this habitat. Succession processes and the replacement of the natural vegetation is making it more difficult for this <span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus</span> sp. to compete (ICN 2006).
162193		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is protected in the national legislation (Annex I) in France, regional legislation of Galicia (in Spain) and is considered as Endangered (Criteria E)  in the Spanish Red List, after a monitoring programme of six years. Most of its habitat has been declared LIC for the Habitat Directive or are covered by a National Park or Natura 2000 sites.<br/>In the UK, it is classed as Endangered C2(ai), protected under national law and included as priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Of the known Rumex rupestris plants, 85% are included in protected areas. Monitoring and site management are in place (Plantlife International 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation actions are in place in France and in the UK. Several conservation measures are recommended: investigations of the Spanish coast to look for new localities, inclusion in the Spanish national legislation, genetic studies to assess its variability and the possibility to reintroduce the plants in adequate habitat, studies on the biology of the species, its reproduction.
162193		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to Europe (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It is found in Galicia in </a>Spain and occurs in France in the Massif Armoricain, Manche to Vendee, and with one  record in Guironde. In the United Kingdom, it is found in Wales, along the coast of Cornwall and Devon and on the Isles of Scilly.</p>
162193		habitat	eng	This species occurs in cliffs with water seepage, small rivers on sandy coasts and beaches and in rocky areas with freshwater falling into the sea, depressions in "grey" dunes and pebble. It is always associated with a flow of freshwater. The fruits of this plant float in seawater and are dispersed that way. <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex rupestris</span> often acts as pioneer species but is a poor competitor (Plantlife International 2006). <br/>In France the habitat of this species seems to be stable. <br/>The species occurs in the following Habitats Directive habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1220 Perennial vegetation of stony banks</li><li>1230 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic Coasts</li><li>2190 Humid dune slacks</li></ul>
162193		population	eng	This is a rare species.<br/>In France, there are 72 small localities, with generally two to three dozens of individuals per locality (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010).<br/>In Spain, 858 individuals were recorded in Galicia in 12 localities. Most subpopulations are fragmented and with no more than 60 individuals  each, many with just one specimen. <br/>In the UK, a total of 220-250 individuals has been reported. It is found at 38 sites and strong declines are suspected to have happened over the last 100 years with former habitat being lost. In Cornwall, it is found at 19 sites and has gone extinct at 18 sites, in Devon there are nine present and seven formerly known localities, in Wales it is four sites at present and four extinct localities. There are four locations on the Isles of Scilly (Plantlife International 2006).
162193		threats	eng	Hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">R. conglomeratus</span> (UK) and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. cripus </span>(France) has been reported as a reported threat. Trampling and tourist activities, as well as habitat deterioration due to infrastructure development, deviation of the river courses, silting-up, and oil contamination (Prestige accident) are also important threats.<br/>In the UK, coastal defence work to stop erosion has caused the extinction of some sites. Local extinctions took place due to erosion itself caused by winter storms. Climate change might increase the frequency of storms and therefore make it harder for the species to naturally recolonize. It is noted that coastal defence works can also be beneficial to the species survival.<br/>Where the species occurs in dune systems, the abandonment of grazing led to scrub encroaching which proves to be high competition for the species. Especially the Hottentot fig (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edilis</span>), an invasive plant from South Africa, affects the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex rupestris</span> populations (Plantlife International 2006).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162194		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It had been assessed as Critically Endangered on the Italian Red List in 2001 (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/>&#160;<br/>The single remaining population is recognised as an important site and included in the Natura 2000 network. There is an EU-LIFE project focussing on the species' habitat.
162194		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeast Italy. It occurs now at a single site but previously it was more widely distributed. Its range has been reduced from 375 hectares in the 1960s to 140 ha in 1987 and down to just 30 ha currently.
162194		habitat	eng	This perennial herb (Hemicrytophyte) occurs in peat bogs. It is found in meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>) and alkaline fens   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162194		population	eng	This species is rare and declining. The population size has been estimated at 1,061 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There are ten small subpopulations which are severely fragmented.
162194		threats	eng	The species is threatened by groundwater extraction, changes in the native species dynamics and intrinsic factors such as the species low density.
162195		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea lactiflora</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. All of the distribution area of the plant lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR1440003. Information on population size and trend and potential threats is urgently required.
162195		distribution	eng	This is a stenoendemic species to Greece. There is one location near Koniskos village (northeast of the town of Kalambaka,  prefecture of Trikala) known from literature. It was last reported in the 1970s by  Georgiadis (1980). Recently the plant was mapped at two locations,  one approximately 3 km northeast of Koniskos village and one 3.5 km southeast of Vlachavas  village (Petermann and Grigoriadis 2001). <br/><p>The report of a population of this species from Nomos Xanthis (Strataki 1998) has not been confirmed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/> </span></p><p>Based on the above, the plant has been found at two to three locations, the extent of occurrence is 4.5 km²<sup></sup> and area of occupancy is 4-6 km².</p><p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
162195		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lactiflora</span> include arid sites at road margins or field margins; it is rare in clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus petraea</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris-Quercus frainetto</span> forest from 580-800 m altitude.
162195		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Population size and trend are not currently known.</span>
162195		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats to this species.
162196		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p><p>All the subpopulations but one occur within the protected area Parque Natural de los Alcornocales, and are object of the conservation measures developed in the area. In the sites outside the protected area, maintenance works on firewalls must be developed with care. <br/></p>
162196		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Spain and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Spain, it is found in western Sierras Béticas, province of Cádiz (Cabezudo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005). It is not a common species in Spain. Its geographic range changes depending on annual precipitations (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
162196		habitat	eng	This geophyte<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>grows on basic soils, in grasslands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolio-Plantaginetum serrariae</span>, where in autumn it grows along with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Scilla autumnalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leucojum autumnale </span>(Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). It can be found in the understorey in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> forests (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
162196		population	eng	It has been estimated that the actual area covered by the population is 0.29 km²   but there are no figures on the number of individuals  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population size varies depending on annual precipitations (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and the population trend is unknown.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162196		threats	eng	Grazing, urbanisation and communication networks have been considered as threats to this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<p>  <br/>  </p>
162197		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thesium ebracteatum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is categorized Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000<span lang="CS">) and in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). In Denmark it is classed as Regionally Extinct (NERI 2007). It is listed as Vulnerable (category 2) in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007).<span lang="CS"><span class="shorttext1">    <p>It is considered as Least Concern in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). Although common, this species is protected in Vladimir, Nizhniy Novgorod and Udmurtia  regions. It is not included in the red data books of Ukraine and Belarus, but it is protected in the Kanivskij reserve in Ukraine.<br/></p>  <br/><span lang="CS"><span class="shorttext1"><p><span class="shorttext1">&#160;</p></span></span></span>
162197		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thesium ebracteatum </span>is present in Central and Eastern Europe with some populations extending into Russia beyond the Ural mountains. The stronghold of the species is in Poland where it has a geographic range of 130,900 km². <br/>In Ukraine, it grows in the lowland part in zones of coniferous and deciduous forests and in the lesosteppe (forest steppe) zone.
162197		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in extensively used grassland, wet <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia </span>meadows and skirts of dry forests<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">. However, its most characteristic habitats as listed in the Habitats Directive are </st1:place></st1:country-region>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009)<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">:<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>6120 Xeric sand calcareous grasslands</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6280 Nordic alvar and precambrian calcareous flatrocks<br/></li><li>6530 Fennoscandian wooded meadows</li><li>91I0 Euro-Siberian steppic woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp.</li></ul>In Ukraine, it is a component of the plant communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorion canescentis </span>alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephoretalia canescentis </span>ordo <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynophoretalia canescentis</span> class and <span style="font-style: italic;">Koelerion glauca</span> alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Astragaletalia arenarii</span> ordo <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetea vaginatae </span>class (Vinichenko 2006).
162197		population	eng	The following population data has been provided (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Austria: 200 to 300 individuals, unknown trend</li><li>Czech Republic: 20,000 shoots, stable trend</li><li>Estonia: 4,000 to 6,000 individuals, negative trend</li><li>Germany: 4 localities, stable trend</li><li>Lithuania: 18 to 60 localities, unknown trend</li><li>Poland: 78 localities, negative trend</li></ul>It is extinct in Denmark (NERI 2007) and in Slovakia. In the latter it was observed in 1921 and 1923 in a single locality in the Záhorská nížina Lowland (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is found at one locality of six historically known ones in Czech Republic (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Belarus, there are around 35 localities (Kozlovskaja and Parfenov 1972) and in Ukraine, around 30 localities. The populations are small in area (to tens m²) and number of individuals (10-15 individuals) (Vinichenko 2006). In Moldova, a few localities have been reported in the north of the country (Gejdeman 1986).<br/>This species is common in many regions of Central and Eastern European Russia, but protected in Vladimir, Nizhniy Novgorod and Udmurtia regions.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162197		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>The abandonment of pastoral systems has been considered as the main threat as this leads to vegetation succession and competition. Pollution such as the use of fertilisers, eutrophication and acidification cause the habitat quality to degrade. Inadequate forestry management and changes  in the hydraulic conditions such as drainage or flooding of wetlands impact the species. Sand and gravel extraction has been noted as a local threat.
162198		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria provincialis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected at national level in France<span class="tooltip">. The localities near Marseille-Cassis and Massif de l'Allauch are in Natura 2000 sites (Marseille-Cassis will become National Park).
162198		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria provincialis</span> is endemic to the south of France. Its extent of occurrence is <span class="tooltip">240 km², the area of occupancy is between 20-30 km².
162198		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria provincialis</span> is a biannual heliophilous plant that can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8130 "Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span class="tooltip">
162198		population	eng	<span class="tooltip">The species is known from 16 localities, 450 data points from 1 to 5,000 individuals. The species is a small annual that is difficult to count. Individual and population numbers seem stable.
162198		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the use of its habitat by motorbikes, trampling outside hiking tracks, pollution with rubbish, and habitat closure. This species is also sensitive to fires.
162200		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rosmarinus tomentosus</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/></p><p>Its population is partially included in the proteced area Paraje Natural Acantilados Maro-Cerro Gordo. It can be found cultivated in the Jardín Botánico de Córdoba and there are seeds in a germplasm bank.<br/></p>
162200		distribution	eng	<p>Its is endemic to the coastal strip of the provinces of Granada and Málaga, where there are two distinctive populations. Two more locations can be found inland. Its extent of occurrence is 315 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 15 km² (Hernández-Bermejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162200		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occupies a very particular ecological niche, primarily on sea cliffs, with a strong effect by wind and salinity on its dolomitic limestone habitat, that is rich in magnesium. Companions include <span style="font-style: italic;">Asteriscus maritimus, Teucrium polium, </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">clusii , Rosmarinus officinalis, Lavandula dentata, Chamaerops humilis</span>, and so on. Occasionally found in rocks along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Saturejo-Thymbrion</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">capitatae</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>with <span style="font-style: italic;">Buxus balearica,  Sideritis leucantha </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrium carthaginense</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It has a staggered flowering and fruiting period throughout the year. <span title="Hibrida fácilmente con">Hybridizes easily with <span style="font-style: italic;">R. </span><span title="officinalis, con el que convive frecuentemente"><span style="font-style: italic;">officinalis</span>, and commonly coexists <span title="en la periferia de sus poblaciones.">on the periphery of their populations. <span title="Polinizada">It is primarily pollinated <span title="fundamentalmente por abejas, aunque su actuación">by bees. <span title="La proporción">The proportion of non-viable seeds is high, although it varies between populations. <span title="Estudios sobre">Studies reveal that the genetic variation have significant levels of <span title="de diferenciación local3">differentiation.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="El 75% de los individuos pertenecen"><span title="Se ha observado nascencia"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162200		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hibrida fácilmente con"><span title="officinalis, con el que convive frecuentemente"><span title="en la periferia de sus poblaciones."><span title="Polinizada"><span title="fundamentalmente por abejas, aunque su actuación"><span title="La proporción"><span title="Estudios sobre"><span title="de diferenciación local3"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Four subpopulations known with a total population of 52,603 individuals. Their population density is 0.1 to 0.2 individuals/m². <span title="El 75% de los individuos pertenecen">75% of individuals belong to the age group between 25 and 50 years, 10% above 50 years and 10% are young individuals between two and five years. <span title="Se ha observado nascencia">Growth was observed but mostly seedlings fail to live more than a year.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
162200		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Human pressures are the main threats: urbanization, tourism (swimmers, rock climbers), pollution, landfills and road construction. <span title="En la población de">In the population located at Almuñécar, due to urbanization, a core of 250 individuals in 1993 has been reduced to 30. In Castell de Ferro, two subpopulations have totally disappeared due to road construction. <span title="Hibridación con R.">Hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">R. </span><span title="officinalis."><span style="font-style: italic;">officinalis</span> and the high probability of fires in its habitat are also problems, as well as <span title="Predación">predation <span title="de semillas por insectos">of seeds by insects.</span></span></span>
162201		conservation	eng	This plant is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Iris humilis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arenaria</span>.<br/><br/>It is included in Red Data Book of Ukraine as Vulnerable (Diduch 2009) and is protected in the national park Svjati Gory and in the protected area Chervonoberezja.<br/><br/> In Slovakia, it is classified as Critically Endangered and all the localities are included in one Natura 2000 site (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is listed as Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000). In Hungary, it is classed as Near Threatened (Király 2007). In Serbia, it is estimated to be Critically Endangered (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).
162201		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris humilis</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is native to Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Russia. <br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in the forest-steppe (lesosteppe) zone and in the valley of the Siverskij Donec river penetrated in steppe zone. In Slovakia the species reaches the north western limit of its distribution area, in three localities in the Čenkovský les Forest on the Podunajská nížina Lowland (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162201		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris humilis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arenaria </span>can be found in rock-outcrop vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca pallens</span>, narrow-leaved dry grasslands, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria</span> graslands, broad-leaved dry grasslands   . In Ukraine it grows in natural and cultivated pine forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatillo-Pinetea</span> class, in sands in <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetea viginatae</span> class. In Slovakia the species grows on calcareous sands, in non-forest communities or in forest stand clearings (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/>&#160;<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li> 6120 Xeric sand calcareous grasslands</li><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>91I0 Euro-Siberian steppic woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>spp.</li><li>91N0 Pannonic inland sand dune thicket <span style="font-style: italic;">(Junipero-Populetum albae</span>)</li></ul>
162201		population	eng	<p>The Hungarian populations consist of 5,000,000 to 15,000,000 inviduals; 4,000 tufts have been counted in Czech Republic (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Serbia, it is estimated to be Critically Endangered (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). In Ukraine, the population density is low with only 5-10 individuals/m². In Slovakia the individual populations number from 30 to 110 plants. Their size and  their number are more or less stabilized. Considering the small scale  occurrence on rare sand habitats, these populations are in danger of  extinction (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/> </p><p><br/></p>
162201		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>The main threats to the species are overgrazing on one hand as well as the abandonment of pastoral systems which leads to the overgrowth of the habitat and increased competition for the species. Recreational activities and trampling are further threats. Forest plantations lead to habitat loss and locally, urbanisation and industrial or commercial infrastructure development affect this species. Fires and the collection of this plant have also been reported (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162203		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphrasia genargentea</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162203		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphrasia genargentea </span>is native to the islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy).
162203		habitat	eng	This perennial plant can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus </span>grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li></ul>
162203		population	eng	In the island of Sardinia this species is only present in one locality   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Corsica, it is found in more than 30 localities and there is no evidence of decline. The species is still poorly known.
162203		threats	eng	The main threat described to this species is abandonment of pastoral systems   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162204		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Nepeta dirphya</span>. It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. The population of the plant is included in the NATURA 2000 site GR242002.
162204		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to Greece</a> where it is found at Evvoia Island on the mountains Dirfys and Xirovouni. The extent of occurrence is 65 km² and the area of occcupancy is less than 20 km².<br/></p>
162204		habitat	eng	It grows on screes, soil pockets in stony or rocky sites, more rarely in rock crevices, on limestone, usually in full sun. It prefers the humid bioclimate with cold or hard winter. Flowering period is from early or mid June to mid or late August.
162204		population	eng	<p>According to Trigas (2003) the plant is locally common throughout Dirfys and Xirovouni at altitudes between 1,000-1,600 m, consisting of several thousands of individuals. Only one subpopulation of a few tenths of individuals was found at Agali gorge at low altitudes.<br/><br/></p>
162204		threats	eng	According to Trigas (2003), the plant grows at sites which are distant from intense human activities and it is apparently not affected by grazing. It seems that the plant does not face any immediate threat at present. The probable intensification of ecotourism development and the collection of the plant may threaten the plant in the future.
162205		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Berberis maderensis</span> is listed  on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the  Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats  (Bern Convention). It is listed under the Top 100 priority taxa for Macaronesia (Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/></p><p><strong style="font-weight: normal;">The area where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. maderensis</span> occurs is under protection of the Parque Natural da Madeira and it is included in the Natura Network 2000</strong>.<br/></p>
162205		distribution	eng	This species is   endemic to the island of Madeira, Portugal (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 194 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162205		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on rocky slopes and walls, in Madeira's central mountains ridge. This plant forms part of the Habitats Directive listed habitat 4050 "Endemic Macaronesian heaths" (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <strong></strong></p>
162205		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Berberis maderensis </span>population is restricted to one area and was believed to be stable. The population size has been estimated to be below 1,000 mature individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this species.
162205		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are posed by natural catastrophes such as landslides or factors such as erosion. This plant also suffers from competition with native flora (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and exotic flora (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There is also a major threat that arises from fires such as the one in summer 2010 that affected the Central Mountain Massif (J.A. Carvalho, unpublished data).<strong></strong></p><p></p>
162209		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. jankae</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it is considered Endangered B2ab(iii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and protected at national level. It is found in Natura 2000 areas, one also protected under the national law.<br/><br/>Measures needed are research of the population distribution, biology, and trend.
162209		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea jankae </span>is endemic to Romania and Bulgaria. It was long believed to be a regional endemic to Romanian Dobrudja, until it was discovered in Bulgaria in 2007. There are two known localities in  Romania, although literature sources indicate four. One population is on the southwestern border of Babadag forest where the species was last seen in 2001 and the population is almost extinct; the second still rather large population is found on the  northern cliff of Dolojman Cape natural reservation (Badarau and Malos 2011). Within Bulgaria, it has been found in the northeast, at Taushan Tepe hill, north of the village of Nevsha in the Varna district. Another location is found at Probitiya Kamuk, Venchanski Dyuz hill, west of the village Venchan. In Bulgaria, the extent of occurrence is less than 100 km² and the area of occupancy is 1 km².
162209		habitat	eng	It is found at lower altitude from 130 m to 320 m, especially in Bulgaria, mostly on either gentle or steep slopes. The locality that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. jankae</span> prefers includes cretaceous limestone base rocks with variation of marls, clayey marls and limestones (Petrova 2007). It grows along with other shrubs like <span style="font-style: italic;">Paliurus spina-christi</span> as well as grasses like<span style="font-style: italic;"> Stipa pulcherrima</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysopogon gryllus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa capillata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca valesiaca</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dichantium ischaemum</span>.
162209		population	eng	The population of this species in Bulgaria is 550 individuals in the grassland of Taushan Tepe hill and 700 individuals at Probitiya Kamuk, which lies about 6 km to the southeast of Taushan Tepe hill. They are sparsely distributed in at least one locality. There are two populations in Romania, the larger population has about 300 individuals. This species is severely fragmented in both Bulgaria and Romania. The population trend is unknown.
162209		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. jankae</span> is an endangered species in both Bulgaria and Romania. In Bulgaria, the main threat comes from the abandonment of grazing and further changes in land management which leads to changes in vegetation (spreading of shrubs) and increased competition for this species. Fires might be a potential threat.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
162210		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tozzia carpathica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Slovakia the plant is classified as Near Threatened; it occurs in five Natura 2000 sites covering 76.5% of its localities (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Bulgaria, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tozzia alpina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">carpathica</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the national red list (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Tozzia alpina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">carpathica</span> is Critically Endangered in Serbia   (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). It is not included in the Hungarian Red List.
162210		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tozzia carpathica</span>'s<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>natural range lies in the Carpathians and Balkan Mountains. It is found in Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. <br/>In the Ukraine Carpathians it grows in the subalpine belt from 1,140-1,890 m asl in&#160; the mountain massif Chornogora. <br/>In Slovakia its distribution is patchy in the Západné Beskydy Mts (surroundings of Oravská Lesná, Zákamenné, Oravská Polhora and Oravice, on Mt. Kubínska hoľa), in Krivánska Malá Fatra Mts, Chočské vrchy Mts (Úplazíky Nature Reserve, Jalovská dolina Valley), Čergov (Mt. Čergov) and in the Bukovské vrchy Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <br/>In Poland, the species occurs on Mt. Babia Góra and in the Bieszczady Mts., with additional smaller populations in the Beskid Śląski Mts. and Beskid Żywiecki Mts. (Kalinka and Nowak 2004). <br/>In north-central Greece, it is found at  Varnous Mts (Kalo Nero peak, 5 km south to south-southeast of Kortsa Toumpa peak), north Pindos (Smolikas). The species is apparently rare in Greece and has a small extent of occurrence of 300 km², a small area of occupancy of 12 km², and small number of locations.  <br/><span class="shorttext1"><span lang="CS"><span class="shorttext1"></span>
162210		habitat	eng	The species is found in flood plains and montane stream margins rarely also in dwarf pine and alder stands and moist forests on wet, nutrient-rich, neutral to alkaline soils, in the montane vegetation belt. Also in shady ravines and along rivulets in subalpine meadows 1,900-2,050 m on various substrates. The plant has an interesting life cycle, containing both a parasitic and a semiparasitic phase. <br/>It is not known on which host species the Carpathian Tozzia parasitizes but they are probably species of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Petasites</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostyles </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicerbita</span> (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of  the montane to alpine levels</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li></ul>
162210		population	eng	In Poland, it has been estimated that the population consists of 10,000 flowering stems    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Slovakia, the species has been recorded in 20 localities    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Typically more than 100 individuals were noted at the  various localities. The size of the species populations and their number  are more or less stable  (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Ukraine, it has been recorded in eight localities. There is no data on population size in Greece. The sole references are since the 1980s (Strid  and Franzén 1982). On the other hand, the distribution area may be  larger since it occurs at parts of Greece which are still not thoroughly  surveyed.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162210		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are forestry clearance, removal of forest undergrowth, canalisation and their natural processes   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Slovakia there is not a&#160;serious threat to the habitats. Inconsiderate timber felling and also complete shading of the species sites can be harmful to the localities (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162211		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum capillare</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is listed in the National Red Data Book as Vulnerable D2 (Georghiu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81. A small part of the subpopulation on Parnassos and a small part of the subpopulation on Gkiona are included in Natura 2000 areas.
162211		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum capillare</span> is an endemic species to Greece. There are two locations (one subpopulation) on Mount Parnassos and three locations (two subpopulations) on Mount Gkiona. A new subpopulation was found on Gkiona in summer 2010. The area of occupancy is 12 km² (1x1 km grid) and the extent of occurrence is 268 km².
162211		habitat	eng	The species is found at road cuttings (old and recent), abandoned and non intensively cultivated vineyards and olive groves, stabilised scree, at flat or steep sites, on limestone, at altitudes from 500-1,200 m.
162211		population	eng	In 2003, the total population size was 5,758 individuals plus 2,000 – 10,000 individuals at one location on Gkiona where the population was not counted. The size of the new subpopulation of Gkiona is not known.
162211		threats	eng	The main threat is posed by winter tourism on Parnassos and the construction of winter resorts.
162212		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sedum brissemoretii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162212		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the island of Madeira, Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 131 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It grows at low altitude on the north coast from almost sea level up to 100 m asl., but can sometimes be found at 500 m asl inland. The species has a small area of occupancy (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) which is smaller than 20 km² (J.A. Carvalho and F. Fernandes, unpublished data).
162212		habitat	eng	This species grows on rocky coastal cliffs and can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat type 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162212		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sedum brissemoretii</span> has been recorded in ten localities with a decreasing population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The number of mature individuals is estimated to be less than 1,000 mature individuals (J.A. Carvalho and F. Fernandes unpublished data).<br/></p><p></p>
162212		threats	eng	Main threats described are urbanisation, disposal of inert materials, transport infrastructure, erosion and landslides, and competition with exotic species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162213		conservation	eng	The species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed ad Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). It is listed as species “Vulnerable” in the catalogue of threatened species of the Canary Islands.<br/>  <p>All the subpopulations of the species in Lanzarote but one are within the protected area Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo, also a SCI, and have been classed ZEPAs. In Fuerteventura, the subpopulations are within the Parque Natural de Jandía and SCI de Jandía, and have also been classed as ZEPAs.</p>    <p>The collection and storage of plant material in germplasm banks, the implementation of environmental education programmes and the development of population monitoring plans are the main actions proposed in order to ensure the conservation of the species. The subpopulation of Barranco de Vinámar, Fuerteventura, should be fenced. </p>
162213		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum</span><em> handiense </em>is endemic to the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 300 and 800 m asl. The species is found in two locations, distributed into four subpopulations in Lanzarote, and two in Fuerteventura. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 11 km² (Martín Osorio <em>et al</em>. 2006). Its extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Regressive patterns have been reported for its area of occupancy (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>  <p><br/></p>
162213		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The optimum habitats for the species are associations of shrubs such as <em>Kleinio-Euphorbietea canariensis. </em>Under human and predators pressure the species may appear sheltered in cliffs and crags within rupicolous communities. In Lanzarote it grows mainly along with <em>Euphorbia balsamifera</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula canariensis,</span> and within the association <em>Reichardio famarae-Helychrysetum gossypini. </em>In Fuerteventura it can be found in communities characterized by the presence of <em>Euphorbia canariensis</em>, and in "Monteverde"  shrublands along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus canariensis, Visnea mocanera </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Echium handiense.</span>
162213		population	eng	<p>The population size has been determined to be 510 individuals (305 in Lanzarote and 205 in Fuerteventura) (Martín Osorio <em>et al</em>. 2006). Some subpopulations present a typical pyramidal age structure where the presence of young non-reproductive individuals is predominant. The populations are slightly decreasing (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
162213		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are intensive grazing and habitat quality loss. Changes in land use into crop areas have also been reported as a threat (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
162214		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calamagrostis chalybaea</span> is listed on Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is classed as Least Concern on the Swedish (Gärdenfors 2010) as well as on the Norwegian Red List (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162214		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calamagrostis chalybaea</span> is endemic to Norway and Sweden. A finding in the Kola peninsula in Russia is treated as belonging to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obtusata</span> and not included in this assessment.<br/>The main distribution range is in northcentral Sweden where it is very common. <br/><br/>The Norwegian distribution is limited to four areas in the northeastern corner of North-Trøndelag (Lierne, Røyrvik, Namsskogan, all found in 1993 and 2008) and several localities on inner Helgeland from Grane and Hattfjelldal north to Rana (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162214		habitat	eng	This grass is found in broadleaved or mixed swamp woodland, (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>) taiga woodland, but not above the forest line and not in acid conditions. It occurs near lakes and water courses, brooklets in forests on fertile soils, and below screes and slopes in mountains.
162214		population	eng	The number of mature individuals is several million and the population trend is stable.
162214		threats	eng	The main threats described are forestry clearance and land drainage   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). But the species was misunderstood as it actually starts to flower and increase if forest is being clear cut. In closed forest it only has leaves and it needs forest dynamics to flower. <br/><br/>Forest management including ploughing the ground could negatively affect the species but it is still very common.
162215		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. Conservation measures related to its listing in the national POOC (Coastal Landscape Plan) should be implemented and enforced.
162215		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Omphalodes kuzinskyanae</span> is endemic to central west Portugal   (Cabo da Roca) (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> in prep., ICNB 2006). I<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ts extent of occurrence for Portugal is 278 km²  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162215		habitat	eng	This species grows on the top of coastal cliffs, in sandy soils derived from limestone or igneous rocks. It can also be found in modern dune systems. It prefers the shadow and reaches its ecological optimum in coastal forests. With regards to the Habitats Directive listed habitats, <span style="font-style: italic;">Omphalodes kuzinskyanae</span> can occur in (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium </span>spp. </li><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li><li>2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>spp. </li></ul>
162215		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 11 localities within Portugal   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population size is estimated to be between 40,000 and 50,000 individuals (ICNB 2006).
162215		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are urbanisation, invasive species and fires.
162216		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus cyprius</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Information about the species ecology   is needed (Commission of the European Communities, 2009). All subpopulations are found in state forests, proposed Natura 2000 sites and the species is classed as Vulnerable D2 on the national red list (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
162216		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus cyprius</span> is an endemic species to Cyprus, growing from 1,050 to 1,950 m asl altitude. It can be found at three locations: the Troodos National Forest Park, where it is relatively common,on a smaller area near Kyperounta and in pine forest openings in Kionia. Its geographical range is 23 km² (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162216		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus cyprius</span> is a perennial herb, 5-10 cm high. It can be found mainly in small openings in large forested areas and although the forests are mapped the openings are not. It is a dynamic habitat and the determination of its trends requires specific monitoring (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007, Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6460 Peat grasslands of Troodos</li><li>9530 (Sub-) Mediterranean pine forests with endemic black pines</li><li>9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines</li><li>9560 Endemic forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li></ul>
162216		population	eng	There are three subpopulations of the species, the largest and most extended includes more than 10,000 individuals at many patches in Troodos NFP. The minimum viable population (MVP) of the species is 250-500 mature individuals per subpopulation (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007; Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population trend is unknown.
162216		threats	eng	Localised trampling and construction works have affected negatively some population patches, but these activities can be controlled. Natural fire has been described as a threat for this species. Other threats are climate change and military constructions (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007, Commission of the European Communities, 2009).
162217		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys kotschyi</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Vulnerable C2a(i) on the Red List of Cyprus (Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).    <p>The species can be protected in two fundamental ways through specific protection of the living individuals of the species or through protection and management of the habitats of the species:</p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Type of habitat management that imitates the traditional agriculture or forestry of the locality of the species. </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
162217		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">    </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1">    </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1">The geographical range of</a> <span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys kotschyi</span> includes the southern part of mainland <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a number of islands in the southern part of the <st1:place>Aegean Sea</st1:place> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<em> </em>The species is found from sea level to 1,000 m altitude (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). <br/></p>  <em></em><p></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em></em></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a></p>  <p></p>
162217		habitat	eng	<p>  <a name="OLE_LINK1">Typical habitats of </a><em><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Ophrys kotschyi</em></a></em> include grassland, garrigue and old, pesticide-free olive groves, open pine woods, roadside slopes. This species grows in calcareous, dry to moist soils in full sun to light shade. The flowering time is from mid-February to early May with a peak from mid-March to mid-April   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). This species can occur also at wet places with moderate saline influence under planted acacia or pine. It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):</p><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub<br/></li><li>5420 <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarcopoterium spinosum</span> phryganas</li><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea and Ceratonia</span> forests</li><li>9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines</li></ul>
162217		population	eng	The population size in Cyprus has been estimated at around 2,000 individuals. This was estimated accurately only once in 2004-2006 at most but not at all the known localities of the species, so the population trend cannot be determined (Commission of the European Communities 2009).&#160; In Cyprus, it has been found in 30 localities. The subpopulations are usually small with about 50 individuals. There are a few sites with more individuals: Mammari with 500 plants, Mitsero and Kato Moni with 200 plants, Alambra with 200 plants and Akrotiri Peninsula with 300-400 plants (Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).
162217		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Ophrys kotschyi</em></a> requires specific habitats and therefore it is assumed that the species is declining with the impoverishment of natural environments, urbanisation, construction work and residential buildings. The increase in tourism activities and collection of the species poses major threats (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</p>
162218		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stemmacantha cynaroides</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). On the Spanish Red List it is classed as Critically Endangered C2a(ii) (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The full population is within the protected area Parque Nacional de Teide (SCI) (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="Todas sus"><span title="Existen semillas en Bancos de">There are seeds in the germplasm bank of the Jardin Botanico Viera y Clavijo <span title="y E.T.S.">and E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos. A<span title="Se está"> specific recovery programme which provides, among other measures, monitoring of population dynamics, reintroductions and establishment of enclosures, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas sus"><span title="Existen semillas en Bancos de"><span title="y E.T.S."><span title="Se está">is currently being developed<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas sus"><span title="Existen semillas en Bancos de"><span title="y E.T.S."><span title="Se está">.<br/><br/>Reinforcement of natural populations and benign introduction measures should be kept on place. Plant material has to be stored in germplasm banks.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162218		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stemmacantha cynaroides</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="tamaño."><span title="se encuentra en una sola localidad.">It occurs at high altitude, from 2,000 to 2,500 m asl, distributed throughout five locations. Its disappearance has been observed in various locations in <span title="recientes.">recent times, such as in Gangarro, Roques Balancos, Siete Cañadas and La Fortaleza. The area of occupancy is 5 km².<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="tamaño."><span title="se encuentra en una sola localidad."><span title="recientes."></span></span></span></span>
162218		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En estos ambientes"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">This herb species<span title="La productividad puede"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> develops in areas over 2,000 m in valleys, plains and hillsides where there is sparse scrub coverage and pyroclasts or thepra accumulation<span id="result_box" class="long_text">. This is a very specific and extreme habitat where few species are able to thrive.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="En estos ambientes">It is commonly accompanied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartocytisus supranubius, Argyranthemum teneriffae, Tolpis webbii, Echium auberianum </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Erysimum scoparium.</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La productividad puede"><span title="Estas diásporas"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="Por el contrario, en el resto de"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162218		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is found on the mountains of Tenerife, occurring in scattered populations of small <span title="tamaño.">sizes. So far five populations have been detected, although nearly 90% of individuals are in one location. Total population recorded in Tenerife is 151 individuals. Regressive trends have been reported for its population size (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><br/>The abundance of rabbits and<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>mouflons<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>prevent many species from reaching adulthood.  The o<span title="Tan">nly population that exhibits optimal structure, with an abundance of seedlings and juveniles with 101 individuals is in the Mario Corridor, probably due to protective fencing in the area. <span title="Por el contrario, en el resto de"><span title="localidades los herbívoros introducidos inciden">Introduced herbivores affect localities continuously, especially plundering the floral flower heads which translates into a potential limitation of floral production, decreased production of seeds <span title="y una significativa mortandad de adultos.">and a significant mortality of adults. <span title="En este">Although a long-living species (possibly over 100 years), survival of their population is dependent to a large extent on seed banks. It is therefore concluded that the subpopulations are severely fragmented.<br/></span></span></span></span></span>
162218		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main problem affecting the taxon is predation exerted by rabbits and mouflons. <span title="En">There is also evidential parasitism by certain insects. <span title="El">Collection of this plant, which is now rather controlled, still occurs in the best known and easily accessible populations. Populations in Corral del Niño, Llano de Cuevas Negras and Llano de Maja, are in decline and likely to disappear.</span>
162219		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Himantoglossum adriaticum </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/><br/>It is included in several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic and Slovakia</li><li>Endangered in Austria and Hungary</li><li>Vulnerable in Slovenia</li><li>Near Threatened in Croatia</li></ul>It is under national protection in Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia. Throughout its range it is found in protected areas. In Slovakia, the species is found in two Natura 2000 sites (81% of all localities) and also in small scale nature reserves. In Slovenia, Austria and Czech Republic it it also occurs in Natura 2000 sites. In Hungary, 50% of localities are in protected areas and more than 50% in Natura 2000 sites but the two biggest populations are not in a protected area.<br/><br/>Monitoring is taking place in some sites in Austria and Slovenia and future monitoring of the localities is recommended.
162219		distribution	eng	This orchid is a European endemic and is found in Austria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Slovakia, Slovenia. The Czech Republic is at the boarder of the distribution.
162219		habitat	eng	This orchid is found in open oak forests and dry grassland. It often occurs in secondary habitats such as road sides, vineyards and abandoned mines. It can be found from lowland to hill regions.<br/><br/>The following habitats from the Habitats Directe are suitable for this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>91H0 Pannonian woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span></li></ul>
162219		population	eng	The population is stable in parts of its range, but there is an overall decline.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, there are approximately ten localities, stable and increasing at some localities, and the populations are rather small. In Hungary, it grows in 20-25 localities and has been stable in the last 10 years, but there was habitat loss before that. In Czech Republic, there is one locality with 30-40 individuals. The Italian populations are stable. Austria hosts at least 50 localities and the bigger populations are stable. The populations in Slovenia are slightly declining, there the plant is scattered in the vine growing regions.
162219		threats	eng	There are several threats to this species. Change in land use such as abandonment of grassland on slopes leads to succession and therefore competition for this orchid. A similar threat is posed by the introduction of invasive species, namely <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia</span> sp., that cause shading. The intensification of agriculture, high rates of fertilisation, and inappropriate forest management lead to a degradation of the species habitat. Threats to the species itself are wild boars that eat the plants and collectors that pick it for ornamental use. Mining is a local threat in some areas.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162220		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Is also listed on Annex II of Decreto 181/2005 that regulates the Endangered Species Catalogue of Aragón (Gobierno de Aragón 2005).</p><p>The Aragón Regional Government (Spain) is carrying out research and conservation actions since 1997. Plants and habitat are preserved in small plots protected from grazing by fencing, in which <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> reintroduction has been experimented. Seeds are preserved in germplasm banks. Germination protocols have been established and seedlings have been used for <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> reintroductions and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation. A joint management plan for the endemic flora of the Sierra de Javalambre mountain range has been drawn up (Gobierno de Aragón 2008).<br/><br/>Nevertheless, the expansion of the skiing complex has affected the habitat and population of one of six locations where the species is distributed. A second location has also been affected by the construction of an access to the new Astronomical Observatory of Javalambre.<br/></p>
162220		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Spain (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010), where it occurs restricted to summits of the Sierra de Javalambre, province of Teruel (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). This species is distributed into six locations, its extent of occurrence has been reported to be lower than 20 km² and its area of occupancy slightly higher than 1 km².</p>
162220		habitat	eng	This species grows in open spaces or degraded pine forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus sabina</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>on rocky and clayey soils. It can also be found in sparse dry grasslands over rocky soils   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162220		population	eng	Population size has been estimated in 194,800 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Fluctuations have been identified in population size due to predation on flowers, but not extreme fluctuations.
162220		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are grazing activities, quarrying and the expansion of a skiing complex (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is social pressure on the establishment of access to this skiing complex from the south (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
162221		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and <span style="background-color: white;">as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.</span> It occurs in the SCI Barranco de Argaga.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
162221		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), where it grows at low altitude on the western part of the island (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/></p><p>It can be found distributed into two subpopulations: Barranco de Argaga and Barbolán (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Two more subpopulations were reported in the past. One of them was not re-found in 2003; the other reference is imprecise and the presence of this subpopulations has not been verified on the field. Its AOO is 1-1.5 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
162221		habitat	eng	This rupicolous plant occurs in steep slopes and embankments of altered environments within <em>Grenovio</em>-<em>Aeonietea</em> associations. It is also found among scrubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaeo arborescentis-Schizogynetum sericeae</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/><em></em>
162221		population	eng	A total population size of 554 individuals was recorded in 2003 (Commission of the European Communities 2009). From these, only one mature individual occurred in Barbolán. No information on the evolution of population size is available but there is no evidence of declining trends (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
162221		threats	eng	Grazing has been reported to be the main threat to this species in the past (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), but its impact on the species has been reported to be currently negligible.
162222		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus kykkoensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It has been listed Vulnerable D2 on the national red list. The entire population occurs within a proposed Natura 2000 site and part of it is located in a Nature Reserve area (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
162222		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>, restricted to four locations in the Pafos Forest, from Kykkos Monastery to Stavros tis Psokas and at Mavroi Gkremmoi, between 800 and 1,100 m asl altitude (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Its extent of occurrence is 32 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162222		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus kykkoensis </span>is an erect, glabrous perennial herb that occurs in steep, moist rocky slopes and screes, in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span> forests or in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus alnifolia</span> scrub.<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>9390 Scrub and low forest vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus alnifolia</span></li><li>9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines</li></ul>
162222		population	eng	A population of 2,700 individuals has been recorded (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162222		threats	eng	The main threats are road improvement and maintenance, and overcollection (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Natural fire are furthermore a potential threat (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162223		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain. It is listed CR B1ab(iv)+2ac(iv); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/>Seeds should be stored in germplasm banks and periodical population trend monitoring should be developed.
162223		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia bifoliolata</span> is endemic to the northeastern coast of the island of Menorca, Balearic Islands, Spain (Fraga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it can be found between 0 and 100 m asl, in one location: Cala Mesquida. Its area of occupancy and extent of occurrence have been estimated at 1 km²<sup></sup>. <br/></p><p><br/> </p><p><br/></p>
162223		habitat	eng	<p>This annual plant occurs in coastal shrublands, preferably along with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cistus monspeliensis</span>, in the eastern coast of Menorca over siliceous soils.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It can also grow in halophile grasslands over partially flooded sandy soils in exposed sites, along with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Juncus acutus</span>   (Fraga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/></p><p><br/><br/></p>
162223		population	eng	It has been estimated that its population size is between 500 and 1,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, Fraga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) recorded 18 individuals in one location in southeast Menorca.<br/>It is hard to precise the population size of this species due to the fluctuations it suffers throughout different years and its hardly visible appearance in vegetative state. Probably new populations could be found in the northeastern coast of the island in years with an appropriate climate for the development of this taxon (Fraga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162223		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are natural fires and changes in land use, trampling and collection (Fraga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Storms, cyclones and other natural processes have been as well reported as threats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162224		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/></p><span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia </span>spp<span style="font-style: italic;">. dorycnifolia</span> is listed as NT in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">grosii </span>is included as species "de especial protección" in the regional catalogue of threatened species and species of special protection of the Balearic Islands. It listed as CR B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v); C2a(ii) (Moreno 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162224		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia</span> is endemic to the island of Ibiza, Balearic Islands, Spain (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It has developed into two different subspecies. <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> dorycnifolia</span> is abundant in the north-western part of the island. <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> grosii </span>is endemic to the north-eastern coast of Ibiza, where it is found in one single location, with an area of occupancy of 1 km² (Torres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162224		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This shrub grows in heliophile scrublands, on rocky sites and slopes of coastal areas with <span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrium cossonii</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">punicum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis grosii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scabiosa cretica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis ibicensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus phoenicea</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rosmarinus officinalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula dichotoma</span> among others   (Torres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="entre otras3."></span>
162224		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> dorycnifolia </span>has been described as abundant. Total population size for <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista dorycnifolia </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">grosii</span> has been reported to be 121 individuals (Torres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The overall population trend is unknown.
162224		threats	eng	Threats described for this species are forestry clearance, droughts, grazing and natural fires   (Torres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sin embargo">Small populations are concentrated in a very restricted area and present a relatively low number of individuals. Its <span title="Su">location in forested areas poses high risk due to forest fires.</span>
162225		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia ascanii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Critically Endangered B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); C2a(i); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Parque Natural de Tamadaba (SCI). It is cultivated and seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include eradication of grazing species in the crags of Tamadaba-Guayedra, control of recreational activities within the Parque Natural de Tamadaba, collection and storage of seeds from every subpopulation and development of genetic recovery programmes.
162225		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia ascanii</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain, where it can be found from 900 to 1,150 m asl, restricted to high crags in Tamadaba, on the northwestern part of the island (Marrero and Almeida Pérez 2004)</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is present in three fragmented subpopulations from Guayedra to Faneque. Its extent of occurrence is lower than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy has been estimated in 1-4 km².<br/></p><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><p><br/><span class="Verdana"><strong><em></em></strong></p></span>
162225		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows in inaccessible cracks and ledges of crags, within communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosi</span>, in the lower distribution range of pine forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinetum canariensis</span> subas.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ericetosum arboreae</span>, with rupicolous vegetation and elements of&#160; "monteverde" and thermophile forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Visneo mocanerae-Arbutetum canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno-Juniperion canariensis</span>, under the influence of trade winds.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Le acompañan Pinus"> Frequent accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus ochreatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum rigidum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea cerasiformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus arbutifolius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> eurifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia aurea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Babcockia platylepis</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It presents limited vegetative propagation, by stolons. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Le acompañan Pinus"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Flowering occurs from&#160;<span title="vegetative limited by stolons, forming">mid-April to July and fructification, from June-July to October.</span></span></span>
162225		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sólo se ha"><span title="núcleo poblacional."><span title="Su área">Total population has been estimated in 38 individuals. From these, 30 individuals occur in one subpopulation, five individuals in another location and three in the third one (</span></span>Marrero and Almeida Pérez 2004<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sólo se ha"><span title="núcleo poblacional."><span title="Su área">). Populations have been reported to be severely fragmented.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Expansion is limited by the low ecological plasticity of the species, which appears not to<span title="Sólo se ha"> be able to <span title="núcleo poblacional.">colonize new areas. There is almost no population growth rate (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<span title="Su área"></span></span></span></span>
162225		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threats to the species are population reduction and fragmentation, due to predation by goats, human presence and recreational activities, landslides, droughts and natural competition (Marrero and Almeida Pérez 2004<span id="result_box" class="long_text">). Its low ecological plasticity has been also reported as a threat.</span>
162226		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea rothmalerana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. As this species is little known, research on its distribution, population size and trend and potential threats is needed.
162226		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea rothmalerana</span> is endemic to the Serra da Estrela in north Portugal (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 350 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162226		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountain grasslands, in Mediterranean xeric grasslands  and in clearings in decidious forest (ICN 2006). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6220 "Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span>" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162226		population	eng	There is no data on population size or trend available    (Commission of the European Communities 2009, <span class="tooltip">ICN 2006).<p></p>
162226		threats	eng	There is no information on potential and actual threats available.
162228		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive.<em> <br/><br/>L. procumbens</em> was classed as Regionally Extinct in Switzerland. Nowadays it is classed Critically Endangered and legally protected. The only population known occurs in a Natural Reserve. This species requires water regime fluctuations to progress and site management measures have to take this aspect into account. Furthermore, it is classed as Endangered in Austria (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999) and in Croatia (Nicolić and Topić 2005) and i<span class="tooltip">t is considered to be  Vulnerable in Serbia (V. Stevanovic pers. comm. 2010). The species is <span class="tooltip">protected throughout France and specifically in the  departements of Rhône-Alpes and Auvergne. In Germany, it is classed as Endangered (level 2) in the national Red List   <a name="OLE_LINK3">(Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</a>.  <span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">Categorized as Near Threatened (NT) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).</st1:country-region><br/><span class="tooltip"><br/><span class="tooltip"><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is taking place (Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.<br/><br/>    <p><br/><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p>  <span class="tooltip"></span></span></span>
162228		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
162228		distribution	eng	<em>Lindernia procumbens</em> occurs from eastern Europe, through Siberia, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, India, Pakistan and Nepal east to China, Japan, Taiwan, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam and apparently on Java. In Europe, it occurs throughout much of the southern part from Greece and Albania, extending north to France, Germany, Poland, Belarus and Central and Southern European Russia   <st1:country-region w:st="on">(I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).</st1:country-region>  <br/><br/>Total geographic range for Austria, Italy, France, Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, Slovenia, Hungary and Slovakia has been estimated in 66,615 km²   from which more than 70% belong to Italy with 18,799 km², Poland with 17,840 km² and Hungary with 15,312 km²   (Commission of the European Communities, 2009).<br/><br/>In Switzerland, the plant is found at one locality of 1 km² at 200 m, it is severely restricted.
162228		distribution	eng	The species occurs from southern Europe, east through Siberia, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, India, Pakistan and Nepal east to southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui,  Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Heilongjiang, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu,  Jiangxi, Jilin, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan, Taiwan (Province of China), Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam and Indonesia (Yamazaki 1990, Cook 1996, Kress<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Ahmed 2009, Kwek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, GRIN 2011, NMNH 2011).
162228		habitat	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK101">The species is a classic species of nutrient-rich or organic silt in the drawdown zones of lakes, reservoirs and ponds, also occurring on the beds of drained fishponds and oxbow lakes, as well as rice fields, sandy humid waste ground, marshes, river banks and wet low-lying areas.</a>
162228		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. procumbens</span> is an annual herb, classic species of nutrient-rich or organic silt in the draw-down zones of lakes and ponds, also occurring on the beds of drained fishpond and oxbow lakes. It is also present in the Habitats Directive habitats 3130<span style="font-weight: bold;"> "</span>Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span>"<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> and 3270<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>"Rivers with muddy banks with <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodion rubri </span>p.p. and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bidention </span>p.p. vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Switzerland, this species occurs in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bidention tripartitate</span> communities and also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Nanocyperion</span> communities. It can be found in very sunny seasonally inundated areas.&#160; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162228		population	eng	<em></em><span class="tooltip">The population has been estimated for some countries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009<span class="tooltip">):<br/><ul><li><span class="tooltip">Austria: 600 - 60,000 individuals</li><li><span class="tooltip">Czech Republic: it is found at eight localities</span></li><li><span class="tooltip">France: 73 localities</li><li><span class="tooltip">Germany: 21 localities</span></li><li><span class="tooltip">Hungary: 10,000 - 200,000 individuals</li><li><span class="tooltip">Italy: 17 localities</span></li><li><span class="tooltip">Poland: 4,000 individuals</li><li><span class="tooltip">Slovakia: 1 - 20 localities</span></li><li><span class="tooltip">Slovenia: 25 localities</li></ul><span class="tooltip">It was classed Regionally Extinct in Switzerland but one new location was found and the population is estimated in about 10 individuals.<span class="tooltip"><br/><span class="tooltip"> <br/>Throughout most of its European range, it is widespread with stable populations.</span></span></span>
162228		population	eng	No population information available.
162228		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia procumbens</span> faces local threats in parts of its range especially from changes in the hydrological regimes such as canalisation and the artificial regulation of water levels. The infilling of water bodies, the removal of sediment as well as flooding or drying out negatively affects the populations. Water pollution and eutrophication are further threats often related to agricultural practices and the use of pesticides. Locally, invasive species pose a problem   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162228		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
162230		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex malato-belizii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162230		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex malato-belizii</span> is an endemic species to Madeira.
162230		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162230		population	eng	This species has been described in three localities within Madeira Island and its population trend is unknown    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162230		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species apart from competition with native plants (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162231		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marsilea azorica </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. There is only one population with limited dispersal possibilities due to habitat isolation and the lack of dispersal agents. Active management is needed in order to assure long term survival of the population    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162231		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marsilea azorica </span>is endemic to Terceira Island, Azores, Portugal. The geographic range of the species has been estimated to be only 1 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and is actually probably less than 200 m².
162231		habitat	eng	This species grows in oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters in sandy, clayey and silty substrates and under photophyte conditions. <span style="font-style: italic;">M. Azorica</span> colonizes the Habitats Directive habitat 3130 "Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoëto Nanojuncetea</span>"<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
162231		population	eng	The species population has been estimated between 400 and 500 individuals and the populations have a stable trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, as <span style="font-style: italic;">Marsilea azorica</span> is a spreading rhizomatous clonal plant, the population is almost certainly a single clone and therefore of 400-500 individuals could be misleading and inaccurate (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2010).
162231		threats	eng	The species is currently found at one site only where potential threats include grazing, trampling, agriculture and forestry activities, the construction of communication networks, drainage or other changes in hydraulic conditions and it is very vulnerable to natural catastrophes or species invasion (Commission of the European Communities 2009).   <p><span lang="EN-GB">The site has recently been fenced to protect from casual damage. However, this may have a negative effect as coarse grasses present at one end of the site may now be spreading and could replace the plant (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2010).</p>
162232		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monanthes wildpretii </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<span style="background-color: white;"> It is listed as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.</span><br/><br/>The population can be found within the national protected area Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos.
162232		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Bañares Baudet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it is only known in one locality in the north of the island, in Macizo de Anaga. The area of occupancy is 1 km².<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162232		habitat	eng	This species grows in fissures, crevices and small paths in steep rocky basaltic slopes. <span style="font-style: italic;">M. wildpretii</span> forms part of rupiculous communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonietum canariensis</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span>) and is frequently accompanied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Monanthes laxiflora, Paronychia canariensis, Aeonium ciliatum, Roccella canariensis </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> R. fuciformis</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En estas situaciones M."><span title="wildpretii"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="La autofecundación,"><span title="Su floración"><span title="Su carácter mesomórfico,"><span title="su separación de M."><span title="minima, taxón al que"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span></span></span>
162232		population	eng	Total population size in the only known location Cercanias de Chinamada, was estimated with  481 individuals (Bañares Baudet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In 2009 a total population of 593 individuals was reported (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). From those, 504 were adult.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Its perennial nature and ability to produce abundant stolons gives some stability to the population, although no information is available on the population dynamics, germination and seedling recruitment. Drought has a severe effect but their small size allows it to develop in micro-habitats to ensure shelter that will insulate in harsh weather conditions.<span title="climáticas adversas."><span title="es inferior a 1.000 m2"></span>
162232		threats	eng	The proximity of the population to the parish road that connects Las Carboneras with Caserío de Chinamada makes the species vulnerable and causes the degradation and alteration of its habitat. On the other hand, the rupicolous character of this species limits its potential distribution to and availability of appropriate habitat. Collection can also impact this species negatively.<span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162233		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Symphytum cycladense</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the National Red Data Book as Vulnerable D (Snogerup and Snogerup in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81.
162233		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Greece and only known from the island of Sikinos and the neighbouring islet of Kardiotissa (Snogerup and Snogerup in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Th<span style="background-color: white;">e extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are very small as Sikinos itself is only 42 km².</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162233		habitat	eng	It grows in shady, stony and rocky places on limestone at 90-300 m (Snogerup and Snogerup in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162233		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The total number of individuals is not known but t</span><span style="background-color: white;">he number of mature individuals in each of the two subpopulations is rather small, up to a few hundred individuals (Snogerup and Snogerup in: Phitos </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2009). The population trend is unknown.<br/></span>
162233		threats	eng	The areas where the plant grows are not easily accessible (Snogerup and Snogerup in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and therefore no major threats are known.
162234		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Musschia aurea</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162234		distribution	eng	The genus<span style="font-style: italic;"> Musschia </span>is endemic to Madeira Islands, Portugal. The extent of occurrence for <span style="font-style: italic;">Musschia aurea</span> is 682 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162234		habitat	eng	This species belongs to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapidendro angustifoliae-Aeonion glutinosi</span> and grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1250 "Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162234		population	eng	The species is present in 25 localities with a declining trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162234		threats	eng	The most important threats are agriculture and forestry activities, urbanisation, communication networks, and natural catastrophes such as landslides. The species also suffers from competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162235		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Verbascum litigiosum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. The following conservation measures are recommended (ICN 2006):<br/><ul><li>Study the taxonomy, distribution, the population and reproduction biology of the species</li><li>Regulate changes in land use, urban and tourism expansion, and control the trampling and erosion of dune systems</li><li>Reintroductions</li><li>Prohibit the extraction of sand.</li><li>Regulate accessibility of the species habitat and raise public awareness.</li></ul>
162235		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal where it extends from the Algarve to the Serra da Boa Viagem, in the centre-west, centre-south, and southwest (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 1,800 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162235		habitat	eng	A perennial plant of up to 2 m height that flowers in spring and at the beginning of summer. It occurs in sandy soils of dunes that are more or less stabilised (ICN 2006). <br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li><li>2150  Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Calluno-Ulicetea</span>)</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia</span> dune grasslands</li><li>2260<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cisto-Lavenduletalia</span> dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li></ul>
162235		population	eng	<p>The habitat of the species has been very degraded and population declines are therefore assumed. Subpopulations occur along the coast and are severely fragmented. There is no information on the population size available (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
162235		threats	eng	The main threats are the expansion of urban and tourism areas, agricultural activities, and the extraction of inert materials. Locally, erosion and trampling poses a problem in the dunes (ICN 2006).
162239		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed CR B2ab(iii); C2a(i); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected areas Parque Rural de Valle Gran Rey, Monumento Natural Barranco del Cabrito (SCI) and SCI de Barranco Argaga y Cuenca de Benchijigua-Guarimiar.<br/><br/>Reinforcement measures have been implemented in the location of El Azadoe. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> produced plants can be found in the Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest. Plants have been produced <span style="font-style: italic;">in vitro </span>at the Conservatoire Botanique de Porquerolles and afterwards cultivated in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and in the Vivero y Centro de Visitantes del Parque Nacional de Garajonay.<br/><br/>Plant material from every subpopulation should be collected and stored in germplasm banks. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> cultivation should be developed and population reinforcement actions must be kept in place. Monitoring should be implemented in new potential distribution areas.
162239		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium dendroides</span> is endemic to the island of La Gomera, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place>   (Reyes Betancort and González González 2004), where it can be found growing from 175 to 850 m asl, distributed in four scattered locations: Barranco de Argaga, Guarimiar-El Azadoe-El Palmarejo, Barranco de El Cabrito and Barranco de La Villa. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 7 km². Three more locations were reported in the past and are now considered disappeared (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).</p>    <p></p>
162239		habitat	eng	The species can be found mainly in inaccessible small ledges facing east and northeast. Ideally it grows in areas where the community <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno-Juniperion canariensis</span> is potentially possible   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It can also be found in more xerophytic sites, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinio-Euphorbion</span> occurs. Frequent accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex lunaria</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus floridus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bituminaria bituminosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina salicifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia berthelotii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus ortunoi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis gomerae</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">perezii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bupleurum salicifolium</span> (Reyes Betancort and González González 2004).
162239		population	eng	Its population size was estimated in 39 individuals in 2003   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Other sources reported 21 specimens (Reyes Betancort and González González 2004). Its population appears irregularly distributed: two individuals have been found in Barranco de Argaga; eight in Guarimiar-El Azadoe-El Palmarejo; nine in Barranco de El Cabrito and two in Barranco de La Villa.<br/>Subpopulations are mainly formed by adult individuals and recruitment is very low. Auto-incompatibility and incompatibility among individuals make sexual reproduction difficult. Decreasing trends have been observed for its population size (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
162239		threats	eng	Predation and grazing are the most important threats to this species   (Reyes Betancort and González González 2004). Collection, landslides and occasional droughts have been also reported as threats to the species and its habitat.
162240		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis marmorea</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain. It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,iv) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>The population is included in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial de Puntallana (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><br/>Natural population reinforcement measures and benign introduction should be developed, as well as research about the reproductive biology of the species. Plant material should be stored in germplasm banks and the species should be grown in botanical gardens. Goats should be eradicated within the distribution range of the taxon.
162240		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to La Gomera, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain, </st1:country-region></st1:place><span id="result_box" class="long_text">where it grows in the eastern sector (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is present in one known location in Roque y Colada de Aluce, fragmented into two subpopulations. <span title="En">In its classic location, Barranco Seco, it is now considered to have disappeared. Its area of occupancy is 3 km².<br/></span></p><p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En"><br/></span></p><p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En">&#160; <br/></span></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162240		habitat	eng	This plant grows in cracks and ledges of steep cliffs. It forms part of rupicolous communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span>, in potential distribution areas of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum bertheloto-canariensis</span>, where the most demanding elements of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodio arbusculae-Juniperetum canariensis</span> appear. Most common accompanying species include<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span style="font-style: italic;">Helichrysum alucense, Ceropegia kranzii, Euphorbia berthelotii, Brachypodium arbuscula, Atalanthus canariensis</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Monanthes laxiflora.</span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Los únicos"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="La dispersión"><span title="Su poder germinativo"></span></span></span>
162240		population	eng	There are two fragmented subpopulations with a total of 1,065 individuals (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">The population consists of adult individuals with low recruitment<span title="Los únicos">. Total population size was estimated as 2,340 individuals in 2006 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), though this increase in population size seems to be mainly due to the use of different monitoring methods.</span>
162240		threats	eng	Main threats are trampling and predation by goats, landslides, collection, and droughts (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162241		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba cinerea</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Norway, it is classed as Vulnerable B1a(ii)b(iv,v)+2a(ii)b(iv,v) on the national red list (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>It is not protected in Norway or Russia.<br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, the species is classed as Vulnerable D1 (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<span style="background-color: white;">. It is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005) and nearly all the known sites are in Oulanka National Park.<br/></span>
162241		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba cinerea </span>has a wide boreal to arctic circumpolar distribution, but with very few occurrences in Europe. There it is found in Finland, Norway, and the Russian Federation. Reports from Svalbard were based on misidentification and the species is not present there. The Norwegian occurrences are isolated from occurrences in northeast Finland (Kuusamo area). They themselves form an even more isolated group far from the next occurrences in northeast Russia and Greenland. The species is also widespread in northern Siberia and northern North America (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/><br/>The geographic range for Finland is 878 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The area of occupancy is 76 km². In Norway, the species is restricted to Finnmark region, where it is found in Alta, Kautokeino and Finnmark. The area of occupancy is less than 500 km² and there are less than ten locations (Artsdatabanken 2010).<sup><br/></sup>
162241		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Draba cinerea</span> is a perennial plant that grows on dry rocks, rocky slopes, crevices, screes, and grassland. It only occurs on limestone and dolomite <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Lid and Lid 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Finland the habitats are calcareous rock outcrops along riversides.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162241		population	eng	It is rare in Norway and Finland, but the species is very little known. The population in Finland counts 2,100 individuals with a stable trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Finland, 875 flowering individuals have been counted (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/>The species has been known in Norway from around 30 occurrences of which approximately 20 were discovered in the early 1980s during pilot studies for the regulation of the Alta/Kautokeino watercourse. This watercourse was shortly after dammed, and it was thought that most of the populations had been lost. In 2009 however, the species was found with solid and viable populations along the reservoir in the same watercourse. The populations in Finnmark are all small, with few individuals, and low reproduction rates (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In Russia, there is no information on the population trend but it is believed to be Least Concern.
162241		threats	eng	Collection of the species is a potential threat. The construction of a dam caused the Norwegian populations to decline in the past. In Finland random factors were assessed as threats for small populations (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Also trampling and overgrowing may threaten populations (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, the conservation status of the species was assessed as favourable in Finland (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162242		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ulex densus</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. Information on the population size and trend should be collected.
162242		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulex densus </span>grows in the central-west coast of Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 5,052 km² and the area of occupancy is 2,000 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162242		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic for the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Serratulo estremadurensis - Thymenion sylvestris </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvio sclareoidis - Ulicetum densi</span>. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5210 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>9340 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests</li></ul>
162242		population	eng	<p>No information on either population size nor trend are available.</p>
162242		threats	eng	Quarries, urbanisation, industrial or commercial areas, communication networks, trampling, overuse and natural fires have been considered as threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
162243		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria hellenica </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and is included in the Red Data Book (1995). The population of the plant is included in the Natura 2000 site GR254002.
162243		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in North<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Africa, Palestine, and reaches its northern most distribution in Greece. There it is found in Peloponnisos, at the Maleas Peninsula and Elafonisos island. It has an extent of occurrence of 26 km² and an area of occupancy of 20 km².
162243		habitat	eng	This plant grows on sandy beaches (not on sand dunes) and level sandy areas, in cultivated and uncultivated flat open areas, edges of olive groves, usually near the sea, often not more than 3-4 km inland. It has been found at altitudes from 0 – 2 (–50) m asl. The plant is an annual which seems to have a ruderal/stress tolerant strategy and can grow as a weed of traditionally cultivated fields. According to Contandriopoulos and Yannitsaros (1975) the plant is neither halophilous nor strictly psammophilous and has a low competitive ability. According to Tan and Iatrou (1995) it cannot face competition with other ruderal or invasive taxa and it depends on cultivation and on the stability of its habitat.
162243		population	eng	There are one to two subpopulations found at two to three locations.<br/>Contandriopoulos and Yannitsaros (1975) found few individuals at each site, except from the locality 2 km northwest of Neapolis where c. 100 individuals were found. Iatrou (1986) found at most 80 individuals at each locations and estimated that the total population size does not exceed 200 individuals. Later, Tan and Iatrou (1995) counted more than 250 individuals at field margins north of Neapolis and state that the population size fluctuates greatly due to human activities. It seems that the total population size does not exceed 1,000 mature individuals.
162243		threats	eng	Tourism and urban development are quite intense at the coastal areas where the plant grows and the plant is threatened by habitat loss. According to Tan and Iatrou (1995) the plant is also threatened by chemical weed control and is easily galled and attacked by aphids.
162244		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marcetella maderensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162244		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira Island, Portugal.
162244		habitat	eng	It grows on inland cliffs up to 700 m asl (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 5330 "Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162244		population	eng	The total population has been estimated in only reaching 250 mature individuals with a stable to slightly increasing trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162244		threats	eng	The main threat is urbanisation. This species also suffers from competition with native species.
162245		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bunium brevifolium</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The area where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. brevifolium</span> occurs is under protection of the Parque Natural da Madeira and it is included in the Natura Network 2000. Conservation is dependent mainly on habitat conservation.
162245		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bunium brevifolium</span> is endemic to Madeira Island.
162245		habitat	eng	This plant is found on soil terraces in Madeira's central mountain ridge (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6180 "Macaronesian mesophile grasslands"  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162245		population	eng	It has been recorded in four localities. The subpopulations are very sparse and small and the estimated number of mature individuals is less than 1,000 (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The main range of this species is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010, which could have badly affected this species.
162245		threats	eng	There was a major fire in the Central Mountain Massif in summer 2010. Apart from that most recent threat, the species suffers from recreational activities and related infrastructure development, natural catastrophes such as landslides and competition with native and exotic species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162246		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus lapponicus</span> is listed on Annex <span style="background-color: white;">II and IV of the Habitats </span>Directive.<br/>    It is listed as Least Concern in Russia <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>(I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010), in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010), in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), in Norway and in Svalbard under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Coptidium lapponicum </span>(Artsdatabanken 2010). <br/>In Norway, it can be found in protected areas. It is protected by law in Finland (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005) and at least 50% of known sites are in Natura 2000 network
162246		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus lapponicus</span> has a boreal to arctic circumpolar distribution. In Europe, it is native to Finland, Sweden, Norway, Svalbard, and European Russia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>In Sweden it is found throughout the upper half of the country with an area of occupancy of 2,936 km². It is not fragmented. <br/>It is very rare in Norway with a very limited number of occurrences within a small area. It is limited to the inner parts of Nordreisa where it has not been seen since 1936, and Kautokeino, Karasjok and Sør-Varanger (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is found in parts of Svalbard. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Ranunculus lapponicus</span> is very widespread in Russia.
162246		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus lapponicus</span> is a perennial species that forms wide clonal populations. It occurs in conifer woodland and in mixed swamp woodland and is usually found along small creeks and small rivers. It is commonly found in shady, swampy spruce forest with wet depressions covered by <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum</span>,  a habitat that mostly occurs along rivulets, but it can also be seen in  the forested edges of bogs, where such streams emerge out from the more  closed forest. It prefers open areas. In Norway, it is found in marshes along rivers which is a vulnerable habitat. In North Russia and Svalbard, the ecology differs slightly and it is mainly found in open wet tundra.
162246		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, the species has been recorded in 623 grids and has stable populations (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is fairly common in the north.</span> In Sweden it was previously believed to be rare, but recent flora investigations has revealed that it is quite common in the northern quarter of the country. The population is probably slowly decreasing due to unfavourable forest management, and the decrease was stronger in the 1920s-1930s.<br/>The Norwegian populations are stable and well protected at the moment. There has been a decline in the past where around 25% of the Norwegian occurrences disappeared or declined severely due to a single river basin development (Pasvik River). But this decline was more than three generations ago (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162246		threats	eng	In the past drainage of forests was the main threat and the cause of  strong declines. Nowadays these practices are forbidden and therefore  the decline has become less intense but occurs still due to forest  management related perturbations (circulation of vehicles, modification  of the habitat).<br/>In Norway, river regulation has been described as a threat in the past (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162248		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus algarbiensis</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected in Portugal and was classed as Extinct by Ramos Lopes and Carvalho (1990).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162248		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus algarbiensis</span> is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco.<br/>In Europe, it was only known from the Algarve in Portugal. The plant was found in 1847 between Faro and Nossa Senhora da Saude, and  has recently been detected in Morocco where it is abundant. It is probably extinct in Portugal (ICN 2006). It has been recently found in western Andalucía, Spain (J.C. Moreno pers. comm. 2011).
162248		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
162248		population	eng	The thorough search for this species between 1994 and 1996 was unsuccessful and therefore the species is now believed to be extinct in Portugal (ICN 2006). There is no information on the population in Andalucia.
162248		threats	eng	The reasons for the species' extinction are not known but it was likely caused by intensive agriculture or urban expansion (ICN 2006).
162249		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority taxon on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)&#160; under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula gelida</span>. It is classed as Endangered on the Czech Red List (Holub and Procházka 2000).
162249		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula bohemica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gelida</span> is native to the eastern Sudeten Mts. in northern Czech Republic (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). Its extent of occurrence is 133 km² and the area of occupancy is 100 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162249		habitat	eng	This subspecies habitat has been described as acidophilous vegetation of alpine cliffs, wind-swept alpine grasslands    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162249		population	eng	Population has been estimated as 47 tufts with a stable population trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162249		threats	eng	Main threats described are recreational activities such as mountaineering, rock climbing, skiing, as well as eutrophication (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162250		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jasminum azoricum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended for this rare species (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008):<br/><ul><li>Raising public awareness</li><li>Management and restoration of its habitat</li><li>Establishment of protected areas</li><li>Reinforcement of the subpopulations and reintroductions</li><li>Control of invasive species and other threats</li></ul>Furthermore, research on the ecology and biology of the species, population dynamics, habitat trends, and appropriate conservation measures are needed.
162250		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Jasminum azoricum</span> is, despite its name, endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madeira, Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. There are only two subpopulations, one in Funchal and the other in Ribeira Brava.<br/></p>
162250		habitat	eng	It forms part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno umbellatae-Oleion maderensis</span> ("Zambujal")  (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162250		population	eng	The number of mature individuals has been reported to be less than 50 by Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008) and specified as only six individuals by the Commission of the European Communities (2009). The populations are stable.
162250		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to invasive species which cause competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasminum azoricum </span>is one of the major threats. Agricultural, urban and infrastructure development are leading to further habitat loss and degradation. Fires, droughts and landslides can furthermore affect this plant (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162251		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea immanuelis-loewii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Endangered (EN) B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Bulgarian Red List (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and protected as a Balkans endemic. One of the Natura 2000 sites has been proposed to be enlarged to enclose this species. It is not protected in Greece. <br/><br/>Seeds of this plant should be collected and stored in seed banks. It is furthermore recommended to increase the protection at local level and to raise public awareness.
162251		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea immanuelis-loewii</span> is native to Bulgaria and Greece   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). It occurs in southwestern Bulgaria, on slopes and mountains, along the Struma river, between 100 and 900 m asl. There are seven localities occupying 300-2,000 km². In Greece it can be found in the north part of the country from Chalkidikis to Thassalonikis and Kikis, at 600 m asl. There are eight localities and an extent of occurrence of 1,000 km².<br/><br/>Overall, the area of occupancy and the extent of occurrence are smaller than 2,000 km² and 20,000 km² respectively.
162251		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in dry grasslands on sandstones or limestones of southern or southwestern exposition. It is also found in open stony grasslands, no deep soils required. In Greece, it has been reported from field margins on granitic soils.
162251		population	eng	The populations are severely fragmented in both countries. In Bulgaria, the populations are mainly stable with a small decline. In Greece, it can be found in field margins and there is no evidence of decline.
162251		threats	eng	In Bulgaria, the construction of a main road four years ago and mining led to a reduction of 10% of the occupied area. It is difficult to say whether the species is actually threatened at the moment but the main road could be expanded in the future within the same area, which would affect the species again. Another knock-on affect is that cattle cannot access the biggest location anymore because of this road and without grazing, succession processes could eventually reduce the representation of the species. In Greece, land use changes could affect the species but there is no evidence of this threat occurring right now.
162252		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elatine gussonei</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162252		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elatine gussonei</span> is endemic to the islands of Malta, Lampedusa and Gozo between Sicily and Tunisia (Mifsud undated). The maximum area of occupancy is unlikely to exceed 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
162252		habitat	eng	This plant is found in pools filled with rain water and shallow calcareous soils, in karst on coralline limestone. All rock pools can potentially support <span style="font-style: italic;">E. gussonei</span>, as long as the ecological requirements of the species are available. Nevertheless, species composition of rock pools may vary and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. gussonei</span> might not be present in all   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162252		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elatine gussonei </span>is known from 20 subpopulations on Malta, one of these has recently been lost.
162252		threats	eng	Freshwater rock depressions/pools are rare in the Maltese Islands, being limited to the coralline limestone plateau and are very sensitive to disturbance. They are rapidly declining due to habitat modification (disturbance, pollution, filling up of pool with cement) and land reclamation (housing, hotels, quarries) rather than of natural causes. Run-off of polluted waters from nearby sites may also adversely affect this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162253		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/><br/>Information on the population size and trend is needed for this species.
162253		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">where it occurs mainly along the west coast of Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region> (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). Its area of occupancy in Portugal is 1,600 km²   and the species has been reported to be in expansion (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The species was reported from Andalucia in Spain but has not been found there for several years. It was recently reported from Extremadura (S. Talavera pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
162253		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sandy areas close to the coast, preferebly where there is certain humidity and low sunlight intensity. It occurs in habitats such as scrublands and coastal dune woods. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2260 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Lavenduletalia </span>dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li><li>2270 Wooded dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span></li></ul>
162253		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this species.</p>
162253		threats	eng	In Portugal,&#160; main threats to the species are urbanisation, roads, pollution, golf courses and trampling (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162254		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jankaea heldreichii</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and it is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995). Most of the population of the plant is included in the National Forest Park of Olympos which is also a Natura 2000 site (GR1250001).
162254		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to north-central Greece, where it only occurs on Mt Olympos, mainly on the north side e.g. Xerolakki Rema, Papa Rema and also on the east side at Enipefs valley from below Agios Dionysios monastery. The extent of occurrence is 60-80 km² and the area of occupancy is 40-60 km².
162254		habitat	eng	This species grows in damp shaded crevices of limestone rocks, especially near streams, preferably on the north sides of rocks. It is a characteristic species of the alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenietea trichomanis: Potentilletalia spinosae: Saxifragion scardicae</span>. It can occur from 400-2,400 m asl but is mostly found between 700-1,400 m asl. The plant is strictly entomogamous, pollinated by various species of bumblebee, and has a quite high success in fruit setting and seed production (Vokou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).
162254		population	eng	<p>There is no actual assessment of the population size. There are at least four to five locations and two to four subpopulations. It is reported that the plant is safe because, although it is rare at Enipefs valley, it occurs in adequate quantities on the north side of Mt Olympos which is rarely frequented by visitors (Strid and Papanikolaou 1985). Vokou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1990) also state that the plant is not at present endangered, its population size being adequate to secure survival of the species. The same authors reported that the density of the plant is often 25-50 rosettes/m² , but varies between sporadic appearance and extremes of 100 rosettes/m². The total population is believed to exceed 1,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/><br/></p>
162254		threats	eng	The only threats reported are the impacts of increased tourism activities and of uncontrolled and intense collecting of plants (Vokou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). The fact that most of the plants grow at inaccessible sites offers some protection. Also, the main part of the population grows at northern much less frequented slopes.
162255		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla subslavica</span> is listed as a priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is classified as Endangered in Slovakia and occurs in 22 Natura 2000 sites, covering 63.6% of its localities (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162255		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic to the Western Carpathians and it grows only in the territory of Slovakia. It is abundant in the Strážovské vrchy Mts, the southern part of the Veľká Fatra Mts and on the Muránska planina Plateau. More rarely it is found in the Malé Karpaty Mts, Považský Inovec Mts (Tematínske vrchy Hills), Javorníky Mts (around the Nosice dam), the Lúčanská Malá Fatra Mts, near Banská Bystrica, the Slovenský raj Mts, the Slovenské rudohorie Mts (near Jelšava, Rožňava and Gelnica), the Stredné Pohornádie region, Spišské vrchy Mts and in the Slovenský kras Karst (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162255		habitat	eng	The species occurs on dry, grassy sites on limestone and dolomite substrate from the hilly areas to the submontane vegetation belt (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia) (* important orchid sites)</li><li>91Q0 Western Carpathian calcicolous <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> forests</li></ul>    <p><br/></p>
162255		population	eng	The size of populations ranges from a few individuals to hundreds of plants (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). The population trend is unknown.
162255		threats	eng	The species is threatened with habitat loss caused by overgrowth by woody plants and herbs or forestation (especially by Scots Pine and Black Pine), plant collection, quarrying, fertilizing and the depositing of garbage (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162256		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe divaricata</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162256		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe divaricata </span>is endemic to Madeira Islands in Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 744 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162256		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic of the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162256		population	eng	It has been estimated that there is a population of around 10,000 individuals which is believed to be stable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162256		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species but it can potentially be affected by plant collection, recreational activities, changes to hydraulic systems, erosion, landslides, and competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162257		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed as VU C2a(i,ii) in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/><br/>All the subpopulations but the ones in Sierra de Filabres, occur within the protected areas Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada and Parque Natural de Sierra de Baza. It has been object of conservation programmes and research. Plant material is stored in germplasm banks.<br/><br/>Habitat restoration measures should be implemented in areas affected by reforestation measures. Population monitoring should be improved and seeds from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks. Furthermore, the presence of grazing species should be controlled.
162257		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erodium rupicola </span>is endemic to the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Its main subpopulation occurs at Sierra de Filabres (Almería), being also present in Sierra Nevada (Granada) and, less frequently, in Sierra de Baza (Granada). It can be found in three locations, comprising at least 17 subpopulations. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 34 km².
162257		habitat	eng	This plant grows within sub-rupicolous and, less commonly, rupicolous communities, in areas with a moderate degree of nitrification. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedum dasyphyllum, Umbilicus rupestris, Asplenium foreziense, Sedum amplexicaule, Festuca scariosa, Sedum album, Cerastium gibraltaricum, Euphorbia characias </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. characias, Antirrhinum hispanicum, Sedum acre, Rhamnus pumila</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hormathophylla longicaulis. </span><br/><br/>In the Sierra Nevada and the Sierra de Filabres, it occurs within the associations of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrantho nevadensis-Sedetum brevifolii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Diantho lusitani-Antirrhinetum rupestris</span>. In the Sierra de Baza, within the associations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrio rotundifolii-Kerneretum boissieri</span>.
162257		population	eng	The total population size has been estimated to be 5,990 individuals (Algarra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Decreasing trends have been reported for its population size. This species has a high reproductive capacity in terms of percentage  of specimens producing flowers, but the number of flowers and fruits  produced is not very high. Germination is high but seedlings survival  after the first summer is low.
162257		threats	eng	Threats to this species are overgrazing, firewall maintenance works and reforestation. Trampling and habitat alteration due to human presence are also threats, in areas close to tracks. Road and track maintenance works are potential threats to this species.
162258		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. rupestre</span> is listed in Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Around 50% of the population occurs within protected areas.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. rupestre </span>held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
162258		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. rupestre</span> is endemic to Madeira where its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 309 km<sup>2</sup>    (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and its area of occupancy (AOO) is suspected to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
162258		habitat	eng	This species grows in laurel forests.
162258		population	eng	Between 40 and 50 individuals have been recorded (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The number of subpopulations is five or fewer.
162258		threats	eng	The Commission of the European Communities (2009) reported a number of threats to this species; including grazing, sand and gravel extraction, erosion, natural catastrophes and landslides, invasive species and damage by game species.
162259		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus massonii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Its area is partially included in Madeira Natural Park, in a nature reserve, and in two Natura 2000 sites (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Seeds are conserved in Madeira Botanical Gardens seed bank.
162259		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulus massonii </span>is native to Madeira, Portugal where it grows on the island of Madeira and on the islands of Desertas (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
162259		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009)  :<br/><ul><li>1250 Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts </li><li>9360 Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)</li></ul>
162259		population	eng	On Madeira island, populations are very fragmented. The total estimated  number of mature individuals is less than 1,000 (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The population trend is unknown.
162259		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are urbanisation, the construction of roads and tunnels, garbage dumping, erosion and landslides (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162260		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus moravicus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is  classed as Endangered in the national Red List (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holub and Procházka 2000) and is a strictly protected plant in the Czech Republic. Information on the number of locations and how the threats are affecting the species is needed.
162260		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus moravicus</span> is commonly known as Moravian Pink and it is endemic to the Czech Republic with an AOO of 300-400 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162260		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus moravicus</span> grows among rock-outcrop vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca pallens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria</span> grasslands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162260		population	eng	Population has been estimated as 4,700 tufts and it is believed to be stable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162260		threats	eng	The main threats described are collection of the species, paths and trampling, mowing, and invasive species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162262		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened flora of Andalucía. It is listed as VU B2ab(i,ii,iii,v) in the Spanish Red Databook 2010 (Pérez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). <br/></p><p>It occurs within the protected areas SCI Sierra de Cabrera-Bédar, Parque Natural Marítimo-Terrestre Cabo de Gata-Níjar and Paraje Natural Karst en yesos de Sorbas. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz.&#160;</p><p>Awareness and communication programmes about the importance of the conservation of this taxon should be developed. Population should be monitored in order to analyse its response to current threats.</p>
162262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the province of Almería, Spain (Pérez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is distributed into three locations, with an area of occupancy of 66 km². Its extent of occurrence is below 500 km²<sup></sup>.
162262		habitat	eng	This plant grows in scrublands on areas more or less dry, on gypsum substrates exposed to sunlight. It also grows in shrublands on abandoned crop fields, on clays and loam-gypsum soils. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrium</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> turredanum, Santolina viscosa, Coris hispanica, Narcissus tortifolius, Anthyllis terniflora, Helianthemum almeriense, Thymus hyemalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hyemalis, Gypsophila struthium </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> struthium, Helianthemum squamatum, Campanula fastigiata, Ononis tridentata </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosmarinus officinalis.</span>
162262		population	eng	In the three known locations, population size ranges from 487 individuals in Los Arejos, to 1,440,981 in Sorbas-Los Castaños (Pérez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Total population size has been estimated in 2,028,348 individuals. Negative trends have been reported for the number of individuals of this species.
162262		threats	eng	Gypsum extraction is the main threat affecting this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Pérez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Other threats are fires and overgrazing, exerting this last higher pressure with droughts events. Inadequate old mines restoration actions have prevent recolonization in the past.
162264		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
162264		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 300 and 800 m asl. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be between 3.75 and 5.25 km² (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). It is distributed into around 15 subpopulations.
162264		habitat	eng	This species grows in crevices and cracks of basaltic cliffs, forming part of rupicolous communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span>. Its habitat trend has been reported to be stable for the period 1970 to 2006 (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162264		population	eng	Its population size has been estimated to be between 7,000 and 14,000 individuals in the year 1999 and reported to present an increasing trend for the period 1994-1999 (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It seems to remain stable.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162264		threats	eng	Predation has been reported as the main threat affecting the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162265		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyoseris frutescens</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Information on the overall population size and trend, number of locations, area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are needed.
162265		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyoseris frutescens</span> is native to Malta. The species is very rare on the island of Malta, where it is apparently confined to a limited area in the northwest. It does not occur on the island of Comino, but is found in the islet of Ħaġret il-Ġeneral and is widespread in Gozo, where it is found throughout the northern, western and southern coastal areas from Xwejni to Mġarr ix-Xini and occasionally elsewhere. The geographic range for this species is 29 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162265		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyoseris frutescens</span> forms part of coastal cliff communities, garrigue, phrygana, cliff-top plateaus, and is found along low-lying coastal areas in some parts of Gozo. It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162265		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
162265		threats	eng	Although the populations are overall stable, selected areas are susceptible to human-induced disturbance, land reclamation and invasion by alien species. The dynamics of this species in Gozo appear to be rather stable, and variations depend on habitat modification. It is however vulnerable on the island of Malta, due to its rarity and very localised distribution   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162266		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). A number of subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> occidentalis </span>are in proposed Natura 2000 sites (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> cypria </span>is categorized VU D1+2 and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis  cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> occidentalis </span>is categorized VU B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) on the national red list (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).
162266		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria</span> is <a name="OLE_LINK1">a plant endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). Its extent of occurrence is 371 km² (data refers to <span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> occidentalis, </span>Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> cypria </span>can be found at four locations, from Agios Ilarion to Kornos peak and Vasileia village, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>between 100 and 800 m asl. <span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> occidentalis </span>can be found at nine  locations, mainly in he west and southwest parts of Pafos Forest, Vouni Panagias, south of Kaminaria, between Mandria and Agios Nikolaos and in the Akamas Peninsula. It occurs between 100 and 1,000 m asl altitude (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>
162266		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>is a shrub of 0.5-1.5 m height that occurs in maquis on dry, limestone hillsides and cliffs and in open pine forests (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>5420 Sarcopoterium spinosum phryganas</li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia </span>forests</li><li>9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines</li></ul>
162266		population	eng	<p>Population size for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> cypria </span>is about 600 individuals, while the population size for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Phlomis cypria </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> occidentalis </span>is reported to be more than 6,000 individuals (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007). That makes a total population size of more than 6,600 individuals.<br/></p><p>The total population of the plant has never been estimated with accuracy. The plants were counted in part of the locations, only once in each locations. Thus it is not possible to estimate a population trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/></p>
162266		threats	eng	During the last decade the habitat of the species has been favoured due  to changes in forest management practices. But quarry  establishment is probable where its habitat is on the transition zone  between pillow lavas and diabase. As most of locations are within protected state forest land, few are affected by  urban expansion (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Further threats reported are fire, grazing, reforestation, and road improvement.
162267		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikaea</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is classed as Vulnerable in the Ukrainian Red Data Book (Diduch 2009) and the Red List of Romania. It is listed as Endangered in the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikaea</span> is protected in the Uzhanskij national park (Transcarpathian region) and in the regional nature monument Buzok Ugorskij (Lviv region). Protection and monitoring of all the remaining populations is needed.
162267		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikea</span> is an endemic plant of the Carpathian mountains with a disjunctive distribution area. There are 17 sites in the Ukraine and 17 sites in Romania. Most of the Ukrainian sites are concentrated in Latoriza, Rica, and the Uzh river basin in the trans-Carpathian region. Only one site is known in the Lviv region: near the village Klimez in the Stir river basin in the Eastern Beskid Mountains. In Romania, <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikaea</span> grows in the Bigar Mountain in Transylvania.
162267		habitat	eng	This tall shrub grows in ecotones between forests and bog plant communities near streams or torrents in fertile peaty soil. In the Ukrainian Carpathians, <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikea</span> grows in the low beech forest belt in 300-520 m above sea level in the trans-Carpathian region and in 650 m above sea level in the Lviv region. Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikea</span> are located in light places in margins of ash and ash-alder forest communities.
162267		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The species is only found at small sites and the populations have a declining trend. In the past, populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikea</span> grew along torrents like a long narrow line (ribbon). Anthropogenic influence changed the spatial structure of the populations from lines to local isolates. During the last 30 years half of the Ukrainian populations have gone extinct and other populations were declining. For example, the population in Majdan, in the Pidpolozanske forestry territory in the trans-Carpathian region, has decreased from 4.0 ha to 0.6 ha. The number of individuals in the remaining populations are very low. The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringa josikea</span> from the valley of the Repinka river near the village Kyrychyn in the trans-Carpathian region, occupies only 0.5 ha and the number of individuals is 20. In total, the number of individuals in the Ukraine are no more than 1,000 (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/>There is no information available on the Romanian populations.</span>
162267		threats	eng	The main threat is a change of the groundwater regime such as melioration for agriculture or pastureland including draining of wet meadows or cutting of the forests. The building of road infrastructure destroyed one large population in Majdan in the Ukrainian Carpathians.
162268		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adenophora lilifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. <br/><ul><li>Austria: Critically Endangered (Niklfeld 1999); it is protected in one federal estate and locally extinct  in another, it is found in a few protected areas</li><li>Belarus: Endangered (Ermakova 2005), found in some protected areas, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex  situ</span> conservation is in place</li><li>Croatia: Near Threatened (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</li><li>Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000), protected and included in a Natura 2000 site</li><li>Germany: Critically Endangered (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and protected</li><li>Hungary: Critically Endangered (Király 2007)</li><li>Italy: Rare and partially protected</li><li>Serbia: Critically Endangered (Stevanovič 1999) </li><li>Slovakia: Vulnerable (Feráková <em>et al. </em>2001), protected and included in seven Natura 2000 sites and some protected areas</li><li>Slovenia: Endangered (Skoberne 1996) and protected, included in Natura 2000 site</li><li>Switzerland: Endangered (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002) and protected, one locality that is a nature reserve</li><li>Russia: Near Threatened (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).</li></ul><br/>Conservation measures recommended are to raise local awareness and to carry out research on the life history and ecology. In some areas (e.g. Belarus) more field surveys are needed to confirm localities.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162268		distribution	eng	The natural range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenophora liliifolia</span> extends from Central and eastern Europe, to western Siberia, Central Asia, Kazakhstan and China. In Europe, it occurs in Austria, Croatia, northern Italy, Slovenia, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Moldova, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.<br/>In Ukraine, it is distributed mainly in the lowland part in the zone of deciduous and mixed forests and the forest-steppe zone as well as in insular forests of the steppe zone. Only one locality was found in the Carpathian Mountains near the town Svalava.<br/><br/>In Slovakia it is found in approximately 30 localities from the Strážovské vrchy Mts to Stredné Pohornádie region. However, in most of them the species has not been confirmed over the last tens of years. Most of recent data are from the Nízke Tatry Mts, Muránska planina Plateau and Slovenský raj Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162268		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is predominantly found in forests or such as Euro-Siberian steppic woods and Pannonian woods with <em>Quercus pubescens</em>, <em>Quercus petrea</em> and <em>Carpinus betulus,</em> <em></em>oak-hornbeam forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Galio-Carpinetum</span>), alluvial forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Ulmion</span> communities, <span style="font-style: italic;">Asperulo-Fagetum</span> beech forests, Medio-European limestone beech forests of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthero-Fagion</span>, open pine forests and forest margins. It has also been reported from intermittently wet <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia</span> meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Klotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). Flowering time is from July to August.
162268		population	eng	The following population information is available for several of the countries of occurrence:<br/><ul><li>In Austria, the populations are small (less than 15), declining, and some populations are extinct.</li><li>In  Belarus, the populations are also small, covering areas up to 300 m².  Around seven populations have been confirmed since 1972.</li><li>In Czech Republic, there are 400-550 individuals with a stable population trend and it is found at approximately five localities.</li><li>In Germany, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenophora lilifolia</span> is found in Bavaria only a the river Isar. It is present at two localities. One of the populations is increasing due to conservation measures, the other one is still declining. Overall, the plant still has a high risk of going extinct in the region   (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>In Hungary, there are 180 individuals with a stable population trend  over the last ten years. Three from more than ten known localities have  become extinct in the last 50 years, however the reason for the  extinction is unknown.</li><li>In Italy, it is found at 44 localities and the populations are stable. </li><li>In Poland, a total of 1,000-1,500 individuals have been counted with a decreasing population trend. It was formerly known from around 100 dispersed localities in central and northeastern Poland and in the uplands but it has become extinct in many of those localities and is nowadays much rarer (Kalinka and Nowak 2004).</li><li>In Slovakia the populations have  relatively low numbers, as a rule, 5 – 50 individuals, more rarely up to  ca 300 individuals. The number of populations of the species in  Slovakia has been gradually decreasing. Considering the character of the  sites and a large number of localities, the species is not in immediate  danger of extinction (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).</li><li>In Slovenia, there is a minimum of three small populations and the  extent of occurrence is decreasing. </li><li>In Switzerland, there is one population with 100-150 individuals, that is stable but might be declining slightly.</li><li>In Ukraine, near 40 small isolated populations have been counted.</li></ul>
162268		threats	eng	The main threats to the species forest habitat are the replacement of forests with plantations, deforestation and clearing of forest for logging, a lack of natural forest dynamics, and the use of heavy machinery during management interventions to the stands. Where it occurs in grassland, trampling by cattle and overgrazing are impacting the species. On the other hand, the abandonment of grazing or mowing activities leads to succession and increased competition for this species. Damage by game species (dear, rabbits) and non-native species have been reported as threats. Locally, recreational activities, and eutrophication have negative impacts (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010,   Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/>This plant is used for ornamental purposes but collection has not been reported as a threat.
162270		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). There is no other information on conservation actions or needs available. As a minimum, the following tasks should be undertaken:<br/><ul><li>Assess the size of populations and establish a basis for monitoring to measure trends.</li><li>Compile information on the life history of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. azorica</span>, with emphasis on dispersal and population or metapopulation dynamics.</li><li>Assess the risk from the various threats listed and potential for these threats to be controlled or eliminated.</li><li>Given the small size of the known populations, at least the main sites should come under legal protection.</li></ul>
162270		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species to the Azores   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010) where it is found on the islands Corvo, Flores, Faial, Pico, Terceira and São Jorge. The total geographic range estimated for <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes azorica </span>is only 13 km<sup>2</sup> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162270		habitat	eng	This species grows exclusively in permanent or temporary lakes and ponds at around 400 to 1,000 m altitude. It is adapted to oligotrophic waters with low floral diversity and associated to <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorella uniflora</span>. It can also be found in ponds and lakes with higher nutrient availability and diversity. Regarding to Habitat Directive listed habitats, it can be found in 3130 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Littorelletea uniflorae</span> and/or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoëto-Nanojuncetea</span>     (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162270		population	eng	<p>The total population of this species is estimated as 2,000 to 3,000 individuals by Schäfer (2005). This estimate might be a bit low but the total number of mature individuals as surely below the threshold of 10,000 mature individuals with less than 1,000 individuals in a subpopulation. In total there are around 11 subpopulations (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
162270		threats	eng	The main and increasing threats to the plant come from the spread of invasive macrophytes, pollution and eutrophication. The population at Lagoa do Negro, Terceira has been dramatically reduced (<70%) in under ten years by the arrival and spread of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sagittaria subulata</span> (F. Rumsey pers. obs. 2010). One of the three populations on Flores has suffered considerable mortality very recently (2010) as a consequence of pollution leaching from a nearby tip (F. Rumsey pers. comm. 2010).<br/>Further threats to the species are grazing; leisure fishing; the construction of paths and cycling tracks; canalisation, modifying structures of inland water courses and other human induced changes in hydraulic conditions; and introduction of disease   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162272		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa austroitalica</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.
162272		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa austroitalica</span> is endemic to southeastern Italy and Sicily. Its geographic range is 64,197 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162272		habitat	eng	This species grows in Mediterranean garrigue, abandoned grasslands, rocky and arid soils and isolated rocks   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
162272		population	eng	The species has been recorded in 88 localities across southern Italy.  Due to the abandonment of cultivated fields, <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa austroitalica</span> has started an almost intrusive expansion  (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
162272		threats	eng	No important threats have been described.
162275		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. The majority of subpopulations occur within the protected area Parque Natural Sierra de Grazalema.</p>
162275		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ornithogalum reverchonii</span> is endemic to Spain and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Andalucía it occurs in Sierras Béticas, provinces of Cádiz, Jaén y Málaga (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), and in Morocco it is present in El Hajeb, where it is a rare species (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
162275		habitat	eng	This geophyte occurs in humid and shady cliffs facing north and northeast, within rupicolous communities, in cracks and slopes. It propagates by seeds and by reproductive bulbs.
162275		population	eng	It has been described as locally abundant (Blanca<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000), presenting a fragmented distribution (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The population has a stable trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162275		threats	eng	It does not seem to be affected by anthropogenic impacts, for it occurs in inaccessible areas. Fragmentation and the reduced area of its subpopulation seem to be the main threats affecting the species.
162276		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p>      <p>It is categorized as Least Concern in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In the Czech Republic, the species is classed as Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000). In Germany, it is listed as Endangered (level 2) in the national Red List (</st1:country-region>Ludwig and Schnittler 1996).</p><p>It is protected in the Kanivskij, Luganskij, Dniprovsko-Orilskij reserves, Desnansko-Starogutskij national park, Nyznjo-Vorsklanskil and Sejmskij regional landscape parks in Ukraine.</p><p>Protection of the sites in Germany is recommended accompanied by conservation measures to keep succession at bay (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008).<br/></p>
162276		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jurinea cyanoides</span> has a disjunctive natural range extending from Europe, to Asia (western Siberia) and the Caucasus. In Europe, it grows mainly in eastern Europe, i.e. Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, with isolated localities in Central Europe, i.e. Czech Republic and Germany. <br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in the lowland part from the deciduous and mixed forest zone (Polesian lowland) to the forest-steppe to the steppe zone.<br/>In Germany, it is found in the federal estates Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Brandenburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Rheinland-Pfalz, and Sachsen-Anhalt (Beil and Zehm 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162276		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jurinea cyanoides</span> occurs in sand and shallow soil grasslands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It grows in dry grassland, light dry pine forests, in sandy and stony steppes, in limestone and chalk slopes and prefers acid conditions. The plant is found among species of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Koelerio-Corynephoretea </span>class (Klotz <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is very restricted to poor sandy grasslands in Central Europe whereas it can occur on a wider variety of soil types in Russia (Beil and Zehm 2009).
162276		population	eng	The species has been recorded in 40 localities in Germany   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="background-color: white;">In the Czech Republic, it occurred at around 30 localities along the river Elbe (Čeřovský </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al.</em><span style="background-color: white;"> 1999), now it only grows in one locality.</span> The populations are declining in both countries. In Ukraine, the density of populations is low with only 10-20 individuals in 100 m².
162276		threats	eng	In Ukraine, the main threats are planting of forest in sands and steppes and cutting of the forest where the species occurs.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>In Germany, competition with and overgrowth by native species due to either the abandonment of agricultural activities or eutrophication are the main threats. Habitat loss due to replanting of forest, construction, quarrying or tourism development are furthermore threatening the species (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2008). <br/><br/>Unsuitable forest management is also the main threat in the Czech Republic, as well as eutrophication and invasive species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162277		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>is listed in Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and it is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is also included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention as a synonym.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">obliqua </span>is protected in Greece by Presidential Decree 67/81. The locations of Parnitha are included in the National Forest Park of Parnitha and in the Natura 2000 site GR300001; the locations of Kynosoura and Drakonera are included in the Natura 2000 site GR300003. It is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is also protected in Greece by Presidential Decree 67/81. The location Kastro tis Orias (Kythnos) is included in the Natura 2000 site GR422010 and the locations at central Serifos are included in the Natura 2000 site GR422009. The subspecies is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162277		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">obliqua</span> is endemic to Greece and it occurs in</a> Attiki (Parnitha Mt, Penteli Mt, Schinias-Marathonas area, Merenta Mt, Tourkovounia hill) and Evvoia Island (Octhonia Mt, Olympos Mt). It has an extent of occurrence of 1,600 km² and an area of occupancy of 40-50 km² (based on a 2x2 km grid).</p><p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is found in the west Kyklades Islands (Kythnos, Piperi islet off Kythnos, Gyaros, Serifos and Folegandros). However, the presence of the plant on Folegandros and Kythnos requires confirmation. The plant is also reported from Kea but it may have been confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca</span>.</p><p>The extent of occurrence of the subspecies  <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is 1,000-3,000 km<sup></sup>² if the sea between all the islands is included and depending on whether the unconfirmed references on Piperi and Folegandros are included; the islands themselves have a total area of 191–223 km². The area of occupancy is 28-36 km², depending on whether the unconfirmed references on Piperi and Folegandros are included (2x2 km grid).</p><p>Overall the extent of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>is expected to be less than 20,000 km².<br/><br/></p>
162277		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">obliqua </span>occupies rocky or stony sites with open shrubland on limestone at an altitude of 20-800 m asl. It grows in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">phoenicea </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia dendroides </span>shrubland, at the margins or clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis </span>forest or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia lentiscus</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera </span>maquis, in phrygana and garrigue. The species prefers clearings, but it often grows in the shade of high shrubs.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is found in rocky and stony places with phrygana or thin shrub, on various substrates (e.g. limestone, granite) but mainly on schist.
162277		population	eng	The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>has been estimated at 1,500 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The following populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">obliqua </span>are present in Greece:<br/><ul><li>Parnitha Mt (4 locations): Paliomilesi site (100 individuals), Mola plateau (no data), Beletsi peak (200 individuals), Strongyli peak&#160; (250 individuals)</li><li>Penteli Mt (2-4 locations): no population data</li><li>Schinias-Marathonas area (4 locations, 2-3 subpopulations): Kynosoura peninsula (c. 3,000 individuals and the largest subpopulation but there are fluctuations depending on meteorological conditions), Drakonera area (50 – 100 individuals), Agia Marina area (50 – 100 individuals), Grammatiko area (50 – 100 individuals)</li><li>Tourkovounia hill (1 location, 1 subpopulation): habitation area G. Papandreou (200 individuals in 2007), Paleo Psychiko area (200 individuals before 1980, six isolated individuals after 2000). The species was described from the area of Tourkovounia hill in the 19th century at a locality where it is now extinct due to the expansion of urban settlements. This indicates that the species had been much more widespread in Attiki in areas now urbanised.</li><li>Merenta mountain (1 location, 1 subpopulation): the species was collected there once in the 1980s and there is no recent data on the population (confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca </span>is possible in this area).</li><li>Octhonia Mt (1 location, 1 subpopulation): 250 individuals in 2008 (but some of them are morphologically close to <span style="font-style: italic;">F. obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia</span>).</li><li>Olympos Mt&#160; (1 location, 1 subpopulation): one collection in 1984, no population data; the area was burned recently.</li></ul>Th<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">e current total population size is certainly lower than 10,000 individuals. Most of the subpopulations include 100–250 individuals and this number is considered lower than the minimum viable population of 250 individuals. Thus > 50% of the total area of occupancy of the plant includes small isolated patches with a small number of plants and the population can be considered as severely fragmented.<br/><br/>The species was certainly more widespread in Attiki 100 years ago. The area of occupancy and the total population size have been reduced due to land use changes during this period; however this reduction cannot be quantified. Further loss of habitat and area of occupancy are almost certain for the locations of Tourkovounia and Drakonera and probable for the locations of Agia Marina, Grammatiko, Parnitha, Merenta and Penteli.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>has been reported at the following locations:<br/><ul><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Kythnos (three locations): over Merichas village and near Chora (5-10 individuals in fruit at both locations); Kastro tis Orias (two individuals in fruit).</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Serifos (three locations): west central part (200 individuals), north part (25 individuals), central part (20 individuals)</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Gyaros (one location): central part (15 individuals)</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There is no population data for Folegandros and Piperi islet but it is almost certain that these subpopulations are small too.</span></span></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The current total population size is certainly no more than 1,000 individuals. All of the known subpopulations include less than 200 individuals and this number is considered lower than the minimum viable population of 250 individuals. Thus > 50 % of the total area of occupancy of the plant includes small isolated patches with a small number of plants and the population can be considered as severely fragmented.<br/><br/></span></span></span></span>
162277		threats	eng	All the subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">obliqua </span>in Schinias-Marathonas, except the one on the Kynosoura peninsula, are threatened by urban development. This is particularly acute for the subpopulation at Drakonera which grows on undeveloped land patches between houses and has suffered severe reduction during the last 30 years.<br/><br/>The subpopulation at Tourkovounia has also suffered severe reduction during the last 100 years and especially during the last 35 years; the surviving plants are imminently threatened by urban development. The locations of Parnitha, except for the Mola plateau which is within the National Forest Park of Parnitha, are threatened by housing development (part of the subpopulation at Beletsi peak was destroyed by building).<br/><br/>Grazing is a threat at Agia Marina and Grammatiko, at part of the Kynosoura peninsula and possibly at Mt. Penteli. Grazing causes a decline in the sexual reproduction of the plant. Grazing is a threat at all the locations of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia</span>.<br/><br/>Although the plant is a geophyte, wild fire is probably a threat at Agia Marina, Grammatiko, Penteli Mt, Parnitha Mt and Merenta Mt. Bulb collection may be a further threat.
162278		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aichryson dumosum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is recommended to raise public awareness about this plant. Habitat management and restauration are necessary, in particular the control of invasive species. Re-introductions of new subpopulations should be considered (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008) and have been put in place during 2011 (F. Fernandes, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The species is conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>in Madeira Botanical Gardens in seed bank and in cultivation.
162278		distribution	eng	This succulent species has always been a very narrow endemic occupying c. 100 m² at Magdalena do Mar, Madeira, Portugal, at about 300-400 m (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
162278		habitat	eng	It grows in crevices and sheltered areas typical for micro-habitats consisting of an agglomeration of rocks (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162278		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aichryson dumosum</span> is found at one locality only. The total number of mature individuals is estimated to be between 50 to 250. The populations are stable (Fernandes <em>et al.</em> in: Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) in the long term but show annual fluctuations (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
162278		threats	eng	This species suffers from competition with invasive species, trampling, and fires. Natural factors such as droughts and landslides could affect the species (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162279		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio caespitosus </span>is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. Information on the population trend is needed.
162279		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Portugal<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>. Its extent of occurrence is 300 km² and the area of occupancy is 200 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
162279		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas at high altitude, often in accumulations of loose rock fragments (gravel, moraines). It prefers shady places. It is present in Oro-Iberian siliceous cliffs and temperate-montane acid siliceous screes. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8130 "Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162279		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is around 500 individuals with an unknown trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162279		threats	eng	The main threats are communication networks, skiing complex, and trampling (Commission of the European Communities 2009)
162280		conservation	eng	This species is listed listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a> and as a priority species on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex. <br/><br/>It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish national red list (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. sventenii</span> subpopulations are included in the natural monuments of Montaña Cardón and Cuchillos de Vigán. It is recommended to control the grazing by livestock and to place fences for its conservation.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sventenii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, seeds are known to be preserved in a genebank. A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<p></p>
162280		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. sventenii </span>is endemic to Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands archipielago, with six relatively small subpopulations distributed in three southern municipalities of the island. The subpopulations occupy between 5 and 500 m². The extent of occurrence (EOO) is  400 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Entre las"><span title="herbanica y Coronilla viminalis."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="altas."><span title="sequía.">The area of occupancy (AOO) of the species is between <span title="1.850 m2">1,850 m² and 9 km².</span></span></span></p><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span>
162280		habitat	eng	This species grows between 0.5 and 1 m high and is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycio intricati-Euphorbietum balsamiferae</span> communities ("Tabaibales dulces"<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) which are very degraded and impoverished as a result of intense grazing on the island. It settles on slopes  which suffer long dry periods. Accompanying species <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Entre las">include <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycium intricatum, Euphorbia balsamifera, Euphorbia regisjubae, Kleinia neriifolia, Periploca laevigata, Salvia</span> <span title="herbanica y Coronilla viminalis."><span style="font-style: italic;">herbanica </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Coronilla viminalis</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The seeds need a minimum water supply for germination and possibly see it less inhibited, at least in part, by high temperatures. <span title="altas.">A third of the specimens observed are in poor condition, rarely surviving yearly droughts. <span title="sequía."><span title="1.850 m2"><sup><br/></sup></span></span></span>
162280		population	eng	There are 476 individuals in total in the population and the number is declining.
162280		threats	eng	Grazing stock pressure has been defined as a main threat to this species. <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Landslides and long periods of drought are also regarded as threats. One subpopulation is  located near a paved road.
162281		conservation	eng	<em>Ceropegia dichotoma</em> spp. <em>krainzii</em> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia chrysantha</span>. It is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).
162281		distribution	eng	This taxon can be found in the islands of Tenerife and La Gomera, Canary Islands, Spain. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Its extent of occurrence is 100 km² </strong>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>[MORE INFO AVAILABLE IN ADENDA 2010 OF THE SPANISH RED LIST]
162281		habitat	eng	It coexists in the vegetation community <span style="font-style: italic;">Klenio-Euphorbion canariensis</span> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162281		population	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">The total population has been stated as 80 individuals</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">, but the population trend is unknown </strong>(Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162281		threats	eng	Its main threat is predation   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162282		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dorycnium spectabile</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of  threatened species <span style="background-color: white;">and in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is classed as EN B2ab(iii,v); C2a(i) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).&#160; </span><br/><br/>It has been object of a LIFE project where genetic and demographic research about the species was developed and population reinforcement measures were implemented (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Populations are included in the protected area Parque Rural de Teno (SCI) and Paisaje Protegido de las Siete Lomas. Seeds have been stored in the germplasm banks of Servicio de Biodiversidad de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente, Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include population monitoring and selective clearings. The access to the path present in Barranco de los Cochinos should be controlled.
162282		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dorycnium spectabile</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), with presence confirmed in only two locations in the north (<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Barranco de los Cochinos) and southeast of the island (<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Barranco del Agua-Güímar). The area of occupancy is 2 km².<br/><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span>
162282		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is associated primarily with shrublands on open areas in dry forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno-Hypericetum </span><span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fayo-Ericetum </span><span title="arboreae)."><span style="font-style: italic;">arboreae</span> (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). However, it is possible to observe some individuals taking advantage of clearings in the forest <span style="font-style: italic;">Visnea-Arbutetum canariensis</span>. Frequent accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erica arborea, Visnea mocanera, Arbutus canariensis, Apollonias barbujana </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tarbujana, Viburnum</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="arboreae)."><span style="font-style: italic;"> rigidum</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="arboreae)."><span style="font-style: italic;">, Ilex canariensis, Heberdenia excelsa, Globularia salicina, Hypericum canariense</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Jasminum odoratissimum.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fruto."><span title="90%)."><span title="El área de ocupación"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is an entomophilous plant. <span title="Sus principales vectores de">Its main pollination vectors belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">Apidae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenoptera</span>. <span title="Se">Seed predation by beetles (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bruchidius lichenicola</span>) <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="arboreae)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fruto."><span title="90%)."><span title="El área de ocupación"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus principales vectores de"><span title="Se">has been observed<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="arboreae)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fruto."><span title="90%)."><span title="El área de ocupación"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus principales vectores de"><span title="Se">. <span title="mediante la aparición de brotes basales."><span title="Las">The two populations currently known are geographically isolated, showing a <span title="genética considerable">considerable genetic difference. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162282		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="arboreae)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="fruto.">Total population size has been reported to be 386 individuals (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Most of the specimen are adult individual<span title="90%).">s.<span title="El área de ocupación"><span title="apenas supera los 1.000 m2"> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="arboreae)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Approximately 50% of individuals are flowering and fruiting annually, producing an average of 1,100 flowers per individual, of which only 30% are fertile, resulting in approximately 15 seeds per <span title="fruto.">fruit. <br/>Population trend is believed to be decreasing (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). Population reinforcement measures have been implemented but it is thought the survival of these individuals is still conditioned by human intervention.<span title="90%)."><span title="El área de ocupación"><span title="apenas supera los 1.000 m2"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162282		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En la población del Barranco de los Cochinos,">Main threats to this species are trampling and anthropization, collection, natural competition, predation, parasitism and possible fires and landslides (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En la población del Barranco de los Cochinos,">In Barranco de los Cochinos, t<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En la población del Barranco de los Cochinos,">he low number of individuals and the low presence of reproductive specimens are also threats. In <span title="En">Barranco del Agua, possible droughts can affect the species.</span></span></span>
162283		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Picris willkommii</span> is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/><br/>The populations are included in el Paraje Natural Marisma de Isla Cristina, a proposed SCI by the Andalucian government. There are also seeds within a germplasm bank (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is included in the Spanish Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (CR) A3ac (Moreno 2008).
162283		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the southwestern area if the Iberian Peninsula. This plant is found in one locality in the Spanish province of Huelva near the Portuguese border at Ayamonte, and in one locality in south Portugal at Vila Real de S. António. The range in Portugal is 50 km² and has been decreasing from 2002-2006. The range in Spain is 331 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">
162283		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main subpopulation in Spain, located on a hill north of Ayamonte, develops on silt and calcareous soil. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Forma"><span title="capensis."><span title="ruderalizados."><span title="Limoniastretum monopetali">It can be part of spring grasslands along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Anagyris foetida, Asparagus albus, Atriplex glauca, Tymbra capitata, Hyparrhenia hirta, Lavatera trimestris, Foeniculum vulgare </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Stipa capensis </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009,   Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Forma"><span title="capensis.">As secondary habitat, it colonizes the higher parts of marsh areas, and develops on salty ruderal substrates<span title="ruderalizados.">. <span title="Limoniastretum monopetali">This species grows in fallow land on limestone soils of rocky areas. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Forma"><span title="capensis."><span title="ruderalizados."><span title="Limoniastretum monopetali"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Forma"><span title="capensis."><span title="ruderalizados."><span title="Limoniastretum monopetali"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">In Portugal, the largest population occurs in dry orchards on limestone and marl.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Forma"><span title="capensis."><span title="ruderalizados."><span title="Limoniastretum monopetali"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Forma"><span title="capensis."><span title="ruderalizados."><span title="Limoniastretum monopetali"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="Los aquenios"><span title="El"><span title="Se ha"><span title="Dentro del"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162283		population	eng	In Portugal, it has been recorded in one locality   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Spain, it is present in one locality with four subpopulations  resulting in a total Spanish population of 2,001,144 individuals   (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población del cerro de Ayamonte"><span title="(±1,57; n = 100)."><span title="Las"><span title="(±0,52; n = 100) respectivamente."><span title="secundarios se han debido producir como consecuencia"><span title="de la construcción de los esteros, pues"><span title="donde vive la especie hasta estos lugares."></span></span></span></span>
162283		threats	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Rapid urban development in the area of Ayamonte is the main threat in the only known locality in Spain. <span title="La población cerro I es posiblemente la">The subpopulation of Ayamonte cerro I (with the higher number of individuals) is most threatened, as it is the closest to the urban area.  <span title="El pastoreo excesivo">Overgrazing by livestock and goats and predation of fruits (achenes) by caterpillars can also accelerate the process. <span title="La población cerro II se extiende">The populations of the estuaries are exposed to development, creation of new wetlands and refurbishment works, in addition to grazing and predation (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población cerro I es posiblemente la"><span title="El pastoreo excesivo"><span title="La población cerro II se extiende">. In Portugal, further threats of forest plantations and communication networks have been noted<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La población cerro I es posiblemente la"><span title="El pastoreo excesivo"><span title="La población cerro II se extiende">.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
162284		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>Seeds from one subpopulation are stored in the germplasm bank of Jardín de Aclimatación de La  Orotava (ICIA-ESP 117-). It occurs at least in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial del Guelguén.    Seeds from one subpopulation affected by the construction of a road in La Palma were collected and some individuals were produced in nursery to be re-introduced afterwards.<br/><br/>Research about the genetics of the species should be developed to clarify whether the subpopulations of La Palma and La Gomera belong to the same species (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
162284		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula latipinna</span> is found in the northern part of La Palma and in the northeastern part of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain. It is distributed throughout 11 locations: six in La Gomera and five in La Palma. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be between 14.5 and 15.25 km² (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
162284		habitat	eng	This species grows in rupicolous communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-Aeonietea</span> and degraded shrublands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrico fayae-Ericion arboreae</span>. It can act as a pioneer species with species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162284		population	eng	Recorded populations of this species draw out a total number of 6,258 individuals: 3,576 in La Palma and 2,682 in La Gomera, with a stable or slightly increasing trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
162284		threats	eng	Grazing, construction of infrastructures and changes in land use, have been described as factors affecting the species (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), but the impact of grazing has been reported to have decreased. Road expansion works are currently affecting some subpopulations (J. Reyes-Betancort pers. comm. 2011).
162285		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca henriquesii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. In order to ensure the survival of this species it is recommended to maintain traditional grazing activities in its distribution area (ICN 2006).
162285		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Portugal<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> and found in the Serra da Estrela (ICN 2006). Its extent of occurrence is 349 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </p>
162285		habitat	eng	This perennial plant species can be found in dry, well-drained, usually rocky, grassland. It needs grazing for its survival and is often found next to sheep and goat shelters. It forms part of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula Herminie - Festucetum henriquesii</span>, which is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>endemic to the Serra da Estrela (ICN 2006).<br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6230 "Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162285		population	eng	The total population has been estimated in 10,000 individuals with a stable population trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). ICN (2006) states that it is difficult to quantify the number of individuals.
162285		threats	eng	The main threat is vegetation succession caused by the abandonment of pastoral activities (ICN 2006). A further threat are sport and leisure structures (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162286		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed as pririty species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as CR A3cd; B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Its population occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada (proposed SCI) (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). A recovery programme is being developed by the regional government (Junta de Andalucía). It is being cultivated in the botanic garden Jardín Botánico de la Cortijuela (Sierra Nevada, Granada). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma de Sierra Nevada.</p><p>Herbivores exclusion areas should be established. Annual population monitoring should be developed.<br/></p>
162286		distribution	eng	This species distribution is confined to Sierra Nevada mountain range in the province of Granada, Spain. Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy has been estimated in around 1 km² (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Iriondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162286		habitat	eng	This species normally occurs in the undergrowth of forests with high presence of deciduous species   (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), in shady sites facing north, on calcareous soils. It grows along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia, Quercus faginea, Acer opalus </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">granatense, Sorbus aria, Crataegus granatensis, Amelanchier ovalis, Lonicera arborea, Lonicera splendida, Berberis hispanica, Ononis aragonensis, Lapsana communis, Paeonia coriacea, Nepeta granatensis, Cytisus scoparius </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">reverchonii </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Delphinium emarginatum </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nevadense.</span>
162286		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 658 individuals (Gutiérrez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).
162286		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is grazing and a high fire risk. Colonization of new areas is a major problem as there is very few suitable habitat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>   (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162288		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea niederi </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>This plant is listed in the National Red Data Book as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(ii,iii,iv)+2ab(ii,iii,iv) (Phitos and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81. A part of the populations falls within the borders of Natura 2000 sites. There are no protection measures taken so far but the following ones are suggested:<br/><ul><li><span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>: Control collection of plants in the wild, monitoring of the subpopulatins, protection of its habitats</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>: storage of seeds in seed banks</li></ul>
162288		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea niederi</span> is endemic to Greece and restricted to the western part of the mainland where it is found in three localities. Two are in western Sterea Ellas (Kleisoura Gorge and near the village of Fraxos) and one in the northwest Peloponnese (Mavro Vouno near Araxos) (Phitos and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The area of occupancy is 20 km² and the extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162288		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This plant grows on vertical limestone rocks from above sea level to 150 m (Phitos and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162288		population	eng	The total population has approximately 1,700 individuals of which 1,000 are in Kleisoura Gorge, 150-200 near Fraxos and 500 in Mavro Vouno (Phitos and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The population trend is unknown (Co</span>mmission of the European Communities 2009) and there is no indication of a continuous decline in the number of mature individuals.
162288		threats	eng	As the species grows in coastal areas and along roads, collection by amateur and professional botanists could be a threat. Furthermore road expansions and quarries in the area of Araxos are potential threats for the species (Phitos and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162289		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed VU B2ab(ii,iii,v); D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>This species occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. Population monitoring is currently developed. Grazing activities and visitors presence should be controlled. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
162289		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sierra Nevada mountain range, within the province of Granada, where its area of occupancy has been estimated in 14 km<sup>2</sup> (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Regressive patterns have been identified for its distribution.
162289		habitat	eng	<p>This pioneer chamaephyte plant grows in stony sites, frequently between rocks and track edges, being able to stand a certain degree of nitrification. The soils where this species develops present little organic matter and retain moisture during the summer due to the protection provided by the close rocks. Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Holcus caespitosus, Cryptogramma crispa, Leucanthemopsis pectinata, Polystichum lonchitis,</span><em> Pilosella pseudopilosella</em><em>, Acinos alpinus </em>ssp. <em>meridionalis, Dryopteris filix-mas, Solidago virga-aurea, Linaria nevadensis, Agrostis nevadensis, Sideritis glacialis, Eryngium glaciale </em>and <em>Reseda complicata</em>.</p>  <p><span style="background-color: white;">On areas covered by smaller stones, species such as </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Senecio pyrenaeus </span><span style="background-color: white;">ssp.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> granatensis, Crepis oporinoides, Digitalis nevadensis, Chaenorrhinum glareosum </span><span style="background-color: white;">and </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Viola crassiuscula</span><span style="background-color: white;">, are also accompanying species.</span><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162289		population	eng	<p>Total population size has been estimated to be between 10,000 and 15,000 individuals (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Decreasing trends have been reported for its population.<br/></p>
162289		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are its high ecological specificity, the restricted and fragmented character of its habitat and the variability of its recruitment levels depending on temperature conditions (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Grazing and predation by wild goats cause habitat degradation and reproductive success reduction.
162290		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene orphanidis </span>is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81 in Greece and listed in the National Red Data Book as Endangered (EN) D (Karydas and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162290		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene orphanidis</span> is a narrow endemic of the rocky summit area of Mt Athos, Greece (Karydas and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are below 200 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162290		habitat	eng	This species grows in limestone rock crevices of north-facing calcareous rocks.
162290		population	eng	There are either isolated individuals or small groups of 2-6 individuals. In 2007 less than 100 individuals have been counted (Karydas and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The population trend is unknown<span style="background-color: white;">.</span>
162290		threats	eng	The summit area of Mt Athos is not threatened by human activities. But the small size of the population itself is of concern.
162291		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Habitat conservation plans should be developed and grazing species controlled. Population monitoring should be developed, as well as research about its population dynamics. Fruits should be gathered and stored in germplasm banks.
162291		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Seseli intricatum</span> is endemic to Sierra de Gádor, in the Spanish province of Almería (Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Its presence has been reported in five locations, and its area of occupancy is 9 km². Its extent of occurrence is lower than 10 km².
162291		habitat	eng	This herb grows in mountainous woodlands in north facing rocky cliffs   (Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Quercus faginea, Acer granatense </em>and <em>Quercus rotundifolia</em>.
162291		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 5,428 individuals   (Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The population tends to fluctuate especially remarkable in dry years.
162291		threats	eng	Main threats to this species are deforestation, fires, road development, grazing and demographic extreme fluctuations (Mota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
162293		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Culcita macrocarpa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. This species is included in the Spanish Red Data Book as Endangered (EN) A2ce; B1b(i,ii,iii)c(i,ii) (Moreno<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2008). It is protected by national law in Portugal.<br/><br/>Several populations are located in protected areas, with conservation measures underway. It is suggested to protect the species in micro-reserves, to reinforce the effective populations, manage the risk from fires and preserve its forest habitat. Studies on its reproductive biology should be continued (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004, ICNB 2006).  <p><br/></p>
162293		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Culcita macrocarpa </span>is a fern species endemic to Portugal and Spain. It can be found in the  north Cantabric coast, northern Galicia, southern Spain, Canary islands (Tenerife), surroundings of Porto, Azores and Madeira Islands    (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/>In Spain, the area of occupancy is 62 km² (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In Portugal mainland, the surface range of the species is 100 km² and it is 1,451 km² in the Azores and Madeira (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Overall, the area of occupancy for this species is less than 1,613 km².
162293		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Culcita macrocarpa</span> grows in siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophitic vegetation and humid green and mature riparian forests, specially in deep valleys and near coastal areas.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is usually  observed in proximity to <span title="Suele">waterfalls that provide moisture in the form of spray. This species<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> requires shade and warm  temperatures all year round, with high atmospheric humidity to flourish.&#160;<span title="Suele"><span title="El espesor">The  thickness of the soil does not appear to condition their development  and they can live in  earthy or stony slopes, skeletal soils, and even  directly <span title="sobre la roca.">on rocks. The nature of the  substrate is not crucial and it appears on a diversity of acid rocks,  basic or ultrabasic, although it apparently avoids limestone substrates (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Suele"><span title="El espesor"><span title="sobre la roca.">. <br/>Regarding the habitats described in the Habitats Directive it can be found in the following (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4050 Endemic Macaronesian heaths</li><li>6180 Macaronesian mesophile grasslands</li><li>7120 Degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration</li><li>7130 Blanket bogs<br/></li><li>8310 Caves not open to the public</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>9180 <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilio-Acerion</span> forests of slopes, screes and ravines.</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno- Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>).</li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Suele"><span title="El espesor"><span title="sobre la roca."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162293		population	eng	In Portugal, the population has been estimated in 300 individuals on the mainland (Commission of the European Communities 2009), but more than 10,000 in the Azores (Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has been indicated that the area of occupancy has been reduced in the last decades (ICNB 2006).<br/><br/>In Spain, the population has been estimated in 21,972 individuals distributed in six regions including  Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country, Cadiz and Tenerife   (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="No ha habido demasiado"><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/>    <p><br/></p></span>
162293		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">There is no evidence that their populations are threatened by natural causes although the knowledge of its biology is still very scarce. In recent years a reduction or even disappearance of several subpopulations within Natural Parks or in areas proposed as Natura 2000 sites has been observed. <span title="La causa principal">The main cause is the destruction of forest for plantations. The construction of small hydro-plants, vandalism and habitat destruction  are other threats (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La causa principal">. In Portugal, fire is the biggest threat to the species and eucalyptus plantations are leading to a destruction of its habitat (ICNB 2006).&#160; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span>
162294		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca elegans</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is protected at regional level in several regions. It occurs within several protected areas throughout its distribution. In Spain, it is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection.
162294		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This plant is endemic to the Mediterranean, present on the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco </span>(Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009). The total geographic range for Portugal and Spain is 35,213 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Portugal, it occurs in mountains in the north and the centre from Serra do Gerês to Serra da Estrela (ICN 2006). In Spain, this species is abundant in some areas of the Sistema Central.
162294		habitat	eng	This herb flowers in July and is a mountainous species of Mediterranean xeric  grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion elegantis</span>), found in clearings and at the borders of oak and chestnut  woods, forests and mountain forests. It also occurs among rocks in grasslands in relatively dry areas (ICN 2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion</span><span style="font-style: italic;">, Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span></li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li></ul> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162294		population	eng	Number of subpopulations in Spain has been estimated in 20-27 (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There are more than 100,000 individuals in Serra da Estrela between 800-1,600 m. It is abundant in the area around the river Douro and frequent in northeast Portugal. The plant has been described as not very threatened (ICN 2006).
162294		threats	eng	In Spain, threats to this species are grazing, animal breeding, burning, hunting, fishing or other collecting activities, presence of paths, tracks and cycling tracks, outdoor sports and leisure activities, trampling and natural fires (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The main threat in Portugal is cutting of the forest which reduces the area of occupancy of this species (ICN 2006). But regarding the size of this plant and the density of its subpopulations, these threats probably do not imply a major risk to the species in almost any subpopulation.
162295		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed as VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/></p>  The access of herbivores to the species has to be controlled through the establishment of fences. Population trends should be monitored.
162295		distribution	eng	The plant is endemic to Sierras Béticas, throughout the provinces of Granada, Jaén, Albacete and Murcia (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). It is present in the mountains of Sierra Nevada, Sierra del Pozo, Sierra de la Cabrilla and Sierra de Taibilla (Andalucía), and Sierra de Moratalla (Murcia)    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its distribution has been described as restricted. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be lower than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
162295		habitat	eng	This hemicryptophyte is present in Murcia, in dolomitic subtrates between 1,400 and 2,000 m asl. It can be found among <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus </span>sp. communities and within <span style="font-style: italic;">Andryalion agardhii. </span>Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria tetraquetra, Fumana procumbens, Pterocephalus spathulatus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus granatensis</span> ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. sabulicola</span>. It can also be found on stony and dolomitic soils between 1,700 and 2,000 m asl (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Andalucía, it occurs in dolomitic sandy substrates, on stony sites, between 1,800 and 2,100 m asl. </span>Frequent accompanying species are <em>Convolvulus boissieri, Scabiosa pulsatilloides</em> ssp.<em> pulsatilloides, Rothmaleria granatensis, Vella spinosa, Astragalus sempervirens </em>ssp. <em>nevadensis, Erinacea anthyllis, Arenaria aggregata, Teucrium polium </em>ssp. <em>aureum </em>and <em>Helianthemum pannosum</em>
162295		population	eng	<p>Its populations have been reported to be punctually distributed and to comprise low numbers of individuals (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).<br/></p>
162295		threats	eng	Grazing and communication networks have been reported as threats (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The negative impact exerted on the species by domestic grazing species could lead to the extinction of some subpopulations (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Tourism has been also cited as a threat.
162296		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis cypria</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is listed as Endangered D in the Cyprus red list (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)
162296		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis cypria</span> <a name="OLE_LINK1">is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species is restricted to the occupied part of the island, along the Pentadaktylos range (Commission of the European Communities 2009) where it is found at seven locations, between 300 and 600 m asl, though older collections were done up to 900 m asl (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). </p>  <p></p>
162296		habitat	eng	It is a small shrub of up to 60 cm height that grows in rocky areas and often on cliffs which are difficult to access  (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
162296		population	eng	<p>The total number of individuals has been established at about 260 plants, but the exact population size and extent is unknown (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/></p>
162296		threats	eng	The known subpopulations are threatened by road widening, quarrying and fires (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
162297		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaemeles coriacea</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Populations of this species from Deserta Grande island and Porto Santo island are included in nature reserves or protected areas. This species area of occurrence is partly included in Natura Network 2000 sites. Seeds are stored in the Madeira Botanical Garden seed bank.
162297		distribution	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaemeles</span>, with only one species, is endemic to Madeira, Portugal.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It lives on rocky steep places up to 400 m asl. It is found in Madeira island, Porto Santo and Deserta Grande.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162297		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It occurs on rocky steep places and grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia</span> forests</li></ul>
162297		population	eng	The total population has been estimated between 500-1,000 individuals    with an increasing trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162297		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to urbanisation and road construction, erosion or landslides.
162298		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caralluma burchardii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Apteranthes burchardii </span>spp. <span style="font-style: italic;">burchardii</span> in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008), classed as VU B2ac(iv). This taxon included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><p><br/><br/></p>
162298		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caralluma buchardii</span> is present in the Canary Islands, Spain, and Morocco and Algeria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010 ).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Caralluma buchardii</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maura</span> is endemic to the North of Africa.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Caralluma buchardii</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">buchardii </span>is endemic to the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, the Canary Islands, Spain (Gobierno de Canarias 2004), being also present in Gran Canaria. It presents a fragmented distribution. This taxon occurs in more than ten locations and its area of occupancy has been determined to be higher than 20 km<sup>2</sup> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
162298		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caralluma burchardii </span>can be found on rocky sites and between cracks on crags, in rather arid areas. Occasionally it can grow on shallow sandy substrates. It is part of vegetation communities like <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontospermo intermedii-Euphorbietum balsamiferae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinio-Euphorbietea canariensis</span>    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Sometimes it appears in shrublands dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pegano-Salsoletea</span> (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
162298		population	eng	Its population size has been estimated to be between 3,576 and 7,670 individuals, presenting an increasing trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals have been reported (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
162298		threats	eng	Predation has been described as its main threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162299		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is classified as Vulnerable in the Italian Red List and as Near Threatened in the Spanish Red List. More sustainable practices in forest management are required to ensure the future of this species.
162299		distribution	eng	This European endemic is present in central Italy and in the north of Spain (La Rioja). The extent of occurrence in Italy is about 4,000 km² and its area of occupancy in Spain is slightly more than 20 km². The total area of occupancy is suspected to be less than 2,000 km².
162299		habitat	eng	This is a forest species and mainly grows on acid and calcareous soils.
162299		population	eng	In Italy, there are three subpopulations in Tuscany, it is more frequent in Umbria and present with a lower frequency in Latium. In Spain, there is no information about the subpopulations.
162299		threats	eng	The main threat is an increase in forest density due to changes in forest management.
162300		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed<span style="background-color: white;"> as </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Hymenostemma pseudoanthemis</span><span style="background-color: white;"> i</span>n the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008), classed VU B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v).<br/></p>
162300		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Andalucía, Spain, according to Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000);&#160; it was also reported to be present in Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010), but its presence there has been ruled out. It occurs in the province of Cádiz, in the regions of Campiña Baja, Grazalema and Algeciras; and in the province of Málaga, in Parque de los Alcornocales and Serranía de Ronda. It tends to form extense subpopulations.
162300		habitat	eng	This species occurs in acid sandy soils, in clearings within forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber-Olea</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> europaea</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">sylvestris</span>. It can also be found in areas dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span> and clearings in plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. within areas of potential distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span>. It is characteristic of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllido hamosae-Malcolmion lacerae</span>, growing along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenostemma pseudoanthemis, Arenaria emarginata, Malcolmia lacera, Anthyllis hamosa, Ornithopus sativus </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. isthmocarpus, Hippocrepis salzmannii, Ononis broterana, Loeflingia baetica, Erodium aethiopicum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rumex bucephalophorus.</span>
162300		population	eng	<p>The population trend has been reported to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).&#160;</p>
162300		threats	eng	Grazing, urbanisation and the establishment of sport and leisure structures have been considered as threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The exploitation of the forest where the species occurs and changes in land use from forest to agriculture, have been also reported as threats (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
162302		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androcymbium rechingeri</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/> It is included in the Red Data Book of Greece as Endangered (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81. Seeds are stored at the seedbank of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of  Chania and the plant is also cultivated in the Botanical Garden. There is a micro-reserve on Elafonisos and the subpopulations are all included in NATURA 2000 sites  (GR4340002 and GR4340001).
162302		distribution	eng	<em>A. rechingeri</em> is an endemic species of Crete that occurs on the coasts of northwest Crete, and also on the adjacent island of Elafonisos. It is found at four locations. Its extent of occurrence is 78 km² and the area of occupancy is 16 km² (2 km grid)
162302		habitat	eng	The species grows in coastal phrygana on shallow sandy soil on calcareous substrate, but not on moving sands. <em>A. rechingeri</em> seems to be strictly adapted to a very specialized habitat (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
162302		population	eng	There are three subpopulations with four locations:<br/><ul><li>Subpopulation 1, location 1, situated at Elafonisos. There are three metapopulations of which the largest is included in a micro-reserve. According to Dimopoulos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008), 600-700 plants were recorded in the micro-reserve in 2006-2007.</li><li>Subpopulation 1, location 2, situated in southwest Crete at the coast opposite Elafonisos. There is a small colony of c. 30 plants near a dirt road (Kypriotakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999b).<br/></li><li>Subpopulation 2, location 3, at Falasarna. There is a large number of plants at two sites: a) along Falasarna beach, c. 500 m north of Falasarna (Wolf and Kienzler 2001) and b) among coastal phrygana and c. 1,500 m south of Falasarna, on stabilised sand.<br/></li><li>Subpopulation 3, location 4, at the Imeri Gramvousa islet. There is a large population of unknown size (maybe 1,000 plants). The habitat of the plant is restricted to an area of less than 1 ha.<br/></li></ul>The habitat at location 1 is adequately protected but at location 2 it is probably threatened. The habitat at location 3 is in continuous decline, especially at the second site. The habitat at location 4 is also in continuous decline.
162302		threats	eng	Location 1: Most plants occur on a rocky plateau not highly disturbed  by visitors who prefer the sandy beach (Wolf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/>Location 2: Overgrazing may be a threat.<br/>Location 3: The  coastal vegetation of the area has been degraded and both sites are  threatened due to tourism development in the area. The second site has  been repeatedly ploughed and is used as a parking lot. The ownership of  the site is under dispute.<br/>Location 4: The  subpopulation is threatened by increasing visitor numbers and heavy  grazing may be a threat (Kypriotakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999a). A road was recently  constructed to the chapel next to the location of the plant (Wolf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span> 2001).
162303		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex holostoma</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized as Vulnerable in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened approaching B1a+2a and D2 (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected under national law. On the Norwegian red list it is also classed as Near Threatened approaching Criteria A4bc and B2b(iii) (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Finland, it is listed as Least Concern (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), but the species is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005) and 60% of the sites are in national parks.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162303		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex holostoma </span>has a circumpolar but scattered distribution. In Europe, it is native to Finland, Sweden, Norway, and North European Russia   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).&#160; <br/>In Sweden, the species is found at only two localities, with an area of occupancy of 24 km². The area of occupancy in Norway, where it is found in Finnmark, Nordland and Troms, is less than 500 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
162303		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex holostoma</span> grows in acid alpine and subalpine grassland   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). This plant is found on rocks, grass areas in the mountains, rocky meadows that are wet during part of the season, rock ledges, crevices, sloping bare cliffs often with water streaming and north facing. It is found in moist tundra.
162303		population	eng	The population for Finland and Sweden has been stated as 21,240 flowering stems. It is considered a stable population   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, there are 6,000 reproductive individuals and the populations have a fragmented distribution (ArtDatabanken 2010). Norway holds the bulk of the European populations and the plant can be found at 60-70 localities in the mountains. There is no data on the current population trend available as there has not been much monitoring of this plant. However, a population decline of 15-30% is expected for the next ten to 30 years, due to climate change (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In Russia, it is very rare in the European part and is only found in the Kolski Peninsula. There is no information on the population trend.
162303		threats	eng	One of the Swedish localities is a ski resort and could be under threat. The other Swedish locality is far from any human activity (ArtDatabanken 2010). The Norwegian populations are currently not under threat as they grow in remote areas that are far from human pressure. However, climate change and the subsequent increase in temperature has been identified as a future threat that will lead to population declines (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>There are no major threats in Finland. There is no threat information for Russia.
162304		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus maritimus</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The whole population is included in the Site of Community Importance "Isola di San Pietro” (ITB040027). The species is the subject of an INTERREG IIIB project&#160;of the Center for Biodiversity Conservation of the University of Cagliari. Since 2004, the population trend is monitored (Bacchetta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/>About 55,000 seeds were stored in the Seed Bank of Sardinia (BG-SAR). Other seeds are stored in Soller (Spain), Catania and at the Millenium Seed Bank, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (UK).
162304		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy, where it is only present in one locality called Casa del Cio, north of San Pietro island (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>The EOO is less than 100 km² and the AOO is 1 km² calculated with a 1 x 1 km grid (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
162304		habitat	eng	It grows in coastal grassland and shrublands very close to the sea. The vegetation belongs to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chritmo-Limonion </span>and to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Ericion </span>(Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
162304		population	eng	The population has been decreasing by about 70% in the last ten years. The number of individuals declined from about 480 to about 130 due to decreasing habitat quality (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). All individuals are in one subpopulation. The population is affected by fluctuation in the number of individuals.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162304		threats	eng	The major threats for this species are the urbanization of the coastal areas for tourist and recreation aims, and changes in native species dynamics. Due to the low number of individuals other threats are the low density, poor reproductive efforts and the restricted ecological range that affect the opportunity of the species to spread (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
162305		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora species of Andalucía. It is listed NT in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p>  <p><em>Silene mariana</em> is object of a conservation plan developed by the Andalusian Government (Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía). Some subpopulations occur within protected areas: Parque Natural Sierra Norte de Sevilla, Parque Natural de la Sierra de Aracena y Picos de Aroche (Huelva), Parque Natural de la Sierra de Hornachuelos and Parque Natural de Cardeña y Montoro (Córdoba).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162305		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south of the Iberian Peninsula: Huelva, Sevilla, Córdoba, Málaga, Cádiz, Jaén y Ciudad Real (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
162305		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This therophyte species may grow in ephimeral communities in edges of roads, firewalls, shrubland clearings (Blanca </span> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000), grasslands (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al. </span><span style="background-color: white;">2005), and rupicolous communities in vertical crevices and rocky slopes (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It occurs in fissures and on landslides of serpentine rocks within the association</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> Andryalo-Crambion filiformis</span>. Frequent accompanying species are <em>Alysssum serpyllifolium </em>ssp. <em>malacitanum, Armeria carratracensis, Armeria colorata, Biscutella sempervirens, Bupleurum rigidum </em>ssp. <em>paniculatum, Cerastium gibraltaricum, Galium boissieranum, Genista lanuginosa, Herniaria baetica, Linaria tristis, Melica minuta, Saxifraga gemmulosa </em>and <em>Ulex baeticus.</em>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162305		population	eng	This taxon was reported in 21 sites in Andalucía, from which only two have been recently found (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Seven more citations have been recorded. Subpopulations have been described as comprising, in general, low number of individuals (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
162305		threats	eng	Forestry management, burning, agriculture and forestry activities, grazing, mines, communication networks and wildfires, have been reported as threats to the species (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The pilgrimage to the locality of El Rocío is also affecting one location (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
162306		conservation	eng	The species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1995). The  localities of the plant at Meteora and Kalambaka lie within the NATURA 2000 site GR1440003. Information on the population size and potential threats affecting this species is needed, as well as monitoring.<br/>  <p></p>
162306		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea kalambakensis</span> is endemic to Greece. Recently the plant was mapped at two locations, one near Theopetra village (which corresponds to the old location of the locus <span style="font-style: italic;">classicus</span>; Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and one approximately 1.7 km northeast of Kalambaka town (Petermann and Grigoriadis 2001).<br/><br/>Based on the above, the plant has been found at two locations which therefore presents the extent of occurrence as approximately 4.5 km² and area of occupancy as 4 km² (based on a 2x2 km grid).
162306		habitat	eng	It grows in crevices on the vertical slopes of a large rock, mainly occupying southern- and western-exposed sides  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162306		population	eng	According to Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995), the population at Meteora exceeds 300 individuals. There is no information on the total population size or trend.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>  <p><br/></p>
162306		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are not known. It grows in inaccessible places which should provide some protection, however, a drastic change in its habitat could pose a serious threat to its survival.
162307		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphrasia mendoncae</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. Taxonomic research on the species is needed if it is ever found again.
162307		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bragança in Portugal and was described by Sampson in 1936 from specimens collected in 1932 by F. Mendonça. It was never found again despite extensive surveys in 1990 and 1996. There are suspicions that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. mendoncae</span> is in fact a different species and Flora Iberica treats it as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. minima</span> Jacq. ex DC. (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162307		habitat	eng	An annual plant that was described from permanently flooded mountainous grasslands (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162307		population	eng	There is no population data available.
162307		threats	eng	No information available.
162308		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the&#160; Spanish national catalogue of threatened species.<br/></p>It occurs within the protected area Parque <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Nacional">Nacional de Sierra Nevada (SCI). A recovery plan of the species is underway, including&#160;<span title="Tras el vallado de">fencing. Plant material is stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma de Sierra Nevada.</span>
162308		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain, where it is only found in Sierra Nevada, on the lower slopes, in the province of Granada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its area of occupancy is 15 km². Its extent of occurrence is 400 km²<sup></sup> (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="que su distribución pueda ser más amplia"></span>
162308		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species grows in upland grasslands, above 2,000 m in deep siliceous soils formed close to oligotrophic temporary summer streams. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El dominio corresponde a">It lives together with  <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex camposii, C. cuprina, Juncus effusus, Senecio jacobaea, Myosotis decumbens</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> teresasiana, Mentha longifolia, Anthericum baeticum, Anthoxantum odoratum, Digitalis purpurea, Primula elatior </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> lofthousei, Carum verticillatum, Leontodon carpetanus </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nevadensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula herminii.</span></span>
162308		population	eng	Two locations have been identified in Sierra Nevada. Total population is 1,224 individuals (Gutiérrez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Forms groups scattered in small areas, mainly following the courses of some gullies and ditches. <span title="Existen dos poblaciones y">There are two subpopulations and although the number of adults is quite high (just over 3,000 individuals), the number of mature  individuals accounted for in 2001 just exceeded 1,200. <span title="Se ha constatado">A clear regression has been observed in the southernmost <span title="del área de distribución.">range. Although in recent years new nuclei have been located and individual numbers have increased, the habitat specificity and the threats may prevent it from distributing further.</span></span>
162308		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Its habitat is very fragile and it has a clear downward trend when altered by human factors. It competes for its habitat with species of the genus<span style="font-style: italic;"> Carex</span>. <span title="La principal amenaza se atribuye">The main threat is attributed to predation of the flowering stems mainly by domestic animals, livestock also alter the soil conditions, so that this can lead to competition  with nitrophilous species. <span title="La proximidad de vías">The proximity of roads and rural communication poses a continuing risk.</span>
162309		conservation	eng	Listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162309		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sardinia, Italy   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It covers a geographic range of 193 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  It is not clear how that  transfers into extent of occurrence but it can be concluded that the area  of occupancy is below 500 km².
162309		habitat	eng	This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 1420 "Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarcocornetea fruticos</span>i)   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162309		population	eng	It has been recorded in seven localities but the number of individuals is not known. The population is stable   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162309		threats	eng	The most important threat for this species is anthropogenic pressure posed by leisure and tourism activities (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162310		conservation	eng	<em>Najas flexilis</em> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)<span lang="EN-GB">. It is classed as Regionally Extinct in Switzerland and  Poland,&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><span lang="EN-GB">Critically Endangered in Sweden  (B1ac(iv)+2ac(iv)), Endangered in Denmark, Estonia, Finland and Norway (B2ab(ii,iii,iv)c(v)), it is protected in the United Kingdom under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (and amendments). Categorized Critically Endangered (A4c) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) and as Endangered in the Red Data Book of the Leningrad region (Tzvelev 2000). The site in the Syaberski Lake is protected but monitoring is required.</st1:country-region><br/><span lang="EN-GB">  <p>&#160;</p></span>
162310		distribution	eng	<em>Najas flexilis</em> has a predominantly circumboreal distribution, occurring from Europe east through Siberia to the Russia Far East and throughout northern and western North America. In Europe, it occurs from Scandinavia and North European Russia south to the United Kingdom, Germany and Poland.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white; font-weight: bold;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">The are</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">a of occupancy in Europe is thought to be below 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span>
162310		habitat	eng	This species grows in clean lakes with sandy bottom and in permanent mesotrophic lakes, ponds and pools. It can be found in the Habitats Directive habitat 3150 "Natural eutrophic lakes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Magnopotamion </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocharition </span>- type vegetation"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162310		population	eng	<p><em>N. flexilis</em> is classed as Regionally Extinct in Switzerland and Poland, Critically Endangered in Germany, Sweden and Belarus, Endangered in Denmark, Estonia, Finland and Norway. Population estimates have been provided for EU 27 countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009):</p>  <ul><li>Denmark: one locality of 0.03 km<sup>2</sup></li><li>Germany: extinct in Berlin and Brandenburg, in the Bodensee area the species was last seen in 1973. No further populations present.<sup><br/></sup></li><li>Estonia: 10 to 100 individuals</li><li>Finland: five localities</li><li>Ireland: 36 localities</li><li>Latvia: six localities</li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Lithuania: one to three localities</span></li><li>Poland: <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">recorded from three localities in 19th century, now probably extinct</span></li><li>Sweden: 10,500 individuals</li><li>United Kingdom: 39 localities</li></ul>In Belarus, there seem to have been three to four known areas in the north of the country that have not been confirmed after 1970   (Ermakova 2005). In Russia, the species is found in the Leningrad region (Syaberskiye Lake south of Luga), in Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, Moscow and some other regions in the European part, the populations are indicated to be declining (Tzvelev 2000).<br/>Populations appear to be stable and relatively abundant only in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Sweden and unknown for the other EU member states.            <p><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
162310		threats	eng	The main threats to the species come from water pollution as the species prefers clean waters. Acidification and eutrophication caused by fertilisation in agriculture are leading to population declines. The changes of hydrological regimes and competition with invasive species are further threats. From Latvia, professional fishing has been reported as a threat&#160;(Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162311		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is legally protected at national and regional level in Spain and is classified as Vulnerable on the Italian and Spanish Red Lists. The spp. <span style="font-style: italic;">aeolicus </span>is listed as Endangered in the Italian Red List. Many subpopulations are found in protected areas. Monitoring of vegetation changes in relation to invasive species and controlling the urban sprawl in tourist areas are the main conservation measures. More research on the population size and trends are also needed.
162311		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus rupicola</span> is a native species to southern Italy and Sicily, Mallorca (Spain) and Tunisia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). The area of occupancy in Italy is between 500 to 1,000 km². In Mallorca, the area of occupancy is only 20 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162311		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal cliffs and inhabits the Habitats Directive habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162311		population	eng	This species is considered as locally abundant. Population estimated for Spain is 500 individuals. In Italy, the species has been recorded in 65 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and many sub-populations are known (more than 100).
162311		threats	eng	Competition with invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus </span>spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp. is a major threat. Locally, it can also be impacted by fires and urbanisation.<br/>Taking and removal of flora and mining have been described as further threats for this species          (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162312		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris boissieri</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. Its populations have been integrated into the Parque Natural Baixa Limia-Serra do Xurés and the SCI Ancares-Courel, Carnota-Monte Pindo, and Serra do Careón in Spain and in <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios  con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con">the National Park of Peneda-Geres in Portugal. This species is included in the Spanish Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (CR) B1b(i,ii,iv,v)c(iv)+2b(i,ii,iv,v)c(iv) (Moreno 2008).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios  con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones."><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162312		distribution	eng	This species is endemic  to Galicia (Spain) and northern Portugal (Pulgar Sañudo<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004). In Galicia, it is present in the Mountains of Xures and Santa Eufemia and in Baltar (Ourense), in the Serra do Courel (Lugo), in Montes do Pindo (A Coruña) and in Serra do Careón in the central part of the region. In the north of Portugal, it is found in mountains Serras da Peneda, Amarela e Gerês, bordering the southeast of the province of Ourense. Its total area of occupancy is believed to be lower than 10 km².
162312		habitat	eng	This species grows in rocky shallow soils, in crevices of big granite blocks, and in gaps of often <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación">burned areas of heath and gorse. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthion</span> or of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii</span><br/></li></ul><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It forms part of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterosparto lasianthi-Ericetum aragonensis </span>subas. <span style="font-style: italic;">pseudarrhenatheretosum longifolii.</span> and is often accompanied by <span title="subas."><span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus bupleuroides, Avenula sulcata, Erica australis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Thapsia villosa</span> (Pulgar Sañudo 2004).<br/>&#160;<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The rate of seed varies between consecutive years. <span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">There is variation in stems and flowers of this species. <span title="Esta variación">This variation appears associated with the success and consumption of resources during seed production from the previous year. <br/><br/><span title="poblaciones."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162312		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris boissieri</span> suffers severe fluctuations in the number of mature individuals, which is caused by climatic factors.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"> Populations in Spain seem to have disappeared at low altitudes, especially in the environment of the Mountains of Xures, where there were some historical references. Significant declines in populations have been detected. At the sites of O Pindo and O Courel, only single individuals were found and in some years, no individuals were detected. T<span title="poblaciones.">he population integrated into the Parque Natural Baixa <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones.">Limia-Serra do <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones.">Xurés is apparently in good condition (Pulgar Sañudo <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones."> 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="subas."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se han observado lirios con"><span title="fotosintética"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esta variación"><span title="poblaciones.">. However, even those populations have very few individuals only. The population in Spain is estimated in  724 individuals   (Pulgar Sañudo<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004). In Portugal, it has been reported that there are&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>between 1,000 to 10,000 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, observations showed that the population structure is very similar to Spain, with isolated individuals or very small groups only. The extent of the Portuguese populations is overall smaller than the populations in Spain. <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162312		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main threats that may affect this species are species collection and changes in land use such as the abandonment of pastoral systems. Recreational activities and fires pose further threats. <span title="Por otra parte las poblaciones">Furthermore, the populations of Serra do Courel and Pindo seem non-viable due to the low number detected (Pulgar Sañudo 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por otra parte las poblaciones"> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span>
162314		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola hispida</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In France, it is under national protection and included in a few protected areas (Arreté de Protection de Biotope, Réserve Naturelle). Five localities benefit from conservation actions such as cattle grazing to maintain the habitat open, creation of rocky slopes, population reinforcement or reintroductions, in the framework of a LIFE+ project.
162314		distribution	eng	This plant is found in northern France where it is endemic to the Seine valley near Rouen. There are three to five locations: two localities at Amfreville-sous-le-Mont, one at Romilly-sur-Andelle and two at St-Adrien. It was more widespread in the past but the range has been considerably reduced. Its extent of occurrence is 400 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) but the area of occupancy is less than 10 km². The actually occupied area is less than 1 ha.
162314		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic for the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8160 "Medio-European calcareous scree of hill and montane levels"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162314		population	eng	This plant occurs in eight localities in four communes with more than 1,000 individuals. Recent counts have shown a decrease in the number of mature individuals, including the largest population (Romilly-sur-Andelle). The number of individuals there was 2,016 (in the year 2000), 2,089 (in 2002) and most recently only 938 (in 2009). It is not clear yet how recently implemented measures of restoration and habitat management can offset this decline.<br/>Data collected over the last ten years also shows significant inter-annual fluctuations in the number of mature individuals in all subpopulations. The rate of fluctuation is tenfold or more for several subpopulations.
162314		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The main threat is the stabilisation of the scree where the species is found and the subsequent vegetation succession which poses competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Viola hispida</span>.
162316		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis lusitanica</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. More information on the population size and trend and potential threats to the species and its habitat should be collected.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
162316		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis vulneraria</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gandogeri</span> occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, Balearic Islands and north of Africa. <br/><br/>In Portugal, the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis lusitanica</span> has been reported in the northeast (Trás-os-Montes - Bragança) and in the centre-west. It has a geographic range of 4,668 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162316		habitat	eng	Occurs in small clearings of open low shrubland, at dry and arid places. It is found in annual communities of the order <em>Trachynetalia distachyae</em>, composed of <em>Trachinion distachyae</em> and <em>Anthyllido lusitanicae-Brachypodietum distachii</em> which evolve on limestone, among <em>Teucrio capitati-Thymetum sylvestris</em> scrubs, in the centre of Portugal. In the northeastern province Trás-os-Montes it develops frequently in clearings on slate, in community with annuals of the order <em>Tuberarietalia guttatae</em>, and in coexistence with <em>Tuberarion guttatae</em> and <em>Anthyllido lusitanicii-Tuberariteum guttati</em> <span style="background-color: white;">(Franco and Afonso 1994).</span>
162316		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and their trend available.
162316		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
162317		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula nutans </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized as Near Threatened in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).</st1:country-region> In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sweden, it is listed as Near Threatened B1a+2a (</st1:country-region>Gärdenfors 2010) and<st1:country-region w:st="on"> is protected under national law. In Norway, it is also classed as Near Threatened approaching Criterion A4bc (Artsdatabanken 2010). <span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">finmarchica</span> is listed as Vulnerable A2c; B1b(ii,iii,v)c(iv)+2b(ii,iii,v)c(iv) (</st1:country-region>Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010).<st1:country-region w:st="on"><span style="background-color: white;"></span> The species is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005) and c. 55% of known sites are situated in Natura 2000 areas. <br/></st1:country-region>
162317		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Primula nutans </span>is widely distributed in Central and North Asia and the Bering Strait. The isolated occurrence in northeast Europe is recognised as the morphologically distinct <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nutans</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">finmarchia</span>. In Europe, it is only found on the shores of the Bothnian Bay, the Kola Peninsula and the White Sea area (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>Its geographic range in Finland is 7,000 km² (Commission of the European Communities, 2009). The extent of occurrence in Sweden is 1,144 km² and the area of occupancy is 172 km². It is found at 25 localities which are severely fragmented (ArtDatabanken 2010). Norway holds about 30% of the European populations  (Artsdatabanken 2010), there is no information on area of occupancy or number of sites. There is also no information for Russia.
162317		habitat	eng	This species grows on littoral mixed sediments and littoral sediments dominated by aquatic angiosperms   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, the isolated population is growing on seashore meadows. It only grows near sea with very little salinity. In Norway, it is found in meadows close to the seashore but also in meadows further inland. In Russia, it has been reported from river banks and lakes and moist grassland in river valleys.
162317		population	eng	In Finland, this species has been recorded in 253 localities and the populations are declining. In Sweden, the population is of 300,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations in Sweden are stable. There is no population information for Russia available.<br/>In Norway, a population decline of 15-30% is expected for the near future. There are large and stable populations in parts but in several localities a decline has been noted (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162317		threats	eng	River regulation has been described as a threat. The abandonment of grazing and subsequent overgrowth of open habitats can pose a threat to the species as it does in Finland, where the populations are highly dependent on grazing and other management actions. However, this does for example not explain the population decline in Norway. Further minor threats are urbanisation, water pollution, and collection. Further threats in Finland, the main threats are eutrophication of the Baltic Sea and coasts, and construction work.
162318		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Spanish Red List as Near Threatened (Moreno 2008).
162318		distribution	eng	This species is native to Portugal, the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Morocco and Algeria. The records in Italy (Tyrrenienne coast of Tuscany, Latium and Sardignia) and Malta most probably belong to another species that was misidentified. The records in Sicily are erroneous.<br/><br/>In Spain, the species occurs on the Canary islands of La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and the range is around 2,100 km². The area of occupancy can be calculated as about  20 grid cells of 1 km². In Portugal, the species is found in Mafra and the Sintra mountains and occupies an area of 569 km² (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1986, Commission of the European Communities 2009). It occurs in nine islands of the Azores, but the presence on Graciosa is doubtful (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Furthermore it occurs on&#160;the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo and Desertas  (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
162318		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium hemionitis</span> can be found in humid, moist and shaded basaltic rocks or moist gravel, but also in caves and man-made wells and reservoirs (Castroviejo <em>et al. </em>1986). This fern also grows in mixed forest plantations, acid siliceous inland cliffs, thermo-Mediterranean scrub, large-scale ornamental garden areas ­ and park flower beds, shrubbery, and field walls.<br/><br/>It is found in the following Habitats Directive habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>1250 Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coasts</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation. </li><li>9360 Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)</li></ul>
162318		population	eng	In Spain, at least five subpopulations are known. In Portugal, the species is known from 18 localities and counts 9,800 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162318		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, due to forest plantations and urbanisation, is threatening this species.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162319		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linum muelleri</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy,   distributed in only three localities: Miniere di San Giovanni di Bindua, Miniere di Monteponi and Monte Marganai  (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Its geographic range is 69 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<p><br/></p>
162319		habitat	eng	This is an heliophile and xerophile plant that is mainly present in scrub areas and in garrigue (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
162319		population	eng	The population has been estimated to be between 400 and 500 individuals, their trend is unknown (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162319		threats	eng	The main threat for this species is the fragility of the subpopulations and of their habitat   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
162320		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga osloënsis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>In Sweden, it has been classed as Vulnerable B2ab(iii,iv,v)c(iv) (Gärdenfors 2010). It is classed as Near Threatened approaching A2bc+3c; B2b(ii,iii,iv,v) in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162320		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga osloënsis</span> is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Norway and Sweden. </st1:place></st1:country-region><br/></p><p>Its extent of occurrence in Sweden is 42,956 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,256 km². There are more than 250 known occurrences but its distribution area is severely fragmented  (ArtDatabanken 2010). The area of occupancy in Norway is less than 500 km² (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/>  </p>
162320		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga osloënsis</span> is usually an annual species and grows on rocks or cliffs with thin soil cover, especially small flat outcrops in pastures and near roads. It is an opportunistic species that cannot germinate without moisture and flowers for just a few weeks.
162320		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>The number of mature individuals in Sweden has been estimated to be 500,000 individuals. The populations are extremely fluctuating: in some years it is difficult to find it and in some years it is common. A population decline is suspected based on a decline of habitat quality, number of locations, and number of mature individuals (ArtDatabanken 2010).<br/>In Norway, the species is restricted to the southeast and has recently been detected at two new sites in Kongsvinger. The populations are continuously declining and a past as well as future decline of 15-30% is being suspected (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162320		threats	eng	Abandonment of land use and the subsequent succession of different vegetation has been described as a threat to the species (ArtDatabanken 2010, Artsdatabanken 2010).
162322		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrium betonicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162322		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madeira, Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). Its extent of occurrence is 259 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162322		habitat	eng	This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162322		population	eng	It has been estimated that the total population has 1,000 individuals with a stable trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162322		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are posed by urbanisation, road construction, landslides, and competition with exotic and native species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162323		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) with the spelling <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymelaea broterana</span>. <br/><br/>It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain. It is classed as species "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogues of threatened flora of Castilla y León and Galicia; and as species "de interés especial" in the regional catalogue of Extremadura. It is listed VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The location Lovios (817 individuals, 2 km<sup>2</sup>) is included in the protected area Parque Natural Baixa Limia-Serra do Xurés. Proposed measures include population trend monitoring, storage of plant material in germplasm banks, and development of research about genetic diversity.
162323		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymelaea broteriana </span><span>is endemic to the northwestern Iberian Peninsula (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In Portugal, it occurs in the regions of Douro Litoral, Minho and Tras os Montes (Serras do Gerês). Its presence has been also cited in Serra do Estrela, in eastern-central Portugal. In Spain, it can be found distributed into five locations, in the provinces of Pontevedra, Ourense, Salamanca and Cáceres. Its AOO in this country has been estimated in 15 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><span><span><span></span></span>
162323		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymelaea broterana</span> <span>is a woodland species preferring young forests. It occurs in heaths and acidophilous shrublands. The species is favoured by forestry disturbances such as forestry service road construction and firewalls   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain, this small shrub grows in shrublands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica australis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica umbellata</span>, on acid substrates, always slates or granites. In Salamanca it appears in open degrades areas, such as tracks and firewalls that go through forest plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster. </span><br/><span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>
162323		population	eng	In Spain, total number of reproductive individuals has been estimated in 7,700 (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The subpopulations in Salamanca comprise more than 80% of the total population in Spain. The number of specimens in each location ranges from 35 to 6,635. <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162323		threats	eng	Burning and erosion have been described as threats to this species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Vehicle access improvement through roads and firewalls and absence of clearings are also threats (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The location Alto del Candán is as well affected by a wind farm.
162325		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species.<span style="background-color: white;"></span> It is listed CR B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p>  <p>The species occurs within the protected areas Reserva Natural de Mencáfete, Reserva Natural de Tibataje and Paisaje Protegido de Timijiraque, also SCIs.</p>  <p>Seeds of the species have been collected and are stored at the germplasm bank of the E.T.S.I.A. of Madrid. A population monitoring programme is being developed by regional and local government institutions (Gobierno de Canarias, Cabildo de El Hierro), which includes reinforcement of populations and establishment of fences. Furthermore, some individuals have been re-introduced into the wild with satisfactory results.</p>  <p>Proposed measures in order to ensure the conservation of the species include the conservation of its habitat, the development of a population trend monitoring programme and the establishment of measures to control grazing (Rodríguez Delgado <em>et al</em>. 2004).</p>  <p><br/></p>
162325		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Cheirolophus duranii </em>is a plant endemic to the island of El Hierro, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows at altitudes between 245 and 475 m asl. It can be found distributed throughout four locations, with an area of occupancy of 4 km². Its populations have been reported to be geographically scattered and restricted (Rodríguez Delgado <em>et al</em>. 2004).
162325		habitat	eng	This species appears highly scattered throughout the island, restricted to ravines under human influence.<br/><br/>Its characteristic habitat are scrublands, where the species grows on unstable substrates, either because of natural or human-induced causes, within the distribution range of the Canarian community tabaibal-cardonal and termophile forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio-Rumicetum lunariae</span>). The most common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex lunaria, Artemisia thuscula, Psoralea bituminosa, Kleinia neriifolia, Euphorbia obtusifolia, Echium hierrensis, Rubia fruticosa, Gonospermum fruticosum, Micromeria varia, Periploca laevigata, Retama raetam </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sideritis ferrensis</span> (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>The number of seedlings resulting from a reproductive event has been reported not to be very high.
162325		population	eng	Its population size has been determined to be between 206 and 306 individuals with a negative trend    (Rodríguez Delgado <em>et al</em>. 2004, Gobierno de Canarias 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162325		threats	eng	Grazing is the main threat for this species. Some subpopulations are also affected by game activities   and occasional landslides (Rodríguez Delgado <em>et al</em>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162326		conservation	eng	It is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Spain, it is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection. It is legally protected in Portugal and at regional level in Extremadura and Castilla y León. It occurs in several protected areas, as Reserva Natural Garganta de los Infiernos, SCI Riveras de Gata y Acebo (Extremadura). <br/><br/>Research about its taxonomy and site management are needed (ICN 2006). Overgrazing has to be avoided.
162326		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Portugal and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It is distributed in the Serra da Estrela and Sistema Central, although its presence has been also reported in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal, it is restricted to mountains of the north and centre, particularly in Serra da Estrela (ICN 2006). In Spain it can be found in Extremadura, Castilla y León and Galicia. Geographic range for both countries has been estimated in 6,568 km<sup>2 </sup>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). </p>
162326		habitat	eng	This species can grow in Iberian siliceous grasslands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta</span> and upland grasslands on acid soils. It also occurs in the communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephoretea canescentis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hieracio-Plantaginion radicatae</span>. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>6160 Oro-Iberian <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta</span> grasslands</li><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li></ul>
162326		population	eng	There are  28 localities in Spain   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The species is frequent in the north of Portugal and easily observed (ICNB 2006). Population over 10,000 individuals has been estimated (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162326		threats	eng	In Spain, reported threats for this species are grazing and animal breeding, burning, collecting activities, outdoor sports and leisure activities and trampling and overuse (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Portugal, habitat degradation due to afforestation and urbanisation is the main threat. Vegetation succession is a slow but potential threat (ICN 2006).
162327		conservation	eng	Arnica montana is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive and on Annex D of the Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein.<br/><br/>There are protection measures in place for some European countries and it features in some national red lists:<br/><ul><li>In Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia it is classed as Vulnerable on the national red lists.</li><li>Czech Republic: protected by national Law and included in national parks and protected landscape areas.</li><li>France: protected in several regions (Aquitaine, Centre, Bourgogne) and more than five departements, included in several protected areas.</li><li>Germany: Classed as Vulnerable (level 3) on the German Red List   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996).</li><li>Hungary: classed as Extinct in the Wild on the national red list <br/></li><li>Italy: not on the national red list but some populations are in regional parks and prevents  regional collection by law.</li><li>Lithuania: classed as Vulnerable, protected according to national and regional law.</li><li>Luxembourg: classed as Critically Endangered on the national red list.<br/> </li><li>Slovenia: classed as Vulnerable on the 2002 red list, protected by law which it prevents from being collected. Several localities are in protected areas such as Natura 2000 sites, national  parks, regional parks.</li><li>Sweden: classed as Near Threatened on the Swedish red list 2010.</li><li>Switzerland: classed as Least Concern on Swiss Red List   (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002) but regionally found in protected areas. Collections are accepted but there are rules about the amount.</li><li>Ukraine: included in the 1996 Red Data Book of Ukraine, but not included in the 2009 edition of this book. It is protected in the Carpathian biosphere reserve, in the Tapichirkiskij, Urochychcze Zatinky, Teresjanka, Chorkyj Dil, Stebnyk protected areas, and in the nature monument Verchnje Ozerychere.<br/></li></ul>Future recommended actions include to manage the mowing of meadows, provide land owners with financial support to graze, and control the change of agricultural practices. In general, in face of the threats the species is facing it should be monitored. In Luxembourg, site management to encourage seedling establishment is needed.<br/><p><br/></p>
162327		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arnica montana</span> is endemic to Europe where it is found from Norway to the Balkans and from Spain to Ukraine.<br/><br/>In France, the species is reported from more than 1,000 localities and is found in the Alps, Pyrenees, eastern and Mediterranean area and is only absent in the west and northwest. In Italy, it occurs in the Alps and northern Apennines. It is common in the Czech Republic in mountains and is scattered in all of Slovenia with small local populations. It occurs in most of Denmark's lowlands in the mainland and in the west. In Norway and Sweden there are hundreds of localities. In Switzerland, the species can be found over more than 50% of the country. <br/>In Ukraine, it grows in the Carpathian Mountains. Single isolated populations were founds in the 19th and first half of the 20th century in the lowland part of Ukraine (Lvivska and Zytomirska regions) but are now likely to be extinct.<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, the only evidence for the species presence is a single herbarium sheet from the Rila mountains without further specifications of the locality. Its presence is therefore considered doubtful.
162327		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arnica montana</span> is a perennial plant that flowers from June to July and prefers acid and poor soils. It is mainly found in grassland and shrubland and alpine mountain environments. It also grows in dry pine forests, meadows, grazed moors on siliceous soils, marginal parts of spruce forests, open forest edges, mowing pastures, road and path sides, margins of peatlands. It can be found in coastal heath and benefits from occasional burning of heathlands. <br/><br/>The species occurs in the following habitat types of the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>  4030 European dry heaths</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)</li><li>4060 Alpine and boreal heaths</li><li>9430 Subalpine and montane <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus uncinata</span> forests<br/></li><li>7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs</li></ul><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162327		population	eng	The populations are stable and big in some countries such as Switzerland and the Ukrainian Carpathian mountains but seem to be slowly or strongly decreasing in other countries. In Slovenia and the Czech Republic, for example, there is a slow decrease due to changes to its natural habitat and collection of the plant. There are strong population declines, e.g. in Lithuania where the size of subpopulations is usually small and the species is sporadically distributed, or in Scandinavia due to shifting agricultural methods. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>In Luxembourg, it used to be locally quite common in grazed grasslands and heaths and was formerly known from 14 localities whereas now only four populations remain. The current populations show no establishment of seedlings.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162327		threats	eng	The picking of the flowers for medicinal purposes is one of the main threats to this species although it is illegal in some countries (e.g. France). <br/>Another threat is coming from agriculture. Here the application of fertilisers to grassland in order to increase the ph, such as limestone dust, decrease the suitability of the habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Arnica montana</span> that naturally prefers nutrient-poor soils. The abandonment of grasslands leads to a change in vegetation such as mosses and tall plants that can outcompete <span style="font-style: italic;">Arnica montana</span>. A change of grazing from cattle to sheep impacts the species although it is generally well adapted to grazing as it has flat leaves on the ground. Reforestation also reduces the habitat available to <span style="font-style: italic;">Arnica montana</span>. <br/>&#160; <br/>In some areas skiing is affecting the species as it causes soil compaction. <br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162328		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium alpinum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p>  In France, it is listed on the national list of protected plant species and several localities are in national parks of Vanoise, Mercantour, Ecrins, nature reserves, protected areas, and Natura 2000 sites. In Slovenia, it is protected. The Italian subpopulations are partially included in protected areas and the plant is classed as Vulnerable on the national Red List. In Austria and Switzerland, it is classed Vulnerable in the national Red Lists and protected. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>Ex situ</span> collection of the seeds is taking place in Austria and Italy. The management of pastures and control of wild collections are recommended.
162328		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium alpinum </span>is native to Austria, Liechtenstein, Croatia, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Slovenia   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Easily recognizable and remarkable for its intense blue colour, the  plant is emblematic of the alpine flora (Gaudel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). The plant is cultivated and has been observed to escape from gardens. <br/><br/>In France, it is found in two regions: Rhône-Alpes and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur. It occurs at 42 localities which equal 38 locations. In Austria, it extends from Voralberg to Liechtenstein and from Kärnten to Slovenia. In Switzerland, the AOO is 74 km², but it is not clear whether it is introduced or native. There are a few small subpopulations scattered in the Alps in Slovenia and some are locally extinct. In Italy, there have also been local extinctions and the plant is now found in eight localities.<br/><br/>The AOO might be less than 2,000 km², but there is not enough supporting data for this assumption.
162328		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium alpinum</span> is found in open habitats such as avalanche corridors or hayfields at  altitudes between 1,500 m and 2,000 m a<span style="background-color: white;">sl (Gaudel </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;">  2000). It</span> grows mostly on limestone.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Eryngium alpinum</span>  prefer moist or even wet conditions, mostly in tall herb communities on  more or less well-watered ground and well-supplied with nutrie<span style="background-color: white;">nts (Wörz  2006). </span><br/></p><p> </p><ul><li>4070 Bushes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron hirsutum</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mugo-Rhododendretum hirsuti</span>)</li><li>4080 Sub-Arctic <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>spp. scrub</li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>6230 Species-rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus</span> grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)<br/></li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels<br/></li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows <br/></li></ul><p><br/></p><br/><p> </p><p> </p>
162328		population	eng	The population of this species has been declining over the last decade and are fragmented in parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is little information on subpopulations in the different countries   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><br/>In Austria, 1,000 to 2,000 individuals have been counted with a declining trend. The subpopulations are also declining in Italy and in Slovenia, and both countries reported local extinctions. In France, there are several thousand individuals (5,000 estimated in Fournel population) with a declining trend. The populations in Switzerland are stable but this is due to introductions.
162328		threats	eng	The main threats are abandonment of alpine pastures and traditional land use which causes habitat closure. Collection for ornamental purposes and collecting of the seeds leads to population declines. Recreational activities such as skiing are degrading its habitat. Spring grazing could impact on the reproductive success.
162329		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as CR B2ab(iii,v); C2a(i)   in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008) and as species "En peligro de extinción" on the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Reserva Natural Especial de Los Marteles (SCI) (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo. One subpopulation has been monitored by the Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo. <br/><br/>Proposed measures include eradication of goats in the area, establishment of fences and the modification of a path that goes through one of the locations.
162329		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Solanum lidii</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it can be found between 350 and 725 m asl. It presents six subpopulations, distributed into five locations on the southern part of the island. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 5 km². Regressive trends have been reported for its distribution (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/></p>
162329		habitat	eng	This plant grows within ruderal shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio-Rumicetum lunariae</span> on disturbed sites where it can withstand long dry periods. It can now be found mainly in rocky sites   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia thuscula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex lunaria</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Echium onosmifolium</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Allagopappus viscosissimus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula minutolii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvia canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina canariensis</span>.
162329		population	eng	Total population has been estimated in 93 individuals, distributed throughout five locations   (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004): 32 in Temisas, 23 in Barranco de la Cruz-Lomo del Chorrillo, 7 in Fortaleza Grande, 17 in Risco del Sao and 14 individuals in Risco Gallegos-Amurga. Recruitment rates have been reported to be low. The subpopulations are isolated and severely fragmented.
162329		threats	eng	The most important threats to this species are anthropization due to the presence of urbanised areas, collapse of terrain or landslides, and predation   (Rodríguez Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162330		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula romanica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162330		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula romanica </span>is endemic to Romania (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
162330		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
162330		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
162330		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
162331		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Portugal, the species is legally protected. A taxonomic revision of the species is recommended (ICN 2006).<br/>No conservation information is available from Spain.
162331		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca duriotagana</span> occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, in Portugal and Spain. It occurs along the rivers Douro, Alto Tejo and Guadiana (ICN 2006). In Spain, its presence has been reported in Extremadura and Salamanca.<br/></p>
162331		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca duriotagana </span>occurs in rocky and sandy river banks of thermophile water. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009, ICNB 2006):<br/><ul><li>6160 Oro-Iberian <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta </span>grasslands</li><li>92D0 Southern riparian galleries and thickets (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nerio-Tamaricetea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Securinegion tinctoriae</span>)</li></ul>
162331		population	eng	In Portugal, the species has suffered a significant decline in the past. There is no information on the current size or trend of the populations (ICNB 2006).
162331		threats	eng	Canalisation and modifying structures of inland water courses have been described as main threats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009, ICN 2006).
162332		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">eurifolia</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is classed CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain, and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the regional catalogue. It occurs in the protected area Parque Natural de Tamadaba. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.</span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">rosmarinifolia</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is classed EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List 2008. It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species for the Canary Islands.</span><br/><br/>Proposed actions in order to ensure the conservation of this taxon include seeds collection and storage, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation, herbivorous species control or eradication, and the implementation of population reinforcement measures.
162332		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). Two subspecies have been described: <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">eurifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rosmarinifolia</span>.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">eurifolia</span> appears restricted to the massif of Tamadaba, in the northwestern part of the island, where five subpopulations have been found. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in between 4 and 5.5 km<sup>2</sup> (4 grid cells of 1x1 km or 22 grid cells of 500x500 m) (Gobierno de Canarias 2004), stable since the discovery of the species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rosmarinifolia</span> has been reported to present 21 subpopopulations (Beltrán Tejera <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Its area of occupancy has been estimated in between 13.50 and 15.75 km<sup>2</sup> (54 and 63 grid cells of 500x500 m). Its distribution was reduced by a fire in 2007.
162332		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">eurifolia</span> grows in sub-humid rupicolous communities on crags, within the potential distribution range of mixed pine forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinetum canariensis</span> subas. <span style="font-style: italic;">ericetosum arboreae</span> and occasionally <span style="font-style: italic;">Telino canariensis-Adenocarpion foliolosi</span>.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rosmarinifolia</span> grows towards the leeward, in xerophytic scrublands, within the distribution range of thermophile communities and transition communities towards pine forest, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno-Juniperion canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cisto-Pinion canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aonion</span>. Under pressure it appears sheltered in rupicolous communities.
162332		population	eng	A total population size between 32,012 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and 42,990 individuals (Gobierno de Canarias 2004, 2009) has been reported. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">eurifolia</span> has less than 700 individuals. <br/>The presence of reproductive individuals has been reported to be low for <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> eurifolia</span> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Six subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rosmarinifolia</span> were affected by a fire in 2007. This led to a decrease of the population size and distribution area of this taxon. No recovering has been detected and the current population trend is thought to be regressive.
162332		threats	eng	The main threat affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is predation by goats and rabbits, which limits the presence of reproductive individuals and affects the quality of the habitat of this taxon, forcing it to shelter in inaccessible areas (Gobierno de Canarias 2004, 2009). Competition with the exotic invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Pennisetum setaceum</span> has been reported as a threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline rosmarinifolia </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">eurifolia</span>.
162333		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sibthorpia peregrina</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162333		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sibthorpia peregrina </span>is endemic to Madeira, Portugal. Its extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy are 1,000 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162333		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162333		population	eng	It has been estimated that there is an increasing population of 10,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162333		threats	eng	The main threats described are tourism infrastructure such as paths and cycling tracks, recreational activities, and invasion by species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162336		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is  listed  in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for  Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex<span style="background-color: white;"> and </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">D. vicentina</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/></span>The taxon has been previously assessed as Rare (Dray 1985) and Vulnerable (Ramos Lopes and Carvalho 1990).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>EURISCO reports two accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">vicentina </span><span style="background-color: white;">held in the genebank  of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (recorded as </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">D.  siifolia</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">vicentina</span><span style="background-color: white;">). </span><span style="background-color: white;">It</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is one of the target species for collecting by the Banco de Sementes A.L. Belo Correia of the Natural History Museum of Portugal and accessions will be collected during 2011. <br/><br/>It is found within existing  protected areas;  however, it is not monitored or actively managed and  it is  recommended that it is incorporated into the existing protected  area  management plans.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> <span title=""><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span title=""><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"></span></span></span></span></span>
162336		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">D. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">vicentina</span> is<span style="background-color: white;"> endemic to the southwest of Portugal where its estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) was 374 km</span><sup>2</sup><span style="background-color: white;"> in the period 1994–1995 (Commission of the European Communities 2009). However, according to M.J. Pinto (pers. comm. 2010), the EOO is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is no more than 1 km<sup>2</sup>.</span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;"> The species occurs along the southwest coast, south of Cabo de Sines to Sagres. Its distribution is very fragmented and the populations are isolated from each other by tens of kilometres   (Ministério do Ambiente, do Ordenamento do Território e do Desenvolvimento Regional 2006).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"></span></span></span>
162336		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs on stable sand dunes and maritime rocky cliffs, in sandy soils, and in waste places (Ministério do Ambiente, do Ordenamento do Território e do Desenvolvimento Regional 2006). It also occurs along footpaths when the core of the subpopulation is nearby; however, the species is not dependent on the dispersal agents that move on these paths (M.J. Pinto pers. comm. 2010).
162336		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This is considered to be a rare species but it is locally relatively abundant<span style="background-color: white;">. </span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;">The  total number of plants is difficult to determine since it is an annual  species and therefore possesses an important seed bank. </span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;">The annual recruitment of individuals is variable and dependent on the year (M.J. Pinto pers. comm. 2010).</span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;"> Nevertheless,  it has been estimated that in Sagres the subpopulation comprises many individuals </span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;">(Ministério   do Ambiente, do Ordenamento do Território e do Desenvolvimento Regional   2006), the subpopulation occurring in Cabo de São Vicente has some tens of individuals (M.J. Pinto pers. comm. 2010) and that the  other  subpopulations comprise less than 25 individuals each. Further, all the subpopulations are isolated  from each other by tens of kilometres (Ministério   do Ambiente, do Ordenamento do Território e do Desenvolvimento Regional   2006). </span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It was reported by the Commission of the European Communities (2009)</span><span title=""><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;"> that the overall population decreased in range from 1968–1995 and that it is still decreasing; however, M.J. Pinto (pers. comm. 2010) suggests that the overall population </span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;">is probably not declining, although there are no studies supporting this. There is however an indication that the number of individuals might have decreased in recent years since one of the populations was probably affected by the restoration of an old house as well as an increase in the size of its gardens (M.J. Pinto pers. comm. 2010).</span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"> <br/></span><span title=""><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162336		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It is threatened by  urbanization, development for sport and leisure facilities, tourism, and road improvement. Disturbances resulting from ongoing construction work in areas of urban expansion are partially affecting the habitat of the subpopulation at Aljezur, leading to considerable losses. </span><span title=""><span style="background-color: white;">In the area of the Zambujeira do Mar, the improvement of paths is also a serious threat<span style="background-color: white;"> (Ministério do Ambiente, do Ordenamento do Território e do Desenvolvimento Regional 2006).</span><span style="background-color: white;"> A potential increase in seagull nesting and residence and consequent increase of nitrification (increase of nitrogen in the soil) can </span><span title=""><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">negatively</span><span title=""><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> affect the species' survival (M.J. Pinto pers. comm. 2010)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span title=""><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span title=""><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span id="result_box" class="short_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162337		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cerastium dinaricum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162337		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cerastium dinaricum</span> is endemic to Slovenia with an EOO of 50 km² where it is found at one locality (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162337		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
162337		population	eng	The population is decreasing (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162337		threats	eng	The main threats are abandonment of pastoral systems which leads to competition and habitat degradation as well as species disturbance due to mountaineering activities (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162338		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) B2ab(iii,v); D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>In Sierra Nevada, the species occurs within the protected area Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. The subpopulations in Sierra de Gádor occur in the SCI Sierras de Gádor y Enix.<br/><br/>Measures to prevent the alteration of the habitat are necessary in order to conserve current populations. Quarrying and grazing activities impacts should be controlled, as well as those generated by silvicultural works. Artificial expansion of the species should be promoted. Populations have to be monitored.
162338		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Andalucía, Spain (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its main population is located in Sierra de Gádor, Almería, though it has been also found in Sierra Nevada (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). It occurs in two distant areas, comprising nine subpopulations (Giménez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Its AOO has been reported to be 20 km².
162338		habitat	eng	This hemicryptophyte grows in shrublands of low coverage on stony calcareous poorly evoluted soils (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). <br/>Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca scariosa, Echinospartum boissieri, Ptilostemon hispanicus, Salvia lavandulifolia </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">vellerea, Phlomis crinita, Bupleurum spinosum, Digitalis obscura, Thymus serpylloides</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gadorensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lithospermum fruticosum</span><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><br/><br/>In Sierra Nevada it grows along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus clusii, Ulex parviflorus, Ptilostemon hispanicus, Lavandula lanata, Rosmarinus officinalis</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Thymus zygis</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
162338		population	eng	Its population size is 34,845 individuals (Giménez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011) and the populations are declining.
162338		threats	eng	Main threat to this species is posed by its restricted distribution and the isolation of its two main subpopulations. Quarrying, reforestation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> spp. and grazing are also threats.
162339		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corydalis gotlandica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Near Threatened on the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010).
162339		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corydalis gotlandica</span> is endemic to Gotland in Sweden. It is found in eight groups of localities which can be defined as eight locations. The extent of occurrence is 200 km² and the area of occupancy is 40 km² (Artdatabanken 2010).
162339		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corydalis gotlandica</span> is a perennial plant and can spread by tubers, and seeds that are transported by ants. It grows in dry or moist eutrophic and mesotrophic grassland. This plant prefers partially shaded sites along stone walls and under bushes in gardens in fertile, sandy soil. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gotlandica</span> can also be found in  domestic gardens in urbanised areas   (Artdatabanken 2010, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162339		population	eng	The overall population is estimated to have 10,000 individuals and it seems to be stable (Artdatabanken 2010).
162339		threats	eng	Changes in land management that lead to overgrowth of the sites and subsequent competition affect this species. The removal of hedges and copses also impacts on this plant   (Artdatabanken 2010, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162340		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."><span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum lidii</span>  is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and  under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European  Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario.">It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened  species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."> It listed as EN B2ab(iii)c(iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occurs within the protected areas Monumento Natural Montaña de Amagro (SCI) and Parque <span title="Natural">Natural Tamadaba (SCI) (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."> Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo, E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid and Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><br/><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario.">Proposed measures include storage of plant material from every subpopulation in germplasm banks and implementation of control plans of the invasive <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."><span style="font-style: italic;">Pennisetum setaceum</span> <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Natural"><span title="Viera y Clavijo, en la E.T.S."><span title="Sus"><span title="hábitats son de Interés Comunitario.">and of grazing activities. Dumping should be forbidden in Amagro and the area should be cleaned. Cleaning activities on ditches in Andén Verde must be controlled. A reintroduction programme based on controlled origin seeds should be raised.<br/><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162340		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum lidii</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it can be found in the northwestern part of the island. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be between 3.5 and 9 km². It is present in four known locations (Olangua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
162340		habitat	eng	<p><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">In its classic locality, Andén Verde, it develops on cliffs and steep terraces associated with vegetation communities such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Soncho-Aeonion </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Aeonio-Euphorbion canarensis</span>. In this locality it can also grow in road ditches. At drier conditions or lower altitude<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> it forms part of the thicket <span style="font-style: italic;">Ononis angustissima </span><span style="font-style: italic;">(Asterisco-Ononidetum ulicinae)</span>. <span title="En Amagro se">In Amagro it develops within the communities known as "tabaibal dulce" <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum </span><span style="font-style: italic;">balsamiferae</span>, with elements of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pegano-</span><span title="Salsoletea."><span style="font-style: italic;">Salsoletea</span> (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).</span></span></p><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Percentage of germination is high. It can also be multiplied by cuttings. <span title="En">Seedlings and juvenile individuals can be found within the populations.<span title="e individuos jóvenes."></span></span>
162340		population	eng	Its total population size has been reported to be 1,015 individuals: 777 in the location of Andén Verde, 123 in Barranco de la Altavaca-Guayedra, and 115 in Montaña de Amagro (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). According to other authors, population size is 3,160 individuals (Olangua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Fluctuations have been observed in the number of mature individuals.<br/>Decrease of global population over the past ten years has been estimated between 46-49 % (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162340		threats	eng	The subpopulation of Andén Verde could be seriously threatened by cleaning operations on the ditches of the road that goes through it (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Other threats are competition with the invasive<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>species<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pennisetum setaceum, </span>grazing pressure and hybridisation phenomena.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <span title="ganadera.">The presence of a dump near the location of Amagro leads to habitat degradation and increased competition with nitrophile species. <span title="Además,"><span title="poblaciones."></span></span>
162341		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is protected under national legislation in France (Annex I) and under regional laws in Italy. It is classified as Endangered in Liguria (Italy).<br/><br/>A few populations are in protected areas (Parc National du Mercantour, Forets Domaniales) in France and Italy.
162341		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to France where it is found in the Alpes-Maritimes and to Italy where it occurs in Liguria and Piemonte.
162341		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in grasslands, on basic soils, and can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):</p><ul><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands<br/></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>8120 Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspietea rotundifolii</span>)</li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li></ul><p><br/></p>
162341		population	eng	In France, this species is known from 25 sites (communes) and in Italy, there are 20 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). This species is relatively badly known, but does not seem to decline.
162341		threats	eng	<p>This species is not particularly threatened as it is in remote habitats, except possibly some  plant harvesting and changes in grassland management such as abandonment.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></p>
162342		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella vincentina</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Legally protected in Portugal. It is necessary to protect those populations that are still abundant and from where recolonisation of other sites could take place. The urban spread should be controlled.
162342		distribution	eng	This species is   endemic to southwest Portugal where it occurs at the coast of Alentejo in the dunes south of Cabo de Sines    (ICN 2006). The area of occupancy is less than 20 km² measured by the available habitat and its range is decreasing (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162342		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in sandy and sandy soils along the coast (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 5140 "<em>Cistus palhinhae </em>formations on maritime wet heaths" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>  <strong></strong>  <p></p>
162342		population	eng	<p>There are various subpopulations with different distances to each other, some of them hosting less than 50 individuals. A decline in the number of individuals within the subpopulations has been noted (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
162342		threats	eng	<p>Main threats are an increasing development of urbanised areas for tourism and human habitation and construction of leisure and sports facilities. Illegal quarrying of sand could pose a threat as it reduces the quantity and quality of the habitat, especially in the Sagres area   <span class="tooltip">(ICN 2006).<br/></p>
162343		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p><p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></p><p>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ibicensis</span> which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
162343		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis ibicensis </span>is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, being found in Cabrera, Formentera, Ibiza and Mallorca, and at two localities on the coast of Alicante. It has been estimated that the geographical range for this species is around 550 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="periódicas."><span title="en el año 2000 superaron los 1200."></span></span>
162343		habitat	eng	This plant grows in shrublands and grasslands on limestone or sandy substrates, generally in disturbed soils affected by nitrification in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Erico multiflorae-Lavanduletum dentatae</span>. It also grows in communities of rocky marine cliffs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmo-Limonietum rigualii</span>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Floración y fructificación muy dependientes"><span title="Se han observado flores"><span title="La dispersión es deficiente"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Localizada en acúmulos de"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat muy frágil, por lo que pequeñas perturbaciones"></span></span></span></span>
162343		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La germinación en jardines botánicos"><span title="El número de flores depende de las"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El número de semillas producidas"><span title="periódicas."><span title="Los últimos"><span title="902."><span title="nuevo."><span title="en el año 2000 superaron los 1200.">There is no information available on the size of populations or on the number of individuals. However, the population trend is stated as being stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span></span></span></span></span>
162343		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Hábitat muy frágil, por lo que pequeñas perturbaciones"><span title="La nitrificación y la"><span title="Se"><span title="La construcción de un">The main threats to the species are the use of pesticides, urbanization and communication networks (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</span></span>
162344		conservation	eng	This species is classified as Critically Endangered in Italy (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). It is listed as an important species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive 92/43/CEE. All the existing sites are included in a SCI (Site of Community Interest) but the numbers of mature individuals are still decreasing.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation measures are recommended. More research on this species is needed.
162344		distribution	eng	<em>Armeria helodes</em> is a species strictly endemic to Italy. It is found in seven very isolated locations in Friuli, with an extent of occurrence of 60 km² and an effective occupied area of 20 ha.<br/><br/>It is a neo-endemic species that resulted from the genetic isolation of <em>Armeria alpina</em> on the Friuli plains during the post-glacial age.<br/><br/>Pignatti (1982) lists this species as also being present in Lombardy but Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) report this species only for Friuli.
162344		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria helodes</span> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits alkaline marshes of peaty soil that are saturated in water and rich in calcium and magnesium. It occurs in a habitat that is listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive: Alkaline fens (7230). This plant is oligotrophic, heliophilous and an unsuccessful competitor against others species. Flowering occurs during spring (April-May).
162344		population	eng	The species is considered very rare and is threatened with extinction in Italy. At the beginning of the 20th century it was widespread throughout an area of about 60 km². Currently, it exists in seven isolated locations. The populations are in decline and each of the subpopulations has no more than five to 10 individuals, the total number of individuals is less than 50 (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
162344		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage of its habitat, and agricultural pollution with fertilisers and accumulation of organic material.
162345		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia transtagana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and legally protected in Portugal (ICN 2006).
162345		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia transtagana</span> is endemic to the central west and south and to southwest Portugal (ICN 2006). It has an extent of occurrence of 13,094 km² and an area of occupancy of 1,200 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162345		habitat	eng	This perennial plant occurs in scrub oak (ICN 2006). It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>9330 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> forests</li></ul>
162345		population	eng	The populations are always small with less than ten individuals (ICN 2006). The population trend is unknown, however, the species is described as being frequent in its area.
162345		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation caused by urbanisation and urban infrastructure development or by removal of forest undergrowth (ICNB 2006).
162346		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</p>  In Germany, the species is under national protection and classed with the highest threat category in the national Red List (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). It is also red listed in the federal estates of Brandenburg and Bayern (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). It is furthermore classed as Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (CR B2ac(ii); C2a(ii) and Hungary. In Lithuania, it is classed in the highest threat category (1). In Belarus and Switzerland, it is classed as Endangered. In Russia, it has been classed as Vulnerable. Control of water pollution is a much needed conservation measure. In the Ukraine it is classed as Rare in the Red Data Book<br/>Reintroduction was attempted at a number of sites in Slovakia but this has so far been unsuccessful.<br/><br/>More information on population trend and size and rate of declines are needed.
162346		distribution	eng	<p><em>A. vesiculosa</em> occurs from Europe east through the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and India to the Primorskye and Amur regions of Far Eastern Russia, China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout much of Africa south of the Sahara as well as Madagascar and Australia. In Europe it occurs or formerly occurred from southern Scandinavia south to France east through the Balkans to the Ukraine. It is treated as introduced to Switzerland by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Species   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).<br/></p>
162346		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aldrovanda vesiculosa</span> is a perennial and carnivorous Hydrophyte and Geophyte that flowers from July to August.<br/>It is found in permanent and temporary water bodies such as shallow lakes with silt bottom, hard oligo-mesotrophic waters with benthic vegetation of <em>Chara</em> spp., natural eutrophic lakes with <em>Magnopotamion</em> or <em>Hydrocharition</em> type vegetation, standing water in large sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Magnocaricion</span>) stands as well as natural dystrophic lakes and pools. It grows in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Lemnetea minoris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularietea intermedio-minoris</span> plant societies (Commission of the European Union 2009, Klotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). In Russia, it has also been reported from exposed shoals and reed-bulrush-reedmace stands.
162346		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Aldrovanda</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> vesiculosa</span> shows evidence of  a widespread decline. It is considered extinct in Austria, France,  Italy and Greece and was thought to be extinct in Bulgaria, Slovakia and  Serbia until recent discoveries showed that small populations persist.  There is one existing site in Bulgaria and a site which had been lost due to  drainage but <span style="font-style: italic;">A. vesiculosa</span> has been reintroduced (A. Petrova pers. comm.  2010). In Serbia, the species is classed as Critically Endangered. It is  known from one single locality<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>  and has recently been rediscovered in northwest Serbia, in Šabac,  Zasavica (Tomović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>It  has been recorded from the regions of Bayern and Brandenburg in Germany  but the population in Bayern is now extinct. The population trend is  declining (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). There is only one locality  at present   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  <br/><br/>In Lithuania, this plant occurs at four localities. In Poland, 65,000 to 1,200,000 individuals have been recorded (Commission of the European Union 2009)<br/><br/>It is considered Data Deficient in Croatia.<p>In Hungary, there is one consistent population which is apparently stable. In addition, two populations have recently been found; one of which is on the Romanian border and the other near the stable population. Five populations have been lost, mainly due to habitat loss although it is possible that it is overlooked (G. Kiraly).<br/></p>  In Russia, there are two main areas of distribution: the centre and south. There are not more than fifteen populations in European Russia and the Caucasus. It is considered extinct in the Rostov and Vorosh regions (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, the species occurred in two localities in the past in the Východoslovenská nížina Lowlands (Nature Reserve Veľké jazero lake near Vojka and in the vicinity of the drainage ditch). It was found for the first time in <st1:metricconverter productid="1960 in" w:st="on">1960  in</st1:metricconverter> the terrain depression Veľké jazero lake, the maximum depth of which was at that time <st1:metricconverter productid="2.5 m" w:st="on">2.5  m</st1:metricconverter>. The population was initially very large and flowering well. The locality was declared a nature reserve in 1967. Since 1979 the population has declined and in 1983 the species was observed there for the last time. It is now considered extinct in Slovakia. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. vesiculosa</span> was introduced to three sites close to the original localities (two small lakes near Poľany village and an oxbow of the Latorica river near Veľké Kapušany), later also in two fishponds on locality Marheček in the Záhorie region and in a&#160;fishpond in Revúca cadaster area. The plants, however, have not survived (Oťaheľová pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, nearly 50 sites supporting the species were reported in the late 19th to early 20th centuries; now no more than 20 sites are known, mainly in the ponds of the Dnieper basin, in the mouths of the Danube, Dniester, Pivdennij and Bug Rivers and in the Szatski Lakes in Volhynian Region.
162346		threats	eng	The main threats to the species can be summarised as acidification, canalisation, desilting, development, drainage, eutrophication, forestry clearance, gravel extraction, mining, and modification of the hydrology of wetlands (Commission of the European Union 2009).
162347		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplazium sibiricum </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is categorized as Near Threatened in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Sweden, it is listed as Vulnerable D2 (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected under national law. All the Swedish populations are in nature reserves. In Norway, it has been assessed as Near Threatened A4c; B1b(ii,iii,iv,v)+2b(ii,iii,iv,v) (Artsdatabanken 2010). <span style="background-color: white;">The species is assessed as Least Concern in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). Around 70 % of the known Finnish localities are situated in Natura 2000 sites.
162347		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplazium sibiricum</span> is a fern native to Norway, Finland, Sweden, extending eastwards into Russia and Central Asia. <br/><br/>The geographic range for Finland is 27,825 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, it is found at three locations, the extent of occurrence is 932 km² and the area of occupancy is 8 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010). In Norway, the extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 44 km². It is known from around 20 occurrences in the stream and river gorges in Gudbrandsdalen (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162347		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplazium sibiricum</span> is a fern that grows in <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> taiga woodland, temperate-montane acid siliceous screes and temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Sweden, both populations are found in spruce forests.<br/>For Russia, it has also been described from damp grassy and mossy spruce forest and in mixed forests, slopes of river banks, lake shores, ravines, on outcrops of calcareous rocks (Tzvelev 2000).
162347		population	eng	In Finland and Sweden the population trend is stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Nearly 200 sites are know from Finland. For Norway, a decline of the populations of 15-30% based on a decline of the habitat is expected in the next 30 years. Four of the 20 known localities have disappeared but new ones have been detected in recent years (Artsdatabanken). It is common in central and eastern Russia but has a scattered distribution.
162347		threats	eng	The main threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplazium sibiricum</span> seems to be habitat loss due to forestry clearance and forestry activities. This plant needs shade and does not grow in the open so logging affects its survival (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Deforestation and quarrying are the main threats in Russia. Road construction has been named another threat for Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162348		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis discolor</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered B1ab(iii)c(iv)+2ab(iii)c(iv); C2a(i)b on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/>Found in the Reserva Natural Especial de Los Tilos de Moya (SCI), Parque Rural Doramas, Reserva Natural Integral del Barranco Oscuro (SCI), Paisaje Protegido de las Cumbres and SCI de Barranco de La Virgen. <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">The species has benefited from a LIFE Project, with plants being reintroduced to reinforce populations. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation measures are needed.
162348		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">S</st1:country-region></st1:place>pain (Marrero 2004), where it grows <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">on the northern slope of the island in the municipalities of Valleseco and Moya. It is distributed into four locations: <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Barranco la Virgen<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">, <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Barranco Oscuro, Los Tilos and Barranco del Andén, which appear relatively isolated (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Its extent of occurrence is 12 km²<sup></sup> and its area of occupancy has been reported to be 1.25 km².</span></span></p>
162348		habitat	eng	This species grows in slopes and rocky cliffs, on basaltic substrates with sufficient or deep soils, and within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Lauro novocanariensis-Perseetum indicae </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Myrico fayae-Ericetum arboreae</span>. It can generally be found in open spaces with elements of "Monteverde" or among rupicolous species within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Sempervivion</span>. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Accompanying species include<span style="font-style: italic;"> Laurus novocanariensis, Erica arborea, Sonchus congestus, Rubus bollei Chamaecytisus proliferus, Semele gayae, Dryopteris oligodonta, Hypericum glandulosum</span>. Its environment is occupied by introduced species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea </span><span style="font-style: italic;">sativa, Rubus ulmifolius </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ageratina adenophora</span><span title="etc">.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="La especie puede florecer"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="3.850 m2"></span></span></span>
162348		population	eng	Its population is fragmented in four small subpopulations with a total of only 104 individuals (Marrero 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="etc"><span title="La especie puede florecer"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Individuals tend to grow by cohort, with an average longevity of 5-15 years. After the adult individuals have died down and if there has been a good winter, the growth of seedlings is often explosive, but colonisation of new areas has not been observed. The species <span title="Tras la">shows moderate genetic differentiation among populations. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="etc"><span title="La especie puede florecer"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Population suffers drastic annual and seasonal fluctuations (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). </span></span></span></span>
162348		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The small size of the population and area of occupancy is extremely limited, and can be exacerbated by prolonged drought over several <span title="años.">years. To a lesser extent, the species is also threatened by occasional landslides and agricultural waste.</span>
162350		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia laciniata</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>    <p>    </p><p>It is categorized as Endangered in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>European Russia, but in Asian Russia it is of Least Concern. More information on the population size and trend as well as potential threats in European Russia is needed.<br/></p>  <p></p>
162350		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia laciniata</span> is found in the northern hemisphere where it extends from Japan to Mongolia, Russia,  Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, to Germany and Austria in Europe and Canada and USA in America.<br/>In Europe it is only found in Austria, is extinct in Germany, and present in European Russia.<br/><br/>In Austria, it is still found at the Neusiedler See southeast of Vienna with an extent of occurrence of 35 km². The species was also reported from Marchfeld in lower Austria, but those populations went extinct around 1950.<br/>In Germany, it was found in the federal estate Sachsen-Anhalt (between Stassfurt and Bernburg) and Thüringen (near Artern) but has not been recorded after the 1950s and even 1900 for the site in Thüringen.  The species is relict in central Europe. There have also been recordings from Hamburg in north Germany, Hungary, Romania and Finland but they are probably erroneous. Those recording were all made near Russian military bases (Wendelberger 1959).<br/><br/>It is present in Eastern European Russia in the Orenburg and Chelyabinsk regions. In Central European Russia, Voronezh region, the population of this species went extinct at the beginning of the 20th century. In Northwest European Russia, it was found in the Leningrad region, near the town Vyborg, but this small population was not native and is now extinct. This species is distributed in Siberia and the Far East of Russia where it has many populations.
162350		habitat	eng	Herbaceous perennial plant, flowering time is from August to September. The species is found in moist places and is tolerant to salty conditions. It has been reported from salt marshes, meadows, and ditches. The species requires a wet and warm summer for optimal growth results.<br/>Associated to <span style="font-style: italic;">Succiso-Molinietum caeruleae</span>    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162350		population	eng	The population recorded in Austria is 10-20 individuals. The plant has always been described as rare (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>There is no further information on the Russian populations apart from the species being extinct in part of its European range and common in the Asian part of Russia.
162350		threats	eng	The reasons for the extinction of the species in Germany are suspected to be cultivation of its habitat or collection by botanists as this plant was always considered very rare. Collection was also the main reason for the disappearance of the species in Lower Austria. Another reason for extinctions was the lowering of the groundwater table for agricultural purposes that led to a drying out of its habitat as well as competition by grasses. This is also the biggest threat to the remaining Austrian population at Neusiedler See (Wendelberger 1959).<br/><br/>There is no information about current threats or the causes of the extinction in European Russia.
162351		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga portosanctana</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The area is only partly included in protected areas and in a Natura 2000 site. Seeds are stored&#160; in Madeira Botanical Gardens seed bank (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
162351		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the island Porto Santo, Portugal   where its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy  is 17 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162351		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga portosanctana</span> form the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Davallio canariensis-Saxifragetum portosanctanae </span>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is characteristic of dry climates and exposed rocky areas on accumulated soil (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
162351		population	eng	This species has been recorded in six localities with stable populations   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are small.
162351		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are collection of the plant, erosion, landslides, and competition with exotic and native species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162352		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum dictamnus</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995). Part of the population of the plant is included in Natura 2000 sites (GR4310001, GR4310002, GR4330003, GR4330004, GR4330005, GR4340002, GR4340005, GR4340007, GR4340009, GR4340012).
162352		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum dictamnus </span>is native to the island of Crete, Greece. It is widespread on the island, and becomes rarer towards the east. It occurs on most mountain ranges (Lefka Ori Mts, Idi Mts, Dikti Mts, Thrypti Mts, Asterousia Mts) and mountains (e.g. Giouchtas Mt), and in several gorges (e.g. Trypiti, Prassiano, Aithiano, Kourtalioti). Confirmed post 1930 mapped records are provided by Turland (1995), Kypriotakis (1997), Bergmeier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001), Tsiourlis and Pentarakis (2001), and MAICh (2008). Based on these the extent of occurrence is 7,600 km² and the area of occupancy is 250 km².
162352		habitat	eng	It grows on calcareous cliffs but also on stony and rubbly ground such as gorge beds. Found from sea level to 1,900 m asl   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162352		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum dictamnus</span> has been recorded in 60-70 locations throughout Crete. There is no objective assessment of the population size and all assessments are based on subjective observations. It was reported that overexploitation had caused dramatic reduction of population sizes and even the complete extinction of the plants in some areas (Skoula and Kamenopoulos 1996). Zaffran (1990) assessed the plant as “rare” on Crete regarding its abundance.<br/><br/></p>
162352		threats	eng	The main threat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum dictamnus</span> is overexploitation of the natural populations mainly for the trade of the dried plant which has medicinal properties. Due to this threat, Turland (1995) classified the plant as vulnerable (V, old IUCN criteria). Kypriotakis (1997) however classified the taxon as rare (R, old IUCN criteria). The cultivation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum dictamnus</span> is today more organised and this might have decreased the pressure on those wild subpopulations that are difficult to access. However, Stavropoulos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) still included <span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum dictamnus</span> in the list of wild plants threatened by overexploitation.
162353		conservation	eng	It is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and  is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.<br/><br/>Some populations are probably included in the Madonie and Nebrodi Regional Parks and are therefore protected. Controlled grazing activities are needed within and outside of the regional parks.
162353		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sicily in Italy where it is found in Madonie, Nebrodi and Peloritani. The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² with an area of occupancy of less than 1,500 km² (S. Brullo pers. comm. 2010) and it is found at six locations. Elevation ranges from 1,100 m to 1,400 m from mountainous regions.
162353		habitat	eng	This species is found in pastures and occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6510 "Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162353		population	eng	The population size is not known but the trend is stable. There are completely different conditions within locations and the average distance between locations is 50 km². The populations are therefore severely fragmented.
162353		threats	eng	Cattle and sheep grazing has been described as an important threat for this species although populations seemed to have been in a stable situation in 2001   (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Locally vegetation dynamics may threaten the population as competition from encroaching shrubs can occur when management regimes are changed.
162354		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anagyris latifolia</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species. It is listed as CR B1ab(iii,iv,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>Some populations occur within protected areas. Part of the populations are located in the Reserva Natural Especial Guelguén  (SCI), Parque Rural Anaga (SCI), Parque Natural Corona Forestal (SCI), Paisaje  Protegido Siete Lomas, Parque Rural Teno (SCI), Reserva Natural Especial Barranco  del Infierno (SCI) and the Parque Rural Majona (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente (Mesa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. <em></em>2004).<br/><br/>Proposed measures include population reinforcement actions at the most isolated sites and development of habitat restoration programmes. <br/><br/>Seed collection from isolated shrubs is crucial to maintain a relatively large genetic diversity for future reintroduction needs (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). <br/>  <h1 style="text-align: justify;"><br/></h1>
162354		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anagyris latifolia</span> is endemic to the islands of Tenerife, Gran Canaria, La Gomera and La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain (Mesa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it can be found between 150 and 1,300 m asl. In Tenerife, there are about 30 subpopulations distributed in the western midlands and the south of the island, Anaga and an area of the coast of Icod. There are three known populations in <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se">La Gomera, three in La Palma and four in Gran Canaria. Its area of occupancy is more than 10 km²<sup></sup> but less than 80 km². Several locations reported in the past have not been found again. Populations remain in retreats on inaccessible rocks and cliffs (Buord and Lesouëf 2006)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se">. Regressive trends have been reported for its distribution range, especially in La Palma and Tenerife (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se"></span></span></span></span></span>
162354		habitat	eng	<em>A. latifolia</em> is a deciduous shrub of up to 3 m height with yellow flowers (Mesa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).&#160;<em></em>It is a component of the dry scrub found at low altitudes (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones tinerfeñas se desarrollan generalmente">Tenerife populations generally develop on <span title="sobre materiales sálicos, desde la costa (en">salic materials, from the coast (in the northern side) to 1,300 m asl (on slope facing south), always within thickets of <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifoliae-Euphorbietea canariensis</span>, especially in the potential distribution area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Junipero canariensis-Oleetum cerasiformis</span> or transition scrublands from <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> sp. forest to pine forest (Mesa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="En">In La Gomera it appears within <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodio arbusculae-</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperetum canariensis</span>; in La Palma it is integrated into communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno crenulatae-Juniperetum canariensi</span> and in Gran Canaria it grows within <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia lentisci-</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Oleetum cerasiformis</span>. <span title="Como especies más">Frequent accompanying species include: <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubia fruticosa, Olea europaea </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">guanchica, Juniperus turbinata </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis, Euphorbia obtusifolia, Hypericum canariense </span><span title="y Kleinia neriifolia">and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Kleinia neriifolia</span>.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10 km2"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Florece desde mediados de otoño a mediados de">It blooms from mid-autumn to mid-winter. <span title="Fructifica de enero a marzo madurando">Fruits ripen from January to March and pulses around April and May, which is also the season from which the leaves begin to be lost. <span title="Se">It has been observed that the flowers are pollinated by bees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Apis mellifera</span>). <span title="La geminación es favorecida"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones tinerfeñas se desarrollan generalmente"><span title="sobre materiales sálicos, desde la costa (en"><span title="En"><span title="Como especies más"><span title="y Kleinia neriifolia"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10 km2"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Florece desde mediados de otoño a mediados de"><span title="Fructifica de enero a marzo madurando"><span title="Se"><span title="La geminación es favorecida">I<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones tinerfeñas se desarrollan generalmente"><span title="sobre materiales sálicos, desde la costa (en"><span title="En"><span title="Como especies más"><span title="y Kleinia neriifolia"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10 km2"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Florece desde mediados de otoño a mediados de"><span title="Fructifica de enero a marzo madurando"><span title="Se"><span title="La geminación es favorecida">t is suspected that dispersal is carried out by birds, even as large as ravens. Seeds viability can last more than four years.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162354		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se">This  plant appears distributed into small populations with a reduced number  of individuals, sometimes one single individual. A progressive dynamic  has been observed in some locations where grazing was stopped, but the  majority of populations exhibit very low to zero recruitment, although  seedlings have been frequently found (Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se">Main populations occur in Tenerife, where 27 subpopulations have been recorded, with a total of 208 individuals. In La Palma, there are three subpopulations, totalling 160 individuals. In La Gomera, three populations are known, totalling nine individuals. In Gran Canaria four subpopulations are known totalling 10 individuals.<br/><br/>The total population is around 387 individuals. Numerous populations that were known in the past are now extinct (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).<br/><br/>The populations count as severely fragmented, as t<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se">he majority of the known subpopulations correspond to isolated individuals. Apart from that, the populations on Tenerife are very dispersed. Although, the seeds of this plant are dispersed by birds, those birds are moving in a localised and geographically restricted manner, so that a dispersal between populations is unlikely. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se">Urbanisation and agricultural land use inbetween the populations increases the fragmentation affect.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="En La Gomera y La Palma se"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162354		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are grazing and the predation by rabbits which eat young plants and seedlings. Competition with native and invasive plants has negative effects on <em>A. latifolia</em>. Some populations grow near roads and areas of urban or agricultural expansion (Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162355		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androcymbium psammophilum</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain. It is listed as Vulnerable B2ac(ii) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte">In Lanzarote, populations are included in the protected areas Parque Natural <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte">Archipiélago <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte">Chinijo (SCI), Monumento Natural La Corona and Paisaje Protegido La Geria.<span title="Lanzarote y el P."> In Fuerteventura it occurs within <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P.">Parque Natural Dunas de Corralejo (SCI)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."> and Monumento Natural del Malpaís de La Arena (SCI). <br/><br/>Proposed actions include the storage of plant material (seeds and bulbs) in germplasm banks and in living collection in botanic gardens, regulation of potential agricultural areas in Lanzarote, establishment of <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P.">control measures on <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P.">illegal quarrying and 4x4 vehicles access </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>(Reyes-Betancort<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P.">.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Parte"><span title="Lanzarote y el P."><span title="Su hábitat"><span title="la Directiva 92/43/CEE."><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162355		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Androcymbium psammophilum</span> <span id="result_box" class="long_text">occurs in the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, the Canary Islands, Spain <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Reyes-Betancort <em>et al.</em> 2004). I<span id="result_box" class="long_text">n Lanzarote it grows in <span id="result_box" class="long_text">the northern part of El Jarble, Malpaís de Tamia and Caletón Blanco<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> and<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> in Fuerteventura it is located in the northern area, especially Los Jables de Lajares and Corralejo. One more location thought to have disappeared was found again in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). It is distributed into ten subpopulations.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The area of occupancy was reported to be 21 km² in 2004 <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Reyes-Betancort <em>et al.</em> 2004) and 81.5 <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">km²</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). This increase is believed to be due to improved monitoring methods.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162355		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las semillas son"><span title="juvenil."><span title="por gemación de bulbos."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo.">It develops on sands of organic origin, more or less stabilized and in some depth <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las semillas son"><span title="juvenil."><span title="por gemación de bulbos."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las semillas son"><span title="juvenil."><span title="por gemación de bulbos.">(Reyes-Betancort <em>et al.</em> 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las semillas son"><span title="juvenil."><span title="por gemación de bulbos."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."> It is characteristic of <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><span style="font-style: italic;">Polycarpaeo</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Corralejo."><span style="font-style: italic;"> niveae-Lotetum lancerottensis</span> and common accompanying species include <span style="font-style: italic;">Ononis hesperia, Launaea arborescens, Polycarpaea nivea, Lotus lancerottensis, Heliotropium ramosissimum, Plantago albicans</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mairetis microsperma</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las semillas son"><span title="juvenil."><span title="por gemación de bulbos.">It can als<span style="background-color: white;">o grow on lapilli and</span> volcanic ashes.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">This hermaphrodite species is mainly pollinated by insects. <span title="Las semillas son">Seeds are dispersed when the wind carries the aerial part of the plant,  which is split when it gets dry during the unfavourable season.<span title="juvenil."> It reproduces well from seeds and multiplies <span title="por gemación de bulbos.">by bulbs. <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162355		population	eng	Its total population size was estimated in 154,000 individuals in 2004 (Reyes-Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). A total of 2,788,741 individuals were recorded in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Population trend seems to be positive due to the decrease of agricultural and grazing pressures, but a potential re-activation of these activities would affect a very high number of individuals. The number of reproductive individuals fluctuates depending on precipitations.
162355		threats	eng	The major threats are possible establishment of crop fields in its natural environment, sand extraction and trampling by sheep and goats. Urban development has been also described as a threat, especially to the population at Corralejo (Reyes-Betancort<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004).
162356		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium moldavicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162356		distribution	eng	Galium moldavicum is endemic to northeastern Romania, Moldova and Ukraine (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
162356		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
162356		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
162356		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
162357		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Murbeckiella sousae</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Information on the population trend should be collected.
162357		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal where it is found in the north and west. Its area of occupancy is 1,200 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162357		habitat	eng	It occurs between 280 and 1,450 m asl. in acid siliceous inland cliffs. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8220 "Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162357		population	eng	The population is between 600 and 1,500 individuals with an unknown trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162357		threats	eng	The main threats described are grazing, quarries, the construction of communication networks, and mountaineering activities (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162358		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the catalogue of threatened species of Spain and in the regional catalogue of Castilla-La Mancha, where a recovery plan was passed in 1999.<br/></p><p>It occurs in the protected area SCI Sierra de Abenuj. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">A recovery plan has slowed the affect of threats. Seeds are stored in a germplasm bank and reintroduction is seen as a key instrument in its survival. <span title="actuación."></span></p>
162358		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain and is only present in the southern province Albacete</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It extent of occurrence is only 14 km² as it is restricted to one location called Tobarra in Sierra de Abenuj, Albacete (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its area of occupancy is 5 km² (Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/></p><p></p>
162358		habitat	eng	This species can be found within Thyme and Rosemary mixed communities on rocky calcareous soils. It grows among <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosmarinus officinalis, Stipa tenacissima, Thymus vulgaris, Asparagus stipularis, Phlomis lychnitis, Sideritis leucantha </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgaeana,</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> Thymus funkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis onobrychioides,</span> within <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymetum funkii</span> associations (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritidion bourgaeanae</span>). As secondary habitats, it can colonise abandoned crop fields as a ruderal species   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10."><br/><span title="Su dispersión se produce">Dispersion occurs mainly by gravity, aided by the movement of inflorescence stems, and the persistence of these several months after the maturation allows dispersion in time. <span title="por gorgojos.">It hybridizes naturally in its range with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis leucantha </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span title="bourgaeana,"><span style="font-style: italic;">bourgaeana, </span>resulting in <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis </span>x<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span title="rodriguezii Borja1"><span style="font-style: italic;">rodriguezii.<br/></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="El 60-70% de las semillas son"><span title="El reclutamiento"><span title="de un año; no obstante la especie presenta"><span title="en otoño, pero sólo de manera ocasional"></span></span></span></span></span>
162358		population	eng	One population of 150,000 individuals has been recorded in the only location where this species occurs (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="10."><span title="Su dispersión se produce"><span title="por gorgojos."><span title="bourgaeana,"><span title="rodriguezii Borja1"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><br/>Approximately 80% of individuals have the capacity to bear fruit and be distributed with an average density, highly heterogeneous (Copete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Of the 275 plants/ha, <span title="El 60-70% de las semillas son">60-70% of the seeds are apparently healthy and germinate in laboratories with levels near 90%. <span title="El reclutamiento">Recruitment of seedling takes place with the autumn rains, stretching into early spring. <span title="La mitad de">Half of the seeds deposited in the soil die after <span title="de un año; no obstante la especie presenta">a year, yet the species has persistent seed banks at least among two reproductive periods. The emergence of new individuals by clonal growth occurs <span title="en otoño, pero sólo de manera ocasional">in autumn, but only occasionally.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
162358		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">An inherent risk is the probability of inbreeding, due to the small area and  hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis leucantha</span> ssp. <span title="bourgaeana."><span style="font-style: italic;">bourgaeana.</span> The other threats are of human origin such as crop expansion and afforestation activities that have reduced the size of habitat and population even during the last two decades. <span title="Otras">Other potentially dangerous activities are open quarrying and installation of wind farms.</span>
162359		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the&#160; Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); D in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/></span></span></p><p><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">It occurs within the proposed protected area SCI of C<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">osta Ártabra.</span></span></span></p>Grazing activities and trampling should be controlled by fencing. Research about the reproductive biology and germination of the species should be developed. Seeds should be stored in germplasm banks and population size should be monitored.<br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/></span></span></span>
162359		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is endemic to Galicia, Spain, where it occurs on the cliffs of the northwest coast (Gómez-Orellana Rodríguez 2004), in the province of A Coruña. It <span title="Las poblaciones iniciales">has been traditionally described for different points on the cliffs of La Sierra de A Capelada.  <span title="Más recientemente se">More recently one more subpopulation was reported further south, on the isthmus that is Cabo Prior. Its presence has been reported in four locations: <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones iniciales"><span title="Más recientemente se">Punta Candieira, O Bico, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones iniciales"><span title="Más recientemente se">Vixía de Herbeira and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones iniciales"><span title="Más recientemente se">Covas, Cabo Prior. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones iniciales"><span title="Más recientemente se">Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 11 km², although its real occupied area is lower than 5 km²<sup></sup>. Its extent of occurrence is around 116 km².<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Las poblaciones iniciales"><span title="Más recientemente se"><br/><span title="Coruña4."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162359		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de carácter ultrabásico."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="en las cercanías de las poblaciones naturales."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Demuestra sin embargo,"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de carácter ultrabásico."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="en las cercanías de las poblaciones naturales."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Demuestra sin embargo,"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de carácter ultrabásico."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="en las cercanías de las poblaciones naturales."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Demuestra sin embargo,">This plant grows on high sites in cliffs exposed to winds and covered by scarce vegetation. It occurs on ultrabasic sites, either on skeletal soils or in cracks. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Sagina merinoi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Euphorbia flavicoma</em> ssp. <em>occidentalis</em><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de carácter ultrabásico."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="en las cercanías de las poblaciones naturales."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Demuestra sin embargo,"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de carácter ultrabásico."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="en las cercanías de las poblaciones naturales."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Demuestra sin embargo,"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="de carácter ultrabásico."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="en las cercanías de las poblaciones naturales."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Demuestra sin embargo,"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">, Bellis sylvestris, Sedum anglicum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago holosteum</span>, within associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Sagino merinoi-Plantaginetum radicatae</span>. Individuals can be observed colonising tracks close to natural populations. <br/>It is a hermaphrodite species. It can also propagate by stolons.<br/><span title="los capítulos."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162359		population	eng	Population has been estimated in 75,435 individuals (Gómez-Orellana Rodríguez<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004). They have a declining trend.<span id="result_box" class="long_text">
162359		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threats to the species are its poor reproductive strategy together with the lack of appropriate habitat (Gómez-Orellana Rodríguez 2004) for the <span id="result_box" class="long_text">ultrabasic<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> skeletal soils are scarce in the Galician coast. Other threats include livestock trampling and predation. Tourism in the area causes trampling and anthropization. Construction of infrastructures associated with tourism would affect the species. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span></span>
162360		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago almogravensis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal.<br/>It is recommended to protect the plant (e.g. to establish micro-reserves) and to manage its sites, for example, by moderate grazing activities or controlling the risks of fires, etc. (ICN 2006).
162360		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the southwest coast of Portugal (ICN 2006). </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>Its extent of occurrence is 20 km² and the area of occupancy is 1 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162360		habitat	eng	This species grows along the coast, in undisturbed sandy soils with high levels of clay and iron. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 5330 "Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162360		population	eng	This species is rare and restricted. Until the 1990s, there were two known subpopulations 20 km apart. Nowadays there is only one small subpopulation remaining that is restricted to an area of 7 ha (ICN 2006). The total population is between 3,000 and 4,000 individuals with a decreasing trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162360		threats	eng	Agriculture and the application of chemicals through irrigation systems and percolation in fields adjacent to the species sites poses a major threat. Access of vehicles to coastal fishing grounds and beaches are affecting the species habitat. So is trampling by visitors or animals that also leads to soil erosion. There is also a risk of fires. Collection of this plant can lead to further declines (ICN 2006).
162361		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. All of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR4210004 and it was included in the Red Data Book (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1995).
162361		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greek </st1:place></st1:country-region>East Aegean Islands (Kastellorizo complex)<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">, and Antalya in Asiatic Turkey where it is</st1:place></st1:country-region> apparently known only from type collection.</p><p>  </p><p>In Kastellorizo the plant occurs on the main island of Megisti at one location (Megalos Niftis cape at northwest coast) and on four islets 90-1,100 m off the northwest coast of Megisti: Agios Georgios, Psoradia, Megalos Polyfagos, Psomi. In the 1970s it was also recorded at the area of the harbour (Greuter 1979) but it was not found there although searched for in 1999 (Economidou and Delipetrou 2001). <br/></p><p>The current estimate of its area of occupancy is 0.3 km<sup>2 </sup>in 1999, which presents a decline from the 1970s, where the area was of 0.5 km<sup>2</sup><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162361		habitat	eng	Coastal rocky flats and slopes, on limestone, in littoral chasmophytic  communities with <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmum maritimum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> spp. or in halophytic  grasslands on the epilittoral zone of islets with <span style="font-style: italic;">Allium ampeloprassum</span>,  <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapholis incurva</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trigonella balansae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex divisa</span>.
162361		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>The whole population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum preaelongum</span> belongs to one subpopulation (due to the proximity of the sites) in five locations (since the main island and each islet are affected by different threats).<br/>      <p>The local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum praelongum</span> at the islets Psomi and Megalos Polyfagos are at a very good state with the species dominating the vegetation (more than 200 individuals on each islet). These are small islets with an area of 0.2 – 0.3 ha, most of it comprising suitable habitat for the species. On the contrary, on the islets of Agios Georgios and Psoradia there are only a few small stands (10 – 50 individuals on each islet). These are somewhat larger islets, 0.9 – 2.4 ha, and the suitable habitat for the plant is restricted to the coastal zone. On Megisti, at Megalos Niftis cape, there were only around ten individuals in 1999, along with other nitrophilous plants, in a few square meters close to the sea.</p>   <p>It is not known whether there are fluctuations in the number of mature individuals. </p>
162361		threats	eng	On the islets Megalos Polyfagos and Psomi the plant is not currently threatened because there are no human activities. On the islet Agios Georgios there is a church and human activities are rather intense (frequent visitors, planting, waste disposal etc.) so the habitat is degraded. On the islet Psoradia, which lies just 90 m from Megisti, there are two abandoned buildings and there plans for the construction of storage buildings to be used by fishermen. On the island of Megisti, the habitat of the plant has been diminished due to the construction and function of an electricity station and the sole extant local population is threatened by further habitat loss.
162363		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>Najas tenuissima</span> is classed as   Endangered (EN) B2ab(iii)c(iv) in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and categorized Critically Endangered (A4c) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). It is classed as Endangered in the Red Data Book of the Leningrad Region (Tzvelev 2000). In that region, the species is protected and occurs in a protected area in Prigranichny. </st1:country-region><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Finland, the five lakes where <span style="font-style: italic;">N. tenuissima</span> is growing, are entirely included in the Natura 2000 network. Some of them have been protected as nature conservation areas. Parts of four other lakes holding populations of the species are included in the Natura 2000 network. The species is protected in Finland and assessed as a species under strict protection in national legislation.<br/></st1:country-region><br/><st1:country-region w:st="on">Control of the water pollution in the Gulf of Finland is recommended as well as search for remaining sites and their protection.<br/></st1:country-region>
162363		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Najas tenuissima </span>is native to Finland and Northwest and Central European Russia. It also occurs in far eastern Russia, in the Primorsky region, and extends into Japan   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). Its extent of occurrence for Finland is 4,526 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The species has been recently found in one lake in Latvia (Suško 2008). It can be assumed that the overall area of occupancy for Finland and Latvia is less than 500 km². <br/>In the Leningrad region, the plant is found in the St. Petersburg region and along the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland. It is also found in the Tver and Ryazan regions in Central European Russia.
162363		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in the littoral of lakes down to 1.5 m and on sandy or muddy beds of small ponds or other water bodies near the coast. It needs pure and transparent water and does not cope well with turbidity and pollution (Tzvelev 2000).&#160;</p><p>In most Finnish lakes the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. tenuissima</span> are reduced to narrow ribbon-like stands between helophyte vegetation (mainly reed beds, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites australis</span>)  in the waterfront and dark bottoms in deep water. In some lakes other  plants, especially those who can use HCO3 as a carbon supply (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Elodea canadensis, Ceratophyllum demersum</span>), grow abundantly and replace <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas</span> species and other submerged plants. </p><p>It is obvious that the two <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas</span> species have narrow habitat  requirements which are not fully understood. The most important physical  factors for the species are the fine-grained bottom minerals with a  thin layer of neutral or slightly alkaline organic mud, and lightness  and openness of the bottom. In Finland the light and open bottom area is  decreasing constantly due to eutrophication. The most important  chemical factor seems to be the lack of carbon dioxide, which is seen as  high pH values in the water, and is due to eutrophication and abundant  water vegetation. In addition, the presence and abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas</span>  species is affected by many interactions between species, eg.  allelopathy, the mechanisms of which&#160; are not known.</p>
162363		population	eng	<p>According to the results of new studies (Issakainen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas tenuissima</span> is present in 16 lakes in Finland. Populations in only three of the lakes were estimated as vital. Only one of the known three occurrences of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. tenuissima</span> in the southern Baltic Sea river estuaries is present.<br/>&#160;<br/>The <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas </span>species were previously poorly known in Finland. Even though some new populations have been found recently from new lakes during the work of Issakainen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011), the species are continuously declining in Finland. Many populations known in the 1960s have disappeared since.&#160;</p><p>In the Leningrad region it has nearly disappeared from the coast of Neva Bay between St. Petersburg and Sestroretsk where it was abundant 25 to 30 years ago. There are also no recent records from the Vyborg region (Tzvelev 2000).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
162363		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Main threats for this species are eutrophication and modification of hydrographic functioning of water bodie</span>s (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In the Leningrad region, sand deposition on the Laktha bog and the construction of a dyke across the Neva Bay have caused the declines there. Water pollution is another threat in the Gulf of Finland (Tzvelev 2000).
162364		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erysimum pieninicum</span> is listed as priority species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>The species is listed as Rare in the Polish Red List of Plants and Fungi (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006); as Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001), and in the Red Data Book of Polish Carpathians (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). It is also included in the Atlas of Polish Endemics (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa in prep.) and strictly protected at the national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). Most of the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">E</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">pieninicum </span>occurs in the Pieniny National Park.
162364		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erysimum pieninicum </span>is native to Poland with a geographic range of 200 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is a narrow endemic, restricted to the Pieniny Mountains and found at elevations between 500 and 790 m asl (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). The area of occupancy is smaller than 20 km² (Z.Mirek pers. comm. 2010).
162364		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erysimum pieninicum </span>flowers in June and July. Sometimes it occurs in sites disturbed by human activity. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6210 "Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)"  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162364		population	eng	It is a very rare plant in Poland, known only from a few localities in the Pieniny mountains. The population has been estimated at 5,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162364		threats	eng	<p> The species is threatened by mowing and cutting and also by natural processes of succession, leading to the overgrowth of rocks.<br/> </p>
162365		conservation	eng	This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is listed as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species an<span style="background-color: white;">d in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed CR B2ab(iii); C2a(i) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</span><br/><br/>Its only known location is included in the protected area Monumento Natural Riscos de Tirajana (SCI) (González González and Reyes Betancort 2004). Successful cultivation and micropropagation programmes are developed in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and in Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo, where seeds are stored.<br/><br/>Plant material collection must be implemented throughout the whole population, as well as re-introduction and reinforcement programmes.
162365		distribution	eng	This plant is is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 1,500 and 1,600 m asl, on the central part of the island. Its area of occupancy (AOO) has been estimated in 1 km² (González González and Reyes Betancort 2004) and it is present in ten subpopulations. However, new populations have been found recently and the AOO might therefore be higher, but probably still very restricted.
162365		habitat	eng	This rupicolous plant grows in cracks and small holes, generally inaccessible and facing south-southeast. It appears as component of shrubland communities formed by species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline microphylla, Pterocephalus dumetorum, Erysimum scoparium, Aeonium percarneum, Micromeria lanata, Echium onosmifolium, Babcockia platylepis, Bituminaria bituminosa, Asparagus plocamoides, Carlina canariensis, Tolpis lagopoda</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sutera canariensis </span>(González González and Reyes Betancort 2004).
162365		population	eng	Its total population size has been estimated in 93-96 individuals (González González and Reyes Betancort 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009) but it was believed that more individuals could be found in the future in the surrounding areas. More recently, the population size has been reported to be 366 individuals (R. González pers. comm. 2011), and the population trend seems to be stable.
162365		threats	eng	Mains threats to this species are natural landslides and its poor reproductive strategy   (González González and Reyes Betancort 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009). Landslides have been reported to cause high mortality of the species and the degradation of its habitat.
162366		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is classified as Vulnerable in Italy, Rare in Slovenia and Endangered in Croatia. It is protected under national legislation in Slovenia and regional legislation in Italy. Some sub-populations occur in Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Restriction of climbing on the sites of occurrence of this species is the only measure needed.
162366		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia tommasinii</span> is endemic to Croatia, Italy and Slovenia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It has been estimated that<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the range in Italy is 1 km²<sup></sup> whereas in Slovenia it has been measured to be<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is 80 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Croatia, it is only found at one to three sites in Istria. This concludes that the area of occupancy for this species is clearly below the threshold of 500 km²<sup></sup>. The number of locations is estimated to be between three and five as the locations are close to each other.
162366		habitat	eng	This species grows on vertical limestones cliffs and is found in cracks of calcareous rocks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilletalia caulescentis</span>). It occurs in the Habitats Directive habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162366		population	eng	This species has been recorded in one site in Italy and three sites in Slovenia   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Croatia, there are only one to three sites (Nikolić and Topić 2005, Flora Croatica Database 2010). The population trend is decreasing in all three countries.
162366		threats	eng	Main threats for this species are recreational activities such as mountaineering, rock climbing, speleology, taking or removal of flora and vandalism   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162367		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella neustriaca</span> is listed as a priority species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<strong></strong></p>  <p><span class="tooltip">It is protected at national level in France and listed as Vulnerable on the French red list <span class="tooltip">(Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010). Three localities are about to receive a protection status (as Réserve Naturelle or Arreté de Protection de Biotope). Several hectares of habitats (hills above Seine river) are maintained open by cattle grazing.<br/></span></p>
162367		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella neustriaca </span>is endemic to the north of France   <span class="tooltip">(Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010). <span class="tooltip">Its extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².</span>
162367		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <em>Alysso-Sedio albi</em></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<em>Festuco-Brometalia</em>)</li><li>8160 Medio-European calcareous scree of hill and montane levels</li></ul>
162367		population	eng	<span class="tooltip">There are six localities in four communes and 3,200 mature individuals were counted in 2008. The number in each subpopulation is not known. Several localities have not been seen during the last investigations (Life+ project).
162367		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are eutrophication and mowing of roadside vegetation as well as vegetation closure.<br/><strong></strong></p>
162368		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mandragora officinarum</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Croatia, it is listed as Critically Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is classed as a Vulnerable species in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Šilić 1996).
162368		distribution	eng	This plant is a Mediterranean endemic present in Italy, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, extending its range into Turkey and the Levant. It is extinct in Italy.<br/>In Croatia, it is only found in the hills of Konavle southeast of Dubrovnik. In Herzegovina, it occurs at Donja Glavska at c. 490 m asl. and Vodena jama iznad Duži (Trebinje) at ca. 280 m altitude. Its extent of occurrence is probably around 5,000 km².
162368		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is found in ruderal habitats at the borders of arable land, in rocky and sunny places, flooded meadows. It grows in <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidention tripartitae</span> communities (Flora Croatica Database 2004-2010).<br/>In Herzegovina, it grows in the vegetation of carst forests and scrubs, in vegetation of the order <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetalia pubescentis</span>, especially in the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinetum orientalis illyricum</span> and in different degradation stages of this association.<br/>Sometimes this plant can be found in gardens.
162368		population	eng	The Croatian population is extremely small and limited and probably declining (Flora Croatica Database 2004-2010, Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is classed as a Vulnerable species in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Šilić 1996).
162368		threats	eng	In Croatia, the main threats are changes in agriculture, habitat loss and collection for medicinal purposes (Nikolić and Topić 2005).
162369		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008, Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <br/></p><p>All the subpopulation but one are included in protected areas: Parque Natural de Somiedo (Asturias) and Espacio Natural Valle de San Emiliano (León). Seeds from all the subpopulations are stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Botánico Atlántico and of the Centro Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE).<br/></p><p>To conserve this taxon, a stable habitat should be ensured and exclusion areas and fences should be established over the distribution of the species. Populations have to be mapped and monitored.<br/></p>
162369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurium somedanum</span> is endemic to the central part of the Cordillera Cantábrica, provinces of León and Asturias (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). It is distributed into five locations (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), comprising 16 subpopulations, with an area of occupancy of 18 km²<sup></sup>. More locations were recorded in the past, but they have not been recently found (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162369		habitat	eng	This herb grows in areas influenced by the presence of streams or springs (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), on travertines on slopes. It can be found with alliances such as <em>Adiantion</em>, <em>Pinguiculion</em> and <em>Caricion davallianae</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Palustriella commutata, Aneura pinguis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula grandiflora</span>.
162369		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in 6,027 individuals (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011) and the number of subpopulations is declining (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
162369		threats	eng	The specificity of its habitat poses the main threat to the species (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Loss of subpopulations has been mainly due to the construction of roads and hydraulic infrastructures (Jiménez-Alfaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Commission of the European Commission 2009). Presence of grazing species exerts a negative impact on this species, leading to physical and chemical alteration of its habitat. Other threats are collection, and presence and use of paths, tracks and cycling tracks (Commission of the European Commission 2009).
162371		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis cystosiphon</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened sp<span style="background-color: white;">ecies and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> It is listed as Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,iv) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). </span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It occurs within the protected area SCI Riscos de Lara. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid. </span><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Research about the genetics of the taxon is needed to clarify the degree of similarity and possible hybridisation with related species, mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis soluta</span>.</span>
162371		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis cystosiphon</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place> (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Its area of occupancy is 2 km². This plant is o<span id="result_box" class="long_text">nly known from one location  in the west of the island: Laderas de Tamaino, which comprises four subpopulations. </p>
162371		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis cystosiphon</span> is a xerophile and heliophile species. It occurs within communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum atropurpurae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Periploco laevigatae-Euphorbietum canariensis</span>, on entisol and lithosol soil types. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman">Frequent accompanying species include <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula buchii, Retama rhodorhizoides, Kleinia neriifolia, Euphorbia obtusifolia, Aeonium urbicum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">meridionale, Opuntia ficus-indica, Aeonium sedifolium, Hyparrhenia sinaica, Euphorbia canariensis, Argyranthemum</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span style="font-style: italic;"> foeniculaceum</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span style="font-style: italic;">, Atalanthus capillaris, Salvia canariensis </span>and <span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span style="font-style: italic;">Allagopappus dichotomus. </span>Its also grows in the edges of the road that crosses the location.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Flowering and fructification occur in July.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162371		population	eng	Total population size is 884 individuals   (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">High presence of seedlings and juveniles has been observed in the population, but low germination. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></span></span>
162371		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="jóvenes por parte de conejos."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">A road runs through the population from which debris has been dumped (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Uncontrolled cleaning of the debris could reduce population size <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="jóvenes por parte de conejos."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">as 47 specimens grow on the side of that road<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="jóvenes por parte de conejos."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Algunas especies que forman"><span title="Allagopappus dichotomus."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">. The predation of juveniles by rabbits poses a further threat.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162372		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is considered as Endangered in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is listed as Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is strictly protected under Croatian national legislation.<br/>Information on the species distribution and its population size and trend needs to be collected.
162372		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aquilegia kitaibelii</span> is a west dinaric species that is present in Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Records from Italy are erroneous, as it was confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bertolonii</span>.
162372		habitat	eng	This species occurs in screes and rocky crevices in montane and subalpine belts on limestone. It forms part of the endemic alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromerion croaticae</span>.
162372		population	eng	The species is Endangered in Bosnia and Herzegovina where it occurs at Mt. Dinara and the hills and valley of Radoša near Vučja.
162372		threats	eng	The main threats are abandonment of traditional pastoral systems and the subsequent encroaching of vegetation.
162373		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. It is considered as Low Risk in the Italian Red List. It is listed as Vulnerable in the French national list (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995) and included in national and regional legislation (Corsica). Several localities are either occurring in protected areas (14) or owned by the Conservatoire du Littoral (15). <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation activities are implemented in the Centro  Conservazione Biodiversita in Calgliari. Preservation and restoration of the quality of the habitat are vital for this species.
162373		distribution	eng	This Mediterranean endemic is found in Corsica (France), Sardinia  (Italy) as well as in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia (Euro+Med  Plantbase 2006-2010). In Corsica and Sardinia, only the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria  flava</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sardoa</span> (Sommier) A. Terrac. is found and it is endemic to those two islands. The range is 5,085 km² in France (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010) and less than 5,000 km² in Italy. The area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km² in France (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010) but probably more if the sites in Sardinia are added.<br/><br/>Records from Spain are apparently a confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">L. oligantha </span>Lange (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
162373		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linaria flava</span> is a heliophile and xerophile species that grows in coastal sandy areas (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It can colonize the following habitats of the Habitats Directive (Commission of the European Communities 2009):  <br/><ul><li>2250 Coastal dunes with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia </span>dune grasslands</li></ul>
162373		population	eng	In Sardinia, the species is present in 11 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Corsica, there are 40 localities in 11 communes with an estimated 15,000-20,000 individuals (fluctuating). The populations are generally stable, but a few populations are declining. <br/> <br/> Extreme fluctuations of the number of individuals, due to climatic conditions and anthropogenic impact, are observed.
162373		threats	eng	<p>The major threats to this species are recreational activities and motorized vehicles, habitat  closure, invasive species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus</span> spp.), modification of dune systems and overgrazing. Fires are also a local threat.</p>
162375		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ruscus aculeatus</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. It is protected in several countries including Switzerland, Hungary, and France. This plant is classed as Least Concern on several red lists (Croatia, Hungary, Switzerland) or is not listed at all (Bulgaria, Spain, UK). Only in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia it is estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010, Flora Croatica Database 2004).
162375		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Macaronesia to the Mediterranean, western and south-central Europe eastwards to the Caucasus (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It is widespread across Europe.
162375		habitat	eng	This species occurs in calcareous woodland, scrub, phrygana, shady rocky places and also moist areas. It needs mild temperatures in winter. Ruscus aculeatus can be found in a wide range of Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>5230 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus nobilis</span></li><li>5310 <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus nobilis </span>thickets</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>91E0 Alluvial forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alno- Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae</span>)</li><li>9120 Atlantic acidophilous beech forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex</span> and sometimes also <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus</span> in the shrublayer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercion robori-petraeae or Ilici-Fagenion</span>)</li><li>9130 <span style="font-style: italic;">Asperulo-Fagetum</span> beech forests</li><li>9160 Sub-Atlantic and medio-European oak or oak-hornbeam forests of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinion betuli</span></li><li>9180 <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilio-Acerion</span> forests of slopes, screes and ravines</li><li>92A0 <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix alba </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span> galleries</li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9260<span style="font-style: italic;"> Castanea sativa</span> woods</li><li>9320 <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia</span> forests</li><li>9330 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> forests</li><li>9340 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests</li><li>9380 Forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex aquifolium</span></li><li>9580 Mediterranean <span style="font-style: italic;">Taxus baccata</span> woods</li></ul>
162375		population	eng	The population trend is overall stable and the species is abundant (Spain: 861 localities, France: 490 localities, Hungary: 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 individuals) (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162375		threats	eng	Many threats to this species have been described. Some examples are: communication networks, plant collection, removal of hedges and copses, general forestry management, forest plantations, deforestatio<span style="background-color: white;">n, and fires (</span>Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162376		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed VU B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/></p>
162376		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the province of Almería, southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain (</st1:country-region></st1:place>Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), where it can be found in six locations. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in around 25 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>
162376		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This perennial plant grows within xerophile, thermophile, heliophile communities, composed by chamaephytes or, less commonly, by shrubs (Blanca </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al. </span><span style="background-color: white;">2000). It occurs on gypsum materials. It is a species characteristic of communities </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Lepidion subulati</span>. Frequent accompanying species are <em>Gypsophila struthium, Santolina viscosa, Diplotaxis harra </em>ssp. <em>lagascana, Helianthemum squamatum, Helianthemum almeriense, Reseda stricta, Coris hispanica, Anthyllis terniflora, Plantago albicans </em>and <em>Helianthemum syriacum</em>.
162376		population	eng	<p>Population has been reported to comprise more than 7,100,000 mature individuals (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). Decreasing trends have been observed for its population size and fragmentation patterns for its subpopulations (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><br/></p>
162376		threats	eng	Main threats to this species is gypsum and gravel extraction activities (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Further threats are posed by urbanisation, cultivation and communication networks   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162377		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. grosii</span> is listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">in Annex I of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. <br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) as Vulnerable (V), in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk) and in the Llibre Vermell de la Flora Vascular de les Illes Balears (Sáez and Rosselló 2001) as Least Concern. It was also listed in the Libro rojo de especies vegetales amenazadas de España  peninsular e islas Baleares (Gomez-Campo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987).<br/><br/>It occurs in the following Natura 2000 sites: Costa dels Amunts, Els Amunts d'Eivissa, Nord de Sant Joan and Xarraca (European Environment Agency 2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. grosii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
162377		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. grosii&#160;</span> is endemic to Ibiza, Spain, where it occurs from the northern part of the island, including Cap Nunó, to the island of Tagomago (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 150 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162377		habitat	eng	It grows in grasslands, on the base of limestone ledges, fallow land and in pine forest clearings (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
162377		population	eng	This species is locally common.
162377		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species but livestock grazing poses a minor threat.
162378		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia jankae</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In the Bulgarian Red List it is classed as Endangered (EN) D (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). The species is protected at national level and found in natural parks and Natura 2000 sites.
162378		distribution	eng	This species is native to Bulgaria and Romania   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Bulgaria, it is found in northeastern Bulgaria and eastern Stara planina mountains and the populations are severely fragmented.
162378		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows on vertical rocks on limestone, but is also found on silica.
162378		population	eng	In Bulgaria, there are three known populations, but two are fairly close to each other. Two localities with three locations. There is no information on the Romanian populations available.
162378		threats	eng	At one locality, the limestone is not very hard causing erosion of the rock and that leads to changes in the population. Tourism and recreational activities in the designated World Heritage site might also affect this species.
162379		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>.</p>  In Spain, it is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spainit and included in the regional catalogues of threatened species of Cantabria, Navarra and País Vasco. It is listed as Vulnerable D2 on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). Parts of the populations are included in several protected areas. Seed storage in germplasm banks and <span style="font-style: italic;">in vitro</span> propagation, have been proposed.<br/><br/>In France, the species is under national protection and classed as Vulnerable D2 on the national Red List <a name="OLE_LINK10">(Valentin <em>et al.</em> 2010).</a>
162379		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><span style="font-style: italic;">Soldanella villosa</span> is a European endemic that occurs in northern Spain and western France. <br/></p><p>The extent of occurrence in France is 615 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 20 km². The area of occupancy in Spain is 88 km² (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It can be safely assumed that the total area of occupancy is less than 500 km².<br/></p>
162379		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Soldanella villosa</span> occurs near rivers, on humid slopes and river banks and at springs in hills and mountains (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1997). This species can be found in the Habitats Directive habitat 4020 "Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica ciliaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span>"<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162379		population	eng	In Spain, the species has been recorded in 18 localities and the populations are decreasing although the species is locally abundant (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). It is suspected that the overall population does not exceed 2,500 mature individuals (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/>In France, it is found in eight localities in six communes and counts more than 1,000 individuals. The population trend is unknown. <span style="background-color: white;"><br/>The total number of individuals is lower than 10,000 and there are less than 1,000 mature individuals in each subpopulation.<br/></span>
162379		threats	eng	In Spain, inadequate forest management, excessive livestock pressure and trampling, and activities that alter the hydrological dynamics, pose the main threats (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>In France, the main threat is forest management (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010).
162380		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella anglica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the United Kingdom, it is protected under Schedule 8 of the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981. In the UK Red List the species is marked as requiring more taxonomic research (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is found in several protected areas and Natura 2000 sites throughout its range.<br/><br/>This species needs moderate grazing to keep the habitat open, ideally is light grazing by cattle through the summer. The great majority of sites are on farmland managed at a low intensity as part of the traditional extensive grazing systems of the southern English chalklands.<br/><br/>Research into its taxonomic status should continue and more information on the causes of fluctuations and decline as well as the right conservation measures should be collected.
162380		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Great Britain. It is restricted to southern England but has been reported as far north as Yorkshire in the past. Now the centre of its distribution is in Dorset, Wiltshire, and the Isle of Wight (Plantlife International 2006). It has been recorded from 69 grids of 10x10 km between 1987-1999 (Wilson 2009).
162380		habitat	eng	This species occurs in chalk or limestone grasslands of exceptional quality that have never been treated with fertilizers or pesticides. It tends to be a very poor coloniser and does not like large scale disturbance. This plant prefers south or west facing slopes which receive longer periods of sunlight. It has been observed that the plant has a soil seed bank and can emerge under favourable conditions in places where it had formerly disappeared.
162380		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella anglica </span>has been recorded in 154 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations have declined in the past and are believed to be still declining in central and eastern England (Plantlife International 2006, Wilson 2009). The number of individuals fluctuates extremely from one year to another; those can be hundredfold and more. Fluctuations from zero individuals to more than one million from one year to the other have been observed.<br/><br/>A sample survey undertaken in June 2008, looked at 20 representative sites. On 15 of those sites, the species was found. The sites where it was not present or only appeared in low numbers, were generally in poor condition. However, two sites appeared to have favourable conditions and still no plants were found. An overall decline was noted, but in some populations the number of individuals increased (Wilson 2009). Comparing numbers of individuals between 1998 and 2008 on the 20 sites surveyed, a decline of nearly 17% was noted. However, it is difficult to use this figure as an overall rate of decline as the number of individuals is strongly fluctuating and the causes of those fluctuations are not well understood yet.
162380		threats	eng	This species is very sensitive to sward height and the availability of open soil for germination. Therefore, the main threat is posed by a lack of grazing, inappropriate timing of grazing or  overgrazing (Wilson 2009). <br/>A further threat is the modification of cultivation practices - the species is sensitive to the use of fertilisers or conversion of grassland into agricultural land, and that led to the loss of many populations in the past   (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Plantlife International 2006). Quarrying was another cause for habitat loss (Plantlife International 2006).
162381		conservation	eng	Information on taxonomy and the biology and ecology of the species is already in place but further research on population numbers and range, as well as threats, is needed.
162381		conservation	eng	It is listed on the Annex II of the European Habitats Directive and it is protected in many countries. For example, strictly protected in Hungary and classed as Critically Endangered in the national red list, Critically Endangered in Poland, the only German locality is in a protected area, etc. No global information is available. More research is needed in order to determine global population trends and global threats.
162381		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caldesia parnassifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>          <p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. parnassifolia</span> is reported as <span style="background-color: white;">Extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Lithuania, Serbia, Slovenia and Switzerland. It is pr</span>otected throughout France and a few populations are in Natura 2000, Espace Naturel Sensible or nature reserves.</p><p>It is protected in Bulgaria although it is extinct (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010<span style="background-color: white;">). There is an i</span>nitiative to reintroduce the species there. It is strictly protected in Hungary and classed as Critically Endangered in the national red list (  Király 2007). It is also Critically Endangered in Poland. It is protected in Bavaria and on the national Red List as Critically Endangered (level I). There is an <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collection at the University of Regensburg <span style="background-color: white;">(K.G. Bernhardt pers. comm. 2010). The only German locality is </span>in a protected area.</p><p>A survey of historic sites is recommended to determine the population size and extent.<br/></p>  <a title="S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre" class="lien_ext" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=ENVN9540287A">    </a><p><a href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=ENVN9540287A" title="S'ouvre dans une nouvelle fenêtre">      </a></p>
162381		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to search for and verify the Egyptian localities.
162381		distribution	eng	<em>C. parnassifolia</em> occurs throughout much of the Old World, from Europe east to the Amur region on the Russian seaboard, through Japan, China and Indonesia south to Papua New Guinea and Australia and throughout much of Africa, north and south of the Sahara as well as Madagascar. It has occurred throughout much of central Europe, from France to Lithuania, south to Italy and east to Bulgaria. It is regionally extinct in Austria, Bulg<span style="background-color: white;">aria, </span>Croatia, and Lithuania.<br/>It is extinct in three places in Germany, but still occurs at one site. In Slovenia, it is possibly extinct, however it was collected approximately eight years ago (K.-G. Bernhardt pers. comm. 2010). It hasn't been collected in Russia for approximately 50 years. In Poland the species is possibly extinct, for its presence has not been reported since 1986.
162381		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caldesia parnassifolia</span> is an Old-World tropical and subtropical species, only present in the Mediterranean basin in Egypt, recorded without locality (Täckholm & Drar 1941-1969). It furthermore occurs in Madagascar, tropical Africa, Asia (China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan) and Australia.
162381		distribution	eng	This species is found in warm and tropical Old world, extending from Western Africa to Southern Africa to Botswana and Namibia, including Madagascar.
162381		distribution	eng	This species<span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> is native to Europe, eastern Africa, Madagascar, and from China to Australia. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Dalat Province. In Europe, it has not been recorded for a long time and is believed to be extinct from many countries (i.e., Austria or Croatia) and possibly extinct from others (Poland or Russia).
162381		habitat	eng	An aquatic plant with floating leaves and erect emergent flowering stem, of swamps and shallow water. Usually perennial in permanent water but in areas which dry out each year it may be annual. Mostly in shallow water, along the margins of lakes, on river banks and in swamps.
162381		habitat	eng	<em>C. parnassifolia</em> typically occurs in shallow oligotrophic to mesotrophic water (usually up to 35 cm) on calcareous substrates, often over peat or sand, in lakes, ponds, rivers and canals.  This species can be easily overlooked in surveys.<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains</li><li>3120 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals generally on sandy soils of the west Mediterranean, with <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes</span> spp.</li><li>3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Magnopotamion</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocharition</span>-type vegetation</li></ul>       <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162381		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caldesia parnassifolia</span> is a perennial Helophyte growing in terrestrial places.
162381		habitat	eng	This aquatic herb grows in lakes, ponds, marshes, and canals. It prefers shallow oligotrophic to mesotrophic water (usually  up to 35 cm) on calcareous substrates, often over peat or sand.<span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">
162381		population	eng	Although in Europe the population is declining, the trend of the global population is not known.
162381		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">C. parnassifolia</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is reported to be extinct in seven of the 15 European co</span>untries from which it has been recorded. Most countries support few, widely scattered populations, most of which are declining.<br/>In France, there are 46 localities in 21 communes and more than 5,000 individuals have been estimated. At the locality in Germany, the population size is increasing.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>In Hungary, there is one known population present at the south of Lake Balaton with strong yearly fluctuations:&#160; in some years the species is totally missing, in other years there are individuals but the total number never exceeds 100 even in good years. The species disappeared from one locality in northeast Hungary probably in the <span style="background-color: white;">1980s and there where two further sites with old data.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> In Italy, it is found at only two localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009) </span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">There is no information on the populations in Belarus and Romania.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162381		population	eng	There is no information on the populations available.
162381		population	eng	This species is widespread so its presumed it will have an overall stable population.
162381		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought. It may be impacted by habitat loss due to agro-industry farming. However, none of these constitute major widespread threats.
162381		threats	eng	The main threats recorded in Europe are changes of the water regime and water pollution. No global information is available.
162381		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are drainage and other changes of the water regime as well as water pollution due to the use of pesticides for example. <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162381		threats	eng	Unknown.
162382		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis distorta</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
162382		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis distorta</span> is endemic to the central Apennines in Italy. It has a geographic range of 2,471 km<sup>2</sup> (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162382		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 6210 "Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)". The habitat trend is stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162382		population	eng	Around nine localities have been counted for this species in 2006. The population trend is stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162382		threats	eng	The main threats are collection of the species, and outdoor sports and activities, including off-piste skiing and motorised vehicles (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162383		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Spanish Red List:&#160; </strong>CR B2 ab(iii,iv,v) (Moreno 2008), and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/></p><p>  </p><p>The two known populations are included in the protected area Monumento Natural de los Riscos de Tirajana. The location of Caideros Altos is at the same time included in the area SCI of the same name and its status of conservation is a matter of concern. The location of Barranco de Tunte is outside the limits of this SCI but it shows an acceptable status of conservation.</p><p>  </p><p>Seeds of the species are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo in Gran Canaria, where research about the cultivation and micropropagation of the species is performed. This centre deals as well with the monitoring of the populations of the species.<br/></p>    <p>  Grazing exclusion zones must be designated in order to carry out further population surveillance and monitoring (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).</p>  <strong></strong><br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
162383		distribution	eng	<p>  </p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bencomia brachystachya</span> is endemic to the island of Gran  Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>(Martín Osorio <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong style="font-weight: normal;">.</strong></p>  It is found in two locations on the mountains in La Caldera de Tirajana, between 1,100 and 1,700 m asl at the foot of cliffs and on cliffs in scrub.The area of occupancy of the species has been reported to be three units of 500 x 500 m (0.75 km²<sup></sup>), and to be found in two units of 1x1 km. The area of occupancy has been estimated to be between 0.75 and 2 km².
162383		habitat	eng	This species is a woody shrub that grows on rocky and shrubby cliffs with inclinations between 39-90 degrees. It can be found in associations of <em>Chamaecytiso canariae-Adenocarpetum villosi, Greenovio-Aeonietum caespitosi, </em>growing together with species as <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline microphylla,</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> Paronychia canariensis, Echium onosmifolium, Rumex lunaria, Bituminaria bituminosa, Atalanthus pinnatus, Kleinia neriifolia, Todaroa cf. montana </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erysimum bicolor </span>(Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<em><br/><br/><br/></em>
162383		population	eng	The two fragmented populations have been reported to host 96 individuals showing a decreasing trend (Martín Osorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162383		threats	eng	<p>Main threats are the modification of hydrographic functioning, grazing and competition with exotic species. <br/></p><p> </p>
162384		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classified as Vulnerable in Italy and as Data Deficient in<span style="background-color: white;"> Slovenia (</span>Čušin <em>et al.</em> 2004)<span style="background-color: white;">. It is protected by national law in Slo</span>venia. Some sub-populations are included in Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>Maintaining of traditional land use would be an important factor for the survival of this species and of its habitat.
162384		distribution	eng	This species is native to Italy, where it is found in the Padanian plain, from Lombardia towards the east, and Slovenia where it occurs in the coastal region. The total geographical range is 6,309 km² of which only 24 km² belong to Slovenia   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In total, it is suspected that the area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km² and that the populations are severely fragmented.
162384		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet meadows in lowlands, sometimes in remnants of peat bogs.<br/>It is found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li><li>6410 Molinia meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li></ul>
162384		population	eng	This species is rare, and its habitat is rare too. The species has been recorded in less than 20 localities in Italy and five localities in Slovenia, but only one has been confirmed recently  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is no data on the number of individuals but these annuals show an extreme fluctuation of the number of individuals, related to climatic conditions.  The populations are decreasing.
162384		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to land use changes (agriculture intensification or abandonment) and drainage are the main reason for the decline of this species (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162385		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Santolina impressa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is protected under national law in Portugal. Monitoring and appropriate habitat management are recommended (ICN 2006).
162385		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to dunes in southwest Portugal. Its extent of occurrence is 1,022 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
162385		habitat	eng	The species is found in dunes where it can form nearly continuous populations (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2150 Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (Calluno-Ulicetea)</li><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia </span>dune grasslands</li><li>2250 Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp.</li><li>2260<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cisto-Lavenduletalia</span> dune sclerophyllous scrubs</li><li>2270 Wooded dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinea </span>and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span></li></ul>
162385		population	eng	<p>The populations are abundant and stable (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
162385		threats	eng	The main threats are sand extraction, urban expansion including the construction of buildings or new communication networks, and agricultural expansion (ICN 2006).
162386		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aquilegia alpina</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In France, it is on the national list of protected plant species and can be found in protected habitats (Parc Nationaux de Vanoise, Mercantour, Ecrins, Forets Domaniales, Natura 2000), regional parks, and national parks. It is not listed on the Italian Red List but has regional protection and is partially included in protected areas. In Austria, it is classed as Near Threatened and protected in Voralberg. It is also Near Threatened in Switzerland and protected nationally. In Liechtenstein, it is protected and listed as Endangered in the Red Data Book. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the current population is recommended.
162386		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the European Alps extending into central Italy and is found in Austria, France, Italy, Liechtenstein and Switzerland.
162386		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aquilegia alpina</span> grows in woody areas in alpine regions, in rocky pastures and grassland and is sometimes found on cliffs. It occurs in <em>Seslerietalia</em> (v.a. <em>Caricion ferrugineae</em>) <em>Betulo-Adenostyletea</em> associations. This plant can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4060 Alpine and boreal heaths</li><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>8120 Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine levels (<em>Thlaspietea rotundifolii</em>)</li><li>9420 Alpine <em>Larix decidua</em> and/or <em>Pinus cembra</em> forests </li><li>9430 Subalpine and montane <em>Pinus uncinata</em> forests</li></ul>
162386		population	eng	The population is fairly stable, but might be declining in some parts of its range. <br/><br/>In Austria, it occurs in Vorarlberg and 100-200 individuals have been counted whereas in Switzerland, it counts more than 2,000 individuals. It has been reported from 108 localities in the French Alps and from 23 localities in western and central Italy.
162386		threats	eng	The population of this species is stable but there are a few threats. Collection for ornamental use causes local declines. Intense grazing and trampling by tourists leads to habitat degradation. A potential future threat is posed by climate change. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
162388		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Musschia wallostonii</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>A species recovery and reintroduction programme is recommended together with raising awareness among the public. Further research on the biology and ecology, population dynamics, and the impacts of conservation actions are needed (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162388		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Musschia wollastonii</span> is endemic to Madeira, Portugal, where it is found in scattered populations mainly along the north coast between 400-900 m (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its extent of occurrence is 524 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162388		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid and shaded valleys of laurisilva forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea foetens</span>, normally within the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Euphorbion melliferae</span>. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 9360 "Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
162388		population	eng	This species has been recorded in 17 localities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population is stable but counts less than 250 mature individuals in total (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162388		threats	eng	Invasive species are leading to habitat degradation and competition for this species. Trampling, recreational activities, collection, fires and natural factors such as droughts and landslides all affect this plant (Fernandes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in: Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
162389		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca brigantina</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal (ICN 2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Festuca brigantina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">actiophyta</span> is listed as Vulnerable B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Population on cliffs should be fenced. Awareness and information plans should be developed.
162389		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Spain and Portugal<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). <br/></p>In Portugal, it is found in the northeast in Trás-os-Montes (ICN 2006) and has an area of occupancy of 200 km². In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca brigantina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">actiophyta</span> is endemic to the province of A Coruña, where seven subpopulations can be found in A Capelada mountains and As Somozas (Bañares<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004), with an area of occupancy of 31 km²<sup></sup>.
162389		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca brigantina</span> can be found in Oro-Iberian acidophilous stripped grasslands (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The species is characteristic of chamaephyte and perennial herb communities on ultrabasic skeletal soils (ICN 2006). It is found in cracks on ultrabasic rocks on crags ledges and high areas (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2004). Frequent accompanying species when  growing in cracks are <span style="font-style: italic;">Sagina merinoi, Centaurea borjae, Lotus glareosus, Agrostis curtisii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago radicata</span>. In high areas it occurs along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedion anglici, Erica cinerea, Lithodora prostrata, Erica ciliaris, Agrostis curtisii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione montana</span>.<br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1230 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic Coasts</li><li>6160 Oro-Iberian <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta</span> grasslands</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162389		population	eng	In Portugal, the population size is estimated to be between 251-500 individuals with an unknown trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are small and severely fragmented (ICN 2006).<br/>In Spain it is present in six to seven locations. Real area of occupation has been estimated in 30,000 m<sup>2</sup> and the average population size in 30 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). There is no information to analyse population trends in Spain but habitat alteration and destruction phenomena lead to suspect a regressive trend in the number of individuals.
162389		threats	eng	In Portugal, the expansion of urbanisation and related infrastructure pose the main threat as most of the populations are very close to cities and villages. One population is on the side of the road that can be widened any time. Afforestation, extraction and deposition of inert material lead to further habitat degradation (ICN 2006).<br/>In Spain, main threats are grazing and trampling. One of the subpopulations in Moeche and part of the population of A Capelada are affected by wind farms (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162390		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria taygetea</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Endangered (EN) B1ab(i,ii,iv)+B2ab(i,ii,iv); C2(a i) and is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81 (Kyriakopoulos and Kamari in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
162390		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> and is known from a few locations in the northern part of the Taygetos Mountain range. It grows between 1,600-1,950 m asl. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 2-4 km². </p>
162390		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria taygetea</span> grows in rock crevices and stony slopes on limestone (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162390		population	eng	There are nine subpopulations known from Mt Taygetos so far. The subpopulations of Tsuga summit are small (10-50 individuals). There are two subpopulations near the Pyrgaki summit with six and 40 individuals respectively. The two largest subpopulations are located south of the Pyrgaki summit in a place called Neraidovrahos (160 individuals). The total number of individuals is less than 500.<br/><p></p>
162390		threats	eng	The plant is not threatened by grazing. But natural fires and collection of the plant for herbal teas are potentially affecting this species (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162391		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Vulnerable" in the national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(i,iii,iv); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Most of the subpopulations occur within protected areas Parque Natural. Herbivores erradication plans have been implemented in some areas and most of the subpopulations are monitored. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> propagation and seed viability tests have been developed and plant material has been stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz (Córdoba) and Escuela Técnica de Ingenieros Agrónomos (Madrid). A recovery programme is being developed in Andalucía and Castilla La Mancha.<br/></p><p>Proposed measures include new subpopulations search, awareness and education measures development and management of herbivores presence in some areas.&#160;</p>
162391		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the north of Morocco and in Spain (Martínez Lirola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In Spain, the populations with major number of individuals occur in the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas (Jaén); in Andalusia further populations exist in the provinces of Almería, Granada, Málaga, Cádiz and Córdoba. In addition, it is found in the provinces of Cuenca (Serranía de Cuenca) and Guadalajara (Sierra de Armallones). Its area of occupancy is 33 km² and it presents a highly fragmented distribution.
162391		habitat	eng	It appears sporadically in forest clearings, within different communities (Martínez Lirola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), generally unstable. These communities often occur on basic rather moist soils, on shady sites with open exposure.
162391		population	eng	The total number of subpopulations has been estimated in between 22    (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and 25-27 (Martínez Lirola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Total population size has been reported to be 139 individuals    (Martínez Lirola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The subpopulations are severely fragmented as there is only one important nucleus of individuals in the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y las Villas (Jaén). All the other subpopulations are very dispersed and distant from each other with one to two individuals only.
162391		threats	eng	The main threat is population fragmentation due to ecological specificity and dispersal mechanism, predation by wild animals, human presence and hybridisation phenomena (Martínez Lirola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Predation by livestock and impact due to the presence of highly used paths, have been also reported as threats.
162392		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus peterfii</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered in the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
162392		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania   (ILDIS 2010).
162392		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
162392		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
162392		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
162393		conservation	eng	This species is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive 92/43 EEC and in the Bern Convention.<br/>The species has been classed as Vulnerable for Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) and as Endangered in Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). In France, it is considered Vulnerable in the national Red Data Book (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and is protected at national level (Annex 1). Some populations are included in Natura 2000 sites.<br/>More research on the populations and preferred habitats (including gametophyte habitats) are needed. Molecular analysis of the genetic diversity of the populations is needed in order to establish the dispersal capacity and potential rescue effects.
162393		conservation	eng	This species is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>The species has been classed as Vulnerable for Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) and as Endangered in Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). In France, it is considered Vulnerable in the national Red Data Book (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and is protected at national level (Annex 1) and at local level (Arreté de Protection de Biotope). Some populations are included in Natura 2000 sites. In Spain, it is protected under regional legislations.<br/><br/>More research on the populations and preferred habitats (including gametophyte habitats) are needed. Molecular analysis of the genetic diversity of the populations is needed in order to establish the dispersal capacity and potential rescue effects and to evaluate the differentiation of the sub-populations in Italy and Crete.
162393		distribution	eng	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is a boreo-subtropical species that is found in southern Europe from the Azores to Crete, in Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Italy, and Sicily. In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.<br/>In Portugal, it has been found in the mountains of Gerês, Amarela, Freita, Arada and in the Trovela river valley (Ponte do Lima) (ICN 2006). In Italy, it is found <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>in two regions in the mainland (Calabria and Campania) and in Sicily (Pampanini 1911, Picone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Pisani 2007). <br/>In Spain, it is only found in the north at the coast of Cantabria, Asturias and Galicia. Most of this area is outside the Mediterranean region boundaries (Anthos 2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>). In Greece, only two localities in the western part of Crete were found.<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
162393		distribution	eng	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is a boreo-subtropical species that is found in southern Europe from the Azores to Crete, in Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Italy, and Sicily. In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.<br/>In Portugal, it has been found in the mountains of Gerês, Amarela, Freita, Arada and in the Trovela river valley (Ponte do Lima) (ICN 2006). It is present in&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>eight islands of the Azores, but not registered for Graciosa island (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and occurs in&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Madeira island (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/>In Italy, it is found <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>in two regions in the mainland (Calabria and Campania) and in Sicily (Pampanini 1911, Picone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Pisani 2007). <br/>In Spain, it is only found in the north at the coast of Cantabria, Asturias and Galicia (Anthos 2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>). <br/>In Greece, only one subpopulation in the western part of the mainland was found, the species is present in Crete.<br/>The species has a wide range but only occupies a few sites and it is therefore suspected that the area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
162393		habitat	eng	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is a Hemicryptophyte with a creeping rhizome. Its sporulation takes place from February to September in Italy and Corsica.<br/>Its preferred habitats are damp ravines (châbas) in forests on siliceous hills or riverine forests and in caves. It prefers shadowy and wet places and shows hygrophilous and termophilous behaviour (Spampinato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.: in <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It likes very deep river valleys and riverine areas. It also occurs in the Laurel forests in the Canary Islands.
162393		habitat	eng	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is a Hemicryptophyte with a creeping rhizome. Its sporulation takes place in summer in Algeria and from February to September in Italy and Corsica.<br/>Its prefered habitats are damp ravines (châbas) in forests on siliceous hills or riverine forests and in caves. It prefers shadowy and wet places and shows hygrophilous and termophilous behaviour (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
162393		population	eng	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is always considered as very rare. It has been seen in Corsica at two sites: Cap Corse near Siscu and Santo-Pietro-di-Tenda (Jeanmonod and Gamisand 2007,   Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995), but nowadays it is only found in Cap-Corse, with 39 specimen. It is considered as slowly declining. <em></em>In Portugal, it is known from less then ten sites with a calculated number of 2,500 individuals (ICN 2006). It is common in the Azores (more than 10,000 individuals)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. In Spain, there are numerous populations in the north and the trend is stable. In Crete, five populations with circa ten individuals each are present, these populations are declining. There is only one population on the Greek mainland.<br/><br/>In Italy, there were 62 populations, 24 of them disappeared in the last 50 years, so it is now present in 38 sites plus one recently found in 2008. The area of occupancy in Italy is c. 132 km². A reduction of 42% in area of occupancy and 30% in extent of occurrence has been recorded in Italy in the last 50 years. The number of individuals is estimated to be about 6,000<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In the next ten years a reduction of 10% for the number of individuals is estimated (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>.
162393		population	eng	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is always considered as very rare. It has been seen in Corsica at two sites: Cap Corse near Siscu and Santo-Pietro-di-Tenda (Jeanmonod and Gamisand 2007,   Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Algeria, it was reported from one location in djebel Edough (near Annaba) where it has not been seen again. <em></em>In Portugal, it is known from less then 10 sites with a calculated number of 2,500 individuals (ICN 2006). In Spain, there are more than 30 populations and the trend is stable, but most of these fall outside the boundaries of the Mediterranean region. In Crete, five populations with circa ten individuals each are present, these populations are declining (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).<br/>In Italy, there were 62 populations, 24 of them disappeared in the last 50 years, so it is now present in 38 sites plus one recently found in 2008. The area of occupancy in Italy is ca. 132 km<sup>2</sup>. A reduction of 42% of area in occupancy and 30% in extent of occurrence has been recorded in Italy in the last 50 years. The number of individuals is estimated to be about 6,000<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In the next ten years a reduction of 10% for the number of individuals is estimated (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>.
162393		threats	eng	One of the main threats to <em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is the clearing of forest. Agricultural activities and water extraction for irrigation are furthermore threatening the species in Crete and Italy. In Corsica, the dumping of garbage and lack of water body management and therefore the risk of competition with Rubus spp. is another threat to this plant. The invasion of Robinia in forests leads to further competition.
162393		threats	eng	One of the main threats to <em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is the clearing of forest. Agricultural activities and water extraction for irrigation are furthermore threatening the species in Crete and Italy. In Corsica, the frequent use of hiking tracks, sedimentation in the rivers in wet  years, dumping of garbage and lack of water body management and therefore the risk of competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus </span>spp. is another threat to this plant. The invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia </span>in forests leads to further competition. Construction of water reservoir and general habitat disturbance are further impacting the species.
162394		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa veneta</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162394		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the dunes of the Veneto region in northeast Italy, and is found mainly on the Adriatic coast. It has also been reported from Friuli Venezia Giulia. In total, it occurs at more then six locations but the populations are severely fragmented. Its geographic range is only 28 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162394		habitat	eng	This grass grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2130 "Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162394		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa veneta</span> has a stable population which counts less than 250 mature individuals.
162394		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to tourism infrastructure and recreational activities are the most important threats (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162396		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81.   <p>Most of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 sites GR4210005 and GR4210006. It is also included in the Red Data Book (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1995). However, due to the natural threat of wildfire, monitoring of these fires and effect on this taxon need to happen to understand if there is a long-term decline, or if the plant can withstand a certain degree of burning.<br/></p>
162396		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a>This taxon is endemic to the Greek East Aegean Island of Rhodes. The main distribution area of the plant is on Profitis Ilias Mt but it has also been recorded at two sites at the area of Archangelos and two sites at the area of Apolakkia (Carlström 1987). The total distribution area and the number of locations and subpopulations are not accurately known. The plants on Profitis Ilias constitute one subpopulation at one to two locations. The extent of occurrence is small at 350 km²<sup></sup>, with a known area of occupancy at 24-30 km².<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
162396		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes coniferous forest with cypress (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cupressus sempervirens</span>) or less often  mixed cypress-pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span>), on calcareous substrate. Rarely in  maquis with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>. Recorded between altitudes of 350-650 m.
162396		population	eng	<p>Total population is estimated to be between 1,000-10,000 individuals. On Profitis Ilias Mt, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Paeonia clusii</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rhodia</span> grows, it is one of the characteristic species of the cypress forest, 50 – 100 individuals may grow in 500 m² of forest at the best sites, but the plant is rare (one to two individuals) or not present at steep slopes or rocky sites. On Attavyros Mt the plant must be much rarer and does not constitute a stable element of the forests. </p>   <p>The plant has never been monitored, so it is not known whether there actually is a population decline or whether there are fluctuations. But due to the threat of collection, a continuous decline is assumed.<br/></p>
162396		threats	eng	Most of the distribution area of the plant is easily accessible. Locals know the plant and it is popular in village gardens. Over-collection for cultivation in gardens or for commercial purposes is a serious threat. <br/><p>Wild fire, intentional or not, may be a threat for the plant due to the presence of the flammable <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span> close to or in its habitat. In fact, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span> seems to expand at the expense of cypress, which forms the main habitat of the plant, because of its high regeneration ability after fire. The fact that the plant is a geophyte may offer protection.</p>   <p>Grazing is not a serious threat on Profitis Ilias Mt but it may constitute a threat on Attavyros Mt, especially in burned forests.</p>
162397		conservation	eng	This subspecies is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is considered as Vulnerable at the national level (Ramos Lopes and Carvalho 1990) and in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998). The plant is protected at national level and its populations are found in the Parque Natural de Sintra-Cascais (ICNB 2006).
162397		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Sintra, in the centre west of Portugal. The area of occupancy is 18 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162397		habitat	eng	It occurs in skeletal soils on granite, sands and rock fissures and can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> spp.</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162397		population	eng	There are two main subpopulations in Cabo da Roca and in Punto do Assobio of some thousands individuals and several small subpopulations dispersed some kilometre apart from each other and with low numbers (ICNB 2006). The population size has been estimated between 1,000 and 10,000 individuals but its trend is unknown   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162397		threats	eng	Natural fire and invasion by other species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia melanoxylon</span>, have been described as threats. Urbanisation and forest plantations are also impacting the subspecies habitat (ICNB 2006).
162398		conservation	eng	Listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Red Book and Red List (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holub and Procházka 2000). It is protected in the national natural monument Kleneč near Roudnice nad Labem.
162398		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus arenarius </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bohemicus</span> is native to the Czech Republic. Its geographic range is around 263 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162398		habitat	eng	This subspecies grows mainly in sand and shallow soil grasslands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It forms part of the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Plantagini-Festucion ovinae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorion canescentis</span>.
162398		population	eng	The population has been estimated at about 2,000 tufts and the trend is increasing  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162398		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the abandonment of pastoral systems and the subsequent succession which makes it difficult for the species to compete.
162399		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum pinnatifidum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">succulentum</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The area is a Natural Reserve of the Madeira Natural Park and is under the protection of Natura Network 2000 (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Seeds have been collected and stored in the Madeira Botanical Garden seed bank. Conservation of this taxon is mainly dependent on habitat managment (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006)
162399		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum pinnatifidum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">succulentum </span>is endemic to Madeira, Portugal. It occurs only in one locality at the extreme east of Madeira island. It is subject to various threats but mainly from tourism and competition with invasive species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span></span>
162399		habitat	eng	This taxon is found in Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub, in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemo suculenti-Calendulion maderensis</span> vegetation community (Commission of the European Communities 2009)
162399		population	eng	The total population has been estimated to have 1,000 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162399		threats	eng	It is subject to various threats but mainly from tourism and competition with invasive species. Further threats reported are collection of the subspecies, recreational activities and infrastructure, natural catastrophes (Commission of the European Communities 2009)
162400		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus genevierii</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">herminii</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
162400		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to Portugal where its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is 100 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162400		habitat	eng	It grows in seepage zones along watercourses (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162400		population	eng	<p>There is no data on the population size or trend available.</p>
162400		threats	eng	The main threats described are drainage and natural fires (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162401		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio lagascanus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lusitanicus</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. Information on the population trend is needed.
162401		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Portugal<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> where its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 100 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Only three populations are known, which are far apart from each other.</p>
162401		habitat	eng	This taxon can grow within open scrublands, edges of scrublands on calcareous decarbonated soils   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162401		population	eng	The total recorded population counts 300 individuals, the population trend is unknown   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162401		threats	eng	Two populations are threatened by the construction of wind energy generators (M. Porto pers.  comm. 2011). Further threats recorded are recreational activities such as walking and horseriding, and natural fires (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162402		conservation	eng	This subspecies is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is listed under the regional legislation of Galicia and Asturias in Spain. More research is needed regarding the taxonomic status of this subspecies.
162402		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found in Spain where it has its main distribution along the northern coastal provinces with scattered populations in the rest of the country (Anthos 2009). It is also present in northwest and central Portugal (Silva 2008)<span style="background-color: white;"></span>. The range of the subspecies in Portugal has been calculated as 5,020 km² (Silva 2008).
162402		habitat	eng	This subspecies grows in wet meadows, birch and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur </span>woods and acidophile areas. It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):   <br/><ul><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)</li><li>6520 Mountain hay meadows</li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li><li>9380 Forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex aquifolium</span></li></ul>
162402		population	eng	In Spain, it has been recorded in 106-110 localities <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">  with a stable to unknown population trend</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. In Portugal,</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> seven   populations have been recorded and the estimated number of individuals are 245,000 to 300,000<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. The Portuguese populations are decreasing (Commission of the European Communities 2009)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.<br/></span></span></span></span>
162402		threats	eng	The main threats for this plant are collecting, forest plantations and changes in agricultural practices.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/><br/></span>
162403		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Doronicum plantagineum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tournefortii</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
162403		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Doronicum plantagineum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tournefortii </span>is restricted to a small area in south Portugal. Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is 200 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is found at one site only (ICNB pers. comm. 2011).
162403		habitat	eng	It occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests and on hard calcareous soils. This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 9340 "<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162403		population	eng	There is no data on population size or trend available but it has been described as a frequent species in the area (although it is not clear whether this refers to the species or subspecies).
162403		threats	eng	The main threats are forest planting, removal of forest undergrowth, urbanisation, communication networks, and natural fires (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162404		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia campestris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bottnica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Russia, the species is not protected. <br/>In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened (Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected under national law. It is found in a few protected areas. In Finland it is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) A2ace; B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii,iii,iv,v) (Rassi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010).
162404		distribution	eng	This European endemic is restricted to the Gulf of Bothnia and is found in Finland, Sweden, and North European Russia in Karelia.<br/>The area of occupancy in Sweden is 252 km², the range of the species in Finland is 99 km², overall it can be said with certainty that the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km² in total.
162404		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia campestris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bottnica</span> is present on sand beaches above the driftline. In Finland, it has been observed growing along a railway and roads and is probably spreading in the region.
162404		population	eng	In Finland, 1,700 tufts have been counted and in Sweden, 20,000 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Russia, it occurs at one locality in Onega Lake.<br/>The overall population trend is stable but the populations are considered as severely fragmented as the sandy areas where it is found are not connected with each ot<span style="background-color: white;">her (</span>ArtDatabanken 2010)<span style="background-color: white;">.</span>
162404		threats	eng	Tourist activities at beaches do not seem to affect the species at the moment. But there are potential threats in the form of infrastructure buildings which could destroy the species habitats.
162406		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria ciliata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pseudofrigida</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is included in regional Red Data Books as rare species in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). It is listed as Near Threatened approaching A4c on the Norwegian Red List, but classed as Least Concern in Svalbard (Artsdatabanken 2010). This plant is classed as Least Concern in Finland.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">In Finland the subspecies is protected by law (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005) and nearly 90% of the existing sites are in Oulanka National Park or in other areas included in the Natura 2000 network.</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">It is included in protected areas in Russia.</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
162406		distribution	eng	This plant has an arctic distribution and is native to Norway, Finland, Svalbard and North European Russia, extending to Greenland and into the tundra of North America. The range of the subspecies in Finland is 806 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>In Norway, it occupies a small area on the Varanger Peninsula, and  is mainly limited to Båtsfjord municipality, with a small locality group  in Vardo (Pers Fjord). It occupies an area of about 600 km² (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Svalbard, it  has been reported from western Spitzbergen in limestone areas and  fjords. <br/>The Finnish populations are found at only two locations (45 small sites) with an extent of occurrence of 806 km².
162406		habitat	eng	This tufted plant forms carpets and is found on limestone soil or lime rich gravelly ground, rocks, ravine, and screes.
162406		population	eng	In Finland, the total population counts 5,100 tufts and has a stable trend. In Norway, it is quite frequent within its limited area, however a population decline due to habitat loss of 15-30% is expected in the near future (Artsdatabanken 2010). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">In Russia, local populations are small and occupy a limited area (several square meters).</span><br/><p>The overall population trend is unknown.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
162406		threats	eng	Trampling, overuse and competition with other species are the main threats for this plant (Commission of the European Communities 2009). For Norway, overgrazing is a threat together with an expected increase in temperature that will cause the decline of this arctic subspecies (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Russia, habitat destruction, landslides, and recreational activities pose the main threats.<br/><br/>Overall, it is noted that the subspecies is often found in very remote areas with no human pressure. As a weak competitor, it is also in need of disturbance and unstable soil in order to establish new individuals.
162407		conservation	eng	Listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea alba </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">heldreichii</span> (Halácsy) Dostál. It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).<br/>All of the distribution area of the plant lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR2310005.
162407		distribution	eng	This species is a stenoendemic and restricted to Mount Varasova in Greece. It has an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 10 km² measured on the total projected area of Mount Varasova, and it occurs at only one location.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162407		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">heldreichii</span> is found in <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>crevices and ledges of hard limestone cliffs, rock deposits (colluvium) at the foot of the mountain, mainly at southern exposed slopes, from 3-600 m asl.
162407		population	eng	The total population has been estimated between 1,800 and 2,000 mature individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009), and 4,000-8,000 individuals including young plants.
162407		threats	eng	Varasova Mountain is one of the most popular climbing sites in Greece with many different tracks and it is also used for training. The fact that no plants grow at the climbing tracks indicates that intense climbing activity causes degradation of the population.  <p>There is an old quarry at the east part of the mountain which will threaten the habitat of the plant if it becomes active again.</p>
162408		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It was included to the Red Data Book of Ukraine (1996) as Rare, but was not included anymore in the 2009 Red Data Book of Ukraine. It occurs in the Carpathian biosphere reserve, in the Carpathian national park, and in the nature monument Skeli Bliznici.<br/><br/>Information on the status of the populations, distribution and potential threats for Poland and Romania is needed.
162408		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa granitica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">disparilis</span> is endemic to the Carpathians and found in Poland, Romania and Ukraine<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). It occurs in the Ukrainian Carpathians in the Chornogora, Marmaroschkyj and Svidovez mountain massifs.
162408		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows in alpine and subalpine belts in gullies on lithosoils derived from granite, varying from strong to mild acidity. This taxon is characteristic of <span style="font-style: italic;">Luzuletum spadiceae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Polytricho-Poetum deylii</span> associations.
162408		population	eng	There is no information on the population in Poland and Romania available. In Ukraine, the population is very small and usually comprises a few to several dozen individuals.
162408		threats	eng	There is no information on potential threats for Poland and Romania available. There are no major threats to the taxon in Ukraine (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).
162409		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus arenarius</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> arenarius</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Sweden, it is classed as Endangered (EN) B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) and is found in protected areas. In Lithuania, the species (<span style="font-style: italic;">D. arenarius</span>) is listed as Vulnerable on the Red List. It is found in protected areas and Natura 2000 sites.&#160; The national red list status in Estonia and Latvia is not known.<br/><br/>It has to be stressed that the species is moderate disturbance dependent and that has to be taken into account in conservation management. It is therefore recommended to preserve the habitat by grazing the area to keep low grassland and to use horses.
162409		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus arenarius</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> arenarius </span>is native to  Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Sweden. In Lithuania, it occupies only one site in the south with a few hundred square metre. In Sweden, the area of occupancy is 176 km² and it is found at 44 localities.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162409		habitat	eng	This perennial tufted herb can be found in thinned pine forests and their clearings, forest edges, open dry calcareous sand, heathland, sandy soil on limestone not acidic, sometimes in old dunes and in continental dunes.<br/>It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><ul><li>1620 Boreal Baltic islets and small islands</li><li>2130 Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (“grey dunes’)</li><li>2180 Wooded dunes of the Atlantic, Continental and Boreal region</li><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>6280 Nordic alvar and precambrian calcareous flatrocks</li><li>9010 Western Taïga</li></ul>
162409		population	eng	In Estonia, it is found at six<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> localities. There is insufficient observation data for a longer period, as before 2000, the species has been treated sensu lato and was not protected in Estonia. In Lithuania, 300 individuals were counted at the only location and this population is decreasing as the site is overgrown by  pine trees. In Latvia, there are&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>40-60 localities with a stable population trend. From Sweden,&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>at least 150,000 mature individuals have been reported, but the number of individuals as well as the range and number of sites are declining and the sites are reported to be severely fragmented (ArtDatabanken 2010).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162409		threats	eng	The main threat to the species comes from habitat loss due to natural succession facilitated by the abandonment of grazing activities, by forest plantations which close the canopy, urbanisation and road infrastructure.
162410		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla pratensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span> is listed as priority taxon on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>This is a symbolic plant of nature conservation in Hungary and very well known. Included as Endangered on the Hungarian Red List   (Király 2007) and strictly protected. More than 90% of the Hungarian localities are included in Natura 2000 areas, but less than 50% are probably included in protected areas. In Slovakia, the subspecies occurs in two Natura 2000 sites SACs, covering 66.67% of its  localities in Slovakia. It is classified as Critically Endangered (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>Taxonomic research and field surveys to determine the range of the subspecies as well as the size of the populations is recommended outside of Hungary, e.g. in Romania.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
162410		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla pratensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> is endemic to the East Pannonian Basin (Great Hungarian Plain). The centre of distribution is in northeastern Hungary from where it reaches to the adjacent areas of Slovakia and Romania. In Slovakia, of the</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 12 localities previously found on the Východoslovenská nížina Lowland only two have been confirmed</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> in recent years </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/></span></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
162410		habitat	eng	Acid sandy soil in dry grasslands or sand steppes are the main habitat of the subspecies.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>In Slovakia the subspecies is found in dry pastures, sand steppes, and rarely also in clearings of scrub and thin oak forests on non-calcareous substrates (sands, rhyolite, andesite, permian slates) in the lowland vegetation belt (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><ul><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>91I0 Euro-Siberian steppic woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus spp.</span></li></ul><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162410		population	eng	The population in Hungary is between 15,000 and 20,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population trend in Hungary is decreasing, more populations have been destroyed in the last half century. It is found at 20-40 localities.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In the two localities in Slovakia where it has recently been found the taxon forms populations numbering c. 300 and 2,000 flowering  stems respectively. However, according to A. Šimková from the Latorica Protected Landscape  Area Administration, they are not the typical Hungarian Pasque Flower plants,  but hybrids with the related  species <span style="font-style: italic;">P. zimmermanii</span>. In 2002 a new locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica </span>was found <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">near Malá Tŕňa village on the  Východoslovenská nížina Lowland. At this site only</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> one tuft of genuine morphotype with 50  flowering stems was found. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The  size of the populations of the subspecies, as well as their number in  Slovakia have markedly decreased over the last decades and the taxon is  in danger of extinction</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162410		threats	eng	In the past the subspecies was threatened by overgrazing by sheep. However, some grazing is necessary in order for the subspecies not to be outcompeted by other plants. Loss of habitat has also resulted from conversion of pasture into agricultural land. The planting of forests has led to habitat loss in the past but the invasion of Black Locust (<span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>) into neighbouring habitats continues to threaten the plant.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold; background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>In Slovakia the localities are situated in farmland with a&#160;limited area of suitable habitats. The subspecies is threatened by habitat loss due to overgrowing or forestation by woody plants (especially Black Locust), overgrowing by herbs, collecting and trampling of plants, quarrying, the application of fertilizers, and garbage disposal. Several sites have been lost from conversion of the habitat into fields and vineyards. The taxon is also threatened by hybridization with the species <em>P</em>.<em> zimmermanii</em> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).</span>  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162411		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melilotus segetalis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> fallax</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. It is necessary to continue fieldwork to find new populations and confirm the known ones, to study the biology and ecology of the subspecies as well as the affects of threats. The sites of the taxon should be managed in a way that ensures temporary flooding (ICN 2006).
162411		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Melilotus segetalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">fallax</span> is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal where it occurs in the estuaries of the rivers Tejo and Sado and in the Algarve region</st1:place></st1:country-region> (ICN 2006). The extent of occurrence is 1,247 km² and the area of occupancy is 600 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162411		habitat	eng	An annual nitrophile plant that is found in coastal saltmarshes and saline reedbeds. It is characteristic of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stellarietea mediae</span> and has been found in the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Anacyclo radiati-Hordeetum leporini </span>and more frequently in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Spergulario bocconei-Mesembryanthemetum nodiflori </span>(ICN 2006).<br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1130 Estuaries</li><li>1160 Large shallow inlets and bays</li></ul>
162411		population	eng	<p>This plant is rare with small populations between 10 to 100 individuals (ICN 2006). The population trend is unknown.<br/></p>
162411		threats	eng	The main threats for this taxon are abandonment of pastoral systems, urbanisation and golf courses   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162412		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis tectorum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nigrescens</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. This plant is classed as Endangered B1ab(iii)c(iv)+2ab(iii)c(iv); D1 (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). The subspecies is protected by law and named as a species under  strict protection (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). Two sites are in a national park and one in a strict nature reserve.
162412		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis tectorum </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nigrescens</span> is a rare subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tectorum</span> native to Finland. Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are smaller than 5,000 km² and 500 km² respectively. There are three subpopulations found at two sites: two populations in Kuusamo area and one population in Kevo area.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162412		habitat	eng	The habitats of the biennual&#160; plant are boreal and alpine rock outcrops and boulder fields (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It grows on shelves and crevices of high, easily weathering, south or west exposed rock walls.
162412		population	eng	The total number of individuals has been estimated to be 150. The number of flowering individuals varies remarkably. The population in Kevo is suffering from overgrowth by grasses because of  extra nutrients from birds nesting just above the population. But the  populations in Kuusamo are in good condition.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162412		threats	eng	The main threats are overgrowing and subsequent competition. Climate change and the drying out of its habitat is a potential future threat. The small population size can be a threat as well as the small amount of  suitable habitat.
162413		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaenorhinum serpyllifolium</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lusitanicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and legally protected in Portugal. Conservation measures that are needed comprise the control of urban and tourism development, site protection and management, and improvement of connections between populations (ICN 2006).
162413		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the southwestern coast of Portugal (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is between 166 and 300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162413		habitat	eng	This taxon can be found in calcareous sands and less frequently in carbonated sands. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2230 "<span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia</span> dune grasslands"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>The populations north of the river Seixe are not viable but are of importance for genetic exchange with more stable populations (ICN 2006).
162413		population	eng	It is a rare taxon that is dispersed in isolated populations over a moderate area but with low numbers of individuals. The subpopulation in the area of Aljezur is demographically distinct from the two northern subpopulations, and are comprised of a few nuclei, one with thousands of individuals. North of the river Seixe two small subpopulations are found of variable size, often with fewer than ten individuals. The subpopulations are separated by tens of kilometres from each other   <span class="tooltip">(ICN 2006).
162413		threats	eng	Expansion of urban and tourism development is the main threat, that leads to loss of habitat and individuals and causes the remaining populations to become even more isolated (ICN 2006).
162414		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tephroseris longifolia </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> moravica </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. In Slovakia, it is protected and classed as Endangered. About 80% of the Slovak localities are found in protected areas and in three Natura 2000 sites. In the Czech Republic, the plant is protected in the strongest category and listed as Critically Endangered on the national Red List. Almost all the population is in protected areas and Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>Research on best management practice of this subspecies is recommended.
162414		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the West Carpathians and is only found in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The extent of occurrence is 154 ha in the Czech Republic. The overall area of occupancy is smaller than 700 km² and the extent of occurrence is smaller than 5,000 km².<br/><br/>It was described in 1979 from the Moravian-Slovak borderland in the Biele Karpaty Mts. It grows in Moravia (three localities near the state border) and in Slovakia.&#160; In Slovakia it is found in the Biele Karpaty Mts (Biely vrch hill and Lysá hill in the Vršatec region), Strážovské vrchy Mts (Omšenie, Čavoj), Tribeč Mts (Radobica) and Vtáčnik Mts (Mt. Stráž near Veľké Pole). Occurrence on other localities in the Biele Karpaty Mts (Biely vrch hill), Tribeč Mts (Jelenská gaštanica Protected Site below the Gýmeš castle) and in Pohronský Inovec (Obyce and some microlocalities on Mt. Veľký Inovec) could not be confirmed recently (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162414		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Tephroseris longifolia </span><span style="background-color: white;">ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">moravica </span><span style="background-color: white;">grows in various mesic meadows with high biodiversity and in marginal parts of shrub and forests. This submontane </span>sub<span style="background-color: white;">species occurs in fringe communities, in different stages of succession, and typically on northern slopes. It prefers calcareous substrate</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. It was connected with copse which disappeared from the area.<br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):&#160; </span><br/><ul><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6510 Lowland hay meadows (A<span style="font-style: italic;">lopecurus pratensis, Sanguisorba officinalis</span>)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></li></ul></span>
162414		population	eng	In the Czech Republic the population is slowly declining. There are three sites in the Czech Republic with 400 individuals. In Slovakia, populations are found in seven localities (two of them are sub-localities) with 2,783 individuals (2009) of which 50% are concentrated in one locality. Half of them are flowering. At the moment, only the actual number of individuals is known but not which ones are mature individuals. In Slovakia, there was a stron<span style="background-color: white;">g decline with more than 50% of the localities lost between the 1970s and 1990s due to habitat loss. A rescue programme is now in place (I. Škodová pers. comm. 2010).</span> The sites are fragmented but not severely.<br/><br/> In the Slovakian sites the populations number c. 20 to 2000 individuals. The  size of the subspecies populations and their number in Slovakia is more or less  stable: some localities could not be confirmed, whilst some new ones were discovered recently (Omšenie,  Čavoj). In the future finding other sites of this taxon can be  expected (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162414		threats	eng	The main threat to the subspecies is change in land use. This can be an intensification of agriculture, fertilising, abandonment of grazing activities which leads to succession, change in forest management, mowing and transformation into gardens. Much of its habitat has disappeared.<br/><br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
162417		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea micrantha</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">herminii </span>is l<span class="tooltip">isted on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. More research is needed in order to know more about its conservation status and populations   <span class="tooltip">(ICN 2006).  It is present in, at least, three protected areas.</span>
162417		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to northeast and the mountains of northern central Portugal (ICN 2006) where its extent of occurrence is 14,949 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162417		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea micrantha</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">herminii </span>can be found in Mediterranean xeric grasslands below 1,600 m altitude. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 6220 "Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span>"    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162417		population	eng	This taxon is frequent in the area and is often overlooked as it is difficult to identify.<span class="tooltip">
162417		threats	eng	The threats to the taxon are not known.
162418		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchosinapis erucastrum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cintrana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Research to clarify its taxonomic status is needed.
162418		distribution	eng	This subspecies is considered as endemic to Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 300 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162418		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>8240 Limestone pavements</li><li>9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span></li></ul>
162418		population	eng	Population is around 10,000 individuals with an unknown trend  (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162418		threats	eng	In Portugal, urbanised areas, human habitation and invasion by a species have been described as its main threats    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162419		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aconitum firmum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">moravicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>The subspecies is listed as Lower Risk/Near Threatened in Slovakia and nearly 82% of its populations are included in four protected areas (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is included in the Polish Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) and in the Red Data Book of the Polish Carpathians (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). In Poland the taxon occurs predominantly in protected areas (Babia Góra and Tatra National Parks and nature reserves). It is also legally protected in Poland (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). In the Czech Republic it is categorised as Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000).
162419		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the western Carpathians, occurring in Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic (Moravia) (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, the plant occurs at around 20 localities in the Javorníky  Mts, the Strážovské vrchy Mts, the Malá Fatra Mts, the Západné Beskydy Mts, the Chočské  vrchy Mts, the Západné the Tatry Mts, Nízke Tatry Mts and in the Slovenský raj Mts (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In Poland it occurs predominantly in the subalpine belt with ten populations in three  regions: the Tatra mountains, the Beskid Żywiecki mountains and the  Beskid Śląski mountains. It is found between 750 m asl and 1,700 m asl. In the Czech Republic the subspecies is found in 50 localities in Moravia (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008).
162419		habitat	eng	This plant is typically found in forest springs, beech, spruce, and ravine forest, fringes of montane brooks, and montane meadows. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>3240 Alpine rivers and their ligneous vegetation with <em>Salix elaeagnos</em></li><li>4080 Sub-Arctic <em>Salix</em> spp. scrub</li><li>6430 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine levels</li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li><li>8120 Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine levels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspietea rotundifolii</span>)</li></ul>
162419		population	eng	The population trend in Poland is stable and typically the populations comprise from 100 to 1,000 generative individuals. The total population in Poland is 2,000+ individuals, found in ten localities. The trend is stable for Slovakia and there are 2,000-7,000 individuals. In the Czech Republic it is found at 50 localities and the population trend is increasing (Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008). In Slovakia the plant is found in around 20 localities and the number of in individuals at each locality ranges from tens to hundreds (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
162419		threats	eng	The plant is threatened by sport and leisure structures and activities, including walking, horseriding, cycling and off-piste skiing. In Poland modification of hydrographic functioning is also a threat and in Slovakia&#160; collection and removal of the subspecies and vegetation succession are the main threats (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In the Czech Republic the plant is threatened by unfavourable forestry management (artificial planting and clearance) (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162420		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis procumbens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">microcarpa</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. Recommended conservation measures are to study the habitat requirements and population dynamics, to regulate forestry practices, and to control invasive species (ICN 2006).
162420		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Portugal and ranges from the centre-west to the centre-south to Serra da Boa Viagem <span class="tooltip">(ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 3,400 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009) <span class="tooltip">and the extent of occurrence is probably below 20,000 km².<br/><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip"><br/></span></span>
162420		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This woody chamaephyte flowers from late spring to late summer and occurs on coastal slopes, in or at the edges of shrubland from 50 to 400 m altitude (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5210 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6220 Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span></li><li>8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li></ul>
162420		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend are not known and the populations show different stages of abundance throughout their range. This might be related to the species being mainly present in the early stages of vegetation dynamics (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
162420		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by trampling and different forms of tourism. Extraction of soil and infrastructure development are furthermore affecting the habitat of this plant (ICN 2006).
162421		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanthera obtusata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">oligantha</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the  Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural  Habitats (Bern Convention). This orchid is listed as Critically Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), and Endangered in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010). Many sites are situated in a national park. It is recommended to take <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures, and to monitor and survey the known subpopulations and sites.
162421		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This orchid has a Euro-Siberian distribution in the boreal and arctic zones, extending to the temperate zone of Asia.&#160; In Europe, it occurs on two adjacent premises in the Abisko National Park in Torne Lapland, in Sweden, Norway, and Finland. The taxon can be found between 500 and 1,200 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, Euro+Med 2009, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010)</a>. <br/></p>
162421		habitat	eng	The taxon grows in Arctic and subarctic tundras, alpine and subalpine grasslands. It prefers damp, alkaline or decalcified and often calcareous substrates and grows in full sun light to mid-shade. Flowering time is from May to July (Delforge 1995). It can be found in calcareous mountains, in heaths, birch woods, often on sloping ground where water flows laterally through the soil     (Morgan and Leon 1992).
162421		population	eng	This orchid is very rare. The number of mature individuals is estimated at 200 in Sweden and there is no evidence of significant population change (ArtDatabanken 2010). One locality has been found in Finland with very few individuals (less than 50) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In Norway, it was known from 12 localities in the past and has been refound at six of those. It was furthermore detected at three new sites. However, the total number of individuals is less than 250 and some subpopulations are declining (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162421		threats	eng	Although <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanthera obtusata oligantha</span> grows in a national park, the taxon is still under threat from increasing tourism in the area. The habitat of the taxon is sensitive to trampling by people. Collection of this orchid remains a threat as it is extremely rare. Infrastructure development such as the new rail tunnel through Njulla and new roads (Kiruna-Narvik Road) are, potentially, going to cause declines in habitat quality and numbers of individuals. Overgrazing by deer has been described as reducing numbers in Norway. (Delforge 1995, ArtDatabanken 2010, Artsdatabanken 2010).
162422		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia stygiana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>Necessary conservation and research actions are (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008):<br/><ul><li>Habitat management and protection</li><li>Management of threats such as the control of invasive species and regulation of tourism activities</li><li>Species recovery programmes</li><li>Translocation of subpopulations</li><li>Studies on the taxonomy, biology, ecology and population dynamics</li></ul>
162422		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia stygiana</span> is endemic to the Azores, where it is confined to the region São Lourenço on the island Santa Maria (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its EOO is 343 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162422		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia stygiana</span> grows in beech forests (faial) (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). It develops in steep areas that are subject to disturbances. There are two types of habitat: firstly forest clearings or ecotones on saxicolous substrates, secondly slopes including banks of streams, hills, or rock walls where it develops in soil. It can be found in or at the edge of the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4050 Endemic Macaronesian heaths</li><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>9360 Macaronesian laurel forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus, Ocotea</span>)</li><li>9560 Endemic forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li></ul>
162422		population	eng	The population counts less than 50 mature individuals and has a declining trend (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162422		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is declining due to agricultural development, change in land use, and invasive species and the subsequent increase in competition (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
162425		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This taxon is listed as a priority species on the Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea alba</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">princeps</span>. It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81.  <p>All of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR2430001 and it is assessed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book (Georgiadis and Dimitrellos <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2009).</p>
162425		distribution	eng	This species is native to Greece and<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> endemic to Sterea Ellas (Tymfristos Mt) where it is known from two locations (two subpopulations): Petra site and Koumpi peak (including the area of Asprorema) and has a maximum extent of occurrence of 9 km²<sup></sup>, with an area of occupancy of 4-8 km²<sup></sup>.
162425		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea </span><span style="font-style: italic;">princeps</span> grows on limestone cliffs and soil pockets in rocks among thin <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus foetidissima</span> stands or rocks and rocky grasslands over the forest line from 1,100-1,850 m asl (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. princeps</span> is included in the characteristic species of the limestone rock association <span style="font-style: italic;">Erodio guicciardii - Centauretum principis</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenietea rupestris: Potentilletalia spinosae: Galion degenii</span>).
162425		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>The largest subpopulation is the one at the area of Koumpi and the total population size is between 200-300 individuals. Population size fluctuates depending on meteorological conditions: the largest sizes were recorded in the years with higher precipitation.
162425		threats	eng	One of the threats for this species is the construction of roads which provide access to a nearby quarry. The quarry itself does not pose a threat, but the roads exert pressure  on the species habitat (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/>At  the area of Koumpi, recent extraction activities have increased the  risk of rock slides which could destroy part of the habitat of the  plant. Overgrazing is a threat, because plants growing at more  accessible sites are consumed by goat and sheep. Rarity and ornamental  value make the plant desirable for botanical and horticultural  collections, although the level of collection is unknown.
162426		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salix salvifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">australis</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. This plant is legally protected in Portugal.<br/>It is recommended to carry out appropriate habitat management along watercourses, such as selective vegetation clearing as not to harm the species. Public awareness about the species importance should be raised (ICN 2006).
162426		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salix salvifolia</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">australis</span> is an endemic plant to Portugal according to Portuguese authorities, but it is also reported in Spain with presence in at least 32 provinces in Spain (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993). Decreasing trends have been reported for its distribution.
162426		habitat	eng	This plant is a shrub or small tree that occurs along watercourses especially with torrents, and at the top of watersheds. It is characteristic of the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Salicetum atrocinerea-australis</span> (ICN 2006).<br/>The species occurs in the following habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2190 Humid dune slacks</li><li>3280 Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalo-Agrostidion</span> species and hanging curtains of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span></li><li>92A0 <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix alba </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span> galleries</li></ul>
162426		population	eng	<p>The species is frequent and mostly not threatened. The populations are rare in the Guadiana water basin and around the  river Xarrama whereas in the Sado basin it form continuous populations. There are well preserved ones at the banks of Alcáçovas, banks of S. Domingues, the river Sado, the Campilhas banks and the basin of the river Gem (ICN 2006).</p>
162426		threats	eng	Main threat is the modification of structures of inland water courses    (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Apart from habitat degradation along watercourses, the cutting of the plant rods for basket weaving are potentially impacting on the species (ICN 2006).
162427		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saussurea alpina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">esthonica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
162427		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Saussurea alpina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">esthonica </span>is a plant endemic to western Estonia, Latvia and some regions of Russia. Its area of occupancy is more than 5,000 km<sup></sup>² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p><p>In Russia, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">esthonica</span> is usually not separated from <span style="font-style: italic;">Saussurea alpina</span> (Tzevelev 1994), which is distributed in Central, Eastern, Northern and Northwestern Russia. But the form which is treated as <span style="font-style: italic;">Saussurea alpina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">esthonica</span> is found only in Northwestern Russia (Karelia) where it is rare (Kravchenko 2007).</p>
162427		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6410 <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinia </span>meadows on calcareous, peaty or clayey-silt-laden soils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinion caeruleae</span>)</li><li>7160 Fennoscandian mineral-rich springs and springfens</li><li>7230 Alkaline fens</li></ul>
162427		population	eng	In Estonia, the population is between 35,000 and 50,000 individuals. In Latvia the species has been recorded in two locations. The species is present in limited areas in the western part of Latvia, isolated from the range in Estonia. Generative propagation of the species is endangered due to undeveloped seeds, small and isolated populations   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>There is no information about the Russian populations available.
162427		threats	eng	The main threats described for Estonia and Latvia are modification of cultivation practices and abandonment of pastoral systems, waste disposal, inappropriate forest management, regulation of water levels and drainage (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162431		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Papaver radicatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hyperboreum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. <br/>It is classed as Near Threatened B2a on the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010). In Norway, it is listed as Least Concern (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162431		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Papaver radicatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hyperboreum </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is native to the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Norway, Russian Federation, and Sweden.<br/>In Sweden, it occurs at 20, severely fragmented, localities with an extent of occurrence of 9,368 km² and an area of occupancy of 80 km²   (ArtDatabanken 2010).
162431		habitat	eng	This subspecies is present in alpine and subalpine grasslands and temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes, on mountain ridges   (ArtDatabanken 2010, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162431		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population in Sweden is around 5,000 individuals with no evidence of decline   (ArtDatabanken 2010). It is not threatened in Norway or Iceland. There have been no declines reported for Russia. The subspecies is rare in Faroe Islands but not threatened.
162431		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this subspecies. Competition has been cited as a local threat   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162432		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmia lacera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gracillima</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. More information on size and trend of the populations and how the threats are affecting the subspecies should be collected.
162432		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmia lacera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">graccilima </span>is native to south Portugal covering a geographic range of 1,503 km². The area of occupancy is 100 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162432		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in sands and dunes with annual grasslands. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2230 <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia </span>dune grasslands</li><li>2330 Inland dunes with open <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis</span> grasslands</li></ul>
162432		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this taxon.</p>
162432		threats	eng	The main threats described are cultivation, grazing, sand and gravel extraction, urbanisation and tourism infrastructure development (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162435		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione crispa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">serpentinica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and it is legally protected in Portugal. It is necessary to control urbanisation and to forbid quarrying and afforestation. Limited grazing activities and controlled fires should keep vegetation succession at bay (ICN 2006). The current population trend should be established.
162435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeast Portugal where it occurs in the mountains of the massif of Bragança (ICN 2006). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 400 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162435		habitat	eng	A woody plant that forms a dense and low thicket. It grows in rock crevices and ultrabasic gravel in dry places from 700-900 m asl. It is characteristic of xerophilous pioneer communities of herbaceous perennials of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hieracio-Plantaginion radicatae </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione sessiliflorae</span> - <span style="font-style: italic;">Koelerietalia crassipedis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephoretea canescentis</span>) and of the endemic community <span style="font-style: italic;">Armerietum eriophyllae</span>. These communities of skeletal soils derived from ultrabasic rocks, degraded by erosion due to farming, require soils that are strongly influenced by the chemical composition of the bedrock (ICN 2006).<br/><br/>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6160 "Oro-Iberian <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca indigesta</span> grasslands"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162435		population	eng	<p>The populations are small and severely fragmented (ICN 2006) and their trend is unknown. Populations have been lost in the past.<br/></p>
162435		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the expansion of residential areas, such as the city of Bragança  and the associated infrastructure. The expansion of the industrial area Quinta de S. Lourenço has started to destroy the outcrops of Alto das Cantarias. Other areas, such as Alimonda near Bragança, has big potential for tourism. Those outcrops of ultrabasic rocks that are far from urban areas face fewer threats (ICN 2006).<br/>Furthermore, quarrying leads to habitat loss. Afforestation attempts in the area are destroying the vegetation communities (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hieracio - Plantaginion radicatae</span>) due to preparation of the soil (ICN 2006).
162436		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dorycnium pentaphyllum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">transmontana</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. Information on the population size and trend is needed.
162436		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dorycnium pentaphyllum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">transmontana </span>is native to northeast Portugal. Its extent of occurrence is between 3,555 and 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,600 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162436		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in road margins, edges of watercourses and glades. It is characteristic for <span style="font-style: italic;">Helichryso stoechadis-Santolinetalia squarrosae</span> communities (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pegano-Salsoletea</span>) (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162436		population	eng	There is no data on the population size or trend available.
162436		threats	eng	Modifying structures of water courses has been one of the threats described for this taxon   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162438		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is under regional protection in Corsica and under national protection in France. It is listed in the Italian Red List as Critically Endangered. Traditional grazing should be maintained to improve the vegetation dynamics.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ex situ</span> conservation measures are taking place and the seeds are stored in two seed banks: Paliri and Cuscione from the Conservatoire Botanique National de Corse.
162438		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the French island Corsica and the Italian island Sardinia.</p><p>The range of the subspecies in Corsica is 1,007 km² and it is found in nine sites throughout five locations (on the massif du Rotondo at Punta Lattiniccia, on the massif d’Incudine-Bavella at Bocca d’Oro, and throughout the plateau du Coscione, Bavella), between 1,700 and 2,200 m asl on rocky areas. There is neither evidence of a connection nor a disconnection between the central and southern subpopulations.</p><p>In Sardinia, the subspecies is found at one location at an altitude of more than 1,600 m asl.<br/></p>
162438		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows on rocky slopes (schist), on grassland and open shrublands and rocky areas, on oro-Mediterranean and alpine high mountains.<br/><br/>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands</li></ul>
162438		population	eng	In Sardinia, the population is small with an estimated 30-50 individuals but stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In Corsica, the total population is estimated at 200-250 individuals and is stable except in one site (Coscione), where there is perturbation by wild pigs. The populations are not severely fragmented.
162438		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the subspecies in Sardinia comes from vegetation dynamics as a consequence of low cattle and sheep grazing in rocky pastures. Several threats for this subspecies in Corsica have been described such as motorized vehicles and recreational activities, competition with other species due to the abandonment of pastoral systems, and antagonism with domestic animals. Especially the closure of habitat by <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span> spp. due to the modification of agricultural practice, and pig rearing are affecting the subspecies directly.<br/></p>
162439		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea attica </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">megarensis</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the Red Data Book of Greece as Vulnerable D2 (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) and protected by the Presidential Decree 67/81.
162439		distribution	eng	This subspecies is a local endemic to the west serpentine part of Geraneia Mt, Attiki, Greece. It grows at an elevation of 550-1,150 m asl..<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162439		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea attica </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. megarensis </span>is found in clearings and margins of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span> forest or of maquis shrub on gravelly or stony serpentine slopes.
162439		population	eng	The total population size is subjectively estimated to be at least 10,000 individuals in at least five subpopulations (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The population trend is stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162439		threats	eng	Forest fire could be a threat but the reaction of the plant to burning is not known. Most of the sites of the plants are grazed but it is not known whether the plant itself is grazed.
162441		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrium salviastrum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">salviastrum</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive. Information on the population trend is needed.
162441		distribution	eng	This taxon is present in north Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 11,056 km² and the area of occupancy is 1,900 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162441		habitat	eng	This taxon grows in xerophile shrublands and in crevices of schists, granite and quartz rocks of central Portugal, normally over 800 m asl. within the mountain range Serra da Estrela and it is characteristic of the endemic association <span style="font-style: italic;">Teucrio salviastri - Echinostartetum pulviniformis</span>. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009): <br/><ul><li>8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation</li><li>9330 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span> forests</li><li>9340 <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus rotundifolia</span> forests</li></ul>
162441		population	eng	It has been estimated that the population is around 10,000 individuals. The population trend is unknown   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162441		threats	eng	Natural fires have been described as the main threat (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162443		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola rupestris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">relicta </span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/>In Finland, this plant is listed as Endangered D1 on the national red list (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). The subspecies is protected by law and named as a subspecies  under strict protection (Nature Conservation Decree 913/2005). About 85%  of the sites are on protected areas.<br/>In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened B1a+2a (Gärdenfors 2010) and in Norway, it is assessed as Least Concern (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
162443		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the mountains of Finland, Sweden, and Norway.<br/>In Sweden, the number of locations is 11, extent of occurrence is 3,600 km² and the area of occupancy is 48 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010). The range of the subspecies in Finland is 101 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There are c. 15 sites with an area of occupancy of 5 km². Some new sites were found  recently. Norway holds more than 50% of the global population (Artsdatabanken 2010).
162443		habitat	eng	This plant occurs in temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes and also in basic and ultra-basic inland cliffs   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162443		population	eng	In Finland, the population is around 1,650 individuals of which 100 are flowering. In Sweden, there are 5,000 individuals and the sites are severely fragmented (ArtDatabanken 2010). There are no numbers available for Norway.<br/>The populations seem to be stable.
162443		threats	eng	Competition has been described as an important threat to this subspecies in Sweden   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Finland, the main threats are random factors (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
162444		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "Sensible a la alteración de su habitat" in the national catalogue of threatened Species of Spain. It is listed as EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>This plant occurs within the protected areas Parque Natural de las Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y las Villas and Parque Natural de Sierra de Castril (Prados <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks Banco de Germoplasma Andaluz and of Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. It is cultivated in the botanic gardens Jardines Botánicos de Córdoba and Red de Jardines Botánicos de la Consejería de Medio Ambiente (Junta de Andalucía).<br/><br/>Protection of its population should be kept in place. Predators should be controlled. Variability of stored plant material should be increased.
162444		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic of the region of Andalucia, southern Spain (Prados <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), where it grows between 1,600 and 2,000 m asl. It can be found in Sierra del Pozo (Jaén), where it appears distributed into three subpopulations. It is also present in Sierra de Castril (Granada) where one subpopulation exists. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 7 km².
162444		habitat	eng	This herbaceous plant grows in cracks and rocky substrates at the foot of rocky shady walls. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus communis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hemisphaerica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne laureola</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Arenaria grandiflora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasione foliosa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">minuta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla caulescens</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Geranium cazorlense</span>, among others.<br/><br/>Fructification is high. This subspecies can also propagate by rhizome (Prados <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162444		population	eng	Total population size has been estimated in about 1,000 individuals (Prados <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Population trend has been reported to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162444		threats	eng	Predation by wild ungulate animals, along with trampling and habitat artificialization, are the main threats affecting this subspecies (Prados <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
162445		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is classed as Near Threatened on the national Red List (Király 2007) and is protected under national law.
162445		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus plumarius</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">regis-stephani </span>is native to Hungary where it has a geographic range  of 2,077 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162445		habitat	eng	<p>It can be found in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):</p><ul><li> 6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands<br/></li></ul><p><br/></p>
162445		population	eng	The population has been estimated between 5,000,000 and 10,000,000 individuals with a currently stable trend   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162445		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The main threats are natural succession of dry grasslands and trampling by humans and livestock. Further potential threats described are related to the conversion of its natural habitat for mining, urbanisation or forest plantations. However, the habitat is stable at the moment </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162446		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus villosus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">villosus</span> is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. Information on the populations is needed.
162446		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to west and southwest </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal with an </st1:place></st1:country-region>extent of occurrence of 18,089 km² and an area of occupancy of 3,500 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
162446		habitat	eng	This species occurs in acid skeletal soils. It grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li></ul>
162446		population	eng	<p>There is no data on the population size or trend available.</p>
162446		threats	eng	General forestry management, sand and gravel quarrying, and golf courses have been described as important threats to this species    (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162447		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iris aphylla</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It has been categorized as Near Threatened (NT) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In Hungary, it is included as Vulnerable in the national Red List </st1:country-region>  (Király 2007)<st1:country-region w:st="on"> with less than 50% of its population included in protected areas but more than 50% in Natura 2000 sites. The Ukraine does not list it as a threatened species but it is found in many protected areas there. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation measures are under way in the national Botanical Garden of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kyiv. It is included in the Red Data Book of Belarus as Endangered (Ermakova 2005), and is protected in Pripjatskij national park. It is included in the Red Book of Moldova as Vulnerable. Furthermore, it is listed in the regional Red Data Books of the Russian Federation: Republics of Chuvashia and Tatarstan, Brianskaja region. </st1:country-region><span lang="SK"><span lang="SK">In Slovakia, it is classified as Critically Endangered and<span lang="SK"> occurs in 11 Natura 2000 sites covering 77.8% of its localities <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). In the Polish Red Data Book (2001) and in the national Red List (2006) it is classed as Vulnerable and is protected at national level (Piekoś-Mirkowa, Mirek 2006). Some populations occur in the nature reserves and in the Biebrza National Park.<br/></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="SK"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="SK"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="SK"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="SK"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162447		distribution	eng	This subspecies is native to Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine and Central and Southern European Russia. The species <span style="font-style: italic;">Iris aphylla</span> has been reported from Romania, but there is no information about the presence of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span>.<br/><br/>In Russia, the subspecies is found in the Briansk region where the population covers an area of 100-300 m². In Ukraine, it has a large distribution in the forest-steppe zone, in the south of deciduous and mixed forests (in Polesian lowland) and in the northern part of the steppe zone. In Hungary, it is found in the northeast. The taxon is found in one locality in northeast Poland in the Northern Podlasie Lowland (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Slovakia, it occurs in the Slovenský kras Karst (the Jasovská and Zádielska planina Plateaus), the Hornád Valley (from Hranovnica to Kysak), Spišská kotlina Basin (Dreveník NNR), Slánske vrchy Mts. (Fintice, Kokošovce) and hills on Východoslovenská nížina Lowland. Several localities, such as the occurrence in Burda, could not be confirmed recently (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). </span><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
162447		habitat	eng	This geophyte is found in meadow-steppe communities and grasslands, in pine forests and oak-pine forests. It can also occur in secondary habitats such as artificial woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span> (plantations). It is found on sunlit limestone, andesite, basalt and melaphyre slopes and rocks from lowlands to the submontane vegetation belt (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Iris aphylla</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> hungarica</span> grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)</li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>6250 Pannonic loess steppic grasslands</li><li>91H0 Pannonian woods with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus pubescens</span></li><li>91I0 Euro-Siberian steppic woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp.</li><li>91M0 Pannonian-Balkanic turkey oak–sessile oak forests</li></ul>
162447		population	eng	The Hungarian populations have been estimated between 13,000 and 16,000 individuals and are slightly decreasing. In the Ukraine, the populations are found in isolated patches over a wide range; the trend is stable as there are still many localities. In Brianskaja region of Russia, the populations cover an area of 100-300 m²<br/><br/>In Slovakia, it has been recorded in 29 localities (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The  size of the population in Slovakia (numbering typically tens to hundreds of  individuals) as well as their number have considerably  decreased over the last decades, but the subspecies is not in danger of  extinction </span><span style="background-color: white;">(Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><br/>In Poland the subspecies has become extinct in more than half of its localities. The extant populations comprise from a few to 3,000 flowering shoots, but in recent years the populations have decreased (Kaźmierczakowa and Zarzycki 2001). <br/></span>
162447		threats	eng	Invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span> is a major threat to the taxon together with general forestry management. Logging of existing forest, ploughing of the soils and then plantations is another threat as the subspecies needs light and can be outcompeted by other plants. Minor threats are burning and collection of the subspecies.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>For the Ukrainian steppe habitat forest plantations are the main threat. <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Slovakia the subspecies is threatened by intensive use of orchards and fallows in the vineyards. The loss of suitable habitats from encroachment by woody plants or herbs has been reported as a threat from Slovakia and Poland. Locally, rock mining is a threat</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
162448		conservation	eng	Listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. The species is legally protected in Portugal. Monitoring is needed as well as appropriate management and protection of the species sites (ICN 2006).<br/>The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified.
162448		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs in Spain near the northwest border with Portugal, in the provinces Salamanca and Zamora (Anthos 2009). In Portugal, it is mainly found in the valley of the river Douro, in Trás-os-Montes and Beira Alta (ICN 2006). If it is treated as belonging to the species <span style="font-style: italic;">Holcus annuus</span> then it would have a near global distribution.
162448		habitat	eng	This annual plant flowers from May to July and is found between 150 and 650 m altitude. It inhabits herb communities without tree cover, clearings in woodlands, schist slopes and dry grasslands settled in open spaces of shrublands (ICN 2006, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162448		population	eng	The species is geographically restricted to a specific habitat. Changes to the hydrology of the river Douro such as barriers and dams caused the water levels to rise and the subsequent loss of subpopulations in the past (ICN 2006)<br/>The population size in Portugal has been estimated between 1,000 and 10,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162448		threats	eng	Main threats are the clearing of slopes using herbicides, hydrological constructions, and enlargement of the rail network near the populations at Foz do Tua (ICN 2006).
162449		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Herniaria lusitanica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">berlengiana</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. Necessary conservation measures are to study the population dynamics, to research the impact of birds, especially sea gulls on the populations, to control invasive species, and to promote appropriate site/paths management (ICN 2006).
162449		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portuguese </st1:place></st1:country-region>Berlenga archipelago where it occurs at the islands Berlenga, Farilhão and Inês (ICN 2006). Its geographic range is 0.89 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It has recently only been observed in Berlenga and Inês (Draper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Tauleigne Gomes 1995, Tauleigne Gomes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/></p><p>  </p><br/>  <p>  </p>
162449		habitat	eng	This biennial or perennial herb, flowers in June and July. It grows mainly in arid sites, skeletal soils and in fissures of granite rocks as well as along hiking trails. Trampling is beneficial for this plant as it reduces its competition by keeping surrounding vegetation low (ICN 2006).
162449		population	eng	<p>This subspecies has a restricted distribution and is found with a certain frequency but is never abundant. The populations are in good state in Berlenga and were reported to be rarer in Farilhão (ICN 2006). The population trend is unknown.<br/></p>
162449		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpobrotus edulis</span> and the non-selective clearing of the hiking paths (ICN 2006).
162450		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium dodartii</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lusitanicum</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is legally protected in Portugal. This plant requires further taxonomic research as well as the collection of information on population size and trend. The use of paths near this plant should be regulated to avoid trampling (ICN 2006).
162450		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal's west coast where it is found between Peniche and Cabo Raso</st1:place></st1:country-region> (ICN 2006). Its area of occupancy is 600 km² and the extent of occurrence is around 1,500 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p><p>   &#160;  </p>  <p></p>
162450		habitat	eng	This perennial plant flowers from May to August and occurs in rocky cliffs. It forms part of the alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmo - Daucion halophili</span>, class <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmo - Staticetea</span> (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>1240 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Mediterranean coasts with endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium</span> spp.</li><li>1330 Atlantic salt meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Glauco-Puccinellietalia maritimae</span>)</li><li>5410 West Mediterranean clifftop phryganas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalo-Plantaginetum subulatae</span>)</li></ul>
162450		population	eng	<p>This species is rare (ICN 2006). There is no information on population size or trend available.<br/></p>
162450		threats	eng	Trampling by tourists in the holiday season is the main threat to this species   (ICN 2006).
162451		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paeonia officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">banatica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>In Hungary it is strictly protected and the entire population occurs in a protected area and Natura 2000 site. It is classed as Endangered on the Red List of Hungary (Király 2007). It is easy to grow in botanical gardens as the plants produce many viable seeds. In Serbia it is classified as Critically Endangered (CR) B1+2bc; C2ab; D; E (Boža and Stojšić in: Stevanović 1999). The single locality is under particular measures of conservation in the Delibblatska Sand natural reserve. The taxon is protected by law. In Romania, it has been classed as rare (Boscaiu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994).<br/>Forestry management should be carried out in a way that is appropriate for this plant.
162451		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hungary, Serbia, Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Italy. Some experts doubt that this subspecies is known from Italy. In Hungary it occurs only in the eastern Mecsek Mountains. The extent of occurrence in Hungary is less than 100 km² and the area of occupancy might be less than 10 km².<br/><br/>In Serbia, it is found only in the Deliblatska Sands, while an old record from Mt Fruška Gora was never confirmed. The extent of occurrence is 100 km² while the area of occupancy is less than 1 km².
162451		habitat	eng	This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>91G0 Pannonic woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus petraea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span></li><li>91H0 Pannonian woods with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span></li><li>91M0 Pannonian-Balkanic turkey oak–sessile oak forests</li></ul>
162451		population	eng	In north Italy this subspecies has been recorded in 10 localities. In Hungary the population is around 100,000 to 160,000 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The populations are stable.<br/><br/>In Romania, it is relatively common (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>In Serbia, there are less than 40 mature individuals restricted to one small site of not more than 1 ha in the Deliblatska Sands (Boža and Stojšić in: Stevanović 1999). It is extinct from the second known locality in the Deliblatska Sands, while its occurrence in Mt Fruška Gora is very doubtful as it has not been confirmed in the field in the last several decades.
162451		threats	eng	The main threat is clear cutting, forest plantations and other forest works. Natural succession, for example due to the abandonment of grazing activities, leads to habitat alteration and increased competition. The use of pesticides and recreational activities have been furthermore described as threats.
162452		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gotlandica</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive. It is listed as Vulnerable D2 on the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010).
162452		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gotlandica </span>is endemic to Gotland in Sweden where it is found at one location. Its extent of occurrence is 748 km² and the area of occupancy is 48 km²   (ArtDatabanken 2010).
162452		habitat	eng	The species is characteristic of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris </span>woodland south of the taiga. It prefers open pine forest and requires light   (ArtDatabanken 2010, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162452		population	eng	The population is currently stable (ArtDatabanken 2010).
162452		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to overgrowth and if the surrounding vegetation becomes too dense (ArtDatabanken 2010).<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
162453		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scrophularia grandiflora</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">grandiflora</span> is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
162453		distribution	eng	This species is native to Portugal with an extent of occurrence of 4,313 km² and an area of occupancy of 2,400 km². The area of occupancy has been noted as stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162453		habitat	eng	This a ruderal plant. It occurs along paths and tracks, on walls and slopes or in land under anthropogenic influence   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162453		population	eng	<p>There is no data on the population size or trend available for this species.</p>
162453		threats	eng	The main threats are urbanisation or expansion of industrial and commercial areas, as well as the construction of communication networks, e.g. electricity lines (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162454		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio jacobaea </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gotlandicus</span>. It is listed as Near Threatened in the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010). Taxonomic research in order to establish the true distribution of this taxon is needed.
162454		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Sweden according to Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011. Its extent of occurrence is 3,560 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  However, Wysk<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span>  (2009) claim it could also be found in at least Russia, Austria and Greece.
162454		habitat	eng	This subspecies can be found in inland sand and rock with open vegetation, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> woodland south of the taiga and in almost bare rock pavements, including limestone pavements   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162454		population	eng	<p>It has been estimated that the population has around 5,500 flowering stem (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
162454		threats	eng	The modification of cultivation practices, use of fertilisers and air pollution have been reported as threats (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
162494		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is required regarding the population trends, distribution and life history traits of this species.
162494		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Semirossia patagonica</em> ranges along the eastern and western coasts of southern South America encompassing southern Chile, Tierra del Fuego, southern Argentina and the Falkland Islands (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162494		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003). Around the Falkland Islands, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. patagonica</span> was most commonly found at night. It was taken in oblique trawls through the water column with a bottom depth of approximately 50 m (Allcock pers. comm. 2010).
162494		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162494		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162495		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162495		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Austrorossia mastigophora</em> ranges from Guinea in western Africa southwards to the Cape of Good Hope to Somalia along the east coast of Africa   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution ranges to 640 m (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162495		habitat	eng	Females attain a larger body size (up to 46 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 31 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162495		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162495		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162496		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162496		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality which is off Western Australia near to the Ashmore and Cartier Islands at a depth of 325 to 332 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162496		habitat	eng	The males of this species attain a mantle length of up to 51 mm and it is known only from its type locality   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162496		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162496		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that  under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a  denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation  (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2010).
162497		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162497		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution ranging from southern Japan along the coast of China to Malaysia and Indonesia in the South and the Philippines (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its range encompasses the Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East and South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, Andaman Sea, Java Sea and Sulu Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162497		habitat	eng	This is a large, demersal species that buries into sand (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). In the Gulf of Thailand the sex ratio is biased towards females (M:F) 1:2 (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is abundant between 20 and 40 m in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, and 60 and 100 m in the South China Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). It overwinters in deeper water between 60 and 100 m before moving to shallower depths to spawn in spring and early summer (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The egg capsules are attached to twigs and other hard structures (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162497		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162497		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is a commercially important fishery species in many countries of southeast Asia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is caught using a variety of gear types including through the use of live cuttlefish as bait during the spawning season and bait at other times of the year (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is also caught as bycatch (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162498		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162498		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the west coast of Africa from Cape Blanc, Mauritania in the north and southwards to Tigres Bay, Angola   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162498		habitat	eng	This very large species can reach a mantle length of up to 500 mm and total weight up to 7,500 g     (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Where their geographic distributions overlap, <em>Sepia hierredda</em> occurs in depths shallower than 50 m, whilst <em> Sepia officinalis</em> occurs in depths deeper than 100 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It undergoes migrations and spawning is extended between February and September   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162498		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162498		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is commercially fished in the east central Atlantic. It is caught by Spanish fisheries off the Western Sahara and Mauritania   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162499		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends      in this species. Further information on the life history of this species  is     also required.
162499		distribution	eng	This species occurs off south, east and west Australia in shallow coastal waters (Reid 2005).
162499		habitat	eng	This species occurs on sandy sediments near to seagrass beds (Norman 2003). Individuals bury during the day, emerging nocturnally to feed on small crustaceans and fish (Norman 2003). When threatened, it produces large quantities of slime as well as demonstrating dramatic colour changes (Norman 2003). The female spawns spherical eggs into crevices or amongst loose rubble (Norman 2003).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162499		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162499		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162500		conservation	eng	Off northwest India overfishing of this species has led to discussions to regulate the fishery   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162500		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide geographic distribution that ranges from Mozambique up along the east coast of Africa, and the coastline of Central and Southeast Asia as far as Indonesia (Java and Kalimantan)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its distribution includes the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, The Gulf, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, Gulf of Thailand, South and East China Seas, and Philippines   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162500		habitat	eng	This species has a shallow depth distribution (up to 40 m in depth) and feeds on a range of prey including fish, crustaceans and cephalopods     (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females attain the largest body sizes (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Off India individuals along the west coast mature and attain larger body sizes (up to 120 mm in mantle length) compared to those on the east coast (up to 110 mm in mantle length) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is abundant in the Gulf of Thailand with most individuals ranging between 20 and 80 mm in mantle length (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Spawning occurs throughout the year with spawning peaks from June to September and from November to December in northeast India; further south near Chennai (Madras) they occur in March, September and December; and in April, and September to October in southwest India (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Most individuals spawn at between 9 and 12 months on the east coast of India and 18 months along the west coast (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Life span is estimated at 24 months for individuals off the east coast of India and more than 24 months along the west coast (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The black, circular eggs are spawned singly and hatch in 12.6 days at 28º<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>C (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The young are briefly planktonic before taking up the adult mode after several days (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has been raised successfully for several generations in aquaculture; females mature at 60 days, spawn at 87 days (producing approximately 500 eggs) and die at approximately 116 days (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role (Norman 2003).
162500		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162500		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species may consist of a species complex   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It forms a commercially important fishery species in some regions of its distribution range (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Off northwest India intensive fishing pressure led to a decline in stocks    leading to discussions to regulate the fishery in order to prevent overexploitation (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162501		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162501		distribution	eng	<em>Rossia brachyura</em> occurs off the Greater and Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162501		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162501		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162501		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162502		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to investigate whether this species represents a species complex and, if so, to elucidate the distributions of the species therein.
162502		distribution	eng	The Leucoptera Bobtail Squid (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stoloteuthis leucoptera</span>) is found in the western Atlantic extending from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, to Florida. In the eastern Atlantic its distribution includes the Bay of Biscay   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution also includes the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea in the Mediterranean Sea and off Namibia in the south Atlantic   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It may also occur off Tasmania and either the same species or closely related species occurs off Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands in the southern Indian Ocean   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162502		habitat	eng	Females attain a slightly larger body size (up to 18 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 17 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species may move into the mesopelagic during the day   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Heteroteuthinae occur in the open ocean (Norman 2003).
162502		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162502		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162503		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162503		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs on the North West Shelf off Western Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162503		habitat	eng	Males appear to attain a longer mantle length (up to 68 mm) than females (up to 58 mm)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162503		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162503		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162504		conservation	eng	In Yemen where this is a commercially important species, stocks have been estimated and an annual fishing quota has been recommended (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162504		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution extending from Zanzibar and Madagascar in the west to northern Australia in the east and as far north as southern Japan. Its distribution includes the east coast of Africa, Red Sea, The Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia from Monte Bello Island in Western Australia to Townsville in Queensland, South and East China Seas and Yellow Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is a species complex (Anderson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011) and therefore this extensive distribution should be treated with caution.
162504		habitat	eng	This large, demersal species occurs in fairly shallow depths over a wide geographic range   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species rises up into the lower water column at night to feed on crustaceans and small fish (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Growth rates are higher in females (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Energy and nutrients for reproductive development are sequestered from diet rather than existing body tissue (Reid <em>et al.</em>  2005). In the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Seas abundances are highest between 10 and 40 m, whereas off Hong Kong large numbers congregate between 40 and 80 m during the mating season (November to February) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Off Hong Kong spawning occurs seasonally between April and May&#160; and is seasonal with two peaks in January to February and July to September in the Gulf of Thailand  (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>In the Iranian waters of the Gulf of Oman (northern part), spawning occurs post south-west monsoon (September to December) (Valinassab 1993, Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the northern Persian Gulf, the spawning season occurs February to April. The white-yellowish eggs are attached to hard substances, mainly wire traps called 'Gargoor' (Iran) (Valinassab 1993, 2010). In the Gulf of Thailand during the spawning season there is a female bias in the sex ratio (M:F) 1:3   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Spawning in females is intermittent; the white eggs are attached to plants, shells and other substrates either in clusters (Hong Kong) or singly (Gulf of Thailand) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162504		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162504		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species potentially represents a species complex (Norman 2003, Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its tasty flesh and abundance means its a commercially important fishery species throughout its geographic range (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). It is caught during the spawning season off Thailand and Iran with traps baited with eggs (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005).
162505		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to elucidate the details of this putative species complex. Further research on population trends, distribution, life history traits and harvesting trends will subsequently be required.
162505		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide geographic distribution stretching from southern Mozambique on the east African coast northwards along the Indian Ocean coastline of Asia and the Middle East, throughout Eastern and Southeastern Asia and as far north as southern Japan, and as far east as northern Australia, Papua and the islands of the Coral Sea such as Fiji and Guam   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Specimens from Madagascar and southeast Australia are probably misidentifications   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Nonetheless it is likely that the species as it is currently known, actually represents a species complex so further taxonomic work is required before the true distributional range can be elucidated.
162505		habitat	eng	This species is active during the day in tropical coral reefs (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is able to use colour changes to mesmerise prey and for camouflage (Norman 2003, Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It preys upon fish and crustaceans which it catches with wide clubs on the ends of its tentacles (Norman 2003). This species appears to be sexually dimorphic; for example, off Indonesia, males attain smaller sizes (170 mm in mantle length) than females (240 mm in mantle length) (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). Off Okinawa and Guam spawning occurs in spring between January and May (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). During the breeding season males establish territories around coral heads into which eggs are laid and perform ritualised displays to females (Norman 2003; Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Embryonic development takes four to six weeks (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). After hatching the young mimic mangrove leaves (Norman 2003).
162505		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162505		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is taken both as bycatch and forms an important fishery over much of its range (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is associated with coral reefs and therefore will be susceptible to knock on effects of global warming if coral reefs are impacted as predicted.
162506		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size, life history characteristics and threats impacting this species.
162506		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the coastlines of Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates, and includes the Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The depth range is undetermined.
162506		habitat	eng	This is a small species with a mantle length of up to 41 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its depth range is not known apart from a single record from 106 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Males are unknown (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162506		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162506		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Trawl surveys have revealed this species to be a potential fishery resource in the Gulf of Aden (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).  It is not known if this species is already fished in small scale or for commercial fisheries (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162508		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162508		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper sublittoral zone from southern Japan, along the Ryukyu Islands to Taiwan, Province of China and to the Philippines in the south   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162508		habitat	eng	This tiny species inhabits rocky substrates in the sublittoral   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162508		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162508		threats	eng	It is occasionally caught for local consumption (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162509		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162509		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Mascarene Ridge in the south, along the East Africa coast from Tanzania to the Red Sea, the Arabian Gulf and Sea to the southwest tip of India   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162509		habitat	eng	This species has a wide depth distribution (20 to 410 m) and shows sexual dimorphism in arm length and armament of the arms   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162509		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162509		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is probably taken in localized fisheries   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162510		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162510		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia robsoni</em> occurs off Hout Bay (near Cape Town) in South Africa   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162510		habitat	eng	This shallow water species has a mantle length of up to 20 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162510		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162510		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162511		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162511		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off the coast of Japan from the Tsugaru Strait between Hokkaido and Honshu down to Kyūshū   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its depth distribution is not known   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162511		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 90 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162511		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162511		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162512		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.   Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species. Future surveys are also recommended in order to monitor the population status of this species.
162512		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Japan to Taiwan, Province of China in the East China Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162512		habitat	eng	This species can attain a mantle length of 250 mm and body weight of 1 kg (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162512		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162512		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is sometimes fished off southwestern Japan (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and may be taken as bycatch elsewhere.
162513		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162513		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from southern Japan, along the coast of China including the East and South China Seas, to Viet Nam in the south (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162513		habitat	eng	This species commonly occurs in bays as well as the inland sea area of Japan (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is a thermophilic species that may migrate as far north as the northern Sea of Japan in warm years (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162513		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162513		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is of little interest to commercial fisheries (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162514		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Area. Further research is recommended in order to determine the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162514		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species was known only from the type location of Lord Howe Island, New South Wales in Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The depth range of this species is not known (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).&#160; Numerous beachwashed cuttlebones (the largest 90 mm long) were found by A. Reid in December 2009. Entire animals are yet to be collected. Local knowledge suggests that this species may be active at night over seagrass beds (A. Reid, pers. comm.).
162514		habitat	eng	This species is known only from a single cuttlebone which was 74 mm in length (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162514		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162514		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The potential association with seagrass beds might pose a future threat because of the documented worldwide declines of this habitat. However, the IUCN considers all Australian species of seagrass to be currently of 'Least Concern'.
162515		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162515		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs along the North West Shelf off Western Australia and probably eastern Australia as well   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162515		habitat	eng	This species has a deep depth range (396 to 505 m)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females attain a larger body size (up to 151 mm) compared to males (up to 99 mm)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162515		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162515		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162516		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162516		distribution	eng	The geographic and depth distribution of <em>Euprymna penares</em> is unknown   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It was originally described from Singapore and hence is probably also found off some coasts of Malaysia and Indonesia. However, the extent of its range through the Indo-Pacific region is unknown.
162516		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162516		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162516		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162517		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162517		distribution	eng	<em>Rossia glaucopis</em> occurs off Chile in South America   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162517		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162517		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162517		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162518		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162518		distribution	eng	The Big-eyed Bobtail Squid (<em>Austrorossia bipapillata</em>) has a geographic distribution that ranges from southern Japan, through the East China Sea to Taiwan, Province of China and the Philippines   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution ranges to 240 m (Japan) and 432 m (East China Sea)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162518		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deep water (to 432 m in depth) and attains a mantle length of up to 57 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In females the ovarian oocytes develop in small clusters with eggs being spawned intermittently over a long period   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162518		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162518		threats	eng	This species is of minor interest to fisheries but is marketed when taken as bycatch (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162519		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162519		distribution	eng	<em>Neorossia leptodons</em> occurs off Australia ranging from New South Wales to South Australia   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162519		habitat	eng	This small species has a very wide depth range (130 to 1,110 m in depth)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Females attain a larger body size (up to 77.5 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 42 mm in mantle length) (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162519		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162519		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162520		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162520		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off the North West Shelf in Western Australia and possibly Indonesia as well   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162520		habitat	eng	This species occurs at fairly deep depths (256 to 426 m) and females attain a larger body size (up to 83 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 62 mm in mantle length)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). A closely related species is found off the Philippines (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162520		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162520		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162521		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to investigate whether this species represents a species complex and, if so, to elucidate the distributions of the species therein.
162521		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Honshū (Japan) to the Philippines   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution also includes Taiwan, Province of China and the Great Australian Bight in southern Australia   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162521		habitat	eng	The distribution of this species consists of several separate populations   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Heteroteuthinae occur in the open ocean (Norman 2003).
162521		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162521		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162522		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162522		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia elongata</em> has a geographic distribution that ranges from the Red Sea to Somalia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its depth distribution range is not known (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) although recent captures in the Gulf of Aqaba have been in 5-10 m of water.&#160; It is considered rare and fewer than 25 animals have been observed in the Gulf of Aqaba (Darmaillacq and Shashar 2008).
162522		habitat	eng	This species can reach a mantle length of 97 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162522		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown although considered small because it is rarely captured.
162522		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162523		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history patterns and threats impacting this species.
162523		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution that ranges from Greenland and Iceland to Norway, then southwards along the Atlantic coast of the United Kingdom and Ireland to Portugal, and along the coast of Africa to Senegal. Its distribution includes the Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162523		habitat	eng	This small species (typically 20 to 60 mm in mantle length) inhabits sandy and muddy substrates over a wide depth range (32 to 899 m in depth), although it is most abundant in the transitional zone between continental shelf and slope (200 to 400 m in depth)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the western Mediterranean Sea it moves to deeper water in winter; returning to shallow water for the rest of the year in spring (with larger individuals preceding smaller individuals) (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the Mediterranean Sea spawning occurs throughout the year with peaks in spring and autumn (Reid and Jereb 2005). <br/>Mature males have enlarged suckers (Norman 2003) and between 85 and 100 spermatophores (Reid and Jereb 2005). Mature females have between 120 to 150 eggs (7 to 8 mm in diameter) (Reid and Jereb 2005). In females the ovarian oocytes develop in batches with spawning occurring intermittently (Reid and Jereb 2005). The eggs form a hard coating and are laid in clusters on bivalve shells or other hard substrates (Reid and Jereb 2005). The young hatch in 45 days at 16ºC (Reid and Jereb 2005).  Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162523		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162523		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is of little interest to commercial fisheries but is taken as bycatch in the Mediterranean   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162524		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162524		distribution	eng	The Viet Nam cuttlefish (<em>Sepia vietnamica</em>) has a geographic distribution in the South and East China Sea from Viet Nam northwards along the coast of China to Taiwan   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162524		habitat	eng	This species has a mantle length of up to 70 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162524		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162524		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is likely to be caught in fisheries throughout its distribution range (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162525		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162525		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has only been found at its type locality of Saya de Malha Bank, to the southeast of the Seychelles and north of Mauritius  (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162525		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 90 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is known from areas that primarily comprise coral reefs and seagrass  beds and therefore is likely associated with these fragile habitats.
162525		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162525		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162526		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the habitat of this species is important. Research is   required to determine population size  and distribution. Further  information is required on life history and  ecology to determine this species' use of various seagrass species. Population trends of both  the species and potential habitats should be  monitored. This will  determine whether habitat protection is required.
162526		distribution	eng	<em>Idiosepius thailandicus</em> occurs off Thailand in shallow waters (Reid 2005). Nabhitabhata and Suwanamala (2008) report it (as <span style="font-style: italic;">I. thailandicus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. biserialis</span>) from both the east of the Gulf of Thailand and from the Andaman Sea. Von Byern and Klepal (2010) report records of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. biserialis</span> from Indonesia and Japan which may be attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">I. thailandicus</span>. The full distribution has yet to be elucidated.
162526		habitat	eng	All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> live in shallow coastal waters amongst seaweed or seagrasses (Norman 2003). Nabhitabhata and Suwanamala (2008) report this species (as <span style="font-style: italic;">I. thailandicus</span> and as <span style="font-style: italic;">I. biserialis</span>) on a variety of habitats: in Rayon Province and neighbouring Chantaburi Province in eastern Thailand it was found associated with seaweed in the littoral zone and in a mangrove biotope respectively. In the latter case, the squids attached their eggs to the mangrove roots. In the Andaman Sea, it inhabited subtidal seagrass beds at the mouth of mangroves and on sand bars with rocks and the squids and the eggs were attached to the underside of blades of seagrasses. Members of the Idiosepiidae family have a glue gland on their dorsal body surface that allows them to stick to seaweed, seagrass and other objects (Norman 2003). Development is thought to include a pelagic stage (Reid 2005).
162526		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
162526		threats	eng	The threats to this species include habitat loss given its apparent association with seagrass beds and mangroves. Its distribution may include Japan which has suffered particular decline in seagrass beds. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> occur in highly populated inshore waters and are therefore likely to be affected by anthropogenic influences.
162527		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends    in this. Further information on the life history of this species is    also required as is information on the harvest level (if any) of this species.
162527		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from southern Honshū (Japan) southwards to Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra), from Queensland in northeastern Australia and Papua New Guinea to east India and Sri Lanka in the west (Reid 2005).
162527		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits soft sediments, burying itself in the substrate by day and feeding on crustaceans by night (Norman 2003).
162527		population	eng	Its population size is unknown.
162527		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162528		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed or in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162528		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the northwest coast of Australia (Western Australia) to Timor and Suva Sea, Indonesia. Its distribution possibly extends as far as South China Sea and Viet Nam   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162528		habitat	eng	All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role (Norman 2003). This species occurs in shallow waters (to 88 m in depth). Females attain larger body sizes (up to 70 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 60 mm in mantle length)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162528		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162528		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is sometimes taken in mixed trawl fisheries   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162529		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162529		distribution	eng	<em>Rossia bullisi</em> occurs in the Gulf of Mexico and Straits of Florida   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162529		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 45 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162529		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162529		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162530		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends     in this. Further information on the life history of this species is     also required.
162530		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off southern Japan (Reid 2005) in shallow coastal waters.
162530		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiadarium </span>species tend to occur on soft sediments into which they bury during the day, emerging nocturnally to feed on small crustaceans and fish (Norman 2003). Very little is known about <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiadarium nipponianum.<br/></span>
162530		population	eng	Its population size is unknown.
162530		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162532		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162532		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia dubia</em> is known only from its type locality of False Bay near Cape Town, South Africa at a depth of 25 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162532		habitat	eng	It has a mantle length up to 17 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162532		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162532		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162533		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162533		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from southern Viet Nam to the northeast following the coast along China to Hong Kong   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162533		habitat	eng	This is a small demersal species with a fairly wide depth distribution   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162533		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162533		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is probably caught throughout its distribution range   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162535		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162535		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution ranging from the Gulf of Oman along the coasts of Iran and Pakistan to northwest India, and possibly as far as southern India (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005).
162535		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 100 mm     (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162535		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162535		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is probably caught in mixed species trawls but is not identified   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162536		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162536		distribution	eng	The full extent of the distribution of this species remains unclear. Vecchione <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) report specimens from South Africa, off the Atlantic coast of South America, off New Zealand and off Australia.
162536		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroteuthinae </span>are free swimming in the open ocean (Norman 2003).
162536		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162536		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162537		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162537		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the Philippines   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution range is unknown   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162537		habitat	eng	The type specimen has a mantle length of 11mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiolinae </span>are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162537		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162537		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162538		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the trends in population size, life history patterns and whether  harvesting is having an impact on the population size of this species.
162538		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species ranges from southern Japan southwards to the Gulf of Thailand and encompasses the Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, and East and South China Seas (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162538		habitat	eng	This species is a neritic demersal species and is usually found on sandy, muddy and rocky habitats (amongst sea pens in the latter) on the continental shelf at approximately 100 m (Norman 2003, Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In the spring (March-May) mature individuals migrate to shallower (approximately 20 m), rocky regions to spawn (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The young hatch during the summer and migrate to deeper depths in late summer (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162538		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162538		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The paintpot cuttlefish is characterised by bright colours and patterns, and interesting behaviours that could make it popular in the aquarium trade (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is not collected  commercially but could be subject to bycatch and artisanal fisheries (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162539		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162539		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Reid and Jereb 2005). It has a geographic distribution that ranges throughout the western and northern Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162539		habitat	eng	Both sexes appear to attain similar body sizes (up to 25 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Although it occurs to 150 m in depths it is most abundant between 15 and 30 m in depth   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It often occurs alongside <em>Sepiola intermedia </em>on sandy or sandy-muddy habitats   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Spawning occurs over an extended period at the population level   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Females spawn relatively large eggs (2.2 mm in length) simultaneously, intermittently or continuously over up to a period of two months (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is able to change colour rapidly (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162539		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162539		threats	eng	It is caught on a small scale and locally for food (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162540		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162540		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has a geographic distribution that includes southern Japan, the Sea of Japan, Korea and the East China Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162540		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 105 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162540		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162540		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162541		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends,  distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162541		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia mascarensis</em> extends along the Mascarene Ridge and includes Mauritius and the Seychelles  (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162541		habitat	eng	The mantle length of this species ranges from 67 to 124 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162541		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162541		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162542		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162542		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia bartletti</em> is known only from its type locality in southeast Papua New Guinea and Louisiade Archipelago (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The depth range of this species is unknown (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162542		habitat	eng	This species is known only from cuttlebones the longest of which was 74 mm long (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162542		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162542		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162543		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162543		distribution	eng	<em>Nectoteuthis pourtalesi</em> occurs off Florida and the Netherlands Antilles   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162543		habitat	eng	This is a bathybenthic species   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Heteroteuthinae are free swimming in the open ocean (Norman 2003).
162543		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162543		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162544		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162544		distribution	eng	<em></em> This species occurs off northern New South Wales, Australia from Clarence River south to Wooli (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and from the Capricorn group of islands.
162544		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 55 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162544		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162544		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162545		conservation	eng	Research is required into the distribution of this species, which is currently reported from a very limited area.
162545		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off South Africa from Melkbosstrand (near Cape Town) to Knysna in the south   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162545		habitat	eng	&#160;This species occurs in very shallow water (to 3 m) and has a mantle length of up to 82 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is little ecological information in the scientific literature on this species, although it has been used in studies associated with adhesion in the marine environment (e.g. von Boletzky and Roeleveld 2000).
162545		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown but this species is reported to be uncommon (Lipinski pers. comm. 2011).
162545		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162547		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the habitat of this species is important. Research is  required to determine population size  and distribution. Further information is required on life history and  ecology to determine this species' use of various seagrass species.  Population trends of both the species and potential habitats should be  monitored.&#160; This will determine whether habitat protection is required.
162547		distribution	eng	<em>Idiosepius notoides</em> inhabits shallow coastal waters off south and east Australia from south Queensland to the midcoast of Western Australia (Norman 2003, Reid 2005). The type locality is Goolwa, South Australia.
162547		habitat	eng	Females attain a larger body size (up to 25 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 16 mm in mantle length; Tracey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) (Reid 2005). It inhabits seagrass beds in bays and inlets and feeds at night on small crustaceans (Norman 2003), mainly shrimp (Norman and Reid 2000). During the day it remains deep within the seagrass attaching itself to seagrass leaves using   a glue gland on their dorsal body surface  (Norman 2003). Females attach their eggs onto seagrass blades - typically eelgrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Heterozostera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span>) (Norman and Reid 2000). Development is thought to include a pelagic stage (Reid 2005).
162547		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
162547		threats	eng	Given its association with eelgrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterozostera</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius notoides</span> is potentially vulnerable to the well-documented continuing declines in eelgrass beds (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria 1996). However, the IUCN has identified all species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterozostera</span> in Australia to be currently of 'Least Concern' with little or no decline of this habitat at present. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> occur in highly populated inshore waters and are therefore likely to be affected by anthropogenic influences.
162548		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting. Further research is recommended regarding the distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species. An artificial breeding and release programme has been in place since 2004 to assist stock recovery in the East China Sea.
162548		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that extends from middle Honshu in southern Japan (Okutani 2005) to Hong Kong in the south, and includes the South and East China Seas, Taiwan, and both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Republic of Korea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In warm years the distribution of this species moves northwards into the Sea of Japan   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162548		habitat	eng	This species attains a maximum mantle length of 200 mm and bodyweight of 800 g   (Okutani 2005). This species occurs in shallow water (to 50 m in depth), typically in low numbers off Hong Kong although sporadic high abundances can occur (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Spawning is seasonal, from April to June off Japan (Boyle and Rodhouse 2005), from early May to July in the north of Zhoushan fishing ground and from April to June in the south of Zhoushan fishing ground off the East China Sea (Dong, 1988)  and between February and March off Hong Kong (Voss and Williamson 1971). Recent research suggests that this species (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiella maindroni</span>) is very selective with respect to spawning substrates and suggests that restoring the cuttlefish spawning habitat by providing favourable adhesion substrates might help with stock recovery off Zhejiang, China (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role. When cobias (<em>Rachycentron canadum</em>) were fed with cuttlefish caudal glands or cuttlefish flesh drenched with caudal gland secretion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiella japonica</span> they disgorged the food immediately indicating they found the secretion noxious (Hsueh 2002).
162548		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162548		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is fished commercially throughout much of its distributional range   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is recovering from overfishing in some parts of its distribution.
162549		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162549		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic range that extends from the Irish Sea and English Channel in the north, along the coast of France, Spain and Portugal and encompasses the Mediterranean Sea, to the west coast of Africa as far south as Angola   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162549		habitat	eng	This species has a wide geographic and bathymetric depth range   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ranging from shallow water to 570 m, although it is most abundant between 50 and 250 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is often sympatric with <em>Sepia elegans</em> and <em>Sepia officinalis</em> but usually occurs at deeper depths compared with the latter   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is very abundant in some regions of its range such as the Sicilian Channel in the Mediterranean Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can tolerate brackish waters and inhabits sandy, sandy-muddy and muddy substrates where it feeds mainly on crustaceans, fish and other cephalopods   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Unlike <em>Sepia officinalis</em> it does not bury in to the substrate   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is sexually dimorphic with females attaining larger sizes probably because of faster growth rates   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Mediterranean Sea spawning occurs throughout the year with peaks in spring and autumn   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It does not migrate to shallow water to spawn   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mature males have approximately 100 spermatophores and females have about 400 eggs which range between 7 and 8.5 mm in diameter depending on female size (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Eggs are laid on sponges on muddy bottoms (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162549		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162549		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the    atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have    shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay    down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy    regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is sometimes caught in high numbers as bycatch in trawls as well as in targeted fisheries, particularly in the Sicilian Channel   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162550		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends  in this. Further information on the life history of this species is  also required. Research into the potential impact of harvest for the aquarium trade is also required.
162550		distribution	eng	This species occurs off South Australia in shallow coastal waters (Reid 2005).
162550		habitat	eng	This small species occurs in shallow water and is found in sandy habitats near to seagrass beds. During the day it remains buried in the sand but emerges at night to feed on small crustaceans (Reid 2005) especially isopods (Norman 2003). Mating can occur at an early age with immature females storing sperm (Reid 2005). Eggs are attached to the base of seaweeds or seagrasses blades (Reid 2005). Hatchlings are benthic and bury in the same manner as adults (Norman 2003).
162550		population	eng	Its population size is unknown.
162550		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162551		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. This species needs to be better described. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162551		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia faurei</em> occurs off Cape Seal (Plettenberg Bay), South Africa   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162551		habitat	eng	This species has a mantle length of up to 21 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162551		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162551		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the     atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have     shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay     down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162552		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution and life history patterns of this species.
162552		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Rossia palpebrosa</em> is amphi-Atlantic ranging from South Carolina, northwards to Canada, eastwards to Spitzbergen and south to the North Sea and Ireland   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its range includes Greenland, the Barents and Kara Sea, and Svalbard   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162552		habitat	eng	This species has a very wide geographic and depth range   and it attains a mantle length of up to 45 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162552		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162552		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162553		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162553		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off the Cape Peninsula (near Cape Town) in South Africa   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162553		habitat	eng	This is a small species that attains a mantle length of up to 22 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162553		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162553		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the     atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have     shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay     down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162554		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162554		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution range that stretches from the Philippines in the north to Australia in the south and encompasses Indonesia (Sulawesi, Bali and Papua), Papua New Guinea, and the Arafura and Coral Seas   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Around Australia its distribution ranges from Freemantle in western Australia across to northern Australia and as far south as southern New South Wales   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162554		habitat	eng	This species inhabits silt, sandy, sandy-muddy, muddy and seagrass substrates   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It hunts at night amongst seagrass and seaweed beds   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species shows a wide range of behaviours and colour changes, and small individuals have been observed to mimic <span style="font-style: italic;">Halimeda</span> seaweed   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162554		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162554		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the      atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish.&#160; Studies have      shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect  buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is probably taken in the mixed trawl fisheries (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162555		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162555		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species extends from Lüderitz Bay (near Elizabeth Bay) in southern Namibia southwards to Mossel Bay (Western Cape), South Africa   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162555		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162555		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162555		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162556		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162556		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution that ranges from southern Mozambique and Madagascar, up along the east coast of Africa into the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman and along the coast to east India and the Bay of Bengal   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162556		habitat	eng	Along the northeast coast of India it is most abundant from January to June but in some years from October to December  (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further south off Chennai (Madras), it occurs in January to April and is associated with upwelling deep water (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162556		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162556		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the      atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have      shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect  buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is taken as bycatch and in trawls in the Red Sea and off India (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has also been identified as an underexploited resource in some regions of its distribution range (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162557		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size, distribution, life history traits and the impacts of harvesting.
162557		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Norway to the Faroe Islands, United Kingdom and Ireland, along the Atlantic coast of continental Europe (North Sea, English Channel and Bay of Biscay) to the southwest of Spain and along the west coast of Africa to Mauritania   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution range also includes the Mediterranean Sea and possibly eastern India   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162557		habitat	eng	This abundant species has a wide geographic and depth range from the surface waters down to more than 1,000 m in depth   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Although it is most abundant on the continental shelf and upper slope in the Atlantic (50 to 300 m in depth) and Mediterranean Sea (100 to 400 m in depth)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It prefers soft substrate habitats (i.e. muddy) where it buries during the day emerging to feed at night on shrimps (e.g. <em>Maganyctiphanes norvegica</em>, in the North Atlantic) as well as small decapods (e.g. <em>Pasiphaea sivado</em>, in the Mediterranean Sea)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). <br/>It is preyed on by a variety of fish species and sometimes cetaceans (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species lacks a light organ (Norman 2003). In mature males the bases of the first pair of arms are joined together and the first left arm has enlarged suckers and a hectocotylus like spoon shaped tip (Norman 2003). This species may undertake seasonal vertical migrations to track prey   and does undergo migrations linked to reproduction in both the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea, for example, in the Mediterranean Sea there is a shoreward movement of mature individuals to shallow water to spawn in spring and summer (Reid and Jereb 2005). <br/>Spawning appears to occur throughout the year at the population level with seasonal peaks in activity (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the western Mediterranean these peaks occur in spring and early summer; in the eastern Mediterranean these occur during the summer in the Tyrrhenian Sea; and two peaks from April to May and October to November in the Aegean Sea (Reid and Jereb 2005). The female spawns her sperical eggs intermittently over a period of time in shallow water, but occasionally down to 200 m in depth (Reid and Jereb 2005). The grey eggs are attached to a range of solid substrates including ascidians (Reid and Jereb 2005). The embryonic development takes 30 days at 20ºC and two months at 10ºC (Reid and Jereb 2005). After hatching growth is rapid and appears to be independent of temperature and its lifespan after hatching may be between six and nine months (Reid and Jereb 2005). It has been successfully reared in aquaculture (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162557		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162557		threats	eng	This species is commercially fished throughout its distribution range, particularly in the Mediterranean where its flesh is considered to be tasty (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is also caught as bycatch (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162558		conservation	eng	This species is associated with Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and monitoring of this habitat is necessary. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162558		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia gibba</em> occurs in the Red Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its depth range is unknown   but Reid <em>et al.</em> (2005) report it in very shallow waters (1 m).
162558		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 100 mm    (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is associated with coral reefs in the Red Sea where it hides amongst the spines of venomous urchins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Diadema</span> sp.) at night (Nesis 1987).
162558		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162558		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the      atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have      shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect  buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162559		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162559		distribution	eng	This species occurs off Australia ranging from Shark Bay, Western Australia to southern Australia and Tasmania then northwards to Brisbane in Queensland   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162559		habitat	eng	This small species inhabits sandy, muddy and seagrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterozostera</span>) areas   (Norman and Lu 1997). It buries itself during the day and glues debris and sand onto its body for camouflage   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It emerges at night to feed on small crustaceans and fish   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   This species has a light organ in its gill cavity which emits just enough light to hide its silhouette at night from predators (Norman 2003). Mature males have enlarged suckers on their second, third and fourth arm pairs (Norman 2003). Their function is not known but may be connected to courtship and mating   (Norman 2003). Spawning is seasonal occurring in the spring and summer   although mature animals are found at other times of the year (Norman 2003). The female lays her eggs in clusters at the base of seaweeds or seagrasses   (Reid and Jereb 2005). After hatching the young immediately take up the adult mode (Norman 2003).
162559		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162559		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is caught locally on a small scale   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its association with seagrasses may be cause for concern given the global decline in this habitat.
162560		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162560		distribution	eng	<em></em> This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and off Somalia   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution includes the Tyrrhenian Sea, Adriatic Sea and Aegean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162560		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 30 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162560		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162560		threats	eng	This species may be taken with other sepiolines in Mediterranean fisheries.
162561		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size, life history characteristics and threats impacting this species.
162561		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia insignis</em> occurs on the inner shelf off South Africa, from Cape Town to Natal   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162561		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of 60 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162561		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162561		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162562		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162562		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species ranges from Hawaii to southern Japan (Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands), Indonesia and the Great Australian Sea Bight (off Southern and Western Australia)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its full extent is unknown but it probably encompasses the majority of the Central and Western Pacific. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dispar</span> from the eastern Pacific and Indian Ocean may pertain to this species.
162562		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 30 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It inhabits the open ocean to depths of 820 m (Reid and Jereb 2005), and undergoes diel vertical migration rising up to 150 to 200 m at night to feed (Norman 2003).   This species has a light organ which emits just enough light to hide its silhouette from predators in the half light of dusk and dawn (Norman 2003). It also uses clouds of ink and the light organ bacteria to distract predators (Norman 2003). In mature males the first pair of arms are joined and the third arms have enlarged suckers (Norman 2003).
162562		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162562		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162563		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162563		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution along the north and northeast coast of Australia, ranging from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the west to Sydney in New South Wales   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162563		habitat	eng	This is a medium sized, demersal cuttlefish that often inhabits seagrass and seaweed beds in which it forages during the day for crustaceans and fish   (Norman 2003, Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can occur in very shallow water including the intertidal zone   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It sometimes rests on the bottom using its arms like stilts   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). During mating the female displays no colour changes, in contrast to males that show colour patterns   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162563		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162563		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is caught as bycatch   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162564		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162564		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the eastern coast of Africa from Western Sahara (including the Canary Islands) and south to Angola (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162564		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal species that shows sexual dimorphism in body size with males attaining a higher maximum mantle length compared to females (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Furthermore, the mantle is wider and arms are longer in females (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The geographic distribution of this species overlaps considerably with both <em>Sepia officinalis</em> and <em>Sepia hierredda</em> (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Off the Canary Islands highest abundances occur between 70 and 140 m in depth (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is commonly captured off the western Endeavour Bank and migrates from here to shallow water to spawn in summer and autumn (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In summer a range of sizes are present suggesting that either the spawning season is extended or at least some spawning occurs throughout the year (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162564		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162564		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is commonly caught alongside <em>Sepia hierredda</em> off Endeavour Bank (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). According to Spanish fishery statistics <em>Sepia bertheloti</em> forms about 10% of the catch compared to <em>Sepia hierredda</em> in Saharan waters (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It forms a larger component further south in Mauritanian waters where it comprises about 35% of the catch, compared to 65% in <em>Sepia hierredda </em>(Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162566		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162566		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia hieronis</em> ranges from southern Namibia southwards to Port Alfred in South Africa. In East Africa its distribution ranges from Mozambique to Kenya   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162566		habitat	eng	This species has a wide depth range (to 500 m) but it is most abundant between 110 and 250 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It attains a a mantle length of up to 70 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162566		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162566		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162567		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162567		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the west coast of Africa from Cape Blanco (Ras Nouadhibou) in Mauritania southwards to Cape Frio in Namibia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162567		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 100 mm and has a fairly wide depth distribution (20 to 150 m), although it is most abundant in depths deeper than 50 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role (Norman 2003).
162567		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162567		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is sometimes taken as bycatch in mixed species trawls   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162568		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162568		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off Australia. Its geographic distribution ranges from Rockington in Western Australia to the North West Shelf   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162568		habitat	eng	This neritic species attains a mantle length of up to 100 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162568		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162568		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162569		conservation	eng	Research is required to provide taxonomic clarity for this species. Further research is also recommended regarding the population trends, distribution and life history patterns of this species.
162569		distribution	eng	<em>Euprymna albatrossae</em> occurs off the Philippines   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution range is unknown   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162569		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 24mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162569		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162569		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
162570		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162570		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality which is off the southwest coast of Madagascar at a depth of 325 to 332 m (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162570		habitat	eng	This species is known only from its type locality and attains a mantle length of up to 80 mm (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162570		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162570		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162572		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162572		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Inioteuthis japonica</em> ranges from southern Japan along the coast of China to Taiwan   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162572		habitat	eng	This small species attains a mantle length of up to 20 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   This species lacks a light organ (Norman 2003). Mature males have an ear-like lobe on their first left arm; the first right arm is much shorter (Norman 2003). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162572		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162572		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162573		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162573		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from northern Florida to Suriname in the south, and from the coast of Mexico to the West Indies. It is also distributed along the northern coast of South America, the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162573		habitat	eng	This species occurs over muddy substrates   between 130 m and 260 m in depth, however, at night individuals have been collected from the water column between 115 m and the surface  (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162573		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162573		threats	eng	This species is probably caught on a small scale   (Reid and Jereb 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162574		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends        in this species. Further information on the life history of this species    is     also required.
162574		distribution	eng	This species occurs off New Zealand and along the Nazca and Sala y Gomez submarine ridges (Reid 2005).
162574		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Sepioloidea </span>species tend to occur on soft sediments into which they bury during the day, emerging nocturnally to feed on small crustaceans and fish (Norman 2003). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
162574		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162574		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162575		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162575		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Rossia megaptera</em> ranges from western Greenland southwards along the coast of Canada to off New York   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162575		habitat	eng	This small species attains a mantle of up to 40mm and has a deep and wide depth distribution (179 to 1,536 m)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162575		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162575		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162576		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162576		distribution	eng	This species occurs off central Indonesia   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162576		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Heteroteuthinae are free swimming in the open ocean (Norman 2003).
162576		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162576		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162577		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to ascertain the validity of this species. Further research is also recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history patterns and threats impacting this species.
162577		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia kiensis</em> ranges from the Kai Islands in Indonesia to northern Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its depth range extends to 256 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162577		habitat	eng	This species has a mantle length of up to 37 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162577		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162577		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162578		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.
162578		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off the northwest coast of Western Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162578		habitat	eng	Both sexes of this species attain a mantle length of up to 46 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162578		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162578		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162579		conservation	eng	Further research is required regarding population trends, distribution, life history traits and the impacts of harvesting and threats.
162579		distribution	eng	This species&#160;has a very wide geographic distribution ranging from Scotland, Ireland and the English Channel in the north and south along the west coast of Africa to Endeavour Bank (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its range encompasses the Mediterranean including the Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara and Levantine Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162579		habitat	eng	This species has a wide geographic and depth distribution (to 500 m), although rarely below 450 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is most abundant at 150 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The elegant cuttlefish rarely buries in the sand and feeds on a wide variety of prey including crustaceans, molluscs, polychaetes and fish (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Sexual dimorphism is observed with females being heavier than males for a given length, and have longer tentacular clubs (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species can tolerate brackish waters (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). During winter this species migrates downslope to deep water and in summer moves upslope into shallow water to spawn (Norman 2003, Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Individuals mature in 12 to 18 months (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In the Mediterranean Sea spawning occurs throughout the year and off Portugal mature individuals occur throughout the year (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Similarly, along the west African coast the spawning season is extended with peaks in both summer and autumn (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Mature males have approximately 95 spermatophores and females have approximately 250 eggs (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The eggs are spawned in small clusters onto a variety of substrates on muddy substrates including sea fans, shells and rocks (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162579		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown. Although this species is subject to fishing pressure (which is extremely intense in some locations) separate statistics are not reported for this species hence these cannot be used to deduce fluctuations in population density.
162579		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is caught as bycatch, sometimes in significant numbers, in the Mediterranean Sea and along the West Africa coast (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In markets around the Mediterranean Sea it forms an important local resource (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is subject to intense fishing pressure in the Sicilian Channel (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162580		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162580		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution ranging from southern Norway along the western coast of continental Europe to Senegal in the south. Its distribution includes the North Sea and Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162580		habitat	eng	This species has a wide geographic and depth distribution (shallow water to 450 m in depth)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It occurs over sandy and muddy substrates and in shallow water is commonly observed in seagrass beds   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Females attain a much larger body size (up to 60 mm, although typically between 40 and 50 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 25 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species feeds on crustaceans and fish   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the western Mediterranean Sea the spawning season is extended (March to November)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162580		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162580		threats	eng	This species is caught and consumed locally on a small scale   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its flesh is considered tasty   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162581		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162581		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia confusa</em> has a geographic distribution that extends from Port Elizabeth in South Africa northwards along the east coast of Africa to south Mozambique, including Madagascar (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Records from the Arabian Sea are probably misidentifications (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and possibly pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. kobiensis</span> (Nesis 1987).
162581		habitat	eng	The mantle length of this species is up to 150 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162581		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162581		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162582		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162582		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia chirotrema</em> is found off Australia ranging from the Spencer Gulf, South Australia westwards to Shark Bay in Western Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162582		habitat	eng	This large species has a mantle length of up to 200 mm.
162582		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162582		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162583		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162583		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the northwestern Pacific from the East China Sea and Taiwan, around South Korea, and through the Japan Sea to Japan. The depth distribution is not known.
162583		habitat	eng	This species grows up to 230 mm mantle length (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
162583		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162583		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162584		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162584		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from western India to Thailand and the Malaysian Peninsula   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its distribution includes the Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162584		habitat	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution and occurs down to 200 m in depth   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162584		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162584		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the       atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have       shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually  lay      down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect   buoyancy     regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is commercially fished around India   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162585		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the habitat of this species is important. Research is required to confirm taxonomic status and to determine population size and distribution. Further information is required on life history and ecology to determine this species' use of various seagrass species. Population trends of both the species and potential habitats should be monitored. This will determine whether habitat protection is required.
162585		distribution	eng	<em>Idiosepius minimus</em> was described from 'off the coast of Africa' in shallow water (Reid 2005). Its junior synonyms <span style="font-style: italic;">I. biserialis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. macrocheir</span> were described from Mozambique. Further collecting in Mozambique has yielded additional specimens (von Byern and Klepal 2010, as <span style="font-style: italic;">I. biserialis</span>). It would appear that this species has a relatively restricted distribution since there are no other records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> from Africa.
162585		habitat	eng	All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> live in shallow coastal waters amongst seaweed or seagrasses (Norman 2003).  Voss (1962) reported that the type series of this species junior synonyms <span style="font-style: italic;">I. biserialis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. macrocheir </span>were collected by handnetting over <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cymodocea</span>. Members of the Idiosepiidae family have a glue gland on their dorsal body surface that allows them to stick to seaweed, seagrass and other objects (Norman 2003). Pygmy squids typically feed on crustaceans and females attach their eggs onto seaweed or seagrass blades (Norman 2003). Development is thought to include a pelagic stage (Reid 2005).
162585		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
162585		threats	eng	Seagrasses are threatened across the world and the threat to this habitat is also a threat to this species. There has been a severe decline in <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera capensis</span>, a species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> that is mainly found in  Mozambique and is considered 'Vulnerable' under IUCN Red List criteria. However,<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. minimus</span> has been found associated not only with <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> but also with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cymodocea</span> and all species of the latter genus are considered by the IUCN to be of 'Least Concern'. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> occur in highly populated inshore waters and are therefore likely to be affected by anthropogenic influences.
162586		conservation	eng	Research is required into the taxonomy, trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162586		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and off the west coast of Morocco   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162586		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162586		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162586		threats	eng	This species is frequently captured as a bycatch of trawl and purse seine fisheries  and can be a relatively abundant component of the bobtails marketed  locally (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162587		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed or in place for this species.
162587		distribution	eng	The Ram's Horn squid (<em>Spirula spirula</em>) occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical oceanic regions of the world (Reid 2005).
162587		habitat	eng	This species has a very wide geographic and depth distribution (from 300 to 1,750 m) (Reid 2005). Adults generally occur between 600 and 700 m in depth during the day, rising to less than 300 m to feed at night (Reid 2005). Paralarval planktonic young have been caught between 1,000 and 1,750 m, suggesting females spawn their small eggs on the bottom of the continental slopes (Reid 2005). Sexual maturity is attained at 30 mm in mantle length and between 12 and 15 months in age and they probably live for about 18-20 months (Reid 2005). Mature males have modified ventral arms that lack suckers and are tipped with finger-like outgrowths (Norman 2003, Reid 2005). The species is characterised by a small internal coiled shell (Norman 2003). It also has a large, upward facing light organ, the purpose of which is unknown (Norman 2003). This species forms schools and can sometimes be very abundant (Norman 2003). Live animals drift in a vertical position with their head and arms hanging down which it can retract into its mantle cavity (Norman 2003).
162587		population	eng	There are no population size estimates available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
162587		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162588		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162588		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from southern Japan to South Korea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162588		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 120 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162588		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162588		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162589		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162589		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs in the Indo-Pacific   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its geographic and depth distribution are unknown   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162589		habitat	eng	The type specimen has a mantle length of 6 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162589		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162589		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The threats to this species are unknown.
162590		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics. Further research is recommended regarding this species population trends, distribution, life history trends and threats impacting this species.
162590		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species <em></em>ranges from the Zambezi River mouth in Mozambique northwards to Kenya   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its depth distribution ranges to 50 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162590		habitat	eng	This neritic species has a mantle length of up to 70 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162590		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162590		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162591		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162591		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia foliopeza</em> has a geographic distribution that includes the East China Sea and Taiwan, Province of China     (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The depth range of this species is not known   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162591		habitat	eng	This species has a mantle length of up to 110 mm (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162591		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162591		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162592		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends in this. Further information on the life history of this species is also required.
162592		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off northwest Australia in shallow waters (Reid 2005).
162592		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiadarium </span>species tend to occur on soft sediments into which they bury during the day, emerging nocturnally to feed on small crustaceans and fish (Norman 2003). Very little is known about <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiadarium auritum. </span>The type specimen is 11 mm in mantle length (Reid 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span>
162592		population	eng	Its population size is unknown.
162592		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162593		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162593		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution range from southern Japan to Viet Nam in the south, and encompasses China, Taiwan, Province of China and the East and South China Seas (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162593		habitat	eng	This species has a maximum mantle length of 250 mm and body weight of 1 kg (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162593		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162593		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is sometimes targeted by fisheries off southwest Japan (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and may be taken as bycatch elsewhere in its range since these regions are generally heavily fished.
162594		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history traits, harvesting and threat impacts to this species.
162594		distribution	eng	The shortclub cuttlefish (<em>Sepia brevimana</em>) has a wide geographic distribution ranging from India and Sri Lanka in the west to Indonesia in the east and north to the Philippines and Taiwan, Province of China (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its distribution includes the Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea, Java Sea, Celebes Sea and Sulu Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162594		habitat	eng	The shortclub cuttlefish is a demersal species that inhabits coastal and shelf waters   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The sex ratio of caught specimens is typically 1:2 (M:F) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mantle lengths range between 40 and 70 mm; and maximally up to 85 (off northeast India) and 95mm (off southeast India) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Off India both sexes attain similar maximum mantle lengths (ML) at 50% maturity, for example off southeast India it was 56 (males) and 59 mm (females), and off northeast India it was 59 (males) and 63 mm (females) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Gulf of Thailand mantle length generally range between 40 and 60 mm, and maximally 90 mm (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In eastern India spawning takes place all year with spawning peaks between July and February (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Hatchlings reach adult sizes in approximately one year (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162594		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162594		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is caught as bycatch off eastern India (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is fished in the South China Sea and forms an important fishery in Thailand (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162595		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162595		distribution	eng	<em>Iridoteuthis iris</em> occurs in the open ocean near to the Hawaii Islands and Colahan and Kammu seamounts   (Reid and Jereb 2005).&#160; It has been captured at a variety of localities along the Hawaiian Archipelago from  about 21 °N, 157 °W to about 32 °N, 177 °E. All captures are close to  islands or seamounts and are from relatively shallow fishing depths (c.  150-300 m).
162595		habitat	eng	Females attain a larger body size (up to 28mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 24 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). This is a pelagic species   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Mature males have enlarged suckers on their third pair of arms (Norman 2003).   Members of the subfamily Heteroteuthinae are free swimming in the open ocean (Norman 2003).<em><strong> </strong></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Iridoteuthis iris</span> appears to be a member of the mesopelagic boundary fauna occurring over bottom depths of less than 450 m (Young 1995).
162595		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162595		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162596		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162596		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off southeast Australia from southern Queensland to New South Wales (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162596		habitat	eng	Females attain larger body sizes (up to 42 mm mantle length) than males (up to 35 mm mantle length) (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162596		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162596		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162597		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162597		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the continental shelf and upper slope throughout the Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162597		habitat	eng	This species has a wide depth distribution (26 to 498 m in depth) and occurs on the outer continental shelf. Males guard females during courtship and mating   (Reid and Jereb 2005).  Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162597		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162597		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is often caught in low numbers by local trawlers   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162598		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162598		distribution	eng	This species occurs in shallow water off Hawaii   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162598		habitat	eng	This small species is found in shallow water inhabiting sandy and muddy areas near seagrass beds   (Norman 2003). This species will glue sand grains to its body to form camouflage. This species buries itself in sand or mud during day and emerges at night to feed (Norman 2003). It has a light organ which emits just enough light to hide its silhouette at night from predators (Norman 2003). There has been much research performed on the bacteria held within its light organ   (Norman 2003).
162598		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162598		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162599		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162599		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from southern Japan and the coast of China from Zhejiang province to Hong Kong and includes Taiwan, Province of China   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162599		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrates (Norman 2003). Females attain a larger body size (up to 50 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 30 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Mature males have enlarged suckers on their second and fourth arm pairs (Norman 2003). Females lay clusters of round, pale orange eggs   (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species has a light organ in its gill cavity which emits just enough light to hide its silhouette at night from predators (Norman 2003). It has been raised in aquaculture   (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species is very similar in appearance and distribution range to <span style="font-style: italic;">Euprymna morsei</span>, in fact females are indistinguishable from one another (Norman 2003). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162599		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162599		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is caught and consumed locally in regions where it is abundant (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162600		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to elucidate the details of this putative species complex. Further research is also recommended on population trends, distribution, life history traits and harvesting trends.
162600		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide geographic distribution extending from the Persian Gulf in the west to northern Japan (Hokkaido), and encompasses the Yellow Sea, East and South China Seas, Philippines, Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia, Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand, Andaman Sea, Bay of Bengal, India and the Arabian Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162600		habitat	eng	The depth range of this species extends from the subtidal zone to 200 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Off Hong Kong most individuals are caught between 80 and 160 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China it is most abundant in shallow water   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162600		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162600		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is caught as bycatch off southern Japan and is the target of small fisheries off Hong Kong and China   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162601		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no  evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162601		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Atlantic ranging from North Florida to the Antilles and off Suriname in the south, and includes Cuba, the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162601		habitat	eng	This is a large bobtail species with a deep depth range and attains a mantle length of 90 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005). The ovarian oocytes in females develop in batches and spawning occurs intermittently over a long period   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162601		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162601		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is taken as bycatch (Reid and Jereb 2005), but this threat is limited as the species is not specifically targeted.
162602		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162602		distribution	eng	<em>Euprymna hyllebergi</em> occurs off Thailand in the Andaman Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162602		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 35mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162602		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162602		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162603		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162603		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia simoniana</em> extends from Cape Town in the west of South Africa eastwards and then northwards to northern Kenya and southern Somalia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162603		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 185 mm. Although its depth distribution ranges to 190 m it usually occurs in waters of less than 100 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162603		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162603		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162604		conservation	eng	Further research is recommended regarding the population trends and life history patterns of this species. Monitoring of habitats is also required.
162604		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Idiosepius pygmaeus</em> ranges northward from northern Australia through the IndoWest Pacific; it includes the South China Sea and Philippines and Indonesia (Reid 2005), where it is found in shallow coastal waters (Norman 2003). It is also though to occur in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea (Okutani 1995, von Byern and Klepal 2010). Although Reid (2005) reports records from Japan, Okutani (1995) believes this species does not extend north of the Philippines.
162604		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius pygmaeus </span>occurs in shallow coastal waters, particularly among seagrass and mangroves (Norman and Reid 2000) but is also found around rocky breakwater structures (Moltschaniwskyj pers. comm. 2010). Individuals appear to be more active at night, when they can be found swimming in surface waters (Norman 2003).   Females attach about 65 eggs at a time to hard surfaces and the young hatch in 15 days (Lewis and Choat 1993).   Females deposit multiple batches of eggs. Development is thought to include a pelagic stage (Reid 2005). This species lives for about 80 days (Jackson 1989). Members of the Idiosepiidae family have a glue gland on their dorsal body surface that allows them to stick to seaweed, seagrass and other objects (Norman 2003). Pygmy squids typically feed on crustaceans (Norman 2003).
162604		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
162604		threats	eng	Its association with seagrass beds and mangroves is cause for concern because of the documented declines in these habitats. However, in at least part of its range (Australia), all seagrass species are considered by the IUCN to be of 'Least Concern'. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> occur in highly populated inshore waters and are therefore likely to be affected by anthropogenic influences.
162605		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended to determine the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162605		distribution	eng	This species is distributed over a wide area of the tropical Indo-Pacific and ranges from eastern Indonesia, northwards to the Philippines and west to Papua New Guinea, and encompasses the Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, Flores and Banda Sea, and the Arafura Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162605		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal species commonly found in shallow water on coral reef and sandy habitats (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is often found in association with echinoderms like sea cucumbers and sea stars and feeds at night on crustaceans (Norman 2003).
162605		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162605		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162606		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162606		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off southern Australia. Its geographic distribution ranges from Shellharbour (just south of Sydney), New South Wales to Western Australia and the North West Shelf (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162606		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 77 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162606		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162606		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162608		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162608		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia dollfusi</em> occurs in the Red Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its depth distribution range is unknown (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162608		habitat	eng	This species has a mantle length of up to 110 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Spawning locations are unknown but thought to be offshore (Gabr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
162608		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162608		threats	eng	Fishing activity is a possible threat to this species but insufficient data exist as to the current level of exploitation. Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162609		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162609		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Sea of Okhotsk and the Kamchatka Peninsula (Russia), through the East China Sea, and southwards to Japan and Taiwan, Province of China   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162609		habitat	eng	This small, neritic species attains a mantle length of up to 22 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Mature males have two small finger-like projections at the base of their first left arm   (Norman 2003).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162609		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162609		threats	eng	This species is probably caught in multispecies trawls   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162610		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162610		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Norway to Morocco in the south   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution includes the North Sea, English Channel, Bay of Biscay and Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162610		habitat	eng	This species inhabits muddy substrates on the continental shelf and upper slope. Its distribution range overlaps with both <em>Rossia macrosoma</em> and <em>Sepietta oweniana </em>and may be difficult to distinguish from <span style="font-style: italic;">S. oweniana</span> particularly for females (Reid and Jereb 2005). Spawning occurs all year round   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162610		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162610		threats	eng	This species is caught on a small scale for food   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162611		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162611		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Austrorossia enigmatica</em> ranges from Namibia to the Western Cape province in South Africa   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162611		habitat	eng	The type specimen has a mantle length of 27 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily <span style="font-style: italic;">Rossiinae </span>are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162611		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162611		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162612		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162612		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from Lüderitz Bay in southern Namibia, around the coastline of South Africa to the mouths of the Tugela and Umvoti Rivers in Kwazulu-Natal, and includes the Mascarene Ridge   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162612		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 140 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162612		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162612		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162613		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species is recommended.
162613		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia erostrata</em> is found off western Japan from Sagami Bay to the Kii Peninsula in southern Honshu (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The depth distribution of this species is described as subtidal and inshore (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162613		habitat	eng	This species has a mantle length of up to 90 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is the most common cuttlefish species on rocky shorelines around Japan (Norman 2003).
162613		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162613		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162614		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162614		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that includes Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and off Suriname   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution ranges to 760 m   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is known from very few records.
162614		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 50 mm (Reid and Jereb 2005). The ovarian oocytes of females develop in batches and spawning occurs intermittently over a long period   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162614		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162614		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162615		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162615		distribution	eng	<em></em> This species is known only from its type locality which is Cape Natal, South Africa   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162615		habitat	eng	The mantle length of females reach up to 59 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162615		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162615		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162616		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended to determine the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threat impacts of this species.
162616		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution ranging from Nova Scotia, Canada in the north, southwards along the eastern coast of the United States and Mexico, to northern Venezuela   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution includes the islands of the Caribbean Sea and possibly further south along the coast of South America to Argentina   (Reid and Jereb 2005) although the identity of these records may be questionable.
162616		habitat	eng	This is an abundant demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrates   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162616		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162616		threats	eng	It may be fished along the south coast of Argentina   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162617		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162617		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Rossia moelleri</em> ranges from Spitzbergen Island westward to the Laptev Sea in northern Russia   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its range includes Greenland and northern Canada   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162617		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162617		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162617		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162618		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.
162618		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of the knifebone cuttlefish (<em>Sepia cultrata</em>) ranges from southern Queensland along southern Australia (including Tasmania) to Houtman Abrolhos in Western Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162618		habitat	eng	This species is present on the outer shelf and upper bathyl zones with highest abundances from 300 to 500 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162618		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162618		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is caught as bycatch (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) although more than one species may be recorded under this name.
162619		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162619		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from southwestern Africa, around the Cape of South Africa and north to Mozambique. It is also distributed along the islands of the Mascarene Ridge   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162619		habitat	eng	Little is known about its biology and ecology but this species has aquaculture and fisheries potential   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005), particularly because of its large size: it grows to nearly 30 cm mantle length. This species can inhabit lagoons and river mouths   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is found in very shallow waters down to nearly 300 m.
162619		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162619		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species may already be targeted by fisheries but its fishery potential has been highlighted by   Reid <em>et al.</em> (2005).
162620		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162620		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off southern Norway southwards through the north eastern Atlantic and the western Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162620		habitat	eng	This small, rare species is found at fairly deep depths (200 to 400 m) and both sexes attain a similar body size (up to 20 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162620		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162620		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162621		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended in order to determine the population trends, distribution, life history and threats impacting this species.
162621		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia aureomaculata</em> has a a geographic distribution that extends along the east coast of southeast Japan (Shikoku and Kyūshū) and into the East China Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162621		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 160 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162621		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162621		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162622		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research regarding population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species is recommended.
162622		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia cottoni</em> is found off Australia. It has a geographic distribution that ranges from Broome in northwest Western Australia southwards to Perth in southwest Western Australia. The depth distribution of this species ranges from 83 to 183 m.
162622		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 55 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162622		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162622		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162623		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162623		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species <em></em>ranges from Chennai (Madras) in southeast India to Sri Lanka (off Negombo and Hambantota)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162623		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow water (20 to 40 m in depth) and attains a mantle length of up to 110 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162623		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162623		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162624		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162624		distribution	eng	This species was formerly known only from a beachwashed cuttlebone found on Rottnest Island, however, a whole animal found in the Western Australian Museum recently was collected west of Rottnest Island (32º00’S 115º15’E) at a depth of 146-150 m (A. Reid pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
162624		habitat	eng	This species is known only from one whole specimen and a beach-washed cuttlebone. Therefore little is known about its habitat and ecology.
162624		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162624		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162625		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162625		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off the Northern Territory in Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162625		habitat	eng	It occurs in very shallow water (to 3.3 m in depth) and females and males attain similar mantle lengths (i.e. 59 and 58 mm, respectively)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role (Norman 2003).
162625		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162625		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162626		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162626		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that extends from Western Australia along the North West Shelf to the Kai Islands in Indonesia and the Arafura Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162626		habitat	eng	This species has a wide, deep depth distribution (150 to 404 m) and inhabits mud, silt and sand (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It may also migrate to shallower water to spawn (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females attain larger body sizes (up to 97 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 68 mm in mantle length) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162626		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162626		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species may be taken in mixed species trawls (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162627		conservation	eng	Recent fishing activity targeting the mass spawning aggregations at Spencer Gulf caused a decline in numbers leading to a temporary closure of the fishing grounds (Norman 2003). These mass spawning areas are easily accessible and could be used as tourist attraction (Norman 2003). Further research is recommended to determine the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its range stretches across southern Australia to Pointes Cloates in Western Australia to Shoalwater Bay in Queensland (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is also found around Lord Howe and Norfolk Island (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162627		habitat	eng	This species is a neritic species that occurs in a variety of habitats including: coral reefs, rocky reefs, seagrass beds and muddy and sandy areas (Norman 2003). They are active by day preying on fish and crustaceans (Norman 2003, Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). During breeding, ritualized visual displays are observed (Norman 2003). After mating the large eggs are laid in crevices and take three to five months to hatch at low temperatures (12°C) (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The distribution of this species may be restricted to cool southern waters because low temperatures reduce the problems associated with gas exchange in large eggs (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The young develop directly (Norman 2003). The adults are preyed upon by dolphins, particularly during the spawning season (Norman 2003) and albatrosses (H. Battam pers. comm.). They appear to spawn in aggregations based on suitable habitat for egg laying.
162627		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown. Estimates of abundance and biomass at the spawning aggregation area in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia show a 57% decline between 2001 and 2008 (Hall 2008) and this is assumed to be the result of intense fishing activity in this area. This spawning aggregation, which is easily detected by divers and exploited by fishers, is associated with  the  physical features of the Gulf itself. Compared with the open  coast, the water is relatively sheltered and the Gulf has plenty of  hard substrate providing good attachment sites for eggs. The only other subpopulation for which information is available is Wollongong. The information from this area is anecdotal and comes from albatross researchers (the albatross feed on the spawning aggregations of cuttlefish). In the Wollongong region, aggregations also appear to be dependent on the availability of suitable habitat. The <span style="font-style: italic;">S. apama</span> seaward distribution boundary appears to be determined by  water depth, and is estimated at about 75 metres. The coastal strip between  Red Point (Pt Kembla) and Austinmer appears to be the area where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. apama</span> is most concentrated (total area 70-80 m²). It is suspected that this is due to the nature of the sea bottom, as this  area has numerous reefs, which are not typical of the sea floor to the  north and south of the region. The number of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. apama</span> carcasses and bones observed at sea does vary from  year to year, but a maximum estimate is several thousand (cumulative  annual total). Smaller concentrations of<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. apama</span>  occur at other locations, including Sussex Inlet and Ulladulla, which  are south of Wollongong. It is unknown what proportion of the total population  the Spencer Gulf breeding aggregation represents but, in terms of area, the  Spencer Gulf IMCRA province encompasses about 15 % of the total shelf  provinces inhabited by <em>S. apama</em>.&#160; Hence, if the population size elsewhere has remained stable, and the breeding aggregation in Spencer Gulf is only drawn from Spencer Gulf,  then the total population decline to date is equivalent to about 8.5 %.
162627		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is the target of commercial fisheries (e.g. Spencer Gulf, Norman 2003), which have reduced population size by 57% in the Spencer Gulf. It is also taken by hook-and-line or spear fishing and as bycatch off southern Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The Spencer Gulf population is additionally suffering from threats imposed by a proposed desalination plant development at Point Lowly. This may lead to high levels of salinity in Spencer Gulf, higher temperatures, increased turbidity levels, decreased oxygen levels and possibly the discharge of contaminants, which would likely reduce the Spencer Gulf population even further. Unpublished data suggest from the Geelong  area suggest a two  year pre-breeding harvest could eliminate the whole population. Local fisherman report that in March-April <span style="font-style: italic;">S. apama</span> embark on  a pre-breeding feeding frenzy. They attack hooked fish and are detached  with much difficult when brought to the surface. Within this period, they would appear to be extremely vulnerable to fishing. Hence, the greatest threat to this species is probably intense localised fisheries on breeding aggregations (albeit smaller than the Spencer Gulf aggregation) around the coast.
162628		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162628		distribution	eng	<em>Rossia mollicella</em> occurs along the western coast of Japan from Sendai Bay (Honshu) southwards to Shikoku and Kyūshū   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162628		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to approximately 36 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003). Okutani and Sasaki (2007) reported that this species lays its eggs in a hexactinellid sponge. This may be a defensive mechanism, or the water currents generated by the filter feeding sponge may increase available oxygen. Alternatively, because of the depths at which this species occurs, the sponges may provide the only suitable (hard) substrate for egg laying.
162628		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162628		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162629		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding population trends, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162629		distribution	eng	The slender cuttlefish is endemic to southern Australia, occurring from southern New South Wales to Western Australia including Tasmania (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162629		habitat	eng	It is a demersal species found in neritic and shallow coastal waters (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species may congregate to spawn (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162629		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162629		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Alongside other cuttlefish (e.g. <em>Sepia apama</em>) it is caught as bycatch and is used as bait and food (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162630		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162630		distribution	eng	According to Reid and Jereb (2005), the Mimka Bobtail Squid (<em>Euprymna morsei</em>) ranges from southern Japan southwards along the coast of Korea and China to Malaysia and Indonesia (Java), taking in the East and South China Seas, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Thailand and the Philippines   (Reid and Jereb 2005). However, Norman and Lu (1997) believe this to be a temperate species restricted to cooler waters around Japan. Further taxonomic work on the genus is required to be enable accurate delineation of the species and their geographic boundaries.
162630		habitat	eng	It is a shallow water species with a mantle length of up to 40 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is preyed on by lancet fishes, <span style="font-style: italic;">Alepisaurus ferox</span>   (Reid and Jereb 2005).     This species has a light organ in its gill cavity which emits just enough light to hide its silhouette at night from predators (Norman 2003). Mature males have enlarged suckers on their second, third and fourth arm pairs (Norman 2003). It is very similar in appearance and distribution range to <span style="font-style: italic;">Euprymna berryi</span>, in fact females are indistinguishable from one another (Norman 2003). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162630		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162630		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is caught on a very small scale and sometimes as bycatch   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162631		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162631		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Iceland and Faroe Islands in the north to Morocco in the south   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution includes western Norway, the United Kingdom and Ireland, the North Sea and the west coast of Europe   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It may also occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Ligurian Sea)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162631		habitat	eng	Males and females attain similar body sizes (21 mm in mantle length). This small species occurs from shallow water to the upper continental slope, although associated with the benthos it has been collected from the water column during the day as well as at night (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species has a light organ (Norman 2003). Mature males have enlarged suckers and a fleshy bulb on the tip of their left first arm (Norman 2003). Off Scotland (Firemore Bay) spawning appears to occur throughout the year with peaks in April and July to August (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162631		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162631		threats	eng	This species is probably caught in small-scale local fisheries   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162633		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162633		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has a geographic distribution that ranges from the Arafura Sea and Northern Territories westwards to Point Cloates in Western Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162633		habitat	eng	Males appear to attain slightly larger body sizes (up to 61 mm in mantle length) compared to females (up to 58 mm in mantle length)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162633		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162633		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162634		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162634		distribution	eng	Hedley's cuttlefish (<em>Sepia hedleyi</em>) is endemic to Australia and has a geographic distribution that extends from Shark Bay in Western Australia, along southern Australia and Tasmania, to the Great Barrier Reef off southern Queensland   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162634		habitat	eng	This species has a very wide depth distribution extending from shallow water to the continental slope (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162634		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162634		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish.&#160; Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is taken as bycatch (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162635		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162635		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout much of east and southeast Asia. It ranges from Bangladesh in the west, south to Java in Indonesia and north to the Philippines and Taiwan, Province of Taiwan   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its distribution includes the Andaman Sea, Gulf of Thailand, Celebes Sea, Sulu Sea and South and East China Seas   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162635		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the continental shelf   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Gulf of Thailand spawning occurs all year round with two peaks in November to February and July to September (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In this region more females than males were caught (M:F, 1:3) and most individuals ranged from 40 to 130 mm in mantle length (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162635		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162635		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is the target of commercial fisheries and mixed species trawls in many regions of its distribution range (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162637		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended to determine population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162637		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has a geographic distribution that includes northwest to southwest Madagascar (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162637		habitat	eng	This species has a fairly deep depth range from 300 to 500 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has a mantle length of up to 80 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162637		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162637		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162638		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.
162638		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution which extends from Port Elizabeth in South Africa along the east coast of Africa to Somalia and includes Madagascar (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162638		habitat	eng	The maximum mantle length of females is 120 mm and 100 mm in males   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162638		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162638		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162639		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162639		distribution	eng	This species&#160;is distributed along the north coast of Australia from Exmouth Gulf in Western Australia to the Capricorn Island group in Queensland, and southern New Guinea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its range also includes the Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Records from Viet Nam and India are almost certainly misidentifications (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162639		habitat	eng	This species mostly occurs in coastal waters, for example in the Gulf of Carpentaria it was most abundant between 10 and 62 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). A wide range of body sizes throughout most of the year suggest an extended spawning season (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162639		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162639		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is taken as bycatch furthermore, its high abundance in some regions indicate its fishery potential (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162640		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162640		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia subtenuipes</em> ranges along the east coast of Japan from southern Honshu (Kii Channel) and Shikoku (Tosa Bay) to the East China Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162640		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 94 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162640		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162640		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162641		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162641		distribution	eng	<em></em> This species occurs off Cargados-carajos Shoals and St. Brandon Shoals near Mauritius   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162641		habitat	eng	<em></em> This is a shallow water species with a mantle length that ranges between 8 and 63 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is known from areas that primarily comprise coral reefs and seagrass beds and therefore is likely associated with these fragile habitats.
162641		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162641		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the   atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have   shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay   down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy   regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162642		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162642		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its geographic distribution ranges along the east coast from northern Queensland to Jervis Bay in New South Wales   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162642		habitat	eng	Females (up to 124 mm) attain a larger body size compared to males (up to 77 mm)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs on rocky reefs and is typically seen under ledges (Norman 2003).
162642		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162642		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162643		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162643		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and possibly the Atlantic Ocean near Portugal, Spain and northwest Africa   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distributional range in the Mediterranean Sea includes the Tyrrhenian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea and Aegean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162643		habitat	eng	This small species is common throughout its wide depth distribution  (44 to 380 m in depth) at low densities (Reid and Jereb 2005). It inhabits muddy substrates of the continental shelf and upper slope and it often occurs alongside <em>Sepietta oweniana</em> and <em>Rondeletiola minor </em>(Reid and Jereb 2005). Mature males are characterised by two large shovel-like appendages situated at the base of the first left arm (Norman 2003).   This species has an ink sac and light organ (Norman 2003). Females spawn relatively large (3.5 mm in diameter) and red coloured eggs (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162643		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162643		threats	eng	This species is caught on a small scale and is eaten locally   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162644		conservation	eng	Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162644		distribution	eng	The Odd Bobtail Squid has a wide geographic distribution   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the western Atlantic it ranges from Virginia in the United States to the Bermuda Islands in the Caribbean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the eastern Atlantic it ranges from southwest Ireland to the Canary Islands and to Equitorial Guinea on the west coast of Africa   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution ranges to 1,588 m (Reid and Jereb 2005). We assume that records from the Indian Ocean (Walters Shoals) and the eastern Pacific (Nazca and Sala y Gomez submarine ridges) do not pertain to this species but this will only be clarified when the relationship between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. hawaiiensis</span> is clarified.
162644		habitat	eng	The adults of this small species have a wide depth distribution (to 1,588 m) but often inhabits the lower epipelagic or mesopelagic zone (between 200 and 300 m) (Reid and Jereb 2005). It has also been collected from near the ocean floor (Reid and Jereb 2005). The planktonic paralarvae have been caught in the mesopelagic or bathypelagic zones over deep depths (1,500 to 3,000 m) (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is abundant in the Mediterranean Sea where it is often associated with red shrimps (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species has a large light organ  (Norman 2003). Mature males have a band of muscular tissue that joins the first two right arms together and two enormous suckers on their third arm pair (Norman 2003). Spawning occurs on the continental slope on the seafloor (Norman 2003). It is an important prey species for many top predators including dolphins, sharks and fish (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162644		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162644		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is sometimes caught as bycatch   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162645		conservation	eng	Mehanna and El-Gammal (2010) recommend that a minimum size limit should be imposed on the fishery to combat growth and recruitment overfishing and that action should be taken to protect the spawning stock from late February to June. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162645		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from Socotra Island to the Red Sea, along the coast of Yemen and Oman, and into the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162645		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow water   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Gulf of Suez, estimates for maximum life span are two years for males versus four years for females (Mehanna and El-Gammal 2010).
162645		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162645		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is probably caught in mixed species trawls   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005) in various locations. There is evidence of both growth and recruitment overfishing (Mehanna and El-Gammal 2010) in the Egyptian Gulf of Suez fishery.
162646		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required to establish the validity of this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162646		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs from the Faroe Islands and southern Norway southwards to northern France   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution range is unknown but it is present on the continental shelf   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162646		habitat	eng	Females attain a slightly larger body size (up to 13 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 12 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162646		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162646		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162647		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162647		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species ranges from Saldanha Bay (north of Cape Town) in South Africa to southern Mozambique   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162647		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 26 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162647		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162647		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162648		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place or required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162648		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from Port Elizabeth in South Africa northwards to central Mozambique and Madagascar   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162648		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 80 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).   All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role (Norman 2003).
162648		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162648		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162649		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162649		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia carinata</em> has a geographic distribution from southern Japan southwards to Viet Nam and includes the East and South China Seas (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162649		habitat	eng	This is a rarely caught species (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It reaches a mantle length of up to 60 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162649		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162649		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162650		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history patterns and threats impacting this species.
162650		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species from the Tugela River mouth (near Durban), Kwazulu-Natal in South Africa northwards to southern Mozambique   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162650		habitat	eng	Females of this species attain a mantle length of 64 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162650		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162650		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162651		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics. Further research is required into trends in population size, distribution, life history pattterns and the impacts of harvesting and threats.
162651		distribution	eng	This species&#160;is distributed along the west coast of Africa from Senegal to Gabon and the Gulf of Gabon (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its geographic distribution may stretch further south (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its bathymetric depth distribution is unknown (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162651		habitat	eng	Little is known about its biology   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species is rarely reported   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162651		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162651		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is caught along with other cuttlefishes off the west coast of Africa (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162652		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species falls within the area designated as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162652		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia bidhaia</em> ranges along the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland in Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162652		habitat	eng	Females appear to attain longer mantle lengths (57 mm) compared to males (37 mm)   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has a fairly deep depth range of 200 to 304 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162652		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162652		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).&#160; This species is associated with the Great Barrier Reef. Although this is a World Heritage area, this habitat is under threat due to seawater warming and faces serious declines under current climate projections.
162653		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.
162653		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia appellofi</em> ranges from southern Honshu southwards to Kyūshū in Japan (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162653		habitat	eng	The mantle length of this species reaches up to 90 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162653		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162653		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162654		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162654		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the Philippines and Singapore   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162654		habitat	eng	This tiny species attains a mantle length of up to 12.5 mm   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162654		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162654		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162655		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162655		distribution	eng	<em>Sepia burnupi</em> has a geographic range from Port Elizabeth in South Africa northwards along the east coast of Africa to southern Mozambique (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162655		habitat	eng	This is a rarely caught species (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Its mantle length reaches up to 90 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162655		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162655		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162656		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162656		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the Cook strait between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, and Chatham Rise to the east of New Zealand   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is also found along the Nazca and Salay Gomez submarine ridges   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162656		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily Heteroteuthinae are free swimming in the open ocean (Norman 2003).
162656		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162656		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162657		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the habitat of this species is important. Research is   required to determine population size  and distribution. Further  information is required on life history and  ecology to determine this species' use of various seagrass species. Population trends of both  the species and potential habitats should be  monitored.&#160; This will  determine whether habitat protection is required.
162657		distribution	eng	<em>Idiosepius paradoxus</em> occurs off southern Japan, South Korea off the coasts of North Korea and China in the Yellow Sea down to the latitude of Taiwan (Okutani 1995). The type locality is Kadsiyama, Bay of Tokyo, Japan. Its presence in Taiwan has not been confirmed. Reports from northern Australia (cited in Reid 2005) are assumed to be misidentifications.
162657		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius paradoxus</span> is associated with seagrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span>) beds (Kasugai and Ikeda 2003), using the adhesive gland to adhere to blades of grass. Females spawn repeatedly in captivity. A single individual may lay as many as 42 batches over a 70 day period (Kasugai 2006). An egg mass may contain up to 178 eggs (Kasugai and Ikeda 2003). This tiny species feeds on crustaceans such as gammarid amphipods (Norman 2003). Development is thought to include a pelagic stage (Reid 2005).
162657		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
162657		threats	eng	If the life history of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius paradoxus</span> is inextricably linked with eelgrass, then the declines of eelgrass beds seen in Japan (Nakaoka and Aioi 2001) and worldwide (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria 1996) may pose a serious threat to this species. However, further information is required to assess this threat, particularly, whether <span style="font-style: italic;">I. paradoxus</span> is associated with any particular <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> species. Of those eelgrass species occurring within the range of<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. paradoxus</span>, two, <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. japonica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. marina</span>, are currently classified on the IUCN Red List as 'Least Concern'. In contrast, four other species within the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. paradoxus</span> are classified as either 'Near Threatened' (<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. asiatica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. caulescens</span>), 'Vulnerable' (<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. caespitosa</span>) or 'Endangered' (<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. geojeensis</span>). All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> occur in highly populated inshore waters and are therefore likely to be affected by anthropogenic influences.
162658		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding this species population trends, life history traits, distribution and threats impacting this species.
162658		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia incerta</em> ranges from Port Elizabeth, South Africa eastwards to Mozambique   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162658		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 150 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162658		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162658		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162659		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162659		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western and northern Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution includes Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162659		habitat	eng	Females attain a slight larger maximum body size (up to 28 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 26 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It usually occurs over muddy bottoms but off Italy (Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas) it is abundant on sandy bottoms   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It also appears to rise up into the water column at night   (Reid and Jereb 2005) presumably to feed. At least some spawning appears to occur throughout the year   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162659		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162659		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is caught in small scale, local fisheries   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162660		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine trends in population size, distribution, life history traits and the impacts of harvesting and other threats of this species.
162660		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species ranges from north Japan (southern Hokkaido) to southern China and the northern Philippines, and it encompasses the Sea of Japan and South and East China Seas (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162660		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs in coastal waters, feeding on fish and small crustaceans   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The spawning season is extended with spawning peaks in spring (particularly March and April) and autumn   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162660		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162660		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). <span style="">This species forms a consistent fishery in the Yellow Sea</span> and is also taken as bycatch   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162662		conservation	eng	Research is required on the trends in population size, life history traits and whether  harvesting is having an impact on the population size of this species.
162662		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species is continuous from India (Arabian Sea) to southern Japan, and encompasses the Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, Gulf of Thailand, Indonesia, South and East China Sea, Yellow Sea and Sea of Japan (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162662		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of neritic habitats   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The sex ratio is 1:1 and growth rates are similar for both sexes, although females attain the largest body sizes   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Spawning occurs year round in the Gulf of Thailand with peaks from March to April and July to September; spawning occurs in depths between 10 and 50 m   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Around India mature individuals are present throughout the year with spawning peaks between January and April (eastern), and in April, July and December (southwestern)   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Hong Kong spawning occurs in depths of 5 to 20 m from March to May   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162662		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162662		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The major threat to the needle cuttlefish is unregulated fishing   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). There are commercially important fisheries around India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, southern China and Taiwan, Province of China; the species is caught using a variety of gear types (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Around Hong Kong mature individuals are harvested during the spawning season (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162663		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution and threats impacting this species.
162663		distribution	eng	The Carol Bobtail Squid (<em>Neorossia caroli caroli</em>) has a wide geographic and depth distribution (40 to 1,744 m in depth)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the eastern Atlantic its distribution ranges from Iceland and the United Kingdom and Ireland southwards along the Atlantic coast of Europe and Africa as far south as Namibia   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution range includes the Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the southwest Atlantic the range of <em>Neorossia caroli jeannae</em> includes the Patagonian slope and Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and it has been collected between 474 and 670 m (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162663		habitat	eng	This small species has a wide and deep depth range (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the Mediterranean Sea it is abundant at 400 m and between 600 to 700 m in depth (Reid and Jereb 2005). Although it also occurs on the upper continental slope (200 to 400 m) and is also abundant between 1,000 and 2,000 m in depth (Reid and Jereb 2005). Ontogenetic upslope vertical migration of small individuals has been suggested for this species (Reid and Jereb 2005). In the southwest Atlantic it occurs between 474 and 670 m (Reid and Jereb 2005). Indeed, it is the deepest occurring species amongst the Sepiolidae (Reid and Jereb 2005). It inhabits areas of muddy substrate and its distribution range overlaps with <em>Rossia macrosoma</em>, <em>Sepietta oweniana</em> and <em>Rondeletiola minor</em> (Reid and Jereb 2005). <br/>Females attain a larger body size (up to 83 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 51 mm in mantle length) (Reid and Jereb 2005). Spawning occurs over an extended period or perhaps throughout the year with peaks in summer and/or autumn (Reid and Jereb 2005). The large, violet coloured eggs (8 to 10 mm in diameter) are attached to hard substrates over a wide depth range (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Rossiinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162663		population	eng	The population size of both east and west Atlantic populations is unknown.
162663		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neorossia caroli</span> is of little interest to commercial fisheries although it is sometimes taken as by catch.
162664		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162664		distribution	eng	This species has a wide geographic distribution (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It occurs in the northeast and east Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea extending from the Shetland Islands and Norway in the north, through the Mediterranean Sea to northwest Africa (i.e. to Senegal) in the south (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is not present in the Baltic Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162664		habitat	eng	The common cuttlefish is a large species and can attain a maximum mantle length of 490 mm and body weight of 2 kg in temperate waters, and 300 mm and 2 kg in subtropical regions   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It inhabits sandy or muddy substrates and can tolerate brackish waters; younger individuals tolerate lower salinities and more environmental instability than adults   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Both adults and young bury in the sand during the day   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ambushes prey from its hiding place in the sand, feeding on a wide variety of prey including crustaceans, molluscs, polychaetes, small demersal fish as well as other cuttlefish (cannibalism is common when other prey abundances are low) (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). They are preyed upon by sharks, demersal fishes and other cephalopods (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Growth rates are rapid leading to a life span of one to two years (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). During autumn and winter individuals migrate to deeper water (approximately 100m); returning to shallow water in spring and summer (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Mediterranean large males return to shallow waters ahead of females with females and smaller individuals joining them throughout the spring and summer (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males demonstrate courtship behaviour and will guard females from rival males (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Spawning occurs in shallow, inshore waters in April to July in the western Mediterranean and January to April off Senegal (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males have on average 1,400 spermatophores, and females can have between 150 and 4,000 eggs (8 to 10mm in diameter) depending on their body size (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The eggs are attached to a range of substrates, including seaweed and shells, and are darkened with ink (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). The duration of embryonic development is temperature dependent and ranges from 30 to 90 days (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Those young that hatch in spring usually spawn in the autumn of the following year; those that hatch in autumn usually spawn in the spring of their second year (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Young are restricted to shallow water until their cuttlebones are fully formed (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Due to post spawning mortality in females there is sometimes a bias in adult males (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has been raised successfully in aquaculture (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162664		population	eng	Although estimates of the total population size do not exist, stock assessments of the exploited English Channel stock have been made (Royer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In spite of some growth overfishing, there was no indication that the species was at risk. Some assumptions of this paper were not met, so the results should be considered with care, but since 2006 cuttlefish landings from the English Channel have remained high suggesting they are being exploited at sustainable levels.
162664		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is a commercially important fisheries species in the Mediterranean Sea and off the west coast of Africa (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). It is intensively fished in the Mediterranean Sea and may be close to its sustainable limit (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). Females may also be used as lures to traps during the spawning season (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005). It is also caught as bycatch (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2005).
162665		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162665		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species is along the western coast of Africa from Western Sahara and the Canary Islands southwards to the Gulf of Guinea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162665		habitat	eng	Females attain a larger body size (up to 18 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 8.5 mm in mantle length)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162665		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162665		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162666		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting and threats impacting this species.
162666		distribution	eng	This species&#160;has a geographic distribution that extends from southern Japan (central Honshu), along the coast of China to Viet Nam in the south   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its range encompasses Taiwan, Province of China and northern Philippines, as well as the East and South China Seas   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its range may extend further south to Singapore and Indonesia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162666		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and inhabits sandy substrates (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It feeds on crustaceans and small fish. Animals move into deep water during winter and return to shallow waters in spring to spawn (Norman 2003). Spawning occurs between spring and early summer (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Males guard females and prior to mating the male gives colourful displays (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The eggs are often laid onto elongate substrates such as seaweed and sunken branches (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The sticky egg cases accumulate debris as camouflage (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Depending on water temperature the direct developing young hatch in about 30 to 80 days (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162666		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162666		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish.&#160; Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).&#160; This species is fished commercially in the East China Sea and for subsistence off the Philippines (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its flesh is considered tasty in many Asian countries, for example China and Japan   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162667		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.
162667		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species ranges from the Red Sea in the east to western and southern India, and encompasses the Gulf of Aden, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and Laccadiva Islands (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162667		habitat	eng	This neritic species attains a mantle length of up to 88 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162667		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown. Valinassab (pers. comm. 2010) reports low abundance of this species in the northern Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, but higher abundance in the southern part of the Gulf of Oman.
162667		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Benthic trawl resource surveys have reported its presence (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) suggesting its catchability.
162668		conservation	eng	Socotra Archipelago is a World Heritage Site with marine nature sanctuaries giving legal protection to the biodiversity therein. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162668		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off Socotra Island (Yemen) near the Gulf of Aden and probably Somalia as well   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Depth range to 100 m   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162668		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of 80 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162668		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162668		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). There is also potential threat from fishing.
162669		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162669		distribution	eng	This species occurs off Mauritius   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Records from Australia and Polynesia are doubtful   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its depth distribution is unknown   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162669		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiolinae </span>are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162669		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162669		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162670		conservation	eng	Socotra Archipelago is a World Heritage Site with marine nature sanctuaries giving legal protection to the biodiversity therein. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162670		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off Socotra Island, Yemen and probably in East Africa (Somalia) as well (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162670		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 70 mm (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162670		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162670		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). There is a potential threat from fishing.
162672		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required. Further research regarding the population trends and life history patterns of this species is recommended.
162672		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Inioteuthis maculosa</em> ranges from The Gulf through the northern Indian Ocean to Taiwan, Province of China and the Philippines. Its range includes the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Thailand, and the South and East China Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162672		habitat	eng	Females have a slightly longer mantle length (up to 14 mm) compared to males (up to 13 mm)   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162672		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162672		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162673		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Its geographic distribution extends from southern Queensland southwards to northeast of Tathra in New South Wales   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162673		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162673		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162673		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is also of concern that there are no stock assessments for this species despite it continually being taken as bycatch   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162674		conservation	eng	&#160;Further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species.
162674		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species includes the western tropical Pacific and northwestern Australia   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Records exist from the Marshall Islands, the Philippines and north-west Australia (Norman and Lu 1997) and its distribution therefore probably also extends through Indonesia.
162674		habitat	eng	Members of the subfamily <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiolinae </span>are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162674		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162674		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
162676		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is found around the northeast coastline of Australia, from the Gulf of Carpentaria (and possibly further west) east to Port Stephens in New South Wales (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162676		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths from 0 to 128 m.
162676		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162676		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is also of concern that there are no stock assessments for this species despite it continually being taken as bycatch (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
162677		conservation	eng	Basic research is required to determine the distribution, population size, life history characteristics and threats impacting this species.
162677		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cape Town (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The depth distribution of this species is unknown (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162677		habitat	eng	This species is known only from cuttlebones which attain 75 mm in length (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162677		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162677		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162678		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162678		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of <em>Sepia sewelli</em> ranges from Cape Guardafui in Somalia southwards to Zanzibar in Tanzania and likely includes Madagascar   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162678		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 30 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162678		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162678		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162679		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended in order to determine the population trends, distribution and threats impacting this species.
162679		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Namibia to Port Elizabeth, South Africa, and possibly along the east coast of Africa as far north as the Red Sea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Occurences in China are likely to be misidentifications (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162679		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found off the coast of South Africa and is abundant between 60 and 190 m in depth (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is able to tolerate low oxygen levels like those found in shallow waters to the west of southern Africa (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It feeds primarily on stomatopod crustaceans and is a principle prey item for fur seals and groundfishes such as skates (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Spawning appears to occur in the austral winter with mature animals moving to deep water west of the Agulhas Bank (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Individuals appear to attain larger body sizes on the west coast compared to the south coast of Africa (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162679		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162679		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is ecologically important as a prey species and its high abundance and tasty flesh mean that it may be exploited by fisheries in the future (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162680		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
162680		distribution	eng	This species has a geographic distribution that ranges from Dirk Hartog Island in Western Australia, along northern Australia to New South Wales (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has not been recorded from the Gulf of Carpentaria or along southern Papua (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162680		habitat	eng	This species has a depth range from 83 to 184 m (Reid et al. 2005).
162680		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162680		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is taken as bycatch   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species may be the target of fisheries in the future   (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162681		conservation	eng	Research is required on the trends in population size, and whether harvesting is having an impact on the population size of this species.
162681		distribution	eng	The geographic distribution of this species<em></em> includes northern Australia from Mandurah, western Australia, to Moreton Bay, southern Queensland and the southern coast of New Guinea (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162681		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal neritic species found on sand and muddy habitats in shallow waters (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is typically well camouflaged but when disturbed changes to bright, warning colouration (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is active by day preying on fish and crustaceans (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The female spawns large white eggs into crevices or under ledges in coral, rock, wood or coconut shells (Norman 2003). This species has direct developing young (Norman 2003).
162681		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162681		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). This species is characterised by bright colours and patterns and interesting behaviours that may make it a popular in the aquarium trade (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
162682		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162682		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide geographic distribution ranging from the northeast Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal southwards along the coast of Africa to southern Namibia. Its range also includes the Mediterranean Sea   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162682		habitat	eng	This small species occurs in the upper bathyal region over muddy substrates   (Reid and Jereb 2005). It is able to tolerate brackish waters in some parts of its range (e.g. the Sea of Marmara in the Mediterranean Sea). In the Mediterranean Sea mature individuals are present throughout the year suggesting spawning occurs over an extended period at the population level (Reid and Jereb 2005). This species may move to surface waters at night during the spawning period (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily Sepiolinae are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162682		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown, however, this species, which has often been reported as rare in some areas has recently proved to be fairly common in several areas of the western Mediterranean and Aegean Sea (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162682		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is caught locally for food throughout its distributional range (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162683		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no  evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
162683		distribution	eng	The Big Bottom Bobtail Squid (<em>Austrorossia australis</em>) occurs off Australia ranging from southern Western Australia, along the coast around Tasmania to northern Queensland   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162683		habitat	eng	This species has a wide depth range over sandy and muddy substrates   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Females attain a larger body size (up to 63mm) compared to males (up to 34mm)   (Reid and Jereb 2005). The ovarian oocytes develop in groups with eggs being spawned intermittently over a long period   (Reid and Jereb 2005).   Members of the subfamily <span style="font-style: italic;">Rossiinae </span>are bottom living species that typically bury in soft sediments during the day, and emerge at night to feed (Norman 2003).
162683		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162683		threats	eng	This species possibly has minor fishery potential   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
162684		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
162684		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off Java in Indonesia   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its depth distribution is unknown   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is only known from the type locality.
162684		habitat	eng	This species attains a mantle length of up to 50 mm   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). All species of <em>Sepiella</em> have a special gland at the tip of the mantle (Norman 2003). Its function is unknown but may have a defensive role (Norman 2003).
162684		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
162684		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
162685		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends   in this. Further information on the life history of this species is   also required.
162685		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs off the western Philippines in shallow coastal areas of the South China Sea (Reid 2005).
162685		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiadarium </span>species tend to occur on soft sediments into which they bury during the day, emerging nocturnally to feed on small crustaceans and fish (Norman 2003). Very little is known about <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepiadarium gracilis.<br/></span>
162685		population	eng	Its population size is unknown.
162685		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although the South China Sea, which encompasses the species range, is known to be heavily impacted by anthropogenic activities, particularly over-fishing.
162686		conservation	eng	Research is required to investigate population trends and life history patterns to determine whether this species is associated with seagrasses or mangroves, as other <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> species appear to be.
162686		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality: Ambon, Molucca Islands, Indonesia.
162686		habitat	eng	All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> live in shallow coastal waters amongst seaweed or seagrasses (Norman 2003) but no data are available as to the precise habitat of this species.   Members of the Idiosepiidae family have a glue gland on their dorsal body surface that allows them to stick to seaweed, seagrass and other objects (Norman 2003). Pygmy squids typically feed on crustaceans and females attach their eggs onto seaweed or seagrass blades (Norman 2003). Development is thought to include a pelagic stage (Reid 2005).
162686		population	eng	The population size is unknown. <br/><em><br/></em>
162686		threats	eng	So little is known about this species that the threats are unknown. It is necessary to discover more about this species habitat because of the known association of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Idiosepius</span> species with seagrasses and mangroves. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idiosepius</span> occur in highly populated inshore waters and are therefore likely to be affected by anthropogenic influences.
162687		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
162687		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the east coast of Africa from Port Elizabeth in South Africa northwards to the Gulf of Aden and includes Madagascar, the islands and submerged banks of the Mascarene Ridge   and Socotra (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005).
162687		habitat	eng	This is species attains a mantle length of up to 250 mm and has a wide geographic distribution   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its depth range is from 20 to 125 m.
162687		population	eng	<p>The population size of this species is unknown.</p>
162687		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is a commercially important fishery in some parts of its distribution range   (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is likely taken on a lesser scale in many other regions.
163421		conservation	eng	In Mexico, turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/><br/>Populations, at least in Illinois and in the Nebraska Sandhills, need further survey and monitoring efforts. The ecological integrity of their wetlands habitats must be preserved and safeguarded from drainage and other systemic impacts (Iverson 2001).
163421		distribution	eng	<p><em>Kinosternon flavescens</em> inhabits the Western Mississippi region, as well as isolated populations in Nebraska, the Illinois and middle Mississippi valleys (Illinois-Missouri-Iowa), through the Pecos-Grande basin of Texas, southwestern and eastern New Mexico, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nueva Leon, and Tamaulipas, to northern Veracruz; also populations in the endorheic basins of northwestern Chihuahua and adjacent extreme southeastern Arizona (Iverson 1992, Serb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Vetter 2004).</p>
163421		habitat	eng	<p><em>Kinosternon flavescens </em>occurs in almost any type of waterbody in desert and prairie areas. In the United States it is well documented to prefer temporary water bodies (review by Ernst and Lovich 2009), while in Mexico it is perceived to prefer permanent streams and permanent and temporary wetlands in grasslands. Depending on local climatic conditions, animals may hibernate or aestivate underground in sand above and some distance (100–450 m) away from water bodies.</p><p>The Yellow Mud Turtle feeds opportunistically on a variety of items, primarily animal matter; feeding on earthworms while underground has been reported (review by Ernst and Lovich 2009). In the Nebraska Sandhills, females mature at ages from 11–16 years. Generation time was calculated at 28.2 years, and longevity at this location certainly exceeds 40 years, perhaps significantly longer (Iverson 1991, 2001).&#160;</p><p>Females in the Nebraska Sandhills produce a single annual clutch of four to nine eggs (mean 3.9–6.5, SD 1.1), and show unique parental behaviour, the females remaining buried over the nest site for some time, ranging from several hours to over 38 days (Iverson 1990, 1991). Eggs incubated in the laboratory hatch after 94–125 days; natural incubation period grades into hibernation. Hatchlings measure about 24 mm (18–31mm).</p>
163421		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>: <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon flavescens</span> is considered common to very common (G. Santos and participants at MX Red List Workshop 2005). <br/>In the <span style="font-weight: bold;">United States</span>, the species is considered localized and uncommon in Illinois, but increasingly common from Nebraska to Arizona.
163421		threats	eng	<p>Habitat degradation and loss is likely a factor for some populations, but not across the whole of the species' range. Reduction of the water table in the United States, leading to the disappearance of surface ponds, is a concern in the United States. No specific threats have been reported from Mexico.</p><p> The Illinois populations, previously considered distinct as <em>Kinosternon flavescens spooneri</em>, have been the subject of intensive conservation attention as they declined due to habitat loss.</p>
163423		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
163424		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chelydra serpentina</span> is subject to a variety of state legislation, regulations and management efforts in Canada and the United States.<br/><br/>Capture of the species from the wild is prohibited in Michigan, New York and a number of other states, capture is permitted under regulation (size and/or bag limits, closed seasons, area restrictions, etc.) in Alabama, Maryland, Texas and several other states, and capture is unregulated in a few states   <p>Throughout the United States, trade in the species is restricted to animals over four inches CL, reducing the casual pet trade and making turtles under four inches CL available only for educational purposes </p>   The Snapping Turtle occurs in a substantial number of protected areas, both public and private.
163424		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chelydra serpentina</span> ranges throughout North America east of the Rocky Mountains, occurring northwards as far as the Great Lakes region and Nova Scotia, and southwards as far as Florida and the Nueces river (Texas) (Iverson 1992, Ernst and Lovich 2009). Feral turtles have been recorded from California (US), Japan, the Netherlands, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom.
163424		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chelydra serpentina</span> inhabits almost any type of water body, from rivers, lakes and reservoirs to marshes, temporary ponds, hill streams and tidal creeks. It ranges from tidally-influenced lowlands to 2,000 m altitude.<br/><br/>Snapping Turtles feed on a wide variety of animal and plant matter, and undergo extensive scavenging activities. At reported densities of 1.2–49 animals or 19–166 kg per hectare of suitable habitat, its biomass and presumably its ecological significance are substantial.<br/><br/>Males reach 49.4 cm carapace length (CL), females 36.6 cm CL. Maturity is reached at  at 4–6 yrs and 18–19 cm CL in males, and at about 10–12 (range 9–18) years / 20–22 (19–29) cm CL in females. Longevity 25–30 years (max 40 yrs). They usually produce a single clutch of 25–45 eggs (number of eggs increases with latitude) (Ernst and Lovich 2009). Generation time apparently has not been calculated. Incubation commonly takes 75–95 days. Hatchlings measure about 29 mm on average (range 16–38 mm).<br/><br/>[Information taken from reviews by Aresco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Steyermark <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Ernst and Lovich 2009].
163424		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chelydra serpentina</span> is widely distributed across a variety of habitats. It is never the numerically dominant turtle species, but it usually represents about 2–12% of the total number of turtles in trapping studies. Given its large body size, at its reported densities of 1.2–49 animals or 19–166 kg per hectare of suitable habitat, its biomass and presumably its ecological significance are substantial.<br/><br/>In Michigan, Snapping Turtles were intensively trapped for 2–3 years in the 1980s, greatly reducing populations. By 2009 populations were approaching pre-impact levels, indicating a 25–30 year recovery period after depletion (J. Harding pers comm. Aug 2009).
163424		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chelydra serpentina</span> is widely exploited, in some areas at the northern limits of occurrence to the degree that populations have declined significantly. As a result, Canada and many states in the U.S. have brought the species under various degrees of regulation or legislation to manage exploitation and trade, with a regulated or unrestricted commercial offtake permitted in about half the states in which the species occurs. Collection of Snapping Turtles from the wild, and captive production in turtle farms, for export to East Asia increased substantially in recent years, from about 10,000 animals declared as exported from the USA in 1999 to over 300,000 annually in recent years (LEMIS database - total recorded export numbers: 1999 – 10,053; 2000 – 18,486; 2001 – 38,911; 2002 – 63,644; 2003 – 129,683; 2004 – 141,544; 2005 – 316,500; 2006 – 377,408; 2007 – 316,093; 2008 – 558,491; available data do not allow differentiation of farmed vs. wild-collected trade volumes).<br/><br/>While habitat loss and degradation likely affect individuals and populations, Snapping Turtles are adaptable and mobile and are unlikely to be threatened by habitat change processes.<br/><br/>The impact of 'subsidized' predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) is generally unquantified but may be significant.<br/><br/>The impact of pollution, particularly of pesticides, industrial chemicals, and heavy metals, on Snapping Turtles appears to be sub-lethal at worst, to the point that snappers are a recognized biomonitoring species to monitor accumulation of pollutants in aquatic ecosystems.<br/><br/>Road-kill and other casual human-induced mortality occurs, but it is not clear whether this represents an overall threat to the species in combination with other impacts.
163429		conservation	eng	<p><span class="datalabel">Substantial populations of <em>Kinosternon baurii</em><span class="datalabel"> occur in protected areas, including the Everglades and the Okeefenokee Swamp. </span></p>  <p><span class="datalabel">The Florida Keys population is designated Endangered status by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. </p>  <p><span class="datalabel">Safeguarding adequate and extensive habitat mosaics of wetlands with extensive buffer zones and terrestrial corridors is important for the species’ long-term future, particularly reducing roadkill levels through a combination of wildlife underpasses and roadside screening. </span></p>  <p><span class="datalabel">Further and more detailed surveys of distribution, population density and structure, and habitat usage are highly desirable. </p>
163429		distribution	eng	<p><span class="datalabel"><em>Kinosternon baurii</em><span class="datalabel"> occurs from the Atlantic coastal plain of central Virginia through North and South Carolina,and Georgia to extreme southeastern Alabama and the Apalachicola basin of Florida and throughout the Florida Peninsula and the Keys (Iverson 1992, Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Buhlmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)</span></p>
163429		habitat	eng	<p><em>Kinosternon baurii</em> inhabits a wide range of still and slow-flowing freshwater bodies, including temporary pools, blackwater ponds, swamps, canals, ditches, streams and springs, as well as slightly brackish waters (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Animals move between habitats as wetlands dry out or to move to nesting sites, and may move up to 3.4 km. &#160;</p>  <p><em>Kinosternon baurii</em> is omnivorous, feeding on items as varied as cabbage palm seeds, juniper leaves, algae, snails and insects. Adults are predated upon by alligators, snail kites and a variety of mammal predators, while eggs and hatchlings experience very high predation rates from mammals and snakes (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). </p>  <em>Kinosternon baurii</em> is a small species, with males reaching up to 10.4 cm and females up to 11.8 cm (record 12.5 cm) carapace length (CL). Females mature at about 7.5-8.0 cm CL, at an estimated age of five to six years; males are thought to mature at smaller size and younger age (review by Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Female reproductive estimates have variously been made as one to three to three to six clutches per year, with clutch size usually two or three eggs but ranging one to six eggs. Hatchlings measure 20-25 mm CL and weigh 2.1-3.9 g (review by Wilson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). Longevity may exceed 50 years in captivity.
163429		population	eng	<p><span class="datalabel">Limited data available indicates that <em>Kinosternon baurii</em><span class="datalabel"> is relatively abundant in suitable habitat where it occurs north of the Florida Keys, but specific details of density, population dynamics or population structure remain wanting. </span></p>  <p><span class="datalabel">The Florida Keys populations are vulnerable to intensive development of private lands, and management measures for Key Deer potentially filling in mosquito ditches, which represent mud turtle prime habitat. Consequently the Florida Keys population is considered Endangered by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. </p>
163429		threats	eng	<p>Ongoing alteration and destruction of wetlands throughout the species’ range may accumulate into significant impact on the species, particularly as the species is dependent on a mosaic of aquatic and terrestrial habitats and requires vegetated nesting sites (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). </p>  <p>Roadkill rates are high; <em>K. baurii</em> represented 37% of all turtle roadkills found on a 3.2-km stretch of road in Alachua Co. (Smith and Dodd 2003)</p>  <p>Populations in the <span class="datalabel">Florida Keys populations are under some threat from intensive development of private lands, while in protected public lands, management measures for Key Deer potentially include filling in the mosquito ditches which represent mud turtle prime habitat (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).</p>
163435		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations. The species occurs in a number of protected areas.
163435		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> occurs in lowlands from Long Island, New York, to southern Florida and Texas; it ascends the Mississippi as far north as northern Indiana, but is apparently absent from the Ohio and Missouri river systems.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">subrubrum</span>: eastern seaboard from New York to North Florida, to southern Alabama, and from ther North to southern Illinois and Indiana.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum hippocrepis</span>: Texas, eastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum steindachneri</span>: Restricted to Peninsular Florida.
163435		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> inhabits a wide variety of shallow, soft-bottomed, heavily vegetated waterbodies with slow or no flow. It is tolerant of some salinity and can be abundant in salt marshes. <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> estivates on land, up to 160 m away from waterbodies (Cavanaugh and Loop 1988, in Meshaka and Gibbons 2006; Burke and Gibbons 1995). <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> is a preferentially carnivorous omnivore. <br/><br/>Males and females both reach about 12 cm carapace length (CL), with different trends in sexual size dimorphism across the range. Maturity is reached at a size of about 70-80 mm CL, at an age of four to eight years, depending on location. Longevity was calculated to be at least 23, and possibly up to 46 years. Generation time has apparently not been calculated (Frazer 1991). Females usually produce a single clutch, rarely two or three, of three to four (range 1-8) eggs. Incubation takes about 100 days. Hatchlings measure 18-23 mm (Meshaka and Gibbons 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).
163435		population	eng	In suitable habitat, <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> can be abundant, with densities of eight to 260 turtles per hectare having been documented (Gibbons 1983, Congdon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Trauth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). At the margins of its distribution, populations are small (Dreslik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).
163435		threats	eng	Individuals and populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Kinosternon subrubrum</span> are affected by habitat destruction, road mortality, and pesticide poisoning, but the species overall appears secure.
163444		conservation	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys concinna</em> is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations, and occurs in a substantial number of protected areas. One of the worst road-mortality locations for the subspecies <em>floridana</em>, road number US 27 at Lake Jackson, Leon County, FL, was mitigated by the Ecopassage funded by the 2009 Stimulus Act.</p><p> Existing protective legislation needs to be enforced and possibly strengthened and expanded, accompanied by public awareness efforts. <br/> Safeguarding riverine habitat from degradation, pollution and other impacts is necessary. Methods to minimize nest and turtle predation by human-facilitated natural predators need further development and implementation where possible. Population monitoring is required to establish baselines and record population trends. (See reviews by Jackson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). <br/></p><p>NatureServe assessed the species as G5, or Least Concern, in 2001 (NatureServe 2006). </p>
163444		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys concinna</em> inhabits the eastern and central United States, from eastern Texas through the lower Missouri-Mississippi basin and Ohio to Virginia and northern Florida:<br/> </p><ul><li><em>P. c. concinna</em>: Sabine-Missouri-Mississippi-Ohio basins, and Atlantic rivers above the fall line in the southeast, and from the Apalachicola westward in the Florida Panhandle. </li><li><em>P. c. floridana</em>: Coastal plain from North Carolina to Louisiana below the fall line. </li><li><em>P. c. suwanniensis</em>: West coast of peninsular Florida, eastward of the Ochlockonee River.</li></ul><p>  </p>
163444		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys concinna</em> is predominantly a species of medium to large rivers with clear water and extensive submerged vegetation, but can also occur in springs and spring runs, lakes, swamps and farm ponds.</p><p> It feeds nearly exclusively on aquatic plants. Because of its substantial biomass, <em>Pseudemys concinna</em> may play a significant role in the ecosystem through its feeding on aquatic vegetation and resulting nutrient cycling. <br/> </p><p>Males may reach 32 cm carapace length (CL), females 40 cm CL. Maturity is reached at about six years (19 cm CL) in males, 13–24 years (24 cm CL) in females, depending on location. Longevity may reach 40 years. Generation time probably is 20 years or longer.<br/></p><p> Females produce 1–6 clutches of about 15 (range 4–30) eggs. Incubation takes about 86 (range 70–96) days. Hatchlings measure about 34 (range 27–39) mm.<br/> </p><p>(Reviews by Jackson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).</p>
163444		population	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys concinna</em> can be abundant in suitable habitat, with densities of 70, 313, and 746 animals per km of river reported in Florida, representing biomass of up to 400 kg/km. Historical data suggest that densities were even higher in 1871 and 1942 (citation). Outside Florida, populations can be locally high but reported densities are at the order of 2–30 animals per km of river or shoreline. <br/></p><p> Population declines have not been quantified, but anecdotal information suggests that some populations have declined substantially over the past half-century as a result of targeted exploitation for local consumption, compounded by other human-induced mortality. In addition, river pollution has depleted or extirpated local populations (Fenholloway River, Escambia River, New River in Santa Fe drainage). <br/> (reviews by Jackson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).<br/></p>
163444		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudemys concinna</span> is locally subject to exploitation for consumption.<br/><br/>Wanton destruction, including fire-arms target practice and road mortality, represents an additional source of unnatural mortality. <br/>Nests and hatchlings may experience increased predation rates from elevated populations of human-subsidized predators such as raccoons, possums, foxes and crows.<br/><br/>Habitat impacts include dredging, impoundment, mining, industrial, agricultural and other pollution (and pollution-induced disease), and shading of nesting sites. Pollution and run-off additionally impact the aquatic vegetation that the species feeds on (see reviews by Jackson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).
163450		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>: <span style="font-style: italic;">Sternotherus odoratus</span> has a limited distribution area in Canada and is thus a species of conservation attention. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">United States</span>:<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sternotherus odoratus</span> is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations. The species occurs in a large number of protected and managed areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>: Information on habitat status at the Rio Sauz would be desirable, subsequently followed by an intensive survey for this species.
163450		distribution	eng	Eastern and Central United States (Maine to southern Wisconsin, Texas and Florida) and southeastern Canada (southeastern Ontario and adjoining extreme southern Quebec) (Iverson 1992, Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).<br/><br/>A single record from Rio Sauz, Sauz, Chihuahua, Mexico, considered by Smith and Smith (1979) to possibly pertain to a naturally extinct population, was considered invalid by Iverson (1992).
163450		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sternotherus odoratus</span> inhabit a wide variety of flowing and standing waterbodies, including deep water (up to 9 m), but does not tolerate saline water.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sternotherus odoratus</span> are preferentially carnivorous omnivores, with a preference for feeding on molluscs. <br/><br/>Males and females reach up to 14 cm carapace length (CL), though averaging 7-10 cm; maximum size and sexual dimorphism show geographic trends. Maturity is reached in 2-7 years / 50-65 mm CL (males) and 3-11 years / 62-85 mm in females, depending on location. Longevity of over 54 years has been demonstrated in captivity, while longevity in the wild has been estimated at 20-30 years. Generation time has not been calculated.<br/><br/>Females produce one to six clutches of about two to four (range one to nine) eggs, depending on location. Incubation usually takes 60-107 days (range 56-132), depending on location. Hatchlings measure 17-26 mm (reviews in Iverson and Meshaka 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).
163450		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sternotherus odoratus</span> is common to abundant in suitable habitat across its range, with reported densities ranging from 8-700 individuals per hectare, and 8.4 to 41.7 kg / ha biomass (review by Iverson and Meshaka 2006). The species is not considered to occur in Mexico.
163450		threats	eng	No significant human-induced mortality sources have been reported; it was considered 'the last turtle species to be negatively affected by environmental degradation' by Buhlmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) and it rarely ventures far from water thus road mortality is minimal; impacts of fisheries bycatch, if any, have not been recorded.
163451		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span> as a whole is managed as a non-game resource in much of the USA, and occurs in a wide variety of sites and habitats under various degrees of protective measures. Better understanding of harvest levels and population dynamics, and population monitoring, would be welcome. Conservation assessments for the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">guadalupensis</span> should be carried out as a matter of priority. <br/><br/>Introduced population of <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span> in the Colorado River basin is probably beyond control. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera atra</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>is included in Appendix I of CITES, prohibiting any form of commercial international trade, and is protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. Its entire range falls within the 843 km<sup>2</sup>. Cuatro Cienegas Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN Category VI), established in 1994. Much more information on the species’ natural history is urgently needed, and an investigation of the ecological and genetic effects of the presence/invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. spinifera emoryi </span>in Cuatro Cienegas is a top priority.
163451		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifer</span>a inhabits southernmost Ontario and Quebec in Canada, northern Mexico from Chihuahua to Tamaulipas, and most of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains. Occurs nearly throughout the Mississippi-Missouri-Ohio system, as far upstream as Wyoming, the Great Lakes region, Ottawa, southern St.Lawrence and Hudson systems, the Colorado system, the Rio Grande system, Atlantic drainages from Cape Fear to the Saint Marys River, and Gulf drainages from the Appalachicola to the Rio Soto de Marina.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera spinifera</span>: Most of the Mississippi-Missouri-Ohio and Great Lakes systems, with an isolated population in the Hudson valley. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> atra</span>: endemic to the Cuatro Cienegas basin of Coahuila, Mexico. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> aspera</span>: from southern North Carolina to Mississippi.&#160;   <br/>         <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span><em> emoryi</em>: Rio Grande - Pecos basin of Texas-New Mexico, USA, and Chihuahua to the Rio Soto de Marina in Tamaulipas, Mexico. Also inhabits the Colorado system of Arizona-California (and adjoining Utah, Nevada and New Mexico), documented to be introduced (Miller 1946, Iverson 1992, Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). Co-occurs with <em>Apalone s. atra</em> in the Cuatro Cienegas basin, where it prefers riverine sections (Webb and Legler 1960). <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> guadalupensis</span>: Central Texas. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> pallida</span>: Louisiana, northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma.
163451		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span> is a generalist aquatic species that inhabits almost any type of permanent waterbody, from fast-flowing large rivers to lakes and reservoirs to small marshy creeks, farm ponds and desert springs. A soft bottom with some aquatic vegetation appears required, as are sand bars or mudbanks for basking, while accumulations of underwater debris are preferred microhabitat (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).<br/><br/>Spiny Softshells are predominantly carnivorous, feeding on crayfish and other crustaceans, fish (carrion and small live fish), insects (aquatic larvae and fallen adults), other aquatic invetrtebrates, and some vegetable matter (reviews in Webb 1962, Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). <br/><br/>Males mature at relatively small size (8-10 cm plastron length/about 11-14 cm carapace length (CL), 130 grams or more), while females mature at CL over 28 cm (Webb, 1962:562). Maximum size of females is 54 cm CL, males maximum 21.6 cm. Maximum longevity is probably well over 30 years (Breckenridge 1955, in Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). Females normally produce two clutches per year, nesting mainly in June and July. Clutches usually comprise 12-18 eggs, extremes of clutch size are 4-39 (review by Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera atra</span>: Restricted to the Cuatro Cienegas basin, an hourglass-shaped intermontane basin of about 50 km long and 8-24 km wide (about 600 km<sup>2</sup>), its floor being at 720 m altitude. Much of the central part of the basin is marshy, with dry sandy slopes leading up the rocky valley slopes. A number of deep (up to several meters) ponds occur within the marshy area, and retain crystal-clear water throughout the year. About half the bottom is covered by dense submerged aquatic vegetation (mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span>), the other half is bare sediment. Waterlilies grow in the shallow parts, and thick stands of cattails (<span style="font-style: italic;">Typha</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis</span> fringe the ponds. Water temp is about 27-29 degrees C. Ponds may be separated from dry nesting areas on the slopes by substantial distances (several 100 m.) of flat marshy grassland. (Webb and Legler 1960). Within the basin, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. s. atra</span> has been recorded only within the deep ponds, but not in riverine situations (Webb and Legler 1960, Webb 1962). Limited information of food indicates that the animals feed selectively on aquatic insect larvae (Webb and Legler 1960). Reproductive data on dissected type series (limited to smaller individuals) suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. s. atra</span> matures at similar sizes as other <span style="font-style: italic;">spinifera</span> subspecies (Webb and Legler 1960), i.e. males mature at CL over 15 cm, and females at CL over 28 cm. No information is available on clutch size or frequency, on age at maturity, or longevity of <span style="font-style: italic;">atra</span>.
163451		population	eng	A widespread and generally common species. Depending on site and habitat type, Spiny Softshells constitute between less than 1% to 67% numerically of all turtles encountered in turtle community surveys (reviews in Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994, Ernst and Lovich 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera emoryi</span> was considered common in the Rio Florida and Lago Toronto in Coahuila, Mexico, in 1958 (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1960). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span> has apparently a substantial capacity for establishing itself in new areas, if its occurrence in the Colorado rivers system and the Cuatro Cienegas basin are indeed based on introductions. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera atra</span>: While quantitative data are not available, <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone s. atra</span> was not rare in the 1950s: ‘the heads of several [<span style="font-style: italic;">A.s</span>.] <span style="font-style: italic;">ater</span> could usually be seen at dusk by scanning the surface of the pond with binoculars’ (Webb and Legler 1960). No recent population data have been made widely available. In recent years it was considered a rare species, Smith and Smith (1979) considered it was extinct due to hybridization, but Flores-Villela (pers. comm. 2005) collected the species around 1990.<br/><br/>The morphological continuity between <span style="font-style: italic;">ater</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span> after some generations in sympatry have variously been interpreted as intergradation between subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span>, or as hybridisation between two species that were not reproductively isolated&#160; (Webb and Legler 1960, Webb 1962, Smith and Smith 1979, McGaugh 2008, McGaugh and Janzen 2008, McGaugh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
163451		threats	eng	While <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span> has long been exploited for local consumption (Webb 1962) and more recently for export of adults for food and of hatchlings as pets and for Asian farming operations, and some individuals are destroyed as nuisance by-catch by recreational fishermen, are run over when crossing roads, and populations are affected by pollution, water diversion, and water infrastructure development, the species as a whole is not threatened in its existence by present processes. However, certain subspecies and populations are considered to be less secure.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera spinifera</span>:&#160; The Lake Champlain and Hudson River valley populations<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are considered to warrant conservation attention. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera atra</span>: Main recorded threat is hybridisation or intergradation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera emoryi</span>, which entered the Cuatro Cienegas basin from the Rio Grande through the Rio Nadadores and Rio Salado. A number of previously isolated ponds and wetlands had been drained and interconnected by a network of canals before 1960 (probably before 1920) for agricultural purposes (Webb and Legler 1960, Smith and Smith 1979), but apparently not connected to the Rio Chiquito. How <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span> transferred from the Rio Nadadores to the isolated ponds is unclear; Webb (1962) considered overland dispersal during rain, subterranean connections, and human transport as possibilities.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span> was present in the Cuatro Cienegas basin as early as 1938-39 (Schmidt and Owens 1944); specimens of both forms collected in 1958 were clearly separable (Webb and Legler 1960) and apparently showed no indication of hybridisation at least 20 years after first contact. However, Webb (1962) subsequently noted that not all <span style="font-style: italic;">atra</span> showed all diagnosic characteristics, and that some approached the condition shown in <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span>. Within the basin, <span style="font-style: italic;">emoryi</span> shows a preference for riverine situations, with only few individuals recorded from ponds (Webb and Legler 1960, Webb 1962). Some trade and consumption of softshell turtles has occurred in the Cuatro Cienegas basin at least in the 1950s (Webb 1962). The survival of <span style="font-style: italic;">atra</span> is dependent on the ecological and hydrological integrity of the relatively small Cuatro Cienegas ecosystem. The Cuatro Cienegas basin has been extensively altered in its hydrology by digging canals to supply water to a steel mill in Monclova, and for local agricultural irrigation. Roads, railroads, pipelines and other infrastructure for industrial, logistic and tourism and recreational purposes have impacted the ecosystem, and some of these environmental impacts continue. Roads have created direct-mortality impacts. (Groombridge 1982, and references therein). Provided no further major engineering works impact the ecological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, and the protected area regulations are adhered to, <span style="font-style: italic;">atra</span> has probably surmounted its worst environmental impacts.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>Apalone spinifera emoryi</span>: Populations in Mexico are impacted by water diversion and reduced groundwater levels from irrigation and groundwater pumping.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone spinifera guadalupensis</span>: The status of populations of this Texas endemic are apparently poorly known.
163458		habitat	eng	Juveniles in freshwater areas of rivers; adults in estuarine areas. Terrestrial nest sites (beaches).
163467		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysemys picta</span> is subject to a variety of state legislation and regulations. The species occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
163467		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysemys picta</span> inhabits Canada, the continental United States and northern Chihuahua, Mexico, from British Columbia to Nova Scotia to southern Georgia and the upper Colorado River system of Utah and Arizona (Iverson 1992).<br/><ul><li><span style="font-style: italic;">C. p. picta</span>: occupies mainly the Atlantic lowlands east of the Appalachian Mountains, from Nova Scotia to northern Georgia. </li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">C. p. bellii</span>: western areas from the Pacific coast through the upper Missouri basin to southwestern Ontario, Wisconsin and Missouri, as well as in the Upper Colorado system. Populations attributed to <span style="font-style: italic;">bellii</span> inhabit the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo del Norte as it flows into Mexico, as well as the endorrheic basin(s) west of Ciudad Juarez, northern Chihuahua (Iverson, 1992). </li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">C. p. dorsalis</span>: restricted to the lower Mississippi basin from extreme southern Illinois and southeastern Missouri through Tennessee, Kentucky (?), Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama to Louisiana and east Texas, USA (Iverson 1992, Starkey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). </li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">C. p. marginata</span>: from southern Canada, New Hampshire and New York to Illinois and Tennessee, except the Atlantic coastal plain.</li></ul>
163467		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysemys picta</span> inhabits a wide variety of permanent and temporary water bodies, from rivers to marshes and brackish situations, though its optimal habitat is characterized by shallow, densely vegetated waters with little or no flow. The species is an omnivorous generalist, consuming almost any kind of animal or vegetable matter available.<br/><br/>Males reach 15.3 cm carapace length (CL), females up to 25.4 cm, with extensive variation depending on subspecies and location. Maturity is reached at age 2–4 years (at latest six years) and about 8–10 cm CL in males, and at 6–10 years and 11–18 cm CL in females. Longevity can be up to 61 years. Generation time has not been clearly calculated but is probably somewhere around 20 years.<br/><br/>Females usually produce two clutches (range 1–5) of about 5–11 (range 1–23) eggs, but not all females reproduce each year, and great variability occurs among subspecies, populations and individuals. Incubation takes about 70 (62–80) days. Hatchlings measure about 26.6 (range 18–31) mm.<br/><br/>[Information taken from review by Ernst and Lovich 2009].
163467		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>: No specific population data are available.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">United States</span>: The species is widespread and generally common to abundant in suitable habitat. Usually this is the most abundant turtle in shallow vegetated wetlands, where they may comprise 62–76% of all turtle individuals, and reach densities between 100 and 590 animals per hectare (from review by Ernst and Lovich 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>: No specific population data are available.
163467		threats	eng	Individuals and populations are impacted by habitat loss, road mortality, increased predation by subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements), intolerable levels of pollution, and capture for personal possession and trade. However, all four subspecies appear secure in their survival prospects.
163493		conservation	eng	It likely occurs in several protected areas.
163493		distribution	eng	This species is known from several districts in western Japan, i.e. Chubu District (Gifu and Aichi Prefectures), Kinki District (except for Kyoto and Hyogo Prefectures), Shikoku District, and Kyushu District (except for Saga and Nagasaki Prefectures) (Tominaga and Matsui 2008). Its   altitudinal range varies between 200 to 1,800 m asl (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).
163493		habitat	eng	This species    is found in montane forests near the headwaters of streams (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009). It lays eggs in small, underground streams, where the larvae hatch and metamorphose without feeding (Tominaga and Matsui 2008). The breeding season for studied populations is from May to June, and clutch sizes vary from 7 to 19 eggs (Tominaga and Matsui 2008).
163493		population	eng	This species is common within its distributional range (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).
163493		threats	eng	In the southernmost part of this species’ range, locals have indicated that beech forests on the mountain top where the species lives are changing to bush forests (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009). The past condition and causes of change need to be further investigated. Local, disjunct populations may be at greater threat of habitat change (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).
163516		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.<br/>As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
163516		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Known only from few localities (Colombo and Kandy District).
163516		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small brooklets meandering down the sides of the hills, presumably dense jungle or surrounding stream vegetation. Habitat type superficially similar to other representatives of the genus.  Larval form unknown.
163516		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.
163516		threats	eng	As for the whole genus, the species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Apparently, its original area of occurrence has not been so restricted.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).
163517		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; Many of the estuarine lagoons and wetlands are important from the ornithological point of view and some already have at least formal nature conservation status (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.
163517		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka and only known from type locality (Kadaimparu, Puttalam District). Small, apparently rare and inconspicuous species, which is seldom collected and photographed. First record of supposed <em>Mortonagrion</em> sp. from Sri Lanka originates from Laidlaw (1924), who listed a single female collected in Galle District as “? Genus ? Species”. A specimen of <em>Mortonagrion cf. ceylonicum</em> from Colombo District is present in National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2007-2009) but its identity is not confirmed. Recently, the species was not recorded during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003), but on the other hand, the appropriate type of habitat was not researched well. Two recent photographic records of <em>Mortonagrion</em> sp. by Karen Conniff come from Galle and Colombo Districts. Since the female is still undescribed the determination is difficult to confirm. However, the observed characters do not agree with original description completely, so it might even be possible that there are actually two <em>Mortonagrion</em> species in Sri Lanka.
163517		habitat	eng	Exact habitat unknown, most probably estuarine lagoons, marshes and lakes in the lowlands of Sri Lanka. Special vegetation structures or microhabitat determinants unknown.  Female and larval form undescribed.
163517		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown.
163517		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. The general type of habitat listed above is not rare in the lowlands of western Sri Lanka. However, without knowledge of specific ecological demands of the species, it is impossible to define the threats although it is thought future industrial development of the area is a possibility.
163518		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.<br/>If the above mentioned field work will be carried out, it will be possible to determine detailed distribution and population trend for <em>Paragomphus henryi</em> as well.
163518		distribution	eng	Sri Lanka. Known from almost 40 localities, mostly in south-western and central part of the island.&#160; The species is present in all large odonatological collection, also those made by Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland) and National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (2001, 2003).
163518		habitat	eng	Moderately to fast flowing streams and rivers in hill and mountain regions.
163518		population	eng	At least locally, strong populations of the species exist although detailed information and trend are unknown.
163518		threats	eng	Pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the south-western and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island, including <em>Paragomphus henryi</em>.
163519		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p><br/>General Note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
163519		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Rare species. Known from a dozen localities in southwestern and central part of the island (Ratnapura, Matara, Colombo, Kegalle and Galle Districts).&#160; Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) and Lund University (Sweden) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).
163519		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small streams and rivulets in primary rainforest.  Larval form unknown.
163519		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.
163519		threats	eng	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forest. Many potential habitats in southwestern and central part of the island were completely destroyed in last decades.&#160; Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).
163520		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson et al. 2000).
163520		distribution	eng	The species is found in Sri Lanka and known and recently recorded from more than 10 localities; Badulla, Matara, Ratnapura, Galle and Matale District.
163520		habitat	eng	It inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest, occasionally found also in streams between tea plantations.  Larval form undescribed.
163520		population	eng	Population size and trend is unknown, presumably not so rare and populations not so small as the current data show.
163520		threats	eng	Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under treat. However, fast flowing rivulets and streams with waterfalls are common in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country) of Sri Lanka.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.
163522		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Austrogomphus angeli</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known only from Noonkanbah Station, Kimberley region, Western Australia (Watson 1991).
163522		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163522		population	eng	Possibly rare, as only one specimen has been collected (Watson 1991).
163522		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163523		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; found from latitude 21°S, Cairns area to Victoria-New South Wales border (Theischinger 1996, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163523		habitat	eng	Inhabits small to medium-sized streams, occasionally temporary, with the larvae generally occurring under logs, mostly in shady areas (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163523		population	eng	The species appears to be common.
163523		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163524		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163524		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges Australia-wide, except southern Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163524		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, boggy seepages, riverine pools and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163524		population	eng	Appears to be a very common species with a stable population.
163524		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163525		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Nososticta kalumburu</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163525		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Drysdale River, Roe River, Barnett River, Galvin Gorge and Adcock Gorge, all in Kimberley Region, Western Australia (Watson and Theischinger 1984).
163525		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163525		population	eng	There is no data available on the size or trend for the population of <em>Nososticta kalumburu</em>.
163525		threats	eng	The farming agro-industry is projected to negatively affect the habitat of this species.
163526		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163526		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; southeast Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and southeastern South Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163526		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, riverine pools, lakes and ponds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163526		population	eng	Appears to be common with a stable population.
163526		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163527		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Eurysticta reevesi</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163527		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known only from the type locality at Torrens Creek, White Mountain National Park, Queensland, 20°28’50”S / 144°.55’03”E (Theischinger 2001).
163527		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163527		population	eng	Presently only one population is known although detailed numbers and trend remains unknown.
163527		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163528		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163528		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes eastern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and southeastern South Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163528		habitat	eng	Inhabits boggy seepages and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163528		population	eng	Appears to be common with a stable population.
163528		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163529		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.
163529		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; Killarney, Bunya Mountains, Mapleton Falls Cedar Creek, Mount Tamborine, all localities in Queensland (Tillyard 1916, Watson and Theischinger 1980). Theischinger and Hawking (2006) record the distribution as coastal eastern Queensland and New South Wales.
163529		habitat	eng	The adults are crepuscular and usually fly very close to the ground (Theischinger 1977, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The larvae are terrestrial along small streams (Watson and Theischinger 1980).
163529		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species.
163529		threats	eng	Previous and future threats include the deforestation of the species habitat, for housing development.
163530		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163530		distribution	eng	Distribution includes southeastern Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006), Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163530		habitat	eng	Inhabits still and sluggish waters; streams, riverine pools, ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163530		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
163530		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163531		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163531		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. They are known from southeastern New South Wales and Victoria (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163531		habitat	eng	Inhabits coastal and mountain streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163531		population	eng	A moderately common species with a stable population.
163531		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163532		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.
163532		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Cairns, Tully and Atherton Tablelands area, Queensland (Theischinger 1982).
163532		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, often in rainforests (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163532		population	eng	The species appears to be common in a small area.
163532		threats	eng	Threats occurring now and are going to continue include the deforestation of suitable habitat for housing development.
163533		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163533		distribution	eng	Southwestern Australia, from just north of Perth, south to Albany (Watson 1977, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163533		habitat	eng	Inhabit rivers drying to pools, permanent lakes, ponds and boggy swamps; larvae found on sticks and muddy weeds (Watson 1962).
163533		population	eng	The species appears to be common (Watson 1977).
163533		threats	eng	There are no threats to <em>A. pusillus</em> at present.
163534		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures presently in place and research into the effects of mining and housing developments are needed to halt the decline of viable habitat.
163534		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Reported from brown acid dune lakes, Queensland; Brown Lake, perched swamp above Flinders Beach, Dunwich, Tortoise Lagoonall North Stradbroke Island; Lake Minker, Fraser Island; swamp east of Blue Lagoon, Moreton Island; New South Wales: Lake Hiawatha, Wooli (Watson and Moulds 1979).
163534		habitat	eng	Inhabits brown, acidic dune lakes and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163534		population	eng	The species appears to be rare.
163534		threats	eng	Restricted to brown, acidic dune lakes and swamps which are threatened by being in filled for urban development and sand mining (Hawking 1999).
163535		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163535		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes southeastern New South Wales and Victoria (mainly alpine areas), with the northern-most locality Kanangra Walls, Blue Mountains, New South Wales (33º59’S) and southern-most locality Kinglake, Victoria (37º16’S) (Theischinger and O’Farrell 1986, Hawking and Theishinger 1999, Theischinger and Hawking 2006.)
163535		habitat	eng	Adults frequent streams and boggy seepages (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The larva has been recorded from amongst submerged aquatic vegetation in a deep, mountain stream pool (Hawking and Theischinger 1999) and is figured by Theischinger and Hawking (2006).
163535		population	eng	The species appears to be common.
163535		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163536		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163536		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Distribution includes southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, southern South Australia and southeastern Western Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163536		habitat	eng	Inhabits lakes, permanent ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Larvae are commonly in acidic lakes and swamps (Hawking unpublished data 1990).
163536		population	eng	The species appears to be common.
163536		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163537		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.
163537		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known from localities in the Northern Territory: Katherine River, Katherine; Along the Stuart Highway (Berry Springs, Coomalie Creek and Adelaide River) and Jasper Gorge, northwest of Victoria River Downs (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991).
163537		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163537		population	eng	Most probably a locally common species.
163537		threats	eng	Habitat is being lost for the agro-farming industry, and the degradation is thought to continue in the future.
163538		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Indolestes alleni</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes northeast coastal, north Gulf, north coastal Queensland, Northern Territory; North Queensland (Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163538		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine lagoons, ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163538		population	eng	The population size and trend is unknown for <em>Indolestes alleni</em>.
163538		threats	eng	The farming agro-industry is negatively affecting the habitat of this species and is likely to have an impact on the species in the future.
163539		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research actions into the effects the tourist developments are having on the habitat and breeding grounds need to be applied.
163539		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Confined to the buttongrass plains of the Tasmanian Alpine region, Tasmania (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163539		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane trickles and swampy buttongrass plains of the Tasmanian Alpine region, Tasmania (Allbrook 1979, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163539		population	eng	The adult is moderately common and now known from 20 locations, but all sites confined to the alpine plains above 1,200 m (Tillyard 1917, Allbrook 1979, Sant and Hayes 1990).
163539		threats	eng	The species habitat is currently being degraded due to tourism use, and this loss is likely to continue in the future.
163540		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed as no known threats exist at present.
163540		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; southwestern Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163540		habitat	eng	Inhabits boggy seepages and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163540		population	eng	Appears to be common with a stable population.
163540		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163541		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163541		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes North Territory to Victoria (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The southern limit appears to be the Kiewa River, Victoria (Hawking 1986). Hawking and Theischinger (1999) list the collection site in New South Wales.
163541		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers, with the larvae found amongst gravel (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163541		population	eng	Appears to be common with a stable population.
163541		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163542		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.
163542		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. South of 35°S in eastern New South Wales to Victoria (Theischinger 1995, Theischinger and Hawking 2006.)
163542		habitat	eng	The larvae are semi-terrestrial, long lived and inhabit narrow trickles, sphagnum swamps and the splash-zones of waterfalls.  Adults have an altitudinal range from 600 - 1,800 m (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163542		population	eng	The species appears to be scarce.
163542		threats	eng	Land is being cleared of viable <em>Austropetalia victoria</em> habitat for housing and tourism development and this looks set to continue into the future.
163543		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present and further research into the life history of this species is needed.
163543		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; it is only known from northeast Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163543		habitat	eng	The only known information is that adults frequent ponds and swamps (Watson, Theischinger & Abbey 1991), where they are found in long grass bordering a swamp (Fraser 1960) and the larva is unknown (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Watson (1968) provided a photograph of the tiny adult (2-3 cm) from a swamp near Innisfail, Queensland.
163543		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species.
163543		threats	eng	Habitat is likely to be degraded in the future due to housing development and agro-industrial farming.
163544		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.
163544		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Southwestern Australia, from Augusta to Albany (Watson 1977, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163544		habitat	eng	Inhabit rivers drying to pools, permanent lakes, ponds and boggy swamps; larvae found on sticks and muddy weeds (Watson 1977).
163544		population	eng	A scarce to uncommon species; population trend is unknown.
163544		threats	eng	Threats occurring now and are going to continue include the deforestation of suitable habitat for housing development and the agro-farming industry.
163545		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Macromia viridescens</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163545		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Cape York to near Coen, Queensland and New Guinea (Moulds 1979, Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163545		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams flowing through dense rain forests (Moulds 1979, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163545		population	eng	The population size and trend is unknown for <em>Macromia viridescens</em>.
163545		threats	eng	The species habitats are likely to be deforested in the future although the purposes are not detailed.
163546		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163546		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; eastern Australia from central eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria (Hawking 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006)
163546		habitat	eng	Mostly inhabits lowland streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163546		population	eng	The species appears to be common.
163546		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163547		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; ranges from north Queensland, near Cairns to northeastern New South Wales (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163547		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163547		population	eng	Appears to be a very common species with a stable population.
163547		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163548		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Watson (1991) states “the known distribution of <em>Hemigomphus theischingeri</em> is limited to permanent streams in a narrow region extending approximately 400 km south-southeast along the coastal foothills from the mountains south of Cooktown to those northwest of Townsville” in northeastern Queensland.
163548		habitat	eng	Known only from rainforest streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163548		population	eng	Appears to be common although the trend is not known.
163548		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163549		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, but research is needed to investigate the extent of damage the groundwater extraction is doing to the habitat.
163549		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia.  Known from five localities: Deep Reach, Fortescue River, Millstream Station; Koomina Pools, Tanberry Creek; Palm Pool; Fortescue Crossing; Millstream Spring, Millstream area, Pilbara, Western Australia (Watson 1969)
163549		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163549		population	eng	Most probably rare and/or a very restricted species.
163549		threats	eng	The habitat is being lost to the extraction of groundwater.
163550		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known from northeastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163550		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine pools, lakes, permanent ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Adult is a predator and volant (quick and nimble in flight) (Houston and Watson 1988).
163550		population	eng	The species appears to be common.
163550		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163551		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163551		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from Cairns to Townsville, northeastern Queensland (Theischinger 1982, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Distribution: Northeastern Queensland (Watson 1974, Theischinger 1982, Theischinger and Hawking 2006.)
163551		habitat	eng	Inhabits rainforest streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163551		population	eng	The species appears to be moderately common.
163551		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163552		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163552		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; occurs from northern Queensland to southern New South Wales (Watson 1991, Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163552		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006)
163552		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species.
163552		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163553		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place or planned for this species.
163553		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes eastern Australia, from Fraser Island in southern Queensland to central Victoria (Watson 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163553		habitat	eng	Inhabits stream, rivers and lakes, where the larvae are found amongst detritus/mud in pools and on gravel beds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163553		population	eng	The species appears to be common (Watson 1991).
163553		threats	eng	The habitat continues to be degraded for human purposes.
163554		conservation	eng	<em>Lithosticta macra</em> occurs within a World Heritage Area, however Uranium mining is conducted and is proposed within the species range.  Research is needed to understand the effects of these proposals.
163554		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Known from the following localities: Koongara; Oenpelli; Mount Brockman massif; Rock Hole Mine; Little Nourlangie Rock; Katherine (all Northern Territory) (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Hawking 1993).
163554		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers, and rocky regions away from them (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163554		population	eng	Most probably a locally scarce with an unknown population trend.
163554		threats	eng	Quality of the habitat is being degraded due to increased mining and tourism.
163555		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into the effects the proposed housing development will have on the habitat and breeding grounds.
163555		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from Fraser Island in southeastern Queensland to northeastern New South Wales (Theischinger 1999, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163555		habitat	eng	Inhabits boggy seepages and swamps and known only from low altitude (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163555		population	eng	The species is scarce to very uncommon although the population trend is thought to be stable.
163555		threats	eng	The habitat this species occurs in is likely to under-go a change in management regime that is going to threaten the survival of <em>Petalura litorea</em> found there.  More houses are also due to be built in and around the same area, and continuous sand-mining is a threat.
163556		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Nososticta koolpinyah</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163556		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Black Jungle, Koolpinyah Station to Darwin and on the offshore Melville Island, Northern Territory (Watson and Theischinger 1984).
163556		habitat	eng	Frequents streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163556		population	eng	<em>Nososticta koolpinyah</em> is possibly rare to scarce, and the trend is unknown.
163556		threats	eng	The farming agro-industry and mining is projected to negatively affect the habitat of this species.
163557		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from top end of Northern Territory; northeastern Queensland, including Cape York (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163557		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163557		population	eng	Appears to be common with a stable population.
163557		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163558		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Griseargiolestes bucki</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163558		distribution	eng	Theischinger and O’Farrell (1986) lists five scattered collection areas (Barrington Tops, Walcha, Dorrigo Rd, Upper manning River, Styx River in the north east of New South Wales, Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163558		habitat	eng	Inhabits seepages along streams and possibly sphagnum bogs (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163558		population	eng	Appear to be abundant at the two locations it is known from.
163558		threats	eng	The species habitats are likely to be deforested in the future although the purposes are not detailed.
163559		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163559		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand; ranges from North Island and in Marlborough, Nelson, the West Coast, and Southland in the South Island.
163559		habitat	eng	Inhabits rough forest land and scrub country (Rowe 1987).
163559		population	eng	A moderately common species.
163559		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163560		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Eusynthemis netta</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163560		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Known only from the type locality, stream on Mount Lewis, northwest of Julatten, North Queensland (Theischinger 1999).
163560		habitat	eng	Adults have been collected along streams in or near rainforest (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163560		population	eng	Present only one population is known.
163560		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163561		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163561		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Known across the north of Australia from Western Australia to Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Hawking (1993) list 18 sites in the Kakadu area, Northern Territory where larvae of <em>Hemicorduli intermedia</em> have been collected, and Watson and Abbey (1980) list six locations in the Kakadu area, Northern Territory where adults have been collected.
163561		habitat	eng	Inhabits sluggish rivers, riverine lagoons, lakes and ponds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163561		population	eng	The species appears to be common with a stable population.
163561		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163562		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Spinaeschna watsoni</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Atherton Tablelands area (Theischinger 1982).&#160; Theischinger (1982) lists five collection sites in the Cairns and Atherton Tablelands area. Listed as northeastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163562		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, often in rainforests (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163562		population	eng	Appears to be scarce as an adult, however, larvae and exuviae appear to be abundant (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163562		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known at present.
163563		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes south Western Australia (Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Tillyard (1910) gave the range as from Perth to Cape Leeuwin.
163563		habitat	eng	Tillyard (1910) suggested that it occurs fairly commonly on all running streams and mountain brooks, very occasionally also on freshwater lagoons.  Theischinger and Hawking (2006) list it as inhabiting streams, boggy seepages and swamps. The larvae can withstand drying out (Watson 1967, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163563		population	eng	The species is common. Tillyard (1910) suggested that it occurs fairly commonly on all running streams and mountain brooks, very occasionally also on freshwater lagoons.
163563		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163564		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes eastern Australia, from Cairns in northern Queensland to Sydney, New South Wales (Watson 1991).
163564		habitat	eng	Inhabits stream and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163564		population	eng	The species appears to be common (Watson 1991).
163564		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163565		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163565		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Cooktown, in the north to Nambour in south of Queensland (Watson and Theischinger 1984).
163565		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers, including those that dry to pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163565		population	eng	Appears to be common with a stable population.
163565		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163566		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163566		distribution	eng	Northern Territory and northeastern Queensland, Australia; Tanimbar Islands; Aru Islands; New Guinea; Solomon /islands; Fiji and Samoa (Houston and Watson 1988). Theischinger and Hawking (2006) give the extra-limitable distribution, as possibly from the Philippines to the southwest Pacific.
163566		habitat	eng	Inhabits a wide range of still and sluggish waters, often shallow, sometimes temporary (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163566		population	eng	Appears to be a very common species with a stable population.
163566		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163567		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present and further research into the life history of this species is needed.
163567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Theischinger and O’Farrell (1986) lists five scattered collection areas (Barrington Tops, Walcha, Dorrigo Rd, Upper manning River, Styx River in the northeast of New South Wales and Theischinger and Hawking (2006) add Queensland.
163567		habitat	eng	Adults have been collected at streams and boggy seepages and the larva is unknown (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163567		population	eng	The species appears to be scarce, however no surveys have been undertaken to determine its distribution and abundance.
163567		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163568		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.
163568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known from four localities (Deep Reach, Fortescue River, Millstream Station; Nuntara Pools, Tanberry Creek; Palm Pool; Fortescue Crossing) Millstream area, Pilbara, Western Australia (Watson 1969).
163568		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163568		population	eng	The species is most likely rare and the trend is unknown.
163568		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163569		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Eusynthemis ursula</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known only from specimens collected from Telegherry River and Whitehouse Creek, both Karuah catchment, Chichester State Forest, New South Wales (Theischinger 1999).
163569		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams very close to their origin; altitude approximately 980 m (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163569		population	eng	Presently only known from six adults from two populations and the population trend is not known.
163569		threats	eng	The species habitats are likely to be deforested in the future although the purposes are not detailed.
163570		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163570		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and northeastern Victoria (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163570		habitat	eng	Tillyard (1910) stated its habitat as swamps and slow-running creeks in wooded country. Theischinger and Hawking (2006) list <em>Parasynthemis regina</em> habitat as sluggish streams that dry to pools, stagnant riverine pools and swamps; often associated with iron-rich clay substrata. Tillyard (1910) reports the life history and Hawking and Theischinger (1999) figure the known collecting sites in New South Wales.
163570		population	eng	Appears to be a reasonably common species with a stable population.
163570		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163571		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; range includes south Western Australia (Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163571		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, riverine pools, lakes and ponds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163571		population	eng	Appears to be common with an unknown population trend.
163571		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163572		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Known from northeastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163572		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, including sluggish and intermittent ones. Larvae were collected from under very large boulders when the stream dried out (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163572		population	eng	Not a very common species, although the population is stable.
163572		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163573		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Austrogomphus doddi</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Distribution: Watson (1991) stated that “<em>Austrogomphus doddi</em> appears to be confined to northern Queensland, north of the Paluma-Eungella gap ( Watson and Theischinger 1984b)”  Watson lists specimens as all being collected from a small area in north Queensland, at Kuranda, Cairns, Tully and Running River, Paluma.
163573		habitat	eng	Known from streams and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163573		population	eng	Appears rare, as only nine specimens have been collected from 1906 to 1968 (Watson 1991).
163573		threats	eng	The species' habitat is currently being deforested but it is unclear for what purposes.
163574		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures to halt the loss of habitat through mining and tourism development are needed urgently to prevent <em>Hemigomphus magela</em> moving into the Endangered category.
163574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Known only from permanent steams (Magela Creek, Radon Springs, Baroalba Springs, Jim Jim Falls and Dinner Creek), that drain to the west from the Arnhem Land escarpment, Northern Territory and Florence Falls, Litchfield National Park (Watson 1991, Hawking 1993).
163574		habitat	eng	Inhabits only permanent steams that drain to the west from the Arnhem Land escarpment, Northern Territory (Watson 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163574		population	eng	Watson (1991) states that it is a common dragonfly in the permanent streams that drain from the west of the Arnhen Land Escarpment. Hawking (1993) list a population from Florence Fall, Litchfield Park.
163574		threats	eng	Presently the habitat is being lost due to mining and the development of tourism; both problems are thought to continue.
163575		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Cordulephya bidens</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163575		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Malanda and Cedar Creek, Northern Queensland (Houston and Watson 1988).
163575		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams in rainforests (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163575		population	eng	Possibly rare species and trend is unknown.
163575		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163576		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; Central and southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and Victoria (Stewart 1980, Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163576		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers, including those that dry to pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163576		population	eng	A reasonably common species.
163576		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163577		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but research into what actions would be effective to halt the decline of degraded habitat through mining is required.
163577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; known from Katherine River (Watson 1991) and Kakadu Area (Hawking 1993), with both locations in the top end of Northern Territory.
163577		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006)
163577		population	eng	<em>Antipodogomphus dentosus</em> is scarce in its habitat, and the population trend remains unknown.
163577		threats	eng	The habitat is currently being degraded due to mining and tourism development.
163578		conservation	eng	This species does not have any conservation actions in place due to lack of threats at present.
163578		distribution	eng	Cape York and northeastern Queensland, Australia and Port Moresby, New Guinea (Stewart 1980, Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163578		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers, including those that dry to pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163578		population	eng	Not a really common species and trend is unknown.
163578		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to affect this species.
163579		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163579		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from southeastern Queensland to northeastern New South Wales (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163579		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane swamps and small streams, with the larva often found in mud and detritus (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163579		population	eng	A moderately common species with a stable population.
163579		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163580		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Austrogomphus angeli</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.
163580		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Species has been recorded over a substantial length of the Murray River, 900 km from Morgan in South Australia to Corowa, New South Wales (Watson 1991).
163580		habitat	eng	All records are from mature slow-flowing parts of the Murray River and is thought to be “probably not a stream dweller” (Watson1991, Hawking and Theischinger 1999, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The larva is unknown (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The female is pictured by Theischinger and Hawking (2006).
163580		population	eng	Appears rare, as only six specimens have been collected from 1909 to 1967 (Watson 1991).
163580		threats	eng	Agro-farming is degrading the habitat of <em>Austrogomphus angeli</em>.
163581		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia; range includes northern Western Australia, top end Northern Territory to Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163581		habitat	eng	Inhabit streams and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163581		population	eng	Appears to be a commonly found species although the trend is unknown.
163581		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163582		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.
163582		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Victoria and some alpine parts of southeastern New South Wales (Theischinger 1982, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163582		habitat	eng	Inhabits small montane streams, occurring mainly among macrophytes, but also on rocks (Theischinger and Hawking 2006)
163582		population	eng	The species appears to be common.
163582		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.
163583		conservation	eng	There are no actions in place; research into the effects the groundwater extraction are having on the breeding ground of <em>Nososticta pilbara</em> is urgently needed.
163583		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Distribution: Only known from the oasis of permanent waters, fed by the Millstream aquifer, along the Fortescue River, Pilbara, Western Australia (Watson 1969, Watson and Theischinger 1984).
163583		habitat	eng	Occurs on streams and riverine pools; larvae found under stones in running water (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163583		population	eng	Watson and Theischinger (1984) state that “<em>Nososticta pilbara</em> is one of the most restricted of any Australian odonate”, and that “it is, however, abundant there occurring in both streams and deep river pools.”
163583		threats	eng	The habitat is being lost due to the extraction of groundwater.
163584		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh information on this species. Effective conservation planning can only proceed after locations where the species occurs are known.
163584		distribution	eng	Distribution Maharashtra, Peninsular India.  Altitude range - recorded from Poona (now Pune) which is at 560 m and no further information is available.
163584		habitat	eng	Fraser (1934) states on habitat etc. around Poona he states "males may be seen resting on stones or rocks in the bed of the Byrobah Nullah and also in the neighbouring canal and Mullah River, Poona, or they may be beaten up from evergreens bordering these streams"
163584		population	eng	Fraser (1934) states on its occurrence around Poona "where I have found it rather common during the wetter months of the year".
163584		threats	eng	The species is undergoing continuing habitat loss through human development.
163585		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made throughout the Western Ghats.
163585		distribution	eng	Known only from foothills of the Malabar Wynaad near Tamaracherri in the Western Ghats, India (Fraser 1931, 1933).
163585		habitat	eng	The species has been found in dense jungle in densely shaded streams (Fraser 1933); it appears to be a species of hillside forest streams, but the known location was at sea-level.
163585		population	eng	Known from a single population, described by Fraser (1933) as "not a common insect". Included by Lahiri (1989) in a list of Indian species not recorded since their original description.
163585		threats	eng	As a lowland forest species in a heavily populated region there is cause for concern over this species.
163586		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this species, at present it can only be classed as Data Deficient. Fresh searches need to be made in north and eastern India.
163586		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorogomphus fraseri</em> is known only from India, published records are from Arunachal Pradesh (Asahina 1986), Darjeeling (St. Quentin 1936, Fraser 1936, Asahina 1986), the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999) and Manipur (Asahina 1986).
163586		habitat	eng	There is little published information on this, but presumably the species breeds in mountain forest streams.
163586		population	eng	There are few records of this species; since the publication of Fraser's volumes in the Fauna of British India series (1933, 1934, 1936) there has been very few publications.  One is Asahina (1986), where three additional specimens are listed. The type series consists of three specimens (St. Quentin 1936).
163586		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163587		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information available on this species for effective conservation planning. There is a need for further sampling on Doi Inthanon and other high mountains in northern Thailand and adjacent regions. The type location is within a national park.
163587		distribution	eng	It is known only from Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai, northwest Thailand (Yeh 2000, Hämäläinen 2002).
163587		habitat	eng	The known specimens were collected at a small artificial pond in a small clearing in forest at 1,400-1,450 m on Doi Inthanon, with a stream running 20-30 m away. Presumably it breeds in small pools in montane forest.
163587		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens (Yeh 2000).
163587		threats	eng	This species is known only from a protected area so far and therefore is experiencing no threats to its population.
163588		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species; searches need to be made throughout Thailand, in Myanmar, northern Peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR. Without more information the only other conservation measure that can be recommended at present is the establishment of more lowland forest protected areas.
163588		distribution	eng	<em>Macrogomphus kerri</em> is known only from Thailand where there are scattered records from many provinces from all parts of the country except the eastern most parts (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). The lack of records from eastern Thailand may reflect the fact that there has been less collecting there than in other parts of the country.
163588		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded in the published literature on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a denizen of slow-flowing lowland forest streams with a sedimentary bottom, as is the case with other <em>Macrogomphus</em> species.
163588		population	eng	Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) summarise what is known on this species: “widespread, but uncommon”. It is likely to be local in occurrence, and is probably under-collected, but on the present evidence it is a scarce species.
163588		threats	eng	The species is threatened by large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.
163589		conservation	eng	This species is certainly present in protected areas in Thailand (e.g. Doi Suthep-Pui National Park), and may be quite common in suitable habitat. However, there is a need for more data on population and distribution, and it is unclear at present whether or not the species can survive in disturbed forest habitats. Until we have this information the planning of conservation measures will be extremely difficult. Fresh searches need to be made in Myanmar.
163589		distribution	eng	<em>Protosticta curiosa</em> is known from Myanmar (Fraser 1934) and south and west Thailand (Asahina 1981, 1984, 1990; Hämäläinen & Pinratana 1999; Hoess 2002; Dow 2004, 2007).
163589		habitat	eng	Apparently breeds in forest streams in steep terrain, but is usually found away from the water in dense vegetation.
163589		population	eng	This species is widely distributed in Thailand, and has been collected with some frequency, although usually only single individuals have been collected. It appears to be moderately common, but inconspicuous, on forested hills and mountains in Thailand; in Myanmar it must be regarded as data deficient as there is only a record of a single male (Fraser 1934).
163589		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a recognized threat to this species.
163590		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data, especially on the status of habitats in southern Kalimantan, before an accurate conservation assessment can be made for this species. The species should be searched for on mainland Sumatra.
163590		distribution	eng	Known from Borneo where there are (old) published records from south and west Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1937, 1953). It was collected in Sarawak in 2006, at Binyo Penyilam in Bintulu Division (Dow 2007), suggesting that its distribution in Borneo may be wider than was previously thought. Also known from Bangka Island off the coast of Sumatra and Belitung island between Sumatra and Borneo (Lieftinck 1954). Given its occurrence on Bangka and Belitung, the species should be searched for on mainland Sumatra. Note that under Countries of Occurrence, Sumatra as ticked as "Native Presence Confirmed" and as "Native Possibly Present", the first case covers Bangka and Belitung, as satellite islands of Sumatra, the second case covers the possibility of the occurrence of the species in Sumatra.
163590		habitat	eng	In Sarawak the species was found on open pools within a naturally occurring acidic marsh in the middle of a peat swamp forest. In Kalimantan it was described as occurring in "marshes and pondy streams in shady surroundings" and as being "common in south Borneo over tiny brooks in peat-bog areas" (Lieftinck 1954).
163590		population	eng	The only recent record (albeit unpublished as yet; R. Dow pers. comm. 2007) is from one location in Sarawak, where the species was moderately common. It appears to have been common in south Kalimantan prior to 1954, but there is no current data available. It is not possible to make any further comment on population without further collecting, especially in Kalimantan. Similarly there is no recent data from Bangka or Belitung.
163590		threats	eng	Habitat loss: lowland habitats in Kalimantan are severely threatened by human development. We have no recent data from Bangka or Belitung.
163591		conservation	eng	Further data is needed for effective conservation planning, but there does not appear to be a need for specific conservation measures in Borneo. The species should be searched for in northeast Kalimantan. There are no recent records of <em>C. bellona hoogerwerfi</em> from Sumatra and there is an urgent need for more data from the island. The taxonomic status of <em>C. b. hoogerwerfi</em> may need to be reassessed.
163591		distribution	eng	Known from north Borneo (records from Sabah and Sarawak) and Sumatra (subspecies <em>hoogerwerfi</em>). In Borneo its distribution appears to be centred around northeast Sarawak and Sabah. Two males from the type series are from Mount Matang (Laidlaw 1915), a problematic location; there is a peak named Matang just outside of Kubah National Park in west Sarawak, this is near to the Matang Road, a famous collecting location for odonates in west Sarawak. However there is also a peak named Matang in extreme northeast Sarawak, very close to the border with Sabah (J. van Tol pers. comm. 2007). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records of the species in Borneo from west of Miri Division in Sarawak (Dow 2007), so it appears likely that the species referred to as from Mount Matang is the one in northeast Sarawak. The majority of records from Borneo come from Sabah (Laidlaw 1915, 1920, 1934; Orr 2003 and photographic records from various locations). <em>C. hoogerwerfi</em> was described from a single male from north Sumatra (Lieftinck 1940), taken at 1,500 m. There are no additional records until 1954 when Lieftinck gave its distribution in Sumatra as “north and southwest” without specifying details of the material that this was based upon. Subsequently Asahina (1967), using material from Lieftinck’s collection, gave the distribution as “C.W. Sumatra only”; the distribution of the subspecies in Sumatra seems to be a matter of some confusion.
163591		habitat	eng	In Borneo the species occurs at ponds, drains and in shallow weedy marshes. In the Kelabit Highlands of north-east Sarawak it breeds in shallow marshes in agricultural land and secondary forest (Dow 2007). Orr (2003) states that it inhabits  "disturbed habitats such as drains and ponds" in the Danum Valley in Sabah and recent photographic records from Sabah are from similar habitats. Lieftinck (1954) states that <em>C. b. hoogerwerfi</em> in Sumatra is found in “forest-marshes and lakes in the mountains”.
163591		population	eng	This is not a well known species. In Sarawak it appears to exist in scattered populations but may be under-recorded. It appears to be quite common in Sabah. There is no recent data from Sumatra available.
163591		threats	eng	Further data is needed before a truly reliable threat assessment can be made. In north Borneo <em>C. bellona</em> occurs in disturbed habitats, and the species does not appear to be under any immediate threat. Relatively few populations are currently known, but this is likely to be the result of under-collecting rather than genuine rarity. In Sumatra <em>C. b. hoogerwerfi</em> may have more demanding habitat requirements, but we have so little information at present that it has to be judged as data deficient.
163592		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species, but as an infrequently recorded lowland forest dweller there is cause for concern. Research is the priority here, with an emphasis on gathering more information on population and distribution, and on establishing how well represented the species is in protected areas.
163592		distribution	eng	Known from India (Fraser 1933, Laidlaw 1914, Prasad and Varshney 1995) to Thailand (Lieftinck 1954, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (Fraser 1933), south and east Sumatra and south Java (Lieftinck 1954). Records from India are from the Western Ghats and possibly the northeast; Laidlaw (1914) records the species from Assam in the old sense, but expressed doubts about the identity of his material. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records from northeast India and Laidlaw's record has not been repeated in subsequent literature. Records from Thailand are from Nakhon Nayok, Chanthaburi and Trat (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Given the known distribution of the species it appears likely that, in India, it does occur outside of the Western Ghats, and it should be searched for in Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam and Cambodia. The position of the type locality is unknown.
163592		habitat	eng	Lowland forest streams and rivers (Lieftinck 1954).
163592		population	eng	There are not many records of this species, but this may reflect difficulty of collection and a lack of expert sampling across much of its range.
163592		threats	eng	As a lowland forest dweller, habitat loss is likely to be a very significant threat to this widely distributed but apparently scarce species.
163593		conservation	eng	More information on this species is needed. Searches need to be made in lowland swamp forest (including secondary forest) in Sumatra, Belitung, Sarawak and adjacent areas of Borneo. Once we have a better picture of the distribution and current populations of this species, conservation planning can begin, and will centre around the protection of suitable lowland habitats.
163593		distribution	eng	<em>Tetrathemis flavescens</em> is known from Sarawak (Kirby 1889, Dow 2007), Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954).
163593		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat of this species as “lowland forest”; however this can probably be tightened to lowland swamp forest. The specimen from Bukit Sarang in Sarawak (as far as it is known, this is the only recent record) was collected in regularly flooded alluvial forest, where it was taken at the margin of a small pool in dense secondary forest. More information on the habitat requirements of this species is needed.
163593		population	eng	This is a very poorly known species. It is either genuinely scarce, or seriously under-recorded; in any event it is certainly very local in occurrence. After the original record from Sarawak (Kirby 1889), the only record from the state is of a single teneral female captured at Bukit Sarang in Bintulu Division (Dow 2007). The record from Sumatra appears to be of a single male. The details of material from Belitung have not been published.
163593		threats	eng	Lowland forest habitats in Borneo and Sumatra are generally threatened. The only location currently known in Sarawak is within a protected area which is likely to soon be given National Park status (it may already have been gazetted). The only recently collected specimen was taken in secondary forest.
163594		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this poorly known species. Fresh searches need to be made in north Kalimantan, East Malaysia and Brunei, in secondary as well as primary forest.
163594		distribution	eng	Endemic to north Borneo. There are published records from northwest Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1934) and Brunei (Orr 2001), and a specimen was collected at Annah Rais in west Sarawak, close to the border with Kalimantan, in 2006 (Dow 2007).
163594		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species. The type series was collected on a forest stream in hilly country. The male from Sarawak was collected at the side of a large stream running through secondary forest and agricultural land (shifting agriculture). The male from Brunei was collected in a canopy fogging exercise at the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre, where the terrain is steep. Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat as "forest brooks in low hilly country".
163594		population	eng	Very few specimens of this species are known: the type series (one male and two females), one male from Brunei and one male from Annah Rais in west Sarawak.
163594		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163595		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh material of this species, to clarify both its range and its taxonomic status.
163595		distribution	eng	<em>Microgomphus verticalis</em> is apparently known from a single female. Fraser (1934) states that the type locality is unknown, but in India. Prasad (1996) lists this species from Maharashtra without any further details, it is unclear whether this record refers to the type female or some subsequent record.
163595		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.
163595		population	eng	<em>Microgomphus verticalis</em> appears to be known from a single female.
163595		threats	eng	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.
163596		conservation	eng	The lack of recent data on this species makes effective conservation planning for this species impossible. Fresh searches need to be made in the Western Ghats.
163596		distribution	eng	<em>Caconeura ramburi</em> is known only from southern India. Fraser (1933) describes it as widely distributed in the Western Ghats, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records.
163596		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the habitats of this species. It breeds in forest streams on mountains (Fraser 1922).
163596		population	eng	<em>Caconeura ramburii</em> appears to have been quite common in parts of the western Ghats (Fraser 1933), at least prior to 1933.
163596		threats	eng	The area where the species has been recorded is being deforested.
163597		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species, as most records are from before 1954; this may merely reflect a lack of collecting in Sumatra in the intervening period. The two more recent records (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988, Hämäläinen 2007) suggest that the species is still widespread in Sumatra and at least moderately common in some areas, but more sampling is needed to verify this. The status of the habitats on Nias and Simalur needs to be determined, and fresh searches need to be made on these islands.
163597		distribution	eng	<em>Euphaea aspasia</em> is known from Sumatra (e.g. Ris 1915; Schmidt 1934; Lieftinck 1935, 1954; Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), Nias (Lieftinck 1931) and Simalur (Lieftinck 1954) Islands. It appears to be a widespread species in Sumatra.
163597		habitat	eng	<em>Euphaea aspasia</em> breeds in rocky forest streams and rivers from the lowlands up to 1,200 m in North Sumatra. Lieftinck (1954) states that it is most common between 400 m and 500 m. Hämäläinen (2007) states that the streams he found it on in 1997 were “in lower elevations (at <em>ca</em> 400 - 600 m).  3 - 5 m fast flowing streams with boulders".
163597		population	eng	<em>Euphaea aspasia</em> appears to be at least moderately common in lowland forest in Sumatra, although this assessment is mostly based upon old records. The most recent published record is from 1987 (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), where seven specimens were recorded from three locations in north Sumatra. M. Hämäläinen visited Sumatra in 1997 (Hämäläinen 2007) and recorded the species from two locations in central Sumatra. There are only old records available from Nias and Simalur.
163597		threats	eng	No data is known on the status of the habitats on Nias and Simalur, however the habitat in Sumatra is being threatened by human development.
163598		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, apart from the need for monitoring of populations against any decline.
163598		distribution	eng	<em>Rhodothemis rufa</em> is a very widely distributed species, occurring throughout tropical and subtropical mainland Asia, the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, the Philippines, Taiwan, Hainan, the Solomon Islands, and as far south as New Guinea. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from Cambodia or Lao PDR, but it is almost certainly present in these countries.
163598		habitat	eng	The species breeds in open ponds, marshes and lakes.
163598		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its range.
163598		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any significant threat at present, although in the future, some areas may come under threat from urbanization.
163599		conservation	eng	This species is severely data deficient; we need further data before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches should be made in the Khasi Hills and adjacent areas.
163599		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Shillong in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, northeast India (Lieftinck 1968).
163599		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitats or ecology of this species. From the type location we can infer that it is a montane species. It is likely to breed in marshy areas or small pools in forest.
163599		population	eng	The species was described from a single female (Lieftinck 1968), R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any further specimens. It is either scarce or under-collected.
163599		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163600		conservation	eng	In Sarawak and Brunei the species is certainly present in a number of protected areas, and is probably quite common in these areas, but under-recorded. There are no recent records from Kalimantan, and fresh data is needed from that area, where lowland forest habitats are severely threatened, and there has been a lack of expert sampling for more than 50 years. There are also no recent records from Sabah. It is not clear what degree of disturbance from logging the species can tolerate. There is a need for further research across the range of the species.
163600		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo. There are records from Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), two locations in west Sarawak (Dow 2007), two locations in Brunei (Orr 2001), old records from south and southeast Kalimantan and one record from the island of Banggi off the north coast of Borneo (Lieftinck 1954).
163600		habitat	eng	This species breeds in phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) in mixed dipterocarp forest (Orr 1994, 2001, 2003). Occurs in primary forest, and has been recorded in old secondary forest (Dow 2007; selectively logged approximately 70 years before the record was made), but may be absent from more recently disturbed forest.
163600		population	eng	Because of its breeding habits (see under Habitat and Ecology), this species is probably under-recorded. It may be quite common in mixed dipterocarp (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree" title="Tree"></a>    mainly tropical lowland rainforest trees) forest, as evidenced by the occurrence of larvae in phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) in Brunei, but this needs to be confirmed.
163600		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss of, or heavy disturbance to its forest habitats. This species is likely to be vulnerable to selective logging as well as clear cutting and fire.
163601		conservation	eng	The status of this species in Java needs to be checked (existing data is from the 1930s). Further data on distribution is urgently needed to plan conservation measures. The species needs to be searched for in Java, Borneo and east Sumatra.
163601		distribution	eng	Known from two disjointed areas: West Java (Lieftinck 1934, 1954) and Bako National Park, Sarawak (Dow 2005). In West Java the recorded locations are lake Njalindung and a few sites near Sukanegara, about 20 km to the east of lake Njalindung.
163601		habitat	eng	Appears to prefer shallow, well vegetated marshes, shallow lake margins (Lieftinck 1954) and, in the case of the Sarawak population, small, shallow, open streams in kerangas (tropical heath) shrubland. The kerangas shrubland at Bako National Park is a scarce, possibly unique, habitat in Sarawak.
163601		population	eng	There is no current information available on the west Javan populations. Writing in 1934 Lieftinck described the species as "excessively abundant" at Lake Njalindung and as common at the other sites. The form at Bako in Sarawak was common on visits in March and May of 2005.
163601		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to development or fire. The status of the habitats in Java is unknown, but doubtful. The known population in Sarawak is within a national park, but the habitat is very vulnerable to fire, and the area in which the species occurs is relatively small. The habitat in Sarawak is unusual, and possibly unique within the state.
163602		conservation	eng	Whilst there is a need for further information on this species, it appears to be quite common in Sarawak at least, and is present in a number of protected areas. There does not appear to be any pressing need for extra conservation measures for this species at present. It should be searched for in western Sabah and northern Kalimantan.
163602		distribution	eng	<em>Vestalis atropha</em> is endemic to Borneo. All published records are from Sarawak or Brunei. It is widely distributed in Sarawak, with records from across the state (e.g. Lieftinck 1965, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Dow 2007). It is only known from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001). It is highly likely to occur in Sabah and northern Kalimantan.
163602		habitat	eng	Closed canopy streams in mixed dipterocarp forest, usually in hilly areas. It occurs in secondary as well as primary forest. It occurs from the lowlands to over 1,000 m in the Kelabit Highlands in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007).
163602		population	eng	This is a relatively common species in lowland forest in hilly areas of Sarawak, based on published information and collecting carried out by R. Dow and G.T. Reels over six months in many parts of Sarawak in 2005-2006 (Dow 2007). It is only known from one location in Brunei.
163602		threats	eng	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops.
163603		conservation	eng	There is a pressing need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made in Sumatra, both in and outside of protected areas.
163603		distribution	eng	<em>Podolestes coomansi</em> is known only from one location in east Sumatra (Lieftinck 1940, 1950, 1954).
163603		habitat	eng	The type locality was described as a "marshy spot in second growth forest" (Lieftinck 1954). The other species of <em>Podolestes</em> known from Sundaland are predominantly swamp forest dwellers, some appear to be specialised to particular types of swamp forest (e.g. peat swamp forest). It appears likely that <em>P. coomansi</em> is similarly specialised. From the description of the type locality it appears to be able to survive in suitable secondary habitats.
163603		population	eng	The species is known only from the type series, which is quite large, consisting of 34 individuals, suggesting that it was common at the type locality in the 1930s, but there are no recent records available.
163603		threats	eng	There has been extensive habitat loss and disturbance in east Sumatra since the species was last recorded; this is a cause for concern.
163604		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species for effective conservation planning. Searches should be made in the Sullia region and adjacent areas.
163604		distribution	eng	Known only from Karnataka and Kerala in India (e.g. Fraser 1931, 1934; Prasad and Varshney 1995). Fraser (1934) states that it occurs in “Kanara District ...  [on] the network of rivers about Sulia”, and that a single male had been collected near Tamaracherri.
163604		habitat	eng	Forest streams and rivers. Fraser (1934) describes it as "a shade lover".
163604		population	eng	R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any records of this species since the 1930s, but this is likely to be due to a lack of expert sampling in suitable habitat since that time. From published information it is not clear how common the species used to be, it may have always been a scarce species.
163604		threats	eng	The known habitats of the species are in heavily populated areas, there is no definite information on their current status available, but some forest apparently remains (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullia), although suitable habitat is decreasing.
163605		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this very poorly known species. More sampling is needed in south Viet Nam and adjacent regions.
163605		distribution	eng	Known only from one location in Lam Dong province, south Viet Nam (Hämäläinen and Karube 2001).
163605		habitat	eng	The type series is from "a tiny (some 60 cm wide), slow-moving mountain stream at an altitude of <em>ca</em> 1,200 m" (Hämäläinen and Karube 2001).
163605		population	eng	Known only from the type series (two males).
163605		threats	eng	Habitat loss. The type locality "was in the border area between a remaining upper mountain rainforest and an ascending coffee tree cultivation" (Hämäläinen and Karube 2001), suggesting an existing threat to this population at least.
163606		conservation	eng	There is a need for more information on this species, especially from Sumatra and southern Thailand. However the records of this species from secondary and plantation forest in Peninsular Malaysia suggest that the species is reasonably secure at present.
163606		distribution	eng	Known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1903, 1931; Lieftinck 1932, 1954; Kemp and Kemp 1989; Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. 1996; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996; C.Y. Choong pers. comm. 2007), southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Dijkstra and Kalman 2001) and south Sumatra (Lieftinck 1937).
163606		habitat	eng	Breeds around log jams in clear lowland forest streams (Orr 2005). There are records from secondary forest (e.g. Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>.1996) and from an “Rubber/Oil Palm” plantation (Kemp and Kemp 1989), so the species appears capable of surviving in disturbed and secondary forest habitats.
163606		population	eng	Orr (2005) describes this species as "locally and sporadically common" in lowland forest in peninsular Malaysia. It appears to be scarce in southern Thailand, where there are only two records. In Sumatra the species appears to be known only from three males collected in the extreme south in 1937, we have no recent data. Based on the above we can say that the species is moderately common in lowland forest in peninsular Malaysia, the centre of its range, and probably scarce in southern Sumatra and southern Thailand on the edges of its range. There is a need for more data, especially from Sumatra and Thailand.
163606		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-felling appears to be the main threat to this species. Although it appears capable of surviving in plantation forest (Kemp and Kemp 1989), it remains to be seen whether it is adversely affected by the large-scale use of agrochemicals.
163607		conservation	eng	Monitoring of populations is desirable, to check for any possible decline in numbers, but beyond this no conservation measures appear to be needed for this extremely common and widespread species.
163607		distribution	eng	<em>Crocothemis servilia</em> is an extremely widespread species, occurring throughout mainland tropical and subtropical Asia, Japan, the Ryukyu Archipelago, the greater and lesser Sunda isles, the Philippines and Sulawesi. In the west it extends into Iraq, Iran, Armenia and Turkey. It has been accidentally introduced into Florida in the USA.
163607		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, ditches, marshes and open swamps.
163607		population	eng	This is a very common species across much of its range, occurring in man-made and disturbed habitats.
163607		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any major threats across most of its range.
163608		conservation	eng	This species is severely data deficient, there is an urgent need for more data before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made in lowland forest throughout Borneo.
163608		distribution	eng	<em>Oligoaeschna elactura</em> is known with certainty only from southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1968).
163608		habitat	eng	Unknown, but presumably breeds in lowland swamp forest, as is the case for other species of <em>Oligoaeschna</em>.
163608		population	eng	This species is known only from a female collected in southeast Kalimantan. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) knows of a female <em>Oligoaeschna</em> collected at Loagan Bunut National Park, northeast Sarawak in 2006 that might be this species; further study of this specimen is required. In any event this species is either scarce or under-collected.
163608		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest, purpose-set and wildfire to use the land for wood plantations.
163609		conservation	eng	Beyond the need for monitoring of populations to check for any decline, there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures for this species.
163609		conservation	eng	The use of water and pollution levels should be controlled.
163609		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis festiva</em> is a very widespread species, occurring as far west as Greece, Cyprus and Turkey, throughout Asia and southwards as far as northern New Guinea.
163609		distribution	eng	<em>Trithemis festiva</em> is a widespread oriental species which reaches its westernmost limit of distribution on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey, Cyprus and Rhodos, where it is rather common.
163609		habitat	eng	Breeds in streams and rivers.
163609		habitat	eng	<em>Trithemis festiva</em> occurs in brooks, small rivers, and standing waters including ponds. It seems to tolerate a slight degradation of its habitat.
163609		population	eng	The species is common within its east Mediterranean range.
163609		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its large range.
163609		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species at present.
163609		threats	eng	The species does not face major threats at the moment. The water and pollution levels should be controlled as streams drying up due to over-irrigation and increased drought periods could lead to a decline in the future.
163610		conservation	eng	Fresh data and taxonomic work is required on this species. Searches should be made in northeast Thailand and adjacent regions.
163610		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus kerri</em> is known only from Khon Khaen in north-east Thailand (Asahina 1986, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163610		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, although it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of streams, probably forested ones.
163610		population	eng	This species is known from two females only (Fraser 1933).
163610		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163611		conservation	eng	More information on this species is needed before general conservation measures can be planned effectively (if needed). Further sampling is needed throughout its Himalayan range.
163611		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus schmidti</em> is known from Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1955, 1974; Vick 1989) and Himalayan India, where there are records from Kashmir (Asahina 1988), Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997), Sikkim (Mitra 2004) and the Dehra Dun valley (Hämäläinen 1989).
163611		habitat	eng	<em>Onychogomphus schmidti</em> appears to breed in mountain streams.
163611		population	eng	There are not many records of this widely distributed Himalayan species, however it may not be uncommon in some locations, e.g. Hämäläinen (1989) lists seven males from the Dehra Dun Valley.
163611		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a threat to this species.
163612		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species, especially from Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java. Protection of suitable lowland forest habitats (including secondary forest) is vital for the conservation of this species.
163612		distribution	eng	<em>Macrogomphus parallelogramma</em> is known from Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1986, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, 1931; Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001), Borneo, Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Banka and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954) and Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, 1954; Schmidt 1934). Records from Borneo are from Sarawak (Dow 2007), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Kalimantan (e.g. Ris 1911; Lieftinck 1935, 1953).
163612		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1954) states: “confined to wooded districts of the alluvial plains, also in cultivated areas. Adults often wander far away from water, taking shelter in shrubbery and neighbouring woods. Often crepuscular. Breeds in sluggish streams with silty or muddy bottoms, but also in forest brooks with a bottom of clean sand or fine gravel”. The only known location so far for this species is in Sarawak on the Sungai Penyilam, a black water stream flowing through secondary peat swamp forest.
163612		population	eng	This appears to be a relatively common, but local, species in lowland forest, and is probably under-recorded. There is a lack of recent records from the Indonesian part of its range, but this is likely to be a result of a lack of expert sampling over the last 50-60 years.
163612		threats	eng	Deforestation is the major threat to this species, which can survive in secondary forest. It remains to be seen if it can survive in streams running through plantations.
163613		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species before conservation measures can be planned.
163613		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia vangviengensis</em> is known only from the type locality: Ban Phon-Ngam, Vangvieng, central Lao PDR (Yokoi and Mitamura 2002).
163613		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species. It is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams.
163613		population	eng	The species is only known from a single male.
163613		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a recognized threat to this little-known species.
163614		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, especially from India, and it should to be looked for in Bhutan. Its montane habitats in Nepal are unlikely to be threatened at present.
163614		distribution	eng	<em>Neallogaster ornata</em> is a Himalayan species, known from Nepal (Fraser 1929; Asahina 1982; Vick 1986, 1989; van Pelt 1993; R.G. Kemp pers. comm. 2007), and from Assam, Himachal Pradesh and West Bengal in India (e.g. Asahina 1982, van Pelt 1983, Prasad and Varshney 1995).
163614		habitat	eng	Asahina (1982) recorded the species as breeding in a sandy bottomed stream, clearly it is a montane species. We have no further information on the habitat or ecology of the species.
163614		population	eng	Asahina (1982) listed 14 specimens, including Fraser's material of <em>A. parvistigma</em>. There are very few record available of other material, but Vick (1986) recorded Nepalese material collected in 1985. R. Kemp (pers. comm. 2007) recalls that T. Brockhaus collected a male of this species from the Shivapuri Hills outside of Kathmandu. The species may not be uncommon in Nepal and parts of India, just under-collected.
163614		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163615		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its range. Searches need to be made in many parts of Sarawak to determine if the species is still present, in areas of Sabah and of Kalimantan close to Sarawak to determine if the species occurs there and in southeast Kalimantan to see if it is still present in that area.
163615		distribution	eng	Lieftinck (1954) gives the range of this species as northwest and southeast Borneo, however all other published records refer to material from Sarawak or Brunei, and no further information on the species in the southeast is given. There are records from across Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Hincks 1930, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Paulson 2004, Dow 2007), and from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001). Locations in Sarawak include some fairly close to the border with Kalimantan in the west (Paulson 2004) and in the Kelabit Highlands close to the border with Kalimantan in the northeast (Dow 2007), so the species is likely to occur in northern parts of Kalimantan. The species is also likely to occur in Sabah close to the border with Sarawak.
163615		habitat	eng	This is a species of forest streams. Most records from the lowlands are from closed canopy streams in primary forest. In the Kelabit Highlands it also occurs on streams and rivers in secondary forest and with a more open canopy, but always with a low gradient and at Gunung Mulu National Park it occurs on parts of the Sungai Melinau, a river with an open canopy and disturbed and secondary forest on one bank, as well as on pristine forest streams.
163615		population	eng	There are relatively few published records of this species. Orr (2001) described it as "sporadic and vagrant" at the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre, the only location known in Brunei. Recent collecting in Sarawak indicates that the species is moderately common in lowland forest at Gunung Mulu National Park, and common in parts of the Kelabit Highlands. In the latter area the species was common on the Pa'Dapur river in 2005 and was observed in a smaller, highly disturbed stream, running through Bario, a large settlement. Older records are from a number of locations; the westernmost record is from Paulson (2004) from 1980, of specimens from around Kota Padawan in west Sarawak. It is doubtful whether the species still occurs around Padawan, the town has expanded considerably since 1980 and has almost been swallowed by the expansion of the state capital Kuching. However this is an easily overlooked species, so it may be under-recorded.
163615		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Although the species occurs on streams in secondary forest in the Kelabit Highlands and on the Sungai Melinau at Gunung Mulu National Park, there is little other evidence of its occurrence outside of primary (or near primary) forest in the lowlands. Currently its presence can only be confirmed in three areas: Gunung Mulu National Park and the Kelabit Highlands in Sarawak and the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre (KBFSC) in Brunei; all of these areas lie within a relatively small region of Borneo. Habitats at Mulu and the KBFSC are protected, but the known locations in the Kelabit Highlands are largely outside protected areas. Forest along large sections of the Pa'Dapur river is likely to be logged in the near future, what impact this will have on the species is unclear. The population on the stream running through Bario (see Population) is vulnerable to the effects of development and expansion in Bario.
163616		conservation	eng	This species is Data Deficient, further data is urgently needed for the planning of conservation measures (if needed). The only known specimen was collected in a national park, so at least some suitable habitat is protected. Searches need to be made in central Viet Nam and adjacent regions.
163616		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Planaeschna owadai</span> is known only from Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien Fue, central Viet Nam (Karube 2002, 2004).
163616		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded of the habitat and ecology of this species, except that it may be an autumn species. It is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams, probably in hilly and mountainous areas.
163616		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Planaeschna owadai</span> is known from a single male (Karube 2002).
163616		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163617		conservation	eng	Fresh data is needed from Meghalaya, and searches should be made in adjacent areas of India and in Myanmar. The known locations in Chinag Mai are in a national park, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of practices detrimental to odonate populations in National Parks in Thailand. Conservation measures for this species will centre around the establishment and proper management of protected areas in mountainous areas.
163617		distribution	eng	<em>Bayadera hyalina</em> is known from Meghalaya in India (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1987) and from Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, and should be looked for there. Records from China appear to be misidentification's of other <em>Bayadera</em> species (e.g. Wilson and Xu 2007).
163617		habitat	eng	Breeds in streams in montane forest.
163617		population	eng	There are not many published records of this species. It occurs with some regularity on Doi Inthanon in Chinag Mai, and there are a number of records from Meghalaya. It is likely to be under-collected, as it is not a very conspicuous species, and appears to be extremely wary.
163617		threats	eng	This species habitat is certainly threatened by clear-felling, although it may be sensitive to lesser degrees of disturbance.
163618		conservation	eng	Further information is needed for this species, especially in India and Bhutan. It may be quite common in parts of the Himalayas and its montane habitats are unlikely to be threatened at present in Nepal and Bhutan.
163618		distribution	eng	<em>Neallogaster hermionae</em> is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1927, 1936; Asahina 1982, van Pelt 1993), Bhutan (Asahina 1982) and Nepal (e.g. Kiauta and Kiauta 1976, Asahina 1982, Mahato and Edds 1993, Vick 1989, R.G. Kemp pers. comm. 2007). In India known from Darjeeling, West Bengal and Assam in the old sense, but at least some of the Assamese material is from areas now included in Manipur; from the published information it is questionable if any of the known material is from areas within Assam as currently defined.
163618		habitat	eng	Little is known on the habitat and ecology of this species, but it appears to breed in mountain streams and rivers. Mahato and Edds (1993) have recorded the larvae from the Gandaki River in Nepal.
163618		population	eng	Asahina (1982) lists 31 specimens from India, Nepal and Bhutan, most (but not all) of the material from India is more than 70 years old. Kiauta and Kiauta (1976) recorded "<em>N. sp. aff. hermionae</em> from Nepal", this record was treated by Vick (1989) as <em>N. hermionae</em>. Mahato and Edds (1993) recorded the larva from Nepal. This may be a quite common species in the Himalayas.
163618		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163619		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this data deficient species. Fresh searches need to be made in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand.
163619		distribution	eng	Known only from the Peninsular Malaysia (very few records from Pahang, Perak and Johore) and one location in Pattani in southern Thailand.
163619		habitat	eng	Little has been recorded on the habitat of this species, and nothing on its ecology, but presumably it breeds in forest streams in hilly and mountainous country.
163619		population	eng	<em>C. erici</em> appears to be known from less than ten specimens. This may not imply rarity, just under-collection.
163619		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163620		conservation	eng	Further data on this species is needed for effective conservation planning. Searches need to be made throughout Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand and Southern Myanmar.
163620		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta sharpi</em> is known from a few scattered records from Peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw and Förster 1907; Laidlaw 1924, 1931; Lieftinck 1954; Orr 2005), where there are records from Perak, Pahang, Kelantan and Penang Island, and Nakhon Sithammarat in Thailand (Asahina 1984), and Mergui in Myanmar (Fraser 1934).
163620		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sharpi</span> has been recorded in small forest streams in hilly country.
163620		population	eng	<em>D. sharpi</em> is known from scattered records of few individuals, mostly old.
163620		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.
163621		conservation	eng	Further data is needed for this poorly known species before a threat assessment can be made and effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned.
163621		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations in North Viet Nam (Asahina 1997) and one in central Lao (Yokoi and Kano 2002).
163621		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest streams in hills and mountains.
163621		population	eng	The type series consists of three males from Viet Nam, a further three males have been collected in central Lao PDR. The small number of specimens known is likely to be the result of a lack of expert sampling in Viet Nam and Laos, rather than actual rarity.
163621		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163622		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the range and habitat requirements of this species for effective conservation planning. Conservation measures for this species (if needed) must be focused on preservation of suitable habitat across its range; however, further data is needed before a meaningful threat assessment can be made.
163622		distribution	eng	The species is known from two locations in northern Viet Nam: Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province (Asahina 1995) and Mount Pia Oac, Cao Bang Province (Karube 2002).
163622		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the habitat and ecology of this species available. The specimen from Ban Khoang was taken at 1,400 m in May (Asahina 1995). The specimens from Mount Pia Oac were collected in May of 1998 and 1999, the altitude is not given, Karube (2002) states: "this species was rarely found in the midway to the summit and usually flew along the road in the late afternoon." This appears to be a montane species, presumably it breeds in forest streams.
163622		population	eng	One specimen (the holotype) is known from Ban Khoang (Asahina 1995); seven specimens are known from Mount Pia Oac (Karube 2002).
163622		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests. Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, little can be inferred of its threats.
163623		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made in Myanmar, concentrated in hill and mountainous terrain.
163623		distribution	eng	<em>Protosticta uncata</em> is known from two locations in Myanmar: “Maymyo, Mandalay District, and Gokteik, N. Shan States” (Fraser 1931, 1933).
163623		habitat	eng	The habitat is unknown, the type series were all taken at lamps or other light sources (not deliberate light trapping). However it is likely to be a species of hill forest streams.
163623		population	eng	Only the type series is known (three specimens from two locations).
163623		threats	eng	The area where the species has been recorded is experiencing habitat loss through human development and deforestation.
163624		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on the distribution of this species. If it is actually restricted to Mount Dulit then the proposed protection of that mountain in a national park will be a significant conservation measure, however illegal logging is likely to remain a threat.
163624		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum borneense</em> is known only from the type series collected on Mount Dulit, on the border between Miri and Kapit divisions, in northeast Sarawak (Kimmins 1936).
163624		habitat	eng	Known from montane forest on Mount Dulit, Sarawak; beyond this nothing is known, but it is likely to breed in forest pools.
163624		population	eng	Known only from the type series of seven males and three females, collected in 1932 (Kimmins 1936).
163624		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging and fire are major known threats. Much of the Dulit range has been selectively logged (information from local inhabitants, forestry workers and from my own experience of visiting the area in 2006), but some areas of steep terrain above 500 m appear to remain in a pristine condition. The Dulit Range is a possible future National Park; it is to be hoped that the park can be established before further logging occurs in the area.
163625		conservation	eng	There appear to be no records of this species apart from the type series, collected in 1924. There is no data on the status of the habitats in the Mentawei Islands, but around 50% of Siberut is protected in a national park (Cochrane and Cubitt 2000), although much of the forest is likely to be secondary. Fresh data is urgently needed.
163625		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta kruegeri</em> is known only from the Mentawei Islands off the coast of Sumatra, where it has been recorded from Siberut, Sipora and north Pagai islands (Laidlaw 1926; Lieftinck 1934, 1948, 1954).
163625		habitat	eng	Presumably this species breeds in small forest streams, as is the case for other members of the Platystictidae.
163625		population	eng	<em>D. kruegeri</em> appears to be known only from the type series of fives males and five females, collected in 1924 (Laidlaw 1926).
163625		threats	eng	The area the species has been recorded from are experiencing continued habitat loss through human development.
163626		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be a need for specific conservation measures for this species at present.
163626		distribution	eng	<em>Heliocypha biforata</em> is a widely distributed species known from India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Hainan and Peninsular Malaysia.
163626		habitat	eng	Breeds in forested and partially forested streams, in Thailand at least it is often found in streams in agricultural land.
163626		population	eng	This is a common species across much of its large range.
163626		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any major threats at present.
163627		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made in north and northeast India and Nepal, and also in Bhutan and Myanmar.
163627		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality in Uttar Pradesh, India (Ram 1985) and one location at 200 m in Nepal (Vick 1989).
163627		habitat	eng	No information has been published on the habitat or ecology of this species.
163627		population	eng	The type series consists of four males and three females collected from one location over several years (Ram 1985). A single male has been collected in Nepal (Vick 1989). Evidently this species is at least local in occurrence, and possibly rare, but it may merely be under-collected.
163627		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is threatening this species.
163628		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this species before effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned.
163628		distribution	eng	<em>Orolestes durga</em> is known from two locations in northeast India, one in Meghalaya, the other in Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1987).
163628		habitat	eng	The species is known to breed in montane streams (Lahiri 1987) but nothing further is known.
163628		population	eng	Only two specimens are known of this species (Lahiri 1987).
163628		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163629		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species before conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Searches should be made in Manipur and Meghalaya as well as surrounding areas.
163629		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes garoensis</em> is known from Manipur and Meghalaya in India (Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999).
163629		habitat	eng	The only available information is the following: "collected amongst some scanty vegetation inside a dried out ditch" (Lahiri 1987); from context it is assumed that this refers to the specimens from Meghalya.
163629		population	eng	Known from only four specimens, two from Meghalaya and two from Manipur (Lahiri 1987).
163629		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a currently known threat to this species.
163630		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species before effective conservation measures can be planned across most of its range. In Thailand the status of the three known locations needs to be checked and monitored.
163630		distribution	eng	<em>Amphithemis curvistyla</em> is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), where there are old records from three locations, Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1988; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), where it has been recorded from Tak, Chaiyaphu and Nakhon Nayok, and from north Viet Nam (Asahina 1981, an old record). Prasad and Varshney (1995) list it from “India” without details, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records from India, although its occurrence in the northeast is certainly possible. Fraser (1936) lists it from Malaysia, this may be an error, as R. Dow (pers. Comm. 2008) is not aware of any subsequent records.
163630		habitat	eng	Little appears to have been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species; Fraser (1936) states “nothing is known of its habits, but it probably breeds in marshes like others of the genus”.
163630		population	eng	This species appears to be scarce and/or under-recorded, and is certainly local in occurrence. There appear to be no records from Myanmar since the 1930s (but this probably just reflects the lack of sampling there since that time). There are only a few records from Thailand, and no recent records from India or Viet Nam.
163630		threats	eng	The area the species has been collected from is being degraded and lost through development of the area.
163631		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species. There seems to be a lack of recent records from Doi Suthep, and there is a need to search for the species on other mountains in northern Thailand and adjacent regions.
163631		distribution	eng	Known only from streams (possibly only from one stream) between 1,150 m and 1,200 m on Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai, north-west Thailand. It is unclear whether or not the holotype male was collected on the same stream as the other known specimens. It is to be hoped that the estimates of area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) given here are overly pessimistic; the species is likely to be present on other high mountains in northern Thailand and adjacent regions.
163631		habitat	eng	Breeds in small streams in montane forest. Possibly has a short flight period from late May to mid July.
163631		population	eng	This appears to be a scarce (or elusive) species. Hämäläinen listed 12 specimens in the type series, collected between 1987 and 1996. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) has visited one of the sites on Doi Suthep where this species is found on three occasions in 2004 and 2006 without finding it. However there are certain to be many areas of suitable, but inaccessible, habitat for this species within Doi Suthep-Pui national park, so that the species may actually be quite common on this mountain at least.
163631		threats	eng	Although the known location(s) for this species are within Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, the main location has already been adversely affected by the building of a small dam (see Hämäläinen 2004 for more details), therefore habitat loss is its main threat.
163632		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for this species must centre around preservation of suitable lowland forest habitats. There is a need for fresh data from Sumatra.
163632		distribution	eng	Known from Sumatra (Lieftinck 1965), Singapore (Lieftinck 1965, Murphy 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902 (as <em>V. amoena</em>), Norma-Rashid 1995, Orr 2005) and Thailand as far north as Kanchanaburi. (Asahina 1981, 1985; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163632		habitat	eng	Breeds in small lowland forest streams.
163632		population	eng	This species appears to be locally common in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, becoming less common in southern Thailand. There is a lack of recent data from Sumatra, but the species appears to have been locally there common before the 1950s.
163632		threats	eng	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops.
163633		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before planning of conservation measures (if needed) can take place. Searches should be made throughout the Western Ghats.
163633		distribution	eng	<em>Idionyx minima</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (Fraser 1931, 1936; Lahiri 1989).
163633		habitat	eng	Fraser (1936) states “I took a few specimens of both sexes flying among tea off the Munnar Ghat road during June.” The species probably breeds in forest habitats, most likely in small streams.
163633		population	eng	This appears to be a scarce species, it has not been recorded since its description (Lahiri 1989), however <em>Idionyx</em> species are often very difficult to capture, and impossible to identify without capture; the species may be under-recorded rather than rare.
163633		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163634		conservation	eng	Further data on this species is urgently needed. Searches should be made throughout India and Myanmar, and in adjacent countries. Without such searches effective conservation planning will be extremely difficult. There is also a need for further taxonomic work.
163634		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes umbrinus</em> is known from India (e.g., Fraser 1930, 1933; Ram <em>et al</em>. 1983; Tyagi 1984; Mitra 1992; Prasad and Varshney 1988, 1995) and Myanmar. Prasad and Varshney (1995) list the species as occurring in nine Indian states, this list is reproduced below, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of the sources of many of these records; some may be misidentifications. Records from Hainan are now known to be <em>L. nodalis</em> (Wilson 1997). Fraser (1933) notes a female from Yunnan, R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is unsure about the status of this specimen;  “records of <em>umbrinus</em> from China require confirmation” Wilson and Xu (2007).
163634		habitat	eng	Very little has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species. Fraser (1933) states that it is found “among long dried grasses”, but this cannot be the breeding habitat, which is likely to be marshes or well vegetated ponds.
163634		population	eng	<em>Lestes umbrinus</em> is known from scattered records of a few individuals. It does not appear to be a common species, but may be under-recorded.
163634		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a known threat to this species.
163635		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data for effective conservation planning. As we do not know anything about the occurrence or not of the species in secondary swamp forest, the extensive loss of primary lowland forest habitats in Kalimantan and Java (at least) is a considerable cause for concern. Searches should be made throughout Java, Borneo, Belitung and Peninsular Malaysia, as well as Bangka and Sumatra.
163635		distribution	eng	<em>Platylestes heterostylus</em> is known from scattered records of few individuals from Java (Lieftinck 1932, 1934, 1952, 1960), southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954, 1960), Pahang, Perak and Pulau Langkawi in peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1960, Norma-Rashid, Mohd-sofian and Zakaria-Ismail 2001, Orr 2005, Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007), Singapore (Murphy 1997), Banggi (Lieftinck 1960) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954, 1960). Given its occurrence on Belitung, it should be looked for on Bangka and mainland Sumatra.
163635		habitat	eng	The species is known to breed in swamp forest; it is unknown whether it can survive in secondary habitats or if it is confined to primary swamp forest.
163635		population	eng	This species appears to be both scarce and local; relatively few specimens are known and there is a lack of recent records (although, at least in part, this may reflect a lack of recent collecting effort in Indonesia). The author is aware of only about 15 specimens having ever been collected (D. R. Paulson pers. comm. 2007).
163635		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.
163636		conservation	eng	This species is data deficient, effective planning of conservation measures will not be possible without further data. Fresh searches need to be made in Nepal and northeast India.
163636		distribution	eng	<em>Periaeschna unifasciata</em> is known from north-east India (Fraser 1935, 1936; Asahina 1981; Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (Asahina 1981, Vick 1989).
163636		habitat	eng	Very little information of the habitat of this species is known, but presumably it is a species of montane forest.
163636		population	eng	Only four specimens of this species has been recorded (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007); there is no detailed information available on population size or trend.
163636		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163637		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be a need for any additional conservation measures for this species on Mount Kinabalu. However searches need to be made in the nearby Croker range for this species, to determine if it is in fact confined to Mount Kinabalu.
163637		distribution	eng	Known only from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo (e.g. Laidlaw 1915, 1920, 1924, 1934; Lieftinck 1954; van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995). There are records from at least four streams on the mountain.
163637		habitat	eng	<em>Euphaea basalis</em> breeds in streams above 1,000 m in montane forest.
163637		population	eng	This species is quite common on the Liwagu river and Silau-Silau stream near to the national park headquarters on Mount Kinabalu, and has been recorded on at least two further streams. It is likely to be equally common on other streams at similar altitudes on the mountain.
163637		threats	eng	Although on Mount Kinabalu the species is protected in a national park, it is confined to a relatively small area and thus vulnerable to natural disasters.
163638		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for additional data on this species. That said, it appears to be fairly common in the Kerinci area of Sumatra, and at least some of its habitat is protected in Kerinci Seblat National Park (1,500,000 hectares). It is likely to be found in other parts of the Barisan range; searches should be conducted to confirm or deny this.
163638		distribution	eng	Known only from an area of west central Sumatra: "Mount Kerintji [Kerinci] (Peak of Indrapura) and surrounding mountain areas" (Lieftinck 1954). Hämäläinen (2007) has made more recent records of this species from the Mount Kerinci area. This area lie on the Barisan Range; the species may be more widely distributed in this mountain range than is currently known.
163638		habitat	eng	Forest streams in montane areas. According to Hämäläinen it favours “small (1-2 m wide, with slow to moderate flow) streams” and was “lacking from wider (5 m) fast flowing mountain streams.”
163638		population	eng	The type series consists of 14 specimens, suggesting that it may have been quite common at the type localities at the time of collection. There are no recent published records of this species, but M. Hämäläinen (pers. comm. 2007), who visited the Kerinci area in 1997, states that “although this must be a local species with small range, it was a dominant chlorocyphid species in small (1-2 m wide, with slow to moderate flow) streams in Mount Kerinci region”.
163638		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation.
163639		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for this species over most of its range at this time; it is a common species that can tolerate disturbance. As the species is known from only one site in Thailand, there may be a need for extra measures in that country. There is a need for further sampling in Sumatra and Kalimantan, from where we have no recent records, and from Sabah, where there are relatively few records.
163639		distribution	eng	<em>Euphaea impar</em> is a widespread species, known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Kemp and Kemp 1989; Orr 2005),  Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Hincks 1930, Kimmins 1936, Asahina 1966, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Dow 2007), Sabah (e.g. Lieftinck 1940, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995), Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Orr 2001), Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1940, 1953; van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995) Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), the Anambas Islands (Laidlaw 1932), Bangka island (Lieftinck 1954), and southern Thailand (Asahina 1993, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163639		habitat	eng	Lowland forest streams. In Sarawak this species occurs in primary forest, but is also common in secondary and highly disturbed forest. It appears to be confined to lowland areas; R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) has not found the species in apparently suitable habitats between 1,000 m and 1,100 m in the Kelabit Highlands, but it is common in nearby lowland areas.
163639		population	eng	<em>Euphaea impar</em> is a common species in lowland forest in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. Only one site is known in southern Thailand (in Songkhla).
163639		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss due to forest clearance.
163640		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species for effective conservation planning; more sampling needs to be carried out on the Andaman Islands and suitable areas for the species need to be given some form of protected status.
163640		distribution	eng	Known from the Andaman Islands, recorded so far from North Andaman, South Andaman and Little Andaman islands. Hämäläinen (2002) lists eight locations on these islands for the species. Prasad and Varshney (1995) stated that the species was also found on the Nicobar Islands, but Hämäläinen (2002) showed that this was an error.
163640		habitat	eng	<em>L. andamanensis</em> breeds in forest streams.
163640		population	eng	Hämäläinen (2002) lists 19 specimens collected between 1996 and 1998 in his re-description of this species. There are few records from before this time. It is likely to be quite common where suitable habitat exists, but there is a need for further data to gain an accurate picture of population for this species.
163640		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163641		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species before effective conservation measures can be planned. Searches need to be made in hilly and mountainous country in northeast India and adjacent regions.
163641		distribution	eng	<em>Burmargiolestes laidlawi</em> is known only from northeast India (Lieftinck 1960, Asahina 1985, Prasad and Varshney 1995). There are records from West Bengal, Sikkim and Manipur.
163641		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat or ecology of this poorly known species. It is closely related to <em>B. melanothorax</em> (Selys, 1891), which breeds in streams on densely forested hill and mountain sides; it is reasonable to assume that <em>B. laidlawi</em> is found in similar places.
163641		population	eng	Very few specimens of these species are known, most likely only nine specimens. It appears to be a scarce insect, but, like its close ally <em>B. melanothorax</em> (Selys, 1891), it is probably rather cryptic in its appearance in life, and in its habits, so may be under-recorded.
163641		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a recognized threat to this species.
163642		conservation	eng	This appears to be a common species at high altitudes in northeast India and Nepal; as such there does not seem to be any particular need for special conservation measures at the present. However there is a need for monitoring and for further sampling to establish the true limits of the species distribution. There is also a need to identify potential threats to the montane habitats of this species.
163642		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacanthaeschna sikkima</em> is known from northeast India and Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1983; Vick 1989). Records from India are from Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1936, Asahina 1981), West Bengal (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Uttar Pradesh (Prasad and Kumar 1977, Hämäläinen 1989). Asahina (1981) records specimens from Assam; it is unclear if these refer to Assam in the current sense, or one or more of the states formerly included in Assam. It is likely to be widely distributed in mountainous areas of north and northeast India.
163642		habitat	eng	Given the relatively large number of records of this species there is surprisingly little information on its habitats and ecology. It is clearly a high altitude species, with records from up to 2,100 m. Hämäläinen (1989), referring to material from Dehra Dun Valley, Uttar Pradesh, wrote “several other specimens were seen flying high over a small torrential mountain stream”. It seems likely that this species breeds in mountain streams.
163642		population	eng	<em>Gynacanthaeschna sikkima</em> appears to be a fairly common species. In his works on Himalayan <em>Cephalaeschna</em> and their allies Asahina lists 31 specimens from various locations (Asahina 1981, 1983). Prasad and Kumar (1977) list seven specimens from Uttar Pradesh. Fraser (1936) stated  “quite the most common species of the <em>Cephalaeschna</em> group found in N.E. India.”. Asahina (1983) stated  “seems common in Central Nepal in autumn season”.
163642		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163643		conservation	eng	There is a need to establish the true extent of the distribution of <em>Brachydiplax sobrina</em>, and for fresh information from Myanmar; beyond this monitoring is required to see how the species copes with increasing urbanization in many parts of its range.
163643		distribution	eng	<em>Brachydiplax sobrina</em> is known from India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh (e.g. Fraser 1936, Prasad 1975, Mitra 1992, Andrew 1995, Mitra 1999, de Fonseka 2000), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1985, 1989; Mahato 1988), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936, Asahina 1970), and Thailand (e.g. Fraser 1927, Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Laidlaw (1931) listed this species from Peninsular Malaysia, but this record appears to have been an error and R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any subsequent records. Given the known distribution of the species, it might also occur in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR.
163643		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, water-filled ditches and marshes, including man-made habitats.
163643		population	eng	<em>Brachydiplax sobrina</em> appears to still be a very common species in India and Bangladesh. There is no recent information from Myanmar. In Thailand it is “widespread but not common” (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and may be approaching the edge of its range.
163643		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any obvious major threats to this species at present, although some parts of its range is undergoing urbanization.
163644		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species, effective conservation planning will not be possible without it. Searches should be made in the Nilgiri Hills, Nepal and hilly and mountainous regions in between.
163644		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus striatus</em> is known from the Nilgiri Hills in India’s Western Ghats (Fraser 1924) and from Nepal (e.g. Smith 1981, Mahato 1988, Vick 1989).
163644		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to breed in rocky forest streams, as do many of its congeners.
163644		population	eng	This is a very poorly known species. Only the holotype is known from India. There appear to have been at least three records from Nepal.
163644		threats	eng	This species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163645		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh information on this species. Searches need to be made in Karnataka. Without new data the planning of effective conservation measures, if needed, will prove extremely difficult.
163645		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus acinaces</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (Fraser 1924, 1934; Laidlaw 1930; Prasad and Varshney 1995); all records that R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is aware of are from Karnataka.
163645		habitat	eng	<em>Onychogomphus acinaces</em> is a stream species. Females have been recorded ovipositing “over a deep pool formed by damming of the river below” (Fraser 1934). From published information the degree of forestation preferred by this species is not clear.
163645		population	eng	In the early 1930s and before this species appears to have been locally common in Karnataka. Fraser (1934), quoting C. Souter on an encounter with this species at one site, stated “after having taken about 50 males I grew tired of taking more”. However there appear to be no records after the mid 1930s; this is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in Karnataka, but is a cause for concern.
163645		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163646		conservation	eng	Fresh data are needed on this species in Meghalaya and Sikkim, and further searches need to be made in Thailand. Searches should also be made in other parts of northeast India and in Myanmar and Yunnan. The species is likely to be secure in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, but appears to be scarcer elsewhere; suitable habitat should be protected in Sikkim and wherever else the species is found in future.
163646		distribution	eng	<em>Anisopleura subplatystyla</em> is known from Meghalaya (e.g. Fraser 1927, 1934; Lahiri 1987; Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Sikkim (Mitra 1999, 2004) and from Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). it&#160; was also recorded in Nepal, Kaski at Kimrong and on the Kali Lekh (published in Clausnitzer and Wesche 1996). Needham (1930) recorded it from Yunnan in China; it is not clear if this record refers to <em>A. subplatystyla</em> or to <em>A. yunnanensis</em> Zhu & Zhou, 1999.  Indeed the latter species may be a synonym of <em>subplatystyla</em> (see Taxonomic Notes). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2010 is not aware of any records from other countries, but given the known distribution it should be looked for in Myanmar at least.
163646		habitat	eng	Breeds in forest streams on mountains.
163646		population	eng	<em>Anisopleura subplatystyla</em> appears to have been fairly common in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, Lahiri (1987) states that it is “one of the most commonly occurring odonate species around Shillong”. There are fewer records from Sikkim and Thailand.
163646		threats	eng	Habitat is being lost from clear-cutting of forests and may at risk in some localities from hydropower development.
163647		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh information from parts of the range of this species: India, Myanmar, Java and Sumatra, searches should also be made in Cambodia and Bangladesh. Beyond this few conservation measures appear to be needed at present, but protection of suitable forest habitats is vital.
163647		distribution	eng	<em>Tetrathemis platyptera</em> is widely distributed in tropical Asia, with records from India (e.g. Fraser 1936, Lahiri 1987, Mitra 1999; Prasad and Varshney 1995 give its distribution as “throughout India”), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969), China (e.g. Wilson 1999, 2005; Wilson and Reels 2001), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, Lieftinck 1954, Kemp and Kemp 1989, Norma-Rashid 1995), Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934) and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from Cambodia or Banglasdesh, but its occurrence in these countries is very likely.
163647		habitat	eng	The species breeds in pools in forest, including secondary forest.
163647		population	eng	This is a rather local species, probably not uncommon, but often missed by non-experts.
163647		threats	eng	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops is a potential threat to viable habitat of this species.
163648		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. There has been a serious lack of expert sampling in Myanmar, which is likely to be the reason why there have not been more records of this species. Searches need to be made in Tenasserim and adjacent regions.
163648		distribution	eng	<em>Microgomphus lilliputians</em> is known only from Tennasserim in Myanmar (Fraser 1925, 1934).
163648		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams.
163648		population	eng	<em>Microgomphus lilliputians</em> is known from a single female collected in 1923.
163648		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development is a continuing  threat to this species.
163649		conservation	eng	Fresh data is needed on this very poorly known species. Searches need to be made in Meghalaya and adjacent areas. Conservation measures cannot be effectively planned without more information, but will centre around the preservation of suitable habitat.
163649		distribution	eng	<em>Nihonogomphus indicus</em> is known only from the southern Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987).
163649		habitat	eng	The type series was collected on a forest river, this is the only information on habitat available.
163649		population	eng	<em>Nihonogomphus indicus</em> is known only from the type series, consisting of one male and one female (Lahiri 1987).
163649		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use and small-scale wood extraction are major threats to this species.
163650		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species, especially from Indonesia. Overall it does not appear to be threatened at present.
163650		distribution	eng	Known from Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1976, 1982, 1990 all as <em>A. d’abruei</em>; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (photographic records by O. Kosterin on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net], Peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw 2002, Orr 2005), Java (Lieftinck 1930, van Tol 1990) Sumatra and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954) and Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954, Orr 2003).
163650		habitat	eng	Breeds in swamp forest and shallow marshes in Indonesia, but has been recorded from rice fields in Thailand.
163650		population	eng	"Very local, but plentiful where found" reported Lieftinck in 1954. There is very little recent data on the Indonesian populations available; the species might be under threat from habitat loss in Kalimantan and Java at least.
163650		threats	eng	Habitat loss from fires (purpose set and wild).
163651		conservation	eng	This species is in protected areas, whoever there still are threats of habitat loss and water pollution because the tourist activities. More information is needed on the full distribution of this species.
163651		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Viet Nam. The type locality is at Cuc Phuong National Park, Ninh Binh Province. The only other known location is Mount Tan Vien, Ha Tay Province.
163651		habitat	eng	The type specimen was found along a small stream in limestone tablelands, which flows the distance of about 100 m through the forest and then flows underground below a cliff. The male has a habit of patrolling on the upper stream in dark forest, and female lays eggs into small muddy pools near the source stream. <br/><br/>The flight season is the length of summer (from April to the end of August).
163651		population	eng	In 2010, the population of this species was in good numbers in Cuc Phuong National Park.
163651		threats	eng	Some subpopulations may be threatened by habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests. There are ongoing threats to the populations in Tan Vien from development activities. The type location is in a protected area and there are no known threats.
163652		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made in central and east Java.
163652		distribution	eng	Known only from central and eastern Java (Lieftinck 1954).
163652		habitat	eng	Breeds in open standing waters and possibly slowly flowing ones.
163652		population	eng	This appears to be a scarce species. The type series consists of two males and one female (Lieftinck 1934); the type series of <em>P. infracavum</em> (a synonym of <em>P. nigrofasciatum</em>) consists of four males. Writing in 1937 Lieftinck stated “... good series of specimens, collected by Mr. H. Overbeck, who says that it is a common species near Djokjakarta” (page 88 in comparison with <em>P. coomansi</em> Lieftinck, 1937). Lieftinck (1954) stated “found in similar situations to [<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion</span>] <span style="font-style: italic;">microcephalum</span>, but much scarcer”, and gave no indication of having seen any material not available in 1937. To summarize: The species appears to have always been scarce (or under-recorded) except possibly in a small area of mid Java, and there do not appear to have been any records since 1937 or before.
163652		threats	eng	Habitat loss - there has been extensive habitat destruction in Java, giving grounds for concern over this species.
163653		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this poorly known species. Searches need to be conducted in the Western Ghats.
163653		distribution	eng	<em>Idionyx travancorensis</em> is known only from the Western Ghats in India (Fraser 1931, 1936).
163653		habitat	eng	Fraser (1931) states that the species occurs from 3,000 - 4,000 ft in the Western Ghats and breeds in mountain streams. Nothing else is known of its habitat or ecology.
163653		population	eng	There are very few records of this species; it appears to be scarce or under-recorded. There appears to be no records since the 1930s. <em>Idionyx</em> species are difficult to capture, and generally impossible to identify without capture, and there has been a lack of expert sampling in the Western Ghats since Fraser’s day (1930s); the lack of recent records is as likely to reflect these factors as it is actual rarity.
163653		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163654		conservation	eng	This species may be moderately common in Taiwan, other parts of China and in Viet Nam, but further sampling is needed to confirm this. Much further work is needed in other parts of its range, and some taxonomic issues need to be resolved. When this data is forthcoming we will be better placed to plan any conservation measures needed for the species. Preservation of suitable habitat will be central to any effective conservation plan for this species.
163654		distribution	eng	<em>Periaeschna magdalena</em> is known from northeast India (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (e.g. Mitra 1999), Viet Nam (Fraser 1936, Asahina 1981, Karube 2004) and China, including Taiwan (e.g. Needham 1930; Asahina 1956, 1961, 1981, 1982; Wilson and Reels 2001; Wilson 2005). <em>P. nocturnalis</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) has been recorded in Thailand.
163654		habitat	eng	Breeds in forested hill streams, and is a crepuscular species (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007).
163654		population	eng	<em>Periaeschna magdalena</em> appears to be moderately common in parts of Viet Nam and China, possibly less so north-east India. Asahina (1981) lists 13 specimens from Viet Nam and China, Karube (2004) lists a further 13 specimens from two locations in Viet Nam.
163654		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.
163655		conservation	eng	This species is best conserved by the protection of lowland swamp forest habitats, especially peat swamp forest. In Sarawak it is still quite common, but will become less so as unprotected swamp forest areas are cleared for agriculture etc. However it is certainly present in a number of national parks and other protected areas and there is no immediate cause for concern. The situation in Penisular Malaysia appears to be similar. We have less information from Kalimantan, and none of it is recent; known loss of lowland forest habitats is a cause for concern here, fresh data is needed, the same applies to Sumatra and Belitung.
163655		distribution	eng	<em>Heliaeschna idea</em> is known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Lieftinck 1954, Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001), Borneo, Sumatra (Lieftinck 1954) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954). Records from Borneo are from Brunei (Orr 2001, two locations), Kalimantan (e.g. Ris 1911, Lieftinck 1953), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, Hisamatsu and Sasamoto 2003, Dow 2007; records from Lambir Hills and Loagan Bunut National Parks, there are also specimens from Samarahan in the collection of University Malaysia Sarawak). There appears to be no details on material from Sumatra and Belitung (R. Dow pers. comm. 2008), Lieftinck (1954) merely states that the species occurs on these islands.
163655		habitat	eng	Usually found in lowland swamp forest, but recorded up to 1,100 m. In Sarawak the species is most common in peat swamp forest, and occurs in secondary forest, for instance at Loagan Bunut National Park in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007) and at the University Malaysia Sarawak campus at Kota Samarahan in the west.
163655		population	eng	This species appears to be moderately common in swampy lowland forest in peninsular Malaysia and north Borneo. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) does not have any information on populations from Sumatra and Belitung, where there has been a severe lack of sampling in recent decades. There are fewer published records from Kalimantan, but this may reflects lower collecting effort and the fact that records of this species may not have been published.
163655		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163656		conservation	eng	Fresh data is needed on this species. Searches should be conducted in wetland habitats throughout peninsular India. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat. At least one (old) record is from within what is now the Ujani Wetland Reserve, Pune district, Maharashtra (Kulkarni and Prasad 2002), but its continued presence in this reserve needs to be confirmed.
163656		distribution	eng	<em>Cyclogomphus heterostylus</em> is endemic to India (e.g. Fraser 1926, 1934; Laidlaw 1930; Prasad and Varshney 1995). Records from Sri Lanka (e.g. Laidlaw 1930) appear to have been misidentifications.
163656		habitat	eng	Fraser (1934) records this species from a lake, and from “marshes along the course of the Coomb River”, there is no other information regarding its habitat or ecology known.
163656		population	eng	There are not many records of this species, and apparently no recent ones.
163656		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163657		conservation	eng	Further data is needed on the distribution of this species. Fresh searches should be made in the Baram river valley in Sarawak, and adjacent areas.  There is an urgent need is for taxonomic work to clarify the status of forms associated with this species. A revision of <em>Coeliccia</em> in Borneo which will resolve these issues is planned.
163657		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo, possibly restricted to north Borneo; all records (reliable or otherwise, see Taxonomic Notes) are from Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei. Laidlaw (1918) described the species from a male from “Baram”, referring to somewhere in the Baram River valley. Subsequently (1931) he recorded it from Bettotan in east Sabah, but this record seems to have been disregarded in all subsequent publications on the species and R. Dow cannot locate this specimen (pers. comm. 2008). The only other record that can be regarded as certainly of this species is from Brunei (Orr 2001), of two males from one location. The distribution of the species is best treated as northeast Sarawak and Brunei.
163657		habitat	eng	Records from Brunei of confirmed <em>C. macrostigma</em> are from one freshwater swamp forest location, the habitat at the type locality is not entirely clear, but appears to have been similar.
163657		population	eng	<em>Coeliccia macrostigma</em> is known with certainty only from three males (the holotype and two from Brunei).
163657		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163658		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data to clarify the range of this species, and whether it can survive in non-timber plantations, but no particular conservation measures appear to be needed. Searches need to be made in Sabah, as there appear to have been no recent records of the species from that state, and in Kalimantan and peninsular Malaysia.
163658		distribution	eng	Known from Borneo and Peninsula Malaysia. There are records from Penang in Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1937 as <em>T. leonorae</em> 1954), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1912), Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), Brunei (Orr 2001) and southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953). In west Sarawak it appears to be replaced by the similar <em>T. ruficollis</em> Selys (1877) (Dow 2007).
163658		habitat	eng	Appears to prefer swampy forest locations, and often occurs in heavily disturbed forest and small remnant patches of forest.
163658		population	eng	In Borneo <em>T. rajah</em> appears to be common in Brunei and north-east Sarawak at least. There are fewer records from Peninsular Malaysia, but this species is easily overlooked and might be under-recorded.
163658		threats	eng	The only major threat to this species appears to be from large scale clear felling of lowland forest. Further data is needed to determine if the species can survive in non-timber (e.g. oil palm) plantations; as such locations are typically well drained, and are replacing lowland swamp forest (primary and secondary) at an alarming rate across the range of the species, there is some cause for concern.
163659		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for further data on this species before effective conservation measures can be planned. In particular its true habitat must be determined.
163659		distribution	eng	Known only from Viet Nam (Karube 2003, 2004). The type locality is given as Sapa, Lao Cai Province, north Viet Nam, however as the specimens were purchased from an insect dealer, there must be some doubt about this.
163659		habitat	eng	The specimens which the species were described from were found in the collections of an insect dealer and lacked any date or habitat information. The altitude of Sapa is given by Karube (2003) as 1,500 - 2,000 m. The species is likely to breed in streams in montane forest.
163659		population	eng	Known from three specimens; one male and two females (Karube 2003).
163659		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163660		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data for effective conservation planning. Since this species appears to be confined to just two islands in the Great Nicobar Group, there is cause for concern at least on the grounds of its very restricted range. The priority must be to ensure that suitable habitat has a long-term protected status.
163660		distribution	eng	<em>Libellago balus</em> is known only from the Nicobar Islands, where it appears to be confined to two islands of the "Great Nicobar" group (Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar), Hämäläinen (2002) lists two sites on Great Nicobar, the specimens from Little Nicobar are old, and vaguely labelled. Note that the upper limit of elevation is taken from the maximum elevation of the Nicobar Islands (data from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicobar_islands).
163660		habitat	eng	<em>Libellago balus</em> breeds in forest streams.
163660		population	eng	Hämäläinen (2002) lists 15 specimens in the description of the species, of which two are old and the remainder were collected from 1996-2000. Possibly moderately common on the Great Nicobar Islands, but there is a need for further data.
163660		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163661		conservation	eng	No specific measures appear to be needed for this species, beyond the need for more research. The species should be searched for in Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR.
163661		distribution	eng	<em>Aciagrion tillyardi</em> occurs from eastern India (e.g. Laidlaw 1924, Mitra 1999) to Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), China (e.g. Wilson 1999, 2004; Wilson and Reels 2001, 2003) and northeast Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954). Given the known distribution, it is also likely to occur in Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR.
163661		habitat	eng	Breeds in shallow well vegetated ponds and marshes, including seasonally dry ones. Lahiri (1987) states that it occurs at “grassy edges of small streams or even stagnant water bodies”; but most records appear to be from lentic (still water) habitats.
163661		population	eng	<em>A. tillyardi</em> is widespread but it appears to be very local in occurrence, but is inconspicuous and probably under recorded. It is certainly common in some areas, e.g. Lahiri (1987) describes it as common in Meghalaya.
163661		threats	eng	Habitat loss appears to be the only threat to this species. However it can occur in rather disturbed habitats (e.g. roadside ponds); it does not appear to be under any major threat at present.
163662		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its distribution. It should be looked for in other montane areas of northern Thailand, in Myanmar and Yunnan at least.
163662		distribution	eng	Known only from Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand (Asahina 1976, 1981, 1985; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Most records are from Doi Inthanon and Doi Suthep-Pui National Parks.
163662		habitat	eng	Breeds in mountain forest streams. Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) give an altitude range of 1,000 - 1,300 m, but this species has been found at a lower altitude on Doi Suthep in 2006 (Dow 2007). It appears to be most common during the wettest part of the year. So far it only appears to have been recorded in pristine forest habitats, although a number of individuals have been seen foraging amongst a grove of banana trees in a cultivated area on Doi Inthanon in 2006 (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007), however there is good forest near this location and the individuals seen appeared to be immature.
163662		population	eng	This species appears to be quite scarce, but may be under-recorded.
163662		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163663		conservation	eng	More data on the distribution of this species is needed, it should be searched for in Myanmar, Cambodia and parts of southern China (e.g. Yunnan), but no particular conservation measures appear to be needed across much of its range.
163663		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphidictinus perakensis</em> is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw 1902 etc., Fraser 1942, Vick 1993), Thailand (Asahina 1981, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any published records from Viet Nam, but in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London, there is a previously unidentified male from Viet Nam that belongs to this species.
163663		habitat	eng	<em>G. perakensis</em> is a species of wooded streams. According to Orr (2005) the larvae occur “deep in accumulated leaf litter”. In Chiang Mai in Thailand the species occurs in secondary and disturbed habitats, as well as pristine ones, as long as there is some forest around parts of the stream (Dow 2007).
163663		population	eng	<em>G. perakensis</em> is a common species across much of its range.
163663		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a major threat to this species.
163664		conservation	eng	Preservation of suitable forest habitats is required for this species. The establishment and maintenance of forest corridors around suitable streams throughout its range would be a sensible measure to ensure the future of the species.
163664		distribution	eng	<em>Onychothemis testacea</em> is a widespread species, occurring from India and Sri Lanka (e.g. Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (e.g. Asahina 1970), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1989; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Lieftinck 1954, Orr 2005), Viet Nam, Lao PDR and China including Taiwan, Hainan and Hong Kong (e.g. Wilson 2004, 2005).
163664		habitat	eng	<em>Onychothemis testacea</em> breeds in rifles in clear streams in forest or at its margins.
163664		population	eng	This widespread species is locally common over much of its range, although it is rare in Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005), which appears to be on the edge of its range. It is likely to be under-recorded.
163664		threats	eng	This species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163665		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species. The status of the habitats where the species was originally found in Kalimantan needs to be checked (but is doubtful). Expert searches need to be made throughout Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand.
163665		distribution	eng	Published records are from two locations in eastern Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953, 1954, 1964), Songkhla in southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia (Hämäläinen 2000, Orr 2005). Clearly this species is quite widely distributed in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand.
163665		habitat	eng	There is very little published on the habitat or ecology of <em>B. arthuri</em>, but it is likely to be a species of lowland, low-gradient forest streams, as is the case for many other species of <em>Burmagomphus</em>.
163665		population	eng	Few individuals of <em>B. arthuri</em> have ever been collected. It was described from a single female (Lieftinck 1953), later Lieftinck reported three more females (1964). There was a single record from Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and two females and a teneral (moulted exoskeleton) male (in too poor a condition to describe) were collected in Pahang (Hämäläinen 2000). The species is certainly rarely collected, but there is insufficient information to say whether it is actually rare.
163665		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163666		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data from parts of the species range, especially Indonesia and Palawan, but the species appears to be quite common over much of its range, and capable of surviving in secondary forest. Conservation measures must centre around preservation of suitable forest habitats, but the species does not appear to be threatened across much of its range at present.
163666		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia westwoodi</em> is known from Borneo, Palawan (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1950, 1954), Java (e.g. Fraser 1926; Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1950, 1954) and peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1922, 1931; Fraser 1942; Vick 1993; Orr 2005). Records from Borneo are from Brunei (Orr 2001, 2003), Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Dow 2007 – three locations in the Kelabit Highlands, also at Mount Dulit) and Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1935). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any records from Sabah, but the species is very likely to occur there.
163666		habitat	eng	This is a species of clear forest streams from the lowlands to at least 1,100 m. It occurs in hilly and mountainous terrain. Most records are from primary forest, but the species occurs in secondary forest in the Kelabit Highlands and on the lower slopes of Mount Dulit in northeast Sarawak.
163666		population	eng	This species appears to be quite common across much of its range, especially as it is likely to be under-recorded due to difficulty of capture. There is a lack of recent records from the Indonesian part of its range, but this is likely to reflect a lack of collecting effort.
163666		threats	eng	The species habitat is being lost through clear-cutting of forests, although the rate and effect of this threat is not known.
163667		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species at present, beyond the need for further distribution and population information, and monitoring.
163667		distribution	eng	<em>Vestalis gracilis</em> is very widely distributed, occurring from eastern India to Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia. There are records from many parts of India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1985, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Bangladesh, Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Myanmar (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Asahina 1970), Thailand (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Asahina 1966), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Orr 2005), Cambodia (Asahina 1967), Lao PDR (Fraser 1933, Yokoi 1999) and Viet Nam (e.g. Fraser 1934; Asahina 1969, 1996; van Tol and Rozendaal 1995). Records from southern China appear to be incorrect (Wilson 2007).
163667		habitat	eng	Breeds in streams, including those in agricultural land, provided that some trees are present nearby.
163667		population	eng	<em>Vestalis gracilis</em> is a common species across much of its range.
163667		threats	eng	The only major threats to this species appear to be large scale development and canalisation of streams.
163668		conservation	eng	Further information is needed on this species, searches should be made throughout its range. Conservation measures will centre around the protection of suitable forest habitats. The possibility of encouraging this species to breed in an area by the creation of artificial ‘tree holes’ by attaching suitably sized containers to trees exists.
163668		distribution	eng	<em>Lyriothemis bivittata</em> is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1936; Lahiri 1987; Mitra 1999, 2004), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Myanmar (Fraser 1936), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969, 1988, 1996) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 2001). Within India Fraser (1936) records the species from Darjeeling, Assam and Sibsagar, a location now in Madhya Pradesh, and Lahiri (1987) recorded it from Meghalaya. It has also been recorded in Sikkim (Mitra 2004). In Thailand records are from Chanthaburi and Kanchanaburi.
163668		habitat	eng	Apparently this species breeds in water filled tree holes; Asahina (1988) states “the larva of this species is a tree-pot dweller as many other congeners. I have got one larva from a tree-pot in an abandoned rubber-tree forest, and bred out a single male adult”. However it may also breed in other forest habitats (e.g. pools), there is insufficient information to know if it is an obligate tree hole breeder.
163668		population	eng	This species is not often recorded, Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) describe it as a “rare forest species”. However this is likely to be an under-recorded species; as a tree hole breeder it will not often be found at the streams, rivers, marshes, swamps, lakes and ponds where Odonata are normally searched for. It is likely to be not that uncommon in suitable forest habitats across its range.
163668		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species will be from logging.
163669		conservation	eng	More information on this species is urgently needed. Searches should be made in south Viet Nam and adjacent areas.
163669		distribution	eng	<em>Microgomphus jurzitzai</em> is known only from Lam Dong province, southern Viet Nam (Karube 2000).
163669		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat or ecology of this species has been published, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.
163669		population	eng	<em>Microgomphus jurzitzai</em> is known only from the type series of two males. This does not necessarily imply rarity; Viet Nam is poorly known for Odonata and <em>Microgomphus</em> species are notoriously elusive.
163669		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163670		conservation	eng	Fresh data from Kalimantan is urgently needed, along with searches in suitable habitats in East Malaysia and Brunei.
163670		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo. Known from Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954) and one location in Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993). The species has yet to been found in Sarawak, but is likely to occur there.
163670		habitat	eng	Freshwater swamp forest.
163670		population	eng	<em>M. alcyone</em> was described from Sabah, but appears to have been most common in alluvial forest in southeastern Kalimantan, however there is no recent data available from these areas, where swamp forest habitats are severely threatened, but there has been a severe lack of expert sampling in Kalimantan for more than 50 years. In north Borneo it appears to be a scarce insect, there is a recent record from Brunei, and an old record from Sabah, but the species has not yet been found in Sarawak. Lieftinck (1954) stated that <em>M. alcyone</em> is "common in the swampy alluvial forests of Borneo", but this statement appears to have been based on unwarranted extrapolation from large series from southeast Kalimantan. Orr (2003) states that the species is "widespread but uncommon"; this seems to be a more accurate summary.
163670		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the major threat to this species. The status of its habitats in southeastern Kalimantan is unknown, but highly doubtful.
163671		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this poorly known species. Fresh searches need to be made in Perak and adjacent areas of Peninsular Malaysia.
163671		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series from Batang Padang in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia at an altitude of 600 m (Laidlaw 1924, 1931; Lieftinck 1954).
163671		habitat	eng	The species had been found in forest streams and trickles on hills and mountains (Orr 2005).
163671		population	eng	Known only from the type series consisting of one male and three females (Laidlaw 1931).
163671		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a recognized threat to this species.
163672		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this species; without such information effective conservation planning will not be possible. Searches should be undertaken in West Bengal and adjacent areas.
163672		distribution	eng	<em>Ictinogomphus distinctus</em> is known from one location in West Bengal (Ram 1985).
163672		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat or ecology of this species has been published.
163672		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series, consisting of three males collected in 1975 (Ram 1985).
163672		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a major threat to this species.
163673		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data from the known range of this species, and it should be searched for in regions of India adjacent to Meghalaya. Conservation measures (if needed) will centre around the protection of suitable habitat.
163673		distribution	eng	<em>Merogomphus martini</em> is known from India, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Fraser 1934). Records from India are from the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalya (Fraser 1922, 1934; Lahiri 1987) and West Bengal (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, Fraser 1934).
163673		habitat	eng	Lahiri (1987) records the species from deep forest near streams, and also from a lake. Presumably the species breeds in forest streams in hilly and mountainous country.
163673		population	eng	There appears to be no really recent records of this species, but Fraser (1934) states that “the species is also moderately common at Shillong, Assam and Maymyo, Burma” and Lahiri (1987) reports 16 specimens collected at locations in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in the 1960s and 1970s, suggesting that the species was quite common at these locations at the time.
163673		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163674		conservation	eng	We need more information on this species, in particular on its distribution. Searches need to be made from India to Viet Nam to establish its distribution and gain a better picture of population sizes. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat.
163674		distribution	eng	<em>Indothemis carnatica</em> is known from India, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Records from India are from the Western Ghats and West Bengal (Fraser 1936, Miller 1992), there are a few records from Sri Lanka (e.g. in de Fonseka 2000) including a recent photographic record on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net], there are records from six provinces in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), but one of these is an old record from Bangkok; the species is unlikely to still occur in this city or its immediate vicinity. It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam and should be searched for in these countries.
163674		habitat	eng	The species breeds in small, heavily weeded ponds and lakes (Fraser 1936).
163674		population	eng	The only recent record from India is that of Miller (1992) from Tamil Nadu; this appears to be a scarce species in India, although it is likely to be under-recorded. In Thailand it is an “uncommon species in north and east” (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163674		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163675		conservation	eng	No particular conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, beyond the need for further research on distribution and population sizes.
163675		distribution	eng	<em>Onychargia atrocyana</em> is a very widely distributed species. Known from India and Bangladesh (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Sri Lanka (e.g. de Fonseka 2000), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1987), Mynamar (Fraser 1933), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1966, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Orr 2005), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969), Hong Kong (e.g. Wilson 2004), Yunnan in China (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007), Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, 1954), Borneo (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1953, Orr 2001), the Mentawei Islands, Lesser Sunda Islands, Belitung and Bangka (Lieftinck 1954) and the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). It is also likely to occur in Lao PDR and Cambodia and to be more widely distributed in China than current records suggest.
163675		habitat	eng	Breeds in ponds and marshes with trees, and swamp forest. This species can certainly survive in secondary habitats.
163675		population	eng	<em>O. atrocyana</em> is somewhat local in occurrence, but often very common where it occurs.
163675		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species, although habitat loss due to deforestation might be a problem in parts of its range.
163676		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout the Western Ghats.
163676		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion indicum</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (Fraser 1924, 1933; Prasad and Varshney 1995; Subramanian 2005), where there are records from Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
163676		habitat	eng	Breeds in marshes associated with small streams in sub-montane and montane areas of the Western Ghats (Fraser 1933, Subramanian 2005). Nothing further is known.
163676		population	eng	There are very few records of this species. Fraser (1924, 1933) makes no comment on population sizes. The only record of the species having been found since the 1930s is that in Subramanian (2005), where there is a photograph apparently of this species, but no information on population sizes.
163676		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163677		conservation	eng	At present this is quite a common species (at least in Sarawak) in Borneo, however it is absent from some apparently suitable habitat, and is certainly not present in deforested areas. There is a need for fresh information from Kalimantan, and monitoring in West Malaysia and Brunei.
163677		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in Borneo, also known from peninsular Malaysia (Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996). In Borneo there are records from Kalimantan (e.g. Ris 1911, Lieftinck 1940), Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (e.g. Hincks 1930, Asahina 1966, Dow 2007) and Sabah (e.g. Huisman and van Tol 1989, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989).
163677		habitat	eng	Clear, low gradient, forest streams from the lowlands to 1,100 m or above. Occurs in secondary (e.g. at Annah Rais in west Sarawak and in the Kelabit Highlands in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007)) as well as primary forest. The fact that the species has not yet been found in some apparently suitable habitats (e.g. on the Sungai Rayu in Kubah National Park, west Sarawak) suggests that we do not fully understand the habitat requirements of this species.
163677		population	eng	In Borneo this appears to be quite a common species on clear forest streams, but is absent from some apparently suitable habitats. There is less data available from Peninsular Malaysia.
163677		threats	eng	Habitat loss and possibly pollution.
163678		conservation	eng	More information on this species is needed before conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Searches should be made in Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and eastern Thailand.
163678		distribution	eng	<em>Zyxommoides breviventre</em> is known from Lao PDR (Martin 1921) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (Asahina 1967).
163678		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, but is likely to be ponds or marshes; it is also likely to be a crepuscular species.
163678		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series and a single specimen from Cambodia. It is likely to be a crepuscular species, which may at least in part account for the paucity of records; a lack of sampling in Lao PDR and Cambodia is also likely to be an important factor.
163678		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163679		conservation	eng	Fresh information on this species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in Assam and adjacent areas of India, and in Nepal and Myanmar.
163679		distribution	eng	<em>Macrogomphus seductus</em> is known from India (Fraser 1926, Laidlaw 1930), where there are records from Assam and West Bengal (Fraser 1934), and from Nepal (Smith 1981, Vick 1989).
163679		habitat	eng	Nothing has been published on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a species of low gradient forest streams and rivers.
163679		population	eng	Few individuals of this species have ever been collected. Fraser (1934) lists five specimens, the only more recent record appears to be that from Nepal, due to Smith (1981) of a single male. <em>M. seductus</em> may be a scarce species, but it may equally well be under-collected.
163679		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest and fires for agricultural use.
163680		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species, for which there are few records, and fewer still recent records. Searches need to be made throughout Sundaland. Larval sampling should be carried out in protected areas, to determine if the species is present, as the adults are likely to be elusive.
163680		distribution	eng	<em>Megalogomphus icterops</em> is known from Java (Laidlaw 1930; Schmidt 1934; Lieftinck 1934, 1935, 1941, 1954), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Belitung (Lieftinck 1954), west Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1941), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914; Lieftinck 1934, 1935) and Pulau Langkawi, of the cost of Perlis state, Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005).
163680		habitat	eng	Breeds in lowland forest streams; "restricted to undisturbed areas and never found away from its parent stream." (Lieftinck 1954).
163680		population	eng	<em>Megalogomhus icterops</em> is either scarce or under-recorded, there are few records of adults, from scattered locations across Sundaland. However Lieftinck (1941) records finding “numerous” larvae from west Java, suggesting that the species may not be as uncommon as records of adults suggest. Nonetheless, almost all the records of adults are from before 1954, the most recent record is of a specimen caught in a mist net on Langkawi (Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007). S. Butler (pers. comm. 2007) has found the larva on Langkawi.
163680		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.
163681		conservation	eng	There is a need for further sampling across the range of this species to gain a better understanding of its population and exact habitat requirements, and to find the male.
163681		distribution	eng	<em>Tetracanthagyna brunnea</em> is known from Java (Lieftinck 1934) Sabah and Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1954), peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Orr 2005), southern Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Asahina 1986, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Palawan in the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). It is likely to occur in Brunei, Sumatra and Kalimantan and should be looked for in these places.
163681		habitat	eng	<em>Tetracanthagyna brunnea</em> oviposits into dead wood at the edge of forest streams and rivers. It is not clear if the species occurs in secondary forest, but this is likely, as other <em>Tetracanthagyna</em> species do.
163681		population	eng	There are relatively few records of this species; it appears to be quite scarce. There is only one record from southern Thailand; this may represent the northern limit of its range. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any truly recent, definite records, but Butler has found and reared larvae from three locations in Peninsular Malaysia that are either this species, or <em>T. degorsi</em> (S. Butler pers. comm. 2007).
163681		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163682		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information for effective conservation planning for this species, except to say that effective protection of lowland swamp forest habitats (even if secondary) in south eastern Kalimantan will certainly be necessary. Searches need to be made in lowland areas of Kalimantan.
163682		distribution	eng	<em>Prodasineura abbreviata</em> is known only from the type series taken in the vicinity of Ampah, southeast Kalimantan in 1948 (Lieftinck 1948).
163682		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the habitat (and none on the ecology) of this species, but the altitude of the type location is given as 0 - 20 m, suggesting that this is a species of lowland swamp forest. It is reasonable to assume that it is a stream species, as is the case for most species of <em>Prodasineura</em>.
163682		population	eng	Judging by the size of the type series (29 males, 56 females) this was once a common insect at the type location at least, but there have been no published records since its description and a lack of expert sampling in Kalimantan since that time.
163682		threats	eng	There is no recent data on this species, but that there has been extensive habitat loss in lowland Kalimantan.
163683		conservation	eng	There is a need for further research, especially on distribution and population sizes, but beyond this no specific measures appear to be warranted. Searches should be made in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR, where the species has not been recorded yet, but is likely to occur.
163683		distribution	eng	<em>Agriocnemis lacteola</em> occurs in India and Bangladesh (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Fraser 1933, Prasad and Ghosh 1988, Andrew 1995, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (Mahato 1988, Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1982, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), China (e.g. Needham 1930; Asahina 1961, 1977, 1978; Wilson and Reels 2003; Wilson and Xu 2007) and Hong Kong (e.g. Wilson 1997, 2004). Given the known distribution of the species, it also appears likely to occur in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia.
163683		habitat	eng	Breeds in reedy marshes, ponds and abandoned rice fields.
163683		population	eng	<em>A. lacteola</em> appears to be rather local in occurrence, but not uncommon where it occurs, and it is probably under-recorded.
163683		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat to this species, but perhaps not a major one at present.
163684		conservation	eng	This species is severely data deficient; we need more data before the planning of effective conservation measures (if needed) can take place. Fresh searches should be made in Darjeeling and in adjacent regions of India.
163684		distribution	eng	Known only from Darjeeling, north-east India (Karube 1998); the exact type location was not recorded.
163684		habitat	eng	Unknown, not even the altitude of the type location is known. It is likely to be a mountain species, and probably breeds in small forest pools.
163684		population	eng	This species is known from a single male (Karube 1998).
163684		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163685		conservation	eng	Effective planning of conservation measures for <em>Onychogomphus banteng</em> will only be possible after it has been relocated and sufficient information on its habits and habitat have been accumulated. Expert sampling in west Java is urgently needed.
163685		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus banteng</em> is known only from Mount Salak in west Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954).
163685		habitat	eng	The only information we have on the habitat of this species is that it was “taken on the slopes of Mount Salak, presumably about 1,000 m” (Lieftinck 1954). It is almost certainly a species of forest streams.
163685		population	eng	<em>Onychogomphus banteng</em> is known from a single male (Lieftinck 1954).
163685		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163686		conservation	eng	There is a need for recent data on the status of the habitats in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, and for searches in suitable habitat in other areas of northeast India, as well as for taxonomic work. Conservation measures for this species will centre around protection of suitable montane habitat.
163686		distribution	eng	Known only from Meghalaya, India, where it is known from the Khasi and Jaintia Hills (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lahiri 1987). Lahiri (1987) states that it is found at high altitudes, but does not give an altitudinal range.
163686		habitat	eng	See Taxonomic Notes for a discussion of the two forms of this species. The larger form occurs on rocky mountain streams, the smaller form occurs in marshy areas at high altitudes (Lahiri 1987). Nothing further is known on the habitat and ecology of the species.
163686		population	eng	Data from Lahiri (1987) suggests that this species is quite common at higher altitudes in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. However the stream form (see Taxonomic Notes) is less common than the smaller marsh form.
163686		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163687		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, at present it can only be classed as Data Deficient. Searches should be made in north and east India.
163687		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorogomphus preciosus</em> is known with certainty only from India, where there are records from Arunachal Pradesh (Asahina 1986), Darjeeling (e.g. Fraser 1936), Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1936) and Meghalaya (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. p.</span> <em>fernandi</em> from the Khasi and Jaintla hills, Asahina 1986). Fraser (1936) lists the species as "probably" occurring in Nepal, but there does not appear to have been any confirmation of this prediction; Vick (1989) includes the species in his checklist of the Odonata of Nepal purely on the basis of Fraser's record.
163687		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat requirements of this species. It appears to be a montane species. Fraser (1936) records seeing it "occasionally hawking at low levels over grassy places on hill sides". Fraser's observations are almost certainly of feeding flights, the breeding habitat is likely to be forest streams, but this needs to be established by fresh fieldwork.
163687		population	eng	Very few specimens of this species are known, Fraser (1929) lists seven specimens from northeast India, Asahina (1986) lists a further specimen from Arunachal Pradesh, and two more (subspecies <em>fernandi</em>) from Meghalaya. these specimens were collected in the early 1960s. There appears to be no further records from India nor from Nepal. This is either a scarce species, or an under-collected one.
163687		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163688		conservation	eng	Further data on this species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in Myanmar.
163688		distribution	eng	<em>C. furcata</em> is known only from the Nam Tamai Valley in Myanmar (Hämäläinen 1986).
163688		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected at an altitude of 3,500 ft, there is no other data on habitat, but it is reasonable to assume that the species breeds in forest streams on mountains, as is the case with many other species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.
163688		population	eng	<em>C. furcata</em> is only known from the holotype.
163688		threats	eng	As the species is known from a single site, the current status of which is known to be&#160; experiencing some level of logging and there is reason for concern.
163689		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for additional data on this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Peninsular India.
163689		distribution	eng	<em>C. wilkinsi</em> is known only from India; there are records from Karnataka (e.g. Fraser 1926, 1934; Laidlaw 1930) and Maharashtra (Prasad 1996).
163689		habitat	eng	Very little has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species, but the type series was collected at a small stream.
163689		population	eng	Very few specimens of <em>C. wilkinsi</em> have ever been taken; the type series consists of one male and two females from Mysore in Karnataka (Fraser 1926), the only subsequent record seems to be of a male from Maharashtra.
163689		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163690		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures, beyond monitoring of populations, appear to be needed for this species at present.
163690		distribution	eng	<em>Neurothemis ramburii</em> is distributed from Sundaland to New Guinea. There are records from Peninsular Malaysia, Taiwan, the Andaman Islands, Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan), the lesser Sunda islands, the Philippines, the Bismarck islands and New Guinea.
163690		habitat	eng	The species haunts the grassy borders of lakes and marshes, from sea-level up to about 800 m and it is very local, but plentiful where found. (Lieftinck 1954).
163690		population	eng	This species is fairly common over much of its large range, but is less common in some areas (e.g. Sarawak, Peninsular Malaysia).
163690		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the only threat to this species, and not a serious one across much of its range at present, but it may become one with increased urbanization and industrial farming.
163691		conservation	eng	This species should be systematically searched for across its known range. Research into the causes of its (apparent) decline is needed, and monitoring of existing populations.
163691		distribution	eng	<em>Urothemis abbotti</em> is known from Trang in Thailand (Laidlaw 1927), Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1954, Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007) and Singapore (Laidlaw 1927, Lieftinck 1954).
163691		habitat	eng	Apparently this species breeds in ponds, lakes, slow sections of streams.
163691		population	eng	Lieftinck (1954) stated that it is “found at many localities in the Malay States and fairly common around Singapore.” However there has been a distinct lack of records since Lieftinck wrote these words, the only recent ones are from Pahang (Y. Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007). It is difficult to explain the recent paucity of records of this species; Lieftinck was occasionally guilty of unwarranted extrapolation, but there is no evidence that this is the case here. It is a conspicuous species, occurring in open and easily sampled habitats, so it is unlikely to be under-recorded; the species may be in decline.
163691		threats	eng	This species is possibly decreasing, although apparently suitable habitat still exists across the known range, therefore investigations are needed to understand the reason behind the decline.
163692		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout Java.
163692		distribution	eng	Endemic to Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954). Writing in 1954 M.A. Lieftinck described this species as "universal in Java" on the basis of numerous specimens from many locations across the island, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records since 1954.
163692		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in runnels and streams in shady surroundings, also in second growth forest, from sea-level up to 900 m (Lieftinck 1954).
163692		population	eng	This species was once common in Java, but there appear to be no records later than 1954. This lack is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling on the island, but is cause for concern.
163692		threats	eng	We have no recent data on this species, but know that there has been extensive loss of forest habitats in Java.
163693		conservation	eng	Fresh information on this species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in the Western Ghats.
163693		distribution	eng	<em>Megalogomphus superbus</em> is known only from a few locations in southern India (Fraser 1931, 1934).
163693		habitat	eng	Breeds in forest streams in hilly and mountainous areas.
163693		population	eng	Fraser (1931, 1934) states that the species was “very common” in the Bolovumpatti Hills, South Coimbatore district, although in 1931 he stated that all his records from this district came from a single river.  There appears to be no records of the species since the 1930s. This is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in south India, but loss of habitat is also likely to be a factor.
163693		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through small-scale wood extraction.
163694		conservation	eng	Further data, and investigation of the relationship of this species to <em>P. dorsalis</em> (see Taxonomic Notes), is urgently needed. Searches should be made throughout Borneo.
163694		distribution	eng	<em>Prodasineura flammula</em> is known from south and east Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1948, 1954; Paulson 2004), and Sabah (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989, but the identity of this material needs to be checked). R. Dow (2007) has a single male from the Kelabit Highlands in northeastern Sarawak, close to the border with Kalimantan, that may be this species.
163694		habitat	eng	<em>Prodasineura flammula</em> breeds in "rivulets and brooks in swampy forest of the lowlands." (Lieftinck 1954), it may also occur in similar habitat at higher altitudes, e.g. in the Kelabit Highlands of northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007).
163694		population	eng	Few specimens are known of this species; it appears to be scarce.
163694		threats	eng	If this is a good species (see Taxonomic Notes) then there is considerable cause for concern due to loss of lowland forest habitats in Kalimantan.
163695		conservation	eng	Further data on distribution and population sizes is needed, but beyond this there does not seem to be an urgent need for special conservation measures at present.
163695		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from India to China and Viet Nam. Records from India (Laidlaw 1919, Fraser 1933, Asahina 1967, Lahiri 1985, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (Asahina 1967, Vick 1989), Myanmar (Laidlaw 1916, Fraser 1933, Asahaina 1967, 1970), Thailand (Asahina 1981, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Hoess 2002, Dow 2004), China (Asahina 1967, Wilson 2007), Lao PDR (Fraser 1933), Viet Nam (Sasamoto and Cuong 2005). Records from India are from Meghalaya, Manipur, West Bengal, Mizoran and Arunchal Pradesh. Records from Thailand are from the north, extending southwards as far as Prachuap Khiri Khan. Records from China are from Guandong and Fujian.
163695		habitat	eng	Ponds and lake margins, probably also stream pools. It has been recorded in a rice field in northern Viet Nam (Sasamoto and Cuong 2005). Occurs in open habitats and in sunny places in forest areas. It occurs on artificial as well as natural water bodies. The majority of records are from 1,000 m or above.
163695		population	eng	Although this species is widely distributed, it appears to be rather scarce and local in occurrence. It can be common at some localities. For instance Fraser (1933) states that it was “not uncommon on the Ward Lake” near Shillong in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya. It is likely to be under recorded as most expert collectors, when visiting the high altitude areas preferred by this species, ignore open habitats in favour of forest habitats.
163695		threats	eng	Although this species is not often recorded, it occurs in agricultural land as well as undisturbed habitats, and does not appear to be threatened at present.
163696		conservation	eng	Without further information on this species no conservation measures can be planned. There is a need for taxonomic work, and, most critically, for searches in Myanmar and India. Searches in India should initially be concentrated in areas close to Myanmar.
163696		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus saundersii</em> is known with certainty only from India (e.g. Fraser 1934) and Myanmar (Williamson 1907). The type locality is unknown, but apparently in India (Fraser 1934).
163696		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.
163696		population	eng	Very few (possibly only three) specimens that are definitely referable to this species have ever been recorded; besides the type specimens of a pair from Myanmar (Williamson 1907). Needless to say there are no recent records, but this may reflect a lack of expert sampling in suitable areas of India; there has certainly been insufficient sampling in Myanmar.
163696		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a known threat to this species.
163697		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data from parts of the range of this species (e.g. India, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Viet Nam), but overall there does not appear to be much need for specific conservation measures for this species, beyond the need for protection of more montane forest habitats and monitoring of populations.
163697		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vestalaria smaragdina</span> occurs in Tripura and Meghalaya in India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1949, Mitra 1999), Myanmar (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1949, Asahina 1970), northern Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1985, 1990; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; Dow 2007), Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000) and Viet Nam (Asahina 1996). Records from west China refer to <em>V. velata</em> (Ris 1912).
163697		habitat	eng	Breeds in forested streams in mountains.
163697		population	eng	This species is not often collected, but appears to be fairly common in its montane habitats.
163697		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development and deforestation of the area.
163698		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on the distribution of this species. If it is actually restricted to Mount Dulit then the proposed protection of that mountain in a national park will be a significant conservation measure, however illegal logging is likely to remain a threat.
163698		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinoneura caerulea</em> is known only from Mount Dulit, on the border between Miri and Kapit divisions, overlooking the Tinjar river, in northeast Sarawak (Kimmins 1936).
163698		habitat	eng	Known from montane forest on Mount Dulit, Sarawak; beyond this almost nothing is known except that it is a stream species.
163698		population	eng	Known only from the type series of two males and one female, collected in 1932 (Kimmins 1936).
163698		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging or fire. Much of the Dulit range has been selectively logged (information from local inhabitants, forestry workers and from my own experience of visiting the area in 2006), but some areas of steep terrain above 500 m appear to remain in a pristine condition. The Dulit Range is a possible future National Park; it is to be hoped that the park can be established before further logging occurs in the area.
163699		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is for searches to be made in the Western Ghats, and in eastern India. Once we have a good picture of its current distribution and population size, further conservation measures can be planned.
163699		distribution	eng	<em>Hylaeothemis indica</em> is known from the Western Ghats of India. Fraser (1946) states that he found the species in the Nilgiri Hills, Malabar Wynaad, Annaimallai Hills, Coorg (Kodagu) and Travancore, at locations within Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There is also an old record of <em>H. fruhstorferi</em>, which must refer to <em>indica</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) from Ujani Wetland Reserve, Pune district, Maharashtra (e.g. Kulkarni and Prasad 2002). There have been two records from eastern India, Lahiri (1985) reported it <em>H. fruhstorferi</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) from the Namdhapa Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mitra (2000) recorded <em>H. f. apicalis</em> from Orissa.
163699		habitat	eng	This species breeds in the seepages from marshes along the banks of mountain streams (Fraser 1936). and it is usually found resting on the broad leaves of arums or ferns in swamps beside streams (Fraser 1946).
163699		population	eng	There appears to be almost no recent records of this species, but this is likely to be due to a lack of sampling in suitable habitats in the Western Ghats since Fraser’s time (1930s). The species was locally common in the Western Ghats, Fraser (1936, as <em>fruhstorferi</em>) states  “It occurs in numerous colonies” and (1918, as <em>fruhstorferi</em>) “not uncommon in the Nilgiris above Kalar at about 2000’ ... but is very local and unless its haunts be happened upon, it may escape notice altogether”. Without fresh, expert, sampling in the Nilgiri Hills it is not possible to make accurate statements about current populations of this species in west India. Lahiri (1985) recorded two males of <em>H. fruhstorferi</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) from Arunacahal Pradesh, and Mitra (2000) reported a male from Kotagarh in Orissa.
163699		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163700		conservation	eng	Fresh data is urgently needed on this species. Searches need to be made in west Bengal and adjacent areas of India.
163700		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphidia williamsoni</em> is known only from the type locality at Hasimara in West Bengal (Fraser 1923, 1934). Lahiri 1989 includes it in a list of species not recorded in India since their original description.
163700		habitat	eng	Presumably this is a species of forest streams, as is the case with its congeners.
163700		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series, consisting of several males and one female (Fraser 1923). Without extensive sampling in West Bengal and adjacent areas it is not possible to give any information on current populations.
163700		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a major threat to this species.
163701		conservation	eng	Further information is the priority for this species. Sampling and habitat data from across its range are urgently needed.
163701		distribution	eng	<em>Lyriothemis acigastra</em> is known only from a few records from India (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (Fraser 1936), Tibet (Needham 1930) and Xizang in China (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007). Records from India are from Darjeeling and Assam.
163701		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species. It is very probably a forest species, as is the case with other <em>Lyriothemis</em> species, and is likely to breed in either pools or possibly water filled tree holes.
163701		population	eng	There appear to be very few records of this species, Fraser (1936) lists a total of five specimens that he was aware of. Evidently this is a scarce and probably under-recorded species, there has also been a lack of expert sampling across most of the range of this species.
163701		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163702		conservation	eng	Beyond the need for monitoring of populations to check for any decline, there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures for this species.
163702		distribution	eng	<em>Tramea virginia</em> is known from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Viet Nam, China including Hong Kong, Hainan and Taiwan, Korea, Japan. There is a single old record from Thailand, and there are single records from Sarawak in Borneo (Hincks 1930) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1942), presumably, as Lieftinck suggested (1954) these records were of “a migrant from the north".
163702		habitat	eng	The habitat breeds in ponds and lakes.
163702		population	eng	A fairly common species over much of its range.
163702		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species at present.
163703		conservation	eng	The most urgent need is for more data on this species; searches need to be made in lowland forest throughout Borneo. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat.
163703		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrionoptera diotima</em> is known only from Borneo, where there are records from Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1953) and Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954).
163703		habitat	eng	This species is a rare woodland species, breeding in swift running brooks in low country and it settles on foliage of shrubs overhanging the water (Lieftinck 1954). &#160; It has been reported to be scarce in sluggish forested streams and freshwater swamp throughout the lowlands (Orr 2003) and R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) adds&#160; that with so few records of this species, we cannot be sure that we understand its habitat requirements at all.
163703		population	eng	This species has seldom been recorded. Aside from the type series (three specimens) the only other records are of a female from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920), a male from Sarawak (Lieftinck 1953) and a female from Brunei (Orr 2001). Evidently this species is either very under-recorded or genuinely scarce.
163703		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of lowland forest habitats throughout Borneo.
163704		conservation	eng	Further data on this species is needed, especially for <em>A. b. palampurensis</em>, taxonomic work is also needed on this poorly known subspecies; it may not deserve subspecific rank.
163704		distribution	eng	<em>A. b. basalis</em> is known from Himachal Pradesh (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), Uttar Pradesh (Kumar 1982), Uttarakhand (Fraser 1929) and West Bengal (Fraser 1936). <em>A. b. palampurensis</em> is known from Sikkim (Fraser 1929, 1936) and Nepal (e.g. Fraser 1936, Vick 1989).
163704		habitat	eng	A species of mountains and high hills. Few altitudes are given for the known specimens, but Fraser gives 4,000 ft for at least one specimen of each subspecies. The exact breeding habitat is unknown, but is likely to be small forest streams.
163704		population	eng	Fraser (1929) lists fourteen specimens of <em>A. b. basalis</em>, including material from Selys's collection, and two specimens of <em>A. b. palampurensis</em>. More recently Kumar (1982) listed <em>A. b. basalis</em> from four locations in Uttar Pradesh (but did not give the number of specimens). The only record of <em>A. b. palampurensis</em> since it's original description is that of Vick (1989), this record refers to a single female initially identified as <em>A. b. basalis</em> (Vick 1987). <em>A. b. basalis</em> may be quite common in parts of India, <em>A. b. palampurensis</em> appears to be a scarcer insect, but much further sampling will be needed to confirm (or not) these impressions.
163704		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163705		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for this species will have to be built around the protection of suitable areas of lowland forest in Borneo. Further data is needed on the distribution and habitat of the species; searches in east Kalimantan are urgently needed.
163705		distribution	eng	Published records of <em>Oligoaeschna platyura</em> are from Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1940, 1968; Paulson 2004), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Sabah (Lieftinck 1968). Almost all the records from Kalimantan are from the Kutai area in the east. The species has yet to be found in Sarawak, but is likely to occur there.
163705		habitat	eng	Very little information on the habitat or ecology of this species available, but presumably it breeds in lowland swamp forest, as is the case with other species of <em>Oligoaeschna</em> occurring in Borneo.
163705		population	eng	Few specimens of this species have been collected, Lieftinck (1968) lists eight from east Kalimantan and Sabah, representing all the material known at the time, the specimen from Sabah is old, dating from the end of the nineteenth centaury. To these can be added two from Brunei (Orr 2001) and one from Kalimantan (D. Paulson unpublished data 2004) collected in 1974. However aeshnids in tropical Asia are often under-collected and it may be (or have been) quite common in lowland forest in parts of Borneo.
163705		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Much lowland habitat is known to have been lost in east Kalimantan, in particular the Kutai area, where the majority of records of this species originate, is known to have been extensively damaged by fires, and much former forest is now plantation.
163706		conservation	eng	Further data is needed on this species; it may be quite common in parts of the Khasi Hills, but this needs to be confirmed, and searches should be made in adjacent areas of India.
163706		distribution	eng	<em>Megalestes raychoudurii</em> is known from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999).
163706		habitat	eng	The species is thought to occur in mountain streams, presumably in forest (although there is some uncertainty over where this information came from).
163706		population	eng	In the original description Lahiri (1987) lists 22 specimens from streams around Shillong and Mawphlong in the Khasi Hills. This suggests that the species may be quite common in this area, but there have been no further records. All the known specimens were collected between 1967 and 1974.
163706		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development of the suspected area.
163707		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is for more data; searches should be made in Myanmar, Lao PDR, and adjacent regions.
163707		distribution	eng	The species is known from Myanmar (e.g., Williamson 1907 ("north Burma"); Fraser 1924, 1934 ("Maymyo, upper Burma"); Wilson 2008) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999).<br/><br/>All Thai specimens, formally attributed to <span style="font-style: italic;">circularis </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Onychogomphus sp</span>., belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">Orientogomphus minor</span> (Wilson 2008).
163707		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitat of this species, but it is likely to breed in forest streams in hill areas.
163707		population	eng	There are no current data available on the population trends or numbers.
163707		threats	eng	This species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area. The habitat of similar species (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Burmagomphus vermicularis </span>in northern Viet Nam, and possibly <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nanius</span>), is threatened, at least in Viet Nam. Little is know of the species range in Myanmar, where the species has not been recorded for many years.
163708		conservation	eng	This species is data deficient, effective conservation planning will not be possible without more information. Searches need to be made in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.
163708		distribution	eng	<em>Oligoaeschna khasiana</em> is known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya (Lieftinck 1968).
163708		habitat	eng	The habitat is unknown. From the type location we may infer that it is a montane species, it is likely to breed in marshy areas or small pools in forest.
163708		population	eng	The species was described from a single male (Lieftinck 1968); no further records thought to exist.
163708		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163709		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Fresh searches need to be made in Lao PDR.
163709		distribution	eng	Known only from Phatang, Vang Vieng area, Vientiane province, Lao PDR (Sasamoto 2003).
163709		habitat	eng	The type series was collected at "a small, shallow trickle on a steep shadowy and rocky slope covered with dense tall bushes in an intact forest" (Sasamoto 2003) in a sub-montane valley area, at an altitude of <em>ca</em> 300 m. The species was "never observed at a sunny spot" (Sasamoto 2003).
163709		population	eng	Known only from the type series (three males) from one location (Sasamoto 2003).
163709		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163710		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its distribution. Fresh searches should be made in Yunnan, and it should be looked for in Myanmar and Bhutan. Beyond this, conservation measures must centre around preservation of suitable habitat.
163710		distribution	eng	<em>Bayadera indica</em> is known from India (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1934, Prasad 1975, Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Bangladesh (Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Smith 1978, Mahato 1989, Vick 1989) and Yunnan in China (Davies and Yang 1996). It is likely to occur in Bhutan and Myanmar and should be searched for in these countries.
163710		habitat	eng	Breeds in forest streams on hills and mountains.
163710		population	eng	<em>Bayadera indica</em> appears to be fairly common in Nepal and parts of north-east India.
163710		threats	eng	This species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163711		conservation	eng	This species is data deficient. Further information is urgently needed for effective conservation planning. Fresh searches need to be made in north Viet Nam and adjacent regions.
163711		distribution	eng	Known only from Tam Dao in Vinh Phu Province, northern Viet Nam (Asahina 1996).
163711		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected at 930 m, nothing further is known on its habitat and ecology. It is likely to breed in forest streams.
163711		population	eng	Known from a single female.
163711		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163712		conservation	eng	There is too little information available on this species for effective planning of conservation measures at the present time. Searches need to be made for it in Darjeeling and adjacent regions of India. Further sampling is also needed in Nepal.
163712		distribution	eng	Known from Mungpoo in Darjeeling, India (Fraser 1929) and from Nepal (e.g. St. Quentin 1970, Vick 1985).
163712		habitat	eng	This is a montane species; records from Nepal are in the range 980 - 2,600 m, Fraser's records from India are from 3600 ft. According to Vick (pers. comm. 2007) the species is found at hill streams in warm temperate forest.
163712		population	eng	Only two males have been recorded in India (Fraser 1929, 1936). St. Quentin (1970) and Vick (1985) have both recorded the species from Nepal. St Quentin recorded six specimens, Vick's records are based on four specimens (pers. comm. 2007) from two locations. According to Vick, in Nepal the species is "not necessarily rare but is hard to catch and probably missed altogether by non-specialists". The lack of recent records from India is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in Darjeeling over the last 70 years.
163712		threats	eng	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.
163713		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made in hilly and mountainous areas throughout Sumatra. At least one record is of a male from the Mount Kerinci area of west Sumatra (Campion 1925, Ris 1927), where much habitat has some protection in a national park.
163713		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus rappardi</em> is known only from Sumatra (e.g. Fraser 1932 (as <em>O. geometricus</em>), Lieftinck 1937, 1954; Orr 2004), the few records are scattered across the island.
163713		habitat	eng	The little information that we have on this species suggests that it breeds in rocky streams on hills and mountains, probably in forest, but at least one specimen has been collected “over an exposed stream” (Lieftinck 1954).
163713		population	eng	There are very few records of this species, all of single individuals or at most a pair. It is either scarce or under-recorded. All the records date from before 1954, but there has been almost no sampling of Odonata on Sumatra since that time.
163713		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163714		conservation	eng	More data is needed before effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Fresh searches should be made in northeast India.
163714		distribution	eng	The type series comes from northeast India (Asahina 1984), but it is unclear if the type locality, given as "Assam, 5 mi. W Digbol" is in Assam as currently recognised, or in one of the Indian states that were formerly part of Assam. Prasad and Varshney (1995) give its distribution as “India”.
163714		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitats and ecology of this species. The type location is at an altitude of 110 m. It is likely to be a crepuscular forest species.
163714		population	eng	<em>Gynacantha arnaudi</em> is known only from the type series, which consists of 14 specimens (Asahina 1984).
163714		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163715		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this very poorly known species. Fresh searches need to be made in mountainous regions of Manipur and adjacent areas.
163715		distribution	eng	Known only from three locations in Manipur State, India (Asahina 1984).
163715		habitat	eng	Largely unknown, but the type series was collected at altitudes from 3,800 - 5,000 ft. It is reasonable to assume that it is a species of montane forest streams, as is the case with many species of the genus.
163715		population	eng	<em>Coeliccia rotunda</em> is a very poorly known species, it was described from four males from three locations in Manipur.
163715		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a known threat to the montane forest of this species.
163716		conservation	eng	<em>I. acutus</em> appears to be a rather specialised and local species, and as a lowland forest dweller it is at risk from habitat loss due to clear-felling and plantation establishment. The species can certainly survive in secondary forest; both locations in Sarawak where the species has been found recently are in secondary forest (Dow 2007), they are also in protected areas. There is no recent information from Kalimantan or Belitung Island. Further searches need to be made across its known range, and given its occurrence on Belitung Island, it should also be looked for on Bangka Island and in eastern Sumatra.
163716		distribution	eng	<em>Ictinogomphus acutus</em> is widely distributed in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. There are records from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914, Dow 2007), southern Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953), Belitung Island between Sumatra and Borneo (Lieftinck 1954), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Peninsular Malaysia (Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995, Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001, Orr 2005). Norma-Rashid (pers. comm. 2007) has recorded the larva from Negeri Sembilan.
163716		habitat	eng	<em>I. acutus</em> is a species of "sluggish lowland streams and bog-ponds, especially those on peaty soils in forest swamps" (Lieftinck 1954). The Sungai Penyilam in Bintulu Division in Sarawak, where the species is common, is a blackwater stream with a pH slightly below five, running through secondary peat swamp forest. Orr (2003) noted that in Brunei it "prefers blackwater drains on the edges of swamp forest or the marshy margins of mangrove". It is clear that this species can survive in secondary forest habitats.
163716		population	eng	<em>I. acutus</em> is not a common species across its range, although it can be locally common.  There are recent records from Brunei, where it is known from two locations, at one of these it is “sporadically quite common” (Orr 2001), Sarawak, where it has been collected at two locations, at one of these it was common (the Sungai Penyilam, a stream running through secondary peat swamp forest in Bintulu Division, Dow 2007) and Pahang, where Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001 reported the species from five sites in the vicinity of Tasek Bera between 1997-2000.
163716		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a threat to the species.
163717		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data, and for taxonomic work on this species. The status of the type locality is unknown, but highly doubtful. Fresh searches need to be made in northwest Kalimantan and further sampling in Sarawak and Brunei is needed.
163717		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo. The type series comes from north-west Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1933). More recently collected material from west and northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007) and Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993) may belong to one or more distinct, but closely allied, species.
163717		habitat	eng	Species occurs in streams in mixed dipterocarp forest on hillsides.
163717		population	eng	The species is known with certainty only from the type series (four individuals from one location, Lieftinck 1933). A <em>Protosticta</em> species found at Lambir Hills National Park in northeast Sarawak, and that may be a northeastern form of <em>P. feronia</em>, is common on small hill streams in mixed dipterocarp forest (Dow 2007). A similar, but not identical, form has been found at two locations in west Sarawak (Kubah National Park and Annah Rais; Dow 2007). However, until the status of these forms and material from Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993) is clarified it appears best to treat this species as known only from the type series.
163717		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat.
163718		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. It should be searched for in Arunacal Pradesh and adjacent areas.
163718		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coeliccia pracritii</span> is known only from one location in Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1985).
163718		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species available. However it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams in hilly and/or mountainous areas, as is the case with most species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.
163718		population	eng	Only the type series (four males) is known.
163718		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a likely threat to the species suspected habitat.
163719		conservation	eng	Aside from monitoring of populations to check for any decline, no special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
163719		distribution	eng	<em>Palpopleura sexmaculata</em> is a very widespread species in mainland Asia, with a distribution from Afghanistan to China, and covering most of India. It is found in northern and central Thailand, but has not been recorded in southern Thailand or Peninsular Malaysia.
163719		habitat	eng	The species breeds in marshy areas and small pools.
163719		population	eng	This species is at least locally common throughout most of its range, in the southern part of which it appears to be confined to uplands and mountains.
163719		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any major threat at present, but future building developments could prove a risk to suitable habitats.
163720		conservation	eng	More data is needed on distribution and population sizes of this species. It is certainly present in protected areas in Malaysia, and appears to be able to survive in secondary habitats, but further study is needed to confirm this. Extensive collecting in peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand is needed to gain an accurate picture of the species’ range and population size.
163720		distribution	eng	<em>Archibasis rebeccae</em> appears to be endemic to Peninsular Malaysia. Records are from Pahang (Kemp 1989) and Johore (Kemp 1989, Vick 1993) and Kelantan (Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. 1996). It occurs in Endau Rompin National Park (Wilson 2007).  It might occur in southern Thailand, and should be searched for there.
163720		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland forest streams and rivers. The habitat where material was collected in Pahang was “a very slow-flowing, small (1.5 m width), rainforest stream” (Kemp 1989). The record from Kelantan was from “logged forest, mainly bamboo and wild bananas. Canopy cover 40%. ... Water slow flowing. Width 4.5-5 m; depth 0.4 m” (Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species appears to be able to survive in secondary forest, as is the case for four species of <em>Archibasis</em> occurring in Sarawak (Dow 2007).
163720		population	eng	While there are not many records of this species, there has been a steady increase since its description. The type series consists of three males from Pahang and one from Johore. Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. (1996) recorded three males from Kelantan. Vick (1993) describes it as quite common in the area around the Madek and Lenggor rivers near Mersing. It appears to be a rather local species, but probably not scarce where it occurs.
163720		threats	eng	Habitat loss. The species appears to be able to survive in secondary forest habitats, but further data is needed to confirm this. The paucity of published records suggest that it is a scarce species, although possibly it is merely under-recorded. However until more data becomes available it should be treated as potentially under threat.
163721		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data from parts of this species range (e.g. India, Myanmar, the Sunda Islands, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and China), and protection of suitable lowland habitat, especially in the Sunda Islands, is a priority, but overall this species does not appear to be in need of special conservation measures at present.
163721		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachydiplax farinosa</span> is known from India, where there are old records from ?Assam? and Bengal (Fraser 1936), Bangladesh, Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936; Asahina 1965, 1970), many provinces in Thailand (e.g. Fraser 1927, Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Viet Nam (e.g. Fraser 1919, Asahina 1969), Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999), China (e.g. Wilson 2005) where there are records from Guangxi and Yunnan, Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Fraser 1942, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1987, Kemp and Kemp 1989, Norma-Rashid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Norma-Rashid&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">etal</span>. 2001), Sumatra (e.g. Schmidt 1934; Lieftinck 1934, 1954), South Java (Lieftinck 1954) and Borneo, where there are records from Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954), Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993) and Sarawak (Matsuki and Kitagawa 1992, D. R. Paulson pers. comm. 2004, Dow 2007).
163721		habitat	eng	Breeds in lowland ponds and marshes, usually with forest at least nearby, and in the Greater Sunda islands exclusively in forest swamps and pools.
163721		population	eng	This species is common across much of its range. Records from northeast India appear to be on the eastern edge of the range of the species; presumably it is less common here, accounting for the lack of records since the 1930s or before. It is also less common in north Borneo than it appears to be (or have been) in Kalimantan; there is only one record from relatively very well studied Brunei, and only a small number from Sarawak, where it is a scarce species, absent from much apparently suitable habitat.
163721		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the only threat to this species, and this appears to be a greater threat in the southern part of its range, where it is a specialist swamp forest species, although it certainly occurs in some secondary swamp forest habitats in northeast Sarawak, it appears to be absent from other apparently suitable habitat, suggesting that we do not fully understand its habitat requirements. It was apparently once a common species in south and east Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954), but the extensive loss of lowland forest habitats there, as in Java and Sumatra, is a cause for concern.
163722		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before any conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Extensive searches need to be made for it in Manipur and surrounding states in India.
163722		distribution	eng	Known from a single male collected at Huiahu in Manipur, northeast India (Asahina 1978).
163722		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forested montane streams. Asahina (1978) gives only a range (3,800 - 5,000 ft) for the altitude at which the holotype was collected.
163722		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
163722		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163723		conservation	eng	It will not be possible to plan effective conservation measures (if needed) for this species without more data. Searches need to be made in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.
163723		distribution	eng	<em>Coeliccia sarbottama</em> is known only from the Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987).
163723		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was “captured in thick jungle” (Lahiri 1987), we have no further information on habitat or ecology for this species. However, it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams in hilly and/or mountainous areas, as is the case for most <em>Coeliccia</em> species.
163723		population	eng	Known only from the holotype male.
163723		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the known area is a recognized threat to this species.
163724		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this common species over much of its range, but it may be less common in the eastern part of its range. There is a need for taxonomic work on material from Myanmar eastwards, which is likely to represent one or more different species.
163724		distribution	eng	<em>C. coromandelianum</em> is a widespread species, known from India (e.g. Morton 1907, Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Pakistan (Yousuf and Chishti 1986), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1985, Mahato 1987) and Sri Lanka (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lieftinck 1951, de Fonseka 2000), and possibly Myanmar (Asahina 1967) with suspect records from China (e.g. Needham 1931), Viet Nam (Asahina 1967) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999), these latter records almost certainly refer to different species (see Taxonomic Notes) and are not considered further here. Within India there are records from almost every state, Prasad and Varshney (1995) list it as occurring “throughout India”.
163724		habitat	eng	Ponds, ditches, rice fields and other open standing waters. It has also been recorded from Mangrove forest in West Bengal (Mitra 1992).
163724		population	eng	A very common species over much of its range, especially in India.
163724		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known.
163725		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species; searches should be conducted throughout Meghalaya and adjacent regions.
163725		distribution	eng	<em>Paragomphus echinoccipitalis</em> is known only from Meghalya in India (e.g. Fraser 1922, 1924, 1934; Lahiri 1987; Mitra 1999). The only confirmed record appears to be of the type female, collected in the Khasi Hills.
163725		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species.
163725		population	eng	This species is known only from a single female. Lahiri (1987) recorded three further specimens (including two males) from the Garo Hills in Meghalaya, but in 1989 he included it in a list of species not recorded from India since their original description; presumably the 1987 record was a misidentification.
163725		threats	eng	This species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163726		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species before a truly accurate conservation assessment can be made. Further sampling needs to be carried out across its known range, and searches should be made in Myanmar, Cambodia and Viet Nam.
163726		distribution	eng	<em>Idionyx opata</em> is known from Meghalaya in northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1921, 1922, 1936; Lahiri 1987) and from Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1987; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; where records from the Chiang Mai, Phrae and Ranong, and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999). The species is very likely to occur in Myanmar and should be looked for in Viet Nam and Cambodia.
163726		habitat	eng	Little is known on the habitat and ecology of this species. It appears to breed in forest streams in hilly and mountainous areas.
163726		population	eng	There are not many records of this species (but <em>Idionyx</em> species are often very difficult to capture, and impossible to identify without capture). Fraser (1936) gives no indication of its abundance, Asahina (1981) lists three specimens from Thailand and then a further four (1987). Lahiri (1987) recorded a male from the type locality (Cherrapunjee, near Mawsmai Cave) in Meghalaya, Yokoii (1999) recorded the species from Lao PDR (one male from Vangvieng).
163726		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163727		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for this common species at this time. However there is a need for more data from Kalimantan and from Palawan.
163727		distribution	eng	<em>Euphaea subcostalis</em> is known from Borneo and Palawan (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). Records from Borneo are from Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Hincks 1930, Kimmins 1936, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Kitagawa 1997, Dow 2007), Sabah (e.g. Laidlaw 1915, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989, Hämäläinen 1994, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Paulson 2004), Brunei (van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Orr 2001) and Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995).
163727		habitat	eng	The species breeds in forest streams. Although Orr (2003) wrote "prefers small tributaries well within primary forest". R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) has found this species to be common at several secondary forest locations in Sarawak. It occurs from near sea level to over 1,000 m in the Kelabit Highland in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007).
163727		population	eng	<em>Euphaea subcostalis</em> is a common species in lowland rainforest, at least in north Borneo.
163727		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. subcostalis</span> is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163728		conservation	eng	A revision is underway to resolve the taxonomic confusion surrounding the species and its allies. Until this revision is satisfactorily completed it is difficult to plan species-specific conservation measures, however there is a need for further data on distribution and population on all the <em>Coeliccia</em> species found in Borneo.
163728		distribution	eng	Endemic to Borneo, all records that might be of this species are from Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei (e.g. Laidlaw 1918, 1920, 1931 and 1932; Kimmins 1936; Lieftinck 1954; Orr 2001; Dow 2007). The only record that can be said to be definite at this time is the original one (Selys 1886).
163728		habitat	eng	Forms that may be <em>C. borneensis</em> are found in small forest streams in steep terrain, and sometimes in alluvial forest. There are some morphological differences between the forms found in different habitats; they may represent separate species. Until this issue is resolved it is not possible to say anything more precise on the habitat of <em>C. borneensis</em> than ‘lowland forest’.
163728		population	eng	At present only one specimen is known that is definitely of this species (the type), but forms that might be <em>C. borneensis</em> are sparsely distributed in lowland forest in northeast Sarawak and Brunei.
163728		threats	eng	This species is certainly at threat from clear-cutting of lowland forest.
163729		conservation	eng	We have insufficient knowledge of this species for effective conservation planning. It is certainly present in protected areas in Brunei and Sarawak. Further sampling throughout Borneo, and taxonomic work, is urgently needed.
163729		distribution	eng	Known only from Sarawak, with definite records from Lawas (Laidlaw 1913), Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936) and Lambir Hills National Park (Dow 2007), and from two locations in Brunei (Orr 2001). All the certain records from Sarawak are from the north-east, so that the range of the species appears to be north-eastern Sarawak and Brunei. If <em>D. monoceros</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) proves to be a synonym, then the known range extends to east Kalimantan.
163729		habitat	eng	This species appears to favour small streams in mixed dipterocarp forest, but a few specimens, questionably referred to this species (see Taxonomic Notes), have been collected in alluvial forest at Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak.
163729		population	eng	We have little information on populations of this species. It was described from a single female taken somewhere in the Lawas area of north-eastern Sarawak (Laidlaw 1913), a second female is known from Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936). More recently it was found at two locations in Brunei by Orr (2001), but he gives no information on numbers of specimens. R. Dow collected a male at Lambir Hills National Park in Sarawak in 2005 (Dow 2007). Other recently collected material from several locations may represent one or more separate species (see Taxonomic Notes).
163729		threats	eng	The species area is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163730		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this species. As well as further sampling in Thailand, it should be searched for in Myanmar and Lao PDR at least. Conservation measures must centre around preservation and proper management of suitable habitat.
163730		distribution	eng	<em>Indolestes anomalus</em> is so far known only from Thailand (Asahina 1985, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), where there are a few records from Tak, Lampang and Chaiyaphum. The type locality, "Siam, Doun Moi" (Fraser 1946) cannot be relocated. Hämäläinen (pers. comm. 2007) found this species once in Lampang  province in a shallow pool in Huay Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve, and there is a specimen in A. Pinratanas' collection from Mae Sot in Tak province (Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2007).
163730		habitat	eng	No information has been published on the habitat or ecology of this species, but the specimen from Huay Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve was collected at a “shallow pool” at an altitude of at least 300 m.
163730		population	eng	<em>Indolestes anomalus</em> is known from only a few records, it appears to be a scarce species, but may be under-recorded. The only recent records are of single specimens.
163730		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163731		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed for this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Manipur and adjacent areas.
163731		distribution	eng	<em>Coeliccia schmidtii</em> is known from two males from one location at 1,200 ft in Manipur State, India (Asahina 1984).
163731		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the habitats and ecology of this species, but it is reasonable to assume that it breeds in forest streams on hills and mountains, as is the case with many other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.
163731		population	eng	Only two specimens are known of this species. This is likely to reflect a lack of sampling in suitable habitats in east India and Myanmar rather than actual rarity.
163731		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the known area of collection is a recognized threat to this species.
163732		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be conducted in the Western Ghats.
163732		distribution	eng	<em>Idionyx saffronata</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (e.g. Fraser 1924, 1931, 1936).
163732		habitat	eng	Fraser (1936) states that the species occurs of altitudes of 3,000 ft and more. Nothing else is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
163732		population	eng	Fraser (1936) records seeing swarms of 30 or more of this species flying near Coorg in the Western Ghats, but there appears to have been a total lack of records since that time. <em>Idionyx</em> species are difficult to capture, and generally impossible to identify without capture, and there has been a lack of expert sampling in the Western Ghats since Fraser’s day (1930s); the lack of recent records is as likely to reflect these factors as it is actual rarity.
163732		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163733		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this Data Deficient species.
163733		distribution	eng	Known only from around Shillong in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1976).
163733		habitat	eng	The only information that we have is the following: "the males were collected at the foot of a small spring falling from some height, shaded with overhanging plants, but the female was collected from dried up nulla (a steep, narrow valley), quite far away from water" (Lahiri 1976).
163733		population	eng	Known only from the type series of three males and one female (see Taxonomic Notes).
163733		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a recognized threat to this species.
163734		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Searches should be made throughout the Western Ghats.
163734		distribution	eng	<em>Dysphaea ethela</em> is known from Karnataka and Kerala in India (Fraser 1924, 1934; Prasad and Varshney 1995).
163734		habitat	eng	Subramanian (2005) gives the habitat as torrential hill streams, Fraser (1924) gave the habitat as rivers and <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ethela</span> is known to breed in streams and rivers.
163734		population	eng	At one time it appears to have been at least moderately common on rivers in Karnataka and Kerala, Fraser (1934) states that “in Coorg it is taken all along the course of the Cauvery and many of its tributaries, being less common on the Hatti and Harrangay Rivers”. The only apparent recent records are a photographic one on the Asia-Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net] from Kerala, and in Subramanian (2005) where there is also a photograph, and the species is described as “rare”, but no indication is given of numbers of individuals collected or seen. Fraser (1924) noted that <em>Dysphaea ethela</em> are “very shy insects and difficult to take”, suggesting that this may be an under-recorded species.
163734		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163735		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on population sizes and trends; conservation depends on the preservation of suitable mountain habitats.
163735		distribution	eng	<em>Calicnemia miles</em> is known to occur in northeast and east India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Prasad 1975, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (Fraser 1933), Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1984, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), north Viet Nam (Asahina 1997), Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000, Yokoi and Kano 2002) and Guangxi in south China (Wilson and Reels 2003).
163735		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest streams in hills and mountainous areas, apparently preferring steep damp cliffs near waterfalls (Asahina 1985).
163735		population	eng	This appears to be one of the commonest <em>Calicnemia</em> species, but it has not often been recorded and occurs at low densities where found. However <em>Calicnemia</em> species are often inconspicuous, so it may merely be under-recorded.
163735		threats	eng	The species is known to be experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163736		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Conservation measures must centre around the identification and protection of suitable areas of lowland forest habitat in Java.
163736		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia erato</em> is known only from a few scattered locations in west Java (Lieftinck 1950, 1954).
163736		habitat	eng	The species is found in shallow lowland streams and brooks with a sandy bottom, preferably in densely forested areas. Larva found in shallow water, living buried in clean sand of shore deposits and sand-spits (Lieftinck 1954).
163736		population	eng	This is a poorly known species. Lieftinck (1950) lists 11 specimens, as far as is known, these are all that have ever been collected.
163736		threats	eng	There has been extensive destruction of lowland forest habitats in west Java. One of the few locations where the species was known from, and the most accessible, was a forest stream in the botanic garden at Bogor; since Lieftinck's time (1930s) the stream has been canalized and it appears that this species no longer occurs there.
163737		conservation	eng	No particular conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, although there is a need for more research on distribution, populations etc.
163737		distribution	eng	This is a wide ranging species, in some of the works cited below it is referred to as <em>P. bengalense</em> Laidlaw, 1919 (see Taxonomic Notes). It is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lahiri 1977, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (Vick 1987, 1989), Myanmar (Fraser 1933),  Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Asahina 1966, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 19999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Lieftinck 1954, Kalkman 2004, Orr 2005), Cambodia (Asahina 1967), Hainan Island (Wilson and Reels 2001), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1934) and Java (Lieftinck 1935).
163737		habitat	eng	Breeds in ponds and lakes, and has also been recorded in Mangrove forest in West Bengal (Mitra 1992).
163737		population	eng	This is a fairly common insect over much of its range, but it appears to be rather local in occurrence and is probably under-recorded due to it superficial similarity to <em>P. microcephalum</em> and other blue and black coloured <em>Pseudagrion</em> species.
163737		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species at present.
163738		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species. Searches should be made in Pahang and adjacent areas of Peninsular Malaysia.
163738		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta hamadryas</em> is known only from the type locality in Pahang, peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw 1931).
163738		habitat	eng	Presumably this species breeds in forest streams and trickles, as is the case with other members of the Platystictidae, but no indication of habitat was given for the single known specimen.  Orr (2005) gives the habitat as “lowland and montane forest springs and streams”, but it is not clear on what information this is based.
163738		population	eng	A very poorly known species, only known from a single male collected in 1921.
163738		threats	eng	Deforestation is a known threat to the area that this species has been previously collected in.
163739		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data; until this is obtained effective conservation planning is impossible. Searches need to be made in Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand.
163739		distribution	eng	Known from one location in south Viet Nam (Asahina 1969) and one location in Lao PDR (Fraser 1933).
163739		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, but hill and mountain forest streams is the likely habitat, as is the case with many other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.
163739		population	eng	<em>C. montana</em> appears to be a scarce species, with only two specimens known; however this might be the result of under-collecting in suitable habitat in Viet Nam and Lao PDR.
163739		threats	eng	Deforestation is a possible threat to this species suspected habitat.
163740		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species. Searches need to be made in Peninsular Malaysia and in southern Thailand, where the species may also occur.
163740		distribution	eng	The adult of this species is known with certainty only from the type locality in Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia, although Murphy (1997) records the species from Singapore as "local", but the source of this record is unclear to R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008). Lieftinck (1932) lists a larva from Kedah and Lieftinck (1964) states that “I have received larvae ... from various other localities in Malaya”, without listing these localities. Norma-Rashid (pers. comm. 2007) reports finding the larvae "in most states". S. Butler (pers. comm. 2007) states "I found this larva in Endau Rompin (Johor) and Kanaboi (Negeri Sembilan)". Based on this information all that can be said is that the species appears to be widespread in Peninsular Malaysia.
163740		habitat	eng	A species of forest streams. “larvae ... among rubble in swift water” (Orr 2005). Nothing else is yet known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163740		population	eng	<em>H. kelantanensis</em> appears to be severely under-collected as the adult. Lieftinck (1964) states “though probably not rare in forested areas ... the sombre colours and arboreal habits of this dragonfly render it a very inconspicuous and easily overlooked insect”. Orr (2005) states that it is a “rare endemic inhabitant of forest streams”, but judging by recent unpublished records of larvae (Butler 2007, Norma-Rashid 2007) it may actually be quite a common species.
163740		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a major threat to this species.
163741		conservation	eng	Fresh data on <em>V. a. apicalis</em> and <em>V. a. submontana</em> is needed, searches should be made in all parts of India from which the species has been recorded. Conservation measures will centre around preservation of suitable habitat.
163741		distribution	eng	<em>Vestalis apicalis</em> is known from India and Sri Lanka (subspecies <em>V. a. nigrescens</em>). Records are from the Eastern and Western Ghats, north-east India and West Bengal (e.g. Fraser 1934, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Subramanian 2005). Records of <em>V. a. submontana</em> are from the Nilgiri Hills and the Eastern Ghats, <em>V. a. nigrescens</em> is confined to Sri Lanka, where it appears to be quite widely distributed (e.g. de Fonseka 2000).
163741		habitat	eng	Breeds in forest streams in hilly areas.
163741		population	eng	There are few recent records of this species from India, but Subramanian (2005) states that <em>V. apicalis</em> is “commonly found along hill streams” in the Western Ghats. The lack of recent records from other parts of India is likely to be a result of a lack of expert sampling in these areas. <em>V. a. nigrescens</em> appears to be fairly common in parts of Sri Lanka.
163741		threats	eng	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops.
163742		conservation	eng	Further data are needed on this species, especially on its distribution and exact habitat requirements. Conservation measures will have to centre around the protection of suitable forest habitats.
163742		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mount Piaoac, Cao Bang Province, north Viet Nam (Karube 1998, Kawashima 2002), and one location in Hainan, China.
163742		habitat	eng	Larvae have been recorded from a forest pool on Mount Piaoac (Kawashima 2002), close to the location where the type series was collected. It appears that this species breeds in forest pools. The altitude at which the specimens (adults and larvae) were collected has not been published.
163742		population	eng	Only four adults (Karube 1998) and a number of larvae (Kawashima 2002) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarasaeschna niisatoi</span> have been recorded from Viet Nam. From Hainan a single specimen has been collected (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2008).
163742		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests, infrastructure development and quarrying at the type locality in Viet Nam.
163743		conservation	eng	Fresh data is needed on this species; searches should be made in areas inland from the towns of Lawas and Limbang and in the Dulit range. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat, at least part of the Dulit Range is a proposed National Park, however it is not clear whether or not the River Koyan will be within the boundaries of this protected area.
163743		distribution	eng	<em>Prodasineura peramoena</em> is endemic to Borneo, where all records are from northeast Sarawak. The type series comes from Lawas and Limbang (Laidlaw 1913), but these are probably just the nearest towns to the actual locations at which the species was collected. There is a specimen labelled <span style="font-style: italic;">peramoena</span> from ‘Claudetown’ (now Marudi) in the British Museum of Natural History, but this appears to belong to the related species discussed in Taxonomic Notes. The only other known location is the river Koyan in the Dulit range (Kimmins 1936).
163743		habitat	eng	We have little information on the habitat requirements of this species. The river Koyan in the Dulit range is apparently a rocky upland forest stream; there is no information available on the habitat at the type localities.
163743		population	eng	This species is known with certainty from only nine specimens, however the exact type locations cannot be traced and the river Koyan in the Dulit range is a difficult to reach location, not sampled since the species was collected there in 1932 (Kimmins 1936).
163743		threats	eng	The area is known to be experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163744		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made in west Bengal and adjacent areas.
163744		distribution	eng	<em>Megalogomphus flavicolor</em> is known only from West Bengal in India (Fraser 1923, 1934).
163744		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unclear, but presumably it breeds in forest streams, as is the case with other <em>Megalogomphus</em> species.
163744		population	eng	<em>Megalogomphus flavicolor</em> is known only from two females (Fraser 1923). Lahiri (1989) includes it in a list of species not recorded in India since its description.
163744		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development and forest clearance for agricultural crops.
163745		conservation	eng	There is not have enough information on this species for effective conservation planning. Searches need to be made throughout Borneo, Sumatra and Belitung.
163745		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha maclachlani</em> is known from a few records from north and west Borneo, Sumatra (Lieftinck 1954) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954). Records from Borneo are from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001), “North Borneo” (Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1954), which presumably refers to Sabah, once known as British North Borneo and presumably from western Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954).
163745		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat as lowland forest, nothing else is known.
163745		population	eng	Judging by the scarcity of records, this appears to be a rare, or at least under-recorded species. The only recent record that R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is aware of is of a single specimen from Brunei (Orr 2001).
163745		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163746		conservation	eng	The planning of conservation measures for this species is dependent on the gathering of more data. Searches need to be made in north and northeast India, taxonomic work is also required.
163746		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus cacharicus</em> is known only from India, where there is an old record from Assam (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, Fraser 1934) and a relatively recent one from Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997). However, as this species was described from a female, and the male has never been described, the record of a male from Arunachal Pradesh needs some confirmation (see also Taxonomic Notes).
163746		habitat	eng	R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any published information on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is almost certainly a species of streams and rivers, and is very likely to have some degree of dependence on forest.
163746		population	eng	Only two specimens of this species appear to have been collected (and some doubt as to the identity of one of them must remain, see Taxonomic Notes). Evidently it is scarce and/or under collected.
163746		threats	eng	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.
163747		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species outside of Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia, but beyond this there does not appear to be much need for specific conservation measures for this species, which occurs in secondary forest and is well represented in protected areas in Sarawak and Brunei at least.
163747		distribution	eng	<em>Brachygonia oculata</em> is known from the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), where it is present on Borneo and Sumatra and many smaller islands (e.g. Belitung), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), southern Thailand (Pinratana 2003) and Cambodia (Asahina 1967). On Borneo and in Peninsular Malaysia at least it is very widely distributed in the lowlands.
163747		habitat	eng	"Inhabitants of a wide range of alluvial forest, peat swamp forest and other forested marshy areas" (Orr 2003); R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) adds that it occurs not only in flooded forest and forest pools, but also along slow flowing swamp forest streams.
163747		population	eng	In at least parts of its range this is a common species, for instance Orr (2001) records it from 12 locations in Brunei; Dow has recorded it from 10 locations in Sarawak (2007), at many of which it is abundant.
163747		threats	eng	This is a forest species, but one that can thrive in secondary forest. However it is threatened by clear-felling and plantation establishment.
163748		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, especially from Kalimantan and Sabah, where fresh sampling is needed on larger streams and rivers. There is cause for concern over this species, as a lowland forest dweller, conservation measures must centre around the protection of suitable habitat.
163748		distribution	eng	<em>Dysphaea lugens</em> is known from Borneo, where there are records from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, Asahina 1966, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Dow 2007), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Kalimantan (Ris 1911; Laidlaw 1931; Lieftinck 1953, 1954). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from Sabah, but its occurrence there seems probable.
163748		habitat	eng	<em>Dysphaea lugens</em> appears to prefer larger, open canopy streams and rivers in lowland forest.
163748		population	eng	Lieftinck (1954) states that <em>Dysphaea lugens</em> is "common over the wide sluggish streams of the southern alluvial plains", but we have no recent data on the species from Kalimantan, where we know that widespread habitat destruction has taken place. In Brunei and Sarawak it appears to be locally common; Matsuki and Kitagawa (1993) record five males taken over five days at Gunung Mulu National Park in 1989, Orr (2001) records the species from five locations in Brunei. However <em>D. lugens</em> is very similar to <em>D. dimidiata</em>, a much commoner species, so that there is considerable scope for misidentification.
163748		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163749		conservation	eng	Although the available evidence suggests that this species is moderately common in the Himalayas, there is a need for further data on its distribution.
163749		distribution	eng	<em>Indolestes cyaneus</em> is known from northern India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Baijal 1955, Prasad and Kumar 1977, Kumar 1982, Tyagi 1984, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1974; Mahato 1986, 1989; Vick 1989), Bhutan (Fraser 1936) and Taiwan (e.g. Asahina 1966).
163749		habitat	eng	The species breeds in mountain streams.
163749		population	eng	<em>Indolestes cyaneus</em> appears to be moderately common in parts of India and Nepal at least.
163749		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163750		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Pakistan.
163750		distribution	eng	<em>A. vulvalis</em> is known only from one location (Mingora) in Pakistan (Yousuf and Yunes 1977).
163750		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species. It is likely to be a species of forest streams in hills and mountains.
163750		population	eng	<em>A. vulvalis</em> was described from two females; no other records have been found.
163750		threats	eng	The species is affected by habitat loss through human development of the area.
163752		conservation	eng	Conservation of this species depends on the protection of suitable forest habitats (including secondary ones). It certainly occurs in a number of protected areas in Sarawak, Brunei and Peninsular Malaysia; as long as suitable habitats are protected in the rest of its range, its future should be secure.
163752		distribution	eng	<em>Cratilla metallica</em> is a widespread species, known from Nepal (Vick 1989), Thailand (Asahina 1993, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) where it occurs as far north as Kanchanaburi, Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1987, Kemp and Kemp 1989, Orr 2005), Singapore (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Borneo (e.g. Ris 1911, Hincks 1930, Laidlaw 1931, Kimmins 1936, Lieftinck 1953, Asahina 1966, Orr 2001, Dow 2007) where it has been recorded from Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan, Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), Java (Lieftinck 1954), many other islands in Sundaland (e.g. Lieftinck 1954) and the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). Fraser (1936) included Bengal in the distribution of this species, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of subsequent records from India or Banglasdesh.
163752		habitat	eng	The species breeds in forest pools, and occurs in secondary forest.
163752		population	eng	<em>Cratilla metallica</em> is a common species in forest across much of its range.
163752		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163753		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, but there is a need for further research.
163753		distribution	eng	Known to occur in India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Mitra 1992, Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Sri Lanka (Fraser 1933, de Fonseka 2000), Nepal (Vick 1989), Thailand (Asahina 1982, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Java (Lieftinck 1934, 1954) and the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997).
163753		habitat	eng	Shallow lakes and ponds, where it keeps away from the waters edge and perches on floating vegetation. It has been recorded in tidal Mangrove forest in West Bengal (Mitra 1992) and in brackish lagoons behind a beach in Java (Lieftinck 1934). Writing about the Javan populations in 1954 Lieftinck noted that “essentially an insect of the plains, also found in montane areas” and that “the distribution and habitat suggest high adaptability coupled with involuntary dispersal by wind currents”.
163753		population	eng	Apparently common where it occurs, but local. It is likely to be under-recorded.
163753		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163754		conservation	eng	No conservation measures, except for monitoring, appear to be needed for this species.
163754		distribution	eng	<em>Neurothemis tullia</em> is an extremely widespread and common species, occurring throughout mainland tropical and subtropical Asia, Hong Kong, Hainan and Sri Lanka.
163754		habitat	eng	This species breeds in marshes, well vegetated ponds and lake margins and rice fields.
163754		population	eng	This is a very common species across much of its large range.
163754		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any global threats to this very widespread and common species at present.
163755		conservation	eng	There is a need for further information, especially from Kalimantan. However the species is certainly present in currently existing protected areas in Sarawak and Brunei, further measures, beyond the creation of additional protected areas, may not be necessary in Sarawak and Brunei. Searches should be made in Kalimantan and in Sabah, where it may also occur.
163755		distribution	eng	<em>Prodasineura hosei</em> is a widely distributed insect in Sarawak, also occurring in northwest Kalimantan and Brunei. Records from Sarawak are from the Baram river area (Laidlaw 1913, 1920), Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936), Bau (Grinang 2004), Semmengoh Forest Reserve (Paulson 2004), Kubah and Gunung Mulu National Parks (Dow 2007). It is known from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001) and two locations in Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1948).
163755		habitat	eng	<em>Prodasineura hosei</em> breeds in lowland forest streams.
163755		population	eng	<em>Prodasineura hosei</em> appears to be locally common in Sarawak. The record from Brunei is of a single male (Orr 2001), and the records from northwest Kalimantan are of four males (Lieftinck 1948). This is an easily overlooked species that is likely to be under-recorded.
163755		threats	eng	The status of the habitats in Kalimantan is unknown, in Sarawak and Brunei it occurs in protected areas but in other areas the species habitat is experiencing being degraded.
163756		conservation	eng	There is a need for further sampling and taxonomic work on this species. Fresh searches are needed across its known range. Effective conservation measures will centre on preservation of suitable montane habitat.
163756		distribution	eng	As currently understood, <em>C. confusa</em> has a large range from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1987), Bhutan (Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Fraser 1934, Smith 1978, Vick 1989), Tibet (Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1948), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948), and north Viet Nam (Asahina 1996). There are a number of records from China, but most of these are probably misidentification's of <em>C. nitens</em> (Wilson 2007), however records from Sichuan and Xizang may be genuine.
163756		habitat	eng	A montane species. Fraser (1934) states that it “breeds in small brooks meandering through marshes on steep, heavily wooded hill-sides”. Fraser (1943) described the larvae, noting that it was found in "brooks flowing through marshes" and "sluggish irrigation channels". The species appears to be able to survive in some agricultural lands at least.
163756		population	eng	This species appears to have been common in at least part of its range. Fraser (1934) records it as being common around Shillong (in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) and the number of specimens mentioned by, for instance, Asahina (1977) suggests that it is common at high altitudes in Yunnan. Smith (1978) records it as being uncommon in Kathmandu valley in Nepal. Fewer specimens are mentioned in more recent publications, for instance Lahiri (1987) only records a single male from the Khasi Hills. It is unclear whether this is the result of a declining population, or (more likely) merely reflects a lack of collecting in suitable habitats, or a lack of publication.
163756		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Deforestation is the most obvious threat, but as the species appears to be able to survive in some agricultural areas, pollution due to use of agrochemicals must also be a concern.
163757		conservation	eng	At present we do not have enough information on this species for effective conservation planning. Searches need to be made in Thailand and Lao PDR, and also in Viet Nam and Cambodia.
163757		distribution	eng	Known from Lao PDR (Fraser 1933) and Thailand, where there are records from Chanthaburi (Asahina 1981) and Chaiyaphum (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163757		habitat	eng	There are no details of habitat or ecology in the published records. Presumably <em>M. borikhanensis</em> is a species of slow flowing, sediment bottomed lowland streams, as is the case with its congeners.
163757		population	eng	There are few records of <em>Macrogomphus borikhanensis</em>. It was described from a male and a female from Lao PDR (Fraser 1933), the only subsequent records are of a single male from Chanthaburi (Asahina 1981) and a record from Chaiyaphum (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is either scarce or under-recorded.
163757		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests and fires to use the land for agricultural growth.
163758		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data, especially on the distribution of this species. There appears to be a need for better management for invertebrate conservation in Doi Inthanon and other national parks in Thailand.
163758		distribution	eng	Known only from montane forest on Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mai, northwest Thailand (Hämäläinen 2003).
163758		habitat	eng	Occurs on small streams in montane forest on Doi Inthanon.
163758		population	eng	A number of specimens have been collected on Doi Inthanon since 1980. Hämäläinen (2003) lists 12 specimens collected by T.W. Donnelly in 1980, plus 10 specimens collected by himself in 1998-1999. To this can be added at least one specimen from 2006 (Dow 2007). This is certainly a rather scarce species, but possibly locally common at times in suitable habitat on Doi Inthanon. Further sampling on Doi Inthanon, other high mountains in northern Thailand, and in adjacent regions in Myanmar and Lao PDR is needed to establish the extent of the distribution of this species.
163758		threats	eng	Habitat loss. The known habitats of this species are all within Doi Inthanon National Park, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of conflicting interests and practices detrimental to odonate populations in national parks in Thailand.
163759		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution and threats.
163759		distribution	eng	The species known to occur only from the central Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India and Maymyo, Toungoo and Karen districts of Myanmar. Lahiri  (1987) states that the species is also known from Bhutan, but R. Dow  (pers. comm. 2008) is unsure of the origin of this record.
163759		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in hill streams.
163759		population	eng	No information available.
163759		threats	eng	Habitat degradation of hill streams by agriculture runoff and sedimentation are major threats to the species in the region.
163760		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for this species must centre around preservation of suitable forest habitats. However there does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for the species at this time, although there is a need for further sampling across its range, especially in India and Myanmar.
163760		distribution	eng	<em>Polycanthagyna erythromelas</em> is a widespread species, known from India and Pakistan (e.g. Fraser 1936), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1986), China including Hong Kong and Thailand (e.g. Wilson 1997, 1999, 2004, 2005; Wilson and Reels 2001), Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2000) and Viet Nam (e.g. Karube 2004).
163760		habitat	eng	Apparently breeds in small pools near forest streams on mountains.
163760		population	eng	<em>Polycanthagyna erythromelas</em> appears to be a quite common species, and is probably under-collected. There is a lack of recent records from India, but this probably reflects a lack of expert sampling.
163760		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163761		conservation	eng	The status of this species needs to be examined. If it is a good species, conservation measures will centre around preservation of habitat. Fresh searches need to be made in the Khasi hills and adjacent regions of northeast India.
163761		distribution	eng	Known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (Prasad and Ghosh 1984).
163761		habitat	eng	There is no known information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163761		population	eng	Known only from the holotype male (Prasad and Ghosh 1984).
163761		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163762		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for this species at present. It is widely distributed, frequently common where it occurs, and can survive in secondary habitats. There is a need for monitoring, and for fresh data from the Indonesian part of its range at least.
163762		distribution	eng	<em>Podolestes orientalis</em> is known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Lieftinck 1954; Orr 2005), Sarawak (e.g. Kimmins 1936, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Paulson 2004, Dow 2007), Brunei (Orr 2001), Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Belitung (Lieftinck 1954) and other islands between Sumatra and the Malay peninsular (Lieftinck 1954).
163762		habitat	eng	Most common in swamp forest habitats. In Sarawak it occurs in both freshwater and peat swamp forest, also sometimes on streams in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest. The larvae of the species in this genus are all unknown; the exact larval habitat remains something of a mystery. It occurs in secondary as well as primary forest.
163762		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat in Malaysia (East and West), and was common in Sumatra and Belitung, but there is a lack of recent records from these islands, probably due to lack of collecting effort over the last 50-60 years.
163762		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a threat to this species, although the severity needs to be monitored.
163763		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
163763		distribution	eng	<em>Neurobasis chinensis chinensis</em> is widely distributed in mainland Asia, occurring in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, China, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. subspecies <em>florida</em> occurs in Java. There are no known records from Cambodia, but its occurrence in this country is highly probable (R. Dow pers. comm. 2008).
163763		habitat	eng	Breeds in forested and partially forested streams, often in agricultural land.
163763		population	eng	This is a very common species over much of its range.
163763		threats	eng	This common species does not appear to be under any major threats at present.
163764		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species, especially on its distribution. Searches should be made in northeast India and Myanmar. With more information planning of conservation measures (if needed) can take place.
163764		distribution	eng	<em>Philoganga montana</em> is known from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Prasad and Ghosh 1984, Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1986, 1989; Kemp and Butler 2001) and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and possibly from Bangladesh. Indian records are from Meghalaya and West Bengal. In Thailand it has only been found at three sites in Kanchanaburi (Hämäläinen 2007).
163764		habitat	eng	Most records of <em>Philoganga montana</em> are from mountain streams, but Kemp and Butler (2001) recorded the species from the Phewa Tal lake, observing reproductive behaviour and females ovipositing into the bark of trees overhanging the lake at up to 5 m above the shore; however they note that “the lake is essentially a regulated river controlled by a dam.”  Adults were observed to “remain on or about trees in which all reproductive and oviposition behaviour takes place”.
163764		population	eng	This species may be moderately common in mountains in northeast India and in Nepal; it is difficult to judge this from the available information. Kemp and Butler (2001) found the species to be fairly common around the Phewa Tal lake in the Pokhara valley in central Nepal in May 2000. Lahiri (1987) states that, in Meghalaya it is “commonly found along montane streams overhanged with bushes”, but only lists four specimens from different locations, collected in the early 1970s. In Thailand it appears to be very scarce; there are three records, each of single individuals, from separate streams in Kanchanaburi (Hämäläinen 2007). Given the arboreal habits of the species (see Habitat and Ecology) it is likely to be under-recorded.
163764		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. montana</span> is experiencing habitat loss due to deforestation.
163765		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species.
163765		distribution	eng	Known only from two locations in Ninh Binh Province, North Viet Nam (Asahina 1997).
163765		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the habitat or ecology of this species, but the known specimens were collected at altitudes of 450 m and 370 m; it is reasonable to assume that this is a species of forest streams on hills and mountains, as is the case with many other species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.
163765		population	eng	Only two specimens are known.
163765		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the known area is a threat to this species.
163766		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed for this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Viet Nam.
163766		distribution	eng	Known from a single male collected at 890 m on Ban A Chia, Hung Nga, Muong Lay, Lai Chau Province, Viet Nam (Asahina 1987).
163766		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that this is a species of streams in montane forest, as is the case with many species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.
163766		population	eng	Only a single specimen is known.
163766		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the known area of this species is a likely threat.
163767		conservation	eng	Further information on this poorly known species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in southern Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia.
163767		distribution	eng	Known only from two widely separated areas of Thailand: Nakhon Si Thammarat (Laidlaw 1931) and Nakhon Nayok (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163767		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements are unclear from published information on this species, but it is reasonable to assume that it breeds in forest streams, as is the case with most other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.
163767		population	eng	A poorly known and apparently scarce species, known from very few specimens.
163767		threats	eng	Deforestation is a possible threat to the suspected habitat of this species.
163768		conservation	eng	This species is severely data deficient. Further data is needed before the planning of conservation measures (if needed) can take place. Such data will only be gathered by extensive collecting in Sumatra.
163768		distribution	eng	<em>Oligoaeschna sumatrana</em> is known only from Mount Kerintji, west Sumatra (Lieftinck 1953, 1954, 1968).
163768		habitat	eng	Unknown. The holotype was collected at 1,600 m, presumably this is a forest species and is likely to breed in pools or swampy areas.
163768		population	eng	Only the holotype male is known (Lieftinck 1953, 1968).
163768		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163769		conservation	eng	New data is urgently needed, at present conservation planning is impossible due to lack of data. Searches need to be made on Banguey Island and in adjacent regions of Sabah, as well as further afield.
163769		distribution	eng	Known from one location on Banggi (Banguey in older literature) Island off the coast of Sabah.
163769		habitat	eng	Unknown, but presumably a swamp forest species (as is the case for other <em>Amphicnemis</em> species).
163769		population	eng	Known from a single, male specimen.
163769		threats	eng	Habitat loss. The status of the habitat on Banggi Island is unknown.
163770		conservation	eng	There is a need for further information on the distribution of this species. We have no recent information from Kalimantan; searches need to be made there, and in Sabah, where there is only one record of the species. However it appears to be quite common in Sarawak and Brunei, and it is certainly present in a number of protected areas. Beyond the establishment of further protected areas in lowland forest across its range, there does not appear to be any current need for special conservation measures for this species.
163770		distribution	eng	<em>Leptogomphus coomansi</em> is endemic to Borneo. There are records from northwest Kalimantan (Laidlaw 1936, Lieftinck 1948), Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (Dow 2007) and Sabah (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from southern or eastern Kalimantan.
163770		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1954) states that <em>L. coomansi</em> occurs in "runnels in forest-marshes of the lowlands." Orr (2003) states that it is “sometimes abundant in alluvial swamps where it may be found basking in sunlight on the fronds of Pinanga bordering muddy rivulets."  The species also occurs on larger streams with pebble bottoms (e.g. on the Sungai Rayu at Kubah National Park in west Sarawak and the Sungai Melinau and smaller streams at Gunung Mulu National Park in northeast Sarawak, Dow 2007); it appears that this species can occupy a variety of lowland forest stream habitats.
163770		population	eng	Although there are not many records of this species, it appears to be quite common in parts of Brunei and Sarawak at least. It is an inconspicuous species, with rather sedentary habits; it is likely to be under-collected.
163770		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is threatening this species.
163771		conservation	eng	The species appears secure in Sarawak, where it occurs in habitats such as roadside ponds, and is represented in several national parks (Gunung Mulu, Lambir Hills and Loagan Bunut). In Brunei it appears to occupy more specialist, less disturbed habitats, but this may reflect insufficient sampling in disturbed habitats. There is a need for more sampling, especially outside of Sarawak; the species should be searched for in Sabah and Kalimantan. In Brunei there may be a need for further conservation measures.
163771		distribution	eng	Known from two locations in Brunei (Orr and van Tol 2001, Orr 2001) one of which is now severely degraded Brunei, and a number of locations spread across Sarawak (Dow 2007).
163771		habitat	eng	Breeds in ponds, lakes and open marshes, including acidic waters. So far only recorded in lowland areas.
163771		population	eng	In Sarawak this is quite a common insect, especially in the northeast of the state. In Brunei only two locations are known, one of which is now severely degraded; the species appears to be significantly less common here.
163771		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through fire damage.
163772		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for further data on this species before effective conservation planning can be carried out. Searches need to be made throughout Sumatra.
163772		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sumatra, where it is known from the south and west of the island (Lieftinck 1935, 1954).
163772		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded at small streams in primitive forest at 300 - 600 m (Lieftinck 1954).
163772		population	eng	There are no recent records of this species. The type series from south Sumatra comprised 20 individuals collected over six consecutive days in 1934, suggesting that the species was at least moderately common at that location at that time. The species was also found in west Sumatra at some time between 1934 and 1954 (Lieftinck 1954), but there is no published record of the numbers, or exact location.
163772		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.
163773		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is for more information; expert sampling is urgently needed in Java and Sumatra. Once we have adequate data to determine the current distribution of the species and what threats it faces, conservation planning can commence (if needed).
163773		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus geometricus</em> is known from Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954; Schmidt 1934) and (subspecies <em>perplexus</em>) from Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1937, 1954).
163773		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1954) reports this species is found at fast running streams in forested areas, upwards to 1,200 m, also in low cultivated areas. An arborical (relating to trees) species, widely but sparingly distributed.
163773		population	eng	There have been no records of this species for at least 50-60 years, however there has been a lack of expert sampling in Java and Sumatra over this period (since M.A. Lieftinck left the region <em>ca</em> late 1940s). Writing in 1934 about the Javan population, Lieftinck stated  “a very scarce species, but apparently widely spread and possibly not uncommon locally”. As far as R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is aware <em>O. g. perplexus</em> is only known from a single male.
163773		threats	eng	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.
163774		conservation	eng	There is little recent data available on this species; fresh data is urgently needed for effective conservation planning. At least part of its habitat is protected in national parks. Fresh searches should be made on Engano and in mountainous areas of Sumatra.
163774		distribution	eng	Known from Sumatra (e.g. Campion 1925; Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1935, 1954) and Engano Island (Lieftinck 1948).
163774		habitat	eng	"Sub-montane and montane, by small torrential streams in shady situations, from 600 m to 1,700 m" (Lieftinck 1954); this summarises our knowledge of the habitat and ecology of this species.
163774		population	eng	Lieftinck (1935) lists nine locations in Sumatra, but these records are all from 1935 or earlier. Hämäläinen (pers. comm. 2007) found this species at four sites in the Kerinci area, in West Sumatra and Jambi provinces, in 1997, stating that “I think that <em>E. uniformis</em> is not uncommon in montane forest streams in Sumatra.” These are the only recent records that R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is aware of. Only two specimens have been recorded from Engano.
163774		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163775		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on the distribution of this species and fresh information on population sizes, but no special conservation measures appear to be needed at present.
163775		distribution	eng	<em>Anisopleura lestoides</em> is known from India (e.g. Laidlaw 1917; Fraser 1927, 1934; Prasad and Singh 1976; Hämäläinen 1989; Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1959, Vick 1989).
163775		habitat	eng	Breeds in forest streams above 1,000 m.
163775		population	eng	<em>Anisopleura lestoides</em> appears to be fairly common in parts of its range, for instance Hämäläinen (1989) lists 32 specimens from two locations in the Dehra Dun valley in Uttarakhand.
163775		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163776		conservation	eng	Further information is needed on this species before conservation measures can be planned.
163776		distribution	eng	<em>Planaeschna chiengmaiensis</em> is known only from Chiang Mai, north-west Thailand (Asahina 1981, 1986; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163776		habitat	eng	This is a montane species; no further information on its habitats or ecology is known.
163776		population	eng	Only a few specimens of this species are known.
163776		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163777		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this poorly known species. Conservation measures must centre around preservation of suitable lowland forest habitats.
163777		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia callisto</em> is known from scattered locations in Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1922, 1931; Lieftinck 1950, 1954, 1971), in Kelantan, Selangor and central Perak; Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1987; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), in Kanchanaburi, Nakhon Ratchasima, Trang and Songkhla; and one location in central Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000).
163777		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia callisto</span> breeds in small streams in lowland forest and it is not known if it occurs in secondary forest.
163777		population	eng	This is a poorly known species, probably less than 20 specimens are known in total. <em>Macromia</em> species are difficult to capture, so the species may be under-recorded. However, on present evidence the species must be regarded as rare.
163777		threats	eng	As a lowland forest dweller this species may be regarded as especially vulnerable to the ongoing habitat loss through clear-cutting for farming.
163778		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this poorly known species. Searches need to be made in western and northeastern India.
163778		distribution	eng	Endemic to India, where it is known from the western part of the peninsular (e.g. Fraser 1920, 1933), and apparently from the northeast (Prasad and Varshney 1995); the origin of this record is unclear to R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008).
163778		habitat	eng	The type locality was described as scrub jungle near lakes but a single specimen was recorded from a stream (Fraser 1933); in the absence of further data it appears best to assume that this is a species of swamp forest and forest pools, like many other <em>Mortonagrion</em> species. Known to occur “at sea-level or on the foothills” (Fraser 1933).
163778		population	eng	There is no recent information available on this species. It was common at the type locality (Pawai lake) in western India near Bombay (Fraser 1933).
163778		threats	eng	Habitat loss. The status of the type locality is unknown but doubtful. Further data on this species is urgently needed.
163779		conservation	eng	In Sarawak this species is present in a number of national parks (e.g. Bako, Gunung Mulu, Loagan Bunut) and other protected areas, and appears to be adequately protected at present. Insufficient data is available from Kalimantan; more information is needed. Searches need to be made in Kalimantan and in Sabah, further data from Brunei and under-sampled areas of Sarawak is also needed.
163779		distribution	eng	Known only from Borneo, records from Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak. Recorded from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001), two locations in Kalimantan (Ris 1911, Lieftinck 1940) and Sarawak (Laidlaw 1913, 1920). Recent collecting in Sarawak has uncovered the species at 11 locations, many in protected areas, but also in unprotected swamp forest habitats. These locations are spread across the state (Dow 2005, 2006, 2007; Dow and Reels 2005).
163779		habitat	eng	Most common in lowland peat swamp forest, but also occurring in freshwater swamp forest and occasionally on streams (these records may be of dispersing individuals). The species occurs from sea level to at least 100 m (at Bako National Park in west Sarawak); the species may well be found at higher altitudes where suitable swamp forest habitats occur.
163779		population	eng	The species is common at a number of the locations known in Sarawak. The results from Sarawak suggest that the species is likely to be more common in northwest Kalimantan and in Brunei than published records suggest, and it is very likely to occur in Sabah as well.
163779		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Swamp forest habitats are generally threatened in Borneo, especially in Kalimantan.
163780		conservation	eng	Aside from the need to monitor populations, no specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this very widespread and common species.
163780		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum glaucum</em> is distributed throughout tropical and subtropical Asia and south and east to New Guinea. There are a few countries from which R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia and Lao PDR; it has probably been recorded from these countries, and its occurrence there is almost certain.
163780		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, drains, ditches and other open lentic habitats.
163780		population	eng	This species is common across much of its large range.
163780		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present.
163781		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout the Western Ghats.
163781		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphidia kodaguensis</em> is known only from the Western Ghats in India, with records from Karnataka (Fraser 1923, 1934; Laidlaw 1930) and Kerala (Fraser 1934).
163781		habitat	eng	Very little has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is evidently a species of streams and rivers, and presumably requires some forest for its survival (as is the case with other <em>Gomphidia</em> species). It appears to be a species of hilly and mountainous areas.
163781		population	eng	Writing in 1934 Fraser states that <em>G. kodaguensis</em> is “is common in Coorg, especially on the Sampaji and Bhagmandala Rivers, from where the type comes. It is a scarce insect elsewhere.” However, there appears to be no subsequent records of the species. This may reflect a lack of expert sampling in the Western Ghats, but it may also reflect a loss of habitat due to deforestation.
163781		threats	eng	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops is one of the major threats to this species.
163782		conservation	eng	Further data on this very poorly known species is needed before conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Searches need to be made in Arunachal Pradesh and neighbouring states in India.
163782		distribution	eng	Known only from India. The holotype is from Tahlia in Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1979). The second specimen is from "Salari, 4,000 ft., Kameng, Assam" (Asahina 1985); Kameng is now part of Arunachal Pradesh.
163782		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the habitat or ecology of this species. However it is reasonable to assume that it breeds in streams in montane forest, as is the case for other <em>Megalestes</em> species.
163782		population	eng	Only two specimens are known.
163782		threats	eng	The area the species has been recorded in is undergoing habitat loss through human development.
163783		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout Peninsular Malaysia, and in southern Thailand where this species might also occur. However the increasing number of records from protected areas suggests that the species is not under any great threat.
163783		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta fontinalis</em> is known only from Peninsular Malaysia, with published records from Pahang (Lieftinck 1937, Kalkman 2004), Bukit Mertajam in Penang (Fraser 1942) and Bukit Larut (formerly Maxwell Hill) in Perak (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1987). Kalkman's record from Pahang is from Tioman Island, 50 km from the mainland. C.Y. Choong (pers. comm. 2007) has recorded this species at Gunung Jerai in Kedah, Panti Forest Reserve in Johor and, most recently, Angsi Forest Reserve in Negeri Sembilan.
163783		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded at springs and small streams in primary forest (Orr 2005).
163783		population	eng	Orr (2005) states that <em>D. fontinalis</em> is the “commonest member of genus” in Peninsular Malaysia; it certainly appears to be widespread, and it certainly appears to be common at some locations, for instance Panti Forest Reserve in Johor (Choong 2007). It is likely to be under-recorded.
163783		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a recognized threat that is likely to have a negative impact on this species.
163784		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made in Myanmar.
163784		distribution	eng	Known only from Myanmar (Fraser 1930, 1933). The type is from "Palon".
163784		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitats or ecology of this species. The type was collected in September.
163784		population	eng	This species is known from three specimens only.
163784		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species at present.
163785		conservation	eng	This species is data deficient; there is a need for more information before the planning of conservation measures can take place effectively. At present we do not even know the habitat of the species; conservation measures must be built around protection of the habitat.
163785		distribution	eng	<em>Lineaschna polli</em> is known only from two locations in western Sabah (Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1954, von Ellenrieder 2002). The type locality is Mount Marapok, near the border with Sarawak. The other location is in the Crocker Range.
163785		habitat	eng	Unknown habitat information. The two known specimens were both taken in mountainous areas, and the genus is thought to be closely related to <em>Sarasaeschna</em> Karube & Yeh, 2001 (see Lieftinck 1968, Karube and Yeh 2001 and von Ellenrieder 2002); on these grounds it might be best looked for around small pools or marshy areas in montane forest in north Borneo, but this is at best an educated guess.
163785		population	eng	Known only from two males, nearly 100 years elapsed between the capture of the specimens. The species is either rare, or under-collected.
163785		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163786		conservation	eng	We need fresh data on this species for effective conservation planning. The lack of recent records almost certainly reflects a lack of collecting effort in Sumatra over the last 50-60 years, as is suggested by the fact that both of the collections made on the island within the last 20 years included the species. There is a need for further sampling on the island to establish the true limits of its distribution and establish firmly how common it is.
163786		distribution	eng	<em>Euphaea bocki</em> is known only from Sumatra (e.g. Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1929, 1935, 1954; Schmidt 1934; Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), published records are from the north and from central western areas.
163786		habitat	eng	"Rocky forest streams, from near sea-level up to about 1,000 m" reports Lieftinck in 1954. Hämäläinen (2007) raises the altitude range to <em>ca</em> 1,500 m (although this is a rough estimate) and states that “two of the streams were 4 - 5 m wide fast flowing mountain streams”
163786		population	eng	<em>Euphaea bocki</em> may be moderately common in parts of Sumatra, but there are few recent records, reflecting a lack of expert sampling on the island over the last fifty or more years. The most recent published record is from 1987 (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), where one specimen is listed from one location in the north. Hämäläinen (unpublished data 2007) recorded the species from three streams in the Mount Kerinci area. These relatively recent records suggest that the species may still be fairy common in the parts of the island from which it had been recorded in the 1930s and before.
163786		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.
163787		conservation	eng	Fresh data is urgently needed. If the species is indeed confined to Belitung, and any suitable habitat remains, then the setting up of suitable protected areas is a priority. It should also be searched for on Bangka Island and east Sumatra.
163787		distribution	eng	Known only from two locations on Belitung (formerly Billiton) Island (Lieftinck 1937, 1954). It might also occur on Bangka, between Belitung and Sumatra and should be searched for in Sumatra as well.
163787		habitat	eng	Pools in swamp forest (Lieftinck 1954).
163787		population	eng	Judging by the number of specimens (49 are included in the type series) collected on Belitung between 1935 and 1937 (Lieftinck 1937) this was probably quite a common insect in swamp forest on the island at that time. There is no data available since that time so it is not possible to make any concrete statements about present populations.
163787		threats	eng	Habitat loss. The status of the habitats on Belitung is unknown, but doubtful.
163788		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this severely data deficient species. Searches need to be made in the Khasi Hills and other hill and mountain ranges in northeast India.
163788		distribution	eng	Known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (Cowley 1936).
163788		habitat	eng	The habitat of <em>Bayadera kali</em> is unknown, but from the type location this is presumably a montane species.
163788		population	eng	<em>Bayadera kali</em> is known from two males (Cowley 1936).
163788		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163789		conservation	eng	No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present. Although it is certainly local in occurrence, it is widely distributed and is often common where it occurs. It can tolerate disturbance and occurs in secondary habitats. However there is a need for more data, especially from Indonesia, as most recent records are from Malaysia and Brunei.
163789		distribution	eng	<em>Orolestes wallacei</em> is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Orr 2005), Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1939, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Dow 2007), Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), Brunei (Orr 2001), Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1939) and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935), south-west Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1939, 1954) and from Belitung (Lieftinck 1939, 1954). Records of this species tend to be from scattered locations; for instance in Sarawak there are recent records from Semengoh Forest Reserve (Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993) and Bako National Park (Dow 2007) in the west, Samarakan in Bintulu Division (Dow 2007) and Niah National Park in Miri Division (Dow 2007).
163789		habitat	eng	The species breeds in a variety of swamp forest situations, including secondary forest.
163789		population	eng	<em>Orolestes wallacei</em> is moderately common, but local, in swampy forest habitats. Despite being a large damselfly, it can be inconspicuous, and is likely to be under-recorded.
163789		threats	eng	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.
163790		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on the distribution of this species, it is likely to be more widely dstributed than known at present and should be searched for in the Croker Range in Sabah and at other montane locations in northeast Sarawak and Kalimantan. The habitats on Mount Kinabalu are protected within a national park, as is one known location and much suitable habitat in Pulong Tau National Park in the Kelabit Highlands, moreover there does not appear to be any threat to the other known location in the Kelabit Highlands. Mount Dulit is a proposed national park and although it has been logged, the logging so far was selective, and did not occur at all on the steepest terrain. Beyond the need for further research, there does not seem to be a pressing need for special conservation measures at this time.
163790		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia euterpe</em> is endemic to Borneo, where it is known only from the north. Published records are from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (e.g. Laidlaw 1915, 1920, 1934; Hämäläinen 1994), Mount Dulit in Sarawak (Kimmins 1936) and from Mount Merinjak (Laidlaw 1920). The exact position of Mount Merinjak is unclear to me at present, but (contrary to the statement in Lieftinck (1965, footnote on page 355 under <em>Vestalis beryllae</em>) where he states that it is "in the upper Baram river valley, over 50 miles distant from Mount Murud in a northeasterly direction"), it is certainly in Kuching Division in the west, and is probably on or close to the border with Kalimantan. The species also occurs in the Kelabit Highlands of northeast Sarawak, where it has been found at two locations (Dow 2007); it is clearly widely distributed in north Borneo.
163790		habitat	eng	Mountain streams in forest. The species appears to be commonest above about 1,100 m, but certainly occurs lower, having been recorded at 700 m or lower on Mount Kinabalu at Poring Hotsprings. Laidlaw (1920) records the species from Mount Merinjak at 600 ft, considerably lower, but this might be an error. It is quite common at around the altitude of the national park headquarters on Mount Kinabalu (<em>ca</em> 1,500 m), and it has been recorded at two locations in the Kelabit Highlands, one at approximately 1,150 m, the other at 1,350 - 1,450 m, where it appeared to be common (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007). One of the locations in the Kelabit Highlands is in secondary forest. The larvae was described by Butler (2002) from an exuviae found below the Kipungit waterfall at Poring Hotsprings on a torrential boulder stream, on the lower slopes of Mount Kinabalu, at 500 m; however the larvae may have originated at a higher altitude.
163790		population	eng	This species does not seem uncommon above 1,100 m in northeast Sarawak and on Mount Kinabalu on Sabah, and is likely to be found at these altitudes, where suitable habitats remain, at many more locations.
163790		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a known threat to this species, although does not currently appear to be having a negative effect on population numbers.
163791		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Lao PDR.
163791		distribution	eng	<em>Protosticta trilobata</em> is known only from Muang Cha, Lao, at an altitude of approximately 1,100 m (Fraser 1933).
163791		habitat	eng	The exact habitat is unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that this is a species of small streams in montane forest.
163791		population	eng	Known only from the holotype.
163791		threats	eng	The area where the species has been recorded is experiencing habitat loss through timber extraction.
163792		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species, on population sizes, distribution and exact habitat requirements. The conservation of <em>O. castor</em> will depend upon the effective protection of suitable forest habitats.
163792		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus castor</em> is known from Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1941, 1954; Orr 2005) and Thailand (Asahina 1986, 1990, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
163792		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “clear forest streams”.
163792		population	eng	There are very few records of this species, each of one or at most two specimens; it is either scarce or under-recorded.
163792		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163793		conservation	eng	Further data is needed on this species. Searches need to be made in hilly and mountainous areas throughout Thailand, and in Viet Nam.
163793		distribution	eng	Known from Thailand where there are records from Chiang Mai and the Khao Soi Dao mountains in Chanthaburi (Asahina 1984, 1990; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; Dow 2007) and possibly north Viet Nam (Asahina 1997, subspecies <em>satoi</em>, see Taxonomic Notes).
163793		habitat	eng	The species has been collected on forest streams on hills and mountains.
163793		population	eng	At least 12 specimens have been collected in the Khao Soi Dao mountains in Chanthaburi (Asahina 1984, 1990 and a photographic record by O. Kosterin on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net] 2005), fewer have been collected in Chiang Mai. The record from Viet Nam is of a single female, and its identity is questionable (see Taxonomic Notes).
163793		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.
163794		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species across its known range. The lowland habitats of this species are certainly threatened, and may not be adequately represented in protected areas. The priorities are for searches in all areas where the species has been recorded and for protection of more lowland forest habitat.
163794		distribution	eng	<em>Macrogomphus decemlineatus</em> is widespread in Sundaland, with records from east Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935), Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1953), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914), Belitung (Billiton) Island (Lieftinck 1954) and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia (Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995, Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001).
163794		habitat	eng	<em>M. decemlineatus</em> is a species of slow flowing lowland forest streams. Orr (2005) summarises what is known about the habitat of the species: “a rare and local species confined to sluggish forest streams and alluvial channels where deep silt is accumulated”.
163794		population	eng	This species appears to be both scarce and local, although it may also be under-collected. It was described from a male from east Sumatra, subsequently only two more males have been reported from Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935). There are only two records from Kalimantan, and one (of two males) from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914). Lieftinck (1954) gives no details about the record from Belitung. One male has been recorded in Pahang (Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995).
163794		threats	eng	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural crops by clear-cutting and fire is threatening this species.
163795		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before any reliable assessment of its threat status can be made. Searches need to be carried out in Meghalaya and surrounding areas.
163795		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Shillong in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Fraser 1930, 1933; Lahiri 1989; Prasad and Varshney 1995).
163795		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species, although based on the type location it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of hills and mountains.
163795		population	eng	This species is known from a single female only.
163795		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163796		conservation	eng	<em>Aeshna petalura</em> appears to be quite a common insect where suitable habitat exists. There does not appear to be any immediate cause for concern. Conservation measures should be concentrated on preservation of suitable habitat. There is a need for further sampling to establish the true limits of its range; searches should be made in Myanmar, where its occurrence is likely.
163796		distribution	eng	A widely distributed species known from northeast India, Bhutan (e.g. Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989, Mahato and Edds 1993), Guangxi in south China (Wilson 2005) and Taiwan. Records from India are from at least Darjeeling, Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal (e.g. Fraser 1936; Prasad and Varshney 1995; Mitra 1999, 2004). Further sampling is likely to extend the known range of this species in southern China. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar.
163796		habitat	eng	A montane species. It breeds in standing water in forested areas. Females are encountered far more often than males.
163796		population	eng	Based on published records this seems to be quite a common species in forested mountain areas.
163796		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting forested areas.
163797		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this poorly known species. Searches should be made in Himalaya and adjacent areas.
163797		distribution	eng	<em>D. z. zallorensis</em> is known only from Himalayan India, but the position of type locality, “Le col de Zallore”, is unknown (Fraser 1934). <em>D. z. delineatus</em> is known from the type locality, Gantok in Sikkim (Fraser 1926, 1934; Lahiri 1987) Fraser states that Gantok is in Darjeeling District, but Lahiri places it in Sikkim), and from Godawari in Nepal at altitudes of 1,464-1,891m (Mahato 1989).
163797		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded of the habitat or life history of this species, except that it is clearly a montane species. It is likely to be found at streams or rivers in montane forest.
163797		population	eng	<em>D. z. zallorensis</em> is known only from the type male. <em>D. z. delineatus</em> is known from the holotype male (which is teneral and damaged (Asahina 1955)), a female and from material from Nepal.
163797		threats	eng	The species is continuing to experience habitat loss through human development.
163798		conservation	eng	Further distributional data, and taxonomic work, is needed to make a truly accurate conservation assessment.
163798		distribution	eng	The range of <em>A. hisopa</em> as currently recognised is large, extending from India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (Vick 1989), Myanmar (Fraser 1933) to Thailand (Fraser 1927, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969, 1997) and southwards to Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Fraser 1933, 1942; Kalkman 2004; Orr 2005), Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934 etc., as <em>A. aciculare</em>) and Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935 etc., as <em>A. aciculare</em>). However records are relatively scarce and it may exist in scattered, isolated populations. Moreover it is not clear if all records refer to the same species (see Taxonomic Notes).
163798		habitat	eng	Appears to prefer shallow, weedy standing water habitats, often in open and disturbed areas.
163798		population	eng	Judging by published records, <em>A. hisopa</em> seems to be quite scarce and local in occurrence over much of its range. However Orr (2005) states that it is “common around ponds and drains in open disturbed areas” in Peninsular Malaysia.
163798		threats	eng	Habitat loss from human development.
163799		conservation	eng	Fresh data on this species is urgently needed, until such data is forthcoming we have inadequate information for conservation planning. Searches need to be made in Thailand, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
163799		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha phaeomeria</em> is known from a few records from Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1960, Asahina 1986), from the following provinces: Kanchanaburi, Phrae, Sakon Nakhon and Chiang Mai (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Viet Nam and Lao PDR and should be looked for in these countries.
163799		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. It is likely to be a lowland forest dweller.
163799		population	eng	There are very few records of this species, it is either rare or under-collected.
163799		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163800		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the current distribution of this species. As its known range is quite small, and we only have recent records from four locations, it appears vulnerable.
163800		distribution	eng	Endemic to north Borneo. <em>C. coomansi</em> (see taxonomic notes) was described from northwest Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1940). <em>C. flaviostriata</em> is quite common at a number of hill forest locations in Kuching Division in west Sarawak (Dow 2007). The eastern and southern limits of the range of this species are unknown, but it appears to be absent from Sabah and Brunei. Two specimens from the type series were collected at Mount Merinjak. The exact position of Mount Merinjak is confusing at present (to R. Dow pers. comm. 2008), but (contrary to the statement in Lieftinck (1965, footnote on page 355 under <em>Vestalis beryllae</em>) where he states that it is "in the upper Baram river valley, over 50 miles distant from Mount Murud in a northeasterly direction"), it is certainly in Kuching Division, and is probably on or close to the border with Kalimantan, in the vicinity of Gunung Penrissen. The other specimen in the type series was collected at Mount Matang, which presumably refers to the peak of the same name located outside of Kubah National Park near Kuching, however there is at least one more mountain in Sarawak that has been referred to as Mount Matang, located in the extreme northeast close to the border with Sabah. It is best to treat the range of the species as west Sarawak and northwest Kalimantan, at least until the location of the Mount Matang from which type material was collected is confirmed. The species is likely to be present on other forested hills and mountains in west Sarawak (e.g. Gunung Pueh, sometimes referred to as Bukit Karnyi).
163800		habitat	eng	Small hillside streams in forest. Occurs in secondary forest at Annah Rais near to the border with Kalimantan in west Sarawak, and in primary forest in Kubah National Park, Gunung Gading National Park and on Gunung Santubong in west Sarawak (Dow 2007).
163800		population	eng	Recently collected at four hill forest locations in west Sarawak (Dow 2007); it is quite common at these locations. We have no recent data from north west Kalimantan.
163800		threats	eng	The species is quite common at the known locations in west Sarawak, however these are all within a quite small area. Although two of these locations are national parks, they are small areas and vulnerable to fire. Of the other locations, Gunung Santubong is a proposed national park, but is unlikely to receive protected status in practice because of commercial interests, and at least small scale illegal logging has occurred recently on the mountain. The habitats at Annah Rais are in secondary forest, and are potentially threatened by forest clearance for agriculture.
163801		conservation	eng	No particular conservation measures appear to be necessary for this widely distributed and probably common species; there is a need for more data.
163801		distribution	eng	<em>Coeliccia didyma</em> is a widespread species, occurring from India to Thailand and Lao PDR and southwards to the Malay peninsula. There are a number of records of this species from China, but (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007, Wilson and Xu 2007) those from south China are likely to be misidentifications of <em>C. cyanomelas</em>; however records from Sichuan and Xizang may be genuine.
163801		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest streams in hilly country. In north western Thailand this species has been found in secondary forest (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007).
163801		population	eng	This is quite a common insect where it occurs.
163801		threats	eng	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163802		conservation	eng	Fresh data is urgently needed. Effective protection of a variety of swamp forest habitats in southeast Kalimantan is the only measure that can be recommended without further data.
163802		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality at Ampah, southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953).
163802		habitat	eng	Unknown, but presumably a swamp forest species like other <em>Amphicnemis</em>; nothing is known about the ecology of this species.
163802		population	eng	Known from a single specimen.
163802		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Swamp forest in Kalimantan is highly threatened.
163803		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species. The association of the sexes needs to be confirmed and further sampling needs to take place both within the known distribution of the species, and in adjacent areas. Sampling in areas of Kalimantan adjacent to the borders with northeast Sarawak and south Sabah is needed. The present data is insufficient for effective conservation planning. Most of the few records of or likely to be of this species are from protected areas (the exception being the type locality).
163803		distribution	eng	<em>Leptogomphus pasia</em> is known with certainty from the Long Pasia area of southern Sabah, close to the border with Sarawak (van Tol 1990), the Kelabit Highlands of northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007) and from the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre in Brunei (Kalkman 2007). Males that may be of this species (see Taxonomic notes) have been collected at the Danum Valley in Sabah (van Tol 1990) and at Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (Dow 2007). Thus the distribution of the species covers northeast Sarawak, Brunei and southern Sabah.
163803		habitat	eng	The habitat in which the holotype was collected was a stream in lower montane rain forest at 1,250 m and the specimen from the Kelabit Highlands was collected in similar habitat. The specimen from Brunei was collected at a seepage in steep terrain in primary lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, the possible males were also collected in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest. It is not possible to say at present if the species breeds over the entire altitudinal range from which specimens have been collected.
163803		population	eng	Only three specimens are known with certainty, if the possible male specimens are included (see Taxonomic Notes) the total is raised to five. This may not reflect actual rarity, just a combination of secretive habits and under-collecting.
163803		threats	eng	This species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163804		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species. The majority of known sites are already within protected areas.
163804		distribution	eng	Known only from Sabah, Malaysian Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1965, Orr 2003). There are records from Mount Kinabalu and Poring Hot Springs, the Croker Range and the Danum Valley at least. With this distribution the species should be searched for in northeast Kalimantan and it might also occur in extreme northeast Sarawak.
163804		habitat	eng	<em>Vestalis anacolosa</em> is "confined to small swift forest streams up to about 800 m in Sabah", Orr 2003. Nothing further is known.
163804		population	eng	<em>Vestalis anacolosa</em> is currently known from about five sites in Sabah, it is probably not uncommon where it occurs, and is highly likely to be more widely distributed than published records suggest.
163804		threats	eng	Habitat loss. There has been extensive replacement of lowland forest with oil palm plantation in Sabah, this is ongoing and likely to be the biggest threat faced by this species.
163805		conservation	eng	More data on this species is required. Searches should be made in mountainous areas of Sumatra. The species should be secure (except against threats posed by climate change) if suitable montane forest habitats are properly protected.
163805		distribution	eng	<em>Lyriothemis salva</em> is known only from Sumatra (Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1935, 1954).
163805		habitat	eng	“Confined to mountainous areas, from 1,000 m to 1,900 m. Breeds probably in forest pools and, presumably, also in old pitchers of Nepenthes” (Lieftinck 1954).
163805		population	eng	Only two specimens of this species having ever been collected (Ris 1927, Lieftinck 1935).
163805		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a known threat to this species.
163806		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed for this very poorly known species.
163806		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series taken at Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province, North Viet Nam at an altitude of 1,400 m (Asahina 1997).
163806		habitat	eng	The species habitat is not currently known but is presumably streams in montane forest, as is the case with many other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.
163806		population	eng	Known from two males and one female.
163806		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a recognized threat.
163807		conservation	eng	New data is needed from across the known range of this species for effective conservation planning. It was once a common species across much of its range; this may still be the case. Fresh searches need to be made in Java and Sumatra.
163807		distribution	eng	<em>Vestalis luctuosa</em> is known from Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, Schmidt 1934), south Sumatra (e.g. 1935, 1954) and Bali (e.g. Lieftinck 1953, Belle 1994).
163807		habitat	eng	Breeds in shady streams from sea-level up to about 2,000 m.
163807		population	eng	"Very common in Java" (Lieftinck 1954), but there is insufficient recent data to determine if this statement still holds. Judging by published records the species is not uncommon in Bali. In Sumatra it is known only from the extreme south, where it was quite common in the 1930s, but again there is little recent information, due to a lack of expert sampling in Sumatra in the intervening years.
163807		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163808		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species, but as it appears to be confined to primary lowland forest there is cause for concern. However recent field work has shown it to be commoner than might have been thought previously. Protection of suitable habitat is vital for the conservation of this species; at least some of the known locations are within protected areas, but it would is desirable for more suitable habitat to be protected.
163808		distribution	eng	<em>Acrogomphus malayanus</em> is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1925, 1930, 1931; Lieftinck 1941; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996).
163808		habitat	eng	Breeds in sandy bottomed closed canopy forest streams; so far all records are from primary forest. The larvae are sand burrowers (Orr 2005).
163808		population	eng	There are few published records of this species. For many years only the holotype male was known. Lieftinck (1941) recorded the larvae, the next record appears to be that of a female in Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. (1996). C. Y. Choong (pers. comm. 2007) has collected a male and a female in Johor, and photographed another specimen in Kelantan. S. Butler recently collected the larvae from Negeri Sembilan, writing (pers. comm. 2007) "it is reasonably common on rainforest streams as a larva (so much so that I wondered if Lieftinck's description was correct as it was commoner than <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragomphus</span>)" and "I have never seen an adult flying"; he also reared a male from a larva taken in Langkawi, where "it is also reasonably common"
163808		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to large-scale clear-cutting; the land is being converted for using in agricultural farming.
163809		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species (and investigation into its relationship with <em>R. borneense</em>). Sampling needs to be carried out in Sabah and adjacent regions of Kalimantan to determine the range of the species, to gain a better picture of populations and to determine whether or not it occurs in secondary forest.
163809		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinagrion elopurae</em> is known only from Sabah (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, 1924; Lieftinck 1954; Paulson 2004).
163809		habitat	eng	The species breeds in streams in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.
163809		population	eng	There are few published records of this species. Lieftinck (1954) stated "only known from the type locality"; since then it has been recorded from other locations in Sabah and there are several recent photographic records (for instance on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net]). It may be quite common in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest in Sabah, and should be looked for in neighbouring parts of Kalimantan.
163809		threats	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in secondary forest. There has been large scale replacement of lowland forest by oil palm plantations in Sabah, which must have had a negative impact on this species.
163810		conservation	eng	Fresh data is urgently needed on this species. Searches should be made in Maharashtra, both within and outside of protected areas. At least some of the old records are from locations in what is now the Ujani Wetland Reserve in Maharashtra (Kulkarni and Prasad 2002). When fresh data is available, effective conservation measures can be planned, if needed.
163810		distribution	eng	<em>Macrogomphus annulatus</em> is known from Maharashtra state in India, in areas bordering on the Western Ghats (Fraser 1926, 1934; Prasad 1996). Earlier Fraser (1919) recorded this species from Viet Nam, but no mention of this record was made later; presumably it referred to some other species of <em>Macrogomphus</em>. Similarly Needham (1930) recorded it from Tibet, again this record has not been repeated, and presumably referred to another species.
163810		habitat	eng	Apparently breeds in streams and rivers. The extent of forest required around the river for this species is not clear, but certainly some is needed.
163810		population	eng	Fraser (1934) states “Poona [Pune] or Satara, where I found the species quite common ... it breeds in the Moolah River ... nearly every Babul tree harbouring one or two specimens”. However the only record since that time appears to be of one male and one female collected in Pune (Prasad 1996). The species may still be common in parts of Maharashtra, with the paucity of recent records reflecting a lack of expert sampling in the area, extensive sampling is needed to determine this.
163810		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is threatening this species.
163811		conservation	eng	Protection of swamp forest habitats in south Kalimantan. Fresh data is urgently needed.
163811		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series (three males and two females) from one location near Sampit in south Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953).
163811		habitat	eng	The species was discovered is swamp forest. Larvae may live in the leaf axils of <em>Pandanus</em> spp. (Lieftinck 1953, 1954), but this is unverified.
163811		population	eng	There is no current information on populations of this species. There are five individuals in the type series (Lieftinck 1953).
163811		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Lowland swamp forest in Kalimantan is highly threatened. The status of the type locality is unknown.
163812		conservation	eng	This species is Data Deficient, more information is needed before effective conservation measures can be planned. Fresh searches need to be made in montane areas of northeast India.
163812		distribution	eng	Known only from northeast India, where there are records from Darjeeling (e.g. Fraser 1936) and Sikkim (Fraser 1936, Lieftinck 1968). Recent publications in the Indian literature, e.g. Prasad and Varshney (1995) and Mitra (1999), state that the species is known from Meghalaya, the source of this record cannot be found (R. Dow pers. comm. 2008).
163812		habitat	eng	Unknown, but presumably a species of hills and/or mountains, likely to breed in marshy areas or small pools in forest.
163812		population	eng	The records from Darjeeling and Sikkim are each of single individuals. The number of individuals that the record(s) from Meghalya are based on is unknown. Evidently this species is either scarce or under-collected.
163812		threats	eng	Continuing habitat loss through human development.
163813		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Fresh searches should be made in Java.
163813		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinagrion tricolor</em> is known only from Java (Krüger 1898; Laidlaw 1924; Lieftinck 1934, 1954), there is a lack of published information on its distribution on the island, however most, if not all, material in the collections of the National Natuurhistorisch Museum Naturalis, Leiden is from west and south-west Java (V. Kalkman pers. comm. 2007).
163813		habitat	eng	The species prefers deeply recessed streams in dense primeval forest, 100 - 300 m above sea-level. Males rest on branches of trees fallen into the water. Females oviposits in moss-covered logs and boulders in midstream (Lieftinck 1954).
163813		population	eng	In 1934 only four specimens of this species were known (Lieftinck 1934). Material collected later is in the collections of the Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum Naturalis, Leiden, where a total of 17 specimens are preserved, presumably including some of the original four. Of these all but one date from 1937 or before, the other is from 1958. The paucity of records since 1937 is most likely due to a lack of expert sampling on Java since that time, but habitat loss is also likely to be a factor.
163813		threats	eng	There has been extensive loss of lowland forest in Java; this is a serious cause for concern with regards to this species.
163814		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data from Java and Sumatra, without which conservation planning will prove very difficult, if not impossible.
163814		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorogomphus magnificus</em> is known from Java (Fraser 1926, 1929; Lieftinck 1934, 1954) and Sumatra (Fraser 1929; Lieftinck 1935, 1954).
163814		habitat	eng	“Sub-montane brooks and rivers in dense primitive forest, from 300 to about 1,100 m. Oviposits in clear running water of shady forest brooks, in places where the current is swift and the shallow water flows over a gravelly bottom. Final larval stages migrate from tributaries to the rocky bed of larger and more open streams, living buried in coarse sand at the edge of the stream or on the foot of cascades. Emergence takes place here.” (Lieftinck 1954). It is not known if this species can survive in secondary forest.
163814		population	eng	This does not appear to be a common species, although it may have been under collected. There appears to be no records since before 1954, but this is merely reflects a lack of collecting in Sumatra and Java since that time.
163814		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163815		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species, but effective conservation measures will centre on the preservation of suitable habitat.
163815		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorogomphus auratus</em> is known from Viet Nam (Martin 1910, Karube 1995) and central Lao PDR (Yokoi and Kano 2002). The only recent records from Viet Nam are from Mount Tamdao near Hanoi (Karube 1995).
163815		habitat	eng	Apparently this is a montane species, breeding in forest streams, but little information has been published on its habitat or ecology.
163815		population	eng	There are few records of this species. For many years it was known only from a single female; in 1995 Karube described both sexes from a series of 14 specimens taken on Mount Tam Dao, north Viet Nam. Yokoi and Kano (2002) recorded a female, reared from the larva, from central Lao PDR. It is likely to be under-collected and may be moderately common in some areas of Indochina.
163815		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163816		conservation	eng	There is not enough information on this species for effective conservation planning. There is a need for further sampling across its range and in adjacent regions, clarification of its habitat and the identification of threats (if any) to the habitat.
163816		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalaeschna klapperichi</em> is known from Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1983, Vick 1989), Afghanistan (e.g. Asahina 1981) and Kashmir (Asahina 1983, 1988), for the latter it is not clear if the records refer to locations in Pakistan, India or both. Prasad and Varshney 1995 list it as occurring in “India”.
163816		habitat	eng	This is clearly a montane species, presumably breeding in mountain streams, but there is a lack of published information on its habitat requirements.
163816		population	eng	Only a few specimens are known of <em>Cephalaeschna klapperichi</em>, the type series consists of two specimens (from Afghanistan), Asahina (1983) lists five specimens from Nepal and Kashmir. On this evidence it appears to be a rather scarce species, but there has been a lack of expert sampling across much of its known range; it may be under-recorded rather than genuinely scare.
163816		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area.
163817		conservation	eng	This species is severely data deficient; searches should be made in Madhya Pradesh and adjacent regions.
163817		distribution	eng	<em>Elattoneura nihari</em> is known from Chhindwara, Madhaya Pradesh, India.
163817		habitat	eng	There is no data available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163817		population	eng	This species is known from a single male collected in November 1971.
163817		threats	eng	Although the habitat was not been recorded, the area of Chhindwara, Madhaya Pradesh, is experiencing urban development.
163818		conservation	eng	This species is widely distributed and probably under-recorded. However it is not known if the species occurs in secondary habitats and there are not many records, in particular there is a lack of recent records. Areas of suitable habitat are certainly protected within national parks on Sumatra and Java, and about 50% of Siberut in the Mentawei Islands is a national park (but much of the habitat may have been severely disturbed prior to the creation of the park). There is a need for much further sampling to determine the true rarity or otherwise of the species, and the full range of habitats that it can occupy.
163818		distribution	eng	<em>Idionyx montana</em> is known from Sumatra (e.g. Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1935, 1939, 1954, 1971), Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, 1939, 1954, 1971), the Mentawei Islands (Lieftinck 1954) and Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), although Lieftinck (1939, 1954) expressed doubts over its occurrence in Peninsular Malaysia and R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any recent records from this region.
163818		habitat	eng	Breeds in forest streams on hills and the lower slopes of mountains. Lieftinck (1934) stated that the species breeds “in forest-pools and possibly also in slowly running waters” but subsequently (1939) stated that it breeds in forest streams, with no mention of pools, presumably the earlier statement was in error. Lieftinck stated that the species occurs from 500 - 1,000 m in Java, but later (1971) gave records of larvae from 150 - 300 m.
163818		population	eng	Appears to be a rare species (but <em>Idionyx</em> are generally difficult to capture, and impossible to identify without capture, so it is likely to be under-recorded). Lieftinck (1934) listed about 20 specimens from Java, and (1935) five specimens from Sumatra. Orr (2005) describes it as "rare and local" in Peninsular Malaysia. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any records less than 50 years old, but this is very likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in Java and Sumatra over this period. In Peninsular Malaysia it appears to have always been rare.
163818		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163819		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data, but conservation measures for this species must centre on the preservation of montane forest stream habitats. Records from Thailand are from national parks, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of conflicting interests in national parks in Thailand. Searches need to be made in Myanmar, Meghalaya and adjacent areas.
163819		distribution	eng	<em>Planaeschna intersedens</em> is known from the Khasi Hills in Meghalya, northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1936, Lahiri 1987), Myanmar (Fraser 1936) and Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand (Asahina 1985, 1986; Hämälainen and Pinratana 1999), where there are records from Doi Inthanon, Doi Saket and Doi Suthep.
163819		habitat	eng	Very little is known on the habitat and ecology of this species: it is a montane species and apparently breeds in forest streams.
163819		population	eng	There are relatively few records of this species. Fraser (1936) implies that it was quite common in parts of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, but the only subsequent record from this area is of one specimen (Lahiri 1987), and in the Chin Hills in Myanmar. There are few other old records from northeast India. There are records of a few individuals from Doi Inthanon, Doi Saket and Doi Suthep in Thailand (Asahina 1985). This may be a quite common, but under-collected, species.
163819		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.
163820		conservation	eng	There is no recent information on this species, but this is almost certainly due to a lack of expert sampling in Java over the last 50 plus years. There is an urgent need for more data on this species, searches need to be made on Mount Slamat and adjacent areas.
163820		distribution	eng	Known only from the southern slopes of Mount Slamat in mid Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954).
163820		habitat	eng	The species has been found in small forest streams on Mount Slamat.
163820		population	eng	Known from 12 males and 14 females.
163820		threats	eng	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.
163821		conservation	eng	There is a need for much more data on this species before effective conservation planning can be carried out. Fresh searches should be made in northern Thailand, Viet Nam and Lao PDR.
163821		distribution	eng	Known from Doi Suthep-Pui National Park in Chiang Mai (e.g. Asahina 1976, 1985, 1990; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Tak (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) in northwestern Thailand, and from one location in Viet Nam (van Tol and Rozendaal 1995).
163821		habitat	eng	Streams in montane forest.
163821		population	eng	<em>Caliphaea thailandica</em> is known from only a few specimens, it appears to be a scarce species, but may be under-recorded.
163821		threats	eng	Habitat loss. Although at least part of the population in Thailand is in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, the comments of Hämäläinen (2004) on  conflicting interests and practices detrimental to odonate populations in national parks in Thailand should be noted.
163822		conservation	eng	Conservation measures cannot be planned for this species without more information than we have at present. Fresh searches need to be made in northern and central India, and the habitat requirements of the species must be determined.
163822		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus grammicus</em> is known from central and northern India. Most publications since its description merely give its distribution as central and northern India (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, Prasad and Varshney 1995), there are few more precise records, but it has been recorded from Bihar (Fraser 1934, Prasad and Varshney 1988), Rajasthan (Bose and Mitra 1976) and Uttar Pradesh (Fraser 1924).
163822		habitat	eng	No information appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of <em>Onychogomphus grammicus</em>, but it is reasonable to assume that it is a stream species, and very likely a forest stream species.
163822		population	eng	Only four specimens of this species have been collected (as far as known from records), of which only the record of a male from Rajasthan (Bose and Mitra 1976) dates from after the 1930s. This is evidently either a rare or a under-collected (or both) species; there has been insufficient expert sampling across much of India since the 1930s.
163822		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.
163823		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species, searches need to be made in swamp forest throughout Borneo. It is vital that the extent of disturbance that the species can tolerate is determined; for this reason searches should be made in a variety of swamp forest habitats, including secondary and highly disturbed ones. Once more locations are known for the species, it must be ensured that some of them at least are within protected areas.
163823		distribution	eng	<em>Brachydiplax ophelia</em> is endemic to Borneo. Lieftinck (1954) lists it as “universal” on the island, but although there are scattered records across the island it seems to be very local in occurrence. There are records from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, from "4th Mile, Rock road" a location probably now vanished under the state capital Kuching), Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953) and one location in Brunei (Orr 2001, V. Kalkman pers. comm. 2007).
163823		habitat	eng	Little has been recorded on this species, Orr (2003) states that it occurs mainly in peat swamp and alluvial forest. It is certainly very local in occurrence. Orr’s record from Brunei (2001) was from a small pool in disturbed peat swamp forest, suggesting that the species can survive in disturbed forest habitats.
163823		population	eng	This appears to be a very scarce species. There are very few records, and the only recent ones are two from Brunei, both of single males. However it is a small insect that it is likely to be missed by non-expert collectors; it may be under-recorded.
163823		threats	eng	Lowland swamp forest habitats in Borneo are threatened by clear-felling and plantation establishment, and in some areas by the spread of cities.
163824		conservation	eng	We need more data on this species. Its habitat appears to be rather specialised, but is probably not uncommon on forested hills and mountains in north Borneo, and the species is certainly widely distributed in Sarawak. It may actually be quite common, but under collected because its habitat is freqently remote from the forest streams where most collecting has been carried out, and difficult to access.
163824		distribution	eng	<em>Bornargiolestes nigra</em> is known only from Borneo. Of six known specimens, four are from Sarawak: Mount Dulit in the northeast (Kimmins 1936) and Kubah National Park in the west (Dow 2007). One record is from Brunei (Orr 2001) and the other dates from 1894 from Liang Koeboeng, apparently a location in west Kalimantan (V. Kalkman pers. comm. 2007). There is also a photographic record of a female from Lambir Hills National Park in northeast Sarawak.
163824		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species has remained something of a mystery since its description in 1936. The holotype was collected in montane forest at high altitude on Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936). The female from Brunei was caught by a trail in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest (Orr 2001). We have no precise information on the habitat in which the specimen from Kalimantan was collected. The discovery of a small colony of the species at Kubah may have shed some light on the habitat requirements of this species; all individuals collected or observed were at a small, very wet, cliff in steep terrain in mixed dipterocarp forest. The dense leaf litter at the foot of the cliff was very wet, and there were small water filled ledges on the cliff. It appears at least possible (especially since teneral individuals were observed here) that the species breeds in this location, with the larvae living in the leaf litter or the water filled ledges. Confirmation (or not) of this theory awaits discovery of the larvae, but some supporting evidence is available: Mount Dulit has a long cliff running along much of its length at the altitude where the holotype was collected, there is habitat similar to that at Kubah near where the female from Brunei was collected (A.G. Orr pers. comm. 2007) and the female photographed at Lambir Hills was in very steep terrain, where similar habitat is very likely to be present.
163824		population	eng	Only six specimens of <em>Bornargiolestes nigra</em> are known. Three of these were isolated individuals, but the other three were collected at one small site at Kubah National Park (Dow 2007), and teneral individuals were observed at the same location; there appears to be a colony at this site. There are also photographic records of females from a different location within Kubah National Park and from Lambir Hills National Park.
163824		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a recognized threat to this species.
163826		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the population range and numbers of the species that is currently found in few localities.  The habitat appears to be safe from degradation although it is not known if it has a protective status.
163826		distribution	eng	The species is known from three localities (1958, 1982 and 1997) in the province of Madang (Papua New Guinea).
163826		habitat	eng	'The species was found in forest at small, sandy-bottomed shady creeks' (Gassmann 1999).
163826		population	eng	'It appeared in comparatively low numbers of individuals, most often during the late afternoon.' (Gassmann 1999).
163826		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded through wood extraction although much of it is assumed to be safe.
163827		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163827		distribution	eng	Known only from the male holotype and a female para-type both collected 75 km west of Port Moresby, Doa Estate, Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "on 20 October 1962 (male) and 24 September 1961 (female) by R. Straatman".
163827		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163827		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163827		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163828		conservation	eng	It is unknown how widespread or common the species is on Melville Island. Information on this is needed for a better assessment.
163828		distribution	eng	So far only found on Melville Island, off the northern coast of Australia:<br/>- Three males, Australia, Melville Island.  Collection notes: "Takamprimili Creek, Pickertaramoor, 11°46'S/130°53'E, 11 October 1996, G.R. Brown and G.M. Dally" (Brown and Theischinger 1998).<br/>- Five final instar exuviae, Australia, Melville Island.  Collection notes: "Pickertaramoor, 11°46.03'S/130°53.07'E, 4 October 2000, G.R. Brown" (Theischinger and Brown 2002).
163828		habitat	eng	The habitat is described in Theischinger and Brown (2002):<br/>'The exuviae were found at a small permanent pool 100 m downstream from where adults were collected. This pool is bounded by small waterfalls (2-4 m) upstream and downstream, and by a vertical rock wall to 4 m on one side and a vegetated flat sandy bank on the other side. The bottom of the pool is sloped and sandy. There are no rocks in the pool and there is very little live or dead plant material present.'<br/>The species is only known from Melville Island which is: 'approximately 132 km long and 100 km wide and is dominated by open Eucalyptus forest with predominant grass understorey. It has several freshwater streams: those flowing to the north coast are relatively long and empty into small mangrove lined bays, while those on the south coast are shorter (and perhaps steeper) and do not open into bays. Some streams may be seasonally dry as almost all rainfall occurs between October and April each year.' (Brown and Theischinger 1998)
163828		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163828		threats	eng	None known but might be threatened by drought.
163829		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163829		distribution	eng	Known only from type series: <br/>- one male (holotype) and one female: Papua New Guinea.  Collection notes: "Southern Bewani Hills, 300 m, Parfi, 20 June 1939, W. Stüber".<br/>- one female: Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Araucaria Camp, 800 m, 28 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".
163829		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163829		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163829		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163830		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163830		distribution	eng	Endemic for West Papua province, Indonesia. Known from one male from Misool, two males and five females from Waigeo and one male from Kaimana, southern part of the Bird Head's peninsula. It might be concluded that the species has a wide distribution all over the Birds Head's peninsula and adjacent island. It should however be confirmed that the specimen from the south of the Birds Head's peninsula is conspecific with the specimens from Misool and Waigeo.
163830		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163830		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163830		threats	eng	No details on habitat are known making it impossible to point out the main threats.
163831		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163831		distribution	eng	Only known from the type-series of 19 males and one female: West Papua province,  Indonesia.  Collection notes: "Sorong, ca 100 m, 24, 26 and 30 October 1948, M.A. Lieftinck." Holotype male and female in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire; para-types in British Museum of Natural History and Museum Zoologicum at Bogor, Indonesia.
163831		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163831		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163831		threats	eng	Range and habitat of the species are unknown making it difficult to assess the main threats.
163832		conservation	eng	No recent information on the distribution on Sulawesi is known and no details on the habitat are available. This information is needed before a truly reliable threat assessment can be made and needed conservation measures can be formulated.
163832		distribution	eng	The species is known from Indonesia (Sulawesi) and from the Philippines (Mindanao region: Basilan; Palawan sub-region: Balabac; Sulu region: Tawi Tawi, Sanga Sanga, Sibutu).
163832		habitat	eng	No details on habitat are known.
163832		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163832		threats	eng	No details on habitat are known making it difficult to assess its main threats.
163833		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place at present but it is thought the population is going to experience a decline as habitat disturbance increases.
163833		distribution	eng	Confined to Halmahera Island and known from four records:<br/>- One male (holotype): Mount Sembilan. Collection notes: "600 m, 8 October 1951".<br/>- One male: Telaga Rano.  Collection notes: "300-500 m, 19 September 1951".<br/>- One female: Mount Siu. Collection notes: "600-700 m, 28 September 1951".<br/>- One female: Biaur.  Collection notes: "600 m, 11 October 1951".
163833		habitat	eng	No details known, probably streams or seepages.
163833		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163833		threats	eng	The presumed habitat is possibly under threat from human disturbance.
163834		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163834		distribution	eng	Known only from the type-series of three males: Cape Vogel Peninsula, northeastern Papua New Guinea.  Collection notes: "Menapi, up to 150 m, 25 March, 7 and 9 April 1953, G.M. Tate. Holotype and one other male in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire, one male in American Museum of Natural History".
163834		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163834		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163834		threats	eng	Range and habitat of the species are unknown making it difficult to assess the main threats.
163835		conservation	eng	This species occurs in an area that has and is not expected to experience any degradation; therefore there are no conservation measures in place but further research into biology and range is required.
163835		distribution	eng	Known from a limited number of records originating from a large area in the Indonesian parts of the plains of South New Guinea. The subspecies <em>D. p. lethe</em> occurs on Misool.
163835		habitat	eng	Probably breeds in brooks or rivers.
163835		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163835		threats	eng	This species has a very small area of occupancy and although over large areas of its range it does not suffer from habitat degradation, it is thought some parts are being affected from timber extraction.
163836		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163836		distribution	eng	Only known from male holotype:<br/>- Male (holotype): northeast New Guinea, Morobe District:  Collection notes: "stream at Gurakor, Wau Road, 500 m, 25 October 1972, near 72X044, Thomas W. Donnelly".
163836		habitat	eng	The male holotype was found at a stream.
163836		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163836		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163837		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163837		distribution	eng	Only known from the type series: Papua New Guinea, D'Entrecasteaux Islands.  Collection notes: "Normanby Island, Mount Pabinama, three males east-northeast of Cape Prevost, 820 m, 10 May 1956, L.J. Brass". Might be endemic to this island.
163837		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.
163837		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163837		threats	eng	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.
163838		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163838		distribution	eng	Known from two localities on New Britain, Papua New Guinea: Yalom, northeastern New Britain and Matelen River, Ruango, central New Britain. Probably endemic to the island.
163838		habitat	eng	No details are known, most likely to be present in brooks in forest.
163838		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163838		threats	eng	Details regarding any threats affecting the habitat are unknown although it is known that wood extraction is occurring at present.
163839		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species and, currently, it seems none are required.  Field work is needed to fully understand the range.
163839		distribution	eng	Endemic to West Papua province, Indonesia. Known from 15 to 20 localities from the western and eastern parts of the Bird's Head Peninsula (Vogelkop) and the West Papuan islands Waigeo, Batanta and Salawati.
163839		habitat	eng	No details are known on habitat and ecology; probably small running waters.
163839		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163839		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163840		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and fieldwork is desperately needed to fully understand the extent of this species range.
163840		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northern part of the Papua province, Indonesia. Known from the surroundings of Jayapura and from records from the lower Cycloop Mountain and from the Bernhard camp (along the Idenburg river).
163840		habitat	eng	No details are known. Probably occurs in brook in forest.
163840		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163840		threats	eng	The species habitat is being threatened by human development and timber extraction to a level that is causing a decline in the population.
163841		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163841		distribution	eng	Known only from Hollandia, the present day Jayapura (Papua province, Indonesia).<br/>- One female, Hollandia (Jayapura).  Collection notes: "Nov-Dec 1930, W. Stüber".<br/>- 21 males and one female: Hollandia (Jayapura). Collection notes: "Apr-Jun 1931; W. Stüber".
163841		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably small running waters or seepages.
163841		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163841		threats	eng	There have been no recent surveys on this species, but its natural habitat has been degraded at a large level that could be affecting this species.
163842		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163842		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series from Papua province, Indonesia.  Collection notes: "southern Bewani Hills, upper course of Tami River, 5 days' journey southeast of Hollandia [Jayapura], 250m alt., Fumb (Keerom?) River, April 25-27, 1937, W. Stüber leg".
163842		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163842		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163842		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163843		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so threats can be assessed and conservation measures implemented.
163843		distribution	eng	Known from less then ten records from Sulawesi, Ambon and Buru. The species occurs in low numbers and has a fast flight making it difficult to catch: 'An den kleinen Buchten bei der Wa'Kasi [Buru] selten und unglaublich schnell' (Lieftinck, 1926) (Translated to: Rare and incredibly quick in the small bays of Wa'Kasi [Buru]).  The last published record dates back to 1921.
163843		habitat	eng	Only details on habitat are from Lieftinck: 'An den kleinen Buchten bei der Wa'Kasi [Buru] selten und unglaublich schnell' (Lieftinck 1926).  (Translated to: Rare and tremendously quick in the small bays of Wa'Kasi.)   This suggest that it breeds in running water.
163843		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163843		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163844		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163844		distribution	eng	Known only from the type-series of six males, two females: Papua New Guinea, Astrolabe Range, Moroka. Collection notes: "1,300 m, 27 July and 8 September 1893, Dr. Lamberto Loria". Three males and one female are in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire the rest in Museo Civico, Genoa.
163844		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably lives in runnels and brooks in forest.
163844		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163844		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163845		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place although the habitat is known to be relatively disturbed.  Further fieldwork is required to understand the biology and population range of this species.
163845		distribution	eng	Known from two locations (Bernhard Camp and Araucaria camp, Papua province, Indonesia) at 5 km distance from each other.
163845		habitat	eng	No details are known. Presumably lives in brooks in forest.
163845		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163845		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163846		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163846		distribution	eng	Known from three localities: two in north New Guinea and one on the Tanibar Island (Jamdena). This wide distribution is strange considering the limited ranges of most species of this genus.
163846		habitat	eng	No details are known, although it is thought to occur in brooks in the rainforest.
163846		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163846		threats	eng	Although the habitat is not certain, the location were the species has been recorded has undergone some level of deforestation/disturbance, but not thought to be of consequence to<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. fissicollis</span>.
163847		conservation	eng	The are no known conservation measures in place; action appears to be needed as part of the habitat has been selectively logged, however the montane area is relatively undisturbed.
163847		distribution	eng	Known only from the original description. The species is endemic to the island of Buru (South Moluccas) and is known from two localities:<br/>- One male (holotype): Nal'Besi.  Collection notes: "26 April 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- One male: Fakal.  Collection notes: "2 September 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".
163847		habitat	eng	The species is presumed to occur near brooks in the lowland forest on the island, and it is not known if it occurs higher up in the montane forest.
163847		population	eng	No details are known on population numbers or trend.
163847		threats	eng	If the species occurs in the lowland forest, this has been selectively logged, whereas the higher-up montane forest remains relatively undisturbed.
163848		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163848		distribution	eng	Known from two records: <br/>- six males and two females: Papua New Guinea (close to the border with Indonesia).  Collection notes: " southern Bewani Hills, upper course of Tami River, five days journey SE of Hollandia [Jayapura], 250 m alt., Fumb (Keerom?) river, April 26-27, 1937, W. Stüber".<br/>- two males and five females: Papua New Guinea (close to the border with Indonesia).  Collection notes: "Murr River near Uskwar, May 1-2, 1937, W. Stüber".
163848		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163848		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163848		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163849		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163849		distribution	eng	Endemic for Papua New Guinea. Known from less than ten records all from the Huon Peninsula. Considered an endemic for the Adelbert, Finisterre and Saruwaged Mountains by Polhemus <em>et al</em>. 2004.
163849		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163849		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163849		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163850		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163850		distribution	eng	Widespread species occurring from the Moluccas (Halmehera, Ternate, Batjan, Ceram) to northern Australia (Queensland). Widespread and common on New Guinea.
163850		habitat	eng	Inhabits shady pools and tree holes (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The species occurs in standing waters and is capable of breeding in man-made habitats.
163850		population	eng	Often rather abundant and thought to be stable.
163850		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163851		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be any conservation measures in place and fieldwork is needed to fully understand the habitat status and population numbers as it is likely the habitat is in decline.
163851		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guadalcanal (Solomon Islands) and known from six records all collected in the period 1953 to 1966.
163851		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>From the habitat descriptions given when the specimens were taken, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. lairdi</span> is known to occur at running water.&#160; These habitats include a river; a slow flowing pool formed by seepage alongside river, by ford; on a ridge above Sutakiki river and hill country of northwest Guadalcanal Island, upper reaches of Tenaru River, backwater of a stream near Betilonga Village (freshly emerged Zygopteron clining to half-submerged log).&#160; It is not unlikely that the species is confined to forest.
163851		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163851		threats	eng	It is not known if the species is confined to forest habitats. If so then deforestation is the main threat. It is unknown what impact the mining on Bougainville has on the quality of the freshwater systems and on the species that inhabit them.
163852		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements so threats can be assessed.
163852		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series from Humboldt Bay area, Hollandia (present day Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia) collected in July, September, November, December 1930 and January, February and March 1931. Probably more widespread in north New Guinea then presently known.
163852		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163852		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163852		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163853		conservation	eng	The habitat information of this species is based on suspicion only and fieldwork needs to be done for confirmation. If the species proves to be depended on brooks surrounded by forest than the species might be severely threatened as forest cover on Sumba has been declining rapidly and is below 10% in 2002. In that case it is needed to map the distribution of populations in order to see if any of them fall in protected areas.
163853		distribution	eng	Known from ten localities on the Island of Sumba (Indonesia). The species was recorded at nine of the 18 sites during an expedition in 1949 (Lieftinck 1953). This suggest that the species was at that time not uncommon. Recent fieldwork is lacking and the present day status of the species is unknown. If the species is indeed depended on brooks in forest than the area were suitable habitat might occur is below 1,000 km².
163853		habitat	eng	No details are known. The localities where the species was recorded in 1949 suggest that it occurs in forest brooks and that it is absent from deforested areas.
163853		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163853		threats	eng	Deforestation might make brooks unsuitable for the species and might be its most important threat.
163854		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163854		distribution	eng	The species is known from a small number of records from the island of Misool and from the Bombarai Peninsula (West Papua province, Indonesia).
163854		habitat	eng	No details are known. Probably occurs in brooks in forest.
163854		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163854		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163855		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so it can be assessed at a higher level.
163855		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sulawesi and known only from two records both made prior to 1934: six males and one female (as subspecies <em>I. c. celebensis</em>) from North Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "Kalawara, 3 December 1912 - 23 February 1913".&#160; And 1 male (as subspecies <em>I. c. velox</em>): North Sulawesi, Toli Toli.
163855		habitat	eng	No details are known. Most other species of <em>Ictinogomphus</em> breed in standing water and are capable of reproducing in man-made habitats (fish ponds etc). The same might be true for <em>I. celebensis</em>.
163855		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163855		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163856		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163856		distribution	eng	Known only from the original description based on one male from Bantimurang (southwestern Sulawesi) and two males and two females from Lompa Battau (southwestern Sulawesi) all from before 1900. Endemic to Sulawesi and only recorded from the southwestern peninsula of the island. Very little has been published on Sulawesi and the species might be far more widespread on the island than is currently known.
163856		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163856		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers.
163856		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163857		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163857		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the holotype male collected at the Otakwa river in Papua province of Indonesia in February 1913 (Campion 1915).
163857		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163857		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163857		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163858		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163858		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two males and one female mentioned in the original description from Lompa Battau in southwest Sulawesi.
163858		habitat	eng	No details are known. Probably occurs in standing waters like other species of the genus.
163858		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163858		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163859		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163859		distribution	eng	Only known from the male holotype:<br/>- One male: Indonesia.  Collection notes: "southern part of the Papua province, Bivak Insel in the northern part of the Lorentz River, January 1910, H.A. Lorentz Expedition".
163859		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163859		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163859		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163860		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, despite the species apparently declining on the Moluccas.  The core area on New Guinea is not currently experiencing pressure to warrant concern.
163860		distribution	eng	Recorded from New Guinea (including the islands Japen (or Yapen), Salawati and Waigeo) and from the Moluccas (the islands Obi and Ternate). On New Guinea known from about 10 localities from all over the island. So presumably widespread but rare, however some <em>Lyriothemis</em> species breed in phytotelmata; this might be true for <em>L. meyeri</em>, which could account for the lack of records. The last published record is from 1939.
163860		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163860		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163860		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163861		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although it appears action is needed due to the likely increase in human and agricultural development continues to put pressure on the species habitat.  Further studies into biology, range and habitat status is needed to fully understand the locations of this species.
163861		distribution	eng	Known from four records from three localities. Seems to be confined to the southeast tip of Papua New Guinea to the areas north and west of Port Moresby.
163861		habitat	eng	Probably breeds in brooks or rivers. At least three of the four records were made at estates or plantation suggesting that the species might be tolerant of some habitat degradation.
163861		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163861		threats	eng	The habitat is being affected by human and agricultural development and this is likely to increase in the future.
163862		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163862		distribution	eng	Confined to New Guinea and known from a limited number of records. These records are however form a large area and from a wide altitudinal range: <br/>- Two males and one female: Indonesia, New Guinea.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 50 m, 19 and 29 September, and 23 December 1938, J. Olthof. (Lieftinck 1942)".<br/>- One male: Papua New Guinea, Huongolf.  Collection notes: "3.1900, C. Wahnes".<br/>- Two males and 16 females: Indonesia, New Guinea.  Collection notes: "southern Cyclop mountains, ca. 1,000 m, 1932, W. Stüber".<br/>- One female: collection notes: "'Tiefland' [probably near Cyclop mountains?], October 1932, W. Stüber".
163862		habitat	eng	The species is assumed to breed in streams and seepages, and has been found in forest at a variety of altitudes.
163862		population	eng	Population numbers are unknown although it is thought to be stable.
163862		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163863		conservation	eng	There does not appear to be any conservation measures in place despite the habitat decreasing to an extent to cause a decline in the population.
163863		distribution	eng	Endemic for the island Sumba. It is known from 11 localities and the species seems to be widespread and not uncommon on the island.
163863		habitat	eng	The site description given for the localities where <em>Indolestes bellax</em> was found suggest that the species occurs in brooks in forest.
163863		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163863		threats	eng	The species might depend on forest for its existence and therefore the decline of the area of forest on Sumba might have a strong impact on the species. It is estimated that closed-canopy forest now covers 10% of the island. This gives reason to believe that <em>Indolestes bellax</em> has decreased in the last decades.
163864		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163864		distribution	eng	Endemic to Papua, Indonesia and known only from two records near Lake Paniai (Wissel Lakes) from 1939.
163864		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163864		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163864		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163865		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163865		distribution	eng	Known only from the male holotype: Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Bismarck Archipelago, East Central New Britain, north slope of Nakanai Mountains, 150 m, 22 July 1956, E.J. Ford, Jr.".
163865		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163865		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163865		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163866		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163866		distribution	eng	Only known from the holotype male from the Solomons collected on Guadalcanal Island, Aola in August 1938 by an unknown collector (Lieftinck 1949) and was deposited at Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.
163866		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163866		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163866		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163867		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163867		distribution	eng	Widespread on mainland New Guinea and known from one record from Halmahera (Lieftinck 1949).
163867		habitat	eng	Only note on habitat is a reference to 'swamp near lake Sentani'. Based on habitat of other species of the genus probably to be found in standing and slow flowing waters.
163867		population	eng	Holotype male and female paratype are from northern Guinea.  (Collection notes "Humboldt Bay area, Tami River valley, 25-31 January 1933, W. Stüber.")  There are no details regarding current population numbers although it is thought to be stable.
163867		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163868		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163868		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series: two males and four females from Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Wissel Lakes group, Araboe Bivouac, 10 miles NE of Lake Paniai, ca 1,800 m, 15-29 October 1939, H. Boschma, Le Roux Expedition".
163868		habitat	eng	No details of the species habitat are known.
163868		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163868		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163869		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern and it is thought to occur in a wider range.&#160; Field work is required to better understand the biology and ecology of this species.
163869		distribution	eng	The species is widespread and occurs in Peninsula Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and the Philippines.
163869		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland swampy forest. Orr (2001) described its habitat in Brunei as: 'recorded from a variety of swampy areas in different forest types, but most commonly in alluvial freshwater swamp'. It certainly occurs in secondary habitats in Sarawak at least (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007).
163869		population	eng	Although the species has a wide range it is apparently rare throughout its range, but it often occurs in low numbers and is likely to be overlooked, so may well be under-recorded rather than rare.
163869		threats	eng	The species is dependent on (swamp) forest. Deforestation is therefore its main threat.
163870		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163870		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series of three males and four females: Papua New Guinea, Sandaun (West Sepik) province, Oksapmin District, Tekin Station, 2nd August 1994, J. Michalski.
163870		habitat	eng	The type series was taken at a 'small clear brook with a bed of battleship-grey, clayish soil (or rock)'. The brook was 'something less than one meter across and only ankle deep'. The specimens were found perching on 'tall grasses and branches over the small ravine through which the stream runs'
163870		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163870		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163871		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163871		distribution	eng	Widespread in Australia, New Zealand, Lesser Sunda Islands, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Kermadec Islands.
163871		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, riverine pools, lakes and permanent ponds (Watsons 1991).
163871		population	eng	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.
163871		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163872		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern and it has a wide range.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163872		distribution	eng	Endemic to Papua New Guinea and known from New Britain and the southeastern New Guinea (roughly east of the Huon Gulf).
163872		habitat	eng	Like other species of its genus probably occurs in brooks and rivers.
163872		population	eng	No detailed information is known but the species is probably, like its congeners, rather common within its range.
163872		threats	eng	The species habitat is experiencing degradation through timber extraction and agricultural development but not to a level where it is thought to be threatening the population.
163873		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163873		distribution	eng	Only known from male holotype: West Papua, Indonesia. Collection notes: "Berau Peninsula (Vogelkop), Vengatap near Aja Maroe, 500 m alt., Dec 1937, J.M. van Raavenswaay Claasen leg".
163873		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163873		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163873		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163874		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163874		distribution	eng	Known from two records from the same general area:<br/>- Thirty three males, six females: Indonesia, Papua province, Cycloop Mountains. Collection notes: "southern slopes, 1,000 m alt., June 1931, 26 April 1932 and 9 June 1932, W. Stüber, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire".<br/>- One male, two females: Indonesia, Papua province, Cycloop Mountains Collection notes: "southern slope, 900 m, 26 June 1938, J. Olthof".<br/><br/>The species is considered to be an endemic to the Cycloop Mountains.
163874		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163874		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163874		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163875		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163875		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype male from Mount Sembilan on Halmahera Island, Moluccas province, Indonesia.
163875		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163875		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163875		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163876		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163876		distribution	eng	Known from two records from the Solomon Islands: one from Ugi Island (of the north coast of San Cistroval) and one from Guadalcanal. Probably also occurs on some of the other Solomon Islands. Last published record dates back to 1934.
163876		habitat	eng	No details are known but is likely to live in running waters.
163876		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163876		threats	eng	It is not known if the species is confined to forest habitats. If so then deforestation is the main threat. It is unknown what impact the mining on Bougainville has the quality of the freshwater systems and on the species.
163877		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place despite the habitat experiencing human development.  Further research is needed into the biology and threats facing this species; it is thought to occur in a protected area and increased field surveys should reveal this to be true.
163877		distribution	eng	Known from three records all from the original publication. The records all originate from a relatively small area near Jayapura and the southern slopes of the Cycloop Mountains.
163877		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably occurs in brooks in rainforest.
163877		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163877		threats	eng	The habitat is being affected by human development and timber extraction at a serious level to cause a decrease in the population.
163878		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163878		distribution	eng	Widespread and not uncommon in the north of Papua province, Indonesia and in the north and east of Papua New Guinea.
163878		habitat	eng	Occurs in brooks and small rivers in forest. The species is present in partly degraded brooks near villages or suburban areas.
163878		population	eng	No details on population numbers are known. The species is not uncommon at the localities were it occurs.
163878		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163879		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163879		distribution	eng	Known from four localities all recorded from a small area<br/>- Four males: Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 8-10 April 1939"<br/>- One male, one female: Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 13 April 1939".<br/>- Fourteen males, one female:  Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "above Bernhard Camp, 700-750 m, 11 February and 16-29 March 1939".<br/>- One male: Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "between Bernhard and Araucaria Camp, 800 m, 16 March 1939".
163879		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably lives in runnels and brooks in forest.
163879		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163879		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163880		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163880		distribution	eng	Widespread on New Guinea and the coastal areas of Queensland (Australia).
163880		habitat	eng	Inhabits a range of still waters (Theischinger and Hawkings 2006) and probably easily colonises newly created ponds.
163880		population	eng	Often occurs in high densities.
163880		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163881		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163881		distribution	eng	Endemic to Buru, Indonesia and known from three records:<br/>- one male (holotype) and two females: Fakal.  Collection notes: "30 August 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- one female: Ranasee. Collection notes: "18 May 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- one male and one female: Mnges'waen.  Collection notes: "12-14 April 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".
163881		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163881		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163881		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163882		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163882		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series (68 males and 21 females) from Indonesia, Papua province, Hollandia [Jayapura] from Nov-Dec 1930, Jan-Feb, Mar and Apr-Jun 1931, W. Stüber. The specimens were presumably caught at different localities in the surroundings of Hollandia (present day Jayapura).
163882		habitat	eng	From the observations on the habitat and behaviour given in (Lieftinck 1932) it can be concluded that the species was found at a marsh along the Pim river with <em>Pandanus candelabrum</em> and <em>Metroxylon</em>. There the specimens were found flying low to the ground or sitting a few cm above the ground on roots and leafs making them hard to find.
163882		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163882		threats	eng	The species is presumably not confined to the surroundings of Jayapura. However if this is the case than the species might be threatened by habitat destruction for building activities.
163883		conservation	eng	Information on habitat and distribution are needed in order to assess the status of this species
163883		distribution	eng	Confined to mountains on Java and South Sumatra. Might be present in other parts of Sumatra. <br/><br/>On Java, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. karnyi</span> is known from: Tengger Mountains; Preangar, Sitoe Lembang; Mount Tangkuban Prahu; Batoerraden, Mount Slamat; slopes of Mount Gedeh and Pangrango; Mount Patuha, Mount Ardjuno, Djunggo, Mount Lawu. On Sumatra known from Lebong Tandai and Mount Dempo, Gunung Agung Estate (van Tol 1997).
163883		habitat	eng	Possibly a species inhabiting running waters (van Tol 1997).
163883		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163883		threats	eng	No details on habitat are known but given the height the specimens were collected it seems likely that the species is present in forest. Deforestation is therefore the most likely threat to this species.
163884		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163884		distribution	eng	Widespread species ranging from the Philippines to the Solomon Islands and Queensland (Australia).
163884		habitat	eng	Theischinger and Hawking (2006) say on the habitat: 'Probably also [refers to <em>B. denticauda</em>]  inhabits still and sluggish waters.'
163884		population	eng	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.
163884		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163885		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163885		distribution	eng	Known only from two records both in the Snow Mountain of Papua province, Indonesia:<br/>- One male (holotype): collection notes: "Rattan Camp, 1,200 m, 1 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- Three males: collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 700 m, 27-29 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".
163885		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably breeds in small running waters in forest.
163885		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163885		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163886		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163886		distribution	eng	Only known from two nearby locations and original description in northern Papua province, Indonesia:<br/>- two males: Idenburg river.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 10-11 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- one female: collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 50m, 7 February 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".
163886		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163886		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163886		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163887		conservation	eng	This species is probably not threatened. However basic information on abundance and habitat should be collected. The taxonomic status of the subspecies related to <em>Rhyothemis phyllis</em> is not clear and <em>R. apicalis</em> might be a subspecies of <em>R. phyllis</em>. A revision of this species group is needed.
163887		distribution	eng	Occurs on Vanuatu and New Caledonia.
163887		habitat	eng	No details are known but has probably the same habitat preference as <em>R. phyllis</em>: standing, well-vegetated and often man-made waters.
163887		population	eng	Information on its abundance is lacking. The closely related <em>Rhyothemis phyllis</em> is often common and the same might be true for this species.
163887		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163888		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163888		distribution	eng	Northeastern and eastern New Guinea from the northern hill ranges up to the northern half of the Papuan Peninsula (Gassmann 2000).
163888		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded at rivers, creeks and tributaries. One record is from a sago-plantation suggesting that the species is capable of surviving in degraded habitats.
163888		population	eng	The species can be abundant and has a wide distribution.
163888		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163889		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163889		distribution	eng	Only known from the male holotype:<br/>- One male (holotype): Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "above Bernard Camp, 400 m, 11 February 1939, in heavy jungle far away from water', L.J. Toxopeus".
163889		habitat	eng	The habitat was given as 'in heavy jungle far away from water'. It is known for <em>Podopteryx selysi</em> that the larva live in phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants). Probably the same is true for <em>P. casuarina</em>.
163889		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163889		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163890		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163890		distribution	eng	Only known from the type-series of 20 males and one female: North Moluccas, Indonesia. Collection notes: "Batjan Island, Salawaku River, 50-100 m, 12-13 June 1953, A.M.R. Wegner <em>et al</em>. Holotype male and female in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire. Rest of material in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense and the British Museum of Natural History".
163890		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163890		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163890		threats	eng	Range and habitat of the species are unknown making it difficult to assess the main threats.
163891		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163891		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype collected prior to 1886 at Jobi (Japen Island, Irian Jaya, Indonesia).
163891		habitat	eng	No details are known. Likely to be found in brooks in forest
163891		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163891		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163892		conservation	eng	The species is probably confined to Sangihe Island (Indonesia) where it probably finds its optimal habitat in forest. The forest on this island has largely been cleared and the habitat remaining is probably less than 10 km². Fieldwork is needed to get better information on the status and habitat of this species which is needed to assess whether or not the protected areas on the island include enough habitat for the survival of the species.
163892		distribution	eng	Confined to the island of Sangihe (Indonesia) and known from two records:<br/>- Three males and one female  (holotype from 19 May 1985), Indonesia, Sangihe Islands.  Collection notes: "NW slope of Gunung Sahendaruman (SSW of Liwung): 3°32'N 125°32'E, 600-650 m, 12-19 May 1985, F.G. Rozendaal".<br/>- One male: Indonesia, Sangihe Islands.  Collection notes: "Manganitu, riverine gardens, coconut, plantations, secondary growth, 3°35'N 125°32'E, 10 May 1985, F.G. Rozendaal".
163892		habitat	eng	Found in primary forest and forest edge and at riverine gardens, coconut, plantations, secondary growth.
163892		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163892		threats	eng	The habitat continues to be cleared where it does not occur outside protected areas, causing the species population to show a decline.
163893		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163893		distribution	eng	Known from one record: Solomon Island: one male, New Georgia Island.  Collection notes: "Bareki River, 30 August 1965, Royal Society Expedition of the British Museum 1966-1".
163893		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163893		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163893		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163894		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163894		distribution	eng	Only known from one female (Lieftinck 1942) from New Guinea, Indonesia. Collection notes: "at Bernhard Camp, Idenburg River, 50 m, 13 April 1939 by L.J. Toxopeus during the Third Archbold Expedition" and deposited at Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.
163894		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163894		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163894		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163895		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163895		distribution	eng	Three records of this species are known all from Papua province, Indonesia:<br/>- one male (Holotype): Hollandia [Jayapura].  Collection notes: "April-June 1931, W. Stüber".<br/>- one male.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 12 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus, 50 m".<br/>- a few females: Tami River plain in the southern Bewani Hills, W. Stüber.
163895		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163895		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163895		threats	eng	Large parts of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. anatya</span>'s range remains covered in rainforest and it is not thought to be currently under threat.
163896		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163896		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the female holotype from Little Florida Island, (Solomon Islands).  (Collection notes: "caught on 15-31 March 1945, leg. G.E. Bohart".) It is likely that fieldwork will show that this species is not only present in Little Florida (Nggela Pile) but also on the adjacent Nggela Sule. But even in that case the species has a small Extent of Occurrence as both islands together are less than 300 km².
163896		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163896		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163896		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163897		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163897		distribution	eng	Only known from the type-series from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Huon Gulf, Sattelberg (Simbang), ca. 900 m, January - May 1899, west Wahnes. Seven males (including holotype in Museum Budapest)".  Other specimens of the same series, including females, are in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire and Michigan Museum (Ann Arbor).
163897		habitat	eng	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.
163897		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163897		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163898		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163898		distribution	eng	Endemic to Papua New Guinea. Known from three records all from 1955 or earlier:<br/>- One male: Busu River.  Collection notes: "15 September 1955, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire".<br/>- One female: eastern New Guinea, Astrolabe Bay, Bongu, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.<br/>- Two males and two females: Huon Gulf, Morobe district.  Collection notes: "Sattelberg (Gegagalu), Sommer 1900, Carl Wahnes". The holotype and para-type are from this series and are in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.
163898		habitat	eng	No information known, probably occurs on seepages and brooks in forest.
163898		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163898		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163899		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163899		distribution	eng	The species is known from north and northeast Australia, the Solomon Islands and New Guinea.
163899		habitat	eng	Inhabits still and sluggish waters (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163899		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163899		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163900		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163900		distribution	eng	Only known from the male holotype and the female para-type: Indonesia, West Papua province.  Collection notes: "Fak-Fak, 30 December 1912; 1 January 1913".
163900		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.
163900		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163900		threats	eng	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.
163901		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163901		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype: <br/>- One male: Indonesia, Papua province, Waigeu Island.  Collection notes: "Camp Nok (Mount Buffelhoorn), 2,500 ft, April 1938, L.E. Cheesman".
163901		habitat	eng	No details are known. Presumably lives in brooks in forest.
163901		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163901		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163902		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163902		distribution	eng	Known from three records from two localities:<br/>- One male (holotype): Indonesia, Sulawesi. Collection notes: "northeastern slope of Quarles Mountains, Todjamboe, 1,000 m, July 1936, L.J. Toxopeus, Indonesia, Sulawesi, Mandar Gulf, Polewali, 23 October 1940, J.J. van der Starre, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire and Indonesia, Sulawesi, Todjamboe, 800 m, 30 April 1941, H. and E. Vonk". <br/><br/>The species is endemic to Sulawesi and has only been recorded in central Sulawesi.
163902		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163902		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163902		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species. It is not unlikely that the species is dependant on forest, in which case the degradation of forest habitats would be the primary threat.
163903		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern and it is thought to be widespread.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163903		distribution	eng	Described from the surroundings of Jayapura (Papua province, Indonesia) from material taken in 1930 and 1931 (Lieftinck 1933). Has not since been reported from New Guinea but has been found in Australia, in Northern Territory and Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). It is likely that the species is present in large parts of New Guinea.
163903		habitat	eng	Adults are known from streams, rivers, riverine lagoons and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163903		population	eng	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.
163903		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163904		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163904		distribution	eng	Only known from types (two males) from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Bewani River territory, ca. 500 m, Fumb River, 26-27 April 1937, W. Stüber".
163904		habitat	eng	No details are known
163904		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163904		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163905		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163905		distribution	eng	Known from two specimens of which one has a doubtful label. The holotype is from:<br/>- One male, San Jorge islet off Santa Isabel.  Collection notes: "26 September 1965, '<em>Casuarina</em> forest, low herbage near stream', Royal Society Expedition for the British Museum, 1966". <br/><br/>The para-type is an old specimen (<1950) labelled with 'Bougainville' in the handwriting of R. Martin; Lieftinck (1987) states: 'I am not quite certain about the correctness of the locality 'Bougainville', as written on the label by R. Martin himself. In fact several instances are known of Odonata in Martin's collection whose reported habitats later proved to be erroneous'. For this reason the second record is not considered in this assessment.
163905		habitat	eng	The holotype was caught at a '<em>Casuarina</em> forest, low herbage near stream'.
163905		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163905		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163906		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163906		distribution	eng	Endemic for Sulawesi. Occurs in southwest Sulawesi and the coastal region of the western part of central Sulawesi (van Tol pers. comm. 2007).
163906		habitat	eng	Lowland streams with water depth of <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 10 - 50 cm. The males defend territories in the full sun, from boulders emerging just above the water surface, and usually not far from the banks. The species is capable of dealing with limited habitat degradation and occurs in streams in rural areas (van Tol pers. comm. 2007).
163906		population	eng	Detailed information on population numbers are lacking although they are thought to be decreasing.
163906		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163907		conservation	eng	Basic information (habitat and extent of distribution) on the species is lacking. Without this no conservation measures can be taken.
163907		distribution	eng	Known only from the type description of two males from different localities from the Island of Nuku Hiva (French Polynesia) and a doubtful conspecific female from the island of Hivaoa (French Polynesia). The records are from 1930 and 1931.
163907		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163907		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163907		threats	eng	Nothing can be said on the habitat of the species which makes it difficult to say anything on the major threats.
163908		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed on this widely distributed species.
163908		distribution	eng	Known from Sulawesi, North-Halmehera, Ternate, Buru, Ambon and Seram.
163908		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163908		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163908		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163909		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163909		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type series (one male and three females) collected at Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea in the 19th century.
163909		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163909		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163909		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163910		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163910		distribution	eng	Only known from the male holotype and female para-type which were caught in copula by A.M.R. Wegner. Collection notes: "Collected at Waimangura, Matakori, West Sumba (Indonesia) at 436 m. Locality described as 'dense forest at the border of the small stream Mata Kori'. (Lieftinck 1953, 1971)".
163910		habitat	eng	Type locality described as 'dense forest at the border of the small stream Mata Kori'. (Lieftinck 1953, 1971).
163910		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163910		threats	eng	Although there is very little known in this species, its habitat has experienced human and agricultural development and timber extraction which could be a threat.
163911		conservation	eng	There are no indications that this species requires conservation actions and none are in place at present.  Further studies are needed looking at its population and habitat status.
163911		distribution	eng	Occurring from New Guinea, Aru Islands, Solomon Islands and Northern Australia (Torres Strait Islands, Northern Territory, Queensland). Although it is relatively widespread it is not often observed.
163911		habitat	eng	Probably inhabits standing waters but details are lacking (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163911		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163911		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163912		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163912		distribution	eng	Only known from the type series: two males, Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Wissel Lakes Group, Lake Paniai, 1742m, 22 August 1939 (para-type) and 4 September 1939 (holotype), H. Boschma, Le Roux Expedition".
163912		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163912		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163912		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163913		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163913		distribution	eng	Widespread on New Guinea. The subspecies "<em>H. a. diminuta</em>" is confined to the island of Misima (Louisiade Archipelago).
163913		habitat	eng	Occurs in brooks in forest and rural areas.
163913		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163913		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163914		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place despite the habitat experiencing human activity.  Further research is needed into the biology, current distribution and the extent of population decline due to the pressure on the forest ecosystem.
163914		distribution	eng	Occurs on Sulawesi and the northern Moluccas (Halmahera, Ternate and Gebeh Island). Known from many localities all over Sulawesi (Lieftinck 1948).
163914		habitat	eng	Habitat information from Lieftinck (1948): "several species with collector's note: 'primary forest at dusk' or ' forest-marshes' and forest brook'".
163914		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163914		threats	eng	Clear-cutting of forests is affecting the habitat of this species.
163915		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163915		distribution	eng	Only known from two males and two females from Herat, Afghanistan (Collection notes: "12 May 1956").
163915		habitat	eng	No details are known but likely to occur in running waters.
163915		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163915		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163916		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163916		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lombok, Indonesia and is known from two records: <br/>- Two males, Lombok, Sapit.  Collection notes: "2,000 feet, April 1896, leg. H. Fruhstorfer".<br/>- One male, Lombok (probably also from the 19th century).
163916		habitat	eng	No details are known. Probably lives in seepages and small brooks like its congeners.
163916		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163916		threats	eng	The species is probably dependent on forest habitats like its congeners. If that is true then deforestation is the main threat.
163917		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163917		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the lowlands of south New Guinea and is thus far only recorded from the Indonesian part (Papua province). The species is known from three localities:<br/>- Setakwa;<br/>- Soengei Arja (near Umar), west of Uta;<br/>- Lorentz River, Bivak Islet.<br/>The last record is from 1941 but the area where it occurs has been poorly explored.
163917		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163917		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163917		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is unknown making it difficult to say anything on possible threats. The Timika mining area lies in its range and there it habitat might be threatened. However large parts of its range remain intact.
163918		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163918		distribution	eng	Known from Australia (southeast Queensland, northeast Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, top end of Northern Territory, Kimberley region), Indonesia (Papua, Buru Island, Aru Island, Sulawesi) and Papua New Guinea (Lieftinck 1949, Watson 199, Asahina 1967). Doubtfully recorded from Guadalcanal Island (Lieftinck 1949: based on specimens lacking their terminal abdominal segments) and from Timor (Lieftinck 1936: based on a larva).
163918		habitat	eng	Species has been found in ponds and swamps (Watson 1991)
163918		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163918		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163919		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163919		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype male (a juvenile): Indonesia, southern part of Papua province, Lorentz River, Bivak Eiland, no date, H.A Lorentz Expedition.
163919		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163919		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163919		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163920		conservation	eng	Research on distribution and habitat are required.
163920		distribution	eng	Confined to a small area in the southwest of Sulawesi. Found at Lompa Battau, Buluballija and three locations on Mount Lompobatang.
163920		habitat	eng	No details are known. Only known from mountains between 1,000 - 2,000 m and probably confined to forest.
163920		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163920		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to be the main threat.
163921		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163921		distribution	eng	A map of the distribution is given in van Tol (2000). Widespread on Sulawesi but lacking from the northern peninsula.
163921		habitat	eng	Details on habitat are given in van Tol (2000): 'Not uncommon in lowlands, where it is the dominant species [of its genus]; much less common above 500 m, but also found on Gunung Watuwila (c. 1,000 m), and Gunung Lompobatang (unknown altitude). Records are from various kinds of streams, mostly small streams in half-shade, to forest rivulets of several meters wide. <em>P. geijskesi</em> is less common on spring brooks in dense shade. It has also been found in semi-cultivated areas, and severely disturbed forest. Females are very uncommon in collections. I found only two females among 70 males at the foothill stream of Gunung Watuwila.'
163921		population	eng	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.
163921		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163922		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163922		distribution	eng	Known only from the male holotype:<br/>- Northeast Papua New Guinea, Huon Gulf (Bidung or Bulung?), Ogeramnang, 1914.
163922		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163922		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163922		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163923		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163923		distribution	eng	Known from two records from two localities: Klamono (Vogelkop), Irian Jaya province and Fakal (West Misool), Moluccas province, Indonesia.
163923		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163923		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163923		threats	eng	Although there are no recent surveys on this species, it is thought to be affected by habitat degradation.
163924		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place or thought to be needed for this species.
163924		distribution	eng	Widespread species occurring from Ceram (Moluccas) through New Guinea and the Aru Islands to the Cape York Peninsula in Australia. Although the species is widespread there are relatively few records. This is probably largely due to its crepuscular habits.
163924		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably occurs at standing or slow flowing waters.
163924		population	eng	No details known but is probably not uncommon at suitable habitats.
163924		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163925		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present although research into its habitat is needed.
163925		distribution	eng	Known from less than 20 records but it the species seems to be widespread in New Guinea.
163925		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163925		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers although it is thought to be stable.
163925		threats	eng	There are no threats currently thought to be affecting this species; the majority of areas on the island it occurs on is undisturbed.
163926		conservation	eng	Details on habitat and the whereabouts of populations are lacking. Fieldwork is needed in order to get this information before any further decisions on conservation measurements can be made.
163926		distribution	eng	Known only from holotype male: collection notes: "North Moluccas, Obi Island, <1865" and one female: collection notes: "north Moluccas, Obi Island, Laiwui, sea level, 18 October 1953, A.M.R. Wegner".
163926		habitat	eng	See information given under 'population' from the description by Lieftinck (1957). The species likely occurs at brooks in forest however proof of this is lacking.
163926		population	eng	Lieftinck (1957) remarks the following:&#160; 'While examining and sorting out the very extensive collection of Odonata brought home from Obi by Mr. Wegner and his assistants, only a single female (and no male!) of <em>optata</em> was found among the many thousands of zygopters gathered together. Besides this one individual, the collection included only one other <em>Argiine</em>, viz., a single male of <em>obiensis</em> sp. n. described in the previous pages. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that both species have habits similar to some other members of <em>Palaiargia</em> known by myself to be very inconspicuous insects, which frequent small rocky streams in deep ravines, keeping close to the water's edge'; this is all that is known.
163926		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163927		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so threats can be assessed and conservation measures implemented.
163927		distribution	eng	Has a large but discontinuous distribution. Is probably relatively common in much of its range. The species is known from the Moluccas, Kei Islands, Aru Islands, Papua New Guinea, The Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands. The species is also mentioned from the Philippines by Lieftinck (1974) but Hämäläinen and Müller (1997: Synopsis of the Philippine Odonata) consider <em>A. similis</em> a subspecies of <em>A. insignis</em> and do not give information on the distribution of subspecies.
163927		habitat	eng	No details are known. Probably inhabits standing and slowly flowing waters, often found in disturbed country.
163927		population	eng	Has a large distribution but population numbers and size are not known.
163927		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163928		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163928		distribution	eng	Only known from two records:<br/>- Six males (including holotype): Indonesia, Papua province. Collection notes: "above Bernhard Camp, 750m, 19-25 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- One male: Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 10 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".
163928		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably breeds in runnels in rainforest.
163928		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163928		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163929		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163929		distribution	eng	Known from two records of: one male from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Maneau Range, north slopes of Mount Dayman, 1,550 m, 11 July 1953, G.M. Tate".&#160; And two males (holotype) from Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. Collection notes "40 km, inland, hill-forest, Rona Falls, 275 m, 17 February 1936, collector unknown."
163929		habitat	eng	One of the two localities is described as hill-forest. Probably occurs in runnels and brooks in forest.
163929		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163929		threats	eng	Distribution and habitat are poorly known making it difficult to assess the main threats of the species.
163930		conservation	eng	The species is found in mostly virgin habitat and is thought to be in experiencing any threats, therefore there are no conservation measures in place or needed at present.  Further research into the biology and population range of this species is needed.
163930		distribution	eng	Known from three records from southeast and east Papua New Guinea (Astrolabe Bay, Wampit river Valley and Peria creek and Kwagira river). The distance between the first and last mentioned localities is more than 500 km. The record by Ris (1915) belongs to <em>Bironides liesthes</em> as pointed out by Lieftinck (1963).
163930		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably confined to rainforest habitats.
163930		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163930		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has continuously been extracted but not at a rate or level to cause concern to the species yet.
163931		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163931		distribution	eng	Known from Indonesia: Sumba, Tanibar island, Papua province; Papua New Guinea and north Australia: southeastern Queensland, northeastern Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, top end of Northern Territory, Kimberley region of Western Australia.
163931		habitat	eng	Primarily associated with still waters, particularly swamps (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).
163931		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding size of population although it is thought to be stable.
163931		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163932		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be degrading.  Further research is needed into the biology and population numbers of this species.
163932		distribution	eng	Known from a large series from Misool (Kasim, Fage and Wartama Rivers) and from one location on the south side of the Doberai Peninsula, Indonesia. Lieftinck (1953) mentioned that it is "a moderately common species along the upper course of all rivers and open streams of Misool, and never found away from water".
163932		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1953) mentions that on Misool it occurs on the upper course of rivers and open streams. His description of the behaviour show that these rivers are stony and at least some of them are shaded by trees for long stretches.
163932		population	eng	Lieftinck (1953) mentioned that it is a moderately common species on Misool.
163932		threats	eng	The habitat is not thought to be currently under pressure.
163933		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.
163933		distribution	eng	Known from Australia (northeastern Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, top end of Northern Territory, Kimberley Region) and Indonesia (Papua province). In Papua only known from two records in the southern plains (Digoel river and Merauke).
163933		habitat	eng	This species is found in still and flowing waters (Watson 1991).
163933		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163933		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163934		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163934		distribution	eng	Known only from the very large type series:<br/>114 males and 158 females: Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Araucaria Camp and River, 800 m, 1 March - 4 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".
163934		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably breeds in small running waters in forest.
163934		population	eng	The type series is fairly large suggesting that in suitable habitat this species occurs in high numbers.
163934		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163935		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experience a level of degradation to cause concern and it is thought to occur in a wider range.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163935		distribution	eng	Known from four records from the surroundings of Mount Wilhelm (Papua New Guinea) three from 1955 (Lieftinck 1959) and one from the 1990s (Michalski 1995).
163935		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163935		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163935		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163936		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the population range and numbers of the species that is currently found in few localities.
163936		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Tanibar Islands (Southern Moluccas, Indonesia). It has been found on the main island (Jamdena) and on Larat Island. The species is known from three records. Its nearest relative, <em>Agrionoptera insignis</em>, is widespread and is not a habitat specialist. It is likely that the same is true for <em>A. cynthiae</em> and if so the species is probably not uncommon on the island.
163936		habitat	eng	No details are known although its nearest relative, <em>Agrionoptera insignis</em>, occurs in standing or slowly flowing waters and is often found in disturbed country. <em>Agrionoptera cynthiae</em> might have the same habitat.
163936		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163936		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163937		conservation	eng	At the moment no populations of the species are known and in order to find remaining populations, fieldwork should have priority. Protection of remaining forest in the vicinity of Tondano is needed as population might still be present.
163937		distribution	eng	van Tol (2000) gives the following information on the species:<br/>'The only specimen known was collected by A.R. Wallace, almost certainly at Tondano, northern Celebes (Sulawesi). Wallace collected in the vicinity of Tondano (Rurukan) in late June and early July 1859. He actually stayed at Tondano a few days after 29 June, so early July, only. He visited the waterfalls at the outlet of the lake, where probably the present specimen was taken . The area is now completely cultivated (own observations). Although the Minahasa, especially the easternmost part around Menado, was well explored in the 1930s and 1940s the species has not turned up on any of these sites.'
163937		habitat	eng	The species was originally collected at a waterfall opening onto a lake, and if further populations are found, it is likely to occur in seepages and brooks in the forest also.
163937		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163937		threats	eng	The species is likely to depend on forest and cultivation of the area has probably led to a dramatic decline in the available habitat.
163938		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place despite the habitat declining due to pressure on the rainforest.
163938		distribution	eng	Confined to Sulawesi and known from three records:<br/>- Male (holotype): Indonesia, Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "foot of Mount Lompobatang, Borong Rapao, 800 m, 12 August 1949, A. Diakonoff".<br/>- Three males and one female: Indonesia, Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "Sulawesi Tenggara, S of Sanggona: Gunung Watuwila, Sunggai Lalonduwasi near Centipede camp. C. 1,050 m. 2-4 Nov 1989, J. van Tol".<br/>- One female, Indonesia, Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "Sulawesi Tengah, ca. 10 km west-northwest Palopo near Tojambu, 800-1,000 m, c 2°56'S, 120°07'E, Jul/Aug 1991, R. Yohan".
163938		habitat	eng	Habitat and behaviour are described by van Tol 1994: 'I collected this species myself along a small, shaded stream in a steep valley in the Mengkoko mountain area. The insects appeared immediately after sunrise, and were active for approximately one hour. Males as well as females flew low over the water up and down the stream, more or less in a straight line. With a rather slow and small wing beat, they were not extremely fast. The specimens could be collected at a site where a big log of more than one meter diameter was laying in the stream. <em>Macromia</em> specimens crossed the log at a height of just a few centimetres to return immediately to the water surface. The female was caught on a dark day at 16.30h, i.e. 1.5 hours before sunset.'
163938		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.
163938		threats	eng	The species is decreasing due to wood extraction of its habitat.
163939		conservation	eng	This species is common in disturbed as well as pristine habitats and does not appear to require conservation action at present.  There are no conservation measures in place.
163939		distribution	eng	This species is common all over Sulawesi.
163939		habitat	eng	Found in secondary, disturbed and pristine habitats.
163939		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, as are numbers although it is common where it is found.
163939		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163940		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163940		distribution	eng	Only known from the type series:<br/>- three males: South Timor, Amarassi.  Collection notes: " December 1931-I.1932, leg. Ed. Handschin".
163940		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163940		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163940		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163941		conservation	eng	Although the species is common and not threatened it would be good to gather basic information on its habitat.
163941		distribution	eng	Widespread and common on the Lesser Sundas and recorded from: Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Pantar, Alor, Sumba, Timor and Wetar.
163941		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163941		population	eng	No details known but records suggest that it is common and abundant.
163941		threats	eng	It is not known if the species is depended on forest. If so the species might have declined. However most other oriental species of <em>Trithemis</em> inhabit habitats in open country or degraded forest and it is likely that this is also true for <em>T. lilacina</em>.
163942		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163942		distribution	eng	Only known from male holotype: Papua New Guinea, D'Entrecasteux Islands, Fergusson Island.  Collection notes: "mountain camp between Agamoia and Ailuluai, south coast, 900 m, 14 June 1956, L.J. Brass". The species might be endemic to this island.
163942		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.
163942		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163942		threats	eng	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.
163943		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163943		distribution	eng	Only known from the male holotype from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Woodlark Island. (Murua), Kulumadau, 10 February 1957, W.W. Brandt". Might be endemic to Woodlark Island.
163943		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.
163943		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163943		threats	eng	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.
163944		conservation	eng	Although a widespread species, there is no recent population and habitat preference information available to correctly assess if this species requires conservation action; there are currently no known measures in place.
163944		distribution	eng	Endemic to Solomon Island group and there seemingly widespread. Recorded from the following Islands (from north to south):<br/>- Buka Island (Papua New Guinea)<br/>- Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea)<br/>- Shortland Island (Solomons)<br/>- Mono Island (as Treasury Island; Solomons)<br/>- New Georgia Island (Solomons)<br/>- Savo Island (Solomons)<br/>- Guadalcanal Island (Solomons)
163944		habitat	eng	No details are known. Its near relative <em>Prothorthemis coronata</em> occurs at standing and slowly flowing waters and is often found at habitats which are influenced by humans.
163944		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163944		threats	eng	The species is widespread on island of the Solomon Island group and is probably not uncommon. As details on its habitat requirement are lacking it is not possible to say if the species it threatened by, for instance, deforestation.
163945		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163945		distribution	eng	The species is only known three records all prior to 1900:<br/>- One female (holotype): Papua New Guinea, Astrolabe Range.  Collection notes: " 09.1893, leg. L. Loria".<br/>- One male: Papua New Guinea, Milne Bay. Collection notes: "1898, leg Staudinger".<br/>- One male: labelled 'N. Guinea', probably from Papua New Guinea.  Collection notes: "10 February 1899, leg Biro".<br/><br/>The two records for which a locality is given are over 600 km apart. If these records pertain to the same species (see above) than the species had a relatively large range in east Papua New Guinea.  The male and female have not been found together. They resemble each other closely but there is a chance that the male and female pertain to different species.
163945		habitat	eng	No details are known, probably occurs in small brooks and seepages in forest.
163945		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163945		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163946		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163946		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype male from Indonesia. Collection notes: "West Papua province, Waigeu Island, Camp Nok, 2,500 ft, April 1938, Miss L.E. Cheesman".
163946		habitat	eng	No details are known. Larvae probably found in running waters.
163946		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163946		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163947		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163947		distribution	eng	Only known from male holotype: Waigeu Island, West Papua province, Indonesia.
163947		habitat	eng	Probably breeds in brooks or rivers.
163947		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163947		threats	eng	There is no recent information on this species although it is predicted that its habitat is being threatened by timber clearing.
163948		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.
163948		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype and a female para-type both from Papua New Guinea, Mafulu.  Collection notes:  "(roughly 8°30'S, 147°E), 4000ft, December 1933, leg. L.E. Cheesman".
163948		habitat	eng	No details on habitat are known. The larva of the species probably live in streams or seepages.
163948		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163948		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163949		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.
163949		distribution	eng	Known from north Papua province, Indonesia (surroundings of Jayapura, Bernhard Camp, Waris) and north Papua New Guinea (surroundings of Waris). Probably widespread and not uncommon in north New Guinea.
163949		habitat	eng	Habitat given as 'shady forest-stream in heavy jungle'.
163949		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.
163949		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
163950		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so it can be assessed at a higher level.
163950		distribution	eng	Endemic to Waigeo Island, West Papua province, Indonesia and known only from two records:<br/>- Waigeo Island, H.A. Bernstein, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire (Holotype).<br/>- Eight males and four females: Waigeo Island.  Collection notes: "Camp Nik, 2,500 ft, April 1938, L.E. Cheesman, British Museum of Natural History except for para-type female which is in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire".
163950		habitat	eng	No details are known but probably occurs in seepages and brooks in forest.
163950		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163950		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163951		conservation	eng	Known only from two records prior to 1952 and details on habitat are lacking. First priority is therefore to gather information on its distribution and habitat.
163951		distribution	eng	Endemic to Halmahera (north Moluccas) and known from two localities and the type series:<br/>- five males (holotype): central Halmahera.  Collection notes: " Sembilan Mountains, 600 m, and Siu, 600-700 m, 27 September - 6 October 1951" (holotype in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire, rest in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense)<br/>- one male: central Halmahera.  Collection notes: "Tolewang, 50m, 10-25 October 1951" (Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense).
163951		habitat	eng	No details are known.
163951		population	eng	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.
163951		threats	eng	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.
163963		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas (e.g., Mare d'Oursi a Ramsar site - but may lose its status soon because of the increased number of cattle in the area).
163963		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
163963		distribution	eng	This species is fairly widespread in tropical and subtropical Africa, Madagascar and Asia (Cook 1996, Grin 2010, Flowers of India 2011, NMNH 2011).
163963		distribution	eng	This species is found in Tropical Africa, Madagascar, India, Asia. It is widespread  through Tropical Africa. Also recorded from Northern Africa in the Nile region including the delta and Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique).
163963		habitat	eng	<em>G. maderaspatana</em> is an annual (occ. perennial) plant of damp places and river rapids. It occurs in seasonally damp places, natural lakes and in rice fields. The ecology varies from country to country, in some places found in water, whereas in others only occurs after the water has receded. It is not strictly a wetland species (Cook 2004), it can grow in damp places where water stood during the rains but has dried out and therefore it may replace wetland species in dry season.
163963		habitat	eng	The species occurs on the edges of ponds, canals and ditches, as well as rice fields where it is not s serious weed, it will also occur in seasonal wetlands and terrestrial habitats.
163963		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
163963		population	eng	Widespread herbaceous species, important population.
163963		threats	eng	No major threats to the global population have been identified.
163963		threats	eng	No major widespread threats have been identified. However, occasionally trampling may be a threat to this species, as livestock are attracted to these areas because of the fresh grazing once the water recedes. Excessive trampling&#160; may lead to soil erosion. Habitat loss, due to global warming and human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, livestock agriculture, infrastructure development) may also threaten the species in the future.
163964		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
163964		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean region, Europe, and west and Central Asia.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in the following countries: Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia,  former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete and East Aegean Islands, Malta, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
163964		habitat	eng	<em>C. spicatum</em> is found in marshy and damp grassy or sandy places near the sea. It prefers marshy ground, canal banks and springs, and the edges of fields with soils of high salinity.
163964		population	eng	This species is very common throughout its range.
163964		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
163966		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Languedoc and some populations are included in protected areas.<br/>It is recommended to monitor the existing sites as well as the population dynamics and to raise public awareness. Search for new sites and historic sites in Spain, the Balearic Islands and France is suggested.
163966		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, Spain and Italy.<br/>In France, it is found in Languedoc and Roussillon (France). In Spain, it is present in Girona and the Balearic Islands. It occurs in central and south Italy, in Sardinia, in seven regions in total.
163966		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum romanum</span> is a perennial shrubby plant with woody stock. The species is found in Mediterranean temporary pools and fluctuating water bodies and in all other temporary wet areas on neutral to acid soils. It also grows on volcanic soils. In Italy, it has been found in dry abandoned grasslands. For the site in Mallorca, it has been described as being present along fields and paths in anthropogenic influenced environments (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
163966		population	eng	This species is found at three to six locations in Pyrénées-Orientales (Baixas, Perpignan, Saint-Estève), Hérault (Agde, Portiragnes) and Aude (Moux).<br/>In Spain, there is only one population in Girona. It has also been found at one site in Menorca as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. romanum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">balearicum</span>. This subspecies was originally described from Pont d'Inca in Mallorca but has disappeared now from this island (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).<br/>In Italy, the species is rare and scattered everywhere and there are signs of decline. Only old records are available for Calabria and the records for Basilica and Umbria are doubtful.
163966		threats	eng	This species is rare and has a very restricted distribution. It is threatened by change of land management such as intensification of agriculture.
163967		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Lorraine and Centre.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To estimate the size of the populations and to follow their dynamics <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
163967		conservation	eng	<p>In Hungary, the species is classed as Near Threatened and under national protection   (Király 2007) and it is classed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000). There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
163967		distribution	eng	<em>Samolus valerandi</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found in nearly the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region it is found in Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete and Karpathos, Algeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Egypt, Sinai, France, Corsica, Spain, Balearic Islands, Israel, Jordan, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Libya, Lebanon and Syria, Palestine, Portugal, Morocco, Malta, Tunisia, Turkey. In North Africa, it is very frequent with many localities.
163967		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. valerandi</span> is reported from throughout Europe except Andorra, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar (UK), Iceland, Moldova, Monaco, Norway (mainland), Madeira and Selvagens Islands, parts of Russia, San Marino and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
163967		habitat	eng	It is found in plains and low and middle mountains in brackish temporary pools and marshes, wet meadows, ditches, springs, wet rocks and rivulets. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms between April and October.
163967		habitat	eng	<p>A deciduous short-lived perennial found in small colonies by permanently wet and often seasonally flooded springs, flushed sea-cliffs, puddles, ditches, lagoons and lake shores. It is limited to very open mesic, often calcareous or somewhat saline soils. Populations are often impermanent, colonising the small and transient specialised habitats which change as spring lines and water levels shift. Individuals are usually monocarpic, but may take several years to flower (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has also been reported from reed<span lang="HU"> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span> spp.) stands, wet pastures, and saline meadows.  <p><span lang="HU">&#160;</p>  </span></p>
163967		population	eng	<p>There is evidence of a decline in the UK, mainly due to habitat loss. However, the overall population trend is assumed to be stable.<br/></p>
163967		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known although they are presumably very large. They often show a reduction bound to the global destruction of wetlands.
163967		threats	eng	The main threats on the habitat of this species are drainage, filling-in of wetlands, overgrazing, the extension of agriculture and water eutrophication.
163967		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
163969		conservation	eng	The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008).<br/>There are no conservation measures in place. Protection of this species is recommended in Tunisia and Morocco.
163969		distribution	eng	This species is present in parts of Europe, North Africa and West Asia. Countries where <em>Alopecurus arundinaceus</em> is found include Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Greece, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
163969		habitat	eng	This species grows in damp or saline grassland and banks of waterways, or on mountains of up to 1,200 m.<br/>The flowering season occurs between April and July in Morocco, from May until July in Tunisia and France, and from May until June in Italy.
163969		population	eng	There is no information available on the populations of that species. Considering the range of the distribution and the habitats not apparently threatened, the populations are assumed not to be at risk. It is rare in Tunisia (two sites), France (two sites), Italy (one site), Morocco (eight sites), but common in Spain. In Israel, it is threatened and included in the Red Data Book.<br/><br/>In Algeria, the species is common and occurs at several sites. The species is found in the Constantine region, the eastern and central Saharan Atlas, the central and western Tell Atlas, western coast, and in the western valleys.
163969		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for this species.
163971		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. It is necessary to preserve this species' habitat and to protect it from pollution (including landfills or wastewater) from the various facilities surrounding its habitats. Confirmation of the species' presence and its population size in the forest dayas of l'Alma is needed, as well as verification of the populations identified for Morocco.
163971		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>R. algeriensis</em> is very limited as it is endemic to Algeria, present only near Algiers and in Numidia. In the first area, it is noted as var. <em>genuinus</em> (Maire and Weiller), and found in El Harrach (ex-Maison-Carrée) and Oued Smar. Those two locations were considered almost completely destroyed. It also occurs in the forest dayas of l'Alma where the plant's existence and the size of the population need to be verified.<br/>In Numidia, it is noted as var. <em>hipporegianus</em> Batt. and observed in the ditches and streams of Annaba. It is known to be in the area of Lake Oiseaux and probably in a wet grassland near the airport, but it is very rare, as highlighted by Quézel and Santa (1962) and Maire (1961).<br/>  The species has also been mentioned for northwest Morocco (Tetouan) by Ennabili and Gharnit (2003), but is not included in the Flora of Morocco. It needs to be verified if the species is present in Morocco or has been reported in error.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be well below the threshold of 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
163971		habitat	eng	<em>Rumex algeriensis</em> is a perennial herb with a vertical rhizome that prefers the Mediterranean temperate to mild sub-humid bioclimate and is found, at least in Numidia, in heavy clay soils of alluvial or colluvial hydromorphic origin. It occurs along streams, ditches and in marshes and dayas of sub-littoral plains.<br/>Flowering occurs from April to June.
163971		population	eng	In Numidia, it is widely dispersed in the form of very small populations (two to three individuals), or even single individuals only. Three to four locations were observed.
163971		threats	eng	A possible threat, which can affect this species survival in the future, is the modification and therefore reduction of its habitats due to the repair of ditches, destruction of riverine forests or various kinds of pollution, which can lead to the disappearance of this species.
163972		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
163972		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to study the inventory of habitats of the subspecies <em>mollis</em> and <em>menthaefolius</em> in Italy and Corsica, including their taxonomy, populations, locations.
163972		distribution	eng	<em>Lycopus europaeus</em> is a paleotemperate (circumboreal) species that is found in Europe, west and north Asia, North Africa, and Macaronesia (Azores).<br/>In North Africa it is common in Morocco, rare in Algeria (Tell) and is found at eight localities in northern Tunisia. In Europe it extends from Portugal to the Balkans and is present in Turkey and the Levant.
163972		distribution	eng	<em>Lycopus europaeus</em> is a paleotemperate (circumboreal) species that is found throughout most of Europe east to China and Japan, North Africa, and Macaronesia (Azores). It is considered to have been introduced in North America where it is now widespread and New Zealand (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
163972		habitat	eng	<em>Lycopus europaeus</em> is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It grows in wet and marshy meadows, ditches, riparian forests, streams and pond banks.
163972		habitat	eng	<em>Lycopus europaeus</em> is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It will grow in most wetland types, being typical of marshy grassland, tall-herb fen and the margins of ponds and rivers.
163972		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. europaeus</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
163972		population	eng	The species is widely present in the Mediterranean region, two of its subspecies seem to be rare.
163972		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
163972		threats	eng	The species does not face major threats<em></em>.
163973		conservation	eng	More research on population numbers and range is needed as well as habitat maintenance and conservation.
163973		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tunisia and Algeria. It has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> and is found at less than 15 locations.
163973		habitat	eng	This species is mainly present in wetlands, peat soils and near the springs or the edges of streams, including in forests.
163973		population	eng	<em>Hypericum afrum</em> is relatively common in Tunisia and Algeria.
163973		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. Habitat destruction of the forests edges, desiccation due to water extraction for agricultural purposes and trampling by livestock are also impacting the species.
163974		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alisma lanceolatum</span> is classed as Extinct in Estonia and Vulnerable in Switzerland<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> No other conservation measures are in place or needed for this species.
163974		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the species and its sites it is recommended.
163974		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. The following measures are being proposed:<br/>- Legal protection<br/>- Application of legal conservation measures<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the population size<br/>- Study the population dynamics
163974		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is an Old-World species common in most of Europe, particularly in the south. It is also represented in North Africa and throughout southeastern, central and western Asia. It has been introduced in North and South America.<br/><br/>In Africa the species occurs in Morocco and Algeria.
163974		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is an Old-World species common in most of Europe, particularly in the south. It is also represented in North Africa and throughout southeastern, central and western Asia. It has been introduced in North and South America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean the species occurs in all the northern and eastern Mediterranean countries and most of the big islands. In North Africa, it is found in Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In Lebanon, it is found near Beyrouth, Dora, Antélias, Tripoli, and Bequa. In Syria, it is present in Tartous, Nahr Séné, Lattaquié, Bhamra, Damas, Plaines du Hauran, Jbel Druze, Haute Jéziré.
163974		distribution	eng	<p><em>A. lanceolatum</em> is a predominantly temperate Old World species, but occurs from Macaronesia and North Africa north to Scandinavia east and through Siberia, the Caucasus, the western Himalayas (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) to China (Wang Quingfeng in prep.). It is naturalised in New Zealand (Allan Herbarium 2000), the west coast of North America (Oregon, California) and Chile (Haynes and Barre-Hellquist 2000).</p>  <p>It is widespread in north and central Europe, but most abundant in the Mediterranean basin. It has an interesting relationship with <em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> with which its range overlaps throughout much of Europe, but the latter species is increasingly relatively abundant in the north, whilst <em>A. lanceolatum</em> more or less replaces <em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> in the south.</p>
163974		habitat	eng	<em>A. lanceolatum</em> occurs in a wide variety of habitats, particularly in southern Europe, such as marshes, canals, ditches and on the margins of ponds and lakes.
163974		habitat	eng	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is a perennial amphibious herbaceous plant growing in marshes and on the edge of stagnant waters. It grows in association with <em>Typha</em> ssp. and <em>Phragmites australis</em>.
163974		population	eng	There may be local declines, for example, in Estonia and Switzerland, but most populations, particularly in southern Europe appear to be stable.
163974		population	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Europe and Asia, but rare in North Africa.
163974		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species, although local declines could indicate a future cause for concern.</p>
163974		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>A. lanceolatum</em> is the destruction of its habitat by infrastructure development and water pollution.
163975		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to evaluate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
163975		distribution	eng	<em>Carex fissirostris</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. The species is very rare and is restricted to the Haut Atlas, where it is known only from three localities (Ourika, Tifnout and between Marrakech and Oukeïmeden). The extent of occurrence of the species is 500 km², but the area of occupancy is probably slightly greater than 10 km² although it has not been quantified.
163975		habitat	eng	<em>Carex fissirostris</em> is found between 1,700-3,200 m elevation at the edges of streams and torrents on granite and porphyries substrates, in wet pastures and rocky places as well as along irrigation channels. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms from spring to summer under the semi-arid cold, sub-humid or high mountain Mediterranean bioclimate.
163975		population	eng	The size and trends of the populations are not known.
163975		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>Carex fissirostris</em> is submitted to a high pressure from grazing, tourism (outdoor activities) and the development of infrastructures for tourism.
163977		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa.
163977		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
163977		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria hydropiper</em> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, Europe, southwest Asia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence is over 5,000,000 km² with several locations.
163977		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. hydropiper</span> occurs throughout most of Europe, including European Russia and east through the Himalayas into China. It also occurs in Africa and has apparently been introduced to North America<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
163977		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits riverbeds, marshes and humid environments. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.
163977		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. hydropiper</span> is most characteristic of seasonally inundated disturbed nutrient-rich soils, typically occurring in seasonally inundated arable, river, stream, lake and pond margins particularly where they are poached by cattle and on seasonally exposed silt and mud forming islands and bars in large lowland river systems.
163977		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. hydropiper</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
163977		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region and overall the populations are assumed to be stable. <br/>In North Africa, the trend of the populations is unknown. It is very rare in Morocco, known in three locations distributed between the Middle Atlas (south of Col du Zad), northern Atlantic Morocco (Meknès) and the Rif (Açilah); fairly widespread in Algeria in Numidie and Jijel as well as on the Algérois coast; fairly common and present in six provinces in Portugal; very common in Spain (118 sites); common in all France; common and present in Italy in 14 provinces besides Sicily.
163977		threats	eng	Habitat drainage caused by agricultural expansion are the main threats to this species.
163977		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
163978		conservation	eng	None.
163978		distribution	eng	Widespread in Africa up to the Sinai peninsula.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has been recorded from Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), possibly Swaziland. <br/><br/>The species is widespread in Eastern Africa, found in Central Kenya (Machakos), Lower Tana River in Mlango ya Simba, Northern parts in South Turkana, Ayangyani Swamp. Also found in western  Kenya in Mumias as well as Central Rift Valley in Lakes Baringo and Naivasha. In Tanzania it occurs in Arusha district Arusha National Park, lake Kawanja ya Matheo, Ufipa district lake Kwale, Songea district likonde R. south east of Songea. It has also been recorded in Lake Victoria.<br/><br/>In Northern Africa it is only found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Chad, and Egypt. In Egypt it is restricted to a small part of the Nile in the Aswan district and to Lake Nasser.
163978		habitat	eng	This perennial (occ. annual) hydrophyte is common and widespread in still and slowly flowing water, also in slightly brackish water. Found r=from 1 - 1550 m above sea level. It is a freshwater species that tolerates brackish conditions. It forms denser mats in standing water than in running water and it spends all its life cycle submerged. The species cannot tolerate drought and is therefore not found in temporary wetland habitats. <em>N. horrida</em> is mainly found in habitats that are characterised by either water of high sulphate, intermediate phosphate and low bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium concentrations; or hydrosoil of sandy clay loam texture with high potassium concentrations.
163978		population	eng	No information available.
163978		threats	eng	The main threats are agricultural activities that cause pollution, fisheries and invasive species that compete for this species resources. However, more research is needed to confirm whether these are major widespread threats to continental Africa.
163979		conservation	eng	In France, it is under regional protection (seven regions: Ile-de-France, Haute-Normandie, Basse-Normandie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Aquitaine and Limousin). In Croatia, it occurs in a protected area.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures <br/>- Maintain the hydrological regimes of the sites <br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of the fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- Conservation of the species in seed banks
163979		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are needed.<br/></p>
163979		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. australis</span> is listed as Near Threatened in Switzerland and Data Deficient in Norway. In France, it is under regional protection in seven regions: Ile-de-France, Haute-Normandie, Basse-Normandie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Aquitaine and Limousin.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>There is no evident need for conservation action.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
163979		distribution	eng	<em>Utricularia australis</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan Euro-Siberian species with a large distribution that covers the temperate and tropical regions, India, southeast Asia, Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Crete, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In Morocco, it is present in Tangier and central Rif and in Algeria, it is found in Numidie, along the coast of the Algiers region and Petite and Grande Kabylie.<br/>Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,800,000 km² and it is present in many locations.
163979		distribution	eng	This carnivorous plant is widespread in Europe, Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Indochina Peninsula , Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan and Australia.
163979		distribution	eng	This carnivorous plant occurs in Europe (except the far north), temperate Asia to China and Japan, tropical and south Africa, tropical Asia, Australia and New Zealand (Taylor 1989).
163979		habitat	eng	It is a submersed, carnivorous, perennial plant (swimming Hydrophyte) that is found in mountain lakes, wetlands of plains and shallow still waters, with a preference for non calcareous water that is low in minerals. Flowering occurs between spring and summer. It needs a lot of light and it can multiply very quickly.
163979		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It grows in lakes, ponds still or&#160; usually oligotrophic slow-flowing water or at least mildly acid. Also found in ditches a rice fields in southeast Asia.
163979		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. australis</span> occurs in still or slow-flowing usually oligotrophic or at least mildly acid water in lakes, pools, river backwaters, and ditches.
163979		population	eng	<p>There is no information on global population trends for this species.</p>
163979		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. australis</span> is protected in a few areas of northern France (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2008) and there have been some losses in southern Britain (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), but otherwise populations appear stable, it is widespread and reasonably abundant.
163979		population	eng	The species is present in more than 25 locations in the Mediterranean region and populations appear to be stable. In North Africa, the populations are in moderate regression due to the increasing anthropogenic pressures on the habitat. <br/>- Morocco: five locations distributed between the western Rif, the pre-Rif and the north Atlantic plains; <br/>- Algeria: quite rare, present in about seven locations situated along the coast of the Algiers region, in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: fairly common in the centre and north (present in five provinces in Portugal and 28 in Spain); <br/>- France: quite common (72 departments); <br/>- Italy: found in seven provinces in the north of the country; <br/>- Israel and Jordan: at least three locations along the Mediterranean coastline.<br/>- Croatia: not very common but classified as Data Deficient for Croatia, there is one big population in Dalmatia<br/>- Turkey: more widespread then <em>U. vulgaris</em>, located at 28 different lakes
163979		threats	eng	<p>No major threats to the global population have been identified.<br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
163979		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
163979		threats	eng	The drainage of wetlands, agriculture, water eutrophication, invasion by algae and exotic plants and the lack of light are the main threats to this species.
163981		conservation	eng	There are no existing conservation actions in place. Recommended actions are:<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Monitor the dynamics of the populations and the possible emigration from southern tropical populations.<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures <br/>- Maintain the hydrological regime of the sites <br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- Conservation of the species in seed banks<br/>- Management of invasive species in its habitat
163981		distribution	eng	<em>Utricularia inflexa</em> is a species of tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its distribution is limited to North Africa, where it is found in Egypt, with six sites distributed along the Nile delta, mostly in rice fields and in Libya (two sites in the southwest of the country: Tunin and Ghat). Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km², with at least eight sites. As the Mediterranean region only covers the north of Egypt and Libya, only the sites in the Nile delta are included. They are classed as one location.
163981		habitat	eng	It is a subaquatic, carnivore, perennial plant (floating Hydrophyte) that inhabits ponds, slow flowing rivers, ditches, rice fields, swamps and deltas. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. The flower is above the water. It needs a lot of light.
163981		population	eng	The populations appear to be in slow decline. In Egypt, this species is considered as rare. The populations are scattered and small.
163981		threats	eng	Agriculture, water eutrophication, drainage, invasion by algae and exotic plants (e.g. <em>Azolla filliculoides</em>, <em>Salvinia natans</em>) and the lack of light caused by the proliferation of highly competitive species are the main threats to this species.<br/>In Egypt, the populations are furthermore threatened by the use of herbicides.
163982		conservation	eng	Population numbers and range and habitat status are the major conservation measures needed.
163982		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures in place.<br/></p>
163982		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
163982		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place or needed.
163982		distribution	eng	A cosmopolitan species which is present in Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America.<br><br>In North East Africa is is found in Sudan (Darfur, Jebel Murra), Ethiopia (in rivis prope Adoam), Somalia and Eritrea. Also recorded from Morocco, and Algeria. Widespread in Central, Eastern and Southern Africa.
163982		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton pusillus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Eurasia, Africa, Macaronesia and North America. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Serbia, Slovenia, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
163982		distribution	eng	<em>P. pusillus </em>has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, from Europe through Russia east to eastern Russia, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, south through the Ryukyu Islands to Papua New Guinea, through Africa north and south of the Sahara and more or less throughout the Americas. The only places where it is absent are Australia, New Zealand and islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
163982		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the whole world except for Australia, New Zealand and islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
163982		habitat	eng	<em>P. pusillus</em> grows in standing or slowly flowing water in wide range of habitats, including sheltered lakes and reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, fenland lodes, and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
163982		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rooted Hydrophyte), that is found in standing or slow-flowing water in a wide range of habitats, including sheltered lakes and reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams, canals and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
163982		habitat	eng	It occurs in standing or slow-flowing water in a wide range of habitats, including sheltered lakes and reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams, canals and ditches.
163982		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in standing or slow-flowing water in a wide range of habitats, including sheltered lakes and reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams, canals and ditches.</p>
163982		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species. However, it is a common species which colonizes a wide variety of freshwater habitats.<br/></p>
163982		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pusillus</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range, although it is less frequent and more sensitive in Scandinavia than <span style="font-style: italic;">P. berchtoldii</span> (C.D. Preston in Flora Nordica, in prep.).
163982		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean, occurring in numerous locations and its populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in the Rif (Smir, Negro and Imzouren), the plains of oriental Morocco (Oued Za, near Taourirt and in Béni-Snassen), northern Atlantic Morocco (Inaouène) and mid-Atlantic Morocco (Oued Issen and Marrakech); <br/>- Algeria: very common and occurring all along the Tellian Atlas and in Oranais (Saïda and the Saharan Atlas);. <br/>- Libya: present in Wadi Derna and Ghat; <br/>- Egypt: present in the western Desert oases; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, occurring in more than 76 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common;<br/>- Italy: very widespread, occurring in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.
163982		population	eng	This species is quite common.<br><br>In North Africa, it occurs in numerous locations and its populations appear to be stable. <br>- Morocco: present in the Rif (Smir, Negro and Imzouren), the plains of oriental Morocco (Oued Za, near Taourirt and in Béni-Snassen), northern Atlantic Morocco (Inaouène) and mid-Atlantic Morocco (Oued Issen and Marrakech); <br>- Algeria: very common and occurring all along the Tellian Atlas and in Oranais (Saïda and the Saharan Atlas);. <br>- Libya: present in Wadi Derna and Ghat; <br>- Egypt: present in the western Desert oases.
163982		threats	eng	Habitat drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization are the main threats to this species. The main threat in Egypt is competition with introduced species. In Morocco, it is considered that general threats to wetlands such as agricultural pollution are the main problem.
163982		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
163982		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
163982		threats	eng	The main threast are water pollution and competition with introduced species.
163983		conservation	eng	In France, the habitats are monitored in several locations (ligneous species and clonal plants dynamic, water level), the species is under national protection and included in the red list. The site of Roque-Haute is designated under a Natural Reserve statute since 1975 but without any management plan. <br/>At the Balearic Islands, <em>I. setacea</em> is classified as Vulnerable.
163983		conservation	eng	In France, the habitats are monitored in several locations (ligneous species and clonal plants dynamic, water level), the species is under national protection and included in the red list. The site of Roque-Haute is designated under a Natural Reserve statute since 1975 (but without any management plan). <br/>At the Balearic Islands, <em>I. setacea</em> is classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing areas and search for new sites<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Raising awareness of the general public <br/>- Creation of protected perimetres where pastoral activities are maintained<br/>- To avoid the permanency of water in the pools<br/>- To reintroduce sheep grazing in Helophyte polls and in ligneous pools (after cutting) <br/>- To eliminate litter in the pool<br/>- To evaluate the vegetation dynamic after sheep grazing introduction and all new managements
163983		conservation	eng	In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing areas and to search for new sites<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Raising awareness of the general public <br/>- Creation of protected perimetres where pastoral activities are maintained<br/>- To avoid the permanency of water in the pools<br/>- To reintroduce the sheep grazing in Helophyte polls and in ligneous pools (after cutting) <br/>- To eliminate the litter in the pool<br/>- To evaluate the vegetation dynamic after sheep grazing introduction (and all new managements)
163983		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a west Mediterranean endemic species. It is found in France (Hérault, Orientals Pyrenees), Spain (centre and west of the country and in Catalonia), Balearic Islands (Minorca), and Portugal (centre and south). It has recently been discovered in one locality in Morocco (Benslimane).
163983		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a West-Mediterranean species. It is found in France (Hérault, Orientals Pyrenees), Spain (centre and west of the country and in Catalonia), Balearic Islands (Minorca) and Portugal (centre and south). <br/><br/>In North Africa, it is limited to Morocco where it has been recently discovered in only one locality (Benslimane) with an area of occupancy smaller than 1 km².
163983		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a west Mediterranean species. It is found in France (Hérault, Orientals Pyrenees), Spain (centre and west of the country and in Catalonia), the Balearic Islands (Minorca) and Portugal (centre and south). <br/><br/>In North Africa, it is limited to Morocco where it has been recently discovered in only one locality (Benslimane) with an area of occupancy smaller than 1 km². In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is 530,000 km². The area of occupancy has not been quantified but may be less than 2,000 km² as the species is restricted to a particular type of habitat.
163983		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte), characteristic for temporary humid zones and can support water levels of up to 50 cm. The species is restricted to temporary pools on quaternary basalt. It is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoëtes</em> sp. in fluctuating waterbodies (Corine biotope 22.3412). The vegetative growth generally takes place in winter while the maturation of the spores takes place in spring.
163983		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte), characteristic for temporary humid zones and can support water levels of up to 50 cm. The species is restricted to temporary pools on quaternary basalt. It is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoëtes</em> spp. in fluctuating water bodies (Corine biotope 22.3412). The vegetative growth generally takes place in winter while the maturation of the spores takes place in spring.
163983		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte), characteristic for temporary humid zones tolerating water depths of up to 50 cm. The species is restricted to temporary pools on quaternary basalt. It is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoëtes</em> spp. in fluctuating waterbodies (Corine biotope 22.3412). The vegetative growth generally takes place in winter while the maturation of the spores takes place in spring.
163983		population	eng	The populations are known to be declining due to the deterioration of the habitat. <br/>In France, the species is present in about one hundred ponds in the Natural Reserve of Roque-Haute, one pond in the plain of Béziers, one in Torremila, several ponds and ditches at Rodés plateau (Fenouillèdes). A more or less slow regression of populations of <em>I. setacea</em> has been reported as a result of the disappearance of the species in the ponds of Saint Estève (Oriental Pyrenees), Grammont (Hérault) and Redessan (Gard). In the Iberian Peninsula, <em>Isoetes setacea</em> is present in the centre and the west, as well as in Catalonia and on the island of Minorca (13 provinces in Spain and six in Portugal).
163983		population	eng	The populations are known to be declining due to the deterioration of the habitat. <br/>In France, the species is present in about one hundred ponds in the Natural Reserve of Roque-Haute, one pond in the plain of Béziers, one in Torremila, several ponds and ditches at Rodés plateau (Fenouillèdes). A more or less slow regression of populations of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>I. setacea</em> has been reported as a result of the disappearance of the species in the ponds of Saint Estève (Oriental Pyrenees), Grammont (Hérault) and Redessan (Gard). <em>Isoetes setacea</em> is present in the centre and the west of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as in Catalonia and on the island of Minorca (13 provinces in Spain and six in Portugal). In Morocco, the species is very rare with populations that are reduced to only one locality.
163983		population	eng	The populations are known to be declining due to the deterioration of the habitat. Furthermore, in Morocco, the species is very rare with populations that are reduced to only one locality.
163983		threats	eng	Big constructions (rental, roadwork, etc.), the drainage of pools or their infilling, the extraction of sediment, and permanent retaining of water, constitute serious threats for the populations of <em>I. setacea</em>. However, in France, besides these threats, the restriction of its environment followed by the abandonment of land uses favours the colonisation by competitive perennial plants of large size (woody, big Helophytes) and the accumulation of their litter that affects the populations negatively (heliophile species, sensitive to competition). The quality of the habitats of the species is deteriorating resulting from land and therefore grazing abandonment which increases the sediments and the shade.
163983		threats	eng	Big constructions (rental, roadwork, etc.), the drainage of pools or their infilling, the extraction of sediment, permanent retaining of water, constitute serious threats for the populations of <em>I. setacea</em>.
163983		threats	eng	Big constructions (roadwork, etc.), the drainage of pools or their infilling, the extraction of sediment, permanent retaining of water, constitute serious threats for populations of <em>I. setacea</em>. However, in France, besides these threats, the restriction of its environment followed by the abandonment of land uses favours the colonisation by competitive perennial plants of large size (woody, big Helophytes) and the accumulation of their litter that affects the populations negatively (heliophile species, sensitive to competition). The quality of the habitats of the species is deteriorating resulting from land and therefore grazing abandonment which increases the sediments and the shade.
163984		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
163984		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, it is generally recommended to protect wetlands.
163984		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p><em>J. articulatus</em> occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere, from the Canaries and Azores to North Africa, north to Scandinavia and east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, the Indian sub-continent, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China to the Amur and Primorskye regions of far eastern Russia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Korean Peninsula, Japan and Vietnam. It has apparently been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, some south Pacific islands and to Peru. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.</p>
163984		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan (circumboreal) species with a global distribution that covers Europe, Asia, southern and northern Africa, Macaronesia, northern America, and that is naturalized in Australia and New Zealand.<br/><br/>In Africa, <em>Juncus articulatus</em> is present in Tunisia (scattered in the North), Algeria (rather common at the coast -Tell, very rare in Saharian Atlas and central Sahara), Morocco where it is common everywhere, including the Atlas mountains (Maire 1957).
163984		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan (circumboreal) species with a global distribution that covers Europe, Asia, southern and northern Africa, Macaronesia, northern America, and that is naturalized in Australia and New Zealand.<br/>It is present in most European countries and is common in Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily) and France with Corsica, extending to Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Israel.<br/>In North Africa, <em>Juncus articulatus</em> is present in Tunisia (scattered in the North), Algeria (rather common at the coast -Tell, very rare in Saharian Atlas and central Sahara), Morocco where it is common everywhere, including the Atlas mountains (Maire 1957).
163984		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere, from the Canaries and Azores to North Africa, north to Scandinavia and east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, the Indian sub-continent, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China to the Amur and Primorskye regions of far eastern Russia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Korean Peninsula, Japan and Viet Nam (and probably other parts of Indochina). It has apparently been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, some south Pacific islands and to Peru. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
163984		habitat	eng	<em>J. articulatus</em> will occur in most wetland types, but is particularly characteristic of seasonally inundated grazed pasture, moorland and the margins of water bodies. It will also occur in shallow freshwater, mesotrophic to eutrophic habitats on limestone or siliceous substrate from plains to mountains, including ponds, ditches, wet meadows, banks of small streams and springs.
163984		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in shallow freshwater, mesotrophic to eutrophic habitats on limestone or siliceous substrate from plains to mountains, including ponds, ditches, wet meadows, banks of small streams and springs. Its flowering time in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corse, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria is from May to August and in France from June to September.
163984		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in shallow freshwater, mesotrophic to eutrophic habitats on limestone or siliceous substrate from plains to mountains, including ponds, ditches, wet meadows, banks of small streams and springs. Its flowering time in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria is from May to August and in France from June to September.
163984		habitat	eng	The species will occur in most wetland types, but is particularly characteristic of seasonally inundated grazed pasture, moorland and the margins of water bodies. It will also occur in shallow freshwater, mesotrophic to eutrophic habitats on limestone or siliceous substrate from plains to mountains, including ponds, ditches, wet meadows, banks of small streams and springs.
163984		population	eng	<em>J. articulatus</em> is distributed rather widely in the Mediterranean region, except in its southeastern part. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at the scale of the Mediterranean region.
163984		population	eng	<em>J. articulatus</em> is widespread and abundant throughout its Europen range.
163984		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant throughout its range.
163984		threats	eng	<em>J. articulatus</em> is not threatened but suffers locally from the general trend of degrading wetlands.
163984		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
163985		conservation	eng	This species is protected at the regional level (Languedoc-Roussillon) in France. No further conservation measures are suggested.
163985		distribution	eng	<em>Selaginella denticulata</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species, endemic to the Mediterranean basin and adjacent Atlantic regions. It occurs in the following countries:<br/>- Algeria: very common in the north.<br/>- Spain: very common in the south (including Balearic Islands).<br/>- France: very common in Corsica, more sparsely distributed on the continent (Maures, Estérel, Biot, Languedoc-Roussillon, Albères).<br/>- Greece: very common, widely distributed including the islands of Lesvos, Samos, Ikaria and Rodhos.<br/>- Italy: in most of the country, Sardinia and Sicily<br/>- Lebanon: coast and middle mountains (Saïda, Beyrouth, Nahr el Kelb, Nahr Ibrahim, Ras Chekka-Hamate, Broummana, Moukhtara, Salima, Ghazir, Tripoli, ?Akkar, Jbel ?Aqroum)<br/>- Morocco: High-Atlas, Middle-Atlas, Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, western mountains (Tazzeka, Targuist, Imzorène, Beni-Snassen), Rif.<br/>- Portugal: very common south of Rio Douro.<br/>- Tunisia: common in Kroumirie, Mogods (Sejenane, Kef en Nesour, La Galite), Northwest (Jbel Ichkeul), Tunis region, Cap Bon, Tunisian dorsale (from Bou Kornine to Jbel Chambi).<br/>- Turkey: Lydia, Caria, Lycia and islands; Izmir (from Torbali to Ephesus, 50 m), Mugla (from Marmaris to Emecik, 350 m), Antalya (Kemer, 0-100 m)<br/>- Eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, Cyprus and Malta.
163985		habitat	eng	<em>Selaginella denticulata</em> is a small terrestrial prostrate Pteridophyte, growing in extended carpets, on soils or rocks in humid and shadowy sites, such as river banks, talus, old walls, and edges of temporary pools. It almost uniquely occurs on siliceous substrates, but is locally limestone-tolerant, which happens rather in the southern regions.
163985		population	eng	<em>Selaginella denticulata</em> is abundant in the western Mediterranean basin and rarer in the eastern part.
163985		threats	eng	The small subpopulations of the eastern Mediterranean basin, for instance in Lebanon, are threatened by urbanization. The species is not threatened in North Africa or Europe.
163986		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of the existing sites is recommended.
163986		distribution	eng	<em>Myosotis welwitschii</em> is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain). Its distribution covers the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula and the northwest of Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the species' extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², and it is present in more than 20 locations.
163986		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits the edges of streams and permanent pools of plains and low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
163986		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and the populations appear to be stable. In Morocco, it is present in at least ten locations in the northwest (Tanger, western and central Rif and Loukkos). In Portugal, it is quite common in the northwest; and it is found at nine sites in the south of Spain.
163986		threats	eng	Habitat drainage, urbanization and agricultural usage are the main threats to this species.
163987		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in designated Ramsar sites. Moreover, it is suggested to conserve the habitat and observe the existing locations and to implement legal protection measures.
163987		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an Atlantic-Mediterranean species that is found in western and southern Europe.<br/><br/>In Africa, the species occurs in Libya (only one location, Barce: dayas), Tunisia (it is considered as rare with three locations: dunes at Cap Bon, Madjen el Ma, Sedjenane), but seen recently in 16 sites (Sejenane/Mogods), Algeria (common in the Tell with ten localtions, very rare elsewhere). It is common in Morocco, with many locations scattered between Tangier, Rif (Taounate), Northern-Atlantic plains (Benslimane, Sidi Boughaba, Mamora), Moyen Atlas and Haut Atlas (Tit Zill, Oued Tabant, Oued Dades, Assif Immini, Assif N’Toughoute, Oued Rdate, oued Nfiss).
163987		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an Atlantic-Mediterranean species that is found in western and southern Europe: Portugal, Spain, France (west, middle and southern regions, including Corsica, where it is rare), Italy (rare with eight locations, including Sardinia and Sicily, Elba and Capri), Croatia, Greece and Turkey.<br/>In North Africa, the species occurs in Libya (only one location, Barce: dayas), Tunisia (it is considered as rare with three locations: dunes at Cap Bon, Madjen el Ma, Sedjenane), but seen recently in 16 sites (Sejenane/Mogods), Algeria (common in the Tell with ten localities, very rare elsewhere). It is common in Morocco, with many sites scattered between Tangier, Rif (Taounate), Northern-Atlantic plains (Benslimane, Sidi Boughaba, Mamora), Moyen Atlas and Haut Atlas (Tit Zill, Oued Tabant, Oued Dades, Assif Immini, Assif N’Toughoute, Oued Rdate, oued Nfiss).
163987		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an annual Therophyte. It is found in wet meadows and sands or temporarily flooded (Isoetion) banks of ponds or freshwaters at plains and mountains up to 2,200 m.
163987		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an annual Therophyte. It is found in wet meadows and sands or temporarily flooded (Isoetion) banks of ponds or freshwaters at plains and mountains up to 2,200 m above sea level.
163987		population	eng	In Europe, the populations of <em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> seem to be scattered. In North Africa, <em>J. pygmaeus</em> has an extent of occurrence of more than 20,000 km², but its area of occupancy does not exceed 500 km². Where it is found in Morocco, it covers fragmented but numerous areas (> 12 locations). There are fourteen localities in Libya, Tunisia (> 15 sites) and Algeria (three of them probably destroyed by urbanization), where this species occupies always reduced and tiny areas.
163987		population	eng	Where it is found in Morocco, it covers fragmented but numerous areas (> 12 locations). There are fourteen localities in Libya, Tunisia (> 15 sites) and Algeria (three of them probably destroyed by urbanization), where this species occupies always reduced and tiny areas.
163987		threats	eng	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is threatened because its wetland habitats are threatened. Moreover, it always occupies small areas, bound to be destroyed by farming, grazing, urbanization, and drainage.
163988		conservation	eng	More information is needed on population numbers and range. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation is needed.
163988		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to southern Italy where it is known from five localities in the regions of Calabria and Basilicata. It has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> (maybe even less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>).
163988		habitat	eng	Its main habitat is humid woodland, but it has been expanding into nitrogen-rich habitats, e.g. streams with eutrophic waters.
163988		population	eng	It is a rare species.
163988		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors, such as its restricted range and limited dispersal, and by natural disasters, such as drought.
163989		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are in need.<br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include legal protection of habitat and surveillance of the existing stations.
163989		distribution	eng	This species is native to tropical Africa and Asia and naturalised elsewhere, for example in America and Europe. In Europe, it has been naturalised in Spain and the Azores. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it only occurs in Egypt (Nile region including Delta; Helwan Near Cairo).
163989		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alternanthera nodiflora</span> is an annual, or short-lived perennial, herb which grows in moist soil on Nile Banks.
163989		population	eng	Its populations are limited to the Helwan region near Cairo.
163989		threats	eng	<em>Alternanthera nodiflora</em> is restricted to only one Mediterranean country, Egypt. Therefore, intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal are the main threats.
163990		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. Only the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">vulgaris </span>is classed as Endangered in Austria.</p>
163990		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place but it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.
163990		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place but it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.<br>The following future actions are recommended: <br>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing sites <br>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br>- Raising public awareness
163990		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis palustris</em> is very widespread and colonizes the cold, temperate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. It is present in all the countries of Mediterranean Europe and North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt).
163990		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis palustris</em> is very widespread and colonizes the cold, temperate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. It is present in all the countries of Mediterranean Europe and North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt). <br>This species is frequent in Morocco. It is not known however in the Saharian Atlantic part of Morocco, the Anti-Atlas, the Mountains of the east of the country, and along the Mediterranean coastline.
163990		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. palustris</em> occurs throughout most of the northern hemisphere, from the Azores, Canary Islands and North Africa to Iceland and throughout Europe east through the Middle East, Nepal, Pakistan, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Sakhalin, Japan and China. It also occurs throughout North America from Alaska to Greenland and south to eastern Mexico. In mainland Europe, it occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north to Scandinavia and east throughout European Russia south to the Ukraine and Turkey in Europe.</p>
163990		habitat	eng	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte) which develops in the mountains up to 2,100 m elevation, in marshes, pools, along edges of rivers, irrigation canals and lakes. Its flowering is spread from spring until the beginning of the autumn.
163990		habitat	eng	<p><em>E. palustris</em> will occur in most types of wetland, including the margins of rivers, ponds, lakes and streams, it will also form large stands in fens, marshes, swamps and wet meadows, and in ditches, dune-slacks and salt marshes. It grows in a wide range of organic and mineral soils, but rarely on acidic peat (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>
163990		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations is available but they seem to be stable at the scale of the Mediterranean region.
163990		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. palustris</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
163990		threats	eng	Besides the destruction of the habitat under the effect of urbanization and road infrastructures, the main threats are water pollution, the expected increasing frequency of droughts (climate change), drainage and the extension of agriculture. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the persistence of the species in the Mediterranean region.
163990		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species. <br/></p>
163991		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche lusitanica</span> is listed as Endangered B2ab(iii,iv)c(ii) in the Spanish national red list (Moreno 2008). It is legally protected. Monitoring of the populations is recommended.</p>
163991		distribution	eng	<p>In Europe, <em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em> is restricted to the Iberian Peninsula, where it is abundant in the west, from Castilla-Leon in the north to the Province of Cadiz in Andalucia and eastern Portugal. Its main range appears to be in Extremadura and Andalucia, with few records outside this region. It seems likely that this range is dictated more by geology than any other feature. Outside Europe, it has been recorded from a number of sites in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.</p><p>The area of occupancy is unknown, but the species is listed as Endangered under B2 in the Spanish Red List and it can therefore be assumed that the total area of occupancy is below 2,000 km².<br/></p>
163991		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em> is typical of shallow reaches of upland gravel or cobble-bed rivers on siliceous soils, characteristically in water with a pH of 6–6.5(–7), where it forms large stands in the main channel and backwaters. These rivers typically have broad floodplains, with complex series of shallow depressions that hold water in the winter but dry out early in the summer. In faster flow it occurs as a submerged form, but on shallow margins and in floodplain depressions it forms floating rosettes or may produce emergent shoots. <em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em> often occurs with other <em>Callitriche</em> species, particularly <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em>, <em>C.&#160;regis-jubae</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em>. Other typical associates include <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>, <em>Cyperus longus</em>, <em>Elatine macropoda</em>, <em>Eleocharis palustris</em>, <em>Glyceria fluitans</em>, <em>Isoetes velata</em>, <em>Juncus bufonius</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em>, <em>Oenanthe crocata</em>, <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>&#160;and <em>Rorippa nasturtium</em>-<em>aquaticum</em>.
163991		population	eng	Although occurring within a fairly restricted area, populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lusitanica </span>appear to be stable.
163991		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are water extraction from streams and pools for irrigation which leads to a subsequent drying out of this habitat. Eutrophication as a consequence of fertilizers and livestock is a further threat.</p>
163992		conservation	eng	There is no legal protection for this species but some conservation measures are in place. It is included in the Red Book volume II, surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica and search of new sites is being carried out.<br/>Proposed actions are to follow-up of the dynamics of different populations, increase knowledge about the species biology, resilience, and conservation, and collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
163992		distribution	eng	<em>Hypericum corsicum</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica of Eurasiatic origin. It is a common species in the central mountains of Corsica. Its extent of occurrence is more than 5,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km².
163992		habitat	eng	The species is found in "pozzine", edges of springs, at mountain rills from 780 m to 1,800 m altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic or pyroclastic sediments.
163992		population	eng	<em>Hypericum corsicum</em> is present at more than 46 sites in Corsica. The last observations at the sites of Monte Rotondo and Manganello took place in 2007. The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no further information on the population dynamics. The populations don't seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.
163992		threats	eng	Presently, the main threat to this species is drought. In the future, feral pigs could become a threat as well as the increase of forest due to abandonment of stock breeding.
163993		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection in Morocco where the species is very rare (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To reinforce the populations in the Moroccan sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Follow-up of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
163993		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, and fruits are subject to this regulation.<br/><br/>There are no further conservation measures in place. For the Moroccan part of its range, legal protection and surveillance of the existing sites are recommended.
163993		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, and fruits are subject to this regulation.<br/><br/>There are several national conservation measures in place:<br/><ul><li>Bulgaria: classed as Endangered on national red list and protected. It is found in two national parks, two protected areas, five  Natura 2000 sites in the Piirin, central Balkan, western Rhodope, and Riila mountains.</li><li>Croatia: classed as  Endangered on national red list   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) </li><li>Czech Republic: classed as Vulnerable on the national red list, protected by national law in the lowest category.</li><li>France: protected in five regions (Haute-Normandie, Pays de la Loire, Lorraine, Picardie, Centre)</li><li>Greece: no protection</li><li>Germany: listed as Vulnerable on the national Red List and several regional red lists (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996).</li><li>Hungary: categorized Endangered in the Hungarian Red List   (Király 2007) and protected nationally. Most localities (80%) occur  in protected areas and Natura 2000 sites.</li><li>Italy: protected regionally and possible  included in some protected areas.</li><li>Lithuania: present in 32 regional parks and two national parks.</li><li>Luxembourg: categorized Vulnerable on the national Red List   (Colling 2005).</li><li>Slovakia: currently classed as Endangered but it is considered to downgrade the listing; some sites are under protection.</li><li>Slovenia:  recognised as Vulnerable in the national red list, not protected.</li><li>Switzerland: regionally protected and classed as Least Concern on national red list   (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002).</li><li>UK: found in several natural parks and protected areas.</li></ul><p><br/></p>
163993		distribution	eng	<em>Menyanthes trifoliata</em> is a species with a circumboreal distribution. It is present in North America, in Europe and in North Africa. In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Turkey, Albania, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Portugal and Morocco. Its the extent of occurrence is about 1,000,000 km².
163993		distribution	eng	<em>Menyanthes trifoliata</em> is a species with a circumboreal distribution. It is present in North America, in Europe (Turkey, Albania, Bulgaria, Corsica, France, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Portugal) and in North Africa (Morocco).<br/><br/>In Morocco, it is very rare (southern limit of its distribution) with two known localities in the central Rif (Issaguène, Immezine) and an area of occupancy not exceeding 12 km².
163993		distribution	eng	<em><span style="font-style: italic;">Menyanthes trifoliata</span></em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Scandinavia south to Morocco and east through the Middle East, Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan, India, Nepal and Mongolia to the Russian far East, Japan, China and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout northern and western North America. In Europe, it occurs from Iceland east through Finland to Arctic Russia and south to the Iberian Peninsula and east throughout central Europe and the Mediterranean to Belarus and the Ukraine.<br/><ul><li>In Bulgaria, it is scattered with nine (possibly 11) localities in different parts of the country and occurs mostly in  mountains: Rhodope mountains, Piirin mountains, Rila Mountains, Samokov  plain, central Balkan mountains. </li><li>In the Czech Republic, it is scattered in the lowlands and  highlands but less frequent in the east and southeast.</li><li>In France, it is common in all  regions but absent from the Cote d'Azur.</li><li>In Germany, the plant is widespread throughout the country.</li><li>In Greece, it is present at five sites (with the most recent findings from 1979 and 1998) in the north near the border of  former Yugoslavia, and found in Kato Olimbos, Iti, Vermio, Paiko. </li><li>In Iceland, it can be found around the perimeter but not the glaciers and the centre. In Italy, it is found in nearly the whole country.</li><li>   In Lithuania, it occurs in the entire country in the low lying area.</li><li>In Scandinavia, it is widespread and occurs throughout. </li><li>In Slovakia, it is more frequent in lower  areas, scattered but with many sites: Zahorska nirina lowland, western part of the country; Podunajska nirina Bezodne lowland, southwestern part of the country; Vychodoslovenskanirina lowland, eastern part of the country; Orava region, Sucha hora, northern part of the country. </li><li>In Slovenia, the species is everywhere apart from the eastern or hilly region. </li><li>In Switzerland, it is everywhere but scattered. </li><li>In the UK, it is widespread and abundant in the  west and north<em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span></em></li></ul>
163993		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. trifoliata</span> is found in various wetland habitats such as fens, pools, marshes, older woods, ditches, bogs, lake shores, swampy prairies, particularly in acid or oligotrophic conditions.
163993		habitat	eng	The species is found in various humid habitats: fens, pools, ditches, lake shores, swampy prairies. In Morocco it is restricted to peaty streams on flinty substrate. It is a perennial (fixed Hydrophyte), flowering in spring, with hydrochorous dispersal.
163993		habitat	eng	The species is found in various humid habitats: fens, pools, ditches, lake shores, swampy prairies. In Morocco it is restricted to peaty streams on flinty substrate. It is a perennial, fixed Hydrophyte, flowering in spring, with hydrochorous dispersal.
163993		population	eng	The populations are mostly stable, not fragmented and there are no extreme fluctuations. However, there are local declines even in areas where the overall trend is stable such as Italy (extinctions in the southern region Campania) and Switzerland. In Hungary, the species has heavily declined and this decline continues, it now occurs at 50  localities. In Slovenia, there were 227 locations recorded but the majority of the records has not been confirmed recently, there is no monitoring in place. <span style="font-style: italic;">M. trifoliata</span> is declining in Croatia.
163993		population	eng	The populations are not threatened but probably in decline similarly to their wetland habitats.
163993		population	eng	The populations are not threatened but probably in decline similarly to their wetland habitats.<br/>In Morocco, it is very rare as it reaches the southern limit of its distribution and it is known from two localities in the central Rif (Issaguène, Immezine).
163993		threats	eng	In Morocco, the habitat is damaged by water pollution and a high grazing pressure.
163993		threats	eng	In Morocco, the habitat is damaged by water pollution and a high grazing pressure. <br/>In Europe, water pollution and deterioration of the habitat are the main threats to the species.
163993		threats	eng	<p>There are several local threats to this species. In Hungary, the declines were caused by collection in the past, now the main threat is changing of the water level by agricultural methods and water pollution from agriculture (eutrophication). In Italy, water extraction is a threat, in Slovenia it is the change of agricultural methods. In the Czech Republic, fish production impacts on some subpopulations. Overall, anything affecting the aquatic zone could affect subpopulations locally. Outcrossing with garden populations is another threat to the plant.<br/></p>
163994		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa (Morocco) and to search for new ones as well as to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
163994		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.<br>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa (Morocco) and to search for new ones; to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa.
163994		distribution	eng	<em>Carex echinata</em> is a holarctic species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Macaronesia, western and oriental Asia, boreal America, Australia and New Zealand.<br>In Africa it is solely found in Morocco, with six locations, all in mountainous regions, with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 10 km².
163994		distribution	eng	<em>Carex echinata</em> is a holarctic species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Macaronesia, western and oriental Asia, boreal America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread and present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
163994		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and acidic peat-bogs. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
163994		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is fairly uncommon with very restricted populations. Their trend is unknown. <br>It is considered as rare in Morocco, present in six locations distributed between the High Atlas (Aouljdid, the high altitude Jbel Guerdouz prairie and the Assif-n-Oukeïmeden) and the Rif (Ketama, Jbel Tidighine and the Tangerois).
163994		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. It is considered as rare in Morocco, present in six locations distributed between the High Atlas (Aouljdid, the high altitude Jbel Guerdouz prairie and the Assif-n-Oukeïmeden) and the Rif (Ketama, Jbel Tidighine and the Tangerois). <br/>In Spain, it is present in 303 sites, fairly common in all of France, and present in 14 provinces in Italy.
163994		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
163994		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; in North Africa the low number of sites can be considered as a threat although recolonisation from the northern part of the range is possible.
163995		conservation	eng	More information about population numbers and range; biology and ecology; habitat status and threats is needed.
163995		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">None required.<br/></p>
163995		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on population numbers and range, biology, ecology, habitat status, and threats is needed.
163995		distribution	eng	In North Africa, this species is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
163995		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species. <br><br>In Africa, it is found in North East Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea) and Northern Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco). Also recorded from Western and Southern Africa. In South Africa it is present in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape.
163995		distribution	eng	Widespread from Europe, Asia, and Africa (Egypt, Chad, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Ghana, Senegal, Angola, Mozambique, South Africa (Western Cape)). In China is native to Fujian, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, and Yunnan. Middle Asia: Kazakhstan.<br/><br/>The species has been widely introduced however the native range is not certain.
163995		habitat	eng	<em>C. muricatum</em> is a Hydrophyte that grows in standing waters and tolerates eutrophication and low light.
163995		habitat	eng	<em>C. muricatum</em> is a perennial hydrophyte that grows in standing waters and tolerates eutrophication and low light.
163995		habitat	eng	<p>     It often grows in ponds, river pools, and lakes.<br/> <br/> </p><p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p></p>
163995		population	eng	It is a fairly common species although it is considered rare in North Africa.
163995		population	eng	It is considered rare in North Africa.
163995		population	eng	There is no information available on global population trends.
163995		threats	eng	No detailed studies are available.
163995		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
163995		threats	eng	Unknown.
163996		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the European Habitats Directive.</p>  The species is classed as Extinct in the Netherlands and  Switzerland, Critically Endangered in Germany, Endangered in Czech Republic, and Near Threatened in  Croatia and Belarus; it is protected but not classed as threatened in Hungary and  protected throughout France and in Greece. It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine and included in some protected areas<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. In Russia it is categorized as Near Threatened <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>(I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).<br/><em></em>
163996		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.</p>  <em>Salvinia natans</em> is classed as Extinct in the Netherlands and  Switzerland, Critically Endangered in Germany, Endangered in Czech Republic, and Near Threatened in  Croatia and Belarus; it is protected but not classed as threatened in Hungary and  protected throughout France and in Greece. It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine and included in some protected areas<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. In Russia it is categorized as Near Threatened <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>(I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>  &#160;<br/><br/><em></em>
163996		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species).<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the sub-populations.<br/>- Management of water quality and tourism development.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
163996		distribution	eng	<em>Salvinia natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeotemperate) species, essentially located in central and eastern Europe and in Asia, from Caucasus to China and Japan.<br><br>In Africa it is only found in Algeria, in El Kala region where it is very rare and possibly introduced.
163996		distribution	eng	<em>Salvinia natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeotemperate) species, essentially located in central and eastern Europe and in Asia, from Caucasus to China and Japan. In Europe, it is sparsely distributed from the Rhine valley (Germany) to Russia, and southwards, from northern Italy, to the Danube basin towards the Black Sea, and to northern Greece. It is exceptional and very unstable westwards in Belgium, in France and in northwestern Spain (Prelli 2001). It occurs, among others, in the following Mediterranean countries:<br/>- France: ancient observations. The instability of the species leads to suspect that it has been introduced.<br/>- Greece: northeast<br/>- Croatia: in eastern Croatia - Baranja<br/>- Italy: north<br/>- Spain: very rare in the southeast, possibly introduced<br/>- Ukraine: widely distributed in the central part of the Ukraine, in the Danube, Dnepr and Desna river basins but very rare in other river systems.
163996		distribution	eng	This is an Eurasiatic (palaeotemperate) species, essentially occurring in central and eastern Europe and in Asia, from the Caucasus to China, northern parts of India and into southeast Asia, and Japan. In Europe, it is scattered from the Rhine valley (Germany) to Russia, and southwards, from northern Italy, to the Danube basin towards the Black Sea, and to northern Greece.
163996		habitat	eng	<em>Salvinia natans</em> is a free-floating fern, growing in large populations at the surface of stagnant waters or in weak currents: ditches, canals, ponds, oxbows. It is often associated to Lemnaceae and other floating plants. It is considered annual in the wild, but it can be perennial in vitro.
163996		habitat	eng	<em>Salvinia natans</em> is a free-floating fern, growing in wide populations at the surface of stagnant waters or in weak currents: ditches, canals, ponds. It is often associated to Lemnaceae and other floating plants. It is considered annual in the wild, but it can be perennial in vitro.
163996		habitat	eng	The species is a free-floating fern, growing in large populations at the surface of still waters or in weak currents: ditches, canals, ponds, oxbows. It is often associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Lemnaceae </span>and other floating plants.
163996		population	eng	<p>Although typically a species which shows  naturally massive population fluctuations and so may appear to decline  but reappear after a few years, it seems likely that it is showing an  overall decline throughout its range.</p><p><br/></p>
163996		population	eng	<p>Although typically a species which shows  naturally massive population fluctuations and so may appear to decline  but reappear after a few years. It seems likely that it is showing an  overall decline throughout its range.</p><p>In Ukraine, the populations are found in many localities with a high number of individuals and the overall trend is stable with range extensions in some river basins.<br/></p>
163996		population	eng	The population trend is unknown.
163996		threats	eng	The main threats affecting <em>Salvinia natans</em> at its southern limit of distribution in the northern Mediterranean basin are related to the human-induced decline of wetlands.
163996		threats	eng	The species appears to be declining throughout much of its European range with some local extinction, however the cause of the decline is not known.
163996		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
163997		conservation	eng	In 1985, the Egyptian government declared Gebal Elba (35,600 km²) as a protected area (Natural Reserve, National Park) which is managed by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). More research is needed to know out its distribution in Sudan and Eritrea, and to understand better its habitat and existing threats.
163997		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus microbolbos</em> is a tropical species of Africa, that occurs in Sudan and Eritrea. In North Africa, it only occurs in southeast Egypt, in the Gebel Elba region where it has been found in only 5 localities.
163997		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus microbolbos</em> is a glabrous slender, stoloniferous perennial, with a basal bulb. This species grows in coastal sand.
163997		population	eng	It is very rare.
163997		threats	eng	The species is intensively grazed by nomadic livestock.
163998		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection (Rhones-Alpes and Ile-de-France). There are no other conservation measures in place except for research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology. More information on population numbers and range as well as habitat maintenance and conservation are needed.
163998		distribution	eng	<em>Sisymbrella aspera</em> is a western Mediterranean species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 1,000,000 km², with several locations.
163998		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers, brooklets, springs, pools, ditches and other habitats that are humid in winter. Flowering occurs during spring.
163998		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. <br/>- Morocco: present in more than 15 locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco, the <br/>mountains of oriental Morocco and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common, occurring in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas (Aurès) and the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen mountains); <br/>- Spain: very common, present in 195 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common along the Mediterranean coast but absent in the north of the country.
163998		threats	eng	The agricultural usage and drainage of this species' habitat are the main threats. Droughts are likely to affect the species, in addition to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.
163999		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
163999		distribution	eng	<em>Iris pseudoacorus</em> is an Eurasian-temperate species. It is found in west Asia and in Europe where it is common and occuring in most of the Mediterranean countries. It is common in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, France and Corsica, and Spain.<br/>It is very common in the Algerian Tell and in Morocco where it also grows in the Atlas mountains. It seems to be rather rare in Tunisia where it is only found at two locations.
163999		distribution	eng	<p><em>I. pseudacorus</em> occurs from Madeira to North Africa and Europe east through Western Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East and Kazakhstan to the Primorskye region of far eastern Russia, Sakhalin Island and China. It has apparently been introduced to the Korean Peninsula, India, Canada, the United States and Argentina. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout except for the the far north.</p>
163999		habitat	eng	<em>I. pseudoacorus</em> occurs in shallow water or saturated soils in marshes, along the shores of lakes or ponds with stagnant or slow flowing waters, and ditches.
163999		habitat	eng	<em>Iris pseudoacorus</em> is a perennial species, equipped with a rhizome. It flowers from April-June in Italy and North Africa, and from April-July in France. <br/>The species is found in shallow water or saturated soils in marshes, along the shores of lakes or ponds with stagnant or slow flowing waters, and ditches. It is present on plains as well as at mountains from 0 to 300 m, in Italy with max. 1,000 m.
163999		population	eng	<em>I. pseudacorus</em> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
163999		population	eng	<em>Iris pseudoacorus</em> is present in all the sub-coastal plains and mountains of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco, where it is also found in the Atlas Mountains. It is common in Europe. Overall, the populations are very large.<br/>In Israel, the species exists at one location. It was believed to be extinct in the 1980s but has been reintroduced successfully. It is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Israel   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).
163999		threats	eng	Owing to its abundance in the Mediterranean region, this species does not seem to be threatened.
163999		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164000		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measure are needed or in place.
164000		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164000		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus bulbosus</em> is a tropical and subtropical species. Its world distribution covers Asia, Australia and tropical Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in the south of Algeria and in the south of Egypt. It was introduced in Portugal and Italy.
164000		distribution	eng	This species is present in north tropical Africa, through Arabia to North Australia. <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in Sudan, Ethiopia (Gerar Amaden, TU, Mt Schloda), Somalia, Eritrea, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Chad, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, and Mozambique. Also in Algeria and Egypt (Gebel Elba and the surrounding mountainous region).
164000		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that inhabits riverbeds. Also present in dune slacks and damp sandy places. Flowering occurs in summer.
164000		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that inhabits riverbeds. Flowering occurs in summer.
164000		population	eng	The species is found in humid habitats of the Saharan region. It is fairly uncommon in North Africa with less than 10 locations and restricted but stable populations. <br/>- Algeria: very rare, present in northern and central Sahara; <br/>- Egypt: present in the southeast of the country (Gebel Elba and the surrounding mountainous region); <br/>- Portugal: introduced, its distribution is not well known; <br/>- Italy: introduced, found in three provinces in the north of the country.
164000		population	eng	This species is very common North Eastern Africa and Western Africa and rare in North Africa.
164000		threats	eng	Small-holder livestock and shifting agriculture are threating the species, but they are not major widespread threats.
164000		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164001		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species due to its stable and numerous populations.
164001		distribution	eng	<em>Portulaca oleracea</em> is a cosmopolitan species with a large biogeographical distribution. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Croatia, former Yugoslavian countries, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula. It has an area of occupancy >2,000 km² and it occurs in numerous locations.
164001		habitat	eng	It is an annual (Therophyte) to biennial plant that is found in fields, crops, debris in plains, low and medium mountains and accidentally in humid habitats. It is anthropochorous and nitrophilous. It blooms and fructifies in spring and summer. The plant is edible and extensively used in North Africa.
164001		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable.
164001		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164002		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. Monitoring of the populations is recommended.
164002		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha requienii</em> is endemic to the islands of Sardinia and Montecristo (Italy) and Corsica (France). The variety <em>requienii</em> is found in Corsica from the north to the south as well as in Sardinia and Montecristo, the variety <em>obovata</em> (Gand.) Litard is found in Corsica only and is very rare.<br/>The extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km².
164002		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha requienii</span> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte that is present in wet meadows and pozzines.<br/>The flowering time is from April or June to August (Coste 1980).
164002		population	eng	There are about ten populations in Sardinia (Marras 2000) and&#160;they are probably more numerous in Corsica.
164002		threats	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal; font-style: italic;">Mentha requienii</strong> is intrinsically vulnerable because its distribution is restricted to three islands (Corsica, Sardinia and Montecristo); however there are no major anthropogenic threats known at present.
164003		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.
164003		distribution	eng	<em>Carex nigra</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa, western Asia, boreal and southern America and Australia. <br>In Africa it is only found in Morocco, with an extent of occurrence over 20,000 km², 11 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 50 km².
164003		distribution	eng	<em></em>asses 4,0<em>Carex nigra</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa, western Asia, boreal and southern America and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence surp00,000 km², with several locations.
164003		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, the edges of mountainous lakes, humid prairies and peat bogs of altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).
164003		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region, but is not very common in North Africa, with only 11 locations, all of them in mountainous regions. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: rare, it occurs in the Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake), High Atlas (Jbel Ghat, Tizi-n-Ougdal, Tifenout, Goundafa, Reraya, Seksaoua, Acif Melloul, Tizi-n-Inouzan and Oukaïmden) and the Rif (Jbel Tidighine); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, with over 369 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in 13 provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.
164003		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region (several locations and an AOO >400 km²). In North Africa it is not very common, with only 11 locations, all of them in mountainous regions, and an AOO <50 km². The populations appear to be stable. In Morocco it is rare, it occurs in the Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake), High Atlas (Jbel Ghat, Tizi-n-Ougdal, Tifenout, Goundafa, Reraya, Seksaoua, Acif Melloul, Tizi-n-Inouzan and Oukaïmden) and the Rif (Jbel Tidighine).
164003		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164004		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Red Data Book of France (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). A natural reserve, the archipelago of the Lavezzis in Corsica, has been designated and it also occurs in conservatory properties of coastal space and riparian beaches (sites of San Giovanni). It is considered Endangered for <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).   <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics, to study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size, and to implement legal protection measures.
164004		distribution	eng	<em>Cressa cretica</em> is a thermo-cosmopolite species. Its global distribution covers the Mediterranean, western and central Asia, northern and central Africa, South America and Australia. It is known from numerous localities of North Africa as well as in Mediterranean Europe.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in most of the countries: Algeria, Albania, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete and Karpathos, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Corsica, Israel and Jordan, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Libya, Lebanon and Syria, Portugal, Morocco, Malta and Tunisia.
164004		habitat	eng	<em>Cressa cretica</em> is a halophyte, perennial  plant (Hemicryptophyte) that lives in salty oases or in depressions in wet sandy areas, exonded in summer such as temporary pools and marshes. The period of flowering goes from the end of spring until the beginning of fall. At the ecosystem level, the species shelters a mushroom and a weevil that are rare.
164004		population	eng	The size of the populations is unknown, but they seem to be stable or even in expansion in some localities of the south of France (Camargue). This increase would probably be a result of global warming. <br/>- Morocco: at least 12 localities are distributed between the Saharan regions (Western Sahara, Draâ basin), the Anti Coastal Atlas, middle and north Atlantic Morocco and the Rif;<br/>- Algeria: described as quite rare but present throughout the country. Appears to be in decline, especially in the Sahara, and again this may be linked to climate change;<br/>- France: Pyrenees Orientals (Torreilles), Aude (coastal close to Narbonne), Hérault (Frontignan, Vic-La-Gardiole, Pérols, Mauguio), Gard (Aigues-Mortes), Bouches-du-Rhône (Martigues, strands of the pond of Berre, Crau, Camargue), Var (Hyères, Porquerolles), Alpes-Maritimes (Gulf-Juan, Cannes) and Corsica (Barcaggio, anse d'Arbitru, marsh and pond of San Giovanni, bay of Figari, gulf of Ventilègne, archipelago of the Lavezzi, Santa-Manza, Porto-Vecchio, Bonifacio, pond del Sale);<br/>- Italy: Lazio (one locality), Puglia (one), Basilicata (one), Calabria (three localities of which two are possibly extinct), Sicily (five) and Sardinia (several). The species is scattered in a few, very fragmented populations (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005);<br/>-   Greece: scattered in saltmarshes throughout the country, r<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>ather common and not threatened.</span>
164004		threats	eng	Urbanization and drainage constitute the main threats on the habitat of this species. Grazing is also a problem, especially in coastal marshes.
164005		conservation	eng	In France,<em> A. agrostidea</em> is included in the Red List of the rare and threatened plant species of the Armorican Massif. It is protected under regional legislation in France (Pays-de-la-Loire). There are no conservation measures in other Mediterranean countries.<br/><br/>For the future, it is recommended to carry out surveillance of the existing localities, to estimate the size of the population and to follow-up its dynamics.
164005		distribution	eng	<em>Antinoria agrostidea</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 400,000 km², with several localities.
164005		habitat	eng	<em>Antinoria agrostidea</em> is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools on siliceous soils with oligotrophic waters. Its flowering starts in spring and beginning of summer (April-June).
164005		population	eng	The species is more abundant in the western extreme of the Mediterranean (Spain, Portugal and Morocco) and it is scarce in France, Italy, Algeria and Tunisia. It remains quite common in the Mediterranean and North Africa. Its habitat deteriorates under various human pressures. The size and the trend of the populations are unknown. <br/> <br/>- Morocco: it is relatively common with at least ten localities, distributed between the northern Atlantic Morocco (pool in the south of Benslimane; close to Souk-Larbaâ of the Shouls; southeast of Tiflet; toward the mouth of the Oued Ikem; close to Oulmès; Oulad Saïd; North of Oued-Zem) and the Middle Atlas. <br/>- Algeria: it is very rare in the coastal Sahels Oranais (M'Sila forest), the Algerois and Oranais High plains (Tiaret, pools of Tasselent) <br/>- Tunisia: it is rare, known from Kroumirie (Madjen el Ma) <br/>- Spain-Portugal: very common with 113 known localities <br/>- France: it is essentially confined to the northwest of the country. In the south of the country (Mediterranean), it is only present in one region.<br/>- Italy: present in Sardinia, Sicily and the provinces Lazio and Molise
164005		threats	eng	Agriculture, drainage, water pollution and the development of road infrastructure constitute the main threats for the habitat of this species.
164006		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The following actions are recommended:<br/>- Search for new populations.<br/>- Evaluate the size of populations.<br/>- Study the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species.
164006		distribution	eng	<em>Sedum bracteatum</em> is an endemic of Cyrenaica (Libya) where it occurs at the coast of Grande Syrte (Della-Cella), and Wady Sarak near Koubba.
164006		habitat	eng	<em>Sedum bracteatum</em> grows on humid rocks.
164006		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
164006		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species faces any threats.
164007		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or required.
164007		distribution	eng	In western Africa, this species is widespread. Probably more widespread than the current records indicate. Also recorded from Egypt, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo and Mpumalanga). It is not very common in eastern africa, although it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.<br/><br/>Global distribution: Probably also present in Asia. Probably a pan-tropical species wherever rice is grown. A species of low-lying areas.
164007		habitat	eng	Found in moist places, ditches, and rice fields. Is probably a weedy species occurring where there are anthropogenic activities.
164007		population	eng	Good occurrence of species population throughout Africa.
164007		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought, although these are not considered major threats.
164008		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164008		distribution	eng	This species is native to tropical and subtropical Africa. In the Mediterranean it is only native to Egypt in the Nile region including the delta, oases, Mediterranean coastal strip, and the desert east of the Nile. It has been introduced to Israel.
164008		habitat	eng	The plant grows in a wide variety of habitats including canal banks and gardens.
164008		population	eng	The species is restricted to Egypt in the Mediterranean region, but it is common there.
164008		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164011		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- To limit the urbanization of the coastline and to enforce legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164011		distribution	eng	<em>Limonium duriaei</em> is an endemic plant from Algeria and Morocco. In Morocco it is very rare with only one locality known on the Mediterranean coastline (Melilia) and another in the Moyen Atlas (region of Enjil). Its area of occupancy in Morocco is about 100 km². In Algeria, it is known in two sectors: the coastal plains near Oran (Chott El Hodna, Sebka of Arzew) and the high Plateau near Algiers and Oran in the west of the country (Chott Chergui, Zahrez Chergui and Zahrez Gharbi). The global extent of occurrence is about 48,000 km² and the global area of occupancy is around 400 km².
164011		habitat	eng	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) only found in salt marshes. It blooms in summer under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164011		population	eng	In Morocco, this plant's habitat is under pressure from grazing. However the populations seem to be stable because the species is rarely grazed by livestock. The last observations date to 1995 for the locality of Melilia and 1999 for the site of the Moyen Atlas confirming the presence of the species. <br/><br/>In Algeria, the species seems to be very rare, probably in decline and maybe even extinct. The observations of 1960 identify the species in Sebka Arzew and on the coastal plains of Oran. A bibliographic survey for the period 1953-2002 published by the Ministry of Forestry and Agricultural Development, shows the absence of the species in the Chotts of the Haut Plateaux from the east to the west of Algeria
164011		threats	eng	Deterioration of the quality of the habitat due to overgrazing, accumulation of pollutants drained from the neighbouring agricultural lands and the mosquito control campaigns, are negatively impacting on the species. <br/>Short-term threats in Morocco include the extension toward the east of the tourism resort of Melilia and in Algeria the fast development of urbanization in the coastal plains of Oran. Urbanization and development of tourism and transport infrastructure are the main threats in both Morocco and Algeria. Populations can easily be destroyed by trampling and disturbance of dune systems, so increased use of beaches by humans is a problem even if there is no construction.
164013		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164013		distribution	eng	Widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, Egypt.<br><br>In Africa, it is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Ethoipia.
164013		habitat	eng	The species grows in marshes, springs, swamps, moist ground, and canal banks.
164013		population	eng	The species is common in North Africa.
164013		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164014		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or in need.
164014		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164014		distribution	eng	This species is present in all the countries bordering the Mediterranean from southern Europe to the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the Levant and North Africa.
164014		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean basin. In Africa it occurs in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164014		habitat	eng	Its habitats are sandy or damp, grassy places, wet meadows, lake edges, streams, irrigation canals, gardens, rice fields.
164014		population	eng	It is fairly common in the region.
164014		threats	eng	Threre are no major threats for this species.
164014		threats	eng	Threre are no major threats to this species.
164015		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.
164015		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris elongata</em> is a Mediterraneo-Macaronesian species. Its worldwide distribution covers the Mediterranean region, western Asia and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia; there is one site in the Tuscan Archipelago (Italy) and it is possibly present in Portugal. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km².
164015		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that grows in tufts on plains and mountains up to 2,300 m in altitude. This species is found in varied, more or less humid, habitats: alluvium, depressions flooded in winter, brushwoods and other humid habitats in the Mediterranean arid, semi-arid or sub-humid bioclimate. Flowering occurs from the end of winter to the beginning of summer.
164015		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and present in more than 30 locations. The size and trend of the populations are not known but presumed to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: it is not rare, occurring in eight locations distributed between the High Atlas, Haouz and the Souss plain; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region but quite rare in the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly uncommon, occurring in five locations distributed between the northeast (Carthage), the Mogods (Zouara river), Cap Bon (Zouadjag) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar and Djerissa).
164015		threats	eng	Drainage and the expansion of agriculture are the major threats to this species.
164016		conservation	eng	It is listed as Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and is protected under the regional legislation in Andalucia (Spain). More research on population size and ecology are needed.
164016		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species.<br/>As the current published information is inadequate to assess the conservation needs of the species, more research on population size and ecology are needed.
164016		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche regis-jubae</span> is endemic to the Mediterranean<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> In Europe, it appears to be widespread but scarce from Extremadura south to the province Cadiz in Spain and there is a single record from Sardinia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Outside Europe it is restricted to North Africa, where it has been recorded from Tunisia and Morocco. It appears to be widespread but local within its range. <br/></p>
164016		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. regis-jubae</span> is endemic to the Mediterranean. In Europe, it appears to be widespread but scarce from Extremadura south to the province Cadiz<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Huelva<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span> in Spain and there is a single record from Sardinia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Outside Europe it is restricted to North Africa, where it has been recorded from Tunisia and Morocco. It appears to be widespread but local within its range. <br/></p>
164016		habitat	eng	The ecology of <em>C.&#160;regis-jubae</em> is poorly known. It occurs in backwaters and slower reaches of cobble- and gravel-bed rivers in acid waters with a pH of 5–6(–6.5) in the Extremadura region of central western Spain and in wet pasture, ditches and river margins on clay soils. It has been recorded from up to 700&#160;m in Spain. It commonly occurs with other <em>Callitriche</em> species, particularly <em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em>, but will also occur with <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em>. The most frequent associates are <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>, <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>, <em>Glyceria fluitans</em>&#160;and <em>Eleocharis palustris</em><em>&#160;</em>in more permanent waters and <em>Corrigiola littoralis</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em>, <em>Isoetes velata</em>, <em>Juncus articulatus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em>&#160;and <em>Mentha pulegium</em>&#160;in ephemeral water-bodies.
164016		habitat	eng	The ecology of <em>C. regis-jubae</em> is poorly known. It occurs in backwaters and slower reaches of cobble- and gravel-bed rivers in acid waters with a pH of 5-6 (-6.5) in the Extremadura region of central western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> and in wet pasture, ditches and river margins on clay soils. It has been recorded from up to 700 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> and over 800 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It commonly occurs with other <em>Callitriche</em> species, particularly <em>C. lusitanica</em> and <em>C. brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em>, but will also occur with <em>C. stagnalis</em> and in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region> with <em>C. mathezii</em> Schotsman. The most frequent associates are <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>, <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>, <em>Glyceria fluitans</em> and <em>Eleocharis palustris </em>in more permanent waters and <em>Corrigiola littoralis</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em>, <em>Isoetes velata</em>, <em>Juncus articulatus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em> and <em>Mentha pulegium</em> in ephemeral water-bodies.
164016		population	eng	This species has rarely been recorded and most information derives from herbarium specimens. In Morocco, it is considered as Vulnerable as it is in decline and may become rare.
164016		population	eng	This species has rarely been recorded. In Spain, the population has declined by 50% in the last 10 years.
164016		threats	eng	It is not known if this species faces major threats.
164016		threats	eng	It is not known if this species faces major threats. However, its freshwater habitats (oligotrophic mountain lakes) are very fragile and have been lost in this region, due to eutrophication and dessication.
164017		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed.
164017		distribution	eng	<em>Alternanthera pungens</em> is found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. It is invasive in North America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, the species is only native to Egypt (Samanoud area and the Nile delta) and has been naturalised in eastern Spain.
164017		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat available.
164017		population	eng	The populations are limited to Egypt in the Mediterranean region.
164017		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
164018		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at national level and classified as Vulnerable in the Red List of species (Olivier 1995).<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place. It is recommended to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.
164018		conservation	eng	The conservation measures proposed are to monitor the population dynamics of the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.
164018		distribution	eng	<em>Carex hordeistichos</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164018		distribution	eng	<em>Carex hordeistichos</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. <br>In Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 400,000 km², 10 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 500 km².
164018		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, ditches and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).
164018		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region (many locations) but rare in North Africa where populations are quite restricted due to spatial limitations (10 locations). The populations are in regression. <br>- Morocco: considered rare, with only four locations, all in the Middle Atlas (Tafferte, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Isli Lake and Tislit Lake); <br>- Algeria: considered rare, with two locations in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and two in the Constantinois Tell region; <br>- Tunisia: rare, with two locations, both in the Tunisian Dorsal (Makthar and Garaet ouled Rhazam).
164018		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region (many locations) but rare in North Africa where populations are quite restricted due to spatial limitations. The populations are in regression. <br/>- Morocco: considered rare, with only four locations, all in the Middle Atlas (Tafferte, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Isli Lake and Tislit Lake); <br/>- Algeria: considered rare, with two locations in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and two in the Constantinois Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, with two locations, both in the Tunisian Dorsal (Makthar and Garaet ouled Rhazam); <br/>- Spain: present in 45 sites; <br/>- France: previously considered as common, it is currently classified as Vulnerable, solely occurring in six sites (destroyed in many places).
164018		threats	eng	Urbanization and agriculture are the main threats to this species.
164020		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164020		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis stolonifera</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 167 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stolonifera</span> held in European genebanks, 61 of which     are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these wild accessions originate from Europe in a range of countries, including the Czech Republic, Iceland, Ireland, Poland and Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
164020		distribution	eng	<em>Agrostis stolonifera</em> is a species with a circumboreal distribution covering Europe, Asia, North Africa, North America and is introduced in the southern hemisphere. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is widespread with numerous localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Greece, Crete, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Portugal, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon, Israel and Palestine. <br/>In the North African part, it is known from numerous localities (>30) distributed in Morocco (Atlantic plains, Rif, Middlen Atlas, High Atlas, Tanger), Algeria (Numidie, petite and grande Kabylie, the plains of Alger, Oran), Egypt, and Tunisia (Bizerte, Tindjda, Ichkeul, Aïn Draham, Souk el Djema, Aïn Chrechira).<br/>The area of occupancy surpasses 2,000 km².
164020		distribution	eng	<p><em>A. stolonifera</em> has a circumboreal distribution from Europe, Macaronesia and north Africa east to China (Lu and Phillips 2006) and Japan; it is widespread in North America but most populations are considered to be introduced (Harvey 2007) and it is introduced in the southern hemisphere. In Europe it has been reported from all countries except Gibraltar (UK), the Greek Aegean Islands, Selvagens (Portugal), San Marino and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
164020		habitat	eng	<em>Agrostis stolonifera</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) quite tolerant to salt. It is found in humid pastures, ditches, wadis carrying water in winter, rivers in karstic areas, channel banks, paths and waters both in plain and mountains up to 2,300 m. <br/>Its flowering takes place from spring to the beginning of summer (April-July).
164020		habitat	eng	<p><em>A.&#160;stolonifera</em> will occur in most wetland types, as well as many more or less dry habitats. It typically occurs in seasonally inundated grassland, or grassland with a high water table, the margins of permanent and temporary flowing and standing water bodies, disturbed ground and can be a troublesome weed of agriculture. It has a reasonably high degree of salt-tolerance and may extend into the upper levels of salt marshes.</p>
164020		population	eng	<p>In western Europe it is very widespread and abundant and may be one of the most abundant plants in the UK. Populations in the European part of its range appear to be stable.<br/></p>
164020		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and stable populations.
164020		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164022		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164022		distribution	eng	This tropical and subtropical species occurs in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia (rare: Tabarka), Algeria, Morocco. It does not occur in Europe, except for Spain where it has been recently reported form Cadiz and Huelva.
164022		habitat	eng	This species grows in marshes and wet places including canal banks, irrigation ditches, reed swamps and it occurs as a weed in rice fields.
164022		population	eng	The species is widespread in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean, there is no information available on the population trend.
164022		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
164023		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. coloratus</span> is listed as Near Threatened in Sweden and as Endangered in Germany   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Switzerland   (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002). In France, it is protected in the departement Lot and the regions Aquitaine, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Picardie and Basse-Normandie.<br/></p>
164023		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but further research on the species and its environment are needed.
164023		distribution	eng	<em>P. coloratus</em> is an holarctic species that is widespread in western and central Europe and occurs east to the Causasus and Turkey. It is also found in North Africa (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
164023		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is an holarctic species that is widespread in western and central Europe where it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France (with Corsica), Italy (with Sardinia and Sicily), Croatia, Slovenia, Turkey, and with a questionable presence in Greece and Portugal (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009). In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.
164023		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is an holarctic species that is widespread in western and central Europe where it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, Portugal, France (with Corsica), Italy (with Sardinia and Sicily), Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Greece. <br/>In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.
164023		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte with a creeping rhizome, often produces winter-buds (turions). It grows in ditches, rather oligotrophe ponds and slow flowing streams, usually in calcareous water.
164023		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte with a creeping rhizome, often produces winter-buds (turions). It grows in ditches, rather oligotrophe ponds and slow flowing streams, usually in calcareous water. <br>Flowering perior in France: VI-IX (Corsica: IV-VIII), in Italy: IV-VI; in Algeria: IV-X.
164023		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte with a creeping rhizome, often produces winter-buds (turions). It is a characteristic species of standing and slow-flowing water in calcareous fens, it will also occur growing through or over bryophytes in seepages and flushes as well as in the margins of calcareous lakes and ponds.
164023		population	eng	<em>P. coloratus</em> is widespread and locally abundant although it has a fairly narrow ecological niche and so is vulnerable to loss and degradation of calcareous fens. It is extinct in the Czech Republic (Kaplan 2010).
164023		population	eng	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is very common in Europe (extending to Sweden), except in Corsica and Italy where it is rare. In Spain it is found in 29 localities mostly in the eastern part. It is present in France throughout the country.<br/><br/>There are only three, probably destroyed, locations in Algeria near to Algiers; this country is the extreme southern limit of its distribution area.
164023		population	eng	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is very common in Europe (extending to Sweden), except in Corsica and Italy where it is rare. In Spain it is found in mostly in the eastern part.   Some populations from Andalucia, Cataluña and Valencia region have disappeared in the last 50 years and now it is located in about 20 populations.   It is present in France throughout the country.<br/><br/>There are only three, probably destroyed, locations in Algeria near to Algiers; this country is the extreme southern limit of its distribution area.
164023		threats	eng	Although <em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is rare in Europe here and there (Italy, Corsica), it is not threatened overall. The change of habitats to agriculture does effect the species.<br/>But in Algeria, the three locations have possibly disappeared owing to human settlement at its habitats.
164023		threats	eng	Although <em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is rare in Europe (Italy, Corsica) and Africa, it is not threatened overall. <br/><br/>But in Algeria, the three locations have possibly disappeared owing to human settlement at its habitats.
164023		threats	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. coloratus </span>appears to be widespread and relatively abundant throughout most of its range. However, the habitat in which it occurs is vulnerable to drying-out (due to factors such as lowering of the water table through over-abstraction from aquifers, succession to wet woodland communities) and degradation, particularly eutrophication. <br/></p><p>However, currently the populations are stable and there are no major threats affecting the species at the moment.</p>
164024		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. truncata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">truncata</span> was reported as Vulnerable for Tuscany and Sicily.<br/>There is an urgent need to establish the status of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">truncata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">fimbriata</span>.
164024		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. More research on the population size, trends and distribution is needed.
164024		distribution	eng	<em>Callitriche truncata</em> is found in Portugal, Spain including the Balearic Islands, France including Corsica, Italy including Sardinia and Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece (the   Ionian Islands Lefkas and Corfu, northwest Peloponnisos and west Sterea Ellas), Albania, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Israel and Syria.
164024		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. truncata</span> ssp. <em>truncata</em> occurs throughout much of the eastern Mediterranean coast in lagoons and temporary pools. Although it is fairly widely distributed and easy to identify, little information has apparently been collected about its habitat or associated species. The only mainland records of ssp. <em>truncata</em> in the northern Mediterranean appear to be from Toscana in Italy, Greece and coastal parts of former Yugoslavia; otherwise it has been recorded from Sardinia and Sicily (Schotsman 1980). Mainland records exist from Algeria, Morocco, Israel and Syria. Owing to misidentification, there is a need to confirm specimens from throughout the range of the subspecies and to provide a thorough conservation assessment.<em> </em>The subspecies <em>occidentalis</em> has been recorded only from coastal countries, occurring from Britain and Ireland south to the Iberian Peninsula in the west and east to Turkey along the whole of the north coast of the Mediterranean. It has been recorded from some Mediterranean islands, including Menorca and Mallorca (Schotsman 1980) and a number of islands in the Aegean. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) <span style="font-style: italic;">C. truncata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">truncata</span> is present in Latium, Sicily and Sardinia, ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">occidentalis</span> is reported only for Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <em>C.&#160;truncata</em> ssp. <em>occidentalis</em> appears to be spreading northwards. On Anglesey both species have been recorded from a single water-body. The subspecies <em>fimbriata</em> is described as occurring near Sarepta on the Volga in the Volgograd region and on the Lower Don (N. Tzvelev, in Fedorov 2000). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
164024		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal lagoons, mesotrophic to eutrophic lakes, canals, ditches, streams and rivers. In the Mediterranean basin it is one of the species typical of temporary pools. It often occurs with diverse charophyte assemblages, typically including <em>Chara aspera</em>, <em>C.&#160;connivens</em>, <em>C.&#160;globularis</em>, <em>C.&#160;hispida</em>, <em>C.&#160;vulgaris</em>&#160;and <em>Tolypella glomerata</em>.<em> </em>Other typical associates include <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>, <em>Callitriche lenisulca</em>, <em>Elatine hexandra</em>, <em>Elodea canadensis</em>, <em>E.&#160;nuttallii</em>, <em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em>, <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>, <em>Ranunculus baudotii</em>, <em>R. peltatus</em>, <em>R. trichophyllus</em>&#160;and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. In the Mediterranean region it often occurs in pools in <em>Salicornia</em>&#160;heath, characterised by <em>Salicornia</em> and <em>Sarcocornia</em>&#160;species, <em>Bolboschoenus maritimus</em>, <em>Myosurus minimus</em>&#160;and <em>Phragmites australis</em>.
164024		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. truncata</span> ssp. <em>occidentalis</em> occurs in coastal lagoons, mesotrophic to eutrophic lakes, canals, ditches, streams and rivers. In the Mediterranean basin it (and probably ssp. <em>truncata</em>) is one of the species typical of temporary pools. It often occurs with diverse charophyte assemblages, typically including <em>Chara aspera</em>, <em>C.&#160;connivens</em>, <em>C.&#160;globularis</em>, <em>C.&#160;hispida</em>, <em>C.&#160;vulgaris</em>&#160;and <em>Tolypella glomerata</em>.<em> </em>Other typical associates include <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>, <em>Callitriche lenisulca</em>, <em>Elatine hexandra</em>, <em>Elodea canadensis</em>, <em>E.&#160;nuttallii</em>, <em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em>, <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>, <em>Ranunculus baudotii</em>, <em>R. peltatus</em>, <em>R. trichophyllus</em>&#160;and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. In the Mediterranean region it often occurs in pools in <em>Salicornia</em>&#160;heath, characterised by <em>Salicornia</em> and <em>Sarcocornia</em>&#160;species, <em>Bolboschoenus maritimus</em>, <em>Myosurus minimus</em>&#160;and <em>Phragmites australis</em>. The subspecies <em>fimbriata</em> is described as occurring in brackish water-bodies.</p>
164024		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. truncata</span> generally behaves as an annual in coastal, ephemeral wetlands, consequently annual population levels are likely to fluctuate widely with no relevance to its conservation status.
164024		population	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">occidentalis </span>is widespread, abundant and increasing; ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">truncata </span>may be decreasing and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">fimbriata </span>is unknown.
164024		threats	eng	Sites and habitats supporting this species are declining and being lost.<br/>It is likely that the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">occidentalis</span> is still common, although threatened by the known pressures on coastal ephemeral wetlands, however ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">truncata</span> appears to be very restricted in range and abundance and may be severely threatened.
164024		threats	eng	There are no kown threats specific to this species although its habitat is declining.
164025		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164025		distribution	eng	This plant is native to Europe, North Africa, the Caucasus, West and Central Asia. In the Mediterranean, it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Sardinia,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009).
164025		habitat	eng	This species occurs in temporary pools, alluvial inundated soils, Nile and canal banks, moist ground. It likes heavy soils and disturbed environment and can be encountered in waste places and damp or sandy soils.
164025		population	eng	This is a very common species.
164025		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164026		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics.
164026		distribution	eng	<em>Isolepis cernua</em> is a subcosmopolite species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa, Minor Asia, southern Africa, the Atlantic Islands, Australia and America. <br/>In the Mediterranean it is found in France and Corsica, Spain and Balearic Islands, Greece, Crete, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Turkey, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and a doubtful presence in Albania. The species is known from numerous localities.
164026		habitat	eng	This annual plant (Therophyte) develops in humid places, swamps and the banks of streams, at plains and low mountains on acidic soils. Its flowering takes place from spring to the beginning of fall.
164026		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable.
164026		threats	eng	The habitat of the species faces pressure from grazing, drainage, water pollution and extension of agriculture.
164027		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur.<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164027		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris paradoxa</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia, North Africa, the Canary Islands and Madeira. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² with several locations.
164027		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits the edges of canals and slightly humid fields and pastures of clayey substrate. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (March-June).
164027		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The populations are stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common, with numerous locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Rif, northern Atlantic Morocco, mid-Atlantic Morocco and the Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: common in the whole Tell region but rare in the Algérois, Oranais and Constantinois High Plains; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in northeast Tunisia, the Medjerda Valley and Cap Bon but rare in the Tunisian Dorsal (Le Kef and Maktar) and in south Tunisia (Djerba); <br/>- Libya: common in Benghazi, Derna and in the Tripoli region; <br/>- Egypt: very common along the Nile and the Mediterranean coastal strip, in the oases of the western Desert and in the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: common in nearly all of the peninsula, with more than 99 sites; <br/>- Italy: very common, present in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.
164027		threats	eng	The species is adapted to physical disturbances to the environment and no major threats are known.
164028		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place and the species does not occur in protected areas. Appropriate habitat management and research on the trends and dynamics of the populations are needed.
164028		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Corsica and Sardinia. Its area of occupancy is suspected to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
164028		habitat	eng	The species grows on riverbanks, pond edges, ditches, but is also found in shrubland (garrigue). It can tolerate a degree of eutrophication and drought.
164028		population	eng	There are three main populations in Corsica at relatively large sites. In Sardinia, there are two main sites. The populations are suspected to be decreasing. The total population is smaller than 10,000 mature individuals, and each subpopulation contains fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.
164028		threats	eng	In Corsica, it is threatened by the decline of traditional agriculture, which is leading to succession in its habitat. In Sardinia, it is threatened by groundwater abstraction.
164029		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The habitat trend of freshwater pools where this species is found, should be monitored.
164029		distribution	eng	<em>Poa dimorphanta</em> is an endemic species common to Morocco. It is known from the North Atlantic coastal zone of Tangier (Gharb, Maâmora, Zemmour, Zaër) and the western part of middle Atlantic Morocco (Safi, El Jadida, south of Sidi Bennour, close to Berrechid). The extent of occurrence of the species exceeds 25,000 km².
164029		habitat	eng	This pioneer annual plant (Therophyte) is present in sandy pastures, ditches and on the verge of pools in plains. It blooms in spring under the soft arid, semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164029		population	eng	The populations seem to be large and well adapted to open environments and to the known disruptions affecting them. However, the increasing destruction of its habitat, particularly freshwater pools, might affect their threat status in the medium-term.
164029		threats	eng	The species' habitat is affected by grazing pressure, but this does not affect the species itself. The main threat is notably habitat destruction through agriculture and urbanization, in particular in pools.
164030		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. nodiflorum</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland, and as Vulnerable in Germany. Conservation measures on a local to national scale seem appropriate there and elsewhere in Central Europe. In Bulgaria, it is protected by the national Biodiversity Act.
164030		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164030		distribution	eng	<p><em>A. nodiflorum</em> occurs from the Azores and Canary Islands to North Africa, east to Turkey and north to Estonia. It is naturalised in North America (California). It is widespread in central and western Europe, becoming less common in the east and south.</p>
164030		distribution	eng	This species grows in paleo-temperate regions in central and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa and Macaronesia. Countries were <em>A. nodiflorum</em> is present include Portugal, Spain, France (and Corsica), Italy (and Sicily and Sardinia), Malta, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and possibly Libya.
164030		habitat	eng	<em>Adium nodiflorum</em> grows in a variety of habitats including the oases of the Egyptian desert, the wadis of southern Morocco, and along the coast of the Mediterranean. It is a perennial Helophyte species and prefers slow flowing rivers, springs and wet ditches, marshes, pools, and lakes. The flowering season for this species is June to September in France, May to July in Italy, and April to July in Morocco.
164030		habitat	eng	<em>A. nodiflorum</em> occurs in a wide variety of wetland habitats usually on nutrient-rich, neutral soils, such as the margins of rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, canals and ditches as well as in marshy grassland and anthropogenic habitats such as gravel pits.
164030		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. nodiflorum</span> is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range and the populations are stable in most parts apart from western Central Europe where they suffer from eutrophication and are declining.
164030		population	eng	The populations are numerous and presumed to be stable.
164030		threats	eng	<em>Apium nodiflorum</em> is not a threatened species because its populations are numerous in the Mediterranean region.
164030		threats	eng	<p>At the Central European margins of its distribution, eutrophication has been noticed as threat factor. But in most parts of its range there are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species. <br/></p>
164031		conservation	eng	There are none conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
164031		conservation	eng	There are none conservation measures needed or in place for this species.
164031		distribution	eng	<em>Carex divulsa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers central and southern Europe, boreal and western Asia, North Africa, the Canaries, Madeira, Azores and boreal America. <br>In Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence over 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 500 km².
164031		distribution	eng	<em>Carex divulsa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers central and southern Europe, boreal and western Asia, North Africa, the Canaries, Madeira, Azores and boreal America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,500,000 km², with several locations.
164031		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid forests and the banks of irrigation channels. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).
164031		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and its populations appear to be stable. <br><br>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas and in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; common in Algeria, in the Tell region, the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and in northern Sahara; fairly common in Tunisia, in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.), the Mogods (Majen Chitane) and Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, Jbel Cheban, etc.).
164031		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and its populations appear to be stable. <br/><br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas and in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; common in Algeria, in the Tell region, the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and in northern Sahara; fairly common in Tunisia, in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.), the Mogods (Majen Chitane) and Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, Jbel Cheban, etc.).<br/><br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is very common with more than 242 sites; common in all of France and and Italy.
164031		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164032		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164032		distribution	eng	<em>Salix pedicellata</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Italy, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. There are records from Corsica but they are considered dubious. The species has been formerly reported for Sardinia and Sicily but according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), the records for Sardinia describe <span style="font-style: italic;">S. atrocinerea</span>, and the records for Sicily belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. gussonei</span> (Giardina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).&#160; <br/>Its extent of occurrence surpasses 3,000,000 km², with several locations.
164032		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers of low and medium mountains. Flowering occurs during winter and spring.
164032		population	eng	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean. The trend of the populations is unknown but presumed to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in all of the country with the exception of Saharan Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: common in all of the country; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly frequent, occurring in Kroumirie (Aïn draham, El fedja and Tabarka), the Tunisian Dorsal (Zaghouan, Kessera, Jbel Serdj and Oued Thibar), central Tunisia (Aïn Cherichera) and south Tunisia (oases); <br/>- Spain: quite common, occurring in 48 sites; <br/>- France: only found in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in Basilicata and doubtfully in Calabria (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
164032		threats	eng	The increase in urbanization and drought frequency, as well as the exploitation of this plant for the extraction of tannins, are the main threats to this species.
164033		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164033		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Limonium mouretii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco, rare and found only in three localities of the central Moyen Atlas (close to Ifran, Aguelman, Guigou) and at only one locality in the Haut Atlas (massif of Mgoun). The extent of occurrence is about 3,500 km² and it is found at six locations.
164033		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in clear forests, stony pastures, the edges of pools and streams in low and medium elevation mountains. It reproduces in summer under the sub-humid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164033		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations or on their trends is available.
164033		threats	eng	The main threats to the habitat are the pressure of grazing, agriculture, the development of tourist outdoor activities and the development of road infrastructures.
164034		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to limit the urbanization through legal protection measures such as legislation on environmental impact assessments.<br/><br/>In Europe, some of the pools are listed as priority habitats by the EU, included in Natura 2000 networks and in nature reserves.
164034		distribution	eng	<em>Corrigiola litoralis</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its world distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, central and southern Europe, western Asia and central and southern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164034		habitat	eng	It is an annual (Therophyte) to biennial plant that inhabits temporary pools and humid, sandy depressions during winter. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-September) in the arid, semi-arid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164034		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. The populations in the Maghreb are probably in similar decline to their habitat (temporary pools).<br/>- Morocco: very common, occurring in the Middle Atlas, High Atlas, Anti Atlas, Rif, Tangérois, northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common in the Tell region and in the High Plains; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in the Mogods (Sejnane, etc), Kroumirie and Tunisian Dorsal; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: fairly common, with more than 63 sites; <br/>- France: present in nearly all of the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in five provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.
164034		threats	eng	In North Africa, the increasing urbanization, the expansion of agriculture and the drainage and infilling of this species’ habitat are its main threats.<br/>In Europe, the habitat knows a deterioration of its quality due to water pollution. In addition to that, the species' coastal sites in France are submitted to intense trampling.
164035		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, to study the dynamics of the populations and to conserve the species habitat.
164035		distribution	eng	<em>Linaria fallax</em> is a species endemic to North Africa. It is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is smaller than 20 km², and it is present in at least 12 locations.
164035		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools of steppes and clayey wetlands. Flowering occurs in spring.
164035		population	eng	This species is not very common and the trend of the populations is unknown, but according to the climatic change predictions for the Maghreb they might be threatened. <br/>In Morocco, it is very rare, occurring in two locations in Saharan Morocco: El Ataïchat and between Chott Tigri and Aïn Chaïr. In Algeria, the species is rare, occurring in five locations in the High Plains. The plant is quite rare in Tunisia, occurring in five locations distributed between the Tunisian Dorsal and central Tunisia.
164035		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are overgrazing around water holes in steppe ecosystems and the higher frequency of droughts foreseen for the Maghreb due to climatic change.
164036		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164036		distribution	eng	<em>Veronica anagallis-aquatica</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Asia, Europe, northern Africa, Macaronesia and boreal America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It is very common in all of the countries. Its extent of occurrence covers wide over 200,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is more than 2,000 km², and it is present in numerous sites.
164036		distribution	eng	<p><em>V.&#160;anagallis-aquatica</em> occurs from Europe east to China and Korea. In Europe, it has been reported from all countries except Andorra, Faroe Islands, Finland, Gibraltar, Greek Aegean Islands, Monaco, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway). </p>
164036		habitat	eng	This perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) is found in most wetland habitat types, including marshy grassland, ditches, rivers, streams and rice fields.
164036		habitat	eng	This perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) is found in plains and mountains up to 2,500 m. It inhabits swampy prairies, ditches and the edges of rivers, streams and rice fields. Flowering starts at the end of spring and lasts until the beginning of summer.
164036		population	eng	<p>This species is widespread with stable populations throughout its European range.</p>
164036		population	eng	The species is very common in the whole of the Mediterranean region with stable populations that are favoured by environmental disturbances, essentially ploughing.
164036		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat destruction due to urbanization but that does not lead to significant population declines at the moment.
164036		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164037		conservation	eng	There is no identified conservation action for the species.
164037		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection in France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region.   It is considered Vulnerable for <st1:place w:st="on">Friuli</st1:place> and Extinct in the Wild in Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), but classed as Data Deficient for Italy.<strong><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region></strong>  In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. <br/><br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
164037		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection in France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region.   <span style="font-style: italic;">F. bisumbellata</span> is classed as  Critically Endangered in Croatia and Serbia and as Data Deficient for Italy, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.<strong><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region></strong>
164037		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis bisumbellata</em> is a subcosmopolitan and subtropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Europe, western and central Asia, Africa, Central America and Australia. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is present in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is known to be in seven localities in Morocco (Aït Melloul on the side of the Souss river, Cape of the Three Pitchforks, the Inaouène river, the Ouergha river, Sidi Slimane, Sidi Allal Tazi on the strands of the Sebou, Kerma-Oulad-Kadi in the north Rharb), one locality in Algeria (Beaches of Sebaou in the coastal sector of Algeria), and in three regions of Egypt (Nile, Mediterranean Coast, Channel of Suez).
164037		distribution	eng	<p><em>F. bisumbellata</em> occurs throughout much of the Old World, from the Canaries and southern Europe to North Africa and throughout much of Africa of the Sahara south to Botswana, including Madagascar. It also occurs in southern Asia, from Turkey east through the Himalayas, Indian Sub-continent and Sri Lanka to China, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines, as well as northern Australia. In Europe, it occurs in the Mediterranean countries north to Romania, Switzerland and the Ukraine.</p>
164037		distribution	eng	The world wide it is found in Old world tropics and subtropics (Cook 1996). <br/><br/>Indian distribution of the species is known from Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996). It is observed in Bilaspur, Durg, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Mandla, Raigarh, Raipur, Rajnandgaon, Sagar,Satna, Shivpuri,Sidhi, Surguja, Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Maharashtra the species is reported from Ahmednagar, Akola, Amaravathi, Bhandara, Bombay, Buldhana, Nasik, Osmanabad, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg,Thane and Yavatmal (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is distributed in Bangalore, &#160;Bijapur, Chikmagalur, Coorg, Dharwar, Hassan, Mysore, North Kanara, Raichur, Shimoga (Sharma<em> et al. </em>1984) and Mercara (Murthy and Yoganarasimhan 1990) district of Karnataka . The species is reported from Indravati river in Indravati Tiger Reserve in Chhattisgarh (Kumar 2003).&#160;The specimens are collected from N. Arcot, Chengalpet and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. It is collected on the way to Five falls, Courtallum (367m) in Tirunelveli; Vaudalur in Chegalpet; Kollegal (700m/2300') in Coimbatore, &#160;Egmore in Nungambackam, Sivasamudram, Kollegal &#160;in Coimbatore, Chandragiri in N.Arcot, Siruvani foot hills (667m), Coimbatore &#160;and on the banks of Noyal river, Coimbatore (466m). Other records for Tamil Nadu include Near Forebay dam (950m), Near Kumili (850m) and Karandhamalai falls (350m) in Madurai. It is also recorded from Krishnathevarthoppu, Mamsapuram, Srivilliputhur &#160;(210m) in Ramanathapuram and Walayar-Kerala Border, Coimbatore &#160;in Tamil Nadu. Karandhamalai falls (350m) in Madurai; on river bank in Hogainakkal (275m) in Salem; Algarkoil forest (300m) &#160;and Peruvayal in Ramanathapuram; Thiruvarur in Thanjavur (30m) Manimuthur Dam area (300m) and &#160;Mundanthurai in Tirunelveli. &#160;It is also collected from marshy places in Mannai (sea level) in Thanjavur. In Kerala, the species is reported from Walayar Reserve forest (85m) in Palakkad; Parappa in Kannur ; Parambikulam submergible areas (607m) in Thrissur; Valazal- Chalakudi range (130m) in Thrissur; way to Suryakanthi, Boneccord, Trivandrum (750m). In Karnataka the species were collected from Sivasamudram and Belakavadi in &#160;Mysore and Bagalore. In Andhra Pradesh the specimens were collected from Ratham Hutta hills (200 m) and Bhadrachalam Forest (200m) in Khammam and Sunkarimetta inVisakhapatanam (Madras Herbaria 22 November 2010).
164037		habitat	eng	<em>Fimbristylis bisumbellata</em> is an annual species (Therophyte) that grows on the alluvium of rivers, sands and humid gravels at subcoastal level.
164037		habitat	eng	<em>Fimbristylis bisumbellata</em> is an annual species (Therophyte) that grows on the alluviums of rivers, sands and humid gravels at subcoastal level. It has a late flowering in summer and fall.
164037		habitat	eng	It is herbaceous annual which reach upto the height of 10-20 cm (Singh <em>et al.</em> &#160;2001) . At the edges of drying pools, in wet flushes, springs, along streams and rivers on sandy river bars. It is also a common weed of rice fields (Cook 1996). It is usually seen assocaited with <em>Cyperus difformis</em>, <em>Fimbristylis miliaceae</em> and <em>Echinochloa colona </em>(Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001). It is variable in height and common near water sources (Madras Herbaria 22 November 2010).
164037		population	eng	No data are available on the population size but they seem to be stable. In the Iberian Peninsula, it is present in nine provinces of Spain and six of Portugal. In France, it is proposed for surveillance in the list of species and it is classified as protected in the region of Provence Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy, the species is</st1:country-region> found in <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veneto</st1:state>, Toscana, Calabria and there are old records from Friuli, <st1:state w:st="on">Liguria,</st1:state><st1:city w:st="on"> Abruzzo and </st1:city><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place>, <st1:state w:st="on">doubtful presence in Umbria and Piemonte</st1:state>.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">F. bisumbellata</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and Serbia.<st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state></st1:place>
164037		population	eng	No data is available on the population size. They seem to be stable at the level of the Mediterranean region. <br/>- Algeria: considered as very rare and limited to the Algerian coastal sector (Strikes of Sebaou of Reebeval to the sea) <br/>- Morocco: it is suspected to be rare (reported in seven localities) <br/>- Egypt: rather common in the regions of the Nile, the Mediterranean rating (from the border with Libya until the Port Saïd) and the Channel of Suez <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: present in nine provinces of Spain and six of Portugal <br/>- France: it is proposed for surveillance in the list of species. In the region of Provence Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, it is classified as protected.<br/>-   <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy:</st1:country-region> found in <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veneto</st1:state>, Toscana, Calabria and there are old records from Friuli, <st1:state w:st="on">Liguria,</st1:state><st1:city w:st="on"> Abruzzo and </st1:city><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place> (Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), <st1:state w:st="on">doubtful presence in Umbria and Piemonte</st1:state>.<st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state></st1:place>
164037		population	eng	The population of the species is stable.
164037		threats	eng	There are no significant past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
164037		threats	eng	There is no identified threat for the species.
164037		threats	eng	Urbanization, frequent droughts, water pollution and grazing pressure are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164038		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures, but more research in population numbers and range is needed.
164038		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place, monitoring the existing populations is recommended for the North African range, the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands.
164038		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164038		distribution	eng	<p>  <em>P. lucens</em> occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere apart from North America. It occurs throughout Europe and the Mediterranean basin, east throughout European Russia, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Mongolia and the Indian subcontinent to China, Japan and the Amur region of Russia. In the southeast it occurs in the Philippines (Luzon) and the Marianas Islands. It also occurs in northeastern Africa south of the Sahara and Madagascar. It is widespread and abundant throughout much of Europe, but less common in the far north where populations are scattered but locally abundant in Scandinavia. </p>
164038		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton lucens</span> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa, Asia, Macaronesia (Azores) and North America. In the Mediterranean, it is known from nearly all the countries in the region: Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Greece and Crete, the Balkans, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, and Israel.&#160; </p>    <p><br/></p>
164038		distribution	eng	<p>  The species occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere  apart from North America. It occurs throughout Europe and the  Mediterranean basin, east throughout European Russia, the Middle East,  the Caucasus, Mongolia and the Indian subcontinent to much of east, northeast and northwest China (eFloras 2011), Japan and  the Amur region of Russia. In the southeast it occurs in the  Philippines (Luzon) and the Marianas Islands. It also occurs in  northeastern Africa south of the Sahara and Madagascar. It is  widespread and abundant throughout much of Europe, but less common in  the far north where populations are scattered but locally abundant in  Scandinavia (<span lang="EN-GB">Preston 1995, <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Wiegleb and Kaplan 1998, <span lang="EN-GB">Maier 2001, <span lang="EN-GB">Tzvelev 2001, Jardim Botânico da UTAD 2007, Naturhistoriska Riksmusęet 2010).<br/></span></span></p>
164038		distribution	eng	Widespread in temperate regions of Europe, NE Africa, W, N and E Asia.<br><br>The species has been recorded from Algeria, Morocco, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda.
164038		habitat	eng	<em>P. lucens</em> is calcicole which grows in relatively deep water in lakes, slow-floating rivers, canals, flooded chalk- gravel- or borrow pits.
164038		habitat	eng	<em style="font-style: italic;">P</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. lucens</span> is a calcicole which grows in relatively deep water in lakes, slow-flowing rivers, canals; flooded chalk, gravel or borrow pits. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that colonizes oligotroph and mesotroph waters. It is an oxygenating plant that generally blooms between May and August.
164038		habitat	eng	<em style="font-style: italic;">P</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. lucens</span> is a calcicole which grows in relatively deep water in lakes, slow-flowing rivers, canals, on flooded chalk, gravel or borrow pits.
164038		habitat	eng	The species is a calcicole which grows in relatively deep water in lakes, slow-flowing rivers, canals, on flooded chalk, gravel or borrow pits.
164038		population	eng	Common.
164038		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. lucens</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, although populations are more scattered in the north and it has declined significantly in the Austrian Tirol (Maier <em>et al</em>. 2001).
164038		population	eng	The species appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its range, although populations are more scattered in the north and it has declined significantly in the Austrian Tirol (Maier <em>et al</em>. 2001).
164038		population	eng	This species is very common in most of Europe,   but not very abundant in the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands, where it is especially rare in the southern half of the Peninsula. It is also considered very rare in Morocco (four localities) and rare in Algeria and Tunisia. There is no data available on the size of the populations or their trend but they seem more fragile in North Africa as the habitat is under threat.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is known from four localities in Morocco (Nja River close to Fès, merja of Rhédira in the south of Larache, Benslimane, Aguelmame Sidi Ali in the Middle Atlas), two sectors in Algeria (Kabylie and the algerois), and three localities in Tunisia (Garaa Sejnane, Bargou, Gafsa).
164038		threats	eng	Impacts from general water pollutants threating the species, but these are not major threats.
164038		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>  <p></p>
164038		threats	eng	There are local impacts from the general threats to wetlands, but these are not major threats to the species at Mediterranean level. In the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, eutrophication of water bodies caused by agricultural activities is a threat. In North Africa, especially   drainage, water pollution and urbanization are leading to habitat decline.
164039		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164039		distribution	eng	<em>Carex </em><span style="font-style: italic;">cuprina</span> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution covers Europe (except for the extreme north), the Mediterranean basin, Macaronesia, western Asia, southern and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.
164039		distribution	eng	<em>Carex otrubae</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution covers Europe (except for the extreme north), the Mediterranean basin, Macaronesia, western Asia, southern and North Africa. <br/>In Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence over 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) bigger than 20 km².
164039		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies and swamps. Flowering occurs between winter and summer.
164039		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>Its distribution in Morocco is limited to the northwest of Morocco, with seven locations distributed between the Rharb and the Rif. In Algeria it is fairly common in Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie, the Constantinois Tell and the Algérois Tellien Atlas. Fairly common also in Cap Bon and Kroumirie in Tunisia.
164039		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: its distribution is limited to the northwest of Morocco, with seven locations distributed between the Rharb and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common in Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie, the Constantinois Tell and the Algérois Tellien Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in Cap Bon and Kroumirie; <br/>- Spain: very common with 227 sites; <br/>- France: quite common; <br/>- Italy: common in all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily.
164039		threats	eng	Drainage for agricultural usage (notably in North Africa) of this species’ habitat is the main threat but it is not considered as major.
164039		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage (notably in North Africa) of this species habitat are its main threats.
164040		conservation	eng	<em>S. triqueter</em> is classed as <span lang="EN-GB">Critically  Endangered in Switzerland and in the UK<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">,  Endangered in Germany and Vulnerable in Spain, <span lang="EN-GB">it is also protected in the Alsace, Haute-Normandie, Pays  de la Loire, Bretagne and Franche-Comté regions of France. Outside  these areas there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</span></span>
164040		conservation	eng	More research is needed to confirm the species existence in Egypt.
164040		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is a subcosmopolitan species, occurring in Europe, Africa (Egypt, South Africa), Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Palestine to North India, Turkey) and in North America.<br/><br/>In Africa, it has been recorded in Egypt (Isthmic desert, Suez canal) where it is very rare. It is considered as introduced in southern Africa, possibly Namibia, and South Africa (North western Province, Mpumalanga, Free State, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
164040		distribution	eng	<em>S. triqueter</em> occurs with populations in North Africa and from Europe east through the Caucasus, the Middle East and Kazakhstan to Far Eastern Russia, China and Japan, as well as in the the Himalayas in India and Pakistan, it has been introduced to the Columbia River on the border between Oregon and Washington in the United States. It also occurs in South Africa, where it may have been introduced (Cook 2004). It is found throughout most of central and western Europe.
164040		habitat	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is a rhizamotous perennial helophytic sedge (45-150 cm high) growing in riverbanks and marshes, bogs. Flowering time is June to September.
164040		habitat	eng	<em>S. triqueter</em> typically grows on muddy banks in estuaries, on the margins of rivers, in marshes, bogs and ditches.
164040		population	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is noted as very rare in Egypt, where it was only found once in 1893 (Täckholm & Drar, 1941-1969). It is consequently considered as extinct in North Africa. It is widespread in Southern Africa although it is considered to be introduced.
164040		population	eng	<p><em>S. triqueter</em> is classed as <span lang="EN-GB">Critically Endangered in Switzerland and in the UK, Endangered in Germany and Vulnerable in Spain<span lang="EN-GB">, outside these areas populations appear to be stable.<br/></span></p>  <em></em>
164040		threats	eng	No information for Africa. <em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is threatened in Europe by the destruction and degradation of its habitat.
164040		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>  <em></em>
164041		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
164041		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection only in France (Corsica).<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and estimate the population size.
164041		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection only in France (Corsica), there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164041		distribution	eng	<em>Fuirena pubescens</em> is a paleotropical species. Its world distribution covers southwest and southcentral Europe, Africa and Asia.&#160; <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Crete, Italy, Sardinia, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Morocco, Turkey, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², with several locations.
164041		distribution	eng	<p><em>F. pubescens</em> has a tropical and subtropical distribution, occurring in a few Mediterranean countries, possibly as an alien (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010), throughout Africa, both north and south of the Sahara, the Indian Ocean islands, from the Middle East east through the Caucasus and much of the Indian Subcontinent east to China, Japan, Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, Java the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, Australia and many of the Pacific Ocean Islands, as well as southern North America, Mexico, Central America and South America.</p>
164041		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena pubescens </span>is distributed in warm regions of Europe, Africa and Asia. <br/><br/>In India it is known to occur in Himachal Pradesh,  Karnataka, Madhay Pradesh (Tiwari and Maheshwari 1964), Maharasthra (Buldhana) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Punjab and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore and Dindigul) (Extending to Himalayas and Western Ghats). It is endemic to southern western ghats and Palani hills (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1987, Bhargavan 1989, Cook 1996).
164041		habitat	eng	It is an perennial plant, grows in moist seasonally flooded areas, wet locations or swampy places, water logged marshes and rice fields (Cook 1996).
164041		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits peaty swamps of siliceous substrate and canal embankments. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164041		population	eng	In Portugal and Spain it is fairly common with 36 known sites in the southwest of the peninsula; and it is present in two provinces in Italy besides Sardinia.
164041		population	eng	No population information of this species.
164041		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region. <br/>In North Africa it occupies a relatively small surface (AOO >20 km²). The size and trend of the populations are unknown. It is very rare in Morocco, four known locations distributed between the northern Atlantic Morocco (north of Lalla Mimouna and in Bou Charen) and the Tangérois (Jbel Kébir and Koudiet Harcha); very rare in Algeria, with four known locations in Numidie; uncommon in Tunisia, present in the Kroumirie (Bab Abrik and Fej el Saha); uncommon in Libya (Derna and Benghazi). In Egypt, it is found along the Nile, in the oases of the western Desert and along the Mediterranean coastal strip. <br/><br/>In Portugal and Spain it is fairly common with 36 known sites in the southwest of the peninsula; and it is present in two provinces in Italy besides Sardinia.
164041		threats	eng	Habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture, especially in North Africa, are the main threats to this species.
164041		threats	eng	No threats reported for the species.
164041		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164042		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164042		conservation	eng	No information. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Juncus bufonius</em> subsp. <em>mogadorensis</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and its distribution is restricted to the west of the country between Essaouira and Agadir. It has been listed as Endangered for Northern Africa.
164042		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164042		distribution	eng	<p><em>J. bufonius</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, occurring in North Africa, Africa south of the Sahara, including Madagascar and Mauritius and from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the Indian sub-continent to far eastern Russia, Sakhalin, Japan, the Korean Peninsula and Taiwan. It is also scattered throughout south-east Asia, Australia and New Zealand, and throughout North America including Hawaii, south through Mexico and Central America to South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe, including the Mediterranean and Atlantic islands.</p>  <span lang="EN-GB"><p></p>
164042		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufonius</span> is a cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering all the temperate countries of the globe     <p>In North Africa, it is present in Egypt (common), Libya (Cyrenaïc and Tripolitan), in Tunisia (very common), Algeria&#160; (very common from the coast to Central Sahara) and&#160;Morocco (common in Tangier, Western Rif, Atlantic coast, Central Rif, Targuist, Zerhoun, Aknoul, Guercif, Mamora). <br/></p><p>It is furthermore found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, France and Corsica, Greece and Crete, Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, Slovenia, Serbia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria. <br/></p>
164042		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species. It is widespread in Southern and Northern Africa, and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Madagascar.
164042		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species native to Europe, Africa, Russia, southeast Asia, Australia and America.
164042		habitat	eng	<em>J. bufonius</em> is found in moist places, edge of temporary pools, and in wet meadows on sandy soils in the plain and low mountains. It is an annual species that blooms in the spring and early summer (April-July).
164042		habitat	eng	<p>This annual species (Therophyte) is of very small size (a few centimetres). It is found in various habitats, sometimes of very small size, temporarily flooded or with saturated soils on a large range of substrate: wet meadows, edges of ponds, lakes, streams, irrigated fields, gardens. It is found mostly in freshwater habitats but can be found also on coastal wetlands somewhat brackish. <br/></p><p>It flowers from early spring to early summer.<br/></p>
164042		habitat	eng	<p>This species is widespread and abundant, occurring wherever suitable habitat occurs. Some populations may be vast and seed-set considerable. <em>J.&#160;bufonius</em> is a characteristic species of damp muddy habitats, occurring from cattle drinking bays on rivers, through the drawdown zones of large lakes and reservoir, through damp arable to building sites and damp areas in urban situations.</p>
164042		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet grasslands, swamps, edges of lakes, river banks and stream sides between 100 and 3,500 m asl. Also found in rice fields across Asia.
164042		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>J.&#160;bufonius</em> is apparently widespread and abundant throughout its European range. It is extremely abundant in the UK, France, Germany, the Netherlands and many other countries.</p>  <p></p>
164042		population	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed in the Mediterranean region and occurs often in large and numerous populations. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at Mediterranean level.</p>
164042		population	eng	This species is common htroughout its range.
164042		population	eng	This species is widespread across the world although there is not information available on its global population.
164042		threats	eng	No information.
164042		threats	eng	No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.
164042		threats	eng	No threats have been recorded.
164042		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164043		conservation	eng	Some populations are included in a designated Ramsar site and in a protected area in El Kala in Algeria and in two protected areas in Tunisia. Further research on the populations and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and main threats is required.
164043		distribution	eng	<em>Solenopsis bicolor</em> is endemic to Algeria and Tunisia. In Algeria, it is rather common in Numidia and rare at Cap Sigli (Great Kabylia). In Tunisia, it is present in Kroumeria and in the Mogods Hills.<br/>The area of occupancy is less than 500 km².
164043		habitat	eng	<em>Solenopsis bicolor</em> is an annual plant that grows in temporary pools (dayas) and streams in peatlands.
164043		population	eng	The species is relatively abundant, but the subpopulations are very scattered and form small patches.
164043		threats	eng	This species is threatened by human disturbance, such as tourism and recreational activities in forests, by agriculture and infrastructure development (industry and tourism) and by habitat degradation (change in land use and abandonment of non-agricultural land).
164044		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. repens</span> is classed as Vulnerable (D2) on Cyprus. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164044		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164044		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus repens</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution includes the northern Mediterranean region, North Africa, Europe, Asia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164044		distribution	eng	<em>R. repens</em> is native to an area from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, China and Japan. It has apparently been introduced to South America, Central America and the eastern and western seaboards of North America as well as Australia and New Zealand. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164044		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptohyte) that inhabits springs, the edges of streams and swampy environments on mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164044		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. repens </span>is a characteristic element of grazed pasture, occurring in dry as well as wet areas. In wetlands, it will occur in most types, but is most characteristic of cattle-grazed, seasonally inundated pasture, marshes, fens and the margins of water bodies.
164044		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. repens</span> is classed as Vulnerable on Cyprus, otherwise it is widespread and very abundant throughout its European range.
164044		population	eng	This species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region, the trend of the populations is presumed stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, with at least eight locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas (Azrou, Ouiouane, Ifrane and Oued Tizguit), the oriental plains (Midelt) and the Rif (Tangier and Imassinèn); <br/>- Algeria: rare, found in Aurèses, the Blida Atlas and the Oranais High Plains; <br/>- Spain: very common, with 733 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.
164044		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164044		threats	eng	The drainage of this species’ habitat is its main threat.
164045		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- To limit the extension of agriculture at the sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164045		distribution	eng	<em>Cirsium ducellieri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and limited to Fes in the Moyen Sebou, and to two localities in the central Moyen Atlas (Békrit and Aghbalou-bou-Ichatefel in the valley of Senoual). Its extent of occurrence is about 500 km².
164045		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in wet pastures and on river banks, especially in mountains, up to 1,850 m. It blooms in summer (June-July) under the mild semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164045		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations or on their trends, present and future, is available.
164045		threats	eng	The habitats are exposed to high grazing pressure, an extension of agriculture in the catchments, water pollution (notably in the Moyen-Sebou by heavy metals from tanneries) and the settlement of small villages close to the sites.
164046		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164046		distribution	eng	<em>Cerastium perfoliatum</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution includes Europe, temperate Asia (southern Russia, Caucasus, Iran) and North Africa.  <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Morocco. Its Mediterranean Extent of Occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² with several locations.
164046		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that prefers the slightly humid, muddy grasslands and agricultural land. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164046		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean basin with several locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is rare and known in four locations in the Middle Atlas (Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Itzèr, in the springs near Oued Zad and Oued Aguercif). In Spain, it is fairly common and present in 79 sites in the east and centre of the country. In Syria and Lebanon, it is quite common, known in Alep, Braij, Ma'arat-en-No'man and Sarmada. And in Turkey, it is present in west, east, central and south Anatolia, but not in the European part.
164046		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.
164047		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under departmental protection in Alpes-Maritimes and Gers, and under regional protection in Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Haute-Normandie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Lorraine. It is classified as Vulnerable in the Red List of Italy.<br/><br/>Proposed measures are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and apply national protection in Algeria and Tunisia.
164047		distribution	eng	<em>Anagallis tenella</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species that extends to Ireland and the United Kingdom in the north, to Moldova and Crimea in the east and to the Azores in the west. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sardinia, Greece and Crete, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164047		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that occurs in swampy and peaty prairies of low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May to September).
164047		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and is particularly widespread in the west: Portugal, Spain, France and Morocco. In North Africa it is fairly common in Morocco but in Algeria and Tunisia the species is quite rare and the populations are fairly restricted.<br/>In Morocco, it can be found in the Rif (Tanger, Tetouan, western Rif, central Rif, Targuist and Tazzeka), the Middle Atlas and the mountains of oriental Morocco. In Algeria, it occurs in Numidie (La Calle), Oran, Tlemcen and Ghar-Rouban. The species is very rare in Tunisia, solely found in Kroumirie (Bab-Abrik spring). <br/>In Spain and Portugal, it occurs in over 221 sites; it is fairly common in France in the centre, west and northeast of the country; and present in six provinces of Italy.
164047		threats	eng	The infilling, draining and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164048		conservation	eng	In Croatia, this species is included in the national Red List, classified as Endangered.<br/><br/>In North Africa, no conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to monitor the population dynamics.
164048		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to monitor the population dynamics.
164048		distribution	eng	<em>Carex flava</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa and boreal America. <br/>In Africa it is present in Morocco and in Algeria, occurring in seven locations, with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 100 km².
164048		distribution	eng	<em>Carex flava</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa and boreal America. <br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco and in Algeria, occurring in seven locations. In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, and is also occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with several locations.
164048		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies, bogs, swamps and the edges of streams and springs. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164048		population	eng	In North Africa it is fairly uncommon, occurring in only seven locations and with an AOO <100 km². The populations are very restricted and undergoing a slow reduction. It is rare in Morocco, with five locations in the northwest of the country (Loukkos valley, Lalla Mimouna, Oued Ouerdane springs, Talassemtane Massif and the Madissouka valley); rare in Algeria, with one location in the Grande Kabylie (Djurjura) and one in the Constantinois Tell (Constantine).
164048		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In Mediterranean Europe, it occurs in 83 sites in Spain and is fairly common along the Mediterranean French coast, where it is present in 13 regions in addition to Corsica. In Italy it is present in 11 provinces. It is qualified as Endangered in the Red List of Croatia.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is fairly uncommon, occurring in only seven locations and with an AOO <100 km². The populations are very restricted and undergoing a slow reduction. It is rare in Morocco, with five locations in the northwest of the country (Loukkos valley, Lalla Mimouna, Oued Ouerdane springs, Talassemtane Massif and the Madissouka valley); rare in Algeria, with one location in the Grande Kabylie (Djurjura) and one in the Constantinois Tell (Constantine).
164048		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164048		threats	eng	The drainage for agricultural usage of this species’ habitat is the main threat.
164049		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. Legal conservation measures and research are needed for this species.
164049		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apium inundatum</span> is classed as Endangered in Sweden and is protected in the Ile de France Deartment of France.
164049		distribution	eng	<em>Apium inundatum</em> grows in western Europe and in northern African regions, with populations recorded in Portugal, Spain, France (not Corsica), Italy and Sicily. This species is less common but also present in Morocco (three locations), Algeria (one location, presence uncertain), and Tunisia (two locations, presence uncertain).
164049		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apium</span><em> inundatum</em> is endemic to western Europe, occurring from the Iberian Peninsula north to Sweden and east to Slovakia with its southeastern populations in Sicily.
164049		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Apium</span><em> inundatum</em> typically occurs in a wide variety of oligotrophic base-poor or occasionally calcareous water bodies, including streams, lakes, ponds and flushes as well as occasionally in dune slacks.</p>
164049		habitat	eng	This is a perennial species which is found in marshes, pools, streams and up to 500 m away from stagnant waters. In Tunisia <em>A. inundatum </em> is found in the dayas of the siliceous mountains. The flowering season for this species is from May until July in Tunisia and Morocco; May until June in Italy; and June until July in France.
164049		population	eng	The extent of occurrence of <em>A. inundatum</em> is very large, but the populations are very scattered and the actual area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
164049		population	eng	There is little information on trends, but populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. inundatum</span> appear to be stable.
164049		threats	eng	<em>Apium inundatum</em> appears to be under threat in southern France, because its populations are either fragmented or non-existent in this region. Major threats are loss or pollution of habitat due to agricultural development.
164049		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
164050		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Haute-Normandie, Centre, Auvergne, Midi-Pyrénées, and Pays-de-la-Loire. It is not protected in Spain and it is unknown whether any other conservation measures exist. It is recommended to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations.
164050		distribution	eng	<em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> is found in western Europe (Portugal, Spain, eastwards to southern France) and in northwest Africa (Morocco: Tanger, western Rif). It is possibly present in western Algeria. Outside the Mediterranean region it is also found on the British Isles.
164050		habitat	eng	<em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> grows in bogs and wet heaths. Flowering in France and Morocco is from April to July.
164050		population	eng	<em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> seems to be rare in its entire range. It occurs at slightly more than ten locations with an extent of occurrence below 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy smaller than 2,000 km² and probably even less than 500 km².
164050		threats	eng	Owing to its rarity, <em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> is very threatened within the ecosystems it inhabits.
164051		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas, but no conservation measures are required for this weedy species.
164051		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan weed present in Tropical Africa and America. A pantropical species which is known in the whole tropical Africa countries and South Africa. <br><br>Widespread in western Africa, but mainly in the lowlands. Recorded from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). In Eastern Africa it is present in Burundi, where the species has been found in the medium altitude of the country. It has been met in Mahwa marshes, Gitanga peatland and all the stream of the Ruvubu basin. Its extent of occurrence is more than 10000 Km2 and less than 20000 Km2. In Malawi known from Lake Chilwa Island south shore, Lake Chilwa plains, Zomba at Chancellor College, Mangochi at Kamuzu Bridge and Pwepwe Fisheries, Chipoka in Salima, Cape Maclear, Monkey Bay Hills, Elephant Marsh, and Chiuta Island.
164051		habitat	eng	Annual common tropical weed especially of damp places (sandy river borders) in savanna, as well as in forest up to 2,000 m above sea level.  It is not confined to wetlands but often occurs in and along the edges of pools, streams, rivers and ditches or in temporary flooded places, sometimes found in floating mats of vegetation. The plant is to some extent an anthropogene occurring frequently around houses, open spaces in towns and villages and on river-bank clearings, a weed of cultivation and in disturbed ground, along roadsides and railway lines.
164051		population	eng	Quite widespread herbaceous species, therefore, important population.
164051		threats	eng	Wide spread with no major threats.
164052		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) and its sites<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164052		distribution	eng	<em>Cirsium chrysacanthum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. Its distribution is restricted to a small region of the Haut-Atlas where it is relatively common in the Mgoun (Assif Ghzef to the west of the Tirsal; springs of the Assif Mgoun; high valley of the Tessaout). It becomes rarer southwards where it is known from only one locality in the Siroua (jbel Amezdour). The extent of occurrence is about 1,000 km².
164052		habitat	eng	It is a vivacious plant (Hemicryptophyte) that develops on the banks of streams and among the gravels of rivers of flinty mountains, between 1,000 and 3,200 m of altitude. It blooms and sets fruits in summer under the semi-arid cold and sub-humid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164052		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations or on their present trends is available.
164052		threats	eng	The main threats on the habitat are the pressure of grazing, frequent droughts and an increasing anthropogenic pressure due to easier access (roads and paths) to the areas where this plant is growing.
164053		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or needed.
164053		conservation	eng	The species is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of France   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164053		distribution	eng	<em>Phyla nodiflora</em> is a pantropical and subtropical species. Its biogeographical distribution covers the Mediterranean region, tropical and subtropical America and Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Malta, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 300,000 km², occurring in numerous locations (>60).
164053		distribution	eng	<em>Phyla nodiflora</em> is native to the whole of Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australasia, Europe and tropical America.&#160;In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, it occurs in almost all states at lower elevations (Cook 1996).
164053		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Chamaephyte) that inhabits temporary pools, stream edges, swampy alluvium and humid habitats of plains. Flowering occurs from spring to the beginning of autumn.
164053		habitat	eng	The plant is a marshy herb grows in&#160;open and wet places near streams, ponds, paddy fields, ditches, backwaters, brackish water (B. Sadasivaiah pers. comm., M.K.V. Rao pers. comm., G.K.Bhat pers. comm.).
164053		population	eng	It is widespread and locally common.<sup></sup>
164053		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. However, the populations are in decline, especially in the Maghreb (presumed extinct in Libya), due to the deterioration of their habitat. <br/>It is rare in Morocco, its distribution limited to the Atlantic coastline (from the Tangérois to Souss). It has been recorded in six locations, namely in the Tangérois (Tigisas), the Rharb (Moulay Bouselham and Kénitra) and mid-Atlantic Morocco (Safi, Aït Melloul, Souss estuary, Ksima and Taroudant); quite widespread in Algeria in Numidie, fairly rare in the Algéro-Constantinois Tell region and very rare everywhere else; in more than eight locations in Tunisia, distributed between the Mogods (Garaet El Ichkeul), the northeast (Menzel Djemil), Medjerda valley (Bordj Toum) and south Tunisia (Gafsa, Tozeur, Nefta, Kebilie, Gabès river, etc); very rare in Libya, where it is only found in one location (Ain Zara) that is currently considered extinct; very common in Egypt, along the Nile and the coastal Mediterranean strip, in the oases of the western Desert and other desert areas and in the Sinai Peninsula.<br/>It is present in Spain in 38 sites; present in France in Corsica and in one department on the mainland; present in Italy in six provinces and in Sicily; very common in Israel, occurring in several locations along the Mediterranean coast and in the wetlands of the steppic, sub-steppic and desert (Netanya) areas.
164053		threats	eng	Drainage, infilling, agriculture, abandonment of grazing, and urbanization are some of the major threats to this species.
164053		threats	eng	No major threats to this species
164055		conservation	eng	In France, the species benefits from a legal protection in the regions and departments of the Rhone-Alpes, Basse Normandie, Franche-Comté and Île-de -France. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:<br/>- Maintenance of the traditional activities on the sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of its populations<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics
164055		distribution	eng	<em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em> has a large geographical distribution: the Mediterranean basin, central and southern Europe, Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, <em>I. verticillatum</em> is found in more than 20 locations in Corsica, about ten locations in the Mediterranean part of France, the western half of Spain (absent from the Balearic islands), Portugal, Italy (Lombardy, Piedmont, Tuscany, Marche, Lazio, Sardinia), Greece, more than 30 locations in Morocco (with an extent of occurrence of about 31,000 km²), the Algerian Tell (Jijel, Numidie) and Tunisia (Sedjenane, Teskraia, Cape Serrat, Madjen Chitane, Madjen Choucha, Henchir Skira, Sraï el Madjed, Madjen Azoug, Madjen el Ma). The extent of occurrence of <em>I. verticillatum</em> in the Mediterranean region is about 2,500,000 km².
164055		habitat	eng	<em>I. verticillatum</em> is an annual amphibious species that blooms in spring and germinates when soil is water saturated; it has an aerial sexual pollination. It is heliophilous, has high light requirements and does not stand shade from taller plants. Different growth forms are adapted to aquatic and terrestrial conditions. The main habitats of <em>I. verticillatum</em> are temporary pools and marshes of plains and low flinty mountains. It can also be found in the ruts of paths and small temporary pools within overgrazed meadows.
164055		population	eng	In Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, the degradation of temporary pools by urbanization tends to reduce the size of the populations.
164055		threats	eng	The species does not seem threatened at the global scale, however its habitats, temporarily flooded wetlands, are fragile and globally in reduction.<br/>The main threats in North Africa are the destruction of the habitat under the effect of urban and agricultural development but also a deterioration of habitat quality by water pollution. In Europe, the potential threats would be an abandonment of the traditional uses such as grazing which tends to modify the habitat through succession and reduces the effects of competitors such as tall herbaceous and shrub species.
164056		conservation	eng	Some of the populations occur in Ramsar sites. It is recommended to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations and the locations.
164056		distribution	eng	<em>Frangula alnus</em> is a central European-Caucasian species that occurs in north and central Europe, West Asia, the Mediterranean and North Africa. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France (with Corsica: very rare, only one location), Italy (rare), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164056		habitat	eng	<em>F. alnus</em> is a perennial tall shrub or small tree. It is present in wet shrublands, forests, hedges and woods, riverine forests, peatbogs, acidic alder carrs, from 0 to 1,300 m. Flowering in Italy is from May to June, in France and Corsica from April to July (August), in Tunisia from February to April and in Morocco from March to April.
164056		population	eng	The populations are scattered, but present in many countries. The species tends to increase in remote areas in Europe resulting from abandonment of traditional land use.<br/>In North Africa, it is very rare in Tunisia with only two locations, and Algeria where it is foun in east Numidia only at three to four locations. In Morocco it is found near Tangier, west and central Rif and at the Atlantic coast.
164056		threats	eng	The species is probably threatened because of its rarity and its threatened habitats, particularly the alder carrs. The habitats are affected by tourist infrastructure developments and abandonment.
164057		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place in Central Africa. The habitat of this plant needs to be protected, promoting new policies to control loss of suitable sites and informing stakeholders about its importance. In Northern Africa, no specific measures are in place or needed as it occurs in many protected areas. Research on population numbers and range  is reccomended for the North eastern African region.
164057		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed; it occurs in many protected areas.
164057		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No population conservation information on this species.</p>
164057		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164057		distribution	eng	<em>Lemna minor</em> is probably native to cooler regions of North America, Europe and western Asia. It is occasionally found elsewhere, probably introduced by human activity. In North Africa, it is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. <br/>It is widespread in the Mediterranean basin.
164057		distribution	eng	<em>Lemna minor</em> is widespread throughout Europe, with scattered populations in central Asia, on the west coast and in central North America, in the eastern half of Africa, Australia (Victoria) and New Zealand. It is presumed to have been introduced to Australia and New Zealand (Landolt 1986).
164057		distribution	eng	It is widespread in Europe and has been recorded across southern and eastern Africa, Asia, USA and Meso-America.
164057		distribution	eng	Native to Southern Africa, present in Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape in South Africa, and in Lesotho. In North Africa, it is found in Egypt, Lybia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In eastern Africa it occurs in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenia. It has also been recorded from Ethiopia and Eritrea.<br/><br/><em>Lemna minor</em> is probably native to cooler regions of North America, Europe and western Asia. It is occasionally found elsewhere, probably introduced by human activity. It is widespread in the Mediterranean basin.
164057		habitat	eng	It grows in paddy fields, ponds and still  water bodies.<br/><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><br/><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><br/><p><br/></p><br/><br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
164057		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. minor</span> is particularly common in lakes, ponds, canals and ditch systems but will occur in most still or slow-flowing water body types in most conditions except in very oligotrophic or acid water. It is even capable of growing in a trickle of water over vertical surfaces, such as canal lock gates or seepages in cliffs.
164057		habitat	eng	This Free-floating macrophyte grows in a range of still, mesotrophic to eutrophic waterbodies. It occurs in a wide range of aquatic habitats in Southern Africa, from 1-1435 m asl. In central Africa it can be found on the pools surface at cooler altitudes, up to 1800 m asl.
164057		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte prefers still water that is mesotrophic to eutrophic.
164057		population	eng	It is very common with a stable population trend.
164057		population	eng	No population information on this species.
164057		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. minor</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164057		population	eng	This is a widespread species, very common and with a stable population trend.
164057		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
164057		threats	eng	No major threats to this species in Southern Africa and Northern Africa have been described.  Threats will depend on water quality and availability. Water composition can fluctuate considerably due to human activities and water availability can be affected by drought or pumping for irrigation.
164057		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164057		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164058		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones together with monitoring the population dynamics.
164058		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164058		distribution	eng	<em>C. acutiformis</em> occurs throughout Europe, east to Pakistan and the western Himalayas, it also occurs in North, eastern and southern Africa    (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
164058		distribution	eng	<em>Carex acutiformis</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, southern Africa and boreal America. In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence is over 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164058		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Africa, present in Algeria, Morocco, Lesotho, South Africa, Uganda (only in Echuya Forest Reserve), and Tanzania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is widely distributed in warm and temperate regions in Europe, Asia, North America and North and South Africa; its distribution follows bird migration.
164058		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in swamps and along water courses. Flowering occurs in spring and summer.
164058		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in swamps and ponds and along water courses. Usually rooted in water on the margins of ponds, along streams and rivers, it sometimes grows in shade. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164058		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. acutiformis</span> will occur in most types of wetland and fringing a wide variety of water bodies. It will occur as a marginal fringe along rivers and streams as well as forming potentially extensive monospecific stands in marshes and hollows in river floodplains.
164058		population	eng	In North Africa it is a rare species due to spatial limitations (six locations and an AOO <100 km²), occurring in restricted populations that are in slow regression (essentially in Algeria). It is rare in Algeria, with only four locations distributed between Numidie (Annaba), Kabylie (Jijel), the coastal Algérois (Alger) and Oranais (Moustaghanem) and very rare in Morocco, with only two locations, namely in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen at 1700m) and in the Oriental High Plains (Midelt at about 1,350 m). No specific information available for the other countries although it seems to be widespread.
164058		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. acutiformis</span> is widespread and abundant in Europe and populations are apparently stable.
164058		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. <br/>In North Africa it is a rare species due to spatial limitations, occurring in restricted populations that are in slow regression (essentially in Algeria). It is rare in Algeria, with only four locations distributed between Numidie (Annaba), Kabylie (Jijel), the coastal Algérois (Alger) and Oranais (Moustaghanem) and very rare in Morocco, with only two locations, namely in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen at 1700m) and in the Oriental High Plains (Midelt at about 1,350 m). <br/><br/>In Europe, there are few populations in Montenegro and in Croatia, it is present in 77 sites in Spain, common in nearly all France, including Corsica, and present in 11 provinces in Italy, in addition to Sardinia and Sicily.
164058		threats	eng	Generally there are no major threats known throughout the Pan-African region. In northern Africa the urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), the drainage of swamps and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.
164058		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164058		threats	eng	The urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), the drainage of swamps and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.
164059		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164059		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size and monitor the population dynamics.
164059		distribution	eng	<em>Ammannia auriculata</em> is a species with a pantropical distribution. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is native in Egypt, including the Sinai Peninsula, and it has naturalized in Italy. Its presence in Turkey is doubtful. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 1,300,000 km². <br/>In Egypt, it occurs in numerous locations (Mediterranean coast, Nile delta, oases of the western Desert and the Sinai Peninsula).
164059		distribution	eng	It occurs in tropical regions around the world. It is native to Africa, Asia, Australia, northern and southern America.
164059		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant that is found in ponds, damp dam banks, humid pastures of dark, clayey soil and rice fields.
164059		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in ponds, damp dam banks, humid pastures of dark, clayey soil and rice fields. Flowering occurs from the end of spring to the beginning of autumn.
164059		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><u></u></p>
164059		population	eng	The species is present in numerous locations, with populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Egypt, it is present in at least 15 locations distributed between the Nile delta, the Mediterranean coastal strip, the oases of the western Desert and the Sinai Peninsula.<br/>In Italy, it is adventitious in two provinces to the northwest of the country (naturalized).
164059		threats	eng	Agriculture and the use of herbicides are the main threats to this species.
164059		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
164060		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection (Languedoc-Roussillon). <br/><br/> In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164060		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164060		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus laevigatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and central Asia, North Africa, Macaronesia, tropical America and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164060		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus laevigatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and central Asia, north Africa, Macaronesia, tropical America and Australia. Widespread throughout Africa.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is  found in Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda in the medium lands between 1,450 and 1,600 m above sea level. Common and widespread in Kenya from sea level to 2,000 m asl. The species is found in saline Rift Valley Lakes (i.e. Nakuru, Elementaiata, Bogoria, Magadi) especially near springs where they forms dense sward on the lake shore. Common in Northern Africa, where it is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.
164060		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, marshes, pools riverbeds, drainage canals and humid sandy habitats. It prefeers moist alluvial and sandy soils, and can also grow in shallow brackish water, edges of salt marshes, shores of lakes, streams, and saline depressions. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn.
164060		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds, drainage canals and humid sandy habitats. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn.
164060		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very widespread, it is present from the Rif to the Oriental Plains and also in the Dakhla region on the Atlantic coast; <br/>- Algeria: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Tunisia: present in the Mogods, northeast Tunisia, Cap Bon, central Tunisia and south Tunisia; <br/>- Egypt: present along the Nile, in the Western Desert oases, along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coastal strips and in the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Spain: 29 sites; <br/>- France: fairly uncommon, present in two regions in the south of the country;<br/>- Italy: found in six provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.
164060		population	eng	The species is common in the Pan-African region and populations appear to be stable.
164060		threats	eng	Although no major widespread  threats have been described, agriculture, drainage of its habitat, and drought can threaten the species locally.
164060		threats	eng	The drainage of this species’ habitat is its main threat.
164061		conservation	eng	It is under regional protection in France (Midi-Pyrénées and Lorraine).<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones in North Africa and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164061		conservation	eng	Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones in North Africa and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164061		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164061		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis multicaulis</em> is a sub-Atlantic-European species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia and Macaronesia. <br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence over 2,500,000 km², 16 locations and an AOO <20 km².  It is very widespread in the Mediterranean region.
164061		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis multicaulis</em> is a sub-Atlantic-European species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Crete, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164061		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. multicaulis </span>occurs in continental Europe, Macaronesia and North Africa. In Europe, it occurs from Spain and Portugal north to Scandinavia and east to the Czech Republic and possibly the Ukraine, although the last record is based on a single specimen which lacks perianth bristles (Fedorov 1999a) and south to Crete.
164061		habitat	eng	<em>E. multicaulis</em> occurs in a wide variety of seasonally or permanently wet, usually acid but often somewhat enriched acid habitats, including <em>Sphagnum denticulatum</em> pools, <em>Narthecium ossifragum</em>-<em>Sphagnum</em> valley mires and associations with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum elodes</span> and P<span style="font-style: italic;">otamogeton polygonifolius</span> or species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenus nigricans</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica tetralix</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica vagans</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinea caerulea</span>.
164061		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits peaty swamps of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-July).
164061		population	eng	In North Africa it occurs in 16 locations with an AOO estimated at about 60 km² but the populations are restricted and in slow decline as its habitat (peaty swamps) has been partially destroyed in Morocco and is threatened in Algeria. In Morocco, where it is classified as vulnerable, it occurs in 11 locations, namely in northern Atlantic Morocco (swamp north of Lalla Mimouna, pool north of Kénitra, Larache and Hendi-es-Soucar Cork Oak Forest) and the Rif (from Jbel Sougna to Tizi Ifri, Timellatine, Tidighine, Jbel Kebir, Jbel Zemzem, Jbel Darziro and Koudiate el Harcha). It is very rare in Algeria, with three locations in Numidie (La Calle, Senhaja and Bone). In Tunisia, it is found in the peaty swamps of Kroumirie (Bab Abrik and Aïn Draham, Dar Fatma, Mejen Chitana).
164061		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. multicaulis</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Norway, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.
164061		population	eng	The species is fairly widespread in the European Mediterranean region: present in eight provinces of Portugal, 94 sites in Spain, uncommon along the Mediterranean coast of France, and present in five provinces besides Sardinia in Italy.<br/><br/>In North Africa it occurs in 16 locations with an AOO estimated at about 60 km² but the populations are restricted and in slow decline as its habitat (peaty swamps) has been partially destroyed in Morocco and is threatened in Algeria. In Morocco, where it is classified as vulnerable, it occurs in 11 locations, namely in northern Atlantic Morocco (swamp north of Lalla Mimouna, pool north of Kénitra, Larache and Hendi-es-Soucar Cork Oak Forest) and the Rif (from Jbel Sougna to Tizi Ifri, Timellatine, Tidighine, Jbel Kebir, Jbel Zemzem, Jbel Darziro and Koudiate el Harcha). It is very rare in Algeria, with three locations in Numidie (La Calle, Senhaja and Bone). In Tunisia, it is found in the peaty swamps of Kroumirie (Bab Abrik and Aïn Draham, Dar Fatma, Mejen Chitana).
164061		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164061		threats	eng	The drainage of swamps and their transformation into agricultural or forestry land (pine and eucalyptus) are the main threats to this species.
164061		threats	eng	The drainage of swamps and their transformation into agricultural or forestry land (Pine and Eucalyptus) are the main threats to this species.
164062		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Languedoc-Roussillon.<br/>Information on the population size and the rate of decline at European level within three generations needs to collected in order to carry out an informed threat assessment.
164062		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Languedoc-Roussillon. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in North African countries) <br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To promote the maintenance of extensive grazing <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164062		distribution	eng	<em>Elatine macropoda</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Portugal, Spain (mainland and the Balearic islands), France (mainland and Corsica), Italy (mainland, Sardinia and Sicily), Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, Libya, Malta, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. <br/>In North Africa, <em>E. macropoda</em> is considered as rare in Morocco, with only one locality in the Haut Atlas (Oukeïmeden), two localities in the Moyen- Atlas (Takka-Ichiane and khneg Merzoul) and three on the Atlantic plains (Mamora close to Rabat, Benslimane, Loukkos). It is very rare in Algeria (Aflou, Tiaret), rare in Tunisia (Madjen el Ma in Kroumirie, Sedjenane in Mogods, El Haouaria to Cap Bon), in Egypt (in the region of the Nile: El-Khanka; close to Cairo) and in Libya (Benghazi, Shahat-Derna). <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence exceeds 4,700,000 km².
164062		distribution	eng	<em>Elatine macropoda</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Portugal, Spain (mainland and the Balearic islands), France (mainland and Corsica), Italy (mainland, Sardinia and Sicily), Greece, FYR Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, North Africa and the Middle East.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
164062		habitat	eng	It is found in temporary pools and marshes on flinty substrate. It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) of small size that germinates on flooded or saturated soil but reproduces only when emerged (aerial reproduction). It blooms in spring and early summer (April-July).
164062		habitat	eng	It is found in temporary pools and marshes on flinty substrate. It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) of small size that germinates on flooded or saturated soil but reproduces only when emergent (aerial reproduction). It blooms in spring and early summer (April-July).
164062		population	eng	In spite of its large geographical distribution, the real area occupied by <em>E. macropoda</em> remains low with populations which are globally in decline following the destruction of their habitat (in temporary pools). This destruction is more important in North African countries. In Bulgaria, the populations are presumed extinct because of the strong urbanization.
164062		population	eng	In spite of its wide geographical distribution, the real area occupied by <em>E. macropoda</em> remains low with populations which are globally in decline following the destruction of temporary pools. In Bulgaria, the populations are presumed extinct because of the strong urbanization.
164062		threats	eng	The habitat is subject to numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, extension of agriculture. Besides these threats, it is affected by competition from large plants (Helophytes or woody) that are favoured by the abandonment of extensive grazing and by the increasing frequency of droughts probably driven by climate change.
164062		threats	eng	The habitat is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, extension of agriculture. Besides these threats, this small sized species is affected by the competition of large size plants (Helophytes or woody) that are favoured by the abandonment of extensive grazing and by the increasing frequency of droughts probably driven by climate change.
164063		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size, monitor the dynamics of the populations and reduce the habitat loss through the enforcement of legal protection measures.
164063		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum junceum</em> is a species that is found in the Mediterranean region and in Macaronesia (Canary Islands and the Azores). <br/>In Europe, it is present in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Turkey. It is present in numerous locations.
164063		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum junceum</em> is a species that is found in the Mediterranean region and in Macaronesia (Canary Islands and the Azores). <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It is present in numerous locations.
164063		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in wetlands and along the edges of permanent and temporary water courses of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m in altitude. Flowering occurs between May and July.
164063		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. junceum</span> is extensively represented in all of the countries of the Mediterranean region. Populations appear to be stable.
164063		population	eng	The species is extensively represented in all of the countries of the Mediterranean region. Populations appear to be stable. In Morocco, it is present in nearly all of the country; in Algeria is present in all of the country; in Tunisia is very widespread, occurring in Kroumerie (Aïn Dramam, Jbel Rorra, etc.), the Mogods (Sedjnane, etc.), the northeast (Graet Ichkeul) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Nebeur, Oued Thibar, Oued Bargou, Jbel Zaghouan, Thala, Aïn Cherichera, etc.); in Libya, it is only recorded in the Gharyan region; in Egypt it is present in the Sinai Peninsula and all along the Mediterranean strip.
164063		threats	eng	The urbanization, drainage and infilling of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164064		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164064		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place in Africa, it is recommended to monitor the site in Algeria and to maintain its habitat.<br/><br/>There is no legal protection. Measures of conservation in place are (at level of the subspecies <em>rotgesii</em>): it is in the Red Book tome II, surveillance of the existing stations is done by guards of the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica and search of new stations is carried out too.<br/><br/>Proposed actions are (for the sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">rotgesii</span>): follow-up of the dynamics of different populations, increase acknowledgement about biology, resilience, conservation and collect seeds for ex situ gene bank.
164064		distribution	eng	<em>P. arundinacea</em> has a circumboreal distribution, from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, as well as throughout most of North America. It is considered to have been   introduced to Australia, New Zealand, Central America, South Africa, Mexico, South America, the West Indies, the Mascarene Islands and Hawaii. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.<br/><br/><em>P. arundinacea</em> ssp. <em>rotgesii</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Eurosiberian origins. It is localized at the southern mountains of Corsica.
164064		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris arundinacea</em> is widely distributed in southern Europe and Asia, it is considered invasive in North America. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Egypt and Algeria. In the Mediterranean, it also occurs in Portugal, Spain, France and Corsica, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Italy and Sardinia, Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, and Turkey.<br/><br/><em>P. arundinacea</em> ssp. <em>rotgesii</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Eurosiberian origins. It is localized at the southern mountains of Corsica.
164064		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. arundinacea</span> will occur in most wetland habitats, often behaving as an aggressive colonist of disturbed wetlands, it is typically found in wet pasture, the margins of rivers, streams, ditches, canals, ponds and lakes.
164064		habitat	eng	The species is found in wet grasslands, edges of rivers and in crops (adventice in Egypt), in torrent gravel runnels and “fruticées naines” or lands from 150 to 1,700 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte grows on granitic gravels and alluvium.<br/><br/>It is a widely cultivated variant of horticultural origin.
164064		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. arundinacea</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
164064		population	eng	The species is fairly common and widely cultivated in Egypt.<br/>It is very rare in Algeria, with only one location at Maison carrée, Oued Reghaia, Mazafran where it is threatened by development and water pollution.<br/>The species occurs throughout Spain and France; at a few locations in Montenegro and Albania and it is common in Croatia. It is found throughout the country at low elevation in Turkey, is widespread in Italy on the mainland and in Sardinia.<br/>It is known from 23 sites in Corsica where the populations does not seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no data on the trend available. For instance, populations don’t seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.
164064		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164064		threats	eng	The species is not threatened at a global scale but suffers from local threats in regions where the species is uncommon.<br/>In Algeria, the only location is threatened by development. <br/><br/>In Corsica the habitat of the subspecies <em>rotgesii</em> is impacted by extensive pork breeding. In future, due to the decrease of stockbreeding this species will be affected by the competition of the woody plants.
164065		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Legal conservation of the species (Lebanese List of Protected Species) <br/>- Conservation of the habitat
164065		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus schweinfurthii</em> is a species strictly endemic to Lebanon. It is found at the western slopes of the Lebanese mountain chain between 1,400-2,000 m of altitude. It occurs in four locations (Jabal Kneissé sinkholes, north of Aïn Saoura'ir between Sannine and Kneissé, Rouessat and Jabal Barouk near the cedars) and it has an extent of occurrence under 5,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is below 20 km².
164065		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits the bottoms of sinkholes or other places that are filled with snow for a long time in winter and in spring. Flowering occurs during summer (until September).
164065		population	eng	The species has a very restricted distribution and populations are quite fragmented. The trend of the populations is stable and the species is abundant.
164065		threats	eng	Tourist infrastructures in the mountains and winter leisure activities are two of the main threats to this species in the medium-term.
164066		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164066		distribution	eng	The species has a Pantropic distribution. In North east Africa it is present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea. In Northern Africa it is only found in Egypt (along Nile banks). Also recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe,  Mozambique, Namibia, and South Africa.<br/><br/>Out of Africa, it has been recorded from Israel and Saudi Arabia.
164066		habitat	eng	This species grows in moist ground, canals and along river banks.
164066		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the region.
164066		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164067		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place. It is suggested to carry out surveillance of the existing locations and to search for new ones and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164067		distribution	eng	<em>Hemarthria altissima</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its geographical distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, tropical Africa and tropical America. <br/>In Europe, it occurs in Spain, Canary Islands, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands and Turkey.
164067		distribution	eng	<em>Hemarthria altissima</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its geographical distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, tropical Africa and tropical America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Spain, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Italy, Sicily, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 500,000 km², with several localities.
164067		habitat	eng	<em>Hemarthria altissima</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits the banks of permanent streams and swamps. Flowering occurs during summer.
164067		population	eng	The species is infrequent in the European Mediterranean. In Spain, it is known from 18 localities in the south of the country; in Italy, it is present in three provinces in addition to Sicily.
164067		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean, but less frequent North Africa, with a presence at more than 10 localities. The populations are in slow regression resulting from various anthropogenic pressures on its habitat in the swamps. It is very rare in Morocco, with only one known locality (edge of the Oued Tiflet); rare in Algeria, Numidie, in the Tellien Atlas Algerois and in the coastal plains oranais; rare in Tunisia, known in Kroumirie (Sidi Bader in the east of Tabarka) and in the northeast (Mensel Bourguiba (previously Ferryville). In Egypt, it is found along the Mediterranean coastal strip and on the banks of the Nile. <br/>In Spain, it is known from 18 localities in the south of the country; in Italy is present in three provinces in addition to Sicily.
164067		threats	eng	Drainage and the transformation of the swamps into agricultural land constitute the main threats for the species.
164068		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. scardica</span> is classed as Data Deficient in Hungary. In the Czech Republic it is classed as Critically Endangered and one site is protected.<br/>Otherwise there is no information available on its conservation status or needs and more research about the population size, trends and potential threats is needed.
164068		distribution	eng	<em>V. scardica</em> occurs in Europe, Egypt and the Middle East. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the Balkans, extending north to the Czech Republic and east into Ukraine.
164068		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. scardica</span> occurs in moist ground or wet gravel often on serpentine soil along streams, canal banks and ditches as well as on wet rocky slopes. It can also occur in inland saline habitats.
164068		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. scardica</span> is rare throughout its range. In Hungary it is classed as Data Deficient and is rare with not more than 10 confirmed localities in pioneer wet habitats. In Greece, it is very rare and restricted to one region (Ipiros). In Croatia, it has been recorded for the first time in the southeast of Zagreb (Topić and Ilijanić 2003). However, this might be a misidentification (G. Király pers. comm. 2010).<br/>In the Czech Republic, it is very rare. It was discovered in 1960s when it was found at seven localities till 1985, then it disappeared. In 2002 it was found again at two sites. One site is at the dried bottom of a fish pond.<br/>The species is relatively common in Bulgaria.
164068		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats available.
164070		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Backing of the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164070		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus maroccanus</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It has been described recently (2004) in the north of Morocco where it is known from only one locality near Larache (Ksar-El-Kebir. 35°11.15' N, 5°58.69'W). Its area of occupancy is less than 1 km². This species was only described recently, so more localities may be found in the future.
164070		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus maroccanus</em> is found in non-salty humid depressions on sand substrate. It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that blooms in spring under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164070		population	eng	This species has only been described recently and therefore the population trends are unknown. However, it is only known from one locality with a very small area of occupancy. Furthermore, the locality is situated in close proximity of a busy road, making the population very fragile and putting it under immediate threat of destruction.
164070		threats	eng	Drainage, filling-in, overgrazing, road infrastructures and the extension of agriculture are the main threats to this species' habitat. The area in which the species occurs is currently under development.
164072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164072		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris coerulescens</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, North Africa, the Canary Islands and Madeira. It was introduced everywhere else where it occurs. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km² with several locations.
164072		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits riverbeds, ditches, temporarily flooded depressions, pastures that are flooded in winter and wetlands of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (April-July).
164072		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with several locations. The trend of the populations is unknown but presumed to be stable.  <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous locations distributed between the Rif, the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco, mid-Atlantic Morocco and the Mediterranean coastline;<br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: widespread throughout the country, from Tabarka to Djerba; <br/>- Libya: fairly common (in Derna and the Tripoli region); <br/>- Egypt: only found at the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Spain: quite rare, solely occurring at 16 sites; <br/>- France: limited to the south of the country where it is present in seven departments besides Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common, present in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.
164072		threats	eng	Urbanization is the main threat to this species’ habitat.
164073		conservation	eng	Some populations are included in Ramsar sites. Furthermore, the following conservation measures are needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas.
164073		conservation	eng	Some populations are included in Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas, etc.
164073		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in North Africa, Ethiopia, west and middle Asia, America, central and southern Europe.<br/><br/>In North east Africa it is only found in Ethiopia (no material seen) and Somalia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco at Tangier, western Rif, Pre-Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Settat and Volubilis (Maire 1957); in Algeria where five locations are named, scattered all over the country; and in Tunisia where it occurs at only one location: Bargou.
164073		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in North Africa, Ethiopia, west and middle Asia, America, central and southern Europe. It is present in southern France, missing in Corsica, found at the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, Cyprus and former Yugoslavia (Pignatti 1997). <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco at Tangier, West Rif, Pre-Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Settat and Volubilis (Maire 1957); in Algeria where five locations are named, scattered all over the country; and in Tunisia where it occurs at only one location: Bargou.
164073		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is an annual species. It grows on clay along streams, in evergreen bushland with <em>Buxus</em> and <em>Cadia</em> on limestone. Its preferred habitats are ditches, riverbanks and damp, open habitats, marshes, and dayas on plains and mountains from 0 to 600 m above sea level.
164073		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is an annual species. Its preferred habitats are ditches, riverbanks and damp, open habitats, marshes, and dayas on plains and mountains from 0 to 600 m altitude.
164073		population	eng	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is rare and scattered over most of its range (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1964). In North Africa, its area is limited to one location in Tunisia, five locations in Algeria, and more than five locations in Morocco. It occurs at 38 localities in Spain and Portugal and is found in three northern regions in Italy: Aosta Valley, Piedmont and<em> </em><span class="mw-redirect">Trentino-Alto Adige.<em> </em>There is one locality in Montenegro (Smarda 1968). The species is extinct in Israel.
164073		population	eng	This species is rare and often not presisting long in its localities in North Eastern Africa.  In North Africa, its area is limited to Tunisia (one location), Algeria (five locations) and Morocco (more than five locations).
164073		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agricultural expansion, grazing and various types of pollution. It is furthermore restricted to some countries and a few localities.
164073		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agricultural expansion, grazing and various types of pollution. It is restricted to few countries and a few localities. Due to its restricted range and  limited dispersal it may be affected by other threats.
164074		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected on a regional level (Corsica) and is included in the French national Red List. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from both the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and Botanical Conservatory from Corsica; search for new locations is underway.<br/>It is recommended to study the dynamics of different populations; to increase knowledge about its biology, resilience and conservation; and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164074		distribution	eng	<em>Myosotis soleirolii</em> is an endemic species from Corsica and Sardinia with Paleotemperate origins. It is a rare species in the central mountains of Corsica from Rotondo to Incudine mountains. In Sardinia, it is found in the Gennargentu mountains.
164074		habitat	eng	The species is found on runnels, edges of streamlets from 160 m to 2,050 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows principally on granite. At the moment, information about germination, growing and flowering conditions is not available - more research is needed.
164074		population	eng	<p><em>Myosotis soleirolii</em> is known from 35 sites in <st1:place w:st="on">Corsica</st1:place>. It has last been observed at the site of Rotondo in 2007.</p><p> The populations are affected by the hydrological conditions, but the global trend is not known. The lower altitude populations are found in flooded areas, so if the water level drops these are likely to disappear.</p>
164074		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are drought and decreasing water quality.
164075		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164075		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">J. tenageia</span> is classed as  Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Data Deficient in Croatia, and  is noted as being of conservation concern in the Netherlands and Hungary, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164075		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in central, southern and western Europe, North Africa, Ethiopia, and west Asia.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is common in Tunisia (Kroumirie and Sedjenane: three localities), Algeria (Tell and Aures mountains, Mountains of Tlemcen) and Morocco where it is common in the north and west, Middle and Great Atlas (Maire 1957), Tangier, West and central Rif, Targuist (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).
164075		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in central, southern and western Europe, North Africa, Ethiopia, and west Asia.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is common in Tunisia (Kroumirie and Sedjenane: three localities), Algeria (Tell and Aures mountains, Mountains of Tlemcen) and Morocco where it is common in the north and west, Middle and Great Atlas (Maire 1957), Tangier, West and central Rif, Targuist (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In the wider Mediterranean it is found in Portugal, Spain, France with Corsica, Italy (scattered and very rare in the north, rare in the centre, Sicily and Sardinia), the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean countries.
164075		distribution	eng	<p><em>J. tenageia</em> has a predominantly European distribution, extending beyond the region only into North Africa, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Cyprus and Turkey. In Europe, it mainly occurs in the Mediterranean and the Balkans, extending north into central Europe to the Netherlands, Germany and Poland.</p>
164075		habitat	eng	<em>J. tenageia</em> is a characteristic species of the Nano-cyperion associations that form on the drawdown zones of lakes and ponds or which colonise temporary wetlands. It will also grow on wet sands in Italy, seasonally inundated flooded meadows (<em>Isoetion</em>), banks of ponds and lakes in Corsica. In Hungary, it has been reported from arable and pasture land if wet enough such as inland inundations on plough lands.
164075		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is an annual Therophyte that is found in wet sands in Italy (siliceous), from 0 to 1,000 m, wet or temporarily flooded meadows (<em>Isoetion</em>), banks of ponds and lakes in Corsica, marshes, dayas on plains and mountains in North Africa.
164075		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is an annual Therophyte that is found in wet sands in marshes, dayas on plains and mountains in North Africa.
164075		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">J. tenageia</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Data Deficient in Croatia, and is noted as being of conservation concern in the Netherlands and Hungary. It appears to be scarce in the northern part of its European range, becoming more abundant in the Mediterranean.
164075		population	eng	The populations are limited to the western Mediterranean region: <em>Juncus tenageia</em> is missing in Egypt and Libya to the south and very rare to rare in Italy to the north. Nevertheless, its Extent of Occurrence (EOO) is wide in North Africa (from Morocco to Tunisia >20,000 km²).
164075		population	eng	The populations are more prominent in the western Mediterranean region: <em>Juncus tenageia</em> is missing in Egypt and Libya to the south and very rare to rare in Italy to the north. Nevertheless, its extent of occurrence is wide in North Africa (from Morocco to Tunisia >20,000 km²), in the north Mediterranean region probably as wide as in the south.
164075		threats	eng	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is not threatened in the short term. This situation can change if the wetlands are threatened in the countries and are not legally protected.
164075		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species in the major part of its range. In Hungary, where the species is classed as Endangered, the disappearance of pioneer wet stands as a result of drainage or the transformation into artificial meadows or forest plantations is leading to population declines   (Király 2007).</p>
164076		conservation	eng	Currently, there are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, create a micro-reserve for this species' sites and to study size and dynamics of the populations .
164076		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic plant from Tunisia (Medjerda valley: Borj, Toum, El Amri, Tébourba; northeast: Arriana, Aouina; central Tunsia: Ain Cherichera), Algeria (Sebkha of Oran) and Morocco (Sidi Âllal el Bahraoui in the north, Taourirt, valley of Oued Za in the east of Morocco). The area of occupancy is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
164076		habitat	eng	This is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It is found on clayey fields, in clearings and in moist fields. Flowering is from April to May.
164076		population	eng	This species is very rare in Morocco (three sites) and Algeria. In Tunisia, seven sites are known. The distribution is restricted.
164076		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are urbanization and agriculture, as well as water pollution. Tourism development is threatening the species in Algeria. The species has a restricted range.
164077		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Otherwise no conservation measures are in need.
164077		distribution	eng	In Africa it is only present in the Nile region including Delta, Oases, the Mediterranean coastal strip, and desert east of the Nile.
164077		habitat	eng	Moist ground, Nile and canal banks.
164077		population	eng	Common weed
164077		threats	eng	No major widspread threats are known.
164078		conservation	eng	Some populations in the Iberian peninsula are included in protected areas. There are no further conservation measures in place. For North Africa, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and to study the size and dynamics of the populations.
164078		distribution	eng	<em>Myosotis debilis</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean basin. It is found in Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km², and it is present at more than 20 locations.
164078		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and marshes of plains and low mountains. It is found in wet meadows, banks of rivers and streams, on sandy, not calcareous, soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164078		population	eng	The species is fairly common on Mediterranean level, but the North African populations are confined and their trend remains unknown. <br/>In Morocco, the species is classified as very rare, known in only five locations distributed between the Rif (Tangérois, Issaguène valley and Oued Laou) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Chaouia-Benslimane and Mamora). In Algeria, it is also quite rare along the coastal strip of the Tell Atlas and very rare in Tiaret. In Portugal, it is fairly common and present in all provinces and in Spain, it is present in 18 provinces in the west and centre of the country. The populations in the Iberian Peninsula are stable.
164078		threats	eng	Habitat drainage for agricultural purposes, urbanization, and infrastructure development, such as the construction of roads, are the main threats to this species.
164079		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164079		conservation	eng	<p>In the UK, all sites are protected as SSSIs, the species is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) and it is the subject of a Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP). In the Czech Republic the species is categorized Critically Endangered   (Prochazka 2001), in Austria it is classed Vulnerable (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999). </p>
164079		distribution	eng	A palaeo-temperate species that is widespread in the Mediterranean. It is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.
164079		distribution	eng	A palaeo-temperate species that is widespread in the Mediterranean. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Sardina, Italy, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.
164079		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C.&#160;fuscus</span> occurs from Macaronesia through Europe and the Mediterranean east to China and Vietnam, it is introduced to North America (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It is reported from all European countries except Faroe Islands, Finland, Iceland, Ireland, Norway (mainland), Portugal-Azores, Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway) and UK-Northern Ireland.
164079		habitat	eng	<em>C. fuscus</em> grows in wet places, sandy soils, rice fields, and edges of springs.
164079		habitat	eng	<p><em>C.&#160;fuscus </em>is a Therophyte and typically grows in seasonally inundated, organic mud where competition from perennial plants, particularly grasses is suppressed, either naturally such as by seasonal variation in water levels or anthropogenic actions such as poaching by cattle. </p>
164079		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. fuscus</span> is rare in the UK and there has been a loss of some historic populations, however current populations are all on protected sites (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It is widespread and abundant in France.</p>
164079		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout its range.
164079		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout the Mediterranean.
164079		threats	eng	<p>No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.</p>
164079		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
164080		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place in Algeria. In Morocco, some populations are included in the designated Ramsar site of Moulouya.<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing locations and search for new localities <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- To reduce habitat loss by applying legal conservation measures
164080		distribution	eng	<em>Limonium battandieri</em> is endemic to Morocco and Algeria. It occurs at more than 10 sites. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy surpasses 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
164080		habitat	eng	<em>Limonium battandieri</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte), that inhabits salty lands of the coastline and sebkhas. Flowering occurs between spring and summer.
164080		population	eng	<em>Limonium battandieri</em> is very rare in Morocco but more common in Algeria. The populations are in slow regression resulting from the tourist resorts that are intense at the coastline. <br/><br/>In Morocco, it is very rare with three known sites on the Mediterranean coastline (near Melilia, Nador, and Moulouya). In Algeria, it is common in the coastal plains of Oranais and the Tellien Atlas Oranais whereas it is rare in the High Plateaus Algerois and Oranais.
164080		threats	eng	The tourist amenities at the Mediterranean coastline constitute the main threat for the species, especially in Morocco.
164081		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species population numbers and range, threats and potential conservation measures.
164081		distribution	eng	Endemic to Egypt: Nile Delta, Alexandria, canals east of the Nile
164081		habitat	eng	Moist ground, Nile and canal banks.
164081		population	eng	Rare
164081		threats	eng	No information available.
164082		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but for the future it is recommended to manage the harvest of this species.
164082		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum capillus-veneris</span> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its distribution encompasses tropical, subtropical, temperate regions and the Mediterranean. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Albania, Turkey, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Cyprus, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Israel, Palestine, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Malta, Lebanon, Syria, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its Mediterranean occurrence area passes 5,000,000 km² with numerous localities.
164082		habitat	eng	<em>Adiantum capillus-veneris</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte to rhizome) that inhabits caves and humid rocks, banks of watercourses, banks of springs and also artificial lands such as wells and walls. It is very tolerant to the chemical nature of the substratum. Its development occurs in spring and its flowering in summer.
164082		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and populations appearing to be steady.
164082		threats	eng	There are not major threats for the species.
164083		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
164083		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164083		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus esculentus</em> is a pantropical species and occurs in most of the countries along the Mediterranean Sea.
164083		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus esculentus </span>is cosmopolitan in warmer regions. In India it is known to occur in Delhi, Jammu Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka, Punjab and Tamil Nadu. (Cook 1996). In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Coimbatore and Nilgiri (Bhargavan 1989). In Madhya Pradesh it is reported from Satna. In Maharasthra it occurs in Kagal, Buldhana, Kolhapur, Nasik, Osmangabad, Pune, Thane (Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Verma 2001).
164083		distribution	eng	Widespread species with a Pantropical distribution, including the Mediterranean region and Madagascar. The plant has been dispersed by man under cultivation, and it has in turn become a serious and common weed of many crops especially in highland areas. It is widespread in western Africa and Southern Africa. In north Eastern Africa it is present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Distribution in Djibouti uncertain.
164083		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb growing in seasonally flooded areas, swamps, but usually found in cultivated lands (Cook 1996).
164083		habitat	eng	This sedge prefers moist ground, grows in rice fields and in sandy soils.
164083		habitat	eng	This sedge prefers moist ground, grows in rice fields and in sandy soils. It is also foun in other cultivated and waste sites.  It is of ancient cultivation. Tubers have been identified in the funery of tombs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt, c. 2,000 B.C.
164083		population	eng	No population information available for the species. But it is a rare species.
164083		population	eng	This species is very common. The plant has been dispersed by man under cultivation, and it has in turn become a serious and common weed of many crops.
164083		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p><br/></p>
164083		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
164083		threats	eng	This species is disturbed by agriculture pollution, but it is not a major threat.
164085		conservation	eng	There are some designated Ramsar sites in Algeria which help to protect this plant species. Future measures needed include the production of an inventory of the habitats of this species along with its population distribution and more detailed taxonomy.
164085		distribution	eng	<em>Cicendia filiformis</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species that grows in Morocco (Tangier, W Rif, Loukkos, C Rif, Targuist), Algeria (very rare), and Tunisia (> six locations). The plant is also found in Portugal, Spain (including Balearic Islands), Italy (including Sicily and Sardinia), France (including Corsica), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Albania, Greece, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey.
164085		habitat	eng	This an annually occuring Therophyte which is found growing in pools and wetlands on siliceous substrate in Italy and France; temporary ponds, meadows or moist ground in Corsica; wet depressions in winter, banks of dayas on siliceous ground in Tunisia; and dayas or temporary ponds (often peaty, sandy or siliceous) in Algeria. <br/>The flowering season is from April to May in Italy; May until September in France; April until August in Corsica; and April to June in Morocco and Algeria.
164085		population	eng	There is very little information available on the populations of this species. It is probably overlooked as it proves to be difficult to locate it in the field. In Tunisia, it is common in pools in the Mogods.
164085		threats	eng	There are no major threats in the short term, but temporary ponds that provide a suitable habitat for <em>C. filiformis</em> are the most threatened type of wetland.
164086		conservation	eng	In Croatia, <em>S. mucronatus</em> is classed as Critically Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2005), it is also listed as Endangered in Switzerland. In France, the species is protected at regional level in Alsace, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté, Centre, and Midi-Pyrénées. In Italy, according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) it is classified as Vulnerable in Friuli-Venezia Giulia and of Lower Risk in Marche. For Tuscany, it is classified as Critically Endangered (Sposimo and Castelli 2005).   There are no other conservation measures in place or needed
164086		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Alsace, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté, Centre, and Midi-Pyrénées. In Italy, according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) it is classified as Vulnerable in Friuli-VeneziaGiulia and of Lower Risk in Marche. For Tuscany, it is classified as Critically Endangered (Sposimo and Castelli 2005).<br/>For the Mediterranean region there are no additional conservation measures needed.
164086		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus mucronatus</em> is an Old-World perennial sedge, only known in Africa from one locality in Egypt (Nile delta: Rosetta). Its further distribution in the Mediterranean region includes Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, where it is sparsely distributed along the Mediterranean coast.<br/><br/>The species is also found in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Australasia. It has been introduced to Mexico and the United States of America.
164086		distribution	eng	<p><em>S. mucronatus</em> occurs throughout much of the Old World, including North Africa and Africa south of the Sahara, including some Indian Ocean islands, from Europe east through the Caucasus, the Middle East, Mongolia and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far East and Japan, south from the Indian Sub-continent through Southeast Asia to Australia and it has been introduced to North America.</p>
164086		habitat	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus mucronatus</em> is a perennial plant (40-90 cm) that grows in marshes, ponds and rice fields, where it is a weed.
164086		habitat	eng	<em>S. mucronatus</em> typically occurs on organic sediments or sometimes clays in marshes, the margins of ponds and lakes, and in rice fields.
164086		population	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus mucronatus</em> is very rare in Egypt, found at one locality, and the population trend is unknown.<br/>In Turkey, it is found near Ankara, Artvin, Istanbul and Kastamonu and is not very common.<br/>In Croatia, it is present at one locality outside the Mediterranean region and is classed as Critically Endangered   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). In Italy, several localities have been reported for northern Italy and for Tuscany, Marche, Umbria and Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) confirm that it is found at several sites in Sicily. In Spain, it has a disjunct and localised distribution near rice fields and agricultural land. The species might be more frequent there, but not all potential habitats have been surveyed yet. It is found in all provinces of Portugal. In France, it has a disjunct distribution and is not common in the Mediterranean region - only 6 localities have been found there. In Greece, it is present in the north central and north western part, and there are unconfirmed reports from the Ionian islands.
164086		population	eng	In Croatia, <em>S. mucronatus</em>  is present at one locality outside the Mediterranean region and is classed as Critically Endangered   (Nikolić and Topić 2005), it is also listed as Endangered in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). In Italy, several localities have been reported for northern Italy and for Tuscany, Marche, Umbria and Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) confirm that it is found at several sites in Sicily. In Spain, it has a disjunct and localised distribution near rice fields and agricultural land. The species might be more frequent there, but not all potential habitats have been surveyed yet. It is found in all provinces of Portugal. In France, it has a disjunct distribution and is not common in the Mediterranean region - only six localities have been found there. In Greece, it is present in the northcentral and northwestern part, and there are unconfirmed reports from the Ionian islands.
164086		threats	eng	Agricultural development and changes in the hydrological regime are the main threats. Industrialisation is a local threat in Tuscany for example.
164086		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164088		conservation	eng	In France, the species is classed as Endangered in the National Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995) and is under regional protection in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. In Italy, the species is classified as Endangered in Liguria, Vulnerable in Tuscany, and of Lower Risk in Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). According to Scoppola and Spampinato (2005) it is classified as Vulnerable for Italy. The Northern Appenine site is a Natura 2000 site; new investigations on the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula</span> are currently being carried out there. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures are to monitor the population dynamics, the existing sites and to search for new ones; site management of the cliffs and control of infrastructure development; to assess the risk of hybridisation with alien <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula</span> species; to raise public awareness, in particular about the potential threat of species collection.
164088		distribution	eng	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> is a Mediterranean endemic. It is found in the mountains of south and northwest Italy (Appennin and Abruzze) where it is very rare, and is just extending to southeastern France (Maritime Alps). According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) the main distribution of this species is in the Alpi Liguri (Piemonte and Liguria) and northern Apennine, with a more doubtful record for Abruzzo. The latter populations might belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fiorii</span> Tammaro.<br/>The extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km².
164088		habitat	eng	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> is a perennial, carnivorous plant that grows on limestone and calcareous sandstone rocks, in the shade of crevices (from 400 to 1,600 m). This species is found on very wet inland cliffs of Mediterranean mountains, dripping, overhanging or vertical rocks of hills, that are colonised by specialised vegetation formed by <em>Adiantum capillus-veneris</em>, mosses, and <em>Pinguicula</em> spp.<br/>Its flowering time is from April to June.
164088		population	eng	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> has several scattered and very small populations but the population trend is suspected to be stable. In France, there are three populations, one in Roya valley, one in La Brigue valley and one in Vesubie valley. In Italy, there are <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 20 sites in the northern Appenines, probably two sites in the Maritime Alps and additional sites in the Alpi Liguri but their number is unknown.
164088		threats	eng	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> is a very rare species with very restricted ecological requirements. It does not seem threatened at the moment, but there are potential future threats such as the collection of the plant, construction of a ski resort in the Apennines and the construction of transport infrastructures (roads) in France. The    population of Gorges de Paganin is directly threatened by an introduced species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula chrystallina</span>) both for potential hybridization and for competition.  <span ;="">
164089		conservation	eng	In Spain, the species is classified as Endangered in the Red List and some sites are located in the Natural Park "Lagunas de Ruidera", in the Natural Reserve "Laguna de la Paja" and in the SCI "Laguna de los Ojos de Villaverde".<br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place and it is recommended to legally protect the species and include it in the Moroccan List of Protected Species, to reduce the habitat loss through the enforcement of legal protection measures and to study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate its population size.<br/><br/>For all the populations, it is necessary to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics, to restore damaged habitats and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164089		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum baeticum</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in western Spain in the regions Cataluña, La Alcarria, La Mancha and Andalucía; and in Morocco distributed between the Gharb, Zemmours-Zaër and to the south of Tamanar. It occurs in more than 10 locations and its extent of occurrence covers about 200,000 km². Its area of occupancy is probably less than 500 km².
164089		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporarily flooded wetlands such as pools, marshes, wet depressions, generally on marly soil. The plant is very sensitive to annual rainfall fluctuations and needs wet winters and springs to develop in an optimal way (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164089		population	eng	The species shows large inter-annual fluctuations related to the amount of rainfall. The populations are widely dispersed and are likely to be declining, probably due to the agricultural usage of their habitat. <br/>In Morocco, the species is considered rare. In Spain, the species is classified as Endangered (Moreno 2008). There is a strong reduction of its potential habitat and it has likely disappeared from many locations where it previously occurred. Four populations are threatened due to the urbanization, drainage and agricultural use of their habitat. The fragmented and isolated character of the habitat increases the intrinsic extinction risk.
164089		threats	eng	Drainage, infilling (particularly of small temporary depressions), agricultural usage and urbanization of this species' habitat, as well as the use of herbicides, are the main threats to this species. Moreover, the species susceptibility to climatic variations such as rainfall deficit and the fragmented and isolated character of its habitat cause a high intrinsic risk of extinction   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).
164090		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or in need.
164090		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or in need.
164090		distribution	eng	<em>Carex hispida</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Malta, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers over 4,500,000 km², with several locations.
164090		distribution	eng	<em>Carex hispida</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. <br/>In Africa it is only found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 300,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) over 50 km².
164090		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, humid prairies and the banks of rivers and irrigation channels of plains and mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-June).
164090		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and its populations appear to be stable.<br/> <br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, the High Oriental Plains, the Tangerois in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; it is common in Algeria, in the Tell region and in the Saharan Atlas; fairly common in Kroumirie (El Fedja, Aïn Draham and Tabarka), northeast Tunisia (Tindjda and Ichkeul lake), Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Korbous). In Tunisia it is found in the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar, Zaghouan, La Kessera, Aïn Cherichera, Jbel Chambi and Jbel Mrhila) and south Tunisia (Metlaoui, Gafsa); present in Libya in Derna.<br/><br/>It is common in Spain, occurring at 97 sites; it is fairly common along the Mediterranean coast of France (present in eight departments and in Corsica); present in five provinces in Italy, besides Sicily and Sardinia.
164090		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and its populations appear to be stable.<br/> <br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, the High Oriental Plains, the Tangerois in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; it is common in Algeria, in the Tell region and in the Saharan Atlas; fairly common in Kroumirie (El Fedja, Aïn Draham and Tabarka), Northeast Tunisia (Tindjda and Ichkeul lake), Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Korbous). In Tunisia it is found in the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar, Zaghouan, La Kessera, Aïn Cherichera, Jbel Chambi and Jbel Mrhila) and south Tunisia (Metlaoui, Gafsa); present in Libya in Derna.
164090		threats	eng	Habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.
164091		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hyssopifolia </span>is classed as  Endangered (A2c) in the UK and Critically Endangered in Switzerland and is under regional protection in France: in Alsace and Rhône-Alpes,   otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.  <p>&#160;</p>
164091		conservation	eng	The species is under regional protection in France: in Alsace and Rhône-Alpes.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of existing locations <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164091		distribution	eng	<em>L. hyssopifolia</em> occurs throughout much of Europe except the north, western Asia, much of Africa north and south of the Sahara, Australia where it may be native, and introduced to North America.
164091		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum hyssopifolia</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is widespread on the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region, it is known in several localities in Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Cyprus, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Malta, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Israel.
164091		habitat	eng	<em>Lythrum hyssopifolia</em> is a characteristic plant of temporary ponds and seasonally inundated depressions, as well as the drawdown zones of lakes.
164091		habitat	eng	<em>Lythrum hyssopifolia</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte) that prefers temporary ponds and the low depressions that are humid during the winter. It is indifferent to the nature of the substratum. The flowering period is between March and June.
164091		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hyssopifolia </span>is classed as Endangered (A2c) in the UK and Critically Endangered in Switzerland, but is otherwise widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164091		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable.
164091		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164091		threats	eng	Urbanization, the drainage of ponds, their infilling, agricultural practices and overgrazing constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164092		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164092		distribution	eng	<em>Coronopus squamatus</em> is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region where it occurs in most of the countries. In North Africa it is found in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.
164092		habitat	eng	This Therophyte grows in highly enriched wet soils, anthropogenic and disturbed habitats as well as lake shores, river and canal banks.
164092		population	eng	This species is very common.
164092		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164093		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa&#160; </span>is listed    in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></p><p>    </p><p>EURISCO reports only four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. amphibia</span> held in European genebanks. Two are reported to be of wild or weedy origin but none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage of germplasm  from the European population is a priority for this species.</p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. amphibia</span> is classed as   Vulnerable in Switzerland and protected in the Provence-Alpes-Côte   d'Azur region of France.</p>  <p></p>
164093		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for Europe. In North Africa, the species' habitat should be protected from further decline.
164093		distribution	eng	<em>R. amphibia </em>occurs from Europe south to north Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus and Siberia to Kazakhstan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe except Iceland and Norway.
164093		distribution	eng	This is a circumpolar sub-Atlantic species with restricted distribution in the Mediterranean region. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, Sicily, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Palestine, Israel, Jordan and Algeria.
164093		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. amphibia</span> typically occurs on the margins of mesotrophic to eutrophic water bodies, such as ponds, lakes and large lowland rivers.
164093		habitat	eng	The species is found in swamps, streams, and flood plains of rivers.
164093		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. amphibia</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland but otherwise is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164093		population	eng	This species is common in the European part of the Mediterranean but rare in North Africa. In Spain, it is found in seven localities in the northwest of the country (Anthos 2009), but it is present throughout France, Croatia, and Italy for example. <br/>In Algeria, the species is very rare, found in La Calle, east of la Numidie (Quezel and Santa 1062), Guerbès-Senhdja (Samraoui and de Bélair 1997), and the Collo region (El Kol).
164093		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past or ongoing threats to this species and it is unlikely to face any major threats in the foreseeable future.</p>
164093		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats in its European range. In Algeria, it is threatened by agricultural expansion and the extraction of water from the lakes.
164095		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164095		distribution	eng	<em>Limonium cymuliferum</em> is an endemic plant of Algeria and Morocco. It is very rare in Morocco, known from only three localities on the Mediterranean coastline: Melilia, Nador and Moulouya with an extent of occurrence of about 60 km². In Algeria, it is more common, known in two regions in the western part of the country: The Haut Plateaux of Algiers to Oran and the coastal plains near Oran. The extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region exceeds 108,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is about 1,500 km².
164095		habitat	eng	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in coastal salt-marshes and in sebkhas. It blooms in summer under the mild semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164095		population	eng	The global trend of the populations is not known. It is very abundant in parts of its range in Algeria. They persist well during dry years.
164095		threats	eng	The species is often used in ornamentation for dry bouquets. The main threats to its habitats are water pollution and the increasing urbanization on the Mediterranean coastline.
164096		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164096		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus sardous</em> is a Mediterranean species and its distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey-in-Europe, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence covers well over 40,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164096		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in swamps and humid prairies. Flowering occurs in the spring.
164096		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, it is found in northern Atlantic Morocco, in the plains of oriental Morocco and in the Rif (Tanger); <br/>- Algeria: common in all of country; <br/>- Tunisia: very common, it is present in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Col du Fedjedj, etc.), the Mogods (Madjen Choucha, Madjen Chitane and Garaet Sedjenane), Northeast Tunisia (Ichkeul marsh, Menzel Djemil, Belvédère, Hammam-Lif., etc.), Cap Bon (Hammamet and Kélibia), central Tunisia (Kalaa Srira and Bou Ficha) and in south Tunisia (oasis); <br/>- Spain: very common, occurs in 102 sites; <br/>- France: common in all the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.
164096		threats	eng	The infilling and drainage of its habitat for agricultural expansion are the main threats to this species.
164097		conservation	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is listed as Vulnerable in Austria and Data Deficient in the national Red List of Croatia. <br/>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164097		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on biology and ecology, threats and habitat status is proposed.
164097		distribution	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is a predominantly European species, occurring from Morocco north to Scandinavia and east to the Middle East and the Ukraine, although populations in the Crimean Peninsula are apparently not native. It has apparently also been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the Creuzet and Kerguelen Islands. In Europe, it occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north to Norway and Sweden and east to the Ukraine   and Bulgaria.
164097		distribution	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, west and north Asia and North America (Maire 1957, Coste 1980).<br/>In North Africa, <em>J. acutiflorus</em> is only indicated in Morocco (W and C Rif, Tangier, Targuist, Aknoul), probably at the southern limits of its area. It is very rare in this country (Maire 1957), some populations have been observed in Morocco at Souk-et-Tleta of Ketama (1,400-1,600 m) by Sennen & Mauricio, (Maire 1957) and five locations by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).
164097		distribution	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, west and north Asia and North America (Maire 1957, Coste 1980). In Europe, it is found among others in Italy where it is common (except in Sardinia and Sicily, where it is rare), and in France. In Corsica it has not been seen since 1922. The species has quite a wide range, except for the southern Mediterranean region. It is present at the Balkan Peninsula.<br/>In North Africa, <em>J. acutiflorus</em> is only indicated in Morocco in the west and central Rif, Tangier, Targuist, and Aknoul, where it is probably at the southern limits of its area. It is very rare in this country (Maire 1957), some populations have been observed in Morocco at Souk-et-Tleta of Ketama (1,400-1,600 m) (Maire 1957) and five locations by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).
164097		habitat	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is a perennial Geophyte species which extends by its horizontal rhizome. It is found in wet places, marshy meadows, at the banks of small streams, in acidic ponds and peatbogs. It has also been observed in the siliceous mountains from 1,400-1,600 m altitude in Morocco. This species flowers from June-July in Morocco, May-July in Italy, and June-August in France.
164097		habitat	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is a perennial Geophyte species which extends by its horizontal rhizome. It is found in wet places, marshy meadows, at the banks of small streams, in acidic ponds and peatbogs. It has also been observed in the siliceous mountains from to 1,400-1,600 m altitude in Morocco. This species flowers from June-July.
164097		habitat	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> typically occurs in   wet or damp habitats on acidic soils, particularly in damp meadows and pastures, marshes, bogs, wet heathland, and by ditches and ponds.
164097		population	eng	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is listed as Data Deficient in the national Red List of Croatia and Vulnerable in Austria, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
164097		population	eng	The populations of <em>J. acutiflorus</em> are numerous in Europe, but rather rare in the Mediterranean islands and in Morocco. The species is absent form Montenegro and listed as Data Deficient in the National Red List of Croatia.
164097		population	eng	The populations of <em>J. acutiflorus</em> are rather rare in Morocco.
164097		threats	eng	<p>The abandonment of extensively used meadows has been described as a threat, for example in Austria. There are no other known threats to this species.</p>
164097		threats	eng	The major threats to this species in North Africa are the destruction of its habitat due to small-holder farming or livestock keeping and agricultural and domestic land pollution.
164098		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in place are research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology, regional protection in France (Centre, Basse Normandy, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Lorraine, Alsace and Rhône-Alpes). It is included in the Red List of Italy and Croatia. There are none in North Africa.  <br/>Proposed actions are maintenance of the traditional management of the ponds (alternation between pond in water - pond drying out) and surveillance of existing locations.
164098		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in place are research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology, regional protection in France (region Centre, Basse-Normandie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Lorraine, Alsace and Rhône-Alpes) and Corsica. The species is Critically Endangered in Croatia, Endangered in Austria and Switzerland, Vulnerable on Cyprus and Italy and Near Threatened in Sweden.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is underway (Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
164098		distribution	eng	<em>L. aquatica</em> occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere, becoming scarce in the south, and it is absent from parts of the Mediterranean and India south of the Himalayas. It occurs from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far east and Japan. It also occurs in Greenland and northern and western North America. In Europe, it occurs from the Iberian peninsula north to Iceland and east to North European Russia, the Ukraine and the Balkans.
164098		distribution	eng	This is a circumboreal plant of the northern hemisphere. Its global distribution nearly covers all of Europe, western Asia, Siberia, Africa, America and Australia.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, France, Corsica, Spain, Italy, Croatia (not in mediterranean basin), Serbia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Morocco, and Egypt.
164098		habitat	eng	<em>L. aquatica</em> is a characteristic and very typical plant of the exposed mud on the draw-down zones of lakes and reservoirs, as well as silt bars and banks in rivers, wet tracks and temporary pools, it is usually associated with nutrient-rich sites or soils with high organic content.
164098		habitat	eng	<em>Limosella aquatica</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte) that colonizes exonded banks of ponds, muddy margines of lakes, ditches and streams, along paths and in temporary pools. It is a species of waters that are rich in nourishing elements (mesotroph to eutroph). Its flowering takes place in July to October.
164098		population	eng	There is no data on the size of the populations available but they are rare throughout their Mediterranean range.  <br/>- In Morocco, the species is rare and present at three localities (Kelâat Sraghna, close to Souk-et-Tnine Marharha and western Jbilet)<br/>- In Egypt, it is solely present in the Nile region.<br/>- In France, the species is mainly present in the centre of France and generally in the north half of the country (region Centers, Basse Normandy, Nord-pas-de-Calais, Lorraine, Alsace and Rhône-Alpes) and in Corsica (where it was not found after 1974 in the Tre Padule: probably extinct). The populations benefit from a regional protection in six regions.<br/>- In Italy, it is classified as Vulnerable.<br/>- It is present in one locality in Montenegro and listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia.<br/>- In Spain, there are 33 populations in the northwest of the country.
164098		population	eng	The species is Critically Endangered in Croatia, Endangered in Austria and Switzerland, Vulnerable on Cyprus and Near Threatened in Sweden, however throughout most of its European range it is widespread and reasonably abundant, although the status of populations is difficult to assess because of natural massive seasonal fluctuations in populations.
164098		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164098		threats	eng	There are no general threats at the regional level but populations are scarce in the south of its range. Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal, but the species' habitat is affected by drainage, frequent droughts, overgrazing and urbanization.
164099		conservation	eng	<p>It is classed as Endangered in Austria. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164099		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>For North Africa, the following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures, and research of the populations, habitats, and occupied areas.
164099		distribution	eng	<em>J. subnodulosus</em> has a mainly European distribution, extending beyond the region only into north Africa and the Middle East. In Europe, it occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north to Scandinavia and east to the Ukraine and Turkey. It has apparently been introduced to New Zealand.
164099		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a Europeo-Caucasian species which is found in northwest Africa, southwest Asia, western, central and southern Europe.<br/><br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164099		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a Europeo-Caucasian species which is found in northwest Africa, southwest Asia, western, central and southern Europe, i.e. in France and Corsica, Italy where it is common in the Alps but rare in the Apennins Mountains, Sicily and Sardinia. It is also common in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, former Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece and Turkey. <br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164099		habitat	eng	<em>J. subnodulosus</em> is one of the classic species of calcareous fen, it will occur in a variety of calcareous wetlands, including neutral to basic ponds, flooded meadows in Italy and Corsica, marshy meadows, banks of small streams (châabas) on plains and mountains.
164099		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a perennial geophyte. It is found in&#160; marshy meadows, banks of small streams (châabas) on plains and mountains up to 2,500 m in northern Africa.
164099		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a perennial Geophyte. It is found in neutro-basophile ponds and low peat bogs, flooded meadows in Italy and Corse, marshy meadows, banks of small streams (châabas) on plains and mountains up to 2,500 m in northern Africa.
164099		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">J. subnodulosus</span> appears to be widespread and reasonably abundant throughout its European range.
164099		population	eng	The populations seem to be numerous in Europe but very rare or very threatened in North Africa. North Africa is the southern distribution limit of <em>Juncus subnodulosus</em>. It occurs in:<br/>- Morocco: Central Rif, Tazzeka (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) at two locations, Bekrit (Middle Atlas), Mt Aouljdid (Great Atlas), Tizi-n-Tichka (Maire 1957); <br/>- Algeria limited to the Algiers region: El-Harrach (destroyed), Mitidja, Koléa, Castiglione (=Bou-Ismaïl): four locations;<br/>- Tunisia: rare, only one location close to Hammamet.
164099		population	eng	The populations seem to be numerous in Europe, very rare or very threatened in North Africa. North Africa is the southern distribution limit of <em>Juncus subnodulosus</em>.<br/>It was recorded in few localities near Skadar Lake in Montenegro, 174 populations in Spain and throughout France including Corsica. In Croatia, it is scaterred throughout the country.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Central Rif, Tazzeka (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) at two locations, Bekrit (Middle Atlas), Mt Aouljdid (Great Atlas), Tizi-n-Tichka (Maire 1957). In Algeria, it is limited to the Algiers region: El-Harrach (destroyed), Mitidja, Koléa, Castiglione (=Bou-Ismaïl): four locations. In Tunisia, it is found at only one location close to Hammamet.
164099		threats	eng	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is threatened in Algeria owing to urbanization at the four locations close to Algiers. Further threats in North Africa are grazing, agricultural expansion and pollution.
164099		threats	eng	In the northern Mediterranean region it is common and does not face major threats. <br/><em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is threatened in Algeria owing to urbanization at the four locations close to Algiers. Further threats in North Africa are grazing, agricultural expansion and pollution.
164099		threats	eng	<p>The loss of extensively used meadows has been described as a threat from some areas such as Austria. There are no other known threats to this species.</p>
164100		conservation	eng	Conservation action not identified for the species.
164100		distribution	eng	This grass occurs in Tropical Old World and Australia: Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India (Cook 1996).<br/><br/>Indian distribution of the species is mainly from &#160;Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996). The species is reported from Bombay, Raigad, Satara and Thane of Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). Also seen in Bhosgaon and Pratapgad in Maharashtra (Deshpande <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Tamil Nadu the species is located from Pudukottai, Tiruchirappalli, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin (Kabeer and Nair 2009). It is found in Thottappally of Alleppey and Cochin of Ernakulam districts of Kerala (Sreekumar and Nair1991). Apart from these, the species is reported from Damoh in Madhya Pradesh (Roy 2001). Gamble (1928) reported the species from Kistna, Anantapur, Malabar and Tinnevelly, Travancore .
164100		habitat	eng	The species is a tufted perennial. It is not confined to wetlands but frequently found in fresh and brackish water, salt marshes, irrigation ditches, rice fields and along roadsides. The stems are spongy in water.
164100		population	eng	It is abundant in its range. Population trends are unknown.
164100		threats	eng	There are no specific threats reported for the species.
164101		conservation	eng	In Spain, the species is included in the national Red List of Spain as Endangered (EN) B2ab(iii,iv) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes longissimum</span> (Moreno 2008). It is found in Natura 2000 sites in the high basin of Miño River.<br/>The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/><ul><li>Monitoring and protection of the subpopulations</li><li>Management of water quality and tourism development</li><li>Study of the biology and ecology of the species</li></ul>
164101		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes fluitans</em> is an endemic to Galicia, in northwestern Spain, where it is only known in the high basin of the Miño River (particularly in the tributaries Ladra-Parga-Támoga) and in some localities of the Galician coast (rivers el Xallas and el Castro, A Coruña province). This population is probably extinct, because of the destruction of the flooded forest where it developed. The AOO is 12 km² and the actual occupied area is 30.5 ha (Romero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
164101		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes fluitans</em> is an amphibious/aquatic Geophyte, growing on siliceous and sandy substrates in river beds where it remains always submerged. It is frequently associated with species of Littorelletea and Potametea, such as <em>Apium inundatum</em>, <em>Juncus heterophyllus</em>, <em>Nymphoides peltata</em>, <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>, <em>P. berchtoldii</em> or <em>Oenanthe crocata</em> (Romero <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Its fronds, which exceed 65-85 cm length, float at the water surface and are relatively persistent after drying.
164101		population	eng	<em>Isoetes fluitans</em> occurs in sparse subpopulations in two main areas: There are seven subpopulations in the high basin of the Miño River (estimated around 57,300 individuals) and five unconnected subpopulations on the Galician coast (estimated around 31,000 individuals) (Romero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The species counts as severely fragmented.
164101		threats	eng	<em>Isoetes fluitans</em> is threatened in the totality of its distribution area by uncontrolled pollution and eutrophication (chemicals drained from fields). Moreover, the tourism development on rivers, which leads to create fluvial beaches or to clean the river beds, has eliminated or affected several subpopulations.<br/><br/>The subpopulations of the high basin of Miño River are partly included in the planned Spanish Natura 2000 network.
164102		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Extension of the National Park of the High Oriental Atlas in order to include the nearest sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164102		distribution	eng	<em>Carum lacuum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the east of the Haut Atlas. It is known from two localities of the Plateau des Lacs between Imilchil and the Tislit lake with an area of occupancy estimated at 13 km².
164102		habitat	eng	This species is found at the edges of cold waters in mountains, in wet meadows, on the shore of lakes and at streams of chalky mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms late in spring and early summer (June-July) under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164102		population	eng	The size and the present trends of the populations are not known.
164102		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by high grazing pressure, increasing use for outdoor leisure activities and water pollution.
164103		conservation	eng	In Northern Africa it is present in many protected areas throughout its range. In North-eastern Africa the species requires careful management and more information in population numbers and range is needed.
164103		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species.
164103		conservation	eng	Present in many protected areas throughout its wide range.
164103		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164103		distribution	eng	<em>Lemna gibba</em> is most frequent in areas with Mediterranean climates (Landolt 1986), particularly throughout the Mediterranean basin, eastern Africa, and south-western North America. It also occurs in parts of Central America, western and southern South America and scattered in eastern and South Africa. In Europe it occurs more or less throughout, as far north as southern Sweden.
164103		distribution	eng	<em>Lemna gibba</em> is widespread and common in the Mediterranean basin. It is also found in many other parts of the world.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164103		distribution	eng	It is native to South Africa, recorded from Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape, and possibly Swaziland. In Eastern Africa the species has been recorded from Central Kenya in Machakos District in Kibwezi, Chai Springs, South Rift Valley in Namanga River Hotel and Ondoni, as well as in Mau. In Tanzania, it has been recorded from Maswa district; Moru kopjes, Arusha district; East of Mt. Meru, Ngongongare. As for North-eastern Africa it grows in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It also occurs in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, and Morocco.<br/><br/>This species is widespread throughout the world in warm and Mediterranean climatic regions. It has been naturalized in Japan.
164103		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lemna gibba</span> is distributed in throughout the world in warm and Mediterranean climatic regions, naturalized in Japan (Cook 1996) and absent in polar and the tropics. It is also present in most of Europe, South and South West Asia, Sri Lanka, NE & South Africa and South America.  In India this species reported from Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Kerala (Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006) and Tamil Nadu. In Gulf of Mannar occasionally found in&#160; mainland coast (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001). But Anand kumar (2001) reported that this species is distributed throughout India.
164103		habitat	eng	<em>Lemna gibba</em> is a Hydrophyte that prefers still, eutrophic waters.
164103		habitat	eng	<em>Lemna gibba</em> will occur in a wide variety of lowland still or slow-flowing water bodies, particularly stock ponds, canals and ditches.
164103		habitat	eng	This herb is freely floating and grows in stagnant water (Anand kumar 2001), ponds and tanks (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).Usually found in mesotropic to eutrophic waters (Cook 1996). It grows in water rich in nitrates and carbonate (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
164103		habitat	eng	This perennial hydrophyte plant is present in a very wide range of aquatic habitats in Southern Africa. It is a free-floating species which grows at the water surface and prefers still and slow-flowing, eutrophic waters. It is found in ditches, ponds, canals or quiet backwaters of rivers.
164103		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
164103		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. gibba</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range and may be increasing due to its ability to exploit water bodies subject to anthropogenic nutrient enrichment.
164103		population	eng	This species is very common.
164103		population	eng	This species is very common in Northern Africa and South Africa, and rare in North-eastern Africa.
164103		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
164103		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164103		threats	eng	Several threats affect the species but they are not a serious problem.
164103		threats	eng	There are not known threats to this species in South Africa. In Northern Africa several threats affect the species but they are not considered as major. The species is of restricted range in North-eastern Africa where it could be threatened by drought.
164104		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164104		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sudan, tropical west and central Africa. In the Mediterranean it only occurs in Egypt, in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum and along the Mediterranean coastal strip.
164104		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sudan, tropical west and central Africa. In the Mediterranean, it only occurs in Egypt, in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum and along the Mediterranean coastal strip.
164104		habitat	eng	This plant grows in moist ground. In Egypt on the Nile and muddy canal banks.
164104		habitat	eng	This plant grows in moist ground, on the Nile and muddy canal banks.
164104		population	eng	It is a common weed.
164104		threats	eng	The plant used to be rather abundant, especially in upper Egypt. However, after the construction of the Aswan High Dam, less and less silt was deposited in the Nile Basin north of the Dam, which resulted in the disappearance of most of the populations in upper Egypt.
164105		conservation	eng	There are no existing conservation measures. Research would be needed to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, as well as <br/>on the dynamics of the populations. Habitat conservation is also recommended, as overgrazing in forests can heavily impact the ecosystem.
164105		distribution	eng	<em>Lysimachia cousiniana</em> is a species endemic to Algeria and Tunisia. It is found in Little Kabylia, Great Kabylia and Numidie, in Algeria, and in Kroumirie in Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is greater than 20 km², and it is present at more than 10 locations.
164105		habitat	eng	It is a creeping, perennial, herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte), that inhabits humid forests. Flowering takes place in the spring.
164105		population	eng	The species is widespread in Little Kabylia but very rare in Great Kabylia and Numidie in Algeria. In Tunisia, it is confined to Kroumirie. The populations are supposed to be stable and fairly preserved in the mountainous regions of both countries.
164105		threats	eng	The habitat of this species, mountainous regions, is not threatened. Overgrazing might be a threat in some parts of its distribution range.
164107		conservation	eng	There are none conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.
164107		conservation	eng	There are none conservation measures in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.
164107		distribution	eng	<em>Carex ovalis</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its global distribution covers Europe, western and northern Asia, boreal-oriental America, North Africa and it was probably introduced in New Zealand. <br>In Africa it is only present in Morocco and Algeria, with an extent of occurrence over 20,000 km², few locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 20 km².
164107		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex leporina</span> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its global distribution covers Europe, western and northern Asia, boreal-oriental America, North Africa and it was probably introduced in New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,000,000 km², with several locations.
164107		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid pastures, edges of brooks and prairies of high mountains. Flowering occurs during summer.
164107		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region, very common in Portugal and Spain, with more than 340 sites; common in nearly all of France; common in all of Italy including Sardinia and Sicily.<br/><br/>In North Africa the species’ distribution is limited to the mountains of central Rif in Morocco and Grande Kabylie in Algeria. It is rare, due to spatial limitations, with only a few locations and an AOO <20 km². The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>It is rare in Morocco, only occurring in central Rif (Bab Amegas, Jbel Tidighine, etc.), and rare in Algeria, solely present in Grande Kabylie.
164107		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region, very common in Portugal and Spain, with more than 340 sites; common in nearly all of France; common in all of Italy including Sardinia and Sicily.<br>In North Africa, the species is limited to the mountains of central Rif in Morocco and Grande Kabylie in Algeria. It is rare, due to spatial limitations, with only a few locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) smaller than 20 km². The trend of the populations is unknown.  Also rare in Algeria where it is found in Grande Kabylie.
164107		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164108		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. paniculata</span> is classed as   Near Threatened in Estonia and Vulnerable in Finland and Norway. Otherwise, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164108		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but for North Africa it is recommended to legally protect the species, to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and to estimate the population size and monitor the population dynamics.
164108		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in North Africa (List of protected species in Morocco and Algeria) <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones<br/>- Estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa
164108		distribution	eng	<em>Carex paniculata</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, the Caucasus, Mediterranean basin, and Siberia.  In Africa it is only found in Morocco and Algeria, with an extent of occurrence over 20,000 km², four locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 20 km².
164108		distribution	eng	<em>Carex paniculata</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Canary Islands and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.
164108		distribution	eng	<em>C. paniculata</em> occurs in the Canaries and Cape Verde islands and from Morocco north through western Europe to Scandinavia and east to Turkey and the Caucasus. It is naturalised in New Zealand. It is widespread throughout most of Europe becoming more scarce in European Russia and the Mediterranean.
164108		habitat	eng	<em>C. paniculata</em> typically occurs in base-rich marshes, fens and wet woodland or carr, it will also grow in shallow-inundated areas on the margins of lakes, ponds, river and canals.
164108		habitat	eng	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) inhabits peaty swamps of plains and mountains and does not depend on soil type. Flowering starts at the end of winter and lasts until the beginning of summer
164108		habitat	eng	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) inhabits peaty swamps of plains and mountains and is indifferent to soil type. Flowering starts at the end of winter and lasts until the beginning of summer.
164108		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. paniculata</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its range.
164108		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is very rare, due to spatial limitations (four locations and an AOO <10 km²), with very restricted populations that are severely fragmented.  <br/>Very rare in Morocco, with only three localities, namely in central Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake) and northern Atlantic Morocco (in north Gharb, specifically Oued Lakhal and Bou Charen swamp near Larache); the populations are decreasing as their habitat is being drained, becoming unsuitable for this species (Gharb swamp). In Algeria it is very rare, with only two localities (Numidie and Jijel).
164108		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is very rare, with very restricted populations that are severely fragmented.  <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only three localities, namely in central Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake) and northern Atlantic Morocco (in north Gharb, specifically Oued Lakhal and Bou Charen swamp near Larache); the populations are decreasing as their habitat is being drained, becoming unsuitable for this species (Gharb swamp);<br/>- Algeria: very rare, with only two localities (Numidie and Jijel); <br/>- Spain: very common, with 154 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common in all of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in 12 provinces besides Sicily
164108		threats	eng	At Mediterranean scale there are no major threats that lead to a population decline. However locally, drainage, agricultural expansion, water pollution, road infrastructures and urbanization are the major threats to the habitat of this species in Morocco. In Algeria, deforestation is the main problem and the sites where the species is present could easily disappear.
164108		threats	eng	Drainage, agricultural expansion, water pollution, road infrastructures and urbanization are the major threats to the habitat of this species in Morocco. In Algeria, deforestation is the main problem and the sites where the species is present could easily disappear.
164108		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164109		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place. It is suggested to study the taxonomy of the subspecies <em>timija</em>.
164109		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha suaevolens</em> is of Euro-Mediterranean origin and occurs in central and southern Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia, Macaronesia (except Cape Verde Islands), therefore missing in the south-east of the Mediterranean region. <br/>It is found in Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.
164109		habitat	eng	<em>M. suaevolens</em> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte. It grows at uncultivated places, field sides and path sides, banks of ditches and flooded places, wet meadows, riverine forests, banks of small streams and springs.
164109		population	eng	The populations of <em>M. suaevolens</em> are numerous.
164109		threats	eng	<em>Mentha suaveolens</em> is not threatened.
164110		conservation	eng	No conservations measures are in place or needed.
164110		distribution	eng	<em>Pulicaria laciniata</em> is an endemic species of Tunisia, Algeria and Libya. It has been recently mentioned in Libya.
164110		habitat	eng	This species occurs in clayey soils that are seasonally flooded.
164110		population	eng	This species is relatively common in Tunisia (from Medjerda Valley to the northern limit of the Sahara). In Algeria, it is rare in the High Plains and relatively rare in the northern limit of the Sahara.
164110		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
164111		conservation	eng	In Corsica,<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. </span><em>insularis</em> is included in the Red Book tome II and projects working with people using it for essentials oils are underway. Further research is needed to increase the knowledge on the species' biology, resilience and conservation. It is furthermore recommend to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164111		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Capraia and Menorca. Although reported from Sicily, Valsecchi (1982) affirms that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. insularis</span> is not present in Sicily where it was confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. microphylla</span>.
164111		habitat	eng	This herb grows in wet grassland and on the edges of small streams and springs. In Capraia, it grows in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Nerium oleander</span> community.
164111		population	eng	In Corsica, the species is common, present at 50 sites and the populations are believed to be stable.<em></em> <br/>In Capraia, the only population holds <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 50 individuals and is found along one river in an area of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>1 km<sup>2</sup>. The population seems stable as it has been recorded at this site since 1852, but the site is outside the range of a national park. In Sardinia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha insularis</span> should be present in at least in 30-32 sites (Valsecchi 1982) distributed from sea level to the mountains. <br/>There is only one record from Menorca; the species is considered as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha suaveolens</span> according to Flora Iberica.
164111		threats	eng	The major threat to this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>in Corsica is the hybridization with other <em>Mentha</em> species.
164112		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size and to monitor their dynamics.
164112		distribution	eng	<em>Crypsis vaginiflora</em> is a tropical species. Its world distribution covers North Africa, tropical Africa, temperate Asia and it was introduced in North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is only found in Egypt, occurring in 11 sites. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² but its area of occupancy is below 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
164112		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found along the edges of lakes and water courses as well as in humid habitats. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn (April-October).
164112		population	eng	The species is found in 11 sites along the Nile and in the desert regions, with a few very abundant populations. The trend of the populations is not known.
164112		threats	eng	The intensification of agriculture along the banks of the Nile is the main threat to this species.
164113		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions for North Africa are monitoring the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, control the urbanization of the coastline and enforcement of legal protection measures.
164113		distribution	eng	<em>Puccinellia festuciformis</em> is a paleotemperate species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers Europe, Siberia, North America and southern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164113		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in brackish swamps, humid habitats along the coast and inland Mediterranean salt-marshes and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn (April-October).
164113		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region but its distribution in North Africa is quite restricted and populations are declining. It is very rare in Morocco, occuring in five locations (Tangier, Nefifik estuary, Ghebar estuary, Rabat and Oued Loukkos in Larache); in two locations in Algeria (La Macta swamps and Missergin on the Oran coastal plains); and in two locations in the Tunisian Dorsal (Kasserine and Garet des Ouled Rhezam). <br/>It is present in 12 regions in Spain; quite common in France where it is present in four departments in the south and in Corsica. It is present in Italy in nine provinces on the mainland and in Sardinia and Sicily.
164113		threats	eng	Agriculture, drainage, urbanization and the development of road infrastructures along the coastline are the main threats to the habitat of this species in northwest Africa. The species is not threatened in Europe in the short term.
164114		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further  knowledge population numbers and range is needed.
164114		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164114		distribution	eng	<em>Pycreus mundtii</em> is a tropical species. Its world distribution covers Africa, the Middle East, India and the south of Spain. <br/>In Europe, it is only present in eastern and southern Spain in the provinces Cadiz, Granada, Huelva, Malaga, and Valencia (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
164114		distribution	eng	<em>Pycreus mundtii</em> is a tropical species. Its world distribution covers Africa, the Middle East, India and the south of Spain. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with several locations.
164114		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout the Tropical western, Central and east Africa. It is found in Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is common in Central Africa and has is present in may countries of western Africa. Widespread in Kenya , Tanzania, and Uganda . In Malawi known from Nkhata Bay, Machinga, Zomba, Chikwawa and Mangochi. Also common in Southern Africa where it is present in Namibia, South Africa, Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Lesotho.
164114		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits swamps and the banks of rivers and drainage canals of non chalky substrate. Flowering occurs in spring and summer.
164114		habitat	eng	Stream and lake margins in or near open water, moist sandy ground, marshes, around wells.
164114		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, with several known locations. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very common, present along almost all of the Atlantic coast (from Tangier to Souss), along the Mediterranean coast and in the Haouz region: <br/>- Libya: present in the Libyan Desert oasis (Gat, Elbaracat, etc.); <br/>- Egypt: very common, found along the Nile and in the oases of the western Desert;. <br/>- Spain: present in five provinces in the south of the country: Cadiz, Granada, Huelva, Malaga, and Valencia (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
164114		population	eng	The trend of the populations is unknown. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164114		population	eng	This species is common and dispersed throughout Africa.
164114		threats	eng	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species although they are not considered as major threats.
164114		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture and the drainage of this species habitat are the main threats to this species.
164115		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size, and to study the dynamics of the populations.
164115		distribution	eng	<em>Ludwigia stolonifera</em> is a pantropical species with a biogeographical distribution that covers Africa and Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Libya, Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula. Its extent of occurrence covers around 2,000,000 km² and it occurs in numerous locations (>30).
164115		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, floating aquatic, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in lakes, shallow waters, ditches and rivers, sometimes in very high densities. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn. It can incorporate large amounts of heavy metals.
164115		population	eng	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean basin as well as in North Africa and the populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Libya: at least eight locations distributed along the rivers around Tripoli and Al Khums; <br/>- Egypt: at least 11 locations distributed between the Nile delta, the western Desert oases, the Mediterranean coastline and the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Syria and Lebanon: fairly common in the west; <br/>- Israel: it occurs at more than 30 sites<br/>- Turkey: known from two localities in the southern part of Turkey near Syria.
164115		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br/>In Israel, at least 30% of the sites have become destroyed by drainage and its mechanical construction since the 1960s but it still occurs at more than 30 sites.
164116		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Auvergne and Lorraine. In Italy, populations of this species seem to have vanished from several sites but further research is necessary.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, further research on this species taxonomy, populations, locations and its habitats are needed. The populations and sites of the species should be monitored in order to study the effects of decline of its coastal habitat.<br/><br/><br/>.
164116		distribution	eng	<em>Triglochin maritima</em> is a subcosmopolitan species that is found in temperate areas of Europe, west and north Asia, North Africa and America.<br/>In the Mediterranean it can be found in central Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, north and central Italy (rare in the north), former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey and Tunisia.<br/>In North Africa it only occurs in Tunisia where it is very rare, the population at La Goulette has never been observed again.
164116		habitat	eng	<em>Triglochin maritima</em> is a perennial Helophyte with short, thick rhizomes that are clothed with sheats of old leaves. It grows in brackish coastal marshes or salt marshes.
164116		population	eng	The populations of <em>T. maritima</em> are limited to the northern Mediterranean region, except Tunisia where it has been found at only one uncertain locality. Nevertheless, in the north its EOO >20,000 km² and AOO >2,000 km².<br/>In Italy, the species has been recorded for the northern area, southwards to Tuscany, where an old specimen record exists for only one locality. The record from Liguria is also very old (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
164116		threats	eng	<em>Triglochin maritima</em> seems to be sensitive to interventions at the coastal strip; therefore it can be threatened in the short term.
164117		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under national protection and included as Endangered in the National Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). A backing of populations has been operated in 1987 at the site of Landes with plants cultivated at the Conservatoire Botanique National du Brest. It is classified as Vulnerable in the Italian Red List and also in the Red List of Andalucia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).  There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are being recommended:<br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in North African countries) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To search for the historic sites in Portugal and to study the possibility of their restoration <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164117		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under national protection and included as Endangered in the national red list   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). Augmentation of populations has been operated in 1987 at the site of Landes with plants cultivated at the Conservatoire Botanique National du Brest. It is classified as Vulnerable in the Italian Red List. Included as Vulnerable in the Red List of Andalucia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).  <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are being recommended:<br/><ul><li>Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites </li><li>To search for the historic sites in Portugal and to study the possibility of their restoration </li><li>Monitoring of the population dynamics</li></ul>
164117		distribution	eng	<em>Anagallis crassifolia</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species found in the western part of the basin and along the south European Atlantic Coast. It is found in Morocco (Tangiers; near Lalla Mimouna; Aouamara; near Kénitra), Algeria (Numidia: Bône, El Kala and the Constantine Tell: Djbel Ouach), in Tunisia (Aïn Draham, Mogods, Col du Vent), Spain (southern Andalusia in Cadiz), in Portugal (Algarve), in Sardinia and in France (Gironde; Landes and a doubtful presence in the Pyrenees-Atlantiques). <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence of the species is about 1,033,000 km². The area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and probably even smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
164117		distribution	eng	<em>Anagallis crassifolia</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species found in the western part of the basin and along the south-European Atlantic Coast. It is found in Spain (southern Andalusia in Cadiz), in Portugal (Algarve), in Sardinia and in France (Gironde; Landes and a doubtful presence in the Pyrenees-Atlantiques). Its global distribution also includes Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
164117		habitat	eng	<em>Anagallis crassifolia</em> avoids calcium-rich substrates and is found in flooded places, marshes, peat-bogs and along streams especially in the areas usually flooded in winter and drying up in summer. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer.
164117		habitat	eng	<em>Anagallis crassifolia</em> avoids calcium-rich substrates and is found in flooded places, marshes, peat-bogs and along streams especially in the areas usually flooded in winter and drying up in summer. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that flowers in spring and summer.
164117		population	eng	The populations are globally in decline. In Portugal, it was known from one or two localities and is now probably extinct. There are about seven populations remaining in the Cadiz area in Spain. In France, it is currently only known from the margins of a shallow lake, the Etang de Seignosse (Landes) with only a few tens of individuals occupying an area varying from a few m² to 0.5 m² over the years. In Sardinia, the species is very rare with only one isolated locality (Portoscuso) with very reduced populations.
164117		population	eng	The populations are globally in decline. In Portugal, the populations are probably extinct. They were only known from one or two localities. There are about seven populations remaining in Cadiz, Spain. In France, it is currently only known from the margins of a shallow lake, the Etang de Seignosse (Landes) with only a few tens of individuals occupying an area varying from a few m² to 0.5 m² over the years. Its quasi-extinction is due to a conjunction of unfavourable factors: drainage of the wetlands or on the opposite the stabilization of the water-bodies at a high water level suppressing the temporarily flooded habitats. New range reductions near Bordeaux have been observed.<br/>In Sardinia, the species is very rare with only one isolated locality (Portoscuso) with very reduced populations.<br/>In Morocco, the species has never been mentioned again, since its discovery in the 1960s, in a very isolated peat bog of the Rif (Tangiers). At the localities of the Gharb (Lalla Mimouna; Aouamara; close to Kenitra), the populations regressed since 1980 following the drainage and the cultivation of the wetlands. Algeria is the stronghold of the species in North Africa, the species is common in some areas in the east of the country. In Tunisia, there are a few isolated and reduced populations in Khroumirie, of which some were destroyed about ten years ago by agriculture, and Mogods.
164117		threats	eng	Overgrazing, stabilization of water levels, succession and competition with taller plants, drainage and the extension of agriculture are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164117		threats	eng	The main threats to this species' habitat are overgrazing, stabilization of water levels, the colonisation of the habitat by Helophytes and competition with taller plants, drainage and the extension of agriculture.
164118		conservation	eng	<em>L. oryzoides</em> is classed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark,  Endangered in Switzerland and the United Kingdom (A2c), Vulnerable in the  Czech Republic, Norway (D2) and Sweden [B2ab(ii,iii,v)] and Near  Threatened in Croatia, while in France it is protected in three northern Departements:  Alsace, Basse-Normandie and Île-de-France.
164118		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection outside the Mediterranean region (région Ile-de-France, Basse-Normandie and Alsace).<br/>  In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones.
164118		distribution	eng	<em>Leersia oryzoides</em> is a species predominantly present in tropical and subtropical regions. Its biogeographical distribution includes Africa, Eurasia, Central America and Australia.  <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It occurs in numerous locations (>100).   <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco (Rif and the north Atlantic plains), Algeria (Numidie and coastal Algérois), Tunisia (Kroumirie), Libya (El Barkat and Ghat) and Egypt (Nile, oases of the Western Desert and the Mediterranean coastline).
164118		distribution	eng	<em>L. oryzoides</em> occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere, from southern Scandinavia south to Macaronesia and east through Siberia, the Caucasus and India to the Russian Far East and China. It also occurs in Australia and New Zealand, as well as North America except the far north, including Canada, the USA and Mexico. It is found more or less throughout Europe, from southern Sweden and Finland south to the Iberian Peninsula and east to the Baltic States and Northern European Russia, Ukraine, Balkans and Turkey in Europe.
164118		habitat	eng	It is a perennial Hydrophyte plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits coastal swamps, canals, rice fields and the edges of streams. Flowering takes place in Spring and Summer (March-July).
164118		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. oryzoides</span> occurs in a wide variety of wetland habitats, from coastal swamps, canals, rice fields and the edges of streams to ditches and the margins of ponds and lakes.
164118		population	eng	<em>L. oryzoides</em> is classed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark, Endangered in Switzerland and the United Kingdom, Vulnerable in the Czech Republic, Norway and Sweden and Near Threatened in Croatia, whilst it is considered rare in the Netherlands and Estonia. In France, it is protected in three northern departements: Alsace, Basse-Normandie and Île-de-France but considered reasonably abundant further south. It is declining in Italy where it is only abundant in the north. It is of note that informed surveys have recently shown that it is more abundant in the Netherlands than previously thought, but overlooked because it rarely flowers (J. Bruinsma pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>It appears likely that it is undergoing a decline in northern parts of its European range, but reasonably stable and widespread in the south.
164118		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa. Some of the populations are very abundant but their trend is unknown.  <br/>It is quite common in Morocco in the Rif and the north Atlantic plains (Merja Zerga, southern Loukkos swamp, etc.), occurring in at least 10 localities; rare in Algeria, occurring in Numidie and along the Algérois coast; rare in Tunisia, only found in Kroumirie (Tabarka). In Libya, it is only present in two locations (El Barkat and Ghat). It is quite common in Egypt, with more than 10 locations distributed between the Nile, the oases of the Western Desert and the Mediterranean coastal strip.  <br/>In Italy, the species has experienced a strong decline in the past 50 years, and is now only common in the northwest and becomes rare towards the south. In France, it is rather common in western Mediterranean region. In Spain, the populations are increasing and it is present in the centre, north, Salamanca, Basque country, Girona, south Galicia, and Caceres. In Portugal, it is found in Beira Litoral, Ribatejo, and Minho. It is present in Greece but restricted to the northern part of the mainland.
164118		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164118		threats	eng	The reasons for the decline in the northern part of its range are unclear, but appear to be mainly due to the degradation and destruction of wetlands.
164119		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, more information is needed on population numbers and range.
164119		distribution	eng	<em>Carex distans</em> is a pantropical species. In the Mediterranean, it is present in all the countries bordering to the Mediterranean from southern Europe to the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the Levant and North Africa.
164119		distribution	eng	<em>Carex distans</em> is a pantropical species which is widespread throughout the Mediterranean basin. In Africa it is present in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164119		habitat	eng	This species habitat are marshy soils and shady/damp places, wadis, wet meadows, river banks (Nile) and streams.
164119		habitat	eng	This species habitat are marshy soils and shady or damp places, wadis, wet meadows, river banks (Nile) and streams.
164119		population	eng	It is fairly common in the region.
164119		threats	eng	No major threats to the species beyond the general trend of destruction of the wetlands.
164119		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species beyond the general trend of destruction of the wetlands.
164120		conservation	eng	It is recommended to study the locations and populations of <em>E. cuneifolia</em>.
164120		distribution	eng	<em>Euphorbia cuneifolia</em> is endemic to the western Mediterranean where it is found in Italy, France (only Corsica), Algeria and Tunisia.
164120		habitat	eng	A Therophyte (5-20 cm), which grows at an altitude from 0 to 500 m, <em>E. cuneifolia</em> prefers wet meadows, banks of ditches, cool embankments and damp grassy places.<br/>Flowering times are May to June in Corsica, April to May in Italy, and March to May in Tunisia.
164120		population	eng	The populations  in the Mediterranean region are limited to:<br/>- Corsica: west and east of the island <br/>- Italy: at the western Italian coast, Sardinia and Sicily <br/>- Algeria: rather rare, sparsely distributed in northeastern Algeria, the Tell of Algiers and Constantine<br/>- Tunisia: more than seven locations.
164120		threats	eng	The main threat might come from the narrow distribution in the Mediterranean, isolating this species. In future, this species might be threatened if its habitats are developed or cultivated. But for the moment it remains widespread in its actual habitats.
164121		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or needed.
164121		conservation	eng	<p><em>V. spiralis</em> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland and Data Deficient in Croatia and <span lang="EN-GB">is protected in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and Lorraine regions of France. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164121		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place. Monitoring and further research in populations, range and possible threats is recommended.
164121		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place. Some populations are included in Ramsar sites (e.g. Albania).<br/><br/>As the species is difficult to find and can easily be confused with another <em>Vallisneria</em> species, monitoring and dissemination of identification information on alien taxa are recommended. Studies on genetic variation and diversity in Europe is furthermore suggested.
164121		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is native to much of Africa north and south of the Sahara, from Europe east through the Caucasus and the Middle East to Kazakhstan, the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar and Thailand. In Europe, it is apparently native to central and eastern Europe and parts of the Mediterranean. It has been introduced to Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Switzerland and the United  Kingdom as well as Mauritius and Reunion.<em></em></p>
164121		distribution	eng	This aquatic plant is found from southern Europe to Indochina and also in Africa (Cook 1996, Ho 1999, Santisuk and Larsen 2001, Kress 2003, Maxwell 2009, NMNH 2011). Although the species is cited as present in Thailand (Udomsri 2005, Zungsontiporn undated) and Viet Nam (Le undated), it has not been recorded by the Flora of Thailand (Santisuk and Larsen 2001) nor the Flora of Viet Nam (Ho 1999). The species has been widely introduced and the native range in unclear.
164121		distribution	eng	This species is found in northwest Africa, northern Iraq, Afghanistan. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Greece, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Turkey (European part and north-west Anatolia), Algeria (in Senhadja). The Egyptian population in the Aswan district, Nile Valley region, is introduced.
164121		distribution	eng	This species is present in Europe to Indo-China and South Africa. It is widespread throughout Africa, occuring in all regions. The Egyptian population is introduced (Aswan district, Nile Valley region).
164121		habitat	eng	<em>V. spiralis</em> occurs mainly in habitats with nutrient rich water of high concentrations of bicarbonates, calcium and magnesium, neutral pH, in still or slow-flowing permanent waters, irrigation channels. This species is fully aquatic (Hydrophyte) and grows up to several metres depth.
164121		habitat	eng	<em>V. spiralis</em> occurs mainly in habitats with water of high concentrations of phosphates, bicarbonates, calcium and magnesium, neutral pH, and low dissolved oxygen, sulphate, nitrates, nitrites and carbonates. It grows in hydrosoil of low potassium, phosphates, calcium, magnesium and organic matter. Found in Lakes, pools, ponds, dams and swamps
164121		habitat	eng	<em>V. spiralis</em> typically occurs in mesotrophic to eutrophic slow-flowing or still lowland water bodies such as canals, ditches, rivers and occasionally lakes.
164121		habitat	eng	<strong></strong>It is found in estuarine habitats, lakes,  rivers, waterlogged swamps with open water, man-made reservoirs, and irrigation  channels. It thrives in streams but is seldom present in fast waters.
164121		population	eng	In Algeria, it is considered very rare and has not been seen for several years; it is present in three to four sites at El Kala, and a few sites near Constantine. It is extinct in Israel. The species has been found in the Syrian desert. It is common in Turkey. <br/>In Spain, it has been found at three sites in the provinces Valencia and Sevilla were the last record is from 19th century and extinct now. In Portugal, it was found in Beira Litoral near Coimbra, but this record is from the 1950s.<br/>In France, it is fairly common (Tela Botanica 2000-2008) and occurs at four river systems: Rhone, Herault, Durance and Aude and the connected irrigitation channels. In Italy, where it is present in the northern half of the country, the populations are strongly declining and are rare now.<br/>In Croatia, it is not common but occurs at more than five sites, there it is classed as Data Deficient because it has been observed only sporadically. In Greece, it is found in the northern part of the country, central and western Macedonia and western Greece, and is fairly common there. In Albania, it has been observed at Shkodra Lake and Buna river (Kashta 2007).<br/><br/>The populations are mainly declining in the Mediterranean region.
164121		population	eng	<p><em>V. spiralis</em> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland and Data Deficient in Croatia<span lang="EN-GB">, otherwise there is no evidence of decline.</p>
164121		population	eng	This is a common species although no population estimates are available.
164121		population	eng	Widespread species.
164121		threats	eng	Changes in the hydrological regimes due to agriculture, that leads permanent water bodies to become temporary, is one of the main threats to the species. Another one is hyper-eutrophication, especially high concentrations of phosphorus can lead to this species' decline as the water system changes from rooted to floating plants. The main sources are urban and agricultural waste waters.<br/><br/>This plant is used as ornamental in aquaria - when those are thrown into natural water systems they can colonise and cause problems for the native flora.
164121		threats	eng	No major threats reported.
164121		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought. No major widespread threats have been identified.
164121		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
164122		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/>In France, it is protected in some regions such as Champagne-Ardennes, Bourgogne, Franche-Comté, Rhone-Alpes and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and in the department of Gironde.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Research old sites and confirm whether species is still present<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/>- Conservation of the species and its habitat <br/>- Harvest control<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (of the seeds)
164122		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/>In France, it is protected in some regions such as Champagne-Ardennes, Bourgogne, Franche-Comté, Rhone-Alpes and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and in the department of Gironde. It is listed as Vulnerable on the national red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/><ul><li>Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones </li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics </li><li>Conservation of the species and its habitat </li><li>Harvest control</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (of the seeds)</li></ul>
164122		distribution	eng	<em>Anacamptis laxiflora</em> is a Eurasian species. It is found in Europe, around the Mediterranean basin and in western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence is around 4,000,000 km² and it occurs in several locations. <br/><br/>In North Africa the species was present only in Algeria (in 1976 Baumann recorded this species in Koléa, near Algiers). The species has not been recorded since and considering the increasing urbanization and industrialization in the Algiers plain, it has probably gone extinct.
164122		distribution	eng	<em>Anacamptis laxiflora</em> is an Eurasian species. It is found in west and central Europe, in the Mediterranean and extends into western Asia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/> </span>
164122		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (tuberous geophyte) that inhabits humid pastures and marshes. It prefers humid soils and requires a lot of light. Flowering occurs during spring.
164122		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (tuberous Geophyte) that inhabits humid pastures and marshes. It prefers humid soils and requires a lot of light. Flowering occurs during spring.
164122		population	eng	The species is present in several locations in the Mediterranean region, local but often abundant in its sites, however the trend of the populations remains unknown. Population information is available in the following countries: in the Iberian Peninsula it is widespread throughout and present in 81 regions in Spain and seven provinces in the south of Portugal. In France it is known from 73 departments and Corsica. It is very common and present throughout the whole country in Italy.
164122		population	eng	The species is present in several locations in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations remains unknown. <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: widespread throughout the peninsula and present in 81 regions in Spain and seven provinces in the south of Portugal; <br/>- France: 73 departments and Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common and present throughout the whole country.
164122		threats	eng	The drainage, infilling and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164122		threats	eng	The drainage, infilling, water abstraction for agriculture and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats. Collection might affect the species.
164123		conservation	eng	<em>M. fontana </em>is classed Endangered in Estonia and Switzerland,  Near Threatened in Hungary and Data Deficient in Croatia<em></em>, it is also protected at regional level (Picardie) in France, but otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164123		distribution	eng	<em>M. fontana </em>has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, from Europe east to Siberia, south to the Middle East and North and East Africa. It also occurs in Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, northern and western North America and western South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe from the Iberian Peninsula north to Iceland, east through Scandinavia to North European Russia and south to the Mediterranean, the Ukraine and the Balkans.
164123		habitat	eng	<em>M. fontana</em> occurs in acidic or neutral, seasonally or permanently wet places, such as springs and flushes, lake, river and stream margins, damp tracks, paths and winter-moist sand or gravel.
164123		population	eng	<em>M. fontana </em>is classed as Endangered in Estonia and Switzerland, Near Threatened in Hungary (where all records are referable to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. arvensis</span>) and Data Deficient in Croatia. In Greece, it is found at one locality in the Peloponnisos (only 1 locality), east central and north central Greece, East Aegean Islands (Lesvos & Ikaria) and Kiklades Islands. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">amporitana</span> is recognized in Greece according to Flora Hellenica (Strid and  Tan 1997). It is rare but not threatened. <br/>Elsewhere it appears to be widespread and relatively abundant.
164123		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164124		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164124		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a species native to the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian Regions. It is found in most of the Mediterranean countries.<br/><br/>In Africa, this species occurs in:<br/>- Egypt: common in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the Mediterranean coastal strip and desert east of the Nile except that of Sinai.<br/>- Libya: two locations, with probability of a more extensive area, including oases of the Sahara<br/>- Tunisia: rather common in the north, more rare in the south (four locations)<br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell and High Plains, Saharian Atlas, oases of Middle Sahara, banks of Oran sebkha, in the south of Oran, in Middle Sahara (Hoggar)<br/>- Morocco: common in the north and west; Tangier, west Rif, Loukkos, Imzorène, Gareb.
164124		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a species native to the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian Regions. It is found in most of the Mediterranean countries, including central and southern Portugal, Spain with Balearic Islands, Italy, where it is rare (six locations) with Sardinia and Sicily, France at the Mediterranean coast and in Corsica where it is more rare. It is also found in Albania, Cyprus, Greece, Crete and East Aegean Islands, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Turkey.<br/><br/>In North Africa, this species occurs in Egypt where it is common in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the Mediterranean coastal strip and desert east of the Nile except that of Sinai. It occurs at two locations in Libya, with probability of a more extensive area, including oases of the Sahara. In Tunisia, it is rather common in the north, more rare in the south (four locations). It is common in Algeria, in the Tell and High Plains, Saharian Atlas, oases of Middle Sahara, banks of Oran sebkha, in the south of Oran, in Middle Sahara (Hoggar). In Morocco, it is common in the north and west; Tangier, west Rif, Loukkos, Imzorène, Gareb.
164124		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte. It is found in marshes, wet sands and moist grounds, banks of freshwaters and briny waters. In Italy it is also present at saline coasts and more rarely inside, from 0 to 600 m.
164124		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte. It is found in marshes, wet sands and moist grounds, banks of freshwaters and briny waters. In Italy it is also present at saline coasts and more rarely inside, from 0 to 600 m above sea level.
164124		population	eng	The populations are numerous in the whole Mediterranean region and in North Africa.
164124		threats	eng	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is not threatened.
164127		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164127		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris truncata</em> is a Mediterranean endemic species. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, with a doubtful presence in Crete. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 20,000 km², occurring in at least 28 locations.
164127		habitat	eng	This species (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) is a plant of plain and found in pastures, crops, along paths and on humid clayey soils in the semi-arid warm bioclimate. Flowering occurs during spring and the beginning of summer.
164127		population	eng	The abundance of the species varies throughout the Mediterranean region. It is quite common in Algeria, Tunisia and Italy but less widespread elsewhere. The populations appear to be stable. It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in only one location (Sidi Allal-El-Bahraoui in the Gharb); quite common in Algeria in the Tell region; fairly widespread in Tunisia in Cap Bon, the northeast and Medjerda valley and less common in the Tunisian Dorsal (Le Kef, Kalaat es Senam, Maktar, Fériana and Djerissa); present in Libya in Faidia on the Mediterranean plains.<br/>It is found at three locations in Spain, in the east of the country; found in four departments in France, of which three are in the Mediterranean strip; quite common in Italy, present in eight provinces and also in Sicily.
164127		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164128		conservation	eng	In France it is protected at regional level (Alsace, Midi-Pyrénées, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur, Rhône-Alpes, Limousin), but no other conservation measures for its range are known. Suggestions for the locations in Algeria and Morocco include: legal protection of the species, protection of pools, which harbour many rare species in Algeria, study the biology and ecology of the species, implementation of legal measures and livelihood alternatives.
164128		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Suggestions for the locations in Algeria and Morocco include: legal protection of the species, protection of ponds, which harbour many rare species in Algeria, study the biology and ecology of the species, implementation of legal measures and livelihood alternatives.
164128		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. morsus-ranae</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Spain and the Czech Republic, Endangered in Switzerland and Norway (<span id="_ctl0_cp_3__ctl0_dl__ctl0_lbl_regionalstatus">B2b(iii)c(i)) and Vulnerable in the United Kingdom. In France, it is protected at regional level (Alsace, Midi-Pyrénées, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Rhône-Alpes, Limousin) otherwise, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164128		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is an Eurasiatic-temperate species with an Eurasian and Australian distribution. It is invasive in Canada and North America (Catling <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>In Africa, it is found in Algeria and Morocco where it is very rare (southern limits of its range). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) in Africa is above 250,000 km², with four known localities and an Area of Occupancy (AOO) of 20 km².
164128		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is an Eurasiatic-temperate species with an Eurasian and Australian distribution. It is invasive in Canada and North America (Catling <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/>In the northern Mediterranean region it is present in continental France (rather common, missing in Corsica), Portugal, Spain and Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia, Greece, extinct in Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. The extent of occurrence exceeds 500,000 km², it has many localities.
164128		distribution	eng	<p><em>H. morsus-ranae</em> occurs from Algeria, through Europe north to Scandinavia and east through the Altai, the Caucasus and the Middle East to Siberia and Kazakhstan; it has apparently been introduced to parts of Canada and the eastern United States<em>. </em>It occurs from Spain along the Mediterranean coast to Turkey and north throughout most of Europe north to Norway and Sweden.</p>
164128		habitat	eng	<em>H. morsus-ranae</em> typically occurs in shallow, calcareous, mesotrophic or meso-eutrophic water in the sheltered bays of lakes or in ponds, canals and ditches.
164128		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is a perennial species that is found in pools, lakes, on sandy soils and peat bogs (Algeria) in ditches (Italy) and in stagnant waters (France). It reproduces sexually and vegetative (by stolons).
164128		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is a perennial species that is found in pools, lakes, on sandy soils and peat bogs (Algeria) in ditches (Italy) and in stagnant waters (France). It reproduces sexually and vegetative (by stolons). <br/>The flowering times are: from May to June in Algeria, from July to September in Italy, and from June to August in France.
164128		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Region, this species is rather common in many localities.<br/><br/>In Africa, <em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is very rare with only four localities and some restricted populations in decline. In Algeria, two locations where the species was known in the past in the region of El Kala (Maire 1952) have now disappeared; two small populations in two ponds (counting as one location owing to their vicinity) have been found recently (de Bélair 2006, personal observations) near Oued Mafragh. This species is present at the banks and their overall size does not exceed 30 m². These ponds are found on the edge of the road from Annaba to El Kala. <br/>In Morocco, it is very rare in three localities in the marshes of Gharb (Meria Bokka, marsh of Gharb, merjas of the lower part of Loukkos), and the populations are restricted and threatened.
164128		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region, this species is rather common in many localities. In Italy it is not common but localised and present in several regions:   Piedmont, Lombardy, Trentini Alto Adige, Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Toscana, Emilia-Romagna, Umbria, Lazio. In Spain, only two populations are known and it is classified as Critically Endangered   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is not very common in the French Mediterranean part where it is present in about nine regions. It is common in the Balkans (Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece). In Syria it is known from four localities between Tell Nebi Mend and Joubaniyé, in the south of Lake Homs. It is extinct in Israel.<br/>In North Africa, <em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is very rare with only four localities and some restricted populations on the decline. In Algeria, two locations where the species was known in the past in the region of El Kala (Maire 1952) have now disappeared; two small populations in two ponds (counting as one location owing to their vicinity) have been found recently (de Bélair 2006, personal observations) near Oued Mafragh. This species is present at the banks and their overall size does not exceed 30 m². These ponds are found on the edge of the road from Annaba to El Kala. <br/>In Morocco, it is very rare in three localities in the marshes of Gharb (Meria Bokka, marsh of Gharb, merjas of the lower part of Loukkos), and the populations are restricted and threatened.
164128		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. morsus-ranae</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Spain, Endangered in Switzerland and Norway<span id="_ctl0_cp_3__ctl0_dl__ctl0_lbl_regionalstatus"> and Vulnerable in the United Kingdom, otherwise, it is fairly widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164128		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164128		threats	eng	The draining of its habitat due to the extension of farming activities and water pollution are the major threats to <em>H. morsus-ranae</em>.
164128		threats	eng	The draining of its habitat, the extension of farming and pollution are the major threats to <em>H. morsus-ranae</em>.
164129		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164129		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164129		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and regarding the abundance of this species no measures are necessary. Conservation measures and legal protection for the populations of <em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> in Egypt should be explored.
164129		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found   in North Africa and Africa south of the Sahara, although it is considered to have been introduced to southern Africa. It occurs from Europe east through the Caucasus, the Middle East, Siberia, Kazakhstan, the Himalayas and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, China, Japan, the Korean Peninsula, as well as Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. It occurs more or less throughout Europe but is less abundant in the Mediterranean. It has been introduced to New Zealand and South America (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
164129		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found throughout Europe and Asia, but is most common in temperate latitudes. It is common around the Mediterranean basin, as well as on the eastern coast of Africa. It occurs in Australia, South America and North America, where it develops from the sub-tropical climate of Florida to the boreal forests of Canada.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Algeria (common in the Tell), Croatia, Egypt (very rare; Nile delta), France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco (strait of Gibraltar), Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Turkey and Tunisia (particularly in north-east, Sejenane, Kroumirie and Cap Bon).
164129		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found throughout Europe and Asia, but is most common in temperate latitudes. It is common around the Mediterranean basin, as well as on the eastern coasts of Africa. It occurs in Australia, South America and North America, where it develops from the sub-tropical climate of Florida to the boreal forests of Canada.<br/><br/>In the African Mediterranean region, it occurs in Algeria (common in the Tell), Egypt (very rare; Nile delta), Morocco (strait of Gibraltar), and Tunisia (particularly in north-east, Sejenane, Kroumirie and Cap BonNorth). It is found in Central Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi). In Democratic Republic of Congo, the plant is found in Lac Albert, Lacs Edouard and Kivu, the Kikeri volcanic swamps, at Kamatembe in the Bishakishaki River.<br/><br/>In north Eastern Africa it has also been found in Egypt (Lake Nasser), Sudan, Eithiopia and Eritrea. In Eastern Africa the plant is widely spread in Kenya. It has been recorded in Trans-Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, Embu, Nyeri, Nairobi and Narok district. It is a weed in rice fields. Also recorded from Tanzania and Uganda. It is widespread and not declining in Southern Africa where it is considered as introduced.<br/><br/><br/>Global distribution: <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found throughout Europe and Asia, but is most common in temperate latitudes. It is common around the Mediterranean basin, as well as on the eastern coasts of Africa. It occurs in Australia, South America and North America, where it develops from the sub-tropical climate of Florida to the boreal forests of Canada.
164129		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species<em>,</em> found from northern Europe to Africa and southeast Asia. It occurs from Europe east through the Caucasus, the  Middle East, Siberia, Kazakhstan, the Himalayas and Mongolia to the  Russian Far East, China, Japan, the Korean Peninsula, as well as  Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam. It may be present in northern Lao PDR but this needs to be confirmed.<br/><span class="dct-tt"><span class="dct-tt"></span>
164129		habitat	eng	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is a herbaceous perennial amphibious Helophyte. It occurs mainly in the lowlands and will grow in most mesotrophic to eutrophic wetland types, from the margins of streams and rivers, to lakes, ponds and marshy pools. It is a good colonist and will often form extensive and locally dominant stands in recently excavated pools on basic clays.
164129		habitat	eng	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is a herbaceous perennial (facultative annual) amphibious Helophyte growing in marshes, shallow waters around lakes and slow-moving streams.
164129		habitat	eng	Perennial aquatic or marsh herb. The plant is partly emerged and fixed in the water bottom with thin roots densely covering a short tuberous rhizome.  In acidotrophic and oligotrophic to eutrophic habitats. Well associated with low water force and a silt or silt-mixed substrate, and usually growson channel edges. Muddy habitats in ponds, marshes, swamps or river margins, usually shallow water.
164129		habitat	eng	<p>This herbaceous perennial, and amphibious helophyte, occurs mainly in lowlands and will grow in most mesotrophic to eutrophic wetland types, along the margins of streams and rivers, to lakes, ponds and marshy pools. It may also be found in rice fields.<br/></p>
164129		population	eng	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is relatively abundant over its distribution area, except in Egypt where it is considered as very rare.
164129		population	eng	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is relatively abundant throughout its range, although in the south it becomes less frequent and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lanceolatum</span> is more abundant there.
164129		population	eng	It is relatively abundant throughout its range.There is no detailed information on global population numbers.
164129		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164129		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164129		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It may be impacted in the future by habitat loss due to agriculture and sudden droughts.
164129		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
164130		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Enforcement of the measures of legal protection (Law on the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Protection of the most important sites<br/>- To afforest the mountains neighbouring the sites and to limit the extension of the forests <br/>- Surveillance of the existing station and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164130		distribution	eng	<em>Romulea antiatlantica</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. Its distribution is restricted to the Anti Atlas with only one known locality (Jbel Amezdour at 2,500-2,600 m of elevation). The area of occupancy is reduced and does not exceed 8 km².
164130		habitat	eng	<em>Romulea antiatlantica</em> is restricted to the peat bogs (pozzines) of the high flinty mountains. It is a perennial plant (Geophyte) that blooms in the spring (April-May) under a Mediterranean sub-humid bioclimate.
164130		population	eng	The size and the trend of the populations are not known.
164130		threats	eng	The major threats to this species' habitat are grazing and the deterioration of the surrounding environments due to deforestation of the neighbouring mountains and extension of agriculture.
164131		conservation	eng	No conservation measures existing or needed.
164131		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout the Mediterranean region.
164131		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout the Mediterranean region.<br><br>In North Africa, the species is found in Algeria, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia.
164131		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide range of wetland habitats including irrigation channels and moist ground near springs.
164131		population	eng	This is a very common species.
164131		threats	eng	Drainage is a potential threat to the species but does not cause a population decline at the moment.
164132		conservation	eng	This species is protected at national level in France. There are no other conservation measures in place; it is generally recommended to monitor the existing sites and populations.
164132		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus ophioglossifolius</em> is a Mediterranean species. Its distribution encompasses southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 50,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164132		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits swampy prairies, ditches and temporary pools of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).
164132		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean, occurring in numerous locations, but populations are in slow reduction. <br/>- Morocco: common, occurring in more than 20 locations spread between the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco, Rif, the hills of oriental Morocco and the Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region but rare on the High Plains; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common, occurring in more than 10 locations distributed between the Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Aïn Soltane, Sraï el Madjen and Tabarka), the Mogods (Madjen ech Chitane, Garaet Sedjenane, and the Ichkeul marsh), Cap Bon (Korbous) and northeast Tunisia (El Alia); <br/>- Spain: quite common, occurring in 35 sites; <br/>- France: rare and classified as protected on a national scale; <br/>- Italy: present in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>- Croatia: classified as Endangered on the national Red List;<br/>- Israel: the species is extinct.
164132		threats	eng	Urbanization, habitat drainage and agricultural expansion are the main threats to this species.
164133		conservation	eng	<p><em>Z. palustris</em> is classed as Vulnerable in Norway (B2ab(ii,iii,iv,v)) and in Switzerland. It is classed as Rare in Lithuania. There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164133		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164133		distribution	eng	<em>Z. palustris</em> has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, including Africa north and south of the Sahara, including some Indian Ocean Islands, from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, as well as the Indian Sub-continent and Myanmar, Australia, New Zealand and North, Central and South America. It occurs more or less throughout<span class="msoIns"> Europe.
164133		distribution	eng	The species has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, including Africa north and  south of the Sahara, including some Indian Ocean Islands, from Europe  east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Kazakhstan and  Mongolia to the Russian Far East, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, as  well as the Indian subcontinent, China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Hubei, Jiangsu,  Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Taiwan,  Xinjiang, Xizang, Zhejiang; eFloras 2011), Myanmar, Australia, New Zealand and north, central and south America (Lansdown 2011). It occurs more or less throughout<span class="msoIns"> Europe.</span>
164133		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. palustris</span> typically occurs in a variety of types of water bodies, mostly mesotrophic to eutrophic, from rivers (including "chalk streams"), streams, lakes and ponds as well as fresh and brackish seasonal pools.
164133		habitat	eng	This species is found in still or slow-flowing fresh water, or in brackish water. In Europe, the species typically occurs  in a variety of types of water body, mostly mesotrophic to eutrophic: rivers (including chalk streams), streams, lakes and ponds as  well as fresh and brackish seasonal pools (IUCN 2010).<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
164133		population	eng	<em>Z. palustris</em> is classes as Vulnerable in Norway and in Switzerland, but is otherwise widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164133		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant throughout much of its global range and only in a few countries (such as Norway and Switzerland) is it considered to be scarce.
164133		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
164133		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.
164135		conservation	eng	In Spain, it is classed as Endangered in the national Red List (Moreno 2008) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Bulbostylis cioniana</span>. One of the locations is in the Doñana Biological Reserve.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164135		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (legislation on the protection and valorisation of the environment as well as on environmental impact studies)
164135		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis cioniana</em> is an Afrotropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Spain, northern Italy (probably either introduced or a dubious record), Morocco and tropical Africa. <br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco, with only one location and an AOO <2km². It has also been recorded in Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Senegal and Sierra Leone, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Chad.
164135		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis cioniana</em> is an Afrotropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Spain, northern Italy (probably either introduced or a dubious record), Morocco and tropical Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is solely present in Spain, Italy and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with a very small area of occupancy and less than ten sites.
164135		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that mainly inhabits temporary pools of sandy substrate. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.
164135		population	eng	The species is very rare in North Africa (Morocco) with very restricted populations that are threatened due to habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin the distribution of this species is very reduced because of area limitations (less than 10 sites). The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare with only one known location which is situated near Kerma-Ould-Kadi in northern Rharb;<br/>- Spain: it is classified as Endangered (Moreno 2008) and its distribution is limited to three provinces in the west of the country (Cáceres, Huelva and Sevilla);<br/>- Italy: known only in the north of the country although it was recorded once in Tuscany but has probably disappeared.
164135		population	eng	The species is very rare in North Africa (Morocco) with very restricted populations that are threatened due to habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture. However, the species seems to be widespread in Western and Central Africa but this needs to be confirmed.
164135		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture, habitat drainage, urbanization and the construction of road infrastructures are the main threats to this species.
164136		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in the countries of Maghreb (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Protection and setting up of a plan of management of the sites in Maghreb <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164136		distribution	eng	<em>Thelypteris palustris</em> has a Holarctic distribution: it is found in Europe, North America, and the centre and the east of Asia. In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in Albania, Turkey, Bulgaria, Corsica, France, Greece, Spain, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Syria, Portugal, Morocco and Algeria.
164136		habitat	eng	The species is found on flinty substrate or on peat substrate, in wetlands, humid ditches, shores of ponds, on alluvial deposits along rivers. It is a perennial plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that reproduces in fall (summer) under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164136		population	eng	At the Mediterranean scale, the populations are likely to be declining following the general trend of destruction and degradation of shallow wetlands. It is not considered common anywhere in its Mediterranean range, although it is very widespread.<br/>It is very rare in Morocco and in Algeria. It is known in Morocco from two localities only (four sites): Bou Charen and close to Açilah in the western Rif with an occupied area of about 15 km². In Algeria, <em>T. palustris</em> is known from three localities including Senhadja in Numidie.
164136		threats	eng	In the Maghreb countries, the grazing pressure is very high; furthermore the sites of <em>T. palustris</em> are threatened by the effect of drainage and agriculture on wetland habitats. <br/>In Europe, the threats are essentially water pollution and the deterioration of the habitat.
164137		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164137		distribution	eng	<em>Eryngium atlanticum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is essentially known in six localities to the west of Morocco: Benslimane, North of Salé (Mamora), Casablanca-Chaouia, Safi, Tissrarine and Souss with a extent of occurrence of 19,000 km². <br/>The last observations on the sites of Casablanca-Chaouia and Safi have been made in 1987. Those on Benslimane and Mamora are recent (2007) and show a destruction of sites of <em>Eryngium atlanticum</em> close to the city of Bouznika.
164137		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the temporary pools on sandy substratum (dayas) of the Atlantic Moroccan region. It is an annual species that blooms in spring and summer under the arid, semi-arid and sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164137		population	eng	There is no data available on the size of the populations. The global trend is probably towards decline with a reduction of the area of occupancy resulting from the disappearance of numerous pools on the Atlantic plains.
164137		threats	eng	The quality of the habitat of the species is deteriorating resulting from water pollution, drainage and grazing. Habitat destruction as a result of urban and agricultural development is rather frequent close to the large cities (Casablanca, Safi).
164138		conservation	eng	In Israel, this species will be included in volume two in the National Red List (A. Shmida pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics and to study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size.
164138		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164138		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus trichophyllus</em> is a European species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, the Mediterranean region, northern and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers well over 250,000 km², within which the AOO >2,000 km², and it occurs in numerous locations.
164138		distribution	eng	<em>R. trichophyllus</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, the Himalayas, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Kamchatka in the Russian Far East, Japan, China and the Korean Peninsula, it also occurs across central North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164138		habitat	eng	<em>R. trichophyllus</em> will occur in most types of mesotrophic to eutrophic water body, from dune slacks and drainage ditches to ponds, lakes, streams and slow-flowing rivers.
164138		habitat	eng	It is an annual or perennial rooted Hydrophyte that inhabits streams and temporary pools of plains and mountains. Flowering takes place in spring.
164138		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. trichophyllus</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164138		population	eng	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region (essentially in Mediterranean Europe), occurring in numerous locations. Populations are undergoing a slow decline. <br/>- Morocco: quite widespread, occurring in several locations distributed between the western Rif, Middle Atlas (Zrouka), High Atlas (Tifnoute river, Warzan river and Assif Tiourar), Anti Atlas, northern and mid-Atlantic plains and the mountains and plains of oriental Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: common throughout the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: not very widespread, occurring in six locations distributed between the Medjerda valley (Tessa river), the northeast (Menzel Djemil), the Mogods (Sedjenane), Cap Bon (Bezirk river and Menzel Temime) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Mdeina); <br/>- Libya: two locations along the Mediterranean coastline (Shahat and Saf Saf); <br/>- Egypt: present along the Nile; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, occurring in more than 327 sites; <br/>- France: very common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in nearly all of the country, including Sardinia and Sicily<br/>- Lebanon: present<br/>- Israel: only observed at one site and extinct from at least five sites since the 1960s<br/>- Turkey: common
164138		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164138		threats	eng	The infilling, drainage, water extraction, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164139		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164139		distribution	eng	<em>Crypsis alopecuroides</em> is native to the Mediterranean and extends eastwards into Central Asia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region this species is widespread and found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164139		habitat	eng	This plant prefers seasonally wet places that are inundated in winter and grows also at roadsides and cultivated ground.
164139		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
164139		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164140		conservation	eng	In Israel, the species is included as Vulnerable in the National Red List   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics and existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Conservation of this species’ habitat in North Africa (enforcement of legal protection measures)
164140		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Conservation of this species’ habitat in North Africa (enforcement of legal protection measures)
164140		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164140		distribution	eng	<em>S. erectum</em> is widespread throughout Europe, east to Japan and the Korean Peninsula, it occurs throughout much of China and Mongolia south to the Himalayas and throughout much of the Mediterranean Basin. It is also found over a small area of western North America.
164140		distribution	eng	<em>Sparganium erectum</em> is a Eurasian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, northern Africa and western and southwest Asia.  It is widespread in the Mediterranean region.<br><br>In North Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the Area of Occupancy (AOO) is below 2,000 km², and it is present in at least 20 locations.
164140		distribution	eng	<em>Sparganium erectum</em> is an Eurasian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, northern Africa and western and southwest Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 200,000 km², within which the area of occupancy >2,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.
164140		habitat	eng	It is a perennial rhizomatous, semi-terrestrial plant with the roots permanently under water that inhabits swamps, bogs, canals, lakes and rivers of plains and mountains up to around 2,100 m in altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164140		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. erectum</span> typically forms narrow, more or less linear monospecific stands along the margins of lakes, rivers and canals, usually on the edge of deep mesotrophic to eutrophic water.
164140		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. erectum</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
164140		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is found in at least 20 locations and it has an AOO <2000 km². The populations are restricted spatially and their trend is not known. <br>- Morocco: two precise locations, one in central Middle Atlas (spring near Ouiouane) and the other in the Rharb (Merja Bokka). Talavera recently (2002) recorded it in western and central Rif, Loukkos, Prérif and Maâmora, but without precise indications. Therefore the number of locations in Morocco is probably 7; <br>- Algeria: quite common in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br>- Tunisia: rare, found in only three locations distributed between Cap Bon (Oued Lebna), the northeast (Ichkeul marsh) and the Mogods (Madjen Echitane); <br>- Libya: present in six locations (Tripoli, Aïn Zara, Tarhuna, Gubba, Ain Mara and Oued Derna).
164140		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in several locations. The populations appear to be stable.<br/>- Morocco: two precise locations, one in central Middle Atlas (spring near Ouiouane) and the other in the Rharb (Merja Bokka). Talavera recently (2002) recorded it in western and central Rif, Loukkos, Prérif and Maâmora, but without precise indications. Therefore the number of locations in Morocco is probably 7; <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, found in only three locations distributed between Cap Bon (Oued Lebna), the northeast (Ichkeul marsh) and the Mogods (Madjen Echitane); <br/>- Libya: present in six locations (Tripoli, Aïn Zara, Tarhuna, Gubba, Ain Mara and Oued Derna); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: more than 232 sites; <br/>- France: very common throughout the country; <br/>- Italy: very common throughout the country.<br/>- Israel: rare, occurring at 19 sites and the populations have been declined by 50% since the 1960s<br/>- Turkey: it can be found at more than 50 different lakes
164140		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164140		threats	eng	The drainage, agricultural usage (especially of swamps) and the urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164140		threats	eng	The drainage, agricultural usage (essentially of the swamps) and the urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164141		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Basse-Normandie, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and Midi-Pyrénées. <br/><br/>There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.
164141		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164141		distribution	eng	<em>Carex punctata</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers Europe and the countries of the Mediterranean basin. <br/>In  Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that covers over 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) over 20 km².
164141		distribution	eng	<em>Carex punctata</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers Europe and the countries of the Mediterranean basin. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164141		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits marine marshes and wetlands of siliceous substrate. Flowering occurs in the spring.
164141		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only five locations distributed between the Gharb (Oued Lakhal and Larache), the Tangérois, the central Rif and in the region of Ouezzane; <br/>- Algeria: widespread in Kabylie, Numidie and the Constantinois Tell (Constantine); <br/>- Tunisia: quite common in the Mogods and Kroumirie; <br/>- Spain: 32 sites; <br/>- France: not very abundant along the Mediterranean coastal strip; <br/>- Italy: present in 11 provinces in addition to Sardinia and Sicily.
164141		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. In Morocco it is very rare, with only five locations distributed between the Gharb (Oued Lakhal and Larache), the Tangérois, the central Rif and in the region of Ouezzane. Widespread in Kabylie, Numidie, and the Constantinois Tell (Constantine) in Algeria. Quite common in the Mogods and Kroumirie within Tunisia.
164141		threats	eng	Infilling and drainage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164141		threats	eng	The infilling and drainage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164142		conservation	eng	Parts of the population are included in the designated National Park of Talassemtane since 2004. There are no other conservation measures in place. The following actions are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco). <br/>- Surveillance of existing sites and identification of new ones.<br/>- Research on the biology and ecology of the species, and estimate of the population size. <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness.
164142		distribution	eng	<em>Potentilla maura</em> is an endemic from Morocco. This species is considered as rare due to its low frequency and the rarity of its preferred habitats. It is known from two localities of the Moyen Atlas, six in the High Atlas and one in the western Rif (massif of Talassemtane). Its extent of occurrence is about 75,000 km², with an area of occupancy of about 600 km².
164142		habitat	eng	<em>Potentilla maura</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that grows in not very humid glades, muddy pastures and pools of chalky and siliceous mountains, between 1,600 and 2,300 m of altitude. It blooms and fructifies in summer (June-July) under the cold semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164142		population	eng	No data is available on the size of the populations or most locations. The plant is generally found as isolated individuals. The plant is abundant at Aguelmam Afennourir (Moyen Atlas) (Chillasse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Populations appear stable at the site of Talassemtane, which was designated as a national park in 2004. The probability of the populations declining in the future remains due to the destruction of its habitat, especially freshwater pools.
164142		threats	eng	Except for the site of Talassemtane National Park, the major threat to this species is habitat destruction as a result of agriculture at freshwater pools. Other threats contributing to the deterioration of the quality of its habitat are related to the grazing pressure and the development of new approach routes (roads, tracks, paths) that increase the activity at these sites.
164143		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164143		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in Egypt within the Pan-African region. It is also found in other Mediterranean countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. Outside the Mediterranean region it also occurs in the Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan. It is widely introduced as an ornamental plant.
164143		habitat	eng	<em>C. pachystylis</em> occurs in deserts, steppes and bathes. Dry, but periodically moist soils, slightly saline, sandy and stony ground.<br>[IS THIS SPECIES REALLY A HELOPHYTE?]
164143		population	eng	This species is common in its native range.
164143		threats	eng	No major threats.
164145		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164145		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Mediterranean: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Morocco, Algeria and Tunsia.
164145		habitat	eng	This species occurs in springs and on the edges of seasonal streams and pools, mainly on silicious soils.
164145		population	eng	The species is rare, with small populations.
164145		threats	eng	Drainage, in-filling, agriculture and urbanization are the main threats to the pools. In streams and springs, trampling, pollution and in-filling are locally important.
164146		conservation	eng	The Lagoon of Khnifiss is a Ramsar site and within the National Park of Khnifiss that was created in 2006. It is classed as Vulnerable on the Andalusian Red List   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Italy, only <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina juncea</span> is reported as Endangered or Vulnerable for several parts of the peninsula (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) but some of those records might refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. maritima</span>. Confirmation of the identity of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina</span> spp. populations is needed. It is included in the Regional Park of the Po Delta in Italy.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164146		distribution	eng	<em>Spartina maritima</em> is a widely distributed species. It is present from the western and southern European coasts of Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, and at the African coasts of Morocco, Mauritania, Namibia and South Africa.
164146		habitat	eng	<em>Spartina maritima</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that grows in tidal mudflats. It flourishes in summer and fall. In general, the species forms dense populations and plays a significant role in salt marsh development.
164146		population	eng	No data is available on the size of its populations or on their present trends but the populations are possibly declining. The species is relatively rare in Europe. <br/><br/>In Italy, it seems restricted only to the northeastern regions Emilia-Romagna, Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia (of the two sites one has now disappeared) and to Tuscany (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The record for Tuscany could be erroneous as problems in the identification of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. juncea-S. maritima</span> are possible so all the data need further investigation. <br/>In France, it is present along the Atlantic coast but not in the Mediterranean (Tela Botanica 2008). In Spain and Portugal, it was scattered along the northern and southwestern coast. It has nearly disappeared from the south coast, last records date from the 1970s. Now it is present only in north Spain (Cantabrian coast and Atlantic coast of Galicia) and Portugal. In Slovenia, it is present in five sites. It is suggested that it might have been introduced to Europe due to the Atlantic trade (Kaligarič and Škornik 2006).<br/>In Morocco, it is very rare with three localities on the Atlantic coast: Larache,   Salé, lagoon of Khnifiss.
164146		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss due to disruption of coastal processes that stops coastal accretion. A further threat is development of tourism infrastructure along the coast. Invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina densiflora</span> causes competition and leads to hybridisation and genetic erosion.
164147		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164147		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan (tropical and subtropical) species, occuring in America, Africa and Asia.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Israel and Egypt where it is found in the Nile delta (Cairo), Nile valley (El Minya, Moheit canal, Ibrahimiya canal), western Mediterranean coast (Rosetta, El Ramla, Sidi Gaber, Khorshid, Alexandria, between El Qabbari and El Mitras, Nuzha at El Mahmudiya canal, El Mitras, Mariut lake, El Buseili at Edku lake), eastern Mediterranean coast (Baltim, between Baltim and El Hamul, Damietta, Port Saïd, El ‘Arish), Isthmic desert (Isma’ilia canal between Baltim and El Hamul, in canals between Cairo and Isma’ilia, Isma’ilia-Suez canal).
164147		distribution	eng	This is a widespread pantropical and pansubtropical species. It is present throughout all Africa mainly the Western, South, Eastern and North Eastern regions. Widespread in Egypt where it is found in the Nile delta (Cairo), Nile valley, along the Mediterranean coast and Isthmic desert. Its distribution includes Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea, Senegal; Cape verd Islands: st. Antonio, St. Nicolao, St. Iago; Gambia, Sierra Leonne: River Bagru; Gold Coast: Accra; Ashanti; Niger Territory: confluence of the river Quorra and the river Tchadda; Cameroon; Eritrea; Somalia; east side of the Albert Edward Nyanza; mombasa. Also in Gabon; Lower Congo; Angola; Congo; Pungo Andongo; banks of the river Cuanza. South central- Congo; Monbuttu; by the river Sankuru: Usambara, Masheua, Kilimandjaro, lake Yipe.
164147		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge growing on banks of canals, rivers, marshes and lakes.
164147		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge growing on banks of canals, rivers, marshes and lakes. It also occurs in stagnant or weakly running water, sometimes alternatively fresh and salted water. It forms great reed marsh on temporary unflooded soils.  In Kenya it occurs from  sea level  to 1,700 m above sea level while  in south Africa between 2-1,065 m asl.
164147		population	eng	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is abundant in Egypt and Israel.
164147		population	eng	Fairly common throughout Africa.
164147		threats	eng	No major widespread threats have been described for this species. Use for incense, agriculture, pasture,  livestock pressure  and drought could threaten the species in the future.
164147		threats	eng	While occupying a small area within the Mediterranean basin, <em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is presently not threatened.
164148		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  No other conservation measures are in place. <br/>There are only a few endemic species of the sub-littoral plains in Numidia and thus they are particularly vulnerable. A policy of protection and conservation is urgently needed.
164148		distribution	eng	<em>Serapias stenopetala</em> is a species endemic to Algeria and Tunisia (de Bélair and Boussouak 2002; Delforge 2001, 2005). Maire (1952-1987) considers this to be a subspecies. It has been observed in El Kala, at Guelma (l'Aouara) and between Annaba and Lake Fetzara. At the latter site it has not been seen again. Quézel and Santa (1963) don't recognize this sighting. Four localities were found near the lakes Mellah and Oubeïra. In Tunisia, its presence in Kroumirie has been confirmed. Its extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km² and its area of occupation is very small and below 500 km².
164148		habitat	eng	<em>Serapias stenopetala</em> is a perennial orchid that blooms from late April to May. In the Mediterranean bioclimate with temperate to mild winters, this species forms small populations with scattered individuals at the shores of lake Mellah, the wadi El Aroug and ditches close to the lake Oubeïra. It usually grows on wet peat. It is widely distributed in the middle of grass associations of <em>Juncus maritimus</em>.
164148		population	eng	<p><em>Serapias stenopetala</em> is extremely scarce and each known population numbers only a few individuals. The known locations are very scattered and the number of individuals at each location may vary from two to three up to 25 to 30 (in favourable years even sixty) individuals. Two additional sites have recently been discovered in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The total population is estimated to be below 250 mature individuals.<br/></p>
164148		threats	eng	<p>The major threats are the destruction of roadside ditches, trampling and grazing by cattle and the creation of an Animal Park (Brabtia) resulting in the destruction of its habitats.</p>
164149		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164149		distribution	eng	<em>Centaurium pulchellum</em> occurs in western Europe, eastern Mediterranean region, Sinai, and eastward to China. It is found in most Mediterranean countries. In North Africa, it is present in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.
164149		habitat	eng	<em>C. pulchellum</em> grows in sheltered mountain crevices and around freshwater springs. It prefers open habitats and damp grassy places, especially near the sea.
164149		population	eng	This species is very common throughout its range.
164149		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
164153		conservation	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is included under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and in the following national and regional red lists:<br/><ul><li>Black Sea Region (Vulnerable)</li><li>Bulgaria (Endangered)<br/></li><li>Carpathian Mountains (Endangered)</li><li> Czech Republic (Critically Endangered)</li><li>Germany (Endangered - level 2)<br/></li><li>Russia (Near Threatened) <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>(I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010)</li><li>Slovakia (Vulnerable)</li><li>Spain (Extinct)<br/></li><li>Sweden (Extinct)</li><li>Switzerland (Critically Endangered)</li><li>Turkey (Vulnerable)</li><li> Ukraine (Endangered)</li></ul>  <em><br/></em>In France, <em>Trapa natans</em> is protected at regional level (Alsace, Basse-Normandie, Limousin) and at departemental level (Ardennes). In Hungary, it is protected but not endangered.<br/>    <p><br/></p>
164153		conservation	eng	Included in some regional and national red lists in Europe but no conservation actions required globally.
164153		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level (Alsace, Basse-Normandie, Limousin) and at departemental level (Ardennes). <br/>In Tunisia it occurs in the National Park of Ichkeul.<br/>In Turkey, <em>Trapa natans</em> is classified as Vulnerable on the national Red List<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection <br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.
164153		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level (Alsace, Basse-Normandie, Limousin) and at departmental level (Ardennes). In Tunisia it occurs in the National Park of Ichkeul. In Turkey, <em>Trapa natans</em> is classified as Vulnerable on the national Red List.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection <br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new and historic sites in North Africa and the Balkans.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.
164153		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trapa natans</span> has been reported from most of Europe north into southern Sweden and east into European Russia. Outside Europe, it occurs east throughout most of Asia into China, the Philippines and Malaysia. It has apparently been introduced into Australia and North America where it is now widespread and may be invasive. <br/><br/>It is difficult to interpret information on the distribution of this species with any confidence due to taxonomic confusion. Thus, for example, according to   (Stevanović 1999) the only <span style="font-style: italic;">Trapa </span>species occurring in Serbia was <span style="font-style: italic;">T. annosa</span>, but <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natans</span> is widely reported in the literature as occurring in Serbia - the different statements almost certainly refer to the same taxon but only in a few cases is it possible to establish which taxa are intended.<br/><br/>With reference to the historic distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natans</span> and its relationship with man, there is wide speculation that its range was strongly influenced by its value as a crop. Arber (1920) states that   <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natan</span>s has been used from early times for food, medicine and magic, and is supposed to have been introduced into Switzerland as long ago as the period of the lake dwellings, while Vankina (1970) goes further to say that "During the Atlantic and sub-boreal periods the area of distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natans</span> stretched as far north as Middle Sweden and southern Finland. In Latvia, it appeared in the warm Atlantic period and has been found here at a total of 13 sites, including in the cultural layers of six settlement sites. At Sārnate, it has been found in dense layers of nutshells up to 40 cm thick around the hearths, occupying areas of several square metres. It has been suggested that the people of the Stone Age deliberately cultivated the water chestnut near their settlements. There is evidence that in the 16th century roasted water chestnuts or water chestnut flour were sold in the markets of Mantua and Ferrara. At the beginning of the same century, in southern France the water chestnut was consumed raw, boiled or roasted, and also used in the form of flour. It is known that during the time of the First World War the water chestnut was also sold at the market in the Latvian town of Jēkabpils. At around 900 BC, evidently as a result of climatic cooling, the water chestnut began to die out."
164153		distribution	eng	<em></em>The species has a wide distribution through Eurasia and Asia. It has been reported from most of Europe, into southern Sweden and into European Russia. It occurs throughout most of Asia, into China, the Philippines and Malaysia. It has apparently been introduced into Australia and North America, where it is now widespread and may be invasive (Arber 1920, Cuong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1973, Crow and Hellquist 2000, Tzvelev 2005, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, USDA 2010).
164153		distribution	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeo-temperate) species, introduced in Africa and North America, where it is locally invasive.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Algeria (very rare, El Kala, Annaba), Tunisia (very rare, Ichkeul marsh), northern Greece (rare), Turkey, Balkans (Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia), and northern Italy. It is extinct in Spain.<br/><br/>It occurs in France and is widespread, but absent from the Mediterranean coast and Corsica (Tela Botanica 2009).<br/><br/>This species is also found in other parts of Europe and in Asia.
164153		distribution	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeo-temperate) species, introduced in Africa and North America, where it is locally invasive. It has been argued that the species in not native to Africa, however, as it has been collected from supposedly wild places, it is treated as native.<br><br>Its North Africa it is found in Algeria (very rare in El Kala, Annaba) and Tunisia (very rare, Ichkeul marsh).<br><br>In Eastern Africa, this species is uncommon, only recorded in Lake Victoria Area in Kisii (K5). Tanzania T1,4. Lake Province Ukerewe, Kigoma district Lake Tanganyika. Also present in Uganda and Malawi. In South Africa, it is only present in KwalaZulu-Natal<br><br>In North Eastern Africa it is only found in Sudan (South reaches of the White Nile) and it has a scattered range in western Africa.
164153		habitat	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an annual (up to 3 m height) floating-leaved plant, growing in stagnant waters, lakes, channels with weak currents, ponds and marshes.
164153		habitat	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an annual (up to 3 m height) floating-leaved plant, growing in stagnant waters, lakes, channels with weak currents, ponds and marshes.<br/>It primarily occurs in unpolluted lowland nutrient-rich, but not strongly calcareous waters that have a muddy bottom and plenty of light; it is important as food source for birds and provides fish spawning grounds   (Morgan and Leon 1992).    <p><br/></p>
164153		habitat	eng	This plant is an annual (up to 3 m height) floating-leaved plant, growing in stagnant waters, lakes, channels with weak currents, ponds and marshes. It primarily occurs in unpolluted nutrient-rich lowlands, but not in strongly calcareous waters that have a muddy bottom and plenty of light; it is important as food source for birds and provides fish spawning grounds.    <p><br/></p>
164153		population	eng	<em></em>The species is not very common in the wild across the Asian part of its range and it is very rare in Europe.
164153		population	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> appears to be very rare in the western European part of its range. It is extinct in Spain, there is only a single known population in Switzerland (Welten and Sutter 1982), two populations known in Greece.<br/><br/>There are two populations currently known in Latvia (Lakes Pokrote near Balvi and Lakes Klaucāni and Priekulāni in Jēkabpils District).   In Lake Klaucāni, the water chestnut grows in the western and southwestern bays of the lake, where it is protected from wind by forest, very near the lakeshore, where, at a depth of 2 m, the water on the lakebed during the vegetative period of the water chestnut retains a temperature of 21 degrees C. Nowadays, these sites have been placed under state protection  (Vankina 1970).
164153		population	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is very rare in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa: Algeria (two sub-populations), Tunisia (one sub-population), Greece (two sub-populations), Turkey (common in the European part and present at three lakes in the southeastern part at the Marmara sea), it is common and even slightly invasive in the Balkans (Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Albania), France and Italy (unknown).
164153		population	eng	<em>Trapa natans</em> is very rare in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa: Algeria (two sub-populations), Tunisia (one sub-population), Greece (two sub-populations), Turkey (common in the European part and present at three lakes in the southeastern part at the Marmara sea), it is common and even slightly invasive in the Balkans (Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Albania). It is not clear whether the invasive species in the Balkans are <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natans</span> or other species belonging to the genus. <br/><br/>  In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trapa natans</span> had been recorded from Girona (Sils) and Mallorca (Albufera de Alcudia) many decades ago, but now it is Extinct in the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
164153		threats	eng	In Europe the species is declining, however the causes of the decline are not clear, although they are usually attributed to loss and degradation of habitats. In Asia there are no major threats to the species, though wetland loss and degradation are likely to become significant there too.
164153		threats	eng	The causes of the decline in population<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>s of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natans</span> are not clear, although they are usually attributed to loss and degradation of habitats. Vankina (1970) suggests that the current evidence of decline is simply part of a process that has been ongoing since 900 BC, due to cooling climate. If this is the case, then the current trends toward temperature increase may actually favour this species.
164153		threats	eng	The subpopulations of Algeria and Tunisia are threatened by the changing conditions of the lakes where it develops. The same is the case for Turkey where the water extraction for agricultural purposes is a threat to the plant. In some parts of Turkey, the plant is taken from the wild and replanted in water gardens - this is not a threat now but could become one in the future.<br/>In Algeria, Lake Oubeira has been opened for fishing and that could impact on the existing population in the future.
164153		threats	eng	The subpopulations of Algeria and Tunisia are threatened by the changing conditions of the lakes where it develops. The same is the case for Turkey where the water extraction for agricultural purposes is a threat to the plant. In some parts of Turkey, the plant is taken from the wild and replanted in water gardens - this is not a threat now but could become one in the future.<br/>In Algeria, Lake Oubeira has been opened for fishing and that could impact on the existing population in the future.<br/>Overall, changes of habitat to agriculture and water eutrophication are the main threats to the species habitat.
164154		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164154		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size, monitor the dynamics of the populations and reduce the habitat loss through the enforcement of legal protection measures.
164154		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum portula</em> is distributed in the Mediterranean region, Europe, western Asia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164154		distribution	eng	<p>It is reported from throughout Europe except Andorra, Cyprus, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar (UK), Greek Aegean Islands, Crete, Iceland, Sicily, Malta, Monaco, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
164154		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that grows in very scattered populations. It is found mostly on siliceous soils of temporarily flooded habitats such as ditches, springs, and mountain lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. It can be completely absent during dry years.
164154		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. portula</span> is a characteristic plant of seasonal pools, often on acidic or at least base poor soils but is rarely found over peat. It is most commonly found where soil disturbance is coupled with seasonal inundation, such as poached margins of upland rivers and pools, wet woodland rides and seasonal pools on heathland.
164154		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. portula</span> is generally widespread throughout its range, occurring in semi-wet habitats and is often one of the most frequent species of seasonal wetlands.
164154		population	eng	The species is well represented in the countries of the Mediterranean region. Overall, the populations are stable and not fragmented. It is fairly common in Morocco; rare in Algeria (Numidie and the Kabylie); quite common in Tunisia, and fairly common in Portugal, Spain, France and Italy.<br/><br/>In Morocco, it is found in at least eight sites, in Ourika and Timi-n-Kar daya in the High Atlas, Tazekka in the Middle Atlas, Harcha in the Pays Zayane and Bou Meziat, Jbel Afechtal, Issagen, Jbel Souna, etc. in the Rif. It is present in four sectors in Algeria, i.e. Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie and the Constantinois Tell, and at least six locations in Tunisia: Sedjenane, Madjen ech Chitane and Madjen Choucha in the Mogods and Radjem Azoug, Madjen el Ma and El Boua in Kroumirie.
164154		threats	eng	The drainage of wetlands, the infilling of small temporary depressions and the use of herbicides are the main threats to this species, but they currently don't cause severe declines.
164154		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
164155		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level in five regions. There are no conservation measure in place elsewhere. It is necessary to reduce the loss of the humid habitats and to carry out research on population numbers.
164155		distribution	eng	<em>Oenanthe silaifolia</em> is a Mediteraneo-Atlantic species. It occurs in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164155		habitat	eng	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) grows in marshes, at springs, in wet meadows and at the banks of mountain streams.
164155		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean.<br/>In North Africa, it’s very rare in Morocco with only one locality at the Middle Atlas mountains (Tioumliline). In Algeria, it is rare and scattered in all the Tell and very rare in the Algerois coastal strip (Rassauta). In Tunisia, it is quite common and it occurs in the Kroumirie mountains (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Marmel valley), in the northeast of Tunisia (Ichkeul), Cap Bon (Kelibia) and in the Tunisian Dorsale (Souk el Djema, Maktar). It is common in Egypt. The populations seem to be stable.
164155		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats in the Mediterranean.<br/>In North Africa, essentially in Algeria, the major threat is touristic infrastructure at the coastal strip of Alger as well as urbanization.
164156		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection (Aquitaine and Nord-Pas-de-Calais).<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is necessary to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, and to estimate the size and monitor the population dynamics.
164156		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aequalis</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Croatia and Switzerland, while it is protected in the Aquitaine and Nord-Pas-de-Calais Departments of France. Throughout the rest of its European range it appears to be widespread and abundant. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
164156		distribution	eng	<em>A. aequalis</em> occurs throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, from North Africa (Morocco and Algeria) to Iceland and east through the Mediterranean, central and eastern Europe, Siberia, the Caucasus, Mongolia and the Himalayas to Kamchatka, Japan, the Korean Peninsula and China. It also occurs throughout much of northern and western North America. It is widespread more or less throughout Europe, from the Mediterranean Basin north to Scandinavia and east throughout most of European Russia.
164156		distribution	eng	<em>Alopecurus aequalis</em> is an Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, boreal and western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with several locations.
164156		habitat	eng	It is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits the edges of lakes, reservoir lakes and temporary pools of mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.<br/><br/>It occurs up to 2,800 m in Turkey and therefore also grows in alpine wetlands.
164156		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aequalis </span>typically occurs in wetland habitats with fluctuating water levels, where competition is suppressed either by the fluctuation of water levels or by other means, such as anthropogenic disturbance. The most frequent habitats supporting this species are lake margins, turloughs and gravel pits, but it will also occur in wet meadows, wet forest glades, stream and river margins and ditches.
164156		population	eng	Most populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. aequalis</span> appear to be stable throughout its European range.
164156		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean basin with several locations. In North Africa it is rare and spatially limited. <br/>The state of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with three known locations distributed between the Rif (the Timellaline pool at 1800 m) and the High Atlas (Ourika and the Iferouane lake at 2,050 m);<br/>- Algeria: present in one location of the Algérois Tellien Atlas (Teniet el Haad near the Camps des Chênes);<br/>- Portugal and Spain: common, with more than 75 sites in the north of the country; <br/>- France: common in the centre and north of the country and present in 10 departments in the Mediterranean area in addition to Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in six provinces in the north of the country in addition to Sicily and Sardinia.
164156		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164156		threats	eng	Urbanization, grazing and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species. Where the species occurs in coastal areas, infrastructure development is a further threat to this species habitat.
164157		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under departmental (Ardennes) and regional protection (Midi-Pyrénées, Lorraine, Alsace, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Central region).<br/> <br/>In North Africa, no conservation measures are in place. It is recommended to monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164157		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under departmental (Ardennes) and regional protection (Midi-Pyrénées, Lorraine, Alsace, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Central region). In Germany, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. mariscus</span> is listed as Vulnerable. In Bulgaria, it is protected by the Bulgarian Biodiversity Act.<br/>There are no conservation measures needed, it would be valuable to monitor known populations with potential to intervene if the declines continue.
164157		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. It is recommended to monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164157		distribution	eng	<em>Cladium mariscus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164157		distribution	eng	<p>Sub-cosmopolitan, <em>C.&#160;mariscus </em>occurs throughout most of the northern hemisphere and much of the southern hemisphere, including Europe, Mediterranean, Africa, Asia, North, Central and South America but it is apparently absent from Australasia   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe it is reported from every country except the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Turkey and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
164157		distribution	eng	This species has a cosmopolitan distribution and is widespread in tropical Africa, Asia and America. It has been recorded from Senegal, Benin, Ghana, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. <br/><br/>In Southern Africa (Cladium mariscus jamaicense) it is present in Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and in South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).<br/><br/>In Kenya (Cladium mariscus jamaicense) it has been recorded at only one site in Kiboko at altitude of 1,400 metres above sea-level. In Malawi it is known from Marymount Dambo in Mzuzu. Also recorded from Tanzania.
164157		habitat	eng	<em>C. mariscus</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant and geophyte that<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>usually occurs as large, dense populations which flower and set abundant seed. It is a potentially long-lived perennial. In parts of the UK it is a characteristic plant of calcareous fens, but in some areas (such as Scotland), it occurs in acid habitats. In the Mediterranean, it forms tall species-poor reeds in places of high groundwater level.
164157		habitat	eng	<em>C. mariscus</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. <em>Cladium</em> spp. stands are an important habitat for numerous animal and plant species.
164157		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater or weakly brackishwater, sometimes in great numbers. Because of its big rhizomes, Cladium mariscus is a quick colonizing plant. It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. <em>Cladium</em> spp. stands are an important habitat for numerous animal and plant species of patrimonial interest. This species grow as emergents in shallow water, up to 0.5 m depth, at the edge of lakes and ponds. Cladium mariscus is confined to calcareous and oligotrophic to mesotrophic habitats.
164157		population	eng	<em>C.&#160;mariscus</em> is widespread and locally abundant in its European range. There is evidence to suggest that it has declined in the UK and in Germany, primarily due to habitat loss.  It is common in the Mediterranean region, although populations are undergoing a slow regression. <br/>In Spain, it is found in 159 sites. In France, it is present in nearly all of the country including Corsica. In Italy, it is present in most of the country including Sardinia and Sicily, although populations are considered threatened in some regions.
164157		population	eng	It is moderately abundant in Western Africa, common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa.
164157		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa. The populations are undergoing a slow regression. <br/>- Morocco: frequent in Rharb and Middle Sebou but rare in Haouz, where it only occurs in four locations (Oued el-Arich, Oued Day, Oued Ouerna and Oued Dema), and in central Middle Atlas, where it is solely present in two locations (Dayet-Hachlaf and Lake Ouiouane); <br/>- Algeria: fairly widespread in Numidie, Kabylie and along the Algérois coast; <br/>- Tunisia: present in northeast Tunisia (Ichkeul, etc.); <br/>- Libya: present in Ain Zara; <br/>- Egypt: found in the oases of the western Desert (Siwa) and around the Suez Canal; <br/>- Spain: 159 sites; <br/>- France: present in nearly all of the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in most of the country including Sardinia and Sicily, although populations are considered threatened in some regions.
164157		threats	eng	Habitat drainage and infilling, the intensification of agricultural practices, water pollution, the modification of the hydrological regime of rivers and the abandonment of practices are some of the main threats to this species.
164157		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the survival of this species in most of its range. Localised declines appear mainly to be due to direct loss of habitat caused by changes to the hydrological regime, melioration and urbanization.<br/></p>
164157		threats	eng	The species has no known major widespread therats. Though throughout its range it is impacted by localised threats such as agricultural expansion in Western Africa, wetland drainage and infilling, the intensification of agricultural practices, water pollution, the modification of the hydrological regime of rivers in northern Africa.
164158		conservation	eng	In Israel, <em>C. papyrus</em> is included in the National Red List and classified as Endangered.<br/><br/>In Egypt, there are currently no conservation measures in place. The following measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species) and application of legal conservation measures<br/>- Conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the population size and study the population dynamics
164158		conservation	eng	In Western Africa this species is within protected areas. In general no conservation measures are required although further research on application of legal measures of conservation, conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves, evaluation of the size and dynamics of populations, re-introductions and harvest management has been suggested.
164158		conservation	eng	<p>Conservation recommendations are not needed for this species.</p>
164158		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is distributed in tropical central Africa at the upper parts of the White Nile, from where it penetrates westward into Lake Tchad and the Niger region. It is cultivated in Egypt since the Ancient Empire (<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> subsp. <em>antiquorum</em> (Willd.) Chiov.), and was introduced in some parts of the Mediterranean basin, and in America and Australia. While having been so important for paper-manufacturing in ancient Egypt, it was believed extinct in this country until its recent rediscovery by M.N. El Hadidi in Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus papyrus</span> occurs in Egypt, at the Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum. It is also cultivated in some parts of the Algerian littoral, in Spain, in Italy and in Israel. It has recently been confirmed as being native in Israel.
164158		distribution	eng	i>Cyperus papyrus is distributed in tropical central Africa, at the upper parts of the White Nile, from where it penetrates westward into Lake Tchad and the Niger region. It is cultivated in Egypt since the Ancient Empire (<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> subsp. <em>antiquorum</em> (Willd.) Chiov.), and was introduced in some parts of the Mediterranean basin, and in America and Australia. While having been so important for paper-manufacturing in ancient Egypt, it was believed extinct in this country until its recent rediscovery by M.N. El Hadidi in Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum. The plant is cultivated elsewhere.<br/><br/>The plants in Western Africa have probably all been introduced in recent times (since 1,800 AD). Plants were introduced to Ghana, then deliberately erradicated to prevent them colonizing the Volta River Dam, and have been brought in again as ornamentals which have escaped to the river again. In Eastern Africa this species is found in the low and medium lands of Burundi: between 774 - 1,600 m above sea level. It is found in the Rusizi plain and the unexploited area of Nymuswaga and Akanyaru valleys. In Malawi it occurs in Zomba at Lake Chilwa, Monkey Bay and Elephant Marsh. The plant is widespread in Kenya from 450 - 2,100 m above sea level.  In Southern Africa, it is found in Botswana (Okavango Delta), Angola, Namibia, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Also found in Madagascar.
164158		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus papyrus </span>is distributed in northern and central Africa and Sri Lanka. In India it is reported from Gujarat and Rajasthan (Cook 1996), not reported from the Western Ghats.
164158		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is a giant perennial rhizomatous sedge (up to 3 m) which forms vast stands in marshes, shallow lakes, and along stream banks throughout the wetter parts of Africa. It prefers peaty soils where it can form vast stands, it is less abundant on different substrates.
164158		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is a giant perennial rhizomatous sedge (up to 3 m) widely distributed throughout the wetter parts of Africa. It prefers peaty soils where it can form vast stands, it is less abundant on different substrates. It grows along stream banks, in marshes, swallow lakes, in rivers, forming rafts in open water and fringing lakes. Often dominant over large areas. Forms floating mats or islands. Is a popular ornamental plant so has economic value. Is also used for making sleeping mats and rafts in other parts of its range.
164158		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb, rooted in lakes, along rivers forming floating mats or islands. It is a major weed in India (Cook 1996).
164158		population	eng	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is present in Egypt, where it was limited to one sub-population at the Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum.<br/>In Israel, there are now 24 populations out of 39 in the 1960s, 23 out of those are very small and include only a few individuals. Only at the nature reserve of Hula Lake it is present in big clumps.
164158		population	eng	Its is quite common throughout Africa and can occur in very dense populations. In Egypt it has been limited to one sub-population at the Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum.
164158		population	eng	No population information for the species.
164158		threats	eng	In Western Africa the species is invasive so is often actively erradicated. Poses a threat to other species rather than having any threats to itself so it is not considered to have threats throughout Africa. Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species. Also, infrastructure development such as damming may be a threat. Local harvesting for sustainable use in medicine, fibre and building materials could threaten the species in the future.
164158		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to the species.</p>
164158		threats	eng	The threats to this species in Egypt are unknown.<br/>In Israel, the plants are being taken from the wild for gardening purposes.
164159		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in Morocco. Some specimens exist currently in botanical conservatories in France (Brest, Lyons). For the future, the following actions are needed: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164159		distribution	eng	<em>Euphorbia nereidum</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to two known localities in the western Moyen Atlas: Bni Mellal and El Ksiba. The area of occupancy is small and does not exceed 50 km².
164159		habitat	eng	<em>Euphorbia nereidum</em> is found in wetlands, at the edges of ponds and along irrigation channels. It is a perennial plant (chamaephyte) able to reach 3.50m. It blooms in spring and summer under the mild semi-arid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164159		population	eng	This species was presumed extinct in the early 1970s. It was rediscovered thereafter in 1988 but with apparently important populations. The present state of the populations is not known.
164159		threats	eng	The habitat of the plant is exposed to pollution of soil and water by the installation of numerous oil plants in the regions of Blessed Mellal and El Ksiba and by intensive agriculture. Along the irrigation channels intensive grazing may result in limited plant growth through trampling.
164160		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection (Nord-Pas-de-Calais).<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, search for new ones and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164160		conservation	eng	This species is categorized Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházja 2000).
164160		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus penicillatus</em> is a sub-Atlantic species, its distribution covering Europe and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence covers well over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164160		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> penicillatus</em> is endemic to western Europe, occurring in Estonia, Denmark, Ireland, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Germany, the Czech Republic, Italy, Portugal and Spain. Reports of this species from the Balkans, European Russia and other eastern areas are likely to be the result of misidentification (possibly of hybrids) or application of a different taxonomic concept.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
164160		habitat	eng	It is a rooted Hydrophyte that inhabits cold streams of siliceous mountains. Flowering occurs in the summer.
164160		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus penicillatus </span>is almost entirely restricted to flowing water, occurring very occasionally in oxbows and small floodplain pools that have been cut off from the main body of a river, in which it appears to survive for only a short period. It typically occurs in small to medium-sized rivers and streams but will also occur in larger rivers where it may form very extensive stands. It appears to have a broad ecological tolerance occurring in calcareous and acidic waters (although the latter more rarely) and in oligotrophic to mesotrophic or even eutrophic waters.
164160		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus penicillatus</span> is a very poorly understood taxon and consequently many reports of presence and abundance are unreliable. Superficially, published evidence would suggest that it is widespread and abundant throughout its range.
164160		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, particularly in the Iberian Peninsula, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, occurring in three locations in the High Atlas (Arround, Sidi Chamharouch at 2,400 m and Aouldjid which is located north of Tizi-n-Tichka); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, occurring at 482 sites essentially concentrated in the centre and west of the peninsula;<br/>- France: quite common, occurring in Corsica and five departments in the south; <br/>- Italy: rare, occurring in Sicily, Sardinia and three provinces in the north.
164160		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164160		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are water pollution and habitat deterioration caused by overusage.
164161		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor of the existing sites <br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Avoid habitat loss by enforcing the legal protection measures
164161		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex dentatus</em> is a species of temperate and tropical regions. Its biogeographical distribution includes the Mediterranean region, Europe, temperate and tropical Asia and North Africa. Elsewhere, it has naturalized. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 300,000 km² and it is present in at least 35 locations.
164161		habitat	eng	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits non saline wetlands (ponds and valleys) and disturbed and cultivation areas and it grows at the margins of most freshwater bodies. It is tolerant to pollution. <br/>Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-July).
164161		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean area (at least 35 locations). In North Africa its distribution is reduced (12 locations), with populations varying in size according to the subspecies. The trend of the populations is not known. <br/><br/>- Tunisia: known in at least five locations, distributed between the northeast (La Marsa), central Tunisia (between Kairouan and Dar Farik) and south Tunisia (Gabes and Djerba); <br/>- Egypt: quite common, occurring in at least seven localities distributed between the valley and the delta of the Nile, the coastal Mediterranean strip and the oases of the western Desert; <br/>- Spain: present in seven sites in the south of the country (Doñana) and populations are locally abundant; <br/>- France: only found in Bouches-du-Rhone (Tela Botanica 2000-2008)<br/>- Israel: very common along the Mediterranean coastal fringe and in steppic humid and desert habitats.<br/>- Turkey: southern and central Turkey
164161		threats	eng	The agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.<br/><br/>It is not threatened at Mediterranean level.
164162		conservation	eng	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed.
164162		conservation	eng	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further information on population numbers and range is needed.
164162		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species has been classified as rare species in China (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). More research is needed to determine global population trends and actual threats.<span lang="EN-US"></span></p>
164162		distribution	eng	<em>T. elephantina</em> is a tropical plant and is found in Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, and Algeria. It has been introduced to Israel. Jordan is the northernmost limit of its distribution (locus terminus).
164162		distribution	eng	<em>T. elephantina</em> is a tropical plant which is found in the Eastern Meditearranean, Africa and East Asia.<br><br>In Africa, it has been recorded in Egypt, Libya, and Algeria. Also recorded in Senegal (M'Boro, near Dakar), Mali, Benin, Togo, and Niger (the Sahel and Sahara).
164162		distribution	eng	It occurs in China (only Yunnan), Myanmar, India, Nepal, Pakistan, West Asia and Northern Africa.
164162		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">It grows in swamps and riversides.<br/></a></p>
164162		habitat	eng	This plant is an herbaceous, rhizomatous Helophyte of up to 3 m height. It is found in gueltas, permanent wadis with water, marshy soil covered with sand, swamps. It is locally very common and aggressive.
164162		population	eng	There is no information on its global population.
164162		population	eng	The species is common in North Africa, in wet areas in the Sahara.
164162		population	eng	The species is common in North Africa, in wet areas in the Sahara. In Jordan, it has only been found in two canyons in the south.
164162		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the harvesting for producing mats, roof covers, etc.<br/>In Jordan it only occurs at two sites and at one the species is cut, but at the moment the population is stable.
164162		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the harvesting for producing mats, roof covers, etc.<br/>In Jordan it only occurs at two sites and in the past the species was cut, but at the moment the population is stable.
164162		threats	eng	There is no information on its major threats.
164164		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
164164		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164164		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus imbricatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan perennial species distributed through Africa, Asia and America, mainly in the southern hemisphere. It occurs in tropical Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, East Indies, Philippines, Central and South America.<br/><br/>Around the Mediterranean basin, it only occurs in Egypt where it is indicated by Täckholm & Drar (1941-1969) as a southern species, which probably does not attain the Mediterranean region. According to Boulos (2005) it occurrs along the Nile banks.
164164		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus imbricatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan perennial species distributed through tropical Africa including Madagascar, Asia and America, mainly in the southern hemisphere. It occurs in Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland. It is also widespread along western and Central Africa, from Mali to The Democratic Republic of Congo.
164164		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus imbricatus</span> is distributed almost pantropical. In India it is known to occur in Assam, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh (Satna), Meghalaya (Khasia), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu (Madurai, Nilgiri- Kodaikannal water falls, Pykara) and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Verma 2001).
164164		habitat	eng	In general, it grows mainly in moist ground and wet place such as muddy soils, border of freshwater, and rice fields.This plant is a robust tufted perennial with a short, thick, and woody rhizome. It is found in alluvial banks of the Nile.
164164		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb grows in seasonally flooded areas, margins of ponds, ditches, swamps, river banks, mostly on sandy soil and muddy places (Cook 1996, Verma 2001) and also in wet lands (Bhargavan 1989).
164164		habitat	eng	This plant is a robust tufted perennial  with a short, thick, and woody rhizome. It occurs in moist ground and wet places, such as alluvial banks of the Nile.
164164		population	eng	It si comon in most of Africa. In Northern Africa the species is rare but the populations are stable.
164164		population	eng	No population information for the species.
164164		population	eng	The species is rare but the populations are stable.
164164		threats	eng	Agriculture and droughts have been described as threats in Western Africa. No threats have been described at a Pan Africa level.
164164		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
164164		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
164165		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164165		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Management of the cutting and use of the species <br/>- Surveillance of existing locations <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164165		distribution	eng	<em>T. latifolia </em>has a subcosmopolitan distribution, including North and East Africa, from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, Middle East and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far East from Kamchatka to Sakhalin Island, China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula as well as North America, Mexico and southern South America. It has apparently been introduced to Australia and Hawaii. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164165		distribution	eng	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan plant that is present in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, equatorial and southern Africa, Asia, Australia and Polynesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is known in numerous localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Greece and Ionian islands, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164165		distribution	eng	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a subcosmopolite plant, widespread in the tropics and temperate regions, that is present in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, equatorial and southern Africa (including Madagascar), Asia, Australia and Polynesia. <br><br>Present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia in Northern Africa. Widespread throughout Central and Eastern Africa. Recorded also from Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somali, Djbouti, and Angola.
164165		habitat	eng	<em>T. latifolia</em> typically grows in the margins and shallow water of eutrophic lakes, marshes, rivers, ponds and ditches.
164165		habitat	eng	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte that essentially propagates in a vegetative way (rhizomes). It grows at the verges of lakes, marshes, rivers, ponds and ditches of plains and low mountains. Its flowering spreads between June and August.
164165		habitat	eng	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a vivacious Hydrophyte that essentially propagates in a vegetative way (rhizomes). It grows at the verges of lakes, marshes, rivers, ponds and ditches of plains and low mountains. Its flowering spreads between June and August.
164165		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. latifolia</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164165		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable.
164165		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable..
164165		threats	eng	Drainage, cutting and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat and the species.
164165		threats	eng	Drainage, cutting and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat and the species. However, these are not considered as major for this species.
164165		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164166		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. natans</span> is listed as:<br/><ul><li>Extinct in Luxembourg (Schnittler and Gunther 1999), </li><li>Critically Endangered in Serbia (Stevanovič 1999) and in Czech Republic (Procházka 2001),</li><li>Endangered in Germany, Slovakia, Austria (Schnittler and Gunther 1999) and former Yugoslavia (Stevanovič 1999) and </li><li>Vulnerable in Spain (Moreno 2008), Switzerland, Hungary (Schnittler and Gunther 1999) and Turkey.</li></ul>It is recommended to protect the species habitat and to monitor the population trends. More information about the threats is needed.
164166		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Spanish Red List and classified as Critically Endangered (CR B1+2c). There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br>- Search for the historic sites in North Africa <br>- Monitor the existing sites <br>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br>- Monitor the dynamics of the populations
164166		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Spanish Red List and classified as Vulnerable; the Marquesado site will soon be classified as a Nature Reserve. It is also included in the Turkish Red List, classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Search for the historic sites in North Africa <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and the dynamics of the populations<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size
164166		distribution	eng	<em>Sparganium natans</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, western Asia, Japan and North America. <br><br>In North Africa, this northern species was recorded in Morocco between Ceuta and Tétouan and in La Calle in Algeria in 1987. Its presence in the plains of North Africa is unlikely.
164166		distribution	eng	<em>Sparganium natans</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, western Asia, Japan and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is little widespread, occurring in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, Turkey and Bulgaria, with a doubtful presence in Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km², and it is present in at least 19 locations.
164166		distribution	eng	<em>Sparganium natans</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its occurs throughout most of Europe, western Asia, Japan and North America.
164166		habitat	eng	<em>S. natans</em> typically grows in mesotrophic to oligotrophic water which may be slightly acid (Cook and Nicholls 1986) to highly calcareous (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) over base-rich substrates (Cook and Nicholls 1986) in bays and inlets of lakes, pools, ditches and peat-diggings, less frequently in small streams. It will occur in large sedge (magnocaricion) habitats with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex elata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. paniculata</span>.
164166		habitat	eng	It is a perennial rhizomatous Hydrophyte (10-50 cm height) with floating leaves that inhabits lakes, shallow water and permanent swamps with oligotrophic and very transparent freshwater. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.
164166		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. natans</span> is apparently widespread in Poland (Schnittler and Günther 1999). A significant decline in the south and lowland areas of the UK appears to be continuing, although it is listed as Least Concern by Cheffing and Farrell (2005). It is included at some level of threat in ten countries and apparently extinct in Luxembourg. In Hungary, 14 of 15 former populations have been lost, but two new populations have been found in the last ten years (G. Király pers. comm. 2010). Therefore, whilst there appear to be no empirical data, it must be assumed that this species is in decline through the central European part of its range.
164166		population	eng	The species is little widespread in the Mediterranean region (19 locations) and it has an area of occupancy below 2,000 km². The populations are in slow decline, especially in the west of the Mediterranean basin. <br/>- Spain: very rare, occurring in only one location (Laguna del Marquesado). This population is stable at the moment but vulnerable to any alteration of the habitat   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is classified as Vulnerable in the national Red List (Moreno 2008); <br/>- France: quite common in the mainland (present in five departments in the Mediterranean strip) and in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in nine provinces in the north of the country.<br/>- Turkey: present in one location in the northeast outside the Mediterranean region<br/>In North Africa, this northern species was recorded in Morocco between Ceuta and Tétouan and in La Calle in Algeria in 1987. Its presence in the plains of North Africa is greatly unlikely.
164166		population	eng	The species is little widespread in the Mediterranean. The populations are in slow decline, especially in the west of the Mediterranean basin. There is no specific information about African countries available.
164166		threats	eng	Eutrophication and hydrological changes are the main threats to this species.
164166		threats	eng	The decline in the UK is attributed to loss of wetland habitats over much of the area from which this species has gone combined with continuing eutrophication, it is likely that these two causes operate throughout the range of the species.
164167		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
164167		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164167		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164167		distribution	eng	<em>B. eruciformis</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution; absent  mainly from the northern parts of the northern hemisphere. It extends  from Mediterranean Europe east through the Caucasus and Middle East to  China. It occurs throughout much of Africa, South and Southeast Asia and  Australia as well as the Caribbean and southern South America. In India it occurs in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Jammu-Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan,Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Kabeer and Nair 2009, Rao and Kumari 2008, Lakshminarasimhan1996).
164167		distribution	eng	<em>B. eruciformis</em> is present in Spain, Italy, Sicily, France, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt and Morocco.
164167		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. eruciformis</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution; absent mainly from the northern parts of the northern hemisphere. It extends from Mediterranean Europe east through the Caucasus and Middle East to China. It occurs throughout much of Africa, South and Southeast Asia and Australia as well as the Caribbean and southern South America.</p>  <em></em>
164167		habitat	eng	It is a annual, common weed in cultivated fields, sometimes grows in roadsides, damp places, ditches, waste places and also as weed of coffee plantations (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan and Sharma 1991, Kabeer and Nair 2009).
164167		habitat	eng	Its habitat are ditches, damp, wet and waste places. It is considered a weed of cultivated fields.
164167		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. eruciformis</span> is predominantly a species of dry situations including arable fields, however in the Mediterranean it occurs in ditches, damp, wet and waste places.
164167		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its range.
164167		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. eruciformis</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Croatia but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164167		population	eng	This species is generally common in the region but rare in Croatia (NT).
164167		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
164167		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164167		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
164168		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, it is therefore recommended to monitor the existing sites and to manage the harvest and trade of the species.
164168		conservation	eng	This species is easily cultivated.
164168		distribution	eng	<em>Bacopa monnieri</em> is a species of the tropical and subtropical regions of America, Africa and Australia and in the Mediterranean region it occurs in Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Egypt.<br/>Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is below 500 km², and it is present in more than six locations.
164168		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Bacopa monnieri</span> is distributed in tropics and subtropics of the world: in Sri Lanka, India, Nepal<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span> China, Taiwan, Vietnam <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>and Pakistan. It is also found in Florida, Hawaii and southern states of USA and the Meditearranean Basin.<br/>In India it is found in Andaman, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
164168		habitat	eng	It is a creeping, perennial, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits ponds, canals, humid ditches and swampy habitats. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn (April to October). It propagates by shoot multiplication.
164168		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bacopa monnieri</span> is a perennial or sometimes annual. It grows gregariously and often forms dense mats in marshy places, the banks of pools and along streams and ditches. It can tolerate brackish water. Mostly found in rice fields. Propagation is often achieved through cuttings. <span style="font-style: italic;">Bacopa monnieri</span>&#160; is known to grow under varying soil and climatic conditions. The plant performs exceptionally well in poorly drained soils and waterlogged areas under subtropical conditions.
164168		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region with relatively stable populations (large propagation by shoot multiplication). <br/>In Egypt, it is found along the Nile, the Suez Canal and in the Sinai Peninsula. It is very common in Israel, in the wetlands of the Mediterranean front and in the desert and sub-desert regions. In the Palestine Territories, the populations have gone extinct.
164168		population	eng	This is a widespread species and common where it is found.
164168		threats	eng	<p>This species has no specific threats.</p>
164168		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the drainage and agricultural usage of its habitat.
164169		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Centre, Basse-Normandie, Lorraine, Alsace, Pays-de-la-Loire, Midi-Pyrénées, Limousin, Rhones-Alpes, Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. In Spain, it is registered in the Red List as Endangered (Moreno 2008). <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>The following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures<br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (seed banks)<br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (Moroccan List of Protected Species)
164169		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Centre, Basse-Normandie, Lorraine, Alsace, Pays-de-la-Loire, Midi-Pyrénées, Limousin, Rhones-Alpes, Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. It is listed as Vulnerable in Spain and Switzerland and as Critically Endangered in Serbia and in the former Yugoslavia (Stevanovič 1999), however, throughout much of its European range it is not of conservation concern.
164169		distribution	eng	<em>U. minor</em> has a circumboreal distribution, extending southwards to the Himalaya, Myanmar and Papua New Guinea, throughout northern and western North America and western Greenland. It occurs throughout most of Europe but is rare in the Mediterranean region (Taylor 1989).
164169		distribution	eng	<em>Utricularia minor</em> is a circumboreal temperate species with Eurasian distribution. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 1,900,000 km². <br/>In North Africa, it is solely present in Morocco, where it is very rare, occurring in only one location in the High Atlas (Tafraoute-n-Ouarra lake at 2,180 m, at the foot of Anromer).
164169		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic, submersed, perennial and carnivorous plant (swimming Hydrophyte) that is found in peatbogs, peaty swamps, mountain lakes, pool edges, dystrophic water bodies of acidic soil and calcareous fens. Flowering occurs between spring and summer.
164169		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. minor</span> typically occurs in shallow standing water  in acid habitats in peatbogs, peaty swamps, mountain lakes, pond edges and occasionally in swampy pastures.
164169		population	eng	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations is not known, but they are probably moderately declining. In Morocco, it is considered very rare, occurring in only one location; the population is small and isolated but seems to be stable. In Spain, it is considered as Endangered, the populations are very dispersed, occurring in 13 provinces in the north half of the country in the mountains. In France, it is quite common and scattered, it is protected in 13 regions. In Italy, it is present in 11 provinces. The species is known from two localities in Turkey and is rare with only a few locations (five to six) in Croatia.
164169		population	eng	Whilst populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. minor</span> are usually scattered and restricted to localised habitats, it is widespread throughout much of Europe and populations in the north and west appear to be stable.
164169		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to this species is loss of habitat, partly through peat exploitation and partly through conversion to agriculture.<br/></p>
164169		threats	eng	Water eutrophication (mostly due to agriculture and livestock), changes in the hydrological regime, invasion by exotic species (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Baccharis halimifolia</span>), succession and the subsequent increase of shade, and infilling resulting from soil erosion of the surrounding deteriorated landscape, are the main threats to this species and its habitat.
164170		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- To search for the historic sites, and for new sites and to monitor them <br/>- <em>Ex situ</em> protection if seeds can be taken in the wild <br/>- Backing of populations and to consider the introduction into potentially favourable sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Legal protection measures: list of legally protected species in Morocco, legal protection of the sites<br/>- Raising public awareness
164170		distribution	eng	<em>Lotus benoistii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco discovered in 1920. Its distribution is restricted to the Atlantic plains where only three localities are known (of which one has already been destroyed): Mamora, close to Salty Zemmour, Chaouïa near Casablanca airport and in the Gharb to the north of Kenitra. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the range of 1,250 km² within which the occupied area is very small, not exceeding 3 km².
164170		habitat	eng	<em>Lotus benoistii</em> is found only in temporary pools on sandy soils (dayas). It is an annual species that appears and blooms only after fairly dry winters. The localities of <em>L. benoistii</em> are found under the sub-humid to mild and semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164170		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but the noted global tendency is a decline with the reduction of the area of occupancy resulting from the destruction of the largest known population in Mamora, 15 years ago. Beyond the risks of direct destruction, the populations show large inter-annual fluctuations under the effect of the climate, increasing the stochastic extinction risk. The three remaining site are:<br/>- Mamora/Salé (33.961 N; -06.835 W): The last observation dates 1995, the station was since destroyed by a road development. It is possible that the species still exists in neighbouring pools. <br/>- Casablanca/Chaouia (33.52 N;-07.708 W): airport of Casablanca-Anfa, no recent observation, uncertain situation because of recent constructions <br/>- Gharb: two sites in the documentation, no recent observation and very uncertain situation
164170		threats	eng	In addition to the pressure of grazing and water pollution, the situation of the temporary pools in Morocco are impacted by infrastructure and agricultural development. Habitat destruction resulting from infrastructure development is the most significant threat among the named ones.
164172		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Corsica. <br/>Possible conservation measures in North Africa include: studying the habitats of this species, taxonomy, populations, and the locations.
164172		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Mediterranean. It is found in France, in three departments plus the island of Corsica, Spain, Portugal, Morocco (Mamora) and Algeria (six locations). It is present in Sicily (Italy) where it has not been seen again.
164172		habitat	eng	<em>A. tenerrima</em> is an annual species that grows on sandy soils and sandy moors. It is flowering in France, Italy and Morocco between April and June.
164172		population	eng	The populations are probably tiny and very scattered in the countries in which <em>A. tenerrima</em> exists. Howewer, they exceed 10 locations.
164172		threats	eng	General threats to the species' habitat include urbanization.
164173		conservation	eng	The species is regionally protected in France (Iles-de-France, region Centers, Bretagne, Languedoc-Roussillon, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur). <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Conservation of the habitat of the species <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and of the existing sites<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164173		distribution	eng	<em>Crassula vaillantii</em> is a widely distributed species. It is known to be in the Mediterranean, southern Europe, Ethiopia and South Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Greece including Crete, Cyprus, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Portugal, Malta, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.
164173		habitat	eng	<em>Crassula vaillantii</em> is a small annual plant (Therophyte) that is present in plains and low mountains, flooded depressions that inundate in winter, temporary pools on flinty soils or in hollows of chalky stone. Its flowering periods are winter and spring.
164173		population	eng	No data is available on the population size, but a decline is known due to the destruction of their habitat. Populations seem to be more abundant in the western Mediterranean (Morocco and Iberian Peninsula) and slightly rarer eastward. <br/>- Morocco: it is present in at least 12 localities that cover the Anti Atlas, High Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Atlantic plains;<br/>- Algeria: it is rare in the Tell and very rare on the high plateaus of Algeria and Oran (Aflou, Sersou);<br/>- Tunisia: it was recently discovered (2007) in only one locality in Sejnane but its populations are very reduced and threatened by agriculture and drainage of the habitat;<br/>- Libya: only present in the regions of Benghazi, Lamluda and Tocra; <br/>- Greece:   rare and scattered, <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>reported from the islands: Strofades (<st1:placename w:st="on">Ioanian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>), Gavdos (south of Crete), Naxos, Syros (old, not recently confirmed record), Agios Evstratios and <st1:place w:st="on">Lesvos;</st1:place>   <br/>- France: very rare in rocky ponds of the plain of the Maures, Estérel, Roque-Haute, coastal SW, Bonifacio, Cape Corsica, Agriate and have not been seen for more than ten years in Saint Estève and in Biot;<br/>- Spain and Portugal: present in most of the Iberian Peninsula.
164173		threats	eng	Drainage, infilling, cultivation and abandonment of agricultural practices, overgrazing, urbanization and the enrichment with nitrates which leads to the ruderalisation of species are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164174		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. densa</span> is categorized Extinct (EX) in Denmark and Sweden and Critically Endangered (CR) in Serbia and the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001). It is classed as Vulnerable (VU) in the United Kingdom, Near Threatened (NT) in Switzerland and Data Deficient (DD) in Croatia. There is no need for active conservation measures but there is a need for effective monitoring to ensure that other populations are not lost before the decline becomes critical.
164174		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164174		distribution	eng	<em>Groenlandia densa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution encompasses Europe, western Asia and North Africa. It was introduced in boreal America and in Australia.  <br/><br/>In North Africa it can be found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 20,000 km², within which the AOO >100 km², and it is present in several locations.
164174		distribution	eng	<em>Groenlandia densa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution encompasses Europe, western Asia and North Africa. It was introduced in boreal America and in Australia.  <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164174		distribution	eng	<p><em>G. densa</em> occurs in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and into the Caucasus. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout, from Scandinavia south to the Iberian Peninsula and east to the Baltic States and European Turkey.</p>
164174		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hydrophyte) that inhabits stagnant and current water (springs, pools, streams and cold rivers). Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July). It is an indicator of oligotrophic water.
164174		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. densa</span> typically occurs in shallow, clear, base-rich water, including lakes and rivers, but more often streams, canals, ditches and ponds, particularly the headwaters of calcareous streams.
164174		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, however it appears to be declining further north. It is now considered extinct in Denmark and Sweden (Preston 2010) and <span style="background-color: white;">in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007). It is C</span>ritically Endangered in Serbia (Stevanovič 1999) and in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001) where it undergoes significant declines and survives in only one locality (Kaplan 2010). It has undergone a significant decline in the United Kingdom (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
164174		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with numerous locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, occurring in several locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, the High Atlas and the Zaiane district; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common, occurring in numerous locations distributed between the coastal Algérois, the Tellian Atlas (Constantinois and Oranais regions), the Constantinois high plains and the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, occurring in only two locations - south Tunisia (Gafsa) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Sakiet Sidi Youssef).
164174		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with numerous locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, occurring in several locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, the High Atlas and the Zaiane district; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common, occurring in numerous locations distributed between the coastal Algérois, the Tellian Atlas (Constantinois and Oranais regions), the Constantinois high plains and the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, occurring in only two locations - south Tunisia (Gafsa) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Sakiet Sidi Youssef); <br/>- Spain: very frequent, occurring in 169 sites concentrated essentially in the north; <br/>- France: very common;<br/>- Italy: very common, occurring in 14 provinces in addition to Sicily.
164174		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. densa</span> appears to be declining throughout much of its northern European range, the causes appear to include urbanisation, eutrophication&#160; and over-abstraction from underground water resources (aquifers) so that the point at which flow in rivers becomes seasonal, rather than permanent, moves downstream.
164174		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the drainage of its habitat but it is not considered as a major threat to the species.
164174		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the drainage of its habitat. It is unlikely that this would lead to a severe decline in the near future.
164175		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. sceleratus</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164175		distribution	eng	<p><em>R. sceleratus</em> occurs throughout much of the northern Hemisphere, from Europe south to North Africa and east through the <span lang="EN-GB">Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, China and Japan. It also occurs in the Himalayas, in Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan and throughout North America except the far north. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.</p>
164175		habitat	eng	<em>R. sceleratus</em> typically grows in soft silt on the margins of streams, rivers, pools and lakes or around cattle-drinks in eutrophic to hyper-eutrophic conditions, it will also grow in saline environments, tolerating quite high salt concentrations.
164175		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. sceleratus</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164175		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164176		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
164176		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sphenoclea zeylanica</span> is widely distributed pantropically.&#160;In India, it is found in Andaman, Assam, Delhi, Goa, Kerala, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).</p><p><br/></p>  <p>  </p><p><br/></p>
164176		habitat	eng	<p>It is present in almost any kind of moist soil or on low riverbanks, along ditches, marshes, dry riverbeds, ponds; up to 300 m alt. Also found in lowland- irrigated and rained rice fields.&#160; Whereas, it is seasonally submerged, emergent or temporarily, terrestrial, often found in swampy areas, along the banks of water courses and in rice fields. It can tolerate brackish water. It is autogamous but perhaps also sometimes pollinated by insects. The disseminules are small seeds, dispersed in mud and perhaps also by other means. It is often gregarious becoming a troublesome weed in rice fields (Cook 1996).</p>
164176		population	eng	<p>This is a common species throughout its range.<br/></p>
164176		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
164178		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)
164178		distribution	eng	<em>Eryngium maroccanum</em> is an endemic plant of Morocco. Its distribution is restricted to the central part of the Moyen Atlas between 1,400 and 2,000 m elevation. It is found in seven localities: Azrou, Boulmane, Tabainout, Tamalout, Timahdit, Aguelman and close to Kasba of Bou Arif. The extent of occurrence of the species is about 1,500 km², within which the occupied area does not exceed 150 km².
164178		habitat	eng	<em>Eryngium maroccanum</em> is found in temporarily flooded habitats, along temporary streams, in fens (meadows on peat substrate) and around lakes of low to middle chalky mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms late in summer to fall. The species is found in localities under the humid and sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164178		population	eng	The total population of <em>Eryngium maroccanum</em> is estimated to consist of 162,000 individuals. The populations seem stable even when submitted to high grazing pressure because the species is marginally browsed by livestock. This species is resistant to prolonged droughts.
164178		threats	eng	The lakes of the Moyen Atlas are exposed to high pressure from tourism activities and water pollution. Temporary wetlands are a habitat type that is under severe threat in Morocco, both from human impacts and from climate change.
164179		conservation	eng	The species is regionally protected in Corsica (official Newspaper of August 15, 1986) and included as Endangered in the national Red List (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). In Corsica, the species occurs in the designated natural reserve of the archipelago of the Lavezzi (Corsica). It is suggested to reinforce the population of the Corsica site.<br/>In Italy, the species is considered as Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). According to the latter authors the species should be considered as declining.<br/>In the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus   (Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007), the species is classed as Critically Endangered (CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii), C2a(ii), D1).
164179		distribution	eng	<em>Ipomoea sagittata</em> is a species known in the Mediterranean countries, Asia Minor and tropical America. In spite of the fact that its distribution is scattered in different locations, it is considered as being native from the Mediterranean region. In Europe, it occurs in Italy and Sicily, Spain and the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Cyprus and Greece. It is overall very rare and the area of occupancy in Europe is likely to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
164179		habitat	eng	<em>Ipomoea sagittata</em> is a rhizomatous geophyte that prefers coastal marshes and verges of watercourses and irrigation canals. It is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites </span>communities in brackish water near the sea. Its flowering takes place in summer.
164179		population	eng	The populations are in decline in the Mediterranean region. <br/>In Italy, it is present in Latium, Puglia, Calabria and Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) where it is classified as very rare in the national red list. <br/>In Corsica, it is classified as Endangered. The only Corsican site is in a small depression on Defer beach and the population is localized on only a few square meters.<br/>In Cyprus, there is one known location with 20 plants at the Fasouri marsh, close to sea level. Another location, that has been recorded in 1990, has not been found again due to continuous flooding of the area   (Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).  <br/>  In Greece, there is only one very old record by Baldacci (1894) in Aktion (west Greece) cited in Halacsy 's Conspectus Florae Graecae vol 2 (1902) "in paludosis ad Actium Acarnaniae". This locality is in nom. Etolias-Akarnanias, ep. Vonitsis-Xiromerou. The record has not been confirmed recently and there is no further information on the size of the population (if still there) and the major threats (I. Bazos pers.comm. 2010). In 1988, the species was collected in salines by the beach at Psatha, northwest of Megara (nom. Attikis, ep. Megaridos). This collection (Strid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 27487) is represented in herbaria in Greece, the UK and Scandinavia. The species must presumably be regarded as threatened since its habitats (saline or brackish swamps) are often being destroyed by draining, waste disposal, etc. It was growing in a reed swamp near the beach at Psatha and there was a fair amount of it, but such a locality is vulnerable to housing developments and other human activities (A. Strid pers. comm. 2010).  <br/>In Spain, it is found at around seven sites (Anthos 2009) but it is considered as exotic species from the Yucatan peninsula according to Flora Iberica (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep.).
164179		threats	eng	Drainage of marshes, water and soil pollution are the main threats to the habitat of this species. The populations in Corsica are threatened by trampling, vandalism and illegal waste dumping. The change of hydrological regimes and continuous flooding of the species' habitat are the main threats in Cyprus.
164180		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but it is necessary to encourage habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders.
164180		distribution	eng	Present throughout almost all the African continent.
164180		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, submerged or not, preferring muddy and calm places on rocks at the border or rarely at the middle of flooded rivers, rapids and waterfalls.
164180		population	eng	Very widespread species, important population.
164180		threats	eng	Main potential threats are water pollution, temperature extremes and sudden drought
164181		conservation	eng	In France, this species is under regional protection in Picardie, Centre, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Midi-Pyrénées, Limousin, Rhones-Alpes, Midi-Pyrénées and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164181		conservation	eng	In France, this species is under regional protection (Picardie, Centre, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Midi-Pyrénées, Limousin, Rhones-Alpes, Midi-Pyrénées and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur).<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to maintain their hydrologic regime.
164181		distribution	eng	<em>Utricularia vulgaris</em> is a circumboreal species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 2,500,000 km² and it is present in many locations.<br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco (Rif, Middle Atlas and northern Atlantic Morocco), Algeria (Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie and along the coast of the Algiers region) and Tunisia (Garaet Sedjnane in the Mogods).
164181		distribution	eng	<em>U. vulgaris</em> is a circumboreal but not Arctic species, occurring in Europe, North Africa and temperate Asia to western Siberia and Tibet (Taylor 1989). It is found throughout Europe but is less frequent in the north.
164181		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic, submersed, perennial, carnivorous plant (swimming Hydrophyte) that is found in lakes, swamps and stagnant water bodies. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.<br/>In Turkey, the species grows in alkaline waters.
164181		habitat	eng	<p><em>U. vulgaris</em> is found in oligotrophic, eutrophic and mesotrophic, base-rich waters. Habitats include sheltered bays in limestone lakes, ponds, ditches and pools in calcareous fens and grazing marshes, and flooded clay-, marl-, and gravel-pits. Flowering is temperature dependent, variable annually, and less frequent in the north of its range (F.J. Rumsey in Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>
164181		population	eng	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean region (>30). The populations appear to be decreasing slightly.<br/>- Morocco: the species is quite common, occurring in at least seven locations (Smir, Dayet Roumi, etc); <br/>- Algeria: less than 10 locations (Kabylie, Numidie and along the coast of the Algiers region); <br/>- Tunisia: very rare, occurring in only one location (Sedjnane in the Mogods); <br/>- Spain: present in 12 provinces in the northwest and centre of the country; <br/>- France: well represented in a large part of France (68 departments) and regionally protected in nine regions; <br/>- Italy: present in nearly all of the country.<br/>- Turkey: six locations in the northwest and central Anatolia<br/>- Israel: found at one site
164181		population	eng	The status of populations is poorly documented, but <span style="font-style: italic;">U. vulgaris</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range, with only minor historic declines mainly due to destruction of wetlands.
164181		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164181		threats	eng	The drainage of wetlands, agriculture, water eutrophication, invasion by exotic species, the closing in of the habitat and consequent increase in shade and the infilling of wetlands due to the deterioration of the landscape, are the main threats to this species and its habitat.
164182		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the species being classed as Vulnerable on the Swiss red list, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
164182		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164182		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus aquatilis</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is in most of Europe, but is rarer in the north and east. It is not found at the Azores, Portugal and Turkey.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco.
164182		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus aquatilis</em> occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east through Mongolia to Sakhalin Island, China and Japan it also occurs on the western seaboards of North and South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164182		habitat	eng	<em>R. aquatilis</em> typically occurs in small stands of base-rich, mesotrophic to eutrophic water such as pools in marshland, ponds and ditches as well as occasionally in slow-flowing streams and sheltered bays of lakes.
164182		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte of 20-150 cm height, is very polymorph and variable owing to the conditions of its environment. Its habitat are clear, stagnant or lentic waters, banks of rivers and pools with a slow flow.
164182		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. aquatilis</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout Europe.
164182		population	eng	The populations of <em>Ranunculus aquatilis</em> are scattered here and there from Libya to Morocco (var. <em>heleophilus</em>) in the southern Mediterranean region and from Spain to Greece.
164182		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164182		threats	eng	Water eutrophication is the main threat to this species.
164183		conservation	eng	Currently, there are no conservation measures in place. The following conservation measures are recommended for the future:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species in Egypt).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the population size.<br/>- Study the population dynamics.<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species.
164183		distribution	eng	<em>Coldenia procumbens</em> is a tropical and subtropical species. In the Mediterranean it is only present in Egypt, in the Giza-Faiyum desert west of the Nile at only one locality.<br/><br/>Its general distribution includes Africa (Angola, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, Tchad, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe), Asia (Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand) and Australia.
164183		habitat	eng	<em>Coldenia procumbens</em> is a procumbent annual herbaceous plant of 10-40 cm height, often forming mats of up to 80 cm diameter.
164183		population	eng	<em>Coldenia procumbens</em> is very rare in Egypt where only one subpopulation is known.
164183		threats	eng	Destruction and degradation of its habitat due to human settlement and tourism development are the main threats to this species.
164184		conservation	eng	The locality of the Haut Atlas is within the National park of Toubkal, but this doesn't prevent the harvest of <em>Mentha gattefossei</em>. For the other localities there is no protection in place. <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) and implementation of the existing legal protection measures<br/>- To know the supportable harvest limit of the plant (sustainable use) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164184		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha gattefossei</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is found at one site in the Moroccan Sahara (Ziz river), and at five sites in the Atlas Mountains (Haut Atlas: Toubkal, Moyen Atlas and Anti Atlas). The extent of occurrence is about 84,000 km². The area of occupancy is estimated to be slightly above<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2,000 km².
164184		habitat	eng	The species is found in wet meadows, at the edges of pools and rivers of chalky and flinty mountains between 1,600 and 2,100 m altitude. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164184		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known. However, the populations may be declining as a result of the medicinal use of the plant.
164184		threats	eng	The habitat is often damaged by overgrazing. The plant is exploited for medicinal purposes, such as the extraction of essential oils, at national and international level.
164186		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are being proposed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures, research of the populations, study their biology and protection of the last habitats.
164186		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, the following ones are being proposed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures, research of the populations, study their biology and protection of the last habitats.
164186		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean or steno-Mediterranean species.<br/>In Africa, it is indicated as, <em>J. bufonius</em> var. <em>condensatus</em>, from only one location in Algeria (El Kala) and two locations in Tunisia (Sejnane and Rajem el Ma).
164186		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean or steno-Mediterranean species. In Corsica, it seems to have disappeared (Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). It is not indicated in mainland France. In Italy, it is very rare and is also found in western Sicily and Sardinia. It also occurs in Spain, Portugal, and Greece.<br/>In North Africa, it is indicated as, <em>J. bufonius</em> var. <em>condensatus</em>, from only one location in Algeria (El Kala) and two locations in Tunisia (Sejnane and Rajem el Ma).
164186		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus sorrentini</em> is an annual therophyte of 5-20 cm height. It is found in temporary ponds, subjected to salty sea spray, and damp places on mountains.
164186		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus sorrentini</em> is an annual Therophyte of 5-20 cm height. It is found in temporary ponds, subjected to salty sea spray, and damp places on mountains. Flowering is in Corsica and Italy is from June to August.
164186		population	eng	In Algeria and Tunisia, the populations should be searched for. It was mentioned in Morocco by Dobignard but this source is unclear. It is only in two localities in Tunisia and one in Algeria.
164186		population	eng	In Corsica, it seems that <em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is extinct as the species has not been seen since 1850. In Italy, the populations are very scattered and very rare. It was recorded at two sites in Tunisia and one in Algeria; these populations should be searched for. It was also mentioned in Morocco by Dobignard but this source is unclear. It has been recorded from five localities in Spain and three in Portugal (Anthos 2009).
164186		threats	eng	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is very threatened, because of its rarity and small number of its populations. Its habitat is negatively impacted by tourism development, expansion of agriculture, grazing and pollution.
164186		threats	eng	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is very threatened, including its possible extinction, because of its rarity and small number of its populations. Its habitat is negatively impacted by tourism development, expansion of agriculture, grazing and pollution.
164187		conservation	eng	At European level, the species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). At national level, it is protected in France (decree of August 31, 1995) and included in several national Red Lists such as Spain (Vulnerable), Italy (Vulnerable), Greece (Vulnerable), France (Endangered) and Croatia where it is classified as Critically Endangered. There are site protection measures in place for example in the natural reserves for the pools of Roque-Haute (France) and for the pools of Tre Padule of Suartone (Corsica). Harvest and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the spores is undertaken by the National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles (France).
164187		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in the Maghreb countries (list of protected species in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To assure a mastery of the urbanization and to enforce of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place outside Africa:<br/>- Protected in Europe (Convention of Bern, Annex I) <br/>- Protected in France (decree of August 31, 1995) <br/>- Red list in Spain (Vulnerable) <br/>- Red list in Italy (Vulnerable) <br/>- Red list in Greece (Vulnerable) <br/>- Croatia: classified as Critically Endangered <br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Roque-Haute (France) <br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Tre Padule of Suartone (Corsica)
164187		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures are in place:<br/>- Protected in Europe (Convention of Bern, Annex I) <br/>- Protected in France (decree of August 31, 1995) and classed as Vulnerable on the Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>- Red list in Spain (Vulnerable) (Moreno 2008)<br/>- Red list in Italy (Vulnerable) <br/>- Red list in Greece (Vulnerable) <br/>- Croatia: classified as Critically Endangered   (Nikoli? and Topi? 2005)<br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Roque-Haute (France) <br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Tre Padule of Suartone (Corsica) <br/>- Harvest and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the spores by the National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles (France) <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in the Maghreb countries (list of protected species in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To assure a mastery of the urbanization and to enforce legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- To maintain an extensive grazing in order to limit the development of a dense plant setting in the pools (France)<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164187		distribution	eng	<em>Pilularia minuta</em> is a steno-Mediterranean plant. It is found in France, in the regions of Hérault and Alpes-Maritimes as well as in Corsica in Bonifacio, Lecci, and in the vicinity of Aleria and Ghisonnaccia. In Portugal, it is present in the Algarve, and in Spain, in the regions of Andalusia, Castilla y Leon, and Menorca (Anthos 2009). In Italy, it occurs in the region of Rome, Sardinia and Sicily. It has been found in Greece, in the west and northern islands of the Aegean Sea, as well as in Cyprus. In Croatia, it is present at the Dalmatian coast. Turkey has a subpopulation close to Izmir. In Morocco, it occurs southeast of Tiflet, west of Benslimane, and in Rommani. It is probably extinct in Algeria, but there are old records from Kabylie, Castiglione-Bou Ismaïl, Djebel Santo, Mudjardjo, Les Issers, Msabia. In Tunisia, it has been discovered lately in 2006 in Garâa Sejenane. <br/> <br/>It is considered as vulnerable in Italy, Greece, France and Spain, Endangered in the Balearic Islands and very rare in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence of <em>P. minuta</em> is about 2,300,000 km² within which the occupied area is very small, but nevertheless exceeds 10 km² when measured using a 1 km² grid.
164187		distribution	eng	<em>Pilularia minuta</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is considered as vulnerable in Italy, Greece, France and Spain, Endangered in the Balearic Islands and very rare in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. <br/><br/>In Africa it is present in Morocco (south east of Tiflet, west of Benslimane, Rommani), Algeria (probably extinct; old records from Kabylie, Castiglione-Bou Ismaïl, Djebel Santo, Mudjardjo, Les Issers, Msabia), and Tunisia: discovered lately in 2006 in Garâa Sejenane. <br/> <br/>In North Africa, the extent of occurrence of the species does not exceed 105,000 km², with an occupied area lower than 10 km².
164187		distribution	eng	<em>Pilularia minuta</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is found in France (Hérault, Alpes-Maritimes where it is now considered extinct) and Corsica (Bonifacio, Lecci, vicinity of Aleria and Ghisonnaccia), in the Algarve and Alto Alentejo in Portugal, in Spain (Andalusia, Castilla y Leon, and Menorca, Anthos 2009), around Rome in Italy (doubtful occurrence) and in Sardinia and Sicily (where it is now considered as extinct), in the Greek Aegean Islands (Lesvos, Psathoura, Agios Evstratios), Cyprus, at the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, and in Turkey (close to Izmir). It is also present in North Africa.<br/>The total area of occupancy is believed to be smaller than 500 km<sup></sup>².
164187		habitat	eng	The perennial species is found in temporary pools at low elevation in diverse landscapes such as forests, matorrals or agricultural lands. It is a small amphibious fern of small stature, with a threadlike rhizome (Geophyte with rhizome). The germination of the spores requires very humid (water saturated) or flooded conditions; the maturation of the sporocarpes only takes place after complete exposure to air at the end of the spring.
164187		habitat	eng	The species is found in temporary pools at low elevation in diverse landscapes such as forests, matorrals or agricultural lands. It is always found on acidic soils. It is a small amphibious fern of small stature, perennial with a threadlike rhizome (Geophyte with rhizome). The germination of the spores requires very humid (water saturated) or flooded conditions; the maturation of the sporocarpes only takes place after complete exposure to air at the end of the spring.
164187		habitat	eng	The species is found in temporary pools at low elevation in diverse landscapes such as forests, matorrals or agricultural lands. It is a small amphibious fern of small stature, perennial with a threadlike rhizome (Geophyte with rhizome). The germination of the spores requires very humid (water saturated) or flooded conditions; the maturation of the sporocarpes only takes place after complete exposure to air at the end of the spring.
164187		population	eng	In spite of its large distribution along the Mediterranean basin, the number of sites as well as the real area occupied by <em>Pilularia minuta</em> remains very small resulting from the scattered distribution and the small size of the temporary pools. It is present in: <br/>- Morocco: about 12 sites, last observation in 2006 (Benslimane, Tiflet), <br/>- Algeria: six sites (last observation 1952) <br/>- Tunisia: 10 sites (last observation 2007) <br/>- Spain: three sites (last observation 2003 in Andalusia) on the mainland and three sites in Menorca (Anthos 2009)<br/>- Croatia: two sites (on islands), <br/>- France: on the continent at least three sites (last observation Roque-Haute 2001); Corsica: 12 sites <br/>- Greece: three sites, <br/>- Portugal: three sites, (last observation 2010) <br/>- Italy: at least three sites (last observation 2007 in Sardinia, 1982 in Sicily) <br/>- Turkey: one site (last observation 1998) <br/>- Cyprus: one site (last observation 1998) <br/> <br/>The population sizes at all sites are very variable from one year to the next according to rainfall conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult, however they seem to be globally in decline following the destruction of the sites (pool of Biot in France destroyed in 1975, pools close to Alger destroyed by urbanization and agriculture). At the remaining sites, the populations are vulnerable and threatened notably by the increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities, especially in North Africa. The populations are classed as being severely fragmented.
164187		population	eng	In spite of its large distribution along the Mediterranean basin, the number of sites as well as the real area occupied by <em>Pilularia minuta</em> remains very small resulting from the scattered distribution and the small size of the temporary pools. It is present in: <br/><ul><li>Spain: three sites (last observation 2003 in Andalusia) on the mainland and three sites in Menorca (Anthos 2009)</li><li>Croatia: one to two sites on islands of the coast </li><li>France: on the continent at least two sites (last observation Roque-Haute 2001); Corsica: nine sites </li><li>Greece: one locality on Psathoura, two on Agios Evstratios and around four in Lesvos, recently detected (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2010), all the localities are small.<br/></li><li>Portugal: two sites</li><li>Italy: four - five sites, last observation 2007 in Sardinia, extinct in Sicily and possibly in Latium too </li><li>Cyprus: one site, last observation 1998 </li></ul> <br/>On all sites, the population sizes are very variable from one year to the next according to rainfall conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult which seem to be globally in decline following the destruction of the sites (e.g. pool of Biot in France destroyed in the years 1975). In the remaining sites, the populations are vulnerable and threatened notably by the increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities.
164187		population	eng	In spite of its large distribution along the Mediterranean basin, the number of sites as well as the real area occupied by <em>Pilularia minuta</em> remains very small resulting from the scattered distribution and the small size of the the temporary pools. It is present in: <br/>- Morocco: about 12 sites, last observation in 2006 (Benslimane, Tiflet), <br/>- Algeria: six sites (last observation 1952) <br/>- Tunisia: 10 sites (last observation 2007) <br/>- Spain: three sites (last observation 2003 in Andalusia) <br/>- Croatia: two sites (on islands), <br/>- France: on the continent at least three sites (last observation Roque-Haute 2001); Corsica: 12 sites <br/>- Greece: three sites, <br/>- Portugal: three sites, (last observation 2006) <br/>- Italy: at least three sites (last observation 2007 in Sardinia, 1982 in Sicily) <br/>- Turkey: one site (last observation 1998) <br/>- Cyprus: one site (last observation 1998) <br/> <br/>On all sites, the population sizes are very variable from one year to the next according to rainfall conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult which seem to be globally in decline following the destruction of the sites (pool of Biot in France destroyed in the years 1975, pools close to Alger destroyed by urbanization and agriculture). In the remaining sites, the populations are vulnerable and threatened notably by the increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities, especially in North Africa.
164187		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>P. minuta</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats (drainage, filling in, agriculture, nitrification, overgrazing and urbanization) but also to natural threats bound to the encroachment of perennial competitive plants following the abandonment of previous extensive uses (pools of Roque-Haute in the Hérault, France).
164187		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>P. minuta</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats (drainage, filling in, agriculture, overgrazing and urbanization) but also to natural threats bound to the encroachment of perennial competitive plants following the abandonment of previous extensive uses (pools of Roque-Haute in the Hérault, France).
164187		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>P. minuta</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats, such as drainage, filling in, agriculture, overgrazing and urbanization. It is also exposed to natural threats bound to the encroachment of perennial competitive plants following the abandonment of previous extensive uses (e.g. pools of Roque-Haute in the Hérault, France).
164188		conservation	eng	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance is furthermore necessary.
164188		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria limbata</span> is a tropical species that is found in tropical Africa and tropical Asia. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found solely in Egypt at the Nile and along the Mediterranean coastal strip. Its extent of occurrence covers about 30,000 km² and it occurs at less than 10 sites.
164188		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers, canals, swamps and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164188		population	eng	The species occurs in a very limited area in the Mediterranean region. It is present in less than 10 sites, distributed between the Nile and the coastal Mediterranean strip (Alexandria). The trend of the populations is not known.
164188		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal and natural disasters such as drought.
164189		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed.
164189		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton perfoliatus</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001). <br/></p><p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed at European level.</p>
164189		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. perfoliatus</em> has an almost cosmopolitan distribution with a few curiously isolated occurrences, such as Sumatra and Guatemala. It is found throughout most of Europe, including the Mediterranean north to northern Scandinavia and Iceland, east through Siberia to Japan and the Korean peninsula, as well as eastern, northern and central North America and Greenland. It also occurs in North and Central Africa, the Middle East and Caucasus, Mongolia, throughout much of China, Mongolia and the Himalayas and Australia.</p>
164189		distribution	eng	This species is found in Europe, North and central Africa, temperate Asia, North and Central America. <br><br>In North Africa it is restricted to Egypt and Algeria. Also recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan. It has a small area of occupancy, under 500 km² in North Africa in total.
164189		distribution	eng	This species is found in Europe, North and Central Africa, temperate Asia, North and Central America. <br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in all of the European countries, Turkey, Israel and Palestine, but it is missing from some of the Mediterranean islands. In North Africa it is restricted to Egypt and Algeria. It has a small area of occupancy in both of those countries.
164189		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. perfoliatus</span> typically occurs in a wide variety of still to slow-flowing oligotrophic to eutrophic water bodies, often at depths of over 1 m, but equally extending into shallow water. It will grow in natural and artificial lakes, ponds, backwaters and slower-flowing sections of larger rivers and canal systems.
164189		habitat	eng	This species occurs in large water bodies, deep lakes and reservoirs, rivers, streams, canals. It is frequent in mesotrophic and eutrophic waters and occasionally found in oligotrophic lakes. <em>P. perfoliatus</em> tolerates intermediate water sulphates and hydrosoil potassium concentrations.
164189		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. perfoliatus</span> appear to be stable throughout much of its range and it is widespread and abundant throughout most of Europe except for some regions. It disappeared from most of its localities in the Czech Republic, for example.
164189		population	eng	There is no information available on the population numbers or trends.
164189		population	eng	There is no information on the population numbers or trend available but the species is quite common in large parts of its range and the populations are presumed to be stable.
164189		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164189		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164191		conservation	eng	In Spain, <em>P. incompleta</em> is included as Vulnerable in the national Red List (Moreno 2008), and it is protected at regional level in Andalusia (V) and the Canary Islands (E, Annexe II). The Spanish subpopulations are located within the Natural Park of los Alcornocales; the ones of the Canary Islands are located within the Natural Parks of Garajonay, Majona and Tamadaba, and in other protected areas: the Paisaje de las Cumbres, the Natural Reserve Tilos de Moya, Guelguen and del Pijaral, the Rural Parks de Anaga and de Teno, the protected landscapes of los Campeches Tagaiga and Ruiz, and the site of scientific interest Barranco de Ruiz.<br/><br/>In Morroco, there are no conservation measures in place, but the following measures are being proposed:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of the subpopulations.<br/>- Study of dynamics of the subpopulations, the biology and ecology of the species.
164191		distribution	eng	<em>Pteris incompleta</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is limited to the Strait of Gibraltar in Spain, to the Rif in Morocco (Jbel Kbir, Cap Spartel), and to the Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, La Gomera, Tenerife, La Palma). Its spontaneity in Portugal and in Turkey is doubtful and it is suspected that the populations in Portugal (Sintra) and Turkey are introduced.<br/><br/>Its area of occupancy in Spain is less than 9 km² (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species' area of occupancy measured on the basis of grid squares would be larger, but presumably under 100 km².
164191		habitat	eng	<em>Pteris incompleta</em> is a perennial rhizomatous fern, which grows along streams in shadowy humid coastal forests. The Spanish sub-populations occur in lauri-leaved riparian vegetations composed of <em>Rhododendron ponticum</em>, <em>Frangula baetica</em>, <em>Diplazium caudatum</em>, <em>Vandenboschia speciosa</em>, <em>Alnus glutinosa</em> and <em>Culcita macrocarpa</em>. The Canaries ones develop in various plant formations (<em>Ilici canariensis-Ericetum platycodonis</em>, <em>Lauro-Perseetum indicae</em>, <em>Diplazio caudati-Ocoteetum foetentis</em> and <em>Rhamno crenulatae-Apollonietum barbujanae</em>), in association with <em>Persea indica</em>, <em>Laurus azorica</em>, <em>Dryopteris oligodonta</em>, <em>Salix canariensis</em>, <em>Diplazium caudatum</em>, <em>Myrica faya</em>, <em>Woodwardia radicans</em>, <em>Ocotea foetens</em>, <em>Vandenboschia speciosa</em>, <em>Apollonias barbujana</em>, etc. (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
164191		population	eng	The Spanish subpopulations are dynamical, with numerous mature plants and juveniles. However, the species regresses as a result of the specificity of its habitat requirements. <br/><br/>The total population is smaller than 10,000 mature individuals and each sub-population is smaller than 1,000. Although there are several localities the number of individuals at each locality is very small.
164191		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forestry, drainage, the increase of grazing pressure, competition with non-native species, trampling and the use of herbicides   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>In Morocco, the species is restricted to the Rif mountains were there has been significant loss of natural habitats as a result of Cannabis cultivation.
164193		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to study the locations and populations of <em>E. paniculata</em>.
164193		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia paniculata</span> is endemic to the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. It is found in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal and Spain.
164193		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia paniculata</span> is a perennial plant that flowers between March and April in Morocco, and April to June in Tunisia. It prefers damp places, such as the banks of marshes.
164193		population	eng	The populations are limited in the Mediterranean region. In Morocco, it is known from at least seven localities; in Tunisia, it is rare with two locations. Only in Algeria, the species is widespread and common in the coastal Tell. <br/>In Spain, it occurs in the south and in Portugal in the southeast. It is relatively common in Spain but rarer in Portugal.
164193		threats	eng	The main threat might come from the narrow distribution, isolating this  species. In future, this species might be  threatened if its habitats are developed or cultivated. But for the moment it remains widespread in Algeria.
164195		conservation	eng	In Italy, it is classified as threatened in the Red List and one of the sites (Laziale) is located in the Regional Nature Reserve Tor Caldara.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations <br/>- Protection of the species’ habitat
164195		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycreus polystachyos</span> has no specific conservation measures.
164195		distribution	eng	<em>Pycreus polystachyos</em> is a tropical and subtropical species. Its world distribution covers the tropical and hot temperate regions. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, Italy, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with less than 15 locations and an area of occupancy below 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
164195		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycreus polystachyos</span> is a cosmopolitan species, found throughout the temperate and tropical world.&#160;In India it is distributed in Assam, Kerala,  Lakshadweep, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh  and West Bengal.
164195		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits temporary pools, ditches and peaty swamps of plains. Flowering occurs in summer (June-July).
164195		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>  <p>It is an annual or sometimes a perennial. It is found growing commonly in seasonally flooded places, damp places, in marshes, swamps, in rice fields, river banks and at the margins of pools.&#160;</p>  <p></p>
164195		population	eng	It is a common species.
164195		population	eng	The species is uncommon in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is rare with only a few of locations. The populations are in slow regression. One of the sites in Morocco (Lalla Mimouna) has been partially damaged due to drainage and agricultural usage of its habitat. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only three locations (in the swamps north of Lalla Mimouna, in a pool north of Kénitra and in a pool in Salé); <br/>- Algeria: very rare, with two locations in Numidie (La Calle and Bône); <br/>- Tunisia: rare, present in northeast Tunisia (Bizerte); <br/>- Egypt: found in two oases of the western Desert (Bahariya and Kharga);<br/>- Israel: the species is believed to only be episodic in this country; <br/>- Spain: only one site located in the south of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in only one province in the west of the country.
164195		threats	eng	The drainage of this species’ habitat is its main threat.
164195		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread plant.
164196		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164196		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. In the Mediterranean region, its present in Spain and Balearic Islands, Portugal, France, Corsica, Crete, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164196		habitat	eng	<em>S. auriculata</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant of up to 1 m height. This species is found in humid tall herb fringes, along water courses and shady woodland edge communities. Found in forests with <em>Alnus glutinosa</em> or mountain forests.
164196		population	eng	This species is quite common in France under the Mediterranean climate with around 100 known locations. It’s the same in other countries in Mediterranean Europe. The population are stable at the moment.
164196		threats	eng	This species does not face threats at the moment.
164197		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected and included in the national red book and list (priority species), monitoring of habitats in several locations (ligneous species dynamic, water level) is underway. It occurs in the natural reserve Tre Padule of Suartone in Corsica, at one important site under the 'serie ecologique' (ONF) protection status, and another location in a NATURA 2000 site.<br/>In Italy, the species is classified as Vulnerable in the national red data book and in the red list. <br/>At the Balearic Islands, the species is classified a Vulnerable in the red list.
164197		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco, in Algeria and Tunisia) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing areas and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- To avoid all modification of the hydrology of ponds (drainage,infilling) as well as the sediment extraction that destroys the seeds stocks <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- To maintain the vegetation open by cutting or reintroduce sheep grazing in Helophyte pools and in ligneous pools <br/>- To eliminate the litter in the pool if necessary<br/>- To evaluate the vegetation dynamic after sheep grazing introduction (and all new management) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164197		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes velata</em> is an Atlantico-Mediterranean species.<br/><br/>In the Maghreb, it is present in, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The subspecies <em>intermedia</em> and <em>tegulensis</em> are present in Tunisia, Algeria and in Morocco, the subspecies <em>perralderiana</em> in Algeria. The subspecies <em>velata</em> is present in the whole of the countries within its Mediterranean area of distribution.
164197		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes velata</em> is an Atlantico-Mediterranean species that is found in continental France (plain of Maures and Estérel in Var, platau of Rodès in the Oriental Pyrenees) and in Corsica, Spain, Portugal, continental Italy, Sicily, Sardinia<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Greece and North Africa.
164197		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes velata</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (bulbous Geophyte) that can behave like an annual (Therophyte). It is found in temporary streams, as well as ponds and swamps that are flooded during the winter. The germination of the spores begins in fall (November) in saturated or flooded soil whereas their maturation is aerial (after exondation). This species develops in general on a non-chalky oligotrophic and not very thick substratum. The species is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoetes</em> sp. in fluctuating waterbodies.
164197		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes velata</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (bulbous Geophyte) that can behave like an annual (Therophyte). It is found in temporary streams, as well as ponds and swamps that are flooded during the winter. The germination of the spores begins in fall (November) in saturated or flooded soil whereas their maturation is aerial (after exondation). This species develops in general on a non-chalky oligotrophic and not very thick substratum. The species is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoetes</em> spp. in fluctuating waterbodies.
164197		population	eng	The populations of <em>I. velata</em> are globally in decline according to the speed of deterioration of their habitat. This reduction is bigger in the North African countries, where the pressures on its habitats are higher.<br/>- In Morocco, this taxon is present in more than 100 sites distributed between the Atlantic plains (Benslimane, Mamora, Gharb, Haouz) and the Atlas chains (Middle Atlas, and Anti Atlas); <br/>- In Algeria, very widespread and considered rare to very rare according to the subspecies; <br/>- Tunisia, the species is rather common in the regions of the Cap Bon (El Haouaria), Mogd (Sedjnane, Abiod Mountain, Sidi Otman) and Kroumirie (Aïn Soltane, Madjen Azoug;<br/>In other countries, no data is available on the populations of this taxon.
164197		population	eng	The populations of <em>I. velata</em> are regionally in decline according to the speed of deterioration of their habitat. <br/>In continental France, there is one single and unique site in Roussillon, whereas the other populations are exclusively in Var (Maures plain, Estérel, about 60 sites), and Pyrénées-Orientales (Rodés plateau). They regressed in the Roussillon and in Gard but are steady in the Maures and the Estérel. In Corsica (Capicorsu, Agriates, Uspidali-Cagna) there are about twenty sites.<br/>In Spain and Portugal, there is no precise data on the population size but the species is dispersed in the Iberian Peninsula with the exception of the northern and eastern provinces; it is present on the island of Minorca; <br/>In Italy, the species is rare with few sites limited to big islands (Sicily and Sardinia) and to the Thyrreniène coast (regions of Tuscany and the Lazio).
164197		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164197		threats	eng	The expansion of agriculture, competition with perennial plants, urbanization, infilling, sediment extraction, drainage and other constructions affecting the soil constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species. Several pools have disappeared because of urbanization, infrastructure development and agriculture. The quality of the habitats of the species is also deteriorating resulting from land and therefore grazing abandonment.
164198		conservation	eng	In France, the species is classified as rare on the national Red List (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and is under regional protection in Rhone-Alps. A natural reserve designation is in place for the Grande Sassière (Tignes) for two sites in Savoie and a designation of the National Park of the Vanoise as well as a decree on biotope conservation for the sites of the Cenis mount. <br/>According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) the species is classified as Lower Risk. <br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to legally protect the species (list of protected species in Morocco) and to extend the National Park of Toubkal in order to include the pozzines of the locality of Toubkal.
164198		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in Morocco. The following have been proposed:<br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Extension of the National Park of Toubkal in Morocco in order to include the pozzines of the locality of Toubkal<br/>- Conservation of its habitat <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new areas <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
164198		distribution	eng	<em>Carex maritima</em> is an arctic-alpine species. Its global distribution covers Iceland, boreal and central Europe, boreal and southern America and Greenland. <br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in France (Monetier-Les-Bains in the High Alps and Tarentaise, Maurienne in Savoie), Italy (Dolomites, Duron valley, Veni valley, Schlern, Isario) and in Morocco where it is very rare, with only two localities in the High Atlas (Massif Agoundis in the Goundafa at 2,300 m of altitude and the Toubkal at 3,600 m of altitude). Its extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean is 1,050,000 km², with an occupied area of more than 500 km².
164198		distribution	eng	<em>Carex maritima</em> is an arctico-alpine species. Its global distribution covers Iceland, boreal and central Europe, boreal and southern America and Greenland. <br/>In Africa, this nordic species is only known in Morocco, where it is very rare, with only two localities in the High Atlas (the high valley of the assif Agoundis in the Goundafa at 2,300 m of altitude and the Toubkal at 3,600 m of altitude) occupying an area of about 12 km².
164198		habitat	eng	<em>Carex maritima</em> is a perennial plant (rhizome Geophyte), indifferent to the nature of rock, heliophile and little competitive. It is found solely in the pozzines of high mountains, between 2,300 m and 3,600 m of altitude in Morocco and on the verges of streams and high mountain springs in France and in Italy. Its period of flowering is normally summer.
164198		habitat	eng	<em>Carex maritima</em> is a perennial plant (rhizome Geophyte), indifferent to the nature of rock, heliophile and little competitive. It is found solely in the pozzines of high mountains, between the 2,300 m and 3,600 m of altitude in Morocco and on the verges of streams and high mountain springs in France and in Italy. Its period of flowering is normally summer.
164198		population	eng	There is no data available on the population size. They are fragile but not directly threatened. <br/>In Morocco, the species is considered as very rare and occurring in a habitat under strong grazing pressure. In Italy, it is present in five localities in the alpine chain. In France, it is also classified as rare and important species. It is present in 17 sites in Savoie and in one site of the Maritime Alps. Some of these sites benefit from protection that permits the conservation of this species and its habitat. Three former locations have not been confirmed.
164198		population	eng	There is no data available on the population size. They are fragile but not directly threatened. <br/>- Morocco: considered as very rare and occurring in a habitat under strong grazing pressure<br/>- Italy: classified as rare, present in five localities <br/>- France: classified as rare and important species. It is present in 17 sites in Savoie and in one site of the Maritime Alps. Some of these sites benefit from measures of protection that permit the conservation of this species and its habitat. Three former locations have not been confirmed.
164198		threats	eng	Overgrazing, big tourist affluence and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species. In North Africa, the limited distribution and the isolation of populations could constitute a potential threat for the species. In the longer term climate change could be a serious threat to this species.
164198		threats	eng	Overgrazing, tourist development and recreational activities such as skiing and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species. In North Africa, the limited distribution and the isolation of populations could constitute a potential threat for the species. In the longer term climate change could be a serious threat to this species.
164199		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.<br/>For North Africa, it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations, in order to define the partition between the species <em>T. angustifolia</em> and <em>T. dominguensis</em>, especially in Algeria and Tunisia.
164199		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.<br/>For North Africa, it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations, in order to define the partition between the species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. angustifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dominguensis</span>, especially in Algeria and Tunisia.
164199		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
164199		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164199		distribution	eng	<em>T. angustifolia</em> has a circumboreal distribution, from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Caucasus, the Middle East, Siberia and Kazakhstan to China and Far Eastern Russia, as well as North America south to Mexico. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164199		distribution	eng	<em>Typha angustifolia</em> is a circumboreal species that occurs in most of Europe, northwards to 63° N in Finland, in North Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and doubtfully in Albania and Greece. It is introduced and a new colonizer in Israel and Jordan. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with several locations and an AOO >500 km².
164199		distribution	eng	<em>Typha angustifolia</em> is a circumboreal species that occurs in most of Europe, northwards to 63° N in Finland, in North Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America.  It is very widespread in the Mediterranean <br><br>In North Africa it is present in Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 200,000 km², with several locations and an AOO >100 km².
164199		distribution	eng	Widespread in most parts of temperate Northern Hemisphere. Also recorded from China, Thailand and Viet Nam. No localities are available.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164199		habitat	eng	<em>T. angustifolia</em> typically grows in mesotrophic or eutrophic water on the margins of ponds, lakes and to a lesser degree rivers, canals and ditches.
164199		habitat	eng	<em>Typha angustifolia</em> is a rhizomatous Helophyte of 1-3 m height and a glabrous, aquatic or semi-terrestrial perennial herb, with fibrous roots and creeping rhizomes. Its prefered habitat are banks of ponds and slow streams, stagnant waters, lakes, rivers, canals and ditches.
164199		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">    </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span lang="EN-US">It grows in</a> shallow water of lakes, rivers, ponds, marshes, and ditches.</p>  <p></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
164199		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. angustifolia</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Switzerland, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164199		population	eng	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region with several locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common in nearly all of the country; it occurs at six locations <br/>- Algeria: very common in the Tell region and in the High Plains, Northern and central Sahara; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: common, with more than 143 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.<br/>- Turkey: common
164199		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa with several locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br>- Morocco: very common in nearly all of the country; it occurs at six locations <br>- Algeria: very common in the Tell region and in the High Plains, Northern and central Sahara.
164199		population	eng	This is a common species in wetlands and water gardens. No studies on global populations are available.
164199		threats	eng	Habitat drainage is a local threat to this species. The species is considered as invasive in parts of the Mediterranean.
164199		threats	eng	Habitat drainage is the main threat to this species. The species is considered as invasive in parts of the Mediterranean.
164199		threats	eng	No major threats have been recorded.
164199		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164200		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Legal protection of the species in North Africa (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (environmental impact legislation)<br/>- Study the species' biology and follow-up the population dynamics
164200		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164200		distribution	eng	<em>E. corniculatum</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution is limited to the west of the Mediterranean basin occurring in Portugal, Spain, Italy and Morocco.
164200		distribution	eng	<em>Eryngium corniculatum</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution is limited to the west of the Mediterranean basin occurring in Portugal, Spain, Sardinia (Italy) and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin, its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km² and it is present in several locations.
164200		habitat	eng	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporary pools, lagoons and along riverbeds. Flowering occurs during summer (June-July).
164200		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations in the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal and Spain, it is relatively common, occurring in 121 sites essentially concentrated in the east of the peninsula (14 provinces in Spain and seven provinces in Portugal). In Italy, it is only known from Sardinia.
164200		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations in the Iberian Peninsula. It is common in Portugal and Spain, occurring at 121 sites essentially concentrated in the east of the peninsula (14 provinces in Spain and seven provinces in Portugal). In Italy it is solely present in Sardinia. <br/>In Morocco, the species is present in only two locations in the west of the Rif (Malaliyine and Negro). The populations are very small, restricted and threatened due to coastal urbanization. The trend of the populations is unknown.
164200		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the urbanization of the Moroccan coastline around Tanger and the related drainage of its habitat.
164200		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
164201		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocotyle vulgaris</span> is categorized  Critically Endangered in Croatia, Vulnerable in Switzerland and the Czech Republic, Near  Threatened in Norway and protected under regional legislation in France, no other conservation measures are considered necessary.
164201		conservation	eng	The species is under protection in France in the departements Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Gers, Hautes-Pyrénées, and in the regions Franche-Comté and Rhones-Alpes.<br/>Research on its habitat and taxonomy is underway and it is recommended to study this species' population size and range.
164201		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north to Scandinavia and east to the Caucasus.
164201		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocotyle vulgaris</span> is a European-Caucasian species. Its Mediterranean distribution includes Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Albania, Croatia, Greece, Jordan, Israel, Morocco, and Algeria.
164201		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> grows in carr, mires, fens, fen-meadows, swamps, marshes, in soakways and along spring-lines, and in dune-slacks and wet hollows in stabilised shingle, occasionally in deeper water. It is often, but not always, associated with peaty soils.
164201		habitat	eng	This plant is a Hemicryptophyte and grows in shallow fresh water and damp places, swamps and stagnant brooks.
164201		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> is widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range, however it is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia, Vulnerable in Switzerland and Near Threatened in Norway.
164201		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean.<br/>It has been extinct in Israel (A. Shmida pers. comm.).
164201		threats	eng	No major threats are known in the region as a whole, although the species was assessed in some Italian regions as threatened.
164201		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164202		conservation	eng	Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology is underway. It is suggested to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the population size and range as well as study its dynamics.
164202		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex pulcher</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean species. Its biogeographical distribution includes the Mediterranean region, central and southern Europe, western Asia, North Africa, Canaries, Madeira and Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is very widespread and is found in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Malta, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Syria and Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine. The area of occupation exceeds 2,000 km².
164202		habitat	eng	<em>Rumex pulcher</em> is a perennial to biennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that prefers temporary pools, marshes and humid places, borders of canals and roadsides. Its flowering takes place in spring and summer (April-July).
164202		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and populations appearing steady. <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous localities in the Rif (Msabeh Sania, Cap Negro), Mediterranean coastline, oriental plains, Middle Atlas, High Atlas (Amghass, Oued Taouzoult), north Atlantic Plains (Merja Zerga, Dayet Roumi, Merja Boukka, Tiflet, Oued Fouarat, Jemaa of Fedalate, Benslimane). <br/>- Algeria: common in the whole Tell <br/>- Tunisia: quite common in the non salty humid habitats, with numerous localities distributed between northeast Tunisia (Tunis), Kroumirie (Ain Draham, Tabarka), Mogod (Sejnane), Cap Bon (Cheban), Dorsal Tunisian (Bargou, Thibar) and south Tunisia (Gabes, Nefta) <br/>- Libya: localized on the Mediterranean coast at the east of the country (Shahat, Baida, Gebel Akhdar) <br/>- Mediterranean Europe: very common in Italy, France, Spain and Portugal
164202		threats	eng	Agriculture and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164203		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place nor needed.
164203		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. graveolens</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Sweden, but this is understood to refer to a very small native population in the south and at the northern limits of the native range of the species, rather than a decline.   There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164203		distribution	eng	<p><em>A. graveolens</em> occurs throughout much of Europe, North Africa, Siberia and the Caucasus. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout but it is extremely difficult to distinguish native populations from introduced populations.</p>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164203		distribution	eng	This species is present in temperate and subtropical regions throughout the Mediterranean, Europe, West Asia, Africa and America. <span style="font-style: italic;">Apium graveolens</span> is common along all parts of the Mediterranean coastal strip, in the desert to the east of the Nile and in the Sinai peninsula.
164203		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. graveolens</span> typically grows in marshy areas near or on the coast, including the upper limits of salt marshes and wetland systems behind beaches.
164203		habitat	eng	This species is biennial and is a Hemicryptophyte. <em>Apium graveolens</em> is sub-spontaneous in cultivated or uncultivated soils in Italy and is found in damp places, often near the sea. The species grows in coastal salt marshes and salt springs in Corsica and Tunisia, and is cultivated in Egypt and North Africa. <em>A. graveolens</em> has its flowering season between April and September in Tunisia and Morocco; May and September in Italy; and May and August in Corsica.
164203		population	eng	Common throughout the Mediterranean region and parts of the southern Sahara.
164203		population	eng	Most populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. graveolens</span> throughout its European range appear to be stable, although there is concern over its status in Sweden.
164203		threats	eng	<em>Apium graveolens</em> is not threatened as a species because of its widespread distribution.
164203		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164204		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164204		distribution	eng	<em>Galium elongatum</em> is an Eurasian species. Its distribution covers a large part of Europe, the southwest of Asia and the northwest of Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² with numerous locations.
164204		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds and flooded sites. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May - August).
164204		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa, occurring in several locations, and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, only present in northern Atlantic Morocco (on the edges of Oued Fouarate and in the marshes north of Lalla Mimouna); <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country; <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with at least eight locations distributed between the Kroumerie (Madjen Choucha, Aïn draham and Tabarka), Mogods (Sidi Othman el Haddad), northeast Tunisia (Menzel Djemil and El Alia), Cap Bon (Oued Mraïssa) and the Medjerda Valley (Oued Zarga); <br/>- Portugal: present in eight provinces; <br/>- Spain: fairly common, occurring in 29 sites in the north of the country; <br/>- France: common, especially present in the northeast of the country (287 sites) and also in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: common throughout the country and also in Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>- Israel: either extinct or a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. rivale</span> which is in the Red Data Book (A. Shmida pers. comm.).
164204		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the drainage of its habitat but that does not lead to significant declines at the moment.
164205		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Otherwise, no conservation are in need.
164205		distribution	eng	Widespread in Africa, from Senegal to Sudan and Ethiopia in the North to South Africa; also in tropical Asia and Australia
164205		habitat	eng	Weed of cultivation and gardens, ruderal sites, grassland, a pioneer in dried -out floodplains, river-beds and waterholes.
164205		population	eng	Common weed
164205		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
164206		conservation	eng	In Sicily, the species was reported as Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) but it occurs in many protected areas including Natura 2000 sites.<br/>In Greece, it was listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> and classed as Vulnerable (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). <br/>There are no conservation measures in place, but the following ones are recommended: legal protection of the species, monitoring of existing populations and search for new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, and raising public awareness.
164206		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following are recommended: legal protection of the species, monitoring of existent populations and search for new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal measures of conservation, and raising public awareness.
164206		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following ones are recommended: monitoring of existent populations and search for new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics and raising public awareness as well as working toward consistent recording and taxonomic treatment of the genus.
164206		distribution	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei </em>is a Mediterranean endemic, extending to <em></em>North Africa, some islands and parts of the north coast. In Europe, it is found on the Atlantic coast of Portugal, in the southwest and west of Spain, in Greece, in the western Peloponnese; in Cyprus, and in Italy, including Sicily and southern Sardinia.
164206		distribution	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei </em>is an endemic of the Mediterranean, which could be more widespread in the eastern Mediterranean, where the relative distribution of the three Mediterranean species of <em>Damasonium</em> is not well known.<br/><br/>Its African distribution extends to Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia.
164206		distribution	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei </em>is an endemic of the Mediterranean, which could be more widespread in the eastern Mediterranean, where the relative distribution of the three Mediterranean species of <em>Damasonium</em> is not well known.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Sicily and Sardinia (Italy), Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia.<br/><br/>- Algeria: present in the northeastern mountains, common in the Constantine and Algiers regions, more rare in the Oran region;<br/>- Egypt: very rare, found in the Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum (Tamia), Mediterranean coast (Alexandria), Isthmic desert (El Tih); <br/>- Morocco: common ( Tangier, Pre-Rif, Gibraltar strait, western coastal plain, Souss valley); <br/>- Tunisia: rather common, with 10 locations in the north (Kroumirie, Mogods, Cap Bon) and south at Gabès (Cuénod 1954);<br/>- Portugal: found at the Atlantic coast; <br/>- Spain: 25 well documented localities in southwest and west Spain and Balearic Islands, locally common; <br/>- Greece: six localities in total (initially classed as <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span>): Ipiros, Thessaly, in the western Peloponnese, one in the island of Evvia; <br/>- Italy: common in Sicily and southern Sardinia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005)<br/>- Malta: not abundant
164206		habitat	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels.
164206		habitat	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels as well as in temporary water bodies.<br/>The species is found on substrate that is rich in nutrients, often on limestone, also on clayey soil, and it can tolerate limited amounts of sea salt.
164206		habitat	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and the draw-down zones of lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels.
164206		population	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is widespread and can be locally abundant over its distribution area. The populations are more abundant in the coastal strip of North Africa, but they are rare in the north of the Mediterranean region. It is known that the species is common in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, whereas it is very rare in Egypt.<br/>The population trend is assumed to be declining as the species' habitat, temporary wetlands, are declining in the Mediterranean.
164206		population	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is widespread and may be locally abundant (e.g. the Parque Nacional de Doñana in Spain).
164206		population	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is widespread but never abundant over its entire distribution area. The populations are more abundant in the coastal strip of North Africa, but they are rare in the north of the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>- Algeria: present in the northeastern mountains, common in the Constantine and Algiers regions, more rare in the Oran region;<br/>- Egypt: very rare, found in the Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum (Tamia), Mediterranean coast (Alexandria), Isthmic desert (El Tih); <br/>- Morocco: common (Tangier, Pre-Rif, Gibraltar strait, western coastal plain, Souss valley); <br/>- Tunisia: rather common, with 10 locations in the north (Kroumirie, Mogods, Cap Bon) and south at Gabès (Cuénod 1954).
164206		threats	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation as well as pollution.
164206		threats	eng	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation. Changes in hydrological regimes are the main threats to the species, including drainage for agricultural purposes as well as the change of temporary into permanent water bodies (e.g. for reservoir use). Invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Azolla filiculoides</span> can pose a threat too.
164207		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164207		distribution	eng	<em>S. lacustris </em>occurs in North and southern Africa and from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Kazakhstan and the Himalayas in India to Mongolia and the Russian Far East. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164207		habitat	eng	<em>S. lacustris</em> typically grows in soft silt in water in the margins of lakes, canals, ponds, rivers and streams, it will also persist as completely submerged populations in faster flow over silt beds in rivers.
164207		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. lacustris</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164207		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164208		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.<br/>For North Africa, it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations, in order to define the partition between the species <em>T. angustifolia</em> and <em>T. dominguensis</em>, especially in Algeria and Tunisia.
164208		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or needed.
164208		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
164208		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164208		distribution	eng	<em>T. domingensis</em> has a subcosmopolitan distribution, <span style="background-color: white;">occurring throughout apart from extreme northern and southern latitudes. It occ</span>urs in North Africa and Africa south of the Sahara, including some Indian Ocean Islands, from Europe east through the Caucasus, the Middle East, Mongolia and Kazakhstan to Far Eastern Russia, China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout much of the Indian Sub-continent and south through Southeast Asia to Papua New Guinea, as well as Australia and some Pacific Ocean islands but apparently introduced to Hawaii. It occurs in southern North America and in Central and South America. It occurs throughout Mediterranean Europe north to southern France, Romania and the Ukraine, it has apparently been introduced to Switzerland.
164208		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean, this species is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece mainland and islands, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco.
164208		distribution	eng	It is widespread in tropics and subtropics and warm temperate regions ranging from Europe, Asia and North and South America.
164208		distribution	eng	Tropical species, widespread throughout all the Pan_Africa region.
164208		habitat	eng	It occurs in canals, ponds, ditches, springs, edges of lakes and rivers.
164208		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow water of lakes, ponds, rivers, swamps and channels.
164208		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. domingensis</span> typically occurs in canals, ponds, ditches, springs and the margins of lakes and rivers.
164208		habitat	eng	Tall aquatic herb, found in swamps, dams, lakes and rivers.
164208		population	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">It is a very common species that colonises a wide variety of habitats. It<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> aggressively invades and forms nearly pure stands in brackish or nutrient-enriched wetlands.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
164208		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. domingensis</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164208		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean.
164208		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
164208		threats	eng	No major threats identified.
164208		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been described.
164208		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164208		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164209		conservation	eng	It is under national protection in France and included in the Red List where it is considered as a “priority species”.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164209		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tribracteatum</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and Slovakia, Near Threatened in Hungary, and protected at a national level in France, otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164209		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum tribracteatum</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species that is found in southern and oriental Europe, western Asia and North Africa.
164209		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum tribracteatum</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species that is found in southern and oriental Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km², occurring in numerous locations.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, this taxon is fairly common, occurring in numerous localities that are in an increasingly deteriorated context.
164209		habitat	eng	It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools of plains and low and medium mountains, back-coastal brackish prairies and depressions flooded in winter. It is found on flinty or chalky substrate, sometimes on salty substrate. Flowering generally occurs between the beginning of May and July.
164209		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tribracteatum</span> typically occurs in temporary pools at low altitude, brackish meadows above the tidal influence and seasonally inundated depressions. It is found on flinty or chalky substrate, sometimes on salty substrate.
164209		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region the populations appear to be stable. <br/>In the Iberian Peninsula it is not considered rare, occurring in most of the peninsula (six provinces in Portugal and 27 provinces in Spain).<br/>It is rare in all of France including the Mediterranean region (localized in the Languedoc, very rare in the PACA region and absent from Corsica). The populations are fairly stable in coastal Languedoc and in the low plain of Aude, but in regression in the other French locations, where a good part of the populations have notably been lost since the 19th century (in Aude and Gard). Exceptionally, in Var, ten locations have lately been discovered and therefore this species has returned to its less precarious state in the Red Book.<br/>Listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and present in only two localities in Montenegro.<br/>In Hungary, it is classed As Near Threatened with most of its occurrences on wet plough lands in East Hungary (inland inundations). There is only one locality in Slovakia, near the Hungarian border.
164209		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region the populations appear to be stable. <br/>The species is well represented in Morocco, occurring in the north Atlantic plains (dayas to the southeast of Tiflet, Mamora pools, Benslimane pools, Loukkos, etc.), the central plains (Haouz region) and in the mountainous regions (Middle Atlas, High Atlas, Rif and Tangier). The populations are fairly stable but increasingly at risk, that could cause a regression of the populations in the short or medium-term; quite common in all of Algeria; fairly common in eight locations in Tunisia (Sedjenane, Tindjda, Ariana, mouth of the river Miliane, Sidi Al Hani, Garaet el Fedjedj and Djerba); reported in Libya in Benghazi. In Egypt, it was reported in the region of the Nile, along the Mediterranean coastal strip and in the western Desert (Wadi Natrum, Siwa, Farafra, Bahariya, Kharga, Dakhla, Kurkur, Dungul and Uweinat).<br/>In the Iberian Peninsula it is not considered rare, occurring in most of the peninsula (six provinces in Portugal and 27 provinces in Spain).<br/>It is rare in all of France including the Mediterranean region (localized in the Languedoc, very rare in the PACA region and absent from Corsica). The populations are fairly stable in coastal Languedoc and in the low plain of Aude, but in regression in the other French locations, where a good part of the populations have notably been lost since the 19th century (in Aude and Gard). Exceptionally, in Var, ten locations have lately been discovered and therefore this species has returned to its less precarious state in the Red Book.<br/>Listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and present in only two localities in Montenegro.
164209		threats	eng	The abandonment of grazing and the dynamics of perennial competitor plants, agricultural practices, urbanization, infilling with rubble, overgrazing, the use of dried pools (for example for parking), the high frequency of dry years and drainage are the main threats to this species.
164209		threats	eng	The abandonment of grazing and the dynamics of perennial competitor plants, agricultural practices, urbanization, infilling with rubble, overgrazing, the use of dried pools (for example for parking), the high frequency of dry years and drainage are the main threats to this species. However, none of these appear likely to compromise the survival of the species in the near future.
164210		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
164210		distribution	eng	This is a widely dispersed plant, found in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, St. Helena and Brazil. It is widespread in the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is found in Egypt, Lybia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. Also recorded from Western and Southern Africa.
164210		habitat	eng	The plant is considered a weed of canal banks and is found in damp usually sandy places, on muddy soil near springs and water reservoirs, mostly ruderal.
164210		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean and North African region.
164210		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
164211		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range are  needed.
164211		distribution	eng	It occurs in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Egypt (Sinai, Oases, Desert east of the Nile) and has also been recorded in Sierra Leone, Kenya (Northern Frontier District and Mt. Elgon) and Algeria. No records for Southern Africa have been reported and Kenya's record is taxonomically doubtful. Also found in Israel, Pakistan and Madagascar.
164211		habitat	eng	Moist ground, around wells and springs.
164211		population	eng	This is are species. There is no information about its populations.
164211		threats	eng	In addition to the main threats by intrinsic factors such as restricted range and limited dispersal, the species is threatened natural disasters such as drought.
164212		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the only known site in North Africa and to search for new ones, legal protection of the species in North Africa (list of protected species in Morocco), implementation of legal protection measures (environmental impact legislation) and study the dynamics of the population.
164212		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epilobium angustifolium</span> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers the temperate and cool zones of the northern hemisphere: Europe, tropical and temperate Asia, North America and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal Spain, France, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Morocco. Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164212		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits riverbeds, forest edges and chalky to slightly acidic wetlands. It is found also outside wetlands in forests and on mountains. Flowering occurs in summer.
164212		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region but is found in only one location in North Africa (Morocco), with very restricted populations due to spatial limitations. The trend of the populations is not known. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in one location in the Rif (Jbel Bouhachem); fairly common in Spain and Portugal, present in more than 126 sites; in France it is present in nearly all the country; in Italy it is also common and found in all the country.
164212		threats	eng	Mismanagement of forests edges and long droughts are the main threats to this species.
164213		conservation	eng	The massif of Toubkal benefits from the status of National Park. There is no protection in place for the other localities. The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitoring of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Compliance with legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164213		distribution	eng	<em>Epilobium psilotum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare; its distribution is restricted to the central Haut Atlas where it is known from three localities: Tachdirt; Angour and Toubkal. Its extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².
164213		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found on oozing rocks and the sides of brooklets of porphyritic mountains. It blooms and fruits during spring and summer under the semi-arid cold Mediterranean bioclimate.
164213		population	eng	No data on the size or the present trends of the populations is available.
164213		threats	eng	Except for the site of Toubkal that is in a National Park, all the other sites are subject to high pressure from grazing and from large numbers of tourists facilitated by the creation of access paths to the sites.
164214		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, monitor the population dynamics and to implement legal protection of the species in Algeria.
164214		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysosplenium dubium</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean species. In the Mediterranean region, it only occurs in Italy and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 2,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is smaller than 50 km², and it is present in four locations.
164214		habitat	eng	This perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) can be found along streams in mountainous regions. Flowering occurs in the spring between March and May.
164214		population	eng	The species is found at four locations in the Mediterranean region (distributed between Algeria and Italy) and the populations are restricted. In Italy, it is present in three regions in the south of the country:   Campania, Calabria and Basilicata. The data for Campania is old and has not been confirmed recently. The presence in Basilicata and Calabria has been confirmed recently. In the latter it has been found in   Aspromonte, M.Giffone, and Sila Grande all on granite and sandstone. In these regions, the species is localized but with stable populations. It was previously considered in the category Lower Risk in the Italian Regional Red List (Conti <em>et al.</em> 1997). In a recent list of vulnerable species (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) it is not included anymore.<br/>In Algeria, it is very rare, occurring in only one location, namely in Kabylie (Collo).
164214		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164215		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, it is therefore recommended to develop and implement legal measures for the protection of the habitat of this species.
164215		conservation	eng	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of one protected area in Central Africa Bambuko (Forest Reserve, Cameroon). It has been recommended to develop and implement legal measures for the protection of the habitat of this species.
164215		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species found in Europe, Africa, Newfoundland, and it is naturalized in Australia. <br/><br/>In North Africa, it is found in Libya (one location), northern Tunisia (two locations, Kroumirie and Cape Bon), it is common in Algeria (Tell exclusively, rare in Sahara), and common in Morocco (six locations: Tangier, W Rif, Loukkos, Targuist, Gareb, Mamora). In Central Africa, it has been recorded from one single description from high on Mount Cameroon. Also recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, and Lesotho.
164215		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species found in Europe, Africa, Newfoundland, and it is naturalized in Australia. It is common in France (including Corsica), scattered in Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily) and appears in much of Europe, but it is rarer in the north. In the eastern Mediterranean, it extends its distribution to Turkey and Israel. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Libya (one location), northern Tunisia (two locations, Kroumirie and Cape Bon), it is common in Algeria (Tell exclusively, rare in Sahara), and common in Morocco (six locations: Tangier, W Rif, Loukkos, Targuist, Gareb, Mamora).
164215		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is an annual dwarf species and Therophyte. It is found on wet sands, wet meadows, banks of dayas, temporary ponds (Isoetion) and lakeshores from the coastline to an altitude of 2,100 m. The species often germinates on saturated soils when waterlevel recedes in spring or summer. Flowering between April and August depending on latitude, altitude and hydroperiod.
164215		population	eng	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> has a very dispersed population in the Mediterranean region. This species can form small populations and occupies threatened places. Thanks to its small size it is easily overlooked. But the data is insufficient to define the population trend. In Tunisia, it is present in three regions Mogods (14 sites Sejenane); Kroumirie and Cap Bon. It occurs at one location in Montenegro and is rare (Data Deficient) in Croatia. In Spain, it is reported in 191 sites, and widespread in France. The species is epizodic in Israel where it is found at one vernal pool.
164215		population	eng	In Tunisia, it is present in three regions Mogods (14 sites Sejenane); Kroumirie and Cap Bon. No more information is available.
164215		threats	eng	The shallow wetlands where this species is found are easily transformed or cultivated and they are often affected by agricultural and domestic pollution.
164216		conservation	eng	In France, it is included in the Red Data Book   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is classed as Near Threatened in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>In Morocco and Algeria, there are no conservation measures in place. The following actions are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the size of the populations and the possibilities of their restoration <br/>- Raising public awareness
164216		conservation	eng	In France, it is included in the Red Data Book   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is classed as Near Threatened in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
164216		distribution	eng	<em>E. brochonii</em> is a species with a Mediterraneo-Atlantic distribution. It is found in North Africa and southwestern Europe. In Europe, it occurs in Spain (Huelva, Léon, Caceres, Cadiz, Badajoz, Zamora, Toledo), continental France (Gironde, Landes, Pyrenees Atlantiques) and in Corsica. <br/><br/>The area of occupancy is likely to be bel<span style="background-color: white;">ow 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</span>
164216		distribution	eng	<em>Elatine brochonii</em> is a species with a Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution. It is found in Morocco (Mamora, Benslimane, Timahdite in the Moyen Atlas and Malalène in the western Rif), in Algeria (Annaba, El Kala, Reghaïa, Corco), in Spain (Huelva, Léon, Caceres, Cadiz, Badajoz, Zamora, Toledo), in continental France (Gironde, Landes, Pyrenees Atlantiques) and in Corsica. It is considered as Vulnerable in Spain and it is very rare in Algeria, Corsica and Morocco. In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence is about 1,060,000 km². The area of occupancy is suspected to be close to 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
164216		habitat	eng	The species is found in habitats of plains and mountains (0-1,500 m altitude) submitted to temporary flooding. It prefers temporary pools, the edge of ponds and lakes, on sandy to clayey soils. It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) that germinates on flooded soil (under some centimetres) but does not tolerate deep water because it has aerial reproduction. It blooms in the spring under the semi-arid, sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164216		habitat	eng	The species is found in seasonally inundated areas from the lowlands up to 1,500 m altitude, typically in temporary pools, the margins of ponds and lakes, on sandy to clayey soils. It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) that germinates on flooded soil but does not tolerate deep water because it has aerial reproduction.
164216		population	eng	<em>E. brochonii</em> is present in seven sites in Spain and one only in Corsica. In continental France, thirteen sites were known once in the southwest, of which only one seems to survive (Reserve of Saucat), although one new site was found (Salaunes in the Medoc) in 2003.  <br/>Populations show a big inter-annual instability linked to variation in hydrologic conditions, which makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult. However, it is likely that the global trend is decline. Indeed, most sites in continental France do not seem to be occupied any longer or with much reduced populations; the Corsican population is known from only one site and remains fragile, it is damaged by accumulation of sediments resulting from increased erosion in the catchment due to 4x4 vehicles.
164216		population	eng	<em>Elatine brochonii</em> is present at eight sites in Morocco, nine in Algeria, at least seven in Spain and one only in Corsica. In continental France, thirteen sites were known once in the southwest, of which only one seems to subsist (Reserve of Saucat) and additionally one new site has been recorded (Salaunes in the Medoc).  <br/>The last observations date to 2006 at the Moroccan sites (Mamora and of Benslimane), 2001 at the Algerian ones, 2005 in Corsica and 2003 in mainland France (Landes). <br/>On the set of the sites, the populations show a big inter-annual instability bound to the hydrologic conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult. However the global trend shows a decline. Indeed, most sites in continental France do not seem to be occupied any longer or with much reduced populations; the Corsican population remains fragile (at only one site) and damaged by accumulation of sediments resulting from enhanced erosion in the catchment (4x4 vehicles).<br/>In Morocco and in Algeria, the populations appear better preserved but are essentially under increasing anthropogenic pressure in Mamora, Benslimane and in Numidie. In Spain, the populations are vulnerable and threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.
164216		threats	eng	<p>This species habitat is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats such as drainage, overgrazing, frequent passage of vehicles creating tracks on the sites (Mamora in Morocco), and deposits of sediment from erosion in the catchments (in Corsica). Besides the threats of anthropogenic origin, the species (that requires high light levels) is affected by the competition of woody plants or Helophytes. The species is dependent on specific hydrologic conditions that are not met every year. Climatic change is likely to have an important impact on this species by decreasing the frequency of favourable years resulting in a reduction in reproduction and consequently increasing the probability of extinction notably in the most isolated sites. The plant is of small stature and has small seeds. It requires high levels of insulation and the seeds are very sensitive to burying (Rhazi <em>et al.</em> 2007). The disruption by domestic animals or the passage of vehicles bury the seeds preventing germination. As pointed out by Rhazi <em>et al.</em> (2007), 87% of germination takes place when the seeds are on the surface compared to only 13% and 6% when the seeds are buried respectively under 2 mm and 5 mm sediment.</p>
164216		threats	eng	The plant is of small stature and with tiny seeds. It is requiring high levels of insolation. The habitat is affected by a variety of anthropogenic threats: drainage, overgrazing, frequent passage of vehicles creating tracks, deposits of sediment from erosion in the catchments (in Corsica). Seeds are very sensitive to burying (Rhazi <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/>Besides the threats of anthropogenic origin, the species is affected by the competition of woody plants or Helophytes. It is dependent on precise hydrologic conditions that are not met every year. Climatic change is likely to have an important impact on this species in decreasing the frequency of the years favourable for the reproduction and so increasing the probabilities of extinction notably in the most isolated sites. The disruptions by domestic animals or the passage of vehicles bury the seeds preventing germination. As pointed out by Rhazi <em>et al.</em> (2007), 87% of germination takes place when the seeds are on the surface compared to only 13% and 6% when the seeds are buried respectively under 2 mm and 5 mm sediment.
164217		conservation	eng	In Spain, <em>S. corymbosus</em> is found in the Doñana National Park (Huelva).<br/>There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa or needed.<br/>Research on the historic distribution and the origin of the species are recommended.
164217		conservation	eng	In Spain, <em>S. corymbosus</em> is found in the Doñana National Park (Huelva). Research on the historic distribution and the origin of the species are recommended.
164217		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
164217		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> is a tropical Old-World sedge, widely distributed in Pakistan, India and Africa (Algeria, Cameroon, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Mali, Madagascar, Morocco, Tanzania, Zimbabwe). It is very rare in the Mediterranean basin. The populations in Morocco and Spain are either remnant populations or have, according to Jiménez-Mejías <em>et al.</em> (2007), recently naturally colonised this area<em></em>.<br/> <br/>In Europe, the species is only found in the two Spanish provinces Huelva and Cádiz.
164217		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> is a tropical Old-World sedge, widely distributed in Pakistan, India and Africa (Algeria, Cameroon, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Mali, Madagascar, Morocco, Tanzania, Zimbabwe). It is very rare in the Mediterranean basin. The populations in Morocco and Spain are either remnant populations or have, according to Jiménez-Mejías <em>et al.</em> (2007), recently naturally colonised this area<em></em>.<br/> <br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Algeria where it is found at the Senadja plain (Lac des Canards) and El Kala (El Frin), to Egypt (Nile delta, Nile faiyum, Oases of the Libyan desert, Mediterranean coast), Morocco (road from Tiflet to Maaziz), and Spain (Huelva, Cádiz).
164217		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenoplectus corymbosus</span> is a perennial, rhizomes horizontal, short, thick and woody grass. It is widely distributed in Old World tropics (Asia, Africa and Australia). In India, it is only confined to Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996). Recent collections confirmed its presence in wetlands of southern Spain and Morocco (Jimenez-Mejıas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
164217		habitat	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> grows in swamps and forest hollows, sometimes in or near water in forest. In Morocco and Spain, it develops on oligotrophic sandy soils, seasonally flooded by freshwater (Jiménez-Mejías <em>et al.</em> 2007).
164217		habitat	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> grows in swamps and forest hollows, sometimes in or near water in forest. In Spain, it develops on oligotrophic sandy soils, seasonally flooded by freshwater (Jiménez-Mejías <em>et al.</em> 2007).
164217		habitat	eng	<p>It is occurred in open water at the edges of lakes and tanks, along streams and rivers, also in swamps and bogs. Often forming characteristic dark green clumps (Cook 1996).</p>
164217		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
164217		population	eng	The subpopulations of <em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> are estimated at six in Spain.<br/>Depending on whether the populations in Spain are seen as remnant or as a result of natural colonisation the population trend can be decreasing or increasing and is therefore selected as unknown.
164217		population	eng	The subpopulations of <em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> are estimated at six in Spain, one in Morocco, a few in Algeria, and a few in Egypt, where it is considered as rare.<br/>Depending on whether the populations in Morocco and Spain are seen as remnant or as a result of natural colonisation the population trend can be decreasing or increasing and is therefore selected as unknown.
164217		threats	eng	<em></em>The main threats are related to agricultural activities that eutrophicate soils and water bodies, and the extraction of underground water for crops, especially strawberry crops that are very frequent in sandy soils in the south of Huelva (Spain).
164217		threats	eng	<em></em>The main threats are related with the agricultural activities that eutrophicate the soils and water bodies, and the extraction of underground water for the crops, especially strawberry crops very frequent in sandy soils in the south of Huelva (Spain).
164217		threats	eng	<p>No use has been reported for this species.</p>
164218		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In France, it is classed as Vulnerable A2ac+4ac in the French Red List (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The species is protected in one region (Centre), but there are no conservation measures in the French Mediterranean continental area.<br/></p>The following actions are recommended to protect this species:<br/><ul><li>Conservation of the habitat and the species. </li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses.</li><li>Legal protection to ban the species from being collected.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
164218		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  In France, the species is protected in one region (Centre), but there are no conservation measures in the French Mediterranean continental area.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in North Africa.<br/><br/>The following actions are recommended for North Africa:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size and to study their dynamics <br/>- Conservation of the habitat and the species <br/>- To control the harvest of the species <br/>- Conservation <em>ex situ</em> (seeds banks)<br/>- Legal protection of the species
164218		distribution	eng	<em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> is a Mediterranean species. It is known from southwestern Europe and northwestern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Portugal, France and Corsica, Sardinia, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It is known in numerous localities with an extent of occurrence of about 1,600,000 km² and an area of occupancy greater than 500 km².
164218		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> is a Mediterranean species. It is known from southwest <st1:place>Europe</st1:place> and northwest <st1:place>Africa</st1:place>. In <st1:place>Europe</st1:place>, it is found in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:place>Corsica</st1:place> and <st1:place>Sardinia. </st1:place>This species is found from sea level to 2,500 m altitude. <span class="species"> (Delforge 1995, Anthos 2009, Tutin <em>et al. </em>1964<span class="species">).</span></p>
164218		habitat	eng	<em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that is found in humid grasslands of tall grasses and rushes with very wet calcareous soils or soils flushed by calcareous waters. It also grows at the sides of streams and springs and is a light demanding plant. <br/>Its flowering takes place in spring and in early summer.
164218		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (geophyte) that is found in humid grasslands of tall grasses and rushes with very wet calcareous soils or soils flushed by calcareous waters. It also grows at the sides of streams, springs and swampy hollows, sometimes banks. <em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> grows in full sunlight and it flowers in spring and in early summer.</p>
164218		population	eng	The species is present in numerous localities in the Mediterranean, it is quite widespread and often abundant. The populations are in regression with the reduction of their habitat. <br/>In France, it is present in the western and southwestern part of the country, from Pays-de-la-Loire to Languedoc-Roussillon (Lozere, Herault, Gard, Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales) for the Mediterranean part, but absent from eastern France (Provence). This species is quite rare in the French Mediterranean area. In Corsica, it is classed as possibly extinct.  In  Italy, it is one of the rarest orchids with only one population in Sardinia with about 20 individuals. On the Iberian peninsula, it is dispersed on most of the peninsula and present in 351 localities in Spain and in nine provinces in Portugal.
164218		population	eng	The species is present in numerous localities in the Mediterranean. The populations are in regression due to the reduction of their habitat. <br/>- Morocco: rather common but often as isolated individuals with more than 12 localities distributed in the Rif, the Moyen Atlas, the Haut Atlas, the north- and middle Atlantic Moroccan plains; <br/>- Algeria: rather common in the Tell algero-constantinois and rare on the Mounts of Tlemcen; <br/>- Tunisia: known in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, El Fedja);<br/>- France: present in Corsica and in the western and southwestern part of the country, from Pays-de-la-Loire to Languedoc-Roussillon (Lozere, Herault, Gard, Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales) for the Mediterranean part, but absent from eastern France (Provence). This species is quite rare in the French Mediterranean area;<br/>- Iberian peninsula: dispersed on most of the peninsula (present in 351 localities in Spain and in nine provinces in Portugal);<br/>- Italy: it is one of the rarest orchids in Italy with only one population in Sardinia with about 20 individuals.
164218		threats	eng	<p><em><em></em></em><span class="species">The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza elata<em></em></em><span class="species"> is affected by numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage of the swampy meadows, their use for agriculture, their filling in, urbanization and intensive collection for gardening purposes.<span class="species"></span></p>
164218		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage of the swampy prairies, their use for agriculture, their filling in and urbanization. The species is also intensively collected for gardening purposes.
164219		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
164219		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis geniculata</span> is cosmopolitan in tropical to warm regions. In India it is known to occur in Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh (Raipur, Shivpuri), Maharasthra (Kini, Kotoli, Ahmednagar, Akola, Amaravati, Buldhana, Chandrapur, Dhule, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nasik, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg, Thane, Yavatamal ), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Kanyakumari, Madurai, North Arcot, South Arcot, Ramanathapuram, Salem, Trichirapalli, Tirunelveli-near Thirumalaikovil, Kanyakumari-Thengampatnam, Salem ,Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram-Sundarapandiyapattam, Tanjore, Madras), Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, BSI Coimbatore).
164219		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb, potently grows in clumps, gregarious in shallow water, particularly common in fallow rice fields, sometimes in brackish water by the sea and also grows in wet sandy localities (Cook 1996, Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
164219		population	eng	<p>This is a very common and gregarious in places of occurrence. <br/></p>
164219		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
164220		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Al Hoceima National Park. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164220		distribution	eng	<em>Selaginella balansae</em> is a species strictly endemic to Morocco. <br>Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the AOO >20 km², and it is present in more than 10 locations.
164220		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that grows on siliceous humid rocks of plains and low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs essentially during spring.
164220		population	eng	The species is quite common with populations appearing to be stable (fairly preserved in the mountainous regions). <br>It is present in the Rif (Alcalâa Torres in Al Hoceima National Park and in Targuist), in northern Atlantic Morocco (along Oued Grou near Rabat), in mid-Atlantic Morocco (Lalla Haya springs near Oulmès) and on the mountains of the Anti Atlas and the High Atlas.
164220		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164221		conservation	eng	Some populations of <em>J. anceps</em> are present in Ramsar sites. Apart from that there are no other conservation measures in place.<br/>Because of its fragmented distribution, this species can be threatened in the future if the wetlands near human settlements are destroyed. It is therefore suggested to make an inventory of the habitats and populations.
164221		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus anceps</em> has a western Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution (Pignatti 1997). In Africa it is present in Tunisia (three locations in Kroumirie and garâa Sejnane (Maire 1957)), Algeria (rather common in the Algiers and Constantine Tell) and Morocco, where it has only been observed in Rif, Ketama mountains (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).
164221		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus anceps</em> has a western Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution (Pignatti 1997). It is present in western Europe, where it is rare in Italy mainland and Sardinia, France (present in the west, centre and south, but probably missing from Corsica where it has not been seen since 1900), Greece, Spain, Portugal, Albania, and former Yugoslavia (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1964-1980).<br/>In North Africa, <em>Juncus anceps</em> is present in Tunisia (three locations in Kroumirie and garâa Sejnane (Maire 1957)), Algeria (rather common in the Algiers and Constantine Tell) and Morocco, where it has only been observed in Rif, Ketama mountains (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).
164221		habitat	eng	<em>J. anceps</em> is a perennial species and a geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in wetlands, wet meadows, marshy places and freshwater marshes, on chalky plains and mountains. The flowering in France is from June to September, in Corsica and Italy from May to July, and in North Africa from May to August.
164221		habitat	eng	<em>J. anceps</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in wetlands, wet meadows, marshy places and freshwater marshes, on chalky plains and mountains. The flowering in France is from June to September, in Italy from May to July, and in North Africa from May to August.
164221		population	eng	This species is widely distributed in the western part of the Mediterranean region. It is very rare in Morocco and Tunisia.
164221		population	eng	This species is widely distributed in the western part of the Mediterranean region. It is very rare in Morocco, Italy and Tunisia. In France, it spreads in southern and western France. There are four populations in the south of Spain. It is rarer in the eastern Mediterranean where it is present in Montenegro in seven localities and Data Deficient in Croatia.
164221		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>J. anceps</em> is probably threatened by agriculture and pastoral activities, drainage, and urbanization.
164222		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the population dynamics, the existing sites and search for new ones and to study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate its population size.
164222		distribution	eng	<em>Carex demissa</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution includes Europe, western Siberia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, and Morocco. It occurs in numerous locations.
164222		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte). Preferentially calcicole, this species is found in very humid pastures and along the edges of springs and streams of plains and mountains, in bioclimatic humid environments. Flowering occurs between mid spring and the beginning of summer.
164222		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous localities, but it has a restricted distribution in North Africa (AOO <100 km²). The tendency of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: one location in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), four locations in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen in Arhbalou n'Aït-Amou at 1,700 m, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy path at the crossing of Oued Zad) and fairly common in the Rif (Tanger, Issaguène, Madissouka valley, Jbel Arhoud, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine). Its presence in the massif of Jbel Mtourzgane, near the Oued Ouerdane springs, is uncertain.<br/>- Portugal: fairly common; <br/>- Spain: 92 sites; <br/>- France: very common, occurring in numerous locations;<br/>- Italy: occurring in the north as well as the south and Sicily, absent from the centre
164222		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threat.
164223		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164223		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No population conservation information on this species.</p>
164223		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164223		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is a cosmopolitan species that stretches from Europe (except Arctic) to temperate Asia and America, Atlantic islands and Madagascar.<br/>In North Africa, <em>Juncus effusus</em> is common in Tunisia (Kroumiria), common at the Algerian coast (eastern and central Tell, Akfadou, El Kantara, Djurdjura, Tlemcen), and is rather common in Morocco (Maire 1957) except for the north where it has only been found at three locations: Tangier, C Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).
164223		distribution	eng	<p><em>J.&#160;effusus</em> is a cosmopolitan species which occurs throughout most of Europe, Asia south to Indonesia, North America, the Atlantic islands and Madagascar. It is reported from throughout Europe, except Iceland and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway). <em><u></u></em></p>
164223		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus effusus</span> is a cosmopolitan species which occurs throughout most of Europe, Asia south to Indonesia, North America, the Atlantic islands and Madagascar.<br/></p>  <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
164223		distribution	eng	Tropical and northern Africa, Europe, Asia and north America.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. The species is common in Kenyan mountains from 1350 - 3100 m above sea level. Also present Tanzania and Uganda. In Northern Africa, <em>Juncus effusus</em> is common in Tunisia (Kroumiria), common at the Algerian coast (eastern and central Tell, Akfadou, El Kantara, Djurdjura, Tlemcen), and is rather common in Morocco (Maire 1957) except for the north where it has only been found at three locations: Tangier, C Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002). Presence in Ethiopia needs to be confirmed.
164223		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is a perennial species and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found in marshes, small streams, shores of lakes and ponds, and wet meadows at plains and mountains with P >700 mm. <br/>Flowering occurs between May and October.
164223		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is a perennial species and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found marshes, small streams, shores of lakes and ponds, and wet meadows at plains and mountains with precipitation above 700 mm. <br/>Flowering occurs between May and October.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, the plant is found on wet ground in grassland, near streams and bogs. Also along paths in upland forests.
164223		habitat	eng	<p><em>J.&#160;effusus</em> is a tuft-forming perennial, which may occur as scattered plants or stands in natural and semi-natural habitats, but will develop extensive stands and become dominant to the exclusion of other species as a result of inappropriate land-use such as over-grazing of wet pasture. <em>J.&#160;effusus</em> occurs in most wetland habitats but is most typical of wet pasture and moorland. It is common on the margins of rivers, ponds, lakes and ditches and will occur as scattered stands in open, wet woodland. It apparently avoids base-rich soils and is most characteristic of sandy and peaty substrates, especially open heaths and moors.</p>
164223		habitat	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">It grows scattered mostly in wetland habitats although it can also occur in wet pasture or moorlands. It is found in margins of ponds, rivers, lakes and open wet woodlands.
164223		population	eng	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is widely present in Europe, in northwestern Africa, but are rare in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable on a Mediterranean scale.
164223		population	eng	No population information available.
164223		population	eng	Northern Africa: <em>Juncus effusus</em> is widely present in Europe, in northwestern Africa, but are rare in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable.
164223		population	eng	<p><em>J.&#160;effusus</em> is apparently widespread and abundant throughout its European range. It is extremely abundant throughout the UK, France, the Netherlands, and Germany.</p>
164223		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
164223		threats	eng	<p>No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.</p>
164223		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164226		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.
164226		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex crispus</em> is a cosmopolitan species with a widespread distribution that covers Europe, Asia, northern Africa, Madeira, Azores, etc. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 600,000 km², within which the AOO is more than 2,000 km², and it is present in several locations.
164226		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid habitats, stream edges, canals and irrigated meadows of mountains up to about 2,300 m in altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-July).
164226		population	eng	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa, with populations that appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common in the Rif (Smir, Jbel Alam, Msabeh Sania and Cap Negro), along the Mediterranean coastline, in the oriental plains, Middle Atlas, High Atlas (n'Izli springs), north Atlantic plains (Rwidate Dam, Tiflet, Oued Fouarat, Benslimane, etc.) and mid-Atlantic Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: very widespread in the Tell region, the Saharan Atlas (Aurès), etc; <br/>- Tunisia: very common in Kroumirie, the Mogods (Ichkeul lake), the Tunisian Dorsal (Saint Marie du Zit and Maktar) central Tunisia (Kairouan), south Tunisia (Gabes, etc) and the northeast (Potinville, Oued Miliane and Medjez el Bab); <br/>- Libya: present in Tripoli, Labrag, Gebel Akhdar and Al Qubbah;<br/>- Egypt: quite common in the valley and delta of the Nile; <br/>- Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Lebanon, Turkey, etc: very common.
164226		threats	eng	The drainage, water extraction, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.
164227		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164227		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164227		conservation	eng	Raising public awareness and further research on habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.
164227		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place or needed.
164227		distribution	eng	It is a cosmopolitan species being recorded from Europe to Africa, Asia, Oceania and South America.<br/><br/>In the Indo-Burma region, it has been recorded from Quangbinh in northern Viet Nam and in northern Thailand. It may be present in Lao PDR, but this is not certain.
164227		distribution	eng	North and Central America, Europe, Arabian peninsula, Africa from Western to Central and North Africa. Also found in Madagascar.<br><br>Relatively widespread in Western Africa and present in Central and Southern Africa. Also recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan (Jebel Murra – Blue Nile Province – Gazira canals).
164227		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. nodosus </em>has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, apart from northern Europe to the north of the UK, the Netherlands and Lithuania in each of which it is rare. It also appears to be absent from Australia and New Zealand, although it is present on many Pacific Islands. It occurs east through at least the southern parts of Russia east to southern China and Japan, south through much of south and southeast Asia to Papua New Guinea. It is also widespread throughout much of Africa, north and south of the Sahara, the Middle East and the Indian Ocean Islands, throughout North America (except the extreme north: Alaska and northern Canada) south through Mexico, the West Indies and Central America to South America.</p>
164227		distribution	eng	This species is subcosmopolitan, but <em>P. nodosus</em> in sensu strictu is usually considered to be a species of warm-temprate and subtropical regions of the northern Hemisphere. However, it penetrates into the tropics and in some areas even further south into the warm-temperate regions of the southern Hemishpere. In North Africa, it is present in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In Europe it extends from Portugal to Greece and Turkey, but is absent from the Levant.
164227		habitat	eng	<em>P. nodosus</em> is usually found in slow to moderately flowing water and is confined to calcareous and moderately but not excessively eutrophic rivers.
164227		habitat	eng	<em>P. nodosus</em> will occur in most water body types, from lake margins to ponds and even temporary pools, as well as streams and backwaters of larger rivers. It appears to tolerate nutrient enrichment and is most frequent in mesotrophic to eutrophic calcareous waters.
164227		habitat	eng	It can grow in most water bodies, from lake margins to ponds, temporary pools, streams and backwaters of large rivers. It is more frequent in mesotrophic to eutrophic waters as it tolerates nutrient enrichment.
164227		habitat	eng	Perennial aquatic herb, growing in ponds, swamps, marshes, paddy fields, irrigation ditches and channels, springs and streams.
164227		population	eng	Perennial species, widespread and diversify habitat, therefore important population.
164227		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. nodosus</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its range and there is no reliable evidence for an overall decline, although the number of populations in the Austrian Tirol appears to have declined in recent years (Maier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
164227		population	eng	This species appears to be widespread and common in a wide range of freshwater habitats.
164227		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
164227		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, although water pollution, Invasion by alien species and drought can threaten the species locally.
164227		threats	eng	No threats have been reported.
164227		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species, although the decline in the Austrian Tirol is potentially of concern.</p>
164227		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164228		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Otherwise no conservation measures are in need.
164228		distribution	eng	Sudan, Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, India and Egypt (Nile region including Delta, Oases, Mediterranean coastal strip, Desert east of the Nile, Sinai)
164228		habitat	eng	Canal banks, moist ground.
164228		population	eng	Common / weed
164228		threats	eng	No major widespreading threats are known.
164229		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or needed.
164229		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed.
164229		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164229		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. polyrhiza</span> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, occurring throughout Europe, south, east and southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea and Australia, Africa north and south of the Sahara and throughout North America, although it becomes less frequent in the north (Landolt 1986). In Europe, it is widespread and abundant except in northern Scandinavia.
164229		distribution	eng	This cosmopolitan species occurs in almost all Europe to North Africa and Asia. It is also present in America and Australia.<br/>In North Africa, it occurs in Morocco and Egypt where it reaches the southern limit of its distribution.
164229		distribution	eng	This cosmopolitan species occurs in almost all Europe to north Africa and Asia. It is also present in America and Australia. In north Africa, it occurs in Morocco and Egypt. It is widespread throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.
164229		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring throughout Europe, Asia, Papua New Guinea and Australia, northern and tropical Africa and throughout North America, although it becomes less frequent in the north (Landolt 1986).
164229		habitat	eng	It favours nutrient-rich, alkaline or circumneutral waters. It grows in ponds, ditches, canals, and slow flowing water. It favours nutrient-rich, alkaline or circumneutral waters.
164229		habitat	eng	It grows in base-rich water in ponds, ditches, canals, and slow flowing water. It favours nutrient-rich, alkaline or neutral waters.
164229		habitat	eng	It occurs generally in eutrophic still water such as ponds, pools, marshes, lakes, and rice fields and ditches. Also in slow-flowing base-rich waters and a&#160; wide variety of water bodies, particularly in grazing marsh systems in Europe.
164229		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. polyrhiza</span> typically grows in eutrophic, lowland still or slow-flowing base-rich waters and will occur in a wide variety of water bodies, particularly in grazing marsh systems.
164229		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. polyrhiza</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
164229		population	eng	There is no information on global population trend although it is a common species in suitable habitats.
164229		population	eng	This species is common in the northern Mediterranean. <br/>In Morocco, the species is very rare and restricted, present at only three sites.
164229		population	eng	This species is common in the northern Mediterranean.  In Morocco, the species is very rare and restricted where it is only present in three sites.
164229		threats	eng	It is threatened by other invading species (e.g. <em>Azolla</em>), however, this is not a major threat.
164229		threats	eng	It is threatened by other invasive species (e.g. <em>Azolla</em>). This is not considered as a major threat.
164229		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been reported.
164229		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164230		conservation	eng	The localities of Jbel Ayachi and Maskers are within the National Park of the oriental High Atlas. For the future, the following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- To study the biology and the ecology for the species and to estimate its population size<br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Raising public awareness
164230		distribution	eng	<em>Campanula mairei</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. Its distribution is limited to the High Atlas with three known localities (Jbel Ayachi, Masker, Tinerhir). The extent of occurrence is about 1,500 km².
164230		habitat	eng	The species is found at the edges of streams, wetlands and the debris of the middle and high flinty and chalky mountains up to 3,600 m altitude. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate typical for high mountains.
164230		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known but they seem stable in the localities of Jbel Ayachi and Maskers situated in the national park of the High Oriental Atlas. The last observations of the species at these sites were made in 2003.
164230		threats	eng	<em>Campanula mairei</em> is found in steppic habitats that are subject to large pressure of grazing by goats. In the light of this information, the number of locations is estimated to be between five to 10.
164231		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164231		distribution	eng	This species is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Turkey, Cyprus, Greece, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, France, Spain and Balearic Islands, and Portugal (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009).
164231		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid soils, sandy, gravelly and silty alluvial soils, often saline.
164231		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
164231		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164232		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164232		distribution	eng	<em>Polypogon monspeliensis</em> is a paleo-subtropical species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers western and southern Europe, western Asia, Ethiopia, the Hoggar, northern Africa, the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km² and it has an AOO >2,000 km².
164232		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporary pools, marshes, depressions flooded in winter, rice paddies, along stream edges, ditches and humid habitats of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m. Flowering occurs during spring and the beginning of summer (March-June).
164232		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Moreover, populations appear to be stable.
164232		threats	eng	Agriculture, drainage and the development of road infrastructures are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164233		conservation	eng	In Lebanon, a 500 m stretch on each riverside is protected by law and it is forbidden to make any development in this area.<br/> <br/>It is recommended to monitor the existing sites and study the dynamics of the populations as well as the regeneration process of the species. Harvest management should be put in place.
164233		distribution	eng	<em>Salix libani</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species with a distribution limited to the east of the Mediterranean basin. It is present in Turkey, Syria and Lebanon. <br/>Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is greater than 100 km², and it is present in more than 20 locations.
164233		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that is found on the edges of watercourses, sandy springs and in wetlands of limestone and sandstone substrate at middle elevation. It is found with <em>Alnus orientalis</em>, <em>Rhododendron</em> spp. and <em>Mentha aquatica</em>. Flowering occurs during spring (March-April).
164233		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region occurring at more than 20 locations. The populations are very small with only a few individuals. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Turkey: present in the southeast of the country (Amanus mountanious range); <br/>- Syria: it is present in the anti-Lebanon mountainous range (Zebdani) and to the north of Lattaquié (Froulok); <br/>- Lebanon: it is found on the lower mountains of Qrayé, Abey, Bhamdoun, Araya, Broumana, Bikfaya, Dhour Choueir and on the middle mountains of Falougha, Aïn Zehalta, Bcharré, Bqerqacha, Bcharré, Ehden, Aïnata, Mreijatte, Chtaura and Qabbélias.
164233		threats	eng	The cutting down of the trees for wood and for the extraction of tannins, may become a threat to this species. Industrial river pollution is also threatening the species. The habitat of the species is an ecologically vulnerable zone.
164234		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones in North Africa.
164234		distribution	eng	<em>Isolepis setacea</em> is a subtropical species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia, Africa, Madeira, Azores and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and doubtfully in Albania. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164234		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits rivers, swampy soils and humid pastures of mountains. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (May-September).
164234		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The size and trend of the populations are unknown. <br/>- Morocco: considered rare, with 14 known locations distributed between the Anti Atlas (Tachokcht), High Atlas, Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco (Rharb and Zaïane country), Tangérois, the Rif and probably along the western Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: fairly widespread in Numidie and Jijel but very rare in the Oranais Tellien Atlas; <br/>- Egypt: found along the banks of the Nile; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, with more than 215 sites; <br/>- France: very common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in eight provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.
164234		threats	eng	Urbanization, habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.
164235		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) and implementation of existing legal protection measures<br/>- To reinforce the reforestation of the mountains damaged <br/>- To limit grazing on the sites where the species occurs<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Follow-up of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness and formation of site managers
164235		distribution	eng	<em>Pinguicula fontiqueriana</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It has often been confounded with <em>Pinguicula corsica</em> that is endemic to Corsica and <em>Pinguicula vulgaris</em> that is present in the west, north and centre of Europe. <br/>It is very rare and its distribution is restricted to the Central Rif with three known localities: Jbel Tidighine, Jbel Lerz, Bni Seddat. The extent of occurrence of the species is about 800 km² within which the occupied area doesn't exceed 15 km².
164235		habitat	eng	The species is found in acidic peaty swampy meadows between 1,700 m and 2,100 m altitude. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164235		population	eng	The populations are isolated and seem to have a weak dispersal considering the reduced area occupied within the Central Rif. The size of the populations is not known but they remain fragile and threatened.
164235		threats	eng	In addition to the pressure of grazing on the sites (trampling), the main threat is the deterioration of the surrounding mountains by deforestation, which increases the soil erosion and therefore the silting up of the habitat of the species.
164236		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, further research in population numbers, range, and actual threats are need. Habitat conservation and management is need.
164236		conservation	eng	The species is protected under regional legislation in France.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164236		distribution	eng	A palaeotropical species that is widespread in the Mediterranean region, including Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, Turkey, Lebanon, Egypt, and Algeria.
164236		distribution	eng	This species is present in Egypt (Nile region including Delta) and Algeria.
164236		habitat	eng	Moist ground, Nile banks and irrigation canals.
164236		habitat	eng	This annual plant prefers moist ground and damp places.
164236		population	eng	Rare.
164236		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
164236		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species.
164236		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to any disturbance due to its restricted range and limited dispersal. However, specific threats are not known.
164237		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164237		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures except for some species occuring in designated Ramsar sites.<br/>For the North African populations it is recommended to study the inventory of their habitats, taxonomy, locations, etc.
164237		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures except for some species occurring in designated Ramsar sites.<br/>For the North African populations it is recommended to study the inventory of their habitats, taxonomy, and locations.
164237		distribution	eng	<em>N. alba</em> occurs mainly in Europe, extending outside the region to North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus and into Jammu and Kashmir in India. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164237		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs almost throughout the entire European continent, except for Crete. It is also rare at the Mediterranean islands Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (eight sites). <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present but rare in Morocco (western Rift), Algeria (four locations in Numidia and one location observed near Jijel), and was known in Tunisia at three locations among which one has disappeared (Sejenane) and one is in a protected site (Majen Chitane).
164237		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs almost throughout the entire European continent. It is also rare at the Mediterranean islands Sardinia and Corsica (eight sites). <br/>In North Africa, it is present but rare in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164237		habitat	eng	<em></em>   <em>N. alba</em> typically occurs in lakes, ponds, the backwaters of rivers or large ditches, and occasionally in standing water in bogs or fens.
164237		habitat	eng	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb that grows in ponds, rivers, stagnant freshwater bodies or slow-moving waterways. It prefers oligotrophic environments from 0 up to 1,500 m above sea level.
164237		habitat	eng	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb that grows in pools, rivers, stagnant freshwater bodies or slow-moving waterways. It prefers oligotrophic environments from 0 up to 1,500 m.
164237		population	eng	<em>N. alba</em> is classed as Near Threatened in Switzerland, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164237		population	eng	In Europe, the species is overall abundant, but is has been extinct from Crete, Sicily, Lebanon and Syria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009).<br/>In Morocco, it is rare and found only in the western Rif, same in Algeria where it occurs at four locations in Numidia and one location near Jijel. It was known in Tunisia at three locations among which one has disappeared (Sejenane) and one is in a protected site (Majen Chitane).
164237		population	eng	The populations of <em>Nymphaea alba</em> in northwest Africa are small: nine locations in total (four of which are in the north of Numidia) with an Extent of Occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km² and Area of Occupancy (AOO) <500 km².
164237		threats	eng	In North Africa, the species is threatened by the destruction of its aquatic habitats. It is not threatened at the scale of the Mediterranean region.
164237		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164238		conservation	eng	<p><em>G. declinata</em> is classed as Endangered in Norway and Switzerland and as Data Deficient in Estonia. It is classed as Near Threatened in Hungary   (Király 2007).</p><p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164238		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but for North Africa it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, and to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164238		distribution	eng	<em>G. declinata</em> occurs in Europe, throughout most of Africa, Macaronesia, India, Australia, New Zealand, western Canada and the northeast USA and southwest USA. The species was discovered quite late in several Central European countries (such as Hungary and Austria) due to the lack of knowledge of its identification.
164238		distribution	eng	<em>Glyceria declinata</em> is a sub-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa and Macaronesia. It was introduced into North America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia and Morocco. There are old records from Corsica that are considered dubious. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with several locations.
164238		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and swampy environments. Flowering occurs in the spring.
164238		habitat	eng	<p><em>G. declinata</em> typically occurs in the muddy margins of ponds, ditches, rivers and in cattle-poached parts of marshy grassland. It is most frequent on neutral or acid soils, including sands, peat, clays and gravel. </p>
164238		population	eng	<em>G. declinata</em> is classed as Endangered in Norway and Switzerland and as Data Deficient in Estonia; it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout the remainder of its European range.
164238		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with several locations. In North Africa it is very rare with only two locations. The state of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: recently discovered in the country (2006), the species is rare and solely present in the northwest of Morocco, namely in two locations (between Derdara and Kasar-el-Kebir and in the mountains of Jebala in the Tangier region);<br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common in nearly all of the peninsula with more than 967 sites; <br/>- France: common in the centre and north of the country and present in six departments in the south; <br/>- Italy: rare, present in only one province in the northeast of the country.
164238		threats	eng	Habitat drainage, urbanization and the construction of road infrastructures are the main threats to this species.
164238		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164239		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. uniglumis</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and Luxembourg, but otherwise   there are no specific conservation measures in place or needed. It is protected by national law in Hungary although the species has been assessed as Least Concern on the national red list   (Király 2007).</p>
164239		conservation	eng	Some proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164239		conservation	eng	This species is only under regional protection in France (Midi-Pyrénées). It is classified as Critically Endangered on the Croatian Red List. <br/>Some proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones (North Africa) and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164239		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis uniglumis</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia, North America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Greece and Crete, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164239		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis uniglumis</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia, North America and North Africa. In North Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 2,500,000 km², 11 locations and an AOO <20 km². Very widespread in the Mediterranean region.
164239		distribution	eng	<em></em>    <p><em>E.&#160;uniglumis</em> occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, Siberia, Kazakhstan, the Caucasus, Mongolia and Pakistan to Kamchatka and China. It also occurs in North America from the Subantarctic to the northern United States. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout apart form the Atlantic islands.</p>
164239		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies, temporary pools and swamps of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs in spring (April-May).
164239		habitat	eng	<p><em>E. uniglumis</em> is typically a coastal species, occurring in depressions and pools on the upper parts of rocky coasts and tidal flats, as well as in brackish marshes and occasionally inland in calcareous rush pasture locally by springs with higher than normal sodium content.</p>
164239		population	eng	Populations are very restricted and in slow decline due of the regression of their habitat. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, with only three locations, namely in central High Atlas (Glaoua and Jbel Guerdouz at 2000m) and central Middle Atlas (pool on the Causse d’Ito); rare in Algeria, with less than five locations distributed between Numidie and the Algérois coast (Chaïba swamp); probably very rare in Tunisia, with a few locations in the Mogods (Sejnane) and in Kroumirie (Dar Fatma).
164239		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. uniglumis</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, however it is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and Luxembourg.
164239		population	eng	The species is fairly widespread in the Mediterranean region; in North Africa it is rarer with only 11 locations. Populations are very restricted and in slow decline due to the regression of their habitat. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, with only three locations, namely in central High Atlas (Glaoua and Jbel Guerdouz at 2000m) and central Middle Atlas (pool on the Causse d’Ito); rare in Algeria, with less than five locations distributed between Numidie and the Algérois coast (Chaïba swamp); probably very rare in Tunisia, with a few locations in the Mogods (Sejnane) and in Kroumirie (Dar Fatma). <br/>It is present in two provinces in Portugal, 34 sites in Spain; fairly common along the Mediterranean coast of France; present in 11 provinces of Italy and few populations in Montenegro. It is considered as Critically Endangered in Croatia, with several populations, including eight in the Mediterranean region, but threatened by habitat loss.
164239		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164239		threats	eng	Urbanization, agricultural expansion and the drainage of the habitat of this species are its main threats (loss of habitats and degradation of habitat quality).
164240		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164240		distribution	eng	<em>Leptochloa ginae</em> is a strict endemic species of Morocco. It is very rare with a very restricted distribution. It is known from four localities of which two are located on the Atlantic coastline: on the right strand of the Massa river and on the right strand of the Arksis river (limit Anti Coastal Atlas and Saharan Morocco). The two other localities, situated in the Moroccan part of North Sahara, are slightly continental: El Aïoune of the Draâ, to about 500 m elevation and Jbel Bou tagount. Its extent of occurrence is about 1,500 km².
164240		habitat	eng	<em>Leptochloa ginae</em> is a perennial whose biological type varies from Chamaephyte to Geophyte. The plant grows on arid and hot quartzitic or dolomitic rocks of the banks of rivers. It blooms in summer under the arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164240		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations or on their present trends is available.
164240		threats	eng	The main threats to the habitat are the urban and tourist amenities, as well as the pressure of grazing by goats.
164241		conservation	eng	It is found in protected areas in West Africa. Further research in biology, ecology and population numbers and range is needed.
164241		conservation	eng	<p>It is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001). There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164241		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place.</p>
164241		conservation	eng	The species is listed on several national red lists: Endangered in Spain (Moreno 2008), Vulnerable in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Vulnerable in Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), Vulnerable in Andalusia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/>In Italy and Spain, some populations are included in protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures are to increase knowledge about the species biology and ecology and to look at genetic variation and diversity in the populations.
164241		distribution	eng	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is a Paleo-subtropical species that occurs in temperate and subtropical regions of the Ancient World. In north Africa, the species is present but rare in Morocco at Loukkos in the Atlantic coast. It has also been recorded in Dayas in Mamora (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and at lake Gedira (Maire 1957). It is very rare in Algeria where there is one confirmed location in Numidia. It occurs in Sudan and Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique, Botswana, and in South Africa in Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape. It is widespread in western Africa.<br/><br/>Globally, this species occurs in western and southern Europe, Africa and South Asia, especially tropical, Philippines, and Australia.
164241		distribution	eng	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is a Paleo-subtropical species that occurs in temperate and subtropical regions of the Ancient World. It is found in western and southern Europe, Africa and South Asia, especially tropical, Philippines, and Australia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region the species is found in Morocco, Algeria, Portugal, Spain, France, Italy and Sicily, Malta (considered as alien species in the latter two), Slovenia in Istria, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Israel and Palestine.
164241		distribution	eng	The main distribution centre for <em>W. arrhiza</em> is in Europe, with populations scattered throughout Africa south of the Sahara, as well as a few populations in North Africa and Asia, as well as a locality near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Landolt 1986).
164241		distribution	eng	This species is native to Europe, many African countries especially south of the Sahara, as well as a few populations in Asia.
164241		habitat	eng	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is a free-floating rootless perenial plant on permanent water. Its prefered habitats are oligotrophic, acidic or neutral waters, marshes, and ditches. Often forming large populations on the water surface of pools, sheltered parts of lakes and ditches, betweeen 0-1600 m asl. Very small flowers.
164241		habitat	eng	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is found in marshes, ditches, permanent waters, artificial ponds, and rice fields. Its preferred habitats are eutrophic, neutral waters, sometimes acidic. It is not known to produce flowers in Europe and North Africa.
164241		habitat	eng	It grows floating in lakes, ponds and ditches.
164241		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">W. arrhiza</span> typically occurs in base-rich lowland ditches and ponds (Preston and Croft 1997) in mesotrophic to eutrophic water.
164241		population	eng	Populations are scattered in a great area throughout the Mediterranean region. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is greater than 20,000 km², but it is rare and occupies some small areas so its area of occupancy is smaller. The species is commmon throughout its range.
164241		population	eng	<p>This species naturally undergoes massive population fluctuations, when it occurs at low abundance it is extremely easy to overlook. There is no information on global population trends. In Europe populations seem to be stable. It can form large populations in pools in southern Africa.<br/></p>
164241		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">W. arrhiza</span> naturally undergoes massive population fluctuations, when it occurs at low abundance it is extremely easy to overlook. Most populations in Europe appear stable but is has declined in parts of the UK.
164241		population	eng	The populations of <em>W. arrhiza</em> are scattered in a wide area in the Mediterranean region, but it is rare and occupies some tiny areas, therefore the area of occupancy is <500 km².<br/>In North Africa, the species is present but rare in Morocco at Loukkos (Atlantic coast), at dayas in Mamora (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and at lake Gedira (Maire 1957). It is also found but very rare in Algeria where there is one confirmed location in Numidia.<br/> In France, it is scattered on the continent. It has been seen in Corsica by Calvi in 1833, but neither seen again nor confirmed. The populations in Italy are instable and scattered in the north and east and in Sicily. In Croatia, it is found in Turopolje and Crnec Polje, probably in agricultural systems (Hulina 1998). In Bosnia-Herzegovina it has been reported from the Neretva river basin (The World Bank 2006).<br/>In Greece, there are scattered records from the north (Macedonia). It has been found at one site near Rentina in central Macedonia, two sites in Nestos river, and there are uncomfirmed records for southwestern Greece. <br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, the populations are very scarce with very few recent records: three in Spain (Huelva, Cadiz, Caceres) and two to three in Portugal (Estremadura and Ribatejo, Baixo Alentejo). It was more abundant in Portugal in the past. <br/>The overall population trend is declining.
164241		threats	eng	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is threatened by changes of agricultural practice, for example if water intensive rice production is changed to a dry production. In North Africa, infrastructure development for tourism is another threat.
164241		threats	eng	It is probably threatened due to its rarity mainly due to touristic infrastructure development. In West Africa it is threatened by competitiors resulting from changes in native species dynamics. Drought and wetland "reclamation" (especially for urban expansion) are localised major threats.
164241		threats	eng	No global threats for this species have been reported.
164241		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164242		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, more taxonomic research and conservation of the habitats is needed.
164242		distribution	eng	<em>P. inuloides</em> is found in Turkey, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. It is also present in Iraq and Afghanistan.
164242		distribution	eng	In Africa, the species is found from Morocco to Egypt, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.
164242		habitat	eng	<em>P. inuloides</em> is an annual plant. It grows in disturbed habitats within oases (Israel), moist wadi beds, near springs, irrigation canal banks, temporary pools, road sides, and fields. Flowering time is April to August.
164242		habitat	eng	<em>P. inuloides</em> is an annual plant. It grows in disturbed habitats within oases (Israel), moist wadi beds, near springs, irrigation canal banks, temporary pools, road sides, fields.
164242		population	eng	The species is only common in North Africa. In Algeria, it is common and found in several humid sites in the steppe and the Sahara. In Tunisia, it is found at several sites in the south and few in the north.<br>In Morocco, its very common, found in many locations distributed in the Atlas mountains (Great Atlas, Middle Atlas, Anti-Atlas) in the Rif mountains, in the south of Morocco, in the east and at the Mediterranean coastal strip.
164242		population	eng	The species is only common in North Africa. In Algeria, it is common and found in several humid sites in the steppe and the Sahara. In Tunisia, it is found at several sites in the south and few in the north. In Morocco, its very common, found in many locations distributed in the Atlas mountains (Great Atlas, Middle Atlas, Anti-Atlas), in the Rif mountains, in the south of Morocco, in the east and at the Mediterranean coastal strip.<br/><br/>In Turkey, <em>P. inuloides</em> is found in five different cities (Adana, Antalya, Aydin, Izmir, Mugla) in southern and western Turkey. There is one stable population in the nature reserve Ein-Gedi in Israel, and one population near Petra in Jordan.
164242		threats	eng	At Mediterranean level, the species is not threatened at the moment, but in Jordan the use its habitat for water extraction might be a threat in the near future. In North Africa, agricultural use and urbanization of its habitat could become a threat to this species in the future.
164242		threats	eng	In North Africa, there are no major threats to the species as it seems quite resistant. But in the future agricultural use and urbanization of its habitat could become a threat to this species.
164243		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. littoralis</span> is included in the Red List of Croatia where it is considered as Critically Endangered   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Israel   (Shmida and Pollak 2008). No further conservation measures are known for this species.<br/>Proposed conservation actions are to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics.
164243		distribution	eng	<em>Aeluropus littoralis</em> is a circum-Mediterranean species. It has a very large biogeographical distribution that covers southern Europe, western Asia, North Africa and extends from the Arabian Peninsula to India. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Croatia, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It occurs in numerous locations and its AOO >2,000 km².
164243		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits sandy stretches along the coastline, swamps and inland salty soils. Flowering occurs from spring to autumn (March-October).
164243		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region with numerous locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is found at more than 15 locations: Targuist, Imzourene, Gareb, Guercif, Tarfaya, Jbel Ouarkziz, Aïn Chegga, Tademricht, Tata, Laâyoune, Boujdour; mouth of the Ghebar river near Bouznika. <br/>It is common in Algeria, from the coastline to central Sahara; present in Tunisia in more than six locations (La Galite, Souk el Arba, Kairouan, Gafsa, Metlaoui, Oudref); Egypt in the Red Sea coastal strip and the Sinai Peninsula; and is found in at least six sites along the Mediterranean coastline of Libya (Misurata, Zuara, Benghazi, Giuliana, Bomba and Tobruk). <br/>It is very common in Spain (115 sites) and France; present in 10 provinces in Italy and also in Sicily; very common in Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine.<br/>It is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008).
164243		threats	eng	The loss of habitats especially through urbanization of the coastline for the development of industry and tourism, is the main threat to this species and its habitat.
164244		conservation	eng	More research is required on the species population numbers and range, threats and potential conservation measures.
164244		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Egypt (Nile region including Delta).
164244		habitat	eng	Moist ground, Nile banks and irrigation canals.
164244		population	eng	Rare.
164244		threats	eng	No information available.
164245		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164245		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164245		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is a Paleo-temperate species native to Eurasia, North and South Africa. It is introduced into North and South America, Java, Australia and New Zealand.<br/>In North Africa, it is common in northern Tunisia, in Algeria (Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aurès), in Morocco (Tanger, western Rif, Ouezzane, central Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul), and in Egypt (Sinai peninsula and wettest parts of wadis above 1,500 m). It is probable that the species occurs in Libya.<br/>In the northern and eastern Mediterranean region, it extends from Portugal and Spain to France and Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balkans, Turkey and to the Levant.
164245		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a paleo-temperate species native to Eurasia, North and South Africa. It is introduced into North and South America, Java, Australia and New Zealand.
164245		distribution	eng	Tropical and northern Africa, Europe, tropical and temperate Asia. Naturalized in Australia, New Zealand and North America. <br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. In North Africa, it is common in northern Tunisia, in Algeria (Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aurès), in Morocco (Tanger, western Rif, Ouezzane, central Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul), and in Egypt (Sinai peninsula and wettest parts of wadis near 1,500 m above sea level). It is probable that the species occurs in Libya. Possibly present in Democratic Republic of Congo.
164245		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus inflexus</em>is found in ponds, ditches, wet meadows, marshes and at the edges of permanent freshwater bodies across a large range of altitude (0-1,500 m in Italy, above 1,500 m in Egypt). It is less common in arid regions.<br/><br/>Flowering takes place from June to August in Italy and France, from May to August in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164245		habitat	eng	It occurs in ponds, ditches, wet meadows, marshes and at the edges of permanent freshwater bodies across a large range of altitudes.
164245		habitat	eng	This perennial herb iis found in ponds, ditches, wet meadows, marshes and at the edges of permanent freshwater bodies across a large range of altitude (0-1500 m in Italy, above 1500 m in Egypt). It is less common in arid regions.
164245		population	eng	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is present in large populations in many places of its wide distribution, both in Europe and Africa.
164245		population	eng	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is present in large populations in many places of its wide distribution, both in Europe and North Africa.<br/>It is common in France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Balkans, Turkey, but rare in Corsica and Israel.
164245		population	eng	There is no information on global population but it is a common and widespread species in wetland habitats.
164245		threats	eng	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is not threatened in the short term, because it is common in the Mediterranean region. It is impacted by the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands in the Mediterranean region.
164245		threats	eng	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is not threatened in the short term. However, it may be impacted by the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands in the Mediterranean region.
164245		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been identified.
164246		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are needed. It occurs in some protected areas.
164246		distribution	eng	<em>Carex microcarpa</em> is a European endemic, only present in Corsica, Sardinia, and the small Italian islands of Capraia, Elba and Giglio. Pignatti (1982) reported it as occurring in mainland Italy, Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) report it as present in central southern Italy, but Baccheta and Mossa (2004) consider it to be endemic to Corsica, Sardinia and the Tuscan archipelago.
164246		habitat	eng	<em>Carex microcarpa</em> is a high perennial sedge growing in wet and damp places, between 0 and 2,000 m asl. In Corsica, it occurs in wet lowlands and midlands.
164246		population	eng	<em>Carex microcarpa</em> is very common in Corsica. In Sardinia, it is represented by many subpopulations (Arrigoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1977-1991) which appear to be stable.
164246		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species but it can locally suffer from the general degradation of its wetland habitats.
164247		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis acicularis</span> is classed as Data Deficient in Denmark, Endangered in Austria, and Vulnerable in Switzerland. <br/>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164247		conservation	eng	The Aguelmame Sidi Ali (Morocco) is a classified Ramsar site since 2005, that benefits from an ecological sensitization programme by different NGO's, especially for its ornithological value. The following additional conservation measures are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimation of the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics
164247		conservation	eng	The Aguelmame Sidi Ali (Morocco) is a classified Ramsar site since 2005, that benefits from an ecological sensitization programme by different NGO's, especially for its ornithological value. The following additional conservation measures are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimation of the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
164247		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis acicularis</em> is a very widespread species. It is found from the Arctic Circle to the mountains of the Mediterranean, Caucasus, from the Himalayas to Korea, from North America to Ecuador and in the mountains of the Atlas in North Africa. <br/>At the scale of the Mediterranean region, it is found in France (continental and Corsica), Portugal, Spain (continental and Island of Minorca), Italy, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, Morocco and a doubtful presence in Albania. <br/>In Morocco, this species of mountains is very rare. Its distribution is limited to two localities in the High Central Atlas (Ourika and daya Iferouane), one locality in the Middle Central Atlas (close to the Aguelmame Sidi Ali) and one locality in the oriental Rif (close to Tizi-Ifri). <br/>Its extent of occurrence is about 2,600,000 km² at the Mediterranean region level.
164247		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis acicularis</em> is a very widespread species. It is found from the Arctic Circle to the mountains of the Mediterranean, Caucasus, from the Himalayas to Korea, from North America to Ecuador and in the mountains of the Atlas in North Africa. <br/><br/>In North Africa, this species of mountains is only known from Morocco where it is very rare. Its distribution is limited to two localities in the High Central Atlas (Ourika and daya Iferouane), one locality in the Middle Central Atlas (close to the Aguelmame Sidi Ali) and one locality in the oriental Rif (close to Tizi-Ifri). <br/><br/>Its extent of occurrence is about 11,000 km² in North Africa.
164247		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. acicularis</em> occurs throughout much of Europe south to North Africa (Morocco) and east through the Caucasus, the northern Middle East, Kazakhstan and Mongolia, to Far Eastern Russia, the Korean Peninsula, China and Japan south through Vietnam to the Philippines and Sumatra. It also occurs throughout North, Central and western South America. It has apparently been introduced in the Gilbert and Caroline Islands (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). </p>
164247		habitat	eng	<em>E. acicularis</em> is a rhizomatous perennial herb growing on the margins of lakes, ponds, reservoirs and rivers, in sites subject to winter flooding, and fully aquatic in shallow, still or slow-moving mesotrophic to eutrophic water. It roots into sand, gravel, mud or silt, often forming extensive lawns, but flowering only when exposed by falling water levels (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
164247		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Geophyte or Hemicryptophyte) that develops in the swamps of mountains up to 2,100 m above sea level, on siliceous soil (flinty soil). It has a long flowering period from the end of spring until early fall.
164247		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Geophyte or Hemicryptophyte) that develops in the swamps of mountains up to 2,100 m of altitude, on siliceous soil (flinty soil). It has a long flowering period from the end of spring until early fall.
164247		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations or on their present trends is available. It is a cold-climate species and is generally restricted to upland areas in the Mediterranean region.
164247		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. acicularis </span>appears to be widespread and reasonably abundant throughout much of its European range. In areas where it is considered scarce, this is often partly due to under-recording. However, it is classed as Data Deficient in Denmark, Endangered in Austria, and Vulnerable in Switzerland.
164247		threats	eng	Extraction of water, overgrazing, organic pollution by animals and outdoor activities (causing trampling) are major threats to the habitat of this species in North Africa. Invasive alien species (competitors), e.g. <em>Paspalum paspalodes</em> are a problem locally in parts of the range.
164247		threats	eng	Extraction of water, overgrazing, organic pollution by animals and outdoor activities (causing trampling) are major threats to the habitat of this species. Invasive alien species (competitors), e.g. <em>Paspalum paspalodes</em> are a problem locally in parts of the range.
164247		threats	eng	<p>A decline of river bank habitats has been described as a threat to the species in some parts of its range. The river bank quality decreases as rivers are regulated for hydropower, for example, which leads to succession development of reeds or the banks are being used as beaches in urban areas. But overall, there are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164248		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164248		distribution	eng	<em>Crassula alata</em> is a Euro-African species. Its world distribution includes North Africa, oriental Europe and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Greece, Crete, Karpathos, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with several locations.
164248		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits humid habitats like clearings in forests and gritty and stony pastures, from the coastline up to an altitude of about 2,000 m. Flowering occurs in winter and spring (February-May).
164248		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: widespread, present in Saharan Morocco (northeast of Tan-Tan), Atlantic Morocco, the Anti Atlas, the Rif and the Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: very common, with several locations distributed between the Kroumirie, the Mogods, Cap Bon, Northeast Tunisia (Marsa, Radès, etc.) the Tunisian Dorsal (Oued Mellègue dam), central Tunisia (Sousse) and south Tunisia (Gabès, Douiret, Khanguet el Seldja, etc.); <br/>- Libya: present in Wadi Er'rabea (near Bir el Alam), Alfalfa and southeast of Tripoli; <br/>- Egypt: found along the Mediterranean coastal strip; <br/>- Syria: present in Jabal Dmeir and to the west of Homs;<br/>- Lebanon: present in Saïda, Khaldé, Beyrouth, Jbail, Tripoli, Beit-Méri, Broummana, Akkar, Menges and Aïn Saoua'ir.
164248		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164249		conservation	eng	Two marshes where the species is found are included in Natura 2000 sites following the purchase during the "Temporary Marshes" LIFE project, but management is still not effective. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is realized in the Conservatoire Botanique National Méditerranéen de Porquerolles.<br/>It is recommended to legally protect the species in France (national level), to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites, to search for new sites and to raise awareness among the public.
164249		distribution	eng	<em>Artemisia molinieri</em> is endemic to the central Var (France). The area of occupancy is very small, definitely less than 2,000 km² and probably less than 500 km².
164249		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to temporary pools on karst. It is a perennial and amphibious species found in vegetation of tall annuals covered by deep waters during long periods.<br/>(Corine biotope 22.342: Tall Mediterranean amphibious swards)
164249		population	eng	There are only a small number of populations but the number of individuals is quite high. Overall, the populations are decreasing.
164249		threats	eng	The species is threatened by urbanization, wood cutting and agriculture in addition to changes in native vegetation dynamics.
164250		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
164250		conservation	eng	Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology have been conducted. Recommended conservations mesures are:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology, ecology, population numbers and range of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Habitat maintenance and conservation
164250		distribution	eng	<em>Pluchea ovalis</em> is a tropical species. In addition to Morocco, it is known from the Cape Verde Islands, Africa (from Senegal to Uganda and Angola) and northwest India. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is only present in Morocco (northern limit of the species) where it is known from the plain of the Souss (Aït Melloul, Taroudant, Inzgane, Souss river) and from Saharan Morocco (West Desert and Sahara: Drâa river, oasis of Tafilalt). Its extent of occurrence in Morocco is about 7,000 km².
164250		distribution	eng	West Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia and Somalia and Arabia, and south to Angola and Zambia.<br><br>It is widespread in Western Africa (Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Togo, Mauritania), and North Eastern Africa.<br><br>In North Africa, it is only present in Morocco (northern limit of the species) where it is known from the plain of the Souss (Aït Melloul, Taroudant, Inzgane, Souss river) and from Saharan Morocco (West Desert and Sahara: Drâa river, oasis of Tafilalt).<br><br>North-eastern  and Eastern Africa: Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.
164250		habitat	eng	<em>Pluchea ovalis</em> is a perennial plant (Chamaephyte) that develops on the banks of rivers, irrigation channels and oases. It blooms in spring under an arid to Saharan-Mediterranean bioclimate.
164250		habitat	eng	<em>Pluchea ovalis</em> is a vivacious plant (Chamaephyte), an aromatic glandular shrub that develops on the banks of rivers, irrigation channels and oases. Also occurs in savanna, marshes, river beds.
164250		population	eng	Abundant and widespread in West Africa and North Eastern Africa and rare in Northern Africa.
164250		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations nor on their present trend is available, but the species is classified as rare.
164250		threats	eng	No major threats throughout Africa. In Northern Africa, the threats on the habitat are multiple: pressure of grazing, agricultural expansion, tourist infrastructures and water pollution. In addition to those, <em>P. ovalis</em> is also affected by intrinsic factors such as restricted range and limited dispersal.
164250		threats	eng	The threats on the habitat are multiple: pressure of grazing, agricultural expansion, tourist infrastructures and water pollution. In addition to those, <em>P. ovalis</em> is also affected by intrinsic factors such as restricted range and limited dispersal.
164251		conservation	eng	Research on population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and conservation are recommended. Implementation of water extraction restrictions should be reinforced.
164251		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean, this tropical species occurs in Egypt, Algeria and Morocco. In Egypt, it is found in the Nile region including the delta, and the Mediterranean coastal strip. In Algeria, it is present in El Kala (Lac Oubeira), and Lacs et Mares des Senhadjas; and in Morocco, it is found at Merja Rhdira near Larrach, Merja Du Gharb, and Ed-Daoura near Nador.
164251		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes, pools, ponds, sub-littoral marshes, irrigation ditches, moist places. It is a weed in rice fields. It is a perennial stoloniferous freshwater species.
164251		population	eng	This species is rare.
164251		threats	eng	Drainage, in-filling, water extraction for drinking water and agriculture are threatening the species.
164252		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place. There is a need to clarify the true distribution and abundance of this species throughout its range.
164252		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the true distribution and abundance of this species throughout its range.
164252		distribution	eng	The few records available suggest that <em>C.&#160;cribrosa</em> has a fairly patchy distribution, occurring in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, from Aveiro in Portugal to Castilla-La Mancha in Spain and south to the Algarve and Cadiz Province; in central Italy, Morocco and Algeria. The record for Italy (Latium) is doubtful (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
164252		distribution	eng	The few records available suggest that <em>C.&#160;cribrosa</em> has a fairly patchy distribution, occurring in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, from Aveiro in Portugal to Castilla-La Mancha in Spain and south to the Algarve and Cadiz Province; in central Italy, Morocco and Algeria. The record for Italy (Latium) is doubtful (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is probably below 500 km<sup>2</sup>. The number of locations is estimated to be more than ten.
164252		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;cribrosa</em> appears to be predominantly a plant of calcareous clay soils, where it occurs in ditches and streams. It appears able to tolerate nutrient enrichment. It has been recorded to an altitude of 1,640&#160;m in Morocco, but no higher than 1,100&#160;m in Europe. <em>C.&#160;cribrosa</em> occurs most frequently with species typical of nutrient-rich, calcareous lowland ditches such as small <em>Glyceria </em>species, <em>Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum</em><em>,</em> <em>Veronica catenata</em>&#160;and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. It has also been recorded with species such as <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em>, <em>Cyperus longus</em>, <em>Persicaria amphibia</em>, <em>P.&#160;hydropiper</em>, <em>P.&#160;maculosa</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>P.&#160;salicifolia</em>, <em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em>, <em>Typha</em> <em>angustifolia</em>&#160;and <em>T.&#160;latifolia</em>.
164252		habitat	eng	<p><em>Callitriche cribrosa<em> </em></em>appears to be predominantly a plant of calcareous clay soils, where it occurs in ditches and streams. It appears able to tolerate nutrient enrichment. It has been recorded to an altitude of 1,640 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region>, but no higher than 1,100 m in <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>. <em>C. cribrosa</em> occurs most frequently with species typical of nutrient-rich, calcareous lowland ditches such as small <em>Glyceria </em>species, <em>Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum,</em> <em>Veronica catenata</em> and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. It has also been recorded with species such as <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em>, <em>Cyperus longus</em>, <em>Persicaria amphibia</em>, <em>P. hydropiper</em>, <em>P. maculosa</em>,<em> P. salicifolia</em>, <em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em>, <em>Typha</em> <em>angustifolia</em> and <em>T. latifolia</em>.</p>
164252		population	eng	This species is known from only a few sites in any of the areas from which it has been recorded. There appear to be between 25 and 30 currently known populations, with most information derived from herbarium specimens.
164252		threats	eng	The little information currently available suggests that this species typically occurs in naturally eutrophic water bodies, consequently it is likely to be at risk from hyper-eutrophication. One of the sources in Spain is pig farming.
164253		conservation	eng	Northern Africa: There are no conservation measures in place or needed.<br/><br/>EA: None known or needed at present
164253		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164253		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus schimperianus</em> is distributed in tropical Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, DR Congo, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan), especially in the Nile region. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it only occurs in Egypt on the Nile banks, the delta and the Mediterranean coastal strip (Boulos 2005).
164253		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus schimperianus</em> is distributed in tropical Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan), especially in the Nile region. In Egypt it grows on the Nile banks, the delta and the Mediterranean coastal strip (Boulos 2005). In Malawi it is known from Lilongwe Nature Forest Reserve, Ntchisi, east bank of Bua River in Kasungu, and Nkhotakota.<br/><br/>It has also been recorded in Saudi Arabia.
164253		habitat	eng	This robust rhizomatous perennial cyperoid, without tubers, is found in marshes, alluvial banks, and rocky damp ground. Also on sandy or stony river banks, near or in water
164253		habitat	eng	This robust rhizomatous perennial, without tubers, is found in marshes, alluvial banks, and rocky damp ground.
164253		population	eng	Northern Africa: The species is common and widespread in Egypt.<br/><br/>EA: Not known
164253		population	eng	The species is common and widespread in Egypt.
164253		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
164253		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species although it may be affected by habitat conversion.
164254		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is urgent to make an inventory of the locations of <em>Vicia fulgens</em> and to evaluate the populations, if it is not extinct, at least for the location of Barral. The remaining sites should be protected.
164254		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia fulgens </span>is endemic to Algeria and Tunisia. In Algeria, the plant is found at two locations: Tell of Constantinois (Barral - Chihani) and near Algiers (El Harrach and Alma), the second being probably destroyed by a human settlement. In Tunisia, it is found in north Ghardimaou (Kroumerie), on the edge of Oued Meramel.<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 10 km² and it is found at less than five locations.
164254		habitat	eng	This perennial species is of one to two m height and its preferred habitats are undergrowth and damp meadows. It is a terrestrial species that likes moist places.
164254		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia fulgens</span> is rare and very restricted with only two known sites in Algeria and one in Tunisia. The population trend is suspected to be decreasing.
164254		threats	eng	This species is endangered owing to its small locations and is threatened of becoming extinct. Agricultural and infrastructure development are affecting its habitats.
164255		conservation	eng	More research on population numbers and range is needed.
164255		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean and occurs in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164255		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows in marshes, usually near the sea.
164255		population	eng	This species is common in the western Mediterranean.
164255		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
164256		conservation	eng	In Algeria, some populations are included in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>No other conservation measures are known, but it is recommended to carry out further research on the species and their locations.
164256		conservation	eng	<p>It is classed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Endangered (level 2) in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and in Switzerland (Moser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002). <br/></p><p>There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164256		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha pulegium</em> has a Euro-Mediterranean to subcosmopolitan distribution (Pignatti 1982). It is found in most of Europe, except for the northernmost countries, western Asia, North and East Africa, Macaronesia, and America.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Egypt, where it is found in the Nile region and the oases of the western Desert; in most parts of Morocco; in Algeria, where it is common especially in the Tell; and it is also very common in Tunisia. In Europe it extends from Portugal to the Balkans and to Turkey and the Levant in the eastern Mediterranean.
164256		distribution	eng	<p><em>M.&#160;pulegium</em> occurs throughout much of Europe, Macaronesia and North Africa to northern Iran. It has been introduced to parts of the western Himalayas, New Zealand, North America and southern South America (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe it has been reported from all countries except the Faroe Islands, Finland, Iceland, Russia (all zones), Norway mainland as well as Svalbard and Jan Mayen and Sweden.</p>
164256		habitat	eng	<em>Mentha pulegium</em> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte. It grows in temporary ponds, wet meadows, marshes, stagnant waters, as well as places that are flooded in spring and dried up in summer, streams banks, ditches and canal banks.
164256		habitat	eng	<p><em>M.&#160;pulegium</em> is a<em> </em>Hemicryptophyte that<em> </em>typically occurs in seasonally inundated grassland, particularly on reasonably fertile soils where either inundation or another factor such as poaching by livestock suppresses competition from more aggressive taxa.</p>
164256		population	eng	<em>Mentha pulegium</em> is represented with numerous populations in the Mediterranean region.
164256		population	eng	<p><em>M.&#160;pulegium </em>has<em> </em>been lost from many sites in the UK through habitat loss, mainly due to "tidying" up of wet areas in pasture and the intensification of livestock farming. Furthermore, it is included in the national red lists of Belgium, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Germany and Switzerland<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> and therefore a decline in this part of its range can be suspected. However, it is widespread and abundant in France and has numerous populations in most other countries of its European range.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></p>
164256		threats	eng	In the UK, many populations have been lost through general "tidying-up" of small seasonally wet areas, the reasons for the declines in other countries are not known. It is not threatened in most part of its range.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
164256		threats	eng	This species does not face any major threats.
164257		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, population numbers and range are in need. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are in need.
164257		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Widespread presence in Subsaharan Africa. It also occurs in Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Mauritania and Egypt (Damietta).
164257		habitat	eng	Herb of waste places, moist grounds and often on sandy soil. In roadside ditches, drainage trenches, in permanent and seasonal pools, on sandy soil and on black cotton
164257		population	eng	It is fairly common North Eastern and Eastern Africa but rare in Northern Africa.
164257		threats	eng	In North Eastern Africa the future  infrastructure development and change of land management regime of non-agricultural areas could threaten the species in the future. However, no major widespreading threats at present.
164258		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164258		distribution	eng	This species is native to tropical and subtropical Africa. In North Africa, it only occurs in Egypt.
164258		habitat	eng	The plant grows in canals, ditches, and pools along the Nile river.
164258		population	eng	The species is considered rare in Egypt.
164258		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, but eutrophication might be a threat.
164259		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are in place or needed in the northern Mediterranean. The species needs more attention at North African level.
164259		conservation	eng	Currently no conservation measures are in place. The proposed measures are legal protection (lists of protected species), application of legal conservation measures, monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the size of populations, study of the population dynamics and of the biology and ecology of the species.
164259		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. elata</span> is classed as vulnerable in Norway but otherwise there are no   conservation measures in place or needed.
164259		distribution	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is widely distributed in Europe, it extends northwards to Scotland, central Finland and central Ural, but is absent from most of the south. <br/>In Africa <em>C. elata</em> is very rare in Algeria, where it is found in El Kala (Lac Noir at Bordj Ali Bey and pond east of Lac Melah) and Senhadja (Lacs des Canards).
164259		distribution	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is widely distributed in Europe, it extends northwards to Scotland, central Finland and central Ural, but is absent from most of the south. <br/>In North Africa <em>C. elata</em> is very rare in Algeria, where it is found in El Kala (Lac Noir at Bordj Ali Bey and pond east of Lac Melah) and Senhadja (Lacs des Canards).<br/>Its Mediterranean distribution also comprises France (widespread, but rare in the Mediterranean region), Greece (rare, occurring in the north and the south), Italy (northeast, Sardinia and Sicily), the northern half of Portugal, central Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, central Spain, and only one locality in central Turkey.
164259		distribution	eng	<em>C. elata</em> occurs from Scandinavia south to North Africa (Algeria) and east through European Russia to Siberia, the Caucasus (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) and the Middle East. In Europe it is widespread in Scandinavia and throughout central Europe south into much of the northern Mediterranean.
164259		habitat	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is a perennial tussock-forming sedge growing in weakly acidic fens and marshes found in coastal plains as well as inland.
164259		habitat	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is a perennial tussock-forming sedge growing in weakly acidic fens and marshes of coastal plains in wet regions.
164259		habitat	eng	<p><em>C. elata</em> typically occurs in oligotrophic to eutrophic and often calcareous marshes, fens, lakes, ponds and river margins.</p>
164259		population	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is only present in three localities in North Africa, in Algeria (Senhadja-El Kala plains), among which one is completely destroyed (Lac Noir). It is rare and threatened over its entire Mediterranean distribution area.
164259		population	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is only present in three localities in North Africa, in Algeria (Senhadja-El Kala plains), among which one is completely destroyed (Lac Noir). The species is very abundant in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, present in 39 provinces in Spain and in all the Portuguese provinces except for Algarve and Baixo Alentejo. In Italy, it is common in the north and centre, but becomes rare towards the south, e.g. only one site in Sicily. In Greece, there are records from central and western Macedonia and from Sterea Ellas.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carex elata</span> is a boreal species and therefore becomes rarer in its Mediterranean distribution area.
164259		population	eng	<em>C. elata</em> is widespread and abundant throughout much of its northern and central European range, although it is rare and threatened in the Mediterranean basin, and it is also rare in Norway and Belgium.
164259		threats	eng	<em>Carex elata</em> is mainly threatened by destruction and loss of its habitat quality.
164259		threats	eng	<em></em>Changing of the water level and eutrophication can lead to an invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span> spp. which causes competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex elata</span>.
164259		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164262		conservation	eng	It is listed as VU in the Red List of Croatia.<br/>In North Africa no conservation measures are in place. The proposed measures are monitoring the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and monitor the populations' dynamics.
164262		conservation	eng	It is listed as VU in the Red List of Croatia. In North Africa no conservation measures are in place. The proposed measures are monitoring the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and monitor the populations' dynamics.
164262		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. riparia</span>   is listed as Endangered in Norway, Vulnerable in Croatia and Switzerland and Near Threatened in Finland. Elsewhere it appears to be widespread and abundant and no further   conservation measures are in place or needed.
164262		distribution	eng	<em>Carex riparia</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km² and it is found at several locations.
164262		distribution	eng	<em>Carex riparia</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In Africa it is only present in Morocco and Algeria, with an extent of occurrence over 250,000 km², less than 10 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 20 km².
164262		distribution	eng	<em>C. riparia </em>  occurs throughout most of Europe, south to North Africa (Algeria, Morocco) and east through Siberia, the Caucasus and the Middle East to Xinjian Province in China (Dai Lunkai <em>et al</em>. in press). It also occurs in South America and is naturalised in New Zealand. It is widespread throughout most of Europe.
164262		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. riparia</span> typically grows on the margins of base-rich, mesotrophic to eutrophic rivers, streams, lakes and canals, in marshes and in fens. It will often form extensive mono-specific swards but will also occur as a narrow fringe on linear water bodies.
164262		habitat	eng	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) inhabits swamps, bogs and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164262		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is rare, due to spatial limitations (less than 10 locations and an AOO <20 km²), with restricted populations that are in regression (mainly in Algeria). It is very rare in Morocco, with two locations in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf and Ras el-Ma), and rare in Algeria, with five locations along the Algérois coast (Maison-Carrée, Mazafran plain).
164262		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In Portugal it is present in three provinces; in Spain it is very common and present in 31 provinces; it is very common in nearly all of France; and in Italy it is present in 15 provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.<br/>In North Africa the species is rare with restricted populations that are in regression (mainly in Algeria). It is very rare in Morocco, with two locations in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf and Ras el-Ma), and rare in Algeria, with five locations along the Algérois coast (Maison-Carrée, Mazafran plain).<br/>In Syria, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex riparia</span> has been reported from riversides and wetlands and from one site at the   Oronte river.
164262		population	eng	Throughout much of Europe,<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. riparia</span> is widespread and abundant, however it appears to be declining in some areas such as Scandinavia and the Alps.
164262		threats	eng	At Mediterranean level, there are no significant threats that would lead to the species decline. The urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), and the infilling and drainage of the habitat of this species are its main threats in North Africa.
164262		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164262		threats	eng	The urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), and the infilling and drainage of the habitat of this species are its main threats.
164263		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. It is proposed to legally protect the species and include it in the list of protected species in Tunisia and Algeria, and to monitor the Tunisian and Algerian subpopulations.
164263		distribution	eng	<em>Marsilea aegyptiaca</em> is a Mediterranean-Saharan species, found in North Africa, Botswana, Madagascar, Ethiopia and Sudan. Its Mediterranean distribution comprises Egypt, where it is relatively abundant, and Tunisia, where it is rare. It also occurs in Saharan Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>In Egypt, it is found in the Nile delta (El Cairo), the Nile valley (El Riqqa, Dabsha island, Matania, Samalut, Esna, near Edfu), oases of the Libyan desert (Dakhla, El Rashda), the Mediterranean coast (Rosetta, El Farash island, Damietta, North of Damietta), the Isthmic desert (Tell el Kebir, between Tell el Kebir and Qassassin, Necho canal, El Wady between Tumilat el Sherif and Geraia, Geraia), and the northern Arabic desert east of the Nile between Tumilat and Qena-Qosseir road (Suez).<br/><br/>In Tunisia it occurs near Gabès at Sidi Boul Baba, Zarkine.
164263		habitat	eng	<em>Marsilea aegyptiaca</em> grows in canals, pools, flooded fields and rice fields.
164263		population	eng	<em>Marsilea aegyptiaca</em> is rare in Tunisia and Algeria, and relatively abundant in Egypt.
164263		threats	eng	The location of the species in arid and semi-arid regions limits the threats. The main ones are the non-intentional destruction of wetlands and their drainage for agricultural purpose.
164264		conservation	eng	In France, this species is under regional protection in Poitou-Charentes. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics, to search for new sites and to conserve the species’ habitat.
164264		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex palustris</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164264		habitat	eng	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte to Hemicryptophyte) of 10-100 cm high, that inhabits swamps, lake shores, shallow waters and the edges of streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-July), during fruiting time the colour of the stem changes from green to brown or red.
164264		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region with several locations. <br/>In North Africa, the species is rare and its populations are restricted (spatial limitations) and slowly receding. <br/>- Morocco: rare, present in the Rif (Tetouan and Negro) and in northern Atlantic Morocco (Oued Fouarat, Merja Zerga, Merja Sidi Saïd, Dayet Roumi and Bargha); <br/>- Algeria: very rare solely occurring in Numidie (Bône and La Calle); <br/>- Spain: very scattered distribution <br/>- France: quite common in the centre and north of the country but rare along the Mediterranean coast where it is present in only four regions; <br/>- Italy: fairly common, present in 11 regions in the east and north of the country besides Sicily; <br/>- Syria: present in Ghab swamp, near Qala.<br/>- Turkey: common
164264		threats	eng	The drainage of swamps for agricultural usage (notably in the Maghreb) and urbanization as well as grazing by cattle are the main threats to this species.
164265		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. peltatus</span> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and is protected in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France, but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164265		conservation	eng	The species is under regional protection in France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais). Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology is being carried out.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics and to study population numbers, range and size.
164265		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus peltatus</em> is a species of large biogeographical distribution covering the Mediterranean region, Europe and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in France, Corsica, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Spain, Balearic Islands, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region exceeds 30,000 km², with numerous localities and an AOO >2,000 km².
164265		distribution	eng	<p>Cook (1966) describes <em>R. peltatus</em> as occurring in Europe and North Africa, in Europe occurring from Scandinavia south through the United Kingdom and northwest European Russia to the Iberian Peninsula, Greece and Romania. However, it must be recognised that the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. peltatus</span> depends on the taxonomy that is being employed and in most cases, the taxonomic basis for description or mapping distribution is not specified.<br/></p>
164265		habitat	eng	<em>Ranunculus peltatus</em> is a fixed Hydrophyte, annual, that prefers soft and brackish waters, current or stagnant, canals and ponds. Its flowering occurs in spring and summer.
164265		habitat	eng	<em>R. peltatus</em> will occur in most habitats, from coastal lagoons to lakes, ponds, gravel pits, streams, rivers and seasonally inundated wetlands.
164265		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. peltatus</span> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, but otherwise is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164265		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region with several localities and populations undergoing a weak reduction. <br/>- Morocco: quite widespread with several localities distributed between the Rif, Middle Atlas, Anti Atlas, north and middle Atlantic plains <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with numerous localities distributed between the Kroumirie (Mouadene, Sraï el Madjen, Madjen Azoug), central Tunisia (Feriana, Kairouan), Tunisia of the North east (Hammam-Lif, Menzel Djemil, marsh of the Ichkeul), Mogods (Sedjenane, Madjen ech Chitane), Cap Bon (plains of Grombalia, El Houaria, Menzel Temime) and Dorsal Tunisian (Kalaat es Snam) <br/>- Libya: region of Benghazi <br/>- Egypt: present on the Mediterranean coastline (Alexandria) <br/>- Italy: three provinces in addition to Sicily and Sardinia <br/>- France: very common in nearly all the country <br/>- Spain and Portugal: very common with more than 535 known sites
164265		threats	eng	Drought caused by drainage, filling, transformation of the habitat into agricultural land, and urbanization constitute the main threats to the species and its habitat.
164265		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164267		conservation	eng	The subpopulation in El Kala (Algeria) is included in the National Park of El Kala.<br/>The following additional conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species in Algeria and Tunisia).<br/>- Application of legal conservation measures.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the population size.<br/>- Study the population dynamics.<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species.
164267		distribution	eng	<em>Convolvulus durandoi</em> is an endemic plant of Algeria and Tunisia. It is rare in Algeria and occurs in El Kala, Jbel Ouach and Mitija, the last one being probably destroyed. In Tunisia, it is found in Kroumirie (Jbel Bir, Fernana) and Mogods (Sejenane). The area of occupancy is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> and it is known from less than five locations.
164267		habitat	eng	<em>Convolvulus durandoi</em> is a perennial species growing in marshy meadows.
164267		population	eng	While no recent information on the present-day status of the populations of <em>Convolvulus durandoi</em> is available, this species is probably declining because of the degradation of most of its localities. The populations are severely fragmented.
164267		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the destruction and degradation of its habitat, mainly due to drainage and agriculture. In Tunisia, the site of Sejenane, which was a seasonally flooded plain in the 1950s, is now entirely drained and cultivated.
164268		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place; recommendations include:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in France and Italy).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164268		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place; recommendations include:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in France and Italy).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164268		distribution	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is an endemic of the western Mediterranean where it can be found in the following countries:<br/>- Algeria: Kabylie de Collo, Forêt de Reghaïa, Tlemcen, Tiaret<br/>- Corsica: Santa Lucia di Porto Vecchio, San Ciprianu, Trinita di Bonifazio (very rare)<br/>- Italy: Tuscan Maremma<br/>- Morocco: Rif and maybe Tazzeka<br/>- Portugal: northern Atlantic coast and north-east<br/>- Spain: Gibraltar and centre<br/>- Tunisia: Kroumirie and Mogods
164268		distribution	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is an endemic of the western Mediterranean where it can be found in the following countries. In Algeria it is found in Kabylie de Collo, Forêt de Reghaïa, Tlemcen, Tiaret. In Morocco, in the Rif and maybe in Tazzeka. Also recorded from Kroumirie and Mogods in Tunisia.
164268		habitat	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is an annual caespitose small sedge growing in damp places, temporary pools and peaty riparian swamps.
164268		population	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is relatively common but never abundant. It is characterised by a scattered distribution in all its area.
164268		population	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is very rare in Italy and Corsica, and relatively common but never abundant in the other areas where it occurs. It is characterised by a scattered distribution in all its area.
164268		threats	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is presumably affected by the general destruction of wetlands.
164268		threats	eng	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is presumably affected by the general disappearance of wetlands.
164269		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. rionii</span> is classed as  Critically Endangered in Switzerland, Endangered in the Czech Republic and is protected in the French  regions of Alsace and Lorraine, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164269		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to manage the existing habitats appropriately and to review the identification of the populations in its Mediterranean range.
164269		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus rionii</em> occurs in South Africa and across Asia from Europe east to Sakhalin Island, Japan, North Korea and China. In Europe, it is scattered in isolated populations in northern France, Switzerland, Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria  (near Vienna) and near the Slovak border, western Hungary, south of Alps it only  occurs in northern Italy, while in southeast Europe it can be found in coastal  Slovenia to Greece and slightly more frequently in Romania and Crimea.
164269		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan extending from Asia Minor to Afghanistan and Japan and occurs in the north temperate regions. It is probably introduced in South Africa and America. In the Mediterranean it is found in northern Italy, from coastal Slovenia and Croatia to Greece, Egypt, Lebanon, and Turkey. The species is found in northern France, outside the Mediterranean region.
164269		habitat	eng	<em>R. rionii</em> is an annual or perennial Hydrophyte with most plant parts under the water except for the flowers growing up to 2 m depth. It prefers shallow waters at lake shores, especially mesotrophic lakes on fine sediment that can be temporarily dry. It is also found in pools, canals, oxbows, former quarries, ditches, former riverbeds. It can tolerate some salt.
164269		habitat	eng	<em>R. rionii</em> typically grows in seasonally inundated areas such as the margins of lakes and pools, as well as temporary ponds.
164269		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. rionii</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Endangered in the Czech Republic, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164269		population	eng	The species is common in Egypt and very common in Turkey. In Italy, it is found in two northern provinces. It has a scattered distribution in Greece. This is generally a poorly recorded and recognised taxa.
164269		threats	eng	Change of the hydrological regime (e.g. drainage) and subsequent out-competing by taller plants are the main threats to the species. This plant is also effected by mechanical control of vegetation and eutrophication.
164269		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164271		conservation	eng	<p>Schnittler and Günther (1999) suggest that <em>E. alsinastrum</em> should be treated as Endangered in central Europe and cite the following national status levels:<strong> <br/></strong></p>  <ul><li>Extinct in the Wild - Austria and Switzerland</li><li>Critically Endangered - Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia</li><li>Endangered - Germany</li><li>Data Deficient - Slovenia and Croatia</li><li>Indeterminate - Belgium</li><li>local in France (Protected in Alsace, Rhône-Alpes, Auvergne, Bretagne, Lorraine) and Hungary</li><li>occurrence doubtful - Luxembourg</li><li>widespread - Italy</li></ul>
164271		distribution	eng	<em>E. alsinastrum</em> occurs throughout central and southern Europe east to the Caucasus, western Siberia and Central Asia south to North Africa. In Europe, it occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north to France and Belgium, east to Poland and the Ukraine and more or less throughout the European parts of the Mediterranean Basin.
164271		habitat	eng	<em>E. alsinastrum</em> is a characteristic plant of temporary water bodies and the draw-down zones of permanent water bodies. It is frequent in areas where fish farm ponds are drained down at regular intervals, such as the Brenne and Dombes regions of France.
164271		population	eng	In spite of its wide geographical distribution, the area occupied by <em>E. alsinastrum</em> remains generally small with scattered populations (isolated individuals) that are globally declining as a result of the destruction of their habitat (temporary pools). This species also seems to be declining in at least some parts of its European range, for example in Portugal it was formerly described as a weed of rice fields but is now very scarce.<br/><br/>Data presented by Schnittler and Günther (1999) suggest that it is rare throughout most of central Europe.
164271		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. alsinastrum</span> is threatened by all factors which cause the loss or degradation of temporary pools of the draw-down zones of permanent water bodies, stabilisation of hydrological regimes, drainage of seasonally inundated land, agricultural improvement etc.
164272		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics. The conservation of the species’ habitat is necessary.
164272		distribution	eng	<em>Brachiaria mutica</em> is a tropical species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 2,200,000 km².
164272		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found along bushy edges of rivers and in sandy pastures along the coastline. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).
164272		population	eng	The species is quite common, especially in the southeast of the Mediterranean basin, with more than 20 locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>It is very rare in Algeria, occurring in two locations in Numidie (La Cale and Bône). In Tunisia, it is rare and found only in Kroumirie. In Egypt, it is quite common at the Mediterranean coast, Nile and Sinai Peninsula. It is fairly common in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Palestine.
164272		threats	eng	The agricultural use of this species’ habitat (river banks) and urbanization in the coastal area are its main threat.
164273		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164273		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex conglomeratus</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia, North and southern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers much over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164273		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, temporary pools and wetlands of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).
164273		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, mid-Atlantic Morocco, northern Atlantic Morocco, the plains and hills of oriental Morocco, the Mediterranean coast and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country; <br/>- Tunisia: very common with at least 11 locations distributed between the Kroumirie, the Medjerda Valley (Oued Tessa), Northeast Tunisia (El Bathan and Sidi Fathallah), the Mogods (Sejnane), central Tunisia (Kairouan, Kelbia lake and Aïn Cherichera) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Zaghouan, Kessera and Oued Bargou); <br/>- Libya: found in at least two locations (Derna and Tarhuna); <br/>- Spain: very common with 386 sites distributed all over the country; <br/>- France: very common; <br/>- Italy: very common occurring in 14 provinces in the centre and south of the country, in addition to Sardinia and Sicily.
164273		threats	eng	Locally, the drainage of swamps for agricultural usage and urbanization are leading to a habitat decline but the species occurs in numerous sites and has stable populations.
164274		conservation	eng	In Lebanon, the species is indirectly conserved as it grows in the protected 500 m stretch along the river banks.<br/><br/>For North Africa, there are no measures in place; future conservation measure recommendations are:<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- Study of the dynamic of populations<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species
164274		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis sieberiana</em> is a pantropical species which can be found in Africa, America, Asia and Oceania. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in in Algeria (very rare in central Sahara), Egypt, and Morocco.<br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it occurs mainly in the east, namely  Israel, Lebanon (coast: south of Saïda, Beyrouth, Antelias, Nahr Beyrouth, Nahr-el-Kelb; lower mountains: Broummana), Palestine, southern Syria (Hammé), Cyprus and southern Turkey. It is furthermore found in Crete and southern Spain.
164274		habitat	eng	<em>Fimbristylis sieberiana</em> is a protogyny, perennial Graminoid that grows in wetlands, bogs, river banks, wet road sides, and sandy sea shores. In Algeria it is found at springs (guelta) in the Central Sahara.<br/>In the southeastern Mediterranean this species is an indicator for good freshwater quality.<br/>Flowering time is from April to October in Israel, July to August in Turkey.
164274		population	eng	The population trend of the species on regional level is unknown. In Algeria, it is found in humid places in central Sahara and is very rare. In Turkey it is probably widespread, whereas it is classed as rare in Israel. In Lebanon, it is widespread but classified as threatened due to pollution. And it is only found in the province Castellón in Spain.
164274		threats	eng	The populations could be threatened by river pollution. In Turkey, it is found at roadsides and could therefore be threatened by transport development. In Israel, most of its habitat is threatened by urbanization and agricultural development.<br/>In Algeria, the gueltas are frequented by tourists.
164276		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in Western Afrcia (e.g., Yomboli Ramsar site). Further research on range, population size, habitat s status and threats of this species is needed.
164276		conservation	eng	<p>In Central Europe, the populations need protection of their saline habitats e.g., Neusiedler See, salt lakes and steppe depressions in Pannonian region in Hungary, some saline habitats in Germany and Poland, only remnants in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">B. maritimus</span> occurs in some protected saline wetlands in the Czech Republic (e.g. Soos in west Bohemia, saline wetland near Nesyt fishpond in south Moravia), in Slovakia (saline wet meadows near Kamenin in south Slovakia), in Poland (e.g. salt marsh Owczary in south Poland), in Austria (Neusiedler See wetlands) and mainly in Hungary (salt lakes in Kiskunsági National Park, Hortobágy puszta). <br/></p>
164276		distribution	eng	<em>B. maritimus</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, from Europe where its main populations are concentrated east through Siberia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and the Indian sub-continent. It occurs throughout much of Africa as well as Madagascar and Mauritius and throughout northern and western North America (including Hawaii) south to Central America and southern South America. It also occurs in Australia (New South Wales) where it may be naturalised.
164276		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Africa. It occurs in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, South Africa, Namibia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, Mauritania, Madagascar, Mali and Djibouti.  In coastal and inland Kenya it is found between 0-1 to 700 metres above sea level.<br/><br/>It is widespread in temperate and tropical regions
164276		habitat	eng	<em>Bolboschoenus maritimus</em>   is a Halophyte that occurs along sea coast, in brackish water in river estuaries, and in inland saline habitats (mineral water sources, wet depressions, salt lakes, etc.). It is capable of growing in freshwater habitats such as ponds, wetlands, wet ditches, artificial reservoirs, flooded sand pits, etc., on mineral-rich grounds but it might be suppressed there by competition of other freshwater plants.
164276		habitat	eng	<em>Bolboschoenus maritimus</em> is a perennial herb (rhizome Geophytes) from salted marshes, brackish,  in shallow permanent or semi-permanent wate or freshwater temporary pools of the verges of mountain ponds reaching in some cases 2,100 m asl. Its flowering takes place between spring and summer. The formations of <em>B. maritimus</em> act as stepping stone for a lot of bird species and as shelter for small mammals. It is a very appetizing species for livestock. Its tubers are very appreciated by ducks, geese and wild boars.
164276		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. maritimus</span> is widespread and abundant with stable populations in coastal regions throughout its European range. Inland populations are decreasing as they are limited to saline habitats.
164276		population	eng	The size of the populations is unknown, but seems to be steady.
164276		threats	eng	Drainage, urban expansion and agriculture, droughts, overgrazing and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species but they affect the species locally and hence, not considered to be major throughout the Pan-African region.
164276		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species in the coastal habitats. There is a loss of inland saline habitats, mainly due to the conversion into agricultural land (pastures, meadows, crop fields),  that can affect the species. <br/></p>
164277		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. For North Africa, it is proposed to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones.
164277		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in situ. For North Africa, to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones has been proposed.
164277		distribution	eng	<em>Carex hirta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br>In Africa it is only found in Morocco and Algeria with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 300,000 km², less than 10 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 100 km².
164277		distribution	eng	<em>Carex hirta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,000,000 km², with several locations.
164277		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits the edges of temporary pools and mountain lakes as well as humid, sandy pastures. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).
164277		population	eng	In North Africa it is rare, due to spatial restrictions (less than 10 locations), with very restricted populations that appear to be stable. It is rare in Morocco, occurring in four sites in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Oued Ifrane and Ifrane Biology Station); very rare in Algeria, occurring in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas (Lambèse)
164277		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region (several locations). It is very common in Spain, occurring in 200 sites, and common in France and in Italy (not present in Sardinia and Sicily).<br/><br/>In North Africa it is rare, due to spatial restrictions (less than 10 locations), with very restricted populations that appear to be stable. It is rare in Morocco, occurring in four sites in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Oued Ifrane and Ifrane Biology Station); very rare in Algeria, occurring in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas (Lambèse).
164277		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164278		conservation	eng	The species is protected in the French region Languedoc-Rousillon. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164278		distribution	eng	<em>P. salicifolia </em>occurs<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>throughout much of the north Mediterranean, from Spain and Portugl east to southern Turkey as well as locally north into Bulgaria<em>. </em><em><br/></em>
164278		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows in swamps and river banks, irrigation canals and moist ground.
164278		population	eng	This species is very common. In Greece, for example, it is found throughout most of the lowland areas but is rare and irregularly distributed.<em><br/></em>
164278		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164279		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of its populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)
164279		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus tingitanus</em> is a west Mediterranean species that is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula (Spain).<br/><br/> It is very rare in Morocco with only one locality known in the Rif (Koudiate-El-Harcha in Tangiers) and two localities in the Gharb (Wadi Fouarat and Merja Zerga). The extent of occurrence of <em>J. tingitanus</em> in North Africa is in the range of 650 km², and the area of occupancy is less than 10 km². The last observations, for the Moroccan sites, date to 1995 for the locality of Tangiers and 2003 for those of the Gharb.
164279		habitat	eng	<em>J. tingitanus</em> is found in the sandy depressions flooded in winter. It is an annual species that blooms in spring under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164279		population	eng	The populations show large inter-annual fluctuations bound to the irregularity of the rainfall. The global trend is a reduction of the populations resulting from the development of road amenities close to the sites and from the partial drainage of some sites of the Gharb, notably those near of the Fouarat wadi.
164279		threats	eng	The main threats are the destruction and the degradation of habitats from drainage, water pollution, agricultural development, overgrazing and the development of road infrastructures.
164280		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. cirrhosa</span> is classed as Near Threatened in the United Kingdom, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164280		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, it is recommended to carry out further research on the taxonomy, populations dynamics and habitats of this species and to monitor the existing sites in North Africa.
164280		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.
164280		distribution	eng	<em>R. cirrhosa </em>has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, occurring from Europe south to North Africa as well as South Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to Kamchatka, Sakhalin and the Korean Peninsula a well as India, Indonesia, western North America, Central America and parts of South America. In Europe, it is more or less restricted to coastal countries.
164280		distribution	eng	<em>Ruppia cirrhosa</em> is found in South Africa, the eastern North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Its distribution is unclear due to taxonomic confusion with <em>Ruppia maritima</em>.
164280		distribution	eng	<em>Ruppia drepanensis</em> is a species with a widespread distribution. In the Mediterranean region.<br><br>In North Africa its extent of occurrence surpasses 20,000 km², within which the Area of Occupancy (AOO) over 500 km², and it is present in at least 13 locations. The trend of the populations is not known. It is found in Tunisia (two locations), northern Algeria (one location near Oran) and northwest Morocco (two locations in the north and three locations in the centre, near Rabat and Fès).<br><br>In South Africa it is present in Namibia and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
164280		habitat	eng	<em>R. cirrhosa</em> typically occurs in strongly coastal wetlands, such as lagoons, tidal inlets, creeks and ditches.
164280		habitat	eng	<em>Ruppia cirrhosa</em> is a submerged, perennial herb (rooted Hydrophyte) that inhabits brackish waters and grows usually near the sea. It is equally present in saline marshes inland and at mountains.
164280		habitat	eng	In western Europe, this species occurs in brackish water sites, such as low-salinity ponds and mesohaline to polyhaline coastal lagoons. This species is rare in marine conditions. Abundance of this species can fluctuate considerably seasonally, and during severe winters it may disappear completely (Green and Short 2003). It is a fast growing species and colonises rapidly.
164280		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. cirrhosa</span> is classed as Near Threatened in the United Kingdom and Data Deficient in Croatia, otherwise it appears to be widespread and fairly abundant throughout its European range.
164280		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region. No information on Southern Africa populations is available. <br>In Morocco, it is present in at least 10 locations distributed between the Rif (Msaben-Sania), northern Atlantic Morocco (Daya Douyet near Fès, Bou Regreg, Oued Ghebar and the Oued Mellah dam), mid-Atlantic Morocco (salt water springs at the foot of Jbel Amsittène, mouth of Oued Tamri, Oualidia and to the north of lake Zima) and Saharan Morocco (Mchrâa Sfi between Goulimine and Oued Noun). It is quite common in Algeria, in the Oranais coastal plains (La Senia). In Tunisia, it is present in Cap Bon (El Haouaria) and in the northeast of the country (Chikli island).
164280		population	eng	This species is abundant within its range. There is no specific population information available and work is need on its taxonomy before accurate distribution information can be developed.
164280		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164280		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164280		threats	eng	This species is not threatened in the short term, but as it is rare everywhere, it could become threatened in the future. <br/>Habitat drainage is the main threat to this species.
164281		conservation	eng	<em>Nymphaea lotus</em> requires conservation measures, especially regarding its cultural relevance.
164281		conservation	eng	It occurs in some protected areas. However, <em>Nymphaea lotus</em> requires some conservation measures, especially regarding its cultural relevance, popluation numbers and range, and harvesting levels.
164281		distribution	eng	Native to Asia, Madagascar, tropical and subtropical Africa from Egypt south to southern Africa. Is widely cultivated as an ornamental and has become established in north and south America, Australasia and in Europe.<br/><br/>The species is widespread in western Africa, from West to East Africa and Madagascar. Then from North Africa to Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the South.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa: In Burundi, the species is only known in the Rusizi plain especially in the delta of Rusizi and in two or three locations in the Rusizi national park. In Kenya, this species is widespread but rare (K1,3,5,6,7) from sea-level to 2300 m. It has been recorded in Northern Kenya at Lake Turkana south, Ayangyani Swamp, South Rift Valley in Shombole Swamp in Magadi, Narok District and Lake Victoria region at Kisumu and Kisii. Also along the Kenyan Coast in Kwale District at Maji ya Chumvi, Western Kenya in Mumias and Central Kenya in Aberdare Ranges. In Malawi this species occurs in Nkhotakota at Dwambazi, Salima at Mpasa njoka, Chikwawa lower Vwaza and Elephant marsh. In Tanzania, it has been recorded from the Mbulu district; Lake  Manyara Nationa Park, Endabash; Tabora district; Ugala R., Isimbira (Isimbila), Kilosa district; Mikumi National Park, Makola (=Mkola) water - hole, Zanzibar - Mwera R.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species occurs in Egypt in the Nile Delta, Fayoum and Mediterranean area (Rosetta and eastwards). Also recorded from North-eastern Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia).<br/><br/>In Southern Africa the species occurs in from Namibia to Mozambique, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Cook, 2003).
164281		distribution	eng	This species is native to tropical Africa, Madagascar, and southeast Asia. In North Africa, the species occurs in Egypt in the Nile Delta, Fayoum and in the Mediterranean area in Rosetta and eastwards.
164281		habitat	eng	<em>N. lotus</em> occurs in aquatic habitats that are characterised by fine sediment, high organic matter and lowest water pH, conductivity, phosphates, total nitrogen, carbonates and sodium. Now it is only found in a rice field.
164281		habitat	eng	This robust plant, grows in permanent or temporary water up to depths of about 2.5 m. Found in ponds, rivers, water courses and in marshy areas. It is common and often locally dominant. The species is often so locally dominant  that phtosociological communities are named after this dominant. It is a very fragrant night-flowering species; after pollination the flowers loose their scent but still remain open for the next 2 or 3 days. <em>N. lotus</em> occurs in aquatic habitats that are characterised by fine sediment, high organic matter and lowest water pH, conductivity, phosphates, total nitrogen, carbonates and sodium.
164281		population	eng	Quite widespread species and presumably important population.
164281		population	eng	This species is very rare but was formerly much more widespread. It has a tiny range and area of occupancy now, with only one known site although this will contain more than one location. It is present at only one site in northern Egypt at the Nile Delta in rice fields around Lake Manzala.
164281		threats	eng	In Northern Africa the spread of the species is suppressed as a result of continuous disturbance caused by agriculture practices. The species may also be affected by drought, invasion of alien species, sedimentation or decline in habitat quality due to human activities such as agriculture and development. None of these are considered as major threats.
164281		threats	eng	The spread of the species is suppressed as a result of continuous disturbance caused by agriculture practices.
164282		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164282		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; monitoring of the existing sites in North Africa is needed.
164282		distribution	eng	<em></em>  <em>R. flammula</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe south to North Africa and east to the Middle East and Siberia, it also occurs throughout northern and western North America. It has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164282		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus flammula</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, particularly central and North Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 40,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.
164282		habitat	eng	<em>R. flammula</em> typically occurs in oligotrophic or slightly mesotrophic marshland, grazed pasture, the margins of ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, bogs ditches and track ruts.
164282		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous and rhizamotuos plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swampy grasslands, wet meadows, lakes and ditches. Flowering occurs in spring (March-May).
164282		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. flammula</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Switzerland, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164282		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>In North Africa the species is rare and has a very restricted distribution (spatial limitations) and it is solely present in the mountainous regions (Rif and Numidie). The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, present in three locations in the Rif (Issaguène, Jbel Khezana and Dayet Abartete); <br/>- Algeria: occurs in only one location (La Calle Lake in Numidie); <br/>- Spain: very common, occurring in 374 sites essentially located in the north; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the mainland and rare in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in 12 provinces in addition to Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>  - Greece: rare<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>, according to Flora Hellenica (Strid and Tan 2002) there are only four verified records from n<st1:place w:st="on">orthern Greece;</st1:place> </span>  <br/>- Turkey: known from Tuz Lake in central Anatolia.
164282		threats	eng	Habitat drainage, agricultural expansion and overgrazing are the main threats to this species.
164282		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164283		conservation	eng	In France, it is under regional protection in Basse-Normandie.<br/><br/>Proposed actions for North Africa are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, legal protection of the species (Moroccan list of protected species) and monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164283		distribution	eng	<em>Oenanthe pimpinelloides</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its world distribution covers western and southern Europe, Anatolia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164283		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits the edges of streams, swamps of plains and low mountains and ditches and heavy soil. Flowering occurs during spring.
164283		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the populations are very restricted and probably in slow decline. A site in Morocco has been partially disturbed due to its drainage. It is fairly uncommon in Morocco, where this species occurs in eight locations, distributed between the Middle Atlas (Jbel Tazekka), the Rif (Haouta-el-Melaïb, Beni Seidar, Jbel Zinat, Jbel Afestal and Beni Karrik), the Mediterranean coastline (near Al-Hoceima) and in northern Atlantic Morocco (near Larache).<br/>The species is fairly common in Portugal and Spain with more than 46 sites; fairly common along the Mediterranean coast of France; common in nearly all of Italy including Sardinia and Sicily.
164283		threats	eng	The deterioration of the neighbouring landscape and the drainage of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.
164284		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex cretica</span> is found in two habitat types that are listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC: Mediterranean tall-herb and rush meadows (6420) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Liquidambar orientalis</span> woods (92C0). Most of the wetlands with <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex cretica</span> are included in the Greek Natura 2000 sites GR4340004 (Elos-Topolia) and 4340006 (Fassas-Limni Agias), but the threats are still remaining within these protected sites. Raising awareness of the public and administrative bodies is therefore needed. It is furthermore requested to implement water protection areas and to provide legal and factual means to control water extraction (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007).<br/>  It is protected by the Greek Law (Presidential Decree 67/1981).
164284		distribution	eng	<em>Carex cretica</em> is a Greek endemic found in western Crete and on the island of Ikaria.<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
164284		habitat	eng	<em>Carex cretica</em> is a small, laxly tufted perennial sedge. It mainly grows in submontane riparian <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> woodland, steep banks of permanent streams (<span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantion capilli-veneris</span> communities), springs and seepage meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodio-Holoschoenion</span> communities). It is occasionally found in damp <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span> groves.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carex cretica</span> morphology can vary, depending on grazing impact. In the absence of grazing, they can grow to more than 40 cm in height. When subject to sheep grazing, the plants have been found to be much smaller but were still producing flowers and fruits (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007).
164284		population	eng	The species has been recorded from 18 sites in Crete and one site in Ikaria (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007). The trend of the populations is unknown but the populations are likely to be declining as suspected from its declining habitat.
164284		threats	eng	Small-scale wetlands in Crete are threatened by water extraction for irrigation purposes. This changes the hydrology of water bodies and mainly leads to them drying out. Another threat is the application of herbicides and fertilizers on nearby olive plantations (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007).
164286		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To reinforce the reforestation of the mountains<br/>- To limit the pastoral load and to protect the sites inhabited by the species <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Genetic survey <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164286		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus dyris</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and its distribution is limited to the mountains of middle and high altitude. It is presents in seven localities of the Haut Atlas (Tizi-n-Tachdirt, Anromer, sources of Tessaout, Marrakech, Oukaimedene, Mgoun, Impetus-TS Tichki) and in two localities of the Anti Atlas (Jbel Siroua, Amezdour). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 12,000 km².
164286		habitat	eng	The species is found at the edges of streams, springs and humid rocks of middle and high flinty mountains (2,400 to 3,300 m altitude). It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the semi-arid cold, sub-humid and high mountain Mediterranean bioclimate.<br/>To the morphological level, some specimens present an intermediate pilosity between <em>Ranunculus dyris</em> and <em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> (being at the Moyen Atlas and the Haut Atlas) which suggests cases of hybridization within the species.
164286		population	eng	The last observations of <em>R. dyris</em> at the sites of the Haut Atlas date to 2001 but do not give any information concerning the size or the state of the populations.
164286		threats	eng	The species' habitat is declining in quality due to high pressure from grazing, tourist outdoor activities in the mountains and the extraction of material, such as rocks, for construction works. <em></em>Deterioration of the surrounding areas due to deforestation, soil erosion, and tourism infrastructures are some of the major threats to the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dyris</span>.
164287		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place, surveillance of the existing sites, raising public awareness, implementation of legal protection measures, monitoring of the population dynamics, biology and ecology of the species have been  recommended.
164287		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
164287		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. longus</span> is classed as:<br/>    <ul><li>Extinct in Germany</li><li>Critically Endangered in Austria<br/></li><li>Endangered in Switzerland</li><li>Vulnerable in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) </li><li>Near Threatened in the United Kingdom</li><li>It is protected in the Ile de France Department of France.</li></ul>          There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164287		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164287		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a subcosmopolitan and subtropical species. Its global distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, and the Canary, Madeira and Azores islands. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in numerous localities in the countries: Albania, Bulgaria, continental France and Corsica, Greece and Crete, Spain and Balearic Islands, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Portugal, Turkey, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.
164287		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a subcosmopolite and subtropical species. Its global distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, and the Canary, Madeira and Azores islands. This species is widespread in western and Southern Africa and present in Northern Africa and north Eastern Africa. It occurs in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. Also in South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland.<em>C. longus tenuiflorus </em> is found in South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland.
164287		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. longus</em> is an Old World species occurring from Macaronesia and Africa to central Europe, east through the Mediterranean, Middle East and Caucasus to Kazakhstan and northern India. In Europe, it occurs from Spain north to the United Kingdom but mainly in the south and Mediterranean, east into the Ukraine (Crimea).</p>
164287		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus longus </span>is distributed in Africa, Europe to the Indian Subcontinent. In India it is reported from Kerala (Palghat, Malappuram), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan (Cook 1996, Sasidharan 2004).
164287		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus longus</em> grows in marshes and the margins of water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals and ditches.
164287		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a perennial plant that can be considered as Hydrophyte or Geophyte. It is found on the verge of marshes and in humid places of plains and mountains, reaching 2,000 m of altitude. Its period of flowering goes from spring until the beginning of fall.
164287		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a perennial plant that can be considered as hydrophyte or geophyte. Prefers a moist sandy loam. It also grows well in up to 30 cm of water. It is found on the verge of marshes and in humid places of plains and mountains, reaching 2,000 m above sea level. Also in muddy and seasonally flooded depressions, marshes and border of water.Its period of flowering goes from spring until the beginning of fall.
164287		habitat	eng	It is an perennial herb, grows in seasonally flooded areas, wet grassland river, and pond margins (Cook 1996).
164287		population	eng	Its Population moderately abundant and the species is common.
164287		population	eng	No data is available on the population size.
164287		population	eng	No population information for the species.
164287		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. longus</span> appears to be widespread and abundant through much of its European range, however in the northwestern limits of this area it is rare and may be declining.
164287		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
164287		threats	eng	<p>The invasion of aquatic garden plants from artificial ponds poses a threat to the species in some parts of its range (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p>
164287		threats	eng	The main threats are related to urbanization, drainage and frequent droughts.
164287		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are related to urbanization, drainage, agriculture and frequent droughts.
164288		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but it is recommended to conserve its habitat and to raise public awareness.
164288		distribution	eng	<em>Bellis caerulescens</em> is endemic to Morocco. It is frequent in the mountains of the Atlas with several areas between 1,000 and 3,500 m altitude. It is present in the Anti Atlas, High Atlas and northeast Middle Atlas (Ari Ben-Ij, Tichchoukt, Bou Iblane, Guelb-er-Rahal). Its extent of occurrence is about 62,000 km² within which the occupied area is very large: above 3,000 km².
164288		habitat	eng	<em>Bellis caerulescens</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that lives in the shade of cracks, on the verges of springs and mountain rivulets, between 1,000 and 3,500 m. It blooms under the semi arid cold, sub humid Mediterranean bioclimate or on high mountains. It flourishes in spring and summer.
164288		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable.
164288		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, however frequency of droughts, extension of agriculture, grazing pressure, pollution and the increasing development of sites for leisure activities are the main pressures on its habitat.
164289		conservation	eng	This species is included as Near Threatened in the Red List of the Flora of Andalusia, Spain   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005) and it occurs in protected areas.
164289		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Red List of the Flora of Andalusia (Spain). In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco and enhancement of its populations <br/>- Protection of its unique site in Morocco and to protect the most important sites in the Iberian Peninsula <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164289		distribution	eng	<em>G. linifolia</em> is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. It is found in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, in ten provinces of Spain, belonging to four regions (Andalucia, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla-Leon, Extremadura) and in seven regions in Portugal (Baixo Alentejo, Alto Alentejo, Estremadura, Beira Baixa, Beira Alta, Tras-os-Montes, and Douro Littoral).
164289		distribution	eng	<em>Gratiola linifolia</em> is an endemic of Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. It is very rare in Morocco (southern limit of distribution) with only one locality in the western Rif (massif of the Jbel Outka) and an occupied area not larger than 1 km². It is found in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, in 10 regions of Spain (Seville, Cordoba, Zamora, Salamanca, Caceres, Huelva, Jaen, Ciudad Real, and Toledo) and in seven regions in Portugal (Baixo Alentejo, Alto Alentejo, Estremadura, Beira Baixa, Biera Alta, Tras-os-Montes, and Douro Littoral). Its extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region is about 200,000 km².
164289		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. linifolia</span> is an annual, which grows in temporary pools as well as on the margins of fast-flowing rivers, marshes and on peat soils, from sea-level to 1,400 m altitude. It flowers and fruits between May and September.
164289		habitat	eng	This annual plant (Therophyte) is found between 700 and 1,400 m elevation in temporary (dayas) and permanent pools of flinty mountains, in damp areas and on peat soils. It blooms and set fruits in summer (July-September) under the humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164289		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations are available. In the Iberian Peninsula, populations appear to be stable but are threatened by an increase in anthropogenic pressure. Many records belong to ancient collections before the agricultural development in the 1960s, which have been completely transformed or disappeared now.
164289		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations is available. In Morocco, the population is very isolated (only one locality), thus very fragile and exposed to a high risk of stochastic extinction. In the Iberian Peninsula, the populations seem stable but are threatened by the increase of anthropogenic pressure.
164289		threats	eng	In addition to the high grazing pressure and the increasing frequency of severe droughts which directly threaten the populations, the habitat of <em>Gratiola linifolia</em> is damaged by urbanization, agriculture and increasing tourism pressure facilitated by the creation of several access paths to the sites.
164289		threats	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. linifolia</span> are threatened by high grazing pressure, the increasing frequency of severe droughts, as well as urbanization, agriculture and increasing tourism pressure, however these threats are unlikely to cause severe population declines in the near future.
164290		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164290		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164290		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. pratensis</em> occurs throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, from the Iberian Peninsula north to Iceland and Svalbard and east through Siberia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan to Japan, China and the Korean Peninsula. It is also widespread in North America. In Europe it is widespread more less throughout the north an centre but is scarce or absent through much of the Mediterranean Basin.</p>
164290		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cardamine pratensis</span> is a northern species, being found throughout almost all of Europe and it seems to reach the limit of its distribution in the Mediterranean. This species is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, and Morocco.<br/>Its presence in Greece is uncertain, as formerly confirmed records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pratensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">matthioli</span> are now treated as separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. matthioli. </span>Strid and Tan (2002) do not treat this species as being present in Greece.
164290		habitat	eng	It grows in wet meadows and on the banks of streams and creeks, occasionally found in marshes and peat bogs.
164290		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pratensis</span> is most characteristic of wet meadows from which it extends onto the margins of rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. It will also occur in pools and seasonally inundated hollows in river floodplains.
164290		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pratensis </span>  appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range.
164290		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the region and the populations are presumably stable. In France, it is present in all the departements, in Italy and the Iberian Peninsula it is common in the north. In Morocco, it is present in the High Atlas at 2,650 m.
164290		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164290		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164291		conservation	eng	This species is included in the French Red Book tome II. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica. The search for new sites is under way.<br/><br/>It is recommended to study the dynamics of the different populations and the species' biology, resilience, and conservation, as well as to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164291		distribution	eng	<em>Bellium nivale</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Mediterranean mountain origin. It is not very common but can be frequent locally. This taxon grows on granite only in the central and southern mountains of Corsica (from Rotondo to Bavella). Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the occupied area is lower than 500 km².
164291		habitat	eng	The species is found in "pozzine", peat and grass around runnels, streamlets and springs from 1,200 to 2,000 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments.<br/>At the moment, there is no information about germination, growing and flowering conditions available. More research will be done in the future.
164291		population	eng	<em>Bellium nivale</em> is present at 23 sites in Corsica. It was last observed at the site in Sellola in 2007. The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no global trend known.
164291		threats	eng	The habitat is subjected to an increase in trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on the pozzines, and higher risk of fires. Therefore there are more guards from the natural park around the different lakes. In the future, the lack of snow and rain, and dryness could be considered as threat factors.
164294		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164294		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164294		distribution	eng	<em>C. difformis</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, but is considered naturalised in the New World. Its native range extends throughout Africa and the Indian Ocean Islands and from the Azores, through southern Europe east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and the Himalayas east to the Primorskye Region on the eastern seaboard of Russia, Japan, Korea and throughout much of China. It also occurs throughout the Indian sub-continent, south through Southeast Asia to Papua New Guinea and Australia. It is considered to be naturalised in southern, western and eastern North America south through Mexico and Central America to northern South America, Hawaii, Fiji and Madeira. In Europe it occurs mainly in the Mediterranean Basin, from Spain east through France to Crete and European Turkey.
164294		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is a species of tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Old World. It is probably introduced in some parts of the Mediterranean basin. It occurs in southern and eastern Europe, tropical Africa and North Africa, Oceania and Asia. It has been introduced to parts of America.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution includes Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley (Dandara, Aswan), Nile Faiyum, Oases of the Libyan desert, Mediterranean coast), France where it is sparsely distributed near the Mediterranean coast (Bouches du Rhône, Vaucluse, Lozère) and in Corsica (Aleria, Pruprià), where it is suspected to be introduced. <em>C. difformis</em> is furthermore found on the Balkans, in Greece and Crete, Italy, Israel, Lebanon (Antélias), Libya, Morocco (Gharb plain), southern Portugal, Spain and Syria (rives of the Oronte, near Homs), and Turkey.
164294		distribution	eng	It is a cosmopolitan species present in the tropics and subtropics of the Old World. In Africa SE Asia, and Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread in Western, Central and Southern Africa, whwee it has been recorded from almost all countries.<br/><br/>In East Africa including, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Also found in Malawi - Elephant Marsh in Nsanje, Nchalo near Sucoma Estate, Kalulu Forest Reserve in Thyolo, and Monkey Bay.<br/><br/>Its Northern Africa distribution includes Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley (Dandara, Aswan), Nile Faiyum, Oases of the Libyan desert, Mediterranean coast), Libya, Morocco (Gharb plain).
164294		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is native to southern Europe, most of Africa and Asia, and Australia.
164294		habitat	eng	<em>C. difformis</em> typically grows on rich soils on the margins of water bodies such as lakes and lowland rivers, it will also grow on seasonally inundated or wet grassland and can be a troublesome weed in rice fields.
164294		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is an annual sedge growing on silty soils in marshes, on canal banks and in rice fields. It constitutes a very troublesome weed in rice fields, notably in the Nile Delta.
164294		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is an annual sedge growing on silty soils in marshes, on canal banks and in rice fields. t is not confined to wetlands but often found in shallow water in seasonally flooded areas, ponds and ditches.  It constitutes a very troublesome weed in rice fields, notably in the Nile Delta.
164294		habitat	eng	The plant normally grows  in flooded or in very moist soils. It is frequently found in small pools, along rivers, canals, and streams,  in open wet places, and in grassy swamps. It grows best in rich, fertile soils,  but can grow in poorer sandy or clay soils of unused lands or in fallow rice  fields.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
164294		population	eng	<em>C. difformis</em>   appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range.
164294		population	eng	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is generally abundant over its natural distribution area.
164294		population	eng	It is a fairly abundant in freshwater habitats and considered a problematic weed in rice fields.
164294		threats	eng	No known major widespread threats to this species
164294		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164294		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164294		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species although it may locally affected by drought and agricultural activities.
164295		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008) and in the regional Red List of Andalucia   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005). No further specific conservation measures are known. It is necessary to search for the historic sites in Portugal, to collect information about the species' status and   to raise awareness among the public. Furthermore, legal protection and habitat conservation are needed.
164295		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. It is found in Algeria and Tunisia at five localities. It also occurs in the southwestern part of the Iberian peninsula, in the Spanish province Huelva and in Portugal in the regions Algarve, Baixo Alentejo and Beira Litoral (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>The total area of occupancy for the species is thought to be less than 500 km².
164295		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula alata</span> grows in humid Mediterranean climate and flowers between May and August. It prefers soils that are nutrient poor and grows in low lying temporary wet soils.
164295		population	eng	In the five locations where this species is found in northern Africa, the populations consist of only four or five individuals. In Spain, the species is only found at two sites in Huelva. These are currently being developed for irrigation and agriculture. In Portugal, the species was reported for almost all the country by Sampaio (1947) and Franco and Afonso (1984) and more recently from central Portugal and the Algarve (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). However, it is not known at how many sites the species is found at the moment or what the size and trend of the populations are.
164295		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the change of land use to agriculture and the related effects of drainage, eutrophication and pollution. Moreover, the excess of cattle grazing represents an important threat on the Spanish populations.
164296		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164296		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place, but it is suggested to study the population trends of this species.
164296		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place, but it is suggested to study the taxonomy and populations of this species.
164296		distribution	eng	Paleotropical subpaleotropical naturalised locally in Europa, America, Indonesia, Asia. <br/><br/>In Africa, this plant is distributed from North Africa down to South Africa. In Eastern Africa it is Found in Central Kenya (Machakos at Ngulia East, Kinani Hills) and coast in Tsavo National park, Kandere Dam. It occurs between 400 - 750 m above sea level. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Moshi district, Arusha Chini. In Southern Africa it occurs in Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, possibly North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal) possibly Namibia and Swaziland. <br/><br/>Also recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Western and Central Africa.
164296		distribution	eng	This species is found across Africa to temperate and tropical Asia and also in northern Australia. It is a common and widespread plant although its native distribution may be not fully known. It has been recorded across northern (Mae Hong Son), southwestern (Kanchanaburi), and peninsular (Phanhnha) Thailand.
164296		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia, New Caledonia, subtropical and tropical as well as North Africa. It is introduced in Europe.<br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. <br/>In the Mediterranean, it also occurs in Turkey (southern part), Lebanon, Syria and is classed as an epizodic species in Israel.
164296		habitat	eng	<em>N. graminea</em> is an annual Hydrophyte which is totally submerged and grows in little creeks, lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches and canals.<br/>Flowering time is in August.
164296		habitat	eng	<em>N. graminea</em> is a perennial (occ. annual) hydrophyte which is totally submerged and grows in little creeks, lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches, canals and rice fields. Also in  stagnant freshwater with mud sediment.
164296		habitat	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">This aquatic plant grows in ponds, river, streams, lakes and paddy fields, usually in still or slow-moving water.
164296		population	eng	There is no information on its current population although it is a common species.
164296		population	eng	The species is rare throughout its range. It is not common in Egypt, is known from on site in Algeria and Turkey respectively. In Israel, it was foudn at one site in 1938 and has not been found since then.
164296		population	eng	This plant is a quite widespread species and the population therefore should be large.
164296		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been reported.
164296		threats	eng	The major threats are agriculture, development, invasive species as competitors for resources, and drought.
164296		threats	eng	The most important threats are agriculture, development, invasive species as competitors for resources, and drought. None of these are threatening the species survival at a Pan Africa level.
164297		conservation	eng	In France, this species is protected at regional level in Basse-Normandie.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164297		distribution	eng	<em>Galium debile</em> is an Eurasian species. Its distribution includes the west and south of Europe, the southwest of Asia and the northwest of Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km² with numerous locations.
164297		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that prefers swamps, riverbeds and flooded sites. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May - August).
164297		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and the populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only one known location situated in the Rif (Issaguène plain); <br/>- Algeria: common in the whole country; <br/>- Portugal: present in seven provinces; <br/>- Spain: quite common and present in 30 sites in the northwest of the country (15 provinces); <br/>- France: fairly common, especially in the northeast of the country (189 sites), and also occurring Corsica; <br/>- Italy: common in almost all the country, occurring in 14 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia; <br/>- Syria and Lebanon: the species went unnoticed for a long time in these countries; it is found in Aïn Saoua'ir and Elias Barr in Lebanon and in Nahr Séné, Bhamra, Homs, close to Oronte, south of Lattaquié and in the wetlands near Outaya in Syria.
164297		threats	eng	Habitat drainage and the invasion of pond edges by shrubs are the main threats to this species but they don't lead to significant declines at the moment.
164298		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; research on the taxonomy, populations, locations and the habitat of this species are recommended. By Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) in Italy <em>T. bulbosa</em> ssp. <em>laxiflora </em> is classified as Vulnerable in Latium and Lower Risk in Sicily; <span style="font-style: italic;">T. bulbosum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">barrellieri</span> is classed as Endangered in Molise and Vulnerable in Sicily and Sardinia. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. bulbosum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">barrellieri </span>is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
164298		distribution	eng	<em>Triglochin bulbosa</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in western and eastern Europe, northwestern Africa and southwestern Asia. In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece and Crete, Turkey.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
164298		habitat	eng	<em>Triglochin bulbosa</em> is a perennial Helophyte that grows in wet coastal grasslands, brackish wet meadows, brackish coastal marshes, pond banks on sandy and muddy grounds close to the coast, sandy wet places, banks of freshwater or brackish ponds.
164298		population	eng	The populations are numerous, but very localized generally on the coast or subcoastal plains. It is locally abundant in Corsica. <em>T. bulbosa</em> ssp. <em>laxiflora </em> has a fragmentary distribution in Italy along the peninsula from Tuscany, where it is rare, to the south and in Sicily and Sardinia; <span style="font-style: italic;">T. bulbosum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">barrellieri </span>has the same distribution area but its presence is more continuous (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
164298		threats	eng	<em>Triglochin bulbosa</em> seems to be sensitive to interventions in wetlands, especially at the coast, such as tourism activities. Therefore, it can be threatened in the short term.
164299		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is classed as Endangered in Croatia but the reasons are not known to the assessor.</p>
164299		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164299		distribution	eng	<em>G. fluitans</em> occurs throughout most of Europe and Africa, east through Siberia and the Caucasus to western Asia. It also occurs in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, throughout much of the USA south to Mexico and in western South America.
164299		distribution	eng	<em>Glyceria fluitans</em> is a plant with a wide distribution, occurring in America, Europe, Asia and Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is widespread along the European wetlands. It is found in Turkey and Lebanon. In the North African region, it is only found in Morocco.
164299		habitat	eng	<em>G. fluitans</em> will occur in most types of waterbody, often dominating wet grassland, ditch and river margins and the shores of lakes and ponds in pasture, where it will often grow out over the surface of the water. It is probably important in the succession of grassland into small or shallow open water bodies and as such poses a threat to many plant species dependent upon bare substrate and open water.
164299		habitat	eng	It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte) that prefers swamps and the edges of water bodies of plains and low mountains up to an altitude of 2,700 m. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).
164299		population	eng	<em>G. fluitans</em> is classed as Endangered in Croatia, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
164299		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region, this species is widespread and abundant.<br/>In Morocco, the species is probably very rare, occurring in only four locations (Tanger, Talassemtan, Oued Fès and Benslimane). The populations are very restricted and their trend is not known. It is found in north-central and central Greece.
164299		threats	eng	In the Mediterranean region, the main threats are drainage and agricultural activities but they don't lead to significant population declines at the moment.
164299		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164300		conservation	eng	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed.
164300		conservation	eng	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed in the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.
164300		conservation	eng	No conservation action is known to have been taken for this species.<br/>This species was reported as Vulnerable (Marche, Umbria), Critically Endangered (Latium) Data Deficient for Calabria (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), Endangered for Tuscany (Sposimo and Castelli 2005).
164300		distribution	eng	<em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs throughout Europe, from Iceland and the Faroe Islands, through Scandinavia to Poland and the Czech Republic, and throughout the Mediterranean basin east to Greece. Outside Europe, it has been recorded from Greenland, Morocco, Iran and the Caucasus and there is a specimen from Kamchatka. C. <em>brutia</em> also occurs as an introduction to Australia, New Zealand and the west coast of North America, from Oregon north into British Columbia.
164300		distribution	eng	<em>Callitriche brutia</em> is a mediterranean species. In North Africa it is present in Libya, Tunisia (six sites known), Algeria and Morocco.
164300		distribution	eng	<em>Callitriche brutia</em> occurs in France, Corsica, Greece including the East Aegean Islands and Crete, Italy including Sardinia and Sicily, Morocco, Portugal and Spain including the Balearic Islands. It is likely to occur throughout the northern Mediterranean and possibly further east in North Africa, but no records have been confirmed.
164300		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;brutia</em> grows in a wide range of water-bodies, from ephemeral pools, lakes and canals to fast-flowing upland rivers. Var. <em>hamulata</em> appears to be more frequent in permanent, swift-flowing water, while var. <em>brutia</em> typically occurs in ephemeral water-bodies and at the margins of lakes. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs from sea level to at least 950&#160;m on Ben Lawers, Scotland. It grows with a wide range of species, often including <em>Callitriche</em> species such as <em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em>, <em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, <em>C.&#160;platycarpa</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em>. Plants from the southern part of its range tend to be named as var. <em>brutia</em>, those in the north as var. <em>hamulata</em>. It seems likely that this is an artefact of habitat characteristics, since in the south water-bodies are more often temporary while in the north they are more likely to be permanent. In more permanent water-bodies, the two varieties may occur with <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>, <em>Elodea nuttallii</em>, <em>Lythrum salicaria</em>, <em>Myosotis scorpioides</em>, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em>, <em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em>&#160;and <em>Sparganium emersum</em>, while in temporary pools var. <em>brutia</em> occurs with <em>Lythrum portula</em>, <em>Persicaria hydropiper</em>, <em>Ranunculus flammula</em>, <em>R.&#160;ophioglossifolius</em>&#160;and <em>Rorippa palustris</em>. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> is often associated with marginal grasses such as <em>Agrostis stolonifera</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Alopecurus aequalis</em>&#160;and smaller <em>Glyceria </em>species and with small <em>Juncus </em>species. The communities associated with the two varieties have been obscured by the tendency to record var. <em>hamulata</em> in more oligotrophic or acid water-bodies, where <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs with species such as <em>Apium inundatum</em>, <em>Eleogiton fluitans</em>, <em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>, <em>Isoetes lacustris</em>, <em>Littorella uniflora</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Lobelia dortmanna</em>, <em>Luronium natans</em>, <em>Nitella opaca</em>, <em>Potamogeton </em><em>alpinus</em>, <em>P.&#160;filiformis</em>, <em>P.&#160;</em><em>obtusifolius</em>, <em>P.&#160;polygonifolius</em>&#160;and particularly with diverse bryophyte assemblages including <em>Brachythecium rivulare</em>, <em>Fontinalis squamosa</em>, <em>Racomitrium aciculare</em>&#160;and <em>Scapania undulata</em>. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em> often occurs with species typical of Mediterranean temporary pools, including <em>Cicendia filiformis</em>, <em>Cyperus fuscus</em>, <em>Elatine alsinastrum</em>, <em>Eleocharis ovata</em>, <em>Gnaphalium uliginosum</em>, <em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em>, <em>Isoetes histrix</em>, <em>I.&#160;velata</em>, <em>Juncus capitatus</em>, <em>J.</em><em>&#160;pygmaeus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em>, <em>Mentha pulegium</em>&#160;and <em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em>.
164300		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;brutia</em> grows in a wide range of water-bodies, from ephemeral pools, lakes and canals to fast-flowing upland rivers. Var. <em>hamulata</em> appears to be more frequent in permanent, swift-flowing water, while var. <em>brutia</em> typically occurs in ephemeral water-bodies and at the margins of lakes. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs from sea level to at least 950&#160;m on Ben Lawers, Scotland. It grows with a wide range of species, often including <em>Callitriche</em> species such as <em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em>, <em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, <em>C.&#160;platycarpa</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em>. Plants from the southern part of its range tend to be named as var. <em>brutia</em>, those in the north as var. <em>hamulata</em>. It seems likely that this is an artefact of habitat characteristics, since in the south water-bodies are more often temporary while in the north they are more likely to be permanent. In more permanent water-bodies, the two varieties may occur with <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>, <em>Elodea nuttallii</em>, <em>Lythrum salicaria</em>, <em>Myosotis scorpioides</em>, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em>, <em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em>&#160;and <em>Sparganium emersum</em>, while in temporary pools var. <em>brutia</em> occurs with <em>Lythrum portula</em>, <em>Persicaria hydropiper</em>, <em>Ranunculus flammula</em>, <em>R.&#160;ophioglossifolius</em>&#160;and <em>Rorippa palustris</em>. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> is often associated with marginal grasses such as <em>Agrostis stolonifera</em>,<em> </em><em>Alopecurus aequalis</em>&#160;and smaller <em>Glyceria </em>species and with small <em>Juncus </em>species. The communities associated with the two varieties have been obscured by the tendency to record var. <em>hamulata</em> in more oligotrophic or acid water-bodies, where <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs with species such as <em>Apium inundatum</em>, <em>Eleogiton fluitans</em>, <em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>, <em>Isoetes lacustris</em>, <em>Littorella uniflora</em>,<em>&#160;</em> <em>Lobelia dortmanna</em>, <em>Luronium natans</em>, <em>Nitella opaca</em>, <em>Potamogeton </em><em>alpinus</em>, <em>P.&#160;filiformis</em>, <em>P.&#160;</em><em>obtusifolius</em>, <em>P.&#160;polygonifolius</em>&#160;and particularly with diverse bryophyte assemblages including <em>Brachythecium rivulare</em>, <em>Fontinalis squamosa</em>, <em>Racomitrium aciculare</em>&#160;and <em>Scapania undulata</em>. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em> often occurs with species typical of Mediterranean temporary pools, including <em>Cicendia filiformis</em>, <em>Cyperus fuscus</em>, <em>Elatine alsinastrum</em>, <em>Eleocharis ovata</em>, <em>Gnaphalium uliginosum</em>, <em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em>, <em>Isoetes histrix</em>, <em>I.&#160;velata</em>, <em>Juncus capitatus</em>, <em>J.</em><em>&#160;pygmaeus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em>, <em>Mentha pulegium</em>&#160;and <em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em>.
164300		habitat	eng	It grows in still, often shallow water.
164300		population	eng	This species is fairly common on oligotrophic (non calcareous) substrate.
164300		population	eng	This species is fairly common, particularly in seasonal or ephemeral standing waters.<br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche brutia</span> is very rare on the Greek mainland (northwestern part in Ipiros - two localities)</span>and scattered in the Aegean islands of: Psathoura, Agios Evstratios, Skyros, Lesvos (seven localities), Patmos, Naxos (two localities), Rodos (Rhodes), and recently been found in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place>. There are old unconfirmed records from the Ionian Islands of Kerkira (Corfu), Levkas and from the central part of the mainland (<st1:place w:st="on">Thessaly</st1:place>).</span>  <p>&#160;</p>
164300		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout its range, often occurring as thousands of individuals and may represent the dominant aquatic vegetation in acidic or nutrient-poor waters.
164300		threats	eng	There are no major threats specific to this species, however seasonal and shallow wetlands are under threat throughout the Mediterranean.
164300		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
164300		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. However, the species distribution is restricted to the west of Europe and west of North Africa. The temporarily flooded pools where this species finds its optimum habitat are generally threatened and under high anthropogenic pressure in North Africa.
164301		conservation	eng	In France this species is currently protected at national level (Annexe 2). It is classified as Endangered on the Red List of Croatia.<br/>The conservation measures suggested are legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures and raise public awareness.
164301		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alisma gramineum</span> has been assigned the following Red List and conservation categories (from Palmer 2006):<ul><li>Critically Endangered in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Slovakia, United Kingdom</li><li>Critically Endangered to Endangered in Latvia, Lithuania and Russia</li><li>Endangered in the Czech Republic and Switzerland</li><li>Vulnerable in Moldova and Slovenia</li><li>Extinct in Sweden</li></ul>It occurs in a number of protected areas and Natura 2000 sites throughout its range (such as the Cerknisko lake in Slovenia).<br/><br/>In the UK, where the species is legally protected, there has been a long-term research and recovery plan, including re-introduction attempts.  <p>It is very difficult to establish whether or not there is a Europe-wide need for conservation action for this species. Certainly, there are areas where it is common and increasing (e.g. Germany and the Netherlands), in spite of the number of countries in which it is considered to be of conservation concern, it is difficult to identify areas in which there has been a measured decline. For this reason, the main conservation action identified here is research to clarify its status throughout the region.</p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164301		conservation	eng	The conservation measures suggested are legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures and raise public awareness.
164301		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma gramineum</em> is an amphi-Atlantic species with the main focus of its distribution in sub-boreal regions throughout the world, especially in northern North America and northwestern Europe. It is rarer around the Mediterranean basin and in Asia.<br/><br/>The African distribution of <em>A. gramineum</em> includes Libya and Egypt where it is abundant in catchments such as the Nile delta and valley, Oasis of Dakhla, Mediterranean coast at Rosetta, Isthmic desert.
164301		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma gramineum</em> is an amphi-Atlantic species with the main focus of its distribution in sub-boreal regions throughout the world, especially in northern North America and northwestern Europe. It is rarer around the Mediterranean basin and in Asia.<br/>The Mediterranean distribution of <em>A. gramineum</em> includes Libya, Egypt (where it is abundant in catchments such as the Nile delta and valley, Oasis of Dakhla, Mediterranean coast at Rosetta, Isthmic desert), France (very rare in the Mediterranean region but found in Vaucluse, Alpes maritimes), Italy, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Greece, Turkey, Israel, and Syria.
164301		distribution	eng	<em>Alisma gramineum </em>  occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere, from the UK and France north into Scandinavia east throughout Siberia (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) and most of European Russia (Tzvelev 2001) to Mongolia and China (Wang <em>et al</em>. in prep). It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean islands but occurs in Egypt (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010)<em></em> and from Croatia (Nicolić and Topić 2005) east through Turkey to the Ukraine and the Caucasus (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010)<em></em>. It also occurs throughout much of western and northern North America (Haynes and Barre-Hellquist 2000).<br/><p><br/><em></em></p>
164301		habitat	eng	<em>A. gramineum</em> is an aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial helophyte, growing submerged or immerged in shallow fresh or brackish waters in marshy areas.
164301		habitat	eng	<em>A. gramineum</em> is an aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial Helophyte, growing submerged or immerged in shallow fresh or brackish waters in marshy areas.
164301		habitat	eng	<em>A. gramineum</em> is unusual in that it can grow in three very different situations:<br/><ul><li>Perennial plants which are permanently submerged and presumably self-fertile.</li><li>Plants growing in the margins of water bodies which may<span style="background-color: white;"> perennate b</span>ut are usually annual.</li><li>Annual plants growing in the <span style="background-color: white;">draw-</span>down zones of larger water bodies or in seasonal or ephemeral pools.</li></ul>It can occur in a very wide variety of habitat-types, however it seems to occur most frequently in calcareous, naturally meso- or eutrophic lowland waterbodies. It has been reported from ponds, lakes, meres, fenland, canals, rice and other arable fields, depressions, gravel pit lakes, and sandy shorelines.
164301		population	eng	<em>A. gramineum</em> is abundant but localised in Egypt.
164301		population	eng	<em>A. gramineum</em> is one of a number of species that appears to be rare almost throughout its known range.&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"> The only area in which the species appears to be abundant is in the Rhine floodplain in Germany (K. van de Weyer pers. comm.) and the Netherlands (J. Bruinsma pers. comm.). <span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/>Two sites are currently known in the UK (with a maximum of five ever reported) (Lansdown 2010, Palmer 2006), <span lang="EN-GB">and three recent sites in the Austrian Tirol in the extreme north-west (Polatschek 2001).<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> Bulgaria<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">, it is  very <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>rare. <br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In the north of </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>Denmark,<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> it has been rediscovered at two localities. In <span lang="EN-GB">Lithuania, it is confined to the southeast from 0 - 300 m and has been reported from 10 - 15 localities (four locations) since 1960. The <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">biggest population counts 5,000 individuals with fluctuations due to water regime and water level. It is extinct in Sweden since the early 19th century, there it was known from one locality.<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>There are four widely scattered sites in </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>Croatia<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> (Nicolić and Topić 2005). <span lang="EN-GB">It is found in northeastern Greece at less than ten locations. The species is quite rare as there are not many lakes there, but the populations seem to be stable<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>It is scattered in south and southcentral </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>Czech Republic<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> and found in ten localities in low lying  warm areas. There are <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">28 records but with less than 100 individuals in each record. <span lang="EN-GB">In Slovakia, it has only been found recently at one locality near Bratislava over an area of less than 10 km². <br/><br/>It is present in <span lang="EN-GB">lowland areas in east and central </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>Hungary<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> where it is found at two localities in dry years but in wet years it becomes abundant. The populations have been decreasing during the last 50 years. The extent of occurrence for Hungary is more than 50,000 km². <span lang="EN-GB"><p>In Slovenia, the populations are in the Dinaric belt and localised in intermittent lakes. In total they occupy less than 50 km². The population trend in <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Slovenia is unknown and there are annual fluctuations in the number of mature individuals.<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><span lang="EN-GB"><p>The annotated checklist of the Italian vascular flora (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) state that it is present in central Italy<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>but a presence in the east and west are doubtful.</p>In<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>Switzerland,<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> the species occurs at five localities and there could be more but the species is difficult to find. It is present in the north (lake of Zurich) and in the Colin belt. One<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> locality has many individuals, the other four host small populations. The <span lang="EN-GB">population trend is unknown and there are annual fluctuations. In 1982 it was reported as being found on seven sites and nine sites from which it has apparently been lost (<span lang="EN-GB">Welten and Sutter 1982a).<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> Russia<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">, it is found in four regions in the central area and is not protected, there is no further information available. <br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
164301		population	eng	<em>A. gramineum</em> is widely distributed but never abundant in southern Europe. It is abundant but localised in Egypt.
164301		threats	eng	The habitats in which this species occurs are sensitive to hyper-eutrophication, as they are often naturally eutrophic. Many populations are somewhat isolated and therefore vulnerable to drainage or habitat degradation.
164301		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to modifications of water quality and to the destruction of its biotope including cleaning and urbanization.
164302		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164302		distribution	eng	<em>Crassula tillaea</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its world distribution includes the Mediterranean, Europe and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Greece, Crete, Karpathos, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164302		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that flowers in winter and spring. It inhabits temporarily flooded environments, especially of gritty substrate.
164302		population	eng	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations is unknown.
164302		threats	eng	The infilling of this species’ habitat is its main threat.
164303		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164303		distribution	eng	<em>Centaurium candelabrum</em> is considered by Pottier-Alapetite (1979-1981) and Greuter <em>et al.</em> (1984-1989) as an endemic of North Africa, and by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002) as an endemic of Morocco. Le Floc'h and Boulos (2009) consider this species as a doubtful taxon for Tunisia.<br/><br/>In Morocco, it occurs at the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts and in the mountains (Anti-Atlas, Haut Atlas, northeastern mounts, Rif). In Algeria, it is found at the Mediterranean coast, east of Alger. In Tunisia, the species is distributed in the centre (Sousse, Sfax, S. Kelbia, Sidi Bouzid, Fériana) and the south (Gabès, Zarzis, Djerba).
164303		habitat	eng	<em>Centaurium candelabrum</em> is a small annual herbaceous plant growing in fresh and wet areas, in temporary pools and in seasonal streams (wadis).
164303		population	eng	<em>Centaurium candelabrum</em> is relatively abundant over its distribution area.
164303		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164304		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at national and regional level (Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur) and is found in the Natural Reserve of Roque-Haute. It is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) and enforcement of the legal protection measures  <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size and to monitor the population dynamics<br/>- To maintain a favourable hydrological regime and an open vegetation by mowing or grazing&#160; <br/>- To know the supportable harvest limit of the plant (sustainable use) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164304		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha cervina</em> has a western steno-Mediterranean distribution. It is found in France, Portugal, Spain, Morocco, Algeria and is presumed extinct in Italy. <br/> In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is about 800,000 km² with an estimated area of occupancy of 600 km².<br/><br/>In France, it is known in six departments and is considered as vulnerable.<br/>- Pyrenees Orientales: pool of Saint-Estève, Montalba, Saint-Nazaire, Collioure. <br/>- Aude: pech d'Agnel (near Narbonne), near Armissan. <br/>- Hérault: Castries, Gigean (Gardiole), Saint-Gely-du-Fesc, the Boissière, Saint-Paul-et-Valmalle, Cazevieille, Cournonterral, Portiragnes (Roquehaute), the Triadou, Puechabon, Assignan. <br/>- Gard: pond of Pujaut, vicinity of Nîmes. <br/>- Vaucluse: sides of the Rhone (vicinity of Avignon). <br/>- Bouches-du-Rhône: Crau (pond of Entressen, of the Alders), Arles, Tarascon.
164304		habitat	eng	It is found in wetlands and temporarily flooded habitats (pools, rivers, meadows). It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha cervina</span> is an heliophilous species, sensitive to the shade and to the modification of water regimes.
164304		population	eng	The populations are globally in decline and those that are more stable are generally very vulnerable because they are situated in fragile biotopes. The localities once known in Italy (Abruzzi) are presumed extinct. <br/><br/>In France, they seem in regression, except in the Hérault and Gard (important populations). It disappeared from numerous sites of Crau (Bouches-du-Rhône), from the sandy banks of the Rhône, from the pool of Saint-Estève and from the coastal Catalan in Pyrenees-Orientales. It is likely extinct in the Costière Nîmoise in Gard. <br/><br/>In Spain and Portugal, it is known in the western half of the Iberian Peninsula with some additional localities in the east. It is not very common in Iberia and the populations are possibly declining because of the destruction of their habitat. Healthy populations are found on some of the larger rivers but it is absent from other rivers.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, it is considered very rare in Morocco with only one locality known in the Rif (Tanger) and very rare in Algeria where it is found in the Haut Plateaux of the Regions of Algiers and Oran (region of former Géryville). In the countries of the Maghreb, the species is often harvested and marketed on a local scale for medicinal use.
164304		threats	eng	The main threat is the destruction of the habitat by anthropogenic activities such as changes of the hydrology by either drainage or permanent flooding, agriculture, filling-in, and dams. The largest remaining populations in Portugal are under imminent threat from the construction of dams. <br/>Other threats are bound to changes in habitat management (in France) such as the abandonment of grazing resulting in an invasion of the sites by woody competitors. <br/>The small number of populations, their reciprocal remoteness and their reduced strengths essentially expose them to risks of extinction in France and in the Maghreb countries.
164305		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164305		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is a steno-Mediterranean western species.<br/><br/>In Africa, <em>Juncus foliosus</em> is present in Tunisia (rather common in Kroumiria, Kef Ennsour, Ghorra, Ouchteta), Algeria (rather common in Tell, present in Kabylia and the Algiers regions), and in Morocco (common, including the Middle Atlas and Zaian mountains: 10 locations).
164305		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is a western European and Mediterranean species extending to Ireland, UK and Norway in the north. Its area stretches from Macaronesia to western Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, France), and western Africa.<br/>In northwestern Africa, <em>Juncus foliosus</em> is present in Tunisia (rather common in Kroumiria, Kef Ennsour, Ghorra, Ouchteta), Algeria (rather common in Tell, present in Kabylia and the Algiers regions), and in Morocco (common, including the Middle Atlas and Zaian mountains: 10 locations).<br/>In the Mediterranean the EOO is >20,000 km² and the AOO is >2,000 km².
164305		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is an annual species and Therophyte that prefers damp, open habitats. It is found in wet meadows and sands at plains and mountains, at an altitude from 0 to 900 m above sea level. <br/>Flowering in Morocco and Algeria is from March to August.
164305		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is an annual species and Therophyte that prefers damp, open habitats. It is found in wet meadows and sands at plains and mountains (cf. Kabylia and Mont Ghorra), at an altitude from 0 to 900 m. <br/>Flowering in Italy, Corsica and Tunisia is from April to June and in Morocco and Algeria from March to August.
164305		population	eng	<em>Juncus foliosus</em> is present and rather rare in western Europe, more common in North Africa, but missing in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at the scale of the Mediterranean.
164305		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable.
164305		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164306		conservation	eng	In Algeria, some populations are included in designated Ramsar sites. It is furthermore suggested to strengthen research on this species such as setting up an inventory of the populations, habitats, threats.
164306		distribution	eng	<em>M. longifolia</em> is a paleotemperate species, distributed from the Canary Islands, to Europe, southwest Asia to India, North and tropical East and South Africa.<br/>In the Mediterranean it is found in Portugal, Spain, France (except Corsica), Italy (except Sardinia), former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.<br/><br/>In North Africa it has been found in Morocco in the Pre-Rif, Tazzeka, Kert Ganc, and Mamora. It is very rare and scattered in Algeria, especially rare in the mountains of the central Sahara (Hoggar and Tefedest). In Tunisia, it is very rare and present at only one location. In Egypt, there are two subspecies present: <em>M. longifolia</em> subsp. <em>typhoides</em> in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the entire Sinai peninsula, and <em>M. longifolia</em> subsp. <em>schimperi</em> at the entire Sinai peninsula.
164306		habitat	eng	<em>M. longifolia</em> is a perennial species. It is found on roadsides, meadows, stream banks, canal banks, ditches and pools, watersides. This species is often cultivated.
164306		population	eng	<em>M. longifolia</em> is common to very common in the northern Mediterranean region but rather rare and scattered in North Africa, where it probably reaches the southern limit of its distribution.
164306		threats	eng	In North Africa, <em>Mentha longifolia</em> seems to be threatened owing to its restricted distribution.<em> </em>It is not threatened in the northern Mediterranean region.
164307		conservation	eng	The site of Azigza Aguelmane is classified as historic monument by the Vizier decree from 28.03.1950, which however does not bring any protective measure for the site. It has been proposed in the APM project (Moroccan protected areas) as a site that should benefit from urgent protection. There is no protection of the other sites.<br/> <br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To develop ecotourism <br/>- To create new protected sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164307		distribution	eng	<em>Rorippa hayanica</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and localized in the central part of the Moyen Atlas with four known localities (Bekirt to 1,850 m, Ifrane, Itzer, Aguelmane Azigza). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 800 km² within which the occupied area does not exceed 200 km². The most recent observations are from the sites of Azigza Aguelmane and Ifrane and date from 2003.
164307		habitat	eng	The species is found in temporary pools, at the edge of springs and lakes. It is a biennial to perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164307		population	eng	The populations seem to be experiencing a decline, particularly those found in temporary pools, which suffer from increasing destruction and degradation in the Moyen Atlas.
164307		threats	eng	The destruction of the habitat by filling-in or drainage for agricultural development constitutes the main threat. Other threats contributing to the decline in the quality of its habitat are the development of leisure outdoor activities in the mountains, water pollution and overgrazing.
164308		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or in need.
164308		distribution	eng	This species is occurring mainly in the northern hemisphere in Europe, Asia, Africa and America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009).
164308		habitat	eng	The plant is found at roadsides and fallow fields, Nile and canal banks, moist ground.
164308		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean region.
164308		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164309		conservation	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is not protected at the moment. It is necessary to preserve the ecosystem that supports this species and to inform the residents about its rarity and its possible protection.
164309		conservation	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is not protected in Algeria at the moment. It is necessary to preserve the ecosystem that supports this species and to inform the residents about its rarity and its possible protection in Algeria.<br/>In Italy, the species is considered as Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005)<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>.
164309		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphoides peltata</span> is classed as Critically Endangered on the Spanish national red list (Moreno 2008), in Belarus   (Ermakova 2005), and in the Czech Republic   (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999), classed as Endangered in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007) and as Vulnerable on the German and Swiss red lists <a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">(Ludwig and Schnittler 1996, </a><a name="OLE_LINK3">  Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">)</a>. It is protected in France in several regions, in the Czech Republic and in other countries.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164309		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is an Eurasiatic plant, occuring in most of Europe, northwards to the UK, the Baltic Sea and north-central Russia.<br><br>In Africa, it is only present in Algeria where it has been seen at one location only in Numidie in a ditch at Ouaja (daïra de Ben Azzouz, wilaya de Skikda).
164309		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is an Eurasiatic plant, occurring in most of Europe, northwards to the UK, the Baltic Sea and north-central Russia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy and Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Turkey and Algeria which is its only North African occurrence. In Algeria, it has been seen at one location only in Numidie in a ditch at Ouaja (daïra de Ben Azzouz, wilaya de Skikda).
164309		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">N. peltata </em><span lang="EN-GB">is native to Europe and northern Asia, from the Baltic States south to the Iberian Peninsula and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Jammu and Kashmir in India, Siberia and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, China, Japan and Korean Peninsula; it is naturalised in North America. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout except the far north.<strong></strong></span></p>
164309		habitat	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is an aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial herb with stems up to 160 cm, creeping and floating. This species prefers the sub-humid temperate Mediterranean bioclimate with mild or warm winters, and is found in ponds, rivers, still waters, ditches, wadis and prefers peaty or sandy clay soils. It is often associated with <em>Salix alba</em>.
164309		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. peltata</span> typically occurs in  naturally eutrophic, calcareous, slow-flowing rivers and large ditches.
164309		population	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is present in Europe, but the number of populations is unknown.<br/>In Italy  , the species is present in Piemonte, <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veneto</st1:state>, <st1:city w:st="on">Emilia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:state> and Lazio (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005); it is considered as “not natural” maybe as cultivated-ornamental in Trentino and <st1:place w:st="on">Friuli</st1:place> (Poldini 2001). Unpublished data for Emilia and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:place></st1:state> show the species is under strong reduction. <br/>In France, it occurs in all the country, but is rare in the south (Tela Botanica 2009). In Spain, the species is only found in the northern province Galicia and on the border to Portugal (Anthos 2009).<br/>  In Greece, it is found in Ipiros (Lake Pamvotis), west Macedonia (Lake Prespa), and east Macedonia (Lake Kerkini). There are a few additional localities in northern Greece but the two main localities for this species in Greece are Lake Prespa and Lake Kerkini. There is also and old record cited by Halácsy "in lacu Copais" (nom. Viotias) but as this lake is now drained, it is probably extinct in this locality. Like many aquatic plants is seems to&#160;fluctuate much in abundance from year to year. </span><br/></span>In Algeria, one single population has been found occupying an area of about 50 feet.
164309		population	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is present in Europe, but the number of populations is unknown.<br/>In Italy, the species is rare to very rare. In France, it occurs in all the country, but is rare in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2009). In Spain, the species is only found in the northern province Galicia (Anthos 2009). In Greece, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphoides peltata</span> is recorded from Lake Prespa by G. Pavlides (1985), from lake Kerkini and the area northeast of Mitrikou lake by E. Papastergiadou and D. Babalonas (1993) and from Lake Pamvotis by M. Sarika (1999) (A. Strid pers. comm. 2010). In the Czech Republic, the native populations are near extinct. A recent research showed that newly found populations differ from the native populations and almost certainly originated from plants from the horticultural trade.<br/>It is classed as threatened on several national red lists including Spain, Belarus, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Germany.
164309		population	eng	In Algeria, one single population has been found occupying an area of about fifty feet.
164309		threats	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is threatened in North Africa as it has only been found at one location.<br>The cultivation of this pond, is disrupting the species' development.
164309		threats	eng	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is threatened in North Africa as it has only been found at one location. The cultivation of this pond, is disrupting the species' development.   Water eutrophication, urbanization and agriculture are further threats in its European range.
164309		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species but the introduction of plants from the trade to the countryside should be observed regarding its impacts on native biodiversity. <br/></p>  <em></em>
164310		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites in North Africa <br/>- Estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa <br/>- Study the species’ distribution in the Mediterranean region
164310		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris caesia</em> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers Europe, Africa and the Middle East. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its distribution is fairly unknown. It is present in France (in two departments in the south of the country) and Algeria. <br/>In North Africa it is a rare species that is only found in Algeria. <br/><br/>According to the Euro+Med Plantbase (2009) the species is also present in Spain, Portugal, Lebanon, and Asiatic Turkey.
164310		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits the edges of streams. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (April-June).
164310		population	eng	The distribution of this species in the Mediterranean region is fairly unknown. <br/>In North Africa it is very rare, with three locations in the Algérois Tellien Atlas (Mazafran, Reghaïa and El Alia near Maison-Carrée). These three sites are close to Alger and therefore threatened by urbanization. The populations are very restricted and their trend is not known.
164310		threats	eng	Urbanization (especially around Algiers) is the main threat to this species.
164311		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It would be useful to clarify the relative status of the three taxa: <span style="font-style: italic;">N. officinale</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. microphyllum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. x sterilis</span> would be useful to assess the risk of genetic dilution of wild populations.
164311		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nasturtium officinale</span> is native to Macaronesia, Europe, North Africa, West and Central Asia extending to India.<br/><br/>It is found throughout the Mediterranean region, in Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.
164311		habitat	eng	Found in almost all water body types, particularly nutrient rich water bodies but less frequent or absent from oligotrophic or acidic habitats.
164311		population	eng	This species is very common throughout its range with a stable population trend.
164311		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164312		conservation	eng	None known
164312		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Tropical Africa and Asia. Recorded from Egypt (Gebel Elba), Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania. However, its exact native range is unclear.
164312		habitat	eng	Moist ground, around wells.
164312		population	eng	Rare.
164312		threats	eng	None known
164313		conservation	eng	In France, it is protected at the regional level (Bourgogne, Ile-de-France). <br/>For the overall distribution range, the following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- legal protection (list of protected species in Algeria)<br/>- monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- study of the dynamics of populations and study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164313		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- legal protection (list of protected species in Algeria)<br/>- application of legal measures of conservation<br/>- monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- study of the dynamics of populations and study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164313		distribution	eng	<em>Kreczetoviczia caespitosa</em> is widespread in Europe, where it develops southwards to central Spain, Corsica and southern Bulgaria. It is very rare in Africa where it only occurs in Algeria (Sebkha of Misserghin).
164313		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum cespitosum</span> is widespread in Europe, where it develops southwards to central Spain, Corsica and southern Bulgaria. It is very rare in Africa where it only occurs in Algeria (Sebkha of Misserghin). <br/>In the Mediterranean, the species is also found in Bulgaria, Italy, France (widespread but uncommon in France and Corsica), Croatia, Greece, northern Portugal (Castro-Laboreiro and Gerez), and Spain (Atlantic coast, Pyrenees and in some localities in central Spain).
164313		habitat	eng	<em>Kreczetoviczia caespitosa</em> is a densely caespitose or tussock-forming plant, growing in damp and peaty places.
164313		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum cespitosum</span> is a densely caespitose or tussock-forming plant, growing in damp and peaty places.
164313		population	eng	<em>Kreczetoviczia caespitosa</em> is widespread but uncommon in southern Europe and very rare (only one locality in Algeria) in Northern Africa.
164313		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum cespitosum</span> is widespread but uncommon in southern Europe and very rare in North Africa (only one locality in Algeria). It is present in six localities in Croatia, in Spain in more than 100 localities mostly along the northern edge of the country, and throughout France.
164313		threats	eng	Destruction of its habitat is the main threat to this species.
164313		threats	eng	Destruction of its habitat is the main threat to this species (the causes are unknown).
164314		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164314		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus granatensis</em> is a species endemic to Morocco and Spain. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 300,000 km², with numerous locations.
164314		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies and the edges of streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164314		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region with restricted but stable populations. In Morocco, it is fairly common in the High Atlas (between Seksaoua and Glaoua) and in Spain, it is present at several sites concentrated in the north and east of the country.
164314		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164315		conservation	eng	It is protected at national level in France and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of seeds is being carried out by the Mediterranean National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles.
164315		conservation	eng	It is protected at national level in France (referenced in the national list and book of "priority species") and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of seeds is being carried out by the Mediterranean National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but recommended actions are to establish <em>in situ</em> legal conservation measures for the species and its habitat, monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, estimate the population size, monitor the dynamics of the populations, avoid changes to the hydrological cycles of the pools (drainage, infilling), maintain the open vegetation through cutting or grazing and raise public awareness.
164315		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum thymifolia</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is present in Portugal, Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy and Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and it has a doubtful presence in Greece. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is occurring in numerous locations.
164315		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum thymifolia</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is present in Portugal, Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy and Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and it has a doubtful presence in Greece. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its extent of occurrence covers 500,000 km², occurring in numerous locations.
164315		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and the edges of streams, swamps and ponds. It generally grows on siliceous substrata (sandstone, schist, basalts, etc.). Flowering occurs between April and June.
164315		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region, the populations are in slow regression because of the deterioration of their habitat.<br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is present in the Balearic Islands and dispersed in a big part of the peninsula, with the exception of the Cantabrian Ledge. In France, the populations are in very strong regression with risk of local extinctions, especially as this species is on the northern limit of its distribution. It was reported in 12 departments (Allier, Puy-de-Dôme, Haute-Loire, Ardèche, Drôme, Hautes-Alpes, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes), although currently there is only evidence of its presence in three departments (the Hautes-Alpes, the Var and the Hérault). In Italy, it is present in the regions of Puglia and Basilicata, as well as in Sardinia. In Montenegro, it was reported in a few localities, and it is quite common in Croatia.
164315		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region, the populations are in slow regression because of the deterioration of their habitat.<br/>It is rare and threatened in Morocco, found in the pools of the Atlantic plains (Benslimane, El Harcha and Gharb) and of the mountains of the Rif (Melilia and Tangier); quite rare in Algeria, in the Tell region and very rare in Tiaret and Aflou; rare in central Tunisia (Sidi el Han, Sfax, Feriana and between Sousse and Mounastir) and in the Tunisian Dorsal (Ghoumerassen river and Djerba); considered as doubtful in Le Floc'h and Boulos (2009). In Libya, it is present in Aïn Mara (east of Benghazi); Egypt, in the Nile region. <br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is present in the Balearic Islands and dispersed in a big part of the peninsula, with the exception of the Cantabrian Ledge. In France the populations are in very strong regression with risk of local extinctions, especially as this species is on the northern limit of its distribution. It was reported in 12 departments (Allier, Puy-de-Dôme, Haute-Loire, Ardèche, Drôme, Hautes-Alpes, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes), although currently there is only evidence of its presence in three departments (the Hautes-Alpes, the Var and the Hérault). In Italy, it is present in the regions of Puglia and Basilicata, as well as in Sardinia. In Montenego, it was reported in a few localities, and it is quite common in Croatia.
164315		threats	eng	The urbanization, the drainage of pools and ponds, their infilling, agricultural practices, the closing in of sites followed by the dynamics of perennial competitor plants, as well as the high frequency of dry years, are the main threats to this species.
164316		conservation	eng	Lake Oubeira in Algeria, where the species occurs is a designated Ramsar site.<br/>For North Africa it is proposed to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations. etc.
164316		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164316		distribution	eng	<em>N. lutea</em> occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to China. It occurs more or less throughout Europe, except for the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Crete.
164316		distribution	eng	<em>Nuphar lutea</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs almost throughout Europe, except for the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Crete. In North Africa it is only found in Algeria at two locations in Numidia (northeast Algeria around Lake Oubeira), one of which is extinct. North Africa is the extreme southern limit of its distribution area.
164316		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. lutea</span> typically occurs in slow-flowing or standing, mesotrophic or eutrophic water bodies such as ponds, lakes, rivers and canals, it will also occur in oligotrophic conditions.
164316		habitat	eng	This perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb grows in ponds, lakes, rivers, fresh stagnant waters or slow flowing waterways. It prefers an oligotrophic environment and occurs from 0 to 1,500 m.
164316		habitat	eng	This perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb grows in ponds, lakes, rivers, fresh stagnant waters or slow flowing waterways. It prefers an oligotrophic environment and occurs from 0 to 1,500 m. Flowering in Algeria: V-VIII; France, Italy: VI-IX.
164316		population	eng	<em>N. lutea</em> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164316		population	eng	<em>Nuphar lutea</em> has only one population in North Africa, in Algeria. Another nearby population was recently destroyed.<br/>It is abundant in Mediterranean Europe.
164316		population	eng	<em>Nuphar lutea</em> is abundant in Mediterranean Europe. It has only one population in North Africa, in Algeria. Another nearby population was recently destroyed.
164316		threats	eng	In northwest Africa <em>N .lutea</em> is decreasing (one location lost) and only one populations remains and faces therefore a threat of extinction. There are no known threats in Europe for this species.
164316		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164317		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones, legal protection of the species in North Africa (list of protected species in Morocco and Algeria) and to monitor the dynamics of the North African populations.
164317		distribution	eng	<em>Epilobium obscurum</em> is a European species, extending to the Mediterranean basin, Africa and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 2,000,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164317		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid grasslands, springs, peatbogs and streams of siliceous substrate. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164317		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring in several locations. In North Africa its distribution is limited to the mountains of the High Atlas and to the Kabylie. The populations are very restricted due to spatial limitations and their trend is unknown. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, present in two locations in the High Atlas (Oukeïmeden and Tachdirt), and rare in Algeria, present in the Grande and Petite Kabylie, in Numidie and in the Algérois Tellien Atlas.<br/>The species is fairly common in Portugal and Spain, occurring in more than 105 sites; fairly common in nearly all France; quite frequent in Italy and present in eight provinces in addition to Sardinia; present in few localities in Montenegro and in Croatia.
164317		threats	eng	Drainage of the habitat of this species for agricultural purposes is its main threat.
164318		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164318		distribution	eng	<em>Cathissa broteroi</em> is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco. Its distribution covers the west of the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) and the northwest of Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence exceeds 300,000 km² with several locations and an area of occupancy greater than 100 km².
164318		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cathissa broteroi </span>is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte). It is found in open forests, scrubs and grasses, mainly on siliceous soil in littoral areas such as the edges of temporary pools and streams (Martínez-Azorín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).
164318		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region with several locations and stable populations. <br/><br/>In Morocco, the species is quite common with numerous locations distributed at the Rif: Tanger, Tetouan, Ksar el Kebir, Larache, Loukkos, Azilah, El-Krota, Jbel Outka, edges of the stream close to Bâb Mareklo, Beni Zeroual, west catchment of Jbel Outka, Chefchaouen, Bab Taza, oriental face of del Jbel Khizana, Benslimane region, right bank of Oued Nefifikh, Casablanca region and Mamora; <br/>In Portugal, it is also quite common with several locations situated in the regions of the Algarve, Alto Alentejo, Baixo Alentejo, Beira Alta, Beira Baixa, Beira Litoral, Douro Litoral, Estremadura, Minho and Ribatejo. It is common in Spain and present at 53 sites in the west of the country.
164318		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164320		conservation	eng	<em>S. veneta</em> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>In Italy, it is classified as Endangered in the national Red List of the Italian Flora (Conti <em>et al.</em> 1992, Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). According to Scoppola and Spampinato (2005) populations from Sardinia are of doubtful attribution. It is assessed as Data Deficient in the Red Data Book of Croatia (Flora Croatica Database 2004).<br/><br/>Populations are included in the Ramsar site Ortazzo and in the Regional Park of the Po Delta.<br/><br/>Future recommended conservation measures are:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species in Croatia and Slovenia).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.<br/>- Review findings in Sardinia
164320		distribution	eng	<em>Salicornia veneta</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean, extending to the countries Croatia, Italy (Venice lagoon, Po delta, Sardinia) and Slovenia. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) and Arrigoni (2006) <span style="font-style: italic;">S. veneta </span>is present in northeast Italy and in Sardinia in only one locality. The record for Sardinia is doubtful and under study<em>, </em>and has therefore not been taken into account for this assessment.<br/>The species has a very restricted range and the area of occupancy is believed to be less than 500 km². In total, it is not found at more than ten locations.
164320		habitat	eng	<em>Salicornia veneta</em> is an annual species, growing in wet brackish environments, on dunes and muddy beaches submerged in winter.
164320		population	eng	<em>Salicornia veneta</em> is relatively common over its distribution area, although in regression due to human degradation of its coastal habitats.
164320		threats	eng	The brackish environments of the northern Adriatic coast where <em>Salicornia veneta</em> develops are strongly damaged by human activities such as tourism (Croatia and Slovenia) but also industrialisation, aquaculture, urbanisation. Pollution (nitrification) and vegetation succession might also have an impact on the species.<br/><br/>The use of the plant is currently very limited but as the young shoots are harvested this can compromise the species reproductive capabilities. This does not pose a threat at present.
164322		conservation	eng	It is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Endangered in Norway [B1b(ii,iii,iv,v)c(v)+2b(ii,iii,iv,v)c(v)] and as  Vulnerable in Cyprus (D2), Denmark and Switzerland, elsewhere   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164322		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
164322		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
164322		distribution	eng	<p>This species has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, occurring in Africa north and south of the Sahara, including Indian Ocean Islands, from Europe east through Altai, Siberia, the Caucasus, Middle East, throughout the Indian Subcontinent, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the Amur and Primorskye provinces of Far Eastern Russia, China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula and south to Taiwan, Myanmar and Viet Nam. It also occurs in the Molucca Islands and Australia as well as the United States, Mexico and Central and South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe except Ireland and Iceland.</p>
164322		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species, widespread in Africa and tropical Asia.<br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa, Northern Africa, and Southern Africa.  It has been also recorded from Eastern Africa, Tanzania in Moshi district Nyumba Ya Mungu reservoir off Mikocheni, Mpanda district, Lake Tanganyika Karema, Singida district and Lake Kindai. Also in Uganda.<br/><br/>In North-eastern Africa the subspecies <em>Najas marina armata</em> has been recorded from Ethiopia and Egypt (Lake Nasser). This subspecies also found in Namibia, Botswana, South Africa and possibly Swaziland.
164322		distribution	eng	This is a widespread cosmopolitan species which occurs all over the world. Recorded from most countries in Europe and Africa. Also widespread across Asia, and South and North America.
164322		habitat	eng	<em>N. marina</em> is a submerged aquatic plant, living in stagnating or slow waters, strongly mineralized, almost brackish. It is mainly found in waters of high temperature, pH, sulphates and high electrolyte concentrations (or in saline sites). <em>N. marina</em> grows on sand, silt, clay with shells and thick organic matter.<br/><br/><em>Najas marina</em> subsp. <em>armata</em> is mainly found in waters of high temperature,  pH, sulphates and high electrolyte concentrations (or in saline sites). It prefers sand, clay, silt, clay with shells and thick organic matter.
164322		habitat	eng	It grows in ponds,  slow-moving streams and rivers, and lakes. Sometimes it can be seen in paddy fields.
164322		habitat	eng	This species typically grows in mesotrophic to eutrophic water in lakes and ponds.
164322		population	eng	Endangered in Norway and Vulnerable in Cyprus, Denmark and Switzerland, elsewhere populations appear to be reasonably abundant and stable. <br/>It used to be rare in the Czech Republic, and is classified as Critically Endangered, but many new localities have been discovered recently. On the other hand, its populations are mostly unstable and the species shows high fluctuation of frequency of occurrence in time (Kaplan 2010).
164322		population	eng	No information on its global population although it can be found all over the world. It can be dominant in freshwater habitats.<br/><br/><p></p>
164322		population	eng	This is a quite widespread species and presumably an important population.
164322		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been reported.
164322		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164322		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species throughut continental Africa.
164323		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164323		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection in France (Alsace and Rhône-Alpes) but not in any other country. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164323		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum salicaria</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found throughout the globe in North Africa, Europe, and in temperate and tropical Asia. It is introduced and often invasive in Australia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Libya, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km², occurring in numerous locations (in nearly all of the countries).
164323		distribution	eng	<p>Native throughout Europe and North Africa east to China, Japan and Korea, it has been introduced to North America and Australia where it can be extremely invasive. In Europe, it has been recorded from all countries except the Faroe Islands, Gibraltar (UK), Greek Aegean Islands, Crete, Cyprus, Iceland, Monaco, Azores, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
164323		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Chamaephyte to Nanophanerophyte) that inhabits marshes, ditches and canals. It is indifferent to the nature of soil as long as it is not too acidic. Flowering occurs between March and August.
164323		habitat	eng	<p><em>L.&#160;salicaria </em>will occur in various wetland types from river margins and banks, to low-lying seasonally inundated areas in rough pasture, the margins of wet woodland and even seasonally pools. </p>
164323		population	eng	In the Mediterranean region, the populations appear to be stable.
164323		population	eng	<p><em>L.&#160;salicaria</em> is widespread and abundant in most European countries.</p>
164323		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164323		threats	eng	The species' habitat is degrading due to drought as a result of drainage, infilling, water pollution and urbanization. But the species is not threatened yet.
164324		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lythrum thesioides</span> is protected at national level in France.<br/><br/>The species is subject to <em>ex situ</em> conservation. The following conservation measures are being proposed: <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics at the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Experimental management
164324		conservation	eng	The species is subject to <em>ex situ</em> conservation. The following conservation measures are being proposed: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Experimental management
164324		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum thesioides</em> has a predominantly Mediterranean distribution, extending beyond the region only into the Caucasus where there are three old records from the valleys of the Volga and the Don, Russian Central Asia (Mugodzhary) (Tzvelev 2006) and Southern European Russia   <st1:country-region w:st="on"> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010)</st1:country-region>. In Europe it is known from France, Italy and Hungary. It is considered to be Extinct in Italy, Hungary, the Caucasus and Russian  Central Asia.<br/>The area of occupancy is below 500 km².
164324		distribution	eng	This is a subpontic species that occurs mainly in the Caucasus (Russian Federation; lowe valleys of Volga and Don). It has been recorded in France. There are also old records from Italy (two records from the Po plain).
164324		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. thesioides</span> is most typical of seasonally inundated depressions and temporary pools.
164324		habitat	eng	This species is found in post-estival vegetation of temporalily inundated terrains of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Lythrion tribacteati</span>, but its habitat is not well known.
164324		population	eng	In France, it was known from seven localities:<br/><ul><li>Drôme (Pierrelatte)</li><li>Vaucluse (Caderousse and Orange)</li><li>Gard (Tresques, Capelle-et-Masmolène, Meynes and Jonquières-Saint-Vincent)</li></ul>However, the only population seen in recent years in France is at the Etang de la Capelle (Gard) (Grillas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Most populations have not been seen in recent decades. In Italy, the species is considered extinct, with no records since the 19th century. In the Russian Federation the species has also not been seen for a long time. In Hungary, the only records are of a single population from the 1930s-1940s based on herbarium specimens.
164324		population	eng	It occurs at seven localities in France:<br/>- Drôme (Pierrelatte)<br/>- Vaucluse (Caderousse and Orange)<br/>- Gard (Tresques, Capelle-et-Masmolène, Meynes and Jonquières-Saint-Vincent)<br/><br/>Most populations have not been seen for the last decades. In Italy, the species is considered extinct, with no records since the 19th century. In Hungary and the Russian Federation the species has also not been seen for a long time.
164324		threats	eng	The habitats where this species is found are under decline caused by urban and agricultural development. Most of the populations have not been seen for the last decades.
164324		threats	eng	The habitats where this species is found are under decline caused by urban and agricultural development. Most of the populations have not been seen in recent decades.
164325		conservation	eng	None known but it may be within protected areas throughout its range.
164325		conservation	eng	Some sub-populations occur in protected areas. There are no specific measures, except for research, as more  information on the species' threats is needed. As most of the current  information is derived from herbarium specimen, field work is also needed to  gather more information on the size and trends of the populations and  their habitat requirements.
164325		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place except for research, more information on the species' threats is needed. As most of the current information is derived from herbarium specimen, field work is needed to gather more information on the size and trends of the populations and their habitat requirements.
164325		distribution	eng	<em>P. schweinfurthii</em> is closely related to <em>P. lucens</em> and <em>P. illinoensis</em>. It is more widespread than formerly assumed. <br/><br/>It definitely occurs in East Africa and North Africa. However, the exact geographical delimitation from <em>P. lucens</em> is unknown, in particular in the Atlantic Islands, the Mediterranean and southwest Asia. Transitional forms of unknown status are known e.g. from Palestine, Greece, and Iraq.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the occurrence of <em>P. schweinfurthii</em> is restricted to Egypt (with records from the Nile Delta, Ismailia Canal and Lake Nasser). The records from the Nile Delta and Ismailia canal are very old, and recent searches did not find the species at these two sites. The species persists in Lake Nasser, and also in the river Nile at Aswan.<br/><br/>According to Kaplan (2005) the species is present, in the Mediterranean area, in the following sites: Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Kefallinia and Crete. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) the species is reported for Sardinia. Recently the species is also found in several Italian peninsula sites from Tuscany to the south (Lastrucci comm. pers.). Its presence in Portugal needs to be confirmed.
164325		distribution	eng	<em>P. schweinfurthii</em> is closely related to <em>P. lucens</em> and <em>P.  illinoensis</em>. It is more widespread than formerly assumed. <br/><br/>It  definitely occurs in East Africa and North Africa. However, the exact  geographical delimitation from <em>P. lucens</em> is unknown, in  particular in the Atlantic Islands, the Mediterranean and southwest  Asia. Transitional forms of unknown status are known e.g. from  Palestine, Greece, and Iraq.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the occurrence of <em>P.  schweinfurthii</em> is restricted to Egypt (with records from the Nile  Delta, Ismailia Canal and Lake Nasser). The records from the Nile Delta  and Ismailia canal are very old, and recent searches did not find the  species at these two sites. The species persists in Lake Nasser, and  also in the river Nile at Aswan.<br/><br/>According to Kaplan (2005) the  species is present, in the Mediterranean area, in the following sites:  Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Kefallinia and Crete. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) the species is  reported for Sardinia. Recently the species is also found in several  Italian peninsula sites from Tuscany to the south (Lastrucci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Its presence in Portugal needs to be confirmed.
164325		distribution	eng	It is found in Africa, Mediterranean Island to Arabian Peninsula.<br><br>Plant widespread in Africa. Found from Western Africa to the East and down to southern Africa. Also recorded from Algeria, Libya and Tunisia.
164325		habitat	eng	<em>P. schweinfurthii</em> occurs mainly in habitats with water of high phosphates, moderate bicarbonates, low sulphates and with hydrosoil of low potassium. It is found in permanent as well as seasonal wetlands and most collections come from standing water such as lakes and water reservoirs.
164325		habitat	eng	<em>P. schweinfurthii</em> occurs mainly in habitats with water of high phosphates, moderate bicarbonates, low sulphates and with hydrosoil of low potassium. It is found in permanent wetlands and most collections come from standing water such as lakes and water reservoirs.
164325		habitat	eng	Perennial aquatic herb, submerged in lakes, ponds, swamps, but also streams.  In static or slow-moving water. Also growing in lakes and dams.
164325		population	eng	This species is rare in the Mediterranean presumably as it reaches the  edge of its range there (Kaplan 2005). According to the herbarium  specimen analysed by Kaplan the species is found at one site in Crete,  one site in Kefallonia, four sites in Corsica and one site in Malta. It  is found in five to six sites in Italy (Sardinia and Tuscany) (B.  Foggi pers. comm. 2010). The population trend is unknown.
164325		population	eng	This species is rare in the Mediterranean presumably as it reaches the edge of its range there (Kaplan 2005). According to the herbarium specimen analysed by Kaplan the species is found at one site in Crete, one site in Kefallonia, four sites in Corsica and one site in Malta. It is found in five to six sites in Italy (Sardinia and Tuscany) (Bruno Foggi, pers. comm. 2010). The population trend is unknown.
164325		population	eng	Widespread, perennial, rooted and submerged species, important population.
164325		threats	eng	Changes in hydrological regimes, drainage, water extraction and sand extraction are the main threats for this species.
164325		threats	eng	No widespread threats have been identified.
164325		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown.
164326		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
164326		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place. The one remaining locality in Algeria is part of a Ramsar site, but nevertheless threats continue to impact this population. <br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Protection of the sites with a backing the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness
164326		conservation	eng	The species is present In numerous Protected Areas, i.e.,  Lochinvar National Park and North Luangwa National Park in Zambia. Also, the one remaining locality of this species  in Algeria is part of a Ramsar site, but nevertheless threats continue to impact this population.
164326		distribution	eng	<em>Marsilea minuta</em> is a species with a mostly tropical distribution. It is present in tropical Africa (Senegal, Mauritania, Chad, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Benin, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Madagascar, Comoros), tropical countries of Asia (India, Malaysia), Canary Islands and in the southern Mediterranean. <br/>The Mediterranean region constitutes the northern limit of the species, its distribution is discontinuous. It is found in Morocco (low valley of the Loukkos), Algeria (La Cale in Numidia; Fort de l’Eau near Algiers; Le Corso where it is presumed extinct), Egypt (Baharia), Israel (extinct), Palestine and Jordan. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence is about 1,500,000 km².
164326		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Marsilea minuta</span> is widely common in almost all the states of India. It is also widely distributed in tropical Africa and Asia (Cook 1996). In the New World, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. minuta</span> is known only from Trinidad and Tobago, and Pernambuco, Brazil, where it grows at low elevations near the coast in fresh water or occasionally in brackish water (Trinidad) on sandy or clay substrates. In eastern Trinidad this species has formed a colony that extends for several kilometres in a coastal coconut strip, but it is also found in a nearby swamp as well. In northeastern Brazil the plants have been collected in seasonal ponds. <span style="font-style: italic;">Marsilea minuta</span>  is a weedy, common, and widely distributed plant in Africa and India; its rarity in the New World may indicate that it was introduced only recently (Johnson 1986).</p>
164326		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in tropical Africa from Morroco to Angola, including Madagascar and Zambia.<br/><br/>In Northern Africa <em>M. crenulata</em> it is mentioned for the Tibesti Mountains in the south of Libya by De Mire and Quezel (1959). It is found in Morocco (low valley of the Loukkos), Algeria (La Cale in Numidia; Fort de l’Eau near Algiers; Le Corso where it is presumed extinct), Egypt (Baharia). Also recorded from Sudan and Somalia.<br/><br/>It is also widespread in western Africa, found in Benin and Burkina Faso and further east to Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In Central Africa, the species has been met in Democratic Republic of Congo: forestier central (Gbo sassa), Ubangui-Uélé (Baya-Pandu), Lacs Edouard et Kivu (Rutshuru), haut katanga (Upemba national park). In Rwanda, it has been met at Nyamata, cohoha lake and Bugesera. In Burundi, the species is known at Bujumbura in the Rusizi plain and at Randa in the province of Bubanza. Kenya - The fern is widespread in Kenya. It is found in Machakos, Isiolo, Tsavo and Coast. In Malawi it is known from Domas in Zomba, and Likoma Islands on Lake Malawi.
164326		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in shallow pools, at the edges of rivers, canals and ditches and in rice fields. It is most abundant in temporarily flooded places where it may form large and dense colonies which can become locally dominant. It tolerates considerable organic pollution and sporocarps develops as the water recedes (Cook 1996).</p>
164326		habitat	eng	The species is found in temporary, shallow oligotrophic pools, on the edges of rivers, rocks underneath waterfalls, in water holes, in seasonally dried up river beds, in seasonally flooded grassland depressions, in rice fields, in sublittoral marshes and swamps in shallow, slow-flowing backwaters, exposed or partially shaded.<br/>It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizome). The opening of the sporocarpes and the fertilization takes place under a weak water blade, or even on saturated soil. It occurs in shallow pools and it prefers sub-humid to temperate/warm Mediterranean climate with mild or warm winters. This aquatic fern grows on more or less peaty soils, based on clay colluvium of lake Tonga. It is associated at the time of fruiting (formation of sporocarps) with <em>Cyperus michelianus</em>, <em>Lippia nodiflora</em> and <em>Paspalum distichum</em>. One sub-population is located at the edge of an alder.
164326		habitat	eng	This aquatic fern grows on more or less peaty soils, based on clay colluvium of lake Tonga. It is associated at the time of fruiting (formation of sporocarps) with <em>Cyperus michelianus</em>, <em>Lippia nodiflora</em> and <em>Paspalum distichum</em>. One sub-population is located at the edge of an alder.<br/><br/>It is found in temporary, shallow oligotrophic pools, on the edges of rivers, rocks underneath waterfalls, in water holes, in seasonally dried up river beds, in seasonally flooded grassland depressions, in rice fields, in sublittoral marshes and swamps in shallow, slow-flowing backwaters, exposed or partially shaded.<br/>It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizome). The opening of the sporocarpes and the fertilization takes place under a weak water blade, or even on saturated soil. It occurs shallow pools and it prefers subhumid to temperate/warm Mediterranean climate with mild or warm winters.
164326		population	eng	<p>This is a widespread common species.</p>
164326		population	eng	The populations are restricted and very fragile in the Mediterranean region but very abundant in Western and Central Africa. Fairly rare in North Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>Very rare in Morocco and in Algeria (three localities previously known; now extinct at two of these; currently only two small subpopulations known at one locality), and it is restricted to one site in Egypt. Its status is not known in Israel. . They know a reduction following the destruction from some sites in the Maghreb (case of Le Corso in Algeria where the populations are presumed extinct).
164326		population	eng	The species is very rare in Morocco and in Algeria (three localities previously known; now extinct at two of these; currently only two small subpopulations known at one locality), and it is restricted to one site in Egypt. It is extinct in Israel. The populations are restricted and very fragile in the Mediterranean region. They know a reduction following the destruction from some sites in the Maghreb (case of Le Corso in Algeria where the populations are presumed extinct).
164326		threats	eng	Drainage of wetlands, the extension of agriculture, overgrazing, groundwater extraction, land pollution (agriculture and domestic), the development of urban amenities and the increasing frequency of droughts (climate change) are the main threats identified to the habitat of this species. <br/>Other threats are bound to the populations who are at their northern distribution limit in the Mediterranean. Their geographical and genetic isolation, resulting from their weak capacity of dispersal and habitat disruption, could increase the risk of extinction on the long-term.
164326		threats	eng	No specific threats to the species have been identified.
164326		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
164327		conservation	eng	In France, <em>B. ranunculoides</em> is protected at regional level (Haute-Normandie, Champagne-Ardenne, Bourgogne, Franche-Comté, Ile-de-France). <br/>It is Critically Endangered in Croatia and in Italy. <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164327		conservation	eng	<p><em>B. ranunculoides</em> is apparently Extinct in Sicily and Slovenia, it is red listed as follows:</p>  <ul><li>Critically Endangered in Croatia, Italy and Switzerland;</li><li>Endangered in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden (although it may be extinct in Poland);</li><li>Vulnerable in Albania;</li><li>Near Threatened in Denmark, the Balearic Islands (Spain) and the UK;</li><li>Least Concern in France, Ireland, Portugal and Spain. </li></ul>        <p>However, in France it is protected in the following Departments:   Haute-Normandie, Champagne-Ardenne, Bourgogne, Franche-Comté and Ile de France. </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
164327		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164327		distribution	eng	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a western-Mediterranean and sub-Atlantic species, with its distribution centre located in western Europe.<br/><br/>In North Africa the species occurs in Algeria, where it is relatively common in the coastal mountains of Alger and Constantine regions, in Lybia, in Morocco near the Gibraltar strait, and it is found in Tunisia but rare.
164327		distribution	eng	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a western-Mediterranean and sub-Atlantic species, with its distribution centre located in western Europe. It occurs westwards along the Atlantic coast to Britain, southern Norway, southern Sweden and Gotland, southwards to the southern Mediterranean coast and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations developed in the Azores, in Spain, Portugal, at the French Mediterranean coast, in the Rhône valley in France, in Corsica, in southern Italy (south of Dalmatia, Sardinia and Sicily), in Croatia and in Argolide (Greece). <br/>In North Africa the species occurs in Algeria, where it is relatively common in the coastal mountains of Alger and Constantine regions, in Libya, in Morocco near the Gibraltar strait, and it is found in Tunisia but rare.<br/>This species can also be found at three sites in Turkey, in Syria, and in Lebanon around Beyrouth.
164327		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. ranunculoides</em> occurs from the Azores and Canary Islands through North Africa north to Sweden and east to Turkey and Syria. It is most abundant on the Atlantic Arc, in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Ireland and the United Kingdom, it is limited to a narrow coastal strip in North Africa and populations become sparse and more scattered to the east.   There is doubt of the occurrence of this species in the Baltic States (Kozlowski <em>et al</em>. 2009) and while there are populations in the extreme west of the European part of Russia, records from Lithuania and Belarus are in error for small terrestrial plants of <em>Alisma gramineum</em> (Tzvelev 2001).</p>
164327		habitat	eng	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a herbaceous perennial Helophyte, which typically occurs along the edge of shallow meso-oligotrophic lakes, ponds, reservoirs and pools, on the shorelines of slow streams, in marshes, fens, brackish dune pools and temporary slacks, summer dried bogs. It can also be found in more anthropogenic or disturbed habitats such as ditches, canals, flooded quarries, man-made dune wetlands, abandoned peat-drains and cuttings, fish ponds, and temporary flooded fields.
164327		habitat	eng	<em>B. ranunculoides</em> typically occurs along the margins of shallow meso-oligotrophic lakes, ponds, reservoirs and pools, on the shorelines of slow streams, in marshes, fens, brackish dune slacks and bog pools. It can also be found in more anthropogenic or disturbed habitats such as ditches, canals, flooded quarries, man-made dune wetlands, abandoned peat-drains and cuttings, fish ponds, and temporary flooded fields.
164327		population	eng	<em>B. ranunculoides</em> is rather rare and declining over its entire distribution area, while much rarer in North Africa, where the general decline of wetlands allows suspecting a strong decline of its populations.
164327		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. ranunculoides</span> appears to be declining throughout most of its European range, with healthy populations remaining only in its strongholds of Portugal, Spain, France, the United Kingdom and Ireland. The following breakdown is taken from Kozlowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009).<br/><ul><li>Albania - only two highly isolated populations. </li><li>Belgium - extinct in numerous districts, rare to very rare in Maritime, Kampen and Flander districts.</li><li>Croatia - still occurs in about eight localities, undergoing a strong decline. </li><li>Denmark - still present in numerous localities, however declining in many areas.</li><li>Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania - it is not possible to be certain that <em>B. ranunculoides</em> ever occurred in these Baltic states but if it did then it is now extinct.</li><li>France - still present and locally abundant in several departments in Atlantic and central regions (Normandie, Bretagne, Pays-de-la-Loire, Poitou, Lande, etc.) although there is some evidence of a decline. It is rare to very rare in other departments, especially in the southern and eastern regions (Picardie, Ile-de-France, Champagne, Bourgogne, Dombes, Hautes-Alpes).</li><li>France, Corsica - scattered throughout the island but restricted to low altitudes close to the coast and therefore vulnerable to anthropogenic changes.</li><li>Germany - extinct in many federal states and decreasing in practically all regions. Some new rediscoveries (Rügen) and successful conservation efforts (Nordrhein-Westfalen) have not reversed the general decline.</li><li>Greece - previously known from only one population. Recently discovered in several new localities, now known from a total of 12 localities, however all of these are isolated and under strong anthropogenic pressure.</li><li>Ireland - Widespread and abundant in the west, although there have been some losses. </li><li>Italy - extinct in many regions and decreasing in the others, some populations are highly isolated. </li><li>Italy, Sardinia - known from only few and isolated localities close to the coast and therefore, vulnerable to anthropogenic changes.</li><li>Montenegro - only one known population discovered in 2001 in Lake Skadar. </li><li>Netherlands - very scattered, but still present in several localities, some successful conservation efforts have not reversed the general decline.</li><li>Poland - 3 historic records in the northwest around Wolin Island, now considered to be extinct.</li><li>Portugal - widespread and abundant in many areas, however there are reports of local declines. </li><li>Portugal, Azores - very rare, with only one population present on Terceira but probably not native.</li><li>Italy, Sicily - known from only one highly isolated locality in the south of the island, now considered extinct.</li><li>Slovenia - known from only one locality, now considered extinct.</li><li>Spain - widespread and abundant in many areas, however there are reports of local declines. </li><li>Spain, Balearic - still present in several islands sites on Menorca and Mallorca.</li><li>Spain, Canary Islands - no recent data available, probably extinct.</li><li>Sweden - still present in numerous localities in coastal regions in the south of the country. </li><li>Switzerland - lost from all but four populations around the Lake Neuchâtel (3 of them seriously threatened); more than 90% of historical populations have been lost. </li><li>Turkey - known from only one population in European Turkey.</li><li>  United Kingdom - widespread and locally abundant, particularly in the south-west and Wales but undergoing a significant decline throughout southern and eastern England.</li></ul>
164327		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>.
164327		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>B. ranunculoides</em>.
164328		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas.
164328		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupyied areas, etc.
164328		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> is a circumboreal species occurring from west Siberia to Lake Baikal, south Greenland, North America, central and northern Europe <br/><br/>In africa it is present in Morocco as subspecies <em>eu-squarrosus</em> Maire & Weiller at the Middle Rif Mountains. Very rare to Isagen valley at an altitude of 1,400 - 1,600 m above sea level.
164328		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> is a circumboreal species occurring from west Siberia to Lake Baikal, south Greenland, North America, central and northern Europe where it is found in France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Croatia. In North Africa, it is present in Morocco as subspecies <em>eu-squarrosus</em> Maire & Weiller at the Middle Rif Mountains (very rare to Isagen valley at an altitude of 1,400 - 1,600 m).
164328		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> is a perennial species that is found in wet meadows on acid grounds of mountains, peat bogs and <em>Sphagnetum</em>, from 100 - 1,600 m. In Europe it also grows in moorland and damp heaths (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1964).
164328		population	eng	In Spain, there are several hundred localities; it is common in central and northern France but rare in the south, and it is very rare in northwest Italy. It is listed as Data Deficient in Croatia.<br/>In Morocco, its area is limited to one locality in the Rif, where its AOO is less than 2 km².
164328		population	eng	Its area is limited to Morocco with one locality in the Rif, where its AOO is less than 2 km² in very fragmented populations. Only one locality for <em>Juncus squarrosus</em> was reported (Maire 1957).
164328		threats	eng	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> seems to be present in the Mediterranean region only accidentally. So, the few populations scattered in Italy or Morocco are very threatened. In Morocco, the draining of the marshy meadows constitutes the main threat towards this species.
164329		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164329		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but conservation of the habitat and monitoring of the existing locations have been suggested as possible actions.
164329		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to manage the cutting of the rush, to conserve its habitat and to monitor the existing locations as well as the population dynamics.
164329		distribution	eng	<em>J. acutus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering western and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores and Cape Verde. It is known from several localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Crete, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia, and Sicily.
164329		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering western and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde. In Northern Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt. Also recorded from the southern part of South Africa (Free State, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Namibia, and Lesotho.
164329		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering western and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde. It is known from several localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.
164329		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a perennial plant (Geophyte), growing in saline swamps, banks of rivers, and pools more or less brackish. Its flowering time is July-September.
164329		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a perennial plant (Geophyte), growing in saline swamps, banks of rivers, and pools more or less brackish. Its flowering time is July-September. It provides shelter for some species of birds and small mammals.
164329		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a vivacious plant (Geophyte), growing in saline swamps, banks of rivers, and pools more or less brackish. Its flowering time is July-September. It provides shelter for some species of birds and small mammals.
164329		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">J. acutus</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European distribution.
164329		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable.
164329		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable on the Mediterranean scale.
164329		threats	eng	Drought due to drainage and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species. Overall the species is very widespread and their populations are not in decline.
164329		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164330		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, the following actions are being proposed:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Algeria and Morocco)<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- Study of the dynamic of populations
164330		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis squarrosa</em> is a tropical and subtropical species, rare in Algeria and Morocco, and naturalised in Italy.<br/>Its global distribution includes South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela), Oceania (Australia, New Zealand), Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Nigeria, Sudan) and Asia (China, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Lao People Democratic Republic, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam).<br/><br/>In Algeria, the species is found in the northeast around Annaba and El Kala. In Morrocco, in the North Atlantic plains.
164330		habitat	eng	<em>Fimbristylis squarrosa</em> is a perennial species growing in damp and wet places. It occurs on the edges of ponds and peatland soils.
164330		population	eng	<em>Fimbristylis squarrosa</em> is rare in Algeria and Morocco, but can be locally abundant.
164330		threats	eng	Destruction of its habitat due to agriculture and human settlements, drainage, and in-filling are the major threats to this species. In Algeria, the habitat is under severe pressure, even though there is officially a national park, and the species might disappear very quickly.
164331		conservation	eng	Further studies on the taxonomy is needed. Detailed surveys to establish distribution and monitoring of populations and habitats recommended. Conservation of the habitat is also highly essential for the species.
164331		conservation	eng	There are no existing conservation measures. Recommended actions are:<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics <br/>- Reduce habitat loss through the implementation of legal protection measures
164331		distribution	eng	<em>Ammannia senegalensis</em> is an Afrotropical species that occurs in Ethiopia, Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and other countries. <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers around 300,000 km², occurring in more than 20 sites.
164331		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species in widespread in Africa. In North Africa the populations appear to be stable. In Libya, it is present in the Ghat region in the west of the country. In Egypt, it is present along the Mediterranean coast, the Nile delta, in the oases of the western Desert and doubtfully in the Sinai Peninsula. In subsaharian Africa, it has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan, Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Sudan, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Central African Republic, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Angola,&#160; northern Namibia, northern South Africa.<br/><br/>In India the form <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammannia</span><em> senegalensis</em><em> indica </em>is confined to Nasik, Satara and Pune districts of Maharshtra in India (Diwakar&#160;2001).
164331		habitat	eng	It is a herbaceous annual. It is found in open, moist places and regularly inundated marshy places (Cook 1996, Diwakar 2001). It flowers in summer.
164331		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found on sandy and silty-sandy soils of temporary marshes. Flowering occurs during summer.
164331		population	eng	In North Africa the populations appear to be stable. In Libya, it is present in the Ghat region in the west of the country. In Egypt, it is present along the Mediterranean coast, the Nile delta, in the oases of the western Desert and doubtfully in the Sinai Peninsula.
164331		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. However, Cook (1996) reported decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammannia senegalensis</span> in its natural habitat in India. According to Cook this species was persisting until at least 1948 in Pune and Satara. The present status is not known. It is widespread in Africa.
164331		threats	eng	Large scale land&#160;conversions for urbanization and extension of agricultural practices could be potential threats to the species although further studies need to confirm whether this is producing a population decline or not.
164331		threats	eng	The agricultural expansion along the Nile delta and the use of herbicides are the main threats to this species.
164332		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size, and to enforce legal protection measures.
164332		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum acutangulum</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is found in the western Mediterranean countries Morocco and Algeria, Spain, continental France, with a doubtful presence in Corsica, Italy, Sicily, and Malta. Its extent of occurrence covers over 100,000 km², within which it is present in numerous locations.
164332		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that is found in humid habitats of plains and low mountains such as pools, marshes, water courses. It is indifferent to the nature of soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164332		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable. In Spain, it is found in 45 provinces (14 regions). The species occurs at more than ten localities in France.
164332		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the same as those that generally threaten wetlands: drainage, infilling and urbanization.
164333		conservation	eng	In Crete, one of the subpopulations lies within the National Forest Park of Samaria and within the NATURA 2000 site of Lefka Ori. Most of the rest of the subpopulations at Chania district lie within the NATURA 2000 site Elos - Topolia - Sasalos - Agios Dikaios. The subpopulations on Idi Mountains and Dikti Mountains lies within the NATURA 2000 sites of Idi Oros and Dikti: Oropedio Lasithiou, Katharo, Selena, Krasi, Selekanos.<br/>In Cyprus, most of the recorded locations lie within the Natura 2000 sites of the National Forest Park of Troodos and of Koilada Kedron - Kampos.<br/>No specific conservation measures have been taken and no further measures are needed.
164333		distribution	eng	<em>Carex troodi</em> is an endemic of the mountains of Cyprus and Crete.<br/><br/>In Crete, it has been found at<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>c. 11 locations (confirmed during the last 20 years) which correspond to c. 8-10 subpopulations: <br/>•&#160;&#160;&#160; in the district of Chania with several locations: Elos, Fasas, Sfakia etc., especially in the phyllite area west of the Lefka Ori Mountains<br/>•&#160;&#160;&#160; in the Idi mountain range at two locations: Idaion Andron and above Kamares<br/>•&#160;&#160;&#160; in the Dikti mountain range, one recent location has been recorded in the Katharo plateau but it may also occur elsewhere.<br/>The area of occupancy in Crete corresponds to 52 km<sup>2</sup> (2x2 km grid) and to 160 km<sup>2</sup> (4x4 km grid) in Cyprus. The total area of occupancy is therefore clearly below the threshold of 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>In Cyprus, there are records from several localities (few of them recently confirmed), but it most probably occurs at several more localities at water courses throughout Troodos Mountain range. Based on these records, there are roughly seven to eight subpopulations corresponding to seven to eight locations at central Troodos (Kouris river and its tributaries, Kryos Potamos river, Makounta river, Kargotis river and its tributaries, and Xerokolympos river) and one location at Dasos Pafou (Xeros river at Tripylos-Cedar Valley).
164333		habitat	eng	<em>Carex troodi</em> is a perennial caespitose sedge growing along streams and water courses, at springs, fens and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus</span> woods.
164333		population	eng	In Crete, the species is known from a few, more or less permanent, wet sites. It is always confined to small areas due to its habitat requirements. Some of the occurrences consist of few plants only, others of several hundreds of individuals. There is no data on the stability of the subpopulations. <br/>In Cyprus, the species occurs at riparian wet grasslands where it forms small colonies (only a few tenths of individuals at each location due to the small width of the available habitat). The suitable habitat is restricted to the river parts with higher water volume of Troodos range. There is no more data on the size or the stability of the subpopulations.
164333		threats	eng	In Crete, locally and particularly on Idi, grazing might pose a threat. Apart from that, about half of the locations are close to villages and cultivations, so the water courses may be affected by human activities such as waste disposal or change of hydromorphology. Some of the populations are impacted by drainage.<br/>In Cyprus, the habitat of the subpopulations at the higher altitudes upstream of the water reservoirs is apparently not threatened. At the river parts downstream of the reservoirs and also at the lower altitudes (close to cultivations and villages) the habitat of the species is degraded due to changes in the hydromorphology of the riv<span style="background-color: white;">ers such as the construction of dams.</span>
164335		conservation	eng	<em>M. verticillatum</em> is classed as Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable (A2c) in the United  Kingdom and Near Threatened in Norway and Switzerland. In France, <em>M. verticillatum</em> is protected at regional level in Basse-Normandie, but otherwise, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.  .
164335		conservation	eng	In France, <em>M. verticillatum</em> is protected at regional level (Basse-Normandie), but no further protection of this species is known for other countries. The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the sub-populations.<br/>- Management of water quality and tourism development.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species
164335		conservation	eng	In France, <em>M. verticillatum</em> is protected at regional level in Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Basse-Normandie. In Italy, it is classed as Endangered in Marche;   Vulnerable in Tuscany, Umbria, Molise and Basilicata; and Lower Risk in Trentino and<st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state> Lazio (</span>Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). N</span>o further protection of this species is known for other countries. The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the sub-populations.<br/>- Management of water quality and tourism development.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species
164335		distribution	eng	<em>M. verticillatum</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, occurring from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Caucasus, the Middle East, northern Pakistan, &#160;Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia, to Kamchatka and the Russian Far East, and throughout northern and western North America. It occurs throughout Europe, from Scandinavia to the Iberian Peninsula and east to North European Russia, Belarus, the Ukraine and Turkey in Europe.
164335		distribution	eng	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan circumboreal species, present in the Mediterranean basin, especially in its western part. Its North African distribution includes Algeria, where it is common in the entire country, and Morocco where it is present in more than ten locations distributed between the northern Atlantic coast (Gharb plain, Benslimane, Oued Fouarat, Merja Bokka) and the Middle-Atlas (Aguelmame Azegza, lac Sidi Ali, Ifrah, Wiwan, dayat Achlaf). <br/>In the Mediterranean, it also occurs in Spain (widespread but uncommon), France (widespread), Portugal (between Douro and Tejo), Greece, and Italy where it is present in all the territory (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place>  <br/><br/>The species is furthermore found in North America (Canada, United States), Japan and northern Europe.
164335		distribution	eng	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan circumboreal species, present in the Mediterranean basin, especially in its western part. The species is also found in North America (Canada, United States), Japan and Europe (Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Poland, Romania, Russia).<br/><br/>Its North African distribution includes Algeria, where it is common in the entire country, and Morocco where it is present in more than 10 locations (Area of Occupancy >10 km²) distributed between the northern Atlantic coast (Gharb plain, Benslimane, Oued Fouarat, Merja Bokka) and the Middle-Atlas (Aguelmame Azegza, lac Sidi Ali, Ifrah, Wiwan, dayat Achlaf).
164335		habitat	eng	<em>M. verticillatum</em> typically grows in clear or slightly turbid, still or slowly flowing calcareous water in lakes, streams, canals and ditches, including open water in fens.
164335		habitat	eng	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is a free-floating, submerged, perennial aquatic plant which grows in ponds, streams and shallow lakes of lowlands and small mountains.
164335		population	eng	<em>M. verticillatum</em> is classed as Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable (A2c) in the United Kingdom and Near Threatened in Norway and Switzerland, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
164335		population	eng	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is rather common in the Mediterranean, with numerous locations and an AOO >2,000 km². The population dynamics are unknown.
164335		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164335		threats	eng	The destruction of wetlands by draining, agricultural development and water pollution are the main threats in northern Africa.
164336		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; protection of the species' habitat throughout the Mediterranean is needed.
164336		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus littoralis</em> is a Mediterranean-Touranian species. It is found in Algeria, Egypt, Israel, southeast Spain, southern France, Italy, Greece, Crete, Black Sea coasts, Albania, Bulgaria, the Balkans, and Turkey (Boulos 2005).<br/><br/>In North Africa, <em>J. littoralis</em> is found in Egypt along the Mediterranean coast, in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the desert east of the Nile, except Sinai. In Algeria it is noted from only one locality near Algiers as <em>J. acutus</em> var. <em>tommasinii</em> (Parl.) Arcang. = <em>J. tommasinii</em> Parl. (1852) which is probably destroyed.
164336		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus littoralis</em> is a Mediterranean-Touranian species. It is found in Algeria, Egypt, Palestine, Israel, northeast Spain, southern France, northern Italy, Greece, Crete, Black Sea coasts, Albania, Bulgaria, the Balkans, Turkey, south and southwest Caspian area, and southern Anatolia (Boulos 2005).<br/><br/>In North Africa, <em>J. littoralis</em> is found in Egypt along the Mediterranean coast, in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the desert east of the Nile, except Sinai. In Algeria it is noted from only one locality near Algiers as <em>J. acutus</em> var. <em>tommasinii</em> (Parl.) Arcang. = <em>J. tommasinii</em> Parl. (1852) which is probably destroyed.
164336		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus littoralis</em> is a perennial species. In Egypt it is found on wet sandy soils, often saline in interdunal depressions, fields, banks of canals (Boulos 2005). Typically restricted to wet saline coastal grasslands on sandy substrates, a habitat type which is seriously threatened throughout the Mediterranean.
164336		population	eng	Only present in Egypt throughout Africawhere populations are important. It is almost missing in western North Africa (only 1 site in Algeria where it is possibly extinct). The population is declining as a result of loss of coastal sand dune habitat.
164336		population	eng	The species is generally rare in the western Mediterranean; also rare in Turkey and Greece. In the Northern Mediterranean region <em>J. littoralis</em> is present in southeast Spain, southern France (not observed by Coste 1980), noted from only one locality in Corsica by Jeanmonod and Gamisans (2007), is common in northern Italy along the Adriatic coast, rare in southern Italy and Sicily (Pignatti 1997).<br/>The only place where it is rather common is in Egypt. It is almost missing in western North Africa (only 1 site in Algeria where it is possibly extinct). The population is declining as a result of loss of coastal sand dune habitat.
164336		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>J. littoralis</em> is threatened in the Mediterranean region by the intense urban and agricultural development along the coastline and in the dune systems.
164337		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species due to its stable and numerous populations.
164337		distribution	eng	<em>Polypogon viridis</em> is a subtropical species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands). It has naturalized in America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km² and it has an AOO >2,000 km².
164337		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in pools, ditches, rice fields, along streams and irrigation canals and in wetlands of plains and mountains up to 1,600 m in altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn. The plant is not used and it is considered a weed.
164337		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. The populations appear to be stable. It is listed as Data Deficient in the Red Data Book of Croatia.
164337		threats	eng	Agriculture, drainage, urbanization and the development of road infrastructures are the main threats to the habitat for this species, but it does not affect the species survival.
164338		conservation	eng	In Europe, several conservation measures are in place: <br/>The species is under regional protection in France, in Alsace, Lorraine, Bourgogne, Picardie, Franche-Comté, and Ile-de-France. <br/>In Corsica, a Natural Reserve designation for three ponds in Tre Padules of Suartone is in planning. The species is classified as Vulnerable in the Italian National Red List (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) and the Sicilian sites are included within the perimeter of a Regional Park.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species under the list of protected species of Maghreb <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas<br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures<br/>- Raising public awareness
164338		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species under the list of protected species of Maghreb <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas<br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures<br/>- Raising public awareness
164338		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. alterniflorum</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable in Italy and rare in the Netherlands (J. Bruinsma pers. comm. 2010), it is also the subject of regional protection in France (Alsace, Lorraine, Burgundy, Picardie and Ile de France), otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164338		distribution	eng	<em>M. alterniflorum</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia an central Asia to the Russian Far east, as well as North Africa and northern and eastern North America. In Europe, it occurs throughout the north, but is less frequent in the south and Mediterranean and is absent from the Balkans.
164338		distribution	eng	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> is a species with a large geographical distribution. It is known in Europe, North Africa and North America. At Mediterranean scale it is found in France and Corsica, Spain and Portugal (scattered in the whole peninsula), Italy (Lombardy, Lazio, Sila, Sicily and Sardinia), <br/><br/>Tunisia (Madjen Choucha, Sejnane, Ichkeul), Algeria (Kabylie and Algiers) and Morocco (Benslimane, Jbel Outka, Issaguene). <br/><br/>It is considered very rare in Morocco and rare in Algeria. Its extent of occurrence in North Africa goes beyond 280,000 km² with an area of occupancy of about 600 km². At the scale of the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is about 980,000 km² and the AOO exceeds 2,000 km².
164338		distribution	eng	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> is a species with a large geographical distribution. It is known in Europe, North Africa and North America. At Mediterranean scale it is found in France and Corsica, Spain and Portugal (scattered in the whole peninsula), Italy with Sicily and Sardinia, Tunisia (Madjen Choucha, Sejnane, Ichkeul), Algeria (Kabylie and Algiers) and Morocco (Benslimane, Jbel Outka, Issaguene). <br/>It is considered very rare in Morocco, rare in Algeria and vulnerable in Italy. At the scale of the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is about 980,000 km² and the area of occupancy exceeds 2,000 km².
164338		habitat	eng	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> grows in temporary pools, peat bogs, lakes, mountain ponds and rivers with very clear, cold waters (<20°C), on very soft, acidic to pH-neutral soil and exposed to intense light (heliophile species). It is a Hydrophyte species that germinates under water or on saturated soils in February-March and blooms out of water in spring. Together with the sexual reproduction, the plant shows a vegetative multiplication during the aquatic phase, that facilitates the colonization of new spaces by fragmentation and taking off cuttings.
164338		habitat	eng	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> grows in the temporary pools, peatbogs, lakes, mountain ponds and rivers with very clear, cold waters (<20°C), on very soft, acidic to pH-neutral soil and exposed to intense light (heliophile species). It is a Hydrophyte species that germinates under water or on saturated soils in February-March and blooms out of water in spring. Together with the sexual reproduction, the plant shows a vegetative multiplication during the aquatic phase, that facilitates the colonization of new spaces by fragmentation and taking off cuttings.
164338		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. alterniflorum</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable in Italy and rare in the Netherlands (J. Bruinsma pers. comm. 2010), otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164338		population	eng	The North African populations are found in an increasingly deteriorated context. Therefore, they show a bigger decline than in Mediterranean Europe. <br/><br/>- In Morocco, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> has been found in 14 ponds along the Atlantic plains (Benslimane) and in the mountainous region of the Rif. The anthropogenic pressure is high on these sites. <br/>- In Algeria, the species is considered as rare: the sites where <em>M. alterniflorum</em> is present are few (less than 10) and it was only localized in two sectors, the Algérois and the Kabyle sectors (Grande and Petite Kabylie and Numidie).
164338		population	eng	The North African populations are found in an increasingly deteriorated context. Therefore, they show a bigger decline than in Mediterranean Europe. <br/>- In Corsica, the species is present in seven temporary ponds of the southeast of the island: four ponds in the Natural Reserve of the Tre Padules of Suartone and in three artificial ponds on the plateau of Frasselli.<br/>- In Italy, the species is present in <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:state>, <st1:city w:st="on">Lazio</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Calabria</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia (</st1:place>Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Lastrucci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:place></st1:state> many records are old and have not been confirmed recently apart from two sites of which one is under threat by the invasion of helophytes. In total, Scoppola and Spampinato (2005) report 16 localities: 13 are confirmed and one has been added in 2007 by Lastrucci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) summing up to 14 localities.<br/>- In the Iberian Peninsula, the species is widely distributed within 40 provinces in Spain and five in Portugal.<br/>- In Morocco, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> has been found in 14 ponds along the Atlantic plains (Benslimane) and in the mountainous region of the Rif. The anthropogenic pressure is high on these sites. <br/>- In Algeria, the species is considered as rare: the sites where <em>M. alterniflorum</em> is present are few (less than 10) and it was only localized in two sectors, the Algérois and the Kabylie sectors (Grande and Petite Kabylie and Numidie).
164338		threats	eng	Infilling, urbanization, overgrazing, agricultural practices and hydrological modification of the pools through drainage constitute major threats for this taxon. <br/>The frequency of dry years restricts the apparition of this species, and decreases its opportunities for seed stock renewal, which could pose some problems in the long-term. Moreover, the abandonment of grazing pressure at the sites (Corsica) constitutes a potential threat for the species due to the invasion of its habitat by woody plants and Helophytes.
164338		threats	eng	Infilling, urbanization, overgrazing, eutrophication, agricultural practices and the related hydrological modification of the pools through drainage constitute major threats for this taxon. <br/>The frequency of dry years restricts the apparition of this species, and decreases its opportunities for seed stock renewal, which could pose some problems in the long-term. Moreover, the abandonment of grazing pressure at the sites (Corsica, Italy) constitutes a potential threat for the species due to the invasion of its habitat by woody plants and Helophytes (e.g. Phragmites and <span style="font-style: italic;">Typha</span>).
164338		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164339		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to research the species’ presence in Morocco, especially in the Rif (Tanger) and neighbouring regions.
164339		distribution	eng	<em>Galium uliginosum</em> is a European species. Its distribution covers northern and central Europe. <br/>In North Africa it has a doubtful presence in Morocco (Tanger). <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Turkey, and probably in Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², with numerous locations.
164339		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that prefers swamps, humid prairies, ditches, stream edges and peaty environments. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May - August).
164339		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region; the trend of the populations is unknown. It is common in Spain, with 93 sites in the north of the country; common in nearly all France (1399 sites) but quite rare in Mediterranean France; present in six provinces in the north of Italy; present in Croatia, where it is listed as Critically Endangered in the National Red List   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). <br/><br/>Its presence is Morocco is doubtful.
164339		threats	eng	Habitat drainage is the main threat to this species but does not lead to significant population declines at the moment.
164340		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164340		distribution	eng	The species was introduced into Europe and the Mediterranean region from Asia before 1500 and is therefore considered as archeophyte in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
164340		distribution	eng	The species was introduced into Europe and the Mediterranean region from Asia before 1500 and is therefore considered as archeophyte in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.
164340		habitat	eng	It is cultivated in southern Europe and North Africa; widely naturalised in ditches and rivers.
164340		population	eng	This species is fairly common and sometimes invasive.
164340		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
164341		conservation	eng	The species is assessed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Israel.<br/>No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are monitoring of the sites and estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.
164341		distribution	eng	<em>Aeluropus lagopoides</em> is a Mediterraneo-Touranian (Mediterranean basin and Iran) species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is widespread, occurring in Sicily, Karpathos, Crete, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Euro+Med Plantbase (2009) suggests that the species is also present in Cyprus and Malta. Its extent of occurrence is about 4,000,000 km² with numerous locations and an AOO >2,000 km².
164341		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits sandy stretches along the coastline, inland swamps and salt marshes. Flowering occurs from spring to autumn (March-October).
164341		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa, with numerous locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is in more than 10 locations; common in Algeria from the coast all the way down to central Sahara; very widespread in Tunisia; very common in Egypt (Mediterranean coast, Red Sea coastal strip, the Nile, the oases of the western Desert and Sinai Peninsula); at least seven locations in Libya along its Mediterranean coastline. <br/>It is present in Sicily (Italy) and very common in Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.<br/>In Israel, it is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book (Shmida and Pollak 2008).
164341		threats	eng	The urbanization of the coastline for tourism and industrial delopment is the main threat to this species and its habitat.
164343		conservation	eng	This species is included in Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The site of Talassemtane is classified as National Park, there are no conservation measures in place for any of the other sites. Therefore the following actions are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164343		distribution	eng	This orchid is a strict endemic species of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the western Rif. It is only known from four localities: Talassemtane; Tidighine mountain; Ketama; and the side of the Amezlou River at 1,400 m elevation. Its extent of occurrence is about 2,000 km² and it is found at less than five locations.
164343		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Geophyte) that develops as isolated individuals, more rarely in small groups, in the swamps and at the banks of streams at plains and mountains, up to 2,600 m altitude. It blooms and sets fruits in spring and summer under the Mediterranean humid bioclimate.
164343		population	eng	No data on the size or the present trends of the populations is available.
164343		threats	eng	Except for the site of Talassemtane that is classified as National Park since 2004, this species' localities experience a high grazing pressure, and an increasing numbers of tourists facilitated by easier access to the sites (building of paths, tracks, and roads).
164344		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed. Most of the cedar forests, where this species grows, are protected by law (E. Sattout pers. comm. 2009).
164344		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis macrantha</em> is an endemic of Lebanon, growing in the central mountains: Jisr-el-Hajar, Khan Sannine, Mayrouba, Qoubbeh towards Hammana.
164344		habitat	eng	<em>Eleocharis macrantha</em> grows on wet sandstones in high zones of Lebanon. It grows at the cedar and fir level.
164344		population	eng	The species is abundant.
164344		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
164346		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164346		distribution	eng	<em>Agrostis reuteri</em> is an Iberico-Mauritanian species. Its biogeographic distribution covers central and southern Portugal, southern Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is known in numerous localities with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 300,000 km² and an AOO >100 km².
164346		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte). It inhabits humid pastoral land, banks of rivers and rivulets. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-August).
164346		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and stable populations. <br/> <br/>In Morocco, it is common with numerous localities distributed between the Rif, the Mediterranean coastline, Northern Atlantic Morocco, Middle Atlantic Morocco, the plains of Oriental Morocco, Middle Atlas and High Atlas. In Algeria, it is also common in the Tell and the Aurès and rare in the Saharan Oranais Atlas and Algerois. It is rare in Tunisia, known in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham) and in the Tunisian Dorsal (Zaghouan). In Spain and Portugal, it is common in the centre and south of Portugal and in the south of Spain with 82 known localities.
164346		threats	eng	No major threats for the species.
164347		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164347		distribution	eng	<em>Epilobium hirsutum</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean species. Its distribution encompasses the Mediterranean basin, Europe, Asia, Africa and it was introduced in North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164347		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, ditches, drainage canals and wetlands on plains and mountains, with a preference for chalky and clayey substrate. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. It multiplies by vegetative propagation (stolons) and exceptionally by germination.
164347		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very frequent with several locations distributed between the Anti Atlas, High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Saharan Morocco, northern Atlantic Morocco, mid-Atlantic Morocco and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country except in central Sahara (Hoggar) where it is considered rare; <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with at least nine locations distributed between the Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Tabarka), the Mogods (Ouchteta), northeast of Tunisia (Garaet Ichkeula and El Alia) and the Dorsale Tunisienne (Oud Thibar, Jbel Zaghouan, Kessera and Jbel Bargou); <br/>- Libya: it is rare and confined to Gebel Akhdar, specifically to two regions (El-Gubba and Derna); <br/>- Egypt: common along the Nile, the Mediterranean coastline and in the oases of the western Desert; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common and present in more than 398 sites; <br/>- France: frequent in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in the whole country including Sicily and Sardinia.<br/>- Israel: very common
164347		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164348		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species.
164348		distribution	eng	<em>Pycreus flavidus</em> is a subtropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Europe, temperate and tropical Asia, tropical Africa, Madagascar and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², with several locations.
164348		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits ditches and wetlands. Flowering occurs in spring and the beginning of autumn
164348		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, but in North Africa its distribution is limited to only a few locations (<10) with very restricted populations. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>In Morocco, its distribution is confined to the northwest of Morocco, the western Rif and the region of Ouezzane; very rare in Algeria, present in the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Miliana); found in Egypt in the eastern Desert (along the Suez Channel); present in Lebanon in Beirut, Nahr Beirut, Nahr-el-Kelb, along the edges of the Qadicha, Abey, Aley, south of Beit Méri and from Chouit to Hammana.<br/>It is fairly common in Spain, with 32 sites in the south and east of the country; found only in two regions of France (along the Mediterranean coast and in the centre of the country); present only in one province of Italy.
164348		threats	eng	The drainage of the habitat of this species is its main threat.
164349		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164349		distribution	eng	<em>Epilobium tetragonum</em> has a very large distribution that covers the Mediterranean region, Europe and southwest Asia. It was introduced in America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence is about 6,000,000 km² and it occurs in numerous locations (>40).
164349		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found along the edges of streams, springs and swampy humid habitats of plains and mountains of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164349		population	eng	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean region, populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: at least eight locations (Tanger, Tétouan, Chaouène, Smir, Gharb, Siroua, Jbel Amezdour and the High Atlas); <br/>- Algeria: rare, occurring in six locations distributed between the Tellien Atlas, the coastal Algérois, Numidie and Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Tunisia: more than seven locations distributed between the Kroumirie, the Mogods, Tunisian Dorsal and the northeast; <br/>- Portugal: present in 11 provinces; <br/>- Spain: very common, present in 118 sites; <br/>- France: common in all of the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common in all the country including Sardinia and Sicily.
164349		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164350		conservation	eng	In Algeria, the site falls within the National Park of El-Kala that is a registered Biosphere reserve and a Ramsar site. However, protection is not effectively enforced and extent and quality of the habitat have declined.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Protection of the site in Morocco <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164350		conservation	eng	It has been listed as Endangered in the Mediterranean region (Rhazi, L. and Grillas, P. 2007).
164350		distribution	eng	<em>Thelypteris interrupta</em> is a tropical species that is present in the Mediterranean region only in Morocco and Algeria. It is very rare in Morocco and is known from only one locality (Lalla Mimouna close to Larache) with an occupied area not exceeding 9 km². In Algeria, it is very rare and known in only one sector in Numidie (La Calle - Lake Tonga) in the east of the country, where it is found at four sites. It has a very dispersed distribution and only occupies a small surface area at the sites where it is found. Its Mediterranean area of occupancy does not exceed 150 km².
164350		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>Thelypteris interrupta&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">is pantropical in distribution. It has been recorded from Central and South America, tropical Asia and Africa. In has also been recorded from south of the USA. <span class="apple-style-span">In India, it is widely distributed in the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and lowlands of southern India from sea level up to 1,400 m (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).</span></p>
164350		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows in wetlands, marshes, lakes, paddy fields in large gregarious colonies (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).</p>
164350		habitat	eng	The species is found in coastal wetlands on flinty lands. It is a perennial species (rhizomatous Geophyte) that reproduces in summer to fall under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164350		population	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Widely distributed and common throughout its range.
164350		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known. In Morocco, the populations seem to be declining following the cultivation of parts of its habitat. The last observations of the Moroccan site date to 2002. In Algeria, the habitat declined during the 1990s although since around 2000 the trend seems to have stabilised. The populations face major threats and certainly cannot be presumed to be secure in the future.
164350		threats	eng	In Morocco, the unique station of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thelypteris interrupta</span> has been partially drained and cultivated; the remaining part of the wetland is exposed to a high grazing pressure. <br/>In Algeria, the site is threatened by filling in of the water body (sedimentation) followed by the encroachment of invading vegetation, by the installation of a small village (douar) and by the development of agriculture upstream of the site that increases the risks of water and soil pollution. Industrial sand extraction is also a major threat to the catchments where this species occurs.
164350		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
164351		conservation	eng	Currently, there is no protection for this species in place. The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey)<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species
164351		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes olympica</em> is an endemic species of the eastern Mediterranean, with a disjointed and very small distribution area comprising two small subpopulations: one in the Syrian desert at Jbel Druze (1,650 m), the other one in Turkey, in Bithynia at Bursa (Mount Olympus, 1,700 m). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 100 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
164351		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes olympica </span>is an essentially aquatic Geophyte, and remains under water during most of the year. It develops on clayey mud, in alpine meadows and in temporary pools on high mountain grasslands.<em></em></p>
164351		population	eng	The populations of <em>I. olympica</em> are declining both in the Syrian Arab Republic and in Turkey where the species is possibly extinct (L.J. Musselman pers. comm.) as it has not been seen at the one location at Mount Olympus.<br/>In the Syrian Arab Republic, <em>I. olympica</em> was initially discovered at several places at Jbel Druze (Mouterde 1953). In May 2000, approximately one hundred plants were observed at the margin of a single dry depression, an intermittent wetland remaining after channelization of the stream. They were sparsely distributed within 0.5 ha. Associated plants included <em>Lythrum tribracteatum</em>, <em>Myosurus minimus</em>, <em>Ranunculus marginatus</em>, <em>Veronica</em> sp., <em>Phalaris</em> sp., <em>Juncus</em> sp., <em>Carex</em> sp. and innumerable weedy Asteraceae (Musselman 2002).
164351		threats	eng	The site in the Syrian Arab Republic, though disturbed by grazing, had not yet been destroyed in 2007 (L.J. Musselman pers. comm.). The small size of the subpopulation makes it very sensitive to any modification of the habitat. It is notably threatened with immediate destruction by the unprecedented expansion of irrigated agriculture in the region (Musselman 2002).<br/><br/>In Turkey, the subpopulations of Bursa are severely threatened, and maybe already destroyed, by the rapid expansion of skiing lodges in the region with little natural area remaining. A search conducted in July 2007 did not succeed in finding a single plant (L.J. Musselman pers. comm.).
164352		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. palustris</span> it is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Germany and Data Deficient  in Croatia, it is also protected in France at regional level in Basse-Normandie, Lorraine, Alsace and Franche-Comté. Otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164352		conservation	eng	This species is protected in France at regional level (four regions: Basse-Normandie, Lorraine, Alsace and Franche-Comté). It is also included in the Red List of Israel where benign introductions are recommended as a conservation measure.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites <br/>- Estimate the population size; <br/>- Study the dynamics of the populations
164352		distribution	eng	<em>L. palustris</em> is widespread in western, central and southern Europe, occurring from the United Kingdom, France and Spain to Poland and the Ukraine, the Balkans and Turkey. It also occurs in North Africa and west Asia, as well as North, Central and South America.
164352		distribution	eng	<em>Ludwigia palustris</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution covers the Mediterranean region, Europe, western Asia and America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, western Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers around 5,000,000 km², occurring in numerous locations.
164352		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, aquatic, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in springs, streams and swamps of siliceous soil. It is typical for very shallow pools and very slow flowing water, it prefers permanent waters. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164352		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. palustris</span> typically occurs in mesotrophic to eutrophic conditions in springs, streams and swamps, often in shallow pools and very slow flowing permanent waters.
164352		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. palustris</span> is uncommon in northern Europe but is widespread with stable populations in the south. It is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Germany and Data Deficient in Croatia.
164352		population	eng	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean basin (>80). Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: at least 13 locations distributed between the western Rif and the north Atlantic plains (Fouarat swamp, Lalla Mimouna, Harcha, Oulmès, Tangier, western Rif and Mamora); <br/>- Algeria: very rare, mentioned from few locations in the lakes around La Calle; <br/>- Tunisia: more than six locations distributed between Kroumirie and the Mogods (Aïn Draham, Babouc, Radjem Azoug, Mouadgène, Cap Serrat and Sedjnane); <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: very common, present in 70 provinces; <br/>- France: quite common; <br/>- Italy: fairly common, present in 13 provinces.<br/>- Turkey: present at seven localities, four of them in European Turkey and three in western Anatolia<br/>- Israel: the species is probably extinct
164352		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164352		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164353		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Picardie, Lorraine, Basse-Normandie, Limousin, Lorraine, Alsace and Nord-Pas-de-Calais. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but monitoring of the existing sites and the dynamics of the populations is needed.
164353		conservation	eng	In Germany, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinqueflora</span> is listed as Endangered in the national Red List, and similarly in various regional Red Lists. It is classed as Critically Endangered in Luxembourg, Near Threatened in Hungary and Data Deficient in Croatia. In France, the species is under regional protection in Picardie, Lorraine, Basse-Normandie, Limousin, Lorraine, Alsace and Nord-Pas-de-Calais. <br/><br/>Current conservation measures are appropriate on local to national scale. It is suggested that they include management that hinders abandonment, drainage and eutrophication. Monitoring plans should be obligatory in several countries.
164353		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but monitoring of the existing sites and the dynamics of the populations is needed.
164353		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis quinqueflora</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers northern and central Europe, boreal, western and Central Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br>In North Africa it is found in Morocco and Egypt, with an extent of occurrence over 3,000,000 km² and more than 11 locations.
164353		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis quinqueflora</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers northern and central Europe, boreal, western and Central Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is widespread, occurring in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164353		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. quinqueflora</em> occurs from Iceland and extreme northern Europe south to Morocco and east through Siberia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the Caucasus, the Middle East and the Himalayas to Kamchatka and northern China. It also occurs in North America from Alaska east to Greenland and south to California, New Mexico and New Jersey and in southern South America (Chile). It occurs throughout much of Europe, from the Rybachi Peninsula south to Spain, the former Yugoslavia, Greece and some Mediterranean islands.</p>
164353		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits peaty prairies of siliceous soil, rice fields and canal banks. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-August).
164353		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinquiflora</span> is a classic plant of flushes and shallow standing water over calcareous substrates, often occurring with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Eriophorum latifolium</span> and even charophytes where wet grassland occurs with stands of open water. In the United Kingdom, it is particularly associated with&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex dioica</span> - <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula vulgaris</span> mires. In Germany, it occurs in calcareous fens, in southern Europe near springs mainly in limestone and serpentine areas. It is strongly associated with open vegetation and may be dependent upon management (such as grazing).
164353		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinqueflora</span> is widespread throughout much of its European range, although it is classed as Critically Endangered in Luxembourg, Endangered in Germany (with a tendency to Critically Endangered in parts of the country), Near Threatened in Hungary and Data Deficient in Croatia. Many populations, e.g. in northern and southern Germany, are lost. As stable populations are known elsewhere, there is no evidence to suggest that there is an overall decline.
164353		population	eng	The species is fairly widespread in the Mediterranean region, and in North Africa it occurs in at least 11 locations. In Morocco its distribution is limited to medium and high mountains, occurring in several locations in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Rif. It is found along the Nile (rice fields and canal banks) in Egypt.
164353		population	eng	The species is fairly widespread in the Mediterranean region, and in North Africa it occurs in at least 11 locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: its distribution is limited to medium and high mountains, occurring in several locations in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Rif; <br/>- Egypt: found along the Nile (rice fields and canal banks); <br/>- Spain: present in 85 sites; <br/>- France: uncommon along the Mediterranean coast; <br/>- Italy: present in 10 provinces.
164353		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the survival of this species apart from some localised ones. The decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinqueflora</span> in Germany is due to drainage, eutrophication and direct habitat loss as a result of transformation and abandonment. <br/></p>
164353		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164355		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Basse-Normandie, Pays-de-la-Loire, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, Rhones-Alpes, and Midi-Pyrénées. Some populations occur in Ramsar sites, but it is recommended to further study the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, its populations, and its locations in the Mediterranean region.
164355		distribution	eng	<em>Exaculum pusillum</em> has its main distribution in the western Mediterranean. It is found in Spain, Portugal, France where it occurs in the west, centre and south and in Corsica (localized and locally abundant), and in Italy where it is very rare and only occurs on the west coast, Sicily and Sardinia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the plant is very rare in Tunisia (three sites) and Algeria (Algiers region, Kabylie and Numidian regions), and it is found at eight localities in Morocco (central western Tangier, west Rif, Loukkos, central Rif, Targuist, Zerhoun, Mamora).
164355		habitat	eng	<em>Exaculum pusillum</em> is a Therophyte that grows in damp, sandy or grassy places such as mires, wet moors, marshes, banks of ponds, wet meadows or moist sands, temporary ponds. In North Africa, it is found in depressions that are wet in winter, on banks of dayas on siliceous ground or in temporary pools (peaty often or sandy and siliceous).<br/><br/>Flowering times are between May and August in France, Corsica and Italy, and from May to July in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164355		population	eng	This species is often rare. Its extent of occurrence is higher than 20,000 km² but its area of occupancy is very probably below 2,000 km² in the Mediterranean. It is known from numerous locations, but with very small populations.
164355		threats	eng	The species is probably threatened because of its rarity in most of its range. Its habitats are not very rare in the Mediterranean region, although temporary ponds are severely threatened by agriculture and infrastructural developments.
164356		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
164356		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. litoralis</span> is classed as Endangered in Hungary and Near Threatened in Croatia. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164356		distribution	eng	<em>S. litoralis</em> occurs throughout much of the Old World, including North Africa and Africa south of the Sahara, including some Indian Ocean islands, from Europe east through the Caucasus, the Middle East and Kazakhstan to Mongolia and China as well as from the Indian Sub-continent south through Myanmar, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia to Australia and New Caledonia. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the centre and southeast, from Hungary and Austria east to the Ukraine and south to Corsica, Italy and the Balkans.
164356		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenoplectus litoralis</span> is widely distributed in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia (Singh and Srivastava 2007; eFlora of China).&#160;In India, it is distributed in Tamil Nadu (Chegalpattu, North Arcot, Thanjavur), Maharashtra (Kolhapur, Nagpur, Pune, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Yavatmal), Karnataka (Uttar Kanada), Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987, Yadav and Sardesai 2002, Lakshminarasimhan&#160;1996, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984, Pullaiah 1997, Singh and Srivastava 2007, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).</p>
164356		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual, found in brackish, swampy places, often coastal or partially submerged aquatic herb, rooted in the mud.</p>
164356		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. litoralis</span> typically occurs in swamps, riverbeds, canals, ditches, pools and lakes, usually near the coast and often brackish.
164356		population	eng	<p>This is a common species throughout its range.<br/></p>
164356		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. litoralis</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Croatia and Endangered in Hungary. In the latter it occurs in around ten, partly big, populations at Lake Neusiedler, Lake Balaton and Lake Velence. Otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.
164356		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
164356		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species. Locally, such as in Hungary, the destruction of habitats impacts on the populations.<br/></p>
164357		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Aquitaine and Alsace.<br/>No specific measures are in place or needed.
164357		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed.
164357		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164357		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. trichoides</em> occurs throughout southern Europe into southern Scandinavia and the Baltic States but is much less frequent in the north. It extends east into Central and North Russia to Siberia, Ukraine and Moldova and in the Mediterranean east into Turkey and the Caucasus. It also occurs in North Africa and Africa south of the Sahara extending south to South Africa and there is an outlying record from Myanmar.</p>
164357		distribution	eng	<p>The species occurs throughout southern Europe into southern Scandinavia and the Baltic States but is much less frequent in the north. It extends east into central, northern, and eastern Russia to Siberia, Ukraine and Moldova and in the Mediterranean east into Turkey and the Caucasus. It also occurs in north Africa and Africa south of the Sahara extending to South Africa and there is an outlying record from Myanmar.</p>
164357		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western, central, southern and eastern Europe; North, East and Southern Africa; west, southwest, north and central Asia.
164357		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western, central, southern and eastern Europe; North, East and southern Africa; west, southwest, north and central Asia. The species has a more southerly distribution in Europe than most <em>Potamogeton</em> species, being found from south Sweden and central Russia southwards to the Mediterranean area. It is also found in southwest Asia, and it is widespread in Africa. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Egypt, Morocco and Algeria.
164357		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. trichoides</span> typically grows in lowland, mesotrophic to eutrophic standing or very slow-flowing water bodies, such as lakes, ponds and canals, as well as the ditches that serve as "wet fences" in grazing marshes. It appears to be an efficient colonist and is frequent in the UK in flooded gravel pits.
164357		habitat	eng	The species typically grows in lowland, mesotrophic to eutrophic standing or very slow-flowing water bodies, such as lakes, ponds and canals, as well as the ditches that serve as "wet fences" in grazing marshes. It appears to be an efficient colonist and is frequently found in the UK in flooded quarry lakes.
164357		habitat	eng	This is an annual (occasionally perennial) herb. Found in permanent pools and marshes.
164357		habitat	eng	This plant grows in shallow water, lakes, rivers, streams, canals and ditches.
164357		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. trichoide</span>s<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widespread and fairly abundant<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>throughout most of western Europe and<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>this is likely to be the case except toward the limits of its distribution, however detailed information on the status and distribution of populations is sparse.
164357		population	eng	The species is common in Algeria and rare in Morocco and Egypt. In France, it is common in the north but nearly absent from the Mediterranean region except for Corsica (Tela Botanica 2000-2008). In Spain, it is scattered but fairly common throughout the country (Anthos 2009). In Italy, it is found in ten provinces, mainly in the north, as well as in Sardinia and Sicily.
164357		population	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widespread and fairly abundant<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>throughout most of its range and<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>this is likely to be the case except toward the limits of its distribution, however detailed information on the status and distribution of populations is sparse.
164357		population	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.
164357		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species is threatened.
164357		threats	eng	None known.
164357		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164358		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place. It is suggested to search for the species in Egypt in order to confirm its presence and the status of its populations.
164358		distribution	eng	In Southern Africa the species has been recorded from Zambia, Namibia, and Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).<br><br><em>Marsilea capensis</em> was found once in Egypt (Nile delta, eastern edge). This finding is however doubtful and should be confirmed in order to attest the presence of the species in North Africa (perhaps also in Iraq and Iran).
164358		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows along rivers, around pools and in seasonally flooded places.
164358		population	eng	No information is available.
164358		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
164359		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed except for local to national actions in southern Europe.</p>
164359		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Some proposed actions are to monitor the sites in North Africa, promote legal protection (list of protected species in North Africa), application of legal conservation measures, monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the population size, study the population dynamics and the biology and ecology of the species.
164359		distribution	eng	<em>C. acuta</em> occurs from North Africa and the Azores to Spain and Portugal and north to Scandinavia and east to western Siberia and Mongolia.
164359		distribution	eng	<em>Carex acuta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 2,000,000 km², with 13 locations.
164359		distribution	eng	<em>Carex acuta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.
164359		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous sedge (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, ponds, marshes, riverbeds and riversides. Flowering occurs in spring.
164359		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. acuta</span> will occur in most types of wetland and fringing a wide variety of water bodies. It will occur as a marginal fringe along rivers and streams as well as forming potentially extensive monospecific stands in marshes and hollows in river floodplains.
164359		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. acuta</span> is widespread and abundant in Europe and populations are apparently stable in the northern part of the range. Occurrences in much of southern Europe are scattered and populations are locally decreasing due to drainage and hydrological measures.
164359		population	eng	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region, occurring at several locations. <br/>In North Africa it is uncommon due to spatial restrictions, but populations, although small, appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: rare, with four locations distributed between northern Atlantic Morocco (Oulmès and El Harcha) and the Rif (Ketama and the Oued Laou near Chaouène);<br/>- Algeria: rare, with four locations distributed between Numidie (Senhadja and Annaba), the Constantinois Tell region (Guelma) and the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen);<br/>- Tunisia: fairly common (Kroumirie, Mogods, Northeast Tunisia, Tunisian Dorsal and central Tunisia, El Fedja, Tinja, Korbous);<br/>- Spain: known from 91 sites<br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country<br/>- Italy: present in 14 provinces<br/>- Lebanon: in two locations (Akkar and Nahr Dennki), although one has been destroyed; <br/>- Syria: present in High Jéziré (Soutane Déré near Deirik).
164359		population	eng	This species is uncommon in North Africa due to spatial restrictions (13 locations and an AOO <100 km²), but populations, although small, appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: rare, with four locations distributed between northern Atlantic Morocco (Oulmès and El Harcha) and the Rif (Ketama and the Oued Laou near Chaouène);<br/>- Algeria: rare, with four locations distributed between Numidie (Senhadja and Annaba), the Constantinois Tell region (Guelma) and the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen);<br/>- Tunisia: fairly common (Kroumirie, Mogods, Northeast Tunisia, Tunisian Dorsal and central Tunisia, El Fedja, Tinja, Korbous).
164359		threats	eng	<em>Carex acuta</em> is probably slightly declining over the whole Mediterranean basin because of the destruction and degradation of its habitats, but its situation is more severe in North Africa.
164359		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the survival of this species in most of its range. However, drainage and other measures affecting groundwater led to population declines in parts of southern Europe and locally elsewhere.<br/></p>
164359		threats	eng	This species is threatened by destruction and degradation of its habitats due to human disturbance and agricultural activities.
164360		conservation	eng	This species is included in the French Red book tome II. Surveillance of the existing sites and the search for new sites is carried out by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica.<br/><br/>It is recommended to study the dynamics of different populations, the species' biology, resilience, and conservation, and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation measures.
164360		distribution	eng	<em>Bellis bernardii</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with European-orophytic origins. It is a rare species in the central mountains of Corsica localized at only three mountains: Cintu, Rotondo, Renoso. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the occupied area is lower than 500 km².
164360		habitat	eng	'The species is found in 'pozzine', peat and grass around lakes, at an altitude between 1,650 to 2,400 m. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments. At the moment, germination, growing and flowering conditions are unknown.
164360		population	eng	<em>Bellis bernardii</em> is known from 11 sites in Corsica. The population at Lac de Melo has last been observed in 2007.<br/>The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no global trend.
164360		threats	eng	The habitat is subjected to an increase in trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on the pozzines, and higher risk of fires. Therefore there are more guards from the natural park around the different lakes.<br/>The populations don't seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.
164361		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (legislation on the protection and valorisation of the environment as well as on environmental impact studies)
164361		distribution	eng	<em>Mariscus hamulosus</em> is a tropical species. Its distribution covers oriental Europe, tropical and western Asia and tropical and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is only present in Morocco and possibly Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², but the area of occupancy is likely to be below 500 km² with eight sites.
164361		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits plains and in particular temporary pools of sandy substrate that dry out during the summer period. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164361		population	eng	The species is very rare in North Africa (spatial limitations). The populations are very restricted, in regression and are inter-annually very unstable. In Morocco, it is very rare, known in five locations on the plains of northern Atlantic Morocco (pools in Kénitra, Salé, Mamora, Benslimane and Oued Cherrat). Some sites in Morocco (Salé) have been destroyed due to motorway construction. <br/> Le Houérou (1960) mentioned three sites distributed between the Mogods and Kroumirie, but newer flora and field work do not mention this species in Tunisia.
164361		threats	eng	Habitat drainage, urbanization and the construction of road infrastructures are the main threats to this species.
164362		conservation	eng	Some species are included in designated Ramsar sites.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- To maintain the hydrologic regime of the sites <br/>- To reduce agriculture around the sites and the use of the fertilizers and herbicides <br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (seeds banks)
164362		conservation	eng	Some species are included in designated Ramsar sites.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- To reduce the loss of the habitat by the enforcement of existing legal protection measures <br/>- To maintain the hydrologic regime of the sites <br/>- To reduce agriculture around the sites and the use of the fertilizers and herbicides <br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (seeds banks)
164362		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action known for the species. Research on ecology, life&#160;history&#160;and population dynamics of the species is recommended.
164362		distribution	eng	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is a paleotropical species that stretches as far as Canada, northwest Africa, Madagascar, China, Japan, south Argentina, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and Tropical Asia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is found in Spain and Portugal. The area of occupancy is very probably below 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The number of locations is not known.
164362		distribution	eng	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is a paleotropical species that stretches as far as Canada, northwest Africa, Madagascar, China, Japan, south Argentina, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and Tropical Asia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Portugal, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt with more than 16 known localities. The extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region passes 3,000,000 km².
164362		distribution	eng	The species is cosmopolitan in distribution. The plant occurs in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal and USA&#160; (Cook 1996). In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).
164362		habitat	eng	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is a submersed perennial aquatic plant (Hydrophyte) that is carnivorous. It is found in lakes, the swamps of plains and springs with a preference for acidic waters (poor in limestone). It is widely dispersed by birds. It proliferates in a vegetative way from fragments or turions (hibernating buds).
164362		habitat	eng	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is a submersed perennial aquatic plant (submersed Hydrophyte) that is carnivorous. It is found in lakes, the swamps of plains and springs with a preference for acidic waters (poor in limestone). It is widely disbursed by birds.<br/>It proliferates in a vegetative way from fragments or turions (hibernating buds).
164362		habitat	eng	It is annual or perennial herb without roots. Affixed or planktonic, in humid regions sometimes growing terrestrially. Found in a very wide spectrum of aquatic habitats. Often very common but usually found growing intertwined between other plants. Frequent in rice fields but not harmful (Cook 1996). <em>Utricularia gibba</em> is an obligate wetland species. The species has been identified as&#160; a specialist invasive species and may out-compete native bladderworts in lowland wetland ecosystems in countries where it is introduced (ISSG 2006).
164362		population	eng	In the Iberian Peninsula, the species occurs quite localized in the southwest. In Spain, it is found in Huelva and in Portugal it occurs in Estremadura, Baixo Alentejo and probably in Beira Litoral (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Anthos 2009).
164362		population	eng	There is no information on the population of the species.
164362		population	eng	The species is present in at least 16 localities in the Mediterranean region with populations who seem to know a light reduction. In North Africa, the populations are in regression under the effect of the increasing anthropogenic pressures on the habitats. <br/>- Morocco: the species is considered as very rare with five known localities distributed in the Gharb (oued El Akhal, oued Fouarat, swamp of Ghedira) and Mamora <br/>- Algeria: less than 10 localities, very rare in Numidie (La Calle) and in the central Sahara (Tassili n'Ajjers) <br/>- Tunisia: it is very rare with only one known locality in Mogods (Sedjnane) <br/>- Egypt: present in the oases to the west of the country <br/>- Libya: localized in the southwest with two localities (Ghat, Al Barkat) <br/>- Iberian peninsula: quite localized in the southwest (one province in Spain and one in Portugal) (Anthos 2009) <br/>- Israel: the species is epizodic and is only known from one introduced population
164362		threats	eng	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is probably threatened, because of its rarity. Drainage of wetlands, agriculture, the eutrophication of water and the invasion by algae and by exotic plants causing a lack of light constitute the main threats for the species and its habitat.
164362		threats	eng	There is no identified threat for the species.
164363		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrella aspera</span> is considered Endangered in Sicily and Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Management of the existing sites and research on the populations size and trends as well as potential threats is needed.<br/>The Lake Gurrida site is included in the SCI ITA0070019 "Lago Gurrida e Sciare di S. Venera"and in the Regional Park of the Mt. Etna.
164363		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy and Sicily (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009). It has a confirmed presence in Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has also been reported as occurring in Calabria, but only data from 1880 for Marina di Madia (Catanzaro Province) is available. The population from Calabria should be considered extinct. The area of occupancy is approximately 16 km<sup>2</sup> and it is found at four locations.
164363		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet muds and shallow temporary pools, as well as springs and river banks near the coast. It belongs to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Coronopo-Sisymbrielletum dentatae</span> association.
164363		population	eng	The species is very rare in Sicily (Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) where it is present at seven localities. According to Messina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (in press) the species is found at four localities: Lake Gurrida, (close to Mt. Etna), Pantano (Castiglione di Sicilia), Mt. Carcaci and Polizzi Generosa. The total number of individuals is estimated to be less than 10,000.
164363		threats	eng	The site at Marina di Maida has been lost due to urbanization. No information for three sites in Sicily is available. However, the main threat for the sites at Lake Gurrida is the decline in the quality of the habitat due to agricultural activities.
164364		conservation	eng	The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Croatia. In France, it is under regional protection in Basse-Normandie, Lorraine and Midi-Pyrénées.<br/><br/>There are no conservation measures in the Maghreb and it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics.
164364		distribution	eng	<em>Alopecurus bulbosus</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species with a distribution that covers western Europe and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence is about 2,300,000 km² with numerous locations (>60).
164364		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that is primarily found in humid pastures, ditches and along the edges of temporary pools. Flowering occurs during spring (April-May). In Turkey, the species is also found in salt bogs.
164364		population	eng	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region (more than 60 locations), with populations in slow regression especially in the Maghreb. <br/>- Morocco: five locations in central Rif (Targuist, Aknoul, Imzorène, Kert Ganc and Gareb); <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Numidie, Petite Kabylie and the coastal Algerois; <br/>- Tunisia: more than seven locations distributed between the Mogods (Garâa Sedjenane, Jbel Abiod and Madjen Chitane), Kroumirie (Tabarka, Jbel Rorra and El Fedja) and northeast Tunisia (Tindja); <br/>- Portugal: five locations along the Atlantic coast;<br/>- Spain: found in 10 regions; <br/>- France: more than 10 locations along the Mediterranean strip and quite common in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common (present in nearly all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily);<br/>- Croatia: present at one locality only in Istria, classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book   (Nikolić and Topić 2005);<br/>- Turkey: it is only known from one locality at Istanbul.
164364		threats	eng	Urbanization, grazing, agriculture and drainage of this species’ habitats are its main threats.
164366		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:<br/>- To carry out in situ measures of preservation of the sites. <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new areas<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Surveillance and limitation of the development of the perennial plants in the habitat by clearing and maintaining the grazing practices <br/>- Raising public awareness
164366		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes histrix</em> is an Atlantico-Mediterranean species.  In Africa it has been recorded only from Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
164366		habitat	eng	<em>Isoetes histrix</em> is a perennial plant (bulb Geophyte) that prefers to grow on the borders of temporary pools, streams and diverse berms and humid glades within the scrubland. It doesn't tolerate long flooding; however, a humid substratum is necessary in the beginning of its life cycle that is more or less on oligotrophic substrate (generally on sablo limoneux soil).
164366		population	eng	The populations of <em>I. histrix</em> appear to be steady but fragile in Corsica, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia due to their resistance to anthropogenic and natural threats:<br/>- Morocco: it is at the High Atlas, north Atlantic Morocco, Tangier, western Rif, central Rif, and Imzorène;<br/>- Tunisia: it is present in Rorra Mountain, Aïn Draham, Sedjenane, Abd er Rahman Mountain, El Haouaria, Korbous, Aïn Soltane; <br/>- Algeria: rather common in the Tell;
164366		threats	eng	Main threats are drainage and infilling of ponds by excavation (Maghreb) and agricultural practices constitute potential threats for the habitat of this species.
164367		conservation	eng	The species is currently not legally protected. It is included in the Red Data Book: v olume II. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and Botanical Conservatory from Corsica and search for new sites is underway.<br/>It is recommended to follow-up the dynamics of different populations, to increase knowledge about the biology, resilience, and conservation needs of the species, and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164367		distribution	eng	<em>Veronica repens</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Oro-West-Médeuropean origins. It is a common species in the central mountains of Corsica and a bit rarer in the other part of the island. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is less than 500 km².
164367		habitat	eng	The species is found in "pozzine", peat and grass around lakes, among dwarf shrubs, at spring borders and runnels, or lands from 780 m to 2,290 m of altitude with long snow periods. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments.
164367		population	eng	<em>Veronica repens</em> is found at more than 30 locations in Corsica (36). It has last been observed at the site of Lac d'Argent in 2007 .<br/>The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions but no decline has been noted. The populations do not seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.
164367		threats	eng	The habitat is submitted to the increase of trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on the pozzine and a higher risk of fires. Therefore, there are more guards from the natural parks around the different lakes.<br/>In the future, due to the decrease of stockbreeding, this species will be affected by the competition of the woody plants.
164368		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level (Alsace, Bourgogne, Centre, Champagne-Ardennes, Franche-Comté, Haute-Normandie, Ile-de-France, Lorraine, Picardie, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur) and at departmental level (Ain, Isère). No further conservation measures are known except for the sub-population of Tazzeka (Morocco), which is included within the National Park of Tazzeka.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are being recommended: legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of populations size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal measures of conservation and informating the public.
164368		distribution	eng	<em>Osmunda regalis</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species, sub-Atlantic in Europe, occurring around the Mediterranean basin, mainly in the western part in the following countries: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Greece, Crete, Aegean Islands, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Lebanon. <br/><br/>This species also occurs in southern Africa, America, Asia, New Zealand and northern and eastern Europe.
164368		habitat	eng	<em>Osmunda regalis</em> is a meso-hygrophilous to hygrophilous perennial fern, which grows in peaty marshes, on stream banks and drains, on wet rocks, and in humid caves; it develops in riparian forests belonging to <em>Alnion glutinosae</em>, <em>Alno-Padion</em> and <em>Populion albae</em>.
164368		population	eng	In Morocco, <em>Osmunda regalis</em> is classified as vulnerable, with less than 10 known locations. It is found in the northern Atlantic coast (Loukkos), Mediterranean coast, and the Rif (Tanger).<br/>In Algeria, it is present in the Mediterranean coast east of Alger.<br/>It is uncommon in Tunisia, where it is present in Kroumirie (Le Mouadjene, Le Meridj), Mogods (Sejenane, Sidi Mechrig), and Cap Bon (caves of Jbel Ab der Rahman).<br/>It is widespread in Portugal, but more common in the northern part; in Spain it is found at the Atlantic coast, in the north, west and some isolated populations in the southeast (Anthos 2009). The species is widespread in France, more rare in the south, common in Corsica. It occurs in the north and west of Italy; and it is rare in Croatia.<br/>In Turkey, the species is rare and occurs in Bosporus, Bithynia, Lazistan, Istanbul (Valide Bend, Belgrade forest, from Polonesköy to Cumhuriyet), Rize (from Ardesen to Findikli, 50 m), Çoruh (mountains above Artvin, 1,300 m).<br/>It is present at the coast of Lebanon (Dékouané, Bouchriyé), in lower mountains (‘Abey, sous Beit Méri, Broummana, Qrayé, Salima, Mayrouba), and middle mountains (Hammana, Falougha, ‘Aïn Qa‘a, ‘Aïn Zehalta, Khan Sannine, Col de Zahlé 1,700 m).
164368		threats	eng	<em>Osmunda regalis</em> is declining in the whole Mediterranean basin as a result of the destruction of its habitat. Its biotopes regress in Morocco, notably in the northern Atlantic plains (marais du Loukkos).
164369		conservation	eng	It is classified as Critically Endangered on the national Red Lists of Italy and Croatia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are currently no conservation measures in place. The following actions for conservation are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species).<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation the population size.<br/>- Study of the population dynamics.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164369		conservation	eng	<p><em>B. repens</em> is probably extinct in Germany and is red listed as follows:</p>  <ul><li>Critically Endangered in Belgium;</li><li>Endangered in Norway and Sweden;</li><li>Vulnerable in the Netherlands;</li><li>Least Concern in France;</li><li>Data Deficient in the United Kingdom.</li></ul>
164369		distribution	eng	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species occurring from North Africa to southern Scandinavia. <br/>In the Mediterranean it occurs in Algeria (El Kala-Annaba region), Croatia (Istria), France (rare; centre and Atlantic coast), Italy (centre), Morocco, Portugal (northeast and Atlantic coast), Spain (centre, Balearic Islands), Tunisia (three populations in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka) and Mogods (Jbel Chitane)).<br/>In Northern Europe it is found in Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
164369		distribution	eng	<em>B. repens </em>occurs from North Africa north through western Europe to Norway and Sweden.<em><br/></em>
164369		habitat	eng	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a herbaceous perennial stoloniferous amphibious Helophyte, growing in shallow water or the draw-down zones of weakly acidic water-bodies, on oligotrophic peaty soils, and on sandy banks of canals, pools and ponds.
164369		habitat	eng	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a herbaceous perennial stoloniferous amphibious Helophyte, growing in weakly acidic water-bodies, on oligotrophic peaty soils, and on sandy banks of canals, pools and ponds, within the zone of water seepage.
164369		population	eng	<p><em>B. ranunculoides</em> appears to be declining throughout most of its European range, with healthy populations known only in its strongholds of Portugal, Spain and France. The following breakdown is taken from Kozlowski <em>et al</em>. (2009).</p>      <ul><li>Belgium - extinct in numerous districts, rare to very rare in Maritime, Kampen and Flander districts.</li><li>Croatia - one historic record with no recent data.</li><li>Denmark - still present in numerous localities, however declining in many areas.</li><li>France - still present and locally abundant in several departments in Atlantic and central regions (Normandie, Bretagne, Pays-de-la-Loire, Poitou, Lande, etc.) although there is some evidence of a decline. It is rare to very rare in other departments, especially in the southern and eastern regions (Picardie, Ile-de-France, Champagne, Bourgogne, Dombes, Hautes-Alpes).</li><li>Germany &#160;- two to three historic localities, probably extinct.</li><li>Ireland - apparently occurs in the west of Connemara but few botanists distinguish the two taxa so the true status and distribution are unknown. </li><li>Italy - mentioned in old literature, current status and distribution unknown. </li><li>Netherlands - very scattered, but still present in several localities, some successful conservation efforts have not reversed the general decline.</li><li>Norway - the only known country which supports <em>B. repens </em>but not <em>B. ranunculoides</em>. Known from three well documented localities (two in Hordaland County, one in Rogaland County) which are surrounded by agriculture and settlements.</li><li>Portugal - widespread and abundant in many areas, however there are reports of local declines. </li><li>Spain - widespread and abundant in many areas, however there are reports of local declines. Described in old literature from the Balearic Islands but current status unknown.</li><li>Sweden - still present in numerous localities in coastal regions in the &#160;south of the country. </li><li>United Kingdom - recently reported a number of sites in the west, but no comprehensive information is available on the distribution and status data.</li></ul>
164369		population	eng	While available data are insufficient to evaluate accurately the present-day status of <em>Baldellia repens</em>, it seems to be rare and declining over all its distribution area, especially in the Mediterranean region. It is Critically Endangered in Italy and Croatia (one subpopulation known in each country).
164369		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia repens</em>.
164370		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164370		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions for the future include research of taxonomy, biology and ecology of <em>J. bulbosus</em>, and to gain knowledge of the habitat status and inventory of the populations.
164370		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions for the future include the application of the legislation to protect threatened species, research of taxonomy, biology and ecology of <em>J. bulbosus</em>, and to gain knowledge of the habitat status and inventory of the populations.
164370		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> has a distribution that extends from Europe (except the southwestern region) to northwestern Africa and Macaronesia. In Italy (including Sardinia), it is considered as very rare and to be near extinction.<br/><br/>In Africa, the species is present in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Maire 1957). In Tunisia, it is restricted to Kroumirie and close to Sedjnane. In Algeria, it is found in the regions close to El Kala and Ben Azzouz and was noted as very rare in all of the country (Numidia) by Quezel and Santa (1962). In Morocco it is present in the Rif, Mont Outka, Mont Sougna, and the peninsula of Tanger (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), where it confines to limited small areas.
164370		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> has a distribution that extends from Europe (except the southwestern region) to northwestern Africa and Macaronesia. In Italy (including Sardinia), it is considered as very rare and to be near extinction. In France, <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> is restricted to the Mediterranean coast and to Corsica where it is common. It furthermore occurs in most of Europe, including Spain (widespread), Montenegro, Croatia, and Portugal.<br/>In North Africa, the species is present in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Maire 1957). In Tunisia, it is restricted to Kroumirie and close to Sedjnane. In Algeria, it is found in the regions close to El Kala and Ben Azzouz and was noted as very rare in all of the country (Numidia) by Quezel and Santa (1962). In Morocco it is present in the Rif, Mont Outka, Mont Sougna, and the peninsula of Tanger (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), where it is confined to limited small areas.
164370		distribution	eng	<p><em>J. bulbosus</em> occurs more or less throughout Europe, but extends beyond the region only into North Africa, it has been introduced  to Mauritius, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States. In Italy (including Sardinia), it is considered as very rare and to be near extinction. In France, <em></em>it is restricted to the Mediterranean coast and to Corsica where it is common. <br/></p>
164370		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> is a perennial species (Geophyte) that is found in marshes and permanently or temporarily wet places such as lakes and ponds. It prefers siliceous or peat substrate of plains and mountains and waters with acid to neutral pH. Flowering occurs in Italy and Corsica from June to July, in France from June to September, and in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia from May to July.
164370		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> typically occurs in or by water, in open, often seasonally wet habitats, on acidic to neutral soils, probably more strongly associated with oligotrophic conditions than acid water, given that it occurs in turlough in Ireland which are calcareous. It can tolerate deep submergence (even in fairly tanin-stained water) and survive on sands that are wet for only a few weeks in the winter.
164370		population	eng	<em>J. bulbosus</em> is localised in the Mediterranean region and listed as Endangered in Switzerland, elsewhere in Europe it is widespread and abundant.
164370		population	eng	The populations of <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> are distributed in the Mediterranean in restricted areas. Its extent of occurrence is of 10,000 km² in Tunisia, 2,000 km² in Algeria and 10,000 km² in Morocco. The area of occupancy in Algeria is less than 10 km², with four to five locations. In Morocco, there are two locations on the Rif and small populations near Tangiers. In Tunisia, it is present in two regions and one population has been seen recently in each.<br/>It is rare in Croatia and Montenegro.
164370		population	eng	The populations of <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> are distributed in the Mediterranean in restricted areas: very rare in Italy, restricted in France (except for Corsica where it is common). Its extent of occurrence is 10,000 km² in Tunisia, 2,000 km² in Algeria and 10,000 km² in Morocco. The area of occupancy in Algeria is less than 10 km², with four to five locations. In Morocco, there are two locations on the Rif and small populations near Tangiers. In Tunisia, it is present in two regions and one population has been seen recently in each.<br/>It is rare in Croatia and Montenegro.
164370		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164370		threats	eng	The wetlands where <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> is found are often grazed and maybe cultivated and are affected by agricultural and domestic pollution.
164371		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to have been taken specifically for this species.
164371		distribution	eng	<em>Callitriche stagnalis</em> occurs throughout Europe, from the Azores to Iceland and east to the western side of the Ural Mountains in Russia. It also occurs as an alien in North America, Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand.
164371		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em><em> </em>is the typical <em>Callitriche</em> of poached ephemeral pools on woodland rides, heathland, wet corners of pasture, seepages, flushes, lake and river margins, and the margins of ditches. It is the most widespread member of the genus in Europe and can occur in most habitats, but less frequently in deep or fast-flowing water than in shallow, still or slow-flowing water. It has been recorded up to 1,000&#160;m in Europe and up to 1,600&#160;m in Morocco. <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> generally occurs with a mixture of terrestrial and amphibious species, most typically <em>Agrostis stolonifera</em>, <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>, <em>Epilobium hirsutum</em>, <em>Isolepis setacea</em>, <em>Juncus articulatus</em>, <em>J.&#160;bufonius</em>, <em>J.&#160;bulbosus</em>&#160;and <em>J.&#160;effusus</em>. It rarely occurs with truly aquatic plant species, but may be found with <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em>, <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>, <em>Eleocharis acicularis</em>, <em>E.&#160;palustris</em>, <em>Lemna minor</em>, <em>Ranunculus flammula</em>&#160;and <em>R.&#160;peltatus</em>. In the southern part of its range it frequently occurs with species typical of temporary pools, such as <em>Juncus pygmaeus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em><em>&#160;</em>and <em>Mentha pulegium</em>. <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> will, at times, occur with most other European <em>Callitriche</em> species. In particular, it frequently occurs with <em>C.&#160;palustris</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em>&#160;in ephemeral wetlands and on the exposed margins of lakes and pools with fluctuating water levels.
164371		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. stagnalis</span> appears to be fairly common throughout its range, although there is no specific information available on populations towards the periphery.
164371		threats	eng	There are no known threats specific to this species, although any adverse effects on wetlands will affect populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. stagnalis</span>.
164372		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>For North Africa, the following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations and their habitats.
164372		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>For North Africa, the following conservation measures are needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas, etc.
164372		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus striatus</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is found in southern Europe (Maire 1957) and North Africa.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco at the West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds West Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas. It is also found at five locations in central and West Algeria.
164372		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus striatus</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is found in southern Europe (Maire 1957) and North Africa. It is rare in central and southern Italy (including Sicily), occurs in south and southwest France, is very rare in Corsica, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Turkey.<br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco at the West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds west Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas. It is found at five locations in central and west Algeria.<br/>According to Anthos (2009) it is also found at Gran Canaria and is therefore not endemic to the Mediterranean region.
164372		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus striatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte that is found in dayas, wet environments, banks of freshwater streams and ponds from the hills to the low mountains on limestone or sandstone grounds.
164372		population	eng	The populations of <em>Juncus striatus</em> are few and scattered in North Africa as well as in Europe. In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is higher than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km², if its rarity is confirmed.<br/>- Italy; rare including in Sicily<br/>- Turkey: common in the European part of the country<br/>- Algeria: five locations in central and West Algeria<br/>- Morocco: West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds west Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas<br/>- Spain: 43 localities all over the country<br/>- France: present throughout the south, very rare in Corsica
164372		population	eng	The populations of <em>Juncus striatus</em> are few and scattered in North Africa as well as in Europe. The EOO <20,000 km² in North Africa and the AOO <500 km².<br/><br/>In Algeria it is found in five locations in central and West Algeria. In Morocco, it has been recorded from West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds west Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas
164372		threats	eng	<em>Juncus striatus</em> seems to be threatened, because it is generally very rare. Its habitat is often destroyed by farming and livestock in North Africa.
164373		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164373		distribution	eng	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> occurs in Macaronesia, in the west and east Mediterranean region up to Mesopotomia, south and southwest Europe and southwest Asia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In the Mediterranean it furthermore occurs in Portugal, Spain (Balearic Islands), France (Corsica), Italy (Sicily, Sardinia), Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Palestine, Syria.
164373		habitat	eng	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> is an annual species that grows in cultivated fields, at roadsides, pastures, olive groves, vine yards of the coastal plains and low mountains. It prefers clayey soils.<br/>Flowering in Morocco, Italy, Algeria is from April to July.
164373		population	eng	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> is a common species in all the Mediterranean countries and is often cultivated.<br/><br/>- Egypt: probably ssp. <em>typica</em>: the Nile region and the Mediterranean coastal strip <br/>- Libya: rather common from Benghasi to Derna in Cyrenaic, rare close to Tripoli<br/>- Tunisia: common in the north and the centre<br/>- Algeria: common in the north, rather rare in the High Plains and the Saharian Atlas<br/>- Morocco: common to the north and west, except Tazzeka and Guercif
164373		threats	eng	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> is not threatened.
164374		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection in France, in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. There are no other conservation measures in place, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to gather information about population size, trend and distribution.
164374		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection in France (Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur). There are no other conservation measures in place, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites.
164374		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zannichellia peltata</span> has a world wide distribution that includes western Europe and northwest Africa. In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, and Sweden (Talavera <em>et al. </em>1986). Its presence in Bulgaria remains doubtful.
164374		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zannichellia peltata</span> is endemic to western Europe, Canary Islands and northwest Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Morocco and Algeria. Its presence in Bulgaria remains doubtful. Its extent of occurrence covers over 300,000 km², within which the area of occupancy exceeds 2,000 km², and it is present in several locations.
164374		habitat	eng	This annual plant (Hydrophyte) is found in swamps, ditches, in the streams of plains and in the lakes of low and medium altitude mountains up to 2,100 m. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. The rate of germination of the seeds is maximum when salinity and temperatures are low.
164374		population	eng	Although this species’ distribution range is limited to the Mediterranean basin, it is fairly common, occuring in numerous locations and the populations are fairly stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous locations distributed almost throughout the whole country (Tangerois, the Rif mountain range, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, the central Anti Atlas (along the Tata river valley and on palm groves at 1,200 m), Chaouïa, Doukkala, Haouz, Abda, Haha, northern Atlantic Morocco (Rharb, Middle Sebou-Prérif and Zemmour-Zaërs near Aouinet Kerrouche) and in the eastern high plains); <br/>- Algeria: quite common with numerous locations in the Tell region, the High Plains and the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Portugal: present in two sites on the west coast; <br/>- Spain: quite common occuring in 67 sites but with declining populations; <br/>- France: solely present in one department in the south; <br/>- Italy: present in six provinces in the north.
164374		population	eng	Although this species’ distribution range is limited to the Mediterranean basin, it is fairly common, occurring in numerous locations and the populations are fairly stable.&#160; <br/>In Portugal, it is present in two sites on the west coast and in Spain, it is quite common occurring in 67 sites. In France, the species is solely present in one department in the south. In Italy, it is present in six provinces in the north.
164374		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164374		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the transformation of its habitat by drainage or infilling.   <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. peltata</span> is very sensitive to eutrophication which is caused by agricultural activities or contamination of streams by waste waters from farms, especially pig farms.
164375		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Althenia orientalis</span> is classified as Endangered A4; B2b(i,ii,iii,iv)c(i,ii,iii) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). In Greece, it is listed under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">A. filiformis</span> as Endangered B2ab(ii,iii) due to the small number of localities, degradation of the habitat and reduction of the size of the habitats (Sarika and Yannitsaros 2009). The species is legally protected in France. It is classed as Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005).<br/><br/>In order to determine the exact range of this species, fieldwork is necessary especially in those areas where it is suspected that records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. filiformis</span> are in fact <span style="font-style: italic;">A. orientalis</span>. Monitoring of the populations is recommended as they are decreasing and face a wide range of threats. For practical reasons, and due to similar habitat requirements and threats, conservation efforts in the Mediterranean should encompass both <span style="font-style: italic;">Althenia</span> species.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
164375		distribution	eng	Its world distribution covers the Mediterranean region, southern Russia, east of the Caspian Sea, southern Anatolia, the south of Iran and even southern Africa. In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Sicily in Italy, Croatia, Greece and probably other states on the Balkans.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
164375		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte plant lives in temporary brackish pools, abandoned saltworks and swamps of plains with clayey soil. In Spain, it has been described to occur in tidal and coastal salt marshes and saline lagoons. It is often accompanied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruppia maritima</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruppia drepanensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamprotamniom papulosum </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Riella helicophylla</span>.<br/>Flowering occurs from the end of winter until summer.
164375		population	eng	This species is not very widespread in the Mediterranean region and populations are vulnerable and threatened. The populations are declining. <br/>In Spain, the species occurs in eight sites and is declining. The Portuguese records are from the 19th century and it is suspected that the plant is now extinct there (P. Garcia pers. comm. 2010). In Corsica, it can be found in only one site near Bonifacio (L. Hugot pers. comm. 2010). It has been found in mainland France in Gard and Herault (P. Garcia pers. obs. 2010). <br/>In Italy, it is present in four provinces in the south of the country and also in Sardinia and Sicily. <br/>In Greece, it is known from three localities. Two of these localities are in Naxos island, southwest of Agios Prokopios and a lagoon in the northwestern part of the island not far from the capital, and one locality in southeast Greece near the town of Oropos. In Greece, a part of the lagoon in Naxos was destroyed for the  construction of an airport and it has probably disappeared from its locality southwest of Agios Prokopios (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2010).
164375		threats	eng	The urbanization and the construction of various tourist infrastructures threaten this species in the short-term. Changes in water regime such as modification of flood periods of water bodies, drainage, or changes of brackish (or saline) water to freshwater are impacting the species populations. Industrial contamination of waters, the depositing of waste, and use of pesticides and herbicides in neighbouring cultivated areas are leading to a degradation of the species habitat. <br/><p><br/></p>
164376		conservation	eng	<p>It is considered Endangered for Italy (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).The species is protected at regional level in France (Iles-de-France, Picardie). <br/></p>There are no other conservation measures in place. The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas <br/>- Identification of the historic sites in Sicily <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Raising public awareness
164376		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures have been proposed:<br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas <br/>- Identification of the historic sites in Sicily <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164376		distribution	eng	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a species from western Europe extending to the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland, and The Netherlands. At Mediterranean level, it is found in Spain, Portugal, Bulgaria, France, Corsica and Morocco. It is probably extinct in Sicily and its presence in Greece is not confirmed. In the Mediterranean, its extent of occurrence is about 1,200,000 km².<br/><br/>In Morocco, it is considered as very rare. It was reported for the first time in the Zemzem mountain of Tangier. In Morocco, its area of distribution would also include the riff chain (western Rif and central Rif) (Valdes <em>et al.</em> 2002).
164376		distribution	eng	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a species from western Europe extending to the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland, and The Netherlands. <br/>In Africa, its distribution is limited to Morocco, where it is considered as very rare. It was reported for the first time in the Zemzem mountain of Tangier. In Morocco, its area of distribution would also include the riff chain (western Rif and central Rif) (Valdes <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its extent of occurrence in North Africa is about 2,600 km².
164376		habitat	eng	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a perennial (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) plant. It prefers springs, oozing areas and rivulets to develop. In Sicily, it was found in swamps and swampy woods. It normally flourishes in spring.
164376		habitat	eng	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a perennial (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) plant. It prefers springs, oozing areas and rivulets to develop. It normally flourishes in spring.
164376		population	eng	There is no data available on the population size, but they seem to be very reduced and fragile in Morocco where there are very reduced populations and is limited to three mountainous localities in the north of the country. The species is thriving in the western Mediterranean (Portugal and Spain).
164376		population	eng	There is no data available on the population size, but they seem to be very reduced and fragile in North Africa (Morocco) and thriving in the western Mediterranean (Portugal and Spain). <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: it was reported in 17 regions in Spain and almost in the whole of Portugal’s territory;<br/>- Corsica: it is rare;<br/>-   <span lang="IT">Italy: according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) it is present in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sicily</st1:place></st1:state> in only one locality - Madonie (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005, Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  <br/>- Morocco: it is very rare, it has very reduced populations and is limited to three mountain localities in the north of the country.
164376		threats	eng	Frequent droughts, agriculture and notable grazing pressure developed close to the sources constitute the major threats to its habitat.
164377		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164377		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
164377		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Saccharum spontaneum</span> is a tufted and rhizomatous perennial commonly seen in most parts of Western Ghats at an altitude of 0-1700m. It is widely distributed in most parts of India. Also widely distributed in the warmer regions of old world tropics (Asia, Africa and Australia) and naturalized in the New World. It is often planted in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal and Pakistan (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
164377		distribution	eng	The species is native to Europe, Africa and Asia and has naturalised elsewhere. It is classed as obnoxious weed in the USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>In Europe, this species is found on Sicily and Cyprus. It is found on Crete but doubtfully native   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).
164377		distribution	eng	The species is native to Europe, Africa and Asia and has naturalised elsewhere. It is classed as obnoxious weed in the USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is found on Sicily, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, and Morocco.
164377		habitat	eng	<p>It is a tall perennial grass with a creeping rootstock and occurs along river banks; usually in sheltered places. Flowers after rain. The caryopses are dispersed by wind.</p>
164377		habitat	eng	This plant prefers moist soils and grows along water courses, and at the margins of cultivated land.
164377		population	eng	<p>A common and widespread species in the old world tropics.</p>
164377		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
164377		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
164377		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
164378		conservation	eng	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range is needed.
164378		conservation	eng	<p>  <em>Berula erecta</em> is listed as Near Threatened in Estonia and Endangered (B2abi,ii,iii,iv,v) in Norway. It is categorized Least Concern (LC) in the Czech Republic (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999). There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
164378		distribution	eng	<em>B. erecta</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, occurring throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe east to China and throughout central and western North America north to British Columbia and Ontario as well as East Africa from the Nile Delta south to South Africa. It is naturalised in Australia. In Europe, it occurs from southern Scandinavia east to the Baltic States and south to the Iberian Peninsula, throughout central Europe, the Mediterranean Basin and the Balkans to European Turkey.
164378		distribution	eng	This species grows throughout Europe and the east Mediterranean region. It is also found in West and Central Asia, North America, and Australia.<br/><em>Berula erecta</em> is common in Italy, France, Turkey and in the Nile Delta, the Wadi Natrun and the Mediterranean coast at Alexandria in Egypt.
164378		habitat	eng	<em>B. erecta</em> is a perennial and geo-helophyte species that grows in slow or stagnant waters, including lakes, pools, marshes, various reed-groups, streams and ditches. In Egypt this plant is usually found growing in swamps, ditches, canals. <br/>Its flowering season is from May until July in Corsica; June until September in France; and June until August in Italy and Turkey.
164378		habitat	eng	<em>B. erecta</em> is a perennial and geo-helophyte species that grows in slow or still waters, including lakes, pools, marshes, streams and ditches. It is most typical of calcareous water.
164378		population	eng	Populations of <em>B. erecta</em> are commonly found in clusters in the northern and eastern Mediterranean region, but the species is not as common in the southeastern Mediterranean region. There is a substantial population in Eygpt.<br/>The species is extinct in Israel but expanded recently into Jordan where it is found at one site (A. Shmida pers. comm.).
164378		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. erecta</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, becoming less common in Scandinavia, the Baltic States and the Mediterranean Basin.
164378		threats	eng	<em>Berula erecta</em> is not threatened in the northern and eastern Mediterranean Region.
164378		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>  <em></em>
164379		conservation	eng	<em>G. pneumonanthe</em> is protectected in France at regional level (Alsace, Bourgogne, Centre, Franche-Comté, Limousin, Lorraine, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Rhône-Alpes) and at a departmental level (Isère, Haute-Savoie). <em>G. pneumonanthe</em> ssp. <em>depressa</em> is classed as Vulnerable in the Spanish Red List (<em></em>Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>For its wider distribution range the following conservation measures are recommended: legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of populations size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal measures of conservation and information of the public.
164379		distribution	eng	<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em> is an Eurasiatic sub-oceanic species, distributed in Europe from southern Scandinavia to northern Portugal and eastward into Russia. It is present in the northwestern Mediterranean basin, in Spain (northwestern quarter of Spain, and two small areas in the south), France (widespread, but never abundant; rare in the Mediterranean region), Italy (north), Portugal (between Minho and Estremadura), Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Albania.
164379		habitat	eng	<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em> is a mesohygrophilous long-lived, diploid, herbaceous, perennial species that grows on wet soils presenting variations of wetness during the year. It develops in wet meadows (e.g. <em>Molinion caerulae</em>), in peaty marshes, in peatlands, in swamps (e.g. <em>Alnion glutinosae</em>) and in open wet forests (e.g. <em>Alno-Padion</em>). In the Mediterranean region it is restricted to mountains and cold situations.
164379		population	eng	<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em> is rather rare and sparsely distributed over its entire distribution area (Raijmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985, Rameau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989-1993). It is particularly rare around the Mediterranean basin.
164379		threats	eng	This species is mainly threatened with local extinctions as a result of the general destruction, degradation and draining of wetlands, soil eutrophication, lowering of the groundwater level, and changes in small-scale agricultural land-use, such as sod-cutting and grazing. There is not only a decrease in the total number of populations, but the average number of individuals per population is declining as well. The decline was evaluated for the Netherlands at 40% between 1950 and 1981, and is considered to have increased since (Raijmann <em>et al.</em> 1985).
164381		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness<br/>-   <em>Ex situ</em> conservation
164381		distribution	eng	<em>Carum asinorum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the Haut Atlas in two known localities: jbel Aouljdid and Azib-n-Oufla. The area of occupancy is about 50 km².
164381		habitat	eng	The species is found at the edges of brooklets of flinty mountains at about 2,600 m elevation. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in the spring under the Mediterranean cold semi-arid bioclimate.
164381		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known. However the species experienced a decrease of its abundance between 1987 and 2005 in the locality of jbel Aouljdid. The status of the populations at the site of Azib-n-Oufla is unknown.
164381		threats	eng	The habitat of the plant is submitted to a high grazing pressure. The reclamation of the lands for agricultural use encroaches on the habitat of this species. Very nutrient loaded waters contribute to the reduction of habitat quality.
164382		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164382		distribution	eng	<em>Chaerophyllum atlanticum</em> is a species strictly endemic to Morocco. It is rare with a distribution restricted to mountainous regions. It is found in four localities in the central Moyen Atlas (Békrit, valley of the Senoual; Khneg Merzoul; Assif Soufouloud) and in at least two localities in the Haut Atlas (Rhate; Ourika). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 16,000 km².
164382		habitat	eng	<em>Chaerophyllum atlanticum</em> is found at high altitudes (between 1,700 and 2,500 m) at the edges of springs and rivers in chalky and flinty mountains. It is an annual (to biennial) species that blooms in late spring and summer (June-August). The localities where it is found are under the cold semi-arid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164382		population	eng	No data on the size of the population is available.
164382		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by high grazing pressure, expansion of agriculture on the banks of the rivers and pollution generated by outdoor leisure activities.
164383		conservation	eng	<em>Genista ancistrocarpa</em> is protected under the Spanish Red List where it is classified as Critically Endangered (Moreno 2008). Two populations are found in the National Park of Doñana. No other conservation measures are known, but the following actions are suggested: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing localities and search for new sites<br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size in Morocco <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- To reduce habitat loss by the application of legal conservation measures <br/>- To restore damaged habitats of importance to this species <br/>- Conservation of the species in the seed banks <br/>- Restoration of the populations <br/>- In-vitro culture <br/>- Creation of micro-reserves <br/>- Pest and disease control
164383		distribution	eng	<em>Genista ancistrocarpa</em> is a steno-Mediterranean that is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs in the west of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and in the northwest of Morocco. In the Mediterranean region, it is known from nine localities distributed between Morocco, Spain and Portugal, with an extent of occurrence of about 300,000 km², and an area of occupancy well under 500 km².
164383		habitat	eng	<em>Genista ancistrocarpa</em> is a perennial plant (Nanophanerophyte to Chamaephyte) that inhabits peaty swamps of siliceous soils and hygrophilous matorrals. Its flowering begins in winter and spring.
164383		population	eng	The species has a very limited distribution with nine known localities. The populations are declining in the Mediterranean. In Morocco, it is very rare with three known localities (swamp of Larache, Mamora, Tanger). The population of the region of Larache is threatened by the drainage of the swamps. In Spain, there are three known localities (Pontevedra, Huelva, National Park of Doñana). The populations count about 300 individuals. They are in critical danger of extinction because of the intense drainage of the wetlands and the weak reproduction of the plant. In Portugal, it is known from two localities around Lisbon.
164383		threats	eng	Urbanization, drainage, drought, parasitic attacks, weak reproduction, fires, water pollution and collection of the plant, constitute the main threats to the species and its habitat. The number of locations is therefore suspected to be five or less.
164384		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To limit the extension of agriculture close to the sites sheltering this species <br/>- To develop the ecotourism <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness<br/>-   <em>Ex situ</em> conservation
164384		distribution	eng	<em>Carum jahandiezii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the central part of the Moyen Atlas, where it is known from five localities: Khneg Meghzoul, sides of the Guigou, Békrit, sides of the Senoual and springs of the Ari Hayan. The extent of occurrence of the species is about 3,000 km².
164384		habitat	eng	The species is found in wet meadows and on the edge of streams of the chalky mountains between 1,800 and 2,350 m elevation. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the semi-arid cold or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164384		population	eng	No data on the present trend of the populations is available.
164384		threats	eng	All sites are submitted to a high pressure from grazing, outdoor tourist activities and from the extension of agriculture in the catchments.
164385		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164385		distribution	eng	<em>Limonium ornatum</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is rare with a distribution restricted to the western and central parts of the Haut Atlas, where it is found at three localities: Seksaoua, Rherhaya, and Imincelli, and to the plain of the Haouz where it is present at one locality. The extent of occurrence is about 500 km² and it is found at more than five but fewer than 10 locations.
164385		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found only in the continental salty humid habitats, in the plains and the low mountains. It can bloom and can fructify from spring to fall under the arid Mediterranean bioclimate. The species is found generally in more or less dense populations.
164385		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations or on their present and future trends is available.
164385		threats	eng	The main threats to this species' habitats are the construction of salt extraction plants, grazing pressure and the construction of road infrastructures.
164386		conservation	eng	<em>R. tripartitus</em> is classed as Endangered (A2c) in the United Kingdom and protected in the Ile-de-France region of France, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164386		conservation	eng	This species is under regional protection in France (Ile-de-France).<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Maintain grazing where the species occurs <br/>- Legal conservation of the species in Morocco (Moroccan List of Protected Species)
164386		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em> extends from western and northern Europe to northwest Africa, and has scattered populations at the Balkan peninsula and in the Levant. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Greece, Lebanon and Morocco, with a doubtful presence in Algeria and Croatia. Its extent of occurrence covers well over 20,000 km², and it occurs in more than 65 locations.
164386		distribution	eng	<p><em>R. tripartitus</em> is endemic to western Europe, occurring in Denmark, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Spain and Portugal, it also occurs in Morocco.<br/></p>  <p>There is a single record from the Aegean (Dahlgren 1991), which showed different chromosome numbers on different parts of the plant and was probably the product of hybridisation, it would be unwise to interpret this as indicating the presence of the species so far from any other critically determined records. <br/></p><p>Records of this species from outside the areas cited above should be subject to very careful scrutiny, most are single reports from a country, made by people with no previous experience of the species and must be considered unreliable until critically confirmed.<br/></p>
164386		habitat	eng	In the northern part of its range, <em>R. tripartitus</em> typically grows in temporary pools, flushes and the margins of streams on acid substrates where poaching by cattle or other soil disturbance breaks through the upper horizons into basic clays. Further south, it will occur in oligotrophic or acid pools in low-intensity arable, river floodplain pools or even temporary pools in bedrock.
164386		habitat	eng	It is an annual, small rooted Hydrophyte that inhabits swamps, temporary pools and ditches. Flowering takes place in spring (March-May). It is an unsuccessful competitor against taller plants.
164386		population	eng	<em>R. tripartitus</em> is classed as Endangered in the United Kingdom, although this almost certainly exaggerates the level and particularly the speed of the decline, informed surveys have re-found many populations and it may be more appropriate for it to be classed as Vulnerable. Throughout the rest of its range it is reasonably widespread and abundant.
164386		population	eng	The species is quite common in the north of the Mediterranean basin (Iberian Peninsula and France) but fairly restricted in North Africa with populations in regression as a consequence of the destruction of their habitat. <br/> <br/>- Morocco: rare, occurring in seven locations distributed between northern Atlantic Morocco (Sidi Mokhfi and Loukkos), central and western Rif (Tangier, Outka, Issaguène, Cap Spartel and Jbel Souna) with a presence to confirm in the Anti Atlas; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: fairly common, occurring in more than 55 sites; <br/>- France: quite common in the west of the country but doubtfully present in two departments in the coastal strip;<br/>- Croatia: it has been recorded once but has not been observed again<br/>- Lebanon: in Amiq wetland and in Ainata
164386		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164386		threats	eng	The infilling, drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species habitat, as well as the abandonment of grazing, are its main threats.
164389		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in place include departmental (Haute-Savoie and Ain) and regional protection (Franche-Comté, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and Alsace) in France. The species is included in the Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008). <br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to estimate the size and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.
164389		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place in North Africa. Proposed actions are to monitor size and population dynamics of the existing sites and to search for new ones.
164389		conservation	eng	<span class="tooltip"><em>C. pseudocyperus</em> is classed as Endangered in Austria, Vulnerable in Switzerland and Near Threatened in Norway. It is protected in four regions of France (Alsace, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, <span class="tooltip">Rhône-Alpes and Franche-Comté) but does not have national conservation status. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.</span>
164389		distribution	eng	<em>Carex pseudocyperus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, northern Asia down to the Himalayas, Japan, North America, extratropical southern America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It is probably extinct in Israel. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km² and it is found at several locations.
164389		distribution	eng	<em>Carex pseudocyperus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, northern Asia down to the Himalayas, Japan, North America, extratropical southern America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that covers over 200,000 km², four locations and an AOO <50 km².
164389		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pseudocyperus </span>has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, occurring from North Africa (Algeria) and Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus and the Middle East to China and Japan. It also occurs in Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand, eastern North America and southern South America. It is widespread in Europe from Scandinavia, the Baltic States and central Europe to the Mediterranean.
164389		habitat	eng	<em>C. pseudocyperus</em> typically grows in stands of tall monocots around the margins of water-bodies, such as lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches and canals as well as in fen and marshland, as well as in <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Salix</em> woodland.
164389		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swampy plains, and streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164389		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pseudocyperus</span> is widespread and fairly common throughout much of Europe, including the Mediterranean Basin.
164389		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is very rare (four locations and an area of occupancy (AOO)  below 50 km²) with very restricted populations whose trend is unknown. In Morocco it is very rare, with only two locations, both in the Gharb (Merja Âïn Chouk and Merja Bou Charen); very rare in Algeria with only one location, namely in Numidie (La Calle); and very rare in Tunisia, with only two locations, namely in Cap Serrat and El Alia (old data: 1955) where it has not been seen again.
164389		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, with one locality in Montenegro, present in 36 sites in Spain, fairly common in France and present in 12 provinces in Italy. It is believed to be extinct in Israel.<br/>In North Africa it is very rare (four locations and an AOO <50 km²) with very restricted populations whose trend is unknown. In Morocco it is very rare, with only two locations, both in the Gharb (Merja Âïn Chouk and Merja Bou Charen); very rare in Algeria with only one location, namely in Numidie (La Calle); and very rare in Tunisia, with only two locations, namely in Cap Serrat and El Alia (old data: 1955) where it has not been seen again.
164389		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164389		threats	eng	The drainage of swamps is the main threat to this species.
164390		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the population dynamics and existing sites and to search for new ones.&#160; <br/><br/>In Italy, it is classed as Vulnerable for Tuscany, Marche, Umbria, Latium and Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
164390		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex panicea</span> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, boreal and western Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,000,000 km², with several locations.
164390		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swampy prairies, the edges of mountain lakes and peaty woods. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-June).
164390		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is very rare, due to spatial limitations, and the populations are very restricted (three locations and an AOO <5km²). The trend of the populations is unknown, although they could be threatened potentially by the construction of road infrastructures. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, only occurring in the Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake, Oued Ifrane and Boudy road near Oued Zad); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, with more than 256 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: the species was reported for all the northern and central parts (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
164390		threats	eng	The main threat to this species in North Africa is the construction of road infrastructures. There are no major threats to the species on Mediterranean level.
164391		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164391		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus compressus</em> is a Eurasian species, not occurring in Africa. It occurs in most of Europe and extra-tropical Asia (Maire 1957). It is rare in Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia, missing from the Balearic Islands and Crete.<br/>In North Africa, it appears only as subsp. <em>gerardii</em> according to Maire (1957) which has been raised to the species level (<em>J. gerardii</em> Loisel) and has been assessed separately.
164391		habitat	eng	It is an perennial species and a Geophyte. This plant has a creeping rhizome or is laxly caespitose. It prefers damp grassland and disturbed ground, ponds and wet places. Flowering in France is from July to September, in Corsica from June to August and in Italy from June to July.
164391		population	eng	<em>Juncus compressus</em> is present in the northern Mediterranean region exclusively. Its population trend is unknown, but this species is not threatened judging from its abundance in Europe.
164391		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164392		conservation	eng	The locality of the mouth of Moulouya is a Ramsar site and is recognized as a Site of Biological and Ecological Interest (SIBE). <br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164392		distribution	eng	<em>Spergularia doumerguei</em> is endemic to Algeria and Morocco where it is very rare. In Morocco, it is known in two localities along the Mediterranean coastline: Mouth of Moulouya and Saïdia with an occupied area not exceeding 200 km². In Algeria, it is known from two localities on the coastal plains near Oran and Macta to the west of the country. The extent of occurrence is about 6,000 km².
164392		habitat	eng	It is an annual species (Therophyte) found in salt marshes and sebkhas. It blooms in spring under the semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164392		population	eng	In Morocco, the populations of Saïdia are likely to be declining as a result of the recent development of tourism resorts in the region in 2006. The populations of Moulouya are probably stable - the site is classified as a Ramsar site and as SIBE.
164392		threats	eng	The main threat is the deterioration of the habitats by the increasing development of tourism infrastructure notably in the locality of Saïdia. Development is also a problem in the Algerian part of the distribution.
164393		conservation	eng	More specific information on population numbers and range is needed.
164393		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but more information is needed on the species distribution and impacts of threats on population status.
164393		distribution	eng	<em>Najas pectinata</em> is an African endemic. In North Africa, the species is of limited dispersal and restricted to Egypt (at El-Fayoum) and Algeria, where it occurs at one site. However, it is present elsewhere in Africa (e.g. in Lake Tchad and in Madagascar).
164393		distribution	eng	<em>Najas pectinata</em> is an African endemic. In North Africa, the species is of limited distribution and is restricted to Egypt (at El-Fayoum) and Algeria, where it occurs at one site. However, it is widespread in Western Africa and found in South Africa. (e.g. in Lake Chad and in Madagascar). Widespread in Tropical Africa and Tropical Asia.
164393		habitat	eng	It occurs in fresh and brackish waters.
164393		habitat	eng	It occurs in fresh and brackish waters. Submerged aquatic herb, perennial, rooted in the bottom of lakes, swamps, ponds, aquatic grasslands, rivers' borders  mostly in sandy bottoms, associated with Ceratophyllum and Potamogeton.
164393		population	eng	This species is rare with limited occurrence in North Africa.
164393		population	eng	Widespread species, wide range of habitats, presumably important population.
164393		threats	eng	The limited dispersal of the species probably becomes a threat in the future.
164393		threats	eng	This plant is likely to be well adapted as it's a widespread species and tolerates a variety of habitats. Nevertheless, its major threats may be the invasion by alien species and industrial development.
164394		conservation	eng	There is a national park in place for the locality of Toubkal but not for any of the other localities. <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164394		distribution	eng	<em>Viola maroccana</em> is endemic to Morocco where it is suspected to be rare. The distribution is restricted to the mountainous regions. It is found in the Haut Atlas with at least six localities (Ourika, Aït Iren ; j. Guerdouz; Rherhaya; Toubkal, 3,100 m,; between Sidi Chamharouch and Netler shelter, Akka-n-Ouayad) and in the Moyen Atlas. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the range of 9,000 km².
164394		habitat	eng	<em>Viola maroccana</em> is found in shaded wet meadows, cool ravines and on wet shaded rocks in high and medium altitude mountains. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that reproduces in spring (March-April) under the Mediterranean bioclimate.
164394		population	eng	No data on the size of the populations is available. They seem to be stable at the localities of Toubkal, Ourikas, Rherhayas and Moyen Atlas according to observations made in 2003 and 2005. At the other localities, the observations date to 1987 and confirm the presence of the species
164394		threats	eng	This species' habitat is exposed to numerous anthropogenic pressures, such as tourist outdoor activities, grazing and the removal of rocks for construction work.
164395		conservation	eng	There are no existing conservation measures. The species was classified as Endangered in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillet 1998). <br/>Further research is needed. It is particularly important to monitor the existing sites, to search for new sites and to estimate the size and study the dynamics of the populations. Legal protection of the species (Algerian list of protected species), conservation of the species and its habitat and <em>ex situ</em> conservation (seed banks) are also recommended.
164395		distribution	eng	<em>Epilobium numidicum</em> is strictly endemic to Algeria. It is found at two sites in Numidie (La Calle and Jbel Megris) and has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².
164395		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (hemicryptophyte) that is found in humid habitats. Flowering occurs during spring.
164395		population	eng	The species is considered as very rare and the populations are very fragmented and in decline.&#160; It is found at only two sites: one in Numidie and the other near Sétif (about 250 km away) where the species has not recently been observed.
164395		threats	eng	Frequent droughts and the deterioration of the habitat by various anthropogenic pressures, such as agriculture and overgrazing, are the main threats to this species. Water extraction is also impacting the species. Drainage for agriculture purposes was a threat in the past, mainly in La Calle.
164396		conservation	eng	It is protected at national level in France (espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire: Article 2). <br/>There are no conservation measures existent for this species in North Africa.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa (Morocco) and search for new ones, to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa and to apply legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco).
164396		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. officinalis</span> is classed as  Extinct in Estonia and Vulnerable in Switzerland and is protected at national level in France (espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire: Article 2), otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164396		distribution	eng	<em>Gratiola officinalis</em> has a circumboreal distribution, including central and southern Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa and northern America.
164396		distribution	eng	<em>Gratiola officinalis</em> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers central and southern Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa and northern America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km² with numerous locations.
164396		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits marshes and ponds. Flowering occurs during the summer (June-September).
164396		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. officinalis</span> typically occurs in the margins of lakes and ponds, particularly in the draw down zones, often on margins of large water bodies on silt that is very rich in organic matter.
164396		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. officinalis</span> is classed as Extinct in Estonia and Vulnerable in Switzerland, it is common in Spain, common in nearly all France apart from the Mediterranean region and occurs throughout much of Italy including Sardinia.
164396		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean basin but rare in North Africa (spatial restrictions) with very small populations. The trend of the populations is unknown. It is very rare in Morocco, with only four known locations in the western Rif and the Tangérois. <br/>This species is common in Spain, with 65 sites in the centre and north of the country; common in nearly all France (1399 sites) but rare in the Mediterranean part; present in nearly all of Italy (16 provinces) in addition to Sardinia.
164396		threats	eng	Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species.
164398		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level (department Creuse).<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164398		conservation	eng	There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164398		distribution	eng	<em>Carex pendula </em>is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers North Africa, central, western and southern Europe, western Asia and Micronesia. It is widely introduced as an ornamental plant.<br>In Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) over 20 km².
164398		distribution	eng	<em>Carex pendula </em>is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers North Africa, central, western and southern Europe, western Asia and Micronesia. It is widely introduced as an ornamental plant.<br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.
164398		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid forests and shady ravines. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164398		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: fairly frequent, present in Bab Azhar, Harcha, Rharb, Tangérois and the Rif chain; <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Tell region and in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in Kroumirie (Oued Marmel, Aïn Draham, Oued Oufred el Oussif and Mouadjen), the Mogods (Sidi Otman el Hadad), Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, etc.) and in Dorsale Tunisienne (Oued Thibar); <br/>- Spain: very common with 167 sites; <br/>- France: quite common; <br/>- Italy: common in all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily;<br/>- Lebanon: very common, present in the cities and villages of   Helaliye, Beyrouth, Dekwaneh, Araya, Qraye, Abey, Bikfaya, Jisr el Qadi, Col de Zahle, Cedar of Hadeth, Neba', Fou'ar vers Kfarzabad.
164398		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. Populations appear to be stable. In Morocco it is fairly frequent, present in Bab Azhar, Harcha, Rharb, Tangérois and the Rif chain. Quite commonin Algeria too, in Tell region and in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas. In Tunisia its fairly common in Kroumirie (Oued Marmel, Aïn Draham, Oued Oufred el Oussif and Mouadjen), the Mogods (Sidi Otman el Hadad), Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, etc.) and in Dorsale Tunisienne (Oued Thibar).
164398		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164399		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164399		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex ginii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and its distribution is limited to the Haut Atlas with two known localities (Aouljdid, Mgoun) and to the central part of Moyen Atlas (Ari-Hayan, Azrou, Keneg Merzoul, Bekrit, Ain Kahla close to Aïn Leuh). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 12,000 km².
164399		habitat	eng	<em>Rumex ginii</em> is found in mountains (between 1,400 and 2,600 m elevation) at the edges of streams and in wet meadows on basaltic and limestone substrates. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer. The localities where it is found are under the sub-humid, humid and semi-arid cold Mediterranean bioclimate.
164399		population	eng	The size and trends of the populations are not known.
164399		threats	eng	The main threat is the degradation of the habitat due to high grazing pressure and pollution of the waters drained from agricultural land in the catchments.
164400		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164400		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to study the size and dynamics of the populations.
164400		distribution	eng	<em>Myosotis laxa</em> is a sub-Atlantic species. Its distribution encompasses Europe, Asia and North Africa. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164400		distribution	eng	<p><em>M. laxa</em> is found throughout much of the northern Hemisphere, ssp. <em>caespitosa</em> occurs from Europe, south to North Africa and east through Siberia, Mongolia and the Middle East to China and ssp. <em>laxa</em> occurs on the <span lang="EN-GB">western and eastern coastal areas of North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.<br/></p>
164400		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that occurs in temporary pools, marshes, wet meadows, small watercourses, damp places, lake margins, and rivulets. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164400		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. laxa will</span> occur in most types of water body, including temporary pools, marshes, wet meadows, small watercourses, damp places, lake margins, rivers and streams.
164400		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. laxa</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164400		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa, the populations are fairly common in Morocco but their distribution is almost unknown in Algeria and Tunisia. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>In Morocco, it is present in more than ten locations distributed between central Rif (Jbel Afchtal, Jbel Outka, etc.), the High Atlas (Tizi-n-Ougdal, etc) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Loukkos, Mamora). In the Iberian Peninsula, it is fairly common in Portugal and present in 27 sites in the centre and north of Spain. The plant is very common in France and fairly common in Italy where it is present in eight provinces in the north of the country. In Greece,   <em> Myosotis laxa</em> is scattered but not rare in the northern and central parts of the Greek mainland, growing in wet habitats from low altitude to c. <st1:metricconverter productid="1400 m" w:st="on">1400 m</st1:metricconverter>. There are 35 records in the Flora Hellenica Database, and it extends to northern Peloponnisos in the south. It is not threatened in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (A. Strid pers. comm. 2010).
164400		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164400		threats	eng	The urbanization and drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes as well as the use of herbicides and fertilizers are the main threats to this species’ habitat.
164401		conservation	eng	In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aquatica</span> is protected in the southern region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>EURISCO reports 26 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aquatica </span>held in European genebanks. However, only one accession is reported to be of wild or weedy origin and it does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
164401		distribution	eng	<em>P. aquatica</em> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), Macaronesia (Madeira and Canary Islands), and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Portugal: south and centre.</li><li>Italy: widespread from the centre to the south—not found in the north of the country.</li><li>France: occurs in six departments along the southern coast, the departments of Lot and   Pyrénées-Atlantiques to the southwest and the departments of   Seine-Maritime and Sarthe to the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>
164401		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (hemicryptophyte) that grows on the edges of irrigation channels, depressions that are flooded in winter and humid pastures. It flowers from April to June.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> It can also be found in cultivated land and ruderal sites.</span>
164401		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region. In Spain it is quite common and has been recorded from 45 sites; in  Italy it is present in 11 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia and is reported to be very common; in France it is present in seven departments in the south besides Corsica.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
164401		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><br/></span>
164402		conservation	eng	Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology is in place, more information on the population numbers and range is needed.
164402		distribution	eng	This species is widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa.<br><br>In Africa it has been recorded from Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Morocco and Egypt.
164402		distribution	eng	This species occurs in most of Europe, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164402		habitat	eng	<em>P. vulgaris</em> is an annual, polymorph plant, that prefers dolines, river and canal banks, bogs, and is also found in flooded agricultural land and on roadsides.
164402		habitat	eng	<em>P. vulgaris</em> is an annual, polymorph plant, that prefers dolines, river and canal banks, bogs, flooded agricultural land, roadsides.
164402		population	eng	In Algeria, it is very rare. The is no other information on the species' population.
164402		population	eng	The species is very common between Spain and Turkey. In Israel, it only occurs in the north on the border to Lebanon and southern Syria. In Algeria, it is very rare. It is rather rare in Morocco and is found in Tunisia where it is probably not rare.
164402		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. In some regions, war and development can threaten the populations.
164402		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Locally, development can threaten the populations.
164403		conservation	eng	Rivers and dams bank protection and conservation.
164403		distribution	eng	This species is spread throughout West, East and South Africa. <br><br>In West Africa, it has been recorded from Sudan Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo.
164403		habitat	eng	A small spreading herb with numerous slvery-woolly flowers-head crowd in spike-like clusters; florets pale yellow. It grows on river sand and wastes places. Also on moist soil on rivers banks or dams after water retreat.
164403		population	eng	It often gives a dense carpet on river bank under trees.
164403		threats	eng	No major threats identified although it may be affected by agriculture on river or dams bank.
164404		conservation	eng	Mare aux Hippopotamus, in Western Africa, is a biosphere reserve and Mare d'Oursi is a Ramsar site. The species is invasive in places so no further conservation action is required. There are no specific measures in place  in Northern and North East Africa but awareness raising and research on the species taxonomy, populations, habitat status and needed conservation measures are recommended.
164404		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place.</p>
164404		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place, but awareness raising and research on the species taxonomy, populations, habitat status and conservation measures is recommended.
164404		distribution	eng	In Western Africa it is found on most rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. It has been recorded on Lake Chad, Lac de Guiers (Senegal), Mare d'Oursi (Burkina Faso), and Mare aux Hippopotamus (Burkina Faso). It is also native to Egypt in North Africa and Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia in North Eastern Africa. It is widespread in Southern Africa and present in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania in Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>This is a cosmopolitan  species and occurs around the globe, except in Australia. It is primarily a pantropical species, but it also occurs in subtropical areas and even in more temperate regions. It has also been recorded from the Cape Verde islands.
164404		distribution	eng	This hydrophyte is widespread in freshwater habitats in tropical and subtropical countries across Africa, Asia, Oceania and America.
164404		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan and occurs around the globe, except in Australia. In the Mediterranean, it is native in Egypt and Israel and has been introduced to Italy and France (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009).
164404		habitat	eng	It occurs floating in water on <span id="lblTaxonDesc">lake sides, pools, ponds, rice fields, and ditches.
164404		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte is found in canals, ditches, pools, and rice fields.
164404		habitat	eng	This is a free-floating, aquatic annual, herb. It can be found in still freshwater, pools, bogs, polluted water, and flooded rice fields; often in abundance. It also grows in in canals, ditches, and springs. Flowers of this small hydrophyte are hard to see and the flowering period is very short. The population fluctuates depending on water availability and quality.
164404		population	eng	No global population numbers are available. However, it is a common and widespread species (i.e., common in rice fields in Viet Nam).
164404		population	eng	The species is widesspread and common throughout its native geographical range. No population data are available.
164404		population	eng	This species is common in its native range.
164404		threats	eng	Changing agricultural practises may impact the species but this is not a major threat.
164404		threats	eng	<p>No global threats to this species have been reported.</p>
164404		threats	eng	The main threats to this species in Western Africa are drought and reduced water quality, especially where water becomes brackish in drier conditions. However, this species is very tolerant to polluted water. In Northern Africa and North Eastern Africa changing agricultural practises may impact the species but this is not a major threat.
164405		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  <p></p>  In France, it is protected in some regions: Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Franche-Comté, Haute-Normandie and Nord-Pas-de-Calais and in the department of Dordogne <br/>In the Maghreb, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, to estimate the population size and study their dynamics, and to conserve the species and its habitat. Furthermore, the collection of the plants should be controlled and seeds should be stored for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation.
164405		distribution	eng	<em>Anacamptis palustris</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs in central and southern Europe, the Mediterranean basin, North Africa and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Croatia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers about 3,600,000 km², with more than 49 locations and an AOO <500 km².
164405		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (tuberous Geophyte) that inhabits humid pastures. It prefers calcareous soils and it needs a lot of light. Flowering occurs during spring.
164405		population	eng	The species is present in at least 49 locations in the Mediterranean basin, of which eight are in North Africa where the species occurs in very reduced and fragmented populations. The populations are in regression due to the destruction of their habitat. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, occurring in only one location (Chaouia).<br/>- Algeria: rare, with only three locations along the Algerois coast at the suburbs of Algier (Fort de l’eau, Mitidja and Castiglione) where it has not been seen since 1976. The site of Fort de l'eau is destroyed now and the other two sites probably endangered if not destroyed. <br/>- Tunisia: it has been described from four locations distributed between the northeast (Menzel Djemil, El Alia and Foundouk Djedid) and Cap Bon (Mraïssa), but it has not been found for a century. <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: found in the centre and east of the peninsula (present in 26 regions of Spain); <br/>- France: quite rare along the Mediterranean strip, but present in 11 regions and in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: occurs in eight provinces.
164405		threats	eng	The drainage, infilling, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat, as well as its intensive collection for ornamental purposes are its main threats.
164406		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; further research on populations numbers, range and habitat status is needed.
164406		distribution	eng	<em>Scrophularia tenuipes</em> is an Algero-Tunisian endemic species. It occurs in Tunisia at four sites (Babouch and Ain Draham in Kroumiria, Mellegue dam in Tunisian Dorsale, Ghardimaou in valley of Medjerda) and is found in Algeria, where it is rare in Numidia and Kabylia.
164406		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows at wet places, on the edges of streams and waterfalls. It is found mainly in mountainous areas. <br/>Flowering time is May to July.
164406		population	eng	The tiny populations of <em>Scrophularia tenuipes</em> probably exceed 20 km², especially in Algeria. It occurs generally in small density.
164406		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to the species, but the habitat is being degraded through in-filling by garbage and solid waste in Great Kabylia and near human settlements.
164407		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to study its distribution in Morocco and Algeria.
164407		distribution	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, Tropical Asia and northern America (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1962). <br/>Maire (1957) indicates that <em>J. compressus</em> subsp. <em>gerardi</em> var. <em>eu-gerardi</em> (=<em>J. gerardi</em> Loisel) has been observed in eastern Algeria (rather common in Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aures mountains) near Algiers and El-Harrach, and in Morocco (Moyen and Grand Atlas: five locations). The species is however not mentioned for Morocco in Hamada <em>et al.</em> (2002) nor in Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002). <br/><br/><em>J. gerardi </em>is common in France in coastal wetlands, but not common in Corsica, is found in Italy (except in Sardinia,) and Albania, Greece, Spain, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey.
164407		habitat	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is a perennial species and Geophyte. It is found in brackish wet meadows, rarely flooded, on various substrates (peat, clay, sand) mostly in wetlands along the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Channel. It can be found more rarely inland in salty areas (e.g. France). <br/>Flowering in France: V-VIII, Corsica: V-VII, Italy and North Africa: V-VII.
164407		population	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in large populations in Algeria and Morocco. This species is also widely distributed in Europe. Overall, it is not threatened, particularly in the northern part of the Mediterranean region.
164407		threats	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is not directly threatened but suffers locally from the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands.
164408		conservation	eng	It would be useful to have more information on the distribution and status of this species toward the periphery of its range.
164408		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. obtusangula</span> occurs from the UK and the Netherlands to Austria and former Yugoslavia in the east, and westward along the Mediterranean coast, including Corsica and Sardinia, to Spain and Portugal. It has been reported for many parts of Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2007). Elsewhere, it occurs in North Africa, including Morocco and Tunisia. <br/></p>
164408		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em> is restricted to lowlands in the northern part of its range, where it tends to occur in calcareous waters (pH 7–9). Further south it occurs in neutral (pH 7) or even acid water (pH 4–6 in France, Tunisia and Corsica). It is a typical plant of chalk rivers, calcareous fens and ditches in coastal marshes, generally growing over gravels, clay or peat but tolerating deep beds of fine silt. It can also tolerate brackish water and is one of the commonest members of the genus in water-bodies at the upper edge of the coastal zone. In brackish waters, it may occur with <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em>&#160;and with <em>C.&#160;truncata</em>&#160;where the ranges of the species overlap. It frequently occurs with <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> and with species such as <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>,<em> Elodea canadensis</em>, <em>Mentha aquatica</em>, <em>Oenanthe crocata</em>, <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>, <em>Rorippa nasturtium</em>-<em>aquaticum</em>&#160;and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. and particularly in chalk streams with <em>Ranunculus penicillatus</em> ssp. <em>pseudofluitans</em>. In southern Europe, it may occur with species such as <em>Cyperus longus</em>, <em>Leersia oryzoides</em>&#160;and <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>. In favourable conditions it tends to form large dense beds in still or slow-flowing water, but it also forms dense, submerged, sterile beds in fast-flowing reaches of rivers.
164408		population	eng	This species seems to be abundant throughout much of its range and appears to be extending its range towards the east.
164408		threats	eng	There are no known threats specific to this species.
164409		conservation	eng	The mouth of the Moulouya is a SIBE and a designated Ramsar site.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for other sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164409		distribution	eng	<em>Spergularia embergeri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is known in only four places on the Mediterranean coastline (Melilia, Marchica, Saidia and the mouth of the Moulouya). Its extent of occurrence is about 1,300 km².
164409		habitat	eng	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) found in open, dry and salty habitats, sometimes temporarily flooded in winter, in the periphery of lagoons and estuaries. It blooms in spring and summer under the semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164409		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but the global trend is likely to be a decline. Some populations are threatened in the short-term by the destruction of their habitat in the locality of Saidia due to the development of a tourist resort in the framework of the "Plan Azur".
164409		threats	eng	The main threats are the destruction by urban development along the coast and the deterioration of the water quality.
164410		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164410		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a paleo-subtropical species found in the Mediterranean region, eastern Africa and western Asia (Maire 1957, Pignatti 1997, Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). <br/><br/><em>J. fontanesii</em> is considered to be polymorphic (no subspecies identified) in most of the western Mediterranean. <br/><em></em><em></em><em></em><em></em><em></em>
164410		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a paleo-subtropical species found in the Mediterranean region, eastern Africa and western Asia (Maire 1957, Pignatti 1997, Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). <br/><br/><em>J. fontanesii</em> is considered to be polymorphic (no subspecies identified) in most of the western Mediterranean. <br/>- The subspecies <em>pyramidatus</em> is found in Egypt, Italy (Sardinia, Sicily), Greece, Cyprus, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Arabia (Boulos, 2005) and Iran, Ethiopia and Kenya (Maire, 1957).<br/>- The subspecies <em>fontanesii</em> Maire (=<em>eu-fontanesii</em> Maire in J. & M.) is present in Libya (Aïn-Mara), Tunisia (common in the north to Gafsa), Algeria (very common in the the Tell, High Plains and Saharian Atlas), in Morocco (very common in Northern to Anti-Atlas mountains), in Corse (very rare).<br/>- The subspecies <em>brachyanthus</em> has been observed at the banks of Mekerra (western Algeria), in Morocco (Taourirt, Oued Za); common in the mountains (Beni-Snassen, Rif, Atlas and Anti-Atlas). This subspecies, var. <em>melanocephalus</em> particularly, is considered as endemic to Morocco by Maire (1957) and forgotten by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).
164410		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a paleo-subtropical species found in the Mediterranean region, eastern Africa and western Asia (Maire 1957, Pignatti 1997, Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). <br/><em>J. fontanesii</em> is considered to be polymorphic (no subspecies identified) in most of the western Mediterranean. <br/>- The subspecies <em>pyramidatus</em> is found in Egypt, Ethiopia and Kenya (Maire, 1957).<br/>- The subspecies <em>fontanesii</em> Maire (=<em>eu-fontanesii</em> Maire in J. & M.) is present in Libya (Aïn-Mara), Tunisia (common in the north to Gafsa), Algeria (very common in the the Tell, High Plains and Saharian Atlas), in Morocco (very common in Northern to Anti-Atlas mountains), in Corse (very rare).<br/>- The subspecies <em>brachyanthus</em> has been observed at the banks of Mekerra (western Algeria), in Morocco (Taourirt, Oued Za); common in the mountains (Beni-Snassen, Rif, Atlas and Anti-Atlas). This subspecies, var. <em>melanocephalus</em> particularly, is considered as endemic to Morocco by Maire (1957) and forgotten by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).
164410		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a perennial species with a short rhizome and a helophyte. It is found in "open soils permanently or seasonally flooded with fresh or slightly brackish water" (Boulos 2005), in wet sands or at the sides of stagnant waters.
164410		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a perennial species with a short rhizome and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found in "open soils permanently or seasonally flooded with fresh or slightly brackish water" (Boulos 2005), in wet sands or at the sides of stagnant waters. It flowers from June to July.
164410		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a perennial species with a short rhizome and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found in "open soils permanently or seasonally flooded with fresh or slightly brackish water" (Boulos 2005), in wet sands or at the sides of stagnant waters. It flowers from May to August in Morocco, Algeria and France; in Tunisia from May to September; in Italy and Corse, from June-July.
164410		population	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is widely present in the European Mediterranean region. The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable at European scale.
164410		population	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is widely present in the Mediterranean region, but a study of the subspecies is necessary. The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable.
164410		population	eng	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is widely present in the Mediterranean region, but a study of the subspecies is necessary. The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable at Mediterranean scale.
164410		threats	eng	There is no major specific threat to this species, but it is impacted by wetland degradation and destruction through drainage, and development.
164410		threats	eng	There is no major specific threat to this species, but it is impacted by wetland degradation and destruction through drainage, development, etc.
164411		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164411		distribution	eng	<p><em>P.&#160;lapathifolia</em> is apparently a predominantly European taxon (Atlas Flora Europaea) and is reported from every European country except Iceland and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway); Atlas Flora Europaea shows it as becoming less frequent to the north and east and in the Mediterranean Basin but extending further north and east than <em>P.&#160;maculosa</em>. It is apparently less abundant in France than <em>P.&#160;maculosa</em> but this is as likely to be a product of recording differences as an actual difference in distribution.</p>
164411		habitat	eng	This species is widespread and abundant, occurring wherever suitable habitat occurs. Some populations may be vast and seed-set considerable. <em>P.&#160;lapathifolia</em> is a characteristic species of damp muddy habitats, occurring from cattle drinking bays on rivers, through the drawdown zones of large lakes and reservoirs, through damp arable to building sites and damp areas in urban situations. <em>P.&#160;maculosa</em> is a characteristic species of the <em>Bidentalion</em>, a community most typically associated with silt deposits along large lowland rivers.
164411		population	eng	<p><em>P.&#160;lapathifolia </em>is apparently widespread and abundant throughout its European range.</p>
164411		threats	eng	<p>No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.</p>
164412		conservation	eng	Research on population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation is recommended. Protection through national legislation should be applied, especially in Morocco, as it displays a disjuncted distribution and is only known from one location in this country.
164412		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Morocco (L. Rhazi, pers. comm. 2009), Algeria and Tunisia.
164412		habitat	eng	This annual plant occurs on the banks of rivers, marshes or lakes, in shallow wetlands, mainly on peat soils.
164412		population	eng	This species is rare in North Africa. It is only known from one locality in Morocco.
164412		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. Overgrazing, trampling, <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp. plantations, where the threats are both posed by logging and by the drainage of the wetlands, and cultivation of peanut crops in the wetlands during dry years are also impacting the species.
164414		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed. Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range should be encouraged.
164414		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164414		distribution	eng	This species is found in tropical Africa and Madagascar. In North Africa, it is only found in Egypt, in the Nile region including the banks and the delta and the oasis of the Western Desert (Dakhla) (Boulos 2005).
164414		distribution	eng	This species is generally dispersed over tropical Africa and into Madagascar. Present from Mauritania to South Nigeria, including records from Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Niger, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, Nigeria. In north Africa, it is only found in Egypt, in the Nile region including the banks and the delta and the oasis of the western Desert (Dakhla) (Boulos 2005). Also found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia. It also found in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa.
164414		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus maculatus</em> is a rhizomatous, bulbous glaucescent perennial that grows on sandy river banks, in salty land and marshes. It is found on the Nile banks and moist ground.
164414		habitat	eng	Northern Africa: <em>Cyperus maculatus</em> is a bulbous glaucescent perennial that grows on sandy river banks, in salty land and marshes, and in floodplanes. It is found on the Nile banks and moist ground. It is a rhizomatous species with radical stratification which is very typical, completely submerged during the period of high water. During this period the perennial organs are constituted by rhizomes. It is found on the Nile banks and moist ground.
164414		population	eng	Abundant and common throughout its range, its forms dense meadows in waterlogged sand banks.
164414		population	eng	The species seems common and widespread in Egypt.
164414		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present.
164414		threats	eng	No major widespread threats for Africa have been identified. In western Africa dams, agriculture, and extraction of rhizomes have been considered as threats. Also in North-eastern Africa natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.
164415		conservation	eng	In North Africa, the species is currently not subject to protection.<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164415		conservation	eng	The Spanish populations of Laguna de Palos y las Madres and Los Alcornocales are situated in protected natural areas (Natural Parks) and are proposed as LIC; the habitat of Villanueva de Los Castillejos is property of LIC Andévalo Occidental.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is currently not subject to protection.<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species) and application of legal conservation measures.<br/>- Conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves.<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the population size.<br/>- Study of the population dynamics.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
164415		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is an endemic species of the southern Iberian peninsula and North Africa. <br>In Africa this species is found in:<br>- Algeria: Guerbès-Senhadja plain, Lake Sidi Freitis (Samraoui & De Bélair, 1997), El Kala, Lake Tonga (Lefranc, 1865) and Bou Merchen (Quézel & Santa, 1962-1963)<br>- Morocco: Loukkos, Gharb (north of Lalla Mimouna)<br><br>The distribution area of <em>R. modesti-lucennoi</em> was initially extended to Madagascar (Castroviejo, 1995), but this population is considered to rather belong to the pantropical species <em>R. brownii</em> (M. Luceño Garcès, pers. comm.).
164415		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is an endemic species of the southern Iberian peninsula and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean this species is found in:<br/>- Algeria: Guerbès-Senhadja plain, Lake Sidi Freitis (Samraoui and De Bélair 1997), El Kala, Lake Tonga (Lefranc 1865) and Bou Merchen (Quézel and Santa 1962-1963)<br/>- Morocco: Loukkos, Gharb (north of Lalla Mimouna)<br/>- Tunisia: Kroumirie, Bab Abrik (Cuénod 1954).<br/>- Portugal: southwestern coast.<br/>- Spain: Atlantic coast, from Galicia to Cadiz.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>The distribution area of <em>R. modesti-lucennoi</em> was initially extended to Madagascar (Castroviejo 1995), but this population is considered to belong to the pantropical species <em>R. brownii</em> (M. Luceño Garcès pers. comm.).
164415		habitat	eng	<em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> grows in permanently flooded zones, on wet and peaty oligotrophic soils.
164415		population	eng	The Moroccan distribution of <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is poorly known, but it is reported from only two localities.<br/>The Portuguese distribution of <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is also poorly known, but the subpopulation of Beira Alta is estimated to consist of around 50 individuals.<br/>The Spanish subpopulations of Villanueva de los Castillejos (Huelva) and of the Natural Park of Los Alcornocales (Cádiz) harbour four and 33 individuals respectively, on areas not exceeding 35 m². The subpopulation of the Laguna de Palos y las Madres (Huelva), with 95 plants, is the most important one. The individuals occupy a discontinuous area of 1,300 m² at the margin of the peatland.<br/><br/>The total population is estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals and the populations are classed as severely fragmented.
164415		population	eng	The Moroccan distribution of <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is poorly known, but it is reported from only two localities. The total global population is estimated in less than 1,000 individuals.
164415		threats	eng	The main threats affecting <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> are draining of peatlands, lowering of the water table, and modifications of river courses. They are enhanced by both its small distribution area and the rarity of its habitat.
164415		threats	eng	The main threats to this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are draining of peatlands, lowering of the water table, and modifications of river courses. They are enhanced by both its small distribution area and the rarity of its habitat.
164416		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed.
164416		distribution	eng	<em>J. conglomeratus</em> is a Eurosiberian species, its area extends from Europe (except Balearic Islands, Albania and Crete) to northwestern Africa, eastern Asia, North America, and Australia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>In Africa, <em>J. conglomeratus</em> is present in Tunisia (four locations), Algeria (rather common in the the coast of the east and the centre, less common to the west), and in Morocco.
164416		distribution	eng	<em>J. conglomeratus</em> is a Eurosiberian species, its area extends from Europe (except Balearic Islands, Albania and Crete) to northwestern Africa, eastern Asia, North America, and Australia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/>In North Africa, <em>J. conglomeratus</em> is present in Tunisia (four locations), Algeria (rather common in the the coast of the east and the centre, less common to the west), and in Morocco.
164416		habitat	eng	<em>J. conglomeratus</em> is a perennial species with rhizomes and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found, marshes, small streams, shores of lakes and ponds, wet meadows on plains and mountains with rain over 700 mm, somewhat cacifuge. <br/>Flowering takes place between May and October.
164416		population	eng	<em>Juncus conglomeratus</em> is widely present in Europe and in northwestern Africa. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at Mediterranean scale.
164416		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable.
164416		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164417		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164417		distribution	eng	<em>Scorzoneroides atlantica</em> is endemic to Morocco with a distribution limited to the Atlas Mountains. It is rather frequent in the High and Middle Atlas; however, in the Anti Atlas it is only found on the Amezdour Mountain. Its extent of occurrence is about 35,000 km² with an area of occupancy surpassing 2,500 km².
164417		habitat	eng	<em>Scorzoneroides atlantica</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that occurs in humid prairies, the edges of streams and pozzines of middle and high chalky and flinty mountains, between 1,600 and 2,800 m altitude. Its period of flowering goes from the end of spring to summer under the Mediterranean semi-arid cold, sub-humid, humid or high mountain bioclimate.
164417		population	eng	There is no data available on the population size or on their present trends.
164417		threats	eng	Overgrazing, a higher frequency of droughts and the deterioration of the surrounding environment by deforestation and extension of agriculture are the main threats to this species' habitat.
164418		conservation	eng	Research is already being carried out, it is furthermore recommended to monitor the existing sites and population dynamics.
164418		distribution	eng	This species is found in tropical regions, mainly in Africa from Angola to Zambia southwards.<br/>In the Mediterranean, it only occurs in Egypt, in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum. Its extent of occurrence covers less than 20,000 km² and it is present in 10 sites.
164418		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) which inhabits sandy marshes and less often cultivated fields. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn.
164418		population	eng	The species has a fairly limited distribution in Egypt, occurring in 10 sites in sandy islands of the River Nile, Cairo, upper Egypt and Belbeys. The trend of the populations is unknown.
164418		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.
164419		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. catenata</span> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164419		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164419		distribution	eng	<em>V. catenata </em>occurs throughout Europe and North America, although it is not certain that it is native in North America.
164419		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Portugal to Greece. In North Africa, it is present in Morocco and Egypt.
164419		habitat	eng	It prefers moist ground and grows on canal banks.
164419		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. catenata</span> typically grows in nutrient-rich organic soils on the margins of mesotrophic to eutrophic rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and ditches, as well as in seasonally inundated grassland and arable.
164419		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. catenata</span> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164419		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region.
164419		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
164419		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164420		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164420		distribution	eng	<em>Glinus lotoides</em> is a paleotropical species with a distribution covering the Mediterranean, Europe and the pantropical zones. In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Albania, Turkey, France and Corsica, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Spain, Israel and Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, Palestine, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Sinai. It is present in many localities in the Mediterranean region with an extent of occurrence about 6,800,000 km². <br/> In North Africa, it is present in 17 localities.
164420		habitat	eng	<em>Glinus lotoides</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporary pools with clayey bottom and in the beds of temporary rivers, Nile and canal banks, moist ground where soils are inundated in winter and dried up in early summer.<br/>Its flowering takes place from spring to summer.
164420		population	eng	The populations appear steady with numerous localities at Mediterranean level. However the anthropogenic pressures increasing on the habitat of this species in North Africa, could threaten the populations in the medium-term. <br/>- Iberian peninsula: known in seven provinces in Spain and five provinces in Portugal;<br/>- France: present in Corsica and in only one region on mainland - Aveyron;<br/>- Italy: two provinces on mainland (Lazio and Calabria), Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>- Israel: three known localities distributed between the Mediterranean zone and the sub-steppique regions;<br/>- Morocco: considered as rare. Present in seven localities at least in the Rif (Tangier), the Saharian Morocco (Oued Chebeika close to Abattih) and the north Atlantic plains (About Kénitra, Salé, Tiflète and Benslimane);<br/>- Algeria: very rare in Numidie;<br/>- Tunisia: rare, present in central Tunisia (Merdja of Sidi El Hani); <br/>- Egypt: seven localities at least in the Nile, the oases of the west, the Mediterranean coast, the desert east from the Nile; Gebel Elba and the neighbouring mountainous regions; Peninsula of Sinai.
164420		threats	eng	Drainage, agriculture and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164421		conservation	eng	This species is under protection in France: departmental (Moselle, Meuse, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Landes, Gironde) and regional protection (Alsace, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Basse-Normandie, Centre, Picardie, Pays-de-la-Loire). <br/>One of the locations where it is present in Morocco is the Toubkal National Park.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and study the size and dynamics of the populations.
164421		distribution	eng	<em>Parnassia palustris</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution encompasses North America, all of Europe (but rare in the south), northern and central Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers much over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164421		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and humid prairies of medium and high altitude mountains. Flowering occurs in summer and autumn (July-October).
164421		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. In North Africa it is not common due to spatial limitations. The trend of the populations is unknown. It is considered as rare in Morocco, occurring in 12 locations distributed between the High Atlas (Jbel Toubkal, Aouljdid, Afougueur, Seksaoua, Acif Mgoun springs, Tessaout, Jbel Andromeur, Oukaïmden and Tizi n'Tichka), the Middle Atlas (Oued Immouzer and Bekrite) and the Rif (Jbel Iguermalez); very rare in Algeria, solely present in Numidie (around La Calle). <br/>In Spain, it is present in 347 sites, most of them in the north; present in most of France, but with an irregular distribution and practically absent along the Mediterranean strip; very common in Italy, occurring in 15 provinces in the centre and north.
164421		threats	eng	The drainage of swampy prairies for agricultural purposes is the main threat for this species.
164423		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164423		distribution	eng	<em>Teucrium scordium</em> is a Euro-Caucasian species that is found in southern, central and northern Europe, Caucasus, and Siberia. It is found in all the European Mediterranean countries and is present in Turkey and the Levant.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Tunisia under the synonym <em>T. scordium scordioides</em> where it seems to be common with more than 11 sites. In Algeria, it is common in the Tell, rare elsewhere, and in Morocco, it is found at two sites.
164423		distribution	eng	<em>Teucrium scordium</em>   is reported from throughout Europe except Andorra, the far north, European Russia, the Spanish and Portuguese islands,   Gibraltar (UK), Monaco, San Marino and UK-Northern Ireland. It's global distribution extends from Europe eastwards into northern China.
164423		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. scordium</span> occurs in a variety of wetland habitats with fluctuating water levels, including dune-slacks, seasonally inundated hollows in pasture, clay-pits, turloughs and the banks of rivers, ponds and ditches.
164423		habitat	eng	This stoloniferous perennial plant grows in wet meadows, ponds and other wet and marshy places.
164423		population	eng	<em>T. scordium</em> often occurs as small or very scattered populations, but may show long seed dormancy capacity and be able to exploit the short-term establishment of suitable conditions. It is widespread and frequent throughout much of its range but there have been local declines.
164423		population	eng	It seems that the populations of <em>Teucrium scordium</em> are very numerous in Europe and North Africa, except Morocco.
164423		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164424		conservation	eng	The species is under regional protection in France, in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, and listed as a species to monitor on a national level.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics. In the short term, it is necessary to control the urbanization in countries of the Maghreb.
164424		distribution	eng	<em>Crypsis schoenoides</em> is a paleo-subtropical species. It has a large biogeographical distribution that covers southern Europe, Asia, North Africa and tropical Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 400,000 km² and its AOO >2,000 km².
164424		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found during the exposed summer phase in temporarily flooded habitats: temporary pools and marshes and also along river banks (during drawdown) of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn (April-October). This species requires large amounts of light and is not a successful competitor.
164424		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa, with numerous locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in the Tangier Peninsula, northern Atlantic Morocco (Aïn Sferjila) and the Middle Atlas; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in Kroumirie and in the northeast;  <br/>- Libya: rare, only occurring in the southeast of the country (Jabal Uwainat); <br/>- Egypt: present along the Nile and the Mediterranean coastal strip and also in the oases of the western Desert and the desert east of the Nile; <br/>- Spain: widespread throughout all the country with a maximum frequency in the centre; <br/>- France: common in Corsica and also along both the Mediterranean (Roussillon, Languedoc and Provence) and the Atlantic coastline (from Gironde to Finistère); <br/>- Italy: present in numerous provinces (Trentin, Lombardie, Piémont, Ligurie, Emilie-Romagnie, Toscane, Lazio and Abruzze) as well as Sardinia and Sicily; <br/>- Israel and Palestine: very common.
164424		threats	eng	The urbanization, infilling, drainage (for agricultural purposes) and the setting in permanent water (for hunting purposes) of this species’ habitat are its main threats. <em>Crypsis schoenoides</em> is growing on mud expose in late spring when the marshes dry up. The managers of hunting marshes like to keep their wetlands permanently flooded for the development of the kind of vegetation the ducks like to eat in winter. Thus the species is drawn and disappears.
164426		conservation	eng	This species was classified as Endangered in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998). There are no current conservation measures in place.<br/>Recommended conservation actions are to monitor the existing site and the populations and their dynamics, to legally protect the species (Tunisian List of Protected Species) and to conserve the species in seed banks.
164426		distribution	eng	<em>Rumex tunetanus</em> is strictly endemic to Tunisia. It is found at only one site in the Mogods namely near Garaet Sejnane (in the north of the country) and it has an area of occupancy that is smaller than two km². It was first described at the end of the 19th century and has not been observed for several years. It was believed to be possibly extinct until a recent survey in April 2010 confirmed its presence in Garaet Sejnane (where the species was mentioned by Pottier-Alapetite).
164426		habitat	eng	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous Therophyte that is found on the edges of freshwater bodies. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164426		population	eng	The species has recently been found again at the site with two populations within a few metres of each other: one population has ca. 522 individuals and the other population counts less than 20 individuals (L. Rhazi pers. comm. 2010). Since the 1950s, this site has suffered significant changes due to various anthropogenic pressures, which has lead to the fragmentation of the habitat and consequently to the decline of the populations.
164426		threats	eng	Drainage, agricultural expansion, grazing and the development of road infrastructures are some of the main threats to this species' habitat.
164427		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. The proposed measures are legal protection of the species, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures, to maintain the activities of grazing in order to limit the extension of high plants, to study the biology of the species and to raise public awareness.
164427		conservation	eng	The species is protected at a national level in France, populations occur in the following protected areas: Parc Naturel Régional de Camargue, Réserve de la Tour du Valat, Lanau (Bouches-du-Rhône), pools in central Var (management plan in progress); <em>ex situ</em> conservation of seeds by the Conservatoire Botanique National de Porquerolles. It is classified as Vulnerable in the National Red Lists of Greece and Italy and as Data Deficient in the Croatian Red List.
164427		conservation	eng	The species is protected at national level in France and populations are included in the following protected areas: Parc naturel régional de Camargue, Réserve de la Tour du Valat, Lanau (Bouches-du-Rhône), pools in central Var (management plan in progress). Fuerthermore,&#160; <em>ex situ</em> conservation of seeds is carried out by the Conservatoire Botanique National de Porquerolles. It is Critically Endangered in Sicily and Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). It is classified as Data Deficient in the Croatian Red Data Book.<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. <br/><br/>It is necessary to confirm the identity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium</span> populations in order to gather information about the species presence and distribution. Further proposed measures are: legal protection of the species, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures, to study the biology of the species and to raise public awareness.
164427		distribution	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in France from Biterrois to Hérault in Var and the Rhone valley; in Italy in the coastal zone southwest of Sicily; central and southern Spain where it is widespread in the southwestern and eastern coast; western coast of Portugal; Croatia; and Greece, in Thessaly, east of Larissa and in northwest Peloponnese near Kalogria.<br/><br/>The area of  occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km² and, apart from the Spanish localities, the  species range is severely fragmented.
164427		distribution	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in France (from Biterrois to Hérault in Var, Rhone valley), Italy (coastal zone southwest of Sicily), central and southern Spain (widespread in the southwestern and eastern coast), Portugal (western coast), Croatia, Greece (Thessalia, east of Larisa and in northwest Peloponniosos near Kalogria) and Syria. <br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is present in Morocco (Tanger, Loukkos and Ito; Bou Jerirt; vicinity of the Sidi-Ali-ou-Mohand lake, Timahdit in the Middle Atlas, Rommani in the region of the Zaers), Algeria (the high Plateaux of the northwest, Oran mountains) and in Libya (El-Merj). <br/>The extent of occurrence in North Africa is about 400,000 km² with an occupied area of estimated 15 km². At Mediterranean level, its extent of occurrence is of 3,000,000 km² and the occupied area is estimated >700 km².
164427		distribution	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy, Croatia, Syria, Morocco, Algeria and Libya. In Greece, all material that has been found has been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bourgaei</span> and therefore the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polyspermum</span> has not been confirmed. In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polyspermum</span> was reported only for Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <br/>On the Iberian Peninsula, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polyspermum</span> is more continental than <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bourgaei</span>. The main populations are in central Spain - it occurs in the coastal Mediterranean strip but is less frequent there. It is present at the western coast of Portugal (Beira Litoral). In France, it is found from Biterrois to Hérault in Var, Rhône valley.<br/>In Morocco, the species is present in Tanger, Loukkos and Ito; Bou Jerirt; vicinity of the Sidi-Ali-ou-Mohand lake, Timahdit in the Middle Atlas, Rommani in the region of the Zaers. In Algeria, it occurs in the high Plateaux of the northwest and the Oran mountains, and in Libya in El-Merj.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
164427		habitat	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte), or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels. It prefers soft or weakly brackish waters, is indifferent to the nature of soil and can support slightly saline conditions. Its flowering is generally vernal (April-June); the maturation and the dissemination of the seeds take place in summer.
164427		habitat	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte), or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and the draw-down zones of lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels. It prefers soft or weakly brackish waters, is indifferent to the nature of soil and can support slightly saline conditions.
164427		habitat	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte), or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow pools and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels. It prefers soft or weakly brackish waters, is indifferent to the nature of soil and can support slightly saline conditions. Its flowering is generally from April to June; the maturation and the dissemination of the seeds take place in summer.<br/>The species is characteristic of one of the sub-types of Mediterranean temporary pools as indicated in the Habitats Directive.
164427		population	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is relatively rare over its entire distribution area. Populations are declining due to habitat loss and degradation. The species is common in the western Mediterranean (Spain and Morocco) and becomes rare eastwards (Italy, Greece, and Croatia). <br/><ul><li>France: present in 10 sites distributed between the departments of Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhône and Var. Eight populations disappeared or have not been reviewed in Sauvian (Vendres plateau), Portiragnes/Vias (Roque-Haute), Agde (Riguaud pools), Redessan, Jonquières, Manduel (Jonquières, Campuget and Redessan ponds), Bellegarde and the Barben (Estagnolet pool); </li><li>Greece: populations are in decline and only known from a few localities; </li><li>Italy: present at only one location at the coast of Sicily;</li><li>Portugal: known from only one site;</li><li>Spain: the presence of the species is noted in 13 provinces in the centre and the north of the country (between 50 and 100 sites) and three provinces in the south of the country (approximately 20 sites).</li></ul>
164427		population	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is relatively rare over its entire distribution area. The populations face a decline due to the deterioration of the habitat.<br/>- Morocco: there is no data on the size of the populations of this species that is considered rare; <br/>- Algeria: very rare, signaled solely in the high trays of Algier and Oran (Sersou);<br/>- Libya: only present in the El-Merj area at the Mediterranean coastline to the east of Benghazi.
164427		population	eng	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is relatively rare over its entire distribution area. The populations face a decline due to the deterioration of the habitat. The species is common in the west extremity of the Mediterranean (Spain and Morocco) and becomes rare eastwards (Italy, Croatia). <br/>- France: it was known from 10 sites distributed between the departments of Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhône and Var. Eight populations disappeared or have not been reviewed in Sauvian (plateau of Vendres), Portiragnes/Vias (Roque-Haute), Agde (pools of Riguaud), Redessan, Jonquières, Manduel (ponds of Jonquières, Campuget and Redessan), Bellegarde and the Barben (pool of the Estagnolet); only seven sites are confirmed presently;<br/>- Italy: several localities but only one has been confirmed after 1970 at Isola Grande (Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007);<br/>- Spain: the presence of the species is noted in 20 provinces in the centre and the north of the country (between 50 and 100 sites) and&#160; in the south of the country (approximately 20 sites);<br/>- Portugal: only one site harbours this species;<br/>- Morocco: there is no data on the size of the populations of this species that is considered rare; <br/>- Algeria: very rare, signalled solely in the high plateaus of Algier and Oran (Sersou);<br/>- Libya: only present in the El-Merj area at the Mediterranean coastline east of Benghazi.
164427		threats	eng	This species is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation, pollution and alien-weed competition. The threats include drainage of depressions in relation to agricultural amenities, overgrazing, urbanization, and agrochemical pollution.
164427		threats	eng	This species is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation. The main threat is the change of hydrological regimes, ranging from drainage of depressions for agricultural purposes to stabilising the water levels of temporary water bodies in order to use them as reservoirs. Overgrazing, urbanization and alien-weed competition, for example <span style="font-style: italic;">Azolla filiculoides</span>, are furthermore leading to population declines.
164427		threats	eng	This species is declining over its entire range due to habitat destruction and degradation, pollution and competition from invasive alien plants. The threats include drainage of seasonally inundated agriculture, overgrazing, urbanization, and agrochemical pollution.
164429		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place,  further research on population numbers and range is needed. Otherwise, no conservation are in need.
164429		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been undertaken specifically for this species and none is needed.
164429		distribution	eng	Found in Tropical Africa, southern and southeast Asia. It has been recorded from western and Central Africa, also in Southern Africa.<br/><br/><em> E. conyzoides conyzoides</em> it is found Egypt, Ethiopia, tropical Africa, tropical Asia and eastwards to Indochina. It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. <br/><br/><em>E conyzoides kraussii =</em> is present in KwaZulu-Natal with 9 specimens in 7 unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells.
164429		distribution	eng	This plant ranges from western, northern, central, and southern Africa, Eurasia (Syria) to tropical Asia and eastward from China to south America (Brazil). It has been widely introduced and the species natural range requires confirmation.
164429		habitat	eng	The species is typically occurs on moist soils, in shallow water or on marshy ground on river banks and in low-lying areas, as well as in reed beds often mixed with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvinia natans</span>. It also occurs in rice fields where it may become a pest.
164429		habitat	eng	This Herb is usually found in wet grassland or by rivers. Recorded from the Nile and canal banks, moist grounds. However, slalinity has a negative effect on the species.<br/><br/><em>E. conyzoides conyzoide</em>s  is weedy annual that grows in damp places or places where water stood during the rains but has dried out.  On moist ground, in shallow water or swampy places, on river and stream banks, in reed-beds sometimes rooted in <em>Salvinia sp</em>. Mats. Not strictly a wetland species. <br/><br/><em>E conyzoides kraussii</em> Cook (2004) is a weedy annual which grows in damp places where water stood during the rains but has dried out.  Not strictly wetland species but is sometimes found growing together with wetland species shortly after rain. It replaces wetland species in dry season.
164429		population	eng	It is an invasive, semi-aquatic weed commonly found growing on moist soils; fairly common in India.
164429		population	eng	Widespread herbaceous herb, important population.
164429		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
164429		threats	eng	None known.
164430		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Follow-up of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164430		distribution	eng	<em>Stellaria alsine</em> is a species with a wide distribution at the global scale. It is present in Europe, Madeira, Africa, North America and in the centre and northern part of Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in France (mainland and in Corsica), Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia and Morocco. The extent of occurrence is about 2,700,000 km² in the Mediterranean region.
164430		habitat	eng	The species can be annual or perennial. It s found in rivulets and springs in mountains as well as in wet soils on silica-rich substrate. <em>Stellaria alsine</em> blooms in spring and summer under the cold semi-arid, sub-humid, humid and high mountain Mediterranean bioclimate.
164430		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known but they seem stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is present with at least nine known localities distributed between the Rif (Tizi-niIfri), the Anti-Atlas (Jbel Amezdour, near Tizi-n-Touggoukine, Siroua), the Haut-Atlas and the centre of the country (El Harcha, Ment, Aïn Bridila).
164430		threats	eng	In Morocco, a high grazing pressure notably close to the sources could change the quality of the habitat (enrichment in organic matter). This hypothesis is supported by the recent installation of some nitrate-requiring species. <br/><br/>In the other Mediterranean countries, there are no major threats to this species.
164431		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164431		distribution	eng	<em>Hypochaeris angustifolia</em> is an endemic plant of Morocco. It is rather frequent in many localities of the High and Middle Atlas. It is also known in the Moroccan part of the Sahara (Errachidia and Kelaât Mgouna) and in Haouz on the bank of the Oum-er-Rbia river and around Oulad bou Moussa. Its extent of occurrence is about 45,000 km² with an area of occupancy greater than 3,000 km².
164431		habitat	eng	<em>Hypochaeris angustifolia</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that prefers humid grassland and verges of springs at plains and mountains up to 2,500 m of altitude. Its flowering period spreads from spring to summer under the arid, temperate semi-arid, semi-arid cold, sub-humid or humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164431		population	eng	The populations seem to be stable.
164431		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is subject to grazing pressure, extension of agriculture, water pollution and frequent droughts.
164432		conservation	eng	The species is legally protected in France. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1997) and Scoppola and Spampinato (2005) the species is Vulnerable. The site at Lago di Ortobello in Tuscany is protected by different regulations and is declared a Habitats Directive Site of Community Importance, a Ramsar site and a WWF reserve. However, water pollution is affecting those sites and this needs to be controlled. Monitoring of the sites is furthermore needed.<br/>In order to determine the exact range of this species, fieldwork is necessary especially in those areas where it is suspected that records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. filiformis</span> are in fact <span style="font-style: italic;">A. orientalis</span>.<br/><br/>For practical reasons, and due to similar habitat requirements and threats, conservation efforts in the Mediterranean should encompass both <span style="font-style: italic;">Althenia</span> species.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
164432		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Althenia filiformis</span> is endemic to France and Italy. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families also claims it to be native to Morocco (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).<br/>In France, it is present in the departements Bouches du Rhône, Gard, Hérault (Provence, Languedoc,) and in Corsica. <br/>According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) the species is found in Tuscany, Puglia, Sicily and Sardinia; but its presence in Basilicata, Campania and Calabria are doubtful and should be excluded (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).<br/>In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">Althenia filiformis</span> has been reported from Puglia (Lago di Salpi), from the Ravenna province in Emilia-Romagna (Saline di Cervia), and  from Tuscany (Laguna di Orbetello), although the knowledge of the latter area is limited to about 1980 and has not been checked recently. Moreover, it is present in Sicily and Sardinia where it is quite common in damp salt areas. <br/><br/>Records from Morocco, Algeria, Portugal, Spain, Baleares, Turkey, Greece, Sicily  and almost all Italian sites belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">Althenia orientalis</span> (Garcia Murillo pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
164432		habitat	eng	The species is found in coastal shallow brackish and salt waters with tasselweed (<em>Ruppia</em>) communities, susceptible to drying during the summer, from the littoral to the meso-Mediterranean belt.
164432		population	eng	The species is found in Mediterranean France in Hérault (Agde, Etang-de-l'Or), Bouches-du-Rhône (Fos-sur-Mer, Saintes-Marie-de-la-Mer), Var (Grimaud). Most of the sites have not been seen for several decades. The species is also found along the Atlantic coast in Charente-Maritime, Loire-Atlantique and Vendée. In Corsica, it can be found at three sites that are less than 30 kilometres from each other and that are under pressure from tourism (L. Hugot pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>The sites in Puglia and Tuscany host only a few individuals and suffer from degradation of their habitat. Due to confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. orientalis</span> the number of sites and population trends in Italy cannot be specified with certainty.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>There are high levels of fluctuation in population size as well as presence and absence related to the water levels.
164432		threats	eng	Habitats of the species are threatened by urbanization and filling in of the wetlands. Changes in water regimes such as the modification of flood period of water bodies or the changes of brackish (or saline) water to freshwater are further threats. Industrial contamination and other types of water pollution also impact on the species. Tourism might impact the species as it is found along coasts.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><p><br/></p>
164433		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. <br/>There are no other conservation measures known or proposed.
164433		distribution	eng	<em>Imperata cylindrica</em> is a thermo-cosmopolitan species. Its geographical distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, sub-tropical and tropical regions of the globe. <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Portugal, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 500,000 km², with several localities and an AOO >500 km².
164433		habitat	eng	<em>Imperata cylindrica</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits temporary pools, river banks and irrigation channels as well as humid gritty lands. Flowering occurs between spring and summer (April-July).
164433		population	eng	<em>Imperata cylindrica</em> is very common in the Mediterranean with populations that are steady.
164433		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164434		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164434		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164434		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place, the plant occurs in many protected areas.
164434		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. crispus</em> is apparently native throughout most of the Old World, from Europe east to Japan and the Korean Peninsula, the Middle East, Indian subcontinent, China and northern southeast Asia with discontinuous populations in Sumatra (Indonesia) and Australia. It also occurs throughout the Mediterranean including North Africa and through the Black Sea region to the Caucasus and occurs throughout most of Africa south of the Sahara. It has apparently been introduced to North and South Islands of New Zealand, North America, Mexico and a few locations in Central and South America and Fiji.<br/></p>  <p>Within Europe, it is widespread and abundant in the Mediterranean, western, central and eastern countries and throughout European Russia. It is less common in the north occurring in all the Baltic states but with only scattered populations in Scandinavia and absent from Iceland.</p>
164434		distribution	eng	<p>This species is native throughout most of the old world, from Europe to Japan and the Korean Peninsula, the Middle East, Indian subcontinent, China and northern southeast Asia with discontinuous populations in Sumatra (Indonesia) and Australia. It also occurs throughout the Mediterranean including North Africa and through the Black Sea region to the Caucasus. Found throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa.<br/></p>
164434		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and has been introduced in New Zealand, North America and South America.<br><br>In North Africa it is found in Egypt, Libya and Algeria. Also present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Egypt (Lake Nasser) in North East Africa. Widespread in Southern Africa where it occurs in Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
164434		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and has been introduced in New Zealand, North America and South America.<br/>It is found in all the Mediterranean countries from Portugal to Egypt and Libya eastwards (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009). In the Maghreb it is only found in Algeria.
164434		habitat	eng	<em>P. crispus</em> will occur in most water body types, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, drains, ditches and even very small water bodies. It is most typical of eutrophic or mesotrophic waters and so is able to colonise anthropogenic systems but will also occasionally occur in oligotrophic lakes. <em></em>
164434		habitat	eng	<em>Potamogeton crispus</em> occurs in a wide range of habitats, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, drains, ditches and even very small water bodies. It is confined, however, to eutrophic or mesoeutrophic waters. <em>P. crispus</em> is found in aquatic habitats characterised by: a) water of moderate concentrations of alkalinity, inorganic nitrogen and sulphate and low concentrations of phosphates, calcium and magnesium; and b) hydrosoil of moderatre values of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate and organic matter.<br>Plants produce more turions (which constitute the main process of reproduction) than flowers under environmental stress to which aquatic habitats are subjected.
164434		habitat	eng	<em>Potamogeton crispus</em> occurs in a wide range of habitats, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, drains, ditches and even very small water bodies. It is confined, however, to eutrophic or mesoeutrophic waters. <em>P. crispus</em> is found in aquatic habitats characterised by: a) water of moderate concentrations of alkalinity, inorganic nitrogen and sulphate and low concentrations of phosphates, calcium and magnesium; and b) hydrosoil of moderatre values of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate and organic matter.<br/>Plants produce more turions (which constitute the main process of reproduction) than flowers under environmental stress to which aquatic habitats are subjected.
164434		habitat	eng	This <span class="ListNote">aquatic plant grows in  fresh and slightly brackish waters. It occurs in ponds, lakes, rivers and paddy fields.<br/><ul><br/></ul>
164434		population	eng	Although it is a common and widespread species there is no specific data on population numbers.
164434		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. crispus</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range and there is no evidence of a decline.
164434		population	eng	This species is very common.
164434		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by general threats to wetlands, but the species is not at risk.
164434		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
164434		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164435		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the number of mature individuals <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)
164435		distribution	eng	<em>Eryngium variifolium</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco with a distribution restricted to the mountainous regions. The species is found in two localities in the Anti<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Atlas (Siroua; Jbel Amezdour) and two localities in the Haut Atlas (Tatrarate, Tiseldei). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 3,000 km².
164435		habitat	eng	<em>Eryngium variifolium</em> is found in temporarily flooded habitats between 900 and 2,600 m of elevation, along streams, in fens and on saturated soils. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in late spring and summer (June-August). <em>Eryngium variifolium</em> is found under the cold, semi-arid cold, humid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164435		population	eng	The total population is estimated to consist of 30,000 individuals. The dynamics are poorly understood.
164435		threats	eng	The threats to this species' habitat are essentially overgrazing and the extension of agriculture on the neighbouring lands. Temporarily flooded wetlands in Morocco are under severe threat from human impacts and climate change (dessication).
164436		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164436		distribution	eng	A western subatlantic and Mediterranean species that is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region. In Africa it occurs in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya and Morocco.
164436		distribution	eng	A western subatlantic and Mediterranean species that is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region. It occurs in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164436		habitat	eng	It grows mainly on sandy shores and maritime sand dunes, rarely far inland (oases).
164436		population	eng	This species is very common in North Africa.
164436		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean, present at numerous localities.
164436		threats	eng	No major threats for this species.
164438		conservation	eng	<em>B. umbellatus</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Norway, Vulnerable in Switzerland and Near Threatened in Croatia. Otherwise, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164438		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. umbellatus</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, it is native to North Africa and Europe north to Scandinavia and east through European Russia, Siberia, the Middle East, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the Western Himalayas to the Amur region of the eastern seaboard of Russia. It is apparently naturalised in southern Canada and the northern United States, Ireland and some of the British isles.</p>
164438		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. umbellatus</span> can grow as a terrestrial on wet mud, emergent in shallow water or more or less permanently submerged in deep or fast-flowing water. It is most often found on nutrient-rich, calcareous clay substrates and will occur in a variety of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, streams, ditches (particularly those which serve as "wet fences") and canals.
164438		population	eng	<em>B. umbellatus</em> is widespread and abundant with apparently stable populations throughout much of its Europan range. However, there are areas where it has declined, such as Norway, Croatia and Switzerland.
164438		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164439		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is recommended to carry out surveillance of the existing localities and search for new ones, and to monitor its population dynamics.
164439		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> is endemic to Morocco and Algeria. It is found in eight known localities, all in mountainous regions. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 20,000 km² and its known area of occupancy is smaller than 100 km².
164439		habitat	eng	<em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits stream banks and humid rocks of the middle and high mountains. Flowering occurs between spring and summer.
164439		population	eng	<em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> is rare in Morocco and in Algeria but its populations are stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is known from five localities, all in middle or high mountains, in the High Atlas (Jbel Ayachi, Jbel Rhat, Jbel Takreda) and the Middle Atlas (Jbel Hayane, Bou-Iblane). In Algeria, it is present in three localities in the mountains (Aurès, Djurjura, Hodna mountain).
164439		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species.
164440		conservation	eng	This species is quite rare in France and relatively unknown even if the species is protected at the sub-national level (e.g. regional protection in Provence). Additional measures are necessary to investigate the distribution in France. Only one location is protected in the "Réserve regionale of Tour du Valat".<br/>In Spain, it is included in some protected areas such as the Doñana national park and local reserves. It is classed as Vulnerable on the Red List of Andalucia   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>No other conservation measures are in place but monitoring of the populations is recommended.
164440		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western part of the Mediterranean Basin and is present in France, Portugal, Spain, Menorca, Sardinia, and Morocco. The area of occupancy is not known but might be close to 2,000 km².
164440		habitat	eng	This species is found in standing freshwater or brackish or slightly salty water bodies with summer drying.
164440		population	eng	In France, the species used to be present in the western part of France (Charente-Maritime, Maine-et-Loire, Manche) but the records have not been confirmed for a long time. It can be found at several sites in Tour du Valat and is present in the western part of the Camargue. In Portugal, it occurs in Beira Litoral and the Algarve. In Spain, the species inhabits temporary saline pools of Guadalquivir depressions and marshland of the Doñana. There are some isolated spots in Castilla-Leon, La Rioja, La Mancha and Aragon.<br/>Many localities correspond to historical records which now may have disappeared or are severely transformed. The remaining populations are severely fragmented.
164440		threats	eng	The habitat of the species could be subject to anthropogenic threats such as drainage, filling in or change in salinity. Pollution from agricultural activities, i.e. run off with sediments and fertilizers entering the pools can pose another threat. Negative affects are caused by marsh management for hunting: the marshes are kept under a permanently high water level to provide more biomass and to attract hunters.
164441		conservation	eng	C. michelianus is under regional protection in France (Franche-Comté, Auvergne, Rhones-Alpes and Midi-Pyrénées) and qualified as Vulnerable in the National Red List of Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). <br/><br/>According to Schnittler and Günther (1999), <em>C. michelianus</em> is   <ul><li>Extinct in the wild in Poland and Switzerland</li><li>Critically Endangered in Austria and Germany</li><li>Endangered in the Czech Republic and Slovakia</li><li>Data Deficient in Slovenia</li></ul>
164441		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not reported.
164441		conservation	eng	In Northern Africa, there are no conservation measures in place; the proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, monitor the dynamics of the populations and conservation of the habitat of this species. Despite of some populations being included in designated Ramsar sites (lakes Tonga, Oiseaux or Chichaya), these areas have no protection. Hence increasing the awareness of local residents and provide financial incentives is recommended. No conservation actions needed or in place in other regions.
164441		conservation	eng	It is under regional protection in France (Franche-Comté, Auvergne, Rhones-Alpes and Midi-Pyrénées) and qualified as VU in the National Red List of Croatia. No other measures are taken elsewhere. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place; the proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, monitor the dynamics of the populations and conservation of the habitat of this species. Despite of some populations being included in designated Ramsar sites (lakes Tonga, Oiseaux or Chichaya), these areas have no protection. Hence increasing the awareness of local residents and provide financial incentives is recommended.
164441		distribution	eng	<em>C. michelianus</em> occurs throughout the Palearctic, most of Africa, including Mauritius and Madagascar and through east and south-east Asia to Australia. It occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north to France and Germany and east through the Altai, Caucasus and Middle East to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, most of China and Taiwan, as well as much of the Indian subcontinent. In Europe, it has a mainly central and southern distribution, occurring throughout the Mediterranean Basin north to Germany, Poland and Belarus.
164441		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus michelianus</em> is considered as a paleosubtropical species by Quezel and Santa (1963) and a Eurasian species by Valdes <em>et al.</em> (2002). Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations and an AOO >2,000 km².
164441		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus michelianus</em> is considered as a paleosubtropical species by Quezel and Santa (1963) and a Eurasian species by Valdes <em>et al.</em> (2002). Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia and north Africa. In north Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt (Lake Nasser). Its extent of occurrence surpasses 2,500,000 km², with less than 10 locations and an AOO <20 km². Widespread in western Africa and present also in Kenya, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa (North western Province) Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
164441		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus michelianus</span>&#160;is distributed throughout the old world to Australia. In India it is distributed in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (Dindigul), Goa, Nagarhaveli and Jammu Kashmir. And also reported from Uttar Pradesh (Singh 2007, Cook 1996). Naskar (1993) reported that this species is more or less throughout in India.
164441		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and riverbeds. Flowering occurs in the summer from May to August. <br/>In Numidia, Algeria, it only grows on soils more or less clayey after the withdrawal of water (lakes Tonga, des Oiseaux, Bourdim) or in ponds (Esstah or Chichaya). Its presence is related and dependent upon the summer drawdown phenomenon. In the temperate to mild Mediterranean bioclimate, it forms small grassy patches.
164441		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and riverbeds. It prefers moist sandy and muddy edges of canal banks or river courses, lake shores, and rice fields .Flowering occurs in the summer from May to August.  In Numidia, Algeria, it only grows on soils more or less clayey after the withdrawal of water (lakes Tonga, des Oiseaux, Bourdim) or in ponds (Esstah or Chichaya).
164441		habitat	eng	It is found growing in alluvial river shores on clay and sand (www.efloras.org). grows at the edges of ponds, ditches and paddy fields (Naskar 1993).
164441		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. michelianus</span> is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) which typically occurs in temporary water bodies and the draw-down zones of larger water bodies.
164441		population	eng	In North Africa, the species is relatively rare with restricted populations that are in slow regression. It forms dense mats on fairly restricted areas. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with three locations (in south Rharb along the banks of Oued Sebou, on the edges of Oued Grou in the Zaër country and in Mamora);<br/>- Algeria: very rare, with four locations distributed between Numidia (La Cale and Bône), Little Kabylia and the Algérois Tellien Atlas (Alma Forest); <br/>- Egypt: it was found along the Nile. <br/><br/>The species is common in the Mediterranean region.<br/>- Spain: present in 78 sites; <br/>- France: quite common in the centre of the country but rare along the Mediterranean strip (present in the three Mediteranean regions including Corsica where it is found on one location and possibly introduced);<br/>- Italy: it occurs in seven provinces besides Sicily;<br/>- Syria: present in four locations (Amrith, East Alep, Ras-el-'Aïn and Qneitra);<br/>- Lebanon: found in the Ammiq pond;<br/>- Montenegro: one location (Skadar lake);<br/>- Croatia: considered as Vulnerable.
164441		population	eng	It is very common and reported as a weed.
164441		population	eng	<p>According to Schnittler and Günther (1999), <em>C. michelianus</em> is:<br/></p><ul><li>Extinct in the wild in Poland and Switzerland</li><li>Critically Endangered in Austria and Germany</li><li>Endangered in the Czech Republic and Slovakia</li><li>Data Deficient in Slovenia</li><li>Local in France</li><li>Widespread in Hungary and Italy</li></ul>There is no other information available on population trends.
164441		population	eng	This species is common thoughout Northern and Western Africa. In North Africa, the species is relatively rare with restricted populations that are in slow regression. It forms dense mats on fairly restricted areas.
164441		threats	eng	No major threat has been reported for this common and widespread weed.
164441		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. michelianus</span> is threatened by all factors which cause the loss or degradation of  temporary pools or the draw-down zones of permanent water bodies,  stabilisation of hydrological regimes, drainage of seasonally inundated  land, agricultural improvement etc.
164441		threats	eng	Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species. Another threat is primarily agricultural as the land is coveted by locals for summer crops. The resurgence of vegetation promotes grazing by cattle and sheep.
164441		threats	eng	Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species in Northern Africa. The threat is primarily agricultural as the land is covered by locals for summer crops. The resurgence of vegetation promotes grazing by cattle and sheep. In North Eastern Africa, management regime changes of non-agricultural lands and damming of water bodies threaten the species, but they are not  major widespread threats.
164442		conservation	eng	No information
164442		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures in place, but the following ones are proposed: monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the population size, study of the population dynamics and the biology and ecology of the species.
164442		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures in place, but the following ones are proposed: population monitoring, survey, evaluation of population size and study of population dynamics as well as the biology and ecology of the species.
164442		distribution	eng	<em>Bolboschoenus glaucus</em> is an Old-World sedge, confused with <em>B. maritimus</em> worldwide until recently (Browning <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998). It is more thermophilic than the other European species. It develops in southern Europe, up to northern Spain, southern France, northern Italy, Hungary and northern Romania. Its most western localities are in Portugal, and it occurs eastwards to southern Ukraine and Russia, central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.<br/>In Africa it is found in Botswana, Senegal, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. This species has been introduced into the United States. <br/>This species is absent from North Africa. Its Mediterranean distribution comprises the south of France (Camargue), Greece where it is sparsely distributed around the Aegean Sea, Italy, Portugal, the northeast of Spain (Gibraltar strait and centre), Israel, and Turkey.
164442		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. glaucus</em> has a Euroasian distribution, occurring from Portugal throughout Spain, southern France and northern Italy to the Balkans and the Middle East, north into Hungary, the Ukraine and European Russia; east to the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Mongolia. It occurs in North Africa (Egypt) and in scattered localities in Africa south of the Sahara (Botswana, Senegal, Tanzania and Zimbabwe). It is apparently naturalised in the Czech Republic, Germany and North America (Idaho, Oregon, New Jersey, New York and California). </p>
164442		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southern Africa and Northern Africa, Namibia and Botswana. In south Africa it is found in Limpopo, North West, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, and Northern Cape. Globally it extends throughout the warmer parts of the Old World and America.<br/><br/>Recorded also from Senegal and Egypt.
164442		habitat	eng	<em>Bolboschoenus glaucus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge, able to withstand summer drought, growing in shallow water along streams and rivers, lakes, ponds and rice fields. It is a thermophile plant that is sensitive to winter frosts.
164442		habitat	eng	<em>Bolboschoenus glaucus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge growing in shallow waters along brooks and rivers, around lakes, and in artificial depressions. It seems to be a typical weed in rice paddies. It is also well adapted to terrestrial summer-dry habitats.
164442		habitat	eng	This perennial emergent hydrophyte grows along the banks of rivers, streams and pans, sometimes grows in water between 1 and 1,200m asl.
164442		population	eng	No information
164442		population	eng	This species is widely distributed but its actual abundance is not well known.
164442		threats	eng	None known
164442		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are unknown.
164443		conservation	eng	In Lebanon, it is indirectly conserved as some populations are found in a nature reserve in the south.<br/>No other conservation measures are in place or proposed.
164443		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
164443		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus alopecuroides</em> is a tropical and sub-tropical species which extends to the Mediterranean through the Nile valley.<br/>Its global distribution includes tropical Africa (Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Comores, Madagascar, Tanzania), Asia (Sri Lanka, India, Indochina), the United States, Guadeloupe and Australia.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean the species is found in Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum, Mediterranean coast, Isthmic desert), Israel and the coast of Lebanon (Ras el Ain south of Tyr, Nahr Qazmiyé riversides).
164443		distribution	eng	This is a paleotropical species widespread and present in many countries throughout Africa including Madagascar. It has ben recorded from Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum, Mediterranean coast, Isthmic desert), Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Erithrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Botswana, Swaziland, and South Africa (Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal).<br/><br/>Also present in Trpical Asia, Syria and Northern Australia.
164443		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus alopecuroides</em> is a perennial sedge growing on riversides, drains, canals, ditches, pools, lakes, rice fields and marshy grounds.
164443		habitat	eng	This perennial sedge grows in stagnant freshwater; dispersed individuals or great planting on muddy soils. In swamps, pols and lakes and on the edge of water. It can also be found on riversides, drains, canals, ditches, rice fields and marshy grounds.
164443		population	eng	<em>Cyperus alopecuroides</em> is common in Egypt and Lebanon.
164443		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
164443		threats	eng	No major widesrpread threats have been identified although agriculture and drought can threaten the species locally.
164443		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164444		conservation	eng	A visit to Gavdos in the spring of 2009 (as part of the National Geographic Society project "Human recreation versus plant diversity on  maritime sands in Crete", grant no. 8573-08) failed to locate one of the two known populations. There is a critical need to establish the current status of populations, then to collect the ecological data necessary to ensure some level of security for the populations.
164444		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from a total of five locations on Gavdos, off the Greek island of Crete (Kriti) and Libya. It is globally known to occur on only six water bodies, of which two are each less than 2 metres square. The known locations are derived from four herbarium specimens and one set of field data from Libya (Schotsman 1967) together with published and unpublished field data collected in 2009 from Gavdos.
164444		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;pulchra</em> is one of the least known and rarest members of the genus in the European Mediterranean, where it is restricted to the Sphakia region of the island of Gavdos south of Crete. Here it occurs in small, ephemeral pools on the limestone ridge in the south-west of the island, at 200–300&#160;m altitude (R. Jahn pers. comm. 2000). On Gavdos it has been recorded with <em>Crassula vaillantii</em>, <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>&#160;and <em>Juncus bufonius</em>.
164444		population	eng	Population assessment of this species based on number of individuals would be meaningless as (at least in Europe) it functions as an annual in extremely restricted sites. The most meaningful measure would be an indication of the viability of the seed-bank.
164444		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. On Gavdos it occurs in rockpools which are subject to high pressure from livestock (drinking water in rock pools and leaving droppings leading to eutrophication). The three main threats on Gavdos are that:<br/>- the beds of either or both of the two pools will erode further through the rock and meet a fissure, so that the pool ceases to hold water.<br/>- local herders will actively modify either or both of the pools during the dry season, resulting in loss of the seed-bank.<br/>- the continued build-up of nutrients will eventually cause hyper-eutrophication to the extent that the seed-bank dies.
164445		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place or needed. Many of the populations are in the Sierra Nevada National Park and other protected areas.<br/>It is assessed as Data Deficient in the Red List of Andalucia    (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>More information on the number of sites, preferred habitats and ecology is needed as well as information on the population trend and how the potential threats are affecting the species.
164445		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It is found at an altitude of 1,300-3,000 m in mountains of two different distribution areas. The<br/>  Sierra Nevada (Granada) and Sierra de los Filabres (Almeria) are the southeastern nucleus, and Sierra Segundera (Zamora, Orense, Beira Alta - Portugal), Sierra de la Cabrera (León) and Sistema Central (Salamanca, Avila, Cáceres and Madrid, Guadalajara) are the northwestern and central nucleus where it is more disperse (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
164445		habitat	eng	This perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) is found in oligotrophic waters, very wet turf meadows, peaty soil and springs.
164445		population	eng	The population size and trends have not been quantified.
164445		threats	eng	Livestock grazing and the associated soil modification and eutrophication, as well as tourist activities such as skiing, are the main threats. Climate change could affect the species in future.
164446		conservation	eng	<em>N. minor</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and Near  Threatened in Hungary, it is protected in&#160; the Czech Republic and in four regions in France: Alsace, Pays-de-la-Loire, Rhône-Alpes and Franche-Comté, but otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164446		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Alsace, Franche-Comté, Rhones-Alpes, Aquitaine and Pays-de-la-Loire.<br/>There are no other specific measures in place; research on the species population numbers and range, ecology, habitat status and threats is recommended.
164446		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No population conservation information on this species.</p>
164446		conservation	eng	There are no specific measures in place; research on the species population numbers and range, ecology, habitat status and threats is recommended.
164446		distribution	eng	<em>N. minor</em> occurs throughout much of the northern Hemisphere, from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Caucasus, the Middle East, throughout the Indian Subcontinent and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far east, China, Japan, Korean Peninsula and Taiwan, as well as Vietnam. It has been introduced to the southern and eastern United States. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the centre and is absent from Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and Greece.
164446		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan, found in North Africa and is widespread in Mediterranean Europe.<br/>In North Africa, it occurs in Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt.
164446		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan, found in the North African countries Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt and is widespread in Mediterranean Europe and the East Mediterranean.
164446		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout Asia, Europe and Africa.
164446		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It often grows in ponds,  lakes, rivers, streams, ditches and paddy fields.
164446		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. minor</span> occurs in a variety of lakes, pools, rivers and streams and will occasionally occur in ditches and rice fields.
164446		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte prefers fresh and brackish waters.
164446		population	eng	<em>N. minor</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and Near Threatened in Hungary, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range. <br/>In the Czech Repulic, new localities have been found in the past years, obviously recently established new populations (Kaplan 2010). The status may therefore change in the next version of the Red List where it was classed as Critically Endangered in 2001.
164446		population	eng	It can be locally abundant and dominant in some places. For example, it is one of the major dominant species in East Lake, Hubei (Chen 1984, Wanlian and Xinzhou 1984).
164446		population	eng	The species is common in North Africa.
164446		population	eng	The species is common in North Africa. It has a scattered distribution in Spain and Portugal and is fairly common in France and Italy.
164446		threats	eng	Changing agricultural practises may have a negative impact on this species.
164446		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
164446		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164447		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed for this species.
164447		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
164447		distribution	eng	<p> The species is found in south western and south eastern Europe, northern and tropical Africa, tropical and temperate Asia. It is introduced in Australasia and the Pacific and southern USA (ISSG 2011). The species is also recorded (Clayton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> as being present in Mesoamerica, Caribbean, South America and Macronesia however based on the known introduced range these may also be non-native ranges.<br/></p>
164447		distribution	eng	This species is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
164447		habitat	eng	It grows in moist, damp, sandy places, mostly near the sea. It is found on river and canal banks, irrigation ditches and rice fields, and on coastal sands.
164447		habitat	eng	<p>Its grows on open, moist, sandy beaches and the shores of lakes and ponds, occasionally extending out into or onto the water. It is mostly, but not exclusively, coastal. It grows on tropical and subtropical coasts throughout the world and may have been introduced to the Americas from elsewhere (Freckmann and Lelong 2010). It is also found in bunds of rice fields, drainages and loamy sandy soils (Kabeer and Nair 2009).<br/></p>
164447		population	eng	<p>A commonly found rhizomatous grass in wetlands almost across the tropical world. Is considered a serious grass invasive species and can form dense mats impeding water flow and displacing native vegetation.<br/></p>
164447		population	eng	This species is scattered and widespread throughout the Mediterranean basin with presumed stable populations.
164447		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
164447		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
164449		conservation	eng	Legal protection of the species in Morocco has been proposed. Surveillance and monitoring of existing sites and identification of new locations, further research on ecology and biology, and implementation of legal protection measures have also been proposed as conservation measures.
164449		distribution	eng	In Africa, this cyperaceous plant is only present in Morocco, where it is very rare and only known in two localities, the High central Atlas (on top of Zerekten in Guerdouz mountain) and on the edge of the Assif Melloul, at 2,000 m and 2,350 m of altitude, respectively) with a zone of occupation of about 14 km². However, the global distribution of <em>Blysmus compressus</em> includes Asia, Europe and the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean, it is found in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Italy and Sardinia, Yugoslavia, and Lebanon.
164449		habitat	eng	<em>Blysmus compressus</em> is a vivacious plant (Geophyte) that develops in marshy prairies and on verges of rivulets and springs of average mountains. It has a vernal flowering (March-May).
164449		population	eng	There is no data available on the size of its populations or their present trends. In Africa, the populations are reduced and restricted to two isolated localities of the High Atlas (Morocco). The state of the populations is unknown in the rest of the Mediterranean.
164449		threats	eng	Drainage, expansion of agriculture, overgrazing, urbanization and frequent droughts are the main threats to its habitat.
164450		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164450		distribution	eng	<em>Epilobium parviflorum</em> is a paleo-temperate species. Its biogeographic distribution covers the Mediterranean, Europe, Asia and Macaronesia. <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Albania, Turkey, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Cyprus, Greece (including East Aegean Islands, Crete and Karpathos) Israel and Palestine, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Malta, Lebanon and Syria, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence passes 5,000,000 km² with numerous localities.
164450		habitat	eng	<em>Epilobium parviflorum</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits streams, humid places of plains and mountains with a preference for clayey and chalky soils. Its flowering starts in spring and summer.
164450		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and populations appearing to be steady. <br/>- Morocco: very common with several localities distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Northern Atlantic Morocco, Middle Atlantic Morocco and the Rif <br/>- Algeria: relatively rare in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; elsewhere it is very rare (Tlemcen, Aurès) <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with at least five localities between the Mogods (Aïn Sebaa); northeastern Tunisia (El Alia), Tunisian Dorsal (Jbel Zaghouan, Oued Bargou) and central Tunisia (Aïn Cherichera) <br/>- France: common in the whole of France and in Corsica <br/>- Italy: very common in the whole country in addition to Sicily and Sardinia <br/>- Spain and Portugal: very common and present in more than 732 localities
164450		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species, but the harvesting levels should be watched.
164451		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Red List of Italy and is protected on a national scale in France and included in the Red List of Threatened Plants (Danton and Baffry 1995), furthermore classed as Endangered in Switzerland, Vulnerable in Estonia and Data Deficient in Croatia. In Corsica, three sites are protected by the natural reserve statute and Ramsar statute. Outside these are  as there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164451		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Red List of Italy and is protected on a national scale in France (decree of January 20, 1982 modified by the decree of August 31, 1995) and included in the Red List of Threatened Plants (Danton and Baffry 1995). In Corsica, three sites are protected by the natural reserve statute and Ramsar statute. For Corsica, it is necessary to maintain the traditional uses of the sites (extensive grazing). <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- To promote a limitation of the livestock grazing pressure in the site to Morocco <br/>- To protect the sites and to control the pollution of the lakes in Italy <br/>- To reinforce the populations in Morocco and in Sardinia (limit of area) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to value the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164451		distribution	eng	<em>Littorella uniflora</em> has a western European and sub-Atlantic distribution with a discontinuous distribution along the Mediterranean coast. In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Corsica, continental France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia, Croatia, and Morocco. It is found from from 38°45' (Lisboa) until 68°20' latitude to the north and, from the Azores (31°W) until the Carélie (35°E). The area of occurrence is of about 1,800,000 km². <br/>In Morocco, <em>Littorella uniflora</em> is very rare with only one known location in the central Rif (Issaguène to 1,400 m altitude).
164451		distribution	eng	<em>L. uniflora</em> occurs throughout much of western, central and northern Europe, extending beyond the region only in North Africa. In Europe, it is most abundant in the north with a discontinuous distribution along the Mediterranean coast. In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Corsica, continental France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia, Croatia, and Morocco. It is found from from 38°45' (Lisboa) until 68°20' latitude to the north and, from the Azores (31°W) until the Carélie (35°E).
164451		habitat	eng	<em>L. uniflora</em> is found in permanent lakes and rivers with gravel beds, as well as temporary pools, rivers on sandy soil, lake shores, peat bogs and fish ponds.
164451		habitat	eng	<em>L. uniflora</em> is found in temporary pools, rivers on sandy soil, lake shores, peat bogs and fish ponds. It is a perennial species (fixed amphibious Hydrophyte) that requires flooding in winter for germination and the activation of the buds of the short rhizomes, and an air exposure in spring for flowering.
164451		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. uniflora</span> is locally declining in Switzerland and Estonia, otherwise it appears to be reasonably widespread and abundant with stable populations.
164451		population	eng	The populations are more concentrated in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) with about a hundred known sites. In Portugal it has gone extinct at most coastal sites, but in the interior some populations remain. In France, <em>L. uniflora</em> is present in the west, the center, the east and the north of the country. In Corsica six locations are known. In Italy, there are several sites scattered in the northern regions. In Sardinia as in Morocco there is only one site (the southern limits of the distribution of <em>Littorella uniflora</em>). The populations decline in northern Italy and are considered as vulnerable in France. In Morocco, only one population is known thus with a elevated risk of local extinction.
164451		threats	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. uniflora</span> may be locally threatened in the Mediterranean, but most northern populations are large and stable.
164451		threats	eng	The species is threatened by a deterioration of the quality of its habitat under the effect of drainage, overgrazing, water pollution and the development of competing large sized plants (<em>Eleocharis</em> spp., <em>Scirpus</em> spp., <em>Phragmites</em> spp.). The sites of temporary pools are very exposed to the risks of direct destruction by agricultural, industrial or urban development.
164452		conservation	eng	No specific measures are known. This species occurs in some areas that are managed for conservation (e.g. in Corsica).
164452		distribution	eng	<em>C.&#160;palustris</em> occurs throughout Europe, except for the Mediterranean basin and parts of France, from Iceland and Finland south to the Pyrenees and Apennines and east throughout Russia, with isolated populations in the mountains of Corsica.
164452		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;palustris</em> occurs in a range of habitats, including wet ruts on woodland rides, turloughs, lakes, river margins, and reservoirs. It appears to be strongly associated with water with a pH of 7–8 in oligotrophic habitats (Schotsman 1967). It seems to occur mainly in habitats where summer water levels drop to expose broad expanses of bare mud, but at higher altitudes and in Fennoscandia it may grow in more permanently wet habitats. It occurs from sea level in central and northern Europe to 2600m in the Alps and probably reaches the highest altitude of any <em>Callitriche</em> species in Europe. In lowland parts of Europe outside Fennoscandia it appears likely that <em>C.&#160;palustris</em> is most frequent in the active or historic flood-plains of large river systems. It often occurs with other <em>Callitriche</em> species, such as <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> vars <em>brutia</em> and <em>hamulata</em>, <em>C.&#160;platycarpa</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em>. In the lowlands it tends to occur mainly with other species typical of ephemeral pools and the draw-down zones of large lakes, such as <em>Agrostis stolonifera</em>, <em>Alopecurus aequalis</em>, <em>A. geniculatus</em>,<em> Cyperus fuscus</em>, <em>Eleocharis ovata</em>, <em>Gnaphalium uliginosum</em>, <em>Juncus bufonius</em>, <em>J.&#160;bulbosus</em>, <em>Limosella aquatica</em>, <em>Lythrum hyssopifolia</em>, <em>L. portula</em>, <em>Montia fontana</em>, <em>Persicaria hydropiper</em>, <em>P. minor</em>, <em>Plantago major</em>, <em>Ranunculus flammula</em>, <em>Rorippa palustris</em>, <em>R. sylvestris</em>, <em>Rumex maritimus</em>&#160;and <em>Stellaria uliginosa</em>. At higher altitudes it has been recorded with <em>Eleocharis acicularis</em>, <em>Ranunculus reptans</em>, <em>R. trichophyllus</em>, <em>Rorippa islandica</em>&#160;and <em>Sparganium angustifolium</em>&#160;and in Fennoscandia with species such as <em>Crassula aquatica</em>, <em>Elatine hydropiper</em>, <em>E. triandra</em>&#160;and <em>Subularia aquatica</em>.<em> </em>
164452		population	eng	A widespread species although it is rare in many parts of the Mediterranean where it is at the edge of its distribution and restricted to higher altitudes.
164452		threats	eng	There are no known threats specific to this species. It is possible that some peripheral populations (such as those in the mountains of Corsica or the Pyrenees) may be threatened at a local level.
164453		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need.
164453		distribution	eng	Recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to Sudan, Eritrea, and Egypt (Nile region including Delta, Mediterranean coastal strip, Suez). Then down to Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and Zambia.<br/><br/>In North East Africa it has been recorded from Sudan (Fazokl District - Locis humidis insularum circa Sennar et Wolet Medine - Niamniam), Ethiopia (ad rivos, in paludosis prope Adoam), Somalia and Eritrea (environs d'Acrour).
164453		habitat	eng	This is Perennial herb of damp places. Mostly found in moist grounds, along the Nile and in canal banks.
164453		population	eng	Common species.
164453		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.
164454		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is recommended to conserve the habitat of the species, to monitor the existing locations, especially the ones in Morocco and Algeria, and to implement legal protection measures.
164454		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, the following ones are being recommended:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, especially the ones in Morocco and Algeria <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164454		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus punctorius</em> is missing in Europe, but is present in North Africa and the Levant (the Golan plateau), Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, east, northeast and southern Africa (Boulos 2005). <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Algeria, as var. <em>mauritanicus</em> (Trabut) Buchen. & Trabut at four locations at Batna, Aflou and the Saharan Atlas (Maire 1957), in Morocco at the central Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Great and Middle Atlas, central Sahara: Fezzan, oasis of Serdeles (Maire 1957), and in Egypt in the Nile region and the entire Sinai peninsula.<br/>It is furthermore present in Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria.
164454		distribution	eng	Southern Africa and north east Africa to Arabia and Pakistan.<br/><br/>Southern Africa:  Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Angola, and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In Northern  it is found in Algeria, as var. <em>mauritanicus</em> (Trabut) Buchen. & Trabut at four locations at Batna, Aflou and the Saharan Atlas (Maire 1957), in Morocco at the central Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Great and Middle Atlas, central Sahara: Fezzan, oasis of Serdeles (Maire 1957), and in Egypt (Nile region and the entire Sinai peninsula).<br/><br/>In Northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Sudan (Jebel Marra), Ethiopia (Abyssinia, in ripis uliginsos prope Adoam; TU, Adoam), Somalia and Eritrea.
164454		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus punctorius</em> is a perennial graminoid. It is found near wells and permanent or temporary streams in Egypt, marshes, banks of fresh and slightly brackish waters of mountains up to 2,200 m in North Africa. <br/>Flowering occurs from June to August in Algeria and Morocco.<br/><br/>It prefers good quality freshwater springs in the Levant.
164454		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte is found in permanently wet places, swamps, marshes, riverbanks or sometimes in shallow water. It is found near wells and permanent or temporary streams in Egypt and in slightly brackish waters of mountains up to 2,200 m above sea level in north Africa.&#160; Flowering occurs from June to August in Algeria and Morocco.
164454		population	eng	<em>Juncus punctorius</em> is rare in Morocco and in Algeria. In Egypt, this species is found in two wide locations and overall occupies a large area in Africa and Asia (Boulos 2005). It is common in north eastern Africa. Also, quite common in southern Africa.
164454		population	eng	In North Africa, <em>Juncus punctorius</em> is rare in Morocco and in Algeria. In Egypt, this species is found in two wide locations and overall occupies a large area in Africa and Asia (Boulos 2005).<br/><br/>In the Levant, the populations are very rare and fragmented and on the edge of extinction. There is only one population at the Golan plateau and six populations in Sinai in a very restricted area. It has been recorded from a few more locations in Lebanon but has not been observed recently (pers. comm. Elsa Sattout).
164454		threats	eng	No major widespreading threats.
164454		threats	eng	The threats are unknown for North Africa.<br/><br/>In Lebanon, urbanization and agricultural or industrial water pollution are the main threats. <br/>At the Golan plateau, the overuse of the water resources by human settlements causes the water levels to drop.
164458		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, study the biology and the ecology of the species and reduce the habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures.
164458		distribution	eng	<em>Molinia caerulea</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, boreal and western Asia and North Africa. It is present in the Mediterranean region with two subspecies including ssp. <em>rivulorum</em> which is endemic to the Mediterranean region (Dobignard) and present in Tunisia and Algeria. However for Le Floc'h and Boulos (2009) only ssp. <em>caerulea</em> is present in Tunisia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It occurs in numerous locations.<br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco (Mesfioua and the Afra river valley, both in the High Atlas), Algeria (Numidie and the Algérois Tellien Atlas) and Tunisia (Medjerda valley).
164458		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) plant that inhabits swamps, swampy prairies, waterfalls and other humid habitats essentially of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-September).
164458		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it has a very limited distribution and the populations are very restricted and in slow decline. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in two locations in the High Atlas (Mesfioua and the Afra river valley); rare in Algeria, found in Numidie and in the Algérois Tellien Atlas; rare in Tunisia, found in the Medjerda valley (between the Tessa and the Zafran rivers). The species is very common in Portugal, very common in Spain (418 sites); very common in France, present in 14 provinces in Italy; common in mountains of Croatia, where it can spread after abandonment of pasture; present in three localities in Montenegro in the same mountain range.
164458		threats	eng	The drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164459		conservation	eng	Apart from research activities there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164459		conservation	eng	Apart from taxonomic research there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164459		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed.
164459		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164459		distribution	eng	<em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em> is a cosmopolitan species. It is widespread in Europe including the eastern Mediterranean coast. It has a virtually cosmopolitan world distribution, being found in all continents except Antarctica.<br/><br/>It is present in nearly all the Mediterranean countries: Algeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Egypt (including Sinai), France and Corsica, Greece (with Crete and Karpathos), Israel, Jordan, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, Libya, Lebanon, Portugal, Syria, Spain (with Balearic Islands), former Yugoslavia, Morocco, Turkey, and Tunisia. <br/>In North Africa it is very common with several localities between Egypt and Morocco.
164459		distribution	eng	From Western Africa to the Sudan and Ethiopia and south through east tropical Africa to Angola and Southern Africa. Almost worldwide in distribution, but not recorded from the Malay Peninsula; introduced into New Zealand and Mascarene Islands.<br/><br/>Is is widespread in West Africa. From Senegal to Sudan and elsewhere: Benin, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Chad, Sierra leone, Ghana. <br/><br/>In North Eastern and North Africa it is very common with several localities between Egypt and Morocco.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa, the species is widely distributed and common in Kenya.  In Malawi it occurs at Lake Kazuni in Mzimba District, Salima at Linthipe River opposite Maleri Island, and Chiromo in Nsanje. In Tanzania in Arusha district, Meru National Park Longil swamp, Ufipa district Rungwa R.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa where it is found in Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
164459		distribution	eng	<p><em>C.&#160;demersum</em> is a cosmopolitan species that <em></em>occurs from the Azores and Europe east through the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent to East and Southeast Asia, it occurs in Africa north and south of the Sahara including Madagascar, as well as Australasia and North, Central and South America. It is apparently introduced in Mauritius, New Zealand and Hawaii (World Checklist of Selected Plant Families 2010). It has been reported from throughout Europe countries except some Mediterranean islands and the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Madeira, the Selvagen Islands, San Marino, the Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen.</p>
164459		distribution	eng	This species is a cosmopolitan and occurs from the Azores and Europe (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987, Preston and Croft 1997, Gardenfors 2010, WCSPF 2010) east through the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent to east and southeast Asia (Cook 1970). It occurs in Africa north and south of the Sahara including Madagascar, as well as Australasia and north, central and south America. It is apparently introduced in Mauritius, New Zealand and Hawaii (World Checklist of Selected Plant Families 2010). The species has been recorded along the Mekong River in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.<br/><br/>In China (Flora of China; eFlora 2011) this species is widespread throughout the country; it has been recorded from a number of provinces (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jilin, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Xinjiang, Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang), and expected to be reported from additional provinces.<p></p>
164459		habitat	eng	A fresh water aquatic herb forming underwater meadows in shallow muddy sheltered places, or becoming detached floating in masses. It is a very common association in West Africa and is present in all man-made lake systems and in lake Chad. It is associated with <em>Azolla, Pistia, Nymphaceae </em>and reed (<em>Typha, Cyperus</em>) swamps. The species is tolerant to brackish estuarine conditions of high salinity. <em>C. demersum</em> does well under severe water level fluctuation conditions; high nutrient concentrations, in particular organic material, in the hydrosoil are favourable for its dense growth. It is rarely found in seasonal highly alkaline pools.<br/><br/>It grows in canals, shallow water, swamps, lakes, and is tolerant of brackish water. Abundant growth of <em>Ceratophyllum demersum </em>is confined to clay loamy hydrosoil. Such fine texture favours the establishment of the non-rooted submerged <em>C. demersum</em>, as the bottom leaves can anchor in the fine hydrosoil.
164459		habitat	eng	<p>Hydrotherm or Hydrocham. <em>C.&#160;demersum</em> typically occurs in nutrient-rich standing or very slow-moving waters. It’s apparent capability to tolerate elevated anthropogenic nutrient levels means that it can become very abundant or even dominant to the exclusion of most other species in canals, gravel pits, reservoir and urban lakes.</p>
164459		habitat	eng	<p>This species typically occurs in nutrient-rich standing or very slow-moving waters. Its apparent capability to tolerate elevated anthropogenic nutrient levels means that it can become very abundant or even dominant to the exclusion of most other species in canals, gravel pits, reservoirs and urban lakes.</p>
164459		habitat	eng	This Hydrophyte grows in irrigation canals, shallow water, swamps, lakes, and is tolerant of brackish water. Abundant growth of <em>Ceratophyllum demersum </em>is confined to clay loamy hydrosoil. Such fine texture favours the establishment of the non-rooted submerged <em>C. demersum</em>, as the bottom leaves can anchor in the fine hydrosoil. <em>C. demersum</em> does well under severe water level fluctuation conditions; high nutrient concentrations, in particular organic material, in the hydrosoil are favourable for its dense growth.
164459		population	eng	<p>In the UK, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Hungary, <em>C.&#160;demersum</em> is very abundant and may be increasing, there is no evidence to suggest a decline elsewhere.<br/></p>
164459		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on global populations although it is a widespread and common plant in freshwater habitats. It is common in the rivers and lakes in the areas south of Yangtze River in China.</p>
164459		population	eng	This species is very common.
164459		population	eng	This species is very common, widespread and abundant.
164459		threats	eng	Biocontrol (by grass carp) and industrial polutants may reduce local populations but it is not a major threat for the dispersal and spreading of<em> C. demersum.</em>
164459		threats	eng	Biocontrol (by grass carp to reduce aquatic weeds) may reduce local populations but it is not a major threat for the dispersal and spreading of <em>C. demersum</em>.
164459		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164460		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164460		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions for Algeria are to monitor the only location and to provide legal protection of the species.
164460		distribution	eng	<em>Lysimachia vulgaris</em> is a Eurasian species. In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Turkey-in-Europe and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164460		distribution	eng	<em>Lysimachia vulgaris</em> is widespread and abundant throughout most of Europe, becoming less frequent in the far north and extending throughout European Russia, except the Arctic.
164460		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte), that inhabits ditches and marshes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164460		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lysimachia vulgaris</span> is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte). It occurs in most types of wetland, but usually in stands of tall herbs, the margins of scrub or woodland or even <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites </span>reedbeds.
164460		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. <br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is present in more than 277 sites, essentially concentrated in the centre and north of the peninsula. It is also very common in France as well as in Italy where it is present in almost all of the country (16 provinces in addition to Sicily).<br/>In Algeria, it is very rare, occurring only in one location at the Algérois coast (Mitidja); this population is in decline.
164460		population	eng	This species is very common throughout most of Europe and populations appear to be stable or increasing.
164460		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164460		threats	eng	The infilling and drainage for urbanization are the main threats to the species preferred habitat, but they are currently not indicating a population decline.<br/>In Algeria, the sole population is threatened by destruction resulting from the strong urbanization of the Algérois coast.
164461		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164461		distribution	eng	<em>C. acuminata</em> is found in southern Russia, western Sibiria, Iraq and Iran, Central Asia, and the eastern Mediterranean.<br/>In the Mediterranean it occurs in western Syria, Turkey (south and western Anatolia), Cyprus, and the East Aegean Islands.
164461		habitat	eng	<em>C. acuminata</em> grows in agricultural areas, around rice fields, and in wet grasslands.
164461		population	eng	This species is very common.
164461		threats	eng	The species is not threatened, but is classified as weed. It is subject to grazing.
164462		conservation	eng	The site of Talassemtane is designated as National Park.<br/><br/>There are no conservation measures in place for the other sites, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Reinforcement of the existing populations <br/>- Extension of the National Park of Talassemtane to include the locality of Timmellaline within the protected area. <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas<br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness.
164462		distribution	eng	<em>Scrophularia eriocalyx</em> is an endemic plant from Morocco. It is very rare and its distribution is limited to three localities in mountains of the western Rif (Jbel Timellaline; mountains of Ketama and Talassemtane). Its extent of occurrence is approximately 1,400 km².
164462		habitat	eng	<em>Scrophularia eriocalyx</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that occurs as isolated individuals on the verge of rivulets under cedars and in cool oak groves, on average siliceous and chalky mountains under the humid Mediterranean bio-climate. It blooms and fruits in summer.
164462		population	eng	No data is available on the population size but the populations appear to be globally in decline due to destruction of its habitat for agriculture.
164462		threats	eng	The main threats to the species' habitat are grazing, frequent droughts and the degradation of surrounding forests for agriculture, especially the production of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cannabis</span> in the locality of Ketama.
164463		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, study the biology and ecology of the species. More research on the identity of populations and their distribution are urgently needed.
164463		distribution	eng	<em>Glyceria spicata</em> is a species with a very restricted biogeographical distribution. This Mediterranean endemic is present in Portugal, Spain, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It occurs in 50 locations.<br/>In France and Greece, the presence of the species is controversial and more information is needed. Confirmation of the presence in other Balkan countries is needed as well.
164463		habitat	eng	It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, streams and lakes. Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).
164463		population	eng	The species has a limited distribution in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa (15 locations) it is fairly uncommon in Morocco and Tunisia but well represented in Algeria. The populations appear to be in slow decline, especially in the Maghreb. It is considered as very rare in Morocco, occurring in only six locations (Jbel Tissouka, Issaguène plain and the Atlantic plains between Rabat and Casablanca); quite common in Algeria, found in Numidie, Petite and Grande Kabylie and the Oranais Tellien Atlas; rare in Tunisia, occurring in only two locations distributed between the Tunisian Dorsal (Garaet des Ouled Rhezam) and Kroumirie (Aïn Draham), Mogods (Sejenane). <br/>In Spain, the species is found in 24 sites in the west of the country; in France, it is present in only one department (Aude) in the south of the country; present in Italy in Tuscany, Lazio, and also in Sardinia and Sicily, but Extinct in Campania (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>In Greece, there is insufficient information about the status and presence of this taxon available.
164463		threats	eng	The drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of the habitat of this species are its main threats.
164464		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. It is recommended to study the taxonomy of the species and its subspecies (cf. the note of Pignatti 1982: "<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha viridis</span> auct., wrong expression, as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. longifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sylvestris</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">M. niliaca</span>").
164464		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164464		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha spicata</em> is a a species of Mediterranean origin, that is present at the Canary Islands, Azores, Portugal, Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica (only two locations), Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt, Libya (possibly present), Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. <br/>In Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia it is cultivated to subspontaneous or escaped.<br/>In Egypt, there seems to be taxonomic confusion regarding <em>M. longifolia</em> being a synonym of <em>M. spicata</em> L. var. <em>longifolia</em> (Pignatti 1982).<br/>It is difficult to determine where the species is native and where it has been introduced.
164464		distribution	eng	<em>M. spicata</em> has a very widespread distribution, but due to its long and close relationship with man, it is very hard to establish where it is native and where introduced. According to the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010), it is native to Europe east through Siberia and the Middle east to China. In Europe, it is native to most of the region except the Baltic states where it is absent and it is apparently introduced to Spain, Corsica, the Balearic Islands and the Crimean Peninsula. It has also apparently been introduced to Africa, Australia, New Zealand, North and South America, Madeira, the Azores and the Canaries.
164464		habitat	eng	<em>M. spicata</em> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte that is found in banks of rivers, rubble and meadows. It is mostly cultivated or escaped from ornamental gardens.
164464		habitat	eng	<em>M. spicata</em> typically occurs on the margins and banks of rivers, however it also occurs on waste ground and around settlements.
164464		population	eng	<em>Mentha spicata</em> is scattered especially in the western Mediterranean region.
164464		population	eng	<em>M. spicata</em> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, but classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland.
164464		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164464		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164465		conservation	eng	In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> is protected at the national level (Annex 1) and classed a Critically Endangered in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). In the UK, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> has been the subject of intensive site management, restoration and conservation with very limited success. The reasons for the massive decline are still not absolutely clear and it should be a priority to establish the causes to inform protection in other countries and possible re-introduction in the UK. <br/><br/>The main needs for conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> are to improve identification and encourage consistent taxonomic treatment within the genus, to clarify the true distribution and status of this and other species and protection of site complexes to enable the persistence of dynamic metapopulations.
164465		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> is protected at the national level (Annex 1). In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> alisma</span> was reported as Vulnerable in Tuscany, Extinct in the Wild in Umbria, of lower risk in Latium, and Critically Endangered in Puglia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997)<br/>Further proposed conservation measures are legal protection of the species in Portugal and Italy, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics. Especially an analysis of the past and present distribution of the species is required in light of the ongoing taxonomic confusion. Furthermore, ecological studies to define the necessary habitat conditions for this species are needed.
164465		distribution	eng	<em>D. alisma</em> was confirmed as occurring in the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Portugal, Sicily, Russia and Ukraine (Rich and Nichols-Vuille 2001), with most records from France. It appears to have a highly disjunct distribution, with one population centre around the Black Sea and the other in western Europe, however critical identification of <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium </span>to species is not consistent and further records may become available.
164465		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> sensu stricto was clearly identified from England, France, Italy, Portugal, Sicily, Russia and Ukraine (Rich and Nichols-Vuille 2001). Its distribution area is highly disjunct between eastern localities (Russia, Ukraine) and western ones. Confirmed locations in the Mediterranean are in northwestern, central and eastern France; western coast of Italy and Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005); and the western coast of Portugal.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The majority of records were from France. <br/><br/>In addition, further records for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium aggregate</span> (species unclear) were traced for Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, India, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Malta, Malta-Gozo, Palestine, Sardinia, Spain and Turkey. Further investigations are needed in order to verify its presence in the eastern Mediterranean. It is the most widespread of the three European species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium</span>.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
164465		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels.
164465		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and the draw-down zones of lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels. It appears very likely that this species is dependent upon complexes of sites that enable the existence of dynamic metapopulations and that if it is restricted to a single site in an area it has very little chance of long-term survival. <br/><br/>It is possible that a single factor (such as the availability of a large animal dispersal vector) could be responsible for the catastrophic decline in the UK and could explain why this species is still so abundant in the Brenne.
164465		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> suffered a catastrophic decline in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th centuries (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), from 51 x 10 km<sup>2</sup>, to a single site. In France, it has similarly been lost from a total of 13 of the 31 departments from which it has been recorded (Danton and Baffray 1995). There is no information on the status of the species in the Ukraine or Russia.<br/><br/>It should be noted that in the Brenne (Indre) <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> is one of the species considered most likely to colonise a newly constructed pond (F. Pinet pers. comm.) and it is known from 18 localities in the Parc Naturel Regional de la Brenne (Pinet 2005).<br/><br/>The difference in status and the robustness of populations between the Brenne and the UK is difficult to explain and there is a need for research to explain the processes involved to inform conservation.
164465		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Throughout its range confusion between the three <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium</span> species complicates identification and it is therefore difficult to determine the population sizes. The species is very rare in the Iberian Peninsula, with only one recognized collection in Montemor-o-Velho (Beira Litoral, Portugal) where the species co-exists with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bourgaei</span> (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).<br/>The habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span>, especially temporary wetlands, are declining and a population decline is therefore likely.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164465		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> is declining over its entire distribution area due to loss of habitat, stabilisation of water levels, pollution and possibly through competition from alien plants.
164465		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation, pollution and alien weed competition (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Myriophyllum aquaticum</span> in Portugal and western France). Changing of water levels, such as changing temporary waters to permanent ones for the creation of reservoirs or the abstraction of water for agricultural purposes, is the main threat to this species.
164466		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place but the following are being proposed for the future:<br/>- Legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin<br/>- Monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities<br/>- Evaluation of populations size<br/>- Monitoring of population dynamics<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation<br/>- Raising public awareness
164466		distribution	eng	<em>Cullen americanum</em> is a western Mediterranean species that occurs in Algeria, Italy and Sicily, France, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, and Tunisia.
164466		habitat	eng	<em>Cullen americanum</em> is a facultative annual herbaceous plant growing in wet clayey fields, on wadi riverbanks and in temporary pools.
164466		population	eng	<em>Cullen americanum</em> is very rare in Algeria and only found at the river banks of Cheliff (Oran region). In Morocco, it is found at the Atlantic coast, Loukkos, Gharb, central Rif, Zerhoun. The species is rare in Tunisia, where it is present in the northeast (Utique, Tébourba, Moghrane), Cap Bon (El Haouaria, Menzel Bouzelfa, Soliman), and central Tunisia (Kairouan, sidi El Hani). <br/>It is found in southern Italy (Apulia) and Sicily, and around Lisbon in Portugal. In Spain, it is present in the provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Ciudad Real, Badajoz, and Alava. In France, it is only present in the departement Gironde.
164466		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include agricultural and infrastructure development and agricultural water pollution. The main habitats for this species (temporary wet habitats) have been seriously degraded and destroyed in many parts of its range.
164467		conservation	eng	In North eastern Africa, the species requires careful management and the allocation of protected areas. Research on population numbers and range is needed. There are no conservation measures in place in Northern Africa. Research on habitats,  taxonomy, populations and locations should be encouraged.
164467		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place.<br/></p>
164467		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. trisulca</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). There monitoring of populations and existing sites, search for new localities,&#160; and biological and ecological studies are recommended. <br/></p><p>There are no further conservation measures in place. For North Africa it is necessary to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, locations, etc.</p>
164467		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164467		distribution	eng	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is a cosmopolitan species that occurs in most of Europe except for some of the Mediterranean islands.<br/>In North Africa, the species occurs in Morocco and Algeria and is rare in both countries. It is also found in Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan.
164467		distribution	eng	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere and is most abundant in Europe and North America, although it is scattered throughout Asia east to Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Japan and the Philippines. Populations also occur at a few localities in Africa, Papua New Guinea and Australia.
164467		distribution	eng	This is a widespread cosmopolitan species found in temperate zones of northern and southern hemispheres (Govaerts and Frodin 2002, WCSPF 2010, Wu et al. 2010, eFloras 2011, GRIN 2011).
164467		distribution	eng	This species is present in tropical Africa, mainly in northern temperate zones. In Northern Africa, the species occurs in Morocco and Algeria and is rare in both countries. In North eastern Africa it can be found in Ethiopia. It has also been recorded from South Rift Valley in Amboseli National Park, Central Rift Valley in Lake Naivasha and Central Kenya in Machakos District. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Arusha district, Lake Duluti, Lushoto district and Pangani river.
164467		habitat	eng	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is an aquatic plant that prefers running waters, ditches, ponds, freshwater springs, lakes of plains and mountains.
164467		habitat	eng	<em>L. trisulca</em> will occur in most mesotrophic to eutrophic still or slow-flowing water bodies, although it will also occur in backwaters in fast-flowing rivers. It is tolerant of shade and apparently also of hyper-eutrophication and will often occur where there are very few other aquatic plant species.
164467		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It grows in still <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">and shallow water, in ponds and lake sides.</span>
164467		habitat	eng	This is a species of still or slow-flowing water, found in ponds, lakes of plains and mountains, ditches, freshwater springs, canals and in the back water of rivers. It prefers clear mesotrophic water and extends into eutrophic water and may be found in brackish ditches. <em>L. trsulca</em> dominates where nutrients levels are low.
164467		population	eng	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is very scattered in North Africa and very rare. In Morocco, it is present in one locality in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos) and in five localities in the middle Atlas: Lac Ouiouane; Aguelmame Ifounassine; dayet Hachlaf; Aïn El-Rhass; Aïn Kahla (Maire 1957). It is very rare in Algeria where it is found in two localities: One in El Kala (Lake Tonga) where the plant has not been seen again, and one in the small lakes of the djebel Ouahch (near Constantine). Rare in North eastern Africa.
164467		population	eng	On the scale of the Mediterranean region, it is common, except for the islands. <br/><em>Lemna trisulca</em> is very scattered in North Africa and very rare with population in slow regression. In Morocco, it is present in one locality in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos) that is threatened and in five localities in the middle Atlas (Lac Ouiouane; Aguelmame Ifounassine; dayet Hachlaf; Aïn El-Rhass; Aïn Kahla) that are not threatened (Maire 1957). <br/>It is very rare in Algeria and found in two localities: one in El Kala (Lake Tonga) where the plant has not been seen again, and one in the small lakes of the djebel Ouahch (near Constantine).<br/>It is common in Italy and France but rare in Sicily, Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula. In the latter it is only found at about five sites now and some of the older records from the 19th and 20th centuries have not been found again, for example, in Cataluña, Valencia, Castilla, and Cádiz.
164467		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
164467		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. trisulca</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.<br/><em></em>
164467		threats	eng	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is facing threats in North Africa, the Mediterranean islands, the Iberian Peninsula but not in other parts of mainland Europe.<br/>In Morocco, the mountain localities are not threatened, but the site in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos), is threatened by drainage, in-filling and agriculture pressure. The two Algerian sites are under high pressure from organic pollution, eutrophication and tourism development and activities. In the Iberian Peninsula, the main threats are   water eutrophication and the modification of its habitats due to agricultural activities.
164467		threats	eng	In North eastern Africa, natural disasters such as drought and changes in native species dynamics, that will increase competition, could threaten this species. <em>Lemna trisulca</em> is facing threats in North Africa. In Morocco, the mountain localities are not threatened, but one site in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos), is threatened by drainage, in-filling and agriculture pressure. The two Algerian sites are under high pressure from organic pollution, eutrophication and touristic development and activities.
164467		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
164467		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164468		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.
164468		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">G. notata</span> is classed as Endangered on Malta and in Croatia, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164468		distribution	eng	<em>Glyceria notata</em> is a subcosmopolitan species with large biogeographical distribution that includes Europe, Asia, North Africa and America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It occurs in numerous locations (>150) and its AOO >2,000 km². <br/>In North Africa it is very common in Morocco (Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, Anti Atlas, Mediterranean coastline, northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco plains and the oriental Morocco plains), Algeria (Numidie, Petite and Grande Kabylie, Tell region, Algérois Saharan Atlas) and Tunisia (Kroumirie, the Mogods and the Tunisian Dorsal).
164468		distribution	eng	<em>G. notata</em> occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east through Siberia, the Caucasus, Mongolia and India to the Russian Far East and China. It is reported to have been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, Central and South America, it has also reportedly been introduced to North America, but these reports have not been verified (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2006). It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
164468		habitat	eng	<em>G. notata </em>will occur in most types of calcareous waterbody, including wet grassland, ditch and river margins and the shores of  lakes and ponds in pasture, where it will often grow out over the  surface of the water.
164468		habitat	eng	It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte) that is found in swamps, streams, lakes and temporary pools of plains and mountains. Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).
164468		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. notata</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, although it is classed as Endangered in Croatia and on Malta.
164468		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable.
164468		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164468		threats	eng	The drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are having an impact on some populations but are not considered to be major threats.
164469		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- To stop the encroachment of agriculture at the site of Maaziz and to monitor the population dynamics <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures (law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising awareness of the public <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>-   <em>Ex situ</em> conservation
164469		distribution	eng	It is a strict endemic to Morocco, very rare and known only from four localities (Massif of the Mtourzgane-Akzou in Oulmès, Aguelmouss, north of Maaziz and to the southwest of Tetouan). The extent of occurrence is about 3,000 km² within which the occupied area does not exceed 15 km².
164469		habitat	eng	<em>Callitriche mathezii</em> is found in pools, flooded places and streams with slow flow. It is an annual Hydrophyte that blooms in winter-spring under the Mediterranean mild semi-arid or sub humid bioclimate.
164469		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known. However, the global trend since 1990 is a decline of the populations because the site of Maaziz is frequently cultivated. The other sites are grazed but their localization in a forested environment preserves them from being destroyed.
164469		threats	eng	The anthropogenic pressures differ according to the sites and include drainage, agriculture, grazing, and water pollution. However, the total or partial destruction of the sites due to agriculture remains the main threat to this species' habitat.
164470		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164470		distribution	eng	<em>Salix atrocinerea</em> is a western European species extending northwards to the British Isles. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 300,000 km², with several locations.
164470		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers of low and medium mountains. Flowering occurs during spring (March-April).
164470		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region (several locations) as well as in North Africa (numerous locations). The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: apparently fairly common, occurring in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco and in the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: rare, occurs between the Bougie region and the Tunisian border; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly rare, found in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Aïn Kerma-Sefra, near Ghadimaou and El Fedja), Cap Bon and in the Tunisian Dorsal (Oued Thibar); <br/>- Portugal: present in nine provinces; <br/>- Spain: fairly common, occurring in 47 provinces; <br/>- France: fairly common along the Mediterranean coast and Corsica;<br/>- Italy: found in Sardinia and Tuscany only.
164470		threats	eng	The increase in urbanization and drought frequency are the main threats to this species.
164471		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164471		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus ficaria</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, Europe and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 40,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.
164471		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that prefers swampy prairies, mountains, wetlands and cool forests of plains. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn.
164471		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: common, occurring in more than 12 locations distributed between the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: frequent in coastal areas except for the Oranais region; <br/>- Tunisia: common, occurring in more than 10 locations distributed between the Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Aïn Soltane), the Mogods (Sedjenane), the Tunisian Dorsal (Jbel Zit and between Maktar and Sers,Jbel Serdj), Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban) and northeastern Tunisia (Belvédère); <br/>- Libya: found near Benghazi and in Dernah; <br/>- Spain: very common, occurring in 217 sites; <br/>- France: very common in all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.
164471		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the drainage and agricultural usage of its habitat but this does not lead to a population decline at the moment.
164472		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species. Education on conservation of <em>A. crassipes</em> and implementation of legislation on a national and international level is required to ensure this species remains unthreatened.
164472		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed. Education on conservation of <em>A. crassipes</em> and implementation of legislation on a national and international level is required to ensure this species remains unthreatened.
164472		distribution	eng	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, south Italy (Pontin marshes only), Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt.<br/>The area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km² and may well be smaller than 500 km². Hence, although the extent of occurrence is large, the occupied area is generally very small.
164472		distribution	eng	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, south Italy (Pontin marshes only), Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt.<br/>The extent of occurrence does not exceed 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km² and may well be smaller than 500 km². Hence, although the extent of occurrence is large, the occupied area is generally very small.
164472		habitat	eng	<em>A. crassipes</em> is a perennial species. It grows to between 10 and 40 cm in height and is found in marshes, small streams, wet meadows and pools in Corsica. In Italy this species is found in stagnant waters. Its flowering season is generally between April and July in Corsica and Italy.
164472		habitat	eng	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is a Helophyte perennial species. It grows to between 10 and 40 cm in height and is found in marshes, small streams, wet meadows and pools in Corsica, Egypt and Algeria. In Italy, this species is found in stagnant waters and it also grows from 0 to 300 m away from siliceous plains in Tunisia. Its flowering season is generally between May and June in Algeria and Tunisia, and between April and July in Corsica and Italy.
164472		population	eng	The populations of this species are unequally distributed across the Mediterranean Region. <em>A. crassipes</em> is common in Sardinia, rather rare in Corsica (although found in >20 locations), rare in Italy (one location) and Sicily (1-2 locations).
164472		population	eng	The populations of this species are unequally distributed across the Mediterranean Region. <em>Apium crassipes</em> is common in Sardinia and Tunisia (at least six localities), rather rare in Corsica (although found in more than 20 localities), rare in Italy (one site) and Sicily (one to two sites), and very rare in Algeria where it is found in Numidia, Petite Kabylie and one locality near Algiers. It also grows in one locality near Alexandria in Egypt although records from this country are considered dubious.
164472		threats	eng	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is threatened along the coastline of the Mediterranean region due to agricultural developments. Another major threat to the species' survival in Italy has arisen due to draining of the Pontin marshes, which are home to the only known population of <em>A. crassipes</em> in mainland Italy.
164474		conservation	eng	The species is under regional protection in Languedoc-Roussillon (France) but no other conservation measures are in place. It is proposed to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones.
164474		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum borysthenicum</em> is a sub-Mediterranean species. <br/>It is widespread and present in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In North Africa, its habitat is fragile and threatened in the short-term.
164474		distribution	eng	<em>Lythrum borysthenicum</em> is a sub-Mediterranean species. It is widespread and present in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
164474		habitat	eng	This annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) prefers temporary pools of siliceous substratum such as sandstone, granite, quartzite, shale, and basalt, that are flooded in winter and dry in summer, to oligotrophic water. It is present along the edges of swamps and ponds, or shallow and slow flowing streams. Flowering occurs between April and July.
164474		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations.<br/>In Spain, it is frequent in the western half up to Gerona and Valencia, excluding a big part of Galicia and Asturias. In Portugal, it is found in most provinces except for the north (Algarve, Alto Alentejo and Baixo Alentejo, Beira and Douro Litoral, Estremadura, Minho, and Ribatejo). In the Iberian Peninsula, it could be extensively distributed as it easily colonizes new, artificial, habitats. It is very rare in France in the Languedoc-Roussillon, where numerous populations having already disappeared (Petite Camargue, Costière nîmoise, Grammont, Agde, Lamoure and Saint-Estève pool), while others are stable (Fenouillèdes, Vendres plains and Torremila). It is more abundant but localized in Provence-Alps-Côte d'Azur (Var), and quite frequent in the Corsican ponds. In Italy, it occurs in Tuscany, Lazio, Sardinia and Sicily.
164474		population	eng	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations.<br/>This species is well represented in Morocco, it has been reported on the north Atlantic plains (Tiflet, Mamora, Benslimane, Casablanca, Gharb, Loukkos, etc.), the central plains of the Haouz region and in the mountainous regions of the Middle and High Atlas, Rif and Tangier. The populations are stable but the increasing threats on the habitat can generate a regression on the populations in the short or middle term.<br/>It is rare in Algeria in the Tell region and very rare in Tiaret and Ksila; rare in Tunisia, occurring in Kroumirie (Madjen el Ma) and in the Mogods (Sedjnane, Madjen Choucha and Getma); recently found in 15 ponds in the Mogods.<br/><br/>In Spain, it is frequent in the western half up to Gerona and Valencia, excluding a big part of Galicia and Asturias. It is found in all of Portugal except for the north. In the Iberian Peninsula, it could be extensively distributed as it easily colonizes new, artificial, habitats. It is very rare in France in the Languedoc-Roussillon, where numerous populations having already disappeared (Petite Camargue, Costière nîmoise, Grammont, Agde, Lamoure and Saint-Estève pool), while others are stable (Fenouillèdes, Vendres plains and Torremila). It is more abundant but localized in Provence-Alps-Côte d'Azur (Var), and quite frequent in the Corsican ponds. In Italy, it occurs in Tuscany, Lazio, Sardinia and Sicily.
164474		threats	eng	The drainage, infilling, agricultural practices, urbanization, overgrazing, water pollution and the use of the dried pools as parking lots are the main threats to this species and its habitat.
164475		conservation	eng	In Italy, according to Conti et al. (1997) it is considered as Critically Endangered in Marche and of Lower Risk in Abruzzo.<br/>No other conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones, and to monitor the populations' dynamics.
164475		distribution	eng	<em>Carex lepidocarpa</em> is a Euro-American species. Its distribution covers Europe, eastern North America and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Bulgaria and Morocco with a doubtful presence in Albania. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several location.
164475		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and the edges of springs and streams, with a preference for chalky soils. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July). In the southern parts of its distribution area, it was only found at high altitude at alpine springs and rivulets.
164475		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring at several locations. <br/>It is rare in Morocco, occurring in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy road near Oued Zad) and the Rif (Issaguène, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine).<br/>It is present in Croatia (one population) where it is classified as Endangered on the national Red List; Montenegro; in one province of Portugal; in Spain it is present in 220 sites; fairly common in France.<br/>In Italy, it has been reported for the northern parts and for Marche and Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In these two regions, it was found in a few localities: Monti della Laga (Marche), Majella, Gran Sasso (Abruzzo).
164475		threats	eng	The drainage of its habitat is the main threat to this species.
164477		conservation	eng	The species is included in the French red data book part I. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Natural Reserve of Bouche de Bonifacio on Lavezzi, by the guards of the Reserve des Finochiarola for the population located in Centuri and by the Botanical conservatory of Corsica for both Mezzumare and Isula Piana. The dynamics of different populations have been studied.<br/>Further research on its biology, resilience, and conservation is needed. Seeds should also be collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164477		distribution	eng	<em>Nananthea perpusilla</em> is an endemic species from Corsica and Sardinia with steno-Mediterranean origins. It is a common species where it occurs in the central mountains of Corsica and a bit rarer in the other part of the island. Its extent of occurrence has not been quantified. The occupied area is lower than 500 km².
164477		habitat	eng	The species is found in granitic sandy depressions from 5 to 25 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte is also a Therophyte that grows on granite in littoral and thermo-Mediterraneen stages.<br/>At the moment, there is a lack of information about the germination, growing and flowering conditions and more research needs to be done in the future.
164477		population	eng	<em>Nananthea perpusilla</em> is only present at four locations in Corsica (Lavezzi, Centuri, Isula Piana and Mezzumare).<br/>It has last been observed at the site of Lavezzi in 2007. In Sardinia, it occurs in at least four or five sites.<br/>The populations don't seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions but the overall trend is declining.
164477		threats	eng	The populations seem to be threatened by the nitrification of their habitat due to sea bird occupation. Tourism doesn't seem to affect the Lavezzi, Mezzumare and Isula Piana locations, but seems to have an effect on the population of Centuri Island. In Sardinia, it occurs within a national park, but nevertheless it is threatened by the construction of a campsite at one of the sites.
164478		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.
164478		distribution	eng	<em>Echinochloa pyramidalis</em> is a very widespread species in tropical Africa and America. It was introduced elsewhere where it occurs. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is only found in Egypt, in the southern part of the Nile. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² and it has an AOO >2,000 km².
164478		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in pastures with seasonal flooding, swamps and along the edges of channels and lakes. Flowering occurs from spring until autumn.
164478		population	eng	The populations are abundant and quite stable.
164478		threats	eng	The intensification of agriculture along the banks of the Nile could threaten the species in the medium-term.
164479		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-US">No population conservation information on this species.</p>  <a name="OLE_LINK7"><span lang="EN-US"></span></a><p></p>
164479		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites. <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164479		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164479		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK58"></a><a name="OLE_LINK57"></a><a name="OLE_LINK63">  Widespread throughout</a> temperate and subtropical Northern Hemisphere.
164479		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found in the moderate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region, it is known from numerous localities<br/><br/>In Africa, it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.
164479		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found in the moderate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region, it is known from numerous localities in Albania, Spain, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Greece, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Malta, Turkey, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and an uncertain presence in Crete and European Turkey.
164479		distribution	eng	<p>It is reported from throughout Europe except Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Gibraltar (UK), Greek Aegean Islands, FYR Macedonia, Monaco, Montenegro, Azores, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
164479		habitat	eng	A floating-leaved aquatic in still or slowly flowing waters, and more  rarely found as plants with submerged phyllodes in more rapid streams  and rivers. It has a very wide ecological tolerance, growing in  oligotrophic to eutrophic and base-poor to base-rich water over a wide  range of substrates.
164479		habitat	eng	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte that is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, springs and marshlands. It colonizes equally eutrophic and oligotrophic waters. Its flowering period occurs between May and September. It is an oxygenating plant that forms very important herbaria for the development of the aquatic fauna and it is often used for construction on artificial ponds.
164479		habitat	eng	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a vivacious Hydrophyte that is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, springs and marshlands. It colonizes equally eutrophic and oligotrophic waters. Its flowering period occurs between May and September. It is an oxygenating plant that forms very important herbaria for the development of the aquatic fauna and it is often used for construction on artificial ponds.
164479		habitat	eng	<p>A floating-leaved aquatic in still or slowly flowing waters, and more rarely found as plants with submerged phyllodes in more rapid streams and rivers. It has a very wide ecological tolerance, growing in oligotrophic to eutrophic and base-poor to base-rich water over a wide range of substrates. Although it may be found in shallow swamps, or in water over 5 m deep (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>
164479		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. natans </span>may be dominant or co-dominant on the surface of still water bodies and is often the dominant aquatic plant in recently dug ponds and small lakes. It will also occur as an abundance component of more diverse communities both in flowing and still water.
164479		population	eng	The populations appear to be stable.
164479		population	eng	This species is common in ponds and less present in fast flowing waters. For example, it is rare in the Pearl river area in China.
164479		threats	eng	Drainage, agricultural water pollution (eutrophication) and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164479		threats	eng	Drainage and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164479		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
164479		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species.
164480		conservation	eng	No conservation&#160;measures&#160;are in place. Research on how the competition of invasive species is affecting the plant's population is recommended.
164480		conservation	eng	There are no existing or recommended conservation measures.
164480		distribution	eng	<em>Alternanethera sessilis</em> grows in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. <br/>It is native to Egypt where it grows as a ruderal on the banks of the Nile, in oases in the desert, or next to the Mediterranean coast. It is also present in two locations in Tunisia (Sedjnane and Cap Serat in the Mogods) and seven in Algeria. However, the total area occupied by this species in the Maghreb does not exceed 100 ha.<br/><br/>The species has also been naturalised in northern and eastern parts of Spain.
164480		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Africa, southeast Asia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines.
164480		habitat	eng	<em>Alternanthera sessilis</em> is an annual or short-lived perennial herb. It is a ruderal species that grows in wet ground and is often found growing near canal or river banks in Egypt. In the northwest of Africa, this species grows on the edge of lakes and amongst siliceous rocks in well watered plains.
164480		habitat	eng	It   is found along the edges of ponds and <span id="InsertPoint"><span id="Word_InsertPoint"><span class="word">watersides. It is being displaced by the invasive <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Alternanthera philoxeroides.</span></span>
164480		population	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK8">It is locally common in wetlands. There are no detailed studies on population numbers or trends.</a>
164480		population	eng	In Tunisia and Algeria, this species is rare. In Egypt, the plant is relatively abundant next to rivers running through humid areas, where it grows in small populations.
164480		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK8">It is locally common in wetlands. The main threat is competition from invasive species such as&#160;</a><em>A. philoxeroides.</em>
164480		threats	eng	Development of land to agricultural use in humid regions is a possible future threat to the species in its native environment.
164481		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed.
164481		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164481		conservation	eng	Wetlands protection and conservation is generally recommended.
164481		distribution	eng	Almost ubiquitous in the northern hemisphere; frequent in northern and southern Africa but rare in the tropics.<br/><br/>In Western Africa there is a poor occurrence of the species. Recorded only from Cameroon In North Africa it is introduced in Egypt, but native in Lybia, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. Also recorded from North Eastern Africa in Sudan (Widespread - Lake Nubia - Darfur, Jebel Murra), Ethiopia, and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, it is found in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
164481		distribution	eng	<em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em> is very widespread all over the world. It is cosmopolitan and found in the Mediterranean region, Europe, Asia, South Africa, North and South America (generally native to the Old World and introduced in the New World).
164481		distribution	eng	<em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em> is very widespread all over the world. It is cosmopolitan and found in the Mediterranean region, Europe, Asia, South Africa, North and South America. It is generally native to the Old World and introduced in the New World. In North Africa it is introduced in Egypt, but native in Libya, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. It is native to all of Mediterranean Europe and the East Mediterranean.
164481		habitat	eng	<em>M. spicatum</em> occurs in lakes, rivers, streams, canals and ditches. It prefers base-rich water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphate and organic matter contents.
164481		habitat	eng	<em>M. spicatum</em> occurs in lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ditches. It prefers alkaline (hard water) water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphat and organic matter contents.
164481		habitat	eng	This Perennial Hydrophyte occurs submerged in permanent still and flowing water and even found in brackish conditions. <em>M. spicatum</em> occurs in lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ditches. It prefers alkaline (hard water) water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphat and organic matter contents.<br><br>North-eastern Africa: Lakes, rivers, streams, canal, ditches. M. spicatum occurs in alkaline (hard water) water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphatse and organic matter contents.
164481		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. spicatum</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164481		population	eng	This species is a very common invasive aquatic macrophyte.
164481		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164481		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164482		conservation	eng	No information available.
164482		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, it is recommended to study the inventory of the species' habitats, taxonomy, populations and locations.
164482		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164482		distribution	eng	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is a Paleotropical species occuring in Egypt (Nile region, oases of the western Desert, Mediterranean coastal strip), Sudan, Tanzania, India, Tropical Asia, China, northern Australia, western Asia, and North America. In Europe it is only found in Italy where it is rare and introduced.
164482		distribution	eng	This species has been considered as naturalized in Egypt, Sudan and Tanzania according to the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.<br/><br/>However, it has aldo been considered a Paleotropical species native to Africa, India, Tropical Asia, China, northern Australia, western Asia, and North America. In Europe it is only found in Italy where it is considered rare and introduced.<br/><br/>In Africa the species has been recorded from Central Sudan, Tanzania (Masai district Manyara Ranch Farm dam and Mbulu district Tarangire), Egypt (Nile region, oases of the western Desert, Mediterranean coastal strip).
164482		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in northeastern Africa, South Korea, eastern and southeast Asia and the tropical regions of Australia. It is introduced in North America, where it is considered invasive.
164482		habitat	eng	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is an annual or short-lived herbaceous perennial plant that grows at irrigation canals, pools, rice fields, often choking water courses up to 2 m wide (Täckholm and Drar 1941).
164482		habitat	eng	This species grows in shallow water edges and ponds and in rice field in southeast Asia.
164482		population	eng	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is abundant in Egypt (EOO >20,000 km² and AOO >2,000 km²) and rare in Italy (introduced to one location only).
164482		population	eng	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is abundant in Egypt (Extent of Occurrence >20,000 km² and Area of Occupancy >2,000 km²) and rare in Italy (introduced to one location only).
164482		population	eng	No information available.
164482		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK1">The major threats in Yunnan included human exploitation, habitat degradation and pollution. No global major threats have been reported.<br/></a>
164482		threats	eng	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is not threatened in Egypt.
164482		threats	eng	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is not threatened in Egypt. It may be affected due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.
164483		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis parvula</span> is classed as Endangered in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008). There are currently no other protection measures in place but the following measures are recommended for the future: legal protection (list of protected species), application of legal conservation measures, monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the size of populations, study of the populations' dynamics, study of the biology and ecology of the species.<br/>Moreover, clarification of the identity of plants sold in horticulture and for the aquarium trade is needed.
164483		conservation	eng	There are apparently no conservation measures in place and there is no information as to whether such measures may be needed. Information on the population size, trend and rate of decline is needed.
164483		distribution	eng	<em>Eleocharis parvula</em> is distributed from central Fennoscandia southwards to Portugal, Croatia and southeastern Russia. It is very local over much of its range, notably in the Mediterranean countries. The species also occurs in America (Brazil, Canada, Nicaragua, United States, and Venezuela).<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution includes Egypt (Damietta), Italy, Croatia, the northern Atlantic coast of Portugal, the Spanish Cantabrian and northern Atlantic coast and southern Pyrenees, and the Palestine region (Dead Sea). It is present in France, but not in the Mediterranean region. It has also been recorded from Greece, but there are doubts whether the species is native there.
164483		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. parvula</em> occurs from Europe and North Africa east through the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far East, Japan, Vietnam and Malaysia. It also occurs in North America from Canada south to Mexico, Central America and northern South America. In Europe, it occurs mainly in coastal states from Scandinavia south through the United Kingdom to the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and Greece where it is considered likely to be naturalised.</p>
164483		habitat	eng	<em>Eleocharis parvula</em> is a dwarf sward-forming perennial plant (2-5 cm) growing in salt marshes and brackish mud or sand along the sea coasts, rarely inland, and in salty lakes. In Egypt, it develops in rice fields.
164483		habitat	eng	<p><em>E. parvula</em> most often occurs in estuaries and saltmarshes, growing on firm mud and avoiding more saline habitats. In Greece and Egypt it occurs in rice fields.</p>
164483		population	eng	<em>Eleocharis parvula</em> is indicated as very rare in Egypt, classified as Data Deficient in Croatia and Italy. In the latter, it is very rare with a very fragmented distribution in the northeast and in Sardinia. In Spain, there are six or more populations along the north coast and in the Pyrenees. About 50% of the Spanish populations have disappeared in the last 50 years. In Greece, it is very rare with only one record from Sterea Ellas.
164483		population	eng	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">E. parvula</span> is classed as Critically Endangered (level 1) in Germany, Vulnerable in Denmark, Near Threatened in both Estonia and Norway and Data Deficient in Croatia and Italy. In Spain, there are six populations along the north coast and in the Pyrenees and the species is assessed as Endangered. In general it appears to be overlooked and consequently under-recorded, but even in areas with detailed records, populations are generally sparse.&#160;</p><p>The record from Greece is described as follows:   Greece (doubtfully native Greuter and Raus 2002) Greece, Sterea Ellas, Nomos and Eparchia of Fthiotis: SE of Lamia, N of the Thermopiles, in rice fields S of the Sperchios river, associated with <em>Ammannia coccinea,</em> <em>Cyperus difformis, Scirpus mucronatus </em>and other paddy weeds, alt. c. 5 m, 26.9.2002, <em>Raabe </em>(B, MSTR, herb. Raabe; det. Raus).  </p>
164483		threats	eng	Some populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. parvula</span> are threatened by development of estuaries, particularly where channels are modified to improve navigation or mooring for boats.
164483		threats	eng	There is no data on threats available but it is suspected that the development of coastal infrastructure could pose a threat to the species.
164484		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
164484		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or in need for this species.
164484		distribution	eng	<em>Ammannia baccifera</em> is a tropical species with a range that covers the tropical parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Philippines, etc.), America and Africa (Madagascar, Egypt, etc.).<br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Egypt and reaches its northwestern distribution limit in Turkey, Israel, and Palestine. It has naturalized in Spain.
164484		distribution	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">A widespread species that is found across the world from tropical Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, southeast Asia,  Philippines, New Guinea, Caribbean islands, the Mediterranean basin and Australia.
164484		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in swampy areas, rice paddies and water courses of low elevation. Flowering occurs between the end of spring and the beginning of autumn (May to October). It is considered a weed in rice fields where it is harmful during the drawdown phase.
164484		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in swampy areas, rice paddies and water courses of low elevation.<br/></p>
164484		population	eng	No information available.
164484		population	eng	The species is present in several locations in the Mediterranean region and populations appear to be stable. <br/>In Egypt, it is found in at least 13 locations distributed between the Nile delta, the Mediterranean coastal strip, the oases of the western Desert and the Sinai Peninsula; it is adventitious in two provinces in the east of Spain (Cataluña and Valencia); <br/>In Israel, the species is only found at six sites and has become extinct from at least four sites and two large districts. In the 1940s, it was quite common in many of the swamps around Lake Hula until this wetland was drained in the 1960s and many populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Amannia baccifera</span> became extinct. The situation in the coastal plain wetlands was similar and the species survives in only one site there. It is listed as Endangered in the Red Data Book of Israel   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).
164484		threats	eng	Except for the use of herbicides, there are no major threats to this species.
164484		threats	eng	No major threats known.
164487		conservation	eng	None
164487		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. virosa</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The natural range of this species is receding and it is considered to be threatened in both Germany and Austria (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 237 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. virosa</span> held in European genebanks, 224 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 104 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the native range of this species; particularly in central Europe.
164487		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. virosa </span>is native to central, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to north Africa; it has become naturalized outside its native range in both of these regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of this species in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Portugal: north and central.</li><li>Italy: widespread.</li><li>France:  widespread, but not recorded in the departments of  Pas-de-Calais, Maine-et-Loire, Hauts-de-Seine,   Eure-et-Loir, Cher,    Haute-Saône and   Territoire de Belfort in the northern half of the  country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom: widespread across  the southern half of England, particularly to the east, with a patchier  distribution to the north and in Scotland (Preston <em>et al</em>.  2002). Its distribution in Wales is particularly limited and it is only  recorded in two localities in Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/></li><li>Germany: common but its origin is uncertain (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010).&#160; <br/></li><li>Croatia and Serbia: presence uncertain and if present, its origin is uncertain.</li><li>Slovakia: found only as casual alien in Ivánka pri Nitre (Dostál and Červenka 1992).</li></ul>
164487		distribution	eng	This species is widespread weed of the tropics and subtropics.<br/><br/>In Africa, it is widespread in Western and Eastern Africa and present in Central Africa, Algeria, Morocco, Chad, Sudan, Egypt (Aswan and Egyptian Nubia). It is considered as an introduced species in southern Africa (Pope 1992 in Flora Zambesiaca Vol. 6 part 1).
164487		habitat	eng	Rivers and damp wet banks after waters retreat. Also in ditches, and rice fields. Is probably a weedy species occurring where there are anthropogenic activities.
164487		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. virosa</span>  is an annual to biennial herbaceous species which grows in ruderal habitats such as roadsides, embankments and grassy borders throughout most of its range. In Portugal, it grows in dry, sandy and rocky places. In the north of its range it can also be found on limestone, as well as on sand dunes (Feráková 1977, Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In Great Britain, it occurs in lowland habitats (coastal cliffs, inland rocky outcrops  and sand dunes), but it prefers rank calcareous grassland, woodland  margins, road banks, quarries, tracks and rough ground (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It grows in lowland and sub-montane areas, with plants occasionally found at higher altitudes (e.g., 1,560 m in Switzerland) (Feráková 1977).
164487		population	eng	Good occurrence of species population throught Africa.
164487		population	eng	This species is generally considered to be rare in central Europe (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004); however, it is reported to be common in Italy, Sicily and Sardinia (D. Donnini pers. comm. 2010).
164487		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
164487		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
164488		conservation	eng	In France, at one location the habitats and species are monitored and one site is under protection. The subspecies <em>pulchellum</em> is protected in France and the species is included in the Red List of France.<br/>In other parts of its range, there are currently no conservation measures in place. For the future the study of the inventory of the habitats of this species, taxonomy, populations, locations, is suggested.
164488		distribution	eng	<em>Leucojum aestivum</em> is widespread in Europe extending from Ireland, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia, southwards to Sardinia, the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey and Crimea. This species is also present in the Mediterranean part of France (Var and Maritime Alps) and Corsica (where it is very rare). It does not occur in North Africa or the Levant.<br/>The subspecies <em>pulchellum</em> is found on the Balearic Islands, Corsica (one location) and Sardinia.
164488		habitat	eng	<em>Leucojum aestivum</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with a large bulb. The species is found in formations of <em>Carex riparia</em>, mostly characteristic of larger valleys and southern regions, intolerant to dessication. It prefers wet meadows and marshy alder carrs of plains. <em>L. aestivum</em> grows on mineral or thin peaty substrates, often in areas almost permanently inundated by somewhat lime-rich water (Corine biotopes 53.213 : greater pond sedge beds).<br/><br/>This plant is widely cultivated for ornamental purposes and naturalized both within and outside its native range.<br/>Flowering takes place between February and April.
164488		population	eng	The populations of <em>Leucojum aestivum</em> are scattered among the named countries. There are probably more than 20 locations, with an Extent of Occurrence >20,000 km² whereas the Area of Occupancy is probably smaller than 2,000 km².<br/><br/>In France it occurs at Var (Toulon, Hyères, Porquerolles island, Ramatuelle, les Mayons-du-Luc, le Pradet, la Garde, Cogolin, la Garde-Freinet), Alpes-Maritimes (Grasse but naturalized) and Corsica with only two populations (Linguizzetta, around Aleria and Alistro). It is common in Montenegro and Croatia. In Spain, it is only in the Balearic islands. In Italy, the species is present in four regions in the north of Italy and the subspecies <em>pulchellum</em> is found in Sardinia.
164488		threats	eng	Its habitats (alder carrs) are often deteriorating resulting from land and grazing abandonment and unfavourable land management.
164489		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are conservation measures in place or needed.
164489		distribution	eng	<em>Clerodendrum acerbianum</em> grows in tropical regions. In the Mediterranean it is present in Egypt only, where it grows along the River Nile and in the Nile delta.
164489		habitat	eng	This is a grey-pubescent perennial shrub (1-3 m) that grows on the banks of rivers and canals.
164489		population	eng	Populations of this species are only found in Egypt on the banks of the river Nile. The populations are abundant.
164489		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in Egypt, but the lack of suitable habitat in the Mediterranean region is a threat to the species' survival there.
164490		conservation	eng	It is not known whether there have been conservation measures in place.
164490		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164490		distribution	eng	<em>Laurembergia tetrandra</em> is a tropical species, originating from central Africa and South America. It occurs in Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Gabon, Mauritania, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zambia, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is only present in Algeria, in the El Kala region at Lac Noir (Borj Ali Bey).
164490		distribution	eng	Widespread in tropical Africa and the New World.<br/><br/>In western Africa it has been recorded from Senega, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria and Guinea. In Central Africa it ccurs in Angola, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo. Recorded from Algeria, in the El Kala region at Lac Noir (Borj Ali Bey), in Northern Africa. However, the species has become exctinct from this site.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, <em>T. tetranda brachypoda</em> has been found in Uganda: Masaka District at Sese Is.,  Mengo District at Entebbe. In Kenya in Trans-Nzoia District at Kitale, and in Tanzania.
164490		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this herb are unknown.
164490		habitat	eng	The species grows in grassy edges of swamps, sandy lake margins, on mud by swamps in grassland areas, and pathsides. In Central Africa it prefers boggy and marshy grounds.
164490		population	eng	This species is extinct in Algeria since 1991.
164490		population	eng	Wide occurrence of species in the world. Poor in West Africa, common in Eastern Africa and considered as extinct in Algeria.
164490		threats	eng	No major widespread threats. However, the species may be potentially impacted by agricultural pollution, drought, habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and extractive industries activities.
164490		threats	eng	The only site known for this species has been destroyed in 1990-1991, due to water extraction for agriculture purposes. Once the lake was dry, two fires (at least one of them intentional) totally destroyed the ecosystem, including the seeds.
164491		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Centre.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place. The following actions are being proposed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations<br/>- Monitoring of population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164491		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">J. heterophyllus</span> is protected in the Centre region of France.<br/></p>
164491		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The following actions are being proposed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations<br/>- Monitoring of population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures
164491		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a western Mediterranean-Atlantic species.<br/><br/>In Africa, it is found in Tunisia (Kroumirie: four localities), in Algeria where it is rare (only Numidia and Kabylie: two localities), in Morocco at Tanger, Rif and Zaïan mountains (Maire 1957).
164491		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a western Mediterranean-Atlantic species. It is a near-endemic to the Mediterranean assessment region (with the exception of populations in central France). It is distributed only in southwestern Europe and northwest Africa. In Europe, the species is present in the western and central part of France, in Corsica where it is uncommon, in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, where it is rare, Portugal, and Spain.
164491		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a western Mediterranean-Atlantic species. It is a near-endemic to the Mediterranean assessment region (with the exception of populations in central France). It is distributed only in south-western Europe and northwest Africa. In Europe, the species is present in the western and central part of France, in Corsica where it is uncommon, in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily where it is rare, Portugal, and Spain. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Tunisia (Kroumirie: four localities), in Algeria where it is rare (only Numidia and Kabylie: two localities), in Morocco at Tanger, Rif and Zaïan mountains (Maire 1957).<br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
164491		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a perennial species and Helophyte. It is found in temporarily or permanently flooded places such as marshes, ponds, small streams on acidic substrate, peat or sand.
164491		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a perennial species and Helophyte. It is found in temporarily or permanently flooded places such as marshes, ponds, small streams on acidic substrate, peat or sand.<br/>Flowering takes places in spring or summer according to latitude, altitude and hydroperiod.
164491		population	eng	In Italy and France, <em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is rare, probably with scattered populations.<br/>In North Africa, the populations are numerous with about 20 locations, but probably with a small area of occupancy, like in Algeria (from 100 to 1,000 m²), and very scattered. The North African distribution range is very fragmented: one part includes western Tunisia and eastern Algeria, the other part includes the locations of Morocco.
164491		population	eng	In Italy and France, <em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is rare, probably with scattered populations, in some areas such as the temporary wetlands of the Algarve in Portugal and in the Huelva Province in Spain it can be very abundant and in fact dominant over large areas.
164491		population	eng	In North Africa, the populations are numerous with about 20 locations, but probably with a small area of occupancy, like in Algeria (from 100 to 1,000 m²) and very scattered. Extent of occurrence is >20,000 km² but very taken apart: one part including western Tunisia and eastern Algeria, the other part including the locations of Morocco.
164491		threats	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> and its habitat are severely threatened by the trampling of livestock and farming (ploughing), water-pumping, urbanization and various types of pollution.
164491		threats	eng	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> and its habitat may be locally threatened by poaching by livestock and farming (ploughing), water-pumping, urbanization and various types of pollution.
164492		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- To confirm the presence of the species in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia <br/>- Habitat conservation and monitoring of the existing sites<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Investigation on the biology and ecology of the species and estimation of the populations 'size <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
164492		distribution	eng	<em>Carex illegitima</em> is a steno-Mediterranean plant. Its distribution is limited to the eastern Mediterranean countries of Croatia, Cyprus, Turkey, Greece, Sicily and Libya. <br/><br/>Except for Libya, where the species is known from three localities (Al Houssain river, Ras an-Hilal-Shahat, Akhadar mountain), the presence of this species, is uncertain for the North African countries of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence in North Africa is about 2,500 km². At Mediterranean level, the extent of occurrence is of 700,000 km² but the occupied area is unknown.
164492		habitat	eng	<em>Carex illegitima</em> is a perennial plant (Geophyte with rhizome) that can be found along riversides.
164492		population	eng	There is no data available on the size of the populations or on their present trends.
164492		threats	eng	Frequent droughts, urbanization and agricultural pollution are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
164493		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
164493		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, and to estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.
164493		distribution	eng	<em>Leptochloa panicea</em> is a species of the tropical regions. Its biogeographical distribution covers Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australia, North and South America. <br/><br/>In North Africa and the Mediterranean region it is only found in Egypt (Nile valley and delta), with an extent of occurrence over 2,000 km². It is often a bad weed of rice and sugar cane crops.
164493		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptochloa panicea</span> is distributed in Africa, Asia-temperate, Asia-tropical, Australasia and America. In India it is distributed in Madhya Pradesh (Damoh) (Roy<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2001), Andhra Pradesh (Anakapalli) (Rao and Kumari 2008), Tamil Nadu (Kabeer and Nair 2009) and Maharashtra (Amaravati, Aurangabad, Bombay, Nagpur) (Lakshminrrasimhan<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1996, Rao and Kumari 2008).
164493		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in marshes, swamps, streams, rice fields and ditches. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn (July-October) and its seeds are dispersed by water and birds.
164493		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptochloa panicea</span> is an annual slender grass found in damp or periodically flooded places but not wetland species (Cook 1996) and also grows in riverbanks, lake margins, sloughs, bottomland forest openings, ditches, roadsides and railroads (www.missouriplants.com). It is a weed of rice, corn, cotton, soybeans, sugarcane, peanuts and pastures (Waterhouse and Mitchell 1998).
164493		population	eng	The species is fairly common in Egypt (Nile valley and delta), with an AOO >2,000 km². The trend of the populations is not known.
164493		population	eng	This is a fairly common species in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
164493		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
164493		threats	eng	The drainage of this species’ habitat and the use of herbicides are its main threats.
164494		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164494		distribution	eng	<p>The species is cosmopolitan, apparently more or less worldwide, although to some extent this will depend upon whether or not the genus is treated as monospecific. It is reported from throughout Europe east to the Russian far east, Japan and Korea, Africa north of the Sahara south to South Africa, Australasia as well as North, South and Central America. It is widely naturalized in New Zealand, Melanesia, Polynesia and perhaps elsewhere. In Europe, it is reported from everywhere excep<span style="background-color: white;">t the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Azores, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land, Kaliningrad, Novaya Zemlya, San Marino and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</span></p>
164494		habitat	eng	<p><em>P.&#160;australis</em> can occur in a wide variety of aquatic and wetland habitats and may even occasionally occur as small, open stands away from water. It is most characteristic of the margins of large water bodies, where it may form extensive and dense stands, occasionally covering more than ten square kilometres. In these situations, it is able to spread over the surface of the water, forming floating stands which may eventually totally cover open water areas. It will also occur along ditches, canals, river margins, swamps, fens, marshes and artificial water bodies such as settling ponds and borrow-pits. It is tolerant of quite elevated salt levels and will occur downstream of the tidal limits of rivers and into the upper parts of salt marshes.</p>  The reed is important as both breeding and non-breeding habitat for a wide variety of scarce and protected species.
164494		population	eng	<p><em>P.&#160;australis</em> is widespread and abundant throughout much of Europe and may be increasing at the expense of other aquatic and wetland plants. A reported decline in the UK actually relates to a loss of and decline in quality of large reedbeds, rather than <em>P.&#160;australis</em> itself. Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) actually report an increase in UK populations.<u></u></p>
164494		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the populations.
164495		conservation	eng	<em>R. lateriflorus</em> is classed as Vulnerable in Italy, Near Threatened in Hungary and is nationally protected in France, but otherwise there are no known threats to this species. It is possible that the declines in France and Hungary are the first evidence of a range contraction and should be monitored.
164495		conservation	eng	In France, <em>R. lateriflorus</em> is nationally protected and classed as Vulnerable in the national Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). The occurences at Roque-Haute are included in a Natural Reserve. <br/>In Italy, the species is included in the Red Book and classified as Vulnerable but no protective measure is put in place. In Israel, it will be included in the second volume of the National Red Data Book (A. Shmida pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. It is proposed to monitor the existing localities and the population dynamics and to reduce habitat loss by applying legal conservation measures.
164495		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus lateriflorus</em> is a temperate species. Its distribution covers the Mediterranean region; central and southern Europe; Russia, central and west Asia, northwest Africa.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Turkey, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete, Spain, Bulgaria, France, Israel and Palestine, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Lebanon and Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 400,000 km² with numerous localities.
164495		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">R. lateriflorus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east to western Siberia and the Caucasus. In Europe, it is mainly Mediterranean, extending north into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Belarus.</span></p>
164495		habitat	eng	<em>Ranunculus lateriflorus</em> is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte), that is restricted to temporary pools of plains and mountains, bogs, ditches and inundated prairies. Flowering occurs in spring (March-May). It is a species of oligotrophic pools that has its optimum on acidic mineral substrate.
164495		habitat	eng	<em>R. lateriflorus</em> typically grows in temporary pools, shallow lakes, ditches, muddy places, dolines or occasionally in seasonally inundated grassland.
164495		population	eng	<em>Ranunculus lateriflorus</em> is common in the Mediterranean region with more than 50 localities and the populations are stable overall. In North Africa, the species is rare with a very restricted distribution (because the area is limited) confined to mountainous regions and high plateaus. <br/>- Morocco: it is rare with six known localities (all in the mountains) spread between the High Atlas (Jbel Timinkar; Atoui; Oukeïmeden), the Middle Atlas (dayet-Ito; Mrirt) and the Rif (Bou Meziat)<br/>- Algeria: it is rare, present in pools of mountains and high plateaus. The number of localities is less than 10.<br/>- Italy: present in three provinces in addition to Sicily <br/>- France: very rare, it exists in three localities (Roque-Haute; Caux-Fontès-Pèzenas et Coiron). It disappeared from the Costière Nîmoise in the beginning of the years 1970. <br/>- Spain: common with 52 known localities essentially concentrated in the centre of the country <br/>- Israel: the Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands, part of the montane vegetation of Mt. Hermon, occuring at 14 sites but it is almost extinct in western Israel and is considered as threatened in Israel <br/>- Lebanon: rare, occurring in at least two localities (Jabal Aïn Tiné; Jabal Kneissé) <br/>- Syria: common (Homs; Khirbet-et-Tine; Dar es-Salam; North of Qneitra; Salkhad-Kafer; Qanaouat, etc.)<br/>- Turkey: common in the whole country
164495		population	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">R. lateriflorus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is classed as Vulnerable in Italy, Near Threatened in Hungary and is nationally protected in France, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.</span></p>
164495		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164495		threats	eng	Urbanization, drainage, infilling for agricultural use, overgrowing of the land by competitors, following an abandonment of the land constitute the main threats for the species and its habitat.
164496		conservation	eng	It is protected at regional level in France (Ile-de-France, Picardie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Lorraine and Alsace).<br/>There are no further conservation measures in place, but it is proposed to monitor the existing sites in North Africa.
164496		conservation	eng	It is protected at regional level in France: Ile-de-France, Picardie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Lorraine and Alsace. It is considered Near Threatened in Finland, Vulnerable in Germany, Endangered in Switzerland, and Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic.<br/>There are no further conservation measures in place   or but monitoring of the population trends is needed.
164496		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is proposed to monitor the existing sites in North Africa.
164496		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em> is a paleo-temperate species. It is found in the western European Mediterranean (although reports from mainland Greece are unreliable) and in North Africa and eastern North America. It is widespread throughout much of central Europe, but more scarce in the north with relatively few populations in Scandinavia, while herbarium specimens collected in Estonia were all <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gramineus</span> (Tzvelev 2001).
164496		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution includes Europe (western and central), North Africa, northeastern America and Macaronesia (Azores and Madeira). <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the Area of Occupancy (AOO) is below 50 km², and it is present in 12 locations.
164496		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution includes Europe (western and central), North Africa, northeastern America and Macaronesia (Azores and Madeira). <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, and a questionable presence in Greece (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009). Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.
164496		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rooted Hydrophyte), that inhabits stagnant waters (ponds, peaty pools, etc.) and weak water courses (streams, ditches, etc.) of siliceous substrate of plains and low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164496		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. polygonifolius</span> typically occurs in base-poor or acidic still to slow-flowing water bodies, usually in streams, ponds and lakes heathland or moorland.
164496		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. polygonifolius</span> is generally widespread and abundant throughout much of the core area of its European range.
164496		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations and populations appear to be stable. <br/>In North Africa the species is present in 12 locations. The populations are fairly restricted (spatial limitations) and although threatened locally by habitat drainage, the trend is not known. It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in the Rif (Tanger, Smir, Issaguen Plain, Tizi Ifri and Ketama) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Gharb swamp and between Lalla Mimouna and Larache); it is scarcely present in Algeria in Grande Kabylie (Akfadou) and in Numidie (La Calle and Bône); found in Tunisia in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Tabarka) and in the Mogods (Sejenane) from where it seems to have disappeared.
164496		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations and populations appear to be stable. <br/>In North Africa the species is present in 12 locations. The populations are fairly restricted (spatial limitations) and although threatened locally by habitat drainage, the trend is not known. It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in the Rif (Tanger, Smir, Issaguen Plain, Tizi Ifri and Ketama) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Gharb swamp and between Lalla Mimouna and Larache); it is scarcely present in Algeria in Grande Kabylie (Akfadou) and in Numidie (La Calle and Bône); found in Tunisia in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Tabarka) and in the Mogods (Sejenane) from where it seems to have disappeared.<br/>It is very common in Portugal and Spain, occurring in more than 108 sites located mainly in the north and the east of the peninsula; widespread in the centre, west and northeast of France; fairly common in Italy, occurring in 10 provinces in addition to Sicily; classed as Data Deficient in Croatia.
164496		threats	eng	Habitat drainage, infilling and agricultural usage are the main threats to this species.
164496		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
164497		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Control of urbanization <br/>- Follow-up of the dynamics and the structure of the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness
164497		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Mediterranean: Algeria, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, and southern France. In Algeria the species is probably extinct since the only known sites are now within the suburbs of Algers and the habitat has been destroyed.<br/>In France, the species is found in Languedoc (Hérault).
164497		habitat	eng	This species is found in formations of halonitrophilous annuals colonizing salty muds. It occurs in lagoons and river deltas.
164497		population	eng	This species is found in only two populations in Mediterranean France at Vic-la-Gardiole and Perols (Hérault). In Spain, it is present at four sites in the southern provinces Alicante, Huelva, Jaén and Sevilla (Anthos 2009).<br/>In Morocco, it is relatively common and it occurs along the coast from the eastern border to the Rabat/Casablanca region. In Algeria, it may be extinct.
164497		threats	eng	The species and its habitat are threatened by urbanization and filling in.
164498		conservation	eng	Research on population numbers and range, as well as on biology, ecology and threats is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation are in need.
164498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Algeria and Morocco where it is found in the Central Middle Atlas, Central Rif and Occidental Rif. <br/>The area of occupancy is probably below 2,000 km² and the number of locations is unknown.
164498		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marshes, in forests and moist degraded forests (matorrals). This is a perennial species (Geophyte).
164498		population	eng	Quezel and Santa (1962-1963) report that this species is common in Algeria but has not been observed in the coastal and eastern part of recently. This species is very rare in Morocco, occurring at less than five sites.
164498		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. Other threats are unknown.
164499		conservation	eng	<em>O. fistulosa</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, Endangered B2ab(iii,iv,v) in Sweden and Vulnerable (A2c) in the United Kingdom and Germany, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164499		distribution	eng	<em>O. fistulosa</em> has a predominantly European distribution, extending beyond the region only into North Africa, the Middle East and the Caucasus. It occurs throughout much of central and southern Europe and throughout much of the Mediterranean Basin.
164499		habitat	eng	<em>O. fistulosa</em> most often grows in the inundated margins of ditches and streams or in hollows in wet pasture in the floodplains of large rivers, usually in fairly nutrient-rich habitats.
164499		population	eng	<em>O. fistulosa</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and Sweden and Vulnerable in the United Kingdom and in Germany, however it appears to be widespread and fairly abundant throughout the rest of its range and quite common in the Mediterranean.
164499		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164500		conservation	eng	In France, the species is protected as regional level (Nord-Pas-de-Calais region), otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164500		conservation	eng	In France the species is protected at regional level in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. There are no other conservation measures in place elsewhere but research on the population numbers is needed.
164500		distribution	eng	<em>Oenanthe crocata</em> is a sub-Atlantic species that is endemic to Morocco and western Europe, extending from the Mediterranean to Ireland and the United Kingdom. In the Mediterranean, it occurs in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, and Morocco.
164500		distribution	eng	<p><em>O. crocata</em> occurs in western Europe, from Ireland and the United Kingdom south through Belgium and France to the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco and Italy. </p>
164500		habitat	eng	<em>O. crocata</em> typically occurs on the margins of ditches, streams and rivers, in wet pasture and in wet woodland, it will also grow permanently submerged in fast-flowing streams in oceanic areas.
164500		habitat	eng	It’s a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It prefers wet places such as rivers, streams, lakes and pools. Flowering is in spring.
164500		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. crocata </span>appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its range.
164500		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean. In North Africa it only occurs in Morocco in more than 10 localities distributed between the Middle Atlas, Rif Mountains, north Atlantic Morocco and middle Atlantic Morocco. The populations seem to be stable. In France it is present in Corsica but absent from the Mediterranean coastal strip (Tela Botanica 2000-2008). In Italy, it is found in Sardinia and Tuscany.
164500		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164500		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164501		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics and control the urbanization of the coastline.
164501		distribution	eng	<em>Polypogon maritimus</em> is a species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers western and southern Europe, western and central Asia, northern Africa, the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers about 4,000,000 km², within which the AOO >500 km², and it is present in many locations. <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco at Benslimane, Bouznika, Kenitra, Moulouya estuary, Sidi Amar, Marrakech, Ourzazate, Khenifra, Dayet Chiker. In Algeria, it is found in Numidie, Constantine, Tell region; and in Tunisia, in El Haouaria, Zembra, Utique, La Goulette, Sfax, Metlaoui, Zarzis, Zegzaou. It is present in Libya and Egypt, in the Nile region, Mediterranean coastal strip and the Sinai Peninsula.
164501		habitat	eng	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in inland and coastal saline wetlands (ditches and temporarily flooded depressions). Flowering takes place in the spring.
164501		population	eng	The species is extensively distributed in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>It is not very common in Montenegro and listed as Near Threatened in the Red Book of Croatia.
164501		threats	eng	The urbanization of the coastline, the development of road infrastructures and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species’ habitat.
164502		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To develop ecotourism in the mountains<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164502		distribution	eng	<em>Myosotis atlantica</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is rare and its distribution is restricted to the mountains of the Atlas with five known localities: Oukaïmeden (31°13'N; 07°51'W), Ourika and Jbel Angour in the High Atlas, Itzer in the Moyen Atlas and Siroua in the Anti Atlas. The extent of occurrence is about 8,000 km².
164502		habitat	eng	The species is found at the edges of streams, peat bogs (pozzines), wet prairies of flinty mountains and forests and humid rocks in mountains. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms from spring to summer (May-July) under the cold semi-arid, sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164502		population	eng	No data on the size or the present trends of the populations is available.
164502		threats	eng	The quality of its habitat is deteriorating resulting from increasing grazing pressure, cultivation of the flat lands, tourism development and outdoor activities the in mountains.
164503		conservation	eng	Research on the species' taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are being carried out. More information on population numbers and range is needed. Furthermore, measures to maintain and conserve the habitat are needed.
164503		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Algeria, and is found near Oran (Assi Ameur). It has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
164503		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulicaria filaginoides</span> occurs in flooded areas such as temporary pools.
164503		population	eng	This species is very rare, found at one location only with an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².
164503		threats	eng	In addition to the main threats by intrinsic factors, such as restricted range and limited dispersal, the species is threatened by natural disasters such as drought. Urbanization is also a major threat and this species might already have disappeared.
164504		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164504		distribution	eng	<em>Carex muricata</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa, Macaronesia and boreal America. <br>In Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 20,000 km², and numerous locations.
164504		distribution	eng	<em>Carex muricata</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa, Macaronesia and boreal America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.
164504		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits forests and shady ravines as well as the edges of humid habitats. Flowering occurs between winter and summer.
164504		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: fairly frequent with eight locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco (Middle Sebou and the Zaïane country) and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: very common in Petite Kabylie and Grande Kabylie (Babors and Djurjura), the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen Mounts) and the Saharan Atlas (Bskra); <br/>- Tunisia: common, with numerous locations in Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Jbel Abde Rahmane), Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.) and the Mogods (Majen Chitane); <br/>- Spain: very common, with 205 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common; <br/>- Italy: present in nine provinces.
164504		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The populations appear to be stable. In Morocco it is fairly frequent with eight locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco (Middle Sebou and the Zaïane country) and the Rif. Very commonalso in Algeria, in Petite Kabylie and Grande Kabylie (Babors and Djurjura), the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen Mounts) and the Saharan Atlas (Bskra). InTunisia it is also common, with numerous locations in Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Jbel Abde Rahmane), Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.) and the Mogods (Majen Chitane).
164504		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164505		conservation	eng	Most populations occur in designated Ramsar sites but that does not necessarily prevent the species from damage.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164505		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria senegalensis</em> is described by Maire (1961) and Quezel and Santa (1962) as mainly distributed in Asia and Tropical Africa. <br/><br/>In Egypt, it is found in the Nile region including the Delta and the Mediterranean coastal strip (Boulos 1999). At the Maghreb, the authors note this species exlusively in Algeria, in Numidia (El Kala, lac Oubeïra). At the latter site it has been observed at Lake Oiseaux, Lake Bourdim, la garâa Chichaya, and Lake Tonga. It is furthermore present in Palestine and Israel.
164505		habitat	eng	<em>Persicaria senegalensis</em> prefers the subhumid Mediterranean bioclimate with mild and warm winters. It is found in freshwater lakes, rivers and canals. Its lower half survives fully submerged in water, the species blooms from April to November.  It seems to prefer clayey soils, but it is also present in environments more or less clayey based on sand dunes. This species is relatively tolerant to water pollution.
164505		population	eng	<em>P. senegalensis</em> forms dense populations in Egypt, Israel and Algeria or individuals can appear more or less isolated. <br/>- In Egypt it is widespread and common with dense populations<br/>- In Algeria it has been recorded from two locations  in Numidia (Algeria) in the Wadi Messida which feeds Lake Tonga<br/>- In Israel it is present at 30 sites and it is locally dominant and the populations are stable
164505		threats	eng	No major threats are known for the moment.<br/>A possible future threat for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. senegalensis</span> could be the modification of its ecosystem, the interference of agriculture near those wetlands or the trampling of the lake shores to get water.
164507		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
164507		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, possibly North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
164507		habitat	eng	Essentially a plant of marshy depressions but frequently growing in standing water. Perennial herb
164507		population	eng	No information
164507		threats	eng	None known.
164508		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place, it is present in many protected areas.
164508		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. maritima</span> is classed as Endangered on Malta. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164508		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for <em>Ruppia maritima</em>. This species is listed as pest in some areas of its range.<br/><br/>The taxonomy of this species is confused and it is highly recommended that morphological and genetic studies be carried to determine the distribution limits of this species.
164508		distribution	eng	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> is a circumglobal species, widespread in temperate and tropical regions.
164508		distribution	eng	In Europe <em>R. maritima</em> is found in coastal habitats and at scattered sites inland from Iceland to northern Scandinavia southwards. <br/>In North Africa, it dominates coastal shallow parts of Mediterranean lakes and lagoons in the northern parts of Africa, including Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. <br/>It is widespread in Asia, North America and Australia.
164508		distribution	eng	In Europe <em>R. maritima</em> is found in coastal habitats and at scattered sites inland from Iceland to northern Scandinavia southwards. It is widespread in Asia, North America and Australia.<br><br>In North Africa, it dominates coastal shallow parts of Mediterranean lakes and lagoons in the northern parts Africa: Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Present in Southern Africa where it has been recorded from South Africa, Namibia and Lesotho. Also recorded across the eastern coasts of Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djbouti.
164508		distribution	eng	<p><em>R. maritima </em><span lang="EN-GB">has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, occurring mainly in coastal or inland saline areas throughout most of Africa, including Indian Ocean islands, from Europe east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to China, Sakhalin Island, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout the Indian sub-continent and northern south-east Asia, Australia and the Pacific Ocean Islands, as well as North, Central and South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe except for a few central countries.</p>
164508		habitat	eng	<em>R. maritima</em> typically occurs in coastal wetlands, such as lagoons, pools, creeks and ditches, it will also occur in saline areas inland.
164508		habitat	eng	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> has a wide salinity tolerance and occurs in fresh water, brackish water, marine environments and it can also be abundant in hypo- and hypersaline conditions. <em>Ruppia maritima</em> is known to survive in salinities ranging from 0 to 70 ppt (Kantrud 1991) but can be negatively impacted by repeated salinity changes (La Peyre and Rowe 2003). It can be found in canals, aquaculture ponds (traditional fish ponds), estuaries, tidal flats, and salt pans. It can even be found in coastal paddy fields (Burkhill 1936). In some cases, this species can become a pest by blocking aqua-ducts and canals. It only occurs in areas of low hydrodynamic regimes. This species can occur is a very wide variety of habitats (low-salinity ponds, coastal lagoons, mangroves, estuaries, marsh pools, tidal rivers, fishponds, mangrove salt marshes).<br/><br/><em>Ruppia maritima</em> is both annual and perennial.
164508		habitat	eng	This species is virtually confined to coastal brackish waters and to saline or alkaline sites inland, where salinity is relatively high.<br/><br/>Plants are self-pollinated by transfer of pollen within an inflorescence on the surface of air bubbles which develop when the anthers dehisce and which remain attached to the inflorescence for several hours.
164508		habitat	eng	This species is virtually confined to coastal brackish waters and to saline or alkaline sites inland, where salinity is relatively high. Plants are self-pollinated by transfer of pollen within an inflorescence on the surface of air bubbles which develop when the anthers dehisce and which remain attached to the inflorescence for several hours.
164508		population	eng	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> is extremely widespread although only locally abundant in some regions. For example, it forms massive seagrass beds in Argentina and Atlantic Chile. It is highly tolerant of disturbance, including eutrophication, turbidity, and high and low salinity. It is easily dispersed by waterfowl. It is sometimes present in high altitude lakes. Localized increases and decreases of this species have been observed, but overall global population trend is unknown, but is most likely stable.<br/><br/>Historically, this species was not recognized as a seagrass, but rather as a freshwater or brackish water plant.
164508		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. maritima</span> is classed as Data Deficient in Croatia and regarded as Endangered on Malta, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
164508		population	eng	The species is common but declining in many places.
164508		threats	eng	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> is threatened locally by habitat loss from industrialization and agriculture. Coastal land reclamation is also a threat as this species grows in transitional environments between land and sea.<br/><br/>This species is grazed by geese, ducks and swans (waterfowl) throughout its range.
164508		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164508		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by any kind of human development on coastlines.
164509		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
164509		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place apart from some populations being included in a Ramsar site in Algeria.<br/><br/>In North Africa, more research on the species, its populations and habitat are needed as well as legal protection at national level.
164509		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha aquatica</em> is a paleotemperate and subcosmopolitan species. It occurs in all of Europe, except for the extreme north, as well as in west Asia, northern and southern Africa, Macaronesia (Madeira, Azores), and America.<br/>In North Africa it is rare and has been found in Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Libya.
164509		distribution	eng	<p><em>M.&#160;aquatica</em> occurs in east and north Africa, Macaronesia and Europe east to west Asia. It has been reported from all countries in Europe except Gibraltar (UK), Iceland, FYR Macedonia, Monaco, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway). It is regarded as introduced to Iceland (Kristinsson 2008), Bolivia, Brazil and southern South America.</p>
164509		habitat	eng	<p>A perennial Hemicryptophyte, <em>M.&#160;aquatica</em> occurs in most types of wetland, particularly the margins of lowland rivers and streams, ditches and canals, marshlands and the margins of standing water bodies.</p>
164509		habitat	eng	This perennial Hemicryptophyte grows in ponds, marshes, wet and flooded places, riverine forests, marshy forests, small streams and spring seepages.
164509		population	eng	<em>Mentha aquatica</em> is common in the north of the Mediterranean region, but rather rare and very scattered in North Africa, where it probably reaches the southern limit of its distribution: Tunisia (three locations), Algeria (Tell) , Morocco (two locations: Gharb, Mamora) and Libya.
164509		population	eng	<p>In western Europe and the northern Mediterranean, <em>M.&#160;aquatica</em> is widespread and abundant and is one of the most frequent wetland plants. </p>
164509		threats	eng	<em>Mentha aquatica</em> is not threatened in the northern Mediterranean region, but probably in the south of the Mediterranean, particularly in North Africa due to the destruction and pollution of the wetlands.
164509		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.<em></em>
164510		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
164510		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164510		distribution	eng	A sub-cosmopolitan species distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres, in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Americas.<br/><br/>This plant is present in the major part of the afrotropical region, from Guinea and Mali to Gabon, then down to South Africa. It is also found in Egypt, where it is represented by the subsp. <em>auricomus</em> (Sieb. ex Spreng.) Kük. In the Nile delta, Nile Faiyum, on the Mediterranean coast, and in the Isthmic desert. In Eastern Africa it is known in Uganda, Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania. In Malawi it is known from Lake Chilwa at Likangala River mouth and Tembwe-Namitete Road at Maloro River in Mchinji. Common and widespread in Kenya from 450-2,300 m above sea level.
164510		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus digitatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres, in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Americas. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it only occurs in Egypt, where it is represented by the subspecies <em>auricomus</em> (Sieb. ex Spreng.) Kük. In Egypt it is found in the Nile delta, Nile Faiyum, on the Mediterranean coast, and in the Isthmic desert.
164510		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus digitatus </span>is distributed in pantropics and subtropics (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, Mexico, Central America, South America and Africa). In India it is known to occur in Andra Pradesh (throughout; B. Sadasivaiah pers. comm.), Arunacahal pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh (Bastar), Magalays, Maharashtra (Halkarni, Nittur, Pune, Satara, Thane), Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu (Madurai- Poyakarai at 133m, Near Vadipatti., Nilgiri- Kotagiri, Mukurti at 2050m, Salem- Kaveri Peak, Yerkad at 140m., Nagapatnam District- Valanganni, Thiruchirapalli), Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Karnataka (Mysore) and Kerala (Idukki, Thiruvannanthapurum, Kotayam) (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Bhargavan 1987, BSI Coimbatore).
164510		habitat	eng	<em>Cyperus digitatus</em> grows in marshes, ditches, and moist places.
164510		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb, found in swamps or seasonally flooded areas, wet rice fields, ditches and river banks (Cook 1996) and also open grasslands (Bhargavan 1989). Its occurrence in wet rice fields is doubtful.
164510		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte occurs in swamps, pools, depressions of freshwater, marshes, ditches, and moist places.  Also in or near water in swamps or seasonally flooded areas, and river banks. It flowers from September to March. It has a with short rhizome, 8 - 12 mm. Stem 50-160 cm high, 2-30 cm thick and 6-12 mm width.
164510		population	eng	As herbaceous species, this plant is likely to have a locally important population. Common in the Nile delta and adjacent regions.
164510		population	eng	<em>Cyperus digitatus</em> is common in the Nile delta and adjacent regions.
164510		population	eng	Widespread and common species in stagnant water, ponds and ditches.
164510		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
164510		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats.
164510		threats	eng	This species does not face major threats although agriculture, invasion of the water surface by alien species, water pollution by human activities, and habitat loss due to land reclamation might pose important threats.
164512		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place in the Maghreb. The species is under regional protection in France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Pays-de-la-Loire). The proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics, conservation of the species’ habitat (North Africa) and raise awareness amongst the public.
164512		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Catabrosa aquatica</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia, Montenegro and Czech Republic (D. Turonova pers. comm. 2010). It is classed as Endangered in Malta and is under regional protection in France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Pays-de-la-Loire). No   conservation measures are in place or needed.
164512		distribution	eng	<em>Catabrosa aquatica</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers the Euro-Siberian region, boreal America, the Mediterranean basin and the Irano-Touranian region. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers about 3,300,000 km², with numerous locations (>100).
164512		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. aquatica</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere and in South America, occurring from Macaronesia, Europe and North Africa north and east through Siberia, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, India and Kashmir to Mongolia and China. It also occurs throughout western central North America and eastern Canada and in southern South America.</p>
164512		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte that produces runners) that is found in marshes and streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-July). It is a good indicator of water quality.
164512		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatica</span> typically grows into the margins of seasonal and permanent water bodies, usually on calcareous soils, including rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and hollows in floodplain pasture.
164512		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatica</span> appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range, except Croatia and Montenegro.</p><p><br/></p>
164512		population	eng	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region but Critically Endangered in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and Montenegro (one locality). It is quite rare in North Africa (southern limit of its range), occurring in only five locations. The populations in the Maghreb are very restricted and in slow decline. It is considered as very rare in Morocco, with only one location in the western Rif (Tangiers); very rare in Algeria, occurring in only two locations, namely in Petite Kabylie (Bougie) and Constantine; it is present in two locations in Libya near Matan Borgu.<br/>In Spain it is found in numerous sites (170) mainly in the north and centre of the country; in France: quite rare along the Mediterranean strip but fairly widespread in the north of the country; in Italy it is very common (present in nearly all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily).
164512		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164512		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage of the habitat of this species is its major threat.
164513		conservation	eng	Found in some protected areas (e.g., Mare aux Hippopotamus in Burkina Faso; Keta and Songhor Ramsar sites in Ghana). No specific measures required.
164513		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
164513		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in the Mediterranean, present in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Crete, Croatia, Montenegro, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.
164513		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa, Madagascar and Mediterranean part of North Africa.<br/><br/>This is a widespread species in the Mediterranean.  In North Africa it has been recorded from Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. Also widespread in western and Eastern Africa Africa where it tends to be a lowland species, up to 200 m above sea level.
164513		habitat	eng	In Northern Africa the species is present on the Nile and canal banks. It colonises ruderal habitats, moist alluvial soils and maritime sands. Also around pools and in moist depressions.
164513		habitat	eng	The species is present in ruderal habitats, moist alluvial soils, maritime sands, and on the Nile and canal banks.
164513		population	eng	It is very common in Northern Africa, sometimes grows as a weed in crops and in ruderal habitats. In Western Africa it is found in small localised colonies but is never abundant.
164513		population	eng	It is very common, sometimes grows as a weed in crops and in ruderal habitats.
164513		threats	eng	Locally threatened by trampling by livestock and general pressures of human activities; but none of these are major threats.
164513		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164514		conservation	eng	In Egypt, there is no natural habitat remaining for this species, so restoration of such habitat and reintroduction of the species would be beneficial. In agricultural land, appropriate management is needed so that remaining populations are not lost.<br/>In Israel, the species has been successfully re-introduced. It will be included in the second volume of the Red Data Book of Israel (G. Pollak pers. comm.).
164514		distribution	eng	<em>Nymphaea nouchali </em>var. <em>caerulea</em> has been present in Egypt since ancient time. It is native to Egypt and tropical Africa where it is widely cultivated. In Israel, the plant is only found at two sites in the Akko plain and Sharon plain.
164514		habitat	eng	In Egypt, there is no natural habitat remaining for this species, therefore it is found in ditches and and irrigation or drainage canals near rice fields. It is found in coastal wetlands in Israel.
164514		population	eng	The species is not common in Egypt.<br/><br/>The plant is found only in two natural sites in two districts (Akko plain and Sharon plain). In the past it was recorded in six more sites at the same districts, where it has gone extinct. In the Sharon plain, one population is still surviving at the Yarkon springs, which was reinforced by re-introduction from the Botanical Garden of Tel-Aviv University (the original plants came from the same site). The other site in the Akko plain, is located at the springs of Ein Afek, where it is native. A strong decline of that population was observed in the early nineties due to attacks of the snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis lampra</span> and by <span style="font-style: italic;">Myocastor coypus</span>. This population has recently recovered successfully by regrowth and protection by the staff of the Nature and Parks Authority. The plant was also introduced to another small spring in the Akko plain, where it was not found originally (G. Pollak pers. comm.).
164514		threats	eng	Threats include agricultural practices (pollution and crop rotation between rice and dryland crops). The rhizome is edible and is sometimes harvested. In Israel, predation by snails reduced a population in the past. At present, the main cause of the decline is the intensive water exploitation and the drainage of natural fresh-water bodies, the degradation of water quality and pollution (G. Pollak pers.comm.).
164515		conservation	eng	This species is not legally protected but listed in the national Red Book, volume II. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica, fishing organisations and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica. Search for new sites is carried out. <br/><br/>For the future, it is recommended to analyse the dynamics of different populations, to increase knowledge about biology, resilience, and conservation of the species, and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
164515		distribution	eng	<em>Doronicum corsicum</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with European orophytic origins. It is a common species in the mountains of Corsica from north to south. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the occupied area is lower than 500 km².
164515		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found on rocky stream edges and wet rocks (little springs) from 645 m to 1,750 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite).<em></em></p>
164515		population	eng	<em>Doronicum corsicum</em> is present at more than 55 sites in Corsica (58). At the site of Manganello, it has been last observed in 2006.<br/>The populations don't seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no global trend available.
164515		threats	eng	The habitat is submitted to the increase of canoeing resulting in the construction of more passages and higher risk of deterioration. Awareness is starting with canoeing guide organisations and trout fishing organisations too.
164516		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or in need.
164516		distribution	eng	A subtropical species that is widespread in the Mediterranean region. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164516		habitat	eng	<em>C. aculeata</em> grows in damp, usually saline places, marshes and water courses that are dry in summmer. It is considered a weed in cultivated areas.
164516		population	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean region.
164516		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164517		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
164517		distribution	eng	<em>J. maritimus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species that is found <em></em>in Europe, west Asia, Egypt, southern Africa, Atlantic islands, North America, Brazil, Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.<br/>In the Mediterranean it occurs in Albania, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Greece, Crete, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey, Cyprus, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria.
164517		distribution	eng	<em>J. maritimus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species that is found (var. <em>typicus</em>) in Europe, west Asia, Egypt, southern Africa, Atlantic islands, North America, Brazil, Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.<br/>In Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt.
164517		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus maritimus</em> is a short perennial Helophyte species. It is found in periodically or permanently wet brackish (sometimes freshwater) depressions, margins of watercourses, salt marshes (Maire 1957, Boulos 2005) in plains and mountains from sea level to 2,200 m.
164517		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Region, <em>J. maritimus</em> var. <em>typicus</em> is rather common in the west, the var. <em>arabicus</em> more common in the east.<br/><em>J. maritimus</em> var. <em>typicus</em> is common in the Mediterranean part of Europe: in Italy (including Sicily and Sardinia), France (including Corsica), Spain, etc.<br/>In North Africa: the var. <em>typicus</em> is common in all countries, the var. <em>arabicus</em> is rather rare from Libya to Morocco, including the Middle and West Sahara:<br/>- Tunisia: common as two subspecies;<br/>- Algeria: common except var. <em>arabicus</em> (only one location);<br/>- Morocco: Tangier, west Rif, Gharb, Tsoul, Imzorène, Mamora.
164517		population	eng	The var. <em>typicus</em> is common in all Northern African countries, the var. <em>arabicus</em> is rather rare from Libya to Morocco, including the Middle and West Sahara:<br/>- Tunisia: common as two subspecies;<br/>- Algeria: common except var. <em>arabicus</em> (only one location);<br/>- Morocco: Tangier, west Rif, Gharb, Tsoul, Imzorène, Mamora.
164517		threats	eng	This species is not threatened and it is abundant and distributed in many parts of the world.
164517		threats	eng	This species is not threatened, it is abundant and distributed in many parts of the world.
164518		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of its populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and Algeria)
164518		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidium violaceum</em> is endemic to Algeria and Morocco. In Morocco, it is known from three localities in the Moyen Atlas (Azrou, Mrirt, Dayet Ito) and two localities in the Gharb (Sidi Slimane, Moyen Sebou). The extent of occurrence in Morocco is about 4,300 km². In Algeria, the species is rare and is known in the Tell in the east of the country; it is not possible to map the species in this country because there are no point localities in the literature. The global extent of occurrence is about 170,000 km².<br/><br/>The area of occupancy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium violaceum</span> has not been quantified, but it is likely to be smaller than 500 km². There are more than five locations but probably fewer than 10.
164518		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium violaceum</span> is found in temporary pools and swampy depressions in the plains and low mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte to Chamaephyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the sub-humid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164518		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known, but the global trend is a likely reduction because of the deterioration of some sites under the effect of agricultural intensification. The last observations date to 1984 for the sites of the Gharb.
164518		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deterioration of the quality of its habitat due to water pollution, drainage, intensive grazing and the development for agriculture<em></em> (notably in the Gharb due to the cultivation of sugar beet).
164519		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Reduce the agricultural exploitation of the riverbanks <br/>- Legal protection of the species (Moroccan List of Protected Species) <br/>- <em>Ex situ</em> conservation of the species in seed banks<br/>- Raise public awareness
164519		distribution	eng	<em>Plantago lacustris</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is found at six sites, all situated in the Middle Atlas. Its extent of occurrence covers about 6,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is below 500 km².
164519		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in wetlands of low and medium mountains (up to 1,900 m in altitude), specifically on the edges of lakes, in peaty meadows and on humid river banks. In the Mediterranean sub-humid to humid bioclimate, flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164519		population	eng	The species is rare in Morocco, occurring at only six sites in the mountains of the Middle Atlas (Kheneg Merzoul, humid banks of Guigou, Ouiouane lake, Azrou and Ras Elma). The populations are small and are in decline due to the recent agricultural usage of some riverbanks.
164519		threats	eng	Agriculture along the riverbanks is the main threat to this species' habitat.
164520		conservation	eng	In Syria, there are no conservation measures in place. The Azraq in Jordan is classified as a Ramsar site.<br/>The following actions are needed:<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Legal protection of the species <br/>- Study the ecology of the species <br/>- Conservation of the species in seed banks
164520		distribution	eng	<em>Limonium palmyrense</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Syria and in Jordan. Its extent of occurrence covers about 15,000 km² and its area of occupancy is below 20 km².
164520		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in oases and salt marshes. Flowering takes place in summer and autumn.
164520		population	eng	The species has a limited distribution, occurring in less than five locations: Palmyre salt marshes in Syria and the Azraq salt marshes in Jordan. The populations have a very restricted range and their trend is not known.
164520		threats	eng	The overexploitation of salt marshes and the artificialisation of the surrounding environment, as well as the overexploitation of the groundwater, especially in the Palmyre oasis in Syria, are the main threats to this species.
164522		conservation	eng	In Lebanon, the species is classified as threatened in the National Red List.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
164522		distribution	eng	This species is native to the Old World Tropics. In the Mediterranean it is found in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, West Bank, Libya, and Egypt.
164522		habitat	eng	<em>P. geminatum</em> is a perennial graminoid that forms dominate carpets along creek and river banks. It is an indicator for relatively good freshwater quality and is sensitive to water pollution. It can also occur in irrigation ditches and along canals.
164522		population	eng	The species is common in North Africa; in Egypt it is common in the Nile region including delta, oases, Mediterranean coastal strip, and the desert east of the Nile. In Lebanon, the species is classified as threatened. It is also rare in the West Bank. In Israel, it is localized but dominant and relatively aggressive at the sites where it occurs.
164522		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is droughts.
164523		conservation	eng	The are not conservation measures in place or in need.
164523		conservation	eng	The are not conservation measures needed or in place.
164523		distribution	eng	<em>Carex extensa</em> is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Palestine, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164523		distribution	eng	<em>Carex extensa</em> is widespread in the Meditarranean basin. In Africa, it is present in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
164523		habitat	eng	Its habitats are salt marshes including inland, sandy coastal wetlands.
164523		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the region.
164523		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly by infrastructure development in coastal areas.
164524		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics.
164524		distribution	eng	<em>Phragmites mauritianus</em> is a plant of tropical Africa and Madagascar. Its northern biogeographical limit reaches Ethiopia, Sudan and Zaire. <br/>In the Mediterranean region the species is only found in Egypt (along the Nile valley), occurring in more than 10 sites and it has a large area of occupancy exceeding 1,000 km².
164524		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in rivers, lakes, dams and swamps. This plant needs to be partially submerged to be able to grow. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164524		population	eng	The species is found in more than 10 sites and populations are sometimes abundant. The trend of the populations is not known.
164524		threats	eng	The agriculture along the banks of the Nile is the main threat to this species.
164525		conservation	eng	In Israel, the species is classed as Endangered in the Red Data Book   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place. <br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, conservation of the species’ habitat and conservation of the species in gene banks.
164525		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.&#160;Proposed actions are to determine whether it is native in Greece, monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, conservation of the species’ habitat and conservation of the species in gene banks.
164525		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria lanigera</em> is a species of tropical regions. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Israel, Jordan and Egypt, with a doubtful presence in Karpathos and Crete. Its extent of occurrence covers about 300,000 km² and it has an area of occupancy under 500 km².
164525		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria lanigera</em> is a species of tropical regions, in Europe, it is doubtfully present in Karpathos and Crete.
164525		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found on the edges of the rivers and lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-September).
164525		population	eng	The species is threatened in the Mediterranean region, but its presence in Europe is uncertain.
164525		population	eng	The species is threatened in the Mediterranean region. It is found in seven locations and its area of occupancy is very restricted. The trend of the populations is not known. <br/>It is present in Egypt in four locations distributed between the Nile and the oases of the western Desert. In Israel and Jordan, it is in three regions (Acco Plain, near Kfar Masarik and on the banks of River Na'aman), with a recent decline of about half of the AOO in Israel. There it is currently present in 11 sites   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).
164525		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.
164526		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but some populations are included in the regional park of Corsica. It is furthermore proposed to conserve the habitat and carry out surveillance of the existing locations as well as to study the locations, populations, and taxonomy.
164526		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus requienii</em> is of Euro-Siberian origin and endemic to Corsica (Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). It was noted by Coste (1980) under <em>J. alpinus</em> as special to Corsica.<br/>The populations are limited to Corsica, occuring from Cintu to Bavedda (or Bavella), i.e. from the north to the south.<br/>The extent of occurrence is 8,748 km²; owing to its habitat, it has probably an area of occupancy smaller than 500 km².
164526		habitat	eng	<em>Juncus requienii</em> is a perennial Geophyte of 2-18 cm height. It occurs at mountain and alpine level where it is found in pozzines, banks of small streams and springs.<br/>Flowering in Corsica takes place from June to September.
164526		population	eng	The species has been described as common by Jeanmonod and Gamisans (2007).
164526		threats	eng	As a mountain species it may be particularly susceptible to climate change. At present there are no major threats to the species' habitat.
164527		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Implementation of existing legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Environmental Impact Assessments) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164527		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northwest of Morocco. Two subspecies are present in the country: <span style="font-style: italic;">N. africanum africanum</span> present in the Larach region, Lalla Mimouna, and Oued Fouarat, and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. africanum mesatlanticum</span> found in the Moyen Atlas and on the Central Plateau.<br/>The area of occupancy is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is around 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (based on river basins where the species is present). The number of locations is inferred to be fewer than five.
164527		habitat	eng	The species is found at the edges of streams and swamps, and in wet meadows on peat soils of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m altitude. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that blooms in spring and summer under the mild semi-arid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164527		population	eng	This is a very rare species that is only known from six localities. The population trend is not known but suspected to be declining as the species' habitat is facing several threats.
164527		threats	eng	This species' habitats are under a high grazing pressure, suffer from water pollution from small industrial plants (oil, tanneries), and are threatened by the filling-in of the edges of wetlands or drainage for agricultural development.
164528		conservation	eng	<em>R. hederaceus</em> is classed as Endangered in  Sweden and Germany, it is protected in the Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne, Bourgogne,  Picardie and Île-de-France regions of France. Otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
164528		conservation	eng	In France, the species is under regional protection in Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Alsace, Bourgogne, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Picardie.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites.
164528		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus hederaceus</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers the west of the Mediterranean basin and northwest Europe. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Croatia, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 30,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.
164528		distribution	eng	<em>R. hederaceus</em> occurs in western Europe, North Africa and the northeast coast of North America. In Europe, it is restricted to Sweden, Denmark,  Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain,  Portugal, and Croatia. It was apparently introduced to Norway.
164528		habitat	eng	<em>R. hederaceus </em>typically occurs in disturbed, often eutrophic conditions in flushes in heathland, gateways and tracks, as well as on the margins of rivers, streams and ponds.
164528		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (rooted Hydrophyte) that inhabits ditches, swamps, streams and springs. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164528		population	eng	<em>R. hederaceus</em> is classed as Endangered in Sweden and Germany but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its range.
164528		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, occurring in one location in northern Atlantic Morocco (springs between Kef-El-Baroud and El Krakech) and in one location in mid-Atlantic Morocco (12 km northeast of Ezzhiligua); <br/>- Algeria: fairly common in the Tell Atlas springs but very rare elsewhere, particularly in Numidie where it is present in only two locations; <br/>- Tunisia: quite common, with a widespread distribution in Kroumirie and present in the Mogods (Sejnane) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar); <br/>- Spain: very common, occurring in 165 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common in nearly all of the country but rare along the Mediterranean strip;<br/>- Croatia: classed as Data Deficient.
164528		threats	eng	Habitat drainage and water pollution are the main threats to this species.
164528		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
164529		conservation	eng	The species is protected in France where the subspecies rodiei is listed as Vulnerable on the national Red List (Olivier  &#160;<em><span lang="FR">et al.</em><span lang="FR"> 1995). Ex situ conservation measures are in place and experimental management of the habitat is being carried out. It is included in some protected areas and monitoring of some existing sites is done by the guard from the Natural Reserve of Tre padule and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica.<br/>In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">R. revelieri</span> is classified as Lower Risk (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).<br/><br/>It is suggested to monitor all the existing sites and to search for new populations and to raise awareness of the site managers.<em></em>
164529		distribution	eng	<em>Ranunculus revelierii </em>is endemic to France and Italy. In France, it grows in Maures and Estérel (Var) and in Corsica. This species is found in two regions of Corsica: Agriates and Bonifacio with a count of respectively five and eight populations. In Italy, according to Arrigoni (2007) it is found in several sites on the high parts of Sardinia.<br/>The AOO is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
164529		habitat	eng	The species is found in Mediterranean fully or partially summer-dry (temporary) ponds, pools and streams. It has been reported from the Corine biotop 22.341: short Mediterranean amphibious swards.
164529		population	eng	In France, it is abundant in the Plaine des Maures, localised in the Massif des Maures and Plaine de Palayson, and very localized in Colle de Rouet. <em>Ranunculus revelierii </em> is present in Corsica in 13 localities. The populations show to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no evidence of significant decline in France. In Sardinia, the species is found at 18 sites (S. Bagella pers.comm. 2010).<br/>Overall, the populations are suspected to be slightly declining but not at an alarming rate.
164529		threats	eng	The populations of the species are directly or indirectly threatened by activities such as drainage, filling in (vineyards) and infrastructure development such as motorways, railways, or construction of golf places.<br/>Those threats are not leading to significant declines at the moment.
164530		conservation	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">V.</em><span lang="EN-GB"> <em>anagalloides</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and Vulnerable in Austria. Otherwise, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</span></p>
164530		conservation	eng	There are no existing or recommended conservation actions.
164530		distribution	eng	<em>V. anagalloides</em> occurs from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far East and China. It occurs throughout Europe except for the north.
164530		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region where it is present in nearly all the countries.<br/>In North Africa, it occurs in Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco.
164530		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. anagalloides</span> occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from marshes and seasonally inundated grassland to the margins of lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, as well as temporary pools in arable fields.
164530		habitat	eng	The species is found in wet and marshy soil, irrigation canals and ditches.
164530		population	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">V.</em><span lang="EN-GB"> <em>anagalloides</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.</span></p>
164530		population	eng	This species is very common, except in Algeria (Senadjans) and in Tunsia.
164530		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
164530		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164531		conservation	eng	The site of Aguelmane Azigza is listed as Historic Monument by Vizier decree of the 28.03.1950, but this does not protect the habitat. It has been proposed in the APM project (Moroccan protected areas) as a site requiring an urgent protection for its importance for biodiversity. <br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- To support ecotourism in the mountains <br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrella aspera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">munbyana</span> (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164531		distribution	eng	<em>Sisymbrella aspera</em> subsp. <em>munbyana</em> is an endemic subspecies from Algeria and Morocco. It is rare in Morocco and has been found only in two localities: Aguelmane Azigza in the Moyen Atlas and Rhar Roubane in oriental Morocco with an occupied area not exceeding 100 km². In Algeria, it is known from the Aurès and the Mounts of Tlemcen; its area of occupancy in North Africa is about 700 km².
164531		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrella aspera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">munbyana </span>is found at the edges of lakes and streams. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the humid, sub-humid and cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164531		population	eng	The size and the dynamics of the populations are not known.
164531		threats	eng	Its habitat is exposed to a high grazing pressure and a strong impact from campers during the summer period (litter, intense trampling). Therefore, the number of locations is suspected to be less than 10.
164532		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164532		distribution	eng	<em>Nasturtium africanum</em> ssp. <em>mesatlanticum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is only known from two localities in the centre of the Moyen Atlas (Zaïane, Imouzzer) and one locality on the central Plateau (Oulmès). The extent of occurrence is about 2,000 km² and it occurs at no more than 10 locations. The area of occupancy is suspected to be much less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
164532		habitat	eng	It is found at streams and wet meadows on peat soils of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m altitude. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that blooms in spring and summer under the mild semi-arid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164532		population	eng	The populations are subject to a likely reduction because of the partial filling-in of some meadows of the Central Plateau.
164532		threats	eng	The habitats of this plant are submitted to high grazing pressure, but the main threat is the reduction of its habitat by in-filling of the edges of wetlands for agriculture.
164534		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (List of plants protected in Morocco) <br/>- Protection of the remains of its habitat and to reinforce the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing station and search for new sites <br/>- To study its the biology and the ecology and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Raising public awareness
164534		distribution	eng	<em>Puccinella distans</em> ssp. <em>embergeri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is very rare. The mouth of the Bou Regreg (Rabat) on the Atlantic coast is the only locality known for this taxon. Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are smaller than 1 km².
164534		habitat	eng	The biologic type of this plant varies from Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte. It prefers the humid places of the coastline, under a mild arid to semi-arid bioclimate. It flowers from the middle of spring to the beginning of fall.
164534		population	eng	The size of the population is not known, but it is in decline resulting from amenities in the valley of the Bou Regreg that is the unique site known for this endemic taxon.
164534		threats	eng	This plant is currently experiencing a decline in the quality and extent of its habitat due to planning projects affecting the coast of Bou Regreg and due to water pollution.
164535		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To limit the loss of habitats by implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Protection of the sites and establishment of management plans
164535		distribution	eng	<em>Reseda battandieri</em> ssp.<em> limicola</em> is an endemic of Morocco, where it is known in only four localities: Tiflète, Oulad Saïd, Souk Jemaâ oulad Abbou and the Haouz. Its extent of occurrence is about 11,000 km².
164535		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant that is found at the edges of temporary pools of flinty plains and in clayey and stony steppes. It blooms in winter, spring and summer under the semi-arid and arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164535		population	eng	The size and the dynamics of the populations are not known. The global trend is probably towards reduction resulting from the deterioration of some sites under the effect of agricultural intensification and urbanization in the regions of Haouz and Tiflète.
164535		threats	eng	Grazing and the development of agriculture and infrastructures (notably roads) are the main threats to this plant's habitat.
164538		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Legal protection of the plant in Algeria (Algerian list of protected species)<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures<br/>- Education and creation of awareness <br/>- Study its biology and ecology and estimate the population size <br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- Conservation in seed banks
164538		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Najas marina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arsenariensis</span> is strictly endemic to Algeria. It is extremely rare, occurring at only one site along the Oranais coast line (Lake Melah near Arzeu). It has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
164538		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that inhabits lakes and salt marshes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164538		population	eng	The populations are very small, isolated and fragmented. They are in slow decline due to the increase in anthropogenic pressure.
164538		threats	eng	Growing urbanization of the Oranais coast, water eutrophication, pollution due to the oil industry and the agricultural usage and drainage of its habitat are the main threats.
164539		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To estimate the maximum rates of harvest for sustainable use of the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology, and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising awareness among the public
164539		distribution	eng	<em>Mentha suaveolens</em> ssp. <em>timija</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and found in only four localities: Guelmim, Ouad Tata in the Anti Atlas, Ourika in the Haut Atlas and to the east of Agadir. The extent of occurrence is 18,000 km².
164539		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha suaveolens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">timija</span> is found along rivers in plains and mountains (low and middle). It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the semi-arid cold and sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164539		population	eng	The size and the dynamics of the populations are not known. However, the harvesting and the intensive use of the plant threaten the populations in the long term.
164539		threats	eng	The habitat of the plant is threatened by overgrazing and by the development of agriculture along rivers. It is also harvested for trade at a national and international level.
164540		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Search for the distribution of the subspecies in the Rif mountains (a number of localities) <br/>- Study of the biology and ecology and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics and the existing locations <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164540		distribution	eng	<em>Lactuca virosa</em> ssp. <em>cornigera</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco, where it is suspected to be rare. It is apparently common in the mountains of the western Rif. It has also been reported from three localities in the Middle Central Atlas (Outa mountain; forest of Jaâba; Ifrane), two localities in the Haut Atlas (Oukaimeden, Tichka) and one locality in Zaïane (El-Harcha).
164540		habitat	eng	<em>Lactuca virosa</em> ssp. <em>cornigera</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in cool forests, the verges of streams and humid pastures of forests in the chalky and flinty low and middle mountains, between 1,000 and 2,300 m of altitude. It blooms from spring to summer under the sub-humid or humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164540		population	eng	There is no data available neither on the size of the populations nor on their current trend, but the populations are presumed to be stable.
164540		threats	eng	Overgrazing and urbanization, as well as frequent droughts, are the main threats to this subspecies' habitat.
164541		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites in Morocco and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164541		distribution	eng	This species is a widely spread taxon with a circumboreal distribution. It is found in Europe, in Asia, in Alaska and in North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Portugal, and Morocco. <br/>In Morocco, it is restricted to the high mountains of the High Atlas and the Anti Atlas. This taxon is very rare in Morocco with four known localities, two in the High Central Atlas (Massif of the Oukeïmeden; Tachdirt to the Ourika) and two other in the Anti Atlas (Jbel Amezdour; Siroua). The extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean exceeds 500,000 km².
164541		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that develops in brooklets, prairies and peat-soil wetlands of high flinty mountains. It blooms and fructifies in spring under the cold semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164541		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known. However, the intensification of the medicinal use of the plant (root system) can affect the size of the populations notably in Morocco where the number of localities is very restricted.
164541		threats	eng	The pressure of grazing, high tourism pressure and deforestation of the neighbouring ecosystems for agriculture are the main threats to the habitat.
164542		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Reinforcement of the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing locations and search for new locations <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164542		distribution	eng	<em>Puccinella distans</em> ssp. <em>font-queri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and is only known from one locality in Larache (northern Gharb). Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are smaller than 2 km².
164542		habitat	eng	The biologic type of this plant varies from Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte. It prefers the humid places of the coastline, under the Mediterranean sub-humid bioclimate. It flowers from the middle of spring to the beginning of fall.
164542		population	eng	No data on the size of the population is available, but it seems to be in decline due to its isolation (only one locality) and the destruction of its habitat.
164542		threats	eng	The major threats to this plant's habitat are water pollution, tourist amenities and agriculture.
164543		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing site and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Legal protection of the existing site and establishment of a management plan <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Monitoring of the dynamics of the populations
164543		distribution	eng	<em>Spergularia media</em> ssp. <em>intermedia</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. Its distribution and therefore the occupied area are poorly known. It is currently known from only one site at the mouth of the Souss River.
164543		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring. It is found in temporarily flooded meadows in salty habitats at the mouth of the river.
164543		population	eng	No information on the size or the trend of the populations is available.
164543		threats	eng	<p>The pollution of water, as well as the intensive pumping of groundwater for irrigation in the Souss plain, threaten the habitat as this results in increased salinity that could lead to important changes in the vegetation.</p>
164544		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Spergularia media</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">occidentalis</span> (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the dynamics of the populations
164544		distribution	eng	<em>Spergularia media</em> ssp. <em>occidentalis</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco; its distribution is poorly known but it is considered to be very rare. It is known from only three sites: marshes of the Ghebar river, south of Bouznika and Ouarzazate. The extent of occurrence is about 2,400 km². The number of locations is supposed to be five to 10.
164544		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring. It is found in marshes and in wet salty depressions near river banks.
164544		population	eng	No information on the size or the trends of the populations is available, but they are presumed to be declining.
164544		threats	eng	All sites are under a high pressure of grazing. The site of the Ghabar river is exposed to water pollution. A future threat on the habitat would be the extension of the tourist resort north of Bouznika.
164545		conservation	eng	The site of Mgoun is a SIBE (Biological and Ecological Site of Interest) and has been identified as an Important Plant Area (IPA).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cardamine pratensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> atlantica</span> (list of protected species for Morocco) <br/>- To maintain the communal management of the habitat and grazing <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology and to evaluate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164545		distribution	eng	<em>Cardamine pratensis</em> ssp. <em>atlantica</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the Haut Atlas where it is known from two sites: Tizi-n-Inouzan (2,650 m elevation) and Mgoun. The occupied area is about 50 km². The number of locations is suspected to be less than five.
164545		habitat	eng	<em>Cardamine pratensis</em> ssp. <em>atlantica</em> is found in peatbogs (pozzines) and humid meadows in the high mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in summer under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164545		population	eng	No information on the&#160; population size of this subspecies is available. However the populations in the peat bogs seem stable because they benefit from a communal management of the ecosystems by the practice of "the pastoral Agdal" (according to which the law customary of the group fixes the dates of the beginning and the end of grazing generally coinciding with the end of the cycle of the majority of the plants). The observations at the sites date from 2005.
164545		threats	eng	Currently the threats to the habitat remain weak (light pollution of water). However, a change in the traditional grazing management could damage the quality of the habitat in the future.
164547		conservation	eng	There are no existing conservation measures. Research is needed to monitor the existing sites and the size and dynamics of the populations.
164547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco and Algeria. It is found in the west of the Rif (on the high summits of Gommara, between 1,400 and 2,000 m altitude) in Morocco and in the Grande and Petite Kabylie in Algeria, generally above 800 m. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² and it is present at more than 10 sites.
164547		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that can be found in humid prairies of high altitude, forests, on the edges of streams and on rocks. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.
164547		population	eng	The species is rare in Morocco (present in only six locations in the west of the Rif), but fairly common in Algeria. The trend of the populations is unknown.
164547		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164548		conservation	eng	Research on population numbers and range, as well as habitat maintenance and conservation are needed.
164548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to North Africa and is found in Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.<br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be less than 2,000 km² although it has not been quantified. The species is found at more than 10 locations and is not severely fragmented.
164548		habitat	eng	This species occurs in fresh and brackish waters.
164548		population	eng	It is very rare in Egypt. There is no information on the population trend available but it is suspected to be declining.
164548		threats	eng	The major threats are competiton by introduced plants and intrinsic factors such as low dispersal.
164549		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufonius</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mogadorensis</span> (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness
164549		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus bufonius</em> ssp. <em>mogadorensis</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and its distribution is restricted to the west of the country between Essaouira and Agadir. It is known from four localities: Essaouira, Massa river, Souk-El-Arbaa of the Sahel and between Tiznit and Sidi Ifni (9°57'W, 29°36'N). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 2,000 km². The area of occupancy is difficult to quantify because it varies from one year to another.
164549		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufonius</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mogadorensis</span> is found at the edge of temporary pools (dayas) and in wet meadows on sandy soils in the plain and low mountains. It is an annual species that blooms in the spring and early summer (April-July).
164549		population	eng	The size of the population is not known but a reduction is noted due to the destruction of the pools. High risks of decline are possible considering the existing projects of development of tourist amenities on the coastline and in the region of Essaouira (Plan Azur).
164549		threats	eng	The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufoniu</span>s ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mogadorensis</span> is being destroyed by the development of tourist amenities, road infrastructures and intensification of agriculture.
164551		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164551		distribution	eng	<em>Nasturtium africanum</em> ssp. <em>africanum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare, found at only three sites to the northwest of the country (Bou Charen near Larache, Lalla Mimouna and Fouarat River). The extent of occurrence of the is about 1,000 km² and it is found at no more than 10 locations.
164551		habitat	eng	It is found at the edges of swamps and rivers. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that blooms in spring and summer under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164551		population	eng	There is no data on the size of the populations but the trend is probably a decline because of the total or partial drainage of many swamps of the Gharb since 1975, including swamps inhabited by the plant.
164551		threats	eng	Besides the drainage of the swamps for agricultural development, the main threats are the deterioration of the quality of the habitat by high grazing pressure and by pollution of waters from small industrial plants (oil, tanneries) located upstream of the neighbouring rivers.
164552		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To prepare and to enforce management plans of the sites <br/>- To enhance the project of reforestation of the Rif mountains <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness
164552		distribution	eng	<em>Oenanthe pimpinelloides</em> ssp. <em>callosa</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is known from seven localities: one in the Moyen Atlas (Jbel Tazekka), four in the Rif (Haouta-El-Melaïb up to 1,350 m altitude, Beni Seidar, Jbel Zinat, Jbel Afestal, Beni Karrik), one on the Mediterranean coastline (near Al-Hoceima) and one near Larache. The extent of occurrence is about 12,000 km².
164552		habitat	eng	This plant is found at the edges of streams and in the swamps of plains and low flinty mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the mild semi-arid, sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.
164552		population	eng	The size and trends of the populations are not known but the populations are suspected to be declining.
164552		threats	eng	Apart from the generally high grazing pressure on all sites, the localities of the Rif are exposed to further threats bound to soil erosion in the mountains resulting from human activities (deforestation, agriculture) and from natural causes such as high rainfall.
164553		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size  <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco)
164553		distribution	eng	<em>Aquilegia vulgaris</em> L. ssp. <em>ballii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is suspected to be rare and its distribution is limited to the High Atlas where it is found in eight localities: Toubkal, Gorges of Lépiney, Ourika, Tachdirt, Arround, Seksaoua, Assaga, Ghat. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the range of 7,000 km² within which the occupied area doesn't exceed 600 km².
164553		habitat	eng	It is found generally as isolated individuals, along streams and on humid rocks in mountains between 1,800-3,000 m elevation. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in the spring. Its localities are influenced by Mediterranean semi-arid cold, sub-humid, humid and high mountain bioclimate.
164553		population	eng	The size of the populations is not known.
164553		threats	eng	The major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Aquilegia vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">balliis</span> is the deterioration of the quality of the habitat due to a high grazing pressure on the sites, tourism (trampling), agriculture next to the springs, pollution of soil and water, and accumulation of materials (rocks) at the time of the frequent heavy downpours in the mountains.
164562		conservation	eng	This species is found in a Harran archeological protected area.  However, this site is managed protected for the conservation of the historical site and tourism.  More research is needed to understand the biology of the species.
164562		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the ruins of the ancient city of Harran in Turkey, with a total known range of approximately 3.6 km² (Baran <em>et al</em>. 2005, Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006). The occurrence in adjoining poorly surveyed countries (northern Syria and northern Iraq) is possible, but needs to be confirmed (R. Sindaco in litt. October 2008). The species has been recorded at around 400 m asl.
164562		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky habitats including ruins, but not the surrounding intensive agriculture.  It lays eggs.
164562		population	eng	This species is rare within its very limited habitat. There are believed to be fewer than 1,000 mature individuals at the Harran locality.
164562		threats	eng	This species is threatened by tourism of the historic site, and possibly also by continuing excavation of ruins. It is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat within the only known locality (Lise 2006). This species cannot tolerate intensive agriculture which occurs in the areas surrounding the historic site.
164563		conservation	eng	Populations are known from Dirijan National Park and Sevan Lake National Park. There is a need to prevent overgrazing of the species habitat and to undertake regular population monitoring programmes.
164563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus, where it has been recorded from northern Armenia and western Azerbaijan. The distribution divided into several isolated subpopulations. One population, now extirpated, formerly existed on the north-eastern shore of the Lake Sevan in Armenia. It has been recorded from 600 to 1,700m asl.
164563		habitat	eng	Populations inhabit arid slopes with outcrops of sedimentary stratum and sparse xerophytic vegetation. It is parthenogenic species, females lay two to four eggs in a clutch at the end of June to the beginning of July. Incubation period lasts about 55 days. The young appear at the end of August to beginning of September.
164563		population	eng	The species is uncommon and declining.
164563		threats	eng	This narrowly distributed species is significantly threatened by habitat loss, resulting from overgrazing by goats.
164565		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas throughout its range.
164565		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Iran, southern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan, western Afghanistan and southwestern Pakistan. Within Iran, this species has been recorded from Khuzistan Province, Central Province, Kerman Province, Sistan va Baluchistan Province and Mazandaran Province (Latifi 1991). In Pakistan it is present in northern Baluchistan (Minton 1966). The species occurs up to 2,400 m above sea level (Minton 1966).
164565		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species, which has been collected in gravel desert with considerable scrubby vegetation (Minton 1966). It is also present in takyr (clay) desert (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September, 2008). It is an egg laying species.
164565		population	eng	This species appears to be relatively common in Turkmenistan, otherwise there is no population information.
164565		threats	eng	In parts of its Middle Asian range, the species is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural expansion resulting from the irrigation of its habitat (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September, 2008).
164567		conservation	eng	This species is found in the protected area of the Azraq Wetland, Jordan. In Iran it has been recorded from Karkeh National Park (Anderson 1999) and the Kavir Protected Region (Nilson and Andren 1981).
164567		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central and eastern Jordan and southern Syria, through northern Saudi Arabia, southern Iraq, Kuwait and southern and central Iran as far south as Shiraz (Rastegar-Pouyani 2000). The species occurs from close to sea level to around 1,000 m asl.
164567		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species is associated with low shrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nitraria</span>) on the fringe of sandy dunes in arid areas and in sandy desert areas. It can be found perching on bushes. It is not found in modified areas.
164567		population	eng	It can be moderately common in suitable habitat.
164567		threats	eng	In Jordan this species is threatened by loss of habitat through overgrazing by camels, and trampling by these animals of the 'green mantle' soil crust of the desert. But overall there are no major threats to the species.
164568		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Khabr National Park (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008). More research is needed to determine the full range of this little-known species, as well as research into possible threats.
164568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Zagros Mountains of Iran (Anderson, 1999). It may be present in northern Iraq (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This poorly known species is known only from a few scattered records over this wide range. It is found from the foothills to 1,500 m asl.
164568		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from both rolling foothills with a sparse vegetation of grasses, thorny shrubs, euphorbias and scattered pistachios and oaks (<em>T. h. helenae</em>); and from cooler and wetter open oak forest with willows and poplars (<em>T. h. fasciatus</em>) (Anderson 1999). Animals have been captured under flat stones close to, or within stream beds, and have been taken from cracks in loess brick walls (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999).
164568		population	eng	It is an infrequently seen small species.
164568		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not currently known.
164569		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Khabr and Rochon National Park and is possibly present in additional protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat preferences and distribution of this species is required.
164569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iran, where it has been collected from Kerman, 340 km northwest of Kerman, and from Fars Province (Anderson 1999). It may be broadly distributed over the Central Plateau (Anderson 1999).
164569		habitat	eng	Anderson (1999), reports that specimens were collected by Cerny under stones, in a "brushed wadi", on the shore of a small stream near a village and on a mountain ridge (Moravec and Cerny 1994). This is generally a terrestrial species, most often collected from under stones (S. Shafiei Bafti and T. Papenfuss pers. comms. September 2008). It has been recorded from pistachio open woodland and scrubland at low elevations (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008).
164569		population	eng	It is a common species (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008).
164569		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.
164570		conservation	eng	It has been recorded in protected areas in Lebanon. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed, and there is a need to conserve areas of suitable habitat in Jordan. It is found in Hatay iskenderun Arsuz wildlife management zone and several other protected areas in Turkey.
164570		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Turkey (Vilayets Hatay, Adana and Içel), western Syria, throughout Lebanon (where widespread, including on Palm Island), northern Israel and northwestern Jordan. It is found up to 1,800 m asl (in Lebanon).
164570		habitat	eng	This reasonably adaptable species is found in rocky forested areas, in meadows, in gardens, on walls of houses and in orchards. It is an egg-laying species.
164570		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat.
164570		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by habitat loss in the southern parts of its range.
164572		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164572		distribution	eng	This little-known species is known only from the type locality of '57 km W Schiras (= 8 km E Dashtarjan, an der alten Straße nach Schiras), ca. 2100 m ü. D' in Iran (Eiselt 1971).
164572		habitat	eng	It was collected from a dry stream bed, in the vicinity of a small limestone hill, with surrounding degraded shrubland (Eiselt 1971).
164572		population	eng	It is known only from the holotype.
164572		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
164573		conservation	eng	This species does not appear to be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
164573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known only from the type locality (11 miles west of Iranshahr) within the enclosed internal drainage basin of the Jaz Murian Depression of southern Baluchistan (Anderson, 1999). It is likely to be reasonably widespread within the Depression (Theodore Papenfuss and Soheila Shafti pers. comm., September 2008). It has been collected at around 500 asl.
164573		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species lives in loose, low sand dunes with scattered shrub vegetation (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008). It is probably a live bearing species.
164573		population	eng	Although it is only known from the type series, this species appears to be relatively common based on high numbers of tracks in the sand (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).
164573		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species or its habitat.
164574		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, which may provide small safeguards. Further research into the population numbers, threats, trends and habitat status of this species is needed.
164574		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from Afghanistan, Pakistan (Balochistan region) and eastern Iran.
164574		habitat	eng	In Iran, this species has been recorded as being active at night on low sand dunes, with an animal reported from an area with both shifting and consolidated sands (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).<br/><br/>This fossorial species inhabits wind-blown dunes where it lives close to roots of bushes and other vegetation (Khan 2002). It is nocturnal, feeding on small lizards and arthropods; the prey is constricted (Khan 2006). It is oviparous, with clutch sizes of two to four eggs (Khan 2002).
164574		population	eng	This species is known only from a few records in Iran, however, there have been few surveys within the species' Iranian range. There is no information available on the population elsewhere in its range.
164574		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species. There appear to be no significant threats to this species in Iran; the area of distribution in this country contains very few people (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164575		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas in Turkey.
164575		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Turkey (eastern and southeastern Anatolia, occurring as far west as Adana), to northern Syria, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran. It is found from 300 to 2,300m asl.
164575		habitat	eng	It is found in stony, rocky or pebbly areas and outcrops with sparse vegetation and rock mounds. It is occasionally seen in wooded areas. The females lay between three and seven eggs. It is not known from modified habitats.
164575		population	eng	It is a common species in Turkey (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
164575		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.
164576		conservation	eng	This species is found within the Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve and the Sochi State Natural National Park. There is a need to conserve suitable remaining areas of forest habitat for this species.
164576		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from Georgia, southern Russia, northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Ardahan, Artvin, Trabzon and Rize) and just into western Azerbaijan (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It is found up to 1,700m asl.
164576		habitat	eng	This species is typically associated with damp areas in forested montane habitats; animals are occasionally recorded from rocks or walls. The subspecies <em>D. d. silvatica</em> populates mesophilous flood plains, beech and fir tree forests usually from 600m up to 1,300m, and occasionally up to 1,600m asl. <em>D. d. boehmei</em> inhabits forests and subalpine meadows from sea level (in Ajaria) to 1,800m asl (Trialetsky ridge). It is absent from sea shore xerophilous habitats. The female lays a clutch of between four and eight eggs (Baran and Atatur 1998).
164576		population	eng	It is a locally common species in good habitat.
164576		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat loss through deforestation is considered to be a major threat to this species. The montane habitats of this species are believed to be increasingly threatened by climate change.
164577		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Hyrcan Reserve in Azerbaijan, and is possibly present within protected areas of Iran. There is a need to regulate collection of this species. In general, this appears to be a poorly-known snake and additional studies are needed into the species natural history, distribution and threats.
164577		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Caspian area of southeastern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. Within Iran, it is found along the Eburz mountains from lowland areas to mountain forests, with observations from several places in Gilan and Mazanderan provinces, and photographic records from south of the mountains (in Ghom [Qom] province) (Göran Nilson pers. comm. November 2008) (map provisional). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,700m asl.
164577		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of Hyrcanian vegetation, including montane temperate forests. Animals can be found among ruins. The female lays clutches of between four and nine eggs.
164577		population	eng	This is a common species in the appropriate habitat.
164577		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. It is collected for the pet trade in parts of its range, and is locally threatened by the conversion of land to agricultural use, logging, and general urbanisation.
164578		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas (including Sevan Lake National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species, with monitoring of populations also required.
164578		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Caucasus, where it occurs in Armenia, northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Erzurum, Ardahan and Agri) and southern Georgia (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It ranges to 2,000m asl.
164578		habitat	eng	This species is present in rocky and stony areas, and high steppe habitat. The females lay clutches of about five (two to seven) eggs (Baran and Atatur 1998).
164578		population	eng	It is found at low densities compared to sympatric species.
164578		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing of habitat by domestic livestock (sheep and cattle).
164579		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas across its extensive range and it is protected in a number of countries by national legislation because it is currently listed on Appendix I of CITES. Further research into the harvest levels, threats, trends and habitat status of this species is needed. The establishment and management of new protected areas where it is illegal to hunt this species should be carried out to provide a refuge from persecution.
164579		distribution	eng	This wide ranging Varanid is found from southeastern Iran, through south central Asia (ranging from Afghanistan in the north as far south as Sri Lanka) and eastwards throughout Southeast Asia, as far as Java and the Anambas Islands in Indonesia. However, in the last century, this species has been exterminated from parts of Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh. Although there are some old specimens purportedly from Sumatra, no recent records seem to exist (e.g. Auffenberg 1994). This species has an upper limit of 1,500 m above sea level.
164579		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, from desert areas to floodplains, scrubland to forests, at moderate elevations (Auffenberg 1994, Pianka 2004). It can also inhabit agricultural areas (Auffenberg 1994).
164579		population	eng	In some agricultural areas, this species has been found to be common (Auffenberg 1989). Density estimates varied greatly between different habitats in northern India and Pakistan, from an average of two individuals per km² recorded on the edge of a seasonally flooded evaporation basin in Rajasthan to just under 40 individuals on average per km²<sup></sup> in marsh habitat in Pakistan (Auffenberg 1994). Various techniques were used to derive these estimates, so that the numbers are not directly comparable (Auffenberg 1994). Densities were also found to be relatively high in agricultural habitats, from around 14 to 30 individuals per km² (Auffenberg 1994). In the more arid parts of its range it probably occurs at reasonably low densities. Although present on Java, the species is reportedly very scarce and localized (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
164579		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by habitat destruction, however, as it can utilize a wide range of habitat types this is not considered a major threat at this time. This species is indirectly affected by pesticides which reduce the food resource availability in agricultural areas. However, perhaps the greatest threat to this species is hunting as it is hunted commercially for its skin, and its meat is commonly eaten. The fat of this species is also used in traditional medicine. In Iran, it is killed by people who mistakenly consider it to be dangerous; it is not hunted for food or skins in that country.
164581		conservation	eng	This species has been listed in the Red Data Book of the USSR (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). It is currently listed in the Red List of Turkmenistan. It is present in the Central Kopet Dagh protected area and the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve of Turkmenistan.
164581		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the western and central Kopet Dagh Mountains in southern Turkmenistan and possibly adjacent Iran, where it appears to be known from a single record (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It is found up to 1,000m asl.
164581		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and stony foothills and slopes, covered with dry scrub and herbs (e.g.. <em>Artemisia</em>) and sometimes trees (Anderson, 1999). Animals prefer northern and northwestern slopes, and are often found close to areas with small mammal burrows (e.g.. <em>Ochotona</em>) (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). The female usually lays clutches of two eggs.
164581		population	eng	It has been rarely found in Turkmenistan (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996), with less than 30 specimens known (Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008).
164581		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species as a whole. In parts of its range there is some localized overgrazing by domestic livestock.
164583		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas. Urgent actions are needed to conserve any remaining areas of habitat for this species.
164583		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Armenian Plateau of Armenia, Azerbaijan (including the disputed territory of Nakhichevan), northwestern Iran and Turkey (vicinity of Igdir in eastern Anatolia) (Baran and Atatür, 1998; Anderson, 1999). The distribution is highly restricted to areas of suitable sandy semi-desert habitat over a very wide area, and therefore occupies a small fraction of its estimated extent of occurrence. In Turkey it occurs between 500 and 1,700m asl.
164583		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with sandy semi-desert enclaves. In Iran, it has been recorded from semi desert sandy or stony soils of Artemisia steppes (Anderson, 1999). In Turkey, it is found in semi-desert sandy and partly rocky areas (Baran and Atatur, 1998). Animals generally hide under stones when disturbed. The female lays between two and four eggs, laying two clutches each season.
164583		population	eng	It is found at low densities.
164583		threats	eng	This species has almost no remaining suitable habitat remaining within its range (sandy areas) due to human disturbance of its restricted distribution. Threats include salinification and the placement of trash dumps on suitable habitat.
164586		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
164586		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from Iran, where it has been collected at the type locality of Nosratabad, 90 km west of Zahedan in Sistan-Baluchistan Province, and from 100 km north-northwest from Iranshehr, near Bazman (Nazarov and Rajabizadeh 2007). It is probable that the species occurs throughout the whole of southeastern Iran and in parts of adjacent Pakistan, although this needs to be confirmed (Nazarov and Rajabizadeh 2007).
164586		habitat	eng	Animals have typically been recorded from very dry low clay hills, with the sparse shrub vegetation typical of southern Iran (Nazarov and Rajabizadeh 2007). The habitat in the area of Bazman is a small, more humid intermontane valley, with a coarse alluvium substrate, and rather dense shrub vegetation.
164586		population	eng	It appears to be a common species.
164586		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. The range is within a lightly populated, rocky and dry area that is generally unsuitable for agriculture.
164587		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from numerous protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
164587		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Caucasus in southern Russia and northern Azerbaijan. It occurs in the montane Dagestan, southern Chechnya, Ingushetia and south-east of north Ossetia, from the lower part of the Dar'yal ravine in the west up to Gimrinsky range in the east. The northern border of the distribution area passes through the foothills of the Skalisty range and the upper tributaries of Sunja River. It can be found close to the city of Makhachkala. Populations occur between 1000 and 2000m asl.
164587		habitat	eng	This species inhabits relatively arid montane slopes and river valleys. Animals are generally associated with rocky outcrops and boulder piles within forest and mountain steppe habitats. The females lay clutches of four or five eggs.
164587		population	eng	Populations of this species are stable and it is generally abundant.
164587		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164589		conservation	eng	Large populations are present in the Repetek (Turkmenistan) and Tigrovaya Balka (Tajikistan) protected areas. Due to the absence of confirmation of records for this species in the European part of its range after 1935, it was included into the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001) as an extinct species (category 0).
164589		distribution	eng	This species is found east of the Caspian Sea, from Kazakhstan to Khorasan and Sistan in northeastern Iran and as far east as northwestern China. There are no records of it from Afghanistan, possibly because of under-surveying within its range. This species was declared extinct in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001) due to the lack of confirmation of the species existence after 1935 (border of Chechnya and Kalmykia). It occurs up to 2,000 m asl in parts of its range (Naryn Depression, Kyrgyzstan) and has a lower elevational limit of 45 m below sea level.
164589		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in flat sand or clayey desert and semi-desert where it is associated with available shrubs and trees (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). It can also be found in loess foothills, it is common on cliffs in river and ravine plains, under rocks and on inhabited and abandoned buildings (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). <br/><br/>The species hibernates from early November to March-April, The female lays clutches of one or two eggs, and may lay two clutches in a season. The hatchlings emerge at the beginning of August. Collective clutches are known.
164589		population	eng	This species can be locally common. It is common in Central Asia, but rare in Kazakhstan and Russia. It is extinct in the Kalmykia region of Russia.
164589		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. This species may be locally threatened in places by the conversion of virgin or long-fallow land to agricultural use (which is possibly the reason for its disappearance in parts of its range), and when repairs are made to old buildings and fences.
164591		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
164591		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the coastal plain of Fars Province, southern Iran (Anderson 1999). It has been collected at 100 m asl. It is possible that the only known records represent outlying populations of a main distribution in the rocky areas of the nearby Zagros Mountains (S. Anderson pers. comm. September 2008).
164591		habitat	eng	It has been collected at a mud brick building at the margin of the coastal plain (Anderson 1999). Little additional information is available on this poorly-known species.
164591		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series and a single additional specimen.
164591		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The area of collection has been under the same system of seasonal agriculture (wheat fields) for many hundreds of years.
164592		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is likely that it occurs in several of the protected areas of Iran. Research into the harvest levels should be carried out to ensure it does not cause significant declines in this species.
164592		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on the Central Plateau of Iran and adjacent areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan (as far east as Sind and Waziristan) (Minton 1966, Anderson, 1999). It is found from around 30 to 1,900 m above sea level.
164592		habitat	eng	This is a largely nocturnal species found in a wide range of dry habitats, including plains, hillsides, cliffs, rocky terraces and slopes, gravelly creek beds, and silty, gravelly and sandy soil. The vegetation cover is largely open steppe scrubland (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999).
164592		population	eng	This is a very common species.
164592		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. This species is used in the commercial pet trade, but there is no information to suggest this is causing a significant decline in population abundance.
164595		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas within its range, these include the Samursky zakaznik (reservation) in Daghestan (Russia). Within the Turkmenistan, as a species with a limited distribution it was formerly included in the national Red Data Book (1985); presently  it is not included into the lists of protected species (Red Data Book of Turkmenistan, 1999). In Transcaucasia, this species is protected in several state reserves such as Khosrov, Shikahoh (Armenia), Vashlovani (Georgia), Kyzyl-Agach, Shirvan and Tyrianchay (Azerbaijan). There is a need for additional research into the range of this species in Syria and Jordan.
164595		distribution	eng	This species ranges from west-central Turkey, Syria and Jordan, into the Caucasus region of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia, eastwards to northern Iran, and south-western Turkmenistan. It is currently known only from one area in northwestern Syria and one in northwestern Jordan but it most likely occurs in suitable habitat in between these places. It has a fragmented range in the lowlands and foothills of the Caucasus. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl (in Armenia and Turkmenistan).
164595		habitat	eng	Populations of this snake are found along rocky, stony and bushy river banks, in deserts, semi-deserts, on rocky outcrops, on hillsides, in montane steppe, in cultivated fields, gardens, vineyards and other rural areas. Animals are often close to large rodent colonies on which they prey.  It can be found close to human habitation and can tolerate human disturbance. The female lays between seven and 11 eggs.
164595		population	eng	It can be a very common species in the southern part of its range, but it is uncommon in the Caucasus.
164595		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species. As with many snakes, this species is subject to general human persecution. Animals are collected for the pet trade, but it is not considered to be a major threat.
164597		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas in Iran. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species. More research is needed into the threats to this species and its habitat status.
164597		distribution	eng	This species is present over much of the Iranian Plateau, through Afghanistan south of the Kabul River Valley, and in the region of Waziristan and Baluchistan, Pakistan (Anderson 1999).
164597		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky mountainous areas, presumably with some shrubby cover. It does well in cultivated areas with plots divided by stone walls. It can be found close to villages, and is common on stone walls (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). It is an egg-laying species.
164597		population	eng	This is a very common species (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164597		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species as a whole (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008), although there is some localized habitat loss due to agricultural expansion.
164601		conservation	eng	As the species has a limited distribution in Turkmenistan, it has been listed in the USSR and Turkmen SSR Red Data Books (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). It is present in the Kopet Dagh protected area and Badkhyz Nature Reserve.
164601		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kopet Dagh mountain range, western Badkhyz and Balkhan of northeastern Iran and southern Turkmenistan (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999; Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). It is found at elevations of around 500 to 1,500m asl.
164601		habitat	eng	It is a mostly nocturnal species that has been recorded from rocky areas and clay slopes with sparse, shrubby vegetation (sagebrush and fescues) (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It is usually found on northern exposed slopes (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). Animals hide in rock crevices and underneath stones. The female lays clutches of one or two eggs.
164601		population	eng	This appears to be a rare species.
164601		threats	eng	There is some habitat loss within its range, through overgrazing of vegetation by domestic livestock.
164602		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas in Israel and Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Turkey, there is one protected area within its range, Gaziantep Tahtaköprü Baraj Gölü Wildlife Management Zone.
164602		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern Mediterranean region of southern Turkey, through western Syria and Lebanon, to northern and central Israel and western and northwestern Jordan. It might be present in northern Iraq, but records need to be confirmed. It ranges from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
164602		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks in bushy areas. The female lays between three and five eggs in a clutch. It can be found in agricultural areas such as vineyards and possibly orchards.
164602		population	eng	In general, this is an uncommon species. However, there are only a few specimens from Lebanon.
164602		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species over most of its range. In Jordan it is threatened by habitat loss due to urbanization.
164603		conservation	eng	It has been recorded close to the Dinar Kuh Protected Area in Iran (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008).
164603		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Iran and Iraq. Within Iran, it has been recorded from Central Province, Esfahan Province, Khuzistan Province, Kordestan Province, Hamadan Province and Elam Province (Latifi, 1991; Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164603		habitat	eng	It is associated with rocky places, scrubland and montane areas (Latifi, 1991), and rocky steppe habitat (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). It is an oviparous species.
164603		population	eng	It appears to be relatively common for a snake in Iran (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164603		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
164604		conservation	eng	Populations are present in a number of protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species.
164604		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Syria, eastern Lebanon, northern and western Jordan and west and central Iraq. It is not present in Israel.
164604		habitat	eng	This species is found in Mediterranean-type shrubland in the Iran-Turano biotope. It can be found under, and amongst, rocks in dry habitats with scattered vegetation. It has been recorded from modified habitats such as olive groves, orchards and rural gardens.
164604		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
164604		threats	eng	There are no major threats as a whole for this species. As for many snake species, there is some localized persecution.
164606		conservation	eng	It appears to be present in the Golestan National Park, although this requires confirmation (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
164606		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Gole-Loweh near Minou-dasht, at the edge of the subtropical moist forest at the edge of the Kopet Dag in northeastern Iran (Anderson, 1999). It might be more widely distributed in suitable habitat, although further surveys are needed to confirm this.
164606		habitat	eng	The species is believed to inhabit well-vegetated, rocky area ecotone adjacent to virgin subtropical moist forest (Anderson, 1999). The habitat requirements of this species are still poorly known.
164606		population	eng	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.
164606		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear, although any populations existing outside of protected areas might be impacted by degradation of the associated forests.
164607		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable habitat for this species.
164607		distribution	eng	This species is present in central and south-eastern Armenia, south-eastern and south-western Azerbaijan, Turkey (Vilayet Van), northern and western Iran (and the Zagros Mountains) and southern Turkmenistan (Kopet Dagh only) (Baran and Atatur, 1998; Anderson, 1999). It is known from between 2,000 (Turkey) and 3,600m (Iran) asl.
164607		habitat	eng	It is found in areas with loose rocky slopes, steppe grassland and open thorny shrubland (Baran and Atatur, 1998; Anderson, 1999). Animals hide amongst shrubs when disturbed. Populations can be found in flat area of semi-desert with sparse vegetation. In Transcaucasia it is associated with Astragalus vegetation. Females lay clutches of four to five eggs.
164607		population	eng	This species is found at very low densities in fragmented populations. In Transcaucasia it is found as relatively stable, low density, populations.
164607		threats	eng	This species is a habitat specialist that is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural conversion, grazing and expanding human populations.
164608		conservation	eng	The species has not been confirmed from protected areas within Iran. There are no records from protected areas in Turkey. This species is generally poorly known, with more research needed into its natural history, distribution and threats.
164608		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from northeastern Syria, northern Iraq, west-central Iran (western foothills of the Zagros Mountains and the upper Tigris-Euphrates drainage), and from two localities in Turkey, in the valley of the Euphrates in south-eastern Anatolia. The distribution may be more continuous than currently known.  It occurs from around 300 to 1,000m asl in Iran; and has been found at 500m asl in Turkey.
164608		habitat	eng	It is a nocturnal ground dwelling species of semi-desert areas, gypsum, stony hills, and ruins. Animals have been observed on surfaced roads (Anderson, 1999). This species feeds on invertebrates and small lizards. It is active for a short time in the Spring and secretive the rest of the year (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008). It is an egg laying species, which probably lays several clutches of two eggs each year.
164608		population	eng	The species may be locally abundant (Anderson, 1999), but patchily distributed (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008). In Turkey, it is known from two specimens from two distinct localities (Telctek mountains and Birecik from the city of Urfa) and is considered to be very rare.
164608		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. It has been recorded from the international pet trade, and additional studies are needed to determine if this trade poses a significant threat to wild populations.
164609		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.
164609		distribution	eng	There are records of this species from south and southeastern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel and northwestern Jordan, and eastwards into northern Iraq and Iran.  The range in Syria is poorly known. It occurs from about 500 up to around 2,000 m asl.
164609		habitat	eng	This species is found in sparsely vegetated rocky areas of pine and oak forest. It can also be found in orchards and rural gardens.
164609		population	eng	This is a common species.
164609		threats	eng	While in some areas of its range, including Jordan, this species may be threatened by the deforestation of its habitat, overall there are no major threats to this species.
164613		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and possible threats to this little-known species.
164613		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens collected in the western Zagros foothills of Iraq and Iran. The type specimen was collected in Iraq at 'Pirman Hotel, Salahedin, Salahedin Nahiya, Erbil Liwa'; the Iranian specimen was collected about 400km southeast of the type locality (Anderson, 1999) at around 1,500m asl.
164613		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly-known. The type specimen was collected at a hotel and may have been brought in with firewood; the Iranian specimen comes from an area of semihumid Zagrosian oak forest (Anderson 1999).
164613		population	eng	Known only from two specimens.
164613		threats	eng	Much of the semihumid Zagrosian oak forest in Iran has been deforested (Anderson, 1999), however the impacts of this on the species remain unclear.
164616		conservation	eng	This species in found in Bendimahi Delta Wetland Protected Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population dynamics, natural history and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of additional protected areas.
164616		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Turkey, where it has been recorded from the northeastern part of Vilayet Van and the southeastern region of Vilayet Ağr in eastern Anatolia (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It has been recorded at three localities in Van, Bendimahi Waterfall, 9 km northeast of Muradiye (type locality) (Schmidtler <em>et al</em>. 1994); Uzunyol, approximately 60 km northeast of Muradiye (Schmidtler <em>et al</em>. 1994); and 11 km northeast of  Çaldıran (Y. Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008). It is currently only known Doğubeyazit in Ağrı (Schmidtler <em>et al</em>. 1994). It has recently been recorded as still present at the Bendimahi Waterfall and 11 km northeast of  Çaldıran (2004) (Y. Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008). It ranges between 1,800 and 2,300m asl.
164616		habitat	eng	It is found in stony or rocky grassland, usually close to water. This is a parthenogenic species; two eggs are laid in a clutch (Baran and Atatür, 1998).
164616		population	eng	This species is rare (Kumlutas, pers. comm. 2008).
164616		threats	eng	Because it has specific habitat requirements and a small range, habitat loss from tourism and water extraction represent major threats. The planned Muradiye (Ayrancılar) Hydroelectric Santral dam project, threatens the range of this species (Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006).. There is also significant overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock in parts of the species range (Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006).
164617		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164617		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northern Caucasus of southern Russia north of the Georgia border. The species is largely distributed on the northern slopes of the Rocky mountain range, within the Karachaevo-Cherkesskaya Autonomous Region, south of Stavropol Territory and Kabardino-Balkaria, from here it is found in the valley of the upper Kuban' River and its tributaries in the west to the ravines of the middle section of the Chegem River in the east. The most northern population (which as considered as extinct) was present in the southern foothills of the Stavropol Upland, in the Alexandrovsky region of Stavropol Territory. The southernmost part of the distribution passes along the northeastern spurs of Mount Elbrus, in the ravine of the Kuban River, and, crossing the Rocky range (known from the Mariinsky pass), continues further in this watershed into the upper reaches of  several rivers, notably the Kuma, Podkumok, Alikanovka, Beryozovaya and Zolka. Along the Baksan River it reaches Tyrny-Auza town, and along Chegem River it reaches the Chegem waterfalls.
164617		habitat	eng	It prefers arid rocky areas in montane and foothills. The females lay two to five eggs in a clutch at the end of June - beginning of July. The incubation period is 55 to 60 days.
164617		population	eng	This species is common and populations are stable.
164617		threats	eng	There are not considered to be any major threats to this species.
164618		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164618		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from the northwestern part of the Central Plateau, Iran. There is a record for Djebel Amri, northeastern Syria, however this requires verification (Anderson, 1999). The species might be more widely distributed than is currently known, but additional surveys are needed to investigate this. It is found at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000m asl.
164618		habitat	eng	This is a little-known species. Animals have been collected under earth and moving among short bushes, at the edge of a cultivated alluvial plain (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded at night on the fairly arid steppe plain of the Plateau (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164618		population	eng	It is known only from a very few specimens.
164618		threats	eng	The threats to this poorly known species are not known. It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. There is some agriculture within the area, but it is not known if the species is impacted by this.
164619		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and any possible threats to this little-known species.
164619		distribution	eng	This recently described species has been recorded from the type locality, '30 km southwest of the Yasug, Kohgi-luye-va-Boyerahmad Province, western Zagros Mountains of Iran. It is likely to occur on several hillsides within the Zagros Mountains. It has been recorded at 2,200m asl.
164619		habitat	eng	This species is associated with large white rocks in open oak forest (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). The habitat is not generally restricted, but much of its potential range has yet to be surveyed (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164619		population	eng	It is a very difficult species to catch, with only four specimens collected, but more seen at the type locality (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164619		threats	eng	Although the species is little known, there appear to be no major threats to the rocky areas of habitat in which the species lives.
164621		conservation	eng	Although it has yet to be collected from a protected area, there are protected areas within the species possible range. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164621		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwest Iran, where it is known only from the type locality of '35 km E Gach Saran [30º20'N, 50º48'E], Fars Province' and more recently from Shiraz, Fars Province (Anderson 1999). It is found in the foothill zone of 200 to 500 m asl (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The map shows the approximate area where this species might be present, although the range is still very poorly known.
164621		habitat	eng	It is a little-known species. Animals have been collected under small, flat stones adjacent to a dry watercourse in an area with sparse vegetation and a few oak trees (Anderson 1999; S. Anderson pers. comm. September 2008).
164621		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens.
164621		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. It is possible that there are no major threats to the species at present, largely as there is little collection of firewood or timber from the oak forest now.
164622		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas in Turkey. Because of declines in its small range in Armenia, it was included into the Red Data Books of USSR (1984) - category 3 and Armenia (1987) - narrow-ranged rare species.
164622		distribution	eng	This species is known from Armenia (in the valley of Razdan River), various parts of central, southern and southeastern Turkey (where its range is fragmented) and possibly northern coastal Syria. Records from Syria are likely from a different species, <em>A. rueppellii</em> (P. Lymberakis pers. comm. 2008). Its range is poorly known. It occurs from 500 to 2,200m asl.
164622		habitat	eng	This species lives amongst small stones in open areas with some bushes, in sparsely wooded areas, in open coniferous forest and in grassland. It occurs in the mountain-xerophytic steppe on gentle slope (in Armenia). Animals are generally found hiding under ground cover, stones, and leaves.  It is not known to live in modified habitats.  It appears after hibernation in the end of March. This species leaves in the deep shelter in the hot months (July and August) and starts to appear in September. The female lays about four eggs in June.
164622		population	eng	It is generally a common species.
164622		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In Armenia, it is locally declining because of general human settlement activity.
164625		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164625		distribution	eng	It is only known with certainty from the type locality of 'Aptan, near Bampur' in the Jaz Murian depression in Baluchistan, Iran and it may be endemic to this distinct area. Within Iran there are records of this species from Fars Province and additional records from Baluchistan, however confirmation of the identity of these records is needed (Anderson, 1999).
164625		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected from an open sandy plain with scattered vegetation (Anderson, 1999).
164625		population	eng	This species is known only with certainty from the holotype.
164625		threats	eng	Although the species is poorly known, it has been recorded from an extremely arid area with no plausible major threats (such as agricultural encroachment).
164627		conservation	eng	It is not present in protected areas in Jordan or Lebanon.
164627		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern Lebanon, central and western Syria and western Jordan. The eastern extent of this species range is unclear, the current map may include some populations of <em>A. orientalis</em> (R. Sindaco pers. comm.). Records from Iraq appear to pertain to <em>A. orientalis</em> (Sindaco and Jeremčenko 2008).
164627		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fairly hard substrates, in the mesic-steppe, with sparse vegetation, in semi-desert regions. It is generally confined to mesic-steppe type habitats. In Jordan it can occur in some types of lightly-modified agricultural area. It is an egg-laying species.
164627		population	eng	It is common in Jordan. The species has not been recorded in Lebanon for a few decades.
164627		threats	eng	In Jordan this species is threatened by trampling of the soil crust habitat by grazing animals.
164628		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas in Turkey and Iran. It is protected on the territory Khosrov and Erebuni reserves in Armenia and in the Shakhbuzsky reserve (Azerbaijan). As with other species in the genus, it has rarely been studied and there is a need for more basic ecological research.
164628		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, eastern and southeastern Turkey, western Iran and possibly northeastern Iraq. In Turkey, it is known from 700 to 2,000m asl.
164628		habitat	eng	It occurs in Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, as well as in grassy regions at higher elevations. These open areas have mainly been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices. This species is secretive spending most its time under rocks, and is usually associated with rocky areas within the main habitat. As with other species in the genus, its main source of food is invertebrates. It is an oviparous species, the number of eggs in a clutch varies between six and eight.
164628		population	eng	This species is abundant within its range.
164628		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at present.
164629		conservation	eng	In Turkey it is not present in any protected areas.  More research is needed on the natural history of this species.
164629		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, southwestern Iran (the central Zagros Mountains), and possibly northern Iraq. The species may not be present in northeastern Iraq, resulting in two disjunct populations (Anderson pers. comm. 2008). In Turkey it ranges between 800 and 2,200 m asl.
164629		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas in open oak woodland and shrubland, and sometimes in open grassland. The female lays between five and ten eggs. It is not present in modified habitats or close to human habitations.
164629		population	eng	In Turkey it is an uncommon species.
164629		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species in Turkey as the human population density within its range is very low.
164630		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It does not appear to be present in any protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
164630		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Afghanistan in the Helmand River basin and in the desert basins of the Chagai and Nushkai districts and western Las Bela of Pakistan (Minton, 1966, Anderson, 1999). There are currently no records of the species from Iran, however it may be present in the eastern Sistan region (Anderson, 1999, S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008). The species may be present in India, however this requires verification.
164630		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of fine windblown sand, including sand dunes, with sparse vegetation (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). The females presumably lay a clutch of two to four eggs.
164630		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (Minton 1966, T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164630		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
164631		conservation	eng	This species is present within the well-protected Kavir National Park. The species remains poorly known, and further general studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and ecology of this species.
164631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known only from the type locality of '40-45km E Daryacheh-ye Namak, Dasht-e Kavir' (Nilson and Andrén, 1981; Anderson, 1999).
164631		habitat	eng	It is found in isolated areas of semi-stable sands in stony desert (Anderson, 1999). It is largely found in the low areas between dunes among grasses and low shrubs (Anderson, 1999).
164631		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens. Animals are reported to be numerous within suitable habitat (Anderson, 1999).
164631		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species within its restricted, but well-protected range. Few people are found within the range of this species.
164633		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed.
164633		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern coastal Turkey, Georgia, Russia and Azerbaijan. There are five known subspecies in Turkey and two known in Georgia and Russia. It occurs from sea level up to 2,400m asl.
164633		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky areas in temperate forest. Sometimes it occurs in montane-steppe area. It can live on the walls of buildings and other human structures. The female lays four to eight eggs.
164633		population	eng	It is a common species. Densities can be 17 - 23 individuals or more for 1 km2 (on average).
164633		threats	eng	There are not considered to be any major threats to this species.
164635		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas within the range of the species. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, and threats to this species.
164635		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area around the town of Van, next to Lake Van in eastern Turkey. The subspecies <em>E. t. hakkariensis</em> is known from two locations near the towns of Bahcesaray (city of Siirt) and city of Hakkari.  It has been recorded between 1,800-2,000m asl.
164635		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky or stony upland areas, with sparse vegetation. It is an egg-laying species.
164635		population	eng	<em>E. thospitis</em> is known from only three locations in close proximity and two locations of <em>E. t. hakkariensis</em>. It is known from a total of 13 specimens collected since 1912 (Schmidtler, J.F. and Lanza, B., 1990).  It is most likely a restricted-range species, but little is known about the population status of this species because of the limited research presently undertaken within its distribution.
164635		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
164636		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in protected areas, although the suitable habitat is available in two protected areas where the species might occur. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
164636		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from eastern Iraq, and Iran (southwestern Kermanshah, Elam, Khusestan, Lorestan and Bosher) (Anderson, 1999). It is possibly present in Kuwait, however this needs to be confirmed. This is probably found from around sea level to 300m asl.
164636		habitat	eng	This species is associated with flat plains and valleys with sparse vegetation. Animals lives in burrows, and form colonies. It has been seen as a colony on the banks of a canal next to a field. It is not found in areas with sand dunes. This is an egg laying species.
164636		population	eng	It is an uncommon species found at low densities throughout the range (Theodore Papenfuss and Soheila Shafti  pers. comm., September 2008).
164636		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species in Iran (Theodore Papenfuss and Soheila Shafti  pers. comm., September 2008). It doesn't appear to be regularly available in the international pet trade.
164637		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Zay Wildlife Reserve in Jordan, and Saint Katherines protected area in Egypt. In Turkey, there are a few protected areas within its range. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to develop national legislation to protect the species in Egypt. As a rare species threatened by habitat destruction (category 3), it is included into the Red Data Book of USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987). More research is needed to understand the taxonomy and ecology of this rarely seen species.
164637		distribution	eng	This species ranges discontinuously from eastern Turkey, southwards to western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western and central Jordan, and eastwards to Armenia, Azerbaijan, northern Iraq and western Iran (Central Province and Khuzistan Province). It also occurs as an isolated population at Santa Catarina on the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt). Records from Serbia and Montenegro are misidentifications. It is present up to 1,600m asl (Sinai). The range of this species remains poorly known.
164637		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid areas of garrigue scrub habitat with rocks and stones, and can also occur in open pine forest and high-elevation scrubland. It can be found in ruins, olive groves and other rural areas. It can be found under stones mainly in May until the end of June. The rest of the year it has fossorial behavior, inhabiting the upper layer of soil.
164637		population	eng	This is a largely subterranean and difficult to collect species with few records. Populations appear to be small and fragmented although little is known about its population status. It is considered to be a rare species in the south of its range, and uncommon in Turkey. It is rare and localized on the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt.
164637		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in parts of its range, such as Israel, by fragmentation of populations through habitat loss. On Sinai it is threatened by overgrazing, collection of firewood, off-road vehicle use and roads.
164638		conservation	eng	This species might be present in protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
164638		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Caucasus region in Turkey (Vilayet Giresun) and possibly southwestern Georgia (Baran and Atatur 1998). It occurs between 800 and 2,000m asl. The recent distribution range forms some more or less extensive isolates. Isolated populations live on the southern slopes of Lechkhumsky and Rachinsky ranges in the foothills of Great Caucasus, where this lizard is known from the vicinity of the town Kutaisi, Tkvibuli and the health-resort Labarde. Its possible distribution in the foothills of the Great Caucasus Range is still not sufficiently studied.
164638		habitat	eng	This species is associated with highly humid habitats. Populations are found in high steppe and rocky or stony areas close to streams (Baran and Atatur, 1998). The female lays a clutch of between two and five eggs.
164638		population	eng	It is usually locally common (up to 40 - 50 specimens per km2) in isolated patches.
164638		threats	eng	This species is restricted to only a few locations and is considered to be potentially threatened by increased habitat loss and population declines.
164639		conservation	eng	This species is included in the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). This species is listed under Appendix III (Protected Fauna Species) of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>It is found in the protected areas of Khosrov, Shikachogh and Erebuni in Armenia; Vashlovani and Lagodechi in Georgia; Zakataly, Shakhbyzsky and Shirvansky in Azerbaijan.<br/><br/>Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164639		distribution	eng	This species has a large distribution in far eastern Europe and West Asia. It can be found in eastern Turkey, between the Black and Caspian Seas, adjacent areas of Iraq and Iran (including Kermanshah and Lorestan provinces and Kurdestan [G. Nilson pers. comm. November 2008]) (map provisional for this country), southeastern Georgia, southern Armenia, Azerbaijan and the foothills of Dagestan (Russia). It generally occurs below 1,600 m asl.
164639		habitat	eng	This generally subterranean species largely occurs in foothills, and often prefers sparsely vegetated slopes which are not steep. Populations have also been recorded from open desert and semi-desert areas with some shrubs and stones (not rocky steep areas or outcrops). Animals can be found under, and between, stones. The females lays clutches of four to eight eggs.
164639		population	eng	This species appears common in at least part of its range (Gasc <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Up to eleven specimens may be found in an area of 100 m² (Szczerbak 2003).
164639		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species as a whole. It is locally threatened through conversion of land to agricultural use (including vineyards) and housing. Overgrazing of the species' habitat by domestic animals represents an additional threat.
164640		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its distribution.  Efforts should be made to ensure that rare species such as <em>P. persicus</em> are not collected for anti-venom production.  One solution could be to only pay snake collectors for common species.  There is also a growing pet trade market for this species.  Monitoring of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. persicus</span> should be carried out to ensure harvest levels do not increase.
164640		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northeast Iraq, northwest Iran and southern Azerbaijan to northern Oman, and then east to India. The species is widespread in Iran (Latifi 1991). In Pakistan it ranges as far east as Manguli in southwestern Kalat (Minton 1966). It has been recorded up to 1,800 m above sea level in Pakistan. It might be present in northern Iraq. This species is unlikely to occur in southeast Turkey and northwest Azerbaijan, and presence in these areas needs to be confirmed.
164640		habitat	eng	This species is present in sandy areas, rocky areas and scrubland (Minton 1966, Latifi 1991). Animals may be found under rocks and in burrows.  It prefers to hide in and under bushes. There is seasonal movement following its food source, birds. In the winter, the species occur in higher densities in more suitable habitat (G. Nilson pers. comm. 2008). It is presumably a ovoviviparous species.
164640		population	eng	This species was common in some parts of its range and may still be in less well known areas (G. Nilson pers. comm. 2008).
164640		threats	eng	In Iran, the greatest threat for this species is over-collection for the production of anti-venom.  Because of its habit of   congregating in smaller areas of suitable habitat in the winter, it is relatively easy to extirpate local populations.  In the case of Snake Mountain (Northern Kavir desert), extensive collecting has made the population, which gave the mountain its name, locally extinct (G. Nilson pers. comm. 2008).  This species is also collected for the pet trade in Iran and Turkmenistan.  In the past, this species was hunted for its skin to make shoes, purses and other decorative items, but this is no longer a threat, as most of the supply appears to be animals bred in captivity.
164641		conservation	eng	The species does not require special protection measures and occurs in numerous protected areas.
164641		distribution	eng	This species appear to occur as two disjunct populations. The first ranges from southern Armenia and Azerbaijan (in Zuvand, Nakhichevan and south-western Azerbaijan) into northwestern Iran and Turkey (eastern Anatolia region in the vicinities of Igdir and Tuzluca). The second population is present in the Kopet Dagh of northwestern Iran (northern Khorasan and eastern Mazanderan) and southern Turkmenistan. It may also be present in the isolated mountain regions of the Iranian Plateau (Baran and Atatur 1998; Anderson 1999). It is found up to 3,500m asl in Turkey.
164641		habitat	eng	In Iran, the species has been recorded from silty soil, red sandstone, slopes, ridges and alluvial valleys. The vegetation at known sites is generally sparse, overgrazed dry shrubs and steppe (Anderson 1999). In Turkey, it is found in desert-like, dry open places with pebbly substrates and little vegetation (Baran and Atatur 1998). It hides in cracks and crevices and can also burrow. The female lays two clutches of between three and seven eggs annually.
164641		population	eng	It has been recorded at three to five animals per hectare in Turkmenistan.
164641		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Subpopulations around the Aras (Araks) River (Turkey, Armenia and Iran) are threatened by habitat loss resulting from agricultural expansion and intensification.
164642		conservation	eng	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
164645		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Badkhyz Nature Reserve in Turkmenistan, and there are protected areas within the species' Iranian range. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
164645		distribution	eng	This species is present in northeastern Iran, in the vicinity of Mashhad, in southeastern Turkmenistan and in northern Afghanistan north of the Central Massif and south through the mountain passes to Paghman (Anderson 1999). It ranges between 900 and 2,500 m above sea level.
164645		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of clay and sandy-loamy soils, usually in areas containing the burrows of the ground squirrel-like <em>Rhombomys</em>. These burrows may be used as retreats by <em>Laudakia</em> (Anderson 1999). This species basks on man-made piles of rock, but avoids rocky outcrops and vertical slopes (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from gorges with Pistachio (<em>Pistachio vera</em>) in Turkmenistan (Ananjeva and Tuniyev 1994). This is an egg laying species.
164645		population	eng	This is a common species within its limited range.
164645		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species, although it has a generally limited geographic range.
164647		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within its range, and it is possible that populations of this species are present here.
164647		distribution	eng	The species is distributed as fragmented populations in the northwestern and western parts of the Central Plateau in Iran. There are records from the highlands of Zuvand in Azerbaijan, but there are no records from the past 50 years and it is possibly extinct here. It has been recorded up to 1,150 m asl.
164647		habitat	eng	This species inhabits plateaus, where it is generally found in saltwort and wormwood semi-desert with sparse xerophytic herbaceous vegetation, grassy areas, and on takyr-like soils. It is an egg-laying species.
164647		population	eng	It is fairly common in suitable habitat (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008), but it is patchily distributed.  Overall, this species is found at low population densities (Shafti, pers. comm. 2008).
164647		threats	eng	This species is significantly threatened by conversion of land to intensive agricultural use, including ploughing, overgrazing, and irrigation of semi-desert habitats.
164648		conservation	eng	The type locality is not within a protected area. Further surveys are needed to better determine if the habitat is significantly declining over the species range.
164648		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Iran, where it is known only from the Jaz Murian Depression in Baluchistan (Anderson, 1999). Although it has only been recorded from the type locality, it might be more widely distributed in the Depression where there are suitable patches of habitat. It is found at about 500m asl.
164648		habitat	eng	Animals have been collected on trunks and branches of dry woodland (acacia), and on the walls of an old underground building (Anderson, 1999).
164648		population	eng	It appears to be relatively common where there are suitable patches of acacia trees within the Depression (Steven Anderson pers. comm., September 2008).
164648		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unclear. It is possibly a habitat specialist, restricted to acacia trees. These trees are often pruned for firewood collection and it is not know if this is a threat to the species. It is possible that the trees might be impacted by climate change or other forms of increasing aridity in the region.
164650		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, although in view of its wide range it might be present in several. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164650		distribution	eng	This species is present in western Georgia and southern Russia (west and central Caucasus and Black Sea coast). It does not appear to be present in Turkey. Populations are widely distributed in the western part of the Great Caucasus Range, from the northern, western and south-western slopes of the Black Sea chain of the Great Range in Krasnodar Territory, to Abkhazia and northwestern and southwestern Georgia, and to the canyons of the Kodory and Ingury Rivers in lower and upper Svanetia. The northern limits to its distribution pass through the middle sections of many left-side tributaries of the Kuban River. The most northern populations have been recorded from the area of Goryachyi Klyuch on the Psekupsa River and from the vicinity of the town Maikop. The southern limits to the distribution are found on the southern slopes of the Great Range and on the western spurs of the Gagra range. Lowland populations are found south of Krasnodar Territory and western Abkhazia, where it is sporadically recorded on the coast from Anapa town in the north up to the Khoby and Riony river canyons in southwestern Georgia. It ranges from sea level to 1,800m asl.
164650		habitat	eng	This montane species is largely associated with rocky outcrops, but populations have been recorded from woodlands and sea coasts. It can be common in modified areas, where it is found on walls of stone buildings, fences, roadsides and ruins. The females lay clutches of two to six eggs with incubation lasting 55 - 60 days.
164650		population	eng	Over most of its distribution it is a common species.
164650		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.
164654		conservation	eng	Populations of this species have been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164654		distribution	eng	This species is present in eastern and southeastern Georgia, Armenia and southern Azerbaijan. The main distribution of this species is along the right-bank of the valley of the middle Kura River, and the ravines of its right-side tributaries within Georgia, northern Armenia and north-western Azerbaijan. Populations have been recorded from Gori in the west, to the northern foothills of Lesser Caucasus range, and in the lower and middle sections of rivers flowing into the Kura River (Algeti, Khrami, Debet, Akstafa-chai, Gyandzha-chai and others) in the southeast. A large isolated population is present within the valley of the middle part of the Iori River (a left-side tributary of the Kura River) on the southern slopes of the Zivgamborsky mountain range. A second interesting isolated population has been discovered in southwestern Azerbaijan, in the ravine of upper Akar River (part of the Aras River basin). It has been recorded from 300 to 1,700m asl.
164654		habitat	eng	It inhabits relatively arid rocks along riverbanks and mountain slopes with xerophytic shrubby and herbaceous vegetation. It is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. It is a parthenogenic species, the female lays two to five eggs in a clutch.
164654		population	eng	Over most of it's range populations are high and stable (up to 40 - 55 specimens per km2).
164654		threats	eng	Overall the species is not experiencing significant declines. There are some local declines in locations with many people, (especially urban areas).
164657		conservation	eng	It is present in the Lar River Valley Protected Area (Central Province). There is a need to prevent overgrazing and better regulate the collection of topsoil within the limited range of this species.
164657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iran, where it has been recorded from alpine meadows in the Elburz Mountains. Populations have been recorded between around 2,500 to 3,000m asl. It exists as highly fragmented populations, perhaps occupying only 10-15% of the mapped distribution (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008).
164657		habitat	eng	This species is associated with alpine meadows or alpine steppe habitat. The diet generally consists of crickets (orthoptera) and lizards. It is a ovoviviparous species.
164657		population	eng	It is a comparatively rare species, although in places it can be locally common (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008).
164657		threats	eng	The species has a restricted habitat type which is threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock in some areas (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008). and by the removal of the fertile alpine topsoil for commercial horticultural use in others (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). A small number of animals have been reported in the international pet trade (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008).
164658		conservation	eng	In view of its wide range, it is presumably present within some protected areas, however this requires confirmation. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164658		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Turkey, ranging approximately from Erzerum in the west and the valley of upper Aras River in the south, into the northern and southern foothills of the Meskhetsky range within Ajaria and neighbouring regions of Georgia, and from the Black Sea coast in the west to the middle Kura River in the east. There are local isolated populations in the ravines of several tributaries of the Kura River (Akhaldaba, Baniskhevi, Azkuri and others). It ranges from sea level to 1,700m asl.
164658		habitat	eng	This species is found in a number of habitats. It can be found in rocky and stony areas of forest clearings, and also at sunny sites along rivers. The female lays a clutch of between two and four eggs (Baran and Atatur, 1998).
164658		population	eng	This is an abundant species. Over most of it's range the number of animals is high and populations are stable (25 - 35 specimen per km2). It is especially numerous on rocky steep slopes along sunny river banks.
164658		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It is locally susceptible to habitat destruction around urban areas.
164659		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further general studies are needed into the natural history of this little=known species.
164659		distribution	eng	This species is present in southeastern Khuzestan and southern Fars Provinces, Iran (Anderson, 1999). It has been reported from southeastern and central Iraq by Afrasiab (1987).
164659		habitat	eng	This little-known species has been collected under stones in a cultivated field, and at night on an unpaved road running through a flat terrain of silty alluvium (Anderson, 1999). It is an egg-laying species.
164659		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It might be a common species, although this requires confirmation (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).
164659		threats	eng	There are probably no threats to this species (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).
164663		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Iran. No direct research measures for conservation purposes are currently needed for this species.
164663		distribution	eng	This species is present in through the eastern deserts of Khorasan, Iran, through the Helmand River basin of Afghanistan and desert basins of Baluchistan, Pakistan (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). The southeastern part of its range does not extend past the Sistan Basin and the Farah-Rud River (Golubev 1998).
164663		habitat	eng	It is found on areas of fine windblown sand, sand dunes, stabilized sand, and in areas of bare stony ground bordering dunes and along rivers in gravel plains (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). Animals are generally found close to bushes and shrubs (Minton 1966). It is an egg-laying species.
164663		population	eng	It is locally common in Iran near the Afghan border (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164663		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
164664		conservation	eng	It has been collected from no hunting areas, but it is not clear if these are protected areas. More research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
164664		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known from the Zagros Mountains of western Iran (Bostanchi <em>et al</em>. 2006), ranging from Qasr-e-Shirin to Khuzestan (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has been recorded from '70km southwest of Ilam [probably on the road to Amirabad and Mehran], Ilam Province' (the type locality); from '25km south of Qasr-e-Shirin on road to Gilan-e Gharb, Kermanshah Province, at 200m asl' (Bostanchi <em>et al</em>. 2006); and most recently from Khuzestan Province (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The map indicates the extent of potentially suitable habitat, as the species is presumably more widely distributed within the Zagros Mountains and is likely to be present in adjacent areas of Iraq (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
164664		habitat	eng	The species is found in hilly areas, and is associated with deep cracks in the rocky gypsum substrate habitat (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Animals can be encountered lying in ambush under small shrubs near to their burrows (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has been collected at night from an open level area in an agricultural region (Bostanchi <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is possible that it has a specialized diet, and preys on birds (although perhaps not exclusively) (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The breeding system is not known.
164664		population	eng	The species is currently only known from a small number of specimens.
164664		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, it is an unusual snake and is potentially threatened by future overcollection for the international pet trade. Presumably animals are killed when encountered by villagers.
164665		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from the very well-protected Kavir National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164665		distribution	eng	This species known only from the type locality of Siah Kuh on the Dasht-e Kavir in the western portion of Central Plateau of Iran (Nilson and Andrén, 1978; Anderson, 1999). The species appears to be distributed within an isolated area of perhaps less than 100km2. It has been collected at perhaps 1,000m asl or less.
164665		habitat	eng	The three known specimens were collected under stones on almost bare gravel, in low hills, at the border of north-facing slopes of Siah Kuh. There was scattered shrubby vegetation at the site. The general area is of broken rocky mountains and alluvial plains (Nilson and Andrén, 1978; Anderson, 1999).
164665		population	eng	This species is currently known only from three specimens. Animals in the genus <em>Ophiomorus</em> are secretive and hard to find, with most specimens being discovered under rocks and stones.
164665		threats	eng	Although this species is believed to have a relatively restricted range, it is found in a very remote area that is inhospitable to people, and is unlikely to suffer any significant threats.
164670		conservation	eng	There are a number of protected areas within the species range. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
164670		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the central Zagros foothills of Iran and Iraq. It has been recorded from Kermanshah and Lorestan Provinces in Iran and from Palegawra Cave, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq (Anderson, 1999).
164670		habitat	eng	It is a poorly-known species. Animals have been recorded in the humid environment of a limestone cave and on a limestone cliff next to a brook (Anderson, 1999). It is always associated with rocky areas (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).
164670		population	eng	It appears to be locally common in suitable rocky habitats (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).
164670		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species in its boulder-type habitat.
164673		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in the Middle Asia. It is listed in the national Red Data Books of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
164673		distribution	eng	This species is found from Sri Lanka, the Indian states of Sikkim and Maharashtra, throughout most of Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, southern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan, southeastern Tajikistan and Iran. Within Iran, the species has been reported from Khorasan Province, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, Kerman Province and Hormozghan Province (Latifi 1991). The species is believed to occur throughout most of Pakistan, with the exception of higher elevations (Minton 1966). The subspecies <em>B.t. melanocephala</em> is found from around 0-800 m asl
164673		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and secretive species. In Pakistan it is found in a range of habitats from gallery forest to sparse desert shrubland, generally avoiding highly arid, rocky or sandy areas (Minton 1966). Animals can be found in urban gardens (Minton 1966). In Iran, it is found in deserts, fields, rocky areas with soft sand and occasionally in grasslands and rural gardens (Latifi 1991). In Turkmenistan it can be found in areas of arid scrub vegetation, amongst sand dunes with sparse vegetation, and in rocky localities (N. Orlov pers. comm. September 2008). It is an oviparous species.
164673		population	eng	This is a cryptic and nocturnal species in the north of its range. It is generally considered to be a rare species in Turkmenistan and appears to be uncommon in Iran.
164673		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species as a whole.
164674		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. It is included in the Red Data Books of USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) as an endangered species. It is protected by Appendix II of the Bern Convention.
164674		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in central and eastern Anatolia, Turkey, from where it ranges eastwards to Armenia and possibly also to northwestern Iran. It is found between 800 and 2,400 m asl.  There is a locality reported from European Turkey (Venchi and Bologna 1996), but this is believed to be in error so is not shown on the map.  At present the species is preserved mainly in the Spitak region in Armenia where it is observed only on unploughed and difficult to access areas.
164674		habitat	eng	This species inhabits upland steppe areas with sparse vegetation and stony substrates. Animals hide within the crevices of rocky mounds. It also lives in regions where cattle graze. <br/><br/>This species appears after hibernation at the middle of April and disappears in the end of September. The females lay up to three clutches of two to five eggs per year. The first clutch is laid up in the end of June - beginning July, second - in the end of August. Young appear from end of July. Sexual maturity comes after second hibernation.
164674		population	eng	It is a very common species. Its density is estimated to be 25 individuals per hectare (in Armenia).
164674		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
164675		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within the species general range, but it is not known with certainty if the species occurs here. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.
164675		distribution	eng	Based on the few known specimens, this rarely recorded species probably has a wide distribution in the southern Zagros Mountains and their foothills (Schätti 2001; Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). The type specimen was taken from somewhere between Shiraz, Kazerun and Takt-e Jamshid (Persepolis) in Fars Province, southwestern Iran (Schätti 2001; Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). It has also been recorded from the Chambachid valley on the southern side of the river and on the Paris Massive, five kilometres south of Gharun station, in Lorestan Province (Schätti 2001; Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006); and from the locality of Siah makan junction, 57 km northwest of Genaveh city on the road to Behbahan, Bushehr Province (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006. It has also been collected from two localities in Kermanshah Province, without exact localities (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Specimens in the southern Zagros Mountains have been collected at around 1,650-3,100 m asl. The specimen from Bushehr Province was collected at an elevation of <100 m asl close to the Persian Gulf (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006).
164675		habitat	eng	The Bushehr Province specimen was collected at night on the road, in an area of sedimentary steppe located between a series of small hills and lower elevation mountains and the Persian Gulf. All other specimens have been collected within mountainous areas (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006).
164675		population	eng	This species is known from only a very few specimens.
164675		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, in view of its wide range it seems unlikely that there are any major threats to the species.
164679		conservation	eng	Populations are present within the grasslands of the Khosrov and Dilijan Reserve (Armenia).
164679		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Armenia, Azerbaijan (Nachitschevan) and northeastern Turkey (Kars and Erzerum provinces) at the altitude of 1,000 to 3,000m asl.
164679		habitat	eng	This is a mountain-steppe species that is almost always found around rocky outcrops in short grass steppe. It inhabits slopes of mountains, rocky outcrops and talus slopes, rocky-mountain steppes, humid steppe meadows, and banks of canyons that are overgrown with bush vegetation. It has been recorded from rural areas. In hot part of the summer it changes from diurnal activity to being active in the morning and evening hours. The species is viviparous, with litters of up to 10 young are born (Latifi, 1991). The period of activity before hibernation lasts from April - May to October.
164679		population	eng	The population density is generally low, but as many as eight to ten animals can be found per hectare in foothill areas.
164679		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock (sheep). It is more generally threatened by the overall degradation of mountain habitats. An additional threat is the conversion of suitable habitat to intensive agricultural use at lower elevations.
164686		conservation	eng	It is not known with certainty if the species is present in protected areas within Iran.
164686		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Sistan Basin of Iran and Afghanistan, and the sandy tracts along the Afghan-Pakistan (northwestern Baluchistan) border (Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded at around 450 m asl in Iran (Anderson 1999), and at around 1,100 m asl in Afghanistan (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164686		habitat	eng	Anderson (1999) found the species in loose drifting loess in an abandoned village in Sistan, Iran. Minton (1966) recorded it on dune slopes.
164686		population	eng	This is a common species in loose sand (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164686		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species in its remote and inhospitable habitat.
164687		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known lizard.
164687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Iran, where it is known only from the arid Dasht-e Lut region in Baluchistan (Anderson, 1999). It has been collected between 800 and 1,000m asl.
164687		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known. The region of collection has low precipitation and humidity, with salty and sandy soil with few shrubs (Anderson, 1999).
164687		population	eng	It is known only from three specimens.
164687		threats	eng	The threats to this very poorly known species are not known.
164688		conservation	eng	In Jordan it is present in Wadi Rum Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
164688		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Iran and possibly Pakistan. It also occurs in Africa where it is found in Djibouti, Eritrea (including islands in the Dahlak Archipelago), Ethiopia and Somalia. It may have been accidentally introduced in parts of its range (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). It can be found from sea level up to 3,000 m above sea level.
164688		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky formations within flat, hard, sandy desert and gravelly plains (dry wadis). It also occurs in open, dry woodland and shrubland. It can be found under stones, on the walls of abandoned buildings, on beaches and among rocks. It is an egg-laying species.
164688		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range.
164688		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
164689		conservation	eng	This species is found in Bitlis-Adilcevaz Süphandaği Wildlife Management Zone. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
164689		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Turkey, where it is known from the vicinity of Lake Van, within the boundaries of Vilayets Van, Bitlis, and Agri (Baran and Atatür, 1998 and Franzen and Heckers, 1999). It has been recorded up to 2,400m asl.
164689		habitat	eng	It is found in desert-like, dry open places with pebbly substrates and little vegetation (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It hides in cracks and crevices and can also burrow. The female lays between three and seven eggs.
164689		population	eng	This species is common.
164689		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
164690		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
164690		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central and southern Turkey though most of Syria, northeastern Lebanon and western and northern Jordan, eastwards into northern Iraq and western Iran (mostly the Iranian Plateau) and southern Azerbaijan. It is not present in Israel. It is know from two southern regions of eastern Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan), where it occurs in the valley of the lower reaches of Aras River (Jebrail, Zangelan) and in the montane-steppe region Zuvandin the Talysh mountains. It The species occurs from sea level to 2,100m asl.
164690		habitat	eng	This species is found close to rocky areas in semi-arid and steppe habitats. It does not appear to climb bushes or trees. Populations can be found in marginal agricultural areas. Anderson (1999), found the species in open stony places and on walls. The female lays between four and 14 eggs in a clutch. It begins to reproduce on second year of life.
164690		population	eng	In Turkey, this species is common in suitable habitat.  It is relatively rare in the southern Azerbaijan (no more than 1 - 1.5 specimen per hectare).
164690		threats	eng	This species is widespread and does not have any significant threats over much of its range because it is relatively tolerant of agricultural areas. In certain areas, such as Lebanon, it is threatened by poisoning by pesticides (consumption of contaminated invertebrates).
164691		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
164691		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, a mountain plateau in the vicinity of the village of Lalehzar, south-central Iran (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999). It is unclear if this species has a restricted range and additional research is needed to better understand the distribution.
164691		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from a mountain plateau with degraded steppe habitat, rural gardens and fields and wet meadows (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999). Specimens were collected in open fields of soil and stones washed down the slopes of Mount Lalehzar (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999). Animals were observed along the banks of an irrigation ditch and in the vicinity of irrigated gardens (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999)
164691		population	eng	It is not uncommon at the type locality (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999; Soheila Shafti pers. comm. September 2008). It has been recently collected at the type locality (Soheila Shafti pers. comm. September 2008).
164691		threats	eng	Although the species is known only from a relatively restricted area, it is somewhat adaptable and there appear to be no major threats.
164693		conservation	eng	In Turkmenistan it is present within the Central Kopet-Dagh protected area. Within Iran there are many protected areas within the species range.
164693		distribution	eng	This species is present in western Pakistan, southern Iran, southwestern Afghanistan and south Turkmenistan (Kopet-Dagh only). The species has been recorded from Waziristan and Baluchistan in Pakistan (Minton 1966). Within Iran, it has been recorded from Central Province, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, Khorasan Province, Seman Province, Fars Province and Kerman Province (Latifi 1991, S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008). It has been recorded up to 700 m asl (Pakistan), up to 1,500 m asl in the Kopet-Dagh, and up to 1,750 m asl in Iran.
164693		habitat	eng	This is a little-known species, found in arid rocky places, montane regions and areas of scrubland (Minton 1966, Latifi 1991). It is probably an oviparous species.
164693		population	eng	In Turkmenistan it is a very rare species. It also appears to be comparatively rare in Iran.
164693		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing and conversion of land to agricultural use.
164697		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is uncertain due to poor knowledge about this species. Therefore further research is needed into its distribution, ecology, habitat, and threats.
164697		distribution	eng	This species is present in northwestern Iran in East Azerbaijan Province and discontinuously in Esfahan Province. It is also present in southern Azerbaijan (Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded between 500 and 2,600 m asl in Iran. There are doubtful records in the Caucasus.
164697		habitat	eng	The species occurs within gullies and on slopes and hillsides, in overgrazed steppe and shrubland habitat on volcanic tuff, or amongst boulders (Anderson 1999).
164697		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
164697		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently not known.
164698		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
164698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Iran where it is known only from the type locality of "Maidan Mihaftan, 30 miles east of Schustar in southwest Persia".
164698		habitat	eng	Other than it being a burrowing snake, there is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
164698		population	eng	This species is probably known only from the lost holotype.
164698		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
164701		conservation	eng	In Turkmenistan this species has been recorded from the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve and Badkhyz Nature Reserve.
164701		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from eastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan (distribution might be more continuous than is currently known), Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka. In Iran, it has been collected in the Dashley Boron region of Mazandaran Province (Latifi 1991). The species ranges up to 2,000 m above sea level (Latifi 1991). In Pakistan, it occurs in the lowlands from the delta of the Indus north to Rawalpindi and west to Bela (Minton 1966). It has been recorded up to around 520 m asl in Pakistan.
164701		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in flat clay desert, oases, traditionally cultivated fields and suburban gardens (Minton 1966, Latifi 1991). It is an oviparous species.
164701		population	eng	This is a very rare species within Central Asia and Iran.
164701		threats	eng	There are no major threats overall to this globally widespread species. In Central Asia, it is threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September, 2008).
164702		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Golestan National Park (Iran).
164702		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the southern and southeastern coasts of the Caspian Sea in Iran and Azerbaijan, ranging as far east as the Atrak River of northern Khorasan (Anderson, 1999). It is found from slightly below sea level to up to around 1,500m asl (Anderson, 1999).
164702		habitat	eng	This temperate forest species (including Hyrcanian mixed deciduous forest), can be encountered climbing on tree trunks and walls, in heaps of brushwood, or among the grass of the forest floor. The females lay a clutch of three to ten eggs.
164702		population	eng	It is common to abundant over most of its range.
164702		threats	eng	In some areas the species is locally threatened by deforestation.
164706		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of national parks and nature reserves (including Khosrov National Park and Sevan Lake National Park [both Armenia]).
164706		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Trabzon, Ardahan and Kars), northwestern Armenia, western Azerbaijan and southern Georgia. It has been introduced to northern Ukraine. It is found up to 2,500m asl (Turkey).
164706		habitat	eng	This is a montane species that is found in rocky areas, and high steppes, where lives among herbaceous vegetation. It is sometimes common in ruins and on the walls of buildings. This is a parthenogenic species; three or four eggs are laid in a clutch (Baran and Atatur, 1998) in middle of June - early the July. Large females can to lay second clutches. The incubation period of eggs lasts about 55 days, and the young hatch at the end of July to the beginning of August. Animals emerge after hibernation from the end of March to the beginning of May (in depending on altitude of  habitat). It reaches maximum size by about the fourth year.
164706		population	eng	It is common, sometimes numerous species (up to 200 specimens for 1 km of route).
164706		threats	eng	There are no overall major threats to the species, however some subpopulations are locally threatened by overgrazing of their habitat by domestic livestock (cattle) and the associated habitat destruction. The species is adaptable to some habitat change and populations can be found living on churches and similar old buildings.
164707		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas in Turkey and Armenia. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed from the species as a whole.
164707		distribution	eng	This species is present in west and central Anatolia, Turkey, southwestern Armenia and southwestern Georgia. Within the Caucasus it is found as isolated populations in Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Georgia and eastern Turkey. The most extensive areas of the distribution range in the Caucasus are the high mountain areas of the Gegamsky range to the shores of Lake Sevan in the north, the high mountain area of the Aragaz Peak, and the high mountain plateau in the foothills of the Childyrsky and Javakhetsky ranges in the extreme north-west of Armenia and adjoining regions of southern Georgia. It is also found on the Ardenissky mountain range, and further east it inhabits the high-mountains of the Karabakh Upland within the limits of Nagorny Karabakh. The species is widely distributed in north-eastern, eastern and south-eastern Turkey. It is probably found in the high mountains adjacent Iran, although this needs to be confirmed. It might have been introduced to Ohio in the United States. In Turkey it has been recorded from 1,300 to 3,000m asl.
164707		habitat	eng	It occurs in rocky areas in montane shrubland and grassland areas in Anatolian and Transcaucasia steppe. The species lays four or five eggs.
164707		population	eng	It is a common species. Over most of the distribution around nine to 25 animals can be found per km2. It is locally abundant, but fragmented at higher altitudes.
164707		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and common species.
164708		conservation	eng	The species is protected in the Borzhomsky reserve, Russia. There is a need to establish specialized protected areas in the areas of the highest population density of this species in the Meskhetsky and Trialetsky mountain ranges. The species was included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Georgia (1982) - category 3. It is protected on the territories of Algeti and Borjomi Reserve in Georgia.
164708		distribution	eng	This species is present in northern Turkey (from the Bosporus to northeastern and northern Anatolia) extending into Georgia. Museum specimens exist for Azerbaijan which need verification.
164708		habitat	eng	The characteristic habitats are situated in the zones of xerophytic forests and rocky areas. Animals prefer rocky slopes overgrown with oaks, pines and hornbeams. They are frequently noted on forest edges, stony screens overgrown with lichens and rocky outcrops in river valleys. In the mountains it can be found up to the zones of montane steppes. Hibernation begins at end of October. After hibernation, mating begins in March - April. It is ovoviviparous species. Female give birth 4 - 10  young in August - September. During the summer snakes are active in the morning and evening.
164708		population	eng	Locally common where appropriate habitat exists.
164708		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are overcollecting for the pet trade and conversion of rocky habitats for agricultural development.
164710		conservation	eng	This species currently has no conservation measures in place or that are needed. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
164710		distribution	eng	This species is present in Kerman, Sistan and Baluchistan Provinces in Iran and northwestern Las Bela in Pakistan (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). It has been collected at around 200 m above sea level in Pakistan (Minton 1966).
164710		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from rock-strewn desert, other rocky areas, building ruins and similar habitats (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). The species is active in the daytime, but only in shaded areas (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
164710		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
164710		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species or its habitat.
164711		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present although further research to determine the species’ population status and range are needed.
164711		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the sub-montane and temperate zones of the Bolkar Mountains and western Taurus Mountains in southern Anatolia, Turkey.  It has been recorded from the provinces of Adana and Içel (= Mersin).  It has been recorded up to 300-1,300m asl.
164711		habitat	eng	Populations are found in open Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation including open forested areas.  These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices.  It is an egg-laying species.
164711		population	eng	This is a rare species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
164711		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species' habitat at present. Forest fires are a potential threat.
164713		conservation	eng	Populations have been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164713		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed on the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus Range from the northern foothills of Mount Elbrus in Kabardino-Balkaria in the west, up to the southeastern extreme point of the Caspian mountain chain within Azerbaijan in the east. The southwestern limits of its distribution pass through the southern foothills of the Megrel'sky, Svanetsky and Lekhchumsky mountain ranges in lower Svanetia, and from here through South Ossetia approximately to the area of the Dzhava health-resort. The species is found along the southern spurs of the Kharul'sky, Kartalinsky and Kakhetinsky mountain ranges, as far as the Water Dividing (Watershed ) Range in the Alazan River valley of Georgia. In Azerbaijan it is found in the upper reaches of rivers beginning in the Great Range, and to the east of here, from the slopes of the mountains Baba-Dag and Dyubrar, and in particular valleys of the Pirsagat and Sumgait rivers. This species is also widely distributed on the northern slopes of the Great Caucasus range, from the Baksan ravine in Kabardino-Balkaria in the west to the Samur range in south Dagestan in the east. The northwestern limit of the distribution passes through the Baksan ravine, approximately from the town of Tegenekly in the south, continuing to the east on the northern foothills of the Skalisty and Bokovoi ranges. The most northern populations are known from the Adyr-su ravine, near to the waterfall in the Chegemskaya gorge, and from the vicinity of the Blue Lakes in Kabardino-Balkaria and the vicinity of Alagir, to the settlement of Balta in the lower part of the Dar'yal ravine of North Ossetia. It has been recorded up to 3,200m asl (Darevsky 1984).
164713		habitat	eng	Populations of this montane species inhabit rocky outcrops, piles of stones, ravine slopes and river banks. Animals have also been recorded from woodlands and alpine meadows. The females lay two to five eggs.
164713		population	eng	This species is common.
164713		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.
164716		conservation	eng	There are many protected areas within the species Iranian range. It is present in the Kopet-Dagh Reserve in Turkmenistan.
164716		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Alborz Mountains of northern Iran and the Kopet Dagh Mountains of Iran and adjacent Turkmenistan (only at Sushankaa Bol'shie Kazanki) (Anderson, 1999). It has been found from close to sea level to 3,355m asl.
164716		habitat	eng	It is generally found on slopes in rocky areas with shrubby vegetation, although it has also been recorded from grassy alpine landscapes and close to the upper limits of Hyrcanian forest (Anderson, 1999). It is not known whether the species can persist in degraded habitats.
164716		population	eng	It is extremely common in the Alborz Mountains (observations from the Lar Valley) (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). It is uncommon in Turkmenistan (Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008).
164716		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.
164717		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to restrict (or even prevent) the collection of this species. The snake is not considered to be a great threat to people, as it lives in a remote area.
164717		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Zanjan Valley of northwestern Iran. It is found at elevations of around 2,500m asl.
164717		habitat	eng	It is generally associated with rocky habitats, including rock walls, scree and cliff edges within the Zanjan Valley. It is not present in the steppe-like habitat or agricultural areas of the valley floor (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164717		population	eng	It was formerly a common species, although it is much rarer now (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164717		threats	eng	Beginning around the late 1950s to early 1960s and continuing until today, this species has been overcollected by commercial snake collectors for its use in serum production (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). There has been a corresponding decline in populations. The habitat appears to remain in a suitable condition for the species (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).
164718		conservation	eng	In Jordan it is found in the protected areas of the Azraq Wetland and Ahawmary Reserves. In Israel it may be present in a protected area, but this requires confirmation. In Turkmenistan, it has been recorded from the Badkhyz Preserve. This species is protected by national legislation in Israel. It has been included in the Russian Red Book (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
164718		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Arava Valley in southern Israel, through Jordan, northeastern Syria, to Iraq, Iran and Central Asia (southern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan). It is also widespread on the Arabian Peninsula in much of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Oman and northeastern Yemen. It occurs from the lowlands up to 2,100 m above sea level (Afghanistan)
164718		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, ground dwelling species is found on a variety of different desert soil substrates, both soft and hard.  Animals can be found resting in dead palm trees and under ground cover. The female lays clutches of two eggs. It can be found in lightly modified habitats, such as sandy fields, in rural areas.
164718		population	eng	This species is generally not uncommon. It is considered to be common to abundant in Iran, but extremely rare in Turkmenistan (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996; T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).
164718		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species, especially as it can be found on a variety of soil substrates.
164719		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the range of this species in Iran. In Turkmenistan it has been recorded from the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.
164719		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern Turkmenistan (central and southern Kopet-Dagh) and Iran. Within Iran, it has been recorded from Central Province, Zanjhan Province, West Azarbaijan Province, Khuzistan Province, Ghilan Province and Khorasan Province (Latifi 1991). It has been recorded at 1,100-1,600 m asl in Kopet-Dagh Mountain Range.
164719		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and fossorial species that has been recorded from fields, montane and rocky regions and in semi-desert areas (Latifi 1991). In the Kopet-Dagh, the species has been found on rocky slopes within intermontane depressions, and has also been found in gravel desert (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). It is often found under rocks. It is an oviparous species.
164719		population	eng	This is a secretive and difficult to find snake, with animals only being encountered in the springtime. In Turkmenistan it is very localized and infrequently found.
164719		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats overall to this species. It is locally threatened by overgrazing of its habitat in parts of the Kopet-Dagh.
164720		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species. There is a need to regularly monitor population and record and reductions in the numbers of animals.
164720		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus, where it has been recorded from eight locations in northern Armenia and southern Georgia. It is comparatively widely distributed the foothills of the Kura River valley. Populations are patchily distributed and isolated. The species has been recorded from 900 to 1,700m asl.
164720		habitat	eng	Populations are usually encountered in moderately arid slopes of gorges and rocky outcrops. It can be found among overgrown wooded ruins, and on stone walls and fences. It is a parthenogenic species. The females lay clutches of two to five eggs (most often four eggs).
164720		population	eng	This is a rare species.
164720		threats	eng	This species is threatened by increasing urbanisation and road construction, with settlement of people around the remaining fragmented populations. There appears to be increasing competition with sympatric species.
164721		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine the range of this species.
164721		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality, approximately 10km northwest of Sarvabad, between Marivan and Sanandaj, Kurdistan Province, in western Iran (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006). It has been collected at around 1,850m asl. This species is likely to be more widely distributed than is currently known.
164721		habitat	eng	The species has been collected from the northern Zagrosian oak forest, largely consisting of <em>Quercus brandtii</em> and <em>Q. persica</em>, with members of the families Rosaceae and Graminaceae among the dominant plant species (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006). The type locality is situated in a mountainous area with large boulders and rocks (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006). The paratypes were collected near the mouth of small caves (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006).
164721		population	eng	It appears to be easy to collect (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008).
164721		threats	eng	Although it is not well known, and has only been recorded from a limited area to date, there appear to be no major threats to this species within its rocky habitat.
164722		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a urgent need to maintain existing areas of suitable forest habitat for this species.
164722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region where it is found in northeastern Turkey (near Hopa, Artvin Province) and could extend north into the Pontic area of southwestern Georgia (Adzharia). It ranges between 50 and 700m asl.
164722		habitat	eng	Populations inhabit narrow ravines containing large boulders and rocky outcrops, usually under canopy of subtropical forest with evergreen undergrowth. The species is not adaptable to habitat modification.
164722		population	eng	Populations are severely fragmented and occur in relatively low densities across its limited range.
164722		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general deforestation. Populations are limited to increasingly threatened forest fragments. Ongoing tourism development along the Black Sea coastline is a threat to the species.
164723		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a protected area in Syria, and is perhaps present within other protected areas within the region.
164723		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern Syria, northern Jordan and western and central Iraq.
164723		habitat	eng	It occurs on fairly hard substrate in dry steppe habitat with scattered vegetation. It can be found in heavily grazed areas in the 'Syrian Desert' region.
164723		population	eng	It is a common species.
164723		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
164728		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy and distribution of this species complex are needed.
164728		distribution	eng	This species ranges from two localities in Turkey, through much of Syria, eastern Lebanon, and most of Jordan to the northern Arabian Peninsula (northern Saudi Arabia, Kuwait United Arab Emirates), east to Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Punjab, northern India. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 900 m. There is an isolated population in the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), and on the Tiran Islands.
164728		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of arid areas with hard  substrates. It can be found on gravelly plains with sparse vegetation,  and in coastal areas. In southern Sinai it lives in coastal sand with very small hillocks. In Lebanon it inhabits open areas in semi-desert. It is also known from gravel plains and blown sand areas in wadis. The female lays five clutches of between one and six eggs per year.
164728		population	eng	This is a common species in Jordan, but is rare and restricted in Lebanon and Egypt. It is uncommon in Turkey where it is found.
164728		threats	eng	While there are local threats to some populations there are no widespread, major threats to this species.<br/><br/>The Lebanese population of <em>M. brevirostris</em> is on the edge of its range, and it could be at the limits of its ecological tolerance. In Egypt, it is threatened outside of protected areas by urban development and off-road vehicles. Overgrazing appears to be a problem in parts of the range. In Iraq, it may have been affected by recent wars.  In Turkey, there are no major threats to this species.
164730		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164730		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Turkey, northern and eastern Syria, Iraq and Iran (Hamadan, Kermanshahan and questionable records from Persepolis, Fars Province [Anderson, 1999]).  It has been recorded from 400 to 1,000m asl.
164730		habitat	eng	This primarily nocturnal species occurs in rocky areas, sparsely vegetated areas, shrubland, semi-desert habitats, and can also be found in ruins of old buildings near human habitation. It is an egg-laying species.
164730		population	eng	It can be a reasonably common species. In Iran, it is known only from four specimens.
164730		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
164734		conservation	eng	About a half of species range is within the Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve. There is a need for further general research into the distribution and natural history of this species, and to develop conservation legislation and education programmes within the species range.
164734		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region, where it occurs in the Black Sea coastal area of Russia. It is found along the southern slope of Skalistyi mountain range in the Republic of Adyghea (the mountain Afonka) and the Krasnodar Territory (the mountain range Malyi Bambak). Probably, it is present also in the Karachaevo-Cherkesskaya Republic. The species occurs as several very fragmented populations within a very limited range. It has been recorded  between 700 and 1,000m asl.
164734		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are associated with light grassy oak woodlands, and areas of dry meadow and bushland, on rocky limestone massifs.
164734		population	eng	This species is extremely rare (naturally) and is found at low densities. There are estimated to be fewer than 2000 mature individuals.
164734		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from fires within its limited range, and the conversion of land for tourism development.
164735		conservation	eng	Its range includes a few protected areas. It is often bred in captivity and is easy to breed.
164735		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central-southern coastal region of Turkey where it ranges from the Göksu valley to the area of Antalia. It might occur more widely. It can be found from sea level up to 1,500m asl.
164735		habitat	eng	It is a ground-dwelling species of Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices. It can occur in areas with some disturbance of the habitat, but not in intensive agriculture. It lays between seven and 20 eggs.
164735		population	eng	It is an uncommon species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
164735		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by forest fires.
164736		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Nosacetia State Reserve, Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve, Teberginski State Biosphere Reserve, Alania National Park and Prielbruskia National Park. There is a need for further general research into the distribution and natural history of this species, and to develop conservation education programmes within the species range.
164736		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from southern Russia and Georgia. It is distributed in the  North Caucasus in Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Chechnya, Ingushetia (all Russia) and adjacent regions of Georgia from 1,000 up to 2,000m asl.
164736		habitat	eng	This species inhabits steppe habitats, alpine meadows (at upper limits), and semi-arid slopes of mountains with xerophytic eastern-Mediterranean vegetation. Most frequently it is found in the rocks overgrown with lichens and sparse bushy vegetation, as well as in rodent colonies on the slopes. In some areas the species is sympatric with Dinnik's viper (<em>V. dinniki</em>) (such as the Abishir-Akhuba mountain range, upper reaches of the river Tiberda, slopes of the Elbrus mountain and the Itum-Kalinskaya hollow), in these areas <em>V. lotievi</em> inhabits semi-arid hollows, while the more mesophilic <em>V. dinniki </em>occupies the upper wet mountain zones
164736		population	eng	The species is relatively common where it is protected.
164736		threats	eng	The species habitat is threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock (sheep) and the conversion of areas to pastoral use. As with many snakes it is generally persecuted by local people.
164737		conservation	eng	This species is present in Wadi Rum Reserve, Jordan. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Iran. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164737		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Jordan into the Arabian Peninsula, including much of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Oman and Iran (known only from the Mesopotamian Plain in the vicinity of Ahvaz). It is possibly present in southern Iraq.
164737		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of soft, wind-blown sand, but can also occur on harder and drier substrates with sparse vegetation.  It is not found in rural agricultural areas. Animals can be found on small boulders. The females lay between one and two eggs in a clutch.
164737		population	eng	This species is fairly common in Jordan. There appears to be only a single record from Iran (S. Anderson pers. comm. September 2008).
164737		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is possible that there is some localized loss of habitat through destruction of the soil crust caused by off-road vehicles. This species is not found in the pet trade.
164739		conservation	eng	Its range in Turkey includes one protected area, Harran Historical Site. In Iran, it is found in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
164739		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Turkey (restricted to a few localities along the Euphrates River valley in southeastern Anatolia), to eastern Syria (known from two localities; Abu Kamal and Al Salhyeh), northern and eastern Iraq, and western Iran. It is found from around 150 to 1,000m asl.
164739		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas with sparse vegetation. It can also be found in caves, the ruins of old buildings and in houses (Iraq and Iran). It is an adaptable species to human modified environments. The female lays between one and two eggs with at least two clutches per year (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008).
164739		population	eng	In Iran, this species is fairly common. It is a very common species within its very restricted range in Turkey.
164739		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
164740		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas.  Further research is needed to determine the range, population status and threats to this species before conservation measures can be formulated.
164740		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality and one other location only a few kilometres away near the town of Halfeti, on the upper slopes of the Euphrates River valley, in south-eastern Turkey. It has been recorded around 500 m asl. It may also occur in Iraq.
164740		habitat	eng	This is a largely subterranean species. It has been recorded in semi-arid, karstic areas with grassland or open woodland vegetation. Animals have been found under rocks.  It is presumably an egg-laying species.
164740		population	eng	There is no information known about the population of this species.  It is possibly a rare, or at least difficult to find species as there have been significant surveys of the area in the past but it has only recently been discovered (A. Avci and Y. Kumlutaş pers. comms. 2008).
164740		threats	eng	The habitat close to the known range of the species has been impacted by the building of a dam. It is not known what effect this has had on the species.
164741		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from within the Khabr va Rouchon Protected Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this poorly-known species.
164741		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known only from a few localities on the western slope of the Zagros Mountains (Anderson, 1999). The type locality is the indistinct 'Kurdistan'; Anderson and Leviton (1966) recorded it from Fars Province in Iran, five kilometres southeast of Pol-e Ab Abgineh (approx 29 33 N 51 45 E). A third record from Frynta <em>et al</em>. (1997) in Fars Province, 10 km east of Sivand at 1,700m asl (30 05 N 52 55 E). And also from 20 km east of Khabr (28 48 N 56 32 E) in the Khabr va Ruchoun Protected Area in the south-southwest of the Kerman Province of Iran (Kiabi <em>et al</em>. 1999). There might be an additional specimen collected at Maranjab (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008) although this needs to be confirmed.
164741		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this secretive species is very poorly known. It has been recorded from the transitional area between a mountain side and alluvial fans, within the Irano-Turanian steppe with desert climate and sandy -clay soil. The vegetation is dominated by <em>Artemisia</em> bush.
164741		population	eng	This is a poorly known species (Soheila Shafti pers. comm., September 2008).
164741		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats within the range of this species. No significant habitat loss within the known range.
164742		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine the range of this species.
164742		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from the Zagros mountains of western Iran. The type specimen was collected at Shah Bazan, 12km NNE of (km 347 on the railway) near the small affluent Ab-I-Khornos at 600m asl (Werner 2006; Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Additional specimens have been collected from the vicinity of the type locality (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September, 2008).
164742		habitat	eng	The type locality consists of temperate oak forest (<em>Quercus brandti</em>), and has been described as xerophilus deciduous steppe-forest (Zohary 1973; Werner 2006). It appears to be restricted to large boulders within this habitat (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September, 2008).
164742		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
164742		threats	eng	Although it is not well known, and has only been recorded from a limited area to date, there appear to be no major threats to this species within its rocky habitat.
164743		conservation	eng	It might be present in the Nibandan Wildlife Refuge. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
164743		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the remote Dasht-e Lut desert in eastern Iran (Anderson, 1999). Reports from Pakistan require confirmation (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).
164743		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in Iran from open gravel desert with no or very little, vegetation (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999).
164743		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens.
164743		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species, it is found within a remote desert environment containing very few people.
164744		conservation	eng	Its range includes several protected areas.
164744		distribution	eng	This species is present in Turkey in the mountains of southern Anatolia and on part of the southern coast. It ranges from sea level up to 2,100m asl.
164744		habitat	eng	It is found in rocky areas and on loose stone walls in forested or wooded areas and Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It can be found in some degraded habitats. The female lays between three and eight eggs.
164744		population	eng	It is a very common species.
164744		threats	eng	This species can be threatened in parts of its range by forest fires.
164748		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas in Jordan, Turkey and Egypt. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. No further conservation measures are needed.
164748		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Ethiopia and Eritrea, through Sudan and Egypt, Israel (introduced to Eilat), southwestern and northeastern Jordan, eastern Syria, Turkey (southeast Anatolia only), most of Iraq, western and southwestern Iran, northwestern, northern and eastern Saudi Arabia (with isolated central populations), southwestern Yemen, Kuwait, Qatar, northern United Arab Emirates, eastern and southern Oman, eastwards to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. It has been introduced to the USA (Texas) where it is currently believed to be expanding its range. The natural range of this species is not clear, since it appears to have been introduced over much of its range (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). Populations on the African coast have almost certainly been introduced by human agency and the only report from Eritrea is that of Heyden in 1827, so there is considerable doubt about whether the species still survives in this country. This species can be found from sea level to 1,800 m above sea level.
164748		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky coastal areas. It occurs in stony areas, on gravelly plains, moderately sandy desert with sparse vegetation, dry wadis and in dry grasslands. It can be found in urban areas, villages and on building walls and ruins. In general, this is a very commensal species.
164748		population	eng	This is a common to abundant species, particularly in coastal urban areas. It is generally expanding its range and population size.
164748		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Animals are occasionally persecuted in tourist resorts, and there is some collection of the species for the pet trade, although this does not seem to have a significant impact on the overall population.
164749		conservation	eng	The species is included into the Red Data Book of Russian Federation (2001): category 3 - a rare species within the limits of Russia with distribution on the extreme northern border of its range. This species has been recorded from protected areas in Lebanon and Turkey. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Israel there have been recent attempts to captive-breed this species for conservation purposes. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, range, population size and threats to this species.
164749		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central, southern and eastern Anatolia (Turkey) into the Caucasus of northwestern Iran, Armenia, extreme northeastern Azerbaijan, northeastern Georgia and southern Russia (in southern Dagestan). It also occurs south of Turkey in northwestern Syria, Lebanon, northern Israel (extinct in the Judean hills in central Israel), and northwestern Jordan. It is found between 600 and 2,000m asl.
164749		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is found in woodland with a scrub or grassy understory, with stony and rocky areas. It can also be found in cultivated land, plantations and rural gardens. It is restricted to humid or moist areas in the south of its range. It is often found in trees. The female lays two clutches of between nine and eighteen eggs annually. The young are sexually mature after two years.
164749		population	eng	It is common in the north of its range, and is rare in the south of its range. It is declining in Jordan. Subpopulations distributed on the northern Black Sea coastline are declining.
164749		threats	eng	In Turkey this species is present in a wide range of habitats and there are no significant threats. In the southern parts of its range it is possibly threatened by habitat loss, and populations may be significantly impacted by predation by cats (in Israel). It has been recorded in the pet trade, but this is not believed to be a significant threat.
164751		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
164751		distribution	eng	This endemic Iranian species is known only from the type locality of '60km NE of the city of Kermanshah 47 5 E - 34 52 N Kermanshah Province' Iran, at about 1,800m asl; and from the Alvand Mountains (part of the Zagros Mountains), in southern regions of Hamedan Province, about 21 km southwest of Hamedan city (ca. 48º 25´ E, 34º 33´ N) at 2,800m asl. It is not known if this species is relictual or quite widespread on the Iranian plateau and Alvand Mountains (Rastegar-Pouyani & Rastegar-Pouyani, 2001; Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). It is presumably more widely distributed in the upland and mountainous steppes of northeastern Kermanshah Province.
164751		habitat	eng	This species is associated with upland and mountainous steppes, with luxurious vegetation. Animals forage among shrubs and hide in holes when disturbed. In the Alvand Mountains, this species has been recorded from stony hills and mountainous steppes (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Vegetation at the type locality is mainly <em>Astragalus</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>, <em>Gondelium</em> as well as various other species of the families Graminaceae and Compositeae (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). The area is snow-covered during the winter, with a relatively short mild summer period (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Animals may be found foraging among shrubs, and take refuge in these shrubs when alarmed (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006).
164751		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
164751		threats	eng	In Kermanshah, there appear to be no major threats to this species in this sparsely populated area, with very little habitat disturbance taking place (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). In the Alvand Mountains it is possible that the steppe-type vegetation in which this species has been recorded could be converted to agricultural use (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). Further details are needed to confirm that this is a threat to the species.
164752		conservation	eng	There are no protected areas to the north of Shiraz where this species could possibly be present. More research is needed into its distribution range, threats, and habitat status of this species.
164752		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-central Iran, where it is currently known only from the type locality of '150 km NE of Shiraz, Fars Province' (Rastegar-Pouyani and Nilson 1998, Anderson 1999). It has been recorded at about 1,800 m asl. It seems probable that this is a widely distributed species, and that it is sympatric with <em>Eremias persica</em>, <em>Trapelus agilis</em> and <em>Phrynocephalus scutellatus</em> (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008).
164752		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of open silt and gravel plains with luxuriant steppe vegetation (Anderson 1999).
164752		population	eng	It is known only from the type series of a few animals.
164752		threats	eng	The threats to this species or the habitat within its range are currently not known.
164753		conservation	eng	Populations of this species have been recorded from numerous protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
164753		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Caucasus region of western Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, northwestern Iran, southern Georgia and northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Kars, Erzurum, Agri and Van) (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It may be present in Turkmenistan. It is present from 600m to 2,500m asl.
164753		habitat	eng	It is a typically species of high steppe habitats and rocky areas close to streams. Populations can be found in high altitude forests. The female lays two clutches of four eggs. Unlike some other members of the genus, this is not a parthenogenic species.
164753		population	eng	Over most of it's range populations are high and stable (40 to 60 animals per km2).
164753		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although some localised declines have been recorded.
164754		conservation	eng	Populations occur in several protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present although further research to determine the species’ population status and range, particularly whether or not it occurs in Syria, would be desirable.
164754		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern and southeastern Turkey and also presumably in northern Syria, although there are currently no records from this country. It has been recorded between 400 and 1,900 m asl.
164754		habitat	eng	It is found in open Mediterranean-type shrubland.  These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices.  It is an egg-laying species.
164754		population	eng	It is a common species (Avci pers. comm. 2008).
164754		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species or its habitat at present.
164756		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is need to establish suitably managed reserves for this species. There is a need for further general research into the distribution and natural history of this species, and to develop conservation legislation and education programmes within the species range. There is a need to regulate trade in this species, and populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.
164756		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region, where it occurs in the Black Sea coastal area of Russia. It is distributed in the Krasnodar Territory and covers the both slopes of the lowest north-western part of the Great Caucasus from Papai mountain in the west to the peak of Bol'shoy Pseushkho mountain in the east. It has been recorded between 200 and 950m asl.
164756		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded from different Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean habitats. These range from intrazonal clearings near to rivers, up to meadows, transformed steppes and the juniper forest ecotones.
164756		population	eng	This species is considered to be extremely rare.
164756		threats	eng	This species is highly threatened by overcollection of animals for the pet trade.
164757		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within the general range of this species. More research and monitoring is needed into the status of the population and habitat status. Additional surveys are needed to determine if the species is present in Iraq.
164757		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern and central Iran. It has been recorded from Fars Province, Central Province, Hamadan Province, Khuzistan Province, Lorestan Province and Esfahan Province (Latifi 1991). The distribution map based on Latifi (1991) is tentative . The species might be present in Iraq, although this requires confirmation.
164757		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from mountainous areas, foothills, fields, grasslands and semi-desert regions (Latifi 1991). The female lays between three and five eggs during the summer (Latifi 1991).
164757		population	eng	Although it is infrequently found, it is more commonly collected than many other snakes.
164757		threats	eng	There are probably no major threats to this reasonably adaptable species.
164759		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Gorovanskie perski protected area in Armenia; although protection measures for this species within the park need to be improved. There is an urgent need to identify and protect any remaining populations of this declining species. Formerly this species was included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (as <em>P. h. persicus</em>) (1984) - category 1. It is included in the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987).
164759		distribution	eng	This species occurs as several isolated populations within the Araks River valley of Armenia, Nakhichevan (Azerbaijan), and Turkey. It is a lowland species found up to 500 m asl.
164759		habitat	eng	Population of this species are largely limited to a limited patches of saltwort and wormwood semi-desert with sparse xerophytic herbaceous vegetation and takyr-like (clay desert) soils. Animals are particularly numerous on weakly-stabilized sandy soils (such as that found in the Gorovanskie peski protected area, Armenia). Animals can marginally also be found on traditional arable land. The females lay clutches of eggs two or three times in a season. This species is difficult to reproduce in captivity.
164759		population	eng	The total number of animals in the Araks River is unlikely to exceed 1,500 - 2,000 individuals. Approximately four to six animals are found per hectare.
164759		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being significantly fragmented by conversion to intensive agriculture and urbanization in the Araks River valley. Much of the appropriate habitat has been lost within the past few years.
164762		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas. More general research is needed into the natural history, distribution and possible threats to this little-known species.
164762		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the single locality of Amanos Mountain, near Hatay, Turkey. It has been recorded at 1,300m asl.
164762		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and bushy areas near or surrounded by forest. As with similar species in this genus, it species is difficult to find because it lives in the soil. It is not known if this species lays eggs.
164762		population	eng	This species is rare.
164762		threats	eng	The threats to this recently described species are poorly known. It is possible that there are no major threats to the species in its rocky habitat, although this needs to be confirmed.
164763		conservation	eng	The only known locality is not within a protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine the range of this species.
164763		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of 'Mianrahan region, Zagros Mountains, 40 km NE city of Kermanshah, Kermanshahan Province' in western Iran (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It was recorded at 1,450m asl. It probably occurs in a wider area in the vicinity of the type locality.
164763		habitat	eng	It is known only from inside a small cave at the type locality. The cave is within a narrow fault valley through the Zagros Mountains (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1996; Anderson, 1999). The species is active at night, hiding in rock crevices during the day (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It is probably not a cave specialist, although more details are needed on the natural history of this species.
164763		population	eng	It is currently known only from a few specimens.
164763		threats	eng	Although it is not well known, there appear to be no major threats to this species within its very rocky habitat.
164765		conservation	eng	In Turkey it is present in the Ceylanpinar protected area. In Jordan it has been recorded from the Al Shawmary protected area.
164765		distribution	eng	This species ranges from far-southeastern Turkey (Avci, pers. comm. 2008), northern and northeastern Iraq, and western and central Syria to northern Jordan.
164765		habitat	eng	It is found in scattered steppe vegetation on solid earth. It can be found under or between stones. It can be found in lightly cultivated agricultural areas. It lays eggs.
164765		population	eng	This species is rare.
164765		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
164766		conservation	eng	It is present within the well-protected Kavir National Park.
164766		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the Kavir Desert of northern Iran. It is currently known only from the type locality of the Maranjab sand dunes in Isfahan Province (Mozaffari and Parham 2007). It is believed to be a restricted range species (Mozaffari and Parham 2007).
164766		habitat	eng	This species is believed to be endemic to the Maranjab sand dune habitat (Mozaffari and Parham 2007). Animals are found in the sand dunes, and are not present in surrounding gravelly areas. The dune weed <em>Stipagrostis pennata</em> dominates the vegetation at the type locality (Mozaffari and Parham 2007). It is presumably an egg-laying species.
164766		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the type series.
164766		threats	eng	Although it has a specialized habitat in a relatively restricted area, there is no habitat degradation (very few people are found within the species range) and the species appears to be secure.
164768		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the protected cedar forest reserve Ciglikara Ormani in the Turkish western Taurus Mountains (Göran Nilson pers. comm., October 2008). Further research is needed to confirm the range, population status of this species, and the impact of collection.
164768		distribution	eng	This species is known only from one locality, Kohu Dag, 20km east of Elmali, in southwestern Anatolia, Turkey (Nilsen and Andrén, 2001). It has been recorded around 1,500-1,900 asl. It might occur more widely but surveys for this species in the region have failed to find it, suggesting that it is probably a range-restricted species.
164768		habitat	eng	It is known from montane, open, Mediterranean forest. It prefers open areas so can benefit from some logging. It is a ovoviviparous species (Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).
164768		population	eng	It is an extremely rare species (Avci and Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).
164768		threats	eng	It is a very restricted range species. There is some collection of the species for the pet-trade and possibly for scientific collections. Farmers that seasonally use the area persecute the snake as they are not sure if it is dangerous. The species' habitat is not currently threatened.
164770		conservation	eng	This species is not found in any protected areas. More research is needed to understand the distribution and population dynamics of this species.
164770		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Turkey, where it is known only from the vicinity of Ercis within Vilayet Van of eastern Anatolia (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It is present at an altitude of around 2,000m asl.
164770		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky and stony open slopes and high steppe habitats. The females typically lay a clutch of between three and four eggs (Baran and Atatür, 1998). This species cannot tolerate modified habitat (Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).
164770		population	eng	This species is rare within its limited range (Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).
164770		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
164771		conservation	eng	It is not present in a protected area, and there is a urgent need to conserve the remaining small area of habitat.
164771		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in the vicinity of the Bami Station in southern Turkmenistan. It is a lowland species found below 100m asl.
164771		habitat	eng	It is limited to a very distinct soft salt-flat like area (solonchak soil). It is not found outside of the primary habitat type. It is an egg laying species.
164771		population	eng	This species is generally rare in suitable habitat (Natalia Ananjeva pers. comm., September, 2008).
164771		threats	eng	The restricted habitat of this species is threatened by agricultural expansion (croplands). The region has been irrigated allowing the conversion of land from the solonchak-type soil.
164773		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there do not appear to be any protected areas within the range of this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
164773		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Central Plateau, Iran, where it is known only with certainty from the localities of Kuh-e Taftan, Sargad and eastern Kerman (Anderson, 1999). Records of this species from several localities between Sistan and Bampur need to be confirmed, and might represent an undescribed species (Anderson, 1999, Steven Anderson pers. comm., September 2008).
164773		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountainous rocky areas, cliffs, river banks and dry channels and plains (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). It is most often found on granite, but can also be found on conglomerates and other rocks (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996).
164773		population	eng	It is abundant between the Sistan and Bampur Depressions (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996).
164773		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.
164774		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is found in a few protected areas in the north east Black Sea region.
164774		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern coastal areas of Turkey, and has also been recorded from two localities in northwestern coastal Turkey. It is found from sea level up to around 2,000m asl.
164774		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas, in hills, with bush, scrubland and oak forest. It is a ovoviviparous species.
164774		population	eng	It is a very rare species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).
164774		threats	eng	It is collected by specimen hunters as well as for the international pet trade, and the level of harvest is probably unsustainable. It is persecuted by the local people as it is seen as potentially dangerous. There is also significant development for tourism along the coast where this species is found.
164776		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable habitat and monitor populations.
164776		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caucasus where it is restricted to northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Erzurum and Kars). The species does not appear to be present in adjacent areas of Armenia and Azerbaijan. It has been recorded up to 2,200m asl.
164776		habitat	eng	The species is found in rocky or stony areas with sparse vegetation, and sometimes in rocky clearings within forests (Baran and Atatür, 1998).
164776		population	eng	This is a rare and narrowly distributed species.
164776		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock (cattle) and unsustainable collection of firewood. Three large dam projects (Karakurt, Denizgölü and Kuloğlu) are scheduled for the region over the next ten years, and these are anticipated to impact parts of the species range.
164778		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>
164778		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality: Pishin, Baluchistan, Pakistan (Frost 2009).
164778		habitat	eng	It has been found in a breeding pond in a cultivated area on the outskirts of Pishin town (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009). It appears to do well in traditional agricultural areas  (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009).
164778		population	eng	<p>It was a common species when last seen on&#160; April 2005, where there were over 50 adults in a pond about 20 meters in diameter (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009). It is thought to occur commonly in the general area (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/></p>
164778		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.</p>
164783		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are required for this species.
164783		distribution	eng	<em>Anax nigrofasciatus nigrofasciatus</em> is known from central and southern China including Hong Kong and Taiwan, Japan (not including Hokkeido) and South Korea. The subspecies <em>A. n. nigrolineatus</em> is known from Bhutan, China, India, Nepal and Thailand (Tsuda 2000). There is probably an overlap between these two subspecies in Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan.<br/><br/>The Blue-spotted Emperor (<em>Anax nigrofasciatus</em>) is a common and widespread species in China, where its range includes Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Xizang (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006) and it has also been recorded from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984, Wang 2000). The species' range extends to South Korea (Lee 2001) and Japan, not including Hokkeido (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tsuda (2000) lists <em>A. n. nigrofasciatus</em> from Philippines but no other data for this species are available from there. The type locality for the nominate subspecies is in Japan and the type locality for the subspecies <em>A. n. nigrolineatus</em> is in Darjeeling, India.
164783		habitat	eng	The Blue-spotted Emperor frequents montane ponds, lakes and reservoirs.
164783		population	eng	<em>Anax nigrofasciatus</em> is a common and widespread species.
164783		threats	eng	The species is not thought to be under any serious threat at present.
164784		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are required for this species.
164784		distribution	eng	The nominate subspecies occurs in Myanmar, southwestern China (Yunnan) and northern Thailand, with intermediate forms (between the subspecies <em>Mnais andersoni andersoni</em> and <em>M. a. tenuis</em>) occurring in Vietnam and Laos (Asahina 1975a,b,c). The subspecies <em>M. a. tenuis</em> is common and widespread throughout much of central and southern China and Taiwan.
164784		habitat	eng	The species prefers tropical moist montane forest with permanent water courses; streams, rivers and creeks.
164784		population	eng	<em>M. andersoni</em> is a common and widespread species.
164784		threats	eng	<em>Mnais andersoni</em> is not believed to be under threat at present.
164785		conservation	eng	A conservation priority for this species is to raise awareness through educational programmes.
164785		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum eroticum</em> has been recorded from China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Russia. <br/><br/>The nominate subspecies (<em>S. e. eroticum</em>) is recorded from northeast China, Japan (including Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and the Ryukyus (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), and Korea (Lee 2001). Needham (1930) described the synonym <em>Sympetrum ignotum</em> from 'Weisohn, Manchuria'. Hua (2000) records <em>S. ignotum</em> from Jiangxi, northeast China and Zhejiang, but the records from Jiangxi and Zheijiang probably refer to the subspecies <em>Sympetrum eroticum ardens</em> (McLachlan). Zhang and Zhang (12006) record <em>S. eroticum</em> (as <em>S. ignotum</em>) from Shaanxi. Kosterin and Malikova (2007) record <em>S. e. eroticum</em> from southern, far-eastern Russia. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. e. ardens</em> is widespread in Tawian (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984) and is known from southern China, including Fujian, Jiangsu, and Sichuan. Wilson (1999) recorded <em>S. e. ardens</em> from Guangdong.  Hua's (2000) records of <em>S. e. eroticum</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Yunnan relate to the subspecies <em>S. e. ardens</em>.  The two subspecies are not clearly differentiated, apart from minor size differences although they overlap in distribution.
164785		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lentic habitats including ponds, lake margins, rice paddies and marshes.
164785		population	eng	The population of <em>S. eroticum</em> is stable and commonly found over its widespread distribution.
164785		threats	eng	There are no known threats currently affecting this species.
164786		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed.
164786		distribution	eng	<em>Davidius davidii</em> is known from China and India. The nominate subspecies was described from two females collected from "Moupin, Thibet". Asahina (1988) considered the type location to be Moupin in western Sichuan near Tachenlu ("Tatsienlu" now officially Kangtang located 2,600 m asl at the Ta River), northwest Mt. Omei (van Pelt 1993). Chao (1990) records the nominate subspecies from Sichuan, and it has also been recorded from Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006). In 1916, Laidlaw described the subspecies <em>D. d. assamensis</em> from one male and two females collected from Gopaldhara, Darjeeling (Fraser 1934). The subspecies <em>D. d. shaanxiensis</em> was described from Miaotaizi, Shaanxi and this taxon is also known from the type locality of the synonym <em>Davidius qinlingensis</em>, which was described from Ningshan, southern Shaanxi. Yang and Davies (1996) described the subspecies <em>D. d. yunnanensis</em> from Lijiang, Yunnan.
164786		habitat	eng	The species occurs around forested streams.
164786		population	eng	There is no detailed information known on this species, except that it has a wide range and is not under threat at present.
164786		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at this time.
164787		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for <em>T. citimus</em>, nor are any thought to be needed at present.
164787		distribution	eng	<em>Trigomphus citimus</em> is distributed from Russia, China, Korea and Japan. It was described from a single male collected from Manchuria. Chao (1990), who studied the type at Cornell University, lists <em>T. citimus</em> from Jilin (southeast Manchuria). Kosterin and Malikova (2007) list <em>T. citimus</em> from southern, far-eastern Russia, but the species' status there is uncertain. Lee (2001) lists three records of the nominate subspecies from Korea including Seoul, Gwangneung and Cheongnyangni. <br/><br/>Asahina (1949) described the subspecies <em>T. c. tabei</em> from Japan. Sugimura <em>et al</em>. (2001) report the distribution of <em>T. c. tabei</em> from western Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.
164787		habitat	eng	Members of the <em>Trigomphus</em> genus frequent lentic waters and sluggish rivers with muddy substrates.
164787		population	eng	There are no detailed numbers available for the species population, although it is common in its widespread range.
164787		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats affecting this species.
164788		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed at this time.
164788		distribution	eng	The Dusky Lilysquatter (<em>Paracercion calamorum</em>) has a range that extends from southern far-eastern Russia to Japan, and to India and Indonesia. The nominate subspecies (<em>P. c. calamorum</em>) is known from central and eastern China, Korea and Japan. The subspecies <em>P. c. dyeri</em> occurs in southern China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, Nepal, and Thailand (Tsuda 2000).
164788		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams and rivers.
164788		population	eng	The species endures a stable population and is common throughout its range.
164788		threats	eng	There are no threats known that are currently affecting this species.
164789		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present, and none are thought to be needed.
164789		distribution	eng	The Common Blue Jewel (<em>Rhinocypha perforata</em>) has a wide range. The nominate subspecies is known from China, Hong Kong, Laos, Taiwan and Viet Nam (Tsuda 2000). Within China <em>R. p. perforata</em> has been recorded from Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan and Yunnan (Hua 2000), and from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984). The subspecies <em>R. p. beautifica</em> is known from the Naga Hills in India. The subspecies <em>R. p. limbata</em> is known from Yunnan (China), India, Laos (Tsuda 2000), Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005) and Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
164789		habitat	eng	The Common Blue Jewel frequents swift flowing streams and rivers in low hills and mountains.
164789		population	eng	This species has a stable population is common throughout its range although detailed numbers are unknown.
164789		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
164790		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed at present.
164790		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion auranticum</em> has a wide range. The nominate subspecies <em>C. a. auranticum</em> is known from Indonesia (including Sumatra, Java and Sumba), Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Viet Nam (Hämäläinen 1987, Tsuda 2000). The subspecies <em>C. a. ryukyuanum</em> is known from southern China (including Fujian (Hua 2000), Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007), Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001)), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Taiwan (Wang 2000), Korea (where it has been collected from several spots in the mid-south of the Korean peninsular (Lee 2001)), and the Ryukyus Islands in Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001).
164790		habitat	eng	This species frequents marshes, pond margins, sluggish streams and irrigation channels.
164790		population	eng	A common species throughout its range although detailed population numbers and trends are not available.
164790		threats	eng	There are no known threats currently affecting this species.
164791		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed.</p>
164791		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality: Abra Esperanza, District of Oxapampa, Province of Oxapampa, Pasco region, Peru (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). It occurs between 2,790-3,000 m asl.
164791		habitat	eng	This species inhabits an area of humid elfin montane forest just below the crest of the Abra Esperanza (±3,000 m asl) (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). All individuals were found at night on low vegetation, 30–100 cm above the ground, during the dry season (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
164791		population	eng	<p>A total of 14 individuals were found in the course of two field surveys conducted in 2007 (N=13 individuals) and 2008 (N=1 individual) (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009).</p>
164791		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
164792		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed.</p>
164792		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from the type locality: Santa Bárbara, at 3,300 m asl, District of Huancabamba, Province of Oxapampa, Pasco region, Peru (Duellman and Chaparro 2008).
164792		habitat	eng	It is only known from the upper limits of the elfin forest or “ceja de montaña” (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). The holotype was found perched on a leaf ca 60 cm above the ground at night in the dry season (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
164792		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the holotype (see Duellman and Chaparro 2008) and one other individual found in one of two recent surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009).
164792		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>
164805		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Monitoring of changes in the water level due to the effects of water abstraction and research on the distribution of the species are recommended.
164805		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Turkey, where it was described from Başpınar Spring (Tefenni, Burdur), but has also been reported in several distant areas in Prov. Burdur (Kebapci pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Several locations are known (fewer than five) but this species needs more surveys on the distribution to clarify whether it is only known from a few widely scattered localities.</p>
164805		habitat	eng	<p>Başpınar spring forms a small pond with rich vegetation. İndividuals can be observed on and under the stones. Since this is a recently described species habitat and population trends are unknown.<br/></p>
164805		population	eng	There is no information available about the population trends of this species. Since this is a recently described species habitat and population trends are unknown.
164805		threats	eng	The land around the locality is used for agricultural purposes and ongoing water extraction as well as the intensification of the agriculture in the region are possible threats for the species.
164807		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are know for this species, however the species is considered to be possibly extinct, and as such surveys should be carried out in adjacent springs to determine if the species is still extant.
164807		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Turkey and known only from the type locality; “a spring below the railway line, between the village Dazkırı and Çardak, near the north coast of the Acı lake” (Radoman 1973) and it is not been refound since it was first described (Kebapci and Yildrim pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
164807		habitat	eng	<p>This species originally inhabited freshwater springs (Radoman 1983).<br/></p>
164807		population	eng	There are no data on population trends, as it has been lost from the last known sites.
164807		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss of the habitat as the springs have dried out.
164810		conservation	eng	Further investigation on population size and trends in the sourrounding areas is needed, to establish the real distribution of this species.
164810		distribution	eng	<p>This species (and its monotypic genus) are endemic to Turkey. The species is known only from one locality, the type locality at Pınarbaşı spring in Vedelek village, Gemlik (Prov. Bursa) (Radoman 1973). At present it is still only known from one location but it is possible that is present in more sites, however for the conservation assessment, we have used the precautionary principle, as it is currently very restricted.</p>  <p></p>
164810		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit freshwater springs.
164810		population	eng	<p>There is no recent information about its populations and trends.</p>
164810		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats known for this species currently, but the real distribution of this species is unknown, so threats may be present once the distribution is confirmed. <br/></p>
164811		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species. Further research in the area is required to confirm the presence of the species. If the species is present to prevent extinction habitat restoration would be required.
164811		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Graecoanatilica brevis</span> is endemic to Turkey. It is known only from its original description, the type locality being Pinar Gözü spring, near village Dular, by the road Yesilova-Burdur, near south-west coast of Burdur Lake (Radoman 1973).<br/></p>
164811		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit freshwater springs.
164811		population	eng	The population of this species is unknown and its presence uncertain as the spring has been dried up for the last two decades. Its presence in surrounding springs is also uncertain as during surveys no living specimens could be found and near the south coast of  Burdur lake Late Pleistocene fossil shells can be found.
164811		threats	eng	This species has been affected by the management of water systems through the construction of dams, which has caused the spring to dry up.
164812		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although parts of its range are within protected areas (e.g.&#160;En Teo Nature Reserve,&#160;Hula Valley Nature Reserve). Further work is required in order to clarify the species' distribution and population status. Protection of headwater sites feeding springs in the Hula Valley may be necessary.
164812		distribution	eng	This species was first described from springs at 'En Te'o, in the Hula Basin in  northern Israel (Schütt 1991). This area is now within a protected area (En Teo  Nature Reserve). It also occurs in other parts of Israel (Bodon <em>et al.  </em>2001).
164812		habitat	eng	This species is known from karstic springs in the Hula Valley, Israel (Kabat and Hershler 1993).
164812		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
164812		threats	eng	The Hula Valley (including the lake and surrounding swamp) was drained in a large-scale project in 1956 in order to provide irrigation for agriculture in the valley (Hollis 1990). This has led to the extinction of several species of fish, odonates and other freshwater organisms (Goren and Ortal 1999, Schneider 2004). However, it is not known whether the type of habitat used by this species - karst springs in caves - were negatively impacted by this project, or whether further abstraction of groundwater resources has taken place.
164814		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for this species. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended.
164814		distribution	eng	This species is endemic for <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, known only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> (a small lake south of Lake Skadar, <st1:place w:st="on">south of Montenegro</st1:place>, near the town of Ulcinj).
164814		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives between the emergent (<em>Phragmites communis) </em>and floating (<em>Nymphaea alba</em>, <em>Nuphar luteum</em>) vegetation in the littoral zone of   <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>
164814		population	eng	The population size and trend is unknown for this species.
164814		threats	eng	<p>There is a rapid process of eutrophication observed at least in the last decades. </p><p>The dimension of the lake is small (3.5 km2), the water of Šasko Lake comes originally from the Bojana river and several springs. The communication with the Bojana river is interrupted during summer period (July and August) resulting in a decrease in the level of water of the lake.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
164817		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. New surveys are required to confirm the continued presence in the lakes and springs. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the water well oxygenated and clean, reduction of the use of pesticides in the crop production and management of spring sites so that they are not 'containerised' for water off-take for domestic and agricultural use.
164817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Turkey where it is found in the littoral zones of the two freshwater lakes: Lake Beyşehir and Lake Eğirdir (prov. Konya and Isparta), as well as in two isolated freshwater springs (prov. of Burdur and Isparta). The populations in Lake Beyşehir are probably lost, due to habitat degradation and conversion, such that approximately half of the extent of occurrence is though to have been lost.
164817		habitat	eng	Mainly a lacustrine species preferring water with high oxygen content, and usually found in aggregations on stones on the lake bed.&#160; Has also been found in similar habitats in small freshwater springs (Kebapci and Yildrim, pers. comm., 2009).
164817		population	eng	The populations in Lake Beyşehir are probably declining, due to habitat  degradation and conversion, as approximately half of the extent  of occurrence is thought to have been lost (Kebapci and Yildrim pers. comm., 2009).
164817		threats	eng	The first location at Lake Beyşehir is threatened by declining water inflow due to a combination factors, including off-take for agriculture and falling annual rainfalls (Kebapci and Yildrim, pers. comm., 2009) and it was affected by a drop of more than 5 m. In addition Gulle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2008) report that the second location at Lake   Eğirdir is threatened by siltation and agriculture pollution (pesticides, phosphates and chloride levels), with changes in lake levels due to increased frequency of drought.
164818		conservation	eng	As a recently described species there is no data available on conservation actions, however data is needed on distribution, population status and current threats.
164818		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands of Spain, where it is described from one location - La Granja bei Esporles, Mallorca 39.671°N, 2.559°E (Beckmann 2007).
164818		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
164818		population	eng	As a recently described species there is no population data for this species.
164818		threats	eng	As a recently described species there is no data available on current threats to these freshwater springs.
164819		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species or the habitat. However, given that the species is restricted to a single site, it is recommended that a habitat monitoring protocol be implemented to detect future degradation events.
164819		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella occasinucula </span>is endemic to Turkey and confined to its type locality, the Kırk Oluk spring in Boz Dağlar (between Birgi und Bozdağ, NE to Ödemiş, İzmir (UTM grid square NC 94)).
164819		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella occasinucula </span>is a stenoecious spring species found attached on stones in the spring and its surrounding pools.</p>
164819		population	eng	The current population is considered stable and not fragmented.
164819		threats	eng	There are no major threats at this spring at present. However, like any species living at a single spring site, the species is vulnerable to a single event, for example, pollution which could impact the species, and lead to a change in conservation status.
164821		conservation	eng	Conservation actions recommended include habitat monitoring to detect imapcts of water use on the species, and further surveys to  establish the full distribution of the species in the region. Management of water is needed to prevent disturbance of the species.
164821		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it was recently described from the Alfios river (Peloponnisos, Greece) in July 2004.
164821		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species restricted to thermal pools.
164821		population	eng	No data on population trends as this species was recently described.
164821		threats	eng	This species is a specialist in thermal pools, and sites close by are  used to exploit these water sources for recreational purposes, so the  species is vulnerable to disturbance.
164822		conservation	eng	<p>The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. The threat status requires review once more survey work in the surrounding areas is undertaken, as it maybe present at other sites.<br/></p>
164822		distribution	eng	<p>This species was recently described from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region>, where it is believed to be endemic. Boeters (2006) described this species from Baumgrenze, springs at 1465 m ASL, western Chiemgauer Alpen, Oberbayern, Germany. </p>
164822		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
164822		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
164822		threats	eng	The threats to this species come from&#160; habitat decline due to water pollution (nitrates from agriculture) and abstraction of water (for domestic or agricultural purposes).
164823		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation activities in the region. Research on the population size, distribution, trends, life history and ecology of this species, as well as threats to it, is required. Habitat monitoring is recommended to monitor the impact of aquaculture on the habitat quality of this species.
164823		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudobithynia kathrinae </span>is only known from the small stream of Ras el Assi flowingg into the Nahr el Assi river in Lebanon.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
164823		habitat	eng	It lives in cold, running water with vegetation.
164823		population	eng	There are no data about the population trends of this species.
164823		threats	eng	The major threat is the aquaculture activity that is occurring in the river. In addition, changes in rainfall patterns giving rise to an increase in aridity affecting water-flow in the river could affect the habitat quality of this species.
164824		conservation	eng	This species is protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Montenegro. On-going transboudary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. monitoring of the habitat is needed.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>
164824		distribution	eng	<em>Valvata montenegrina </em>is endemic to&#160;Montenegro, where it is known from several closely located sites,&#160;from&#160;the river Mareza drainage (canals and pools), the Skadar lake (Podlum and Karuc spring) and Maol Brato.&#160;Lake Skadar is split between Montenegro and Albania,&#160;only 25 km from the Adriatic Sea.&#160;Lake Skadar has a surface area that can vary between 370&#160;km<sup>2</sup>&#160;and&#160;in winter, its waters swell and expand to cover all of 540 square kilometres, but is very shallow(between 5 and 8 metres on average). &#160;It is possible that this species may exist in the Albanian part of the lake.
164824		habitat	eng	This species   lives in canals between the emergent (<em>Phragmites communis) </em>vegetation (Mareza canals). Also in littoral part of the Skadar lake between vegetation consisting of <em>Ceratophyllum </em>and <em>Myriophyllum</em>, which covers partially decomposed organic matter and red clay (Karuc spring) or in emergent (<em>Scirpus lacuster</em>, <em>Phragmites communis</em>, <em>Typha angustifolia</em>) and floating (<em>Nymphaea alba</em>, <em>Nuphar luteum</em>, <em>Trapa natans</em>) vegetation (Malo Blato, Podhum).
164824		population	eng	No information about population.
164824		threats	eng	The primary threat is considered to be the eutrophication of all the sites. In addition, there has been loss of habitat at Mareza area, due to the use of water taken for drinking to the capital Podgorica.&#160; IThere has been rapid process of eutrophication in sublacustrine spring at Karuc with a rapid declining of the lake depth in last 25 years due to the use of this sublacustrine spring for the aquaculture.&#160; There are also proposals to use spring water from Karuc for drinking water in towns along the coast of Montenegro.
164825		conservation	eng	There are no present conservation actions. Further data is needed on the range and taxonomic status of other sub-populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia</span> that may be this species. Until this is resolved the known location's habitat should be monitored.
164825		distribution	eng	The type locality is in the Börzsöny Mountains in North Hungary where it is known from one confirmed locality. However, there are further sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia</span> is found which may be conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia kissdalmae</span> and so its range might in fact extend north-westwards to Horehronske podolje in Central Slovakia and to Slovak Karst and Aggtelek Karst eastwards.
164825		habitat	eng	The species is found in ground waters in cave systems.
164825		population	eng	It is difficult to record this species and therefore insufficient data is available to determine the population size and structure and trends.
164825		threats	eng	There are no known threats, but the distribution has not yet been established for this recently described species.
164827		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. New surveys are required to confirm the continued presence in the reservoir. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the water clean and management of reservoir so that water levels are maintained in habitat.
164827		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece where it was described from a dam in Alfios river (Olimbia, Ilia Peloponnisos) (Reischutz and Reischutz 2004).
164827		habitat	eng	This species was found in a freshwater reservoir, however it is not certain the original habitats for the species (Radea, pers. comm., 2010).
164827		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
164827		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are unknown, although the major threat to this species is probably the degradation of its habitat due to water pollution (Radea, pers. comm., 2010).<strong></strong>
164829		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the distribution, population, habitat and threats of this species.
164829		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known from Font de la Barrinà [UTM 31T BF7327] (municipality of Horta de San Juan region of Terra Alta), close to Estrets de Quiquet en el Massís del Port in Catalunya in northern Spain. At present it is only known from a single location, but further surveys are needed in the region to confirm that this is a restricted range species.
164829		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
164829		population	eng	Although fresh shells were collected, no living specimens have been, and the population status is uncertain.
164829		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although there are generalised threats in the region, which could impact the    species, especially the pressure on water resources (extraction for    domestic and  agricultural purposes) and the possibility of impact from   increased  frequency of drought events.
164830		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation strategies for this species. Monitoring of population trends are required as this is currently unknown. This is especially important due to the likely threat from water extraction in the area. Appropriate water management to prevent over-abstraction of water is needed.
164830		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="TR">This freshwater spring species is endemic to Turkey, where it is currently known from five springs in Antalya Tufa zone and Taurus mountains (in Prov. Muğla/Antalya), including the type locality of the Kırkgöz springs (Yıldırım and Karaşahin 2000). </p>
164830		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species found in aggregations on stones by or near the source.
164830		population	eng	There is no infomation about its populations and trends.
164830		threats	eng	The main site, the type locality at Kırkgöz springs, is used for water extraction for drinking water and the management for offtake of water may lead to 'cleaning of the source' removing this species habitat. Similar threats are believed to impact the other locations as water abstraction in the region is a major ongoing threat for the species (Kebapci and Yildrim pers. comm., 2009).
164832		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Further data is required on its distribution, population trends and threats to inform a conservation assessment.
164832		distribution	eng	This recently described species was found in between La Granja and Esporla, on Mallorca, Balearic islands of Spain and is only considered to be found at the type locality.
164832		habitat	eng	The species seems to have a preference for freshwater rivers and streams.
164832		population	eng	There is little population information as the species has only recently been described.
164832		threats	eng	Any threats to this recently described species are unknown at present.
164833		conservation	eng	Although the species is listed as Vulnerable in the Andalucian Red List of Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón 2008), there are no known conservation actions for this species. More research is needed relating to the distribution, population trends and threats towards this species. Conservation actions include need to establish better habitat management to allow water offtake without damaging the spring sites (Springs, Ponds and artificial pools/tanks). <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">If future <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">surveys <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">do not <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">result in <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">an <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">expansion <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">of <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">its range, then ex-situ breeding programmes maybe required to <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">implement <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">a <span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps">recovery programme.<span title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions" class="hps"><span class="" title="Cliquer ici pour voir d'autres traductions"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
164833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Spain. This species was found in the provinces of Cadiz, Sevilla, and Malaga (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)). The populations in Almerıa and Huelva have tentatively been assigned to this species as Iberhoratia cf. morenoi until new specimens are studied (Arconada<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). <br/>Localities are the following: <br/><ul><li>spring in Prado del Rey, Cadiz (type locality) (UTM 30STF8160); </li><li>Benamahoma, Cadiz, UTM TF87;&#160; </li><li>spring Los Palominos, Zahara, Cadiz, UTM TF87; </li><li>spring El Canajoso, Coripe, Sevilla, UTM 30STF848928; </li><li>Casarabonela, Malaga, UTM 30SUF3572; </li><li>spring Matiana, El Chorro, Malaga, UTM 30SUF4386; </li><li>spring La Quemona, Malaga, UTM 30SUF0581; </li><li>spring El Valentın, Alozaina, Malaga, UTM 30SUF3366.</li></ul><br/>Locations that have been tentatively assigned to the species as Iberhoratia cf. morenoi (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)): spring in Berchul, Felix, Gador mountains, Almeria, UTM: 30SWF298813; El Marchal de Anton Lopez, Almerıa, UTM: 30SWF3383; spring las Mimbreras, Zufre, Huelva, UTM: QB39.
164833		habitat	eng	This species live in springs with clear water and aquatic vegetation. In this typical habitat of Iberian valvatiform Hydrobiidae, they can be found on the roots and leaves of aquatic vegetation, stones, or even in the sand (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
164833		population	eng	There is no population data for this species as it has only been recently described.
164833		threats	eng	The major threats to this species include changing water management practices which change the habitats at the sources, so that these freshwater springs can be used for drinking water supplies and to irrigate agriculture.
164835		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended due to the threats from water abstraction and pollution in the region.<br/><br/>In Lebanon the species has been categorised as Vulnerable (VU  B2ab(ii,iii)c(ii); D2) as it occurs at less than 10 locations, has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.  &#160;The ongoing decline in the quality of the habitat due to water  abstraction and water pollution and sudden drops of water levels in  springs caused either by natural or anthropogenic factors could lead to  the extinction of the spring snails, thus monitoring of water levels is  an essential requirement.
164835		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lebanon and Israel. In Lebanon it is only known from nine locations, whereas in Israel, it is now thought to be quite widespread (Mienis pers. comm. 2011) based on unpublished material in Museum Collections.
164835		habitat	eng	This species occurs in springs that are, typically, higher than 1,000 m above sea level.
164835		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status or trends of this species.
164835		threats	eng	Abstraction of water (surface and ground) and pollution are both considered to be threats to this species, especially in Lebanon (van Damme pers. comm. 2009).
164836		conservation	eng	No conservation action are place for this species. Research on the population size, distribution and trends of the species and habitat monitoring are needed.
164836		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia pesicii</span> is endemic to Turkey and only known from two localities: the type locality of Akçapınar Stream (5–6 km long) (Glöer and Yıldırım 2006), and the Kadın Azmağı Stream in the Muğla Province (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca.</span> 2 km long).<br/></p>
164836		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found on stones on the bottom of fast flowing creeks flowing into Aegean Sea. At the source of Akçapınar Stream it is present in a little swamp area rich in vegetation. Mean values of temperature are 13–16.9 and 15.6–16.4 °C in Akçapınar and Kadın Azmağı streams respectively (Kalyoncu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160; <br/></p>
164836		population	eng	There is no information available about populations, past present or future trends for this species.
164836		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is surrounded by agricultural fields and bordered by a developing tourism centre, Akyaka, which is affected by anthropogenic impacts. Currently the levels of pollution increase downstream, with the greatest concentration at the mouth of the river. However in summer periods the water levels in the stream can decline leading to an increased impact of sewage on the water quality which will impact the species.
164837		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Recommended conservation actions include monitoring habitat and population trends together with communication and capacity building.
164837		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Turkey where it is present only in one locality, <span lang="TR">Kırkgöz springs, covering an area of approximately 0.7 km<sup>² </sup>and reaching 3 m depth.
164837		habitat	eng	<p>Kırkgöz karst springs are composed of interconnected spring ponds, which cover an area of approximately 7 ha and reaching 3 m depth. Macrophytic vegetation is rich and monthly average temperatures (in 2002) ranged between 14.6 ºC (Jan) and 16 ºC (April) (Güçlü 2003). The large Kestel polje is 40 km away and within the recharge area of the spring system and has a discharge rate of 15 m<sup>3</sup>/s (Ekmekçi  2005). These springs are the<span lang="TR"> richest single spot for endemic freshwater gastropods species in Turkey (Kebapci pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
164837		population	eng	There is no information about populations or their trends.
164837		threats	eng	Intensive utilization of the Kestel polje for agriculture is a major cause of threat through pesticide pollution (at 0.08-9 mg/l) through sinkholes. Nutrient pollution is also present, although not at critical levels (Ekmekçi 2005). Current surveys do not indicate any effects on populations because the studies are too short term, therefore more research is recommended to monitor these results. The species is likely to be affected in the future by water extraction, pesticides and nutrient pollution.
164838		conservation	eng	The wetlands surrounding Lake Trichonis are a protected site under the European Natura 2000 system, (GR2310009-Limnes Trichonida kai Lysimachia).  (Radea pers. comm. 2010), however there is no species-specific action plan in place.   An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use for agricultural purposes needs to be drastically reduced. Research on population trends and distribution is needed.  <p>&#160;</p>
164838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, where it is recorded from two lakes, Trichonis and Lysimachia (Albrecht <em>et al</em>. 2009).
164838		habitat	eng	This freshwater species lives in the littoral zone of lakes on stones.
164838		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
164838		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to drops in water level in these lakes related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area of the two lakes and settlements near the Lake Lysimachia, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. The construction of a road along the north-eastern edge of&#160;Lake&#160;Trichonis has destroyed some of the surface springs adjacent to the lake and the construction material washed into the lake deteriorated the quality of the habitat of this small snail.</p><p>&#160;</p>
164839		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Actions recommended include habitat monitoring and further surveying to establish the full distribution in the region. The known locality should be protected unless other sites are discovered.
164839		distribution	eng	This is&#160;a recently described species which is currently only known from&#160;the hypo-thermal springs at Klunove Toplice, in the small village of Bušeca Vas, 7 km south-west of Brežice, Krško, in eastern Slovenia.
164839		habitat	eng	The species has been found in freshwater hypo-thermal springs at 26–28°C.
164839		population	eng	The population trend is unknown as the species was only recently described.
164839		threats	eng	This species is a thermal pool specialist, and sites close by are used to exploit these water sources for recreational purposes, so the species is vulnerable to disturbance.
164840		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed regarding the distribution, population trends and threats of this species.
164840		distribution	eng	This species is listed for as extending from Turkey, south through Jordan, Syria, Lebanon to Israel (Yildrim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). &#160;It is found in the Orontes River Schutt (1982, published, 1983). Miensis (pers. comm., 2011) reports that the species is no longer present in Israel following the drainage of the&#160;the coastal swamps and the Hula swamps where it was previously recorded.
164840		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal rivers and possibly in brackish water.
164840		population	eng	There are no data available on the population status of this species.
164840		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
164842		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring is needed to monitor both the level of water abstraction and water quality, and appropriate water management is needed to prevent habitat degradation. Research is required on the population trends of this species.
164842		distribution	eng	<em>Graecoanatolica kocapinarica</em> is endemic to Turkey and confined to Kocapınar spring, Aşağı Gökdere Village 25 km south of Eğirdir, Isparta.
164842		habitat	eng	It is a spring species, found in aggregations on stones.
164842		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown.
164842		threats	eng	The only known locality is in a village, therefore it could be assumed that in the future increasing water abstraction will affect the quality of the habitat of this species.
164843		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether this is a single species or a species complex. Research is also needed relating to the distribution, population trends and threats of this species.
164843		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Turkey. It was described from Bursa, and has also been reported from a broad area including the Provinces of İzmir, Çanakkale, Afyon, Eskişehir, İzmit, Denizli, and Isparta (Yıldırım 1999). However, as the taxonomy is not very clear (because is based on shell characters), the limits of its distribution cannot be judged precisely.</p>
164843		habitat	eng	This is a spring species, observed on stones and plant remnants.
164843		population	eng	There is no information about the populations and trends of this species.
164843		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
164844		conservation	eng	The conservation actions for this species are unknown.
164844		distribution	eng	This newly described species is known from&#160; Font d’en Collell (Albanyà, l’Alt Empordà) in Catalunya in northern Spain. At present it is only known from a  single location, but further surveys are needed in the region to confirm  that this is a restricted range species, as it has been described on the basis of shells only.
164844		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
164844		population	eng	Only dead shells are known of this recently described species, but it<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was described as abundant and displaying a great variability, especially with regard to shape (relative width) of the shell.
164844		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although there are generalised threats in the region, which could impact the    species, especially the pressure on water resources (extraction for    domestic and  agricultural purposes) and the possibility of impact from   increased  frequency of drought events.
164845		conservation	eng	<p>This species is strictly protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List where it is deemed to be Extinct (EX). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
164845		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum wiaaiglica </span>is endemic to Austria, specifically the north east Alps in Lower Austria <span id="result_box" class="long_text">on the  northwestern outskirts of the Pielach Schwarzenbach and it is only known from the type locality, where only dead shells have ever been found, and none for the last 20 years.
164845		habitat	eng	This freshwater species is known from dead shells from groundwater sources and water from rock fissures.
164845		population	eng	This species is considered very rare, possibly extinct, as there have been no living specimens collected in the last twenty years.
164845		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also a threat from pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices.
164847		conservation	eng	Site management and the establishment of a buffer zone around the lake are recommended.
164847		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Falsipyrgula pfeiri</span> is endemic to Turkey and known from Lake Eğirdir, prov. Isparta (Yıldırım 2004). Shells have also been collected from Kovada Lake, which is connected to Lake Eğirdir by a small channel (Kebapci pers. comm. 2009).</p>
164847		habitat	eng	<p>The presence of the species in the lake reflects its oligotrophic character. It was not recorded from the shallower “Hoyran lake” part of the lake (Yıldırım 2004). </p>
164847		population	eng	Populations are stable.
164847		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to changing water quality, as there is increased sedimentation and increasing concentration of pesticides and fertilizers in the lake and the species is possibly impacted by these changes (Gulle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)&#160; There is also a threat from increased frequency of droughts, which could impact the quality of the habitat through reducing inflow to the lake. The impact of the introduction of non-native fish on <span style="font-style: italic;">Falsipyrgula pfeiferi </span>is unknown, but these have<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>that has dramatically changed the native fish fauna (Kucuk <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al</span>. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164848		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, although further data are required on population status and monitoring for decline in habitat would be recommended to determine response to threats.
164848		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Ligurian Alps between Sestri Levante and Levanto, in Italy. The range is very restricted, as the species is only found in springs and in subterranean waters.&#160;It has been collected in 30 sites, but eight of them were from floodline debris of rivers, so known from about 20 springs, in a restricted area in Liguria, less than 20 km in length. Only the shells and the specimens published in the paper has been collected, with less than 250 specimens and living specimens have been found only in springs (Bodon, Cianfanelli and Lori, pers. comm. 2010).
164848		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater springs.
164848		population	eng	Only the shells and the specimens published in the paper have been collected, with less than 250 specimens and living specimens have been found only in springs (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2004).
164848		threats	eng	<em>Alzoniella braccoensis</em> is considered to be threatened in Italy, because the range is very restricted and it is vulnerable for habitat destruction, through capping/disturbance of the springs and groundwater lowering, as well as, maybe, introduction of alien species or groundwater pollution.
164849		conservation	eng	None conservation measures needed.
164849		conservation	eng	None known.
164849		distribution	eng	<em>Gyraulus ehrenbergi</em> is presen in Egypt, Nile Delta. According to more recent information it was also found in Giza, Lake Qaron (Fayoum) and Lake Nasser. Therefore, it is expected to be all over the Nile (Ibrahim 1999). Its type locality is in Egypt
164849		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the region of Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999) and two dubious records from north Sudan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999). The type locality is in Egypt.
164849		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nile Delta, Egypt. More recently it has been reported in Giza, Lake Qaron (Fayoum), and Lake Nasser, therefore it is expected to be present throughout the Nile (Ibrahim 1999).
164849		habitat	eng	Found among dense vegetation - <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em> and <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>.
164849		habitat	eng	It is found among dense vegetation - <span style="font-style: italic;">Eichhornia crassipes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum demersum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton crispus</span>.
164849		habitat	eng	It lives among dense vegetation - <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em> and <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>.
164849		population	eng	No data available
164849		population	eng	No information available.
164849		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
164849		threats	eng	No current threats to the species.
164849		threats	eng	None known.
164850		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List, as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends and&#160;surveys of other springs in the region.</p>
164850		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the type locality, at the&#160;spring of the Schlauchgraben south of Moosbrunn, Southern Vienna Basin, Lower Austria.
164850		habitat	eng	<p>This freshwater species lives probably in interstitial parts of groundwater and gravel deposits, since it was found in a drainage pipe (only empty shells).</p>
164850		population	eng	There is no population information available.
164850		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat destruction, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater and pollution in the form of eutrophication.</p>
164852		conservation	eng	This species lies within a protected area, and hence is less vulnerable to changes, however, at present there are no specific species conservation plans in place. Research actions include further surveys to determine if the species is only found at one waterfall system, as well as conservation actions to protect the river from changes in flow regime and water chemistry.
164852		distribution	eng	This newly described species is restricted to the Krka River, in Croatia (Gloeer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) where it is currently only recorded from the type locality, at Skradin, [43.805480°N, 15.963934°E].
164852		habitat	eng	This species was found on the travertine terraces directly at major waterfall, where the snails were resting on stones within highly oxygenated water (Gloeer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)
164852		population	eng	As a recently described species, there is no data on population trends, although few specimens have been collected.
164852		threats	eng	The Krka River lies within a national park, and is a major tourist destination. At present the risks to the site are minimal, and although the species is known from one of the travertine waterfalls, there are 17 in total along the river system.&#160; However the major threat would be the changes in water chemistry that might impact the calcium-rich waterfalls.
164853		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed relating to the population distribution and trends, habitats and threats to this species. If groundwater extraction continues at present rate, this and other species will become extinct, so water management plans are required that take account of the subterranean groundwater biodiversity.
164853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and was recently described (Reischütz and Reischütz 2004) from the region of Arkadia, in the northern Peleponnes.
164853		habitat	eng	It is a subterranean species. We found in ten years of surveys only dead shells lying in a pond at a freshwater spring, which had been dried out in July 2009 due to water extraction.
164853		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown, but it is believed to be declining due to drying out of the habitat, with few shells appearing in samples.
164853		threats	eng	Reischütz and Reischütz (pers. comm. 2010) over ten years of surveys found only dead shells lying in a pond at a  freshwater spring, which had been dried out in July 2009 due to water  extraction. No other species were found at this spring, and were believed already lost. The spring showed no  rest of humidity. It is not known how deep into the ground water  the extraction of water reaches.
164856		conservation	eng	There are no local conservation actions present in the region. Conservation&#160; actions recommended would be the implementation of protected area status, habitat monitoring schemes to check for further decline in habitat quality and review of adjacent pools to see if the species has a more extensive distribution.
164856		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudobithynia amiqensis</span> is endemic to Lebanon. It is restricted to the Aamiq pond in the Bekaa region surrounded by reed belt in the Litani river area<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>. This pond has an area of about 280 ha &#160;forming the largest remaining freshwater wetland in Lebanon, lying at 865 m on the western side of the Bekaa valley, fed by the El Rhabe stream from springs high up in the Lebanon Mountains.<br/></p>
164856		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in one large pond surrounded by reed belt in the Ammiq (Litani). <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
164856		population	eng	There is no information about the population status of this species.
164856		threats	eng	<p>Eutrophication is considered the major threat due to intensive agriculture activities around the pond. An additional threat is the water pumping for agricultural purposes that is taking place in the region.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
164857		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. New surveys are required to confirm the presence in springs in the region, to determine distribution and threats. Conservation actions include the implementation of spring management plans to keep the water well oxygenated and clean, reduction of the&#160; management of spring sites so that they are not 'containerised' for water off-take for domestic and agricultural use.
164857		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberhoratia aurorae</span> is endemic to Spain, where it is found in Provinces Cáceres, Toledo and Salamanca (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160; The type locality was a spring between Hervás and Jerte, Cáceres, UTM: 30TTK551596
164857		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species.
164857		population	eng	This species is recently described and hence there are no data on population trends.
164857		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, however general threats include management of spring sites so to 'containerised' and improve the sites for water off-take for domestic and agricultural use.
164858		conservation	eng	There is no current conservation strategy in place for the species. Given the potential threat from the tropical snail <em>Thiara scabra </em>(Müller, 1774), the decline in lake levels and impact from eutrophication of the lake as a consequence of heavy agriculture around the lake, actions including monitoring of the population and habitat decline trends is required.
164858		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Falsipygula barroisi</span> is endemic to Israel and known from Sea of Galilee (Mienis and Mienis 2008) and its tributaries (Schütt 1988). <br/></p>
164858		habitat	eng	The species is a mud dwelling lacustrine species. The Sea of Galilee is a monomictic lake with average surface temperatures ranging from 14.7 (Feb) to 28.6 (Aug) °C.
164858		population	eng	There is no information available about its populations and trends.
164858		threats	eng	<p>The lake is used as a water supply and eutrophication is seen as consequence of heavy agriculture around the lake. The tropical snail <em>Thiara scabra </em>(Müller, 1774) has been reported from Sea of Galilee recently and has became the dominant gastropod species in a short duration (Mienis and Mienis 2008), and may endanger the survival of the species. In addition lake level changes have also been observed in the past five years when the annual rainfall has been far below the average amount, causing the drying up of permanent streamlets and waterholes and a sharp decline in the water level of the only large lake in Israel, the Sea of Galilee (Mienis 2010).<em></em></p>
164860		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for the region, although habitat monitoring and population monitoring would be recommended to check on population decline levels. Further research on other suitable adjacent habitats to see if the range is more extensive is also advised.
164860		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudobithynia levantica</span> is currently thought to be endemic to Lebanon. This species is known from two locations, the Hermel and Rass el Assi, a small stream from Nahr el Assi (about 2 km downstream from Hermel). Due to the proximity to the Syrian border, it may occur in Syria (Glöer and Bößneck 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
164860		habitat	eng	This species lives in vegetated parts of cold and fast-running rivers.
164860		population	eng	There is no information about the population trends of this species.
164860		threats	eng	<p>The major threat is chemical pollution as a result of fish-farming (Trout) along the river, potentially causing eutrophication. In addition, changes in rainfall patterns could increase aridity and affect water-flow in the river, potentially degrading the habitat of this species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
164863		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species, further data on range, population and threats are required for a full conservation assessment.
164863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it was recently described from a water-trough on the street by Menfi near Sciacca in Sicily (Italy).
164863		habitat	eng	This freshwater snail is found in a water trough and may live in adjacent springs feeding the trough.
164863		population	eng	There is no data on population status, as it is a recently described species.
164863		threats	eng	The threats to this species are disturbance to the habitat and pollution as the species lives in a water-trough beside a road.
164864		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species. Habitat should be monitor and communication actions, to raise awareness of the local communities, are needed.
164864		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is only known from the Graie Alps, NW of Turin.&#160;The range is very restricted, and the living specimens have only been found in three springs (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2004).
164864		habitat	eng	The species is only found in freshwater in karst systems
164864		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. About 200 shells and 40 specimens have been collected in the 3 sites, as published in the paper (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2004).
164864		threats	eng	The species is rare, with a restricted range and given that it occurs in springs, the species could be affected by habitat destruction (improving the water capture points), &#160;pollution and possibly, introduction of alien molluscs (like&#160;<em>Potamopyrgus antipodanum</em>). Most of the sites occur outside of protected areas, and as such the springs could be captured to feed aqueducts. In other cases, the spring is near the road, so it could be sufficient to have some roadworks with a manhole to alter the habitat.
164865		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place for this species. As a newly described species further data on its distribution, population status, habitat preference and trends as well as threats are required before a conservation assessment can be made.
164865		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently believed to be endemic to Albania, and it was described from ‘Abfluss des wasserwerkes' in Vau i Dejes, south-east von Skoder, Albania (Reischutz & Reischutz 2008). Reischutz (pers. comm, 2010) commented that it was only found in debris ejected from these three springs, but was believed to be present in the underlying groundwater system. However, it was not found in surveys of other adjacent springs.
164865		habitat	eng	This&#160;species&#160;lives&#160;in groundwater and subterranean&#160;fissure&#160;water&#160;in Karstic areas. Reischutz examined springs around the original region and failed to find any living or dead specimens (pers. comm, 2010).
164865		population	eng	As a newly described species there is no data on population trends.
164865		threats	eng	The potential threats to this species would be pollution of the groundwater, but at present these threats are not known
164867		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species in place. As no data is currently known, monitoring of population trends of the species is required. Habitat monitoring is also required due to the change in water levels caused by summer droughts, as this may impact the quality of the habitat and consequently the species.
164867		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Graecoanatolica tenius</span> is endemic to Turkey. Apart from its type locality, Gemiú Village spring near Acı Lake (Prov. Denizli), it is found in several springs in the Afyonkarahisar province (i.e., Gökgöl Village (Dinar), Incirli springs (Dinar), Çapalı Lake). Further surveys are necessary to determine whether the species is present at localities between these two lakes regions.<br/></p>
164867		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in a freshwater spring; it is present in the littoral zone of Gemiş spring near Acı Lake and several sources in the Afyon province. It is also known to be a lacustrine species; it is found in the littoral zone of the Lake.<br/></p>
164867		population	eng	At Çapalı Gölü’nün, the populations in the lake can be abundant (18% of the fauna) depending on the seasonality and the water quality (Ertan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
164867		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sudden drop of water levels in lakes due to summer drought episodes in the past, present and expected to continue in the future. It is also affected by the over-extraction of water.
164869		conservation	eng	Protection of the natural habitat state at this spring is the main conservation measure required to conserve <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella turca</span>. One possible action would be to limit the effect of human disturbance, which is presently the main threat affecting&#160; this species.
164869		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella turca </span>is endemic to Turkey<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> where it is only found at one site, the Cire spring (Isparta).</p>
164869		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella turca</span> is a stenoecious species (i.e., it can only survive in a very restricted range of habitats). It is found attached to stones in freshwater springs and surrounding pools, a habitat which has been highly modified by human recreational activities in this area.
164869		population	eng	There is no information available about its populations and trends.
164869		threats	eng	The original habitat at this spring has been modified as it lies within a recreational zone used by tourists. The spring is used by the village and the banks of the spring are frequently managed by the villagers to maintain access to the spring.
164870		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist for this species. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended.
164870		distribution	eng	This species is endemic for <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, known only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> (south of<st1:place w:st="on"> Montenegro</st1:place>, near the town of Ulcinj).
164870		habitat	eng	This species lives between the emergent (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites communis</span>) and floating (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea alba, Nuphar luteum</span>) vegetation in the littoral zone of the Lake   <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename>.
164870		population	eng	Current population and population trends are unknown for this species.
164870		threats	eng	The Lake    Šasko is undergoing rapid eutrophication, which has been evident in the last decade. The dimension of the lake is small (3.5 km<sup>2</sup>), the water of Lake   <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko </st1:placename>comes originally from Bojana river and several springs. The communication with the Bojana river is interrupted during summer period (July and August) resulting in a decrease in the level of water of the lake.
164873		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this recently described species. Further research is required on the distribution, population status and threats to the species.
164873		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the Balearic Islands of Spain, where it is described from one location - Brunnen in Deia, Mallorca 39.746°N, 2.649°E (Beckmann 2007).
164873		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs.
164873		population	eng	This species was recently described so the population trends are not known.
164873		threats	eng	The species is recently described and the threats to the site are unknown.
164874		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions  known to be&#160; in place. Research on threats, population status and  distribution are required to fully evaluate the status of this species.
164874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is only known from the type locality at Font d'en Collell, Albanyà, l'Alt Empordà, Province Gerona,<br/>[UTM 31TDG7584].
164874		habitat	eng	This species inhabits interstitial water in river systems.
164874		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
164874		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although there are generalised threats in the region, which could impact the    species, especially the pressure on water resources (extraction for    domestic and  agricultural purposes) and the possibility of impact from   increased  frequency of drought events.
164876		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Further distributional  data is required to establish whether it is restricted to a single  site, or whether it is more widespread and to identify any threats to these sites. Following this a revised conservation assessment can be made.
164876		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the Island of Mallorca, where it is only known from the type locality, a small spring on the edge of a stream at Torrent de Sa Farinera, near Sta Tafona, just over three km south-west of Capdepera, Mallorca.
164876		habitat	eng	The species was found in freshwater springs close to small stream. It is thought that the species is possibly present in the groundwater underlying the site.
164876		population	eng	There is no data on population trend.
164876		threats	eng	Any threats to the species are unknown.
164879		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Lake Kastoria is included in the network Natura 2000 (GR1320001-Limni Kastorias). However the ecosystem of this lake is disturbed and polluted mainly because the water of streams draining into it carry agricultural fertilizers. The area would benefit from better water management plans to ensure the long-term survival of the freshwater species occurring in this lake.
164879		distribution	eng	This species is found in Macedonia (Northern Greece) where it is recorded from Lake Kastoria (Glöer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). The Kastoria Peninsula (with the town of Kastoria) divides the lake into two parts, the larger to the north and the smaller to the south. The total lake area is 28 km².
164879		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocks of the littoral zone (0–0.5 m depth) of the eutrophic lake Kastoria (Macedonia, Northern Greece) (Glöer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
164879		population	eng	The population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia kastorias</span> remains unknown.
164879		threats	eng	The main threats to this species arise from human activities around the lake, such as intensive agriculture and disposal of untreated town waste which pollute the lake water.
164880		conservation	eng	The are no conservation measures in place. Recommended conservation  actions include monitoring habitat and population trends together with  education of users regarding the biodiversity of the spring and impacts of human activities.
164880		distribution	eng	This freshwater species is endemic to Turkey and is only known from one locality, <span lang="TR">Kırkgöz springs, covering an area of&#160; 0.7 km<sup>² </sup>and reaching a 3 m depth.
164880		habitat	eng	<p>Kırkgöz karst springs are composed of interconnected spring ponds, which  cover an area of approximately 7 ha and reach 3 m depth.  Macrophytic vegetation is rich and monthly average temperatures (in  2002) ranged between 14.6ºC (Jan) and 16ºC (April) (Güçlü 2003). The  large Kestel polje is 40km away and within the recharge area of the  spring system, and has a discharge rate of 15 m<sup>3</sup>/s (Ekmekçi  2005). <span lang="TR">It is the richest single spot for endemic freshwater gastropods species in Turkey.</p>
164880		population	eng	There is no information about the populations of this species or their trends. The populations are likely to be affected in the future due to water extraction, pesticides and nutrient pollution.
164880		threats	eng	Intensive utilization of the Kestel polje for agriculture is a major  cause of threat through pesticide pollution (at 0.08–9 mg/l) through  sinkholes. Nutrient pollution is also present, although not at critical  levels (Ekmekçi 2005). Current surveys do not indicate any effects on  populations because the studies are too short term, therefore more  research is recommended to monitor these results. The species is likely  to be affected in the future by water extraction, pesticides and  nutrient pollution.
164881		conservation	eng	<p>Ongoing trans-boundary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. &#160;Habitat monitoring is recommended to determine future changes in conservation status for this species.&#160;</p>
164881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake, and at present known from 5 sites in the Montenegro part of the lake (Virpazar,Vranjina, Tanki Rt, Karuč, island Grmožur). However as</st1:placetype>&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> extends to&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Albania</st1:placename>, it is expected that species should be found on the Albanian side of the <st1:place w:st="on">Lake</st1:place>. Among more than 100 samples collected in different waters of Montenegro, no specimens of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">R. skutaris</span> could be found, thus it is presumed that the species <span style="font-style: italic;">R. skutaris</span> is endemic to Sakdar Lake (Gloer and Pesic 2008).<br/><strong><br/></strong>
164881		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the emergent and floating vegetation in littoral zone of this freshwater lake. </p>
164881		population	eng	No population data available to show declines, but it is not recorded outside the lake.
164881		threats	eng	Primary threat is considered to be the rapid process of eutrophication in <st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>; further the spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc should be captured for coastal (part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region></st1:place>) water drinking, leading to additional reasons for lake level fluctuation, which could impact littoral zone habitats.
164882		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for the species nor for the region. Further research into the population and distribution of this species are required in order to assign a suitable category.
164882		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Lebanon and is also known from Jordan, Syria and Israel. In Lebanon it lives in the spring area of Orontes (Nahr el Assi) and in other springs of high altitudes. In Israel it is known from a single spring site (Mienis pers. comm. 2011).
164882		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in a freshwater spring, which is the type locality near Saida, and in the Hula region. It is present at high altitudes.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
164882		population	eng	The population trends of this species are not known.
164882		threats	eng	The threats to this species include water extraction and salinization.
164884		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species' habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
164884		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella angelitae</span> is restricted to small region on either side of the border in Austria and Slovenia. It is only known from springs in the area of Lake Bled in Slovenia and in the Tscheppaschlucht just across the Austrian border in Carinthia (Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
164884		habitat	eng	This freshwater species inhabits springs.
164884		population	eng	Although recently described, the population trend for this cryptic species is unknown. It is considered to be a 'very rare' species (Reischutz pers. comm. 2010)
164884		threats	eng	According to Reischutz (pers. comm. 2010) the main threat to this species is pollution, mainly from the over use of fertilisers, as a result of agricultural practices.
164885		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place, although Lake Trichonis is a protected area (Natura 2000 GR2310009-Limnes Trichonida kai Lysimachia).    An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use for agricultural purposes needs to be drastically reduced.<br/></p>
164885		distribution	eng	This species is found in Greece, where it is recorded from Lake Trichonis (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
164885		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the littotral zone of lakes, living on rocks with microalgae.
164885		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
164885		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss, due to a drop in water level related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation to this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail.<br/>  </p><p>&#160;</p>
164886		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' population size and ecology, as it has not been collected since it was described.
164886		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-eastern Anatolia region of Turkey (Yildirim 1999, Yildirim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is only known from the type locality (Schütt and Şeşen, 1993).
164886		habitat	eng	The species was found on stones in a clean spring system of medium depth (Şeşen 1992).
164886		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It has not been collected since the original description, thus there is no information about population trends. The species was found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis buccinoidea, Radix peregra, Unio tigridis, Leguminaia wheatleyi, Ferrissia wautieri </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pseudamnicola bilgini </span>(Şeşen, 1992). The material which is referred to consists of five shells) (Schütt and Şeşen, 1993), this indicates that the species is not the dominant species in its type locality.
164886		threats	eng	The only known locality lies close to Ataturk dam (implemented in 1992), which contributes to rising of the water table in the area. As the rocks beneath are highly permeable, a rise in water table level results in further incision of the rock layers by water, and raised levels of salinity. The natural environment is highly degraded due to heavy agriculture and natural vegetation is very sparse. Accordingly, soil erosion and pollution is also seen in the area. Pollution and habitat change are therefore the current threats to this species.
164887		conservation	eng	On-going transboundary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Lake Skadar area, however, there are no direct conservation measures for this species. &#160;Monitoring habitat quality would provide information on future trends that would impact this species.
164887		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to and known only from Lake Skadar, based in Montenegro and Albania,&#160;only 25 km from the Adriatic Sea.&#160;Lake Skadar has a surface area that can vary between 370&#160;km<sup>2</sup>&#160;and in winter, its waters swell and expand to cover all of 540 square kilometres, but is very shallow(between 5 and 8 metres on average).&#160;This species is expected to be present in the part of the Lake Skadar which belongs to the Republic of Albania and is found at 4 sites of Virpazar, Tanki Rt, Karuč and Malo Blato on the Montenegro part of the Lake.
164887		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the emergent and floating vegetation in littoral zone of the freshwater lake.&#160; </p>
164887		population	eng	The population size and trends for this species are unknown.
164887		threats	eng	There are multiple threats for this species in the lake. Rapid eutrophication has been observed in Lake Skadar (especially in the area of Malo Blato) (V. Pesic pers. comm. 2009) and this is leading to declining habitat quality. In addition, spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc is captured for coastal drinking water (in a part of Montenegro) leading to fluctuating water levels. In the future there is a planned infrastructure project (bridge) in the area of Tanki Rt.
164890		conservation	eng	The only confirmed animals were collected from an unprotected locality (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is possible that the species is present in Ranomafana National Park, although the identity of this population needs further verification (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This is a secretive, or seasonal, species for which the range is very poorly known. Additional directed surveys are required to better determine the distribution of this species and its presence in protected areas. Additional research is needed to identify any threats to this species.
164890		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is currently known only with certainty from a pair in amplexus, and subsequently a number of tadpoles, collected at the type locality of "from km 6 on road Ifanadiana–Tolongoina, 21°21'21'' S, 47°36'47'' E, 468 m asl, Fianarantsoa Province, Southern Central East of Madagascar" (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). A further pair in amplexus, tentatively assignable to this species, has been recorded at a site locally known as Imaloka in the Ranomafauna National Park (21°14'32'' S, 47°27'55'' E, approximately 900-1,000 m asl) (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The identity of animals in Ranomafauna needs confirmation and the species is provisionally mapped at this locality. It appears to be a somewhat secretive species and may have been overlooked at additional localities in the eastern tropical moist forests of Madagascar (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
164890		habitat	eng	The type specimens were collected at night from low vegetation in a swampy area formed by a slowly moving stream that flooded large parts of a small patch of dense palm forest next to highly degraded tropical moist forest (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The possible specimens from Ranomafana National Park were sitting about 1.5 m high on the leaves of a shrub above a small, rather slow moving stream with sandy substrate (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
164890		population	eng	This species is currently known with certainty from two animals collected at the type locality. It appears to be a secretive species with estimates of its abundance difficult.
164890		threats	eng	This species is still quite poorly known and the threats are not known.
164893		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species' distribution, population trends, and threats.
164893		distribution	eng	<span>The species is recorded from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR (e.g. the Xe Bangfai), Thailand (including the Mun River) and Cambodia; from the Chao Phraya in Thailand, and the Malay Peninsula (Kottelat 2001).  It has also been reported from the South China Sea (Munroe 2000).
164893		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">The species is found in large rivers on sandy to muddy bottom (Kottelat 2001).   It occurs along the bottom in flowing waters of large and medium-sized  rivers.  The species feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (Rainboth 1996). In the Mekong the species is migratory (ICEM 2010), passing through the Khone Falls (southern Lao PDR) and Sambor (<span class="st">Kratie Province, Cambodia). Migratory habits elsewhere are not known.</span>
164893		population	eng	This species is locally common to uncommon in suitable habitats.
164893		threats	eng	Mainstream dams are a potential threat to this species. ICEM (2010) consider the species to be vulnerable to mainstream dams on the Mekong River.
164894		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. regelianum</span> is listed on Annex I of the Bern Convention. <br/><br/>The species was listed <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in the Red Book of the USSR (Borodin 1984) as possibly extinct<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, but </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (Golovanov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988) it was listed <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">as Vulnerable</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. The </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">listed it as Rare</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">,</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> and has been listed in the regional Red Lists of Astrakchanskaya and Volgogradskaya regions   (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><br/><br/>Firsov (1997) notes that it has been introduced to the living collection of the Botanical Garden of the Komarov Botanical Institute of the Russian Academy  of Sciences in Saint Petersburg and that protection of the wild populations and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>  propagation and distribution are urgently needed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
164894		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. regelianum</span> is native to South European Russia, south and east Ukraine, and north Caucasus <span style="background-color: white;">(Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). Its main area of distribution is in Russia, with few occurrences in Ukraine (T. Smekalova pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>Firsov (1997) reported that in 1984 this species was found at several widely separated sites situated in the administrative territory of the Volgograd Region (South European Russian Federation) and that the  Red Data Book of the RFSFR shows two localities close to the Volga-Don canal in the  southern suburbs of Volgograd. The author noted that one of these localities was thought to have  been destroyed, while the other is on the "right bank of the Medveditsa River  where it joins the River Don". Further, the Red Data Book of the Volgograd Region (1992)  showed another two localities—one near Stanitosa Glazunovskaya in the Kumilzhensky  District and another near Stanitsa Raspopinskaya in the Kletsky District. In 1996, two new sites were found in the  northwest of the Volgograd Region "on the lower reaches of the Hoper River in  the Kumilzhensky District" and </span>"on the left bank of  Hoper River, 30 km below the first site, in the Shemjakinsky Reserve" <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Firsov 1997). It was also found between Lakes Gromok and Podpeshnoe about 7 km from the village of Bukanovskaya  on the  opposite side of the river.<br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">In Ukraine, it occurs in the south and southeastern steppe districts. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
164894		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">A halophyte that "tolerates </span>a range of habitats, growing in different soils in different subzones of steppe  grassland<span style="background-color: white;">" (Firsov 1997). In Russia, this species has been found in semi-desert and steppe grasses with species of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Artemisia</span><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Kochia</span><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> Crambe </span><span style="background-color: white;">and </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Origanum</span><span style="background-color: white;">, and in water meadows which are </span>occasionally flooded in the spring <span style="background-color: white;">(Firsov 1997). In Ukraine, it grows in salt marshes and flowers in May (Mathew 1996). </span>The Red Data Book of the Volgograd region notes that this plant usually flowers between the end of June and early July after haymaking, and so is  difficult to find when in flower; however, it survives in areas that are not mown (Firsov 1997).
164894		population	eng	Firsov (1997) reported that populations in South European Russian Federation near Stanitosa Glazunovskaya in the Kumilzhensky  District and near Stanitsa Raspopinskaya in the Kletsky District were small.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
164894		threats	eng	Haymaking may pose a threat to this species at some localities as it can be carried out before the plants flowers in June/July. However, its main method of reproduction may be through vegetative propagation.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
164896		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/><br/>It is included in several national Red Lists and classed as Critically Endangered in Moldova, Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii); C2a(i) in Bulgaria, Vulnerable in Romania and Ukraine. In the latter it is protected in Staromanzyrskij zakaznik and in regional landscape park Tiligulskij liman in Odessa region. In Romania, it is protected in Muntii Macin reserve.<br/><br/>Fieldwork and molecular studies are required to determine the taxonomic identity of the European occurrences.
164896		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/><br/>It is included in several national red lists and classed as Critically Endangered in Moldova, Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii); C2a(i) in Bulgaria, Vulnerable in Romania and Ukraine. In the latter it is protected in Staromanzyrskij zakaznik and in regional landscape park Tiligulskij liman in the Odessa region. In Romania, it is protected in Muntii Macin reserve.<br/><br/>Fieldwork and molecular studies are required to determine the taxonomic identity of the European occurrences.
164896		distribution	eng	The natural range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus elwesii </span>extends from Asia Minor to the Aegean Islands, Balkan mountains and northwestern part of the Black Sea shore. In the eastern part of its range, this species is rarer than in the western part. In Romania, it is known from only one locality in the Dobrodgea upland. In Moldova, it also known from one locality only in Gagausia, Komratsky district. There are reported to be 13 localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus elwesii</span> in the Ukraine, found in the Bessarabia upland and near the Black Sea lowland, Odeska and Mykolaivska regions, although these populations require full verification (i.e. to ascertain<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>whether they are<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. gracilis</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">G. elwesii</span>).
164896		distribution	eng	The natural range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus elwesii </span>extends from Asia Minor to the Aegean Islands, Balkan mountains and northwestern part of the Black Sea shore. In the eastern part of its range, this species is rarer than in the western part. In Romania, it is known from only one locality in the Dobrodgea upland. In Moldova, it also known from one locality only in Gagausia, Komratsky district. There are reported to be 13 localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus elwesii</span> in the Ukraine, found in the Bessarabia upland and near the Black Sea lowland, Odeska and Mykolaivska regions, although these populations require full verification (i.e. to ascertain<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>whether they are<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. gracilis</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">G. elwesii</span>). In total, 24 localities are known for this species.
164896		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus elwesii </span>is a late  winter- to spring-flowering snowdrop of woods, scrub and rocky meadows    (Morgan and Leon 1992). It occurs in a variety of habitats: forest (<em>Quercus</em> sp., <em>Fagus</em> sp., <em>Pinus</em> sp., etc.), scrub (<em>Quercus coccifera</em>, <em>Pteridium aquilinum</em>),  and in forest clearings, subalpine pastures, and amongst rocks, at  altitudes from 100 to 1,300 m but most commonly at 800 to 1,000 m.<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, it grows in deciduous forests in the steppe zone: in oak forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span>) in river valleys, in bairak forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Ulmion</span> alliance, in shrub communities of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunion stepposae</span> and the <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometaeae</span> class. In Moldova, it grows in oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>) and hornbeam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus orientalis</span>), and in shrubland.
164896		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus elwesii </span>is a late winter- to spring-flowering snowdrop of woods, scrub and rocky meadows   (Morgan and Leon 1992). It occurs in a variety of habitats: forest (<em>Quercus</em> sp., <em>Fagus</em> sp., <em>Pinus</em> sp., etc.), scrub (<em>Quercus coccifera</em>, <em>Pteridium aquilinum</em>), and in forest clearings, subalpine pastures, and amongst rocks, at altitudes from 100 to 1,300 m but most commonly at 800 to 1,000 m.<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, it grows in deciduous forests in the steppe zone: in oak forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span>) in river valleys, in bairak forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alno-Ulmion</span> alliance, in shrub communities of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunion stepposae</span> and the <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometaeae</span> class. In Moldova, it grows in oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>) and hornbeam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus orientalis</span>), and in shrubland.
164896		population	eng	In Serbia, this species is assessed as Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). In Bulgaria, it is widespread in most of the regions of the country but not common. At some localities there are few individuals only. Population trend seems to be decreasing in many areas. In the Ukraine, the population parameters differ depending on the habitat. In oak forests population density reaches 160 individuals/m², whereas in ravine forests (bairak forests) it has an average of 65 individuals/m², in shrub communities there are 60-140 individuals/m², and in steppe communities 40-50 individuals/m² (Melnyk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Many populations are severely fragmented, as they only occur in rather narrow ecological niches.
164896		population	eng	In Serbia, this species is assessed as Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). In Bulgaria, it is widespread in most of the regions of the country but not common. At some localities there are only a few individuals. Population trend seems to be decreasing in many areas. In the Ukraine, the population parameters differ depending on the habitat. In oak forests, population density reaches 160 individuals/m², whereas in ravine forests (bairak forests) it has an average of 65 individuals/m², in shrub communities there are 60-140 individuals/m², and in steppe communities 40-50 individuals/m² (Melnyk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>Many populations are severely fragmented, as they only occur in rather narrow ecological niches.
164896		threats	eng	In Bulgaria, the species is collected for ornamental or medicinal purposes. Further threats are posed by plantations, tourist infrastructure development as well as recreational activities. In Ukraine, destruction of extrazonal deciduous forests in steppe zones, plantations, cutting of the forests, as well as collection have been described as threats. It is a climate-sensitive species.
164896		threats	eng	In Turkey, the bulbs are collected for legal trade, as controlled by CITES. This is mostly non-threatening and sustainable but in some areas where harvesting is unregulated (little evidence at present) collecting could influence the health of populations.<br/>In Bulgaria, the species is collected for ornamental or medicinal purposes. Further threats are posed by plantations, tourist infrastructure development as well as recreational activities. In Ukraine, destruction of extrazonal deciduous forests in steppe zones, plantations, cutting of the forests, as well as collection have been described as threats.<br/><br/>This is a climate-sensitive species, so future climate changes may impact some populations.
164897		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, it is protected in the Staromaryrskij and Munryrska Dibrova protected areas in the Odessa region. It is currently not on the national Red List but protection is needed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>Fieldwork and molecular studies are required to determine the taxonomic identity of the European occurrences.
164897		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, it is protected in the Staromaryrskij and Munryrska Dibrova protected areas in the Odessa region. It is currently not on the national Red List but protection is needed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>Fieldwork and molecular studies are required to determine the taxonomic identity of the European occurrences.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
164897		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus gracilis</span> is native to southeastern Europe and Asia Minor (Turkey). In Europe, it grows in northeastern Greece and the East Aegean Islands extending north to Bulgaria, Romania and southwestern Ukraine (Davis 1999).
164897		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus gracilis</span> is a spring-flowering snowdrop of woods and scrub communities. It occurs in a variety of habitats: pine, beach, oak, cedar forests, scrub and clearings within vegetation (Davis 1999). In Ukraine, it grows in oak, ash, maple, elm, poplar forests, in steppe ravines, in scrub communities and in cultivated forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span> (Melnyk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
164897		population	eng	In Ukraine, the populations are isolated and occupy areas from 0.5 to 160 ha. Population density differs depending on the type of habitat: in forest communities 116-634 individuals/m² were recorded whereas in shrub communities the density only reaches 28-38 individuals/m² (Melnyk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Observations in Turkey and Greece (A.P. Davis pers. obs.) show that many populations are restricted to less than 1 km², although others are much larger. Many populations are severely fragmented.
164897		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are collection for ornamental or medicinal purposes, forest management, plantations, tourist infrastructure development (including road building), as well as recreational activities. <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus gracilis </span>is climate sensitive, although due to its large range and ecological flexibility may have be less influenced by climate change than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> species.
164898		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
164898		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Greek Aegean Islands of Andros, Ikaria, Naxos and Skyros. It has an extent of occurrence of 10,768 km², an area of occupancy of 2,408 km² and is found at five locations.
164898		habitat	eng	In the wild, <em>G. ikariae</em> is mainly confined to wet, shady places at altitudes above 600 m, where it escapes the severity of the hot, dry Aegean summer. Populations of <em>G. ikariae</em> are commonly found in close proximity to a water-source, usually in deep shade on sloping ground. Small river gorges with rather luxuriant vegetation, including deciduous trees, are a frequent habitat. In these locations <em>Galanthus ikariae</em> is often found growing through Ivy (<em>Hedera</em> sp.) or with <em>Cyclamen hederifolium</em>. Sometimes <em>G. ikariae</em> is found on flat, wet areas in deep soil at the bottom of gorges, where it attains a much larger size. Plants growing in such situations in Andros, have leaves of up to 3 cm wide and 50 cm long. <em>Galanthus ikariae</em> is not totally confined to river gorges and it also grows at the edge of scrub and woodland. On Skyros, for example, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. ikariae</span> can be found in the shade of macchie, with the Cretan maple (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acer sempervirens</span>). It is also found in the shade of large boulders, between rocks, and at the base of rocky outcrops. In all habitats, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. ikariae</span> is most frequently recorded on soils overlying either limestone or metamorphic rocks, such as schist.
164898		population	eng	The populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. ikariae </span>are often small (e.g. sometimes much less than 1 km²), and are mainly confined to suitable cooler and wetter niches, within considerably drier and sunnier macro-habitats. Further work is required to map populations size and density.
164898		threats	eng	For those populations occurring near streams, abstraction or shifts in rainfall patterns (climate change) would significantly influence population health and survival of individuals. There is a possibility of small-scale, illegal collection for the bulb trade, although the presence of this species in cultivation reduces the need for exploitation from the wild.
164899		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
164899		distribution	eng	This snowdrop is endemic to the Greek island of Kastellorhizo (Megisti) in the southeast Aegean and adjacently to a limited area of southwestern Turkey in close proximity to the Mediterranean coast (Davis 1999). It is found at nine localities and has an extent of occurrence of 2,196 km².
164899		distribution	eng	This snowdrop is endemic to the Greek island of Kastellorhizo (Megisti) in the southeast Aegean and adjacently to a limited area of southwestern Turkey in close proximity to the Mediterranean coast (Davis 1999). Within the European part of its range it is found at three localities and has an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 2 km².
164899		habitat	eng	A low altitude species, occurring from 5 to 300 m, that occurs in maquis, typically, in or at the base of north-facing, rocky, limestone bluffs. On the Island of Kastellorhizo it is almost exclusively found in hollows and crevices in limestone rocks, in places where plants cannot be grazed by goats.<br/><br/>The morphological and anatomical features of <em>G. peshmenii</em> are put into clear context when populations of this species are examined <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>. On the island of Kastellorhizo, a typical hot, dry Aegean island, <em>G. peshmenii</em> grows almost exclusively as a chasmophyte on low-altitude, north-facing cliffs and rock outcrops. It is also found very close to the sea, just 10 m from the sea-shore, and as little as 5 m above sea-level. Pockets of soil in rock fissures, hollows, and holes provide a micro-habitat for its existence, and afford protection from the extremes of temperature and climate. <em>Galanthus peshmenii</em> is often found at a height or position that is out of reach of grazing animals, especially goats. Indeed, it is possible that the reason this species is found so frequently growing on rocks is because they have been eaten out of existence elsewhere on the island.
164899		habitat	eng	A low altitude species, occurring from 5 to 300 m, that occurs in maquis, typically, in or at the base of north-facing, rocky, limestone bluffs. On the Island of Kastellorhizo it is almost exclusively found in hollows and crevices in limestone rocks, in places where plants cannot be grazed by goats.<br/><br/>The morphological and anatomical features of <em>G. peshmenii</em> are put into clear context when populations of this species are examined <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>. On the island of Kastellorhizo, a typical hot, dry Aegean island, <em>G. peshmenii</em> grows almost exclusively as a chasmophyte on low-altitude, north-facing cliffs and rock outcrops. It is also found very close to the sea, just 10 m from the sea-shore, and as little as 5 m above sea-level. Pockets of soil in rock fissures, hollows, and holes provide a micro-habitat for its existence, and afford protection from the extremes of temperature and climate. <em>Galanthus peshmenii</em> is often found at a height or position that is out of reach of grazing animals, especially goats. Indeed, it is possible that the reason this species is found so frequently growing on rocks is because they have been eaten out of existence elsewhere on the island<br/><br/>On the Turkish mainland <em>G. peshmenii</em> is not found in such extreme habitats as those of Kastellorhizo, but even here the location of populations is still rather atypical for the genus. In Antalya province the species grows in low altitude <em>Pinus</em> forest, in rocky places, in maquis, and in scrubby areas below cliffs.
164899		population	eng	This is a localized species and there is some evidence of population decline.
164899		threats	eng	A possible reduction in numbers can be caused by private collectors (from outside Turkey).<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. peshmenii </span>is climate-change sensitive: this species is very specific with respect to its habitat (cool, humid niches within Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation). This species has limited potential for dispersal (dispersed by ants) and would be affected by sea-level rise. Degradation in some areas due to changes in land-use affect this plant.
164900		conservation	eng	<p>All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> species are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus plicatus</span> is included in the new Red Data Book of the Ukraine (2009) as Vulnerable, in the Red Data Book of Moldova (2002) as Vulnerable, and in the Red List of Romania as Vulnerable. the species is under protection in Jaltinskij, Krimskij, Karadazkij and Mis Martjan reserves, in Fiolent, Aja, Bajdarskij zakaznik, Velikij Kanjon Krimu, Aju-Dag, Kubalacz, Chapchalskij state zakazniks in Crimean peninsula, in Bilosniznij zakaznik and in the state nature monument Cholodnij Jar in the Cherkasy region in Ukraine. The Moldavian population is included in the landscape reserve Codrii Tigheci.<br/><br/>Populations near large human settlements in Turkey, e.g. near Istanbul, could be under threat in the near future. Other populations in areas of low human population density are probably stable. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
164900		distribution	eng	This species is found around the Black Sea in Asiatic Turkey, Romania, Moldova, the Ukraine and the Russian Federation. One of the main sites is in the Crimean mountains, from Balaclava to Koktebel. In  lowland Ukraine, it is found at only one locality in Cholodnij Jar in the Cherkasy region. There is one locality in Moldova and two  localities in Romania. In Moldova, <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus plicatus</span> grows near the village of Capadia in Cahul county; in Romania, it grows near the village Babadey in the  Tulcea region in Dobrogea and near Babadag. In the Russian Federation, three localities of  <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus plicatus</span> have been discovered in the Novorosijsk  region, northwestern Caucasus. In Turkey this species is mostly confined to the northwest part of Turkey (in Asia).
164900		distribution	eng	This species is found around the Black Sea in Romania, Moldova, the Russian Federation, the Ukraine and Asiatic Turkey. <br/>One of the main sites is in the Crimean mountains, from Balaclava to Koktebel. In  lowland Ukraine, it is found at only one locality in Cholodnij Jar in the Cherkasy region. There is only one locality in Moldova and two <span style="background-color: white;">localities in Romania. I</span>n Moldova, <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus plicatus</span> grows near the village of Capadia in Cahul county and in Romania, it grows near the village Babadey in the  Tulcea region in Dobrogea. In the Russian Federation, three localities of  <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus plicatus</span> have been discovered in the Novorosijsk  region, northern Caucasus. In Turkey this species is mostly confined to the northwest part of Turkey (in Asia).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is 241,084 km² and the area of occupancy is 64 km².
164900		habitat	eng	Occurs in or at the margins of mixed deciduous forests (<em>Fagus silvatica</em>, <em>Quercus</em> sp., <em>Tilia argentea</em>, <em>T. platyphylla</em>, <em>Carpinus betulus, Sorbus tormentalis</em>, <em>Ulmus</em> sp., etc.) and coniferous forest <em>(Juniperus altari</em>, <em>Abies</em> sp.). Found on calcareous and acidic soils; often rich and leafy soils, sometimes sandy, but also occurring on heavier (clay) soils. Often on sloping ground, and sometimes near streams and small rivers. It occurs from 80 to 1,350 m, but most frequently at<em> </em>1,000 to 1,350 m.
164900		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Ukraine, the population trend is stable in the Crimean mountains but declining in the lowlands. The size of the Crimean population reaches millions of individuals and the density of the Crimean population is 350-750 individuals/m². One population in lowland Ukraine occupies 6 km² and the density of the population reaches 170-750 individuals/m². Anthropogenic influence such as cutting of the forest is resulting in declines of the size and density of populations.<br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">The single Moldavian population occupies an area of about 1 ha. The density of this population is 1-23 flowering specimens/m².<br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">Populations in Turkey can be small (less than 1 km</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">²</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">) or much larger (1 km</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">²</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> to 11 km</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">²</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, or perhaps greater).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
164900		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Ukraine, the population trend is stable in the Crimean mountains but declining in the lowlands. The size of the Crimean population reaches millions of individuals and the density of the Crimean population is 350-750 individuals/m². One population in lowland Ukraine occupies 6 km² and the density of the population reaches 170-750 individuals/m². Anthropogenic influence such as cutting of the forest is resulting in declines of the size and density of populations.<br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">The single Moldavian population occupies an area of about 1 ha. The density of this population is 1-23 flowering specimens/m².</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
164900		threats	eng	In the Ukraine, and other countries, logging and cutting of the forest habitat as well as collection of plants for horticulture are the main threats. It is assumed to be a climate-sensitive species.
164901		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is underway in the Experimental Garden of the Patras Botanical Institute and no other measures are needed at the present time (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
164901		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus reginae-olgae</span> is endemic to Greece, the northwestern and western Balkan Peninsula and Sicily (Davis 1999, 2001). The countries of occurence are: Montenegro, Greece and Italy (Sicily). In Greece, it occurs from the northern Pindos to southern and southwestern Peloponnisos and on Kerkiras (Corfu). There is a very good possibility that this species also occurs in Albania (no current records). The area of occupancy is 1,008 km².
164901		habitat	eng	<p><em>Galanthus reginae-olgae</em> is found in a variety of habitats, such as stunted woodland, deciduous woodland, amongst rocks and scrub, near streams on sloping ground, and in river valleys and gorges. It is most abundant at higher altitudes, around 1,000 m. Like other species from southern Europe, most of these habitats provide suitable micro-environments in areas otherwise unsuitable for a predominately woodland plant. This species seems to prefers limestone substrate (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995; Davis, 1999). The populations in Sicily are found on rocky outcrops in an oak forest.</p>
164901		population	eng	In Greece, the species is rare throughout its range but only under threat on the island Kerkira (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). <br/>In Sicily, it is very localised. Areas of suitable habitat suggest that the area of occupancy for this species could be greater than currently recorded, but this is not supported by field observations.
164901		threats	eng	In Greece, the species is not threatened apart from the population on Kerkira that is under threat from the expansion of tourism. It is also safe from being grazed as it contains alkaloids, which makes animals dislike them (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). Forest clearance and water abstraction would influence populations in those areas where it occurs in proximity to rivers and streams. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span>, this species is susceptible to climate change.
164902		conservation	eng	All <span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus</span> spp. are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
164902		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to northwestern Turkey where it is known only from the   Çanakkale Province A(1)A. It has an extent of occurrence of 63 km², an area of occupancy of 39.5 km², and occurs at three locations.
164902		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galanthus trojanus</span> grows in undisturbed, open woodlands, under <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris</span> and is found on basalt, in humus-rich soil at an altitude from 350 to 590 m. It occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus oxycedrus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Paeonia peregrina, Ruscus</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Scilla bithynica, Fritillaria bithynica, Anemone blanda, Crocus</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum </span>sp.,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Arum </span>sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus ficaria</span>.
164902		population	eng	The species is only known from three small subpopulations.
164902		threats	eng	The main threat is from conversion of forest to pasture and cropland. Mining occurs in the area and may eventually influence the size, extent and number of populations. There is also small-scale collection of bulbs by illegal collectors; this activity seems to be restricted to collectors from outside Turkey.
164914		conservation	eng	This is a newly described species, and hence there are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, whether it occurs in more locations, and to what extent it is impacted upon by urbanization.
164914		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to one locality in northern Alabama along the southern border of the Highland Rim in the southern Appalachians although may exist in one or two other caves nearby (Buhay and Crandall 2009).
164914		habitat	eng	This is a cave dwelling species which inhabits subterranean hydrological systems such as small standing water pools and stream beds (Buhay and Crandall 2009).
164914		population	eng	Five specimens were recorded from the type locality (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is believed that there are more specimens in other caves although none have been found during extensive surveys (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
164914		threats	eng	The type locality of this species was blasted open for road construction and is currently found underneath a highway (Buhay and Crandall 2009) so is subject to traffic pollution.
164915		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the exact nature of the threats driving the decline in the number of mature individuals.
164915		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Marshall county, Alabama. It is distributed northwest and downstream of the Guntersville Dam, along both sides of the Tennessee River (Buhay and Crandall 2009). Its range is restricted by two towns, Mount St. Olive and Cushion along the Paint Rock River, to the southwest and eastern sides of the Tennessee River (Buhay and Crandall 2009). This species is known from 4 caves within its range. Extensive surveys in surrounding areas have failed to find further localities (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
164915		habitat	eng	This species is cave dwelling and is found in streams less than one meter wide (Buhay and Crandall 2009).
164915		population	eng	This species is declining in numbers (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
164915		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to this species including close vicinity to urban development and pollution of the freshwater aquifer, vicinity to roads, and alteration of the water table through damming of rivers (Buhay and Crandall 2009). There is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals of this species (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
164916		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are several protected areas near Villa Tunari, including Parque Machia and <st1:place><st1:placename>Carrasco</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It is possible that the species may be found in one of these.</p>  <p></p>
164916		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Carretera Antigua (old road) from Villa Tunari to Cochabamba (ca 800 m asl), above the Village of El Palmar, Province of Chapare, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia (Angulo and Reichle 2008).
164916		habitat	eng	<p>This species can be found on open ground and at the base of dense, grassy vegetation in montane rainforests. Males call in the evening and after a heavy downpour during the day from dense clusters of grass as well as from open areas (Angulo and Reichle 2008).</p>
164916		population	eng	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of three specimens.
164916		threats	eng	<p>It is not known whether this species is facing any significant threats.<br/></p>
164917		conservation	eng	Some known sites are in protected areas, but others are not. No specific conservation measures for this species are in place. Habitat protection and appropriate habitat management (to protect old trees with decaying heartwood) are needed. Monitoring is needed.
164917		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern mainland Italy. According to CKmap 2000 (2009) there are 14 sites.
164917		habitat	eng	Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Osmoderma</span> species, it is dependent on decaying heartwood in large old and hollowing trees; consequently it is restricted to mature broad-leaved forests with old trees.
164917		population	eng	It is a rare species.
164917		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. Therefore it is threatened by loss and degradation of suitable habitat (for example inappropriate management of woodlands that results in the loss of mature trees). <span lang="EN-GB">Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Habitat loss caused by agricultural intensification and urbanization is also a problem.</span></p>
164918		conservation	eng	More research is needed, particularly on the distribution, population dynamics and ecology and its habitat. The relationship between<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. globulicollis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaehleri</span> should be verified by molecular techniques.
164918		distribution	eng	This species is found in most of Europe, absent from the Mediterranean islands, extending from Spain to the Balkans, mainly in the Mediterranean area.
164918		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is broad-leaved trees, with preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, distributed in the area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>. The precise ecology is unknown as it has mainly been found in window traps. It is assumed that the ecology is similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaehleri</span>, being also present in small branches.
164918		population	eng	In France it has been considered a myth, never collected, but it has been recently collected by window trapping which suggests that it is hard to find rather than rare; in total 66 specimen have been found in 20 years of search in the Rhone-Alps area. In Spain it is very rare and it is only known from seven localities. In Italy it is very rare and there are 11 scattered localities. In Slovakia and Hungary it is present in warmer areas. There is no information for the Balkans populations.
164918		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
164919		conservation	eng	<em>A. speculum</em> is present in La Selva Protected Zone and other smaller protected areas.  There are no conservation measures currently in place.
164919		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica from many localities (Garrison 1985) and Nicaragua, at Rio San Juan, 68 km downstream from San Carlos (Daigle 2002).
164919		habitat	eng	<em>A. speculum</em> frequents ponds and pools in slow streams with open water and/or abundant littoral growth of sedges and grasses and/or floating water lilies.  Water may or may not be surrounded by forest, although most known localities are associated with forest or at least a riparian strip. Also occupies seasonal pools and marshes. Elevation range sea level to 1,200 m.
164919		population	eng	<em>A. speculum</em> is abundant in many areas throughout its range.
164919		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
164920		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Braulio Carrillo National Park and around Monteverde and appears not to require further conservation actions at present.
164920		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Costa Rica from a variety of locations: Cartago, Juan Viñas (Calvert and Calvert 1917); Cartago, Carrillo (Calvert 1907); Cartago, Turrialba, 430 m (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967); Alajuela, streams between 4.7 and 10.0 miles north Varablanca, 850 - 1,400 m (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967); San José, stream above Rio Tiribí at Rancho Redondo, 1,500 m (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967); Volcán Poas, unknown province (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967) and Monteverde area (W. Haber pers. comm. 2006).
164920		habitat	eng	Found at waterfalls on upland rocky streams in forest.
164920		population	eng	<em>A. underwoodi</em> is fairly common at numerous localities where stringent habitat requirements are met; the population trend remains unknown.
164920		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164921		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, including national parks, national wildlife refuges, and state and regional parks.  No further conservation measures are apparently required.
164921		distribution	eng	This species occurs in throughout the United States of America, and occurs to the north in one province in Canada and to the south in one state in Mexico.
164921		habitat	eng	The species is found at slow-flowing rivers and streams down to fairly narrow ones, in or out of woodland. Mostly in large drainage canals at western end of range. Also inhabits sandy lakes in Florida.
164921		population	eng	<em>S. plagiatus</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164921		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164922		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
164922		distribution	eng	This species occurs in British Columbia in Canada, Baja California Sur in Mexico and four states in the United States of America.
164922		habitat	eng	Species found at small rocky or muddy woodland streams with moderate current, rocky and muddy bottom. In northern part of range, typically found in relatively warm streams that flow out of lakes.
164922		population	eng	<em>O. specularis</em> is locally common in many populations.
164922		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164923		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in Costa Rica, including La Selva Protected Zone; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
164923		distribution	eng	<em>Telebasis digiticollis</em> occurs throughout Mesoamerica into South America in the following areas: Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia and Limón in Costa Rica; Libertad and San Salvador in El Salvador; Izabal and Zacapa in Guatemala; Cortez and Francisco Morazan in Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; the Canal Zone in Panama; and Aragua and Táchira in Venezuela.
164923		habitat	eng	The species is found at seasonal and permanent ponds and marshes, usually with dense grasses, sedges, and/or <em>Typha</em>. Not as tied to floating vegetation as most other <em>Telebasis</em>. Immatures' often found in forests, and common in marshes within forest, but forest not essential to presence.
164923		population	eng	<em>T. digiticollis</em> is locally common in many populations.
164923		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164924		conservation	eng	The species may be present in Braulio Carrillo and/or Chirripó National Parks, as both have sufficient high-elevation wetlands, although it is not confirmed.  There are no action plans in place and investigation into its habitat and range is needed.
164924		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum nigrocreatum</em> is found in Costa Rica and has been recorded from these locations (with collection notes):<br/><br/>- Alajuela Province, Poas Volcano, 2,600 m (Calvert 1920)<br/>- Cartago/San José Province, 1.0 mi S El Empalme, 2,300 m (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Cartago/San José Province, 3.1 mi W La Trinidad, 2,600 m (Cannings 1982, D.R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Cartago/San José Province, 23 km NW Villa Mills, <em>ca</em> 2,500 m (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Heredia Province, 6 km ENE Vara Blanca, 2000 m (D.R. Paulson collection)
164924		habitat	eng	The species is found in open boggy and marshy ponds and slow-flowing marshy streams high in mountains (2,000 - 2,600 m). Forest may be nearby but not necessarily close.
164924		population	eng	The population numbers and trend are not known for <em>S. nigrocreatum</em>.
164924		threats	eng	There are no threats currently affecting this species, nor in the future either; the area of occurrence is at an altitude that is too high&#160; for agriculture or ranching, so it unlikely to be heavily settled any time soon.
164925		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, especially state parks and no further conservation actions appear to be required as yet.
164925		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma traviatum</em> is found in twenty eight states in the United States of America.
164925		habitat	eng	<em>E. traviatum</em> is found at lakes and ponds, open or with abundant vegetation.
164925		population	eng	<em>E. traviatum</em> is abundant and widespread.
164925		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164926		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas in Texas (national wildlife refuges, state parks). The situation is not known south of the United States border, but doubtless occurs in most lowland preserves through tropical America.  Investigations of <em>T. calverti</em> habitat are required to enhance possible conservation actions.
164926		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Argentina: Catamarca, Corrientes, Jujuy, Misiones and Salta; Belize: Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo; Bolivia; Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and Rondonia; Cayman Islands: Grand Cayman; Colombia; Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Limón and Puntarenas; Cuba; Dominican Republic: Azua, La Vega, Monte Cristi, Peravia and Samaná; Ecuador: Guayas and Pichincha; El Salvador: San Miguel; Galapagos; Guyana; Guyane Française; Honduras; Jamaica: St. Andrew and St. Catherine; Lesser Antilles: Guadeloupe; Mexico; Netherlands Antilles: Curacao; Nicaragua; Panama: Canal Zone, Chiriqí, Darien and Panama; Peru; Surinam; Trinidad; United States of America; Venezuela: Amazonas, Aragua, Barinas, Cojedes, Falcón, Guárico, Mérida and Táchira; and the Virgin Islands: Tortola.
164926		habitat	eng	Species is found at shallow ponds with much open water and beds of vegetation. Not known if it coexists with fish or not.
164926		population	eng	<em>T. calverti</em> is abundant and widespread.
164926		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164927		conservation	eng	Some lakes occupied by <em>E. davisi</em> are in state parks and other protected areas, others on private land not likely to be developed.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
164927		distribution	eng	This species occurs in five southeastern states in the United States of America.
164927		habitat	eng	Species found at shallow sand-bottomed lakes and ponds with shore band of sedges and other emergent vegetation, sometimes with floating vegetation as well.  More restricted in habitat choice than many other species of <em>Enallagma</em>.
164927		population	eng	<em>E. davisi</em> is locally common in many populations.
164927		threats	eng	The preferred habitat of <em>E. davisi</em> is prime real estate for suburban development and therefore considered a future threat.
164928		conservation	eng	The known populations of <em>P. spinulata</em> are protected in Altos de Campana National Park and Biological Reserve. Populations should be sought away from Cerro Campana.
164928		distribution	eng	<em>Palaemnema spinulata</em> is found in Cerro Campana, Panama (Donnelly 1992).
164928		habitat	eng	Habitat type has not been reported, but is presumably small rocky streams in cloud forest.
164928		population	eng	<em>P. spinulata</em> population numbers are not known, but it is probably locally common; ten were collected on one visit in 1970.
164928		threats	eng	Deforestation is a possible current threat in its presumed habitat, although not likely in its known locality. Drought is an increasingly likely threat due to the global climate change and could be in evidence in the future.
164929		conservation	eng	There is no information available to say whether this species has or is in need of conservation measures.
164929		distribution	eng	This species is found in Belize (Cayo), Costa Rica (Guanacaste) and Mexico.
164929		habitat	eng	Species habitat includes low-flowing muddy lowland rivers in forested or semi-open landscapes.
164929		population	eng	<em>P. mexicanus</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but most of its range is not regularly visited by odonatologists.
164929		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently not known.
164930		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous protected areas; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
164930		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
164930		habitat	eng	The species is found in shallow, open, often somewhat saline ponds with abundant emergent vegetation, usually or perhaps always drying up by mid or late summer. Also marshy pools in small slow-flowing streams, not really associated with open water.
164930		population	eng	<em>S. madidum</em> is locally common in many populations.
164930		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164931		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas, e.g., state parks.  It is very common in national forests in southeastern coastal plain.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
164931		distribution	eng	The species is found in Cuba and fourteen states in the United States of America.
164931		habitat	eng	<em>E. doubledayi</em> occurs in shallow grassy ponds, less often lake borders and slow streams, in open or open woodland.
164931		population	eng	<em>E. doubledayi</em> is an abundant and widespread species, less so in the western part of its range.
164931		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164932		conservation	eng	<em>E. minusculum</em> probably occurs in some protected areas, although none are known for certain to the assessor.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
164932		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada and seven states in the United States of America.
164932		habitat	eng	Species found on ponds and lakes with sparse emergent, submergent, or floating vegetation and sand bottom.
164932		population	eng	<em>E. minusculum</em> is reasonably widespread and locally common throughout its range and there is no indication of any population decline.
164932		threats	eng	Possibly human development that affects its somewhat specialized lake habitats is a future threat.
164933		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous protected areas but entire watersheds are not protected; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
164933		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
164933		habitat	eng	Species preferred habitat is sand-bottomed streams and small rivers with riffles in forested regions. Adults spend much time in forest canopy, so best surveyed by collecting larvae and exuviae (moulted exoskeletons).
164933		population	eng	<em>S. scudderei</em> is locally common in many populations.
164933		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164934		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and conservation measures appear not to be needed at present.
164934		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico in Acaponeta, Nayarit (Belle 1987) and Sonora.
164934		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and muddy rivers with moderately swift current.
164934		population	eng	<em>P. nayaritensis</em> is known in literature only from the type description from Nayarit, but was found in recent years to be common and widespread in Sonora, so presumably occurs in-between in Sinaloa as well.
164934		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164935		conservation	eng	<em>L. henshawi</em> occurs in protected areas, including Tapantí National Park, Guanacaste National Park, and others in protected reserves around Monteverde. Additional survey work elsewhere in mountains of Costa Rica and adjacent countries is needed.
164935		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes henshawi</em> occurs in Costa Rica; Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Puntarenas, San José.<br/>-San José Province, Camino de la Palma (Calvert 1907)<br/>-Guanacaste Province, Estación Pitilia, N side Volcán Orosi, 680 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>-Guanacaste Province, Estación Santa Rosa, 300 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>-Alajuela, Guanacaste, and Puntarenas Prov., vicinity of Monteverde, Lower Montane up to 1,600 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)<br/>-Cartago Prov., Tapantí, 1,200 m (D. Paulson collection)
164935		habitat	eng	The species is best-known at a site with a boggy, apparently permanent, marsh at the foot of a forested hill at 1,200 m at Tapantí. Also at temporary and permanent ponds and pools in forest above 1,500 m in Monteverde area. Breeds in permanent pools in root holes of large fallen trees in the swampy areas.
164935		population	eng	Detailed information on <em>L. henshawi</em> populations are unknown, however it is fairly common when found at Tapantí in the 1960s, and is still present in Guanacaste in the 1980s and Monteverde area in 2007.
164935		threats	eng	Deforestation, drainage and/or introduction of exotic predators could be threatening to this species. Drought from global warming a possibility for any species that breeds in shallow wetlands.
164936		conservation	eng	The species is mostly present in national forests, also protected state parks and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
164936		distribution	eng	The species is found in four states in the United States of America.
164936		habitat	eng	This species occurs in medium to large rivers with alternating pools and riffles, gravel and silt to sandy bottoms, mostly in forested areas.
164936		population	eng	<em>G. ozarkensis</em> is locally common in numerous populations.
164936		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164937		conservation	eng	Research is required looking into the population structure and habitat status of <em>R. vazquezae</em>.
164937		distribution	eng	Known only from one locality each in Guerrero and Nayarit, Mexico, with an elevation range of  3,100 - 3,800 feet.
164937		habitat	eng	Adults have been seen on a small fairly swift woodland stream in mountains, presumably breeding habitat.
164937		population	eng	So far, <em>R. vazquezae</em> is known only from two sites, probably with small populations.
164937		threats	eng	The threat of forest clearing is likely only if <em>R. vazquezae</em> depends on forests adjacent to its breeding habitat. Breeding streams may be small enough to be threatened by drought brought on by climate change, although agricultural water run-off is causing pollution in the stream habitats at present.
164938		conservation	eng	<em>P. joanetta</em> is found in protected areas and no further actions appear to be needed to help increase population numbers.
164938		distribution	eng	The species is known from Panama at the following locations:<br/>- Rio Indio (Kennedy 1940)<br/>- Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Canal Zone, Barro Colorado I. (May 1979, Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Panama, Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- San Blas, 1 km N United States of Americagandi (Donnelly 1992)
164938		habitat	eng	The habitat has not been reported, but presumably small rain-forest streams.
164938		population	eng	<em>P. joanetta</em> population numbers are not known.
164938		threats	eng	Deforestation is a future threat in some areas that are not protected.  Drought is increasingly likely with global climate change in the future.
164939		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and no further conservation methods appear to be needed at present.
164939		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and eighteen states in the United States of America.
164939		habitat	eng	Prefers swiftly flowing rocky forest streams and rivers; also rocky-shored lakes.
164939		population	eng	<em>B. grafiana</em> is locally common in many populations.
164939		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164940		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
164940		distribution	eng	This species occurs in ten provinces and two territories in Canada and nine states in the United States of America.
164940		habitat	eng	The species is found at open sedge- and moss-filled fens, at foot of hillside below seepage or in wide-open meadows.
164940		population	eng	<em>S. franklini</em> is locally common in many populations.
164940		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164941		conservation	eng	<em>T. stella</em> occurs in Everglades National Park and numerous other protected areas; it appears not to require further conservation measures.
164941		distribution	eng	This species is found in the United States of America.
164941		habitat	eng	The species is found at lakes, ponds, marshes such as Everglades, and ditches.
164941		population	eng	<em>T. stella</em> is locally common in many populations.
164941		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164942		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.
164942		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Costa Rica and Guatemala in the following locations: <br/>Guatemala: El Progreso, near Estancia La Virgen, 700 m (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Guatemala: El Progreso, near San Agustin Ac., 1,200 - 2,000 m (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Guatemala: El Progreso, between Morazá and San Jerónimo, 1,300 m (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Guatemala: Suchitepéquez, Finca Moca Grande (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Prov., 4 mi S San Vito de Java, 1,200 m (Donnelly 1984)
164942		habitat	eng	<em>M. aurimaculata</em> has been found feeding away from water. Habitat presumably forested mountain streams, as is the case in other upland <em>Macrothemis</em>.
164942		population	eng	<em>M. aurimaculata</em> was not uncommon at the Costa Rican locality 40 years ago, but no details are known of present populations.  It does occur in five locations.
164942		threats	eng	There is little data available to assess the threats to this species, however it is thought that deforestation could cause a problem in the future.
164943		conservation	eng	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
164943		distribution	eng	This species occurs in five provinces in Canada and twenty nine states in the United States of America.
164943		habitat	eng	This species has a wide habitat choice, including slow streams, ponds, sandy lakes, and even bogs. It appears more restricted to ponds in the northern part of its range.
164943		population	eng	<em>G. exilis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164943		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164944		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions needed or in place for this species.
164944		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout the United States of America, Mexico and Mesoamerica including the following locations: Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Guanacaste and Puntarenas in Costa Rica; Libertad in  El Salvador; Izabal and Petén in Guatemala and Rivas in Nicaragua.
164944		habitat	eng	This species has a very broad habitat tolerance, prefers mud bottoms for larval habitat. Ponds, ditches of all size, and open marshes with mud bottoms, also scummy stock tanks and slow-flowing streams. May be tall emergent vegetation or virtually none, but open water seems necessary. Completely open or wooded country. May breed in very small, including artificial, water bodies.
164944		population	eng	<em>O. ferruginea</em> is abundant and widespread; it appears to favour landscapes affected by some human alteration.
164944		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164945		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.
164945		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna palmata</em> occurs in three provinces and one territory in Canada, fourteen states in the United States of America and Russia in Kamchatka where it is probably not resident.
164945		habitat	eng	Lakes, ponds, and slow streams, even small ones, usually with dense shore vegetation is the type of habitat <em>A. palmata</em> is usually found in. For the most part in forested landscapes, but some populations in open country. Colonizes small suburban ponds readily.
164945		population	eng	<em>A. palmata</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164945		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164946		conservation	eng	The species is present in some federal, state, local, and private reserves and further conservation measures appear not to be needed.
164946		distribution	eng	This species is found in two states in Mexico and three in the United States of America.
164946		habitat	eng	Species is found in large streams and small rivers with some current, often rocky, in open country or with bordering woodland.
164946		population	eng	<em>M. annulata</em> is locally common in many populations.
164946		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164947		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
164947		distribution	eng	The species is present in twenty one states in the United States of America.
164947		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes rocky rivers in most parts of its range. Also found at sand-bottomed lakes in Florida.
164947		population	eng	<em>N. obsoleta</em> is locally common in many populations.
164947		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164948		conservation	eng	<em>A. allopterum</em> is present in several protected areas (Braulio Carrillo and Tapantí national parks, Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas at Turrialba) in Costa Rica and appears not to require any further conservation measures at present.
164948		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Puntarenas, San José), Guatemala (Sacatepéquez, Sololá), Honduras, Mexico (three states) and Nicaragua (Matagalpa).
164948		habitat	eng	<em>A. allopterum</em> is found in marshy ponds and slow streams in uplands, in or out of forest. Elevation range at least 600-1800 meters.
164948		population	eng	<em>A. allopterum</em> is presumed still locally common in many populations, but little surveyed; the population trend remains unknown.
164948		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164949		conservation	eng	The species is abundant in Everglades National Park and a variety of coastal national wildlife refuges, also state parks, national forests, and other preserves.  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed.
164949		distribution	eng	The species occurs in sixteen states in the United States of America.
164949		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is mostly lakes, often those with relatively low odonate diversity. Also at large coastal marshes in Texas and may be on large drainage canals and artificial lakes. Tolerates high alkalinity and perhaps some salinity.
164949		population	eng	<em>B. gravida</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164949		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164950		conservation	eng	<em>P. amatoria</em> is present in a number of national parks, for example Corcovado in Costa Rica and Soberania in Panama. Occurrence in protected areas to north and south of those countries not known but likely.
164950		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout Mesoamerica and South America as the following locations: Toledo, Belize; Alajuela, Guanacaste and Puntarenas, Costa Rica; Pichincha, Ecuador; Izabal and Zacapa, Guatemala; Cortez, Honduras; Canal Zone, Panama; and Anzoategui, Aragua, Cojedes, Guárico, Miranda, Monagas, Táchira and Trujillo in Venezuela.
164950		habitat	eng	Species is found in rain forest streams, from small to moderate in size, with pools and riffles.
164950		population	eng	<em>P. amatoria</em> is locally common in many populations.
164950		threats	eng	Currently there are no threats affecting the habitat of this species, although deforestation is forecast to cause a decline in suitable rain forest streams for <em>P. amatoria</em>.
164951		conservation	eng	The species is present in some reserves in Arizona (Chiricahua National Monument, Ramsey Canyon Preserve) but its presence in protected areas farther south have not been established.  Further research into its range is required.
164951		distribution	eng	The species is found in Costa Rica, Guatemala, seven states in Mexico and three southwestern states in the United States of America.
164951		habitat	eng	Found in small, forested streams in mountains.
164951		population	eng	<em>C. diadema</em> occurs in many small populations scattered over a rather large range; the population trend remains unknown.
164951		threats	eng	Future threats include deforestation in Middle American cloud forests and drought (from global climate change) will affect the small streams that are the preferred habitat of <em>C. diadema</em>.
164952		conservation	eng	The entire known range of <em>E. letitia</em> is along three miles of Pipeline Road within Soberania National Park. More populations should be sought outside that area and populations monitored within it.
164952		distribution	eng	The species is found in Panama: Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (Donnelly 1992).
164952		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>E. letitia</em> are known to fly over quiet waters of forest streams (Donnelly 1992).
164952		population	eng	<em>E. letitia</em> is apparently common in its so-far-known very restricted range.
164952		threats	eng	Due to lack of information on this species, threats remain unknown although the entire range occurs within a protected area.
164953		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.
164953		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two provinces in Canada and thirty one states in the United States of America.
164953		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of <em>A. longipes</em> is lakes and ponds, typically with extensive beds of grasses. Larvae probably survive best in shallow ponds without fish.
164953		population	eng	<em>A. longipes</em> is locally common in many populations throughout its range.
164953		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164954		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas in south Texas and south Florida. There is no documentation for occurrence in protected areas south of the United States border.
164954		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two provinces in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, two states in Brazil, the Cayman Islands, Colombia, Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste), Cuba (Isla de Juventud), Dominican Republic (Barahona, Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel), Ecuador (Napo), El Salvador, Galapagos, Guyana, Guyane Française, Honduras, Isla San Andres, Jamaica (Clarendon, Kingston, St. Catherine, St. James), Lesser Antilles, nine states in Mexico, Paraguay (Itapúa), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad, three states in the United States of America and Venezuela (Amazonas, Barinas, Bolivar, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Falcón, Guárico, Monagas).
164954		habitat	eng	<em>B. herbida</em> is found at lakes, ponds, and marshes, usually with more vegetation than typical of other <em>Brachymesia</em>. Males typically present at outer edge of band of aquatic emergents.
164954		population	eng	<em>B. herbida</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164954		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164955		conservation	eng	The species is present in national forests and tribal lands; both lands have many uses, but it is also found in some protected areas, including state parks.  Further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
164955		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
164955		habitat	eng	Species occurs in low-flowing sandy and gravelly streams and rivers, in forested or open country. Frequently found on lakes in northern, upland parts of range, although it is not known if they breed there.
164955		population	eng	<em>O. occidentis</em> is locally common in many populations.
164955		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164956		conservation	eng	The species is present at some reserves in the Lower Rio Grande Valley and elsewhere in Texas; occurrence in reserves in Mexico and Central America are unknown and it appears not to require any further conservation measures at present.
164956		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Belize, Costa Rica (Guanacaste), Guatemala, Mexico (nine states), Nicaragua (León, Rivas) and in Texas, United States of America.
164956		habitat	eng	<em>A. protracta</em> enjoys a variety of lakes and ponds with mud bottom, seen less often at areas with running water.
164956		population	eng	<em>A. protracta</em> is locally common in many populations.
164956		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164957		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in its limited range in the United States of America. Status at lower latitudes is less well known but probably occurs in most lowland protected areas in tropics.
164957		distribution	eng	This species occurs in nine provinces in Argentina, Belize (Corozal, Orange Walk), three states in Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia (Magdalena), Costa Rica (Guanacaste), Cuba (La Habana, Oriente), Dominican Republic (Barahona, Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Sánchez Ramírez, Santiago), Ecuador (Guayas, Napo), Guatemala (Izabal, Zacapa), Guyane Française, Haiti (Samana), Honduras (Cortez), Jamaica (St. Andrew, St. Elizabeth), Lesser Antilles (Les Saintes), thirteen states in Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone, Chiriquí), Paraguay (Central), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad, two states in the United States of America and Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Falcón, Miranda).
164957		habitat	eng	<em>C. adnexa</em> is found at ponds, usually covered with floating vegetation such as water lettuce (<em>Pistia</em>), water hyacinth (<em>Eichhornia</em>), or duckweeds (<em>Lemna, Spirodela</em>).  It is usually associated with forest.
164957		population	eng	<em>C. adnexa</em> is abundant and widespread.
164957		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164958		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected reserves in the United States (national and state parks, national wildlife refuges, private reserves).  It is an abundant and widespread species, so is likely to be found in most lowland reserves throughout tropical America.
164958		distribution	eng	This species occurs in many locations across South America, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Mesoamerica and United States of America.
164958		habitat	eng	This species prefers marshy ponds, including temporary ones; also fly over pools in streams, although may not breed there.
164958		population	eng	<em>E. vesiculosa</em> is an abundant and widespread species with a stable population.
164958		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164959		conservation	eng	The species is present in some parks, reserves, and national forests; no further conservation methods appear to be needed at this time.
164959		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from seven states in the United States of America.
164959		habitat	eng	Prefers sand-bottomed lakes and large ponds with both emergent vegetation along shore and open water.
164959		population	eng	<em>C. bertha</em> is found locally common in many populations.
164959		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species and <em>C. bertha</em> occurs with protected areas.
164960		conservation	eng	The species has not been documented in protected reserves; there appears to be no conservation measures needed at present.
164960		distribution	eng	The species is found in six states in Mexico.
164960		habitat	eng	Species is found in swift rocky rivers in open or semi-wooded country with riparian vegetation along banks.
164960		population	eng	<em>P. apiculatus</em> is reasonably widespread and locally common throughout its range and there is no indication of any population decline.
164960		threats	eng	Occurrence of <em>P. apiculatus</em> in protected reserves has not been documented, however there are no known threats affecting it at present.
164961		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be present in protected areas but is very widely distributed and common.
164961		distribution	eng	The species is found in Costa Rica (Guanacaste, Puntarenas), El Salvador, Guatemala (Escuintla), six states in Mexico and Panama.
164961		habitat	eng	Species is found in lowland ponds and marshes in open or semi-wooded country. Typically in lowlands but taken up to 1,300 m in Jalisco, Mexico.
164961		population	eng	<em>M. schumanni</em> is locally common in many populations.
164961		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species. <em>M. schumanni</em> appears to have good dispersal abilities, so it is unlikely to suffer from local population extinction.
164962		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas, e.g., state parks in United States of America, although occurrence in protected areas in Mexico has not been documented.
164962		distribution	eng	This species occurs in ten states in Mexico and eight states in the United States of America.
164962		habitat	eng	<em>A. lugens</em> is found in small to medium open rocky streams with a good current; habitat may be bordered by riparian zone.
164962		population	eng	<em>A. lugens</em> is abundant and widespread.
164962		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164963		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas, especially in state parks.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
164963		distribution	eng	This species occurs in twelve states in the United States of America.
164963		habitat	eng	Found in sandy ponds with abundant shore vegetation, usually dense grass, and/or beds of floating vegetation. In open or surrounded by woodland or forest. Also few have been found at well-vegetated slow streams.
164963		population	eng	<em>E. dubium</em> is locally common in many populations.
164963		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164964		conservation	eng	The presence of <em>A. garrisoni</em> in protected areas has not been documented although no further conservation measures appear to be required at present.
164964		distribution	eng	This species is found in three states in Mexico.
164964		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes shallow, spring-fed rivers with waterfalls in the Tamaulipan scrub forest in Mexico.
164964		population	eng	<em>A. garrisoni</em> has recently been found in small numbers at several known localities and probably has many healthy populations. However, it is considered relatively scarce by the describer.
164964		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164965		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its population trend is required.
164965		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, Costa Rica (Alajuela, Puntarenas), El Salvador (La Libertad), Guatemala (Suchitepéquez), Honduras and two states in Mexico.
164965		habitat	eng	<em>A. pocomana</em> is found in rocky streams with some current, in or out of forest; sometimes associated with waterfalls and its known elevation range lies between 500 - 900 m.
164965		population	eng	<em>A. pocomana</em> is presumed to be locally common in many populations, but is little surveyed.
164965		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164966		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, including national and provincial and state parks in both Canada and the United States of America.  There appears to be no need for further conservation actions at this time.
164966		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two territories and eleven provinces in Canada and twenty five states in the United States of America.
164966		habitat	eng	<em>C. resolutum</em> is found at sedge marshes and fens and well-vegetated pond and lake edges, at large lakes in sedge beds. Often in stands of water horsetail <em>Equisetum hiemale</em>.  It is common in habitats of both other North American <em>Coenagrion</em> specis.  Found in shadier, cooler habitats in the southern parts of its range.
164966		population	eng	<em>C. resolutum</em> is abundant and widespread.
164966		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164967		conservation	eng	Occurrence in protected reserves are not known for <em>H. infecta</em>.  Research into population range and habitat is needed.
164967		distribution	eng	<em>Hetaerina infecta</em> occurs in seven states in Mexico.
164967		habitat	eng	This species prefers forested sandy/rocky streams in lowlands and occurs up into the foothills.
164967		population	eng	<em>H. infecta</em> was previously known to be locally common in many populations and this is probably still the case although detailed information is lacking.
164967		threats	eng	Deforestation of <em>H. infecta</em> habitat, at a variety of levels from small to large-scale logging, is likely to have an effect on population numbers, but due to its widespread range, there does not appear to be a problem at present.
164968		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
164968		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada and eleven states in the United States of America.
164968		habitat	eng	Species occurs in open sand-bottomed streams and rivers with gravelly or rocky riffles.
164968		population	eng	<em>O. aspersus</em> is locally common in many populations.
164968		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164969		conservation	eng	<em>E. mithroides</em> is present in Tambopata Reserved Area, Peru.  Its occurrence in other protected reserves has not been documented.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
164969		distribution	eng	This species occurs in five provinces in Argentina, Bolivia (Beni), two states in Brazil, Colombia (Atlantico, Magdalena), Costa Rica (Guanacaste, Puntarenas), Guyane Française, Nicaragua, Panama (Panama), Paraguay (Central, Concepción, Del Guaira), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Surinam, Trinidad (Nariva, St. Andrew) and in Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Falcón, Guárico, Portuguesa, Táchira, Zulia).
164969		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes swamps (wooded wetlands) with well-vegetated water surface, typically <em>Pistia</em> or <em>Lemna/Spirodela</em> (aquatic plants).
164969		population	eng	<em>E. mithroides</em> is a locally common species, found in many populations.
164969		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164970		conservation	eng	Present in numerous protected areas, e.g., national wildlife refuges, national monuments, and state parks, in US range. Occurrence in protected areas not documented south of that.
164970		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guatemala, fifteen states in Mexico and twelve states in the United States of America.
164970		habitat	eng	This species likes small to medium shallow streams, rocky and sandy substrate, in or out of woodland; may be on quite small spring runs and hillside trickles, often found in tiny seeps with no other species of <em>Argia</em>. Considered indicative of presence of springs in some parts of range.
164970		population	eng	<em>A. plana</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164970		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164971		conservation	eng	<em>M. celeno</em> is not known to occur in any protected areas. At least some populations on each island should be monitored for persistence.
164971		distribution	eng	<em>Macrothemis celeno</em> is found in Cuba, Dominican Republic (Azua, Barahona, Dajabón, Elías Piña, Independencia, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Sánchez Ramírez, San Juan, Santiago, Valverde), Jamaica (Portland, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. James, St. Thomas), Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas).
164971		habitat	eng	The species occurs at streams with some current in forest and woodland above lowlands.
164971		population	eng	Detailed population numbers of <em>M. celeno</em> are unknown; it has been found common at many sites, and known to be still common at some.
164971		threats	eng	Deforestation, agricultural pollution and ground-water depletion are just some threats affecting <em>M. celeno</em>. Much of range also suffers from human overpopulation and associated pollution of rivers and streams.
164972		conservation	eng	There is little information available on this species and there are no conservation measures in place; research is needed in the population and biology of <em>P. amarillus</em>.
164972		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mexico.
164972		habitat	eng	The habitat type of this species is not known.
164972		population	eng	<em>P. amarillus</em> population numbers are not known.
164972		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently not known.
164973		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Tambopata Reserved Zone, Peru, and probably in other lowland reserves in its range with swamp habitats.
164973		distribution	eng	This species occurs Meso- to South America including these locations: Argentina: Corrientes, Jujuy and Salta; Brazil: Sáo Paulo; Colombia: Antioquia and Bolivar; Ecuador: Napo; Peru: Huanuco, Loreto and Madre de Dios; and Venezuela: Aragua, Miranda and Táchira.
164973		habitat	eng	The species frequents swampy pools, probably both seasonal and permanent, in forest. Grassy margins do not have to be present.
164973		population	eng	<em>T. limoncocha</em> is common in most areas where it is found. Huge parts of its presumed range have never been surveyed for Odonata.
164973		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164974		conservation	eng	<em>A. westfalli</em> occurrence in protected areas has not been documented; there are no conservation measures in place and it is thought that none are needed at present.
164974		distribution	eng	This species occurs in six states in Mexico.
164974		habitat	eng	<em>A. westfalli</em> is found at clean streams with some current, often associated with large springs and/or waterfalls. Can be in or out of forest.
164974		population	eng	<em>A. westfalli</em> is locally common in many populations.
164974		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164975		conservation	eng	The species is present in some parks and reserves; no further conservation methods appear to be needed at this time.
164975		distribution	eng	This species occurs in five provinces in Canada and thirty six states in the United States of America.
164975		habitat	eng	<em>C. elisa</em> is found at ponds and lakes with vegetated margins, including bog ponds.
164975		population	eng	<em>C. elisa</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164975		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164976		conservation	eng	The species is present in some preserves in Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas, but subject to variations of water levels and floods in Rio Grande. Protected areas in Mexico have not been documented.
164976		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllocycla breviphylla</em> is found in Cayo, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Izabal, Guatemala; Mexico; Rivas, Nicaragua; and the United States of America.
164976		habitat	eng	Species habitat includes sandy/muddy rivers, including Rio Grande, and streams.
164976		population	eng	<em>P. breviphylla</em> is locally common in many populations
164976		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164977		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas (national parks, national wildlife refuges, state parks) in its United States range. Occurrence in protected areas in Mexico have not been documented.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.
164977		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula comanche</em> is found in two states in Mexico and twelve in the United States of America.
164977		habitat	eng	This species occurs in springs, seeps, and pools in clear streams.
164977		population	eng	<em>L. comanche</em> is locally common in many populations.
164977		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164978		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or apparently needed for this Least Concern species, although monitoring of population numbers and habitat is possibly needed to understand the projected effect of climate change.
164978		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
164978		habitat	eng	Species occurs in shallow marshy ponds and lake edges that dry up during summer. Many of these habitats have dried up in regions of the West with persistent drought, and the species has disappeared from parts of its former range because of this.
164978		population	eng	<em>S. internum</em> is locally common in many populations.
164978		threats	eng	Prolonged drought, perhaps correlated with global warming, is likely to be a concern for the future of <em>S. internum</em>'s habitat.
164979		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its general biology and range requires investigation.
164979		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Chiriquí in Panama.
164979		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown although probably forested rocky stream/rivers as is typical of <em>Phyllogomphoides</em>.
164979		population	eng	<em>P. litoralis</em> population numbers are not known.
164979		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently not known.
164980		conservation	eng	The occurrence of <em>S. georgiana</em> in protected reserves is likely but not known for certain. More effort should be expended to discover breeding populations.
164980		distribution	eng	The species is found in the United States of America.
164980		habitat	eng	Habitat for <em>S. georgiana</em> is probably primarily streams in forest and swamps; although this is poorly known. Most individuals collected have been in mixed feeding swarms in clearings and at forest edge with other species of <em>Somatochlora</em> and other corduliids.
164980		population	eng	Generally <em>S. georgiana</em> is quite scarce. There are many isolated records that have not led to populations being discovered.
164980		threats	eng	There are no known threats presently affecting this species.
164981		conservation	eng	<em>A. tibialis</em> is present in numerous protected areas, e.g., state parks and appears not to require further conservation actions at present.
164981		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ontario, Canada and thirty states in the United States of America.
164981		habitat	eng	The species is found at small wooded sandy streams with a slow to moderate current and with or without riffles, less often larger rivers. Most closely associated species tied to forest streams than other <em>Argia</em> in its range.
164981		population	eng	<em>A. tibialis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164981		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164982		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas in the United States, its status in protected are outside of the United States are not known; it appears not to require further conservation measures.
164982		distribution	eng	<em>Tramea onusta</em> occurs in the Bahamas on Cat Island, San Salvador and South Bimini; Belize in Cayo, Corozal and Orange Walk; Canada; Cayman Islands; Costa Rica at Guanacaste; Cuba; Dominican Republic at Duarte; Guatemala at Huehuetenango and Petén; Honduras; Lesser Antilles on Guadeloupe; Mexico; Netherlands Antilles on Bonaire and Curaçao; Nicaragua; Panama; United States of America; Venezuela and the Virgin Islands on St. Thomas.
164982		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lakes and ponds, also ditches and canals and large pools of slow rivers. Probably breeds most successfully in fish-free waters such as rainy-season ponds.
164982		population	eng	<em>T. onusta</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164982		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164983		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
164983		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cayo, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Izabal, Guatemala and Mexico.
164983		habitat	eng	This species frequents streams and small rivers in lowland wet forest.
164983		population	eng	<em>P. cupida</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but little surveying has been completed recently.
164983		threats	eng	Deforestation and farming practices have affected <em>P. cupida</em> in the past and are likely to continue.
164984		conservation	eng	The species has not been found in protected reserves.  There are no conservation actions required at present.
164984		distribution	eng	This species is found in Costa Rica, Guatemala (Suchitepéquez), El Salvador (Ahuachapán), Honduras (Comayagua, Francisco Morazán), four states in Mexico and in Nicaragua (Chontales, Managua).
164984		habitat	eng	Species found at forest streams and small rivers.
164984		population	eng	<em>E. constrictor</em> is locally common in many populations.
164984		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164985		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species is within protected area, Chagres National Park.  Studies are needed to investigate all aspects of its biology and range.
164985		distribution	eng	The species is found in Coclé, Cerro Azul, Panama (Belle 1994).
164985		habitat	eng	Presumed habitat preference of <em>E. compactus</em> is rain-forest streams, typical of its genus.
164985		population	eng	There is no information available to assess <em>E. compactus</em> population size or trend.
164985		threats	eng	There is not enough available data to assess threats to this species.
164986		conservation	eng	Research actions are required to study and monitor the population numbers and habitat status.
164986		distribution	eng	The species is found in Costa Rica (Heredia, Limón; collection notes: "Limón, Guápiles, 1000"), ), Nicaragua (Chontales; collection notes: "La Flor, 45 7, km 159, 4 mi W Acoyapa jct"; Belle 1972) and Panama (Canal Zone).  Its presence is uncertain in Colombia and Ecuador.
164986		habitat	eng	From known collections, the habitat of <em>D. paucinervis</em> is presumably small rain-forest streams.
164986		population	eng	Adults of <em>D. paucinervis</em> are always rare, but its range is quite extensive so presumably there are scattered populations in appropriate habitat from Nicaragua to Ecuador, and much forest habitat in that range.
164986		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164987		conservation	eng	Populations present in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Preserve, but that preserve under pressure from surrounding human populations.
164987		distribution	eng	The species is found in Baja Verapaz, Guatemala and Mexico.
164987		habitat	eng	Habitat preference is small hill streams and spring-fed seeps under rain-forest canopy. Elevation range at least 140 - 620 m.
164987		population	eng	<em>P. quinta</em> is locally common in many populations, some of them not surveyed in recent years.
164987		threats	eng	Threats of <em>P. quinta</em> habitat include deforestation by numerous causes; raising of livestock and the cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, and other crops. Population growth throughout the region of occurrence is also high.
164988		conservation	eng	<em>N. pentacantha</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at this time.
164988		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and thirty one states in the United States of America.
164988		habitat	eng	Species occurs in wooded wetlands of all kinds; swamps, lake edges, and slow streams. A border of at least shrubs if not trees seems necessary. Floating and emergent vegetation does not seem to be needed.
164988		population	eng	<em>M. pentacantha</em> is locally common and widespread.
164988		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164989		conservation	eng	<em>A. apicalis</em> is present in some protected areas, including national forests and national wildlife refuges that contain its preferred habitats all over its range.
164989		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada (Ontario), Mexico (Nuevo León) and the United States of America (forty one states).
164989		habitat	eng	<em>A. apicalis</em> has a very wide habitat choice including rivers and streams, less often lakes and ponds. More typical of larger, muddier rivers than smaller streams. Often associated with woodland, but trees are not essential.
164989		population	eng	<em>A. apicalis</em> is abundant and widespread throughout its range.
164989		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164990		conservation	eng	<em>H. vulnerata</em> is present in some reserves in Arizona, e.g., Chiricahua National Monument, Ramsey Canyon Preserve. Also in La Michilia Biosphere Reserve, Durango, Mexico. Occurrence in other protected areas in Mexico not known but should be in any reserve on the high plateau that includes mountain streams.
164990		distribution	eng	<em>Hetaerina vulnerata</em> is found in Guatemala (Baja Verapaz), Honduras, sixteen states in Mexico and three states in the United States of America.  Published records from South America are considered an error (Garrison 1990).
164990		habitat	eng	The species is found in wooded canyon streams with rocky riffles; it is more attracted to shaded streams than <em>Hetaerina americana</em> and more likely to be found at a higher elevation.
164990		population	eng	<em>H. vulnerata</em> is abundant and widespread.
164990		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164991		conservation	eng	Presence of <em>P. paulitaba</em> in protected reserves has not been documented. Continued monitoring of known populations and searching for additional ones is necessary.
164991		distribution	eng	At least two probably separated populations in Los Tuxtlas of Veracruz and forested hilly parts of Chiapas and Tabasco, perhaps more in Mexico.
164991		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes small, rocky rain forest streams.
164991		population	eng	<em>P. paulitaba</em> has been found in numbers at known localities in both Veracruz and Chiapas.
164991		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought (the latter increasingly likely with global climate change) are all threats that have been recorded for <em>P. paulitaba</em>, and are likely to continue into the future although they do not appear to be affecting the species to a point of decline so far.
164992		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected reserves within the United States (Texas and Florida). Its status in protected areas south of the United States border are not known.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
164992		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South America, Greater and Lesser Antilles, Mesoamerica and two states in the United States of America.
164992		habitat	eng	<em>E. plebeja</em> is found in ponds and open marshes of all sizes, edges of canals and lakes, even temporary pools.
164992		population	eng	<em>E. plebeja</em> is an abundant and widespread species, and the population is increasing.
164992		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164993		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous protected reserves in Canada and the United States, including national, state, and provincial parks.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.
164993		distribution	eng	This species occurs in ten provinces in Canada and twenty states in the United States of America.
164993		habitat	eng	The species is found in lakes and ponds in forested regions, often with boggy margins; preference varies from very little to abundant aquatic vegetation.
164993		population	eng	<em>L. glacialis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
164993		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164994		conservation	eng	<em>N. gracilis</em> is present in numerous protected areas, as bogs have often been the subject of protection.
164994		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and twenty three states in the United States of America.
164994		habitat	eng	The species occurs in sphagnum bogs and fens. Usually but not always associated with woodland.
164994		population	eng	<em>M. gracilis</em> is locally common in many populations.
164994		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164995		conservation	eng	<em>H. uhleri</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
164995		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and twenty one states in the United States of America.
164995		habitat	eng	<em>H. uhleri</em> is found in small rocky woodland streams to fair-sized open rivers, all with a good current.
164995		population	eng	<em>H. uhleri</em> is abundant and widespread.
164995		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164996		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the protected area of Rodeo Forest Reserve in Costa Rica and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
164996		distribution	eng	The species is found in Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Puntarenas, San José and in Panama: Chiriquí.<br/>Collection notes:<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela, Oricuajo (Calvert 1912)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Estación Maritza, Volcán Orosi, 600 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Nicoya (Williamson 1918, Garrison 1994)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Quebrada Azul, 2.5 mi W Tilarán, 1,400 m
164996		habitat	eng	Species prefers rocky streams in lowland forested areas.
164996		population	eng	<em>E. tristani</em> is at least fairly common at several known localities.
164996		threats	eng	There is likely to be a concern of deforestation in the future for <em>E. tristani</em> habitat, although at present it appears not to be a threat and it does occur in a protected area.
164997		conservation	eng	Present in many federal, state, local, and  private reserves.
164997		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Bahamas, Cuba and ten states in the United States of America.
164997		habitat	eng	Species is typically found in wooded country with associated ponds and swamps, although may be seen feeding over open areas and larvae is commonly found in open ponds as well.
164997		population	eng	<em>C. ingens</em> is abundant and widespread.
164997		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164998		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.
164998		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada and twenty four states in the United States of America.
164998		habitat	eng	<em>A. saucium</em> is found in spring upwellings and seeps at pond, bog, or stream margins. Often associated with forest vegetation, but trees not essential.
164998		population	eng	<em>A. saucium</em> is locally common in many populations.
164998		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
164999		conservation	eng	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
164999		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus lineatifrons</em> occurs in fifteen states in the United States of America.
164999		habitat	eng	<em>G. lineatifrons</em> is found in small to medium clean streams with gravel bottoms.
164999		population	eng	<em>G. lineatifrons</em> is locally common in many populations.
164999		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165000		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least some federal, state, local, and/or private reserves; it appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165000		distribution	eng	This species is found in seven states in the southeastern United States of America.
165000		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes small spring-fed streams with muck bottom.
165000		population	eng	<em>D. armatus</em> is locally common in many populations.
165000		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165001		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, e.g., Everglades National Park and most national wildlife refuges in the southeast; it appears not to require further conservation measures.
165001		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
165001		habitat	eng	The species frequents ponds, both marshy and open, and lakes with much submergent vegetation.
165001		population	eng	<em>T. carolina</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165001		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165002		conservation	eng	<em>P. sulfurata</em> is present in La Selva Protected Zone and probably Corcovado National Park (from occurrence at nearby Rincón de Osa) in Costa Rica. Monitoring of known populations and search for additional ones would be advised.
165002		distribution	eng	<em>Protoneura sulfurata</em> has been recorded from the following locations: <br/>Costa Rica: Limón, 3 km E Siquirres (Donnelly 1989)<br/>Costa Rica: Heredia, La Selva (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, Rincón de Osa (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Nicaragua: Rio San Juan, 68 km downstream from San Carlos (Daigle 2002)
165002		habitat	eng	Species is found in pools in small forest streams and forest swamps.
165002		population	eng	<em>P. sulfurata</em> has been found to be common at a few locations. Not common on a widespread basis.
165002		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165003		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous protected areas, including national and state parks and national wildlife refuges.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165003		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada and sixteen states in the United States of America.
165003		habitat	eng	This species is found at the marshy edges of lakes, ponds, and slow streams, especially in sedge and grass beds. More common on streams than most other <em>Ischnura</em>.
165003		population	eng	<em>I. perparva</em> is abundant and widespread.
165003		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165004		conservation	eng	The species has not been recorded protected areas and further studies are required into its habitat and ecological status.
165004		distribution	eng	The species is found in Veracruz, Mexico in numerous streams in vicinity of Teocelo, Jalapa, Fortín de las Flores, and Cordoba.
165004		habitat	eng	<em>E. viperinus</em> found at mid-elevation streams with good current, mostly in the forest.
165004		population	eng	The population size and trend of <em>E. viperinus</em> is not known, although it is found in thirteen locations, many of them occurring close to each other.
165004		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165005		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and appears no to require any further conservation actions at this time.
165005		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eight provinces and one territory in Canada and twenty eight states in the United States of America.
165005		habitat	eng	Found at clear streams of all sizes and rivers with moderate current. Can be common in places on rather tiny wooded streams, as long as there is some sun penetration. Also seen at rocky shores of large lakes in some areas.
165005		population	eng	<em>C. aequabilis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165005		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165006		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least some protected areas, e.g., state parks; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
165006		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
165006		habitat	eng	The species is found in ponds, including temporary ones, in or out of woodland; more characteristic of wooded swamps than any other North American <em>Sympetrum</em>.
165006		population	eng	<em>S. ambiguum</em> is locally common in many populations.
165006		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165007		conservation	eng	Presently known populations of <em>E. armatus</em> are in La Selva Protected Zone; further research into all aspects of its biology and range are needed.
165007		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Costa Rica; Limón, Guápiles (Calvert 1920) and Heredia, La Selva. It has been reported from Peru, but this is questionable.
165007		habitat	eng	Prefers small rain-forest streams.
165007		population	eng	The population size of <em>E. armatus</em> is not known but the global trend appears to be stable.
165007		threats	eng	Deforestation on a variety of levels, from local wood collection to large-scale logging, continues to be of concern for the survival of <em>E. armatus</em>.
165008		conservation	eng	The species is present in streams that run through some protected reserves, but most watersheds not under effective protection.  No further conservation measures are apparently required.
165008		distribution	eng	<em>Stylurus ivae</em> occurs in the United States of America.
165008		habitat	eng	Species occurs in small to medium sandy streams.
165008		population	eng	<em>S. ivae</em> is locally common in many populations.
165008		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165009		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected in national parks and reserves, at least in Costa Rica and Panama.  Further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
165009		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from many locations in Belize (Toledo), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, San José), El Salvador, Guatemala (Izabal, Zacapa), Honduras, Mexico (Chiapas), Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone, Chiriquí) and Venezuela.
165009		habitat	eng	Habitat preference is small to medium-sized rocky streams and rivers with cover of forest or woodland at least in riparian belt.
165009		population	eng	<em>P. nathalia</em> has been found quite common at numerous locations.
165009		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165010		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least a few protected areas, including state parks; it appears not to require further conservation measures.
165010		distribution	eng	The species is found in California in the United States of America.
165010		habitat	eng	The species prefers pools in slow small to moderate streams, usually in wooded country.
165010		population	eng	<em>Z. exclamationis</em> is locally common in many populations.
165010		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165011		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several national forests and on tribal lands, both lands have many uses; there is uncertainty if it occurs in other protected areas.  Currently, it appears no further conservation actions are required.
165011		distribution	eng	<em>Ophiogomphus arizonicus</em> is found in Arizona and New Mexico in the United States of America.
165011		habitat	eng	Species likes small, rocky, mountain streams with moderate current and open banks; typically in open pine forest.
165011		population	eng	<em>O. arizonicus</em> is locally common in rivers in several mountain ranges.
165011		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165012		conservation	eng	The only United States of America occurrence of <em>A. concolor</em> is in Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge. It is not well known or documented if it is found in protected areas in its tropical range.  There appears to be no need for further conservation actions.
165012		distribution	eng	This species occurs in many countries throughout South and Mesoamerica, and in one southern state in the USA (Texas).
165012		habitat	eng	Open ponds in or out of woodland is the preferred habitat for <em>A. concolor</em>.
165012		population	eng	<em>A. concolor</em> is a reasonably widespread and locally common species throughout its range; although the population trend is unknown, there is no indication of any population decline.
165012		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165013		conservation	eng	<em>T. trifida</em> is present in the Everglades National Park and several state and local preserves in Florida. It is probably not well protected in its Caribbean range.
165013		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the following locations: Bahamas at San Salvador; Cuba at Ciudad de la Habana, La Habana, Oriente and Pinar del Rio; Dominican Republic at La Vega, Samaná and San Cristóbal; Haiti at the Centre, Samana and Tortuga; Jamaica at Saint Thomas; the Lesser Antilles; Puerto Rico; and the United States of America.
165013		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>T. trifida</em> are found in woodland and forest. Breeds in swamps, probably both permanent and temporary, also in artificial ponds in woodland. Larvae found in water during rainy season, adults probably spend dry season in dense forest waiting for next rains. Probably only one generation/year.
165013		population	eng	<em>T. trifida</em> is locally common in many populations.
165013		threats	eng	Forest clearing in the West Indian range is a threat that affects the habitat of this species.  The likelihood of drought, in the future due to the global climate change, would affect temporary wetlands in which the species breeds.
165014		conservation	eng	Occurrence in protected areas of <em>L. candelaria</em> has not been documented and confirmation of status in western Cuba is needed.  Further research is also required, looking at its biology and population trends.
165014		distribution	eng	<em>Leptobasis candelaria</em> occurs in Cuba; Pinar del Rio, Candelaria (Alayo 1968) and Mexico; Campeche, Quintana Roo, Veracruz.  In Veracruz there are numerous localities in Cordoba region (D. Paulson collection).
165014		habitat	eng	The species is found at lowland marshy ponds and slow streams, some of them seasonal. Known elevation range is 90 - 700 m.
165014		population	eng	There is no information available for <em>L. candelaria</em>.
165014		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165015		conservation	eng	Some populations protected in several Panamanian national parks. Searches for populations outside the known fairly restricted range would be of interest.
165015		distribution	eng	The species is known from Panama at the following locations:<br/>- Canal Zone, Pipeline Rd. (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Canal Zone, K-2 Rd and Pan-American Hwy (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Canal Zone, Barro Colorado Island (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Rio Piedras, 2 mi SE Maria Chiquita (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Panama, Cerro Azul (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Panama, Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)
165015		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is presumably small rain-forest streams, as with other <em>Palaemnema</em>.
165015		population	eng	<em>P. melanura</em> population numbers are not known, but it is found commonly at some locations. At least 22 specimens were examined for original description (Donnelly 1992).
165015		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat in areas outside protected reserves and drought is increasingly likely in the future with global climate change, although neither appear to be impacting the species at present.
165016		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.
165016		distribution	eng	Found in Canada in three provinces and  fourteen states in the United States of America.
165016		habitat	eng	<em>A. clepsydra</em> prefers marshes and bogs with open water, coastal plain ponds, small lakes, and bays of larger lakes.
165016		population	eng	<em>A. clepsydra</em> is locally common in many populations.
165016		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165017		conservation	eng	<em>A. popoluca</em> is present in the La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica and also in Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
165017		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Costa Rica (Alajuela, Heredia), Honduras, Panama and two states in Mexico.
165017		habitat	eng	The species prefers small, slow-flowing lowland forest streams, often associated with swamps; adults are found in heavily forested low areas with some movement of water through flooded surroundings.
165017		population	eng	Usually found in small numbers were it occurs, probably because preferred habitat is usually limited and supports only low populations.
165017		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165018		conservation	eng	The occurrence of this species in protected areas has not been documented, although <em>T. graffinii</em> is to be expected at any lowland reserve with appropriate habitat.
165018		distribution	eng	The species is found in Belize (Orange Walk), Costa Rica (Cartago, Guanacaste), Guatemala (Izabal, El Petén), Ecuador (Napo), Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama (Canal Zone, Darien, Panama).
165018		habitat	eng	The species frequents ponds and lakes, both seasonal and permanent, with extensive, if not complete, coverage by floating aquatic vegetation (<em>Pistia</em> or <em>Eichhornia</em>).
165018		population	eng	<em>T. griffinii</em> is locally common in many populations.
165018		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165019		conservation	eng	<em>T. canis</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures.
165019		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
165019		habitat	eng	The species is found in rivers and slow streams; sloughs seem preferred over ponds and lakes in Northwest, but latter also used. Aquatic vegetation usually prominent. Males more likely at moving water than other <em>Epitheca</em>, sometimes even over swift streams. More likely over bog ponds in eastern part of continent.
165019		population	eng	<em>T. canis</em> is abundant and widespread.
165019		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165020		conservation	eng	<em>L. cyanea</em> is present in numerous state parks and nature reserves and apparently does not require further conservation measures at this time.
165020		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout the United States of America in thirty two states.
165020		habitat	eng	The species is found in lakes and ponds, primarily those with silty/muddy bottoms, in open or woodland.
165020		population	eng	<em>L. cyanea</em> is abundant and widespread.
165020		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165021		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and conservation measures appear not to be needed at present.
165021		distribution	eng	The species occurs in four states in Mexico.
165021		habitat	eng	Species prefers rocky forest streams.
165021		population	eng	<em>E. liopeltis</em> is locally common in small number of known populations.
165021		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165022		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected national forests and St. Croix National Scenic Riverway, which may offer some protection.&#160; The species is listed as endangered in both states of occurrence: Minnesota and Wisconsin.
165022		distribution	eng	<em>Ophiogomphus susbehcha</em> is present in the north of the United States of America.
165022		habitat	eng	Prefers larger streams than other regional <em>Ophiogomphus</em>, with fast flow and clean water and with abundant cobble and gravel with sand substrates in largely forested watersheds. Larvae have only been found in deep water where wading is difficult or impossible.
165022		population	eng	<em>O. susbehcha</em> has a stable population and is thought to be abundant throughout its range.
165022		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165023		conservation	eng	<em>P. remotus</em> probably occurs in Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica, as it is known from nearby similar habitat. Also protected near Monteverde, Costa Rica, and on Barro Colorado Island in Soberania National Park, Panama. Much more field work is needed to establish its parameters of occurrence.
165023		distribution	eng	<em>Perissolestes remotus</em> is found in Antioquia, Colombia; Guanacaste and Puntarenas, Costa Rica; Izabal, Guatemala; Rio San Juan, Nicaragua; Canal Zone and Panama, Panama and Madre de Dios, Peru.
165023		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes small lowland rain forest streams and trickles on sandy or muddy soil, often with many rocks. Found at streams with no more than narrow forest borders, but always with trees.
165023		population	eng	<em>P. remotus</em> population numbers are not known.
165023		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to be a threat to this species habitat in the future, although at present, there do not appear to be any impacts affecting the status of <em>P. remotus</em>.
165024		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas in national wildlife refuges in the United States of America, although occurrence in protected areas has not been documented in Mexico and Guatemala.
165024		distribution	eng	<em>Argia pallens</em> is found in Guatemala, eight states in Mexico and three southern states in the United States of America.
165024		habitat	eng	<em>A. pallens</em> prefers open, rocky parts of shallow streams and rivers.
165024		population	eng	<em>A. pallens</em> is abundant and widespread.
165024		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165025		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures.
165025		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the United States of America.
165025		habitat	eng	The species inhabits swampy woodland ponds.
165025		population	eng	<em>T. spinosa</em> is probably locally common but is very poorly known at present.
165025		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165026		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
165026		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllogomphoides indicatrix</em> has been recorded from Chiapas, Ixhuatan at 400 m (Belle 1989) in Mexico.
165026		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown although presumably forest stream as all other tropical <em>Phyllogomphoides</em>.
165026		population	eng	<em>P. indicatrix</em> population numbers are not known.
165026		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently not known.
165027		conservation	eng	The occurrence of <em>N. griphus</em> in protected reserves is not known; investigations into the range and biology of this species are needed.
165027		distribution	eng	<em>Neocordulia griphus</em> is present in Costa Rica and Guatemala.
165027		habitat	eng	Nothing specifically recorded about this species habitat but, from the localities in the type description, probably lowland forest streams.
165027		population	eng	Population numbers and trend are unknown for <em>N. griphus</em>.
165027		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
165028		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in the United States; its occurrence in such areas have not been documented south of the United States border.
165028		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern United States of America, Mexico, Mesoamerica to South America. It has an uncertain record from Brazil. However, in Belize it is found in Cayo; Costa Rica in Guanacaste, Puntarenas and San  José; El Salvador in La Unión; Guatemala in Escuintla, Izabal, Zacapa, Honduras in Cortez and Valle; Nicaragua in Managua and in Panama in the Canal Zone and Panama itself.
165028		habitat	eng	The species prefers small streams to good-sized rivers, mostly open but may have wooded banks; rocks are usually, but not always, present. Also at large upland lakes with wave-washed shores.
165028		population	eng	<em>M. inacuta</em> is locally common in many populations.
165028		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165029		conservation	eng	<em>H. brevistylus</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165029		distribution	eng	This species occurs in five provinces in Canada and thirty four states in the United States of America.
165029		habitat	eng	This species prefers a wide variety of streams and rivers, less commonly on lakes. Like other top predators (cougars, wolves, great horned owls), they appear to be able to utilize all habitats. This may be because the larva is not a burrower (it rests among detritus), therefore not tied to any particular substrate.
165029		population	eng	<em>H. brevistylus</em> is common and widespread.
165029		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165030		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Everglades National Park and numerous other protected reserves and it appears not to require any further conservation measures at present.
165030		distribution	eng	This species occurs in nine states in the United States of America.
165030		habitat	eng	Occurring in slow streams and rivers, canals, and a great variety of sand-bottomed lakes and ponds, <em>A. williamsoni</em> is amongst the most ecologically broad-based of American clubtails.
165030		population	eng	<em>A. williamsoni</em> is locally common in many populations.
165030		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165031		conservation	eng	Present in Guanacaste National Park and protected areas at Monteverde. More surveys needed between known areas at Monteverde and in Cartago Province.
165031		distribution	eng	<em>Philogenia peacocki</em> occurs in Costa Rica at the following locations (with collection notes):<br/>- Guanacaste: Volcan Cacao, Estacion Mengo, 1,100 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>- Guanacaste: 6 km from Monteverde, 1150 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)<br/>- Puntarenas: Monteverde, 1,600 m (Brooks 1989); Monteverde: 1,100 - 1,450 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)<br/>- Cartago: Turrialba, Santa Cruz (Ramírez and Novelo 1994)
165031		habitat	eng	Species occurs in narrow, shallow gentle streams, some adjacent to fast-flowing small rivers in densely shaded rain forest. Elevation range 1,100 - 1,600 m.
165031		population	eng	<em>P. peacocki</em> population numbers are not known although it has been found common at a few sites.
165031		threats	eng	Deforestation is a possible threat to <em>P. peacocki</em> although it is not likely in the most known populations.
165032		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
165032		distribution	eng	The species is found in seven south and southeastern states in the United States of America.
165032		habitat	eng	Species occurs at small to medium slowly flowing streams with sand and muck bottoms, usually in woodland.
165032		population	eng	<em>N. alabamensis</em> is poorly monitored but is probably locally common in many populations.
165032		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165033		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas, although most localities on public or private land that are not managed to preserve wetlands.  Further occurrences within protected areas are required.
165033		distribution	eng	This species occurs in fifteen states in the United States of America.
165033		habitat	eng	This species likes shallow sedge marshes, is often associated with hot springs in the northern part of the range. Also small sandy streams that flow out of such springs, with slight current and abundant sedges.
165033		population	eng	<em>A. alberta</em> is locally common in many populations.
165033		threats	eng	Populations of <em>A. alberta</em> apparently disappeared from southeastern Arizona during a drought period of late 1990s and have not been detected since.  Drought that would eliminate small spring runs, presumably an increasingly likely threat from global warming, would cause a decline in the population.
165034		conservation	eng	None of the few known localities of <em>A. percellulata</em> are in a protected area and further research in all aspects of this species are needed.
165034		distribution	eng	<em>Argia percellulata</em> is found in three states in Mexico.
165034		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is not known but presumably occurs in streams.
165034		population	eng	The population size and trend of <em>A. percellulata</em> is unknown.
165034		threats	eng	There is not enough available data to assess threats to this species.
165035		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
165035		distribution	eng	The species is present in twelve states in the United States of America.
165035		habitat	eng	Species frequents medium to large rivers with some current in wooded country.
165035		population	eng	<em>N. virginiensis</em> is locally common in many populations.
165035		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165036		conservation	eng	The species is present in some state parks and other protected areas in New Mexico and Texas. Occurrence in protected areas in Mexico are not known.
165036		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllogomphoides stigmatus</em> occurs in Mexico and the United States of America.
165036		habitat	eng	Species is found in slow-flowing streams and rivers and large open ponds.
165036		population	eng	<em>P. stigmatus</em> is locally common in many populations.
165036		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165037		conservation	eng	<em>G. furcillata</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165037		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and twenty six states in the United States of America.
165037		habitat	eng	<em>G. furcillata</em> is found in shallow pools and ditches in swampy areas or sphagnum bog ponds.
165037		population	eng	<em>G. furcillata</em> is locally common in many populations.
165037		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165038		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas in state parks in the United States of America.
165038		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces Canada, nine states in Mexico and forty one states in the United States of America.
165038		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers, from muddy to sandy but often rocky substrate, with wooded or open banks. This is typical habitat of the largest rivers inhabited by <em>Argia</em> species but may also be found on quite small streams. Also on large lakes in northern parts of range.
165038		population	eng	<em>A. moesta</em> is abundant and widespread.
165038		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165039		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in Texas and Arizona. Status of occurrence in protected areas south of the United States border has not been documented.
165039		distribution	eng	<em>Perithemis domitia</em> is found from southern United States of America, Mesoamerica, Greater and Lesser Antilles and South America, including Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Guanacaste and Puntarenas in Costa Rica; Barahona, Dajabón, Distrito Nacional, La Romana, La Vega, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Sánchez Ramírez and Santiago in Dominican Republic; Pichincha in Ecuador; St. Andrew, St. Catherine and St. Thomas in Jamaica; and Carabobo, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Miranda and Yaracuy in Venezuela.
165039		habitat	eng	Species occurs at wooded pools in streams and sloughs, less often at ponds, but always where trees present. May be at very small and isolated water bodies or narrow channels.
165039		population	eng	<em>P. domitia</em> is abundant and widespread.
165039		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165040		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in Costa Rica (La Selva Protected Zone), Guatemala (Tikal National Park), and Florida (Fakahatchee Strand Preserve). Much effort should be put into searches for this species in the Fakahatchee Strand area of the Big Cypress Swamp. Last seen there in 2000; several subsequent searches came up empty.
165040		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysobasis lucifer</em> is found in Belize (Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek), Costa Rica, Guatemala, two states in Mexico and Florida, United States of America.
165040		habitat	eng	Found at seasonal marshes or swamps in forested landscape.
165040		population	eng	<em>C. lucifer</em> is fairly common in the right season in one population, that at La Selva, Costa Rica. Otherwise poorly known. Very uncommon in Florida, where two specimens taken years apart in Big Cypress Swamp.
165040		threats	eng	Drought is most likely to affect <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lucifer</span>, caused by global warming; if the seasonal rains do not arrive to replenish the marshes and swamps, possible breeding habitat like be lost.<em><br/><br/></em>
165041		conservation	eng	The species is present in several protected areas in Panama (Barro Colorado Island, Soberania National Park) and is likely to be present in protected areas in Costa Rica (e.g., Braulio Carrillo National Park).
165041		distribution	eng	<em>Epigomphus quadracies</em> is found in Costa Rica, Guatemala and Panama in the following areas:<br/>Guatemala: Quetzaltenango - possibly recorded in error.<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, San Isidro (Calvert 1903, 1905)<br/>Costa Rica: Limón, Rio Chirripó (Calvert 1920)<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela, Alajuela, 975 m (Calvert  1920)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, Rincón de Osa (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Panama: Chiriquí (Calvert 1903, 1905)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Barro Colorado Island (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (D. R. Paulson collection)
165041		habitat	eng	Habitat preferred includes rain-forest streams.
165041		population	eng	<em>E. quadracies</em> is widespread and at least locally common with a stable population trend.
165041		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165042		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, virtually all such with wetlands within its range; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165042		distribution	eng	The species is found in Belize (Cayo, Orange Walk, Toledo), five provinces in Canada, Guatemala, three states in Mexico and thirty seven states in the United States of America.
165042		habitat	eng	The species is found in ponds, lake shores, swamps, ditches, and slow streams with abundant herbaceous vegetation, including spring-fed pools. Often seen in dense grass or sedge beds like other <em>Ischnura</em> species but also common in other herbaceous plant beds in shady wooded situations.
165042		population	eng	<em>I. posita</em> is abundant and widespread.
165042		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165043		conservation	eng	The species is present in some state and local reserves; no further conservation methods appear to be needed at this time.
165043		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Nova Scotia in Canada and ten states in the United States of America.
165043		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes vegetated ponds and lakes, typically on sandy coastal-plain soils.
165043		population	eng	<em> C. martha</em> is locally common in many populations.
165043		threats	eng	Development of the habitat could become a threat to this species, especially on its preferred habitat of sandy coastal-plain soils.
165044		conservation	eng	The presence of <em>L. foliata</em> in protected areas has not been documented. Continued searches for additional populations is advised.
165044		distribution	eng	<em>Libellua foliata</em> is found throughout Mesoamerica, including these areas: Cartago in Costa Rica and Baja Verapaz and Sacatepéquez in Guatemala.
165044		habitat	eng	<em>L. foliata</em> is found in upland ponds, marshes, and slow streams; usually in open areas.
165044		population	eng	Details for <em>L. foliata</em> population numbers are not known at present.
165044		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165045		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
165045		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Lesser Antilles; Dominica (Donnelly 1970), Grenada (Kirby 1894), and Guadeloupe and Martinique (Meurgey 2006b).
165045		habitat	eng	Habitat preference for <em>B. grenadensis</em> is not known although it is probably mountain streams.
165045		population	eng	Population size and trend remains unknown for <em>B. grenadensis</em>.
165045		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not currently known.
165046		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
165046		distribution	eng	The species is found in Belize at Toledo: Blue Creek (Garrison 1994).
165046		habitat	eng	Species prefers rain forest streams.
165046		population	eng	The population size and trend of <em>E. leptophis</em> is not known.
165046		threats	eng	There is not information known on <em>E. leptophis</em> to understand if there are any threats affecting it.
165047		conservation	eng	Probably not present in any thoroughly protected reserve, as the Ouachita National Forest, its stronghold, is a land of many uses.
165047		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster talaria</em> is found in Arkansas in the United States of America.
165047		habitat	eng	Prefers small sandy streams in forest.
165047		population	eng	<em>C. talaria</em> is found in small local populations and its trend is unknown.
165047		threats	eng	The logging of hardwood has a slight chance to negatively affect the habitat of this species.
165048		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas, especially state parks, but not protected in watersheds; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
165048		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two provinces in Canada and fourteen states in the United States of America.
165048		habitat	eng	The species occurs at medium to large slow-flowing to rapid rivers with varied bottom types, in or out of woodland.  Adults not always easily found and so the species is best surveyed by larvae and exuviae (moulted exoskeletons).
165048		population	eng	<em>S. amnicola</em> is locally common in many populations.
165048		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165049		conservation	eng	The species is found in a protected area in at least Soberania National Park in Panama and would benefit from a monitoring study into population numbers, habitat status and general life histories.
165049		distribution	eng	The species is found in Colombia, Panama and Venezuela at the following locations:<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (May 1979, Garrison 1994)<br/>Colombia: Antioquia, Cristlina, 28 km above Puerto Berrio (Garrison 1994)<br/>Colombia: Tolima, Maraquita (Garrison 1994)<br/>Venezuela: Táchira, Táchira (Garrison 1994)
165049		habitat	eng	Species prefers rain forest streams.
165049		population	eng	<em>E. sabaleticus</em> is apparently rather rare where it occurs, very few have been seen.
165049		threats	eng	There is likely to be a concern of deforestation in the future for <em>E. sabaleticus</em> habitat, although at present it appears not to be a threat.
165050		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Everglades National Park and at least several state, local, and private reserves in the United States.  It probably occurs in most forested lowland reserves throughout New World tropics.
165050		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the following areas: Bahamas (South Bimini), Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Toledo), Bolivia (Santa Cruz), two states in Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia (Antioquia, Bolívar, Magdalena, Tolima), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, San José), Cuba (Pinar del Rio), Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, El Seibo, La Romana, La Vega, María Trinidad Sánchez, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Sánchez Ramírez, Santiago), Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Rios, Napo), Guatemala (Escuintla, Petén), Guyana, Guyane Française, Honduras, Jamaica (Saint Thomas), Lesser Antilles, twelve states in Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone, Chiriquí), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Puerto Rico, Suriname (Paramaribo), Trinidad (Caroni), four states in the United States of America and Venezuela (Amazonas, Aragua, Barinas, Bolivar, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Miranda, Táchira).
165050		habitat	eng	<em>G. nervosa</em> is found in wooded swamps and low-lying woodland, even in garden pools; there is no minimal size for larval habitat.
165050		population	eng	<em>G. nervosa</em> is abundant and widespread.
165050		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165051		conservation	eng	The species has not been found in protected reserves.  There are no conservation actions required at present.
165051		distribution	eng	This species is found in Costa Rica (Guanacaste), El Salvador (Ahuachapán, La Libertad), Guatemala (Baja Verapaz, Chiquimula, Zacapa), twelve states in Mexico and in Nicaragua (Managua).
165051		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow rocky and muddy rivers in and out of forest.
165051		population	eng	<em>E. bothrops</em> is locally common in many populations.
165051		threats	eng	There are no known threat currently affecting this species.
165052		conservation	eng	<em>P. championi</em> is presumably present in Corcovado National Park, as it is common at Rincón de Osa, near the park and in the same habitat.  Investigations to establish its presence there are needed.
165052		distribution	eng	This species is found in the following locations (with collection notes): <br/>Panama: Chiriquí, Boquete, 4000 ft (Calvert 1924)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, Rincón de Osa, sea level (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, 4 mi S San Vito de Java, 4000 ft (Bick and Bick 1988, D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Province, Golfito, sea level (D. R. Paulson collection)
165052		habitat	eng	Species occurs at small rocky streams with some current in dense rain forest.
165052		population	eng	<em>P. championi</em> has been found to be very common at several of the Costa Rican locations listed above.
165052		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165053		conservation	eng	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165053		distribution	eng	This species is found in eight states within the United States of America.
165053		habitat	eng	<em>G. dilatatus</em> occurs in slow-flowing sandy rivers with mud in pools. Also at some lakes with similar substrates.
165053		population	eng	<em>G. dilatatus</em> is locally common in many populations.
165053		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165054		conservation	eng	Occurrence of <em>N. gladiolatum</em> in protected areas have not been documented; there are no conservation measures in place and it is thought that none are needed at present.
165054		distribution	eng	The species occurs in six states in Mexico.
165054		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes ponds, lakes, and backwaters of rivers with both large areas of open water and floating and/or submerged vegetation.&#160;&#160; Has been recorded at seasonal as well as permanent wetlands.
165054		population	eng	<em>N. gladiolatum</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but little surveyed recently.
165054		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165055		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.
165055		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada; eleven provinces and two territories, and the United States of America; forty-four states.
165055		habitat	eng	<em>A. umbrosa</em> is found at lakes, ponds, even small ones, and slow streams. More common on streams than other <em>Aeshna</em> in its range. Colonizes small suburban ponds readily.
165055		population	eng	<em>A. umbrosa</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165055		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165056		conservation	eng	<em>G. abbreviatus</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.  It is listed as Endangered in Massachusetts (Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife: www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/nhesp/species_info/mesa_list/mesa_index.htm).
165056		distribution	eng	This species is found in fourteen states within the United States of America.
165056		habitat	eng	This species is found in clean sandy or rocky streams and also rivers with muck (a type of soil mostly made up from humus from drained swampland)  <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp"></a> deposits.
165056		population	eng	<em>G. abbreviatus</em> is locally common in many populations.
165056		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165057		conservation	eng	<em>L. tikalus</em> is protected in Tikal National Park in Guatemala and Corcovado National Park and La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.
165057		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes tikalus</em> is found in Mesoamerica in the following countries and locations: Belize (Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek), Costa Rica (Heredia, Puntarenas), Guatemala (El Petén), Honduras, Nicaragua, eight states in Mexico and Panama (Canal Zone).
165057		habitat	eng	The species prefers shallow ponds and marshes in forest zones, typically those that are drying in dry season and re-flooded in next wet season.
165057		population	eng	<em>L. tikalus</em> is locally common in many populations.
165057		threats	eng	<em>L. tikalus</em> is likely to be affected by drought and deforestation in the future; it is a widespread species occurring in protected areas.
165058		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.
165058		distribution	eng	This species is found in six states in Mexico.
165058		habitat	eng	Species prefers rocky mountain streams and small rivers, usually with adjacent riparian belt.
165058		population	eng	<em>E. sipedon</em> is common in at least some populations, and the trend is thought to be stable.
165058		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165059		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, including national and state parks and national wildlife refuges; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165059		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Bahamas (Andros, Biminis, Cat Island, Crooked Island, San Salvador), Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo), Brazil, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia (Atlantico), Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Azua, Barahona, Distrito Nacional, Elías Piña, Independencia, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Santiago, Valverde), Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala (Guatemala, Petén, Retalhuleu), Guyane Française, Haiti, Honduras (Cortez), Isla San Andres, Jamaica (Clarendon, Portland, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth, St. James), Lesser Antilles (Guadeloupe, Martinique), twenty two states in Mexico, Nicaragua (Chinandega), Panama (Canal Zone), Paraguay, Peru (Lima), Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad, twenty five states in the United States of America, Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Carabobo, Cojedes, Falcón, Guárico) and the Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas).
165059		habitat	eng	<em>I. ramburii</em> occurs in a great variety of habitats in lowland range - lakes, ponds, marshes, ditches, even brackish waters; as long as some shore vegetation such as grasses and sedges are present. Also found at high elevations at large lakes in Mexico and Central America, and one such locality in Arizona, Point of Pines Lake in ponderosa pine zone at 1,900 m.
165059		population	eng	<em>I. ramburii</em> is superabundant and widespread and the population is increasing.
165059		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165060		conservation	eng	<em>M. dissocians</em> is not known to be present in any protected area. It apparently has good powers of dispersal, so it is not likely to be threatened by local populations going extinct.
165060		distribution	eng	<em>Micrathyria dissocians</em> occurs in Belize, Cuba (Las Villas), Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, La Vega, San Cristóbal), Guatemala, Jamaica (Clarendon), six states in Mexico and Puerto Rico.
165060		habitat	eng	Habitat preference includes marshy ponds, both permanent and temporary, in open or lightly wooded habitats in lowlands.&#160; It has been found also at slow streams.
165060		population	eng	Detailed population numbers of <em>M. dissocians</em> are unknown. It has been found commonly at some sites.
165060		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165061		conservation	eng	All known populations appear to occur in protected areas and no further conservation measures are required.
165061		distribution	eng	<em>Philogenia leonora</em> is found in Panama and has been recorded from these locations (with collection notes:)<br/>- Canal Zone: Barro Colorado Island (May 1979, Bick and Bick 1988)<br/>- Canal Zone: Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Cerro Campana: near Chica, 640 m (D. R. Paulson collection)
165061		habitat	eng	The species is found inside rain forest on Barro Colorado Island; presumed to breed in small forest streams.
165061		population	eng	<em>P. leonora</em> population numbers are not known.
165061		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165062		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
165062		distribution	eng	This species occurs in seven provinces and one territory in Canada and six states in the United States of America.
165062		habitat	eng	<em>O. colubrinus</em> occurs in clear rapid streams and rivers with pools and riffles, gravelly or rocky beds.
165062		population	eng	<em>O. colubrinus</em> is abundant and widespread.
165062		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165063		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas, e.g., national, state and provincial parks.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165063		distribution	eng	This species occurs in ten provinces in Canada and twenty nine states in the United States of America.
165063		habitat	eng	Occurs at lakes and ponds of all sizes, typically bordered with abundant emergent vegetation, in open or woodland. Less likely than very similar <em>Enallagma hageni</em> at bog ponds and other acid waters.
165063		population	eng	<em>E. ebrium</em> is abundant and widespread.
165063		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165064		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas all across North America.  There does not appear to be any further need for conservation measures at this time.
165064		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada, two states in Mexico and forty four states in the United States of America.
165064		habitat	eng	The species frequents lakes, ponds, and pools in slow streams of all kinds with mud bottoms and often with vegetation, in open and wooded habitats. Common at farm ponds and other created habitats.
165064		population	eng	<em>L. luctuosa</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165064		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165065		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
165065		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eleven provinces in Canada and eight states in the United States of America.
165065		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat for this species is lakes, with or without much floating and/or emergent vegetation; also large, slow-flowing rivers.
165065		population	eng	<em>S. cingulata</em> is locally common in many populations.
165065		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165066		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas in the United States, such presence has not been documented south of the United States border.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at this time.
165066		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eleven provinces in Argentina, Belize (Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo), Bolivia (Beni, Santa Cruz), four states in Brazil, Colombia (Atlantico, Magdalena, Valle), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Guanacaste), Cuba (Matanzas), Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel, San Cristóbal), Ecuador (Guayas, Pichincha), El Salvador (Libertad, San Salvador), Guatemala (Sololá), Guyana, Guyane Française, Honduras (Comayagua, Cortez), Jamaica (St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth), Lesser Antilles (Guadeloupe, Martinique), sixteen states in Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone), Paraguay (Central, Concepción, Paraguari), Peru (Loreto), Puerto Rico, Trinidad, nine states in the United States of America, Uruguay and Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Bolivar, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Guárico, Miranda, Monagas, Táchira, Zulia).
165066		habitat	eng	The species is found at ponds and lakes with abundant water hyacinths or water lettuce, less commonly over other floating vegetation. Water hyacinth seems the most important variable in its habitat choice.
165066		population	eng	<em>M. marcella</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165066		threats	eng	Removal of water hyacinths from large areas (in a bid to 'control' their spread) limits the breeding grounds for <em>M. marcella</em> although this does not appear to have caused a decline in numbers at present.
165067		conservation	eng	Presence in protected reserves have not been documented for <em>P. paulina</em>. Searching for persisting and additional populations is needed, but much of the presumed range has never visited by odonatologists.  Further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
165067		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the following locations:<br/>Belize: Toledo (Boomsma and Dunkle 1996)<br/>Guatemala: Izabal, Las Escobas (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Guatemala: Chiquimula, Rio Carcar (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Honduras: Atlantida, Jilamo (Calvert 1931)<br/>Honduras: Atlantida, La Ceiba (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Nicaragua: F. Sibley (pers. comm. 2006)
165067		habitat	eng	This species habitat preference is presumably small forest streams, as in other <em>Palaemnema</em>.
165067		population	eng	<em>P. paulina</em> population numbers are not known.
165067		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought (the latter increasingly likely with global climate change) are all threats that have been recorded for <em>P. paulina</em>, and are likely to continue into the future although they do not appear to be affecting the species to a point of decline so far.
165068		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous protected areas but entire watersheds are not protected; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
165068		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.
165068		habitat	eng	The species frequents mud- and sand-bottomed rivers in forested regions; occasionally streams or lakes. Adults spend much time in forest canopy, so best surveyed by larvae and exuviae.
165068		population	eng	<em>S. spiniceps</em> is locally common in many populations.
165068		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165069		conservation	eng	Most of the Cerro Azul-Cerro Jefe area is preserved in Chagres National Park where this species occurs, some of which is also on private lands.  Searching for persisting populations of <em>P. bilobulata</em> at Cerro Azul and other populations is of great importance, as is investing its life histories and range.
165069		distribution	eng	Donnelly (1992) recorded <em>Palaemnema bilobulata</em> in Cerro Azul, Panama.
165069		habitat	eng	Habitat is unknown for <em>P. bilobulata</em> but presumably small streams in wet forest, like other <em>Palaemnema</em>.
165069		population	eng	The population size and trend of <em>P. bilobulata</em> are not known.
165069		threats	eng	Deforestation is a possible future threat to the habitat of <em>P. bilobulata</em>, although not likely in national park area. Fires are a possibility, although most of the forest is too wet. Drought from global warming could cause an increase in fire danger and/or dry up small streams that are preferred by <em>Palaemnema</em>.
165070		conservation	eng	The species is present in national forests but perhaps not large protected areas; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.
165070		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the United States of America in three states.
165070		habitat	eng	Species found at swift rocky streams bordered by willows, mostly in forested habitats, from lowlands to well up in mountains.
165070		population	eng	<em>O. bison</em> is locally common in many populations.
165070		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165071		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
165071		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the United States of America.
165071		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow, mucky seeps in forested areas, flat or on hillside and associated with either streams or ponds; also sedge-covered fens in Ozarks, central United States of America.   Breeding habitat ranges from open woodland to pine Flatwoods.  Larva is found in soft sediments beneath decaying vegetation, usually dead leaves, in or at edge of shallow water in seeps or stream margins.
165071		population	eng	<em>T. thoreyi</em> is locally common in many populations.
165071		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165072		conservation	eng	<em>C. obliqua</em> is present in at least some state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation actions appear to be needed at this time.
165072		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ontario and Quebec in Canada and thirty states in the United States of America.
165072		habitat	eng	Found at small swift streams and muddy seeps in forested habitats.
165072		population	eng	<em>C. obliqua</em> is locally common in many populations in small numbers but is widespread.
165072		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165073		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.
165073		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Mexico at the following locations: <br/>Veracruz: El Muro, 1,100 m<br/>Hidalgo: Pemuxtitla, Rio Zacuala, 1,000 m<br/>Hidalgo: Molango, 1,450 m
165073		habitat	eng	Species prefers cloud-forest streams.
165073		population	eng	<em>E. erici</em> is thought to be rare, and is known only from three locations.
165073		threats	eng	There is little known on the threats to this species, although deforestation is likely to be of course for concern in the future.
165074		conservation	eng	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.
165074		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna canadensis</em> occurs in ten provinces and one territory in Canada and twenty four states in the United States of America.
165074		habitat	eng	<em>A. canadensis</em> is often associated with bogs and beaver ponds; also occurs at lakes and ponds with abundant emergent vegetation in forest zone. <em></em>
165074		population	eng	<em>A. canadensis</em> is abundant in many areas throughout its range.
165074		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165075		conservation	eng	The species has not been documented in protected reserves; there appears to be no conservation measures needed at present.
165075		distribution	eng	The species is found in Mesoamerica, including the following locations: Cayo, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo, Belize; Alta Verapaz, El Progreso and Zacapa, Guatemala; and Cortez in Honduras.
165075		habitat	eng	Species is found in rocky forest streams and rivers.
165075		population	eng	<em>P. duodentatus</em> is presumed to be locally common still in many populations, but little surveying have been completed recently.
165075		threats	eng	Deforestation is expected to be a threat to <em>P. duodentatus</em> in the future but at present, there are no known threats.
165076		conservation	eng	<em>C. mortoni</em> is protected in La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica and Soberania National Park in Panama.  Further research in all aspects of its biology is required.
165076		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Costa Rica: Heredia, Puerto Viejo (including La Selva); Limón, 9 km southwest Pandora and Panama, Canal Zone, Pipeline Road, Barro Colorado Island, Gamboa, Frijoles (Donnelly 1992).
165076		habitat	eng	<em>C. mortoni</em> has been collected from primary forest. It is associated with wooded swamps at La Selva (D. Paulson unpublished data 2006).
165076		population	eng	The population of <em>C. mortoni</em> is unknown.  It is not common and not found in numbers within its known range.
165076		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>C. mortoni</em> is likely to be affected by deforestation of its primary habitat, although the species also occurs in protected areas (see conservation measures).
165077		conservation	eng	One population of <em>L. mariae</em> occurs in Tapantí National Park and another in Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve. Surveying for additional populations is needed.
165077		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula mariae</em> occurs in Costa Rica and has been recorded at the following locations: <br/>- Cartago Province, Tapantí (Garrison 1992)<br/>- San José Province, Rio Claro on La Palma-Carrillo Road, 1,200 m (D.R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Puntarenas Province, Monteverde area, two locations 5 km apart (W. Haber in litt. 2006)
165077		habitat	eng	One male was found at a pool in a small swift, clear, sand- and rock-bottomed stream with grassy banks. Found breeding at a permanent root hole caused by tree fall in swampy area in primary forest. Also at a pool in a spring seep in secondary forest 5 km from tree fall site (W. Haber pers. comm. 2006).
165077		population	eng	Details for <em>L. mariae</em> population numbers are not known at present although it is found in four locations.
165077		threats	eng	There is little data available to assess the threats to this species, however it is thought that deforestation could cause a problem in the future.
165078		conservation	eng	The species is present in state parks and national wildlife refuges in south Texas, also in La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica. Occurrence in protected areas are not otherwise documented.
165078		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Mexico in ten states, one in the United States of America and in Mesoamerica including these locations:  Alajuela, Guanacaste, Heredia and Limón in Costa Rica; La Libertad in El Salvador; Baja Verapaz, Escuintla, Izabal and Zacapa in Guatemala; Chinandega in Nicaragua and the Canal Zone in Panama.
165078		habitat	eng	Quiet backwaters at edges of rivers, pools in streams, and large ponds, often muddy are preferred by this species. Range of water bodies from quite small to quite large. Pairs oviposit in floating detritus that has collected in eddies.
165078		population	eng	<em>N. amelia</em> is locally common in many populations.
165078		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165079		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas, including national, provincial, and state parks and national wildlife refuges.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165079		distribution	eng	This species occurs in nine provinces in Canada, Baja California in Mexico and thirty two states in the United States of America.
165079		habitat	eng	<em>E. carunculatum</em> is found at marshy and open lakes, ponds, and slow streams and rivers, occurring commonly at larger and more eutrophic lakes than some of its relatives. In Pacific Northwest, may be common at lakes and ponds with tall cattail growth where other <em>Enallagma</em> lacking. Also found in some saline lakes, but not as characteristic of extreme environments as <em>Enallagma clausum</em>.
165079		population	eng	<em>E. carunculatum</em> is abundant and widespread.
165079		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165080		conservation	eng	The species is present in Big Bend National Park and several state parks and other reserves in the United States. Occurrence in protected areas in Mexico has not been established.
165080		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Mexico (Baja California Sur, Durango, Guanajuato, Mexico, Oaxaca, Sonora, Veracruz) and the United States of America (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas).
165080		habitat	eng	Species frequents slow streams and drainage ditches in open and wooded country, also isolated pools, even garden ponds.
165080		population	eng	<em>R. dugesi</em> is a locally common species in many populations.
165080		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165081		conservation	eng	Not applicable.
165081		conservation	eng	Present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves in Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America.  The migratory nature of <em>A. junius</em> mandates cross-border cooperation, although so far no reason for concern.
165081		distribution	eng	<em>Anax junius</em> is a common species in central and north America which has crossed the Atlantic up to Europe. The only European records are those of six individuals on the Isles of Scilly and in Cornwall in September 1998 and a male caught on the French coast near Nantes in September 2003 (Meurgey and Perron, 2004; Pellow, 1999). The British records coincided with an Atlantic depression with strong westernly winds.
165081		distribution	eng	This species occurs in nine provinces in Canada, fifty one states in the United States of America, eighteen states in Mexico, Kamchatka in the Russian Federation and many Caribbean Islands within the Greater and Lesser Antilles.
165081		habitat	eng	<em>A. junius</em> is found at lakes and all but the smallest ponds, also slow streams. Because of migratory nature, it is liable to be seen anywhere at or away from water.  It has a relatively rare breeding strategy: large proportion of populations in most areas are migratory. Mature adults move north in spring throughout North America, they appear before any can be found emerging. These individuals breed, their larvae develop during summer, and their offspring emerge in late summer, then they fly south in immature colours. At times migrants are seen in large numbers, especially on Atlantic coast but also in the Great Lakes. Occasionally found far out at sea off southern California in fall, commonly seen from oil platforms in Gulf of Mexico. These individuals presumably breed somewhere in Mexico and the Caribbean, probably also in far southern United States, their larvae developing during winter and their offspring moving north in spring. This scenario is speculative but with strong circumstantial evidence. Fewer individuals in same regions are more like other dragonflies, emerging in spring from larvae that overwintered locally.
165081		habitat	eng	In Central and North America it is found at standing, marshy waters including temporary or slightly brackish ones.
165081		population	eng	<em>A. junius</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165081		population	eng	This species occurs in large numbers in its Central and North American range. It does however not reproduce in Europe and only a handful of specimens have been observed.
165081		threats	eng	Not relevant.
165081		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165082		conservation	eng	<em>P. volsella</em> occurs within La Selva Protected Area in Costa Rica and Soberania National Park in Panama and does not appear to require any further monitoring.
165082		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cayo, Belize; Guanacaste and Heredia, Costa Rica; Izabal and Zacapa, Guatemala; Mexico; and the Canal Zone in Panama.
165082		habitat	eng	The species occurs in slow-flowing muddy lowland rivers in tropical dry and wet forest.
165082		population	eng	<em>P. volsella</em> is locally common in many populations.
165082		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165083		conservation	eng	Searching for existing populations of <em>P. brucei</em> is urgently needed. Unstable social situation in Colombia and inaccessibility of much of the rain forest in that country make this difficult but it has also played some part in protecting those forests.  The area of the type locality is severely deforested since its description.
165083		distribution	eng	Calvert (1931) recorded <em>Palaemnema brucei</em> in Colombia at Antioquia, Cristalina at 320 m altitude.
165083		habitat	eng	Habitat includes small, shallow rocky streams in wet forest. Adults lurk in shadows near ground during day, becoming active at water in the shade in late afternoon.
165083		population	eng	<em>P. brucei</em> population numbers are  not known, although 80 individuals were collected in a week at Cristalina in 1912. Most likely to be common where it occurs.
165083		threats	eng	Deforestation is a continued threat to <em>P. brucei</em> and is likely to carry on into the future. Drought is also a possibility in the future, due to global climate change.
165084		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.
165084		distribution	eng	<em>Paltothemis cyanosoma</em> occurs in Mexico and has been recorded from the following locations (with collection notes):<br/>- Jalisco: 6 mi N Guadalajara (Garrison 1982)<br/>- Jalisco: El Tuito, 860 m (20.34278 N, 105.31888 W) (E. González-Soriano in litt. 2006)<br/>- Guerrero: Acahuizotla, 17.5 km S Chilpancingo, 3,500 m
165084		habitat	eng	The species occurs in streams in woodland or forest.
165084		population	eng	<em>P. paulina</em> population numbers are not known. Apparently no one has found it common.
165084		threats	eng	There is not enough available data to assess threats to this species.
165085		conservation	eng	<em>M. westfalli</em> is present in Soberania National Park in Panama and very likely in Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica.  There appears to be no need for further conservation measures at this time.
165085		distribution	eng	This species is present in Costa Rica and Panama in the following areas:<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Province, Rincón de Osa (D.R. Paulson collection)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Barro Colorado Island (Cumming 1954, Donnelly 1992)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Chiva Chiva Road, Morgan and Colón
165085		habitat	eng	Adults have been found rather common in tall grass in shade at forest edges above large seasonal ponds surrounded by forest; most males 1-2' up in 2' grass, also tandem pair in same grass.
165085		population	eng	<em>M. westfalli</em> is common at one locality each in apparently optimal habitat in Costa Rica and Panama.
165085		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165086		conservation	eng	There is a population of <em>L. spumarius</em> in Key Deer National Wildlife Refuge, Big Pine Key, Florida. Otherwise, occurrence in protected reserves has not been documented.
165086		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of the Antilles in the Bahamas (Biminis, Cat Island, San Salvador), Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Samaná), Puerto Rico and Florida in the United States of America.  Its presence is uncertain in Haiti.
165086		habitat	eng	<em>L. spumarius</em> occurs in shallow ponds, marshes, and sink holes, usually in wooded landscape.
165086		population	eng	<em>L. spumarius</em> is locally common in many populations.
165086		threats	eng	Introduction of fish or other exotic predators and perhaps drought from global warming could all impact <em>L. spumarius</em>.
165087		conservation	eng	The species is present in some state parks and local reserves, including Dolan Ranch property managed by The Nature Conservancy and most likely in Big Bend National Park.  There appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165087		distribution	eng	<em>Dythemis fugax</em> is found in Mexico (Tamaulipas), and eight states in the United States of America.
165087		habitat	eng	<em>D. fugax</em> occurs at slow streams and rivers and open lakes, sometimes ponds, usually in open country with a shore belt of low trees or shrubs.
165087		population	eng	<em>D. fugax</em> is abundant and widespread.
165087		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165088		conservation	eng	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.
165088		distribution	eng	This species occurs in five provinces and two territories in Canada and four states in the United States of America.
165088		habitat	eng	Species frequents lakes, ponds, and slow streams, especially large muskeg pools.
165088		population	eng	<em>S. husdonica</em> is locally common in many populations.
165088		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165089		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least some federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165089		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and thirty four states in the United States of America.
165089		habitat	eng	The species likes rocky and muddy streams and rivers from small to large, more often in woodland. Also in rocky lakes in northern part of its range.
165089		population	eng	<em>D. spinosus</em> is abundant and widespread.
165089		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165090		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected reserves.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165090		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Bahamas (Cat Island), Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Toledo), two provinces in Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Barahona, Bahoruco, Samaná), El Salvador, Honduras (Cortez), Jamaica (Clarendon, Cornwall, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth), eleven states in Mexico, Nicaragua (León) and forty two states in United States of America.
165090		habitat	eng	<em>E. simplicicollis</em> can be found at almost any body of water.
165090		population	eng	<em>E. simplicicollis</em> is an abundant and widespread species, and the population is increasing.
165090		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165091		conservation	eng	The species is present in at least several state parks and other protected reserves in the United States, although the occurrence in protected areas in Mexico is not known.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165091		distribution	eng	This species is found in three states in Mexico and fourteen states in the United States of America.
165091		habitat	eng	Species is found at streams and rivers with slow to moderate current, less often pond and lake shores. Usually wooded or shrubby banks.
165091		population	eng	<em>D. velox</em> is abundant and widespread.
165091		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165092		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas, especially in state parks.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.
165092		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada, three states in Mexico and thirty four states in the United States of America.
165092		habitat	eng	Species occurs at medium streams to large rivers, slow to moderate current, often with an abundance of water-willow (<em>Justicia americana</em>). Also found at vegetated lake shores in northern part of range. Preferred habitats usually bordered by forest and woodland.
165092		population	eng	<em>E. exsulans</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165092		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165093		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although this species does occur within a protected area; further research is needed on the population size, trend and biology.
165093		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Canal Zone in Panama.
165093		habitat	eng	The habitat has not been reported, but presumably small rain-forest streams.
165093		population	eng	<em>P. cyclohamulata</em> population numbers are not known.
165093		threats	eng	Deforestation is a possible future threat, although presently known range is protected. Drought could also be a threat, increasingly likely with global climate change.
165094		conservation	eng	New Mexico localities of this species are in semi-protected national forests, whilst occurrence in protected reserves in Mexico has not been documented.  There are no conservation actions required at present.
165094		distribution	eng	This species is found in eleven states in Mexico and two states in the United States of America (with the following collection notes):<br/><br/>Arizona: Cochise County, San Bernardino Ranch (Garrison 1994)<br/>New Mexico: Eddy County, Sitting Bull Falls, Guadalupe Mountains (Garrison 1994)<br/>New Mexico: Eddy County, Rattlesnake Springs (R. Larsen pers. comm. 2006)<br/>New Mexico: Grant and Catron counties (Evans 1995)
165094		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences include shallow muddy and rocky rivers in open country, mostly Chihuahuan desert. Riparian trees and shrubs are present at many locations, perhaps important for feeding areas and shelter.
165094		population	eng	<em>E. crotalinus</em> is locally common in many populations.
165094		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165095		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas (national parks, national wildlife refuges, state parks) in the United States. Occurrence south of the United States border have not been documented.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.
165095		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout Mexico, Mesoamerica and into Colombia, and four states in the United States of America.  In Belize it has been recorded from Cayo.
165095		habitat	eng	The species prefers clean streams and flowing ditches, usually wooded but sometimes in the open. Also found in garden ponds in Texas.
165095		population	eng	<em>L. croceipennis</em> is locally common in many populations.
165095		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165096		conservation	eng	<em>T. incolmis</em> is not known to occur in any protected area, and is unlikely to within its range and habitat.  Investigations are needed to look at its habitat and ecology status.
165096		distribution	eng	The species is found in the west of Mexico.
165096		habitat	eng	The species is found at pools of all sizes in slow-flowing, rocky streams and rivers in open or semi-wooded country. Pools typically isolated except during brief rainy periods. Adults prefer shaded sites so may be more dependent on presence of trees (often a narrow riparian zone) than  <em>T. salva</em>, with which it occurs everywhere.
165096		population	eng	<em>T. incolumis</em> is typically found in small numbers at preferred habitats, along with larger numbers of closely related and very similar <em>Telebasis salva</em>.
165096		threats	eng	Perhaps the removal of riparian vegetation could have a threat to suitable breeding habitat for <t. incolumis=""> in the future, however there are no known threats at present.</t.>
165097		conservation	eng	<em>A. tarascana</em> occurs in protected areas in southern Arizona. Occurrence in such areas have not been documented for Mexico, although the populations do not appear to require further conservation actions.
165097		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eleven states in Mexico and Arizona in the United States of America.
165097		habitat	eng	<em>A. tarascana</em> is found at stream and river banks, wooded or open, with overhanging vegetation; more likely to be at pools than riffles. Irrigation ditches farther south in Mexico are preferred.
165097		population	eng	<em>A. tarascana</em> is a locally common species found in many populations.
165097		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165098		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas in the United States, e.g., national and state parks and national wildlife refuges.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.
165098		distribution	eng	The species occurs in twelve states in Mexico and four states in United States of America.
165098		habitat	eng	This species habitat prefers slow-flowing small streams and ditches with much streamside herbaceous vegetation. It is often associated with spring runs and may become established in garden ponds. Preferred habitats are usually in woodland or with a riparian zone.
165098		population	eng	<em>H. heterodoxum</em> is abundant and widespread.
165098		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165099		conservation	eng	<em>P. aurantiaca</em> is present in some protected areas, e.g., La Selva Protected Area in Costa Rica; there appears to be no conservation measures needed at present.
165099		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout Mexico and Mesoamerica including the following locations: Cayo, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Limón, Costa Rica; and Izabal, Guatemala.
165099		habitat	eng	Species occurs in small forest streams with slow flow and frequent pools.
165099		population	eng	<em>P. aurantiaca</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but little surveying has been completed recently.
165099		threats	eng	Deforestation and possibly drought, due to the forecast global climate change, are likely threats to affect <em>P. aurantiaca</em> in the future.
165100		conservation	eng	The species is present in numerous protected reserves throughout its range and it does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.
165100		distribution	eng	This species occurs in six provinces in Canada and seventeen states in the United States of America.
165100		habitat	eng	This species is found in bog- and marsh-bordered ponds and lakes.
165100		population	eng	<em>L. frigida</em> is an abundant and widespread species.
165100		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165101		conservation	eng	<em>S. illotum</em> is present in many protected areas in the United States, some in Costa Rica and undocumented in-between.
165101		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Canada, the United States of America, Mexico, Costa Rica (Cartago, San José), El Salvador, Guatemala (Alta Verapaz, Sacatepéquez), Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.
165101		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and ponds in the northern part of its range, even very small ones such as backyard pools. Also common on pools in rocky streams in southern US and northern Mexico, increasingly restricted to montane marshy ponds farther south in Mexico and Central America. Often in same breeding habitat as <em>Sympetrum corruptum</em> in Northwest but, unlike that species, rarely seen at any distance from water.
165101		population	eng	<em>S. illotum</em> is locally common in many populations.
165101		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165102		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas in Costa Rica, also in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Veracruz and appears not to require further conservation measures.
165102		distribution	eng	<em>Argia frequentula</em> occurs in Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limón Puntarenas), Guatemala (Izabal, Petén, Zacapa), Honduras (Cortez), Mexico (nine states), Nicaragua (Rio San Juan) and Panama (Canal Zone).
165102		habitat	eng	Found at small streams and ponds associated with them. Usually associated with forest, but apparently persists where forest has been partially cleared as long as aquatic habitat remains suitable. Less common in completely open country than closely related and very similar <em>Argia pulla</em>.
165102		population	eng	<em>A. frequentula</em> is still locally common in a few recently observed populations, but little surveyed elsewhere.  The global population is thought to be stable.
165102		threats	eng	There are no threats presently affecting this species.
165109		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Populations of Hoya de Fileba, Montaña de Jinama and El Salvador are included in the Parque Rural de Frontera (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and Servicio de Biodiversidad de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente.<br/><br/>Plant material from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks. Population reinforcement and predator control measures should be implemented <span id="result_box" class="long_text">(<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Mesa Coello and Marrero Gómez</span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> 2004)</span>.
165109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpus ombriosus</span> is endemic to the island of El Hierro, the Canary Islands, Spain, <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">where it grows between 500 and 1,400 m asl, distributed in four locations that are located on the north of the island: <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Montaña de Jináma, El Salvador, <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Hoya de Arinés and Hoya de Fileba<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> (Mesa Coello and Marrero Gómez 2004). The area of occupancy is between 1-5 km². The subpopulation of Hoya de Arinés was not found in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/></span></span></span>
165109		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It forms part of scrublands within communities of "fayal-brezal" <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrico fayae-Ericetum arboreae</span>, often found in windy areas. Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria hyssopifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecytisus proliferus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina salicifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus hierrensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllis nobla</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis murrayi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>. It can also grow within replacement communities on crop fields, along with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Argyranthemum hierrense</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritis ferrensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bituminaria bituminosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus ulmifolius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia thuscula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex lunaria</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia lamarkii</span>, and again <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis murrayi</span>.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/>It is a hermaphrodite plant that does not present evidence of vegetative reproduction. <span title="Por lo que se refiere"> <span title="En cuanto a la">Experiences of germination <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> show <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la">relatively high <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la">success, of between 38 and <span title="53 por ciento">53% (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Mesa Coello and Marrero Gómez</span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"> 2004).<br/><span class="longtext"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="Esto propicia"><span title="El área de ocupación"><span title="supera 1 km2"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165109		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Four subpopulations known with a total of 339 individuals: <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">8 individuals in El Salvador, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">40 in Jinámar, one <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">in Hoya de Arinés and 290 in Hoya de Fileba. The presence of seedlings in the wild is relatively frequent. However, they tend to be generally low and weak, and often succumb to the summer drought. <span title="Esto propicia">This leads to very low recruitment dynamics and an extremely slowly growing population (</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Mesa Coello and Marrero Gómez </span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Esto propicia">2004).<br/><br/>These locations were visited in 2007 and 189 individuals were recorded: <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">6 individuals in El Salvador, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">42 in Jinámar, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="También se asocia a matorrales"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Por lo que se refiere"><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="53 por ciento"><span id="result_box" class="long_text">0 in Hoya de Arinés and 141 in Hoya de Fileba (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165109		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Main threat to this species is grazing. Landslides have been also reported as threats, mainly on Hoya de Fileba and Jinama, as well as droughts (<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Mesa Coello and Marrero Gómez</span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> 2004).<span title="de largos periodos de sequía"></span>
165110		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Most of the subpopulations present a good state of conservation (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Many of them are included in the protected areas Parque Rural de Betancuria (SCI), Monumento Natural del Malpaís de La Arena (SCI), Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo (SCI) and Paisaje Protegido La Geria.<br/><br/>Plant material should be stored in germplasm banks. Research about its flowering and reproductive biology should be developed, as well as about the possible hybridisation phenomena with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lancerottense</span>. Possible genetic differences between the subpopulations of Lanzarote and those in Fuerteventura should be analysed (Reyes Betancort and Carqué Álamo 2004).
165110		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium balsamiferum</span> is a plant endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain (Reyes Betancort and Carqué Álamo<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004), native to the island of Lanzarote and naturalised in Fuerteventura. It can be found between 200 and 300 m asl, distributed into 13-15 subpopulations, with a total area of occupancy of 17 km<sup>2</sup>.
165110		habitat	eng	It appears on rupicolous communities dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Convolvulo lopezsocasii-Oleetum cerasiformis</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontospermo intermedii-Euphorbietum balsamiferae</span> subas. <span style="font-style: italic;">aeonietosum lancerottensis</span>. It can also colonize abandoned fields and walls of artificial stones (Reyes Betancort and Carqué Álamo 2004).
165110		population	eng	Its total population size is estimated in more than 20,000 individuals (Reyes Betancort and Carqué Álamo 2004). Sexual reproduction is poor and the species propagates asexually. Population trend seems to be stable, although predominance of mature individuals could affect the long-term conservation of the species (Gobierno de Canarias 2009)  .
165110		threats	eng	In the massif of Famara, in Lanzarote, the main threat to this species are landslides (Reyes Betancort and Carqué Álamo 2004). Collection and trampling have been as well reported as threats to the accessible individuals. Other threats are possible works and potential urban development in the area. Low sexual propagation levels limit genetic exchange.
165111		conservation	eng	This plant is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Ononis hackelii</span> and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) with the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Ononis maweana</span>. It is legally protected in Portugal. <br/>This species requires action that maintain the habitat quality, for example, grazing by sheep (ICN 2006).
165111		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Ononis maweana</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is endemic to the southwest coast of Portugal where its extent of occurrence is 682 km² and the area of occupancy is 800 km²   (ICN 2006, Commission of the European Communities 2009).
165111		habitat	eng	An annual plant that grows near the sea in sandy soils (Morgan and Leon 1992). The species colonizes different types of grasslands such as open "dehesas", pastures or edges of cereal crops. It can occur at road verges if the ecological conditions are favourable   (ICN 2006).
165111		population	eng	<p>The species has abundant populations far from urbanised areas that normally hold tens of individuals. The populations have been declining in the southern part of its range in the last 90 years due to urban expansion of Vila Nova de Milfonte but the trend seems to be stable now (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
165111		threats	eng	Potential threats are the conversion of pastureland into forms of more intense agricultural use, the replacement of Cork Oak forests with Eucalyptus plantations, and urban or tourism expansion (ICN 2006).
165112		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Bulgaria it is protected and listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ab(ii,iv); C2a(i) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is currently not found in protected areas but there are efforts to protect its sites. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation of seeds the seeds is needed.
165112		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria and Romania. In Bulgaria, it is known from the Thracian plain and there is old data for the Tundza hilly country. There is only one recently confirmed known locality. The area of occupancy is less than 10 km².
165112		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in dry grassland along roads and in shrubby pastures between 150-500 m.
165112		population	eng	In Bulgaria, there is one fairly large population with 3,000 to 4,000 individuals. There is no information on the populations in Romania. The population trend is unknown.
165112		threats	eng	The main threat is a lack of management (e.g. abandonment of grazing) causing overgrowing with shrubs that leads to fragmentation of the population. A large part of the population is along silt roads. A small widening of the road and intensification of the traffic might cause a serious decline in the population. Intensive agriculture and infrastructural development could be potential threat (close to a major city). There is a possible use as medicinal plant, but this is not known.
165113		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Bulgarian Red List it is classed as Endangered (EN) B1ab(iii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).
165113		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165113		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165113		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165113		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165114		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyclamen coum</span> and under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyclamen kuznetzovii</span>.     <p>All <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyclamen</span> spp. are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  In Bulgaria, it is not included in the Red Data Book and therefore classed as Least Concern but it is a protected plant. Several sites are included in two natural parks, some natural reserves, protected areas and in Natura 2000 sites. For example, the Strandzha mountains are the biggest&#160; natural park in Bulgaria and a large part of the population is in this park.
165114		distribution	eng	This species is found around the Black Sea coast and in the Levant. In Europe, it is present in Bulgaria, European Turkey and Crimea, Ukraine (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). It has been introduced in Switzerland.<br/><br/>Found mostly in eastern Bulgaria, including the Black Sea coast, eastern Stara Planina mountains and Strandzha mountains. In European Turkey, it is also found in the Turkish part of the Strandzha mountains with good populations. In the Ukraine, it is found in the southeastern part of the Crimean mountains at only one locality in the mountain massif Kubolacz in the Bilogirskij district.
165114		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyclamen coum</span> is a perennial spring geophyte that is found in the ecotone between steppe forest and steppe slopes. It grows in forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus orientalis</span>, mixed <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>forest, forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus polycarpa</span>, and in some places it is found in mixed alluvial forest along the coast.<br/><br/>In the Crimean Mountains, it grows in an altitude of 500-700 m in carbonaceous humus in beech, hornbeam-beech, oak, oak-hornbeam, ash-oak forests.
165114		population	eng	Populations have a good number of individuals in Bulgaria but a slight decrease in the populations is suspected because of clear cutting of the forest.<br/><br/>The single Crimean population occupies a site of 350-400 ha. The site near the village Melechovo has been reported to have near six millions of individuals, the population density is 50-60 individuals/m² in ash-oak forests and three to four individuals in beech forests (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165114		threats	eng	In the Ukraine and in Bulgaria, the collection of the plant for horticultural trade is still a threat. In addition to that in Bulgaria, the clear cutting of the forest was a main threat in the past but this practice is now forbidden by law which will positively affect some parts of the populations. However, this threat is continuing.
165115		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa syreistschikowii</span> is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable and protected in the Karadagh reserve.
165115		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ukraine, northern Caucasus (near the town of Novorosijsk) and the Asiatic part of Turkey. In the Ukraine, it occurs in the eastern part of the Crimean peninsula in the Caradagh mountain massif and in the vicinity of the town Sudak (Prokudin 1977). The extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km².
165115		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is found in steppe communities at foothills where it is dominant in some localities on the rocks. It is a member of the plant communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Veronici multifidae-Stipion pontica ordo</span> (class <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span>).
165115		population	eng	The species is rare, but can be abundant in some localities. The overall trend of the populations is stable.
165115		threats	eng	The main threats are the conversion of steppe land into big-scale agriculture and forest plantations which leads to habitat loss.
165116		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is listed under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia</span> in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is protected in Greece by Presidential Decree 67/81. The location Kastro tis Orias (Kythnos) is included in the Natura 2000 site GR422010 and the locations at central Serifos are included in the Natura 2000 site GR422009. The subspecies is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
165116		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is found in the west Kyklades Islands (Kythnos, Piperi islet off Kythnos, Gyaros, Serifos and Folegandros). However, the presence of the plant on Folegandros and Kythnos requires confirmation. The plant is also reported from Kea but it may have been confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca</span>.</p><p>The extent of occurrence of the subspecies is 1,000-3,000 km² if the sea between all the islands is included and depending on whether the unconfirmed references on Piperi and Folegandros are included; the islands themselves have a total area of 191–223 km². The area of occupancy is 28-36 km², depending on whether the unconfirmed references on Piperi and Folegandros are included (2x2 km grid).</p>
165116		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>is found in rocky and stony places with phrygana or thin shrub, on various substrates (e.g. limestone, granite) but mainly on schist.
165116		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria obliqua </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia </span>has been reported at the following locations:<br/><ul><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Kythnos (three locations): over Merichas village and near Chora (5-10 individuals in fruit at both locations); Kastro tis Orias (two individuals in fruit).</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Serifos (three locations): west central part (200 individuals), north part (25 individuals), central part (20 individuals)</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Gyaros (one location): central part (15 individuals)</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There is no population data for Folegandros and Piperi islet but it is almost certain that these subpopulations are small too.</span></span></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The current total population size is certainly no more than 1,000 individuals. All of the known subpopulations include less than 200 individuals and this number is considered lower than the minimum viable population of 250 individuals. Thus > 50 % of the total area of occupancy of the plant includes small isolated patches with a small number of plants and the population can be considered as severely fragmented.<br/><br/></span></span></span></span>
165116		threats	eng	Grazing, which causes a decline in the sexual reproduction of the plant, is a threat at all the locations of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tuntasia</span>.
165117		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.&#160;<p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. turczaninowii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species. It is difficult to recreate the exact environmental conditions in which to grow this species; therefore, it is not cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>.</p><p>It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (2009) but not protected <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>. Protection of the site has been requested but this has not yet been taken forward.     </p>
165117		distribution	eng	<span class="msoIns">Endemic to the surroundings of Feodosija in eastern Crimea. It has recently only been found in Ilyi Capes   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Subpopulations at five other localities on the shores of the Black Sea recorded in the early 20th century have now gone extinct. The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are well below the thresholds for Critically Endangered.
165117		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on clayed sea bluffs and slopes (45–60<sup>o</sup>), 20–30 m asl. The soil substrate of these habitats is very specific, comprising clay of the early Cretaceous, which is only found in Feodosiya district. It is ecologically sensitive, adapted to permanent erosion of soils, moisture deficit and avoids closed plant communities.</p>
165117		population	eng	One known population of 5,000 individuals was discovered in 1996   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). In 2010, 3,000 individuals were counted in five localities that are very close to each other and cover an area of 0.25 km². The maximum density of the population is 230 individuals per 100 m². Correlation among young and adult individuals is 2:3.
165117		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is competition from other herbs growing on the cliffs<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. Another threat near the localities of this species is construction work for housing and the terracing of slopes for stabilization.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165118		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species. It is listed Critically Endangered (CR) B2ab(ii,iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected area Paisaje Protegido de Pino Santo (SCI) (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) and is cultivated in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo, where seeds are stored.&#160;Cultivation and micropropagation should be developed, as well as population monitoring.
165118		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is only present in two locations, in the municipalities of Las Palmas and Teror. Its area of occupancy is 2 km².
165118		habitat	eng	This rupicolous species grows in degraded and steep sites within thermophile forests, facing north and northwest (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cerasiformis, Hypericum canariensis, Carlina salicifolia, Aeonium undulatum, Sonchus leptocephalus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe pritzelii</span>.
165118		population	eng	Nine individuals have been recorded in the location Altos de Labay-Altos de San Lorenzo and 305 individuals in Riscos de San Jiménez-Montañas de San José de Álamo (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The two sites are severely fragmented. Negative trends have been reported for its population (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
165118		threats	eng	Main threats are predation of seeds, proximity to urbanised areas, which leads to trampling and anthropization phenomena, collection, infrastructure construction and landslides (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Competition with exotic species has been also reported as a threat.
165120		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Endangered B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>All the subpopulations are within the protected area Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid and Servicio de Biodiversidad de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente. A population trend monitoring programme is being developed on the subpopulation of Roque de las Ánimas (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/>Plant material from every location should be stored in germplasm banks. Population trend monitoring and surveillance programmes should be implemented. Micropropagation and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> plant cultivation should be developed in order to reinforce the subpopulation of Roque del Aderno.
165120		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus tagananensis </span>is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found growing between 50 and 350 m asl, distributed throughout three geographically isolated locations in the mountains of Anaga: Roque de las Ánimas, Roque de Antequera and Roque del Aderno (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). One more location, Mesa del Sabinar, was reported in the past but it has not been found in the last visits to the area. Its area of occupancy is 3 km². <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
165120		habitat	eng	It grows on rocky crags influenced by the sea breeze. In this environment it can be found in rupicolous shrublands including elements characteristic of communities of thermophilous forest, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho radicati-Aeonietum tabulaeformis</span>. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline pallida</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pallida, Globularia salicina, Aeonium tabulaeforme, Aenium arboreum, Aeonium urbicum, Aeonium lindleyii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus radicatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lugoa revoluta</span>. <br/>At lower altitude, species characteristic of the vegetal formation "tabaibal dulce" appear as elements of the rupicolous scrubland, forming communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonietum lindleyi</span>, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia balsamifera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">balsamifera, Sideritis dendrochahorra, Aeonium lindleyii, A. volkerii, Sonchus radicatus, Asparagus umbellatus</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> umbellatus, Plocama pendula</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus turbinata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span> are frequent.
165120		population	eng	Its total population size has been calculated to be 626 individuals: 330 in Roque de las Ánimas, 295 in Roque de Antequera and one individual in Roque del Aderno (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The subpopulations seem to be stable, although the amount of viable seeds is frequently reduced due to insects. No regressive trends have been reported for its population size (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Total population size is thought to be higher, even of several hundreds of individuals, but monitoring is difficult due to the inaccessibility of the subpopulations.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165120		threats	eng	Grazing has been the main threat to this species, but its impact has not been recently reported. The expansion of the subpopulations is limited by natural competition with other species and the occasional occurrence of storms and landslides (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165122		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as CR B2ab(iii) in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). It is listed as "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas sus">All populations are located within the Parque National <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas sus">Teide<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Todas sus"> (SCI), which developed a recovery programme that, among other activities, includes intensive study and monitoring of its population biology, sending seeds to germplasm banks,&#160;<span title="vallado de algunos sectores.">fencing of some areas and by strengthening relations with the local populations.</span></span></span>
165122		distribution	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Silene nocteolens</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, with only two known locations in the highest areas of the island: Montaña Blanca and Pico Viejo<span title="bajo.">.&#160;<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="(Silene tamaranae).">References <span title="hechas para varias localidades de Tenerife">made to several localities in Tenerife must be taken with some reservations, as it may <span title="responder a confusiones con otras especies">respond to confusion with other species of this <span title="del género (S. berthelotiana, S. nutans, etc.).">genus (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. berthelotiana, S. nutans</span>).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Previous reports of sightings on the island of Gran Canaria respond to a different taxon <span title="(Silene tamaranae)."> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene tamaranae</span>).<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los ejemplares más exuberantes"><span title="y fructifican."><span title="por insectos nocturnos."><span title="más allá de 10 m de la planta madre."><span title="Diversas pruebas realizadas ex situ revelan que no"><span title="presenta especiales problemas en su germinación."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus poblaciones"><span title="más o menos profundos."><span title="ausencia de lluvias, hasta entrado el verano."><span title="supranubii)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="se observa la incidencia de herbívoros"><span title="La población de Pico Viejo, resulta mucho"><span title="de predadores que impiden un desarrollo"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los ejemplares más exuberantes"><span title="y fructifican."><span title="por insectos nocturnos."><span title="más allá de 10 m de la planta madre."><span title="Diversas pruebas realizadas ex situ revelan que no"><span title="presenta especiales problemas en su germinación."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus poblaciones"><span title="más o menos profundos."><span title="ausencia de lluvias, hasta entrado el verano."><span title="supranubii)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="se observa la incidencia de herbívoros"><span title="La población de Pico Viejo, resulta mucho"><span title="de predadores que impiden un desarrollo"><span title="favorable."><span title="En general la dinámica poblacional"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los ejemplares más exuberantes"><span title="y fructifican."><span title="por insectos nocturnos."><span title="más allá de 10 m de la planta madre."><span title="Diversas pruebas realizadas ex situ revelan que no"><span title="presenta especiales problemas en su germinación."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus poblaciones"><span title="más o menos profundos."><span title="ausencia de lluvias, hasta entrado el verano."><span title="supranubii)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">The area of occupancy is 3 km².</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165122		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Silene nocteolens</span> is a hermaphroditic species. It <span title="Los ejemplares más exuberantes">can produce over 40 flowers, most of which develop well <span title="y fructifican.">and fruit. The soft perfume the flowers exhale during the night can be interpreted as an adaptation to pollination <span title="por insectos nocturnos.">by nocturnal insects. The capsules, with an average of 35 seeds, when burst open usually do not scatter beyond <span title="más allá de 10 m de la planta madre.">ten metres from the parent plant. <span title="Diversas pruebas realizadas ex situ revelan que no">Several <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> tests reveal no <span title="presenta especiales problemas en su germinación.">present problems in their germination.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It develops above 2,500 m. <span title="Sus poblaciones">Their populations are located in environments where pyroclasts constitute the dominant substrate, usually spreading in a layer several centimetres in thickness, below which soils are <span title="más o menos profundos.">more or less deep. This layer of pyroclasts helps maintain soil moisture in times of drought, <span title="ausencia de lluvias, hasta entrado el verano.">until late summer. The dominant vegetation in these environments, as the area is apparently devoid of vegetation responds to <span style="font-style: italic;">Violetum cheiranthifoliae (Spartocytision </span><span title="supranubii)."><span style="font-style: italic;">supranubii).</span> <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="se observa la incidencia de herbívoros"><span title="La población de Pico Viejo, resulta mucho"><span title="de predadores que impiden un desarrollo"><span title="favorable."><span title="En general la dinámica poblacional"><span title="bajo."><span title="En conjunto el área de ocupación real"><span title="de la especie apenas alcanza 10.000 m2."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165122		population	eng	The subpopulation of Montaña Blanca appears to be stable and in the last few years a slow expansion of the subpopulation has been observed (Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). However, the presence of introduced herbivores such as rabbits has occasionally been observed in the area. The subpopulation of Pico Viejo is much more sensitive <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los ejemplares más exuberantes"><span title="y fructifican."><span title="por insectos nocturnos."><span title="más allá de 10 m de la planta madre."><span title="Diversas pruebas realizadas ex situ revelan que no"><span title="presenta especiales problemas en su germinación."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus poblaciones"><span title="más o menos profundos."><span title="ausencia de lluvias, hasta entrado el verano."><span title="supranubii)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="se observa la incidencia de herbívoros"><span title="La población de Pico Viejo, resulta mucho"> to <span title="de predadores que impiden un desarrollo">predator influence that impedes its development. In general the population dynamics seems to be very slow, <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los ejemplares más exuberantes"><span title="y fructifican."><span title="por insectos nocturnos."><span title="más allá de 10 m de la planta madre."><span title="Diversas pruebas realizadas ex situ revelan que no"><span title="presenta especiales problemas en su germinación."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sus poblaciones"><span title="más o menos profundos."><span title="ausencia de lluvias, hasta entrado el verano."><span title="supranubii)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="se observa la incidencia de herbívoros"><span title="La población de Pico Viejo, resulta mucho"><span title="de predadores que impiden un desarrollo"><span title="favorable."><span title="En general la dinámica poblacional">subject to a low annual recruitment of young individuals.<br/>Total population size was estimated in 816 mature individuals by Marrero Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004). In 2008, 2,429 specimens were recorded (Gobierno de Canarias 2009); from these, 558 were adult. <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165122		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Traditionally the main threat to this species has been posed by rabbits and mouflons, which may have led to extinction in some localities.<span title="o La Fortaleza4."> At present this aspect is partially controlled. <span title="Las poblaciones">The population is located near trails, which could result in<span title="del hábitat."> future problems for the habitat if developed.<br/></span></span>
165125		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it is legally protected and the whole population is included in the National Park "Rila". It is listed as Near Threatened (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is classed as Vulnerable  in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Šilić 1996). Some of the sites are situated within the Blidinje Nature Park in Herzegovina. The Red Book of Albania mentions the species (Vangjeli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Serbia, it has been estimated to be of Lower Risk but conservation  dependent (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2011). Its red list status in Montenegro has not been determined.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the populations is needed.
165125		distribution	eng	This species is native and endemic to the Balkan Peninsula (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It has a disjunct distribution and can be divided into three centres of occurrence: one centre is in mountains of Herzegovina namely Prenj, Plasa, Muharnica, Čvrsnica, Čabulja with rare  localities in the latter two mountains which are the northwest  border of its range (D. Soljan pers. comm. 2010). The second centre comprises southeast Montenegro (Mt Žijovo, Mt Zeletin, Mt Prokletije, Kučke), southwest Serbia-Kosovo  (Mt Prokletije- Mt. Koprivnik, Mt Hajla, Mt Žljeb, Mt Maja Rusolija) and  probably neighbouring north Albania. A relatively large  population was found in Montenegro very close (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 200 m) to the Albanian border (V. Stevanović pers. obs. 2010). The third part of the range is situated in southwest Bulgaria in the Rila Mountains. It has a limited distribution in Bulgaria with an extent of occurrence smaller than 5,000 km².
165125		habitat	eng	In Bulgaria, it has been described from subalpine shrubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus sibirica</span> and also subalpine grasslands on silicat at 2,000-2,800 m asl. In the other countries, it grows on stabilized and halfstabilized scree on limestone substrate, on rocky slopes, grounds and crevices in the subalpine and alpine belt. Also grows in the tall herb communities of the order <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostiletalia</span>, and in the community <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinetum mughi</span>, alliances <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinion mugi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Petasition doerfleri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostylion alliariae. </span>
165125		population	eng	There is no population information available for Bulgaria, but the species is listed as Near Threatened. The populations are thought to be stable (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). In Montenegro, the populations are stable (D. Petrović pers. comm. 2011). It has the highest abundance of species within its range. In Serbia, it has been estimated to be of Lower Risk but conservation dependent (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2011). It is classed as Vulnerable in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Šilić 1996).
165125		threats	eng	Small scale collection for bunches might be a potential threat. Furthermore, changes to the habitat caused by the abandonment of grazing activities or encroachment of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp. that take over the habitat, can affect the species.
165126		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species. It is classed as Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,v); C2a(i); D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occurs within the protected area Parque <span title="Natural">Natural de Tamadaba. There are seeds stored in the germplasm bank of the Jardín Canario Viera y Clavijo, where the species is cultivated.<br/><br/>Population trends have to be monitored and research about the reproductive biology of the species should be developed. Natural competitors should be eradicated in its distribution area.</span>
165126		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain (Febles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> It appears restricted to the steep crags of Barranco de Guayedra, where it occupies a narrow strip (30 x 40 m), located between 550-600 m. The area of occupancy has been estimated in 1 km². Regressive trends are inferred for its distribution range (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span>
165126		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It grows in cracks and crevices of crags walls, within rupicolous communities. Accompanying species include <span title="Como especies acompañantes"><span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium virgineum, Aenium manriqueorum, Asparagus umbellatus, Olea europaea </span>ssp. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Como especies acompañantes"><span style="font-style: italic;">guanchica, Heberdenia excelsa, Convolvulus canariensis, Hypericum grandifolium, Pteridium aquilinum</span> and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Como especies acompañantes"><span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus platylepis.</span> <span title="Como">It can also be found in ledges of cliffs where its main companions are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis, Euphorbia regis-jubae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="disco hermafroditas), observándose también la"><span title="presencia de ginodioecia en cultivo."><span title="Estas características"><span title="junto con la posible presencia de"><span title="autoincompatibilidad esporofítica homomórfica"><span title="hacen presumible la alogamia en este taxón."><span title="Dispersión mayoritariamente anemocora, según">This hermaphrodite species presents high percentages of non-viable seeds, which indicates possible reproduction problems. Inbreeding could also be an issue. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165126		population	eng	There is only one known population with 28 individuals. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sólo los individuos">Only individuals located on the cliff and a cave (17 total) are in good condition while individuals located in the upper platform (11 individuals) are affected by  goats and drought. Regressive trends <span id="result_box" class="long_text">have not been observed<span id="result_box" class="long_text">, but growth patterns have not been observed neither, in the last 13 years, and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sólo los individuos"><span style="background-color: white;">decreasing population trends are inferred for its current population size </span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">(Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sólo los individuos"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Sólo los individuos"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span title="secos."><span title="1.200 m2"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165126		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The narrow strip where the species can be located is under threat from plant competition and livestock grazing which prevents optimal development in the upper and lower platforms (Febles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Main natural competitors are <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteridium aquilinum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis</span>. The presence of individuals with high percentages of non-viable seeds is also a threat. <span title="biología reproductiva."></span>
165127		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included on various national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Belarus: Vulnerable (2005)</li><li>Germany: Extinct and under national protection</li><li>Hungary: Critically Endangered, strictly protected, the single locality is in a protected area</li><li>Italy: Collection of this species is banned, mowing is suggested as conservation measure<br/></li><li>Lithuania: Endangered (highest category in Red Data Book), protected by  national law, not a key species for protection, on the list for protection  within a national park</li><li>Norway: Vulnerable</li><li>Russia: Least Concern and not protected</li><li>Sweden: Endangered, some localities are in protected areas and management plans (grazing, mowing) are in place</li><li>Switzerland: Near Threatened, protected under national law</li><li>Ukraine: Rare</li></ul><p><br/></p>
165127		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dracocephalum ruyschiana </span>is distributed over alpine and steppe regions of temperate Asia and temperate Europe. In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ruyschiana</span> is found from Moldova and the Baltic countries in the east to south Scandinavia in the north, and the French Pyrenees to the west. Broadly, this includes Russia (European part), Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Norway, Sweden, Germany, France, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Hungary and Romania. The vicinity of Vlasina Lake in southeast Serbia is the only location in the Balkan region that represents this species (Lazarević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is present in several European mountain ranges such as Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Dinaric Alps   (Käsermann and Moser 1999)<br/><br/>In Lithuania, it occurs in the east and southeast at about ten locations. It is found in three northern regions of Italy at more than ten localities.<br/>In Sweden, it is found in the south, southcentral and east with an area of occupancy of 92 km². It has been recently found in southeast Finland on the Russian border. In Russia, it is found in the centre, east, south, and west but not in the arctic zone. In Ukraine, it occurs in the deciduous and mixed forest zone (Polesien  upland) and in the lesosteppe zone (foreststeppe) (Podolian,  Pridnieprovian, Central-Russian uplands, Pridnieprovian lowland).<br/><br/>In Switzerland, it is scattered in the southern and southeastern Alps, up to 2,500 m asl. The area of occupancy is 75 km². There is only one actual locality in Hungary.
165127		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. ruyschiana</span> is a woody plant (Hemicryptophyte to Chamaephyte) that grows on sunny mountain slopes, dry grassland, rocks, open pine and mixed forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix</span> forest, forest-steppe, heathland and meadows. It is an Eurasian floristic element extending from the boreal region to the temperate climatic zone (Lazarević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>This species mixes up well with other plant communities including <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion variae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerion albicantis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Poetum xerophilae</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Caricion ferrugineae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erico-Pinion</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetea pubescentis-petraeae</span> (Käsermann and Moser 1999, Klotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>D. ruyschiana </span>is a calcicole species that prefers a somewhat colder, more continental climate and grows besides sinkholes in a mosaic of dry montane meadows and steppe slopes (Lazarević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
165127		population	eng	In Serbia, it was believed extinct but has recently been rediscovered (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010). In Germany, it is extinct with the last findings in Bavaria before 1970 (Ahlmer 2010). Switzerland, it is rare with isolated stable populations as well as partial declines   (Käsermann and Moser 1999). Italy hosts less than 2,500 mature individuals but the population is stable.<br/>In Sweden, there are 2,500 reproductive individuals, concentrated in lime rich sandy soil. There are only a few outliers in each location and the population is decreasing or expecting to decrease. In Norway, the populations have declined by 30-50 % in the past and are believed to continue to decline at this rate. In Lithuania, there are two to three individuals in each location and the population is slowly decreasing. The Ukrainian populations are small in number and sites.<br/>In Russia, the population is stable but fragmented and it is a common plant.
165127		threats	eng	In Switzerland, change in land management such as more intensive grazing, infrastructure development for urbanisation and tourist industry   are the main threats (Käsermann and Moser 1999). A change in land management is also causing the declines in Sweden.<br/>In Lithuania it is natural succession (current and future) and a forest that becomes to dense which leads to to a population decline. The species demands forest management as it is only found in small numbers. It is furthermore collected in the wild and people plant it in their garden. Collection for medicinal purposes is also the main threat in Russia. The main threats in Ukraine are cutting of the forests and forest plantation.<br/>The suitable habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ruyschiana</span>  is presently endangered by the increase in shrub and forest vegetation  in Serbia where it is located. Similarly, a new projected highway that  runs through Serbia to Montenegro would pass exactly through this  locality and poses danger in the conservation of this species (Lazarević  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
165128		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>    <p>Categorized as Endangered (EN) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Illarionova, Komarov Botanical Institute, June 2010). Species is under protection in Russia and included in regional red books.</p><p>It is included in the Ukrainian Red Data Book as rare and protected in Ukrainian steppe reserves in the department Camjani Mogyly and in Lugansk<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. <br/></p>
165128		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the eastern European plain and occurs in the Ukraine and in South European Russia.<br/><br/>In Russia, it is found in the Wolgograd, Rostov and Penza regions. In the Ukraine, it is grows in the regions Lugansk, Doneck, Dnipropetrovsk, and Charkiv.<br/><br/>There are three localities on the left bank of the Siverskij Donec river in Lugansk. In Doneck, it occurs near the confluence of the Derkul river and the Siverskij Donec river in the Staniczno-Luganckij district; it is found near the village Sczastja in Krjakivka in Slovjanoserbskij district; in the department Camjani Mogyly of the Ukrainian Steppe reserve. In the region of Dnipropetrovsk, there is a single locality near the village Velykomychajlivka, Pocrovskij district. It is very rare in the valley of the Oscol river in the Charkiv region.
165128		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus tanaiticus</span> is a perennial Xerophyte, found on sandy soils and calcareous rocks on steppe slopes. It is a component of plant communities with rarefied grass cover of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetea vaginatae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo-Thymetea</span> classes.
165128		population	eng	It is found in 20-30 sites of which eight are in the Ukraine. <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus tanaiticus</span> us a rare species with a few individuals in each subpopulation. Overall, the population has a declining trend.
165128		threats	eng	Main threats are agriculture, grazing and change of plant communities on sandy soils as a natural process. The species has limited dispersal.
165129		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Endangered B2ab(iii) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of&#160; the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected areas Parque Nacional Caldera de Taburiente (SCI), Parque Natural de las Nieves (SCI) and SCIs of Barlovento, Garafía, El Paso and Tijarafe (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). A recovery programme has been developed in Parque Nacional Cadera de Taburiente, which includes population monitoring, establishment of fences, reinforcement measures and benign introduction, introduced herbivorous species control and awareness plans. <br/>Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos and Jardín Canario Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>Plant material from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks. Introduced populations have to be kept in place and enforced.
165129		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the island of La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it occurs in the north of the island (Carqué Álamo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is present in eight municipalities, comprising several population nuclei: Santa Cruz de La Palma (Pico de La Nieve); Puntallana (Barranco Hondo); San Andrés y Sauces (Barranco de Vizcaíno, Lomo Morisco, Fuente Juan Diego, La  Mejorana y Rivero); Barlovento (northeast of Pico de la Cruz, Dormitorios Altos, Morro de la Cebolla, Barranco de Gallegos); Garafía (Barranco de Franceses, Los Andenes, foot of Pico Fuente Nueva, northeastern foot of Roque de los Muchachos, surroundings of Observatorio Astrofisico, Lomo de la Ciudad, Barrancos de Izcagua, Briesta, Dornajito and Las Grajas); Puntagorda (northern foor of Roque Chico, firewall Reventón, Llano de las Ánimas and Barranco de Garome); Tijarafe (Barranco de Garorme, western foot of Roque Palmero) and El Paso (Espigón Roque de los Muchachos, Barranco del Diablo) (Á. Palomares pers. comm. 2011). Its total area of occupancy is 28 km², comprising natural and introduced subpopulations.
165129		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This large shrub is <span id="result_box" class="long_text">characteristic of the northern edges of La Caldera de Taburiente, appearing <span id="result_box" class="long_text">associated to high mountain communities <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Telino benehoavensis</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpetum spartioidis</span> (</span></span>Carqué Álamo<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). It prefers sunny sites, with low slope, within communities dominated by <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpus viscosus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">spartioides</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">. It can also be found in steep slopes, along with rupicolous species as&#160;<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Tolpis calderae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovia diplocycla</span>.<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> <br/>It is a hermaphrodite species. Only 28% of the seeds reach maturity and present appropriate fertility.<br/><span title="Se instala preferentemente"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Los muestreos realizados"><span title="rudimentos seminales."><span title="La germinación se produce"><span title="entre marzo y mayo, resultando ésta favorecida"><span title="la especie."><span title="Semillas recolectadas bajo cenizas volcánicas"><span title="en el medio natural experimentan ex situ"><span title="Algunas"><span title="infructuosas."></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165129		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Its <span title="benehoavensis presenta poblaciones relativamente">populations are relatively well structured. Proportion of <span title="individuos jóvenes superan el 50%.">young individuals exceeds 50%.<span title="Parte de sus"> <span title="efectivos han sido objeto de vallado en su área de"><span title="al ataque de los predadores1,4."><span title="Censos realizados"><br/>In 1999<span title="hace 5 años revelan la existencia de no más de">, <span title="363 ejemplares (ver tabla); no obstante, la especie">363 individuals were recorded. Due to the establishment of fences and reinforcement measures, the population size experienced a rapid increase, and in 2004<span title="actualidad sus efectivos alcanzan un total de">, <span title="3.000 individuos maduros.">3,000 mature individuals were counted. In 2006-2007 a total population of more than 7,000 individuals is recorded. Reintroduction and protection measures seem to have lead to increasing population trends (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). <br/>Its population has been growing since the implementation of the recovery plan in 1988, due to reintroduction measures and through natural regeneration. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="benehoavensis presenta poblaciones relativamente"><span title="individuos jóvenes superan el 50%."><span title="Parte de sus"><span title="efectivos han sido objeto de vallado en su área de"><span title="al ataque de los predadores1,4."><span title="Censos realizados"><span title="hace 5 años revelan la existencia de no más de"><span title="363 ejemplares (ver tabla); no obstante, la especie"><span title="actualidad sus efectivos alcanzan un total de"><span title="3.000 individuos maduros.">Current population is 9,815 individuals, from which 5,639 are mature individuals (Á. Palomares pers. comm. 2011). The species presents a scattered distribution. It is frequently found distributed in small groups which do not comprise a viable population and the subpopulations counting more than 250 individuals are not common and are reintroduced: surroundings of Morro de la Cebolla, surroundings of Roque de los Muchachos, Parcela Quemada and Izcagua Dornajito. <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165129		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Predation by goats, rabbits and the introduced game species <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammotragus lervia,</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> has been described as the main threat to this species in the past (</span>Carqué Álamo <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2004). This impact has been reported to be currently moderately controlled by the establishment of fences. Other threats are natural competition, fires, <span title="quemados.">strong winds and erosion<span title="erosiva constituyen asimismo una amenaza,">.</span></span>
165130		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Greece, part of the population of the plant is included in Natura 2000 sites (e.g., GR1270003, GR1340001, GR2320002, GR2320005, GR2320007, GR2320008, GR2520001, GR2530001, GR2530003, GR2530004, GR2530005, GR2550006, GR3000001, GR3000006, GR4220011).<br/><br/>Information on the population distribution in Albania and former Yugoslavia is needed as well as the trend and size in all of its range.
165130		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca</span> has been reported to be present in Albania, Greece and the former Yugoslavia (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>s.str. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in Greece is Peloponnisos, the Akrokorinthos area, East and Central Sterea Ellas, various locations in the area of Attiki , Salamina Island, Elikon Mt, Kithairon Mt, Oiti Mt, Parnassos Mt, Evvoia Island, Athos peninsula, and the Kyklades Islands.<br/><br/>In Greece <span style="font-style: italic;">F. graeca</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">thessala </span>is found in the following locations: East Central (Othrys), Ionian Islands (Lefkada), North Central (Boutsi, Kato Olympos, Prespes area northeast of Dikorfo), the North Pindos range, the South Pindos Range, Sterea Ellada<br/><br/>Regardless of the taxonomy followed <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca </span>does not occur in Crete.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The extent of occurrence is much larger than 20,000 km².</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
165130		habitat	eng	This species flowers from the end of March to mid-May according to altitude (Kamari 1991). <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca </span>s.str is found on stony and rocky slopes with phrygana, maquis or in clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests, usually on limestone, at altitudes from 0–2,350 m asl. <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">thessala</span> inhabits rocky slopes, meadows or clearings in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests and subalpine grassland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>scrub, on limestone, sometimes on serpentine. It is found between 400–2,300 m asl.
165130		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There is no estimation of the population size of either <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria graeca</span> s.str. or <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria&#160; graeca </span>ssp<span style="font-style: italic;">. thessala</span>. The number of locations and subpopulations of either of these taxa in Greece is much larger than ten.</span>
165130		threats	eng	Bulb collection may be a threat.
165131		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Information on the population size and trend, actual and potential threats and conservation measures is required.
165131		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwest Turkey from around Istanbul and it can be found in the European and Asian part of the country (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Persson 2007).
165131		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165131		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165131		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165133		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex secalina </span>is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is included in several national Red Lists and is classed as Endangered in the Czech Republic, where it is also protected at the national level (Holub and Procházka 2000), as Vulnerable in Germany   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010), and in Ukraine (Diduch 2009). It is not listed as threatened in Hungary and Slovakia. <span id="result_box" class="short_text">In Poland it is included in the  Red List (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) as Declining – Critically Endangered and in the Polish  Red Data Book (Każmierczakowa and Żarzycki 2001) as Critically Endangered. It is also strictly  protected at national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). In Ukraine, it is protected in the Danube biosphere reserve, in the natural park Viznjovorsklanskij, and in Granove, Lubka, and Niznjoskilskij zakazniks.
165133		distribution	eng	The species is native to Central Asia and Central Europe   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).<br/>In Slovakia, it is a very rare species and only 15 localities were reported in west and southwest Slovakia. Recently, the species was confirmed at three localities (P. Eliáš pers. comm. 2010). In the Czech Republic, it occurs in two regions in the northwestern part and in south Moravia. It is scattered  in the lowlands in Hungary and found at approximately 100 localities. In Austria, it is rare and only found in the Pannonian region. In Germany, it is restricted to the regions of Sachsen-Anhalt and Thüringen, and is listed as extinct in the latter. In Ukraine, it grows in the lesosteppe zone (Chernigivska, Vinnitska regions) and in the steppe zone (Odesska, Kirovogradska, Poltavska, Kharkivska and Luganska regions) (Vinichenko 2006). In Poland it is a very rare species restricted to the Kujawy Region in central Poland. In the past it was reported from nine localities; recently it was found at only three localities (one of them is ruderal).
165133		habitat	eng	This Hemicryptophyte flowers from June to October and is found in communities of flooded and trampled grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostietea stoloniferae</span>). It grows in saline habitats such as saline inland meadows and it needs open areas. It has also been found in secondary habitats such as ponds, ditches and along roadsides. In Poland, it is found mainly in humid sub-halophilous pastures adjoining small field water bodies. In Ukraine, it is a member of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostio-Carietum secalinae</span> association (Vinichenko 2006).
165133		population	eng	In Slovakia, all the current populations are small including from 5 to 44 individuals. In Hungary, the populations are slowly declining. Its habitats are rare but it is locally abundant in suitable habitat. In Austria, Germany, and Czech Republic it is rare. The three Polish populations have 102 individuals in total (Kaźmierczakowa and Zarzycki 2001). There are around 20 local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex secalina</span> in Ukraine with low numbers of individuals, occupying small areas.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165133		threats	eng	Abandonment of former extensive pasture in wetland habitats leads to succession and therefore affects the species. The species is adapted to trampling by livestock. A further threat are changes in land use such as <span id="result_box" class="short_text">conversion of wetlands and salt marshes to fields.
165134		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Poland <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla silesiaca </span>is listed as Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book (2001) and strictly protected at the national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006). However, data on the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">silesiaca </span>in Poland in recent years is based on incorrect identification (Kołodziejek 2010). In the national Red List of Poland (Mirek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) it is classified as Extinct.
165134		distribution	eng	This European endemic is found in the north of central Europe, in Germany, Poland, Latvia, and Lithuania (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010).<br/><br/>In Lithuania, there is a single presently known locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla thyrsiflora</span> in the Varėna district in south Lithuania. It is therefore suspected that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. silesiaca </span>is extinct in Lithuania. In Poland this species is now classified as extinct. In the past the species was reported from a few localities in south-eastern Poland.
165134		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165134		population	eng	No information on population size or trend
165134		threats	eng	In the past this species has been intensively collected for herbaria (Kołodziejek 2010).
165136		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</p>  <em>T. shuttleworthii</em> is classed as Extinct in Hungary, but the record for  Budapest is probably an error and consequently this species should not  be listed as occurring or having occurred in Hungary (G.   Király pers.  comm. 2010).<br/>It is classed as Critically Endangered in Serbia, Endangered in Austria and Germany, Vulnerable in Albania and Switzerland and Data Deficient in Croatia. In France, it is under national protection. The conservation needs of this species and potential threats are poorly known.<br/>Some localities are included in protected areas (e.g. Czech Republic).
165136		distribution	eng	<em>T. shuttleworthii </em>occurs in Europe, the Caucasus and Turkey in Asia. In Europe, it occurs from France east through the Czech Republic  and Hungary to Romania and the Ukraine.
165136		habitat	eng	The species occurs in non-calcareous ditches, ponds and marshes   (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165136		population	eng	<em>T. shuttleworthii</em> is classed as Extinct in Hungary and maybe be so in France where it is under national protection, it is classed as Critically Endangered in Serbia, Endangered in Austria and Germany, Vulnerable in Albania and Switzerland and Data Deficient in Croatia.<br/><br/>A record cited as Hungary is in fact in Slovenia. The record for Budapest is probably an error and consequently this species should not be listed as occurring or having occurred in Hungary (G.   Király pers. comm. 2010).<br/>There is at least one current population in the Rhodopi Mountains in Bulgaria (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010).<br/>In the Czech Republic, it is found at seven localities now, most of them are in the Moravian part, but it was believed to be extinct before.
165136		threats	eng	In the Czech Republic, eutrophication and aquaculture pose the main threats to the species. For the other countries in its European range the threats are unknown. The outcrossing with populations introduced from garden centres into man-made ponds is a potential threat.
165137		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). This is protected under the national legislation in France (Annex I). It is classified as Vulnerable in Italy (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). Some subpopulations are included in national or regional protected areas and in Natura 2000 sites. In Bulgaria, it is classed as Endangered B2ab(iii) and is protected by national law (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).<br/>Most of its locations in Greece are included in the NATURA 2000 sites GR1240001, GR1250002, GR1260007, GR1140003, GR1120003.<br/>More research on population size and distribution are needed, especially in the Balkans area. Conservation of the habitat quality, through control of pollution and the building of dykes, is needed.
165137		distribution	eng	This species is native to the Balkan Peninsula, Italy and Malta (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). Records from Corsica are probably erroneous, as it was found only once in 1882, in Cap Corse and was probably confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">R. flammula</span>.<br/><br/>In Italy, it is found in Calabria and Sicily and is probably extinct in Campania and Basilicata. The range in Italy is close to 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).<br/>In Bosnia, it occurs in the mountains Trebević and Zvijezda; Vareš, Dovlići, Vučja Luka, Han Toplica, Ždralovac – Livno, Sijekovac; and in Herzegovina in Ljubuški, Dabarsko polje.<br/><br/>In northeast Greece it is recorded from the Rodopi Mts (Elatia forest, west-northwest of Dimarion), Vrontous Mts (Lailias forest). In north-central Greece: Voras Mts (Kali Pediada-Dobro Pole, northeast of Platza), Pieria Mts, 1 km east-southeast of Pisoderion town. Altitudes range from 900 - 1,900 m. The range in Greece is estimated at 17,400 km<sup>2</sup> and the recorded sites add up to a maximum of 40 km<sup>2</sup>.
165137		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. fontanus</span> is a species of wet habitats and grows on wet meadows, mainly on granite or schists. It depends on disturbance through fluctuations in the water level which keeps vegetation density in its habitat low   (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165137		population	eng	In Sicily, six subpopulations have been found. In Calabria, there are three sites, with several subpopulations each. Population trend is declining. There is no population data from Serbia. In Bulgaria, the species is found in six sites with a total of 300-2,000 individuals.
165137		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat loss due to changes in land use (increase in agriculture), water extraction, drainage and pollution by nitrates from surrounding cultivated areas.
165139		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the European part of Turkey on the Thracian plateau   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165139		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165139		population	eng	This plant grows only at two remaining sites but was formerly found at six sites   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165139		threats	eng	The main threat is construction works   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165141		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus pseudopurpureus</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered in the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
165141		distribution	eng	This plant is found in Romania where it is endemic to the Ceahlau Mountains (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
165141		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165141		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165141		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165143		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is categorized as Critically Endangered (CR A4cd) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). </st1:country-region>It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine as Vulnerable and  protected in the Luganskij, Karadagskij, Jaltinskij,  Crimskij steppe reserves. This plant is found in many protected areas of Ukraine; <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> protection is carried out in the National Botanical Garden of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kyiv.<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it is listed as Endangered B2ab(ii,iv,v) and it is protected at national level. In Serbia, it would qualify as Vulnerable C1; C2a; D2 (Stevanović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005-2011).<br/><br/>Information on population size and trend as well as threats in other parts of its range is needed.<br/>    <p><br/><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p>
165143		distribution	eng	This species with disjunctive range extends from the eastern Balkan Peninsula into Romania, Ukraine and southern Russia, Caucasus, Asia Minor and Iran.<br/><br/>It was found fairly recently (about 2008) in northeastern Hungary and is presented by only one population with an occupied area of less than 1 km². There are some doubts whether it is native to Hungary. <br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it is found in some of the floristic regions of the country, mostly in the east and in the north, with some localities in western Bulgaria. It is localised and fragmented but not severely fragmented in eastern Bulgaria. The population trend is decreasing with some lost localities even in recent times. It grows up to 700 m altitude. Most localities are up to 0.5 hectares. For Bulgaria the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² as the plant is found in less than 25 10x10 km grid squares.<br/><br/>In Serbia, the species is distributed in the Banat province (sand steppe of Deliblatska) where the most abundant population occurs, and in the sand steppe along the Danube near Kladovo and Radujevac (extinct from both sites). Recently, it has been discovered far south in east Serbia in the surroundings of Dimitrovgrad- village Odorovci (Zlatković <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
165143		habitat	eng	In Hungary, it is found in dry grasslands. In Bulgaria, it is also found in stony areas and on limestone. <br/><br/>In Ukraine, it grows in steppe and is a member of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vinco herbaceae-Caraganetum fruticis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plantagini stepposae-Stipetum pulcherrimae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonidi- Stipetum tirsae</span> associations, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> class.<br/><br/>In Serbia, this plant inhabits meadow-steppe communities and pastures (<span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysopogonetum grylli panonicum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentillo-Festucetum valesiacae</span> from alliance <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion rupicolae</span>). It is not frequent in scattered scrub of <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus monogyna</span> together with other steppe plants such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Rindera umbellata, Pulsatilla grandis, Adonis vernalis, Onobrychis arenaria, Iris pumila, Astragalus dasyanthus</span> etc. This plant grows on humus rich sandy pararendzina soil, very similar to chernozem. Habitats of new discovered population in east Serbia are limestone steppe like grasslands and derelict vineyards and backyards.
165143		population	eng	In Serbia, the number of individuals in the most abundant site (Deliblatska Sands) exceeds several thousand mature individuals. In the last 50 years the size of the population has rapidly decreased, and the current population is estimated to be less than 50% in comparison with previous stages. The number of individuals of the newly discovered population in east Serbia is estimated to be less than 200 mature individuals (B. Zlatković pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>In Crimea, the number of individuals is nearly one million, including 10,000 individuals in the mountain massif Karadag. The density of the population in the Ukrainian Steppe and Luganskij reserves are one individual/m². Many localities are extinct.
165143		threats	eng	In Bulgaria, former threats were agriculture and pine plantations and quarrying. In recent years, the construction of wind farms is becoming a serious threat.<br/><br/>In Serbia, the main threats in the sand steppe of Deliblatska Sands natural reserve are pine plantations and the abandonment of sheep grazing which results in the replacement of open steppe communities and pastures with dense <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus mongyna</span> shrub formations.
165145		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is categorized as Near Threatened in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). </st1:country-region>In Norway mainland, the only site is protected and the plant is listed as Critically Endangered B1a(ii)b(iii). In Svalbard, it is listed as Least Concern on the Norwegian Red List (Artsdatabanken 2010).    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p>
165145		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polemonium boreale</span> has a large arctic circumpolar distribution in northern Canada, Alaska and northern Russia but is rare in Greenland and has a fairly scattered occurrence in Svalbard. The findings in Finnmark (mainland Norway) relate to a few occurrences in the north of the Kola Peninsula. It also occurs in Novaya Zemlya andFranz-Josef-Land (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Svalbard, it is found in three fjords. In Norway, it occurs at one location with an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km².
165145		habitat	eng	In Russia, it has been described from banks of rivers and lakes, on rocks near rivers or sand terraces in the tundra. It is found in montane grasslands or grassland and shrubland near rivers. In Svalbard, it is found below bird cliffs and dry slopes on nutrient rich ground.<br/><br/>In Finnmark, the species would naturally occur on stabilised dunes near the sea, but in 1992 its main population was found in a cemetery   (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165145		population	eng	The only Norwegian mainland site is in and around the cemetery in Bugøynes (South Varanger). The population is small and highly vulnerable despite protection by locals (Artsdatabanken 2010). <br/><br/>No population information from Russia.
165145		threats	eng	There is no information on potential threats in Russia and Svalbard. In Finnmark, it is planted with a related species, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. caeruleum</span>, and hybridization and genetic pollution are believed to be a threat. Collection for herbaria is another threat as the population is already very vulnerable (Artsdatabanken 2010).
165146		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as CR B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</span><br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur within the protected areas Monumento Natural de Roque Cano (SCI), Monumento Natural del Lomo del Carretón (SCI) and Parque Natural de Majona (SCI) (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/>Plant material is stored in the germplasm banks of Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. Monitoring is developed in the locations of&#160; Alojera and Carabalto. Research about the genetics of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruda</span> sp. in the Canary Islands is being developed (A. Acevedo pers. comm. 2011). This research is expected to clarify the real number of individuals and taxonomic doubts about the genus.<br/><br/>Proposed measures in order to ensure the conservation of the species include the collection and storage in germplasm banks of plant material from every subpopulation and population trends monitoring. Other measures are the development of research about the genetic of the subpopulation of Mulagua, population management in Risco de las Zulas, Alojera and Caraballo, reintroduction and reinforcement measures in Caraballo and the establishment of a fence and agriculture and grazing control plans in the location of Alojera.
165146		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ruta microcarpa</span> is endemic to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It grows between 350 and 675 m asl, distributed throughout seven subpopulations: Mulagua, Roque Cano, Risco de las Zulas, Alojera, Caraballo (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), Ermita de San Juan and Montefuerte (Gobierno de Canarias 2004), on the northern part of the island. Its area of occupancy is 6 km². Increasing trends have been reported for its distribution (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
165146		habitat	eng	This shrub grows within scrublands associated with thermophile forest <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodio-Juniperetum canariensis</span> (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartocytisus filipes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea cerasiformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Globularia salicina</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium castello-paivae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus turbinata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span>. In more altered areas, species such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Euphorbia lamarckii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis</span> become more prominent.
165146		population	eng	Its total population size was reported to be 264 individuals (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and low presence of juvenile individuals and seedlings was observed (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Later, more subpopulations were discovered and population size was estimated in 602 individuals (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). Increasing population trends have been reported. However, there is low genetic exchange between the subpopulations and they count as severely fragmented.
165146		threats	eng	Main threat to this species is the state of fragmentation of its population, which limits genetic exchange between subpopulations (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Subpopulations of Mulagua and Alojera are affected by grazing. Natural competition phenomena occur in Roque Cano, Alojera and Risco de las Zulas.
165148		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, bark and fruits are subject to this regulation.<br/><br/><ul><li>Bulgaria: Vulnerable A1abd; B2ab(ii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It can be found in three national parks, and two nature parks.</li><li>Croatia: Vulnerable A3cd (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</li><li>Czech Republic: Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000). Some populations in protected areas.<br/></li><li>Denmark: Least Concern (NERI 2007)</li><li>France: Protected in Poitou- Charentes</li><li>Germany: Listed as Endangered (level 2) (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Greece: It is protected by the Greek Law 67/1991. Some locations are in Natura 2000 sites.</li><li>Italy: Harvesting is limited in some regions</li><li>Lithuania: It is not protected. It can be found in protected areas, but the species is not the target. No action needed.</li><li>Norway: Least Concern (Artsdatabanken 2010)</li><li>Russia: Least Concern (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010)</li><li>Sweden: Protected but not included in the national red list.</li><li>Switzerland: Least Concern (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) but legally protected in three regions.</li><li>Ukraine: Protected in Poliskij and Rivnenskij reserves and in many zakazniks.</li><li>UK: Least Concern (Cheffings 2005)</li></ul>
165148		distribution	eng	This plant is native to temperate Asia, Europe and Canada, the USA and Guatemala on the American continent. In Europe, it is found nearly everywhere from Iceland to Greece and from Spain to Russia. In the east European plain, it occurs from the Kola Peninsula to Ukraine. In Ukraine, it approaches the southern limit of its range and it grows in the zone of deciduous and mixed forests in Polesian lowland. <br/>Throughout its range <span style="font-style: italic;">Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</span> is mainly found in mountain areas.
165148		habitat	eng	This small shrub flowers from March to July and is found in coniferous forests and mixed forests dominated by conifers such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> spp., in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytiso ruthenico-Pinion</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erico-Pinion</span> communities, and in alpine and subalpine  <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperae </span>communities. It also grows in tall forb, shrub or grassland communities below or above the forest line (subalpine) such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendro ferruginei-Vaccinietum</span> communities and in heathlands. The species has also been reported from limestone, rocks, slopes, river banks, or even in sandy dunes, continental dunes and coastal areas (e.g. Lithuania).
165148		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arctostaphylos uva-ursi </span>is quite widespread and locally common throughout its range:<br/><ul><li>Bulgaria: It is locally found in the mountains at around 40  localities. The population is declining fast due to collection.</li><li>Croatia: The populations are declining.<br/></li><li>Czech Republic: It occurs in the north, west and central part of the country at 10 - 20  localities and is not abundant. Many populations count only 10-20 individuals and are  very threatened.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></li><li><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>France: It is common in the Alps, the Pyrenees and Corbières, rare in the Jura and very rare in Auvergne.<br/></li><li>Germany: The populations are declining and the species is threatened in many federal estates and even extinct in some.<br/></li><li>Greece: It is found in mountains in the north,  centre and northeast at about ten locations  throughout four different areas. It is locally abundant and there is no  information on the population trend. <br/></li><li>Ireland: It is found in the west of the country.<br/></li><li>Italy: There are almost 2,000 localities in all of the country except for the southernmost regions and the islands. Stable populations with more than 10,000 individuals, the populations are not fragmented.<br/></li><li>Lithuania: The distribution in Lithuania is uneven: it is rare in the centre and west, more common  in the east and southeast. The species occurs in small patches and is neither common nor very  rare  and restricted.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></li><li>Serbia: This plant is estimated to be vulnerable (V. Stevanovic pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Slovakia: It occurs scattered in mountain regions in the northwest, north and northeast of the country. Vegetative reproduction is predominant and fruit set is usually lower than 5%.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></li><li>Spain: It is quite widespread in most regions in the eastern half of the Iberian Peninsula and a morphologically variable species.</li><li>Sweden: It occurs in the south at ten localities.</li><li>Switzerland: It can be found almost everywhere in the Jura and in the Alps and the populations are well connected within   these regions, with a flat area between these two mountainous systems   where the species is just occasionally present. It is a frequent species and several   hundreds of individuals can be found in each location, covering an  area  up to a few hundred km². The total population is estimated to be over 100,000 individuals and the general population trend is stable.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></li><li>Russia: There are a few records from the Leningrad region.</li><li>Ukraine: The populations are very small in area (0.02-0.03 ha) and are not propagated by seeds. The population trend is unknown. <br/></li><li>UK: It occurs in the north, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.</li></ul>
165148		threats	eng	Eutrophication from nearby agricultural areas or the abandonment of grazing leads to overgrowing of its habitat with shrubs which causes competition and has been reported as a threat. Furthermore reforestation, especially with <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>, modifies the species habitat. Collection of the plant is still a threat in some places. Locally, tourism development in the mountains (tracks, skiing) could be considered a threat.
165149		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Existen semillas depositadas"><span title="Su población"><span title="(conejos) mediante vallados."><span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum teneriffae</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the  Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern  Convention). <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Existen semillas depositadas"><span title="Su población"><span title="(conejos) mediante vallados.">It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Existen semillas depositadas"><span title="Su población"><span title="(conejos) mediante vallados.">It is listed as B2ab(iii,v)c(iv); C2b in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It occurs in the protected area Parque Natural de la Corona Forestal (SCI) (Ojeda Land <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="Existen semillas depositadas">There are seeds deposited in the germplasm bank of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid. <span title="Su población">Its population is monitored and some individuals are protected from predators <span title="(conejos) mediante vallados.">(rabbits) with fencing. <br/><br/>Population monitoring should be kept in place, as well as grazing exclusion areas. Seeds should be stored in germplasm banks.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165149		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum teneriffae</span> is native to Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain (Ojeda Land <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it can be found in only one location in Güímar, in the southeast of the island. Its area of occupancy is 3 km².
165149		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Produce 4-12"><span title="No obstante, la"><span title="abortadas."><span title="semillas arrastradas por el viento."><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="La germinación"><span title="puede ser alta, llegando a superar el 60%2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Crambe scaberrima y Pericallis lanata."><span title="los ambientes más heterogéneos del fayal-brezal"><span title="(Fayo-Ericetum arboreae) siendo las especies">This small shrub occurs in rupicolous environments within communities of "fayal-brezal" <span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallido-Sonchetum gummiferi, Greenovietum aizoonis. </span>In this situation frequent accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erica arborea, Bencomia caudata, Teline osyrioides, Hypericum reflexum, Crambe scaberrima </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis lanata. </span>It can also be found in more heterogeneous&#160; formations <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Produce 4-12"><span title="No obstante, la"><span title="abortadas."><span title="semillas arrastradas por el viento."><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="La germinación"><span title="puede ser alta, llegando a superar el 60%2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Crambe scaberrima y Pericallis lanata."><span title="los ambientes más heterogéneos del fayal-brezal"><span title="(Fayo-Ericetum arboreae) siendo las especies">of "fayal-brezal"<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Produce 4-12"><span title="No obstante, la"><span title="abortadas."><span title="semillas arrastradas por el viento."><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="La germinación"><span title="puede ser alta, llegando a superar el 60%2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Crambe scaberrima y Pericallis lanata."><span title="los ambientes más heterogéneos del fayal-brezal"><span title="(Fayo-Ericetum arboreae) siendo las especies"><span style="font-style: italic;"> Fayo-Ericetum arboreae</span>, along with <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Produce 4-12"><span title="No obstante, la"><span title="abortadas."><span title="semillas arrastradas por el viento."><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="La germinación"><span title="puede ser alta, llegando a superar el 60%2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Crambe scaberrima y Pericallis lanata."><span title="los ambientes más heterogéneos del fayal-brezal"><span title="(Fayo-Ericetum arboreae) siendo las especies"><span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea, Pinus canariensis, Viburnum rigidum, Hypericum reflexum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cistus symphytifolius.</span><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Produce 4-12"><span title="No obstante, la"><span title="abortadas."><span title="semillas arrastradas por el viento."><span title="En cuanto a la"><span title="La germinación"><span title="puede ser alta, llegando a superar el 60%2."><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Crambe scaberrima y Pericallis lanata."><span title="los ambientes más heterogéneos del fayal-brezal"><span title="(Fayo-Ericetum arboreae) siendo las especies"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Hermaphrodite species which shows a tendency to be pollinated by Hymenoptera (<span style="font-style: italic;">Apis mellifera</span>) and flower Coleoptera. <span title="Produce 4-12">Produces 4-12 flowers per inflorescence, resulting in 24 flowers per individual per year. <span title="No obstante, la">However, most of the flowers tend to be <span title="abortadas.">aborted. As regards the dispersion, there is no obvious adaptation. But there are observations of capsules being blown by the wind. <span title="semillas arrastradas por el viento."><span title="En cuanto a la">On the seminal production, some estimates suggest between 7 and 8 seeds per capsule. <span title="La germinación">Germination <span title="puede ser alta, llegando a superar el 60%2.">may be high, exceeding 60%.<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="Crambe scaberrima y Pericallis lanata."><span title="los ambientes más heterogéneos del fayal-brezal"><span title="(Fayo-Ericetum arboreae) siendo las especies"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165149		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Total population size has been reported to be 166 individuals (Ojeda Land <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="De ellos,">Of these, approximately 35% are flowering and fruiting annually, although this proportion falls notably in the years of marked drought. Population size fluctuates depending on climate conditions (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). Probability of extinction has been estimated in 69% for a 20 year period (Ojeda Land <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<span title="El"></span>
165149		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main threat is the high human pressure on the only known location of this species (Ojeda Land <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), mainly because of the presence of hikers. Moreover, extreme droughts in the area pose a further threat. <span title="Los otros dos">The other two factors affecting the species are landslides and natural plant competition. <span title="De menor">Of lesser importance are predation and possible <span title="de hibridación.">hybridisation.</span></span>
165150		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165150		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Turkey where it is found in the European part in the Halkali region   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165150		habitat	eng	This perennial grows on limestone grasslands   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165150		population	eng	It is unknown whether the species still exists   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165150		threats	eng	The original habitat is threatened by urbanisation and agricultural intensification   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165151		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In France, it is protected at the national level. In Italy, collection is banned in some regions and it is partially included in Natura 2000 sites. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In  Greece, part of the population of the plant is included in Natura 2000  sites (e.g., GR1210001, GR1260004, GR1250005, GR1320002, GR1330001,  GR1330002, GR2130006, </span>GR2130008).<br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Bosnia and Herzegovina it is Rare (Šilić 1996). The plant is categorised as Vulnerable for part of the range in Serbia. It is protected by law and a few subpopulations are situated in protected areas and Important Plant Areas.</span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It is not on the red lists of Croatia and Bulgaria.</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>It is recommended to collect population information for all of its range and to put harvesting controls in place. Further clarification of the taxonomy is also needed.<br/></span></span></span>
165151		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria montana</span> occurs in south and southeastern Europe, westwards to southeastern France (Kamari 1991).<br/><br/>Its distribution pattern ranges from southeast France, Austria (Tirol) to Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro (doubtful but not unexpected), Serbia, Bulgaria, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Romania, and the European part of the Russian Federation (Tomović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). All citation and records of<span style="font-style: italic;"> F. orientalis</span> and/or <span style="font-style: italic;">F. tenella</span> in Europe refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">F. montana</span>.<br/><br/>In Serbia, it has been reported in different regions: Banat (Mt Vršački breg, Deliblatska Sands; northeast Serbia: Đerdap gorge, Ram; Šumadija: Mt Rudnik; W. Serbia: Mt Ovčar, Užice, Mt Zlatibor; SW Serbia: Prijepolje; central Serbia: Raška; southeast Serbia: Mt Rudina Planina; Kosovo and Metochia: Gnjilane, Priština,&#160; Kosovska Mitrovica Mt Gubavac near Peć, Mt Šarplanina in the vicinity of the village Brod, Mt Ošljak (Tomović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is recorded in 36 squares of 10x10 km, while its area of occupancy is several times less. <br/><br/>In Italy, it is found in most of the regions but not on the islands, with quite a large area of occupancy.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In north central Greece the species is found in the Prespes area (three to four locations), Boutsi Mt, Siniatsiko Mt, Vellia Mt, Vermion Mt (two locations), Vourinos Mt (two to three locations), Voras Mt (Kajmaktsalan).&#160; In northeastern Greece it is found west of Pilima village, Menoikion Mt, Orvilos Mt and also in the North Pindos range and the Katara Pass (this record needs confirmation). In Greece it has an extent of occurrence of c. 20,000 km²<sup></sup> and it has an area of occupancy of at least 70–80 km²<sup></sup> (based on a 2x2 km grid).<br/><br/>In Bosnia, there are records from the mountains Vlašić, Treskavica, Trebiševo polje, and in </span><span style="background-color: white;">Herzegovina, it occurs on Mt. Velež, Porim near Rujište, around Gacko.</span>
165151		habitat	eng	The species is found in different habitats ranging from scrub communities and rocky places in openings of deciduous and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> forest to limestone substrate up to 1,800 m asl. It is also reported to grow in montane and subalpine regions. It has been reported that this plant in particular can mix with various types of plant communities.<br/><br/>In Greece the species is found on rocky slopes with scrub of <span style="font-style: italic;">Buxus </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Juniperus</span> or rocky places in openings of beech and deciduous oak forest, on limestone or ophiolithic substrate. It flowers in late April and May (Kamari 1991). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is found in subalpine grasslands.<br/><br/>In Serbia it inhabits various types of thermophilous (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpino orientalis-Quercetum pubescentis</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostryo-Carpinetum orientalis,&#160; Carpinetum orientalis, Quercetum pubescentis, Orno-Ostryetum</span>), meso-thermophilous (<span style="font-style: italic;">Querco-Tilietum tomentosae;&#160; Orno-Quercetum petreae, Rusco-Carpinetum , Monspessulo-Coryletum colurnae, Quercetum pubescenti-cerris, Orno-Quercetum petreae serpentinicum), mesophilous beech forests (Fagetum montanum, Ostryo-Fagetum</span>) and shrubs or sibljak vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Syringo-Carpinetum orientalis</span>), as well as xerophilous grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco duriusculae-Euphorbietum glabriflorae,&#160; Fritillario-Seslerietum rigidae,&#160; Teucrio-Artemisietum camphorata</span>) on limestone, ophiolithic, siliceous and sandy soils.
165151		population	eng	In France, there is one locality with several hundreds of individuals, and it is apparently stable. In Italy the species is stable but severely fragmented. The plant is found at 14–20 locations in Greece, but there is no estimation of the population size or trend. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The  extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are rather restricted in Greece (within the limits of  criterion B) but there are no data on population size or trends or  threats which would determine whether the plant should be classified in  one of the threat categories. Confirmed records of the species in Greece  are since the 1940s, the 1970s and the 1980s but it was recently  collected on Mitsikeli.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Serbia approximately 50% of the localities are checked in the field, the rest are herbarium data. The richest subpopulation is estimated to be less than 2,000 mature individuals. </span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">There is no information available for the other countries in its range.</span>
165151		threats	eng	The collection of the species or the bulb is a threat in at least Greece, France, and Serbia. Spreading urbanisation and road construction is furthermore affecting the species. Changes in native species dynamics as a result of changes in agricultural practices, transform the habitat and increase competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">F. montana</span>. Conifer plantations is another cause of habitat loss.
165152		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable and protected in the Mis-Aja and Uroczycheze Demerdzy zakazniks. More information on the size and trends of the population and the habitat trends is needed.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165152		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Crimea, Ukraine where it occurs in the mountain massifs Aja, Demerdji, Svidanije and Meganome in the Crimean Mountains. No more than ten localities are registered and the EOO of this species is less than 5,000 km².<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
165152		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This perennial plant flowers from May-June. It grows in stone and rubble slopes and in the phrygana with thin plant cover at an altitude from 500 to 1,000 m. It is a member of plant communities of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthea</span> class.
165152		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The subpopulation in northern vicinity of the Privitne village (Svidanie mountains massif) had 30,000 individuals at the beginning of the 1880s. Only some plants were found in 2002. Data about the other subpopulations is lacking.</span>
165152		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">A lack of suitable habitat, combined with degradation of its sites due to recreational activities, pose the main threat to this species.<br/></span>
165153		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (Bardunow and Novikov 2008) and in regional Red Data Books as endangered species. It is categorized as Critically Endangered.
165153		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central and South European Russia, and found in the Voronezh and Rostov regions.
165153		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy soil, not disturbed by human activity.
165153		population	eng	This plant has been recorded in two locations in Rostov region and in two locations in the Voronezh region.
165153		threats	eng	The main threats are the destruction of its habitats due to forest plantations or grazing. This plant is a weak competitor and can not grow in the shade.
165156		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anemone uralensis</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). This species is included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2008) and in regional Red Data Books as an endangered species. It is protected in the reserve “Visimskij” and other protected areas.
165156		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Eastern European Russia and occurs in the middle and southern parts of the Ural mountains. The AOO is probably less than 200 km².
165156		habitat	eng	This plant grows on river banks, wet grasslands, and in wet deciduous forests.
165156		population	eng	The population is found at about 50 localities with about 10,000 clones. The local populations are small and occupy a limited area of 2-10 m². Flooding has caused declines of 30-50%. Over the past 50 years,  destruction of habitats has caused the decline of this species by 2-3  times.
165156		threats	eng	Agricultural cultivation (ploughing of grasslands), flooding of river valleys, grazing, collection of the plant for bouquets, weak ecological flexibility, low competitiveness are the main threats to this species.
165157		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Endangered B1a(ii)b(iii,iv)+2a(ii)b(iii,iv); C2a(i) in the Norwegian Red List (Artsdatabanken 2010).
165157		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Papaver lapponicum</span> has a broad arctic amphi-Atlantic distribution from the Canadian Arctic islands in the west to Sakha in Siberia in the east (Artsdatabanken 2010). In Europe, this species occurs in Norway, and on the Kola Peninsula and in northern Ural in Russia. The species is known from two occurrences in northern Norway, one in Burfjorddalen and one in Vassbotndalen (Artsdatabanken 2010). The extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km².
165157		habitat	eng	In Norway this species occurs mainly on upland stony soils and scree, in moorland and river flood zones, but it has also been found in damp fields at lower altitudes   (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165157		population	eng	The largest known sub-populations is 1,000 individuals (Riddevarre in Kvænangen). It was revisited in 2006 and is still a strong population. Some subpopulations in Kvænangen seems to have disappeared, possibly due to river regulation. The populations in Russia are scattered.
165157		threats	eng	Regulation of rivers has been named as a threat that led to a loss in populations.
165158		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is also listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis provincialis</em>;</a> <br/></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open woodland from deforestation and development. </li><li>Forestry management that stops overgrowth and closing up of forest.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>                  <p>(Bournérias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
165158		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis provincialis</em> is a Mediterranean endemic species with a remarkably vast distribution area from the Iberian Peninsula throughout the western and central part of the Mediterranean region to the mountains around the eastern parts of the Black Sea. The species also occurs in Asiatic Turkey, Tunisia and Algeria. It can be found up to 1,700 m altitude (Bournérias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
165158		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis provincialis</em> inhabits garrigue, scrub, maquis, mountain pastures and open woodland both deciduous and coniferous. It <em></em>prefers moist, slightly acidic to slightly alkaline, often calcareous and stony substrates and rarely damp areas in the mountains. This species grows in full sun light to mid-shade and flowers from the end of March to the beginning of June (Bournérias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>  <em><strong></strong></em>
165158		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis provincialis</em><span class="species"> is rare and local where it occurs. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made. Many <span class="species">stable populations have been observed but this does not exclude that the species might been declining in parts of its range (Bournérias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002). In Switzerland, five individuals were counted in 2001, but it might be extinct now (A. Gygax pers. comm. 2010).</span></p>
165158		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species are<span class="species"> natural succession of woodlands which decrease the amount of light reaching the forest floor, urbanisation, building projects, expansion of infrastructure (new roads and expansion of towns), tourism and plant collection (Bournérias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
165159		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,v); C2a(i) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Only six of the ten known populations are included in protected areas, five in the Monumento Natural de los Cuchillos de Vigán and SCI Pozo Negro and one in the Monumento Natural de Montaña Cardones (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of the botanic garden Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and of the environmental department of the government of the Canary Islands (Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente - Gobierno de Canarias).<br/><br/>Fences should protect the main subpopulations. More seeds should be stored in germplasm banks and the species should be object of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation in botanic gardens. Research about the biology, ecology and genetics of the species should be developed.
165159		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">the mountains of southern-central Fuerteventura, where it grows between 250 and 450 m asl., distributed into ten known locations (Scholz and Santos Guerra 2004). Its area of occupancy is lower than 10 km². Its distribution has been reported to present high fragmentation (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
165159		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It grows in sunny basalt cliffs, with a tendency to take refuge in inaccessible areas. I<span title="Posiblemente">n the past it was probably part of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycia intricati-Euphorbietum balsamiferae</span> associations, but nowadays it has almost disappeared from this area. Frequent companions include <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia, Lycium intricatum, Launaea arborescens,</span> and some therophytes.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">A plant that is well adapted to dry conditions, resistant and with great longevity. <span title="Se observan individuos con">There are individuals with numerous seeds. Pollination is accomplished by Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. <span title="En algunos ejemplares">In some specimens malformations were seen, possibly the effect of inbreeding. <span title="Porcentaje de">Percent of germination of seeds is low in general (5 - 10%) but may rise during <span title="de fuertes lluvias">heavy rain.<br/><br/>Its habitat has been reported to have suffered strong degradation (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="Escaso reclutamiento"><span title="El"><span title="500 m"></span></span></span></span></span>
165159		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Posiblemente"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se observan individuos con"><span title="En algunos ejemplares"><span title="de fuertes lluvias"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Escaso reclutamiento"><span title="El">There are ten known subpopulations with a total of 212 individuals (</span></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Scholz and Santos Guerra</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Posiblemente"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se observan individuos con"><span title="En algunos ejemplares"><span title="de fuertes lluvias"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Escaso reclutamiento"><span title="El"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2004). Of all the individuals counted, there are less than 50 that grow in totally inaccessible situations and can therefore grow and reproduce; among the rest, older individuals and individuals mutilated by herbivores predominate and they can hardly grow and flourish. There is also poor recruitment of juveniles as all seedlings born at the foot of a cliff disappear due to herbivores, so that the chances of recolonisation are zero in the current circumstances.<br/><br/>Negative trends have been observed for its population size over the last ten years (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).<br/><span title="500 m"></span></span></span></span></span>
165159		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main threat is predation by domestic herbivores (goats and sheeps) and wild ones (rabbits and possibly squirrels) (<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Scholz and Santos Guerra</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> 2004). <span title="Parasitismo de las semillas">Parasitism of the seeds by <span style="font-style: italic;">Oxyaciura tibialis </span>(Diptera: Tephritidae) poses a problem. Prolonged drought also affects it negatively and geological instability is an issue.&#160;<span title="del sustrato."></span>
165160		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><p>It is listed in the Red Data Book of the former USSR (1984) as Endangered, in the Red Data Book of Moldova (2002) as Vulnerable, in Red Data Book of Ukraine (2009) without status. It is included in regional Red Data Books: <br/></p><ul><li>Red Data Book of the Pridnestrovian Moldaian Republic (2009) us Vulnerable; <br/></li><li>Red Data Book of Doneckaja region, Ukraine (2010) as Endangered; <br/></li><li>Red Data Book of Autonomous Republics of Russian Federation; Bachkortostan (2001) as Rare, <br/></li><li>Komi (1998) as Rare, <br/></li><li>Tatarstan (2006) as Critically Endangered.</li></ul><p>In Moldova, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> is protected in the landscape reserve Trebujeni. In Ukraine, it is protected in the Medobory reserve, in the national park Podilski Tovtry, in the landscape park Dnistrovskij Canjon, in zakazniks Panivecka Dacha, Cykivskij, Satanivska Dacha, Sovyj Jar, Marjina Gora; with <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> protection in botanical garden of Doneck, Kyiv and Kamjanec-Podilskij. In Russian Federation, it is protected in Bachkirskij, Centralno-Chornozemnyj, Galichja Gora, Ilmenskij, Jygulowskij, Pechoro-Ilychskij reserves, with <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> protection in Moscow, Samara, Sverdlovsk, St. Petersburg botanical gardens.<br/><br/></p>
165160		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> has a disjunctive distribution area in eastern Europe ranging from Dobrodgea upland in Romania to the Ural Mountains. It consists of four geographical populations distributed in: 1) Romania, Moldova, western Ukraine; 2) Middle Russian upland and eastern Ukraine; 3) Volga river basin; 4) Ural Mountains and adjacent plain territory of European Russia.<br/>In Romania, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> is known from Stepanechty village in Botochany county (Dobrogea upland). In Moldova, it grows near Varatice, Cabani, Duruitoarea communes; near Costesti town, Baldi county; near Coryenti, Gordinesti communes Edinet county; Ofatinti commune, Durosari county; Trebujeni commune, Orhei county (Dectiu 2002). In western Ukraine, the species grows in the Podolian upland, mainly in the Podolian Tovtry ridge and in the Dnister river basin on the territories of Kchmelnicka, Ternopolska, Lvivska, and Ivano-Frankivska regions. A single isolated population is located at the shore of Khadjibejskij liman (estuary) of the Black Sea near Egorivka and Otradove village near Odessa.<br/>In eastern Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> is known from only three localities: Marjina gora in the valley of Donec river in Artemivskij district, Donecka region; near Serebrjanka village, Lisischanskij district, Luganska region; and in the vicinity of Ochrimivka village in valley of Vovgha river in Vovczanskij district, Kharkivska region. In the Russian Upland it grows in Belgorodskaja, Voronezskaja, Kurskaja, Lipeckaja regions.<br/>This species is present in European Russia in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Komi, Chelyabinsk, Samara, Orel, Lipetsk, Kursk, Belgorod, Sverdlovsk, Voronezh, Volgograd, Ulyanovsk. In the Volga river basin, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> grows in the Jiguli upland from Usolje village to the Shirajevskaja valley (70 km) in Samara region, Saratovskaja region. Some isolated localities are known from the left bank of Volga river including a single locality in Tatarstan.<br/>This plant is found in all the Ural Mountains: from Polar Ural and the adjacent territory of the Komi Autonomic Republic local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> are distributed across the central Ural to southern Ural and adjacent plain territory of Bachkortostan.
165160		habitat	eng	This perennial plant flowers from April to June, and sets fruit in June. It grows in rocks and stony slopes on chalk or gypsum. In western Ukraine, it is a component of plant communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedetalia ordo, Asplenietea trichomanis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Festo-Brometea</span> classes. In eastern Ukraine, it forms part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo-Thymetea</span> class (Diduch 2009).<br/>In the Middle Russian Upland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> grows in rocky steppes with thinned plant cover together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Spiraea crenata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecytisus ruthenicus</span> in river valleys (Kazakova 1994).<br/>In the Juguli upland in the basin of the Volga river in southern and central Ural, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> grows on wet shaded slopes. In northern Ural, it grows in light and warm places on the rocks near forest edges or high above the forest belt (Kazakova 1984).
165160		population	eng	The population trend is different in different parts of its area. In Moldova populations consist of about 100 individuals and the number of individuals is continuously decreasing (Dectiu 2002). <br/>The trend of the Ukrainian populations is stable with ten thousands of individuals (Diduch 2009).<br/>In the Central Russian upland some populations (e.g. in the landscape units Doctorova gora, Sokolova gora, Galiczja gora, in the valley of Bistra Sosna river) populations occupy hundreds of square metre. In other places such as the valley of the Chichora river, only some individuals remain (Kasakowa 1984).<br/>In the Jyguli Upland in Volga river basin, the largest population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica </span>occupies 5-6 ha. Here, the species dominates the vegetation. In Tatarstan, a single population occupies a very small place (Czchechovskich 2006).<br/>There are nearly 100 local populations in the Ural Mountains and adjacent plain territory of Bachkortostan. The population trend of the Ural populations is mainly stable with thousands of individuals. However, some populations near Niznij Tagil city are decreasing. In northern Ural and in Komi of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schivereckia podolica</span> are small in area and number of individuals.
165160		threats	eng	The destruction of the species habitat by extraction of limestone, chalk and gypsum is a main threat along with abandonment of pastoral activities and the subsequent encroachment of shrubs and trees. Infrastructure development and recreational activities also affect this plant.
165161		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, the species is protected in the Chornomorskij biosphere reserve. In Bulgaria, it is classed as Endangered in the Red List and is protected at national level <span style="background-color: white;">(Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)</span>. Some populations are included in protected areas: one nature reserve, one protected area and Natura 2000 sites.<br/>In Romania, it is  classified as endangered.<br/><br/>More information on size and trend of the populations is needed.
165161		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum borzaeanum</span> Nyár. is an endemic with a limited distribution along the coast of the Black Sea. It has been recorded in the Ukraine, Turkey, Northern Greece, Romania and Bulgaria. <br/>In Romania, it is mainly found between Tuzla and the sea side.<br/>It has been collected in c. 20 sites in northern Greece from Sterea Ellada and from a few locations on Rhodes island (Strid and Tan 2002).<br/>In the Ukraine, it only occurs in the southeastern part in Crimean peninsula and the Cherson and Odessa regions along the northern Black sea coast. In Bulgaria, it is also found along the northern Black Sea coast, northeastern Bulgaria and the eastern Stara Planina mountains.
165161		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum borzeanum</span> is a very small perennial shrub that is found in steppe grasslands, especially on limestone, on fixed dunes (carbonite), disclosures of tertiary siliceous sand, and pontic steppes on limestones near the sea. <br/>In the Ukraine, it grows in sparse vegetation cover in <span style="font-style: italic;">Seccalo sylvestre-</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssetum borzeani</span> associations. <br/><br/>It occurs in the Bern Convention habitat 64.8: standing stone inland dunes.
165161		population	eng	It is very rare in the Ukraine where it occurs at only 25 sites (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). The population trend is declining<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>In Bulgaria, a group of around 10 localities is found in an area of ca. 100 km²<sup></sup> and it is also found at a cliff on a 5 km stretch. Besides those localities, it is found at two sandy beaches, one close to the border with Romania and the other beach is about 100 km south. There are two more localities for which there is no recent data. The populations have been declining over the last 100 years because of habitat loss but now the populations are more or less stable. However, if there is no protection in place, some sites can be lost.<br/>There is no information available for Greece.<br/></span>
165161		threats	eng	In the Ukraine, destruction of habitats by tourism and recreational activities poses the main threat.<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, several local threats are present such as grazing by sheep (small holder). A main threat are tourist activities in the coastal areas (infrastructure), trampling or clearing of the sand dunes for recreational activities, or off-road driving competitions. One population declined because of the building of a wind farm.
165162		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Haberlea rhodopensis</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). This species is protected in Bulgaria but listed as Least Concern on the Red List&#160;</span>(Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is found in one national park and other protected areas such as nature reserves. It is protected under the Greek Law Presidential Degree 67/81 and is found in five Natura 2000 sites. <span style="font-style: italic;">Haberlea rhodopensis</span> is listed as Vulnerable in <span style="background-color: white;">the Red Data Book of Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended for Greece are a more detailed estimation of the population size, monitoring of the populations and cultivation in botanic gardens for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation.
165162		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Bulgaria and Greece and is one of the relict elements of the tertiary times. It is found in northeastern Greece, the Central Balkan mountains and Thracian plain and Rhodopi mountains (Menikion, Pangeon, Falakron, Rodopi, Papikion and the Nestos river gorge). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be smaller than 20,000 km²<sup></sup>.
165162		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in damp shady rocky places, mainly on limestone and sometimes also on volcanic rock. It can survive without water for more than three years.
165162		population	eng	It is common in Bulgaria as the habitat is not threatened. There are many stable populations and some are very large. The population is stable in Greece and it is locally abundant (it is found in inaccessible areas). The overall population trend is stable.
165162		threats	eng	Current and potential (small scale) threats are road construction, infrastructure and tourism development in the mountains. Collection might pose a threat but is also only happening at a small scale at the moment.
165163		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Bulgaria, it is classed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(ii,iii) and protected (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is found in one protected area and some Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>More information about the populations in Romania and Turkey is needed. Further recommended measures are the adequate management of sand dunes and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collection of seeds for conservation. Monitoring of the population is needed.
165163		distribution	eng	This plant is a European endemic species, occurring in Bulgaria, Romania and European Turkey (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In Bulgaria, it is found along the Black Sea coast and in Tundza hill country. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km²; maybe even less than 60 km². There is data from 15 grids (10 x 10 km) and within each square the real AOO was less than 1 km²<sup></sup> (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).
165163		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Verbascum purpureum</span> grows in coastal and inland fixed dunes. It is a biannual herb that can also be found in dry grassland and sandy substrate.
165163		population	eng	In Bulgaria, there are two populations in the area of the Sunny Beach resort, with densities of 0.6 and 0.3 individuals per m². It is found at low densities and the surviving rate for this species is very low. The species has a high seed production, but the surviving rate of individuals from the first to second year is very low.<br/><br/>There is no information about the populations in Romania or European Turkey available.
165163		threats	eng	The main threats in Bulgaria are posed by tourism and tourism development and infrastructure. In the past, agriculture and vineyards on sandy soils used to be a threat. A large part of the population was destroyed because of the development of vineyards. Forestation with exotic species of inland sandy areas was also a past threat.<br/><br/>There is no information about threats in Romania or European Turkey available.
165164		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed EN B2ab(i,iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Most of the subpopulations are included in the protected areas Paisaje Protegido de Fataga (SCI), Parque Natural de Pilancones (SCI) and Monumento Natural de Aguayro. The species also occurs within the protected areas SCI of Amurga and Macizo de Tauro II (Suárez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Seeds are stored and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation is being performed in the botanic garden Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo, where research about the reproductive biology and genetic diversity of the species is as well being developed.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include population monitoring,&#160; grazing species and human access control, and collection and storage of seeds from every subpopulation. The subpopulations not present in protected areas should be included in such conservation sites.
165164		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium preauxii</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain (Suárez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it is found between 300 and 950 m asl, distributed throughout five locations: Barranco de Tirajana, Barranco de Arguineguín, Macizo de Ayagaures, Arteara y Montaña Amurga, and Barranco de Angostura, said to include 12 subpopulations. Its area of occupation has been reported to be 27 km²<sup></sup>.
165164		habitat	eng	This sub-shrub grows in sites influenced by phreatic humidity, especially xerophytic slopes. Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia rejisjubae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula minutolii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Echium decaisnei</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Campylanthus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">salsoloides</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium percarneum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia fusca</span> (Suárez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165164		population	eng	Its total population size has been estimated to be around 53,275 individuals (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), affected by fluctuations due to seedling mortality caused by summer droughts and by grazing and predation.
165164		threats	eng	Main threats are grazing, trampling and collection and occasional landslides (Suárez García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The location of Arteara y Montaña Amurga is as well affected by hybridisation phenomena.
165165		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).</p>  <em>T. minima</em> is classed as Extinct in Hungary and Liechtenstein, Critically  Endangered in Austria, Croatia and Germany, Endangered in Serbia, Greece (B2ab(iii), D2) and Switzerland  and is protected in the Rhône-Aples region of France. Information on its status and conservation needs in other countries is lacking.<br/>It is suggested to monitor the populations, increase awareness of the local community, and to collect seeds for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures.
165165		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>    <p><em>T. minima</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Mongolia, Pakistan and Kazakhstan to China. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the centre and south to the Mediterranean.</p>
165165		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. minima</span> typically grows in gravels on  the margins of calcareous rivers, particularly in braided channels and oxbows, as well as in ditches, ponds and marshes. It is thought to depend on disturbance such as fluctuating water levels or regular cutting of vegetation   (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165165		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>  <em>T. minima</em> is classed as Extinct in Hungary, Liechtenstein, and the Czech Republic, Critically Endangered in Austria, Croatia and Germany, Endangered in Greece, Serbia and Switzerland. It appears likely that it is declining throughout its European range.<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Hungary, there were formerly up to five known localities, on the Danube and Draba rivers, however it has not been seen since the 1940s and is probably extinct. It is found in only one locality in western Greece in the Peloponnese, at the Kladeos river banks on alluvial deposits. There it forms dense stands but the size of the population is unknown. <br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">It has recently been discovered in southern Albania at the Devolli river and is classed as new for the Albanian flora (Mullaj and Tan 2010).<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p></p>
165165		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. minima</span> is most significantly threatened by river regulation and uncontrolled extraction of river gravels. Local threats include the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers in Greece for example.<br/><br/>New populations from garden centres sold as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. minima</span> are <span style="font-style: italic;">T. lugdinensis</span>, but they are used sometimes for recovery programmes in secondary habitats. Hybridisation and outcrossing might become a problem.
165166		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. It is also included in Annex D of the COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 1497/2003 for the application of CITES. The EU regulation covers only live specimens but it is suggested that tuber and seed collection should be monitored as well.<br/>It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and is included in the Greek Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).
165166		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Biarum davisii</span> is endemic to Crete (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).&#160; It occurs in the the southeast, central and western part of the island at an altitude between 0 to 1,050 m.&#160; Extent of occurrence is currently estimated to be less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy 68-80 km²<sup></sup>, however this could be a minimum estimate.
165166		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Biarum davisii</span> is found in open, grazed scrubland, and disturbed habitats including road and track margins in limestone-derived red soil and screes. It also occurs in clay soils and limestone pavement. <br/><br/>According to Athanasiou (in: Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) the species has a long maturation time, approximately five to six years from seedling to flower.
165166		population	eng	Combined distribution data from Athanasiou (in Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), Boyce (2008), MAICh (2008) result in 17-20 mapped sites, although the number of locations and individual populations are not known.
165166		threats	eng	Bulb collection from the wild is a serious threat although detailed figures on the extent of collection are not known. There are no known threats to the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. davisii</span> and the fact that it is found in disturbed habitats is encouraging.
165167		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165167		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central European Russia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165167		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165167		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165167		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165168		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine as Rare and is protected in the national park Buskij Gard and in the protected landscape unit “Labirint”.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165168		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moehringia hypanica</span> is endemic to the Ukraine where it occupies an area in the southern part of the Pridnjeprovian upland in the Mykolaiv region. Only five localities are in the canyons of the rivers southern Bug (near Yuznoukrainsk town and Bogdanivka village) and Mertvovod (near Actove and Petropavlivka villages and in the landscape unit Labirint). The EOO is below 5,000 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165168		habitat	eng	This perennial grows on granitic outcrops and corniches   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165168		population	eng	The subpopulations are very small in area and number of individuals: only 30-50 individuals in every subpopulation. It is only known from five localities.
165168		threats	eng	The main threat are changes of ecotopes due to recreational activities.
165169		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus wolgensis</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the Red Data Books of Saratov and Chelyabinsk regions as a Rare species and included in protected areas in Russia.
165169		distribution	eng	This species is present in Central and Eastern European Russia in  Bashkortostan, Chelyabinsk, Samara, Orenburg, Penza, Perm, Saratov,  Tatarstan, Ulyanovsk, Volgograd regions. It extends its range into the Asian part of Russia and Kazakhstan.
165169		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountain steppe, on limestone soil or lime rocks.
165169		population	eng	The populations are numerous, but in the Saratov region this species has been described as rare and probably extinct. The overall population trend is unknown.
165169		threats	eng	The main threats are overgrazing and grassland fires.
165171		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. Part of the population of the plant is included in the sites GR2130002 and GR2130006 and it is included in the Red Data Book as Endangered (Kamari and Phitos in: Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>Attempted cultivation at the Botanical Garden of the University of Patras was not successful.
165171		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It has been reported to be present in Katara Pass, Metsovon, Milea, Smolikas (summit area, Vouzion, west of Samarina) and Bouchetsi, in the northern part of the Pindhos mountain range (Kamari 1991).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">F. epirotica</span> has an extent of occurrence estimated to be 1,000 km²<sup></sup>.
165171		habitat	eng	The species can be found on mobile screes and rocky places on serpentine, usually at high altitudes between 1,600 and 2,600 m, and occasionally in openings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> forest down to 1,050 m. It flowers in May and June.
165171		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Total number of mature individuals is estimated to be less than 1,000. Subpopulations are scattered and small, nearly all of them must be smaller than 100 individuals.
165171		threats	eng	The main threat for the plant throughout its distribution area is overgrazing which causes population decline. Flower stalks are consumed and seed set is very limited at all locations except from Katara Pass where sheep and goat herds are moved after the completion of fruiting at the end of May.  <p><br/></p>
165172		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Bulgarian Red List it is classed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(ii,v)+2ab(ii,v) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)
165172		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165172		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165172		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165172		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165173		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <em>Armoracia</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. macrocarpa</span> is listed in Annex I of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats (Bern Convention).</p><p>Its national threat and conservation status has been recorded as follows:<br/></p><ul><li>Slovakia: Endangered (EN) (Michalková and Marhold 2002).<span style="background-color: white;"></span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Hungary: </span><span style="background-color: white;">Near threatened (NT) (Király 2007)</span><span style="background-color: white;">. It is protected according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant  and animal species and the Government decree on the Natura 2000 sites  for the restoration of natural habitats and the maintenance of viable  populations of protected species.</span> <br/></li><li>Croatia: Near Threatened (NT) (Nikolić and Topić 2005).</li><li>Romania: Endangered (EN) (Dihoru and Negrean 2009). It is conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in botanical gardens.<span style="background-color: white;"></span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Serbia </span>(Stevanović pers. comm. 2010)<span style="background-color: white;">:</span> It is very rare and extinct from the majority of known localities. It has been estimated as Endangered (EN) (Stevanović 2000) but it is now thought that it could be Critically Endangered (CR) because it has not been found since the second half of the last century at localities cited in literature. New field investigations are needed for re-evaluation.</li></ul>It occurs in the following Natura 2000 sites (European Environment Agency 2010): <br/><ul><li>Kesznyéten (Hungary).</li><li>Munţii Maramureşului and Porţile de Fier (Romania).</li><li>Kalimok - Brashlen (Bulgaria).</li></ul>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. macrocarpa</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165173		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. macrocarpa</span> is native to the central Danube basin (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964). According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), it is native to Croatia, Former Czechoslovakia, Former Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia. It is a Pannonian endemic.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, this species is restricted to the Východoslovenská nížina Lowland in the southeast of the country. The number of localities was recorded as<span style="font-style: italic;"> c.</span> 20 by Michalková and Marhold (2002); however, only two localities are now known (Balla pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Mátra margins), Great Hungarian Plain (Danube  region, Danube-Tisza köze region and Tiszántúl region) and South  Transdanubia (Somogy and Szekszárd). It has a fragmented distribution, especially in northeastern parts of the country   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). <br/><br/>In Serbia it has a scattered distribution in Vojvodina and in the north of the country. It is extinct from a few localities in the surroundings of Belgrade (former Makiš wetland) and Požarevac. In addition, the species has not been rediscovered since the second half of the last century in Fruška Gora and Deliblatska sands. Additional field investigations are needed as its distribution in Serbia is not well known.<br/><br/>In Romania it is only found at one locality in the southwest.
165173		habitat	eng	In Hungary it grows in reeds (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scirpo-Phragmitetum austro-orientale</span>), wet meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phalaridetum arundinaceae</span>) and salt meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrosti</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">(o)</span>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecuretum pratensis</span>) and favours alkaline soils, salt tolerant, wet or water covered adherent  loam-, clay-, salt soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). In Romania it grows in wet pastures and in seasonally flooded pastures in the wet period. The maximum altitude in Romania is 100 m asl. There is no detailed information on the specific habitat of this species in Serbia except that it grows in wet meadows.
165173		population	eng	In Slovakia it is very rare, while in Hungary and Romania it is described as rare. In Serbia it is very rare and endangered and has gone extinct from the majority of the known localities; however, there has been no estimation of the population size in the past several decades. The population is probably decreasing but there is insufficient knowledge of the entire population to substantiate this.
165173		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. macrocarpa </span>is a naturally rare species due to its specialized habitat preference, which makes it more vulnerable to threats. <br/><br/> Drainage of wet meadows to grow crops could be playing a major role in the decline of the population. In addition, the transformation of salt marshes into fish ponds across the Pannonian plain could have a negative impact. In Slovakia it is threatened by a decrease in suitable habitat due to   abandonment of livestock grazing on  pastures leading to secondary   succession, while in Romania, wet pastures are naturally flooded by the River  Danube which can be polluted, affecting the species' habitat.
165174		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. It was included in the Red Data Book (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1995).<br/>All of the subpopulations are included in the NATURA 2000 sites GR4310003 and&#160; GR4320006.
165174		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011) where it grows from 5-150 m asl. It occurs at a few localities in the eastern part of Crete and at offshore islets:<br/><ul><li>Dia island (Panagia bay, Kappari bay, east coast)</li><li>Dragonada islet (west coast cliffs called Kolones)</li><li>Gianysada islet (north coast cliffs called Portes)</li><li>Sideros peninsula (cape Mavros, gorge west of Moni Toplou, over Karoumpes bay) </li></ul>The extent of occurrence is around 900 km² and the area of occupancy is 32 km². (2x2 grid)
165174		habitat	eng	This plant is found in crevices of steep calcareous rocks close to the sea. It is a chasmophyte but not a halophyte.
165174		population	eng	In total there are three to four subpopulations in five to six locations. But there is no systematic estimation of the population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina diae</span>. Greuter (1995) reported that the two largest subpopulations at cape Mavros and Dragonada consisted of “only some dozens of individuals” each, while there was a single individual at Toplou. He also reported that at Panagia bay on Dia there was a severe population reduction from a large number of plants in 1962 to only three remaining species in 1973 due to overgrazing. The plant was rare in the chasmophytic communities of Panagia bay but more abundant at the eastern coast in 2000 (Kypriotakis 2001). Total population size is certainly lower than 1,000 mature individuals and each is believed to have less than 250 mature individuals.
165174		threats	eng	Apparently, grazing confines the plant to the most inaccessible cliffs and has caused population decline. According to Greuter (1995), on Dia the plant is threatened by grazing by the Cretan “agrimi” (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capra aegagrus cretica</span>) which was introduced on the island after 1955. Kypriotakis (1997) classified the plant as endangered (according to the old IUCN criteria) due to its rarity and decline by overgrazing. Grazing by goats is a pressure for the plant on Dragonada and Gianysada islets too.
165175		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165175		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Greece and Asiatic Turkey (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165175		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165175		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165175		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165176		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Greece, it is not protected. In Bulgaria, it is classed as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ac(i,ii,iii,v); D (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and is protected. It is found in a Natura 2000 site and a project for research and conservation measures is underway in Bulgaria.<br/><br/>Among the conservation measures needed for this species are monitoring and estimation of the population size, surveys to find potential new populations, and collection of seeds for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation. Protection of the plant in Greece might be necessary.
165176		distribution	eng	This species is found Greece, Bulgaria and Macedonia and the Asian part of Turkey. In Greece is is only found in Agras lake, northcentral Greece (few kilometres west of Edessa). In Bulgaria there is one existing locality in the southwest close to the Greek border (Kula Village) and one extinct locality in the Thracian plane. There is only one locality in FYR Macedonia close to the Greek boarder. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km².
165176		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on dry stony grassland on sandy soils at fairly low elevations (approximately 100-500 m). In Greece it is found in the area of an artificial lake.
165176		population	eng	The populations of this species are very poorly known. The current population trend is unknown but the few European subpopulations are severely fragmented. In Bulgaria, there are less than 50 individuals and it was considered extinct until 2007. There are no young individuals in the population.
165176		threats	eng	Collection by botanists were thought to be a factor that caused the extinctions at one locality in Bulgaria. A potential threat is posed by the of expansion of vineyards close by. Threats to the other sites are unknown.
165177		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species is currently protected within a Ukrainian steppe reserve. It is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (2009) where it is classed as rare. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> protection is carried out in the Donezkij Botanical Garden of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, in the National Botanical Garden of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kyiv, and in the Botanical Garden of Kyiv University.
165177		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ukraine. It occurs only within the forest reserve within the Ukrainian steppe reserve in the Donetsk region, department Kamennye mogily (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165177		habitat	eng	This perennial herb flowers from June to August and bears fruits in July to September. It is found on granite slopes in a community belonging to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthetea</span> class where it grows in fissures of cliffs as isolated individuals or small groups<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
165177		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Achillea glaberrima</span> is a narrow endemic of the granite rocks in southeast Ukraine. Only one single population is known within a Ukrainian steppe reserve. The populations have been described to have a good recruitment and to be rather stable (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). The number of individuals is estimated to be eight to nine million and the density is 35 individuals/m².
165177		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species as it is included in a protected area and protected from human influence.
165181		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum davidovii</span>. Under the same name it is listed in the Bulgarian Red List and classed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(ii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Information on the population size and trend as well as habitat requirements and potential threats is needed.
165181		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Colchicum szovitsii </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">szovitsii</span> ranges from eastern Bulgaria and Turkey to Turkmenistan into  the Transcaucasus, and further to Iran and Iraq. In Europe, this plant  is present in Bulgaria and the European part of Turkey (The Board of  Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
165181		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165181		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
165181		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165182		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Bulgarian Red List it is classed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(ii); C1 (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and it is protected. It is in a national park and one population is in a strictly protected nature reserve.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population is needed and appropriate forest management where the species occurs.
165182		distribution	eng	This plant is found in Bulgaria, Georgia and Turkey (European and Asiatic parts) (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). In Bulgaria, it is only found in Strandzha mountains with an extent of occurrence of less than 1,000 km²<sup></sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 500 km²<sup></sup>. It is found at four or five locations in Bulgaria.
165182		habitat	eng	This shrub can grow up to 3 m in height and is found in shady forest of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus orientalis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus polycarpa</span>.
165182		population	eng	In Bulgaria, the populations are small in most of the localities and fragmented, although not severely. Most of the localities were only discovered fairly recently in the last 15 years. The population trend is unknown. There is no information on the Turkish populations available.
165182		threats	eng	Forest management causing mechanical damage to the plant and more intensive cuts of the forest change the habitat for this shrub that likes shady places.
165183		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), and as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009). It is protected in the Jaltinskij reserve, Cubolach zakaznik and Ak-Kaja nature monument. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> protection is underway in the Nikitskij botanical garden.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Size and trend of the populations should be investigated.</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165183		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Crimea, where it occurs foothill of the Crimean Mountains in the Bachczysarajskij and Bilosirskij districts. There are only ten localities. The extent of occurrence is smaller than 20,000 km² but probably higher than 5,000 km².<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165183		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It grows in chalky, Cretaceous, calcareous and marl stone slopes and hills in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedetalia</span> ordo.
165183		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The populations are small in area and number of individuals. The trend is not known.</span>
165183		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The main threats are a lack of general habitat and recreational activities which lead to a degradation of the remaining habitat.</span>
165184		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is categorized Data Deficient in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). Information on the species distribution, population size and trend, habitat requirements, and threats is needed.<br/></st1:country-region>
165184		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from South European Russia and Asian Turkey under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Kalidium foliatum</span> (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). It is being reported as native to Spain in the same source but that presence is highly questionable.
165184		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165184		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165184		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165185		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene cretacea</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>In the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009), it is listed as Rare. It is protected in a Ukrainian steppe reserve (department Krejdana Flora), in the botanical zakaznik Krejdana roslinnisc, in Marjina gora <span style="background-color: white;">nature monument.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>This species is included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (Bardunow and Novikov 2008) and in regional Red Data Books (Rostov, Belgorod, Volgograd, Orenburg regions) as rare species. It is found in protected areas in the Rostov and Volgograd regions.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165185		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Silene cretacea</span> is native to the East European Russian upland. The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Silene cretacea</span> extends from the basins of Don, Siverskij Donec and lower Volga rivers. In Ukraine, it grows in southern slopes of the East European upland in the regions Kharkivska, Donezka, and Luganska.<br/>This species is present in Central and Eastern European Russia: Rostov, Belgorod, Saratov, Volgograd, Orenburg regions. It also extends into western Kazakhstan.<span style="background-color: white;"></span>
165185		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This plant grows on rocky chalk soils (a calciphytic petrophyte). It prefers southern expositions of Cretaceous slopes where the plant cover is very thin. It is a member of the plant community <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo-Thymetea</span> class, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymo-Hyssopetalia</span> ordo.
165185		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">In Ukraine, the populations are very small in area and in number of individuals, their trend is unknown. The population density is 3-5 adult individuals/m².<br/>In Russia, the populations are isolated and small and there is no information about numbers of populations. In the Rostov region, it is present in seven subpopulations. <br/></span>
165185		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Terracing of the slopes, forest plantations, and extraction of chalk are the main threats to this species. Apart from that infrastructure development, overgrazing, and recreational activities cause habitat degradation and loss.<br/></span>
165186		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered B1ab(iii) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is listed as "vulnerable" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>The entire  population is found in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial de Tibataje (SCI). Although not confirmed, other populations are also found in protected areas in other parts of the islands such as the Reserva Natural Integral de los Roques de Salmor (SCI) and Parque Rural de Frontera (SCI). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of Servicio de Biodiversidad del Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><br/>Population monitoring and reinforcement measures should be developed.
165186		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is r<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">epresented by three subpopulations in the northern sector of the island with literature indicating its presence in Roques de Salmor but it has not been located in that sector as of yet. The area of occupancy is 5 km². Regressive trends have been reported for the distribution of the species (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
165186		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The individuals are generally distributed between 100 and 600 m, associated with rupicolous communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span>, which are often intertwined with <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio-Rumicion</span> scrub. <span title="Generalmente">It generally occupies sunny rocky escarpments with difficult access. Most frequent companions include <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium</span><span title="Generalmente"> <span style="font-style: italic;">hierrense</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Generalmente"><span style="font-style: italic;">, Aeonium longythirsum, Rumex lunaria, Kleinia neriifolia </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Carlina salicifolia</span>.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a hermaphrodite and entomophilous plant that flowers in spring. <span title="El principal vector de dispersión es">The main vector of dispersal is wind. <span title="La fructificación puede llegar a ser"> <span title="Se ha constatado una cierta facilidad">It has been observed that it has a certain facility to hybridize with other species of its type and genetic studies reveal that the species is very similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus hierrensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus daltonii </span>which is found on the Cape Verde Islands.<br/><span title="(Cabo Verde)."><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/><span title="Por su parte, la competencia"><span title="En último"></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165186		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The three known populations comprise a limited number of individuals, totalling 197 specimens according to Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004). However, the presence of small individuals that provide evidence for effective recruitment, <span title="resulta esporádica.">is sporadic. Total population size was estimated in 193 individuals in 2006 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The population<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="resulta esporádica."> has been reported to be more or less stable. However, the subpopulations are considered severely fragmented due to the fact that they are now restricted to sites that are out of reach of herbivores.<br/></span></span>
165186		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Generalmente"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El principal vector de dispersión es"><span title="La fructificación puede llegar a ser"><span title="Se ha constatado una cierta facilidad"><span title="(Cabo Verde)."><span id="result_box" class="long_text">There are several factors that affect this species, especially grazing. Also, the ease of hybridisation with other congeneric taxa may have accentuated this process. <span title="Por su parte, la competencia">Meanwhile, natural competition with other species, the dynamics of cultivation and development of small-scale works seems to result in the evolution of habitat that is inappropriate for this species.<span title="En último"></span></span></span></span></span>
165187		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and under Annex B of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008.<br/><br/>It has been classed as vulnerable in the Carpathian region on the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <br/>In Germany, the species is under protection and classed as threatened on the national Red List (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and included in several regional Red Lists (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). It is also protected in France where several localities are in Parc National des Cevennes, Réserve Naturelle or Natura 2000 areas. In Hungary, it is not inlcuded in the national red list but protected (Király 2007).<br/>In Croatia it is classed as Data Deficient (Flora Croatica Database 2010). It is classed as Near Threatened in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). Italy lists it as Critically Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997), Czech Republic as Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Switzerland as Vulnerable (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is included  in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Rare and is protected in many reserves  in Ukraine. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> protection in the National Botanical Garden  Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kyiv, is underway.<br/><br/>In many countries harvest management plans are in place.
165187		distribution	eng	This plant is found from Spain in the west to Ukraine in the east and extends from Central Europe southwards to the Balkan Peninsula. It is absent from northern Europe and the Mediterranean Islands (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> also occurs in the Caucasus and is endemic to Europe and temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
165187		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> is a perennial rhizomatous plant that flowers from April to May. It is found in dry and poor grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> societies) and in pine forests (Klotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It can be found in forest margins and steppes or in the ecotone between forests and steppes.<br/><br/>In Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> grows in well drained places in meadow steppes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Botriochloeta ishaemi, Cariceta humilis, Ceraseta fruticosa, Elytrigeta repentis, Helictotricheta desertori, Festuceta valesiacea, Koeleria cristatae, Stipeta capillatae, Stipeta pennatae, Stipeta ucrainicae</span> formation and petrophilous communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerieta heufleriana</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymeta cretacei</span> formations (Melnyk and Parubok 2004).<br/>In European Russia <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> is a component of meadow steppe communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuceta valesiacae, Koeleria cristatae, Stipeta capillatae, Stipeta pennatae, Stipeta tirsea, Stipeta pulcherimae, Stipeta zalesskii </span>formations and in light oak forests (Pochkurlat 2000).<br/>In Poland, the species is a component of&#160; communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> class, in Slovakia it is a component of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion valesiacae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercion pubescentis</span> alliances. In Czech Republic it occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuceto-Caricetum humilis</span> association. In Germany <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> grows in dry light forest in <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilo albae – Quercetum petraea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Adoniso-Brachypodietum pinneti</span> associations. In Hungary it is a component of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalo-Festucetum</span> association. In Romania <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> is found in steppes dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysopogon gryllus, Stipa cappilata, Stipa pennata, Stipa pulcherima</span>, and in light forest <span style="font-style: italic;">Aceri tatarici – Quercion</span> association. In Moldova it also occurs in forest plantations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>. <br/><br/>The species may be favoured by  traditional sheep rearing, as sheep do  not eat it (decline in  traditional agricultural practice may threaten  the species).
165187		population	eng	In Germany, the populations are declining. In Serbia, it is estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanovic pers.comm. 2010).<br/>In France, it occurs in 17 communes in the south of France and on in Alsace, in the northeast. It can be abundant in southern populations.<br/>In Ukraine <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span> is  distributed mainly in lesosteppe (forest-steppe zone (near 350  localities) and in steppe zone (near 150 localities). In the zone of  deciduous and mixed forests in the Polesian lowland it occurs in only 17  localities. Separate parts of area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Adonis vernalis</span>  is situated in foot-hill of the Crimean Mountains from Sewastopol in  the west to Feodosia in the east at the altitude of 150-800 m (near 150  localities). Some localities are founds in the plain part of Crimea on  Tarchankut and Kerch peninsulas (near 20 localities). On the boundary between forest-steppe and steppe zones and in the Crimean Mountains the population density is high (8-25/m²) (Melnyk and Parubok 2004).<br/>The overall population trend at European level is unknown.
165187		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are serious threats and caused by the transformation of grassland into agricultural areas, wood plantations or building areas including the infilling of as well as soil extraction from the habitat. The abandonment of traditional agricultural activities often leads to overgrowth with shrubs and an increased competition for this plant. Inappropriate collection for medicinal use still poses a considerable threat. Locally, tourism has been described as a threat (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010, WWF Germany and TRAFFIC unknown).
165189		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>      It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. It is recommended to search for this species in Greece.
165189		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Amsonia orientalis</span> has been reported from Greece and northwest Turkey. It has been collected only once in northern Greece, between the Porto Lagos and the town of Xanthi in 1972 (Zahariadi 1973).</p><p>It is extinct in European Turkey (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></p>
165189		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial herb. It is found in wet places and in winter it is near the sea. The one Greek occurrence was found at 50 m asl. in a grazed grassland among <span style="font-style: italic;">Paliurus spina-christi </span>shrubs  1972 (Zahariadi 1973). </p>
165189		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend are unknown. The species has not been searched for. </p>
165189		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The threats to this species are not known.</span>
165190		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium pachycalyx</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165190		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Turkey (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009).
165190		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165190		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165190		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165191		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys sphegodes</em> are:</a></p>  <a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><p><a name="OLE_LINK3"><em></em></a></p>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
165191		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys sphegodes </em>is found<em> </em>from southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region> across central and southern <st1:place>Europe</st1:place> and the <st1:place>Levant</st1:place> to the <st1:place>Caucasus</st1:place> and northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species occurs from sea level to 1,400 m altitude   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).  </p>
165191		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys sphegodes</em> can be found in guarrigue, roadside slopes, grassland, open woods, as well as pesticide-free olive-groves.</a> It grows in dry to moist, preferably calcareous as well as slightly acid soil  in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time is from February to June-July, with a peak in March-April (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). &#160;&#160;<em>&#160;</em></p>
165191		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys sphegodes </em>is quite widespread and fairly abundant in <st1:place>Europe</st1:place>. It is not well known due to confusion with other taxa, and some authors recognise many segregate taxa. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
165191		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys sphegodes </em>is affected by urbanisation, construction work, residential buildings and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
165193		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>Rupicapnos africana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">decipiens </span>is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish national catalogue of threatened species.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is listed as EN B2b(ii,iii,iv)c(ii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span>Some of the subpopulations occur within the protected area Paraje Natural del Desfiladero de los Gaitanes (SCI) (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Some others are included in the SCIs Sierra Blanca, Sierra de Líjar and Sierras de Abdalajís y la Encantada Sur. Seeds from some subpopulations are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma de Andalucía (Jardín Botánico de Córdoba).<br/><br/>Micro-reserves should be created including the non-protected subpopulations. Seeds from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks, population monitoring should be establish, climbing routes and grazing species should be controlled and the habitat of the subspecies should be restored. Research about its reproductive biology should be developed.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
165193		distribution	eng	This taxon has been described for Spain, Morocco and Algeria (Díez Garretas and Asensi 1999), and it has been reported to include up to eight subspecies. The subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rupicapnos africana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">decipiens</span> occurs in Spain, as well as in Morocco. <br/>In Spain, it is restricted to the southern provinces of Sevilla, Cádiz, Málaga, and it can also be found in Ceuta (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It appears distributed into four locations, comprising 19 subpopulations. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 50 km²<sup></sup>. Continuing decrease and fluctuations have been observed in its area of occupancy and habitat quality.
165193		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rupicapnos africana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">decipiens </span>grows in fissures and cracks of vertical walls. It occurs within relict rupicolous vegetation which can be included in the association<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rupicapnetum decipientis (Sarcocapnetalia enneaphyllae). </span>This association can develop in a wide range of climatic conditions within woodlands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp.- <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia</span> sp. Although its biotope is highly exclusive, the subspecies can be accompanied by species such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chaenorrhinum villosum, Lapiedra martinezii, Campanula mollis, Silene andryalifolia, Polygala rupestris, Putoria calabrica, Phagnalon rupestre, Stachys circinata </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea clementei.<br/><br/></span>Its life length is about five years.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
165193		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rupicapnos africana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">decipiens</span> presents regressive patterns and high mortality in some subpopulations (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Most of the subpopulations comprise a low number of individuals, and regeneration and seedlings survival levels are low as well. Only three subpopulations present population size higher than 1,000 individuals. Total population size has been reported to be 14,563 individuals.
165193		threats	eng	Main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Rupicapnos africana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">decipiens</span> are quarrying, nitrification due to grazing activities and subsequent competition with nitrophile exotic species (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Other threats are droughts, fires, uncontrolled recreational activities and construction of communication lines. Its habitat is very restricted.
165195		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Botrychium matricariifolium</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in most national red lists under the following categories:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Spain (Moreno 2008)</li><li>Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Estonia (listed as Endangered which is highest national category - Lilleleht 2008), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Serbia (Tomović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009), Switzerland (Moser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002)</li><li>Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), France (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), Germany (level 2 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), Ukraine (Diduch 2009)</li><li>Vulnerable in Denmark (NERI 2007), Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010).</li></ul>The Carpathian Red List classes this species as Endangered; for Romania it is listed as present but not threatened <span style="background-color: white;">(Witkowski </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2003)</span>.<br/>In several countries it is protected by national legislation such as Hungary, France or Lithuania. It occurs in protected areas, for example Carpathian biosphere reserve and in several Natura 2000 sites<br/><br/>Management of the habitat with traditional, extensive grazing activities is recommended for this species. More research about population dynamics and ecology is needed. The populations should be monitored.
165195		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The distribution range of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Botrychium matricariifolium</span><span style="background-color: white;">  is broad and includes Canada and the United States, Central Europe, Scandinavia and the European  part of the Russian Federation, extending to southeast France and  the Balkan peninsula  (Zlatković </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2009). </span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Italy, it was reported from the regions of Lombardia, Trentino Alto Adige, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Marche, Abruzzo, and Campania and is found at more than four localities there. In France, it was recorded in Moselle, Bas-Rhin, Vosges, Haute-Savoie, Loire,  Haute-Loire, Ardeche, Vienne, and Corsica (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010).<br/>&#160;</span><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Czech Republic, it is found in mountainous areas especially the Sumava Mts. (including  Predsumavi and Novohradske hory Mts.). It was extinct for more than 20  years but has been rediscovered since the 90s until today. In total, 20 small sites are known, but the total area is difficult to estimate. In Hungary, it was known from four old localities which had not been confirmed during the last 40 years. It  was  thought extinct in the Red List 2007, but a new locality with a few   individuals has been found in southern Hungary since then.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In the eastern part of Serbia, this species occurs mainly in the region of Stara Planina Mts, peak Tupanar. It has also been reported in Croatia and Bulgaria.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Lithuania, the species is rare and found in the southeast and east. In Switzerland, it is found at three localities in the Alps, between 800 and 1,800 m asl. Ten to twelve locations have disappeared during the past 50 years. The populations are very small, occupying only a few m². It occurs throughout the Carpathians in Austria, Czech Republic, Poland,  Romania, Slovakia and the Ukraine  (Witkowski </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2003). In Ukraine, it grows in the lowland part, mainly in the lesosteppe (forest-steppe) zone and in the Carpathian Mountains (in Chornogora, Svidivez mountain massifs, in Chivczinski Mountains and Transcarpathian lowland). In total, the species has only been recorded from 14 localities in Ukraine.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span>
165195		habitat	eng	The species occurs in grasslands on poor soil, that are grazed or used for haymaking, also in coastal grasslands. It can be found in woodland and open scrub   (Morgan and Leon 1992). It is typical for acidic oligotrophic substrates. It can occur in forests in Ukraine such as pine, oak, hornbeam, and beech, but it does not occur in forests in Switzerland for example.<br/><br/>It normally grows in the vegetation of high mountain and sub alpine pasture community. It has been found growing along with many vascular plants and lichens including <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus vandasii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Crepis viscidula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Achillea lingulata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Crocus veluchensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thamnolia vermicularis</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cetraria islandica</span>, etc.<br/><br/>The species undergoes strong natural fluctuations in its population size due to   weather conditions as it requires moisture to reproduce.
165195		population	eng	The following population information is available for individual countries:<br/><ul><li>Albania: Zlatković <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009 based on  (Hayek 1924) reported that this species is present in one 50 × 50 km  territory that belongs to Quafë e Guricus in north Albania.</li><li>Belarus: It is found at around ten localities</li><li>Belgium: Disappeared from Flanders and Brussels</li><li>Bulgaria: Probably less than 50 individuals as plant is listed as Critically Endangered D on the national Red List</li><li>Croatia: Known from one site only<br/></li><li>Czech Republic: The total number of individuals is less than 1,000. One site has more than 100 individuals, the others  have only dozens of individuals. Strong fluctuations have been noticed. </li><li>Denmark: 1,000 individuals (NERI 2007)<br/></li><li>France: About 30 populations (Alpes, Cevennes, Massif Central, Pyrénées, Alsace, Corse), populations are often small from a few individuals to 35, but less than 1,000 estimated overall. Counting of individuals is difficult, as they are not appearing every year. The populations are generally stable except for Lorraine where populations are declining. </li><li>Germany: the populations are declining and the species is Extinct in several regions<br/></li><li>Italy: The total population is less than 250 individuals and the populations are declining and severely fragmented.</li><li>Lithuania: A site can hold a single individual or up to dozens of them but all undergo strong fluctuations. </li><li>Norway: It was formerly known from 47 sites, but now it is only known from nine sites with very few individuals, often only single plants and rarely more than five. The overall population size is decreasing (Artsdatabanken 2010).</li><li>Serbia: Less than 50 individuals in total (Zlatković<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).<br/></li><li>Sweden: The population size is around 1,000 individuals and the populations are declining, extreme fluctuations in the number of adults is suspected and the populations are severely fragmented.<br/></li><li>Switzerland: Only 16 individuals in total are known and the population is rapidly decreasing. But the detectability of the species is very low and therefore, it is difficult to obtain sound values.</li><li>Ukraine: Half of the 14 localities were recorded before 1950. The number of individuals in the Ukrainian populations are very low with only four to five individuals per site (Melnyk 2009).</li></ul>
165195		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are changes to its habitat such as reforestation, abandonment of grazing activities which lead to overgrowth and competition, or intensification of agriculture which leads to eutrophication. Locally, infrastructure development for tourism, pig rearing, or trampling have been described as threats.
165196		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Bulgaria, it is protected and classed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(ii,iii) in the Red List (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). It is found in two national parks, four national reserves and Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>Collecting seeds for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation and monitoring of some populations is recommended.
165196		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Balkan Peninsula, from Serbia to west and central Bul<span style="background-color: white;">garia (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In the latter it is found in Stara Planina, Pirir, Rila, Sredra Gore, and Rhodopi mountains. F</span>or Bulgaria, the extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 20,000 km² and the populations are severely fragmented.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165196		habitat	eng	This biannual herb grows in rocky places mostly in crevices both on limestone and silica. It is often found in shady places from 600-1,500 m asl. It experiences natural population fluctuations.
165196		population	eng	In Bulgaria, the population size is unknown but some local populations are doing fairly well. There is no information for Serbia available.
165196		threats	eng	In Bulgaria, this species is threatened by periodical droughts. Cutting of surrounding forest opens the habitat which has indirect affects on this plant that prefers shade. Further threats are posed by forest fires and the widening of roads and other infrastructural construction.
165197		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Bulgarian Red List it is classed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(iii)+2ab(ii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> and the species is under protection. It occurs in natural parks and Natura 2000 areas.<br/><br/>Research on population size and trend is needed.
165197		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Bulgaria and the European part of Turkey and extends into Lebanon and Israel (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Bulgaria, it is found in the Strandzha Mountains where it has an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km²<sup></sup> and the extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km²<sup></sup>.
165197		habitat	eng	It is found in beech and oak forest, more often in open places.
165197		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trend available. The populations in Bulgaria are severely fragmented.
165197		threats	eng	The main threat reported for Bulgaria is clear cutting of the forest.
165199		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the national red list of Greece as Vulnerable D1+2.
165199		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arum purpureospathum</span> is endemic to southwest Crete (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It is found at five locations: Agia Roumeli (Samaria Gorge exit), Eligias Gorge exit, a few kilometre east of the Eligias Gorge, and two locations between the villages Agia Roumeli and Loutro.
165199		habitat	eng	This plant can be found in many different types of habitats such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> woodland, olive groves, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anagyris foetida</span> shrubland, shady places, among limestone rocks and abandoned buildings, maquis, bare rocky slopes and coastal sandy places.
165199		population	eng	The total population does not exceed 1,000 individuals in a total area of less than 5 km². Observations do not indicate any fluctuations in the size of the population and there is no sign of population decline.
165199		threats	eng	All the sites are at areas likely to be disturbed because of intense tourism activities, cultivation (olive groves) or urbanisation. Herbicides are used for olive cultivation and may cause degradation of the population. This plant furthermore suffers from over-collection of seeds or bulbs.
165200		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Bulgaria, it is classed as Endangered (EN) B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+B2ab(ii,iv,v) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)  and protected and there are localities in two protected areas.<br/><br/>Conservation measures needed are the protection of existing dune vegetation, monitoring of the populations and<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ </span>conservation of seeds.
165200		distribution	eng	This western Black Sea Coast endemic is found in Bulgaria and in Turkey (European and <span style="background-color: white;">Asian part)</span>. In Bulgaria, it has an extent of occurrence of less than 1,200 km² and an area of occupancy of less than 20 km².
165200		habitat	eng	This perennial herb is found in coastal sands, fixed sand dunes and inland dunes.
165200		population	eng	In Bulgaria, the populations have been declining by possibly more than 50% during the past 100 years. Only locally some populations show good density of up to 25 individuals per m² but the regeneration of the populations is low. It is known from approximately ten localities and is severely fragmented in Bulgaria.<br/>There is no information for Turkey available.
165200		threats	eng	The expansion of tourism and recreational activities such as walking or the cleaning of beaches, urban development and infrastructural activities associated with tourism and other development in the coastal area (ports etc.) are the main threats to this taxon.
165201		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered D1 in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010). Re-introduction efforts have been successful at its last remaining site but have been unsuccessful in other sites. The remaining species are highly conservation dependent.<br/>
165201		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in northern Russia, northern and southern Siberia and northwestern North America (Artdatabanken 2010). In Europe, it is found in Norway at one locality and in Eastern and Northern European Russia   <st1:country-region w:st="on">(Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). In European Russia, it</st1:country-region> has been reported from Karelia and from s<st1:country-region w:st="on">ome localities in the eastern part. In Norway, the only locality is situated at 690 m asl at lake Aursunden, extremely disjunct from the nearest population in Karelia.<br/>It has been introduced in Sweden.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> <br/></st1:country-region>
165201		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eurybia sibirica</span> is a perennial plant that is found at a sandy lake shore in Norway. In Russia, it inhabits grasslands, forest meadows, forest margins, sandy river banks and slopes, and light forests.
165201		population	eng	The species is fairly common in northern Russia with a stable population trend. In Norway, the population was down to one single individual in the 1970s and has been re-introduced from material that was derived from this last individual. There are now several thousand individuals but the species is highly genetically impoverished (Artsdatabanken 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165201		threats	eng	In Norway, the change of the hydrological regime of the lake in the 1920s led to its habitat being partially inundated which caused the species to disappear apart from one individual. It is now completely conservation dependent.<br/>Transformation of its habitat into agricultural land might be a threat in Russia.
165203		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Least Concern on the French red list (UICN <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Recommended conservation measures for&#160;</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"><em>Ophrys scolopax</em> are:</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
165203		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys scolopax </em>is found<em> </em>throughout most of the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place> and further east to the <st1:place>Crimea</st1:place>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the <st1:place>Caucasus</st1:place>. This species is widespread and occurs in the <st1:place>Iberian Peninsula</st1:place>, southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the <st1:place><st1:placename>Italian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Peninsula</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In the northeast, it reaches <st1:country-region><st1:place>Hungary</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species is absent from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> and some other islands as well as from the Mediterranean coast of the <st1:place>Levant</st1:place>. It is found from sea level to 2,000 m altitude  (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
165203		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys scolopax</em> is typically found in garrigue, open pine and oak woods, grassland, </a><a name="OLE_LINK6">roadside slopes, </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"> and olive groves free of pesticide, fertiliser and mechanical treatment of the soil. It </a><em></em>grows in dry to moist soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time is from March to June with a peak time in April in most places (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
165203		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys scolopax</em> is widespread. The population size and trend are unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
165203		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys scolopax</em> is affected by urbanisation, construction work, residential building and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
165204		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Endangered B1a(ii)b(iii)+2a(ii)b(iii); C1+2a(i) in the Norwegian Red List (Artsdatabanken 2010).
165204		distribution	eng	This species is found in Norway, northern Siberia, Central Asia (Altai) and North America. The Norwegian occurrence is the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">norvegica</span> and is very isolated from the other distribution areas by several thousand kilometres. This plant was first found in Habatvuoppebakte by Masi Fi in Kautokeino in 1883. The second population was detected in 1981, in Virdneguoika in Kautokeino (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>The extent of occurrence is less than 100 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 10 km² (Artsdatabanken 2010).
165204		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This plant is found on mountains.<br/></span>
165204		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oxytropis deflexa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">norvegica</span> is only known from two small populations with relatively few individuals. <br/>The population of Habatvuoppebakte is stable and has been described as relatively large with many scattered individuals over a limited area. The population of Virdneguoika was under threat from river regulation <span style="background-color: white;"></span>but is stable now (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/>In total there are less than 2,500 mature individuals which experience an ongoing decline of 20% in two generations (14 years).
165204		threats	eng	River regulation was described as a threat in the past but the populations seem protected now.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
165205		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It has been categorized EX in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>The only known population was included in the protected area Parque Rural de Teno (SCI). Plant material is stored in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and seeds of viability unchecked are stored in herbarium sheets (OCR) (Martín Cáceres<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). Individuals should be produced <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> and the species should be reintroduced to its former distribution, which would need to be fenced. Field work must be developed in order to clarify the presence of more individuals.
165205		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kunkeliella psilotoclada</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. Its presence was reported in Barranco de Masca (Buord and Lesouëf 2006) but it has not been found since 1983 (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It is believed that seeds could be found eventually in the soil seed bank and that some individuals could be hidden in inaccessible sites.
165205		habitat	eng	It grows on steep warm and dry crags, where it colonizes ledges and rocky sites, within communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum atropurpureae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Echio aculeati-Retametum rhodorhizoides</span>. As accompanying species <span style="font-style: italic;">Paronychia canariensis, Euphorbia obtusifolia, Retama rodorhizoides, Euphorbia atropurpurea, Argyranthemum foeniculaceum, Lotus mascaensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia</span> have been cited (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165205		population	eng	It was last seen in the wild in 1983, when two individuals were found (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Now it is possibly extinct.
165205		threats	eng	Grazing and predation by goats and rabbits have been reported as the main threat to the species (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165206		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the national red list (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is found on the Akamas Peninsula, which is state forest land and a proposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Natura 2000</span> site.
165206		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum akamasicum </span>is an endemic species of Cyprus that is found at eleven locations in the Pafos district, from Fasoula village to the southeast, to the  Akamas Peninsula in the west, at an altitude from 40 to 350 m asl (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
165206		habitat	eng	Subshrub or perennial herb. It occurs on serpentine rocks, on dry rocky slopes, among sparse phrygana and garrigue or occasionally in open pine forests (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
165206		population	eng	The population counts more than 3,000 individuals but the population trends is unknown (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
165206		threats	eng	It is threatened by urban expansion (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
165207		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is classed as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species, and in the regional catalogue of protected species.<br/><br/>The two subpopulations are within the protected area Parque Natural de Corona Forestal (also a SCI). Plant material is stored in germplasm banks: E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo, Viceconsejería Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><br/>In order to ensure the conservation of this species, exotic species must be eradicated, natural populations must be reinforced and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> plant production has to be developed. A control programme of grazing animals has to be implemented and surveillance of human activities has to be improved.
165207		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus metlesicsii</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 1,050 and 1,150 m asl, on the southeastern part of the island (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It can be found in two isolated locations: Barranco de Añavingo and Barranco de Tamadaya. Its area of occupancy is 2 km².
165207		habitat	eng	It grows on shade-loving shrublands, on basaltic and phonolitic materials, on ravine beds and crags. The dominant vegetation in such areas are shrublands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisio-Rumicion)</span> associated with communities characterized by the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus canariensis</span>, in early stages of development (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sideritido-Pinetum canariensis</span> S.) and communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Sempervivion</span> in more steeply sloped areas. Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Bencomia caudata, Rumex lunaria, Rubus inermis, Pterocephalus dumetorum, Carlina salicifolia, Pericallis lanata, Ferula linkii </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Echium virescens.</span>
165207		population	eng	Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) reported a total population size of 426 individuals: 351 individuals in Barranco de Añavingo and 75 in Barranco de Tamadaya. In 2007, population size was: 376 individuals in Barranco de Añavingo and 126 in Tamadaya (Mesa Coello<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). The population has decreased by 34.8% in 20 years.<br/><br/>A low presence of young individuals has been observed. Most of the seedlings are predated or die due to summer droughts and therefore the high production of seeds does not lead to high levels of recruitment (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The subpopulations have been reported to be decreasing (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
165207		threats	eng	Predation by introduced grazing mammals has been reported to be the main threat affecting the species. The subpopulation of Añavingo is also affected by human presence, including trampling and degradation of the surrounding areas, as well as works on the bed of the ravine, and by competition with native and exotic aggressive species (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165208		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected at national level in France.
165208		distribution	eng	This plant is found in France, in the Haute-Alpes region (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle 2003-2010). It is only found at two localities that cover just 3 m².
165208		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species occurs in low mountains, on </span><span style="background-color: white;">calcareous soils</span><span style="background-color: white;"> and grows in oak forest or oak grove and forest edges.<br/></span>
165208		population	eng	There are two known populations in the southern Alps which are clonal populations with only two individuals. The species is extremely rare in France. The population trend is unknown as the species was thought to be extinct for 223 years (mentioned in 1783), but was found in 2000 in Verdon, and 2006 in Hautes-Alpes (locus classicus).
165208		threats	eng	The populations are threatened by habitat closure resulting from the decrease of traditional pastoralism.
165209		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed VU D2 in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Most of the subpopulations are included in the protected areas Parque Rural de Valle Gran Rey, Paisaje Protegido de Orone (SCI) and SCI Cuenca de Benchijigua-Guarimiar. Plant material is stored in the germplasm banks of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos and Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.<br/><br/>The storage of plant material in germplasm banks should be enhanced, measures to control herbivorous predators should be  implemented and some subpopulations should be reinforced.
165209		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus satarataënsis</span> is endemic to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain. It has a locally restricted distribution, growing between 350 and  800 m asl, throughout six locations on the south part of the island (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004a,b). Its  area of occupancy is 18 km².<br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165209		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus satarataensis</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>grows on rocky substrates on crags, as a component of scrublands along with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Atalanthus canariensis, Convolvulus floridus, Sideritis nutans, Brachypodium arbuscula, Pimpinella junoniae, Greenovia diplocycla, Aeonium saundersii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium decorum </span>(Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004a,b). Seedlings and juvenile individuals appear restricted to sites out of reach of grazing species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
165209		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus satarataënsis</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has a total population size of slightly more than 4,000 individuals (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004a,b). New subpopulations were found in 2005 so the number of specimens is thought to be higher (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), and no regressive trends have been reported.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
165209		threats	eng	Grazing has been reported to be the most important threat affecting this taxon, mainly during early stages of development (Mesa Coello<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004a,b). Other threats are competition with aggressive native vegetation. Some subpopulations<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> are as well affected by access improvement works.
165210		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It has been classed as Extinct under the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillet 1998). It is also classed as Extinct in the French Red Book of Threatened Plants (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
165210		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bourgogne Yonne Departement, France, where it was detected in 1860 along the Canal de Bourgogne, in the community of Cry, departement Yonne. The species seems to have disappeared around 1930, its last finding dating to 1927 and it has not been seen since then despite several efforts to search for it (Lombard and Bajon 2000).
165210		habitat	eng	This herb was found on limestone hills that are facing southwards and are exposed to the sun (Lombard and Bajon 2000).
165210		population	eng	This species is extinct now but seems to have never been abundant (Lombard and Bajon 2000).
165210		threats	eng	The causes for the disappearance of the species are supposed to be over-collection by botanists as well as limestone quarrying (Lombard and Bajon 2000).
165211		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Bulgarian Red List it is classed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(ii,iv); C1 (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and it is nationally protected. All localities are in a natural park and some are in a nature reserves and Natura 2000 area.<br/><br/>It is recommended to evaluate the AOO more precisely and the number of populations and to collect seed material for seed banks.
165211		distribution	eng	This species is a European endemic, present in Bulgaria and the European part of Turkey (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). In Bulgaria, it occurs in the Strandzha Mountains only and the EOO is estimated to be less than 600 km² and the AOO is less than 500 km².
165211		habitat	eng	It is found in dry limestone rocks and crevices.
165211		population	eng	In Bulgaria, the subpopulations consist of only a few individuals and are severely fragmented. There is no information on the population size or trend for Turkey available.
165211		threats	eng	The degradation of the habitat due to grazing and trampling and drainage let to a decline in the number of localities, the AOO and the number of individuals in Bulgaria.
165213		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Bulgaria it is classed as Near Threatened and is protected. It is found in three national and two natural parks, in nature reserves and almost all in Natura 2000 areas. In Serbia it is assessed as being Vulnerable (Stevanović 2005-2011). Some of the subpopulations in Serbia are situated in protected areas and  Important Plant Areas: Stara planina, Suva planina and Vlasina. The species is protected  by law. In Romania, the species is found in the Buila-Vânturarit National Park.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the populations is required.
165213		distribution	eng	This plant is found in Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia.<br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it is found in the Stara Planina mountain chain, Znepolla region, Ossogovo mountains, Vitosha mountain, Rila mountain, and Pirin mountain. In Serbia it also occurs in the Mt Stara Planina (western part of the mountain chain, in several localities), Mt Suva planina, Mt Vidlič, Mt Basara, Vlasina mountain plateau, Mt Vardenik and Mt Besna Kobila.
165213		habitat	eng	The species is found in the subalpine belt in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus sibirica</span> and montane and alpine grasslands from 1,000-2,500 m asl.
165213		population	eng	In Bulgaria there is no population data available, but there a several localities with dispersed individuals.<br/><br/>In Serbia it is recorded in 15 squares of 10x10 km, giving an area of occupancy of 1,500 km². However the subpopulations are severely fragmented and small in size, typically between 50 and 500 per locality.<br/><br/>There is no information on the Romanian populations available.
165213		threats	eng	The species is threatened by collection, which was more intensive in the past, and changes in habitat caused by plant succession due to changes in management. Infrastructural activities and skiing tracks also affect this plant.
165214		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of  threatened species and in the catalogue for the Canary Islands. It is listed CR B2ab(iii,v); C2a(i); D in the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The only known location occurs within the protected area Paisaje Protegido Costa de Acentejo (Marrero Gómez and Mesa Coello 2004). Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Servicio de Biodiversidad de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> cultivation and micropropagation has been developed as well as population monitoring. Herbivorous species presence in the area is being controlled. Re-introduction works were developed, but were unsuccessful. <br/><br/>Potential predators should be eradicated. Natural populations must be reinforced and transferred to more suitable areas if necessary. Illegal collection must be controlled and habitat restoration measures should be established. A species re-introduction plan should be implemented in Roque de Tierra if the absence of the taxon is completely confirmed.
165214		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus maculatus</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain (Marrero Gómez and Mesa Coello 2004). It grows between 20 and 30 m asl on the northern part of the island. Its presence was reported in three subpopulations: Punta del Puertito (El Sauzal), Roque de Dentro and Roque de la Playa (Anaga). The latter population has been refound in 2007 (Mesa 2007), after being thought extinct (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Its AOO is 1 km².
165214		habitat	eng	It grows in halophile shrublands under direct influence of the sea (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Schizogyne sericea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salsola divaricata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium pectinatum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Astydamia latifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Frankenia ericifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scilla haemorrhoidalis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmum maritimum</span> (Marrero Gómez and Mesa Coello 2004).
165214		population	eng	Its total population size has been reported to present a decreasing trend (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). In 1994, 49 individuals were counted; 10 individuals in 2003 (Marrero Gómez and Mesa Coello 2004) and 16 specimens in 2004. The presence of seedlings and juvenile individuals is very low.<br/>More recently, 35 individuals have been recorded, from which 28 were mature reproductive individuals (Mesa 2007). It seems that fluctuations in population size occur depending on the year.
165214		threats	eng	Main threats are trampling by fishermen and hikers, works in the area, collection, predation by rabbits and competition with nitrophile species, increased by the accumulation of seagull excrements (Gobierno de Canarias 2004, Marrero Gómez and Mesa Coello 2004). Grazing was the main threat affecting the species in the past, almost leading to its extinction, but it is reported to be eradicated in the only currently known location.
165215		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Endangered on the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003)
165215		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Romania. It only occurs in the region around Mount Pietros (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
165215		habitat	eng	The species is a relic in the Carpathians   (Witkowski <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its preferred habitat type is unknown.
165215		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165215		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165216		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The Troodos National Forest Park, where all the locations are included, is a proposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Natura 2000</span> site. The species is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the Red Data Book of Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
165216		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onosma troodi</span> is endemic to Cyprus where it can be found confined on the serpentines of the Troodos National Forest Park, at altitude from 1,500 to 1,950 m asl.
165216		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onosma troodi</span> is a tufted perennial plant with woody base and rootstock. It occurs on dry, rocky openings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pallasiana</span> forests. <br/><br/>It is a characteristic species of the Habitats Directive listed priority habitat 62B0 "Serpentinophilous grasslands of Cyprus".
165216		population	eng	The population reported is at least 10,000 individuals (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
165216		threats	eng	A number of subpopulations were damaged in the past by military, road and reforestation works. At present the species is threatened by recreational activities and over-collection.
165217		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Hungary, it is protected and classed as Near Threatened on the Red List (Király 2007). Most populations are in Natura 2000 sites and protected areas. It is classed as Data Deficient in Croatia (Flora Croatica Database 2004).<br/><br/>In Austria, it is considered as Critically Endangered, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> programmes are underway and seeds are stored in a gene bank<span style="background-color: white;"> (Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><br/>In Serbia the species is protected by law and the single population occurs in the Selevenjske Pustare Nature Reserve in the Subotičko-Horgoška Sands area. There the plant is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book   (Stevanović 1999).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified.</span>
165217		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central and Eastern Europe and is found in Hungary, Serbia, Romania, Poland, Austria, and Slovakia (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).<br/><br/>In Hungary, there are scattered populations in the lowlands between the Danube and Tisza rivers and on the foot of the hills in the surrounding areas. The extent of occurrence in Hungary is estimated to be about 10,000 km². In Serbia it is recorded only in the Subotičko-Horgoška Sands near the border with Hungary. Old records of the species occurrence in Mt Fruška Gora (in the Srem province of Vojvodina) appear to be erroneous.<br/><br/>The species has been erroneously reported from Ukraine, but this reference is to a herbarium specimen collected in Slovakia (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).
165217		habitat	eng	The species has been reported from Pannonian dry grassland on calcareous sandy soils and sometimes also from acidic sandy soils. It can be found at the following Habitats Directive listed habitats:<br/><ul><li>6120 Xeric sand calcareous grasslands</li><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>91N0 Pannonic inland sand dune thicket (<span style="font-style: italic;">Junipero-Populetum albae</span>)</li></ul>
165217		population	eng	In Hungary, it is not rare on calcareous sandy soils whereas in Austria, it is rare on calcareous sandy soils in one locality (Marchfeld, protected area "Sandberge"). In Serbia there is a single subpopulation with an estimated 150 mature individuals growing in a very small area in the Subotičko-Horgoška Sands (Boža 1997). There is no information for the other countries available.
165217		threats	eng	One of the main threats is forestry management, e.g. in <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia</span> stands, by using methods to dig up the soil. It is also affected by the abandonment of pastoral systems leading to succession and invasion of the habitat. In some military areas, trampling and motorised vehicles affect this plant.<br/><br/>In Serbia sand-steppe habitats are threatened by forestry plantation with pine and locust trees or conversion into agricultural lands. The spread of invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Asclepias syriaca </span>and picking for ornamental purposes also harm the plant.
165218		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is classed as Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,v)c(iv); C2a(i); D on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>The population is included in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial de Guelguén (SCI). The species is cultivated in the botanic gardens La Orotava and Viera y Clavijo. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of the environmental department of the government of the Canary Islands (Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias).
165218		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the island of La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where the only known population occurs on the coast of Garafia. Its area of occupancy is 1 km².
165218		habitat	eng	This taxon is associated with scrublands in thermophile forest zones <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno-Juniperion canariensis</span>, mixed with rupicolous vegetation <span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovio-Aeonietea</span>. Accompanying species include <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus turbinata</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> canariensis, Aeonium palmense, Erica arborea, Davallia canariensis, Rhamnus crenulata, Lavandula canariensis, Myrica faya, Cheirolophus sventenii, Adiantum reniforme</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paronychia canariensis.</span>
165218		population	eng	The only known population so far counts six individuals (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The amount of fruits is lower than the number of produced flowers. Population size varies depending on rainfall in successive years. It is possible that the soil seed bank is viable for a long period of time as in years of prolonged drought specimens have disappeared and the population has reappeared afterwards under favourable conditions. The population trend has been inferred to be declining (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
165218		threats	eng	The most important threat to the species is the presence of rabbits and lizards in its habitat, that pose great pressure on seedlings and adult individuals (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Low population size is a threat factor especially in successive years of low rainfall.
165219		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sternbergia colchiciflora</span> is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on  International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  (CITES).<br/><br/>Several conservation measures are in place at national level and it is red listed in some countries:<br/>France: under national protection, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation is taken care off in Montpellier CEFE-CNRS. It would probably be classed as Endangered D.<br/>Greece: not protected, but it is found in Natura 2000 sites and three national parks e.g Oiti, Parnis, Parnassos; taken for experimental gardens in University of Patras.<br/>Hungary: protected and classed as Near Threatened on the red list, not in protected areas; cultivated in botanical gardens.<br/>Italy: partially included in regional protected areas, classed as Least Concern on the red list.<br/>Moldova: included in the Red Data Book of Moldova (2001) as Endangered and protected in the zakaznik Novo-Andrijachivka, and in an area of steppe  vegetation in Bugeac; cultivated in botanical gardens.<br/>Serbia: estimated to be Vulnerable (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).<br/>Slovakia: classed as Critically Endangered on the national red list, protected in a nature reserve. This species is rarely used from the wild but can easily be cultivated - <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation is carried out by two botanical gardens: Nitra and Bratislava.<br/>Ukraine: included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (2009) as Vulnerable and protected in Jaltinskij reserve, Kazantipskij reserve and in  Tarchankutskij national park in Crimea, and in the Staromazirskij botanical  zakaznik in Odessa region; cultivated in botanical gardens.
165219		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from Europe to the Mediterranean and into Iran (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>It occurs in s<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>outh France at one location in the area of l’Hérault, St-Paul-et-Valmalle, Languedoc-Roussillon. There are three different areas of several hundreds metres. In Greece, it is found mainly in the north and central part of the mainland (Pindos mountain range, Peloponnese) from 750 -  2,300 m asl. In Hungary, it is not rare in the Transdanubian Mountain Range, but very sporadic in the lowlands. There are approximately more than 100 localities. The Italian populations are found in the c<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>entre, south, and in Sicily. There are four to six localities in the central area, which are fragmented.<br/>It occurs in southwest Slovakia, situated near the Hungarian Border, which forms the northern limit of  its distribution. The only locality was discovered in 1976 in a hilly region.<br/>In Moldova, it grows in the southern part of the country at four localities. In the Ukraine, it is found on the Crimean peninsula and is rare in the western part of the steppe zone in the Odessa region.
165219		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sternbergia colchiciflora</span> grows in grassland, on calcareous rocks, dry slopes, in open stony areas, clearings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> forests or forest margins, or in steppe communities (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> class). It is usually found  on limestone. <br/>This plant flowers late in autumn and needs abundant rain, otherwise it is difficult to find if there is not  much rain.
165219		population	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In </st1:place></st1:country-region>France, there is one population with 100 individuals that is regularly monitored. The habitat of this plant is stable but vulnerable. <br/>There is no population information from Greece but a decline is suspected. The Italian populations are stable but fragmented. In Slovakia, approximately 250 individuals have been counted with a suspected stable population trend. In Moldova, isolated plants can be found in an area of 100-200 m² and the number of plants is decreasing. In the Ukraine, the density of local populations is 5-20 individuals/m².</p>
165219		threats	eng	The main threats include natural succession, the invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia</span> sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailanthus</span> sp., urbanisation, change of land use into agricultural land. Recreational activities such as hiking or motocross are affecting the habitat. Wild boars have been known for digging up the bulbs.
165220		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed VU D1 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national and regional catalogues of threatened species.<br/><br/>In Tenerife the populations are within the limits of the protected area Parque Nacional del Teide (SCI). In La   Palma the species occurs throughout the protected areas Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente (SCI), Parque Natural de las Nieves (SCI) and SCI Barlovento, Garafía, El Paso y Tijarafe.     <p>  </p><p>A recovery programme has been developed which includes research about the population biology of the species and the re-introduction of new individuals (Marrero Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2004, Buord and Lesouëf 2006). <br/></p>  <p>Proposed actions include the continuation of re-introduction programmes, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> production of sexual and asexual propagation material and storage of seeds of the species in germplasm banks. </p>  <p><br/></p>
165220		distribution	eng	<p><em>Bencomia exstipulata</em> is a plant native to the Canary Islands, Spain. It grows on the mountains of the islands of La Palma and Tenerife at altitudes from 2,000 to 2,100 m asl. (Marrero Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Tenerife, there is only one single small natural subpopulation in the Teide. Two more natural subpopulations were reported in the past: one of them disappeared and the other one has not been found again. In La Palma there are two natural subpopulations, the one at Tajodeque and one more, recently discovered, in Cabecera del Barranco de Hoyo Verde.<br/></p>  <p>The species has been re-introduced to more locations so the number of confirmed locations is 12. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 12 km²<sup></sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></p>
165220		habitat	eng	<em></em> This shrub grows in high mountain areas on slopes, on rocky substrates and cracks, within the association<em style="font-style: italic;"> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Greenovion aureae</span>. It can also be found at foothills, where the soil is deeper and more developed, characterised by the association <em>Spartocytision supranubii </em>(Marrero Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2004). It grows rarely on flat areas   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). It can also grow in the understorey of high altitude pine forests.<br/> <em></em><br/><p><em>&#160;</em></p>
165220		population	eng	The three natural subpopulations include 111 individuals. More individuals have been reintroduced into the wild in the protected areas Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente and Parque Nacional del Teide    (Marrero Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2004). Total population size was reported to be between 654 (Marrero Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2004) and 1,145 specimens (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). In La Palma, population size has been reported to be 3,333 individuals, from which 3,126 are reproductive individuals. In Tenerife, a total of 1,098 reproductive individuals have been counted.<br/><br/>This total population size comprises natural individuals and reintroduced specimens which are considered reproductive population. Total population trend is increasing, though slowly, because of the slow reproductive dynamics of the species and the low rates of survival of the seedlings, which frequently die due to drought events. <br/><p>The species has extremely slow propagation dynamics. Germination takes several years to occur. The low recruitment and the high longevity of the adult individuals are balanced so the natural subpopulations show certain stability though there is complete predominance of adult individuals.</p><p><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
165220		threats	eng	<p>Predation by introduced species such as rabbits has been reported as an important threat to the species (Marrero Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its low  reproductive rates and the low number of individuals present in natural  subpopulations are also threats. The game species <span style="font-style: italic;">Ovis musimom</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammotragus lervia</span> are also threats to the species (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Predation by goats and rats and fires are furthermore impacting on this species.<br/></p>
165223		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
165223		distribution	eng	<em>M. scorpioides</em> has a mainly European distribution, extending outside the region east to the Caucasus, Siberia and Mongolia. It occurs more or less throughout Europe, apart from the Iberian Peninsula and the eastern Mediterranean. It has been introduced to New Zealand and to most western and eastern areas of North America.
165223		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. scorpioides</span> will occur in most wetland habitats, from marshes, fens and mild acid bogs to rivers, streams, lakes and artificial waterbodies. It is generally terrestrial or emergent, but will also survive for extended periods totally submerged, in which case it does not flower.
165223		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. scorpioides</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
165223		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
165224		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and in the regional catalogue of protected species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> It is listed Endangered B1b(iii)c(iv)+2b(iii)c(iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>The taxon occurs in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial de Güígüí and Parque Rural del Nublo, also SACs. Seeds have been collected and stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma del Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo.<br/>  <br/>Proposed measures in order to ensure the conservation of the species are the control of traditional grazing activities, the eradication of wild goats in the protected area Reserva Natural Especial de Güígüí and on Alto de los Molinos, the establishment of population dynamics monitoring programmes and the collection of seeds from every known location to be stored in germplasm banks.
165224		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus falcisectus</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found on the mountains of the western part of the island, between 400 and 850 m asl. It is distributed into four locations, comprising seven subpopulations: Altos de Los Molinos, Cañada de José Valencia, Cañada del Pino, Morro  del Saltadero, Degollada de Aguasabina, Montaña de Hogarzales (Caidero  de Tocodomán) and Andén del Pino (Olangua 2009). Its area of occupancy is 9 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>  <p><br/></p>
165224		habitat	eng	This shrub grows on basaltic substrates, on shady crags and slopes. It can be found within the association <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno-Juniperion canariensis</span>, as part of the communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion</span> on crags and rocky slopes, and within shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno-Oleetea cerasiformis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonio-Euphorbion canariensis</span>. Common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Taeckholmia pinnata, Descurainia preauxiana, Sonchus acaulis, Aeonium manriqueorum, Pancratium canariense, Bupleurum salicifolium</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">aciphyllum, Argyranthemum escarrei</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Echium decaisnei.</span><br/><br/>It appears always sheltered in areas that are difficult to  access.
165224		population	eng	Total population size has been determined to be 4,207 individuals (Olangua 2009). Population trends for this species throughout the different locations is in general stable or even following a slow increasing trend due to the decrease in grazing pressure (Almeida Pérez and Naranjo Cigala 2004, Gobierno de Canarias 2004). <br/><br/> All the subpopulations have been reported to present moderate regeneration levels, including individuals in different stages of development, but its expansion has been reported to be still  limited by  grazing and by the low ecological plasticity of the species. Sexual reproduction rates of this species have been described as limited and its asexual propagation is restricted by grazing. Predation, along with its lack of ecological plasticity, lead to fluctuating presence of mature individuals.
165224		threats	eng	The main threat affecting the different subpopulations is grazing. Furthermore, the fruits of this shrub are frequently attacked by insect larvae. Occasional droughts are also affecting the species. One subpopulation (Degollada de Aguasabina) is as well affected by the presence of a highly used hiking path that goes through it.
165226		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). On the Spanish Red List it is classed as Endangered B2ab(iii) (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. Its populations are included in the protected areas Parque Rural del Nublo (SCI) and Reserva Natural Integral de Inagua (SCI).<br/><br/>Grazing and predation should be controlled. Seeds should be stored in germplasm banks.
165226		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria leucantha</span> is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain (Santana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it appears restricted to the district of San Nicolás de Tolentino. It is distributed into five locations: Pino Gordo, Peñones del Amo, Garabateras-Caidero de la Niña, Lina and Vigaroe. Its area of occupancy is 3.5 km².<br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="plántulas."><span title="es escasa."></span>
165226		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="pinares.">It forms part of the rocky vegetation in the domain of xeric formations and the lower limit of pine stands. This plant appears in more or less dense stands but can be found in isolated rock crevices, without soil. Its most common co<span title="Sus acompañantes">mpanions are <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysoprenanthes pendula, Hypericum reflexum, Taeckholmia pinnata, Babcockya platylepis, Pinus canariensis, Chamaecytisus proliferus, Aeonium simsii, Dendriopoterium pulidoi, Bupleurum salicifolium, Carlina canariensis, Lavandula minutoli</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Allagopappus viscosissimus.</span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><br/><span title="Floración y fructificación"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text"></span></span></span></span>
165226		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">Five known populations, not very spread apart, with an estimated total population size of 4,550 individuals. Its structure is dominated by adult individuals although there is some production of <span title="plántulas.">seedlings. Both flowering and fruiting <span title="es escasa.">is scarce.</span>
165226		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The populations of this species are found in areas heavily frequented by livestock, so the main threat is continuous grazing and browsing by domestic and wild grazing species. This species is also sensitive to drought.
165227		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sempervivifolium</span> is listed in Annex I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The species occurs within the Natura 2000 network.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">sempervivifolium</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
165227		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sempervivifolium</span> is endemic to Deserta Grande in the Madeira archipelago (Buord and Lesouëf 2006) where its extent of occurrence (EOO) is no more than 10 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is no greater than 1 km<sup>2</sup>.
165227		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, herbaceous to suffrutescent shrub that grows in rocky areas   (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
165227		population	eng	The population comprises less than 250 mature individuals. Since the elimination of rabbits and goats from the habitat of this  species, it has been able to recover   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165227		threats	eng	It was threatened in the past by grazing of introduced species (rabbits and goats)   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006). Landslides are a continuing local threat.
165228		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is protected at national level in France. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> cultivation in the Botanic Garden of Liège   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006) and Brest are underway.
165228		distribution	eng	This European endemic was formerly found in Belgium, Luxembourg and France, but is now extinct in the wild. It is in cultivation in the Botanic Garden of Liège (Buord and Lesouëf 2006) and Brest. Its centre of distribution was found in southeast Belgium, just extending into France and Luxembourg (therefore its common name "Ardennes Brome") (Morgan and Leon 1992). It might also have been introduced to western Germany, the Netherlands and the UK (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165228		habitat	eng	The species was originally growing within fields of Spelt Wheat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Triticum spelta</span>). The growth patterns and the seed size closely match harvesting time and seed size of Spelt Wheat and thus it was re-sown each year with the wheat seeds. As Spelt Wheat is no longer agriculturally planted, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus bromoideus</span> went extinct throughout its former range (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165228		population	eng	It is extinct in the wild   (Morgan and Leon 1992, Buord and Lesouëf 2006). In France, it has not bee seen in the wild since 1930.
165228		threats	eng	The use of herbicides and change of agricultural practice led to the extinction of this species   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165229		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Endangered B2ac(iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>It occurs within the protected areas Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI) and Reserva Natural Integral de Pijaral (SCI). It is recommended to collect seeds and store them in germplasm banks as well as to develop further research about the reproductive biology of the species.
165229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows from 700 to 900 m asl. Its presence has been confirmed in o<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="Sólo se">nly two isolated subpopulations in the ridges of the Macizo de Anaga. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 4 km².</span>
165229		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is a rupicolous species that  grows on the crest of ridges in areas constantly under the influence of trade winds, loaded with moisture. The atmosphere is kept cool and shady even in summer due to the high frequency of <span title="las nieblas.">mist. <span title="El sustrato,">The substrate, is characterized by the presence of a dense carpet of moss under which there is poor soil, but with a layer of humified organic matter. <span title="Las">Frequent accompanying  species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium cuneatum, Erica platycodon, Laurus novocanariensis, Ilex canariensis, Teline canariensis, Dryopteris oligodonta, Polystichum setiferum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium onopteris.</span><span title="onopteris."><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text">Flowering occurs in July-August, possibly until September. It fruits in August-September and is pollinated mainly by Hymenoptera.&#160;<span title="La dispersión del"><span title="sin embargo en T."></span></span></span></span>
165229		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="medium_text">Total number of individuals has been reported to be 766 (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <span title="La"><span id="result_box" class="medium_text">No seedlings were observed in natural populations, mature individuals are predominant. <span id="result_box" class="medium_text"><span title="La">Reproduction <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> is unlikely to present problems.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span>
165229		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The two subpopulations are located very close to a road. <span title="Las posibles">Vehicles and possible road improvements may lead to loss of individuals (Martín Cáceres<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004). Some sites have been plundered by collectors. Climbing and anthropization of its habitat are also reported threats.</span>
165230		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> adanensis</span> is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats (Bern Convention). <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. adanensis</span> stored in the genebank of the Institute of Sugarbeet, Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is an urgent priority for this taxon, as well as research into the most appropriate sites in which to establish genetic reserves.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165230		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">Native to Greece, Syria and Turkey (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Its presence in Cyprus is uncertain (G. Hatjikiriakou pers. comm. 2010). In Greece, this species occurs in Crete, the Aegean Islands (Sporades, Dodécanèse and Cyclades) and the south coast of Péloponnèse (CWRIS-AEGRO-PLIS 2007–2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
165230		habitat	eng	It grows   in marginal cultivated land close to the sea and may also be found in rocky places near the sea.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165230		population	eng	The European population is estimated to comprise no more than 10,000 individuals with less than 1,000 in each subpopulation. The population is severely fragmented and there is a continuing decline in the number of subpopulations and mature individuals.
165230		threats	eng	Development for tourism is a threat to this species.
165232		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is also listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <em>Orchis punctulata</em> is included in the Red Data Book of the Ukraine and Greece.</p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis punctulata</em>;</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open woodland from deforestation, development and fire. </li><li>Monitor the grazing by sheep and goats. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>                      <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165232		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis punctulata</span> is an eastern Mediterranean species that occurs west to Thrace on Greece and Rhodos island, north to the Crimean Peninsula and east to Asiatic Turkey, the Levant, and Iran. In Europe, it is present in Cyprus, Greece, Ukraine and European Turkey with an assumed area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km². It can be found up to 1,400 m altitude (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995).</p>
165232		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis punctulata</em> grows in short grassland, garrigue, maquis, scrub, Mediterranean dwarf shrubs, open woodland, forest margins and abandoned cultivated areas. It <em></em><em></em>prefers dry to moist alkaline substrates and is found on limestone soils. This species grows in full sun light to mid-shade and flowers from mid-February to June (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995).</p>
165232		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Orchis punctulata</em><span class="species"> is local and very rare where it occurs. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made but the populations are very small with a few individuals. However, the overall trend is decreasing due to numerous treats but some populations are stable as they occur in protected areas. <span class="species">In Greece, the occurrences seem to have  died out as the last discoveries reported were those by W. Luders 1993 and  B. Biel 2000. On Rhodes, Lesbos and Imroz only individual plants were  reported<span class="species"> (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995).</span></p>  <p><span class="species"></span></p>
165232		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Orchis punctulata</em><span class="species"> is very rare and the existing occurrences are declining due to numerous anthropogenic threats fires, grazing by sheep or goats which seem to like the taste of this species, deforestation, tourism, urbanisation, building projects, expansion of infrastructure and plant collection especially in unprotected sites (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995).</p>  <p></p>
165234		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>At national level, it is redlisted in some countries and there are several measures in place:<br/><ul><li>Belarus: Classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book (Ermakova 2005).</li><li>Denmark: Classed as Vulnerable (NERI 2007).<br/></li><li>France: Nationally protected.</li><li>Germany: Critically Endangered (level 1) in the national red list (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and under national protection.</li><li>Hungary: Classed as Critically Endangered (Király 2007)</li><li>Italy: the collection is banned in some regions.<br/></li><li>Lithuania: Found in some protected areas in the east and west, classed as Rare in the Red List (Rašomavičius 2007).</li><li>Norway: Classed as Vulnerable in the national red list (Artsdatabanken 2010).</li><li>Russia: It is widely protected.</li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Serbia: Classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book   (Stevanović 1999).</li><li>Sweden: Legally protected and categorized as Near Threatened in the red list (Gärdenfors 2010). Meadows in the north should be managed in a way to improve the conditions for this species.  In south Sweden some initiatives seem to take place, but some species in the north are not reported in flora books and conservation measures are not enough.</li><li>Switzerland: Regionally Extinct   (Käsermann and Moser 1999).</li><li>Ukraine: Legally protected. Listed in the Red Book (2009) as rare, protected in Desnjansko-Starogutskij national park.</li></ul>An estimation of the rate of decline throughout its range is recommended to assess the threat status of this species.<br/>    <p><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>
165234		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Botrychium multifidum</span> is found in boreal and temperate zones of Europe, North America and North Asia. It is mostly absent from Atlantic Europe but is found in the west from Germany, Denmark to the northern Alps in France, Austria, Switzerland, Italy  and Slovenia, in the Appenines, extends north into Fennoscandia (up to 70° N) and scatters eastwards into Russia and Ukraine to Romania and the Black Sea. It occurs in eastern Europe north of the Danube river   (Käsermann and Moser 1999).<br/><br/>In Lithuania there are 15-20 locations mainly in the east and south east, but two outlying on the northwest coast. There are more than five Italian localities in the regions Lombardia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Emilia-Romagna, Abruzzo, and Campania.<br/>In Russia, it is found in the centre north and northwest, but is Extinct in Kaliningrad. It grows in the lowland part of Ukraine, in deciduous and mixed  coniferous-broad leaved forests zone and lesosteppe (forest steppe zone)  and in Carpathian Mountains. It is found in several parts of Belarus.<br/>In Sweden, it has an area of occupancy of 788 km². It is more common in the northern part of the country and the populations appear more scattered in the south. There are more than a hundred records in total. In Finland, it is widespread throughout the country and it is also found in southwest Norway where it occurs up to 2,940 m asl.<br/>The species is Extinct in Switzerland, where the last location is thought to have disappeared in 1998.
165234		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Botrychium multifidum</span> is a perennial rhizomatous geophyte that is flowering from July to September. It mainly occurs as single plants but produces many spores. The reproduction of this plant is dependent on symbiotic fungi and it is therefore difficult to propagate it via spores or vegetatively which makes reintroduction nearly impossible. The species prefers soils that are rather acidic and deficient in lime or clayey. It occurs in grasslands, montane meadows and pastureland, in land with dwarf-shrubs and in forests. Found in the societies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardetum strictae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Arrhenatheretea</span>   (Klotz <em>et al.</em> 2002,   Käsermann and Moser 1999).<br/><br/>In Lithuania, the habitat is not very common: short and dry sandy soil grasslands, open pine  areas and fringes of pine areas. In Russia, it has also been reported from moist grasslands and in Ukraine, it grows in spruce, pine, beech, birch, oak, hornbeam, ash, alder forest, shrub communities and in meadows. <br/><br/>In Sweden, this plant is typical for compacted terraces along rivers and next to houses. Farms  have been abandoned and so the compression of the soil by cattle which leads to succession and changes in vegetation. The main habitat where this species grows is disappearing, though it can still be found in other secondary habitats.
165234		population	eng	In Germany, the species was known from eight federal estates but is now  only found in two. There are around ten populations of which two are in  Berlin and eight in Bavaria (Bayerischer Wald). Those Bavarian  populations are made up of around 40 individuals (data from 1999 and  2001 -   Ahlmer 2010). In France, the last population had one individual in 2000, and in 2006, a hole in the soil at the site of the last individual was seen. It might be regionally extinct following the harvesting of the last individual. The species is extinct in the wild in Switzerland.<br/>In Lithuania, the populations are small in each area. It could be overlooked and there might be more individuals than assumed, but the habitat is declining and this may affect the numbers. In Italy, there are less than 250 mature individuals with a declining population trend.<br/>In Sweden, the population is rapidly decreasing. The situation is similar in Norway, where the populations are assumed to decrease by 30-50% in the next 30 years. In Denmark, there are 200 individuals with a declining trend.<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, the species was known from 67 localities, of which 35 where found before 1950. The local populations occupy very small places: from 1 m² to 150 m². The number of individuals in the populations is very low ranging from two to 400 individuals (Melnyk 2009).
165234		threats	eng	Change in land management and grazing as well as trampling by hikers or by livestock. The abandonment of rural areas and traditional ways of living (cattle ranching) led to formerly open  areas with compacted soils being changed through succession into unsuitable habitats for this species. Furthermore, fertilization increases competition with other grasses. Reforestation, cutting of the forest and unfavourable forest management are further threats. Collection is a threat especially for those areas where only a few individuals remain, e.g. Germany.
165235		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165235		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ukraine, near Donetsk. It occurs near the Sea of Azov within the protected area Kammenye Mogily   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165235		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea pseudoleucolepis </span>is a biennial herb that grows on granite outcrops   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165235		population	eng	It is suspected that the species is a hybrid as it has not been found for several years. It has last been seen in the 1930s.
165235		threats	eng	The reason for its extinction are unknown.
165236		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of  threatened species of Spain and in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary  Islands. It is listed as CR B2ab(iii)c(iv); C2a(i) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The taxon is included in the protected area Parque Natural de Las Nieves (SCI). Re-introduction and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation have been carried out. Fences have been established. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><br/>Research about the reproductive biology of the species should be developed. Grazing should be completely eradicated in its distribution range. More seeds must be collected and stored and population reinforcement measures must be kept in place.
165236		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus pyranthus</span> is endemic to the island of La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it grows between 1,350 and 1,450 m asl, on the northeastern part of the island. It is distributed throughout three locations: Marcos y Cordero, Lomo de Cuervo y Cabecera del Barranco de Gallegos. Its area of occupancy is 3 km². Only the location of Lomo de Cuervo includes a subpopulation considered natural.
165236		habitat	eng	This shrub grows within humid pine forest communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Loto hillebrandi-Pinetum canariensis</span>, but appearing in open areas along with xerophytic and rupicolous species (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus symphytifolius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline stenopetala</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">sericea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bystropogon origanifolius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Echium webbi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium spathulatum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex maderensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria herpyllomorpha</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tuberaria guttata</span>.
165236		population	eng	Total population size was reported to be seven&#160; individuals, five of these introduced (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The locations Lomo de Cuervo and Cabecera del Barranco de Gallego were reported to have one single individual each. No seedling or juvenile individual was found in the sites.<br/><br/>Later, total population size has been reported to be 35-40 individuals, but these individuals have been introduced and they are not considered naturalised for there is no evidence of reproduction (Gobierno de Canarias 2004). Natural population size has been estimated in two individuals (Gobierno de Canarias 2006).
165236		threats	eng	Main threats are predation by introduced herbivorous species such as rabbits and game species, and by grazing species such as goats (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its poor reproductive strategy, fires and collection are also threats to the species.
165237		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/>It is considered as threatened in some Italian regions (Emilia Romagna, Latium), but generally classed as Least Concern (Conti 1997). It is classified as Near Threatened in Croatia and Vulnerable in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Flora Croatica Database 2010).
165237		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sternbergia lutea</span> is native to Europe, North Africa and West Asia (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe, this species occurs from Spain (including the Balearic Islands) to the Balkans. In Slovenia, the only native subpopulation is now extinct, but some introduced subpopulations still exist (Čušin <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Italy, in some central regions, the species is also considered as introduced. The species is not native but cultivated in Serbia (V. Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165237		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sternbergia lutea</span> occurs on xeric pastures, often on basic soils.
165237		population	eng	In Spain, it is widespread but scattered. In Italy, it is frequent with more than 100 subpopulations. In Slovenia, it has been extinct for more than a century. The current population trend is unknown.
165237		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by vegetation changes due to changes in agricultural practices.
165239		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as CR D in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is classed "Vulnerable" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>The whole population is within the protected area Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo (SCI) (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/>Plant material is stored in the germplasm bank of the E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid.<br/><br/>Seeds should be stored in germplasm banks. Population monitoring and reinforcement plans, and research about the reproductive biology of the species, should be developed.
165239		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago famarae</span> is endemic to the island of Lanzarote, the Canary Islands, Spain (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it grows between 300 and 500 m asl, distributed in one location in Famara, on the northern part of the island. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in between 1 and 3.5 km²<sup></sup>.
165239		habitat	eng	This small shrub generally grows on rocky screes and ledges, occasionally acting as a rupicolous species (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It can be found from the sea level up to 600 m asl, but it prefers intermediate altitude. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaea arborescens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula pinnata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Forsskaolea angustifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Asteriscus intermedius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus&#160; lancerottensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bituminaria bituminosa</span>.
165239		population	eng	Its population was reported to be 41 individuals by Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) and 66 mature individuals were counted in 2006 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). However, declining or fluctuating population trends have been observed for this species since 2002. Its population size is believed to be lower than the minimum appropriate to ensure the viability of the population (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165239		threats	eng	Threats to this species are the instability of the substrate it grows on, and possible inbreeding  (Reyes Betancort <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Stock trampling and predation have been reported as possible threats as well.
165240		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine as Vulnerable </span><span style="background-color: white;">(Diduch 2009)</span><span style="background-color: white;">. The species is protected in the reserves Jaltinskij, Karadaghskij, and Krimskij, and in Novyj Svit, Bajdarskij, Gora Kishka, Buchta Kozacha, and Mis Fiolent zakazniks.</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
165240		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The area of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Onosma polyphylla</span> Ledeb. occupies western Caucasus and Crimea. In Caucasus, it grows in the Markotch mountain ridge. In the Crimean Mountains, it occurs from the village Foros to the Karadagh mountain massif. It is found in around 20 isolated localities in Crimean peninsula. The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km².<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
165240		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Onosma polyphylla</span> is a small shrub that flowers from June to July, and sets fruits in August. It grows on dry stone slopes, on the cobbled ground among sparsely growing juniper trees, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> forests. It is a component of communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedetalia</span> ordo <span style="font-style: italic;">Jusmino-Juniperion excelsae</span> association, <span style="font-style: italic;">Onosmo polyphyllae – Ptilostepetea</span> class.</span>
165240		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The structure of the populations has not been investigated. </span>
165240		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Degradation of the habitat due to recreational activities poses the main threat to this species.<br/></span>
165241		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165241		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Turkey where it is found in the European and Asian part (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165241		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165241		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165241		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165242		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>    <p>It is categorized as Near Threatened in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Norway, the species is protected under national law and is included in the national red list under the synonym Braya glabella purpurascens. It is classed as Vulnerable B1a(ii)b(iii)+2a(ii)b(iii); D2 in mainland Norway and as Least Concern in Svalbard (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/></p>
165242		distribution	eng	The species is found in Norway, Svalbard and Jan Mayen, North European Russia and Novaya Zemlya. It extends into Siberia, the arctic part of Russia.<br/><br/>In mainland Norway, it is found at only one locality at the North Cape - Nordkapp (Mager Öye) at an area of 14 x 4 km (Artsdatabanken 2010). It is quite common on Svalbard   (Lid and Lid 2005).
165242		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Braya purpurascens</span> is a perennial plant that grows in base-rich gravel and open silty soil – a very common habitat all the way up to the polar desert.</p><p><br/></p>
165242		population	eng	A population decline in Norway has not been observed but that is due to lack of monitoring data.
165242		threats	eng	In Norway, the populations are subjected to overgrazing by deer as its area lies close to the road to the North Cape. This makes it also vulnerable to any collection. The biggest threat is likely to be an increase in temperature which this species will be very sensitive to.<br/>The species occurrences further north are unlikely to be threatened as they grow in very remote areas.
165243		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, bark and fruits are subject to this regulation. The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium</span> spp. is listed in the Annex V of the Habitat Directive.<br/><br/>The species is listed on several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Luxembourg</li><li>Endangered in Serbia (V. Stevanovic pers. comm. 2010)</li><li>Vulnerable in Germany (level 3)</li><li>Near Threatened in Estonia, Hungary and Switzerland</li></ul>    The species is categorized as Least Concern in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010) and is not listed in the Ukraine and several other countries.<br/>However, the species is under national protection in various states such as Hungary, in some regions of France, in one region in Switzerland. Regulations for its commercial use are in place in Latvia and Lithuania. Its collection is regulated in Italy.<br/>It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range for example in Switzerland and the Czech Republic were collection of the species is forbidden.<br/>In terms of conservation measures needed, it is necessary to manage sites in a way that <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> can compete with other vegetation, i.e. keep areas open, reintroduce grazing activities. Monitoring of the population trends is recommended.<br/><p></p><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><p><br/></p>
165243		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> has a circumboreal distribution and isolated populations in tropical and subtropical mountains (Natural History Museum 2010). In the UK the species is mostly confined to upland sites in the west and north, or scattered on heaths in the south (Natural History Museum 2010).</p><p>It can be found in several parts of European Russia: Central, Eastern, Northern, Northwestern and Southern European Russia and in Kaliningrad   (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> is widespread in the zone of deciduous and  mixed forests in the Polesian lowland, in the lesosteppe (forest steppe)  zone and in the Carpathian Mountains. There are isolated localities in  extrazonal pine forests in the steppe zone in Ukraine.</p><p>The plant is relatively common in the Czech Republic, mainly on mountains, but also in river slopes. It is not very common at low altitudes. In Hungary, it is not common because of the low altitudes but only occurs sporadically in the western and northeastern part of the country. In the Baltic States,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, it is<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> a  rather common species in suitable habitats. It is rare in the  central part of Lithuania because of the absence of suitable habitats  (dry forests). In Switzerland, it is widespread but scattered and it occurs between 800  and 2,300 m asl. In Italy, it has been reported from more than 500 localities.</p>There are populations of<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. amonostagium</span> in the North of Europe and when these species grow  together some confusion may appear.
165243		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> is a long   living but slowly growing species. It is not a good competitor but a slow   colonizer just able to compete successfully with short vegetation. It prefers relatively open and dry forests, montane grassland, open woodland, conifer plantations. It is also found in heathland of the class <span style="font-style: italic;">Nardo-Callunetea</span> or at the ecotone of heath and forest. In the UK, it is confined to sandy heaths in lowland sites (Natural History Museum, 2010).<br/><br/>It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (list not complete): <br/><ul><li>9050 Fennoscandian herb-rich forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span></li><li>91T0 Central European lichen Scots pine forests</li></ul>
165243		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> is common in the mountains but the populations are decreasing because this is a very slow growing species and it is affected by habitat loss. The parental generation needs about 20 years to produce offspring. Within a long-term and general scale, the population is rather stable but locally affected by some threats (V. Rašomavičius pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</p><p>In Hungary, for example, there are still more than 100 localities but  the  number of localities and the populations have declining trend  especially in the last 20 years. In Switzerland, each population covers a few square metre and could sometimes be formed  by only one individual or by several. One single individual is able to  cover a wide area and that makes it difficult to count the number of  individuals. There is also a slight long-term decline. Forty   locations were found after 1994 but there is no clear information about the real   distribution nowadays.The Italian populations are also declining.<br/></p><p>In the Ukraine, the populations are big and stable. In 1960, up to 9.2 tons of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> spores were stored in Ukraine (Chikov 1980) and this shows the magnitude of this species in this country.<br/></p>
165243		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> is mainly threatened by the loss of suitable habitat. Abandonment of  traditional land uses such as grazing leads to natural succession  processes and as the species is a weak competitor this leads to population declines. The species  tends to establish on eroded areas such  as  the ones that have suffered  clear cuttings. Even a decrease in the use of former military paths leads to  succession and the disappearance of this species.<br/>Intensive agricultural activities on forests edges are another threat as they lead to eutrophication and this leads to a change in vegetation. Here again, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium clavatum</span> can't compete if faced with the emergence of taller vegetation. Pollution  and eutrophication can damage the mycorrhiza in symbiosis  with this  plant. For other species in this genus it has been reported  and it could  be a threat for this species as well.<br/>Due to reforestation projects, forest areas become larger and forest  edges decrease. Dense forest plantations have dark undercanopies and this species needs light. <br/>In Lithuania, the main threat is its use as decoration, overall near the  big cities, although this gathering is forbidden by national  regulations. It is likely this regulations would stop the threat because  of their transposition into administrative punishments.<br/>The species does not face threats in parts of its range such as Ukraine.
165245		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is not classed as threatened in the Ukraine and not included in the national Red Data Book. One site is protected in the Jaltinskij reserve.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165245		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Crimea in the Ukraine and the European part of Turkey where it is confined to the shore of the Black Sea (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). In the Crimean Mountains it grows at the eastern Black Sea coast from Balaclava to Maloreczenskoje.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
165245		habitat	eng	The main habitat of this annual species are salty lagoons and salty grounds near the sea side where it grows on rocky slopes.
165245		population	eng	The species is very rare in the Ukraine where it is confined to the Crimean peninsula. The subpopulations have only a few individuals but the population trend is unknown. There is no information on the Turkish subpopulations available.
165245		threats	eng	The threats to the species in the Ukraine and Turkey are unknown.
165246		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as species "vulnerable" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed as Endangered B2ac(iv) on the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>It occurs within several protected areas and is object of conservation action plans (Guma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. canariense </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010), but seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of Jardín de Aclimatación de La Orotava (ICIA - ESP 117 -) and Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid. A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
165246		distribution	eng	This species is found in the islands of La Palma and Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain. In La Palma, it occurs in Caldera de Taburiente (Van der Maesen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), distributed into at least 14 subpopulations.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> In Tenerife, it occurs </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in Barranco de </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Tamadaya </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Gobierno de Canarias 2009) and </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in Barranco del </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Infierno (La Orotava) (Barone and Fariñas 2011). The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>km².
165246		habitat	eng	It grows in ravine beds and areas with moist soils. In La Palma at Caldera de Taburiente this species is found growing in alluvial soils in pine forests near Lomo de Las Chozas at 1,200 m asl (Van der Maesen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
165246		population	eng	<span class="clickable" id="muflón109">Total population size was reported to be 2,144 individuals in 2007 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The populations are severely fragmented with a high fluctuation in the number of mature individuals (<span class="clickable" id="muflón109">Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
165246		threats	eng	The main threat is posed by herbivores such as rabbits, goats, sheep, and the game species <span style="font-style: italic;">Ovis musimon </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammotragus lervia</span><span onclick='redirectWR(event,"ESesen")' class="clickable" id="muflón109"> (J. Reyes-Betancort pers. comm. 2011, Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).<span onclick='redirectWR(event,"ESesen")' class="clickable" id="muflón109"> <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span></span>
165247		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Reintroductions have taken place. The plant is grown in several botanic gardens in the UK (e.g. Cambridge Botanic Garden, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew) and in private gardens (K. Walker pers. comm. 2010).
165247		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the UK. Historically it was found scattered mostly south of a line from the Wash to the Severn estuary (Biodiversity Action Reporting System 2010). It is extinct in the wild since 1972. It was introduced to the Netherlands but never persisted there (Rich and Lockton 2002).
165247		habitat	eng	This annual species was an arable weed, especially of sainfoin, clover or rye-grass (Morgan and Leon 1992, Rich and Lockton 2002).
165247		population	eng	Three introductions have taken  place since 2001 (Biodiversity Action Reporting System 2010). Several  hundred plants were observed germinating and fruiting in summer 2005 at  the Aston Rowant National Nature Reserve in the Chiltern Hills (Marren  2005) and is believed to be regenerating at this site (K. Walker pers. comm. 2010).
165247		threats	eng	The causes for its extinction were probably crop sprays and improved seed screening (Rich and Lockton 2002).
165248		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hedysarum razoumowianum</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>This species is included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (Bardunow and Novikov 2008) and in regional Red Data Books as a rare species. In the Red Data Book of the Ulyanovsk region it is classed as an endangered species.
165248		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hedysarum razoumowianum</span> is present in Eastern European Russia in Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Chelyabinsk, Samara, Orenburg, Saratov, Ulyanovsk. It extends its range into the Asian part of Russia and Kazakhstan.
165248		habitat	eng	This species is found in rock steppe, on limestone soil or lime rocks.
165248		population	eng	The populations are very small.
165248		threats	eng	The main threats are habitat destruction caused by the extraction of lime, infrastructure development, forest plantations, grazing, recreational activities, grassland fires, weak ecological flexibility and low competitiveness.
165250		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is classed Vulnerable B2ac(iii,iv); D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">More than half of the area where the species occurs is included in the protected areas Parque Natural de Las Nieves and Reserva Natural Especial de Guelguén. Seeds are stored in the germplasm bank of Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo and Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos.</span>
165250		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it grows between 675 and 1,400 m asl, distributed into seven subpopulations, on the mountains of the northeastern part of the island. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 7.25 km² (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/>It is believed that new subpopulations could be found in the future.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165250		habitat	eng	It grows on deep and slightly acid soils, on sun exposed slopes or gaps within the laurel-like evergreen forest known as monteverde. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea, Myrica faya, Laurus novocanariensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedronella canariensis </span>(Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
165250		population	eng	The total population size has been determined to be 13,023 individuals, unevenly distributed so the number of individuals present in each subpopulation varies from six to more than a thousand. Fluctuations have been reported in the recorded data and it has been suggested that they are due the biology of the species (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). The presence of reproductive individuals is low (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165250		threats	eng	No threat has been described for this species apart from natural competition with other species when colonizing gaps and open areas within the forest. However, the number of individuals seems to decrease in areas where the forest appears closed and operations that result in the creation of gaps have ceased (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
165252		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species <span style="background-color: white;">and in the regional catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands.</span> It is classed Critically Endangered B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>The two subpopulations occur within the protected area Parque Natural de Las Nieves (SCI). The species has been successfully cultivated in nurseries and seeds are stored in the germplasm bank Banco de Germoplasma de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias. The location of Barranco de La Madera is protected by a fence.<br/><br/>More seeds have to be collected and stored in germplasm banks. Programmes to control domestic and wild grazing species as well as invasive species, have to be implemented. Research on reproductive biology of the species should be developed.
165252		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheirolophus santos-abreui </span>is endemic to the island of La Palma, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found growing between 450 and 850 m asl, in two locations: Barranco de La Madera and Barranco de El Río, near Santa Cruz de La Palma. Its area of occupancy has been calculated to be between 1 and 2 km².
165252		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on steep slopes of difficult access in deep ravines. It can form part of rupicolous shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonion </span>growing along with elements of thermophilous forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno crenulatae-Oleetalia cerasiformis</span>, and elements of sub-humid laurel-leaved trees forests <span style="font-style: italic;">Lauro-Perseeto indicae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus canariensis</span> (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Most common accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllis nobla, Bystropogon origanifolius</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">palmensis, Descurainia millefolia, Pinus canariensis, Hypericum grandifolium, Sonchus hierrensis, Paronychia canariensis, Carlina falcata, Erica arborea, Sideritis bolleana, Laurus novocanariensis, Bupleurum salicifolium, Apollonias barbujana, Cedronella canariensis, Teline stenopetala, Ceballosia fruticosa, Festuca agustinii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartocytisus filipes.<br/><br/></span> Presence of individuals is restricted to sheltered sites and accessible specimens are preyed upon by goats.
165252		population	eng	Total population size has been reported to be 85 individuals (Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Buord and Lesouëf 2006). The two known subpopulations have been reported to present a rather well structured age distribution, but to be affected by the decrease in the number of viable seeds caused by parasite insects and by predation of young plants and sprouts.
165252		threats	eng	Grazing by roaming goats and the introduced game species <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammotragus lervia </span>has been reported as the main threat affecting this species and its habitat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Martín Cáceres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Other threats are competition with the exotic species <span style="font-style: italic;">Ageratina adenophora</span>, the animal parasite <span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetorellia</span> sp. which causes the number of viable seeds to decrease, and landslides.
165253		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/>It is protected in Greece by Presidential Decree 67/81. Part of the population of the plant is included in three Natura 2000 sites (GR242002, GR242003, and GR1270003). <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria euboeica </span>is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
165253		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria euboeica</span> is endemic to Greece (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). <br/><br/>The main area of distribution is Evvoia Island: Dirfys Mt (three closely situated localities), Kantili Mt, Pyxaria Mt and Xiron Mt, near Politika village. The plant has also been found at one disjunct location in north Greece, on Athos Mt, but there has been only one collection and the location has not been confirmed recently.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is c. 500 km<sup></sup>². The location on Athos is considered as disjunct and the area between Evvoia Island and Athos Mt is considered as a discontinuity in the distribution of the plant based on its dispersal attributes and habitat. The area of occupancy is 20-24 km² (using the 2x2 km grid and including the location at Mt. Athos).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165253		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria euboeica </span>is found on rocky limestone screes, in open coniferous woodland and maquis (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus oxycedrus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Buxus sempervirens</span>), abandoned olive groves and sometimes on ophiolithic substrate. It is generally found at altitudes of 700–1,700 m asl but there is one location at 100 m. Its flowering period is from February to April, depending on the altitude, and its fruiting period is from April to June. Seed germination is inhibited if temperatures are higher than 15°C, even periodically. This indicates that sexual plant reproduction may be reduced in the future due to global warming.
165253		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There are six subpopulations and locations, including the location on Mt. Athos. Each subpopulation includes 100-200 individuals, with the exception of the subpopulation on Mt. Athos which has not been found recently. This number is considered lower than the minimum viable population of 250 individuals. Based on the above, the total population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria euboeica </span>must be between 500 and 1,000 individuals and it is certainly lower than 1,500 individuals. <span style="background-color: white;">The population at Politika is being monitored and ranged between 100 and 160 individuals in three years (2009 – 2011).</span></span>
165253		threats	eng	Frequent fires in the distribution area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fritillaria euboeica </span>have apparently resulted in population reduction. Overgrazing constitutes a threat at almost all the locations. The subpopulation at Politika is threatened by housing and tourism development as it grows in an abandoned olive grove which is for sale.<br/><br/>As seed germination is inhibited if temperatures are higher than 15°C, even  periodically, this suggests that sexual plant reproduction may be  reduced in the future due to global warming.
165254		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165254		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165254		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165254		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165254		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165255		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Greece, it is not protected and might be found in some Natura 2000 sites. In Bulgaria, it is protected and listed as Endangered (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) in the national red list. It occurs in two protected areas and two Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>More information about population size and number of localities in Greece and FYR Macedonia is needed as well as monitoring of the populations. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> collection of seeds needed.
165255		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Balkan Peninsula. It is found in Bulgaria, Greece and Macedonia. In Greece, it occurs mainly in the northeastern part of the country, and also on the island of Thasos. There are some old records for Athos, but these need to be confirmed but probably belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">G. asparagifolium</span> (Krendl 1987). In Bulgaria, it is found in the western Rhodopi Mountains and in the Thracian plain. The area of occupancy in Bulgaria and Greece is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².
165255		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galium rhodopeum</span> is a perennial herb. In Greece, the species occurs on calcareous mountain cliffs and high altitude grasslands. In Bulgaria, it has been reported from dry stony limestone slopes mostly with southern exposition. It occurs sometimes in the grass cover of open <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus orientalis</span> habitats. It can also be found in rocky areas.
165255		population	eng	In Bulgaria, the plant occupies seven grid squares (10x10 km²). One subpopulation is small with less than 150 individuals. The population size varies in different subpopulations. The current population size is unknown and it is fragmented.<br/><br/>There is no population information available for Greece or FYR Macedonia. <br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165255		threats	eng	In Bulgaria, the locality hosting the largest population suffered from a severe population decline due to a limestone quarry. This is a potential threat for other populations. Trampling due to grazing is a further potential threat.<br/><br/>There is no information on any threats in Greece or FYR Macedonia.
165256		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In Greece, it is protected by law (67/81) and is found in a Natura 2000 site and in a protected area. It is listed as Vulnerable on the Red List (Sarika and Yannitsaros 2009).<br/>In Bulgaria, it is listed as Critically Endangered B2ab(ii,iii) on the Red List and it is protected. A small population is found in a nature reserve and a protected area has been set up especially for this species, three areas are selected as Important Plant Areas and two as Natura 2000 sites. Monitoring of the populations has been taking place for the last five years.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ</span> conservation of seeds and plants is needed and the monitoring of population trends and size should be continued.
165256		distribution	eng	This Balkan endemic can be found in Bulgaria and Greece where it is native to the Rhodopi mountains. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km² and the extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km². It is found at 11 locations in total.
165256		habitat	eng	In Bulgaria, it is mostly found on mesophilous mountain meadows and sometimes on grassy mountain slopes. In Greece, it has been reported from rocky slopes at the edge of forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span> and on alpine meadows.
165256		population	eng	In Bulgaria, there are six localities with nine locations which were confirmed in the last three years. The total number of individuals may be around 9,000 individuals. There are natural fluctuations of the numbers and the percentage of juvenile plants is low, which could affect the survival of the species in stochastic events.<br/><br/>In Greece, there are two localities in close distance to each other. The Trachoni-Dipotama subpopulation is the biggest where 500 individuals were found, while the rest of the subpopulations consist of few dozen individuals. The population is scattered in small groups of less than 20 individuals. The total Greek population hs between 500 to 1,000 individuals.<br/><br/>In total there are slightly less than 10,000 individuals. The populations are fairly stable.
165256		threats	eng	The collection of the bulbs for gardens is a threat to the species. Succession of vegetation as a result of people abandoning rural areas and mowing activities impact on the species as it prefers open areas. In Bulgaria, another threat is posed by habitat loss due to infrastructure development for the tourism industry but also as a result of urbanisation. Trampling by tourists degrades the habitat. Furthermore, the bulbs are eaten by wild boars.
165257		conservation	eng	This species is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex. <br/><br/>All of the subpopulations are included in the Parque Rural del Nublo (SCI), except the subpopulation at Hogarzales, which is included in the Reserva Natural Especial de Güigüí (SCI). Its habitat is protected in the EU Habitats Directive. The control of traditional grazing by livestock at these sites is necessary.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. scoparia</span> (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
165257		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. scoparia</span> is endemic to Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain. It is endemic to the central-eastern area of the island, with five subpopulations in the municipalities of Tejeda and San Nicolás de Tolentino. <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="El área de">The area of occupancy (AOO) of the species is <span title="500 x 500 m.">2.75 km².</span>
165257		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">C. scoparia</span> is part of <span id="result_box" class="long_text">rupicolous<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> communities in thermophilous environments. It has <span title="Tiene">a preference for the bottom of cliffs and ledges with little accumulation of soil, although it has also been observed on slopes with more developed soils. It is commonly found among <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium manriqueorum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptocephalus Sonchus, Echium decasnei, Carlina canariensis, Descurainia preauxiana, Rubia fruticosa, Bupleurum salicifolium </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">aciphyllum, Echium onosmifolium, Cheirolophus arbutifolius, Allagopappus viscosisimus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendriopoterium pulidoi.</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se reproduce"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Tiene"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se reproduce"><span title="El número"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Tiene"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Se reproduce"><span title="El número"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165257		population	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">There are five subpopulations formed by young individuals and adults totalling 1,886 individuals. Although the viability of seeds is high, significant recruitment has not been observed. <br/><span id="result_box" class="long_text"></span>
165257		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The main threat to this species are herbivores, as the subpopulations are located in prominent areas of traditional grazing. Some of them now have&#160; extremely small numbers of individuals, while others remain vulnerable to damage by both domestic livestock and wild herbivores.
165258		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum cordifolium</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the national red list. The Pafos Forest, where the species is located, is a proposed Natura 2000 site (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
165258		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Origanum cordifolium</span> is endemic to Cyprus where it is known from five locations in the Roudias and Xeros valleys of the Pafos Forest. It grows at altitudes from 200-1,100 m asl (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not known.
165258		habitat	eng	This small shrub reaches 40-60 cm height and grows rocks and cliffs, in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus brutia</span> forest openings and in thin phrygana (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
165258		population	eng	The population size is 6,400 individuals (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), the population trend is unknown.
165258		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest fires and overgrazing by mouflon (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)
165260		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria and occurs at two sites near Sofia (one of it is Mt. Ljulin). It was believed to be extinct but has been rediscovered   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165260		habitat	eng	Perennial herb that grows in grasslands mixed with trees   (Buord and Lesouëf  2006).
165260		population	eng	Only two subpopulations near Sofia are known (Buord and Lesouëf  2006).
165260		threats	eng	The main threat is agriculture   (Buord and Lesouëf 2006).
165262		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is not protected in Greece. More research is needed on the populations size and the existence of the populations in formerly known localities as some records are very old.
165262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece and Turkey (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). In Greece, it has been recorded from central Greece, there are five records from Evvias Island and a more recent record from northeastern Greece from Mitrikou Lake (Drossos 1992).
165262		habitat	eng	It is found on limestone and conglomerates from sealevel to 1,200 m asl.
165262		population	eng	There is no population information for this species for Greece or Turkey.
165262		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
165263		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed CR C2a(ii) the Spanish Red List 2008 (Moreno 2008). It is included as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of Canarias. The population is included in the Parque Rural de Teno<br/><br/>It is used in gardening and appears naturalised in California (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
165263		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium perezii</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007), where it occurs in one location on the eastern part of the island. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be 1.25 km<sup>2</sup> and to be stable (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). It is believed that at least two more subpopulations of the species could be found.
165263		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on steep basaltic crags, in inaccessible cracks and ledges, within rupicolous communities in the potential distribution range of thermophile forest. Common accompanying species are: <span style="font-style: italic;">Vieria laevigata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllis viscosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium sedifolium</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carlina salicifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus fauces-orci</span> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
165263		population	eng	Its population size has been reported to be 284 individuals in 2006 and it is believed to have been more or less stable for the last years since rigorous population counts have been carried out (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
165263		threats	eng	Grazing has been reported as the main threat to the species; livestock in the area have been removed, but it is not known whether this situation is permanent (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Collection has been also reported as a threat.
165265		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165265		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene sangaria</span> is endemic to Turkey and found in the European and Asian part (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011).
165265		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165265		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165265		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165266		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>It is classed as Rare in the Red Data Book of Russia. The plant is found in one national park in the Seratov region. It is recommended to collect more information on the populations, their size and trend.
165266		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthemis trotzkiana</span> is found in Central and South European Russia along the Wolga river, and the Seratov region among others. Its distribution extends into Middle Asia and Kazakhstan.
165266		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is found on calcareous soil, on slopes and cliffs in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyssopus</span>. It is sometimes found in grasslands (Bardunow and Novikov 2008).
165266		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthemis trotzkiana</span> is a rare species. The populations have a few individuals but are overall stable. In the Volgograd region, the population has 500-1,000 individuals, but there is no information on the number of individuals available for other populations. One population has gone extinct.
165266		threats	eng	The main threats are grazing by sheep and goats and habitat loss due to mining and quarrying of the calcareous soils.
165268		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands. It is listed EN B2ab(iii,v) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>The species occurs within the protected area Parque Rural de Teno (SCI) (Santos Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Plant material is stored in the germplasm banks of Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo and Servicio de Biodiversidad de la Viceconsejería de Medio Ambiente del Gobierno de Canarias. At least one subpopulation is object of invasive species control plans.<br/><br/>Seeds from every subpopulation should be stored in germplasm banks. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> cultivation and micropropagation should be developed, as well as research about is reproductive biology and population trends monitoring. Exotic species eradication plans and access control and surveillance measures should be established. Its proximity to <span style="font-style: italic;">Limoniun arborescens</span> should be clarified through research at molecular and morphological scale.
165268		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium fruticans</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain (Santos Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it occurs between 0 and 300 m asl, on the northwestern part of the island. It is found distributed into three subpopulations in Teno: El Fraile, Tamargo and Faro de Teno (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). Its area of occupancy is 4 km²<sup></sup> (Santos Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165268		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows on xerophile and halophile sites, on steep slopes, within communities such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegio dichotomae</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbietum aphyllae</span>, though it can also colonize more anthropised sites. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia balsamifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia aphylla</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus umbellatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schizogyne sericea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Kleinia neriifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia dichotoma</span> (Santos Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
165268		population	eng	Its total population size has been reported to be 6,757 individuals (Santos Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The number of specimens could be even higher, for one subpopulation was not visited. The subpopulations present slow dynamics and low recruitment but population trend seems to be progressive (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
165268		threats	eng	Infrastructure development and the presence of a road in the surroundings are the main threats affecting this species (Santos Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), along with trampling and collection due to the easy access to the area. Predation by rabbits and competition with exotic species also exert pressure on the species. Local landslides and cleaning works on road edges have been also reported as threats (J.A. Reyes-Betancort pers. comm. 2011).
165269		conservation	eng	This subspecies is listed under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus aitosensis </span>in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In the Bulgarian Red List, the subspecies is classed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(ii,v); C2a(ii) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).
165269		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Bulgaria (ILDIS 2010).
165269		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this subspecies are unknown.
165269		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165269		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165271		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the  Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern  Convention) and is included in the red data book of Ukraine.   <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Steveniella satyrioides</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the marshes, from ploughing, agricultural uses and extensive use of fertilisers; and the woodland from deforestation. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and study their dynamics</li></ul>&#160;(Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
165271		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Steveniella satyrioides </em>is a Caucasian species. It occurs in e</a>astern Turkey (Anatolia), Ukraine and Crimea, the Caucasus, and northern  Iran. It occurs at only three locations in Ukraine and the area of occupancy is 116 km². The species can be found up to 2,000 m asl (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/></p>
165271		habitat	eng	<p><em>Steveniella satyrioides</em> is found in short grassland, woodland edges, hazel plantations, alongside mountain paths and tracks, and in open deciduous and coniferous woodland.<em> </em>It<em> </em>prefers dry to damp, calcareous to neutral substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and the flowering time is from April to June (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
165271		population	eng	<p><em>Steveniella satyrioides</em><span class="species"> is rare and local. The population size is unknown but t<span class="species">he population has a decreasing trend (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
165271		threats	eng	<p><em>Steveniella satyrioides</em><span class="species"> is threatened by soil improvement by fertilisers, ploughing of marshes, deforestation, urbanisation, and tourism (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
165272		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).
165272		distribution	eng	Primula egaliksensis is native to arctic and boreal North America and Russia. In Europe, it was only known to reach Iceland but is supposedly extinct there (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011, Morgan and Leon 1992).
165272		habitat	eng	The species depends on damp coastal meadows   (Morgan and Leon 1992).
165272		population	eng	The species is supposedly extinct in Europe (Morgan and Leon 1992). There is no data on when it was last seen available.
165272		threats	eng	There is no information on threats or reasons for the supposed extinction.
165273		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula orientalis</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is classed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v) in the Bulgarian Red List (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). In Ukraine, the plant is not included as threatened in the national red data book and it is found in the biosphere reserve Ascania Nova.
165273		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula orientalis</span> is a Eurasian species that is found in Bulgaria and the Ukraine in eastern Europe and extends into western Asia and the Caucasus where it is present in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq and Turkey   (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>In the Ukraine, it grows in the Crimean peninsula, in the Cherson and Zaporizza regions.
165273		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula orientalis</span> is found in steppe communities in salty places in <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferulo-orientali-Agroporetum pectinati</span> associations.
165273		population	eng	In the Ukraine, the populations in the biosphere reserve Ascania Nova are in a good status with a stable trend and many individuals. Other populations are small in sites and number of individuals. There is no information on the size or trend of the Bulgarian populations available.
165273		threats	eng	In the Ukraine, the degradation of natural habitats is the main threat.
165276		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pericallis malvifolia</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>Necessary conservation and research actions are (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008):<br/><ul><li>Habitat management and protection</li><li>Management of threats such as the control of invasive species<br/></li><li>Species recovery programmes</li><li>Translocation of subpopulations</li><li>Studies on the taxonomy, biology, ecology and population dynamics, threats, and habitat trends<br/></li></ul>
165276		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Azores and is only found at "Caldeira Grande" at the island Faial (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008). The EOO is smaller than 100 km² as the whole island has an area of 173 km².
165276		habitat	eng	This plant grows in grasslands dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Holcus</span> spp. or <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span> spp. (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
165276		population	eng	The population is stable but counts less than 250 mature individuals (Martín <em>et al.</em> 2008).
165276		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to recreational activities and the invasion of exotic species that also increase competition for this plant. Natural factors such as volcanic eruptions can affect the species (Martín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
165277		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International   Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of   the brassica complex and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. koktebelica</span> is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). <br/><br/>It is listed in the regional Red Lists of Krasnodarskaya (Rare), Stavropolskaya (Endangered) and Rostovskaya (Endangered and Possibly Extinct)   (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005) and in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. <br/><span class="msoIns"><br/>It occurs in Karadagh and Kazantipand Opuk reserves. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. koktebelica </span>stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid; however, none are reported to originate from Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). For the three accessions held, collection location is not provided but all three accessions were collected in the early 1960s. Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165277		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">C. koktebelica</span> is native to the Russian Federation (north Caucasus and the lower Volga region) and to Ukraine (Crimean Peninsula). In Crimea it occurs in the Karadagh mountains massif, on the Black Sea coast near Koktebele town, in Tarchankutskij and Kerczenskij Peninsulas.
165277		habitat	eng	In Ukraine, it grows on clay and limestone slopes in coastal areas in <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo–Seleran–thetea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso–</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Sedetalia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Onosmo polyphyllae</span>–<span style="font-style: italic;">Rtlostemetalia</span> communities (Diduch 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165277		population	eng	This is a very rare species. The subpopulations are small in size (no more than 100 m<sup>2</sup>) and in the number of individuals. In cap Kazantip Kerczenskij Peninsulas and landscape unit, Djangule in Tarchankutskij peninsula, the density of populations are high (20–30 adult individuals /10 m<sup>2</sup>). However, in other subpopulations, especially on the Black Sea coast near Koktebel town, population density is low. The population trend is suspected to be decreasing.
165277		threats	eng	In Crimea, the main threat to this species is development for tourism, especially around Koktebel which is one of the most popular tourist destinations of the peninsula. In the Russian Federation, urbanization is leading to habitat degradation. Moreover, the effect of habitats getting drier has been observed in recent years—this is suspected to be as a result of climate change.
165278		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> protection in national botanic garden in Kiev was successful and the species was reintroduced into its natural habitat. This <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> protection is still ongoing. It is included in the Ukrainian Red Data Book (Diduch 2009) as rare. The territory where the species is found is included in a national park.
165278		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Ukraine where it only grows in granite slopes of the river Pivdennij Bug.
165278		habitat	eng	It is found on granite slopes of the river Pivdennij Bug.
165278		population	eng	The species has many thousand individuals but is still considered a rare species. The population trend is stable.
165278		threats	eng	Building of the south Ukrainian electric extensions in the 1920s led to an elevation of the groundwater level and part of the populations were inundated. Seeds of the remaining plants were collected and preserved in the national botanic garden of Kiev. Eighty years ago this critical situation ended by reintroducing the plants and the populations are increasing now.<br/><br/>There are no threats to the species at present as its only locality is currently protected. Potential threats could come from tourism and recreational activities.
165279		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Microcnemum coralloides</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">coralloides</span> is listed VU A3c+4c; B2ab(iii)+2c(iii) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).
165279		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microcnemum coralloides </span>has two subspecies: <span style="font-style: italic;">Microcnemum coralloides </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">coralloides</span> is present in Spain and <span style="font-style: italic;">Microcnemum coralloides </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anatolicum</span> occurs in saline deserts in the Asiatic part of Turkey and Lebanon-Syria (Euro+Med Plantbase  2006-2010). <br/>In Spain, it occurs in the provinces of Albacete, Cuenca, Ciudad Real, Madrid, Toledo, Valladolid, Huesca, Lérida, Teruel, Zaragoza, Murcia and Granada (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007). Its presence in Galicia is uncertain. Its area of occupancy has been reported to be lower than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
165279		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This is a halophile species which grows in inland marshlands, in areas with dry sunny continental climate. </span>Regressive trends have been identified for its habitat (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
165279		population	eng	Negative trends have been reported for its population size and extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
165279		threats	eng	Destruction of habitats, hydrological system modifications, agriculture and grazing have been cited as threats to this species (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
165280		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is listed in the Red Data Book of Bulgaria as extinct and is included in the list of protected plants of Bulgaria. It is not included in the Red Data Books of Ukraine or Moldova but some subpopulations are included in protected areas in the Ukraine: in the natural steppe reserve in Mychajlivska cilyna, in the Luganskij natural reserve (department Strilcivskij steppe) and in the natural reserve of the Elaneckij steppe. More information on the size and trend of the population and status of its habitat are needed.
165280		distribution	eng	This plant is native to Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It has been reported from northeastern Bulgaria from two formerly known localities: one near Varna, one near the village Senokos, district of Dobrich. The species was described in the 1920s from the type locality near Varna but had not been seen anymore since its original collection. Then it was found in the 1970s in Senokos. Now the species is regionally extinct in Bulgaria as it has not been seen for 15 years despite extensive surveys (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010). In the Ukraine, the main distribution area is in the steppe zone and in the northern part of the lesosteppe zone. Two localities are registered in Moldova, in the Bendery and Kriumency districts (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).
165280		habitat	eng	<p>This perennial herb grows in steppe slopes, among granite rocks, in forest meadows, forest fringes and among shrubby vegetation.</p>
165280		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations are locally isolated and the present population trend in Moldova and the Ukraine is unknown. <span style="font-style: italic;">Veronica euxina</span> is known from 20 localities in the Ukraine and only two localities in Moldova.<br/></p>
165280		threats	eng	In the Ukraine, hybridisation with similar species is a potential threat. There is no information on the reasons for the extinction in Bulgaria.
165282		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Primula wulfeniana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">baumgarteniana</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is assessed as Vulnerable in the Carpathian List of Endangered Species (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
165282		distribution	eng	This plant is native to Romania (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). The subspecies occurs in the mountain regions of Piatra Craiului and Muntii Fagarasului (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
165282		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this subspecies are unknown.
165282		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165282		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165284		conservation	eng	This subspecies is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Critically Endangered B2ab(v) in the national Red List under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Centranthus kellereri</span> (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).
165284		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Bulgaria (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
165284		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this subspecies are unknown.
165284		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165284		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165285		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>It is not included in Red Data Book of Ukraine, but it is protected in the Carpathian biosphere reserve, in Gorgany reserve, in Carphathian, Synevir, Vyznickij, Scolivski Beskydy, Uzhanskij natural parks and in Chivhino-Grynjavskij zakaznik in Ukrainian Carpathians.
165285		distribution	eng	This species is found from the eastern Carpathian mountains to the Balkan and occurs in Czech Republic, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, and Montenegro.
165285		habitat	eng	It grows in glades and clearings of spruce forests and in high-mountain meadows of the Carpathians as a component of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hyperico grisebachii, Calamagrostietum villosae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Poa-Deschampsietum caespitosea</span> communities.
165285		population	eng	In Montenegro, the plant is found on the Prokletije mountain and in Ukraine, it occurs in groups with a small number of individuals. However, there is no further population size or trend information available for the rest of its range.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
165285		threats	eng	Degradation of the forest mountain ecosystems is the main threat in the Ukraine. There is no information on threats in the other parts of its range.
165286		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>In the Ukraine<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation in botanical gardens is in place.<br/><br/>Information on the populations in Romania and Croatia is needed.
165286		distribution	eng	This species distribution is restricted to the northern Balkans and eastern Europe where it is found only in Croatia, Romania and the Ukraine (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2011). The Ukrainian populations are introduced (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). It is not known whether there are populations outside of Europe.
165286		habitat	eng	This perennial plant is found in deciduous forest.
165286		population	eng	The species is rare in the Ukraine, found in isolated patches often with a few individuals and the populations are declining due to degradation of its habitat. There is no information about the populations in Romania and Croatia available.
165286		threats	eng	In the Ukraine, logging of its forest habitat and collection for medicinal purposes are the main threats to the species.
165287		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</a> This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). In Bulgaria, it is listed as Vulnerable B2ab(ii,iv) on the national red list (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and protected under national law. A small part of the Bulgarian populations is included in protected areas.<br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the subspecies:<em></em></a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat from trampling.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Moderate grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
165287		distribution	eng	This taxon is native to southeast Europe, the Caucasus, and the Levant (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe, it is found on the Balkan Peninsula and in Crimea, Ukraine. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
165287		habitat	eng	This plant is found in dry Mediterranean type grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodiata</span>), in shrubby pastures, garrigue, scrub and open woodland. It prefers dry to moist, alkaline soils. This taxon grows in full sun to mid-shade and flowers from March to May. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008)
165287		population	eng	The subspecies is rather widespread and sometimes abundant (Delforge 1995). In Bulgaria, for example, there are 70 localities which are clustered close together  in the eastern Rhodopian Mountains, all the others are  fragmented. There are less than 100 individuals in each location, some with single individuals. In the eastern Rhodopian Mountains, larger populations can be found (A. Petrova pers. comm. 2010).
165287		threats	eng	The main threat in the past was collection of this plant. Afforestation with pine plantations destroyed dry grasslands. Very intensive grazing can become a threat to the species, but nowadays the abandonment of grazing is more critical.
165288		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Klasea radiata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tanaitica</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Rare, is protected in the Luganskij reserve (department Strilcivskij steppe) and in Strilcivka zakaznik. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> protection measures are being carried out in Doneckij botanical garden.<br/><br/>This subspecies is included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (Bardunow and Novikov 2008) and in regional Red Data Books as an endangered species.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165288		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the East European Russian plain. It grows in the basins of Siversij Donec and lower Don rivers. In Ukraine, it occurs in the extreme east in the basin of the Kaminka river, Luganska region.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
165288		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This perennial herb flowers from May-July, and fruits in August-September. It grows </span><span style="background-color: white;">on limestone soil or lime rocks, and </span><span style="background-color: white;">dry chalk slopes in the ecotone between communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo-Thymetea </span>classis.
165288		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It is only recorded from three sites in the Ukraine and the population trend is not known. In Russia, the populations are isolated and very small.<br/></span>
165288		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There is no information on the threats in Ukraine available.<br/>In Russia, habitat loss and degradation caused by the extraction of lime, infrastructure development, agriculture, grazing, recreational activities, grassland fires, and low competitiveness, are the main threats.<br/></span>
165289		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/>Its harvesting is limited in some Italian regions.<br/><br/>There is little information available about this species and data on its distribution in Europe, size and trend of the population, habitat and ecology, threats, conservation measures in place and required, and taxonomy needs to be collected
165289		distribution	eng	In Italy, the species is found in Valle d'Aosta and is doubtfully present in Piedmont.
165289		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
165289		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
165289		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
165290		conservation	eng	None in place.
165290		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indian Ocean. It is thought to occur off India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar, may venture into Indonesian waters; possibly off Mozambique (Last and Compagno 1999).
165290		habitat	eng	Very little information is available for this species. Maximum total length at least 345 cm; maximum disc width 179 cm (Last and Compagno 1999).
165290		population	eng	Unknown.
165290		threats	eng	Presumably taken as bycatch in artisanal and industrial trawl and other net fisheries.
165291		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific measures in place for <em>S. lewini</em> in the Eastern Pacific, although steps are being taken towards the management of elasmobranch fisheries. In Ecuador the current regulations prohibit shark fishing in the core zone of the Galápagos marine reserve, however extensive poaching has been reported. Ecuador issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec). In Mexico, some known adult aggregating sites are protected within the Revillagigedo Island archipelago, however enforcement is lacking and there are many reports of poaching. Protection of known nursery adult aggregating sites is recommended. Estimates of acceptable catch rates should be viewed with precaution until there is more certainty in age and growth parameters.
165291		distribution	eng	In the eastern Pacific, this species occurs in southern California and the Gulf of California to Panama, Ecuador and possibly to northern Peru (Compagno in prep).
165291		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).
165291		threats	eng	Throughout this species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, juveniles and neonates are heavily exploited in directed fisheries, and are also taken as bycatch of shrimp trawlers and coastal fisheries targeting teleost fish. Fishing pressure directed at juveniles also appears to have increased in parts of the Gulf of California and in Costa Rica, and is likely to be increasing elsewhere as other, more valuable fishery stocks are depleted. Patchy distribution resulting from aggregating behavior of adults and the use of historic nurseries, where neonates shoal with spatially confined movements, make this species particularly easy to target. As in other areas, the large fins of this species are highly prized for their value in the international shark fin trade. Increased fishing pressure from international longline fleets in the Eastern Central Pacific and Southeast Pacific, driven by increasing demand for fins, is of concern. Furthermore, as traditional and coastal fisheries in Central America are depleted, domestic fleets have increased pressure at adult aggregating sites such as Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), or along the slopes of the continental shelf where high catch rates of juveniles can be obtained (Vargas and Arauz 2001).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California, <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is a common catch in the directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries of Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, Mexico. Juveniles, including neonates, dominate the overall landings of this species; most are less than 100 cm total length (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> in press). Bottom set gillnets and longlines produce the majority of the catch. Adults are landed in artisanal pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries, but represented less than 20% of the total <em>S. lewini</em> observed in artisanal catches during 1998 and 1999 fisheries surveys (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> In Press). The indirect take by trawlers and artisanal teleost and shrimp fishermen is unknown. Landings data for 1996–1998 from the Gulf of Tehauntepec, Mexico, indicates that Scalloped Hammerheads were the second most important shark caught in the artisanal shark fishery, representing 36% of the total catch from a sample of 8,659 individuals (Soriano-Velassquez  <em>et al.</em> 2002). The size of the individuals in this sample is unknown. Marquez (2000) reports that this species represented only 4.61% of the total catch of the artisanal fishery in the Gulf of California, contrasting with reports for Sinaloa, Mexico in 1994, 1995 and 1996, in which scalloped hammerheads represented 80.3%, 52.54% and 85.68% of the shark catch respectively (Marquez 2000). Off Pacific Guatemala, the importance of this species in the fishery landings appears to vary across areas, from 6% (n=339) to 74% (n=800) of the total catch from 1996–1999 (Ruiz and Ixquiac 2000). Data from El Salvador collected from July of 1991 to June of 1992, indicate this species represented 11.9% of the landed catch in a sample of 412 (Villatoro and Rivera 1994).<br/><br/>The number of adult individuals at a well-known <em>S. lewini</em> aggregation site in the Gulf of California (Espiritu Santo seamount) has declined sharply since 1980. In 1981 Klimley and Nelson estimated the size of a school at 525 individuals using Lincon Index mark recapture methods. Between 1998 and 2004 at least 20 attempts have been made to recreate this study, however in most cases fewer than 8 individuals have been observed at one time (Klimley 1999, Klimley and Jorgensen unpublished data).<br/><br/>Large hammerheads were formerly abundant in coastal waters off Central America, but were reportedly depleted in the 1970s (Cooke 1990). Industrial longlining initiated in the early 1980s, and again large hammerheads provided valuable fins for this market. A comparison of standardized catch rates of pelagic sharks (species-specific information was not available) in the EEZ of Costa Rica from 1991–2000 showed a decrease of 60% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 1991, sharks formed 27% of the total catch. In 2000, only 7.64% of the total catch was sharks, and in 2003 this decreased further to 4.9% of the total catch, 58.2% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 2001 and 2003, scalloped hammerheads only constituted 0.14% and .09% of the total catch by individuals, respectively.<br/><br/>In Ecuador, catch records (grouped for the entire family Sphyrnidae) indicate a peak of approximately 1,000 tons in 1996, followed by a steady reduction until 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 2003). Landings in the port of Manta (accounting for 80% of shark landing in Ecuador) of <em>S. lewini</em>, caught by artisanal longline and drift net fleet were about 160 t in 2004, 96 t in 2005 and 82 t (2006). Artisanal fishery landings into the port of Manta for <em>Sphyrna</em> spp declined by 51% between 2004 and 2006 (Martínez-Ortíz <em>et al. </em>2007). According to Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) the percentage of juveniles in landings is 83% for females and 71% for males. Most of the landings for this species (74%) take place between January and June.<br/><br/>Divers and dive guides in the Galapagos have noted a severe decrease in shark numbers and schools of hammerhead sharks (P. Zarate pers. comm.). Illegal fishing around the Galapagos is not only practiced by fishermen from the Galapagos, but also by the industrial and artisanal fleet from continental Ecuador and international fleets (Coello 2005). These illegal fisheries target sharks for their fins. There are no species specific data for these fisheries, but <em>S. lewini </em>is one of the most common species around the Galapagos (J. Martinez pers.obs.), and given the high value of fins of this species, it is very likely that it is targeted in illegal finning activities. In an effort to help stopping the illegal finning occurring in the Galapagos, the Ecuadorian Government issued Decree 2130 in 2004 prohibiting fin export from Ecuador. Unfortunately, the Decree had the reverse effect of establishing illegal trade routes, with fins being exported mainly via Peru and Colombia where there is no finning ban in place. Interviews with fishermen and traders in both Ecuador and Peru suggested that illegal trade routes operated for fins transported both from Ecuador and directly from Galapagos to Peru (Saenz 2005, WildAid 2005). Ecuador then abolished Decree 2130 and issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec).
165293		conservation	eng	In the U.S. this species is included in the Large Coastal Shark complex management unit, on U.S. Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks). There are, however, no management measures specific to this species, and no stock assessments. Efforts to limit catches of this species, and increased monitoring of incidental catches in commercial fisheries are both recommended.
165293		distribution	eng	In the western Atlantic, this shark occurs from New Jersey (United States) to Uruguay, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007, Compagno in prep).
165293		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).
165293		threats	eng	In the USA this species is caught in both commercial coastal shark bottom longline and gillnet fisheries and the pelagic longline fishery, where it suffers high mortality (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also taken in recreational shark fisheries. The USA pelagic longline fishery has operated since the 1960s and encompasses the entire range of this species in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, from the equator to about 50°N. Although this is quite a fecund shark, its late age at maturity in this region (15 years) will render it quite vulnerable to overexploitation, and limit its recovery potential.<br/><br/>Estimates of trends in abundance of <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. are available from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S.A. pelagic longline fishery, from logbook data between 1986 and 2000 and from observer data between 1992 and 2005. The area covered by this fishery, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the range of this species in these two regions. Although this fishery will not sample individuals closest to the coast, the sample size of hammerheads recorded in the logbook data (the majority of which are thought to be <em>S. lewini</em>) is substantial, with over 60,000 recorded during this period. This subpopulation of Scalloped Hammerhead sharks is estimated from the logbook data to have declined by 89% over the 15 year time period, from 1986–2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003), which is less than one generation. A more recent analysis of the pelagic longline observer data indicates that <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. declined by 76% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The pelagic longline fishery has operated in these regions since the 1960s, thus declines from 1986 were certainly not from virgin population abundance.<br/><br/>Using logistic regression of <em>S. lewini</em>, Ha (2006) showed that the probability of capture in a fisheries independent sampling program off Virginia, USA, declined by an order of magnitude between 1975 and 2005. Species-specific trends in abundance are available for <em>S. lewini</em> from a shark-targeted longline survey conducted annually between 1972 and 2003 near Cape Lookout, North Carolina, by Dr. F.J. Schwarz at the University of North Carolina. Standardized CPUE from this research survey based on a sample size of 495 <em>S. lewini</em> indicates that it has declined by 98% over this 32 year time period (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007). Off southern Carolina, Ulrich (1996) reported a 66% decrease between 1983/84 and 1991/95. In contrast to all other data, a more recent research survey (1989–2005) along the southeast U.S. coast shows a significant increase in juvenile scalloped hammerheads (Myers <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Off the Atlantic coast of Belize hammerheads were fished heavily by longline in the 1980s and early 1990s (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Hammerheads are a favoured target species for their large fins. Interviews with fishermen indicate that the abundance and size of Sphyrnids has declined dramatically in the past 10 years as a result of over exploitation, leading to a halt in the Belize based shark fishery (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). However, the pressure is still sustained by fishers driving into Belizean waters from Guatemala (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Fin prices are rising above US$50/lb in the neighbouring countries of Guatemala, driven by Asian buyers, according to these interviews (R.T. Graham pers. obs). This species is probably caught in other fisheries but is usually placed in a combined "hammerhead" category. Species identification (<em>S. mokarran</em> vs. <em>S. lewini</em>) is a large obstacle in the proper assessment of this species. The high at-vessel fishing mortality for both species of hammerhead makes the threat of fishing high. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is also taken in various fisheries along the Caribbean coast of South America. It is taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries targeting mackerel off Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and in pelagic tuna fisheries of the eastern Caribbean (Chan A Shing 1999).
165294		distribution	eng	In the Indian Ocean, the Scalloped Hammerhead Shark occurs from South Africa (Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal), Maldives, and Red Sea to Pakistan, India, Myanmar (Compagno in prep).
165294		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).
165294		threats	eng	Reliable species-specific catch information is available for shark nets set off the beaches of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, in the southewestern Indian Ocean, from 1978–2003 (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Catch per unit effort of <em>S. lewini </em>declined significantly during this period from approximately 5.5/km net/year to approximately 2/km net/year (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). This fishery independent data indicates a decline of approximately 64% over a 25 year period. About 120 longline vessels were reportedly operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean prior to 2005, and this number was expected to increase (IOTC 2005). These vessels are primarily targeting hammerhead sharks and Giant Guitarfish (<em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em>) for their fins (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Illegal fishing by industrial vessels and shark finning are reported in other areas of the Indian Ocean also (Young <em>et al. </em>2006). Dudley and Simpfendorfer (2006) also report large catches of newborn <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> by prawn trawlers on the Tudela Bank, South Africa, ranging from an estimated 3,288 in 1989 to 1,742 in 1992, with almost 98% mortality. An inshore, artisanal fishery that uses multiple gear types (including seine nets and gillnets) along the coast of Mozambique and takes sharks as bycatch also potentially affects <em>S. lewini</em> (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006).<br/><br/><em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is captured in various other fisheries throughout the rest of its range in the Indian Ocean. Few species-specific data are available from other areas, however, declines are also likely to have occurred in other areas where this species is heavily fished. Other countries with major fisheries for sharks include the Maldives, Kenya, Mauritius, Seychelles and United Republic of Tanzania (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Sharks are considered fully to over-exploited in these waters (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Landings data are available from FAO for Oman since 1985. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is one of five dominant species in the catches of Oman. Landings of sharks for Oman varied between 2,800– 8,300 t, since 1985, with peaks noted from 1986–1988 and 1995–1997. After 1997 landings continued to decline to under 4,000 t in 2000 (FAO 2008). Oman has a long-established traditional shark fishery (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) surveyed landings sites in Oman between 2002 and 2003 and report a notable decline in catches of <em>S. lewini</em> in 2003, although the trend varied between areas. Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) note that large pelagic sharks such as <em>S. lewini</em> were displaced during 2003 by smaller shark species. Although it is possible that this is due to sampling bias, informal interviews with fishermen revealed a general trend of declining shark catches over the last number of years, particularly large pelagic species (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Artisanal gillnet and longline fisheries also target sharks off Madagascar for their fins, which are exported in the international shark fin trade. A study of directed shark fisheries at two sites in southwest Madagascar from 2001–2002 showed that hammerhead sharks represented 29% of sharks caught and 24% of the total wet weight, but species-specific data are not available because fishermen do not differentiate between <em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em> (McVean <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is also high in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, with many countries in this region among the largest shark fishing nations in terms of global catch in the world (Clarke and Rose 2005, SEAFDEC 2006). Indonesia has the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world, with a reported 105,000 and 118,000 tonnes landed in 2002 and 2003 respectively (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is a target and bycatch of shark longline, tuna gillnet fisheries and trawls in several areas of this region (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). The species is utilised for its fins (high value in adults), meat, skin and cartilage (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). White <em>et al.</em> (2008) suggest that this species is prone to overfishing in Indonesian waters, where substantial catches of <em>S. lewini</em> are taken in gillnet and longline fisheries. They found that almost all of the <em>S. lewini </em>caught by gillnetting, and the majority caught by longlining, were immature, and were therefore removed from the population before they had the opportunity to breed. Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout Southeast Asia and juveniles and neonates are very heavily exploited, with large numbers of immature sharks in catches in other areas also (SEAFDEC 2006). Foreign vessels are also reported to target sharks in eastern Indonesian waters (Clarke and Rose 2005). Given the marked declines in this species’ abundance in areas for which data are available, there is every reason to suspect that declines have also occurred in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, where fishing pressure is high.<br/><br/>Japanese data on hammerhead species are limited, but reported landings in Japan’s coastal ports totaled 11–34 mt annually between 2000 and 2004 with an average of 24 mt per annum.  No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).
165296		conservation	eng	In Brazil, there are laws restricting the length of pelagic gillnets and banning trawl fishing at a distance of less than three nautical miles from shore (equivalent depths of less than about 10 m), however enforcement of these laws has been difficult. Therefore trawling in inshore nursery grounds has continued and gillnetting within nursery areas is not regulated. Some fisheries along the coast are poorly documented and the multi-species nature of many of the fisheries makes species-specific regulation very difficult. Therefore, it is recommended that coastal protected sea areas are established, in which fishing is banned, to protect nursery grounds.<br/><br/>In 1998, the Brazilian Government’s Environmental Agency (IBAMA - Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) made a first effort to control "finning" by issuing a federal regulation (Portaria IBAMA nnordm; 121 of August 24th, 1998), prohibiting shark finning by all vessels licensed to fish in Brazilian waters (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002). The enforcement of this law has been proven difficult and probably will require international financial aid, trained personnel for sampling work along the main fishing harbours and the establishment of a national observer program (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002).
165296		distribution	eng	In the western Atlantic, this shark occurs from New Jersey (United States) to Uruguay, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007, Compagno in prep).
165296		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).
165296		threats	eng	In the southwest Atlantic, the Scalloped Hammerhead faces two main threats related to fisheries: 1) fishing of juveniles and neonates on the continental shelf by gillnets and trawl nets (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Doño 2008); and 2) fishing of adults by gillnets (only in Brazil) and longlines on the continental shelf and oceanic waters, mostly for fins (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Kotas and Petrere 2003, Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The species therefore faces intensive fishing pressure throughout its range in this area and at all points in its life cycle. Because all Brazilian fisheries statistics for hammerhead sharks are grouped under the headings “shark” or “hammerhead shark”, it is not possible to determine species-specific trends. Annual landings of hammerhead sharks (six species of hammerhead sharks occur off Brazil) in the ports of Rio Grande and Itajaí (Brazil) combined increased rapidly from ~30 t in 1992 to 700 t in 1994, after which catches decreased, fluctuating between 100–300 t from 1995–2002. The majority of this catch was taken by surface gillnet fisheries that targeted hammerhead sharks on the outer shelf and slope between 27° and 35°S (Kotas 2004, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Neonates and small juveniles are caught in coastal waters by directed gillnet fishing and as bycatch by bottom trawls (Vooren and Klippel 2005). In the inshore nursery area (depths down to 10 m), neonates are fished intensively by coastal gillnets and are also caught as bycatch by shrimp trawl, pair trawl and intensive recreational fisheries. Their abundance in coastal waters has decreased markedly as a result (Haimovici and Mendonça 1996, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data). Finning of hammerhead sharks, with discarding of the carcasses at sea, is often practised (Kotas 2004, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Fisheries statistics only refer to the landed carcasses and therefore the true extent of catches is unknown.<br/><br/>In southern Brazil and northern Uruguay, adult hammerhead catches (<em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em>) by monofilament longliners are highest in winter and spring at the shelf edge and the continental slope between 30° and 35°S (Kotas and Petrere 2002). The Brazilian pelagic fishery based in Santos catches significant numbers of sharks, including <em>S. lewini</em> (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Until 1997, most of this shark catch was discarded but greater demand for fins and flesh has resulted in a substantial increase in retention rates and targeting of sharks (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). Because hammerhead shark fins are highly valued for their high fin-ray count, this species is unlikely to be released alive. The artisanal fishing fleet in São Paulo has operated since 1996 and also takes sharks. The majority of the hammerheads caught by this fishery were newborns or juveniles (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Uruguay (oceanic coast) some neonates are also captured (together with <em>S. zygaena</em>) in artisanal gill nets, in summer (between December and February) (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007). In view of the intensive fisheries in the coastal and offshore areas where <em>S. lewini</em> occurs in this region and documented declining trends where the species has been heavily fished in other areas of its range, the species is assessed as Vulnerable in the Southwest Atlantic.
165297		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, the Scalloped Hammerhead possibly occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and around the Azores. The species is probably present all along the western Africa coast, confirmed from Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Gabon, and Congo (Compagno in prep, M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006).
165297		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).
165297		threats	eng	Data to indicate trends in abundance are generally not available for the Eastern Central Atlantic. Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that similar population trends for hammerheads (grouped) to those documented in the Northwest Atlantic can be expected in the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic because longline fleets in this area exert comparable fishing effort, and effort is seen to shift from western to eastern Atlantic waters (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998, Serafy <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006). European industrial freeze trawlers targeting small pelagic fish (Sardinella, sardine, and horsemackerel) operate on the northwestern African shelf nearly year-round with five to ten large vessels (9,000-18,000 horse power). A study of bycatch rates in more than 1,400 trawl sets off Mauritania from 2001–2005, showed that <em>Sphyrna</em> species combined represented 42% of total bycatch during this period (Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Hammerheads are caught by both inshore artisanal fisheries and offshore European fisheries operating along the coast of western Africa. The Subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26–28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Anonymous 2000) noted the high threat to sharks in the West African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. Walker <em>et al.</em> (2005) also noted that there is concern for <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> off Mauritania, with catches comprised exclusively of juveniles, often newborn. Increased targeting of sharks began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005). There has been rapid growth in the shark fin market in this region, for export to the Far East, and yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau alone is estimated at 250 t (dry weight) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is frequently caught along the western African coast and is heavily targeted by driftnets and fixed gillnets from Mauritania to Sierra Leone (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). There is anecdotal evidence for some declines in catches off Senegal and Gambia (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles are very susceptible to coastal fisheries using drift or fixed gill nets such as sole, sciaenid and Sepia spp fisheries (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). They were taken as bycatch in the milk shark fishery and in the Banc d'Aguin national park, Mauritania, until the fishery was stopped in 2003 and they are still caught in large quantities in the Sciaenid fishery. A specialized artisanal fishery for carcharhinid and sphyrnid species was introduced in Sierra Leone in 1975, and since then fishing pressure has been continuous (M. Seisay pers. obs. 2006).
165300		conservation	eng	<p>None in place. Research is required on taxonomy, range, habitat, biology, threats and exploitation.</p>
165300		distribution	eng	The Multispine Giant Stingray   occurs off the Pacific coast of Japan and in the Sea of Japan.
165300		habitat	eng	Virtually no information is currently available for specific habitat requirements for this stingray.
165300		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends for this species.
165300		threats	eng	<p>Potential bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries, however no specific information is currently available.</p>
165302		conservation	eng	Research actions are urgently required for this species since so little is known about its life history and population dynamics. Management plans and habitat conservation, possibly including protected areas, are also recommended, despite the lack of information. All fishing activities, if existent, should be monitored also.
165302		distribution	eng	<p>Inland waters of South America: Amazon and Solimões River basin, Brazil and Colombia.</p>
165302		habitat	eng	This freshwater stingray reaches a maximum disc width of 62 cm (Reis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
165302		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends for this species.
165302		threats	eng	Details of threats facing this species are little known and studies are required. However, freshwater habitats within this stingray's range area are experiencing a large expansion of human activities including urban development and agriculture. Dams are also impacting on its habitat. It is not known whether other threats facing other potamotrygonid species, such as fishing for consumption, the ornamental trade or persecution also affect this species.
165303		conservation	eng	Research actions are urgently required for this species since so little is known about its life history and population dynamics. Management plans and habitat conservation, possibly including protected areas, are also recommended, despite the lack of information. All fishing activities, if existent, should be monitored also.
165303		distribution	eng	<p>Inland waters of South America: Pedreira River and south of Mexiana Island in the Amazon River, Brazil.</p>
165303		habitat	eng	This freshwater stingray reaches a maximum length of 20 cm disc width (DW) (Reis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Very little else is currently known of the life history characteristics of this species.
165303		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
165303		threats	eng	Details of threats facing this species are little known and further investigation is required. However, freshwater habitats within this stingray's range area are experiencing a large expansion of human activities including urban development and agriculture. Dams are also impacting on its habitat. It is not known whether other threats facing other potamotrygonid species, such as fishing for consumption, the ornamental trade or persecution also affect this species.
165309		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the threats and impact of habitat degradation is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
165309		distribution	eng	This species is known from Paraguay, Peru and French Guiana (Carcelles 1940 in Yonge 1962, Haas 1969, Mansur and da Silva 1990, von Burmeister 1988). Specifically it is known from the Rio Llullapichis and Arroya Guaza in Paraguay and the Amazon River in Peru (Carcelles 1940 in Yonge 1962, Mansur and da Silva 1990, von Burmeister 1988). It is inferred that this species is also located in Bolivia and Brazil.
165309		habitat	eng	This species is said to inhabit rivers and waterfalls (Carcelles 1940 in Yonge 1962, von Burmeister 1988). This species was found on a steep river bank slope, at the low water mark for a river which fluctuated water levels greatly (von Burmeister 1988).
165309		population	eng	This species was found in 'dense' concentrations of 30-40 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> when sampled in the Rio Llullapichis (von Burmeister 1988).
165309		threats	eng	Deforestation for cattle ranching and soy plantations may result in sedimentation, which could be threatening the places this species inhabits (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Also, effluents from gold mining may be degrading the quality of the watercourses in the area in which this species is distributed (Lacerda <em>et al.</em> 1991).  However, it is not known what effect these threats are having on this species.
165311		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165311		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about levels of exploitation and other threats.
165311		conservation	eng	No information available.
165311		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Insufficient data exists on population status and trends, in particular in the main river systems of Africa and Madagascar, so that further research is recommended.
165311		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various populations, especially among the major river systems of Africa and Madagascar. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Etheria elliptica</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
165311		distribution	eng	<em>Etheria elliptica</em> is widespread in Africa. In the Nile Basin, it was historically reported from the Great Lakes till the Delta. It is now considered as rare in the Nile. It is present in Upper Egypt (outside of our region) and at one site in Lower Egypt (Ibrahim 1999).
165311		distribution	eng	<em>Etheria elliptica</em> is widespread in the Afrotropics, from throughout the Nile, through the Chad-Chari system and West Africa, and south through the entire Congo Basin to Angola and Zambia. Also in northern Madagascar.
165311		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Found in the Kunene River (recorded from Otjinungua, Ondorusu Falls and at the confluence with Chabicua) and the Cuanza River (recorded from Lucala river and Rio Lui) in Angola. It is also found in the Cassai (Cuango) River in Angola but this is outside the region in the Congo drainage. Also found in Namibia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution: </span>Distribution covers tropical Africa and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165311		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, northern Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout much of Africa.
165311		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species covers tropical Africa and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988). <em>Etheria elliptica</em> is widespread in the Afrotropics, it is known from throughout the Nile, through the Chad-Chari system and West Africa, and south through the entire Congo Basin to Angola and Zambia. It is also present in northern Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Lakes Victoria, Edward and Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In the Nile Basin it was historically reported from the Great Lakes to the Delta. Now it is rare in Nile, with just one known site in lower Egypt (Ibrahim 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Kunene River (recorded from Otjinungua, Ondorusu Falls and at the confluence with Chabicua) and the Cuanza River (recorded from Lucala river and Rio Lui) in Angola. It is also found in the Cassai (Cuango) River in Angola but this is outside the region in the Congo drainage.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is not found in northwest Africa. Inhabited rivers include Senegal, Gambia, Mao, Abitifi, Sacbayere, Sewa and Lake Chad (Leveque 1967).
165311		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the African continent. It was also present in northern Madagascar (Graf and Cummings 2009), but is now likely to be extinct since it has not been recorded live there since the early 20<sup>th</sup> century (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
165311		distribution	eng	Within western Africa it is found in rivers including Senegal, Gambia, Mao, Abitifi, Sacbayere, Sewa and Lake Chad (Leveque 1967). It occurs throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar, except for northwest Africa.
165311		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. <em>Etheria elliptica</em> cements to hard substrates: freshwater oysters.
165311		habitat	eng	Inhabits hard substrates in large rivers and lakes.
165311		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. <em>Etheria elliptica</em> cements to hard substrates: freshwater oysters.
165311		habitat	eng	It occurs in large rivers (where the species forms huge reefs) and margins of large lakes.
165311		habitat	eng	Prefers fast flowing rivers, cataracts, rapids and waterfalls (Mandahl-Barth 1988, Pilsbry and Bequaert 1927).
165311		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater waterbodies, demonstrating a preference for fast flowing rivers, lakes, rapids and waterfalls and attaching to hard substrates such as oyster shells or rocky shores (Yonge 1962).
165311		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky shores of great lakes, and fast running rivers.
165311		population	eng	No information available.
165311		population	eng	No information is available.
165311		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
165311		population	eng	This species is locally abundant especially below waterfalls (Appleton pers com).
165311		population	eng	This species is locally abundant throughout its range (Yonge 1962).
165311		threats	eng	Although there are no specifc threats documented for this species, sedimentation as a result of logging, mining and dam building, and pollution are issues concerning the freshwater systems of Africa (Graf and Cummings 2009). The species is harvested although it is unclear to what extent.
165311		threats	eng	Dams are proposed for the Kunene which would heavily impact the habitat of this species. The dams would change flow regimes and this would impact the species because it requires fast flowing water.
165311		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be affected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, building of dams, and pollution.
165311		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution.
165311		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat for the species.
165311		threats	eng	Sedimentation and water turbidity threaten this species.
165311		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance and water pollution from mining is known to be a  threat to bivalves in general. It is harvested for subsistence, though its not known at what quantities, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
165322		conservation	eng	This species was present in numerous localities (near Tata, Miskolctapolca, Diósgyőr) in Hungary a few decades ago. One subpopulation went extinct due to reconstruction works of the spa, those of Tata due to the drop of the ground water level, and that of Sály due to the capturing of the spring. Now the above mentioned habitats are - at least partly - recovered, therefore they seem to be suitable for this species again. Consequently a reintroduction action plan is planned to begin in 2010 (Feher, pers. comm., 2009). Specimens will be reintroduced from Kács to Miskolctapolca, Tata and Sály.
165322		distribution	eng	This species has a highly patchy distribution in the Pannonian Basin. Now, it is present in Austria (Bad Vöslau, Bad Fischau) (Resichutz, pers. comm. 2009), Slovenia (Buseca vas) and Hungary (Kács). In 2008, it went extinct in Romania (Rabagani) (Sirbu, pers. comm., 2009). There are other occurrences mentioned in the literature, which are partly based on misidentification and are partly unconfirmed. It is extinct in Croatia where the last known record was in 1905.
165322		habitat	eng	This freshwater species inhabits hypothermal (15–20°C) springs, and the initial section of their outflows.
165322		population	eng	The Kács subpopulation was studied by Ötvös <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Feher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), and it was found to consist of 100,000–1,000,000 specimens. There is no data on population trends.
165322		threats	eng	Where thermal springs are located close to urban developments, their subpopulations are very sensitive to habitat destruction as the extinction of the Rabagani subpopulation in Romania indicates. One of the existing subpopulations (Kács) is threatened by construction work that will be started in the near future (Feher, pers. comm., 2009).
165346		conservation	eng	There are&#160; no conservation actions in place for this species, although appropriate site management and education of site users could prevent habitat degradation. In addition habitat monitoring and population size and distribution research is recommended.&#160;<em>Boetersiella wolfi&#160;</em>&#160;is considered Vulnerable (VU) at Provincial level, but it is not listed at National level (Verdú and Galante 2009).
165346		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it was recently described from the province of Andalucia. The records from Huelva extend the range of the genus <em>Boetersiella</em> in the province. The species was found in the mountain range of Sierra de Aracena, at La Peña de Arias Montano south-east of Jabugo and west of Aracena, at the church in the spring basin (Glöer and Boeters 2007). It is known from 2 other localities in Huelva (Acequia en Fuenteheridos y Ermita Virgen de los Angeles (Pena de Arias Montano, Alajar)). &#160;It is also recorded from two springs (Fuente Abariego y La Regina) in Valle de Santa Ana in Badajoz in Provincia Extremadura. &#160;Field surveys in the area have failed to find additional spring sites.
165346		habitat	eng	This species has been found only in five freshwater springs where it lives on leaves, branches, mosses, but also on artificial substrates such as bricks or cement.
165346		population	eng	A recently described species known only from the type locality, so the population trend is currently unknown.
165346		threats	eng	The springs where the species is found are exploited for water. &#160;The threats include overabstraction of water as well as cleaning of the habitats, to improve off-take points by concreting sites and removing vegetation.
165347		conservation	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en">There is no management plan for this species. Conservation actions include reviewing the  taxonomic status of other populations, studying the biology and ecology of the species and controlling <span title="">invasive bivalve populations. The species should be included in the National Catalogue of Endangered Species, as well as protect their area of ​​occupation. A<span title=""> habitat monitoring scheme to detect future changes of population is recommended.</span>
165347		distribution	eng	Although Fauna Europaea (Bank<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006) lists the distribution as Balearic Islands (Mallorca Island Menorca Island and Pityuses Islands) and Spain (mainland), Martinez-Orti (pers. comm. 2009) lists the range as mainland only and restricts the range to Andalucia. According to Martinez-Orti (pers. comm. 2009) it is now only known from Rio Guadalquivir at the junction with the tributaries near Sevilla. The old records, which have not been reconfirmed from Granada and Alicante during recent surveys, are considered to be this species, whereas the records from other regions, Murcia and Valencia, are considered to be potentially different species.
165347		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers, where it lives <span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en">on hard substrates in clean water, usually very carbonated. Martinez-Orti (pers. comm. 2009) notes that at the current known stretch of river where the population has been found the water has a  high conductivity (1,447 uS/cm), pH 7.7, containing 74% oxygen and  the temperature reaches 25ºC in the summer.
165347		population	eng	This species has been lost from over 22 sites where it had formerly been recorded from (Martinez-Orti pers. comm. 2009).
165347		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en">The  seasonal drought and the over-exploitation of aquifers that feed the  tributaries of the river Guadalquivir have negatively effected the flow and  pose a serious risk to the conservation of this species. The  use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the garden surrounding as  well as domestic and industrial discharges contribute to the  deterioration of water quality. Anthropic actions on the channels (channel management, silting, dredging, etc.) also pose a threat to the habitat. The  rapid spread of some exotic shellfish such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula fluminea </span>in the  Guadalquivir river basin could become a serious threat to this species.
165349		conservation	eng	It is considered to be a Category 1 threatened species in Germany (Falkner and Niederhorf 2008).&#160; In the Czech Republic it is viewed as Critically Endangered. In Slovakia it is viewed as Threatened.&#160; Whereas in Italy it is viewed as Least Concern as it is widespread in the catchments draining into the Adriatic (CK Map 5.3.8).
165349		distribution	eng	Found in central and eastern Europe, this species is mainly present in rivers of the Danube Basin (Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Romania) as well as other river basins and lakes south of the Alps from northern Italy  to  Slovakia, Ukraine and Bosnia-Herzegovina . <br/><ul><li>In Germany it is restricted to Bavaria.&#160; <br/></li><li>In Czech republic it is only present in Moravia. </li><li>In Romania <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus danubialis</span> “var. <span style="font-style: italic;">serratilinea</span>”&#160; was described from Episcopiei resort near Oradea (Soós, 1943) where it lived in the thermal waters, however it hasn't been sampled live since the 1870’s and is thought to be extinct at Crioana.</li><li>The range has&#160; declined in  Austria, and the last known sub-populations in Donauauen National Park may have disappeared (P. Reichshutz, pers. comm. 2009).</li><li>In Italy known from over 50 sites including lakes and rivers.</li><li>In Serbia recorded from over 30 sites (on the Danube and Sava rivers)<br/></li></ul>
165349		habitat	eng	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> species are all freshwater nerites, which like well oxygenated water conditions, often fast-flowing, where the species are found living on rocks on the river bottom.
165349		population	eng	No detailed population trend information, although some data to suggest the populations have been declining.
165349		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
165351		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species.
165351		distribution	eng	In the Ukraine, this species is considered widespread,                 found in the estuaries and lagoons of the Black Sea Coast: Dniestr Liman, Dniepr-Bug Liman, Berezanskij Liman, and Budakskij Liman. Isolated populations connected with historical places of Dniepr avandelta were kept in some marine bays (Son 2007). It is marked as an invader in several artificial reservoirs and canals (Anistratenko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Son 2007). Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists this taxon for Ukraine but not for Greece, but <span style="font-style: italic;">T.&#160;   </span>             <span style="font-style: italic;">euxinus</span> was recorded from Greece by Reischütz (1988) where it was found&#160; in Eastern Macedonia (Northern Greece) and the island of Samothraki (N. Aegean Sea). However recent surveys by Georgiev and Stoycheva (2010) didn’t collect this species on island of Samothraki so the current status is uncertain.
165351		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from freshwater streams in Greece and on stony riverbeds and in brackish reservoirs in Ukraine. This species is able to tolerate some salinity  .
165351		population	eng	There is no data on population trends for this species, but Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) lists it for Ukraine.
165351		threats	eng	There are known threats specifically for this species, although general threats exist such as                 human-induced changes of salinity in the estuarine and coastal waters (particularly through freshwater sewage).
165352		conservation	eng	There are no conservation efforts known for this species. <br/><br/>In Red Lists of Latvia, Italy, UK, and the Republic of Ireland it is viewed as Least Concern. In The Netherlands it was considered to be Vulnerable. In Switzerland the species was considered to be highly threatened (CR equivalent), and in Czech Republic it is listed as Extinct (Farkac&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005).
165352		conservation	eng	There are no conservation efforts known for this species. <br/><br/>In Red Lists of Latvia, Italy, UK, Republic of Ireland it is viewed as Least Concern.&#160; In The Netherlands it was considered to be Vulnerable. In Switzerland the species was considered to be highly threatened (CR equivalent) and in Czech Republic it is listed as Extinct.
165352		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species with a Western Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern Scandinavia to 60 degrees. It is widespread in suitable habitats from Ireland north to Sweden&#160; and south to Italy, Portugal and Spain, and is now expanding towards the Black Sea Basin and the Carpathian Basin where this species is invasive.
165352		distribution	eng	This species is the most widely distributed species of the <em>Theodoxus</em> genus. The freshwater subspecies <em>T. fluviatilis fluviatilis</em>&#160;is widespread, with a Western Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe and southern Sweden to 60 degrees north. It is widespread in suitable habitats across Europe from western Russia eastwards to the Iberian peninsula and from the Balkan peninsula in the south to southern Scandinavia in the north (Zettler <em>et al</em>. 2004). The range of this species occurs as far as Ireland to the west (Lucey <em>et al</em>. 1992), and as far as the Scottish Orkney islands to the north (Zettler <em>et al</em>. 2004). It also occurs in lowland areas of Anatolia (Yildirim 1999). It is now expanding towards the Black Sea Basin and the Carpathian Basin where this species is invasive. There are large areas across Europe in which this species is absent, in particular in mountainous areas (Bunje 2005). This species is absent in Norway and is only present in Finland on&#160;the&#160;Åland&#160;islands&#160;(Zettler&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2004). It has also become extinct in the Czech Republic (Farkac <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>T. fluviatilis littoralis </em>is present in the North Sea in brackish waters of the Orkney islands and the Netherlands, and in low salinity waters of the Baltic Sea (Zettler <em>et al</em>. 2004). It also occurs in the Black Sea in waters with a salt content below 18% (Butenko 2001).
165352		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rivers, larges lakes, estuarine section of rivers and springs (within the Mediterranean part of the range).&#160; It requires a solid surface such as rocks, concrete, stones to be able to attach itself to.
165352		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rivers, larges lakes, estuarine section of rivers, brackish coastal waters and springs (within the Mediterranean part of the range).&#160; It requires a solid surface such as rocks, concrete, stones to be able to attach itself to. The species displays wide polymorphism in shell pattern and colour, making it difficult to identify (Anistratenko 2005).
165352		population	eng	In some parts of its range this species is known to be very common (Zettler&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2004).&#160;The trends are unknown over the range, but some countries report a decline. In other parts of the region it is expanding, for example in the Danube in western Slovakia (Čejka <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species has a life span of 2-3 years and the eggs are laid from mid-April  to October, with juveniles hatching after 30 - 60 days.
165352		population	eng	The trends are unknown over the range, but some countries report a decline.&#160; In other parts of the region it is expanding. The species has a life span of 2-3 years and the eggs are laid from mid-April  to October, with juveniles hatching after 30 - 60 days.
165352		threats	eng	The principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or  other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes,  and over-frequent dredging, however these threats don't seem to create major declines in the species.&#160; Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>T. fluviatilis </em>was relatively insensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160; In the Danube, where it is an invasive species it is replacing the original <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> spp, as it seems to tolerate the polluted waters.
165352		threats	eng	The principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or  other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes,  and over-frequent dredging, however these threats don't seem to create major declines in the species. Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>T. fluviatilis </em>was relatively insensitive to biodegradable pollution. In the Danube, where it is an invasive species, it is replacing the original <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> spp., as it seems to tolerate the polluted waters.
165354		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring recommended.
165354		conservation	eng	Legislation development and implementation at national level, as well as more research on its habitat trends and conservation are needed.
165354		distribution	eng	<em>Theodoxus meridionalis</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that in northern Africa is restricted to Tunisia. Its type locality is in Syracuse, Sicily.
165354		distribution	eng	This species is considered endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is apparently restricted to Sicily (Europe) and Tunisia (North Africa).   The species is restricted to cold water in brooks and springs of Sicily and north-western Tunisia. In Sicily the species is known from 14 locations from north and south streams/springs, and as such is thought occupy an area of 500 km². In Tunisia van Damme and Ghamizi suggested that a conservative estimate of the area of occupancy should be about 50 to 100 km² maximum, where it was present in less than five sites.
165354		habitat	eng	It lives in small streams and springs of cold water (for example, in the part of the stream just next to the spring). It is dispersed by birds.
165354		habitat	eng	<p>Small streams and springs (ie the part of the stream just next to the spring). This species is dispersed by birds and is found in cold water.</p>
165354		population	eng	No information available.
165354		population	eng	<p>The Current Population Trend is Decreasing. </p>
165354		threats	eng	All species of <em>Theodoxus</em> genus are in decline due to human alteration of habitat such as water pollution. The species is also threatened by global warming.
165354		threats	eng	<p>All species of Theodoxus are in decline because of human alteration of habitat such as water pollution. Possible other factors include drought induced by Global warming. </p>
165356		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research is needed into the population, habitat and threats to this species.
165356		distribution	eng	In Fauna Europaea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) the range is reported as&#160;Greece (mainland) and Greece (Kriti; Crete).            This species was reported from Attika, Euboea, some islands of Cyclades (i.e. Andros and Tinos) and Crete (Schütt 1986, Frank 1988).
165356		habitat	eng	There is no habitat data for this species, but presumed to be present in rivers and streams, based on other species in the genus.
165356		population	eng	There is no information on the population status or trend for this species
165356		threats	eng	There is no information about threats affecting this species
165357		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. Habitat and population monitoring is recommended, in addition to sensitive water management, control of invasive species and enforcement of legislation relating to illegal collecting.
165357		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain. Originally only known from a two sites on one river in Valencia, the species was thought to be lost from these with changing habitats, however recent surveys have relocated the species from three sites on a different river, the Rio Verdu, all lying within a 10 km x 2 km stretch of river.
165357		habitat	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">This species lives <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">natural channels <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of&#160;<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">very <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">clean<span title="Click for alternate translations">, well oxygenated <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">water with a&#160;<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">high <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">calcium <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">content<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations">. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">It needs a very constant water temperature<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">ranging <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">between <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">16–<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">18º<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">C<span title="Click for alternate translations">. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">It lives <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">on <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">hard <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">substrates <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span title="Click for alternate translations">concrete<span title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">stone <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and gravel<span title="Click for alternate translations">) where it<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> feeds <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">on <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">diatoms <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">other <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">algae <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">scraping <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the surface <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of the <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">substrate<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165357		population	eng	The population was originally abundant at the original site (L’Alcudia de Crespins, río Los Santos) until the 1980s, when the population started to decline, until they were lost (Martinez-Orti pers. comm. 2009). The species has since been found in a 10 km stretch of a different river (Rio Verdu).
165357		threats	eng	The major threats <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">are <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">the extraction <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of groundwater<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">, pollution<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations"> (<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">agricultural <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">industrial <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">sources)<span title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and the risk of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">drought<span title="Click for alternate translations">. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">The <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">populations <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">this <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">species<span title="Click for alternate translations">, in <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">turn<span title="Click for alternate translations">, are <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">affected <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">by <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">introduction <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of exotic species <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">competing <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">extraction <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps atn">(<span title="Click for alternate translations">collection<span title="Click for alternate translations">) <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">individuals<span title="Click for alternate translations">. <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">In addition<span title="Click for alternate translations">, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">there are <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">intrinsic <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">factors <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">such as <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">its<span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"> <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">limited<span title="Click for alternate translations"> dispersion, <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">small area <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">occupancy<span title="Click for alternate translations"> and <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">extremely <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">reduced <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">populations that <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">make <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">this <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">species <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">very sensitive to <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">any <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">alteration <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">of <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">their <span title="Click for alternate translations" class="hps">habitat<span class="" title="Click for alternate translations">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165358		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species.
165358		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread in the coastal areas of South Anatolia in Turkey, but is also reported to occur in Cyprus and Greece (Samos Is.). The distribution area extends from İzmir and Denizli, through coastal parts, till east of Ceyhan river, at Adana north of Nur Mountains; towards the east it is replaced by <em>T. jordani</em>. (Schütt and Şeşen 1989). Through basins it can extend inwards, particularly in depression areas, as understood by its common presence in Burdur, Denizli, and Afyon provinces. Such occurrences is blocked by continuous Taurus ranges, but in the east it can be found in the tributaries of Ceyhan river (in prov. Kahramanmaraş).  <br/></p>
165358		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread in the coastal areas of South Anatolia in Turkey, but is also reported to occur in Cyprus and Greece (Samos Is.). The distribution area extends from İzmir and Denizli, through coastal parts, till east of Ceyhan river, at Adana north of Nur Mountains; towards the east it is replaced by <em>T. jordani</em>. (Schütt and Şeşen 1989). Through basins it can extend inwards, particularly in depression areas, as understood by its common presence in Burdur, Denizli, and Afyon provinces. Such occurrences is blocked by continuous Taurus ranges, but in the east it can be found in the tributaries of Ceyhan river (in prov. Kahramanmaraş). Fauna Europea (Bank&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span>. 2006)&#160;state that the species is also found on the Greek island of Crete.</p>
165358		habitat	eng	This species is found in hard substrates or stones in springs, extensions of sources and on banks of streams.
165358		habitat	eng	This species is found in hard substrates or stones in springs, extensions of sources and on banks of streams. Schütt (1965) states that this species is always found in fast-flowing water.
165358		population	eng	There is no information about the populations of this species.
165358		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species.
165359		conservation	eng	This species is on the list of protected species for Croatia. We have no data on conservation actions in place regarding this species, but the species requires habitat management to improve the status of the species.
165359		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur within a narrow range in the karstic area of Popovo Polje, near the city Trebinje in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also listed from Croatia.
165359		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subterranean creeks in a karstic area.
165359		population	eng	There is no data on population size and trends.
165359		threats	eng	The main habitats are threatened by pollution (from agricultural and domestic sources).
165360		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known for this species. Sustainable management of the watershed is recommended along with population monitoring.
165360		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread in Greece<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and also present in Albania. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>      <p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus varius varius</span> is present in Albania (Feher and Eross 2009b) and Crete.<br/></p><p>The subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> Theodoxus varius callosus</span> is present in Greece, where it is recorded from Lake Trichonis (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).                 It was also found in a spring near the road from the village Mirtia to Lake Trichonis (K.Radea pers. comm. 2009).  </p>
165360		habitat	eng	This freshwater snail is living in both standing and running waters, often in small mountain creeks.
165360		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
165360		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is pollution from agriculture and sewage.
165364		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas.
165364		distribution	eng	This species ranges very widely in West Africa in both the forest and the savanna zones from Senegal, east to northern Cameroon. It has not been recorded from Guinea-Bissau and Niger, but it almost certainly occurs in these countries.
165364		habitat	eng	It lives in wooded and open savanna, secondary forest, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), agricultural areas, and inselbergs in rainforest. It avoids closed primary rainforest. It breeds in temporary ponds, puddles, and roadside ditches.
165364		population	eng	It is an extremely common species.
165364		threats	eng	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.
165375		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165375		distribution	eng	This species is known from Liberia to Ghana.
165375		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and lakes.
165375		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165375		threats	eng	No information available.
165376		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165376		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ghana.
165376		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers
165376		population	eng	No information available.
165376		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.
165377		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165377		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa. It is found in five localities over quite a large area in Chad (Brown 1994).
165377		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater streams, rivers. It is possibly a desert species, so probably includes temporary water bodies.
165377		population	eng	No information available.
165377		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.
165378		conservation	eng	None in place. It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology.
165378		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra Leone, probably limited to the type locality.
165378		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water.
165378		population	eng	No information available.
165378		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation.
165379		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats. Most important is a taxonomic evaluation.
165379		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire (two rivers). The type locality for this species is East Ghana, Oti River at Mangu (located by Thiele in Togo). In Côte d'Ivoire it is recorded from Comoe River near Adzope (DBL) and Oniassoue (MNHN) (Brown 1994).
165379		habitat	eng	No information available. This species occurs in rivers. The genus occurs usually in muddy bottom lowland places, but can also be in sand and gravel. The genus can occur in degraded places, but little is known about this species in particular.
165379		population	eng	No information available.
165379		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species.
165380		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165380		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal regions of Côte d'Ivoire, Togo and Benin.
165380		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater species, very small, possibly with salinity tolerance.
165380		population	eng	No information available.
165380		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.
165381		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165381		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa at Lagune Ebrié, Côte d'Ivoire.
165381		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater in Lagune Ebrié, Côte d'Ivoire. It may have some salinity tolerance. It is a very small species.
165381		population	eng	No information available.
165381		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. Traditional fishing occurs in the lagoon, using brushpark fisheries.
165382		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165382		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana, Togo, Benin and west Nigeria (Ofoeziel 1999).
165382		habitat	eng	Fast flowing rivers and streams, heavily shaded with gravelly or rocky substrates.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.
165382		population	eng	No information available.
165382		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.
165383		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165383		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa, Ghana. It was once present throughout the Volta until the creation of the dam, reducing its original distribution by approximately one third.
165383		habitat	eng	No information available. This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams generally within forest, often rapids. <br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Potadoma</span> species.
165383		population	eng	No information available.
165383		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.
165384		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165384		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to western Nigeria and Chad-Chari. This species is endemic to West Africa region.
165384		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rivers and lakes. It lives buried in sediments.
165384		population	eng	No information available.
165384		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
165385		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165385		distribution	eng	This species is known from Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire.
165385		habitat	eng	No information available. This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams within forest, often rapids. <br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.
165385		population	eng	No information available.
165385		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.
165386		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165386		distribution	eng	Very limited distribution in western Africa. It is probably located only in certain rivers in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire (not Ghana or Mali) - only in the northern part of the Cote D'Ivoire. It is found very rarely. Also found in the Cross River Basin, Nigeria (Asor <em>et al.</em> 2003).
165386		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is varied, including ditches, creeks and small rivers. It needs high levels of oxygen and areas of clean water.
165386		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165386		threats	eng	This species is threatened by human induced habitat loss and degradation (damming and agricultural pollution).
165387		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165387		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern shores of Lake Chad and Yobe River at Yo in Cameroon and in Lake Lere in Chad (Brown 1994).
165387		habitat	eng	This species is found in plant and debris material in Lake Chad and Lake Léré. Also in rivers.
165387		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165387		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and probably a lowering of the water level in the lakes.
165388		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population size, habitat status and threats.
165388		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa. It occurs in the Sahel and dry savannah zone. It is known from lower Senegal River Basin eastwards to Niger.
165388		habitat	eng	It is found in permanent streams.
165388		population	eng	No information available.
165388		threats	eng	Human induced habitat loss and degradation threatens this species.
165389		conservation	eng	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).
165389		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra Leone only. It has been reported from Jong River, Moa, Rokel, Great Scarcies River and Sewa River (Nagel 1991).
165389		habitat	eng	It is found on the underside of stones in rapidly flowing water, high oxygen.
165389		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165389		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning and sedimentation). Large bauxite mine proposed that will affect the Jong River.
165390		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165390		distribution	eng	This species is limited to Liberia and Sierra Leone.
165390		habitat	eng	It is found in streams, small pools and swamps. It needs reasonably clean water.
165390		population	eng	No information available.
165390		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat, as well as drought and temperature extremes.
165391		conservation	eng	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).
165391		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa. It is located in the Little Scarcies River, and near by on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park (less than 10 km away).
165391		habitat	eng	It is found on the underside of stones in rapidly flowing water, high oxygen.
165391		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165391		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning and sedimentation). Large bauxite mine proposed that will affect the Little Scarcies River.
165392		conservation	eng	The overwhelming need at the moment is to find out if this species is still present here, and if it has been mentioned in the EIA for the dam.<br>No conservation measures known of. It would be valuable to have more information about population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165392		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Guinea, Konkoure River, above Kaleta Rapids near Soapiti. It was discovered when the river section was drained for engineering work.
165392		habitat	eng	It has been collected on a drained riverbed.
165392		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165392		threats	eng	Human induced habitat destruction. 2 dams currently exist on this river, and one is proposed at Kaleta (unsure where the dams are in relation to the location of this species).
165393		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165393		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire.
165393		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and rivers.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke), also occurring in crabs, with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.
165393		population	eng	No information available.
165393		threats	eng	Mining and development is leading to general degradation of the rivers in these areas.
165394		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165394		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Ghana and Togo.
165394		habitat	eng	No information available. The genus described from freshwater rivers and streams within forest.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.
165394		population	eng	No information available.
165394		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.
165395		conservation	eng	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).
165395		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra Leone only. It has been found in two catchments (Little Scarcies (Kaba) River and Moa River). The absence between these two catchments is believed to be real, as other species have been sampled for in this area.
165395		habitat	eng	It is found on the underside of stones in rapidly flowing waters (Little Scarcies River and Moa River in Sierra Leone). Live in rivers with high oxygen and low calcium content. Prefer rapids.
165395		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165395		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes as this is a riffle species, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning, and sedimentation).
165396		conservation	eng	None known of.
165396		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Africa.
165396		habitat	eng	It can be found in various flowing and standing waters, moderately polluted shaded sites.
165396		population	eng	No information available.
165396		threats	eng	None known.
165397		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology.
165397		distribution	eng	It is found only in Lake Chad on the south east shore. This species is known only from the four original shells (Brown 1994).
165397		habitat	eng	This is a shore living species.
165397		population	eng	No information available.
165397		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the lowering water level in Lake Chad - the overall area has decreased significantly recently.
165398		conservation	eng	None in place, but more information is needed on taxonomy, and other aspects of this species.
165398		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa. Mainly Sahelian, it is known from Senegal and Gambia to Niger.
165398		habitat	eng	It is found in seasonal pools, rice fields, irrigation channels. It can survive 6-8 months without water. It is a good host for <em>Schistosoma haematopium</em>, causing Schistosomiasis.
165398		population	eng	No information available.
165398		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by molluscicides used because of the threat to human health.&#160;It is an opportunistic species which benefits from the conversion of land to agricultural land.
165399		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy,  ecology, population size and distribution.
165399		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in Liberia, at Saint Paul's River near Bambia.
165399		habitat	eng	Liberia, rocks in the St Paul's River near Bavia. It lives in rapids. This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams within forest.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.
165399		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165399		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat. There is also a possible threat from a dam on St Paul's River (it is uncertain where this dam is relative to the collection site of this species). The dam was damaged in the 1990s but there are plans to repair it.
165400		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165400		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa, in Ghana and Togo. Distributional data on this will be difficult to assess as many of the papers have misidentified species.
165400		habitat	eng	This species is found in Lake Togo and in Yesor swamp near Ada in Ghana. Type locality is quarry near Accra. This is a very small species.
165400		population	eng	No information available.
165400		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.
165401		conservation	eng	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).
165401		distribution	eng	This species is limited to Sierra Leone (Brown 1994, Brown and Kristensen 1993). It is found in four catchments (Mabole, Rokel, Jong (Taia), Little Scarcies and possible the Tabe (Brown 1988).
165401		habitat	eng	It is found in stony rapids, but most abundant on tree roots in slower stretch of Little Scarcies River, Sierra Leone (Brown 1988). It uses tree roots like rocks to crawl on.
165401		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165401		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning and sedimentation). There is the possibility of bauxite mining 100m from Freetown that would use water from Rokel River and Little Scarcies River, and there is also proposed diamond mining in the same area.
165402		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, ecology, population size, distribution and usage.
165402		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Africa. It is known from Sierra Leone (recorded in two rivers; Nagel 1991), Senegal (one river), and possibly Liberia. It is unknown whether it is in the region between these sites.
165402		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. It is found in sandy areas of rivers (Nagel 1991).
165402		population	eng	No information available.
165402		threats	eng	In Sierra Leone this species is harvested for food (Nagel 1991). Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems. Mining is known in Sierra Leone.
165403		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165403		distribution	eng	This species is found from Mali to Togo. It might also be found in Burkino Faso and in southwestern Nigeria (Adewunmi <em>et al.</em> 1995).
165403		habitat	eng	No information for the species, but in general the genus is found in lakes, rivers and less commonly in small water bodies. Rarely in habitats that dry out.
165403		population	eng	No information available.
165403		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.
165404		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165404		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Ghana. It is found at several localities within this area.
165404		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
165404		population	eng	This is a rare species.
165404		threats	eng	Habitat degradation/loss is a likely threat.
165405		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution, and threats.
165405		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Cania River, Côte d'Ivoire. Also collected in some localities in Ghana and Liberia. However the species distribution is still unclear.
165405		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, but very little is known. It lives in sediments.
165405		population	eng	No information available.
165405		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
165406		conservation	eng	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165406		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to west Africa. It occurs in eastern Ghanaian tributaries of the Volta River, near Frankadua, Apaso and Balakuna (DBL) and Kpong (BM) Volta River (Adapaso).
165406		habitat	eng	The genus occurs usually in muddy bottom lowland places, but can also be in sand and gravel. The genus can occur in degraded places, but little is known about this species in particular.
165406		population	eng	No information available.
165406		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species.
165407		conservation	eng	We need to know more about the taxonomy, population size, range, ecology.
165407		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to middle Niger.
165407		habitat	eng	It is presumably a large river species (given its distribution). It lives in bottom sediments.
165407		population	eng	No information available.
165407		threats	eng	Two proposed dams in Niger and gold mining in the upstream part of this species distribution are threats. The dams are not certain because they would affect flow to a large dam downstream, so this is a political issue at the moment. If the dams were built, it would divide the population into three locations. Dams are major causes of bivalve extinctions.<br/>Additionally water hyacinth is an invasive species causing major problems in this region, affecting temperature, turbidity, fish movements and the whole ecosystem.
165424		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. cassius </span>is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> genebank collections, with only eight accessions being held by the Institute of Botany (Yerevan, Armenia), Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, United Kingdom), Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka, Ukraine) and<strong></strong>  the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Field margins should be managed in an appropriate way, ensuring that herbicides are not sprayed there. The species populations should be monitored and further research is needed on the distribution to see if additional sub-populations still exist.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in  many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its  conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject  to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. cassius </span>has been previously assessed in 2007 in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Tsintides and Christodoulou 2007).
165424		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cassius</span> is distributed throughout much of western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is found only in Cyprus in Europe, in two locations (Prodromos and Sykopetra-Farmakas). The species was known from a third location (in Pedoulas, in 1941), but recent survey failed to find it again. <br/><br/>It has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of about 250 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 8 km<sup>2</sup><sup></sup>.
165424		habitat	eng	This species is found in road banks, vineyards and mountain sides of igneous formation.
165424		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus cassius</span> is a very rare species in Europe, only found in Cyprus, where only about 170 plants occur. It is also found in Turkey and Iraq but even here it is uncommon. Its population is decreasing.
165424		threats	eng	The main threats are the use of herbicides, changes in land-use, as vineyards are abandoned and road improvement.
165433		conservation	eng	In France, most of the populations are included in protected areas. Several other populations also benefit from site protection. It is recommended to search for new sites in the western Mediterranean.
165433		distribution	eng	<em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em> is restricted to the Atlantic coast of France (where it may now be extinct) and the northern Mediterranean coast eastwards to Israel. It has been reported from sites from the Isle d'Oléron in France and from the Camargue in southern France, namely Bouche-du-Rhône (four sites), Alpes-Maritime, and Gard. In Spain, it was present in the province Cadiz in southern Spain and in Menorca - the species has not been found at either site again and is considered extinct. It was reported from western Greece and Kos, but the population on mainland Greece, near Athens, has probably disappeared. In Italy, it is found in Brescia in Lombardia, Emilia-Romagna, Sardinia and Sicily. In Portugal, it has been seen in the Algarve region in 2010. The species occurs in Turkey, in Mu?la on the southwestern coast, and in the Sharon Plain in Israel. It is probably present in southern Albania.
165433		distribution	eng	<em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em> is restricted to the Atlantic coast of France (where it may now be extinct) and the northern Mediterranean coast eastwards to Israel. It has been reported from sites from the Isle d’Oléron in France and from the Camargue in southern France, namely Bouche-du-Rhône (four sites), Alpes-Maritime, and Gard. In Spain, it was present in the province Cadiz in southern Spain and in Menorca - the species has not been found at either site again and is considered extinct. It was reported from western Greece and Kos, but the population on mainland Greece, near Athens, has probably disappeared. In Italy, it is found in Brescia in Lombardia, Emilia-Romagna, Sardinia and Sicily. The species occurs in Turkey, in Muğla on the southwestern coast, and in the Sharon Plain in Israel. It is probably present in southern Albania.
165433		habitat	eng	Little is known about <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em>. Many populations are situated close to the upper edge of saline influence and in areas of saline soils fed by fresh water. <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em><em> </em>appears to be strongly associated with neutral or slightly basic marine soils and clays. It appears to be exclusively a lowland species with a maximum altitude record of 170&#160;m and all confirmed records are from within 100&#160;km of the sea. Within this habitat it occurs in ditches, streams and temporary ponds, often bordered by stands of <em>Phragmites australis</em>. It occurs with species such as <strong></strong><em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, <strong></strong><em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> and <strong></strong> <em>C.&#160;truncata</em>, <em>Potamogeton nodosus</em>, <em>P.&#160;pectinatus</em>,<em>&#160;</em> <em>Ranunculus baudotii</em>, <em>R.&#160;trichophyllus</em>&#160;and <em>Veronica catenata</em>&#160;as well as a number of charophytes, particularly <em>Chara aspera</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;vulgaris</em>, but also <em>C.&#160;galioides</em>, <em>C.&#160;hispida</em>, <em>Tolypella glomerata</em>&#160;and <em>T.&#160;hispanica</em>.
165433		habitat	eng	Little is known about <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em>. Many populations are situated close to the upper edge of saline influence and in areas of saline soils fed by fresh water. <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em><em> </em>appears to be strongly associated with neutral or slightly basic marine soils and clays. It appears to be exclusively a lowland species with a maximum altitude record of 170&#160;m and all confirmed records are from within 100&#160;km of the sea. Within this habitat it occurs in ditches, streams and temporary ponds, often bordered by stands of <em>Phragmites australis</em>. It occurs with species such as <strong></strong><em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, <strong></strong><em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> and <strong></strong> <em>C.&#160;truncata</em>, <em>Potamogeton nodosus</em>, <em>P.&#160;pectinatus</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Ranunculus baudotii</em>, <em>R.&#160;trichophyllus</em>&#160;and <em>Veronica catenata</em>&#160;as well as a number of charophytes, particularly <em>Chara aspera</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;vulgaris</em>, but also <em>C.&#160;galioides</em>, <em>C.&#160;hispida</em>, <em>Tolypella glomerata</em>&#160;and <em>T.&#160;hispanica</em>.
165433		population	eng	Although there are a number of recent records, there is also evidence of a population decline and the populations are severely fragmented.
165433		threats	eng	Coastal development for tourism is the main threat to the species, but also farming and associated water pollution are causing species decline.
165459		conservation	eng	This species is included on the EU Habitats Directive Annex IV and for this reason it is likely that for many reproduction sites management plans will be made in the near future. Especially for isolated occurrences as found in West Europe and the Alps management plans are needed. In Italy, the distribution of the species is poorly known making it presently impossible for this country to give this species the protection required according the EU legislation. <br/><br/>The habitats used by <em>S. paedisca</em> in West Europe for reproduction are almost always of high biodiversity value and often these habitats have a very rich dragonfly fauna. The species is therefore a strong indicator of habitat quality.
165459		distribution	eng	<em>Sympecma paedisca</em> has a huge range occurring from western Europe to Japan. Most of its range lies in the temperate zone and the species is largely lacking from the boreal region. In Europe the species is rather common and widespread in the northeast only. This area includes northern and eastern Poland, the Baltic States, Belarus, northern Ukraine and Russia. In western Europe, it is limited to a small band running from the Netherlands across northern Germany. The species has a relict distribution in the Alps (in Italy in Piedmont region) and the mountains in the west of the Czech Republic.<em> Sympecma paedisca</em> went through a severe decline in both western Europe and the Alps. Recently it is increasing in the Netherlands, Germany and expanding its range in Finland and probably Sweden.
165459		habitat	eng	<em>Sympecma paedisca</em> is found in a remarkably wide variety of habitats. In Europe, it occurs in mesotrophic to moderately eutrophic standing, or seldom slowly flowing, waters. These range from large lakes, fenlands, peat bogs to gravel pits. The habitat always has an abundant bank side and aquatic vegetation. As in <em>S. fusca</em>, the adults hibernate during winter and mate and lay eggs in early spring. Emergence of the larva takes place in the second half of the summer after which most adults leave the vicinity of the reproduction site to hibernate at localities often at several kilometres distance of their larval habitat. Different habitat types can be suitable for wintering as long as there is a vegetation of knee-high herbs or grasses on several sides bordered by higher bushes or trees. The low vegetation is used in autumn for foraging and as hideout in winter whereas the surrounding higher vegetation provides shelter from the wind. In the Netherlands it was noted that the adults prefer relatively dry conditions during winter probably as moisture increases the chances on fungus diseases.
165459		population	eng	<em>Sympecma paedisca</em> is widespread and often common in parts of eastern Europe. In the west of its range, it is scarce and localised. The localities where it occurs are, however, often formed by large systems such as lakes or large fenlands. Due to this fact, most populations are relatively large and not seldom the species is found in high numbers.
165459		threats	eng	There are no threats known in eastern Europe. <br/>As for many dragonflies, habitat destruction played a major role in its decline in West Europe during most of the 20th century. The degradation of habitat quality seems to have become the key factor in its decline in the last decades. Eutrophication resulting in a decrease of the quality and quantity of aquatic and floating vegetation played a role in large parts of West Europe. In the Netherlands and in northern Germany, the abandonment of traditional management might have been a key factor. The ceasing of the extraction of peat and the decrease in land area where reed is mowed, resulted in a dramatic drop of the amount of aquatic and floating vegetation and the increase of woodland in traditionally more open fenland (Ketelaar <em>et al.</em> 2007). At least in the Netherlands the extraction of peat in order to restore the amount of aquatic and floating vegetation resulted in a subsequent increase of <em>S. paedisca</em>.
165460		conservation	eng	Preservation of good quality water bodies and rivers, including both chemical and structural aspects.
165460		conservation	eng	Preservation of good quality water bodies and rivers, including both chemical and structural aspects, through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165460		conservation	eng	The presence of this species in Europe is dependent on a relatively small number of larger water bodies. Fieldwork in order to confirm the presence and estimate the abundance of this species at lakes where this species has been recorded is needed. Based on this the local conservation status of the waterbodies needs to be determined. In many cases these waters will also have a high conservation value for fish, mollusc and waterbirds. In these cases action plans based for these groups could well be combined. The species is included in the EU Habitats Directive.
165460		distribution	eng	<em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is an Irano-Turanian species, distributed from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to the western Mediterranean (eastern Spain). Its main global range spreads from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to Arabia. <br><br>This is a very mobile species and is known to migrate long distances from its reproductive site; many records may be ascribed to vagrant imagoes. However, some localities have proved to be inhabited during several years, supporting at least a temporary reproduction at these sites. In particular the species has been recorded twice in the Maghreb, and although the Algerian population (dated 1849) has now disappeared, the Tunisian population is much more recent (2000, 2002) and may be considered as presently valid.
165460		distribution	eng	<em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is an Irano-Turanian species, distributed from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to the western Mediterranean (eastern Spain). Its main global range spreads from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to Arabia. This is a very mobile species and is known to migrate long distances from its reproductive site; many records may be ascribed to vagrant imagoes. However, some localities have proved to be inhabited during several years, supporting at least a temporary reproduction at these sites. In particular the species has been recorded twice in the Maghreb, and although the Algerian population (dated 1849) has now disappeared, the Tunisian population is much more recent (2000, 2002) and may be considered as presently valid.
165460		distribution	eng	<em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is found in Mediterranean, Arabia and southwest and Central Asia (Schorr <em>et al.</em> 1998). The easternmost populations are found in Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. In the Mediterranean, it is mainly found in the east with populations known from the Levant, Turkey, the Balkan Peninsula, Italy (mainland and Sardinia) (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). The westernmost populations are found in Spain (probably extinct) and the Maghreb (Tunisia) where it was found in 2000 after a century without records (Kunz and Kunz 2001). All European records are confined to the Mediterranean. The species has found to be strongly migratory in Arabia and for that reason a part of the records in Europe could pertain to wandering specimens.
165460		habitat	eng	In Europe <em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is mostly found at lakes and more rarely at slowly flowing, larger waters (Schorr <em>et al.</em> 1998). Detailed information on larval requirements of the species is lacking. The species has been found to occur at large beds of reed at several lakes in Croatia and Italy but has in Tunisia been noted from a lake with hardly any vegetation and was found at two barrage lakes with no or little vegetation at the Turkish island of Gökçeada (Hacet and Aktac 2006).
165460		habitat	eng	This species reproduces mainly in lakes, sometimes in slow-flowing rivers.
165460		population	eng	Only one population is still valid in North Africa. Although the initial Tunisian records (two males recorded in 2000) were initially considered as vagrant insects (Kunz and Kunz 2001), Boudot again found the species at the same site two years later (Boudot 2002: two males recorded 25th June and 13th July 2002). The northern African locality should therefore be considered as valid. However, only a small number of imagoes have been recorded.
165460		population	eng	Only one population is still valid in northern Africa. Although the initial Tunisian records (two males recorded in 2000) were initially considered as vagrant insects (Kunz and Kunz 2001), Boudot again found the species at the same site two years later (Boudot 2002: two males recorded 25th June and 13th July 2002). The northern African locality should therefore be considered as valid. However, only a small number of imagoes have been recorded.
165460		population	eng	The number of populations in Europe is low and probably many populations are relatively small although it is sometimes fairly abundant.
165460		threats	eng	European populations are mainly found at lakes. Pollution of the water by wastewater or due to nearby agricultural practices are important threats to this species. Over-exploitation of water due to the increased water demand in combination with climate change are important present and future threats. At some sites in Italy over-collections is a problem.
165460		threats	eng	Water pollution, aquaculture, over-irrigation and water harnessing for human use with river drying up are the main threats for this species.
165460		threats	eng	Water pollution, aquaculture, over-irrigation and water management for human use with river desiccation are the main threats for this species.
165461		conservation	eng	Actions need to be taken towards the conservation of natural dynamics of running waters, conservation of natural structure of streams and rivers, as well as control of pollution.
165461		conservation	eng	Perennial management of running and standing waters; control of pollution; conservation of streams natural structure.
165461		conservation	eng	Perennial management of running and standing waters; control of pollution; conservation of streams natural structure through policy-based actions. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165461		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus simillimus</em> is a West European Atlanto-Mediterranean endemic ranging from south Iberia to northeast France eastwards to the upper Rhine river between Germany and Switzerland. The occurrence of this species in Slovakia and Czech Republic needs confirmation.
165461		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus simillimus</em> occurs in southwestern Europe, mainly in central, western and southern France to southern Spain, and western Maghreb. The taxonomic status of some east Moroccan and west Algerian populations (the contact zone between <em>G. simillimus maroccanus</em> and <em>G. lucasii</em>) need further studies; one record from western Algeria (Schmidt 1936) and three others in eastern Morocco need further confirmation. One record in eastern Algeria is considered as erroneous. In Morocco the species is known from 32 localities.
165461		habitat	eng	In Europe, this species reproduces mostly in slow-flowing large rivers and small streams, and rarely in abandoned gravel pits near to rivers and oxbow pools with phreatic waters.
165461		habitat	eng	Maghrebian populations are widespread in streams and mountain lakes.
165461		population	eng	The Maghrebian population (<em>G. simillimus maroccanus</em>) is widespread and often common throughout the Atlas ranges and the Riff mountains in Morocco.
165461		population	eng	The species is irregularly abundant in the southwestern half of France and is rare and very scattered in the rest of the country. It is scarce in Iberia, where it remains very scattered.
165461		threats	eng	As for any other stream species, it is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, channelization and streams, and suppression of riparian trees. Drainage and over-irrigation constitute other obvious threats.
165461		threats	eng	As for any other stream species, this species is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, straightening of rivers and streams, suppression of riparian trees, etc. Drainage and over-irrigation constitute other obvious threats.
165461		threats	eng	This species is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, regulation of rivers and streams, construction of dams, suppression of riparian trees, etc. Drainage, over-irrigation and stream dessication as a result of climate change and related rainfall deficit constitute other threats.
165462		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for the northern part of its range. In the south of its range, the protection of breeding habitats is needed and locally habitats should be preserved from access by livestock. The creation of water holes and small excavations in <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs is likely to create favourable micro habitats for this species and should be recommended whenever peat bogs become dry through natural succession or abnormal drought periods.
165462		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora alpestris</em> is a typical boreoalpine species showing a fragmented area extending from eastern France to northern Fennoscandia, Siberia and northern Japan. Populations in Central Europe are confined to mountain ranges above 600 m a.s.l. only and are disconnected from the populations of Fennoscandia, northwest Russia and Siberia, which occurs down to sea level. The species is scattered throughout the Alps as well as in the Central European mountains ranging from the Vosges in France to the Harz in Germany and to the Carpathians in southwest Ukraine.
165462		habitat	eng	<em>S. alpestris</em> favours small water bodies in <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs and transition mires. It also occurs in peat excavations. Adults show great sensitivity to summer weather conditions and are decimated by summer snowfalls exceeding 3 - 4 days. The species is tolerant to deep freezing and desiccation.
165462		population	eng	Adults of <em>S. alpestris</em> are easily overlooked and the total number which can be observed in a locality does not reflect the total number of exuviae which can be found during the emergence period. Based on exuviae, the population sizes are varying from one locality to another and are dependent on the micro-habitats that fit larvae requirement. The species is fairly common in the Alps and Fennoscandia, but occurs in small isolated populations in the rest of Central Europe.
165462		threats	eng	In the northern part of its range, <em>S. alpestris</em> does not face any threats. In the southern part of its range, the species is threatened at lower altitudes. The pollution and destruction of peat bogs, peaty swamps and moorlands due to livestock excrements with eutrophication and trampling is a strong threat in the mountains of Central Europe. Tourism development may destroy some localities in the Alpine region. In addition, the natural succession of peaty habitats to dry lands may lead to the extinction of the species. Therefore, the abandonment of artisanal small scale peat extraction activities lead to peat bog closure in favour of "dry" heath, grasslands and forests. Climate change can reinforce this process.
165463		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
165463		conservation	eng	The middle large streams were this species is occurring have a rich aquatic fauna and are under threat throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. In order to secure this species for Europe it is needed that on all of the European islands were it occurs (Cyprus, Karpathos, Ikaria and Rhodos) one or more locations become protected and are included in a nature reserve. Fieldwork in order to map the distribution of the species on the islands is needed.
165463		distribution	eng	<em>Anax immaculifrons</em> is an Oriental/Indomalayan species distributed from China through West Bengal, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan with its main distribution in southern Asia (India, Sri Lanka) and its western limit along the Levantine and Aegean Coast (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Only since the 1990th it became clear that the species is less rare along the Mediterranean than hitherto believed. Populations have been found in the lower mountains all along the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. In Europe the species is marginally present and confined to Cyprus (four locations) and to the Greek islands of Karpathos (5 locations), Ikaria (1 location) and Rhodos (>3 locations).
165463		distribution	eng	<em>Anax immaculifrons</em> is a widespread species, occurring from Greece in Europe to China.
165463		habitat	eng	This species is found at streams, especially in hilly and mountainous areas. Larvae are found in the muddy bottom of the pools or very slow-running marshy side-streams (e.g. Kumar and Mitra 1998).
165463		habitat	eng	Unlike other <em>Anax</em> species, in the eastern Mediterranean the species avoids open stagnant waters and is found at permanent, often partly shaded, rocky streams of a few meters wide. The larvae are found at still sections of brooks or in rock pools.
165463		population	eng	This is a widespread species, but it appears to be uncommon in parts of its range.
165463		population	eng	This species generally occurs in low densities. All European records refer to one to five individuals. It is likely that in Europe at most several dozens of specimens are present at a single site.
165463		threats	eng	An increased extraction of water or pollution of water in Europe can easily lead to the destruction of habitats. The species in Europe is depended on permanent running water. An increased intake of water for tourism or agricultural purposes can cause desiccation of stream habitats. Climate change is an important threat.
165463		threats	eng	This is a widespread species with no threats effecting its entire range known. Potential localised threats include excessive development for tourism, urbanisation and possibly pollution.
165464		conservation	eng	The species does not need attention on European scale. Action needs to be undertaken on a regional scale as the trends of the species and its habitat choice vary from region to region. In some regions the species might be threatened by the abandonment of traditional agricultural activities. Here nature organisations could consider taking over this role. In areas were the species is mostly found in man-made waters the focus should be on helping water management organisations and farmers to establish a management protocol for ditches and channels which both facilitates the drainages and the nature value.
165464		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum pedemontanum</em> ranges from Europe through the warmer, non-arid parts of temperate Asia to Japan. In Europe, its main distribution is in Central Europe. The westernmost European records, Galicia in Spain and northwest France and Wales, probably all pertain to vagrants. The westernmost populations are found in Catalonia (Lockwood 2007), the Camargue, Belgium and the Netherlands. The species is found throughout Central and East Europe but it is generally scarce and absent in some regions. The species seems to have decreased in many areas in the second half of the 20th century. The situation since the 1990s is unclear. In some areas like Baden-Württembergs it has shown a strong decrease since 1990 (Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006) but in other areas such as the Netherlands (Bouwman 2008) it has strongly expanded its range in the last decade.
165464		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum pedemontanum</em> shows a strong regional variation in habitat preferences. In most cases it seems to be associated with sunny, seepage fed waters, which may explain why it is most frequently found in hilly areas. Many habitats where it occurs become partially inundated in winter and early spring. This can be either along standing or along running waters. In northern Italy, the species is found in this kind of environment in rice fields. Most often the species is found at waters with a high calcium content but this is not a requirement as it can also be found at seepages and runnels at more acid environments such as lakes or bogs. In most of its range <em>S. pedemontanum</em> has a preference for man-made waters like slowly running ditches, channels and complexes of ponds. These are often seepage-fed and have a fair amount of vegetation, which does not get too high or dense as these habitats are cleaned every few years. Other man-made waters that can be occupied are ponds and quarries.
165464		population	eng	The species has a patchy distribution in Europe being rare to absent in many areas but common and widespread in others. Populations can be large.
165464		threats	eng	The species is rare in many regions and habitat destruction due to water pollution and developments could regionally lead to extinction. As for the habitat and the trend, the threats for <em>S. pedemontanum</em> probably vary strongly from region to region. In areas where the species is largely dependent on man-made waters an increased intensification of agricultural practise could lead to the loss of habitats. However <em>S. pedemontanum </em>is one of the few uncommon European species which is capable to have sizeable populations in agricultural areas. The abandonment of inundation areas along running waters as grazing areas may regionally lead to a decline of the species as it does not occur in situations where the vegetation becomes to high. In the Mediterranean the changing patterns of temperature and precipitation might become a threat to the species.
165465		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and conservation of natural river dynamics and structure are necessary conservation measures.
165465		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus schneiderii</em> ranges from the southern Balkans to Iran. Its northern limit is unclear and conflicting due overlapping, hybridization or clinal variation with <em>G. vulgatissimus</em> from Montenegro to European Turkey. The species is known to be common in Greece.
165465		habitat	eng	<em>Gomphus schneiderii</em> reproduces mostly in slow rivers and streams with sandy and silty bottoms. It also breeds occasionally in large lakes.
165465		population	eng	<em>Gomphus schneiderii</em> is widespread in the Peloponnese, but is more scattered in north and northeast Greece. Records from  European Turkey, northeastern Greece, Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are very scarce and refer mostly to mixed populations with <em>G. vulgatissimus</em>.
165465		threats	eng	Water pollution, stream desiccation and related rainfall deficit, regulation of rivers and gravel pitting directly in the river bed are the main threats for this species.
165466		conservation	eng	<em>G. flavipes</em> is included in the European Habitats Directive. There are no conservation measures needed.
165466		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus flavipes</em> is an Eurasian species ranging from the Atlantic coast of France to east Siberia where it is confined to large lowland river systems (e.g., Rhine, Rhône, Loire, Po, Elbe, Danube). The species showed a strong decline in West Europe in the 20th century but has shown a strong increase since the 1990s (e.g., Bouwman <em>et al.</em> 2008, Brockhaus and Fisher 2005, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006).
165466		habitat	eng	<em>Gomphus flavipes</em> is confined to large lowland rivers with sandy to silty bottom with organic sediment; the larger the river, the stronger the population. However, it is now increasingly found in tributaries and has probably a more diffuse distribution. For example, in the plain of the Po River it is scatterred over the network of channels used to rice field management.
165466		population	eng	The species went extinct in large parts of western Europe due to a decline in the 20th century. The species has increased strongly since the 1990s and it has re-colonised most of its former range. This increase in records is partly due to increased research but is mostly due to a genuine increase. This increase is probably due to a combination of climate change, a decrease of stream pollution and better river management.
165466		threats	eng	Currently, no major threats are known for this species. Only at the margins of its extent, the species might have been more susceptible to threats such as pollution in the past.
165467		conservation	eng	The countries in Southeast Europe should map the distribution of the species and assess the percentage of populations found in protected areas. Based on this it must be judged if additional protected areas are needed. Legislation for the use of water from brooks needs to be made or further implemented in many of those countries. Monitoring is needed to better understand the ecology of this species and the impact of conservation management.
165467		distribution	eng	<em>Caliaeschna microstigma</em> is a largely Southwest Asian species which occurs as far east as Afghanistan. The species occurs in the Caucasus but from there it does not reach into Europe. Its European range is limited to Cyprus, Greece and its islands and the Balkan Peninsula (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is widespread in Bulgaria but does not reach Romania. Along the Adriatic it is found as far north as Croatia. In addition to this there are some old records from the Neretva river in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
165467		habitat	eng	<em>Caliaeschna microstigma</em> occurs in stony brooks and small rivers which are at least partly shaded. The habitats are fast running with sections of stiller water where the larvae are present (Breuer and Douma-Petridou 2000). The species is mostly found in hilly or mountainous regions but most European populations are found below 500 m.
165467		population	eng	The species is often fairly abundant when found.
165467		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to building activities or more intensive agricultural use of areas are important threats. Removal of trees or forest on the banks of brooks and rivers will lead to local extinction of the species. In the future the increased demand for water and the increase of prolonged dry periods due to climate change will be the main threat.
165468		conservation	eng	This species seems to be relatively safe in most of its range and there are no conservation measures needed. At the western and southern margins of its range, e.g. in the Alps, restoration projects of peat marshes and bogs are required.
165468		distribution	eng	<em>L. rubicunda</em> is fairly common and widespread in northern and Central Europe. Its continuous area of distribution reaches south to northern Belgium, central Germany and the mountains of northern Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and the northern Ukraine. The species occurs further south in the Ural area where it is still common in the south of this mountain range (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species becomes rare to the south of its Central European range and its southernmost populations are found in the northern parts of the Alps.   The species decreased in Central Europe and has probably become extinct in the North of France. In the Alps less than 20 populations are known which are confined to Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, most of which are isolated and small.
165468		habitat	eng	The species occurs frequently in acidic waters with a vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum</span> although its habitat spectrum is wider. Most populations are found in forest areas.
165468		population	eng	The species is fairly common to common in the north and parts of Central Europe and is often abundant.
165468		threats	eng	This species does not face threats in northern and eastern Europe. In the last century <em>L. rubicunda</em> declined in Central Europe due to habitat destruction such as large-scale transformation of peatland for agricultural purposes and the large-scale introduction of drainage systems. These kinds of habitat destruction have now largely ceased. In the south, present day threats are increased ground water extractions, vegetation succession leading to the decline of open water and desiccation due to periods of hot weather. Especially the latter might increase due to climate change and might be a threat for the remaining populations in the south.
165469		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves.
165469		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165469		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
165469		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> has a wide range and occurs from Europe and Morocco to Kamchatka and Japan, and to Canada and the USA. The species is widespread and common across most of its range, but becomes scarcer towards the south.
165469		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> has a wide range and occurs from Europe and Morocco to Kamchatka and Japan. The species is widespread and common in most of Europe but becomes scarcer towards the south and is absent from most of the Mediterranean islands.
165469		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> is a western palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except northernmost parts, and reaches northwestern Africa in Morocco.
165469		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> is a western Palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except northern most parts, and reaches northwestern Africa in Morocco.
165469		habitat	eng	In Morocco, <em>L. quadrimacualta</em> is mostly confined in standing waters between 500 and 2,500 m asl. It is known to be migratory only when infested with trematodes. Migratory behaviour has not been recorded in this species in Morocco.
165469		habitat	eng	This dragonfly is widespread and generally abundant in any kind of standing and most slow-flowing waters often with well developed vegetation. Its habitat preferences vary over the region.
165469		habitat	eng	This species is widespread and generally abundant in any kind of standing and most slow-flowing waters often with well developed vegetation, although its habitat preferences vary over its range.
165469		population	eng	This species is one of the most common dragonflies in Europe and occurs in large populations.
165469		population	eng	This species is very common over much of its range, and occurs in large populations.
165469		population	eng	This widespread Euro-Siberian species is one of the most common dragonflies in Europe at any altitude below 2,500 m. It also occurs in a small area in the Riff and Atlas mountains in Morocco, where only 11 locations are known.
165469		threats	eng	Pollution and desiccation of the habitat are threats to the species.
165469		threats	eng	Pollution and drying up of the habitat.
165469		threats	eng	Presently, there are no threats to this species.
165469		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species across its range.
165470		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
165470		conservation	eng	No information available.
165470		conservation	eng	None.
165470		conservation	eng	None needed at present.
165470		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum sabina</em> is an oriental species, whose range extends to Australia and China. It is also found in Algeria, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Egypt and Tunisia.
165470		distribution	eng	<em>Orthertrum sabina</em> is a very widespread and common oriental species, whose range extends to Australia and China. The westernmost populations are found in the Maghreb and along the Turkish Mediterranean coast. Its European distribution is limited to Cyprus and the Greek islands of Samos, Kos and Rhodos where less than 20 localities are known.
165470		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum sabina</span> has a huge range from southeastern Europe and North Africa to Japan and south to Australia and Micronesia.
165470		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Africa and Asia along the tropical belt to Australia. <br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea; occurrence in Djibouti and Egypt assumed.
165470		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from North east Chad. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is one of the most ubiquitous dragonflies in tropical Australasia, extends along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coast into Turkey, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Tunisia and Chad.
165470		distribution	eng	This is one of the most ubiquitous dragonflies in tropical Australasia, extends along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coast into Turkey, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Tunisia and Chad.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is found in Algeria, Libya, Egypt and Tunisia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea and Socotra, and its occurrence in Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from northeast Chad.
165470		habitat	eng	Found at springs and oases, all kinds of still and slow-flowing waters in northern Africa; permanent and seasonal water bodies in dry areas.
165470		habitat	eng	Oases in African desert, but any open water in main Asian range.
165470		habitat	eng	permanent and seasonal water bodies in dry areas
165470		habitat	eng	Springs and oases, all kinds of still and slow-flowing waters.
165470		habitat	eng	The species inhabits all kind of unshaded standing and slow-flowing waters. It is found at channels, runnels, ponds and easily inhabits man made waters like ditches.
165470		habitat	eng	This species occupies a broad range of slow flowing and still water habitats, from ponds to wet rice fields and marshes. It is very tolerant of disturbance.
165470		population	eng	Locally fairly abundant.
165470		population	eng	No information available.
165470		population	eng	The species is common and often abundant at the Turkish coast. Most European records (Cyprus, Kos, Samos and Rhodos) pertain to less than 10 individuals.
165470		population	eng	This is a very common species over much of its huge range.
165470		threats	eng	Ground water extraction.
165470		threats	eng	Groundwater extraction is a threat to the species.
165470		threats	eng	None known.
165470		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not under any specific threat.
165470		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
165470		threats	eng	Unknown.
165471		conservation	eng	Coastal wetland areas are under threat in the Mediterranean due to all kinds of infrastructure developments of which tourism is one of the most important. Limiting the amount of infrastructure developments in coastal areas and designating protected areas is needed for species dependent on these habitats.<br/>Data on the population size is scant in Europe and fieldwork is needed. Information on habitat requirements are largely absent and no information on trends is available.
165471		conservation	eng	Coastal wetland areas are under threat in the Mediterranean due to infrastructure developments, especially for tourism. Limiting the amount of infrastructure developments in coastal areas and designating protected areas is needed for species dependent on these habitats. Data on population sizes is scarce and fieldwork is needed. Information on habitat requirements is largely absent and no information on trends is available.
165471		conservation	eng	Preservation of good quality water bodies and streams.
165471		conservation	eng	Preservation of good quality water bodies and streams through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165471		distribution	eng	<em>Selysiothemis nigra</em> is mainly a species from central Asia, the Middle East and Arabia. Its range extends into the western Mediterranean and northern African, but here it is confined in shallow waters, which undergo rapid temperature increases in sunny conditions.
165471		distribution	eng	The main area of distribution of <em>Selysiothemis nigra</em> is found in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Its European distribution is almost completely confined to the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. The only exceptions are records from the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and two records from the Black Sea coast of the Ukraine. The species is known from all European Mediterranean countries with the exception of France and Slovenia. It has however a very scattered distribution being rare in many countries although it seems slightly more abundant along the east coast of Spain, on Sicily and especially in Croatia.   <br/>Northernmost records are now from the extreme north of Spain (at no more than 25 km south of the French border), to the north of Italy, the east of Bulgaria, Ukraine and the southwest of the Ural.
165471		distribution	eng	The main area of distribution of <em>Selysiothemis nigra</em> is in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Its European distribution is almost completely confined to the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. The only exceptions are records from the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and two records from the Black Sea coast of the Ukraine. The species is known from all European Mediterranean countries with the exception of France and Slovenia. It is widespread in the Middle East and occurs as far east as Kashmir and Rajasthan in India. However it has a very scattered distribution and is rare in many countries.
165471		distribution	eng	This species is mainly found in central Asia and the Middle East; scarce along the Mediterranean Sea in southern Europe and in oases in the Sahara. Recorded from Arak, 250km northwest of the Hoggar in southern Algeria and may just penetrate Afrotropics.
165471		habitat	eng	In Europe<em> S. nigra </em>seems to be mostly confined to coastal, shallow standing waters that are unshaded and often brackish. <em>S. nigra</em> is a strong migrant and probably has a short larval phase which allows it to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies.
165471		habitat	eng	This species is often confined in coastal or continental shallow standing waters, often brackish, is dry or semi desert areas. It also in occurs streamlets.
165471		habitat	eng	This species is often confined in coastal or continental shallow standing waters, often brackish, is dry or semi desert areas. It also in occurs streamlets. In northern Africa it is confined in shallow waters, which undergo rapid temperature increases in sunny conditions.
165471		population	eng	Seventeen localities have been reported for this species in North Africa.
165471		population	eng	Seventeen localities have been reported for this species in northern Africa.
165471		population	eng	The species has a scattered distribution in at least the European part of its range and is scarce in many areas. However it can be locally very abundant.
165471		population	eng	The species has a scattered distribution in the European part of its range and is scarce in many areas. However it can be locally very abundant.
165471		threats	eng	Drying up through climate change and over-irrigation and water pollution are the main threats for this species.
165471		threats	eng	In Europe <em>S. nigra</em> is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism is therefore a threat to the species. The species is adapted to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies and will therefore be less impacted by climate change than other species.
165471		threats	eng	In Europe <em>S. nigra</em> is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism is therefore a threat to the species. The species is adapted to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies and will therefore be less impacted by climate change than other species. I have no information on threats in other parts of its range.
165472		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
165472		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves.
165472		conservation	eng	It is necessary to control water pollution, control over-irrigation for agricultural purposes, and to control water extraction for urban and industrial needs.
165472		distribution	eng	<em>Boyeria irene</em> is a West Mediterranean endemic that extends north along the Atlantic area of France up to Brittany and Normandy. More to the east, it extends up to Franche Comté in France whereas a permanent isolated population is known for a long time in central Switzerland in the Lucerne lake and its tributaries. Scarce vagrant specimens have been recorded on the southernmost borders of Germany at the confines of Switzerland and Austria as well as in the southernmost part of the Vosges mountains in France. Such behaviour may be favoured by the current climate warming. In Italy, it is distributed in the western Mediterranean part. The species also occurs in northern Africa, where it is confined to the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
165472		distribution	eng	<em>Boyeria irene</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean area, extending north to Brittany. In northern Africa, the species is confined to the northern parts of Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria.
165472		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. irene</span> is found in streams and rivers with a shaded environment. It sometimes occurs in large lakes, particularly in Switzerland and the French pre-alpine area.
165472		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers, often with shaded banks. Sometimes in great lakes
165472		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers, often with shaded banks. Sometimes present in great lakes.
165472		population	eng	In northern Africa, this species is widespread in the mountains of Morocco and is scattered within the north coastal area of Tunisia. However its crepuscular peak of activity make it to be often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers. The gap of knowledge in most of Algeria is probably explained by insecurity and lack of surveys, but habitat degradation may be responsible as well.
165472		population	eng	In northern Africa, this species is widespread in the mountains of Morocco and is scattered within the north coastal area of Tunisia. However its crepuscular peak of activity means it is often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers. The gap of knowledge in most of Algeria is probably explained by insecurity and lack of surveys, but habitat degradation may be responsible as well.
165472		population	eng	This species is widespread over nearly all rivers in southern France and is probably also widespread in most parts of Iberia and the western part of Italy (except Sicily, where there is only one record). However, its habit of being most active at dusk may cause it to be often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers.
165472		threats	eng	Pollution and destruction of habitat are the main threats. Drought in connection to global warming, over-irrigation and related lowering of underground water tables results in the desiccation of rivers and local extinction.
165472		threats	eng	Pollution and destruction of habitat. Drought in connection to global warming. Over-irrigation and lowering of underground water tables.
165472		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are pollution and destruction of habitat and drought and wildfire in connection to global warming. Over-irrigation, dams, urban development and lowering of underground water tables may also affecting the species.
165473		conservation	eng	No specific actions for this species are needed. Monitoring of this species in isolated southern localities is recommended.
165473		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum danae</em> is common and widespread in Central and North Europe. The species is largely absent from the southern third of Europe and is there found only at higher elevations (Alps and Pyrenees).
165473		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum danae </em>is most often found in acidic waters such as bogs, moorlands and acidic lakes. More rarely it is found in drying ponds, ditches, fens, old gravel pits. In the Mediterranean region it is confined to bogs and lakes in mountainous areas.
165473		population	eng	The species is widespread and often abundant in Central and in large parts of northern Europe. In South Europe it is only found in mountain areas where it is fairly common.
165473		threats	eng	The species is not under any specific treat. Acidification and nutrification, which impacted many species of bogs and heath lakes have not lead to a decline of this species. In the future breeding habitats in the mountains of the Mediterranean region may be affected by climate change.
165474		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into habitat status, conservation measures and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
165474		conservation	eng	None.
165474		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis subdilatata</em> is a Maghrebian endemic which was recorded once in the Canary Islands (Kalkman and Smit 2002) as a single male probably brought by African storm winds (passive vagrancy).
165474		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis subdilatata</em> is endemic to the northern Africa region, being present in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.
165474		habitat	eng	Breeds in permanent running waters as well as large, seasonal wadis.
165474		habitat	eng	In Africa, <em>Platycnemis subdilatata</em> reproduces successfully mostly in permanent running waters.
165474		population	eng	Abundant across its range in northern Africa.
165474		population	eng	No reproducing population has been identified in Europe, although one adult has been recorded in the Canary Islands.
165474		threats	eng	No resident population is known in Europe.
165474		threats	eng	Water pollution and dam building threaten the species.
165475		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
165475		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes sponsa</em> ranges from western Europe to Japan and is very common across almost the whole of Europe. The southern border of its range extends from northern Spain to the central Balkans. In the British Isles, it was found to have expanded its range upon about 140 km to the north since 1970, that was attributed to global warming. Its northern limit goes presently from northern Scotland to the north of the Bothnian Bay and north Russia.
165475		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide range of standing waters with emergent vegetation. It may also be numerous at newly created shallow localities, but it is not specifically a pioneer species. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring to end summer but hatch usually after winter.
165475		population	eng	This species is widespread, represented by large populations, and is one of the most common damselflies. A decline has been observed in some western areas (e.g. northwestern Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium).
165475		threats	eng	The species is not threatened on the European scale.
165476		conservation	eng	Control of pollution and preservation of habitats.
165476		conservation	eng	Control of pollution and preservation of habitats through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165476		conservation	eng	Necessary conservation measurements are the control of water pollution and preservation and management of the habitats where the species occurs.
165476		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion caerulescens</em> extends over the whole western Mediterranean area. In the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco (where it is very widespread), Algeria and Tunisia.
165476		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion caerulescens</em> is a west Mediterranean endemic species.
165476		habitat	eng	<em>C. caerulescens</em> reproduces in sunny rivers, brooks, spring and seepages with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation. It is replaced by the close relative <em>C. scitulum</em> in standing and slowly flowing waters.
165476		habitat	eng	Sunny rivers, brooks, spring and seepages, with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation.
165476		habitat	eng	Sunny rivers, brooks, springs and seepages, with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation.
165476		population	eng	The species is widespread in Sardinia, Sicily, Spain and in the Maghreb, although about half of the Algerian data are old and should be presently reexamined. It is more scattered in the southernmost 2/3 of mainland Italy and is very rare in France, although good localities exist there.
165476		population	eng	The species is widespread in Sicily and Spain but is much more scattered in Portugal and the southernmost two thirds of mainland Italy. It is very rare in France, although strong populations exist there.
165476		population	eng	This species is widespread in the Maghreb, although about half of the Algerian data are old and should be presently re-examined.
165476		threats	eng	&#160;The main threats to the species are water pollution, urban development, water management, destruction of wetlands through draining, over-irrigation, and drought in connection to global warming.
165476		threats	eng	Water pollution and harnessing for human use, destruction of wetlands due to draining, over-irrigation, and droughts in connection to global warming, are the main threats to this species.
165476		threats	eng	Water pollution and harnessing for human use, destruction of wetlands through draining, over-irrigation, drought in connection to global warming.
165477		conservation	eng	Halt habitat degradation and develop public awareness through education.
165477		conservation	eng	No conservation measure is needed.
165477		conservation	eng	No information available.
165477		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura saharensis</em> is mainly a North African species that extends in Europe only to the Canary Islands (where it was recorded initially  as <em>I. senegalensis</em>), and presumably to the Madeira archipelago (sub. <em>I. maderae</em> and <em>I. senegalensis</em>).
165477		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Its distribution is peripheral in western Africa with records in Mauritania, Niger and southern Algeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from saharan oases and Canary islands.
165477		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Sahara belt from the Canaries to Libya (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in the southern parts of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Libya, as well as Mauritania. It is also present in Niger, and probably in Mali but no records have been confirmed there yet. Northern records could pertain to another species (probably <em>graelsii</em>); absent from the coastal strip.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is peripheral, with records in Mauritania, Niger and southern Algeria.
165477		habitat	eng	Breeds in lotic and lentic habitats. Desert oases.
165477		habitat	eng	Desert oases.
165477		habitat	eng	<em>Ischnura saharensis</em> is very mobile and new rain pools in desert areas are quickly colonised (Dumont 2007). The species is well adapted to arid environments and is known to disperse easily and  successfully colonize ephemeral water bodies appearing during the rain season (Boudot 2008). Its larval period is short and adults appear before the pools, ponds and lakes will be dried up.
165477		population	eng	Abundant across its range except in the Canaries where it is rare (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
165477		population	eng	No information available.
165477		population	eng	The insular European populations of<em> Ischnura saharensis</em> are widely scattered and the species is not rare in the Canary Islands.
165477		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat degradation due to sewage run off.
165477		threats	eng	There is no present threat for this species, which is a rapid colonizer of any new water body, but an increased desertification of the Canary Islands would lead to a severe decline.
165477		threats	eng	Unknown
165478		conservation	eng	None required at present.
165478		conservation	eng	The species is common in large parts of its range and is expanding northwards. No conservation action is needed.
165478		distribution	eng	<em>Erythromma viridulum</em> occurs in central and southern Europe, northern Africa, the Levant, and Asia. Its range is expanding northwards in Europe: the species used to be absent from parts of the northwest, where it became one of the commonest species in the 1980-1990s.<br><br>In northern Africa, the species is present in Algeria (where it is widespread in the haute plateau and coastal areas), Tunisia and Morocco (where it is known from six localities).
165478		distribution	eng	<em>Erythromma viridulum</em> occurs in central and southern Europe, northern Africa, the Levant, and Asia. Its range is expanding northwards in Europe: the species used to be absent from parts of the northwest, where it became one of the commonest species in the 1980-1990s.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Algeria (where it is widespread in the haute plateau and coastal areas), Tunisia and Morocco (where it is known from six localities).
165478		distribution	eng	The main range of <em>Erythromma viridulum</em> lies in southern and central Europe. In North Africa the species is limited to the Maghreb. In the east it occurs in the Ukraine, the southern parts of Russia, and in the eastern Mediterranean up to Turkmenistan. Since the 1980s it has expanded its range over 100-500 km to the north. It was first found in Belarus in the end of the 1990s  (Tishchikov and Tishchikov 2000), in 1999 in the United Kingdom (Dewick and Gerussi 2000), in 2001 in Denmark, and in 2000 in Sweden.
165478		habitat	eng	<em>Erythromma viridulum</em> is found in largely unshaded, standing or slow-flowing, sunny waters with aquatic vegetation, including brackish waters. It is especially common at waters with rich aquatic vegetation where the males can be seen perching on algal mats, hornworts (<em>Ceratophyllum</em>), water-milfoils (<em>Myriophylum</em>) and other plants.
165478		habitat	eng	Stagnant or slightly flowing sunny waters with aquatic vegetation, including brackish waters. Typical emergents include algal mats, hornworts (<em>Ceratophyllum</em>), water-milfoils (<em>Myriophylum</em>) and other plants. It may also appear on other emergent vegetation, including floating peatmoss (<em>Sphagnum</em>) in bogs and water lilies.
165478		population	eng	Locally quite abundant. The species is doing well in North Africa.
165478		population	eng	Locally quite abundant. The species is doing well in northern Africa.
165478		population	eng	The species is often abundant when found.
165478		threats	eng	No major threats at present.
165478		threats	eng	The species is not considered threatened.
165479		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed.
165479		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura elegans</em> occurs from Ireland and Spain to Japan, including the whole of Europe except the most northern and southwestern parts. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range for about 140 km to the north since 1970, that was attributed to global warming (Hickling <em>et al.</em> 2005).
165479		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura elegans</span> occurs from western Europe to Japan.
165479		habitat	eng	This species breeds in a wide variety of standing and slow flowing waters. It is very common at eutrophic and mesotrophic sites, but avoids acid waters. It is tolerant of salinity.
165479		habitat	eng	This species reproduces in standing and slow-flowing running waters. It is very common on eutrophic and mesotrophic sites, but avoids acid waters. It is rather tolerant to salinity.
165479		population	eng	<em>Ischnura elegans</em> is a widespread and one of the most common and abundant damselflies in Europe.
165479		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura elegans</span> is an extremely common species over much of its range; in Europe it is one of the most common damselflies.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span>
165479		threats	eng	<em>I. elegans</em> is able to colonize a wide range of habitats and is not threatened.
165479		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura elegans</span> is able to colonise and breed in a wide range of habitats and is under no threats.
165480		conservation	eng	In some localities, water regime is managed for salt production, that may eliminate the species, therefore these activities should be regulated. Prevention of development in coastal areas for tourism and industry and protected areas should be established.
165480		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes macrostigma</em> ranges from West Europe to Mongolia. It has a scattered distribution and shows strong fluctuations in numbers from year to year. It occurs mostly in coastal areas and in the Central European Pannonian Basin (Hungary and eastern Austria, Neusiedlersee area).
165480		habitat	eng	<em>Lestes macrostigma</em> is mostly confined to shallow brackish waters with rushes, sedges and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salicornia</span> spp. in coastal wetlands. It is also known from inland basins with low rainfall and strong evaporation favouring continental brackish waters (Central and Eastern Europe with a continental climate). Some populations from Corsica were claimed to reproduce in fresh waters, but this should be confirmed through chemical analysis.
165480		population	eng	<em>Lestes macrostigma</em> shows strong fluctuations from year to year. Flourishing and fairly stable popluations are known from the south of France, east Austria and Hungary. <br/>Although the Neusiedlersee area is rather well protected, only 23 Hungarian 10X10 km UTM squares out of a total of 44 have been recorded from 1960 onwards (Devai 1994), so that it is probable that the species experienced a decrease in this country during the 20th century.
165480		threats	eng	The species has a very scattered range and shows isolated populations. The main threat is the conversion of natural brackish ponds into commercial salt exploitations. Besides, the natural instability of this species is an intrinsic threat.
165481		conservation	eng	Control of stream structure, pollution and water use are needed to preserve this species.
165481		distribution	eng	<em>Calopteryx xanthostoma</em> is a southwest European endemic abundant in the south and the southwest of France and in most of Iberia. In the latter area, it becomes more scarce towards the south. In Italy, it is recorded with certainty from Liguria only; records from Sicily may be due to a confusion with some infrarank forms of <em>C. splendens</em> without or with a very narrow hyaline fringe at wings tip (<em>C. s. caprai</em>, <em>C. s. balcanica</em>).  Records from North Africa were old and unclear and were most probably erroneous. In the contact area between <em>C. xanthostoma</em> and <em>C. splendens</em>, both taxa are reported to hybridize, for example in Liguria and between the Loire and Garonne in France, with decrease of <em>C. xanthostoma</em> in favour of <em>C. splendens</em> through genetic assimilation.&#160; This and genetic distance analysis between both taxa suggest that <em>C. xanthostoma</em> is a relict taxa that survived the Pleistocene glaciations in the west Mediterranean refugium but is presently challenged by post glacial invaders, with introgression and replacement processes.
165481		habitat	eng	This species favours open and moderately shaded running waters. It avoids cold torrents, high mountains and deep shade, but is found in slow-flowing areas in large water courses where <em>C. splendens</em> also occurs (for example, lowland rivers and canals).
165481		population	eng	This species is fairly common and abundant in its main area.
165481		threats	eng	Destruction of habitat through gravel pitting and tourism infrastructures as well as water pollution by human activities are the main threat for this endemic species. The drying up of streams during the summer is now occurring throughout its range as a result of climate change, over irrigation and human consumption in urbanized areas, so that a strong regression of the species is to be expected in the future if drought periods increase in time and frequency.
165482		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
165482		distribution	eng	<em>Epitheca bimaculata</em> is an Eurasian species ranging over an enormous area from the west of France to east Siberia and Japan. It has a scattered and patchy distribution in the west and the south of its range. It is extinct in the Netherlands and has not been recorded for a long time in Italy and Bosnia and Herzegovina although this might be due to lack of fieldwork. It is missing in the north and the very south of the continent.
165482		habitat	eng	The main habitat are oligotrophic to eutrophic lakes, frequently with abundant submerged and floating vegetation, but partly or completely surrounded by trees or bushes in Europe. Also found in pools, oxbows, old abandoned gravel pits and fishponds.
165482		population	eng	This is a relatively poorly known species, which was for a long time believed to be threatened with extinction in the west of Europe. In the last two decades it was found that its scarceness can at least partly be explained due to the behaviour of the imagos which spent most of their time in the forest and are scarcely met. However, based on exuviae collection at emergence, it was recorded in many areas where it was not expected to occur and some populations were found to be large (1,000-5,000). Population density ranges from one single exuviae to more than 5,000 for apparently similar habitats.
165482		threats	eng	The extreme variation in population density for apparent similar habitats is far from being elucidated, so that it is difficult to decide which parameters are favourable and which are unfavourable for the species. However, intensive aquaculture and any strong human impact on a water body such as calibration with abrupt banks and mowing grass to have clean banks for fishermen or picnicking people are clearly unfavourable. The species disappeared from large parts of Germany due to transformation of "wild" lakes and ponds into "clean" waterbodies for fishermen and Sunday picnics.<br/>In the southern part of its range, it could be threatened in the future by droughts due to climate change.
165483		conservation	eng	No specific actions are needed for <em>S. vulgatum</em> on a European scale. However, fieldwork and monitoring to establish its conservation status in the Mediterranean and to assess if climate change is impacting on the species is needed. This is especially true for the subspecies <em>S. v. ibericum</em> and work on its taxonomy and habitat requirements is needed.
165483		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum vulgatum</em> has a wide distribution and occurs eastwards to China and Japan. It is a common and widespread species in Central and eastern Europe. The species is largely absent from the southern third of Europe where it is mainly confined to higher elevations (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Italy, it is probably the rarest species of <em>Sympetrum</em> (E. Riservato, pers. comm.). The species is in Britain only known from wanderers and is largely absent from the northern third of Fennoscandia. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">S. v. ibericum</span>, which is found in the French Pyrenees and northern Spain, is generally rare.
165483		habitat	eng	The species is found in all kinds of standing, largely unshaded waters. In the Mediterranean region it reaches its southernmost distribution, constrained by climatic factors, and confined to areas of high elevation. Details on the habitat of<em> S. vulgatum ibericum</em> are lacking.
165483		population	eng	The species is common and widespread in northern Central and Eastern Europe and frequently occurs in large populations. In the south, the species is rare and easily overlooked between the far higher numbers of <em>S. striolatum</em> and <em>S. meridionale</em>.
165483		threats	eng	The species is not threatened in most of its range. However, climate change in the Mediterranean region may affect its subspecies <em> S. vulgatum ibericum</em>.
165484		conservation	eng	The species does not need specific conservation measures on a European scale. Monitoring the trend of the populations in western Europe and research of the threats causing the decline are needed and appropriate conservation measures need to be developed on the base of those findings.
165484		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion pulchellum</em> is widespread from West Europe to West Siberia. In the north it extends to central Fennoscandia. In the British Isles, and locally in Fennoscandia, it was found to have expanded its range to the north since 1970 (Hickling <em>et al.</em> 2005, Flenner and Sahlen 2008) which was attributed to global warming. In the south it reaches the north of Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Balkans and Anatolia.
165484		habitat	eng	<em>Coenagrion pulchellum</em> is mostly linked to standing waters with a rich riparian vegetation. It is also found in slow-flowing waters.
165484		population	eng	<em>Coenagrion pulchellum</em> is an abundant species. In the south of France, Spain, Italy, the Balkans and Anatolia its range becomes fragmented and it turns rare to very rare.<br/>In several regions in western Europe (Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium), a declining population trend has been noted over the last decades.
165484		threats	eng	The species is not threatened at the European scale. Drying up of habitats due to rainfall deficit in connection to global warming is a future threat with regards to the survival of the species in the south of its range.
165485		conservation	eng	In most part of its range no conservation measures are needed at present. In some member states, the species is included in national Red Lists (Germany: EN; Austria: EN). Therefore, local conservation measures such as restoration of marshy areas are recommended.
165485		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora flavomaculata</em> extends from France and southern Fennoscandia to Siberia and Mongolia. In the south only scattered populations are recorded from Italy and the Balkans.
165485		habitat	eng	The species generally prefers peaty water bodies with abundant vegetation. It occurs in fens, wet meadows, ponds, ditches, and edges of <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs. It is rarely found in slow-running waters.
165485		population	eng	<em>S. flavomaculata</em> is fairly common in Fennoscandia and northeast Europe and is scattered in the western and southern parts of its range. It occurs locally in large populations, however southern and western populations are frequently small. Since the 1980s an increase in abundance has been observed in the north and in the east.
165485		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species in northern and eastern part of its range where populations are increasing. In western and southern Europe the species is much more scarce and declined strongly in the 1960s to 1980s due to intensive land use (e.g. drainage). This decline seems to have stopped and recently an increase has been noted in part of this range. Increased drought periods related to climate change may lead to the drying up of additional marshes and to the extinction of several southern populations in the future. In Fennoscandia, climate change might favour this species development.
165486		conservation	eng	The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be monitored and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. However distribution information in parts of the Balkan is still scant. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has dropped. Any remaining threats are more local and need local activities.
165486		distribution	eng	<em>Leucorrhina pectoralis</em> is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to western Europe. The species is scarce to fairly common in northeastern and Central Europe including southern and central Fennoscandia. Compared to its congeners it has a relatively southern distribution being found across the Alps, in northern Italy and in a large part of the Balkans.
165486		habitat	eng	Compared to other <em>Leucorrhinia</em> species, it is found in a relatively wide array of habitat types such as borders of bogs, forest lakes and pools (sometimes acidic), fenlands, marshy ditches, oxbows and even sluggish rivers or canals. Its habitats are often largely unshaded, permanent, at most weakly eutrophic waters with rich vegetation thus avoiding fish predation. Its optimal habitat varies very much from region to region.
165486		population	eng	<em>L. pectoralis</em> is fairly common in north and eastern Europe where the populations are frequently large. The species experienced a strong decline in at least western and parts of Central Europe. It is now rare in this part of its range and many populations are isolated and relatively small.
165486		threats	eng	<em>L. pectoralis</em> has suffered from large-scale conversion of fenlands and peat systems for agricultural use and from eutrophication. In the Netherlands and Germany, the species is regionally showing signs of recovery. Hence, the species does not face major threats at the moment.
165487		conservation	eng	Relatively little is known on the biology and the main habitat of this species adjacent to the Baltic Sea. Information on this is needed to better understand its conservation status. The range of this species in southern Russia outside the Ural and eastern Ukraine is unknown. Information on this would help to understand the conservation status of this species.
165487		distribution	eng	The main range of this species is found in the open and half open steppes of the temperate parts of Asia from where it occurs east to Kamchatka (Dumont 2005). In the west it is known from single records from Armenia and from lake Van in Turkey. In the south of the Ural it is common at steppe and forest-steppe lakes (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is likely that it is occurring in parts of southern Russia, however information on this area is poor. There are two old records from the eastern parts of the Ukraine and one recent record but all these records need to be validated. Suitable habitat might be present and given the fact that this region is poorly explored it seems not unlikely that populations of the species are present here. An isolated occurrence of the species is found around the Baltic Sea. Here the species is found at one Russian island, the coast of Estonia, Finland and Sweden, only in the latter country it is also found in inland localities. Recently a male was found in the north of Denmark. It is unknown if the records in Denmark refer to just a vagrant or whether there is a local population. There is one record from the Komi Republic in northern Russia. This record has however not been verified and is here regarded as doubtful (Peters 1997).
165487		habitat	eng	<em>Aeshna serrata</em> is found in larger standing waters and is, compared to the closely related <em>A. crenata</em>, more found in open landscapes. In the southern Ural the species is found in steppe and forest steppe lakes' (Dumont  <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the interior parts of Sweden, it occurs at open eutrophic lakes and pools with extensive beds of reed (<em>Phragmites</em> sp., <em>Typha</em> spp.). In the surroundings of the Baltic Sea the species seems to have a preference for brackish waters. The species is found at vegetation of reeds on the banks of the Baltic sea and at nearby wetlands.
165487		population	eng	In the southern Ural the species was found to be common (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The paucity of records west of the Ural seems to suggest that it is here much more scarce or absent. Although the species has a small range along the Baltic sea it is often common and abundant when found.
165487		threats	eng	At the moment no specific threats are known. Little is known on the situation in the southern Ural but presumably the species is not strongly threatened there. The Baltic population is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism on the coast of Estonia and Finland could be a threat to the species. It is not unlikely that the majority of the Baltic population breeds in the Baltic Sea or in habitats strongly influenced by the Baltic Sea. Changes in the water quality of the Baltic Sea could therefore potentially be a threat to this species.<br/>In Sweden, populations are included in protected bird areas. Flooding the area for bird protection measures has negative impacts on the reed bed habitat.
165488		conservation	eng	None.
165488		conservation	eng	None needed.
165488		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
165488		conservation	eng	This is a widespread species, and specific conservation measures are not needed.
165488		distribution	eng	<em>Anax parthenope</em> is common in the Mediterranean area but absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. Its global range extends to Japan and China, and into the Sahara; it is widespread in northern Africa, occurring across the whole region. Its range has expanded since the 1990s and although it is not expanding as quickly as <em>Anax imperator</em>, northwards vagrancies are more often observed than in <em>Anax ephippiger</em>.
165488		distribution	eng	<em>Anax parthenope</em> ranges from Europe and North Africa over the Arabian Peninsula eastwards, through Nepal and India, to China and Japan. Recently a young female was found near Omsk constituting by far the most northern record of the species on the Siberian plain (Kosterin 2007). These records suggest that the northwards expansion of the species is taking place over very wide range.
165488		distribution	eng	<em>Anax parthenope</em> ranges from Europe and North Africa over the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to China and Japan. In the east of its Asian range the subspecies <em>A. p. julius</em> occurs, which might proof to be a distinct species. The species is common in large areas of the Mediterranean and Southeast Europe but is absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. In Central Europe it is scarcer, occurring more northerly in the east due to the warmer summers in that part of Europe. The species has expanded its range to the north since the 1990s. The first successful reproduction in Great Britain was found in 1999 (Parr <em>et al.</em> 2004) and in the Netherlands in 2006 (Bouwman <em>et al.</em>. 2008). Recently a young female was found near Omsk constituting by far the most northern record of the species on the Siberian plain (Kosterin 2007). These records suggest that the northwards expansion of the species is taking place over very wide range.
165488		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Egypt, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in northern Ethiopia; Djibouti and Eritrea likely.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common in the Mediterranean countries, and has expanded northwards since 1990s. Range extends east to India and China and south into Sahara. The subspecies found in Japan (<em>Anax parthenope julius</em>) is most likely a separate species.
165488		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known just entering the Afrotropics in the Sahara of Chad (Ennedi) and Algeria (Hoggar).Listed for Senegal by Tsuda (2000), but this is most doubtful. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread species of warmer regions of Palearctic from North Africa and Europe to Japan and China,
165488		distribution	eng	The species is widespread species of warmer regions of Palearctic from northern Africa and Europe to Japan and China. It is present across northern and northeastern Africa. The known locality in Senegal is uncertain.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anax parthenope</span> is common in the Mediterranean area but absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. Its global range extends to Japan and China, and into the Sahara; it is widespread in northern Africa, occurring across the whole region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is present in Sudan, Egypt and Somalia, and likely to occur also in northern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present just entering the Afrotropics in the Sahara of Chad (Ennedi) and Algeria (Hoggar).It was listed for Senegal by Tsuda (2000), but this is most doubtful.
165488		habitat	eng	Larger warm standing waters.
165488		habitat	eng	Standing, often large waterbodies, and slightly running waters, sometimes brackish. Adults move a lot, but usually stay close to water bodies.
165488		habitat	eng	Standing, often large waterbodies, and slightly running waters, sometimes brackish. Adults move a lot, but usually stay close to waterbodies.
165488		habitat	eng	Standing, often large waters, often in arid regions.
165488		habitat	eng	The species occurs at standing, often large and sometimes brackish waterbodies, more rarely at slowly running waters.
165488		population	eng	No information available.
165488		population	eng	No information is available, but this is a wide-ranging species.
165488		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
165488		population	eng	The species is common in its Mediterranean and Southeast European range although observed numbers are generally low. <em>A. parthenope</em> is rare in large parts of Central Europe and many records at the northern limit of its range pertain to wandering individuals.
165488		population	eng	This species is widespread and is often abundant within its range.
165488		threats	eng	No information available.
165488		threats	eng	None.
165488		threats	eng	None identified at present.
165488		threats	eng	None known.
165488		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not under any specific threat.
165489		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
165489		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions as well as policy-based actions and increasing awareness are also required.
165489		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus</em> occurs in North Africa, continental Europe and southwest Asia. In northern Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
165489		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus</em> occurs in northern Africa, continental Europe and southwest Asia. In northern Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
165489		habitat	eng	Found in largely unshaded (usually rocky) rivers and streams; occasionally occurs at large lakes (Dijkstra and Lewington).
165489		population	eng	The species is relatively common in parts of Morocco, but becomes rarer in northern parts of Tunisia and Algeria.
165489		threats	eng	Habitat modifications (reservoir building, pollution and gravel mining).
165489		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat modifications (reservoir building, pollution and gravel mining).
165490		conservation	eng	No measures are needed in the Fennoscandian and northern Russian part of its range. The protection of breeding habitats is needed throughout Central Europe and habitats should be preserved from access by livestock. The creation of water holes and small excavations in <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs is likely to create favourable micro-habitats for this species and should be recommended whenever peat bogs become dry. In several EU member states it is Red Listed (e.g., Germany: CR; Austria: VU; Poland: VU; Denmark: CR).
165490		distribution	eng	It ranges from southwest France, Ireland and Scotland to North Japan. <em>Somatochlora arctica</em> is common in Fennoscandia and the Alps but is scarce to rare in other parts of Central and Eastern Europe. It occurs in some isolated areas in southwest Bulgaria and the Pyrenees.
165490		habitat	eng	<em>S. arctica</em> favours <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum </span>peat bogs and transition mires where the larvae are found at places with a very small amount of open water. These situations can be found at depressions, water holes, margins of small pools, peat excavations, moorlands and tundra. In its southern range it has a preference for higher altitudes.
165490		population	eng	The species is often difficult to find as the habitats may look unsuitable for dragonflies. Populations of adults of <em>S. arctica</em> are mostly small to medium large.
165490		threats	eng	No threats are present in the Fennoscandian and northern Russian part of its range. However, the species is threatened in Central and southern Europe. The destruction of peat bogs due to access by livestock, industrial peat extraction, forests and peaty waterbody management are a threat in lowlands and low elevation mountains and probably led to the destruction of habitats in the past. More recently, desiccation of several habitats has been reported under the influence of climate change (Ott 2006). Natural succession of the vegetation can lead to the reduction of available habitats.
165491		conservation	eng	The occurrence of this species in Europe is doubtful.
165491		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus ubadschii</em> replaces <em>G. flavipes</em> in Anatolia and further east to Syria, Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia. There is no proof that this taxon occurs within the European territory. There is an old record from Lemnos island in the Aegean (Werner, 1938) which could either refer to <em>Gomphus flavipes</em> or to <em>G. ubadschii</em> (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). The species is known from the foothills of the Caucasus and might therefore occur in the southeastern parts of Europe.
165491		habitat	eng	<em>G. ubdaschii</em> is found in rivers throughout its range.
165491		population	eng	No data are available. A single old record of <em>G. flavipes</em> from Lemnos was ascribed to <em>G. ubadschii</em> by some authors without valid arguments.
165491		threats	eng	The occurence of this species in Europe is doubtful and hence no information on threats is available.
165492		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
165492		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation needed.
165492		conservation	eng	The species does not need specific conservation measures on the European scale.
165492		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes virens</em> occurs in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and western Europe to the eastern Mediterranean.
165492		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes virens</em> occurs in northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and western Europe to the eastern Mediterranean.
165492		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes virens</em> ranges from west France and Iberia to Asia. Its northern limit includes the south of Sweden and the Baltic States.
165492		habitat	eng	<em>Lestes virens</em> is found in a variety of standing waters, either seasonal or permanent e.g. lakes, ponds, marshes and acid peat bogs. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from late spring to autumn but hatch usually after winter, when all water bodies are filled. Then the larval period is short (2-3 months), so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation. This allows the species to successfully colonize temporary pools.
165492		habitat	eng	Found in seasonal and permanent lakes, ponds and marshes.
165492		population	eng	Locally abundant.
165492		population	eng	This species is generally widespread and locally abundant, although locally it is rare in some European provinces. It has been expanding its range to the north in the last decade.
165492		threats	eng	Habitat modification and water extraction.
165492		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat modification caused by agriculture and infrastructure development, and water extraction.
165492		threats	eng	The species is not threatened on the European scale but locally it may be eradicated from fish ponds if they are maintained too intensively . As any other <em>Lestes</em>, it is very sensitive to fish predation, so that it maintains high populations only in water bodies with microhabitats preserved from fish access. On a local scale, the species can be sensitive to agricultural land and water pollution.<br/>Climate change is causing the decline of some west Mediterranean populations (strong rainfall deficit in autumn and winter will give dry pools in spring, so that larvae will not develop) but leads to more favourable habitat situations in northern Europe at the same time.
165493		conservation	eng	Water extraction for agriculture and urban use must be controlled.
165493		distribution	eng	The exact range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes parvidens</span> is not precisely known because of its similarity with <em>L. viridis</em> and its former inclusion in the latter as a subspecies. All older literature data from the Balkans referred to <em>L. viridis</em>, but Olias <em>et al.</em> (2007) showed that a large part of these records pertain to <em>L. parvidens</em>. <em>Lestes parvidens</em> ranges from Corsica, Italy to southern Ukraine, the Balkans, Asia Minor, and the Levant. <em>Lestes parvidens</em> and <em>L. viridis</em> overlap in large parts of Italy and the Balkans and their precise distribution in this area is not yet clear.
165493		habitat	eng	<em>Lestes parvidens</em> shows the same biology and ecology as <em>L. viridis</em> and reproduces both in standing and slow-flowing waters surrounded by trees and bushes with soft bark and wood. The eggs are inserted in these bushes and trees from spring to autumn but hatch usually after winter.
165493		population	eng	Due to the long-lasting confusion between <em>Lestes parvidens</em> and <em>L. viridis</em>, the respective distribution of these two taxa is not precisely known in the Balkans and the characteristics of their populations can not be assessed. In the Ukraine, it is quite common in large river deltas. The size and trend of the Italian populations is unknown.
165493		threats	eng	Drying up of rivers and standing waters due to over-irrigation and increased drought periods as a result of climate change is the main threat to this species.
165494		conservation	eng	Control of water use for agriculture and urbanized areas and prevention from water pollution are necessary conservation measures.
165494		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora meridionalis</em> occurs in southeast Europe, Italy, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Czech Republic and some scatterred localities in Asian Turkey. Southeast France is the westernmost limit of its range and its type locality is in Italy. Its distribution in the Balkans is not yet clear due to confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. metallica</span> (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Wildermuth 2008).
165494		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in shaded running waters and occasionally reproduces in standing waters.
165494		population	eng	The species can be locally common.
165494		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to over-irrigation, rainfall deficit, forest fires, human settlement are the main threats to the species. Increased drought and drying up of brooks as a result of climate change is already a threat, as the species has its main range in the Mediterranean countries.
165495		conservation	eng	In northern Italy and on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea the species can serve as indicator for habitat quality of brooks and seepages. The distribution of the species in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania should be carefully mapped and for each country an assessment should be made of the conservation status of the populations. Based on this, local measurements should be proposed and information should be disclosed to the local authorities and conservation officers. The need of local measurements to counterbalance the impact of climate change should be considered.
165495		conservation	eng	Protection of habitats and management of livestock are proposed measures. Some populations are within protected areas, but better management of these areas is required as current management and protection is inadequate.
165495		conservation	eng	Protection of habitats. Management of livestock. Some populations within protected areas, but better management of these areas is required as current management and protection is inadequate.
165495		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion tenellum</em> is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including North Africa), extending into northwestern Europe, where it is locally common. It is rare in Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia and Albania. It is present on Crete and probably occurs on Ios.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present only in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
165495		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion tenellum</em> is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including northern Africa), extending into northwestern Europe, where it is locally common. It is rare in Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia and Albania. It is present on Crete and probably occurs on Ios. In northern Africa, it is present only in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
165495		distribution	eng	Over three-quarters of the distribution of<em> Ceriagrion tenellum</em> lies in Europe. The species is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including northwest Africa), extending into northwest Europe. Its most northern populations are found in the south of Great Britain, the Netherlands and western Germany. The species is widespread in Italy but is rare and local on the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea where it is found in a small coastal fringe in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. It is absent from mainland Greece but is found on Crete and nearby Ios.<br/><br/>The species is largely absent in a corridor running west to east in northern France and southern Belgium. This corridor splits the European area of the species in two. At least in the Netherlands and Flanders the species is showing a strong increase and is expanding its range. This is likely to happen in other parts of its northern range also and expansion of the species from northern France into the corridor is likely.    <br/><br/>Several records of unidentified specimens of <em>Ceriagrion</em> are known from Lesvos and from continental Greece and might belong to <em>C. tenellum</em>.
165495		habitat	eng	As already remarked, the European distribution of the species is split in two by a corridor running west to east in northern France and southern Belgium where the species is largely absent. South of this corridor the species is mainly found at seepages, small brooks or seepage fed standing waters with rich aquatic vegetation although it is regionally also found in bogs (eg. Brittany and Haute-Saône). In the north of France the species is rare although suitable habitats seem to be present. This suggests that climatic conditions are here limiting the distribution of the species. The occurrence of the species further north seems to be facilitated by the use of a different type of habitat. In northern Belgium, the Netherlands, and adjacent Germany and in Great Britain the species is mainly found in bogs with <em>Sphagnum</em>. In this area the species has shown an increase in the last decade and the species is increasingly found in other types of habitats such as small brooks.
165495		habitat	eng	Stagnant waterbodies and small streams, peats, bogs and seepages.
165495		population	eng	The species can be locally abundant. It is known from a number of localities in Morocco.
165495		population	eng	The species is generally widespread and populations are scattered and often found in small and localised waters. The species is often abundant when found and at least in the north of its range, where it is found in bogs, it often occurs in high densities.
165495		threats	eng	<em>C. tenellum</em> is in most of its range not threatened and there are no indications of a decline. The situation is different for the population in northern Italy and those on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Here the species is limited to often small and isolated populations. It is likely that many of these have been impacted by habitat destructions due to agricultural practises and building activities. Moreover, these populations will likely be impacted by climate change. Prolonged dry and hot periods might result in desiccation of streams or the diminish of seepages.<br/>The populations in Baden-Württemberg (Germany) and Switzerland are relatively small and isolated. Most of these lie in nature reserves and there are no indications for a continuing decline.
165495		threats	eng	Livestock impacts on the breeding areas, especially vegetation. Drainage and extraction of water.
165495		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are livestock impacts on the breeding areas, especially on vegetation, and water extraction.
165496		conservation	eng	No specific action on European scale is needed. In southern parts of its range, it is advisable to monitor the populations and to assess the regional conservation status.
165496		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula fulva</em> has a wide range in southern and Central Europe and occurs east to the Caspian sea and the Caucasus. In many regions the species is scarce to absent and almost completely absent from the Iberian Peninsula. At least in the 1970s and 1980s a decline was noted in large parts of its western European range but in the last two decades the species seems to be stable in most regions and in some areas an increase has been noted, especially in the northeast.
165496		habitat	eng	The species is most often found at sunny, standing and at slow-flowing waters, and often near forest. It prefers mesotrophic to eutrophic non-acidic waters. It is mainly present at places with extensive, high and dense riparian vegetation such as beds of reed (<em>Phragmites</em>), reedmace (<em>Typha</em>) or sedges. In some areas it is found in large wetlands such as low peat marshes or coastal wetlands. Less often it is present at channels or at deeper waters in quarries.
165496		population	eng	The species is moderately represented to fairly common across its range. The populations are often large.
165496		threats	eng	In the north and east of its range, the species does not face any threats.<br/>The local decline in the 1970s and 1980s was probably caused by large scale habitat destruction, water pollution and poor management of wetlands. In these areas, the types of habitat where<em> L. fulva</em> is found are nowadays often part of protected areas and improved legislation has in many countries resulted in a strong improvement of the water quality. Due to this the decline of the species largely stopped. Currently the species is mainly threatened on a local scale by poor management of wetlands. An increased demand for water in the Mediterranean might result in an increase of groundwater extraction which will impact the species.
165497		conservation	eng	In most of its range specific actions are not needed. The isolated populations in Italy and in the southern parts of the Balkans are threatened. It is advisable to map these populations in order to assess their conservation status.
165497		distribution	eng	<em>Erythromma najas</em> is a widespread species ranging from west Europe to Japan. Its main European range lies in Central and northeastern Europe where the species is common and widespread in the lowlands. It reaches north to the central parts of Fennoscandia. It becomes less common to the south of central Europe but is still fairly widespread in parts of southern France and the north of Italy. <em>E. najas</em> is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, very rare in Italy and known from scattered records in the Balkans only. The situation in Romania and the Ukraine is not clear but it is likely to be common in the north.
165497		habitat	eng	<em>Erythromma najas</em> occurs at largely unshaded, standing or slow-flowing waters. Frequently, an important characteristic of the habitat is the presence of aquatic vegetation with floating leaves (<em>Nuphar lutea</em>, <em>Nymphaea alba</em> or <em>Potamogeton natans</em>). The species occurs in eutrophic as well as mesotrophic waters. In smaller abundance the species inhabits distrophic waters.
165497		population	eng	The species is common and often abundant in central and northeastern Europe. The density of populations is high in large parts of its range. In the south of its range populations are more scattered, smaller and often isolated.
165497		threats	eng	The species is not considered threatened in most of its range. It is however likely to be impacted by climate change in the south of its range. Drought and poor water management are the most important threats for highly isolated populations in the south. The only population in the south of Italy (Lago Monticchio) may be impacted by tourist developments as these two lakes are not in a pristine environment and are surrounded by a road.
165498		conservation	eng	Necessary conservation measures include the preservation of good quality water resources, particularly in headwaters, and the preservation and restoration of broadleaved open forests. A better knowledge of the breeding sites of the Sicilian subspecies is in need.
165498		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster bidentata</em> is endemic to Europe occurring in western, south, southeast and central Europe. The eastern limit of the species are the Carpathians in the west of the Ukraine.
165498		habitat	eng	The larvae are confined to the sources and upper courses of brooks. The species is thus highly specialized and reproduces mainly in headwater streams, with the best habitats in tufa springs and calcareous small brooks. Its reproducing habitat is often difficult to find. In some areas it seems to have been extirpated in acidified brooks as a result of acid rains, but in other areas it is still recorded in streams with a pH <4.
165498		population	eng	This species is much more localised than <em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> but is moderately scattered in central and western Europe. It shows very variable densities from one locality to another, ranging from only one visible (reproducing) individual to obviously flourishing populations.<br/><br/>Adults are often hidden and are quite difficult to find. Their larval sites are sometimes difficult to access or recognize, particularly in mountainous areas. As a result, this is a poorly known species that is often overlooked by odonatologists and was in the past erroneously considered to be extinct in some countries. <br/><br/>There is no recent record referring to the Sicilian subspecies (<em>Cordulegaster bidentata sicilica</em>) in Sicily, which was always very rare - the last record from Sicily was in 1981 (Galletti and Pavesi 1985, Verschuren 1989). Only few records of <em>C. b. sicilica</em> may correspond to identified breeding sites.
165498		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are drought as a result of global warming, particularly in the south of its range, and water extraction for human use and irrigation. Some populations are threatened by water acidification due to acid rains or conifer plantations and forest closure whereas other populations show not to be affected by this. In the south of France, former flourishing populations are known to be extinct as a result of rainfall deficit and recent very hot summers and related spring exhaustion. In north Greece and other Mediterranean countries, some populations were extinct as a result of water capture directly at the source for irrigation.
165499		conservation	eng	Conservation of breeding and aestivating habitats.
165499		conservation	eng	Conservation of breeding and aestivating habitats through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
165499		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span>.
165499		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures for this species are not needed.
165499		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> has a wide range occurring from Europe to the north of Asia eastwards to Japan although it is absent from most of Siberia. The species is also found in the northern parts of the Maghreb. The species is common across a large part of Europe but is in Fennoscandia limited to the south of Sweden and the utmost south of Norway and Finland. It reaches its highest abundance in central Europe. In the last two decades it has been steadily expanding its range towards the north, increasing in Britain, reaching Ireland in 2000 (Nelson and Thompson 2003) and Finland in 2003 (Karjalainen 2007). In Sweden, it has been expanding 300 km towards the north in the last ten years. In Ukraine, the species is widespread and common in all the country; in the south huge migrations occur at the end of the summer.
165499		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> is widespread in Europe and northwestern Africa, ranging eastwards to Japan (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northwestern Africa, it is fairly common in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
165499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span> has a very wide range, from Europe to the north of Asia and eastwards to Japan, although it has not been recorded in most of Siberia. It has also been found in the northern parts of the Maghreb. It is common over much of Europe, and reaches its peak abundance in central Europe. In Europe it has been expanding its range northwards (for example Kalkman 2010).
165499		habitat	eng	In northwest Africa, the species aestivates at high altitude forest sites before moving down to reproduce in the autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It can tolerate brackish water.
165499		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span> reproduces mainly in standing, largely unshaded waters, but is also found at slowly flowing streams and rivers. It occurs in a wide range of waters, it can occur in brackish habitats, but is seldom found in acidic ones. It is mainly found at larger waterbodies with abundant riparian vegetation and large populations are found both in natural and artificial habitats.
165499		habitat	eng	The species reproduces mainly in standing, largely unshaded waters but is also found at slowly flowing waterbodies. It occurs in a wide range of waters, although seldom in acidic waters and can occur in brackish habitats. It is mainly found at larger waters with abundant riparian vegetation and large populations are found both in natural and artificial habitats.
165499		population	eng	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> is common and widespread in most of its range. In Central Europe it is the most common larger dragonfly in the autumn.
165499		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span> is common over most of its range.
165499		population	eng	The species is very abundant across the coast of northwest Africa.
165499		threats	eng	Forest fires, habitat draining, fish introduction and water pollution (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1992, Bélair and Samraoui 1994).
165499		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are forest fires, habitat draining, dams, human disturbance, fish introduction and water pollution (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1992, Bélair and Samraoui 1994).
165499		threats	eng	The species is among the most common European dragonflies and is currently not threatened.
165499		threats	eng	This species is common over much of its range and is not threatened.
165500		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
165500		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves.
165500		conservation	eng	The species is not considered threatened and no specific conservation actions are required.
165500		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhosoma nymphula</em> is a western Palaearctic species that is widespread over a large part of Europe. It is absent from northernmost Fennoscandia and from most of the Mediterranean islands. The species is getting less common to the east of its range and is absent from parts of European Russia and most of the eastern Ukraine. To the southeast it extends to the Caucasus and the north of Iran. In North Africa it is only found in the north of Morocco.
165500		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhosoma nymphula</em> is a western palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except its northernmost areas. A relict population also occurs in the mountains of Morocco.
165500		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhosoma nymphula</em> is a western Palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except its northernmost areas. A relict population also occurs in the mountains of Morocco.
165500		habitat	eng	In most of Europe the species is found both in standing and slow flowing waters. In eastern and northern Europe, the species is less common in standing waters and mostly reproduces at running waters. In most cases habitats have rich aquatic vegetation. The species is mostly absent from temporary habitats.
165500		habitat	eng	In North Africa, this species breeds only in streamlets and mountain brooks, often with rapid current.
165500		habitat	eng	In northern Africa, this species breeds only in streamlets and mountain brooks, often with rapid current.
165500		population	eng	In northern Africa, the population is confined to the Middle Atlas and the Riff Mountains in Morocco. Nothing is known of the population status and trends in this region.
165500		population	eng	This species is in large parts of Europe one of the most common damselflies and occurs frequently in large populations.
165500		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution and desiccation of mountain brooks and rivers in connection to over-irrigation, water management and climatic drought.
165500		threats	eng	The species is not threatened in most of its European range. In the Mediterranean it might be impacted by climate change and combined with general habitat degradation, this might locally lead to extinction.
165500		threats	eng	Water pollution and drying up of mountain brooks and rivers in connection to over-irrigation, water harnessing and climatic drought.
165501		conservation	eng	The species does not require action on European scale. The species is probably threatened with extinction in some countries in southern Europe and considered endangered in some western countries (Germany: EN, Switzerland: CR, Austria: CR). Here fieldwork is needed to map the main population so that the regional conservation status can be assessed.
165501		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum flaveolum</em> ranges from western Europe to Japan. The species is widespread in Eastern and Central Europe and the southern half of Fennoscandia. In Britain and Ireland the species only occurs as a vagrant. In southern and western Europe the species has a patchy distribution and in the south it is largely limited to mountain areas only occurring in the lowland after invasions from Central and Eastern Europe.
165501		habitat	eng	In Eastern Europe the species is found at all kinds of standing waters. In the west and south of Europe it mainly inhabits shallow unstable waters, such as flooded meadows, swampy depressions or dune lakes that may partially dry up during summer. In the south of its range it is limited to mountain areas.
165501		population	eng	The species is very common in Eastern Europe but numbers fluctuate from year to year in the south and west of its range depending on invasions.
165501		threats	eng	The species is not threatened in most of North, Central and East Europe. In the west of its range the numbers largely depend on invasions and there are no indications that its preferred habitats are declining. In West Europe the species is regarded as Endangered in several countries. In the south of its range, where it is generally rare, it is limited to mountain areas. Here habitat degradation, for instance due to climate change, is probably affecting the species.
165502		conservation	eng	Control of agricultural practices and water use.
165502		conservation	eng	Control of agricultural practices and water use are recommended conservation measures.
165502		conservation	eng	Control of agricultural practices and water use through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165502		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion scitulum</em> extends from the west of Europe to the Maghreb and to Iran. It is rather common in  western and central France and in most of Iberia, but is generally more scattered elsewhere. It is extinct in the British Isles. It is extending its range north and increases in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany (e.g. Rheinland-Pfalz, Hessen), where several populations already occur. The latest expansion northwards seems to have been initiated during the last 15 years with the first records in Lorraine in northeast France (1995), Luxembourg (1996), Belgium (1998), Switzerland (2001), the Netherlands (2003), Germany: Nordrhein-Westfalen (2002), Bayern (2006).
165502		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion siticulum</em> is scattered throughout the whole Mediterranean region and in the French Atlantic countries. Presently it is extending its range into temperate areas.
165502		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion siticulum</em> is scattered throughout the whole Mediterranean region and in the French Atlantic countries. Presently it is extending its range into temperate areas. In northern Africa, found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
165502		habitat	eng	Sunny standing waters with rich aquatic vegetation of <em>Myriophyllum</em> and <em>Ceratophyllum</em>, as well as grassy pools and swamps.
165502		habitat	eng	The species occurs at sunny standing or slowly flowing waters with rich aquatic vegetation of <em>Myriophyllum</em> and <em>Ceratophyllum</em>, as well as grassy pools and swamps.
165502		population	eng	About 50 north African records have been traced in the literature. According to the current knowledge, the species  is not common although flourishing populations are known.
165502		population	eng	About 50 North African records have been traced in the literature. According to the current knowledge, the species  is not common although flourishing populations are known.
165502		population	eng	This species is fairly common when found.
165502		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. Some threats may include water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming. It is expected that the species range will shift to the north as a result of global warming.
165502		threats	eng	Water pollution, lowering of the water table due to water extraction, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming are threats to the species.
165502		threats	eng	Water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming.
165503		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed for this species.
165503		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis acutipennis</em> is an Atlanto West Mediterranean endemic which is known from Iberia and France only, where it is generally common.
165503		habitat	eng	<em>Platycnemis acutipennis</em> occurs mainly in low to fairly fast running waters but may be also found in standing waters in large amounts.
165503		population	eng	The species is common and occurs often in large populations.
165503		threats	eng	The species is common and is not threatened in spite of its restricted range.
165504		conservation	eng	Control of water use and gallery forest preservation are required. The capture of springs and headwaters should be absolutely prohibited, whereas this kind of alteration clearly increases throughout Greece as a reaction to climate change. Erection of natural reserves involving the upper course of Cretan brooks is necessary. Mapping of populations is also needed, as current records are limited (only 13 from 1980 onwards).
165504		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion intermedium</em> is endemic to Crete (Greece) (Battin 1989, 1993; Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Most of its populations are isolated by high mountain systems and dry areas.
165504		habitat	eng	Jödicke (2005) mentions <em>Coenagrion intermedium</em> from both running and standing waters. The former is probably the most important habitat as running waters are more common on the island. The species was found at brooks near the coast but also in those stretches more inland. It is absent from brooks without vegetation. The species has a preference for stretches of brooks with a slow current. Larvae have been collected from between submerged tree roots.
165504		population	eng	According to Jödicke (2005), the species is widespread and common on Crete.
165504		threats	eng	<em>C. intermedium</em> has presumably declined as a result of rapid habitat destruction and degradation, human exploitation of water, water pollution, eutrophication and forest destruction. <em>C. intermedium</em> is threatened due to its restricted distribution and its few numbers of known localities (currently 13 places on nine streams). The current agricultural policy leads to the decrease of <em>C. intermedium</em> by allowing for and favouring the cultivation and irrigation of olive trees, the change of water regime of streams and streamlets and the destruction of bank side vegetation. Climatic change will also have a negative impact on breeding sites in the future, but this is already exacerbated by the increased water demand for agriculture and urbanized areas.
165505		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
165505		conservation	eng	Control of water pollution and reserves.
165505		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed.
165505		distribution	eng	<em>C. virgo</em> is a typical species in the western Mediterranean area, but it is very rare in North Africa. It may already be extinct in Algeria (only two records from 1849 and 1910 are known from there). Only two current localities are known, both in Morocco.
165505		distribution	eng	<em>C. virgo</em> is a typical species in the western Mediterranean area, but it is very rare in northern Africa. It may already be extinct in Algeria (only two records from 1849 and 1910 are known from there). Only two current localities are known, both in Morocco.
165505		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and generally common all over Europe. It is absent from northwest Fennoscandia and parts of the Iberian peninsula. In the Ukraine it occurs mostly in the north. The nominal subspecies inhabits the cold and temperate climatic areas, whereas the subspecies <em>C. v. meridionalis</em> is confined to the western Mediterranean area and the French Atlantic districts.
165505		habitat	eng	This species reproduces in flowing waters and prefers small and medium-sized cooler running waters which are at least partly shaded.
165505		habitat	eng	This taxon reproduces in mountain brooks.
165505		population	eng	<em>C. virgo</em> is generally common over its whole range and regularly occurring in hilly and mountainous areas, in streams with high oxygen levels. In lowlands, it is present mainly in forest areas and much more rare in agricultural landscape.
165505		population	eng	Only four localities have been recorded for this taxon in the Maghreb. The two valid present subpopulations count only a few imagoes.
165505		population	eng	Only four localities have been recorded for this taxon in the Maghreb. The two valid present subpopulations count only a few number of imagoes.
165505		threats	eng	Regionally large scale logging or forest closure by natural succession are threats to this species but they do not seem to impact the species on European scale.
165505		threats	eng	Water management, water pollution and drought in connection to global warming as well as urban development and changes in the structural features of brooks are the main threats for this species.
165505		threats	eng	Water pollution and harnessing, drought in connection to global warming as well as changes in the structural features of brooks are the main threats for this species.
165506		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
165506		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
165506		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum taeniolatum</em> has a wide known range of distribution from eastern Europe to China.
165506		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum taeniolatum</em> is found in the Indian peninsula and Southwest Asia. It extends from the Indian subcontinent to the Middle East and reaches the Mediterranean coast in Israel, Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, and some Greek islands. Records south of Jordan and Israel need re-examination as these might belong to <em>Orthetrum kollmannspergeri</em> (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005, Dumont and Verschuren 2005). In Europe it is confined to Cyprus and the Greek islands of Rhodos and Lesbos (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Lopau and Adena 2002). The species might benefit from climate change.
165506		habitat	eng	<em>O. taeniolatum</em> is found at unshaded standing and slow-flowing waters.
165506		habitat	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Orthetrum taeniolatum </em>is a stream breeding species </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">but also breeds in the side pools</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">They prefer medium to slow-flowing marshy streams. </strong>Flight period is almost around&#160; the year and oviposition takes place from July to September. They are very common during the dry season or prior to the bursting of the monsoon. Emergence occurs in May - June. Larvae are found in slow-flowing marshy streams. Adults are common around open rocky and sandy beds of the streams.  <strong><em></em><br/></strong>
165506		population	eng	The species is generally common within its range. It is fairly common on the three European islands of Cyprus, Rhodos and Lesbos.
165506		population	eng	The species is locally common throughout most of its range.
165506		threats	eng	The species does not appear to be under any threat at present.
165506		threats	eng	The species is not under any specific threat.
165507		conservation	eng	Control of water use by humans and preservation of forests are needed, but no current conservation actions are in place.
165507		distribution	eng	In Europe, <em>Cordulegaster insignis</em> is recorded from some eastern Greek islands (Samothraki and Thassos) and from easternmost parts of Bulgaria, Romania as well as the European part of Turkey (Thracian Turkey and Göckçeada island) (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009).
165507		habitat	eng	Small shaded brooks, streams and tiny streamlets with rocky and sandy beds, ditches along roads, spring areas with seepage waters. As in several <span style="font-style: italic;">Cordulegaster</span> species, the larvae seems to be able to resist short drought periods by moving into depth in moist sediments.
165507		population	eng	Population size seems to be small in Europe, where the species is only scattered as local isolated populations. The species is more common in the Asian part of its range.
165507		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (forest fires, water extraction, etc.) is the main threat to the species. Drought and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change led already to the extinction of the species in critical localities.
165509		conservation	eng	Habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.
165509		conservation	eng	No information available.
165509		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed at present.
165509		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> occurs in a large part of Europe. The core of the range extends from western Europe up to Fennoscandia and western Poland. A broad marginal zone covers eastern Europe up to the Ural where it is severely fragmented. Its southeastern limit is uncertain due to a frequent confusion with <em>C. heros</em> in the literature, but the species reaches at least eastern Slovakia and northern Ukraine. A further record of <em>C. boltonii</em> from the Urals may be well this species. The species is lacking from the Balkans, where it is replaced by <em>C. heros</em>.
165509		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> occurs in Europe and northern Africa (where it is restricted to northern Morocco). Its eastern limits unclear, but it is possibly present as far as the Urals.
165509		habitat	eng	Flowing waters: streams and sometimes small rivers, including mountain torrents. Often in forest but also in open moors and heaths.
165509		habitat	eng	The species is found in flowing waters, streams and sometimes small rivers, including mountain torrents. It often occurs in forest but also in open moors and heaths.
165509		population	eng	Nothing is known about population abundance or trends in northern Africa.
165509		population	eng	The species is common and fairly abundant within the core of its range.
165509		threats	eng	Climate change and ongoing habitat degradation.
165509		threats	eng	Climate change and ongoing habitat degradation caused by livestock and groundwater extraction are threats to the species.
165509		threats	eng	None, though water pollution may be an issue in some locations. Droughts are posing a threat to the southern populations. The species has been eliminated from some sites due to channelisation, technical maintenance of running waters. In Poland, in the past chemical, industrial pollution was eliminating some populations in the 1970s.
165510		conservation	eng	No specific measures required at present.
165510		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum meridionale</em> occurs from southern Europe and the Maghreb to Central Asia. The species is generally common in the southern third of Europe but is scarce in the Iberian Peninsula. It can be very abundant in some areas, for instance in the Donau delta in the Ukraine and Romania. The species is rare in Central Europe but has shown a strong increase in the last decade and the most northern records are from the German Wadden Islands.
165510		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum meridionale</em> occurs in North Africa, the southern half of Europe, and the Middle East extending to Central Asia. In northern Africa, the species is present in northern parts of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. It may also occur in Egypt.
165510		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum meridionale</em> occurs in northern Africa, the southern half of Europe, and the Middle East extending to central Asia. In northern Africa, the species is present in northern parts of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. It may also occur in Egypt.
165510		habitat	eng	<em>Sympetrum meridionale </em>favours unshaded, hot and often shallow standing waters which partially or totally dry up during summer. These are mostly well vegetated and marshy. The species is also found in coastal wetlands, on rivers, backwaters and marshes.
165510		habitat	eng	In northern Africa, the species aestivates in high altitude refuge sites before moving to low altitude breeding sites in the autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998). Breeds in seasonal as well as permanent lentic habitats.
165510		habitat	eng	In northern Africa, the species aestivates in high altitude refuge sites before moving to low altitude breeding sites in the Autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998). Breeds in seasonal as well as permanent lentic habitats.
165510		population	eng	Abundant across the northern parts of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria.
165510		population	eng	The species is scarce in the north of its range but common and often abundant in the southern half of Europe, except for Iberia.
165510		threats	eng	Forest fires and breeding habitat modifications.
165510		threats	eng	Forest fires and breeding habitat modifications caused by groundwater extraction, infrastructure development and water pollution are threats to the species.
165510		threats	eng	The species is not under any specific threat.
165511		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed in the core of its range. Climate change might lead to a further decline of the isolated populations in the west and southwest of its range. Increasing the amount of habitat by restoration or maybe by the creation of new habitats might be successful in maintaining the presence of the species. <br/>In Germany, it is classed as Critically Endangered in the national Red List.
165511		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion lunulatum</em> ranges from western Europe (Ireland and France) to central and northern Europe and further to North Japan. In the west and the south its range is fragmented in isolated aggregates of post-glacial relict populations confined to both cold lowlands (Ireland) and mountainous areas (France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia). In the Ukraine, it is very rare in the northwest and extremely rare in the central part.
165511		habitat	eng	<em>C. lunulatum</em> is mostly a spring and early summer species which reproduces in pools bound by <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs and transition mires, in swamps, marshes, lakes, and in field and forest pools and lakes.
165511		population	eng	<em>C. lunulatum</em> is very rare in its relict areas in the west and western Central Europe. It becomes more common further east and north of continental Europe and in Fennoscandia.
165511		threats	eng	<em>C. lunulatum</em> is highly endangered by global warming and multiple abnormal drought periods in its western and southern range, where it is disconnected from its main area and is present only as post-glacial relict populations. Several good localities in the Massif Central in France have been found completely dry during the torrid summer 2003 and it is not known if the species re-established subsequently. Also in northern Germany it is endangered by changes in the water table and partly drying out of the waters. However, the species is widely scattered to widespread over large areas and in innumerable potential localities in the core of its range, so that it is not threatened at the European scale.
165512		conservation	eng	Considering the relatively low number of strong populations in most countries it is advisable that for each of these the conservation status is determined and, if necessary, management plans are made. Protection of breeding sites is absolutely needed, preventing the intensive use of ponds for angling and through regulation of rice field management. The current agricultural practises at rice fields make them unsuitable for <em>S. depressiusculum</em>. It is however not unlikely that relatively small adaptations in the management of rice fields will increase the biodiversity without decreasing the production of rice. Research in order to see if this applies for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. depressiusculum</span> is needed.
165512		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum depressiusculum</em> ranges from Europe to the Pacific coast of Asia. In Japan, it is an invasive species from the Asian mainland. Its European range covers Central, East and Southeast Europe. The species has a patchy distribution and there are large areas within its main range where it is rare to absent. A strong decline has taken place nearly everywhere from the second half of the 20th century onwards. The species is very rare (close to extinction) in Italy and in southern France with the last record from the Camargue dating back to 1987. The only known populations in France are found in the Rhone Valley and it seems to be extinct in the rest of the country. Strong declines and regional extinctions are also known from Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland.
165512		habitat	eng	The species shows strong regional differences in habitat preferences. The key factor seems to be that it needs unshaded, often shallow and warm waters. Typically they become dry towards the end of the summer until next spring. Those situations can be found at borders of large lakes and in marshes. These kinds of situations are also found in fishponds and rice paddies in South Europe.
165512		population	eng	<em>Sympetrum depressiusculum</em> is scarce throughout its European range and population numbers have dropped in many areas in Europe. In the past the species was locally very abundant. In Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy the number of sites and populations has decreased by more than 50% in the last decade (De Knijf <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deliry <em>et al.</em> 2008, Ott <em>et al.</em> in press). However, in Poland, the species seems to be stable but this is possibly due to a lack of recent data.
165512		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are changes in rice cultivation in southern Europe and fish aquaculture and increasing use of ponds for angling in northern and central Europe, that has led to changes and destruction of its habitat. As a consequence to this habitat loss there is higher larval competition with other dragonflies species and predation by fish.<br/>Climate change will probably impact this species but it is difficult to predict if this will be positive or negative.
165513		conservation	eng	There is no need for specific conservation measures.
165513		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion johanssoni</em> ranges from Scandinavia, where it is not uncommon in peaty areas, to the Baltic states, where it is rare, and to north and east Siberia.
165513		habitat	eng	<em>C. johanssoni</em> occurs in pools and lakes bounded with <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs, transition mires, in peaty swamps, and fens.
165513		population	eng	The species is widespread over almost all of Fennoscandia and northern Russia in peaty habitats. Moderate-sized populations are generally observed, but adults are easily overlooked due to their small size.
165513		threats	eng	The species is moderately common to widespread and is not threatened in Europe.
165514		conservation	eng	The species is safe in most of its Central European range. The species is much more rare in the south of its range and here isolated populations deserve attention. For populations on the Iberian Peninsula, in Italy and the countries of the Balkans fieldwork is needed to retrieve information on the distribution and the conservation status of populations. Monitoring is needed in order to gather information on the impact of climate change.
165514		distribution	eng	<em>Brachytron pratense</em> is largely confined to Europe. It is absent from North Africa and occurs east to the Ural but does not reach Siberia. The only occurrences outside Europe are found in Turkey, Iran, Azerbaijan, and Georgia where the species occurs over a wide area but is generally rare. The main range of the species is found in Central Europe. In the north it occurs to the south of Scandinavia and Finland. In Southern Europe it becomes rare being largely absent from the Iberian Peninsula and the hottest and dryest parts of Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. It is present in most of Ukraine.
165514		habitat	eng	Most populations are found at standing or slow-flowing waters and it is in these habitats that it reaches its highest numbers. The species is also found close to the shore of the Baltic Sea. The species needs abundant vegetation and is most often found at sites with reed (<em>Phragmites</em>), bulrush (<em>Typha</em>), bur-reed (<em>Sparganium</em>), club-rush (<em>Schoenoplectus</em>) and in some parts of its range in vegetations of Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>). Suitable vegetation can be found in lakes, pools, oxbows, canals, marshes, (fish)ponds and less often in bogs, dune ponds and ponds in parks.
165514		population	eng	The species is common and abundant throughout most of its range. In south Europe many populations are small and isolated. It can occur in low numbers but it can be fairly abundant at its breeding localities.<br/>The species declined in large parts of western Europe in the 1970s and 1980s. Since the 1990s the species seems to be recovering there and it has, at least regionally, shown a strong increase. A decline is expected to take place in the south of Europe, were the species is much more rare and often occurs in isolated population.
165514		threats	eng	In the 1970s and 1980s the species declined in large parts of western Europe due to poor water management and nitrification. The impact of these threats is declining. Another threat to the species is the introduction of grass carps which often leads to the destruction of the aquatic and bankside vegetation. In South Europe the species is likely to be threatened by climate change and locally by poor water management.
165515		conservation	eng	This species has a limited European range and an evaluation should be made of the number of populations within reserves. Legalisation for the use of natural water resources for agricultural practices should be made.
165515		distribution	eng	<em>Epallage fatime</em> has a largely southwest Asian distribution. The easternmost records are from Afghanistan and Pakistan. From there it occurs widespread in the hills and lower mountains of Iran and Turkey to the mainland of Southeast Europe. It is absent from the Arabian Peninsula and the more arid parts of Iran, Iraq and Syria. It reaches south along a small fringe of the eastern Mediterranean occurring in western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian Territories. The species is not uncommon in Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and occurs in the Russian parts of the Caucasus but is absent further north. In Europe <em>Epallage fatime</em> is confined to Cyprus, some Greek islands and the southeast mainland of Europe. It is not rare in mainland Greece, European Turkey and the southeast of Bulgaria. Only one record is known from Macedonia but it is likely that some populations are present there. There is one published record from Hungary. This records is however very unlikely and is here considered invalid.
165515		habitat	eng	<em>Epallage fatime</em> occurs in areas with hills and lower mountains. It is exclusively found in running waters and seems to be limited to habitats with a stony substrate. Most often it is found in brooks and smaller rivers although it also occurs in small numbers in larger rivers. Larvae live under stones at places with high current. The legs are placed in an outstretched position and the abdomen and legs are flattened, both are probably adaptations to living in a strong current. In addition to this they are the only European species with sausage shaped lamellae and gills on the sides of their abdomen, both adaptations for the intake of oxygen. Based on this it has been suggested that they would be able to survive in stagnant water in times when current of the water stops due to desiccation. There is however no proof for this and the species seems to be lacking from habitats where there is no year-round current. Adults are found near the water resting on stones or, preferably, on higher vegetation near the water.
165515		population	eng	<em>Epallage fatime</em> has a limited range in Europe but seems to be relatively common in the areas where it occurs. It is often abundant when found and often several dozens of specimens are present in a stretch of one hundred meters.
165515		threats	eng	Agricultural practices along or nearby brooks resulting in pollution and canalisation of the habitat have probably had the most severe impact on this species in Europe. However many habitats where this species occurs lie in mountainous areas and are therefore relatively save from large scale agricultural practices. The main present and future threat seems to be climate change. Not only will this result in the desiccation of the habitat during spells of hot weather but this will also increase the use of the limited water resources for agricultural practices. Many new irrigation devices starting from tiny springs and headwater courses have been recently installed throughout Greece to compensate the present rainfall deficit.
165516		conservation	eng	Conservation of breeding sites through the control of livestock to prevent over-grazing, as some grazing is required to maintain structure.
165516		conservation	eng	No special measures are required, as the species is widespread.
165516		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is an holarctic species which inhabits mostly the northern part of Eurasia and America. It is widespread in Europe although it became more scattered in the Mediterranean area. The species also occurs in North Africa as a last glacial relict.
165516		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is widespread in Europe but relatively sparse in southern Europe. It is absent from most of northern Africa, only occurring in the Riff and middle Atlas mountains in Morocco. The species also occurs in North America and temperate Asia.
165516		habitat	eng	A wide variety of still waters, which typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. Sites usually have dense growths of rushes or sedges (for example, dune lakes, reedy shallows, small meadow ponds or edges of bogs) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). The larvae over-winter within vegetation.<br/><br/>This is a higher altitude species within the region.
165516		habitat	eng	A wide variety of still waters, which typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. Sites usually have dense growths of rushes or sedges (for example, dune lakes, reedy shallows, small meadow ponds or edges of bogs) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). The larvae over-winter within vegetation. This is a higher altitude species within the region.
165516		habitat	eng	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is a specialist of temporary water conditions, including waterbodies that typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. These conditions can also occur at the margins of permanent waterbodies. Sites usually have dense growth of rushes and sedges. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring or summer to autumn but hatch usually after winter, a period where the temporary pools are filled. Then the larval period is very short (6-10 weeks) so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation.
165516		population	eng	In the west of its range, <em>Lestes dryas</em> is common mostly in the mountainous areas. It is more regularly found at any altitude in the centre and the east of Europe.
165516		population	eng	Small populations occur in the Riff and Middle Atlas mountains
165516		population	eng	Small populations occur in the Riff and Middle Atlas mountains.
165516		threats	eng	Climate change may impact the species as it is a holoactic species. Livestock eat the eggs with vegetation, and also poaching by livestock on marginal vegetation.
165516		threats	eng	Climate change may impact the species as it is an Holoactic species. Livestock eat the eggs with vegetation, and also livestock grazing.
165516		threats	eng	This species is not threatened on the European scale.
165517		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Bashkirian Nature Reserve. No specific conservation measures are recommended at the moment. However more information on distribution and habitat is needed.
165517		distribution	eng	<em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> is a Siberian species extending from North Japan to the western border of central Siberia and shows a relict disjunct area over the whole Ural range (Yanybaeva 1999a, Kosterin 2005, Yanybaeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
165517		habitat	eng	In the south Ural, <em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> inhabits oxbows in the forest zone but seems to be absent from lakes.
165517		population	eng	<em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> is said to be abundant in the Bashkirian Nature Reserve and has been recorded in the Balaya River headwaters as well (both in the Bashkortostan Republic). No precise information has been published about this species within the European part of the Ural Mountains.
165517		threats	eng	<em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> is probably not threatened in the Ural Mountains.
165518		conservation	eng	The species is safe in much of its northern and central European range. Isolated occurrences in central Europe and in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans require attention. Fieldwork is needed in Iberia and the Balkans in order to identify the main populations. Based on that, areas can be selected for which management plans are required. Monitoring of  isolated populations is needed in order to have an early warning of the impact of climate change.
165518		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna juncea</em> has the largest range of all <em>Aeshna</em> species occurring in the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe it is widespread and common in the north. Towards the south it becomes scarcer and in southern central Europe it is largely confined to higher altitudes. In Ukraine it is not numerous, distributed mostly in the northwest and north. It is fairly common and widespread in the Alps and the Pyrenees but is scarce and known only from scattered localities in the mountains of the Balkans and of the Iberian Peninsula.
165518		habitat	eng	<em>Aeshna juncea</em> is confined to standing, largely unshaded habitats. Throughout its range bogs seem to be the preferred habitat. The species favours cooler climates and can be found in a wider range of habitats in Scandinavia and at high altitudes (>1,000 m) in central Europe including slow flowing waters. At lower altitudes in Central Europe the vast majority of the populations is found in bogs with <em>Sphagnum</em> and sedges or rushes. More rarely and in lower numbers it is found in other habitats such as quarries, garden ponds, dune pools, fens or low peat areas with fields of Water Soldier. In the southwest of its range it is largely confined to nature reserves and it is found mostly in natural or semi-natural habitats.
165518		population	eng	The species is  fairly common in most of its range and often abundant when found, especially in mountain areas (alpine areas). It is rare in Iberia, but locally common in the Pyrenees.
165518		threats	eng	In the past, the populations in Central and Southern Europe have decreased due to habitat destruction such as deforestation and agricultural expansion. Most southwestern populations are found in nature reserves. Nutrification had a negative impact on the species but it seems less susceptible to this than many other species occurring in bogs. The most important future threat is likely to be climate change resulting in the alteration of peat bogs. This will certainly impact the more isolated populations in South and southcentral Europe such as the populations on the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans.
165519		conservation	eng	Control of cattle displacement and any measures to mitigate eutrophication are needed. Several localities are situated in nature reserves and should be in practice protected.
165519		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura hastata</em> is a widespread American species which presumably reached the Azores thanks to storms winds. The species is known to be a strong disperser in spite (or thanks to) of its small size, and was caught by nets attached to planes 300 m above the ground.
165519		habitat	eng	The species is common on oligotrophic unpolluted standing waters but disappears with eutrophication due to cattle breeding (Lorenzo-Carballa 2009)
165519		population	eng	The species is said to be widespread and common in the Azores and has been recorded from about 20 localities on every islands of the archipelago, except on Graciosa. In Santa Maria it is very rare, as suitable habitats are almost non existent. One locality has been lost during the last decenniums due to cattle breeding and related water pollution and consumption. Only females have been found in the Azores and it was demonstrated that reproduction proceeds via parthenogenesis (Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005). This is the single case of parthenogenesis which is known in Odonata until now. Population size might be over 2,000 reproductive females in ponds of 100 m diameter in favourable localities.
165519		threats	eng	The species is more and more threatened in the Azores through water eutrophication and consumption, which occur at an accelerated rate due to increasing farming (cattle breeding). Eutrophication extirpates the species, which subsists in abundance only in oligotrophic ponds. Water use for cattle drinking lowers water levels and produces ponds without emergent vegetation, where female damselflies cannot lay eggs.<br/><br/>Obviously, this remarkable species is very sensitive to water pollution, and despite the high density that some ponds might show, it becomes rapidly more and more at risk. The species became extinct in at least one pond (Lagoa do Capitão) in Pico since the visit by Belle in 1988 (Belle and van Tol 1990), and is now very rare in Lagoa do Caiado (where it was common in 2003). The density of cattle in the islands is very high and the demand for water increases rapidly, that, together with the proliferation of cyanobacteria due to nutrient inputs to pastures through dejections, accelerate eutrophication (Lorenzo-Carballa 2009).
165520		conservation	eng	<em>C. ornatum</em> is included in Annex II  of the European Habitats Directive and thus all its habitats should be preserved from any kind of alteration. In some areas, the continuation of soft cleaning of ditches in traditional agricultural landscape contribute to the conservation of the species, but the application of hard cleaning technologies to brooks and ditches as well as the developement of draining procedures to wet soils and grasslands destroy the habitat of this specialised species.
165520		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion ornatum</em> ranges from West and Central Europe, where it is very rare after a strong decrease, to East and Southeast Europe, where it is probably more widespread. Most localities in the west and the north are presently disjunct from its main area, but it is unclear if this multiple fragmentation is natural or resulting from human activities.
165520		habitat	eng	<em>Coenagrion ornatum</em> is a specialized species confined to seepage waters with a thin water film and small sunny brooks, streamlets and ditches with organic mud and dense hygrophilous herbaceous vegetation (Scirpus, <em>Iris pseudacorus</em>, <em>Mentha aquatica</em>, <em>Nasturtium officinale</em>, <em>Sparganium </em>  spp.).
165520		population	eng	Small to moderate-sized populations are generally reported. The species is very rare in the west but its present status in the east and southeast of Europe is poorly documented.
165520		threats	eng	Draining operations for intensive agriculture, habitat drying up and destruction due to rainfall deficit, drought periods, water extraction and over-irrigation with lowering of the watertable, hard cleaning and correction of brooks and ditches, abandonment of soft cleaning of ditches in traditional agricultural landscape and trampling by livestock are responsible for the continuous extinction of this highly specialized species in large parts of Europe.
165521		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
165521		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, conservation status, and trends/monitoring of the species would also be valuable.
165521		conservation	eng	No specific actions are needed.
165521		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species reaching well into southwest Asia. In North Africa, the species is largely limited to northern parts of Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.
165521		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species reaching well into southwest Asia. In northern Africa, the species is largely limited to northern parts of Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.
165521		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species which occurs eastwards over central Asia (Baijal and Agarwal 1955, Calvert 1898, Dasgupta 1957, Fraser 1918, 1936; Kumar 1982, Kumar and Prasad 1981, Mitra 2002, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1955) to the northern parts of China and Arunachal Pradesh in India (Mitra 2002). It is found throughout European continent (Benken 1980, Buczynski and Pakulnicka 2000, Fraser 1918, 1936; Huber 2000, Kormann 1966, Ris 1909, Tsuda 1991) including the Mediterranean islands (Fraser 1936) but is absent in the north of Britain and the northern half of Fennoscandia.
165521		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species which occurs eastwards over central Asia to the northern parts of China. It is found all over the European continent including the Mediterranean islands but is absent from the north of Britain and the northern half of Fennoscandia.
165521		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater ponds, lakes and dunary slacks.
165521		habitat	eng	Found in Freshwater ponds, lakes and dunary slacks.
165521		habitat	eng	The species is found in largely unshaded standing or slow-flowing waters.
165521		population	eng	Locally abundant.
165521		population	eng	This is one of the most common European species and frequently occurs in large populations.
165521		population	eng	This is one of the most common European species. It frequently occurs in large populations.
165521		threats	eng	Habitat modifications.
165521		threats	eng	No information is available on any existing threat.
165521		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat modifications caused by groundwater extraction and water pollution.
165521		threats	eng	The species is not under threat.
165522		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
165522		conservation	eng	No information available.
165522		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
165522		conservation	eng	The habitats of this species are probably not under any specific threat and specific conservation measures for this species are not needed. The information on the types of habitats used in Spain is limited and it would be useful to have more specific information on habitats, possible threats and trends of this species.
165522		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum sinaiticum</em> occurs in North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and the Middle East. The species is also present in the southern and central parts of Spain.
165522		distribution	eng	<em>Sympetrum sinaiticum</em> occurs in North Africa and the Levant. In Europe, the species is confined to east and south Spain where it is regionally common.
165522		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from southern Algeria (Hoggar).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species extends from the Middle East through northern Africa to Spain.
165522		distribution	eng	This species extends from the Middle East through northern Africa to Spain.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Southern Algeria (Hoggar).
165522		habitat	eng	Aestivate far away from wetlands before reproducing in autumn (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000).
165522		habitat	eng	In northern Africa, the species aestivates far away from wetlands before reproducing in autumn (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in small bodies of standing water in dry areas.
165522		habitat	eng	Small bodies of standing water in dry areas.
165522		habitat	eng	The species is found in both running and standing waters for reproduction. It also occurs in temporary conditions and ditches with running waters. It can be expected that a broad habitat spectrum is occupied by this species. <em>S. sinaiticum</em> aestivates during the summer and can be found far away from wetlands before reproducing in autumn (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000).
165522		population	eng	Locally abundant.
165522		population	eng	Locally abundant in northern Africa.
165522		population	eng	No information available.
165522		population	eng	The species has a small European range but is reasonably common and locally abundant.
165522		threats	eng	Habitat modifications (mainly pollution in dry areas).
165522		threats	eng	The species is affected by habitat modifications, mainly pollution in dry areas.
165522		threats	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of habitats and often occupies man-made waters. There are no specific threats to the habitat of this species besides general habitat degradation. The species is probably not strongly impacted by climate change as it is univoltine and aestivates as adult during the hot period of the year. Due to this, larvae are only present in the winter and spring and are not affected by desiccation of the habitat during summer.
165522		threats	eng	Unknown.
165523		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are necessary at present.
165523		distribution	eng	<em>Gomphus vulgatissimus</em> is present from northern Iberia to southwest Siberia. Little information is available about this Siberian distribution. To the north it reaches the southern half of Fennoscandia. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range upon about 100 km to the north since 1970, which is attributed to global warming. In the south it extends to the northern half of Greece, whereas in the southern half there is an overlap with <em>G. schneiderii</em> where hybridisation is possible.
165523		habitat	eng	<em>Gomphus vulgatissimus</em> is typical from small to large rivers with sandy to silty or clayey sediments but is also found in streamlets and ditches. It reproduces also in standing waters when these are well oxygenated (lakes and river backwaters or gravel pits furnished with phreatic water). It avoids fast flowing rocky-bottomed waters. The larvae burrow in fine sand and silt preferably covered with organic detritus.
165523		population	eng	The species remains generally common and is increasing in most of its range.
165523		threats	eng	This species does not face any threats at the moment. In the past, chemical pollution and channelisation together, have been reducing populations, but the general population trend is now increasing.
165524		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation is needed.
165524		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed.
165524		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> has a western Palaearctic distribution and almost its whole range lies within Europe. It is most abundant in central Europe. It does not occur in Ireland and is rare in Scotland. In Fennoscandia it is found in the southern thirds of Finland and Sweden and in the southern fringe of Norway. The species is expanding its range towards the north. To the east it occurs to the Ural but it is absent from most of the Siberian lowland. The species becomes scarcer to the south of Europe being absent from many of the Mediterranean islands. It is highly localised in northern Africa with only a few sites. The species is mainly confined to mountain areas in the Balkan Peninsula. In the Ukraine, it is distributed mostly in the northwest, north and centre of the country. The species is found in the mountains of north Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and the Caucasus and reaches east to the mountains of north Iran.
165524		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> is a one of the commonest species of the genus in central Europe. It becomes scarcer towards the northeast (to Urals) and the southern parts of its range.<br/><br/>Northern African populations are genetically distinct from the European populations (based on ecology, but no genetic data to date; Samraoui, pers. comm.). It is highly localised in northern Africa, where it is only known from two localities in Algeria. The population is severely fragmented. The presence if the species in Morocco is uncertain and needs to be confirmed.
165524		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> is one of the commoner species of the genus in central Europe. It becomes scarcer towards the northeast (to Urals) and the southern parts of its range.<br><br>Northern African populations are genetically distinct from the European populations (based on ecology, but no genetic data to date; B. Samraoui, pers. comm.). It is highly localised in northern Africa, where it is only known from two localities in Algeria. The population is severely fragmented. The presence if the species in Morocco is uncertain and needs to be confirmed.
165524		habitat	eng	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> is mostly found in standing and running waters with a slow current. It has a clear preference for small and at least partly shaded waters. When it occurs at larger water bodies it shows a clear preference for those parts which are visually demarked from the main part of the water, for instance by some higher vegetation. The species needs waters where at least parts of the bottom are free of emerging vegetation. These situations can be found in pools which are still in the early stages of succession or more often in pools where leaves from nearby trees and bushes cover a part of the bottom. It is often the only dragonfly to be present in small, largely shaded forest pools often with no substrate other than leaf litter and in this situation larvae can occur in very high densities. In Central Europe it is also one of the most common dragonflies at garden ponds. The species is able to resist weeks of desiccation.<br/>Adult males are highly territorial and often only a small fraction of the actual adult population is found at the waterside. For this reason many adults are found in nearby forest were they often hunt low by the ground in the shade of trees or bushes.
165524		habitat	eng	Strictly a Nilotic species that is confined to high altitudes (very different from European range). It avoids the plains.
165524		population	eng	The species is abundant throughout most of its range and it exists frequently in large populations. Despite those large populations, adults are seen in small numbers at the waterbodies because they have a territorial behaviour.<br/>The populations are stable overall and even increasing in Fennoscandia.
165524		population	eng	This species is inferred to be declining due to habitat loss. It is rare.
165524		threats	eng	Habitat loss, often livestock-related (as is true generally across the North African region).
165524		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss related to livestock and water extraction. Habitat loss through the fire is an ongoing threat.
165524		threats	eng	The species is common in most of its range and occurs in habitats that are not threatened in any way.
165525		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
165525		conservation	eng	Protection of habitat at some locations.
165525		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura pumilio</em> has a wide range, covering central and southern Europe, parts of Asia and parts of northern Africa. It is a fugitive species, which moves with vegetation succession. Within the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Populations show large fluctuations.
165525		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura pumilio</em> has a wide range, covering central and southern Europe, parts of Asia and parts of northern Africa. Within the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Populations show large fluctuations.
165525		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura pumilio</em> is a powerful colonizer which spreads from the Azores to Mongolia over the whole of Europe (except most of Scandinavia), the Maghreb, the Levant and West Asia.
165525		habitat	eng	Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation can bear huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs, brooks, and ditches. Populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession. <em>I. pumilio</em> is a species which benefits from climatic changes, as it “likes” waters with changing water tables (Ott 2008).
165525		habitat	eng	Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation (for instance, in quarries) can harbour huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites, such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs and ditches. Populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession.<br><br>This is a pioneer species.
165525		habitat	eng	Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation (for instance, in quarries) can harbour huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites, such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs and ditches. This is a pioneer species and populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession (fugitive species).<br/><br/>.
165525		population	eng	This species fluctuates greatly over time. It is never abundant or common in northern Africa region.
165525		population	eng	This species is widely spread as scattered populations, mostly confined to newly created or ephemeral waterbodies over its whole range. In these kinds of habitats, populations are generally first abundant, then will decrease progressively with colonization by vegetation and animals. Besides, it subsists as small populations in swamps, peat bogs, springs, brooks, and ditches.
165525		threats	eng	None at present. Livestock and water over-abstraction may be an issue at some locations.
165525		threats	eng	None known at present. Livestock and water over-abstraction may be an issue at some locations.
165525		threats	eng	Rainfall deficit can cause the species extinction over wide areas in the south of its range. Change in the management of rice cultivation and water management led to a decline in Italy.
165526		conservation	eng	Control of water use is needed.
165526		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster picta</em> ranges mostly from the South Caucasus countries (Azerbaijan) to northeast Greece over the whole of Turkey (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009; Donath 1987; Lopau 1999, 2000, 2005; Lopau and Wendler 1995). A recent record from Montenegro changes the western limit of the species from about 300 km to the northwest (Gligorovic<em> et al.</em> 2008).
165526		habitat	eng	The species reproduces in running waters ranging from tiny shaded streamlets to middle-sized rivers in hilly to mountainous areas.
165526		population	eng	Populations can be large but from most populations precise data is lacking.
165526		threats	eng	Increased drought periods and drying up of habitats due to rainfall deficit and over irrigation as a result of climate change is the most important threat for this species. Woodlogging, forest fire and forest destruction are other threats contributing to stream desiccation.
165527		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation.
165527		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation is required.
165527		conservation	eng	No measures on European scale are needed. This species would benefit from a better regulation of water use for agriculture and urban needs and from conservation of riparian forests.
165527		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> is an Atlanto-West Mediterranean endemic which ranges from southwest Europe to the Maghreb. It is lacking from most Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. Additional disjunct but flourishing and long-lasting populations occurred formerly on the Rhine river on the Switzerland/Germany border. There it is almost extinct as the species was not found since 1991 in spite of thorough fieldwork (last record 1991 in  Germany, 1979 in Switzerland) (Sternberg and Buchwald 2000, Wildermuth <em>et al.</em> 2005, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Isolated records from Belgium (1975, 1979), Vaud province in Switzerland and Doubs Department in France refer only to vagrant individuals.
165527		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean. In northern Africa it is present in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.
165527		habitat	eng	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> is typically found in fast-flowing streams with a preference for partially shaded environments.
165527		habitat	eng	Shady, fast-flowing streams. Often co-occuring with <em>Gomphus lucasi</em>.
165527		population	eng	A fairly abundant species in the region.
165527		population	eng	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> is fairly common in most of the region.
165527		threats	eng	Habitat modifications (tree-cutting, pollution, damming and water extraction, fires).
165527		threats	eng	The main threats are stream desiccation and pollution due to climate change and human activities and the elimination of the riparian vegetation resulting in the destruction of bank structure.
165527		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat degradation, water pollution and modifications caused by agriculture, tree-cutting, damming, water extraction, and fires.
165528		conservation	eng	Information on habitat, distribution and trends is scant. Therefore, fieldwork is needed to clarify the distribution and habitat requirements of this species.
165528		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
165528		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum nitidinerve</em> is endemic to the Maghreb and southwest Europe. The species seems to be most common in the Maghreb, while in Europe it is found in Sicily, Sardinia, near Naples (Italy), Portugal and Spain with the exception of the more humid northwest (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Relatively few records from 1980 onwards are known for its European range suggesting that the species has declined.
165528		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum nitidinerve</em> principally occurs in north west Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), and is more localised in southern and eastern Iberia, Sardinia, Sicily and near Naples (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). It is one of the most widespread species in the region. The species is a strong flier and can easily move from populations outside the region.
165528		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum nitidinerve</em> principally occurs in northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), and is more localised in southern and eastern Iberia, Sardinia, Sicily and near Naples (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). It is one of the most widespread species in the region. The species is a strong flier and can easily move from populations outside the region.
165528		habitat	eng	Standing, including seepages and brackish waters, and flowing waters in rather arid areas (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). Only one record from standing water in Morocco.
165528		habitat	eng	The species is found in standing but mostly flowing waters in rather arid areas. All records of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nitidinerve</span> from Tunisia presented by Jödicke <em>et al.</em> (2000) refer to running waters.
165528		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species.
165528		population	eng	The species is rare in the European part of its range and only small numbers are seen.
165528		threats	eng	Dams and water abstraction are common threats across the region.
165528		threats	eng	Dams and water abstraction is a common threat across the region.
165528		threats	eng	Regulation of rivers, water extraction and water pollution are the main threats to this species.
165529		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are presently required.
165529		conservation	eng	Not needed at present.
165529		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes viridis</em> is widespread in a large part of Europe, but its range is more limited in northern Africa. The species is common in the Iberian Peninsular and in Italy, but has a more scattered distribution in the Balkan area. It is absent from parts of the eastern Mediterranean. It is seldom the dominant <em>Lestes</em> species (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br><br>In Africa this species is largely confined to the northern parts of northwest Africa (Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria).
165529		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes viridis</em> is widespread in a large part of Europe, but its range is more limited in northern Africa. The species is common in the Iberian Peninsular and in Italy, but has a more scattered distribution in the Balkan area. It is absent from parts of the eastern Mediterranean. It is seldom the dominant <em>Lestes</em> species (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In Africa this species is largely confined to the northern parts of northwest Africa (Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria).
165529		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes viridis</em> ranges from western and Central Europe to the Maghreb. A slight range expansion towards Denmark and northeastern Poland has been observed. The species is common in its European range, although its status in the Balkans and eastern Europe is still unclear due to confusion between this taxon and <em>L. parvidens</em>.
165529		habitat	eng	Almost any type of standing or slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes. Unlike other <em>Lestes</em>, does not favour ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
165529		habitat	eng	Almost any type of standing or slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes. Unlike other <em>Lestes</em>, it does not favour ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).
165529		habitat	eng	<em>Lestes viridis</em> reproduces in any kind of standing and slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes with soft bark and wood. The species has a strong dependence on this kind of vegetation as it is needed for egg laying and its reproductive ecology. Unlike other <em>Lestes</em>, it does not occur in ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans), although its biology would allow it to reproduce in temporary habitat.
165529		population	eng	<em>Lestes viridis</em> is widespread and fairly common over a wide range of habitats, occurring in large populations.
165529		population	eng	Locally abundant within its range.
165529		threats	eng	None known at present.
165529		threats	eng	Not known at present.
165529		threats	eng	The species is presently not threatened on the European scale.
165530		conservation	eng	A protection of standing waters in all the Mediterranean islands is recommended.
165530		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura genei</em> is endemic to Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Malta and two small islands of the Archipelago Toscano (Capraia and Giglio). It is absent from the mainland.
165530		habitat	eng	The species breeds in all kinds of standing waters and sometimes in slow flowing rivers and ditches.
165530		population	eng	<em>Ischnura genei</em> is generally common.
165530		threats	eng	The species is presently not threatened.
165531		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed.
165531		distribution	eng	<em>Libellula depressa</em> is a largely western Palaearctic species which is widespread in Europe and ranges east to Central Asia. The species is common and widespread in most European countries but is absent from Ireland and confined to the southern third of Fennoscandia.
165531		habitat	eng	<em>Libellula depressa</em> is found in largely unshaded, standing and slow-flowing waters, often occurs in small, shallow, sunny water bodies and biotopes in early succession stages. The species is often one of the first to colonize new man-made waters.
165531		population	eng	It is one of the most common and widespread species of Europe, except for the far north.
165531		threats	eng	The habitats of<em> Libellula depressa</em> are not under any specific threat.
165532		conservation	eng	The presence of this species in Europe is poorly known and specific information on its habitat choice and potential threats is lacking. A field survey is needed for this species.
165532		distribution	eng	<em>Coenagrion ecornutum</em> is an Asiatic species which ranges from Japan and Korea to the West Altai and shows a relict isolate in the south Ural (Yanybaeva 1999b; Kosterin 2005; Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The European part of this isolate seems restricted to parts of the Bashkortostan Republic and is about 2,000 km apart from the main range of the species.
165532		habitat	eng	<em>Coenagrion ecornutum</em> reproduces mostly in standing waters, in the European part it is known mainly from lakes but has been recorded in running waters as well.
165532		population	eng	<em>Coenagron ecornutum</em> is stated to be quite abundant at the four localities published.
165532		threats	eng	The potential threats to this species are not known.
165533		conservation	eng	Forest conservation and control of water use are needed. Any installation of irrigation device in springs and headwater courses should be prohibited, but these are increasing throughout Greece.
165533		distribution	eng	<em>Cordulegaster helladica</em> is endemic to the southernmost part of northern Greece and the Peloponnese Peninsula. This collective taxon involves three weakly differentiated subspecies, namely <em>Cordulegaster helladica helladica</em> from the whole Peloponnese and Euboea island, <em>C. h. buchholzi</em> from Naxos, Tinos and Andros islands and <em>C. h. kastalia</em> from the Delphi archeological site only.
165533		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of the species are mountain brooks (headwaters) and spring areas.
165533		population	eng	A number of populations are still flourishing but some of the south Peloponnese populations are now extinct due to desiccation of springs.
165533		threats	eng	The main threats are water harnessing for human use as well as forest fires. Several springs in the Taygetos mountains in South Peloponnese where good populations were known ten years ago have been found to be dry in July 2008 (J.P. Boudot, pers. comm.) due to forest fires and/or rainfall deficit, depending on the locality. Many new irrigation devices starting from tiny springs and headwater courses have been recently installed throughout Greece to compensate the present rainfall deficit. Even olive trees and vineyards are now sometimes irrigated (J.P. Boudot, pers. comm. 2008) - in both north and south Greece that is problematic to many species confined to these habitats.
165534		conservation	eng	In its central European lowland range, large-scale restoration of peat moors will help the long-term survival of this species in the region. In areas with isolated populations the species might be threatened by natural succession of the vegetation. The creation of pits in peat bogs may offer in these cases new reproductive habitats. In the future this species might be strongly impacted by climate change especially in central Europe. Monitoring of populations, especially those ones that are isolated is therefore advisable.
165534		distribution	eng	<em>Aeshna subarctica elisabethae</em> occurs in the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, the species is largely confined to the northeast. It is probably common in large parts of the north of European Russia from where its range continues to Finland, Sweden and Norway. The species is also moderately represented in the Baltic states, northern Poland and probably in northern Belarus although only a handful of records are available. Its lowland area continues from there to northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. More to the south it is known from more isolated occurrences at higher altitudes in Belgium, France, southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, southern Poland. An isolated record is known from Bulgaria. The occurrence of this species in the Balkans was never confirmed and this record is considered to be doubtful.
165534		habitat	eng	The species is confined to moors and bogs with vegetation of <em>Sphagnum</em>. These are most often natural waters in large moors but can also be habitats created by peat extraction. Its specific habitat requirements make that it is confined to higher altitudes in central Europe. The majority of the populations are found in bogs with floating peatmoss, which serves as larval habitat. Less often the species is found in habitats where the peatmoss is part of the bankside vegetation or is lying on the bottom.
165534		population	eng	Its specific habitat requirements make the species uncommon and sparse in large parts of its range. Densities at suitable sites can however be high.
165534		threats	eng	Most populations are found in areas with relatively little human activity or in nature reserves and this species is therefore safe from large-scale habitat destruction. In areas where only small pieces of moors and peatbog still exist the ceasing of peat extractions is an increasing problem. In these places the aquatic habitats might fall dry as a result of natural succession of the vegetation. The same effect could be caused by climate change in southcentral Europe.
165536		conservation	eng	There is no need for specific conservation measures.
165536		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus</em> is a West Mediterranean endemic which ranges from South West Europe to the Maghreb. It is lacking from the Mediterranean islands, although it extends over almost the whole mainland Italy (except the ultimate NE), it is surprisingly replaced by <em>Onychogomphus f. forcipatus</em> in Sicily.
165536		habitat	eng	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) unguiculatus</em> is found mostly in unshaded rivers and streams. It is rarely found at large well oxygenated lakes and river backwaters.
165536		population	eng	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus</em> is common throughout its range.
165536		threats	eng	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus</em> is presently not threatened at the European scale.
165537		conservation	eng	No specific action on European scale is needed.
165537		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus f. forcipatus</em> ranges from the west and north of Europe to the south of the Balkans and western Siberia. It is missing from the northern half of Scandinavia. The populations from Sicily are clearly disjunct from the main range.
165537		habitat	eng	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) forcipatus</em> is found mostly in unshaded rivers and streams. It is rarely found at large well oxygenated lakes and river backwaters.
165537		population	eng	<em>Onychogomphus f. forcipatus</em> is common throughout Europe and occurs generally in medium to high densities.
165537		threats	eng	The main threat is posed by habitat modifications such as construction of dams, pollution and gravel mining in the main river bed.
165538		conservation	eng	Control of water use and pollution are needed to maintain the European populations of <em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em>.
165538		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em> is an Asiatic taxon widespread mostly over the whole of Anatolia, Iran and south Turkmenistan. European localities occur in the Greek and Turkish East Aegean islands as well as in Cyprus, all these countries constituting the western limit of the taxon.
165538		habitat	eng	In its European range, <em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em> reproduces in running waters, but in Turkey it is known to reproduce also in large lakes
165538		population	eng	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em> is common throughout its European range.
165538		threats	eng	Stream desiccation due to over-irrigation, construction of dams, rainfall deficit and climate change as well as water pollution are the main threats for this taxon.
165541		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution, population, habitat and threats across the range of <em>C. fluviatilis</em>, especially in Indonesia. Better protection is needed in at least one already protected habitat (Binyo Penyilam in Sarawak), and more habitats need to be protected.
165541		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from relatively few records, but has a wide range across southeastern Asia, however it appears to be very local in occurrence, with scattered populations across its range. There are records from Borneo (south, east and northwest Kalimantan, central Sarawak, Brunei), Belitung, Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia (Pahang and Selangor), south Thailand (Narathiwat) (see Dow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/></p><p>The upper limit of altitude for <em>C. fluviatilis</em> is unknown, but existing records are from lowland habitats. Twenty locations have been recorded for this species (Dow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Dow unpublished 2010): two in northwest Kalimantan, one in central Kalimantan, one in south Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953: the information is vague, possibly this refers to up to three separate locations, but it is treated as one location here), one in east Kalimantan, six locations in Peninsular Malaysia (Tasik Chini, (C.-Y. Choong, pers. comm. 2011), the Paya Indah Wetlands, Tasek Bera and Sungai Bebar in Pahang, Ampang and Sungai Ayer Hitam in Selangor), two locations from Brunei (one of them is now degraded), one location from Thailand, one from Sarawak, four from Belitung, three from Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, R.W.J. Ngiam pers. comm. 2010), but from one of these only a single individual has been recorded. For eight locations the only records are fifty years or more old, and we have no information on the current status of the habitats, however there has been widespread degradation of lowland habitats in Indonesia. Of the recent locations one has already been degraded (Orr 2001), no recent check of this location has been made. On this basis, only nine locations can be considered to be currently known. Of the currently known locations, one (Binyo Penyilam in Sarawak) is a Conservation Area within acacia plantations, but enforcement of its protected status is problematic, however it is a proposed National Park. The remaining location in Brunei is protected. The sites in Singapore are either in the National Parks system, or in an army training area, and not currently threatened.</p>
165541		habitat	eng	Slow streams, marsh and swamp forest pools and lakes, all known locations are in lowland areas. The locations in Sarawak, Brunei and Thailand are all low pH sites, we have no definite information on the pH of the habitats at the other locations, but based on its absence from other apparently suitable, but higher pH sites in Sarawak and Brunei , it appears likely that <em>C. fluviatilis</em> prefers low pH sites. The exception to this is in Singapore, where two of the sites are reservoirs, so not likely to be especially low pH; however the species is less common at these sites than at the clearly low pH sites in Borneo, there is alos an old record from a reservoir in Peninsular Malaysia. All sites for which habitat information is available are within forest, but some of these are in pockets of open marsh within swamp forest; it is likely (but not certain) that the species needs forest in the vicinity of its breeding habitats for its survival. The species is certainly able to survive in disturbed forest habitats (for instance Binyo Penyilam has been selectively logged in the past). In some apparently suitable (low pH) habitats in Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia it appears to be replaced by other <em>Chalybeothemis</em> species (Dow et al 2007).
165541		population	eng	There is no detailed population information for this species. From the currently known sites, it is quite common at Binyo Penyilam in Sarawak and common at Sungai Bebar in Pahang (Dow unpublished data); Norma-Rashid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001) list 19 specimens from Tasek Bera in Pahang, suggesting that the species is at least fairly common there; it is regularly encountered at the surviving location in Brunei (Orr 2001, V. Kalkman unpublished, 2011). Based on this information it appears that the species is locally common over much of its range. However it is considered uncommon in Singapore (R.W.J. Ngiam pers. comm. 2010).
165541		threats	eng	Plantation establishment is the major potential threat to this species; very large areas of lowland forest are being or already have been converted to oil palm and acacia plantations in Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia, the situation is similar in Kalimantan and probably in Belitung. Fire is a serious threat to individual populations, as is pollution or lowering of water tables due to excessive extraction. In Sarawak at least twelve large hydroelectric projects are planned before 2020, these could have a major impact on populations of this species (including as-yet undiscovered populations).
165542		conservation	eng	<p>      </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>
165542		distribution	eng	<em>Garra annandalei</em> is distributed in India (northern Bengal, Bihar and Assam), eastern and central Nepal (Kosi drainage), and Bangladesh.
165542		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits swift and clear mountain streams with rocks and bounders.</p>
165542		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Population information has been documented by Jha (2006) in seven rivers of Nepal. </p>  <p></p>
165542		threats	eng	<p>  Dams, urbanization, agricultural runoffs, industrialization etc., can cause decline of the species due to habitat destruction.<br/></p>
165544		conservation	eng	No conservation efforts directed towards this species are in place. It is not believed to be present in any protected areas. There is a need to generate baseline information on the population size, distribution, population status, life history and ecology of this species from the upper reaches of the Bhima river where the species is endemic.
165544		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax poonaensis</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is found in the upper reaches of Bhima River, a major tributary of Krishna River system. Until recently it was known only from its type locality in Mula-Mutha rivers (Hora 1938, Fraser 1942), but recently a fair population of the species was discovered from Indrayani River (Dahanukar<em> et al</em>, in press).&#160;The inferred EOO for the species is 10000-12000 km<sup>2</sup>, however, since the species is a habitat specialist, the AOO is hardly 100-120 km<sup>2</sup> (1% of the EOO).
165544		habitat	eng	No particular information is available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax poonaensis</span>, however, this genus is known to be adapted for life in rapidly flowing hill stream habitats. Based on the collection of gravid females, this species probably breeds during June and July when the monsoon rains are active (Dahanukar<em> et al</em>. in press).
165544		population	eng	After its original description by Hora (1938)<span style="font-style: italic;"> Glyptothorax poonaensis</span> was recorded only by Fraser (1942). Subsequent studies by Tonapi and Mulherkar (1963), Wagh and Ghate (2003) and Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) did not record this species from its type locality in Mula-Mutha river. After continuous search for this species, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) suggested that it could be locally extinct from its type locality. Recently, Dahanukar <em>et al.</em> (in press) recorded a fair population of the species from Indrayani River. However, no quantitative data is available for predicting the population status and population changes.
165544		threats	eng	There are several threats to the species and include dams, urbanization leading to organic pollution and heavy harvest. Large dams halt the flow of river and make the water stagnant leading to eutrophication and loss of oxygen. As this species require large amounts of oxygen in water such habitat alterations are unsuitable for the species. Similar habitat alterations are also a result of urbanization leading to organic pollution in rivers. Such changes in the rivers of this area and their possible effects on the fish fauna are already documented (Kharat <em>et al.</em> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).
165545		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo kawrus</span>. Research is required on the population status, distribution, life history, ecology, harvesting and threats to the species.
165545		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo kawrus</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is found only in the Krishna river system and in west flowing rivers of northern Western Ghats (Yadav 2003). It is currently known from Maharashtra and Karnataka state. In Maharashtra it is recorded from Mutha river (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Neelesh Dahanukar, pers. obs.), Pashan lake (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963), Ujni wetland (Yazdani and Singh 1990) and Bhima river (Sykes 1841, Suter 1944). In Karnataka it is known from Linganamakki Reservoir on Sharavati River (Shreekantha and Ramachandra 2005), Aghanashini river (Bhat 2004) and Bhadra river (David 1956). It is suspected to be found in other tributaries of Krishna river as well but no such reports are currently available. Currently the species is known from 8 to 10 locations and inferred extent of occurrence of this species is 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
165545		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo kawrus</span> is found in upper reaches of the rivers (Menon 1999) and in lakes (Tonapi and  Mulherkar 1963) and reservoirs (Yazdani and Singh 1990, Shreekantha and Ramachandra 2005). The species grows up to 60 cm in total length (Menon 1999). The species breeds during the onset of south-west monsoon (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The habitat of this species is severely threatened by organic and inorganic pollution (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2003).
165545		population	eng	Population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo kawrus</span> is steadily declining especially in the northern tributaries of Krishna river near Pune where it is now found very rarely. Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000) suspected that the species is locally extinct from Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune, however, only one specimen was collected from Mutha river after an agitated search (Neelesh Dahanukar, unpublished) indicating that some population of the species may still be extant. A discussion with the local fisherman from Mula-Mutha rivers and Bhima river suggests that the population of this species has drastically declined in last ten years (Neelesh Dahanukar, unpublished). Unfortunately, no such information is available on this fish from other areas.
165545		threats	eng	No specific information is available on the threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Labeo kawrus</span>, however, the habitat of this species is severely threatened by organic and inorganic pollution (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2003). The rivers in northern Western Ghats are also subject to heavy harvesting of fishes and since the species has a good food value, heavy harvesting might have played a major role in its decline. Furthermore, population of the species may have been affected by introduced exotic fishes and economically important carps, which is a threat in northern Western Ghats (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2003).
165548		conservation	eng	Currently no protective measures are in place to conserve <span style="font-style: italic;">Schismatorhynchos nukta</span>. Site/area protection, check on the harvesting and public awareness could be possible first steps for conserving the species. Research is needed to understand the population status, life history, ecology, harvest and threats to the species.
165548		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schismatorhynchos nukta</span> is endemic to the peninsular India and is found in Krishna and Kaveri river systems. It is found in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Maharashtra it is recorded from Indrayani river near Mahalunge (Sykes 1841), Mula-Mutha River near Kharadegaon (Fraser 1942), Wadgaon on Bhima river (Suter 1944), Ujni Wetland (Yazdani and Singh 1990, Surwade and Khillare 2010), Neera river near Veer dam (Ghate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002),&#160; Krishna river near Wai (S.S. Kharat, Mandar Paingankar and Neelesh Dahanukar, Unpublished), Koyna river near Patan (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), Panchaganga river in Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956) and Sangli (Jayaram 1995). In Karnata it is known from Bhadra river at Bhadravati (David 1956), Tunga river at Hariharpur (Chacko and Kuriyan 1948), Bagalkot (Jayaram 1995) and Doora lake (Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Andhra Pradesh it is known from Lingalagattu at Sri Sailam and Manthralayam (Jayaram 1995). In Tamil Nadu it is known from Moyar river at Thengumarada (Manimekalan and Singh 1997).<br/>The extent of occurrence of this species seems to be declining as the species is considered locally extinct from Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Kharat et  al. 2003). The species has not been reported from its type locality in  Indrayani river even after serious efforts (Yazdani and Mahabal 1976).<br/>The record of this species from Nepal&#160;(Shrestha 2002)&#160;needs taxonomic confirmation.
165548		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schismatorhynchos nukta</span> is found in rapid streams and rivers with sand and boulder bed (Menon 2004). It is also&#160; found in reservoirs (Yazdani and Singh 1990). It attains a total length of 30 cm (Menon 2004). The habitat of&#160; this species is threatened by urbanization, industrialization, organic and inorganic pollution and deforestation (David 1956, Ghate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).
165548		population	eng	Exact population structure of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schismatorhynchos nukta</span> is not known but the species is rare (Menon 2004, Jayaram 1995, Ghate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.). The only record which states that the species is abundant is by Surwade and Khillare (2010) from Ujni wetland, Pune, Maharashtra. The species is suggested to be locally extinct from Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The species was also not recorded from its type locality in Indrayani river (Yazdani and Mahabal 1976; N. Dahanukar pers. obs.). The population of the species is rapidly declining in the areas where it is currently found (personal communication with the local fishermen from Western Ghats of Maharashtra). Even though quantitative estimates are not available for the population changes, it is predicted that the population of this species will decline by more than 60% if the current trends in habitat loss due to deforestation, urbanization and pollution, impact of introduced carps and harvesting of the fish continue.&#160; It is rare in Tambiraparani and Bhadra rivers (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.) and market surveys and questionnaire surveys with local fishermen indicate the species to be declining rapidly (N. Dahanukar and M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
165548		threats	eng	The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schismatorhynchos nukta</span> is declining and it could be attributed to several possible threats to the species. Heavy harvest could be a possible threat because this fish is often caught and sold in local markets especially during the Monsoon season when the species is migrating upstream for breeding (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.). The habitat of&#160; this species is threatened by urbanization,  industrialization, organic and inorganic pollution and deforestation  (David 1956, Ghate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, N. Dahanukar pers. obs.).
165561		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
165561		distribution	eng	<em>Erethistoides senkhiensis</em>&#160;was described from the Senkhi Stream, a tributary of the Dikrong River (itself a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Tamang&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). Known from the confluence of Senkhi and Chimpu streams at Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India. The Senkhi stream meets with Dikrong River in the south; the Dikrong River itself is a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in Assam.
165561		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams with moderately clear to turbid running water and with a substrate of pebbles, cobbles and sand.
165561		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
165561		threats	eng	The impact of the proposed Dikrong 100 MW hydropower dam needs to be studied and the impacts of the dam on the species better understood.
165562		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>
165562		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The nominate subspecies is known from India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and China and Indochina. <em>U. s. insignata </em>(Selys, 1872) is known from Sundaland, <em>U. s. yiei</em> Asahina, 1972 is known from Taiwan, <em>U. s. aliena</em> Selys, 1878 from Australia and New Guinea. </p>
165562		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in ponds and slow flowing rivers, typically in lowland areas.</p>
165562		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species over much of its range.</p>
165562		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>
165592		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population trend, ecology of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
165592		distribution	eng	<em>Sphaerium austeni</em> occurs only in the montane pools of Nagaland (Naga Hills) and Manipur in India (Subba Rao 1989). The distribution in the hills is estimated to be less than 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and could even be less than 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
165592		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in stagnant water. Individuals are usually attached to aquatic vegetation, sometimes they are attached to the surface film of water by slime threads.
165592		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
165592		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Specific threats to this species are not known. However, the stagnant water habitats are affected by anthropogenic influences such as pollution, destructive fishing practices and conversion for development, which may potentially affect the population of this species.</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
165594		conservation	eng	None known.
165594		conservation	eng	There are no research or conservation actions recommended for this species. Awareness is needed as the species is intermediate host for many parasites.
165594		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Indoplanorbis exustusis</span> is a widely distributed species, known from<span class="definition"><span class="definition">&#160;Iran, Arabian Peninsula, China, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, Myanmar, Pakistan, Persia, Sumatra, <span class="definition"><span class="definition">Celebes, Java, Malaya, <span class="definition"><span class="definition">Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka <span class="definition"><span class="definition">and Nepal (Yueying Liu 1979, Subba Rao 1989).<br/></span></span></span></span>
165594		distribution	eng	This species was introduced to West Africa from India. It is found in two localities, one in Nigeria and one in Ivory Coast.
165594		habitat	eng	Found in a rice-growing area in Nigeria and vegetation at the margins of artificial lakes in Ivory Coast.
165594		habitat	eng	It is found in various types of stagnant waters with dense vegetation. It remains attached to floating plants and it also occurs in very polluted waters.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>It is a vector and intermediate host for many parasites of domestic and wild animals. Cercarial larval stage of many trematode parasites of domestic animals such as cattle, human and wild animals develop in this snail. Some important parasites that use the snail as intermediate hosts are <em>Artyfechinostomum sufrartyfex</em>, <em>Schistosoma indicum</em>, <em>Schistosoma nasalis</em>, <em>Schistosoma spindalis</em>, <em>Fasciola gigantica,</em> <em>Paramphistomum mehrai</em>, <em>Paramphistomum</em> <em>explanatum</em>, <em>Gastrodiscus secundus</em>, <em>Petagifer srivastavi, Plasmiorchis orientalis, Pscudodiscus collinsi, Gastrothylax crumenifer, Enterohaemotrema paleorticum, Cotylophoron cotylophorum,&#160; Cotylophoron indica, Cotylophoron bhaleraoi,&#160; Cotylophoron mathurapurensis, </em><span lang="EN-GB">and <span lang="EN-GB"><em>Echinostoma</em> sp. <span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition">(Yueying  Liu 1979, Subba Rao 1989)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
165594		population	eng	No information available.
165594		population	eng	This is a very common species.
165594		threats	eng	&#160;None known.
165594		threats	eng	No major specific threats known for the species.
165596		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone mutica</span> is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations, and likely occurs in several protected areas.
165596		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone mutica</span> inhabits the greater Mississippi basin from Louisiana up to North Dakota, Minnesota and western Pennsylvania, as well as the Colorado, Brazos, Sabine, and Pearl, Alabama and Escambia river systems (Webb 1973, Iverson 1992).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Apalone mutica mutica</span>: Mississippi basin, and western rivers to central Texas;<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Apalone mutica calvata</span>: Pearl, Alabama and Escambia river systems.
165596		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone mutica</span> typically occur in medium-sized to large rivers with moderate to fast currents, but also occur in standing water bodies like lakes, ponds and marshes as long as these are connected to the river at least during floods. Soft bottoms are preferred, and accessible sandbanks must be present. Smooth Softshells are preferentially carnivorous omnivores, feeding mainly on insects but also taking other kinds of animal food as well as plant seeds and fruits.<br/><br/>Males reach 27 cm carapace length (CL); females 36 cm CL. Maturity is reached at four years in males, nine years in females; size at maturity is apparently unknown. Longevity probably exceeds 20 years. Generation time has not been calculated.<br/><br/>Females produce two to three clutches of about 14 (1–33) eggs. Incubation takes about 63 (44–82) days. Hatchlings measure 30–37 mm (reviews by Moler 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).
165596		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone mutica</span> can reach substantial densities, up to 1.2 individuals per linear meter of river, and a basking aggregation of 88 animals was reported (Plummer 1977, Trauth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). However, there have been anecdotal observations of declining populations, at least locally, as well as consistently failing recruitment as a result of water level regulation in large rivers flooding nesting banks (Janzen pers. comm. 2010).
165596		threats	eng	The impact of commercial exploitation appears undocumented and unquantified, though bycatch in commercial fisheries and recreational fishing has been suspected to be a factor in the observed decline in at least some populations&#160;(Janzen pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/>Water pollution has been implicated in population reductions (Trauth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Increasingly frequent flooding events, resulting from a combination of anthropogenic activities upstream (increased hard surface area, increased stormwater runoff volumes and speed) and changing, more pulsed, precipitation patterns, consistently impact nesting areas and may preclude successful reproduction (e.g., Cedar River, Iowa)&#160;(Janzen pers. comm. 2010).
165597		conservation	eng	<p>In Alabama, commercial and personal take is limited to a daily bag limit of 10 turtles, and softshells can only be taken if over 12” CL. Florida closed its commercial fishery for the species in 2009. Take of the species in Georgia remains unregulated. In South Carolina <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalone ferox</span> is considered a Species of Concern. </p>  <p>Substantial populations are protected in the Everglades and other protected areas; habitat characteristics also make some areas unsuitable to commercial fisheries, providing effective refugia. Habitat modification, particularly the construction of drainage canals, may favour individuals and populations locally. </p>
165597		distribution	eng	<em>Apalone ferox</em> occurs from southern South Carolina (vicinity of Charleston) through eastern and southern Georgia, southeastern Alabama and essentially all of Florida (Iverson 1992, Meylan and Moler 2006).
165597		habitat	eng	<p><em>Apalone ferox</em> inhabits a wide variety of permanent freshwater bodies, as well as some occurrence in ephemeral waterbodies and brackish situations. Shallow vegetated lake and marsh areas with deeper canals and at least localized sandy banks represent optimal habitat (Meylan and Moler 2006). &#160;</p>  <p><em>Apalone ferox</em> are primarily carnivorous, feeding on snails, insects, fish, crayfish, and occasionally clams and tetrapod vertebrates; part of this may represent scavenging. </p>  <p>Significant nest predators include foxes, raccoons, skunks and fish crows, while hatchlings and juveniles may be consumed by raptors and various other predators. Adults are very occasionally taken by alligators (Meylan and Moler 2006). </p>  <p>Female <em>A. ferox</em> can reach over 70 cm carapace length (CL) and well over 20 kg (record 43.5 kg - Pritchard 2001). </p>  <p>Females reach sexual maturity between 25 and 40 cm CL, at an unknown age. Average size of nesting females in a Pinellas Co. population was 50 cm CL and 10.3 kg (Heinrich and Boykin, in Meylan and Moler 2006)</p>  <p>Males reach sexual maturity between 15 and 21 cm CL, at about 0.7 kg, at an unknown age (Meylan and Moler 2006).</p>  <p>Most but not all females reproduce annually, while some females may produce up to seven clutches per year (Iverson and Moler 1997). Clutch size is correlated to female size, averaging 18 to 39 eggs per clutch, with the very largest females producing over 225 eggs per year. Hatchlings measure on average 41 mm CL (range 36-44 mm) at a weight of 9.7 (range 8-11) g (Meylan and Moler 2006).</p>
165597		population	eng	<p><em>Apalone ferox</em> is considered common to very common throughout most of Florida (Meylan and Moler 2006). Localized population declines have been attributed to intensive collection, but only partial quantitative population estimates or trend data are available. Indications are that a depleted population requires about 20 years to recover (Meylan and Moler 2006). </p>  <p>Population structure data are limited to some casual observations (Meylan and Moler 2006). </p>
165597		threats	eng	<p>Commercial take of adult softshells, either as a targeted fishery or as bycatch in seine and trotline fisheries, has been substantial and has been implied as the cause of localized declines (review by Meylan and Moler 2006). </p>  <p>Some females are killed when crossing roads to or from nesting sites, and natural predation levels may have increased as predator populations are subsidized by human activities, but the overall impact or significance of these trends have not been evaluated. </p>
165598		conservation	eng	<em>Graptemys geographica</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006, and is protected in most States under legislation or regulation. It occurs in a variety of protected areas. <br/><br/>Safeguarding adequate areas of suitable habitat, carrying out further research on its conservation biology, and monitoring representative populations and overall trade levels, are the main conservation measures needed.
165598		distribution	eng	<p><em>Graptemys geographica</em> inhabits the Mississippi-Missouri-Ohio-Tennessee system, the Great Lakes system, and the Susquehanna, Delaware and Hudson systems. A record from eastern Massachusetts needs confirmation (Iverson 1992). There are three known localities in Oklahoma, two recent and the other historic (in a river reach that is now a reservoir) (Lindeman pers. comm. 2010).</p>
165598		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys geographica</span> is a species of medium to large open water with emerging snags and other basking opportunities, and with abundant molluscs. In the northern part of its range it is mainly a lake species, whereas in its more southern distribution area it seems mostly associated with rocky- or stony-bottomed rivers with deep water sections.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The species feeds predominantly on molluscs, as well as some other aquatic invertebrates.<br/><br/>Males reach 16 cm carapace length (CL); females 27 cm CL. Maturity is reached after 12 or more years (19 cm CL) in females; age and size at maturity in males is apparently unreported. Longevity may exceed 20 years. Generation time has not been calculated.<br/><br/>Females usually produce two clutches of 9–17 eggs. Incubation time is difficult to determine as most hatchlings overwinter in the nest and only emerge about 11 months after nesting. Hatchlings measure about 30 (range 25–33) mm (see review in Ernst and Lovich 2009).
165598		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys geographica</em> widely occurs in suitable habitat in most surveyed sites within its range (Lindeman, RL WS Aug 2009). In suitable habitat, the species can be abundant, representing a third to half of all turtles observed or trapped (review by Ernst and Lovich 2009). Overall, <em>Graptemys geographica</em> was considered the second commonest <em>Graptemys</em> by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys.</p>
165598		threats	eng	Ernst and Lovich (2009) report threats to populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys geographica</span> as including: <br/><ul><li>Degradation and destruction of its riverine habitat, directly through waterfront development and hydro-infrastructure, and indirectly through pollution and sedimentation impacting or eliminating its molluscan food supplies, and snag and logjam removal to facilitate navigation.</li><li>Vehicle mortality, particularly of females during the nesting season, as well as propeller strike of animals.</li><li>Direct exploitation for consumption and pet trade.</li><li>Bycatch in commercial riverine fisheries. </li></ul>
165599		conservation	eng	<em>Graptemys ouachitensis</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006, meaning its export quantities are monitored. <br/> <br/> The Ouachita Map Turtle occurs in several protected areas; see Lindeman's book on Map Turtles (in press) for details of locations and sizes of protected areas where the species occurs. <br/><br/>Research of the species conservation biology, conservation status, and possible conservation actions are desirable, as are minimizing fisheries bycatch through gear modification. Biological and status data are particularly needed for the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sabinensis</span>.
165599		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mississippi basin from Minnesota, Kansas and West Virginia to Louisiana, and Sabine river of Texas-Louisiana. <br/><ul><li><span style="font-style: italic;">G. o. ouachitensis</span>: Mississippi basin from Minnesota, Kansas and West Virginia to Louisiana<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">G. o. sabinensis</span>: Mermentau and Calcasieu drainages of Louisiana, and the Sabine River system of Texas-Louisiana<br/></li></ul>(Vogt 1993, Lindeman, pers. comm).
165599		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys ouachitensis </span>is primarily a riverine turtle, inhabiting rivers with swift currents and submerged vegetation, but also utilizes lakes, oxbows and floodplain swamps; sand and silt bottoms are preferred over mud, or rock and gravel. Ouachita Map Turtles are generalist omnivores, feeding on a wide variety of small animal prey, carrion, and plant parts.<br/><br/>Males reach 14 cm carapace length (CL); females 24 cm CL. Maturity is reached at 2–3 years in males, and at 6–7 years in females; size at maturity is apparently unknown. Longevity exceeds 15 years. Generation time has not been calculated. Females may produce two or three clutch of about 10 (6–15) eggs. Incubation takes 60–82 days. Hatchlings measure 27–35 mm.
165599		population	eng	Various population data (summarized by Ernst and Lovich 2009) indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">G. ouachitensis</span> is not abundant in most situations, but can be locally common, such as representing 15% of all turtles trapped in Lake Texoma (OK) and 10–27% of basking turtles observed during spotting scope studies. <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys ouachitensis</span> was considered the overall most common <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys</span> species by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys.
165599		threats	eng	No specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys ouachitensis</span> have been reported, though it can be surmised that at least populations have been impacted by riverfront developments, fisheries bycatch, water pollution and possibly subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements).
165600		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pseudogeographica</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006, meaning its export quantities are monitored. <br/> <br/> The Mississippi Map Turtle occurs in several more or less protected areas. <br/> <br/> Research of the species' conservation biology, conservation status, and possible conservation actions are desirable, as are minimizing fisheries bycatch through gear modification.</p>
165600		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys pseudogeographica</span> ranges through the Mississippi-Missouri basin from Louisiana up to North Dakota and Ohio, and inhabits the Mermenteau and Calcasieu river drainages of Louisiana and the Sabine, Trinity and Brazos river systems in Texas (Iverson 1992, Vogt 1993, Lindeman pers. comm. 2010).<br/><ul><li><span style="font-style: italic;">G. p. pseudogeographica</span>: Missouri, Ohio and upper Mississippi rivers;</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">G. p. kohnii</span>: lower Misissippi basin, including the Arkansas, Red, Mermenteau, Calcasieu, Sabine, Trinity and Brazos rivers.</li></ul>An extensive intergradation zone exists across much of Missouri, southern Illinois, and western Kentucky and Tennessee (Vogt 1993).
165600		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys pseudogeographica</span> is a turtle of rivers, lakes, ponds, oxbows and occasionally marshlands; mud bottoms are preferred, as are areas with dense aquatic vegetation, and abundant basking sites; it is apparently more generalist in its habitat use than sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">G. ouachitensis</span>. Nests are placed on sandy banks.<br/><br/>Mississippi Map Turtles are generalist omnivores, feeding on a wide variety of small animal prey including bivalves, carrion, and plant parts. Males reach 15 cm carapace length (CL), females 27 cm CL. Maturity is reached at 4–6 years in males, and at eight years in females; size at maturity is apparently unknown. Longevity may exceed 35 years in captivity. Generation time has not been calculated.<br/><br/>Females may produce up to four clutches of about 14 (8–22) eggs. Incubation takes 60–82 days. Hatchlings measure 25–37 mm.
165600		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pseudogeographica</em> shows great variation in local abundance, ranging from a rare element in a turtle community to being by far the dominant species (particularly populations of <em>G. p. kohnii</em>). Subspecies<em> pseudogeographica</em> represents less than 10% of the turtle community in the upper Mississippi, and is abundant only in the upper part of the Missouri. Population declines have been reported from main rivers downstream of Kansas City and St. Louis (attributed to pollution) and elsewhere in Missouri (from pollution, channelization, loss of nesting sites, siltation and wanton shooting) (see data summarized by Ernst and Lovich 2009). <em>Graptemys pseudogeographica</em> was considered the third commonest <em>Graptemys</em> species by Lindeman (pers. comm. 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. </p>
165600		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys pseudogeographica</span> suffered local declines from the 1940s, attributed to pollution from large riverside cities like St. Louis and Kansas City. Historically, the species was apparently exploited in substantial quantities for domestic consumption. Bycatch mortality of this species in commercial riverine fisheries, at 8% of trapped turtles, is substantial. Habitat impacts include channelization, loss of nesting sites, siltation, and pollution. Wanton shooting is a contributing factor.
165607		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon falcula</em>. This species is likely to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is&#160; needed to establish the dietary requirements for this species.
165607		distribution	eng	This species ranges throughout the tropical Indian Ocean from Kenya to northern South Africa on the east African Coast, Madagascar including the western and central Indian Ocean islands, Southern India, Sri Lanka, Nicobar and Andaman Islands (India) and western Thailand east to Java (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-15 m.
165607		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons or on seaward reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually seen in pairs or small aggregations that may contain as many as 20 individuals (Allen 1980). There is not data on the diet of this species, but it is assumed to feed on hard and soft corals, like the sister species <em>C. ulientensis</em> (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009).
165607		population	eng	This species is common. While it is may be reliant on live coral, there is no information on population trends for this species.
165607		threats	eng	This species probably feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165608		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.
165608		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Maldive Islands, the southwestern tip of India, Sri Lanka and the east coast of India, Thailand, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and along the western coast of Sumatra to the Seribu Islands and the tip of northern Java. It has a depth range of 1-25 m.
165608		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of rich coral growth. It occurs as solitary individuals, in pairs, or in aggregations of up to 20-30 individuals. Feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates and zooplankton (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is probably a facultative corallivore.
165608		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no evidence for declines in the population.
165608		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165609		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.</p>
165609		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea (Hurgada southwards) and the Gulf of Aden, east to the Arabian Sea coast of Oman (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;It is generally found between 1-20m (Allen 1980).
165609		habitat	eng	This species is found within the clear waters of fringing reefs where plate-forming corals of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> abound (Allen 1980). It is a territorial species occurring singly or in pairs. It is an obligate corallivore that feeds exclusively on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals and actively chases away other butterflyfishes encroaching on its food supply (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165609		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The species is especially common around Jeddah in the Red Sea (Allen 1980), and it is rare in the northern third of the Red Sea.
165609		threats	eng	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165610		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165610		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, along the East African coast from Zanzibar northwards to the southern Red Sea (including the Farasan Archipelago, Saudi Arabia) and Oman, and the Seychelles Islands (including the Aldabra Group) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) and Socotra. It has been recorded between 7-80 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165610		habitat	eng	Populations have been recorded in coral and rocky reefs, as well as open rubble, in deep water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found as solitary animals or in pairs.
165610		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165610		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. <br/></p>
165611		conservation	eng	Present in several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean and Brazil.
165611		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from New England south to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Bermuda. Larvae are carried north in the Gulf Stream, but recruits do not survive the winter (Carpenter 2002). It is found from 1-30 m depth. There is one record (one specimen, 3 cm) from Musquodoboit Harbor, Nova Scotia, Canada (Allen 1980).
165611		habitat	eng	This is predominantly a shallow coral and rocky reef species feeding on various benthic invertebrates. It occurs commonly in pairs (Carpenter 2002).
165611		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
165611		threats	eng	It was driven to local extinction in some localities along the Brazilian coast due to extraction for the aquarium trade (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009); however, its global population does not seem to be under any major threat.
165612		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral, and the threat of coral loss.
165612		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the western Indian Ocean, from Yemen south to the East African coast as far south as Durban, South Africa, east to the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory, UK) (Burgess 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006), including the Seychelles (including Aldabra), Mauritius, Réunion, Rodrigues, Comoro Islands and Madagascar. It has been recorded at depths of 1-40 m.
165612		habitat	eng	This species is usually encountered in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on outer reef slopes, being particularly abundant where staghorn corals (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> spp.) occur. It is most often observed singly or in pairs, but may aggregate where staghorn coral is plentiful (Allen 1980). This species is an obligate corallivore. It is likely to be specialised like its sister species in the Pacific, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plebeuis.</span><br/>    <p>This species most likely recruits in very low numbers and requires live branching coral for recruitment. Consequently recovery from population collapse is likely to be slow (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>
165612		population	eng	Occasionally sighted to common at East African localities (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2010). Generally rare at Madagascar. For example, Allen (2003) recorded less than 10 individuals during 45 hours of scuba diving around the northwestern tip of the island.
165612		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165613		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas along the Brazilian coast.</p>
165613		distribution	eng	This recently described southwest Atlantic species is known only from Brazil, from south of the Amazon River mouth to the State of Sao Paulo. It is found at depths between 20-75 m.
165613		habitat	eng	Animals are found solitary or in pairs, usually occurring in deep, rocky reefs. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates.
165613		population	eng	It seems to be common in deep reefs in southeastern Brazil (J.L. Gasparini pers. comm. 2009).
165613		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165614		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165614		distribution	eng	This species is found in the north-western Indian Ocean, where it has been recorded from the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden,  Gulf of Oman, the south Arabian Coast and west coast of India (Burgess 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 33-274 m.
165614		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Populations are found in deep rocky areas, and feed mostly on benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165614		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165614		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165615		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is likely that this species occurs within marine protected areas.
165615		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout western and southern Pacific from Vietnam and the Philippines to Easter Island, north to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands (in Japan), and south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe Island and Rapa. It is absent from Indonesia apart from Halmahera to northern Papua. It has been recorded from 10-120 m.
165615		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky or coral-covered reefs of lagoons and outer slopes. It is frequently seen adjacent to steep slopes and drop-offs (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found as pairs or solitary animals (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001). It has an omnivorous diet (Pyle 2001).
165615		population	eng	It is generally common. There is no data on population trends for this species, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).
165615		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and not considered to be affecting the global population.
165616		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends, habitat status and harvest levels of this species is required.</p>
165616		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Australia, from Abrollos in the west to the northern Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001). It is found at depths of 1-30 m.
165616		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly on coastal coral and rocky reefs, including outer reef slopes and drop-offs, and near shore islands (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001). It is mainly found in pairs (Pyle 2001).
165616		population	eng	This species is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165616		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165617		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is unknown if this species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Additional field studies are needed to learn more about the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.
165617		distribution	eng	This species occurs at Pitcairn Island (UK), Easter Island (Chile), and at least one of the Austral Islands in the southeastern Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found at depths of 40 to 50 m.
165617		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep seaward coral reef slopes, and forms aggregates in midwater (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is probably a planktivore based on its tendency to aggregate in mid-water, but its biology and ecology are unknown.
165617		population	eng	It is generally common within its restricted range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165617		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165618		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Research is required to establish the dietary requirements, general biology, and habitat use of this species.
165618		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Socotra (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded to depths of 1-25 m (Allen 1980).
165618		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with rocky and coral reef habitats (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The biology of this species is unknown, but given it is successfully kept in aquaria it probably is not reliant on live coral.
165618		population	eng	This species is uncommon. Population trends are unknown.
165618		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165619		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>
165619		distribution	eng	This Indian Ocean species ranges from the coast of East Africa (north of Durban, South Africa) to Christmas Island (Australia), the Andaman Sea coast of western Thailand and parts of Indonesia (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 1-45 m in depth.
165619		habitat	eng	Populations are usually found on the coral reef areas of lagoons and seaward reef slopes. Animals occur singly, in pairs, or in small groups.   This species is most likely an obligate corallivore and may decline in abundance following a significant decline in coral.
165619		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165619		threats	eng	<p>This species feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, no major declines were documented for this species in the Seychelles following extensive coral loss (Graham 2007). There appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p><p><br/></p>
165620		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further information is needed on the ecology of this species, as well as the&#160;taxonomic status of several populations.</p>
165620		distribution	eng	This deepwater species inhabits the western Pacific Ocean, where it has been recorded from a number of locations including southern Taiwan (Green Island), Indonesia (Flores, Sulawesi, and Raja Ampat Islands), Sabah (Malaysia), Palau; the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia) and Tonga (Allen 1980, Randall 2003, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between 20-80 m, although it can be rarely found as shallow as 12 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Population records from the Marshall Islands and Tarawa Island (Gilbert Islands, Kiribati) are considered to be hybrid populations (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). A record from Guam likely represents a vagrant record (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
165620		habitat	eng	Populations are found in steep drop-offs on outer reefs, usually in areas with abundant gorgonians and black coral (Allen 1980). This is an infrequently sighted fish, usually occurring in pairs (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
165620		population	eng	<p>It is generally uncommon, and there is no evidence of any decline in abundance.</p>
165620		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although there is some collection for the aquarium trade this is not believed to substantially impact the species.<br/></p>
165621		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. It is a poorly-known species with additional research needed.<br/></p>
165621		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Florida (USA), through the Gulf of Mexico to the Campeche Bank. It has been recorded as a straggler as far north as Cape Hatteras (North Carolina, USA) (Allen 1980, Burgess 2002). It has been recorded at depths between 20 and 200 m (Burgess 2002), but is more common in deeper waters. Most specimens have been collected by trawlers working in deeper waters (Allen 1980).
165621		habitat	eng	This species is normally found in deep subtropical waters. Occurs on rocky slopes of shelf areas and also on soft bottoms. Feeds mostly on small, benthic invertebrates found on reefs and rocks (Burgess 1978, 2002).
165621		population	eng	There is very little known about the population of this species. However this species may be common as it is recorded as bycatch in trawl fisheries.
165621		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165622		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Research is required on the biology and ecology of this species.
165622		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific, and occurs from the Maldive and Chagos Islands in the west to Samoa in the east, and from southern Japan in the north to Shark Bay (western Australia), and northern New South Wales in the south. It has been recorded from 2-50 m in depth.
165622		habitat	eng	This species is found at coastal, inner and outer reef slopes. Also frequently sighted on shipwrecks. Juveniles are usually seen in shallow lagoons but may also be found in deep waters around caves and other refuges. The diet is generally comprised of coral polyps, benthic invertebrates and algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;This species is reported to feed on live coral, though it is not known whether this species is reliant on live coral for food.
165622		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no evidence for declines in the population.
165622		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165623		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.
165623		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indo-west Pacific from Sri Lanka to the Solomon Islands (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998) north to southern Japan and south to Scott/Serangapatam reefs of northwestern Australia. It is found at depths 1-20 m.
165623		habitat	eng	This species is most often found in areas of shallow, protected lagoons (often turbid and silty) and inner reefs with extensive coral growth. The adults are usually found alone or in pairs, and occasionally in small groups. Juveniles shelter amongst branching corals (genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span>). It is an obligate corallivore.
165623		population	eng	This species is generally common. There are no data on population trends for this species.
165623		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). There has been extensive coral reef degradation throughout the range of this species, but no data is available on population trends. There are no apparent major threats other than coral loss.
165624		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165624		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean from tropical East Africa to the East Andaman sea and Indian Ocean coastline of Sumatra, and Java (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It also occurs at the Seribu Islands (Java Sea off Jakarta) and is occasionally sighted at Bali (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2010).&#160; It has been recorded from depths of 3-15 m.
165624		habitat	eng	This species is found within the clear waters of fringing reefs where plate-forming corals of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> abound (Allen 1980). It is a territorial species occurring singly or in pairs. It is an obligate corallivore that feeds predominantly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals and actively chases away other butterflyfishes encroaching on its food supply (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165624		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165624		threats	eng	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165625		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165625		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea and neighbouring Gulf of Aden (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been observed between 1-40m in depth (Allen 1980).
165625		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are found over rubble patches and coral-covered reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is commonly seen in pairs or small aggregations. This is an omnivorous species which feeds on coral polyps, algae, polychaetes and crustaceans (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165625		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no data on population trends for this species, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).
165625		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165626		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population and collection levels are recommended (such as in the Philippines).
165626		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout much of the tropical Indo-Pacific region. It ranges from the East African coast and the Arabian Gulf in the west to the Society Islands (French Polynesia) in the east, and from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is not known from Hawaii (USA) and the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) (Pyle 2001). It ranges in depth from 2-75 m, usually being found below 10 m.
165626		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coral and rocky reefs, and is often found in deep lagoon areas and outer reef slopes, although animals may inhabit shallower water in protected reef areas. Adults occur alone, in pairs or sometimes in small groups, almost always swimming close to the reef substrate. The species feeds mostly on plankton, but supplements this diet with benthic invertebrates. Juveniles are solitary and have been observed picking parasites from other fishes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165626		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) and&#160;the most common species of the genus (Steene 1978). There are believed to have been some localized declines in the Philippines, mostly due to aquarium collectors.
165626		threats	eng	This species is intensively harvested for the aquarium industry within the Philippines (K. Carpenter pers. comm. 2009), however there appear to be no overall major threats to this widespread species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165627		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas. There is a need to monitor populations within the Caribbean to record any declines. Further monitoring of numbers of animals entering the aquarium trade is recommended.</p>
165627		distribution	eng	This widespread species has been recorded from southern Florida (USA), the Bahamas, and the Gulf of Mexico, along the Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles to Venezuela and Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles) on the coast of South America. Also recorded from Bermuda (Allen 1980, Burgess 2002). It is generally found in deep reefs (20 to 91 m), but has been observed at depths of around one m (Allen 1980) to at least 100 m.
165627		habitat	eng	Normally inhabits moderate to deep tropical waters around reef or rocky areas. Occurs most abundantly at 15 to 55 m, but has been found from 1-100 m depth. Has an elongate snout used for selecting small benthic invertebrates from coral and rock crevices and between sea urchin spines (Burgess 2002). It is frequently found adjacent to steep dropoffs or on their upper ledges and is sometimes seen in caves or caverns (Allen 1980). Off southern Florida, the habitat consists primarily of large head-forming corals, sponges and alcyonarians (Allen 1980). It is generally a solitary species, but sometimes moves around in pairs; the young occasionally form aggregations of eight to 10 fish (Allen 1980).
165627		population	eng	There have been widespread declines of reef fishes inferred by a meta-data analysis for the Caribbean region (Paddock <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however from 1993-2009 no substantial declines in abundance were recorded (REEF Database) for this species. It is a common species most abundant at 15 to 55 m (Burgess 1978).
165627		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, habitat degradation has been implicated in causing declines in reef fishes in the Caribbean region (Paddock <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Collection for the aquarium trade is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
165628		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is&#160; present within a number of marine protected areas.
165628		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout most of the Indo-Pacific region, from coastal East Africa to central and western Pacific, including the Hawaiian Islands and Rapa Iti to the east, extending northwards to southern Japan and south to Lord Howe Island (Australia). Vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern Pacific and at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Occurs at depths from 2-61 m but usually below 10 m.<br/><br/>  Range size ~66.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165628		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky reefs and coral-rich areas (sometimes interspersed with sandy bottoms) of lagoons, channels and outer reef slopes. Occurs singly, in pairs, or occasionally in larger aggregations of up to about 30 individuals (Myers 1991), sometimes high in the water column. It is a facultative corallivore, feeding on hard and soft corals, as well as algae, hydroids and zooplankton.
165628		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is common in New Guinea and Queensland (Australia) (Steene 1978). This species was not observed during a recent survey conducted at the Galapagos Archipelago (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/>    <p>Common species: mean of 0.87 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef</st1:place> (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).</p>
165628		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165630		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.
165630		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread from Socotra south to Natal, South Africa across the Indo-Pacific to the Line and Gambier Islands in Polynesia, north to southern Japan and south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe and Rapa Iti (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).   Its geographic range is estimated to be ~76 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). It is found at depth of 1-30m.
165630		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most coral reef habitats, from inner coastal reef flats to outer seaward slopes. Occurs singly, in pairs, or in small groups. The diet consists of anemones, coral polyps, polychaete worms and algae. The species tolerates a wide range of ecological conditions including influx of freshwater near stream mouths and turbid water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>This species rarely consumes coral on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett 2005), but does so frequently in the Seychelles (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It has declined at Moorea between 1979 and 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006), though the explanation for this is unknown, given that it is not thought to be reliant on live coral.
165630		population	eng	This species is very abundant (e.g.,&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK3">&#160;mean of 1.3 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in the northern </a><st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef; </st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008) throughout much of its geographical range. There have been slight declines in abundance recorded in Moorea, French Polynesia, between 1979 and 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006), but it is otherwise stable (Pratchett <em>et al.</em> 2006).
165630		threats	eng	While this species has exhibited long-term declines in Moorea, there is apparent no reason why this species should depend on live coral. There do not appear to be any other major threats to this species.
165631		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon auriga</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Ongoing monitoring of&#160;&#160;catches by aquarium collectors is required. Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.</p>
165631		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the entire tropical Indo-Pacific region. It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa in the west to the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and Ducie Atoll (Pitcairn Islands, UK) in the east. It is found in the north from southern Japan and south&#160; to south eastern and western Australia including Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern Pacific at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). It has been recorded at depths of one to 61 m.<br/>Range size ~82.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998).<sup> <br/></sup>
165631		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of coral reef habitat, and can be encountered in coastal, lagoonal, and outer reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).  It feeds mainly by tearing pieces from polychaetes, sea anemones, coral polyps, and algae (Myers 1991). It may be found singly, in pairs and in aggregations. This species only very rarely consumes coral on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett 2005), but consumes mainly live corals in the Indian Ocean (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It declined significantly in Moorea between 1979 and 2003, following shifts in coral community structure (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165631		population	eng	<p>This species is generally common (e.g.,&#160;mean of 0.7 individuals per 20 0m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). It has however, exhibited significant declines in abundance on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett 2001) and in French Polynesia (Berumen and Pratchett 2006) following extensive coral loss.</p><br/><br/><p></p>
165631		threats	eng	<p>While declines in abundance of <em>C. auriga</em> have been observed following localized coral loss, it is unknown why this species should have any reliance on live corals. It neither feeds or recruits on live coral (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is collected for the aquarium trade however there is no data on how this affects the population. This species is harvested by artisanal fishers, accounting for 72% of the butterflyfishes caught (Mangi and Roberts 2006).<br/></p>  <p></p>
165632		conservation	eng	<p></p><p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. <br/></p><p>Further research&#160; is required to address issues of hybridization between <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pelewensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. punctofasciatus</span>. <br/></p>
165632		distribution	eng	Mainly distributed throughout the south Pacific, from western Indonesia to the Line Islands, also ranging north to the Ryukyu Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at 1-45 m depths (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Range size ~28.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165632		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodon punctatofasciatus</span> inhabits coral reefs, is corallivorous and forms pairs (Pyle 2001). The species is most commonly found on outer reef slopes, but also occurs in clear water lagoons and reef flats rich in coral growth.
165632		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165632		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165633		conservation	eng	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. The distribution overlaps with several protected areas and populations of this species are believed to be present in a number of these. This species has been recorded from the area of the Cocos Island National Park (Costa Rica).
165633		distribution	eng	This species is found in the tropical eastern Pacific, where it ranges from Baja California (including the Alijos Rocks and the Benito Islands) (Mexico) as far south as Mapelo Island off Colombia (Allen 1980).  It has been recorded from the Cocos Island (Costa Rica), the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), Malpelo Island (Colombia) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (Burgess 1978). It is found at depths of 6-40 m.
165633		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is often found in large schools (Humann and Deloach 1993) over rocky reefs.&#160; It feeds on algae, gastropods, and small crustaceans (Schneider 1995). This species removes parasites from larger fishes such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Paranthias colonus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthes dentatus</span> (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). In the Gulf of Chiriqui (Panamá), this species can be found over almost all kinds of substrata, except for sand and rubble (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island (Colombia), this fish is occasional in intertidal pools, frequent over rocky and sandy substrate, and abundant on coralline substrata.
165633		population	eng	This is generally a common species throughout its range. It is the most common species of butterflyfish in the Gulf of California (Allen 1980). According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species is frequent enough to have a possible resident population at Clipperton Atoll. This fish was studied in the Galapagos archipelago, and had an overall mean density of 6.03 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this is a dominant species in Gulf of Chiriqui (Panamá).<br/><br/>In a survey conducted at Gulf of Papagayo (Costa Rica), it had a mean density of 0.01+/-0.03 ind/m<sup>2 </sup>(Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Golfo Dulce (Costa Rica), this species had a density of 0.001+/-0.003 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.033% (Figueroa 2001).&#160; It still was observed 120 times in three coral zones north of Costa Rica (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species was considered common, with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
165633		threats	eng	There are no known threats. This species has some localised exploitation for the aquarium trade. However, at current levels this extraction comprises only a trivial proportion of the total population. The Galapagos Islands population declined 50% during the 1997/98 El Nino event, but recovered to pre-El Nino levels by 2001.
165634		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>
165634		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, east to the Arabian Sea coast of Oman (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found to a depth of around 20 m.
165634		habitat	eng	This species is found in lagoonal and fringing coral-rich reefs with clear water (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Solitary individuals or pairs are most often encountered, with small shoals less frequent. It is an obligate corallivore, but gastropod eggs and anemones are also consumed. Juveniles inhabit a single coral head until they reach maturity (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165634		population	eng	<p>It is generally common throughout the Red Sea, particularly in the Gulf of Aqaba and farther to the south off Jeddah and Port Sudan; populations are stable (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165634		threats	eng	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165635		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place, however its range includes marine protected areas.
165635		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species ranges from Redondo Beach (Los Angeles, CA, USA) to the coast of Peru in the south. Populations are present around the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and Malpelo Island (Colombia). It is known from depths of 2-55 m, usually from 3-12 m.
165635		habitat	eng	This rocky reef-associated species is usually observed in pairs or small groups in rocky areas near the shore (Allen 1985). In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá this species can be found over all kinds of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this fish is occasional in intertidal pools, frequent over rocky and sandy substrate and abundant in coralline substrata. According to Cooke (1992), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. humeralis </span>may be occasional in middle estuaries, mangroves and bar-formed lagoons along the Eastern Pacfic coast.
165635		population	eng	It is a common species in the shallow waters of its range (Allen 1980). It is common in rocky tide pools and on the shores of small islands nearer Panama City; it is rare in the mid-Peruvian coast (Burgess 1978). It is rare north of San Benitos Islands, Baja California, MX.<br/><br/>In the Galapagos Archipelago, this species had an overall mean density of 0.83 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In a survey conducted at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, it had a mean density of 0.01+/-0.01 ind/m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.007+/-0.010 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.118% (Figueroa 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chaetodon humeralis</span> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency between 10-30% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).
165635		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>    The population in the Galapagos Islands was apparently unaffected by the 1997/98 El Niño event.
165636		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas.
165636		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Japan (including the Izu Islands) in the north, through South Korea, to the northern Philippines Islands in the south (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from five to at least 20 m, but probably occurs much deeper (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165636		habitat	eng	This species is primarily associated with rocky coastal reef habitats (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates; animals form small to large aggregations (Pyle 2001).
165636		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is common in the Izu Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165636		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165637		conservation	eng	In view of the species' wide range, populations are present within several marine protected areas.
165637		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Caribbean from Florida and Gulf of Mexico to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Strays north to Massachusetts (Allen 1980) and has been reported from the eastern Atlantic. Also recorded from Bermuda (Carpenter 2002). It is known from 2-55 m depth.
165637		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky and coral reefs and can occur singly or in pairs.  The diet is diverse, consisting of polychaete worms, coral polyps, crustaceans and mollusc eggs. Animals are monogamous (Whiteman and Côté 2004), forming pairs during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).  Adults may form plankton-feeding aggregations of up to 20 individuals, and occasionally clean other reef fishes which join the group, such as grunts, parrotfishes and surgeon fishes (Sazima and Sazima 2001).
165637		population	eng	It is generally a common species throughout its range.
165637		threats	eng	No apparent major threats.
165638		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>
165638		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific (Pyle 2001), from the east African coast from as far south as Durban, South Africa (Burgess 1978), east to the Line Islands (Kiribati and USA) and Hawaii (Steene 1978), north to the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) and south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), New Caledonia and Tonga (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrants have been recorded as far east as the Galapagos Islands (Chile) and the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico). It has been recorded from depths of 2-30 m.
165638		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are associated with areas of rich coral in clear water lagoons and on seaward reefs. Adults occur as individuals or in pairs, and exhibit home-ranging behaviour. Juveniles are usually observed among branching corals. It is an obligate corallivore, but probably feeds on coral mucus, rather than coral tissue.
165638		population	eng	This species is widespread, but generally uncommon.&#160;This species is reliant on live coral for food, but population trends in relation to coral loss have not been studied.
165638		threats	eng	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165639		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>
165639		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the main Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll and Guam (USA), but populations are thought to probably be more widespread on the deep reefs of the central Pacific Ocean (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Usually occurs between 90-291 m in depth (Mundy 2005, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165639		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Populations are found in deep rocky areas, and feed mostly on benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165639		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165639		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165640		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population and collection levels are recommended.
165640		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island in the west, to the Pitcairn group in the east, north to South Korea, southern Japan, and south to southern New South Wales. This species has a depth range of 1-45 m.
165640		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of heavy coral growth in lagoons and on outer reefs. Solitary individuals are most often encountered, but pairs or small groups are sometimes seen. Juveniles are common in shallow areas with coral and algal cover (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is a facultative corallivore.
165640		population	eng	This species is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). No declines have been reported, even in areas with extensive coral loss (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165640		threats	eng	This species feeds on live coral, but there have not been any declines reported following coral loss (e.g., Berumen and Pratchett 2006). There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165641		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>
165641		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-west Pacific from the Seychelles and Maldives to the Pitcairn group north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, and south to Lord Howe and Rapa Iti Islands. Records from the western and central Indian Ocean from the Seychelles and Maldives are likely based on vagrants (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). This species is found at depths of 1-36 m.
165641		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral-rich areas, in lagoons and on outer reefs. Depth range is from 1-36 m. Feeds exclusively on coral polyps and exhibits home-ranging behaviour. Juveniles occur singly among the branches of hard corals (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is unique among coral-feeding butterflyfishes as it tends to feed on mucous rather than coral tissue (Cole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
165641		population	eng	<p>It is generally common. This species has shown a substantial decline following coral loss at Moorea (French Polynesia) in 1981, but has since recovered (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
165641		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment and was shown to decline following coral depletion in 1981 in a small part of its range, but has since recovered (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). There appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165642		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165642		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indian Ocean from the East African coast and Madagascar, to Sri Lanka, Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island, and western Sumatra, including all oceanic islands in between (Allen 1980). Found at depths from 8-60 m.
165642		habitat	eng	Rocky or coral-covered reefs of lagoons and outer slopes (frequently seen adjacent to steep slopes and drop-offs), from 8-60 m. Feeds on algae and benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165642		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range.
165642		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165643		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165643		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Indo-Malayan region from northern Java east to northern Papua New Guinea and north to Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands and Kashiwa-jima in southern Japan (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from 8-50 m in depth, however it is rare in less than 15 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
165643		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coastal reefs, usually in moderately deep water, and with rubble and sand slopes with scattered live coral outcrops. It is generally seen in pairs, although juveniles occur singly around coral outcrops. Adults prefer rubble or sandy bottoms where they forage on benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165643		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon.There is little data on the population, but there is no evidence for declines.
165643		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. This is a generalist species and therefore coral loss in not thought to be a major threat.
165644		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if this species is present in any marine protected areas. It is recommended that further research is undertaken on the taxonomy, ecology, threats and distribution for this species.
165644		distribution	eng	This species has mostly been recorded from the western Indian Ocean at the Comores, Réunion (France), and Mauritius. However there are also sight records or collections from Indonesia (Bali and Sulawesi [Manado]), and the species is probably widespread on the deep reefs of the Indian and western Pacific Oceans (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Animals are usually found at depths below 80 m, and are most common at depths of about 100-140 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165644		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky and/or reef slope areas in relatively deep water. Specimens have been collected with a set-net at a depth of 80 m in the Bay of Saint Paul, Réunion (Allen 1980).
165644		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Only a small number of specimens have been collected.
165644		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
165645		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if this species is present in any marine protected areas. It is recommended that further research is undertaken on the taxonomy, ecology, threats and distribution for this little-known species.
165645		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Palau (video observation) northwards along the Palau-Kyushu Ridge, and in the Maldive Islands in the central Indian Ocean. This species has been recorded between 125-332 m in depth (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It likely occurs in areas between the known distribution records (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165645		habitat	eng	Populations inhabit rocky and/or reef slope areas in relatively deep water.
165645		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Only a small number of specimens have been collected.
165645		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
165646		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. It is a poorly-known species with additional research needed into its habitat and ecology.<br/></p><p></p>
165646		distribution	eng	<span>This Western Atlantic species ranges through parts of the Greater Antilles (including the islands of <span>Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola<span>) and Lesser Antilles to the northern Caribbean coast of Central America, and the northern coast of South America (where it ranges from Venezuela to Sã<span>o Paulo State in Brazil). It is found at depths of 60-250 m.</span></span>
165646		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky and/or reef slope areas in relatively deep water, usually between 100-200 m. The type specimen was taken at 60 to 250 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (Burgess 2002).
165646		population	eng	Little is known about the population status mainly because the species occurs over deeper reefs. It is mostly known from specimens collected during trawls.
165646		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165647		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>
165647		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southern Red Sea, northern Gulf of Aden where it reached Oman (Kuiter 2002). Possibly as far east as Pakistan. This species inhabits depths of 1-30 meters.
165647		habitat	eng	This species is found in most coral reef habitats, inner coastal reefs to outwards slopes. Also found on rocky reefs with areas of dead coral. Found predominantly in pairs, diet likely consisting of sessile invertebrates including coral.
165647		population	eng	There is very little information known about the this species. Abundant in the Gulf of Aden and coast of Oman (Lieske and Myers 2004).
165647		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.The sister species has showed some declines in population in French Polynesia but the reason for the declines are unknown (Berumen and Pratchett, 2006).<br/></p>
165648		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas.
165648		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the northwestern Indian Ocean to Thailand and southeast Indonesia as far east as Timor (Pyle 2001). Records include Oman, Sri Lanka, the Maldive Islands and Ashmore Reef (Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Australia) in the Timor Sea (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-40 m.
165648		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky, rubble or coral-rich areas, and is particularly common in turbid water (Allen 1980). It is a benthic feeder, and occasionally feeds from live corals (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165648		population	eng	It is generally common, especially on reefs in Sri Lanka (Allen 1980). There is no evidence of species declines.
165648		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165649		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165649		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean from Socotra, the Gulf of Aden, along the Arabian Sea coast from Oman to Sri Lanka, and a record from northern Sumatra (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is found at depths from 2-65 m, often below 25 m.
165649		habitat	eng	Populations are most often encountered on shallow continental shelf reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found in pairs or small groups. The diet is omnivorous and includes algae and benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165649		population	eng	It is generally common. There is no data on population trends for this species, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).
165649		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165650		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.
165650		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific, from southern Somalia to Cape Vidal, South Africa, to the Pitcairn group, north to southern Japan, south to central New South Wales and Lord Howe Island, Australia. It occurs at depths of 2-25 m but usually not above 15 m.
165650		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of prolific coral growth including both lagoons and outer reefs. The adults occur alone, in pairs, or sometimes in large groups; juveniles are solitary. Feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165650		population	eng	It is relatively uncommon at most areas. There is no evidence for declines in the population.
165650		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165651		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species occurs in marine protected areas.
165651		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout most of the Indo-Pacific region. It has been recorded from the East African coast in the west to Polynesia, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and Ducie Island (Pitcairn Islands, UK) in the east. The range extends from southern Japan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa Iti (Austral Islands, French Polynesia) in the south. Vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern Pacific at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) and Cocos Island (Costa Rica). The species is very widespread with an approximate range size of ~81 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). It is found at depths of 1-60 m.
165651		habitat	eng	This species is found in lagoons and on outer reefs where it is most  commonly observed in rocky areas, either slopes or in the inter-tidal  zone (especially juveniles). Animals occur singly, paired, or in small  aggregations. Favoured food items include nudibranchs, tubeworm  tentacles, coral polyps and algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It rarely feeds on live corals (Pratchett 2005), but has exhibited a decline in abundance from 1979 to 2003 at Moorea (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165651		population	eng	It is a common species often with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165651		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165652		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Research is required on the biology and ecology of this species.
165652		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the western and central Pacific from Christmas Island (Indian Ocean and peninsular Malaysia) to the Society Islands (French Polynesia), north to southern Japan, south to southern Great Barrier Reef, New Caledonia, and Tonga. It has a depth range of 2-30 m.
165652		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on seaward reef slopes. Animals appear to prefer the shelter of caves rather than open areas (Steene 1978). It can be found as single individuals, in pairs, or in aggregations numbering up to 30 individuals. This species feeds on live coral, though it is not known whether this species is reliant on live coral for food.
165652		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no evidence for declines in the population.
165652		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165653		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.   Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.  </p><p>    </p><p>Further research&#160; is required to address issues of hybridization between <em>C. pelewensis</em> and <em>C. punctofasciatus</em>.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
165653		distribution	eng	Found in the Southern Pacific Ocean, from Papua New Guinea to the Tuamotu Archipelag, south to Lord Howe Island. Abundant on the Great Barrier Reef and in the Coral Sea (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 1-45 m in depth. Range size ~19.7 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165653		habitat	eng	Inhabits coral reefs  to at least 45 m and forms pairs (Pyle 2001). Feeds mostly on coral polyps, but also consumes benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Unlike most corallivorous butterflyfishes, it tends to prefer <span style="font-style: italic;">Pocillopora</span> over <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165653		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/>    <p>Currently the most abundant species in Moorea, French Polynesia (mean of 4.1 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) and has increased in abundance over time due to increasing abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pocillopora</span> at this location (Berumen and Pratchett 2006)</p>
165653		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165654		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas.
165654		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Indian Ocean where it ranges from Somalia in the north to KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). Populations have also been reported from the Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion and are probably found at Madagascar (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is generally found at depths from 30-200 m, although juveniles can be found as shallow as 8 m.
165654		habitat	eng	This little-known species inhabits deep offshore reefs with rocky or coral rubble substrates.
165654		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Relatively few specimens have been collected.
165654		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165655		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Chaeotodon multicinctus</em>. It occurs in protected areas (e.g., the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument encloses nearly 2/3 of the species' range). Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.</p>
165655		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Burgess 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It generally occurs between five and 30 m depth, but may occur at depths up to 114 m (Chave and Mundy 1994).
165655		habitat	eng	<em>Chaetodon multicinctus </em>is an obligate corallivore that shows a strong preference for the coral <em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> (Tricas 1989b, Cox 1994),<em> </em>is territorial (Tricas 1989a) and is a monogamous pair spawner (Reese 1975) with an elaborate courtship behaviour (Lobel 1989a) observed from March to July (Lobel 1989b, Tricas and Hiramoto 1989).   Tricas and Hiramoto (1989) report the onset of reproductive maturity for male <em>C. multicintus </em>at 62 mm, and for females at 44 mm corresponding to less than one year for both sexes (Tricas 1986).&#160; <br/><br/>Lagoon and seaward reef areas with prolific coral growth (particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Porites</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pocillopora</span>). Frequently observed in pairs or small aggregations (Allen 1980). Juveniles present on shallow inshore reefs from April to September (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><p></p>
165655		population	eng	<p>It is generally very common with stable populations. <br/></p>
165655		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion. Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
165656		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It seems probable that the range falls into marine protected areas.
165656		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed around the western Pacific Ocean rim, from southern Japan including the Izu Islands south to the Philippines and Indonesia (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in Palau as a vagrant (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths between 10-50 m.
165656		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are typically found on outer reef slopes and drop-offs among live coral. Animals usually occur alone or in pairs, roaming widely across reefs in search of food (small benthic invertebrates and algae). The juveniles are shy, solitary, and tend to be restricted to confined areas close to shelter (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165656		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no reason to believe that it is declining (or increasing).
165656		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is collection for the aquarium trade, but it is not thought to have an impact on the global population.
165657		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165657		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Pacific from Vietnam to Fiji, north to southern Japan and south to Perth (Western Australia) and Lord Howe Island (Eastern Australia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Absent from Indonesia apart from northern Papua. There are most likely only juveniles found in the warm temperate parts of the range (M. Pratchett and M. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
165657		habitat	eng	This species lives in a range of coral reef habitats, from shallow lagoon environments to outer reef slopes. It occurs as solitary individuals or in pairs. Adults of this species are specialized, obligate corallivores, tending to feed mostly on <em>Pocillopora&#160;</em>(Pratchett 2005).&#160;Juveniles have been observed cleaning ectoparasites from other fishes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>This species recruits in low numbers and settles in live branching coral in reef habitats (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008). Consequently, there has not yet been any apparent recovery from population collapses recorded on the Great Barrier Reef in 2001 (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
165657		population	eng	<p>This is a generally common species in most of its range. It is common  in the northern Great Barrier Reef (e.g., mean abundance of 0.58 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>)<st1:place w:st="on"> </st1:place>(Pratchett and Berumen 2008), but went locally extinct&#160; following severe coral loss in the central Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). <br/></p>
165657		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and recruitment. The population declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006). There is no data on population trends elsewhere, but it feeds predominantly on <em>Pocillopora damicornis </em>(Pratchett 2005), <em></em>such that this coral species may provide a proxy for population declines; <em>P. damicornis</em> is currently listed&#160;as Least Concern. Coral loss has been very patchy throughout its range and it is unlikely that there have been substantial declines in the global population.
165658		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps with marine protected areas in the Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands. Additional taxonomic research is needed to distinguish this species from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. falicifer</span>.
165658		distribution	eng	This little known species appears to be largely endemic to the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), where the holotype was collected from Española (Hood) Island at a depth of 30 m, with additional records from Malpelo Island (Colombia) and Cocos Island (Costa Rica). It can be found a depths between 12 and 270 m (Robertson and Allen 2008).
165658		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. This species inhabits rocky reefs in deeper waters.
165658		population	eng	This species is moderately common below the thermocline at recreational diving depths in Galapagos, and is common in deep water in Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island.
165658		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range with an area of occurrence likely to be on the order of only several thousand square kilometres. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.
165659		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends, habitat status and harvest levels of this species is required.
165659		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Japan and Taiwan throughout the Coral Triangle, northern Thailand and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the Solomon Islands and the northern coast of Australia from the Gulf of Carpenteria to Sydney. It lives in depths of 1-25 m. Range size ~17.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165659		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal and inner reefs, often in turbid water. It occurs either singly or in pairs. The elongated snout is adapted for feeding on benthic invertebrates from small crevices (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165659		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no evidence of changes in its abundance.
165659		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade, however, there is no data on how this affects the population.&#160;There appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165660		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.
165660		distribution	eng	This species is limited to the coastal tropical waters of northern Australia, where it ranges from the Kimberly Archipelago of northwestern Western Australia to the southern Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-20 m.
165660		habitat	eng	Populations are generally found on shallow coastal reefs (lacking live coral cover) with a muddy or silty substrate, or extensive algal cover as well as estuaries (Steene 1978). Adults are usually encountered in&#160; pairs (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001). It feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001).
165660		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165660		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165661		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165661		distribution	eng	This Indo-Pacific species is distributed from India and Sri Lanka eastward throughout the Indo-Malayan region northward to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and Ogasawara Islands (= Bonin) (Japan), Fiji, southward to the Great Barrier Reef and New South Wales (Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 3-95 m.
165661		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal and inner reef habitats, often in sandy or silty flat-bottom areas littered with sponge growth. Animals are sometimes found among seagrass. Generally occurs in pairs. Feeds on small benthic invertebrates and possibly sponges (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165661		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165661		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165662		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place (Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources). It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, a no-take marine reserve which covers roughly two thirds of the known range of this species. <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong></p>
165662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands where it is common and abundant throughout. It has been recorded at depths between 1-28 m (Chave and Mundy 1994).
165662		habitat	eng	Although it is found in a variety of habitats, this species prefers rocky and coral reefs (Allen 1980). Juveniles frequent shallow, protected reef flats from April to September (Allen 1980). Most often observed as solitary individuals, but rarely in small groups of about 3-15 individuals (Allen 1980). It is omnivorous, feeding mostly on benthic invertebrates, especially polychaete worms (Randall 2005). Reproduction occurs in pairs (T. Tricas and P. Lobel pers. comm. 2008). Generation time is estimated at two years (T. Tricas pers. comm. 2008).
165662		population	eng	The second most common butterflyfish in Hawaii during surveys during 1967-1968 (Allen 1980). It is common around the high islands in the southeast of Hawaii and in the leeward group (Allen 1980).
165662		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Current levels of collection for the pet trade do not appear to be a threat to the species.<br/></p>
165663		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Research on its natural history is recommended.<br/></p>
165663		distribution	eng	This Western Pacific species is distributed from southern Japan (Ryukyu Islands and Izu Islands) as far south as the northern Philippines and east to the island of Taiwan (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of five to 20 m.
165663		habitat	eng	Inhabits outer coral or rocky reef slopes and drop-offs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In the Japanese part of its range it is found over rocky areas, but farther to the south it is associated with coral reefs (Allen 1980). It is generally encountered in pairs or small aggregations (Allen 1980). It is an omnivorous species.
165663		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In Japan it is reported to be common from Tanabe Bay (southern Honshu) southward (Allen 1980).<br/></p>
165663		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There is some habitat degradation within the range of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165664		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species occurs in marine protected areas.&#160;Ongoing monitoring of catches by aquarium collectors is required. Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.
165664		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indo-west Pacific&#160;from the Maldives Islands and Sri Lanka to Papua New Guinea, north to the Philippines Islands and Palau, south to the northern Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 2-40 m. Range size ~14.9 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165664		habitat	eng	Populations are generally associated with coral-rich areas including both coastal and seaward reefs. It is usually found in pairs and feeds on corals and other sessile invertebrates (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;Few detailed feeding observations have been completed for this species, but it is expected to feed on corals only rarely (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009). Recruits have only ever been observed within shallow coral reef habitats with rich growth of corals (mostly <em>Montipora</em>), but their reliance on live coral is currently unknown.&#160;This is among the largest of all butterflyfishes, and it is probably long-lived (>50 years) like its sister species <em>C. lineolatus</em>. Due to its longevity, effects of recruitment failure may not be apparent for decades after coral depletion.
165664		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is rare on the Great Barrier Reef (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009).
165664		threats	eng	This species appear to be reliant on live coral at settlement, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion.&#160;Currently, there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss.&#160;There is no data on effects of aquarium collections on this species. It is also targeted by artisinal fishers, however this is not thought to be a major threat to the global population. There do not appear to any other major threats to this species.
165665		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon ulientensis</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165665		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout the central and western Pacific from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean to Tuamotu Islands and Pitcairn, north from southern Japan and south to Lord Howe Island and Rapa (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrants have been found in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu).&#160;Its overall geographic range is ~45.7 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165665		habitat	eng	This species occupies habitats with good coral growth from lagoons to outer reefs slopes. Mostly seen in pairs, but also occurs singly or in aggregations. Large shoals sometimes occur at Tahiti and Fiji.&#160;Generally feeds on hard and soft corals (Cole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), but can live in areas without coral.
165665		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006), b<a name="OLE_LINK3">ut uncommon in the northern Great Barrier Reef (mean of 0.06 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>;&#160;</a>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). There have been significant (50%) population declines detected in shallow reef habitats at Moorea (French Polynesia) and no recovery since 1981. However, this species is common on the deep reef slope in Moorea, especially at fish feeding sites (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).<p>&#160;</p>
165665		threats	eng	There is no data on the effects of aquarium collections, but collections are unlikely to have substantially affected the global population. This species feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165666		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165666		distribution	eng	This deep-dwelling species has been recorded from several scattered Indian Ocean localities including Coco-Keeling Atoll (Australia), Christmas Island (Australia), the Maldives Islands, Mauritius, Réunion (France), Amirante Islands and Cosmoledo Island (Seychelles), and the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory, UK) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Ranges in depth from 22-80 m, but is usually encountered below 50 m.
165666		habitat	eng	This species generally inhabits steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs with growth of black corals and sea fans, with individuals also reported from deep rubble areas (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Animals usually occur in pairs or in small groups. This species feeds on benthic invertebrates and planktonic items (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165666		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165666		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165667		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish whether it is reliant on live coral.
165667		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific, from Socotra to Mozambique in East Africa, to the Hawaiian Islands and Pitcairn group north to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, south to New Caledonia and the Austral Islands. This species has a depth range of 2-208 m. Range size ~74 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165667		habitat	eng	This species occurs in outer reef areas, often in the vicinity of drop-offs. Usually occurs alone or in pairs. The diet composed mostly of small invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165667		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Declines in its abundance (50% decline) were documented following coral loss at Moorea (French Polynesia) in 1980, and there has been no recovery to 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165667		threats	eng	This species was observed to decline in abundance following coral depletion at Moorea (French Polynesia) but it is unknown why this species would be sensitive to coral loss. There are currently no other threats to this species.
165668		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determining the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165668		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) from the East African coast in the west to the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands and Tuamotu Islands including the Gambier group and Rapa (French Polynesia) in the east. Populations have been recorded as far north as southern Japan and south to New South Wales, Western Australia and Lord Howe Island (all Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths of 1-36 m. Range size ~71.6 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>
165668		habitat	eng	This species is occurs on&#160;inner reef flats, in lagoons,&#160;and on&#160;moderately exposed outer reefs. It may be seen in areas with sparse coral growth (Steene 1978). Often occurs in pairs, but may also be seen alone or in small groups (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is a facultative corallivore, feeding on hard corals, as well as algae, polychaetes, and other benthic invertebrates.
165668		population	eng	This species is generally very common, especially in Papua New Guinea and on the Great Barrier Reef (e.g., mean of 1.23 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). While populations have been lost following extreme coral depletion in Japan (Shibuno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999), there was no decline reported during recent coral depletion in the central Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <em>et al. </em>2006). Overall the population is stable.<br/><br/><span times="" new="" ;="">
165668		threats	eng	While <em>Chaetodon citrinellus</em> has been shown to decline following very extensive coral depletion in Japan, there are no records of population declines elsewhere (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009). There are no other major threats to this species.
165669		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon lineolatus</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Ongoing monitoring of catches by aquarium collectors is required. Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.
165669		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific, from the East African coast and the Red Sea in the west to Polynesia, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA),&#160; from southern Japan in the north to southern New South Wales and Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 2-171 m.<br/>    <p>Very widespread: Range size ~78.6 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).</p>
165669		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with coral-rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs. It usually occurs in pairs, but solitary individuals and small aggregations are sometimes encountered (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species does occasionally feed on coral, but mostly&#160;consumes non-coral sessile invertebrates, such as <em>Spirobranchus</em>, zooanthids and clams (Pratchett 2005). Recruits have been found in areas with rich coral growth, but their reliance on live coral is currently unknown.&#160;This is the largest of all butterflyfishes, and there are unpublished reports that it may live >50 years. Because it is very long-lived, effects of recruitment failure may not be apparent for decades after coral depletion.
165669		population	eng	This species is generally common. It settles in areas of rich coral growth (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but there have not been any documented declines in its abundance.
165669		threats	eng	This species has been seen to recruit to live coral, but there have been no documented declines in abundance associated with extensive coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Adults are associated with coral reef habitats but do not rely on live coral for food. Because it is very long-lived, effects of recruitment failure may not be apparent for decades after coral depletion. There is no data on effects of aquarium collections on this species. It is also targeted by artisanal fishers, however this is not thought to be a major threat. There do not appear to any other major threats to this species.
165670		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165670		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, northeast to the southern coast of Oman (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-20 m.
165670		habitat	eng	This species is associated with areas of rich coral growth in relatively shallow water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It usually occurs in pairs or as larger aggregations of up to about 20 animals. Generally rests beneath <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora </span>plate corals during the day becoming active in late afternoon. This species is an obligate corallivore.
165670		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no evidence to suggest any declines.
165670		threats	eng	This species generally feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165671		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165671		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indian Ocean, ranging from the East African coast to Durban, South Africa and Madagascar, east to Sri Lanka, western Thailand and northwestern Sumatra (G.R.. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-30m.
165671		habitat	eng	Populations are generally associated with rocky reefs rich in algae and coral-rich areas of lagoons (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It prefers areas with a high percentage of live corals (Allen 1980). Animals are generally found alone or in pairs, and roam widely over the reefs. Feeds on benthic algae and coral polyps (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165671		population	eng	Although populations appear to be stable, this species is relatively uncommon at most areas (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165671		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165672		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.</p>
165672		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the central and western Pacific from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean to Pitcairn north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, south to northern New South Wales and Rapa Iti. It has a depth range of 3-60 m.
165672		habitat	eng	This species occurs on outer reef slopes exposed to currents, and is particularly abundant in the vicinity of drop-offs. Forms large shoals containing up to several hundred individuals in some areas. Feeds high in the water column on zooplankton (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165672		population	eng	<p>It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.</p>
165672		threats	eng	<p>There is concern that global plankton productivity is going to decline with climate change, but it is currently unknown to what extent that climate change will alter availability of planktonic foods adjacent to coral reef habitats. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165673		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.<br/></p>
165673		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean, ranging from coastal East Africa to Raja Ampat (Indonesia),&#160; and Christmas Island (Australia) (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of up to  20 m.
165673		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral rich, protected areas in lagoons and on seaward reefs (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually encountered in pairs roaming the reef, avoiding other individuals of the same species (Steene 1978). It is an obligate corallivore that feeds on a wide range of different corals.
165673		population	eng	The species has declined significantly in Seychelles (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. It is unclear to what extent this affects the global population.
165673		threats	eng	<p>Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has been shown to decline substantially (67%) following climate-induced coral depletion (Graham<em></em> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
165674		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a few marine protected areas.</p>
165674		distribution	eng	It is widespread along the coastal deep waters of tropical West Africa (Allen 1980). It ranges from Senegal to the vicinity of the Congo River (Allen 1980). It occurs at the Cape Verde Islands and probably inhabits the offshore islands in the Gulf of Guinea (1980). It is a deep-living species, typically found between 15 to 140 m, however it has been photographed at 12 m in the Cape Verde Islands (Burgess 1978).
165674		habitat	eng	This species is associated with deeper rocky reefs, it feeds on benthic invertebrates and is usually found in pairs.
165674		population	eng	It is common in the Cape Verde Islands and around the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, little is known about the population status of mainland African populations.
165674		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165675		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known to occur in any marine protected area.</p>
165675		distribution	eng	This southeastern Pacific species is known only from Pitcairn Island (UK) and the Illots de Bass (Rapa Iti and Marotiri, French Polynesia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is vagrant at Easter Island (DiSalvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988). It has been recorded between 10-30 m in depth.
165675		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs covered with algae and with some coral growth (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It commonly occurs in large aggregations, swimming in mid-water and feeding on zooplankton (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165675		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is particularly abundant on the reefs and rocky shores of Rapa Iti (Allen 1980).
165675		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165676		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Data is required to establish effects of extensive aquarium collecting for this species. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring. Research is required to establish the dietary requirements and coral reliance for this species.
165676		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Borneo (Malaysia) and Java to the Solomon Islands and north throughout the Philippines and south to Scott/Seringapatam reefs off the northwest Australian shelf and northern Great Barrier Reef. It occurs at depths of 1-50 m.<br/><br/>  Range size ~14.9 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165676		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral-rich areas of lagoons and outer reefs. It is most common on steep outer reef slopes and in reef crest channels. Occurs singly or in pairs. Feeds mainly on hard and soft corals (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). No detailed feeding information is available for this species, but it is likely to be an obligate corallivore like its sister species <em>C. melannotus</em>.
165676		population	eng	This species is generally common. The sister species (<em>C. melannotus</em>) has been shown to decline substantially following extensive coral loss, but there is no data on population trends for this species.
165676		threats	eng	Almost definitely relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and is expected to decline following climate-induced coral depletion. There has been extensive coral reef degradation throughout the range of this species, but no data is available on population trends. There are no apparent major threats other than coral loss.
165677		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species -conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165677		distribution	eng	This deep-water species appears to be widely distributed in the western Pacific region, from southern Japan to northern Philippines (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). At tropical localities, the species ranges between 120-190 m in depth, but also occurs as shallow as 20 m in the temperate waters of Japan (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165677		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Populations are found in deep rocky areas, and feed mostly on benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, Gerald R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165677		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is seldom collected for the aquarium trade (Allen 1980).
165677		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165678		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Research is required to assess the effects of aquarium collections on this species. Monitoring of this species is also needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.
165678		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the tropical northwestern and central Pacific Ocean, from Taiwan to Fiji and Polynesia (including the Hawaiian Islands, Marquesas and Pitcairn Group), northwards to southern Japan including the Ryukyu, Bonin and Izu Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) and&#160;south to Rapa. Single individuals have been found in the eastern Philippines and Solomon Islands which are most likely vagrants. <br/>The overall geographic range of the species is ~32.8 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998).
165678		habitat	eng	This species occurs almost exclusively on exposed seaward coral reefs, but is recorded at low densities within other coral reef habitats. It commonly forms pairs, but single individuals maybe also be seen. It is an obligate corallivore and feeds predominantly on <em>Pocillopora</em>&#160;(Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165678		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon except in some areas of the Hawaiian Islands, such as the Kona coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is also very common in Moorea, French Polynesia where a mean   of 1.35 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> was recorded in 2003&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place>(Berumen and Pratchett 2006). This density is actually higher than densities recorded in 1979 and 1981 at the exact same locations. The global population is most likely stable.
165678		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and declined in abundance following coral loss at Moorea (French Polynesia) &#160;in 1980-1881 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). It has since recovered and is now more abundant than it was prior to the coral loss, probably due to increases in the abundance of its preferred food, <em>Pocillopora</em>. There is no evidence that aquarium collections have substantially affected the global population for this species, and there appear to be no other major threats.
165679		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present in some marine protected areas.</p>
165679		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Society Islands, Rapa Iti, Marquesas Islands, and Tuamotu Archipelago (all French Polynesia) in the central-south Pacific Ocean (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found between 3-25 m in depth.
165679		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found on shallow coastal habitats and in rocky reefs. It is usually seen singly or in pairs, but can form small aggregations (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001). There is limited knowledge of its diet, but it has been seen to feed off the substrate (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009) and plankton (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).
165679		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165679		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165680		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Research is required to assess its reliance on live corals for settlement.
165680		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Sri Lanka&#160;and the Andaman Sea&#160;across the tropical southern Pacific Ocean to the Tuamotu Archipelago (Pyle 2001), north to southern Japan and the Ryukyu Islands and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef (Australia), New Caledonia and Tonga. It inhabits&#160;depths between 1-20 m.<br/><br/>The overall geographic range of the species is ~34.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165680		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of rich coral growth from coral reef lagoons to seaward reefs. It is usually observed in pairs.&#160;It feeds on a variety of items including coral polyps, anemones, and polychaetes. This species appears to settle in live coral (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998), but there have not been any documented declines in the abundance of this species following coral bleaching and coral loss.
165680		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon, with the exception of some parts of&#160; New Guinea (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There are no reported declines in the abundance of this species.
165680		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Aquarium collections are limited and this species has not exhibited any declines in abundance following coral bleaching and coral loss.
165681		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In view of its wide range this species is likely to be present within many marine protected areas. Ongoing monitoring of catches by aquarium collectors is required.
165681		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Indo-Malayan region throughout the tropical insular Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded from Sri Lanka (most likely a vagrant) in the west as far east as the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia), and from southern Japan in the north south to New South Wales (Australia) and Rapa (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-30 m. Range size ~10.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>
165681		habitat	eng	Populations inhabit a wide variety of coral reef habitats, being frequently found in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on outer reefs. It occurs as solitary animals, in pairs or in small groups. The diet includes coral polyps, algae, sponges, fish eggs and benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species lives exclusively within coral reef habitats, but has&#160;limited direct reliance on live corals (Pratchett 2005).
165681		population	eng	It is generally common (mean of 0.46 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). There have not been any recorded changes in abundance, even in coral reef habitats with extensive coral loss (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). The global population is most likely stable.<br/><p>&#160;</p>
165681		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade however there is no data on how this affects the population. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165682		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The species appears to be present in marine protected areas surrounding both Lord Howe Island and the Kermadec Islands, with populations also likely to occur in other regional marine conservation sites. Additional research is generally needed into the natural history of this little-known species.
165682		distribution	eng	This species appears to be limited to the southwest Pacific, where it has been recorded from Lord Howe Island (Australia);  Norfolk Island (Australia); New South Wales and southern Queensland (presumably occurring along the eastern Australian coast) (Australia); the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand); New Zealand; and the Chesterfield Islands (New Caledonia) (Burgess 1978, Steene 1978, Francis 1993). It has a preferred depth of 10 to 150 m and is seldom encountered in shallow water (Steene 1978, May and Maxwell 1986).
165682		habitat	eng	This species is commonly associated with rocky reefs containing areas of live coral (Burgess 1978, Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). While little appears to have been recorded on the natural history of this species it is presumed to form pair bonds during breeding, and to be oviparous. The diet is believed to largely consist of small invertebrates.
165682		population	eng	Burgess (1978) notes that it is 'uncommon' in collections.   It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165682		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165683		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within several marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population and collection levels are recommended.
165683		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific, from the Red Sea and coast of East Africa in the west to the western Pacific rim in the east, recorded from southern Japan in the north to New South Wales (Australia) and the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Also found at the Hawaiian Islands (USA) and the Solomon Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded between depths of 5-210 m, but is usually found below 15 m.
165683		habitat	eng	This species is generally encountered on deep outer reef slopes, with populations inhabiting shallower water in cool upwelling areas in the tropics. Both adults and juveniles are usually encountered in aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Animals swim up to several meters off the bottom while feeding on zooplankton. The juveniles have been observed cleaning parasites from other fishes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165683		population	eng	This species in common, and most abundant in sub-tropical localities (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There are have been localized declines in the Philippines (K.Carpenter pers. comm. 2009).
165683		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is some localized threat from the aquarium trade in the Philippines (K.Carpenter pers. comm 2009).
165684		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral, and the threat of coral loss.</p>
165684		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean, from the East African coast from Socotra to South Africa, east to northern Sumatra and western Thailand including all islands in between and southern India (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980). It is found at depths ranging between about 2-45 m.
165684		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lagoon and seaward reefs, where it is usually found in areas with abundant soft or hard corals. Occurs alone or in small groups. Feeds on a varied diet comprising hard and soft coral fragments, sponges, polychaetes, and filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165684		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165684		threats	eng	<p>This species likely relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165685		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely to be present within marine protected areas.
165685		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the southwest tip of south Korea and southern Japan and the Ryukyu Islands, south to northern Java along the upper continental shelf including the Gulf of Thailand (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from four to at least 25 m in depth.
165685		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky reefs and coral areas. It is usually solitary, but pairs can be observed. Animals graze on algal-covered rocks, presumably supplementing this diet with other food items such as benthic invertebrates and coral polyps (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165685		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is most common off the coast of China (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165685		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165686		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, though it will require specific sampling methods to reliably estimate its abundance.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.</p>
165686		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and western and southern Pacific Ocean. It has been recorded from the coast of East Africa and Madagascar in the west to the Mangarava (French Polynesia) in the east. It is found as far north as southern Japan (Kashiwa-jima), ranging south to Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa Iti (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths of 5-30 m.Range size ~66 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>
165686		habitat	eng	Generally found in lagoons and outer reefs where coral growth is prolific (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles most often seen in shallower water among branching corals belonging to the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span>. Individuals have very large home ranges. While detailed feeding observations have not been completed, this species is an obligate corallivore.
165686		population	eng	<p>This is an uncommon species, occurring in low abundance throughout its range (e.g., mean of 0.03 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in Moorea, French Polynesia; Berumen and Pratchett 2006). This species is likely to decline in abundance following coral loss, but it is too rare to reliably sample using standard survey techniques. However, it is widespread and the global population is potentially large. It is usually observed as solitary individuals, but sometimes in pairs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>  <p></p>
165686		threats	eng	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently, there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
165687		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The geographic range of this species is partly within the Lord Howe Island Marine Park.<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 364px; height: 1px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
165687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island (Australia), and northern New South Wales on the east coast of&#160; Australia in the south-western corner of the Pacific Ocean (Steene 1978).  It is found at depths from 1-15 m.
165687		habitat	eng	This species has been observed in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on outer reefs (Steene 1978). There is no data on the biology, ecology or phylogeny of this species.
165687		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is abundant in the lagoon at Lord Howe Island (Steene 1978). There is no data on population trends, but no reason to suspect it is declining.
165687		threats	eng	Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.&#160;It is unknown to what extent this species may be reliant on coral reefs and corals. The coral reef habitats within its known range have not been substantially affected by climate change and other disturbances. There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165688		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within marine protected areas.
165688		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the southern tropical Pacific Ocean, from the Great Barrier Reef to southern New South Wales (Australia) and Lord Howe Island (Australia) to Easter Island including New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu, Samoa, Rapa, and the Pitcairn Islands (UK) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded between 2-20 m in depth. The record at Easter Island is a vagrant based on a single record. Range size ~61.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>
165688		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of marine habitats. It is usually encountered in outer and more sheltered inner reefs in areas of rich coral growth. It is occasionally found in estuaries, as well as rocky areas dominated by algal growth. Juveniles prefer protected inner reef areas. This species is most commonly seen alone or in pairs, but forms larger aggregations at some localities (e.g. Lord Howe Island).&#160;This species is reported to feed on coral (Cole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), but appears to have limited reliance on live corals by virtue of its persistence in areas with no live coral (M.S. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009).
165688		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no reason to suspect that populations are declining (or increasing).
165688		threats	eng	This species feeds on coral when available, but also occurs in areas with no coral cover. Therefore, it is unlikely to be threatened by coral reef degradation. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165689		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Data is required to establish effects of extensive aquarium collecting for this species. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.
165689		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Indo-west Pacific, from the Red Sea through the Indian Ocean to Samoa. Northern limit of range is southern Japan, to south New South Wales and Lord Howe Island (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths ranging from 1-25 m.<p>  Range size ~60.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).</p>
165689		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoons, seaward reefs, and reef flats. Occurs as individuals or in pairs, but noted to form aggregations, possibly to mass-spawn (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is an obligate corallivore, but feeds on both hard and soft corals (e.g., Pratchett 2005). It recruits to shallow coral reef habitats with rich coral growth, settling among branching <em>Montipora</em>.
165689		population	eng	This is a generally common species. However, this species declined substantially (90% decline) following extensive coral loss in the central Great Barrier Reef in 2001 (Pratchett <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the population has shown no evidence of recovery (Pratchett <em>et al.</em> 2009). Declines in other parts of its range are unknown.
165689		threats	eng	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006). However coral bleaching and coral loss has been patchy throughout the Indian and Pacific Ocean, and localized declines due to coral loss have not substantially affected the global population. There are no apparent major threats other than coral loss.
165690		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The species is not believed to be present in any marine protected areas.
165690		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the mid-Atlantic Islands, where it has been recorded from Saint Helena and Ascension islands (both UK Overseas Territories) (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980). It is primarily restricted to depths below 12 m (found to at least 35) but can be observed from 1-12 m at Hummock Point (Allen 1980).
165690		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky reefs, occasionally encountered in the shallower waters of its range in caves or at the bases of overhangs. Usually occurs in pairs, sometimes in large groups, which browse over the rocky substratum in search of benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980).
165690		population	eng	It is rarely seen, but large groups can be observed in deeper reefs.
165690		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165691		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.
165691		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea (common in the Gulf of Aqaba) and the adjacent Gulf of Aden (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths from 1-50 m.
165691		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coral reefs. It is most often encountered alone or in pairs, but large aggregations are also found. The juveniles may form large aggregations, especially in deep reef areas where corals are sparse. Diet includes zooplankton and benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;This species feeds on live coral, though it is not known whether this species is reliant on live coral for food.
165691		population	eng	It is generally common. There is no evidence that this species is declining.
165691		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165692		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.
165692		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Christmas Island (Australia) in the eastern Indian Ocean through Indonesia, New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Philippines east to Fiji. It ranges as far north as southern Japan, to northern New South Wales (Australia) and New Caledonia in the south (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found between 1-20 m in depth. Range size ~31.7 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>
165692		habitat	eng	This species is found within the clear waters of fringing reefs&#160;(Allen 1980). It is a territorial species&#160;and actively chases away other butterflyfishes encroaching on its food supply (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Mostly occurs in pairs. It is an obligate corallivore and feeds predominantly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals (e.g., Pratchett 2005), but it also occurs in habitats with no <em>Acropora</em> corals.
165692		population	eng	It has declined significantly on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. However, in the Pacific bleaching has been patchy, and it is unclear to what extent this affects the global population.<br/>    <p>In some areas it can be a very common species: in the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef</st1:place> the estimated mean is 1.67 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160; (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).</p>
165692		threats	eng	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006).&#160;However coral bleaching and coral loss has been patchy throughout the Pacific Ocean, and localized declines due to coral loss have not substantially affected the global population. There do not appear to be any major threats other than coral loss.
165693		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;</p>
165693		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Pacific Ocean from southern Vietnam, north and east to southern Japan (including Ryukyu, Izu, and Ogasawara Islands, north to southeast Honshu) including the southern coast of China, Taiwan, and southwest South Korea. It is found at depths of 1-30 m.
165693		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs with some growth of coral and algae. The juveniles generally occupy tidal pools and shallow, protected rocky areas. Animals form aggregations but are also commonly seen alone. The species feeds mostly on small benthic invertebrates. Animals can survive in temperatures as low as 10°C in Japan (Allen 1980,  G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165693		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is reported to be common at southern Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu in Japan (Allen 1980).<br/></p>
165693		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.&#160;Coral reef degradation has occurred within its distribution, but this species has no specific reliance on coral habitats.&#160;</p>
165694		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.
165694		distribution	eng	This species occurs from western Sumatra and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, east to Tonga, north to southern Japan and south to central western Australia and southern New South Wales and Lord Howe Island (Australia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;Its geographic range is ~24.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). Found at depths from 1-30m.
165694		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich reefs of outer lagoons and seaward slopes, to a depth of 30 m. It is predominantly found in pairs, but often seen as solitary individuals. It is an obligate corallivore, but there is no data on its species dietary requirements.
165694		population	eng	This species is generally common. It is an obligate corallivore, but there is no data on population trends. It is presumed to be stable.
165694		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165695		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas. There is a need to monitor populations within the Caribbean to record any declines. Quantitative data on catches for the aquarium trade are required.
165695		distribution	eng	This species is known from the tropical northwestern Atlantic, where it ranges from the Carolinas (USA) to Venezuela. Populations occur in Bermuda and the Gulf of Mexico with vagrants being found as far north as Massachusetts (USA) in late summer (Burgess 1978, Carpenter 2002). It is found at depths of around 2-20 m.
165695		habitat	eng	This species is relatively common in shallow rocky and reef areas with juveniles more common in seagrass beds (such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia</span>) (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980, Carpenter 2002). Seen as individuals or in pairs. Feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, Carpenter 2002).
165695		population	eng	This is the most common butterflyfish in the Caribbean (Allen 1980, Carpenter 2002). From 1993-2009 no substantial declines in abundance were recorded (REEF Database) for this species.
165695		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. However habitat degradation has been implicated in causing declines in reef fishes in the Caribbean region (Paddack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Collection for the aquarium trade is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165696		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.
165696		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula to about 20 degrees north (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of between 1-40 m.
165696		habitat	eng	Populations are generally found on shallow coral or rocky reefs and in sandy lagoons (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Individuals roam widely over the reef while foraging (Allen 1980). It is most often encountered as single animals or in pairs (Allen 1980). It feeds predominantly on live corals.
165696		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165696		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently, there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165697		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.
165697		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Andaman Sea in the west, from southern Thailand to the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia and north from southern Japan throughout the Coral Triangle and down the east coast of Australia to Sydney (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 3-30 m.
165697		habitat	eng	This species is inhabits outer reef slopes and drop-offs with live coral cover, as well as silty areas, in relatively shallow water (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found in pairs (Pyle 2001). This is an omnivorous species (Pyle 2001), but like other <em>Coriadon</em> probably feeds predominantly on sponges.
165697		population	eng	It is generally uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165697		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165698		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is likely not within any protected areas due to its depth range, although this needs verification.<br/></p>
165698		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few locations in the central Pacific Ocean including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Johnston Atoll (USA), and the Marshall Islands (Enewetak Atoll). It is presumably more widespread, but remains undetected because of its preference for deep water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It ranges from 6-160 m in depth, but is usually found from 30-160 m, being&#160; most abundant at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 122 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165698		habitat	eng	Inhabits outer reef slopes and drop-offs. Feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates; forms pairs (Pyle 2001). Often found in the vicinity of steep slopes, solitary or in pairs and occasionally in small aggregations (Allen 1980).
165698		population	eng	<p>It is relatively common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There are localized periodic declines in some specific areas due to collection for the aquarium trade (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). However, this does not affect the global population.<br/></p>
165698		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Colletion is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.<br/></p>
165699		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is present in marine protected areas, for example in the Ogasawara Islands.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
165699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan where it has been recorded in southern mainland Japan (Sagami Bay southward), the nearby Ryukyu Islands, the  Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands, and the Izu Islands (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found in shallow waters to around 20 m depth.
165699		habitat	eng	Populations are found on rocky shoreline reefs in clear, shallow water. It forms large aggregations which range widely over rocky reefs grazing on algae and small benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165699		population	eng	Relatively rare at most localities except at the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165699		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165700		conservation	eng	It is not known from any marine protected areas.
165700		distribution	eng	This species is found in the tropical eastern Atlantic. It ranges from Cape Blanc and Levrier Bay (Mauritania) south to Congo.  It is also present at the Canary Islands (Burgess 1978).&#160; It occurs at depths of 10-150 m.
165700		habitat	eng	This coastal species is largely associated with rocky substrate, also trawled on sandy or muddy bottoms.  The species feeds mainly on bottom invertebrates. Animals are seen solitary or in pairs as adults, and usually forms pairs during breeding.
165700		population	eng	Very little is know about its abundance and population status. It is relatively common in Cape Verde (L. Rocha pers. obs.)
165700		threats	eng	No apparent major threats.
165701		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. The distribution overlaps with several protected areas and populations of this species are believed to be present in a number of these.
165701		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Santa Catalina Island in southern California, USA along the Baja California coast to the southwestern Gulf of California, Mexico, including Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands. It occurs at depths of 10-150 m.
165701		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is usually solitary and is found in rocky, boulder strewn areas (Humann and Deloach 1993). It also feeds on crustaceans, worms and other small invertebrates (Fitch and Lavenberg 1975), and is known to remove parasites from other species.
165701		population	eng	Little is known about the population status mainly because it prefers deeper reefs. This species is common in deep water at Cabo San Lucas, as observed from submersible.
165701		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited in its deepwater habitat and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165702		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.
165702		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Andaman Sea in the west, from southern Thailand to the Solomon Islands, and north from southern Japan and Taiwan, throughout the Coral Triangle and south to the central-northern and northern Great Barrier Reef and western coast of Australia to Shark Bay. It ranges in depth from 3-60 m
165702		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on coastal reefs, sometimes among rocks or over rubble where coral growth is relatively sparse (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs as solitary animals or in pairs and is most abundant in relatively deep water and cooler areas exposed to upwelling. It is omnivorous, mainly eating sponges and tiny invertebrates which live on the sponge’s surface (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165702		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;It is very common at the Franklin Island Group off north Queensland (Steene 1978).&#160;There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165702		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165703		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chaetodon aureofasciatus</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>
165703		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern Papua New Guinea to the tropical Australian coast between North West Cape and the Great Barrier Reef. It occurs at depths of 1-20 m. Range size ~2.7million km<sup>2 </sup>   from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998)<sup> </sup>
165703		habitat	eng	Inhabits coastal and offshore reefs&#160;at depths of 1-20 m. It can tolerate relatively high percentages of freshwater and is frequently encountered in coastal areas in the vicinity of river mouths (Steene 1978). It forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001). It is an obligate corallivore (Pratchett 2005), but persists in areas of sparse coral growth.
165703		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Common on the inner and coastal reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978). Mean of 0.3 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).<br/></p>
165703		threats	eng	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>
165704		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.</p>
165704		distribution	eng	Widespread in the western Pacific from eastern Australia northwards to Japan and eastwards to the Tuamotu Islands and Hawaii. Also along the Western Australia coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs at depths of 1-25 m. Range size ~56.6 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165704		habitat	eng	The species is found in rich coral areas of lagoons and seaward reefs to depths of about 25 m. Animals are predominantly found in pairs. The species is an obligate, but generalist corallivore, capable of feeding on a very wide array of different corals (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Like most butterflyfishes, this species recruits in relatively low numbers and requires live branching coral for recruitment. Consequently, recovery from population collapse is likely to be slow (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
165704		population	eng	It has declined significantly in French Polynesia and the Great Barrier Reef (Berumen and Pratchett 2006, Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. However, in the Pacific bleaching has been patchy, and it is unclear to what extent this affects the global population. <br/>    <p>Very common species: mean of 2.38  individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef</st1:place> (Pratchett and Berumen 2008)</p>
165704		threats	eng	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160;However coral bleaching and coral loss has been patchy throughout the Pacific Ocean, and localised declines due to coral loss have not substantially affected the global population. There are no apparent threats other than coral loss.
165705		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely to occur within marine protected areas.
165705		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Red Sea and adjacent Gulf of Aden (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can be encountered at depths between 2-25 m.
165705		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral-rich areas, especially over reef flats. Typically occurs as solitary animals or in pairs. It is a generalist feeder that feeds partly on live corals.
165705		population	eng	This species is generally common. There is no data on temporal trends in abundance, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).
165705		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There has been some habitat degradation of coral reefs in the Red Sea region, but it is not thought to have impacted the population. <br/></p>
165706		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It believed to occur within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.
165706		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the temperate coastal waters of southwestern and southern Australia, ranging from Shark Bay to Adelaide (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 9-60 m.
165706		habitat	eng	This species is found along coastal rocky reefs, particularly on vertical rock faces. The adults generally occur in pairs. The diet is comprised of small worms, crustaceans, and algae.
165706		population	eng	It is generally uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165706		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165707		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165707		distribution	eng	This eastern Indian Ocean species has been recorded from Sri Lanka; southwestern India; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India);  the Maldives; the Mergui Archipelago (Myanmar); the Similan Islands (Thailand); and Weh Island (northwest of Sumatra, Indonesia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in shallow waters up to 10 m in depth.
165707		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in shallow coastal reefs and islands where it lives among live coral. The diet consists mainly of coral polyps. There have been no detailed specific feeding observations of this species but the sister species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plebeius </span>is an obligate and specialised corallivore.<br/>    <p>This species most likely recruits in very low numbers and requires live branching coral for recruitment. Consequently, recovery from population collapse is likely to be slow (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008).</p><p><br/></p>
165707		population	eng	<p>This species is thought to be common. There is no information on the population trends. There may be inferred declines due to coral cover loss within its range due to bleaching events. Since this species relies on corals for its food, declines in coral cover would also mean declines in the population of this species. The sister species, <em>C. plebeius, </em>went locally extinct on the central Great Barrier Reef following severe bleaching and coral loss (Prattchet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/></p>
165707		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species may also take a long time (10 years) to recover from a collapse in population due to its low   recruitment rate. Although there have been no documented declines, there has been substantial coral loss in the Maldives.</p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
165708		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.<br/></p>
165708		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia), Phoenix Islands (Kiribati), and Line Islands (Kiribati and USA) in the South Pacific Ocean (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 20-80 m.
165708		habitat	eng	Found on rocky reef and coral reef slopes and steep walls adjacent to sandy bottoms, usually below 20-30 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165708		population	eng	It is relatively common at depths of 25 to 40 m. The population at Christmas Island (in the Line Islands) is believed to be stable.
165708		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165709		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas.&#160;</p>
165709		distribution	eng	This west Indian Ocean species ranges along the East African coast from Kenya to Bashee (South Africa); with populations also present at Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius Islands and Réunion [France] and Rodriguez) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 10-55 m.
165709		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky reefs with some coral growth. It occurs alone or in pairs. It is an omnivorous species which feeds on small benthic invertebrates (e.g., amphipods and polychaetes) and zooplankton (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165709		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165709		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165710		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165710		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Indian Ocean, mostly in the subtropical and temperate waters of Western Australia, from Montebelo Islands to Recherche Archipelago (Steene 1978). It has been recorded at depths of 1-40 m. Records from Bali, Indonesia, are probably misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. guentheri</span> (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
165710		habitat	eng	Populations are associated with coral and rocky reefs. This species forms aggregations that feed on algae and zooplankton (Steene 1978).
165710		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165710		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>
165711		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is presumably present in a number of regional marine protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history (its diet is unknown) and possible threats from coral reef degradation.</p>
165711		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and the island of Taiwan in the north; through the Philippines; Indonesia (including Java, and the Anambas and Natuna Islands); the island of Borneo (Malaysian Borneo); to northwestern Australia (a few records from Western Australia and the Dampier Archipelago [Steene 1978]). It has been encountered between 1-30 m (Pyle 2001).
165711		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs and reef slopes (Pyle 2001), where it is often encountered in pairs or groups near soft coral. The species feeds on corals, crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001).
165711		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165711		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There has been widespread coral degradation throughout its range which may have impacted the population, although it is not known to what extent. <br/></p>
165712		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165712		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread throughout the Indo-west and central Pacific, from the Red Sea to the Society Islands. North to southern Japan, and south to Lord Howe Island and Rapa (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded as a vagrant from the Hawaiian Islands. The range size is ~76.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998). It is found at depths of 2-30 m.
165712		habitat	eng	<p><em>Chaetodon trifascialis</em> is an obligate corallivore with a strong preference and apparent survival dependency (Berumen and Pratchett 2008) on <em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> but it has also been observed feeding on:&#160; <em>A. intermedia</em> (now recognized as <em>A. nobilis</em> and <em>A. formosa</em>), <em>A. gemmifera</em>, <em>A. millepora</em>, <em>A. florida</em>, <em>A. cytherea</em>, <em>A. tenuis</em>, <em>A. robbusta</em>, <em>A. cerialis</em> (Pratchett 2005), <em>A. clathrata</em>, <em>P. damicornis</em> (Graham 2007), <em>A. aspera</em> (Reese 1981), <em>Stylophora pistillata</em>, and <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> (Samways 2005).&#160;&#160;Most commonly occurs singly, sometimes also in pairs.</p>
165712		population	eng	It is generally common (e.g.,&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK3">mean of 0.66 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern </a><st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef; </st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008), but very vulnerable to changes in the abundance of its preferred coral prey, tabular <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora </span>(Berumen and Pratchett 2006, Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It went locally extinct (100% decline in abundance) before and after a severe bleaching event (90% coral loss) in the central Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160;The abundance and persistence of this species is highly linked to <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals (including <span style="font-style: italic;">A. hyacinthus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cytherea</span>). The declines of these coral species can be used as a proxy for declines in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. trifascialis</span>.
165712		threats	eng	<p><em>Chaetodon trifascialis</em> is an obligate corallivore on a number of corals that are susceptible to bleaching events and have undergone population declines throughout the Indo-Pacific ranging from 20 to 37% because of reef loss and have been assessed under Red List Criteria (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has been observed feeding on: <em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> (with a strong preference and apparent survival dependency); <em>A. intermedia</em> (now recognized as <em>A. nobilis</em> and <em>A. formosa)</em>; <em>A. gemmifera</em>; <em>A. millepora</em>; <em>A. florida</em><span style="font-style: italic;">;</span> <em>A. cytherea</em>; <em>A. tenuis</em>; <em>A. robbusta</em>; <em>A. cerialis</em> (Pratchett, 2005); <em>A. clathrata</em>; <em>P. damicornis</em> (Graham, 2007); <em>A. aspera</em> (Reese, 1981); <em>Stylophora pistillata</em>;&#160; and <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> (Samways, 2005). On reefs where it was observed in transects, it has been completely absent from transects after massive bleaching events (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).</p>
165713		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.
165713		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the tropical western and central Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). It ranges from Taiwan and the Philippines to Polynesia, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and the Pitcairn Group, in the north from the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, south to New Caledonia (France), Rapa Iti (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Ti is found at depths from 1-30 m.
165713		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly encountered on exposed outer reefs, but is also occasionally found in coral-rich lagoons (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It usually occurs in pairs, but solitary individuals and small aggregations have also been recorded. This species is an obligate corallivore (Cole<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008), feeding predominantly on <em>Acropora </em>(Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165713		population	eng	<p>This species is generally common (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is v<a name="OLE_LINK3">ery common in Moorea, </a><st1:place w:st="on">French Polynesia</st1:place> (mean of 3.25 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>; Berumen and Pratchett 2006). This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and declined in abundance (by 60%) following coral depletion at Moorea in 1980, but populations had recovered by 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).</p>
165713		threats	eng	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and declined in abundance (by 60%) following coral depletion at Moorea in 1980, but populations had recovered by 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). There is currently no data on the specific dietary composition of this species, but it may be an <em>Acropora </em>specialist and thereby could be very vulnerable to sustained and ongoing loss of <em>Acropora </em>corals throughout the Pacific. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165714		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165714		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Christmas Island (Australia) and Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australia) in the Indian Ocean, across the tropical Pacific (Pyle 2001), to Polynesia including the Hawaiian Islands (USA) and Easter Island, north to southern Japan and south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa Iti Island.Vagrants occur in the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). It is found at depths of up to 60 m. Range size ~59.1 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165714		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small groups in coral reef flats, clear lagoons and seaward reefs. Particularly abundant where soft leather corals (<em>Sarcophyton</em> and <em>Sinularia</em> spp.) occur. Occurs in pairs and small aggregations. It feeds on soft and hard corals, and also on polychaetes, small crustaceans, and filamentous algae. This species is oviparous and forms pairs during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is an obligate corallivore.&#160;While it feeds predominantly on soft corals in the western Pacific (Pratchett 2005), it feeds entiely on hard corals in Moorea, French Polynesia (M.S. Pratchett pers. obs.).
165714		population	eng	This species is generally common (e.g,&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK3">mean of 0.4 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;</a><st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160; </st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008).&#160;There have not been any reported declines in abundance, even in areas with substantial coral loss (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).
165714		threats	eng	There is no data on the effects of harvesting for this species, but it is unlikely that aquarium collectors and artisanal fisheries have substantially affected the global population. This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165715		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas.
165715		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ascension and Saint Helena islands (both UK Overseas Territories) in the mid-Atlantic Ocean (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980). Vagrants have been found in the Canary Islands (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). It prefers rocky areas from 1-25 m.
165715		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky reefs in shallow waters. Usually observed in pairs or large groups.  The species is monogamous, oviparous and forms pairs during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966, Whiteman and Côté  2004). The juveniles of <em>Thalassoma sanctaehelenae</em> have been observed cleaning this species of its parasites (Whiteman and Côté  2004). It is most often seen in pairs, but groups of 20 to 30 fishes are sometimes encountered (Allen 1980). The species often gathers to feed on refuse dumped into the Saint Helena harbour (Allen 1980).
165715		population	eng	It is a moderately common species at Ascension and abundant at Saint Helena (Allen 1980).
165715		threats	eng	There are no apparent major threats to this species.
165716		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.
165716		distribution	eng	This is the most widely distributed of all butterflyfishes (Range size ~106 million km<sup>2</sup>) from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). It occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific from central Red Sea to Durban, South Africa to the west coast of central and northern South America north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian islands, south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe, Rapa and Easter Islands, including virtually all intervening tropical islands. It is absent from the Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea north of northern Yemen and the Laccadive Islands (India). It has been recorded at depths of 2-145 m.<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
165716		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits exposed outer reefs (particularly the crests) with abundant coral growth and caves and ledges. It is occasionally found within lagoon reefs. This species usually occurs in pairs, but may also be encountered as solitary animals or in small groups. It feeds on a wide variety of animal prey including hydroids, fish eggs, and small crustaceans, but prefers tube feet of echinoderms, pedicilaria of sea urchins, and polychaete tentacles (Myers 1991). This species may settle in live coral but is not not likely to be reliant on corals given its' latitudinal distribution beyond that of coral reefs. It is found on outer reef flats at various depths from shallow flats to very deep along walls (Kuiter 2002).
165716		population	eng	This species is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no evidence of population declines.<br/><br/>There is a small resident population in the tropical eastern Pacific. It is moderately common at Clipperton, but is only occasionally seen elsewhere in tropical eastern Pacific. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species is observed frequently enough to have a resident population at Clipperton Atoll.&#160; According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), it is one of the rarest species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency below 10%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species was not found, even though it was previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This species was not observed during a survey conducted at the Galapagos archipelago (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/>    <p><a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a></p>
165716		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165717		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas (>50% of its distribution is contained within Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park). Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.
165717		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range, and is distributed from Papua New Guinea along the Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island (Pyle 2001). Its geographic range size is estimated to be 1.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998).
165717		habitat	eng	Inhabits coastal and offshore reefs&#160;at depths of 5-20 m. It occurs as solitary individuals or in pairs (Pyle 2001).&#160;This species is an obligate corallivore (Pratchett 2005), which is consistent with marked declines in abundance following extensive coral loss (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species (like <em>C. aureofasciatus</em>) recruits in high numbers, which may enhance recovery potential.
165717		population	eng	<p>This species is generally common (e.g., mean of 0.5 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008).&#160;It has declined significantly on the Great Barrier Reef (Berumen and Pratchett 2006, Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. However, bleaching has been patchy across the Great Barrier Reef, and it is unclear to what extent this affects the global population. This species is found on nearshore habitats, where there is considerable ongoing coral loss since the 1950s (MacCulloch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003). It is possible that there have been declines across more than 30% of this species' distribution, but this would need to be confirmed against data from the Australian Institute of Marine Science Long-term Monitoring Program.</p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;</p><p><br/></p>
165717		threats	eng	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006). Aside from coral loss and habitat degradation, there are no other major threats to this species.
165718		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is likely to be present in many marine protected areas (e.g. Lord Howe Island Marine Park).
165718		distribution	eng	This western Pacific Ocean species ranges from the island of Taiwan and southern Japan in the north, to southeast Australia in the south (Pyle 2001). Records include the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Indonesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Lord Howe Island, coastal New South Wales and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from five to at least 50 m.
165718		habitat	eng	Populations are usually found over rocky reefs as well as coral-rich outer slopes. In tropical areas it frequents slopes adjacent to deep water exposed to cool upwellings (e.g. Bali, Komodo, and northern Sulawesi [all Indonesia]). Feeds on plankton and forms small to large aggregations (Pyle 2001).
165718		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).  It is probably more common in the subtropical and temperate portion of its range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165718		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
165719		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.
165719		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Indian Ocean,&#160; from coastal East Africa, south to Sodowana Bay, South Africa in the west, to western Thailand in the Andaman Sea and Java in the east, and north to the eastern tip of Oman, including Madagascar and all major western Indian Ocean island groups. It ranges in depth from 1-60 m.
165719		habitat	eng	This species is typically encountered on outer reef slopes exposed to currents. It is a planktivorous species which forms large aggregations numbering up to several hundred individuals (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species retreats to coral reef habitats when threatened.
165719		population	eng	It is common and abundant (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165719		threats	eng	There is concern that global plankton productivity is going to decline with climate change, but it is currently unknown to what extent that climate change will alter availability of planktonic foods adjacent to coral reef habitats. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165720		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is believed to occur within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.
165720		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the temperate coastal waters of southeastern Australia from southern Queensland to Jervis Bay, New South Wales (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 10-70 m.
165720		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal bays and estuaries along deep rocky walls. The adults are usually observed in pairs, and the juveniles are often solitary (Steene 1978). It feeds on small crustaceans, worms, and filamentous algae (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165720		population	eng	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.
165720		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.
165721		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place (Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources.). It is present within marine protected areas, for example, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument<strong style="font-weight: normal;">, a no-take marine reserve that encompasses 2/3 of the species range.<br/></strong>
165721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Burgess 1978, Randall 2005, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is known to occur to at least 250 m depth.
165721		habitat	eng	Habitat for this species includes coastal fringing reefs, lagoons, and outer reefs to at least 250 m depth. Juveniles are found on shallow inner reefs from April to June. The species feeds in mid-water on zooplankton, supplementing the diet with benthic invertebrates (especially polychaete worms) and fish eggs (particularly those of damselfishes) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The species may form large groups and spawns in groups from January through May (Ralston 1981).   Ralston (1976a) reported that the onset of reproductive maturity in <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodon</span><em> miliaris </em>begins at 90 mm standard length, which is equivalent to one year of age (Ralston 1976b).<br/><br/>  The mean size of <em>C. miliaris</em> in Hawaii reported by Ralston (1981) was ~105 mm corresponding to approximately two years of age.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
165721		population	eng	It is very abundant in the Hawaiian Islands, but very rare at Johnston Atoll (Allen 1980, M. Craig pers. obs. 2005, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, P. Lobel pers. comm. 2007). Populations are generally stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165721		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165723		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas. Ongoing monitoring of&#160;&#160;catches by aquarium collectors is required.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.
165723		distribution	eng	This Indo-Pacific species is distributed from the southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula, the Gulf of Oman and Maldive Islands in the east to the Indo-Malayan region, the Spratley Islands and the Philippines (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found at depths from 1-20 m.
165723		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky shoreline reefs and coral-rich outer reefs in relatively shallow water (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually seen in pairs, but can form large aggregations. It feeds predominantly on coral polyps when available, but also occurs in areas where coral is scarce (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165723		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165723		threats	eng	This species feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). However, it naturally occurs in coastal habitats with limited coral, where it appears to feed on algae (Allen <em>et al. </em>1998). There have been no documented declines in the abundance of <em>C. collare </em>associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165724		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>  <p></p>
165724		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Arabian Gulf, southern Arabian Peninsula (Gulf of Oman to Gulf of Aden), and southern Red Sea (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Randall (1994) showed that the alleged type locality of Réunion is probably an error.   It is found at depths between 2-16 m.
165724		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in coastal reefs rich in coral growth interspersed with sand patches (Allen 1980). Animals are usually encountered in pairs, but sometimes observed in larger aggregations numbering in excess of 20 individuals (Allen 1980). It feeds predominantly on live corals.
165724		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165724		threats	eng	This species feeds predominantly on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines in its abundance, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.
165725		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165725		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Sri Lanka to the Marquesa and Gambier Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to the central Great Barrier Reef, Tonga and Cook Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-50 m, but usually less than 25 m. Range size ~41.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
165725		habitat	eng	Found in areas of prolific coral growth on lagoon, coastal reefs and semi-protected outer reef slopes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The species is omnivorous and occurs solitary or in pairs (Pyle 2001).
165725		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable and is relatively uncommon throughout its distribution (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is rare in the northern Great Barrier Reef&#160; (mean of 0.01 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).
165725		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165726		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165726		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Arabian Sea along the coast of Oman and Yemen.  It has been recorded from depths of 5-25 m.
165726		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rock and rubble slopes, but may also be found around coral patches on sandy slopes. Animals are usually found in pairs, but can also be encountered singly or in larger aggregations. The diet is comprised mostly of benthic invertebrates and algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165726		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165726		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
165727		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if populations of this species are present within protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little-known species.</p>
165727		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens collected from the San Felix Islands of Chile (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980), and recorded from Easter Island (DiSalvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Animals at the San Felix Islands were captured at a depth of 30-40 ft (~9-12 m) (Burgess 1978) and below 60 m asl at Easter Island (DiSalvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165727		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is quite poorly-known. It is generally considered to be associated with rocky reefs.
165727		population	eng	It has only been recorded on a few occasions and little is known about the species' abundance.
165727		threats	eng	<p>There is insufficient information available to determine if there are any major threats to this species.</p>
165728		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. orizabensis</em>, and the species is not currently  known to occur within the protected areas network.
165728		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea orizabensis</em> is endemic to Mexico (Jalisco and Veracruz provinces). <em>D. orizabensis</em> was believed to be restricted to Veracruz province, but Espejo Serna and Lopez Ferrari (1996) report that the species also occurs in Jalisco province.
165728		habitat	eng	<em>D. orizabensis</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows in mountain forests.
165728		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
165728		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165729		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>Dioscorea bernoulliana</em>, but the species might occur in some protected areas such as the Sian Ka'An Biosphere Reserve, The Balaan Kaax Flora and Fauna Protection Area (Mexico), Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve (Honduras), as specimens have been collected from areas near to the above mentioned protected areas.
165729		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea bernoulliana</em> is distributed in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and Honduras.
165729		habitat	eng	<em>D. bernoulliana</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows in moist or wet thickets or forest, also found in mangrove swamp in the middle of forest.
165729		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
165729		threats	eng	There are no known threats for the species. The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165730		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. longituba</em> and the species is not currently known to occur within or near any protected area.<br/><br/>Further botanical surveys should be carried out in order to better understand the distribution of this species and its population trends, to ensure that <em>D. longituba</em> does not fall into a threatened category in the future.
165730		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea longituba</em> is distributed in Mexico (México State, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Nayarit, Michoacan de Ocampo and Jalisco).
165730		habitat	eng	<em>D. longituba</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which has been collected on stone fences, on cliffs and near water. <em>D. longituba</em> has been collected in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests ecoregion (WWF Ecoregions, accessed 2009).
165730		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
165730		threats	eng	There are no known threats for the species. The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165731		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. wallichii</em>, but the species is currently known to occur within the protected areas network.
165731		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea wallichii</em> is distributed from India to China and to Peninsula Malaysia (China, Assam, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand).
165731		habitat	eng	<em>D. wallichii </em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows on various large shrubs or trees in mixed deciduous forests, on mountain slopes, also occurs in disturbed areas along roadsides and margins of cultivated areas.
165731		population	eng	<em>D. wallichii </em> is a common species found in forests and in disturbed habitat.
165731		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165732		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. pseudomacrocapsa</em>, but the species is known to occur in some protected areas (e.g., Santa Genebra Reserve).
165732		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea pseudomacrocapsa</em> occurs in southeastern Brazil.
165732		habitat	eng	<em>D. pseudomacrocapsa</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows in tropical forests.
165732		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
165732		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for the species.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165733		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. trilinguis</em>, but the species is currently known to occur within the protected areas network (e.g., Serra de Paranapiacaba Natural Reserve).
165733		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea trilinguis</em> is distributed in southeastern Brazil.
165733		habitat	eng	This climbing tuberous geophyte grows in ombrophile (tropical) forest, and has also been found growing in the Brazilian dry forest habitat, Caatinga (Mattos Silva 283a) and on clay soil (Sucre 6627).
165733		population	eng	There is no precise population data available for this species, but <em>D. trilinguis</em> appears to be widespread and hence common.
165733		threats	eng	Although there are no known direct threats to <em>D. trilinguis</em>, Caatinga forest has been severely modified through farming, agro-ecosystem development, afforestation and very little of the habitat was actually protected (1%), until the remaining habitat was finally included in the UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve in 2001.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165734		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. sericea</em>, but the species is currently believed to occur within the protected areas network, as one collection from Peru was made either within or along the perimeter of the Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve. Seed of <em>D. sericea</em> should be collected and stored in the Millennium Seed Bank as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure.
165734		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea sericea</em> occurs in Colombia and Peru.There are two collections from Colombia, one of which is the type specimen (<em>Triana</em> s.n.) and another one which was collected in 1876 (<em>Andre</em> 1790), but no recent herbarium specimens are known for this species. <em>D. sericea</em> is also currently known to occur in two provinces of Peru: Piura (<em>Díaz</em> 2738) and Loreto (<em>Gentry</em> 31321); however, the species was not listed in a recent monograph on Peruvian Dioscoreaceae (Flores 1998).
165734		habitat	eng	<em>D. sericea</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte. Precise data on habitat and ecology for this species is not currently available, but the species is believed to occur in moist and montane forests (Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests and Napo moist forests ecoregions, (WWF Ecoregion, accessed 2009)), and the altitude range is between 130 - 2,800 m.
165734		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
165734		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known, but the Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests and Napo moist forests ecoregions are generally threatened by forest clearance for agricultural conversion, especially for cattle pasture and coca (<em>Erythroxylum coca</em>) plantations.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165735		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. tenuifolia</em>, but the species is currently known to occur within the protected areas network.
165735		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea tenuifolia</em> is found from Thailand to Sumatera (Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatera and Peninsular Thailand).
165735		habitat	eng	This climbing tuberous geophyte grows in mixed deciduous forest on slopes with well-drained soils and in moist evergreen forests between 50 and 450 m elevation.
165735		population	eng	This appears to be a common species in Singapore and occurs over a wide area (Thapyai <em>et al</em>. 2005), it has also been described as common on hill slopes in mixed deciduous forests (Narathiwat province, Thailand).
165735		threats	eng	No direct threats to <em>D. tenuifolia</em> are known, but a more general threat to the mixed deciduous forests and to the evergreen forests is the large-scale clearance for plantations and agriculture (WWF Ecoregion, accessed 2009).<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165736		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. nana</em>, but the species is known to occur in a protected area (Nahuelbuta National Park).
165736		distribution	eng	<em>Dioscorea nana</em> is endemic to Chile.
165736		habitat	eng	<em>D. nana</em> is a tuberous geophyte which was discovered by Poepping on the Antuco cordillera, Chile (Gay 1853).
165736		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
165736		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.
165760		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165760		conservation	eng	No information available.
165760		conservation	eng	None known.
165760		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium langleyanum</em> is mainly a South African species, but is also recorded in Lake Bangweulu.
165760		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium langleyanum</em> is mainly a southern African species, and is also recorded in Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded in Lake Bangweulu (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is described from Port Elizabeth and known widely across South Africa, including Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Northwest Provinces (Kuiper 1964, 1966). It is also present in the karstveld of Namibia (Curtis 1999, Appleton and Curtis in press).
165760		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Described from Port Elizabeth and known widely across South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Northwest Provinces) (Kuiper 1964; 1966a). Also the karstveld of Namibia (Curtis 1999;  Appleton & Curtis in press) and Lake Bangweulu (Zambia) (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165760		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers and lakes.
165760		habitat	eng	Genus found in lakes and rivers, and small water bodies (Mandahl-Barth 1988). One of the localities for <em>P. langleyanum</em>, Lake Chrissie, is seasonal.
165760		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.
165760		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
165760		population	eng	No information available.
165760		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165760		threats	eng	No information available.
165760		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165761		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165761		conservation	eng	No information available.
165761		conservation	eng	None.
165761		conservation	eng	None conservation measures are proposed.
165761		conservation	eng	None known.
165761		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165761		distribution	eng	<em>Lymnaea natalensis</em> is widespread in most of Africa.
165761		distribution	eng	<em>Lymnaea natalensis</em> is widespread in tropical Africa, but it is rare in the northeast coastal area.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Ranging from the Nile Delta and throughout, and is very common. In the Maghreb it is only found in a few localities (three sites in Algeria). There were many prehistoric location in Algeria (8-10,000 years ago).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is probably prevalent in the the whole region<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in southern Africa apart from ephemeral systems in Namibia and Botswana, and the western Cape Province of South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in all countries in western Africa.
165761		distribution	eng	It is a very common species ranging from the Nile Delta to the Cape. In the Maghreb it is only found in few localities (three sites in Algeria), although it is known from many prehistoric locations in Algeria (8-10,000 years ago). Its type locality is in Natal, South Africa.
165761		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Widespread in Southern Africa apart from ephemeral systems in Namibia and Botswana, and the Western Cape Province of South Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution: </span>Widespread in tropical Africa, but rare in the north-east coastal area.
165761		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from outside eastern Africa.
165761		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is probably preent in the the whole region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species distribution ranges from the Nile Delta to the Cape and very common.  The type locality is Natal, South Africa.
165761		distribution	eng	This species is present in all of the countries in western Africa.
165761		habitat	eng	All kinds of stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies. Rare and seasonal pools (aestivation up to 6 months has been reported). Vector of <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> which affects livestock and eradication is attempted.
165761		habitat	eng	Found in all permanent freshwater systems including artificial ones such as dams, irrigation canals and rice paddies. Not found in headwaters.<br/><br/>Host for <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> (Giant Liver Fluke).
165761		habitat	eng	Inhabits permanent water bodies.
165761		habitat	eng	It is found in permanent water bodies.
165761		habitat	eng	Occurring in most regional permanent streams and impoundments like small dams where they can withstand drought for several months. Can withstand moderate pollution. Very adaptable to newly constructed dams. Concentrated in wetland sections characterized by high density of aquatic vegetation.
165761		habitat	eng	This rare species is present in all kinds of stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies. It has been reported on seasonal pools (an aestivation period up to 6 months has been reported). It is vector of <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> which affects livestock and therefore considered as a pest.
165761		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent streams and impoundments, such as dams. It is very common throughout sub-saharan Africa. It is tolerant to disturbance, present everywhere and can cope with some drying out (but not pools which completely dry out).
165761		population	eng	A very common species.
165761		population	eng	No information available.
165761		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165761		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165761		population	eng	This is a common species.
165761		threats	eng	In southern Africa, it may be being displaced by the invasive <em>Lymnaea columella</em>.
165761		threats	eng	Main threat is eradication for disease control.
165761		threats	eng	No information available.
165761		threats	eng	None known.
165761		threats	eng	None main threats known to the species.
165762		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165762		conservation	eng	No information available.
165762		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Gwebi river Zimbabwe (flows south to Lake Manyame, approximately 50km west of Harare) (Kuiper 1966b). Also in the Maunachira Channel (Moremi Game Reserve, Okavango Delta, Botswana (19<sup>o</sup>0922.1S : 23<sup>o</sup>1612.8E) (Appleton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also Madagascar (Nosi-Be) and the southern part of Lake Malawi.
165762		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from southern Lake Malawi to 30-40 feet deep. It also occurs in other parts of Africa.
165762		distribution	eng	This species is known from Madagascar (Nosi-Be), Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is restricted in southern Lake Malawi to 30-40 feet depth. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Gwebi river Zimbabwe (which flows south to Lake Manyame, approximately 50 km west of Harare) (Kuiper 1966). It is also found in the Maunachira Channel (in Moremi Game Reserve, Okavango Delta, Botswana (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
165762		habitat	eng	Documented as thriving in lakes to 30-40 feet deep.
165762		habitat	eng	Genus found in lakes and rivers, and small water bodies (Mandahl-Barth 1988). This species is found in fine sandy substratum (75-300µm) out of the flow at channel margins (Appleton et al 2003). It is rare.
165762		habitat	eng	This species is documented as thriving in lakes to 30-40 feet deep.
165762		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
165762		population	eng	No information available.
165762		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165762		threats	eng	No information available.
165762		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165763		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165763		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165763		conservation	eng	No information available.
165763		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165763		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165763		distribution	eng	<em>Segmentorbis kanisaensis</em> is widespread in tropical Africa.
165763		distribution	eng	<em>Segmentorbis kanisaensis</em> is widespread in tropical Africa (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in marshes as well as temporary rain pools across tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Ethiopia and south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in northern Angola, Lower Zambesi, Okavango and Chambezi rivers, northern Mozambique and the lowland coastal strip of KwaZulu-Natal to Durban. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in West Africa from Chad to Gambia.
165763		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Northern Angola, Lower Zambesi and Chambezi rivers, northern Mozambique and the lowland coastal strip of KwaZulu-Natal to Durban. An outlying record exists from the Okavango river at Rundu (Namibia).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> mainly the tropical regions of Africa (Brown 1994).
165763		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been found in marshes as well as temporary rain pools across tropical Africa.
165763		distribution	eng	The species is found in marshes as well as temporary rain pools across tropical Africa.
165763		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa from Chad to Gambia. It also occurs in other areas of Africa.
165763		habitat	eng	Found in permanent marshes, marginal vegetation of streams and rivers and also temporary rainpools (Brown 1994).
165763		habitat	eng	Found in various smaller waterbodies both permanent and temporal.
165763		habitat	eng	It inhabits permanent marshes and also found in temporary rainpools (Brown 1994).
165763		habitat	eng	Lives in marshes and pools.
165763		habitat	eng	This species is found in various smaller waterbodies both permanent and temporal.
165763		population	eng	No information.
165763		population	eng	No information available.
165763		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165763		population	eng	No information, but likely to be overlooked because of its small size, and likely to be more common than is currently known (Brown 1994).
165763		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165763		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.
165763		threats	eng	It is threatened by water pollution, and sedimentation.
165763		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165763		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165763		threats	eng	Threats include water pollution, sedimentation.
165763		threats	eng	Unknown.
165764		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165764		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165764		conservation	eng	One of the populations is found in the Kafue National Park.
165764		distribution	eng	In central Africa, <em>Lobogenes michaelis</em> occurs in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is recorded from the Lubumbashi area and Lake Katebe from different sites close to the Zambian border. This species was originally described from specimens collected from the source of the Kimilolo River. It is also known from Zambia on Kafue River. DBL has additional records from Elizabethville (Lumbumbashi). The species was last recorded by Hershler and Thompson (1992) from Lake Katebe. It is easily overlooked in survey samples therefore it may be under-recorded.
165764		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Three, possibly four, separate populations are known. In Namibia, it is found in the Kwando river floodplain at Singalamwe (East Caprivi) (Brown et al 1992). It is also found in the Kafue river south of Kafue and in the Moshi salt spring in Kafue National Park. An unconfirmed record of the species in the panhandle of the Okavango delta was given by Jansen van Rensburg (2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also known from DRC Lubumbashi area and Lake Katebe (South Eastern DRC).
165764		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and southern Africa in DRC, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Lobogenes michaelis</em> occurs in southeastern DRC. It is recorded from the Lubumbashi area and Lake Katebe, from different sites close to the Zambian border. This species was originally described from specimens collected from the source of the Kimilolo River. DBL has additional records from Elizabethville (Lumbumbashi). The species was last recorded by Hershler and Thompson (1992), from Lake Katebe. It is easily overlooked in survey samples therefore it may be under-recorded.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> There are three or possibly four separate populations known. In Namibia, it is found in the Kwando river floodplain at Singalamwe (East Caprivi) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is also found in the Kafue river south of Kafue and in the Moshi salt spring in Kafue National Park. A record of the species in the panhandle of the Okavango delta was given by Jansen van Rensburg (2001).
165764		habitat	eng	Found in a wide variety of habitats including rivers and streams, muddy pools and also recorded from warm salty springs.
165764		habitat	eng	Highly varied: streams flowing over gravel, muddy pools, salty springs with blue-green algae (Brown 1994). In regions with swamps.
165764		population	eng	Low population densities, not common.
165764		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165764		population	eng	This species is apparently rare (Brown et al 1992).
165764		threats	eng	Increasing water extraction for the area of Kafue, including Lusaka, has the potential to impact the population south of the city in the Kafue river (Kristensen pers com). There are also two dams downstream from this population, the impacts to the species are unknown.<br/><br/>The population in the Kwando river floodplain was last recorded in 1985. Since then a large molluscide trial has taken place along the river but no surveys have taken place so the impacts of the trial are not known (Curtis pers com).
165764		threats	eng	No known major threats.
165764		threats	eng	No major threats in region.
165765		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165765		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165765		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to gain information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165765		conservation	eng	No information available.
165765		conservation	eng	None conservation measures proposed.
165765		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165765		distribution	eng	<em>Pila ovata</em> ranges from Lower Nile, Sudan, southwards to northern Mozambique and westwards to southern Nigeria. Also found in DRC, eastern Africa, and in an oasis in Egypt (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The species occurs in southeastern DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread throughout Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common and widespread in Nile (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999), and is also present in Lake Qarun, Siwa, Nasser. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Sudan. Records from south Ethiopia need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The only record of the species in this region is from northern Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is recorded in southern Nigeria.
165765		distribution	eng	<em>Pila ovata</em> ranges from Sudan to Mozambique and westwards to southern Nigeria. In central Africa, the species occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo.
165765		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Northern Mozambique, only one record of the species exists in this region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Lower Nile, Sudan and southwards to northern Mozambique.
165765		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> Widespread. Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi. <br/>Distribution map restricted to Uganda and Kenya due to limited geographic information.
165765		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan. Records from south Ethiopia need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Lower Nile, Great Lakes region south to Mozambique and westwards to Nigeria.
165765		distribution	eng	The species is wide spread in northern Africa and known from the Lower Nile till Mozambique. In northern Africa, it was found throughout the Nile, and in Qaron, Siwa and Nasser. It is common and widespread in the Nile (Ibrahim 1999). Its type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.
165765		distribution	eng	Within the region it occurs in southern Nigeria.<br/>It is also found in south eastern DRC, north of Mozambique, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and in an oasis in Egypt (Brown 1994). It is probably distributed throughout most of central Africa.
165765		habitat	eng	Brown (1994) reports that the species exists in temporary pools, papyrus swamps, and in Lake Victoria on stony beaches.
165765		habitat	eng	Brown (1994) reports that the species exists in temporary pools, papyrus swamps and in Lake Victoria on stony beaches. The ongoing study reports having recorded the species in nearly all substrates in Lake Victoria.
165765		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools, papyrus swamps and stony beaches.
165765		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools, papyrus swamps and stony beaches (Lake Victoria).
165765		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools, papyrus swamps, stony beaches of Lake Victoria (Brown, 1994) and probably permanent rivers.
165765		habitat	eng	It occurs on rivers and oases, lower banks of rivers, swamps, ponds and lakes. It prefers clear slow-flowing waters with vegetation (Ibrahim 1999).
165765		habitat	eng	This species occurs in temporary pools, papyrus swamps, stony beaches of Lake Victoria (Brown 1994). It is a slow breeder, producing only a few eggs, probably living up to 2-3 years.
165765		population	eng	No information.
165765		population	eng	No information available.
165765		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165765		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165765		population	eng	Not fully understood. An ongoing study in Lake Victoria proposed that there could be over 100,000 specimens in Kenyan side of Lake Victoria.
165765		population	eng	Outside the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">northeastern Africa region</strong>, an ongoing study in Lake Victoria proposed that there could be over 100,000 specimens in Kenyan side of Lake Victoria.
165765		threats	eng	No information available.
165765		threats	eng	No information, but habitat degradation/loss could be a likely threat.
165765		threats	eng	No information, but habitat degradation/loss could be a likely threat. There is some exploitation of this species, which could be a threat if done at high levels. From other similar species in aquaria, temperature may have a strong effect on the reproductive cycle.
165765		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165765		threats	eng	No major threats known.
165765		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165767		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165767		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165767		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165767		conservation	eng	No information available.
165767		conservation	eng	None known.
165767		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165767		distribution	eng	<em>Gyraulus costulatus </em> is a widespread and common Afrotropical species, which appears to be moving northwards (Brown 1994). In the northern African region, it is known from the Tassili N'Ajjar region (Algeria), Tejerhi in Fezzan (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and a few localities in southern Egypt (e.g., Upper Nile at Asyut) (Brown 1994). The species is in the northern part of its range in the region, and widely spread further south. Its type locality is in Umgeni River, Natal.
165767		distribution	eng	<em>Gyraulus costulatus</em> is widespread in the tropical region of Africa.
165767		distribution	eng	<em>Gyraulus costulatus</em> is widespread in the tropical region of Africa. Its main range extends from Ethiopia and southern Sudan westwards to the Senegal River and Southwards to Angola, Okavango and eastern South Africa (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Lake Mutanda, Uganda, and is believed to occur in other eastern Africa Wetlands (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In the region under consideration known from the Tassili N'Ajjar region (Algeria), Tejerhi in Fezzan (Libya) and a few localities in southern Egypt e.g., Upper Nile at Asyut (Brown 1994). This is the northern part of its range, widely spread further south.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the region of Lake Nasser, Sudan, and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In the southern African region it is distributed over the northern and eastern highveld, KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Zimbabwe and the Okavango River system (Appleton 1996). There are records from Angola but the locations are not precisely known.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found throughout western Africa.
165767		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In the southern African region, it is distributed over the northern and eastern highveld, KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Zimbabwe and the Okavango River system (Appleton 1996). There are records from Angola but the locations are not precisely known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Africa: mainly in the tropical region. Main range extends from Ethiopia and south Sudan westwards to the Senegal River and southwards to Angola, Okavango and eastern South Africa (Brown 1994).
165767		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from Lake Mutanda, Uganda, and is believed to occur in other Eastern Africa Wetlands (Kenya Uganda and Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is a widespread species in tropical Africa.
165767		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the region of Lake Nasser, Sudan, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common Afrotropical species (Brown 1994), appears to be moving northwards according to the Red List assessment for northern Africa (2007). The type locality is the Umgeni River, Natal.
165767		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout western Africa, and found in many other parts of Africa.
165767		habitat	eng	All kinds of vegetation rich waters, but absent from waters that dry out seasonally. Spread by birds (all pulmonates are spread by birds). Not a widespread species, locally common. Can also be transported with vegetation by humans.
165767		habitat	eng	Found amongst aquatic vegetation, marginal grass and stones in slowly flowing streams and rivers, large dams and lakes (Brown 1994). Prefers warmer climates to those preffered by <em>G. connollyi</em> (some overlap on the eastern escarpment of South Africa).
165767		habitat	eng	Found in aquatic vegetation, marginal grass and stones in slowly flowing streams, rivers, dams and large lakes. Ndifon and Ukoli (1989), reports that the species is tolerant to shade and organic pollution. However, Brown (1994) suggests that the species is seemingly absent from wetlands that regularly dry out.
165767		habitat	eng	It can be found among vegetation and stones in various permanent standing and running waterbodies.
165767		habitat	eng	It lives on all kinds of vegetation rich waters, but is absent from waters that dry out seasonally. It is spread by birds (all Pulmonata are spread by birds). It is not considered as a widespread species, although it is locally common. It can also be transported with vegetation by humans.
165767		habitat	eng	This species is found in aquatic vegetation, marginal grass and stones in slowly flowing streams and rivers, large dams and lakes (Brown 1994). Also in man-made habitats.
165767		habitat	eng	Vegetation and stones in various permanent waterbodies both standing and running.
165767		population	eng	No data available.
165767		population	eng	No information.
165767		population	eng	No information available.
165767		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165767		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165767		population	eng	This species is common.
165767		threats	eng	Brown (1994) reports that the species is seemingly absent from wetlands that regularly dry out. Sedimentation which threatens most regional wetlands may also be a threat.
165767		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to agriculture could be a threat.
165767		threats	eng	No known threats to the species.
165767		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165767		threats	eng	None known.
165767		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165768		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.
165768		conservation	eng	No information available.
165768		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is widespread in eastern Africa, known from streams from southern Tanzania to Zimbabwe (Graf and Cummings 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in rivers in Malawi. It possibly also occurs in southern Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi and even beyond eastern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from rivers in Zimbabwe and also in Zambia. South Africa should be included if <em>C. framesi</em> is considered a synonym.
165768		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known from rivers in Mozambique, Zimbabwe and possibly also in Zambia. South Africa should be included if <em>C. framesi</em> is considered a synonym. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Widespread in Eastern Africa, known from streams from southern Tanzania and Malawi to Mozambique (Graf and Cummings 2006).
165768		distribution	eng	The species is found in rivers in Malawi. It possibly also occurs in southern Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe and even beyond Eastern Africa.
165768		habitat	eng	Documented to thrive in rivers.
165768		habitat	eng	Found in rivers.
165768		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers.
165768		population	eng	No information.
165768		population	eng	No information available.
165768		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165768		threats	eng	No information available.
165768		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165769		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165769		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165769		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165769		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165769		distribution	eng	<em>Pachymelania aurita</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.
165769		distribution	eng	<em>Pachymelania aurita</em> ranges from the coastal waters of Senegal to Angola.
165769		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It inhabits brackish waters of the coast of Angola.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Senegal to Angola
165769		distribution	eng	This species is found from Senegal to Angola.
165769		habitat	eng	Found in brackish water on sandy substratum.
165769		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water on sandy substratum.
165769		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy substrata, in coastal areas. This is considered to be a pollution indicating species, because it may be found in polluted areas (Zabi 1982).
165769		habitat	eng	Tolerant of a wide salinity range, found on sandy substrates.
165769		population	eng	No information.
165769		population	eng	No information available.
165769		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165769		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165769		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.
165769		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165769		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165769		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
165770		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165770		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Zimbabwe, and also known from few localities in Zambia (Mandahl-Barth 1988) and Okavango system (Appleton 2002) . In South Africa recorded only from north-eastern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).
165770		distribution	eng	This species is known from Zimbabwe, and also from a few localities in Zambia and Shaba, upper Congo (Mandahl-Barth 1988). In South Africa it is recorded only from northeastern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).
165770		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy bottoms of permanent rivers, streams and lakes. It can tolerate oxygen depleted conditions (Appleton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
165770		habitat	eng	Sandy bottoms of permanant rivers, streams and lakes. Can tolerate oxygen depleted conditions (Appleton et al 2003).
165770		population	eng	The species often occurs together with <em>S. capense</em>, and at moderately high densities, e.g. 41 per square metre (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
165770		population	eng	The species often occurs together with <em>S. capense</em>, and at moderately high densities, e.g. 41 per square metre (Appleton et al 2003).
165770		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165770		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165771		conservation	eng	Legislation development and implementation are needed, as well as research and habitat conservation mesures.
165771		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165771		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
165771		conservation	eng	No data available.
165771		conservation	eng	No information available.
165771		conservation	eng	None known.
165771		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165771		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and the Okavango System in Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Africa: mainly in the tropical region (Brown 1994).
165771		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is believed to occur in several wetlands of Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania and Malawi. It is widely distributed in tropical Africa.
165771		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan, possibly also Lake Nasser (Egypt) and Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common Afrotropical species. Toquor River at Mekerka, Ethiopia.
165771		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa.
165771		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and common afrotropical species. (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is believed to occur in several wetlands of Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  It is recorded during the 20th Century from Djanet Oasis in southeast Algeria and from Tibesti (Brown 1994) but this is south of this region. In Egypt, it has been recorded from lower and upper Nile, Lake Qaron, the edge of Lake Maryut, and west of Alexandria but it is rare in these sites. The area has been well-surveyed, so it is unlikely to be more widely distributed. Egypt is not a typical area for this species, and its major distribution is further south in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan, possibly also Lake Nasser and Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and the Okavango System in Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It has a limited distribution in West Africa, mostly found in the Lake Chad catchment.
165771		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and common Afrotropical species. It was recorded during the 20th Century from Djanet Oasis in south east of Algeria and from Tibesti (Brown 1994) an area that is to the south of the northern Africa assessment region. In Egypt, it is present in the Lower and Upper Nile, Lake Qaron, edge of Lake Maryut, and west of Alexandria although is rare in these sites. The area has been well-surveyed, so there is evidence that it is only found here. Egypt is not a typical area for this species, which major distribution is further south in Africa.
165771		distribution	eng	This species has a limited distribution in West Africa, mostly found in the Lake Chad catchment, but it is present elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.
165771		habitat	eng	Found in bordering vegetation.
165771		habitat	eng	It lives on the bordering vegetation of the Nile River Delta.
165771		habitat	eng	Occurs on vegetation in permanent marshes and rivers and also on rocks in streams.
165771		habitat	eng	Occurs on vegetation in permanent marshes, rocks in streams and stony beaches of Lake Victoria.
165771		habitat	eng	This species inhabits vegetation in permanent marshes, on rocks in streams (and on stony beaches of Lake Victoria). It does not occur in temporary rainpools.
165771		habitat	eng	This species is found in various permanent waterbodies.
165771		habitat	eng	Various permanent waterbodies.
165771		population	eng	No data available.
165771		population	eng	No information available.
165771		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165771		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165771		population	eng	This is a widespread but uncommon species.
165771		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.
165771		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution, drought and drying up.
165771		threats	eng	Most regional wetlands are threatened by sedimentation, industrial waste, sewage, agro-pesticide pollution and human related disturbances.
165771		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165771		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165771		threats	eng	Pollution, drought and desiccation are main threats to the species.
165771		threats	eng	Unknown.
165773		conservation	eng	In southern Africa, ecological impact studies are required for all coastal developments affecting the environment.
165773		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165773		conservation	eng	No information available.
165773		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the southern African part of the species range, ecological impact studies are required for all coastal developments affecting the environment (IUCN 2010). Further research is needed into the species population, biology, ecology and potential threats.
165773		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal as far south as Durban), Mozambique (coastal plain). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also in Kenya, the Comoro Islands, Madagascar, Mascarene Islands and Seyschelles.
165773		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from the eastern African coast to South Africa.
165773		distribution	eng	This species is known from the East African coast south to South Africa. Also found in the Comoro Islands, Madagascar, Mascarene Islands and Seychelles.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread on the East African coast.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal as far south as Port St Johns), and Mozambique (coastal plain).
165773		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region. <span style="font-style: italic;">Neritina pulligera</span> has been documented across South-East Asia, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Indonesia, New Guinea, Palau, Guam, Caroline Islands, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Northern Australia, New Caledonia and Fiji (Haynes 1988).&#160;In Africa, this species is known from the East African coast south to South Africa (Brown 1994, Appleton 1996). It is also found in the Comoros Islands (Starmühlner 1976), Madagascar (Haynes 1988) and Seychelles (Gerlach 2006).
165773		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams near the tidal influence of the Indian ocean.
165773		habitat	eng	Known from rivers and streams near tidal influence.
165773		habitat	eng	Rivers and streams near the tidal influence of the Indian ocean.
165773		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast-flowing freshwater streams and rivers with rocky substrates (Haynes 1990). Throughout its range this species inhabits rivers and streams in close proximity to the tidal influence of the ocean, so can be found in brackish waters.
165773		population	eng	No information.
165773		population	eng	No information available.
165773		population	eng	There is little population data available for this species. Abundance data from the Caroline Islands shows a population density of 2-7 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Bright 1982).
165773		threats	eng	Habitats threatened by shrimp farming and degradation due to use for firewood.
165773		threats	eng	Major threats include Alcoa titanium and dune mining, and sedimentation mainly occurring in the southern African region. Residential and recreational development (marina construction) in South Africa and aquaculture in Tanzania (Rufiji River delta), both of which lead to habitat destruction. In Mozambique, tractor harvesting for prawns is also destroying habitat.
165773		threats	eng	Residential, recreational and industrial development and dune mining (titanium) along the KwaZulu-Natal coast (South Africa) which may disrupt the natural tidal flow regime due to siltation.
165773		threats	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, however the degradation of watercourses across its range may pose a potential threat to this species. Pollution is a major problem currently facing many freshwater ecosystems across South East Asia (UNEP 1999). The introduction of exotic species of fish into some rivers in Papua New Guinea may also adversely affect freshwater snails, either directly through predation or indirectly by altering benthic ecosystems (Dudgeon and Smith 2006). <br/><br/>In 2009 this species was listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN Pan-Africa Freshwater Biodiversity regional assessment, based upon almost qualifying as Vulnerable under criterion A (population decline). There is the potential of a 20% decline in the species in Africa as a result of major threats within this part of the species range. Residential and recreational development in South Africa, aquaculture in Tanzania (Rufiji River delta) and tractor harvesting for prawns in Mozambique has lead to declines in the quality and extent of habitat. Further threats include Alcoa titanium and dune mining, and sedimentation across southern Africa (IUCN 2010).
165774		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165774		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165774		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165774		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra nsendweensis</em> occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Angola, northern Namibia and northern Botswana.
165774		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known from one site on the Kunene River at Ruacana (it may be more widely distributed in Angola but no surveys have been undertaken). It  is also known from the Okavango River (not the delta) and may be in the upper Okavango in Angola but, again, no surveys have been undertaken. It occurs in  the Chobe River above Victoria Falls. In the Zambezi system it occurs from below the Victoria Falls to the Mozambique border (it may be found further downstream but this needs confirmation) including the Kafue River and Lake Kariba.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also found extensively distributed in the DRC from Kinshasa southeastwards.
165774		distribution	eng	This species occurs in DRC, Zambia, Angola, northern Namibia and northern Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found extensively distributed in the DRC from Kinshasa southeastwards.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from one site on the Kunene River at Ruacana (it may be more widely distributed in Angola but no surveys have been undertaken). It is also known from the Okavango River (not the delta) and possibly in the upper Okavango in Angola but, again, no surveys have been undertaken. It occurs in the Chobe River above Victoria Falls. In the Zambezi system it is known from below the Victoria Falls to the Mozambique border (it may be found further downstream but this needs confirmation) including the Kafue River and Lake Kariba.
165774		habitat	eng	Inhabits lakes and rivers.
165774		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes and rivers.
165774		habitat	eng	The species is found in slowly flowing margins of rivers and other lentic waterbodies as well as lakes.
165774		population	eng	An uncommon species, found in low densities.
165774		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165774		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165774		threats	eng	No known major threats to this widespread species.
165774		threats	eng	No major threats to this widespread species.
165774		threats	eng	Unknown.
165775		conservation	eng	No conservation actions needed.
165775		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165775		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
165775		conservation	eng	No information available.
165775		conservation	eng	None known.
165775		distribution	eng	<em>Afrogyrus coretus</em> is widespread in Africa. In the region, it has been reported in Dakhla and Kharga oases and Lower Nile in Egypt, Brak in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and from Mauritania (Brown 1994). It is absent in the Maghreb. In total, there are five locations in northern Africa. Lower Nile and Dakhla reference may be from an old record. Two of the records, namely from the Lower Nile and Dakhla Oasis may pertain to fossil shells that were described as <em>Planorbis gibbonsi</em> and <em>Ceratophallus natalensis</em> (Gautier 1980). The type locality is Podor, Senegal.
165775		distribution	eng	<em>Afrogyrus coretus</em> probably occurs throughout tropical Africa.
165775		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Widespread, known from various localities in Namibia (Kwando River, Karstveld area (in permanent springs not in caves), Namkluft, Cuvelai drainage and scattered springs and seepages throughout Namibia as well as the Okavango river in Namibia and its delta in Botswana. In South Africa it has been collected in Lake Sibaya and Pietermaritzburg (KwaZulu-Natal). Presumed to occur throughout Southern Africa apart from extreme western areas and the arid interior of Western Cape province. Widespread in Zimbabwe and Zambia (Kristensen pers comm). Not found in Lesotho.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Widely distributed in Africa.
165775		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is believed to be rare. Found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and maybe Burundi. Specific information exists only from Lake Tanganyika as a result of the Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity project (Ntakimazi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is documented as widespread in several parts of tropical Africa.
165775		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia by Brown (1994) but probably also occurring in Somalia and Sudan. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is documented as widespread in tropical Africa.
165775		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Africa, from Libya to South Africa.
165775		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Africa, it is known from Libya to South Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and maybe Burundi. Specific information exists only from Lake Tanganyika as a result of the Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity project (Ntakimazi <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species has also been reported from Dakhla and Kharga Oasis and lower Nile in Egypt, Brak in Libya and from Mauritania (Brown 1994). However, the Lower Nile and Dakhla references may be very old (possibly from fossil remains, after Gautier 1980 paleo specimen, under <span style="font-style: italic;">Planorbis gibbonsi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophallus natalensis</span>. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Ethiopia by Brown (1994) but probably also occurring in Somalia and Sudan. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from various localities in Namibia (Kwando River, Karstveld area (in permanent springs not in caves), Namkluft, Cuvelai drainage and scattered springs and seepages throughout Namibia as well as the Okavango river in Namibia and its delta in Botswana. In South Africa it has been collected in Lake Sibaya and Pietermaritzburg (KwaZulu-Natal). Presumed to occur throughout southern Africa apart from extreme western areas and the arid interior of Western Cape province. This species is widespread in Zimbabwe and Zambia (Kristensen pers. comm.) but not found in Lesotho.
165775		habitat	eng	A wide variety of permanent freshwater habitats from springs to lakes.
165775		habitat	eng	Found in permanent waters with rich aquatic vegetation.
165775		habitat	eng	Found in permanent waters with rich aquatic vegetation. It is a very small species. Not an abundant species.
165775		habitat	eng	It inhabits rich water bodies with permanent vegetation, oases. It is carried by birds.
165775		habitat	eng	It is found in permanent waters with rich aquatic vegetation. This is a very small species.
165775		habitat	eng	Species is documented to favour permanent water bodies i.e., Lakes and rivers especially those rich in aquatic vegetation. The snails then colonise the under leaf surfaces of the vegetation like the water lily leaves and bottom leaf litter.
165775		habitat	eng	Species is documented to favour permanent water bodies i.e. lakes and rivers especially those rich in aquatic vegetation. The snails then colonise the underside of floating vegetation like  water lily leaves, also found in  bottom leaf litter.
165775		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
165775		population	eng	Populations are stable in northern Africa.
165775		population	eng	This is a common species, but not abundant.
165775		population	eng	This species is locally common but not an abundant species. It easily colonises areas with human disturbance.
165775		population	eng	Unknown.
165775		population	eng	Widespread but apparently not common.
165775		threats	eng	No information about current threats.
165775		threats	eng	No information available.
165775		threats	eng	Possible threats from sedimentation and human wetlands disturbance.
165775		threats	eng	Possible threats from sedimentation and human wetlands disturbance in Tanzania.
165775		threats	eng	The only likely threat is widespread removal of vegetation.
165775		threats	eng	The only likely threat is widespread removal of vegetation and other indirect affects that cause this loss of vegetation.
165775		threats	eng	Unknown.
165776		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.
165776		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> widely distributed from the Kunene River (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. mouti</em>) in the west to the east-flowing highveld rivers of South Africa and northern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996). However, not found in the Okavango river system since 1939 (Connoly 1939). The distribution also includes the Cuanza basin in Angola (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. welwitschi</em>).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Known to occur from Tanzania to north-eastern South Africa.
165776		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Africa, except for the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in associated waters of Lake Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile - Mountain Nile, Omo river, and the rivers of south Somalia and coastal Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed from the Kunene River (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. mouti</em>) in the west to the east-flowing highveld rivers of South Africa and northern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996). However, not found in the Okavango river system since 1939 (Connoly 1939). The distribution also includes the Cuanza basin in Angola (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. welwitschi</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Senegal to Chad.
165776		habitat	eng	Known to aestivate for up to 2 and a half years (Cockson 1971). They also have a parasitic larvae that rely upon fish (species unknown) for both development and dispersal. <br/>Found in sandy muddy substrates in rivers. Its has not been recorded from natural lakes but has been recorded from Lake Kariba. Thrives in small farm dams.
165776		habitat	eng	This species is known to aestivate for up to 2.5 years (Cockson 1971). They also have a parasitic larvae that rely upon fish (species unknown) for both development and dispersal. It is not an all-year-round breeder.<br/>It is found in sandy muddy substrates in rivers. It has not been recorded from natural lakes but has been recorded from Lake Kariba. This species thrives in small farm dams.
165776		population	eng	Population density of  30 to 50 per square metre in ZwaZulu-Natal and Lake Kariba (Appleton pers com).
165776		population	eng	There is a population density of  30 to 50 per square metre in ZwaZulu-Natal and Lake Kariba (Appleton pers. comm.).
165776		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Also threats to the host fish species would impact the species.
165776		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance e.g.mining is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Also threats to the host fish species would impact the species. Often used by fishermen as bait.
165777		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165777		conservation	eng	No information available.
165777		conservation	eng	None.
165777		conservation	eng	None known.
165777		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165777		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus globosus</em> occurs over much of Africa south of the Sahara.
165777		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found in much of Africa south of the Sahara. The northern limits are in southern Sudan, Lake Chad, the middle Niger basin and the Senegal Basin. Its southern limits are the Okavango Delta and coastal plain of eastern South Africa (Brown 1994), where it occurs in the Mpumalanga lowveld southwards to Lakes Nhlabane and St. Lucia on the coastal strip of Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bulinus globosus</em> occurs over much of Africa south of the Sahara.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented as common in certain parts of eastern Africa. Regional distribution information is very general.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Kunene and Okavango river systems in the west of the region to the eastwards flowing Limpopo and Incomati systems in the east, southwards to Lake Nhlabane in KwaZulu-Natal (de Kock and Wolmarans 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in Western Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.
165777		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Occurs in the Kunene and Okavango river systems in the west of the region to the eastwards flowing Limpopo and Incomati systems in the east, southwards to Lake Nhlabane in KwaZulu-Natal (de Kock & Wolmarans 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: In much of Africa south of the Sahara. Northern limits in southern Sudan, Lake Chad, the middle Niger basin and the Senegal Basin. Southern limits are the Okavango Delta and costal plain of eastern South Africa (Brown 1994), where it occurs in the Mpumalanga lowveld southwards to Lakes Nhlabane and St. Lucia on the coastal strip of Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).
165777		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is documented as common in certain parts of eastern Africa and spread in many other parts of Africa. The regional distribution information is very general.
165777		distribution	eng	The species is documented as common in certain parts of eastern Africa and spread in many other parts of Africa. Its regional distribution information is very general.
165777		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Western Africa, and throughout sub-Saharan Africa.
165777		habitat	eng	It can be found in various waterbodies: streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, earth dams, irrigation systems and older rice-paddies. This species prefers shallow water with rich vegetation.
165777		habitat	eng	This species is found in various water bodies including streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, dams, irrigation systems and older rice paddies. Favoured by moderate organic pollution.It is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma haematopium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. boeis</span>, which cause Schistosomiasis in humans and cattle.
165777		habitat	eng	Thrives well in various water bodies i.e. streams, rivers, seasonal pools, earth dams, irrigation systems and old rice paddies. In wetlands prefer areas with vegetation. Tolerates moderate organic pollution and a wide range of calcium carbonate concentration.
165777		habitat	eng	Thrives well in various water bodies i.e., streams, rivers, seasonal pools, earth dams, irrigation systems and old rice paddies. In wetlands prefer areas with vegetation. Tolerates moderate organic pollution and a wide range of calcium carbonate concentration.
165777		habitat	eng	Various water bodies including streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, dams, irrigation systems and  rice paddies. <br/>One of the most important intermediate hosts of <em>Schistosoma haematobium </em>and  <em>S. mattheei</em>  (agents of human urinary and cattle schistosomiasis respectively).
165777		habitat	eng	Various waterbodies: streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, earth dams, irrigation systems and older rice-paddies. Prefer shallow water with rich vegetation.
165777		population	eng	Locally common.
165777		population	eng	No information available.
165777		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
165777		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
165777		population	eng	This is a common species.
165777		threats	eng	No information available.
165777		threats	eng	No known major threats.
165777		threats	eng	No major threats.
165777		threats	eng	No major threats. Has been subject to snail control measures at local scales.
165777		threats	eng	This species is subject to snail control measures. It is also threatened by habitat loss and degradation.
165778		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165778		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165778		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Angolan coastal rivers inland to 200 - 300 m altitude.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Fernando Po, Ile du Prince, Saõ Tomé, Cameroon, Angola.
165778		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Fernando Po (Bioko), São Tomé, Cameroon and Angola, in coastal rivers inland to 200 - 300 m altitude.
165778		habitat	eng	It is found in streams from 200-300 m altitude. Otherwise in coastal areas.
165778		habitat	eng	Torrential streams up to 200-300 m altitude and in brackish coastal localities.
165778		population	eng	No information.
165778		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes but this species is usually found at low densities.
165778		threats	eng	No information available.
165778		threats	eng	Unknown.
165779		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165779		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165779		conservation	eng	None known. It would be valuable to have more information about  population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
165779		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165779		distribution	eng	<em>Pachymelania fusca</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.
165779		distribution	eng	<em>Pachymelania fusca</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present all along the coast, penetrating up the Congo River to Malela.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the brackish waters of the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is spread from Senegal to Cameroon.
165779		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It inhabits brackish waters of the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal to Angola, penetrating up the Congo River to Malela.
165779		distribution	eng	This species is found from Senegal to Angola.
165779		habitat	eng	Found in brackish water, 0.02-15 ppt.
165779		habitat	eng	Occurs in brackish and fresh water.
165779		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish and fresh water (but coastal regions only). It can have very different shell forms according to where it lives.
165779		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish water, 0.02-15 ppt.
165779		population	eng	Little information. Reasonably common (Kristensen pers com).
165779		population	eng	No information available.
165779		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165779		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165779		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.
165779		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165779		threats	eng	No major threats known.
165779		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165780		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165780		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165780		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165780		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165780		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina glabrata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Angola.
165780		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina glabrata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It can be found along the coast of central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the estuarine waters along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Senegal to Cameroon along the coast.
165780		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Estuarine waters along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Gambia to Angola
165780		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast from Senegal to Cameroon.
165780		habitat	eng	Found in brackish water; estuaries and lagoons.
165780		habitat	eng	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.
165780		habitat	eng	Sheltered coves, in brackish water, estuaries and lagoons.
165780		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish water in estuaries and lagoons.
165780		population	eng	It is often abundant in estuaries.
165780		population	eng	No information.
165780		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165780		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165780		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats
165780		threats	eng	No information available.
165780		threats	eng	Unknown.
165781		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
165781		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Known sporadically from Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape (Appleton 1996). Also known from Zambia (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> It is also fround in Shaba (Congo River near Zambia Border) and Funa River (Lower Congo River) (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165781		distribution	eng	This species is known sporadically from Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Mpumalanga to eastern Cape (Appleton 1996). It is also known from Zambia (Mandahl-Barth 1988). It is also found in Shaba (Congo River near Zambia Border) and Funa River (Lower Congo River) (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165781		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, impoundments and streams with sandy bottoms. Often found with <em>C. fluminalis</em>.
165781		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, impoundments and streams, sandy bottoms. Often found with <em>C. fluminalis</em>.
165781		population	eng	No information.
165781		population	eng	No information available.
165781		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165781		threats	eng	There is no information on specific current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165782		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165782		conservation	eng	No information available.
165782		conservation	eng	None.
165782		conservation	eng	None known.
165782		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165782		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.</p>
165782		distribution	eng	Although it is an extremely common and widespread Afrotropical species, in northern Africa Biomphalaria pfeifferi is only known from isolated populations at Aïn Kerma, Tassili N'Ajjer, Tin Tahart (south eastern Algeria) and from Ghat (southern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) (Van Damme 1984). It is possibly present to the north and south of the Nile Delta in Egypt and the Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt). However, it is very hard to distinguish it from <em>B. alexandrina</em>, which is very closely related genetically, because it arrived from South America only 200,000 years ago and therefore it have not suffered much genetic differentiation yet. The species is in the northern extreme of its range in the region. Van Damme has found it in Mauritania but no location data is available. Its type locality is the Umgeni Valley, Natal.
165782		distribution	eng	<em>Biomphalaria pfeifferi</em> occurs throughout tropical Africa. It is more of a savannah type species, therefore mostly misses central Africa.
165782		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found in Africa, mainly in the tropical regions, and also southwest Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Biomphalaria pfeifferi</em> occurs throughout tropical Africa. It is more of a savannah type species, therefore mostly misses Central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread species in eastern Africa. In particular Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi and probably Uganda. It occurs in streams and man made water channels, but is absent from great lakes and coastal zones.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is known from isolated populations at Aïn Kerma, Tassili N'Ajjer and Tin Tahart (southeast Algeria) and from Ghat (south Libya) (Van Damme 1984). It is possibly present south of Nile Delta in Egypt and maybe in Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt) but it is very hard to distinguish from <em>B. alexandrina</em>. This is the northern extreme of its range. It has been seen in Mauritania (Van Damme, pers. comm.) but there is no location data.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It can be found throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland and northern and eastern South Africa southwards to Port St Johns. Also found in four isolated springs (possibly relict populations) in Northwest Province (de Kock <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Namibia it occurs in the Karstveld region, Kunene River (and Olushandja Dam to the east of the Kunene River) and the Okavango River to its delta in Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in western Africa.
165782		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland and northern and eastern South Africa southwards to Port St Johns. Also found in four isolated springs (possibly relict populations) in Northwest Province (de Kock et al 2004). In Namibia it occurs in the Karstveld region, Kunene River (and Olushandja Dam to the east of the Kunene River) and the Okavango River to its delta in Botswana.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Africa, mainly in the tropical region and also southwest Arabia.
165782		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is widespread through the region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern Africa, Chad, Mauritania, Senegal, etc.  Intermediate host of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma mansoni</span>; considered as a pest.
165782		distribution	eng	This species is mainly found in tropical regions of Africa and also southwest Arabia. It is widespread throughout eastern, western and soutern Africa and is found in most places south of the Sahara. Northern Africa has a few isolated populations in southeast Algeria and southern Libya. Populations have also become established in southern Madagascar. It is found in a number of freshwater habitats including man-made water channels (Woolhouse and Chandiwana 1989, Bandoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990, Kristensen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Sturrock 2001, Charbonnel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, Pointier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
165782		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in western Africa, and occurs throughout sub-saharan Africa.
165782		habitat	eng	It can be found in various permanent and seasonal waterbodies (not briefly filled rain pools). Not common in the major lakes.
165782		habitat	eng	It is found everywhere. The species is a vector of <em>Schistosomia</em>, treated as a pest. It lives in ponds. Its distribution has been expanded to Upper Egypt after the High Aswan Dam slowed the flow.
165782		habitat	eng	The species appears tolerant to some pollution. It is not affected by forest destruction near streams and is tolerant to changes in water salinity. An intermediate host for parasites that cause human intestinal bilharzia (Schistosomiasis).
165782		habitat	eng	This species is found in various waterbodies such as streams, irrigation channels, reservoirs, dams and some seasonal waters. <br/>This is the most important host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma mansonii</span>, and therefore represents a major cost to human populations.
165782		habitat	eng	This species tolerates a range of habitats and is found in various permanent, seasonal and man-made waterbodies, predominantly perennial freshwater stream habitats (Kristensen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). This species is an intermediate host of schistosome parasites and has biological attributes that ensure its success as an invasive species (Pointer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
165782		habitat	eng	Various permanent and seasonal waterbodies (not briefly-filled rain pools). Not common in the major lakes.
165782		habitat	eng	Various waterbodies such as streams, irrigation channels, reservoirs, dams and springs. Intolerant of high temperatures (this is the reason for lower population numbers on the eastern coastal strip). The species lives on submerged vegetation, rocks and shallow sediments.
165782		population	eng	Locally common but uncommon along the coastal plain of south-eastern Africa.
165782		population	eng	No information available.
165782		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165782		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165782		population	eng	There is no specific population data available, but the species is widespread and abundant with biological attributes that lend themselves to being a tolerable invasive species. Although populations have fluctuated significantly in response to stochastic events, a dramatic increase has been reported in recent years (Pointer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
165782		population	eng	This is a common species.
165782		threats	eng	No information available.
165782		threats	eng	The species is the most important intermediate host for <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em>  and there have been attempts in the past to control the species through the use of molluscicides. This practice is becoming less common. Populations are only temporarily reduced and they soon return to previous levels.
165782		threats	eng	This species is subject to snail control measures.
165782		threats	eng	This species occurs in areas of high human activity, therefore it would appear to have a certain degree of tolerance towards pollution and disturbance. There are no other documented threats although parasite and invasive species control strategies may pose a threat to populations in the future.
165783		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165783		conservation	eng	No information available.
165783		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165783		distribution	eng	<em>Bellamya capillata</em> has scattered localities but occurring throughout a large range. From Tanzania southward into northern Natal; westwards into lower Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and the Okavango River.
165783		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern Africa to Natal, South Africa, and from Tanzania westwards to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from scattered localities but occurring throughout a large area of lower DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal areas of Kenya, around Lake Victoria, Lake Jipe, Lake Nyasa and Bukoba in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species has an extensive range, it is known from Tanzania to north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, westwards into Angola and Okavango River, but in scattered localities.
165783		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from the coastal areas of Kenya, around Lake Victoria, Lake Jipe, Lake Nyasa and Bukoba in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from eastern Africa to Natal, South Africa. Tanzania and westwards through narrow zone to Senegal and Gambia.
165783		habitat	eng	Documented to thrive in lakes, rivers and small permanent water bodies. Micro-habitat details are unknown.
165783		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes, rivers and smaller permanent waterbodies.
165783		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165783		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165783		population	eng	Unknown.
165783		threats	eng	No information available.
165783		threats	eng	No major threats for this widespread species.
165783		threats	eng	No major threats known for this widespread species.
165785		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165785		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
165785		conservation	eng	No information available.
165785		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165785		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus africanus</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa; it has a scattered distribution.
165785		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa; it has a scattered distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Kenya (near Lake Victoria, Nairobi, Embu), Uganda westward to Arua and Lake Albert region, and Tanzania near Iringa and Mwanza.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Jimma, Lake Tana and northeast of Gondhar (Ethiopia). This is the most northern location of this species' range.              <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu region), southern Mozambique, and Swaziland. Reports from Namibia and Lesotho have not been confirmed. In South Africa found on the northern highveld and lowveld southwards through Kwazulu-Natal (except the coastal plain between Mozambique border and Lake st. Lucia) to the Kromme River in eastern Cape (Appleton 1996).
165785		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Found in northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu region), southern Mozambique, and Swaziland. Reports from Namibia and Lesotho have not been confirmed. In South Africa found on the northern highveld and lowveld southwards through Kwazulu-Natal (except the coastal plain between Mozambique border and Lake st. Lucia) to the Kromme River in Eastern Cape (Appleton 1996).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Eastern and Southern Africa; scattered distribution.
165785		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Jimma, Lake Tana and  northeast of Gondhar (Ethiopia). This is the most northern location of this species' range.                            <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern and southern Africa.
165785		habitat	eng	Common in streams and small dams.
165785		habitat	eng	It is common in streams and small impoundments. Also occurs less commonly in rivers and lakes.
165785		habitat	eng	Lives in streams and small dams where water is more permanent, adapts well to irrigation schemes.
165785		habitat	eng	Occurs in most freshwater systems including seasonal ones as it is an efficient aestivator. Attempts were made in the 1970s to control it in Northwest Province using molluscicides but these were not successful (Appleton 1986).
165785		population	eng	A common species.
165785		population	eng	No information available.
165785		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165785		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
165785		threats	eng	No information available.
165785		threats	eng	None.
165785		threats	eng	None recorded from literature. Like other Bulinus snails, appears to adapt well to natural and manmade wetlands.
165786		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165786		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165786		conservation	eng	No data available.
165786		conservation	eng	No information available.
165786		conservation	eng	None known.
165786		distribution	eng	<em>Eupera ferruginea</em> occurs in all countries in tropical and southern Africa.
165786		distribution	eng	It is a widespread and common Afrotropical species, which occurs in the Upper and Lower Nile, and is absent from the Maghreb. The exact sites in the Nile are unknown due to lack of information. The type locality for the species is the Knysna River, Cape, South Africa.
165786		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span>  It is known from Okavango River and delta. Mozambique south to Durban. And then Northwards through Zambia and Angola. The Type locality is Knysna river in the southern Western Cape Province in 1848, but the species has not been found here since (Appleton and Curtis in press).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Common throughout Africa south of the Sahara. Also known from Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius.
165786		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from Lake Tanganyika. It also occurs in many other localities in other parts of Africa.
165786		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Nile in Sudan,  and Lake Tana. It probably has a much wider range in the region (Daget 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common Afrotropical species, spread by birds. The type locality is in Knysna River, Cape, South Africa.
165786		distribution	eng	This species is common throughout Africa south of the Sahara. It is also known from Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eupera ferruginea</em> occurs throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lake Tanganyika basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Upper and Lower Nile, but is absent in the Maghreb.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from the Nile in Sudan, and Lake Tana. It is probably has a much wider range in the region (Daget 1998)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Okavango River and delta, and Mozambique south to Durban. Also northwards through Zambia and Angola. The type locality is Knysna river in the southern Western Cape Province in 1848, but the species has not been found here since (Appleton and Curtis 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout the region south of the Sahara.
165786		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout Africa south of the Sahara, extending to Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius.
165786		habitat	eng	Different types of freshwater habitats. Spread by birds and insects.
165786		habitat	eng	Genus free-living at the bottom or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165786		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwater (all types).
165786		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater (all types). May attach itself to submerged vegetation using a byssus. It is spread by birds.
165786		habitat	eng	It occurs in different types of freshwater habitats, spread by birds and insects.
165786		habitat	eng	No information available.
165786		habitat	eng	This genus is free-living at the bottom or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165786		population	eng	It is rare in the Egyptian Nile.
165786		population	eng	No data available.
165786		population	eng	No information available.
165786		population	eng	No quantitative information.
165786		population	eng	This species is abundant when present.
165786		population	eng	Widespread but nowhere common (Appleton pers com).
165786		threats	eng	Main threats to the species are unknown.
165786		threats	eng	No data available.
165786		threats	eng	No information available.
165786		threats	eng	None traced from literature specific for the species. Sedimentation, anthropogenic disturbances and pollution are the most likely threats.
165786		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165786		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance e.g.mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems. Localised impact from domestic sewage and sedimentation may also affect this species.
165787		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165787		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165787		conservation	eng	No information available.
165787		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165787		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Coastal drainages from Mozambique to near Durban, South Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Lake Chad, Ethiopia, Sudan and eastern Africa southwards to near Durban (South Africa).
165787		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is reported from Zanzibar.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is believed to spread southwards to Durban, South Africa and several other parts of Africa.
165787		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from southwards to Durban, South Africa and several other parts of Africa.
165787		distribution	eng	This species is widespread through tropical Africa, and is reported from Zanzibar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It may be found throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Ethiopia, and south Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the coastal drainages from Mozambique to near Durban, South Africa.
165787		distribution	eng	Widespread through tropical Africa.
165787		habitat	eng	Aquatic vegetation in marshes, slow flowing rivers and streams.
165787		habitat	eng	Found among aquatic vegetation in marshes, slowly flowing rivers and streams.
165787		habitat	eng	Found amongst aquatic vegetation in marshes, &#160;slowly flowing rivers and streams (Brown 1994).
165787		habitat	eng	It is found among aquatic vegetation in marshes, slowly flowing rivers and streams.
165787		population	eng	No information.
165787		population	eng	No information available.
165787		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165787		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165787		threats	eng	It is threatened by water pollution, anthropogenic disturbance and sedimentation.
165787		threats	eng	No known major threats to this widespread species.
165787		threats	eng	No major threats to this widespread species.
165787		threats	eng	Unknown.
165787		threats	eng	Water pollution, anthropogenic disturbance and sedimentation.
165788		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165788		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165788		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165788		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165788		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina adansoniana</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Central Africa it occurs all along coastal the region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in river mouths and estuaries (brackish waters) along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Senegal to Cameroon, but is limited to coastal regions only.
165788		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina adansoniana</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola. In central Africa it occurs all along coastal the region.
165788		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> River mouths and estuaries (brackish waters) along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Distributed from Senegal to Angola
165788		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Senegal to Angola. It is limited to coastal regions only.
165788		habitat	eng	This is a coastal species. Found in varying salinity ranges at the upper limit of the tidal influence but although it can survive in freshwater, it is never far from brackish water.
165788		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts; estuaries, lagoons, sand, rocks and vegetation (Brown 1994). It can live in a range of salinities, but always where there is some connection with saline water.
165788		habitat	eng	This species is tolerant of varying salinity and strong wave-action.
165788		habitat	eng	Tolerant of varying salinity and strong wave-action.
165788		population	eng	No information.
165788		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes but this species is usually found at low densities.
165788		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165788		population	eng	Where they occur, they are abundant.
165788		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats.
165788		threats	eng	No information available.
165788		threats	eng	Unknown.
165789		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165789		conservation	eng	No information available.
165789		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa. It is quite common in South Africa within the central area.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Kano plains in Kenya and Tanzania. (The map only shows Kenyan distribution based upon available information.)<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Ethiopia (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found on the highveld plateau (de Kock <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found throughout Zimbabwe, east and north-east Zambia and northern Mozambique. There are also records in the Cuvelai drainage and the Nyae-Nyae area in Namibia.
165789		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In South Africa it is found on the highveld plateau (de Kock et al 2002). It is also found throughout Zimbabwe, east and north-east Zambia and northern Mozambique. There are also records in the Cuvelai drainage and the Nyae-Nyae area in Namibia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Eastern and southern Africa. Quite common in South Africa within the central area.
165789		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from the Kano plains in Kenya and Tanzania. Map only shows Kenyan distribution based upon available information.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It occurs beyond east Africa into southern Africa.
165789		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from eastern and southern Africa.
165789		habitat	eng	It lives in small temporary pools and swamps. The species aestivates for the main part of the year, only becoming active during the rainy season. It is tolerant of cool temperatures.
165789		habitat	eng	Lives in small temporary pools and swamps. Species hibernates for the main part of the year, only becoming active during the rainy season.
165789		habitat	eng	Small, briefly-filled pools (Brown 1994), seasonal pans and ephemeral habitats. It aestivates for most of the year.
165789		population	eng	No data traced.
165789		population	eng	No information available.
165789		population	eng	Unknown.
165789		threats	eng	No information available.
165789		threats	eng	Unknown.
165790		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165790		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165790		conservation	eng	No information available.
165790		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165790		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> It is found in Mozambique from the lower Zambesi northwards.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Also found in south east DRC and marshes near Lake Malawi.
165790		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs in swamps associated with Lake Malawi.  <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also documented to occur in other African regions like the Zambesi River.
165790		distribution	eng	The species is present in Mozambique, Malawi and Democratic Republic of Congo.
165790		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mozambique, Malawi and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in south east DRC<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in swamps associated with Lake Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in Mozambique from the lower Zambesi northwards.
165790		habitat	eng	Documented to occur in clear streams flowing over marshy areas near Lake Malawi.
165790		habitat	eng	Generally found in clear streams flowing over gravel and is also found in marshes next to Lake Malawi.
165790		habitat	eng	Streams and marshes.
165790		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and marshes.
165790		population	eng	No information available.
165790		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165790		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165790		threats	eng	No information available.
165790		threats	eng	No information, but habitat degradation/loss could be a likely threat.
165790		threats	eng	Rivers and marshes are most likely declining from impacts of pollution and sedimentation.
165791		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165791		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165791		conservation	eng	No information available.
165791		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165791		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus scalaris</em> is mainly an eastern and southern African species. In central Africa it occurs only in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.
165791		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs only in southeastern DRC and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Reported to occur in a few areas in Uganda and Western region of Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Highland Ethiopia (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species is known from scattered localities in Angola, throughout Namibia and the Okavango system. It has been recorded from Zimbabwe but the precise locations are not known.
165791		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: The species is known from scattered localities in Angola, throughout Namibia, and the Okavango system. It has been recorded from Zimbabwe but the precise locations are not known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Eastern and southern Africa. Highland Ethiopia, Uganda, W Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola and Namibia.
165791		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> Reported to occur in a few areas in Uganda and Western region of Kenya.
165791		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern  and southern Africa. <br/>.
165791		habitat	eng	It is found in seasonal rain pools and irrigation channels.
165791		habitat	eng	Lives in seasonal pools that lack vegetation in Ethiopia and western Kenya.
165791		habitat	eng	Lives in seasonal pools that lack vegetation in western Kenya.
165791		habitat	eng	Permanent rivers (slow flowing margins), seasonal pools and springs usually lacking vegetation, and probably irrigation channels. Frequently found in temporary freshwater habitats such as rainpools in north-eastern Botswana (Appleton et al 2003). This species is able to aestivate.
165791		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools, irrigation channels.
165791		population	eng	Locally common.
165791		population	eng	No information available.
165791		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165791		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165791		threats	eng	No information available.
165791		threats	eng	None known.
165792		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165792		conservation	eng	No information available.
165792		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In addition to the Type locality in northern Namibia, the species has been reported from the southern coastal strip of Western Cape Province and the Olifants River in Gauteng Province (Kuiper 1966a). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Distributed in East Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa as well as the DRC and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988). In Uganda and Kenya found mostly in the mountains.
165792		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widespread, particularly in the region's highlands: Ruwenzori and Mt. Elgon in Uganda and Mt. Kenya of Kenya. It is also documented to occur in other African regions as southern Africa and Ethiopia.
165792		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopian highlands.<br><br>It is also documented to occur in Kenya, Uganda, Congo, Namibia and Madagascar.
165792		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Ethiopia to South Africa as well as the DRC and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread, particularly in the region's highlands. It is recorded form Ruwenzori and Mt. Elgon in Uganda and Mt. Kenya of Kenya. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In addition to the type locality in northern Namibia, the species has been reported from the southern coastal strip of Western Cape Province and the Olifants River in Gauteng Province (Kuiper 1966).
165792		habitat	eng	No information.
165792		habitat	eng	This species thrives in streams in mountains in western and eastern Africa but also occurs elsewhere.
165792		habitat	eng	Thrives in streams in the mountains.
165792		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
165792		population	eng	No information available.
165792		threats	eng	No known major threats, but there is localised deforestation.
165792		threats	eng	Sedimentation and forest/catchment destruction are the most likely threats.
165792		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165793		conservation	eng	None known.
165793		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>It is known from the coast of southern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, from Southbroom to Amanzimtoti.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Madagascar, Indo pacific islands, Phillippines, Sri Lanka.
165793		habitat	eng	Found on rocks and reed stems in brackish water.
165793		population	eng	Unknown.
165793		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from industrial, residential and recreational development.
165794		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165794		conservation	eng	No information available.
165794		conservation	eng	None.
165794		conservation	eng	None known.
165794		distribution	eng	Distribution of this common Afrotropical species ranges from Lower Egypt to the Cape, in South Africa. In the northern African region, it occurs only in Egypt, which is considered the northern extent of the species distribution. Recent records from Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt), northern region of delta, and Nasser (Nasser is considered outside of the region of this assessment). Its type locality is in Damietta, Egypt.
165794		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus forskalii</em> is widespread all over Africa.
165794		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from widespread all over Africa. It is essentially an afrotropical species reaching the Mediterranean only in lower Egypt. Its range extends west to Senegal and southwards to eastern and soutern South Africa (Brown 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in eastern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In the region under consideration it occurs in Egypt only. Recent records in Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt), northern region of delta, and Nasser. Egypt is northern extent of species.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from south Sudan, scattered locations in Ethiopia, and Uebi Shebeli River in Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is distributed widely over southern Africa except in the arid western and central parts (Appleton 1996). It occurs in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe and eastern and southern South Africa. The species may also be present in the lower Orange river (although this may be <em>B. scalaris</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in Western Africa, throughout the Senegal River Basin and Middle Niger Basin.
165794		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe and eastern and southern South Africa. The species may also be present in the lower Orange river (although this may be<em> B. scalaris</em>).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Essentially afrotropical reaching the Mediterranean only in lower Egypt. In West Africa northwards to the Senegal River Basin and Middle Niger Basin. Range extends southwards to eastern and southern South Africa (Brown 1994). Distributed widely over southern Africa except in the arid western and central parts (Appleton 1996).
165794		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is widespread in eastern Africa and most other African regions.
165794		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Sudan, from scattered locations in Ethiopia, Uebi Shebeli River in Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
165794		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Western Africa. It is found throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.
165794		habitat	eng	Found in lake margins, swamps, marshes, wetland areas. Present in both permanent and temporary habitats.
165794		habitat	eng	It is a rare species that inhabits on all types of water bodies, but is most abundant in small ones. It is able to aestivate, and only emerges for a short period of time. It occurs on Lake Qaron, which is affected by a high variability in size each year as well as increasing its salinity. It is known for being host of two <em>Schistosoma</em> species.
165794		habitat	eng	It is found in lake margins, swamps, marshes, wetland areas. Present in both permanent and temporary habitats. Rarely in slowly flowing water. An efficient aestivator.
165794		habitat	eng	This species is found in various natural and artificial water bodies, including lake margins, permanent swamps and irrigation systems (Brown 1994). It can act as an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma intercalatum</span> (a parasite giving a not very potent infection of schistosomiasis) in Cameroon only; does not act as a host elsewhere.
165794		habitat	eng	Thrives in permanent swamps, irrigation systems, small stagnant or flowing water bodies which sometimes may become polluted. However, does not thrive well in short-lived temporary rain pools.  Is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bovis</span>.
165794		habitat	eng	Thrives in permanent swamps, irrigation systems, small stagnant or flowing water bodies which sometimes may become polluted. However, does not thrive well in short-lived temporary rain pools.  It is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bovis</span>.
165794		habitat	eng	Various natural and artificial water bodies, including lake margins, permanent swamps and irrigation systems (Brown 1994) and occasionally in slow flowing rivers. The species can aestivate and therefore survive in temporary and seasonal freshwater systems, e.g. rainpools.
165794		population	eng	No information available.
165794		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
165794		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.
165794		population	eng	This is a common species.
165794		population	eng	Widespread, densities are variable.
165794		threats	eng	No information available.
165794		threats	eng	No major threats to this widespread species.
165794		threats	eng	None known.
165794		threats	eng	This species is subject to snail control.
165794		threats	eng	Unknown.
165795		conservation	eng	Ecological impact assessments should be undertaken where dune mining exists.
165795		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165795		conservation	eng	No information available.
165795		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from Indo-pacific coasts including Madagascar and East Africa from Somalia southwards into KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed along the entire eastern Africa coast.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Somalia, recorded from one coastal location (Jumba) only (Connolly 1928).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches of rivers in Mozambique and Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton 1996).
165795		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Found in the lower reaches of rivers in Mozambique and Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton 1996).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Indo-pacific coasts including Madagascar and East Africa from Somalia southwards into KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
165795		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Somalia, recorded from one coastal  location (Jumba) only (Connolly 1928).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is distributed along the eastern Africa coast to South Africa (Brown 1994).
165795		distribution	eng	The species is distributed along the eastern Africa coast from Somalia to South Africa.
165795		habitat	eng	Found in streams just above the limit of tidal influence (Brown 1994). Upper parts of estuaries and lagoons and into lower reaches of freshwater (tolerant  of low salinities).
165795		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams just above the limit of tidal influence.
165795		habitat	eng	It is found in streams just above the limit of tidal influence.
165795		habitat	eng	The species is tolerant of brackish water and lives in streams just above the limit of tidal influence.
165795		population	eng	No data available.
165795		population	eng	No information.
165795		population	eng	Reported to be uncommon, but population estimates not certain.
165795		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation of estuaries is occuring especially in KwaZulu-Natal, mainly due to infrastructure development and titatanium mining. No threats are known in  Mozambique .
165795		threats	eng	Major threats include sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbance from dune mining in Kwazulu-Natal. It may also be impacted by the invasive snail <em>Tarebia granifera</em>.
165795		threats	eng	No data available.
165795		threats	eng	Probably sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbance.
165796		conservation	eng	A management plan is being developed for the Okavango River. However, this needs to be finalised and implemented. Information about the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts would be beneficial.
165796		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165796		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various Congolese populations and their relationships to similar morpho-species in western and southern Africa. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Aspatharia pfeifferiana</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
165796		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various Congolese populations and their relationships to similar morpho-species in Western and Southern Africa. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Aspatharia pfeifferiana</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
165796		distribution	eng	<em>A. pfeifferiana</em> has a wide distribution from Chad to Botswana, but in East Africa only known from a single locality in Uganda (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is widespread from Cameroon and Gabon, south through the Congo, it is known from the mouth up to the Chambeshi River in Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Appleton (1996) describes it as an uncommon species known only from Kunene, Okavango (including Delta) and upper Zambesi River systems. (see also Curtis 1991, Appleton and Curtis, in press). According to Graf and Cummings (2006) it is also found in the Kafue and Luangwa (this distribution is under <em>A. subreniformis</em>). It also is known from Nigeria to Zimbabwe and northern Namibia and South Africa.
165796		distribution	eng	<em>Aspatharia pfeifferiana</em> is widespread from Cameroon and Gabon, south through the Congo, from the mouth up to the Zambezi River in Zambia.
165796		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Appleton (1996) describes it as an uncommon species known only from Kunene, Okavango (including Delta) and upper Zambesi River systems. (see also Curtis 1991; Appleton and Curtis in press). According to Graf and Cummings (2006) it is also found in the Kafue and Luangwa (this distribution is under <em>A. subreniformis</em>).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Based on Mandahl-Barth (1988), <em>A. pfeifferiana</em> has a wide distribution from Chad to Botswana, but in East Africa only known from a single locality in Uganda (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165796		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Lake Chad and surrounding basins. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinuata</span> in Nigeria (Gledhill and Vidrine 2002) are considered to be <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pfeifferiana</span> (Kristensen, pers. comm.). It also occurs from Nigeria to Zimbabwe and northern Namibia.
165796		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
165796		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
165796		habitat	eng	It resides in river systems, lakes and reservoirs (Saliu 2002) . It provides habitat for two commensal water mites (Gledhill and Vidrine 2002).
165796		habitat	eng	Primarily a riverine species (Appleton 1996). Very little known regarding habitat and ecology - juveniles never found.<br/><br/>These species have a parasitic stage which rely upon fish for development and dispersal.
165796		population	eng	An apparently uncommon species in the southern region (Appleton 1996).
165796		population	eng	No information available.
165796		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).
165796		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165796		threats	eng	There are no current threats to the species. However, there are plans to build dams on Kunene (hydropower) and Okavango (smaller hydropower) in Namibia. The potential impacts of this would be to host fish species and to the species itself. <br/><br/>Currently there are mines in Zambia but their impacts are unknown.
165796		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
165797		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165797		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165797		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165797		distribution	eng	<em>Gabbiella kisalensis</em> ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, northern Mozambique, Gabon, Angola, northeastern Namibia and northern Botswana.
165797		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from the species is found in DRC, Zambia, Mozambique, Gabon, Angola, Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Gabbiella kisalensis</em> is found throughout the Congo River system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> northern Mozambique, the Kafue, Luangwa and upper Zambesi rivers in Zambia, the Okavango and the Cuije River systems in Angola, Namibia and Botswana. It is possibly more widespread in Angola.
165797		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Northern Mozambique, the Kafue, Luangwe and upper Zambesi rivers in Zambia, the Okavango and the Cuije River systems in Angola, Namibia and Botswana. Possibly more widespread in Angola.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> In addition to the regional distribution the species is found in the Congo River system and Gabon.
165797		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, lakes and residual pools.
165797		habitat	eng	Slowly flowing waters and residual pools on flood-plains (Brown et al., 1992).
165797		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, lakes and residual pools.
165797		population	eng	No information.
165797		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165797		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165797		threats	eng	No information available.
165797		threats	eng	No specific threats known.
165798		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently carried out to the species.
165798		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165798		conservation	eng	No information available.
165798		conservation	eng	Research into the distribution and ecology of this species is required.
165798		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known only from Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (Kuiper 1964; 1966).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Endemic to Africa, known from from Egypt to South Africa and westwards to Mali (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165798		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except Eritrea and Djibouti. Most widespread and common African species among the Pisidia.<br/><br/>The species has a Pan African distribution.
165798		distribution	eng	The species is found in Lake Victoria. It is considered the most widespread and common species among the <em>Pisidium</em> genus. It also occurs in several other places in Africa.<br/>.
165798		distribution	eng	This species is the most widely distributed of the African pisidia. It is known from Egypt to South Africa, and westwards to Mali.
165798		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and ubiquistic Afrotropical species. It is known from Egypt to South Africa and westwards to Mali (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Victoria. It is the most widespread and common species among the <em>Pisidium</em> species in East Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present in Egypt probably along the whole of the Lower Nile. It is not found in the Maghreb. Kuiper (1964) and Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> (1999) found it in Nile Delta only but it is rare there.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from all countries except Eritrea and Djibouti. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known only from Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (Kuiper 1964, 1966).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found throughout west Africa to Mali.
165798		distribution	eng	Widespread and ubiquistic Afrotropical species that in northern Africa is probably present along the entire Lower Nile in Egypt, but not in the Maghreb. According to Kuiper (1964) and Ibrahim (1999), it is known only from the Nile Delta. Its type locality is in Harasa, Sudan.
165798		habitat	eng	Documented to thrive in lakes.
165798		habitat	eng	Found in lakes and temporary and seasonal floodplain pans. Sandy substrata with organic debris up to 3m depth (Kuiper 1968).
165798		habitat	eng	It occurs in the river delta.
165798		habitat	eng	Pisidia are found both in lakes, rivers and small water bodies.
165798		habitat	eng	This species is documented to thrive in in lakes in East Africa, but also occurs in floodplains elsewhere.
165798		population	eng	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).
165798		population	eng	No information available.
165798		threats	eng	No information available.
165798		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are unknown.
165798		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165798		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to this species; drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
165799		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165799		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165799		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about habitat status, population size and distribution.
165799		conservation	eng	No information available.
165799		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165799		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes ovum</em> is known from scattered localities throughout much of tropical Africa.
165799		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes ovum</em> is known from scattered localities throughout much of tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in the coastal regions of Kenya, Burundi and Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from south Sudan and south Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the lower and middle Zambesi westward to Namibian border, and the Okavango delta and upstream as far as Bagani. It is found throughout Mozambique and Zimbabwe and southwards to Pongola River floodplain in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton 1996). It has also been recorded from an unknown locality in Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is common from Senegal to Chad.
165799		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Lower and middle Zambesi westward  to Namibian border. Okavango delta and upstream as far as Bagani. Throughout Mozambique and Zimbabwe and southwards to Pongola River floodplain in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton, 1996). It has also been recorded from an unknown locality from Angola (to be confirmed by T Kristensen.)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Scattered localities over a large area: Southern Sudan, Southern Somalia, coastal Kenya and southwards to  north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Westwards through Chad to South-western  Nigeria, southwards to Angola and the Okavango Delta, Zambesi and KwaZulu-Natal.
165799		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widespread in the coastal regions of Kenya, Burundi and Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa in scattered localities.
165799		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Sudan and south Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in the coastal regions of Kenya, Burundi and Lake Malawi. It occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa in scattered localities.
165799		distribution	eng	Within western Africa this species is common from Senegal to Chad. <br/>Elsewhere it has scattered localities throughout tropical Africa; southern Sudan, southern Somalia, coastal Kenya and southwards to northeast Natal.
165799		habitat	eng	Highly varied ranging from standing to slowly flowing waters. Reported in wetland areas characterised by muddy bottoms and vegetation to seasonal pools and irrigation systems (Brown 1994).
165799		habitat	eng	Highly varied. Standing and slowly flowing waters with muddy bottoms and vegetation, seasonal pans, rainpools, fishponds. Became a pest in rice paddies in Swaziland in the 1960s (Crossland, 1965).
165799		habitat	eng	It can be found in various waterbodies, standing and flowing, permanent and temporal.
165799		habitat	eng	This species is found in a range of habitats; standing and slowly flowing waters with muddy bottoms and vegetation, seasonal pans, rainpools, fishponds. It is abundant where it occurs.<br/><br/>It also plays host to a species of water mite (Gledhill 1985).
165799		habitat	eng	Various waterbodies, standing and flowing, permanent and temporal.
165799		population	eng	Brown (1994) states that a population of 75,000 snails/acre caused damage to rice plants.
165799		population	eng	Brown (1994) states that population of 75,000 snails/acre caused damage to rice plants.
165799		population	eng	Locally common benthic species. In the Okavango Delta it was recorded at 1 per square metre in channels.
165799		population	eng	No information available.
165799		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165799		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165799		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat, particularly from agricultural practises. This species is also harvested for human consumption.
165799		threats	eng	No information available.
165799		threats	eng	No known threats.
165799		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165799		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165800		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.
165800		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found only from the south east coast of Africa. It occurs in a coastal strip (to about 10 km max inland) of Mozambique, Komati estuary and South African coast to Knysna.
165800		habitat	eng	A rock and mangrove dwelling species found in fresh and brackish water (euryhaline species) (Appleton 2002, Brown 1996).
165800		population	eng	No information available.
165800		threats	eng	No specific threats known, but habitat degradation and loss, especially of estuaries and mangroves (which is occurring) is a likely threat. Another threat is the siltation of lagoons and estuaries which decreases tidal influence and the salinity of the water, this is occurs mainly as a result of poor agricultural practices inland.
165801		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of <em>Aspatharia rugifera</em> needs to be re-evaluated, and additional sampling is needed to assess population demography and other aspects of biology. Host-fish studies would be valuable for determining the effects of environmental change on the life cycle of the species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
165801		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from Cameroon south to Niari River in the DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aspatharia rugifiera</em> is known from coastal streams It is known from Cameroon south to the Niari River in Congo (Brazzaville). Limited specimen records also exist for this species from Senegal in western Africa (MNHN, Paris).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is only recorded from the confluence between the Chabicua and Kunene Rivers, Angola by Germain (1925) - this needs to be verified (Graf and Cummings 2006).
165801		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Only recorded from the confluence between the Chabicua and Kunene Rivers, Angola by Germain (1925) - this needs to be verified (Graf and Cummings 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Cameroon south to Niari River in the DRC.
165801		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
165801		habitat	eng	No information.
165801		population	eng	No information.
165801		population	eng	No information available.
165801		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Aspatharia rugifera</em>, but fresh waters in Cameroon are known to be impacted by the effects of logging, oil exploration, pollution and impoundments (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165801		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general
165802		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165802		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165802		conservation	eng	No information available.
165802		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165802		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia caffra</em> probably occupies much of the range known for the genus: Ethiopia and eastern Africa, southward into Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zimbabwe, and widespread in South Africa.
165802		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>B. caffra</em> is reported from the highlands of Ethiopia and East Africa, southwards into DRC, Angola and Zimbabwe with an isolated living population in Naukluftberge, Namibia. It is widespread in South Africa. The map follows Brown's (1994) suggestion that the distribution of this species probably follows that of the genus as a whole. It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.
165802		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Angola and Zimbabwe, widespread in South Africa. Isolated living population in Naukluftberge, Namibia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of South America (dos Santos 1990, 1998) cast doubt on this. <em>B. caffra</em> is reported from the highlands of Ethiopia and East Africa, southwards into DRC, Angola and Zimbabwe with an isolated living population in Naukluftberge, Namibia. It is widespread in South Africa.
165802		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is found in east, central and southern Africa. It occurs in Lake Tanganyika.
165802		habitat	eng	Found in streams and rivers.
165802		habitat	eng	Generally found in splash zone of&#160; lakes. In Lake Tanganyika recorded from 70 - 100 meters depth (Leloup 1953, in West <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Also thrives in tributaries flowing in to Lake Tanganyika (ref unknown).
165802		habitat	eng	It is found in streams, lakes and rivers.
165802		habitat	eng	Stones or vegetation in streams, but also found at 70-100m depth in Lake Tanganyika (Brown 1994).
165802		population	eng	No information.
165802		population	eng	No information available.
165802		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165802		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165802		threats	eng	No information, but habitat loss/degradation could be a likely threat
165802		threats	eng	No known major threats to this widespread species.
165802		threats	eng	No major threat to this widespread species.
165802		threats	eng	Pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.
165803		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165803		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known.
165803		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of or needed.
165803		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165803		distribution	eng	<em>Tympanotonus fuscatus</em> ranges from Senegal to southern Angola.
165803		distribution	eng	<em>Tympanotonus fuscatus</em> ranges from Senegal to southern Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found all along the coast of central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the river mouths along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Senegal to Cameroon.
165803		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> It inhabits river mouths along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal to southern Angola.
165803		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Angola.
165803		habitat	eng	Fresh and brackish coastal waters.
165803		habitat	eng	Inhabits brackish water.
165803		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish coastal waters and further upriver. Abundant where found.
165803		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish water.
165803		population	eng	Locally abundant.
165803		population	eng	No information available.
165803		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165803		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165803		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165803		threats	eng	No threats currently known.
165803		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165803		threats	eng	Oil spills may reduce populations significantly (Ewa-Oboho and Abby-Kalio 1994).
165805		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165805		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165805		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution. The taxonomy of the species is clear in the area, but not elsewhere.
165805		conservation	eng	None known.
165805		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165805		distribution	eng	According to Brown 1994 this species is limited to Lake Chad in the assessed area. However Same-Ekobo (1984) also found it in northern Cameroon.<br/>It is not endemic to the region, but found throughout the rest of sub-Saharan Africa.
165805		distribution	eng	<em>Ceratophallus natalensis</em> occurs in eastern Africa, ranging southwards into Cape Province. In central Africa, there are various localities for the species in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.
165805		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern Africa, and is known from the highlands of Ethiopia southwards to the western Cape, South Africa, though rarely found near the tropical coast (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There are various localities for the species in DRC and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is believed to be very widespread in eastern Africa, including western and south Kenya, south Uganda and north-western Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present on the Ethiopian Plateau (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Kunene River, Okavango delta, and throughout South Africa (unlikely to be present in the arid western parts and central Karoo of South Africa (Appleton, pers. comm.), Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is probably present in Swaziland.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> According to Brown 1994 this species is limited to Lake Chad within this region. However Same-Ekobo (1984) also found it in northern Cameroon.
165805		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Kunene River, Okavango delta, and throughout South Africa (unlikely to be present in the arid western parts and central Karoo of South Africa (Appleton pers. comm.), Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Probably present in Swaziland.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Eastern Africa from the highlands of Ethiopia southwards to the Western Cape, South Africa,  though rarely found near the tropical coast (Brown 1994).
165805		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Ethiopian Plateau (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.
165805		habitat	eng	Found in marshes, slow flowing streams, and rain pools.
165805		habitat	eng	Found in various permanent waterbodies.
165805		habitat	eng	It can be found in various permanent waterbodies.
165805		habitat	eng	Little is known but it does occur in marshes, slowly flowing streams and rain pools.
165805		habitat	eng	This species inhabits marshes, slowly flowing streams and seasonal pools, also lakes and rivers.
165805		population	eng	No data available.
165805		population	eng	No information.
165805		population	eng	No information available.
165805		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165805		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165805		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat. Also drying out for the Lake Chad population.
165805		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
165805		threats	eng	None known.
165805		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
165806		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165806		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165806		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In the region only known from the type locality; Murie stream, a tributary of the Cuanza River, Angola. The species could be more widespread as very little survey work has been undertaken.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Angola (type locality), DRC (plain south of the Congo River) and Congo Republic (Kouilou River).
165806		distribution	eng	This species is found from Angola, DRC and Congo Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Within Central Africa, <em>Melanoides recticosta</em> occurs in the plains south of the Congo River, and the Kouilou River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In the region it is only known from the type locality; Murie stream, a tributary of the Cuanza River, Angola. The species could be more widespread as very little survey work has been undertaken.
165806		distribution	eng	Within central Africa, <em>Melanoides recticosta</em> occurs in northern Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo Republic.
165806		habitat	eng	Found in streams with beds of mud or gravel.
165806		habitat	eng	It is found in streams with beds of mud or gravel. This species occurs in tributary streams with banks of sand. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
165806		habitat	eng	Streams with beds of mud or gravel. Occurs in tributary streams with banks of sand. Perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
165806		population	eng	No information.
165806		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165806		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165806		threats	eng	None known to be affecting the global population. Localised threats only.
165806		threats	eng	Unknown.
165807		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165807		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Type locality is Knysna river in southern Western Cape province but it &#160;has not been found there since. Type locality possibly erroneous (Appleton and Curtis in press). It is currently distributed in the Okavango system, Zambia, Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique and eastern South Africa to Durban.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Also found on Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165807		habitat	eng	Species has been found in sandy substrates in calm habitats in rivers, lakes and permanent streams.
165807		population	eng	Locally common.
165807		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165811		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165811		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known in Africa only from two localities (Siyayi river and Tongaat river) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Possibly occurs in-between these two locations and perhaps further north along the coast, possibly into Mozambique.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Madagascar, Indian Ocean Islands
165811		habitat	eng	Found in streams on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Occurs at the fresh and brackish water interface.
165811		population	eng	Unknown.
165811		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from dune mining, and industrial, residential and recreational development along the KwaZulu-Natal coast.
165812		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known, information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.
165812		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165812		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It is found from Zimbabwe and Zambia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Also found in Uganda (westernmost of the two crater lakes at Fort Portal and Buyende), Zambia, Zimbabwe.
165812		distribution	eng	This species is found in Uganda (westernmost of the two crater lakes at Fort Portal and Buyende), Zambia and Zimbabwe.
165812		habitat	eng	Type locality is crater lakes in Uganda. Genus found to be free living at the bottom, or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988).
165812		habitat	eng	Type locality is crater lakes in Uganda. The genus is found to be free living at the bottom, or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988)
165812		population	eng	No information.
165812		population	eng	No information available.
165812		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
165812		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
165813		conservation	eng	None required.
165813		distribution	eng	The species has a widespread distribution in the Indo-Malayan and Oceania realms. Recorded from India (throughout much of the country, including Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Tripura,   Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal), Sri Lanka (and is probably present in Bangladesh and Myanmar), Thailand (almost all provinces; Brandt 1974), Singapore (Tan and Woo 2010), Malaysia (peninsular, and possibly east Malaysia), Taiwan (Province of China), southern China (Guangdong, Hainan Province and Tibet, and likely to be more widespread; Chaniotis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1980), Indonesia,  Madagascar, the Pacific Islands, New Guinea,  Papua New  Guinea, and the Philippines, as well as Hawaii, north to Japan and south to the Society Islands. It has been reported in the Gangetic plains in India and its tributaries in Nepal  (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The  species has been very widely introduced in North (Abbott 1952), Central (Puerto Rico, Mexico and Venezuela), and South  America, as well as Cuba and throughout the Caribbean islands, to Africa (South  Africa, and likely to be more widespread within southern Africa), and is likely to have a wider introduced range than presented here.
165813		habitat	eng	Adaptable; the species is found in rivers (including tidal areas, though it does not tolerate high levels of salinity; Brandt 1974) and lakes, and a wide variety of anthropogenic habitats including pools, and canals.
165813		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known. However, this species is introduced to many parts of the world. Recent studies in the Gangetic plains recorded this species only from a  few places in the Ganga River near Patna (Bihar, India) and its  tributaries in Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
165813		threats	eng	Water pollution is the main threat to this species locally, but it is not likely to be threatened across its range.
165814		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165814		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165814		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165814		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra elata</em> occurs in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
165814		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra elata</em> occurs in southeastern DRC, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is found from southeastern DRC in the Lualaba River (part of the Congo system)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known to occur in the Okavango system from Rundu to the delta (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1992) and perhaps also in the Angolan part of the river upstream of Rundu - but this needs to be confirmed. In the Zambesi system it is found above the Victoria Falls (in Namibia) and in the upper Zambesi in Zambia and Angola but this also require confirmation. It appears not to be present in Lake Kariba itself (based on limited surveys) but does occur immediately below the dam at Chirundu. More survey work is required to identify the species full distribution.
165814		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It is known to occur in the Okavango system from Rundu to the delta and perhaps also in the Angolan part of the river upstream of Rundu - however this needs confirmation.  In the Zambesi system it is found above the Victoria Falls (in Namibia) and in the upper Zambesi in Zambia and Angola but again this needs confirmation. It appears not to be present in Lake Kariba itself (based on limited surveys) but does occur immediately below the dam at Chirundu. More survey work is required to identify the species full distribution.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> South-eastern  DRC in the Lualaba River (part of the Congo system), Upper Zambezi River, E Caprivi, Okavango River and Delta (Brown et al., 1992)
165814		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers.
165814		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and slow flowing waters of the Okavango delta.
165814		habitat	eng	Species found in slow flowing margins of rivers and waterbodies, not found in Lake Kariba.
165814		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is locally common.
165814		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
165814		population	eng	Not a common species. However it has been recorded on sand in the shallows of the Okavango River at 15 to 20 per square metre (Curtis & Appleton 1987).
165814		threats	eng	No known specific major threats to this species.
165814		threats	eng	No major threats to this widespread species.
165814		threats	eng	Proposed dams on the Okavango River could have serious impacts upon the species as it appears not to tolerate standing  water as evidenced by its absence from Lake Kariba.
165815		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165815		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
165815		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
165815		conservation	eng	No information available.
165815		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165815		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus natalensis</em> occurs mainly in eastern and southern Africa. In Cameroon it occurs in western crater lakes separated from its main range by over 2,000 km.
165815		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is known from Ethiopia to the coastal regions of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Similar snails occur in the western crater lakes in Cameroon (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in eastern Africa from Kenya southwards.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in Lakes Zwai and Awasha (Ethiopia) (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in East coast drainages down to northern KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga lowveld and perhaps Swaziland. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in four crater lakes in Western Cameroon: Nchout Monoun, Monoun Ngouondam, Petponoun-East and Petponoun-West (Arouna and Remy 2005) but these are separated from its main range by over 2,000 km, and identification as <em>B. natalensis</em> needs confirmation.
165815		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> East coast drainages down to northern KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga lowveld and perhaps Swaziland. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> From Ethiopia to the coastal regions of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Similar snails occur in the western crater lakes in Cameroon (Brown, 1994).
165815		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Lakes Zwai and Awasha, Ethiopia (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widely distributed in eastern Africa from Kenya southwards.
165815		distribution	eng	This species is found in four crater lakes in Western Cameroon: Nchout Monoun, Monoun Ngouondam, Petponoun-East and Petponoun-West (Arouna and Remy, 2005). It also occurs in eastern and southern Africa.
165815		habitat	eng	Found all types of freshwater.
165815		habitat	eng	It can be found in various waterbodies. Crater lakes in Cameroon.
165815		habitat	eng	This species is only found in crater lakes in this region, but in other areas it is found in various water bodies, including small pools, slowly flowing rivers, lakes (Brown, 1994). This species is not a host for schistosome parasites.
165815		habitat	eng	Various waterbodies. Crater lakes in Cameroon.
165815		habitat	eng	Various water bodies including small pools, lakes and slow flowing rivers (Brown 1994).
165815		population	eng	Locally abundant species. The most common species in Lake Sibaya.
165815		population	eng	No information available.
165815		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165815		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165815		threats	eng	Crater lakes are at risk of CO<sub>2</sub> 'burping'. They are also suffering from human induced habitat degradation.
165815		threats	eng	Human induced habitat loss and water pollution are likely to be threats: habitat disturbance is a particular threat as it lives in the margins of the crater to a depth of one metre. Explosions and release of poisonous gas venting from under the crater lakes is also a threat.
165815		threats	eng	No information available.
165815		threats	eng	None known.
165817		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
165817		conservation	eng	No information available.
165817		conservation	eng	None.
165817		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
165817		distribution	eng	<em>Bulinus tropicus</em> is mainly an eastern and southern African species. In central Africa, it occurs in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
165817		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa. It is known from the Ethiopian highlands to Western Cape (South Africa) and Namibia, but not found over most of the eastern coastal region (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in northeastern DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported to be widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in central Namibia to the Okavango River (not the delta), South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique.
165817		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Central Namibia to the Okavango River (not the delta), South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Eastern and southern Africa, from the Ethiopian highlands to Western Cape (South Africa) and Namibia, but not found over most of the eastern coastal region (Brown 1994).
165817		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been reported to be widespread. Has been reported in areas like Lake Naivasha.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in southern Africa.
165817		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from the Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from eastern and southern Africa.<br/>.
165817		habitat	eng	Adaptable to many regional wetlands including streams, seasonal dams and lakes.
165817		habitat	eng	Common in small earth dams and residual pools in seasonally flowing streams, it also occurs in marginal vegetation  of perrenial rivers and in rainwater pools (Brown et al 1992).
165817		habitat	eng	Earth dams and residual pools of seasonally flowing streams. Also found in some lakes.
165817		habitat	eng	It is found in impoundments behind earth dams, swamps and residual pools of seasonally flowing rivers and streams. Also found in some lakes.
165817		population	eng	Common.
165817		population	eng	No information available.
165817		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
165817		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
165817		threats	eng	No information available.
165817		threats	eng	None known.
165822		conservation	eng	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. </p>
165822		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Southeast Asia eastwards to the Line Islands (certainly Kiribati and possibly US Line Islands) (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded from Indonesia (Lieseke and Myers 1994), Kiribati (Myers 1991), Naura (Myers 1991), the Solomon Islands (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009), and Papua New Guinea (Lieseke and Myers 1994). It has been observed at depths of 10 to 110 m.
165822		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from outer coral reef slopes, rocky ledges and drop-offs, where it is usually observed as solitary animals, in pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001). It feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).
165822		population	eng	In general the species is common with stable populations.
165822		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection of specimens is limited and is not believed to constitute a threat.<br/></p>
165823		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place, however it almost entirely occurs at Johnston Atoll which is within the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. Additional research into the biology and natural history of this species is needed to better determine its vulnerability to possible stochastic threats (e.g., ocean warming events).<br/></p>
165823		distribution	eng	This species is found at Johnston Atoll in the central Pacific; a single specimen was collected in the Hawaiian Islands (Kosaki 1989, R. Kosaki pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths of 25-75 m.
165823		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep outer coral and rocky reef slopes, and is usually found on rubble substrates (Kosaki 1989).
165823		population	eng	<p>Little is known about the population status of this species, however it is common at Johnston Atoll and is believed to have stable populations within its limited range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, M. Craig pers comm. 2009, R. Kosaki pers. comm. 2009).</p>
165823		threats	eng	This species has a highly restricted distribution with the entirety of its population confined to reef habitat in the Johnston Atoll, with a limited area of occupancy.<br/><br/>In the Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000,  Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species restricted distribution oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.
165824		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no specie- specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas. Additional field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution of this deepwater species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165824		distribution	eng	This little-known species is known only from Rarotonga Island of the Cook Islands in the South Pacfic, although it likely occurs in other areas in the southeastern tropical Pacific. It has been recorded at depths of 55-120 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165824		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from coral rubble areas, ledges and caves on steep outer reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm.). Natural diet is unknown; it forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).
165824		population	eng	<p>Little is known about the global abundance or population status of this species, although it is locally abundant at Rarotonga, and generally presumed to be stable (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
165824		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>While it possibly has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <br/><br/><p></p>
165825		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a small number of marine protected areas in Cape Verde and São Tome.</p>  <p></p>
165825		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the eastern Atlantic region, where it ranges from Cape Verde and Senegal in the north to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south (including the Gulf of Guinea islands). Found at depths of 1-40 m.
165825		habitat	eng	This species is associated with clear water rocky reefs. It has a non-specialized diet.
165825		population	eng	It is very common in Cape Verde and São Tome (L.A. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). The status of the coastal population in West Africa and Central Africa is poorly known but is considered likely to be stable (L.A. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).
165825		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no threats to this species.<br/></p>
165826		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p><p><br/></p>
165826		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has been reliably reported only from the Java Sea, Indonesia. Records from elsewhere (e.g., Philippines and Taiwan) are most likely attributable to other species notably <span style="font-style: italic;">C. caeruleopunctatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cephalareticulatus</span>. The most recent sighting was approximately eight years ago at Karimnjawa, Java Sea in 20-25 m depth.
165826		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known, but populations are probably found on deep rocky reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
165826		population	eng	The population abundance is not well known, although it seems to be a relatively rare species   (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006)
165826		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165827		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas (the Ogasawara Islands are possibly protected).</p>  <p></p>
165827		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ogasawara (= Bonin) Islands and the relatively isolated Minami-Tori-Shima (= Marcus) Island (both of Japan) (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). It is usually found at depths between 25 and 60 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165827		habitat	eng	This little-known deep dwelling species is generally associated with the outer slopes of coral reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165827		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165827		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has not been collected for the marine fish aquarium trade.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165828		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present in many marine protected areas (e.g., Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument of Hawaii).</p>
165828		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species occurs throughout the Indo-west and central Pacific, ranging from East Africa (Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania) in the east, throughout the Indo-Malayan region and tropical Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (both USA) and the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia). It is found as far north as southern Japan ranging to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths between 3-60 m.
165828		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas with coral rubble in lagoon channels and over outer reef slopes (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can often be found in small loose groups. It feeds on algae.
165828		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations throughout its range.
165828		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting and habitat loss is localized and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165829		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.
165829		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the central and eastern Indian Ocean and Indo-Malayan region, eastward to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and the Caroline Islands (Federated States of Micronesia and Palau), northward to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and as far south as New Caledonia (France) and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Pyle 2001). It is found at depths of  between 5-30 m.
165829		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of prolific coral growth in lagoons, channels and outer reef slopes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is especially associated with areas that have caves and large crevices. It occurs as solitary animals or in pairs. This species feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).
165829		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165829		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>
165830		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is not believed to be present in any marine protected areas.
165830		distribution	eng	This species is known from several scattered localities in the eastern Pacific including Raivavae and Rapa Iti in the Austral Islands (French Polynesia), Pitcairn Islands (UK) and Easter Island (Chile) (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between 14-45 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165830		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky or coral reef areas with abundant crevices (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The natural diet is unknown. It forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165830		population	eng	<p>It is generally common (being abundant at Easter Island [R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009]) with stable populations.</p>
165830		threats	eng	<p>Although it has a restricted distribution, there appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165831		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.<br/></p>
165831		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, where it ranges from the Gulf of Aden in the north to Kwa-Zulu Natal (South Africa) in the south, with populations also recorded from the Seychelles, Comoros Islands and Madagascar (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually recorded between between 1-30 m in depth.
165831		habitat	eng	This relatively little-known species has been recorded from shallow reefs, often with rich coral growth and rocky reefs.
165831		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165831		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.<br/></p>
165832		conservation	eng	<p>Present in several conservation areas throughout its range. The collection and sale of this species in Bermuda is prohibited by law. <br/></p>
165832		distribution	eng	This West Atlantic species has been recorded from Bermuda, the Bahamas, Florida to Yucatán, including the Gulf of Mexico, and as a vagrant north to New Jersey (Burgess 2002). This species has been recorded at depths between 2-92 m, but is most common between 5-25 m.
165832		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs. Feeds primarily on sponges and small benthic invertebrates (Burgess 2002).
165832		population	eng	This species is common in coastal reefs with turbid waters in Florida, and in deep reefs in the Gulf of Mexico.
165832		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165833		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.
165833		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Arabian Peninsula including the Red Sea (around Eilat [Israel] and Jeddah [Saudi Arabia]), the Gulf of Oman (common near Muscat) and the Persian Gulf (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It ranges as far south as Kenya on the East African coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of between 4-50 m.
165833		habitat	eng	Usually found in coral-rich areas, rocky areas, and protected silty bays with coral.
165833		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165833		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade and subsistence fisheries is localized and do not seem to affect the global population.</p>
165834		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Johnston Atoll and also form part of the The <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.<br/></strong>
165834		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago and Johnston Atoll (Allen 1980, Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985, Mundy 2005, Endoh 2007). It is seldom seen at depths of less than 10 m (Allen 1980, Endoh 2007) but has been recorded as deep as 183 m at Johnston Atoll (Randall 1985). It is most abundant between 25-50 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165834		habitat	eng	This species is most often found in locations with rocky reefs, particularly where there is an abundance of ledges and caves (Allen 1980). It has been less frequently observed in areas of rich coral (Allen 1980). Endoh (2007) notes that juveniles occur in rocky areas at greater depth. The diet largely consists of sponges, with some algal matter (Allen 1980, Endoh 2007).
165834		population	eng	It is abundant (especially in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and on deep reefs in the main Hawaiian Islands) but infrequently seen. Anecdotal reports suggest that populations on Oahu at scuba diving depths may have declined (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). There do not appear to have been any reported declines on other islands, and the global population is believed to be stable.
165834		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) reports unpublished 2007 data from the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (HDAR) that this species is targeted by the aquarium trade, and has substantially declined in abundance within normal diving depths on heavily collected reefs.
165835		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It occurs in some marine protected areas.<br/></p>
165835		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and the tropical western Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded from Mozambique and Tanzania in the west, to Samoa in the east, and from southern Japan in the north of its range to New Caledonia and northern Australia in the south. It is found at depths of 10 to 80 m.
165835		habitat	eng	Inhabits outer coral reef slopes and drop-offs at depths of 10 to 80 m, where it occurs as solitary animals in pairs, or in small loose groups (Pyle 2001). It is most likely encountered on outer reef drop-offs due to its preference for steep slopes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles secretive and occur below 25 m (Myers 1991). This species feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).
165835		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165835		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165836		conservation	eng	<p>There do not appear to be conservation measures in place for this species. The species does not appear to have been recorded from any marine protected areas. This species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and reef-restricted habitat.<br/></p>
165836		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to Clipperton Island (France) in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is present nearshore at 6-10 m, but also occurs at deeper depths to 100 m (Baldwin 1963, Allen 1980). Clipperton Island has an estimated area of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, and less than 4 km<sup>2 </sup>of reef habitat.
165836		habitat	eng	There appears to be little information other than it has been collected at a coral atoll locality (Clipperton Island).
165836		population	eng	Baldwin (1963) reports that it was fairly common close to shore. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish is commonly seen and locally abundant at Clipperton Island.
165836		threats	eng	<p>This species has a highly restricted distribution with the entirety of its population confined to reef habitat in the Clipperton Atoll,with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than <10 km<sup>2</sup>. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species restricted distribution, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.<br/><br/></p>
165837		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165837		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Bermuda, to Florida (USA), the Bahamas, and the southern Gulf of Mexico to northern South America. Found at depths of 5-80 m.
165837		habitat	eng	Associated with reef and rocky regions in warm waters. Prefers depths of 30 m or more, but can be found in moderate numbers in much shallower waters. Moderately secretive and territorial, but inquisitive. Feeds on algae and small benthic invertebrates (Burgess 2002).
165837		population	eng	This species is not common.
165837		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is relatively limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165838		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species probably occurs within some marine protected areas.</p>
165838		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from scattered locations in the north-east Indian Ocean and western Pacific including the Spratly Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Marshall Islands, Cocos Keeling Islands (Australia), Fiji and Guam (USA) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is an unconfirmed report from the Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands, Japan. Found at depths of 20 to at least 100 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165838		habitat	eng	This seldom seen species inhabits, ledges crevices and caves on steep outer reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The natural diet is unknown. It forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165838		population	eng	It appears to be uncommon but is believed to have stable populations.
165838		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.</p>  <p></p>
165839		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within some marine protected areas.</p>
165839		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, where it ranges from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south to the island of Zanzibar (Tanzania) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded between 3-30 m in depth.
165839		habitat	eng	This species is usually found along protected shallow shoreline reefs with a rich growth of hard and soft corals, often mixed with occasional areas of silty substrate. It is a solitary, relatively shy species, that is not easy to approach (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Usually observed near large crevices or caves on the reef, and seldom venture away from these refuges (Allen 1980). It feeds mainly on sponges and tunicates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165839		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165839		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is limited to a few locations and does not seem to represent a global threat.<br/></p>
165840		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.
165840		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-Malayan region to the Solomon Islands and east and west coasts of Australia (including the Rowley Shoals) and New Caledonia (France), north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and Palau (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Pyle 2001, R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It occurs between 1-60 m in depth.
165840		habitat	eng	This species is known from coastal, lagoon and outer reef slopes in clear or murky water. It tends to show a preference for coral-rich areas, especially on steep reef walls. The juveniles are more common on shallower protected reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates. Usually solitary or in pairs (Pyle 2001).
165840		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165840		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>
165841		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The populations of Howland Island and Baker Island are within the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.<br/></strong></p>
165841		distribution	eng	This Pacific Ocean species is distributed from the Gilbert Islands to the Line Islands (Pyle 2001). Localities include: Kapingamarangi Atoll (eastern Caroline Islands [Federated States of Micronesia]) (Allen 1980); Canton (Phoenix Islands [Kiribati]); Nauru (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006); Howland Island and Baker Island (USA); and Fanning Island<strong> </strong>(<strong>=</strong>Tabuaeran) and Christmas Island (<strong>=</strong>Kiritimati) (Kiribati) (Endoh 2007). It is found at depths of 10 to 65 m (Pyle 2001).
165841		habitat	eng	This species inhabits outer reef slopes and drop-offs, where it can be encountered as solitary individuals, in pairs or as small groups (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded in the vicinity of coral reefs in lagoons, on seaward reef slopes, and in channels connecting these two zones (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001). Juveniles occur on deep outer reef ledges.
165841		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165841		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165842		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within some marine protected areas.<br/></p>
165842		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean where it has been recorded along the East African coast from Delagoa Bay (Mozambique) to Knysna (South Africa). Animals have been reported at depths between 5-30 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165842		habitat	eng	Associated with rocky reefs and shoreline areas. Juveniles may be encountered in shallow tidal pools. Groups of adults (20 to 30 animals [Endoh 2007]) can occasionally be seen swimming above reefs in mid-water, sometimes coming close to the waters surface when feeding on plankton (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165842		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165842		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is very limited and localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>
165843		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no specie- specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.</p>
165843		distribution	eng	This widespread species is distributed throughout the Indo-Malayan region in the west to the southwestern Pacific Ocean in the east, and from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) in the north to New Caledonia and Fiji in the south (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has recently been recorded from Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has been recorded between 20-80 m in depth.
165843		habitat	eng	This species is usually associated with outer reef slopes among rich coral growth or in rubble areas, often interspersed with sandy substrate (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is also frequently seen at the base of outer reef drop-offs. Animals usually occur in pairs or small harems of one male with several females (3-7 individuals). This species feeds on zooplankton up to a few meters above the bottom (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165843		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165843		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165844		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165844		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Indian Ocean where it has been recorded from localities in Mauritius (including Rodrigues), Reunion, Sri Lanka, the east coast of India, and the Maldives (Allen 1980, Randall and Anderson 1993, Fricke 1999, Letourneur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It has occasionally been recorded from western Thailand (Allen and Stone 2005), with a single recent record from Sulawesi (Indonesia) (M. Craig pers. comm. 2009). It is found from around 5-45 m.
165844		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coral reefs and rocky reefs, where it occurs as solitary individuals or in pairs (Allen 1980).
165844		population	eng	It is likely to be common throughout its range, though Endoh (2007) states that it is common only in the Maldives.
165844		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>
165845		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165845		distribution	eng	This species is known in the western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea south to KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), including Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius and Réunion. It has also been recorded from northwestern Sumatra (Weh Island) (Allen and Adrim 2003). It is found at depths of 15-70 m.
165845		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderate to deep waters on steep slopes. A single male is usually seen with several females.  Feeds on plankton several meters above the bottom.
165845		population	eng	<p>There is little population data available for this species, however it is generally considered common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It appears to be rare along coastal Africa (Allen 1980). In the Red Sea it is relatively common in the Gulf of Aqaba at depths between 25 and 50 m (Allen 1980).<br/></p>
165845		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165846		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is not known to be present within any marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165846		distribution	eng	This little-known species has only been recorded from a few localities in the South Pacific including the islands of Raivavae and Rurutu in the Austral Islands (French Polynesia), Dulcie Atoll in the Pitcairn Islands (UK Overseas Territory), and the island of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It is typically found at depths ranging from 30 to at least 80 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165846		habitat	eng	Populations are usually found at outer rock and coral reef slopes where they form zooplankton-feeding aggregations that swim in mid-water (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Harems of two to five animals may be formed (Pyle 2001). The diet is probably supplemented by benthic organisms (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165846		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165846		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165847		conservation	eng	<p>Although there appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place, the Lord Howe population is within the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters), it is also expected to be present within marine protected areas on the coast of New South Wales (such as </a>the Solitary Islands Marine Park). Additional general research is needed into the natural history of this poorly-known species.<br/></p>
165847		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southwest Pacific where it has been recorded from northern New South Wales (Coffs Harbour, Ballina, North Solitary Islands) and Lord Howe Island both in Australia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 10-80 m depth (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165847		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. It is generally associated with coral and rocky reef habitats (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found singly or in pairs (Endoh 2007).
165847		population	eng	There is little known about the general abundance, although it appears to be a naturally rare   species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165847		threats	eng	<p>  Although the species has a limited range, there is no collection for the aquarium trade, most populations are within well-managed protected areas, it is a deepwater species with no habitat degradation expected, and consequently there appear to be no major threats. </p>
165848		conservation	eng	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within some marine protected areas. </p>
165848		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the central and western Pacific where it ranges east from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia), and as far south as the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It may be encountered at depths of between 8-45 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165848		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with outer coral reef slopes, but may also encountered on shallower lagoon reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae; forms harems of two to four animals (Pyle 2001).
165848		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165848		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165849		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas (e.g., the Ogasawara Islands).<br/></p>  <p></p>
165849		distribution	eng	This western Pacific species ranges from southern mainland Japan through the Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands (both Japan) to the southwestern tip of Taiwan and the Philippines (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Unconfirmed report of a vagrant from Palau. It is typically encountered between 6-30 m in depth.
165849		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky seaward reefs and rubble areas, particularly where algae growth is extensive. Animals are usually encountered in small groups, most often observed grazing on mats of filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165849		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165849		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165850		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165850		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to central Indonesia (western Java, Bali, Komodo, Flores, Sulawesi, and northeastern Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah), and the Philippines (Sulu Archipelago, Cebu, and southern Luzon), occurring at depths of about 5-30m (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2010). Records from other areas represent misidentifications of other similar species.
165850		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal and outer rocky or coral reefs, often exposed to strong currents and cool upwelling (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates; animals are solitary or encountered in pairs (Pyle 2001).
165850		population	eng	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165850		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165851		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.
165851		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. It ranges from coastal eastern Africa (including South Africa) in the west, through the Indian Ocean to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa in the Pacific Ocean. It has been recorded as far north as southern Japan, ranging as far south as the east coast of Australia and Lord Howe Island (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-40 m.
165851		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are generally associated with protected coastal reefs with rich coral growth (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The adults are sometimes seen in caves and on wrecks. Juveniles tend to prefer shallow reefs mixed with sandy substrates. Food items include sponges, tunicates and algae (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165851		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165851		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>
165852		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165852		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the eastern Indian Ocean across most of the Pacific Ocean from Cocos-Keeling Island (Australia) to the Society Islands (French Polynesia), northward to the southern Ryukyu Islands (= Nansei-shoto) (Japan) and south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Can be found at depths of 7 to 70 m, usually living in excess of 20 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165852		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in crevices and caves on steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs. It is occasionally observed on shallower lagoon reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is a secretive species that rarely moves far from an escape hole. Natural diet unknown; forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).
165852		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165852		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is no substantial habitat loss. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165853		conservation	eng	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within some marine protected areas. </p>
165853		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of the Red Sea, from the Gulf of Aqaba southward, and occurs in the adjacent Gulf of Aden (Allen 1980). It has been recorded from Socotra Island (Yemen). Recently recorded from the Andaman Sea at western Thailand (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Transient population recorded from Kenya following 1998 El Niño event (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has been observed between 10 to 80 m.
165853		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coral reefs and rocky reefs, where it is usually observed in pairs or less frequently in small groups. It probably feeds on algae, sponges, and benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980).
165853		population	eng	This species is generally common with stable populations.
165853		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165854		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas, although it is assumed that populations are present within the Aldabra World Heritage Site.<br/></p>
165854		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the islands of Mauritius, Réunion, and Aldabra (Seychelles) in the southwestern Indian Ocean (Fricke 1999, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 48-90 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165854		habitat	eng	This little-known species is associated with steep outer rocky reef drop-offs and caves, especially where vertical walls are covered with algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Endoh 2007).
165854		population	eng	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165854		threats	eng	<p>While it has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>
165855		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no specie- specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165855		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean, ranging from the Maldives and Sri Lanka to north-western Australia, through much of Indonesia as far east as Flores (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is most frequently encountered between 3-25 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165855		habitat	eng	Coral rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs, occasionally in surge channels. Most common in shallows (above 20 m), but also occurs below 25 m. Usually occurs in harem groups comprised of a single male and several females. Feeds mostly on filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165855		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165855		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>
165856		conservation	eng	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas (e.g., the Ogasawara Islands). </p>
165856		distribution	eng	This species ranges along the western Pacific Ocean rim from the northern Philippines to the island of Taiwan; the Ryukyu and Izu Islands, the Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands (all three in Japan); and southern mainland Japan (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 15 to over 200 m in depth (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
165856		habitat	eng	This species is often found as harem groups of a single male and several females on the seaward slopes of rocky or coral reef areas (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165856		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations. In Japan it is generally rare except around the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands.
165856		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is very limited and is not impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165857		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely to be present within several marine protected areas.</p>
165857		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from coastal northern Australia (from northwestern Western Australia to Queensland), the Aru Islands (Indonesia) and southern Papua New Guinea, southward to Lord Howe Island (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Endoh 2007). It is found at depths of 5-20 m.
165857		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow coastal and continental shelf coral reefs, most commonly on open flat areas or over rock and coral-covered substrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates  (Pyle 2001). It usually forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).
165857		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165857		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There does not seem to be substantial habitat loss within the species range.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165858		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument.</p>
165858		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the northwestern Pacific Ocean where it may be found from central and southern Japan to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (USA). In Japan it has been recorded along the southern coast extending from Tosa Bay (Shikoku) to Tokyo (Honshu), being particularly common at Izu Peninsula, and is found as far south as the Izu Islands and the Ogasawara (= Bonin) Islands. Within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands it is known from Midway Atoll and Kure Atoll to as far south as Pearl and Hermes Atoll (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Although Shen (1993) reports in from Taiwan, this requires confirmation. It can be found at depths of 15 to 60 m (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165858		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with rocky shores and areas of moderate coral growth at the foreslope (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165858		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165858		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no substantial habitat loss, there is limited collection for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165860		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.
165860		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Indo-west Pacific region from Christmas Island (Australia) in the west, throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago, to Vanuatu and the Marshall Islands in the east, and from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Ranges in depth between 1-25 m.(G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165860		habitat	eng	Coral rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs, occasionally in surge channels. Most common in shallows (above 20 m), but also occurs below 25 m. Usually occurs in harem groups comprised of a single male and several females. Feeds mostly on filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165860		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165860		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is regularly collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>
165861		conservation	eng	<p>This species is almost entirely limited to the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area with collection of animals prohibited in Mexican waters (Endoh 2007). This species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and shallow reef-associated habitat.<br/></p>
165861		distribution	eng	This eastern central Pacific species appears to have a limited distribution. It is primarily found around the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), including Clarion Island (Isla Clarión). Occasional vagrants are recorded from the southern tip of Baja California (Mexico), the southeastern Gulf of California (Mexico), and Clipperton Island (overseas possession of France). It is found at depths of 3-30 m.
165861		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear water rocky reefs. Little additional information is currently available on the natural history of this species.
165861		population	eng	This species is considered abundant at the Revillagigedo Islands where an estimated 99% of the total population is present, and presumed to be stable. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish is considered vagrant at Clipperton Island, with fewer than 20 individuals recorded.
165861		threats	eng	<p>This species has a restricted distribution with the majority of the population confined to a reef habitat in a single location (two locations if Clarion is considered separate from the other three islands), and its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than <50 km<sup>2</sup>. It has previously been collected for the aquarium trade. <br/></p><p>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.<br/><br/></p>
165862		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures known for this species. It is present within several marine protected areas.
165862		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Indian Ocean and the western and central Pacific Ocean. It ranges from coastal East Africa and the Red Sea in the west to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia), Line Islands (Kiribati and USA). It is a vagrant in the Hawaiian Islands (USA). Populations have been recorded as far north as southern Japan (including the Ogasawara Islands [=Bonin Islands] and Izu Islands) to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), New Caledonia (France) and the Austral Islands (French Polynesia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between depths of 1-100 m (Pyle 2001).
165862		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of habitats with individuals usually reported from coastal and outer reefs, deep lagoons, often in areas of rich coral growth (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is commonly seen near ledges and caves. The juveniles usually occur under ledges or in holes on shallow reefs. It feeds mainly on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165862		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165862		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>
165863		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is commonly encountered at the Raja Ampat Islands within gazetted MPAs.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
165863		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in eastern Indonesia including the seas surrounding northeastern Sulawesi, the Moluccan Islands, Halmahera, and West Papua Province (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs at depths between 5-40 m.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
165863		habitat	eng	This species is usually encountered on outer reef slopes or flat areas exposed to occasional strong currents and cool upwelling. It is frequently associated with localities containing rich growths of sessile invertebrates such as gorgonains and seawhips (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).  Juveniles are sometimes found in sheltered coastal bays (5-15 m) with small coral outcrops on muddy substrates.
165863		population	eng	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165863		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165864		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas.</p>
165864		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered localities mainly in the western Pacific Ocean. Records include Tahiti in the Society Islands (French Polynesia), Guam (a single specimen), Palau, Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Cook Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the Philippines (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006), Japan (Okinawa) (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), and southern Indonesia (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has also been recorded from Cocos-Keeling Atoll (Australia) in the eastern Indian Ocean. The species is probably widespread, but undetected in many areas due to its deep habitat (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between 25-100 m, being uncommon below 50 m.
165864		habitat	eng	Populations of this species inhabit steep outer rocky reef slopes and drop-offs (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on plankton, with animals forming harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165864		population	eng	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165864		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165865		conservation	eng	This species is present in some protected areas, for example the Abrolhos Marine National Park, Brazil. A maximum quota of 5,000 specimens for export from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels. It will be included in the Sao Paulo State Red List (A. Carvalho-Filho pers. comm. 2009), which will regulate trade.
165865		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Lesser Antilles, Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles), Venezuela on the northern coast of South America and southern Brazil (Burgess 2002, L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). The type specimen was collected in about 15 to 20m deep in a patch of staghorn coral, but specimens have been taken in traps off Saint Lucia in excess of 300 m (Burgess 2002).
165865		habitat	eng	This species is associated with reef and rubble rock areas. It appears to be territorial, always maintaining a certain distance from their neighbors.   Feeds mainly on algae and sponges.
165865		population	eng	Common among isolated patches of staghorn coral <em>Acropora cervicornis</em> in the southern Caribbean. In Brazil, it is abundant and stable over rubble bottoms of the state of Espirito Santo and Bahia, and common in deep reefs in the northeastern coast. There are accounts of up to 75% localized declines in abundances in the Brazilian states of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo as a result of harvesting for the aquarium trade (C.E.L. Ferreira pers. comm. 2009).
165865		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is extraction for the aquarium trade, especially in Brazil, where it is sold both locally and exported to the US and Europe.   While there is evidence of localized declines due to commercial collection, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population.
165866		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The Lord Howe population is within the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters), and the Kermadec Islands population is within the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve. </a></p>
165866		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lord Howe Island (Australia) and the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand) in the south-western Pacific Ocean (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can be found at depths of 10 m, but is more abundant below 35 m and has been recorded up to 100 m (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
165866		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with the outer slopes of deep coral reefs and rocky reefs. It is often seen in harems of four or five animals (Endoh 2007).
165866		population	eng	It is fairly common at Lord Howe Island, but its is reported to be uncommon elsewhere in its range. Populations are generally thought to be stable.
165866		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is extremely limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165867		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures. It occurs within several marine protected areas throughout its wide range.<br/></p>
165867		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago and western edge of Micronesia, including Rowley Shoals (off Western Australia), New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, northwards to the Philippines Islands, Palau and Yap Island (Federated States of Micronesia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 3-40 m.
165867		habitat	eng	This species is associated with areas of rich coral growth in lagoons, channels and on outer reef slopes. The juveniles are mostly in shallow protected reef areas. Usually solitary or in pairs. The diet is comprised mostly of sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).
165867		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165867		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for aquarium trade does not seem to influence the global population.<br/></p>
165868		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. In view of the species extensive distribution it is presumably present in some protected areas.<br/></p>
165868		distribution	eng	This western Pacific species has been recorded from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan); Taiwan; Hong Kong; the Philippines; Indonesia; Papua New Guinea; the Solomon Islands; Palau; Kapingamarangi (Caroline Islands, Federated States of Micronesia); the Great Barrier Reef (Australia); and New Caledonia (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Occupies depths from 10 to at least 70 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165868		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in rich coral areas and sometimes over rubble, most usually on sheltered outer reefs, but also in lagoons and passages (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae; forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165868		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165868		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165869		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There do not appear to be any marine protected areas surrounding Réunion. Further studies are needed into the natural history and possible threats to this little-known species.</p>
165869		distribution	eng	This little-known species has only been recorded from the island of Réunion (Mauritius) in the Indian Ocean (Fricke 1999). It might also be distributed around the islands of Mauritius and Madagascar although this needs confirmation (Allen 1980). It has been recorded at depths of 60 to 80 m.
165869		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well known. It is found on deep outer rocky reefs. The species is only known to occur in depths not safely accessible to conventional scuba divers (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It was first collected using gill nets between 60 and 80 m at Réunion (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165869		population	eng	It is known only from a very few specimens, and is considered to be uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165869		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is insufficient information available to determine if there are any major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
165870		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The Lord Howe population is within the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters). </a></p>
165870		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the southern Coral Sea, southern Great Barrier Reef (Australia) and adjacent coast, south to central New South Wales (Australia), New Caledonia (France), Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Norfolk Island    (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has generally been recorded at depths of 20 to 40 m (Steene 1978).
165870		habitat	eng	Populations of this species inhabit outer coral reefs (Pyle 2001). The juveniles are frequently seen shallower in lagoons, harbors or protected bays especially in areas of abundant soft coral (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates; and forms pairs (Pyle 2001).
165870		population	eng	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165870		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is rarely collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165871		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165871		distribution	eng	This species is widely dispersed in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. It ranges from East Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa) to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia) in the South Pacific, extending northwards to the Izu Islands (Japan), and as far south as Lord Howe Island (to Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is not found in the Red Sea, Hawaii (USA), and southeastern Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). Found at depths of five to 50 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165871		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coral reefs of lagoons, rubble areas and exposed outer slopes. It is most abundant on outer reef drop-offs (Pyle 1991, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can be found as single animals or in aggregations, often as harems of three to seven individuals (Myers 1991, Pyle 1991). This species feeds on algae (Myers 1991, Pyle 1991).
165871		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.<br/></p>
165871		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165872		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In view of the species wide range it seems possible that populations are present in a number of marine protected areas.<br/></p>
165872		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western and central Pacific, where it ranges from the island of Taiwan in the west to the Cook Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), and north from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) as far south as New Caledonia and the Austral Islands (French Polynesia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is more rarely found in the Australia-New Guinea region (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually encountered at depths between 12-81 m.
165872		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are often found at steep seaward reefs and drop-offs, most frequently in areas swept by strong currents. It occurs in small or large mixed sex aggregations (including harems of two to five animals) which swim in mid-water, high off the bottom (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The diet mostly consists of plankton supplemented with benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165872		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165872		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165873		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165873		distribution	eng	This wide ranging species is distributed throughout the Indo-west Pacific region. It ranges from coastal East Africa (north of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) in the west, through the Indian Ocean to Indonesia, the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Solomon Islands in the east. It ranges from as far north as southern Japan to the island of New Caledonia (France) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-60 m.
165873		habitat	eng	Populations of this species inhabit coastal reefs, and is sometimes encountered in caves, on wrecks, or underneath jetties in sheltered coves or harbors (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is frequently seen in murky water. It is most usually encountered singly or in pairs. This species feeds on zooplankton, sponges, and tunicates (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165873		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations. Steene (1978) suggests that the species is rare in the eastern portion of its range.
165873		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165874		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument.<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong></p>
165874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago (USA) where it is more common in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is found at depths beginning at 10 m to at least 150 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165874		habitat	eng	This species is found over rocky reefs and on outer reef slopes. It feeds on the green algae <span style="font-style: italic;">Codium</span>, planktonic organisms, and fish eggs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles occur at depths of 60 m and greater.
165874		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165874		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is extremely limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165875		conservation	eng	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas (e.g., the Ogasawara Islands).
165875		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific Ocean, where it is known only from the Northern Marianas Islands, Guam, and the Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands (Japan). It is also reported from the Izu Islands (Japan), where it is probably a vagrant. Records from Palau and the Philippines (Dioneda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), need to be confirmed. It ranges at depths between 10 to 56 m (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001).
165875		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in exposed outer reef slopes on mixed substrata of both living and dead corals with numerous shelter holes and passages. Animals are sometimes encountered in coral-rich areas of clear lagoons (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on benthic algae. The species forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165875		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165875		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165876		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165876		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species is found throughout the western and northern Indian Ocean, where it ranges from the East African coast (Tanzania and Mozambique) and Red Sea (Oman) in the west to western Thailand and Sumatra (Indonesia) in the east. There is a questionable record from Darwin on the north coast of Australia (Steene 1978). It may be present in Madagascar, but this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded at depths of 1-30 m.
165876		habitat	eng	Populations of this species are usually found over rubble areas close to coral reefs, but may also be found among coral in lagoons and on outer reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165876		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is the most abundant member of the genus in the Indian Ocean, being particularly common at the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165876		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species, however a localized population decline of 33% in association with general habitat degradation occurred following a 1998 coral bleaching event in the Seychelles Islands (Spalding and Jarvis 2002).</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
165878		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165878		distribution	eng	This species is known from throughout the Central Pacific Ocean, with records from the Ogasawara Islands and the Ryukyu Islands (both Japan) to the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), excluding Hawaii and Johnston Atoll (both USA), as well as an unusual population in the insular eastern Indian Ocean. Also reported from the Coral Sea and Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Pyle 2001). Records from the western side of its distribution (Palau, Philippines, New Guinea, Indonesia, and Japan) are likely vagrants (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). It is found from 3-25 m and perhaps deeper.
165878		habitat	eng	Coral rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs, occasionally in surge channels. Most common in shallows (above 20 m), but also occurs below 25 m. Usually occurs in harem groups comprised of a single male and several females. Can undergo male to female sex change, which takes two to three months. Feeds mostly on filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165878		population	eng	It is common and stable at localities throughout Micronesia, exceptions being at Palau and Yap where it is rare. The species is generally uncommon within the Indo-Australian Archipelago, Caroline Islands and at Easter Island (presumably vagrants) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165878		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is regularly collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165879		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165879		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Bermuda, Georgia and Florida in the USA, throughout the Caribbean to Rio de Janeiro in southeastern Brazil (Carpenter 2002). In the Gulf of Mexico it only occurs in the Flower Gardens Banks (Texas, USA), Veracruz (Mexico) and Campache Bank (Mexico). It is found at depths of 3-92 m.
165879		habitat	eng	Inhabits a variety of habitats including rock jetties, rocky reefs and rich coral areas (Allen 1980). Juveniles are commonly found in stands of the stinging coral <span style="font-style: italic;">Millepora</span>. This species has a non-specialised diet.
165879		population	eng	This species is the most common angelfish on the coral reefs of the tropical western Atlantic (Allen 1980).
165879		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165880		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas and populations are believed to be present in these.<br/></p>
165880		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is distributed from the Gulf of California in the north to coastal Peru in the south. Populations are present at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), Malpelo Island (Colombia), and Cocos Island (Costa Rica). It is found from 1-80 m in depth.
165880		habitat	eng	This species is typically found over rocky areas with clear water (Allen 1980). It feeds on sessile invertebrates, algae and plankton but is more specialised to feed on sponges. Females are more territorial and form pair bonds with the males. The adults clean parasites from sharks (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165880		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of its range. This species was studied in different sites in the Galapagos Archipelago, being the second most abundant species in that region, with an overall mean abundance of 13.2 individuals/500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). This fish was studied in the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) with a density of 0.01 ±0.01 ind./m<sup>2</sup>. This low density may be due to great exploitation of this fish for aquaria activity. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.002 ±0.009 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, and a relative abundance of 0.066% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site study survey at Catalinas Islands this fish could be observed in all sites, with an overall observations of 92 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">H. passer</span> is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common — 1-5% of the overall abundance registered — with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured just once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline bottoms, frequent in sandy substrata while occasional in rocky bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 2.128 ±1.511 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 98.8%.
165880		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade (Fenner 1995, Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005); however, this is not thought to be major threat to the global population. This species was affected by El Niño during the 1997/98 event, with a temporary population decline of more than 50%, but had returned to pre-El Niño numbers by 2000.<br/></p>
165881		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165881		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in north-western Australia, from the Abrolhos Islands in the north to off the Kimberly coast in the south (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from 10-40 m in depth.
165881		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coastal and inner reefs and nearby flat areas with rocky or coral-covered outcrops (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is generally seen alone or in small aggregations (Steene 1978).
165881		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.<br/></p>
165881		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is very limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There does not seem to be substantial habitat loss within the species range.</p>  <p></p>
165882		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p><p><br/></p>
165882		distribution	eng	Populations of this species are distributed at southern Japan, southern Korea, China and the island of Taiwan (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2010). It is found at depths between 5-60 m.
165882		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of rocky or coral-covered coastal reefs (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually observed as single animals (Allen 1980). It feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).
165882		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165882		threats	eng	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>
165883		conservation	eng	This species is present in numerous protected areas. A maximum quota of 10,000 specimens for export from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels.
165883		distribution	eng	This species is known in the Western Atlantic, from  Florida (USA) and Gulf of Mexico to Brazil, the Caribbean including Antilles and south American coast, and in the Eastern Central Atlantic at  St. Paul's Rocks (Brazil). It occurs at 1-70 m in depth.
165883		habitat	eng	Found on coral and rocky reefs.  Generally occurs solitarily or in pairs.  Stomach contents of 26 specimens indicate that the species feeds almost exclusively on sponges supplemented by small amounts of algae, tunicates, hydroids and bryozoans.  The young pick ectoparasites from other fishes.
165883		population	eng	It is common around shallow reefs in the Caribbean and Brazil.
165883		threats	eng	<p>Collection by the aquarium trade is a local threat to some populations, however, there are no apparent major threats to the global population. The population at St. Paul's Rocks is potentially susceptible to overcollection. However, St. Paul's Rocks is a very isolated island, only accessible by boat, and is located 1,000 miles from the Brazilian coast. Thus, collection of specimens from this island is very expensive.</p>
165884		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas throughout its range.</p>  <p></p>
165884		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Indo-Pacific region, where it ranges from Japan in the north to Indonesia (including the Mentawai Islands), east to the Bird's Head Peninsula (Randall and Rocha 2009) of New Guinea, and southward to northern Australia (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded between 1-20 m in depth.
165884		habitat	eng	It is found in areas of rich coral growth on silty inner coastal reefs and lagoons. Adults occur alone or in pairs. Feeds on sponges, tunicates and algae&#160; (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165884		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.<br/></p>
165884		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165885		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known species-specific conservations measure for this species, however its wide range includes several protected areas.<br/></p>
165885		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widely distributed throughout the Indo-west and central Pacific, from the Red Sea to the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), northwards to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and south to New Caledonia (France). It is found at depths of 1-80 m.
165885		habitat	eng	Occurs in coral rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs to a depth of 80 m or more.  Often found in the vicinity of caves and feeds on sponges and tunicates.  Juveniles are cryptic, remaining well hidden in cracks and crevices. Solitary or in pairs, or in groups (Pyle 2001).
165885		population	eng	<p>It is a common species, with generally stable populations throughout its range.<br/></p>
165885		threats	eng	<p>While animals are collected extensively for the aquarium trade in some areas, this does appear to constitute a major threat to the species. There are no other major threats to the species.<br/></p>
165887		conservation	eng	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas. A maximum quota of 3,000 specimens for export from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels.</p>
165887		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic from New York (probably not overwintering north of Florida) (USA), throughout the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, to Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) (Burgess 2002). Reported by Burgess (2002) to have been introduced to Bermuda. It is found at depths of 2-30 m.
165887		habitat	eng	Fairly common on coral and rocky reefs. Seen mostly in pairs, but also as individuals and in small groups. They feed on various invertebrates (mostly sponges) and algae (Burgess 2002).
165887		population	eng	This is a relatively common species with stable populations.
165887		threats	eng	<p>Collection for the aquarium trade is a local threat, but it does not seem to be affecting the population globally.<br/></p>
165888		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>
165888		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Malayan region in the west, to the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu in the east, being found as far north as southern Japan, southward to the Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 10-50 m.
165888		habitat	eng	Populations most often occur on seaward coral and rocky reef slopes and steep drop-offs, with animals sometimes seen in more protected areas (e.g., near the wharf at Samarai Island, Papua New Guinea) (Steene 1978). This species forms aggregations that swim well above the bottom, feeding on zooplankton (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found in harems of between three to seven animals (Pyle 2001).
165888		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165888		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165889		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The distribution overlaps with several protected areas and populations of this species are believed to be present in a number of these.</p>
165889		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It ranges from the northern Gulf of California (from Puerto Peñasco, Mexico) in the north, to Peru in the south. This species may be vagrant in southern California (USA), the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and Malpelo Island (Colombia); it has not been recorded from Clipperton Island (France). It is usually found at depths of 6-12 m, but can occur up to 50 m.
165889		habitat	eng	It is typically associated with rocky reefs and adjacent sandy areas (Allen 1980, Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). The juveniles can be found in tidal rock pools. Adults often range widely over the reef in pairs or loose aggregations whereas juveniles tend to be territorial and solitary. The diet consists largely of colonial tunicates and sponges (Allen 1980). Breeding occurs from midsummer to early fall and juveniles are most abundant from August through November.
165889		population	eng	This species is common and generally stable throughout its range on the continental coast, but is considered more uncommon at the extremities of its range. It has not been observed recently in Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) nor Malpelo Island (Colombia).<br/><br/>This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) with a density of 0.01±0.01 ind./m<sup>2</sup>. This low density may be due to great exploitation of this fish for aquaria activity. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.006±0.009 ind./m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.154% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be rarely observed in just two sites, with five overall observations (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. zonipectus</span> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce at 0.1-1% of relative abundance (Villarreal-Cavazos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2000). However, it is frequently seen at Cabo Pulmo, but primarily as individuals or in pairs (Lea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989).<br/><br/>In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline bottoms, frequent in sandy substrata while occasional in rocky bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.009±0.040 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 6.1%.
165889		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats for this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade (Fenner 1995, Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but the impacts of collection are believed to be localized.<br/></p>
165890		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas at the Cocos-Keeling Islands.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165890		distribution	eng	This species is known only in the eastern Indian Ocean from the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australia) and Christmas Island (Australia). It is found from a depth of 15 to at least 70 m, occasionally being found at 8-10 m (Allen 1980).
165890		habitat	eng	It is found in coral or rubble areas on steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs. It is generally found in small groups of four to five individuals, but occasionally is encountered in pairs or as solitary individuals (Allen 1980).
165890		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its range and populations are generally thought to be stable.
165890		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>While it has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is only occasionally collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
165891		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is present in the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters) and is presumably present in several marine protected areas along the eastern Australian coast.<br/></a></p>
165891		distribution	eng	This western Pacific species is distributed along the eastern coast of Australia (from Queensland [rare on the Great Barrier Reef] to New South Wales) southward to Lord Howe Island (Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 10 to 50 m. Adults are usually found deeper than 30 m, but juveniles are often seen shallower on the protected inner reefs and around jetties (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165891		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coastal reefs and lagoons on open flat bottoms with rock and coral patches, frequently with sponge and seawhip growth (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates, and may be found as solitary individuals, pairs, or small groups (Pyle 2001).<p></p>
165891		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165891		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There does not seem to be substantial habitat loss within the species range.</p>  <p></p>
165892		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and possible threats to this little-known species are needed.</p>
165892		distribution	eng	This little-known western Pacific species has been collected from Macclesfield Bank (a disputed territory close to the Paracel Islands), about midway between Viet Nam and the Philippines in the middle of the South China Sea, and from Wakayama and Kochi prefectures, southern Honshu (Japan) and the Ryukyu Islands (Japan). It likely occurs in between known localities where there is suitable deepwater habitat available. It has been reported from depths of around 20-80 m, but is believed to primarily inhabit depths in excess of 60 m.
165892		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is not well-known. It occurs on rock and coral bottoms (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Only juveniles are observed near coasts (Endoh 2007).
165892		population	eng	The population abundance and status of this species is not well known, although it appears to be relatively rare (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165892		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>While it is poorly-known there appear to be no major threats to this species overall. There is no substantial habitat loss within its range, and any collection for the marine aquarium fish trade is unlikely to impact the global population.<br/></p>  <p></p>
165893		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within some marine protected areas.</p>
165893		distribution	eng	This western Pacific species ranges from the eastern parts of Indonesia to Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987), the Solomon Islands, Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia) (Pyle 2001), Palau (Myers 1999), Vanuatu, Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), American Samoa (Steene 1978), Samoa (Wass 1984) and the Great Barrier Reef (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths from 3-20 m.
165893		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rubble and thick, rich, coral areas, often characterized by abundant encrusting sponges in crevices (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165893		population	eng	This species is extremely cryptic and is seldom seen by divers (Pyle 1991). The populations are likely to be stable overall.
165893		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>
165894		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may be found in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). More information on population, habitat and ecology are needed. Catches need to be monitored in the aquarium trade.<br/></p>
165894		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cebu, central Visayas.
165894		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated (Lieske and Myers 1994) and feeds on sponges&#160;and tunicates. Maximum size from collected specimens is 14.0 cm (TL) (Allen 1985).
165894		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodontoplus caeruleopunctatus</span> is known only from the type specimen collected by an aquarium fisherman in Cebu in 1972 (Yasuda and Tominaga 1976, Anonymous 1999). There is no population trend information available for this species.
165894		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species may come from habitat destruction associated with cyanide and/or blast fishing. It is exported, although rarely, through the aquarium trade (Pyle 2001).
165895		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>
165895		distribution	eng	This species is present in the western Indian Ocean, where it ranges from Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the west to the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand to Indonesia (Allen and Adrim 2003) in the east (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is unclear whether the species is present in the Andaman Islands (India). It is found at depths between 3-20 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165895		habitat	eng	This species is associated with areas of coral rubble (with little coral growth) and reef margins (G.R. Allen pers. comm.). It occurs in small groups over this semi-open substrate.
165895		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165895		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade, but harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165896		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present in a few marine protected areas.<br/></p>
165896		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from numerous island groups throughout western and central Oceania. Records include Palau; the Caroline Islands (Federated States of Micronesia and Palau); Guam (USA); Republic of the Marshall Islands; the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati); Fiji; Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003); the Cook Islands; and the Society Islands (French Polynesia). Vagrants have been recorded from the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found between 20-90 m.
165896		habitat	eng	This species can be found at steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs in deep water, usually among coral rubble or under ledges, between areas of rich coral growth (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It typically forms harems of three to seven individuals.
165896		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations, for example it is common around the island of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia.<br/></p>
165896		threats	eng	<p>There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species, it is only occasionally collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats overall.</p>
165897		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. Johnson Atoll forms part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. It is likely to be present in additional protected areas.<br/></p>
165897		distribution	eng	This poorly-known species has been recorded from a number of scattered locations in the central and western Pacific including Johnston Atoll (USA); Fanning Island (= Tabuaeran) Kiribati; the Northern Mariana Islands; Guam; the Admiralty Islands (Papua New Guinea); Ouvéa Atoll (Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia); the Samoan Islands (presumably present in both Samoa and American Samoa) and likely occurs at other areas within this general range (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is typically encountered at depths between 4-15 m (Allen 1980).
165897		habitat	eng	This species is generally associated with areas of dead coral rubble in lagoons, and on outer reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165897		population	eng	While this species appears to be relatively uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable. It is a very cryptic species that is seldom seen except for at collecting stations using poison (Pyle 2001). No live specimens are believed to have been collected to date.
165897		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>      While it is a poorly known species, it has a wide distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is not threatened by the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.</p>  <p></p>
165898		conservation	eng	<p>  This species is present within many marine protected areas. A maximum export quota of 5,000 specimens from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels.</p>
165898		distribution	eng	This species is found from Florida and the Bahamas to Brazil and straggling north to New York in the Gulf Stream. Has been introduced to Bermuda but not established, however, rare waifs reported from Bermuda. Also reported from St. Helena and Ascenscion Islands in the eastern Atlantic (Burgess 2002). It has been reported as vagrants from West Africa (Allen 1980). Present at depths of 3-100 m.
165898		habitat	eng	This species is common in shallow rocky and coral reefs.  It is usually found in pairs, often near sea fans.  The species feeds on sponges, algae, bryozoans, zoantharians, gorgonians and tunicates.  Spawning pairs are strongly territorial, with usually both members vigorously defending their areas against neighbouring pairs. Juveniles tend cleaning stations where they service a broad range of clients, including jacks, snappers, morays, grunts, surgeonfishes and wrasses.
165898		population	eng	Relatively common throughout its range with stable populations.
165898		threats	eng	<p>The only threat is collection for the aquarium trade, however, present harvest levels do not seem to be impacting the global population.<br/></p>
165899		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Johnston Atoll forms part of the The <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.</strong></p>
165899		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (USA) and Johnston Atoll (USA) in the central Pacific (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Adults are usually found below 10 m and seen to at least 120 m.
165899		habitat	eng	Populations are usually associated with rocky, rubble or coral-covered areas often of seaward reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae and general detritus.
165899		population	eng	It is usually very common with stable populations, but is less abundant at Johnson Island (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).
165899		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165900		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within some marine protected areas.</p>
165900		distribution	eng	This species is found along the western Pacific Ocean rim from the island of Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and Izu islands (Japan) in the north, to the Philippines in the south (recorded from the north of Luzon Island) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is an unconfirmed report of a vagrant from Palau (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths between 10 to 40 m (Pyle 2001).
165900		habitat	eng	This species is often found in caves and ledges, usually on steep outer coral and rocky reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Natural diet unknown; forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).
165900		population	eng	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>
165900		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>While it has a relatively limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.</p>  <p></p>
165901		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In view of the species large range it seems probable that populations are present within several protected areas (e.g., Lord Howe Island Marine Park).<br/></p>
165901		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region, being distributed from the northwestern Australian coast and Christmas Island (Australia) in the east, throughout Indo-Australian Archipelago to Vanuatu and Tonga in the west, and from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It ranges from 4-35 m in depth.
165901		habitat	eng	Populations inhabit coral and rubble areas in lagoons and on seaward reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae. It forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165901		population	eng	It is generally common with stable populations.
165901		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>
165902		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures currently in place for this species. It is found in several marine protected areas.<p></p>
165902		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from the Indo-Malayan region eastward across the tropical Pacific Ocean to the Line Islands, northward to southern Japan, and southward to New Caledonia (Pyle 2001). It is found at depths of 1-25 m.
165902		habitat	eng	Areas of rich coral growth on seaward facing reefs, drop-offs and in lagoons. Also occurs in rubble areas. Most commonly observed between 3-20 m. Swims close to the bottom grazing on algae, but never strays far from shelter of reef crevices. Occurs singly, in pairs, or small aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).
165902		population	eng	Populations are stable and common throughout most of its range, but it is rare at Palau to the eastern Caroline Islands, Marianas Islands, and Marshall islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrant to the Line Islands (single specimen collected at Christmas Island, Kiribati). It is a common species at New Guinea and on the Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978).
165902		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population.   There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
165903		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas. Additional field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution of this deepwater species.</p>
165903		distribution	eng	This little-known species is known only from Rarotonga island of the Cook Islands in the South Pacfic, although it likely occurs in other areas in the southeastern tropical Pacific. It is found at depths of 100 to at least 120 m.
165903		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from ledges and caves on steep outer coral reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm.). The natural diet is unknown; it forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).
165903		population	eng	Little is known about the global abundance or population status of this species, although it is locally abundant at Rarotonga, and generally presumed to be stable (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).
165903		threats	eng	<p>While it possibly has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>
165905		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.
165905		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs primarily in the Iberian Peninsula, mainly along the Mediterranean coast, but it has also been found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Algeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). Cobos (1959) in a catalogue of Iberian Eucnemidae indicates that it does not occur beyond the <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>, but Chassain (1991) states that it is also found in Cerdanya<span lang="EN-GB">, in the region of Mont-Louis (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>).</span></p>
165905		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decayed wood of broad-leaved trees. It has been collected from <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus nigra</span>, and from forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus lycioides, Quercus faginea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>. The adult is crepuscular or nocturnal. This species is difficult to find and is easily overlooked.
165905		population	eng	This species has been found in 31 localities along the Mediterranean coast so it is considered to be relatively common.
165905		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species.
165907		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. In Greece, it is present in the Pholoe plateau forest (9,723 ha) which is a  protected area, but this did not protect the site from a fire in 2007.<br/><br/>A fire protection plan is needed for all known sites.
165907		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Europe and in the Balkans. <br/><br/>In Italy it is present in Calabria and in Sicily (Dajoz 1975).<br/>    <p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> it occurs on some places in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In particular it was found in Pholoe, north-eastern of <st1:city w:st="on">Olympia</st1:city>, Ilia-Arcadia boundary on <em>Quercus frainetto</em>. There is also a record from Aghios Nikolaos, Eurytania (central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>) but it is possibly erroneous (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).<u1:p></u1:p></p><p>It also occurs in Slovenia and the Caucasus.</p>
165907		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in   decayed wood of broad-leaved<span lang="EN-GB"> trees, more often in larger pieces that are wet and not sun exposed.   In Greece it lives in areas where there are fallen trees of <em>&#160;</em><em>Quercus frainetto</em> and <em>Pinus halepensis, </em>but it has only been found in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, not the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. It seems to feed on almost everything edible in the dead wood (fungi, dead insects and other animal remains). It prefers wet biotopes not exposed directly to the sun &#160;probably to keep the humidity of the trunk high. Ideally it is found on dead trunks in mountain springs and water pools (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).  <span calibri?,?sans-serif?;color:#1f497d?=""></span>
165907		population	eng	It seems to be a rare species with fragmented population in Europe.<br/><br/>In Greece it has only been found as single specimens in fallen trees (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).
165907		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the destruction of old trees in the areas in which it occurs. In Greece most of the Pholoe plateau forest (780 m above sea level), its habitat, was burned in a fire in  July 2007.
165908		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla patens</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected several countries and included in national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Czech Republic: Classed as Critically Endangered (Holub and Procházka 2000) and protected in highest category.</li><li>Estonia: Listed as Near Threatened (Lilleleht 2008)</li><li>Finland: Endangered (EN) A2ac; C1+2a(i) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<br/></li><li>Germany: Critically Endangered (level 1) (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Hungary: Critically Endangered (Király 2007) and strictly protected</li><li>Latvia: included in Red Data Book (Andrušaitis 2003), protected and collection is forbidden.</li><li>Lithuania: Vulnerable (Rašomavičius 2007), protected and collection is forbidden</li><li>Slovakia: Classified as Endangered and protected in four Natura 2000 sites covering 77.8% of its localities in Slovakia (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011)</li><li>Sweden: Near Threatened (Gärdenfors 2010)</li><li>Russia: Classed as Vulnerable (VU) A4c (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010)</li><li>Ukraine: Included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) and protected in the reserve Medobory, in the national parks Podilski Tovtry and Desnjansko-starogutskij and in many protected areas and nature monuments in Ukraine.</li></ul><span lang="CS"><span lang="CS"><span lang="CS">The species occurs in protected areas, and especially Natura 2000 sites throughout its range. In terms of conservation measures, it is recommended to cut grassland swards with this species only after their dissemination (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).<br/><span lang="CS"><span lang="CS"><span lang="CS">  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><span lang="CS"><span class="shorttext1">  <p><span class="shorttext1">&#160;</p></span></span></span></span>
165908		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla patens</span> is native to eastern and Central Europe, Sweden and Poland and extends into western Siberia. It can also be found in several regions of Russia (Central, Eastern, Northern, Northwestern and Southern European Russia and Kaliningrad) (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). In Ukraine, it grows in the lowland part from the Polesian lowland to the northern part of the steppe zone, and it is rare in the eastern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
165908		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry coniferous forests,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus sylvestris</span> woodland south of the taiga,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea</span> taiga woodland, forest fringes and clearances in forests, almost bare rock pavements, including limestone pavements, steep slopes, dry grasslands and sandstone rocks   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is known to grow on ranker soil and in dry sand steppe on acidic soil (in Hungary). In Ukraine, it is a member of the associations <span style="font-style: italic;">Querceto-Pinetum molinietosum, Peucedano-Pinetum, Festuco-Pinetum sylvestris</span> and found in steppe communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometea </span>class. <br/><br/>This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>2180 Wooded dunes of the Atlantic, Continental and Boreal region</li><li>4030 European dry heaths</li><li>40A0 Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub</li><li>6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Alysso-Sedion albi</span></li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6260 Pannonic sand steppes</li><li>9010 Western Taïga</li><li>91T0 Central European lichen Scots pine forests</li></ul>
165908		population	eng	The population has been estimated for many countries (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>Czech Republic: 15 localities and 1,500-2,000 tufts, slowly decreasing</li><li>Estonia: 56,000 - 57,000 tufts</li><li>Lithuania: 96 -100 localities</li><li>Latvia: 100 - 200 local.</li><li>Poland: 500 - 1,450 localities</li><li>Sweden: 40,000 individuals</li></ul>In the Baltic States, there are still new populations being found after forest  fires but near big cities the populations are decreasing. Overall a slow decline has bee noted. In Germany, the species is only found at one locality near Munich. It was present in further federal estates but is now extinct in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg and Berlin (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). In Hungary, there is one locality with less than ten flowering individuals and a decreasing trend. Most populations disappeared several decades ago.<br/>In  Slovakia the richest subarea is in the Slovenský kras Karst, more  northward there are sporadic occurrences in the Slovenské rudohorie Mts  (Predné holisko Mt.), Spišské kotliny Basins (Primovce) and Slánske  vrchy Mts (Kapušany). In the past it was present in localities from the  Záhorská nížina Lowland (between Lozorno and Plavecký Štvrtok and  between Bílkové Humence and Senica) and on other sites in the Slovenské  rudohorie Mts (Štós) and Spišskzé kotliny Basins (Spišské Vlachy) (Mereďa  and Hodálová 2011). The Slovakian populations in the  Slovenský kras Karst include hundreds to thousands of individuals; in  the remaining areas the number of plants on individual sites is low. In the Ukraine, the populations are small in area and number of individuals. The population density reaches eight individuals/m² in forest habitats and ten individuals/m² in steppe habitats.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span>
165908		threats	eng	In grasslands, the abandonment of grazing regimes or lack of mowing and cutting is a threat as it leads to vegetation succession and overgrowth with woody plants that increases the competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatilla patens</span>. Forest plantations and forest management can impact this species as it is light demanding and can be outcompeted by other plants not only due to the closing of the tree layer but also the moss layer - it needs a natural forest dynamic. A management regime that keeps open places in forests will benefit this species, even artificial fires. Quarrying of sand and gravel can be a threat to the species but in other cases help the species to find new open habitat. Invasion of species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus polyphyllus</span> cause a loss of habitat quality and increase competition. <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Collection of the species is a threat. Further negative affects are posed by f<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>ertilisers and eutrophication from agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
165910		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, some of this species' habitat is protected through the establishment of Marine Protected Areas in the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> (Geoghegan <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is commonly collected for the aquarium trait (Thresher 1980), however breeding and farming programs are being developed (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003).</p>  <p></p>
165910		distribution	eng	<p>This is a tropical species, which is found on coral reefs in Bermuda, southern <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state> and the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean Sea</st1:place> (Randall 1968).&#160;</p>
165910		habitat	eng	<p>This is a shallow water fish, which is commonly found at depths of three to five m (although it can be found at depths down to 25 m below sea level) (Thresher 1980, Humann 1994). It maintains territories on the reef face, but often swims in the water column above the reef to feed on plankton (de Boer 1980, Humann 1994). It is a fairly solitary species, which is often seen alone or in small groups, and it tends to stay close to the reef (Thresher 1980). Juveniles are found close to the bottom to escape predators (Thresher 1980). The males of this species are solitary spawners that have a solitary breeding territory. They spawn with numerous females and guard the eggs until the planktonic larvae hatch (after approximately three days) (Thresher 1980).</p>
165910		population	eng	<p>There is no population information for this species, however it is considered to be abundant in the Caribbean and common in <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state>, the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bahamas</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> (Randall 1968).</p>
165910		threats	eng	<p>This species is commonly collected for the aquarium trait (Thresher 1980). It is unknown to what level it is being collected, however the Family Pomacentridae tends to be one of the most intensely collected fish groups, making up almost half of the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al.</em> 2003). Furthermore, the Indo-Pacific lionfish has been invading the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> and tropical Atlantic coast. The lionfish has been found to reduce the abundance of coral reef fish due to its rapid population explosion and aggressive behaviour (Hixon <em>et al</em>. 2009). Degradation of coral reef habitats in the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> has also led to a significant decline in the density of coral reef fish for more than a decade (Paddack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The loss of live corals due to climate change is also likely to reduce the density and diversity of coral reef fish species (e.g. Graham <em>et al</em>. 2006).</p>
165912		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.</p>
165912		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northeast coast of Australia. It is found in the tropical waters of the Coral Sea, Queensland (McCulloch 1930, Munro 1956). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1,500,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
165912		habitat	eng	<p>This is a demersal fish species that lives on the continental slope, down to approximately 2,500 m (Munro 1956, Sazonov and Markle 1999). Data on its mode of reproduction are not available, however for species in this family fecundity tends to be low (Sazonov and Markle 1999).</p>
165912		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
165912		threats	eng	<p>There are no specialized fisheries for this species, however it may be trawled as bycatch of deep-sea fisheries (Sazonov and Markle 1999).</p>
165913		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Population dynamics, habitat and ecology should be further investigated in the future.</p>
165913		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the northwestern Pacific. It is found in the deep-water off <st1:city w:st="on">Honshu</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, and Okinawa Trough, <st1:place w:st="on">East China Sea</st1:place> (Kido 1985, Chernova <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 650,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
165913		habitat	eng	<p>This species is bathydemersal and can been found at depths of 1,000 to 1,188 m (Kido 1985, Chernova <em>et al</em>. 2004).</p>
165913		population	eng	<p>There is no population information on this species, however it is only known from two records (Kido 1985).</p>
165913		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to this species.</p>
165914		conservation	eng	This species has been given the heritage rank of G3, vulnerable, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007, NatureServe 2009). A recent ecohydrological study of the Quinebaug River has identified key areas which require action, including a reduction in low-flow times by pulses of water from upstream, reservoirs, restoration of the rivers connection with adjacent floodplains, and&#160;identifying&#160;causes&#160;of temperature fluctuation and sources of pollution with a view to mitigation (NEIWPCC 2004).<br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its taxonomic status, distribution and threats.
165914		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few locations in central and western&#160;Massachusetts, USA (Mathews and Warren 2008, Mathews <em>et al.</em> 2008), notably the Quinebaug River in Worcester County. This species was also collected from a pond near Charlton, from the East Branch on the Ware River, Lake Ripple near Grafton, the Millers and Housatonic rivers, Puffers Pond near Amherst and the East Branch of the Swift River (Mathews and Warren 2008). This species range may be more extensive as&#160;differentiation&#160;between this species and <em>Orconectes virilis</em> is difficult (Mathews and Warren 2008, Mathews <em>et al.</em> 2008), meaning previous specimens of<em> O. virlis</em> may in fact represent the present species.
165914		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small and medium size streams with gravel and rocky substrate, usually found under and among rocks or patches of vegetation (Mathews and Warren 2008). In addition this species may be found in shallow ponds with muddy substrate with fewer rocks (Mathews and Warren 2008). This species is&#160;usually&#160;found in association with the closely-related <em>Orconectes virilis, </em>the females of which are difficult to distinguish&#160;morphologically&#160;from the present species (Mathews and Warren 2008). This species is&#160;also&#160;found in&#160;association&#160;with <em>Orconectes limosus </em>and <em>Procambarus acutus.&#160;</em>
165914		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although within suitable habitat this species was found to occur in dense subpopulations (Mathews and Warren 2008). In addition, during summer months large numbers of juveniles can be observed in suitable habitat (Mathews and Warren 2008).
165914		threats	eng	The Quinebaug River, from which the type specimen of this species was collected, has a history of impoundment, channelization and industrial use (NEIWPCC 2004). In addition it is likely to have been harvested in the past, mistaken for <em>Orconectes virilis</em> (Taylor <em>et. al</em>. 2005). There is ongoing decline in the quality of this species habitat across much of its range (K. Crandall and L. Mathews pers. comm. 2010). It is thought that this species may in fact be hybridising with <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes virilis</span> (L. Mathews pers. comm. 2010).
165915		conservation	eng	<em>Orconectes hathawayi </em>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 and are considered Vulnerable due to limited range by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).
165915		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orconectes h. hathawayi </em>is found in the Teche-Bayou Boeuf and Bayou Blue systems, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mermenteau</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> system in Rapides, possibly Evangeline, and Allen Parishes (Walls 2009).</p>
165915		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orconectes h. hathawayi </em>is found in cool, well-oxygenated, permanent flowing streams with sandy or rocky substrates, no aquatic vegetation and shaded banks and in <st1:placename w:st="on">Cotile</st1:placename> Lake (Penn 1952, Walls 2009).</p>
165915		population	eng	<p><em>Orconectes h. hathawayi</em> is quite common in many spots, especially where somewhat protected in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kisatchie</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>. (J. Walls pers. comm. 2009).</p>
165915		threats	eng	<p>Localized declines result from stream dewatering due to logging, water pollution from oil and gas exploration and agriculture, and alterations due to urbanization and dams (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).</p>
165917		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Sian Ka?an Nature Reserve (Alvarez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>
165917		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type specimens collected 1 km from the coast, within Sian Ka'an Nature Reserve, Municipio de Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo, Mexico (Alvarez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
165917		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in a salt-marsh 1 km from the coast, within Sian Ka?an Nature Reserve. It was collected from a marsh at a depth of 0.4 m,&#160;with a water temperature of 29  ºC, salinity 5.5 %, pH 8.2 and a dissolved oxygen content of 1.65?4 mg/l (Alvarez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160;Furthermore, this species is known to reproduce within brackish water, as during collection of the type specimens a female was observed carrying 35 young within the same habitat (Alvarez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
165917		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, as this species is known from the type specimens.
165917		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted upon by any major threat processes.
165918		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation plans in place for this species. Further research into population, ecology, and threats are required.
165918		distribution	eng	This species is found in&#160;Louisiana across six parishes: Allen, Beauregard, Calcasieu, Jefferson Davis, Rapides and Vernon (Walls and Black 2008). More specifically it is found in the Calcasieu river drainage to which it is restricted (Walls and Black 2008).
165918		habitat	eng	This species occupies rivers and creeks within its range (Walls and Black 2010).
165918		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, however it has been described as common within the Calcasieu river drainage (Walls and Black 2010).
165918		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
165919		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).     Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, population genetics and resilience to exotic species. <br/><br/>In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus maccai</span> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.
165919		distribution	eng	<p><em>Euastacus maccai</em> is endemic to <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. <em>Euastacus maccai</em> has a relatively large, highland distribution (850 - 1,400m above sea level). The most northern locality is around the Retreat, approximately 60 km north of <st1:place w:st="on">Tamworth</st1:place>. The distribution then extends south to near Hanging Rock, and east to Yarrowitch (McCormack and Coughran 2008). As a highland species, it inhabits upper reaches of different drainages, and the species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). The highland distribution of this species extends across both the eastern and western sides of the <st1:place w:st="on">Great Dividing Range</st1:place>. The estimated extent of occurrence is 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
165919		habitat	eng	<p>This species does not appear to inhabit open water habitats, building elaborate burrows with capped chimneys in cattle pastures and other terrestrial or ephemerally wet habitats (McCormack and Coughran 2008).</p>
165919		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>It may be abundant at the sites it inhabits, but capture is extremely difficult due to its burrowing, terrestrial ecology (McCormack and Coughran 2008).
165919		threats	eng	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>
165920		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific threat processes in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
165920		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ajamaru Lakes and the Ajamaru River, which belong to the Kais River drainage, Western Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Lukhaup and Pekny 2008).
165920		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers and lakes. The Ajamaru Lakes comprise of Jow, which has a length of 7 km and a width of 2 km; Semitoe (Maroemega) that has a length of 2 km and a width of 1.5 km; and Jate (Hain) that has a length of 3 km and a width under 1 km. The lakes are surrounded by low marsh, and beyond that by hills and mountains reaching 1500 m in height, which are covered by forest (Lukhaup and Pekny 2008). <br/><br/>Several small streams enter the lakes, which have an altitude of 250 m above sea level, and a depth of rarely more than 3 m. The streams have clear water, which is almost stagnant except near the mouth of rivers and outlets. They have a pH of approximately 6.4, and a soft muddy substrate covered with rich aquatic vegetation (Lukhaup and Pekny 2008).
165920		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
165920		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
165921		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>
165921		distribution	eng	This species was collected from Tamu Creek within the Fly River Drainage, Western Province, Papua New Guinea (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008).
165921		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in slow flowing, still water, in parts of southern New Guinea with pronounced wet and dry seasonality.&#160; The Tamu River (near the West Papua border) is muddy during the flood season, becoming clear after the initial floods, and then becoming stagnant, with dark (tannin stained) water full of rotting leaves, and almost anaerobic (DO<1mg/L) in the dry season. This species is known to live under logs, and in crevices and holes in submerged timber. It is also known to live in burrows in the clay in the banks of the river. When the water level it remains in all water depths and in holes (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008)..<br/><br/>Generally its habitat is in monsoon gallery forest, however it is known to persist where habitat modification has been severe (clearing and siltation), and breed and maintain populations in small creeks around Kiunga (e.g. near the Kiunga school). These modified creeks have moderate flow throughout the year, and are highly turbid (secchi <50mm), and DO >4mg/L. Water temperature in small streams around Kiunga is between 18°C and 29°C. A few of the creeks in which it occurs dry out completely, so it is probably able to survive in moist conditions for a couple of months, in burrows or moist logs. Furthermore, in the streams this species was sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax albertisii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. quadricarinatus</span> (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008).
165921		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
165921		threats	eng	This species is harvested on a subsistence level for human consumption (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008), but it is not known to what extent this is impacting populations of this species.
165922		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>
165922		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Ibele River, 15 km northeast of Habbema Lake and Balim River Camp on Balim River, East of Habbema Lake, Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Holthuis 1950).
165922		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers and pools up to an altitude of 3300 m (Holthuis 1950).
165922		population	eng	This species has been described as common within the Balim River (Holthuis 1950).
165922		threats	eng	This species is harvested on a subsistence scale for human consumption (Holthuis 1950), though it is not known to what extent this is impacting populations of this species.
165924		conservation	eng	Concerted efforts should be made to assess the relative abundance of the new species and further document its apparent limited distribution. It is unknown whether the species occurs in any protected areas other than the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Karoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Beaufort-West. The species is limited to a region of local endemism and shares a distribution with other <st1:place w:st="on">Karoo</st1:place> endemic mammals, such as <em>Bunolagus monticularis</em> and <em>Aethomys grantii</em>, which may be an important consideration in identifying and establishing additional protected areas in the region.
165924		distribution	eng	The new species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> in the Northern Cape Province and the north-western edge of <st1:place w:st="on">Western  Cape Province</st1:place>. The species therefore appears limited to the Nama-Karoo vegetation biome in the south-central semi-arid Karoo of South Africa. The Nama-Karoo is subdivided into Bushmanland and the Upper and <st1:place w:st="on">Lower Karoo</st1:place> bioregion vegetational units (Mucina and Rutherford 2006). Based on genetic evidence, <em>E. pilicaudus</em> is divided into two clades. Specimens from the Upper Karoo bioregion have a different genetic profile than those from the <st1:place w:st="on">Lower Karoo</st1:place> bioregion. Because there are only five known locations where the new species occurs, the distribution is not well understood, although it appears to be highly restricted. It is possible that the distributions of the <st1:place w:st="on">Cape</st1:place> Rock Sengi (<em>E</em>. <em>edwardii</em>) and the Western Rock Sengi (<em>E</em>. <em>rupestris</em>) do not overlap with <em>E</em>. <em>pilicaudus</em>. Within the range of the new species, it is not likely to be continuously distributed because its boulder and rock habitats are highly fragmented. All known locations are >1,300 m above sea level.
165924		habitat	eng	<em></em>This species is confined to rocky or boulder-strewn habitats against mountain slopes or on ridges. Based on the five locations where it has been trapped, the species may have similar ecology as its sister species the Cape Rock Sengi (<em>E. edwardii</em>), and the boulder- and rock-dwelling Western Rock Sengi (<em>E</em>. <em>rupestris</em>) (Corbet and Hanks 1968).
165924		population	eng	The abundance and population size is unknown. Despite numerous field excursions in the region, only 17 specimens of the new species from five locations in the Nama Karoo are known (three live trapped by Hannelie Smit; two trapped by Galen Rathbun, and 12 museum specimens housed in South African museums). In October 2008, a farm near Calvinia in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, where three live specimens were trapped in September 2006, was revisited by H. Smit and an effort to trap additional live specimens was unsuccessful. This reinforces the evidence of a species with a low abundance.
165924		threats	eng	The species occurs in an area of ongoing livestock farming, which poses no direct threat to the species. Because it occupies rocky and boulder habitats that are not suitable for most agricultural or urban development, there are no known threats to the Karoo Rock Sengi.
165925		conservation	eng	Anjozorobe has been classified as a protected area, known as the Coulior  Forestier d'Anjozorobe-Angavo. Further research is needed into the population status of this species.
165925		distribution	eng	Known only from the forest surrounding Anjozorobe, along the eastern edge of the Central Highlands, in central eastern Madagascar, between the elevations of 1,250 and 1,425 m (Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Soarimalala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Currently, it is separated from <span style="font-style: italic;">V. gymnocaudus</span> to the north by some 450 km.
165925		habitat	eng	This species is recorded only from montane tropical forest. The holotype was captured in a Sherman trap placed on a 8-cm diameter <span style="font-style: italic;">Uapaca densifolia</span> (family Euphorbiaceae) branch about 150 cm off the ground (Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
165925		population	eng	At the time of its description in 2005, this species was known only from three specimens collected during 2002, after 429 pit-fall trap-nights and 1,164 Sherman and National trap-nights in the Ankaibe Forest and after 396 pit-fall trap-nights and 1,164 Sherman and National trap-nights in the Analamahavery Forest. Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) remarked then that it was unclear whether this species is spottily distributed in the forests of the Anjozorobe area, whether it shows notable cyclic variation in abundance, or whether it is simply difficult to capture. The species subsequently has been recorded at several sites throughout the&#160; region during surveys conducted in late 2005 and early 2006 and at some forested sites was found to be quite common (Soarimalala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
165925		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation as a result of slash and burn agricultural activities (tavy).
166004		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More information on the species ecology and threats would be useful.
166004		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schizothorax griseus </span>has an east Asia distribution. It is known from the Yangtze River (Jinshajiang) basin, the upper Pearl River (Nanpanjiang) basin and the upper Mekong River basin in southern China (Chu and Chen 1989, Wu and Wu 1992, Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
166004		habitat	eng	<span>Mainstreams and tributaries of rivers.
166004		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166004		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166005		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species distribution, ecology, threats and population.
166005		distribution	eng	The species<span> is known from southeastern China (Guangdong province) and northern Viet Nam. It has been recorded in the Liu Jiang and Gui Jiang drainages, which are both tributaries of the Pearl River.
166005		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits bottom parts of streams and main rivers in clear, moderately or slowly flowing water with some aquatic plants (Yang and Chen 1992).
166005		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166005		threats	eng	The species occurs in areas that have been impacted by dams and water pollution.
166008		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed. The population is small and an area-based management plan is suggested for key population areas.
166008		distribution	eng	Mainly found in the Chang Jiang basin, such as Yuan Shui (river), Xiang Jiang, Xing Jiang, and Min Jiang in Fujian Province. Present in the Pearl River, but seldom found; only recorded from Li Jiang of Guangxi province.
166008		habitat	eng	Hill streams in slow flowing areas with gravel and small stones.
166008		population	eng	A small wild population is thought to exist.
166008		threats	eng	Water pollution is the major threat, as well as overfishing.
166009		conservation	eng	Research into population trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166009		distribution	eng	Described from a stream in Lianhuashan, Humen, Guangdong Province, China. Found in the river mouth of the Pearl River.
166009		habitat	eng	Coastal streams and rivers; fresh and brackish water. Migrates from brackish water to freshwater, and can be found in coastal areas.
166009		population	eng	No information available.
166009		threats	eng	The Pearl River is heavily polluted at its mouth from a range of sources.
166010		conservation	eng	None needed.
166010		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Zhu Jiang, Han Jiang, Jiulong Jiang (Fujian Province) and other drainages in Guangxi, Zheijuan, Hunan, and Guangdong provinces, China. A widespread species.
166010		habitat	eng	Flowing water with sandy bottom.
166010		population	eng	A common species.
166010		threats	eng	Urbanisation and pollution from agriculture is a threat.
166011		conservation	eng	The impact of known threats, especially on reproductive success, should be monitored.
166011		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, mainland China. Found in Newshan  Lake (a bay of Liangzi Lake with an area of 256 km<sup>2</sup>) and Yuli Lake.
166011		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>Mainly a lake species. Found in lakes and rivers with a bottom of mud with macrophytes in the middle to lower water levels.<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span> The species migrates into rivers to spawn.</span></span></span></span>
166011		population	eng	No information on population size or trend is available.
166011		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution; dams may impact the species through changes to the water flow regime, particularly impacting reproductive success.
166012		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166012		distribution	eng	Described from&#160;the&#160;Anning River, near Tahochang, Sichang, southern China. Recorded from Jinsha Jiang (where it is common), upper Chang Jiang and it's branch Qing Jiang, China.
166012		habitat	eng	Found in both the main channel of rivers and in tributaries.
166012		population	eng	Common in parts of its range (in the&#160;Jinsha Jiang).
166012		threats	eng	Dams and overfishing are&#160;likely&#160;to have impacted populations in parts of the species range.
166014		conservation	eng	More information is needed on species population size, distribution and trends to determine what effects known threats are having on this species.
166014		distribution	eng	Known from Guangdong Province in Dong Jiang, and Bei Jiang drainages. Also from Xijiang River drainages, and from Zhejiang Province, and from Taiwan (Danshuihe River).
166014		habitat	eng	Found in hillstreams.
166014		population	eng	No information available.
166014		threats	eng	The species habitat is impacted by dams and by pollution from agriculture.<span class="gwt-CheckBox">
166015		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166015		distribution	eng	Found in southern China. Recorded from the Pearl River (Jiangxi, Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou, and Guangxi provinces), Chang Jiang, Min Jiang (Fuxian Province), Qiantang Jiang and Ling Jiang (Zhejiang Province), and the Huang He. Distribution into associated basins in Viet Nam is not known but is possible.
166015		habitat	eng	Found in shallow parts of freshwater rivers and streams.
166015		population	eng	A locally common species.
166015		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing, dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166016		conservation	eng	Population trends of the species, especially in relation to fishery pressures, require research and monitoring. Impacts of dams on migrations needs to be better understood.
166016		distribution	eng	<p>The following records refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. molitorella</span> but this may refer to more than one species as a result of the taxonomic uncertainly relating to this species.<br/></p><p>Recorded from the <span>Mekong, Chao Phraya, Nam Theun, Xe Bangfai and the Nanpangjiang basins; also from the Red River (China and Viet Nam); Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, Lao PDR (Nam Theun, Xe Bangfai), China (Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Hong Kong,and Yunnan) and Taiwan, Province of China).</p><p><span> </span></p><p>In Viet Nam, found&#160; in rivers, streams, dams and lakes in the northern provinces and up to Con and Ba rivers in southern provinces in Viet Nam.</p><p>Also recorded from Indonesia and Malaysia but these may be introductions for aquaculture.<br/></p>
166016		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Known to inhabit the midwater to lower depths of large and  medium-sized rivers, o<span class="sheader5">ccur in rapids and slow deep reaches<span class="sheader5">.  Moves into flooded forests during the rainy season  and grazes on algae, phytoplankton and detritus (Rainboth 1996). Reported to be omnivorous. Wild stocks are strongly migratory while the cultivated stocks probably have lost the migratory behaviour (Roberts 1997).   Prefers flowing water and not known to proliferate in reservoirs.</span>
166016		population	eng	In the Mekong and Sesan the populations have declined significantly as a result of the Yali Falls dam (I. Baird pers. comm. 2010, Baird and Flaherty 2004), and as a result of overfishing in Viet Nam. The situation in other parts of the distribution is not known.
166016		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is over-fished in the larger rivers such as Thao River, Da River, Lo River and Red River in Viet Nam, and most likely in other basins as well. Catches are declining in these rivers in Viet Nam as well as in some reservoirs and lakes.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Dams greatly impact upon the species, as shown by evidence from the Yali Falls dam (Baird and Flaherty 2004), by disrupting the migration of the species.</span>
166017		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166017		distribution	eng	<span>Known from lakes in the Nan Pang Jiang basin, Yunnan Province, China. It is known from Yangzong Lake, Yilong Lake, and the Jiuxiang cave. The areas of the basin in which it is present in less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in area.
166017		habitat	eng	<span>The species burrows in mud. <span>It is is known from lakes associated with rivers; one record is for a cave, but it is not known if it was sampled from the cave or from the outflow.</span>
166017		population	eng	The population is naturally small (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011).
166017		threats	eng	<span>Potentially impacted by industrial and agricultural pollution. <span>Yangzong Lake is heavily polluted, and Yilong Lake is impacted by agricultural pollution. The species burrows in mud and could be impacted by heavy metal pollution, and also needs macrophytes for protection from predators.</span>
166018		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More research is needed.
166018		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudogobio guilinensi</span>s is known from the West River (Xijiang) drainage in southeastern China and the Câu River (Red River basin) in northern Viet Nam (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Kottelat 2001).
166018		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
166018		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166018		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166019		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166019		distribution	eng	<span>Southeastern and eastern China. Found in Huang He basin, Han Shui basin, Huai He basin, and Cao'e Jiang, Ling Jiang, Ou Jiang (all three in Zhejiang Province). There is a recent record from the Bei Jiang (Pearl River) which extends the range into Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Guangxi (H. Zhao pers. comm. 2011).<span> The type locality is "small river at Shing-Tsong, Chekiang [Zhejiang], China." (Froese and Pauly 2010).</span>
166019		habitat	eng	<span>Freshwater rivers, bottom dwelling. A small carnivorous fish.
166019		population	eng	No information available.
166019		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166020		conservation	eng	Further research across the species range is needed into the impacts of escaped hybrids on the wild populations. The extent and quality of habitat should also be monitored.
166020		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mae Khlong to Mekong basins, and from Peninsular Malaysia.<span> There are also records from Myanmar, Japan, China, Indonesia<span> (Sumatra)<span>, Guam and the Philippines; these are considered misidentifications or introductions.<br/></span></span>
166020		habitat	eng	<span><span class="sheader5">Lives in lowland wetlands and rivers, <span><span class="sheader5">including  sluggish flowing canals and flooded fields<span><span class="sheader5">; occurs in shallow, open water and is capable of lying buried in mud  for lengthy periods if water evaporates during dry seasons.  Dependent on swamps and swamp forest. Can move out of the water using its extended fins. It feeds on aquatic insects, young shrimps and small fishes.</span></span></span>
166020		population	eng	It is thought that populations have declined as a result of loss of suitable habitat.
166020		threats	eng	The species is impacted by the loss of suitable wetland habitat through drainage and clearance for urbanisation and agriculture, as well as exploitation for aquaculture.<br/><br/>Across much of its range the catfish population is also threatened by escaped hybrids between female <span style="font-style: italic;">C. macrocephalus </span>and introduced male <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gariepinus</span>. The hybrid is able to breed with both species and could cause a genetic introgression leading to species extinction. The hybrid also grows faster than the native fish and might out-compete the native stock for resources (<span class="citation Journal">Na-Nakorn <span class="citation Journal">2004). However these threats are not thought to be applicable to the Malaysia populations.</span>
166021		conservation	eng	None required at present.
166021		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from China (Yangtze River basin, the Xun River basin in Guangxi and Guangdong provinces, Taiwan, and Hainan Island; Zheng 1989) to the Red River basin of northern Viet Nam, and has been introduced to Japan and Sri Lanka (Masunda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1984), and most likely elsewhere.
166021		habitat	eng	The species is generally restricted to relatively narrow regions, characterized by humid rainforest climate; feeds on crustaceans, insect larvae and fish (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).
166021		population	eng	Not certain, but common where found in China.
166021		threats	eng	Threats are not known, but the species is likely to be impacted by pollution and habitat conversion.
166022		conservation	eng	Conservation is needed. The population and distribution should be investigated.
166022		distribution	eng	It is found in Lianhua Shan&#160;Mountain&#160;and Dong Jiang drainage and the Rong Jiang (river) in Guangdong Province, China. Locations include&#160;Lianhua Shan, Lianping City and Xinfeng City.
166022		habitat	eng	It lives in small creeks.
166022		population	eng	The population of this fish is unclear, but it is very rare in Guangdong Province and the fish was not recorded during the period of the freshwater fish investigation in Guangdong province from 2005-2009 (C. Ke and H. Zhao pers. comm. 2011).
166022		threats	eng	Further investigation is needed, but streams in the&#160;Lianhua Shan&#160;Mountain&#160;region are impacted by agrochemicals.
166023		conservation	eng	No information available.
166023		conservation	eng	None known.
166023		conservation	eng	Occurs in many reserves.
166023		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has a virtually Pan-African in distribution. In Asia,  it occurs in Jordan, Syria and southern Turkey (Skelton 2001). It has also been  introduced into Brazil and Southeast Asia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In  Lower Guinea it occurs naturally in the upper Sanaga River, Cameroon. Following  widespread introductions the species is currently caught in the Ogowe basin, and  in small coastal basins in southern Gabon and in the Kouilou, Republic of the  Congo. <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has been introduced as aquaculture species and  for predation on stunted <em>Tilapia</em>, in 1972 and 1973 from Central Africa to  Cameroon. For the same reasons it was also introduced from Central Africa to  Gabon between 1972 and 1978, and to Congo in 1972 and 1973. Two specimens  collected from the Djerem basin (Sanaga River basin) in Cameroon are probably  due to escapees from the Fisheries Station at Yaoundé (Southern Cameroon) of  stocks originating from the Benue River (Northern Cameroon). A less likely  alternative explanation is that they result from contacts between the Logone  system and the Djerem system. There are museum records from Cameroon, Gabon and  Congo. The species is naturally reproducing and established in the wild.  <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in eastern Africa,  including Lakes Victoria, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika, Rukwa, Bangwelo, Malawi and  their affluent rivers and wetlands. It has been introduced into the upper  Akagera system.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common in lower and This  species is known from upper Egyptian Nile and freshwater regions of coastal  lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is found in  Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Nile, Lake Nasser (also known as Lake  Nubia), Lakes Kundi and Keilak, and several water systems of  Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its range has been extended along the  coastal rivers of South Africa through translocations and accidental  introductions. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the  Lake Chad, the basins of the rivers Shari, Logone, Benue, Niger, Oshun, Ogun,  Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Bandama, This species is known from upper Comoé and Senegal.
166023		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Clarias gariepnus</em> is common in Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile and freshwater regions of coastal lakes.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile River system, Syria, Lake Albert, lake Edwards, Chad, Senegal, Nigeria and Congo.
166023		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has a virtually Pan-African in distribution. In Asia, it occurs in Jordan, Syria and southern Turkey. In Lower Guinea it occurs naturally in the upper Sanaga River, Cameroon. Following widespread introductions the species is currently caught in the Ogowe basin, and in small coastal basins in southern Gabon and in the Kouilou, Republic of the Congo. <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has been introduced as aquaculture species and for predation on stunted <em>Tilapia</em>, in 1972 and 1973 from Central Africa to Cameroon. For the same reasons it was also introduced from Central Africa to Gabon between 1972 and 1978, and to Congo-Brazzaville in 1972 and 1973. Two specimens collected from the Djerem basin (Sanaga River basin) in Cameroon are probably due to escapees from the Fisheries Station at Yaoundé (southern Cameroon) of stocks originating from the Benue River (Northern Cameroon). A less likely alternative explanation is that they result from contacts between the Logone system and the Djerem system. There are museum records from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. The species is naturally reproducing and established in the wild. The trade is restricted in Germany.
166023		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Lake Chad, the basins of the rivers Shari, Logone, Benue, Niger, Oshun, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Bandama, Upper Comoé and Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Almost Pan-Africa, absent from Maghreb, the upper and lower Guinea and the Cape province and probably also Nogal province. Asia: Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southern Turkey. Widely introduced to other parts of Africa, Europe and Asia.
166023		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded throughout sub-Saharan Africa as well as in Israel, Lebanon and Turkey (Skelton 2001). Its range has been extended along the coastal rivers of South Africa through translocations and accidental introductions. It has also been introduced into Brazil and south east Asia.
166023		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in eastern Africa, including Lakes Victoria, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika, Rukwa, Bangwelo, Malawi and their affluent rivers and wetlands. Has been introduced into the upper Akagera system.
166023		habitat	eng	A widely distributed species which is most common in shallow inshore waters, swamps and floodplains around lakes and rivers. Omnivorous, but mainly predatory on small fishes. Other food items include insect larvae, molluscs and plants.<br/>This species has been introduced in many areas for aquaculture.
166023		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs mainly in quiet waters, lakes and pools but may also occur in fast flowing rivers and in rapids (Teugels 1986). This species is widely tolerant of extreme environmental conditions. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. It remains in the muddy substrates of ponds and occasionally gulp air through the mouth (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It can leave the water at night using its strong pectoral fins and spines in search of land-based food or can move into the breeding areas through very shallow pathways (Burgess 1989). <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is a bottom feeder which occasionally feeds at the surface (Teugels 1986). It forages at night on a wide variety of prey (Burgess 1989). It feeds on insects, plankton, invertebrates and fish but also takes young birds, rotting flesh and plants (de Moor and Bruton 1988). Individuals of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> migrates to rivers and temporary streams to spawn (Witte and de Winter 1995). <br/><br/>During intra-specific aggressive interactions, this species was noted to generate electric organ discharges that were monophasic, head-positive and lasting from 5 to 260 ms (Baron <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is known as sharptooth catfish in aquaculture, a highly recommended food fish in Africa (Okeyo 2003). <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is an oviparous species and spawning takes place during the rainy season in flooded deltas. The fishes make a lateral migration towards the inundated plains to breed and return to the river or lake soon afterwards while the juveniles remain in the inundated area. The juveniles return to the lake or river when they are between 1.5 and 2.5 cm long (Witte and de Winter 1995). The first sexual maturity occurs when females are between 40-45cm and males between 35-40 cm. Aquaculture production for Cameroon is respectively 9 and 8 metric tonnes in 1988 and 1989, decreasing to 2 metric tonnes in 1992 and 1993, and no production between 1994-1997.
166023		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs  mainly in quiet waters, lakes and pools but may also occur in fast flowing  rivers and in rapids (Teugels 1986). This species is widely tolerant of extreme  environmental conditions. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables  this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. It  remains in the muddy substrates of ponds and occasionally gulp air through the  mouth (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It can leave the water at night using its  strong pectoral fins and spines in search of land-based food or can move into  the breeding areas through very shallow pathways (Burgess 1989). <em>Clarias  gariepinus</em> is a bottom feeder which occasionally feeds at the surface  (Teugels 1986). It forages at night on a wide variety of prey (Burgess 1989). It  feeds on insects, plankton, invertebrates and fish but also takes young birds,  rotting flesh and plants (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is known to hunt in packs  in the Okavango River, herding and trapping small fishes. During  intra-specific aggressive interactions, this species was noted to generate  electric organ discharges that were monophasic, head-positive and lasting from  5-260 ms (Baron <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is known as sharptooth catfish in  aquaculture, a highly recommended food fish in Africa (Okeyo 2003). <em>Clarias  gariepinus</em> is an oviparous species and spawning takes place during the rainy  season in flooded deltas. It breeds in summer after rains, when large numbers of  fish migrate to shallow grassy or reedy verges of rivers and lakes. Eggs are  laid on vegetation and hatch within 25-40 hours. Larvae are free-swimming and  feed within 2-3 days, remaining inshore within vegetation cover. Growth is rapid  but variable depending on local conditions. It tolerates a wide range of  pollution, and can endure harsh conditions such as high turbidity or dessication  and is frequently the last inhabitant of drying pools, where it may form  burrows.
166023		habitat	eng	Occurs in almost any habitat but favours floodplains, large sluggish rivers, lakes and dams (Skelton 2001). Can endure harsh conditions such as high turbidity or dessication and is frequently the last inhabitant of drying pools, where it may form burrows. Moves overland under damp conditions. Omnivorous, feeding on virtually any available organic food source. Hunts in packs in the Okavango River, herding and trapping small fishes. Breeds in summer after rains, when large numbers of fish migrate to shallow grassy or reedy verges of rivers and lakes. Eggs are laid on vegetation and hatch within 25-40 hours. Larvae are free-swimming and feed within 2-3 days, remaining inshore within vegetation cover.Growth is rapid but variable depending on local conditions.
166023		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in quiet waters, lakes and pools but may also occur in fast flowing rivers and in rapids. It tolerates a wide range of pollution. This species is completely omnivorous and feeds on fish, insect larvae, molluscs, planktonic organisms and water weeds. It breeds in summer and eggs are laid in vegetation. It migrates to rivers and temporary streams to spawn lives for 8 or more years. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. Remains in the muddy substrates of ponds and occasionally gulp air through the mouth. Can leave the water at night using its strong pectoral fins and spines in search of land-based food or can move into the breeding areas through very shallow pathways.
166023		habitat	eng	The species migrates upstream for reproduction. Widely tolerant of extreme environmental conditions. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. Bottom feeder which occasionally feeds at the surface. Omnivorous, feeds on insects, crabs, plankton, snails and fish but also take young birds, rotting flesh, plants and fruits. During intra-specific aggressive interactions, this species was noted to generate electric organ discharges.
166023		population	eng	Abundant and widespread.
166023		population	eng	No data on population trends.
166023		population	eng	No information available.
166023		population	eng	Population not known, but well represented in many regional fisheries with a decline in catches reported in Lake Victoria.
166023		population	eng	Populations of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, are observed in shoals on a feeding migration. This feeding migration can be defined as pack-hunting. Pack-hunting commences with the drawdown of the annual flood level (Merron 1993).
166023		population	eng	<strong>Central Africa:</strong> Populations of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> of the Okavango  Delta, Botswana, are observed in shoals on a feeding migration. This feeding  migration can be defined as pack-hunting. Pack-hunting commences with the  drawdown of the annual flood level. (Merron 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> Population not known, but well represented in many regional  fisheries with a decline in catches reported in Lake  Victoria.<br/><br/><strong>North East Africa:</strong> Unknown but very  common.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Abundant and  widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Northern and Western Africa:</strong> No information available.
166023		threats	eng	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is an important fish in the aquaculture trade.
166023		threats	eng	None known
166023		threats	eng	None known.
166023		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
166023		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are overfishing, regression of swamps and wetlands and competitive exclusion by Nile perch in Lake Victoria.
166023		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
166025		conservation	eng	Some research is needed.
166025		distribution	eng	<span>The species is known from the  Amur basin to southern China.
166025		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits rivers.
166025		population	eng	No information available
166025		threats	eng	No information available.
166026		conservation	eng	Research into life history, populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166026		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Xi Jiang, Ming Jiang, Yuan Jiang, and Han Jiang, Hunan, Fujian and Guangxi provinces,  China.
166026		habitat	eng	Found in slow water in rivers.<span>
166026		population	eng	No information on the population size and trend is available.
166026		threats	eng	Agricultural pollution is a threat to the species.
166027		conservation	eng	Destructive fishing practices should be strictly prohibited in the watershed of its known populations (Yue and Chen 1998). The conservation status of some populations can be improved through effective habitat protection and public awareness programs.
166027		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Xi Jiang (river) system of Guiling and Yang Shu, in Kwangsi, Fuchun Jiang (river) in Zhejiang and the Qiupuhe River in Anhui. In 2005, another population of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the species was observed in a tributary of Liujiang River (Xi Jiang basin) in Mt. Dayaoshan of Kwangsi Province. Primarily a tributary species.
166027		habitat	eng	Inhabits middle and upper layers of rivers, generally likes to stay in small branches of rivers with clear water flows. Spawning period is from May to June.
166027		population	eng	A <em>s</em>mall-sized fish found in small numbers. Since the description of this species in 1939, a few specimens were collected again in 1964, and then&#160;again&#160;in 2005. This species is almost extinct in the Lijiang River. It can still be observed in some rivers in Zhejiang and Anhui, but the populations are very small.
166027		threats	eng	The construction of water conservation projects in the area where this species is distributed causes changes to aquatic conditions which which impact the species. In addition, over-fishing, industrial waste water pollution, and poisonous and electrical fishing methods in the rivers reduce the population of this species.
166028		conservation	eng	The population should be monitored for the impact of known threats.
166028		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from Dongting (Tungting) <span>Lake, upstream parts of Hang Jiang in Hunan Province, and Boyang Lake in Jiangxi Province, China.<br/><br/>Records from other areas, including the Amur basin in Lake Buir Nur and in rivers in  Korea are considered to belong to other species and<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span> are miss-identifications  (Kottelat 2006).</span></span></span>
166028		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">Inhabits lakes, and rivers with moderate to slow current, with sandy and stony bottoms.<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><br/><span></span></span></span>
166028		population	eng	The species has been found in good numbers in recent surveys (Zhang and Li 2007) though is thought to be declining.
166028		threats	eng	Pollution from agriculture and industry degrades the species habitat, especially macrophytes, on which the species depends.
166029		conservation	eng	None required at present, though research into the impact of threats is recommended.
166029		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southern China (Zhujiang (Pearl) River, Hainan Province (Haikou), Guangdong (Zhaoqing, Sanshui, Dongwan,  Jiangmen), and Guangxi  Province (Buobai and Guixian); Gao 1991) and northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001). The species is apparently widespread in coastal drainages in southeastern China and Hainan Island. Quing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) report the species from 12 separate sub-catchments within southern China, including Guangxi, and from Viet Nam (Dongzhong, the Beilun and the Fangcheng rivers).
166029		habitat	eng	This species is found predominantly in fluviatile freshwater habitats.
166029		population	eng	No information available.
166029		threats	eng	The susceptibility of the species to pollution is not known, however the species known localities are impacted by pollution from a range of sources, as well as drainage for agriculture and development.
166031		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166031		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sineleotris chalmersi</span> has an East Asia distribtuion. It is known from the Pacific coastal drainages in China and northern Viet Nam and the Hainan Island (Wu 1991, Kottelat 2001).
166031		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters.
166031		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166031		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166033		conservation	eng	<p><span class="short_text" id="result_box">Artificial  breeding has been successfully undertaken. Research needed into population and&#160;distribution.</p>
166033		distribution	eng	<p>Recorded from Yunnan from the Xiyang Jiang, a tributary of the Xi Jiang (West River), and Guangdong in the Bei Jiang (river), and&#160;Guangxi Provinces in China.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
166033		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5">Inhabits gravel bottoms of mountain  streams. It is a&#160;migratory&#160;species, and&#160;movement&#160;is&#160;impacted&#160;by dams on the Bei Jiang. The&#160;generation&#160;length is five years<span class="short_text" id="result_box">&#160;(K. Cui pers. comm. 2011).</span></span></span>
166033		population	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">In the Xi Jiang and the Bei Jiang, few individuals of the species were caught during a recent survey (H.H. Zhao and K. Cui pers. comm. 2011). Population in the Bei Jiang is very small. The species was in the past (1990s) an important economic fishery species, but it is now a scarce species.<br/><br/><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">The population is suspected to have declined by 80% in three generations (15 years) years <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">in the Bei Jiang<span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"> (K. Cui pers. comm. 2011). The&#160;population&#160;in the Xi Jiang is smaller than in the Bei Jiang. A similar decline is is inferred for the&#160;population&#160;in the Xi Jiang.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
166033		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are many dams on the Bei Jiang blocking the species migration.&#160;Domestic and urban waste water pollution impact most rivers.
166034		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
166034		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">It is known from the Nam Xam and Nam Ma basins in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001), the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001), and from southeastern China (Yunnan) (Chu and Chen 1989; Nguyen 2001), and the Pearl River system in China (Guangdong and Guangxi) and most likely northern Viet Nam (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991), and from </st1:place><span lang="EN-US">Hainan Province. </span></p>
166034		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and rivers with sandy rocky substrata and swiftly flowing waters.
166034		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the species population.</p><p><br/></p>
166034		threats	eng	Deterioration of habitats as a result of pollution in parts of the species range; the extent of impacts is not known.
166037		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166037		distribution	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">Recorded from the Bei Jiang and Xi Jiang in the Pearl River drainage, in the Guangxi, Guizhou, and Guangdong provinces, China. It may also be present in Viet Nam.<br/></p>
166037		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">Inhabits streams and rivers with moderate to swift current, over gravel and stone substrate.
166037		population	eng	No information available; it has been collected in moderate numbers from the Bei Jiang.
166037		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166038		conservation	eng	Information on the species&#160;distribution, impacts of threats and population status is needed.
166038		distribution	eng	The species has a restricted range, it is only found in some areas of&#160; Zuo Jiang, Liu Jiang and Yong Jiang (rivers) belonging to the Xi Jiang system in southern china.
166038		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams with gravel bottom and clear water. The size of body is small, often around 100 g. It is a short distance migratory species.
166038		population	eng	The distribution of the species is rather narrow and its population is very small. It was described in 1980s but during fish investigation of Guandong Province between 2005-2009, it was not found in Xi Jiang river.
166038		threats	eng	This species requires specific environmental conditions for its survival, including gravel beds for spawning. It has been over-fished in some areas. Dams and water pollution (from agriculture and urbanisation) are potential threats. However the impacts of these potential threats are unknown.
166039		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species current population.
166039		distribution	eng	Endemic to Erhai Lake (250 km<sup>2</sup>),&#160;Yunnan province (Mekong drainage), China.&#160;Previous records from Yilonghu Lake are miss-identifications.
166039		habitat	eng	It is a fish of the upper and middle layers of the lake and dwells mainly in the deep parts. It swims fast and can not tolerate poor water quality, and dies quickly in turbid water. It feeds on mainly plankton and alga. It spawns from April to September, but mainly in May and June. The generation length is c. 2 years.
166039		population	eng	It has not been recorded since 1982 (W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011). Prior to the introduction of alien carps from the 1960s, this and other indigenous species, were dominant. It is thought that the population has declined by more than 90%.
166039		threats	eng	Since 1963, large numbers of&#160;introduced&#160;fishes including silver carp and big head carp have been introduced into the lake. They have the same feeding habits as&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus barbatus</span> and they compete. At the same time, small species of fishes (e.g. <em>Raspbora </em>and <em>Gobies</em>)<em> </em>were introduced, the adults of which eat the eggs and larvae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus barbatus</span>. There has also been habitat degradation (eutrophication) due to pollution&#160;from local cities, and from&#160;agriculture. The species spawns on macrophytes which are eaten by introduced grass carps and collected for fodder.
166040		conservation	eng	Research needed into the species population and&#160;distribution..
166040		distribution	eng	Widespread in southern China. Recorded from the Xi Jiang drainage in Guangdong Province, China. Known from Nanning, Wuzhou, Teng County Mengjiang, and Xiangzhou of Guangxi Province; Chengfang of Shandong Province; also from Nenjiang Zhen, Haerhpin, in Heilongjiang Province.
166040		habitat	eng	<span>Found in both main channels and in tributaries.
166040		population	eng	No information available.
166040		threats	eng	The species is likely to be overfished across some of its range. Pollution and dams are also likely to impact the species.
166041		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166041		distribution	eng	Recorded from the upper Chang Jiang (Yangtze River), China.
166041		habitat	eng	Found in rapid flowing streams in hilly areas.
166041		population	eng	No information available.
166041		threats	eng	Pollution from agriculture and from dams are the main inferred threats.
166042		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and impacts of threats is needed.
166042		distribution	eng	It is distributed in <span>the Yuan Jiang (Hunan Province), Qing Jiang (Hubei Province) and the Daning He in Sichuan, China.
166042		habitat	eng	Lives in fast flowing rivers and streams. Grazes on algae.
166042		population	eng	No information available.
166042		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
166043		conservation	eng	The species has been assessed as Vulnerable in China (Wang and Xie 2004)  and as Critically Endangered in Viet Nam (WWF 2008).
166043		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Viet Nam (the Kỳ Cùng River, Lang Son Province; Kottelat 2001), and from southern China (the Pearl River basin (Nanpanjiang and Xijiang) in Yunnan Province; and from Guangxi and Guizhou (Long Zhou, in Zuo Jiang in the Zhu Jiang basin) provinces). Mainly found in the West River of the Pearl River basin. Also found in lakes (e.g., Yilong and Yangzonghai lakes).<br/><br/>A record from Nghe An Province (Pumat National Park) in north-central Viet Nam may refer to another species (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012) and requires confirmation.
166043		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream and tributary rivers. Also reported from lakes (e.g., Yangzonghai Lake; Yang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994). The generation length is unknown, but is likely to be relatively long, as the fish may grow to at least 100 cm in length, and is estimated at 8-10 years.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span title="生活在大江河和湖泊的开阔水域的中、上层，善泳。"><span title="幼鱼食浮游动物和鱼苗，成鱼专以鱼类为食。">Juveniles eat zooplankton and fish fry, and adult predate on other fish. <span title="性成熟年龄较迟。">It reaches sexual maturity at a late age. The species is thought to move upstream against seasonal floods, and to then return downstream as waters recede, although details are not available.</span></span>
166043		population	eng	Population numbers of this species are considered to be low, but this may be natural as this is a large predatory fish. Wang and Xie (2004) report that around 70% of the population is within Chinese waters, and that the population has declined 'dramatically'. In the Lijiang (a tributary of the Xijiang), the species was recorded during surveys from 1974-76, but not during 1980-82 or in 2006 (Wang and Xie 2004).<br/><br/><span><span><span>The population is inferred to have declined by at least 30% across its range over the last 20-30 years.</span>
166043		threats	eng	Threats include over-fishing, including illegal fishing methods (electric, poison or explosive fishing), and the construction of dams and weirs, especially in the upper reaches of rivers which hinder migrations.<br/><br/>In addition, spawning areas and the general river habitat are impacted by pollution, sedimentation, land reclamation, and water abstraction from rivers for agricultural irrigation.
166045		conservation	eng	<p>Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.</p>
166045		distribution	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-color: white;">From the upper Mekong and </span></st1:country-region><span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-color: white;">Nanpanjiang (Pearl)</span> rivers <st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-color: white;">in the Xishuangbanna and Baoshan areas, <span style="background-color: white;">Yunnan Province</span>, China, south to Cambodia (including the Great Lake).<br/></span></st1:country-region></p>
166045		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in the upper reaches and mainstreams of large rivers,and most likely the Great Lake in Cambodia.
166045		population	eng	Little information is known on the population of this species, although it is commonly found in small scale fisheries.
166045		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by sedimentation, overfishing, dams and pollution.
166046		conservation	eng	Research into ecology, populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166046		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang in the Pearl River basin, (Guangxi, Hunan, and Guangdong Province, China, and from Taiwan (Tamusui River near Shinten, and Lake Candidius (type locality). The species was not found in recent surveys (when 2005-9) in the Pearl River basin (H. Zhao and K. Cui pers. comm. 2011).
166046		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, living in rapid flowing areas, with gravel and stones. Eats aquatic plants.
166046		population	eng	No information available.
166046		threats	eng	Loss of suitable habitat and habitat degradation; threats include dams and pollution (industrial, urban and agrochemical pollution); urbanisation and conversion of streams.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166047		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166047		distribution	eng	<span class="slabel"> Known from east Asia. Recorded from <span>Japan, Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula and  China. A very widespread species.</span>
166047		habitat	eng	Omnivore, feeds on the benthos. A riverine species.
166047		population	eng	Population data are not available.
166047		threats	eng	Overfishing, dams and pollution are threats within China, and are likely to be present elsewhere across the species range.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166048		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166048		distribution	eng	<span>A widely spread species, found in the Pearl River basin, Chang Jiang basin, and the Min Jiang (Fujian Province), and Hainan Province in southeast<span style="background-color: white;">ern China. Not likely present in the Red River; records</span> for <span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">G. orientalis</span> in the Red River is not this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
166048		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits gravel bottoms in mountain  streams and adheres to stones by its mouth disk.
166048		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is locally common, but no population information available.</p>
166048		threats	eng	Threats include pollution, overfishing and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166049		conservation	eng	Survey should be undertaken to confirm absence.
166049		distribution	eng	<p>Only known from Yilong Lake in Yunnan Province.</p>
166049		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span>Pelagic fish;<span class="slabel"><span> freshwater    lake.<br/>   <span class="slabel"><span><span></span></span></span>
166049		population	eng	Considered to have gone extinct in 1981 because the Yilong Lake dried (for 20 days) up as a result of water&#160;abstraction&#160;for agriculture in the 1970-80s. The&#160;species&#160;was surveyed for in 1983 and 1984, but was not found, and recent surveys by the Kunming Institute of Technology have also not found the species (W.&#160; Zhou pers comm. 2011).
166049		threats	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">The water level of the lake declined since the 1950s. In 1981 the lake completely dried up (for about 20 days) as a result of water&#160;abstraction&#160;for agriculture. The lake is also polluted by increased organic pollution caused by sedimentation from the surrounding catchment.
166051		conservation	eng	Conservation measures on not known. Monitoring of the species is recommended as in some areas the species has declined.
166051		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macropodus opercularis</span> has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from slow-moving streams and marshes in eastern China from Yangtze River to Pearl River basin including Taiwan and Hainan Island, in northern and central Viet Nam and in northeastern Lao P.D.R.(Wang et al. 1999, Kottelat 2001a, b, Freyhof and Herder 2002, Serov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).   Introduced into the tropical and subtropical world (Freyhof and Herder 2002). <span>
166051		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits any kind of lowland habitats from  heterogeneous structured margins or backwaters of large rivers to small  streams and irrigation channels on farmland (Freyhof and Herder 2002).   Can colonize stagnant water bodies with very low oxygen content (air  breather).  Found in paddy fields and ditches (Man and Hodgkiss 1981<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><a href="http://www.fishbase.us/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=5258"></a>).  Feeds on small aquatic animals including small fish. <br/><br/>Male builds bubble  nests and mates below, the sinking eggs will be  placed to nests by mouth. The  young will be guarded by the male parent.  Males will fight each other.
166051		population	eng	There is no information available on species population size and trends within its whole distribution range. Only in some regions (Taiwan and Sichuan Province), a significant decline of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Macropodus opercularis </span> population was observed in the second half of the 20th century (see Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).
166051		threats	eng	Threats to this species are habitat destruction and water pollution through pesticide use on agriculture land. <span class="keyword">
166052		conservation	eng	None required.
166052		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species <span lang="EN-US">has an east Asian distribution. It is distributed from the Amur to Red River drainages (Kottelat 2006) in Mongolia, Russia (Amur), eastern China, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">. It is introduced elsewhere.<span lang="EN-US"></span></span></p>
166052		habitat	eng	<p><span class="longtext">This species is found in freshwater, but is tolerant to slightly brackish water (Bogutskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/></p>
166052		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
166052		threats	eng	The species is not threatened.
166053		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Research is needed into the species distribution, population trends, and threats.
166053		distribution	eng	<span>The species is known from the Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins in Thailand. It has been recorded from several locations in Chiang Mai, Lampang, Kanchanaburi and Nam provinces.
166053		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits streams and rivers with moderate current over sandy or pebble substrate.
166053		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
166053		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
166054		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is recommended.
166054		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiobotia kolleri</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is known from the Pearl River basin in southeastern China (Jin 1991), </st1:place><span lang="EN-US">Tawain (Shen 1991) and Hainan Island (Chen et al. 1998) and <st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">the Lo River basin in northern Vietnam (Kottelat 2001). </span></st1:place><span lang="EN-US">However, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiobotia kolleri</span>  was originally described from Hainan Island (Banarescu & Nalbant,  1966). In a revision of Chinese species, He & Chen (in Chen, 1998)  treat it as endemic to Hainan. The identity of the material recorded by  Vietnamese authors need confirmation (Kottelat 2001).</p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><span></span>
166054		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits fresh and brackish waters (Shao & Lim 1991).<br/><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span>
166054		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is no information available on the species population.<br/></p>
166054		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166055		conservation	eng	Research into impact of threats is needed.
166055		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from most of southern and eastern China. Zhu Jiang (Pearl River), Chang Jiang, Huang He and Heilong Jiang rivers in China.
166055		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers and lakes. Still water.
166055		population	eng	No information available.
166055		threats	eng	Threats include pollution from a range of sources.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166056		conservation	eng	None required.
166056		distribution	eng	Distributed in southeastern China. Records from the Min Jiang and Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) drainages southwards to the streams draining the territory of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. In Hong Kong, the species occurs in the New Territories (adjoining the coast of southeastern China) and Lantau Island.
166056		habitat	eng	The species is found in habitats from sea level to at least 760 m asl (M. Lau pers. comm.). It prefers boulder-strewn, fast-flowing streams with step-pool formation. The fish are largely nocturnal and hides amongst rocks and submerged plant roots during the day, but can be seen during overcast days or in shaded stream pools. When active, hovers near the stream bed searching for small invertebrates.
166056		population	eng	No information available.
166056		threats	eng	Threats include agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166058		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species distribution, ecology, threats and population trends.
166058		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sinibotia robusta</span> is only known from Pearl River basin in southeastern China and northern Viet Nam (Cao Bang Province).
166058		habitat	eng	Inhabits bottom parts of streams and main rivers in clear, moderately or slowly flowing water with some aquatic plants (Yang and Chen 1992).
166058		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166058		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166059		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place.
166059		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Osteochilus salsburyi </span>has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from the Nam Xam and Na Ma basin in Laos (Kottelat 2001), most Pacific coastal drainages in central and north Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001, Serov et. al 2006) and the Pearl River, Minjiang River, Jiulongjiang River and Red River (Yuanjiang) basins in southern China and the Hainan Island (Chu and Chen 1989, Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">at al.</span> 2000).</p>
166059		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteochilus salsburyi</span> is ususally found in slowly running water of medium-size rivers or streams with rocky bottom (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
166059		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166059		threats	eng	No information available on the specific threats to the species, but does occur in areas that are impacted by pollution.
166060		conservation	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed. Artificial  breeding has been successfully undertaken, but is not a replacement for the wild population.
166060		distribution	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Distributed in  the Yangtze basin, small coastal rivers in the Zhejiang Province (Ou Jiang, Ling Jiang,  Yong Jiang, Qiantang Jiang and Cao'e Jiang basins)<span class="short_text" id="result_box">, Huang He River (requires confirmation), the Xi Jiang in the Pearl River basin, the Beijiang River system of Guangdong Province, and  Liancheng, Nanping in Fujian Province and in the Anhui and Guangxi Provinces. <span class="short_text" id="result_box">Also recorded from Taiwan (occurs in Kee-Lung River and I-Lan)<span class="short_text" id="result_box">. Introduced  from its native range to other regions in the country for extensive  stocking in all kinds of inland waters for culture and bio-control. <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span>
166060		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span>Found in rivers and lakes. Grazes on algae. Matures in two years.<span class="slabel"><span><br/></span></span>
166060		population	eng	No information available.
166060		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing and agricultural pollution (agrochemical pollution).
166061		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166061		distribution	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Distributed in the  Pearl River basin (including tributaries) and Cao'e River (<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Zhejiang Province)<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">, in southern China.</span>
166061		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">Found in the upper parts of rivers and streams.<br/><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span>
166061		population	eng	No information available.
166061		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166062		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166062		distribution	eng	The species<span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has an East Asian distribution. It is known from the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang)<span> basin and <span>Han Jiang<span> in southeast China and northern Viet Nam (Ye 1991, Chen and Tang 2000, Kottelat 2001).</span></span>
166062		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate (Hwang 1998, Ye 1991).<br/></p>
166062		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166062		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166063		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166063		distribution	eng	Currently only known to be distributed only in the Li Jiang in Guangxi Province, and the upper parts of the Xiang Jiang, Hunan Province, China
166063		habitat	eng	<span>Demersal; flowing freshwater in rivers and streams; found in shallow areas.
166063		population	eng	It was originally common in Guangxi Province; no information on current population trends.
166063		threats	eng	Threats include agriculture (agrochemical pollution), and locally fishing.
166065		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166065		distribution	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Distributed in the  Pearl River in Zhejiang and Fujian's Min River, Qiantang River, Cao'e River and  the Yangtze River, in China. A widespread species, found at lower elevations.
166065		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5">Lives in upper reaches of rivers, often in groups in search for food. Found in the lower parts of water bodies (<span>benthopelagic)<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5">.<br/></span></span></span></span></span>
166065		population	eng	No information available.
166065		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (industrial and agrochemical pollution).
166066		conservation	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Artificial  breeding success has been achieved. <span class="short_text" id="result_box"> Ba <span><span>Bé <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">Lake is a National Park (and recently designated Ramsar site), and the species is listed as Endangered on the Viet Nam national Red Book.</span></span></span>
166066		distribution	eng	<span><span>Known from the Xi Jiang in China, and recorded from Viet Nam (type locality: Lake Ba Bé, Gam River basin, near Cho-Ra, Tonkin).<br/><br/>In China, known only from the parts of&#160; the Xi Jiang (river) in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces: Guixian, Guiping, Yangsu, Longzhou, Chongzuo, Rongan, Yishan, Duan.</span>
166066		habitat	eng	<span class="long_text" id="result_box">Found in rivers and lakes in the middle and lower layers. A mainly omnivorous benthic fish.     <p><span lang="EN-US">Its spawning period is from April to September, but mainly in May and June. It spawns in batches on aquatic plants. The species has been cultured and bred artificially.<br/></p></span>
166066		population	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">&#160;The species is undergoing a population decline, <span><span>in Viet Nam, the species has been assessed as Extinct in the Wild in it's Red Data Book (2007).</span>
166066		threats	eng	Threatened by pollution and overfishing in China. Specific threats in Viet Nam are not known, however Ba Be Lake has been impacted by deforestation, and fish stocks depleted by overfishing, including destructive fishing methods.
166067		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed. Population monitoring.
166067		distribution	eng	Restricted to the upper parts of Zuo Jiang (river), Guanxi province, China, and possibly present in linked drainages in Viet Nam, though not recorded from the Red River drainages or Viet Nam (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166067		habitat	eng	It is a fish of the upper and middle layers of water bodies and dwells mainly in the deep parts of rivers of clear water. It swims fast and can not tolerate a poor environment, dying quickly in turbid water. It feeds on plankton and alga. Its spawning period is from April to September, but mainly in May and June. It spawns in batches on aquatic plants.
166067		population	eng	The species has declined since the 1980s, and there are no recent records (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011).
166067		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agricultural pollution (agrochemical pollution). The cause of the population decline is uncertain.
166068		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey is required to confirm the likely extinction of the fish. The Yunnan Provincial Government released a call for expression of interest for a lake 'clean up' programme which aims to reduce the arsenic concentration of the lake to <0.05 mg/l. It is unknown what progress has been made.<br/></p>
166068		distribution	eng	Known from<span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"> Yangzong Lake (31 km<sup>2</sup>) in Yunnan Province, China.</span>
166068		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">Confined to a lake; found in the open water in schools.<span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span></span>
166068		population	eng	<p>Considered to be almost extinct, based on surveys undertaken in 2008 (W. Zhou and X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011). No schools of the species were found. The species was described in 1980, but there is no data available on its previous population size. However, it is a schooling fish and was present in large numbers.<br/></p>
166068		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Invasive non-native species, agricultural, domestic and urban waste water pollution, and overfishing. Pollution has had a severe impact on the lake ecology. Since 2008 the lake has been polluted with arsenic and the current average arsenic concentration is 0.128mg/l.<br/></p>
166069		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166069		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>Known  from Dianchi Lake, Nan Pan Jiang (river), Yuan Jiang (river), and the upper  and middle reaches of Yangtze River, southern China.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></st1:placetype></st1:place></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166069		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits torrential streams of mountain areas, clinging to the  substrata on bottom by its sucking disc mouth. Also found in lakes.<span class="sheader5"><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><br/></span></span></span>
166069		population	eng	Declining in Lake Dianchi, but no information available on the river populations.
166069		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution). Also impacted by industrial pollution in some areas (e.g. Dianchi Lake).
166070		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.</p><p></p><span>
166070		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Recorded from </st1:place><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Guangdong, </span></st1:place></st1:state><span lang="EN-US">Guangxi, and Hainan provinces in southern China.</p>
166070		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5">Inhabits gravel bottoms of mountain  streams.</span></span></span></span>
166070		population	eng	A naturally small population.
166070		threats	eng	Dams,<span lang="EN-US"> and domestic and urban waste water pollution.
166071		conservation	eng	No conservation actions has been adopted. More research is needed.
166071		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the Yangtze, Huaihe, Mingjiang and Zhujiang (Zheng 1989) rivers in southern and eastern China, and in northern Viet Nam (middle and upper Red River system and the Ma River). The species has recently been recorded from Hong Kong (Chan and Ho 2011), considered to be an introduction from the mainland.<br/><br/>Introduced from its native range to other parts of China  (intensive culture and extensive stocking in all kinds of inland  waters; Ma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
166071		habitat	eng	The species lives in rivers, lakes, reservoirs or their tributaries. It feeds  benthic invertebrates, small fish, shrimp.
166071		population	eng	There are no direct data for population estimates for the species, but this species is decreasing in the fisheries in China. In the Huaihe River,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was an important captive species for local people before 1960, but now  the species is decreasing.
166071		threats	eng	Water pollution and loss of habitat are the major reasons for population declines.
166072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166072		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Onychostoma ovale</span> has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from the Pearl River basin in southeastern China (Chen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1991), the Red River basin in northern Vietnam and the Ma and Lam River basin in Laos and Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166072		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">There is no information available on the species ecology.<span><span class="slabel"><span><br/></span></span>
166072		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166072		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166073		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for the species. The species is very widely bred in captivity but this is to supply the aquarium trade and not for conservation purposes.
166073		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species has a disjunct distribution. The major range is close to the Tropic of Cancer north of Guangzhou City, and another population was recently discovered in coastal Guangdong at Shanwei in China (Yue and Chen 1998; Freyhof and Herder 2001; Kottelat 2001), and another wild population in Huizhou City in 2009, Hainan Island (Chan and Chen 2009) and it also had been found from a coastal stream draining into Halong Bay of Quang Ninh Province in Viet Nam  (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991; Kottelat 2001; Yi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), but there was a probably extinct population in Hongkong and Shenzhen.
166073		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits clear, slow-moving brooks with thick weed growth. Feeds on plankton, meiobenthos and larvae of aquatic insects (Yi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004; Chen 2006). Spawns several times a year, from March to October, on plants (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
166073		population	eng	The species is said very rare in the wild, possibly because of the small size it may be overlooked. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is believed the fish is extinct in Hong Kong, and it was reintroduced in Guangzhou.
166073		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to the species.
166074		conservation	eng	Research into the species taxonomy, populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166074		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Do Liu Jiang (Guixhou Province) and Rong Jiang, Guangxi Province, China. Recorded from the Pearl River, but seldom found.
166074		habitat	eng	Found in slow flowing water with macrophytes; lays sticky eggs on aquatic plants. Carnivorous.
166074		population	eng	It is rarely found in southern China, and is considered naturally scarce. There are no statistical figures on its quantity.
166074		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing, dams, as well as agrochemical and, urban and industrial pollution. Populations are declining as a result of these threats.
166075		conservation	eng	Even though the species has not been recorded recently in numerous surveys, more surveys are needed across the species known range to confirm whether the species is extant or not.
166075		distribution	eng	<span>Only known from the Nan Pan Jiang, Yiliang County, Yunnan Province of China. The species is only known from the type specimen collected in the 1960s and it was described in 1977.
166075		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits gravel bottoms in mountain  streams and adheres to stones by its disk.
166075		population	eng	Possibly extinct. More than twenty surveys (W. Zhou, and X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011) within the basin did not record the species.
166075		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing, dams and agricultural and industrial pollution.
166077		conservation	eng	Although this is a common, very widespread species, more information about its population size and trends, biology and potential threats (even if localized) facing this species is required. &#160;At the present moment, no species-specific conservation measures are needed.
166077		conservation	eng	No information available.
166077		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some coastal reserves.
166077		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some coastal reserves in southern Africa.
166077		distribution	eng	Found in rivers, estuaries and coastal regions throughout the Indo-West Pacific, from the eastern coast of Africa to the Hawaiian Islands. Some populations in parts of its range appear to reside in freshwaters.
166077		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the East coast south to Transkei, also Indo-West Pacific: East Africa to French Polynesia (Skelton 2001).
166077		distribution	eng	The species is widespread along the Indian Ocean coastal zone.
166077		distribution	eng	This species is widespread along the Indian Ocean coastal zone, also Indo-West  Pacific: East Africa to French Polynesia (Skelton 2001).<br/> <br/> <strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal rivers from Tanzania  southwards<br/> <br/> <strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the east coast,  Mozambique south to Transkei, South Africa.
166077		habitat	eng	Inhabits lagoons, estuaries and freshwater. Juveniles are found mainly among mangrove roots in the more saline areas of lagoons and estuaries.
166077		habitat	eng	Inhabits lagoons, estuaries and rivers. Juveniles are mainly found among mangrove roots in the more saline areas of lagoons and estuaries (Froese and Pauly 2003). Commonly found under logs and rootstocks in muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove swamps and freshwater streams leading into coastal lagoons (Skelton 1993). Carnivorous (Froese and Pauly 2003).
166077		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of habitats, ranging from freshwater streams to brackish estuarine and coastal areas.
166077		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoons, estuaries and rivers. Juveniles are mainly found among mangrove roots in the more saline areas of lagoons and estuaries (Froese and Pauly 2003). Commonly found under logs and rootstocks in muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove swamps and freshwater streams leading into coastal lagoons (Skelton 1993). Carnivorous (Froese and Pauly 2003).
166077		population	eng	Common and widespread.
166077		population	eng	Given the very wide distribution of this species and the absence of any significant threats, the global population can be considered stable.
166077		population	eng	No information available.
166077		threats	eng	No information available.
166077		threats	eng	There are no large-scale threats to the global population of this species. Even if populations of this species are threatened locally, this species is abundant and wide-ranging enough that no significant effects of such threats on the global population are to be expected.
166077		threats	eng	The species is widespread with no major threats.
166078		conservation	eng	Monitoring of &#160;harvest levels is required.
166078		distribution	eng	An endemic species of the eastern part of China. The earliest discovery of the fish was made in Baoqing of Hunan province. Now it is known that it is distributed in the Li Jiang river and the Yangtze River.
166078		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">A mountain stream species of the warm temperate zone that likes clear water with plenty of rocks on the river bed. Feeds on small fishes, shrimps and aquatic insects.
166078		population	eng	Though the distribution of the species is widespread, according to most investigations from others researchers, the harvest quantity is very small, and it is only&#160;occasionally&#160;found in rivers. It is very rare.
166078		threats	eng	The species has been overfished during the past several decades, and&#160;pollution also impacts the habitat.
166079		conservation	eng	None required.
166079		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Xi Jiang (West River) and Lianhua mountains, Guangdong Province, Bei Jiang and the Dong Jiang (Guanxi and Guangdong Provinces), southern China.
166079		habitat	eng	Found in streams.
166079		population	eng	No information available.
166079		threats	eng	No threats identified. It is a lowland species and spreads easily within suitable habitat.
166080		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this 'species'.
166080		distribution	eng	<span><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura fasciolata</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is known from <span>the Yangtze River basin in Central China, <span>the upper Pearl River drainages in southeastern China (Ye 1991), Hainan Island and <span>the Red River drainages in southern China and North Viet Nam (Chu and Chen 1990, Kottelat 2001). The southern limit of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. faciolata </span>distribution range is the Central Viet Nam. <br/></span></span>
166080		habitat	eng	<span>Found in freshwater, but tolerant to slightly brackish water.
166080		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166080		threats	eng	No information available on the specific threats to the species. However the species occurs in areas that have been heavily impacted by dams and pollution.
166081		conservation	eng	The wild population should be monitored.
166081		distribution	eng	This a widespread species throughout China from Heilongjiang, Yangtze and Pearl River basins. Also recorded in eastern Russia (Amur River) and from Mongolia.<span> Introduced around the world for  aquaculture and control of algal blooms. Several countries report adverse  ecological impact after introduction.
166081		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Feeds on  phytoplankton and zooplankton. In its natural range,  it migrates upstream to breed; egg and larva float downstream to floodplain  zones. An active species well known for its habit of leaping clear of the water  when disturbed.  Swims just beneath the water surface. Larvae and small  juveniles feed on zooplankton; from 15 mm <span class="st">Standard length (<span class="sheader5">SL) only feeds on phytoplankton. Very  sensitive to low temperature (below 5°C) and oxygen deficit.<br/><br/>Dams have greatly impacted the species reproductive success. The Amur populations are thought not to have yet been impacted (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), however populations in China have declined greatly as a result of the widespread development of dams.</span>
166081		population	eng	The natural population of the species has declined in its native range in China, however it has been widely introduced throughout China and to other countries, including Malaysia.
166081		threats	eng	In its natural range, the species has been impacted by dams, pollution, and overfishing. Dams and pollution destroy the habitat ecology, reproductive success. <span class="sheader5">Dams have greatly impacted the species  reproductive success. The Amur populations are thought not to have yet  been impacted (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), however populations in  China have declined greatly as a result of the widespread development of  dams. Population declines in the natural population have been significant in the Chinese parts of its range.
166084		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166084		distribution	eng	<em>A. yunnanensis</em> is found in the upper reaches of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River and the Xiajiang (West) River, and in the lakes in the eastern part of Yunnan province.
166084		habitat	eng	<em>A. yunnanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits rivers and lakes.
166084		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.
166084		threats	eng	<em>A. yunnanensis</em> is locally threatened, for example in lake Dianchi, which is heavily polluted from both domestic and industrial sources. Bycatch is also a potential threat to the species.
166085		conservation	eng	Research needed into the species ecology, distribution, and population trends.
166085		distribution	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Distributed in Fuchun River in Zhejiang Province, China.
166085		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader5"><span lang="EN-US">Demersal. Inhabits gravel bottoms in mountain streams<span lang="EN-US"><span class="slabel">.<span class="slabel"><span class="slabel"><span class="slabel"><br/></span></span></span></p>
166085		population	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
166085		threats	eng	Urbanisation, dams and pollution from agriculture and industry are threats.
166087		conservation	eng	Information on the species&#160;distribution, impacts of threats and&#160;population&#160;trends is required.
166087		distribution	eng	<p>Known from southern China (Guangdong (Xi Jiang),&#160;Guangxi (Xi Jiang), and&#160;Guizhou (Gui Jiang) provinces), and Hunan (Yuan Jiang) Province.</p>
166087		habitat	eng	Known from fast-flowing hill streams.
166087		population	eng	The number of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Onychostoma rarum</span> is very small and declining.
166087		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to dams and agricultural pollution.
166088		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166088		distribution	eng	Known from the Nan Pang Jiang, Yiliang County, Yunnan, China.
166088		habitat	eng	<span>This species inhabits rocky streams.
166088		population	eng	No information available.
166088		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agricultural pollution (industrial and agrochemical pollution).
166089		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166089		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from Nanpan Jiang basin in Yunnan, China.
166089		habitat	eng	<span>Demersal, found in stony rivers and streams. It has a sucker to allow it to stick to rocks.
166089		population	eng	Possibly a naturally scarce population, however it is a difficult species to survey for.
166089		threats	eng	Dams will impact on the species habitat, as well as pollution (agriculture and industrial sources).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166090		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. Monitoring of fisheries is needed to prevent over-fishing.
166090		distribution	eng	The species<span> has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from Pacific coastal drainages in southeastern China (e.g. Yangtze River, Minjiang River, Hangjiang River, Pearl River, Nanjiujiang), Viet Nam (northern Provinces to Quang Binh Province in Central Viet Nam), Taiwan and Philippines (e.g., Masuda<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1984, Kottelat 2001).<br/><br/>Introduced in Japan from Taiwan in 1906, in Hawaii (and now present elsewhere in North America) from China (1900-1924) and in Madagascar from China (1976-1978).<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>
166090		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits   silty and weedy bottoms of still water or slow-running river with lots of caves and aquatic  vegetation to hide (Huang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). It is able to breath atmospheric air (Liem 1987) which allows the species to survive in moist condition outside water over long periods (Courtenay and Williams 2004). Ambush predator,  feed on small fish, shrimp and frogs (Man and Hodgkiss 1981). Parents build  bubble nests and lay eggs below</p><p>Distinct pairing during breeding in shallow freshwater areas amid plants (Breeder 1966). Oviparous. Reproduction season in May to October depend on each region. At this  time, they live in a couple, nesting near pond dikes, rice farm and  rivers. They usually remove all aquatic plants to make a nest 0.4 - 0.6 m<sup>2</sup>  large to spawn. Eggs float on water face and stick to each other. Male  and female stay around nest to protect and nurse juvenile until juvenile  can search for feed and escape from enemy by themselves.<br/></p>
166090		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166090		threats	eng	In its natural distribution range, major threats to the species are overfishing (especially in the spawning season, when prices are high) and habitat destruction. In China, production of the species from the wild has declined over the past 10-15 years. In some areas, this species has become scarce.
166091		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166091		distribution	eng	<em>T. hoffmanni</em> is only known from the type locality, the Wuzhou county of Guangxi Province.
166091		habitat	eng	<em>T. hoffmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species.
166091		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166091		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution are general threats to fish in the Guangxi province, although their direct effect on<em> T. hoffmanni</em> are not known.
166092		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166092		distribution	eng	The species has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from Pearl and Red river basins in southern China and northern Viet Nam (Chu and Chen 1990, Gao 1991, Kottelat 2001) and the Lam River and Huong River in central Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005, Freyhof unpublished).
166092		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters.
166092		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166092		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166093		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats needed.
166093		distribution	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Distributed<span class="short_text" id="result_box"> in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River  in Sichuan Province, China. Recorded from the Jialing Jiang, Tuo Jiang, and Yalong Jiang, and Dadu Jiang.</span>
166093		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5"><span lang="EN-US">Inhabitants&#160;both open water and quiet water.&#160;<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5">The main bulk of the diet includes zooplankton, insects, crustaceans, algae and detritus. Common in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs where it grows fast and is an omnivore. Reaches maturity in second year. Eggs attached to macrophytes.</span></span></span></span></span>
166093		population	eng	The&#160;population&#160;is recorded as good (Ruihai 1994).
166093		threats	eng	There are many dams both on the mainstream of the Yangtze and on its tributaries, however the species is not though to be migratory, and the impact of dams in not known. Sichuan is a very highly populated province, and it is highly urbanised; pollution form urban sources is possible.
166094		conservation	eng	<p>The species is thought to be extinct and further survey is required to confirm this.<br/></p>
166094		distribution	eng	The species was recorded from <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">Qilu Lake in Yunnan Province, China.</span>
166094		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">A pelagic fish in a freshwater lake. Found in open water in the upper layers of the lake.<span><br/><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span></span>
166094		population	eng	The population has declined due to the introduction on non-native fishes and overfishing and is possibly extinct. The species has not been recorded since the 1980s. Surveys in 1983 and 1984 did not find the species (W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011).
166094		threats	eng	<p>Since 1964, many species of fish (economic and non-economic species) have been introduced into Qilu Lake which devour much of the this species spawn<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span></p> <p>Agricultural development of the littoral zone has resulted in  the sharp fall of the water level of the lake due to water extraction, this has led to a decline in the aquatic plants in the lake depriving the species of their spawning grounds. Qilu Lake is a shallow lake and the continuous  discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic waste water into it  has resulted in heavy pollution,</p>
166095		conservation	eng	None required.
166095		distribution	eng	<span><span>Laos (Nam Ma basin) and Viet Nam to China (Pearl River, Heilong Jiang, and the&#160;Yangtze)&#160;and southeastern Siberia (from Amur River basin). It has been introduced into Lake Fuzian very successfully.</span>
166095		habitat	eng	<span>Present in slow waters in the littoral zone. Successfully introduced into lakes.
166095		population	eng	Widespread and introduced into some systems.
166095		threats	eng	No threats known across the range.
166096		conservation	eng	<p>Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.</p>
166096		distribution	eng	<p>The species has a small distribution in the Nan Pan Jiang (Pearl River) basin and associated water bodies (reservoirs) in <span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">Yunnan Province, China.<br/></span></p>
166096		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span><span class="slabel"><span>Requires open water, a pelagic fish<a class="x-tab-right" href="http://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text"></span></em></a><span class="slabel"><span><span><span class="slabel"><span>; freshwater, in rivers and reservoirs.<span class="slabel"><br/><span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166096		population	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
166096		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Invasive non-native species. Domestic and urban waste water, and agricultural pollution, and dams.</p>
166098		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166098		distribution	eng	<span><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura hingi</span> is know from Pearl River basin in southeastern China and the coastal drainages in central Viet Nam only (Freyhof & Serov 2001, Kottelat 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Probably occurs in the coastal drainage of northern Viet Nam.
166098		habitat	eng	<span>Found in medium-size rivers and streams in riffles with rocks and gravel substrate (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
166098		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population across its whole distribution range. In Central Viet Nam, data comparing the situation in 2000 and 2009 suggest no decline in the abundance of this species.
166098		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura hingi</span> are dams, overfishing and water pollution.
166099		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus yunnanensis</span> was listed as a Class II protected animal of Yunnan Province in 1989.
166099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is an endemic fish to China and distributed only in Qilu Lake, Yunnan province. It has not been seen since the late 1970s when an individual specimen was collected (W. Zhou pers. comm.).
166099		habitat	eng	Dwells mainly in shallow water (less than 5 m deep) rather thick with aquatic plants. It feeds on many things but mainly shrimps and small fishes and some aquatic plants. It is large in size, generally 170-300 mm.
166099		population	eng	Originally a locally important economic fish, its number sharply dropped since the 1970s and is now almost extinct.
166099		threats	eng	Agricultural   development of the littoral zone has resulted in  the sharp fall of  the  water level of the lake due to water extraction, this has led to a   decline in the aquatic plants in the lake depriving the species of  their  spawning grounds. Qilu Lake is a shallow lake and the continuous    discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic waste water into it    has resulted in heavy pollution.
166100		conservation	eng	Information on population trends and&#160;distribution&#160;is needed.
166100		distribution	eng	Known from Dong Jiang tributary of the Pearl River, and the Han Jiang of Guangdong Province.
166100		habitat	eng	Found in clear, slow-flowing streams; not present in main rivers.
166100		population	eng	A rare species present in small numbers.
166100		threats	eng	Pollution from agricultural (agrochemicals and sedimentation) and urban sources.
166101		conservation	eng	Dayaoshan Mountain is well protected, the area is designated as a National Forest Park.  This species is protected within the Park, although it may range beyond this area.
166101		distribution	eng	<em>P. pachycheilus</em> is only found in small mountain brooks flowing into the Xi Jiang River in the Dayaoshan Mountain of Guangxi.  The Extent of Occurrence is approximately 15,165 km², estimated by locating the mountain in a gazetteer and finding the area of the surrounding basins.
166101		habitat	eng	<em>P. pachycheilus</em> is a demersal species which inhabits small mountain streams.
166101		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166101		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
166102		conservation	eng	Research into suitable harvest level and population trends has been recommended.
166102		distribution	eng	<em>H. umbrifer</em> is found in South China and North Viet Nam, in the Xijiang River basin, which is the western (and main) tributary of the Pearl River.
166102		habitat	eng	<em>H. umbrifer</em> is a benthic fish.
166102		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.
166102		threats	eng	Fishing is a threat to the species, but it is still common on the local markets (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.)
166103		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. But protection of the species migratory routes and spawning grounds is recommended along with research and monitoring.
166103		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Luciobrama macrocephalus</span> has an East Asian distribution. It is known from the Yangtze (Changjiang) River, Pearl (Zhujiang) River, Minjiang River and Qiantangjiang River in the southeastern China (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991, Wang 1998) and the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam&#160; (Kottelat 2001).
166103		habitat	eng	It lives in the rivers and lakes in the middle and lower layers of the water.&#160; Male fish become sexually matured after 4 years old and the females after 5. The breeding season is from April to July, where the species migrates to sections of rivers where the current is suitable for spawning. The eggs float in the current and fries hatched swim to lakes and ponds. Larvae feed on zooplankton while adult fish are mainly piscivorous (source: Wang 1998).
166103		population	eng	In the second half of the last century, stocks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Luciobrama macrocephalus</span> have declined in all river basin in southeastern China (Wang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et. al </span>1998). In the Zhujiang River, fish surveys between 2005-2008 did not find the species at four spawning areas where they were previously recorded in 1988 (Zhou, H.H. pers. comm. 2011).
166103		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Luciobrama macrocephalus </span>are overfishing and river modifications (e.g. dams, dykes and floodgate construction, reclamation of floodplains into agriculture land) which blocks the connection between main rivers and floodplain lakes (Wang 1998).
166104		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166104		distribution	eng	It is distributed in southern China and Taiwan. Liu Jiang, Yu Jiang, Gui Jiang, and provinces including Zheijiang, Hainan, and Fujian provinces and Taiwan.
166104		habitat	eng	<span>Freshwater rivers in slow <span>deep <span>water, in the middle and bottom layers. Omnivorous.</span>
166104		population	eng	No information available.
166104		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing, dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution), as well as loss of habitat through urbanisation.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166105		conservation	eng	Research into ecology, populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166105		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US"></st1:place><span lang="EN-US">Occurs in mountain streams in Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. The type locality is a stream in the Min River basin, near Yenping (Nanping). <br/><br/> <br/></span></p><span lang="EN-US">
166105		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-US">Occurs in mountain streams.
166105		population	eng	No information available.
166105		threats	eng	Possible threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166106		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166106		distribution	eng	<span><span style="font-style: italic;">Oreonectes platycephalus</span> is known from Pearl River drainages in southeastern China and northeastern Viet Nam (Nichols 1943, Man and Hodgkiss 1981, Kottelat 2001).
166106		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits near the bottom of clear, fast-flowing streams. Feeds on benthic organisms and detritus (Man and Hodgkiss 1981).
166106		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166106		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166107		conservation	eng	None required.
166107		distribution	eng	<span>Known from Zhu Jiang River (Pearl River) in Guangdong and Guanxi Provinces, and Hainan Province in China. Records from the Yangtze are not considered correct identifications.
166107		habitat	eng	Lives in fresh water lakes and rivers; found in the upper and middle layers of the water body.
166107		population	eng	The species population is increasing
166107		threats	eng	Pollution and overfishing. The species likes open water and may benefit from the creation of reservoirs by dams.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166108		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166108		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Pearl River basin (Dong Jiang and Xi Jiang, and Western Lake, Hwei-yang), Guangdong Province, China, Asia. Also recorded from the Xi Jiang in Guanxi Province.<br/><br/>A record from the Hong River basin in Viet Nam required confirmation; most likely a different species.
166108		habitat	eng	<span>A bottom-dwelling species, with sandy and stony bottom and flowing water.
166108		population	eng	Small population (Zheng 1989).
166108		threats	eng	Pollution form agriculture is a potential threat to this species.
166109		conservation	eng	Part of the range of <em>C. dabryi</em> is protected in the Khankayskiy Biosphere Reserve.
166109		distribution	eng	<em>C. dabryi</em> is found in East Asia, from the Yangtze to the Amur basin.
166109		habitat	eng	<em>C. dabryi</em> is a pelagic species, sometimes found in lakes and slow flowing main courses of rivers.
166109		population	eng	Populations are declining as a result of overfishing.
166109		threats	eng	<em>C. dabryi</em> is threatened by overfishing across its whole range.
166111		conservation	eng	Information on the impact of threats is required.
166111		distribution	eng	Known from the Xi Jiang (West River), Longzhou City (Prefecture), Guangxi Province, and from Yunnan Province, China.
166111		habitat	eng	<span>Recorded from rapid streams in hill areas. Sandy bottoms. Conspecific species are migratory.
166111		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The population of this species is unknown.<em></em></p>
166111		threats	eng	Dams on the Xi Jiang impact on the species through habitat changes. Agricultural pollution is another potential threat.
166112		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166112		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mylopharyngodon piceus</span> has originally an East Asian distribution, from in most Pacific river drainages, from the Amur River to the West River (Xi Jiang) (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). Introduced in many countries worldwide for control populations of molluscan vectors of fish and human parasites. Furthermore, used to removed Dreissena mussels that clog hydroelectric plants.<span> <span>Naturally reproducing populations established only in Amu Darya  (Turkmenistan) and possible in Tone drainages (Japan) (Freyhof and  Kottelat 2007). <span><br/><span></span></span>
166112		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>In its natural distribution range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mylopharyngodon piceus</span> <span class="slabel">inhabits large lowland river and lakes, preferably with clear water and high oxygen concentration (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007).<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Spawns for the first time at 6-11 years, females later than males (at about 1000 mm SL and 15 kg, males at 900 mm and 11 kg, fecundity is about 700-800 thousand eggs). Migrates upriver and spawns in open water during flood phase. Eggs are pelagic or semipelagic and hatch while drifting downstream. If the river flow is blocked or if available river stretches are too short, eggs cannot drift for long enough and fail to develop. Larvae migrate into floodplain lakes and channels with little or no current. Larvae feed on zooplankton, then on ostracods and aquatic insects. At about 120 mm SL, juveniles start to feed on small snails and clams. Larger juveniles and adults feed almost entirely on molluscs (source: Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). <br/><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5"></span></span></span>
166112		population	eng	In the second half of the 20th century, a massive decline in the abundance of this species was observed in its native distribution range. Its current population trend is unknown.
166112		threats	eng	<p>Major threats to this species are overfishing, river modifications such as dam construction and the conversion of floodplains into agriculture land and water pollution.</p>
166114		conservation	eng	Local government has introduced fishery&#160;management&#160;and pollution control.
166114		distribution	eng	It is only recorded from Yangzonghai Lake, Yunnan province, China, and endemic to the lake.
166114		habitat	eng	Yangzonghai Lake&#160;is supplied by creaks and underground streams and springs. The fish may also be found in the streams that feed the lake, but survey is required to confirm this.
166114		population	eng	The population has sharply decreased. In the past the total fish capture (all species) in Yangzonghai Lake was 40,000 kg per year (Gao 1980), but the total fish production in Yangzonghai Lake was 23,000 kg in 1975. Recent surveys (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011), did not record the species.
166114		threats	eng	Excessive&#160;fishing, deforestation&#160;and water pollution (including arsenic from&#160;industrial&#160;sources) are the major threats.
166116		conservation	eng	Artificial propagation has been done, no other available information.
166116		distribution	eng	Only recorded from&#160;<span>Fuxian Lake (212km<sup>2</sup>) in Yunnan, China.
166116		habitat	eng	It is found in Fuxian Lake in the shallow&#160;literal&#160;zone, and in the middle and lower levels of open water. The species especially likes rocky areas close to underwater springs. It is an omnivore, mainly feeding on small fish and shrimps. Grows slowly, breeds from December to May, mostly January to March. The species has been&#160;successful&#160;cultivated&#160;and re-introduced&#160;to the lake in small quantities (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011).
166116		population	eng	It is decreasing rapidly. The indigenous fishes in Fuxian lake decreased severely from March 2004 to July 2005 (Xiao 2009). The species was&#160;successfully&#160;cultivated&#160;(Fei 2009).
166116		threats	eng	Invasive non-native species (grass carps, gobies, and other small fishes), and over-fishing, as well as loss of spawning grounds. In the 1970s there was little control over fishery activities, leading to over-exploitation of the lake resources.
166118		conservation	eng	More research is needed, as is harvest management and monitoring.
166118		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Squalidus argentatus</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is distributed from Amur River basin in the north to the Red River system in the south (Chu and Chen 1989, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Nguyen and Ngo 2001) and also known from Taiwan (Chen and Chang 2007).
166118		habitat	eng	<span>Lower and middle reaches of rivers.
166118		population	eng	A common species however within the last decade has experienced a dramatic decline probably owing to over-fishing and environmental destruction (Sun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
166118		threats	eng	Over harvesting and pollution are threatening the species.
166119		conservation	eng	<p>Research into the&#160;species&#160;threats is needed, as well as its&#160;distribution.</p>
166119		distribution	eng	Known from Dong Jiang, Bei Jiang and the Xi Jiang, from&#160;Lechang, Lianshan, Heping, Lianping counties,&#160;Guangdong,&#160;and from streams on Wuzhi Mountain, Hainan Province, China. There are also records from Guangxi Province (Li Jiang drainage: bought from Sanjie Zhen Market in Lingchuan County).<br/><br/>The species is also recorded from Taiwan.
166119		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits streams and rivers with sandy rocky substrata and swiftly flowing waters.<br/>    </p><p><br/></p>
166119		population	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
166119		threats	eng	Pollution (agriculture) is a threat in all of the species known rivers.
166120		conservation	eng	None required.
166120		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Far East, including China, Russia (Amur basin), and Korea. Cosmopolitan in China, recorded from most river basins, except those at higher altitudes (Tibet and Xinjiang). There are records from the Ayeyarwaddy and Salween drainages in China and Myanmar. Present in the Mekong in China, but not yet recorded downstream in Lao PDR. These latter records are recent introductions and the species is spreading rapidly.
166120		habitat	eng	<span>Still and slow flowing waters. Dependent on molluscs for reproductive cycle, but apparently no specific host. Found in lakes, ponds, agricultural canals etc.
166120		population	eng	Common and spreading.
166120		threats	eng	No information available.
166121		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, and distribution is needed.
166121		distribution	eng	Described from a subterranean river of Changping, Fusui County, southern Guangxi, China. Possibly only known from the type locality.
166121		habitat	eng	<span>Recorded from a&#160;subterranean&#160;stream.
166121		population	eng	No information available.
166121		threats	eng	None known, but potentially collected for aquarium trade and impacted by&#160;limestone&#160;quarrying,&#160;however&#160;this is not confirmed.
166122		conservation	eng	<p>Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.<br/><br/></p>
166122		distribution	eng	Known from the Pearl River and Datanhu Lake, and from the Lo (Clair) River and Panlong River (Red River drainage) in Yunnan Province, southern China (Chu and Chen 1989). Expected to occur in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
166122		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>Found in rivers and lakes.<br/></span></span></span>
166122		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the species population.<br/></p>
166122		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Domestic and urban waste water pollution; habitat degradation, especially in lakes. Invasive species may be a threat in lakes.<br/></p>
166123		conservation	eng	Urgent taxonomic revision is required for this species complex.
166123		distribution	eng	The species has a very wide distribution; it is recorded from Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore.
166123		habitat	eng	Present in almost all wetlands.
166123		population	eng	Population is unknown, but as presently grouped, it is common and widespread.
166123		threats	eng	Threats are not expected, but further investigation is required following taxonomic revision.
166124		conservation	eng	None required.
166124		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern China, Taiwan, Province of China, and northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001) and northeastern Lao PDR. The species has been introduced to the Hawaiian Islands (Yamamoto 1992), Japan (<span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder1_NativeRangeText">Okinawajima and Ishigakijima Islands, Ryukyu Archipelago<span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder1_NativeRangeText">; Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984), and the Philippines.</span>
166124		habitat	eng	Usually lentic waters, sometimes slow streams, with abundant aquatic grasses; <span class="sheader5">occurs in streams, ponds, ditches and reservoirs. Prefers deeper pools and tends to hide under thick mats of vegetation; a nocturnal feeder on small fishes, worms, crustaceans and insects.
166124		population	eng	Not known, but widely introduced for aquaculture and aquaria.
166124		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
166125		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166125		distribution	eng	<span>From the Amur basin to rivers of Korea and most drainages in eastern China (not the Xi River).
166125		habitat	eng	Lives in slow flowing water in the middle to bottom layers of rivers, both tributary and main channels. Grazes on algae and benthos. Spawns April-June, laying sticky eggs .
166125		population	eng	A common species.
166125		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution (agrochemicals) are potential threats to this species.
166127		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed. The species is captive bred for aquaculture.
166127		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang, and its tributary, the Xiang Jiang), the Pearl River (Bei Jiang) and the Min Jiang (Fujian Province) in southeastern China.
166127		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, moves within the river to spawning grounds. Carnivorous and hunts at night. Spawns from April to June in torrents (rapids) in sand and gravel. Lays sticky eggs.<span>
166127		population	eng	Decreasing in the wild. L<span>arvae are propagated artificially for cultivation.
166127		threats	eng	Overfishing and aquatic environment deterioration are a major threats factors. Changes to flow regimes as a result of dam construction would impact the species.
166129		conservation	eng	Recorded from the&#160;Shiwandashan National Park - Shangsi.
166129		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Pearl River drainages of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces and Hainan Island (Nodoa:&#160;type locality) in China.
166129		habitat	eng	<span><span class="sheader5">Inhabits streams on sand and gravel bottom.</span>
166129		population	eng	No&#160;information&#160;available.
166129		threats	eng	Streams are impacted by pollution (agriculture, industry and urban).
166130		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of the species population trends and threats should be undertaken.
166130		distribution	eng	The species has an East Asian distribution. It is known from the Russian Federation (Bogutskaya and Naseka 2002), the Korea Republic (Kim<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005), China (Ye 1991) and Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001). Introduced in Japan (Hagiwara 2002). Known from the coastal drainages between Hainan and Viet Nam.<br/><br/>In China, it is recorded from the drainages of Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang in Guangdong Province and drainages in Hainan Island and their river mouths; Heilongjiang to Red River basin; Guangdong (Lianzhou, Yangshan); Jiangxi Fanyang Lake; Shanghai City; Jiangsu Tai Lake; Anhui Linghuaiguan; Hubei (Dong Lake, Liangzi Lake, Hong Lake, Shashi); Hunan (Dongting Lake); Shanxi Zhouzhi, and Heilongjiang Songhuajiang.<span style="background-color: green;"></span>
166130		habitat	eng	<span>A river and lake species, found in freshwater.
166130		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166130		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by fisheries, and by pollution and dams in parts of its range. The species is reliant upon mussel hosts for its reproduction, and these are often more likely to be impacted by pollution. The specific host for the species is not known. There is general habitat loss and degradation, especially from high sediment loads from agriculture and deforestation, which impacts the bivalve host.
166131		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166131		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Known from <st1:placename w:st="on">Guangdong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> in the drainages of Han Jiang and its river mouth, Rong Jiang and its river mouth, Dong Jiang, Bei Jiang and <st1:place w:st="on">Xi Jiang</st1:place>. Also usually found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Zhu Jiang</st1:placename> (= Pearl River) and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Xiang Jiang</st1:placename> , the <st1:placename w:st="on">Yuan Jiang</st1:placename> of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chang Jiang</st1:placename></st1:place>. Known from Lian <st1:placetype w:st="on">county</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Bei Jiang</st1:placename> system in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Guangdong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city><st1:postalcode w:st="on"></st1:postalcode><st1:postalcode w:st="on"></st1:postalcode></st1:place>. Also&#160;recorded&#160;from Sichuan Province.</p><p>The type locality is "Mountain streams running into Tung-ting Lake, Tu-Yuen-Hsien, southern Kweichow".&#160;</p>
166131		habitat	eng	The species grazes on algae. Found in fast flowing waters in mountain/hill regions.
166131		population	eng	No information available.
166131		threats	eng	Threats include dams, local overfishing, and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166132		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is recommended.
166132		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiobotia meridionalis</span> is known from Pearl River basin in southeastern China (Guangdong and Guangxi provinces) only (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
166132		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">Freshwater in rivers.<br/><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span>
166132		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166132		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166133		conservation	eng	More research is needed.
166133		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">An Asian species d<span class="mediumtext"><span lang="EN-US">istributed in the Xijiang and Dongjiang of Guangdong and Hainan<span class="mediumtext"><span lang="EN-US"> provinces in China, and is also known from northern Lao PDR and Viet Nam. </span></span></p>
166133		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits streams and rivers with moderate to swift current, over gravel to stone substrate (Kottelat 2001).
166133		population	eng	No information available.
166133		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
166134		conservation	eng	Research into threats to the species habitat and its mollusc host is needed.
166134		distribution	eng	Known from the Pearl River basin in southeastern China (Guangdong and Guangxi provinces) only (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998) and northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
166134		habitat	eng	<span>A freshwater river species.<br/><br/>As with all species of the subfamily Acheilognathinae (Cyprinidae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Acheilognathus meridianus</span> use freshwater mussels for oviposition. The female deposits her eggs inside freshwater mussel. The male sheds his sperm into the inhalent current of the respiring mussel and thereby fertilizes the eggs. The young hatch and remain protected within the mussel, leaving the mussel as actively swimming larvae.
166134		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166134		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to loss of its mussel host as a result of pollution and sedimentation.<span class="gwt-CheckBox">
166136		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Pseudorasbora parva</span> has orignally an East Asia distribution. Its distribution range stretches from the Amur River drainage in Siberia to the Pearl River (Zhujiang) drainage in southeast China, and Japan (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). Introduced to various areas in Europe and Asia (Welcomme 1988).
166136		habitat	eng	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats, most abundantly in well vegetated small channels, ponds and small lakes (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). Adults occur in cool running water. Feed on small insects, fish and fish eggs (Billard 1997), and plant material (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). Usually breed in habitats with still or very slow-flowing water ((Kottelat and Freyhof 2007)). Regarded as pest which competes with the fry of other species due to its high reproductive rate (Welcomme 1988).
166136		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166136		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166138		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several marine protected areas in northern Australia (and probably elsewhere) (Larson, H. pers. comm. 2011).
166138		distribution	eng	The species has an Indo-West Pacific distribution; throughout coastal south and southeast Asia, including India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh)), Indonesia, Philippines, north to  southern Japan, south to northern-eastern Australia (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993) and east to Solomon Islands, Fiji and Samoa. There is a USNM specimen from Palau.<br/><br/>In China, it has been introduced from its  native range to other regions in the country for intensive culture in  ponds.
166138		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower reaches of coastal freshwaters, brackish and marine habitats, and is usually associated with muddy mangroves, where the fish appear to live in burrows among mangrove roots (they probably do not dig their own burrow). The species has also been collected from muddy tidepools near rocky mangrove shorelines. The species prefers substrate mud, but also found over sandy mud and broken shell in mangroves.
166138		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat but is not abundant.
166138		threats	eng	<p>As this species occurrence is linked to mangroves and estuaries, any threats to these habitats may affect its populations. However, it appears to be resilient and has been collected in marginal to damaged habitat in Indonesia and Malaysia (Larson, H. pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
166139		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166139		distribution	eng	<em>A. hemispinus</em> is endemic to China, known from the Min Jiang basin (a tributary of the Yangtze River) in Fujian Province and the Qiangtang Jiang basin in Zhejiang Province.
166139		habitat	eng	<em>A. hemispinus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
166139		population	eng	This is quite a common species that can usually be easily caught, however it is thought that the population is declining (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.).
166139		threats	eng	The area in which this species is found is heavily populated, and the species, although not targeted, will be affected by bycatch and pollution as a result of human settlement.
166140		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166140		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Guizhou, Guanxi and Gueangdong provinces; a widespread species in the Pearl River basin (Xi Jiang, Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang).
166140		habitat	eng	It preys on small fish, shrimps and aquatic insects. Found in upper sections of flowing rivers with stony bottoms
166140		population	eng	Though the species widespread in China, the total population is not large, and it has been impacted by overfishing.
166140		threats	eng	Pollution and overfishing are the threats factors.
166141		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166141		distribution	eng	It is distributed in the upper and middle of <span>Yangtze River and the upper Pearl River <span>and their tributaries in southern China.</span>
166141		habitat	eng	<span>Found in rivers and tributaries in flowing water. Mouth morphology suggests that it feeds on the benthos and algae.
166141		population	eng	Still abundant in parts of its range.
166141		threats	eng	Overfishing is likely the main threat to the species, as well as potential impacts form dams.
166142		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is needed to compare populations. Population and habitat trends should be monitored.
166142		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from northern Lao PDR (Nam Ma River (Song Da drainage, Houaphan Province), Nam Dai, Luang Nam Tha Province (stream flows into China, but is part of the Mekong drainage)<span><span>, from China (including the Mekong drainage in Yunnan), and from northern Viet Nam. <br/><br/></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>In China it is recorded from the Pearl River drainage (Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang drainages in Guangdong Province<span>)</span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span>, from Guangxi Province (Longzhou, Baise, Shangsi, Guilin)<span><span>, from the Mekong River system in Yunnan, </span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Shandong Province <span>(Yellow  River; </span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span>from <span>Tianjin City, <span>and Jinan), <span>Changjiang (Yangtze) and Zhejiang (Pearl River). Known from  Yunnan Province (Dalu, Mengla); and from the Yangtze drainage (Henan  province (Xinye, Tanghe)</span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>.<br/></span></span></span></span></span>
166142		habitat	eng	<span>Found in freshwater rivers; slow moving lowland streams. Dependent on bivalves as the reproductive host.
166142		population	eng	No information available.
166142		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by fisheries, and by pollution and  dams in parts of its range. The species is reliant upon mussel hosts for  its reproduction, and these are often more likely to be impacted by  pollution. The specific host for the species is not known. There is  general habitat loss and degradation, especially from high sediment  loads from agriculture and deforestation, which impacts the bivalve  host.
166143		conservation	eng	Conservation efforts or research are not needed.
166143		distribution	eng	The species <span class="short_text" id="result_box">has an east Asia distribution. It is distributed in all major river basins from Amur River basin in the north to Red River basin in the south in China and Viet Nam (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, <span class="short_text" id="result_box">Reshetnikov 2002, Nguyen and Ngo 2001<span class="short_text" id="result_box">). It is known also from rivers and lakes in Taiwan (Chen and Fang 1999), Hainan island and the Lake Buir in Mongolia (Kottelat 2006). It is also likely to be found on mainland China (Guangxi and Guangdong).</span>
166143		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwater rivers and lakes. Feed on insects, crustaceans and smaller fishes.
166143		population	eng	<p><span class="shorttext"><span lang="EN-US">There is no information available on the species population.<br/></span></p>
166143		threats	eng	<p>    </p>Unlikely to have threats across its range.<span lang="EN-US"><br/>  <p></p>
166144		conservation	eng	No information
166144		distribution	eng	Distributed in the northwestern Pacific from China where it is commonly found in river mouths in the southeast of the country,&#160;&#160;Taiwan where it has been collected from mangrove creeks  in northwestern Taiwan (Chu-Wei and Chu-Nan) and southwestern Taiwan  (Pu-Tai, Pei-Men, and Syh-Tsao), Viet Nam from Quang Ninh-Cat Ba, Japan and the Philippines. Also recorded from South Sakhalin (in Lake Chepisani), Russia. Not limited by temperature.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166144		habitat	eng	An airbreathing (amphidromous) fish species. Found in freshwater, brackish and marine environments.
166144		population	eng	No information available.
166144		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution, as well as loss of habitat (in China) from agricultural expansion in coastal areas.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
166145		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166145		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Jinsha Jiang, Yalong Jiang, and Wu Jiang in southern China.
166145		habitat	eng	Fast flowing streams and tributaries. Grazes on algae and and benthos.<span>
166145		population	eng	Common across its range, but likely to be declining in parts due to the impact of dams. The most abundant fish in surveys in Jinsha Jiang&#160; (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011) during surveys in 2004.<br/><br/>Current and numerous proposed dams on all the river systems where the species is present will reduce the extent and quality of the habitat, and divide populations.
166145		threats	eng	Threats include dams and overfishing.
166146		conservation	eng	There are no conservation efforts directed towards this species, nor is one required.
166146		distribution	eng	It occurs in northern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. This species, however, has been introduced in other parts of India and adjacent countries (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166146		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tanks. In natural environment it attains a length of 99 cm and weight of 12.7 kg. It breeds during south-west monsoon in shallow pockets in marginal areas, and in bunds. The depth of water of breeding grounds is 0.5 to 1 m. Mrigal is a detritus feeder with narrow range of food variety. It is a bottom feeder subsisting mainly on decaying vegetation (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166146		population	eng	This species is present throughout India and is also cultured in captivity. The species is common but population estimates are not available.
166146		threats	eng	There are no major threats recognized for the species.
166147		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166147		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Qiantang River and Zhu Jiang (river) (in the Bei Jiang and Xi Jiang), China.
166147		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">Found in rivers with sand and stones. Slow flowing water. Grazes algae, and eats small fish.<span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span>
166147		population	eng	No information available.
166147		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing and pollution (agrochemical and industrial).
166148		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monopterus albus</span> is a species complex and requires taxonomic revision.
166148		distribution	eng	Recorded from India, throughout southeast Asia, probably including Bangladesh, China and Japan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). This species is introduced to USA.
166148		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">        Found in hill streams to lowland wetlands.   Also, occurs in streamlets, canals and estuaries.   Lives in muddy ponds, swamps and rice fields; burrows in moist earth  in dry season surviving for long periods without water. Inhabits still water of swamps and ponds, but sometimes found in  gently flowing streams.   Nocturnal predator devouring fishes, worms, crustaceans, and other  small aquatic animals;  also feeds on detritus.
166148		population	eng	Members of the species complex are common throughout its range.
166148		threats	eng	There are no known widespread major threats to the species.
166149		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166149		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Zhu Jiang River (= Pearl River) system, China. The type locality is&#160;San-fang, Lo-ching-shien, Kwangsi, China.<span><br/><span>Known from Guangdong Province in the drainages of Dong Jiang, Bei Jiang, and Xi Jiang, and from the drainages in Hainan Island. Recorded from Guangxi Province, Longzhou, Rongan, Rongshui, Yangsu, Guilin and from the &#160;Nanpan Jiang in&#160;Guizhou Province.</span>
166149		habitat	eng	Found in rapid flowing streams in hill areas.
166149		population	eng	No information available.
166149		threats	eng	Threats&#160;include&#160;dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166151		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166151		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Li Jiang in Guangxi Province, China.
166151		habitat	eng	<span>Slow freshwater rivers.
166151		population	eng	Historically common in Guangxi province, it's current population is not known.
166151		threats	eng	Threats include urbanisation and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166152		conservation	eng	It is an invasive species and requires monitoring.
166152		distribution	eng	<p>The species has an eastern Asian distribution. It is known from lowland rivers and lakes in central and north Viet Nam (most likely the Red River; Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), the Pearl River (Zhujiang) basin in southeastern China (Guangdong and Guangxi Province) and Hainan Island (Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).</p><p>It is thought that this species or <span style="font-style: italic;">Carassius auratus </span>has been introduced in the Nam Theun reservoir in Lao PDR and has established well, but identification requires confirmation. The introduced species is called <span style="font-style: italic;">Pa Fek</span>.<br/></p><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>
166152		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader5">Inhabits slow current in rivers. This species is omnivorous and grows fast<span class="sheader5">. <span class="sheader5">bottom is sand and mud. Food includes alga, larva of insect, larva of mosquito, zooplankton and organic detritus.</span></p><p>It is a potential invasive species; it is thought to have been introduced in Lao PDR where it has established very well. It has the potential to compete with native species populations.</p>
166152		population	eng	This species is scarce and has a very small population in China. In the northern provinces in Viet Nam it still still has high production.
166152		threats	eng	<p>No information available on the threats to the species.<br/></p>
166154		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166154		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern China. The type locality is Hokou, northeastern Kiangsi (Guangxi). Distributed in the Bei Jiang and Xi Jiang of the Pearl River basin, and the middle and lower reaches of&#160; the Chang Jiang, and the Fuchun Jiang in Zheijiang Province, and Hunan and Guixhou Provinces.
166154		habitat	eng	<span>Found in clear flowing or still water streams and main rivers. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates, mussels and algae. Matures in one year.
166154		population	eng	No information available, but thought to be locally common.
166154		threats	eng	Threats include agriculture (agrochemical pollution) and industrial pollution. Dams may impact the species habitat.
166155		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166155		distribution	eng	A widespread species in southern, central and northern China (not Tibet or Xinjiang). It is recorded from Zhu Jiang (Pearl River), Chang Jiang (Yangze River), Huang He (Yellow River and its tributaries).
166155		habitat	eng	Rivers, but not in high mountain areas; found in shallow, still and slow flowing waters.
166155		population	eng	No information available.
166155		threats	eng	Pollution and overfishing, as well as urbanisation are potential threats to this species.
166156		conservation	eng	Research needed into the species population trends and the impact of known threats.
166156		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-US">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> and distributed in the middle and lower parts of various river systems including in; Huang He, upper Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) drainage, Sichuan (Szechwan) Province; the Bei Jiang and Xi Jiang (Pearl River basin), Taizi river of Liaoning Province. Also from Chin-tsu, Shanxi Province.
166156		habitat	eng	Found in slow water with sandy bottom streams; not found in main channels of rivers.
166156		population	eng	No information available.
166156		threats	eng	Pollution, mostly from agriculture is the main threat to this species.
166157		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166157		distribution	eng	<em>C. fuxianensis</em> is endemic to Fuxian Lake (198 km²), Yunan Provence, China.
166157		habitat	eng	<em>C. fuxianensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
166157		population	eng	<em>C. fuxianensis</em> is very rare, possibly extinct, in the lake since population declines as a result of competition and hybridisation with introduced species, overfishing and pollution.  During survey work in 1995 no specimens were caught (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.).  It is suspected that the population has declined by over 80% in the past 21 years.
166157		threats	eng	Fuxian Lake is heavily impacted by overfishing and pollution from domestic and industrial sources, which became major threats in the 1980s.  Tourism is one of the major industries around the lake.  <br/><br/><em>Cyprinus carpio</em> was introduced into the lake in the 1980s to improve fishery catches, and has hybridised with and outcompeted <em>C. fuxanensis</em>.
166158		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species natural and introduced ranges, the causes of population declines, and the taxonomic status of populations.
166158		distribution	eng	<span>The species is known from eastern Asia, from eastern Russia (Siberia (Tugur and Amur drainages) and Sakhalin), Korea, Japan, and eastern China south to northern Viet Nam (to the Ma River; Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984, Zheng 1989) and <span>Lao PDR (native in the Nam Ma basin, <span><span><span><span>also present in the Nam Theun of the Mekong basin but is probably <span><span><span><span>introduced there; Kottelat 2001, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/><span><br/>It has been very widely introduced through the ornamental fish trade, and as a food and a live angling bait fish; Germany (<span>Rhine<span>), <span>Italy (<span>Ticino, north of Milan), Spain, the Aral Sea basin, North America (widely introduced on the eastern and western coasts of USA), <span>Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, the Philippines, <span>Australia and Hawaii (as a foodfish by immigrants).<br/><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166158		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in still or gently flowing rivers, lakes and ponds with muddy bottoms. The species is widely associated with agricultural landscapes especially rice fields and field ditches (Kano<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010, Qin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Feeds on small aquatic organisms and can breathe air to  supplement oxygen in oxygen-depleted waters.
166158		population	eng	Populations are have declined in parts of the species natural range (China and Japan; Kano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, Qin<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010) as a result of ecosystem loss and degradation.
166158		threats	eng	Kano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) record that the species has been impacted by agricultural intensification, especially the use of agrochemicals, and the species has declined in parts of China as a result of ecosystem degradation (Qin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The species global population is expanding through introductions, and is not through to be threatened.
166159		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research and monitoring is needed.
166159		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Siniperca scherzeri</span> has an East Asia distribution. Its distribution area ranges most Pacific river drainages from the Korean Peninsula in the North to northern Viet Nam in the south (Gao 1991, Kim 1997, Bang 2001, Kottelat 2001).
166159		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters. Its prey is small fishes, shrimp and aquatic insects.
166159		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population. But likely to be declining.
166159		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Siniperca scherzeri</span> are overfishing and water pollution.
166160		conservation	eng	Research on species threats and population trends is needed.
166160		distribution	eng	<span>Known from Guangdong Province in Bei Jiang and Xi Jiang drainages. Also found in the Zhu Jiang (Pearl) River and the Xiang Jiang River of the Changjiang River. Known from Lian county of Beijiang river system in Guangdong Province.
166160		habitat	eng	<span>Found on the bottom of <span>fast flowing streams.</span>
166160		population	eng	No information available.
166160		threats	eng	Pollution from agriculture and urbanisation impacts the species habitat.
166161		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is recommended.
166161		distribution	eng	The species is <st1:country-region w:st="on">known from the upper Yangtze River (Jinshajiang), upper Mekong River (Lancangjiang) and the upper Red River (Yuanjiang) basins in southern China (Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Li <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and in the upper parts of the Red River in Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001). Records from the Salween drainage are erroneous and result from the confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">G. imberbis</span>, whose name is very similar.<br/><br/>In the </st1:country-region>Jinshajiang basin, there are records from the middle and upper parts of the Chishui River (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In the Mekong drainage, Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) record it from numerous tributaries throughout the upper Yangtze (the Heihui, Luoza, Xiaohei, Mengga, and Liusha rivers). Chu and Chen (1989) show it present in the Black River in China.<br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>
166161		habitat	eng	Inhabits rapids, waterfalls and stretches of streams and rivers with <span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>strong and fast current, where it keeps position on rocks and scrap the algae and microorganisms at their surface.<br/></span></span>
166161		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166161		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species. However, erosion and siltation result in sediments covering the stone and eliminates its food source. Alteration of river morphology (especially dams) reduces the current or inundate the rapids and eliminate its habitat.
166162		conservation	eng	Research into the species population trends and threats is needed.
166162		distribution	eng	<span>Found in the Nanpan Jiang (river) and some other streams, in Yunnan, China.
166162		habitat	eng	A riverine fish, found in clear water streams with rocky bottom.
166162		population	eng	No information available; likely to be naturally scarce.
166162		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="short_text" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="?????????" closure_uid_mwb9tk="132">Pollution from agricultural, domestic and industrial sources. Fishing may present a threat locally.</span>
166163		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166163		distribution	eng	Present in southern and eastern China. Recorded from the Xi Jiang (including the Hongshui He) and Bei Jiang of the Pearl River, and in the Chang Jiang, Huang He, Luan He, and Hai He, Fuchun Jiang and Min Jiang basins.
166163		habitat	eng	<span>A small fish, found in the middle and bottom layer of rivers.
166163		population	eng	A common species, but no detailed information.
166163		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166164		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166164		distribution	eng	<em>X. xiurenensis</em> is endemic to southern China; this species is found 'throughout the Zhujiang (Pearl) River, northward to Lijiang River near Guilin, Guangxi, southward to Zoujiang River near Longzhou, Guangxi' (Chen and Lundberg 1994).  This species is hardly known beyond it's type locality (F. Fang, pers. comm.).
166164		habitat	eng	<em>X. xiurenensis</em> is a demersal species.
166164		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166164		threats	eng	There are potential threats to <em>X. xiurenensis</em> within it's range, including hydrological alterations such as dams and water diversion projects, overfishing, and pollution, however, as little is known about the species, it is not known whether these factors pose a direct threat to <em>X. xiurenensis</em>.
166165		conservation	eng	Protection of water resources through preventing sewage discharge is needed.
166165		distribution	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Recorded from the <span class="medium_text" id="result_box">the Pearl River drainage<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"> in the West River tributaries, and the North River (Bei Jiang) tributaries, and also from the Xiang Jiang (a&#160;tributary&#160;of the&#160;Yangtze&#160;River). Presence in other parts of the&#160;Yangtze&#160;is not known.<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><br/><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><br/><span class="medium_text" id="result_box">It is considered that the historical distribution has declined in recent years due to the impact of dams, over-fishing, and pollution, and recent surveys<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"> in Guangxi, Guangdong and other&#160;provinces&#160;has not recorded the species (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166165		habitat	eng	Found in slow flowing clear streams; only found in smaller&#160;tributaries.
166165		population	eng	The&#160;species&#160;has a low population density, and is thought to be declining.
166165		threats	eng	The species requires clear water habitats and these are threatened by&#160;domestic&#160;and&#160;agro-chemical&#160;pollution. In addition, there are numerous dams on the tributaries of the rivers within the species range.
166166		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed. This is a key protected species in Yunnan.
166166		distribution	eng	It is distributed in the Xi Jiang (river) of the Pearl River basin in China. Presence in Taiwan is recorded, but this is questionable.
166166		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing rivers and streams with gravel bottom and clear water; spawns in rapids. Found on the bottom parts of deeper waters. Consumes molluscs and algae.
166166		population	eng	The population has declined dramatically, primarily due to overfishing. The species was a very important commercial fish of high value, but is is very rarely found now in fishery catches. It is inferred that the population has declined by more than 90% across the whole range of the species over the past twenty years.
166166		threats	eng	Overfishing was the main threat to this species, leading to rapid declines in the last 20 years. The development of dams within the watershed is the main current threat to the  species, impacting the species deep water habitat by reducing water  flows. Pollution from a range of sources has increased in recent years  and contributes to declines in habitat quality.<span class="keyword">
166167		conservation	eng	Recorded from protected areas in Guangxi (present in Tayaoshan nature reserve, and Shiwandashan).
166167		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Known from the&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Qiantang Jiang</st1:placename> (River) in Zhejiang<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province, Guangxi (present in Tayaoshan nature reserve, and Shiwandashan) and Anhui Province, China.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>
166167		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">A hill stream species; lives in upper reaches of rivers, often in groups in search  for food. Feeds on larvae of aquatic insects, diatoms and filiform algae.<span></span>
166167		population	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
166167		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Domestic and urban waste water pollution are potential threats to this species.<br/></p>
166168		conservation	eng	Research needed into threats and population trends.
166168		distribution	eng	Recorded from the the Nanpan Jiang of Yunnan Province and other western-most tributaries of the Xi Jiang river in Guizho, and Guangxi in China. Specimens were collected from Lauping&#160;County, Yunnan, in 2000 (W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011). The type locality is Panyang River (Hong-Shui River system), Bama County, Guangxi Province. It has been&#160;found in Hongshuihe river, Nananpang Jiang river and Beipang Jiang river. Recorded by X.-Y. Chen (pers. comm.) (25 02 0.02N, 104 30 13.1 E at 1,216 m).
166168		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain streams.
166168		population	eng	No available information
166168		threats	eng	Dams on tributaries will&#160;impact&#160;on the&#160;species&#160;habitat.
166169		conservation	eng	The species is listed as a Class II protected animal of Yunnan Province in 1989.
166169		distribution	eng	An&#160;endemic&#160;fish to China and only&#160;recorded&#160;from in Qilu Lake in Yunnan province.
166169		habitat	eng	Found in a shallow lake, and found in dense aquatic vegetation, seeking food in the middle and lower layers of the water body.&#160;It feeds on miscellaneous food but mainly on zoogenic food such as small fishes and shrimps. It spawns viscid eggs on aquatic plants in April and May. It becomes sexually mature when grows to about 130 mm. It moves swiftly, has strong adaptability and does not die easily after leaving water. It is medium in size, generally 100-200 mm long and the large ones may weigh 500 g.
166169		population	eng	Historically an&#160;economic fish, it has not been recorded since the late 1970s, either in fishery records or during survey (1982-1985, W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011).
166169		threats	eng	<p>Since 1964, many species of fish (economic and non-economic species)  have been introduced into Qilu Lake which devour much of the this  species spawn<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span></p> <p>Agricultural  development of the littoral zone has resulted in  the sharp fall of the  water level of the lake due to water extraction, this has led to a  decline in the aquatic plants in the lake depriving the species of their  spawning grounds. Qilu Lake is a shallow lake and the continuous   discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic waste water into it   has resulted in heavy pollution.</p>
166170		conservation	eng	Research needed into the status of the host bivalve.
166170		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in several provinces in southeast China in the middle and lower reaches of the Zhu Jiang and the Chang Jiang; also expanded to Beijing, most likely introduced by shipping canal from the southeast.
166170		habitat	eng	<span>Found in numerous types of water bodies; slow and still rivers, reservoirs, canals, and lakes. Obligatory dependent on mussels for reproduction. Nothing is known of the host species and their ecology and threats.
166170		population	eng	Widespread, but the species and its host molluscs are likely to have been impacted by pollution and other threats across their range. Further research is required.
166170		threats	eng	Widespread potential threats from pollution. The status of its host bivalve is not known.
166171		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is recommended.
166171		distribution	eng	The species has a West Pacific distribution. It is known from the coastal waters of the Korean Peninsula and Japan (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984, Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), along the coastline of China's mainland, Taiwan and Hainan island (Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988), and northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
166171		habitat	eng	The species is amphidromous: it migrates between marine, brackish, and perhaps even freshwater habitats. It is known to inhabit mangroves, estuaries, and tidal creeks. It seems to prefer the less polluted inland and coastal water.
166171		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
166171		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species.
166172		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research and monitoring is recommended.
166172		distribution	eng	<span><span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Hypophthalmichthys nobilis</span> is reported to be native to central and south China (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007).<span> Introduced to numerous countries and has achieved a near  global distribution<span>. Established reproductive populations in Europe, North America and Central Asia.&#160;<span> <span><br/></span></span>
166172		habitat	eng	In its natural distribution range, inhabits rivers with marked water-level fluctuations, overwinters in middle and lower stretches. Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 5-6 years, 550-700 mm SL and 5-10 kg, earlier and smaller in subtropical areas. Migrates long distances upriver at the beginning of a rapid flood and water-level increases (in April-July depending on locality). Spawns during floods. Stops spawning if condition change and starts again with increase of water level. Spawns in upper water layer or even at water surfaces. Females spawn up to 1.1 million eggs in 1-3 portions depending on duration of high-water period. Eggs are yellowish, transparent, and hatch after about 2 days at temperatures around 25°C while drifting downstream in the deep open-water layer. If the river flow is blocked or if available river stretches are too short, eggs cannot drift long enough and fail to develop. After spawning, adults leave the river and migrate back to forage habitats. Larvae drift downstream and settle in floodplain lakes, shallow shores and backwaters with little or no current. In autumn-winter, when temperatures falls to 10°C, juveniles and adults form separate large schools and move downstream to deeper places in the main course of river to overwinter. Feed mostly on zooplankton, also algae. Often crossed with <span style="font-style: italic;">H. molitrix</span> (source: Kottelat and Freyhof 2007).
166172		population	eng	In the second half of the 20th century, a marked decline in the abundance of this species was observed in its natural distribution range.
166172		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypophthalmichthys nobilis </span>in its native distribution range are overfishing and river modifications (e.g. dams, dykes and floodgate construction and reclamation of floodplains into agriculture land) (Duan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et. al </span>2009).
166173		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166173		distribution	eng	Distributed in Li Jiang, Guangxi Province, and Yuan Jiang of Hunan Province, China.
166173		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits streams with sandy bottoms.
166173		population	eng	It was historically common in Guangxi Province. Current status is not known, but is is probably still relatively large.
166173		threats	eng	Urbanisation and pollution from agriculture is a threat.
166174		conservation	eng	<em>A. chinensis</em> has been classified as CR in a regional assessment in Japan in 1999; rehabilitation of small Japanese population found in 1994 continues (Environment Agency of Japan 1999).
166174		distribution	eng	<em>A. chinensis</em> is found in Japan northeastern Kyushu, the Korean Peninsular and in the Xi Jiang (Pearl River) China.
166174		habitat	eng	<em>A. chinensis</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits flowing water and rice fields.
166174		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166174		threats	eng	The Japanese population has decreased considerably due to development of agricultural land and reconstruction of irrigation systems.  Pesticides and herbicides may also have contributed to the decline (Environment Agency of Japan 1999)
166175		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166175		distribution	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Recorded from the Xi Jiang, Xi Jiang, and Bei Jiang rivers in the Pearl River system, the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River, and the Ling  Jiang.
166175		habitat	eng	Found in streams with sandy bottoms.
166175		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is locally common, but no population information available.</p>
166175		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166176		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research in popualtion trends and ecology is needed.
166176		distribution	eng	<span>This species has been recorded from the Red River drainage in Viet Nam and China, and Hainan Island in China. This species or a very similar one has been recorded also in Nam Ngao, Bokeo Province in Lao PDR. <span style="text-decoration: underline; "><span style="font-weight: bold;">Reference needed; looks like introduction. Who identified. Seems to really need confirmation</span></span>
166176		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>The species inhabits mainstreams of rivers.<br/></span></span>
166176		population	eng	There is no information available.
166176		threats	eng	Threats have not been identified.
166177		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166177		distribution	eng	<em>A. andersoni</em> was described from a 'lake at Yunnan Fu, China' and subsequently has only been known from Xing Yun Lake in Jiangchuan County, China (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  Xing Yun Lake has an area of approximately 33 km².
166177		habitat	eng	<em>A. andersoni</em> is a pelagic species.
166177		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.
166177		threats	eng	Domestic pollution is causing habitat degradation in Xing Yun Lake which, combined with overfishing, severely impacts the species. <br/><br/><em>Salanx cuvieri</em> (noodle fish) species was introduced into the lake in the early 1990s to increase the fishery production, which has severely impacted <em>A. andersoni</em> through competition for zooplankton, causing serious population declines.
166178		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species&#160;distribution,&#160;population&#160;trends, and threats. Part of the&#160;species&#160;range is within a protected area.
166178		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to China. It is recorded from Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, in the streams and tributaries of the Pearl River, and from Hainan Island of China; it has a disjunct distribution. The distribution range is very narrow (Zheng 1989, He-jun 2003).
166178		habitat	eng	It only lives in&#160;mountain&#160;streams tributaries.
166178		population	eng	The population is small but trends are uncertain.
166178		threats	eng	Limited information; it is thought that the species doesn't face major widespread threats.
166179		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
166179		distribution	eng	The species <span>has a southeastern Asian distribution. It is known from the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam and southern China (Chen and Chu 1990; Kottelat 2001), the Ca River basin in Viet Nam and Lao P.D.R. (Kottelat 2001) and the Pearl River (Zhujiang), Minjiang River, Qujiang River, Yangtze River (<span>Changjiang)<span>, Huaihe River and Huanghe River basin in southeastern China and the Hainan island (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).</span>
166179		habitat	eng	Known from freshwater rivers.<br/><br/>As with all species of the subfamily Acheilognathinae (Cyprinidae), Acheilognathus meridianus use freshwater mussels for oviposition. The female deposits her eggs inside freshwater mussel. The male sheds his sperm into the inhalent current of the respiring mussel and thereby fertilizes the eggs. The young hatch and remain protected within the mussel, leaving the mussel as actively swimming larvae.<br/><span>
166179		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166179		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing.
166180		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. More research is needed to determine the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species.
166180		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is described from China where it is known from the Xijiang River in Guangxi Province. The presence of the species in adjacent parts of the upper Xijiang in Viet Nam is likely, whilst presence in the Hong River requires confirmation (Kottelat 2001).<br/></p><p> The species has been recorded from Lao PDR in Phongsali Province (Nam Houn, at the confluence with the Nam Ou), and from central Viet Nam (Quang Binh Province; Ngo and Pham, undated), records that require confirmation.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></span></span></p>
166180		habitat	eng	The species is found in the upper parts of rivers.
166180		population	eng	There is no information available.
166180		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats. But it is expected to be impacted by human activity (agricultural pollution, overfishing, habitat modification, introductions, etc.)
166181		conservation	eng	In Guangdong Province of China, a protected area has been set up in Beijiang river to help protect this species (amongst others). The species is listed as VU in the Viet Nam Red Data Book.
166181		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in<span> <span>the Nam Xam and Nam Ma basins in <span>Lao PDR, <span>the Red River basin in <span>Viet Nam, and in the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River), Yuan Jiang (Hunan; a tributary of the Yangtze River), Jiulong Jiang (Fujian Province), Han Jiang, and the Qiantang Jiang (</span></span>Anhui and Jiangxi<span><span><span><span><span> provinces) in southeastern China.</span></span></span>
166181		habitat	eng	The species<span class="sheader5"> inhabits large rivers with current, and migrates to upper streams to spawn. It is carnivorous feeding on crustaceans, insects, annelids and other fishes.
166181		population	eng	There are no existing population size estimates for this species, but in south China the population of this fish is decreasing and this is probably also the case in Viet Nam.
166181		threats	eng	Construction of dams and over-fishing are the major threats to the species.
166182		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166182		distribution	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Recorded from the</st1:country-region><span lang="EN-US"> upper parts of the Bei Jiang and the Xi Jiang <span lang="EN-US">drainages <st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, southern China.</st1:placetype></st1:place></span></p>
166182		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits torrential streams and rivers in mountain areas, clinging to the  substrata on bottom by its sucking disc mouth <br/><span class="slabel"><br/><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span>
166182		population	eng	No information available.
166182		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166183		conservation	eng	More research and monitoring of the species is needed.
166183		distribution	eng	<span><span style="font-style: italic;">Metzia formosa</span> has a southeast Asian distribution. It is known from river drainages in central and northern Viet Nam, the Red River and Pearl River drainage in southeastern China, Taiwan and the Hainan Island<span> (Luo and Chen 1998, Kottelat 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<span>. It is expected to occur in Lao P.D.R. (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<span> <span><span><br/></span></span></span>
166183		habitat	eng	Inhabits clear still or slow-moving waters of small rivers, rice-paddies, canals and ditches (Wang 1998).
166183		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population, but the number of the fish in the wild must be very small (Wang 1998).
166183		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown. However, there are some general impacts to the areas that the species is found in, such as dams and pollution<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
166185		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166185		distribution	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Distributed in  the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze and Pearl (all parts) rivers in China.
166185		habitat	eng	Found in the middle and surface layers of main river channels.
166185		population	eng	No information available.
166185		threats	eng	Threats include overfishing, dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution). The lower parts of the Yangtze are also polluted from industrial sources.
166186		conservation	eng	<p>No information available</p>
166186		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Recorded from southern China:&#160;Fujian,&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">G</st1:state></st1:place>uangdong,&#160;Guangxi,&#160;Hainan,&#160;Hong Kong. Records are from Longjin He (river) and its river mouth, Weng Jiang(river), Bei Jiang, and Jian Jiang(river), Lianzhou, Yangshan, Gaoyao, Gaofeng of Guangdong Province.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></p>
166186		habitat	eng	<span><p>It inhabits streams and rivers with sandy rocky substrata and swiftly flowing waters.</p>
166186		population	eng	<p>Probably present in low numbers, and is&#160;declining&#160;as a result of the known threats.</p>
166186		threats	eng	Threats to the species&#160;include&#160;pollution (agriculture) and dams.
166187		conservation	eng	Research needed into the species&#160;distribution&#160;and populations size.
166187		distribution	eng	Known from parts of the Bei Jiang river, Guangdong Province, China (estimated extent of occurrence of less than 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>). It is also recorded from&#160;Viet Nam&#160;(no&#160;information&#160;available) that requires confirmation, and there is a record from Guangxi Province. In a recent four year (2005-2009) survey in the Bei Jiang, the species was not found (H. Zhao pers. comm. 2011).
166187		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits streams and rivers with sandy rocky substrata and swiftly flowing waters.</p>
166187		population	eng	No information available.
166187		threats	eng	Pollution from agriculture and (near cities)&#160;domestic&#160;and industrial pollution. The Bei Jiang has been impacted by many dams for irrigation and hydropower, changing the flow regime.
166188		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166188		distribution	eng	The species<span> is widely spread in east Asia, with the Amur River being the northern border and the Lam River (Viet Nam) being the southern border of distribution range (Berg 1964, Bogutskaya and Naseka 1996, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Kottelat 2001). It is a relatively warm water species, so it avoids mountain streams and is completely absent in the upper Amur River basin (Berg 2001). It was introduced in Uzbekistan (Kamilov and Urchinov 1995).
166188		habitat	eng	The species<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>&#160;matures at the age of six years, at which time its length can exceed 60 cm. It spawns in streams from the beginning of June to mid-August. <span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel">The fish's main spawning grounds are in the mid-Amur River, Songhua and Ussuri. Fry and young fish feed in the lower Amur. <span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel">After spawning, adult fish travel to the slow moving, off-channel floodplains, but winter in the main branches of these rivers. Its main food is small, pelagic fish (excluding Carp).</span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><br/><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166188		population	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Native populations have massively declined in the last 20-40 years in Russia and China. In recent years, however, the population of this species has increased (Novomodny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
166188		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing, dam construction and water pollution.
166189		conservation	eng	Management of subsistence fishing is needed in some areas so that breeding stocks are preserved in part of their ranges. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions. Collection of glass eels or elvers for aquaculture should be limited.
166189		conservation	eng	Management of subsistence fishing is needed in some areas so that breeding stocks are preserved in part of their ranges. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions. Do not allow collection of glass eels or elvers for aquaculture.
166189		conservation	eng	The species has been assessed as 'II Rare and Valuable’ in the Wildlife Conservation Act Republic of China (Taiwan) Article 4 (Wang 1998). Further research is required to confirm the species spawning areas, continental distributions, key habitats and vulnerabilities, especially of different populations.<br/><br/>Coordination between countries to define and implement regional management plans are strongly requested and do not exist yet.
166189		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from African east-coast rivers from the Eastern Cape province (South Africa) north to at least Kenya. Also eastwards through the Indian Ocean territories, including Madagascar, through to parts of the western Pacific. In Africa more common south of the Limpopo River (Skelton 2001).
166189		distribution	eng	Watanabe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) described the species as being present longitudinally from the east coast of Africa to the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) in the central South Pacific, as far north as southern Japan, and as far south as southern Africa. Individuals have, however, recently been found in the Pacific in the Palmyra Atoll and as far east as the Galapagos Islands, although it is not known if these are the result of natural migration, vagrant individuals, or introduction.<br/><br/>The species is widely distributed throughout most of the tropical and subtropical western-central Pacific and Indian Oceans. It has been reported from the southern islands of Japan, Taiwan, southeastern China, throughout the Indo-Pacific region, New Caledonia, the islands of Polynesia and French Polynesia, and in the eastern and southwestern Indian Ocean (Ege 1939); <span style="">Viet Nam,  Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines to South Pacific Islands and Indo-West  Pacific. It is known from the Mekong River to the Upper Mekong (Lower  Lancangjiang) in Yunnan, southern China (recorded from the Changjiang  (Yangtze River), Qiantangjiang,  Lingjiang, Oujiang, and Minjiang rivers; Wang 1998), the Xijiang River (Guangdong Province), throughout rivers in  Hainan Province (</span>Kuang 1991), and from the <span style="">Zhujiang River (Pearl River).</span><br/><br/>In Africa it is restricted to southern Africa, more  common south of the Limpopo River (Skelton 2001). Other records include Ecuador (the Galapagos Islands; McCosker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The species is at the edge of its range here, and inland distribution is limited here (Tesch 2003).<span style=""></span>
166189		distribution	eng	Within the African continent it is restricted to southern Africa, more common south of the Limpopo River (Skelton 2001). Elsewhere it is found throughout the Indo-Pacific.
166189		habitat	eng	Breeds at sea and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels>elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams.
166189		habitat	eng	<p>The species is facultatively catadromous, being found in freshwater, brackish and saline habitats during its continental growth stages (Briones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). The yellow eel growth stage may be as short as two to three years in warm productive habitats, but about six to twenty years or more in more northerly latitudes, e.g. in the Pearl River, China (Williamson and Boëtius 1994). Maturing silver eels migrate to deep oligotrophic sea regions and spawning at depths of 150 to 300 m.</p>    <p>Spawning often occurs in the same oceanic areas as other anguillids (e.g. Kuroki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Pous <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Tsukamoto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), although the spawning areas of this species have not been well identified yet (Réveillac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Robinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Pous<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010, Kuroki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, E. Feunteun pers. comm. 2012), except for the the north pacific population where adult spawners and eggs were found in the Mariana Trench region by Tsukamoto’s team. The distribution of the growth stages of the species<em> </em>in relation to other anguillids is affected by gyre and coastal currents, spawning times and growth rates and duration of the leptocephalus stage. For example, recruitment is relatively more abundant on the east coast of Taiwan than the west (Leander <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). The species may also show preferences for upstream freshwater habitats, but competition with other eel species and environmental factors may influence choices (Shiao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Briones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Robinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p><p>Planktonic larvae (leptocephali) follow oceanic gyre currents and then  metamorphose into glass eels before migrating towards continental  habitats (e.g. Robinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Pous <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). They then pigment into the elver stage, commence feeding and can migrate into freshwaters.  </p>      <p>If the edge of the continental plate is steep (this usually results in short high gradient streams and low-diversity fauna) the elvers ascend the streams (Annamite slope, Philippines, east Borneo, Sulawesi, Indian Ocean slope of Sumatra and Java, Thailand between Phuket and Ranong, etc). If it is an extensive shallow coastal sea (e.g. Sunda shelf), only occasional stray individuals enter freshwater (for example, the Chao Phraya and Mekong estuaries) (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>  <span><span class="sheader5"><span style=""></span><span class="sheader5"><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span style=""><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span style=""><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span style=""><span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span style=""></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166189		habitat	eng	<span>This species breeds at sea and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels, elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams.
166189		population	eng	Fairly common.
166189		population	eng	<span style="">This is a common species with a wide distribution, probably comprising four populations with different spawning areas in the North Pacific, Micronesia, Indian Ocean and the North and South Pacific according to Watanabe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008). However, Gagnaire <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011) suggest there are three populations, spawning in the North Pacific, South Pacific and Southwest Indian Ocean, showing partial reproductive and hence genetic isolation but with some inter-population gene flow occurring due to long-distance migration mixing. Thus the species is probably panmictic at the regional scale and partial mixing may promote complete panmixia over very long-time scales. <br/>There is no detailed information on population numbers, but numbers would be expected to decrease with distance from spawning grounds and with distance from the sea in freshwaters, as in other anguillids.<br/><br/>Sub-populations are impacted by local threats, and local declines have  been shown in some areas as Réunion Island and Madagascar due to river  management (rice culture in Madagascar which has lead to the disappearance of silver eel stocks in the Highlands of Tananarive and  over fishing in Réunion Island) (E. Feunteun pers. comm. 2012). Population declines have also been reported from China (E. Feunteun pers. comm. 2012).<br/> <span style=""><br/>The species overall population is considered stable at present, however this requires monitoring.</span>
166189		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
166189		threats	eng	In upper catchments in Mozambique all <em>Anguilla</em> species are susceptible to hook and line fishing and poisoning by subsistence fishermen. Within southern Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future. Aquaculture initiatives threaten this species because this will require the collection of glass eels and elvers in estuaries. The specific impacts of this are unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed.
166189		threats	eng	In upper catchments in Mozambique all <span style="font-style: italic;">Anguilla</span> species are susceptible to hook and line fishing and poisoning by subsistence fishermen. Within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future. Aquaculture initiatives threaten this species because this will require the collection of glass eels and elvers in estuaries. The specific impacts of this are unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed.
166189		threats	eng	<span style="">River management, water impoundment, overfishing and pollution could impact this species. In southern Africa, in the upper catchments in Mozambique, all <span style="font-style: italic;">Anguilla </span>species are susceptible to hook and line fishing and poisoning by subsistence fishermen. Within South Africa and other countries, major impoundments and weirs are barriers to upstream eel movement and mortalities can occur on downstream passage of silver eels through turbines and pumps. In developing countries, hydroelectric capacity is being rapidly developed and fish passage requirements is scarcely taken into account (e.g., Roberts 2004). Loss and/or deterioration of habitats due to land drainage and reclamation and pollution may become problems in parts of the species range. Development of aquaculture initiatives could locally threaten this species because this will require the collection of glass eels and elvers in estuaries as seed stock.
166190		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166190		distribution	eng	Endemic to the middle reaches Yangtze River. The type locality is Wutchang (Uhan), Hubei Province, China.
166190		habitat	eng	Found in still and flowing water in streams and rivers.<span>
166190		population	eng	It was historically common in Wuchang, Hubei Province. No current information.
166190		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).
166191		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>More research and monitoring is required. The species may also require conservation actions.
166191		distribution	eng	<span class="mediumtext"><span style="font-style: italic;">Procypris mera </span>has an Southeast Asia distribution. It is known from the upper Pearl River Basin in southeastern China and northern Viet Nam only (Chu and Chen 1989, Wang 1998, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><br/></span></span>
166191		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span style="font-style: italic;">Procypris mera</span> lives in the bottom layers of rivers in flowing deep water. It is undergoes a short-distance migration in winter, where it swims upstream and then during the flood season it swims to the lower reaches of rivers (Wang 1998).<br/><span><span class="slabel"><span><span class="sheader5"></span></span>
166191		population	eng	In the second half of the last century, stocks of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mera</span> in Pearl River basin in China declined (Wang 1998). The current population trend (over the past 10 yesrs) of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mera</span> in the whole Pearl River basin (China and Viet Nam) are unknown.
166191		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Procypris mera</span> are overfishing and river modification (e.g. dam and floodgate construction) (Wang 1998).
166192		conservation	eng	More surveys are required to confirm the species extirpation within the lake.
166192		distribution	eng	Endemic to&#160;Fuxian Lake in Yunnan Province, China. It spawns in the tributary streams, but adults are only found in the lake.&#160;No specimens have been collected in thirty years (W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011).
166192		habitat	eng	The species is found in open water areas of the lake, in the lower layers,&#160;periodically&#160;in the middle layer. The juveniles are found in the middle layer. It is&#160;carnivorous, feeding on shrimps and small fish.&#160;Breeding&#160;season is from April-August, mostly in June. Spawning ground is at the edges of the lake and in streams with flowing water and a bottom of gravel.
166192		population	eng	The species has not been recorded in surveys for 30 years (W. Zhou pers. comm. 2011).&#160;In 1970s, because of a lack of fishery management, all the endemic species in the lake declined, and there was increased competition from the&#160;introduced&#160;<em>Neosalanx</em>&#160;species&#160;(X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011).
166192		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US"><span class="short_text" id="result_box">In the 1970s there was little control over fishery activities, leading to over-exploitation&#160;of the lake resources.<span lang="EN-US"> Invasive non-native species (grass carps, gobies, and other small fishes), <span class="short_text" id="result_box">as well as loss of spawning grounds have also impacted the species. <br/></span></span></p>
166193		conservation	eng	<em></em>It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is recommended.
166193		distribution	eng	The species has an east Asian distribution. It is distributed from the Amur River basin in the north to the Huong River basin (central Viet Nam) in the south. Introduced in Iran (Coad 1995), Afghanistan (Coad 1981) and Uzbekistan (Kamilov and Urchinov 1995).
166193		habitat	eng	Usually found in large and medium-sized rivers in shallow water over sandy bottom, but sometimes occurs in pools along the bed of mountain streams (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is also abundant in ponds, lakes and backwaters of rivers. It is highly tolerant to water pollution.
166193		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemiculter leucisculus</span> is a widespread and abundant species. It also occurs in heavily-modified water bodies.
166193		threats	eng	No information available on specific threats, however the species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation in parts of its wide range.
166194		conservation	eng	Research into the species taxonomy, populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166194		distribution	eng	It is very widely distributed in distributed in China (known from the drainages of Han  Jiang and its river mouth and Xi Jiang in Guangdong Province and from  the drainages in Hainan Island and their river mouths. Also in  Changjiang [=Yangtze] river. Inhabits rapid current of mountain streams  to the south of the Qinling Mountain Range<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>).<span style="background-color: white;"> Expected to occur in the Pearl River basin.</span> Also recorded from Viet Nam.<br/>It is considered that records from the Ayeyarwaddy are erroneous.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
166194		habitat	eng	<span>A riverine species, found in flowing water.
166194		population	eng	Still common in some drainages within its range in China.
166194		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution), as well as overfishing.
166195		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166195		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Siniperca kneri </span>has an East distribution. It is known from the Yangtze River basin and the Pearl River basin in China (Gao 1991).
166195		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters.
166195		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166195		threats	eng	Species occurs in areas that have been impacted by water pollution. The species has been found to contain high levels of DDT in the Pearl River delta.
166197		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in places. More information on the species population trends and harvesting levels are needed.
166197		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Salanx chinensis</span> has a Northwest Pacific distribution. It is known from the coastal areas and river drainages in southeastern China and northern Viet Nam (Liang 1991, Kottelat 2001).<br/></p>
166197		habitat	eng	<span>Anadromous species - migrating to freshwaters to breed.<span class="sheader51"> Maximum size fish is 150 mm.</span>
166197		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166197		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are overfishing, river modifications (e.g. dam construction) and the degradation of spawning and nursery habitats in rivers through soil erosion and water pollution.
166199		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends,&#160;distribution, and&#160;threats&#160;is needed.
166199		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from Guangdong Province and from Hong Kong, in China. Known from Guangdong Province in Zhu Jiang delta, Dong Jiang drainage and Rong Jiang drainage and its river mouth. Also known from mountain streams of Hong Kong and Kowloon.
166199		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing streams and small rivers
166199		population	eng	Not a common species.&#160;The species is known from Guangdong, but in recent (2005-2009) survey work (Z. Huihong and K. Cui pers. comm. 2011) did not find the species, and it is thought to have declined as a result of fishing and other threats.
166199		threats	eng	Agricultural pollution and&#160;urbanisation&#160;are the main&#160;threats&#160;for this species, as well as overfishing. It is also collected for the aquarium use by local people.
166200		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species population status and trends, and also on the threats to the species. THe species may require harvest management and monitoring.
166200		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salanx cuvieri</span> has a Northwest Pacific distribution. It is known from coastal areas and coastal river drainages in China and northern Viet Nam (Roberts 1984, Kottelat 2001).
166200		habitat	eng	<p>Anadromous, ascending rivers to spawn. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.</p>
166200		population	eng	The species is likely to be declining. According to Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) ice fish in the Yangtze river catchment have declined significantly despite increases in fishing stress. Even though he states that this species has little or no commercial value  in the Yangtze (due to occurring in too low stock numbers) and doesn't specifically discuss this species decline, it is likely that it is also declining as it is facing the same threats as the other ice fish species.
166200		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Salanx cuvieri</span> are overfishing, river modifications (e.g. dam construction) and habitat degradation through soil erosion and water pollution.
166201		conservation	eng	Taxonomic&#160;study&#160;is required to confirm the identity of records from other locations than Dianchi Lake.
166201		distribution	eng	Reported with certainty from Dianchi Lake and&#160;associated&#160;streams. The species has also been&#160;recorded&#160;from Lake Fuxian, Yangling Lake, and Er-Hai Lake (Lancang Jiang basin), the Jinsha Jiang in Huaping, Yunnan Province, however taxonomic&#160;study&#160;is required to confirm the identity of records from other locations than Dianchi Lake. The introduction of exotic species in Dianchi (and Fuxian) lakes has greatly reduced its range and population. The species has been confused by some researchers with other species, and in&#160;addition&#160;the original species described has been split.&#160;Collected near Kunming from a small stream with slow current in 2001 (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). It has also been collected in 2009 from headwater streams flowing from streams in the Dianchi drainage (X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011). The extent of&#160;occurrence&#160;is estimated to be less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>,&#160;including&#160;suitable habitat in the Dianchi Lake drainage.
166201		habitat	eng	Found in lakes and slow flowing streams, as well as field channels in rice fields and springs where connected to streams.
166201		population	eng	The species is small but can be found in&#160;suitable&#160;habitat in Dianchi drainage. Further&#160;work&#160;is required to taxonomic status of other populations. The species was once common, but populations&#160;have declined
166201		threats	eng	Habitat loss (including pollution, especially from agrochemicals). Invasive non-native species (grass carps, gobies, and other small fishes), as well as loss of spawning grounds. It depends on macrophytes, and removal of these (for animal fodder etc.), may impact the&#160;species.
166202		conservation	eng	Fisheries management is needed.
166202		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Yangtze River, Zhu Jiang River, Ganjiang River and the Xiangjiang River of China. It is found in most areas of Fujiang, Guangdong, Jixiang, Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou and Hubei provinces.
166202		habitat	eng	<span>It it found in torrent rivers, in gravel areas. Found in both main channels and in tributaries.
166202		population	eng	Although no data exist on trends in&#160; population size, it is believed that the population is stable at this time.
166202		threats	eng	Dams across the region may impact upon the species habitat through changes to the flow regime of the river; the species has been found after the&#160;construction&#160;of dams, so the degree of impact is uncertain (the&#160;species&#160;is not a long distance migrant). Pollution from agriculture, industry and urban areas are additional threats.
166204		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed.
166204		distribution	eng	Known from Xi Jiang and Nan Pan Jiang drainages in Guangxi and Yunnan Provinces, southern China.
166204		habitat	eng	<span>Found in fast flowing hill streams; attaches to rocks with mouth sucker; feeds on algae and invertebrates.
166204		population	eng	No information available.
166204		threats	eng	Threats include dams and agriculture (agrochemical pollution).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166206		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166206		distribution	eng	<em>P. fasciata</em> is known from Guangdong Province of China, in the drainages of Han Jiang and its river mouth, Dong Jiang, Bei Jiang, Xi Jiang and Zhu Jiang delta.
166206		habitat	eng	<em>P. fasciata</em> is a demersal species.
166206		population	eng	This species is rare throughout it's range (N. Bogutskaya, Pers. Comm.).
166206		threats	eng	<em>P. fasciata</em> is likely to be fished for human consumption, and there is a number of threats within the region, including pollution, damming and other hydrological alterations.  However as there are no reports of these factors as direct threats to <em>P. fasciata</em>, they are not considered major threats.
166207		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166207		distribution	eng	<span><span style="font-style: italic;">Sinibotia superciliaris </span>has an East Asia distribution. It is known from the main river and tributaries of middle Yangtze river in the Sichuan and Guizhou provinces (Yang & Chen 1992) and from the Mekong drainage in the Yunnan province, southern China (Kottelat & Chu 1987).
166207		habitat	eng	<span>Inhabits bottom parts of rocky streams or shores of main rivers (Yang & Chen 1992).
166207		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166207		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species. Though occurs in areas that have been impacted by pollution and dams.
166208		conservation	eng	Further information is needed on the impacts of known threats and the species current population trend.
166208		distribution	eng	<p><span class="mediumtext"><span lang="EN-US">Recorded from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Xijiang</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> of <span class="short_text" id="result_box">Guangdong Province, Xiangjiang River of &#160;Hunan Province and Guangzi Province, in the Pearl River drainage.</span></p>
166208		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>A migratory species found in streams with gravel bottoms.</span></span>
166208		population	eng	No information available.
166208		threats	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Dams have blocked the  migration of the species on both rivers where it is recorded. There has also been habitat loss as a&#160;result&#160;of pollution from agriculture.
166209		conservation	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">Artificial  breeding has been successful.
166209		distribution	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">Distributed in the upper reaches  of the Yangtze River (<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Percocypris</span><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><em> pingi pingi</em>) and its tributaries and from Yunnan Lancang River, in the Nampang Jiang and Lake Fuxian (<em>P. pingi&#160;regani</em>)<em>&#160;</em>and in the Upper Salween and in the the Mekong (<em>P. pingi retrodorsis</em>), China. The Salween population may spread into&#160;Myanmar, and the Mekong into Laos, but there are no confirmed records in either country.<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"></span>
166209		habitat	eng	Mainstream of rivers and tributaries. It is not thought to be migratory, but may make&#160;some short&#160;distance&#160;movement.
166209		population	eng	The population is declining as a result of known threats.
166209		threats	eng	Highly impacted by current and pipeline dams in all three of its known basins. It may also be over-fished locally.
166210		conservation	eng	Surveys and monitoring of population trends, distribution, water quality and&#160; levels of exploitation are needed.
166210		distribution	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Only recorded from lakes in Yunnan in southern China, including </st1:place>Yilong, <st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Qilu, </span></st1:place>Xingyun, Fuzian, Yangzong, Diangchi, Erh Hai, Chenghai, Jianhu, and Cibi l<st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">akes, and Wenbi reservoir</st1:place><span lang="EN-US">. In 1998-99, the lakes were surveyed and the species was only found in Fuzian Lake (121 km<sup>2</sup>), </span>Jianhu<span lang="EN-US"> (30km<sup>2</sup>) Lake, and Erh Hai Lake (250km<sup>2</sup>), and could not be found in other lakes (W. Zhou and X.-Y. Chen pers. comm. 2011). It may be present in other reservoirs, but surveys are required to confirm this.<br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US">The area of occupancy (from the three lakes surveyed in 1998-99) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></span></p>
166210		habitat	eng	<p>It is a fish of the upper and middle layers of water bodies and dwells mainly in the deep parts of lakes with clear water. It swims fast and can not tolerate poor environmental conditions, dying quickly in turbid water. It is an omnivore, feeding on benthos. Its spawning period is from April to September, but mainly in May and June. It spawns in batches on aquatic plants with viscid roe.<br/><span lang="EN-US"><span class="slabel"></span></p>
166210		population	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span class="shorttext"><span lang="EN-US">The species has only been found in recent surveys from three of the ten lakes in which it had been recorded as present. It is thought to be absent from the other lakes, but further survey is required.<br/><span lang="EN-US"><br/>Population decline is inferred to  be in the region of at least 50% in the last 30 years.</span></span>
166210		threats	eng	Key threats are overfishing, alien species of fish, and pollution from agriculture and industrial sources. Water quality has declined, and macrophytes, required for egg laying, have declined in all lakes.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166211		conservation	eng	Taxonomic review and further information on distribution and population trends is needed.
166211		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in southern China (Ye 1991) and northern Viet Nam (Lo River; Kottelat 2001). Recorded from the Nakdong River in Korea Republic, where it has been introduced (Jang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
166211		habitat	eng	<span>Found in freshwater rivers.
166211		population	eng	No information available.
166211		threats	eng	No information available.
166212		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More research is needed for this species.
166212		distribution	eng	This species has an eastern Asia distribution. It is found in streams and rivers from the Pearl River mouth to the <span class="st">Sông Lô (Clear River) in northern Viet Nam. It is also found in Hong Kong and Hainan Island (Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1988; Kottelat 2001), and is also reported from Guangdong (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2002), and Guangxi.
166212		habitat	eng	Occurs on the bottom of fast flowing mountain streams (Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1988).
166212		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166212		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166213		conservation	eng	Research into populations trends, distribution, and threats is needed. A research agency has captive-bred the species for aquaculture.
166213		distribution	eng	It is recorded from China in the Zhu Jiang River; where it is distributed in Bei Jiang River at Yingde, in the Xi Jiang River from Wuzhou to Longzhou, Liucheng and Zhaoping; at Funing County in Yunnan; at Anlong in Guizhou Province.
166213		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in river bottom with clear water flows. Lives on shrimps and small fishes.
166213		population	eng	It was historically common in the valley of the Zhu Jiang and especially in the Xi Jiang (rivers). The population of the fish has markedly decreased.<br/><br/>It is estimated that the species has declined by at least 50% in the last twenty years (K. Cui and H. Zhou pers. comm. 2011).
166213		threats	eng	Overfishing has impacted the species population, as well as agricultural pollution, and dams.
166214		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166214		distribution	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box"><p><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span style="font-style: italic;">Microphysogobio kachekensis </span>has an southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from the Kachek River in Hainan Island and most coastal drainages in North and Central Viet Nam (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/></p></span>
166214		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel">From large rivers to streams, found usually in clear current water on pebble or sandy bottom (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<span><span class="slabel"><span><br/></span></span>
166214		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population trends but it is locally abundant.
166214		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166215		conservation	eng	More research needed into the species distribution, threats, and habitat and population trends.
166215		distribution	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">The species is found in China, where it is distributed in  the Pearl River, Yangtze River, Red River and the Lancang River, and expected in associated parts of these drainages in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
166215		habitat	eng	<span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>Found in freshwater rivers.<br/></span></span>
166215		population	eng	No information available.
166215		threats	eng	No information available.
166216		conservation	eng	None required at present.
166216		distribution	eng	<span style="">Present across the India Ocean and Indo-Pacific region. </span><span><span style=""><span style="">This species occurs in the coastal areas and estuaries of southern India (from Kerala) to Myanmar, and possibly the Andaman coast of Thailand, northern Viet Nam and southern China.</span><span style=""></span></span>
166216		habitat	eng	<span style="">Feeds on zooplankton,detritus and plant materials. This species occurs in the lower reaches of rivers and estuaries.</span>
166216		population	eng	<span style="">This species is locally common in Viet Nam and China, uncommon in India and Myanmar, and rare in Thailand.</span>
166216		threats	eng	<span style="">Pollution and large scale overfishing are amongst the threats to this species.</span>
166246		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
166246		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from southern and southeastern China (Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hunan,  Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong and Yunnan) and from northern&#160;Viet Nam ('Tonkin') (Liu<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1979, Temcharoen 1992, Osborne 2009). According to Brandt (1974) records of the species from Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam may refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinotaia mandalbarthi</span> (Brandt, 1968).
166246		habitat	eng	This species lives in lakes, rivers, creeks and  drains, usually in flowing and stagnant waters
166246		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166246		threats	eng	<p>No specific threats are known for this species which is tolerant of stagnant water.</p>
166247		conservation	eng	There is a need for <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation for this species. Educational awareness about the impact of commercial production will help in conserving the natural population of this species. Taxonomic research in Viet Nam is also recommended.
166247		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from China (Hebei, Shandong, Anhui, Jiangsu,  Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei and Hunan provinces) and from northern Viet Nam. In China it is known to occur in  the freshwater lakes Poyang, Dongting, Taihu, Hongze and Shaohu and Gaobao in China and along the rivers (Liu 1979), and from Cau Day, and Ai Loc (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1980) in Viet Nam.
166247		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes and rivers living in muddy substrate. It is breed in artificial pools for pearl aquaculture. It has a complex life cycle involving a larval stage (glocidium) which can only survive in specific species of host fish.
166247		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known, however, there is a rapid decline in its natural population due to overexploitation in northern Viet Nam. It is commonly sold on the international shell auctions at a low price which makes it more likely to be collected across a large range from China. There is cultural pearl industry in China but not in Viet Nam.
166247		threats	eng	This species is facing serious population decline and local extinction throughout its range due to overexploitation and impacts on water quality. It also faces threats from damming, dredging and declines in host species of fish.<span class="i">
166248		conservation	eng	None required. Further information on the species' current distribution is advised.
166248		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Viet Nam, through southeastern and eastern China, to the Korean peninsular (Kwon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985, Kim 2008) and to western Taiwan (Province of China). The species has been recorded from Viet Nam (Bến Tre  Province) and China (Yuyao (<span class="st">Zhejiang Province), "Tunglu" (<span class="searchmatch">Tónglú Xiàn?), Lanchi (<span class="st">Anhui Province) <span class="searchmatch">and Chiangshan (Shandong Province)). In Taiwan it is recorded from Hsiaoliouchyou Island on the western coast (Chao<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1988) and is probably more widespread.<br/></span></span>
166248		habitat	eng	Found in pools, ponds and paddy fields and other slow-moving waters. It is also an&#160;intermediate host for Opisthorchiid liver flukes&#160;<em>Clonorchis sinensis</em>.
166248		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
166248		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
166252		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Confirmation of the species' taxonomic identity and distribution is needed.
166252		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern China (Youjiang District, Guangxi Province) (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979), and has also been reported from northern Viet Nam (<span class="small">Song Bang Giang, Cao Bang Province, Pearl River drainage) (Graf and Cummings 2011).
166252		habitat	eng	Recorded from water which is clear and transparent, about 10 m water depth, and likes sand, gravel or rock bottoms.
166252		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166252		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166255		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
166255		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in central and southeastern China (Jilin, Shanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan,  Shandong, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei and Hunan provinces).
166255		habitat	eng	Living in the lakes, reservoirs, ditches, ponds and paddy fields with lush grass, and often crawling on the aquatic plants with their large feet.
166255		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known now.
166255		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Although it is widespread, it also exploited through the region, as it&#160;is used as food for humans, fish, poultry and livestock, and is also the material of traditional Chinese medicine and fertiliser. Overexploitation may become a risk at some point in the future, but is not considered a threat now.
166256		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into this species' population abundance is recommended to clarify the impact of control programmes.
166256		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout China, Japan, the Philippines, and on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). On the basis of shell morphology and biogeography Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>(1995) distiguished <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis</span> in mainland China into three subspecies: <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis hupensis</span> (the most widely distributed of the subspecies, and found primarily within middle to lower reaches of the Yangtze river drainage), <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis robertsoni </span>(Sichuan and Yunnan province), and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis tangi</span> (Fujian province). However, Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) separated <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis guangxiensis </span>from <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis tangi</span>, based on allozymes. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis guangxiensis</span> is distributed throughout the Guangxi karst region (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
166256		habitat	eng	This species is found in both the middle to lower reaches of rivers and marshland, and mountainous hill regions in the upper reaches of rivers (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). This species is the unique intermediate host of the parasite <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma japonicum</span> which causes human schistosomiasis in east and southeast Asia (Remais <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166256		population	eng	A mark-recapture study into this species' population dynamics marked 32,000 snails over a 12 month period (Remais <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This species is the unique intermediate host of the parasite <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma japonicum</span> which causes human schistosomiasis in east and southeast Asia (Remais <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and extensive control measures have reduced the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis tangi</span> to near extinction (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
166256		threats	eng	This species is the unique intermediate host of the parasite <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma japonicum</span> which causes human schistosomiasis in east and southeast Asia (Remais <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) Extensive control measures using molluscicides to control <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis</span> to break the life cycle of the parasite have been implemented throughout its range (Guo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). These measures have reduced the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hupensis tangi</span> to near extinction (Zhao<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). <br/><br/>The Yangtze also suffers from heavy pollution as a result of the discharge of sewage, industrial waste and agricultural pollutants into the river, shipping traffic, and sedimentation as a result of damming and land conversion (WWF 2010).
166258		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species population, habitats and ecology.
166258		distribution	eng	It is distributed in south and southeast Asia; widespread in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and eastwards to New Guinea and Japan.
166258		habitat	eng	It is found in swamps, lakes, ponds along with rich macrophytes. This species acts as intermediate hosts of many trematode parasites such as<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Fasciolopsis buski</span>&#160;and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus westermani</span>. Human intestinal parasites&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gastrodiscoides homines&#160;</span>and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cercaria helicorbis&#160;</span>were also reported from this snail.
166258		population	eng	Although there is no information on population status and trends, however, this is a very common species.
166258		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species across its range.
166259		conservation	eng	There are no data available on the conservation status of this species.
166259		distribution	eng	The species is distributed widely in China (including Sichuan and Inner Mongolia) and is also reported from Mongolia, Democratic Republic  of Korea, Japan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, <span class="definition">Myanmar and the Marianas (Yueying Liu 1979, probably introduced)<span class="definition">. It is present in southwest Guangdong (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2002), and should be looked for in associated drainages in northern Viet Nam.</span>
166259		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the coastal calm water of lakes, brooks, ditches with shallow water, pools, rice field and marshes. They prefer muddy&#160;substrata. A large number of individuals group together in the favoured environment for egg laying. They feed on algae, decaying&#160;organic  matter and aquatic plants.
166259		population	eng	The current population trend and population size are not known.
166259		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and conversion may be threats to this species.
166260		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place. Research is recommended.
166260		distribution	eng	This species is only found in some of the  rivers (Nadekawa, Xiang River, Zi River, Yuanjiang)&#160; in Jiangxi and Hunan Province in China.
166260		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes with silty sediments.
166260		population	eng	The populations are restricted to a relatively small&#160; section of the Yangtze basin. No information is available on current trends.
166260		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166261		conservation	eng	This species is not considered to require any conservation actions within the native range. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this highly invasive species. <br/><br/>Within the invasive range, measures may needed locally to control this species, as it is impacting other species within the range. <br/><br/>This species has a NatureServe Global Heritage ranking of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009) due to its wide distribution in both its native and introduced range.
166261		distribution	eng	The species' native distribution is tropical and subtropical South America, including the Amazonas and the Plata basins; the southernmost record for the species is the Paso de las Piedras reservoir south of Buenos Aires province, and recently in Northern Patagonia: Balneario La Herradua, near the Limay River, province of&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">Neuquén,&#160;Argentina (Darrigran <em>et al</em>. 2011). The species is the southernmost applesnail in the world (Estebenet and Martín 2002).<br/><br/>This species is an introduced species and is considered to be one of the worst invaders in recent time in the southeast Asian region. It has mostly been introduced in this region as a food item (Cowie 2002). It has been found in Taiwan since between 1979 and 1981 (Cowie 2002), in Japan since 1981 (Fujio <em>et al</em>. 1991), in the Philippines since either 1980 or 1982 (Mochida 1991, Anderson 1993, Halwart 1994), in southern China since 1981 (Cowie 2005, Shan <em>et al</em>. 2009), and has also been introduced to Korea (probably 1986), Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia (1987), the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra (1989), Thailand (1989), Viet Nam (1988 or 1989) and Laos (1992) (Cowie 2002), as well as Hong Kong (Laup 1991), Cambodia (Cowie 1995), Singapore (Ng <em>et al</em>. 1993), Guam (Smith 1992, Eldredge 1994), Papua New Guinea (Laup 1991, Eldredge 1994), and Sri Lanka (Cowie 2005). The species has subsequently become a serious rice pest in much of the region - in the Philippines it is considered the number one rice pest and has caused huge economic losses (Cowie 2005).The species has also been introduced to North America; into canals and ditches in southeast Florida (Thompson 1997, 1999), Texas, central Ohio (Ghesquiere 2001), North Carolina, Virginia (United States Geological Survey 2011), the Dominican Republic (Cowie 2005), Georgia (NatureServe 2009), Langan Park and Three Mile Creek in Mobile, Alabama (D. Shelton pers. comm. in United States Geological Survey 2011),&#160;&#160;a pond bordering the&#160;Mobile-Tensaw River Delta&#160;in&#160;Baldwin County, Alabama&#160;(United States Geological Survey 2011), Lake Miramar in&#160;San Diego County, California,&#160;a pond near&#160;Yuma, Arizona (United States Geological Survey 2011),&#160;and in Hawaii (Tran <em>et al</em>. 2008) first on Maui in 1989, followed by Lanai (Cowie 1996) and all of the main islands including&#160;Kaua'i, O'ahu, Molokai'i, Lana'i, Maui, Hawai'i (Cowie <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Hawaii the species has become widespread and is a major taro pest (Cowie 2005).
166261		habitat	eng	Some ampullarids may be able to tolerate low levels of salinity, but do not generally live in brackish water habitats. Most are amphibious and inhabit slow-moving or stagnant water in lowland swamps, marshes, ditches, lakes and rivers (Cowie 2002). This species has been described as occurring in relatively still water in part of its native range in Argentina (Scott 1957). The species is also more resistant to lower temperatures than most other snails from the <em>Pomacea </em>genus (Cowie 2005). This species is sexually mature at 2.5 cm (Ghesquiere 2001). In its native temperate range in South America, the species reaches maturity at 2 years and breeds for two annual breeding seasons with a life-span of about 4 years due to seasonality (temperatures fluctuating from 7°C-28°C). At a constant temperature of 25°C, the species has been reported to reach maturity after 7 months and complete one single breeding season of about 4 months, after which it died (Estebenet and Cazzaniga 1992). &#160;This effect of temperature may account for the success of the species in tropical regions and explain the&#160;proliferation&#160;of its invasion in South East Asia (Cowie 2002). Maximum size of the species can reach 3 cm in Hawaii, but in Asia can reach 6.5 cm (Schnorbach 1995) to 9 cm (Heidenreich <em>et al</em>. 1997).&#160;Ampullarids are dioecious, internally fertilizing and oviparous, though some species have been found to change sex.&#160;In this species oviposition takes place above water and predominately at night or early morning (Cowie 2002). A clutch is bright red in colour and contains 200 to 600 eggs (Ghesquiere 2001).
166261		population	eng	Population density estimates have been made for this species in its introduced range. In taro patches in Hawaii densities of over 130 m<sup>-2</sup> have been reported (Tamaru 1996, Tamaru and Hun 1996). In rice paddies in the Philippines, densities are usually around 1-5 m<sup>-2</sup>, but have been recorded as high as 150 m<sup>-2</sup> (Halwart 1994, Schnorbach1995); Anderson (1993) reported 1,000 mature individuals per m<sup>2</sup> here, but it is thought that this was perhaps a mistake (Cowie 2002). In rice paddies in Japan, densities have been reported of 3-7 m<sup>-2</sup> (Okuma <em>et al</em>. 1994) and 12-19 m<sup>-2</sup> (Litsinger and Estano 1993).
166261		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread and highly invasive species.
166262		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown.
166262		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Hebei, Shandong, Anhui,  Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei and Hunan provinces of China.
166262		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers or lakes with mud or sand sediments and likes rapid flowing and deep water.
166262		population	eng	The populations are inferred to be large, but there is no precise information available.
166262		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species. Increasing habitat degradation in China may affect the species.
166263		conservation	eng	<p>  None required.<br/></p>
166263		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal areas in the Indian and western Pacific ocean (Brandt 1974), with a wide distribution in south and southeast Asia. It is reported from several locations in coastal areas of Bangladesh and India (Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, and West Bengal), and from China (Hong Kong, Hainan Island (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1979), and is probably present in other southern provinces), Taiwan (Province of China), southern and eastern Thailand (Samut Prakan, Chachoengsao, Rayong, Chanthaburi, Trat, Chon Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, and Phang Nga provinces; Sri-aroon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004), Malaysia (Peninsular; Way and Purchon 1981), Indonesia (Sumatra; M. Seddon pers. comm. 2010), Philippines, Singapore (Tan and Woo 2010), Taiwan, Japan (Ryukyu islands) and Australia (origin uncertain). The species is likely to have a larger unreported distribution within this range, including Oceania, and there are records from Guam (Department of Agriculture 2006) and Papua New Guinea (Gerbera and Schechterb 2011).<p>There are no recent&#160;occurrence&#160;records of the species from eastern and northeastern areas of India, Myanmar, or Bangladesh, but due to its wide geographical distribution range from south India to China and limited survey effort, it can be inferred to be present within suitable habitat within these countries, and in suitable habitat in Cambodia and Viet Nam. In Thailand, the species is found in almost all estuaries of large and small rivers (Brandt 1974).</p>
166263		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower (tidal) parts of freshwater and brackish rivers and streams, estuaries and mangrove habitats. Also found in <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">ponds, <span class="hps">rice paddies <span class="hps">and ditches.<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""></span></span></span>
166263		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166263		threats	eng	<p>The loss of coastal habitat may impact the species. Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
166264		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown and therefore research is strongly needed to estimate the current status of this species.
166264		distribution	eng	It was only found in Anhui and Jiangxi  Provinces of China.
166264		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes or their associated waters with deeper, fast or slow, clear water with silt sediments.
166264		population	eng	There is very little known about the current status of the populations of this species.
166264		threats	eng	The threats to this specie are unknown at the present.
166265		conservation	eng	None required for this species, although it is an invasive species.
166265		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in China (including Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Neimenggu, Xinjiang, Ningxia, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan,  Fujian, Taiwan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Sichuan and Yunnan), Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, the Philippines, Indonesia (Java), People's Republic  of Korea and Japan (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979, Indiana Department of Natural Resources 2005). Introduced widely in northern America.
166265		habitat	eng	Found in lakes, reservoirs, ditches, ponds and paddy fields with lush grass. Can be found in slow-flowing streams. <span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder1_EcologyText">Feeds non-selectively on organic and inorganic bottom material as well as benthic and epiphytic algae, mostly by scraping.
166265		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not currently known.
166265		threats	eng	Not threatened.
166266		conservation	eng	The conservation actions in place are unknown. No conservation measures are recommended.
166266		distribution	eng	Distributed in Hebei, Shandong, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi and  Hunan provinces of China (Liu 1979).
166266		habitat	eng	Living in the rivers or lakes with sand or mud at the bottom and prefers slow flow water and&#160; muddy sediment.
166266		population	eng	The population size is very large and current trends of the population are unknown.
166266		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are unknown but general threats are water pollution, over-exploitation and habitat degradation.
166267		conservation	eng	There are no data available on the conservation status of this species. But excessive sand mining should be forbidden in order to protect it.
166267		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from South Korea (Boo undated, Han <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), Japan, Taiwan (Province of China) (Kunshan University of Technology 2006), southeastern China (including records from the lower Yangtze River; Hong Kong, Shanghai, Hebei, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan and Sichuan provinces) (Yiu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1979, Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1986), and Viet Nam (as far south as the Tam Giang-Cau Hai Lagoon, Hue Province; Do 2007).
166267		habitat	eng	The species is found in coastal areas with rice fields, pools, ditches, lakes, and streams and rivers with slow flowing water; in freshwater or brackish water with sand, muddy or mud bottom.
166267		population	eng	The current population trends and population size are not known.
166267		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation&#160;due to the excessive sand-mining in some places&#160;are probably the main threat to this species.
166268		conservation	eng	None required.
166268		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from northern Viet Nam, <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps atn"><span class=""><span class="">southern and eastern China (including the lower Yangtze basin; Jiangsu, Shanghai), Taiwan (Province of China) and<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps atn"><span class=""><span class=""><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"> <span class="hps">to <span class="">South Korea.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166268		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine systems.</p>
166268		population	eng	No information available.
166268		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to this species.
166271		conservation	eng	The conservation actions taken in place are unknown. Research on the genetic affinities between the species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuneopsis </span>are in need. Site protection and awareness of these valuable lakes for molluscs is highly recommended, specially considering the present impacts on these areas.
166271		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Poyang Lake in Jiangxi Province and Dongting Lake in Hunan Province, as well as the&#160; scattered locations (pools) between these two lakes in China (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979).
166271		habitat	eng	It inhabits lakes and pools with silt sediment.
166271		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known at present and therefore more research is needed. One of the lakes is threatened by water pollution and silting up getting more shallow, what is shrinking the availability of suitable habitat for the species and therefore population declines are inferred.
166271		threats	eng	One of the two locations where it is present, Dongting Lake, is highly polluted (Van Damme pers. comm. 2011) due to urbanization around the lake. Intense overexploitation of the species at a local scale is also a major threat.  In the other location, Donting Lake, the ship traffic and sand dredging are know to be intense and may have a significant effect on populations.
166273		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Its habitats and ecology should be studied.
166273		distribution	eng	The species is known from Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,  Hubei, Hunan and other provinces in China (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979).
166273		habitat	eng	The species is present in lakes and rivers with sandy mud substrate.
166273		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known but species is widespread in China.
166273		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution and habitat modification.
166274		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. It is a distinct species. Research on ecology and biology is recommended as well as site protection.
166274		distribution	eng	The species has been reported from Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,  Hubei, Hunan and other provinces of China (Liu 1979).
166274		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers or lakes with muddy or sandy bottom .
166274		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166274		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution and habitat modification but there are no specific major threats known.
166275		conservation	eng	Any conservation actions currently in place are unknown.
166275		distribution	eng	Distribute in Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,  Hubei and Hunan provinces of China.
166275		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and lakes with mud or silt sediments, and slow-flowing waters.
166275		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166275		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166276		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown.
166276		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Taihu Lake in Jiangsu, Huaihe  River in Anhui, Linghu in  Zhejiang, Poyang Lake in Jiangxi, Liangzihu in  Hubei,  Dongting Lake in  Hunan in China. Heude mentions it all along the Yangtze in fast flowing waters.
166276		habitat	eng	It lives in the upper parts of rivers and lakes with mud or silt sediments.
166276		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166276		threats	eng	Overharvesting may still be a threat to the species. Dams are also a relevant threat as they block the migratory routes of host fish.
166277		conservation	eng	&#160;The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research on ecology and taxonomy are recommended, as well as site protection and management.
166277		distribution	eng	Distributed in Zhejiang, Jiangsu and Poyang Lake, Gan River, Xinjiang in Jiangxi and Dongting Lake, Xiangjiang, Yuanjiang, Zi water in   Hunan of China.
166277		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes or their associated waterways with deep, fast or slow flowing clear water and silty sediments.
166277		population	eng	This is a slow growing species that take very long to develop and it is inferred to be currently in decline according to personal observations. The inferred reduction is equal or more than 30 % population decline in the last 60 years due   to degradation of the quality of its habitat is declining due to water   pollution and damming (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
166277		threats	eng	Water pollution and overexploitation are threats to this species.
166278		conservation	eng	The species is considered Vulnerable in Japan due to habitat loss and its discontinuous distribution there (Yoshizaki and Nakamura&#160; 2000).
166278		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in eastern Asia, with records from southern and eastern China (e.g., Lo 1967), Hong Kong, Taiwan (Province of China), Korea and Japan (limited to southwestern Japan, where it is a rare species with a discontinuous distribution, and from Miyako Island in the Ryukus, Japan (Otuka 1941a,b)). The species is also reported from northern Viet Nam.
166278		habitat	eng	<span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">Found in lakes and stagnant waters. Anthropogenic habitats include rice fields, ponds,&#160;canals&#160;and irrigation ditches. According to Otuka  (1941a,b) the species is associated with freshwater habitats with limestone sediment. <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">The species is an important vector for human parasitic diseases; in China it is an intermediate host of the trematode <em>Fasciolopsis buski</em> (Lo 1967).<span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"></span>
166278		population	eng	No&#160;information&#160;is available&#160;on the population status of this species.
166278		threats	eng	Widely found in anthropogenic habitats and not considered threatened.
166280		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research is needed as very little is known.
166280		distribution	eng	The species is known from in Hebei, Shandong, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi,  Hubei and Hunan in China. It has also been recorded in Viet Nam and Japan, although Dang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>( 1980) didn't report this species in Viet Nam.
166280		habitat	eng	It inhabits lakes, rivers and ponds at the depth  of 2-3 meters, especially in flowing water.
166280		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166280		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166282		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Because little is known about this species, research into its ecology, population, distribution (to elucidate the distributions of subspecies) and threats is recommended. Furthermore, there is uncertainty about the taxonomic status of subpopulations of this species, and this needs to be addressed in order to allow for an accurate conservation assessment in the future.
166282		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to China. It is known from the provinces of Sichuan (Attwood <em>et al</em>. 2003), Hubei (Guan&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2008), and Yunnan (Sun 1959). The type locality of the species is in Tchen-Keou, China (Heude 1889). Representatives of this genus are being studied intensively in China because they are the main intermediate hosts for dangerous parasites. Populations formerly considered as this species presently appear not to be, and the range of <em>T. humida</em> subspecies is hence unknown (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012). The estimated extent of occurrence for the species is  in excess of 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
166282		habitat	eng	<p>Species of the <em>Tricula</em> genus inhabit cool, clean water in mountain streams or ponds where there is abundant shade and emergent aquatic vegetation. They are known to occur on plant stems or on muddy substrates in very shallow water (Davis 1979). The species has also been found to occur in reservoirs (Hu <em>et al</em>. 2012).<strong></strong></p>
166282		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
166282		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166284		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research and site protection are recommended.
166284		distribution	eng	Distributed in Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan and other  provinces of China (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979)
166284		habitat	eng	The species lives in the <span class="definition">flowing water of rivers or lakes with silt or sand sediments.
166284		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not currently known.
166284		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
166286		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The Red List of China only includes five to six species of mollusca and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamprotula leai</span> is not included. The Red List in Viet Nam includes this species. Water protection is also needed.
166286		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in Hebei, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan,  Guangdong and Guangxi provinces of China. It is also found in northern and central Viet Nam.
166286		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and lakes with a variety of flows and sediments.
166286		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known now. In Viet Nam populations are declining slowly (V. Do pers. comm. 2011).
166286		threats	eng	The combination of water pollution together with over-exploitation is the major threat affecting to the species throughout all its range.
166287		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown.
166287		distribution	eng	Distributed in Hebei, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu and  other places in China.
166287		habitat	eng	Inhabits lakes, rivers or pools with slow flow or calm water with muddy or silt bottom.
166287		population	eng	<p>The population size and current trends are not known.</p>
166287		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166288		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research on   biology and ecology for this species and habitat protection are needed.
166288		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Taihu Lake and the Grand  Canal in Jiangsu, Shuiyangjiang River Anhui's Ningguo, Poyang Lake, Gan Jiang, Fuhe, Xin Jiang and BoYang River in Jiangxi, Liangzi Lake in Hubei, Dongting Lake in Hunan of China. However it may only still be found in the Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake now.
166288		habitat	eng	In lives in lakes and rivers with deep, fastor slow, clear water and silty sediments.
166288		population	eng	This is a slow  growing species that takes a very long time to develop. This species is mainly known from Poygan Lake and other records are  uncertain. Compared to the distribution given in the literature (Liu 1979 ) (who describes the situation around 1950-60), the species range has been severely reduced. Populations are conservatively inferred to be rapidly declining&#160; at a minimum estimate of 30% (but as much as 2/3  of the populations may have already gone)&#160;  (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
166288		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamprotula</span> species are heavily harvested because of their shell size and thickness. It is also likely that the high levels of pollution entering the rivers in the area is having a severely detrimental affect on this species.
166289		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place. Research is recommended.
166289		distribution	eng	This species is found in Anhui, Zhejiang,  Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei and the Hunan Province of China.
166289		habitat	eng	It is found in the mud or sand of rivers and  lakes with slower flow, deeper water and non-breeding plants.
166289		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known at present.
166289		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166291		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research on biology and ecology for this species and habitat protection are needed.
166291		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Taihu Lake in Jiangsu , Huaihe River in  Anhui, Poyang Lake, Gan River and Xin River in Jiangsu, Dongting Lake in Hunan of China.
166291		habitat	eng	It is known from rivers and lakes with deep, rapid or slow flowing, clear water and silty sediments.
166291		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamprotula scripta</span>  are inferred to be declining&#160; at a rate of at least 30% (2/3  of the  populations may have gone already) in the past 30 years alone because it was previously recorded at  five locations, and it is currently only known from Yangtze river  and  Poyang Lake (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
166291		threats	eng	Water pollution and overexploitation are the major known threats to this species.
166292		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation of this species.
166292		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>The species is recorded from China (Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Taiwan and  Guangdong provinces), Japan, Viet Nam (Ky Cung and Bang Giang rivers in Cao Bang, Lang Son  provinces,  Taiwan (Ba Be lake, Bac Can  province), India, Thailand (in the northernmost parts of the provinces of Mae Hongson, Chieng Mai, Nan and Chieng Rai) and  Myanmar. The record for India is for "Culcutta" (GBIF data; ANSP) and the actual location and current distribution within India requires confirmation.
166292		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pools, tanks, ponds and other stagnant water bodies, and other lentic water bodies such as rice fields,  ditches, the coastal bank of shallow brook and lake. They especially  like water bodies with large amounts of aquatic plants and feed on them. In Thailand, it is known to harbour a blood fluke (<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma incognitum</span>) which may cause cercarial dermatitis in humans. It is also the first intermediate host of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">gigantica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orientobilharzia harinasutai</span> and several avian species of blood-flukes. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. swinhoei</span> serves also as second intermediate host for several species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostomatidae</span>.
166292		population	eng	No data on population density of this species are available.
166292		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ‘flood pulse’, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in those developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
166293		conservation	eng	None required.
166293		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southern and eastern China (Heilongjiang, central Jiangsu coast, Hubei (Xiong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), but certainly much more widespread), Taiwan (province of China), and from Viet Nam (the Red River delta (Haskoning 2008), Nam Dinh Province).
166293		habitat	eng	The species is found in lakes, rice fields, ponds and other lentic habitats.<br/><br/>First intermediate host for Opisthorchiid liver flukes&#160;<em>Clonorchis sinensis</em>.&#160;Clonorchiasis caused by&#160;<em>Clonorchis sinensis</em>&#160;and&#160;<em>Opisthorchis viverrini&#160;</em>is endemic throughout Southeast Asia in countries such as China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia (Tinga <em>et al.</em> 1999)
166293		population	eng	There is no documentation on population structure for this species even though it is a medically (disease transmission) important species.
166293		threats	eng	No documented threats. This species may not be facing any threats as it can survive in human modified landscapes such as paddy fields
166296		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown.
166296		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Anhui, Jiangxi and Hunan  provinces of China.
166296		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers, lakes or pools in mud or silty sediments.
166296		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166296		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166297		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Research on its taxonomic status and&#160;distribution&#160;is recommended, as well as water protection.
166297		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Yangtze (Changjiang) River (Jiangsu, Jiangxi and Hunan  provinces; Liu 1979), including the Poyang and Taihu lakes (Graf and Cummings 2011), and is also known from northeastern Viet Nam in the Cao Bang (Bang River).<span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><span style=""><br/><br/></span><span style="">If this species is really only a local variety of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamprotula leai,</span>  the range is much larger including Siang-Liang River, Siang  and Lo River, Hunan Province, Ngan-he  Province, China, and near Seoul, Korea (Haas 1969).</span>
166297		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams, rivers and lakes in different types of sediments, whether in clean or slightly polluted waters.
166297		population	eng	The species is common and has a wide distribution in the southern drainage of the Yangtze river. There is no information about population trends.
166297		threats	eng	Water pollution, including from domestic sources, is the main threat to the species. Over-harvesting is a relevant threat to this species. Drought and water flow regualtion impacts from the the Three Gorges dam on the Yangtze River (Thibault 2012) has resulted in the drying of Poyang lake in 2012.
166298		conservation	eng	There is no available information on conservation at present. To conserve this species, excessive harvesting should be limited and the introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ampullarius gigas </span>controlled.
166298		distribution	eng	A widespread species, it has been recorded from Thailand (common in the central (Bangkok, Prachin Buri, Chon Buri, Rayong, Phetcha Buri, Sing Buri, Lop Buri and Nakhon-sawan), northern (Chiang Rai, Phayao, Lampang and Tak) and northeastern provinces (including Loei, Udonthani, Sakonnakhon, Kkon Kaen, Kalasin, Chaiyaphum, Buri-ram,  Surin, Si-sa-ket, Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, and Nakhon Phanom) and recently recorded from Kalasin Province in the south of Thailand; Thaewnon-ngiw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003),&#160;Lao PDR, Myanmar, Viet Nam (Chu Lai, Annam), Cambodia (Angkor), southern China (Guangdong, Hainan Province and the Dai Nationality Prefecture of Xishuangbanna (Yunnan)). There are also reports from India (Travancore), Indonesia (Java) and the Philippines; these records may be as a result of introductions and further research is required to confirm the species' native range.
166298		habitat	eng	The species is found in calm freshwater habitats, such as paddy fields, ponds, klongs, pools and slow moving streams. They are unisexual, females lay eggs near the bank of water. The species harbours metacercariae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostoma ilocanum </span>which can cause Garrison's fluke infection (Echinostomiasis) and it can cause Angiostrongyliasis (P. Sri-Aroon pers. comm. 2011).
166298		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166298		threats	eng	Over-exploitation of this species may be a problem locally, as this species is the favourite species for consumption. The introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ampullarius gigas </span>may lead to increased competition with the native species.
166299		conservation	eng	Research is required.
166299		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southern and eastern China (provinces of Fujian, Sichuan, Hainan, Yunnan and Chonqing) and from central Viet Nam (type locality, 'river at Touranne' [Han River near Da Nang]). A record from Baiyangdian Lake, Hebei Province, China (Xie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) suggests that the species may be much more widely distributed within China.
166299		habitat	eng	Found in lakes, ponds and irrigation ditches.
166299		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166299		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
166300		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research on  biology and ecology for this species and habitat protection are needed.
166300		distribution	eng	It has been reported from Poyang Lake, Ganjiang  River and Xinjiang in&#160; Jiangxi and Dongting Lake, Yuan and Xi rivers in  Hunan in China.
166300		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes and rivers in deep, fast or slow flowing, clear water and silty sediments.
166300		population	eng	This is a slow  growing species that takes a very long time to develop. It is  inferred to be currently declining according to personal observations  (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
166300		threats	eng	Water pollution and overexploitation are the major known threats to this species.
166301		conservation	eng	No information was found concerning the conservation of this species. Research, site management and education are recommended.
166301		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>It is distributed in the Poyang Lake in Jiangxi, Ganjiang  River, Xinjiang River Dongting Lake, Yuanjiang, Xiangjiang River, in Hunan, China. It is also known from   Thach That, Ha Noi, Viet Nam.
166301		habitat	eng	It lives in clean waters of rivers with sandy sediments, as well as in lakes. However it has not been reported in the lakes in the last 10 years.
166301		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Although this species is very common, its population is inferred to be decreasing as it has not been seen in shell options in the last 10 years (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011)
166301		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>This species has been declining drastically due to over-harvesting, environmental deterioration, water quality problems, dredging, damming and reduction of fish hosts.
166303		conservation	eng	The conservation actions currently in place are unknown.
166303		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,  Hunan and Hubei province of China (Liu 1069). It is widely spread in China and recorded from various locations.
166303		habitat	eng	It lives in rivers and lakes  with a sandy and muddy sediment.
166303		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known.
166303		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown.
166305		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research on   biology and ecology for this species and habitat protection are needed.
166305		distribution	eng	It is historically known from Taihu Lake in Jiangsu, Hangzhou and Tangqi the Grand Canal in&#160; Zhejiang, Pan Yang Lake,&#160; Gan River and  Xinjiang in Jiangxi, Dongting Lake and Xiangjiang River in Hunan of China. It has only been recorded in the Xiangjang River in the last ten years, but this has only been shells and no live specimens. It is believed to have disappeared from the other locations.
166305		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes and lakes with deeper, fast or slow flowing clear water and silty sediments.
166305		population	eng	It has only recorded recently in the Xiangjang River in the last ten  years, and no live specimens. It is believed to have disappeared from most locations and is still thought to be almost extinct even where shells were found. Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamprotula triclava</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>     are inferred to be declining&#160; in a 80% as it has only been found  from one of the seven locations where it was originally recorded.
166305		threats	eng	The species is highly threatened by water pollution.
166306		conservation	eng	The are no conservation actions in place for this species. Poyang Lake is an international refuge for birds an that it is a protected area for dolphins. These conservation measures are believed to benefit also to other groups of freshwater species. Awareness is also recommended.
166306		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the Poyang Lake in Jiangxi, Dongting Lake in Hunan province and the connected lakes between them in China. It occurs throughout the Yangtze River.
166306		habitat	eng	It lives in  rivers or lakes and is found in the sediment at 3-10 m depth.
166306		population	eng	The population size and current trends are not known now. It has only been recorded in the Yangtze Basin and the number of locations is unknown. However this is a widespread species.
166306		threats	eng	The population size and current trends are not known at present. The species is known to be source of food found in markets and its shells collected for crafts (inlay), and overexploitation is considered to be a threat. One of the lakes is threatened by  water pollution, and sedimentation making the lake shallower, and reducing the amount of suitable habitat. The original range has also been fragmented by the construction of dams.
166307		conservation	eng	None required.
166307		distribution	eng	A very widely distributed species in southern and eastern China (Yangtze basin lakes, Zhejiang province), Japan (Ryu Kyu Islands), Korean Peninsular, and Thailand, and from Indochina (Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia) (Brandt 1974).
166307		habitat	eng	It is found in paddy fields, ponds, ditches and other man-made habitats. It is an intermediate host of a human intestinal fluke <em>Neodiplostomum seolensis.</em>
166307		population	eng	In Thailand, Brandt (1974) reports that the species is not commonly found, but is present in large numbers where it is found.
166307		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
166308		conservation	eng	The conservation actions already in place are unknown. Research on  biology and ecology for this species and habitat protection are needed, as well as site protection and management.
166308		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,  Hubei and Hunan provinces of China.
166308		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes or their associated waterways with deeper, fast or slow, clear water and silt sediments.
166308		population	eng	This is a slow  growing species that takes very long to develop. The inferred reduction is equal  to or more than 30 % population decline within the last 60 years due  to degradation of the quality  of its habitat, which is declining due to  water  pollution and damming (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
166308		threats	eng	Water pollution and overexploitation are threats to this species.
166309		conservation	eng	Near threatened in Japan (Kondo 2008). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
166309		distribution	eng	Indochina and China north to the Amur Basin, eastern Russia and Mongolia, also Japan and the Kurile islands. This species is found throughout China, the Promorye region of Russia, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Philippines and Hokkaido and Honshu, Japan (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011). No records from Shikoku and Kyushu but it may be distributed there. Graf (2007) also listed Indochina and China north to the Amur basin, Eastern Russia and Mongolia. It has been introduced into a number of lakes and ponds in Honshu (Kondo 2008).
166309		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes. Inhabits sand and mud substrates in ponds, lakes and rivers of plains. Matures at there years of age. Gravid females observed from late autumn to early spring. Host fish is the goby <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinogobius brunneus </span>(Kondo 2008).
166309		population	eng	The only population data available for this species is from Poyang Lake, where 274 specimens were found in one year (Wen and Zhu 2006).
166309		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. It is affected by the water mite <em>Unionicola arcuata</em>,<em> </em>but the impact of this is not yet known. This species may be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
166310		conservation	eng	None required.
166310		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from eastern China (records include Guangxi, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Anhui,  Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Hong Kong, Guangdong and Yunnan  provinces; Liu 1979), Taiwan (Province of China), the Korean peninsular, and Japan. Probably occurs in associated drainages in northern Viet Nam.
166310		habitat	eng	Found in lakes, rivers, ditches and ponds. Large numbers inhabit the water cooling tubes of factories and power stations near the banks of rivers and lakes, and can cause blockages.
166310		population	eng	No information available.
166310		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species across its range. Although it is widespread, it is exploited through the region. Overexploitation may become a risk at some point in the future, but is not considered a threat now.
166311		conservation	eng	None in place. The species is certainly extinct in Lake Yilong, but further surveys are required to confirm whether any individuals remain in lakes Datunhai, Qilu and Xingyun.
166311		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Yunnan Province, China, where it occurs in Lake Xingyun (34 km²) and Lake Qilu (37 km²). The species was found to still be present in these lakes in 2006 and 2007 respectively. Previously it was known from Lake Yilong, Lake Dianchi, and Lake Datunhai (also called Lake Datun). Relatively recently it was known from Lake Yilong (32 km²) and Lake Datunhai (12 km²). However in 1983, Lake Yilong dried up for about two months, and the species is now considered extirpated from this lake. Lake Datunhai did not dry up but became very shallow. Both these lakes were surveyed in 2006 and this snail was not found (Du Lina, pers. comm. 2008), and another survey of Lake Datunhai in May 2008 by Du Lina also did not find it, so it is probably no longer present in there. Du Lina also surveyed Lake Dianchi in May 2008 and could not find the species; it has probably also been extirpated from there. <br/><br/>The species was previously listed in the China Red List (2004) as also occurring in Lakes Fuxian and Erhai, but Du Lina believes these records to be errors.
166311		habitat	eng	Small lakes.
166311		population	eng	The species has been lost from three lakes where it previously occurred. In its current known range it is very rare.
166311		threats	eng	Lake Yilong is used to irrigate farmland and water abstraction is a major problem here; the drying up of the lake in 1983 is the likely cause of the species being lost from this lake. Pollution is an ongoing problem. Lake Datunhai (which also previously held a population of this snail) is very small and becomes green each year so it is probably eutrophic; the water level also changes quickly. The small sizes of these lakes makes them very vulnerable to drying out, and if the entire lake dries out the snail population dies. Fish harvesting in the lakes also results in this species being take as bycatch but the snails themselves are not used.
166312		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009).
166312		distribution	eng	<span style="">This species occurs in Canada and the northern United States from the Atlantic coast westward (Basch 1963). Burch (1989) lists Nova Scotia and New England west to Manitoba, Minnesota and Illinois in the Atlantic, St. Lawrence River, Hudson Bay and the upper Mississippi River drainage areas. In Pennsylvania, the species occurs in the Delaware and Potomac basins from Marsh Creek, Adams County, Tobyhanna Creek, Monroe County, and Tunkhannock Creek, Monroe County (Evans and Ray 2010).&#160;Historically, the species is known from the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (Jokinen 2005), and Lake Maxinkuckee, Indiana (Goodrich and van der Schalie 1944), but a survey of 123 sites in Indiana by Pyron <em>et al</em>. (2008) did not find this species. It also appears to be extirpated from Iowa (Stewart 2006), and is possibly extirpated in Manitoba (Pip 2000).&#160; The extent of occurrence of the species is 2,500,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(NatureServe 2009).&#160;</span>
166312		habitat	eng	This species inhabits quiet, slow-moving water, usually in ponds and lakes, where it attaches to plant surfaces at about 0.3-0.2 metres depth. It is usually found near the surface but can be found near the bottom of such plants as <em>Scirpus</em> spp. (Imlay 1960).
166312		population	eng	<span style="">This species is abundant in smaller lakes in the Great Lakes area (Basch 1963). The population size is considered to be greater than 1,000,000 individuals (NatureServe 2009).&#160;The species is uncommon in Pennsylvania (Evans and Ray 2010). Historically, the species is known from the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (Jokinen 2005), and Lake Maxinkuckee, Indiana (Goodrich and van der Schalie 1944), but a survey of 123 sites in Indiana by Pyron <em>et al</em>. (2008) did not find this species.&#160;&#160;Pip (2000) was unable to find the species in Manitoba in recent surveys despite historical presence in similar surveys in 1975-1978.&#160;It also appears to be extirpated from Iowa (Stewart 2006).</span>
166312		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be affected by any major threats across its large range, although localised impacts may occur in parts of its range (NatureServe 2009).
166313		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
166313		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. Research into the threats affecting this species within its native range, as well as its population size and trends, should be carried out, as localized threats may be affecting this species.
166313		distribution	eng	It was first introduced to Europe in 1963 along with introduced carp, and is currently found in at least fifteen European countries including Romania, Czech Republic, Belgium, Hungary, France, Slovakia, Austria, Poland, Ukraine, Italy, Germany, Serbia, Bulgaria, Moldova, Spain and Sweden.<br/><br/>This species is widespread and its native ranges is from Indochina and China  north to Korea, Japan, Primorye and the Amur Basin in eastern Russia  (Graf 2007). In the Far East it is found from the Amur and Yangtze River  basins (Soroka 2005); it is widespread in China.
166313		distribution	eng	<p>The species is native to temperate and tropical eastern Asia, primarily the Amur and Yangtze basins (Soroka 2005, Kraszewski and Zdanowski 2007), and has also been very widely introduced within Asia, Europe and the Americas. Its native range is uncertain, but ranges from Indochina and China, north to Korea, Japan, Primorye and the Amur Basin in eastern Russia (Graf 2007). The species native range in Indochina is unclear; it appears to be native to Viet Nam (from ‘Cochin’ as the synonym&#160;Anodonta jourdyi&#160;Morelet, 1886) and perhaps Cambodia, but Brandt (1974) considers the species to have been introduced to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and other countries in southeast Asia.<br/> <br/> It is one of the only members of Unionidae that has been introduced around the world (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011). It was first introduced to Europe in 1963 along with introduced carp, and is currently found in at least fifteen European countries including Romania, Czech Republic, Belgium, Hungary, France, Slovakia, Austria, Poland, Ukraine, Italy, Germany, Serbia, Bulgaria, Moldova, Spain and Sweden as well as in some Indonesian islands (exact location unclear), Dominican Republic, USA (New Jersey), and Costa Rica (Paunovic&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2006, Bogan&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2011, K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011).</p>
166313		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist found in heavily modified and artificial habitats and is tolerant of high siltation rates (Paunovic <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Czech Republic it is found in ponds, oxbow lakes and canals (Beran 2008). It prefers substrates of silt and clay, turbid conditions with relatively high water temperatures (30-33 ° C) and is found in either standing or slow-flowing water (Soroka 2005, Zettler and Jueg 2006).
166313		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist found in heavily modified and artificial habitats and is tolerant to high siltation rates (Paunovic <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Czech Republic it is found in ponds, oxbow lakes and canals (Beran 2008). It prefers substrates of silt and clay, turbid conditions with relatively high water temperatures (30-33° C ) and is found in either standing or slow-flowing water (Soroka 2005, Zettler and Jueg 2006).
166313		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
166313		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it should be noted that this is an invasive species in Europe.
166313		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it should be noted that this is an invasive species in Europe, the Caribbean, Indonesia and elsewhere. This species is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
166399		conservation	eng	Impact of threats on the species distribution and population requires detailed studies.
166399		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Brahmaputra basin in India (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Assam, northern West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, and is likely to be present in other northeastern Indian states) and Bangladesh.<br/><br/>The species also recorded from the Salween and Irrawaddy basins in China (Ximeng and Yunnan; Froaese and Pauly 2010; Kottelat 1989; <a href="http://www.loaches.com/species-index/botia-rostrata">http://www.loaches.com/species-index/botia-rostrata</a>), though these records require confirmation. If the Chinese records are confirmed it should be looked for in Bhutan, and in parts of the Salween and Irrawaddy in Myanmar.
166399		habitat	eng	<p>This species is reported to live in medium to fast current waters. <br/></p>
166399		population	eng	Population estimates of this species were carried out in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Catch frequency of <em>Botia rostrata</em> was 60% during 2004 (Tamang <em>et al.</em> 2007) but during 2009 it came down to 20% probably because it is a much sought after species firstly due to its good taste and secondly due to its ornamental value (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. obs.</em>, 2010).
166399		threats	eng	The main threats facing this species is sand and boulder mining which destroys its habitat. Other major threat is destructive fishing practices of electrocution and poisoning (Tamang <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong> </strong>
166400		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the the biology of this species is needed.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166400		distribution	eng	Present in   India (Chindwin basin), Thailand, Myanmar (Mandalay area and Shweli River).
166400		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain streams and large rivers, with sandy and gravel substratum.&#160;  It prefers dark and is often found near submerged boulders and fallen  trees.
166400		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>     <p></p>
166400		threats	eng	This is a high priced ornamental fishes and exploited from the wild.
166401		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166401		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidocephalichthys berdmorei </span>was  described from Sittang River basin (Kottlat and Lim 1992) Myanmar.&#160; In Manipur (Irrawaddy drainage), India, Thailand (<span>Chao Phraya, Mekong and Meklong basins). The species is also reported (FishBase 2009) <span>from Bangladesh (Brahmaputra), and China. <span><span>The records from the Indian Brahmaputra are doubtful because the <span><span>species is closely related to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. guntea</span> and identification can be confused. </span></span></span>
166401		habitat	eng	It is a clear water species of hillstreams.
166401		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
166401		threats	eng	Hill stream habitats are degraded across much of this species range by deforestation. Habitats are most likely intact within Myanmar.
166402		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166402		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India and Bangladesh.
166402		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in swift-flowing hillstreams with a substrate of sand and gravel.</p>
166402		population	eng	<p>Although there is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, this is a relatively abundant species in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent.</p>
166402		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166403		conservation	eng	<p>The species is subjected to over-exploitation and habitat loss due to anthropogenic and natural events and needs immediate conservation measures.&#160;&#160;</p>
166403		distribution	eng	Recorded from India; Assam, Manipur, <span>Nagaland and Meghalaya in the Brahmaputra River system, and from the River Alaknanda of the Garhwal Himalaya<span> (Joshi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009); a wider presence in the Ganges system is likely.
166403		habitat	eng	<p>Inhabits large rapid streams with rocky bottom (Menon 1999).  </p>
166403		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166403		threats	eng	<p>Whilst no information is available at present, a significant number of dams are currently planned or being constructed within this species range, and these will impact upon the species. In addition, the species habitat is impacted by pollution from a number of sources.<br/></p>
166404		conservation	eng	More catch data and information on harvest levels throughout the range of this species is needed. &#160;The threats to this species also need to be further ascertained.
166404		distribution	eng	<em>Pangasius pangasius </em>is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and the Irrawaddy River delta in Myanmar (Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991). &#160;Shrestha (2008) reports it from Nepal.
166404		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers, streams, lakes, coastal waters and estuaries. &#160;It mainly inhabits estuaries where it&#160;breeds&#160;during the rains. &#160;It does not breed in ponds. &#160;It feeds on plants, molluscs, worms and shrimps (Hossain <em>et al</em>. 2009).
166404		population	eng	It was previously abundant in Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, but serious declines have been reported (Hossain <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;There is no empirical evidence to support this decline for this species throughout its range. &#160;However, localized catch data suggests that this species is being overfished (Hoq 2007).
166404		threats	eng	Thia species is said to be susceptible to threats such as overexploitation, destruction of habitats and breeding grounds from damming and pollution (Hossain <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160; Other than catch data that suggests that this species is indeed overexploited, there is no empirical evidence to suggest that the other threats hold true (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166405		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The conspecificity of the material reported as this species from Sikkim, India await further verification.
166405		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in Nepal and India (Himachal Pradesh). &#160;It has been reported from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Sikkim (Jayaram 1999) and Tibet (Wu and Wu 1992), but these records await verification.
166405		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
166405		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
166405		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166406		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;The taxonomy of this species also requires further study and the conspecificity of <em>Rama rama</em> with this species awaits verification.
166406		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal in India, and Bangladesh (W. Vishwanath, S.C. Dey, S. Chaudhry and H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166406		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166406		population	eng	The population seems to be stable in upper Assam in the Brahmaputra River (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;There is no information on the population and its trends for this species in other areas of its range (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166406		threats	eng	Collection for aquarium trade is a potential threat to the species in some areas of its distribution. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166407		conservation	eng	<p>More research on this species is needed.</p>
166407		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Ganges-Brahmaputra river drainage known from Jiri River in Manipur,  Barak River in Silchar, in Brahmaputra River, Ujjan Bazar in Assam, and in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab in India, and in Bangladesh. &#160;Presence in southern India and from the Indus drainage in India and Pakistan needs to be verified. &#160;<em>O. cotio peninsularis</em>&#160;from peninsular India is a different species and will be published soon (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166407		habitat	eng	The species has been found in freshwater rivers, ponds and lakes in lower foothill areas.
166407		population	eng	<p>The population and trends for this widespread species is not known.<br/></p>
166407		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this species is extensive loss of habitat caused by pollution and deforestation.<br/></p>
166408		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166408		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower Ganges River drainage.
166408		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand and/or gravel.
166408		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, data from recent field surveys suggest that it is still relatively common in the lower Ganges River drainage.</p>
166408		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166409		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed from areas other than southern West Bengal.
166409		distribution	eng	Known from the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Subarnarekhar and Godavari river drainages in northern India, Nepal and Bangladesh. &#160;The conspecificity of material identified as this species from the Indus River drainage awaits further verification (Chakrabarty and Ng 2005).
166409		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater habitats, although it is chiefly found in larger rivers, primarily with a sandy or muddy substrate (H.H. Ng and W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166409		population	eng	Although Mishra <em>et al</em>. (2009) reported a mean decline of 29.9% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal (lower Ganges-Brahmaputra system and Subarnarekha River) for the period 1960-2000, and an average decline of 57% each decade from 1980-2000; there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. &#160;Data from throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra system suggests that this species is still relatively common.
166409		threats	eng	Although there is a marked decline in the population in southern West Bengal due to overfishing, the threats to this species in other areas of its distribution are unknown. Since there is no information on the biology of this species, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although IUCN Bangladesh (2000) identify habitat loss as a major threat to this species, this has not been verified by an empirical evidence.
166410		conservation	eng	No conservation efforts are required.
166410		distribution	eng	Recorded from India (eastern coast), Sri Lanka, Indo-Malayan region, Philippines, South China Sea (western Pacific Ocean off the southeast Asia), New Guinea, and Australia (Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Jameela Beevi and Ramachandran 2009; Hortle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004; Randall and Lim 2000; Kroon 2004). &#160;<span>Asia and Oceania: India and Sri Lanka to southeastern Asia, Indonesia, Philippines and New Guinea. Recorded from Australia and Palau (FishBase).<br/><br/>A coastal fish that enters freshwater systems.
166410		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits estuaries and freshwater within the influence of tides and is an efficient burrower (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Adults inhabit both fresh and brackish waters of rivers and swamps or near the river mouth (Coates 1993<span class="sheader5">). They occur mainly in thick vegetation of muddy, still water bodies, such as lagoons, swamps, canals and rice fields (Pethiyagoda 1991<span class="sheader5">). Lives in soft bottom sediments in quiet, well vegetated backwaters of brackish estuaries and nearby swamps, usually in burrows (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002<span class="sheader5">).</span></span>
166410		population	eng	No information on population status is available. Not commonly found in collections. Species is fairly common in <st1:place w:st="on">West Bengal</st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)
166410		threats	eng	No known major wide spread threats.
166411		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.</p>
166411		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chagunius chagunio</span> is distributed in the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages of northern and northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
166411		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. chagunio</span> is generally found in large rivers characterised by rocky bottom, clear and fast water, and little or no vegetation. Adults are found in habitats with stronger current than juveniles prefer.
166411		population	eng	<p>More research is needed to estimate current population.<br/></p>
166411		threats	eng	<p>Habitat of this species is being degraded due to deforestation and illegal fishing techniques, dams, sand quarry, and mining.</p>
166412		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine distribution pattern of the species and also whether the species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.</p>
166412		distribution	eng	The species is known widely from northeastern India. It is reported from Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, India.
166412		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra naganensis</span> inhabits hill streams and river with moderate to fast flowing water. It is a b<span class="mw-headline" id="Benthopelagic_fish">enthopelagic fish.<br/></p>
166412		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166412		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the species, but threats affecting the hill stream habitat are a concern.</p>
166413		conservation	eng	Further information on the species habitat and population trends is required.
166413		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from northern India (the Brahmaputra and Ganges drainage), Bangladesh and Nepal (Havird and Page 2010).&#160; Currently the species is recorded throughout Peninsular India except some parts of southern Western Ghats. Populations in peninsular India are believed to be introduced due to linking of Krishna River to other southern drainages (Rema Devi <em>per</em><span style="font-style: italic;">s. comm</span>.) and aquarium trade (Marcus Knight 2010)
166413		habitat	eng	It occurs in low land rivers, lakes with fringed vegetation and wetlands with dense vegetation.
166413		population	eng	The species is very common and widespread.
166413		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
166414		conservation	eng	<p>None required or known at present. Harvest for the ornamental trade should be monitored.<br/></p>
166414		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Himalayan and Indo-Gangetic Plains (Roberts 1994) and also from Nepal and Bangladesh. &#160;This species is present in the Western Ghats of India where it is rare and in fragmented populations; it is possible that this species is accidentally introduced in southern India (Rema Devi and N. Dahanukar <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166414		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwater ponds, ditches, pools and rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166414		population	eng	<p>The population is decreasing within India and Nepal.<br/></p>
166414		threats	eng	<p>Although the fish is harvested for food and for aquarium trade, the impacts of these harvests on the status is unknown. &#160;Other threats to the species, apart from the general decline and degradation in wetland habitats, are unknown.</p>
166416		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166416		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in India and Nepal, and the Indus River drainage in India and Pakistan. &#160;Report of this species from Myanmar (Oo 2002) is not considered valid until further study.
166416		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
166416		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
166416		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Kullander <em>et al.</em> (1999) did not consider this species to be under any threat.
166417		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166417		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Ganges River drainage in India and Nepal although only two collection localities are known until now. &#160;The inferred range along the Nepal and India border is more than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166417		habitat	eng	This species is said to inhabit rapid running rivers (Shrestha 2008).
166417		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, as museum holdings of this species are very scanty. &#160;This species is not considered to be common in Nepal (D. Edds, <em>pers. comm.</em> to H.H. Ng)</p>
166417		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166418		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166418		distribution	eng	<em>Erethistes pusillus</em> was descibed from Assam and&#160;is known from Bangladesh, India and Nepal (the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages), although its exact distribution within these river drainages is not fully ascertained.
166418		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slower stretches of the upper reaches of rivers. It can be found in areas where the substrate is comprised primarily of sand and where considerable vegetation (whether overhanging or growing in the water) is present.
166418		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend of this species is unknown. However, it is a relatively abundant species throughout its range.</p>
166418		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166419		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.<p><span style="font-style: italic;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></span></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">M. elanga</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.<br/></p>
166419		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Megarasbora elanga</span> has an South Asia distribution. It is know from inland waters in India, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Rahman 1989, Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It was also reported from Nepal (Shrestha 1990) and Pakistan (Mirza 2003).<br/><br/>-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/>The species is known from Arunachal Pradesh (West Kameng District), Assam, Bihar, Hooghly River system in West Bengal, India; Bangladesh; and western Myanmar.
166419		habitat	eng	<p>Megarasbora elanga inhabits ponds and the middle and lower reaches of rivers (Menon 1999).<br/></p><p>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></p><p>The species is found in the middle and lower reaches of rivers and ponds. </p>
166419		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the species population.<br/></p><p>-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></p><p>This species is rare in Asssam (Nath and Dey 2008). Population is beleived to be declining due to overfishing and habitat destruction (Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).<br/></p>
166419		threats	eng	<p>No information available on the threats to the species. <br/></p><p>------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></p><p>This species is threatened by overfishing.<br/></p>
166420		conservation	eng	<p>Currently there is no conservation action plan directed towards this species. </p>
166420		distribution	eng	Head water drainage of the Ganges (Menon 1999). Record of the species from Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) and Assam (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999) are not considered by Menon (1999). Nevertheless, Menon (1999) notes that species was earlier known from Assam. Menon (2004) suggests that this species is probably extinct from Assam thus the species is now confined only to the headwaters of the Ganges. According to Ranjan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius chelynoides</span> is found only in the upstream regions and not in down streams.
166420		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader5">Inhabits fast-flowing mountain streams (Menon 1999). Feeds on diatoms, algae and insects, breeding begins from June (Menon 2004).<br/></p>
166420		population	eng	<p>No information available. Menon (2004) and Dey (<em>pers. comm.</em> 2010) suggest that this species is possibly extinct from Assam. Ranjan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) suggest that this species is rare.<br/></p>
166420		threats	eng	<p>The fish seems to have become locally extinct in Kumaon lakes because of introduction of Mahseer (Menon 2004).<br/></p>
166421		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166421		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra kempi</span> is known from Abor and Naga hills of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland of India.
166421		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits swift flowing water of rivers and mountain streams, where they adhere to the surface of the underwater gravel and rockey substrates mainly by the mental adhesive disc.&#160; </p>
166421		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166421		threats	eng	<p>Specific threats to the species are not known, however, habitat threats are prevalent as for all hill stream species, arising from hydropower development and siltation from deforestation and agricultural sources.<br/></p>
166422		conservation	eng	<p>Further information on the species life history, populations and threats are required.</p>
166422		distribution	eng	<em>Sicamugil cascasia</em> is recorded from Pakistan (Indus River) and India (Ganges, Jamuna and Brahmaputra river systems, Patna, Uttar Pradesh) and Bangladesh. This species has been introduced into the Cauvery River system.
166422		habitat	eng	This is purely a freshwater species. The lowermost point on the Ganga river system where this has been recorded is Patna. This mullet attains a length of 10 cm and is very common in the upper waters of the Ganges and the Jamuna (Talwar and Jhingran1991). It may be migratory.
166422		population	eng	This is very common in the upper waters of the Ganges and the Jamuna, but there is no information on other parts of its range.
166422		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166423		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166423		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Meghalaya, Manipur and Assam, in India, and also from Bangladesh. These regions lie within the Brahmaputra River basin.
166423		habitat	eng	<em>L. irrorata</em> is a demersal bottom feeder, which inhabits flowing water.
166423		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166423		threats	eng	The Brahmaputra River basin has a very high population density, has lost over 70% of its original forest cover, and a large percentage of the basin is now agricultural land (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).  It is therefore possible that river and stream habitats are threatened by increased sedimentation, and domestic and agricultural pollution.<br/><br/>This species is utilised for food and, as a result, is threatened by overfishing.
166424		conservation	eng	<p>The species is found in some of the national parks of Nepal, e.g., Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Chitwan National Park and Karnali National Park. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166424		distribution	eng	The species is distributed throughout the Himalayan foothills, in India, Nepal, and China. Also found in Bangladesh. It has been introduced in peninsular India and Sri Lanka.
166424		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">The species is found to inhabit torrential hill-streams in shallow waters. Adults migrate to  warmer regions of lakes and streams during winter.
166424		population	eng	<p>Information on the population data of this species is available from four out of nine surveyed locations (rivers) in Nepal.<br/></p>
166424		threats	eng	Since the fish is a torrential hill stream species, the possible threat may be habitat degradation, dams and other human activities.
166425		conservation	eng	<p>There is no need for conservation because it has been widely introduced and thrives well in in all types of water bodies viz., streams, rivers, reservoirs and wetlands. </p>
166425		distribution	eng	Distribution of this species include Pakistan: Indus plain & adjoining hills; India: northern India, Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital); Bangaledesh; Nepal; and Myanmar. The species has been introduced into some of the rivers of peninsular India, notably river Cauvery, and in more recent times into Sri Lanka and China.
166425		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Catla </span>is non-predatory and its feeding is restricted to the surface and mid-waters. These features render the simultaneous introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Catla</span> with bottom and column feeding cultivable fishes like <span style="font-style: italic;">Rohu, Mrigal,</span> etc advantageous. &#160;Natarajan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1978) have observed strong indications of existence of three infra-specific populations from Rihand reservoir (Uttar Pradesh) each of which showing specific 'roles' corresponding to 'niches' in the ecosystem. These ecological populations are also distinguished by distinct morpho-biological features.
166425		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Catla </span>is widely cultured out side its original range of distribution. In peninsular India it is considered to be an invasive species in reservoirs.
166425		threats	eng	<p>There is no known threats for this species.&#160; It is invasive in areas of introduction.<br/></p>
166426		conservation	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species need to be identified.</p>
166426		distribution	eng	<em>Tetraodon cutcutia</em> is present in India (Meghalaya, Khasi hills (Shella), Jaintia Hills (Dawki, Muktapur), Garo Hills (Baghmara, Phulbari, Mahadev, Tura); Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Manipur, Orissa; Arunanchal Pradesh. &#160;Elsewhere it is present in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
166426		habitat	eng	It inhabits fresh and brackish waters.
166426		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166426		threats	eng	The collection for ornamental trade in India is not considered a threat.
166427		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166427		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh in India and Yunnan in China.
166427		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of rocks, where it feeds on invertebrates.
166427		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.</p>
166427		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166428		conservation	eng	Research into life history traits, population and distribution, and potential threats is required.
166428		distribution	eng	It is recorded from India (West Bengal and Orissa), Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia. Occurrence in the Bangpakong River in Thailand (Suvatti<a href="http://fishbase.de/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=1632"></a><a href="http://fishbase.de/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=1632"></a> 1981), Mekong and Bangladesh need confirmation (FishBase 2009).<span>
166428		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and estuaries, and <span class="sheader5">coastal areas of Bay of Bengal (Kapoor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
166428		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166428		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
166429		conservation	eng	<p>The taxonomic status of the Myanmar population needs confirmation.<br/></p>
166429		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Pakistan (Indus plain), India (most river systems), Nepal; Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nandus</span> in Myanmar is most likely a different species (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.). The extent of the species into central parts of India is uncertain.
166429		habitat	eng	It inhabits fresh waters. Found in rivers and in agricultural lands. It is commonly collected in the summer months when it is collected from dried-up beds of tanks, beels, bheries, etc. &#160;The species changes colour to camouflage against its environment.
166429		population	eng	It is commonly collected in the summer months when it is collected from dried-up beds of tanks, beels, bheries, etc. Generally, a common species.
166429		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166430		conservation	eng	Further information on the&#160;species&#160;distribution&#160;is required.
166430		distribution	eng	The type locality for <em>Glyptothorax stolickae</em> is the Yamuna (Jumna) River in the Ganges watershed. It is also recorded from the western Himalaya in India and Pakistan.
166430		habitat	eng	Like congeners, it is presumed to inhabit fast flowing streams with rocky bottom.
166430		population	eng	Information on population and trends is not available.
166430		threats	eng	The Yamuna River is highly polluted and has at least one dam. The impacts of these threats can not be ascertained.
166431		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is also known from Namdapha National Park. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
166431		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys elongatus</span> is distributed in North Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh in India. &#160;Nath and Dey (2000) reported the species to occur in different parts of Arunachal Pradesh, but the distribution is fragmented.
166431		habitat	eng	The species is found to occur in streams with pebbly bottoms; most likely in clear ozygenrich water. &#160;It is a mountain stream specialist.
166431		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166431		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys elongatus</span>&#160;is known from hill streams which vary in volume with season. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. &#160;Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species is experiencing a decline or is undergoing natural population fluctuations. &#160;In Darjeeling, part of the species currently known range, hill streams are pollutde from agricultural run-off and the there is reported widespread use of poison fishing.
166432		conservation	eng	Information on threats and impacts are needed. &#160;Life history studies are recommended.
166432		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the eastern Himalaya (Menon 1987).
166432		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits high elevation fast-flowing streams with gravel bottom.
166432		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
166432		threats	eng	No known major threats are identified for this species.
166433		conservation	eng	<p>More research into population trends in the wild is required to understand the status of this widespread species.</p>
166433		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia and Indonesia.
166433		habitat	eng	The species inhabits fresh and brackish waters, and appears to thrive well in lentic waters.<br/><br/>Owing to its carnivorous nature, this fish can only be cultivated in wild waters or in fattening ponds in which large fish are present. It breeds in stagnant or running water in the rainy season. A ripe female bears relatively fewer eggs; they are laid in small clumps on submerged vegetation. Fingerlings are available in upper reaches of Cauvery in July-August. This fish is relished both in fresh and dried state.
166433		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
166433		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166434		conservation	eng	Taxonomic investigation of the two disjunct populations is required, and research into the impacts of introduced species (<span><span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilia).</span>
166434		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilus lineatus</em>&#160;is recorded from <span>peninsular India (central and south) where it is widely distributed.  It has been reported from Sri Lanka, but its presence there requires confirmation. The species is present in two disjunct populations in India. It has been lost from some parts of its range in southern India due to the introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilia </span>(Pune, Maharashtra; N. Dahanukar<span>, pers. comm). <span><span class="sheader5"><span><span class="sheader5"><br/></span></span></span>
166434		habitat	eng	<span><span class="sheader5">This fish lives in streams and reservoirs at high altitudes, and in rivers, wells of the plains, low-lying paddy fields, swamps and brackish waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</span>
166434		population	eng	It is locally abundant in many parts of its distributional range. However, in some areas the species is locally extirpated.
166434		threats	eng	It has declined in some areas due to the introduction of <span><span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilia</span> for mosquito control and in some areas over harvesting for the aquarium trade.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
166435		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available (evidence is needed to verify its supposed decline since the 1800s). &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and catch data for this species is badly needed.
166435		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages of Nepal, India and Bangladesh.
166435		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with sandy or muddy bottoms. &#160;Although the type locality includes estuarine habitats,&#160;there is no current evidence to suggest that this species is found in brackish water.
166435		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species. &#160;<em>Gagata gagata</em> is thought to have declined since the early 1800s (Roberts and Ferraris 1998), but this requires empirical evidence. &#160;It is not considered to be common in Nepal (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166435		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166436		conservation	eng	<p>This is a wide spread species and there are no conservation actions in place for this species. Monitoring populations and trade trends have been suggested as a conservation measure.<br/></p>
166436		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan.
166436		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits rivers. This species breeds during monsoon season (July and August) and is a very prolific breeder (Khan 1934, Ahmad 1944, Joshi and Khanna 1980). It also breeds in paddy fields (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. obs.</em>).<br/></p>
166436		population	eng	There is no information about the population status. However, this species is often cultivated in ponds along with other major carps (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). This species is common in West Bengal, and Bangladesh. Capture frequency of 1.9 % in Senkhi River, Arunachal Pradesh (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166436		threats	eng	<p>This is a wide spread species and there are no known large scale threats known for this species. However, this species may be threatened by quarries, excessive harvesting and blasting in the wild.</p>
166437		conservation	eng	Widely distributed species with little information on population, trends, and threats. &#160;Research on these aspects are recommended.
166437		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (western Rakhine Yoma only). A record from Yunnan (China) is doubtful, and the species is possibly present in Bhutan.
166437		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwater streams, rivers, ponds and tanks, generally in the plains. Also found in rice fields and irrigation channels.
166437		population	eng	The species is a prolific breeder and rapid developments; breeds in ponds almost throughout the year by building circular nets between marginal weeds; peak breeding before and during monsoon months.
166437		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
166438		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166438		distribution	eng	It is recorded only from near Shillong in Meghalaya, part of the Brahmaputra basin in India.
166438		habitat	eng	The species is a bottom dweller of medium- to fast-flowing streams.
166438		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166438		threats	eng	The species is prone to threats due to natural calamities and anthropogenic effects.&#160; Already habitat destruction is seen in Meghalaya due to mining and human habitation.
166439		conservation	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species (because it is only known from a single specimen) and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.&#160;</p>
166439		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the holotype locality, the Hooghly estuary in West Bengal, northeastern India.
166439		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lower courses of rivers and possibly estuaries.
166439		population	eng	<p>Because it is only known from a single specimen, no information on the population and its trends is available.</p>
166439		threats	eng	<p>No specific information is available. The Hooghly River is highly polluted.<br/></p>
166440		conservation	eng	<p>More research in biology, population trends and impacts of threats needed.</p>
166440		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora rasbora</span> is known from the Gangetic provinces and Assam in India; also present in  Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan and Thailand.
166440		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in swamps and marshy areas. An attractive little purple-and-orange creature, it spawns readily but, if left to its own devices, will cannabilise its eggs.<br/></p>
166440		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;More research is needed to investigate the population structure and trends.<br/></p>
166440		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166441		conservation	eng	<p>More research is required on distribution, biology, population, habitat, trends and threats to the species.</p>
166441		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> is known from Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya (Yazdani and Talukdar 1975, Yazdani 1976,   Engeszer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Sen (1985) recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> from Assam, however, point locality is missing and subsequent studies from Assam have not recorded this species.
166441		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> is common in  streams, lakes and ponds (Yazdani and Talukdar 1975). <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span>   spawns in rice paddies (Engeszer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007).</p>
166441		population	eng	Yazdani and Talukdar (1975) have suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> is common in streams, lakes and ponds of Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, while Yazdani (1976) collected 1739 specimens from twenty localities in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya. However, no population estimates were given in both the studies.
166441		threats	eng	<p>Coal mining is widespread throughout the area and there are reports of heavy metal affecting to this species (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010). Therefore, quality of habitat is declining.<br/></p>
166443		conservation	eng	<p>No research, conservation or management recommendations are made for this species.</p>
166443		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius chola</em> is distributed throughout India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166443		habitat	eng	<p>This fair-sized (12 cm) species is peaceful and active (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It inhabits rivers, streams and tanks in the plains (Menon 1999).<br/></p>
166443		population	eng	This is a very common species but no systematic population studies are available.
166443		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
166445		conservation	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species and impacts of aquarium trade on the populations need to be identified.</p>
166445		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster lalius</span> is widely distributed in India (lowland Ganges and Brahmaputra basins), Pakistan (rare), Bangladesh, and Nepal.
166445		habitat	eng	Most of the species are known from slow moving streams, rivulets and lakes with plenty of vegetation. Also from rice fields, irrigation channels and other agricultural lands.
166445		population	eng	No detailed information available. It is reported as present in large quantities in the breeding season in Assam.
166445		threats	eng	The species may suffer from overexploitation for the aquarium trade.
166446		conservation	eng	No information available.
166446		distribution	eng	<span>The species has an Indo-West Pacific distribution in coastal areas from Pakistan, around India, Sri Lanka, to Bangladesh, <span>Myanmar, <span>Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular) and the South  China Sea (Cambodia (assumed), Viet Nam, to southern China (Hainan, <span class="st">Guangdong, and Hong Kong)<span>.&#160; Although Kailola (1999) records the presence of this species in Singapore, this is not verified by specimens.<br/></span></span>
166446		habitat	eng	Inhabits seas, estuaries, tidal rivers and brackish-water lakes. <span class="sheader5">Feeds mostly on invertebrates.
166446		population	eng	<span class="sheader5">Common in estuaries, tidal rivers and brackish water lakes.
166446		threats	eng	No information available.
166447		conservation	eng	Fisheries need to be restricted for this species, especially during breeding periods.
166447		distribution	eng	<em>Setipinna phasa</em> is recorded form India <span>(Ganges system, from Diamond Harbour on the Hooghly to as far up as Allahabad on the Ganges, perhaps further; also rivers and estuaries of Orissa), and from the Brahmaputra basin. Reported from Bangladesh and Myanmar (FishBase 2009) (though it has been confused with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Setipinna </span>species in Myanmar), and from Nepal (B.R. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010). Present in <span>fresh and brackish waters.</span>
166447		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and estuaries.
166447		population	eng	It breeds possibly throughout the year, but with peaks in October-November in the Hoogly estuary or March to May in the Gange at Allahabad (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988). It has declined in upper reaches of freshwater systems in India (Assam) and Nepal (S.C. Dey, B.R. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.)
166447		threats	eng	<p>Degradation of habitat quality in lower reaches of freshwater systems (siltation and general habitat degradation), and possibly a decline in reproductive success.<br/></p>
166448		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
166448		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Mahanadi river drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. A single museum record from Bombay most probably refers to Bombay Presidency, rather than the city. Since the eastern portion of the Presidency had rivers draining into the Mahanadi, this is more likely to be the case. Most of the available museum records do not give precise locations and indicate only the general area the specimen was collected from.
166448		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams.
166448		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166448		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166449		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166449		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India. &#160;It is thought to be widely distributed in the northern and northeastern parts of the Indian subcontinent (Ferraris 2007).
166449		habitat	eng	Inhabits flowing and standing waters.
166449		population	eng	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.
166449		threats	eng	This is a fairly widespread species and there are no major threats.
166450		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current threats, but the level of collection for the aquarium trade should be monitored.<br/></p>
166450		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster chuna</span> is known from Gangetic provinces, and from Assam, and Manipur in India, and from Nepal and Bangladesh. It appears to be a low altitude species.
166450		habitat	eng	<p>Most species has been found in pools, ditches, innundated fields, ponds and beels. &#160;Occurs in rivers and lakes with vegetation. </p>
166450		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166450		threats	eng	<p>Level of collection for the aquarium trade varies, but the threats to this species remain unknown.<br/></p>
166451		conservation	eng	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than West Bengal) is needed. The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.
166451		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ailia coila </span>was described from freshwater rivers of Bengal (Hamilton 1822). According to Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and Menon (1999) this species is confined to Jamuna, Ganga, Bramhaputra and Mahanadi in India, Indus plains in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Record of this species from Godavari (Pradhan 1997) based on Talwar and Jhingran (1991) is wrong as they do not mention the distribution of the fish in Godavari. Similarly, Record of this species from Krishna river system (Jayaram 1999) is also doubtful because in an extensive survey of Krishna river system (Jayaram 1995) the species was not reported. <br/><br/>Thus, the species is <span>present in Rajastan (Prusty <em>et al</em>. 2007<span>), Uttar Pradesh (Shrivastava and Shrivastava 2009, Sarkar <em>et al</em>&#160;2010), Bihar (<span><span>Venkateswarlu 1976, <span><span>Khan and Kamal 1979), West Bengal (Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al,</span>&#160;2005, Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009<span><span><span><span><span>), Assam (Wakid and Biswas 2005, Kar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Saha and Bordoloi 2009),<span> <span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Mizoram (Kar and Sen 2007), <span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Tripura (<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Kar and Sen 2007<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">), <span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Madhya Pradesh (Sarkar nd Lakra 2007), Chhattisgarh<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span> (<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>Sarkar and Lakra 2007) and Arunachal Pradesh (Bagra et al. 2009) in India. The species may also be present in Manipur, Orissa, Haryana, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi. It is also recorded from Pakistan (Mirza and Alam 2002), Bangladesh (Hossain and Haque 2005) and Nepal.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166451		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ailia coila</span> inhabits large rivers (Menon 1999) and lakes (<span><span>Shrivastava and Shrivastava 2009) with turbid water and a substrate of sand or mud. It attains a total length of 30 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It is a surface to midwater fish which lives in shoals (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Habitat degradation is considered a major driving force for the decline of this species in West Baengal (Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</span>
166451		population	eng	<p>This species is suggested to be relatively abundant throughout its distribution. No empirical data on declines in its entire range is available, however, there are two studies which have given quantitative estimates of population decline in West Bengal (Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In the northeastern Sundarbans area, Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) reported a decline of 80% over the period of four decades (1960-2000) with the average decline per decade of roughly 30% and in the decade 1990-2000 the decline was 41%. A further analysis of the data given by Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) for five years (from 1997 to 2001) suggests that the decline is exponential with a decay rate of 0.34. Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) report an average population decline of 28.6% per decade over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal.&#160; The average decline per decade since 1980 is about 61% and the total decline for the four decades is 87%  (Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <br/></p><p>Based on the above localized studies it is difficult to extrapolate the data for the global population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailia coila</span>, however, since harvesting of the fish is common throughout its range, it is expected that the global population of the species could also be declining.<br/></p>
166451		threats	eng	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in marked population declines (Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2010).
166452		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation effort and priority to this species. Some populations are automatically protected by being within protected areas of its range. Some small scale aquaculture is reported mainly for its consumptive use rather than for its conservation. <br/></p>
166452		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heteropneustes fossilis</span> is recorded from South and Southeast Asia: Pakistan, India,  Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and Laos (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2009). It is introduced in&#160;Iran and Iraq. Records from India include the Andaman Island and Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital).
166452		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwater, rarely brackish waters. This is primarily a fish of ponds, ditches, bheels, swamps and marshes, but it is sometimes found in muddy rivers. It is able to tolerate slightly brackish water. Its air-breathing apparatus enables it to exist in almost any kind of water. Generally, during the dry season singi lives in semiliquid and semi-dry mud, and even when the mud dries up they take their bodies to the bottom of fissures and crevices formed by the cracking mud. Fertilised eggs are adhesive, demersal and spherical in form.
166452		population	eng	It is a commonly occurring species throughout its range. It is also cultivated in some parts of its range; fishermen stock tanks with singhi during the rainy season.
166452		threats	eng	<p>Habitat destruction and conversion, pollution, over-exploitation, disease and effect of climate change have been reported from almost all of its range. However, the species does not seem to be affected by any of these threats.<br/></p>
166453		conservation	eng	<p>Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout its range is needed. The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.</p>
166453		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Indus river drainages in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. Described as present (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailiichthys punctata</span>)   from "Jumna at and below Delhi, also in the lower Punjaub rivers".
166453		habitat	eng	<p>According to Jayaram (1963), this species is found in the same habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. coila</span>, i.e. large rivers with turbid water and a substrate of sand or mud.</p>
166453		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the status of this species.</p>
166453		threats	eng	Overexploitation of this species for food is possibly a major threat, although its effects on population levels remain unstudied. The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010).
166454		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166454		distribution	eng	<p>Found in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-IN">India (Assam)</st1:country-region><span lang="EN-IN">, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is reported from the Brahmaputra and Barak river drainages in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>. Record from Myanmar needs to be confirmed.</span></p>
166454		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-IN">It is a benthopelagic species inhabiting tropical rivers (Kapoor <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p></p>
166454		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">The species has a narrow distribution, but is decreasing due to overexploitation and loss of habitat from damming and other anthropogenic factors. &#160;The decline is estimated at around 25% in its range (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em>).</p>  <p></p>
166454		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-IN">The fish is harvested for its ornamental value. This species has food value and may be subject to overfishing. Other threats in the area are damming, logging and deforestation.<br/></p>  <p></p>
166455		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. &#160;Further research in population size, distribution and trends, harvest, use and livelihoods is needed.<br/></p>
166455		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on">It is found in India</st1:country-region> (West Bengal and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166455		habitat	eng	<p>  Inhabits large rivers generally in higher reaches (Menon 2004). Attends 26 cm total length (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>
166455		population	eng	Talwar and Jhingran (1991) have considered this species to be fairly  common. Currently the species is rare and population is declining although exact rate needs to be confirmed. This species seems to be near extinction in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2007).
166455		threats	eng	<p>  Hussain and Mazid (2002) have considered this species Critically Endangered in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region> without giving any rationale for this threat status. Main threats to this species are habitat destruction due to deforestation and other anthropogenic activities.<br/></p>
166457		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mcclellandi</span>. Research is essential on population status, distribution, life history, ecology and threats to the species. Some part of the population of this species is conserved as it is found in protected areas in Periyar Tiger reserve (Arun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996) and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/></p>
166457		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mcclellandi</span> is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and is found mainly in the Cauvery drainage (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 1999). It is known from Kerala (Silas 1951, Shaji and Easa 1995, 2003, Arun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Ajith kumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2001), Tamil Nadu (Rajan 1955, Arunachalam 2000, Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009) and Karnataka (Rao 1920).<br/><br/>Record of this species from Bhadra river at Bhadravati (David 1956) is doubtful.<br/><br/>Record of this species from Arunachal Pradesh (Nath and Dey 2000, Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) is erroneous (Nebeshwar 2009).
166457		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mcclellandi</span> is found in mountain streams and it attains a length of 17.4 cm (Menon 1999) and up to 25 cm (J. A. Johnson and C. P. Shaji pers. obs.)<br/></p>
166457		population	eng	<p>No precise  information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mcclellandi</span>, however, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) have considered the species to be rare in Kerala. </p>
166457		threats	eng	<p>No information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mcclellandi</span>. Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) considered this species to be threatened but no rationale is provided except for the fact that the species is rare. <br/></p>
166459		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation measures in place for this species. Some research in taxonomy, population size, ecology and threats is needed.</p>
166459		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario aequipinnatus</span> is widely distributed all over India.
166459		habitat	eng	Hill sttream fish, inhabits streams as low as 300 m elevation . The fish is accustomed to life under varying water conditions in nature. It thrive well along with considerable number of other fishes. It proves to be peaceful and hardy in aquariums. Giant danios abound in running streams and rivers, and are generally acustomed to moderately cool and well-aerated water.
166459		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166459		threats	eng	<p>Since the species is a good aquarium fish, it might suffer the threat of overexploitation.<br/></p>
166460		conservation	eng	<p>There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study.</p>
166460		distribution	eng	<em>Olyra horae</em>&#160;was described from Indawgyi Lake (Prashad and Mukerji 1929),&#160;and it may possibly be found in adjoining areas of the middle Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).
166460		habitat	eng	This species has been found in the shallow areas of a lake, but is also likely to be found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand like other congeners (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166460		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166460		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166462		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and its effects on populations of this fish better understood. the species has been assessed as 'Endangered' in India (Lokra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></p>
166462		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Although also reported from the Indus River drainage in Pakistan, the conspecificity of this population needs further investigation (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).
166462		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential streams and rivers with a substrate of rocks and pebbles, spending most of its time amongst the crevices. &#160;It is also said to be able to survive the drying up of the streams and living in pool-type habitats (Prasad <em>et al</em>. 1997). <em>Amblyceps mangois</em> is capable of breathing air (Singh <em>et al</em>. 1989), which is what enables it to survive the lower oxygen content of the pool-type habitats.
166462		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend of this species is unknown. &#160;However, current evidence indicates that this species is relatively abundant throughout the subHimalayan region. In Nepal, this species has been encountered at 0.17 CPUE (Jha 2009)</p>
166462		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although Prasad <em>et al.</em> (1997)&#160;identified habitat modification via the removal of river substrate (for construction) and overfishing as accidental bycatch as major threats for this species, no empirical studies have been conducted on the effects of either of these supposed threats on fish populations. &#160;These are deemed to be based on speculation on should not be considered here.</p>
166463		conservation	eng	Research on threats and their impacts are needed.
166463		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from western Himalaya to North Bengal through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Nepal.
166463		habitat	eng	Found in hillstreams with pebbles.
166463		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166463		threats	eng	No known threats to this species.
166464		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed research into distribution, biology, population, habitat trends, threats and impacts are needed.</p>
166464		distribution	eng	The species is known from Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Bihar, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa in India; Bangladesh; Myanmar and Nepal.
166464		habitat	eng	It is found in many rivers of northern and north eastern India, in clear streams with rocky beds. &#160;This species was introduced into Walwham and Lonavla lakes (Poona District) in 1926, where they have successfully bred. &#160;The fish breeds during early monsoon season (June) in heavily inundated areas. It breeds approximately after attaining three years of age. &#160;Its wide mouth and stream-lined body are well suited for a predaceous life.
166464		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
166464		threats	eng	<p>The population of these species seems to be affected by destructive fishing methods (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010)<br/></p>
166465		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166465		distribution	eng	<em>A. botia</em> is found in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand and China; the species is distributed from the Indus basin in Pakistan to the Mae Khlong basin in Thailand, through the Ganges, Chindwin, Irrawaddy, Sitang and Salween basins.  It is also recorded from Yunnan and the Yangtze River basin in China (F. Fang, pers. comm.).
166465		habitat	eng	<em>A. botia</em> is a demersal and omnivorous species, which inhabits swift flowing streams in hilly areas with clear water and rocky, pebbly and sandy bottoms.  It lays about 100-150 eggs.
166465		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.
166465		threats	eng	In the hilly areas in Pakistan and India habitat quality is declining in as a result of deforestation, leading to siltation.  Furthermore, drought has led to a loss of suitable habitat of between 21% and 50% in the past 30 years in Pakistan; the species is assessed as Near Threatened in Pakistan (CAMP workshop, Pakistan 2004).<br/><br/><em>A. botia</em> is still common and widespread in China (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.).
166466		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic position of sub-populations.
166466		distribution	eng	The species was described from the  confluence of the Lamatang and Enim rivers, Palambang Province, Sumatra,  Indonesia. The species has an apparently large distribution extending across the majority of  Indochina and beyond, including records from Malaysia (Peninsular and  Borneo), Thailand, Myanmar, northeastern India, southern China, Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Seriously Fish 2011). In southeast Asia, the species is known from the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.
166466		habitat	eng	Inhabits swift, clear streams with sandy or gravelly bottom; also found in large rivers; b<span class="sheader5">urrows into the bottom and enters flooded fields (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).  Found in the basin-wide mainstream of the lower Mekong.      The general colour and marking serve to afford the fish concealment in  clear, shallow, sandy streams (Pantalu 1986).<br/><br/><em>Acantopsis</em> species are near-exclusive inhabitants of flowing  river channels with substrates of sand, fine gravel or mud but are known  to migrate into temporarily flooded zones during the wet months of the  year (Seriously Fish 2011).
166466		population	eng	No information available.
166466		threats	eng	No information available.
166467		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
166467		distribution	eng	<em>Rasbora daniconius</em> occurs in the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Salween basins, the northern Malay Peninsula, and westwards to the Indus and Sri Lanka. In Indonesia, this species is known from Borneo and Sumatra.
166467		habitat	eng	<em>R. daniconius</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species.  It occurs in a variety of habitats: ditches, ponds, canals, streams, rivers and inundated fields, but is primarily found in sandy streams and rivers.  It is also found in brackish waters.  It sometimes forms large schools.
166467		population	eng	<em>R. daniconius</em> is reported to be common in the Muthurajawela Wetland Sanctuary, Sri Lanka, but likely to have a variable abundance over its range.
166467		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and for poultry food but the scale does not appear to be causing a decline in the population.
166468		conservation	eng	The conspecificity of populations from within and outside of the Indian subcontinent requires critical evaluation. &#160;Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. &#160;The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.
166468		distribution	eng	<em>Wallago attu</em> occurs all across India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Java in Indonesia.
166468		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwater and tidal waters, in rivers, tanks, channels reservoirs etc.<br/><br/>This catfish inhabits large rivers, tanks and lakes. It is one of the largest, voracious and predatory of the local catfish which thrives well in rivers and tanks also, especially in jheels with gassy magin. The fish prefers muddy tanks subject to periodical flooding from a nullah or river. A tank where this fish exists, usually contains no other good fish. In order to have other fishes in the tanks and reservoirs, it is very necessary to eliminate this fish.  It is rather sluggish and stays at the bottom of water in search of food.
166468		population	eng	It is widely distributed and hence has a very large population. &#160;However the species is overfished causing considerable decline in the population in southern West Bengal of 26.7% over four decades from 1960 to 2000 (Mishra <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;In another study in northeastern Sunderbans, the species is known to have declined by 99% in four years (1997-2001) (Patra <em>et al</em>. 2005).
166468		threats	eng	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in population declines (Mishra&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2009; Patra <em>et al</em>. 2005). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166469		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the the biology and trends of this species is needed, especially due to rampant fishing for the ornamental trade.</p>
166469		distribution	eng	It is distributed in Iran; Pakistan: Swat River drainage; northern and northeastern India: Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital); Nepal; Bangladesh; Myanmar; and Thailand. The taxonomic identity of the records in Iran, Myanmar, Pakistan and Thailand needs to be confirmed.
166469		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">Found in streams, rivers and ponds in plains and mountainous regions. This is an oviparous species; they scatter their egg after laying them and are externally fertilized (Menon 1999, Breder and Rosen 1966). It attains 17.5 cm of length.<br/></p>  <p></p>
166469		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">Population of this species is widely spread across different lowland riverine areas from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region> to northeastern India.<strong> </strong><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
166469		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The fish is being harvested for its ornamental value and for its food value, using destructive fishing methods. The areas is also affected by habitat degradation due to deforestation.<br/></p>  <p></p>
166471		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The possibility that more than one species is involved in what is now identified as <em>P. shawi</em> also needs to be investigated.</p>
166471		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India and Bangladesh.
166471		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in swift-flowing hillstreams with a substrate of sand and gravel.</p>
166471		population	eng	<p>Although there is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, this is a relatively abundant species in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent.</p>
166471		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166472		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166472		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura prashadi</span> is only known from Manipur, India in Chindwin drainage. It is a hill stream fish and confined to upstreams of rivers in Manipur, and is considered fragmented in distribution. It is known from three localities (Thonagpal Tank, Thoubal Stream and Sikmai Stream).
166472		habitat	eng	They are the small benthic fishes which inhabits running waters particularly fresh and oxygenated small hill streams.
166472		population	eng	This is a rare species occurring only in hill streams. &#160;Population and trends information are lacking.
166472		threats	eng	The locations where the fish occur are present is facing threats due to deforestation, detergent pollution from washermen and pesticide pollution from the adjoining paddy fields. &#160;The type locality is now a big township.
166473		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus guentheri</span>. However, the species is recorded from at least two wildlife sanctury namely  Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999) and&#160; Aralam Wildlife  Sanctuary (Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).</p>
166473		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus guentheri</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and is found only in Kerala. It is recorded from Bharathapuzha river (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001), Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999),&#160; Aealam Wildlife Sanctuary (Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), Kalikayam Stream (Silas 1949), Alleppey canals (Silas 1949), Puyankutty river (Ajitkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), Vembanad Lake (Kurup 1982, Kurup<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1990) and Chalakudy river (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
166473		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus guentheri </span>inhabits pools and crevices and it attains a total length of 26 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166473		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus guentheri</span> is locally common in Kerala (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). No information is available on the population changes of this fish species.
166473		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by habitat loss resulting from land reclamation of wetlamds, pesticide pollution, and organic waste pollution (B.M. Kurup pers. comm. 2010).</p>
166474		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and catch data also needed.</p>
166474		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in Nepal and India. &#160;It may be absent in the lower Brahmaputra and Meghna river drainages, where <em>G. laevi</em><em>s</em> is found.
166474		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with a moderate current and a sandy substrate.
166474		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population size and trend for this species.</p>
166474		threats	eng	<p>This species is under moderate fishing pressure in some parts of its range, so overfishing should be considered a potential threat. Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166476		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. More information on catch data is needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166476		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Ganges and Indus river drainages, and also occurs in several major rivers in peninsular India at least as far south as the Krishna River (Ferraris and Runge 1999). &#160;Records of this species from south of the Krishna River drainage (e.g. the Cauvery River) may represent introductions (Jayaram <em>et al. </em>1982). &#160;There is a single specimen collected from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar deposited in the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet in Stockholm. &#160;If the locality information is correct, then this species is also found in the Irrawaddy River drainage.
166476		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers and lakes.
166476		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166476		threats	eng	Being a large predatory fish that is intensively fished for food, <em>Sperata seenghala</em> is most likely vulnerable to overfishing. However, there is no catch data to suggest that current levels of harvest are adversely affecting its population. Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166477		conservation	eng	Conservation not required; research into the species taxonomy is required, as it may be a species complex.
166477		distribution	eng	Reported from Pakistan (Lower Indus plain and adjoining hilly areas), India (mainly northeastern and northern), and from Bangladesh, Myanmar,Sri Lanka, and Nepal. The taxonomic status of records from Viet Nam, Cambodia and the Indo-Malayasian archipelago must be verified. It been introduced in some areas for mosquito control (R. Britz <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166477		habitat	eng	It inhabits clear, shallow and brackish waters at low attitudes.
166477		population	eng	No information available, but wide ranging.
166477		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
166478		conservation	eng	<p>Further information on the species life history, populations and threats are required.<br/></p>
166478		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomugil corsula</em> is recorded from a number of states in India (including Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa), Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Menon 1999). &#160;This species is also found in Godavari River, upper reaches of Bhima and Cauvery rivers where it must have been accidentally introduced along with major carps (Menon and Jayaram 1977; Yadav 2005). &#160;In Assam the species ascends to the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River during the rainy season.
166478		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and estuaries, found above tidal influence in freshwater (Menon 1999).
166478		population	eng	No systematic population data is available. However, this is a very common species.
166478		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166479		conservation	eng	<p>Conservation efforts are in action along with <span style="font-style: italic;">mahseer </span>species because it is a co-occurring species. <br/></p>
166479		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Nepal (Gandaki, Trisuli, Koshi, Karnali, Mahakali river basins; Shrestha 2003), Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular), China, Indonesia (Sumatra), and India (Uttarakhand (introduced), Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling Dt. and the Damodar river system), Arunachal Pradesh (E. Kameng Dt.), Meghalaya, Nagaland Rivers (Arachu, Dhansiri, Dikhu, Doyang, Intangki, Likhimro, Meguiki, Milak, Tesuru, Tizit, Tizu and Tsurang). Presence within other states in India within the Ganges basin is likely.<br/><br/>  Menon (2004) considered the species to be distributed in small in numbers through the eastern Himalayas in India (Assam), Bangladesh and Myanmar.   Presence of this species in China is doubtful (Menon 1999), though it may be present in the tributaries  of the Brahmaputra (Tsangpo) in Tibet and China. The records from Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular), Indonesia (Sumatra) also need confirmation (N. Dahanukar, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010). Kullander  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) surveyed the Kashmir valley (Indus drainage) and did not  report the species.<br/><p>The report of the species from Myanmar and Thailand may be due to misidentification because there is another species <span style="font-style: italic;">Neolissochilus stracheyi, </span>which Day (1871) described  from Akyab and Moulmein (Irrawaddy basin) in Myanmar. It is not known  if the two species occur syntopically. But these  are coldwater species, restricted to coldwater regimes and are not  widely distributed. <br/></p>
166479		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams with fast flowing water mostly in high gradient and low gradient riffles and pools (Menon 1991). It prefers rocky and boulder areas with high flow.   Siltation caused by deforestation could act as a threat.<br/><br/>The species is known to breed from April to October with a peak in  August to September. The male of this species mature at an early size of  9 cm. It breeds in pools with running water.
166479		population	eng	Much information is available on population decline due to habitat loss and over-exploitation. The species habitat has been lost due to the removal of sand and gravel, siltation caused by deforestation, pollution, and the construction of dams which degrade habitat and disrupt upstream breeding migrations (Menon 2004). It is inferred that the population has declined by 50-60% due to over exploitation of this species, and the occurrence has been limited to smaller areas. <br/><br/>Our  experience shows (and also informed by Dr. Debojit, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2010), there is great  decline in its population. We know the flow modifications caused to  northeast Indian waters (for example, the Teesta River) in Sikkim. We also know that due to global warming, coldwater  regime has dwindled and warm water species have already invaded uplands.<p>Work on captive breeding of the species with the aim to release back into the wild is progressing, with studies on the population genetics of  the species using polymorphic microsatellite markers and fast evolving  regions of mtDNA with a view to initiate stock specific propagation  assisted rehabilitation is progressing well in NBFGR (A. Gopalakrishnan, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm., </span>2010).</p>
166479		threats	eng	<p>Major threats include habitat loss due to deforestation and erosion, urbanisation, including road construction, and over-exploitation. This migratory species is also threatened in parts of its range by current and planned hydropower developments e.g. the proposed&#160; Pancheshwar Dam in the Ganges basin on the border between India and Nepal (Everard and Kataria 2010).</p><p>Dams and weirs at higher reaches of the Brahmaputra have affected the spawning run of the fish (Menon 2004).<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
166482		conservation	eng	<p>Although the species was collected from Namdapha National Park, it may occur outside the protected area.<br/></p>
166482		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Namdapha River, Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh in India.
166482		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in hillstreams. </p>
166482		population	eng	<p>Since 1983, no record of occurence has been reported, more research is needed.<br/></p>
166482		threats	eng	<p>The species might suffer from habitat loss caused by siltation, and other human activities.<br/></p>
166483		conservation	eng	Although there is some catch data for this species, it is fragmentary and more data is badly needed to build up a more accurate picture of the status of this species.
166483		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower reaches of river systems and coastal areas throughout the Indian subcontinent eastwards to the lower reaches and delta of the Irrawaddy River.
166483		habitat	eng	Inhabits the lower reaches of rivers and is able to ascend upriver beyond the tidal reach.
166483		population	eng	Although Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2005) report a mean decline of 32.6% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960-2000&#160;and Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) report a mean decline per decade of 28.4%, and 57% average each decade between 1980 and 2000, in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed.
166483		threats	eng	Overexploitation for food fish is the major threat to the species which has resulted in population declines throughout its range.
166484		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not present in protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.</p>
166484		distribution	eng	McClelland (1839) did not mention exact type locality. It has been collected from Brahmaputra River at Dibrugarh in 2004 (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166484		habitat	eng	The species thrives well under stones and pebbles in river beds.
166484		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166484		threats	eng	Since the species is a hillstream fish, it might suffer from habitat destruction from sedimentation due to logging and deforestation.
166485		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166485		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster fasciatus</span> is known from India (Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam, Western Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh), Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and upper Myanmar.
166485		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens are known from large river and estuaries, also tanks, ditches, rice fields, and ponds. A rather shy species, it is easily bred and adapts well to life in community aquaria. It is a very hardy species.
166485		population	eng	It is fairly common in the Hooghly estuary (West Bengal). It is fairly abundant in West Bengal during the rainy season. It is easily bred and adapts well to life in community aquaria. Generally fairly common.
166485		threats	eng	<p>The species may suffer from overexploitation since it has both ornamental and food value, but at present is is a very widespread species.<br/></p>
166486		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166486		distribution	eng	<em>Eutropiichthys murius</em> was described from the Mahananda River (part of the Brahmaputra River drainage) in Bengal (Hamilton 1822), and is&#160;known throughout the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in northern and northeastern India, southern Nepal and Bangladesh. Although Ferraris and Vari (2007) consider records of this species in Orissa (in the Mahanadi River drainage) to be&#160;<em>Eutropiichthys murius,&#160;</em>erroneously following Menon (1999), they include material collected from Orissa in the list of specimens examined. &#160;Pending further investigation, the record of this species in Orissa is considered questionable (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166486		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the main channel of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries. The substrate in such habitats is generally sand or mud.
166486		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
166486		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166487		conservation	eng	<p>Although it has been reported from Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, it is also distributed in many unprotected areas. Thus, clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to confirm whether or not this species is experiencing a widespread decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations. </p>
166487		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio rerio</span> is a widely distributed species, known througout India to Nepal in the north and from Sutlej River in the west and in the east in West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh.
166487		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is an annual species. Adults inhabit streams, canals, ditches, ponds and beels occur in slow-moving to stagnant standing water bodies, particularly rice-fields  and lower reaches of streams common in rivulets at foot hills. Feed on worms and small crustaceans,&#160; also on insect larvae. Breed all year round. Spawning is induced by temperature and commences at the onset of the monsoon season. Food availability also acts as cue for breeding.  </p>  <p></p>
166487		population	eng	<p>    </p>  <p>It is difficult to assess the population of the species. It is not common in the natural water bodies. It breeds easily in nature. Aquarists have also artificially bred the fish successfuly. In Nepal the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of this species is up to 1.88 %. In Arunachal Pradesh the catch rate is 1.9 % (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/></p>
166487		threats	eng	<p>Being a popular aquarium fish, it might suffer from over exploitation resulting in fluctuation of individuals.<br/></p>
166488		conservation	eng	<p>More research about distribution, biology and trends of this species is needed; especially, impacts of harvest.</p>
166488		distribution	eng	It has a wide distribution from the Indus plains and adjoining hilly areas in Pakistan; Ganges-Brahmaputra basin, Barak basin in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh; Mahanadi, Krishna, Cuvery, and some smaller basins in southern India; Karnapouli and adjacent smaller basins in Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh; and Myanmar (Roberts 1997, Menon 1999).
166488		habitat	eng	It inhabits clear rivers and tanks. &#160;A plankton and detritus feeder. Breeding takes place in flooded shallows in June-September. &#160;Growth fairly repaid; grows to about 30 cm in natural waters. &#160;Male smaller than female (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166488		population	eng	No population status data is available but the species is fairly common in most parts of its distribution range. This species is also locally cultivated for consumption.
166488		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166489		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Kaziranga National Park, (IUCN category II), which is one of the last areas in eastern India almost undisturbed by man (UNEP-WCMC 2006).
166489		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya, and in the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary in the Barhmaputra basin in Assam, India.  The Garo Hills and Kaziranga National Park cover areas of approximately 8,559 km² (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and 1,166 km², respectively.
166489		habitat	eng	<em>G. khajuriai</em> is a demersal, omnivorous fish.  In the Garo Hills it was found in paddy fields and rivers.  Members of the Chaudhuriidae family usually live among dense vegetation in standing or slowly flowing waters.
166489		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166489		threats	eng	Overfishing is a threat to <em>G. khajuriai</em> along with loss of natural habitat due to agricultural development, though the species does survive in paddy fields.
166491		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed.
166491		distribution	eng	<em>Eutropiichthys vacha</em>&#160;was described from the larger freshwater rivers of the Gangetic provinces (Hamilton 1822)&#160;in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh (Ferraris and Vari 2007). &#160;This species is known from the northern part of the Indian subcontinent southwards to the Mahanadi River.
166491		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fluviatile habitats, particularly in larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166491		population	eng	Although Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a mean decline of 29.2% in catch for this species in southern West Bengal for the period 1960-2000, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. However, indications are that this is still a relatively common and abundant species.
166491		threats	eng	Because this species is heavily utilized as a food fish, overfishing is a potential major threat. Indeed, published data for parts of its natural distribution suggest that overfishing is a major cause of local population declines (Mishra <em>et al. </em>2009). Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although IUCN Bangladesh (2000) identify habitat loss as a major threat to this species, this does not appear to be supported by any empirical data.
166492		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.
166492		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius bonarensis</span> was described from Bonar, Uttarakhand, India. There are no further records.
166492		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in large hill streams and shallow clear rivers along  foot hills.
166492		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166492		threats	eng	Being a hillstream fish, the possible threat may be habitat destruction. Abstraction of water for irrigation, drinking water; damming for water harvesting and power generation could be potential threats to hill streams.
166493		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166493		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura zonata</span> was reported by McClelland (1839) from upper Assam. Exact type locality is not known.
166493		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura zonata</span> inhabits hillstreams.
166493		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166493		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
166494		conservation	eng	<p>No specific action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia boopis</span>. Research is essential on the population trends, harvest trends and threats to the species. <br/></p>
166494		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia boopis</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It is not found north of Krishna river system and its obscure record from Madhya Pradesh by Sarkar and Lakra (2007) needs validation.<br/>The species is recorded from Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Annandale 1919, Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Yazdani and Singh 1990, Arunachalam 2002, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Jadhav and Yadav 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), Goa (Tilak 1972), Karnataka (Bhat 2004, Sreekantha 2008, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Kerala (Shaji and Easa 1995, 1996, Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and Tamil Nadu (Arunachalam 2000, Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
166494		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia boopis</span> is often found in upper reaches of the rivers (Menon 1999) and the middle reashes (R. Kumar pers. comm.). It is also found in lakes (Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963) and reservoirs (Yazdani and Singh 1990). It attains a total length of 12 cm (Menon 1999). No information is available on habitat trends for this fish.<br/></p>
166494		population	eng	<p>No information is available on exact population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia boopis</span>. However, the species is fairly common in most of its range (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). </p>
166494		threats	eng	<p>No specific information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia boopis</span>. <br/></p>
166495		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. But there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166495		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed. It has been recorded from Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage to Yunnan, China through Myanmar.
166495		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5"><span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius barila</span> is found to inhabit large hill streams and shallow clear rivers along  foot hills in a&#160;<span>benthopelagic environmemt.</span>
166495		population	eng	<p>Catch per unit effort (CPUE) in Nepal is more than 11 (Jha 2009).<br/></p>
166495		threats	eng	<p>Over exploitation can be considered as a threat to this species. It is also an ornamental and game fish.<br/></p>
166496		conservation	eng	Effects of threats such as damming in the upstream areas must be studied, and further information on the species distribution is required.
166496		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be restricted to small streams in Assam, Darjeeling, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh (Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009; Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and the upland areas of West Bengal in the eastern Himalayas. There are records from Nepal which should be confirmed (e.g. Sharma 2009), and the species is likely present in other upland areas of northeastern India states and Bhutan. Its known range is greater than 20,000 km² but has an inferred restricted area of occupancy due to its habitat requirements.
166496		habitat	eng	It occurs in cleaner swift streams with pebbles in upland areas.
166496		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, however it is considered fairly common in the Teesta River, North Bengal. A survey from around Kalimpong, West Bengal (Antti Vuorela, <a href="http://www.planetcatfish.com/shanesworld/shanesworld.php?article_id=141&title=Exploring+West+Bengal+for+aquarium+fishes">http://www.planetcatfish.com/shanesworld/shanesworld.php?article_id=141&title=Exploring+West+Bengal+for+aquarium+fishes</a>) reported the species to be the most common.<br/></p>
166496		threats	eng	Destructive fishing practices in some areas threaten local populations. The impact of other widespread hill stream threats (including impacts of hydropower development, and sedimentation from forest clearance and agricultural development) require further study but are likely to be significant as the species is found in cleaner, faster-flowing streams.
166497		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Menon (2004) has recommended awareness, reduction of pollution of hill streams, some of the deep pools in the course of rivers at base of the <st1:place w:st="on">Himalaya</st1:place> where the fish rests during periods of  low discharge should be declared as sanctuaries.</p>  <p></p>
166497		distribution	eng	It is widely distributed in India (Ganga and the Brahmaputra drainage systems of the Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Vindhya-Satpura ranges, Deccan plateau: Godavari and Krishna River systems), Pakistan, Buthan, Nepal and Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 1999).
166497		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain streams, rivers, lakes and ponds (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 2004).
166497		population	eng	<p>Menon (2004) has reported that even though this species is widely distributed, populations are steadily declining.&#160; However, it is not possible to determine exact population decline without further  research.</p>
166497		threats	eng	<p>  This species is affected by indiscriminate killing by damming the streams and using explosives for fishing in the upper reaches (Menon 2004).</p>
166498		conservation	eng	More research into biology and trends required.
166498		distribution	eng	<span>It occurs in India, Bangladesh, <span>Pakistan and Myanmar <span><span><span>(Talwar and Jhingran 1991).<span><span> This last record from Myanmar is doubtful<span>.</span></span></span></span>
166498		habitat	eng	<p>Inhabits ponds, ditches and rivers in plains and submontane regions (Menon 1999).&#160;<span class="sheader5">Breeds freely in ponds, tanks and small streams (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>
166498		population	eng	Systematic population data is not available but the species is fairly common and abundant (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166498		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species not known.</p>
166499		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidocephalichthys annandalei</span>   is known from West Bengal (Mahananda River, Tista River, Darjeeling);&#160;Meghalaya (Garo Hills); and Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital); Bihar; Uttarankhand; and Uttar Pradesh (Menon 1992).&#160; The species is likely to be present in Nepal, and is reported in Bangladesh (Havird and Page 2010).
166499		habitat	eng	It inhabits sandy bottoms of clear water streams, paddy fields, and other types of wetlands.
166499		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166499		threats	eng	This species is very widely distributed along the hills streams of the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins, and there are no known significant threats.
166500		conservation	eng	<p>There is no specific conservation action plan directed towards the wild populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo fimbriatus</span>. Research is essential on the current distribution, population status and harvest trends of the species.<br/></p>
166500		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo fimbriatus</em> is found throughout India (except its western coast), Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan  and Myanmar (Menon 1999, Jayaram and Dhas 2000).
166500		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in rivers above tidal reaches and in culture ponds (Menon 1999). It is a bottom feeder and it feeds on diatoms, <span class="sheader5">Myxophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Spirogyra</span>, plant tissue, Copepods, insects and lower crustacean eggs <span class="sheader5">(David and Rajgopal 1974). Fecundity of the fish ranged from 64800 to 526000, in a length  range of 336-740 mm and the maturation and breeding is confined to  the upper part of the river (<span class="sheader5">Rao 1976).<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"></span></span></span>
166500		population	eng	<p>This fish is the commonest major carp in Tamil Nadu. However, it is not that common in Maharashtra. The population in Maharashtra is declining and the species was not recorded recently from Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Wagh and Ghate 2003, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) owing to the fact that the the species is over exploited and there is habitat alterations due to pollution of the rivers.<br/></p>
166500		threats	eng	<p>Wild population of the species are threatened by over harvesting and pollution of the rivers (Kharat et al. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).<br/></p>
166501		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166501		distribution	eng	The species occurs in India (in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi rivers), Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar.  It has also been reported from the Mekong basin (Rahman 1989; Talwar and Jhingaran 1991; Menon 1999; Petr and Swar 2002).
166501		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic bottom feeder, that inhabits clear hill streams with gravelly substratum, and large rivers.
166501		population	eng	<em>B. barna</em> is reported to be common in the Narayani River system in Chitwan, Nepal (Shreshta 1999).
166501		threats	eng	It&#160;is locally threatened by destructive fishing techniques such as dynamite fishing, overexploitation, loss of habitat, and siltation.
166502		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166502		distribution	eng	<em>Salmophasia bacaila</em> is known from Pakistan, (the Indus drainage), northern India (the Ganga-Brahmaputrta and Mahanadi drainages in Orissa), Bangladesh and Nepal.  It is also reported from Afghanistan.
166502		habitat	eng	<em>S. bacaila</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species, usually found in slow running streams, but also occurring in rivers, ponds, inundated fields in sub-montane regions, and brackish waters. <em>S. bacaila</em> is an omnivorous surface feeder.
166502		population	eng	<em>S. bacaila</em> is reported to be common in the Himalayan waters of Nepal.
166502		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
166503		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The taxonomic identities of all populations from South and Southeast Asia considered to belong to this species are badly in need of further investigation, as it is very likely that what is now considered to be a single species consists of more than one (geographically circumscribed) species.
166503		distribution	eng	Although this species is said to be widely distributed throughout south and southeast Asia (Roberts 1983), future studies on its taxonomy may show it to be conspecific with <em>B. bagarius</em> sensu stricto and restricted to the Indian subcontinent (whether in part or whole).
166503		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of fluviatile habitats, although it is typically associated with swift, clear rivers with a substrate of rocks and sand.
166503		population	eng	Although there is little information on the population and its status (in part exacerbated by the taxonomic confusion surrounding the group), there are indications that this species is suffering declines in parts of its range. A considerable decline in the population in southern West Bengal of 29.2% over four decades from 1960 to 2000 reported for <em>B. bagarius</em> may refer to this species (Mishra&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2009).
166503		threats	eng	As a large, predatory fish that is actively caught for food, this species is in some danger of being overexploited. Even though current indications are that this species is still relatively abundant, the current fishing pressure on this species (at least on the Indian subcontinent) is likely to be unsustainable; local declines reported in some studies for <em>B. bagarius</em> may refer to this species (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2009). However, more empirical data is needed to support this claim. The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166504		conservation	eng	The species is found in Song River in Rajajai National Park, Uttarakhand.
166504		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius dimorphicus</span> is distributed in Song River, eastern Doon Valley, Rajaji National Park, Dehra Dun and Pauri-Garhwal&#160;districts, Uttarakhand, India (Tilak and Husain 1990)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>This species may be endemic to this area although this needs to be confirmed.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
166504		habitat	eng	They are the hillstream fishes inhabiting streams with gravelly bottom.
166504		population	eng	No information found. However, it must be small as it is restricted to Rajaji National Park.
166504		threats	eng	This species is not affected by specific threats as it is within a national park other than the continuing decline in habitat quality from sedimentation due to deforestation and agricultural practices. However, the species is known only from a small locality and this makes it vulnerable to any future threat.
166505		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation efforts are currently in place for the species. Species populations and the impact of fishery and collection for the ornamental trade require monitoring, <br/></p>
166505		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chanda nama</span> is known from India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Roberts (1994) has suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">Chanda nama</span> definitely occurs in the Indus, Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna, and other river basins in India; however, records from Myanmar and Malaysia are probably erroneous.
166505		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters, both in standing and running waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). &#160;It is a nocturnal or crepuscular, midwater fish. &#160;It spends most of its time in small shoals, under the cover of marginal roots (also mangrove) or floating vegetation (Daniels 2002). &#160;It breeds throughout the year and often a large number of eggs are found scattered on submerged marginal vegetation (Daniels 2002). &#160;It is also found (in Assam) in paddy fields when flooded.
166505		population	eng	<p>It is a very small fish, but is considered common within India (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>
166505		threats	eng	<p>This species is widely distributed. The ornamental fish trade should be monitored. In some areas, it is sold in large quantities durring the monsoon. Numbers have been reported to have declined due to loss of wetlands (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>
166507		conservation	eng	Further information is required about the species distribution, ecology, and threats.
166507		distribution	eng	The species was described from India in the Namdapha wildlife sanctuary (Arunachal Pradesh). It has also been recorded from the following additional locations; Kalpangi River at Yachuli, Lower Subansiri River, Labia River at Dev, Papum Pare District, Sipu River at Doji, West Siang District, and Noadhing River (Bagra<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). <br/><br/>Further survey work is required to determine the species current range, and it may be present in other Indian states, including Assam.
166507		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in rivers with pebbly substrates (Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
166507		population	eng	No information available.
166507		threats	eng	All the known localities are under serious threat as several dams are being constructed and are likely to cause flow modification in the future (Vishwanath, pers. comm., 2010).  It is likely that the species' habitat would also be impacted by sedimentation caused by deforestation and agricultural activities.
166508		conservation	eng	<p>Research on distribution, biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats are needed.</p>
166508		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Sittwe (formerly Akyab) and in Tandaung Township, Sittaung River Drainage (C. Ferraris, NMNH), Myanmar, and from locations in northeastern India (Kolodyne (Kaladan) and Mat (a tributary of the Koladyne) Rivers of Mizoram) The species is apparently restricted to the Koladyne River and its tributaries; records from Arunachal Pradesh (two records in the Brahmaputra drainage; Centre for Environmental Management and Participatory Development, 2009) most likely refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. semiplotus</span> (V. Waikhom, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010).
166508		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits moderate to fast flowing mountain streams and rivers with rocky bed.<br/> </p>
166508		population	eng	<p>Talwar and Jhingran (1991) considered it a rare species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.       </p>
166508		threats	eng	<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaladan_River#cite_note-4"><span></a><p>Hill streams are threatened by sedimentation due to deforestation and agricultural practices resulting in continuing decline in the quality of habitat.</p><p>The Kaladyne River is subject to development as part of joint Indo-Myanmar project to develop river transport links to the Myanmar port of Sitwe. In addition, the impact of the Shwe Gas Project on the river and its habitats requires further study.<br/><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaladan_River#cite_note-4"><span></span></a></p>
166509		conservation	eng	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. &#160;The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained. &#160;The taxonomic status of this species in its currently known distribution needs verification.
166509		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in West Bengal and Tripura states of India, and Bangladesh. &#160;Its distribution in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and other northeastern states of India needs verification (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;This species has been recorded from the Indus River drainage in Pakistan (Rafique 2000), but this awaits further verification.
166509		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lotic habitats such as rivers and larger streams. &#160;Lentic habitats such as lakes and ponds are likely to be marginal for this species (H.H. Ng pers. comm.).
166509		population	eng	Mishra&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2009) report an average population decline of 35.3% over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal; the average decline per decade since 1980 is about 69%. &#160;However, the difficulty in extrapolating data from a localized study and the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the populations from throughout its presumed distribution range make it difficult to definitively consider this species to be in decline.
166509		threats	eng	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in population declines (Mishra&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2009). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166510		conservation	eng	<p>Captive breeding of the species is being undertaken in parts of India to provide food fish (Ponniah and Sarkar 2000). Further research is required to understand the impact of harvesting across the species range.<br/></p>
166510		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Pakistan, India (Manipur, Uttaranchal, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar), Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar, Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia and  Thailand. It is widespread in the western and eastern Himalayas.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>However, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chitala chitala</span> is likely restricted to the Indian subcontinent; the genus appears to be absent from Myanmar (misidentification of records may be based on very large <span style="font-style: italic;">Notopterus notopterus</span>), and in Southeast Asia, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. borneensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hypselonotus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lopis</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. ornata </span>have been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chitala</span> (H.H. Ng, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span>, 2010; Roberts 2007).
166510		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwaters, particularly the larger rivers, but is also found in swamps. The species congregates, making it easily caught where it is present.
166510		population	eng	<p>Limited information is available; it has declined in some parts of its range, including Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and northeastern India due to declining water quality (siltation) and, mainly, overexploitation (S.C. Dey, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em>, 2010; S. Chaudhry <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010). In Nepal, very few specimens were recorded in recent surveys (B. Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010). Specific figures are not available.<br/></p>
166510		threats	eng	<p>No information available for all of its range. In parts of India the species has declined due to over exploitation and decline in habitat quality.<br/></p>
166511		conservation	eng	<p>Further research is required into the impacts of the collection for the aquarium trade.<br/></p>
166511		distribution	eng	<p><em>Parambassis lala </em>is known from the lowlands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Mahanadi basins in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and the Irrawaddy basin in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Roberts 1994). &#160;It is very common in Assam.<br/></p>
166511		habitat	eng	Inhabits ponds, ditches and pools; perhaps also brackish waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166511		population	eng	<p>The level of collection within India is considered a potential threat as population levels have declined due to wetland loss and over-exploitation. The species is also harvested by lower income groups as a subsistence food.</p>
166511		threats	eng	<p>This fish is over-exploited for the ornamental fish trade. &#160;Wetlands are also under threat from draining and development activities.<br/></p>
166512		conservation	eng	<p>More research on its biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats are needed.</p>
166512		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN"><em>Securicula gora </em>is known form the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Presence in Pakistan and Punjab, India needs to be confirmed.<br/></p>
166512		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This is pelagic and freshwater species which occurs<span class="sheader51"> in rivers, beels and canals. It feeds at the surface on insects, insect larvae and crustaceans. (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)</span></p>
166512		population	eng	<p>  <span class="sheader51">No estimates of natural population are not available although the species is common and widely distributed. </p>
166512		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">Most of its habitat is affected by siltation which is caused by <span class="sheader51">deforestation for logging.<br/></span></p>  <p></p>
166513		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166513		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in India (Uttaranchal) and Nepal (Mahakali River in the Tarai of the far West and the Kali Gandaki River in the hills of central Nepal, in shallow riffles with rocky substrate in strong current; Edds and Ng 2007). It was described from the Alaknanda River in India.<span>
166513		habitat	eng	This species inhabits relatively swift flowing rivers with a sandy/rocky substrate.
166513		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species
166513		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The proposed Kotli Bhel project of damming the Alaknanada River will be a major threat to the species and its habitat in future. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166514		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166514		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India (the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage) and Orissa, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
166514		habitat	eng	<em>S. sardinella</em> is a benthopelagic species which occurs in the lower reaches of rivers.
166514		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166514		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
166515		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166515		distribution	eng	<em>Hara horai</em>&#160;was described from the&#160;Terai and Duars, West Bengal. This species is known from the middle and upper Brahmaputra River drainage in northeastern India.
166515		habitat	eng	<p>Although information regarding the habitat and ecology of this species is lacking, it most likely inhabits moderately slow-flowing streams with a substrate of sand, as for other congeners.</p>
166515		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166515		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166516		conservation	eng	Currently there is no conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus montanus</span>. Research is essential on taxonomic ambiguity, population status, distribution, life history, ecology, harvest trends and threats to the species. Some population of the species is likely to be protected in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166516		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus montanus</span> is definitely found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In Kerala it is known from Manantoday in Wynaad (Jerdon 1849), Ponmni estuary (Bijukumar and Sushama 2000) and in Chalakkudy River, Muvattupuzha River and Periyar River (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009). In Tamil Nadu it is known from Thiroomurthi Dam, Parambikulam, Kallapuram and Amaravathi (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species is also reported from Eastern&#160; Ghats (Devi and Indra 2003) and Anamalai Hill Ranges (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) but exact point localities are missing. This species is also recorded from the Kancheepuram and Kanyakumari districts in Tamil Nadu but the exact locations are missing (Rajagopal and Davidar 2008). &#160;It is reported from the&#160;Nilgiris Bisophere, Travancroe, Achankovil, Periyar and Kabani rivers (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/>It has also been recorded from Pavna River (Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and Bhima river (Suter 1944) in  Maharashtra. Yadav (2003) has suggested that the species is found in Krishna river system and Cauvery river system, however, exact localities are missing. It is also reported from Madhya Pradesh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007). All these records need validation.<br/>Presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus montanus</span> in northeastern India especially in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) could be attributed to the synonymization of&#160;<em>M. montanus dibrugarensi</em>s with&#160;this species. This needs taxonomic verification.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
166516		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus montanus</span> is found in streams, rivers, lakes and reservoirs (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, 2007). It is also found in estuaries (Bijukumar and Sushama 2000). It attains a total length of 15 cm (Menon 1999). It is found in deep pools in higher altitudes with sandy or muddy substrate (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160;No information is available about habitat changes and its effects on this species.
166516		population	eng	Exact population structure of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus montanus</span> is unknown. However, it is very common in Chalakkudy River, Muvattupuzha River and Periyar River (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009). The species may be common in other parts of its distribution range.
166516		threats	eng	No specific information available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus montanus</span>.
166519		conservation	eng	Further information on the species population, range and habitat requirements is needed.
166519		distribution	eng	<em>Ganialosa manmina</em> is recorded from India (Ganges: Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; Brahmaputra: Assam; and several rivers of Orissa), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
166519		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and associated water bodies.
166519		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166519		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
166520		conservation	eng	It has been recommended that this species requires strict conservation, and management in recreational ponds and public aquaria and exhibits (Menon 2004).
166520		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Laos.  It has also been reported from China.
166520		habitat	eng	<em>G. trilineatus</em> is a benthopelagic fish which is found in pool and riffle areas of rapid-running mountain streams.
166520		population	eng	<em>G. trilineatus</em> is reported to be a rare species in Nepal.
166520		threats	eng	<em>G. trilineatus</em> may be locally threatened by destructive fishing techniques.
166521		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the the biology of this species is needed.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166521		distribution	eng	<em>Amblypharyngodon mola</em> is recorded from Pakistan (Indus plain and the adjoining hills), India, and Bangladesh. Its presence in Myanmar (S. Kullander <em>pers. comm.</em>) and in southern India (Rema Devi and M. Arunachalam <em>per. comm.</em>) needs further verification.
166521		habitat	eng	<p>Found in all freshwater bodies.&#160;&#160; </p>
166521		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166521		threats	eng	<p>No information to suggest risk (S. Kullander <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010)<br/></p>
166522		conservation	eng	Information is required on the scale and impact of threats (especially habitat degradation) on the species.
166522		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pakistan, India (Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, West Bengal, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Orissa, and Bihar), Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand.
166522		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwaters, primarily rivers. In North Bengal it occurs in clear, gravelly, perennial streams and ponds of Terai and Duars .
166522		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system. In Nepal, it is not common. No information is available for other parts of its range.
166522		threats	eng	There is habitat degradation in some parts of its range in India due to siltation caused by deforestation, and habitat loss and modification due to the loss of wetlands, especially the infilling of ponds.
166523		conservation	eng	Further information on the species population changes is required.
166523		distribution	eng	Recorded from India (chiefly the Ganges and Brahmaputra systems and Mahanadi river of Orissa), and from Nainital (Uttaranchal). Also recorded from Nepal and Bangladesh.
166523		habitat	eng	Restricted to lowland, slow-flowing rivers, with sandy beds.
166523		population	eng	Within India and Nepal (Ganges), the population is declining, whilst in the Brahmaputra drainage the population is stable.
166523		threats	eng	Siltation from deforestation and agricultural practices and overexploitation for consumption are the two main identified threats to the species.
166524		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166524		distribution	eng	<em>Conta conta</em>&#160;was described from the Mahananda River (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Bengal (Hamilton 1822).&#160;The records of this species from India and the Ganges River drainage in Nepal need verification as to whether they refer to <em>C. conta,&#160;</em><em>C. pectinata</em>, or another unnamed species.
166524		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hillstreams with a rocky or sandy substrate.
166524		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend of this species is unknown.</p>
166524		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166525		conservation	eng	<p>This species requires urgent protection and proactive conservation efforts to save it from becoming extinct in most of its range. &#160;There is an urgent need to stop the release of exotics in the upland areas throughout its range (M. Arunachalam, Remadevi, W. Vishwanath, <em>pers. comm</em>.).</p>
166525		distribution	eng	<em>Schizothorax richardsonii</em> is distributed in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In India, it is found in Uttarakhand (Ramganga River, Joshi 1994; Negi and Negi 2010), Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh), Nagaland (Dzulakie, Chokla, Dzuna, Tepuiki, Tesuru, Tizu, Zungki; Remadevi <em>pers. comm</em>.) and Jammu and Kashmir (in Indus drainage, Gulmarg; M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;In Nepal, it occurs in Janakpur, Bagmati and Narayani zones.
166525		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits rivers, prefers to live among rocks and is primarily a bottom feeder, preferably near big submerged stones. It feeds on algal slimes, detritus and insects encrusted on the rocks (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.; Shreshta 1990). &#160;It breeds during April-May, before the monsoon flood the rivers and streams; the fry grows to such a size as to bear the rigours of the flood waters.<br/></p>
166525		population	eng	<p>This is a widespread and sometimes abundant species in the Himalayan foothills of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;However, the species is undergoing rapid declines in several locations along the distribution range due to several anthropogenic threats such as dams, overfishing, tourism, alien species introductions, and in some areas fishing for ornamental purposes. &#160;It is rare in Ladakh (Sivakumar 2008). &#160;Local fishermen in Kashmir have observed dramatic declines (>90%) in the last 5 years due to rampant release of exotic salmonids (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;The species is observed to be declining throughout its range, but there is no empirical study conducted (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>
166525		threats	eng	<p>Introduction of exotic salmonids in hill streams and reservoirs of the Himalayan foothills are a serious threat (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;Fishing for ornamental trade is a threat in Nagaland (Remadevi <em>pers. comm</em>.) and fishing for food is a general threat in northeastern india (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).</p>
166526		conservation	eng	Conservation of freshwater habitats from destruction and pollution help to improve the conservation of this species in general.
166526		distribution	eng	It has a wide distribution in Pakistan; India: all along the Himalaya, Chota-Nagpur plateau and the Vindhya-Satpura mountains of the Indian Peninsula, Uttar Pradesh: (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh); Nepal: all along the Himalaya (Bagmati, Bheri, Lumbini, Narayani zones); Bangladesh and upper Myanmar.
166526		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is found in fast flowing streams with boulders and rocks along the Himalayan ranges.<br/></span>
166526		population	eng	It is found in the streams and lakes of the Himalaya. Population studies are limited for this species<em></em>. The population information here is based on the survey of Jha (2006) which was carried out on nine rivers of Nepal. <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra gotyla</span> was reported in eight of the nine rivers surveyed (Jha 2006).&#160; In Nalgaland it is found in Rivers Meguiki, Milak, Tepuiki and Tesuru (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
166526		threats	eng	Even though the species is widely distributed it is a substrate specialist.&#160; Throughout its range, the boulders and gobbles are removed leading to habitat loss accompanied by other threats due to deforestation, damming and siltation.
166527		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166527		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra lamta</span> is known in India from Assam, Bihar, Darjeeling, Kumaon Himalaya, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Reports from Pakistan, Sri Lanka and southern India need verification.
166527		habitat	eng	The species inhabits hill streams.
166527		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166527		threats	eng	<p>Threats to the species are not known, however, habitat threats are prevalent as for all hill stream species.</p>
166528		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures targeted to this species, it may occur in protected areas but it cannot be confirmed. </p>
166528		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bengal, northern India to Krishna-Godavari river system (its occurrence in Krishna-Godavari and Western Ghats needs to be confirmed); Nepal and Bangladesh plains and adjoining hilly areas.
166528		habitat	eng	&#160;The species is found in the plains and submontane regions.
166528		population	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine population trends.
166528		threats	eng	<p>No information available, although general habitat destruction may cause significant decline in its population.<br/></p>
166529		conservation	eng	<p>The confused taxonomy surrounding the identities of <em>Bagarius</em> species in the Indian subcontinent is badly in need of resolution in order to accurately assess their conservation status. There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Being a large predatory fish that is often fished for food, catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed.&#160;&#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;</p>
166529		distribution	eng	Although this species is said to be distributed in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages (Kottelat 2001), further studies on its taxonomy may show it to be restricted to the Indian subcontinent (whether in part or whole) (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166529		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of fluviatile habitats, although it is typically associated with swift, clear rivers with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166529		population	eng	Although there is little information on the population and its status (in part exacerbated by the taxonomic confusion surrounding the group), there are indications that this species is suffering declines in parts of its range. A considerable decline in the population in southern West Bengal of 29.2% over four decades from 1960 to 2000 has been reported (Mishra&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2009).
166529		threats	eng	<p>As a large, predatory fish that is actively caught for food, this species is in some danger of being overexploited. Even though current indications are that this species is still relatively abundant, the current fishing pressure on this species (at least on the Indian subcontinent) is likely to be unsustainable, as evidenced by local declines reported in some studies (Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). However, more empirical data is needed to support this claim. The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm</span>.).</p>
166531		conservation	eng	It has been recommended that caution should be taken when stocking major Gangetic carps (carp species from the Ganges) in the river systems in peninsular India, to avoid the extirpation of the locally commercially important carps, such as <em>C. cirrhosus</em>. <br/><br/>Deep pools in the courses of rivers should be declared as sanctuaries and fishing strictly prohibited within them, to protect the brooders especially when they rest during the period of low discharge in summer months.
166531		distribution	eng	<em>Cirrhinus cirrhosus</em> is presently known in its native range only from the Cauvery River system in India (Menon 2004).  Historically the species was wider ranging, being known from the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery Rivers (Day. F 1978, referenced in Menon 2004). It has been introduced to many countries outside of India.
166531		habitat	eng	<em>C. cirrhosus</em> is benthopelagic and potamodromous plankton feeder.  It inhabits fast flowing streams and rivers, but can tolerate high levels of salinity.  Spawning occurs in marginal areas of the water body with a depth of 50-100 cm over a sand or clay substrate.  A 6 kg female can lay a million eggs.  Juveniles are omnivorous to about 5 cm total length (TL), adults are almost entirely herbivorous.  This fish has a rapid growth rate; by the age of two individuals can reach a length of 60 cm and can weigh as much as 2 kg.
166531		population	eng	A decline in catch data has been observed in the past; in Indian reservoirs, the <em>C. cirrhosus</em> comprised 20-47 % of the catch in 1943 - 1944, but declined to 2% of the catch in 1965 - 1966 due to the introduction of the Gangetic major carps <em>Catla catla</em> and <em>Labeo rohita</em>.
166531		threats	eng	<em>C. cirrhosus</em> is threatened by introduced Gangetic major carps.  In Indian reservoirs, the <em>C. cirrhosus</em> comprised 20-47 % of the catch in 1943 - 1944, but declined to 2% of the catch in 1965 - 1966 due to the introduction of the Gangetic major carps <em>Catla catla</em> and <em>Labeo rohita</em>.<br/><br/>Present threats to<em> C. cirrhosus</em> are loss of habitat, introduced species, overexploitation and pollution.
166532		conservation	eng	<p>More research on biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats needed.</p>
166532		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-IN">This species is widely spread across different drainages across <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)<strong></strong>
166532		habitat	eng	Usually found in slow <span class="tooltipelement">running <span class="tooltipelement">streams<span lang="EN-IN">. <span class="tooltipelement"><span class="tooltipelement"><span class="tooltipelement"><span class="tooltipelement">It is a <span class="tooltipelement">surface feeder on larvae and <span class="tooltipelement">adults of insects. It is adapted to different kinds of water bodies like ponds, river, beels, canals and ditches etc. (Menon 1999)</span></span></span></span>
166532		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166532		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is an ornamental fish and also has minor food value. Overfishing and human induced changes in water bodies may affect this species.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
166533		conservation	eng	No information available.
166533		conservation	eng	None
166533		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
166533		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in a number of protected areas in Australia and South Africa. <br/></p>
166533		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River and Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>East coast rivers in Kenya and Tanzania and estuaries south to Transkei. Indo West Pacific.
166533		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from east coast rivers and estuaries south to Transkei, Eastern Cape (Skelton 2001). Also throughout Indo-Pacific. Occurs hundreds of kilometres inland in large rivers, e.g., in Lake Chiuta in the headwaters of the Rovuma River system in Malawi.
166533		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout east coast rivers and estuaries from Kenya to  South Africa. Also known from throughout Indo-Pacific. It occurs hundreds of  kilometres inland in large rivers, e.g. in Lake Chiuta in the headwaters of the  Rovuma River system in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in  coastal rivers of Kenya and Tanzania, as well as in the lower Shire River and  Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found from Mozambique  south to Transkei, Eastern Cape (Skelton 2001).
166533		distribution	eng	This widespread species is recorded throughout the Indo-west Pacific (east African coast to the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea and north to Japan and China (known from the Zhujiang (Pearl River) drainage including the Huanggang, Hanjiang, Rongjiang, Longjin he, Dongjiang, Beijiang, and  Xijiang river systems, and also found in  river mouths of Hainan Province) (Akihito and Meguro 1975, Allen 1991, Murdy and Shibukawa 2001, Pusey<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). In Manipur, India, it was not recorded before the 1960s, but is now common. Records from New Caledonia need to be verified - they are most likely another species.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>
166533		habitat	eng	Found mainly in freshwater and estuaries, but also enters the sea. Also occurs in canals, ditches and ponds, and in large lakes such as Lake Chiuta. Found in clear to turbid streams with rock, gravel or sand bottoms. Food - small insects, crustaceans and small fish. Spawning - can breed in freshwater and in estuaries during summer.
166533		habitat	eng	Inhabits quiet, usually sandy, zones of streams and backwater habitats and floodplains (Skelton 1993). Juveniles feed on bottom-living invertebrates. Larger individuals prey on fish and tadpoles (Skelton 1993). Breeds in freshwater and estuaries in summer (Skelton 1993).
166533		habitat	eng	This species generally inhabits clear to turbid freshwater to estuarine habitats in rivers and streams with sand, gravel or rock substrate (Allen, 1991). In Australia and Southern Africa it is found in shallow sandy streams as well as floodplain lagoons, penetrating inland more than 300 kilometres (Pusey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) and in  Lake   Chiuta in the headwaters of the  Rovuma River system in Malawi<span style="font-weight: bold;">.</span> Relatively rapid seasonal migrations are undertaken during the dry season in the Northern Territory, Australia (Bishop et al, 2001). The species has a marine larval stage, but can breed in fresh water (small juveniles are present in high upstream reaches of rivers or in land-locked lagoons). It has been recorded breeding during the 'dry' season in northern Australia and in summer in South Africa.
166533		habitat	eng	This species inhabits quiet, usually sandy, zones of streams and backwater  habitats and floodplains (Skelton 1993) but also enters the sea. Also occurs in  canals, ditches and ponds, and in large lakes such as Lake Chiuta. This species  is found in clear to turbid streams with rock, gravel or sand bottoms. Juveniles  feed on bottom-living invertebrates, and larger individuals prey on fish and  tadpoles (Skelton 1993). It breeds in freshwater and estuaries in summer  (Skelton 1993).
166533		population	eng	Common and widespread.
166533		population	eng	No population estimates
166533		population	eng	<p>This is a widespread species, and is common in many areas, though may not be abundant. In north-eastern Australia, this species appears to be patchily and temporarily variable in its distribution (Pusey, Kennard and Arthington 2004). <br/></p>
166533		threats	eng	Dam walls and water abstraction threaten this species in southern Africa.
166533		threats	eng	It is threatened by dam walls, water abstraction
166533		threats	eng	No information available.
166533		threats	eng	<p>There are no major known threats to this species. Potential threats include activities that may which damage or modify the river systems in which this species occurs; e.g. the creation of dams which may adversely affect recruitment. Utilization as a food fish may be a localised threat.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
166534		conservation	eng	<p>Conservation actions are needed for this species as the population is declining rapidly.<br/></p>
166534		distribution	eng	Recorded from Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Pakistan, and India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, sub-Himalayan range (Ganga and Narbada river systems; Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh), Nepal (Trishuli, Arung, Sabha, Narayani, Mahakali, Tinau, Koshi, Karnali river systems)).
166534		habitat	eng	It grows better in rivers with a rocky bottom. It can grow upto 78 kg or more. It breeds during August-September and continues up to December. After spawning downstream migration occurs in large shoals.
166534		population	eng	In India and Nepal, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tor tor</span> breeds during August-September and continues up to December. In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in the Narmada river near Hoshangabad and in Tapti near Barhanpur, the species figured prominently in the commercial catches until about 20 years ago, but the landings are reported to have dwindled remarkably in recent years. In the lakes in Rajasthan as well as in the Chambal river between the Gange-Sagar and Rana Pratap Sagar reservoirs, the species occurs in fairly good numbers. In Assam the population are fast depleting and are presently localised to certain major river systems. In Punjab this species ascends rivers during March-April. In Nepal (Gandaki and Mahakali river systems) also it has been recommended for legal protection due to its decreased population which are rarely seen at present.
166534		threats	eng	In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in the Narmada river near Hoshangabad and in Tapti near Barhanpur, the species figured prominently in commercial catches but catches have declined in recent years due to over-exploitation. In the lakes in Rajasthan as well as in the Chambal river between the Gange-Sagar and Rana Pratap Sagar Reservoirs, the species occurs in fairly good numbers. In Assam the population are fast depleting and are presently localised to certain major river systems. In Punjab this species ascends rivers during March-April. In Nepal, this species is declining to a great extent and rarely seen.
166535		conservation	eng	Distribution and life history studies and impacts of potential threats on the species are needed. The populations in Myanmar, Pakistan and Meghalaya in India need to be verified taxonomically.
166535		distribution	eng	This is a fairly widely distributed species occurring predominantly in the Ganges River drainage in Indian Himalaya in Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh in Uttar Pradesh; North Bengal; and Nepal. Reports of its occurrence in Pakistan, Myanmar&#160;and parts of the Brahmaputra River drainage in&#160;Garo Hills in Meghalaya&#160;need to be verified.
166535		habitat	eng	This is a species of hill stream fast-flowing rivers dwelling at the sandy gravelly bottom.
166535		population	eng	Information on population and trends is not available.
166535		threats	eng	At least in some parts of its range, this species faces threats from habitat loss caused by natural calamities and human interferences.
166536		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.</p>
166536		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio dangila</span> is known from mountain streams belonging to Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage of Bihar, northern Bengal, northeastern India, and Nepal. It was also reported from Umroi Stream and rheophilic torrent near Barapani, Khasi Hills Meghalaya, India.
166536		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens were collected from the rocks and stones which compose the bottom of several clear mountain streams.
166536		population	eng	<p>Recent field surveys show that population in the wild might be reducing due to ornamental fish trade (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010) </p>
166536		threats	eng	<p>Exploitation from natural habitats for ornamental fish trade.</p>
166538		conservation	eng	Impacts of threats need to be better understood.
166538		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from India (Manipur and Nagaland) and from Myanmar. &#160;It has a widespread distribution in the Irrawady and Chindwin basins.
166538		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams in low lying areas with pebble bottom.
166538		population	eng	This species is rare.
166538		threats	eng	Deforestation for teak harvest is a major threat to the habitat, which results in sedimentation and siltation of rivers.
166539		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166539		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
166539		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing larger rivers with a substrate of sand and gravel/rocks.
166539		population	eng	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.
166539		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166540		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166540		distribution	eng	<p>In India the species is reported form northern Bengal, Assam, Manipur (Menon 1999). In Myanmar it is reported from Indawgyi Lake.<strong></strong></p>
166540		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>Found in rivers, streams and lakes with good vegetation cover. &#160;<strong></strong>It is found in good numbers in Indawgyi lake where there are hanging roots and hence removal of vegetation may affect the habitat of this species.</p>  <p></p>
166540		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166540		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
166542		conservation	eng	<p>More information is required on the species population, distribution, ecology and habitat requirements.<br/></p>
166542		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus pancalus</span> is widely distributed in India (Ganges and Brahmaputra), Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan (Indus).
166542		habitat	eng	This beautiful species of the plains inhabits slow and shallow waters, not found above an altitude of 366 m. It inhabits the river bed and spawns in the upper water-level. Courtship being with the more slender (and generally smaller) male showing the female out of her recess and then pursuing her rapidly. Several males may join in this activity.
166542		population	eng	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural populations elsewhere within India. During a one-year research project in Nepal, the species was only found in one of nine rivers during four collecting trips, and only at very low numbers (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166542		threats	eng	<p>No information available; the species is fished and collected for the aquarium trade in small quantities. </p>
166543		conservation	eng	The taxonomic problems surrounding the identity of this species need to be resolved. More information about the population size and trends, as well as harvest levels and threats are also needed.
166543		distribution	eng	The species complex is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan (most likely), Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, southern China, Malaysia, Indonesia,&#160;Brunei,&#160;Singapore and introduced to the Philippines.
166543		habitat	eng	It inhabits fresh waters; mostly in rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, swamps and paddy fields.
166543		population	eng	Although this is considered to be a widespread and abundant species, it almost certainly consists of more than one species that would be more geographically circumscribed. Therefore, information on the population status should be considered to be poorly known (H.H. Ng and R. Britz pers. comm. 2010).
166543		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species. This is compounded by the taxonomic problems associated with this species (H.H. Ng and R. Britz pers. comm. 2010).
166544		conservation	eng	<p>There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study, as it is very likely that the populations from Myanmar and Thailand currently identified as this species represent different species.</p>
166544		distribution	eng	<em>Olyra longicaudata</em>&#160;was described from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (McClelland 1842). This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India, river drainages in Myanmar and the Mae Khlong River drainage in western Thailand.
166544		habitat	eng	This species is found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>).
166544		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166544		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166545		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166545		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura savona</span> is found along the eastern Himalaya in Tista drainage at Darjeeling through Nepal, to Karnali and Kali drainages in Uttar Pradesh (Menon 1987)
166545		habitat	eng	The species is found to inhabit rapid hillstreams with gravel.
166545		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166545		threats	eng	<p>No known major threats known to this species. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166548		conservation	eng	There is a need to resolve the uncertainty surrounding the identity of this species. More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is also needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166548		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Indus River drainages in India. Although it has been recorded from the Mahananda River (part of the Brahmaputra River drainage), this record may be questionable.
166548		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
166548		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
166548		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166549		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166549		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Mishmi Hills in Meghalaya, India (McClelland 1842). &#160;It&#160;is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya: Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007) and China (Tibet).
166549		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential streams with a rocky substrate, where it feeds on aquatic invertebrates and grazes on aufwuchs (Wu and Wu 1992).
166549		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
166549		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166550		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166550		distribution	eng	<em>G. garhwali</em> has been reported from various sites within the Uttaranchal state of India (R. Devi, pers. comm.).
166550		habitat	eng	<em>G. garhwali</em> is a benthopelagic fish.
166550		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166550		threats	eng	The habitat in the region in which <em>G. garhwali</em> occurs is in an area of rapid population growth, hence potential threats to the species include pollution, habitat loss and degradation, however the extent to which these factors pose a direct threat to the species is not known.
166551		conservation	eng	More research about distribution, biology and trends of this species is needed; especially, impacts of harvest.
166551		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana almorae </span>is distributed in  Almora, Uttarakhand, India in the Ganges basin. There is a record from Salween basin but needs verification (Doi 1997).
166551		habitat	eng	This hill stream species is a bottom dweller.
166551		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166551		threats	eng	The species may be affected by habitat degradation due to destructive fishing methods, poisoning and other human activities. It occurs in an area affected by logging and deforestation.
166552		conservation	eng	No information available.
166552		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are required&#160;at present.<br/></p>
166552		distribution	eng	<em>Pisodonophis boro</em> has a very wide distribution in the Indo-West Pacific region. In India, mainly freshwater, recorded from Assam (including Brahmaputra and Barak drainages) and Chennai. Also recorded from Bangladesh, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Indonesia, Taiwan, Philippines, Australia, South Africa, Madagascar, Kenya, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles and elsewhere.
166552		distribution	eng	The species is known from the eastern African coastal zone.
166552		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal zones from Tanzania to South Africa, as well as  southern India and Sri Lanka. Also widespread elsewhere from the east Indian  coast through Indonesia to Polynesia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It can be  found along much of the east African coastal zone.<br/><br/><strong>Southern  Africa:</strong> It is present from Mozambique south to Natal, South Africa.
166552		habitat	eng	Found in lagoons and estuaries. It also enters freshwater and is found in paddy fields (Sommer <em>et al. 1996).</em>
166552		habitat	eng	Inhabits lagoons and estuaries; entering freshwater and paddy fields. Mainly marine, and very widespread.
166552		habitat	eng	This species is found in lagoons and estuaries. It also enters freshwater and is  found in paddy fields (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).
166552		population	eng	No information available.
166552		population	eng	<p>It has a wide distribution, though thinly populated.<br/></p>
166552		threats	eng	Generally low threats given its widespread range, though it is easily caught in ricefields, and is subject to agricultural pollution.
166552		threats	eng	No information available.
166554		conservation	eng	Taxonomic investigation is required to clarify possible confusion between <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cuchia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. albus.</span>
166554		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><st1:country-region w:st="on">The species is recorded from India</st1:country-region> (northern and northeastern states), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Menon 1999; Mirza and Alam 2002). However, there are differences between populations different parts of its range and further taxonomic investigation is required.
166554		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits fresh and brackish waters and has been found in the altitudinal range 76-1350 m above sea level (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Ocassionally found during the drought season in mud holes in paddy fields in Terai and Duars of North Bengal (Menon 1999). It is an obligatory air-breather, which inhabits holes and crevices in the muddy banks of swamps, lakes, ponds and slowly running rivers containing fresh and brackish waters (Munshi <em>et al.</em> 1989)
166554		population	eng	No information on the species population status is available. However, the fish is very common in <st1:place w:st="on">West  Bengal</st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166554		threats	eng	No known major widespread threats.
166555		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">B. vagra </span>might be in protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.<br/></p>
166555		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed, from Afghanistan to Barak basin in Manipur through Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages of northen India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Reports from Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and Pakistan needs confirmation.
166555		habitat	eng	The species is found in hill streams with gravelly and rocky bottom.
166555		population	eng	<p>In Nepal the CPUE is 1.65 (Jha 2009). It is common throughout the foothills of northeastern India.<br/></p>
166555		threats	eng	<p>Destructive fishing may pose a threat to this species.<br/></p>
166556		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
166556		distribution	eng	It is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India, Nepal and probably Bangladesh (H.H. Ng and W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166556		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166556		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166556		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166557		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Possible junior synonyms (if any) also need to be identified.
166557		distribution	eng	This species was described from material collected from an unknown locality in India.
166557		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitats and ecology of this species because it was collected from an unknown locality and no additional material has been discovered since its original description. <em>Glyptothorax brevipinnis</em> most likely inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers like other members of the genus.
166557		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
166557		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166558		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax saisii</span>. However, further information on the population status, distribution and threats to the species is required.
166558		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Chota Nagpur plateau<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Jharkhand (Menon 1999, Thomson and Page 2006). Its record from Maharashtra (Anandale 1919, Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999) needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In Jharkhand the species is found in a discontinuous fashion in Paresnath Hills (Jenkins 1910) and Subarnarekha River (Ganguly <em>et al.</em> 1972). Species seems to be restricted to high altitudes only, which explains its discontinuous distribution.<br/><br/>Based on the hydro-basin area the expected extent of occurrence of the species could be 18,000 km²<sup></sup>. However, this is an overestimate as the species is restricted to high altitudes only and may only be present in an area of occupancy of 500–800 km²<sup></sup>.
166558		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax saisii</span> is found in hill streams and rivers (Jenkins 1910, Ganguly <em>et al.</em> 1972). It attains a total length of 7 cm (Menon 1999). Even though no specific information is available on the habitat decline  for this species there are several threats to the area in which this  species is found, which could affect this species. The threats include  deforestation, sedimentation and quarrying and mining (IUCN threat  maps).
166558		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax saisii</span>. It is known only from a few specimens.
166558		threats	eng	No information available on direct threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax saisii</span>. However, the habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation, sedimentation and quarrying and mining, which can affect the species adversely.
166559		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified and more information on catch data (and its effects on the population) is needed. &#160;Furthermore, the conspecificity of the population from the Indus River drainage with that from the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Mahanadi systems needs to be verified.
166559		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the Mahanadi, Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages.
166559		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
166559		population	eng	Although information on the global population and trend for this species is not known, it is a fairly common species throughout most of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus and Mahanadi river systems.
166559		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166560		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation recommendations for this species.</p>
166560		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius terio</em> occurs widely in northern India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Manipur, and Meghalaya), Bangladesh and Pakistan (Jayaram 1991). Recently recorded from Nepal (Edds and Ng 2007). Record from Hyderabad (Chandrasekhar 2004) needs to be confirmed.
166560		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius terio</span> inhabits rivers, canals, ponds, ditches, and inundated fields, over a silt and mud substrate. It attains a length of 9 cm. The females are more robust when mature (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>
166560		population	eng	No information available although it is common.
166560		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
166561		conservation	eng	This species might be in protected  areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this  species is experiencing a decline.
166561		distribution	eng	The species is known from Kosi, Ganga, Yamuna, Barak and Brahmaputra rivers.
166561		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens have been found in rivers and streams.
166561		population	eng	The species is rare in Nepal (Jha <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010), but common in India.
166561		threats	eng	The species may be affected by fishing for ornamental purposes and for food.
166563		conservation	eng	This is a species complex and requires taxonomic revision.
166563		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Thailand and southern China. Possibly present in Bhutan.
166563		habitat	eng	Inhabits swamps, freshwater ponds, streams and tanks in the plains; prefers stagnant muddy waters and grassy tanks. &#160;It breeds in the rainy season.
166563		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166563		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
166564		conservation	eng	<p>No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards this species. Research is needed on population trends, harvest trends and threats to the species.<br/></p>
166564		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia acinaces </span>is distributed in peninsular India (Menon 1999) and it is known from Krishna river system and all the river systems south of it. Record of this species from Nepal (Shrestha 2002), Bangladesh (Ali <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh (Chandra and Sharma 2007) or rivers north of Krishna river system need validation.
166564		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits hill streams (Menon 1999). This species attains a length of 15 cm total length (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).<br/></p>
166564		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia acinaces</span> is widely distributed species but there is no information about its population trends. The species is rare in Kerala (Thomas 2002).<br/></p>
166564		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on threats to the species.</p>
166565		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166565		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainage in India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
166565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
166565		population	eng	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.
166565		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166567		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed information on use, harvest rates, population trends and threats to the species are needed.</p>
166567		distribution	eng	In India it is widespread (except peninsular India south of Krishna River), and is also found in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Afghanistan and Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166567		habitat	eng	This barb is very widely distributed all over India in rivers and tanks.  It attains a length of 31 cm. It breeds during monsoon in running  waters amongst submerged boulders and vegetation (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Spawning occurs in two stages once between May to mid September but prominent in June and the second spawning time in the months of August and September (Chakraborty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166567		population	eng	This barb is very widely distributed all&#160; northern and north east India in rivers and tanks and it is fairly common in many areas of its known distribution.
166567		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species are not known. &#160;However, it is considered to be endangered in Bangladesh (Chakraborty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  </p>
166568		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166568		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower and middle reaches of the Irrawaddy River, the Sittang, Bago, and the Salween river drainages in Myanmar.
166568		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the main channels of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
166568		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
166568		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166569		conservation	eng	<p>Further information is needed into the species ecology and habitats, as well as the impacts of habitat loss and trade.<br/></p>
166569		distribution	eng	The species is found in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Nepal, and Malaysia (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166569		habitat	eng	It inhabits fresh and brackish waters. &#160;It breeds everywhere during the rains. It attains a maximum length of 7  cm, seldom exceeding 5 cm, remaining appreciably smaller in captivity (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166569		population	eng	<p>This is an exceedingly common fresh water fish in the Indian region and adjacent countries (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>
166569		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats for this species. &#160;Threats to this species include habiat loss (loss of wetlands) and the ornamental trade.<br/></p>
166570		conservation	eng	Further information on the species range, ecology and potential threats is needed.
166570		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins in Nepal, India (northern Bengal, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh), and Bangladesh.
166570		habitat	eng	It inhabits muddy hill streams.
166570		population	eng	This species is not as common as <em>Mystus bleekeri</em>. &#160;It is a hardy fish compared to other hill stream fishes. &#160;Population and trends are not known for this.
166570		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats to this species.
166571		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166571		distribution	eng	<em>Erethistoides montana</em>&#160;is recorded from the Brahmaputra and Meghana river drainages in India (Assam: Gumti River, Tanhla River; West Bengal: Darjeeling; and Tripura) and Nepal.
166571		habitat	eng	<p>Found in streamlets with swift current (Fishbase 2009).</p>
166571		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend of this species are unknown.</p>
166571		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166573		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The conspecificity of the populations from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river drainages require further investigation.</p>
166573		distribution	eng	<em>Hara jerdoni</em>&#160;was described from Sylhet District, Bangladesh (Day 1870). &#160;This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Bangladesh and northeastern India. &#160;The conspecificity of populations from the Brahmaputra and the Ganges river drainages probably requires further investigation.
166573		habitat	eng	Inhabits slow-moving hill streams, with sandy substrate amongst aquatic weeds and decaying leaves.
166573		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166573		threats	eng	<p>Destructive fishing practices and shifting agriculture are the threats although the impact in the species' entire distribution range is unknown.</p>
166574		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution and threats is required, and the taxonomic status of the two known populations confirmed.
166574		distribution	eng	This species is reported distributed in the Chindwin-Irrawady basin of Manipur, India and Myanmar. However, as they are found only in the upper reaches (torrential hill streams) and not in the middle and lower part of the rivers, they may be considered fragmented. Neotype designated by Kottelat's (1990) was also from Rehndal's material collected long ago. &#160;This species is also reported from southwestern Yunnan and in Burma in the vicinity of Myitkyina and Putao, Assam,&#160;Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland&#160;in India (Yazdani 1977; &#160;Menon 1987).
166574		habitat	eng	The species inhabit streams with gravelly bottoms; a benthic species found in cool, fast-flowing waters.
166574		population	eng	No information available. However, the type locality, Sikmai stream at Pallel (Manipur) is polluted due to human population increase. The town has become a commercial centre. Collections in the past few years show that the species is not there; although some specimens were collected in the 1980s, it has not been collected in the last 20 years from different localities in the Chindwin basin (W. Vishwanath&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm</span>.).
166574		threats	eng	Pallel, type locality of the species is polluted and there is no trace of the species. Similar is the situation where the species was distributed in the past (in Manipur).
166576		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Impacts of habitat degradation and mining on the species requires urgent studies. &#160;This species is also in need of some taxonomic work and needs to be properly diagnosed from its congeners.
166576		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Meghna and Brahmaputra river drainages in India and Bangladesh. &#160;The distribution range is restricted to less than 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
166576		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
166576		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
166576		threats	eng	In Khasi Hills the habitat is affected by deforestation, logging and coal mining, which might cause population declines. &#160;This needs detailed studies for future conservation action.
166577		conservation	eng	<p>More research on biology, population, threats and trends are needed.</p>
166577		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius gelius</em> has a wide distribution in India (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Bihar) and Bangladesh (Jayaram 1991, Menon 1999). Report from Pakistan (Sheri and Saied 1975) needs confirmation. This species is introduced into the natural water bodies in other parts of India due to aquarium trade (R. Devi <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166577		habitat	eng	Inhabits still waters. Attains a length of 4 cm. Sexes are alike. They eat their eggs just as soon as they drop them (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166577		population	eng	No information available although it is common and introduced in other areas.
166577		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats identified for this species.</p>
166578		conservation	eng	<p>further work is required to confirm the species distribution, especially the records from Myanmar and Orissa, India. The species was reported from the Namdapha National Park and Tiger Reserve (Datta and Barman 1985). Menon (2004) considered it endangered and recommended a sanctuary may be set up in a suitable stream in upper Assam.<br/></p>
166578		distribution	eng	The species is known from India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, North Bengal, Sikkim, Darjeeling); Nepal (Narayangarh, Khairenitar, Tribeni, Nepal Terai); Bhutan (Tora River, Phuntshaling). Day (1878) reported that it inhabited the rivers of Assam, especially in the upper portion but was also found as low as Goalpara and Myanmar. However, Menon (2004) remarked that the fish is confined to upper Assam. Mukerji (1933) included this species in the list of fishes of Mali Hka river, upper Myanmar without giving systematic accounts. However, Vishwanath and Kosygin (2000) remarked that the species is perhaps present only in the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage. A record from Mahanudi, Orissa, in India, requires confirmation given the habitat requirements of the species.
166578		habitat	eng	The species inhabits moderate to fast flowing mountain streams and rivers with rocky beds. Juveniles inhabit shallow and fast flowing water, while larger ones inhabit deeper water where water current is comparatively slow. Benthopelagic. The species is gregarious and susceptible to population depletion.
166578		population	eng	<p>Day (1978) reported that the fish is found in rivers of Assam especially in the upper portion but found as low as Goalpara. However, Menon (1989, 2004) and Sen (1985) reported that the fish is restricted to upper Assam and has declined in number and size. Population of this species is declining due to overfishing. Population during the past years has declined in more than 30% although further research is needed to confirm actual rates (Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).<br/></p>
166578		threats	eng	<p>The species is threatened mainly due to overexploitation, habitat loss, deforestation and pollution. During recent survey number of mature individuals were rarely observed.<br/></p>
166580		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166580		distribution	eng	<em>Sperata aor</em> occurs in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and upper Myanmar (Rahman 1989, Talwar and Jhingaran 1991, Ferraris and Runge 1999, Menon 1999)
166580		habitat	eng	<em>S. aor</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species which inhabits rivers, ponds, lakes, channels and reservoirs.  This species breeds before the onset of the monsoon in the Ganges.
166580		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
166580		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
166581		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
166581		distribution	eng	<em>Clupisoma montana</em>&#160;was described from the Tista River, a&#160;tributary&#160;of the Brahmaputra River, in West Bengal, India (Hora 1937); it&#160;is known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra river drainage in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
166581		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the upper reaches of river drainages, typically in mainstreams that are moderately swift with a substrate of sand and rocks.
166581		population	eng	The population size and trends of this species are unknown. &#160;However, compared to <em>C. garua</em>, this species is less abundant and restricted. &#160;It is inferred from damming activities that the species is likely to be undergoing a decline.
166581		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;However, it is inferred that damming activities across the northeastern rivers may have had a continuing negative impact and predicted to impact populations in the future (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166582		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>
166582		distribution	eng	<em>Crossochilus latius</em> is widely distributed in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In India the fish is reported from drainages of the Ganga and Brahmaputra in northern India; Mahanadi River drainage in Orissa; and Western Ghats, south to the headwaters of Krishna River, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, India. Its presence in Western Ghats, south to the headwaters of Krishna River needs to be confirmed.
166582		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Crossocheilus latius</span> inhabits streams, rivers and lake preferably with gravelly bottom in benthopelagic environment.</p>
166582		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166582		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166583		conservation	eng	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained. The taxonomic status of this species in its currently known distribution needs verification.
166583		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Jamuna river basins in India, and in Bangladesh. Records from Pakistan and Myanmar require verification (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2009).
166583		habitat	eng	Ecological information about this species is lacking, but it is presumed to be similar to other congeners in the Indian subcontinent. It therefore most probably inhabits rivers, streams and lakes (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2009<em></em>).
166583		population	eng	Mishra&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2009) report an average population decline of 36.8% over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal; the average decline per decade since 1980 is about 80%. However, the difficulty in extrapolating data from a localized study and the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the populations from throughout its presumed distribution range make it difficult to definitively consider this species to be in decline.
166583		threats	eng	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in population declines (Mishra&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2009). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2009).
166585		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Although there is some catch data for this species, it is fragmentary and more data is badly needed to build up a more accurate picture of the status of this species.
166585		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage of India and Bangladesh. &#160;It has been reported from the Ganges River drainage also, but these records need to be verified as they might refer to <em>B. macronotus</em>.
166585		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with a predominantly sandy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166585		population	eng	Although Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a mean decline of 27.6% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal (lower Ganges-Brahmaputra system and Subarnarekha River) for the period 1960–2000, and an average decline of 52% over two decades since 1980; there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. &#160;Data from the ornamental fish trade in the Brahmaputra River drainage suggests that this species is still relatively common (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166585		threats	eng	Although this species has undergone declines due to overfishing in a small part of its range (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2009), similar threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown. &#160;Since there is no information on the biology of this species, the impact of other potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166586		conservation	eng	<p>More information is required on the species population and distribution.<br/></p>
166586		distribution	eng	Fresh and brackish waters in Bangladesh; Pakistan; Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Nepal; Thailand; Cambodia; Vietnam, and northeastern India; found in the Hoogly and Bhagirathi River systems in West Bengal; the Lohit district Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh: (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh). It is likely present in other northeast Indian states. <br/><br/>  In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the distribution of <em>Mastacembelus armatus </em>(Lacepede) is documented by Jha<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2006). Its occurrence was reported in seven rivers including Aandhikhola, Arungkhola, Karrakhola, Narayani, East Seti and Tinau river from central and western region of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The six rivers, Aandhikhola, Arungkhola, Karrakhola, Narayani East and Seti are the members of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gandaki</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> system. Tinau is an independent system. Aandhikhola accounted for the highest abundance of <em>Mastacembelus armatus </em>among the rivers sampled.
166586		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh waters in plains and hills.
166586		population	eng	In Nepal, the species is found commonly at quite high altitudes in river Tawi (Jammu) and its tributaries.   Seasonal availability of some important fishes in some rivers of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region> could be found mentioned in the literature, but a detailed seasonality of the species is lacking.
166586		threats	eng	<p>No information available on threats to this species. It is caught by local level fisheries.</p>
166587		conservation	eng	More research on the population and its trends for this species is required; threats to this species, particularly from anthropogenic activities, also need to be identified.
166587		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Sittaung and Salween drainages in Myanmar, and may possibly be found in the Salween River drainage in western Thailand.<br/><span style=""></span>
166587		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with a substrate of large rocks.
166587		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trends for this species.
166587		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information  on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential  threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.  Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable  to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by  deforestation).
166588		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed.
166588		distribution	eng	<em>Clupisoma garua</em>&#160;was described from the rivers of the Gangetic provinces (Hamilton 1822), and is&#160;known from the northern part of the Indian subcontinent to the Mahanadi River drainage. It is also known from the Indus River drainage.
166588		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fluviatile habitats, particularly in larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom.
166588		population	eng	Although Patra <em>et al. </em>(2005) report a mean decline of 30.4% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960-2000&#160;and Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a decline of 27.7% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. &#160;However, indications are that this is still a relatively common and abundant species.
166588		threats	eng	Because this species is heavily utilized as a food fish, overfishing is a potential major threat. Indeed, published data for parts of its natural distribution suggest that overfishing is a major cause of local population declines (Patra <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Mishra <em>et al.</em>, 2009). Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166589		conservation	eng	<p>Menon (2004) has suggested that a suitable stream in Naga Hills at Kairong should be selected as sanctuary for the protection of this rare species.<br/></p>
166589		distribution	eng	It occurs in India (Assam, Manipur in Brahmaputra basin, Sikkim, West Bengal) and Bangladesh (Vishwanath and Kosygin 2001).&#160; It is also reported from Nepal (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm</em>.).&#160; The species reported from Myanmar is known to be <span style="font-style: italic;">P. burtoni</span> (Vishwanath and Kosygin 2001).
166589		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in streams and rivers.<br/></p>
166589		population	eng	<p>It is not a very common species.&#160;<br/></p>
166589		threats	eng	<p>No information available. Nevertheless, Menon (2004) has considered this species as one of the threatened species of India as it is rarely found. This species is affected by mining and destructive fishing methods, such as blasting. Both threats lead to habitat degradation. Other threats may be logging, deforestation and damming.<br/></p>
166590		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mullya</span>. Research on population trends, harvest levels and threats to the species is required. It is present in many protected areas. This species has been captive-bred.<br/></p>
166590		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mullya</span> is endemic to Peninsular India. It is present in Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and other river systems of southern India. Thus, <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mullya</span> is found in Gujrat (Ranade 1953), Madhya Pradesh (Dubey 2007, Sarkar and Lakra 2007), Chhattisgarh (Prakash <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Orissa (Hora 1921), Jharkhand (Hora 1921, through synonymy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra jenkinsonianum</span>), West Bengal (Barman 2007), Maharashtra (Sykes 1841, Hora and Misra 1937, Fraser 1942, Kulkarni 1947, Silas 1953, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Singh and Yazdani 1988, Yazdani and Singh 1990, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Heda 2009, Jadhav and Yadav 2009), Andhra Pradesh (Venkateswarlu and Bakde 1986, Chandrasekhar 2004), Goa (Tilak 1972), Karnataka (David 1956, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Tamil Nadu (Manimekalan 1998, Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan 1999, Balasundaram <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and Kerala (Silas 1949, 1951, Rajan 1955, Shaji and Easa 1995, Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Narayanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>Record of this species from Nepal (Shrestha 1999) needs validation.
166590		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mulla</span> is found in mountain streams and lowland rivers (Fraser 1942, Yazdani and Singh 1990, Menon 1999, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It attains a standard length of 17 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It seems to be resistant to pollution as it is found abundantly even in polluted stretches (Neelesh Dahanukar, pers. obs.) and it is recorded from polluted rivers such as Badra river (David 1956) and Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003). The species breeds during December and January and show upstream migration for spawning (Joseph and Job 1983). The fish mainly feeds on detritus matter, algae and diatoms (Neelesh Dahanukar, pers. obs.).<br/></p>
166590		population	eng	<p>No systematic data is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mullya</span>. However, the species is common throughout its distributional range.<br/></p>
166590		threats	eng	<p>No information is available on specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra mullya</span>. <br/></p>
166591		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plans are in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Carinotetraodon travancoricus</span>. Site/area and resource/habitat protection could help in conserving this endemic species. More research is needed on the population status, ecology and threats to this species. The species is known from at least one protected area under Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Easa and Shaji 1997).
166591		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carinotetraodon travancoricus</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and is found in the coastal areas of Kerala and southern Karnataka. In Kerala the species is known from Pamba river (Hora and Nair 1941), Chalakudy river (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Raghavan e<span style="font-style: italic;">t al</span>. 2008, Beevi and Ramachandran 2009), Periyar river (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Beevi and Ramachandran 2009), Kechery river (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), Bharathapuzha river (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001), Muvattupuzha River (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009), Pudukkad (Inasu 1993), Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Easa and Shaji 1997) and Vembanad lake (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). In Karnataka it is known from Mavincar (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and Aghanashini river (Bhat 2004). The inferred extent of occurrence for this species is around 35,000 to 36,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has been recorded from 13 rivers in Kerala.
166591		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carinotetraodon travancoricus</span> is found in freshwater rivers and it attains a total length of 2.5 cm (Menon 1999). This species moves in shoals and is easy to catch.
166591		population	eng	The species is common in Chalakudy, Periyar and Muvattupuzha River (Beevi and  Ramachandran 2009), while it is rare in Bharathapuzha  river (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001) and Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Easa and Shaji 1997). The species has declined by 30-40% over the past five years (B.M. Kurup pers. comm. 2010).
166591		threats	eng	The habitat of this fish is severely modified by damming, indiscriminate de-forestation and subsequent conversion of  forest area into agricultural plantations (Raghaven <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is also a famous aquarium fish, and capturing the species for aquarium trade is a threat. Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) and Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) have considered this species as Endangered, however, no rationale is provided. In Chalakudy river the habitat of this fish is severely threatened by damming, indiscriminate de-forestation and subsequent conversion of forest area into agricultural plantations (Raghavan&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). No such information is available on other areas where the fish is found. However, these threats could be common throughout its distribution.
166592		conservation	eng	Further information is requred on the species distribution and population. &#160;Investigation is required to stablish the taxonomic identity of the two known populations in Myamanr and India.
166592		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys kempi</span> is known from Garo Hills in Meghalaya, Abor Hills in Arunachal Pradesh, India and Putao, Myanmar (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166592		habitat	eng	Demersal environment with freshwater is the main habitat of this species. &#160;It is also mostly found in streams with pebbly bottoms; a mountain stream specialist requiring clear oxygenated water.
166592		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166592		threats	eng	It is a hill stream fish. There is continuing disturbance it its habitat due to siltation, change in the course of streams and human intervention.
166593		conservation	eng	<p>  No conservation measures are documented for this species at present but it is believed to be reared for fishery purpose.</p>
166593		distribution	eng	This species is found in tropical freshwaters of India, Nepal (Edds and Ng 2007), and Bangladesh, and may have a wider distribution (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010).
166593		habitat	eng	<p>This is a tropical, benthopelagic freshwater fish, common at water temperatures of 22-28 ⁰C.<strong>&#160;</strong>&#160;It is f<span class="sheader51">ound in lakes, ponds, ditches and paddy fields and is able to live out of water for protracted periods (Fishbase 2009). <em>Anabas</em> are carnivorous, living on a diet of water invertebrates and their larvae. They guard their eggs.<strong></strong></p>
166593		population	eng	<p>  No information on population is available but it spawns once during rainy season from May-July. The impact of fisheries on the species population requires research.<br/></p>
166593		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is of major commercial interest and there are large scale fisheries for this fish. The species is also threatened by infection by <em>Aplanes brauni</em>&#160;(fungi) that causes death of this species (De and Mandal 2003).</p><p>The impact of other regional threats (including siltation caused by deforestation and agricultural activities, pollution, and habitat alteration resulting from hydropower and irrigation dam development) require further research.<br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
166594		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. But there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.  </p>
166594		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius bendelisis </span>is found throughout India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Also recorded as present in Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010).
166594		habitat	eng	The species is found to inhabit streams and rivers along the base of hills with pebbly and sandy bottom.
166594		population	eng	<p>This species is fairly common throughout its range.<br/></p>
166594		threats	eng	<p>The possible threat to this species are over-exploitation, habitat destruction due to natural and certain human activities.<br/></p>
166595		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166595		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo bata</span> is found in India and Bangladesh, and is also reported from Pakistan. This species has also been introduced into reservoirs where the species is cultivated.
166595		habitat	eng	<em>L. bata</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species, which inhabits rivers.  It is a herbivorous column feeder.
166595		population	eng	A study which surveyed fish species availability in the fish landing centres of the Khulna District in Bangladesh, reported <em>L. bata</em> to be endangered, on the basis of abundance.
166595		threats	eng	<em>L. bata</em> is an important commercial species for aquaculture.  It is a much sought-after fish with a high value in the market, however fishing is not considered to be a great threat to the species due to the extent of aquaculture.<br/><br/>Loss of habitat and overexploitation may be local threats to wild populations.
166596		conservation	eng	Further information on the species habitat, ecology and population is required. E<span style="font-style: italic;">x-situ</span> breeding may be possible, but is difficult, and would have to be strongly justified by conservation need. &#160;Impacts on the populations from harvests for trade needs to be studied and monitored.
166596		distribution	eng	Presence confirmed from Assam (type locality: Goalpara) and Nagaland (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em>). Reported from Bangladesh and Nepal, but records are doubtful.
166596		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers in hill areas.
166596		population	eng	This species has been collected very rarely, and the species is also likely to be rare.
166596		threats	eng	The threats to this rare species are not known, but it is presumed that over exploitation for the aquarium fish trade is a threat.
166597		conservation	eng	More information on population size and trends and the geographic distribution of this species is needed. A larger series is needed to ascertain the validity of this species. The potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166597		distribution	eng	<em>Pterocryptis indicus</em> is only known from the type locality in Namdapha River, Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
166597		habitat	eng	Ecological information for this species is lacking. However, it is expected to occupy habitats similar to those of its congeners, i.e., hill streams with rocky and sandy bottom (H.H. Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).
166597		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
166597		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166598		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
166598		distribution	eng	The species has a Western Pacific distribution. It is known from a limited number of records, and the known distribution is probably incomplete. Records include India (Gangetic delta, Chilika lake (Orissa) and Ennore backwaters; Talwar and Jhingran 1991), peninsular Thailand (e.g., Phuket; Satapoomin 2011), Singapore (Tan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Indonesia (Java; Borneo; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993), Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1991) and north Australia (Northern Territories and northern Queensland; Robertson and Duke 1990).
166598		habitat	eng	<p>Found in brackish, freshwater and in marine waters (Riede 2004).<strong><br/></strong></p>
166598		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population. Common in some parts of its range e.g., Chilika Lake in India.
166598		threats	eng	<p>No information available on the threats to the species. <br/></p>
166599		conservation	eng	<p>Information is need on the threats to the species, and the status of its habitats.<br/></p>
166599		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ctenops nobilis</span> is distributed in India (Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Sikkim) and in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>.
166599		habitat	eng	Most of the species is found in small muddy streams and pools. It is a mouth-brooder.
166599		population	eng	<p>More information is needed to understand its global trends. In Assam it is declining (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>
166599		threats	eng	<p>In northeastern India, the species habitat is declining due to wetland loss (agricultural conversion) in Assam. No information is known on the threats from other parts of the species range.<br/></p>
166601		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species range, population and ecology is required. The condition of the species' habitat needs to be surveyed, and the impacts of agricultural practices on the aquatic habitats confirmed.
166601		distribution	eng	Known from northeastern India (Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya), and from Umsing nearby, collected from an altitude of 1069 - 1524 m. It appears, from current collections, to have a very restricted range estimated at and Extent of Occurrence of 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
166601		habitat	eng	This little fish is very inactive and mostly spends its time lying at the bottom, either buried in mud or clinging to some submerged vegetation along the edges of streams where the water is moving very slowly. It avoids light and tries to hide into the mud (Yazdani 1976, 1978).
166601		population	eng	No population datasets are available for this species and it is reported to be scarce in capture by Menon (1999).
166601		threats	eng	The areas surrounding the streams in which the species has been found are under threat from deforestation, causing siltation within the streams.
166602		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Although there is some catch data that suggests that this species is in decline in southern West Bengal, catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed. The identity of material identified as this species collected from the northern Western Ghats requires verification.
166602		distribution	eng	It is present in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
166602		habitat	eng	This species is found primarily in the main channel of large rivers, sometimes descending to tidal stretches of these rivers (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166602		population	eng	Although Mishra&#160;<em>et al</em>. (2009) report a decline of 33.5% in catch for this species in southern West Bengal for 1960-2000, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. Current observations indicate that this species is common and abundant throughout much of its range (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166602		threats	eng	Overfishing is a major threat as known from studies in southern West Bengal (Mishra et al. 2009)
166603		conservation	eng	Impact of threats on species population requires confirmation. &#160;The species may be declining due to ornamental fish trade, but this information is not quantified.
166603		distribution	eng	<em>Botia dario</em> is distributed in the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages in India, and Meghna basin in Bangladesh.
166603		habitat	eng	It is a species of rivers and streams.
166603		population	eng	This is the most common of all <em>Botia</em> species.
166603		threats	eng	Though habitat destruction is rampant throughout its range of distribution, the species is hardy and  widespread. The impact of harvest for the aquarium trade should be monitored.
166605		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place although it may be present in protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.</p>
166605		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius tileo </span>is distributed in the Ganges-Brahmaputra drainage of northern and northeastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
166605		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in hill streams and rivers with pebble or sand bottom.&#160; </p>
166605		population	eng	It is quite common in the catches in the eastern Himalayas.
166605		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species are not known.<br/></p>
166606		conservation	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166606		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Yunnan (southern China) (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166606		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in rivers and ponds;  in slow-moving waters of rivers and it is essentially a bottom feeder that <span class="sheader5">feeds on plants,  filamentous algae and diatoms (<span class="sheader5">Ahmad and  Niazi 1988, <span class="sheader5">Talwar and Jhingran 1991, <span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5">Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000<span class="sheader5">).   Fecundity of this species ranges between 193,000 and  238,000 (<span class="sheader5">Rahman 1989<span class="sheader5">).</span></span></span></span>
166606		population	eng	<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5">This is a very common fish throughout India and in adjacent countries. However population trends are not known.<br/><span class="sheader5"></span>
166606		threats	eng	<p>No known widespread major threats to the species. </p>
166607		conservation	eng	<p>Threats to the species need to be identified.</p>
166607		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius guganio</em> is widely distributed in India (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yamuna river systems in the Gangetic Provinces, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bangal), Bangladesh. Jayaram (1991). This species which had been recorded in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are considered as <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis</span> which was earlier synonymized with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guganio</span>. Currently both species are treated separate.
166607		habitat	eng	<p>This species breeds in upper reaches of permanent rivers, ponds and lakes.<br/></p>
166607		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166607		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats identified for the species currently.</p>
166608		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine distribution pattern of the species and also whether the species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.</p>
166608		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra nasuta</span> is known from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland in northeastern India. Presence in Myanmar and Viet Nam is doubtful.
166608		habitat	eng	<p>The fish inhabits moderate to fast flowing hill streams with rocky beds.<br/></p>
166608		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166608		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known, however, hill stream habitat threats are a concern.</p>
166609		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166609		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India, Bangladesh and Tibet (China).
166609		habitat	eng	This species is found in swift hillstreams, typically with torrential areas and riffles, and a substrate of coarse gravel and fine sand mixed with rock.
166609		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and trend for this species. Current indications from field surveys are that it is still a relatively abundant species.</p>
166609		threats	eng	<p>All hill stream species are threatened due to dams, shifting cultivation and destructive fishing. &#160;However, due to this species' wide distribution the threats are not considered major.</p>
166610		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166610		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura manipurensi</span>s is distributed in the Chindwin basin of Manipur and Nagaland, India. Kottelat (1990) also reports the species from the Brahmaputra basin (Kottelat 2005), but this requires confirmation.
166610		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling hill stream species; i<span class="sheader5">t inhabits shallow, swift, clear streams with pebbly bottoms.
166610		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166610		threats	eng	They are prone to threats such as dynamite and other destructive fishing; human interference and poisoning.
166611		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
166611		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra-Ganges system, as well as the Indus and Mahanadi River drainages (Roberts 1994).
166611		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a large variety of freshwater bodies, primarily rivers and lakes.
166611		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trends for this species, although this is a fairly common species in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system.
166611		threats	eng	The current rate of fishing for this species is not a threat in eastern and northeastern India. In other regions, the threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Despite the paucity of knowledge regarding potential threats, this species is still relatively abundant and widespread. This may be an indication that there are no major widespread threats to this species at the moment.
166612		conservation	eng	More information is required on the species distribution, habitat and ecology.
166612		distribution	eng	<em>Channa amphibeus</em> is known from the type locality in India (Chel River, Assam and northern Bengal). The species has been reported from the Brahmaputra River by local people (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010). It is also reported from Bhutan (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010; Froese and Pauly 2010), but identifications require confirmation, as the species has been confused in the past with<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. barca.</span>
166612		habitat	eng	Very limited information available; it is a hill stream species.
166612		population	eng	There is very limited information for this species as it&#160;has been confused with <em>C. barca</em> in the literature (Reddy 1981) and hence its interest to fisheries is not clearly known. Reported to be fairly common in northern Bengal .
166612		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known, but threats to hill streams include decline in habitat quality due to sedimentation from deforestation and agricultural practices.
166613		conservation	eng	None required, though wild population trends should be monitored.
166613		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in Asia<span>: Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam and Lao PDR (the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins), Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah, and the peninsula), Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra,  Java).  Reported from Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India (Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital)), Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Singapore, and the Philippines. Also recorded from southern China and Japan.<br/><br/>The species has also been widely introduced for cultivation; e.g. the Philippines, and the eastern and western coasts of the USA.
166613		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland fresh and brackish waters; rivers, lakes, ponds and reservoirs. This species has a short spawning period during July-August, coinciding  with the south-west monsoons. Also breeds in confined waters of ponds  and tanks. Often migrates to nearby inundated pools and puddles for  breeding during rainy season. Inundated paddy fields are most preferred  spawning grounds.<br/><br/>This catfish is abundant in ponds and rivers, and in the mud they lie concealed for hours. Found in all types of waters but more so in derelict and swampy waters. It can live out of water for quite sometime and move short distances over land as it has an accessory respiratory organ.
166613		population	eng	No information available.
166613		threats	eng	No information available. May be overfished locally.
166614		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166614		distribution	eng	<em>N. dukai </em>has been recorded from the Ramganga River, Pithorgarh District, Uttar Pradesh and the Teesta River near Darjeeling, Assam, India.  It is thought that the species occurs on the southern slopes of the Himalayas (F. Fang, pers. comm.)
166614		habitat	eng	<em>N. dukai </em>is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits fast flowing rivers and streams with rocky bottoms.
166614		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166614		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to <em>N. dukai</em> in the relatively highly populated region, including pollution, habitat degradation and overexploitation of fisheries, however it is not known whether these factors pose a direct threat to the species.
166615		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166615		distribution	eng	<em>G. sinensis</em> occurs in the Yangtzee river basin in China; the species was described from Tungting Lake in the River basin but it's range throughout the Yangtzee is not known.
166615		habitat	eng	<em>G sinensis</em> is a benthopelagic fish, found in mountain rapids.
166615		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166615		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to <em>G. sinensis</em> including destructive fishing techniques in hill streams, and the invasive species <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>, however the extent to which these species affect <em>G. sinensis</em> is not known.
166616		conservation	eng	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. &#160;The identity of the population from Myanmar requires further study, as there is some evidence to indicate that it is not conspecific with the populations from the Indian subcontinent (Ng and Hadiaty 2009). &#160; Even the populations within the subcontinent need to be studied to ascertain if they are indeed conspecific. &#160;The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.
166616		distribution	eng	<em>Ompok bimaculatus</em> is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Ng and Hadiaty 2009). However, given the uncertainties surrounding the identity of this species, it is possible that its range is more geographically circumscribed.
166616		habitat	eng	Inhabits plains and submontane regions, and is found in rivers, lakes, tanks and ponds.
166616		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant throughout its distribution. &#160;No empirical data on declines in its entire range is available, although&#160;Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report an average population decline of 29.3% over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal. &#160;The average decline per decade since 1980 is about 60% (Mishra <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;However, the difficulty in extrapolating data from a localized study and the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the populations from throughout the subcontinent make it difficult to definitively consider this species to be in decline.
166616		threats	eng	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in marked population declines (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2009). &#160;The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166617		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166617		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura corica</span> is reported from the Himalayan foothills of Ganges River drainage in India (Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and West Bengal) and Nepal. Its occurrence in Numaligarh in Assam, Salane River in Orissa and reports from Bangladesh need to be verified.
166617		habitat	eng	The species inhabits clear waters with sandy bottom.
166617		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166617		threats	eng	The threat to this species are damming and destructive fishing.
166618		conservation	eng	Monitoring of population trends, distribution, and threats to <em>P. hodgarti</em> is recommended.
166618		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in India and Bangladesh.  It has also been reported from Nepal and Tibet.
166618		habitat	eng	<em>P. hodgarti</em> is a demersal and omnivorous fish that inhabits cold torrential streams and mountain rapids.
166618		population	eng	A 15% decline in 20 years has been reported (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.).  No recent population trend data is available, and it is though that the reported decline is for the Indian population only, however threats to the species are ongoing.
166618		threats	eng	In India the species may be locally threatened by deforestation, damming and pollution.  As the species is specialised to a habitat type that is particularly susceptible to environmental changes, in particular damming and siltation that results from deforestation, it may be more threatened by these factors than other species in the region.
166619		conservation	eng	<p>Threats to the species in the wild need identification.<br/></p>
166619		distribution	eng	It occurs widely in northern and central India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar and Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It has been introduced into some of the rivers of peninsular India and Sri Lanka.
166619		habitat	eng	Rohu is the natural inhabitant of freshwater sections of the rivers. Rohu thrives well in all fresh waters below an altitude of approximately 549 m. Rohu is a bottom feeder and prefers to feed on plant matter including decaying vegetation. Rohu is a bottom feeder and prefers to feed on plant matter including  decaying vegetation. Rohu attains maturity towards the end of the second  year in ponds. The spawning season of rohu generally coincides with the  southwest monsoon. Spawning takes place in flooded rivers. The  fecundity of rohu varies from 226,000 to 2,794,000, depending upon the  length and weight of the fish and weight of the ovary . The spawn of  this fish is collected from rivers during monsoon and reared in tanks  and lakes (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166619		population	eng	No information is available about the population status of wild populations although this species is very common throughout its range.
166619		threats	eng	<p>There are no large scale major threats to the species. </p>
166621		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation recommendations made for this species.</p>
166621		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius ticto</em> is found in Pakistan, in lower Swat River drainage; India (throughout except western face of Western Ghats); Nepal; Sri Lanka; Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166621		habitat	eng	Inhabits mostly montane and submontane regions, and flood plains.
166621		population	eng	<p>No systematic information is available about the population trends. Nevertheless, the species is very common throughout India and adjacent countries.<br/></p>
166621		threats	eng	<p>No major widely distributed threats are known. </p>
166622		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution, population and ecology is required. The extent if the impact of sedimentation and general habitat degradation needs to be better understood. The type specimen was collected from the Namdapha National Park, but the quality of suitable habitat within the protected area is not known.
166622		distribution	eng	Recorded from India (Namdapha National Park, Tirap District (Arunachal Pradesh). A recent extensive survey of Arunachal Pradesh did not report the species (Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and other surveys in the area have also not reported the species (Tamang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). The AOO is estimated at under 500 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the extent of suitable habitat within the protected area.
166622		habitat	eng	The type locality is Namdapha River, a hill stream species.
166622		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166622		threats	eng	There is extensive deforestation and logging activities within the type locality leading to sedimentation which will impact the species. The species is found under rocks in gravely streams, a habitat which will be degraded by siltation. The type locality is in a National Park, but the effectiveness of protection is uncertain.
166623		conservation	eng	<p>More studies into the threats and impacts of harvest on the species is needed.</p>
166623		distribution	eng	Puntius sophore is distributed throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan (China).
166623		habitat	eng	It inhabits plains and submontane regions. A very plentiful shoaling fish, remaining upperciably smaller in the  domestic aquarium and becoming mature at 7-8 cm. It attains a length of  13 cm. It is  very common in ponds of West Bengal.
166623		population	eng	It is very common throughout India in rivers and ponds.
166623		threats	eng	<p>No known major widespread threats.</p>
166624		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166624		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys garoensis</span> is known from the Garo Hills, Meghalaya (southern tributary of the Brahmaputra) and Dikrong River (northern tributary), Arunachal Pradesh, India (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;No information is known on presence in intermediate basins.
166624		habitat	eng	The species is found to occur in streams with pebbly bottoms; a moutain stream specialist requiring clear oxygenated water.
166624		population	eng	No information is available on the species population. &#160;Species may be affected by change in their habitat.
166624		threats	eng	Being a hillstream fish, the species is prone to habitat destruction caused by deforestation and siltation during monsoon season.
166625		conservation	eng	<p>Information on threats to the species required.<br/></p>
166625		distribution	eng	It is widely distributed in India (all along the Himalaya, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Urtanchal, West Bengal, Bihar), Bangladesh and Nepal (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Recently reported from Mekong and Bassac rivers of Mekong Delta, Viet Nam (Tung <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), although it may be introduced in these areas. Also reported from Pakistan and Afghanistan possibly related to a valid subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo dyocheilus pakistanensis</span>.
166625		habitat	eng	Inhabits clear active currents of large rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Increasing day length and water temperature are favorable  for ovarian development in female under both captive and wild conditions, and it breeds during monsoon season (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
166625		population	eng	It is a common species in the Himalaya up to Sikkim and in Assam&#160; (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166625		threats	eng	<p>No known widespread major threats to the species.</p>
166626		conservation	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166626		distribution	eng	Throughout India except western face of the Western Ghats. Also Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Menon 1999).
166626		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boga</span> inhabits large rivers and their tributaries, above tidal influence (Menon 1999). It attains a length of 30 cm and it spawns in flooded rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166626		population	eng	This carp is common in the tributaries of the Ganga and also in the Godavari and Krishna rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166626		threats	eng	<p>No information available. Affected by pollution, siltation, and overfishing throughout its distribution. How this threats are affecting the population it is not known.<br/></p>
166628		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
166628		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Gangetic basin and in Mahanadi in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and probably Myanmar.
166628		habitat	eng	<em>S. silondia</em> is a demersal, amphidromous, and carnivorous fish that generally occurs in shoals.  Adults ascend from estuaries into large rivers for breeding during monsoons.  After the water level recedes, this fish often gets stranded in small pools.
166628		population	eng	Reported to be a common species in Nepal and in the Gangetic estuary.  However, there is evidence that populations may be declining in a reservoir in Orissa, India.  The 1998 CAMP workshop (Molur & Walker) reported a 20% decline in <em>S. silondia</em>.
166628		threats	eng	<em>S. silondia</em> is commercially fished, but has a very low resilience to fishing pressures, according to parameters suggested by the American Fisheries Society.  Its minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years.  It contributes to the commercial fishery in the Hirakud reservoir, Orissa, India, where available information indicates a decreasing trend in the populations of carnivores, of which <em>S. silondia</em> is a part.
166629		conservation	eng	<p>  Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166629		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra gravelyi</span> is known from southern Shan States of Myanmar and Manipur (Chindwin basin), and Mizoram, in northeastern India. Vishwanath and Tombi Singh (1987) reported the fish for the first time from Chindwin River basin of Manipur in northeastern India. They remarked that distribution of the fish in Manipur may be due to the water connection between the Myanmar and Manipur through the Chindwin drainage. The report of <em>Garra gravelyi</em> from&#160;<st1:place><st1:placename>Tuirini</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River</st1:placetype></st1:place> (<st1:place><st1:placename>Barak-Brahmaputra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River   basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>) in Mizoram in northeastern <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region> by Kar and Sen (2007) needs further confirmation on the identity of the specimens.    <p><em></em></p>
166629		habitat	eng	<p>The species occurs in fast flowing hill streams and lakes.<br/></p>
166629		population	eng	<p>No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.      </p>
166629		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The Lokchou, Litan and Chakpi streams in Manipur and Inle lake, from where the species was reported are disturbed by various anthropogenic activities.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
166630		conservation	eng	<p>Population trends and potential threats to this species need to be studied. &#160;Conservation measures are needed.</p>
166630		distribution	eng	The species is found in Pakistan, India (Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Arunanchal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Assam, and Nagaland (Tsurang River)), Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. It is also recorded from southeast Africa (Indian Ocean distribution).
166630		habitat	eng	The species inhabits larger freshwater rivers although it also occurs in estuaries and in the sea during early life and near maturity. &#160;It is a benthopelagic, catadromous species.
166630		population	eng	No information is available on the species global population. &#160;In India (Nagaland and Assam) the population is moderate. &#160;For other parts of India, there is limited information.
166630		threats	eng	No information available. &#160;In India harvesting is not considered a threat generally, but in some areas (e.g. Manipur) it is electro-fished. &#160;Large dams in Africa is believed is a immediate threat to migration and breeding of this species.
166631		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166631		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius dogarsinghi</span> is found in Chindwin drainage of Manipur and Nagaland (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) in India. It may also occur in the neighbouring parts of Myanmar. &#160;The range of the species is estimated to be less than 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
166631		habitat	eng	<p>It is a hillstream species which inhabits rocky streams.<br/></p>
166631		population	eng	<p>This species is not very common throughout its range.<br/></p>
166631		threats	eng	<p>Since the species is a hill stream fish, it may be affected by habitat degradation caused by certain human activities like damming, logging, overexploitation, and harvesting.<br/></p>
166632		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the the biology and trends of this species is needed, especially due to rampant fishing for the ornamental trade.</p>
166632		distribution	eng	In India <em>Aspidoparia jaya</em> species is found in the Gangetic provinces and Assam and Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital), and also in Nepal and Bangladesh.
166632		habitat	eng	<p>This is lastly fish but rare in the catches.  It may be found in <span class="tooltipelement">freshwater environments.&#160;<span class="tooltipelement">&#160;Inhabits <span class="tooltipelement">streams and <span class="tooltipelement">ponds in <span class="tooltipelement">plains and mountainous regions. &#160;Typically found at an altitude of 0 to 1,769 meters (Menon 1999, British Oceanographic Data Center).  </span></span></p>
166632		population	eng	<p>Catch frequency of this species is 3.8 % in Arunachal Pradesh (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is rare as compared to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. morar</span>.<br/></p>
166632		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The fish is being harvested for its ornamental value. This is also harvested indiscriminately for its food value by use of destructive fishing.</p>  <p></p>
166633		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed. The identities of the Southeast Asian populations require study to resolve their identities.
166633		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal regions and the lower reaches of rivers throughout the Indian subcontinent eastwards to the Indochinese peninsula and southwards to Sundaic Southeast Asia.
166633		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and tidal rivers and lakes, ascending to freshwater, often entering the sea (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166633		population	eng	Although Patra <em>et al.</em> (2005) report a mean decline of 33.6% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960-2000&#160;and Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a decline of 27.8% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. Current indications are that&#160;this is a widespread, common species.
166633		threats	eng	Although the southern West Bengal population is threatened from overfishing, threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown. Since there is no information on the biology of this species, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166634		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166634		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India and Nepal, where it is known from the Kosi River, the Terai of the Eastern Himalayas, the Rihand river in Uttar Pradesh, and the Ghaggar river in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
166634		habitat	eng	<em>G. indicus</em> is a benthopelagic and carnivorous species, which occurs only in fast-flowing hill streams.
166634		population	eng	<em>G. indicus</em> is reported to be a rare species in Nepal.
166634		threats	eng	In India <em>G. indicus</em> is affected by destructive fishing techniques although it is not targeted itself, and this is not thought to cause large population declines of the species.
166635		conservation	eng	<p>There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study.</p>
166635		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in northeastern India.
166635		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).</p>
166635		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166635		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166636		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra rupecula </span>is reported from Noa Dihing River, Namdapha, Arunachal Pradesh which is a protected area. <br/></p>
166636		distribution	eng	<p><em>Garra rupecula</em> is known only from Arunachal Pradesh (Mishmi Hills) and Meghalaya (Khasi Hills), <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Sen (1995) remarked that in Meghalaya the species was recorded only from Khasi Hills only. </p>
166636		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits streams and rivers with rocky bed.<br/></p>
166636		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Sen (1995) remarked that the occurrence of the species in Meghalaya was not common. Report of Bagra <em>et al.</em> (2009) didn’t collect any specimens of <em>Garra rupecula</em> while making systematic survey of 35 rivers in Arunachal Pradesh including the type locality of the species.&#160; &#160;<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
166636		threats	eng	This area is affected by habitat degradation and fragmentation due to damming, mining, logging and deforestation.
166637		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The conspecificity of what is currently identified as&#160;<em>P. atherinoides</em>&#160;throughout India&#160;requires further investigation. Catch data for this species are also needed.
166637		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent.
166637		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of lentic and lotic habitats, although it appears to primarily inhabit rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom.
166637		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Current evidence indicates that it is still relatively widespread and abundant.
166637		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166639		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166639		distribution	eng	<em>Microphis cuncalus</em>&#160;was described from the estuaries near Kolkota, India (Hamilton 1822).&#160;This species is said to be found throughout India and on Sri Lanka (Dawson 1985). However, Pethiyagoda (1991) does not record the presence of this species in Sri Lanka, so the record from this island is highly doubtful.
166639		habitat	eng	Inhabits freshwaters, estuaries or low salinity habitats.
166639		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. However, this species is relatively widespread and considered to be common, despite the lack of definitive data.
166639		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Chhapgar and Pande (1986) report the extinction of a population of <em>M. cuncalus</em> from the Bhatsa River in western Maharashtra state in India as a result of the construction of the Pise Dam, but this likely represents an isolated case and dam construction is not likely to be a large-scale threat to this species.
166640		conservation	eng	Research is required into the impacts of the aquarium trade on this species, and education of fishers and traders. A species management plan is required in some parts of its range.
166640		distribution	eng	<em>Chaca chaca</em> is recorded from the Ganges-Brahmaputra drainages in India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
166640		habitat	eng	<p>  The species is a bottom-dweller, often found in mud, where it burrows. &#160;It is a lentic water species and is found in lakes, ponds, and in wetlands around small rivers.<br/></p>
166640		population	eng	A limited population, generally present in low numbers.
166640		threats	eng	Capture of the species for the aquarium trade is thought to have led to declining populations in some parts of its range (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.).
166642		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs further study. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166642		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar.
166642		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and biology of this species, but like other glyptosternine catfishes, it is likely to inhabit torrential streams with a substrate consisting of medium to large rocks..
166642		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
166642		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166643		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
166643		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura kangjupkhulensis</span> is distributed in Chindwin Basin, Manipur; India. The record of this species from the Brahmaputra basin in Nagaland (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008) is doubtful. Occurs upper reaches of Tizu, Imphal and Nambul rivers only.
166643		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51"><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura kangjupkhulensis</span> is found to inhabit<span class="sheader51"> <span class="sheader51">shallow, swift streams with gravelly bottom</span>
166643		population	eng	The species is very rare. There is an inferred decreasing trend in the population due to the threats to its habitat and distribution. Due to some dams and other proposed construction of dams in the species range it is predicted that the species is undergoing a decline and will undergo more than 50% decline in the next 10 years.
166643		threats	eng	Destructive fishing methods and human interference like water abstraction, damming and poisoning are the threat to this species which cause the mass destruction of the species. Construction of Singda dam for water supply and irrigation has disturbed its type locality: Kanjupkhul. Similar dams have also been constructed in other areas where the species is distributed.
166644		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species requires further study to understand better its range within the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins; it may be a species complex. Information on the species range, habitats and threats is needed.
166644		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidocephalichthys menoni</em> is recorded from the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins as far as Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand and recorded in Assam and other states in the Brahmaputra drainage. Also recorded from Nepal and may well be present within Bhutan and Bangladesh. &#160;The type locality is the Someswari River at Baghmara, South Garo Hills District, Meghalaya<span style="font-style: italic;">. L. menoni</span> is certainly present within the Brahmaputra basin; it is currently in synonomy with<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. caudofurcatus</span>, and as such has a very wide distribution within the Ganges basin. If the taxonomy is revised, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. menoni</span> will be restricted to the Brahmaputra basin.
166644		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits clear streams with sandy bottom (Menon 1992).
166644		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166644		threats	eng	The species hill stream habitat is being impacted across its whole range by deforestation and logging causing siltation of hill streams.
166645		conservation	eng	<p>Further research is required in to the impact of threats, especially over-harvesting and habitat degradation.</p><p>The species has the potential for being ranched in rivers/artificial channels of Nepal and other countries of the Trans-Himalayan region.</p><p>At present, attempts to culture and conserve&#160;Tor spp. have been initiated in&#160;most trans-Himalayan countries&#160;to compensate for the decline. Strategies for preservation of existing stock by habitat conservation,&#160;development of seed&#160;production technology for restocking and culture have been undertaken&#160;to promote the population.</p>   <p></p>
166645		distribution	eng	<p>The species has been reported from across the Himalayan region and elsewhere in south Asia and southeast Asia, ranging<st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city> from<em></em><span lang="EN"> Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Darjeeling to Kashmir), Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, western Iran to eastern Thailand. <br/></p><p><span lang="EN">D<span lang="EN">avid Edds reported the species from<span lang="EN"><span lang="EN"> Nepal from Mulghat, on the road from Dharan to Hile, Kachali river confluence, Kahare, Sabha river confluence, just east of the Tumlingtar, Brahamadev, Andhi Mohan-Andhi river confluence, Piluwaa river confluence, Gorangi - about 4 km west of Chisapani, Khalte, Chapang, purchased at Koshi barrage, just east of Katasi, Khairenitar, Narayangarh. </span></span></p>
166645		habitat	eng	Inhabits the montane and submontane regions, in streams and rivers.<em> T. putitora</em> is a major tor distributed in mid hills stretches of Himalayan region. <span class="sheader51">It inhabits rapid streams with rocky bottom, riverine pools and lakes. It seems that Sahar neither inhabits the warm terai climate nor streams of very cold climate; but in natural conditions it inhabits moderately cold and climate regions of tropical highlands. The fish is a column feeder in freshwater found in pH ranges 7.4 - 7.9 and in subtropical condition 13°C-30°C. It is omnivorous in nature during their adult stage and feed on periphytic algae and diatoms in juvenile stage. The feeding and breeding habitats are lost almost throughout their distributional range.&#160; <span class="sheader51"></span>
166645		population	eng	It is the most common <span style="font-style: italic;">mahseer </span>of the Himalaya and is also sometimes  known as the golden, yellow-finned, grey-hound or the thick-lipped  mahseer. It grows up to 2.7 m. <br/><br/>Annual productivity of the species declined from 0.198 gm<sup>2</sup> per year to 0.054 gm<sup>2</sup> per year (73%) in the Tehri Dam located in the Garhwal Himalaya, India   (Sharma 2004). Since it is a heavily fished species, population declines in the entire range is inferred to be anywhere between 40-50% over the last ten years.<br/><br/>Catches have declined in some areas (e.g. in the valley lakes around Pokhara, Nepal) due to overfishing.
166645		threats	eng	In Assam the population <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is fast depleting and at present are chiefly localised to certain major river systems and is fast approaching extinction in the streams and lakes of northern India. Large fishes are only found in some of the perennial pools.<br/><br/>This species is declining from its natural habitat due to urbanization, illegal encroachment, over fishing and chemical and physical alterations of their natural habitats.<br/><p>Fishery productivity declined in the Tehri Dam in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. The stress on the population is not only due to its over exploitation, but also due to the rise in developmental activities, especially the growing number of hydroelectric and irrigation projects which have fragmented and deteriorated its natural habitat. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
166646		conservation	eng	<p>There is a need to understand its biology, population and trends as well as potential threats and their impacts.</p>
166646		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius conchonius</em> is found in Afghanistan, Pakistan (Indus river drainage), India (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery river systems and other west-flowing rivers), Nepal, and Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166646		habitat	eng	Generally inhabits lakes and streams. It is one of the hardiest of the barbs; a hardy and very  popular Asian minnow. It is most impressively coloured during the mating  period, when the normally silvery male takes on a rich claret flush and  the slightly larger female becomes more luminous. It attains a length of  14 cm and matures at 6 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166646		population	eng	<p>No systematic information is available. Nevertheless, species is common in most of its distribution range. </p>
166646		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
166647		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166647		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system in the northern and northeastern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
166647		habitat	eng	This species is found in slower-flowing rivers and streams, typically with a sandy substrate.
166647		population	eng	<p>It is a commonly occurring species. &#160;There is insufficient information on the trends for this species.</p>
166647		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166648		conservation	eng	Currently there are no specific conservation action plans directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax annandalei</span>. Research is essential on the population status, species&#160;distribution, ecology and potential threats to the species. This species is found in one protected area, namely the Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010).  The inland fisheries bill enacted and passed by the government of  Kerala accommodates various provisions for the conservation of riverine  fishes in the state.
166648		distribution	eng	Glyptothorax annandalei&#160;is recorded from the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas in India and Nepal (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999) and Tibet (Yunfei 1987). However, Menon (1999) has restricted the distribution of the fish to Nilgiri hills in Cauvery watershed.<br/>In the Western Ghats the species is known from Bhavani River at the base of Nilgiri Hills (Hora 1923), Chalakudy river (Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010), Aghanashini and Bedti rivers in Karnataka (Bhat 2004), Panchaganga river in Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956) and Bhima river near Pune (Suter 1944).&#160; Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) recorded this species from seven river systems in Kerala.<br/>Hora and Misra  (1938) reported this species from Godavari river at Deolali, Nashik, Maharashtra. However, in the same year Hora (1938) considered this report to be misidentification of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax lonah</span>. Thus, the species may not be present in Godavari river system.<br/>Records of the fish from central India (Sarkar and Lakra 2007), Bihar (Khan and Kamal 1973), Kosi river in Nepal (Menon 1954) and Tibet (Yunfei 1987) need confirmation. Thus, it seems that the species is present only in the Western Ghats with an expected extent of occurrence of around 160000-170000 km<sup>2</sup>. The species is expected to be found in several locations in around 7 river drainages.
166648		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax annandalei </span>is found in cascades, rapids and riffle pools (with broken boulders as the substrate). It attains a total length of 11.5 cm (Menon 1999). There are general threats to the habitat&#160; in the areas where the fish is found. In Chalakudy river the habitat of this fish is severely threatened by  damming, indiscriminate de-forestation and subsequent conversion of  forest area into agricultural plantations (Raghaven <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Such changes are also common in other areas where the species is distributed (IUCN threat maps).
166648		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax annandalei</span>. Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002), however, suggests that the species is very rare in Kerala. The species is also very rare in Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010). It is very rare in all locations where it has been recorded (B.M. Kurup pers. obs.).
166648		threats	eng	No precise information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax annandalei</span>. Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002), Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) and Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008)  have considered this species as Endangered, however, no rationale is  provided. The habitat of this fish may be severely threatened by poisoning, damming, indiscriminate de-forestation and subsequent conversion of  forest area into agricultural plantations (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Raghaven <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). A possible way in which the damming can affect the species is through stopping the continuous flow of water making the area downstream of the dam hostile for the fish.
166649		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. laubuca</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing extreme population fluctuations.<br/></p>
166649		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. laubuca</span> is found throughout India, Sri Lanka and Myitkyina, Myanmar. Presence in southern India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar needs to be confirmed.
166649		habitat	eng	This species breeds freely in ponds, tanks and small streams, and in these habitats whenever they occur are found in large numbers. This very beautiful shoaling fish prefers the upper water-layers and proves to be very hardy and undemanding in aquaria having a large surface area.
166649		population	eng	This species is common in most of its range.
166649		threats	eng	<p>It may suffer from overexploitation as it is commonly collected for ornamental purposes.<br/></p>
166650		conservation	eng	Further information on the species' threats is required. Public awareness around the causes of soil erosion and the impacts of the ornamental trade is required.
166650		distribution	eng	It is recorded from Assam (Cachar), Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. &#160;It is also present in the mid-hills and plains in Nepal. &#160;It possibly occurs in Bangaldesh.
166650		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams.
166650		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
166650		threats	eng	The level of off-take for ornamental trade is slightly increasing (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.). Siltation is a common problem in hills streams caused by deforestation.
166651		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed. The conspecificity of the populations found throughout the entire Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka also needs further verification.
166651		distribution	eng	This species is known from inland and coastal rivers throughout the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
166651		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater habitats, including lakes, rivers and streams (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
166651		population	eng	Although Patra <em>et al.</em> (2005) report a mean decline of 36.6% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960?2000&#160;and Mishra <em>et al</em>. (2009) report a decline of 34.3% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. Current observations indicate that this species is common and abundant throughout much of its range (H.H. Ng<em> pers. comm.</em>).
166651		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
166653		conservation	eng	<p>Impact of harvest on the wild population must be studied.</p>
166653		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius phutunio</em> is widely distributed in India (Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura) and Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1991). Recently this species was recorded from Himachal Pradesh (Johal and Rawal 2005).
166653		habitat	eng	<p>Small sized fish (3.5 cm), inhibits clear streams and rivers, also muddy waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Breeds by substrate egg-scatterering. Adults do  not guard the eggs. It spawns near dawn between plants near the surface  of the water. Eggs hatch in 2 days at 75&#160;°F (24&#160;°C) (Innes 1966).<br/></p>
166653		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166653		threats	eng	<p>This species may be affected by habitat degradation due to deforestation and other anthropogenic activities.<br/></p>
166676		conservation	eng	New surveys are recommended along with studies on life history and identification of species specific threats.
166676		distribution	eng	<p>It is recorded from a few places in Myanmar: Arakan, Mandalay, Pegu,    Houngdaran, and Tavoy (Preston 1915) in the Chindwin, Irrawaddy and Sittang river basins. There is also a record from Bombay (Mumbai) (GBIF; National Museum of Natural History, USA), but this record require verification.<br/></p>
166676		habitat	eng	<p>The species is recorded from freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams, where it burrows in the mud. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166676		population	eng	<p>Information on species population and trends are not available.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166676		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
166677		conservation	eng	<p>This species is easily confused with <em>L. marginalis</em>, hence detailed taxonomic studies is recommended. Habitat information, population trends, threats and uses are not known, which require detailed studies. There are no conservation actions in place for this species. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166677		distribution	eng	<p>The type locality of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens consobrinus</span> is given as "China", however Preston (1915) considered this probably an error; "The locality as given by Lea is probably a mistake; the variety is  widely distributed over India and Ceylon."<br/></p><p>It is known from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Recently, it has been reported from various locations of upper and lower Gangetic plains including Uttar Pradesh (Yamuna River at Allahabad, Gomati River at Lucknow), Jharkhand (Damodar River downstream from Panchet Dam), Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Bihar (Ganga River at Patna) within India, and Kamdai Nadi, Rautahat District in Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). A wider distribution within India and Nepal can be expected.<br/></p>
166677		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in both large and small rivers in the Ganga River system. It is recorded both in lotic and lentic water bodies with a very rich macro-zoobenthic community (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166677		population	eng	<p>A recent study in Nepal reported this species to be abundant in a single locality at Kamdai Nadi, Rautahat District (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, information on population in its distribution range is unknown.</p>
166677		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats is available   for this species, however water pollution and habitat loss are general known threats that affect freshwater molluscs.  </p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166678		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed distribution studies, life history, threats and population trends research are recommended for this species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166678		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia viola </span>is found only from Loktak lake of Manipur and from Dimapur in Nagaland, India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). Further expert study is required, and it should be looked for in neighbouring drainages in Myanmar and other Indian states.<br/><p>&#160;</p>
166678		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in lakes and remains attached to under surface of floating objects or on submerged stones, pebbles, grass stems in sluggish muddy stream. <br/></p>
166678		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166678		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166679		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Research is needed into the species full range, ecology and threats.
166679		distribution	eng	It is widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent, including most of India (confirmed present in Karnataka, Kerela, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Sikkim, Manipur and Assam  (Annandale <em>et al</em>. 1921) and it has been reported from&#160;Simla Hills of Bilaspur District, Himachal  Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, India (Agrawal 1976, 1977)), Pakistan (Peshawar, Sindh), Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166679		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers, streams and lakes and it prefers fine gravel, sand or mud substratum; mostly confined to lowland rivers up to around 250 m a.s.l. (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
166679		population	eng	It is a very common species in India and likely to be common elsewhere.
166679		threats	eng	It is a widespread species with no major known threat though it is consumed as food in certain parts of its distributional range.
166680		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Distribution studies, population trends, life history, and impacts of threats are recommended studies.</p>  <p></p>
166680		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The species is common throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, and also present in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> and Myanmar. A record from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia is most likely an introduction if valid.</st1:place></st1:country-region> In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, it is widely distributed, and some areas it has been studied include West Bengal (Kolkata, Hugli estuary, North 24 Parganas) and Tamil Nadu (Porto Novo).
166680		habitat	eng	It generally occurs <span lang="EN-GB">in estuarine waters (low saline water), rarely extending into freshwater (Subba Rao 1989, Dey 2007).
166680		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166680		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166681		conservation	eng	<p>It is a widespread and common species and hence no recommendations for research or action identified.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166681		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus convexiusculus</span> is a very common and a widely distributed species. Its range extends from Iran and Saudi Arabia to the Philippines and Japan. In India it is recorded from most states (including Meghalaya (Ri-Bhoi), Tripura (West), Uttar Pradesh (Nainital), and Himachal Pradesh (Chamba, Una), and is recorded from Turkey, Afghanistan, Thailand, Viet Nam, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Nepal.</p>
166681		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in various types of running water and stagnant water bodies such as lakes, ponds, ditches and rice fields. It is an intermediate host of many trematode parasites. Larval forms of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gastrothylase crumenifer</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Paramphistomum explanatum</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola elongates</span>&#160;and other cercariae viz.,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">C. chugathi , C. ggraulusi, C. rithorensis, C. furgobnsis&#160;</span>have been recorded from this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166681		population	eng	<p>There is no information on its population status, however it is the most common species throughout its distribution range.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166681		threats	eng	<p>This is a widespread species with no known major threats.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166682		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Research and conservation recommendations are not urgent for this species.</p>  <p></p>
166682		distribution	eng	It is distributed throughout south and southeast Asia. The species is recorded from Bangladesh, Nepal, southern China, throughout India, Iran, Malaysia (both the peninsular and the archipelago), Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand (in Thailand there is only one certain population in a small pond at Ban Kung Khayan (Thung Yai district, Province of Nakhon Si Thammarat) known; K. Richter, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010), and Tibet (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166682		habitat	eng	<p>The species is not very particular about its habitat. It is often found in temporary water bodies, which dry up in summer, and it tides over the unfavourable conditions by burying itself in the mud. It is also found in water that has a salinity of 0.3 mgl<sup>-1</sup> (Subba Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). <br/></p>This snail is an intermediate host of some parasites of cattle, pig and dog, e.g.,&#160; <em>Schistosoma&#160; indica , S. nasalis , S. spindalis, S. suis, S. incognitum, Fasciola gigantic</em>,<em> F. hepatica, Clinostomum&#160; giganticum, Echinostoma&#160; revolutum, Orientobilharzia&#160; dattae, Echinoparyphium bugulai</em>.<br/>This is a pest of paddy and aquatic plants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Azola</span>) which are&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>used to produce bio fertilizer in West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989).
166682		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common across its range.<br/></p>     <p></p>
166682		threats	eng	<p>It is common and widespread species with no known widespread threats.</p>
166683		conservation	eng	Research is needed for this species particularly on taxonomy.
166683		distribution	eng	It is known from the type locality in Manipur, India.
166683		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of the species are unknown.
166683		population	eng	This species has not been reported after the type specimen. Population details are not known.
166683		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
166685		conservation	eng	<p>Distribution, taxonomy, threats from use are the main gaps in the knowledge of this species.</p>
166685		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in&#160; the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins.  It is present in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and India (reported from Darjeeling, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Rajesthan,   Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal&#160; (Subba Rao 1989,   Ramakrishna and Dey 2007)).<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 34px; height: 10px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
166685		habitat	eng	<p>      </p><p><em>Parreysia caerulea</em> colonizes in gravel, sand and mud substrate of lowland streams, rivers, ponds and lakes (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p></p>
166685		population	eng	<p>Abundant in running waters originating in the mid-mountains up to 250 m a.s.l and common in large ponds with high nutrient and well oxygenated water (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/></p>
166685		threats	eng	<p>Specific threats to this species are not known. Pesticide use, fish poisoning, encroaching marginal land of aquatic habitats (wetlands: ponds, lakes, marshes etc.) are common threats to most of the freshwater molluscs in Nepal including other parts of the Himalayan range. Impacts on populations are not fully understood.<br/></p>
166686		conservation	eng	<p>No research or conservation action recommendations have been suggested for this species.<br/></p>
166686		distribution	eng	It is known throughout the Ganges and Brahmaputra watersheds; records are from Bangladesh,  India, Myanmar<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Nepal and Pakistan (Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bhutan.
166686		habitat	eng	Usually occurs in permanent water bodies with abundant vegetation. It also occur in polluted water bodies. It is found in streams, ponds, lakes and wetlands with meso and eutrophic condition. It has been recorded at an altitude up to 1450 m asl. <br/><br/><em>L. acuminata</em> is an intermediate host of various human and animal parasitic helminths. Fifteen species of trematodes which are important parasites of sheep, cattle and human were reported from<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lymnaea</span> sp. that will include<span style="font-style: italic;"> Fasciola gigantic</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. hepatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma indicum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. nasalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. spindalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clinostomum&#160; giganticum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostoma revolutum, E. malayanum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Orientabilharzia turkestanicum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>&#160; from <span style="font-style: italic;">L</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">acuminata&#160; f. typica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">ruescens</span> (Subba Rao 1989).
166686		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166686		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the species.<br/></p>
166687		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution, ecology and potential threats.
166687		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens</span><em> lamellatus </em>is known from the lower Gangetic plain in West Bengal, and a lake in the Damodar River basin (Tenughat reservoir) in <st1:city w:st="on">Jharkhand</st1:city> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India. It is also reported from Sri Lanka</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mandalay, Pegu and Bhamo) (Preston 1915, Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2007). It is likely to be present in further Indian states and expert survey is required to confirm this; several of the known records are nearly a century old (Preston 1915).<br/></p>
166687		habitat	eng	Major habitats are river systems, lakes and reservoirs. It has been reported to inhabit the Tenughat Reservoir which is very clear and unpolluted oligotrophic reservoir in Damodar River system (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This taxon inhabits gravel and sand substrate of the littoral zone.
166687		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution, but is rare and sporadically distributed in its range, though this may be a result of inadequate survey. Population status is unknown.
166687		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
166688		conservation	eng	Habitat information, population trends and threats are not known, which require detailed studies. Although the species is used, there are no conservation action in place.
166688		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>L. corrianus</em> is distributed throughout India, Bangladesh and Nepal; also reported from Myanmar (Nesemann et al. 2007, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). &#160;Nesemann et al. (2007) provide some details regarding its distribution in northern india and Nepal:&#160;found in upper and lower Gangetic plains in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is reported from <st1:city w:st="on">Patna</st1:city> and Fatuha in Bihar, Yamuna River at Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh and Damodar River downstream from Panchet Dam in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jharkhand</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In Nepal, it is reported from Kamdai and Dodi Nadi near Gaur of Rautahat District. &#160;It is also reported from the Brahmaputra River basin in Garo Hills (East) and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, Bishenpur, Chandel, Churachandanpur, and Imphal of Manipur. &#160;It is also reported from   Myanmar.</p><p>Although records are not available, the species is likely to be found in Bhutan, and other states in India.<br/></p><p></p>
166688		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p><em></em>It is found in sand, silt and mud substrate of large lowland rivers. &#160;This species prefers lotic water bodies with a very rich macro zoobenthic community (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p></p>
166688		population	eng	<p>It is the most common freshwater bivalve in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. However, the population details are unknown.<br/></p>
166688		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is harvesting from the wild for human consumption.
166689		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166689		distribution	eng	<p><em>Paludomus globulosa</em> is only known from literature records from Kopili River, Assam, in India (Preston 1915).<br/></p>
166689		habitat	eng	<p>The species was recorded only from a river.<br/></p>
166689		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166689		threats	eng	<p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation,  sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential  threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>
166690		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>the taxonomic status of the species needs to be confirmed. Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>
166690		distribution	eng	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Sulcospira huegeli</span> is reported from India (Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam: Khasi hills, Garo hills; Karnataka: Upper Cauvery river, Mangalore, Coorg; Kerala: Wynaad, Cochin) (Subba Rao 1989).<br/></p>
166690		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species; it is reported from hill streams in the Western Ghats in southern India.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
166690		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>  <p></p>
166690		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known; if restricted to hill streams, it may be impacted by deforestation and sedimentation in some parts of its range.<br/></p>  <p></p>
166692		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Research on distribution, biology, population, habitat, trends of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166692		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus blanfordiana </span>is found in scattered localities in south Asia and some southeast Asian countries. It is known from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur: Chandel, Churachandpur, Imphal, Thoubal; Assam: Guwahati; Meghalaya: Siju cave, South and West Garo hills, Ri-Bhoi; West Bengal, Darjeeling), and Myanmar (Pegu, Arakan). It is likely to be present in Bangladesh and other Indian states in suitable habitat. It should also be looked for in other parts of the Chindwin and Irrawaddy drainages in Myanmar.<br/></p>
166692		habitat	eng	Inhabits moving waters like streams, rivers; usually remains attached to stones, boulders etc.
166692		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166692		threats	eng	<p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.<br/></p>
166693		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.</p>
166693		distribution	eng	Widely distributed. The species range extends from India to New Caledonia and from southwest Australia to south Japan. It is recorded from Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Singapore, Indonesia, Timor, New Caledonia, Samoa, Fiji, Australia, Philippines, Japan, and India (records from Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal) (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be present in suitable habitats within other countries within the above range.
166693		habitat	eng	<em>Neritina&#160;violacea</em> generally occurs in river mouths and mostly in brackish waters. At times it occurs in fresh or almost freshwater near the upper tidal limit, such as in Orissa and in the Ganges delta. It is found mainly in upper mudflat, attached to pillars or in crevices of the bricks or rocks.
166693		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166693		threats	eng	<p>The impact of pollution and sedimentation, especially in the Ganges delta, needs to be investigated.<br/></p>
166694		conservation	eng	Studies into the impact of harvesting on the population of the species is required.
166694		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pila globosa</span> recorded from Nepal, southwestern Asia, Africa, north and south  America (Subba Rao 1989). It is a common species in India except southern India and Punjab; it is found in Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya (South Garo Hills), Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
166694		habitat	eng	This species lives in permanent and temporary stagnant water bodies and uses dry areas for breeding. Adults survive the dry season buried in soil. A number of trematodes like <span style="font-style: italic;">Artyfechinostomum  sufratyfese, Echinostoma cercaria, Cercaria andhraensis, C. pigmentata,  Diplodiscus</span> sp., and <span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphidocercaria</span>  sp. are&#160; reported from this species (Subba Rao 1989).
166694		population	eng	There is no population level information about this species. Though the population is widespread, in certain regions like Nepal the population is decreasing due to habitat loss, agricultural intensification and fish poisoning.
166694		threats	eng	No information is available on specific threats apart from general threats that exists in most of the habitats of this species. The population of this species in Nepal is decreasing due to habitat loss, agricultural intensification and fish poisoning and over harvesting are some inferred threats to this species.
166695		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats and impacts of harvests need to be identified.</p>
166695		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia theobaldi</span> is known from the Brahmaputra basin in India. It is recorded from Manipur (the type locality) and from a number of&#160; records in Assam (Subba Rao 1989). It may also be present in Arunachal Pradesh, and should be looked for in Bangladesh and other parts of the Eastern Himalayas region, including Bhutan.
166695		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams and burrows in the mud . </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166695		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166695		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown and the impact of harvests remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
166697		conservation	eng	<p>A very widespread and common species with no recommendations identified for research or action.</p>
166697		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Myanmar. It is known from several states in India (Tamil Nadu: Mettupalayam; Maharashtra: Khandala; Madhya Pradesh; Uttar Pradesh; Punjab; West Bengal: Kolkata), Nepal (Tarai and inner valleys)&#160;and Myanmar (He Ho Gorge, Shan States)&#160;(Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
166697		habitat	eng	It is found in small to large sized stagnant water bodies with rich vegetation and slow running rivers.
166697		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166697		threats	eng	It is widespread  with no significant threats.
166699		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166699		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea beddomeana</span> occurs in India in West Bengal (North and South 24 Parganas (Hugli-Matla Estuary)), and in Myanmar (Irrawaddy Delta) (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be present in Bangladesh, but no records exist.
166699		habitat	eng	The species is a detritus feeder found in<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> holes and crevices of muddy substratum. &#160;August to December is the breeding period, when copulating pairs are frequently observed; juveniles are found from January to April (Subba Rao <em>et al</em>. 1983).
166699		population	eng	Subba Rao <em>e</em><em>t al</em>. (1983) recorded a maximum population density from 2 to 544 m-² in the Hugli-Matla Estuary.&#160; However, population details for the entire range is not known.
166699		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known. <br/></p>
166700		conservation	eng	More research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166700		distribution	eng	This species is found in India (South 24 Parganas in&#160;West Bengal and in Orissa), Myanmar, Thailand (Provinces of Rayong, Trat, Chanthaburi, Chachoengsao, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Samut Prakan), Indonesia (Sumatra), Hong Kong and China. It is not reported from Bangladesh, but its presence should be looked for.
166700		habitat	eng	It lives in brackish water in the drainages of mud-flats, nipa palm and mangrove swamps. It was also found in the estuarine area of rivers. This species was found partly buried in mud feeding on decaying organic material. It is also reported from the bark of wood in the jetties.
166700		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166700		threats	eng	<p>  The threats to this species are not known.&#160; <br/> <br/> </p>
166701		conservation	eng	No conservation measure is in place. Research is needed.
166701		distribution	eng	It is known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal), Nepal, Bangladesh (Assess-HKH), and Pakistan (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Subba Rao 1989).
166701		habitat	eng	It is commonly found in stagnant shallow water of the lower Gangetic plain such as paddy fields, oxbow lakes and slow running river and streams.
166701		population	eng	Information on population status is not available.
166701		threats	eng	It is a widespread species and the threats specific to this species are not known.
166702		conservation	eng	<p>Impacts of harvest for food and handicrafts needs to be studied in detail.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166702		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia corrugata</span> is a common species throughout India (including Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Punjab, Sylhet, and Assam), Bangladesh (Sylhet District and Chittagong Hills), Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It should be looked for in Bhutan.<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 451px; height: 1px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 26px; height: 14px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 30px; height: 20px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
166702		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in rivers, ponds and lakes.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166702		population	eng	<p>It is a common species in some areas of its range (Ramakrshna and Dey 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166702		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
166703		conservation	eng	<p>Research into threats and life history studies are recommended.</p>
166703		distribution	eng	<p>In India it is known from Uttar Pradesh (Ramganga near Moradabad), Assam (Cachar, Barak River, Silchar), West Bengal (Kolkata) (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and in Nepal it is reported from Rautahat District (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It should be looked for in Bangladesh, Bhutan, and other northeastern India states.<br/></p>
166703		habitat	eng	It is found in soft mud and fine sand substrates of slow running lowland rivers and streams in the lower and upper Gangetic plain and Brahmaputra river basins (Nesemann<em> et al</em>. 2007).
166703		population	eng	<p>This species is not common like other bivalves and was recently found in small numbers&#160;from new localities&#160;in Uttar Pradesh and Nepal in Rautahat District (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160;</p>
166703		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
166704		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Potential threats to this species need to be identified, and the full distribution of the species determined.<br/></p>     <p></p>
166704		distribution	eng	<em>Gangetia miliacea</em> is reported from the Gangetic Delta (West Bengal, India, and Bangladesh), Chilka Lake, Orissa, India, and the Gulf of Oman. Although the Oman record may be an introduction, it is likely that the species has a much wider distribution than presented by the currently known data.
166704		habitat	eng	Commonly found among weeds in brackish water pools.
166704		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166704		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown. &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;&#160;</p>
166705		conservation	eng	<p>Research on biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166705		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">sikkimensis</span> is found in the Terai region of eastern Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, northwestern Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim of India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bangladesh and possibly present in Bhutan.
166705		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found in rivers and steams, preferably forest streams.<br/></p>
166705		population	eng	The population status of this species in not known, however it is the most common member of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia</span> in eastern Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166705		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.</p>
166706		conservation	eng	Research on species population and trend is required.
166706		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed all over the southern Asia region; Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and throughout India.
166706		habitat	eng	This species is present in almost all types of lowland water bodies, mainly stagnant water and low saline water resources such as rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands, marshes, ditches, paddy fields, etc. &#160;According to (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) it can tolerate a maximum level of salinity of 0.2mg/l.
166706		population	eng	Population size and trends of this species is not well known. &#160;However, it is a common and abundant species found in high numbers in all kinds of freshwater bodies.
166706		threats	eng	There are no major known threat to this species.
166707		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166707		distribution	eng	<em>Paludomus conica</em> is distributed in the Brahmaputra basin in northeastern India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan. It is known from a number of locations in India including Meghalaya (Teria Ghat, South Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills, Kopili River, West Khasi Hills), Tripura, Assam, (Sibsagar); and&#160;Nepal (Mechi River system of Jhapa District) (Subba Rao 1989,&#160; Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is likeley to be present in other Indian states within the Brahmaputra.
166707		habitat	eng	It is found in small low land rivers and streams with pebble, gravel or sand substrate (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).
166707		population	eng	It is a rare species but can be found in very dense population in optimal conditions. &#160;However, population details are not known.
166707		threats	eng	Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation,  sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential  threats on the species need to be better understood.
166708		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166708		distribution	eng	The species is known from India (West Bengal (Medinipur, South 24 Parganas) and Orissa), Bangladesh, and from Indonesia (Sulawesi) and Singapore. It is likely to be present in other countries within the above range and further research is required. In the Ganges delta, it is recorded from some way inland, as far as Balurghat (India) on the border with Bangladesh.
166708		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. sulculosa</span> was found adhering to wood under the bark or in the empty tunnels of shipworms and crevices of dykes which are not completely exposed during low tide. They are also in&#160;mangrove streams, on stones&#160;submerged in running water.
166708		population	eng	<p>No information available.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166708		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166709		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Some sites where the species has been recorded are in the Sunderbans, within a protected area. No particular species conservation plans are in place for the species. Research is needed into the impact of pollutants on the species.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166709		distribution	eng	<em>Tanysiphon rivalis</em> is known from the Ganges Delta (River Hugli, around Calcutta, South&#160;24 Paraganas, Sagar Island, Midnapore, Geonkhali) in West Bengal, India, (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and from Bangladesh.
166709		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuarine waters, sometimes extending into freshwaters. It was observed at Gangasagar and Geonkhali on the muddy substratum. This bivalve prefers low salinity (up to 4.0 mgl<sup>-1</sup>) areas (Subba Rao<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995).
166709		population	eng	In a study by Subba Rao <em>et al</em>. (1995), the population density was observed to be 80 to 90 m-² at Geonkhali, India. Another study showed that the population of this species is one of the highest in the community showing that it is an abundant species.
166709		threats	eng	<p>The localities where it occurs are highly disturbed. The disturbance which is prevalent in that region are due to pollution from land run off, non-point source pollution, and loss of habitat quality</p>
166710		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be further studied.<br/><br/>&#160;</p>
166710		distribution	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia nuttalliana</span> has been reported from Cachar, Assam, in India (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007), and there is an additional unverified report from the northern Assam/Arunachal Pradesh border. </p>
166710		habitat	eng	<p>This species is seen burrowing in the mud in freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams. </p>
166710		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends of this species.</p>     <p></p>
166710		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known, though sedimentation and alterations to river flow patterns may impact the known habitats of the species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166711		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>
166711		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus ornatus </span>is reported from a number of locations in the Brahmaputra basin in India (Assam, Meghalaya, and Arunachal Pradesh), and from Pegu and "Mandalay" in&#160; Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
166711		habitat	eng	<p> </p>This species is found in rivers and streams.
166711		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>  <p></p>
166711		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation,  sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential  threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>  <p></p>
166712		conservation	eng	A poorly studied species with highly fragmented distribution. There is an urgent need for taxonomic validation of the specimens from the two populations and other ecological and threat studies.
166712		distribution	eng	It is known to occur in Imphal in Manipur, India and in Sri Lanka (Subba Rao 1989). The identity of the specimens from these two localities require further detailed studies.
166712		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in ponds.
166712		population	eng	Population and trends in this species are unknown.
166712		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
166713		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>  </p><p>Taxonomic studies to validate it as a species is required and more research on its distribution and biology.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166713		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from the type locality in Cachar in Assam, India (Subba Rao 1989).
166713		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>Information on habitat and ecology of this species is not available.&#160;</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166713		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166713		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166714		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population trend and ecology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Work on taxonomic stability through molecular analysis is suggested.</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166714		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pisidium nevillianum</em> is distributed in south and <st1:place w:st="on">southeast  Asia</st1:place>. <br/></p><p>This species is reported from Narmada River in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> (Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> (Bolaganj), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region> (western mid hills: Phewa Tal and Begnas Tal, Kaski District; Central Terai and mid hills: Bishajari Lake, Chitwan District; Cha Khola, Ashi Khola and Chaukot Khola near Dhulikhel, Kavre District) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Thailand</st1:place></st1:country-region> at an altitude between 75 m and 1430 m a.s.l. (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Presence Myanmar and other states of northeastern India is likely but is not confirmed.<br/></p>
166714		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This is found in wide range of lowland streams, small rivers and wetlands including muddy substrate of highly eutrophic lake. This subtropical species require high water temperature during summer and monsoon; it also needs organic matter and detritus to flourish.<br/></p>
166714		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em></em>This is a<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> very common species. It is the most dominant species in the lakes in the Terai and mid hills of Nepal and often found in high densities in agricultural channels (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007. However, the population status is not known.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166714		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not fully understood. General perceived threats include pollution, construction of dams etc. </p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166715		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed into understanding distribution and threats to the species and its habitat.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166715		distribution	eng	Originally described from the Ganges delta, the species is recorded from India (West Bengal: Port Canning,&#160;Chandpal Ghat,&#160;Kolkata), and Bangladesh. Its presence in Myanmar (GBIF 2009) requires confirmation.
166715		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra deltae </span>was recorded crawling in the muddy areas of the Hugli Estuary. It prefers lower salinity zones (not less than 1.65 mgl<sup>-1</sup>) and almost absent towards the higher salinity area (above 20 mgl<sup>-1</sup>) (Subba Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
166715		population	eng	The population density in one study (Subba Rao&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;1995) varied from 2 to 485 m<sup>-</sup>² and it was maximum during the month of September.
166715		threats	eng	<p>No threats at present are known, but further information is required on the water&#160;quality&#160;in the Ganges Delta.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166716		conservation	eng	<p>Research into population and trends are needed.</p>
166716		distribution	eng	This species is found only in India and Nepal. It is known from Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins including Darjeeling (Sikkim), Meghalaya, (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and from Kathmandu Valley and Punyamata Valley of Kavre District in Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166716		habitat	eng	This species is largely confined to the small to medium sized streams and almost absent in forest streams and stagnant water bodies.
166716		population	eng	It is a dominant bivalve reaching several hundred individuals per square metre. There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166716		threats	eng	It is slightly tolerant to moderate level water pollution. The species is not under any major threat.
166717		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.</p>
166717		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide global distribution. It is reported from Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Timor, Indonesia, including Sulawesi, Moluccas, New Guinea, Fuji, Philippines, India, and Thailand. In India, it is found in the Andaman and the Nicobar Islands, Tamil Nadu, and South 24 Paraganas in West Bengal.
166717		habitat	eng	Its a freshwater limpet. It is also found in saline water (Subba Rao 1988). Its habitat is benthic attached to rocks.
166717		population	eng	Chatterjee <em>et al.</em> (2008) have studied population dynamics for two years and correlated limnological factors. Naturally, the population in the study site in West Bengal, India, varied from 3 to 40 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. At some regions the populations are rare (Chatterjee&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2008).
166717		threats	eng	&#160;Pollution and habitat degradation are two major threats for this species.
166718		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Potential threats to this species need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
166718		distribution	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia baconi</span> is known from India (Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, and Manipur), Nepal, Myanmar (He-Ho Gorge), northern Thailand and the Philippines.It is almost certainly present in Bangladesh, and should be looked for in other regional states. The record from the Philippines requires further investigation.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166718		habitat	eng	<p>It is usually found attached on stones, wooden material and vegetation in lowland streams in Nepal and in the Ganga river (Nesemann <em>et al. </em>2007). It is also found in ponds and ditches. <br/></p>
166718		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166718		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
166719		conservation	eng	<p>Although widely distributed there is lack of information on its biology, trends and impacts of threats.&#160;</p>
166719		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scaphula deltae</span> is known from Myanmar (in the district of Pegu (Bago); Subba Rao 1989) and India (West Bengal: Calcutta, Gangetic delta, Rabindra Sarobar, Howrah, North 24 Parganas; Orissa: Mahanadi River). Presence in Bangladesh is likely but not recorded.
166719		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. deltae&#160;</span>is known only from Gangetic delta. It is the first species of the genus that has been found in brackish water. It was recorded in the region between Barrackpore and Diamond Harbour where the salinity varied from trace to maximum of 4 mgl<sup>-1</sup>. The uppermost record of this species is up to Patna, Bihar. Several specimens of this species were found attached to algae, weeds or even to the mud by the help of fine byssus threads.&#160; It is also reported from large rivers far above the influence of tide.
166719		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.<br/>&#160;</p>
166719		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>
166720		conservation	eng	<p>Distribution surveys, life history studies, and research on threats, population and trends are recommended.<br/></p>
166720		distribution	eng	<p><em>Corbicula assamensis </em>is present in the lower <st1:place w:st="on">Ganges</st1:place> River and the Gangetic Delta. In India, it is found in Assam, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh upstream to Varanasi, and in Bangladesh it is found in Phenchooganj, Sylhet, and Olipura (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, 2007).<br/></p>
166720		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This species is found in various types of habitats such as rivers, streams and lakes. It lives in fine sand substrates (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2007).<br/></p>
166720		population	eng	<p>    </p>The population structure and trends of this species are unknown. &#160;  <p></p>
166720		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known, but it could be impacted by sedimentation.<br/></p>
166721		conservation	eng	Research into distribution, biology, population, trends, ecology, habitat and threats are recommended for this poorly studied species.
166721		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra echinata</span> is not recorded beyond its type locality in the Pussur River, Khulna in&#160;Bangladesh (Annandale and Prashad 1919).
166721		habitat	eng	It is found to occur in rivers. Detailed habitat and ecology of this species is not known. Congeneric species are known to inhabit brackish and estuarine habitats (Annandale and Prashad 1921).
166721		population	eng	Described from a single shell, there is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166721		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, records are restricted to a single locality in Bangladesh, an area of high human population density and severe freshwater ecosystem degradation (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).
166722		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed distribution, life history, ecology, threats and population trends need to be studied. &#160;</p>
166722		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea theobaldiana</span> was described from West Bengal (Hugli-Matla Estuary)  India (Subba Rao 1989). There are numerous recent records from the Hugli-Matla esturary in West Bengal, and a record from the Mahanadi estuary (near Cuttack, India), suggesting that it may have a wider distribution in suitable habitats. It should also be looked for in Bangladesh.
166722		habitat	eng	The species occupies sloping muddy shores. It is a detritus feeder.
166722		population	eng	No information on population status is available.
166722		threats	eng	The Hugli-Matla estuary is known to be heavily polluted from urban, industrial, and agricultural sources. The impacts of these threats on the species are not known.
166723		conservation	eng	<p>Very little is known about this species with respect to life cycle, population, trends, threats and use, hence requiring research.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166723		distribution	eng	The species is found widely distributed in the Ganges delta, Brahmaputra (Tezpur) and the Irrawaddy lowland basin. It has been reported from India (Bihar (Bhagalpur), Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh), Bangladesh (Dacca, Mirpur, Nabalegang (Jessore Dist) and Sylhet), Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) and Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Presence in other Indian states is likely with further survey (e.g. West Bengal, Meghalaya, and Tripura)
166723		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in the large rivers basins, stagnant water bodies including man-made ponds.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166723		population	eng	<p>Information on population and trends are unknown for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166723		threats	eng	<p>It is widely distributed in India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar with no known widespread threats. Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development.<br/></p>
166724		conservation	eng	<p>Survey, threats and population trends are important areas for research in this species.<br/></p>
166724		distribution	eng	<p>It is recorded from India (Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) and Bangladesh (Subba Rao 1989). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166724		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>It inhabits freshwater pools; also found burrowing in the mud formed by the side of the streams (P. Buddha pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
166724		population	eng	<p>There is no documentation on population status of this species.&#160; <br/></p>
166724		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
166725		conservation	eng	<p>Research into distribution and biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166725		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra ornata</span> is known from Bangladesh and India (West Bengal: Kolkata; Bihar; Uttar Pradesh: upstream of Ganges River up to Varanasi) (Brandt 1974, Nesseman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Type specimen collected from "Dhappa near Calcutta".
166725		habitat	eng	It is found both in fresh and brackish waters of the Ganges River and Gangetic estuary. It prefers soft mud and silt substrate.
166725		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is common.</p>     <p></p>
166725		threats	eng	<p>It is a common species with no specific threats.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166729		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are recommended. Its status in the highly disturbed Sylhet region of Bangladesh needs study.</p>  <p></p>
166729		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus stephanus</span> has been reported from India in Meghalaya (East and West Khasi hills, Jaintia hills) and from Sylhet in Bangladesh (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166729		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>It is found in both lentic and lotic habitats. </p>  <p></p>
166729		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166729		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>  <p></p>
166730		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation action in place. Research is needed into the species distribution, population and threats.<br/></p>
166730		distribution	eng	It is known from northeastern India, Myanmar and from Nepal. <span style="background-color: green;"></span>
166730		habitat	eng	The species is found in ponds and lakes.
166730		population	eng	Population status and trends not known
166730		threats	eng	No information available, though rivers in parts of the species range are impacted by sedimentation and pollution.
166731		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for the species.
166731		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens marginalis</span> is found in the lower and upper Gangetic plains in India and Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Subba Rao 1989) and Terai region of Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166731		habitat	eng	It is found in ditches, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams and prefers stagnant waters.
166731		population	eng	In India, populations are between 10 to 15 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> with variations between ponds (A. Dey pers. comm.). It is found in dense populations in stagnant water bodies.
166731		threats	eng	Although there are no known major threats reported, it is among the most preferred food species in Nepal, India and Bangladesh. Over-harvesting, use of pesticides for fishing are some inferred threats to this species. Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
166732		conservation	eng	Research into distribution, biology, population, trends, ecology, habitat and threats are recommended for this poorly studied species.
166732		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>According to Annandale and Prashad (1921), this species is only known from one locality in Jharkand, Sikrigall, West Bengal, on the Ganges River, "300 miles from the sea and about 200 miles above the extreme tidal influence", but may occur further down the Ganges.
166732		habitat	eng	It is found in slow flowing rivers.
166732		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166732		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. However, the possible threats are pollution from agricultural run off and habitat degradation and loss.<br/><br/>If it is restricted to a single locality on  the Ganges River it is highly vulnerable to threats such as impoundment,  pollution, exploitation resulting from growing human populations  (Dudgeon 2005).<br/>  <br/>  Threats coding: 7.2, 7.3, 9.1, 9.3 (Stresses: Ecosystem conversion/degradation)
166733		conservation	eng	<p>  Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population trend and ecology of this species are needed. </p>
166733		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentina cantori</span> was described from Barrackpore, north of Kolkata, North 24 Parganas district in West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989).</p>
166733		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>The habitat and ecology of this species are not known, but it is presumed to have been collected from freshwater river or lakes.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
166733		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no population level information about this species. The species is only known from the literature.</p><p></p>
166733		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
166734		conservation	eng	The different taxa within the species complex need to be studied in detail. &#160;Research on impacts of use and threats needed.
166734		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, recorded from Bangladesh, India (Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharastra and other states), and in the Terai region of Nepal.
166734		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. favidens </span>is found in silt of running water such as lowland streams and rivers.
166734		population	eng	It is a common species of the family Unionidae with many forms. However, studies on population details are lacking.
166734		threats	eng	No specific threats are known for this species, but agricultural intensification, use of fertilizer and pesticide, fish poisoning as well as collection for consumption are inferred threats to this species.
166735		conservation	eng	<p>This&#160;species&#160;is utilised for food and (locally) for jewellery. Further information is required on the species range and population, and monitoring should be undertaken to assess the impact of use on the species.</p>
166735		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Parreysia bonneaudi</em> is widely distributed in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> (Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, Bihar, Manipur and Uttar Pradesh), <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">from central to the far-western Terai region of Nepal, Bangladesh, and from Myanmar&#160;</st1:place></st1:country-region>(Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007,   Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, 2005). Presence is likely in Bhutan, but survey is required to confirm this.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166735		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p><em></em>It occurs in muddy substrate of lentic zones in large lowland rivers and in ponds (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166735		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em></em>This species is reported to be rare since it was collected only in small numbers from several localities in the lower and upper Gangetic plains from western to central Nepal and India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh)&#160;(Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007); however it appears to have wide geographic spread.<br/></p>  <p></p>
166735		threats	eng	<p>Collection for food and jewellery may be a local threat to this species. Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
166736		conservation	eng	Taxonomic clarification of the Uttar Pradesh population and more detailed studies on distribution, life history, threats and population trends are needed.
166736		distribution	eng	Though it has been&#160;regarded&#160;as endemic to Manipur Valley (Annandale 1921)., this species has also been recorded, along with other freshwater molluscs, from the Ghaghara River (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar), a northern tributary of the Ganges (Gajurel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) at an altitude of 74 m, and from Patran and Kapurthala in Punjab (Sharma and Battish 1991). It is not known whether this species occurs between these two localities.
166736		habitat	eng	It is commonly found in stagnant freshwater bodies like ponds, lakes, pools, ditches or slow flowing streams (Subba Rao 1989).<br/><br/>This species  inhabits muddy substrates in small streams, pools and swamps. According  to Annandale (1921), "it crawls slowly on the lower surface of floating  grass-stems and water-weeds and can float shell downwards on the lower  side of the surface film. It is resistant to drought, and individuals  brought dry to Calcutta [sic] revived on being placed in water after  over a fortnight's desiccation.
166736		population	eng	This species is only known from three disjunct localities - Manipur in east India, Uttar Pradesh in the north and Punjab in the northwest of the country. Annandale (1921) stated that "the species is abundant and generally distributed in the Manipur valley, outside which it has not been found".
166736		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/><br/>Manipur, where one of the three populations of this species was recorded, has a high human population density and its freshwater resources suffer from high levels of organic pollution (Dhamendra and Kosygin 2005). There is also significant habitat fragmentation due to dam construction and modification of rivers for agriculture and other uses (Kumar 2008). However, it is not known what effect this is having on this species.
166738		conservation	eng	<p>Very little is known about this species since its description and detailed studies on distribution, life history, ecology, threats and population trends are recommended.</p>
166738		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula sylhetica</span> is not known beyond the type locality at Phenchooganj, Sylhet in Bangladesh, described in 1909 (Subba Rao 1989).
166738		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater streams.
166738		population	eng	<p>No information on population status or trends is available. <br/></p>
166738		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.<br/></p>
166739		conservation	eng	Research on use for livestock can be done.
166739		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clithon reticularis</span> is common throughout India, and also present in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Australia (this record should be checked and may be an introduction). In India, it is widely distributed and reported from West Bengal (Kolkata, Hugli estuary, North 24 Parganas),&#160;Assam, Bihar, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur (Bishenpur, Chandel, Churachandanpur, Imphal), and Tamil Nadu. It appears to be present through out much of the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins.
166739		habitat	eng	Found in estuarine and freshwater rivers.
166739		population	eng	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>
166739		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
166740		conservation	eng	<p>Research on the distribution and biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166740		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia smaragdites</span> is known from Brahmaputra River, Assam in India and Chindwin and Irrawaddy river basins in Upper Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). Its presence should be looked for in Bangladesh, other northeastern Indian states, and in other parts of Myanmar.
166740		habitat	eng	It occurs in river systems.
166740		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166740		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
166741		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Studies on harvest and threats and monitoring use and harvest trends are critical actions required for this species.<br/></span>
166741		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Angulyagra microchaetophora</span> has been recorded from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Assam, Manipur (Imphal) and Nagaland in India (Subba Rao 1989).
166741		habitat	eng	This species inhabits all kinds of water bodies (A. Dey <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm. </span>2010). It is found attached to floating grass stems and other aquatic plants on water (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166741		population	eng	This species is found in abundance within its range.
166741		threats	eng	Collection for food is a threat for this species locally. This is sold in local markets.
166742		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166742		distribution	eng	<em>Neritina smithi</em> is reported from India (West Bengal (Gangetic Estuary) and Myanmar (Irrawaddy Estuary) (Subba Rao 1989), from the Irrawaddy estuary in Myanmar, and from Mauritius (GBIF; Museum of Zoology, University of Navarra), most likely an introduction. It probably also occurs in the estuaries in Bangladesh.
166742		habitat	eng	It is primarily a brackish water species occasionally extending into freshwaters.
166742		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166742		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
166743		conservation	eng	<p>Biology and population trend studies are recommended.</p>
166743		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia verruca</span> is distributed throughout India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and northern Thailand. Records of its distribution in India include Uttarakhand (Bhimtal, Kumaon), Meghalaya (East and West Khasi Hills), Manipur (Churachandpur), Bihar (Patna), Jharkhand (Damodar River) and in Nepal (Chandeswari Khola, Kavre)&#160;(Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it was found in the provinces of Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai and Nan Provinces. It is also known from Tonkin, Viet Nam and occurs probably in northern Lao PDR (K. Richter, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm., </span>2010).
166743		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in rivers, streams, and small pools along the stream side where decaying plant material is deposited. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166743		population	eng	<p>Population details and trends are not known. <br/></p>
166743		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>
166744		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and research on the biology and taxonomy of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166744		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus loricatus</span> is recorded from several locations in India (Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) and from Sri Lanka (including Callo Ganga, above Ratnapoora; Colombo, Kandy; and Kadagamara Pass, Kandy; and Kadaganara Pass, Colombo; Malacology Collection, ANSP). The disjunct distribution of the species requires confirmation; if confirmed, then the species should be looked for in suitable habitat in other upland areas.<br/></p><p></p>
166744		habitat	eng	<p>  This is found in slightly acidic and slow flowing mountain streams. </p>
166744		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166744		threats	eng	<p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>
166745		conservation	eng	Further&#160;information on the&#160;species&#160;distribution&#160;and threats is required.
166745		distribution	eng	It is known from Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in India, and the Terai region of Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2007, Subba Rao 1989,   Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It should also be looked for in Bangladesh, other northeastern Indian states, and suitable drainages in Bhutan.
166745		habitat	eng	<p><em>Parreysia <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">lima</st1:place></st1:city></em> is a typical species of rivulets and streams of southern Himalayan slopes along the foothills of the mountains, and is also reported from a lake (Chimdi Lake, Nepal). This species is known from northern tributaries of the Ganges River up to 800 m asl and well known from the Mechi, Sapta Koshi and Kaligandaki watershed in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
166745		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>    </p>There is little documentation on the population size and trends of <em>P. lima.</em><p></p>  <p></p><p></p>
166745		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species. However, water pollution in lowland rivers due to nutrient load from agricultural run-off, use of pesticides and fish poisoning are some inferred threats. Hydroelectric dams are also likely to impact upon the&#160;species.
166746		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>  </p><p>Research into distribution, biology and threats to the species is urgently required.</p>Part of the lake where the species is found is encompassed by the Keibul Lamjao National Park, and the lake is also a Ramsar Site.     <p></p>
166746		distribution	eng	It appears to be restricted to its type locality in Loktak Lake, Manipur, India. The area of the lake is around 287 km<sup>2</sup> (Wikipedia contributors 2009).
166746		habitat	eng	The species has only been reported from a lake.
166746		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166746		threats	eng	<p>Loktak Lake is under severe stress from impacts of human habitation surrounding it, especially sedimentation and siltation caused by the loss of vegetation cover from the surrounding catchment, and from the effects of a hydroelectric project nearby. Habitat threats to the floating islands of '<span style="font-style: italic;">phumdi</span>' (heterogeneous masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter at various  stages of decomposition) have been observed due to the dam, but its effects on the mollusc is unknown.</p>
166747		conservation	eng	<p>Surveys and research on the biology, threats, population size and trend of this species are needed.</p>
166747		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara lineata</span> is widespread throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra Rivers systems. It is recorded from Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Nepal (Subba Rao 1989), and India (Meghalaya: Khasi hills; West Bengal: Barddhaman, Kolkata, Haora, Hugli, Nadia, North & South 24 Parganas; Assam; Bihar; Madhya Pradesh; Maharashtra; Orissa; and Uttar Pradesh).
166747		habitat	eng	It is found in all type of rivers and streams in lowlands. &#160;It is the most abundant and pollution tolerant species and found in organically polluted alpha-mesosaprobic rivers of water quality II (Nesemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Usually occurs in ponds, remains attached to vegetation or crawls on muddy bottoms. It has been observed in the upper zone- Nabadwip to Konnagar with salinity at 0.3 mgl<sup>-1</sup>.
166747		population	eng	It is common species in the Ganga River system and often found in high densities (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). However, the population at global level is not known.
166747		threats	eng	Lowland rivers are subject to pollution and sedimentation, whilst hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.
166748		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Detailed surveys, biology and threat research are required to understand the status of this species. The taxonomic status of the species requires confirmation.<br/></p>
166748		distribution	eng	It is known only from the type locality, Sorupeta in Assam, India.
166748		habitat	eng	It was found in clear water with muddy&#160;substratum, attached to rotten twigs.
166748		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166748		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Hillstreams within Assam, the type locality of the species, are impacted by sedimentation caused by deforestation, but the impacts of this on the species are not known.
166749		conservation	eng	<p>Although reported from several areas there is very little known about the biology, population, trends and threats to the species. Furtehr research is required into the species distribution.<br/></p>
166749		distribution	eng	It occurs in the Gangetic River system in Bangladesh and India (West Bengal (Calcutta,  Barrackpore, Hugli, North 24 Parganas), Uttar Pradesh (Nainital,  Banaras)) and is also recorded from Tibet.
166749		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in lentic habitats such as pond, lakes and ditches.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166749		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166749		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known. The Ganges river system is highly polluted in parts and subject to sedimentation, and the impact of these threats require investigation. &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; <br/></p>
166750		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166750		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara paludomoidea</span> was described from the type locality in Matlah River near Port Canning, West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989), and appears to be restricted to the Ganges delta in West Bengal, though it is likely to be present also in Bangladesh.
166750		habitat	eng	This species was observed on mangrove vegetation up to the height of 40 cm above the ground level. They were very common on plants locally known as "Nonagira".  Found on trunks and aerating roots of mangrove trees submerged at high tide, in the Mutlah River at Port Canning.<p></p>
166750		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166750		threats	eng	<p>The Ganges delta is highly polluted from industrial, urban and agricultural sources. The impact of these pollutants on the species requires study.<br/></p>
166751		conservation	eng	<p>Information on distribution, population, trends, threats, effects of harvest are required and research in these areas are recommended.</p>
166751		distribution	eng	The species is found in Bhamo, Zayleyman, Teinzo in the Mule stream, northeast of Bhamo in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).   In India, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia burmana</span>&#160;is  found in Manipur (Bishenpur), and is likely to be present in other Chindwin River drainages within eastern India. It is  inferred to have a wide distribution in the Chindwin and Irrawaddy river  basins<p>&#160;</p><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 1px; height: 20px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
166751		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found burrowing in the mud in water pools formed on the sides of the streams (Subba Rao 1989).<br/></p>
166751		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species
166751		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known. Harvest for food is not considered a major threat, and other threats are not known for the species.</p>
166752		conservation	eng	<p>More research is needed on population trends, habitat and ecology.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166752		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea persica</span> has a very wide distribution, from southern Europe to central and south Asia. The species is recorded from Afghanistan,  India, Nepal, Spain, Italy, and Iran. In India, it has been recorded from Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir,  Mizoram, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh (Kumaon Lakes, Tehri) (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166752		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits stagnant water bodies. The species is a carrier of trematode larvae.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166752		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166752		threats	eng	<p>The species is unlikely to be threatened across its range.<br/></p>
166753		conservation	eng	Due to wider distribution range no specific conservation action required.
166753		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium clarkeanum</span> is distributed in south and southeast Asia (Brandt 1974);&#160; Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Nepal, Vietnam and India (Manipur (Chandel), Bihar (Harrapur, Bhagalpur), Maharashtra (Bombay), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris alt. 2,256 m.), Uttar Pradesh (Roorkee, Tehri, Pithoragarh), and West Bengal (common in Calcutta tanks). The species is likely present in Bhutan, but presence is not confirmed.
166753		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. clarkeanum</span> is abundant in slowly running streams and rivers in the Gangetic plain and Terai region of Nepal. It is occasionally found in the littoral zone along the shores of lakes and large ponds where it prefers lentic areas with a soft muddy bottom. In the mid-altitudinal range, it is very often restricted to lentic microhabitats, preferring sediments such as mud enriched with detritus or silt.
166753		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Pisidium clarkeanum </em>&#160;is abundant in the slow running river and streams. Isolated populations were found from the eutrophic lake effluents (Phewa and <st1:placename w:st="on">Begnas</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>).<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
166753		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
166754		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed studies on distribution, life history, threats and population trends are required.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166754		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea hungerfordiana</span> is distributed in West Bengal (Hugli-Matla estuary) in India (Subba Rao 1989). It may also be present in adjoining Bangladesh.
166754		habitat	eng	It is found on sloping muddy shores of estuaries.
166754		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166754		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species are not known. The susceptibility of the species to domestic and industrial pollutants and sedimentation needs to better understood.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166755		conservation	eng	<p>A very widespread and common species with no recommendations identified for research or action.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166755		distribution	eng	It is known from Iraq (Euphrates River floodplain), Iran (Seistan), Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan (Baluchistan and Punjab (Salt range)), Bangladesh, India (Bihar, Manipur: Chandel, Bishenpur, Thoubal), and China (eastwards to the Kiangsu Province) and Nepal.
166755		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in lentic habitats rivers such as lakes, ponds and slow running rivers and streams with rich plants and lowland valleys up to 1,330 m asl.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166755		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166755		threats	eng	<p>This species is widespread  with no significant threats.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166756		conservation	eng	Threats and impacts of threats to the species need to be studied.
166756		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea brevicula</span> is distributed widely in Asia; India, Sri Lanka, Philippines, China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, Japan and Thailand.<br/><br/>Within these countries it is specifically known from West Bengal, Maharashtra and the Andaman Islands in India; Manila, Luzon Island, Busuanga Island, Masbate Island, Negros Island, Samar Island, Cebu Island and Mindanao Island in the Philippines; Java, Sumatra, Brunei and Kalimantan in Indonesia; Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia; and the Irrawaddy Delta in Myanmar (Abbott 1958).
166756		habitat	eng	This estuarine species is common in the more sheltered parts of mangroves and nipa-palm swamps, and the muddy areas in monsoon drains. It can be found either crawling on the mud or remaining attached to grass in all muddy localities. Its vertical distribution is restricted to 10 m downward from the high water mark. Its shell is usually bright red but occasionally black. It probably feeds mainly on algae (Brown 1971, Brandt 1974, Subba Rao <em>et al.</em> 1992, Tan and Ng 1992).<br/><br/>Abbott (1958) collected this species from wet logs on the muddy banks of the estuarine exit of Bantayan River, north coast of Samar Island, Philippines. He stated that the area is alternately covered by saltwater at high tide and freshwater during low tide. Choy and Booth (1994) documented that this species disappears completely during periods of flooding, but it quickly recovers its pre-flood population levels.
166756		population	eng	This species appears to be common. Berry (1964 in Brown 1971) recorded up to 243 individuals of this species from 1 m² of mud surface in a Malaysian mangrove swamp. Murty and Balaparameswara Rao (1976) describe the species as common in the south Indian and Malaysian mangrove swamps; Sasekumar and Chong (1998) found this to be the most abundant species recorded in their study of faunal diversity in Malaysian mangroves; and Lin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) found it to be the dominant species in their study of the macrofaunal community in Fenglin mangrove area, Xiamen, China.<br/><br/>There are some short term studies in Thailand which deal with populations in different sampling sites within the region (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Hugli-Matla estuary the population density recorded was 200-1000 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (A. Dey pers. comm.). &#160;No information on population trend is available.
166756		threats	eng	No specific threat has been identified.
166757		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys to establish its distribution range and research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended.</p>
166757		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus pustulosa</span> is reported from Manipur and Mizoram in India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166757		habitat	eng	Found in the pebbly bottom of clear and rapid flowing streams (Annandale 1921)
166757		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166757		threats	eng	Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.
166758		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species range and population size.
166758		distribution	eng	<em>Camptoceras lineatum</em> is known from the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy river systems in Bangladesh (Mymensingh), India (Manipur (Loktak lake), Bihar, and Assam (Deepar wetlands). Recently it has been reported from Ganges river system in Nepal (Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007). It is likely to also be present in Myanmar, and should be looked for in other Indian states within the Ganges drainage.
166758		habitat	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB"></em><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found in lakes, ponds and their effluents, in slowly running streams with submerged vegetation primarily <em>Hydrilla verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, Potamogeton octundrus, Ceratophylum demersum, Utricularia flexuosa</em> and the under water parts of <em>Panicum auritum </em>(Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Kalita and Goswami 2007).</p>
166758		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The population density of <em>C. lineatum</em> was studied in Deepar wetland of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The highest population density (45± 10 n.m<sup>-2</sup>) per square meter was reported in&#160;<em>Hydrilla verticillata</em>&#160;by Kalita and Goswami (2007). It is a very rare species in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal,</st1:country-region>&#160;reported from the Terai wetlands including <st1:placename w:st="on">Ghodaghodi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, Kailali; <st1:placename w:st="on">Beeshajari</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, Chitwan; and downstream of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Begnas</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Kaski.</p>
166758		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
166759		conservation	eng	Ecological impact assessments should be undertaken where dune mining exists, particularly in South Africa.
166759		conservation	eng	No information available.
166759		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166759		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found in Tanzania and Kenya as well as Socotra. It is generally an Indo-Pacific species, including Madagascar and Comoros.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found at Zanzibar, Pemba and Tanzania mainland at Wami and Kingani rivers. Also in Kenya at Mambrui. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found on Socotra, in rivers up to 500 m. This species was first collected on the island during the limnological survey in 1999 - 2004 (Lab of Ecology, Ghent University) and is not mentioned in older literature (e.g. by Godwin-Austen, 1883, see also Brown 1994). Since it hardly can be overlooked, <em>Thiara scabra</em>, wide spread in the Indo Pacific, seems hence to be a recent arrival on Socotra and may be a species in expansion.
166759		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara scabra</span> is found throughout Bangladesh, India, Nepal (Gangetic plains), Indonesia (Java), Japan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Thailand, Philippines (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007,&#160; Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). This species is also listed as present in Oman, South Eastern Arabia  (Brown & Gallager 1985). However Feulner and Green (1999) list it  as a ‘probably introduced species’ in the UAE (United Arab Emirates).<br/><br/>The species is also recorded from Africa; Tanzania  (Zanzibar, Pemba and Tanzania mainland at Wami and Kingani rivers), Kenya and Socotra. It is generally an Indo-Pacific species, including Madagascar  and Comoros. The record from Socotra, in rivers up to 500 m; widespread in the Indo Pacific, seems perhaps to be a recent arrival and may be a species in expansion (D. van Damme, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2008) or resulting from accidental introduction.<br/><br/>This species is considered an invasive species in the south pacific, including; the Samoan archipelago, Fiji, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, the Federated States of Micronesia and Guam (Eldredge 2000)
166759		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is found at Zanzibar, Pemba and Tanzania mainland at Wami and Kingani rivers. It is also present in Kenya at Mambrui.  <br/>It is generally an Indo-Pacific species, with a distribution range that includes Madagascar and Comoros.
166759		habitat	eng	It occurs in rivers.
166759		habitat	eng	River, streams and ponds.
166759		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, streams and ponds. It is tolerant of brackish water.
166759		population	eng	Reported to be uncommon, but population estimates not certain.
166759		population	eng	There is no information on population trends on this species but it is common species throughout the tributaries of river Ganga (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166759		threats	eng	It is a widespread species and there are no widespread threats identified for this species. This species is effected locally by the heavy pollution in the River Ganges, India (Sinha and Das 1993).
166759		threats	eng	Most likely sedimentation, anthropogenic disturbances and pollution.
166759		threats	eng	The most likely major threats to affect this species are sedimentation, anthropogenic disturbances and pollution. Dune mining in South Africa threatens the species and it may also be impacted by the invasive snail, <em>Terebia granifera</em>.
166761		conservation	eng	<p>Research into the distribution and biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166761		distribution	eng	<p><em>Parreysia pachysoma</em> is recorded from the lower Ganges and Brahmaputra plains in Bangladesh <st1:country-region w:st="on">and India (Assam</st1:country-region>, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, <st1:place w:st="on">Meghalaya, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Orissa and Tripura), </st1:country-region></st1:place>and the Irrawaddy basin in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989,&#160;Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003,&#160;Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).</p>
166761		habitat	eng	<p><em>Parreysia pachysoma</em> is found in sand and occasional mud substrate of stagnant water bodies and large rivers with rich benthic fauna (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
166761		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166761		threats	eng	<p>The inferred threats are habitat loss (through development and hydropower dams), degradation and pollution. However, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>  <p></p>
166762		conservation	eng	<p>More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed along with identification of threats to this species.</p>
166762		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Camptoceras terebra</span> is a very rare species according to Subba Rao (1989). It shows very restricted distribution, reported from only two locations in India (Uttar Pradesh and West&#160;Bengal (Mogra)). This species clearly requires further research and expert survey to determine if the species is actually rare or simply under-reported, and to confirm the taxonomic status of the sub-species described from Japan.
166762		habitat	eng	Found in deep pool of river beds with aquatic weeds (Subba Rao 1989). Detailed ecology of this species is not known.
166762		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166762		threats	eng	No data is available on threats to this species. However, the area where it was found is highly disturbed from pollution from agricultural run-off, urbanization and habitat degradation.
166763		conservation	eng	Surveys, life history studies, research in population trends and threats are recommended.
166763		distribution	eng	It is recorded only from the Brahmaputra River, Assam, India (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166763		habitat	eng	Information on habitat and ecology of this species is unknown.
166763		population	eng	Population density and other information is unknown.
166763		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
166764		conservation	eng	Research on distribution, life history and threats is needed.
166764		distribution	eng	<p>Apparently known only from the type locality in Assam (type locality not recorded) in northeastern India, in 1900. Little is known of this species.<em></em></p>
166764		habitat	eng	<p>This is species likely occurs in streams and rivers.</p>
166764		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166764		threats	eng	Threats for this species are not known.
166765		conservation	eng	<p>No information on conservation status is available.</p>
166765		distribution	eng	<p><em>Parreysia andersoniana</em> is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> (Bihar: <st1:city w:st="on">Patna</st1:city>; Uttar Pradesh: Yamuna River at Janghola near Palla, 22 km upstream from <st1:city w:st="on">New Delhi</st1:city>; <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>: Silchar; West Bengal: Siliguri; Sikkim, and Meghalaya), Bangladesh, and the Irrawaddy River drainage in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Myadong). It was reported from ponds in <st1:city w:st="on">Patna</st1:city> and Yamuna River near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">New Delhi</st1:city></st1:place> by Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007). with further survey, it is likely to be found in other Indian states, including Jharkand, Assam, and other northeastern Indian states)<br/></p>
166765		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p><em></em>It inhabits sand substrate in ponds and lentic portions of rivers, observed burrowing in the mud freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams.&#160; </p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166765		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em style="font-style: italic;"></em>Information on population remain unknown. <br/></p>  <p></p>
166765		threats	eng	<p>There is no enough information on specific threats to the species. However, general threats to rivers, streams and ponds from human activities such as damming, pollution and agriculture are inferred threats to the species' habitat.<br/></p>
166766		conservation	eng	<p>Although according to Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>(2001) the species is considered to be intolerant to pollution, it has been recorded from polluted waters (A Dey pers. comm. 2010). Therefore, the impacts of organic pollution, ongoing human activities such as use of fertilizer, pesticide and discharge of drainage into rivers and solid waste need to be studied and monitored.&#160;</p>
166766		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula bensoni</span> is found in West Bengal (Kolkata, Nadia), Bihar (Bhagalpur) in India, and Chittagong and the delta in Bangladesh (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be found in other Indian states within its range (e.g. Jharkand).
166766		habitat	eng	<p>It is a freshwater species restricted to lowland rivers of the Gangetic watershed. It inhabits sand or slightly muddy substrate. Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) state that the species can not tolerate high organic pollution and&#160;that it is a good indicator for betamesosaprobic water quality.</p>
166766		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166766		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not clearly understood, but it is likely to be impacted by agricultural and industrial pollution<br/></p>
166767		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys to establish its distribution range and research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended. The impact of harvest for food and other potential threats need to be studied.</p>  <p></p>
166767		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus regulata</span> is reported in India from Assam, Meghalaya (Garo and Khasi hills) and West Bengal; and from Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). It is inferred to occur in areas between these known localities.
166767		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>It is a stream resident.</p>  <p></p>
166767		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>  <p></p>
166767		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>  <p></p>
166768		conservation	eng	Expert survey is required across the species range to determine its current distribution, as well as its ecology and threats.
166768		distribution	eng	The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens phenchooganjensis</span> is from Bangladesh. It is endemic to the lower Gangetic plains in Bangladesh and India (Jharkhand, Mizoram and Bihar (Nesseman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;(2005) reported this species from Bihar (Mamu Bhanja Pokhra at Hajipur)&#160;but the identification of specimens require verification)). Presence in West Bengal, India, is likely.
166768		habitat	eng	It is found in stagnant water bodies such as an oxbow-lakes under dense macrophytes (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2007).
166768		population	eng	Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) consider the species to be a rare species limited to stagnant waters.
166768		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known, though the loss of wetlands such as ponds, pools and other stagnant waters through development and agricultural clearance is a likely threat.
166769		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research is needed to know about the species distribution, habitats, ecology, use and threats; no conservation actions are in place.<br/></p>
166769		distribution	eng	Ghonghi<span style="font-style: italic;"> (Bellamya crassispiralis)</span> in not known beyond the type locality in Chapki Stream in the south of the Manipur Valley, India, near the Myanmar border (Subba Rao 1989).
166769		habitat	eng	It is reported to be found in streams.
166769		population	eng	Information on population status is not available.
166769		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
166770		conservation	eng	The&#160;species&#160;is&#160;utilised&#160;as a food (for human and domesticated animal consumption), and in the&#160;production&#160;of jewelry and&#160;construction&#160;materials. &#160;Further information on the impacts of this use is needed.
166770		distribution	eng	<em>Solenaia soleniformis</em> was described from Cachar, Assam. It is distributed in rivers of Brahmaputra drainage in Assam (Cachar Hills: type locality) and Mizoram and Tripura in India, and the Dhaleswari River in Bangladesh, a tributary of the Brahmaputra (Subba Rao 1989).
166770		habitat	eng	Godwin-Austen (1919) and Annandale (1919) have studied burrows and habitat of this species. According to Godwin-Austen (1919) "they prefer fairly rapid running water. Their borings are generally on the outside of curves or bends, where the current is fairly high. They seem to change about from hole to hole, descending as the river falls".
166770		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. Two specimens were taken in November 2003 in Mizoram, India (23.23N, 92.85E) (Zoological Survey of India 2003). Other than this, there is no known population information for this species.
166770		threats	eng	The major threat for this species is collection from wild populations. The other threats such as pollution from agricultural runoff, habitat loss and degradation are understood to impact the habitat of the species and therefore are inferred threats to the species itself.
166772		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Distribution and life history studies and threats and their impacts on populations are recommended research requirements.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
166772		distribution	eng	<p>It is known only  from Andhra Pradesh (Secunderabad and Hyderabad), and Uttarakhand (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Kumaon, Nainital) in India. Its type locality is Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166772		habitat	eng	It is found in stagnant water bodies.
166772		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>     <p></p>
166772		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
166773		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed to understand the species population, distribution and threats.<br/></p>
166773		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in southern and eastern Asia. Its global distribution includes Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia (Java,  Sulawesi, and Sumatra), Philippines, China and Japan (GBIF 2010). Its  presence in Bangladesh is inferred. In India it is reported from Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura (south) (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166773		habitat	eng	It is found in all freshwater bodies.
166773		population	eng	Females are more abundant than males (Subba Rao 1989). However, information on population and trends is not available.
166773		threats	eng	Use for food and shell in jewellery industry may be considered as a threat to this species, however, no documentation is available to substantiate this.
166774		conservation	eng	<p>Studies to understand impacts of harvest from the wild, population trends and other threats to the species are needed urgently.</p>
166774		distribution	eng	The species is common in the Indo-Pacific region; recorded from coastal areas in the Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh, India (West Bengal (Gangetic Delta), Orissa (Mahanadi estuary), Andra Pradesh and the Nicobar Islands)), Viet Nam, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsula) and Indonesia (Sunda Islands; Graf and Cummings 2011). It is also present in the Philippines (a possible introduction; Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be present in other coastal east Indian states and in Myanmar. The exact distribution is imperfectly known because of frequent confusion with other species of the genus.
166774		habitat	eng	The species is found buried in stiff mud in mangroves, being able to tolerate long periods of low tide, and has the ability to resume filter feeding rapidly when inundated (Subba Rao 1989).
166774		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166774		threats	eng	There is a significant trade in the shell, with collected for food and handicrafts. Industrial development, pollution, conversion of mangrove forest, and overexploitation may impact the species and its habitat, however there is no precise information, and research is required.
166775		conservation	eng	<p>The&#160;species&#160;is&#160;utilised&#160;as a food for human consumption. Further information on the impacts of this use is needed. Study on life history and other threats to species and habitat requires understanding.</p>
166775		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Myanmar (Mandalay, Pegu (Bago), Bhamo, Tenasserim, Zayleymann), India (Manipur (Thoubal), Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland), Cambodia (including Peam  Chelang), and Thailand. It is likely to have a wide range within the Eastern Himalayas and Indo-Burma regions.
166775		habitat	eng	It inhabits ponds.
166775		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166775		threats	eng	Collection from the wild for food may be a localised threat, but this needs to be studied.
166776		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">More information is needed on the impact of pollution and other threats on the species.<br/></p>
166776		distribution	eng	It is widely known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra systems (India (Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh), and from Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java), Malaysia and Nepal. It should also be looked for in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>This species is widely distributed across southeast Asia from the Ganges region in India to the island of Sumatra (Kohler and Glaubrecht 2001). The occurrence of this species is conceived to range from North East India (Ganges, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Skiim, West-Bengal), Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam to the Malaysian Peninsula (abundant in the Pahang River system) and Sumatra. It has been reported from the Mekong where it is the only cerithiodean species found (Brandt 1974: Davis 1982 in Kohler and Glaubrect 2001).<br/><br/>Kohler and Glaubrect (2001) found specimens from museum collections confirming that this species is found in lakes on Sumatra, such as Lake Toba, Lake Maninjau, Lake Singkarah, and Lake Ranau. <br/><br/>Kohler and Glaubrect (2001) considered reports from Sri Lanka (Annandale, 1920), Java (Rensch, 1934; Benthem Jutting, 1956) and Borneo (Brandt 1974) as dubious due to confusion with other species.<br/><br/>More research or clarification is needed on the area of Bangladesh that this species is distributed, as there are 230 small and large rivers in Bangladesh (Reuters 2009).
166776		habitat	eng	It is found in moderately fast running streams and rivers with rich invertebrate diversity (P. Budha pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>This species is a eurytopic species, occurring in habitats ranging from clear, narrowly tangled jungle creeks, comprising of sandy bottoms, to large muddy rivers (Abbott, 1948, Davis 1971 <em>in</em> Kohler and Glaubrect 2001). This species lives on rocks, mud, sand and root systems, often among leaf litter in the water column (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001). <br/><br/>There have been reports implying a preference for this species; Davis (1971) found this species in quiet, marginal waters in comparison to the spiny forms of this genus that are found among rocks in rapids (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001), Subba Rao (1989) states that this species lives in ponds and does not occupy swift streams. And according to Krautrachue, Upatham, Vichasri and Baidikul (1990) the species inhabits mainly streams and rivers, only rarely still waters (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001).<br/><br/>Recent samplings by the Kohler were taken in Lake Toba, clear streams and muddy irrigation channels of rice fields on Sumatra (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001).
166776		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166776		threats	eng	Major threats occur to part of the species range, but as there is not a complete range for this species, there may be further threats to this species. <br/><br/>The Ganges River, India is extremely polluted from increase in human population, sewage discharge, and industrial action (Sinha and Das 1993). Other areas of India (such as Assam) are heavy tea producers - however whether this causes a direct threat needs further research.<br/><br/>Bangladesh rivers, and in particular the Buriganga river, are threatened by pollution, encroachment, tannery discharge, and chemical discharge from cadmium, chromium and mercury (Reuters 2009). Some portions of most rivers, particularly when located near urban and industrial areas, are highly polluted, due to untreated industrial effluents and the continuing dumping of raw sewage (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). The most polluted reach of the Buriganga is the area of Dhaka City, during the dry season the dissolve oxygen content goes down to almost zero (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). The Buriganga is considered to be biologically dead, and the rivers of the Sitalakhya, Turag and Balu also receive a high influx of waste water therefore with the potential to be as polluted as the Buriganga (Reuters 2009). A large number of small rivers as well as wetlands located near small towns also become highly polluted (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). Other polluted areas within Bangladesh are the Sitalakhya in Narayanganj; the Rupsha in Khulna, and the Karnafuli in Chittagong (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>The distribution of this species in Myanmar is under threat from unregulated pollution and habitat degradation, as there is no up-to-date laws for the regulation of pollution, and there is an increasing pressure on farmers to double and treble rice crops, which has lead to massive deforestation (Gutter 2001). Additionally, there is a lack of crop rotation, damaged water supply, and the use of fertilizers is leading to soil depletion and pestilence (Gutter 2001). There are further threats from large hydroelectric projects on Myanmar's rivers, and rapidly expanding industries such as mining, oil and gas (Gutter 2001).<br/><br/>In 2005, Malaysia declared a pollution emergency, which was predominantly air pollution, however more research is needed into the levels of water pollution and other threats to this species within Malaysia (abc online, 2005).
166777		conservation	eng	Surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.
166777		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nerita articulata </span>has a wide distribution in southeast Asia. In India it has been recorded from West Bengal (South&#160;24 Paraganas&#160;(Matla River, Sunderban, Port Canning, Sajnakhali, Namkhana, Arbesy block (Sunderban), Gosaba, Chhota),&#160;Bhitarkanika, Muriaganga, and the Andaman Islands). It is also recorded from southern Thailand (Phang-Nga Province), Viet Nam, Singapore, Australia and Malaysia (Subba Rao 1989). It is also known from New Guinea and Indonesia (K. Richter, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010).<br/><br/>It is likely to be present in Bangladesh, other east-coast Indian states, Myanmar, and other regional countries.
166777		habitat	eng	It is seen on rocky shores especially those near mangroves. The study by Tan and Clements (2008) found this snail on mangrove tree trunks and roots, monsoon canal walls, muddy banks, and rocky areas in or near mangroves. It is also common in nipa-palm swamps.
166777		population	eng	There is no population estimates for this species in the eastern Himalayan region. In the other regions, there are quite crude reports on the population fluctuation attributed to natural factors (Tan and Clements 2008).
166777		threats	eng	Tan and Clements (2008) reports that this species affected by human activities such as reclamation and pollution.
166778		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166778		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra soluta </span>is recorded only from the Gangetic Delta at Basanti in West Bengal in India (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be&#160; present in Bangladesh.
166778		habitat	eng	It is a brackish water species found on slopes of muddy shores.
166778		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166778		threats	eng	<p>The Ganges at it's delta is heavily polluted from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources. The impact of these pollutants on the species requires research.<br/></p>
166779		conservation	eng	<p>Potential threats and long term impacts of pollution on the species are recommended research.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166779		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scaphula celox</span> has been reported widely from India: West   Bengal (Kolkata, North and South 24 Parganas), Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh (River Cane near Banda (Bundelkhand)) (Subba Rao 1989).
166779		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scaphula celox </span>is restricted to tributaries of the Ganges River. It remains attached to stones and concrete, as well as on the shells of other molluscs, mainly fixed on the posterior part of living large bivalves and on other living snails such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya crassa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bengalensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia costula</span>&#160;(Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2003).
166779		population	eng	<p>It is very commonly seen during winter and spring season. However, its population and trends are unknown.<br/></p>
166779		threats	eng	<p>It is found in the Ganges, and even in polluted waters, implying water pollution is not considered a major threat to the species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166780		conservation	eng	Potential threats to this species need to be identified
166780		distribution	eng	<p>The species is widely distributed in the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins. It is recorded from<em> </em>Nepal, India (Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya,  Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal) (Subba Rao 1989), Bangladesh and Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). A record from the United Kingdom needs verification. This species was found from the middle reaches of the Ganges River and its tributaries originating in the Himalayan foothills.</p><p><strong></strong></p>
166780		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers.
166780		population	eng	<p><em>P.</em><em> occata</em> is fairly abundant in West Bengal, Bihar and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is very common throughout the Terai region from central to far-western region of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) collected 29 specimens plus numerous single shells from Mahendrughat and Gandhighat from Ganga and three specimens from the zoological park near Patna.<br/></p>
166780		threats	eng	There is no documented major threats to this species. However, water pollution in lowland rivers due to nutrient load from agricultural flush out, use of pesticide and fish poisoning are some inferred common threats in Himalayan foot hills and floodplains of freshwater fauna.
166781		conservation	eng	<p>Studies to understand threats, impacts and population trends are required.</p>
166781		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea microsculpta</span> is present in India (24 Paraganas,&#160;Port Canning, Kolkata, and the Andaman Islands), Thailand, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java) and Malaysia Sematan (Sarawak) (Subba Rao 1989; Brandt 1974; Nevill 1884). It probably also occurs in brackish waters of Bangladesh and Myanmar.
166781		habitat	eng	This is found in brackish water of mangrove forests in south and southeast Asia.
166781		population	eng	No population studies have been made even though it is a common&#160;brackish water species.
166781		threats	eng	The possible threats to this species are habitat loss, degradation and pollution from urban sources. However, no major threats are confirmed for the species.
166782		conservation	eng	<p>Research into the species ecology, distribution, and threats is required.<br/></p>
166782		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cipangopaludina lecythis</span> is a widely distributed species. It is reported from India (Manipur: Churachandpur, Chandel, Bishenpur, Imphal, Thoubal; Meghalaya; Mizoram; Tripura; Nagaland: Kohima, Naga Hills, Zunheboto), Myanmar (Upper Myanmar to the Southern Shan States), China (Yunnan), and Viet Nam. Presence in other countries within the region (Bhutan, Bangladesh, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia) is possible (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166782		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater habitats such as ponds and rice fields.
166782		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166782		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>
166783		conservation	eng	<p>Research into distribution, biology, population, trends, ecology, habitat and threats are recommended for this poorly studied species.</p>
166783		distribution	eng	<em>Stenothyra blanfordiana</em> is known only from India (Port Canning in West Bengal, Chilka Lake in Orissa, and Madras in Tamil Nadu). It is likely to be present in other river basins in Andhra Pradesh.
166783		habitat	eng	It is a brackish water species found on slopes in muddy shores.
166783		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166783		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160;</p>
166784		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166784		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra woodmasoniana</span> has only been recorded from South 24 Parganas in Port Canning, West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989).
166784		habitat	eng	It is recorded in the Gangetic Delta in West Bengal, India. No other information is available.
166784		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
166784		threats	eng	There are many threats affecting the Sundarbans region where this species occurs. These include: chemical pollution, salinization, impoundment and diversion of watercourses for irrigation, and sedimentation (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is unknown what impact these threats are having on this species.
166785		conservation	eng	<p>No research or conservation action recommended for this species.<br/></p>
166785		distribution	eng	The species is found in India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan and it should be looked for in Bangladesh and Bhutan. In India, it has been reported from Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Pondicherry (Univ. of Michegan Mus. Zool.) Punjab, Sikkim, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Jharkhand, Manipur, Nagaland (Naga Hills), Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal (Subba Rao 1989;&#160; Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). A record from the Malay Archipelago requires confirmation.
166785		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in stagnant waters such as small ponds, paddy fields and small streams. This species is the intermediate host of many (Cercariae) trematodes (Sewell 1922).</p>
166785		population	eng	<p>This species is abundant in stagnant water bodies but the population trend is unknown. <br/></p>
166785		threats	eng	<p>It is a widespread species  with no significant threats.</p>
166786		conservation	eng	<p>Apart from the type description nothing is known about this species, which makes it a prime candidate for intensive survey, and research in life history, threats and population trends.<br/></p>
166786		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from a number of locations in Assam, India, from the Brahmaputra river and tributaries.
166786		habitat	eng	<p>It is found burrowing in the mud of water pools formed by the side of streams (Subba Rao 1989). </p>
166786		population	eng	<p>Information on population status is not available.</p>
166786		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
166787		conservation	eng	Information is required on the threats and population size of the species.
166787		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium indicum</span> is found in northern India and Nepal. It is known exclusively from small to medium sized streams and rivulets  of mountains in northern India (plains and Himalaya: Manipur (Chandel),  Uttarakhand (Nainital),  Himachal Pradesh (Bilaspur)) and Nepal (upper Bagmati river basin in the   Kathmandu Valley, Punyamata Khola, Ashi Khola, Cha Khola in Kavre District, Phewa Tal, Begnas Tal and Khudi Khola in Kaski District) (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
166787		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. indicum</span> is mainly restricted in the Himalayan mountain streams and rivulets from 800 to 1600 m a.s.l. The preferred habitat is sandy gravel or muddy substrate closed to the banks. Occasionally it is also found under stones with sandy substrate.It  apparently prefers slow-running water bodies, with some records from   lakes and ponds including lower gradients of inner valleys of the   Himalayas. No specimens were recorded in fast flowing mountain streams,   terai region of Nepal or anywhere in the Gangetic plain. It is found in small and medium sized midhill streams with rich organic  matters. &#160;It is also reported from paddy fields and temporary ponds. It  is not found in upstream headwaters, springs and forest streams (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).
166787		population	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the mountain range of the Himalayas. This is one of the most abundant bivalve species of the region. There is no systematic study report available on the population status of this species.&#160; <br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166787		threats	eng	<p>  Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known. <br/> </p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166788		conservation	eng	Surveys to understand actual distribution of this species is needed along with proper taxonomic studies of the populations in different localities as known presently. Research on biology and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166788		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Bangladesh and India (West   Bengal (Puruliya, Calcutta), Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh (Narmada River), Gujarat (Rann of Kutch), Sepree, Sahib Ganje and Maharastra   (Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bhutan and Nepal.<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 451px; height: 20px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
166788		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in rivers and ponds.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166788		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166788		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
166789		conservation	eng	More research on distribution and life history of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166789		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scabies crispata</span> is recorded from India (a number of records from Assam, including Sibsagar<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> and Arunachal Pradesh), Myanmar (Tavoy, Bhamo), Cambodia (Battambong), and Thailand (Khon Kaen) (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to have a wider distribution within the region.
166789		habitat	eng	It is generally found in rivers, ponds and reservoirs.
166789		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166789		threats	eng	The species has a wide range and is not likely to threatened across its range.
166790		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and research on the population trend and threats of this species is needed.
166790		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentina calatha </span>is a widespread species in northern India from Kashmir in the west to Manipur in the east, and appears to be present throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra system. It is also known from Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand (Subba Rao 1989), and likely to be present in Bangladesh.
166790		habitat	eng	This species is found in swamps, ponds, lakes and wetlands in decaying plant material and leaf litter.
166790		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166790		threats	eng	Large parts of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system are impacted by a range of threats that include sedimentation (from deforestation and agriculture), pollution (from agriculture, domestic sources and industry), and the impact of hydropower developments. The scale and impact of thesse threast on the species are not understood and needs to be researched.
166792		conservation	eng	No research or conservation actions are recommended for this species.
166792		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus rotula</span> has a wide distribution in India and some parts of southeast Asia. In India it has been recorded from&#160;Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (type locality: Moradabad), and Rajasthan. It is also recorded from Sri Lanka and Thailand (e.g. Ubolratana, Khon Kaen Province). Whilst records have not been foumnd, it should be looked for in Myanmar, Bangladesh, and other southeast Asian countries.
166792		habitat	eng	This is very&#160;ubiquitous&#160;species, found in ponds, tanks, ditches,&#160;reservoirs and other stagnant water pools, with aquatic vegetation.
166792		population	eng	No information available.
166792		threats	eng	There are no perceptible threats to this species.
166793		conservation	eng	<p>No research or conservation actions are recommended for this species.<br/></p>
166793		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea andersoniana </span>is present in India, Myanmar  (Southern Shan States), China (Yunnan), and Nepal. In India, it has been recorded from Assam, Himachal Pradesh (Kullu, Una,  Simla Hills, Kashgar, Kangra Valley), Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh) and Manipur (Churachandpur, Chandel, Bishenpur, Thoubal) (Subba Rao 1989).
166793		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in stagnant waters with ample vegetation as well as in streams. The species is an intermediate host for many parasites.<br/></p>
166793		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>
166793		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
166794		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p><p></p>
166794		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Novaculina gangetica</span> is endemic to Ganges River system. It is known from the whole lower Ganges in Bihar, West Bengal and Bangladesh. It was recorded from the upper reaches of the Ganges up to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, 2007).
166794		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">N. gangetica</span> inhabits freshwater as well as slightly oligohaline water of the of the Hugli River downstream from Howra, West Bengal. It colonizes the littoral of the tidal zone. It is found upstream to Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh India in the Ganges River. It prefers soft sand and silt bottom of lotic reaches and remains fixed in the substrate even in strong water waves.<br/></p>
166794		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>  <p></p>
166794		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known; some parts of the rivers within the species range are highly polluted, and the impact of these threats need to be investigated.<br/></p>  <p></p>
166795		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place and more research is needed.
166795		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens generosus</span> has been recorded from Houngdaran River and Pegu in Myanmar (Preston 1915, Subba Rao 1989). In India, it is found in Arunachal Pradesh, and West Sighbhum in Jharkhand (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It is presumed to have a wide distribution in the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India and Bangladesh.
166795		habitat	eng	The species is found in large river systems.
166795		population	eng	No information on population or trends available for this species.
166795		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species; however, water pollution and habitat loss are general threats known to affect freshwater molluscs.
166796		conservation	eng	<p>ALthough basic research is required, no immediate research or actions are recommended for this widespread species.&#160;</p>
166796		distribution	eng	The species is common throughout India (including Andaman Islands), Malay Archipelago (including  Batu Caves (Selangor State, West Malaysia), Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. &#160;Records from Brandt (1974) from Chiang Mai and Lamphun Province in Thailand are considered likely to be introduced.
166796		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and wetland ponds and lakes.
166796		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Population structure of this species is not known.
166796		threats	eng	There are no significant threats reported for this species.
166797		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Research on the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient specific information available. The impact of use and potential threats to this species also need to be further studied.<br/>&#160;</p><p></p>
166797		distribution	eng	<em>Parreysia olivaria</em> is found in the Ganges and Lower <st1:place w:st="on">Brahmaputra</st1:place> River systems, recorded from the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and West <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Bengal (Subba Rao 1989)</st1:city></st1:place>. It is widely distributed in the Ganges and  Brahmaputra basins, and is likely to be found in Bangladesh, and lower parts  of Bhutan.
166797		habitat	eng	<p>It inhabits unstable sand substrate of lotic habitats in the main channel of Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Yamuna rivers (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/></p>  <p>&#160; &#160;</p>  <p></p>
166797		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but literature suggests that it is relatively widespread.<br/>&#160;</p><p></p>
166797		threats	eng	<p>The rivers where it occurs are highly polluted, however, the impact of this on the species is not known.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166798		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Research is needed into the species distribution, ecology and threats.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166798		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Port Canning (type locality) and the South 24 Parganas in&#160;West Bengal, India. It is also reported from the Mahanadi Estuary (GBIF; near Cuttack, Orissa, India), and from Guntur District (Andre Pradesh; Ram and Radhakrishna 1984).
166798		habitat	eng	Found on the sloping muddy shores. It is a detritus feeder.
166798		population	eng	The population details of this species is not known.&#160; The species is found spawning during August to December.
166798		threats	eng	<p>Urban and agricultural runoff is one of the major threats to the species.</p><p>&#160;</p>
166799		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed on species distribution, ecology, use and threats.  </p>
166799		distribution	eng	It is found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river systems of India and Bangladesh, and from other basins in eastern and southern India. In India, it is reported from Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Nadia) (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It's presence in other states within India is likely.
166799		habitat	eng	It is found in mud and silt in shallow waters of streams (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).
166799		population	eng	<p>This has a wide distribution but population studies are lacking. Population status of this species is not known.&#160; <br/></p>
166799		threats	eng	<p>Water pollution and habitat loss are known to be the general threats that affect freshwater molluscs in this region; however, no specific threat has been recorded for this species. <br/></p>
166800		conservation	eng	<p>Studies of the species' distribution, life history, threats and population trends are required.</p>
166800		distribution	eng	The species is known from India (West Bengal; Kolkata, North and South 24 Parganas, Maharashtra Province (requires confirmation), Hugli River (Konnagar, Dakineshwar)), Viet Nam (Tonkin), Bangladesh (WWF 2011), Myanmar (Pegu),&#160;<a name="Top"></a>and Sri Lanka (<a name="Top">University of Florida Malacology database)</a>. There is an unconfirmed record from the Philippines (Abbott 1958).
166800		habitat	eng	It is the only species of <em>Assiminea</em> that is found in fresh water, within areas of tidal influence. It is a detritus feeder that occurs in ponds and canals linked to the Hugli River, and extends as far north as Bandel (India). This species either crawls on the mud or remains attached to bricks, stones, wood, grass etc. on the bank (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
166800		population	eng	Spawn densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea</span> spp. were observed more than 1000 m<sup>-2</sup>&#160; (A. Dey pers. comm. 2010) from August to December in India. The maximum population density recorded in the Hugli-Matla estuary was 230 m<sup>-2</sup> on average (Subba Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995).
166800		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known. Further information on the impact of domestic and industrial pollutants and sedimentation is needed.<br/></p>
166801		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166801		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neritina obtusa</span> is reported from West Bengal (on the bank of the Ganges in Kolkata), India (Subba Rao 1989) and from Bangladesh.
166801		habitat	eng	A primarily estuarine species, it is found in freshwaters as well (e.g. the Ganges delta).
166801		population	eng	<p>Population details of this species are not known, however there are numerous records from the delta.<br/></p>
166801		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known, and the impact of pollution and sedimentation should be investigated.<br/></p>
166802		conservation	eng	This is a very poorly studied species, nothing known since its description in 1989. &#160;Surveys are critical to establish the distribution of this species and to understand its status.
166802		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia annandalei</span> has been recorded only from Gowahati (Gowhatty), Assam, India in 1912 (Subba Rao 1989).
166802		habitat	eng	Information on habitats and ecology of this species is not available.
166802		population	eng	Population status is unknown.
166802		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
166803		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population, trends of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
166803		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentina trochoidea</span> is widespread in south and southeast Asia, and is likely present throughout the Ganges/Brahmaputra basins. It is known from India (West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Assam) , Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Balapiti), Malaysia, Myanmar (Inle Lake), Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Indonesia (Java and Sumatra) (Subba Rao 1989, Brandt 1974, Gilman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1982, Temcharoen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1982, Subba Rao 1989, Pallabi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
166803		habitat	eng	It is found in stagnant water bodies such as lakes, ponds in submerged vegetation.
166803		population	eng	No detail information on population trends and status is known for this species. However it is not commonly found.
166803		threats	eng	<p>There are no specific threats identified apart from general habitat threats that exist in most of the range areas of this species.&#160;</p>
166804		conservation	eng	<p>Rresearch on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended.</p>
166804		distribution	eng	Records for<em> Paludomus reticulata</em> are restricted to the Brahmaputra system in northeastern India: Assam (North Cachar), Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya (West Garo Hills) (Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bangladesh and Myanmar.
166804		habitat	eng	<p>  This is found in running water.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>
166804		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.&#160;&#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;&#160;</p>
166804		threats	eng	<p>    </p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.
166805		conservation	eng	Detailed research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
166805		distribution	eng	The species was collected in India only from Chandipal, Kolkata, West Bengal (Subba Rao 1989). Brandt (1974) has reported this species from Ranong Harbour in Thailand. The taxonomic identity of the two disparate populations needs to be studied carefully and verified.
166805		habitat	eng	&#160;This species occurs in streams and rivers. It is a brackish water species.
166805		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
166805		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
166806		conservation	eng	<p>This is a very poorly studied species requiring immediate attention to distribution and life history studies as well as research on ecology, threats and population trends.<br/></p>
166806		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from the type locality in Nazipur, Shushong, Mymensing District, Bangladesh. </p>
166806		habitat	eng	<p>It is found on weeds in deep river water pools. It naturally lives beneath the water surface. It secretes an epiphragm to tide over unfavourable conditions (Subba Rao&#160;1989).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
166806		population	eng	<p>It has only been collected from its type locality.<br/></p>
166806		threats	eng	<p>The type locality, Mymensing, not far from Dhaka, is heavily developed and rivers may be impacted by pollution, abstraction, and sedimentation (from agriculture). Further information on the impact of possible threats is required. <strong><br/></strong></p>
166853		conservation	eng	Research is required for this species.
166853		distribution	eng	Known only from the Ky Cùng River in Lang Son Province, northern Viet Nam.
166853		habitat	eng	Found in a freshwater river, with no further information.
166853		population	eng	No information available.
166853		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species current distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of the threats to the species.
166856		conservation	eng	No information available.
166856		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline.
166856		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline. It is known from the Lower Sabaki-Galana, but it is also found in Madagascar.
166856		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow coastal waters entering the brackish to freshwater regions of rivers (Nakabo 2002). Spawning takes place in larger aggregations at sea (Nakabo 2002). Feeds on small algae, diatoms, benthic polychaets, crustaceans, molluscs, organic matter and detritus (Nakabo 2002).
166856		habitat	eng	This fish occurs in shallow coastal waters entering the brackish to freshwater regions of rivers (Nakabo 2002). Spawning takes place in larger aggregations at sea (Nakabo 2002). It feeds on small algae, diatoms, benthic polychaets, crustaceans, molluscs, organic matter and detritus (Nakabo 2002).
166856		population	eng	No information available.
166856		threats	eng	No information available.
166857		conservation	eng	Research is required.
166857		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from northern Viet Nam (Red River basin; Lai Chau Province (Phong Tho and Muong Te districts)), Lao PDR (Nam Ma basin; Kottelat 2001) and southern China (the Nanxihe River (upper Red River basin) (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) and Tengtiao Jiang/Nam Na River (Black River drainage)).</p>
166857		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, in the upper parts of basins.
166857		population	eng	No information available.
166857		threats	eng	No information available, however the species is likely to be impacted in parts of its range by overfishing, pollution, and changes to flow regimes.
166858		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166858		distribution	eng	The species<em>&#160;</em>is known from streams and rivers in the mountainous region of northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001), and the Nandujiang and Wanquanhe River systems on Hainan Island (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Wang 1998).
166858		habitat	eng	Found in fast-flowing hill streams.
166858		population	eng	There have been few records of the species since it was described (Wang 1998).
166858		threats	eng	The construction of water irrigation, abstraction, and hydropower projects has been very widespread in the southern regions of China and this has led to the alteration of riverine environments, which may also affect the population dynamics of this species. Harm done by poison, explosive and electricity fishing must not be under estimated (Wang 1998).
166864		conservation	eng	None required at present.
166864		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, from the lower Mekong basin (Rainboth 1996, Kottelat 1998), Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya in Thailand, to the Malay Peninsula (e.g., Ng and Tan 1999), where it is widespread, and to the Greater Sunda Islands of Sumatra  and Borneo; may be restricted to eastern Sumatra and south and  western parts of Borneo including Sarawak and western Kalimantan (Kapuas basin) (Roberts 1989, Rainboth 1996).
166864		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits marshlands and floodplains, as well as hill streams. Found in a range of habitats.<span class="sheader5"><br/></span><span class="sheader5">        <p><span class="s1">Found in streams, canals, ditches, reservoirs, and prefers open waters.&#160;(Rainboth 1996).&#160;</p></span>
166864		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
166864		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from wetland reclamation and pollution are potential threats to this species.
166865		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species distribution and threats is required.
166865		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Ma River, northern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000), and from Nghia Lo, <span class="mw-redirect">Yen Bai Province, Viet Nam. Records from adjacent parts of drainages in southern China (e.g., the Zhujiang (Pearl River); Zheng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989) pertain to another species (Kottelat 2000).
166865		habitat	eng	<span>Known from rivers.<br/><br/>Found in clear mountain streams in forested areas (Rainboth 1996).
166865		population	eng	No information available.
166865		threats	eng	No information available.
166868		conservation	eng	No information available.
166868		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Indo  Pacific.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River,  Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its range extends down the east African  coast to Natal, South Africa. It is widespread in the Lower Zambezi River  channels up to Marromeu and in the Micelo River up to Malingapanzi, and is  present in the Save-Runde junction in Zimbabwe.
166868		habitat	eng	Adults are generally found at sea, but the young fish inhabit river mouths,  inner bays, and mangrove forests. In freshwater, it occurs in rivers, lagoons,  lakes, and swampy backwaters (Allen 1991). It tolerates salinities from 0 to  100. Mainly diurnal (Coates 1987). Predaceous, feeding mainly on fishes and  crustaceans (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). It breeds offshore, possibly  throughout the year. Larvae are transparent and resemble larval eels (Bell-Cross  and Mishull 1988). It is known to breath air, rising regularly to the surface to  do so. Cultured in ponds, the fry being sourced from the coasts (Kottelat <em>et  al.</em> 1993). Popular angling fish (Smith 1986). Edible but not esteemed (Smith  1986) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). In the Lower Shire River it has been  reported to be caught in gill nets but not in large numbers.
166868		population	eng	No information available.
166868		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by overfishing.
166870		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166870		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pareuchiloglanis macrotrema</span> is known from the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001) and southeastern China (Yunnan; Institute of Hydrobiology 1993).<st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place>&#160; In china, Li<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2007) report the species from the upper Mekong River in Yunnan. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) record the species from India (Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh), however this records requires confirmation.<br/></p>  <st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place>
166870		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">Found in rivers and flooded agricultural fields.
166870		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166870		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by pollution, however there is now information available.
166872		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is needed to determine the current population status and distribution of the species. It has been assessed as threatened in Viet Nam.
166872		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Known from the Black River (Sông Đà) drainage in northern Viet Nam (Son La and Hoa Binh Provinces) only (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166872		habitat	eng	It is a freshwater fish, found in flowing rivers.
166872		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166872		threats	eng	The known habitat is heavily impacted by dam construction; following construction of the Hoa Binh hydropower dam, this species has not been recorded.
166873		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
166873		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Red River basin in southern China (Yunnan) (Chu and Chen 1989) and northern Viet Nam (Ngyuen and Ngoa 2001). Described from the Song Lo (Clear River) in China.
166873		habitat	eng	<span>A freshwater river species, from the upper parts of river basins.
166873		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166873		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution.
166874		conservation	eng	Research into distribution, population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
166874		distribution	eng	<p>The species <span>has an eastern Asian distribution. It is known from the Ma River (Nam Ma) basin in Laos (Kottelat 2001) and the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001) and in the Yunnan Province, southern China (Chu and Chen 1989; <span>Kottelat 2001<span>).<br/></span></p>
166874		habitat	eng	<span>Found in upland rivers.
166874		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166874		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by pollution from agriculture.
166875		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166875		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and rivers in northwestern Viet Nam (no locality stated in original description (Mai 1978, Kottelat 2001) and southern China (Lancangjiang River (=Mekong River), Yuanjiang River (=Red River), and Jinshajiang River; Yunnan Province (Chen and Tang 2000)).<span>
166875		habitat	eng	Inhabits high gradient streams (Mai 1978).
166875		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166875		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
166876		conservation	eng	The species is listed in the National Red Data Book of Viet Nam (Level V). More research is needed, as is harvest management and monitoring.
166876		distribution	eng	The species is found in Lao PDR, Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001), southern China (Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang, Guangdong Province and Hainan Island; Kadoori Farm 2001, Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Li 2009), and Taiwan, Province of China.
166876		habitat	eng	Lives in streams with fast flowing, clear, open water in larger rivers. They can also survive in reservoirs and ponds. They start developing in the third year and spawn in clear, open water, among gravel substrate.
166876		population	eng	The fishery harvest of the species was second to the common carp before the 1970’s in the Lijiang basin, but it decreased sharply in recent years due to over fishing (Li <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Hainan, the species is becoming rare due to overfishing (Kadoorie 2001). It is also declining in Viet Nam.
166876		threats	eng	In Viet Nam populations have declined due to over harvesting. It is also recorded as declining in Hainan due to overfishing. It is used as an indicator for ecologically healthy rivers, so is sensitive to pollution and other impacts. Dams will also reduce the area of suitable spawning areas as they require fast flowing water.
166878		conservation	eng	The species is noted in the Vietnamese Red Book (level V).
166878		distribution	eng	The species has a southeast Asian distribution, and is is known from rivers in Hainan Island (China), southeastern China, Laos and Viet Nam (Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Kottelat 2001, Serov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). In Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2000) three subspecies of S. denticulatus for China were described: (1) <span style="font-style: italic;">S. d. denticulatus</span> is known from the Yuanjjiang River, Zhujiang River and Hainan Island; (2) <span style="font-style: italic;">S. d. yunnanensis</span> is known from the Yangzonghai lake and Fuxian lake (Yunnan province); S.d. polylepis is known from Nanpanjiang River (upper Pearl River basin). In Viet Nam, it is distributed from the Quang Tri river (Quang Tri province) to Lam Basin (Ha Tinh and Nghe An provinces) (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. 2</span>006). In Lao PDR., it is known from the Nam Ma River (Kottelat 2001).
166878		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in large and medium sized rivers (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is reported to be found in reservoirs in Viet Nam and is probably cultured.
166878		population	eng	The species is overexploited and catches have reduced in the Hong and Ba Be rivers. No information is available elsewhere in its range.
166878		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are overfishing and habitat degradation through dam construction and water pollution.
166880		conservation	eng	More research is recommended on the species distribution, ecology and threats.
166880		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Toxabramis houdemeri</span> is known  from Pearl River basin in southeastern China and  the Hainan Island (Lu 1991, Chen et al. 1998) and the coastal drainages in  Central and North Vietnam, the Sesan and Sekrop River basin in Central  Vietnam (Kottelat 2001, Ngyuen and Ngo 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Freyhof, pers. com.).
166880		habitat	eng	Found in small rivers, streams and lakes, usually in shallow water over the sandy bottom (Serov et al. 2006).
166880		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166880		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166881		conservation	eng	<p>Currently there is no specific action plan directed towards<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis ambassis</span>. Research on the population status, ecology, harvest trends and threats to the species is essential.</p>
166881		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis ambassis</span><em> </em>is found in the Indo-West Pacific from subtropical eastern South Africa to Kenya, Madagascar, Réunion and Mauritius (Anderson and Heemstra 2003, Harrison 2005), Seychelles&#160; (Playfair 1868), Zanzibar (Playfair and Günther 1867), Borneo (Fowler 1905), India (Raj 1916, Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Ramanujam and Anbarasan 2009) and north Australasia (Day 1875).
166881		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis ambassis</span> prefers estuarine environments but it may enter into freshwater system. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is mainly found in the ascending rivers and brackish water lakes <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The species is also known from volcanic crater lakes in Madagascar  (Anderson and Heemstra 2003).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span> It attains a total length of around 6 inches (Day 1875).</p>
166881		population	eng	No information is available on the global population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis ambassis</span>. The species is considered to be very rare in Madras (Raj 1916) and Bharathpuzha River in Kerala (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001). Percent abundance of this species in the estuary between Orange River and Kosi Bay of South   Africa is 1.86% and its contribution to the total biomass of fishes is 0.01% (Harrison 2005).
166881		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis ambassis</span>.
166883		conservation	eng	This is a likely species complex and more research is needed to clarify which populations are new (separate) species.
166883		distribution	eng	The species is found in all major river systems of continental east Asia, from the Amur River (Russia) through eastern China to Korea and Japan, and to northern Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
166883		habitat	eng	Inhabits upper reaches of rivers in mountains, and feeds on fish, shrimp, and aquatic insects.
166883		population	eng	No information on population trends
166883		threats	eng	The species occurs in areas where freshwater systems are threatened, however the impact of threats on the species is uncertain, and it may be tolerant of some degree of pollution (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166884		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
166884		distribution	eng	<em>O. gerlachi</em> is known from China, Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam; this species has been reported from the Chao Phraya, Mekong, Nam Ma, Hong (Red River) and Nanpangjiang basins.
166884		habitat	eng	<em>O. gerlachi</em> is a benthopelagic species which lives in rapid currents of mountain streams.
166884		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.
166884		threats	eng	Many of the river basins in which <em>O. gerlachi</em> is found,  in particular the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, have been greatly affected by water pollution,; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, which are an additional threat to <em>O. gerlachi</em>; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>Details of the threats within the Nam Ma, Hong and Nanpangjiang basins are not known, however it is likely that these are also affected to at least some extent by pollution and man made hydrological changes; the Hong (Red) river basin in particular is known to have a relatively high population density, and therefore pollution associated with urbanisation is likely.
166886		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place.
166886		distribution	eng	The species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>has a relatively restricted southeast Asia distribution, known from southeastern China (Hainan Island) and from the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Kottelat 2001).
166886		habitat	eng	In its native distribution range, inhabits rivers with marked water-level fluctuations, and overwinters in the middle and lower stretches. Feeds in shallow (0.5-1.5 m deep) and warm (more than 24 °C) backwaters, lakes and flooded areas with slow current, feeding mostly on zooplankton and algae. Spawns in very deep, very turbid and warm water, above 18°C (usually 22-30°C), with high current (1.1-1.9 m/s) and high oxygen concentration. Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 5-6 years , 550-700 mm SL and 5-10 kg, earlier and smaller in subtropical areas. Migrates long distances upriver at the beginning of a rapid flood and water-level increases (in April-July depending on locality). Spawns during floods in upper water layer or even at water surfaces, but stops spawning if conditions change and starts again with increase of water level. Females spawn up to 1.1 million eggs in 1-3 portions depending on duration of high-water period. Eggs are yellowish, transparent, and hatch after about 2 days at temperatures around 25°C while drifting downstream in the deep open-water layer. If the river flow is blocked or if available river stretches are too short, eggs cannot drift long enough and fail to develop. After spawning, adults leave the river and migrate back to foraging habitats. Larvae drift downstream and settle in floodplain lakes, shallow shores and backwaters with little or no current. In autumn-winter, when temperatures falls to 10°C, juveniles and adults form separate large schools and move downstream to deeper places in the main course of river to overwinter. Often crossed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypophthalmichthys molitrix</span> (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007).
166886		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166886		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypophthalmichthys harmandi</span> in its native distribution range are overfishing and river modifications (e.g. dam, dyke and floodgate construction, the conversion of floodplain into agriculture land). In addition, hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">H. mollitrix</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nobilis</span> and stocking of the  hybrids into wild are suspected to affect this species.
166887		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring and pollution controls in the river basins are needed.
166887		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from mountainous areas of northern Viet Nam and Lao PDR, and southern China (Guangxi and Guangdong; the distribution in China requires conformation: see Taxonomic Notes) in the Red and Nampangjiang river basins.</p><p>Also recorded from the Nam Xam (Chu River, a tributary of the Ma River) basin in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and from the Red River basin in Viet Nam and Yunnan, China (Kottelat 2001) and the Mekong basin (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997) in northeastern Thailand and Lao PDR.</p>
166887		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in the upper reaches of streams and smaller rivers in fast flowing waters. Found in the bottom parts of streams with stones and holes. Maximum size is 40 cm (length) and 1.5 kg (weigh). Omnivorous, but its main food are small fish, invertebrates, insects, larva and organic detritus. Spawners make holes in the river bank as nesting site.<br/></p>
166887		population	eng	No information available.
166887		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution in its suitable habitats are potential threats.
166888		conservation	eng	Research into the species taxonomic status is needed.
166888		distribution	eng	Known from the Lam (Ca) River in Central Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166888		habitat	eng	<span>Recorded from lotic freshwaters.
166888		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166888		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams, pollution and overfishing.
166889		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species taxonomic status,   distribution, population trends, and threats. The type locality is   within Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park.
166889		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality, Phong Nha Ke Bàng   limestone mountains, Quang Binh Province, central Viet Nam (Ngô 2008).
166889		habitat	eng	Collected from limestone mountains; presumably from upland mountain streams.
166889		population	eng	No information available.
166889		threats	eng	The species may be impacted by tourist and residential developments.
166892		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the population status, harvest level and threats on <span style="font-style: italic;">Terapon jarbua</span>. There is also need to study the taxonomy of this widespread species to check the possible presence of cryptic species.
166892		conservation	eng	No information available.
166892		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Terapon jarbua </span>is a widespread species distributed mainly in the Indo-West Pacific region (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Recently the species was also recorded from the Mediterranean Sea (Golani and Appelbaum-Golani 2010). <br/>It is found in the freshwater, brackish and marine habitats. It is recorded from the Red Sea, Eastern Africa, India (probably all major rivers including the Ganges and Brahmaputra), Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Indonesia, Australia, Philippines, Cambodia, China, Japan, and Korea. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Vietnam</st1:country-region> the species lives in <st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Tonkin</st1:placename>, from Quang Ninh province to Quang Binh province, Ve River, Chau Truc Lagoon, O Loan Lagoon, downstream of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mekong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>.
166892		distribution	eng	The species is known from lower reaches of the east African coastal rivers.
166892		habitat	eng	Found over shallow sand substrate in the vicinity of river mouths. Enters estuaries and rivers (Rahman 1989). Omnivorous feeding on fishes, insects, algae and sand-dwelling invertebrates (Yamada <em>et al. 1995). Spawns in the sea but the juveniles migrate into freshwater.</em>
166892		habitat	eng	Species lives in marine, coastal areas, estuaries, freshwater and some coastal lagoons (Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Eventhough the fish is primarily marine it moves considerable distance upstream into freshwaters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Maximum size of the fish is 27 cm. It is a predator and a lepidophagous fish. It feed on small fishes in the littoral zone (Whitfield and Blaber 1978) and scales of large fishes (Whitfield 1979).
166892		population	eng	No information available but it is a widespread common species.
166892		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Terapon jarbua</span>. However, it could be common in most of its range.
166892		threats	eng	No information available.
166892		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Terapon jarbua</span>.
166894		conservation	eng	<p>Several species are cultured artificially in Asia and Europe. &#160;This species is also raised commercially in Philippines for economic purposes. &#160;</p>
166894		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known to inhabit tropical and subtropical regions of the world between 22⁰N- 27⁰S. &#160;It has so far not been reported from eastern Himalaya, though its congener (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anguilla bengalensis</span>) has been reported from Nepal.<br/></p>
166894		habitat	eng	<p>Most of life is subsequently spent in lakes, streams and rivers but as the maturity approaches the adults migrate seaward to spawn. &#160;The eels spawn in deep tropical/subtropical oceans. &#160;The larvae are transported and dispersed by ocean currents which metamorphose into glass eels. &#160;These glass eels/elvers in estuaries migrate to freshwater and these juveniles/yellow fin eels (non migratory) grows to silver form (migratory). &#160;The silver form migrates to sea for spawning before they die. </p>
166894		population	eng	In studies conducted at southern Sri Lanka the species was stated to be fairly uniform as reflected in the catch per unit effort.
166894		threats	eng	The adult individuals migrating back to sea for spawning are the most difficult phase of its life as they are vulnerable to fishing. &#160;The migratory routes cease to exist due to multiple impoundments in small streams and rivers.
166896		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166896		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from the Red River basin in southern China (Yunnan Province) and northern Viet Nam, and from northeastern Lao PDR (Chu and Chen 1990, Chu and Mo 1999, Kottelat 2001).<br/></p>
166896		habitat	eng	<p>Inhabits swift flowing streams (Kottelat 2001).</p><p>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak at start of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). <br/></p>
166896		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166896		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
166897		conservation	eng	There is need to study taxonomy of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>because it may represent a species complex with several restricted distribution species (Iwatsuki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). Furthermore, research is needed on population trends, harvest trends and threats to the species.
166897		distribution	eng	<p>The species is found in brackish to freshwater and marine habitats of the Indo-West Pacific, from the east coast of Africa to India, northern Australia, north to Japan and to Fiji, Vanuatu and New Caledonia. <br/></p>
166897		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">This species inhabits coastal waters and <span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51">may enter lakes and lower freshwater reaches of rivers (Roux, 1986; Woodland, 2001<span class="sheader51">). <span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51">Life history traits of this species have been studied (Kurup, 1982). <span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51">Individuals feed on small crustaceans, polychaetes and forams on sand or muddy-sand bottoms, worms and insect larvae (Rainboth, 1996: Woodland, 2001<span class="sheader51">). It attains a standard length of 20cm (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).</span></span></span></span></span></span></p><span class="sheader51">
166897		population	eng	The species is common in Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). However, no information is available on its population status in its global range.
166897		threats	eng	In India this species is overexploited (B. M. Kurup pers. comm. 2010). However, Asha<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2009) reported mortality of this species  possibly due to pollution in the Tuticorin Bay, Gulf of Mannar.
166898		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution, threats, and conservation status of the species.
166898		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River basin in southern China and northern Viet Nam (Chu and Chen 1989, Yue<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166898		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
166898		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166898		threats	eng	Dam constructions, overfishing and water pollution are major threats to this species.
166900		conservation	eng	No conservation efforts directed towards this species exists.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166900		distribution	eng	Although <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporhamphus  limbatus </span>was originally described from India, its range extends from the Persian Gulf to China along the mainland coast of Asia (Collette and Su 1986). In Asia, it is known from India, Sril Lanka, Myanmar, Thiland and China (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Ramanujam and Anbarasan 2007, Ajith Kumar and Amarshinghe 2008)&#160; It is replaced in the East Indies, Borneo and Philippines by the closely related <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporhamphus neglectus </span>and around northern Australia and southern New Guinea by <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporhamphus   neglectissimus </span>(Collette and Su 1986). In India the species in known from the coastal states and also from the strictly freshwater areas of Orissa (Collette and Su 1986) and Maharashtra (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.). Its distribution in the Mula-Mutha River, Bhima River, Ghad River and Ujani wetland (Surwade and Khillare 2010, N. Dahanukar pers. obs.) is likely a recent introduction of this species since 2008 as it was not found from these areas before 2008 (Yazdani and Singh 1990, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166900		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">A coastal species, frequently enters estuaries and even strictly freshwater. <span class="sheader5">Encountered in the <st1:place><span class="sheader5">Mekong River</st1:place><span class="sheader5">  as far upstream as Stung Treng (Rainboth 1996) and also found in the <st1:place><st1:placename><span class="sheader5">Great</span></st1:placename><span class="sheader5"> <st1:placetype><span class="sheader5">Lake</st1:placetype></span></st1:place><span class="sheader5"> (Tone lap) and in the Tone lap River, <st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="sheader5">Cambodia</st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="sheader5"> (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  1999) and in two floodplain lakes of the Ichhamiti River, India (Mondal and Kaviraj 2009).<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"> Found at surface levels of tidal freshwaters and  brackish estuaries (Rainboth 1996). <span class="sheader5">Feeds mainly on insects (Rainboth 1996, Lim <em>et al</em>. 1999). Reaches a maximum size of 168 mm SL and matures at a relatively small size, by 103 mm for males, 93 mm for females (Collette and Su 1986<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5">). It breeds twice in a year (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
166900		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This is a very common species in India. Its population in Pune and its outskirts is likely to be an introduced population since 2008 (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.).<br/></span>
166900		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>There are no known threats to this species. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
166901		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also badly needed.
166901		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from the Red River (Song Hong) drainage in northern Viet Nam, the Song Ca drainage in northern Viet Nam and northern Lao PDR, and the Song Quan drainage in central Viet Nam. It is also most likely to be found in the river drainages in north central Viet Nam between the Song Ca and Song Quan. Described from mountain streams of northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978).</p>
166901		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits larger rivers, usually with a moderate current and a substrate of sand or mud.</p>
166901		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. It is expected to be declining, given that this species is heavily fished. However, this awaits verification from reliable catch data.
166901		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished as a food species throughout much of its range, and it is expected that overfishing may pose a considerable threat to its population (particularly in the Red River drainage). However, this awaits verification from empirical data.
166903		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
166903		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Semilabeo notabilis</span> is known from the upper Yangtze River (Jingshajiang sub-basin), the Pearl River basin and Red River Basin in southern China and northern Vietnam (Chen and Chu 1989, Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166903		habitat	eng	They live in the middle and bottom waters of rivers and streams.
166903		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166903		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166907		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More research is needed for this species.
166907		distribution	eng	<p>This species has an East Asia distribution. It is known from Red River and Pearl Rivers in China and Viet Nam (Chu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990; Kottelat 2001), and <span>Hainan island (Zheng 1991).<span><span><span></span></span></p>
166907		habitat	eng	<p>They live in fast flowing open water. <span class="sheader51">Inhabits mountain streams with gravel bottom (Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1988).<br/></p>
166907		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166907		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs throughout the species range, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166909		conservation	eng	The species is considered endangered in Viet Nam. More information is needed on the species population trends and impacts of threats.
166909		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in southeast Asia and southern China, with records from the Salween, Chao Phraya, Red and Black rivers in Thailand, and Mekong drainages, as well as several drainages in southern China.<br/><br/>The species is known from northern Viet Nam (including the Da, Thao, Chay, Lo, and Gam rivers in the Hong (Red) and Black rivers, and the Cau and Thuong rivers), southern China (Hong Kong, Fujian, Guangdong, Yunnan, Sichuan). The southernmost limit in Viet Nam is the Ma River (Thanh Hoa province). In Lao PDR it is known in the Ma River and in headwaters of Mekong tributaries southwards at least to the Nam Kading drainage (Kottelat 2001; pers. comm. 2011). It is present in Thailand in the Salween, Chao Phraya, and Mekong basins (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997), and in Myanmar in the Salween and Ayeyarwaddy basins (BANCA 2009).<br/><br/>    In China, the species is known from the upper Mekong (but not in the upper headwaters) in Yunnan Province (Chu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, He 2010), the Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang drainages (Guangdong Province) and drainages in Hainan Island and their river  mouths (Chen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1994), the Puyuangjiang (Yunnan Province), and from Guangxi (Rongxian, Yangsu, and Rongran), Guizhou (Wujiang, Jinpin, and Jianghe),  Hunan (Yuangjiang River), Hubei (Qingjiang River) provinces.
166909		habitat	eng	The species is found in the middle and lower parts of flowing rivers in clear and open water, not found in quiet water. Feeds on mollusca, shell-fish, larva of insect, decapoda, algae and organic debris. Matures at two years with 315 mm length and spawns in clear and open water with a stony bottom.<br/><br/>It is not known of the species undertakes migrations; migrations have not been observed in Lao PDR (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), but may elsewhere in its range.
166909		population	eng	No information available.
166909		threats	eng	The species may be impacted in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing, and due to its migratory nature also by dams and flow alterations.
166912		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research and monitoring is recommended.
166912		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parazacco spilurus</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is known from the Pacific coastal drainages in southeastern China (e.g. Jiulongjiang, Zhangjiang, Hangjiang and the Pearl River), some rivers in Hainan Island and the Red River system in northern Viet Nam (Ye and Song 1991, Wang 1998, Kottelat 2001).
166912		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parazacco spilurus</span> inhabits small tributaries of rivers and little brooks with clear water and strong current velocities (Wang 1998).
166912		population	eng	In the second half of the last century, stocks of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Parazacco spilurus</span> in China have declined continually (Wang 1998). The population trend in the last 10 years are unknown.
166912		threats	eng	Major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Parazacco spilurus</span> are destructive fishing practices and river modification (e.g. dam construction) (Wang 1998).
166914		conservation	eng	None required. Local population trends should be monitored where fishing pressure is high or unregulated. The species has been the subject of a large scale captive-bred introduction programme in the Mun River, eastern Thailand.
166914		distribution	eng	<p>The species is recorded from Viet Nam (Mekong delta and the Dong Nai River), the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand, from the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand, and from Indonesia (Sumatra and Java). Recorded from  the Rajang Basin in Sarawak, Borneo.</p><p>The species has a discontinuous natural population (McConnell 2004); it is not naturally present in Peninsular Malaysia, however it has been introduced in Sungai Trengganu, Sungai Perak (Chong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></p>
166914		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">The species occurs at mid-water to bottom depths in rivers, streams,  floodplains, and occasionally in reservoirs. It&#160; prefers living in standing water  habitats instead of flowing waters. Inhabits the flooded forest during high  water periods. Feeds on plant matter (e.g. leaves, weeds, <em>Ipomea reptans</em> and  <em>Hydrilla</em> spp.) and invertebrates. A local migrant which moves from the Mekong up into small streams and canals  and onto flooded areas during the rainy season and back again during receding  water; a short distance migrant. Some reports indicated that upstream migration of this fish is triggered by the  first rains and rising water levels. Does well in reservoirs.<br/><br/>Found in rivers, streams, floodplains, reservoirs; prefers standing water. Inhabits flooded forests at high water <span class="sheader5">(Rainboth 1996).<span class="sheader5"> 'White' longitudinal migratory pattern.</span>
166914		population	eng	No information available.
166914		threats	eng	Not likely to have significant threats across its range, but many be impacted locally by fisheries.
166915		conservation	eng	The taxonomic position of possible synonyms requires confirmation, as does the full distribution and population trend of the species.
166915		distribution	eng	The species is known from northeastern Lao PDR, northern Viet Nam (Lai Chau, Son La, Hoa Binh and Yen Bai provinces; Kottelat 2001) and the Pearl River drainage and Hainan Island in southern China (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, Kottelat 2001).
166915		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits streams with swift and clear  waters (Kottelat 2001).
166915		population	eng	The species' population is decreasing in Viet Nam.
166915		threats	eng	No information available. It is likely that the species' habitat is impacted by pollution from a range of sources, dam development and other infrastructure works, and that the species itself may be overfished.
166916		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166916		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern China (Hainan Island) and the Red River basin in southern China and northern Viet Nam (Chen and Chu 1989, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166916		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
166916		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166916		threats	eng	No information available on direct threats to the species, however impacts from pollution and dams can be expected.
166917		conservation	eng	The species has been assessed as Vulnerable at the national level in Viet Nam. Further research into the impact of known threats, including dam contruction and fishery pressure, needs research.
166917		distribution	eng	The species is known from China (Red River basin in Yunnan)<span> and northern Vietnam (the Red, Thái Bình, Sông Kỳ Cùng, Mã and Lam rivers; Ng and Kottelat 2000).&#160; It may be present in northern Laos, in the rivers that drain into the Red River drainage (<span>Nam Xam and Nam Ma basins).</span>
166917		habitat	eng	A large fish, often concentrated in the middle and upper parts of river.<span class="highlight"><span lang="VI"> The small fish over 15 cm, eat      aquatic larvae and insects such as Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Hemiptera, Cleoptera, Odonata, shrimp, and juvenile fish. Mature fish eat other fish. Therefore, they generally congregate in areas where numerous other fishes are present, especially the breeding grounds of other fish.   <span class="highlight">Fish starts to develop when it is 3-4 years old, when weigh is range 3-6 kg. Breeding season is from March to June or later, fish migrate from lower to middle parts to upper rivers and streams. Eggs rather large, irregular diameter from 1.1 to 1.4 mm. Fish lay eggs in stone niches, eggs stick to the bottom in nests. Parents protect fish eggs and juveniles.</span>
166917		population	eng	The species populations is believed to have declined over 20% in many parts of its range as a result of dam construction across rivers for irrigation and hydroelectricity, but empirical data is needed to support this.
166917		threats	eng	Populations have declined as a result of overfishing and the loss and degradation of habitats, including dam construction. Nguyen (2008) found that the species is likely to be impacted by the construction of the Trung Son dam on the Ma River in northern Viet Nam.
166921		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166921		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudohemiculter hainanensis</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is known from the middle reaches of Yangtze (Changjiang) River and its tributary, the Yuanjiang River; the Pearl River (Zhujiang) basin, the Hainan Island in China (Luo and Chen 1998) and from creeks and rivers in the mountainous region of northern Viet Nam Viet Nam (Mai 1985; Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166921		habitat	eng	Survives in rivers and streams.
166921		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166921		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166922		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place.
166922		distribution	eng	The species is known from the middle and upper Nam Ma drainage in Viet Nam (Son La Province; Mai 1978) and Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001).<span>
166922		habitat	eng	Fast flowing rivers in rapids, on rocks and large stones (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166922		population	eng	No information available.
166922		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
166923		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species habitat and populations, as well as the impact of habitat loss.
166923		distribution	eng	The species occurs in India (Priang River near Cherrapunji in Meghalaya and in Arunachal Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Nepal. It may also be present in Bhutan.<br/><span>
166923		habitat	eng	It is found in mountain streams (high gradient streams); mostly found in water falls and high gradient riffles.
166923		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
166923		threats	eng	Hill streams are threatened across the region by deforestation causing siltation. This species inhabits streams with boulder, and mining and quarrying are potential threats to its habitat and populations.
166924		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More research is needed.
166924		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolaubuca sinensis</span> is widely spread in East Asia. It is known from most Pacific coastal drainages (e.g. Yangtze river, Pearl River and Min River) in southeastern China (Lu 1991, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998) and northern Viet Nam (Ngyuen and Ngo 2001).
166924		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and streams.
166924		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
166924		threats	eng	No major widespread threats to the species are known.
166925		conservation	eng	No information available.
166925		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Monodactylus argenteus</em> is recorded from the Red Sea coastal areas in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Red Sea and East Africa to Samoa, north to the Yaeyamas Islands in Japan, south to New Caledonia and Australia. It is known from the freshwater tidal zone of the Mekong delta.
166925		habitat	eng	It is found in bays, mangrove estuaries, tidal creeks, and lower reaches of freshwater streams. Occasionally occurs in silty coastal reefs. It feeds on plankton and detritus. Commonly seen in schools, small juveniles either solitary or in small aggregations. It is highly territorial. It is caught with throw nets.
166925		population	eng	No information available.
166925		threats	eng	No information available.
166930		conservation	eng	Listed in the Viet Nam Red Data Book (Level V). More research along with harvest management is recommended.
166930		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Squaliobarbus curriculus</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is distributed from the Amur River in the North to the Red River basin in south (Berg 1964, Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1982, Kim 1997,   Kottelat 2001, Reshetnikov 2002). It is probably introduced in the Amur River.
166930		habitat	eng	They live in mid and surface waters of rivers, feeding on algae, plant matter, aquatic larva, insect, crustaceans and decopods. Reaches a&#160; maximum size of 4 kilograms. It matures at 1 year old.
166930		population	eng	There is little information available. However in Viet Nam, the species is declining in the wild and potentially facing extinction (RIA 2011).
166930		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing and human-induced alteration of riverine environment.
166933		conservation	eng	No information available.
166933		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
166933		conservation	eng	None known.
166933		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Oreochromis aureus</em> is common in coastal lagoons, the Delta, Ismailia Canal, confined to the Nile Delta. It is also present in Manzalah and Abu Zaabal Lakes in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in western Africa (Senegal and Niger River systems), the Nile River system, Middle East (Jordan Valley, Syria).
166933		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within western Africa the natural distribution area of this species comprises, is the River Senegal, the Middle Niger (up to Busa in Nigeria), Upper Benue, Lake Chad, Lower Logone and Lower Chari.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Jordan Valley, Lower Nile, Chad Basin, Benue, middle and upper Niger, Senegal River.
166933		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Africa, from Senegal to Chad, as well as  being known from the Nile Delta.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is confined  to the Nile Delta region in Egypt, but is common in coastal lagoons, the Delta  and Ismailia Canal. Also present in Manzalah and Abu Zaabal Lakes in  Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Within Western Africa the natural  distribution area of this species comprises the River Senegal, the Middle Niger  (up to Busa in Nigeria), This species is known from upper Benue, Lake Chad,  Lower Logone and Lower Chari.
166933		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic, potamodromous species. The spawning season is between March-August, spawning in shallow waters. They are mouth brooders where females incubate eggs in their buccal cavity. It can tolerate salinities up to about 20%. It reaches a length to 30 cm. Able to survive 10°C. Hybridization between <em>O. niloticus</em> females and <em>O. aureus</em> males can results in high ratio of male offspring depending on genetic make-ups including the genetic purity of bloodstock.
166933		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">This is a benthopelagic species, potamodromous species which feeds on phytoplankton and small quantities of zooplankton. Young fish have a more varied diet which includes large quantities of copepods and cladoceran. This species forms schools, and is sometimes territorial. It inhabits warm ponds and impoundments as well as lakes and streams. Spawning season is March-August, and it spawns in shallow, fresh and brackish waters. They are mouth brooders where females incubate eggs in their buccal cavity. It can tolerate salinities of up to about 20%. Hybridization between <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span> females and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. aureus</span> males can result in high ratio of male offspring depending on genetic make-up including the genetic purity of broodstock.</p>
166933		habitat	eng	The species lives in occurs at temperatures ranging from 8°-30°C. Forms schools; is sometimes territorial.  Inhabits warm ponds and impoundments as well as lakes and streams.  Reproduces in both fresh and brackish water.  Feeds on phytoplankton and small quantities of zooplankton.  Young fish have a more varied diet which includes large quantities of copepods and cladocerans.
166933		population	eng	No available data.
166933		population	eng	No information available.
166933		threats	eng	None known
166933		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and groundwater extraction.
166933		threats	eng	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and groundwater extraction threaten this species in north Africa.
166934		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution, threats, and population trends.
166934		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Gâm River in northern Viet Nam (Na Hang district, Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen and Ngo 2001), the type locality.
166934		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology. It is recorded from rivers.
166934		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166934		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by a range of threats, including sedimentation, and possibly impacts from the Gam River hydroelectric dam that began construction in 2002, after the description of this species.
166936		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species distribution and impacts of threats.
166936		distribution	eng	<p><st1:placename w:st="on">The species is known from the Red</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> (Viet Nam and southern China), southwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991) and <st1:place w:st="on">Hainan</st1:place> (Kottelat 2001), and extends northwards in China to at least Fujian (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Presence in Mekong basin in northern Lao PDR and southern China (Yunnan) probably results from introductions, and it has been introduced elsewhere (Welcomme 1988).<br/></p>
166936		habitat	eng	Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and plant matter. Found in flowing streams and tributaries, as well as small lakes.<span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language: FR;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA;mso-no-proof:yes"><span class="sheader5"></span>
166936		population	eng	No information available.
166936		threats	eng	The species occurs in areas that are impacted by pollution and dams, however there is limited information available. In Taiwan, its populations have declined or been locally extirpated due to environmental deterioration (water pollution and habitat destruction), and the introduction of exotic fishes (Lai<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).
166939		conservation	eng	More information on distribution, population, catch data over its entire range, and ecology is needed.
166939		distribution	eng	<p>This species has a Southeast Asia distribution. It is known from the Red River drainage in southern China and northern Viet Nam (Ng and Kottelat 2000, Kottelat 2001) and the Lam River (J. Freyhof, unpublished data). In Viet Nam, records are known from Son La, Hoa Binh, Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Tuyen  Quang, Ha Noi, and Nam Dinh provinces.<br/></p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>
166939		habitat	eng	This species occurs in slow flowing rivers typically in sandy or muddy substrates. The fish is omnivorous.
166939		population	eng	Limited data from surveys suggest the species is still relatively abundant in the northern part of its range.
166939		threats	eng	Main threat to this species are overfishing. River modification (e.g. dam construction, straightening and dredging of river channels) causes habitat degradation but it is not clear it is having a significant impact on populations.
166940		conservation	eng	None required at present.
166940		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from southern China and northern Viet Nam. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:country-region> the species is found in the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Tonkin</st1:placename>, estuaries and large rivers in northern Viet Nam. In China, known from drainages in Guangdong Province (Han Jiang and its river  mouth; Dong Jiang, Bei Jiang, Xi Jiang; and Zhu Jiang delta) and in  Hainan Island, also reported from Guangxi and Zhejiang Province (Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1982; Feng 1991).</p><p>Present in the South China Sea, from the Gulf of Thailand to Taiwan. Inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms of the continental shelf.<br/><br/></p>
166940		habitat	eng	Inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms of the continental shelf, estuaries, and the lower parts of rivers. Feeds predominantly on bottom-living invertebrates.
166940		population	eng	No information available.
166943		conservation	eng	More research is needed for this species.
166943		distribution	eng	The species known from rivers in southeastern China, in the Yangtze and Pearl river basins (as well as the Dong Jiang and Bei Jiang drainages in Guangdong  Province) (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991, Fu 2003, Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2003, 2003a). There is also a record of the species in Ba Be Lake, northern Viet Nam.
166943		habitat	eng	Recorded from streams and lakes.
166943		population	eng	No information available.
166943		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected.
166945		conservation	eng	Research is needed in to the population status and distribution of the species within its natural range.
166945		distribution	eng	The species is known from across China, including the Taihu Lake on the Yangtze River delta, Lake Hongzhe on the Yellow River and China's largest lake Poyang Lake, part of the Yangtze River catchment. The species is recorded across the Yangtze catchment but in relatively few places (when compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Salangidae </span>species). The species has been widely introduced&#160; into lakes reservoirs.
166945		habitat	eng	Rivers and lakes, including brackish waters, as well as reservoirs. Feeds on small fish and shrimp.
166945		population	eng	The species has been recorded at low abundance relative to other icefish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salangidae</span>) in the Yangtze basin. Populations are increasing in some lakes and reservoirs, whilst it is decreasing in others, and has been widely introduced; introductions are not always successful (H. Zhao pers. comm. 2011).
166945		threats	eng	The species has undergone local extirpations across its range due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Pollution and overfishing are the key threats.
166946		conservation	eng	<em>S. obscurus</em> was listed as a Class II protected animal within the Yunnan Province of China.
166946		distribution	eng	<em>S. obscurus</em> is found in the Xijiang River system in Southwest China.  It occurs in the Guangxi Province (known from Bama and Baise divisions) to Yunnan (Fuyuan and Yiliang Counties, and Yuangjiang River) (Wang 1998).  This species has also been reported from the River Gam, Vietnam (Forest protection Department and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 2002).
166946		habitat	eng	<em>S. obscurus</em> is a benthopelagic fish which inhabits streams in mountainous areas, often in caves.
166946		population	eng	The natural population of <em>S. obscurus</em> is reported as small (Wang 1998).
166946		threats	eng	<em>S. obscurus</em> may be locally threatened by overfishing and pollution.
166950		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166950		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora steineri </span>has a Southeast Asia distribution. It is known from central and northern Viet Nam (southern range limit: Thu Bon river), the Nam Ma River basin in Laos and the Pearl River basin in southeastern China and the Nandujiang River and Wanquanhe River on Hainan Island (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/></p>
166950		habitat	eng	Usually found in medium to small rivers and streams with slow running water, sometimes in rice-field canals and ditches (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran<em> et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p>
166950		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166950		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166951		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place.
166951		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Silurus asotus</span> is widely spread in East Asia. It is distributed from the Amur River Basin to Red River basin in northern Viet Nam including Korean Peninsula, Japan and Taiwan and Viet Nam (Berg 1964, Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1982, Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984, Shen 1993, Nguyen 1991, Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>
166951		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Silurus asotus</span> is mostly found  in lakes, reservoirs and medium-size rivers and streams with slowly  running water and muddy bottom. Hides in swamps and caves during the day  time and feeds during the night. Stays in deep waters and muddy places  during winter (Liu 1990). Feeds on all types of fish (Dulmaa 1999, Katano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). <br/></p><p>    </p><p>Spawning activity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Silurus asotus </span>takes place in temporary water (rice fields) from early evening to <st1:time minute="0" hour="0">midnight</st1:time>, generally in connection with rainfall, from late April to late August. Spawning of the catfish was correlated with hydrographic parameters dependent on rainfall: daily precipitation, turbidity, water depth, and water temperature. The spawning habits of the catfish, and in particular the use of temporary waters such as rice fields that become submerged after rainfall or by irrigation, are presumed to be adaptations to the Asian monsoon climate with a pronounced rainy season. The apparent sex ratio of the catfish was extremely biased toward females. Intraspecific variation in the reproductive ecology, particularly mating behavior, of this species is observed among local populations. Factors that may have caused this variation are discussed in the context of a comparison of mating behavior, reproductive environment, and sex ratio between the <st1:place><st1:placetype>Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename>Biwa</st1:placename></st1:place> population of S. asotus and other conspecific populations, as well as two other species of silurid catfish that occur in the <st1:place><st1:placetype>Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename>Biwa</st1:placename></st1:place> drainage,<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. biwaensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. lithophilus</span> (source: Maehata 2007). </p>  <p></p><p>In reproductive activities, a male first energetically  pursued a female with its head near to the female's belly (chasing) and  then began to cling to the female's body from the side, bending its tail  or head (clinging). Finally the male enfolded the female's body, with  its anus near to the female's (enfolding). In some cases, 2-4 males  pursued a single female and two males enfolded a female at the  same time. Although no aggressive behaviour was evident between males,  it was always the largest male that could most frequently approach and  enfold the female. The mating pair moved a long distance in a ditch,  paddy field and/or creek, performing reproductive activities (Katano et al.1988, Maehata 2007). It is  thought that the spawning site and period of spawning of the fish enable  the larvae to avoid the danger of predation and to efficiently feed,  firstly on plankton and later on larvae of other fishes which become  abundant during the irrigation period. Spawn is scattered over the bottom surface covered with grass (Katano 1988); it is not guarded by the males. The eggs are greenish; their diameter without membran is 1.6 mm, with membrane 4.3 mm. At the air temperature of 19 ° C, the larvae hatched on the 7th day after fertilization. Unlike the adults, the larvae have 3 pairs of barbels (Berg 1964). Although some eggs and larvae may  die due to the drying out or high water temperatures of such unstable  temporary waters, scattering eggs may reduce the incidence of the  cannihilation of the young (Katano et al.1988).</p>
166951		population	eng	No information available<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
166951		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166952		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species threats, distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology.
166952		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Xe Bang Fai basins in Southeast Asia (Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam (southern of Viet Nam and Dong Nai River<span> and Cambodia). Also reported from Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, eastern Java<span><span>, the Philippines, and Brunei).</span></span>
166952		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mid-water to lower levels in larger rivers and streams during the dry season but probably migrates to <span class="sheader5">flooded riparian forests to spawn during the rainy season. Found in flowing water and also occasionally in reservoirs. Food includes zooplankton, small crustaceans, chironomids, and other insect larvae.<span class="sheader5"><br/><span class="sheader5"></span>
166952		population	eng	No information available.
166952		threats	eng	<span>Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution, dams and overfishing. In Lao PDR, the <span>Nam Theun II dam<span> on the Xe Bangfai River may impact upon seasonal water flow regimes as well as migrations.</span>
166958		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166958		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from northern Viet Nam (the Red River basin, the Lo river, and from Quang Ninh Province; Kottelat 2001) and southeastern China (Hainan Island and Guangdong Province).</p>
166958		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams of rivers at an altitude of 30 m and above (Nguyen 1995).
166958		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166958		threats	eng	<p>No information available on the threats to the species.&#160;</p>
166959		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166959		distribution	eng	<em>R. laevelli</em> is known from the Hong (Red) River in China (Guangxi province) and Viet Nam, and the Nam Ma and Nam Mat river basins in northeastern Lao PDR.
166959		habitat	eng	<em>R. leavelli</em> is a benthopelagic species which is tolerant of changes to it's environment and can be found in heavily polluted waters.
166959		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
166959		threats	eng	<em>R. leavelli</em> is tolerant of heavily polluted water, so pollution in the area is not thought to be a major threat to the species (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  Likewise, fishing is not thought to be a great threat to <em>R. leavelli</em>.
166960		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
166960		distribution	eng	<em>N. tonkinensis</em> is known from the Nam Xam basin, Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam.
166960		habitat	eng	<em>N. tonkinensis</em> is a demersal species found in slow flowing streams and swamps.
166960		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
166960		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to freshwater biodiversity within the range of <em>N. tonkinensis</em>, however as the precise range of this species is not know it is not possible to know the direct threats to <em>N. tonkinensis</em>; some parts of northern Viet Nam are densely populated and highly modified, however there are more remote areas where there are less environmental threats.
166962		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166962		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species has an east Asian distribution. It is known from Hainan Island and the West River (Xi Jiang) within the Pearl River basin, the Red River basin in southern China (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998) and from rivers and streams in the midland and mountainous region of northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166962		habitat	eng	Most abundant in still or slow-flowing water with dense aquatic vegetation and sand-silt bottom such as lowland ponds, canals, slow-flowing rivers, backwaters and oxbows, where mussels are present. Like all species belonging to the cyprinid subfamily Acheilognathinae (so called "bitterlings"), <em>R. spinalis </em>is primarily freshwater fish with an unusual spawning symbiosis with freshwater mussels; bitterlings use only the interlamellar spaces of gills of living unionid freshwater mussels as a spawning substratum (e.g. Kanoh 1996, 2000; Aldridge 1999; Smith <em>et al. </em>2004). In the breeding period, female bitterling develop a long ovipositor, which is used to place their eggs on the gills of a mussel through the mussel’s exhalant siphon. Males defend small territories around mussels and court females with extended ovipositor. In <em>Rhodeus</em> spp., females spawn one to six (usually three) eggs in a mussel, and males fertilize the eggs by releasing sperm into the inhalant siphon of the mussel, such that water filtered by the mussel carries the sperm to the eggs. Because females spawn in more than one mussel during a single breeding period, mussels can often contain multiple clutches from many different females. Embryonic development of bitterling eggs is completed inside the mussel gill chamber and lasts 3–6 weeks (Nakamura 1969, Smith <em>et al. </em>2004, Kitamura 2005). After absorbing their yolk sac, the juvenile swim out from the host mussel’s exhalant siphon (for review see Smith <em>et al.</em> 2004).<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri;mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin"></span>
166962		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166962		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water pollution, weed clearing, and stocking of predatory fish.
166965		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
166965		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Chao Phraya and Mae Klong rivers in Thailand, and the lower Mekong basin in southeast Asia. The species has also been recorded from the Dong Nai drainage in Viet Nam (Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000; Thu Doc, Sai Gon River; Ma Da River near Rang Rang Village; Dong Nai River at Cat Tien Nature Reserve, Dong Nai Province).<br/><br/>In the Mekong, the species is recorded from Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, Kottelat 2000), Cambodia (Rainboth 1996, Thuok and Sina 1997, Cambodian National Mekong Committee 1998, Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999), including the Tonle Sap Lake (Lamberts and Sarath 1997, Motomura 2002), Thailand (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997, Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997), and Mekong delta in Viet Nam (Khoa and Huong 1993).
166965		habitat	eng	The species occurs near the surface of ponds, canals and streams.  It is often found in turbid waters, and migrates from rivers into flooded forests and swamps.<span class="s1"> It is found near the surface of ponds, canals and streams (Rainboth 1996).
166965		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
166965		threats	eng	The threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
166967		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed. However the species is recommended by Pilgrim and Duc Tu (2007) to be added to the Viet Nam threatened species list, though the reasons for this recommendation or threats to the species are not listed.
166967		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from Red River drainage in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001) and southern China (Kottelat and Chu 1988).</p>
166967		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the species habitat and ecology apart from that it is known from rivers.
166967		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166967		threats	eng	The threats are unknown.
166970		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species taxonomy, distribution, and population trends.
166970		distribution	eng	The species was described from Bai Dinh, Dan Hoa Town, Minh Hoa, Quang Binh Province, central Viet Nam (Ngô 2003).
166970		habitat	eng	No information available.
166970		population	eng	No information available.
166970		threats	eng	Nothing is known of threats to the species.
166972		conservation	eng	Further research is required for this species.
166972		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from the Hong (Red) River drainage in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:place></st1:country-region> and China (Yunnan), and from the Ma River drainage in Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001).<br/></p>
166972		habitat	eng	<p>Found in rivers and streams with moderate to fast current, on a stone bottom.</p>
166972		population	eng	Populations are decreasing because of overfishing.
166972		threats	eng	<p>  </p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. The species may be subject to overfishing. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166973		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research into the species population trends and habitat conditions needed, as well as further taxonomic study to confirm the species validity.
166973		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from Black River (Sông Đà) drainage in northern Viet Nam (Lai Chau and Hoa Binh provinces) only.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
166973		habitat	eng	This species lives in the middle and lower waters of streams with rocky substrate. Their food includes larvae of mosquito, larvae of insects, decapoda, mollusca.
166973		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population. It is a poorly known species.
166973		threats	eng	Main threats in the area include deforestation, shifting habitats and the building of hydropower dams in Hoa Binh Province.
166975		conservation	eng	No information available.
166975		conservation	eng	None known.
166975		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, the natural distribution area covers the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Benue and Chad and in the Black Volta and the Oti (Dankwa 1958), Pra and Bia basins. (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). Recorded from the Densu River at Weija. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span> is one of Africa’s most important fish culture species; it has been introduced in many fish culture stations, from where it has regularly escaped. Therefore it has often been reported from several coastal western African basins. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Coastal rivers of Israel; Nile from below Albert Nile to the delta; Jebel Marra; Lake Chad basin and the rivers Niger, Benue, Volta, Gambia and Sénégal. It is widely introduced for aquaculture, with many existing strains.
166975		distribution	eng	The species is native to Lakes Tanganika, Kivu and Edward  and associated waters, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi systems. Also native to Lakes Baringo, Turkana and the Suguka River. This species has also been introduced to nearly all the African tropical waters systems (even beyond) for aquaculture including Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Nagunmbo Nakivali, Kacheran and Kijanebarola.
166975		habitat	eng	Intolerant of high salinities and with an upper lethal temperature limit of 39 to 40°C. Rarely found in deeper parts of rivers usually favouring well-vegetated canals (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is capable of using a wide range of food materials, but from a total length of about 5 cm it is almost entirely herbivorous. Where phytoplankton are abundant they form the bulk of its diet (Trewavas 1993). Although macrophytes are not its typical food they do form a significant part of its diet in certain waters. The young fry are omnivorous feeding on copepods, aquatic and terrestrial insect larvae, aufwuchs and detritus (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is a maternal mouthbrooder and the males build nests in firm sand at depths between 0.6 and 2.0 m. Schools of ripe females gather at the surface above the nesting territories and from time to time a female descends to spawn. The female leaves the territory of the male with the brood (de Moor and Bruton 1988; Trewavas 1983). This species represents the most important element in fisheries catches in many lakes in tropical Africa and is a favoured species for aquaculture.
166975		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide variety of freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, sewage canals and irrigation channels. Mainly diurnal. Feeds mainly on phytoplankton or benthic algae. Enters lagoons from upstream riverine areas with the onset of the rainy season. Marketed fresh and frozen. Inhabit the littoral zone of lakes and are abundant in Lakes Turkana (Rudolf) and Albert. Although a freshwater species they are also found in brackish water like in the Nile Delta. The area occupied by the species extends from 8° S to 32° N and from 6000 ft (1830 m) to sea level. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span> of Lake Edward form very large schools of 100 m<sup>2</sup> or more at the lake surface when feeding.
166975		population	eng	No data on population trends.
166975		population	eng	Widespread and abundant.
166975		threats	eng	None known
166975		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are overfishing, as native stocks may be locally overfished, and hybridisation.
166976		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research and monitoring is recommended.
166976		distribution	eng	The species has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, Pearl River, and Changjiang River (paddy-fields near Chongqing) in China and most river drainages in northern Viet Nam (Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000; Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166976		habitat	eng	Rivers, and possibly flooded agricultural fields.
166976		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166976		threats	eng	Many rivers in the species range are impacted by dams and pollution (agricultural, urban and industrial).
166978		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
166978		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sinobdella sinensis</span> is widely spread in East and Southeast Asia. It is known from the Pacific coastal drainages in China, Taiwan, northern and Central Viet Nam (Kottelat and Lim 1994, Kottelat 2001, Nguyen 2005).&#160;</p>
166978		habitat	eng	<p> Recorded from rivers. Feeds on larva, insects, worms and crustaceans.</p>
166978		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166978		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166980		conservation	eng	More information on the species range and threats would be useful.
166980		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinogobius giurinus</span> has an East Asia distribution. It originally distributes over the Yellow River, Yangtze River, Qiantang River, Lingjiang, Pearl River, Fujian, Guangdong and Hainan regions (except the northwestern part of China including Tibetan Plateau and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau), Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula, from Tone River to Iriomote in Ibaraki Prefecture, Kawahara Lake in Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan, Bonin Islands, Ryukyu Islands and from Red river basin and Pha river in Viet Nam (e.g. Masada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984, Chen and Shao 1996, Xie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Ngyuen 2005, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species is&#160; introduced into Singapore, Tibetan Plateau and Yunnan Province in China (Tan and Tan 2003).<br/></p>
166980		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">From large rivers to streams, found usually in shallow water over sandy bottom (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Found both upstream and in estuaries and is carnivorous (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984). <span class="sheader5"> Eggs are laid under stones in river shoals and the larvae travel in both river and the sea, and return to rivers <span class="sheader51">(Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984).</span></p><p><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"></span></p>  <p>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov). (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</span></p></p>  <p><span class="sheader51">&#160;</p>  <p><span class="sheader51"><br/></span></p>
166980		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population, but was recorded as being caught by small trap nets in rivers, but not in abundance (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984).
166980		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166981		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, and further research is required.
166981		distribution	eng	The species has a southeast Asian distribution. It is known from rivers, streams and lakes in the upper Sesan drainage in central Viet Nam (including Dac Lac province) and eastern Cambodia.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, records are from the Mekong basin (Rainboth 1996, 1998); Sai Gon River basin, a large mountain stream tributary of Da Dung and  Song Dong Nai south of Ban Ma Thout at Cau Daktik, and Kontum  Lake near Pleiku. Recent records include from the Vu Gia – Thu Bon River basin (Sheaves 2008).
166981		habitat	eng	This species occurs in clear mountain brooks and streams in forested areas. It feeds on insect larvae. It is not known to migrate and does not persist in impoundments (Rainboth 1996).
166981		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
166981		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation.
166984		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species taxonomic status, distribution, population trends, and threats. The type locality is within Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park.
166984		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality, Phong Nha Ke Bàng limestone mountains, Quang Binh Province, central Viet Nam (Ngô 2008).
166984		habitat	eng	Collected from limestone mountains; presumably from upland mountain streams.
166984		population	eng	No information available.
166984		threats	eng	No information available.
166987		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species taxonomic status,  distribution, population trends, and threats. The type locality is  within Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park.
166987		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality, Phong Nha Ke Bàng  limestone mountains, Quang Binh Province, central Viet Nam (Ngô 2008).
166987		habitat	eng	Collected from limestone mountains; presumably from upland mountain streams.
166987		population	eng	No information available.
166987		threats	eng	The species may be impacted by tourist and residential developments.
166988		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
166988		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the creeks and river of mountainous regions from the Tra Khuc River (Quang Ngai Province) to the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam and southern China (Yunnan Province) (Chen and Chu 1990, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
166988		habitat	eng	Creeks and rivers of mountainous regions.
166988		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166988		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166990		conservation	eng	Although this is a widespread,common species.&#160; Further research on global population size and trends, as well as the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance on this species is needed.
166990		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal and estuarine habitats throughout the Indo-West Pacific in south and southeast Asia. It has been recorded from the west coast of India (Mumbai, Maharashtra) eastwards to Sabah (northern Borneo) and the Mekong delta in southern Vietnam.
166990		habitat	eng	The species lives in <span class="sheader51">brackish water of estuaries and freshwater tidal zone; often found in mangroves. Occurs in burrows and is often found on mudflats. <span class="sheader5">  An intertidal and amphibious air-breather that actively shuttles back and forth between rock pools and air (Martin and Bridges 1999).</span>
166990		population	eng	No information available, but evidence from recent surveys throughout its distribution suggests that this species is reasonably abundant.
166990		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by pollution, especially in estuaries, but this needs to be verified by further research.
166991		conservation	eng	It is unknown if there are any conservation measures in place for the species. Some research is recommended.
166991		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocryptis cochinchinensis</span> has a Southeast Asia distibution. It is known from Pacific coastal drainages in southeastern China (e.g. Pearl River, Jiulongjiang and Minjiang) including Hainan island (Liu 1991, Chu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999), northern and Central Viet Nam (Ng and Freyhof 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), the Nam Xam basin in Lao P.D.R. (Kottelat 2001), Myanmar (Oo 2002), Thailand (Survatti 1981), Cambodia and Malaysia (Kottelat 1985).<br/></p>
166991		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocryptis cochinchinensis</span><span class="sheader51"> inhabits small rivers and streams, usually in slow running waters (Serov 2006).<span class="sheader51"> Feeds actively at night on small fish, crustaceans and insects.</span></p><span class="sheader51">
166991		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166991		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
166992		conservation	eng	It is likely that this species occurs within a protected area in some parts of its range. Its mud-burrowing lifestyle and cryptic habits afford it some protection.
166992		distribution	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">This species is widespread from coastal eastern India to Japan to New Guinea and <span class="sheader51">Fiji (Rainboth, 1996, Murdy and Shibukawa 2003)<br/></span></p>
166992		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits<span class="sheader51"> lower reaches of muddy rivers and estuaries, found over mud bottoms of estuaries and tidal parts of rivers and creeks. It feeds on zooplankton and small crustaceans (Murdy and Shibukawa 2003). <span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"></span></p>
166992		population	eng	This species may be locally common in suitable habitats, despite the low numbers of specimens in museum collections (which is probably due to difficulty collecting these cryptic fish).
166992		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by removal or destruction of habitat - e.g. mangroves.
166994		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
166994		distribution	eng	<em>R. n. formosanus</em> is found in China and in northern and northeastern Taiwan.  <em>R. n. nagoyae</em> is found in China, Taiwan, and Honsu, Kyushu, the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.
166994		habitat	eng	<em>R. nagoyae</em> is a benthopelagic and amphidromous species.
166994		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
166994		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to <em>R. nagoyae</em> including pollution and hydrological projects such as dams and water diversion projects, however it is not known whether these pose a direct threat to the species.
166995		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
166995		distribution	eng	The species has an east Asian distribution. It is known from the rivers (including coastal drainages) and lakes in northern Viet Nam; from the Lam River (Nghe An province) to Tra Khuc River (Quang Ngai province), including the lower Red River)) (Nguyen and Ngo 2001), the Red River (Yuanjiang) basin and Pearl River basin in the Yunnan and Guanxi provinces, southern China (Chu and Chen 1989). Coastal drainages of Guangxi.
166995		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and lakes.
166995		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
166995		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by pollution.
166997		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for the species.
166997		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Mekong basin, Cambodia, and seen at the Great Lake (Rainboth 1996). Known from Borneo, Indonesia and Malaysia (Kottelat <em>et al. </em>1993).
166997		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">Inhabits inner estuaries to lower reaches of &#160;rivers and found in slow flowing or standing habitats.&#160;Aggressive against conspecifics. Not a brackish water species. Feeds on snails and other benthic organisms.</p><p><span class="sheader51"><br/></span></p><p><span class="sheader51">        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at start of hydrological year (Oct - Nov) (Baran<em> et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p></span></p>
166997		population	eng	Common throughout its habitat range.
166997		threats	eng	No threats are currently recorded for the species.
166998		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Parts of the range of the species in Lao PDR are in protected areas.</p>
166998		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Thailand and in Yunnan Province of China (Kottelat 2001). Considered present in Myanmar and Viet Nam (where it has been observed 2 km from the Lao PDR border in the Nam Neua River, a Nam Ou tributary) (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Also recorded from the Red River basin in Yunnan.
166998		habitat	eng	This species occurs in fast flowing stretches of waters in rivers and large streams (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166998		population	eng	Locally abundant in areas of suitable habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
166998		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
167001		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
167001		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from the rivers draining the eastern face of the Annam mountains from the vicinity of Hue in central Viet Nam northwards to the Red River drainage in northern Viet Nam and southern China, the Zhujiang (Pearl River) drainage in southern China (Guangdong, and Fujian), and the river drainages on Hainan Island. Records of this species from central and northern China require verification. Described from Kachek [=Jiaji], Hainan Island off the  coast of southern China (Oshima 1926). Chan and Ho (2011) report the species from Hong Kong, but suggest that it has been introduced via water supplies from Guangdong.<br/></p>
167001		habitat	eng	<p>This species typically inhabits upland rivers, typically with a moderate current and a substrate of sand/gravel. It is a benthic species, preferring streams with rocky and sandy bottoms. It&#160; is&#160; nocturnal and feeds mainly on worms, small&#160; aquatic insects and crustaceans.<br/></p>
167001		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
167001		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
167002		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
167002		distribution	eng	<em>P. dispar</em> is known from the Mekong and Nam Ma basins in Lao PDR, central and northern Viet Nam, and southern China.  It has also been reported from the Yangtze River basin (Fu <em>et al</em>. 2003).
167002		habitat	eng	<em>P. dispar</em> is a benthopelagic species, which is found in fresh and brackish waters.
167002		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
167002		threats	eng	A major threat to <em>P. dispar</em>, in both the Mekong and Yangtze river basins, is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (Fu <em>et al</em>. 2003, International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>Pollution, from agriculture, industry, and urban areas, is also a major threat to biodiversity in both the Mekong and the Yangtze.  Furthermore, these rivers are used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No information about the levels of these threats in the Nam Ma basin is readily available, therefore it is assumed to be at a similar level to the other river basins within the range of this species.
167003		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
167003		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from the rivers that drain the eastern face of the Annam Cordilleras in Viet Nam. Described from Quang Binh Province in central Viet Nam (Mai 1978).</p>
167003		habitat	eng	<p>There is no information on the biology of this species, but based on that of closely-related congeners,&#160;it likely inhabits upland rivers with a moderate current and a predominantly sandy substrate.</p>
167003		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
167003		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
167004		conservation	eng	More research and a detailed redescription and careful illustrations are needed (Kottelat 2001).
167004		distribution	eng	<p>The species is only known from its type locality, the Nam Mu stream, a tributary of the Black River (Sông Đà), Phong Tho district, Lai Chau Province, Viet Nam. </p>
167004		habitat	eng	Only known from a river.
167004		population	eng	No information available.
167004		threats	eng	<p>This species is impacted by pollution from urban sources and the river is impacted by the Hoa Binh dam. </p>
167005		conservation	eng	Further research is required to confirm the taxonomic validity of the species.
167005		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Bang River in Cao Bang Province in Viet Nam.
167005		habitat	eng	No information available.
167005		population	eng	No information available.
167005		threats	eng	No information available.
167007		conservation	eng	Some of this species' population occurs in protected or locally managed areas.
167007		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Chao  Phraya and Mekong basins, in China (Yunnan), Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001). Present in numerous tributaries (e.g., the upper, middle and lower Nam Theun and the upper Xe Bangfai in Lao PDR; Kottelat 1998).
167007		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in the fast-flowing clear waters of highland streams with stony substrates,&#160;usually under complete forest canopy. Encountered in  rapid-running mountain streams of the middle Mekong basin. Feeds mainly on periphyton of rocky surfaces. Apparently  breeds after the end of the rainy season after water levels in upland areas have  declined, and juveniles appear in catches during April (Rainboth 1996).
167007		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
167007		threats	eng	Deforestation, overfishing and illegal fishing are potential threats to this fish, but no significant population decline has been shown recently.
167009		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
167009		distribution	eng	<em>B. tonkinensis</em> is found in Viet Nam and the Yunnan province of China.
167009		habitat	eng	<em>B. tonkinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
167009		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
167009		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to freshwater ecosystems in Yunnan and Viet Nam including industrial and domestic pollution, dredging, damming, destructive fishing practices, and the clearance of fringing habitats.  For example, the Mekong delta was once a mosaic of wetlands and forest, but today the majority of the area is agricultural.  Any remaining wetland areas are likely to be lost in the future if current trends continue.  Likewise, the delta of the Red River in north Viet Nam was once highly productive, but is 'now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas' (World Bank 2005).
167011		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
167011		distribution	eng	<p>The species&#160;is known from the Red River system in northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978) and southern China (Liao and Tzeng 2000).</p>
167011		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from rivers, but there is no information available on the species ecology.
167011		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
167011		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
167012		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
167012		distribution	eng	The species is known from southeastern China (the Pearl River basin and the Nandu River of Hainan Island; Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998), from Viet Nam (the Red River basin in the north and the Perfume River in central Viet Nam; Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001), and the Ma River basin in Lao PDR.
167012		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams with sandy to muddy substrate (Kottelat 2001).
167012		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
167012		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
167013		conservation	eng	None known, but policy-based actions are recommended. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
167013		distribution	eng	This subspecies is widely distributed from Senegal to Somalia, and north to the Nile delta. This subspecies has also been introduced to nearly all the African tropical waters systems (even beyond) for aquaculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis niloticus niloticus</span> was introduced mainly after 1955, from Fort-Lamy, Chad to Yaoundé, Cameroon, but Moreau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1988) and Welcomme (1981, 1988) give 1958 as the year of introduction, with unknown origin. In both cases, introduction was for aquaculture purposes. The subspecies has also been introduced, in 1975, from Bangui, Central African Republic, to Cameroon. It is self reproducing and established in the wild, more specifically in the Noun marsh, Djerem River and Sanaga River, where it has already replaced native species. In Cameroon it is now the most important fish used in aquaculture and is used in fish stations throughout the country. It has also been introduced, for aquacultural purposes, in 1953, from Sudan to Congo. The subspecies is reproducing and established in the wild. Further, it is listed by FAO (1999, 2005) for aquacultural production in Gabon, introduced at an unknown date. It is unknown whether the subspecies is established or not. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> It is native to Lakes Baringo, Turkana and the Suguka River. It has been widely introduced elsewhere, including Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Nagunmbo Nakivali, Kacheran and Kijanebarola.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Africa:</span> This subspecies is found in the Juba system, Somalia, throughout the Nile basin to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, several water bodies in Ethiopia and Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa:</span> In West Africa, the natural distribution area covers the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Benue and Chad and in the Black Volta and the Oti (Dankwa 1958), Pra and Bia basins. (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). Also recorded from the Densu river at Weija. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is one of Africa’s most important fish culture species; it has been introduced in many fish culture stations, from where it has regularly escaped. Therefore it has often been reported from several coastal western African basins. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.
167013		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51"><span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis niloticus niloticus </span>is a benthopelagic, potamodromous fish that occurs in a wide variety of freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, sewage canals and irrigation channels. Although a freshwater subspecies they are also found in brackish water like in the Nile Delta. It is rarely found in deeper parts of rivers usually favouring well-vegetated canals (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is capable of using a wide range of food materials, but from a total length of about 5 cm it is almost entirely herbivorous. Where phytoplankton are abundant they form the bulk of its diet (Trewavas 1993). Although macrophytes are not its typical food they do form a significant part of its diet in certain waters. The young fry are omnivorous feeding on copepods, aquatic and terrestrial insect larvae, aufwuchs and detritus (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It enters lagoons from upstream riverine areas with the onset of the rainy season. This subspecies is oviparous, with mouth-brooding by females. Sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 months depending on temperature, reaching about 30 g. Reproduction occurs only when temperatures are over 20°C. Several yearly spawnings every 30 days. Females incubate eggs inside their mouths (approximately for a week) where larvae hatch and remain until the vitellus is reabsorbed. The egg size is 1.5 mm, the larval length at hatching is 4 mm. It spawns in firm sand in water from 0.6 to 2 m deep of lakes. Males set up and defend their territory which are visited by the females. The courtship lasts for several hours. The eggs are shed in batches in shallow nest and fertilized by the male. Each batch of eggs is picked up into the oral cavity by the female. Only the females are involved in the broodcare. The female carries up to 200 eggs in her mouth where the larvae hatch and remain until after the yolk-sac is absorbed. This fish represents the most important element in fisheries catches in many lakes in tropical Africa and is a favoured subspecies for aquaculture.</p>
167013		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant.
167013		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis niloticus niloticus</span> is a highly commercial subspecies and is used for commercial aquaculture. It is also threatened by degradation of suitable habitat, and hybridisation.
167015		conservation	eng	No information available
167015		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population  numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as  monitoring and potential conservation measures.
167015		conservation	eng	None known.
167015		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). East coast from Tanzania southward. Tana River (Copley 1958). Possibly also occurring in other eastward flwing rivers (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Currently not in collections from Kenyan rivers (Seegers <em>et al. 2004).
167015		distribution	eng	The subspecies has been recorded from eastern African Rivers, only present in lower coastal plain sections. In Zimbabwe only known from the Save-Runde confluence.
167015		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found in east African coastal rivers, from South Africa to  Tanzania, and probably extending all the way to Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> This subspecies is found the length of the east coast from Tanzania  southward including Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979) and Tana River  (Copley 1958). Possibly also occurring in other eastward flowing rivers (Seegers  <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Although there are  currently no collections from Kenyan rivers (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), the  known locality in Somalia suggests that this species is present the entire  length of the African east coast<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the eastern African  Rivers, only present in lower coastal plain sections. In Zimbabwe only known  from the Save-Runde confluence. Nowhere common.
167015		habitat	eng	Largely restricted to the coastal plain, although recorded inland from the Lower Shire River, a tributary of the Lower Zambezi in Malawi (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).
167015		habitat	eng	Migratory species, breeds in the ocean (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Lives in freshwater  areas as an adult, in estuaries and seas as young (Rainboth 1996). Inhabits freshwater streams and pools, preferring marshy habitats. Descends to the sea to spawn (Menon 1999). Restricted to lowland coastal reaches of river systems (Skelton 1993). Found in rivers and creeks, commonly over rock bottoms and in deeper pools. Seldom occurs in large rivers (Pethiyagoda 1991). Feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. Reported to breed east of Madagascar; the south equatorial current probably carries the eel larvea and elvers towards the east coast of Africa where local coastal currents guide the elvers to suitable rivers which they invade and they stay there until sexually mature, when they return to their breeding grounds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). <br/>Max size: 100.0 cm Tl (after Froese and Pauly 2003).</em>
167015		habitat	eng	This is a migratory subspecies which breeds in the ocean (Seegers <em>et al.</em>  2003). It lives in freshwater areas as an adult, and in estuaries and seas as  young (Rainboth 1996). This subspecies inhabits freshwater streams and pools,  preferring marshy habitats. Descends to the sea to spawn (Menon 1999). This  species is restricted to lowland coastal reaches of river systems (Skelton 1993)  although recorded inland from the Lower Shire River, a tributary of the Lower  Zambezi in Malawi (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). This species is found in rivers  and creeks, commonly over rock bottoms and in deeper pools. Seldom occurs in  large rivers (Pethiyagoda 1991). It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Reported to breed east of Madagascar; the south equatorial current  probably carries the eel larvea and elvers towards the east coast of Africa  where local coastal currents guide the elvers to suitable rivers which they  invade and they stay there until sexually mature, when they return to their  breeding grounds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).<span class="sheader5">
167015		population	eng	No information available
167015		population	eng	No population information is available.
167015		population	eng	Uncommon.
167015		threats	eng	No major threats are thought to occur, though overfishing could be a potential  problem.
167015		threats	eng	None known at present.
167015		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing.
167025		conservation	eng	<p>Research into the species' current distribution and population trends is required, as well as confirmation of the taxonomic placement of specimens from Viet Nam.<br/></p>
167025		distribution	eng	<p>This species has been recorded from Viet Nam (Hoa Binh, Ninh Binh and possibly Hai Phong (Cat Ba) provinces) and China (Hainan and Hong Kong). The Vietnamese samples are recent but may be a distinct species. There are no recent records of this species from Hainan. &#160;</p>
167025		habitat	eng	<p>In Viet Nam it is considered to be recorded from muddy and sandy beds of rivers and streams in highland and lowland.</p>
167025		population	eng	No information available.
167025		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by pollution from a range of sources, however the scope of impacts is not certain.
167032		conservation	eng	The species is in urgent need of taxonomic review.
167032		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southern China and Viet Nam. In Viet Nam it is recorded from Thai Nguyen (Thai Nguyen Province), the Hong River, the Ma and Chu rivers (Thanh Hoa Province), and from Lam River (Nghe An Province). The species should be looked for in Lao PDR, in the upper parts of the Chu, Ma and Lam rivers. Its type locality is in Zhoushan in the northeastern Zhejiang Province, China, and presence in other parts of southern China require confirmation.
167032		habitat	eng	Found in in freshwater areas buried in sand and feeds on soft food. It has a high provenance of metacercariae (trematode).
167032		population	eng	No information available.
167032		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is pollution from various sources.
167038		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known. The species' taxonomic status requires confirmation.
167038		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in&#160;China (records include Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Anhui,  Jiangsu, Zhejiang,  Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian and Guangdong, however the species is likely to more widespread than these records indicate) and Viet Nam (Ha Tinh, Thai Nguyen, Bac Ninh, Bac Can, Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces, the Da River (Lai Chau, Son La, and Hoa Binh provinces), the Chay River (Lao Cai and Yen Bai provinces), the Lo and Gam rivers (Ha Giang and Tuyen Quang provinces), the Hong, Ma and Chu rivers (Thanh Hoa Province), and the Lam River (Nghe An Province)).
167038		habitat	eng	The species is found in calm freshwater habitats, such as paddy fields, ponds, canals (klongs), pools and slow moving streams.
167038		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the taxon is widespread.
167038		threats	eng	No known specific threats to this species, but it would be locally vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation.
167059		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167059		distribution	eng	Ranges across south China including Taiwan. Recorded from type-locality in Fujian, Taiwan and Zhejiang (Chao 1990). Lieftinck <em>et al</em> (1984) provides details of records from five sites in central and northern Taiwan. It is more abundant in north Taiwan (Wang 2000). Fellowes <em>et al</em>. (2003) records <em>deflexus</em> from Nanling, north Guangdong.
167059		habitat	eng	This species prefers moderately fast flowing streams with stony substrates in forested areas.
167059		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167059		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sieboldius deflexus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.
167060		conservation	eng	<p>No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species. However this a need for additional distributional information and for fresh data from large parts of the species range.<br/></p>
167060		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha bayadera</em> is widespread, with scattered records from India to south China and northern New Guinea. It has been recorded from a number of mainland Chinese provinces, but Wilson & Xu (2008) consider its distribution in mainland China to be uncertain. There are many old records from Sumatra and Java, but fewer records from Borneo, where it has not yet been found in Sarawak.
167060		habitat	eng	<p>This is a crepuscular species which probably breeds in forested swamps and marshy areas, or in forest pools. Although it has been recorded at high altitudes, it appears to mainly be a lowland species.<br/></p>
167060		population	eng	<p>This species is known from scattered records, but it is crepuscular in it its habits and almost certainly under-recorded. It is likely to be quite common where it occurs.&#160; </p>
167060		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation is likely to be the major threat to this species. However, it does not appear to be under any major threat at present.</p>
167061		conservation	eng	A common and widespread species.
167061		distribution	eng	Recorded from China, including Anhui, Fujian, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Zhejiang (Hua 2001) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006), Japan, including Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), Korea (Lee 2001) and the Ussuri river basin, far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).
167061		habitat	eng	Frequents lentic habitats including ponds, lake margins and marshes.
167061		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167061		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167062		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167062		distribution	eng	Wilson (1997) described <em>Protosticta beaumonti</em> from three sites in Hong Kong including Lantau and Hong Kong Island and also Dinghushan, central Guangdong. Later Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded <em>beaumonti</em> from Diding, northwest Guangxi and Wilson and Xu (2007) recorded it from four sites in Guangdong at Qixingkeng, Heishiding, Nanling and Dinghushan. Wilson (2004) lists seven sites where it has been recorded in Hong Kong.
167062		habitat	eng	Frequents trickles and head streams in shady forest.
167062		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed although appears to be uncommon.
167062		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167066		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>
167066		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Copera ciliata </em><span lang="EN-GB">is widely distributed from southern China to Himachal Pradesh in India and southwards to Sumatra.</span></p>
167066		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found on shady ponds and similar habitats, and sometimes on slow flowing forest streams. It is tolerant of a high degree of disturbance.</p>
167066		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species.</p>
167066		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened globally.<br/></p>
167067		conservation	eng	More information needed on its distribution outside of East Asia.
167067		distribution	eng	This common species is widespread in most southeastern and northeastern provinces of China, as well as southern far-east Russia, North Korea, South Korea, Japan and from a limited number of locations in Thailand (Pattaya, Chonburi Province; O. Kosteri, personal website).
167067		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marshy areas in woodlands, swampy areas and even wet rice fields.
167067		population	eng	It is common across much of its range.
167067		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known.
167071		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas such as Hoang Lien National Park in Sapa, Lao Cai Province, Viet Nam; no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167071		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in China and northern Viet Nam, including Hoang Lien National Park in Sapa, Lao Cai Province. The species may also be present in adjacent parts of Lao PDR.
167071		habitat	eng	They have been found in open or shaded highland streams which are fast running.
167071		population	eng	No information available.
167071		threats	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the mountain areas in China and northern Viet Nam, and is not considered to be under any major widespread threat, however individual populations are likely to be threatened by various human activities.
167074		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167074		distribution	eng	<em>Indolestes peregrinus</em> is known from China, including Fujian, Hubei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Yunnan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000: as <em>Indolestes peregrinus</em> Ris and as <em>Indolestes extranea</em> Needham) and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007), Korea [Lee 2001: as <em>Indolestes gracilis</em> (nec Hagen)] and Japan including Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001).
167074		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest near small montane streams.
167074		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167074		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167077		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167077		distribution	eng	Known from south China including Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007) and Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and northern Vietnam. Kimmins (1936) did not give further details of the type-locality other than "Tonkin".
167077		habitat	eng	Prefers broad stony streams in at foothills of mountainous areas.
167077		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167077		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167082		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed for this species.
167082		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zygonyx iris</span> is a widely distributed species, occurring from northeast India to China and south to Borneo.
167082		habitat	eng	The species breeds in the swift rocky streams, including those in open and agricultural land. Larva are adapted&#160; to cling on rocks .
167082		population	eng	A common species over much of its range.
167082		threats	eng	There are not thought to be threats to the species across its range.
167084		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
167084		distribution	eng	Common and widespread across much of central and eastern China, Korea (Lee 2001) and Japan. It is absent from Hokkeido, Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001) and less common in southern China. Hua (2000) reports it from Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Zhejiang. The type-locality is Zhejiang province. It is less common in south China where limited material has been reported from Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007).
167084		habitat	eng	Frequents slow-flowing streams and rivers in flatlands and hill areas. May occur in open or forested areas and urban streams with good water quality.
167084		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
167084		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167085		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Specific conservation measures for this species are unlikely to be needed, but there is a need for more data on distribution and biology.<br/></p>
167085		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Anotogaster gregoryi</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Nepal (Vick 1989), China with records from Yunnan (e.g. Fraser 1924) and Guangdong (Wilson 2010) and possibly Sichuan (Asahina 1988), Chiang Mai in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), possibly Tibet (Asahina 1988), Viet Nam and Laos (Yokoi 2003). Based on the known records it is to be expected in Bhutan, Arunchal Pradesh in India and possibly other north-eastern states in India (see below), and Myanmar. Asahina (1988), in a very unclear piece of text, recorded specimens labelled as from "Thibet", but he appears to consider that these actually come from Sichuan. Asahina (1986) also remarks on a specimen of this species in the Natural History Museum, London, labelled only as "Khasia Nat. Coll."; possibly this specimen originated in northeast India. Only the records from Guangdong and Laos are recent.</span></p>
167085		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This appears to be a montane species, presumably breeding in forest streams, although little has been recorded about its habitat.</p>
167085		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although not many specimens of this species have been collected, this is typical of fast flying Anisoptera from poorly sampled regions; it is likely to be fairly common across much of its range.</p>
167085		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Some populations of this species are likely to be threatened by deforestation or large-scale hydroelectric projects, but with its wide distribution it is unlikely to be globally threatened.<br/></p>
167087		conservation	eng	Protection and appropriate management of existing forested nature reserves and development of additional secondary forested areas will help protect this species.
167087		distribution	eng	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Recorded from central Lao PDR to southern China where it has been recorded from Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan and Guizhou&#160;</st1:country-region></st1:place><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">(Wilson and Xu 2008; Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is likely to be present in northeastern Viet Nam.<br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place>
167087		habitat	eng	<p>    Occurs&#160;in forested streams and rivers. Larvae cling to&#160;riparian vegetation and tree roots. Adults are active in gloomy forest canopies and females have been observed to lay eggs during an overcast afternoon. The flight period is from May to October in south China.</p>
167087		population	eng	This species is a swift flying forest species which makes it difficult to catch as a adult and it is not often collected. It has nevertheless been recorded from a number of protected&#160;forest&#160;reserves in Lao PDR, southwestern and southern China.
167087		threats	eng	Extensive loss of lowland forest and and hill forest across Indochina and southern China has removed vast tracks of suitable habitat for this species over past decades. The remaining populations are fragmented and have been predominantly recorded from protected forest nature reserves.
167089		conservation	eng	This is found in a number of protected areas. More research is needed for distribution and taxonomy in Viet Nam.
167089		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from eastern, southern and southwest China, northwest Thailand, Lao PDR and possibly southern Viet Nam. This species is hard to identify and some records may represent other members of the genus (Chao 1990).
167089		habitat	eng	It is found in clean streams of montane forests, including secondary forest.
167089		population	eng	This species is locally common, although the trend is not known.
167089		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
167090		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on this species, particularly on habitat and distribution.
167090		distribution	eng	This species appears to be widely distributed, with records from India, Nepal, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Yunnan in China. No records have been seen from Myanmar, but it is to be expected there.
167090		habitat	eng	No information available on the habitat requirements of this species, but it almost certainly breeds in streams.
167090		population	eng	No information for the hole range, but it is reported to be common in West Bengal.
167090		threats	eng	No information available.
167091		conservation	eng	It is unclear if <em></em>populations of the species found living in streams located in eucalyptus forest are&#160;viable&#160;over the long term. Eucalyptus forest is known to have&#160;deleterious&#160;impacts on water quality by reducing&#160;productivity&#160;and increasing acidity. The development of high quality secondary forest habitat in lowland areas in Hainan and Guangdong will increase the availability of suitable habitat for this species.
167091		distribution	eng	The species has a restricted and fragmented range, known from a small number of records. It was described from 'Tonkin', northern Viet Nam (Lieftinck 1950) and has subsequently been recorded from Guangdong (Fellowes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) and Hainan (Laidlaw 1922, Needham 1930, Wilson and Reels 2001), and is likely to occur in Guangxi.
167091		habitat	eng	The species prefers small forested streams in lowland areas or the foothills of mountainous regions with sandy and gravel substrates. It is not restricted to primary forest and has been recorded from secondary forest and eucalyptus plantation areas in Hainan.
167091		population	eng	It has only been recorded from nine sites from&#160;northern Viet Nam (some very close to each other), and from southern China including Hainan (six sites) and Guangdong (two sites).
167091		threats	eng	Extensive loss of lowland forest within its small range will have significantly reduced the available habitat for this&#160;forest dwelling species. However, it has been found in secondary forest and in eucalyptus forest plantations.
167093		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167093		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobasileus croceus </span>is a widespread species, extending from India to south China and southwards to Java and the Philippines.
167093		habitat	eng	The species breeds in weedy ponds and lakes.
167093		population	eng	The species is quite common across its range.
167093		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167094		conservation	eng	More information is needed on its distribution and potential threats, particularly for populations outside of China, especially in the Ryukyus in Japan, and in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
167094		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern and southern China, including Hong Kong and Taiwan, as well as Japan and Thailand (Wilson 2004). If the record from Thailand is valid, the species should be looked for in suitable habitat in Lao PDR and in Viet Nam.
167094		habitat	eng	Adults are usually found in or near woodland or at forest edge adjacent to marshy areas. Females can be observed ovipositing in leaf-strewn pools beside forested streams.
167094		population	eng	This species is abundant where found it is found in China; other country population information is not known.
167094		threats	eng	No major threats are known to affect this species.
167095		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167095		distribution	eng	Chao (1990) records <em>tantulus</em> from Fujian, Zhejiang. Hua (2000) also records <em>tantulus</em> from Henan.
167095		habitat	eng	Members of this genus prefer clear mountain streams with gravel substrates.
167095		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167095		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
167096		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need to resolve the taxonomic issues surrounding this species, and for more data on its distribution outside of Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. There does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures to be made for <em>P. v. verticalis</em> on Borneo or for <em>P. v. humeralis</em> in Peninsular Malaysia. </p>
167096		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">P. v. verticalis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> was described from Borneo (Selys 1860) and is a very common species in many parts of the island (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Tsuda & Kitagawa 1989, Orr 2001, 2003, Dow and Reels 2008, 2010, Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008); most of these records are from Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah but it certainly occurs in Kalimantan as well. It is somewhat doubtful if any of the records from outside Borneo really refer to the nominate subspecies, but Tsuda and Kitagawa (1988) record it from Sumatra, Fraser records if from southern Myanmar (1933a) and from Laos (1933b) as do Yokoi and Souphanthong (2004), and Schmidt (1964) also records it from Myanmar, Wilson and Reels (2003) record it from Guangxi in southern China. Asahina (1983) recorded it from locations in Thailand, but Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) treat these records as <em>Prodasineura</em> sp. nec. <em>verticalis</em>. <em>P. v, andamanensis</em> is known from the southern Andaman Islands (Fraser 1933, Chhotani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983). <em>P. v. annandalei</em> is known from southern India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Bedjani? 1996, Prasad 2000), where it appears to be widely distributed. <em>P. v. burmanensis</em> is known from Myanmar (Fraser 1933) and Mizoram in India (Prasad 1997). <em>P. v. delia</em> is known from Sumatra and Nias (e.g. Lieftinck 1931), other records of <em>P. verticalis</em> from Nias (e.g. Selys 1889) apparently do not refer to either <em>P. v. delia</em> or <em>P. v. verticalis</em> (Lieftinck 1931). <em>P. v. humeralis</em> is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e,g. Orr 2005); probably all records of <em>P. v. verticalis</em> (e.g. Brooks 1981) and most or all records of <em>P. autumnalis</em> from mainland Malaysia actually refer to this subspecies. </p>
167096		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">On Borneo <em>P. v. verticalis</em> occupies a wide range of forest streams, including streams in highly disturbed forest, and/or with only a narrow buffer zone of forest surrounded by cleared land or plantations. In Peninsular Malaysia <em>P .v. humeralis</em> seems to occupy a similar range of habitats. There is little information on the other subspecies and forms.</p>
167096		population	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">P. v. verticalis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is common in Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah at least. <em>P. v. humeralis</em> appears to be common in Peninsular Malaysia. There is insufficient data to make definitive statements about populations in other parts of the range of this species.</span></p>
167096		threats	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">P. v. verticalis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> does not appear to be threatened in Borneo, neither does <em>P. v. humeralis</em> in Peninsular Malaysia. We have insufficient data to assess threats to other populations.</span></p>
167097		conservation	eng	The taxonomic issues need to be resolved and there is a need for further data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167097		distribution	eng	As currently understood this is a widespread species occurring from west India to Japan and south to Java and the lesser Sunda Islands.
167097		habitat	eng	&#160;Breeds in small tanks and also pools in river beds. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. p. schneideri</span> at least is more dependent on forest than many <span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum</span> species.
167097		population	eng	<p>This is a common species across parts of its range.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167097		threats	eng	<p>Individual populations are likely to be threatened by development of one kind or another, but overall this species is not threatened.<br/></p>
167098		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed at this time.</p>
167098		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Orthetrum triangulare</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is widely distributed in Asia.</span></p>
167098		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is usually found in hilly and montane areas. It breeds in small ponds and marshy areas, and is tolerant of disturbance.</p>
167098		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species can be somewhat local, but is common where it occurs across much of its range.</p>
167098		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>
167099		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
167099		distribution	eng	Although the type locality of this species is in Lianping County, Heyuan City, Guangdong Province, China, this species is widely distributed from China; southwest and south China, and northern Viet Nam; Pioac Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province (Wilson 2002).
167099		habitat	eng	The larvae are present at the foot of sizeable mountains, in agricultural areas and open areas of valley in fairly low densities and found in gravel reaches. It can occur in disturbed areas. The adults are rarely encountered, occurring briefly at the breeding site to pair and lay eggs.
167099		population	eng	Although the species is widespread in China, it is an uncommon species in fairly low densities.
167099		threats	eng	No threats are currently known to this species. This species is one of the very few of species of dragonfly that could plausibly be threatened by uncontrolled amateur collection.
167101		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution - it is likely to have a much more extensive range than currently recorded.
167101		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China including Hong Kong, Viet Nam, Myanmar and Thailand (Wilson 2004).
167101		habitat	eng	It is a crepuscular species which frequents marshes and does not require forest.
167101		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
167101		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known.
167103		conservation	eng	No conservation or research actions are urgently needed at present.
167103		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, central Thailand, north Lao PDR and southwest and southern China.
167103		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested and open aspect lowland and montane streams and rivers.
167103		population	eng	There are no detailed data available on this species, but its global population is thought to be stable.
167103		threats	eng	No major threats are known to currently exist.
167105		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed although the taxonomic issues need resolving.
167105		distribution	eng	This species is known from Aranchal Pradesh in India to Fujian, China, and south to Singapore (Wilson 2004).
167105		habitat	eng	The species was found in a variety of lowland and montane streams and rivers containing sandy shoals, including open habitats and plantations.
167105		population	eng	The larvae have been observed in incredible numbers from between 50-100 per m<sup>2</sup>.
167105		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been found.
167106		conservation	eng	<p>Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.<em></em></p>
167106		distribution	eng	May (1933) described <em>Lestomima flavostigma</em> from 'Wen-Tu-Wei', Guangdong based on two males collected by Mell 18 July. No year is given but in keeping with other material collected by Mell in north Guangdong it is presumably 1910. The location of 'Wen-Tu-Wei', is unknown but Ris (1916) described <em>Philoganga vetusta</em> based on a male specimen collected by Mell on 20 July 1910 from Tsa-Yiu-San, north Guangdong, (25º30’N, 114ºE). It is therefore highly likely that the <em>Lestomima flavostigma</em> was collected from a location very close to Tsa-Yiu-San since it was collected just two days later.
167106		habitat	eng	Found in montane streams.
167106		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167106		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167108		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed for this species, but there is a need for more data on its distribution outside of southern China.
167108		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in China, with records from Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hong Kong, Sichuan and Zhejiang provinces, and from Taiwan, Province of China. It is also known from northern Viet Nam.
167108		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forest streams, including disturbed forest and secondary forest.
167108		population	eng	This species is common over parts of its range at least.
167108		threats	eng	This species is not under any major widespread threats.
167110		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167110		distribution	eng	A southern Chinese species ranging from Guangdong through Fujian to Zhejiang and may also occur in Sichuan. Needham (1930) described <em>Megalestes heros</em> from two males; one collected from 'Yen Ping', Fujian and the second, a teneral specimen, from 'Suifu', Sichuan. Chao (1965) synonymised <em>Megalestes suensoni</em> Asahina, described from 'Tien-Mu-Shan', Zhejiang, with heros and provided details of specimens of <em>heros</em> from 'Ta-chu-lan, Shaowu Hsien (1,500 m)', Fujian. Asahina (1985b) listed additional records of <em>heros</em> from 'Tschung Sen (2,300 m), Kuatun, Fujian. Both Chao (1965) and Asahina (1985b) are uncertain as to the true identity of Needham's (1930) teneral '<em>heros</em>' specimen from Sichuan. Fellowes <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported <em>heros</em> from Nanling, north Guangdong and Wilson and Xu (2007) provided details of five specimens from five sites within Nanling, north Guangdong and also provided a photo of an ovipositing female. Wilson and Xu (in press) has examined specimens of <em>heros</em> collected by Professor Xu, South China Agricultural University, collected from Wuyanling Provincial Nature Reserve, Zhejiang Province.
167110		habitat	eng	Frequents montane forested streams.
167110		population	eng	Known to have a stable population although numbers are lacking.
167110		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167113		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to regulate the use of pest control substances that are affecting this species.
167113		distribution	eng	The species has wide distribution in eastern Asia and is known from Western Japan (southwest Honshu, Shikoku, Kyusyu, Yakushima, Tanegashima, Tsusima); Taiwan; China and Korea.
167113		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in lowland ponds, swamps and paddy fields.
167113		population	eng	Recently their distribution has expanded towards the north, because of global warming; especially in the south Kanto area.
167113		threats	eng	The species has experienced and is continuing to be affected by the use of pesticides in pest control and the associated agricultural and domestic pollution.
167117		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167117		distribution	eng	<em>Stylurus clathratus</em> is restricted to central, southern and southwestern China including Fujian, Guangdong, Hubei and Sichuan. Described from a pair collected from Fujian by C.R. Kellogg, a female from Shanghai Museum, and two males and a female collected from 'Foochow' , Fuzhou or 'Amoy' , Xiamen (Needham 1930). Asahina (1978) recorded <em>Stylurus amicus</em> Needham, collected by Kellogg, from plains of Foochow, which was re-identified as <em>clathatrus</em> Chao (1990). Chao (1990) provides details of specimens collected from Fujian, Guangdong and Sichuan [Taiwan was also listed by Chao (1990) in error]. Wilson (1999) recorded <em>clathratus</em> from Dinghushan, Guangdong. Hua (2000) also lists <em>clathratus</em> from Hubei.
167117		habitat	eng	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.
167117		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167117		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.
167119		conservation	eng	Planning controls have been put in place which have afforded 'conservation' and 'green belt' status. However, the area would best be served by incorporation into the surrounding Country Park, which would safeguard the site's future.
167119		distribution	eng	Described from single male collected from "Ling Sioh", Fujian (Needham 1930). There is a Ling-Sioh Monastery located in Fuqing County, southeast Fuzhou, Fujian. No further records until a population discovered in Sha Lo Tung, Hong Kong (Wilson 1995). Wilson (1997a) made recommendations to protect this area due to its high conservation value for dragonflies. There has been some damage to the site during the late 1990's but the population may now be stable.  However there are continued development proposals for Sha Lo Tung, which is an unprotected site (Wilson 1997b), although it now benefits from planning control legislation. The area is classed, in planning terms, as “Conservation Area” and “Green Belt”. Any proposed development requires approval from the Hong Kong planning authority.
167119		habitat	eng	Small, shallow gradient streams with gravel and mud substrates.
167119		population	eng	The main population at Sha Lo Tung occupies a small catchment area (<em>ca</em> 80 ha), containing several small streams.
167119		threats	eng	The Sha Lo Tung site in Hong Kong has been damaged in the past by uncontrolled site clearance. Major threats are from ongoing development proposals for housing and 'spa' style development.
167123		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
167123		distribution	eng	Ris (1917) described <em>buchi</em> from a series of specimens collected from Fujian by P.A. Buch, in summer 1916.  Needham (1930) recorded it from 'Lo-chen-tsien', Guangxi and 'Foochow', southeast Fujian. Asahina (1979) recorded <em>buchi</em> from 'Shaowu', north Fujian and noted a male specimen from 'Canton' Guangdong, (collection notes: leg. Mell), in the Eric Schmidt collection. Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded it from Mulun, north Guangxi. Vincent Kalkman (2007) has also posted a good series of photos taken from Longsheng, north Guangxi, on the 'AsiaDragonfly' web pages. Sui and Sun (1984) lists <em>buchi</em> from Fujian and Sichuan.
167123		habitat	eng	<em>Philosina</em> prefers slower margins of forested stream and rivers.
167123		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167123		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Philosina buchi</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams, roads and powerlines are an ongoing problem.
167124		conservation	eng	The species is common and widespread.
167124		distribution	eng	Has a broad range from Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam through to southern, southwestern and central China including Taiwan (Tsuda 2000), Macau (Easton and Liang 2000) and Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) to Korea (Lee 2001), Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001) and southern, far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007). Tsuda (2000) records the subspecies <em>clavatus phaleratus</em> Sélys, from Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand, which is a synonym (Steinman 1997).
167124		habitat	eng	Prefers lentic waters i.e. lakes, ponds and reservoirs.
167124		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
167124		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167125		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
167125		distribution	eng	Recorded from type-locality in Sichuan, Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007).
167125		habitat	eng	Found on large slow flowing broad rivers.
167125		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167125		threats	eng	Water pollution is causing a major threat to <em>Indocypha katharina</em> habitat; sewage from commercial and domestic sources are degrading the wetlands.
167126		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167126		distribution	eng	Described from Fujian (Chai 1954) and recorded from Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Jiangxi and Zhejiang (Hua 2000).
167126		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams.
167126		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167126		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Amphigomphus hansoni</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.
167127		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution within Indo-China.
167127		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern, southern and southwest China, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Chao 1990).
167127		habitat	eng	It occurs in open aspect rocky sub-montane streams, usually in forested areas.
167127		population	eng	It is a locally abundant in open aspect rocky streams.
167127		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known to affect this species.
167131		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167131		distribution	eng	Known from just four locations: (i) the type-locality in Fujian (Chao 1990), (ii) Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), (iii) Dinghushan, Guangdong (Wilson 1999), and (iv) Nanling, north Guangdong (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003).
167131		habitat	eng	Prefers forested hills streams.
167131		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167131		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sieboldius alexanderi</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.
167133		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167133		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from India to Japan.
167133		habitat	eng	The species is found in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, marshes, paddyfields, irregation canals etc.
167133		population	eng	This is often a very common where it occurs.
167133		threats	eng	This species is not theatened.
167136		conservation	eng	Any conservation actions that might be needed for this species cannot be planned without additional data, especially on its habitat requirements. The priority is for expert sampling across its known range to gather the necessary data.
167136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Periaeschna flinti</span> is known from scattered locations in China (e.g. Wilson and Xu 2008) and the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Asahina 1981).
167136		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitats of this species, although it is clearly a species of uplands and mountain, and is likely to require forest for its survival.
167136		population	eng	Little information is available on this species, but judging from the number of specimens that have been recorded it is likely to be fairly common in mountainous parts of southern China. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. f. assamensis</span> is known only from the type series of two specimens.
167136		threats	eng	Without definite information on the habitat requirements of this species it is not possible to assess any threats it might face, although deforestation is likely to be the main threat. However it is widely distributed in China at least and not likely to be threatened across its entire range.
167139		conservation	eng	A common and widespread species.
167139		distribution	eng	<em>Prodasineura autumnalis</em> (Fraser) is a common and wide ranging Asian species listed by Tsuda (2000) from China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsula Malaysia, Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam. Within China Hua (2000) lists it from Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Hong Kong, Yunnan and Zhejiang. Easton and Liang (2000) also record it from Macau. Fraser (1933) records <em>autumnalis</em> from Assam, Myanmar, Tonkin and Java. Lieftinck (1954) provides distribution records for <em>autumnalis</em> within Malaysia and Indonesia recording it from Sumatra and Borneo.
167139		habitat	eng	Frequents streams in open and forested country.
167139		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
167139		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167142		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed, particularly on this species' distribution, and any potential threats.
167142		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Yang Ming mountain range, northeast Taiwan and is probably endemic to Taiwan.
167142		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forested streams.
167142		population	eng	This species is locally common.
167142		threats	eng	No major threats known.
167146		conservation	eng	More information needed on its distribution in Thailand and Viet Nam, and neighbouring countries.
167146		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China and one location in Thailand, with one very old record from Viet Nam.
167146		habitat	eng	It can be found in the areas of pools and riffles in well shaded forested lowland and hilly streams. It can occur in disturbed and secondary forests, and is tolerant of organic pollution.
167146		population	eng	Locally common in south China although population details are lacking for other countries.
167146		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
167147		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167147		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ceriagrion olivaceum</em> is a widespread species in South Asia. Its known range encompasses most of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Lao PDR</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cambodia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">peninsular Malaysia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mitra 2002).</p>
167147		habitat	eng	<em>Ceriagrion olivaceum</em> occurs at slow running marshy streams, ponds, rice fields and irrigation channels.&#160;<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">  </h1>
167147		population	eng	The species is common in much of its range.
167147		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167148		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>
167148		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Brachydiplax chalybea</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widespread species, extending from the east of India to Japan and southwards to Java and Sulawesi.</span></p>
167148		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found in marshes and weedy ponds, may be able to tolerate brackish water, and is tolerant of disturbance.</p>
167148		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a very common species across most of its range.</p>
167148		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are unlikely to be threats to the species cross its full range, though habitat loss (through deforestation and agriculture) will certainly impact the species in some parts of its range.<br/></p>
167149		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167149		distribution	eng	<em>Rhyothemis fuliginosa</em> is widespread throughout China and east Asia. It has been recorded from China, including Fujian, Hainan, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Hupei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shangdong, Sichuan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006); central and southern Japan including Honshi, Shikoku, Kyushu and Ryukyus (Suginura <em>et al</em>. 2001); Korea (Lee 2001); and may occur in Vietnam and Myanmar (Tsuda 2000). Its distribution in Hainan also requires confirmation.
167149		habitat	eng	Frequents weedy ponds.
167149		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167149		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167150		conservation	eng	<p>Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>
167150		distribution	eng	Wilson (2004) described <em>Calicnemia chaoi</em> from Nanling, Guangdong.
167150		habitat	eng	<em>Calicnemia chaoi</em> was collected from montane trickles and streams at almost vertical, sunlit rock faces in forested areas.
167150		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167150		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167151		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167151		distribution	eng	Described from Guangdong and subsequently recorded from two further locations in central Guangdong; Liuxihe and Nankunshan (Wilson and Xu in press).
167151		habitat	eng	Members of the <em>Leptogomphus</em> genus prefer streams with gravel substrates.
167151		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167151		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167156		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167156		distribution	eng	Described from 'Kwa Tun' (Kuatun), Wuyi Shan, Fujian, Chao (1990) records additional but limited material from Fujain Province.
167156		habitat	eng	Found in montane streams.
167156		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167156		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sinogomphus telamon</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams are an ongoing problem.
167157		conservation	eng	There is a need for more information on distribution, detailed habitat requirements and threats, but no specific conservation measures are likely to be needed.
167157		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern China, where it is distributed from Yunnan to Fuijan, and from Viet Nam, from Khuoi Cap village, Mau Son mountain, Loc Binh district, Lang Son Province, northern Viet Nam, near to the border between Viet Nam and China (Quoc Toan Phan pers. comm. 2010).
167157		habitat	eng	In Viet Nam the species has been collected in clearings and around quiet streams, sometimes up to 5-8 m in width, with many large rocks.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The species is found&#160; co-occurring in streams were other chlorocyphids such as <em>Rhinocypha biforata, R. perforata </em>and <em>R. fenestrella</em>. Like <em>R. fenestrella,</em> the species is often found perching on&#160; rocks and plants in the stream (Phan Quoc Toan pers. comm.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2010). It is certainly tolerant of some disturbance to its habitats.
167157		population	eng	No detailed population information is available, but Quoc Toan Phan (pers. comm. 2010) reported that although this species have been only found in Lang Son province in Viet Nam, they were quite common in the locality.
167157		threats	eng	No detailed information is available, but this species is not likely to be under any widespread threats.
167158		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167158		distribution	eng	<em>Protosticta taipokauensis</em> is known from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007) and possibly Fuijan (Asahina and Dudgeon 1987, Van Tol 2008) in China, and from Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000). Further survey is required to confirm the current full distribution of the species.
167158		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forest streams.
167158		population	eng	This species may be rather local, but is generally quite common where it occurs; in Hong Kong it is a common species (Wilson 2004). As with all members of the Platystictidae it is likely to be under-recorded due to its habitat and inconspicuous appearance.
167158		threats	eng	Individual populations of this species may be threatened by deforestation, but it is present in protected areas in Hong Kong and Guangdong at least and is not likely to be globally threatened.
167159		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.
167159		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern and eastern China, including Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Zhejiang (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Macau (Easton and Liang 2000) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984), South Korea (Wilson, material collected 2005), Japan, including Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and several offshore islands, including the Ryukyus (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001) and Vietnam (Tsuda 2000).
167159		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences include ponds and lakes.
167159		population	eng	The species has a stable population and it is common and widespread.
167159		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167160		conservation	eng	All measures to protect lowland and montane&#160;forest&#160;habitat throughout India, Indo-China and southeast Asia will help protect this widespread species.
167160		distribution	eng	<em>Cratilla lineata </em>is very widely distributed throughout the Old World tropics ranging from India to the Philippines. Fraser (1936) remarked that&#160;<em>C. lineata&#160;</em>is widely distributed from the west coast of India throughout Burma, Sri Lanka Malaysia, the Sundaic Archipelago to Borneo, New Guinea and the Philippines. However there are no known records from New Guinea. Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) consider&#160;<em>C. lineata calverti</em>&#160;to be widespread and common throughout Thailand. Hua (2000) records&#160;<em>Cratilla lineata&#160;</em>from Guangdong, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Xizang Yunnan&#160;and&#160;Zhejiang. Wilson, Reels and Xu (2008) reported the first record from Hainan. Orr (2005) reports&#160;<em>C. lineata&#160;</em>from P. Malaysia and&#160;&#160;Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) consider&#160;<em>C. lineata calverti</em>&#160;to be widespread and common throughout Thailand.&#160;Cuong and Hoa (2006) &#160;lists just two locations from Viet Nam in the south near Ho Chi Minh. Asahina (1968) reported<em> C. lineata</em> from Baguio, north Luzon in the Philippines. Lieftinck (1954) lists <em>C. lineata assidua </em>from Java and Bali and the nominate subspecies from Thailand, Sumatra and Borneo.
167160		habitat	eng	Occurs in forested areas in lowland and montane regions. Prefers shaded muddy forest pools (Lieftinck 1953) but will occur in a wide range of lentic forest habitat (Orr 2005).
167160		population	eng	<em>Cratilla lineata </em>is an abundant and widespread species ranging from the west coast of India through Indo-China, southern China including&#160;Taiwan&#160;and Hainan to the Philippines and Indonesia.
167160		threats	eng	Loss of lowland forest habitat throughout much Oriental Region will undoubtedly have reduced the&#160;available habitat for this species. It is common in primary forested locations such as Endau Rompin, Malaysia (Wilson 2009) but apart from one recent record absent from deforested areas such as Singapore (Cheong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). However it is a highly dispersive species and has able to colonise secondary forested areas in south China.
167162		conservation	eng	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range, further research into threats and populations are not urgent but would be useful.
167162		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and southeastern China, (Chao 1990) Lak Sao in Lao PDR, and northern Viet Nam.
167162		habitat	eng	This species is found at forest streams in lowland and montane areas, including secondary forest.
167162		population	eng	The population trend of the species is probably stable.
167162		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known to have a negative impact to this species.
167163		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures, beyond further research, appear to be need for <em>M. tibetanum</em> at the present time.</p>
167163		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. t. tibetanum</span> is known from northwest Myanmar and central Sichuan, China (Yu and Bu 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. t. australe</span> is known from central Sichuan to Yunnan and northern Myanmar (Yu and Bu 2009). A record in Schmidt (1964) of a male from Hejunta in Yunnan might be of either subspecies. There is an additional record of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tibetanum</span> from Chiang Mai, Thailand (see Taxonomic Note). From the known distribution, it is likely to occur also in Laos and northern Vietnam. The only recent (e.g. within the last two decades) records are from about seven locations in Yunnan and Sichuan, and from Doi Inthanon in Thailand. Records from Shaanxi and Zhejiang refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. yachowensis</span>.
167163		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Kalkman (2008) provided observations on the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tibetanum</span>, noting that at Emei Shan in Sichuan it was found “along a small path bordering a larger, at least partly sunny, rocky stream at 1,400-1,600 m. … it was not clear if this stream or if the nearby runnels served as larval habitat” and at Wolong in the same province “along a partly channelized, stony brook less than 1 m wide and 40 cm deep. This largely unshaded brook flowed through agricultural fields.” These observations suggest strongly that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tibetanum</span> can survive in disturbed habitats.</p>
167163		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although not many specimens of this species have ever been collected, given the available information on habitat and distribution, it is likely to be quite common, just under-recorded.</p>
167163		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Based on the habitat information available it appears unlikely that <em>M. tibetanum</em> faces any serious threats at the present time.</p>
167164		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167164		distribution	eng	Asahina (1966) described <em>Zygonyx takasago</em> from Taiwan where it is restricted to northern and central hill forests (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984). Wilson (1999) recorded <em>takasago</em> from Dingushan, Guangdong and Wilson and Reels (2001) recorded it from Hainan. Wilson and Xu (material collected 2003-2005) also have records of <em>takesago</em> from southeast Gunagdong.
167164		habitat	eng	Frequents cascades and waterfalls in forested hill streams.
167164		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167164		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167165		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
167165		distribution	eng	Type-locality 'Kuatun', Fujian. Known from Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hunan and Zhejiang (Wilson and Xu 2007).
167165		habitat	eng	Species occurs at montane streams.
167165		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167165		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167167		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas in southern China and Viet Nam. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
167167		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern and southern China and northern Viet Nam.
167167		habitat	eng	This species is found in small montane forested streams.
167167		population	eng	No information available.
167167		threats	eng	This species is known from several protected areas in southern China and Viet Nam and there are no major threats known.
167168		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.</p>
167168		distribution	eng	<em>Anaciaeschna jaspidea</em> is a very widely distributed species, with records from Australia to Java and the lesser Sunda islands, to India, Nepal, China, and Japan, and a number of territories in the Pacific Ocean.
167168		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Lieftinck (1954) states that this species is found at "Weedy ponds, marshes, shallow rushy lakes, abandoned rice-fields, &c., from the coast upwards"; this statement sums up its habitat requirements succinctly.</p>
167168		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is possibly rather local in occurrence, with just single records from some areas, but it is often common where it occurs, and may be merely under-recorded due to its crepuscular habits.</p>
167168		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be threatened.</p>
167170		conservation	eng	This species was recorded from protected areas such as Tam Dao National Park and Pioac mountain in Viet Nam, and Chebaling National Nature Reserve, Nankunshan, Dawangling in China.
167170		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in China and in northern Viet Nam. In China the species is recorded from Fujian (Nanjing, Kuatun, Changting, Bohea, Shaowu, Kienyang), Guangdong (Chebaling, Dachouding, Heishiding, Nankunshan, Nanling), Guangxi (Dawangling, Diding), Guizhou (Chishui, Dashahe, Leigongshan), Hubei (Shennongjia), Jiangxi (Jiulianshan), Sichuan (E'meishan), Zhejiang (Jinhua, Ningbo, Shaoxin, Wenzhou, West Tianmushan), and Shaanxi (Chang'an) provinces (Davies and Yang 1996, Wilson and Reels 2003, Wilson and Xu 2007, Zhang 2010).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, it is recorded from two areas in Cao Bang (Pioac mountain) and Lang Son (Tam Dao National Park) provinces (Do and Dang 2007).
167170		habitat	eng	They live in open opaque rivers with mud and sand bottom layer; the males are active and highly territorial. They fold their wings back at rest but they can clap or open the wings under strong sunlight above the water surface. &#160;The damselflies do not often fly far form their breeding habitats, however they can&#160;fly very high and perch high on vegetation beside the rivers.
167170		population	eng	No information is available on the size and trend of population for this species.
167170		threats	eng	Although this species is recorded from protected forest, its habitat is declining by logging and tourism.
167176		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are likely to be needed for this species.
167176		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nepal, Bangladesh, south China, Hong Kong, Pakistan and India (Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh). It has not been recorded in Myanmar, but is likely to occur there.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
167176		habitat	eng	This species breeds in well vegetated ponds and lakes.
167176		population	eng	No information available.
167176		threats	eng	Because of its breeding habitats, this species is not likely to be globally threatened.
167177		conservation	eng	The type&#160;locality&#160;at Dinghu Shan was among the first of a series of Chinese National Nature Reserves established by the First Conference of the National Peoples' Delegation in 1956 (Wilson 1999). In 1979 it was recognised by UNESCO as a Man and Biosphere Reserve. The next location where <em>P. alba</em> was next recorded from at Diaoluoshan, Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001)&#160;is a large&#160;380 km<sup>2&#160;</sup>National Forest Park located in Lingshui, Wanning, Qiongzhong and Baoting counties, southeast Hainan. The Forest Park was designated in 1994 to promote ecotourism as an alternative to logging native forest, which was banned in the same year and later it was upgraded to a National Forest Park in 1999 (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2002). Diaoluoshan National Forest Park includes Baishuiling Nature Reserve (30 km<sup>2</sup> in size), which was established in 1984 to protect the tropical rainforest ecosystem and rare fauna. Although there has been extensive logging from these two locations historically both locations are now fully protected. More information on its distribution is needed, particularly in Lao PDR.
167177		distribution	eng	The species is known from just a handful of sites in southern China comprising the type locality at Dinghu Shan, Guangdong (22°23'34.38"N,&#160;114° 8'47.08"E), two additional sites in Guangdong at Liuxihe and Huizhou and Diaoluoshan, Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001). It has also been suspected to occur in Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Karube has reported it from Lao PDR (Karube 2002). Recent survey (by V. Kalkman; K. Wilson, pers. comm.) at the type locality did not find the species. The species is conspicuous and easily surveyed.
167177		habitat	eng	Frequents moderately fast-flowing hillstreams in forested areas. At Diaoluoshan in Hainan the population was found in a small stream (2-3m wide) at moderately high altitude ca.750 m whereas at Dinghu Shan the population was found at much lower altitude,&#160;ca.10 m,&#160;in a stream significantly larger ca. 6-10 m wide. The larvae are unknown but presumably occur in stream margins where adult males are found.
167177		population	eng	With so few records it is difficult to determine population size but clearly the species has become severely fragmented. Adults males are easily observed due to their moderate size, thick abdomens and bright white colouration (it looks like a flying cigarette) but the species,&#160;nevertheless,&#160;remains poorly recorded.
167177		threats	eng	Dinghu Shan and Liuxihe are under moderate pressure from ecotourism. Most if not all confirmed records have come from primary forested areas, a very rare commodity in submontane areas of southern China (K. Wilson pers. comm.).
167181		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution and the impacts of present threats.
167181		distribution	eng	The species is known from north and central Guangdong, and Jiuwanshan Headwater Forest Nature Reserve in Guangxi Province, China.
167181		habitat	eng	It occurs in forested stream margins, and can tolerate disturbed forest.
167181		population	eng	No information available.
167181		threats	eng	Dingushan Nature Reserve is potentially impacted by increasing levels of tourism developments. Jiuwanshan has sustained forestry activity for some time but this has slowed in recent years, leaving the remain forest fragmented (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden Corporation 2002). The threats in the other locations are unknown.
167183		conservation	eng	None required for this widespread species.
167183		distribution	eng	The various subspecies of <em>Tramea transmarina </em>are distributed throughout the tropical Indomalayan region including many Pacific Island groups and extending&#160;to Australasia. According to Tsuda (2000) the known distributions for the various <em></em>subspecies are as follows:&#160;<em>T. t. transmarina&#160;</em>Fiji, New Caledonia, New Zealand, French Polynesia and Samoa; &#160;<em>T. t. euryale&#160;</em>Guam, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, East Malaysia, Peninsula Malaysia, Philippines, Palau, Thailand and Taiwan;&#160;<em>T. t. intersecta&#160;</em>New Caledonia and Vanuatu;&#160;<em>T.t. propinqua </em>Australia, Micronesia, Indonesia, Fiji, Japan, Marshall Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, Pitcairn, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Thailand and Taiwan;&#160;<em>T. t. yayeyamana </em>Japan. The latter species is confined to the Ryukyu Islands of Japan (Sugimura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>In Thailand there are records of&#160;<em>Tramea transmarina euryale&#160;</em>scattered across the country from nine provinces, comprising Chiang Mai, Kalasin Ubon, Ratchathani, Chin Buri, Ranong, Phangnga, Phuket, Songkhla and Pattani (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). From China there are just two <em>Tramea transmarina euryale</em> records of vagrants, one from Hong Kong (Wilson 1995) and one from Hainan (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<em> Tramea transmarina propinqua </em>is also recorded from Taiwan from the southern tip of the island and at Lanyu Island (Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984). Lieftinck (1954) records its range to include: much of Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia and Borneo and comments that the species is common and widespread everywhere in the lowlands. Theischinger and Hawking (2006) record&#160;<em>Tramea t.&#160;propinqua </em>as <em>T.&#160;</em><em>propinqua </em>from the Cape York Peninsula and northeast Queensland in Australia. The species also occurs on Raoul Island (part of the Kermadec Island group), although occupation of the freshwater bodies on the island are likely to be intermittent due to volcanic activity within freshwater bodies on the island (R. Rowe pers. comm. 2011).
167183		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) reports the species <em></em> as widespread throughout tropical Asia occurring in well vegetated lakes, ponds and drains from sea level to 2,000 m. Lieftinck (1954) remarks that it occurs everywhere throughout Malaysia in the lowlands, is salt tolerant, wanders far from its breeding places upon emergence, frequently soars to altitudes of over 2,000 m, soaring high above mountain plateaux and jungle clearings, and is migratory.
167183		population	eng	The species<em> </em>and its various subspecies are common and widespread throughout the tropical Indomalayan and Oceania zoogeographical regions. It is often encountered&#160;at island locations or near the coast at mainland sites. The species is dispersive following emergence and it can be distributed far from the breeding sites by wind systems. The only record from mainland China in Hong Kong&#160;appeared&#160;following a typhoon (Wilson 1997).
167183		threats	eng	There are no known significant threats across its range.
167185		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167185		distribution	eng	Chao (1990) records <em>semanticus</em> from Fujian and Guangdong. Wilson and Xu (in press) has recorded this species from Qujiang Xiaokeng, north Guangdong and Nankunshan, central Guangdong.
167185		habitat	eng	Prefer montane stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.
167185		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.  A stable population and widely distributed.
167185		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Nihonogomphus semanticus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and industrial sewage are an ongoing problem.
167187		conservation	eng	The species would benefit from a trend monitoring project and threats need to be investigated.
167187		distribution	eng	One of the most widespread Asian species occurring from the Indian Peninsula to Australia.
167187		habitat	eng	The species inhabits standing waters
167187		population	eng	In good habitat, populations are still strong.
167187		threats	eng	The species has, is and will continue to experience habitat loss due to shifting land-use to agricultural practices; crop production and the abandonment of farmed land affects <em>Nannophya pygmaea</em>s' preferred breeding habitat.  Infrastructural development of domestic housing and industrial growth is also causing a decline in viable habitat.  The conversion of swampy areas combined with natural disasters, especially drought, compromises decent breeding habitat too.  These factors are consequently have an effect on the species dispersal abilities, which is presently limited.
167188		conservation	eng	A common and widespread species.
167188		distribution	eng	Recorded from China, including Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006),  Korea (Lee 2001), Japan, including Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and the Rukuyus (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), southern far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007) and Luzon in the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997).
167188		habitat	eng	Frequents reservoirs, ponds and lakes.
167188		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167188		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167189		conservation	eng	No information available.
167189		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Viet Nam and southern China. In China it has been recorded from Fujian Province (Fuzhou, Fuan,  Huaan, Minqing, Nanjing, Xiangcheng, Yunxiao), Guangdong Province (Chebaling, Guanyinshan, Heishiding, Luokeng, Qixingkeng, Wutongshan), Guangxi Province(Daxin, Dawangling, Dayaoshan, Chunxiu, Mulun, Maoershan, Shiwandashan, Xidamingshan), Guizhou Province (Libo, Leigongshan),&#160; Hainan Province (Diaoluoshan,Yinggeling),&#160; Hong Kong (throughout),&#160; Jiangxi Province (Jiulianshan), Yunnan Province (Hekou), Zhejing Province (Wenzhou, Ningbo).
167189		habitat	eng	This is a common species found occurring in both lowland fast flowing streams and mountain streams.
167189		population	eng	Common and occurs in most mountain streams throughout southern China
167189		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by deforestation and water pollution in many parts of its range, however the extent of impacts on this species are not known.
167190		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167190		distribution	eng	<em>Sinolestes</em> is a monotypic genus restricted to southern China including Taiwan. Needham (1930) described <em>Sinolestes edita</em> from 'Tien Tai', Zhejiang, the synonym <em>Sinolestes ornata</em> from 'Pinglan, Shang-fang, Lo-chen-hsien', Guangxi and the synonym <em>Sinolestes truncata</em> from 'Zakow', Zhejiang. May (1933) listed <em>ornata</em> from three sites near 'Kanton' (Guangzhou). Chao (1947b) recorded <em>edita</em> from 'Ta-Chu-Lau', Shaowu Hsien, Fujian. Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded <em>edita</em> from Damingshan, Guangxi and Wilson and Xu (2007) recorded <em>edita</em> from three locations within Guangdong: Dinghushan, Nanling and Liuxihe and Reels found it from Hainan (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2008). Yeh (2006) recently recorded <em>Sinolestes edita</em> from Yilan County, northeast Taiwan.
167190		habitat	eng	Frequents montane forested streams. According to Yeh (2006) the habitat in Taiwan comprises small puddles in semi-shaded brooks, with clear, slow-flowing water.
167190		population	eng	Known to have a stable population although numbers are lacking.
167190		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167191		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
167191		distribution	eng	Described from Tachulan, Shaowu, Fujian with paratypes from Yenping, Fujian (Asahina 1982). Also recorded from Nanling, Guangdong (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003) and Nanling and Shimentai (Wilson and Xu in prep.), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Zhejiang (Hua 2000). <em>Periaeschna rotunda</em> Wilson (2005) described from Dayaoshan, Guangxi is a synonym of <em>Cephalaeschna klotsi</em>.
167191		habitat	eng	Frequents small forested montane streams.
167191		population	eng	Species has a stable population although detailed numbers are unknown.
167191		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for the development of dams and transport systems.
167194		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167194		distribution	eng	Described from Mangshan Nature Reserve, south Hunan, which forms part of the Nanling mountain range. Wilson and Xu (2007) recorded <em>chaoi</em> from Dadingshan, Guangdong.
167194		habitat	eng	Found in permanent wetland water areas and moist forest.
167194		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167194		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
167196		conservation	eng	More information is needed on its distribution outside of southern China.
167196		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern and southern China, including Hong Kong, and Viet Nam (Chao 1990).
167196		habitat	eng	It is a small gomphid that frequents forested lowland and sub-montane streams, and tolerates heavily disturbed forest.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
167196		population	eng	<p>No information available but the population appears stable.</p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
167196		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
167199		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.
167199		distribution	eng	Type-locality Bombay, India (Bridges 1994). Wide distribution from both Orient and Australasia. Recorded from western, northern and eastern Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006), China, including Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003), Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007), Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Jiangxi (Hua 2000) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984), India, Burma and Sri Lanka (Fraser 1933), Ryukyus in Japan (Sugimura 2001), Bangladesh, Indonesia, Laos, East Malaysia, Peninsula Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Tsuda 2000).
167199		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences include ponds, lakes and streams
167199		population	eng	A widespread and common species lacking in detailed population numbers or trend.
167199		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167200		conservation	eng	The protection and&#160;appropriate&#160;management of all remaining primary forest habitat in&#160;southern&#160;China will help conserve existing habitat and&#160;the development of high quality secondary forest will&#160;expand the available habitat for this species. In China the&#160;species is listed under Grade II Protection in “List of&#160;Wild Animals under State Protection”.
167200		distribution	eng	<em>Heliogomphus retroflexus</em> is known from Indo-China (Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam) and southern China (Hong Kong, Fujian,&#160;Guangdong, Taiwan and&#160;Zhejiang). Following the original description&#160;in 1912 <em>H. retroflexus</em> has not been recorded from Viet Nam since but it has been discovered in Lao PDR and extensively&#160;throughout southern China. Chao (1954) reported the species&#160;from Fujian and Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1984) reported it to be widespread in Taiwan with records from Kangkow, Pinglin and Shihting. Hua (2000) lists the distribution in China to include Fujian, Taiwan and Zhejiang. Wilson (1999), and Wilson and Xu (2008) provided details of records from&#160;several&#160;sites in Guangdong and Wilson and Reels (2001) and Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) recorded it from Hainan. In 2009 it was discovered in Hong Kong (Green Power 2009).
167200		habitat	eng	This species frequents moderately swift flowing hill streams in forested areas.
167200		population	eng	<em>H. retroflexus </em>has a wide range of distribution across Indo-China and southern China and though uncommon&#160;is not infrequently encountered in protected forest areas. Recently it has shown a&#160;capacity&#160;to recolonise secondary forest at Sha Lo Tung&#160;(Green Power 2009), where, despite exhaustive survey work, it has not&#160;previously&#160;been recorded.
167200		threats	eng	Widespread&#160;loss of forest throughout Indo-China and southern China has resulted in&#160;extensive&#160;loss of suitable habitat for this species. It has been recorded from several protected forest areas throughout southern China. The widespread&#160;development&#160;of small-scale hydro-electric facilities represents a significant threat to this species within protected areas in southern China.
167202		conservation	eng	A common and widespread species.
167202		distribution	eng	Bartenev (1913) described <em>parvulum</em> from the Ussuri river basin in southern, far eastern Russia. The synonym <em>Sympetrum eroticoides</em> Oguma (1922) was described from Sachalin. Hua (2000) lists <em>parvulum</em> from China including Heilongjiang, Henan and Sichuan. Wilson (2005) recorded <em>parvulum</em> from Guangxi.
167202		habitat	eng	Frequents marshes and ponds.
167202		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167202		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167208		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The taxonomic issues need to be resolved; but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.</p>
167208		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Agriocnemis femina</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is very widely distributed, from India to China, Japan, Australia and islands in the Pacific Ocean.</span></p>
167208		habitat	eng	This species breeds in a variety of shallow weedy habitats, from marshes and the margins of lakes to water filled wheel ruts. It has been reported in polluted drains and ditches inside cities, and it is possibly more common in the lowlands but it has been recorded from above 1,000 m in Borneo (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010).
167208		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a very common species across most of its range.</p>
167208		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>
167209		conservation	eng	There is need for more detailed distribution information outside of Japan.
167209		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (including Taiwan), Japan and South Korea&#160;&#160;(Wang Zhiguo 2007). Recently it has been recorded from Viet Nam.
167209		habitat	eng	The female of the species inserts her eggs into soft wet mud. It is found in standing water in forested areas.
167209		population	eng	It is widespread but there are few records.
167209		threats	eng	There is no information available to assess any potential threats.
167210		conservation	eng	This species were found from the protected forest in Viet Nam.
167210		distribution	eng	In China, this species has a wide distribution. It is recorded from Changting in Fujian, Dongchuan and Xiangshuangbanna in Yunnan, Nankunshan National Park in Guangdong, Noggang Nature Reserve in Guangxi, Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve, Wuzhishan Nature Reserve, Yinggeling (Namkang River, Quingjie, Ganzaling), Wanning (Xiaonanning) in Hainan Island (Zhang 2010; Reels 2010; John 2002); Sha Lo Tung (Tai Po district) and Hok Tau Reservoir in Hong Kong (Wilson 2004).<br/>These localities "Back Liang", "Ling Sioh", "Schui Yuan San", and "Lofu Shan" in China are unknown.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, this species were found from the north to the south: Ke Dao in Quang Ninh district and Phong Nha-Ke Bang NP in Quang Binh province; Bach Ma NP in Thua Thien Hue province; Bidoup Nui Ba NP in Lam Dong province; Hon Ba NR in Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa province; Son Kim, Huong Son in Ha Tinh province; Pioac mountain in Cao Bang province (Do and Dang 2007).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR Wilson and Reels (2002) refer to Lao PDR as a locality of this species, but without detailed information.
167210		habitat	eng	They fly in the end of rain season in good forests of high mountains and do not live far from the breeding sites. They are weak flying insects and usually perch on vegetations near clean running waters.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>They can be found in the summer, with a flight period between March and July.
167210		population	eng	<p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p>
167210		threats	eng	No information is currently available on potential threats.
167211		conservation	eng	More information on distribution is needed.
167211		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from southern China. Recently, Phan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (Phan, pers. comm. 2011) found this species in Huu Lien Nature Reserve in Lang Son province (2008) and Xuan Son National Park in Phu Tho Province (2010) in northern Viet Nam. Although this species is widely distributed in China, there are few records from Viet Nam.
167211		habitat	eng	This species is found in lightly forest open aspect streams on moderate slopes.
167211		population	eng	No information available
167211		threats	eng	No widespread threats are known.
167212		conservation	eng	No conservation measures required for this species.
167212		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution throughout Asia from China to Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Thailand, Singapore, Borneo, and throughout Peninsular Malaysia. Numerous sub-species exist. In Lao PDR it has only been recorded from the Bolavén Plateau in Champasak Province, but is likely to be much more widely present. In Viet Nam known records include the Xuan Son National Park in Phu Tho Province, Trung Khanh Natural Reserve in Cao Bang Province, Huu Lien Natural Reserve in Lang Son Province, Ao Vua, Ba Vi National Park in Hanoi, and Bao Loc in Lam Dong Province.<br/><br/>In Thailand records include Chiang Mai Province (Doi Suthep, Doi Inthanon), as well as Lampang; Tak; Loei (Phu Kradung), Chaiyaphum, Saraburi, Bangkok; Prachuap Khiri Khan, Chumphon, Ranong, Phangnga, Phuket, Krabi, Trang, Songkhla, Yala, and Narathiwat Provinces. Records from Cambodia include Seima Natural Forest in eastern Cambodia.<br/><br/>In China recorded from Noggang Natural Reserve and Dayaoshan in Guangxi Province, as well as from Hainan (Wanning; Liulianling, Tongtielin, Jianling and Shangxi, Wanning Country Southeast Hainan), Guangdong (Heishiding, Liuxihe, Qixingkeng, Shimentai), Guizhou Province (Luodian), and Hong Kong (Lau Shui Heung). It should be looked for in Myanmar and Bangladesh, and the nominate subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. p. pruinosum</span>, is known from India. Parts of the species known range (India and Borneo), and possible range (Myanmar and Bangladesh) can not be mapped due to the lack of available data.
167212		habitat	eng	This species lives near the open clean and slow water stream, tolerant of mild organic stream pollutants.
167212		population	eng	No information available.
167212		threats	eng	The species is not thought to be impacted throughout its range, but may be affected by high levels of pollution and habitat loss.
167213		conservation	eng	Its presence on Hong Kong island and several other secondary forested areas in Hong Kong indicate it is able to colonise newly developed secondary forest. It should be noted that Hong Kong was virtually devoid of all forested areas in 1946 following the Japanese occupation, which resulted in&#160; extensive&#160;forest&#160;destruction for firewood (Dudgeon and Corlett 2004).
167213		distribution	eng	Described from Taiwan (Hoozan = Fengshan) where it is widespread but rare (Lieftinck<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1984). From China it has now been recorded from Guangdong (Wilson 1999), Guangxi, Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984). It is widespread in Hong Kong but considered uncommon (Wilson 2004). In Viet Nam, it is recorded from Thua Thien Hue Province (Bui Huu Manh, pers. comm. 2011). Although uncommon this species is widespread in Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984)  and its range includes tropical central Viet Nam and tropical regions  of southern China provinces&#160;including&#160;southern Guangxi, southern  Guangdong and the islands of Taiwan and Hainan. It should be looked for in Lao PDR.
167213		habitat	eng	Favours small clean, streams in forested locations but has also been reported from open aspect streams at the edge of forested areas. Adults pairs are often observed ovipositing in trailing mats of tree roots in shallow stream margins adjacent to riffle and pool sections of streams.
167213		population	eng	No information on population.
167213		threats	eng	The protection of forested areas in &#160;tropical southern China will help protect this species. The reafforestation of Hong Kong has led to an increase in the reporting of this species from central and eastern Hong Kong where extensive&#160;secondary&#160;forest areas has been&#160;developed since the 1950s.
167215		conservation	eng	There is a need for further information on distribution and tolerance to disturbance, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167215		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northern Thailand (e.g., Doi Intanon, and Do Suthep-Pui, Chiang Mai Province; Chiang Rai Province, Lampang Province), southern China and Myanmar. It is likely to be present in suitable habitat within northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam.
167215		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forested streams in mountainous areas.
167215		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
167215		threats	eng	Individual populations of this species are likely to be threatened by hydroelectric projects and other activities, but it is present in protected areas in Thailand at least (e.g., Doi Inthanon National Park and Doi Suthep National Park) and is not likely to be under any major widespread threat.
167216		conservation	eng	This widespread common species does not require immediate conservation attention.
167216		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia.
167216		habitat	eng	The species breeds in small stagnant pools, ponds, swamp forest and slow flowing rivers.
167216		population	eng	This species is under-recorded in many areas because of its crepuscular habits and swift flight, but it is very common over much of its range.
167216		threats	eng	This species has not threats across its range.
167218		conservation	eng	Improved regulation and pollution control of discharges, containing high levels of organic matter, to small water courses in agricultural areas would significantly benefit this species.
167218		distribution	eng	The species range extends from 'Tonkin' in northern Viet Nam across tropical southern China to Fujian and includes the islands of Hainan and Taiwan. Originally described from 'Tonkin' (Martin 1904) from where it has not been recorded since. Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. (</span>1984) summarised Taiwanese records from north Taiwan (Shihting) and south Taiwan (Mutantsun). Chao (1990) recorded&#160;specimens&#160;from Fujian and Wilson (1995, 1997) recorded specimens from several sites in Hong Kong. Wilson (1999) and Wilson and Xu (2009) recorded specimens from two sites in Guangdong. Wilson (2005) recorded<em> </em>the species from Mulun, Guangxi and Wilson and Reels (2001) provided a record of several specimens collected from Hainan. The species has also been recorded from central Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000).
167218		habitat	eng	The larvae are found in muddy margins of small streams and irrigations ditches at the edge of forested areas or in open&#160;agricultural&#160;habitat.
167218		population	eng	The species occurs in muddy streams and irrigation ditches in tropical southern China and northern Viet Nam including the islands of Hainan and Taiwan. Agricultural areas close to protected forest areas are where many of the known records have been reported. It is likely that this species is far more widespread across agricultural areas than is currently documented.
167218		threats	eng	Discharges&#160;of water rich in organic matter discharge from fish culture ponds and organic waste from domestic and agricultural sources are responsible for poor water quality in many stream and irrigation ditches, which would otherwise be suitable for this species. But, given the huge area available containing suitable habitat, across much of tropical southern China this species is not considered to be threatened
167219		conservation	eng	Sha Lo Tung, Hong Kong, this species<em></em> type locality, is currently being considered &#160;for modest&#160;development, under a&#160;Pilot Project for a Public - Private&#160;Partnership Conservation Scheme, which is intended to ensure any development is sympathetic to the stream and forest ecosystem. &#160;The development proposals have been the subject of a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment (Environmental Resources Management 2008) and an Environmental Monitoring and Audit Manual &#160;for this scheme has also been developed, which includes requirements to monitor odonate populations&#160;(Environmental Resources Management 2008).&#160;&#160;Both reports are available on-line for download. It is also known from two protected area in Hainan. The protection status of the location in Lao PDR is not known. More information is needed on the distribution of the species, and the potential threats to all populations.
167219		distribution	eng	This species is only known from five records; one in Hong Kong, one in Guangdong and two in Hainan in China, and one in Lao PDR.
167219		habitat	eng	Wilson and Theischinger (1996) and Wilson (1997) described the larvae, its behaviour and habitat preferences from specimens collected in Hong Kong. The larvae of both<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia</span><em> katae</em> and<em> M. arachnomima </em>occupy an unusual habitat amongst the <em>Macromia</em>&#160;genus since they are not found on bottom substrates such as sand, gravel or mud, but exclusively  clinging to tree roots of&#160; mature, well established trees in narrow  stream channels. The larvae frequent stream pools and margins of small streams with moderate flow.
167219		population	eng	No information available.
167219		threats	eng	The type locality at Sha Lo Tung, Hong Kong has been threatened with extensive development for many years (Wilson 1997).&#160;In January 2001, the Hong Kong Court of First&#160;Instance upheld the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region's Planning Department's temporary planning controls for the area, imposed in 2000, which prevent comprehensive development at Sha Lo Tung.&#160; The Court of Appeal Judge, Mr Justice Cheung's written judgement stated, "It is essential to maintain an ecological balance between development and conservation. After all, mankind is only a part, and a very small part indeed, of nature".&#160;The temporary planning arrangements were superseded&#160; by the Town Planning Board's announcement on&#160;<st1:date month="2" day="8" year="2002" w:st="on">8 February 2002</st1:date>, which confirmed the draft Sha Lo Tung Outline Zoning Plan (OZP) had been approved by the Chief Executive in Council. The OZP's primary intention is to conserve the areas of ecological significance, to preserve the natural landscape, to promote conservation and to maintain the rural character of the area. A 30 m wide buffer area on both sides of all stream courses has been designated 'Site of Special Scientific Interest' (SSSI) and the majority of the remaining land areas are designated 'Conservation Area'. Despite this level of protection, modest proposals under Public, Private Partnership initiatives are under consideration.
167255		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on the distribution and habitat of this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. In addition, the taxonomic status of the species requires confirmation.
167255		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Duars (West Bengal), Bangladesh and Nepal.
167255		habitat	eng	A record from Nepal (Claustnitzer and Wesche 1996) is from "rain forest streams", the habitat in west Bengal was "along the banks of the Silli Torsa River" (Fraser 1933).
167255		population	eng	No information available.
167255		threats	eng	No information available.
167256		conservation	eng	Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed van be planned.
167256		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim and Assam (Fraser 1933), but all records are old.
167256		habitat	eng	The habitat of the species is similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Protosticta </span>sp. They are usually found in small forest streams.
167256		population	eng	No information available.
167256		threats	eng	Pollution of breeding habitats (streams) due to agricultural run off, urbanization and tourism may be affecting the species. But no specific information is available at present.
167258		conservation	eng	This common and widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention.
167258		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in India, Nepal,  Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand. It is likely to be present within Bangladesh.
167258		habitat	eng	This species breeds in stagnant water bodies covered with aquatic plants. Adults can be found throughout the year near such wetlands.
167258		population	eng	No detailed information is available, however the species is very common across much of its range.
167258		threats	eng	There are no immediate widespread threats to the species.
167259		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on distribution and habitat for this species, without such information conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned. The priority for this species is for systematic expert sampling of Odonata to take place across the Himalayan region.
167259		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Nepal (Asahina 1965) and in India, where there are records from West Bengal (Darjeeling dist.), Assam, Sikkim (Fraser 1934) and&#160; Meghalaya (Mitra 1999). Of these records, the only one that dates from after the 1930s is Asahina's record from Nepal, made in 1964.
167259		habitat	eng	The species is found at hill streams.
167259		population	eng	There have only ever been a few records of this species, and none are recent.
167259		threats	eng	More detailed information on habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance, and fresh information on distribution, is needed for this species before any threats it might face can be assessed.
167260		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, which will only be obtained through extensive expert sampling in northeast India and Myanmar.
167260		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast India and Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936). Although it has been reported from Bangladesh, and its occurrence there is certainly possible, the source of the record is not known and consider it requires confirmation. There appears to be no reliable records since the 1930s.
167260		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species breeds in marshes and small weedy pools and tanks in forest areas.
167260		population	eng	There are few records of this species and all those that are reliable are more than 70 years old. However this is as likely to be due to a lack of expert sampling in northeast India and Myanmar as to any decline in the species or genuine rarity; nothing can be reliably be inferred from the paucity of records.
167260		threats	eng	More data are needed before any threats that this species might face can be assessed. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
167261		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species,without such data it is not possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed. Extensive expert sampling of Odonata is needed across he known range of the species, without such sampling the needed data will not be generated.
167261		distribution	eng	This poorly known, elusive and possibly composite species is known from old records from West Bengal in India, Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2001).
167261		habitat	eng	Little or nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species. However a record from Chiang Mai arboretum in Thailand suggests that it may not need pristine habitats.
167261		population	eng	There are very few records of this species, and most of these are from Thailand. Moreover, in view of the taxonomic uncertainties it is not possible to know if all records really refer to the same species.
167261		threats	eng	It is not possible to assess any threats that this species may face from the available data.
167262		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on habitat, threats and distribution is needed, but at present it does not appear as if any specific conservation measures are necessary.</p>
167262		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ictinogomphus angulosus </span>is known from Himachal Pradesh and West Bengal (Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Madhaya Pradesh (Suri Babu and Srivastava 2001) in India, and from Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Ram <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1982) list it from the Kolkata area in West Bengal, but the source of this record is not clear. If it is really a distinct species, then it is likely to be present in a number of other states in India.
167262		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Suri Babu and Srivastava (2001) state that “The adults perch on vegetation near the lake, or on stones near the perennial streams”. They also note that several specimens were collected in “forest near Sagar Lake”. Mahato (1987) records finding specimens in Nepal at a pond. It appears to prefer open breeding habitats, but may be dependent on forest for foraging and roosting.</p>
167262		population	eng	According to Suri Babu and Srivastava (2001), this species is abundant at locations in Madhya Pradesh; no other information on populations is available.
167262		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">From the (albeit scanty) habitat information available, it appears unlikely that this species is seriously threatened at this time, but further information is needed to confirm this. The extent and impact of widespread deforestation and hydropower development across the region needs to be better studied.<br/></p>
167263		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh searches need to be made for this species in Myanmar and north-east India, and further information on its distribution to the north and east of Thailand is needed. Beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time, although the protection of additional suitable habitat across the range of the species is highly desirable. However, there is no evidence that this species is tolerant of disturbance to its habitats, so that there is some cause for concern in the future.</p>
167263		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Calicnemia imitans</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Laos (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2005), Viet Nam, and Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram in India (e.g. Lahiri 1987, Asahina 1985). It should be looked for in other northeastern India States, and in Cambodia and Yunnan.</span></p>
167263		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Not much has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it appears to be typical of the genus: small high gradient streams and trickles in forest, or at least well shaded.</p>
167263		population	eng	This species may be rather local in occurrence, but appears to be fairly common where it occurs.
167263		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Deforestation and large-scale hydroelectric projects are likely to be threats to some populations.</p>
167264		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for additional data on this poorly known species, especially on precise habitat requirements and distribution.
167264		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1934) in India, and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Presence in other areas (e.g. southern China) might be expected.
167264		habitat	eng	This is a hill stream species. No more information is available.
167264		population	eng	There have only ever been a few records of this species. However, many <span style="font-style: italic;">Bayadera </span>species are wary, which means that they are likely to be under-recorded, additionally there has been insufficient sampling in the region; nothing definite can be inferred about populations of this species from the available data.
167264		threats	eng	Random change of biota resulting from human activities (particularly due to development and logging) has been predicted to be the major threat (Lahiri 1989), but there is no concrete evidence to suggest that this species is threatened at present. More data on distribution, precise habitat requirements and population sizes is needed before any threats that this species might face can be reliably assessed.
167267		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species, although more data on its distribution is needed.
167267		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aciagrion occidentale</span> is widely distributed. Its geographical range much of India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), Sri Lanka (e.g. Fraser 1933), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (e.g. Asahina 1967) and Vietnam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It is likely to occur in Myanmar and Lao PDR.
167267		habitat	eng	Suitable habitat is shrub dominated wetlands although it can also be found in bogs, marshes, swamps, fens, peatlands, small streams and permanent freshwater lakes.
167267		population	eng	The current population trend for the species is not known, but it is quite common across its range.
167267		threats	eng	No major threats are known to exist, and the&#160;species&#160;is present over a very large area.
167269		conservation	eng	Further research is required into the species range and population, and potential threats. However, no conservation measures are likely to be needed.
167269		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion decorum </span>has a wide distribution from Oman (Schneider and Dumont 1997) to Myanmar (Tsuda 1991), occurring in Pakistan, India (Tsuda 1991), Nepal (St. Quentin 1970) and Bangladesh (Tsuda 1991).
167269		habitat	eng	Larvae are common in slow flowing marshy streams and reservoirs.
167269		population	eng	The species is quite common across its range but no information is available on the population status.
167269		threats	eng	This species is very unlikely to be threatened.
167270		conservation	eng	Further research is required into the population, distribution and ecology of this species, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed.
167270		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aethriamanta brevipennis</span> is widely distributed across the Indo-Malayan region, occurring in Sri Lanka (Fraser 1920), southern and eastern India (Selys 1891, Fraser 1920, 1924, 1931, 1936; Fraser and Dover 1922, Dasgupta 1957, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 2002), Bangladesh, Myanmar (Selys 1891), Thailand (Tsuda 1991) and Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1954, Choong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and south to Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954).
167270		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds and lakes.
167270		population	eng	This species is rather local in occurrence, and not generally common.
167270		threats	eng	No major threat to the species is known to exist.
167272		conservation	eng	<p>There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, in particular on its distribution and habitat requirements, but is relationship to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia </span>species should also be re-examined.<br/></p>
167272		distribution	eng	The species is known only from old records from Mungpu, Darjeeling.
167272		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream breeder.
167272		population	eng	<p>No population information is available.<br/></p>
167272		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
167274		conservation	eng	This widespread common species may not require immediate conservation attention.
167274		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. hypomelas </span>is found in eastern India, Nepal, Tibet, Myanmar, Bangladesh and China. In eastern India, it is reported from Bihar, Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.
167274		habitat	eng	The species is found in open country.
167274		population	eng	Judging from literature records (e.g. in Asahina 1984) this species is not uncommon in the Himalayas.
167274		threats	eng	There is no apparent widespread threat to the species.
167275		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this very common species.
167275		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neurothemis fulvia</span> is widely distributed from India to China and south to Sumatra.
167275		habitat	eng	This species breeds in weedy ponds, reservoirs and marshes, and in agricultural or open fields (Mitra 2005), and occupies a broad altitudinal range.
167275		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its range.
167275		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167277		conservation	eng	Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements is needed for this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
167277		distribution	eng	This species is known from old records from Myanmar and Margharita in Assam, and records from 1967 from locations in Meghalaya.
167277		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is likely to be a stream species.
167277		population	eng	No information available.
167277		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
167278		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat requirements of this species.
167278		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sympetrum orientale </span>is known from north-east India (e.g. Asahina 1984) and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). China has incorrectly been included in the range of the species, e.g. by Tsuda (1991).
167278		habitat	eng	No information appears to have been published on the habitat and ecology of the species, but it is likely to breed in ponds and similar habitats, and it is clearly montane.
167278		population	eng	There are not many records of this species, which does not appear to be common.
167278		threats	eng	Without definite information on habitat&#160;requirements&#160;it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.
167279		conservation	eng	No information is available. More research is needed on the population trend and existing threats to the species.
167279		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bradinopyga geminata</span> is a widespread species all over India (Mitra 1988, 2002; Dasgupta 1957, Sahni 1964, Baijal and Agarwal 1955, Singh and Prasad 1976, Prasad and Thakur 1981, Prasad 1966, Fraser 1924, 1931; Joseph and Satyarani 1988), Sri Lanka (Tsuda 1991) and Thailand (Kiauta and Kiauta 1983).
167279		habitat	eng	Adults are common along small pools of water or small stagnant water  bodies nearby agricultural fields (Mitra 1998). They also breed in wells,&#160; tanks, drums, rainy hollows in the rocks and invariably settling with wings flattened on the granite face, with which their marbled grey coloured body harmonies to such an extent that they become practically invisible.
167279		population	eng	Although no information is available on the current population trend, the species is quite common along its range but hard to spot due to their cryptic colouration.
167279		threats	eng	No information is available.
167280		conservation	eng	This widespread species does not require immediate any conservation attention.
167280		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in west, central, south and southeast Asia, and Australia.
167280		habitat	eng	The species is found in diverse natural and man made habitats. Larvae commonly occur among the aquatic weeds and algae.
167280		population	eng	This is a common species across much of its range, and is likely to be under-recorded due to its tiny size.
167280		threats	eng	This widespread species has no immediate threats.
167281		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167281		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamarcha congener</span> is widespread, occurring from India to China and Taiwan and south to Australia and New Guinea.
167281		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide range of standing water habitats, from small weedy ponds and water-filled wheel ruts to wet rice fields.
167281		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its range.
167281		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167282		conservation	eng	Further data on this species, in particular on habitat requirements and distribution, is needed for this species. However it is clearly a montane species and may not need any specific conservation measures, as montane habitats in the region are likely to be under less pressure than lowland habitats.
167282		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in India and Nepal. Records from India are from Kumaon (Uttaranchal) and Darjeeling (West Bengal) and are old, there are more records, and more recent, from Nepal.
167282		habitat	eng	The species is reported from montane areas, but little else appears to have been recorded on its habitat requirements, although it is likely to be a stream species.
167282		population	eng	There have been very few records of this species from India,   but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this. There are more records from Nepal, and these are more recent, this reflects a spate of sampling of Odonata that took place in Nepal in the 1980s and does suggest that the species is not uncommon there.
167282		threats	eng	The threats, if any, faced by this species, cannot be assessed reliably without further data, especially on habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance.
167283		conservation	eng	Without further data on distribution and habitat any conservation measures that might be needed for this species cannot be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling across its known and possible range.
167283		distribution	eng	This species occurs in West Bengal, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995, Asahina 1981, Kumar 1997), and in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). It should be looked for throughout northern India, in Bhutan and in Myanmar.
167283		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species except that it is montane.
167283		population	eng	The majority of relatively recent records are from Nepal, and suggest that this species may not be uncommon there, but further data is needed. There have been fewer records from India, and fresh searches are needed there.
167283		threats	eng	No information on threats is available; further data on habitat requirements are needed.
167284		conservation	eng	More data is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling of Odonata to take place across the Himalayan region.
167284		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is known from Nepal, India and Bangladesh. Records from India are from Meghalaya and Darjeeling. Most records are from Nepal.
167284		habitat	eng	This species is found in hill streams. There is a need for more data on precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance.
167284		population	eng	There are few records of this species, and all remotely recent ones are of single individuals.  A scarcity of records is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphids except where extensive expert sampling and larval rearing has taken place, so that nothing can reliably be inferred from the paucity of records of this species.
167284		threats	eng	Although some populations of this species are undoubtedly threatened from a variety of sources, we have insufficient data on distribution, habitat and tolerance to disturbance to reliably assess the threats it faces. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
167285		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The taxonomic issue needs to be resolved, and fresh searches must be made for this species in West Bengal and adjacent areas. Until more information becomes available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.</p>
167285		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Drepanosticta polychromatica</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from Gopaldhara in West Bengal (Fraser 1933), there appear to be no records dating from after 1933 and Lahiri (1989) lists it as not found in India since it description.</span></p>
167285		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is almost certainly confined to forest, and probably breeds in small to tiny high gradient streams and trickles.</p>
167285		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on populations of this species.</p>
167285		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is not enough information to assess any threats that this species might face, although if it is genuinely confined to West Bengal it may be threatened by habitat loss.</p>
167287		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data and clarification of records from Myanmar, also for further data on threats and the degree of disturbance that it can tolerate, but beyond this, no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167287		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha basiguttata</em> is known from Sulawesi, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and a number of their satellite islands, the Philippines, Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and possibly Viet Nam (Lieftinck 1954, Asahina 1986,&#160;Hamalainen and Muller 1997,&#160;Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999,&#160;Orr 2005,&#160;Tang <em>et al</em>. 2010).<br/><br/>Records from India appear highly doubtful and the species was excluded from a recent checklist of Indian Odonata (Fraser 1936,&#160;Mitra 1999,&#160;Subramanian 2009). Records from Myanmar and Cambodia are also doubtful.
167287		habitat	eng	This is a species of lowland forest, especially swamp forest. It breeds in forest pools and appears tolerant of disturbance, occurring in logged forest.
167287		population	eng	This species is probably quite common over much of its range, but under-recorded because of its crepuscular habits.
167287		threats	eng	Although deforestation and possibly plantation establishment (including oil palm) are threats to some populations, they do not appear to be any serious threats to this species overall.
167289		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on distribution and habitat requirements of this species.
167289		distribution	eng	This species is known from India, with records from West Bengal (Darjeeling), Assam (Gopaldhara) and Meghalaya, and also from Nepal.
167289		habitat	eng	Little has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is clearly montane and probably breeds in streams.
167289		population	eng	Judging from literature records this species is fairly common in Nepal at least.
167289		threats	eng	Without more information on habitat requirements it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face, but as a montane species its habitats are likely to be under less pressure than those of lowland species.
167290		conservation	eng	The species is widely distributed and is&#160;unlikely&#160;to be facing immediate threat. However,&#160;further research is required into the population, distribution and ecology of this species.
167290		distribution	eng	The species occurs in India (northern parts of eastern and central India states), Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Thailand.
167290		habitat	eng	Adults are found at stagnant water bodies and slow flowing streams.
167290		population	eng	No specific population information is available, but judging from the literature, this species can be at least quite common where it occurs.
167290		threats	eng	No threats are known for this species.
167291		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Aside from the protection of confirmed breeding sites in certain areas (e.g., Singapore), no conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.</p>
167291		distribution	eng	The species is known from India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar (e.g., Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Thailand (e.g., Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g., Orr 2005) and Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
167291		habitat	eng	This species breeds in open habitats, primarily open marshes and ponds, but it has also been seen on reservoirs (e.g., Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
167291		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not often recorded and is certainly local in occurrence. However it is likely to be under-recorded due to misidentification of the similar looking <em>Trithemis festiva</em>, which is very common over much of the range of <em>Indothemis limbata</em>.</p>
167291		threats	eng	Individual populations are likely to be threatened by development (e.g., in Singapore) but the species is sufficiently widely distributed that it is unlikely to be globally threatened.
167292		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for further data on the distribution of this species, and on the threats that it faces. The species is currently not under any conservation programme, and should be checked for in protected areas in northeast India, if it is not present in such areas then the only effective conservation action that can be taken is the creation of new protected areas including populations of the species.
167292		distribution	eng	The species currently only known to occur in Cachar (Assam) and Nongpoh (Kahsi Hills) Meghalaya in northeastern India. The species was last recorded in the mid 1980s, however there is no information available to say that there has been any survey work undertaken since this time. Also, it is possible that the species may be found in other locations and possibly in Myanmar (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010), more survey work is required.
167292		habitat	eng	Unlike other members of the genus, <span style="font-style: italic;">R. vitrinella</span> is found in stagnant water bodies inside jungle.
167292		population	eng	No information available.
167292		threats	eng	The known localities are under threat from deforestation and agricultural expansion.
167294		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species, especially on habitat and distribution. Such data will only be generated by extensive expert sampling across its known range and adjacent regions.
167294		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur from Assam and Sikkim in India, and possibly from Bangladesh, although I do not know the source for this latter record.
167294		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to breed in streams.
167294		population	eng	There are very few records of this species, and none of them are recent,   but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.
167294		threats	eng	No information available .
167295		conservation	eng	No information available.
167295		distribution	eng	In India the species is found in West Bengal (Koch Behar), Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Uttar Pradesh. The species is also recorded from Pakistan.
167295		habitat	eng	The species is found near grassy banks of small streams where it breeds and canals often in company with <span style="font-style: italic;">Disparoneura nigerrima</span>.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
167295		population	eng	No information available.
167295		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known.
167296		conservation	eng	No information available. The taxonomy of this species must be resolved.
167296		distribution	eng	This species is known only from India (Hasimara, Duars, West Bengal .
167296		habitat	eng	No information available
167296		population	eng	Only one individual specimen of this species is known.
167296		threats	eng	No information available.
167297		conservation	eng	No information available.
167297		distribution	eng	The species is found in Myanmar and India; West Bengal (Jalpaiguri district), throughout Western Ghats, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala. Also recorded from Sri Lanka
167297		habitat	eng	Species were collected from Nilgiri (7,250 ft). Flight takes place during September. Migration takes place in north-westerly direction up the west coast of India. Locally common damselfly in Sri Lanka.
167297		population	eng	No information available.
167297		threats	eng	No widespread threats known.
167298		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data from parts of the species range and on some of the subspecies, and the taxonomic issues need to be resolved. Beyond this no specific conservation measures are needed for the species, but possibly measures are needed for some of the subspecies.
167298		distribution	eng	As currently understood<em></em> the species is very widely distributed, ranging from New Caledonia and Australia to Thailand and Lao PDR, from Myanmar to the Philippines, Taiwan and Japan.
167298		habitat	eng	Usually found in swampy lowland forest, and is tolerant of some disturbance.
167298		population	eng	This species is fairly common where it occurs over much of its range, becoming less common towards the edges of its distribution.
167298		threats	eng	Some individual populations are threatened by deforestation and possibly plantation establishment, some island populations may be threatened by global warming. However the species, as currently understood, is not globally threatened.
167301		conservation	eng	There is a need for much more data on this species, especially on its habitat requirements, tolerance to disturbance and distribution.
167301		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in West Bengal, Assam&#160; and Uttar Pradesh in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Only the records from Uttar Pradesh and Nepal are remotely recent.
167301		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, but Macrogomphus species typically inhabit lowland, or at least low gradient, slow flowing streams.
167301		population	eng	<p>There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.</p>
167301		threats	eng	Nothing can be reliably inferred about any threats that this species might face without further information on its habitat requirements and distribution. Deforestation due to small-scale and shifting agriculture is common across the species range.
167303		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is more information on its habitat requirements and much more information on its distribution. Only once this information is obtained can any threats it faces be properly assessed and conservation measures, if required, planned.
167303		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Himalagrion exclamationis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from the type locality at Sitong in West Bengal (e.g. Fraser 1933), and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). It should be looked for in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan and Tibet.</span></p>  <p></p>
167303		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fraser (1933) speculated that this species was a "riverine breeder", but Mahato (1988) reports the species from "a large pond, covered by dense moss vegetation, and subject to the Hindu devotion"; the altitude at this site is 2,438 m, that at the type locality is said by Fraser to be "about 4,000" feet. It seems likely that it is a specialist in well vegetated montane ponds and possibly lakes.</p>
167303		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Very little information is available about this species, but it does not appear to be common.</p>
167303		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Without definite information on the habitat requirements of this species it is difficult to assess the threats it might face. However it does appear to be rather local in occurrence and, on the available information, not all that widely distributed, and so potentially threatened by habitat loss.</p>  <span lang="EN-GB"><br/><p></p></span>
167304		conservation	eng	Without further data it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species. The priority must be for expert searches across its known range.
167304		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudotramea prateri</span> is known from a few scattered records from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1936), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Only two records from Nepal (Vick 1985, Mahato 1986) and a record from Pathum Thani in Thailand are relatively recent, dating from the 1980s. It should be looked for in Myanmar and Bhutan.
167304		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded of the habitats of this species, but it is likely to be a standing water species.
167304		population	eng	There have only ever been a few records of this species, possibly this is due to difficulty of capture.
167304		threats	eng	Without information on the habitat requirements of this species it is not possible to assess any threats it might face.
167305		conservation	eng	Further information on habitat requirements and distribution is needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.
167305		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Idionyx stevensi</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from West Bengal in India (Fraser 1936) and  Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). There is apparently a record from Yunnan in China, but this  should be checked before its occurrence there is considered certain. It should  be looked for in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.</span></p>
167305		habitat	eng	Butler (2007) records finding a freshly emerged female in bushes “overhanging a small roadside runnel”, and a larva “in the sluggish margin of a nearby torrential stream”. Little else appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species.
167305		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fraser (1936) states that it was “especially common” in Darjeeling and “quite common” at Mungpoo but the few more recent records available are of single individuals (where numbers are given). However <em>Idionyx</em> species are difficult to collect and impossible to identify without capture, so it is likely that this species is merely under-recorded. <span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></p>
167305		threats	eng	Without more information on distribution and habitat requirements (e.g. is it dependent upon forest and how much disturbance can it tolerate) it is very difficult to assess the threats, if any, faced by this species. There are high levels of deforestation in some parts of the species range.
167306		conservation	eng	More data on distribution, habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance are required before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
167306		distribution	eng	This species is known from India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India it is found in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya. It is widespread across the plains of the Ganges (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010).
167306		habitat	eng	This species appears to require shallow streams in relatively open habitats above 1,100 m.
167306		population	eng	A locally common species across at least the Indian part of its range (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010)
167306		threats	eng	The known locations are potentially impacted by agricultural expansion and deforestation, but how much of a negative impact this might have on the species is unknown.
167307		conservation	eng	<p>This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention.<br/></p>
167307		distribution	eng	This species is known from India (including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, Sumatra and Java, and Viet Nam.
167307		habitat	eng	The species breeds in weedy tanks and ponds. Adults can be found far away from breeding habitats.
167307		population	eng	<p>Though the species is widespread, no where is it abundant. However, no specific population information is available.<br/></p>
167307		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>No specific threat to the species have been recorded. <br/></p>  <p></p>
167308		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for thiss species.
167308		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neurothemis intermedia</span> is a widespread species, occurring from India to Viet Nam and southwards to Java. However (see Taxonomic Note) the species is absent from Borneo and Sumatra, and subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">excelsa</span> occurs in Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands instead of the nominate subspecies.
167308		habitat	eng	This species breeds in a variety of standing water habitats.
167308		population	eng	This species is widely distributed, common is some parts of its range, but not generally common.
167308		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167309		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>
167309		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Orthetrum luzonicum</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widespread species, known from Afghanistan and India to Japan and southwards to Java.</span></p>
167309		habitat	eng	This species breeds in habitats such as marshes, boggy areas and wet abandoned rice fields.
167309		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species across much of its range. </p>
167309		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No threats are known at present.<br/></p>
167310		conservation	eng	Before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, additional data, especially on habitat and distribution, is needed. The priority must be for expert searches in eastern India.
167310		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha albistyla</span> is only known from West Bengal (Jalpaiguri district) and  Bihar (Pusa) (e.g. Fraser 1936) in India.
167310		habitat	eng	Unusually for a <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha</span>, this is said to be a diurnal species. No other information on habitat or ecology has been recorded.
167310		population	eng	This species is only known from five specimens mentioned in Fraser (1936), all collected more than 70 years ago.
167310		threats	eng	Without fresh data, especially on habitat requirements, it is not possible to assess the threats faced by this species.
167311		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further data on the distribution of this species would be desirable, but there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures.</p>
167311		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia renifera</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and a number of Indian states in the Himalayas (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995). It should be looked for in Bhutan and Myanmar.</span></p>
167311		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs on a variety of forest streams, and does not require pristine forest.</p>
167311		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">In Nepal at least this is a fairly common species at middle altitudes.</p>
167311		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation or hydroelectric projects.</p>
167313		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.
167313		distribution	eng	<em>Phaenandrogomphus aureus</em> is known only from the Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India. The type series comes from Tura (e.g. Fraser 1934) and there is a more recent record from Songsok, dating from 1973 (Lahiri 1987).
167313		habitat	eng	The only information on the habitat of this species is in Lahiri (1987): “near a stream, just after its emergence”.
167313		population	eng	The type series consists of&#160; “three pairs” (Fraser 1934) suggesting it might be quite common where it occurs, but only two other individuals appear to have ever been collected. Without more data we cannot assess populations sizes.
167313		threats	eng	We do not have enough information on this species to assess any threats it might face. However, if it is genuinely confined to the Garo Hills, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss.<br/><br/>More data are needed on the extent and impact of threats within the currently known range of the species, and large areas within the Garo Hills ecoregion are known to have already been deforested. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity include deforestation, especially that resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal and limestone (and potentially uranium) an ,d he development of hydropower resources.
167314		conservation	eng	Further information is required on distribution, population and habitat status within its present known range.
167314		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion laidlawii</span> is known from India and Pakistan. Records from India are from Rajaji National Park and Dehradun, Uttranchal, and Punjab, but it appears to be more common in Pakistan where quite a number of locations are known (Khaliq and Yousuf 1993).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
167314		habitat	eng	In India the flight period is from October to December. Emergence takes place during October to November. Larvae are found in slow running streams and near the banks of rivers.
167314		population	eng	No information available.
167314		threats	eng	No information available.
167315		conservation	eng	More data is needed on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling of Odonata across its known range. It is present in at least two protected areas in Thailand (Doi Suthep-Pui and Doi Inthanon National Parks).
167315		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Periaeschna nocturnalis</span> was described from the Shillong area in Meghalaya, India (e.g. Fraser 1936), and for many years was only known from the type series, until it was found at locations in Thailand in the 1980s (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and then in Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004). It seems likely that this species also occurs in other north east Indian provinces and in Myanmar. Presence within suitable habitat in intermediate countries (Bhutan , Myanmar, and Bangladesh) is possible.
167315		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is clearly a species of uplands and mountains, and is likely to be dependent upon forest for its survival.
167315		population	eng	Few records have ever been made of this species and most records of this species are of single individuals, however this is as likely to be due to under-sampling, unusual habits and difficulty of capture as it is to genuine rarity.
167315		threats	eng	Without definite information on its habitat requirements it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species, but deforestation is likely to be the most serious.
167316		conservation	eng	This common and widespread species does not require immediate conservation attention.
167316		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Pakistan and in India. It should be looked for in Bangladesh.
167316		habitat	eng	Adults are usually found in riparian zones of streams and among emergent vegetation in shallow streams. The species can also be found in stagnant water bodies (A. Mitra pers. comm. 2010) and in rice fields (e.g. Khaliq and Siddique 1995).
167316		population	eng	No specific information is available. However, in India the species can be very common during the monsoon and post monsoon periods.
167316		threats	eng	The species does not face any immediate widespread threats.
167317		conservation	eng	Fresh data on the distribution of this species, and data on its habitat requirements, are required before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned.
167317		distribution	eng	This species is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1933), with records from West Bengal (Darjeeling), Sikkim, Mizoram, and from Nepal (Asahina 1985). Most records of the species are old.
167317		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected by Mr. Chas. M. Inglis at Gangtok (Sikkim) at c.1,500 - 1,800 m, and records from Nepal (Asahina 1985) are from as high as 4,000 m, so this species is clearly montane, but no other information on the habitat requirements of this species has been seen.
167317		population	eng	No information available.
167317		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
167318		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, and for definite information on its breeding habitats, but specific conservation measures do not appear to be needed.
167318		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995, numerous other sources) and Bangladesh (Biswas<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1990) and also known from Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999); it is to be expected in Myanmar.
167318		habitat	eng	In southern and central India this species is commonly found in dry season and is to be sought for among long grass. Aestivating adults commonly found in thick forest from October to April amidst dry vegetation. However nothing appears to have been recorded on its breeding habitat, which is presumably ponds and similar habitats, probably including intermittent ones.
167318		population	eng	Judging from literature records this species is common in parts of India at least.
167318		threats	eng	There is a lack of information for this species, but it is widespread and there are unlikely to be threats across the entire range of the species.
167321		conservation	eng	Fresh data is urgently needed for this species, and will only be obtained through extensive expert sampling in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.
167321		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality Laitlyngkot, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India.
167321		habitat	eng	This species is found in hill streams.
167321		population	eng	No information available.
167321		threats	eng	The Khasi Hills are subject to pressures from mining (including uranium mining), hydropower development, and especially, deforestation caused by shifting agriculture and logging.
167322		conservation	eng	<p>There is an urgent need for data on the distribution and habitats of this species, without such information any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.<br/></p>
167322		distribution	eng	This species is known only from India, from old records from West Bengal and Maharastra.
167322		habitat	eng	No information is available, but this species almost certainly breeds in streams.
167322		population	eng	<p>No records of this species dating from after the 1930s, but this probably merely reflects a lack of truly expert sampling in India since that time and difficulties of identification with <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia </span>species.<br/></p>
167322		threats	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
167323		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data, especially on distribution, but this species is not likely to need specific conservation measures.
167323		distribution	eng	This species is known from Karnataka and from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1933), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005). The disjoint distribution in India is somewhat puzzling and the species should be searched for elsewhere in the country, it should also occur in Myanmar.
167323		habitat	eng	This species breeds in well vegetated drains and ponds.
167323		population	eng	Fraser (1933) records the species as having been common at Coorg, but not much other information on populations is available. From the literature it seems that this species is very local and not all that common over much of its range. However it is likely to be under-recorded due to misidentification as other similar <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes</span> species.
167323		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be globally threatened.
167325		conservation	eng	Further research into the species populations, distribution, and threats is required. However the species is widely distributed in India and unlikely to need specific conservation actions at this time.
167325		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from India (West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Arunachal Pradesh). Its range may also extend into Bangladesh.
167325		habitat	eng	The species frequents grassy marshlands, in which it breeds. It is very conspicuous on the wing in spite of its small size, owing to its pearly blue colouring.
167325		population	eng	No information available.
167325		threats	eng	No information available.
167327		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, but no specific conservation actions are likely to be required.
167327		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Megalestes major</span> is widely distributed in the Himalayan region with records from India, Nepal (Asahina 1965, Fraser 1929, Kiauta 1975, Mahato 1986, 1989, Vick 1985), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948) and Bhutan (Lieftinck 1977, Mitra, A. 2002). Earlier records from beyond this range actually refer to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Megalestes</span> species.Within Indian limits, it occurs in Uttarakhand (Asahina 1963, Hamalainen 1989, Kumar and Mitra 1998, Laidlaw 1920, Prasad 1974), Sikkim (Fraser 1929, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Darjeeling district of West Bengal (Laidlaw 1919), Assam (Fraser 1929), Meghalaya (Asahina 1963, Fraser 1929), Mizoram (Mitra, T.R. 2002) and Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997).
167327		habitat	eng	Larvae inhabits sandy and gravelly slow flowing marshy streams. Adults perch on partially submerged stones or on overhanging vegetation around the larval habitats.
167327		population	eng	No information is available on the current population but the species is quite common along its range.
167327		threats	eng	No major threats have been reported.
167328		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed for this species.
167328		distribution	eng	This species is very widely distributed from India to China and south to Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is very common over much of its range, but apparently absent or very scarce in the north of Borneo, where there is just one questionable record from Sabah.
167328		habitat	eng	Found in ponds, puddles, canals and streams.
167328		population	eng	This is a very common species over much of its range.
167328		threats	eng	This species is not threatened globally.
167329		conservation	eng	This common species is not likely to require specific conservation actions, but further research is required into the species population and ecology, and into potential threats.
167329		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from Pakistan to eastern India, mostly in the drier parts of the region.
167329		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found among aquatic vegetation in ponds and lakes. They are also found in riparian zones of stagnant wetlands.
167329		population	eng	No population information available.
167329		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be threatened.
167330		conservation	eng	This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention, however&#160;further research is required into its population, distribution and ecology.
167330		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in China (Guangxi, Sichuan, Guangdong), Bangladesh, Thailand, Taiwan, and northern parts of India, with records from Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal. A record from Tibet (McLachlan 1896) actually refers to a location in Sichuan (e.g. Yu and Bu 2009). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and other parts of China.
167330		habitat	eng	This species breeds in pools and lakes, usually forested.
167330		population	eng	No population information is available.
167330		threats	eng	There is no&#160;information&#160;available on threats to this&#160;species.
167331		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species.
167331		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Drepanosticta carmichaeli</span> is widely distributed across the Himalayan belt starting from Uttarakhand (Prasad 1974, Prasad and Singh 1976) in Western Himalayas to Bhutan (Mitra 2008) in the Eastern Himalayas. Within this range it has been recorded in Uttar Pradesh (Bhasin 1953) in India, Nepal (St. Quentin 1970, Tsuda 1991), Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and Pasoke (Fraser 1931, 1933; Laidlaw 1917) in India.
167331		habitat	eng	Flight period is from June to August. Oviposition takes place during June to July. Emergence takes place during June. Larvae are found in hill streams in flat areas. The species is common around the fast flowing streams in the upper reaches of the mountain, where the gradient is very steep and the stream bed is stable with larger stones and jammed boulders, consisting of side pools with scarce vegetation.
167331		population	eng	No population data is available but it is a common species throughout much of its range.
167331		threats	eng	No major threat is known for the species.
167333		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167333		distribution	eng	A widespread species, known to occur in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Bangladesh.
167333		habitat	eng	The species is found in wetlands, ponds, wet rice fields and irrigation channels in hilly and mountainous areas.
167333		population	eng	This species can be abundant where it occurs.
167333		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167335		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species, especially on distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance of disturbance.
167335		distribution	eng	This species is known from India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Although there are not many records, it has already been recorded from a number of Indian provinces, is probably severely-under recorded in India and appears to be quite widespread.
167335		habitat	eng	In the lowlands of Nepal this species was found on a rainforest stream (Claustnitzer and Wesche 1996). Nothing else has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species.
167335		population	eng	<p>There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.</p>
167335		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
167336		conservation	eng	More data on this species, particularly on distribution, habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance, and on its taxonomy, is urgently needed. The priority is for searches to be made in the Khasi Hills and adjacent regions.
167336		distribution	eng	The only records of this species are from locations in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lahiri 1987). Fraser lists two locations, Lahiri a further eight (but see Taxonomic Note).
167336		habitat	eng	Fraser (1933) noted that this species was found on bushes near a stream, and at locations far from water; Lahiri (1987) notes that it was commonly found in dry grass covered fields and hill sides. However the breeding habitat is more likely to be ponds and pools, as is the case with most <span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes</span> species where the habitat is known.
167336		population	eng	Judging from Lahiri's records (Lahiri 1987), which date from the 1960s and 1970s, this species was not uncommon in the Khasi Hills. However no data is available since the 1970s.
167336		threats	eng	More information on distribution and habitat requirements is needed before the threats to this species can be assessed. However, if it is really confined to the Khasi Hills then, whatever its habitat, it may be threatened as the area is not large.<br/><br/>More than two-thirds of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion, of which the Khasi Hills are part, have been cleared or degraded; however, extensive stretches of intact habitat can still be found in the northeastern parts. Little of the ecosystem is formally protected, however, several patches of habitat are included within sacred forests that have been traditionally protected. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity stem from the following; deforestation, especially resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal, limestone, and potentially uranium; and current and potential hydropower developments (Rawat and Wikramanayake 2010).
167337		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167337		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anax guttatus</span> is very widely distributed from India to Japan and Australia and Pacific Ocean Islands.
167337		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open weedy ponds and lakes, and is tolerant of disturbance.
167337		population	eng	This is often a common species where it occurs, with a very wide&#160;distribution.
167337		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167339		conservation	eng	Further data are needed, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species.
167339		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sikkim and West Bengal in India, and from Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal, and almost certainly occurs in Tibet.
167339		habitat	eng	Little or nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this montane species, but it is presumably a stream species.
167339		population	eng	No specific information is available, but there are quite a few records of this species from Nepal at least, suggesting that it is not uncommon.
167339		threats	eng	More data on habitat are needed before any threats that might be faced by this species can be assessed, but as a fairly widely distributed  montane species, it is not likely to be globally threatened.
167341		conservation	eng	Further research is required into the population,&#160;distribution&#160;and ecology of this species, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed.
167341		distribution	eng	In India, the species is known to occur in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal. It also occurs in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Bhutan (Mitra 2008)
167341		habitat	eng	The species is known to breed in marshes at the bottom of hill slopes.
167341		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
167341		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to this species.
167343		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167343		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argiocnemis rubescens</span> is a widespread species, extending from India to south China and New Guinea and Australia.
167343		habitat	eng	The species is found at a variety of stagnant water bodies such as permanent pools, bogs, fens, marshes and swamps.
167343		population	eng	This is a common species in many parts of its range.
167343		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167344		conservation	eng	There is a need for much further information on the distribution of this  species, and on its precise habitat requirements and tolerance to  disturbance.
167344		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from northern and eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh to Thailand and Lao PDR and south to peninsular Malaysia.
167344		habitat	eng	This species breeds in rocky forest streams, typically in hilly country.
167344		population	eng	No information available.
167344		threats	eng	Individual populations of this species will be threatened by  deforestation and other causes, but the species is unlikely to be  threatened across its entire range.
167345		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, particularly on its distribution and habitat requirements.
167345		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coeliccia bimaculata</span> is endemic to northeastern India occurring in Sangsak (Mitra 2002) and Dejoo (Laidlaw 1914) in Assam, Tura at Garo Hills (Fraser 1932, 1933; Lahiri 1987) in Meghalaya as well as in Abor Hills (Laidlaw 1914, 1917) and Daparijo (Prasad 1997) in Arunachal Pradesh.
167345		habitat	eng	No information is available.
167345		population	eng	There are not many records of this species, and many of them are old. However there has been a lack of expert sampling in northeast India, so that nothing can be reliably inferred from the paucity of records.
167345		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
167346		conservation	eng	More data are needed on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for expert searches to be made across its known range and adjacent regions.
167346		distribution	eng	This species is known from India (from Himachal Pradesh in the northwest to numerous states in the northeast) and Pakistan.
167346		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species.
167346		population	eng	Fraser (1934) stated that this is very rare species but that "may be overlooked by its weak flight and colourless  body and wings". However there are at least as many records of this species in the post0-colonial Indian literature as there are for any other non-pond breeding member of the Gomphidae. Nothing definite can be inferred about populations of this species from the available data.
167346		threats	eng	Without more data, especially on habitat requirements, any threats that might be faced by this species can only be guessed at.
167347		conservation	eng	Further research into the&#160;species population, distribution,&#160;habitats&#160;and ecology is required, but no specific conservation measures are needed.
167347		distribution	eng	The species is known from eastern India: Manipur, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh. It should be looked for in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar.
167347		habitat	eng	This species breeds both in streams and stagnant pools.
167347		population	eng	Limited information is available.&#160;It occurs in huge numbers in the Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya (India).
167347		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
167348		conservation	eng	More data are needed on the taxonomy, population trend, habitat ecology and existing threats to the species are needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling across its known range.
167348		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in West Bengal and Assam in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995) and in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). It is likely to occur in orther parts of north-east India, and in Bhutan.
167348		habitat	eng	This high altitude species is known to occur between 980 m to 2900 m.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>No more information is available on the habitat and ecology of the species.
167348		population	eng	Very few individuals of this species appear to have ever been collected, with the only fairly recent records from Nepal. However this is as likely to be due to under-sampling and difficulty of capture as it is to genuine rarity.
167348		threats	eng	Without more information on habitat requirements any threats that might be faced by this species can only be guessed at.
167349		conservation	eng	Research into the identity of the eastern Himalayas populations is required.
167349		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in eastern India, Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, China, Taiwan and Japan, although records from eastern India and Myanmar may not refer to this species but to variants of either<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. rapax</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">I. decoratus</span>.
167349		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds and lakes and is highly disturbance tolerant.
167349		population	eng	This is a common species across much of its range.
167349		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167350		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, although there is need for further distributional data.
167350		distribution	eng	<em>Aciagrion pallidum</em> is a widespread species, known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933), India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (Asahina 1967), Laos (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004) and Vietnam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It is likely to be found in Bhutan, Yunnan in China and northern Peninsular Malaysia.
167350		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species appears to prefer drier areas, and to occur seasonally in the wetter parts of its range. It inhabits marshes, and the weedy margins of ponds and lakes and streams, but is often found away from water.</p>
167350		population	eng	This is a common species across much of its range, although its distribution appears to be somewhat fragmentary.
167350		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be under any widespread threats.</p>
167351		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species, without such data it is not possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed.
167351		distribution	eng	This species is only known from from Hasimara, Duars of Bengal and Dimapur, Nagaland.
167351		habitat	eng	No information available.
167351		population	eng	No population information available for the species.
167351		threats	eng	Growing population pressures have led to migration to and settlement in the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems here. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010). It is likely that similar threats are also present in Nagaland.
167353		conservation	eng	No specific conervation actions are needed for this species.
167353		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread, occurring from India to Viet Nam and south to New Guinea and Australia.
167353		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, marshes, swamp forest and shallow forest pools. It has been found in Kalimantan on small pools in oil palm plantations where agrochemicals are heavily used, so it is tolerant of disturbance and pollution.
167353		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its range.
167353		threats	eng	No threats are known for this species.
167356		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data is needed on this species before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>  <p></p>
167356		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Calicnemia miniata</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from India, with records from Darjeeling in West Bengal (e.g. Selys 1886, Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1933, Lieftinck 1984) and probably other districts, Sikkim (Selys 1886, Fraser 1933) and Mizoram (Prasad 1997), and from Nepal (Asahina 1974, Lieftinck 1977, Kiauta and Kiauta 1982, Vick 1989). Most of these records are old and none of those dates from after 1979 except that from Mizoram. It is likely to be found in additional northeastern Indian states, Bangladesh and possibly Myanmar and Bhutan.<br/></span></p>
167356		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is reasonable to assume, both from the areas in which it has been found and from the known habitats of other <em>Calicnemia</em> species, that it breeds in forest streams and seepages in steep terrain.
167356		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">We have no information on populations of this species.</p>  <p></p>
167356		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Without fresh data on distribution it is difficult to assess any threats faced by this species, but deforestation and dams are potential threats.</p>  <p></p>
167357		conservation	eng	No conservation actions appear to be needed, but there is a need for more data on distribution.
167357		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum japonicum</span> is a widespread species, extending from Pakistan to China and Japan. It is primarily a palearctic species, occurring also in the northern part of the Indomalayan region.
167357		habitat	eng	Generally the species breeds in ponds and lakes.
167357		population	eng	Across at least parts of its range this species is not very common.
167357		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be threatened.
167358		conservation	eng	Further research is required&#160; into the species distribution, ecology, and potential threats, but specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.
167358		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mortonagrion aborense</span> occurs from India to Thailand and Lao PDR, and south to Borneo and Sumatra. It should occur in Myanmar, but has not yet been recorded there.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
167358		habitat	eng	Found in forest streams, shady marshes and ponds. Although this species can sometimes be found outside of forest, it is always in the vicinity of forest and probably depends on some forest cover for its survival. It is tolerant of disturbance.
167358		population	eng	No specific population information is available. However in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand this species is quite common, if local, but in Borneo it appears to be much scarcer, with all records to-date from Kalimantan.
167358		threats	eng	Whilst individual populations may be threatened by deforestation, it is unlikely that this disturbance tolerant species will become globally threatened
167362		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, fresh data on this species are needed.</p>
167362		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha biharica</em> is known only from two specimens from Pusa in Bihar, India, collected more than 70 years ago (Fraser 1936).
167362		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species. <em>Gynacantha</em> species typically breed in forest pools, but they are also typically crepuscular, whereas <em>G. biharica </em>is stated to be diurnal (Fraser 1936).</p>
167362		population	eng	There are no data available on populations of this species.
167362		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We have insufficient information on this species to assess any threats it might face.</p>
167363		conservation	eng	This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention. However more data on its tolerance to disturbance and potential threats are needed.
167363		distribution	eng	This species is known from India, Bhutan and Nepal. In India it is known from Sikkim, Darjeeling (West Bengal), Assam, Himachal  Pradesh, Chandigarh and Uttrakhand.
167363		habitat	eng	The species is found in torrential streams and adults are usually found perched on emergent rocks and overhanging vegetation.
167363		population	eng	No specific population information is available, but judging from literature records the species is not uncommon where it occurs.
167363		threats	eng	No species specific threats have been recorded. However, in parts of its range it may be suffering from habitat degradation due to agricultural run-off and/or recreational use, but further information on the extent of these threats is required.
167364		conservation	eng	More data is urgently needed on this species, both on distribution and on habitat requirements. Until such information is obtained it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed. The priority must be for extensive expert searches across its known range and adjacent regions.
167364		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Burmagomphus hasimaricus</span> has been recorded in Pokhara, Nepal (Vick 1985, Kemp and Butler 2001) and Duars of West Bengal, India (e.g. Fraser 1926).
167364		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species. Possible habitats are montane rivers, creeks and streams.
167364		population	eng	No specific information is available on populations the species. There have only ever been a few records of this species, but this is typical of stream breeding tropical and subtropical gomphids and nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can be inferred from it. It has been found in the Pokhara area of Nepal several times, suggesting that it is not uncommon there at least.
167364		threats	eng	Deforestation due to urbanization might act as a major threat (Lahiri 1989), but this is speculative without much further data. However, the mid-hills across the region, and especially within Nepal, have been heavily deforested by small scale subsistence clearance for agriculture.
167365		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167365		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ictinogomphus rapax</span> has a wide range of distribution across the Indo-Malayan region, occurring in Sri Lanka (Fraser 1934), and wide-ranging across the whole of India (Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (St. Quentin 1970, Vick 1985, Kemp and Butler 2001), Bangladesh (Chowdhury and Akhteruzzaman 1981, Chowdhury and Mohiuddin 1994), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1971, Mitra 2002), becoming scarcer in Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia (from where there is a sight record that might actually refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">I. decoratus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">I. pertinax</span>).
167365		habitat	eng	It breeds in perennial ponds (Kumar 1985), reservoirs (Mitra 2000) and in rivers (pers. obs.).
167365		population	eng	Although it is common across much of its range, no exact population data is available.
167365		threats	eng	The species does not have threats across its whole range, but deforestation is common across the region in hill areas.
167366		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the taxonomy of this species in order to confirm if it is a valid species.
167366		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes nigriceps</span> has only been recorded in Bihar in India (Fraser 1924, 1930, 1933).
167366		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitats and ecology of the species.
167366		population	eng	No population information is available.
167366		threats	eng	No information is available on any existing threats to the species.
167367		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures are not likely to be needed for this species, but it would certainly benefit from any additional protection of suitable habitat.
167367		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Pakistan, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Assam (India) and Nepal.
167367		habitat	eng	The species breeds in montane streams.
167367		population	eng	No population information available for this species.
167367		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but as a widely distributed montane species it is not likely to be threatened.
167368		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167368		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachythemis contaminata</span> is a wide spread species, extending from India to Japan and south into Indonesia.
167368		habitat	eng	This species inhabits weedy ponds, lakes and slowly moving streams. It is very tolerant of disturbance.
167368		population	eng	This is a very common species across much of its range.
167368		threats	eng	This species is not threatened across its range.
167369		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplacodes nebulosa</span> is a widespread species, extending from India to south China and southwards to New Guinea and Australia.
167369		habitat	eng	This species is found at marshes, well-vegetated ponds and lake shores.
167369		population	eng	This species seems to be rather local in occurrence.
167369		threats	eng	This species is not threatened across its range.
167370		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed for this species.
167370		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trithemis pallidinervis</span> is distributed from Iran to Taiwan and south to Sumatra and the Philippines. It has not yet been recorded from Borneo, but is very likely to occur there.
167370		habitat	eng	The species breeds in marshes, ponds, lakes etc.&#160; In parts of its range it appears to be a pioneer species, colonising new created ponds and wetlands. It is tolerant of disturbance.
167370		population	eng	In India this species is very common, elsewhere in its range it appears to be more local, but can be common where it occurs.
167370		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167371		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that any specific conservation measures are needed for this species.
167371		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anisopleura comes</span> is fairly widely distributed across the Indo-Malayan region from Punjab hills (Fraser 1934, Sharma and Kumar 2008) and Himachal Pradesh (Kumar 1982) of India to Yunnan (Morton 1928). In India it is also found in Uttarakhand (e.g. Kumar and Mitra 1998), Sikkim (e.g. Mitra 2002), West Bengal (e.g. Mitra 2002), Assam (e.g. Fraser 1934), Mizoram (Prasad 1997) and Nagaland (Mitra 2002). The species also occurs in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Bhutan (Mitra 2002, 2008), Bangladesh.
167371		habitat	eng	Adults are found at fast flowing hill streams. They usually perch on partially submerged stones or on nearby vegetation, hanging over the water. The larvae prefer the stony beds of the hill streams.
167371		population	eng	This species is common over much of its range.
167371		threats	eng	No major threats are known to exist for the species.
167372		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
167372		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplacodes trivialis</span> is a widespread species, occurring from India to China and Japan and southwards to New Guinea and Australia.
167372		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, wet rice fields, shallow lakes, drainage ditches and similar habitats.
167372		population	eng	This is a common species across much of its range.
167372		threats	eng	&#160;across its range, though there are likely to be local threats arising from the loss of wetlands due to agriculture and developmental activities.This species is not threatened.
167373		conservation	eng	Although further data on distribution and threats are needed, no specific conservation actions are likely to be needed for this species.
167373		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Himalayas. It has been recorded from locations India: in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Assam, Uttarakhand (Kumaon) and Himachal Pradesh, and from Nepal, from where there are many recent records (e.g. Vick 1989).
167373		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anisogomphus bivittatus</span> is found in hill streams, between 700 and 3,600 m asl (Vick 1989).
167373		population	eng	No information is available on the exact population of the species, but it appears to be quite common in Nepal at least.
167373		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species, but it is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range. Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species hill stream habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging), tourism development, and hydropower development.
167374		conservation	eng	This widespread species does not require immediate conservation attention. However there is a need for further data on tolerance to disturbance and on distribution.
167374		distribution	eng	Reported from India, Nepal, Thailand, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India  the species is found in West Bengal (Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri), Assam,  Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir,  Meghalaya, Sikkim and Uttarakhand.
167374		habitat	eng	The species is found in torrential open streams; adults are usually found perched on bare rocks emerging from the stream.
167374		population	eng	No specific population information available, but the species is widespread and not uncommon.
167374		threats	eng	No specific threats recorded, however agricultural runoff and sedimentation might be affecting larval habitats, and hydroelectric dams may impact upon the species larval hill stream habitats.
167375		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;</span></p>
167375		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Ischnura aurora </em><span lang="EN-GB">is a very widely distributed species, occurring from Pakistan and India to China and Taiwan, and to Australia and many Pacific Islands. It has yet to be recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Kalimantan or Sumatra, but may occur at high altitudes in these areas.</span></p>
167375		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in a variety of habitats, from marshes and tidal mangrove swamps, to ponds and lakes and wet rice fields. In parts of its range it occurs from the lowlands to high altitudes, but in other parts (e.g. Java) it appears to be confined to higher altitudes.</p>
167375		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Across much of its range this species is common.</p>
167375		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be threatened.</p>
167376		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more information on this poorly known species, which will only be obtained through expert sampling of Odonata in north-east India. Without such information it will not be possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed.
167376		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in northeast India, Zuhenoboto in Nagaland (Mitra 2002) and Tura in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya (e.g. Fraser 1933).
167376		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species.
167376		population	eng	This species is known from two individuals only.
167376		threats	eng	More than two-thirds of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion, of which the Garo Hills are part, have been cleared or degraded; however, extensive stretches of intact habitat can still be found in the northeastern parts. Little of the ecosystem is formally protected, though, several patches of habitat are included within sacred forests that have been traditionally protected. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity stem from the following; deforestation, especially resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal, limestone, and potentially uranium; and current and potential hydropower developments. Without more information on distribution and habitat, any threats that  might be faced by this species cannot be assessed.
167377		conservation	eng	More information is urgently needed on the distribution of, and potential threats to, this species. The priority is for extensive expert searches to be made in north-east India and adjacent regions. Once more data on distribution and habitat is avaialable, any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
167377		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petaliaeschna fletcheri</span> is only known from Meghalaya and Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1936). It should be looked for in other north-east Indian states, in Nepal and Bhutan.
167377		habitat	eng	This is probably a crepuscular species (Fraser 1936). No more information is available, but it appears to be a montane species, and is likely to be dependent upon forest for its survival.
167377		population	eng	All records of this species are more than 70 years old; we have no information on current populations.
167377		threats	eng	Without more information on habitat requirements and distribution any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed.
167379		conservation	eng	Without more data it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species.
167379		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha spuria</span> has an Indo-Malayan range of distribution. In India it is found in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram (Mitra 2002), Meghalaya (Fraser 1934), Nagaland (Bhasin 1953) and Nainital of Uttarakhand (Kumar and Prasad 1981). The species also occurs in Myanmar (Fraser 1934) and Yunnan in China (Fraser 1924).
167379		habitat	eng	<p>Adults perch on partially submerged large stones in streams or on hanging vegetation along the fast flowing channels. Oviposition occurs on the floating twigs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Debregeasia longifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidens </span>sp. and among some water grasses. Larvae are found in fast flowing hill streams or in water channels with stony beds. From the published information it is not clear how dependent upon forest this species is.<br/></p>
167379		population	eng	Judging from published records this species can be quite common where it occurs.
167379		threats	eng	Without knowing how dependent upon forest or how disturbance tolerant this species is, it is difficult to assess any threats it might face. However it appears to be widely distributed, so is not likely to be globally threatened.
167381		conservation	eng	More data is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, however it is likely that no specific conservation actions are needed for this species.
167381		distribution	eng	This species appears to be endemic to India, where it is found in Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal (Darjeeling District). It should be looked for in Myanmar and Bhutan.
167381		habitat	eng	It is known to inhabit montane streams in comparatively open habitat.
167381		population	eng	No information available.
167381		threats	eng	Given that this species occupies comparatively open habitats, it is not likely to be threatened, however further data is needed to confirm this.
167382		conservation	eng	This very widespread and common species does not require conservation attention.
167382		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion fallax </span>is very widely distributed from India to China and south to peninsular Malaysia.
167382		habitat	eng	This species breeds in a variety of still and slowly flowing waters.
167382		population	eng	This is often a very common species where it occurs.
167382		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167383		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed research into population size, trends and threats are needed, but specific conservation actions are not likely to be needed for this species.</p>
167383		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p><em>Macromia moorei</em> is widespread from Northern India to Peninsular Malayasia. In India it occurs from Himachal Pradesh (Prasad 1976, Kumar 1982), Uttar Pradesh (Kumar 1982), Uttarakhand (Bhasin 1953, Sahani 1964, Kumar 1973, Singh and Prasad 1976,   Hämäläinen   1989, Kumar and Mitra 1998), Bengal (Martin 1906), Assam (Fraser 1921, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Khashi Hills, Shillong (Fraser 1921) and an isolated observation from Deccan (Fraser 1921). It is also known to occur in Nepal (St. Quentin 1970; Vick 1989; Mahato 1986, 1989), Bhutan (Mitra, A. 2002, 2006), Myanmar (Martin 1906), south China, Thailand, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (Wilson 1998), Lao PDR, Sumatra and Java, but is absent from Borneo. </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
167383		habitat	eng	Larvae occur in side pools of hill streams and are found clinging to the aquatic grasses and the roots of some submerged trees along the sides of the stream (Kumar and Mitra 1998).
167383		population	eng	&#160;The species is quite common throughout much of its range.
167383		threats	eng	<p>  There are not thought to be threats across the entire range of the species.<br/></p>
167384		conservation	eng	None needed.
167384		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from India southwards to the Lesser Sunda Islands, and eastwards to Sulawesi and the Philippines, including western and southern Thailand. Records from southern China and Viet Nam are dubious.
167384		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of standing water and stream habitats, including mildly organically polluted streams.
167384		population	eng	Over much of its range it is very common.
167384		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species and it benefits from forest loss.
167385		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for the species.
167385		distribution	eng	In India the species is found in Tripura, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. Apart from India, the species is also found in Nepal, China (Guandong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Hainan), Malaysia, Indonesia (Java, Sunda Island), Taiwan, Philippines, Cambodia, Lao, Myanmar, Pakistan, and Thailand.
167385		habitat	eng	Found in open streams and ponds.
167385		population	eng	No information available.
167385		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known.
167386		conservation	eng	There is a pressing need for further data on the distribution and habitat requirements of this species, until such information becomes available it will not be possible to assess any threats it might face or to plan any conservation actions that might be needed. Extensive expert sampling of Odonata in the Himalayan region must be undertaken to generate the required data.
167386		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Turzum (Darjeeling, India) and one location in Nepal.
167386		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is probably a stream species.
167386		population	eng	This species is known from two specimens only.
167386		threats	eng	No information available.
167387		conservation	eng	There is a need for a review of this species complex, which could form a basis for determining further research actions which must be carried out. Possibly some forms currently treated as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. vittata</span> will need conservation measures.
167387		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from India to Viet Nam and south to Java.
167387		habitat	eng	This species occupies a variety of standing water habitats, these may vary across its range, and include ponds, lake margins, swamp forest and sometimes streams.
167387		population	eng	This is a common species in parts of its range.
167387		threats	eng	As currently understood, this species is not threatened.
167388		conservation	eng	This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention, but there is a need for further data.
167388		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Pakistan, India and Thailand, and presumably will be found in Myanmar.
167388		habitat	eng	&#160;The species is usually found perched among undergrowth near wetlands.
167388		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
167388		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any widespread threats to this species.
167390		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.</p>  <p></p>
167390		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia pallida</em> is known only from three males collected in West Bengal (Fraser 1936, Lahiri 1989) prior to 1936. It should be looked for in adjacent Indian states.
167390		habitat	eng	<p>  Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of streams and/or rivers.</p>
167390		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information on population sizes is available.</p>
167390		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">We do not have enough information on this species to assess any threats it might face. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>  <p></p>
167391		conservation	eng	No information available. Research is needed to determine if this is a valid species.
167391		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Kolkata, India.
167391		habitat	eng	No information available.
167391		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
167391		threats	eng	No information available.
167392		conservation	eng	There is a need for more information on habitat requirements, especially on how dependent on forest the species is, and how tolerant of disturbance, and on distribution. Beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167392		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Anotogaster nipalensis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from India, with records from Sikkim and West Bengal (Fraser 1936), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), and Bhutan (A. Mitra, pers. comm. 2010). Most records are from Nepal and there do not appear to be recent records from India. It should also be looked for in Arunachal Pradesh and Tibet.</span></p>
167392		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but Fraser (1936) reports finding exuviae (cast larval skins) "clinging to rushes in a small stream meandering through a swamp", and Butler (2007) records the larva from the "sluggish margin" of a torrential stream. It is likely that it has some dependence upon forest cover and that it occupies a variety of small stream habitats. Most &#160;records appear to be from 1000 m or above; this species can be considered to be montane.</p>
167392		population	eng	G.S. Vick (pers. comm. 2010) reports that this species is common at middle altitudes in Nepal at least, especially in the Kathmandu Valley area. This statement is supported by the most recent records (Sasamoto and Usijima 2000).
167392		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without more information on its habitat requirements (e.g. how dependent upon forest is it and how tolerant of disturbance) it is difficult to assess the threats faced by this species. However it appears to be fairly widely distributed in the Himalayan region, and it occupies a broad altitudinal range, so it is unlikely to be more than locally threatened.<br/></p>
167393		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167393		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Libellago lineata</span> is widespread across southern Asia, from western India to Malaysia and China. In India the species is recorded from Manipur, Tripura (Mitra 2002), Assam (Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1928, 1934), Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997), Uttarakhand (Prasad and Singh 1976, Kumar and Prasad 1981), Himachal Pradesh (Kumar 1982), Rajasthan (Prasad and Thakur 1981), Madhya Pradesh (Prasad 1996) and other provinces. Records from the Nicobar Islands refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. blandus</span> which was treated as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. lineata</span> until recently. The species also occurs in Nepal (e.g. Smith 1978), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1934), Sumatra, Java and southern Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Taiwan (e.g. Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984), south China (e.g. Wilson and Reels 2003), Lao PDR (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2005), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen & Pinratana 1999), Vietnam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007) and Malaysia (e.g. Choong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
167393		habitat	eng	The species is found in comparatively open habitats in vicinity of clear streams or rivers. In Thailand at least it occurs on streams in agricultural land.
167393		population	eng	This is a common species across much of its range.
167393		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167395		conservation	eng	This species does not require any conservation actions.
167395		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout the Indian subcontinant and south east Asia, extending to Japan and south to Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.
167395		habitat	eng	The species uses diverse wetland habitats such as ponds, lakes, marshes, wet paddy fields, streams, rivers, and irrigation canals.
167395		population	eng	This species is very common throughout its range.
167395		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167396		conservation	eng	No information available.
167396		distribution	eng	This species is known from India (Mitra 2002), Nepal (Vick 1989) and Myanmar (Fraser 1936), and possibly Tibet (Martin 1909), although this record appears suspect and the location is probably an error (e.g. see Fraser 1936). Bangladesh has also been included in the range of this species (e.g. Mitra 2002) but the source of this record is not known, and it is considered to be suspect. The species should be looked for in Bhutan. Only the record from Nepal is recent.
167396		habitat	eng	No information available.
167396		population	eng	Few individuals of this species have been collected and nearly all records are more than 70 years old, the exception being that from Nepal which dates from the 1980s. This may indicate genuine scarcity, but may just as well reflect a lack of expert sampling across the species range since the 1930s, and difficulty of capture.
167396		threats	eng	No information available.
167397		conservation	eng	There is as need for more distribution data, especially from India, but no specific conservation measures are likely to be needed for this species.
167397		distribution	eng	This species is known from India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
167397		habitat	eng	This species breeds in hill streams, with larvae found in side pools.
167397		population	eng	No specific information is available, but judging from the literature, this species is fairly common in Nepal at least.
167397		threats	eng	No information is available, but although individual populations may be threatened by one cause or another, it is unlikely that this species is globally threatened. Hill habitats within the region are at risk deforestation (caused by agriculture and small scale forestry and clearance) and from hydropower development.
167398		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further distributional data, and more information on potential threats. Clearly the protection of more areas of suitable habitat is highly desirable, but there does not appear to be a need for specific conservation measures at this time. <br/></p>  <p></p>
167398		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Calicnemia pulverulans</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and north and northeastern India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995). Lieftinck (1984) raised doubts about records from Myanmar, but, based on its known distribution, it is to be expected in the east of that country, and in Bhutan.</span></p>
167398		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species in found at forest streams. In Nepal it is common on most running waters in forest at middle altitudes, and is not confined to pristine forest (G.S. Vick, pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
167398		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species may be somewhat local, but appears to be quite common where it occurs. In Nepal it is common in forested areas at middle altitudes (G.S. Vick, pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>  <p></p>
167398		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Individual populations are vulnerable to deforestation and large-scale hydro-electric projects, but the species does not appear to be globally threatened. <br/></p>
167399		conservation	eng	More information on the distribution of this species, and on its habitat requirements and population sizes is needed, before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. However, its range is quite large and there is no evidence to suggest that it is threatened at present.
167399		distribution	eng	This species appears to be confined to northeastern India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Myanmar (Schmidt 1964); there is only a single record from Myanmar.
167399		habitat	eng	This species breeds in clear montane streams.
167399		population	eng	There are few records of this species, suggesting that it is local in occurrence and possibly genuinely scarce.
167399		threats	eng	This species might be vulnerable to deforestation, but more data on habitat requirements and distribution are needed before such a threat can be considered as more than speculative.
167400		conservation	eng	Further information on this species is urgently needed and will only be obtained through extensive expert sampling in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.
167400		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Shilong area of the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India.
167400		habitat	eng	No information is available. Fraser (1934), mention that one female was found emerging from a cement tank. He also remarks that the species is interesting because of its extraordinary breeding place. It is possible that the larvae could have reached the cement tank from the water source, which is unknown. Hence it is safer to conclude that the breeding habitat of this species is unknown and rivers and streams could be a possible breeding habitat, as is more typical for members of the Gomphidae.
167400		population	eng	No information is available.
167400		threats	eng	The Khasi Hills are subject to pressures from mining (including uranium  mining), hydropower development, and especially, deforestation caused by  shifting agriculture and logging.
167402		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from protected areas such as Hoang Lien National Park. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
167402		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sichuan and Yunnan, China (Needham 1930), northern Viet Nam (Do and Dang 2007) and north-east India (Asahina 1985).
167402		habitat	eng	This damselfly, which is small for members of this genus, is found in pristine forests in highlands with an elevation of over 1,000 m a.s.l. The larvae live in sandy substrates of swift clear streams in forests. The adults are weak flying insects which do not move far from their breeding sites.
167402		population	eng	<p></p><p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p><p></p>
167402		threats	eng	<p>No major threats are currently known.<br/></p>
167403		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species, however there is a need for further distributional data.
167403		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhyothemis plutonia</span> is a widespread species, occurring from northeast India to China and south to the Malay peninsular and Sumatra. The only records from China are from Hainan (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2010), but it must be present in other parts of south China and should be searched for there and in Bhutan.
167403		habitat	eng	This species breeds in lakes, ponds and even in the side pools of reservoirs and irrigation channels. Adults are quite shy and weakly fluttering insects.
167403		population	eng	<p>This species is somewhat local but can be common where it occurs.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167403		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167404		conservation	eng	More data is needed on distribution and habitat requirements of this species, but given its apparently rather specialised habitat requirements and very local occurrence, the protection of additional locations across its range is recommended.
167404		distribution	eng	The species is known from scattered locations in Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2000), Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007), and Yunnan (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and Hainan (G.T. Reels, pers. comm. 2011) in China. A record from Brunei (Orr 2001) is based on an incorrect interpretation of a record from Sarawak by Laidlaw (1912); the species has yet to be recorded in Brunei, although it is likely to occur there. It might occur in Myanmar, Cambodia and is likely to occur in other parts of southern China. In Lawas, Sarawak, it has been recorded at an elevation of 1,400 m (C.-Y. Choong, pers. comm. 2011).
167404		habitat	eng	Orr (2003), following Lieftinck (1954), stated that this species occurs in alluvial forest, however the available evidence suggests that this is inaccurate, it actually seems to inhabit small low gradient marshy areas and pools, often at the head of a stream, in hilly and upland areas.
167404		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not often encountered, and appears to be extremely local in occurrence, but possibly quite common where it does occur. It is also somewhat secretive in its habits, and this coupled with its apparently rather specialised habitat makes it likely that it is under-recorded.</p>
167404		threats	eng	This species appears to be extremely local in occurrence, so that individual populations are very vulnerable to habitat loss from deforestation, plantation establishment, large-scale hydroelectric projects and fires. However it is also widespread and probably under-recorded, so it is not likely that it is globally threatened.
167405		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
167405		distribution	eng	Tsuda (2000) lists <em>Calicnemia erythromelas</em> from Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. According to Fraser (1933) <em>Calicnemia erythromelas</em> was described from 'Leiktho, Toungoo Dist.', Myanmar and he also provided additional records from several locations including Copado, Mount Karen, and the Chin Hills, within Myanmar. Asahina (1985b) provided details of numerous records and specimens from Thailand and Hämäläinen, and Pinratana (1999) produced a distribution map revealing the Thai distribution to be restricted to northwest Thailand. Asahina (1997) also recorded <em>erythromelas</em> from Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province in northern Vietnam. Sui and Sun (1984) recorded <em>erythromelas</em> from Yunnan.
167405		habitat	eng	Species found at montane trickles and streams.
167405		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
167405		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
167406		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution of this species.
167406		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from the type locality, Bach Ma National Park in Thua Thien Hue Province, Viet Nam.
167406		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species; however <span style="font-style: italic;">Planaeschna </span>species typically breed in streams.
167406		population	eng	No information available.
167406		threats	eng	There is insufficient information to assess any threats that this species might face. The forest within the park is highly disturbed and it is possible that this will have impacted the species.
167407		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in protected areas. More information is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
167407		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, northern Viet Nam and Lao PDR.
167407		habitat	eng	The species is found in forested sub-montane and montane streams, including disturbed forest.
167407		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
167407		threats	eng	Some populations may be threatened by tourism development but others are found in protected areas.
167408		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167408		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from India to south China and southwards to Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.
167408		habitat	eng	Common in marshes, ponds, lakes, sluggish streams and irregation canals.
167408		population	eng	<p>This species is common over much of its range.<br/></p>
167408		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167409		conservation	eng	This species is not in need of immediate conservation actions, although further data on distribution is desirable.
167409		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha fenestrella</span> is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical parts of south and east Asia, with records from Myanmar to south China and Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsular. Records from Hainan have recently been shown to refer to a separate species.
167409		habitat	eng	This is a species of rocky forest streams.
167409		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
167409		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to some populations, but this species is not globally threatened.
167410		conservation	eng	The main forests in Tam Dao National Park are protected, however, tourist activities and agriculture works still continue. More information is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology, and potential threats of this species.
167410		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phuc province, Viet Nam.
167410		habitat	eng	Habitat preference is not known for this particular species, however other members of the genus are confined to forested montane streams.
167410		population	eng	The current population size and trend of this species is not known.
167410		threats	eng	The main forests in Tam Dao National Park are protected, however, tourist activities and agriculture works still continue and possibly threaten this species, although this is not confirmed.
167411		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas such as Tam Dao, Xuan Son, Ba Vi National Park; Huu Lien and Tay Con Linh Nature Reserve. More research is needed on the distribution of this species, and threats for all populations. There is a need in some National Parks for site protection and enforcement.
167411		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Viet Nam, where it is recorded from Huu Lien Natural Reserve in Lang Son province; Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phuc Province; Viet Vinh community, Vi Xuyen district and Tay Con Linh Nature Reserve in Ha Giang Province; Ba Vi National Park in Hanoi and recently recorded from Xuan Son National Park in Phu Tho Province (Do <em>et al.</em> 2011).
167411		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits clean streams in pristine and disturbed forests in both lowland and montane habitats. It is common at the end of the rainy season, from July to December.</p>
167411		population	eng	This is a localised species but can be common where it occurs.
167411		threats	eng	<p>This species is found in several National Parks. In some areas, such as in Huu Lien and Tam Dao, habitats are being degraded particularly by logging and development within the parks.</p>
167412		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167412		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam (Mau Son mountain, Loc Binh, Lang Son Province and Tam Dao, Vinh Phuc Province) and central Lao PDR (Asahina 1997;&#160;Do and Dang 2007). The species is likely to also be found in adjacent parts of southern China (Guangxi; Kalkman and Wilson 2009).
167412		habitat	eng	The known sites are pristine montane forested streams.
167412		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
167412		threats	eng	This species is known from protected areas, with no major threats known.
167413		conservation	eng	The occurrence of the species<em> </em>in primary forested areas has been well documented but its occurrence in secondary forested areas is not clear. Future field studies should clarify if this species occurs in secondary forested areas. Further studies are also required to&#160;ascertain if the two colour forms are&#160;separate&#160;taxonomic entities.
167413		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed across central, southwestern and southern China (Needham 1930; Asahina, 1956; Hua, 2000; Davies and Yang 2006; Zhang 1999; Wilson and Reels 2003; Wilson and Xu 2007) and its range&#160;extends into&#160;Cao Bang Province,&#160;northern Viet Nam (Cuong and Hoa 2006).
167413		habitat	eng	The species prefers small&#160;naturally forested montane streams. Females have been observed ovipositing into fallen twigs and branches above running water (K. Wilson, unpublished data).
167413		population	eng	In southern China it is a common species in naturally forested montane streams and is abundant in primary forest at National Nature Reserves such as the extensive Nanling Mountains in north Guangdong and many other protected nature reserves throughout Guangdong and Guangxi.
167413		threats	eng	The species<em> </em>is relatively common in naturally forested montane streams and is know to occur in many protected nature reserves throughout central and southern China. However, areas of primary forest are limited, and the widespread construction of numerous small-scale hydroelectric facilities in protected nature reserves over the past ten years has had a detrimental impact on stream ecosystems.
167414		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167414		distribution	eng	This species was described from southwest Guangxi (Shiwan Dashan), China, and is now known from four locations in northern Viet Nam: Tam Dao NP, Vinh Phuc Province; Sapa, Lao Cai Province; Mau Son mountain, Lang Son Province; Pioac Mountain, Cao Bang Province.
167414		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in small montane primary forested streams.</p>
167414		population	eng	<p>Current population size and trend is unknown.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167414		threats	eng	The threats of this species are unknown, but the forest localities are degraded by increased tourism development in northern Viet Nam.
167415		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures are not likely to be needed for this species.
167415		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea masoni</span> is widely distributed from northeast India to Viet Nam and southern China. There are no published records from Cambodia, but there are photographs probably of this species from that country (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2010).
167415		habitat	eng	This species breeds in streams. In northern Thailand at least it is frequently on streams flowing through open country and is tolerant of disturbance.
167415		population	eng	This is a common species in parts of its range.
167415		threats	eng	This species is not likely to be threatened across its range, though most likely to be locally impacted by habitat loss.
167416		conservation	eng	Conservation actions and research appears not to be needed at present; this species is found in protected areas.
167416		distribution	eng	This species is found from Thailand through to Indonesia and the Philippines. It is also in southwest China. There does not appear to be any records from Myanmar, but it is likely to be present there.
167416		habitat	eng	This is a lentic species, breeding in ponds, lakes and slow flowing streams.
167416		population	eng	This species is common across much of its range.
167416		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
167417		conservation	eng	There is a need for data on the distribution and habitat preferences of this species before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned.
167417		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality at Dong Mo in Lang Son, northern Viet Nam.
167417		habitat	eng	<p>No information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species. <br/></p>
167417		population	eng	<p>The population trend and size is not known for this species.</p>
167417		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are not known, however areas around the type locality have been heavily impacted by deforestation.<br/></p>
167418		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from <st1:placename w:st="on">Country</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Parks</st1:placetype> in Hong Kong and Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>
167418		distribution	eng	Type-locality is Tsa-Yiu-San, Guangdong. Although also reported from Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000) <em>Philoganga vetusta</em> has been mistakenly identified from <em>Phloganga robusta</em> material (Chao 1953b). It has been reliably recorded from Fujian and Guangdong (Chao 1953b, Wilson 1999) and also occurs in Hainan (Wilson unpublished data) and Hunan (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is common and widespread in many locations throughout Hong Kong (Wilson 1997, 2004).
167418		habitat	eng	Larvae recovered from hill streams in forested areas.
167418		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
167418		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167420		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
167420		distribution	eng	Restricted to Sichuan, China. Described from single female collected from Sichuan (Needham 1930). Zhou (1986) recorded and described the first male '<em>trox</em>' (not of Needham) material from Luku in Yunnan but Chao (1995) described this material as a new species <em>Davidius zhoui</em>.  According to Chao (1995) Yang and Davies's (1993) records of '<em>trox</em>' from Yunnan also belong to <em>Davidius zhoui</em>. Asahina (1990) illustrated a teneral female collected in Thailand which he thought might belong to this species but Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) and Chao (1995) did not think the Thai specimen belonged to <em>trox</em>. Chao (1995) studied several males collected from 'Lusha County' central Sichuan. Asahina (1996) also considered male and female material collected from north Vietnam may belong to this species.
167420		habitat	eng	Congeners frequent forested streams.
167420		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
167420		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
167421		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species, however further research is needed into its distribution and threats.
167421		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and has been recorded from Shiwangdashan in Guangxi Province, China. Asahina (1985) mentioned Cambodia as a locality of this species without giving a specific location.
167421		habitat	eng	This species can be found in open streams in mountain areas.
167421		population	eng	No information available.
167421		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, but it is unlikely to be under any major widespread threat.
167422		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167422		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bao Loc in Lam Dong province, Viet Nam, and Boloben Plateau, Lao PDR.
167422		habitat	eng	It is found in forested streams, including disturbed forests.
167422		population	eng	<p>Current population size is unknown.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167422		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are not known.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167423		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from <st1:placename w:st="on">Country</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Parks</st1:placetype> in Hong Kong and Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
167423		distribution	eng	May (1933) described <em>Agriomorpha fusca</em> from 'Fan-Chi-Schan', Guangdong. Asahina (1965) first recorded it from Hong Kong, where it is considered abundant by Wilson (2004). Wilson (1999) also recorded it from Dinghushan, Guangdong, three sites in Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001) and two sites in Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2005). Wilson and Xu (2007) records it from western, central, northern and southern Guangdong. Xu Qi-han (pers. comm. 2007) has collected material of <em>Agriomorpha fusca</em> from Nanjing County, southwest Fujian.
167423		habitat	eng	Frequents forest seepages and small forest streams.
167423		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
167423		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167424		conservation	eng	Expert survey for this species within it's likely range is a priority for this species, to determine its current range and its habitat requirements. It is likely that when found it will need site protection to prevent future declines. Further taxonomic study of fresh material, including males specimens, is required to confirm the taxonomic status of the species.
167424		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Than Moi (Dong Mo), Chi Lang district in Lang Son Province, Viet Nam. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at less than 99 km<sup>2</sup> and likely to still be declining.<em></em>
167424		habitat	eng	No information available. It is thought to be lowland forest streams.<em> </em>
167424		population	eng	No information available. This species is only known from a single female specimen.
167424		threats	eng	<p>The primary forest in the type locality, "Dong Mo" in Lang Son province has since been largely destroyed. More details are needed on its habitat requirements before further threats can be defined.</p>
167425		conservation	eng	This species is found in Tam Dao National Park, however parts of the park are impacted by development of tourism. More research is needed on this species taxonomy, distribution and potential threats.
167425		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Tao Dao National Park, Vinh Phuc Province, northern Viet Nam.
167425		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forested montane streams.
167425		population	eng	<p>Current population size and trend is unknown for this species.</p>
167425		threats	eng	<p>The site in Tam Dao where this species was collected is threatened by tourist developments and deforestation, however there are still pristine areas in the National Park.<br/></p>
167426		conservation	eng	There is a need for additional data from Sumatra, and further distributional data from across the range of this species, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time. The species is assessed as Critically Endangered in Singapore (Singapore Red Data Book, 2008)..
167426		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo, Sumatra including Bangka and Belitung (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and south Viet Nam (Asahina 1969). It is likely to occur in Cambodia and should be looked for in the southern parts of Myanmar and Thailand.
167426		habitat	eng	This species breeds in swamp forest, occurring in both freshwater and peat swamp forest (e.g. Orr 2005), and is also sometimes found in swampy areas in other forest types. It is tolerant of at least some disturbance to its habitats, and has been found in logged swamp forest in Malaysia (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011).
167426		population	eng	<p>This species is local in occurrence, but can be quite common in the right habitat. Although there are not many published records, there are a number of unpublished records from Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011).</p>
167426		threats	eng	Some populations of this species are threatened, in parts of its range, by deforestation and plantation establishment. However it is widely distributed, and present in a number of protected areas, so is not likely to be globally threatened.
167427		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, although there is a need for more information on its distribution and on the full range of habitats that it can occupy.
167427		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Camacinia gigantea</span> is widely distributed from India to Viet Nam and southwards to New Guinea.
167427		habitat	eng	This species breeds in shallow stagnant waters. It is mainly found near the coast, at lagoons and shallow ponds, and at the rearward edges of mangrove, although it is also sometimes encountered far inland (e.g. Chiang Mai in Thailand). In Sarawak numbers of this species have been reported on shallow coastal pools that dry up after a few days without rain. It appears to be tolerant of disturbance.
167427		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be somewhat local but can be common where it occurs.<br/></p>
167427		threats	eng	Individual populations are threatened by development in coastal areas and loss of mangrove, but overall this species does not apear to be threatened.
167428		conservation	eng	This species was found in a protected area (Ba Be National Park). More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167428		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ba Be National Park, Bac Kan Province, Viet Nam.
167428		habitat	eng	This species was collected around Ba Be Lake. Specific habitat requirements are not known.
167428		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species.
167428		threats	eng	Specific threats are not known, but there is some habitat loss at the type locality due to small scale clear cutting of the forest.
167429		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. More research is needed on this species taxonomy, distribution and potential threats.
167429		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Pioac Nature Reserve, Cao Bang province in northern Viet Nam.
167429		habitat	eng	No information available.
167429		population	eng	No information available.
167429		threats	eng	<p>No specific threats to this species are known, however, there are various threats at the type locality, including  deforestation, mining and road building.</p>
167430		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. More information is needed on its distribution and life history.
167430		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Thailand and Myanmar (Ashina 1981, 1997; de Selys-Longchamps 1891; Do and Dang 2007; Fraser 1933; Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999; Lieftinck 1960)..
167430		habitat	eng	It occurs in small forested sub-montane and montane streams, including disturbed forest.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
167430		population	eng	The is species is locally common although the population trend is unknown.
167430		threats	eng	Although there are local threats to some populations there are no known major threats.
167431		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed research into population size, trends and threats is needed, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species.</p>
167431		distribution	eng	<em style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia eximia</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widespread across the Himalayan belt, occurring from Jammu and Kashmir in India to south China, with records from Nepal (Asahina 1965, 1974; St. Quentin 1970; Vick 1985; Mahato 1986,  1989), Bhutan (Mitra, A. 2002, 2006, 2008), China (Needham 1932, Chao  1981), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Myanmar (e.g. Selys 1891), and Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). In India it is known to occur in Assam<em> </em>(Fraser 1932), Bengal (Darjeeling), Sikkim (Fraser 1932, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1985, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Meghalaya (Lahiri 1987), Mizorum (Prasad 1997), Nagaland (Mitra, T.R. 2002), Uttar Pradesh (Bhasin 1953), Jammu & Kashmir (Lieftinck 1984), Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand (Hämäläinen  1989, Kumar and Mitra 1998, Mitra 2000). It might occur in Pakistan.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em><em></em><em> </em>
167431		habitat	eng	This species breeds in small streams and has often been observed in the vicinity of water falls. It has been observed on the vegetation, mainly ferns, adjacent to water falls. They oviposit endophytically among the adventitious roots of plants kept wet by the sprinkling water of these falls. The larvae occur in the same habitat where oviposition takes place as well as among the mosses and ferns adjacent to water falls (Kumar and Mitra 1998).
167431		population	eng	<p>Current population size is unknown although the species is common in parts of its range.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167431		threats	eng	<p>Although individual populations are certainly threatened from a variety of sources, this species is not threatened across its entire range. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
167432		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167432		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Myanmar, and is likely to be present in Lao PDR.
167432		habitat	eng	This species can be found at a variety of freshwater habitats, including canals, ponds and wet rice fields.
167432		population	eng	This species appears to be local in occurrence, but may be common where it occurs.
167432		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be under any major widespread threat.
167433		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in protected areas in China and Viet Nam.
167433		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from northern Viet Nam and southern China. In China, this species is known from Wanning, Xinglong, Lumuwan, and Yinggeling on Hainan Island, and from Noggang, Chunxiu, Fusui, Mulun, Daxin in Guangxi Province (Reels 2010).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, it is recorded from from Cuc Phuong National Park in Ninh Binh Province and from Mau Chau in Hoa Binh Province.<br/><br/>Although Wilson and Reels (2001) referred to a record in Lao PDR as a locality of this species detailed location information was not given and a later paper (2003) by the same authors omitted Lao PDR from the range of the species; further work is required to confirm the presence of the species in the country.
167433		habitat	eng	This species lives in broad open aspect streams and rivers. The males are active and highly territorial. They fold their wings at rest, but often clap or open the wings in strong sunlight. These damselflies do not usually fly far from their breeding habitats, but sometimes fly very high and perch high in trees or bushes beside the rivers. The flying period extends from late April to July.
167433		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
167433		threats	eng	Most of the currently known localities of this species are protected areas, but habitat loss is likely a threat outside these areas.
167434		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species distribution and threats. Site protection and enforcement are needed at Pioac.
167434		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province, and Pioac Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province, northern Viet Nam.
167434		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forested streams at high altitude.
167434		population	eng	No information available.
167434		threats	eng	In Pioac the species is threatened by increased deforestation and mining activities, and accompanying infrastructure development. The habitat in Sa Pa is potentially threatened by tourist development.
167435		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in a single site in a protected area, within primary forest. More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and its potential threats.
167435		distribution	eng	Do (2007) described <em style="font-style: italic;"></em>the species from Hoang Lien, <st1:city w:st="on">Sa</st1:city> <st1:state w:st="on">Pa</st1:state> in <st1:placename w:st="on">Lao</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Cai</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> in northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam.</st1:place></st1:country-region>
167435		habitat	eng	This species was found in a pristine forest in high mountain of Hoang Lien National Park, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam. The breeding site is a clean stream and is covered by canopy of primary forest.
167435		population	eng	<p>The population trend and size is not known for this species.</p>
167435		threats	eng	This species lives in a well protected area, however the tourist development may be a threat to the species habitat.
167436		conservation	eng	This species must be re-described, and further data on habitat and distribution must be obtained before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
167436		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality at Bao Ha in Ha Giang Province in north Viet Nam (Laidlaw 1932). There is apparently a record from Yunnan, but it is not possible to be sure if this record really refers to this species.
167436		habitat	eng	<p>  Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species.</p>
167436		population	eng	<p>  This species is known with certainty only from a single male.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167436		threats	eng	<p>  It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167437		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in protected areas such as Tam Dao, Ba Vi National Park, Huu Lien and Pioac Natural Reserve. More research is needed to detect its full distribution and potential threats.
167437		distribution	eng	From China, Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded this species from Chunxiu in Guangxi province. It has also been recorded in Vang Vieng, Lao PDR (Lieftink 1969). In Viet Nam, this species were found from Ba Vi National Park in Ha Noi; Dong Mo, Huu Lien Nature in Lang Son province; Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phuc province; and Pioac Mountain in Cao Bang province (Toan, P.Q. pers. comm.; Do and Dang 2007).
167437		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known from clear streams in tropical forest of lowlands and high mountains, including secondary forest. The mature forms usually fly in shade of the forest but occasionally they can be found near waterfalls, in sunshine (Yokoi 1999)<span style="font-style: italic;">. <br/></span></p>
167437		population	eng	There is currently no information available regarding population numbers for this species.
167437		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known, however the development of irrigation dams in the area potentially threatens some populations.
167439		conservation	eng	This species is known from Cat Tien National park which is well managed. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
167439		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bao Loc, Lam Dong  province, and south of Cat Tien National Park in Dong Nai  province, Viet Nam.
167439		habitat	eng	It is known from forested streams, including disturbed forest.
167439		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
167439		threats	eng	The populations in Bao Loc may be threatened by local developments and deforestation.
167440		conservation	eng	More research is needed into its taxonomic status, distribution and potential threats.
167440		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam; it is likely to be found in&#160;Cambodia too.
167440		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland forested pools, including disturbed and secondary forest, and requires woody overhanging vegetation.
167440		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species, however the populations are likely to be stable.
167440		threats	eng	<p>No major threats are known.<br/></p>
167441		conservation	eng	More research is needed for this species distribution, habitat and potential threats.
167441		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Bach Ma National Park in Thua Thien Hue province, Viet Nam (Karube 2004).
167441		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane streams, including in secondary forest.
167441		population	eng	The population trend and size are not known for this species.
167441		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known and it occurs in a protected area.
167442		conservation	eng	In Viet Nam, this species can be found in Tam Dao National Park, a protected area, however the population&#160; here still faces risks. Site protection and enforcement is needed for this population. More research is needed on the distribution and potential threats to this species.
167442		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in east, south and southwest China, and has been recorded in Vietnam (Tam Dao, Vinh Phuc Province) also (Karube 1995).
167442		habitat	eng	The species was found at clear forested narrow streams in high mountain areas.
167442		population	eng	<p>It is widespread in montane areas, and locally common.<br/></p>
167442		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known to this species. The Vietnamese population is threatened by development and forestry activities.
167443		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat requirements, but specific conservation measures may not be needed for this species
167443		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in India (Darjeeling), China, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Taiwan.
167443		habitat	eng	This species breeds in bogs, swamps and sometimes slow flowing streams, all in forested areas. There is no data on tolerance to disturbance, but other <span style="font-style: italic;">Orolestes</span> species are certainly quite disturbance tolerant - eg. not requiring pristine forest habitats.
167443		population	eng	There is little information on populations of this species, but it is probably under-recorded. Wilson and Reels (2003) record finding several hundred males aggregated in a copse in Guangxi, China, where there were presumably sitting out the winter dry season.
167443		threats	eng	Individual populations of this species are undoubedly threatened by deforestation and other causes, but it is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range.
167444		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>
167444		distribution	eng	<em>Ceriagrion cerinorubellum </em>is a widespread species, ranging from Pakistan to southern Vietnam and south to Java.
167444		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in a wide variety of standing water habitats, from drains in town and cities to marshes and swamp forest, and even the landward margins of mangrove swamp.</p>
167444		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species across most of its range.</p>
167444		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.
167445		conservation	eng	<p>A common and widespread species.</p>
167445		distribution	eng	<em>Copera annulata</em> was described from Shanghai and ranges from southwest and central China. where it is common, through to Korea, where it is considered uncommon (Lee 2001) to Japan including Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) listed many records of <em>Copera annulata</em> from Taiwan and Asahina (1965) recorded <em>annulata</em> from Hong Kong but all these and other southern Chinese specimen are not true <em>annulata</em> but <em>Copera ciliata</em> Sélys (Asahina, 1984). Zhang and Zhang (2006) record <em>annulata</em> from Shaanxi. Hua (2000) lists <em>annulata</em> from Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan, in central and southwest China but also records it from Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Fujian in south China. The latter south Chinese records refer to <em>Copera ciliata</em> (Wilson and Xu 2007, Wilson and Reels 2003,  Asahina 1984). There may be an overlap in range between southwest China, central China and south China.
167445		habitat	eng	Species is found at marshes, pond and lake margins.
167445		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
167445		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167446		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species taxonomic position, distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
167446		distribution	eng	The species was described from a single female from Tainan,&#160;Taiwan, Province of China. The species has also been recorded from northern Viet Nam (Deo Quy Ho and Sa Pa in Lao Cai Province; Asahina 1995, Do Manh and Hoa 2007), and from southern China (Asahina 1978, Lohmann 1993). Locations in China include the Nankunshan Nature Reserve and the Dinghu Shan Biosphere Reserve (Wilson 1999), Guangdong, and from Fujian (Wilson 1999, on the basis of a record in Asahina (1978) of a male <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sieboldii</span> ssp. ("plains near Foochow").
167446		habitat	eng	Little information available, but has been found in dry lowland forest.
167446		population	eng	There is no population information on this species.
167446		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
167447		conservation	eng	This species is known from some protected areas such as National Park, Natural Reserve in China, Viet Nam and Laos PDR, and is tolerant of disturbance, therefore no specific conservation measures are likely to be needed.
167447		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Thailand, Viet Nam and Yunnan and Hainan in China, and there are old records from the type localities Lao PDR. The species is likely to be more widely distributed in southern China, and should be looked for in Myanmar.
167447		habitat	eng	This species has been found at streams or rivers in open secondary and disturbed forests in lowland areas. They do not live far from their breeding habitats and usually perch on vegetation around streams.
167447		population	eng	No information available.
167447		threats	eng	This species can tolerate disturbance and is not likely to be under any major widespread threat.
167448		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
167448		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in southeast Asia. It is recorded from Viet Nam (Dong Nai, Kien Giang, Khanhs Hoa and Ho Chi Minh City), Lao PDR, Thailand (Bangkok, Sriracha, Pak Nam Poh, Khao Sabab, Songkhla, Sai Yok, Khao Yai,  Tamai (Chantaburi), Udorn Thani, Chantaburi, Doi Suthep, Ayuttaya, Si  Racha Reservoir (Chongburi), Huey Kaeo, Thung Yai, Hua Hin), Cambodia (Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, India, southern China, and Indonesia. It is also reported from Japan and northern Australia (e.g. Cairns, Queensland), but the latter records require confirmation. Not all parts of the species range (e.g., India, southern China) have been mapped due to a lack of available records.
167448		habitat	eng	In Malaysia, the species is commonly found at open pond/marsh (C.-Y. Choong, pers. comm. 2011), and from swamp forest (Norma-Rashid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
167448		population	eng	No information available.
167448		threats	eng	<p>The species is likely to have been impacted by the loss of suitable habitat as a result of forest loss and wetland clearance and drainage for development.<br/></p>
167449		conservation	eng	It is found in Cuc Phuong National Park in Vietnam, Chunxiu Forest Nature Reserve in China, and Nakai-Nam Theun National Park in Lao PDR. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
167449		distribution	eng	This species has been found in northern Viet Nam (Huu Lien, Lang Son and Cuc Phuong, Ninh Binh), Lak Sao in Lao PDR and southern China.
167449		habitat	eng	It is found in primary or secondary forest streams in lowland and sub-montane areas. Males of the species usually patrol the breeding site, which usually is an open part of a forest stream, and seek the females as they come to mate and oviposit.
167449		population	eng	Although there is currently no detailed information available regarding population numbers, its global population trend appears to be stable.
167449		threats	eng	There is currently no information available on potential threats.
167450		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167450		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Thailand, Viet Nam and Lao PDR, and is also known from Hainan in China. The species may have a wider distribution within the region and further survey work is required.
167450		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, open marshes and wet rice fields.
167450		population	eng	This is often a common species where it occurs.
167450		threats	eng	This species is not threatened; suitable natural wetland habitat has declined across the region, but the species has adapted to agricultural and artifical habitats.
167451		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, particularly outside of Japan and Taiwan.
167451		distribution	eng	This species is&#160; known from Japan, Taiwan, Viet Nam, Thailand, South Korea and Guangdong and Guizhou, China.
167451		habitat	eng	This crepuscular species is found in sub-montane and montane forest swamps and pools, including disturbed forest.
167451		population	eng	<p>Currently there is no information available regarding total population size and trend.&#160;</p>
167451		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
167452		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution of this species.
167452		distribution	eng	The species is known from Fuijan and Guangdong, China, and Viet Nam.
167452		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of forested streams (both small order and large order), including disturbed forest. The larvae are found in stream margins.
167452		population	eng	No information available but the population appears stable.
167452		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
167453		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species' distribution, habitat and potential threats. This species would benefit from site protection in the remaining distribution in Viet Nam.
167453		distribution	eng	This species is known from Viet Nam (Dong Mo, Chi Lang district (where the habitat has been lost) and Huu Lien Nature Reserve in Lang Son province) and from southern China (Guizhou and central and north Guangdong provinces).
167453		habitat	eng	<p>A large sized beautiful damselfly of brilliant metallic green. It is found &#160;in &#160;primary or old secondary forests, at the base of hills and mountains, and is known also to breed in open aspect streams in the vicinity of forest.</p>
167453		population	eng	It has a very localised distribution, but can be common where it occurs. It may currently be under-recorded as it is similar to <em>Matrona basilaris</em>, a very common and widespread species.
167453		threats	eng	<p>The type locality of this species has been destroyed by deforestation. Agricultural pollution is very widespread in Viet Nam, and in Huu Lien Natural Reserve, the forest is being destroyed for wood exploitation. No threats are known in Guangdong.</p>
167454		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167454		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single site in northern Viet Nam.
167454		habitat	eng	It occurs in unprotected forest area, recorded at 900 m a.s.l. Other members of the genus frequent small forested streams and seepages.
167454		population	eng	<p>The population trend and size are unknown.</p>
167454		threats	eng	<p></p><p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p><p></p>
167455		conservation	eng	There is a need for further information on the distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance of this species.
167455		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia mortoni</span> is known to occur Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan.
167455		habitat	eng	Adults are found in banks of streams with good vegetation cover. They frequently perch on ferns and other riparian plants.
167455		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
167455		threats	eng	<p>No species-specific threat are known, however deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
167456		conservation	eng	This species was found in protected area, however it has not been recorded since the type series. More information is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements, and potential threats.
167456		distribution	eng	This species has been known only from Tam Dao National Park, Vinh Phuc Province, Viet Nam.
167456		habitat	eng	Habitat information is currently lacking for this species but other members of this genus are found in forested montane streams.
167456		population	eng	Population size and trend is not currently known.
167456		threats	eng	Currently, no information is available regarding potential threats to this species and&#160;&#160;further research is required.
167458		conservation	eng	Taxonomic issues need to be resolved before further investigation on life history and threats can be researched.
167458		distribution	eng	This species was recorded in 1963 at Blao (Bao Loc) Lam Dong Province, southern Viet Nam.
167458		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit montane forested streams.
167458		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
167458		threats	eng	Currently, no information is available regarding potential threats to this species and&#160;&#160;further research is required.
167459		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution of this species, but no specific conservation actions are likely to be needed.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
167459		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Meghalaya in northeast India to south China and south to the Malay Peninsular. There do not seem to be records from Myanmar or Yunnan, but it should occur there.
167459		habitat	eng	<p>The species is known to occur in rocky forest streams in hilly and mountainous areas.<br/></p>
167459		population	eng	In parts of its range this species is quite common in suitable habitat.
167459		threats	eng	Some populations of this species are undoubtedly threatened by deforestation and other causes, but it is not threatened across its entire range.
167460		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167460		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed, with records from southern China and Vietn Nam to northern Australia and New Guinea.
167460		habitat	eng	This species breeds in swamp forest, sluggish forest streams, and shady ponds, and is tolerant of disturbance to its habitats.
167460		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitat across much of its range.
167460		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167461		conservation	eng	The taxonomic issue must be resolved before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. If it is a synonym of <em>C. scutellum</em>, then no conservation measures will be necessary.
167461		distribution	eng	This species<em>&#160;</em>is known with certainty only from two locations in Viet Nam (Asahina 1997).
167461		habitat	eng	Nothing was recorded about the habitat in which this species was found, but it is likely to be a species of small forest streams.
167461		population	eng	<p>This species, if distinct from <em>C. scutellum</em>, is only known from the type series of six specimens (Asahina 1997).</p>
167461		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Without further information it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.</p>
167462		conservation	eng	<p>A common and widespread species.<em></em></p>
167462		distribution	eng	Recorded from a wide range in southeastern and eastern Asia, including Vietnam (Tsuda 2000), though China, including Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hebai, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Zheijiang (Hua 2000) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984) to Korea (Lee 2001) and Japan, not including Hokkaido (Sugimura <em>et al</em> 2001).
167462		habitat	eng	Frequents ponds and lakes.
167462		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
167462		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167463		conservation	eng	No immediate conservation measure is required. Further research on the taxonomy, population, distribution, ecology and threats of this species is needed.
167463		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis dabreui</span> appears to have a wide distribution from Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava and Babu 1997) in India to Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hua 2007), however (see Taxonomic Note) records from some intervening locations have already proved to refer to a different species and those from the easternmost part of its range appear suspect. There is also a record from Pakistan (Khaliq and Yousuf1992), but specimens from Pakistan are said to "differ greatly" from the description given by Fraser, and must be considered in need of verification.
167463		habitat	eng	There is little clear information on the habitat requirements of this species, but it appears to occupy a variety of standing and slowly flowing waters.
167463		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species.
167463		threats	eng	No major threat is known to exist for the species.
167464		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
167464		distribution	eng	The species is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), southern and western Thailand as far north as Tak Province (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and south Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh <a name="OLE_LINK4">and Hoa 2007</a>). Based on the known distribution it is to be expected in Cambodia and southern Myanmar. In Thailand, Kosterin and Vikhrev (2009) observed the species in large numbers at the Bang Pae River (flowing to the eastern coast) in Khao Phra Theo National Park, as well as at a rivulet flowing to the west coast between Ban Naithon and Ban Layan, Phuket Province.
167464		habitat	eng	The species breeds in a variety of forest streams, including those in rather disturbed forest (e.g. Hämäläinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), and it has been recorded from a stream in a “Rubber/Oil palm” plantation (Kemp and Kemp 1989).
167464		population	eng	<p>Although possibly rather local in occurrence, this species is quite common where it occurs.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167464		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be threatened.</p>
167465		conservation	eng	The species is found within a national park, although logging and development activities are occurring within the park. This species desperately needs more surveys to establish its range, and to see if it is found in other streams in the surrounding area. There are other potentially suitable streams within the park, however accessibility is a problem and access is needed for more extensive fieldwork. There is also potential habitat on surrounding mountains.
167465		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phuc province, Viet Nam. The species area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated at between 100-350 km<sup>2</sup>; given that the species is dependent on montane streams, the AOO is likely to be at the lower extent of this range, and may in fact be lower than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
167465		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was found in a montane stream where there is dense vegetation in moist forest.
167465		population	eng	No information on current abundance of this species. In 2005, a large population with more than 50 individuals was found at a short part of a stream, but one year later at the same site, only one specimen was found. Since 2006, the habitat of this species has been heavily degraded by local agriculture activities. The current population at that site has not been confirmed, and may have disappeared.
167465		threats	eng	After 1991, selective logging increased, and forest fires cleared large areas at all elevations (some for tea plantations). Despite a large national park staff (the formation of the National Park management board took place in 1996), enforcement of forest management regulations is weak, and the levels of timber and fuelwood extraction, hunting, and other illegal activities are still rather high (Birdlife 2009). The only stream where this species has been found has had the vegetation cleared, leaving the stream without canopy shading, and it is now therefore unsuitable for the species.<br/>However in recent years the level of deforestation and hunting is believed to be decreasing, though still currently ongoing (H. Tien <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>). The National Park is also currently being impacted by high levels of tourism.
167466		conservation	eng	Further information on the distribution of this species is highly desirable. The number of known populations should be monitored to check for any serious decline, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
167466		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), and southern Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). From the known distribution, it appears likely that it will also be found in southern Thailand and Cambodia.
167466		habitat	eng	This species is found at marshes, lakes, ponds and slow flowing streams and rivers in lowland areas. It appears to be largely confined to forested areas, but is certainly tolerant of disturbance to its habitats, and does not appear to require large areas of forest to survive.
167466		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is somewhat local in occurrence, but often abundant where it occurs.</p>
167466		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Individual populations are threatened by plantation establishment, deforestation and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are planned). However there is no evidence that it is globally threatened.</p>
167467		conservation	eng	This species is found in two protected areas. However, there have been no conservation activities for the species. More research is needed on the distribution and potential threats to this species.
167467		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuc Phuong National Park in Hoa Binh province, Viet Nam, and a record from Kaew Neua Pass area in Lao PDR (Yokoi and Kano 2002).
167467		habitat	eng	This species is found in pristine forest. Other members of the genus are found in moderately fast flowing stream margins in forested areas.
167467		population	eng	No information available on population size; only three specimens have ever been collected.
167467		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known, but development of tourist activities within the National Park in Viet Nam may be a potential threat. There are no known threats to the National Park it inhabits in Lao PDR.
167468		conservation	eng	This species is found within national parks and nature reserves in Viet Nam. More information is needed on this species distribution.
167468		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from central and southern Viet Nam&#160;(van Tol and Rozendaal 1995, Cuong and Hoa 2007). Records are from Rao Qua in the Huong Son district (Ha Tinh Province), A Shau valley in Phong Dien Nature Reserve and Bach Ma National Park (Thua Thien Hue Province), Bao Loc (Lam Dong Province), and Hon Ba Nature Reserve in Nha Trang (Khanh Hoa Province). The species may have a larger distribution than currently known, and it should be looked for in adjacent parts of Cambodia and Lao PDR.
167468		habitat	eng	This damselfly is found in forest streams, including in secondary and disturbed forest. They are found next to shaded fast flowing clean streams, including intermittent streams, and usually share their habitat with <em>Devadatta cyanocephala</em>. The damselfly is an active species, males usually perch middle or high above that water surface but do not fly far from breeding sites.
167468		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
167468		threats	eng	This species are known from&#160; protected areas in Viet Nam such as Vu Quang, Bach Ma National Park, Hon Ba Natural Reserve. It is found in disturbed forests, and there are no major threats known to this species at present, though habitat quality and extent should be monitored.
167469		conservation	eng	This species is present in Nakai-Nam Theun National Park, Hoang Lien National Park and Vu Quang National Park. More research is needed on the distribution and potential threats to this species.
167469		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>This species is known from Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Fraser 1933, 1935; Karube 2002; Do and Dang 2007). The known locations in Lao PDR are: Muang Cha in Saysomboune province, Nakai-Nam Theun National Park near Lak Sao in Bolikhamsay province and Sam Neua in Houa Phan province. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Sa Pa in Lao Cai province, Cao Bang town and Thanh Cong community in Cao Bang province (Phan and Do, unpublished), Mau Son mountain in Lang Son province (Phan, unpublished) and Son Kim community in Ha Tinh province (Phan, unpublished). The published record from Tam Dao (Vinh Phuc province) has proven incorrect.</p>
167469		habitat	eng	They are found in clear and swift open aspect streams of primary and secondary montane forests.
167469		population	eng	No population information is currently available from either country for this species.
167469		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known, however there is widespread deforestation in these areas which may affect the species.
167470		conservation	eng	The species is found in the protected area in Tam Dao National Park. More research is needed on this species distribution, habitat and ecology, and potential threats.
167470		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tam Dao National Park, Vinh Phuc Province, and Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai province, in Viet Nam.
167470		habitat	eng	Habitat information is currently lacking for this species but other members of this genus are found in forested montane streams.
167470		population	eng	<p>Current population size is unknown.</p>
167470		threats	eng	The area in which this species was collected is disturbed by tourist activities and deforestation. However it is not known how these activities affect this species. There are also large areas of Tam Dao National Park that remain undisturbed.
167471		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology, and potential threats to this species. In particular, the record in Viet Nam needs to be confirmed.
167471		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from Xieng Khouang in Lao PDR. It has also been reported from Viet Nam, from Ban Him Bon, Xa Pa Ha, Muong Lay in Lai Chau Province, based on a female specimen (Asahina 1995, Karnube 1995). <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
167471		habitat	eng	Habitat information is currently lacking for this species but it is likely to breed in forest streams.
167471		population	eng	Population size and trend is not known for this species.
167471		threats	eng	No information is currently available regarding potential threats.
167472		conservation	eng	This species is known from protected areas. More distribution data are needed, particularly from Myanmar, and more information is needed on potential threats.
167472		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in northern and western Thailand. It is also present in Tam Dao National Park (Viet Nam), Yunnan (China) and the type locality (a record from more than 120 years ago) in Myanmar.
167472		habitat	eng	It is found in forested montane streams, including disturbed forest.
167472		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
167472		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
167474		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions appear to be needed for this species. There is a need for further data on distribution, and clarification of its occurrence on Borneo and Sumatra.
167474		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tetracanthagyna waterhousei</span> is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical mainland Asia, with records from eastern India to Vietnam and Lao PDR. The type location is supposed to be in Borneo, but no further details were recorded and I know of no other record from the island; the type may have been mislabelled and the occurrence of this species on Borneo is considered doubtful here. Similarly records from Sumatra, already questioned by Lieftinck (1954) are considered doubtful.
167474		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forest streams, including some in highly disturbed forest.
167474		population	eng	This species is both widespread, and common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Hong Kong).
167474		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to some populations, but this species is not threatened across its entire range.
167476		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No particular conservation measures appear to be needed for <em>Merogomphus parvus</em> at the present time, although there is a need for more data.</p>
167476		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Merogomphus parvus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Sumatra (e.g.   Krüger<span lang="EN-GB"> 1898, Lieftinck 1941), Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1964, Hämäläinen et al 1996, Orr 2005), Thailand (Asahina 1981; Kitagawa and Ichii 1999; Kitagawa and Katatani 2002, 2005), Myanmar (Asahina 1970), Vietnam (Asahina 1969), Laos (Yokoi 1999, Sasamoto and Honda 2003, Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004). The record from Laos from Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004 is from close to the Chinese border; this species is likely to occur in southwestern China as well, and should be looked for in Cambodia.</span></p>
167476		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Lieftinck (1941) gives the habitat where he found this species in Sumatra as "small clear streams with a sandy or somewhat gravelly bottom." Later (1954) he gave the habitat as "hill forest streams". Hämäläinen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1996) recorded it from a logged over forest, consisting mostly of wild banana and bamboo, with 40% canopy cover. I have found this species on a stream in highly disturbed riparian forest surrounded by agricultural land in Chiang Mai, north west Thailand. Orr (2005) gives the habitat as forest streams and notes that the larvae "burrows in gravel". This species is clearly capable of breeding in a variety of lowland forest streams, including heavily disturbed ones.</p>
167476		population	eng	<p>Most records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Merogomphus parvus </span>are of one or a few individuals, but this is typical of tropical and subtropical forest stream gomphids. Although the currently available data is insufficient to make any estimates about population sizes past or present, there is no reason to suppose that this species is currently suffering any strong decline.</p>
167476		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The major threat that is likely to be faced by this species is clear-felling of large areas of forest. As it is tolerant of disturbance, it might be able to survive in plantation streams, but until this has been established, large scale plantation establishment must also be regarded as a threat, albeit one that could easily be avoided by leaving adequate buffer zones of original forest around plantation streams.<br/></p>
167477		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures known. More research is needed for this species to establish its current distribution.
167477		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Viet Nam, at Da Lat and Bao Loc in Lam Dong Province and Hon Ba Nature Reserve, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa Province (Hamalainen 2006, Do and Dang 2007). Further research is needed to confirm the species full distribution.
167477		habitat	eng	The species has so far been recorded in pristine or lightly disturbed forests in the highlands of southern Viet Nam, where the temperature is not too high and there are very humid forests. The mature forms do not fly very far from their breeding sites, so they are not so active insects. They spend most of the time perching on leaves or branches of trees above streams, only coming to the stream surface in direct sunlight. They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity of the environment.
167477		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
167477		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats known to this species. It is likely to be sensitive to forest loss or severe degradation, but at least one of the currently known sites is in a protected area.
167478		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167478		conservation	eng	None.
167478		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
167478		distribution	eng	A migrating species found on many islands in the Indian Ocean (Mauritius, Ceylon, southeast Asia, Samoan Islands, Caledonia).Recorded from Socotra frequently; southern African endemic is likely a vagrant and hence no range given.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra and Somalia within the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is an occasional migrant to South Africa. There is no evidence for breeding in the southern Africa region.
167478		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrodiplax cora</span> is a very widespread species and a migrant, occurring in Asia, Australia and on Pacific Ocean Islands. It has also been recorded from northeastern South Africa, but whether it reproduces there is uncertain.
167478		distribution	eng	This species is an occasional migrant to South Africa. There is no evidence for breeding in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread around the Indian Ocean and the Pacific area.
167478		habitat	eng	In northeastern Africa, the species occurs in stagnant water bodies in arid areas.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it was found in coastal freshwaters.
167478		habitat	eng	It breeds in marshes, coastal lagoons and estuaries, the larvae are salt tolerant.
167478		habitat	eng	This species grows best in January.
167478		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.  No breeding populations are known in the southern Africa region.
167478		population	eng	Population size is unknown. No breeding populations are known in the southern Africa region.
167478		population	eng	This species is often common where it occurs.
167478		threats	eng	No information available.<br/><p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167478		threats	eng	Not known major widespread threats.
167478		threats	eng	This species is not threatened across its range.
167479		conservation	eng	This species is found in Tam Dao National Park. More research is needed on this species distribution, ecology and threats.
167479		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phuc province, Viet Nam (Asahina 1996).
167479		habitat	eng	Other members of this genus have been found to breed in forested streams, although the habitat of this species is currently not known.
167479		population	eng	There is no information currently available regarding population size or trend.
167479		threats	eng	Very little information is known for this species, including if it is experiencing threats to its habitat.
167480		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is for further information on its distribution and on its precise habitat requirements.
167480		distribution	eng	The species is known from eastern Thailand, with records from Chanthaburi and Chon Buri (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Trat (Hämäläinen 2010 unpublished) and Rayong (Kosterin and Vikhrev 2009, Makbun 2010 unpublished), and from northern Viet Nam (Do Manh and Hoa 2007). Not many locations are known. It should be looked for in Cambodia and Lao PDR.
167480		habitat	eng	Very little has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but it is a species of forest streams.
167480		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be local, but it can be quite common where it occurs.</p>
167480		threats	eng	Without more information on distribution it is difficult to assess any threats that this species may face, but the major threat is likely to be deforestation. Most or all currently known locations are within national parks and so presumably relatively secure.
167481		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures for this species are not known. More information is needed for this species, particularly establishing the range of this species.
167481		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from Sapa (Viet Nam), Yunnan (China) and Muang Cha (Lao PDR). The species may have a wider distribution in suitable habitat and further research is required to confirm its range.<br/></p>
167481		habitat	eng	<p>These damselflies usually appear from middle to the end of rainy season with high humidity. They are found at open but clear streams, rich in oxygen. They are not very active insects and often perch on vegetation near the water.&#160;</p>
167481		population	eng	No information available.
167481		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known.
167482		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, precise habitat and ecology, and potential threats to this species.
167482		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern Viet Nam, and is also present in southern Lao PDR; it is likely to be present in Cambodia, and additional survey work is required to confirm the species full distribution (Do and Dang 2007).
167482		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open aspect hill streams.
167482		population	eng	There is a population decline in southern Viet Nam.
167482		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known.
167483		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in Viet Nam, such as Bach Ma National Park, Hon Ba Nature Reserve, Huong Son forest in Ha Tinh province. More data are needed on this species distribution, and its potential threats.
167483		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Viet Nam in a variety of provinces: Bach Ma National Park in Thua Thien Hue province, as well as Rao Qua, Huong Son district in Ha Tinh province; Bao Loc district in Lam Dong province and Hon Ba Nature Reserve in Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa province ( van Tol and Rozendaal 1995, Hamalainen <em>et al</em>. 2006, Do and Dang 2007).
167483		habitat	eng	<p>This species has been found in clear streams in tropical forest. It can occur in secondary forest.&#160;</p>
167483		population	eng	This species is known to be common in Bach Ma National Park, but information is not known in other areas.
167483		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are unknown. Potential threats include the extensive habitat loss across its range caused by logging, and maybe by tourism which is quickly developing&#160; in many parts of Viet Nam.</p>
167484		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species. So far it has only been described from a female specimen. More information is also needed on its distribution, habitat and ecology, and potential threats.
167484		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster klossi </span>is known from Viet Nam&#160;in the Ninh Thuan Province. &#160;Recently it also was recorded from Hon Ba Nature Reserve, Dien Khanh, Khanh Hoa Province, south Viet Nam.
167484		habitat	eng	It has been found in montane streams in undisturbed primary forests.
167484		population	eng	The population trend and size is not known for this species.
167484		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
167485		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this species.
167485		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes praemorsus </span>is very widely distributed from India to China and south to New Guinea.
167485		habitat	eng	This species breeds in well vegetated ponds and similar habitats. It has even found it breeding in shallow water filled wheel ruts.
167485		population	eng	<p>This species is somewhat local, and in some places populations are rather intermittent, but it is generally common.<br/></p>
167485		threats	eng	<p>There are no known widespread threats for this species.<br/></p>
167486		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas. More information is needed on its distribution, habitats and potential threats.
167486		distribution	eng	The species is known from Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phuc Province, Viet Nam, and Sam Nua and Lak Sao in Lao PDR.
167486		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested streams.
167486		population	eng	The current population size for this species is not known.
167486		threats	eng	At the collection site in Tam Dao there are threats from increased tourist activities, development and deforestation, however there are still pristine areas in the park. There are no current major threats known to the Lao PDR populations.
167487		conservation	eng	The taxonomic issue must be resolved before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. If it&#160; is a synonym of <em>C. cyanomelas</em>, then no conservation measures will be necessary.
167487		distribution	eng	The species, if a good species, is only known from the type series from Tam Dao in Viet Nam (Asahina 1997).
167487		habitat	eng	Nothing was recorded about the habitat in which this species was found, but it is likely to be a species of small forest streams.
167487		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species, if distinct from <em>C. cyanomelas</em>, is only known from the type series.</p>  .<p></p>
167487		threats	eng	Without further information it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.
167488		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
167488		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neurothemis fluctuans </span>  is a widespread species in tropical Asia, extending from eastern India to Viet Nam and southwards to Java.
167488		habitat	eng	This species is found at ponds, marshes, swamps and other stagnant waters.
167488		population	eng	<p>This is a common species over much of its range.<br/></p>
167488		threats	eng	<p>This species is not threatened.<br/></p>
167489		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex. If it should prove to consist of just one species, then it is unlikely that any specific conservation measures would be needed, but if not then each species involved will have to be re-assessed.
167489		distribution	eng	As understood here, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura rufostigma</span> is a widespread species, occurring from India to China. In India the species has also been recorded from Himachal Pradesh (Prasad 1976), Uttarakhand (Kumar and Prasad 1981), Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava and Babu 1997), Bihar (Kumar and Prasad 1981), West Bengal (Mitra 2002), Assam (Laidlaw 1914, 1916), Meghalaya (Lahiri 1987), Manipur (Lahiri 1977, Mitra 2002) and Nagaland (Mitra 2002). It has not yet been recorded from Bhutan, but is very likely to occur there, and must be more widespread in China than records suggest.
167489		habitat	eng	&#160;This species inhabits a variety of standing water habitats.
167489		population	eng	The current population trend is not known, but the species is quite common across its range.
167489		threats	eng	No major threat has been reported for this species.
167491		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas including Tam Dao National Park, Cuc Phuong National Park, Hon Ba Nature Reserve in Viet Nam, and Shiwandashan National Park in China. More research&#160; is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
167491		distribution	eng	<p>In Viet Nam, this species is found in the Mau Son mountain in Lang Son province; Tam Dao National Park inVinh Phuc province; Cuc Phuong National Park in Ninh Binh province; Thanh Chuong district, Nghe An province; Son Kim in Ha Tinh province; Ngoc Linh mountain in Kon Tum province; and Hon Ba Natural Reserve in Khanh Hoa province. It is also known from Shiwandashan, Guangxi province in China, and Lak Sao area in Lao PDR (Wilson and Reels 2003, van Tol and Rozendaal 1995, Hamalainen 2003, Do and Dang 2007).</p><p>&#160;</p>
167491		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in forested sub-montane streams, including secondary forest.<br/></p>
167491		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species where it is found.
167491		threats	eng	Local populations may be threatened by tourist development and deforestation, however it is found within protected areas and overall there are no major threats.
167492		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures are needed for this species.
167492		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Myanmar to Viet Nam and south to Philippines and the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands.
167492		habitat	eng	This species occupies a broad range of habitats, from ponds and wet rice fields to lakes and reservoirs and to open sections of slow flowing rivers. It is disturbance tolerant.
167492		population	eng	This is a common species over much of its range, although under-recorded due to difficulty of capture.
167492		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
167493		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, although there is a need for further distribution data and fresh data from Myanmar.</p>
167493		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia chromothorax</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widely distributed species with records from Myanmar (e.g. Selys 1891; Asahina 1970, 1984), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1984, 1990, 1993; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; Hoess 2002), Laos (Fraser 1933, Lieftinck 1948, Yokoi and Kano 2002, Sasamoto and Honda 2003, Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004) and Vietnam (Asahina 1997, Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It has also been recorded from China (Sui and Sun 1984), probably from Yunnan.</span></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
167493		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>Small forest streams in hilly and mountainous terrain. Judging by some of the sites where it occurs in Chiang Mai in Thailand it is tolerant of at least a moderate degree of disturbance to its forest habitats.</p>  <p></p>
167493		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is typically quite common where it occurs. There are many recent records and no reason to believe that any strong decline in populations is occurring.</p>  <p></p>
167493		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The only threat to this species is likely to be from deforestation.</p>  <p></p>
167494		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its taxonomy, distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167494		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ban Khoang, Sa Pa in Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam.
167494		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat preference of this species is not known.</p>
167494		population	eng	<p></p><p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167494		threats	eng	<p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p>
167497		conservation	eng	It is found in at least one protected area. &#160;More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
167497		distribution	eng	This species is known from the length of the western border of Thailand, from Chiang Mai to Krabi and southern Viet Nam (Asahina 1984, Fraser 1932, Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999). It is most likely also present in at least parts of Myanmar bordering Thailand, within Lao PDR, and Cambodia, but there are no known records.
167497		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland streams and rivers, including in very disturbed habitats.
167497		population	eng	<p></p><p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p><p></p>
167497		threats	eng	<p>No major threats have been found to affect the species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167498		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, although there is a need for more distributional data at the edges of its known range, in particular from Viet Nam.
167498		distribution	eng	<p>The species<span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Sumatra including Bangka and Belitung (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Thailand (e.g. Hämälainen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (Asahina 1967) and southern Viet Nam (e.g. Asahina 1969). In Thailand it is known from a few scattered locations in Songkhla, Phangnga, Chanthaburi and Chaiyaphum. It is likely to occur in southern Myanmar.</p>
167498		habitat	eng	The species is found on a variety of lowland forest streams, and is often especially abundant in swamp forest, especially low pH swamp forest. It is tolerant of disturbance and in Borneo it has been found it even on streams in oil palm plantations (R. Dow, unpub. data, 2010); Kemp and Kemp (1989) also recorded it from “Rubber/Oil palm” plantation in peninsular Malaysia.
167498		population	eng	Usually a very common species where it occurs in Borneo, but in mainland Southeast Asia it appears to become more local in occurrence.
167498		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any threat.
167499		conservation	eng	Resolution of the taxonomic status of the species is required. All measures to extend and protect forested areas within the range of this species will help protect it. Several site records from recently developed secondary forest areas in Hong Kong indicate this species is able to colonise or&#160;recolonise newly&#160;established&#160;suitable habitat.
167499		distribution	eng	<em>Macromia berland</em>i was described from Tonkin (northern Viet Nam) and has been recorded from several locations in Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Guangxi (Zhou<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1994), and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu unpub.), and it has also been recorded from Yunnan. The species should be looked for in adjacent parts of Lao PDR and in Myanmar
167499		habitat	eng	This larvae and its habitat preferences were described by Wilson and Theischinger (1996). <em>M. berlandi</em> prefers muddy substrates found in small forested streams with deep pools and sluggish lentic sections. The larvae have also been found in small stream impoundments and small water supply reservoirs surrounded by forest habitat.
167499		population	eng	Although<em> Macromia berlandi</em> has been recorded from only a few sites in northern Viet Nam, south-western and southern China its presence at several locations in Hong Kong (Wilson 1995, 2004) indicate it is able to colonise, or recolonise, secondary forested areas and its presence in south China has probably been under recorded.
167499		threats	eng	Extensive loss of forested areas in&#160;Vietnam, south-western and southern China will have significantly reduced suitable habitat for this species. Wilson (1997) discussed the development threats to a site in Hong Kong (Sha Lo Tung), which is a stronghold for this species. The site was threatened for many years by large-scale&#160;development&#160;but is now being developed on a greatly reduced scale, as a&#160;Pilot Project for a Public - Private&#160;Partnership Conservation Scheme, which is sympathetic to the stream and forest ecosystem. The&#160;Environmental Monitoring and Audit Manual&#160;(Environmental Resources Management&#160;2008) for this scheme, which includes requirements to monitor odonate populations, is available on line.
167629		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167629		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Paraná and Paraguay River basins in Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay.  The species is common in relatively undisturbed areas such as the upper portions of the Paraguay basin in Brazil.  Still regularly found in several localities in the upper Paraná that have not experienced drastic changes, at least in natural flow.
167629		habitat	eng	<em>L. striatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species that inhabits fast flowing water, but more common in small tributaries than in large rivers.
167629		population	eng	Relatively common and regularly found despite threats to the area in which it is found.
167629		threats	eng	There have been major damaging events to the Paraná River, particularly effecting the ichthyofauna, such as pollution and damming.  However, as this small species prefers smaller tributaries and is not dependent on migration, it is unlikely to be under threat.
167630		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167630		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower Tapajós River basin, including its tributary, the Curua-Una, Brazil.  Recent sites where this species has been collected were at Itaituba (4d 21m S, 56d 10m W) and Pimental (4d 34m S, 56d 15m W), both within the Tapajos basin.
167630		habitat	eng	<em>H. puchripinnis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Most <em>Hyphessobrycon</em> species are found in shallow, heavily vegetated areas of rivers and creeks.  The species prefers slow flowing water.<br/><br/>Based on aquarium observations, males defend territories during the morning spawning period while females school, periodically entering a male's territory individually to spawn.  After a brief courtship, there is a short spawning rush near some suitable substrate such as clumps of aquatic plants.  There is no parental care, males leaving their territory after the spawning period to school with the females.
167630		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167630		threats	eng	The species is harvested for the aquarium trade, though this is not thought to adversely impact the species.
167631		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167631		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins, in Brazil and Venezuela.
167631		habitat	eng	<em>B. xyrekes</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that inhabits streams.  Members of this genus have a major ecological role as a high-level predator (Berra 2001).  The species lives in large rivers in the mid water.  It is an elongated fast swimming fish.
167631		population	eng	Less common than its congeners.
167631		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
167632		conservation	eng	This species does occur within a protected area, although further research is needed into the population trends.
167632		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Rio Xingu, Brazil.  <em>M. elongatus</em> has been collected recently in some sites of the Upper Xingu River.  The species also apparently occurs in the Rio Araguaia basin (the uncertainty is due to the fact that a proper comparison between specimens from both river basins need to be undertaken to confirm this assumption) (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167632		habitat	eng	<em>M. elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in rivers in spite of being a small fish. Occurs on sandbars.
167632		population	eng	Not a very common species.
167632		threats	eng	Though the headwaters of the Xingu basin are being deforested at a quick pace, still much forest cover remains in the basin that will probably not be cut down (e.g., the large Indigenous Park of the Xingu). <br/><br/>The building of the Belo Monte dam will certainly affect deleteriously many highly rheophilic (prefers fast-flowing water) species known to occur at that site, but <em>M. elongatus</em> is not a highly rheophilic species and its known area occurrence is considerably upstream from Belo Monte.
167633		conservation	eng	Part of the Iguaçu River lies within the Iguaçu National Park.
167633		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Iguaçu River and Uruga-í Creek basins.
167633		habitat	eng	<em>H. myersi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in medium and large sized rivers.
167633		population	eng	A common species.
167633		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.
167634		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.  Monitoring of the population is considered urgent to understand the continued threats and how the levels of exploitation have effected the species numbers.  Possible habitat protection areas need to be looked at.
167634		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Magdalena, Cauca, San Jorge and Sinú River basins in Colombia.
167634		habitat	eng	<em>C. mivartii</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Very little is known of its general ecology.  Its natural environment is small streams.
167634		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167634		threats	eng	The species is eaten.  Because of the decline in catfish catch in the Magdalena, this species is becoming increasingly pressured by over fishing.  Its inclusion as a commercial species has caused a decline, along with other migratory species in the basin (Lima pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>It is possible that <em>C. mivartii</em> is also threatened by habitat degradation.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).&#160; Catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades, (Harvey 1998), it is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.<br/><br/>In the Cauca River Valley system, 88% of mapped wetlands were lost between the 1950s and 1980s. Land reclamation, drainage, river regulation, and pollution were cited as the major causes (Moser <em>et al.</em> 1996).  The Sinú River basin has also suffered from habitat degradation.  Since the construction of the Urrá Dam in the basin, fish in the Upper Sinú river and its tributaries have declined (Colombian Human Rights Network 1999).
167635		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed.
167635		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Southern Sao Paulo to northern Santa Catarina coastal rivers in eastern Brazil.  It also occurs in the upper Rio Paranapanema.
167635		habitat	eng	<em>C. ehrhardti</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs in small streams, shallow small rivers with soft bottom.  Lives in small schools.  Occurs in relatively disturbed habitats as well.
167635		population	eng	It is very common in the Southern portion of its range, less so in the north.
167635		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown and further research is required.
167636		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167636		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the coastal rivers of Rio Grande do Sul and southern Santa Catarina in Brazil; Uruguay; the Buenos Aires region and the rivers draining into La Plata River estuary; and in the lower Paraná and Paraguay River basins.
167636		habitat	eng	<em>C. voga</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species that inhabits large rivers and lagoons.
167636		population	eng	Extremely locally common and abundant.
167636		threats	eng	There are no known threats currently affected this species.
167637		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167637		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Guaporé River basin of Brazil, and in the Paraguay River basin.
167637		habitat	eng	<em>D. fimbriatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  A benthic fish that swims in small to medium size schools, in clear waters inhabits both rivers and flood plain areas.
167637		population	eng	A common and abundant fish.
167637		threats	eng	The Pantanal is being subjected to pressures such as the Cuiabi Dam, which is interfering with the flood regime.  Fishermen have reported a drop in the fisheries below the dam.  There are further problems with pollution.  These are general threats to the area which could prove important in the future, though not at present.
167638		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167638		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Meta River basin, Colombia.
167638		habitat	eng	<em>C. rosae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167638		population	eng	No population information known.
167638		threats	eng	There are no threats known to affect this species.
167639		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167639		distribution	eng	A poorly known species.  This species occurs in the Tapajós River basin, Brazil.
167639		habitat	eng	<em>B. gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small rivers and creeks, swimming in the mid water catching insects that fall into the water.
167639		population	eng	<em>Bryconops</em> is a very common genus within the Tapajos river basin.
167639		threats	eng	The headwaters of the Tapajos are under severe anthropogenic disturbance.  The area was a mix of tropical forest and savanna forest.  These forests have been extensively replaced with large scale agriculture and plantations.  In many areas the only forest left is the riparian zone.  <br/><br/>A new road (A364) is built between Cuiaba and Santa Rem is a cause of great concern to the region as it is providing access into the Amazon.<br/><br/>It is unclear how these threats are impacting this species directly, as it is so poorly known but there is no particular reason to consider <em>B. gracilis</em> threatened.
167640		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167640		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Uruguay, in the Uruguay River basin.
167640		habitat	eng	<em>P. valenciennis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in large wide rivers and lagoons with soft bottom.
167640		population	eng	No population information available, but the species is very common.
167640		threats	eng	A significant loss of natural habitats and degradation of the environment has taken place in La Plata River basin as a consequence of damming and reservoir construction for hydroelectric power plants and the development of large urban areas.  Agrochemical effluents, organic discharges, hydrocarbon pollution and gas oversaturation due to dam<br/>operations have resulted in fish mortalities.  The development of a large number of reservoirs in the main river reaches and its tributaries has turned fluvial lotic systems into lentic or almost lentic ecosystems (Mugetti 2004).  However, none of these threats are likely to impact the species in a significant way.
167641		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167641		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela.
167641		habitat	eng	<em>A. apurensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Generally an overlooked species in collections as they live in the bottom of river channels and are therefore difficult to collect.
167641		population	eng	No population information available.
167641		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently not known.
167642		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167642		distribution	eng	This species is extremely widespread and occurs in the Amazon, the Orinoco, the Paraguay River and watercourses in the Guianas.
167642		habitat	eng	<em>R. affinis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species from the genus <em>Roeboides</em> generally prefer to live among water plants rather than in the open water of the rivers (Heckman 1998).  Lives in the shallow waters of large streams, flood plain areas and ponds.
167642		population	eng	A common species with a stable population trend.
167642		threats	eng	At present, there are no threats known to be affecting this species.
167643		conservation	eng	There are some indigenous areas in the upper Tapajós and some conservation units near the confluence of the Teles Pires and Juruena (the two main rivers of the region, which together form the Tapajós).
167643		distribution	eng	This species is now known to occur all over the upper Rio Tapajós basin, Brazil.
167643		habitat	eng	<em>J. poranga</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in fast flowing clear water rivers of the upper Tapajos basin.  Swims in small groups.
167643		population	eng	No population information known.
167643		threats	eng	The Tapajos basin is now in the heart of the large soybean plantations in Brazil. The valleys of the rivers are in a healthier state than the top of the tablelands, and consequently the rivers does not appear to be up to now significantly disturbed.  There are several dams planned or being built in the area, however, though most will probably not interfere with natural flows.  Herbicides are also a concern in this area.  All in all, the conservation status of <em>J. poranga</em> does not seem at this moment particularly serious, but its habitat is being disturbed at a large scale and it is possible that in a near future that might change.
167644		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.
167644		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to the Coppename River, Saramacca district, Suriname.
167644		habitat	eng	<em>C. coppenamensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Species from the genus <em>Corydoras</em> tend to prefer slow-moving streams with sand or mud bottoms.
167644		population	eng	No population information available.
167644		threats	eng	The area in which this species lives may be threatened by an increase in small-scale gold mining operations. The species itself is collected for the pet trade, but the harvesting level is thought, currently, to be low.
167645		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed into the localised threat of over-exploitation.
167645		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Amazon basin and also in the Rio Orinoco and in the River Essequibo in Guyana.
167645		habitat	eng	<em>B. amazonicus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits streams and lakes.  The larvae of <em>B. amazonicus</em> are found in the main stem of the Amazon River, and possibly in other high-nutrient tributaries.  Juveniles live in the adjacent floodplain, mostly under the floating macrophytes (floating or submerged aquatic plants)). Adults are distributed throughout the floodplains, including the flooded forests of white and black water rivers.<br/><br/>The migration of this species is complex.  Near Manaus, <em>B. amazonicus</em> joins multi-species schools and migrates downriver from the Negro River to spawn in the Amazon River in December and January, as water levels there begin to rise.  A similar pattern was also observed for <em>Brycon</em> sp. in the Madeira River. The embryos and larvae develop while drifting in the Amazon River, and probably get washed into the white water floodplains.  After spawning (February to March) the adult fish return to the black-water tributaries. Later in the year (May to August) these fish move downstream again from the Negro River or other nutrient-poor tributaries into the Amazon or Madeira rivers, where they remain until the end of the wet season in September. At this time, they move upstream again to the next nutrient-poor tributary and into forest streams, where they spend the dry season before the next spawning migration (Araujo-Lima and Ruffino 2004).<br/><br/>Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).
167645		population	eng	<em>B. amazonicus</em> is the most widespread and abundant species of matrinxa (common name).
167645		threats	eng	This species is very important in fisheries in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia.  It is also stocked in aquaculture farms in Brazil and Venezuela. It is certainly not a threatened species, even though probably over-exploited in part of its range.
167646		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends of the species is required.
167646		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Paranapanema basin in the upper Paraná River drainage and Ribeira de Iguape River basin, Brazil.  The species is restricted to the headwaters in both basins.
167646		habitat	eng	<em>C. schubarti </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species inhabits fast flowing creeks and small rivers with stones and rocky bottom.
167646		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167646		threats	eng	There is a lot of disturbance in the area in which this species is distributed.  The major threat in the upper and middle Paraná basin is degradation of the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents.  The Paraná basin has the highest urban-industrial density in the inner country.  The presence of herbicides and fungicides used in farming and cattle-rearing development may also become a considerable source of pollution.  In addition, intense hydroelectric development of the Paranapanema has nearly completely changed the natural profile of the river (Diegues 1994).  However, the southern part of the distribution is some of the best portions of the Atlantic forest.  The area is probably less disturbed than it was 20 years ago, with some areas of forest showing recovery.
167647		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167647		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern and southeastern tributaries to Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela.  These tributaries drain into an area of 20,960 km².
167647		habitat	eng	<em>C. paralacus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167647		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167647		threats	eng	Due to the small nature of the streams in which the species occurs, it is likely that a good proportion of habitat remains intact enough to support this species.  Even considering the extent of disturbance (heavy pollution and habitat degradation) in the Lake Maraciabo basin, the species is likely not to have suffered unduly.  <em>Creagrutus</em> species are relatively resilient to habitat modification.
167648		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167648		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins.
167648		habitat	eng	<em>B. rousseauxii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Current evidence suggests a complex life cycle that includes the longest reproductive migration known for a freshwater fish species (Batista and Alves-Gomes 2006).
167648		population	eng	No population information known.
167648		threats	eng	Heavily fished for food but it does not seem to have a severe impact on this species. Also, a large dam is planned for Madera river which will cut through their migratory routes at Teonio waterfalls.
167649		conservation	eng	This species does not have any conservation measures in place.
167649		distribution	eng	This species is known from several river drainages in the Guyanas, and from the Brazilian Amazon basin at the Uatuma, Tocantins, and Aripuana.
167649		habitat	eng	<em>L. granti</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that is confined to river stretches with rapids.
167649		population	eng	Relatively abundant and with a stable population trend.
167649		threats	eng	Not threatened.  Most of the area inhabited by the species has experienced little anthropogenic disturbance.
167650		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167650		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon and Orinoco basins and parts of the Guyanas.
167650		habitat	eng	<em>S. elegans</em> is abundant in a variety of habitats, including the shallow and deep waters (up to 50 m) of swiftly flowing large rivers such as the nutrient-rich turbid white-water Amazon and Orinoco rivers, and in nutrient-poor black-water rivers.  It is also common in the shallow lakes of Varzea floodplains and in the oxbow and mouth bay lakes of black-water rivers (Crampton <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The members of this family tend to live within aquatic substrates such as leaf litter or floating vegetation.  They are often highly resistant to low oxygen levels.
167650		population	eng	Extremely abundant.
167650		threats	eng	Although the species is collected for the pet trade, it is not causing a decline.&#160; There are no current threats known.
167651		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167651		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon and lower Ucayali River basins.
167651		habitat	eng	<em>O. wrightiana</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  This species is found in medium sized rivers.
167651		population	eng	A not very common species.
167651		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to this species.
167652		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167652		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Orinoco River basin, in Venezuela.  It is likely also to occur in Colombia.
167652		habitat	eng	<em>C. incompta</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Live in large rivers and in flood plain areas.  Migrate in large schools to smaller tributaries.
167652		population	eng	The species occurs naturally in high densities.
167652		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006).
167653		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.
167653		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Ecuador, in Andean tributaries at the margin of the Amazon River.  Potentially more widespread and likely to occur more widely in Peru and possibly Colombia.
167653		habitat	eng	<em>C. purpuratum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, which is either omnivorous or insectivorous.  A study discovered that this species increased in occurrence in deforested sites, probably because of the increase in macro-invertebrate density (Bojsen and Barriga 2002).
167653		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167653		threats	eng	Some threats occur in the known distribution area for this species including oil exploration (with associated water pollution) and plans for a major road to be built.
167654		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167654		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Atrato River basin in Colombia.  It is likely restricted to the upper portion of the Atrato, extending higher than <em>Bryconamericus ichoensis</em>.
167654		habitat	eng	<em>H. carrilloi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in areas with steep gradients in the slope of the Andes cordillera in fast flowing streams.
167654		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167654		threats	eng	Not known to be threatened mainly because the Atrato River basin is still pristine.
167655		conservation	eng	A large part of the Napo River basin is protected by the 9,820 km² Yasuni National Park.
167655		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Napo River basin, on the east slope of the Andes and the lowlands of northeastern Ecuador.  It is only known from the holotype which was collected in the upper part of the basin.
167655		habitat	eng	<em>P. wieneri</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Live in large rivers which are clear with white water.
167655		population	eng	No population information known.
167655		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.
167656		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and detailed surveys into the extent of decline of the population and habitat status and size are required, with a look into the possibility of gazetting suitable habitat into protected areas.
167656		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern tributaries of Laguna dos Patos in southern Brazil.
167656		habitat	eng	<em>L. tordilho</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It lives in very small, shallow creeks full of floating and submerged vegetation.
167656		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167656		threats	eng	Destruction of habitat by deforestation in order to replace with rice paddies.  Exotic species have invaded (Tilapias and carp), though this is not the main threat.  Pollution is a problem due to proximity to large urban areas.
167657		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167657		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Essequibo River basin, in Guyana.  It is possible that the species occurs more widely than distribution reflects, most likely in Suriname.
167657		habitat	eng	<em>C. pteroides</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species occurs on sandbars in small rivers.
167657		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167657		threats	eng	In August 1995, the holding pond at the Omai gold mine in Guyanese Amazon broke. In what was probably the worst cyanide spill in history, some 3.2 billion litres of cyanide-laced waste poured into a tributary of the Essequibo River, killing nearly all the fish in the river (Chatterjee 1997).  In 2000, the Essequibo once again suffered from mine pollution.  It caused widespread harm including rashes, diarrhoea, and vomiting among the residents after using the river water.  This has undoubtedly had major downstream effects, however, the localities which exist for the species are all upstream of the mine, and would not have been effected.  Also, this mine is located in the lowest portion of the basin where only around 5% of the catchment is downstream of it.
167658		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167658		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Potaro (Essequibo River basin) in Guyana, Nickerie and Kabalebo basins in Suriname, and also from the upper Rio Araguari and upper Rio Trombetas in Brazil.
167658		habitat	eng	<em>L. bovallii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits stony rivulets.
167658		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167658		threats	eng	Not under major threat.
167659		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place nor thought to be needed at present.
167659		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atrato River basin, Colombia.
167659		habitat	eng	<em>B. ichoensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  A small fish that occurs in streams and small rivers in the mid-water.  Moderate to fast flowing rivers.
167659		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167659		threats	eng	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species.
167660		conservation	eng	Good management of the headwater area is urgently needed.  The only way to stop the decline is to set up protected areas to save the biodiversity of the region.
167660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the headwaters of the Tietê river at Paranapiacaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.  Only known from a few unprotected localities.  Subpopulations have been extirpated.
167660		habitat	eng	<em>P. tietensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits small creeks and small sized rivers.  It can be found attached to the grass along the river margin and in the middle of the river among rocks and pieces of wood in fast current water.
167660		population	eng	Not abundant and difficult to collect.
167660		threats	eng	This species has been impacted by many threats, the largest being habitat destruction due to urbanisation, but other threats are also pollution, deforestation, invasive species (Tilapia and trout).<br/><br/>It is highly likely that <em>P. tietensis</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  Untreated effluents from 1,200 industries are dumped into the Tiete River every day as it flows through São Paulo. As a result, the river contains high concentrations of lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals. The city also dumps some 1,000 metric tons of sewage into the river each day, of which only 12% gets any treatment whatsoever (Tufts Climate Initiative 2006).  It has been estimated that 36% of the Tietê river has been altered by infrastructure development, (such as the nine hydroelectric plants), which have the affect of turning fluvial lentic systems into lotic ecosystems (Mugetti <em>et al.</em> 2004).
167661		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although the restoration and maintenance of the species preferred habitat is needed to see what effect the invasive species and water pollution is having.  A monitoring programme should also be implemented to follow the trends of this threatened species.
167661		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Titicaca in Peru, which has an area of 8270.6 km².
167661		habitat	eng	<em>O. ctenolepis</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom), non-migratory fish.  It is not a seasonal killifish and is a lentic (prefers standing or slow-moving water) species.
167661		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167661		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat to Lake Titicaca.  Rainbow trout have been introduced as well as Silverside, the former predating on, and the latter competing with this species.
167662		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and further taxonomical research is needed.
167662		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon River basin Andean slope in, Peru.
167662		habitat	eng	<em>B. alfredae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167662		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167662		threats	eng	None known.  The area in which this species is distributed is a pristine so there is no reason to suspect that the species is impacted by any significant threatening processes.
167663		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167663		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper Amazon River basin and the Urubamba River in Peru.
167663		habitat	eng	<em>B. pachacuti</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167663		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167663		threats	eng	The Rio Urubamba has almost pristine conditions and it is unlikely that <em>B. pachacuti</em> is currently under threat.
167664		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167664		distribution	eng	This species is known from the rivers of the Atlantic coast of southern Santa Catarina and northern Rio Grande do Sul states, Brazil.  It can be found inland only up to the mountains just along from the coastal plains, thereby restricting its range.
167664		habitat	eng	<em>O. rostrata</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  This species is found in small creeks.
167664		population	eng	An abundant with a stable population.
167664		threats	eng	There have been threats acting on the range over the past century, such as habitat degradation, banana plantations, urbanisation.  However this is not a major threat.
167665		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends of the species is required.
167665		distribution	eng	This restricted species occurs in a small region in the upper course of the Rio Negro by Sao Gabriel de Cachoeira in Brazil.
167665		habitat	eng	<em>C. adolfoi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that commonly inhabits small streams and black-waters in flooded forests, (ion-poor, black-stained, low pH waters).  It is an oviparous fish; breeding takes place in swamps, ponds, or streams. The area around the distribution is pristine.
167665		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167665		threats	eng	<em>C. adolfoi</em> may be threatened by over-collecting.  When it was first discovered and became available to aquarium hobbyists, the demand almost certainly exceeded supply.  Importers in the USA and in all major European countries requested this catfish species from Manaus and Miami exporters and importers over the last decade since its discovery and subsequent publicity in 1982.  It is not known what effect the removal of thousands of adult specimens before, during and after the breeding season could have on this species (Sands 1995).  Probably occurs in regions beyond the reach of fishermen who know how to collect it.
167666		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.
167666		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper São Francisco River basin, Brazil.  It is found of the tributaries of this river.  Low collection rates in the area could lead to this species being distributed further, but this needs to be confirmed.
167666		habitat	eng	<em>H. longipinna</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It is found in fast flowing rivers with rocky bottoms.  The genus is typical of rapids.
167666		population	eng	Locally distributed in the river basin.  This genus does not tend to be abundant where found.
167666		threats	eng	The environment of this river basin has been and continues to be under many different threats, including increased agriculture, industry, and urbanisation.&#160;  Deforestation has been extensive but this occurred over many decades ago.&#160;  Now, the development of HEP complexes could disturb the smaller rivers in which this species lives and become a major threat.  However, more research is needed to assess the affect of threats acting in the area on this species.
167668		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167668		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Rio Juma, a tributary of the Rio Aripuanã on the transamazonian highway, (6d 9m S, 59d 55m W) and from Juruti (2d 34m S, 56d 24m W), para, Brazil.
167668		habitat	eng	<em>C. gracilis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The female holds 2-4 eggs between her pelvic fins, where the male fertilizes them for about 30 seconds.  Then the female swims to a suitable spot, where she attaches the very sticky eggs. The pair repeats this process until about 100 eggs have been fertilized and attached.  Very unique <em>Corydoras</em> spp. in terms of its morphology.
167668		population	eng	Not rare, but poorly known.
167668		threats	eng	No known threats specific to the species but the area in which it is found has been subjected to some deforestation.
167669		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167669		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower Paraná and Uruguay River basins, in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil.
167669		habitat	eng	<em>D. terofali </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It occurs in medium and small sized rivers and swims in small schools.
167669		population	eng	Locally abundant species.
167669		threats	eng	It is very likely that <em>D. terofali</em> is threatened by habitat degradation and water pollution.  The Uruguay River basin has undergone intense deforestation since the onset of colonization.  There is almost no original vegetation left, (there has been a 92.4% loss of original forest cover) and this has greatly affected the ecological balance, causing a desertification process to occur in the area (Diegues 1994).  In addition, with there being at least 13 dams, there is a high degree of river fragmentation within the basin (Water Resources eAtlas 2005), and as a result, populations of most migratory fish species are severely diminished in the middle and upper Uruguay river (FAO 1996).  However, it is unknown how this habitat alteration would have affected <em>D. terofali</em>.<br/><br/>The Paraná basin is also threatened by degradation in the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents (Diegues, 1994), however, this is largely in the upper part of the basin, whereas the lower Paraná basin has a relatively low human population and is still in a rather pristine condition over large parts (Junk 2005).<br/><br/>However, the extent to which the above threats are acting on this species now is likely to have weakened significantly over the last decade and are probably not causing major decline now.
167670		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167670		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Paraguay and Guaporé River basins, in Bolivia and Brazil.
167670		habitat	eng	<em>H. megalopterus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in slow flowing waters, associated flood plain areas.  Aggregates around submerged vegetation.
167670		population	eng	The species was recently collected in great numbers in both the Paraguay and Guaporé basins (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167670		threats	eng	The species is not currently under threat; the harvesting levels for the pet trade are very considered small.
167671		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167671		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in French Guiana, occurring at the rivers Maroni, Mana, Sinnamary, Conte, Approuague, and Oyapock.  It also occurs at the Silipaliwini River in Suriname and at the upper Rio Paru do Oeste in the Brazilian Amazon basin.
167671		habitat	eng	<em>M. georgiae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits the counter current zones of rivers where it hides under the rocks.
167671		population	eng	Although not highly collected in surveys, it is not likely to be rare in nature either (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167671		threats	eng	<em>M. georgiae</em> is harvested from the wild for the aquarium industry (Grosman 2002) but not to any significant degree.
167672		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends), taxonomy and threats are required.
167672		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guaporé River basin, Brazil.
167672		habitat	eng	<em>A. guaporensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167672		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167672		threats	eng	In spite of the fact that much of the headwaters of the Rio Guapore basin are now deforested, the basin still holds a diverse ichthyofauna.
167673		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167673		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central and South America; in the Chagres, Tuira, Bayano, and Santa María River basins in Panama and the Baudó, San Juan, Atrato, and Pacific coastal drainages in Colombia and in Panama.
167673		habitat	eng	<em>B. emperador</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish that inhabits streams and rivers.  It is an active, schooling fish that eats fruit, seeds and insects.  They have been found to spawn in temporary tributaries in June with the first floods of the rainy season (Kramer 1978).
167673		population	eng	Locally abundant species.
167673		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
167674		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167674		distribution	eng	This restricted species occurs in the Tubarão River basin in Santa Catarina, Brazil.  It has not been recently collected from the river but it may be found in the surrounding area.
167674		habitat	eng	<em>G. catharinensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167674		population	eng	The species of this genus are often locally abundant.
167674		threats	eng	Wetlands in Santa Catarina are impacted from activities connected with coal production (Diegues 1994).  For many years coal mining was the largest productive activity in southern Santa Catarina.  In the past, coal mining was executed with little environmental care and was the principal cause of water pollution in the region.  The improper management of residues generated by the exploration and processing of coal, in some cases still practiced today, has resulted in acid mine drainage which has contaminated water and soil with sulphuric acid and toxic metals. The consequences of this pollution are still found in the regional environment (SIECESC 2004).&#160; However, it is unknown what degree these threats are having on the species.
167675		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167675		distribution	eng	This species is occurs in the upper Parana basin in Brazil.  Its type locality is at Bataguacu (21d 42m S, 52d 22m W), however, its exact range is not known.
167675		habitat	eng	<em>R. apiamici</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Members of the genus <em>Rivulus</em> often inhabit overgrown borders of streams, ditches and canals, and can be found at the borders of ponds and lakes among vegetation.  They also have the ability to leave their habitat by "flipping" themselves across land to find better habitats, avoid predators or search for food.  As long as they are kept moist, they can live for long periods of time (Schoenfelder 2006).
167675		population	eng	This species has a stable population at present.
167675		threats	eng	Despite all the environmental problems in the upper Paraná basin posed by damming, water pollution and agriculture, <em>Rivulus apiamici</em> seems relatively unaffected since it occurs in small streams and it is presumably relatively resilient to disturbances, as are other species of the genus (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167676		conservation	eng	The Mamirauá lake system lies within the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, (11,240 km²).  Mamirauá communities are responsible for patrolling the vast landscape to prevent outsiders from Manaus or beyond from illegally extracting natural resources (WCS 2006).  This area also lies within the Central Amazon Conservation Complex; a UNEP-WCMC World Heritage Site.  In addition, this area is a WWF/IUCN Centre of Plant Diversity, and one of BirdLife International.
167676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mamirauá lake system near Tefé, Amazonas State, Brazil.
167676		habitat	eng	<em>G. jonasi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that has been recorded from root mass of floating meadows in the white-water floodplains of the Tefé region, where it is common, although patchy, in distribution.  Adults both breed and forage in the meadows and are never encountered in other floodplain habitats such as flooded forests (Albert and Crampton 2001) .
167676		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167676		threats	eng	Due to Mamirauá's remoteness, this area is relatively isolated from many threats that effect other parts of the Amazon, such as deforestation and commercial harvesting.  Nevertheless, poachers, loggers and commercial fishermen are increasingly drawn to the abundant natural resources inside the reserves (WCS 2006).  These threats are not likely to have a major impact on this species.
167677		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167677		distribution	eng	This species is found in rivers on the Pacific slope of the Andes, from the Reque River, Lambayeque (07ºSouth) in Peru, to the Loa and Codpa Rivers, Iquique (22ºSouth) in Chile.    <p><br/></p>    <p>  <br/></p>
167677		habitat	eng	<em>B. semotilus</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that inhabits streams above 2,000 m and lives in mid water.
167677		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167677		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat contamination and water loss in Chile (Campos <em>et al</em>. 1998).  It is not known whether this species is threatened in Peru.
167678		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.
167678		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the São Francisco River basin.
167678		habitat	eng	<em>C. fowleri</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  A nocturnal species which spends the day amid submerged structures.  It occurs in medium to large sized rivers.
167678		population	eng	No population information available.  Uncommon, but probably overlooked due to its nocturnal habit.
167678		threats	eng	Human population growth and an increase in agricultural and industrial activities, as well as dam construction, mineral extraction, deforestation and predatory fishing have caused environment degradation in the São Francisco river (Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>The areas with the highest population and industrial concentration along the Basin are located in the upper São Francisco.  Discharge of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters from these areas, as well as the disposal of mineral extraction and processing wastes, are the main sources of water degradation along the Basin (Diegues 1994).<br/><br/>It is unclear at this time how severe an impact these threats are having on the species.
167679		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research and action is needed to establish if the inferred decline of population is correct, and the increase in water pollution needs to be reversed; this major problem in the São Francisco River basin affects many freshwater species.
167679		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Brazil.  As with its congeners, the distribution of the species is very restricted (Lima pers. comm. 2007).  It is only known from the type locality given as Bahia, Volta das Pedras, Sao Francisco River basin, but its exact location is unknown.
167679		habitat	eng	<em>S. picturatus</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Occurs in small ephemeral bogs and swamps.
167679		population	eng	No population information known.
167679		threats	eng	The restricted nature of the species means that it is particularly vulnerable to human impacts.  Its other major threat is from the modification of the wetlands in which it inhabits.<br/><br/>Human population growth and an increase in agricultural and industrial activities, as well as dam construction and mineral extraction have caused environment degradation in the São Francisco river.  It was one of the main fishing resources in Brazil, but the fisheries are presently experiencing a decline (Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>In addition, there has been extensive deforestation in the region.  The São Francisco basin has lost 64.4% of its original forest (based on an estimate of the extent of closed canopy forest in existence 8,000 years ago in the absence of human impact), and the basin is now primarily cropland (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).<br/><br/>The areas with the highest population and industrial concentration along the Basin are located in the upper São Francisco.  Discharge of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters from these areas, as well as the disposal of mineral extraction and processing wastes, are the main sources of water degradation along the Basin (Diegues 1994).
167680		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed.
167680		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon mainstream and its tributary the Rio Negro in Brazil.&#160;  It is also found in the Orinoco basin in Venezuela.
167680		habitat	eng	<em>S. mormyrus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  <em>Sternarchorhynchus</em> species appear to prefer the deeper areas of large rivers (Campos-da-Paz 2000).
167680		population	eng	The species are not very common in collections, though this is indicative of their habitat preferences (bottom dwelling in river channels).
167680		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be affecting this species currently.
167681		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167681		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the middle-lower Corantijn and Nickerie River drainages in Suriname; and probably ranges westward to the Essequibo drainage, Guyana.
167681		habitat	eng	<em>G. brachybranchus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish that inhabits rivers.  It is a larvophil mouthbrooder and an eurytropic (occurring throughout the tropics) species. The two rivers in which the species occurs are relatively untouched.
167681		population	eng	A locally abundant species.
167681		threats	eng	No threats currently known.  Plans to build dams in the Nickerie river but this should not threaten the species, and may even benefit because the species' of this genus generally like lentic habitats, as has been seen in certain areas of the Amazon with congeners.
167682		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although the population trends are being monitored.  It is recommended research into the effects of threats are carried out, following the findings, actions should be implemented to try and decreased/ halt the negative impacts the water pollution is causing.
167682		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality at Santa Rosa (6d 26m N, 73d 18m W) but is probably found more generally in the upper Suarez River (which drains an area of 10,100 km²) in the Magdalena River drainage, Colombia.
167682		habitat	eng	<em>B. plutarcoi </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167682		population	eng	No population information known.
167682		threats	eng	The Suarez River begins at the outlet of Lake Fúquene.  Lake Fúquene has deteriorated extensively due to excessively high levels of phosphates and nitrates and the proliferation of aquatic plants, which have accelerated eutrophication (the rapid increase of nutrients into the water).  Cattle producers are responsible for 80% of the pollutants that flow into the lake; the remaining pollution comes from industry and human settlements around the lake, and upstream potato growers who use high amounts of fertilizers (Estrada and Quintero 2005).  It is suspected that any pollution in Lake Fúquene will also affect the Suarez River and therefore threaten <em>B. plutarcoi</em>.
167683		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed.
167683		distribution	eng	Known from floodplains lakes in the Solimões River (local name of the Amazon River above its confluence with the Negro in Brazil).  There are no reliable records in Peru but the species probably more than likely occurs there (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167683		habitat	eng	<em>H. hyanuary</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in flood plain lakes.
167683		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167683		threats	eng	Even if ornamental and as such exploited for the aquarium hobby, the harvest of the species is probably negligible for the species as a whole, considering that the species is probably not harvested in most of its range.  It is however a species poorly known in nature.
167684		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy of the species.
167684		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Amazon River basin.
167684		habitat	eng	<em>B. knerii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species that occurs in ponds, forest creeks and small rivers rich in plant debris.  It spawns eggs on sandy substrate, in groups.
167684		population	eng	No population information known.
167684		threats	eng	No threats are known to be currently affecting this species.
167685		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167685		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Magdalena River basin, Colombia, with recent records from both the middle and upper portion.  The type locality is near the Cauca.
167685		habitat	eng	<em>S. tenuicauda</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167685		population	eng	No population data available.
167685		threats	eng	This species is not under any major threat.  However, the area in which it is found is suffering through pollution, habitat change and degradation.
167686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167686		distribution	eng	This species is known from the headwaters of the Rio Itapicuru, a small coastal river drainage at Bahia, eastern Brazil.  The species was originally collected by John Haseman in 1909 in several small tributaries of the Itapicuru, apparently all quite close to each other.  One specific locality where the species was recently recorded was Rio Paiaiá, between Jacobina and Senhor do Bonfim (10d 53m S, 40d 24m W).  Therefore its distribution is wider than previous thought.
167686		habitat	eng	<em>A. maculosus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Members of the Genus <em>Aspidoras </em>are usually found in shallow creeks.  Occurs in small streams in places with sandy / muddy substrate.  It is a bottom dweller.  From where the species was most recently collected in 2005, the river basin was almost completely deforested.
167686		population	eng	No population information known.
167686		threats	eng	There are no known current threats.  A potential future threat could be collection for the aquarium trade.
167687		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167687		distribution	eng	This species is known fro the Rio Negro basin, downstream from Sao Gabriel rapids.  It is also recorded from the Rio Tomo and Rio Vichada, both part of the Orinoco basin in Colombia.  It has been suggested that this species maybe found in Venezuela but this is unlikely as there are no records, even for the genus collected in the country.
167687		habitat	eng	<em>O. ferreirai</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits streams, but also enter the forest during high water.  In the dry low water season this species moves to shallow quiet backwaters, marginal lagoons and small tributaries in the dry low water season and are suited to areas of dense vegetation.  It is a surface feeder that generally swims close to the surface searching for small fish and insects.  In the low water season they can be observed jumping clear from the water to catch flying insects.  They can reach more than a metre in length.  They prefer neutral to slightly acidic water and a temperature range form 25- 30 degrees Celsius (Werner and Coward 2006).  Females may produce 50 - 250 eggs per year.  Males are mouth brooders, and incubate eggs for 60 days.
167687		population	eng	A common species.
167687		threats	eng	Collected for the aquarium trade, though the threat is not thought to be significant.
167688		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.
167688		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from its remote type locality on the upper plateau of the Guyana; Oung Creek, a tributary of Chenapou Creek, a southern tributary of the Potaro River.  This is in the Essequibo River drainage, Guyana.  It is likely that the distribution of the species is highly restricted.
167688		habitat	eng	<em>C. kaiei</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Specimens of <em>Corymbophanes kaiei</em> were collected amongst cobble and submerged logs in sun-lit, swift riffles of a small, clear, forested creek.
167688		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167688		threats	eng	No known threats.  Whilst the type locality is remote, and therefore understudied, it is not likely that any threats exist.
167689		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and more research is needed on the status of the species habitat.
167689		distribution	eng	This species is fairly widespread in the Orinoco basin in Venezuela.
167689		habitat	eng	<em>S. tenuirostre</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167689		population	eng	A relatively common species (Ghazzi 2003).
167689		threats	eng	There are no threats currently affecting this species.
167690		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167690		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Trans-Andean river basins of Ecuador and Colombia.  The species is very poorly known.  Lack of records reflect lack of collection and difficulties in collecting rather than rarity.
167690		habitat	eng	<em>B. posadae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).
167690		population	eng	No population information known.
167690		threats	eng	Due to their dependence on plant material in their diet, the destruction of rainforests surrounding their habitat could have serious consequences for this species.  The areas that the species occurs in are unlikely to be particularly heavily impacted.
167691		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.  Studies into the threats of the specialized habitat preferred by <em>L. camposi</em> is needed, as these are lacking.
167691		distribution	eng	This species has been described from the Rio Ribeira do Iguape basin, southern São Paulo State and also found in Ribeirão da Ilha, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina State.  Only known from two localities (one of which is the Poco Grande).  Several recent expeditions failed to find additional specimens.<br/>Ribeirao Poco Grande: 24d15m S, 47d37m W<br/>Ribeirao da Ilha: 27d43m S, 48d35m W
167691		habitat	eng	<em>L. camposi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in very shallow (a few cm) and very slow flowing water with a dense litter layer or vegetation.  This means that they are often overlooked, however, even considering this, they are known from very few localities.
167691		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167691		threats	eng	The Rio Ribeira do Iguape Basin is a heavily impacted habitat, that has less than 5% of its original forest intact (Wosiacki and Oyakawa 2005).  The species occurs only in very specific and uncommon habitat type.
167692		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although the restoration and maintenance of the species preferred habitat is needed to see what effect the invasive species and water pollution is having.  A monitoring programme should also be implemented to follow the trends of this threatened species.
167692		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Titicaca which has an area of 8270.6km².
167692		habitat	eng	<em>O. pentlandiii</em> is a  benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species within the lake.
167692		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167692		threats	eng	<em>O. pentlandii</em> in Lake Titicaca has been considerably reduced in abundance since the introduction of the rainbow trout (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>).  However, the contribution of introduced species to this decline is obscured by recent overfishing and other bad management practices (Kerr and Lasenby 2000).  The threat posed by introduced species is shown by the disappearance of <em>Orestias cuvieri</em> from Lake Titicaca.  Both <em>Odontesthes bonariensis</em> (Pejerrey) and <em>O. mykiss</em> were implicated in its decline.  Lake Titicaca is also being degraded because of pollution.
167693		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167693		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Amazon River basin; along the Amazon-Solimões River from Tabatinga to Óbidos. Depth zone is likely only down to a few metres.
167693		habitat	eng	<em>C. semifasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Found in larger streams, rivers and lakes associated with flood plains.
167693		population	eng	At least compared with other cichlids on the area it is not very common, though it is collected from across the region.
167693		threats	eng	No threats are known.&#160; Since the aquatic systems in the area are relatively good (though the flood plain forests are being logged - mostly selective), there is little concern about it's threat.  It is occasionally found in markets, but it is not a food fish per se.
167694		conservation	eng	Three main conservation working units: Part of the Madre de Dios River basin falls within the Manu National Park, or Manu Biosphere Reserve, and the Bahuaja-sonene reserve.
167694		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Madre de Dios River basin in Peru.  Depth zone is very shallow (0-2 or 3 m).
167694		habitat	eng	<em>A. urteagai</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish that inhabits small streams and swamps.  Its eggs are attached to the ceiling of caves, and the female cares for the eggs and larvae. Note that this information is general for the genus, rather than the species.
167694		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167694		threats	eng	The area as a whole is quite pristine.  Gold mining in the upper Madre de Dios River basin is a major environmental threat to aquatic ecosystems - this is however not a species specific threat.  These activities alter water quality, quantity, and the timing of flows in downstream freshwater systems. There is some collection for the aquarium trade.
167695		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.
167695		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the La Plata and São Francisco basins in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and probably also Bolivia. It also occurs at the Rio Jacuí, an independent coastal drainage in Rio Grande do Sul.
167695		habitat	eng	<em>L. obtusidens</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species.
167695		population	eng	Several wild populations of <em>L. obtusidens</em> have been suffering a drastic reduction in the last years.  A decrease in the amount of collected individuals in the recent years has been reported by fishermen of Guaíra, Paraná State, Brazil, (Martins <em>et al</em>. 2003).
167695		threats	eng	When compared with another large migratory fishes from the La Plata basin, <em>Leporinus obtusidens</em> seems to be in a relatively good conservation status.  It is regularly found in river stretches both polluted or confined by river dams, even when those impacts have been disturbing these stretches for decades (as the upper Rio Piracicaba basin in São Paulo).  Doubtless, however, its population has experienced a considerable decline in the last fifty years in the upper Paraná basin, mainly as a consequence of the disappearance of almost all meaningful natural-flowing river stretches.
167696		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167696		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Japurá River basin, in Brazil and Colombia.
167696		habitat	eng	<em>H. varimaculosus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Its habitat is relatively untouched and found in larger white water rivers.
167696		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167696		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.
167697		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167697		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is unknown, but the genus <em>Rineloricaria</em> is widespread; from Panama to the La Plata basin in South America.  The Extent of Occurrence is likely to be an over-estimation (16684039 km²).
167697		habitat	eng	<em>R. lima</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167697		population	eng	No population information known.
167697		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any threats to this species.
167698		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167698		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a restricted area at the upper Oelemari River, a tributary of the Marowijne River, Marowijne District, Suriname.
167698		habitat	eng	<em>G. oelemariensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits rivers.  The genus generally prefers fast flowing river sections.
167698		population	eng	No population information known.
167698		threats	eng	No threats are currently known, however this species is severely restricted.
167699		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although the restoration and maintenance of the species preferred habitat is needed to see what effect the invasive species and water pollution is having.&#160;  A monitoring programme should also be implemented to follow the trends of this threatened species.
167699		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Titicaca which has an area of 8270.6km².
167699		habitat	eng	<em>O. olivaceus</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom), non-migratory fish.  It is not a seasonal killifish.
167699		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167699		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat to lake Titicaca.  Rainbow trout have been introduced as well as silverside, the former predating on, and the latter competing with this species.
167700		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167700		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins.
167700		habitat	eng	<em>E. electricus</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom) (ecological region at the lowest level of water body), nocturnal species that generally inhabits the muddy bottoms of rivers, streams, pools and swamps, favouring deeply shaded areas.  This species is an obligatory air breather and can withstand poorly oxygenated water.  Juveniles feed on invertebrates, whilst adults feed on fish and small mammals.   <br/><br/><em>E. electricus</em> is a fractional spawner; there are three successive batches of eggs deposited in a spawning period.  Males construct foam nests and guard the growing larvae until mid-January when the first seasonal rains flood the breeding area, causing the young eels to disperse.  First-born larvae prey on other eggs and embryos coming from late spawning batches.  There is a male-biased sex ratio, (3:1) and males are also considerably larger than females.
167700		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167700		threats	eng	Small specimens are collected for the aquarium trade, they are harvested for human consumption and also for science although none of the collections are causing a decline in the population.<br/><em></em>
167701		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167701		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caquetá River basin, in the upper Japurá River drainage, Colombia.  A recent taxonomic revision has increased its distribution significantly to include much of the Amazon basin.
167701		habitat	eng	<em>L. caquetae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in rivers with rocky bottoms and fast flowing water.
167701		population	eng	Very common throughout its distribution.
167701		threats	eng	No threats to this species are currently known.
167702		conservation	eng	The upper watershed of the Coppename river is protected by the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (UNESCO 2007).
167702		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Coppename, Nickerie, Suriname, and Oyapock River basins, in Brazil, French Guiana and Suriname.
167702		habitat	eng	<em>B. simulata</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom), oviparous species, which exhibits distinct pairing.  The size of the eyes, which is relatively large in relation to body size, suggests a crepuscular activity (Planquette <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Occupies large and medium rivers generally on sandbars.
167702		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167702		threats	eng	No threats are known.
167703		conservation	eng	Although the Ribeira de Iguape River basin is located between two large metropolitan regions (São Paulo, to the north, and Curitiba, to the south) and was one of the first and most intensely exploited regions in Brazil during the colonial and imperial eras, the Ribeira Valley today is extremely well conserved.  There are 24 conservation units that are entirely or partially located in the Ribeira Valley, and 51% of its total area is legally protected (Instituto Socioambiental 2006).
167703		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal basins of southeastern Brazil in Paraná State and in the Ribeira de Iguape River basin.
167703		habitat	eng	<em>C. lanei</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits slow flowing forest creeks, often with black water.
167703		population	eng	This was found to be one of the most abundant freshwater species in a study of the Itanhaem River basin, Southeastern Brazil (Leung and Camargo 2005).  This is a common species in eastern Brazil, occurring in a relatively limited area.
167703		threats	eng	There is a problem in the coastal areas with urbanisation, however there is extensive habitat available where this species still thrives.
167704		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167704		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Tocantins River basin, Brazil. Has a relatively restricted distribution.
167704		habitat	eng	<em>S. amazonica</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  This species occurs in relatively large streams and small rivers.
167704		population	eng	A common fish, though it does not seem to occur at high densities.
167704		threats	eng	Although the Rio Tocantins basin is being dammed gradually by the Brazilian government, small sized species that are not highly rheophilic (preferring fast-flowing waters) such as <em>Steindachnerina amazonica</em> are probably not facing a major threat since much adequate habitat will still be available for them.  Also <em>Steindachnerina</em> species tend to be resilient to habitat modification.
167705		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167705		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Uruguay River basin, Brazil.
167705		habitat	eng	<em>C. prenda</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in fast flowing rivers that run on bedrock, including in main tributaries.  It shelters amongst submerged vegetation within forest rivers.
167705		population	eng	Not an abundant species.
167705		threats	eng	The Uruguay River basin has undergone intense deforestation since the onset of colonization.  There is almost no original vegetation left, (there has been a 92.4% loss of original forest cover) and this has greatly affected the ecological balance, causing a desertification process to occur in the area (Diegues 1994).  In addition, with there being at least 13 dams, there is a high degree of river fragmentation within the basin (Water Resources eAtlas 2005), and as a result, populations of most migratory fish species are severely diminished in the middle and upper Uruguay river (FAO 1996).  However, it is unknown how this habitat alteration would have affected <em>C. prenda</em>.
167706		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although it may be possible to monitor the harvest trends.
167706		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower Amazon and Tocantins rivers, and northward to the Marowijne River.  It may also occur in the Rupununi and Negro rivers.
167706		habitat	eng	<em>A. nuchalis</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that inhabits the slow flowing lower courses of the larger rivers and flood plain lakes.  It prefers eroded zones, where it appears in large numbers, and occurs less frequently in flood zones.  It is a nocturnal species, which is also active during dusk and dawn.  Known to adapt to and even thrive in dammed portions of rivers.
167706		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167706		threats	eng	The species are harvested for human food and in the pet trade, but it is not a threat to the population.&#160; In some areas, the species is actually increasing.
167707		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167707		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Uruguay River basin in Brazil.
167707		habitat	eng	<em>H. luteus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in the large and medium sized rivers with strong currents and rocky bottoms.
167707		population	eng	Fairly common species.
167707		threats	eng	There have been several dams constructed along this river.  However, most of the waterway is not affected and as this species is not migratory, the damming is not a major threat.
167708		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167708		distribution	eng	This restricted species is only known from one tributary of the Amazon River near Manaus.  It is probably slightly more widespread though.
167708		habitat	eng	<em>P. longirostris</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It is found in small rivers with open terrestrial vegetation for sun light to reach the waters surface.
167708		population	eng	This species is not rare but difficult to find.
167708		threats	eng	No major threats known but the region in which it is found has been disturbed.
167709		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167709		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Upper Esequibo drainage of Guyana, with a possibly wider distribution.
167709		habitat	eng	<em>H. hemiurus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits small tributary environments, having sandy and or rocky bottoms.
167709		population	eng	<em>H. hemiurus</em> is reported to be common in nature (Grosman 2002).
167709		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
167710		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167710		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Paíta, Peru to Aysén, Chile.
167710		habitat	eng	<em>O. regia</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that occurs in schools.   The juveniles are found in estuarine environments (Dyer 2000).  It feeds primarily on the eggs of <em>Engraulis ringens</em>.
167710		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167710		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.
167711		conservation	eng	Surveys for this species are urgently needed, as are investigations into the extent of damage caused by the threats.
167711		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Xingu River, in the vicinity of Altamira, Pará, Brazil, at the point where the Xingu leaves the Brazilian shield (approximately 200 m from the mouth).  It is only known from the type locality (described in 2002).  It could also be known from the Iriri.  It is possible that the species occurs further up the river basin in similar habitat.
167711		habitat	eng	<em>T. centisquama</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and rheophilic (prefers running water) species that dwells on rocky bottom rapids in streams.  It perches solitary on top of boulders, and forages on rock surfaces and picks mostly on benthic preys. Highly specialised rheophilic fish.
167711		population	eng	No population information is available.
167711		threats	eng	An electricity company is proposing the construction of a large dam on the Xingu, near Altamira, called Belo Monte and has plans for the Babaquara Dam upstream to store water during the dry season.  As originally designed, Babaquara would flood 2,400 square miles of the rainforest. The Xingu dams complex would cause environmental problems such as flooding, drought and interruption of the river flow, thus disrupting the ecosystem (International Rivers Network 2006).  If the dams are built then the habitat required for this highly specialised rheophilic (preferring fast-flowing water) fish will no longer exist.  <br/><br/>It is very likely that this species is threatened by habitat degradation.  Members of communities situated on the banks of the Xingú say that pollution in the Xingu river is increasing; as a result of agricultural activities, such as the massive cultivation of soy beans, and cattle ranching, in close proximity to the tributaries of the river (Turner 2006).   Satellite photos show that almost 30% of the Xingu River headwaters have been deforested (Greenpeace 2006), although it is not known how this would effect <em>T. centisquama</em>.
167712		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167712		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Villa Montes, Monte Bellos, and Rio Tomolosa in Tarija state in Bolivia.  It is also in Rio Pilcomayo and Bermejo basins in Argentina.
167712		habitat	eng	<em>O. bolivianus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species live in relatively large streams and small rivers.  The species is carnivorous, preying on insects and small fish.
167712		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167712		threats	eng	Not likely to be threatened because of its distribution in a remote area.
167713		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167713		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Venezuela and is endemic to the Maracaibo Lake basin.
167713		habitat	eng	<em>T. venezuelae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167713		population	eng	Not a common species but was collected in great numbers at the time of its description in the 1940s.
167713		threats	eng	The area in which this species has been found has been severely impacted but it is unknown how this would have affected, or if it is still affecting this species.
167714		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167714		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ucayali River basin, Peru.
167714		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, occurring in small to medium size rivers with soft bottoms.
167714		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167714		threats	eng	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species.
167715		conservation	eng	A large portion of Amapá (around 55%) is protected under 12 conservation areas and five indigenous lands (Conservation International 2003).
167715		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal streams in Amapá, northern Brazil, on the border with French Guiana in the Amazon basin.  The species is poorly known.
167715		habitat	eng	<em>C. brevirostre</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits coastal streams.  Most <em>Characidium</em> species are rapid dwelling inhabitants preferring fast flowing water - though this is not a rule.  Some members of the genus are an exception and occur in low velocity waters and lagoons.
167715		population	eng	The genus is very common, even in quite disturbed areas.
167715		threats	eng	The Amapa basin is one of the best preserved in Brazil.
167716		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.  Looking into the proposal that that dam is benefitting the species could yield encouraging results.
167716		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and known from the middle portions of the Amazon River basin.
167716		habitat	eng	<em>A. britskii</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Lives in open rivers in areas with slow flow.
167716		population	eng	The species of the genus are fairly common.
167716		threats	eng	Currently, there are no known threats to this species.
167717		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167717		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.  It is found in the Paraná River basin, the Paraguay River drainage, the Guapore River drainage, Uruguay basin and along the coast of the Rio Grande do Sul.
167717		habitat	eng	<em>C. lepidota</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) fish.  Found in lagoons, larger rivers, small streams - if you are in the plains and there is water, it is likely you will find this species. It is a typical dweller of streams, lagoons and flooded areas.
167717		population	eng	A widespread and abundant species.
167717		threats	eng	Very resilient to habitat modification and certainly not threatened.&#160; The species is collected for the pet trade, but it is not at a level that is a cause for concern.
167718		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167718		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in French Guiana, however, an exact description of its range cannot be found.
167718		habitat	eng	<em>R. lungi </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that occurs in shallow waters of flooded savannas and coastal swamps, and favours sunlit areas.  It can also inhabit brackish waters.  Juveniles are released from eggs measuring 1.2 mm.  Sexual differentiation is possible at four months; and sexual maturity is reached at five months of age.
167718		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167718		threats	eng	<em>R. lungi</em> is collected from the wild for the aquarium trade (Grosman 2002) but this does not constitute a major threat.  The area that the species inhabits is unlikely to have the degree of disturbance required to trigger a threatened listing.  Much of the area is still intact and pristine.
167719		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Jequitinhonha and Pardo rivers in eastern Brazil.
167719		habitat	eng	<em>L. crassilabris </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  A large sized fish which occurs in large and medium sized rivers in a variety of habitats.
167719		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167719		threats	eng	This species might be locally threatened as the Jequitinhonha River has received a considerable impact in the last decades, mostly from deforestation and mining and in the last few years also from damming.
167720		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place; monitoring of the harvesting trends could be implemented.
167720		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Amazon basin and can also be found in the upper Orinioco basin.
167720		habitat	eng	<em>C. vittata</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) that lives in large rivers and flood plain lakes.
167720		population	eng	A very common and widespread species.
167720		threats	eng	The species is harvested on a local scale for human food consumption, and at an international level for the pet trade but neither are thought to be at a rate to cause a decline in the population.&#160; There are no other threats known to this species at present.
167721		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167721		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the upper Amazon basin in the area of Iquitos, Peru, and in the Essequibo River basin in Guyana (Langeani 1996).
167721		habitat	eng	<em>H. amazonum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It is oviparous, and distinct pairing occurs.
167721		population	eng	Very common species with a stable population trend.
167721		threats	eng	Unlikely to be under any threat; currently collected for human consumption but not a cause for concern.
167722		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167722		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Rio Uaupés (Rio Negro drainage) in Amazonas, Brazil, specifically from the Rio Uaupés itself and its tributary, the Rio Tiquié.  It is also known from the Rio Caquetá basin and upper Rio Guaviare (a tributary of the Orinoco River) basins in Colombia.
167722		habitat	eng	Occurs in a large and pristine area in mid sized rivers.
167722		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167722		threats	eng	It is harvested in the Rio Tiquie (upper Rio Negro) for the aquarium trade, but the effects of harvest seem to be negligible.
167723		conservation	eng	This species is known from a small area of the Chapada Diamantina National Park which is relatively well protected.
167723		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small area of the Chapada Diamantina National Park.  The total area of this protected area is 1,520 km².
167723		habitat	eng	<em>C. pecten</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small fast flowing dark water creeks with rock substrate.  These run across open natural field areas on the upper plateau.  Swim in the middle of the day, slowly in the mid-water, feeding on algae.
167723		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167723		threats	eng	Mining was a threat in the past, but this has been controlled and there is very little current mining.  It has recently been suggested that a fish, the <em>Hoplias malabaricus</em>, might be predating on the species.
167724		conservation	eng	Most of the information is genus specific.  Therefore more species specific data needs to be collected.
167724		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Rio de la Plata, but it is not clear whether it occurs only in the estuary, or in the La Plata River basin which drains into the estuary in Argentina.
167724		habitat	eng	<em>T. albicrux</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Species of the genus are adaptable to different freshwater habitats, including ponds, ditches, burrow pits along roads and dammed areas.
167724		population	eng	The species of this genus are generally widespread and common.
167724		threats	eng	Due to the uncertainty regarding this species distribution and habitat, it cannot be determined what threats this species may face.  Inferring from other members of the genus however, it is unlikely that there are any significant threats to the species
167725		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Magdalena River basin in Colombia and Panama.
167725		habitat	eng	<em>S. aequilabiatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in large streams and rivers, nocturnal, lives on sandy bottom and clear mid stream waters.
167725		population	eng	A relatively common species, although it is thought the population is decreasing (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167725		threats	eng	The species is likely to have decreased slightly because of many threats to the Magdalena River.  It is likely that <em>S. aequilabiatus</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  Though <em>S. aequilabiatus</em> is not known to be harvested, it is interesting to note that catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades (Harvey 1998).  It is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.<br/><br/>However, none of these threats are having a drastic effect on this species which is still common.
167726		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends is required.
167726		distribution	eng	This species is know from the south and west basins off Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela.
167726		habitat	eng	<em>C. maracaiboensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Prefers relatively fast flowing waters, feeding on benthic invertebrates from the bottom.  Occurs in small to medium sized streams, but not rivers.
167726		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167726		threats	eng	Due to the small nature of the streams in which the species occurs, it is likely that a good proportion of habitat remains intact enough to support this species.  Even considering the extent of disturbance in the Lake Maraciabo basin, the species is likely not to have suffered unduly.  <em>Creagrutus</em> species are relatively resilient to habitat modification.
167727		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167727		distribution	eng	This species is found in Parmaiba, one river basin in Piauí, northeastern Brazil.
167727		habitat	eng	<em>P. haroldoi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The river in which it is found is not known for its high levels of biodiversity.
167727		population	eng	Not a common species.  Not many collections have been made in this river.
167727		threats	eng	No threats are currently known.
167728		conservation	eng	Found in Santa Teresa Biological Reserve.
167728		distribution	eng	As far as is known it is only known from a very small area in Espírito Santo near Santa Teresa.  It is possible that it is more widespread, but the genus is generally fairly restricted in their distribution.
167728		habitat	eng	<em>T. longibarbatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small streams and creeks with moderate to fast flowing water.  They live hidden among rocks and submerged vegetation.
167728		population	eng	No population data available.
167728		threats	eng	This particular region has problems with deforestation, however there are a number of reserves in which it occurs which are well protected.
167729		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167729		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Upper Meta River basin, Colombia.
167729		habitat	eng	<em>D. pediculatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Poorly known as nobody collects in the area, though the area is relatively untouched.  Likely to be a species that occurs in fast flowing water with rocky bottom.
167729		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167729		threats	eng	Economic activity is frozen in the area so little is known but almost definitely not threatened by any process.
167730		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167730		distribution	eng	This is a severely restricted species found in the Rio Preto, a tributary of the Paraíba do Sul, southeastern Brazil.  Only known from the type locality and a location next to the type.
167730		habitat	eng	<em>H. papillatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits small, shallow streams, with clear water and moderate to strong current, and bottoms of rocks, loose stones and gravel.  Forest and grass is usually present on the margins.
167730		population	eng	Not commonly encountered. Although appears to have a stable population.
167730		threats	eng	The Paraíba do Sul basin is today one of the most industrialized areas of Brazil but this species would not be impacted in its tributary.  The area in which the Rio Preto flows in relatively unspoilt.
167731		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167731		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Amazon River basin.  Several collection have occurred of this species over the past few years (Lima, pers. comm. 2007).
167731		habitat	eng	<em>P. macrostomus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, only known from white-waters.  The species is restricted to feeds on invertebrates and lives amid aquatic grasses.
167731		population	eng	An uncommon species, although the population appears to be stable.
167731		threats	eng	There are no threats known to currently affect this species.
167732		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167732		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Guaporé River basin and in the upper Madeira River drainage, Brazil.
167732		habitat	eng	<em>C. macrolepis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species occur in big streams, rivers and lagoons.
167732		population	eng	<em>Charax</em> species are generally relatively common.
167732		threats	eng	The river basin is deforested in certain areas, but still maintains a biodiverse assemblage of fish.
167733		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed.  Surveys into the habitat status and population numbers are needed, plus information on the affects of the known threats (dam construction and increase in water pollution) are necessary on the hope that <em>A. trierythropterus</em> can be down listed in the future.
167733		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Paraná River basin, Brazil.  The species is only known form its type locality of the Mogi-Guaçu River basin.  More specimens have been collected from the type locality, though not from elsewhere.  It is probable that the species occurs more broadly, but collection attempts have not been made.
167733		habitat	eng	<em>A. trierythropterus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in ponds and small lakes near the flood plain areas.
167733		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167733		threats	eng	Damming of the upper Paraná River in Jupia has seriously affected the aquatic environment.   There are over 130 dams in the region, which affect virtually all the principle tributaries.  The dam interrupts the migration of many species that travel upstream to reproduce (Agostinho and Gomes 2001).  However, it is not known how this would have specifically affected <em>A. trierythropterus</em>.  <br/><br/>The major threat in the upper and middle Paraná basin is degradation in the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents.  The Paraná basin has the highest urban-industrial density in the inner country.  The presence of herbicides and fungicides used in farming and cattle-rearing development may also become a considerable source of pollution.  The construction of Itaipu, Rosana and Taquaracu hydroelectric power plants has attracted more people to the region to work (Diegues 1994).
167734		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167734		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper Amazon in Peru, Brazil and Ecuador; in the Amazon River basin, from the Napo River to Marajó Island.
167734		habitat	eng	<em>C. cincta</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It inhabits larger rivers, streams and lakes.
167734		population	eng	Broad distribution, but is not particularly common in collections, therefore probably not very abundant.
167734		threats	eng	There are currently no threats known to be affecting this species.
167735		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167735		distribution	eng	This species is known from Quisto Cocha, Peru (Seegers 2000).  The distribution is restricted, though maybe present beyond the range of the current map.
167735		habitat	eng	<em>R. rectocaudatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167735		population	eng	No population information known.
167735		threats	eng	The species is collected for the aquarium trade but not at a significant level.
167736		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed; research looking into the localised threats would aid in future assessments.
167736		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Patia River basin, Colombia.
167736		habitat	eng	<em>C. patiae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species which inhabits freshwater at high altitudes.  It occurs in fast flowing streams with rocky bottom.
167736		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167736		threats	eng	None known.  Ecological surveys are not possible due to political unrest.  However, the area is thought to be relatively well conserved.
167737		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167737		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread river channel gymnotiform (order of knifefishes that have organs adapted to use bioelectricity) of the Amazon basin.
167737		habitat	eng	<em>D. conirostris</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) river channel species.  Species of the genera <em>Distocyclus</em> are essentially nocturnal animals that remain undercover during the day.
167737		population	eng	A common species with a stable population trend.
167737		threats	eng	The are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.
167738		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167738		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil.  It is known from a relatively restricted distribution inhabiting coastal rivers from Itajaí-Açú, Itapocú and Cubatão River basins in Santa Catarina State and Paranaguá River basin in Paraná State.
167738		habitat	eng	<em>P. pappenheimi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits coastal streams and rivers.  Reproduction is generally seasonal, and is synchronized with the rainy period.  Multiple spawning occurs and reproductive females exhibit burrowing behaviour, to protect the brood from being washed away (Amaral <em>et al.</em> 1998).
167738		population	eng	No population information known.
167738		threats	eng	None known to affect the species directly but it does inhabit disturbed areas.
167739		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167739		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Lake Maracaibo basin.
167739		habitat	eng	<em>P. coprophagus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species was described in the 1940s in Lake Maracaibo.  Generalist habits, and can withstand salinity to some degree.
167739		population	eng	No population information available, though the species is thought to be very abundant.
167739		threats	eng	In areas which are undisturbed, they are one of the most common species, and can even survive disturbance.
167740		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167740		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia.  All species of the genus <em>Malacoglanis</em> are endemic to the Amazon River basin (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2004).  The species is also known from Ecuador.  Distribution is likely to be much larger than is currently recorded.
167740		habitat	eng	<em>M. gelatinosus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species is very small and lives burrowed in the sand.  It is very likely under collected, but recent studies have found it to be locally very abundant when the correct measures are used to collect it.
167740		population	eng	No population data available, but possibly quite locally abundant.
167740		threats	eng	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species.
167741		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167741		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia, in the San Juan River basin.
167741		habitat	eng	<em>I. spurrellii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167741		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167741		threats	eng	The region in which the San Juan basin lies is impacted by deforestation, industrial production of African palm oil, uncontrolled gold mining and illegal growing of coca (WWF 2001).  However, these threats do not seem to be impacting greatly on this species.
167742		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167742		distribution	eng	The genus has a very patchy distribution across South America.  This species occurs in the Caquetá River basin, within the Japurá River basin, Colombia.  The distribution of the species is likely to extend across the western Amazon as well, beyond the Japurá River basin.
167742		habitat	eng	<em>S. euacanthagenys</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in small and medium sized rivers.  Occurs on soft substrate.
167742		population	eng	No known population data.
167742		threats	eng	No threats are currently known.
167743		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into population trends and threats are required.
167743		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Lake Maracaibo drainage.
167743		habitat	eng	<em>C. venezuelae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Species of the genus inhabit sandbars in tributary streams.
167743		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167743		threats	eng	There is very little natural habitat remaining in the Lake Maraciabo basin due to a high population density and intensive land use.  Grazing has especially affected the southeastern and southwestern areas of Lake Maracaibo.  The main impact on the natural vegetation has been caused by shifting cultivation, and by an extensive network of roads surrounding Lake Maracaibo.  Further conversion of remaining natural habitat in the southern part of the basin is of great concern.  Also of concern is recent findings that some of the rivers that traverse the basin and flow into the Maracaibo Lake are polluted with pesticides and fertilizers (WWF 2001).  It is not known what effect these threats have on the species, however there are many rivers in the area which are well conserved.
167744		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place at present, and a population monitoring programme is urgently needed to better understand the threats and numbers remaining, with a recovery programme in mind.
167744		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lower São Francisco River basin in Brazil but not below the great dam of Sobradinho.
167744		habitat	eng	<em>B. orthotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of the water body) species.  Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).
167744		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167744		threats	eng	It is suspected that the species has declined considerably over the past several decades in the São Francisco basin.  It is likely that due to damming over the lowest portion of the region it is no longer present. <br/><br/>Human population growth and an increase in agricultural and industrial activities, as well as dam construction, mineral extraction, deforestation and predatory fishing have caused environment degradation in the São Francisco river.  It was one of the main fishing resources in Brazil, but the fisheries are presently experiencing a decline. Taking this into consideration, <em>B. orthotaenia</em>, which is an important species for commercial fishing, is threatened with extinction in some regions of the São Francisco basin (Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Due to their dependence on plant material in their diet, the destruction of rainforests surrounding their habitat could have serious consequences for this species.  The São Francisco basin has lost 64.4% of its original forest (based on an estimate of the extent of closed canopy forest in existence 8,000 years ago in the absence of human impact), and the basin is now primarily cropland (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).
167745		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although research is possibly are needed, especially to look at threats of the Guaporé River basin.
167745		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guaporé and Beni River basins, in Bolivia and Brazil.
167745		habitat	eng	<em>P. beni</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in large streams and rivers in shallow areas.
167745		population	eng	Species of the genus are common wherever they occur.
167745		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known that are causing a problem to the species.
167746		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed; a local survey into the harvesting rates could yield interesting results into population trends.
167746		distribution	eng	This Brazilian species occurs in the Amazon, lower Negro and Madeira rivers (Castro and Vari 2004).
167746		habitat	eng	<em>S. taeniurus</em> is a potamodromous (migrating within freshwater only) species that inhabits streams, main river channels and floodplain lakes.  It is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that feeds on detritus on the bottom of the river.  The jaraqui (members of the genus <em>Semaprochilodus</em>) have a complex migratory pattern, which has probably contributed to its widespread dispersal to both fluvial and lacustrine (prefers lakes or ponds) habitats in all the major water types of central Amazonia.  They undertake annual spawning, feeding and dispersal migrations timed to the hydrological cycle (Ribeiro and Petrere 1990).
167746		population	eng	This is one of the most common fish in the Amazon basin (Henderson 2006), and the most abundant <em>Semaprochilodus</em> species (Ribeiro and Petrere 1990).
167746		threats	eng	<em>S. taeniurus</em> and <em>S. insignis</em> together account for nearly 85 per cent of the catches in central Amazonia. There is much evidence to demonstrate that catch levels in central Amazonia are being sustained despite increasing fishing effort, especially with regard to the genus <em>Semaprochilodus</em> (Ribeiro and Petrere, 1990).&#160; Further research is required to confirm if the harvesting is sustainable, and if other threats are causing concern to the populations.
167747		conservation	eng	Part of the Iguaçu River lies within the Iguaçu National Park.
167747		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Iguaçu River basin.
167747		habitat	eng	<em>T. stawiarski</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small rivers and creeks with fast flowing water and rock bottoms.  It lives hidden among the rocks.
167747		population	eng	Not a common species but perhaps locally quite abundant.
167747		threats	eng	At some point there may be reason for concern as the species does not occur in any protected areas, and the river system is being impacted by industrial pollution and damming.  It is not yet possible to list these as threat to the species, as it occurs in tributaries, however they may become significant in the future.
167748		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.
167748		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Orinoco River basin, Venezuela from the following localities as stated by Buckup (1993): Rio Caroni, below the Guri dam (7d 38, N, 64d 50W); Rio Orinoco, Raudales de Ature (5d 35m N, 67d 31m W); and Rio Ventuari (4d 4m N, 66d 56m W).
167748		habitat	eng	<em>M. melanopteron</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Highly rheophylic (prefers running water), the species occurs in rapids in fast flowing water.
167748		population	eng	No population information known.
167748		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006). <br/><br/>Damming in the basin might change the present situation in the short term.  The building of the Guri dam has dramatically changed the surrounding habitat.  Very probably the species has disappeared from the dammed area, as the species is highly rheophylic (preferring running water).
167749		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy and population trends of the species, as well as monitoring the habitat to relation to the problems highlighted in the threats section.
167749		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Rio Caquetá drainage, within the Japurá River basin, Colombia.  The distribution is wider than this but is still not published (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167749		habitat	eng	<em>L. euspilurus</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Occurs in flood plain lakes, not common in even small rivers.  Benthic slow flowing areas.
167749		population	eng	Locally this species can be highly abundant.
167749		threats	eng	The Caquetá River basin habitat is being polluted by the processing of coca leaves into coca paste and cocaine.  Sulphuric acid, ethyl ether, acetone, and kerosene are poured directly into the ground by cocaine processors working in the Caquetá River basin, which is the primary coca growing region.  The consequences of this pollution are quickly felt in small rivers where the aquatic life is devastated (Trade and Environment Database 1997).<br/><br/>However, it is unlikely that these threats have impacted across the range sufficiently to be thought of as major threats.
167750		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167750		distribution	eng	This species is restricted in the upper Amazon River basin - above 400-500 m above sea level (asl), but below 600 m in the piedmont areas.  It was described from Peru and also occurs in Ecuador.
167750		habitat	eng	<em>O. eigenmanni</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Likely to occur in small rivers and large streams in areas with a moderate gradient.
167750		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167750		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.
167751		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic from the Pilcomayo River basin, in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay.
167751		habitat	eng	<em>O. microcephala</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  A high natural level of siltation occurs in the river.  Over a historical time period, this means that the river is constantly moving laterally.&#160; The species prefers slow flowing water.
167751		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167751		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.
167752		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167752		distribution	eng	This species occurs in tributaries around Motatán River in the Lake Maracaibo basin.
167752		habitat	eng	<em>T. maracaiboensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species and occurs in tributaries around Motatán River in the Lake Maracaibo basin.
167752		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167752		threats	eng	There has been large amounts of habitat degradation around Lake Maracaibo which has lead to water pollution in the area as well.  However, these environmental problems are not adversely affecting <em>T. maracaiboensis</em>.
167753		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167753		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Meta River basin, and the Apure and Masparro River basins.  It is a poorly known species, but appears to have a large distributional range across Colombia and Venezuela.
167753		habitat	eng	<em>G. stroudi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits white-water streams and rivers.  It is found in near-shore areas with sand and gravel bottoms in moderate to fairly swift currents.  The species is nocturnal.
167753		population	eng	Not a very common species and it is likely to be overlooked because it is nocturnal.  There is a specific method needed to collect this species.
167753		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known.
167754		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167754		distribution	eng	This coastal species is found from Barcelona to Maracaibo in Venezuela.
167754		habitat	eng	<em>P. koperi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It is euryhaline (able to live in waters of a wide range of salinities) and can survive in both fresh and brackish waters.
167754		population	eng	A common species (Lima per. comm. 2007).
167754		threats	eng	Not threatened.
167755		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167755		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Araranguá River basin of southern Santa Cantarina State, Brazil.
167755		habitat	eng	<em>E. gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, that was collected from small, shallow rivers with very clear, transparent water and slow to moderate currents.  The bottom comprised of rocks, loose stones, gravel, sand and mud (Reis and Schaefer 1998).
167755		population	eng	Easy to collect and locally fairly common.
167755		threats	eng	Pollution from coal mining is apparent in part of the basin, but only a very small section.
167756		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.
167756		distribution	eng	Taxonomic problems notwithstanding, it is thought that this species occurs quite widely in the Guaporé River basin in Brazil.
167756		habitat	eng	<em>T. aulopygia</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Nocturnal species which is a surface swimmer eating insects that fall in the water.  Hides inside submerged structures during the day.  The species display internal fertilisation (as do the other members of the family).
167756		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167756		threats	eng	Although taken for the pet trade, the level of fish being removed from the population is thought to be small and is not considered to be a current threat.
167757		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167757		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and occurs in the western and eastern tributaries of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela.
167757		habitat	eng	<em>P. suttonorum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167757		population	eng	No population information known.
167757		threats	eng	The species is collected for the aquarium trade.  There is also significant habitat disturbance in the basin.  A recent conservation assessment of Venezuelan fish has listed this species as Data Deficient (in press).
167758		conservation	eng	The Morro dos Seis Lagos is located inside the Yanomami indigenous reserve, itself part of the Pico da Neblina National Park.
167758		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Morro dos Seis Lagos lake complex, in the upper Negro River basin, Brazil.  It is known only from the holotype which is from an indigenous reserve within a national park in a very remote area.
167758		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, and is the only known fish so far known to occur in the remote Morro dos Seis Lagos lake complex, which is a region with high levels of natural radioactivity (de Pinna 1998).<br/><br/><em>G. niobium</em> is currently only known from one specimen, which was collected in water about 1m deep, hiding within a thick layer of leaf litter on the bottom.
167758		population	eng	<em>G. niobium</em> is currently known only from one specimen.
167758		threats	eng	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species but the species is only known from one specimen.
167759		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.
167759		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Parnaíba River basin in Brazil.
167759		habitat	eng	<em>S. rostratus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species. It is a relatively large herbivorous species, grazing on grass and living in large rivers.
167759		population	eng	Species of this genus are generally abundant.
167759		threats	eng	No threats currently known.
167760		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167760		distribution	eng	Found in the upper Amazon River basin, from Manaus and into the Ucayali River (Froese and Pauly 2006).
167760		habitat	eng	Occupies small forest streams, it feeds on a wide variety of insects, insect larvae and plant matter (Berra 2001).
167760		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167760		threats	eng	Harvested for the aquarium trade, though this probably has negligible effects on populations.
167761		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167761		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Amazon River basin, in Brazil, Colombia and Peru.  Widely distributed, though not common.
167761		habitat	eng	<em>I. amazonica</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that occurs in large river channels.
167761		population	eng	Not a particularly abundant species.
167761		threats	eng	The species has been found for sale in markets, although the extent of harvesting is not known.&#160; Other threats are also not known.
167762		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167762		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Ucayali River basin, in the Peruvian Amazon.
167762		habitat	eng	<em>R. wolfei</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species occurs in small to medium sized rivers with muddy bottoms.  Most of the information on this species is indicative of the genus rather than the species itself which is poorly known.
167762		population	eng	No known population data.
167762		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting the species.
167763		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167763		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Orinoco River basin, Venezuela.
167763		habitat	eng	<em>P. haemomyzon</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167763		population	eng	A relatively common species.
167763		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006).
167764		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167764		distribution	eng	This species is only known form the type locality, though the distribution is likely to be much wider in the middle and lower Paraná River, and in marshlands in Chaco and Formosa, Argentina.
167764		habitat	eng	<em>H. wajat</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Type locality is an inundated area.  Species occurs in slow flowing areas of water, associated with submerged vegetation.
167764		population	eng	No population information known.
167764		threats	eng	A major threat to the Paraná basin is degradation in the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents.  The Paraná basin has the highest urban-industrial density in the inner country.  The presence of herbicides and fungicides used in farming and cattle-rearing development may also become a considerable source of pollution.  The construction of Itaipu, Rosana and Taquaracu hydroelectric power plants has attracted more people to the region to work (Diegues 1994).  However, these threats are greater in the upper Paraná basin.  The lower part of the basin has a very low human population and large parts of it are still in a rather pristine condition (Junk 2005).<br/><br/>Unlikely to be threatened to a large extent because the specific area occupied by the species has a relative low human presence.
167765		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.  The extent of damage the water pollution is causing to the species and habitat needs to be addressed.
167765		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Uruguay River basin.
167765		habitat	eng	<em>A. affinis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It is a bottom spawner, with four months incubation.  Lives in very small shallow temporary pools.
167765		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167765		threats	eng	The largest threat to <em>A. affinis</em> is habitat degradation from conversion of land to rice paddies in particular.  The basin has lost 92.4% of its original forest cover, (based on an estimate of the extent of closed canopy forest in existence 8,000 years ago in the absence of human impact) (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).  <br/><br/>The Uruguay River Basin is also being polluted by inadequate treatment of urban and industrial wastewater, application of agro-chemicals (fertilisers and biocides), inefficient irrigation practices, and soil erosion (Mugetti <em>et al.</em> 2004a).<br/><br/>The species is also traded internationally in the pet and aquarium business, but it is not clear if they are from the wild or captive bred stock.
167766		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167766		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sandó River basin, on the Pacific versant of Colombia.  The species is poorly known.
167766		habitat	eng	<em>P. album</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167766		population	eng	No population information known.
167766		threats	eng	Probably not considered threatened although threats are not known.
167767		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
167767		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Oyapock River in French Guiana and Brazil, and also in the Suriname and Nickerie River basins in Suriname.
167767		habitat	eng	<em>L. nijsseni</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The basins in which this species occurs are still relatively pristine and intact.
167767		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167767		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
167768		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167768		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Paraguay and lower Paraná River basins.  It is common in the Pantanal wetlands and in other areas of the Rio Paraguay basin.
167768		habitat	eng	<em>R. bonariensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species from the genus <em>Roeboides</em> generally prefer to live among water plants rather than in the open water of the rivers (Heckman 1998).  Occurs in slow flowing rivers, flood plain lakes and large streams.
167768		population	eng	Common in parts of its range.
167768		threats	eng	There are many threats to the upper Paraná River ichthyofauna, including the construction of dams, and water pollution (Mugetti <em>et al</em>. 2003; Diegues 1994), but the lower Parana River and Paraguay River basins have very low human population and are over large parts still in rather pristine conditions.  However, human impact is steadily rising and increasingly impacting aquatic habitat health and biodiversity (Junk 2005).  Also the habitat degradation of the Pantanal and surrounding area is not thought to be significantly impacting this species.
167769		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy and population trends of the species.
167769		distribution	eng	<em>G. chaparae</em> may possess a wider distribution than merely the Rio Chapare basin, Bolivia, where it is definitely known from.  <em>Gephyrocharax</em> species are generally common along the headwaters of the Madeira, Ucayali, Marañon and other upper tributaries of the upper Amazon basin.
167769		habitat	eng	<em>G. chaparae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It occurs in relatively large streams, and is probably a mid-water fish.
167769		population	eng	Species from this genus are common.
167769		threats	eng	No threats are currently known for this species.
167770		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167770		distribution	eng	This species is found widespread in the Amazon River basin.
167770		habitat	eng	<em>B. coracoideus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that occurs in ponds, forest creeks and small rivers rich in plant debris.  It spawns eggs on sandy substrate, in groups.  Unlike the other species of Aspredinidae, the female does not carry her eggs (4,000 to 5,000 per spawning) in bags (cotylophores).
167770		population	eng	Probably the most widespread and common species in the genus.
167770		threats	eng	There are no threats currently affecting the species gloabally.&#160; Although it is a common pet, it is bred in captivity and the wild populations appear unharmed by this trade.
167771		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.
167771		distribution	eng	Specimens have been collected from near the Una River in the coastal drainages of Bahia, Brazil.  It is likely to be distributed further but its range is fairly restricted.
167771		habitat	eng	<em>H. unae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  This species is found in medium sized rivers.
167771		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167771		threats	eng	This species is probably resilient and so not majorly affected by pollution in the area.
167772		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167772		distribution	eng	<em>B. polylepis</em> is found in Lake Maracaibo.  This species was also recorded for the Orinoco basin in Venezuela, in the Rio Tocantins basin in Brazil and in the upper Amazon basin (Rio Madre de Dios) in Peru (Lima 2004; Lima in prep.)
167772		habitat	eng	<em>B. polylepis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).  Occurs only in small rivers.  Specimens have been found in caves.
167772		population	eng	Nowhere throughout its range is this species common.
167772		threats	eng	This species is very sensitive to disturbance.  They are generally the first species to disappear when disturbance occurs.  There is very little natural habitat remaining in the Lake Maracaibo basin due to a high population density and intensive land use.  Grazing has especially affected the southeastern and southwestern areas of Lake Maracaibo.  The main impact on the natural vegetation has been caused by shifting cultivation, and by an extensive network of roads surrounding Lake Maracaibo.  Further conversion of remaining natural habitat in the southern part of the basin is of great concern.  Also of concern is recent findings that some of the rivers that traverse the basin and flow into the Maracaibo Lake are polluted with pesticides and fertilizers (WWF 2001).  Due to their dependence on plant material in their diet, the destruction of rainforests surrounding their habitat could have serious consequences for this species.<br/><br/>While the species is of concern in the Maracaibo basin, it is still present in the Orinoco basin and Western Amazon where populations are not under threat.  In the Tocantin basin, it is likely less common, but on balance across it range, it is not thought that the species is threatened.
167773		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) and threats are required.
167773		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Acaray River basin in the middle Paraná River drainage, in Argentina and Paraguay.  It is possible that the species ranges beyond the basin, but there is little evidence to support this currently.
167773		habitat	eng	<em>A. piriformis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs in mid sized streams and rivers with rocky substrate.
167773		population	eng	No population information known.
167773		threats	eng	A large hydroelectric dam was built on the Acaray River in 1969, however the species has been collected after that time.  There are no other known threats to this species.
167774		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167774		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Rio Preto da Eva, a small black-water tributary of the River Amazon immediately to the east of the Rio Negro and Manaus (c. 60 km from the latter) in Brazil.
167774		habitat	eng	<em>A. maculipinna</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167774		population	eng	The only specimens known were collected in the late 1970s of the past century.  An expedition leaded by Mônica Toledo-Piza from the Universidade de São Paulo in July 2003 spent more than a week collecting in the Rio Preto da Eva and failed to collect any additional specimens (though specimens of the very similar <em>Acestrorhynchus nasutus</em> were collected).  Nor did ichthyologists from INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia) collect any specimens of the species in the Rio Preto da Eva or at any other tributary of the Amazon nearby Manaus.
167774		threats	eng	In spite of restricted distribution and unsuccessful expeditions to collect this species, this species is unlikely to be threatened. There are huge areas, even close to Manaus, that are never systematically collected for fishes. Though with forest clearance expanding and some sewage disposal on the river, the Rio Preto da Eva still seems to be in a relatively good condition, as evidenced by a high fish diversity (c. 200 fish species).
167775		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167775		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caura River basin in Venezuela.
167775		habitat	eng	<em>B. imitator</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that is often found in large rivers in swift current, and in rapids among dense stands of the rooted vegetation.  It also inhabits small streams, rapids, bays and backwaters over sand, gravel and rocky bottoms.
167775		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167775		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species as the Caura River basin which it inhabits is relatively pristine tropical forest (Caura Futures 2006).
167776		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.  The extent of damage the water pollution is causing to the species and habitat needs to be addressed.
167776		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Primero River and the Segundo River in the Province of Cordoba, western Argentina (Miquelarena and Menni 2005).
167776		habitat	eng	<em>A. cordovae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167776		population	eng	With less than ten localities known, the population is thought to be decreasing.
167776		threats	eng	A study on the conservation status of the ichthyofauna of Sierras Pampeanas, Cordoba, concluded that <em>A. cordovae</em> had one of the highest conservation priorities (Orlandini <em>et al.</em> 2001).  This is largely due to it being endemic to Cordoba; an area which is threatened by alterations in vegetation cover, water pollution and the indiscriminate use of biological resources.  The Rio Primero goes through Cordoba City where pollutants enter through mostly untreated effluents. Along the Río Segundo, different industries exist that also pump effluents into the river without treatment (Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network 2003).  Fish species in the region have also been impacted by the introduction of economically important fish species, which compete with the native species for resources such as food and breeding sites (Orlandini <em>et al.</em> 2001).
167777		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.
167777		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the Essequibo River basin.  It is poorly known, but the distribution is likely to be much wider as similar forms have been collected in the Rio Negro and Amazon basin near Manaus.
167777		habitat	eng	<em>M. potaroensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species is very habitat specific, living on banks of submerged litter, in rivers with relatively fast flow.  Can occur in relatively small forest streams with sufficient flow to keep the litter banks from becoming anoxic.
167777		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167777		threats	eng	In August 1995, the holding pond at the Omai gold mine in Guyanese Amazon broke. In what was probably the worst cyanide spill in history, some 3.2 billion cubic litres of cyanide-laced waste poured into a tributary of the Essequibo River, killing nearly all the fish in the river (Chatterjee 1997).  In 2000, the Essequibo once again suffered from mine pollution.  It caused widespread harm including rashes, diarrhoea, and vomiting among the residents after using the river water.  However, this affected area is likely to constitute only a small part of this species range, and may not be a major threat.
167778		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167778		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Upper Amazon River basin, in Brazil, Peru and Colombia
167778		habitat	eng	<em>A. monitor</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Much of the natural habitat within the Upper Amazon basin, which it inhabits, remains intact due to its inaccessibility (World Wildlife Fund 2001).
167778		population	eng	A common and abundant fish.
167778		threats	eng	The species is harvested in the wild for the pet trade, although it is thought not to be at a level that is causing concern.
167779		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.
167779		distribution	eng	This species inhabit high-gradient streams of the Amazon basin at the eastern slope of the Andean cordillera in Peru.
167779		habitat	eng	<em>H. tridens</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in high altitude fast flowing streams in the Andean slope of the headwaters of the Amazon.
167779		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167779		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.  The upper portions of the river valleys are developed with plantations but these have been present for many hundreds of years.  The lower portions are still well forested.
167780		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167780		distribution	eng	This species was previously known only from the upper Rupununi River in Guyana. This species has a poorly documented range, in part due to collecting bias (nocturnal species).  There is a recent record for the Rio Preto da Eva, a small tributary of the Amazon River about 60 km east from Manaus, Brazil.  The species is probably widespread but overlooked.
167780		habitat	eng	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Nocturnal species which hide amongst logs during the day.  This has contributed to the bias in their data collection.
167780		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167780		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is threatened by any processes even in the Rupununi.
167781		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167781		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Magdalena River basin, and possibly in the Catatumbo River.  Recent collections of this species have occurred in the middle of the Rio Cauca river.
167781		habitat	eng	<em>D. filamentosa</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs on sandbars like most probably most of the members of the subfamily.
167781		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167781		threats	eng	The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  However, these threats are unlikely to have impacted this species greatly.
167782		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required in order to better assess the species.  If it is found that the species has declined more than the 20-25% inferred, the species will become uplisted.  Investigation into the possibility of protecting the habitat needs to take place also.
167782		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upper Paranaiba River, in the upper Rio Parana basin, Brazil.&#160;  <em>Steindachnerina corumbae</em> was collected in the Rio Corumbá, an upper tributary of the Rio Paraná basin which was now turned into a series of dams.  The species was however recently also found in the Rio Paraopeba basin (a tributary of the Rio São Francisco).
167782		habitat	eng	<em>S. corumbae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167782		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167782		threats	eng	This species is found in one of the most severely damaged basins in Brazil, especially by damming which is ongoing.  <br/><br/>The habitat of the upper Paranaiba basin is being impacted by agriculture and forestry in the area, which is resulting in modification of the stream flow and sedimentation.  Pollution comes from mining activities, as well as various municipalities in the basin which discharge their sewage and industrial effluents directly into the river without any treatment.  In addition, the introduction of invasive species is likely to have a negative effect on native species  (Global International Waters Assessment 2006).<br/><br/><em>Steindachnerina</em> species seems to be resilient to disturbances such as those detailed above.  Of course, we cannot assure that the same is true with <em>S. corumbae</em>, which has the additional problem of possessing a restricted distribution.
167783		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167783		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Tubarão River basin and coastal drainages between its mouth and the Da Madre River, in southeastern Brazil.
167783		habitat	eng	<em>D. singularis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Small rivers, clear water fast flowing rock bottom.  Feeds on insects and other small invertebrates and graze on plant matter, grazing on it on rocks.
167783		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167783		threats	eng	<em>D. singularis</em> may be threatened with habitat degradation in some parts of its range, as wetlands in Santa Catarina are impacted from activities connected with coal production (Diegues 1994).  For many years coal mining was the largest productive activity in southern Santa Catarina.  In the past, coal mining was executed with little environmental care and was the principal cause of water pollution in the region.  The improper management of residues generated by the exploration and processing of coal, in some cases still practiced today, has resulted in acid mine drainage which has contaminated water and soil with sulphuric acid and toxic metals. The consequences of this pollution are still found in the regional environment (SIECESC 2004).  Although a restricted species, <em>D. singularis</em> is unlikely to be under threat by these processes throughout its entire range, or with great severity.
167784		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167784		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caura River basin and in the Orinoco River drainage in Venezuela.  This is probable underestimation of distributional range.
167784		habitat	eng	<em>B. imitator</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs on sandbars in moderate to large rivers, but not in small creeks.  This species is a mimic of <em>Corydoras</em> and therefore shoals with them.
167784		population	eng	Previously common in parts of its range.
167784		threats	eng	The Caura River basin which it inhabits is a largely pristine tropical watershed (Caura Futures 2006).  However the species is collected for the aquarium trade, though perhaps not intensively.  The species used to be locally common.
167785		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and more information is needed to understand the population trends.
167785		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower Negro River basin, in the Amazon River basin, Brazil, in a relatively restricted distribution, though its range is probably larger than evidently known.
167785		habitat	eng	<em>A. gephyra </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species which inhabits small streams with fast water flow.
167785		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167785		threats	eng	Harvested for the aquarium trade, though not at a level that is threatening.
167786		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but research is needed concentrating on the levels of use and consumption by humans.
167786		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower course of the Branco River basin, and off the Rio Negro in their major tributaries in Brazil.
167786		habitat	eng	<em>L. oncinus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits tributary rivers.  It is a nocturnal species and is completely inactive during daylight hours. Inhabits the channel of large river tributaries particularly seeking out submerged trunks and logs.
167786		population	eng	It is uncommon and poorly known, though certainly as a result of collecting bias.
167786		threats	eng	Harvested for the aquarium trade, though this is probably not a major threat.
167787		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167787		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded (with museum specimens) in Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil from the Paraguay basin in the upper reaches and not in the lowlands.&#160; It is likely to be found in Paraguay itself, although this awaits confirmation.
167787		habitat	eng	<em>S. nudiventris</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Prefers rivers which are of medium flow rate, which are draining the plateau areas.  Shallow clear water rivers with mixed rock and sandy bottom.
167787		population	eng	Not a common species.
167787		threats	eng	The species has disappeared from Manso dam area due to flooding of its river.  However this represents a very small proportion of the river basin, and so is not considered a significant threat to the species.
167788		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167788		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Santa Lucia River basin, in Uruguay but it is only known from the type series.
167788		habitat	eng	<em>R. thrissoceps</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.
167788		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167788		threats	eng	Across the river basin as a whole, the area is not especially threatened.  In the mouth of the basin, <em>R. thrissoceps</em> may be threatened by water pollution.  Contamination and eutrophication of surface water in the Santa Lucia River basin occurs due to discharges from urban centres, industries, and intensively used farm land areas (National Environmental Study 1992).  This represents a very small proportion of the species probable range though.
167789		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167789		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper-course of the Rio Guaporé in Rondonia, Brazil.
167789		habitat	eng	<em>C. cervinus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species. Clear water river species.  Lack of information a consequence of lack of collection in the Guaporé.
167789		population	eng	Population information unknown, though not a very common species.
167789		threats	eng	Some collection for the aquarium trade occurs, though impacts are thought to be negligible.  Most of the upper Guaporé area is now deforested, though this seems not to have had much of an impact on the river system.
167790		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.
167790		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Essequibo River basin in Guyana.
167790		habitat	eng	<em>P. altipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Inhabits shallow creeks and small rivers.
167790		population	eng	No population information known.
167790		threats	eng	In August 1995, the holding pond at the Omai gold mine in Guyanese Amazon broke. In what was probably the worst cyanide spill in history, some 3.2 billion cubic litres of cyanide-laced waste poured into a tributary of the Essequibo River, killing nearly all the fish in the river (Chatterjee 1997).  In 2000, the Essequibo once again suffered from mine pollution.  It caused widespread harm including rashes, diarrhoea, and vomiting among the residents after using the river water.  We do not know the extent of impact on this fish.
167791		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least one conservation unit (Terra Ronca State Park in northern Goiás).
167791		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper Tocantins River basin in Brazil.
167791		habitat	eng	<em>C. britskii</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in moderate sized tributaries, generally bottom swimmers feeding on benthic aquatic insects.  Swim in small schools in fast flowing water.
167791		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167791		threats	eng	Damming is in fact a factor of major concern in regard to the conservation of the ichthyofauna of the upper Rio Tocantins area.  Within the range of <em>C. britskii</em> the huge Serra da Mesa dam was built, which undoubtedly destroyed much habitat formerly occupied by the species.  However, since <em>C. britski</em>i is a small-sized species which occurs in moderate-sized streams, only the building of large dams would not probably result in its demise.
167792		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167792		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Urubamba drainage in the Amazon versant of Peru. Known localities are in the following areas: Cuzco and Junín: Santa Ana (12°52’S, 72°43’W), Rio Compursiato (12°28’S, 73°07’W), Rio Chanchamayo at San Ramos (11°8’S, 75°20’W), and Marcapata (13°30’S, 70°55’W) (Chernoff and Machado-Allison 1990).  A tentative record is from area: Pasco, Rio Santa Cruz (10°02’S, 75°34’W).
167792		habitat	eng	<em>C. binghami</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Inhabits high gradient streams.
167792		population	eng	Likely to be common but very few surveys of the area have been carried out.
167792		threats	eng	This area of the Andean slopes is relatively pristine and there is no reason to believe that this species is threatened.
167793		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167793		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Magdalena River, Colombia.
167793		habitat	eng	<em>B. huilae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that generally inhabits high altitude freshwaters.
167793		population	eng	No population information known.
167793		threats	eng	It is likely that <em>B. huilae</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  Though <em>B. huilae</em> is not known to be harvested, it is interesting to note that catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades, (Harvey 1998).  It is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.<br/><br/>However, as this species inhabits the upper reaches, and the threats are most severe in the lower basin near the river mouth, these are unlikely to constitute serious threats.
167794		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167794		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cauca River Basin, Colombia.  The species is present more in the head waters.
167794		habitat	eng	<em>P. caliensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.
167794		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167794		threats	eng	The following threats have certainly impacted the species in the lower reaches of the Magdalena.  However it is present in the headwaters and as such it is not likely that the threats listed below have threatened the species to an extent that would trigger a threatened listing.<br/><br/>In the Cauca River Valley system, 88% of mapped wetlands were lost between the 1950s and 1980s. Land reclamation, drainage, river regulation, and pollution were cited as the major causes (Moser <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The Cauca River lies within the Magdalena River basin.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  Though <em>P. caliensis</em> is not known to be harvested, it is interesting to note that catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades (Harvey 1998).  It is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.
167795		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167795		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Lower Uruguay River basin.  The species was described from an Argentinean species but is also known from Brazil.  Two collecting localities have been identified but the species is probably found in the surrounding area too.
167795		habitat	eng	<em>L. edentatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species inhabits medium to large rivers.
167795		population	eng	This species is not abundant.  Collections have only been made in small numbers because it is naturally rare.
167795		threats	eng	The Lower Uruguay River has not been greatly disturbed and this species is unlikely to be under major threat.  However, it should be noted that the Upper Uruguay River has been dammed.
167796		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167796		distribution	eng	This species is possibly restricted to the upper Tocantins basin, known from tributaries of Das Almas River, a tributary of Tocantins River in Goias State, central Brazil.  It could however be found in the surrounding area as well.
167796		habitat	eng	<em>C. stigmosum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species and is a pool/swamp dweller, unlike other species in the genus.
167796		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167796		threats	eng	The upper portion of the Tocantins basin is currently facing anthropogenic impact in the form of wetland drainage for conversion to agricultural land.  This threat has likely had an impact on the species. It is unclear how extensive this drainage has been.
167797		conservation	eng	Part of the Iguaçu River lies within the Iguaçu National Park; the possible threats of water pollution and dams should be monitored for future disturbance to the species.
167797		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Rio Iguaçu basin, in Brazil and marginally in Argentina.
167797		habitat	eng	<em>O. longirostris</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in relatively large streams and small rivers.
167797		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167797		threats	eng	There has been a lot of recent disturbance in the Iguacu basin, but it is unlikely to significantly affect this species.  Several stretches of the Rio Iguaçu are now dammed.  Pollution is also a problem, specially in the upper portion of the basin, in the densely populated area near Curitiba.  There are several fish species currently considered threatened in Brazil from the Rio Iguaçu basin, but that does not seems to be the case with <em>Oligosarcus longirostris</em>.  Species of the genus tend to be relatively resilient to habitat modifications, damming and pollution included.
167798		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167798		distribution	eng	This species is only definitely known from the type locality; Viana Lake, Pindaré-Mearim river system, Maranhão State, Brazil.  Viana Lake, is formed by the flooding waters of the Pindaré River, a tributary of the left bank of the Mearim River.  Very probably more widespread than has previously been described as the genus has been reported for other areas of the Mearim river system as well as for nearby drainages such as the Paranaiba.
167798		habitat	eng	<em>R. atlanticus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Large fish with long snouts, eats insects.  Live on the bottom of rivers or amid submerged vegetation.
167798		population	eng	Species of the genus are relatively common.
167798		threats	eng	This species is distributed in one of the most developed areas of Amazonia.  However, it is unknown whether this fish is under threat.
167799		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167799		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Amazon River basin, Brazil.  It occurs in the tributaries of the Amazon in the Negro, Uatumã, Tapajós, Xingu and Trombetas River basins.  Never found in the Amazon itself, only the tributaries.
167799		habitat	eng	<em>C. macrophthalma</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish.  From the fact that it has so far only been found in the tributaries of the Amazon, and not the main river itself, it is assumed that it is a clear or black-water species, rather than a white water species.  There are records of the species being collected from down to 10 m.
167799		population	eng	The species is an uncommon central Amazon species.
167799		threats	eng	No threats are currently known.
167800		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167800		distribution	eng	This species lives in the small tributaries of the upper Jacuí River basin, in the Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.  It is only found at altitudes over 600 m.
167800		habitat	eng	<em>E. limulus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, that was found inhabiting a small river with moderate water currents, a bottom of mostly rocks and is not found in areas with sandy bottoms.
167800		population	eng	Locally this species is very common and abundant.
167800		threats	eng	No threats to this species.  Whilst there is damming in the area this species is only found in the smaller tributaries and therefore not threatened by this disruption.  There could possibly be a minor threat of pollution in the area.
167801		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.
167801		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chapare River area in Bolivia.  It is currently only known from the type locality but possibly has a wider distribution than a single basin.
167801		habitat	eng	<em>K. mizquae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occur in relatively fast flowing waters
167801		population	eng	No population information known.
167801		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known and need to be researched.
167802		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167802		distribution	eng	This species is found in the estuary and lower reaches of the Rio de la Plata in Argentina and Uruguay and associated rivers such as the Paraná and Uruguay rivers.
167802		habitat	eng	<em>R. melanostoma</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that is apparently confined to freshwater at mouths of rivers and their lower reaches.  It is a schooling fish.  <em>Ramnogaster melanostoma limnoica</em> is typical in lentic (prefers standing or slow moving water) habitats, while <em>R. m. melanostoma</em> is riverine.
167802		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167802		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
167803		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required to understand the full effects of the introduced species in the Lake and how the water pollution is affecting both the population numbers and health of the habitat.
167803		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to Lake Titicaca which has an area of 8270.6km².
167803		habitat	eng	<em>O. silustani</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species in the lake.
167803		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.
167803		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat to lake Titicaca.  Rainbow trout have been introduced as well as Silverside, the former predating on, and the latter competing with this species.
167804		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167804		distribution	eng	Very widespread and abundant, this species occurs in the Amazon River basin and coastal drainages of the Guianas.
167804		habitat	eng	<em>T. rotundatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits large rivers and flood plain lakes where there is little current.  It is an omnivore which feeds on fruits, seeds and insects which float on the surface of the water.  Reproduction takes place during the rainy season.
167804		population	eng	A very common and abundant species.
167804		threats	eng	The species is collected for the pet trade, but not at a level for there to be a cause for concern for the global population.
167805		conservation	eng	Found in several conservation areas south of Sao Paulo including Serra do Mar state park (in particular in the Picinguaba area), and Parque Estadual do alto Ribera.
167805		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal streams from Espirito Santo to Santa Catarina, Brazil.
167805		habitat	eng	<em>A. leptos</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits streams.  Occurs in small coastal creeks and streams with submerged roots and vegetation debris.
167805		population	eng	A relatively common species although the populations thought to be decreasing.
167805		threats	eng	The entire region is subject to intense human disturbance, as it coincides with the most populated area in Brazil.  The area suffers from pollution, urbanisation and land conversion.  The only large tracts of forest lay south of Sao Paulo, where the species is well preserved.  Whilst a contraction of available habitat for this species has occurred, it has clearly done so several decades ago and it is unlikely that this species is threatened.
167806		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although the population trends are being monitored.
167806		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Orinoco River and Maracaibo Lake basins, in Venezuela and Colombia.
167806		habitat	eng	<em>B. deuterodonoides</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species.
167806		population	eng	One of the most common species in the Orinoco basin. It is considered to be very common and widespread in the Venezuelan Llanos and piemont areas (Taphorn 1992).
167806		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006).  Lake Maracaibo, however, is heavily polluted and under habitat degradation but this area only constitutes a minor part of its range and is therefore not a major threat.
167807		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167807		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon River basin, in Brazil and Peru.
167807		habitat	eng	<em>H. bentosi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits creeks.  Lives in moderate flow streams and small rivers, associated flood plain lakes.  Likes to be around submerged vegetation.
167807		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167807		threats	eng	No threats are currently known to be causing a concern to this species; it is thought to be harvested on a small scale for the pet trade, with the majority being bred in captivity.
167808		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167808		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atrato River basin, Colombia.
167808		habitat	eng	<em>G. atrotoensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species in medium and large sized rivers.
167808		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167808		threats	eng	None known but is distributed in a fairly pristine area.
167809		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167809		distribution	eng	This widespread species occurs throughout the Amazon River basin.
167809		habitat	eng	<em>A. dolichopterus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits fast flowing, clear waters with submerged wood.  The male of this species guards the clutch of eggs, which is usually hidden between roots.
167809		population	eng	Locally very common species.
167809		threats	eng	No threats known.&#160; The species is bred in captivity for the pet trade, having no impact on the wild populations.
167810		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
167810		distribution	eng	This widespread species is distributed along the Amazon River, from Pará (Brazil) to upper Amazon (Rio Marañon in Peru); Rio Napo in Ecuador and upper Rio Purus in Brazil.
167810		habitat	eng	<em>A. nattereri</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It is a flounder, and therefore lives on the bottom on consolidated material (mud and sand) in larger rivers, not streams.
167810		population	eng	This is an uncommon species, as are all species of the genus.
167810		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
167811		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.
167811		distribution	eng	This species appears to be relatively common around Iquitos and probably in another localities in the Peruvian Amazon. The species apparently also occurs in Colombia and Brazil, although in the latter the similar-looking <em>Hemigrammus haraldi</em> also occurs and misidentification of collections may have been made (Lima pers. comm. 2007).
167811		habitat	eng	<em>H. pulcher</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in large streams and rivers, and probably associated flood plains.  A generalist mid-water swimmer, feeding on insects, plant matter, and the like.
167811		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167811		threats	eng	It is harvested for the aquarium trade, but probably not as intensively in a way that could jeopardize natural populations.  There are no other meaningful impacts are known to affect the species.
167812		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy and population range of the species.
167812		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Guyana, Peru and French Guiana and throughout the Amazon basin.  It is likely that the species is more widespread, but this is complicated by the current taxonomic debate.
167812		habitat	eng	<em>P. cristata</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that occurs over sand in creeks and rivers.
167812		population	eng	This species has a stable population trend at present.
167812		threats	eng	<em>Pimelodella cristata</em> is known to be caught in the lower Ucayali River for the ornamental fish trade (Government of Peru <em>et al.</em> 1987).  The species is not a target of commercial fishing, though it is eaten at a subsistence level but the harvesting is not at a rate to cause concern to the population.
167813		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
167813		distribution	eng	This species mainly occurs in the Das Velhas River basin, in Brazil.  Its distribution also extends throughout the upper San Francisco river basin.
167813		habitat	eng	<em>H. macrops</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species of this genus live in large creeks and streams and rivers.
167813		population	eng	Species of this genus is common.
167813		threats	eng	The Das Velhas River drains a largely industrialised and populated urban area, and carries a heavy pollutant load.  Fishing is prohibited in this river due to alleged pollution (Sato and Godinho 2004).  Water in this river is now being treated and its quality is improving.  The pollution has not majorly affected this species though.
167814		conservation	eng	Before this species can be officially declared extinct, an intensive monitoring program, with methods including electro-fishing, has to be carried out in the rivers at altitudes of between 2,000 and 3,300 m, (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em> 2006).
167814		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Páramo de Cruz Verde, Cundinamarca, Colombia.
167814		habitat	eng	<em>T. venulosus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species from the Trichomycteridae family inhabit areas at 3,000 m.
167814		population	eng	Only two specimens of this species exist, which were collected by the entomologist A. H. Fassl in March 1911.  An investigation aimed at verifying the presence of <em>T. venulosus</em> in the Páramo de Cruz Verde was carried out between November 2004 and August 2005, by Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em>. (2006).  <br/><br/>The investigation was based on the rivers Teusaca, Idaza, La Laguna (Quebrada Blanca), del Salteador creek, Marlene creek (affluent of the del Salteador creek), Blanca creek (Mataredonda-Reserve) and El Charco creek (affluent of Santa Barbara creek).  All the rivers, with exception of the river Teusaca (Magdalena river basin), are part of the El Palmar river basin (Orinoco river basin); (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  <br/><br/>Despite the efforts made, the investigation was not successful for <em>T. venulosus</em>. This suggests that <em>T. venulosus</em> may be considered the second species of fish that has become extinct in Colombia (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em>, 2006).
167814		threats	eng	The introduction of the trout in high mountain rivers, deforestation in the study area, and the regular use of pesticides for potato farming, may be some of the factors which have caused the decline of <em>T. venulosus</em> (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em> 2006).
167815		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167815		distribution	eng	<em>U. dioica</em> occurs throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe south to North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and the Himalayas in Bhutan; India, Nepal and Pakistan to China, it also occurs throughout much of North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
167815		habitat	eng	<em>U. dioica</em> is strongly associated with nutrient-rich, organic soils, it occurs in a very wide range of natural habitats, particularly wet woodland and river banks and fens but also in disturbed ground such as scrub, grasslands, hedgerows, roadsides, cultivated and waste ground.
167815		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. dioica</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167815		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167816		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica</span><em> kiovensis</em> <em></em>has been c<span style="background-color: white;">lassed as Extinct in the C</span>zech Republic (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holub and Procházka 2000). In June 2001, another population of the species was discovered in  a&#160;temporary pool, in the  National Nature Reserve Ranšpurk south of the town of Lanžhot (South  Moravia, distr. Břeclav). The site is situated in the floodplain of the  Dyje River about 10 km of the northernmost localities of the species  near the village of Hohenau an der March along the March/Morava River in Lower  Austria (Danihelka and Lepší 2004). <br/>The species is classed as Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005) and Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007) is. There is no other information available on its conservation needs. The causes of the population declines should be studied.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
167816		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica kiovensis</span> is apparently endemic to central and eastern Europe.
167816		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica</span><em> kiovensis</em> typically grows within active river floodplains, usually on organic, nutrient-rich soils with <em>Phragmites australis</em>, large <em>Carex</em> species and <em>Salix</em> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span> spp. in sites which are at least sporadically flooded in winter and in oxbows.
167816		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica</span><em> kiovensis</em> is classed<span style="background-color: white;"> as Extinct in the</span> Czech Republic, Endangered in Belarus and Near Threatened in Hungary but there is no information available on population trend throughout most of its range. It is known that the populations are slowly declining and that the rate of decline is highest in Central Europe.
167816		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on the causes of the species decline or potential threats.&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"></p>
167817		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is no population conservation information on this species.</p>
167817		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information on the conservation needs of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. korsakowii</span>. However, more information about the size and trend of its populations as well as potential threats should be collected.<br/></p>
167817		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK63">Widespread</a> from Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Japan, Siberia zone of Russia, Nepal, Bhutan, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Indonesia. Also recorded from Viet Nam and China.
167817		distribution	eng	<em>M. korsakowii</em> occurs from the Ukraine east to southern Primorskye region in far Eastern Russia, Japan, China, the Korean Peninsula and Vietnam. It is possible that it is not native to some of these areas. In Europe, it occurs only in the Ukraine, including the Crimean Peninsula. It is an invasive alien, occurring in ricefields in eastern Hungary (G. Király pers. comm. 2010).
167817		habitat	eng	<em>M. korsakowii</em> grows in standing water, on reservoir margins, in abandoned rice fields, ponds and lake shores and is intolerant of competition.
167817		habitat	eng	It grows in ponds, shallow lakes,  bogs, rice fields. It is a common weed in paddy field.<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/><br/>    <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></span></p>    <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p></span>
167817		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size or trends of populations of <em>M. korsakowii</em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.</p>
167817		population	eng	The species is common in China (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
167817		threats	eng	It is not known whether the species faces any major threats.
167817		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
167819		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Baldellia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">alpestris</span> is protected under the legislation of the Spanish province Castilla y Leon. A microreserve has been created for this plant. It also occurs in protected areas in Portugal. The threatened lowland populations require conservation attention such as appropriate site management and protection. Monitoring of the populations is recommended.
167819		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Baldellia</span><em> alpestris</em> is endemic to a small area of northwest Spain and Portugal, with reliable records from the Provinces of Ávila, Burgos, La Coruňa, Cáceres, La Rioja, Lugo (extinct), Asturias (Oviedo), Orense, Palencia, Pontevedra, Cantabria (Santander), Soria and Zamora in Spain and Alto Alentejo, Beira Alta, Minho and Trás-os-Montes (Alto Duoro) in Portugal (Castroviejo <em>et al</em>. 2010).</p>
167819		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Baldellia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">alpestris</span> is described as occurring in   ponds, glacial lakes, arroyos and peat bogs on acid substrates.
167819		population	eng	There is little information available on the status of populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. alpestris</span>, but populations appear to be stable in most of their range. The range can be divided into two types: firstly highland rivers and glacial lakes where the species is relatively undisturbed by human influence and secondly lowland sites which are under heavy anthropogenic influence and face several threats. The populations in around 15-20 sites are threatened (Kozlowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009b).
167819		threats	eng	There are several threats such as hydrological changes, pollution, and eutrophication which affect the populations. Especially the lowland populations suffer from those threats as they are mainly surviving in very isolated, polluted and transformed ponds (Kozlowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, G. Kozlowski pers. comm. 2010).
167820		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167820		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">S. natans</em><span lang="EN-GB"> occurs in northern Asia, from Scandinavia east through Siberia and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far East; Amur, Primorskye, Kamchatka and Sakhalin, as well as Japan and the Korean Peninsula.</span></p>
167820		habitat	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">S. natans</em><span lang="EN-GB"> typically occurs growing in silt or  gravel on the edges of eutrophic lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.</span></p>
167820		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. natans</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167820		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167821		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. sagittifolia</span> is classed as Endangered in Austria and Switzerland. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167821		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It has been listed as threatened in Austria and Switzerland. Also reported as rare in China
167821		distribution	eng	<p><em>S. sagittifolia</em><span lang="EN-GB"> has a mainly European distribution, extending beyond the region into Siberia, the Caucasus, Turkey and possibly Kazakhstan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.</p>
167821		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Europe and China. It is recorded in Xinjiang of China in the Chinese Version of Flora of China, but it is also recorded in the province of Guangdong and Yunnan in China and in Ha Giang and Lai Chau in Viet Nam. It is also recorded in Australia.
167821		habitat	eng	<em>S. sagittifolia</em> typically grows in deep, mesotrophic to eutrophic, slow flowing or standing rivers, canals or ditches.
167821		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in deep, mesotrophic to eutrophic, slow flowing or standing rivers, canals or ditches.<br/></p><p>It has been recorded in freshwater tidal wetlands (Simpson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983).<br/></p><p><br/></p><br/><p></p>
167821		population	eng	It has been described as rare species in China (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998), although there is no information available on the global population.
167821		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sagittifolia</span> is classed as Endangered in Austria and Switzerland, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167821		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
167821		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167822		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. palustris</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and Endangered in Switzerland and the Czech Republic, it is protected throughout France and the Czech Republic. No other   conservation measures are in place or needed.
167822		distribution	eng	<em>C. palustris</em> is a pan-boreal species, occurring from France north to Scandinavia and east through Siberia to Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island and from Turkey east to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It is also found in the north-eastern United States, Canada and Alaska. In Europe, it is mainly northern; occurring from France, Austria, the Czech Republic and Romania north to Scandinavia and more or less throughout European Russia.
167822		habitat	eng	<em>C. palustris</em> occurs in a wide variety of water bodies, including ponds, lakes and marshes, usually on peat and often associated with woodland.
167822		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. palustris</span> appears to be stable throughout most of its European population, but there is evidence of a decline in Switzerland, Croatia and France.
167822		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167823		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167823		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis</span><em> secunda</em> is endemic to Europe; it has a restricted range including Madeira, the Azores, the Iberian peninsula, France, the United Kingdom and the Faeroe Islands.</p>
167823		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis</span><em><span lang="EN-GB"> secunda</em><span lang="EN-GB"> typically occurs on acid soils in flushes, on the margins of streams and pools, in wet pasture. </span></p>
167823		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myosotis secunda</span> is widespread and abundant in upland and oceanic areas of the United Kingdom, it has a restricted distribution in France, Spain and Portugal but populations appear to be stable throughout its range.
167823		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167824		conservation	eng	There is no known conservation action for this species. It is important that the scale and extent of the decline is monitored with the potential for conservation action if the decline is considered significant.
167824		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche</span><em> cophocarpa</em> appears to be mainly a northern and eastern European species. It is very common in Scandinavia, Germany, Switzerland, Hungary, the former Yugoslavia, Czech Republic and Poland, extending east into Russia. It may occur south to the Mediterranean coast of Croatia, but this has not been confirmed.
167824		habitat	eng	In the main part of its range, <em>C.&#160;cophocarpa</em><em> </em>occurs in most types of water-body. It is common in a range of habitats from lowland ditches, slow-flowing reaches of rivers, backwaters, oxbows and field ponds to the lagg fen of raised bogs. It has been recorded from waters with a pH ranging from 6-9 and from sea level in coastal parts of Denmark to 1,200&#160;m in the Swiss Jura and 1,370&#160;m in the Belluno District of Italy. Owing to its wide ecological tolerance, it may occur with a wide range of species. In more eutrophic or calcareous waters, it typically grows with species such as <em>Alisma lanceolatum</em>, <em>Carex acuta</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em>, <em>Eleocharis palustris</em>, <em>Elodea canadensis</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Persicaria hydropiper</em>, <em>Phalaris arundinacea</em>, <em>Ranunculus trichophyllus</em>, <em>Sparganium emersum</em>&#160;and <em>Veronica catenata</em>. In more acid habitats, it may occur with species such as <em>Chara virgata</em>, <em>Carex curta</em>, <em>C.&#160;echinata</em>, <em>C.&#160;vesicaria</em>, <em>Menyanthes trifoliata</em>, <em>Potamogeton alpinus</em>&#160;and <em>Utricularia minor</em>.
167824		population	eng	There is evidence of a decline in parts of its Scandinavian range, but the scale and importance of this decline are difficult to assess.<br/>It appears to be undergoing a contraction in the south and west of its range, where it is being replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. platycarpa</span> or the hybrid of these two species. It now appears to be extinct in the Netherlands and Belgium.
167824		threats	eng	The decline may be a consequence of decline in water quality, possibly linked to genetic dilution through hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. platycarpa</span>.
167828		conservation	eng	There is no evidence that conservation action has been undertaken for this species. Monitoring of the existent populations and research on the cause of their decline is recommended.
167828		distribution	eng	<p><em>C.&#160;hermaphroditica</em> has a circumboreal distribution, occurring throughout the Northern Hemisphere, predominantly north of 53º latitude, although there have recently been a few records south of this in Britain and Ireland. It occurs throughout northern Scandinavia (Martinsson 1991), east to Tibet, it has been confirmed from County Mayo in the Republic of Ireland north to northern Sweden and Denmark, east to Mongolia and from the United States. <em>C.&#160;hermaphroditica</em>&#160;appears to be declining throughout much of its European range, with confirmed losses from sites in Britain (Preston and Croft 1997), the Netherlands (J. Bruinsma pers. comm. 2010), Norway (Often and Mjelde 1999) and Sweden (Martinsson 1991). </p>
167828		habitat	eng	<em>C.&#160;hermaphroditica</em> occurs in lakes, gravel-pits, canals and slow-flowing reaches of rivers as well as in sheltered bays throughout the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia. It is most typical of lowland, mesotrophic lakes, often occurring in species-rich communities characterised by diverse assemblages of <em>Potamogeton</em> species, including <em>P.&#160;berchtoldii</em>, <em>P.&#160;compressus</em>, <em>P.&#160;obtusifolius</em>,<em> </em><em>P.&#160;pectinatus</em>, <em>P.&#160;perfoliatus</em><em>&#160;</em>and <em>P.&#160;rutilus</em>. Other typical associates include <em>Chara aspera</em>, <em>Elodea nuttallii</em>, <em>Littorella uniflora</em>, <em>Luronium natans</em>, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em>&#160;and <em>Nitella flexilis</em>. In some Scottish lochs, ssp. <em>macrocarpa</em> occurs with <em>Najas flexilis</em>.&#160;<em></em>
167828		population	eng	There is very little information on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hermaphroditica, </span>although there is some evidence of a decline   <em></em>in Britain, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden.
167828		threats	eng	Although there is some evidence of a decline, the cause or causes of the decline are not known.
167829		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken for this species.
167829		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche</span><em> platycarpa</em> is mainly found in western Europe. It occurs throughout Britain and Ireland and throughout France, extending north into southern Sweden and east to the Czech Republic; it has been reported from a few sites in the Iberian Peninsula.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche</span><em> platycarpa</em> appears to be extending its range to the north and east, where it may be replacing <em>C.&#160;cophocarpa</em>.
167829		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche</span><em> platycarpa</em> typically occurs in lowland ditches, canals, streams, ponds and river backwaters with a pH of 6-9 and to a maximum altitude of 520&#160;m at Llynnoedd Ieuan (Cardiganshire, Wales) (Preston and Croft 1997). It generally occurs in more permanent water than <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> and more rarely in swift flow than <em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, but it is apparently favoured by eutrophication and will occur with both these species. Throughout its range <em>C.&#160;platycarpa</em> typically occurs with species characteristic of lowland mesotrophic to eutrophic water-bodies, the most frequent associates being <em>Agrostis stolonifera</em>, <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>, <em>Lemna minor</em>, <em>Alopecurus geniculatus</em>&#160;and <em>Ranunculus trichophyllus</em>. It can also occur with a range of aquatic and marginal species such as <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em>, <em>Elodea canadensis</em>, <em>E. nuttallii</em>, <em>Epilobium hirsutum</em>,<em> </em><em>Fontinalis antipyretica</em>, <em>Glyceria fluitans</em>, <em>G. maxima</em>,<em> </em><em>Hippuris vulgaris</em>, <em>Juncus articulatus</em>, <em>J. effusus</em>, <em>Myosotis scorpioides</em>, <em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em>, <em>Ranunculus sceleratus</em>, <em>Rorippa microphylla</em>, <em>Veronica catenata</em>&#160;and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>.
167829		population	eng	There is no specific information on population size or trends in this species, but it seems likely that it is increasing.
167829		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
167830		conservation	eng	There is no evidence that conservation action has been taken for this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche transvolgensis</span> falls within the <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hermaphroditica</span> group and is apparently clearly distinct. More information on morphological and genetic variation within the species could elucidate the exact relationship with other species in the region. There is no recent information on this species and there is an urgent need to establish whether it still exists and if so, the size of the population. There is also no information on the life history or ecology of this species and until such information is available, it is unlikely that conservation action will be effective.<br/><br/>Site management is needed as it is likely that any remaining sites supporting this species are under threat from drainage, pollution and other uses. Any habitat that supports this species should be protected. If the species is extant, then seeds should be collected for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>propagation.
167830		distribution	eng	This species is known from brackish water-bodies in the neighbourhood of the village of Pallasovka and on liman (lagoon) shores in the town of Savinka in Russia (Fedorov 2000). The area of occupancy is less than 5 km² and the species is known from only two lakes in a single Oblast. The extent of occurrence does not exceed 80 km².
167830		habitat	eng	Described as occurring in brackish water bodies.
167830		population	eng	There is no recent information on populations of this species.
167830		threats	eng	There has been significant drainage of water bodies in the area from which this species was recorded and it is likely to be under severe threat.
167831		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. dortmanna</span> is classed as Critically Endangered (level 1) in Germany and protected at national level. It is classed as Vulnerable in Estonia. It is classed as Endangered in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007). There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167831		distribution	eng	<em>L. dortmanna</em> occurs in Europe and in northern and western North America. In Europe, it occurs from Scandinavia south to France, Germany and Poland.
167831		habitat	eng	<em>L. dortmanna</em> typically occurs in shallow waters of oligotrophic lakes with acidic substrates.
167831		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. dortmanna</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Germany and Vulnerable in Estonia, otherwise it appears to be widespread with stable populations.
167831		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167832		conservation	eng	<p>There are apparently no conservation measures in place and no information on need for conservation. Research to establish the distribution of the populations, their trend and potential threats should be carried out.<br/></p>
167832		distribution	eng	<p>Limited recording makes it difficult to establish the true distribution of this species, it appears to occur from France, east through Germany, Hungary and European Russia to China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea and the Primorskye Region of eastern Russia. </p>
167832		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. platyacanthum</span> is described as occurring in still and slow-flowing water bodies, such as ponds and streams.
167832		population	eng	There is no information available on the population stability of this species, the only information suggests that it is rare throughout its European range.
167832		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
167833		conservation	eng	<p>In France, the species is protected at regional level in Normandy, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la  Loire, and Auvergne.   <span lang="IT">In Italy, it is considered of Lower Risk in Trentino and Abruzzo), Vulnerable in&#160; Friuli and Sicily, and Critically Endangered in Lazio and Puglia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place.</p><p>It is recommended to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites, to study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations and to conserve the habitat of this plant. It is furthermore necessary to raise public awareness especially regarding the threats of emptying the aquariums into waters such as lakes, rivers, and pools.&#160; </p>
167833		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. submersum</span> is classed as Endangered in Estonia and Switzerland, there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167833		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum submersum</span> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a distribution covering the Mediterranean and Europe. In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Algeria, Albania, Asiatic Turkey, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, France and Corsica, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Israel, Jordan, Italy and Sicily, FYR Macedonia, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain and Balearic Islands, and Tunisia.&#160;&#160; </p>            <p>North Africa seems to be the&#160; distribution limit of this species with a number of very restricted localities. In Tunisia, it is rare and indicated for the northeast in Utique and the south in El Hamma of Gabes. In Algeria, it is very rare with a sole presence in the lakes of the Bône-La-Calle region (in Numidie). In Morocco, it was considered as extinct before or of doubtful presence but its presence has been confirmed lately (in 2004). It is present in only one locality in the swamps of the low Loukkos (Merja Bou Charen). Its presence in Egypt is doubtful in the region of the Nile Delta.&#160; <br/></p><p>  In Italy, it is found in the north, in two central regions, in <st1:state w:st="on">Puglia</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place> (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Campania</st1:place></st1:state> it is not longer recorded (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).    In Greece, it is scattered throughout the central and northern parts of the mainland<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> and also found in Kefallinia (<st1:place w:st="on">Ionian Islands</st1:place>). Older literature records from the Aegean islands (Lesvos and <st1:place w:st="on">Tinos</st1:place>) have not been confirmed.&#160; </span>  </p>  <p>&#160; </p>
167833		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>C. submersum</em> is obscured by confusion with <em>C. muricatum</em>, particularly in the eastern part of its range. <em>C. submersum</em> apparently occurs mainly in central Europe, occurring also in North Africa and parts of central Africa, east to southern Russia and possibly to Kazakhstan. In Europe, <em>C. submersum</em> is found mainly in the centre, from France and the UK to southern Sweden and the Baltic States into European Russia and in the south from scattered localities in Spain to Italy, Greece and the Ukraine.
167833		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum submersum</span> is a swimming or floating Hydrophyte in the swamps, springs, marshes,  </span>shallow lakes, canals with fresh or sometimes brackish water. It develops in slight eutroph waters that are standing or have weak currents. It reproduces vegetatively by cutting which facilitates a fast colonization of new surroundings. Its fast growth and its high production of oxygen make it very usable in aquaria. Its flowering generally takes place in summer.&#160; </p>
167833		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. submersum</span> typically occurs in mesotrophic to eutrophic still water bodies such as lakes, ponds and ditches, the latter particularly where they function as "wet fences". It is tolerant of salt and in some areas apparently preferentially occurs in brackish water.
167833		population	eng	Most populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. submersum</span> in Europe appear to be stable, however there are local losses (Jalas and Suominen 1989) and it is classed as Endangered in Estonia and Switzerland.
167833		population	eng	<p>The populations seem stable at Mediterranean level but remain fragile in North Africa with risks medium-term decline considering the speed of destruction of their habitat.&#160; </p>
167833		threats	eng	Drainage and infilling of the species habitat for agriculture and frequent droughts are the main threats. The species is tolerant to water pollution, but excessive pollution can be a threat for this plant.
167833		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167834		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information to assess the need for conservation action and so the primary needs relate to research into taxonomy and population trends.
167834		distribution	eng	Although difficult to establish with confidence, it seems likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tanaiticum</span> is endemic to the Lower Don region (Les 1985) and other records refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. muricatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">muricatum</span>.
167834		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum tanaiticum</span> is described as occurring in temporary (summer dry) water bodies (Tzvelev 1996).
167834		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum tanaiticum </span>is apparently abundant but within a very restricted area.
167834		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>
167835		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatica</span> is Extinct in Estonia (seven localities recorded, not seen since 1934), Latvia (six localities recorded, not seen since 1909), Poland, and Germany. It is classed as:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic</li><li>Endangered in Austria (possibly extinct), Denmark (possibly extinct)</li><li>Vulnerable in Finland, Iceland, Norway and the United Kingdom</li><li>Near Threatened in Sweden</li></ul><br/>Whilst the need for conservation is recognised in most of the European countries from which it has been recorded, there is an urgent need to develop an overview of its conservation status throughout Europe, together with identification of the causes of the decline and a realistic conservation action plan.
167835		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. aquatica</em> occurs throughout much of the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere, from the UK north to Scandinavia and east through Siberia and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, Japan and China. It also occurs throughout North America and parts of southern South America. In Europe it is mainly northern and central, extending only locally to the Mediterranean in Slovenia.</p>
167835		habitat	eng	<p><em>C. aquatica</em> occurs on sandy or clay sediments in standing or slow-flowing water bodies such as temporary pools, ponds, rivers and lakes. It often occurs in coastal marshes and brackish mudflats.</p>
167835		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatica</span> is classed as of conservation concern or extinct in almost all the European countries from which it has been recorded.
167835		threats	eng	The major threat is eutrophication and change of land use of formerly grazed or mown littoral habitats.
167836		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167836		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. amara</em> is a predominantly European species, extending east into Siberia and Asia Minor. In Europe, it is widespread throughout the centre, from the UK north into southern Scandinavia, east into European Russia and south to Italy and the Balkans. It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula and much of the Mediterranean Basin.</p>
167836		habitat	eng	<em>C. amara</em> typically grows on the margins of rivers and streams, in marshes and wet grassland, as well as in disused canals, often associated with woodland.
167836		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. amara</span>   appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range.
167836		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167838		conservation	eng	<p><em>R. nasturtium-aquaticum</em> is classed as Extinct or probably  Extinct in Estonia, Endangered in Austria and in Sweden (B2ab(iii)),  otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167838		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">R. nasturtium-aquaticum</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is native to Europe, the Middle East, Caucasus, Kazakhstan and the Himalayas. It has been introduced to much of Africa, parts of the Middle East, China, Japan, the Indian Sub-continent, South-east Asia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, North America, Mexico and South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.</span></p>
167838		habitat	eng	<em>R. nasturtium-aquaticum</em> will grow in a very wide variety of habitats, from the margins of rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals, to flushes, seasonally inundated hollows in pasture, cattle drinking areas and even highly enriched farm outflows.
167838		population	eng	<em>R. nasturtium-aquaticum</em> is classed as Extinct or probably Extinct in Estonia, Endangered in Austria and in Sweden, otherwise it is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167838		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167839		conservation	eng	<em>S. aquatica</em> is classed as Extinct in Belgium, Estonia, Germany,  the Netherlands, Switzerland and probably in the Ukraine and as  Critically Endangered in Denmark. It is protected in the Lorraine region  of France. Outside these areas it appears to be widespread and at least locally abundant with no known conservation needs. More research on the causes of the extinctions and ongoing threats is recommended.
167839		distribution	eng	<em>S. aquatica</em> has a circumboreal distribution, occurring from Europe east through Siberia to Kamchatka in the Russian Far East and throughout much of northern North America. In Europe, it occurs from sea-level in Scandinavia and Iceland south to montane lakes in the Alps and Pyrenees.
167839		habitat	eng	<em>S. aquatica</em> is an amphibious plant. It grows from near the mean water line down to depths of c. 2–3 m, but can also be found further up on shore segments that are only temporarily inundated but never dry out completely, e.g. in depressions or on seepage. It grows among stones, in gravel, on silt, and on moraine, in transparent water bodies, typically oligotrophic but not necessarily acidic and never dystrophic, such as lakes, rivers, pools, and the brackish northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia.
167839		population	eng	<em>S. aquatica</em> is classed as Extinct in Belgium, Estonia, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and probably in the Ukraine and as Critically Endangered in Denmark. However, the species was always rare in the countries named above and at the edge of its range. The species is widespread and abundant in Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, and the United Kingdom.
167839		threats	eng	Most losses are probably due to eutrophication and changes in land use.
167840		conservation	eng	<p><span class="tooltip"><span style="font-style: italic;">C. appropinquata</span> is protected in France in the Champagne-Ardenne, Rhône-Alpes and Lorraine Departements. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Belgium, Endangered in Czech Republic and Italy, Vulnerable in Finland, Near Threatened in the United Kingdom and Data Deficient in Croatia. It is listed as rare in Slovakia and Slovenia.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>   <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
167840		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. appropinquata</span> occurs throughout northern and central Europe, east to Western Siberia and the Caucasus and south to Slovenia and Turkey. It's centre of distribution appears to be Scandinavia, the Baltic States, Poland and Germany and it is less widespread and abundant outside these areas and rare toward the limits of its range in the south and east.
167840		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. appropinquata</span> typically occurs in lowland wet, peaty calcareous fens, occasionally occurring in carr and fens formed in depressions in sandy soil as well as in grazed fen.
167840		population	eng	Populations in the countries around the Baltic (Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Germany and Denmark) and in Hungary appear to be more or less stable. Outside this area (and in Finland) <span style="font-style: italic;">C. appropinquata</span> is listed as being of conservation concern, either due to declines (e.g. Belgium) or simply due to naturally sparse populations (e.g. Bulgaria).
167840		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. appropinquata</span> is vulnerable to succession in fens and drying out due to drainage of surrounding land.
167841		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatilis</span> is listed as Data Deficient in Estonia but this may be because there are no confirmed records from the country.</p>
167841		distribution	eng	<em>C. aquatilis</em> has a pan-Arctic distribution, extending from Scandinavia and Siberia to Kamchatka and east throughout Alaska and Canada, extending south into western North America. In Europe, it occurs scattered throughout much of Ireland, parts of Wales, northern England, Scotland, countries around the Baltic and much of European Russia.
167841		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatilis</span> typically grows on the margins of rivers and in lakes, mires and reedbeds.
167841		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquatilis </span>in Europe are apparently stable and there is no indication in the literature that it is in decline.
167841		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167842		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. lasiocarpa</span> is classed as Endangered in Austria. It is protected in ten regions in France (Alsace, Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Ile de France, Limousin, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Poitou-Charentes, Provence-Alpes- Côte d'Azur and Rhône-Alpes), although this appears to be more by virtue of a naturally low population than due to a decline.   There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
167842		distribution	eng	<em>C. lasiocarpa</em> occurs throughout northern Europe and European Russia, east through western Siberia and the Caucasus to the Amur coast, Sakhalin Island, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout much of northern North America as well as California and Northern Mexico. In Europe, it occurs throughout Scandinavia and the Baltic States south into France where it is locally scarce, Spain and Italy and east to Romania, Bulgaria and the Ukraine.
167842		habitat	eng	<em>C. lasiocarpa</em> typically occurs in wet meadows and fens on the margins of lakes and in the floodplains of river systems, as well as in bogs, usually occurring in oligotrophic water bodies.
167842		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lasiocarpa</span> appear to be stable throughout most of its European range.
167842		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167843		conservation	eng	<p><em>C. limosa</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Serbia and Near Threatened in Switzerland, it is extinct in Hungary and the Netherlands and protected in France. No other conservation action appears to be in place or needed.</p>
167843		distribution	eng	<em>C. limosa</em> has a mainly northern temperate distribution, from Iceland and Scandinavia south to Spain and east through the Baltic States, most of European Russia, Turkey, the Caucasus and Mongolia to Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout the northern and western United States. In Europe, it is widespread in Scandinavia and central Europe into the Balkans.
167843		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. limosa</span> typically occurs in pools in oligotrophic and acidic <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum</span> mires and peaty lake margins but is often associated with some nutrient enrichment (Jermy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
167843		population	eng	<em>C. limosa </em>has declined in some areas, such as the Netherlands and Hungary where it is extinct, it is protected in France but more by virtue of small scattered populations than necessarily a decline, while it is apparently widespread with stable populations in the UK, most of Scandinavia and the Baltic States.
167843		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167844		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. recta</span> is classed as Vulnerable in the United Kingdom but this is by virtue of small, scattered populations and there is no evidence of a decline.<span lang="EN-GB"> Available information is inadequate to assign an informed conservation status. There is therefore a need to collect and compile&#160;information on the distribution and status of <em>C. recta</em> in the region.
167844		distribution	eng	<em>C. recta</em> has a disjunct pan-boreal distribution, occurring in Scotland, Scandinavia, the Russian Arctic and north European Russia (Fedorov 1999) and northeastern North America (Ball and Reznicek 2002).
167844		habitat	eng	<em>C. recta</em> typically occurs in marshes along the lower reaches of estuaries, usually amongst tall vegetation.
167844		population	eng	There is little recent information on Scandinavian populations but equally nothing to suggest that they are not stable, UK populations appear to be stable.
167844		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167845		conservation	eng	<p>In Germany, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex rostrata</span> is listed as Near Threatened. Conservation measures are required to protect the disjunct populations in Mediterranean Europe. It is also recommended to monitor representative populations in Central Europe.<br/></p>
167845		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. rostrata</em> has a more or less pan-boreal distribution, from Spain north to Scandinavia and Iceland, east through Mongolia, the Caucasus and the western Himalayas to Kamchatka, China and the Korean Peninsula (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It also occurs throughout northern North America (Ball and Reznicek 2002) and Greenland (Elven 2007). In Europe, it occurs throughout Scandinavia, the Baltic States and European Russia, throughout central Europe and into the Balkans, but is sparse or absent from the Mediterranean Basin.</p>
167845		habitat	eng	<p><em>C. rostrata</em> is a characteristic species of pools in acid bogs, although it will also occur in ditches, swamps, wet meadows, wet woodland and on the margins of lakes, ponds, river and streams usually in oligotrophic or mesotrophic conditions, as well as rarely in dune-slacks (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). </p>
167845		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. rostrata</span> is widespread and abundant in most of its European range except for the south where it is rare and scattered.
167845		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167846		conservation	eng	<p>In Germany, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. vesicaria</span> is listed as Near Threatened. Conservation measures may be needed to protect and monitor isolated occurrences in Mediterranean Europe. Monitoring of representative populations is also recommended in Central Europe.<br/></p>
167846		distribution	eng	<em>C. vesicaria</em> has a predominantly pan-boreal temperate distribution extending into the Mediterranean basin and North Africa. It occurs from Algeria north to Scandinavia and east through the Baltic States, central Europe and the Balkans to Siberia, Mongolia and the Caucasus to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout the central parts of western and eastern North America. It can be found more or less throughout Europe but is local in the Mediterranean Basin and absent from the islands.
167846		habitat	eng	<p><em>C. vesicaria</em> is a typical plant of the margins of mesotrophic lakes, often occurring where there is some calcareous influence (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002), as well as on the margins of streams, ponds, lakes and canals.</p>
167846		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vesicaria</span> is widespread and abundant in much of its European range, however, numerous once rich and extensive populations have decreased and many are lost, particularly in Central Europe. The species is also is infrequent or rare in the southern part of its range. A single small population was found in Greece in 1985 (Bergmeier 1988) which has not been reconfirmed since.
167846		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167847		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. austriaca</span> is classed as Data Deficient in Hungary, Vulnerable in Austria, and Near Threatened in Switzerland.<br/>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
167847		distribution	eng	<em>E. austriaca</em> occurs in Europe, Siberia and the Caucasus. In Europe it occurs from Spain north through the United Kingdom to Norway and east to Poland, south European Russia and the Ukraine.
167847		habitat	eng	<em>E. austriaca</em> typically occurs in the middle reaches of upland rivers, growing on gravel with some silt but usually away from the main channel in shallow side channels or oxbows where there is some protection from spate. It is able to colonise new habitats such as gravel pits, but rarely persists (Jermy <em>et al</em>. 2007).
167847		population	eng	In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. austriaca</span> is classed as Data Deficient, Vulnerable in Austria, and as Near Threatened in Switzerland, but there is no overall evidence of a decline.
167847		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167848		conservation	eng	<p><em>E. mamillata</em> is classed as Near Threatened in Estonia and Vulnerable in Austria and Switzerland. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167848		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. mamillata</em> subsp. <em>mamillata</em> occurs from Europe east through Kazakhstan to the Amur region of Far Eastern Russia and China. It also occurs throughout much of Alaska, Canada and the northern United States. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the north and east, from Scandinavia south through Germany and the Czech Republic to France, Hungary and Romania.</p>
167848		habitat	eng	It is likely that <em>E. mamillata</em> occurs in similar habitats to those of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. austriaca</span>, thus the middle reaches of upland rivers, growing on gravel with some silt  but usually away from the main channel in shallow side channels or  oxbows where there is some protection from spate; but there is no detailed information to support this.
167848		population	eng	<em>E. mamillata</em> is classed as Near Threatened in Estonia and Vulnerable in Austria and Switzerland but otherwise there is no evidence to suggest a decline.
167848		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167849		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. angustifolium </span>is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia, but otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
167849		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. angustifolium</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, Turkey, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Kamchatka and the Amur and Primosrkye regions of far eastern Russia, Sakhalin and China. It also occurs in North America from Alaska east to Newfoundland and south in the west to New Mexico. In Europe, it occurs from Iceland and Scandinavia south to the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean coast east to Greece, but absent from the Mediterranean islands and throughout much of the former Russian Federation to the Ukraine.</p>
167849		habitat	eng	<em>E. angustifolium</em> typically occurs in a variety of types of wetland, from <em>Sphagnum denticulatum </em>and <em>S. cuspidatum</em> pools through peat bogs, sedge beds and mires to calcareous fens, suggesting that it is more strongly associated with oligotrophic habitats than having any particular requirement for acidity.
167849		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. angustifolium</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
167849		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167850		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167850		conservation	eng	Studies on distribution, population, ecology and threats are essential.
167850		distribution	eng	<em>I. fluitans</em> occurs throughout much of the Old World, from Denmark south throughout much of Africa north and south of the Sahara, including Indian Ocean Islands and east through India and Sri Lanka to Vietnam as well as Java, Australia and New Zealand. It occurs throughout much of central Europe south to Italy and in the Azores.
167850		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isolepis fluitans </span>is distributed in Africa, Australia, Europe and Asia. In India the species is reported from Assam, Meghalaya and Tamil Nadu (Dindigul and Nilgiri) (Bhargavan, 1989, Cook 1996).
167850		habitat	eng	Annual and found in open swamps, running water and margin of mountain streams ((Bhargavan, 1989, Cook 1996).
167850		habitat	eng	<em>I. fluitans</em> typically occurs in flowing or standing acid water on peaty substrates, often in seasonally flooded sites. It also occurs in muddy hollows in grasslands and heaths, and the wet floors of disused quarries, sand- and gravel-pits.
167850		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. fluitans</span> is classed as Vulnerable (D2) in Norway and Near Threatened in Sweden, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range.
167850		population	eng	This is a wide spread species but in India it is known only from few fragmented areas and it is found only occasionally. No information is available on its global population status.
167850		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167850		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
167851		conservation	eng	<em>S. pungens</em> is classed as Extinct in Belgium and Endangered on  the Spanish Red List and is protected in the Haute-Normandie,  Basse-Normandie and Poitou-Charentes regions of France. Otherwise there appear to be no conservation measures in place or needed.
167851		distribution	eng	<em>S. pungens</em> has a disjunct distribution, occurring in Europe, Australia, southern and western North America, Mexico and Central and South America. In Europe, it is most frequent in the centre and west, from Poland west to Belgium and south to France, Austria, Czech Republic and Ukraine to the Iberian Peninsula and Italy.
167851		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. pungens</span> typically grows in freshwater and brackish marshes and on the margins of creeks and rivers.
167851		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>S. pungens</em>, however it   is classed as Extinct in Belgium and Endangered on the Red List of Spain. Otherwise it appears to be widespread and fairly abundant throughout its European range.</p>
167851		threats	eng	It is not known whether there are any threats to this species.
167852		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167852		distribution	eng	<em>S. sylvaticus</em> occurs in Europe and central Asia, from Norway through Siberia and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan and Turkey. It occurs throughout most of Europe.
167852		habitat	eng	<em>S. sylvaticus</em> typically occurs on organic, often eutrophic soils in wet woodland, on wooded river and stream margins and on the margins of lakes and ponds.
167852		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sylvaticus</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167852		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167853		conservation	eng	<p>  <em>E. hexandra</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and the Czech Republic, Vulnerable in Sweden, Near Threatened in Norway and Data Deficient in Croatia. It is protected in seven French departments Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne, Bourgogne, Auvergne, Lorraine, Picardie and Île-de-France. Otherwise there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167853		distribution	eng	<em>E. hexandra</em> occurs in Europe and North and West Africa (Silverside, A.J. in Stewart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). In Europe, it is widespread from the Iberian Peninsula north to Scandinavia and east to Poland, Romania and the Balkans.
167853		habitat	eng	<em>E. hexandra</em> grows as an annual on exposed mud at the edge of lakes, reservoirs, ponds and flooded gravel-pits, or submerged on open substrates in shallow, oligotrophic to eutrophic water (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/>A study by Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) demonstrated that even where a species was declared extinct, seeds can still be stored in the soil banks for a long time. Germination tests of seeds from soil samples in former localities showed those seeds to be viable. In most cases they need fluctuating water levels to trigger germination and a stabilisation of the water levels has led to local extinctions of mature individuals.
167853		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. hexandra</span> is considered to be of conservation concern in Norway, Sweden, Croatia and Switzerland, elsewhere it appears to be widespread and abundant, while populations in the UK appear to be increasing although this may be an artefact of increased recording of aquatic plants  (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
167853		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167854		conservation	eng	A recent survey in Slovakia failed to find <em>E. hungarica</em> and it had not been seen recently by local botanists (Z. Kaplan pers. comm. 2010). In Hungary, it was reported from nine sites in the eastern half of the country (Farkas 1999), classed as Near Threatened and nationally protected (Király 2007). It was found at about 100 localities in the last ten years but those localities were mainly temporary.
167854		distribution	eng	<em>E. hungarica</em> occurs in a limited area from Slovakia, Hungary and Serbia through Romania and the Ukraine to the Crimean Peninsula and southeastern European Russia. There is apparently an introduced population in Portugal (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 1995) but this is very doubtful.
167854		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. hungarica</span> occurs in seasonally inundated water bodies, usually on saline or brackish clay soils, it will also occur on seasonally inundated arable land with impeded drainage. It undergoes massive natural fluctuations in population and the number of sites supporting plants varies between years.
167854		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. hungarica</span> was thought to be extinct in Slovakia but has been refound in 2010 (Király and Elias in prep.). In Hungary, annual population size depends upon rainfall and flooding; most suitable sites will support <span style="font-style: italic;">E. hungarica</span> and the area of potentially suitable habitat is approximately 10,000 km² (G. Király pers. comm. 2010). Otherwise there is no information on population stability or trends.
167854		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by drainage of seasonally inundated marshland and the consequential effects of hyper-eutrophication.
167855		conservation	eng	<em>E. hydropiper</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland, Endangered in Hungary, Vulnerable in the Czech Republic and Estonia and Nationally Scarce in the UK.   There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
167855		distribution	eng	<em>E. hydropiper</em> occurs throughout much of Europe, east into Siberia and northern China. It is apparently naturalised in Canada (Quebec). In Europe, it occurs from the Iberian Peninsula north into Scandinavia and east to East European Russia but is absent from the Balkans.
167855		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. hydropiper</span> typically grows submerged to a depth of 0.75 m or on wet mud on the margin of water bodies. Like many of its congeners it will often grow on areas that are submerged during the winter but exposed in summer. It appears to occur rarely in oligotrophic waters and although often found on gravel substrate, will also grow on quite deep silt. It has been reported from brackish waters in Scandinavia (Stewart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).<br/>A study by Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2004) demonstrated that even where a species was declared extinct,  seeds can still be stored in the soil banks for a long time. Germination  tests of seeds from soil samples in former localities showed those  seeds to be viable. In most cases they need fluctuating water levels to  trigger germination and a stabilisation of the water levels has led to  local extinctions of mature individuals.
167855		population	eng	Although there is some evidence of a decline in central Europe, in most countries <span style="font-style: italic;">E. hydropiper</span> appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations.
167855		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to the survival of this species in Europe. </p>
167856		conservation	eng	<em>E. triandra</em> is widespread, but is nowhere abundant; it is  classed as Critically Endangered in Serbia, Near Threatened in Hungary  and Norway and Data Deficient in Croatia and Switzerland, but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
167856		distribution	eng	<em>E. triandra</em> has a sub-cosmopolitan distribution, from Europe east through Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Himalayas in India and Nepal to Far Eastern Russia, China and Japan; it also occurs in parts of Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand and parts of northern North America. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the north and centre, extending throughout much of the Balkan Peninsula. It is also reported from South Africa where it may be introduced or recorded in error (Cook 2004).
167856		habitat	eng	<p><em>E. triandra</em> occurs in a wide variety of types of mesotrophic to eutrophic water body, from ponds and lakes to streams, marsh pools and rice fields. It usually grows in shallow water and often occurs where some action (such as grazing, vehicle activity or use of boats) suppresses competition.</p><p>A study by Bernhardt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2004) demonstrated that even where a species was declared extinct,  seeds can still be stored in the soil banks for a long time. Germination  tests of seeds from soil samples in former localities showed those  seeds to be viable. In most cases they need fluctuating water levels to  trigger germination and a stabilisation of the water levels has led to  local extinctions of mature individuals.</p>
167856		population	eng	<em>E. triandra</em> is widespread, but is nowhere abundant; it is classed as Critically Endangered in Serbia, Near Threatened in Hungary and Norway and Data Deficient in Croatia and Switzerland. It has a big European range but suitable habitats are disappearing throughout the continent.
167856		threats	eng	<p>This species is presumably threatened by drainage of seasonally  inundated marshland and the consequential effects of  hyper-eutrophication.<span lang="EN-GB"></p>
167857		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167857		distribution	eng	<em>E. arvense</em> occurs throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan, the Himalayas and Mongolia east to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, as well as throughout North America except the extreme southeast. In Europe, it occurs more or less throughout, from Scandinavia through the Baltic States south to the Iberian Peninsula and France along the Mediterranean coast to Greece.
167857		habitat	eng	<em>E. arvense</em> occurs in a very wide range of habitats, including most anthropogenic habitats from gardens, quarries, railways and waste ground to roadsides. In natural habitats, it is most frequent on river banks, dune grassland and pasture.
167857		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. arvense</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167857		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167858		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167858		distribution	eng	<em>E. fluviatile</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe east through Turkey, Siberia, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Mongolia, to the Russian Far East, China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, as well as Queensland in northern Australia and throughout much of northern North America. In Europe it occurs more or less throughout.
167858		habitat	eng	<em>E. fluviatile</em> is typically a plant of ditches, ponds, lakes, backwaters of large rivers and wet grassland.
167858		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. fluviatile</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167858		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167859		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167859		distribution	eng	<em>E. palustre</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Kamchatka, Primorskye and Sakhalin Island in the Russian Far East, China and Japan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
167859		habitat	eng	<em>E. palustre</em> typically occurs in permanently wet, usually fairly base-rich pasture, marshland, dune slacks and fens, as well as the margins of ditches, streams and rivers.
167859		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. palustre</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167859		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167860		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167860		distribution	eng	<em>E. aquaticum&#160;</em>occurs in Ireland, the United Kingdom and northern North America. However, if North American populations are considered to be a separate taxon, <em>E. aquaticum</em> must be considered a European endemic.
167860		habitat	eng	<em>E. aquaticum</em> grows in the margins of oligotrophic lakes and pools, including peat cuttings.
167860		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. aquaticum</span> is reasonably frequent where it occurs in Britain and Ireland, but has a very restricted distribution.
167860		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167861		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167861		distribution	eng	Described as occurring throughout the region except the Azores, Balearic Islands, Crete, south-eastern Russia, Sardinia, Svalbard, Sicily and European Turkey (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991).
167861		habitat	eng	<p><em>A. canina</em> occurs in a wide variety of infertile, acidic, peaty soils in wet meadows, mires, marshes, ditches, the margins of ponds, gravel pits and reservoirs, wet heathland, fens and fen-meadows. It is often found in wetlands dominated by <em>Juncus</em> or <em>Carex </em>species or where mosses such as <em>Sphagnum </em>species or <em>Polytrichum commune</em> are among the ground vegetation (Cope and Gray 2009).</p>
167861		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis canina</span> appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range.
167861		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167862		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167862		distribution	eng	<p><em>A. geniculatus</em> has a predominantly European distribution, from Scandinavia south to Spain and east to the Balkans, Turkey and Siberia. It is naturalised in western Australia and New Zealand and also occurs in northern and western North America, where it is considered native in parts of the west but naturalised in the east (Crins 2002). In Europe it occurs mainly north of the Mediterranean basin, north to Iceland and the Faroes and east into western European Russia.</p>
167862		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. geniculatus</span> typically occurs along the margins of ponds, lakes, streams and ditches and in marshy grassland usually on neutral, fertile soils.</p>
167862		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. geniculatus</span> appear to be stable throughout its European range.
167862		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167863		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. <span style="font-style: italic;">G. maxima</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland    (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>
167863		distribution	eng	<em>G. maxima </em>occurs throughout most of Europe, temperate Asia and Siberia east to China, and in Canada, it has apparently been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. In Europe it is widespread and abundant in the west, becoming less common in the east.
167863		habitat	eng	<em>G. maxima</em> is most typically a plant of low-lying, waterlogged grassland and marshes, as well as the margins of rivers, streams and ditches in lowland, neutral or calcareous, enriched soils and becomes scarce away from such habitats. It will often grow out over the surface of water, forming floating mats. It has increased dramatically in southern Britain in recent years (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and this increase is likely to be due, at least in part, to a combination of modification of water courses and the overall enrichment of souls allowing it to outcompete less aggressive plants.
167863		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. maxima</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland, but appears otherwise to be widespread and abundant throughout its Europan range.
167863		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167864		conservation	eng	<p>There are apparently no conservation measures in place and no evidence that such measures are needed.</p>
167864		distribution	eng	<em>G. nemoralis</em> occurs in central and eastern Europe, east through temperate Asia to the Caucasus and western Asia.
167864		habitat	eng	<p><em>G. nemoralis</em> is considered typical of the&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Chaerophyllo hirsuti</span>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Calthetum palustris</span> association in the Czech Republic (Chytrý 2007), typical of grassy, shaded areas associated with wet woodland. Apart from this, there is little information available on the habitat of this species.</p>
167864		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>G. nemoralis</em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.</p>
167864		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167866		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. festucacea</span> is classed as Endangered in Hungary and Near Threatened in Sweden. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167866		distribution	eng	<em>S. festucacea</em> occurs from Europe east through the Caucasus and Siberia to China and in central western  North America. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the north and east.
167866		habitat	eng	<p><em>S. festucacea</em> typically occurs in standing or slow-flowing water in marshes, oxbow lakes, wet grassland and the margins of rivers.</p>
167866		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. festucacea</span> is classed as Endangered in Hungary and Near Threatened in Sweden, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167866		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167868		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167868		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum elodes</span> is endemic to western Europe, occurring from the Iberian Peninsula north to the United Kingdom and east to Austria.
167868		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum elodes</span> typically occurs on peat or peaty mineral soils in damp or wet acidic, nutrient-poor habitats, usually in shallow water, but sometimes terrestrial, or in deeper water where it may form floating mats. It occurs in heathland pools, on the margins of ponds and slow-flowing streams, and along seepages and runnels in mires.
167868		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum elodes</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its range.
167868		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167869		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167869		distribution	eng	<em>M. sibiricum</em> has a circumboreal distribution, occurring from Iceland east through Arctic Russia and northern Siberia to Kamchatka and in North America from Alaska to west Greenland and Newfoundland as well as further south to California, Indiana and New York State. In Europe, it occurs in Scandinavia and the Baltic States.
167869		habitat	eng	<em>M. sibiricum</em> grows in standing and, more rarely, slowly running water down to at least 3 m, usually in sheltered situations. Typically found in clear, base-rich water on soft bottoms. It avoids dystrophic and oligotrophic waters, but is often common in brackish seawater, and it is tolerant of freezing (Ericsson 2008).
167869		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>M. sibiricum</em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.</p>
167869		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167870		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed for the majority of its range.</p><p>In Greece, it is classed as Vulnerable (D2) and control of grazing is suggested as conservation measure (Sarika and Yannitsaros 2009).<br/></p>
167870		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> occurs throughout most of Europe and Asia, east to the Russian Far East, North Africa, northern and western North America and southernmost South America.
167870		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> typically occurs in permanent rivers, ponds and lakes that are usually more than 1 m deep and have fairly deep beds of soft sediment rich in organic matter. In Greece, it is found in shallow and warm water of 30 cm depth and an alkaline pH.
167870		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgaris</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, apart from Croatia where it is classed as Endangered, Greece where it is Vulnerable, and Switzerland, where it is classed as Near Threatened.<br/>In Greece, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippuris vulgaris</span> is known from a single locality, a marshy area called Lakka Tsoumani on Tymfi Mountain range in northwest Greece at an altitude of 1,800 m. The size of this only confirmed population in Greece is estimated between 1,000-1,500 individuals.
167870		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species in the majority of its range. At the only Greek location, grazing and trampling by sheep, horses and cows seems to affect the population.<br/></p>
167871		conservation	eng	None known
167871		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place. More research may be needed to determine population trends and global population.<br/></p>
167871		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. verticillata</span> is classed as Vulnerable (D2) in the United Kingdom, but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167871		distribution	eng	Eastern Europe to Asia, and Africa. This species is considered a weed in many countries. In Africa it has been recorded from Ivory Coast, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa the species is uncommon and present from 770-1950 m above sea level. It has been reported in Lake Victoria region, western Kenya in Mumias and Central Kenya in Nairobi.
167871		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. verticillata</span> is native in Ireland, southern Scotland and the Baltic States, it has been introduced throughout much of southern and central Europe, as well as tropical regions throughout the world. It is difficult to establish the range of native populations due to widespread introductions.
167871		distribution	eng	Widespread from the temperate and tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere. It is considered an noxious plant in the USA and has been introduced in many European countries. This aquatic plant is believed to be native to Africa, south and southeast Asia.
167871		habitat	eng	An aquatic herb of tanks, ponds and streams, rivers, lakes and ditches. It is a submersed, freshwater perennial herb, generally rooted on the bottom in depths of greater to 20 feet where water clarity is good. The plant is a pest of water-storage systems in India hindering anti-malarial measures and fish-culture.
167871		habitat	eng	<em>H. verticillata</em> grows in relatively deep water in mesotrophic lakes, ponds and slow-flowing rivers.
167871		habitat	eng	It is locally common in rivers and ponds. This species is hardy and tolerant to heavy metals. Many studies have investigated the ecological role of this species in polluted waters (i.e., Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Bao 2008, Huang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).
167871		population	eng	Native populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. verticillata</span> are scattered and vulnerable (e.g. southern Scottish and Irish populations where one has been lost: Esthwaite Water), however it is very difficult to assess the conservation status of the species in Europe because of introductions.
167871		population	eng	No information
167871		population	eng	No population information available although it is a common and widespread species.
167871		threats	eng	No major threats known. Potentially locally impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought
167871		threats	eng	No specific widespread threats have been reported.
167871		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species. However, the species itself, where introduced, can cause ecosystem degradation and outcompetes native flora.<br/></p>
167872		conservation	eng	<em>S. aloides</em> is classed as Extinct in Italy, Vulnerable in  Croatia and Switzerland, Near Threatened in Hungary and<span style="background-color: white;"> Endangered in Czech Republic, othe</span>rwise there is no evidence that conservation action is needed.
167872		distribution	eng	<em>S. aloides</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe, but it is difficult to establish its true native range due to frequent introductions. It is likely to have been introduced to France and Switzerland.
167872		habitat	eng	<p>Native populations of <em>S. aloides</em> typically occur in calcareous, meso-eutrophic lakes, ponds and ditches.</p>
167872		population	eng	<em>S. aloides</em> is classed as Extinct in Italy, Vulnerable in Croatia and Switzerland, Near Threatened in Hungary and<span style="background-color: white;"> Endangered in Czech Republic</span> otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167872		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. aloides</span> appears to be locally declining due to loss and degradation of its habitat, however the actual factors causing this effect are unknown.
167874		conservation	eng	More information about the distribution and biology of this species, as well as potential threats, is needed.
167874		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality (stream near Sha Du Zup)&#160;on the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
167874		habitat	eng	It is found in small mountain streams in well-oxygenated, fast-flowing waters.
167874		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
167874		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to the area have also not been adequately identified.
167875		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution, biology and the potential threats facing this species is needed.
167875		distribution	eng	Known only from the Kamaing area in upper Myanmar. This lies in the Irrawaddy River drainage.
167875		habitat	eng	This species is said to inhabit hillstreams (Britz 2003).
167875		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
167875		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to the area have also not been adequately identified.
167876		conservation	eng	More studies on the population size and trends are needed, despite the relative abundance of this species. Such studies may be useful in projecting future impacts on this species. The taxonomy of this species is also not fully resolved, and its conspecificity with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. brachynotopterus </span>awaits further study.
167876		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dermogenys burmanica</span> is known from the Bago, Irrawaddy and Sittang River drainages in Myanmar.
167876		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dermogenys burmanica</span> has been found in smaller tributaries of large river systems, irrigation channels and small lakes. Unlike some other congeners (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">D. pusilla</span>) that are found in brackish water, this species appears to be restricted to freshwater.
167876		population	eng	There is little information on the population size and trend of this species. However, collection data from recent expeditions in its native range indicate that this is a widespread, common species.
167876		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
167877		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes echinospora</span> is categorized Critically Endangered (CR) in the Czech Republic   (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999). There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
167877		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. echinospora</span> has a sub-circumboreal distribution, occurring from Scandinavia east to north European Russia and the Baltic States south through west and central Europe to the Pyrenees. It also occurs in northern North America.
167877		habitat	eng	<em>I. echinospora</em> typically occurs in nutrient-poor lakes over a wide range of substrates, from rocks and stones to silt and peat, however it is more tolerant of mesotrophic or even eutrophic water, such as coastal lakes enriched by wind-borne base salts, lowland reservoirs, slow-flowing rivers and flooded gravel- and clay-pits.
167877		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. echinospora</span> is classed as Endangered in Estonia and has undergone a decline in the United Kingdom, but otherwise is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167877		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167878		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes lacustris</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic   (Prochazka 2001), as Vulnerable in Estonia (Kuusk 1998), as Endangered in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), as Endangered in Lithuania (Rašomavičius 2007), and as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
167878		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isotes lacustris </span>has a  sub-circumboreal distribution, occurring from Scandinavia east to north  European Russia and the Baltic States south through west and central  Europe. It also occurs in Greenland and northern North America.
167878		habitat	eng	<em>I. lacustris</em> typically occurs in nutrient-poor lakes over a range of substrates, from rocks and stones to gravel, rarely occurring in more&#160; mesotrophic water.
167878		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. lacustris </span>is listed as threatened in Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Lithuania and Switzerland, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167878		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167879		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. It is classified as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001).</p>
167879		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. exaltatus</span> is predominantly an eastern species, occurring from Poland, Germany Austria and Italy to the Balkans and east throughout most of European Russia apart from the north and Arctic regions. Outside Europe, it occurs through the Caucasus, parts of Siberia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan east to China (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
167879		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. exaltatus</span> occurs in habitats similar to those occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">L. europaeus</span>, but generally in slightly drier conditions. It is typical of tall herb stands on the margins of standing water, floodplain grasslands, tall sedge marshes and fens.
167879		population	eng	There is little information available, but it becomes widespread and abundant in the east and most populations appear stable. The species is Extinct in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).
167879		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167880		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species from dams on its rivers need to be further studied.
167880		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Ilisha novacula&#160;</span>was described by Valenciennes (1847) from material collected in Rangoon (Yangon).&#160;This species is known from the Irrawaddy and the Sittang river drainages; it is believed to reach up as far as 650 km up the Irrawaddy (Whitehead 1985). The Chindwin River has not been well surveyed and it is possibly present within this system. Records of this species from China (Zhang 2001) need verification from specimens collected.
167880		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large rivers.
167880		population	eng	Current population size unknown. Although most riverine clupeids are relatively abundant, this species is poorly represented in museum collections. This might be indicative of true scarcity, but is uncertain (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
167880		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Like many river sprats, this species is probably potadromous, and the construction of dams in the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers might have an adverse effect on the riverine migrations of this species, but the impacts are uncertain
167881		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167881		distribution	eng	<p><em>L. turionifera</em> occurs from possibly native status in Norway and Sweden, through central and eastern European Russia, Siberia, the Caucasus, Turkey, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and the Himalayas to the Russian Far East and China as well as northern and western North America. It has been introduced to Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, France and the United Kingdom.</p>
167881		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. turionifera</span> typically occurs in mesotrophic or eutrophic drainage ditches and pools in the floodplains of large rivers.
167881		population	eng	There is no information on the putative native populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. turionifera</span> in Europe. Non-native populations appear to be expanding rapidly.
167881		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
167882		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia bremii </span>is protected in the Alsace region of France (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010) and it is listed as Vulnerable in Hungary (Király 2007), Endangered in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), and Critically Endangered in Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996, Schnittler and Günther 1999, Procházka 2001).
167882		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia bremii</span> occurs in central and western Europe, with confirmed specimens from Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the Ukraine (Taylor 1989).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
167882		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia bremii</span> usually occurs in shallow, oligotrophic water in bogs, occasionally in deeper water. In Hungary, it occurs in floating vegetation between stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites australis</span> in an oxbow.
167882		population	eng	Data are too scarce and unreliable to provide an informed assessment of populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. bremii</span>.
167882		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species faces any threats.
167883		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. intermedia</span> is listed as Data Deficient in the UK, Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and Endangered in Switzerland and Germany. In France it is protected in the regions Ile-de-France, Franche-Comté and Alsace. <br/>Research on the population size and trends, ecology and potential threats is recommended.
167883		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. intermedia </span>occurs throughout northern and central Europe.
167883		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. intermedia</span> apparently typically occurs in calcareous fens, it is very rare in Britain and limited to the fens of East Anglia, it is apparently more frequent in central Ireland (N. Stewart pers. comm. 2010). Taylor (1989) describes it as occurring in shallow water in bogs and marshes.
167883		population	eng	There is little or no information on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">U. intermedia</span>. In the UK, it is considered to be a rare species of calcareous fens and so more or less restricted to East Anglia (N.F. Stewart pers. comm. 2010).
167883		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species faces any threats.
167884		conservation	eng	The main barrier to assessment of the need for conservation and identification of appropriate conservation actions is the lack of reliable records. There is an urgent need to clarify the distribution and status of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ochroleuca</span> based on material confirmed through examination of reproductive structures.<br/><br/>(Schnittler and Günther 1999) give the following country status levels for <em>U. ochroleuca</em>:  <ul><li>Extinct in the Wild in Austria<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic, the Netherlands, and Switzerland </li><li>Endangered in Germany<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in France, Italy and Poland</li><li>Slovakia - present but local <br/></li></ul><em>U. ochroleuca</em> is protected throughout France (Arrêté du 20 janvier 1982), Franche-Compté and Lorraine (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2008).                      <p></p>
167884		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">U. ochroleuca</span> has a circumboreal distribution, occurring in northern and western North America, Greenland and Europe, including the Baltic states and arctic Russia with a few records in Japan. In Europe, it has been reported from a number of countries but its actual distribution is far from clear. For example, Taylor (1989) says that some material from the UK has been determined as <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ochroleuca</span>, but this species is not listed by Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) and is not considered a British species (N.F. Stewart pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Taylor (1989) lists the following countries as supporting <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ochroleuca</span>:   Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Scotland and Sweden. While Schnittler and Günther (1998) state that it is reported from Austria, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. <br/><br/>Clearly, data on the distribution of the species is currently inadequate.
167884		habitat	eng	The species is found in shallow water in bogs and marshes (Taylor 1989).
167884		population	eng	There is no information on trends in populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ochroleuca</span>.
167884		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
167885		conservation	eng	It is classed as Endangered in Germany   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). It is listed as Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010). No information is available for the other countries.
167885		distribution	eng	It has not been possible to establish the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. stygia</span> outside Europe. In Europe, <em>U. stygia</em> has been confirmed  from Finland, Germany, Ireland, Norway and Sweden, it has been reported from a number of other countries such as France and Italy but  the records are still open to question.
167885		habitat	eng	This plant is found in peat bogs, raised bogs and mires and is an element of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagno-Utricularion</span> plant societies (Klotz <em>et al.</em> 2002).
167885		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">U. stygia</span>. The range of the species in Germany is poorly known as it might have been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ochroleuca</span> in the past. The species is threatened in Germany and has gone extinct in two federal estates: Schleswig-Holstein and Saarland (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).
167885		threats	eng	Eutrophication has been described as the main ongoing threat for the species in Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).  <br/>No information available for other parts of its range.
167886		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167886		distribution	eng	<em>L. virgatum</em> occurs throughout much of central and southern Europe east through Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to China. In Europe, it occurs from southeastern France north to Poland and east to Belarus and the Ukraine.
167886		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. virgatum</span> typically occurs in wet grassland, meadows and on the edges of woodland.
167886		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. virgatum</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167886		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167887		conservation	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Pilularia globulifera</em><span lang="EN-GB">  is classed as Critically Endangered in Germany, Switzerland and the Czech Republic (D. Turonova pers.comm. 2010<span lang="EN-GB">). It is categorized Endangered <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">in Norway <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">(A2bc; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)c(v)) <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">and Spain, Vulnerable in Finland (A1c) and in Sweden <span lang="EN-GB">(B2ab(ii,iii,v))<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">, Near Threatened in the United  Kingdom and Data Deficient in Croatia. It is protected at a national  level in France.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">It is recommended to carry out surveys to determine the actual species distribution and to monitor the existing populations and their habitats.</span></p>
167887		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pilularia</span><em> globulifera</em> is endemic to western Europe, where it occurs in southern Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and Ireland, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland extending westwards to the Iberian Peninsula and southwards to Italy and Serbia.
167887		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pilularia</span><em> globulifera</em> typically occupies bare gravel or silt on the margins of lakes, ponds and temporary pools usually in areas where fluctuating water levels suppress competition from higher plants, it will also survive permanently submerged.
167887		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Pilularia globuliferais </span>classed as Critically Endangered in Germany and Switzerland, Endangered in Norway and Spain, Vulnerable in Finland and Sweden, Near Threatened in the United Kingdom and Data Deficient in Croatia. It is protected at a national level in France. <br/></p><p>Most information suggests that populations throughout its range are declining, although it must be recognised that it is often overlooked, typically occurs as dynamic metapopulations due to its habitat requirements and that in almost all cases detailed searches have discovered new populations or relocated populations that were believed lost.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
167887		threats	eng	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. globulifera</span> are stabilisation of water levels and drainage of temporary wetlands, it is possible that even low-level eutrophication may pose a threat as it enables colonisation of otherwise unsuitable habitat by more aggressive plants. Invasive macrophytes such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassula helmsii</span> pose another serious threat to this plant.
167888		conservation	eng	<p><em>N. pumila</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, Vulnerable  in Estonia, Near Threatened in Denmark and as Nationally Scarce in the  United Kingdom, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167888		distribution	eng	<em>N. pumila</em> occurs from northern Europe east through Siberia and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, Kamchatka, Sakhalin Island, Japan and China. In Europe it is mainly northern, occurring throughout Scandinavia, northern parts of the United Kingdom and in the mountains south to the Balkans.
167888		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. pumila</span> occurs in standing, usually oligotrophic lakes and ponds.
167888		population	eng	<em>N. pumila</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, Vulnerable in Estonia, Near Threatened in Denmark and as Nationally Scarce in the United Kingdom, elsewhere it appears to be widespread and abundant.
167888		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167889		conservation	eng	<p>In Germany, it is classed as Endangered (level 2) in the national red list   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996).<br/></p><p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167889		distribution	eng	<em>N. candida</em> mainly occurs in Europe, extending outside the region east through the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to China and in the Indian Povince of Jammu and Kashmir. In Europe, it occurs throughout Scandinavia and much of eastern Central Europe including European Russia.
167889		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. candida</span> grows in lakes and slow-flowing rivers, usually on deep silt or clays and sometimes in brackish water.
167889		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">N. candida</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is apparently extinct in Austria a</span>nd is threatened in Germany, otherwise   however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.
167889		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167890		conservation	eng	None known.
167890		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167890		distribution	eng	A widespread species known from North America, Europe and Asia.
167890		distribution	eng	<em>N. tetragona</em> occurs from Scandinavia through Siberia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan to the Russian Far East, from Kamchatka south to Japan and the Korean Peninsula, it also occurs in China, Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Myanmar and northern North America. In Europe, it is restricted to Finland, Lithuania and European Russia.
167890		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. tetragona</span> typically occurs in standing water or dystrophic lakes and in sheltered inlets of larger lakes and small rivers on muddy substrates.
167890		habitat	eng	This species is a fast growing floating aquatic plant found in lakes, ponds and slow flowing rivers. It often covers large areas on the water surface.
167890		population	eng	A locally common species.
167890		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. tetragona</span> is not uncommon in Finland, but there is no information on populations in European Russia.
167890		threats	eng	No major threats known.
167890		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167893		conservation	eng	<p><em>R. hydrolapathum</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and Vulnerable in Norway. There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167893		distribution	eng	<em>R. hydrolapathum</em> occurs throughout most of Europe and extends beyond the region only into northwest Turkey.
167893		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. hydrolapathum</span> most frequently occurs on the margins of large lowland rivers, canals, ditches and lakes, it will also occur in wet grassland and marshes.
167893		population	eng	<em>R. hydrolapathum</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and Norway, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its range.
167893		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167895		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutifolius </span>is protected in France in the Alsace, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté and Lorraine regions. It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Swiss Red Data Book (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001). and in the UK and is listed as Vulnerable (level 3) in Germany   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). <br/><br/>In the UK, it is included in three local Biodiversity Action Plans (Dorset, Norfolk and Sussex) and the National BAP.<br/><br/>More research on the species ecological requirements and potential threats as well as monitoring of the population trend are needed.
167895		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutifolius</span> occurs in throughout much of Europe east into European Russia. It appears to occur as scattered population throughout its European range and is nowhere considered common.<br/><br/>Wiegleb and Kaplan (1998) state that reports of this species from Siberia may not correspond with their concept of the species.
167895		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutifolius is </span>characteristically a species of naturally mesotrophic to eutrophic ponds and ditches in cattle-grazed pasture.
167895		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutifolius</span> appears to be scarce throughout its range and in most areas from which information is available, is reported to be declining.<br/><br/>In Switzerland, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutifolius</span> has apparently been lost from four out of five populations (Welten and Sutter 1982). <br/>In Bulgaria, it is reported from only two sites (Assyov and Petrova 2006).<br/>In Slovenia, it is recorded from only four tetrads (Jogan 2001).<br/>In the UK, "  <em>P. acutifolius</em> appears to be in gradual, long-term decline. Since 1960 it has decreased in Norfolk and become extinct in the London area and critically endangered in Dorset. However, several vigorous populations survive in Sussex" (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/>In France, it is reported from more than 20 departements and there is no suggestion of a decline, although it is protected in four departements.
167895		threats	eng	The cause of the reported declines is not clear, clearly a part is due to the loss and degradation of wetland habitats, but it seems likely that there is a more fundamental factor affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutifolius </span>and it may be that although it tends to occur in naturally mesotrophic to eutrophic systems, it is unable to tolerate anthropogenic hyper-eutrophication.<br/>In the Czech Republic, the decline is caused by the abandonment of traditional management of fishponds in favour of more intensive fish farming (Kaplan 2010).
167896		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167896		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpinus</span> is a temperate circumboreal species, occurring throughout most of Europe,   the Caucasus and western Asia east through northern India and Myanmar to Japan and Korea, it also occurs in North America.
167896		distribution	eng	The species is a temperate circumboreal species, occurring throughout most of Europe,   the Caucasus and western Asia east through northern India and Myanmar to Japan and Korea, it also occurs in North America.
167896		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpinus</span> typically occurs in neutral to mildly acidic water on deep silt in lakes, rivers, canals and ditches.
167896		habitat	eng	The species typically occurs in neutral to mildly acidic water on deep silt in lakes, rivers, canals and ditches.
167896		population	eng	There is little detailed information available on trends in populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpinus</span> in Europe, there has been a decline in the UK (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) but this appears to have mainly occurred in the 19th century. There is some evidence of a decline elsewhere, but this is mainly linked to the degradation and loss of wetland habitats.
167896		population	eng	There is little detailed information available on trends in populations of the species in Europe, there has been a decline in the UK (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) but this appears to have mainly occurred in the 19<sup>th </sup>century. There is some evidence of a decline elsewhere, but this is mainly linked to the degradation and loss of wetland habitats.
167896		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167897		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167897		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. It is necessary to control eutrophication and agricultural water pollution at this species' habitat. Moreover, it is recommended to study its distribution as the species is sometimes difficult to distinguish from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pusillus</span>.
167897		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. berchtoldii</em> occurs throughout temperate parts of the northern Hemisphere, including most of Europe, western Siberia, the Caucasus, western Asia east to Japan and Korea. It also occurs throughout North America.</p>
167897		distribution	eng	This is a circumboreal temperate species. <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton berchtoldii</span> is present in Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Greece, Turkey, Spain, France and Corsica, Italy.<em></em>
167897		habitat	eng	<em>Potamogeton berchtoldii</em> is a perennial plant that grows in freshwater pools more or less permanent and in the lower part of rivers. It prefers mesotrophic waters.
167897		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. berchtoldii</span> will occur in most water body types, most typically occurring in ponds, lakes, canals and ditches but also in river backwaters and even in shallow, fast flow over riffles in larger rivers.
167897		population	eng	In Greece, it is rare and scattered and reported from very few localities in western Greece and the Peloponnese. Sites include the Sithonia peninsula and Lake Mitrikou, and there are herbarium specimen for a small river east of Aridea, a rivulet on the island of Andros and in 2005 it has been found in a wet depression known as Dobro Polje in Mt. Voras at 1,700 m where it was locally gregarious.   <br/>In France and Corsica, it is present everywhere but rare in the Mediterranean coastal strip. It is common in Corsica. In Italy, it is present in all northern regions and in two regions in southcentral Italy. Pignatti recorded only one site in 1982, now it is more widespread as it was probably not recognised by botanists before.<br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, it is only found in Spain where it is scattered in the northern half. There it was more frequent in the past with more records from the early 20th century.
167897		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. berchtoldii</span> is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range and may be increasing as it is able to exploit eutrophic and recently created water bodies.
167897		threats	eng	<em>Potamogeton berchtoldii</em> is threatened by eutrophication due to agricultural activities and livestock grazing in Spain.
167897		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167899		conservation	eng	Research into the species distribution and current population trends is required.
167899		distribution	eng	Described from Lawksawk Canal at Lawksawk, southern Shan States, Myanmar. The species is recorded from Myanmar (Inle Lake, Hsipaw) and China (Salween drainage), and from the Namting Valley, near Kunming, Yunnan). Reported presence in the Mekong in China requires confirmation.
167899		habitat	eng	Recorded from rivers, streams, and possibly swampy areas.
167899		population	eng	No information available.
167899		threats	eng	Threats are unknown. Dams on the mainstream of the Salween may impact the species but this can not be confirmed and research is required.
167900		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton compressus</span> is listed as:<br/><ul><li>Endangered in Norway and Germany (level 2)</li><li>Vulnerable in Sweden</li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia</li></ul>In the UK it is listed as Endangered, covered by a national Biodiversity Action Plan, and is the subject of a governmental Species Recovery Plan.<br/><br/>More research on this plant's ecological requirements and threats is needed, and monitoring of the population is recommended.
167900		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton compressus</span> occurs throughout much of Europe, east through European Russia, through Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Yunnan in China and Japan, showing a curiously disjunct distribution.
167900		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton compressus</span> tends to occur in the backwaters of rivers or occasionally in lowland lakes. In parts of western Europe, artificial water bodies such as canals and drainage ditches form an important element of its habitat.
167900		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton compressus</span> is uncommon in western and northern Europe but there is no recent information on its status outside this area. It is extinct in the Czech Republic (Kaplan 2010).
167900		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton compressus</span> is declining or of conservation concern throughout northern and western parts of its range. However, beyond the fundamental loss and degradation of wetland habitats, the causes of this decline are unclear.
167901		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. epihydrus </span>is classed as Vulnerable in the United Kingdom.
167901		distribution	eng	It is believed that the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. epihydrus </span>in the Hebrides is native, whereas the population in the Rochdale Canal and the Calder and Hebble Navigations is non-native. In Europe, native populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. epihydrus</span> occur in eight lochans (small lakes) scattered over a small part of Soutyh Uist, in the Outer Hebrides, off Scotland.
167901		habitat	eng	In the part of its range where it is considered native, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. epihydrus</span> occurs in "a few otherwise unremarkable lochs and lochans [..] [where] it grows in relatively shallow oligotrophic, peaty water with species such as the aquatic form of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bulbosus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea alba</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton natans</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. polygonifolius</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sparganium angustifolium</span> (Preston 1995).
167901		population	eng	Known native populations of this species in Europe appear to be stable, but only one has been visited since 2000.
167901		threats	eng	There are no past or ongoing threats to this species. However, the small number of populations with a small extent of occurrence means that it is vulnerable to even relatively small scale anthropogenic actions and could be vulnerable to natural events.
167902		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167902		distribution	eng	<p>In Europe east to China, <em><span lang="EN-GB"> <span style="font-style: italic;">P. filiformis </span></em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is a boreal species (circumpolar boreo-montane, Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), only occurring at higher altitudes in the south. Thus, it is widespread throughout Scandinavia east throughout Russia, but in southern Europe and Asia, is more or less restricted to mountain ranges such as the Alps and Himalayas. Anomalous records exist from southwest Asia (e.g. Turkey), the Middle East, Hawaii, Central America and southern China (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010) and southern North America (Haynes and Barre Hellquist 2000). There are similar anomalous reports, <span lang="EN-GB">from Trans-Volga (East European Russia<span lang="EN-GB">) and Lower Volga (South European Russia<span lang="EN-GB">), the Caucasus and the plains of Central Russian Asia however all specimens examined have been <em>P.&#160;pectinatus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> (Tzvelev 2001).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></span></p><p>It seems likely that the true distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. filiformis</span> may be obscured by misidentification.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></p>
167902		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. filiformis </span>usually grows in sandy substrates in calcareous waters of ponds, lakes, streams, flooded mud flats and coastal inshore waters.</p><p><br/></p>
167902		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. filiformis</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout most of its range and there is no reliable evidence of a decline.
167902		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167903		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167903		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. friesii</em> has a disjunct boreal distribution, occurring throughout much of Europe except the Mediterranean, north into Scandinavia and Siberia and south to Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Mongolia. It also occurs throughout much of northern North America.</p>
167903		habitat	eng	<p><em>P. friesii</em> is typically a species of nutrient-rich still or slow-flowing neutral to calcareous water bodies. In the UK and much of the west of its range it is particularly characteristic of extensive drainage ditch systems. It also occurs in coastal wetlands on the Gulf of Bothnia.</p>
167903		population	eng	Whilst there have been some local declines, these appear to be linked to the general loss and degradation of aquatic habitats and there is no evidence to suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. friesii</span> is suffering a widespread population decline. It is extinct in the Czech Republic (Kaplan 2002, 2010).
167903		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167904		conservation	eng	<p>It is classed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001). There are no conservation measures in place or needed at European scale.</p>
167904		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. gramineus</em> occurs throughout most of Europe, from Spain north to Ireland and Iceland, east throughout European Russia, to Turkey and the northern Mediterranean. Outside Europe, it occurs throughout northern Asia east to the Korean Peninsula and Japan south through southeast Asia south through the Philippines to Papua New Guinea and Micronesia, throughout much of Africa, both north and south of the Sahara and throughout most of North America (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
167904		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. gramineus </span>will occur in most oligotrophic to mesotrophic water body types, from large lakes through ponds to temporary pools in fens and marshes as well as streams and even fairly large, fast-flowing rivers.&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
167904		population	eng	Whilst there have been some local declines, these appear to be linked to the general loss and degradation of aquatic habitats and there is no evidence to suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gramineus</span> is suffering a widespread population decline. For example, it is in serious decline in the Czech Republic where it has been confirmed only in several localities in recent years (Kaplan 2010).
167904		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167905		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. obtusifolius</span> is listed as Vulnerable in Germany<a name="OLE_LINK3"> (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</a> and as Critically Endangered in Switzerland   (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>
167905		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed. The species has been assessed as Vulnerable in Germany<a name="OLE_LINK3"> (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</a> and as Critically Endangered in Switzerland   (Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>
167905		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. obtusifolius </em>is a northern temperate species, occurring throughout much of Europe north of the Mediterranean Basin, including the Baltic states and European Russia, extending east through Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Myanmar, Heilongjiang Province in China and Japan, it also occurs in northern North America including Canada and Alaska.</p>
167905		distribution	eng	<p>The species<em> </em>is a northern temperate species, occurring throughout much of Europe north of the Mediterranean Basin, including the Baltic states and European Russia, extending east through Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Myanmar, China (Heilongjiang Province), and Japan (Preston 1995, Wiegleb and Kaplan 1998, Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet 2010, efloras 2011). It also occurs in northern North America including Canada and Alaska.</p>
167905		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. obtusifolius</span> typically grows in mesotrophic or occasionally eutrophic acidic or neutral still or very slow-flowing waters, often over deep silt, including lakes, ponds, canals and occasionally the backwaters of rivers.<br/></p>  <p><strong><br/></strong><strong><em></em></strong></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167905		habitat	eng	<p>The species<em></em> typically grows in mesotrophic or occasionally eutrophic acidic or neutral still or very slow-flowing waters, often over deep silt, including lakes, ponds, canals and occasionally the backwaters of rivers.<br/></p>  <p><strong><br/></strong><strong><em></em></strong></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
167905		population	eng	Most populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. obtusifolius</span> appear to be stable, although four populations have been lost in Switzerland and only one remains (Welten and Sutter 1982).
167905		population	eng	Most populations of the species <em></em>appear to be stable, although four populations have been lost in Switzerland and only one remains (Welten and Sutter 1982).
167905		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167906		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. praelongus</span>&#160; is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and in Germany and as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic where it is also protected at national level. In the UK, it is classed as Near Threatened.<br/>  It is protected in France in Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur, Rhône-Aples, Auvergne, Franche Comté (Association Tela Botanica 2003-2008).<br/><br/>More research on the ecological requirements of the species and potential threats is needed as well as monitoring of the population trend.
167906		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. praelongus</em> occurs throughout temperate parts of the northern Hemisphere. It is widespread but usually scarce throughout Europe, from France and the UK north to the Faroe Islands and Iceland through Scandinavia and the Baltic States east to eastern Russia and Japan. It is widespread throughout European Russia. In the south, it occurs from Bulgaria and Turkey east through the Caucasus and Mongolia to China, but is absent from the Mediterranean Basin. It also occurs in northern and western North America south to central Mexico.</p>
167906		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. praelongus</span> typically occurs in deep, naturally mesotrophic standing or slow-flowing water bodies, including lakes, canals and lowland rivers.
167906		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. praelongus</span> has undergone a significant decline in Switzerland   (Welten and Sutter 1982). In the UK, it has declined in the south and there is a declining trend in Germany. It is surviving at only one locality in the Czech Republic where most populations have disappeared (Kaplan 2010). However, in most of its European range the populations seem to be stable.
167906		threats	eng	The main cause of the decline in the UK, beyond the fundamental loss of water bodies, is attributed to eutrophication (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In the Czech Republic, the populations disappeared as a result of river regulations (Z. Kaplan pers. comm. 2010).
167907		conservation	eng	This species is classed as Critically Endangered in Poland and Germany, Endangered in Sweden and Estonia, Vulnerable in parts of Russia, and Near Threatened (NT) in Norway and Finland.<br/>In the UK it is listed as Least Concern (LC), although it is the subject of a Biodiversity Action Plan.<br/>Research on the ecological requirements of this species as well as potential threats is recommended. Monitoring of the existing populations is needed.
167907		distribution	eng	<em>P. rutilus</em> is probably endemic to northern Europe, although it may extend into western Asia (Wiegleb and Kaplan 1998). It occurs from Scotland, to a single site in northern France, through Germany and the Czech Republic, scattered throughout Scandinavia, the Baltic States and through western Russia south to the Ukraine.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. rutilus</span> has also been reported from Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina but these records require confirmation.
167907		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. rutilus</span> tends to occur in shallow standing, often calcareous water over sand or shallow silt and often in species-rich sites.
167907		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. rutilus</span> is on red lists, or the subject of conservation action in most countries with reliable records.
167907		threats	eng	There is no useful information available on threats to this species.
167908		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation action taken for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sarmaticu</span>s and insufficient information widely available to assess the need for such action.
167908		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. sarmaticus</span> is described as occurring in western Siberia (northern Kazakhstan) and Russian Central Asia, southeastern Kazakhstan. Within Europe it is found in the Tambov region in the Volga-Don in Central European Russia, in the vicinity of the town of Liman in Gotvaldov District of Kharkov Region in Dnieper Province, Novomoskovsk District in Dnepropetrovsk Province and in the vicinity of the city of Kherson and Askania Nova in Kheson Region in the Black Sea Province of the Ukraine (Tzvelev 2001).
167908		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in stagnant, often saline, water bodies in the steppe zone: bogs, shallow lakes and small water bodies (Tzvelev 2001). </p>
167908		population	eng	There is no information on population size or stability in <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sarmaticus</span>.
167908		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
167910		conservation	eng	There is no information available on conservation action taken for this species and published information is inadequate to assess the need for conservation action.
167910		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. subsibiricus</span> is a pan-Arctic species, known from scattered localities in the Arctic regions of North America and Russia. It appears to be widespread in Alaska but scattered in Canada (Elven 2007).
167910		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. subsibiricus</span> is described as occurring in lakes and rivers of the tundra zone (Tzvelev 2001).
167910		population	eng	There is no information on the status or trends in the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. subsibiricus</span>.
167910		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species is threatened.
167912		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. palustris</span> is classed as  Endangered in Croatia and Switzerland   and is protected in the Alsace, Haute-Normandie, Bourgogne, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté and Centre regions of France<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>otherwise<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
167912		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. palustris</span> occurs throughout central Europe and into northern Asia, but is less common or absent from the north and south. It is scattered in the Mediterranean Basin, mainly in Italy and the Balkans and absent from parts of Scandinavia.
167912		habitat	eng	<em>H. palustris</em> typically occurs in still, shallow, base-rich, clear and not eutrophicated water bodies, including ponds, ditches, ox-bows and backwaters.
167912		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. palustris</span> is classed as Endangered in Croatia and Switzerland and there is evidence of a continuing long-term decline in the United Kingdom, but otherwise most European populations appear to be stable.
167912		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167913		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167913		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. nummularia</span> is native to Europe, the Caucasus and Turkey. It is found more or less throughout Europe, except the Iberian Peninsula where records from northern Spain are unconfirmed.
167913		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. nummularia </span>typically occurs   on open, damp, often clay-rich soils in shaded woodland and hedges, especially the sides of streams, and damp grassland and path-sides.
167913		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. nummularia</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167913		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167914		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. thyrsiflora</span> is protected at a national level in France and classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland and in Germany, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167914		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. thyrsiflora</span> has a circumboreal distribution, including northern Europe, Siberia, the Russian Far East south to China and northern North America. In Europe, it occurs from Scandinavia south to France and Germany.
167914		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. thyrsiflora</span> typically grows in permanent shallow water, including fens on the flood plains of rivers, lake margins, ditches and canals.
167914		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. thyrsiflora</span> is classed as Vulnerable in Switzerland, otherwise it appears to be widespread with stable populations throughout its European range.
167914		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167915		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167915		distribution	eng	<em>C. palustris</em> is found throughout most of the northern hemisphere, although it becomes less widespread in the Mediterranean and Middle East and is absent from tropical regions. In Europe, it occurs throughout the north and centre, from Iceland and Scandinavia south to northern Spain and Portugal, France, Italy, the Balkans and mainland Greece, east into European Russia.
167915		habitat	eng	<em>C. palustris</em> occurs in a wide variety of wet habitats, from wet woodland and the margins of rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, ditches and canals to wet grassland, usually scarce in or absent from acid habitats.
167915		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. palustris </span>appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout most or all of its European range.
167915		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167916		conservation	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">brachypodus</span> is classified as Vulnerable D2 in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008). According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) and Scoppola and Spampinato (2005), the species is classified as Vulnerable in Italy. <br/><br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Conservation of the habitat &#160;<br/>- Monitoring of the existing localities and search for new ones<br/>- Taxonomic surveys <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics &#160;<br/>- Raising public awareness
167916		conservation	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">brachypodus</span> is classified as Vulnerable in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008). According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) and Scoppola and Spampinato (2005), the species is classified as Vulnerable in Italy. There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species &#160;<br/>- Conservation of the habitat &#160;<br/>- Monitoring of the existing localities and search for new ones<br/>- Taxonomic surveys <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics &#160;<br/>- Raising public awareness
167916		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is found in Spain, Sardinia (Italy), Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med 2009). It has a very restricted geographical distribution and generally occurs in mountainous regions.&#160;   <p>In Morocco, it is known from eight localities (High Imdrhas and Tizi-n-Ouarro in the High Atlas; Itzer, Tazzeka, Timahdit, Azrou and Ifrane in the Middle Atlas; Gada Debdou on the oriental high plateaus). In Algeria, it is present in three localities of the high Tell (Ouach Mountain, Tiaret, Mounts of Tlemcen). In Spain, it is signalled in three provinces in the centre of the country (Ciudad Real, Salamanca, Zamora). In Sardinia, the species is found at only two sites (Arrigoni 2006). <br/></p>  <p>At Mediterranean level, the extent of occurrence is about 800,000 km² and the occupied area does not exceed 400 km².&#160; </p>
167916		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is found in Spain, Sardinia (Italy), Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009). It has a very restricted geographical distribution and generally occurs in mountainous regions.&#160;   <p>In Spain, it is signalled in the centre of the country, in the provinces Ciudad Real, Zaragoza, Valladolid, and Salamanca with a doubtful presence in Badajoz. In Sardinia, the species is found at only two sites (Arrigoni 2006). <br/></p>  <p>At global level, the extent of occurrence is about 800,000 km² and the occupied area does not exceed 400 km². In Spain, the area of occupancy is estimated to be 21 km². <br/></p>
167916		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that occurs in small temporary pools that are dry in summer. In Sardinia, it is found in seasonally submerged habitat on basalt at 300 m altitude (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005, Arrigoni 2006). It blooms in spring from March to May.
167916		population	eng	<p>The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be fragile and in decline due to the vulnerability of the suitable habitat (i.e., temporary pools). <em>Ranunculus batrachioides</em> is considered very rare in Sardinia, vulnerable in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species has been more abundant in the past in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> but became very rare following the drainage of its habitat. Now it is found at only one locality in <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place> (Macomer). It is found in the centre of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on">Ciudad Real</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Badajoz</st1:city>, Zaragoza, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Valladolid, Salamanca</st1:place></st1:city>).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p><br/><p></p>
167916		population	eng	<p>The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be fragile and in decline due to the vulnerability of the suitable habitat (i.e., temporary pools). <em>Ranunculus batrachioides</em> is considered very rare in Sardinia, vulnerable in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region>, very rare in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Algeria</st1:country-region> and rare in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species has been more abundant in the past in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> but became very rare following the drainage of its habitat. Now it is found at only one locality in <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place> (Macomer). It is found in the centre of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on">Ciudad Real</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Badajoz</st1:city>, Zaragoza, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Salamanca</st1:place></st1:city>).</p>  <br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><p></p>
167916		threats	eng	Drainage, infilling of the habitat, agricultural extension, water pollution, overgrazing and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species.
167917		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167917		distribution	eng	<p><em>R. circinatus</em> occurs from western Europe through Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the Russian Far East. In Europe, it is most frequent in the centre, from France north to Sweden and Finland, south to Italy and east to Romania.</p>
167917		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. circinatus</span> typically occurs in fairly deep standing or slow-flowing mesotrophic or eutrophic base-rich water bodies such as lakes, gravel pits and large lowland rivers.
167917		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. circinatus</span> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167917		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167918		conservation	eng	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> fluitans</em> is classed as Vulnerable D2 in Sweden and Near Threatened in Switzerland. There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
167918		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ranunculus fluitans</em> is endemic to western Europe, where it occurs from Ireland, the United Kingdom, southern Sweden, France, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Slovakia and Hungary to Italy.</p>
167918		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> fluitans </em>typically occurs in large, lowland mesotrophic to eutrophic rivers with stable, often gravel substrates however it may also occasionally be found in smaller water bodies such as streams or even ponds.
167918		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> fluitans</em> is classed as Vulnerable in Sweden and Near Threatened in Switzerland but according to most authors it is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range.
167918		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167919		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em><span lang="EN-GB"> ololeucos</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is  protected in the Basse-Normandie, Île-de-France and Poitou-Charentes  regions of France. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">It is classed as Critically Endangered in Germany. O<span lang="EN-GB">therwise the conservation needs of the species are unclear but research on the population trends and potential threats is recommended.&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span>
167919		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> ololeucos</em> is endemic to western Europe, occurring in western Germany, the Netherlands, France, Spain and Portugal.</p>
167919		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus ololeucos</span> apparently occurs in slow-flowing or standing oligotrophic water bodies in heathland, but there is very little reliable published information.
167919		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em><span lang="EN-GB"> ololeucos</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is protected in the Basse-Normandie, Île-de-France and Poitou-Charentes regions of France and has apparently strongly declined in the Netherlands. It is classed as Critically Endangered in Germany   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). I<span lang="EN-GB">t is apparently abundant throughout the rest of its range, but complications of misidentification may mean that this is inaccurate.</span></p>
167919		threats	eng	In Germany, past threats came from water pollution and lowering of the groundwater levels. Eutrophication is an ongoing threat. There is no information about threats in other parts of its range.
167920		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> polyphyllus</em> is classed as Endangered in the Czech Republic and Near Threatened and protected in Hungary, it is also on the Russian Red List. More information about the population distribution, trends, life history and ecology as well as potential threats is needed.
167920		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> polyphyllus</em> is restricted to a small area in central Europe and European Russia, including Belarus, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Moldova, Eastern and Central European Russia, Slovakia and the Ukraine.
167920		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus polyphyllus</span> occurs in pools, inundated grassland and marshland, it usually grows with its roots in standing water. The main habitat in Hungary are saline marshes.
167920		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> polyphyllus</em> is classed as Endangered in the Czech Republic and Near Threatened in Hungary, it is also on the Russian Red List, there is no other readily available information on its status, but it may be assumed that it is declining or rare throughout its range. In Hungary, it is sporadic in the southeast and rare elsewhere.<br/>The size of the populations is extremely depending on the weather conditions.
167920		threats	eng	The specific threats are not known but the species is probably affected by degradation of the habitat due to drainage and water pollution.
167921		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. reptans</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Germany,  Endangered in Switzerland and Vulnerable (D2) in the United Kingdom, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167921		distribution	eng	<em>R. reptans</em> has a circumboreal arctic-alpine distribution, from Iceland through Scandinavia and Siberia to the Russian Far East and northern North America and Greenland. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the north with outlying populations in the Alps and high mountain regions in Italy and the Balkans.
167921		habitat	eng	<em>R. reptans </em>typically grows in gravel on the margins of oligotrophic calcareous or acid water bodies, occasionally growing to a depth of more than 0.5 m or persisting in seasonally inundated depressions.<em></em>
167921		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. reptans</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Germany, Endangered in Switzerland and Vulnerable in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe it appears to be widespread and reasonably abundant.
167921		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167922		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167922		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. sphaerospermus</span> occurs over a fairly restricted area from the eastern Mediterranean east through the Middle East to Nepal. In Europe, it occurs in Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus and Turkey.
167922		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. sphaerospermus </span>grows in a wide variety of temporary or permanent mesotrophic or eutrophic water bodies. It can be found in ditches, pools, seasonal brooks and slow-flowing streams mainly in coastal areas.
167922		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. sphaerospermus</span> is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range. It is scattered and fairly rare in Greece mainland and East Aegean Islands.
167922		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167923		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167923		distribution	eng	<p>It is reported from throughout Europe except Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Gibraltar, Greek Aegean Islands, Crete, FYR Macedonia, Monaco, Montenegro, Azores, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
167923		habitat	eng	<p><em>V.&#160;beccabunga </em>can occur in most wetland types, it is most typical of the margins of rivers and streams, even in temporary springs in the headwaters (such as winterbournes). It will also occur in the draw-down zones of lakes and ponds and in ditches and canals either where water is relatively shallow or the bank slopes are gentle enough to allow it to root in the margins. It is also not uncommon on wet rides in woodland.</p>
167923		population	eng	<p><em>V.&#160;beccabunga </em>is widespread and abundant in the UK, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Hungary.<br/></p>
167923		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
167924		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167924		distribution	eng	<em>V. scutellata</em> occurs from Europe south into North Africa and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan to Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island in the Russian Far East, as well as throughout most of northern North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
167924		habitat	eng	<em>V. scutellata </em>grows in a wide range of wetland habitats on acid soils, particularly on the margins of streams and rivers, marshes, bogs and wet heath.
167924		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. scutelata</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
167924		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
167925		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. angustifolium</span> is listed as Rare in the Red data Book of Estonia and Near Threatened in the Swiss Red Data Book.
167925		distribution	eng	According to Cook and Nicholls (1986), "<span style="font-style: italic;">S. angustifolium</span> is a holarctic species with a circumboreal distribution. It is commoner in suboceanic regions and is rare (or perhaps under-recorded) in continental Eurasia. In Europe it is widespread and common in the north, extending beyond the arctic circle. In central and southern Europe it is confined to higher land in the Alps and the mountains of Portugal, Spain and Macedonia". Outside Europe it occurs in Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Hokkaido, the mountains of Honshu and throughout much of North America.
167925		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. angustifolius</span> is confined to acid oligotrophic water bodies, occurring in large lakes, ponds, ditches and streams, growing at depths of 30-150 (-250) cm (Cook and Nicholls 1986).
167925		population	eng	Most populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. angustifolium</span> appear to be stable, however it is included on three national red lists. It is extinct in the Czech Republic.
167925		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats to the survival of this species, although it is likely that there have been some losses due to drainage and habitat degradation.</p>
167926		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167926		distribution	eng	<p><em>S. emersum</em> occurs mainly in Europe, with scattered records east through the Caucasus and Russia to Kamchatka, China and Japan, it is also found in northern North America. In Europe, it is common in the west and centre, north into Scandinavia but is less frequent in the Mediterranean, it occurs throughout European Russia.</p>
167926		distribution	eng	<p>The species occurs mainly in Europe, with scattered records east through the Caucasus and Russia to Kamchatka (including <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia), China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Gansu, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol,  Xinjiang, and possibly <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Henan, Hebei and <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Shaanxi<span id="lblTaxonDesc">) and Japan, it is also found in northern North America. In Europe, it is common in the west and centre, north into Scandinavia but is less frequent in the Mediterranean, it occurs throughout European Russia (Cook and Nicholls 1986, Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, eFloras 2011). There is an outlying record from Myanmar (eFloras 2011)<br/></span></span></p>
167926		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. emersum</span> typically occurs in the margins of lakes and in the slower reaches or backwaters of large lowland rivers, it will also occasionally occur in canals and smaller ponds. It is most frequently found in mesotrophic to eutrophic systems in deep silt and usually in fairly shallow water. Cook and Nicholls (1986) consider that it is a poor competitor and this is why it is not more often dominant.
167926		habitat	eng	The species typically occurs in the margins of lakes, swamps, and in the slower reaches or backwaters of large lowland rivers, it will also occasionally occur in canals and smaller ponds. It is most frequently found in mesotrophic to eutrophic systems in deep silt and usually in fairly shallow water. Cook and Nicholls (1986) consider that it is a poor competitor and this is why it is not more often dominant.<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
167926		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. emersum</span> is widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout most of its European range.
167926		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout most of its European range, and probably globally.
167926		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167927		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. gramineum</span> is listed as Least Concern in Finland, Sweden, the St. Petersburg region of Russia and Estonia, but Vulnerable in Latvia by Heino and Toivonen (2008). It is listed as Near Threatened in Norway (Kålås <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
167927		distribution	eng	The main centre of distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. gramineum</span> is in areas bordering the Baltic Sea, however it has also been recorded from scattered sites across Russia to Kamchatka (Cook and Nicholls 1986).
167927		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. gramineum</span> apparently shows a strong preference for oligotrophic lakes, being rarely found in pools or ditches (Cook an Nicholls 1986), Nurminen (2003) suggests that it is less likely to occur in eutrophic bays of lakes and will occur in the meso-oligotrophic to oligotrophic areas.
167927		population	eng	There is little information available on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">S. gramineum</span>. Rintanen (1996) suggests that although there were small changes in population between the 1930s and 1980-1985 in 113 Finnish lakes, overall the population remained stable.
167927		threats	eng	It is not known whether there are any threats to the species apart from hybridisation potentially.
167928		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167928		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. hyperboreum</span> is a pan-boreal species which is widespread in North America (mainly Canada and Alaska), Scandinavia, Arctic Russia east to Kamchatka, with outlying populations in the Italian Alps (Cook and Nicholls 1986).
167928		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. hyperboreum</span> occurs in shallow, mesotrophic to oligotrophic, flat-bottomed gravel-bed water bodies in the Taiga, Tundra and high Alpine zones.
167928		population	eng	There is little information available on the status of or trends in European populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. hyperboreum</span>, but it is listed as Least Concern in the Swedish and Finnish Red Lists (Heino and Toivonen 2008).
167928		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
167931		conservation	eng	<em>T. laxmannii</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia, otherwise there   are no conservation measures in place or needed.
167931		distribution	eng	<p><em>T. laxmannii</em> occurs from Europe through Siberia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Himalayas in Pakistan, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the Russian Far East, China and Japan. In Europe, it is apparently native to the eastern Balkans and east into European Russia, the Ukraine and the Crimean Peninsula but introduced to many other countries in Central Europe.</p>
167931		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. laxmannii</span> typically occurs in shallow water in the margins of pools and ponds, apparently particularly in water bodies remaining from abandoned sand or gravel extraction. It has also been reported from artificial ponds, inland inundations, rice fields, and channels.
167931		population	eng	<em>T. laxmannii</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia, otherwise it appears to be widespread with stable populations, although often scarce throughout its native range in Europe and appears to be frequently introduced from cultivation.
167931		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167932		conservation	eng	<em>Cicuta virosa</em> is classed as Endangered (EN) in Switzerland, Vulnerable in Greece and Nationally Scarce in the UK, it is <span class="tooltip">protected in France in the Departments of Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne, <span class="tooltip">Auvergne, Franche-Comté, Lorraine and Picardie. In the Czech Republic, it is categorized Endangered (EN) (D.  Turonova pers. comm. 2010). <br/><span class="tooltip"><span class="tooltip">No other conservation measures are in place or needed.</span></span>
167932		distribution	eng	<em>C. virosa</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia, Mongolia and Kashmir to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. In Europe, it occurs throughout Scandinavia and the Baltic States south to France, northern Italy and the Balkans and east to Poland, Moldova, the Ukraine and North European Russia.
167932		habitat	eng	<p><em>C. virosa</em> occurs in shallow water on the margins of still or slow-flowing water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. It will also occur in wet meadows, in tall-herb fen, marshy pasture and mud and occasionally in deeper water on floating mats of vegetation (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>
167932		population	eng	Most populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. virosa</span> throughout its European range appear to be stable, although there is some concern in Greece, the UK and Switzerland. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicuta virosa</span> is known in Greece from a single locality, Lake Pamvotis in northwest Greece, where an old record has been recently confirmed. This population does not seem to count more than 1,000 individuals (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2010).
167932		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167933		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium galioides</span> is listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) by Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005). Monitoring of the population trend is recommended.<br/></p>
167933		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium galioides</span> is endemic to the western half of the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal, it occurs in the provinces Alto Alentejo, Algarve, Beira Alta, Baixo Alentejo and Beira Baixa. In Spain, it is found in Avila, Badajoz, Cadiz, Caceres, Cordoba, Guadalajara, Huelva, León, Madrid, Salamanca, Sevilla, Toledo, Valladolid, and Zamora (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
167933		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium galioides</span> is an annual plant that occurs in temporary pools.
167933		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eryngium galioides</span> is widespread and not uncommon in southwestern Spain and Portugal.
167933		threats	eng	<p>The drying of streams and pools as a consequence of water abstraction for irrigation poses a threat to this species. Eutrophication as a consequence of fertilizers and livestock is another problem. Destruction of habitats by building infrastructure (in coastal regions)<span lang="EN-GB">.</p>
167934		conservation	eng	<p><em>O. aquatica</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Norway<span lang="EN-GB">, Endangered in Switzerland, Vulnerable in Austria, <span lang="EN-GB">and Near Threatened in Finland. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</span></p>
167934		distribution	eng	<em>O. aquatica</em> occurs from Europe east through the Middle East, the Caucasus and Siberia to Kazakhstan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
167934		habitat	eng	<em>O. aquatica </em>typically occurs on the margins of shallow pools, ditches and ponds in naturally nutrient-rich habitats, although it can grow permanently submerged in deeper water and occasionally on the gravel beds of fast-flowing rivers.
167934		population	eng	<p><em>O. aquatica</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland, Critically Endangered in Norway<span lang="EN-GB">, Near Threatened in Finland, otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.</p>
167934		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167935		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">fluviatilis</span> is apparently  extinct in Germany, extremely local in Belgium and Near Threatened in  Denmark. It is locally frequent in the United Kingdom and France, but is  protected at a regional level in Alsace and Lorraine.<br/>Monitoring of the remaining populations and their habitat is recommended.
167935		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe fluviatilis</span> is endemic to western Europe, occurring from Ireland and the United Kingdom east to Germany and south to northern France.
167935		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe</span><em> fluviatilis</em> is typically found in in clear, meso-eutrophic water of calcareous streams and rivers as well as in some artificial water bodies.&#160;<em></em>
167935		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe fluviatilis</span> is apparently extinct in Germany, extremely local in Belgium and Near Threatened in Denmark. It is locally frequent in the United Kingdom and France, but is protected at a regional level in Alsace and Lorraine.
167935		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oenanthe fluviatilis</span> has declined throughout much of its range, some of this decline is due to loss of habitat and some due to increased navigation pressure on waterbodies.
167936		conservation	eng	<p><em>S. latifolium</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in  Switzerland and the United Kingdom (D2). It is categorized Endangered in Finland, Austria and the Czech Republic and it is protected in the Franche-Comté and Picardie regions of France,  but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167936		distribution	eng	<em>Sium latifolium</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to China. It has been introduced to Australia. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
167936		habitat	eng	<em>S. latifolium</em> typically grows in wet tall-herb fen and reedbeds, often on the margins of lakes and large rivers, but also in ditches.
167936		population	eng	<em>S. latifolium</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland and the United Kingdom and Endangered in Austria and Finland, but otherwise it appears to be reasonably widespread and abundant.
167936		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
167937		conservation	eng	No information available.
167937		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. major</span> has a mainly European distribution, extending beyond the region only into Turkey in Asia. In Europe, it occurs from Scandinavia south to Germany and east to the Crimean Peninsula.
167937		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. major</span> typically occurs in brackish water bodies with species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton pectinatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruppia cirrhosa</span>.
167937		population	eng	There is no information available on populations trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. major</span>.
167937		threats	eng	No information available.
167938		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
167938		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zannichellia melitensis</span> is endemic to the islands of Malta, Gozo and Comino.
167938		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zannichellia melitensis</span> occurs in seasonal pools in bedrock.
167938		population	eng	There is no indication that populations are in decline, but the restricted distribution makes the species vulnerable to land-use changes.
167938		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
167942		conservation	eng	None known.
167942		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
167942		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into the taxonomy of this species complex, as well as its biology and ecology.
167942		distribution	eng	<em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is a species complex of three or four different species, and is in need of further taxonomic study. As it is currently recognized, this is a widespread species, known from Senegal to Central Africa Republic, and south to Namibia and Botswana. It is absent in the rift valley lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea found throughout the region (Cross Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Kienke, Ntem, Benito, Como, Ogowe, Nyanga, Kouilou, Loeme and Chiloango rivers). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango and Cunene systems, but absent from the Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread from Sénégal to Cameroon. Including the Niger, Volta, Chad, Ogowe. In Ghana, also known from the Pra and Tano (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999)
167942		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span>Widespread from Sénégal to Cameroon. Including the Niger, Volta, Chad, Ogowe. In Ghana, also known from the Pra and Tano (Dankwa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Widespread from Sénégal to Angola including Niger, Volta, Chad, Ogowe, Dem. Rep. Congo and Upper Zambezi Rivers; as well as in the Cunene, Okavango, and Kafue systems.  Absent in the Nile River,  Zambian Congo and the Great Lakes. (Skelton 1993).
167942		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea found throughout the region (Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Kienke (also known as Kribi), Ntem, Benito (also known as Mbini, also known as Woleu), Como, Ogowe, Nyanga, Kouilou, Loeme et Chiloango. Elsewhere, widespread from west Africa to the Zambezi (including the Kafue), the Congo, Cunene and Okavango. It is absent in the rift valley lakes.
167942		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango and Cunene systems, but absent from the Zambian Congo and  the great lakes (Skelton 2001). Apparently absent from northern Zambian upland tributaries of the Upper Zambezi. As currently recognised, the species occurs in western Africa also. First recorded from Lake Kariba in the Middle Zambezi in 1989.
167942		habitat	eng	<em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps (Roberts 1984) where it prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. The adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish.  Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. It is relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years (Skelton 1993). It builds a free-floating bubblenest.  <em>Hepsetus</em> seems to prefer the upper courses of small rivers where <em>Hydrocynus</em> is absent or less abundant.
167942		habitat	eng	<em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps (Roberts 1984) where it prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. The adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. It is relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years (Skelton 1993). It builds a free-floating bubblenest. <em>Hepsetus</em> seems to prefer the upper courses of small rivers where <em>Hydrocynus</em> is absent or less abundant.
167942		habitat	eng	Rivers and floodplain habitats, usually with vegetation, but it can inhabit the main stream provided cover is available. In the Kafue system, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocynus</span> is absent, it inhabits the main channel of the river.
167942		habitat	eng	The species occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps (Roberts 1984) Prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. Adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. Relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years. Also caught with drawnets (Skelton 1993).
167942		population	eng	Common and widespread.
167942		population	eng	No data on population trends.
167942		population	eng	No information available.
167942		population	eng	This species is common and widespread.
167942		threats	eng	None known
167942		threats	eng	None known.
167942		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are subsistence fisheries. This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
167942		threats	eng	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries in central Africa, and is a commercially collected aquarium fish.
167944		conservation	eng	None known.
167944		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
167944		distribution	eng	Species widely distributed from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in Kwanza River (Lucala River, Kwanza River ) and  Bengo River systems.
167944		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is present from the lower course of the Ogowe River to the lower course of the Kouilou River (Congo-Brazzaville). Elsewhere, it is present in the lower course rivers in Senegal and lagoons of the Ivory Coast.
167944		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Lower reaches of rivers in Senegal, in lagoons of Cote d'Ivoire and Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is known from Senegal to Angola.
167944		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is present from the lower course of the Ogowe River to the lower course of the Kouilou River (Congo). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in Kwanza River (Lucala R., Kwanza R.) and  Bengo River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches of rivers in Senegal, in lagoons of Cote d'Ivoire and Niger delta.
167944		habitat	eng	<em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is a pelagic species that is found in rivers and streams. It also known from lagoons (Gourene and Teugels 1990).
167944		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams, also in lagoons.
167944		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower part of rivers and streams. Its biology is not known.
167944		population	eng	No available data.
167944		population	eng	No information available.
167944		population	eng	Population size is not known.
167944		threats	eng	As no conservation and biological works/projects have been carried out in the region, threats are unknown.
167944		threats	eng	Importance: subsistence fisheries
167944		threats	eng	None known
167944		threats	eng	This is an important species in subsistence fisheries in central Africa. Further possible threats to this species are unknown.
167945		conservation	eng	None known.
167945		distribution	eng	<em>Odaxothrissa losera</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Gourene and Teugels 1991). It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.
167945		habitat	eng	<em>Odaxothrissa losera</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and streams.
167945		population	eng	No information available.
167945		threats	eng	This species is important in subsistence fisheries.
167946		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration and implementation of legislation.
167946		conservation	eng	None known.
167946		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from habitat restoration and implementation of legislation. Population trends should be monitored.
167946		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is found from the Cross (Nigeria) to the Wouri (Cameroon) Rivers. Elsewhere it is known from the lower course of the Volta and Lake Volta (Ghana).
167946		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within the area considered here, <span style="font-style: italic;">Odaxothrissa mento</span> occurs in the lower reaches of the River Volta, the Niger delta, the Benue, and the Cross.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also in lower Benue and rivers of Cameroon; apparently not in Congo system (Whitehead 1985).
167946		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana to Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is found from the Cross (Nigeria) to the Wouri (Cameroon) Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> occurs in the lower reaches of the River Volta, the Niger delta, the Benue, and the Cross.
167946		habitat	eng	<em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in rivers and streams and in the most riverine parts of the man-made Lake Volta, e.g. Yegi and Kete Krachi. <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> feeds on small fishes, including its own juveniles, and on aquatic insects. It possibly migrates upstream to breed.
167946		habitat	eng	<em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in rivers and streams and in the most riverine parts of the man-made Lake Volta, e.g., Yegi and Kete Krachi. <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> feeds on small fishes, including its own juveniles, and on aquatic insects. It possibly migrates upstream to breed.
167946		habitat	eng	The species lives in rivers and streams and in the most riverine parts of the man-made Lake Volta, i.e., Yeji and Kete Krachi (Dankwa <em>et al. </em>1999).<em> </em>Feeds on small fishes, including its own juveniles, and on aquatic insects. (Irivine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1947). Possibly migrates upstream to breed.
167946		population	eng	No data on population trends.
167946		population	eng	No information available.
167946		threats	eng	Importance: subsistence fisheries
167946		threats	eng	Oil spills in Niger Basin and deforestation and sedimentation in the Volta Basin.
167946		threats	eng	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries in central Africa. Oil spills in the Niger Basin and deforestation and sedimentation in the Volta basin threaten west African populations.
167949		conservation	eng	None known.
167949		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
167949		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
167949		conservation	eng	The species has no protection other than small national parks and reserves on the large lakes.
167949		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Cyphomyrus discorhynchus</em> is known from the Upper Kasai and the Upper Congo River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from Lakes Malawi and Tanganyika, including the Malagarasi River system . It has also been found in the Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi, Buzi and Pungwe Rivers (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Lake Rukwa drainage.
167949		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Distributed in Lake Rukwa (Seegers 1996), Lake Nyassa, Lake Tanganyika and affluent rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi (De Vos <em>et al. 2001) rivers. Also in the Mtera dam, and Lake Malawi and its catchment and the Shire River.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo, Zambezi, Kafue and Okavango systems;
167949		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the Zambezi River system, with the exception of the Kafue River. It is also found in the upper Congo and Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi, and in the Buzi and Pungwe rivers to the south of the Zambezi.
167949		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania, south to Namibia, Botswana and Mozambique.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyphomyrus discorhynchus</span> is known from the Upper Kasai and the Upper Congo River basin.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> It is distributed in Lake Rukwa (Seegers 1996), Lake Nyassa, Lake Tanganyika and affluent rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi rivers (De Vos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Also found in the Mtera dam, and Lake Malawi and its catchment and the Shire River.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> This species is widespread in the Zambezi River system, with the exception of the Kafue River. It is also found in the Buzi and Pungwe rivers to the south of the Zambezi.
167949		habitat	eng	<em>Cyphomyrus discorhynchus</em> is a demersal species. It is a nocturnal shoaling species which favours large river channels with a soft bottom and fringing vegetation (Skelton 1993).  Found mainly in sheltered bays, lagoons and swampy areas.  Occurs also in typical sandy or rocky rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Feeds on insect larvae at night (Konings 1990).  Known to migrate up tributary rivers of Lake Kariba during rainy season, though it is not yet clear whether this is a breeding migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Breeds during the rainy season; females carry up to 5,000 eggs. It prefers streams, lakes, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.
167949		habitat	eng	Found in riverine habitats, floodplains and weedy areas of lakes and in river channels with soft bottoms and fringing vegetation (Skelton 1993).  It is a nocturnal shoaling species which, like other mormyrids, can generate a weak electric field around its body using specialized skeletal muscles, which it uses to detect small invertebrates on which it preys at night. It feeds mainly on aquatic, benthic invertebrates, mainly insect larvae . It breeds during the rainy season.  Females can carry up to 5,000 eggs.<br/>Max Size: 25 cm  in length.
167949		habitat	eng	Large river channels and lakes with a soft bottom. Prefers deeper water to other small mormyrids but  also occurs under fringing vegetation of sandy rivers. During the Zambezi flood in 2003, the species was caught in a stream overflowing from the rising main river into inland pans, and in a newly flooded field, suggesting lateral movements from the main river for breeding, stimulated by rising water levels (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). It is a nocturnal shoaling species feeding on bottom-living invertebrates, often caught in large numbers by subsistence fishermen.
167949		habitat	eng	This&#160; is a demersal species. It is a nocturnal shoaling species which favours large river channels with a soft bottom and fringing vegetation (Skelton 1993).&#160; Found mainly in sheltered bays, lagoons and swampy areas.&#160; It prefers deeper water to other small mormyrids but also occurs under fringing vegetation of sandy rivers. During the Zambezi flood in 2003, the species was caught in a stream overflowing from the rising main river into inland pans, and in a newly flooded field, suggesting lateral movements from the main river for breeding, stimulated by rising water levels (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>2004). It is a nocturnal shoaling species which, like other mormyrids, can generate a weak electric field around its body using specialized skeletal muscles, which it uses to detect small invertebrates on which it preys, and is often caught in large numbers by subsistence fishermen.&#160; It feeds on insect larvae at night (Konings 1990).&#160; Known to migrate up tributary rivers of Lake Kariba during rainy season, though it is not yet clear whether this is a breeding migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).&#160; Breeds during the rainy season; females carry up to 5,000 eggs.
167949		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
167949		population	eng	Information for Mtera dam shows a decline in the population from 1987 to 1993 (Tamatamah 1996) althoug it is still common in fisheries catches.
167949		population	eng	No information available.
167949		population	eng	This species generally prefers deeper waters to the other small mormyrid species and thus is less commonly sampled, although in some areas it can also be found commonly in fringing vegetation of sandy rivers. The populations are healthy.
167949		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are illegal fishing, especially by use of poisons and small meshed nets across rivers, pollution of the inshore riverine environment, silt loading and deforestation and encroachment of wetlands for agriculture.
167949		threats	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout the Zambezi River and large lakes. Fishing may have some impact on populations in the lakes
167949		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance as an aquarium fish. As well as a risk of overfishing (particularly in lakes), illegal fishing, especially by use of poisons and small meshed nets across rivers threatens this species. In east Africa it is also threatened by pollution of the inshore riverine environment, silt loading, and deforestation and encroachment of wetlands for agriculture.
167949		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance.
167950		conservation	eng	None known.
167950		distribution	eng	<em>Cypomyrus macrops</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from the Luvua River, This species is known from upper Congo Basin.
167950		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
167950		population	eng	No information available.
167950		threats	eng	None known.
167951		conservation	eng	None known.
167951		conservation	eng	None known. Policy based action is required, and more research os needed biology and ecology, habitat status, and possible conservation measures needed.
167951		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Cypomyrus psittacus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the upper Niger and Benue River, the Voltas, the Oueme and the Ogun Rivers.
167951		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The western African distribution of this species area is relatively restricted. It has been reported only from the basins of the Niger, Benue, Volta, Ouémé and Ogun. Full distribution can't be mapped, need more information.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Congo River.
167951		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Cyphomyrus psittacus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The West African distribution of this species area is relatively restricted. It has been reported only from the basins of the Niger, Benue, Volta, Ouémé and Ogun. Full distribution can't be mapped, need more information.
167951		habitat	eng	<em>Cypomyrus psittacus</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, on the ventral region (except abdominal area) and the dorsal region of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located  (Møller 1995). It is found in large rivers.  Edible fish (Poll 1967).
167951		habitat	eng	<em>Cypomyrus psittacus</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, on the ventral region (except abdominal area) and the dorsal region of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is found in large rivers. Edible fish (Poll 1967).
167951		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal fish. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, on the ventral region (except abdominal area) and the dorsal region of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located.  The species is found in large rivers.
167951		population	eng	No available data.
167951		population	eng	No information available.
167951		threats	eng	Locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation from agriculture, urban and forestry developments and oil exploration in Nigeria.
167951		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance.
167951		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance in central Africa. In west Africa, it is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation from agriculture, urban and forestry developments and oil exploration in Nigeria.
167952		conservation	eng	None known.
167952		distribution	eng	<em>Cypomyrus wilverthi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin.
167952		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
167952		population	eng	No information available.
167952		threats	eng	None known.
167953		conservation	eng	None known.
167953		distribution	eng	<em>Hippopotamyrus aelsbroecki</em> is only known from the type locality, Shaba, upper Congo River basin.
167953		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
167953		population	eng	No information available.
167953		threats	eng	None known.
167954		conservation	eng	No information available.
167954		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Kasanka National Park.
167954		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Kasanka National Park in central Africa. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status.
167954		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
167954		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi, Buzi, and Pungwe river. An isolated population occurs in the Ruo River (lower Zambezi system) in Malawi. It is also known from the Cuanza River, Angola.
167954		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Ruo River, a tributary of the Lower Shire River in Malawi where it is generally rare (Bell-Cross 1976). It is, however, common in the Ruo River above the Zoa falls (a 60 m barrier separating the Ruo fishes from the Lower Zambezi fauna) (Skelton 2001).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango and Upper Zambezi systems as well as the Pungwe and Buzi rivers and the Cuanza (Angola).
167954		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Cunene in Angola and Namibia, east into the  Okavango and Upper Zambezi. The <em>H. ansorgii </em>complex is widespread in the Upper Zambezi system. Isolated populations occur in the upper Ruo River in Malawi, and in Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.
167954		distribution	eng	This is likely to be a species complex. However, as it is currently recognized, this species is found from Angola to Mozambique, as well as Malawi, Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.  It is also known from the Cuanza River, Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ruo River, a tributary of the Lower Shire River in Malawi where it is generally rare (Bell-Cross 1976). It is, however, common in the Ruo River above the Zoa falls (a 60 m barrier separating the Ruo fishes from the Lower Zambezi fauna) (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Cunene in Angola and Namibia, east into the  Okavango and This species is known from upper Zambezi. The <em>H. ansorgii</em> complex is widespread in the upper Zambezi system. Isolated populations occur in Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.
167954		habitat	eng	<em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> complex occurs in two main habitats, under rocks in rapids and in dense vegetation bordering the main river channels. They are demersal species. The species feeds on small aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae (Skelton 1993). The electric organ discharge is illustrated in Kramer <em>et al.</em> (2004).
167954		habitat	eng	<em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rocky habitats in flowing waters. The species feeds on small aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae (Skelton 1993).
167954		habitat	eng	Occurs in fast flowing waters in rocky habitats.  Its diet consists of small aquatic invertebrates.
167954		habitat	eng	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippopotamyrus ansorgii </span>complex occurs in two main habitats, under rocks in rapids and in dense vegetation bordering the main river channels. The species feeds on small insects. The electric organ discharge is illustrated in Kramer <em>et al. </em>(2004).
167954		population	eng	No information available.
167954		population	eng	The species is fairly common in its preferred habitats.
167954		population	eng	The species is fairly common in its preferred habitats in southern Africa.
167954		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
167954		threats	eng	In central Africa, artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In southern Africa, the Zambezi River is a large river system in a lightly populated rural area with no immediate anthropogenic threats. There are many small tributaries where the species can survive and restock the main river in the unlikely event of a major pollution event. In the Upper Buzi River (Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area), <em>H. ansorgii</em> is collected using local fish poisons. This method is highly effective in small streams, destructive, and appears to be widely used.
167954		threats	eng	Overfishing.
167954		threats	eng	The Zambezi River is a large river system in a lightly populated rural area with no immediate anthropogenic threats. There are many small tributaries where the species can survive and restock the main river in the unlikely event of a major pollution event. In the Upper Buzi River (Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area), <em>H. ansorgii </em>is collected using local fish poisons. This method is highly effective in small streams, destructive, and appears to be widely used.
167955		conservation	eng	Its distribution falls within the Cross River National Park.
167955		conservation	eng	Within the Cross River National Park.
167955		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It has been reported only from the River Cross in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is mainly known from coastal basins of Cameroon, it has also been reported in the upper Kom River in Gabon.
167955		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic restricted to the Sanaga, Wouri, Lokoundje, and This species is known from upper Cross Rivers of Cameroon.
167955		habitat	eng	This mormyrid grows to 26 cm SL. It is a demersal species, and uses a weak electrical discharge to locate prey.
167955		habitat	eng	This mormyrid is a demersal species. Uses a weak electrical discharge to locate prey. Non-migratory.
167955		population	eng	No available data.
167955		population	eng	No information available.
167955		threats	eng	None as its regional range is within the Cross River National Park.
167955		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
167956		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
167956		conservation	eng	None known.
167956		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Niger, Chad basins and Ghana. Though more information is needed on the species exact distribution within these systems. The species could not be mapped.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> This species is found in White Nile, Niger River, Chad basin.  It is also reported from Ghana.
167956		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Nile. It occurs in the Sobat River and have also been caught at the junction of the Blue and White Niles. Reports from West Africa refer to <em>H. pictus</em> (Lévèque and Bigorne 1985).
167956		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish.
167956		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish. Maximum size 30.5 cm SL.
167956		population	eng	No available data.
167956		population	eng	No available data, but it is thought to be a very rare species.
167956		threats	eng	No information available.
167956		threats	eng	None known
167957		conservation	eng	None known.
167957		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus macroterops</em> is only known from Poko, the Bomekendi River, affluent of the Uele in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
167957		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
167957		population	eng	No information available.
167957		threats	eng	None known.
167958		conservation	eng	None known.
167958		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Atlantic side of the Guinean massif: <span style="font-style: italic;">H. paugyi</span> has been found in most of the rivers from Fatala (Guinea) to Saint Paul (Liberia).
167958		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
167958		population	eng	No available data.
167958		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining in Sierra Leone and Liberia.
167959		conservation	eng	None known.
167959		conservation	eng	Unknown.
167959		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Occurs in the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins. Also collected in the Sassandra, the Mono, in Ghana and in Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>White Nile, Cameroon (Bénoué, Chari, and Logone Rivers), Nigeria, Ghana (Gold Coast), Burkina-Faso (Upper Volta), as well as in Togo (Mono) and Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra River). Also known from the Niger and Chad basins.
167959		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile at Khartoum, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins. Also collected in the Sassandra, the Mono, in Ghana and in Cameroon.
167959		habitat	eng	The species occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps. Prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Demersal<br/>Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. Adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. Relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years. Also caught with drawnets.
167959		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps. It prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Demersal. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. Adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. Relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years. Also caught with drawnets.
167959		population	eng	No data on population trends.
167959		population	eng	No recent records.
167959		threats	eng	Locally impacted by deforestation.
167959		threats	eng	Locally impacted in western Africa by deforestation.
167960		conservation	eng	None known.
167960		distribution	eng	<em>Hippopotamyrus retrodorsalis</em> is only known from the type locality, Neap, a small forest brook tributary of the Bima River, Uele River basin, Central Congo River basin.
167960		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is only known from a small forest brook tributary of the Bima River.
167960		population	eng	No information available.
167960		threats	eng	None known.
167963		conservation	eng	None known.
167963		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypetersius altus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
167963		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
167963		population	eng	No information available.
167963		threats	eng	None known.
167964		conservation	eng	No information available.
167964		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
167964		distribution	eng	Species native from Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea Equatorial, and Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in Bengo River (Lake Kilunda, Lake Rumango), Chiloango River (Loango River, Lukula River, Luali River, Lake Chiloango) systems.
167964		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannopetersius ansorgii</em> is known from the Benito, Chiloango, Kouilou, Loeme and Ogowe Rivers and from Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Bengo and Congo from Congo-Brazzaville to Angola. The record from Matadi from the Lower Congo and the type locality in Angola are doubtful though.
167964		distribution	eng	This species is native to Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea Equatorial, and Angola. The record from Matadi from the Lower Congo and the type locality in Angola are doubtful though.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the Benito, Chiloango, Kouilou, Loeme and Ogowe Rivers and from Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Bengo and Congo from Congo to Angola. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in Bengo River (Lake Kilunda, Lake Rumango), Chiloango River (Loango, Lukula and Luali Rivers, and Lake Chiloango) systems.
167964		habitat	eng	<em>Nannopetersius ansorgii</em> is a pelagic species.
167964		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.
167964		population	eng	No information available.
167964		population	eng	Population size is not known.
167964		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
167964		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
167965		conservation	eng	None known.
167965		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus aurantiacus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Ogowe and Ivindo River systems in Gabon.
167965		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
167965		population	eng	No information available.
167965		threats	eng	None known.
167966		conservation	eng	None known.
167966		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus bleheri</em> is only known from the type locality, a small tributary of the Bari River, Ubangui River basin, Equateur Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
167966		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
167966		population	eng	No information available.
167966		threats	eng	None known.
167967		conservation	eng	None known.
167967		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus deheyni</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
167967		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
167967		population	eng	No information available.
167967		threats	eng	None known.
167968		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
167968		distribution	eng	<em>P. interruptus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin.
167968		habitat	eng	<em>P. interruptus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds on worms, small insects, crustaceans and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). In a tank, after vigorous driving by the male, the female lays up to 300 eggs, sometimes more, which sink to the bottom. The eggs hatch after about 6 days (Mills and Vevers 1989).
167968		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
167968		threats	eng	This species is collected commercially for the aquarium trade.
167969		conservation	eng	None known.
167969		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus major</em> is known from the Dja (Sangha) basin, Central Congo River basin. It occurs in the Lower Guinea region, found in the Nyong, Ntem, and Sanaga River basins of Cameroon.
167969		habitat	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus major</em> is a benthopelagic species.
167969		population	eng	No information available.
167969		threats	eng	None known.
167970		conservation	eng	None known.
167970		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus polli</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
167970		habitat	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus polli</em> is a benthopelagic species.
167970		population	eng	No information available.
167970		threats	eng	None known.
167971		conservation	eng	None known.
167971		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus stigmatura</em> is only known from 30 km east of Kribi, Kienké River, Cameroon.
167971		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
167971		population	eng	No information available.
167971		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
167972		conservation	eng	None known.
167972		distribution	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus taeniatus</em> is only known from the type locality Libongo village in the middle Sangha River, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon.
167972		habitat	eng	<em>Phenacogrammus taeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
167972		population	eng	No information available.
167972		threats	eng	None known.
167973		conservation	eng	None known.
167973		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Ntem and Ogowe River basins of Cameroon to Gabon. It has been recorded at Doeme, Sangha basin, but this record is doubtful.
167973		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
167973		population	eng	No information available.
167973		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
167975		conservation	eng	None known.
167975		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the region of Oyem (Gabon) and the Rio Kie, Equatorial Guinea (holotype).
167975		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. The maximum TL is 44.5 cm.
167975		population	eng	No information available.
167975		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
167976		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of populations.
167976		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
167976		distribution	eng	<em>Channallabes apus</em> has the widest distribution of all anguilliform clariids and occurs from Republic of Congo and Central African Republic to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is found in the coastal regions of the Kouilou (Congo) and the whole of the Congo River basin. The holotype originates from the coast of Angola (Ambriz).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species is present in the Chiloango River (Lubuzi River) and Loge River systems.
167976		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Congo River to Angola. In Angola, the species is present in the Chiloango River (Lubuzi River) and Loge River systems.
167976		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. It feeds in land on terrestrial beetles.
167976		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Preferred habitat is not known. It feeds in land on terrestrial beetles.
167976		population	eng	No information available.
167976		population	eng	Population size is not known.
167976		threats	eng	None known.
167976		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
167977		conservation	eng	None known.
167977		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ivindo River. This species occurs in the Makokou region, Gabon.
167977		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL is 32.3 cm.
167977		population	eng	No information available.
167977		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
167978		conservation	eng	None known.
167978		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ogowe River system. The specimens are found in the Franceville region, Gabon.
167978		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
167978		population	eng	No information available.
167978		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
167979		conservation	eng	No information available.
167979		distribution	eng	<em>Channallabes sanghaensis</em> is only known from the type locality the Mbessy River, Sangha basin, Central Congo River basin.
167979		habitat	eng	The maximum TL is 41.6 cm. All sampling sites were characterised by shallow, muddy, still water (Devaere <em>et al.</em> 2007).
167979		population	eng	No information available.
167979		threats	eng	No information available.
167980		conservation	eng	None known.
167980		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ivindo River system in the region of Makokou, Gabon and the upper Ogowe tributaries in the region of Zanaga, Ndengué, Magogo, Congo.
167980		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
167980		population	eng	No information available.
167980		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
167982		conservation	eng	None known.
167982		distribution	eng	<em>Coptostomabarbus bellcrossi</em> is only known from the type locality: Luongo River, Zambian Congo system. It has been collected in Lake Mweru.
167982		habitat	eng	<em>Coptostomabarbus bellcrossi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 3.4 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
167982		population	eng	No information available.
167982		threats	eng	None known.
167983		conservation	eng	None known.
167983		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., the Kafue floodplain.
167983		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves, such as the Kafue floodplain.
167983		distribution	eng	<em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is found from Democratic Republic of Congo in the north of its range, and Namibia to Zimbabwe in the south. It is probably closely related to the sicklefin barb, <em>Barbus haasianus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from floodplains of the upper Lualaba system of the upper Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is presnet in the Okavango Delta, This species is known from upper Zambezi system, Kafue floodplains and floodplains of the Lualaba tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, there is one record from below the Victoria Falls.
167983		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is known from floodplains of the Upper Lualaba system of the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango Delta, upper Zambezi system, Kafue floodplains and It is Probably closely related to the sicklefin barb, <em>Barbus haasianus</em>.
167983		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango Delta, Upper Zambezi system, Kafue floodplains and floodplains of the Lualaba tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, one record from below the Victoria Falls.
167983		habitat	eng	Characteristic of swamps and shallow floodplain lagoons, using the fringes of rivers for migration, thus it was caught in enormous numbers below a road culvert where the Zambezi River was flooding through onto the Barotse floodplain beyond (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>
167983		habitat	eng	<em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in swamps and floodplains in shallow densely vegetated still-water habitats. <em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> feeds on minute planktonic organisms (Skelton 1993).
167983		population	eng	Abundant.
167983		population	eng	Limited information available for all of its range. Characteristic of swamps and shallow floodplain lagoons, using the fringes of rivers for migration, thus it was caught in enormous numbers below a road culvert where the Zambezi River was flooding through onto the Barotse floodplain beyond (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
167983		population	eng	No information available.
167983		threats	eng	None known.
167985		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.
167985		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys brevis</em> is known from the Lufira River, from Lubumbashi, Kilobilobe River and the Koki River, from upper Congo River basin.
167985		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys brevis</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits fairly shallow water (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It occurs over sand, usually buried with just the eyes protruding. <em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> feeds on minute organisms. The eggs are few (12-16) and large (3-5 mm diameter) suggesting possible parental care (Skelton 1993).
167985		population	eng	No information available.
167985		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
167988		conservation	eng	None known.
167988		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys dorae</em> is only known from the Luachimo River, Angola, Central Congo River basin (Roberts 2003).
167988		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys dorae</em> is a demersal species that occurs over fine sand, lying buried with only its eyes protruding (Skelton 1993). The type specimens were caught in the rapids of the Luachimo River, in a small pool of residual water drying, downstream of a dam (Poll 1967).
167988		population	eng	No information available.
167988		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
167989		conservation	eng	None known.
167989		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys flavomaculatus</em> is only known from the Lufume River in the Kasai region, Central Congo basin (Roberts 2003).
167989		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys flavomaculatus</em> is a demersal species.
167989		population	eng	No information available.
167989		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
167990		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in at least one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
167990		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Europe;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> in Italy, Bulgaria, Greece (including Crete), Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon and Israel. In Cyprus reported from the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (Preiss and Platia 2003). <br/><p></p>
167990		habitat	eng	This is an obligate saproxylic species, although details on its specific habitat requirements are not available for much of its range. In Cyprus it has been found<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> in orchards, maquis and valleys with <em>Platanus orientalis</em> and <em>Alnus orientalis</em>. Adults are attracted to light and to wine traps (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009); they have been found also in rotten wood of&#160; <em>Alnus orientalis </em>(Preiss and Platia 2003) and are assumed to develop in this tree species at least.
167990		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Cyprus the the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p>    </p>
167990		threats	eng	No information available. It is presumed to be threatened by water extraction and reduction of river side forest vegetation in Cyprus.
167991		conservation	eng	None known.
167991		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys heterurus</em> is known from Kisangani in the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), the Lufira River, the Avokoko River (tributary of the Congo River on the route Kisangani-Wanie Rukula), and from the Lulindi and Lukuga Rivers (Lualaba system), Democratic Republic of the Congo .
167991		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys heterurus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in clear, swift flowing tributaries lying to the east of the Congo River mainstream (Roberts 2003).
167991		population	eng	No information available.
167991		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
167992		conservation	eng	None known.
167992		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys mandevillei</em> is known from the type locality Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) in the Congo River, from the Ubangui River and from the Wagenia Falls (Roberts 2003). It is probably widespread.
167992		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys mandevillei</em> is a demersal species that is confined to sandy reaches of the mainstream of the Congo River and its largest tributaries (Roberts 2003). It is the most slender-bodied and perhaps the smallest species of <em>Zaireichthys</em> (Roberts 2003).
167992		population	eng	No information available.
167992		threats	eng	None known.
167993		conservation	eng	None known
167993		conservation	eng	None known.
167993		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> is known across a wide distribution from Democratic Republic of Congo to Kenya, and south to South Africa.  However this species is probably restricted to the Roaha River system, and all other records are under revision. As it currently stands, this species represents a complex of several different species (Skelton 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lumbumbashi River, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Roberts 2003). However, Skelton P. says that is not in the Congo River basin (pers. comm.). These specimens are probably <em>Leptoglanis brevis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded in the Lake Malawi catchment area as well as tributaries of the Shire but is not found in the main Shire River. Also listed as occuring in the Malgarasi system and Lake Victoria drainage (affluent rivers).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the middle Zambezi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It has also been found in the Cunene, Okavango, Pungwe, Buzi and Save systems.
167993		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Known to occur in the Lake Malawi catchment area as well as tributaries of the Shire but is not found in the main Shire River. Also known from the Malgarasi system and Lake Victoria drainage (affluent rivers).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems as well as Pungwe, Busi and Save systems.
167993		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits fairly shallow water (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It occurs over sand, usually buried with just the eyes protruding. <em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> feeds on minute organisms. The eggs are few (12-16) and large (3-5 mm diameter) suggesting possible parental care (Skelton 1993).
167993		habitat	eng	Found over sand, usually with just eyes its protruding (Skelton 1993) where it feeds on minute organisms (Skelton 1993). It has few eggs (12-16) which are relatively large (3-5 mm diameter) suggesting possible parental care (Skelton 1993).
167993		population	eng	No information
167993		population	eng	Not known.
167993		threats	eng	A change in stream and river biotypes is threatening east African populations.
167993		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the change in stream and river biotypes.
167994		conservation	eng	None known.
167994		distribution	eng	<em>Zaireichthys zonatus</em> is only known from the two type specimens collected in the rapids at Kinsuka just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Roberts 2003).
167994		habitat	eng	<em>Zaireichthys zonatus</em> is demersal species. Although the habitat was very rocky, specimens were only collected on the edge of a sandy area (Roberts 2003).
167994		population	eng	No information available.
167994		threats	eng	None known.
167996		conservation	eng	None known.
167996		distribution	eng	<em>Pellonula leonensis</em> is the most widely distributed Clupeidae in West Africa, and is known from Senegal to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pellonula leonensis</em> is found from the Cross (Nigeria) to the Kouilou rivers (Congo), also in lower reaches of coastal river basins from Cameroon to Democratic Republic of the Congo, though apparently not in This species is known from upper parts of Congo system (Gourène and Teugels 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in lagoons, lakes and lower, as well as This species is known from upper, courses of rivers, from the Senegal to the Cross river in Cameroon.
167996		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:  </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Pellonula leonensis</span> is the most widely distributed Clupeidae in western Africa. It is found in lagoons, lakes and lower, as well as upper, courses of rivers, from the Senegal to the Cross River.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside western African also in lower reaches of coastal river basins from Cameroon to Dem. Rep. Congo, apparently not in upper parts of Congo system. (Gourene and Teugels 1991).
167996		habitat	eng	<em>Pellonula leonensis</em> is a pelagic, anadromous species. It is found chiefly in rivers and streams, but also in lakes, reservoirs and lagoons. The species is apparently able to enter brackish and seawater bodies. <em>Pellonula leonensis</em> forms schools and is mainly nocturnal. It feeds on terrestrial and aquatic insects, also on ostracods, entomostracans and fish larvae (Ikusemiju and Graham-Douglas 1983). In Lake Volta, <em>Pellonula leonensis</em> breeds from September to July.
167996		habitat	eng	The species has been found chiefly in rivers and streams, but also in lakes, reservoirs and lagoons. Apparently able to enter brackish and seawater bodies. Can tolerate high salinities (reported from the beaches at Hann near Dakar and near Pointe Noire, Congo). Maximum salinity (2.99%) for populations in Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria. (Ikusemiju, <em>et al. </em>1983). Upper Niger fish do not leave the main river to enter floodwater pools; appears well-established in Lake Volta and to some extent in Kainji Lake, Nigeria (Daget 1954).
167996		population	eng	No information available.
167996		threats	eng	No major threats known, though it has minor commercial importance in central Africa.
167996		threats	eng	None known
167997		conservation	eng	None known.
167997		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
167997		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
167997		distribution	eng	<em>Pellonula vorax</em> is known from the coastal rivers from Liberia to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present the entire length of the coast from Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River, Chiloango River (Lukula, Luali and Loango Rivers), and Bengo River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Pellonula vorax</em> has been found in lagoons and lower coastal basins from the River Lofa (Liberia) to the Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire). It also occurs in the Lake Nokoué (Benin), the Niger delta and the lower Cross (Nigeria).
167997		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Pellonula vorax</em> is known from the coastal rivers from Liberia to Angola.
167997		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Pellonula vorax</span> has been found in lagoons and lower coastal basins from the River Lofa (Liberia) to the Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire). It also occurs in the Lake Nokoué (Benin), the Niger delta and the lower Cross (Nigeria). <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside western Africa, it has been found in the lower reaches of coastal river basins from Cameroon to Angola.
167997		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from Liberia to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River), Chiloango River (Lukula River, Luali River, Loango River), Bengo River systems.
167997		habitat	eng	<em>Pellonula vorax</em> is a pelagic, anadromous species that occurs in rivers and streams. It forms large schools in the lower reaches.
167997		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and streams where it forms large schools.
167997		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower part of rivers and streams. Biology is not known.
167997		population	eng	No information available.
167997		population	eng	No information on population
167997		population	eng	Population size is not known.
167997		threats	eng	Locally impacted by harvesting for food
167997		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown, but it is important in subsistence fisheries, and is locally impacted by harvesting for food.
167997		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are subsistence fisheries.
167997		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
167999		conservation	eng	None known.
167999		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
167999		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
167999		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> River, streams and swamps along the western coast of Africa from the Gambia drainage (Gambia) to the Quanza (Angola) (Dawson 1981, 1986). In contrast to <em>M. brachyurus aculeatus</em>, <em>E. ansorgii</em> is found only in some smaller tributaries of the Lower Kouilou (Congo-Brazzaville) and not in the main river (Snoeks pers. obs.).
167999		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from rivers and marshes from Gambia River basin, does not appear to be collected in marine environment, nor in estuaries.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Gambia River drainage to the Cuanza river, Angola.
167999		distribution	eng	This species is present from Gambia to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system.
167999		distribution	eng	This species is present in river, streams and swamps along the western coast of Africa from the Gambia drainage (Gambia) to the Quanza (Angola) (Dawson 1981, 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present along the coast from Cameroon to Angola.  In contrast to <em>M. brachyurus aculeatus</em>, <em>E. ansorgii</em> is found only in some smaller tributaries of the Lower Kouilou (Congo) and not in the main river (Snoeks, pers. obs.).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from rivers and marshes from Gambia river basin, it does not appear to be collected in marine environment, nor in estuaries.
167999		habitat	eng	<em>Enneacampus ansorgii</em> seems confined to freshwater habitats and breeds in freshwater (Dawson 1981). Clausen (1956) found this species (mentioned as <em>Syngnathus pulchellus</em>) in rapid flowing rivers in south west Nigeria, in clear water over sandy substrates where it occurs singly, mainly between submerged <em>Eichornia</em>. They fed mainly on copepods. He observed many males with young in the pouch (period May-June). In the Lower Kouilou, specimens have been found in two rivers in forested areas. In the Moyondzi, they were caught in moderately flowing, clear water of about half a meter deep above sandy substrate, typically on one spot among plants (reed) (Snoeks pers. obs.). Demersal; Occurs in coastal rivers and streams (Dawson 1986).  Ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).  The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). It prefers tropical climate.
167999		habitat	eng	<em>Enneacampus ansorgii</em> seems confined to freshwater habitats and breeds in freshwater (Dawson, 1981). Clausen (1956) found this species (mentioned as <em>Syngnathus pulchellus</em>) in rapid flowing rivers in S.W. Nigeria, in clear water over sandy substrates where it occurs singly, mainly between submerged <em>Eichornia</em>. They fed mainly on copepods. He observed many males with young in the pouch (period May-June). In the Lower Kouilou, specimens have been found in two rivers in forested areas. In the Moyondzi, they were caught in moderately flowing, clear water of about half a meter deep above sandy substrate, typically on one spot among plants (reed) (Snoeks, pers. obs.). Dawson (1981) reported 17 to 36 postlarvae in the brood pouch of males of respectively 75.5 and 82.5 mm SL. A larger male (MRAC 143259: 136.4 mm SL) caught in December 1964, in a swampy area, about 200m from the coast in Fernando Po, has its brood pouch filled with several hundred of postlarvae (Vreven, pers. obs.). Demersal; This species is occurs in coastal rivers and streams (Dawson 1986). Ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).
167999		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Ovoviviparous. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
167999		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Ovoviviparous. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
167999		population	eng	No information available.
167999		population	eng	Population size is not known.
167999		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
167999		threats	eng	No major threats known.
167999		threats	eng	No threats are known.
168000		conservation	eng	None known.
168000		conservation	eng	None known. More research is required into this species population range and numbers.
168000		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from Liberia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
168000		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Guinea to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The distribution area of this species is believed to extend along the African coast from Guinea to Congo. It is specially known from freshwaters.
168000		distribution	eng	This species is known from Côte d'Ivoire to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present from Côte d'Ivoire to Nigeria.
168000		habitat	eng	<em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is a demersal species. It occurs in coastal rivers and estuaries (Dawson 1986). It has been recorded in waters with a temperature range of 26.0-29.0 °C (Blaber 1980). The species lives among algae where it mimics the coloration of the vegetation. <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> feeds on small prey and organic debris. It is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The incubation of the eggs takes place in a marsupial pouch found in front of the tail of the males (Maigret and Ly 1986). According to Dawson (1981) this species lives mainly in freshwater where it also breeds. However, most of the localities within Lower Guinea where the species is found, are from brackish water, with only a very few putative freshwater localities. Dawson (1981) reported over 800 postlarvae in a male of <em>E. kaupi</em>.
168000		habitat	eng	<em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is a demersal species. It occurs in coastal rivers and estuaries (Dawson 1986). It has been recorded in waters with a temperature range of 26.0-29.0 °C (Blaber 1980). The species lives among algae where it mimics the colouration of the vegetation. <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> feeds on small prey and organic debris. It is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The incubation of the eggs takes place in a marsupial pouch found in front of the tail of the males (Maigret and Ly 1986). According to Dawson (1981) this species lives mainly in freshwater where it also breeds. However, most of the localities within Lower Guinea where the species is found, are from brackish water, with only a very few putative freshwater localities. Dawson (1981) reported over 800 postlarvae in a male of <em>E. kaupi</em>.
168000		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal rivers and estuaries.  Has been recorded in waters with a temperature range of 26.0-29.0 °C. It is a demersal fish. The species lives among algal where it mimics the colouration of the vegetation and feeds on small prey and organic debris. The incubation of the eggs takes place in a marsupial pouch found in front of the tail of the males.
168000		population	eng	No available data.
168000		population	eng	No information available.
168000		threats	eng	None known
168000		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
168000		threats	eng	This is collected commercially for the aquarium trade in central Africa.
168002		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
168002		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168002		conservation	eng	Unknown.
168002		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Okavango River system. Globally, it is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia, Okavango in Botswana, and is likely to also occur in Namibia, but has not yet been recorded there.
168002		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia, Okavango in Botswana, and is likely to also occur in Namibia, but has not yet been recorded there.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia; likely to be present within Democratic Republic of Congo.
168002		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia, Okavango in Botswana, and is likely to also occur in Namibia, but has not yet been recorded there.
168002		habitat	eng	Swamps or stagnant pools with grasses or sedges.
168002		population	eng	No information available.
168002		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
168002		threats	eng	No information available.
168002		threats	eng	Unknown.
168003		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
168003		conservation	eng	No information available.
168003		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168003		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Angola. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola to DCR and across to Sierra Leone.
168003		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin and Lower Guinea, from northZambia to south east Nigeria. Old record Sierra Leone is doubtful<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia and the Central African Republic; it is assumed to be present in Angola.
168003		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon. An old record from Sierra Leone is very doubtful<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo Basin and Lower Guinea, from north Zambia to south east Nigeria.
168003		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Congo Basin and Lower Guinea, from north Zambia to southeast Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Angola<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon. An old record from Sierra Leone is very doubtful.
168003		habitat	eng	Swampy grasslands or reeds.
168003		habitat	eng	Swampy spots in forest.
168003		population	eng	No information available.
168003		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
168003		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown.
168003		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
168003		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
168003		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
168004		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
168004		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168004		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. More research is required to determine range, population status and current threats.
168004		distribution	eng	In southern Africa a total of six records are known from four locations in the Upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, but data are required to confirm this. Globally, it is confirmed to be present in Cameroon, Gabon and Zambia.
168004		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from records from north-west Zambia (Mwinilunga), Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo (holotype from Bambesa), north Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from various localities all over the Congo basin (Gabon, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon).
168004		distribution	eng	The species is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia, including southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, a total of six records are known from four locations in the upper Zambesi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, but data are required to confirm this.
168004		habitat	eng	Pools in forest streams (Pinhey 1984).
168004		habitat	eng	Quiet pools along forest streams.
168004		population	eng	No information available.
168004		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168004		threats	eng	Deforestation and water pollution.
168004		threats	eng	Potentially deforestation.
168004		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are deforestation and water pollution.
168005		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
168005		conservation	eng	No information available.
168005		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168005		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Zambezi River basin in Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola and Zambia to West Africa.
168005		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Congo Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia. Assumed in appropriate habitats in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon as well.
168005		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north Zambia.
168005		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola and Zambia to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and an unconfirmed record from Gabon. Assumed in appropriate habitats in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Cameroon as well.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Zambezi River basin in Angola and Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria.
168005		habitat	eng	Riparian bush and gallery forest.
168005		habitat	eng	Unknown but possibly present in swamp forest.
168005		habitat	eng	Unknown — possibly swamp forest.
168005		habitat	eng	Unknown, possibly swamp forest.
168005		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
168005		population	eng	No information available.
168005		threats	eng	Current threats in the region are unknown.
168005		threats	eng	No information available.
168006		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
168006		conservation	eng	Unknown.
168006		distribution	eng	Globally, it is recorded from Zambia and Congo Kinshasa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, this species currently is known only from northern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin) and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species currently is known only from northern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin).
168006		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species currently is known only from northern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin). Globally, it is recorded from Zambia and Congo Kinshasa.
168006		habitat	eng	Swampy pools or streams.
168006		population	eng	No information available.
168006		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168006		threats	eng	No information available.
168006		threats	eng	Unknown.
168007		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
168007		conservation	eng	Unknown. Taxonomic research is needed.
168007		distribution	eng	<em>Hemicordulia asiatica</em> is recorded mainly along the coast of the Indian  Ocean from South Africa to Kenya, also Uganda and Malawi. However, this may  include more than one species (see taxonomic notes). Within the southern Africa  region, it is recorded from a couple of records in South Africa only.
168007		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from various localities always close to large water bodies in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Semliki National Park in north-western Uganda, which lies in the Congo Basin, presence in Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/><em>Hemicordulia asiatica</em> is recorded mainly along the coast of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to Kenya, also Uganda and Malawi. However, this may include more than one species (see taxonomic notes). Within the southern Africa region, it is recorded from a couple of records in South Africa only.
168007		habitat	eng	Open forest sites near large water bodies, no information on the breeding site (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002).
168007		habitat	eng	Streams in forest (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002).
168007		population	eng	No information available.
168007		population	eng	Population size and trends within the region are unknown.
168007		threats	eng	No information available.
168007		threats	eng	Unknown.
168008		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is needed to identify the record within the Okavango delta. If it is confirmed, more research will be necessary to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
168008		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is needed to identify the record within the Okavango Delta. If it is confirmed, more research will be necessary to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
168008		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the only record for this species is one specimen from the Okavango delta, Botswana (Pinhey 1976), however there are taxonomic doubts over this record, therefore the occurrence of the species in the region remains unconfirmed. Globally, this is a west African species: Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Cote D'Ivoire.
168008		distribution	eng	This is a western African species, present in Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia and Cote D'Ivoire.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the only record for this species is one specimen from the Okavango Delta, Botswana (Pinhey 1976), however there are taxonomic doubts over this record, therefore the occurrence of the species in the region remains unconfirmed. <br/><br/>There is also a new record from the Central African Republic.
168008		habitat	eng	Not yet confirmed within the southern Africa region.
168008		habitat	eng	The species is known from wetlands.
168008		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168008		threats	eng	No information available.
168008		threats	eng	Unknown.
168009		conservation	eng	Not known from any protected areas. More research is urgently required to determine the range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.
168009		distribution	eng	Currently only known from the upper Zambezi and Congo catchments in north-west Zambia. It is also likely to occur in the Democratic Republic of Congo and may also be present in Angola, although more information is needed to confirm this.
168009		habitat	eng	The taxon occurs in swampy streams (Pinhey 1984).
168009		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168009		threats	eng	Specific major threats to the species are unknown. However, more data is required to confirm if the species is affected by deforestation.
168010		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
168010		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the upper Zambesi catchment, northwest Zambia. Only one record is known from outside the region (DRC). Globally, it is recorded from north and northwest Zambia, and can be expected to occur in the Congo (Shaba). It is a very mobile species.
168010		habitat	eng	Reedy margins of streams or in gallery forest, usually at fast waters (Pihney 1984a).
168010		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
168010		threats	eng	Unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.
168011		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in place are not known.
168011		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
168011		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy and population range.
168011		conservation	eng	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, and habitat status.
168011		distribution	eng	Distribution limits are unclear due to confusion with <em>A. victoria,</em>. It is possibly mainly present in the Congo Basin and absent from western Africa. The records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone correspond to <em>A. Victoria</em> (Dijkstra pers. comm.). The records from Namibia and Botswana might pertain to another species.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, but it this record needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northwestern part of the region; northwest Zambia, the Caprivi, southwards to the Kwando/Linyanti River. It is likely to also occur in southern Angola.
168011		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northwestern part of the region; northwest Zambia, the Caprivi, southwards to the Kwando/Linyanti River. It is likely to also occur in southern Angola. Globally, it is known from Botswana and Namibia through Angola and Zambia to Sudan, westwards to Gabon.
168011		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Limits are unclear due to confusion with <em>A. victoria</em>, possibly the species is mainly in the Congo Basin and absent from western Africa; records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone correspond to <em>A. victoria </em> (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from the Congo Basin (Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Zambia and Angola).
168011		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, although this record needs confirmation.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Its distribution limits are unclear due to confusion with <em>A. victoria,</em> possibly mainly Congo-Basin and absent from West Africa: records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone are <em>A. Victoria</em> (Dijkstra pers. Com.). Records from Namibia and Botswana might pertain to another species.
168011		habitat	eng	Pools and swampy spots in forest.
168011		habitat	eng	Swampy pools and swamp fringes of rivers and streams.
168011		population	eng	Current population size and trends are not known.
168011		population	eng	No information available.
168011		threats	eng	Current threats are not known.
168011		threats	eng	No information available.
168012		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
168012		conservation	eng	No information available.
168012		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168012		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango River catchments. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Botswana, Congo Kinshasa, Namibia, Senegal, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
168012		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Botswana, Congo Kinshasa, Namibia, Senegal, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo; likely to be present in Zambia.
168012		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the holotype of the synonym <em>P. royi</em> from Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but extremely scattered records from Senegal (the only western African record is the <em>P. royi</em> holotype from that country) to Uganda and Botswana.
168012		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Africa but only extremely scattered records are known from Senegal (its holotype from that country is <em>P. royi</em>) to Uganda and Botswana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango river catchments.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from the holotype of the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">P. royi</span> from Senegal.
168012		habitat	eng	At savannah rivers with gallery forest.
168012		habitat	eng	At savanna rivers with gallery forest.
168012		habitat	eng	It occurs in savannah rivers with gallery forest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is probably present in swamps in woodland and savannah.
168012		habitat	eng	Probably swamps in woodland and savannah.
168012		population	eng	No information available.
168012		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168012		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
168012		threats	eng	Current threats within the region are unknown.
168012		threats	eng	No information available.
168013		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the population, range and habitat status of this species.
168013		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or are planned at present. In South Africa at least, it is important to carry out more searches for the species (Samways 2006).
168013		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or are planned at present. In South Africa at least, it is important to carry out more searches for the species (Samways 2006 in press).
168013		distribution	eng	Globally, it occurs from South Africa to Tanzania (and possibly Kenya) and Democratic Republic of Congo. Western Tanzanian records pertain to <em>D. deminuta</em>, and therefore should be ignored.<br><br>In central Africa, <em>D. pumila</em> occurs from Kwazulu-Natal through Zimbabwe and Zambia to south Katanga in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br><br>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded in South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In South Africa, it was formerly known from "Klipfontein, Transavaal" and Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park, but it has not been rediscovered at St. Lucia despite intensive searches and currently there are no known populations in South Africa (Samways 2006 in press).
168013		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> <em>D. pumila </em> The species occurs from Kwazulu-Natal through Zimbabwe and Zambia to south Katanga in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.
168013		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded in South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  In South Africa, it was formerly known from "Klipfontein, Transavaal" and Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park, but it has not been rediscovered at St. Lucia despite intensive searches and currently there are no known populations in South Africa (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, it occurs from South Africa to Tanzania (and possibly Kenya) and DRC.
168013		habitat	eng	Swamps.
168013		habitat	eng	Swamps or marshy pools.
168013		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
168013		population	eng	No information available.
168013		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is inferred to be a threat in parts of the range. It appears that drought plays a major role, but his is exacerbated by further extraction of water for urban and agricultural purposes (Samways 2006).
168013		threats	eng	No information available.
168013		threats	eng	No information available.<br><br>Habitat destruction is inferred to be a threat in parts of the range. It appears that drought plays a major role, but his is exacerbated by further extraction of water for urban and agricultural purposes (Samways 2006 in press).
168014		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
168014		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
168014		conservation	eng	No information available.
168014		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168014		distribution	eng	In southern Africa this species is known from the coastal region of Angola (Cuanza River catchment). No precise locality information is known. Globally it has been recorded from Angola, Congo Kinshasa, Cameroon, and Nigeria.
168014		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north west  Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; its presence in Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea is assumed.
168014		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north west Angola.
168014		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Nigeria. Presence is assumed in Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, for Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the coastal region of Angola (Cuanza River catchment). No precise locality information is known. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
168014		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest streams.
168014		habitat	eng	Perennial rivers and streams (inferred from general ecology).
168014		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
168014		population	eng	No information available.
168014		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168014		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area as a result of mining for example, is believed to be a threat to the species.
168014		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
168014		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
168014		threats	eng	Unknown.
168015		conservation	eng	Te species is found in some protected areas. Further information is required in the species range, ecology, and habitat requirements. Further information is required in the species range, ecology, and habitat requirements.
168015		distribution	eng	Known only from the holotype (Mwinilunga, Zambia) and a male from Caianda, Angola (also in NMBZ), collected at most 95 km further west.
168015		habitat	eng	No information, swampy areas of streams and swamps most likely.
168015		population	eng	No information available.
168015		threats	eng	No information available.
168016		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.
168016		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
168016		conservation	eng	No information available.
168016		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.
168016		distribution	eng	In southern Africa it is only recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). Records from Angola are not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally it occurs in Zambia and DRC, westwards in forest habitat to Sierra Leone.
168016		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon and assumed for Equatorial Guinea.
168016		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo to Guinea and Sierra Leone.
168016		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Congo<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species has only been recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). Records from Angola are not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.
168016		habitat	eng	Forested streams and forest (Pinhey 1984a).
168016		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
168016		population	eng	No information available.
168016		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168016		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
168016		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
168016		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
168016		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown.
168017		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
168017		conservation	eng	Research in to biology and ecology, threats and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
168017		conservation	eng	Unknown.
168017		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northern Zambia. Globally. it has been recorded from northern Zambia and DRC (Shaba Province).
168017		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa assessment region:</strong>  The species is known from northern Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
168017		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northern Zambia.
168017		habitat	eng	Found in reedy pools and open swamps.
168017		habitat	eng	Reedy pools and open swamps.
168017		population	eng	No information available.
168017		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
168017		threats	eng	No information available.
168018		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on threats, range, population size and trends, habitat, etc.
168018		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
168018		distribution	eng	Globally, the species has been recorded from Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo: Gorges de la Pelenge, Mubale River, both in the Upemba National Park.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from north-west Zambia. It may also occur in eastern Angola, but data are not available to confirm this.
168018		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia. It may also occur in eastern Angola, but data are not available to confirm this. Globally, it has been recorded from Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and northwest Zambia.
168018		habitat	eng	Forested or bush-fringed streams (Pinhey 1984).
168018		habitat	eng	Streams/ rivers in rainforest.
168018		population	eng	Current population size and trends are unknown.
168018		population	eng	No information available.
168018		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
168018		threats	eng	Deforestation is a main threat to the species.
168019		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
168019		conservation	eng	No information available.
168019		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
168019		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population size, etc.
168019		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from three sites in Angola, in the Zambezi and Cuanza River catchments. Globally, it is recorded from Angola, Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia (Congo Basin).
168019		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to north east Democratic Republic of Congo and north Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, presence in Cameroon is assumed.
168019		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from single site in Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to north east Democratic Republic of Congo and north Zambia.
168019		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola, Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia (Congo Basin). Some records confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. wittei </span>(naming and identification errors).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, for Cameroon assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from three sites in Angola, in the Zambezi and Cuanza River catchments. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known from single site in Nigeria.
168019		habitat	eng	Probably streams in savannah or woodland.
168019		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
168019		habitat	eng	Small streams and rivers.
168019		population	eng	No information available.
168019		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
168019		threats	eng	Deforestation.
168019		threats	eng	No information available.
168019		threats	eng	Unknown. But may infer potential threat of deforestation based on activities in the region.
168020		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
168020		conservation	eng	Research is required into the population numbers and range, and biology and ecology for this species. Conservation measures and trends/monitoring are also needed.
168020		conservation	eng	Unknown.
168020		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north, mainly in Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, DCR (Shaba Province) and Zambia. The occurrence in Namibia is doubtful, because the type locality Otiembora, which is designated to Namibia, cannot be identified in the country. It may well be in Angola.
168020		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species has been recorded from Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province) and Zambia. The occurrence in Namibia is doubtful, because the type locality Otiembora, which is designated to Namibia, cannot be identified in the country. It may well be in Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, and northern Angola
168020		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province) and Zambia. The occurrence in Namibia is doubtful, because the type locality Otiembora, which is designated to Namibia, cannot be identified in the country. It may well be in Angola.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, and likely to be present also in northern Angola.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north, mainly in Zambia.
168020		habitat	eng	Local in swamps and reedy pools or lakes.
168020		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
168020		threats	eng	Degradation of swampy habitats is an inferred threat. No precise information is available on current threats.
168020		threats	eng	Unknown. Degradation of swampy habitats is inferred.
168021		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas. No specific conservation measures necessary throughout the taxon's range. In South Africa, monitoring recovery of rivers in the Kruger National Park and improvement of catchments to reduce flooding is recommended (Samways 2006).
168021		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this is a common subspecies along rivers in the tropical north. The southern limits are the Okavango and Limpopo Rivers. It has not yet been recorded from Mozambique, but is expected to occur in southern Mozambique. In South Africa, it is known only from the Lower Sabie weir, Kruger National Park (Clark and Samways 1994). Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana to Chad, and possibly Tanzania (but this record needs to be confirmed).
168021		habitat	eng	Swampy river courses. Shaded or open riverine pools in savannah (Samways 2006).
168021		population	eng	The subspecies is locally common. In South Africa, it is not abundant (Samways 2006).
168021		threats	eng	No serious threats to this subspecies are known at present. In South Africa, flooding, exacerbated by poor catchment management, may be a threat (Samways 2006).
168022		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
168022		distribution	eng	This South African endemic has been recorded from the Western Cape to south of Johannesburg. According to Tarboton and Tarboton 2005) all records of <em>P. inconspicuum</em> from South Africa belong to this species.
168022		habitat	eng	Well-vegetated streams, rivers and pools at low altitudes.
168022		population	eng	Locally abundant.
168022		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
168023		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168023		distribution	eng	Only known from Sichuan and Shaanxi (Chao 1999).
168023		habitat	eng	There has been no habitat preferences recorded for this species.
168023		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168023		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168024		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168024		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality in Fujian, southern China
168024		habitat	eng	Found in permanent wetland water areas and moist forest.
168024		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168024		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Chlorogomphus montanus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.
168025		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species.
168025		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality at Diaoluoshan in southeast Hainan, China and one an additional site at Yinggeling, Central Hainan (pers. comm. email 2006).
168025		habitat	eng	Type-locality at mountain stream between 500 and 900 m. Narrow and shallow stream with boulder and gravel substrate, moderately fast-flowing.
168025		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168025		threats	eng	Hainan has lost a considerable proportion of its lowland forest since the 1950s (Chan <em>et al</em> 2005). Yinggeling has protected status but the site is under threat of damage through illegal logging (Reuters 2007) involving the creation of access roads, logging of natural forest and the establishment of <em>Eucalyptus</em> forest.
168027		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168027		distribution	eng	Only known from two sites; the type-locality in Guangxi at Mount Tiantang Ling, Jinxiu (Karube 1995) and Nankunshan in Guangdong (Wilson 2005).
168027		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow, moderately fast-flowing, montane streams with gravel and boulder substrates.
168027		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168027		threats	eng	Forested areas are being cleared to support the growing telecommunications development.
168028		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
168028		distribution	eng	Lieftinck (1955) described <em>Macromia malleifera</em> from a single male specimen collected from Kuatun, Fujian Province (collection notes: alt. 2,300 m, 6 July 1938, leg. J. Klapperich). Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1994) recorded two males and two females from Baishanzu, Zhejiang and Fellowes <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded it from both Guangdong and Hunan within the Nanling National Nature Reserve. Wilson and Xu also possess unpublished records from Guangdong.
168028		habitat	eng	Frequents swift flowing montane streams with stony substrates.
168028		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168028		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168029		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
168029		distribution	eng	<em>Amphicnemis glauca</em> is a Philippine endemic species, with its type locality recorded as 'Luzon' without any specific site given.
168029		habitat	eng	Habitat is probably a forested stream or pond, based on observations of some related species.
168029		population	eng	The male of the species has remained unknown since <em>A. glauca</em> was described more than a century ago. To date, nothing is known about its population and its whereabouts. The type locality is very vague giving only Luzon Island.
168029		threats	eng	Based on its assumed habitat (forested streams or ponds), <em>Amphicnemis glauca</em> is under threat from deforestation, habitat conversion and pollution. However, the exact status of the species at present cannot be fully evaluated until more data are gathered.
168030		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
168030		distribution	eng	Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1994) described <em>Macromia macula</em> from one male [27º05'N, 119ºE (sic) alt: 850 m, 20 August 1993 and four female paratypes collected from Baishanzu, Zhejiang Province. (Note: The correct GPS for Baishanzu Protected Area is 27° 44' 25 N, Longitude: 119° 11' 3 E.)
168030		habitat	eng	Southeastern Asian congeners frequent swift flowing streams in montane districts.
168030		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168030		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Macromia macula</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.
168031		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
168031		distribution	eng	Lieftinck (1929) described <em>Macromia icterica</em> from a single male collected from 'Canton', (collector: K.J. Morton). Wilson and Reels (2001) described a single female collected from Limushan, Hainan, which they considered may belong to this species.
168031		habitat	eng	Its close congeners (<em>moorei</em>-group sensu Lieftinck, 1929) frequent rivers and streams.
168031		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168031		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Macromia icterica</em>; clear-cutting of forests continue to cause a decline in the available habitat.  Expansions of towns and cities, building of dams and roads and the associated pollution and sewage are all ongoing threats.
168032		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
168032		distribution	eng	Navás (1936) described <em>rubripes</em> under the genus <em>Taolestes Needham</em> based on a single male and a single female collected from 'Kuling' Jiangxi (collection notes: 9-26 July 1935, leg. Piel).
168032		habitat	eng	Congeners frequent seepages, trickles and headstreams in montane forested areas.
168032		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168032		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168033		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168033		distribution	eng	Wilson (2000) described <em>Rhipidolestes alleni</em> from Damingshan, Guangxi (23º24'-23º30'N, 108º20'-108º32'E) and later Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded additional specimens from Chunxiu, Guangxi.
168033		habitat	eng	Frequents seepages, trickles and headstreams in montane forested areas.
168033		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168033		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168034		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
168034		distribution	eng	Zhu and Yang (1998) described <em>Rhipidolestes bastiaani</em> from 'Zheng ping to Hua ping', Shaanxi, China (alt. 1,200 m, 22 July 1986).
168034		habitat	eng	Congeners frequent seepages, trickles and headstreams in montane forested areas.
168034		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168034		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168035		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168035		distribution	eng	Described from single male and two females collected from Xiaguan, Yunnan, China (Zhou and Li 2000).
168035		habitat	eng	<em>Lamelligomphus congeners</em> prefer swift flowing streams with stony substrates.
168035		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168035		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.
168036		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168036		distribution	eng	Holotype from Gutianshan (collection notes coordinates: 29.3 N, 118.2 E), Keihua County, Zhejiang with paratype from Moganshan (collection notes coordinates: 30.6 N, 119.9 E), Deqing County, Zhejiang (Zhou and Wu 1992).
168036		habitat	eng	Congeners of <em>Nihinogomphus</em> prefer stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.
168036		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168036		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to expansion of and pollution from industrial and agricultural development and the accompanying sewage.
168037		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168037		distribution	eng	Asahina (1982) described <em>Petaliaeschna lieftincki</em> from a single male collected in 1936 (collection notes: "leg. E. Suenson") from 'South Shensi' (south Shaanxi).
168037		habitat	eng	Congeners frequent forested streams.
168037		population	eng	No information available on population due to species being known from type specimen only.
168037		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for the development of dams and transport systems.
168038		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168038		distribution	eng	Described from Moupin, Tibet but Asahina (1988) considered the type location to be Moupin, Sichuan near Tachenlu ("Tatsienlu" now officially Kangding located 2,600 m asl at the Ta river), northwest Mount Omei (van Pelt 1993). Also known from "Siaolu (Hsiao-lu)" a location between Tientsuen and the Maan Shan pass (300 m asl) at the shortest road from Yaan to Tatsienlu (50-100 km southeast Tatsienlu (van Pelt 1993). The locality 'Xiao Lu' is believed to be the same as 'Siao-Lou' the location of some of McLachlans's specimens considered to belong to this species (van Pelt 1994).  Asahina (1982) reported one female from Kashmir, which may be conspecific with this species. Zhang and Zhang (2006) report <em>Cordulegaster lunifera</em> (as <em>Cordulegaster luniferous) from Shaanxi.</em>
168038		habitat	eng	Although the habitat has not been recorded, the species is most likely found in low to high elevation forest, along river courses.
168038		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168038		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168039		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168039		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality in Guizhou (Chao and Li 1990)
168039		habitat	eng	Congeners prefer stony forested streams.
168039		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168039		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168040		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
168040		distribution	eng	Only known from Zhou and Wilson (2001) who described <em>Priscagrion kiautai</em> from specimens collected from Chishui Alsophila Nature Reserve, Guizhou (28º20'N, 105º57'E).
168040		habitat	eng	<em>Priscagrion</em> frequents small forested trickles and streams.
168040		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168040		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168041		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168041		distribution	eng	Described from male and female material collected from Shawou, Fujian (Chao 1953). Asahina (1976) recorded <em>beatus</em> from Huangkang, Hupeh (Hubei) and Hsin-shih, Hunan. Chao (1982) records <em>beatus</em> from Guangxi and Chao (1990) lists <em>beatus</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Hubei and Hunan.
168041		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat for <em>T. beatus</em> has not been recorded.
168041		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168041		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168042		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168042		distribution	eng	Adults known to be common and widespread below 100 m in lowland plains in Jiangsu Province from May to July and its range is considered continuous from Jiangsu, Shangdong, Hebei and northeast China to Japan through Korean Peninsular (Jiang 2000). Also widespread in Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), which is the type-locality. It is rare and local in Korea (Lee 2001) and present in southern, far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).
168042		habitat	eng	Associated with ponds, streams and rivers in lowland plains.
168042		population	eng	Jiang (2000) reports adults to be common and widespread below 100 m in lowland plains in Jiangsu Province from May to July and its range.
168042		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.
168043		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168043		distribution	eng	Described from a single females collected from 'Chungking' (Chongking), eastern Sichuan. Sui and Sun (1984) provided details of the first male collected from Sichuan. Chao (1990) provides further details of material collected from Sichuan.
168043		habitat	eng	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.
168043		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168043		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.
168044		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168044		distribution	eng	Only know from type-locality at Yuanshan, Yilan County, north Taiwan and Shenmihu Lake, Yilan County, north Taiwan (Yeh and Che 2000).
168044		habitat	eng	Oviposition sites are wet and soft soil in bog or lake margin habitat bordering wood and semi-shaded.
168044		population	eng	Population range is severely restricted although there is no evidence of a decline in population.
168044		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168045		conservation	eng	A common and widespread species.
168045		distribution	eng	Hua (2000) lists <em>Deielia phaon</em> from China including Fujian, Hebei, Henan, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang and Zhang and Zhang (2006) have recorded it from Shaanxi. Wilson (material collected 2003-2006) has recorded this species from Guizhou. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) records <em>phaon</em> from north and central Taiwan from just two sites. Lee (2001) records <em>phaon</em> from Korea and Sugimura <em>et al</em>. (2000) lists <em>phaon</em> from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu and many offshore islands. Is also known from far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).
168045		habitat	eng	Frequents ponds, lakes, marshes and rice paddies.
168045		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
168045		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168046		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168046		distribution	eng	Zhu, Yan and Li (1988) described <em>yuanbaensis</em> from Yana, Shaanxi province based on four males. Chao (1990) listed no further records and none have been published since the description.
168046		habitat	eng	Congeners frequent forested streams.
168046		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168046		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168047		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China.</st1:place></st1:country-region>
168047		distribution	eng	Recorded from south China, including Fujian, Henan and Zhejiang (Chao 1990). Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported a single locality at Wenlansi, Hwalien, Taiwan. Hua (2000) listed its occurrence in Hunan province and Wilson and Reels (2003) reported it from Guangxi. <em>A. pacificus</em> also occurs in Nanling, north Guangdong (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003).
168047		habitat	eng	Larvae of congeners are known to prefer muddy margins of streams and rivers.
168047		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168047		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168048		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168048		distribution	eng	Described from male and female material all collected from Dali, Yunnan (Yang and Davies 1993). No further records.
168048		habitat	eng	<em>Lamelligomphus congeners</em> prefer swift flowing streams with stony substrates.
168048		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168048		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.
168049		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species; it is known from three sites at Wuzhishan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Limushan (Wilson and Xu unpublished data) and Yinggeling (Reels unpublished data) which have protected status but the latter site is under threat of damage through illegal logging and establishment of <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantation (Reuters 2007).
168049		distribution	eng	Known from three sites in Hainan Province, China; the type-locality Wuzhishan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Limushan (Wilson and Xu pers. comm. email 2007) and Yinggeling, Central Hainan (Reels pers. comm. email 2007).
168049		habitat	eng	Found at forested mountain streams.
168049		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168049		threats	eng	Hainan has lost a considerable proportion of its lowland forest since the 1950s (Chan <em>et al</em> 2005). Yinggeling has protected status but the site is under threat of damage through illegal logging (Reuters 2007) involving the creation of access roads, logging of natural forest and the establishment of <em>Eucalyptus</em> forest.
168050		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168050		distribution	eng	Described from single male type and single female paratype collected from Huangguoshu, southwest Guizhou (on 18 June 2000). Huangguoshu (yellow-fruit tree) is the site of Guizhou's famous series of waterfalls (latitude: 25° 58' 60 N, longitude: 105° 37' 60 E), located on the Baihe River in Anshun, Guizhou Province (Zhou and Li 2000). The largest waterfall (reputed to be the largest waterfall in Asia) is 74 m (243 feet) high and 81 m (266 feet) wide. Altitude <em>ca</em> 1,100-2,000 m.
168050		habitat	eng	Found in montane streams <em>ca</em> 1,100 m.
168050		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168050		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168051		conservation	eng	A common and widespread species.
168051		distribution	eng	Needham (1930) described <em>Potamarcha puella</em> from several pairs collected from 'Soochow' (Suzhou) Jiangsu. Hua (2000) also records this species from Guangzhou, Guangdong, which is a record requiring confirmation.
168051		habitat	eng	Habitat preference is unknown but the only congener <em>Potamarcha congener</em> (Rambur) prefers shallow, weedy ponds and marshes.
168051		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168051		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168052		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168052		distribution	eng	Described from single female type specimen collected from Pinglan, Shang-fang, Lo-chen-hsien, Guangxi (Needham 1930). I presume this location refers to Lushan in southwest Guangxi. Hua (2000) records <em>dolus</em> from Anhui, Guangxi and Jiangxi.
168052		habitat	eng	Congeners prefer stony forested streams.
168052		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168052		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168053		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168053		distribution	eng	Only known from single female collected from 'Nanshanchi' near Puli, Nantou County, central Taiwan on 20 June 1965 (Asahina 1966).
168053		habitat	eng	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.
168053		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168053		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.
168054		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168054		distribution	eng	Known from limited material collected from Sichuan and Hubei. <em>Stylurus gideon</em> was described from 'Chengtu' (Chengdu), central Sichuan. Chao (1953) provided further details of the material collected from Chengdu. Asahina (1976) recorded a male specimen from Wuchang, Hupeh (Wuhan, Hubei). Chao (1990) summarised the records of <em>Stylurus gideon</em>.
168054		habitat	eng	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.
168054		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168054		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.
168055		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168055		distribution	eng	Described from "Kuyung", Sichuan. Chao (1990) records this species from Fujian, Hubei, Jilin, Shanxi and Sichuan. Hua (2000) lists <em>ringens</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jilin, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang. The Hainan and Guangxi listings by Hua (2000) are questionable and require confirmation. Zhang and Zhang (2006) recorded <em>ringens</em> from Shaanxi. Lee (2001) lists several records from Korea as <em>Onychogomphus ringens</em> Needham.
168055		habitat	eng	<em>Lamelligomphus congeners</em> prefer swift flowing streams with stony substrates.
168055		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168055		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.
168056		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168056		distribution	eng	Chao (1990) lists <em>scissus</em> from Hubei and Sichuan, and Zhang and Zhang (2006) record it from Shaanxi. It was described from a single female collected from Siao-Lu, Sichuan. The synonym <em>Sinogomphus nigrofasciatus</em> May (1935) was also described from Sichuan.  Li (1989) described the synonym <em>Sinogomphus shennongianus</em> from Hubei. Klots (1947) recorded <em>scissus</em> from 'Mupin' (Moupin), Sichuan and Needham (1930) recorded the synonym <em>Gomphus edax</em> from Kwanhsien, Sichuan.
168056		habitat	eng	Found in montane streams.
168056		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168056		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sinogomphus scissus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams are an ongoing problem.
168057		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in China.
168057		distribution	eng	Described from Cangshan, Dali, Yunnan at 1,700 m. Paratypes from Nhjiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan and  Fugong, Yunnan (Zhu and Zhou 1999). Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded this species from Diding, Guangxi (altitude 978 – 1,100 m).
168057		habitat	eng	Species occurs at montane streams.
168057		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168057		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168058		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168058		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Korean peninsula with a very few records from North and South Korea (Lee 2001). The type-locality is "Pyeongyang, Taeneung, Goseong" (Lee 2001).
168058		habitat	eng	Members of the <em>Asiagomphus</em> genus prefer muddy stream margins.
168058		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168058		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168059		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168059		distribution	eng	Northern Bangladesh and northwestern India (Assam). The type-locality is the Himalayas and reported to come from Tibet (Fraser 1934). Tsuda (2000) also lists <em>cuneata</em> from Nepal.
168059		habitat	eng	Found in permanent wetland water areas.
168059		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168059		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168060		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168060		distribution	eng	Endemic to Hainan. Chao recorded first male from Jiangfengling as <em>Leptogomphus hainanensis</em>, which he later synonymised with <em>celebratus</em> (Chao 1990). Wilson and Reels (2001) recorded <em>celebratus</em> from several sites across south Hainan including Bawangling, Wuzhishan, and Diaoluoshan.
168060		habitat	eng	Members of the <em>Leptogomphus</em> genus prefer streams with gravel substrates.
168060		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168060		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; large-scale clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines is an ongoing problem.
168061		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.
168061		distribution	eng	Type-locality Japan (Sélys 1883). Recorded from central and north China including Fujian, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsi, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Sichuan (Hua 2000), Japan including Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu (Sugimura 2001) and Korea (Lee 2001).
168061		habitat	eng	The species prefers ponds in flat lands.
168061		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168061		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168062		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168062		distribution	eng	Wilson and Reels (2003) described <em>Calicnemia haksik</em> from Cenwanglaoshan, northwest Guangxi.
168062		habitat	eng	Found in montane forested streams and trickles.
168062		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168062		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168063		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168063		distribution	eng	Described from Huoditang, Ningshan County, south Shaanxi (Cao and Zheng 1988). The synonym <em>Davidius miaotaiziensis</em> was described from Miaotaizi, southwest Shaanxi (Zhu <em>et al</em>. 1988). Zhang and Zhang (2006) report <em>Davidius chaoi</em> from Shanxi.
168063		habitat	eng	Frequents forested streams.
168063		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168063		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168064		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168064		distribution	eng	Described from single male type and single female paratype collected from 'Malipo County, Miaozu Autonomous Prefecture' (Wenshan Zhuang-Miao Prefecture), southeast Yunnan on 28 May 2000 (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2005).
168064		habitat	eng	Species occurs at montane streams.
168064		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168064		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168065		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168065		distribution	eng	Described from single male from Fujian (Needham 1930). Chao (1947) described the female from Fujian and Chao (1954, 1984, 1990) provided details of many more specimens collected throughout Fujian.
168065		habitat	eng	<em>Burmagomphus congeners</em> prefer small streams, which can be forested or open.
168065		population	eng	A widespread species lacking in detailed population numbers.
168065		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168066		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in China. Systematics
168066		distribution	eng	Widely distributed across southwestern and southern China including Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang (Hämäläinen 2004, Wilson and Xu 2007).
168066		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist forested areas and wetlands.
168066		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168066		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168067		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.
168067		distribution	eng	According to Fraser (1933) the type in the British Museum of Natural History is from Maymyo, upper Myanmar. Tsuada (2000) lists <em>Coeliccia poungyi</em> from Myanmar and Thailand. Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) provide a distribution map for <em>poungyi</em> in Thailand, where it is occurs throughout much of the montane districts of north Thailand. Sui and Sun (1984) recorded <em>poungyi</em> from Yunnan.
168067		habitat	eng	Found in montane, forested streams.
168067		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168067		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168068		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168068		distribution	eng	Described from single male holotype and single female paratype, material collected by D.C. Graham in 1930 from Kwanshien, Sichuan and housed in the US National Museum (Asahina 1978).
168068		habitat	eng	Larvae of congeners are known to prefer muddy margins of streams and rivers.
168068		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168068		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168069		conservation	eng	<p>At least some of the Hainan populations are within protected areas.</p>
168069		distribution	eng	Wilson and Reels (2001) described the species from a single male collected from Lumu, Hainan in June 1999.     <p>The species is currently known from China (Hainan (Fan Jia and Jiaxin, both in eastern Hainan; Graham Reels, unpub. data) and Guizhou Province), Lao PDR (as   <em>R. yokoii</em> from Sekong in southeastern Lao PDR) and Viet Nam (Dak Lak Province, Thua Thien Hue Province and Khanh Hoa Province) (Kalkman and Villanueva<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2011).</p>
168069		habitat	eng	<em></em><em>Rhinagrion</em> congeners frequent forested streams. This species is reported from streams in subtropical and tropical moist montane forests.  <em></em>
168069		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168069		threats	eng	<p>Specific threats to this species are currently unknown, although the habitat is thought to be declining.</p>
168070		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168070		distribution	eng	Recently described from Henan (Chao and Wang 1990).
168070		habitat	eng	Congeners of <em>Nihinogomphus</em> prefer stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.
168070		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168070		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for agriculture.
168071		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168071		distribution	eng	Tsuda (2000) lists <em>Paragomphus pardalinus</em> from Hong Kong and does not list <em>Paragomphus capricornis</em> Förster, which is the only species of <em>Paragomphus</em> recorded from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004). <em>Paragomphus pardalinus</em> males are easily confused with those of <em>capricornis</em>. The drawing provided by Chao (1990) of a male <em>pardalinus</em> caudal abdomen is that of a <em>capricornis</em> male. For their comparison and distinction see Wilson and Reels (2001) and Wilson (2005). <em>Paragomphus pardalinus</em> was described from Hainan (Needham 1941), from a single male. Hua (2000) lists <em>pardalinus</em> from Yunnan, Fujian, Korea, Japan and Vietnam but none of these localities appear to be correct. Lee (2001) does not list any species of <em>Paragomphus</em> from Korea and none are recorded from Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). Chao (1995) recorded a <em>Paragomphus capricornis</em> female from Fujian, which was the first mainland Chinese record, following its discovery in Hong Kong. The confirmed range of <em>pardalinus</em> is Hainan, where it is quite widespread (Wilson and Reels 2001, Wilson and Xu in press). <em>P. pardalinus</em> has also been recorded in Guangxi and Guangdong (Chao 1990) but as already stated, Chao's (1990) drawings of male <em>pardalinus</em> have been confused with male <em>capricornis</em>. Nevertheless Chao (1990) lists records of female <em>pardalinus</em>, which is easily distinguished from <em>capricornis</em>, from Guangdong and Guangxi.
168071		habitat	eng	Prefers open aspect, streams with coarse sandy substrates and coarse sandy shoals.
168071		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
168071		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168072		distribution	eng	Known from one male and three females from type-locality Maymyo, Upper Myanmar (Fraser 1936) and three females from Diding, west Guangxi (Wilson 2005).
168072		habitat	eng	Species habitat is known to include streams.
168072		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168072		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Idionyx unguiculata</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.
168073		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168073		distribution	eng	Common throughout Yunnan (Asahina 1974), the type-locality near Chitsung, Yangtse Valley, Yunnan, China. The synonym <em>Mnais maclachlani</em> Fraser was described from Yunnan and also recorded from Zhejiang (Needham 1930) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006). However, Asahina (1974) considers Needham's record from Zhejiang should be ignored as it is not true <em>maclachlani</em>. Hua (2000) lists <em>maclachlani</em> from Yunnan, Sichuan and Zhejiang. Also recorded from Laos, as the synonym <em>Mnais incolor</em>, and Vietnam (Tsuda 2000). The synonym <em>semiopaca</em> was also described from Yunnan and the type-locality of the synonym <em>incolor</em> is Laos.
168073		habitat	eng	There is no information recorded for habitat preference for <em>M. gregoryi</em>.
168073		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168073		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168074		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168074		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China.
168074		habitat	eng	The habitat type is unknown although the genus is known to frequent wooded streams.
168074		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168074		threats	eng	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Macromidia hangzhouensi</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and power-lines are an ongoing problem.
168075		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168075		distribution	eng	Described from single male collected from Lushan, County, in central Sichuan (Chao 1999).
168075		habitat	eng	Congeners prefer forested streams.
168075		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168075		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168076		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168076		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan. Sugimura (2001) lists this species from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima and Iki. It is reported as less common in northeast Honshu and south Kyushu.
168076		habitat	eng	Frequents forested streams.
168076		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168076		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168077		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures currently known.<em></em></p>
168077		distribution	eng	Known from three males collected in Burma by R.A.Earnshaw and also recorded from Yunnan (Chao 1990).
168077		habitat	eng	<em>Burmagomphus </em>congeners<em></em> prefer small streams, which can be forested or open.
168077		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168077		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168078		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168078		distribution	eng	Only known from male, female and larval material at the type-locality Nanshanchi, Nantou County, central Taiwan, at about 500 m (Asahina 1968, Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984).
168078		habitat	eng	Found in montane streams with gravel substrates.
168078		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168078		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168079		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168079		distribution	eng	Known from single type female collected from Nodoa, northwest Hainan. Hua (2000) also records it from Yunnan but this record requires confirmation.
168079		habitat	eng	Congeners prefer sandy shoals of streams.
168079		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168079		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168080		conservation	eng	Research on taxonomy, distribution and potential threats is needed.
168080		distribution	eng	Asahina (1997) recorded the species (as <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Coeliccia ambigua</span>) from the type locality at Tam Dao, Vinh Phuc <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> in northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam. Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded&#160;</st1:place></st1:country-region><em>ambigua</em> as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Indocnemis ambigua</span><em> </em>from several sites in Guangxi, China, at Damingshan, Baidu Village, Nonghua and Dayaoshan.
168080		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found at montane trickles and streams.</p>
168080		population	eng	<p>Current population size is unknown but the species has been recorded from four sites which form a band from northern Viet Nam across central Guangxi from west to east.&#160;</p>
168080		threats	eng	The species is known from a limited number of protected nature reserves in Viet Nam and Guangxi, China. Populations outside the protected areas are likely to be impacted by deforestation and pollution.
168081		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168081		distribution	eng	Originally described from female material collected in Fujian (Chao 1954, 1990). Chao (1995) synonymised <em>Nihonogomphus zhejiangensis</em> Chao and Zhou (1990), described from Zhejiang, with <em>shaowuensis</em>.
168081		habitat	eng	Congeners of <em>Nihinogomphus</em> prefer stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.
168081		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168081		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage and the building of dams.
168082		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168082		distribution	eng	Described from Fujian it is widely distributed in China, including Guangxi, Jiangsu, Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, Zhejiang (Chao 1990) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984). It has also been recorded from Vietnam (Tsuda 2000) and southern and far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).
168082		habitat	eng	According to Lee (2001) it occurs in lakes. Other congeners frequent stony rivers.
168082		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168082		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168083		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168083		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality at Zhong-dian, Yunnan.
168083		habitat	eng	Found in permanent wetland water areas.
168083		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168083		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168084		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
168084		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality at Dali, Yunnan (Davies and Yang 1996).
168084		habitat	eng	Found in permanent wetland water areas and moist forest.
168084		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168084		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168085		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in China.
168085		distribution	eng	Described from Hongmiao, Nanzheng County, Shaanxi, Province (Yang 1996).
168085		habitat	eng	The genus prefers montane streams.
168085		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168085		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168086		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168086		distribution	eng	Needham (1931b) described the female type, which was collected from Fujian, by Kellogg. Chao and Xu (1986) transferred <em>flavicornis</em> to <em>Stylurus</em> Needham and provided details of male material from Fujian. Chao (1990) summarised the material collected from Fujian.
168086		habitat	eng	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.
168086		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168086		threats	eng	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.
168087		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168087		distribution	eng	Widely distributed all over Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984, Wang 2000) and single record from Xiamen ("Amoy"), Fujian (McLachlan 1870), which was the original description of the synonym <em>Euphaea compar</em>.
168087		habitat	eng	Streams in low and hill country up to 1,000 m.
168087		population	eng	A stable population; a common and widespread species.
168087		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168088		conservation	eng	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
168088		distribution	eng	Described from single male from Dali, Yunnan (Yang and Davies 1996).
168088		habitat	eng	Genus is known to prefer montane streams.
168088		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168088		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168089		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.
168089		distribution	eng	Type-locality Chunking, Sichuan (Bridges 1994). Recorded from central and eastern China including Sichuan, Hubei and Jiangsu (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (as <em>Coenagrion barbatum</em> in Zhang and Zhang 2006) and Guizhou (Wilson, material collected 2005), Korea (Lee 2001) and Russia including southern Siberia and southern far east (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).
168089		habitat	eng	Habitat preferences include ponds and lakes.
168089		population	eng	The species endures a stable population and is common and widespread.
168089		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.
168090		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168090		distribution	eng	Type-locality Fujian (Needham 1930). Chao (1990) records <em>Burmagomphus sowerbyi</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Henan, Hunan and Zhejiang. Tsuda (2000) lists <em>sowerbyi</em> from Korea and China but the Korean record relates to <em>Burmagomphus collaris</em> Needham. Note: Lee (2001) lists <em>Burmagomphus campestris</em> from Korea overlooking Chao's (1990) synonymisation of <em>campestris</em> with <em>collaris</em>.
168090		habitat	eng	<em>Burmagomphus congeners</em> prefer small streams, which can be forested or open.
168090		population	eng	A stable population and widely distributed.
168090		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168091		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known.
168091		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality at Wuyishan, Fujian in China (Zhou and Wu 1992).
168091		habitat	eng	The genus <em>Anisogomphus</em> prefers montane streams.
168091		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168091		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168092		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168092		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality in Yunnan.
168092		habitat	eng	The habitat has not been recorded for this species.
168092		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168092		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168093		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168093		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern China. Described from single male from 'Chengtu' (Chengdu), Sichuan.<br/><br/>Wilson (2005) also recorded <em>Boyeria sinensis</em> (not belonging to the '<em>Boyeria sinensis</em>' taxon described by Asahina, 1978) from three sites in Guangxi at Maoershan, Dayaoshan and Dapingshan and (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003) recorded <em>Boyeria sinensis</em> (not belonging to the '<em>Boyeria sinensis</em>' taxon described by Asahina 1978) from four sites in Guangdong, including three at Nanling, north Guangdong and one at Shimentai, central Guangdong. (Wilson and Xu in prep.) has shown these records from Guangxi and Guangdong should be attributed to <em>Boyeria karube</em> Yokei, 2002.
168093		habitat	eng	Occurs in evergreen forested rivers and streams in montane environments.
168093		population	eng	No information is available on population size although it is stable.
168093		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for the development of dams.
168094		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.
168094		distribution	eng	Only known from type-locality at Ruili, Yunnan.
168094		habitat	eng	Found in permanent wetland water areas.
168094		population	eng	No information is known on the population size or trend.
168094		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently unknown.
168095		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations are present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Research into this snail's life history and ecology is needed.
168095		distribution	eng	A Seychelles endemic, this snail is found on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, Marianne, and La Digue. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 58 km².
168095		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest habitat, from 150-700 m in elevation.
168095		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain over 4.4 million individuals.
168095		threats	eng	Habitat change threatens some populations, but the species is adaptable to signficant levels of alien plant invasion. Small-holder wood plantations and logging operations have caused habitat deterioration in the past.
168096		conservation	eng	This species is present  in the Aldabra Special Reserve. Research is needed to study this snail's life history and ecology and population status, and its habitat must be monitored. Artificial propogation  and preservation of the species' genes in a genome resource bank should be considered.
168096		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to Aldabra atoll, in the Seychelles islands, and is found from sea level to 6 m above sea level. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 150 km², and are currently declining.
168096		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits coastal scrub and woodland habitats.
168096		population	eng	No population estimates are currently available, though the population is generally believed to be decreasing.
168096		threats	eng	The principle threat this snail faces is sea-level rise, as most of Aldabra atoll is only 1-2 m above sea level.
168099		conservation	eng	This snail species is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve. Research on its population status, life history and ecology is needed.
168099		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to Aldabra atoll, in the Seychelles islands. Its range has decreased since 2000; its current extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to measure 150 km².
168099		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits dry coastal scrub and woodland, from sea level to 6 m.
168099		population	eng	No specific population data is known, though the population is generally believed to be decreasing.
168099		threats	eng	The primary threat this species faces is sea-level rise, as most of the areas it inhabits are no more than 2 metres above sea level, and none are more than  6 m.a.s.l. Predation by invasive exotic species is also a threat.
168100		conservation	eng	Present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Maintenance and restoration of the species' habitat, as well as establishment of additional protected areas, are needed. Research into the species' life history and ecology would be beneficial.
168100		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse (extinct), La Digue (extinct), Felicite and Fregate. Extent of occurrence is estimated to measure 600 km² and area of occupancy (AOO) is 58 km².
168100		habitat	eng	An arboreal species, this snail is found in tropical forest habitats from sea level to 700 m.
168100		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated at 149,200 individuals.
168100		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat degradation: habitat loss historically, and now degradation by invasive plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>), though the effect of invasive species on the populations are negligible to date.
168103		conservation	eng	No conservation actions have been taken. Protection of Silhouette island is needed to secure the habitat. Further research is required into the biology and ecology of the species.
168103		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this snail is found only on Silhouette island, where it is restricted to two locations spanning an area of 0.02 km² (area of occupancy, AOO, is 0.02 km²). Its extent of occurence (EOO) is 5 km².
168103		habitat	eng	An arboreal species, this snail is found in the axils of the Vulnerable plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus hornei</span>. It inhabits forests from 500-600 m.
168103		population	eng	The population has been estimated to contain 5000 individuals.
168103		threats	eng	Problematic native species are currently the main threat to this species, as they cause ecosystem degradation throughout this species' habitat. The species was recently highly threatened by a road development proposal, which would have destroyed all the species' habitat. Fortunately this development proposal was halted, so this is no longer an imminent threat.
168105		conservation	eng	This snail is present and protected in Praslin National Park. Restoration within Praslin National Park is recommended. Invasive species in the Seychelles must be controlled.
168105		distribution	eng	This snail is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found only on the granitic island of Praslin. Historically it was found on the islands of Curieuse and La Digue, but it is extinct on both islands today. Both its extent of occurrence (EOO) and its area of occupancy (AOO) have been estimated at 12 km².
168105		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in moist lowland woodland areas from 100-300 m, especially on palm trees. It is viviparous: the females give birth to live young, rather than laying eggs.
168105		population	eng	In 2005, the population on Praslin island was estimated at 12,000 individuals.
168105		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and fire threatens this snail throughout its small range. While small-scale farming, resulting in habitat degradation, was a threat  in the past, invasive exotic plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) have and continue to directly impact this species' habitat. The impact of these exotic species is expected to remain a threat into the future. Fire is also a minor threat.
168106		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected in Morne Seychellois National Park (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. unidentata</span>) and Praslin National Park <span style="font-style: italic;">(S. u. praslina</span>). The other subspecies require the protection of Mt. Sebert on Mahé island (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. sebertae</span>); the La Reserve/Brullee area on Mahé island (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. pyramidata</span>); Silhouette island (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. globata</span>); and the summit of La Digue (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. parva</span>).
168106		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to the Seychelles. It is found on the islands of Mahé, Therèse, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue and Felicite; it has become extinct on the island of St. Anne. Its total area of occupancy (AOO) is 87 km². Most of the populations on the different islands represent different subspecies; the distribution and the area of occupancy (AOO) of each is as follows: <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">unidentata</span>:  North Mahé, St. Anne (extinct), Therèse and Conception; AOO = 22 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> sebertae</span>: West Mahé; AOO = 11 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> pyramidata</span>: South Mahé; AOO = 22 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> globata</span>: Silhouette; AOO = 19 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> praslina</span>: Praslin and Curieuse; AOO = 8 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> parva</span>: La Digue; AOO = 5 km²
168106		habitat	eng	This snail is a terrestrial lowland forest species, found in leaf litter, and is one of the most important detritivores in the forest ecosystem. It does not lay eggs, but rather gives birth to live young.
168106		population	eng	The total population size of this species has been estimated to be 7.2 million individuals, though some subspecies are much more abundant than others. The numbers of individuals of each subspecies is estimated to be:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;">unidentata</span>:  145,000<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> sebertae</span>: 1,000<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> pyramidata</span>: 15,000<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> globata</span>: 7 million<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> praslina</span>: 700<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> parva</span>: 50,000<br/><br/>This snail's populations are considered to be stable.
168106		threats	eng	It is threatened on Mahé and Praslin islands by habitat degradation caused by invasive exotic plants, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum,</span> and predation by the Common Tenrec (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tenrec ecaudatus</span>), a small mammal that was introduced to the Seychelles. Small-scale farming and wood plantations have threatened this snail's habitat in the past.
168110		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this snail. The forests on Silhouette island should be protected.
168110		distribution	eng	An arboreal snail endemic to Silhouette island, Seychelles, this species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of 15 km².
168110		habitat	eng	An arboreal species, this snail is found in lowland forest from sea level to 400 m. It is an adaptable species, capable of recolonizing&#160;abandoned coconut plantations, but is less tolerant of invasion by other plant species (especially&#160;<em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
168110		population	eng	In 2005, the population size was estimated to be 46,600. The population is currently increasing, as the species actively recolonizes abandoned coconut plantations.
168110		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to habitat degradation, which was caused in the past by both small- and large-scale wood plantations and is currently taking place due to the impacts of invasive alien plant species, such as <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>.
168111		conservation	eng	This species is present in Praslin National Park. Research is needed into its life history and ecology. Invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands.
168111		distribution	eng	Endemic to Praslin island, in the Seychelles islands, this snail has an extent of occurrence (EOO) and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 7 km².
168111		habitat	eng	This snail is an arboreal species found in palm woodland, from 150-250 m.
168111		population	eng	The population was estimated at 7,000 individuals in 2005.
168111		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, especially that caused by invasive species. Historically, it was considerably more widespread, with an AOO of some 20 km², but extensive fires in the 1800s and early 1900s destroyed most of the woodlands on the island. The threat of fire is ongoing. Predation, probably by introduced rats and tenrecs, is a small additional cause of mortality, but is not thought to be signficant.
168112		distribution	eng	This extinct snail species was endemic to La Digue island, Seychelles.
168112		habitat	eng	This was probably a terrestrial forest species, occupying moist lowland forests.
168112		population	eng	It is known only from subfossil material; extinction likely took place in the mid-1800s.
168112		threats	eng	The cause of extinction is believed to be habitat destruction, as natural woodlands were replaced with large-scale wood plantations in the 1800s.
168113		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. The La Reserve-Brullee area of Mahé should be protected. Invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles.
168113		distribution	eng	This snail is endemic to Mahé island, in the Seychelles. It's extent of occurence (EOO) is estimated to be 15 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 12 km².
168113		habitat	eng	An arboreal species, this snail can be found in high forest and palm forest, from 250-600 m.
168113		population	eng	An estimated 101,000 individuals were recorded in 2005.
168113		threats	eng	Currently, the main threat to this snail species is habitat degradation caused by impacts from invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Small-scale wood plantations have caused habitat degradation in the past.
168114		conservation	eng	The species is protected within Morne Seychellois National Park. Invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into this species' life history and ecology.
168114		distribution	eng	A Seychelles endemic found on Mahé island, this snail's extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) have both been estimated to be 15 km².
168114		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species, found in high forest (350-990 m).
168114		population	eng	The population was estimated at 545,000 individuals in 2005.
168114		threats	eng	This snail is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, currently caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, small-holder farming and wood plantations also threatened the species' habitat, but these are no longer considered a threat.
168115		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. The La Reserve-Brullee area of Mahé should be protected, and invasive plant species must be controlled.
168115		distribution	eng	This terrestrial snail is endemic to Mahé island, in the Seychelles. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 10 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 6 km².
168115		habitat	eng	This snail is an arboreal species, found in high forest from 250-600 m.
168115		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to consist of 50,500 adults.
168115		threats	eng	Small scale wood plantations threatened the species' habitat in the past, but are no longer considered a threat. However, this snail is still vulnerable to ongoing habitat degradation across its range, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).
168116		distribution	eng	A Seychelles endemic, this extinct snail species was known only from Curieuse island.
168116		habitat	eng	It is suspected that this was probably a lowland forest species.
168116		population	eng	This snail species is known only from subfossil material.
168116		threats	eng	Extinction was probably caused by extensive fires in the early 1800s, which destroyed all forest habitat on the island.
168117		conservation	eng	<em>P. n. subfuscus</em>&#160;is present in the Praslin National Park.
168117		distribution	eng	This snail is endemic to the Seychelles. Its extent of occurence (EOO) is estimated to be 300 km², and it has a total area of occupancy (AOO) of just 8 km². The two subspecies are distributed on two different islands:&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em>&#160;on north Mahé island (AOO = 5 km²) and&#160;<em>P. niger subfuscus</em>&#160;on Praslin island (AOO = 3 km²).
168117		habitat	eng	An arboreal species found in forest habitats,&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em>&#160;inhabits high forest while&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">P. n. subfuscus</span>&#160;is found in&#160;palm forest.
168117		population	eng	In 2005, the total population was estimated at&#160;8,000 adults: 5,000 of the subspecies&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em> and 3,000 of the subspecies&#160;<em>P. n. subfuscus</em>.
168117		threats	eng	This snail species is threatened by habitat degradation, due to invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which directly impact this snail's habitat. In the past, small-scale farming caused declines in habitat quality.&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em> has also hybridized with <em>P. velutinus. </em>Fortunately,&#160;however, the hybrid form has not expanded into the range of <em>P. n. niger</em>.
168118		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been taken. Silhouette island's forests should be legally protected, and invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles.
168118		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to Silhouette island in the Seychelles. It's extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 17 km².
168118		habitat	eng	An arboreal species found in all forest habitats, this snail is most abundant in high forest.
168118		population	eng	An estimated 89,700 adults were recorded in 2005.
168118		threats	eng	While habitat degradation from small- and large-scale wood plantations were a threat in the past, degradation from invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly impact this snail's habitat is ongoing.
168119		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The forest areas of Silhouette should be protected, and invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles.
168119		distribution	eng	A Seychelles endemic, this snail is known only from Silhouette island and has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of just 3 km².
168119		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species restricted to high moss forest, above 450 m.
168119		population	eng	Population estimates showed 423,000 individuals in 2005.
168119		threats	eng	<em>P. oxoniensis</em>&#160;is vulnerable to habitat deterioration and habitat change resulting from climate change (changes in rainfall patterns), as well as habitat degradation caused by the impacts of invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).
168120		conservation	eng	A captive assurance colony is maintained by the Zoological Society of London, and habitat restoration is in place. Continued monitoring of the population status is necessary.
168120		distribution	eng	This terrestrial snail is endemic to Fregate island, Seychelles. It occupies a single, continuous range of only 2 km² (extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) both calculated at 2 km²).
168120		habitat	eng	This snail, the only surviving terrestrial <span style="font-style: italic;">Pachnodus </span>species, is found under logs in lowland woodland, from 1-100 metres above sea level.
168120		population	eng	Eradication of rats using Brodifacoum poisoning was associated with an 87% population decline in this species between 1999 and 2001. In 2005, the population was estimated to be 7,700 individuals.
168120		threats	eng	Predation by rats was speculated to be a threat in the 1990s. Eradication of rats using Brodifacoum poisoning was associated with an 87% population decline in this species between 1999 and 2001. The successful completion of the rodent eradication means that neither of these threats remain. Currently no active threats are known. Large-scale agro-industry farming and plantations caused some habitat degradation in the past.
168122		conservation	eng	This snail was present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
168122		distribution	eng	Endemic to Aldabra atoll, in the Seychelles islands, this species' area of occupancy (AOO) was estimated to be 150 km².
168122		habitat	eng	An arboreal species that was found on trees in open woodland, in the prolonged dry season this snail aestivated (remains in a dormant state) on trees.
168122		population	eng	This snail was locally abundant in the 1970s, though it was believed to have declined since then; the only change in this time was an increase in dry years. Its shells were found as recently as 2000. However, despite extensive searches, no evidence of its continued survival has been found since.
168122		threats	eng	This species was restricted to Aldabra atoll (area of occupancy estimated to be 150 km²), all of which is less than 8 m above sea level and mostly 1-2 m above sea level. Sea level rise was therefore a major threat throughout its range. A small number of rat-eaten shells have been found, indicating that low levels of rat predation were a minor threat. In the 1970s, the species was common and widespread, but declined rapidly thereafter. Only isolated individuals were found in the 1980s and the last one in 1997. An increase in the frequency of relatively dry years has been linked to this species' decline: it is thought that prolonged dry conditions led to mortality of juveniles and recruitment failure, ultimately causing population senescence and extinction.
168123		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The forest areas of Silhouette island should receive legal protection. Research is also needed into this snail's life history and ecology.
168123		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Seychelles islands, this snail is only found on Silhouette island, from 550-600 m. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 2 km², and it is found in only 1 location.
168123		habitat	eng	An arboreal species found in moss forests, this snail inhabits the axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena reflexa</span> plants.
168123		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain 1,200 individuals. The population is believed to be stable.
168123		threats	eng	The principle threat to this species is habitat degradation across its entire range, caused by invasive non-native species. Habitat shifting as a result of climate change will likely affect the species in the future.
168128		conservation	eng	This species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. Its range on Silhouette island should also be protected, and invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles. Research into this snail's population status, life history and ecology is needed.
168128		distribution	eng	This snail is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 300 km² and its area  of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 7 km².
168128		habitat	eng	This snail has specific habitat requirements, being restricted to mist forest species. It is found from 600-990 m a.s.l.
168128		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain 3,200 individuals.
168128		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to habitat degradation, currently caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Climate change also poses a potential threat. Small-scale farming caused habitat degradation  in the past.
168130		conservation	eng	This species is present at low densities in Morne Seychellois National Park. The main population on Silhouette island should be protected, and invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.
168130		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles islands, and found only on Mahé and Silhouette islands, this species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 300 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 25 km².
168130		habitat	eng	Restricted to high forest from 500-900 m, this species is found in leaf litter on the ground and in epiphytes.
168130		population	eng	The population was estimated at over 3 million individuals in 2005.
168130		threats	eng	This snail is threatened by habitat degradation caused by invasive alien plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).
168135		conservation	eng	This species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. The substantial populations on Silhouette island should also be protected.
168135		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its area of occupancy (AOO) has been estimated to measure 25 km² and its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 300 km².
168135		habitat	eng	Restricted to high forest, this is a predatory species that feeds on small invertebrates (including arthropods).
168135		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain 90,000 individuals.
168135		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to habitat degradation. Currently, invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which alter this snail's habitat are the principle threat. Small-scale wood plantations and farms have caused habitat degradation in the past.
168137		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. Additional protected areas should be established, and research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.
168137		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) has been estimated to measure 300 km², and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 25 km².
168137		habitat	eng	This snail is restricted to high forest.
168137		population	eng	The populations was estimated to contain 1.5 million individuals in 2005.
168137		threats	eng	This snail species is threatend by habitat deterioration, which was caused in the past by small-scale wood plantations and both small- and large-scale farming, and is currently taking place due to changes in native species dynamics.
168139		conservation	eng	This snail species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. The substantial popualtion on Silhouette island should be protected.
168139		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to measure 300 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated at 19 km². It is known from 4 locations.
168139		habitat	eng	Restricted to high forest, this snail is a specialized carrion feeder.
168139		population	eng	The population was estimted at 29,000 individuals in 2005.
168139		threats	eng	This snail species is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, which was caused in the past by small-scale wood plantations and farming, and is currently taking place due to invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly alter the habitat.
168141		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found only on Fregate island. It is found in only 1 location, and has an extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of just 1 km².
168141		habitat	eng	This snail is a woodland species found in leaf-litter and rotten wood.
168141		population	eng	The species is possibly extinct, after secondary poisoning in 2000 caused a population decline of 80-100%. If the species is still extant, the population is almost certainly less than 50 mature individuals.
168141		threats	eng	The species' disappearance in 2000 may be linked to secondary poisoning following rodent eradication using the poison Brodifacoum.
168142		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Legal protection of Silhouette island is required to protect the main popualtion.
168142		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé and Silhouette, and is found in an elevational band from 540-600 metres above sea level. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be only 4 km², while its extent of occurrence (EOO) is only 5 km².&#160; However, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. moreleti</span> was last recorded on Mahé in 1972, despite surveys looking for this species since then, it has not been found.&#160;
168142		habitat	eng	Restricted to high forests from 540-600 m, this snail is found in the axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena reflexa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus hornei</span> plants. It is the only streptaxid known to be herbivorous, feeding on algae and detritus. An ovoviviparous species, it produces eggs but retains them inside the female's body until hatching occurs.
168142		population	eng	The population was estimated at 84,000 individuals in 2005.
168142		threats	eng	This snail is threatened by habitat deterioration, caused in the past by small-scale wood plantations and currently caused by invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum </span>plants.
168143		conservation	eng	Two subspecies are present in protected areas: <span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. dussumieri</span> in Morne Seychellois National Park and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. praslina </span>in Praslin National Park<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Legal protection is required for the La Reserve-Brullee area of Mahé island (to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. reservae</span>) and Silhouette island (to protect <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. silhouettae</span>). Invasive species must be controlled.
168143		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands. Its total extent of occurrence is estimated to be 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is  47 km². It is found from 100-900 metres above sea level. The four subspecies are distributed on three different islands within the Seychelles:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">dussumieri</span> - northern Mahé island (AOO = 20 km²)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">reservae</span> - southern Mahé island (AOO = 1 km²)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">silhouettae -</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Silhouette island  (AOO = 19 km²)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">praslina</span> - <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Praslin island  (AOO = 7 km²)<br/><br/>There are pre-1800 sub-fossil records of this species on La Digue, although it is now extinct on the island.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
168143		habitat	eng	A predatory species feeding on medium-sized snails, this snail inhabits mid- to high-altitude forest.
168143		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to be over 2 million individuals. The estimated populations of each subspecies are:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">dussumieri</span> - 2,005,000 individuals<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">reservae</span> - 1,000 individuals<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">silhouettae</span> - 112,400 individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">praslina</span>:&#160; - 31,500 individuals
168143		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat deterioration, which was caused in the past by small-scale farming and large-scale wood plantations, and is currently caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that alter the habitat. However, to date any population declines appear to be negligible.
168144		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Further research is required to establish the species' taxonomy, and additional areas should be protected.
168144		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this species is found on the islands of Mahé, Therèse, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue and Félicité.
168144		habitat	eng	A predatory species that feeds on other snails, this snail is found in primary forest habitats at all altitudes.
168144		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated to be 17 million individuals.
168144		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, currently caused by invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) and previously caused by small-holder farming and small- and large-scale wood plantations.
168145		conservation	eng	This snail is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. Protection of Silhouette island is required, as is control of invasive species.
168145		distribution	eng	Edemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé and Silhouette, this snail has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 300 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 25 km². It is found in 3 locations.
168145		habitat	eng	A predatory species, this snail feeds on small invertebrates. It is found in high-altitude forest, from 400-800 m.
168145		population	eng	The population was estimated at 877,000 individuals in 2005.
168145		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, caused in the past by small-holder farming and wood plantations and currently caused by invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). The severity of the effects of these invasive plants on this species are unknown.
168146		conservation	eng	No conservation actions have been taken, though a systematic monitoring scheme is in place. Silhouette island needs legal protection in order to protect the range of this species.
168146		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this snail species is found on the summit of Mt. Dauban, on Silhouette island. Its  extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 0.07 km².
168146		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to the water-saturated leaf litter in montane  moss forest, from 750-770 m.
168146		population	eng	The population was estimated to be less than 7,560 individual in 2005.
168146		threats	eng	This snail is highly vulnerable to habitat change, especially changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change. Such changes are apparent, with increasing intensity of dry periods causing prolonged dessication of previously water-saturated habitat. In addition, invasion by introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> plants may be a stress.
168147		conservation	eng	This species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology, and invasive species must be controlled.
168147		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé island. It has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 60 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 20 km².
168147		habitat	eng	This snail inhabits high altitude forest, from 350-900 m.
168147		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated at 527,400 individuals.
168147		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which impact this snail's habitat. Small-scale wood and farming plantations caused habitat deterioration in the past.
168149		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken.  Its range on Silhouette island should be protected, and invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into its life history and ecology.
168149		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands and found only on Silhouette island, this snail is found in just one location measuring 2 km² (extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) both estimated to be 2 km²).
168149		habitat	eng	Restricted to high montane forests from 500-770 m.a.s.l., this snail is a predator specializing on small, soft-bodied invertebrates.
168149		population	eng	The population was estimated to consist of 64,700 individuals in 2005.
168149		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, caused by invasive exotic plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly impact the natural habitat.
168150		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been taken.  Its range on Silhouette island should be protected, and invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.
168150		distribution	eng	This snail species is endemic to Silhouette island, in the Seychelles islands. Both its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are estimated to be 14 km².
168150		habitat	eng	Found only in high forest from 400-770 m a.s.l., this snail is a predator specializing on small, soft-bodied invertebrates.
168150		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated at over 1 million individuals.
168150		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly impact the natural habitat.
168151		conservation	eng	No conservation actions have been taken. The signficant popualtion at La Reserve-Brullee, on Mahé island, should be protected. Invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.
168151		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this snail is found on the islands of Mahé, Curieuse, La Digue, and Felicite. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 8 km².&#160; It is possibly extinct on Praslin; there are no records of this species on the island since the 1800s.
168151		habitat	eng	A forest species, this snail is mainly found in lowland or palm forest.
168151		population	eng	The population is estimated to have 8,000 individuals.
168151		threats	eng	Vulnerable to habitat deterioration, this species is currently threatened by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that degrade its habitat. Fires and small-scale wood plantations have caused habitat loss/degradation in the past.
168153		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been take, though a systematic monitoring scheme is in place. Silhouette island should receive legal protection in order to protect threatened habitats, and invasive species must be controlled. Research into this species' life history and ecology would be beneficial.
168153		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles islands, this snail species is found only on Silhouette island. Both its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are estimated to be 18 km².
168153		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to high montane forest, from 300-770 m.
168153		population	eng	The population was estimated at 1.7 million individuals in 2005.
168153		threats	eng	Habitat  degradation caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) is currently the main threat this snail faces. Small-scale wood plantations were a threat in the past.
168155		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. parvidentata </span>is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. There are no protected popualtions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. nevilli</span>; protection of Silhouette island is required.
168155		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands. It has a total extent of occurrence (EOO) of 600 km² and a total area of occupancy (AOO) of 48 km². <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. nevilli</span> is found on Silhouette island, and has an AOO of 19 km². <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. parvidentata</span> is found on the islands of Mahé, Praslin and La Digue, and has an AOO of 29 km².
168155		habitat	eng	A predatory species feeding on medium-sized snails, this snail inhabits mid- to high-altitude forest.
168155		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated at over 1 million individuals: 526,000 individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. nevilli</span> and 669,000 of  <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. parvidentata</span>.
168155		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat deterioration, caused in the past by small-scale wood and farming plantations and currently caused by invasive exotic plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).
168159		conservation	eng	This snail is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve. Monitoring of the habitat throughout this area is recommended.
168159		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Aldabra atoll and Assumption Island in the Seychelles islands. Its  extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 160 km².
168159		habitat	eng	This snail is found in scrub and woodland habitat, from 0-3 metres above sea level.
168159		population	eng	No information on the population is known.
168159		threats	eng	All of the localities in which this species is found are at sea level; sea level rise resulting from climate change is therefore a major threat.
168162		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The area of La Reserve-Brullee should be protected. Research is needed to study this snail's biology and ecology.
168162		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on the southern part of Mahé and is possibly extinct on Felicite island. It has become extinct on Praslin island. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 8 km².
168162		habitat	eng	This snail is an arboreal species found in high forest, from 250-600 m.
168162		population	eng	The population was estimated to contain 8,000 individuals in 2005.
168162		threats	eng	Currently, this snail is threatened by habitat degradation caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, fires and small- and large-scale wood plantations were a cause of habitat deterioration.
168163		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place. The forests of Silhouette should receive legal protection, and invasive non-native species must be controlled. Research is also needed into the species' biology and ecology.
168163		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Seychelles, this snail is only found on Silhouette island. Its estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both 3 km².
168163		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in high forest, from 350-770 m.
168163		population	eng	The population was estimated at 44,000 in 2005.
168163		threats	eng	Currently, this snail is threatened by habitat degradation across its range, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, large-scale farming was a cause of habitat degradation.
168164		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species lies within the Morne Seychellois National Park. Research into the species' biology and ecology is needed.
168164		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the northern part of Mahé island in the Seychelles. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 5 km².
168164		habitat	eng	An high forest species found from 350-900 m, this snail is usually arboreal but is occasionally found in leaf-litter.
168164		population	eng	The population was estimated at 500,000 individuals in 2005.
168164		threats	eng	Currently, this snail is threatened by habitat degradation throughout its range, caused by invasive non-native plants (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, small-scale farming and wood plantations were a cause of habitat deterioration.
168167		conservation	eng	This snail is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Protection and management of the habitats it occupies is needed.
168167		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin, this snail species has an area of occupancy (AOO) of 53 km² and an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 600 km². It inhabits areas from 10-990 metres above sea level.
168167		habitat	eng	This snail is found in lowland forest habitats.
168167		population	eng	The population was estimated at over  1 million individuals in 2005.
168167		threats	eng	Though invasive species are currently impacting this species' habitat, these impacts have not resulted in any declines in this species to date. Small-scale agriculture led to habitat degradation in the past.
168170		conservation	eng	This snail is found within the Aldabra Special Reserve. Further research is needed into its taxonomy, life history and ecology, and population status. The status of both the population and its habitat need to be monitored, in order to assess the effects of climate change. A captive breeding program and/or conserving the species in a genome resource bank may be required.
168170		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is restricted to Aldabra atoll. It's extent of occurrence (EOO) is 150 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is just 1 km².
168170		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry coastal woodland and scrub habitat.
168170		population	eng	No specific population data are known, though the population is severely fragmented and is believed to be declining.
168170		threats	eng	Rat predation has been recorded, but this appears to be only a minor contribution to mortality. The main threat to the species is sea level rise. Aldabra atoll  is mostly only 1-2 m above sea level, and in no place is it higher than 8 m above sea level. The species' entire range is therefore at risk. This sea level rise and the associated habitat alterations could cause fluctuations in the population.
168171		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. New protected areas should be identified, and its habitat should be conserved and restored. Further research is needed into this species' biology and ecology.
168171		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this snail species is found on the islands of Mahé, Round (Mahé), Moyenne, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin, Grande Soeur and Felicite. Its extent of occurrence EOO) is estimated to be 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 52 km².
168171		habitat	eng	This snail is found in forest habitats from sea level to 700 m.
168171		population	eng	A locally highly abundant species, in 2005 its population was estimated at approximately 14 million individuals.
168171		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a threat, historically though forest clearance and currently through invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>), although the species is adaptable.
168175		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Baling, Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).
168175		habitat	eng	Occurs on lowland tropical Dipterocarp forest on limestone outcrop.
168175		threats	eng	This karst region is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and the destruction of it's habitat is resulting in the loss of the resident populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alycaeus balingensis</span>. The process of quarrying also increases the dust content in the forest, as well as changing the microclimate with reduction in humidity, causes drying out of the karst forest which can result in declining numbers within the populations (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
168177		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma elephas</span> is only known the limestone karst at Bukit Tenggek, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It has a restricted range within the forest of 0.08 km²<sup></sup>.
168177		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf-litter on the forest floor in limestone karst region.
168177		threats	eng	This karst region is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and the destruction of it's habitat is resulting in the loss of the resident populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma elephas</span>. The process of quarrying also increases the dust content in the forest, as well as changing the microclimate with reduction in humidity, causes drying out of the karst forest which can result in declining numbers within the populations (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
168178		conservation	eng	No actions currently in place.
168178		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma perigyra</span> is only known from the limestone karst region of Bukit Takun, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It has a restricted range within the forest of 0.06 km²<sup></sup> showing that it is a species with an extremely restricted distribution.
168178		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma perigyra</span> is a small terrestrial gastopod found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor under moist diptocarp forest on limestone.
168178		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by possible future encroachment of a golf course. Within the range, the quality of habitat could be suspectible to future declines if there was disturbance opening the forest area, as changing habitats would impact the microclimate under the forest, which could lead to decreasing humidity drying the forest floor leaf litter.
168179		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma michaelis</span> is only known from the limestone karst Bukit Takun, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It is only known from an area of 0.06 km²<sup></sup>.
168179		habitat	eng	This species occurs on lowland tropical Dipterocarp forest on limestone.
168179		population	eng	There is no information available on population size.
168179		threats	eng	The karst faces encroachment from a golf course (Price 2001), and given the restricted range of the species, future<br/>developments might impact resident populations.
168180		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma sciaphilum</span> is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Panching, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It occurs in an area with an extremely small possible area of occupancy, however the site has recently been quarried away, and hence it is possible that the species is no longer extant.
168180		habitat	eng	Lowland forest species which lived in leaf litter on the forest floor.
168180		population	eng	There have been no recent surveys to establish if the species is still extant.
168180		threats	eng	Limestone quarrying has removed the habitat of this species.
168181		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma thersites </span>is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Panching, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It occurs in an area with an extremely small possible area of occupancy, however the site has recently been quarried away, and hence it is possible that the species is no longer extant.
168181		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma thersites </span>is a species that would be found amongst leaf-litter on the forest floor in tropical moist forest on limestone karst.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
168181		population	eng	It is not known whether this species still exists.
168181		threats	eng	The karst has been quarried away (Schilthuizen and Clements 2008).
168183		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paraboysidia serpa </span>is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Baling, Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).
168183		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland dipterocarp forest on limestone. The habitats are changing, in that quarrying seems to be leading to a decline in the humidity within the forest, possibly as the result of changing forest structure or possibly due to pollution from quarrying (see Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005 for a discussion on the declining habitat quality.
168183		threats	eng	The karst is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and this is leading to loss of habitat that will impact and eventually destroy the remaining resident populations. A secondary impact of quarrying is the drying out of the karst forest, which has been observed to cause population declines (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
168185		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gyliotrachela luctans </span>is only known from&#160; from the limestone karst at Gunung Pondok, Perak, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It is only known from a single location, with an area of 4.16 km²<sup></sup>.
168185		habitat	eng	This small gastropod lives in leaf litter within lowland tropical Dipterocarp forest on limestone.
168185		threats	eng	This karst region is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and the destruction of it's habitat is resulting in the loss of the resident populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyliotrachela luctans</span>. The process of quarrying also increases the dust content in the forest, as well as changing the microclimate with reduction in humidity, causes drying out of the karst forest which can result in declining numbers within the populations (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
168186		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range, found only within small area near Bukit Charas, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).
168186		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma megaphonum </span>is a small terrestrial gastopod found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor under moist forest on limestone.
168186		threats	eng	The karst faces encroachment from oil palm plantations and given the restricted range of the species, future development might impact resident populations. Three other karsts in the vicinity are already being quarried.
168188		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma retrovertensis</span> is only known from the limestone karst region of Bukit Cintamanis, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It is restricted to an area of 0.11 km²<sup></sup>.
168188		habitat	eng	This is a small gastropod found within leaf litter on forest floor within moist diptocarp forest on limestone.
168188		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma retrovertens</span> was under threat, as it occurred in an area with intensive quarrying. Although quarrying activities have now ceased on the small remaining area of karst, this endemic species is still susceptible to impacts from future quarrying activities and to any other type of disturbance to the small remaining forest fragment that contains the species.
168189		conservation	eng	No actions are currently in place, but management plan recommended.
168189		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma senex </span>is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Charas, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). The species has a restricted range of 0.25 km².
168189		habitat	eng	This species lives in leaf litter on the forest floor on limestone karst in moist tropical forest.
168189		threats	eng	Although this area is currently still undisturbed, there are two future threats. The most likely threat is the possible encroachment from oil palm plantations that would convert the forest to plantations and the secondary threat is possible loss of habitat to limestone quarrying, which is already ongoing in the adjacent limestone regions.
168190		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
168190		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> is only known from the limestone karst at Gunung Kantang, Perak, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).
168190		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> found in leaf litter in lowland dipterocarp forest floor on limestone.
168190		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> lives in forest on karst which is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and this activity will eventually destroy the forest habitat for the resident populations. A secondary effect of the quarrying is the decrease in humidity within the forest, drying out the karst forest, which can also impact <span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> causing population declines (Schilthuizen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005). Given that the region has greater mean annual increases in rates of limestone quarrying (5.7% per year; Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) than other tropical regions (e.g., South America, Central America, Africa), this single locality endemic species faces a high extinction risk.
168191		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
168191		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
168191		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
168192		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
168192		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
168192		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
168193		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.
168193		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
168193		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
168194		conservation	eng	It is essential to prevent the introduction of Euglandina rosea.
168194		distribution	eng	Endemic to Ua Pou, Marquesas Islands.
168194		habitat	eng	Probably restricted to high mountain ridges. Formerly found in lowland habitat.
168194		population	eng	No quantifiable data are available for this species.
168194		threats	eng	The current threat is the limited distribution as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>has not been introduced to the island. Area of occupation has declined for reasons unknown.
168195		conservation	eng	In situ management and protection. Species of this genus do not appear to survive in ex situ breeding colonies.
168195		distribution	eng	Endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands.
168195		habitat	eng	High altitude cloud forest.
168195		population	eng	Confirmed as existing in very few high altitude locations.
168195		threats	eng	The principal threat is the carnivorous <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>, but there is some loss of habitat due to communications installation and clearances to enhance tourists views. Intrinsic threats associated with small population size.
168196		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ</span> management and protection. Did not survive in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding colonies.
168196		distribution	eng	Recorded from Hiva Oa and Tahuata but not confirmed on the latter.
168196		habitat	eng	Currently persists in high altitude cloud forest.
168196		population	eng	Very small populations persist
168196		threats	eng	The principal threat is the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>within the populations. Also the intrinsic threats associated with small population size.
168197		distribution	eng	Endemic to Raivavae, Austral Islands.
168198		conservation	eng	The captive population died out after 10 years in the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding programme.
168198		distribution	eng	This species is endemic found on Tahuata and Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands.
168198		population	eng	It is not known whether this species is still extant.
168198		threats	eng	Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> is the most likely threat to this species.
168199		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Raivavae, Austral (Tubuai Islands).
168199		threats	eng	Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> is the most likely threat to this species.
168200		distribution	eng	This species was found on Hiva Oa and Tahuata, Marquesas Islands.
168200		population	eng	The species is now extinct.
168200		threats	eng	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
168201		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Fatu Hiva.
168201		population	eng	The species may no longer be extant.
168201		threats	eng	Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> is the biggest threat to this species, if it is still extant.
168202		distribution	eng	Endemic to Rapa, Austral (Tubuai) Islands.
168203		distribution	eng	Endemic to Raivavae, Austral (Tubuai) Islands.
168203		threats	eng	This restricted range species is vulnerable to ongoing habitat loss and the potential introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>, which has caused the extinction of other partulid snails on other islands in French Polynesia.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
168204		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ</span> management and protection of this species are needed. <span style="font-style: italic;">Samoana</span> species appear not to be surviving well in <span style="font-style: italic;">in-situ</span> breeding colonies.
168204		distribution	eng	This species still survives on Nuku Hiva and Ua Huka, Marquesas Islands.
168204		habitat	eng	Currently found only on highest ridges on Ua Huka whereas formerly it was fairly abundant at low altitudes in the absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>. Very rare on Nuku Hiva in the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.
168204		population	eng	Extremely rare on Nuku Hiva. The species occurs in reasonable densities on Ua Huka but now restricted to highest ridges.
168204		threats	eng	On Nuku Hiva the principal threat is <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> and the intrinsic problems associated with small population sizes. On Ua Huka the natural range has contracted for reasons unknown.
168208		conservation	eng	There is a need for more data on distribution, but no specific conservation actions are likely to be needed for this species.
168208		distribution	eng	The species ranges from Himachal Pradesh to Nagaland in India, occurring in Nepal in between. It is likely to be found in additional east Indian provinces beyond those listed under Occurrence and also in Bhutan and Bangladesh and maybe Myanmar.
168208		habitat	eng	This species is found at fast flowing streams and irrigation channels. They generally perch on partially submerged large stones and on over-hanging vegetation along streams.
168208		population	eng	Judging from literature records this species is not uncommon, but more data are needed.
168208		threats	eng	No specific threat is known to exist for the species but, pollution in streams might have an impact. However, given that it occurs on irrigation channels it appears to be tolerant of disturbance and is unlikely to be threatened.
168210		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this<a class="x-tab-right" href="http://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text  "></span></em></a> species. More extensive surveys are required to confirm whether this species is now extinct.
168210		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Dianchi in Yunnan Province, China. Recent surveys have found only dead shells which were still articulated with intact periostracum, indicating that they were recently dead. Local fishermen also say that the species has disappeared in recent years.
168210		habitat	eng	Recorded only from a lake.
168210		population	eng	No live individuals are known; dead shells can still be found. However, more surveys are required to confirm whether the species is now extinct or not.
168210		threats	eng	Pollution and loss of host fish species are the main threats to this species, and both threats continue to occur in Lake Dianchi.
168211		conservation	eng	None in place. There is a closed fishing season in the lake which may help to protect this snail.
168211		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south part of Lake Dianchi (292 km²), in Yunnan Province, China.
168211		habitat	eng	The species lives in deeper water in the lake (>2 m depth).
168211		population	eng	This species is common in the southern part of the lake.
168211		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are pollution (organic and inorganic); overharvesting (for both food and medicine); habitat degradation; introduced predatory fish species; and dyke construction.
168212		conservation	eng	None in place. Surveys are required to find out the current status and population levels in lake. If it is still present, then reducing pollution levels and restoring the habitat is necessary, along with raising awareness amongst local people.
168212		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Margarya bicostata</span> is endemic to Yunnan Province, China, where it occurs in Lake Fuxian (212 km²) and in an artificial pond connected to the lake (the pond is very small). This species was assessed by Liu Yueing and Wu Min in 2004 for the Chinese Red List who noted it was present in five lakes (Fuxianhu, Qilhu, Xingyunhu, Yilonghu and Erhai). Four of these lakes are closely localised, but the fifth is further away. Du Lina has checked the assessment, and found the other records are in error, and that the species is only found in Fuxian lake (1949) and since then has only been seen in the pond in 2006 (Du Lina pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species used to be common and was found in Lake Dianchi and Lake Fuxian. It is almost certainly no longer present in Lake Dianchi due to the high levels of pollution there. In Lake Fuxian, it was found both near the shore and in the deeper water, but recently it has not been seen at all near the shore. There are some reports from local people that it may still be present in the deeper parts of the lake but this is unconfirmed. The only recent confirmed record is from an artificial pond which is connected to the lake (Du Lina pers. comm. 2006).
168212		habitat	eng	Lakes and ponds (artificial). Currently, it lives in deep water, however in the past it was found near the lake shore but according to local people it hasn't been seen there since around the 1980s.
168212		population	eng	This species probably is still present in the deeper waters in the middle of the lake, where people cannot collect it. Local people say they have seen it here. Only one specimen was found in the artificial pond connected to the lake. Therefore it probably is not abundant, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.
168212		threats	eng	Pollution and invasive predatory fish species. The species is not harvested because its current deep water habitat makes this difficult.
168213		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Measures needed include fisheries management of harvest levels for the snail, and perhaps ex-situ propagation programmes.
168213		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Yunnan province, China. Originally it was known from Lake Dianchi (292 km²), Lake Er-hai (251 km²), Lake Cibi (98 km²) and Lake Jianchuan. It was last collected in Lake Jianchuan in 1933 and has not been found there recently. The species was also not found during a 2004 survey of Lake Er-hai (Du Lina pers. comm. 2008). It is now found only in Lake Dianchi and Lake Cibi (Du Lina pers. comm. 2008).
168213		habitat	eng	Lakes. This snail lives on the bottom, occurring throughout the lake bed. It occurs in deeper water as well as in shallow. Is not associated with any particular vegetation. Probably it is a deposit feeder, feeding on detritus in mud.<br/><br/>The species matures after one year. It gives birth to 3–7 young at a time (it is viviparous) and it reproduces throughout the year. The new-born snail shell length is about 8 mm; after one year, it is about 30 mm. Du Lina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. measured the longest shell length to be 62.7 mm. From their data they estimate that it has a generation length of about three years (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979).
168213		population	eng	Originally this species was abundant in Lake Er-hai but it is no longer found there (the lake was surveyed in 2004 by Du Lina). It is still abundant in Lake Dianchi and is present but less abundant in Lake Cibi; the population is declining very rapidly. It was once an important commercial species but due to its decrease in numbers it is not very important any more.
168213		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are pollution (both organic and inorganic); harvesting for both food and medicine; habitat degradation; introduced predatory fish species; and dyke construction.
168214		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species. Fisheries management of harvest levels, and perhaps <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>propagation programmes are required.
168214		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Dianchi (292 km²) in Yunnan province, China. There is also a record from Qingshuihe River but surveys in June 2008 by Du Lina were not able to find it here. In Lake Dianchi, the species is found only in the part of the lake that is near the outflow, representing an area of about one sixth of the lake area (approximately 50 km²).
168214		habitat	eng	It is found only in the part of Lake Dianchi that is near the outflow, so it may be a species that needs slightly flowing water.
168214		population	eng	This snail is not abundant in its only known location.
168214		threats	eng	The main threats affecting this snail are organic and inorganic pollution; overfishing (the species is harvested for food and medicine); habitat degradation; introduced predatory fish species; and dyke construction.
168215		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. More surveys are required to confirm whether the species is still extant in the lake. There also needs to be awareness raising about this species among local people, and pollution levels in the lake need to be reduced.
168215		distribution	eng	This species is (or was) endemic to Lake Yangtsunghai (32 km²) in Yunnan Province, China. The species has not been found since 1949.
168215		habitat	eng	This snail was recorded from deep areas in the lake.
168215		population	eng	The species has not been recorded since 1949; it may already be extinct.
168215		threats	eng	The main threat to this species, if it is still extant, is ongoing pollution of the lake. The species is not harvested. When surveyed in 2006, no live specimens were found from the previous site in the lake where the species was known to occur. It was last seen in 1949.
168216		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168216		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra compressa</span> is known only from the Wanze Stream (Chindwin basin) near Khamsom, Ukhrul District of Manipur, in northeastern India. Kullander and Fang (2004) remarked that the species need to be considered as potentially occurring in Myanmar.<br/></p>
168216		habitat	eng	The species inhabits shallow, fast-flowing hill streams with rocky bed.
168216		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168216		threats	eng	The species is threatened mainly due to habitat destruction indiscriminate killing of fishes using dynamites and deforestation (Kosygin and Vishwanath 2003).
168217		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra elongata</span> is not present in protected areas. There is a need to raise awareness within communities for conservation of this rare species and its habitat. Also, more survey works and studies are yet to be carried out to confirm the distribution pattern of the fish (L. Singh <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).
168217		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra elongata</span> is known from a hill stream near Tolloi, Ukhrul District (Chindwin drainage) of Manipur, India. Sen and Mathew (2008) reported the fish from Chenla River, Tuensang District, Nagaland, India. Kullander and Fang (2004) remarked that the species also needs to be considered as potentially occurring in Myanmar.     The sites from where the fish was reported are separating areas of different river basins so the actual distribution range is yet to be clarified (L. Singh <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).
168217		habitat	eng	The species inhabits shallow, fast-flowing hill streams, with rocky bed and clear waters.
168217		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168217		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this fish are habitat destruction and indiscriminate killing of fishes using dynamites and chemicals (Kosygin and Vishwanath 2003).</p>
168218		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified in Myanmar. &#160;Surveys in Manipur are recommended.
168218		distribution	eng	Although Valenciennes (1844) reported the species from Bengal, future workers reported it from Myanmar (Day 1878) and Chindwin basin in Manipur only (Hora 1921). Fishbase (2009) has recorded its presence only from Myanmar. <br/><strong> </strong>
168218		habitat	eng	The species is found in rivers and lakes. It is a local migrant.
168218		population	eng	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population in India.
168218		threats	eng	The extinction of this species in Manipur was due to construction of dams, habitat degradation and introduction invasive species which caused fragmentation. Threats to this species in Myanmar are unknown.
168219		conservation	eng	Conservation is needed as the population of this species is declining in some areas. &#160;More research on impacts of threats on population and trends needed.
168219		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from northeastern India (Nagaland), Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Malay peninsula, and China.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
168219		habitat	eng	<span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD2');"><span class="toolTipElement"> Most species have been found in shady areas and muddy <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD3');"><span class="toolTipElement">bottoms  in deep <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD4');"><span class="toolTipElement">hill  <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD5');"><span class="toolTipElement">streams.  <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD6');"><span class="toolTipElement">Adults  usually collected in clear water with moderate to swift <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD7');"><span class="toolTipElement">currents, <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD8');"><span class="toolTipElement">juveniles  in quiet <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD9');"><span class="toolTipElement">pools  further <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD10');"><span class="toolTipElement">downstream.  Found in medium to large-sized <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD11');"><span class="toolTipElement">rivers, flooded <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD12');"><span class="toolTipElement">fields  and rapid-running mountain streams.  <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD13');"><span class="toolTipElement">Diet  consists of insects and small <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD14');"><span class="toolTipElement">fishes. Rarely seen in markets.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
168219		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
168219		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is damming, dynamiting and other destructive fishing, human interference, poisoning.
168245		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
168245		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthocobitis rubidipinnis</span> occurs in several regions of Myanmar.
168245		habitat	eng	Hill stream fish dwelling in streams with colourful pebbles on the bottom.
168245		population	eng	It has a widespread distribution and is fairly common throughout its range.
168245		threats	eng	It may be threatened by habitat destruction due to human interference.
168246		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
168246		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura multifasciata</span> is distributed in eastern Himalaya, from Tista, through the base of the Nepal Himalaya, as far as the Ghaghra and Kali drainages (Menon 1987).
168246		habitat	eng	This species inhabits gravel bottom of hill streams.
168246		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168246		threats	eng	Ornamental trade could be a threat to this species.
168247		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. radiolatus</span> is not known from outside its range of distribution. No information is available on population trends, use in fisheries, aquarium trade and threats.
168247		distribution	eng	The species was considered endemic to central India; the type locality is Malva, Madhya Pradesh, India. Its occurrence in Nepal and in other states of India has to be verified and may be a result of introductions.
168247		habitat	eng	This is a surface dweller found in high altitude streams.
168247		population	eng	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population fluctuations occuring.
168247		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
168248		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. acuticephala </span>is not known from any protected areas. There is need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not ths species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168248		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario acuticephala</span> is known from Ukjhang sang (most likely 'ukhongsang') road, one mile from Yairibok, in the state of Manipur, India. It is also reported from Dikhu River in Nagaland (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). &#160;It is endemic to this region restricted to less than 15,000 km<sup>2</sup> in its distribution.
168248		habitat	eng	Almost all the specimens were collected from rivers and streams.
168248		population	eng	The species has been collected from Khuga and Iril rivers by future workers after its report from Yairobok by Hora (1921). But there is no more information on its population.
168248		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is being caused by human activities such as small dams for irrigation.
168249		conservation	eng	More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168249		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra lissorhynchus</span> is widely distributed in the northeastern India. &#160;It is so far reported from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Meghalaya, India. &#160;Vishwanath (1993) remarked that the species is widely distributed both in the hill streams of Manipur River and Barak River drainages.
168249		habitat	eng	The species inhabits hills stream with rocky bed.
168249		population	eng	The fish is very common in the hill streams and rivers of northeastern India.
168249		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known, however, habitat threats are prevalent as for all hill stream species.
168250		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.<em></em></p>
168250		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra nigricollis</span> is known only from Rakhine State of Myanmar. The type specimens of the species was collected from Taunggok market. However, Kullander and Fang (2004) presumed that they are collected from the Taunggok River which drains to the Bay of Bengal.
168250		habitat	eng	The species inhabits fast flowing rivers.
168250		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168250		threats	eng	This species is found in a high populated area where habitat degradation and destruction is taking place. It may also be threatened by overexploitation for food.
168251		conservation	eng	More research is needed into the species&#160; taxonomy, threats, and total distribution.
168251		distribution	eng	The species is definitively known only from the Salween drainage in Kayin State, Myanmar (Vinciguerra 1890) in the Mae Nam Moei, along the border with Thailand. It is expected from adjacent areas in the Salween drainage in Thailand. Records from Mekong or Red River drainages are misidentifications or confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">G. imberba</span> whose name is very similar (Kottelat 2001).<br/><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
168251		habitat	eng	The species was first described from mountain streams. It is expected to occupy an habitat similar to that of other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra</span>, rapids and stretches with fast current, a habitat often undersampled by surveys. Its mouth anatomy indicate that it will feed in scrapping <span class="slabel"><span><span class="slabel"><span>algae and microorganism at the surface of stones and rocks.<br/></span></span>
168251		population	eng	No information available.
168251		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species. However, erosion  and siltation result in sediments covering the stone will eliminate its  food source. Alteration of river morphology (especially dams) will modify the current or inundate the rapids and eliminate its habitat.
168252		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>  Further survey work is needed to determine the distribution pattern of the species and also whether it is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168252		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Vishwanath and Sarojnalini (1988) mentioned the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra manipurensis</span> in the Manipur River at Sherou (Chindwin basin), Manipur. Vishwanath and Kosygin (2002) reported the fish from Barak River  (Brahmaputra basin) in Manipur, India.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Nebeshwar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) remarked that the type locality as given in the original description might be due to wrong labelling as several subsequent collections from the Manipur River did not represent the species. Thus <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra manipurensis</span> is presently  known only from Barak River (Brahmaputra basin) in Manipur, India.
168252		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra manipurensis</span> inhabits hill streams and rivers with rocky bed.
168252		population	eng	This species is not very common throughout Barak drainage.
168252		threats	eng	This species is found in an area affected by habitat degradation due to damming, quarrying (removal of boulder and gravels) and fishing.
168254		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a status of Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007) and G2,&#160;imperilled, by NatureServe (NatureServe 2009).&#160;<br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its threats and population trends. In addition, monitoring of its already limited habitat is recommended to swiftly detect a decline in quality.
168254		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from small and medium size tributaries&#160;of the North Fork Obion River in western Tennessee, USA (Schuster 2008). This species is currently known from 5 locations, namely the&#160;Clear, Mill, Sandy and Terrapin creeks, and an unnamed spring feeder (Schuster 2008).
168254		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from among woody debris along the banks of&#160;sandy-bottomed streams not usually deeper than 0.25 m with a slow to moderate flow (Schuster 2008). This species was not found in watercourses which have been heavily modified or channelized (Schuster 2008).
168254		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
168254		threats	eng	Specific threats affecting this species are unknown; however this species range is situated amongst intensive agricultural land and therefore may be threatened by habitat conversion due to expansion, and from agricultural run-off (nutrients, herbicides and pesticides) and increased sedimentation.
168255		conservation	eng	Studies on impacts of threats very urgently needed.
168255		distribution	eng	<p><em>Clarias magur</em> is distributed in Ganga and Brahmaputra river basins in northern and northeastern India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh (Ng and Kottelat 2008).</p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
168255		habitat	eng	<p>It is<strong> </strong>Omnivore. Walking catfish are mainly active at night and prey on items such as insect larvae, fish eggs, fish and occasionally plant material. Commercial pond aquaculture of the catfish, <em>Clarias batrachus </em>(Linnaeus), commonly known as "pIa duk dan" in Thailand, "ikan lele" in Indonesia, and walking catfish in the U.S.A., first developed in Thailand in the late 1950s (Tamchalanukit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1982, Areerat 1987). Its impact on introduction is largely unknown. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state></st1:place>, walking catfish are known to invade aquaculture farms, entering ponds where these predators prey on fish stocks. In response, fish farmers erect fences to protect ponds, though they are inefficient in floods.</p><p></p><p>Air breathing catfish (<em>Clarias magur</em>), attains maturity within the first years of life and normally spawns from April to August in both open and confined waters (Ahmed&#160;<em>et al. </em>1985, Bhuiyan 1964, Chowdhury 1981). Talwar and Jhingran (1991) reported, that the C<em>. batrachus</em>&#160;spawn for short period just from July to August. In southeast Asia C.&#160;<em>magur&#160;</em>generally spawn during the rainy season, when rivers rise and fish are able to excavate nests in submerged mud banks and dykes of flooded rice fields. It breeds in shallow marginal waters of ponds, ditches and natural depressions, and inundated paddy-fields during summer monsoon and rainy season and attains a maximum length of 35 cm and a weight of 250 g (Chowdhury 1981). In Southeast Asia C.&#160;<em>magur&#160;</em>generally spawn during the rainy season, when rivers rise and fish are able to excavate nests in submerged mud banks and dikes of flooded rice fields. Culture practice in&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160;consists of collecting by hand from 2,000 to 15,000 one-week-old fry per nest, which are then transported to nursery ponds (Knud-Hansena 1990).<strong></strong></p><p></p><p>They are commonly found in freshwater and brackish water. They can exist in cloudy, low-oxygen waters.</p><p><em>C.&#160;</em><em>magur</em><em>&#160;</em>is abundant in ponds, rivers and in the mud they lie to concealed for hours. Found in all types of waters but more so in derelict and swampy waters. It can live out of water for quite some time and move short distances. This is a rather hardy fish.&#160;<em>C.&#160;</em><em>magur&#160;</em>is widely distributed all over the&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;in rivers, ditches, streams', canals and ponds.</p><p></p><p></p>  <strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>
168255		population	eng	<p>The population of this species is declining throughout its range due to drying up of wetlands. &#160;Pesticide pollution of paddy lands where the species breeds is a major threat.</p>
168255		threats	eng	<p>The species is a highly priced food fish throughout its range and is overfished. &#160;The wetland habitats are under grave threat from human activities. &#160;Pesticides threaten the breeding grounds of this species in paddy fields (W. Vishwanath pers. comm.).</p>
168256		conservation	eng	Further information on the&#160;species&#160;distribution&#160;and&#160;threats&#160;is required.
168256		distribution	eng	This fish is reported from India, Bhutan and Nepal. In India: Jammu and Kashmir Valley, Ganga River in Uttar Pradesh, and Brahmaputra River in Assam, but likely to be more widely present in the Ganges and Brahmaputra systems; Nepal: Bagmati, Seti, Bheri and Mechi Zones; Bhutan: distribution not known.
168256		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill-streams of Himalaya. &#160;It is primarily carnivorous. &#160;It breeds in the higher reaches and travels down after breeding.
168256		population	eng	The population information of this species is scanty.
168256		threats	eng	Dams, mining, industrial and residential development are the main threats to this species and its habitat.
168257		conservation	eng	The Lake Rara is inside the protected area of Nepal (Rara National Park). It is also classified as a Ramsar site (Kafle and Savillo 2009). This is one of the efforts to conserve this species in its natural condition. More research in relation to its ecology, habitat management and pollution status in and around its habitat is necessary.
168257		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schizothorax raraensis</span>&#160;is endemic to Lake Rara in Nepal&#160;at an altitude of 2,990 m.
168257		habitat	eng	It is found in high mountain freshwater lake in dense schools in streams adjoining the lake. It is a short distance migrant, spawning in adjoining creeks in the vicinity of Rara Lake. It spawns in deeper waters of 5-6 m (Dimmick and Edds 2002).
168257		population	eng	There is no information available on population of this species. &#160;As the lake is facing threats such as siltation and pollution, the population may be in decline.
168257		threats	eng	The highly restricted distribution of this species may be threatened by pollution by army personnel and tourists, and minor forest produce collection by locals (Kafle and Savillo 2009). Overgrazing, siltation, pollution and over-exploitations have been reported by many.
168258		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168258		distribution	eng	<span>It has been recorded only from the Barak River system in Manipur, India.
168258		habitat	eng	Prefers the habitat of clear water, fast flowing with rocky and boulder substrates. It is an omnivore and generalist in food and habitat usage.
168258		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168258		threats	eng	Currently there are no known threats, however, a proposed dam on Barak River will affect the habitats of this species as this prefers fast flowing water.
168259		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Other potential threats to this species need to be identified.
168259		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one location in the Barak River drainage (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Manipur, India at about 200 m elevation. &#160;The river drainage around the type locality is around 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and the area is approximately 264 km<sup>2 </sup>(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).&#160;&#160;Further studies have not revealed the existence of this species in areas other than the type locality.
168259		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing streams with a sandy and rocky bottom.
168259		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168259		threats	eng	The proposed Tipaimukh Dam on Barak River (construction activities have begun and the dam is proposed to be commissioned in less than 10 years time) would be a major threat to the species and its habitat.
168263		conservation	eng	As this species has not been recorded since its original description, there is no information on its population, biology and potential threats, all of which are badly needed.
168263		distribution	eng	This species was described from Inlé Lake, but has not been recorded from there subsequent to its description. It is possible that the fish may be found in the streams draining into the lake, or elsewhere in the Salween River drainage.
168263		habitat	eng	This species was described from Inlé Lake, where it presumably lives amongst aquatic plants in the shallower areas. As congeners are typically found in hill streams, this awaits verification.
168263		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168263		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information its biology and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168264		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168264		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages. &#160;Although it was described from the Ganges River, no recent material of this species has been collected, suggesting that the type locality is possibly in error.
168264		habitat	eng	Like other congeners, this species most likely inhabits swift-flowing hillstreams with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168264		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168264		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168267		conservation	eng	More research on the geographic distribution, population size and biology of this species is needed.
168267		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Chindwin River drainage (part of the Irrawaddy River drainage) in India (Manipur) and Myanmar (Vishwanath <em>et al.</em> 2007).
168267		habitat	eng	This species occupies hill streams with sand and gravel bottom (W. Vishwanath <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. obs.</span>).
168267		population	eng	No information about population size is available for this species.
168267		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
168268		conservation	eng	More research on the geographic distribution of this species is needed.
168268		distribution	eng	Known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in the Lake Indawgyi/Kamaing area in Myanmar and in the Lokchao area (Chindwin River system) in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al.</em> 2007).
168268		habitat	eng	This species inhabits, streams, rivers and shallower areas (i.e. along the shores) of lakes, typically in areas where the water is clear and the substrate sandy/rocky (H.H. Ng and W. Vishwanath <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).
168268		population	eng	Occasional collecting for the ornamental fish trade in Myanmar is projected not to adversely affect population size and it is considered stable at the present moment (H.H. Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>). The species is fished only as a bycatch in Manipur and is not sought after either as an ornamental or food species (W. Vishwanath <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).
168268		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
168269		conservation	eng	More research on the geographic distribution, population size and biology of this species is needed.
168269		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the headwaters of the Ann Chaung drainage in the western face of the Rakhine Yoma in western Myanmar. Given the distribution patterns of other freshwater fishes endemic to this region (Kullander and Fang 2004), it is expected to be found in other rivers draining the western face of the Rakhine Yoma.
168269		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description, but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing hillstreams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).
168269		population	eng	No information about population size is available.
168269		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
168270		conservation	eng	Despite recent studies (e.g. Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009),&#160;information on the distribution and biology of this species is scanty. &#160;The threats this species faces also need further study. &#160;The taxonomy of the population in the Tista River drainage needs further research to see if it is conspecific with material from Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. &#160;Fishermen should be educated about the impacts of various fishing methods currently used.
168270		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in West Bengal, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh (Ng 2005; Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009). The type locality is the Dikrong River, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
168270		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing and torrential hill streams, and is occasionally found in slower-flowing streams.<span>&#160;&#160;The streams they inhabit have a substrate of rocks and boulders, and the fish feed on aquatic invertebrates (Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009).
168270		population	eng	There is no detailed information on the population and trends for this species, but this species is reported to be abundant in Nagaland (Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009). &#160;It is moderately abundant in West Bengal.
168270		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not well known. &#160;This species is not heavily targeted by fishing but is impacted by electro-fishing in localised areas (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;Across the species range its habitat is destroyed by dredging for substrate and building materials.
168271		conservation	eng	More research on the distribution and the biology of this species is required, as there is insufficient information available. The impact of threats need to be researched and better understood.
168271		distribution	eng	This species is known two rivers in the Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Vishwanath and Linthoingambi 2007). It is at present thought to be restricted to the Dikrong River (where the type locality is also recorded), estimated at 30 km long, and the Subansiri River about 25 km. The estimated extent of occurrence for the species is less than 150 km² calculating the length of the rivers by 2 km width.
168271		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom.
168271		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, as museum holdings of this species are scarce. Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) report that this species is extremely rare (3.8% of catch frequency) in the Senkhi River.
168271		threats	eng	There are threats to the species from sand quarrying, as well as from fishery activities targeting other species (electro-fishing, poisoning, and blast fishing). The Pare Hydel dam project on the Dikrong River is already under construction. The species distribution is likely to become more localised due to the dam; the species is primarily below the dam (including type locality), and threats include decrease in water flows and sedimentation.<br/><br/>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168272		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. &#160;The taxonomy of this species also needs some clarification. &#160;A detailed study as to whether or not the population from the Mekong River drainage is truly conspecific with that from the Salween is also needed. &#160;Should the Mekong River population not be found conspecific with the Salween River population, the former should be referred to <em>A. mucronatum</em>.
168272		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong, Salween and Irrawaddy River drainages (Ng and Wright 2009).
168272		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill streams and the upper reaches of larger rivers.
168272		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168272		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168273		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168273		distribution	eng	Known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
168273		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hillstreams with a sandy/rocky bottom (Ng 2005).
168273		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, as museum holdings of this species are scanty.
168273		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168274		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168274		distribution	eng	Known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Meghalaya and northern West Bengal, India and in Sylhet, Bangladesh (Ng 2005). Locality records that mention Chittagong in Bangladesh for this species are erroneous.
168274		habitat	eng	This species inhabits faster-flowing hillstreams and rivers with a bottom of sand/rocks (Ng 2005).
168274		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.
168274		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. &#160;Menon (2004) identified habitat modification via the removal of river substrate (for construction) as a threat for this species, but the effects of such modification on this species remains poorly-known, as we have little information on the biology of this species.
168275		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168275		distribution	eng	Known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
168275		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing hillstreams and rivers, usually with a substrate of gravel/rock (NRM collection website).
168275		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.
168275		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).
168276		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168276		distribution	eng	Known from the Ganges River drainage in Ghazipur in Uttar Pradesh, India.
168276		habitat	eng	Like all <em>Amblyceps</em> species, this most likely inhabits faster-flowing hillstreams and rivers with a bottom of sand/rocks (H.H. Ng and R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168276		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species are unknown. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scarce.
168276		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168277		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168277		distribution	eng	Known from the Yu (Laniye) River headwaters in the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India.
168277		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams.
168277		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species are not known. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.
168277		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168278		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168278		distribution	eng	Known from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India, although it is very likely to be also found in the same drainage downstream in Myanmar (H.H. Ng <em>pers</em>. <em>comm</em>.).
168278		habitat	eng	This species inhabits faster-flowing hillstreams and rivers with a bottom of sand/rocks.
168278		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is not known. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.
168278		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168279		conservation	eng	Research into distribution, biology, population, trends and threats required.
168279		distribution	eng	The <span>was described from a specimen collected at Mandalay market, Myanmar. It is known from the Irrawaddy and Sittang basins, Myanmar (Roberts 1997). This species has not been recorded since its first description. Its range of distribution is still uncertain.
168279		habitat	eng	No information available.
168279		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168279		threats	eng	Threats to the species not known.
168280		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>
168280		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crossocheilus burmanicus </span>is known from  <st1:placetype>Chindwin basin</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename>Manipur</st1:placename>, in northeastern <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
168280		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits streams and rivers with gravelly bottom in benthopelagic environment.</p>
168280		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168280		threats	eng	The rivers of Ukrul District of Manipur where the fish is distributed is facing problems due to over exploitation, poisoning and dynamiting (Selim and Vishwanath 1997, Kosygin and Vishwanath 2003). In other areas of its range no widesrpread threats have been identified.
168281		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168281		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bispinosa</span> is known only from the Daying Jiang, a tributary flowing to the Yiluowadi Jiang (Irrawaddy River) basin  in Yingjiang, Yunnan, China. Extent of Occurrence is estimated at approximately 6,649 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the area of the sub-basin in which it is recorded.
168281		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bispinosa</span> inhabits mountain streams.
168281		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168281		threats	eng	<p>The area is near a road and a human settlement and it may be subjected to habitat destruction and degradation.<br/></p>
168282		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.<br/></p>
168282		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra flavatra</span> is known only from Myanmar at three locations namely, western slope of Rakhine Yoma, the Kananmae Chaung, Baw Di Chaung and Kamyit Chaung.<br/><br/>Endemic to the Rakhine Yoma/Arakan mountain range in Rakhine state,  western Myanmar which forms a natural barrier cutting off the state from  the remainder of the country. It was originally collected from a  handful of streams and rivers of the western, interior, slopes of which  the type specimens originated from the Kananmae Chaung, a coastal  rivulet draining into the Bay of Bengal (Kullander and Fang 2004);&#160; abundant where encountered and almost  certainly has a wider distribution; his team had only four days in which  to complete their fieldwork which proved insufficient to explore the  region fully. Subsequent commercial collections may therefore have occurred at localities additional to those given in the description  paper.
168282		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra flavatra</span>   inhabits small streams and rivers with clear water and pebbles or rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type localities, the Kananmae Chaung are small forest streams with almost stagnant to slow flowing water current, which reduced to a series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 to 3 m and not more than 1 m deep. They further remarked that, the Kamyit Chaung, was a moderately large river in a riparian agricultural environment. On the other hand the Baw Di Chaung, was a small river between hills covered with secondary low shrub forest.
168282		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168282		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>This fish inhabits small streams which are reduced to a series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 to 3 m and not more than 1 m deep. Such types of habitats may dry up during winter seasons. Even though, the Kamyit Chaung, was a moderately large river; it is in a riparian agricultural environment which may receive discharge from the surrounding agricultural fields.&#160; This area is also threatened by the construction of dams which will degrade the habitats.<em></em></p>  <p></p>
168283		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra litanensis</span> is not known fronm any protected areas and has a restricted distribution. Further survey work is needed to determine   whether or not this species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168283		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra litanensis</span> is known only from Litan Stream (Chindwin River basin) in Manipur, India.
168283		habitat	eng	The species inhabits hill streams with rocky bed. Vishwanath (1993) remarked that it seems to be the most advanced among the <span style="font-style: italic;">lissorhynchus</span> complex of the genus for adaptation to torrential life by smoothening off the chest and belly.
168283		population	eng	It is suspected that the population is declining, but more research is needed to determined the present population and distribution of the fish. There is no report on the fish since 1993.
168283		threats	eng	The fish and its habitat are threatened due to poisoning and dynamiting.
168284		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine distribution pattern of the species and also whether the species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168284		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra nambulica</span> is known only from the Ireng Lok and Conchak Lok (stream of Nambul River), Singda Village of Manipur, India.
168284		habitat	eng	The species inhabits hill streams with rocky bed with small pebbles.
168284		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168284		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this fish is extensive habitat loss due to tourism and deforestation.</p>
168285		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168285		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra paralissorhynchus </span>is known only from the Khuga River, Churachandpur District, Manipur, India.
168285		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits moderate to fast flowing river.
168285		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168285		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this fish is Khuga Dam, which was constructed recently across the <st1:place><st1:placename>Khuga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, which is the only known habitat of the fish.</p>
168286		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations
168286		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra poecilura </span>is known only from the type locality, the Naung Pin Thar Chaung, a small stream on the eastern slope of the Rakhine Yoma, draining to the Irrawaddy basin.
168286		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill streams with clear water and moderate current. The type locality of the species is a small forest stream with 1-2 m wide and 0.5 m depth having streambed consisting of rocks and gravel (Kullander 2004).
168286		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168286		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known. At present, the Rhakine Yoma range is relatively unimpacted by deforestation.
168287		conservation	eng	No information available.   Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168287		distribution	eng	<p><em>Garra propulvinus </em>is known only from the two small coastal rivers, the Kamyit Chaung near Paukdu Village and Baw Di Chaung at Baw Di bridge in the Rakhine Yoma, <st1:place></st1:place>southern Myanmar.</p>
168287		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species which inhabits rivers and streams.<br/></p>
168287		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168287		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known. At present, the Rhakine Yoma range is relatively unimpacted by deforestation.
168288		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168288		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra qiaojiensis</span> is known from Mang Tong He stream, a tributary of the Hotha He River, above Tian Xin village on the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in China. Type locality is Qiaojie, Yunnan Province, China. Another record is from close to the Myanmar border (on road from Tengchong to Myanmar border at Tengchong or Guyong, Latitude:   25.3167, Longitude:   98.3) (GBIF).
168288		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits mountain streams and rivers and it is a bottom dweller.
168288		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168288		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
168289		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168289		distribution	eng	<p><em>Garra rakhinica </em>is known only from the type locality, the Yan Khaw Chaung, a small stream on the coast of the Rakhine Yoma, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> draining to the <st1:place>Bay of Bengal</st1:place>.</p>
168289		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits small forest river and streams with clear water and rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type locality of the species is a small forest river reduced to series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 m and not more than 1 m deep, with slow flowing or standing water. The river bed was made of pebbles, gravel and rocks. </p>
168289		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168289		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known. At present, the Rhakine Yoma range is relatively unimpacted by deforestation.
168290		conservation	eng	No information available.   Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168290		distribution	eng	<p><em>Garra spilota</em> is known only from the type locality, the Naung Pin Thar Chaung, a small forest stream on the eastern slope of the Rakhine Yoma, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> draining to the <st1:place>Irrawaddy</st1:place> basin.</p>
168290		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits small stream with clear water and rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type locality of the species was a small forest stream with moderate water current, 1-2 m wide and 0.5 m depth. The stream bed was made of gravel and rocks. </p>
168290		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168290		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known. At present, the Rhakine Yoma range is relatively unimpacted by deforestation.
168291		conservation	eng	No information available.   Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168291		distribution	eng	<p><em>Garra vittatula</em> is known only from two small streams (the Yan Khaw Chaung and the Kananmae Chaung) on the western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, southern Myanmar, draining to the <st1:place>Bay of Bengal</st1:place>.</p>
168291		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits small forest streams with clear water and pebbles or rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type localities, the Yan Khaw Chaung, the Kananmae Chaung are small forest streams with almost stagnant to slow flowing water current, which reduced to a series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 to 3 m and not more than 1 m deep. Other fishes inhabiting with the <em>Garra</em> <em>vittatula</em> are <st1:place><em>Anguilla</em></st1:place> sp., <em>Garra rakhine</em>, <em>Xenentodon cancila</em>, <em>Danio</em> <em>feegradei</em>, <em>Danio</em> sp., <em>Devario</em> sp. <em>Puntius</em> sp., <em>Puntius binduchitra</em>, <em>Rasbora daniconius</em>, <em>Rasbora</em> <em>rasbora</em>, <em>Lepidocephalichthys</em> sp., <em>Lepidocephalichthys</em> <em>berdmorei</em>, <em>Pangio</em> sp. <em>Pterocryptis</em> sp. <em>Batasio elongatus</em>, <em>Olyra burmanica</em>, <em>Aplocheilus panchax</em>, <em>Mastacembelus</em> sp., <em>Channa</em> sp., and <em>Sicyopterus fasciatus </em>etc..</p>
168291		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168291		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known. At present, the Rhakine Yoma range is relatively unimpacted by deforestation.
168292		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168292		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Lockchao River in Manipur which is a tributary of the Yu River. These river systems drain into the Chindwin River in Myanmar and the species was recorded in Myanmar from the Tamu market probably brought from nearby streams. The species maybe restricted to the Yu River basin. The extent of occurrence is approximately 20,000km<sup>2</sup>.
168292		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the subtropical hill streams of Manipur and possibly Myanmar.
168292		population	eng	Currently there are no population data available.
168292		threats	eng	Threats to the species include hydropower development, deforestation and habitat loss due to logging for teak, and growth of urban centres in Moreh and Tamu. Some streams are also subjected to destructive fishing practices, which could impact the fish.
168293		conservation	eng	No conservation measures about this species is documented.
168293		distribution	eng	<p>It is found in the freshwaters of Bangladesh, Indian Ocean, Andaman Islands, Mozambique, Malawi, Sri Lanka and Indonesia.<strong></strong></p>
168293		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species occurs in Padma River in Bangladesh and in the freshwaters of Andaman Islands. &#160;Adults occur rarely in coastal swamps, with a wide temperature tolerance. &#160; It is a cryptic species found in mud substrates of dry zones. &#160;It is also found in pools in rivers in the wet zones. &#160;It probably feeds on small fish, crustaceans, worms and molluscs.<strong></strong></p>
168293		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168293		threats	eng	Threats to this species remains undocumented.
168294		conservation	eng	More research about distribution, biology and trends of this species is needed, especially impacts of harvest for the ornamental trade.
168294		distribution	eng	<p><em>Aspidoparia ukhrulensis</em> has been reported from two localities of the Ukhrul River in the Chindwin drainage of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The type locality is given as "Rivers at foot of Sikkim Mountains, India".</p>
168294		habitat	eng	<p>This is a benthopelagic and freshwater fish species inhabiting streams and rivers of Manipur. </p>
168294		population	eng	<p>This is a benthopelagic and freshwater fish species inhabiting streams and rivers of Manipur. </p>
168294		threats	eng	The fish is being harvested for its ornamental and food value, but is not known whether they contribute to its decline and therefore are threats to the species.
168297		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168297		distribution	eng	This species is known from the tidal reaches of the lower Irrawaddy River, Myanmar.
168297		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large, tidal rivers, which have a mud or clay substrate and where there are strong currents that reverse daily; it feeds on large aquatic invertebrates such as prawns (Roberts 2001).
168297		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends available for this species.
168297		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168298		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. More research in taxonomy is recommended as this species belongs to a wide species complex.
168298		distribution	eng	The species is found from Manipur, India to peninsular Thailand near the Malay border. It has been collected from Chindwin, Sitang and Salween basins, and smaller streams along west coast of peninsular Thailand, all draining to the Andaman Sea and in the Mae Khlong and Tapi basins, draining to the Gulf of Thailand. Although not yet collected in the Irrawaddy, it most probably occurs there. <strong></strong>    <p><strong></strong></p>         <p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <span style="background-color: black;"></span>
168298		habitat	eng	<p>Found in a variety of streams from river mainstreams to small brooks.&#160; Seems to prefer shallow riffles over small pebbles above which its marmorated color pattern makes it inconspicuous from the surface. Also collected on a muddy to sandy substrate with a few stones and numerous gastropod shells in depths ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 m.<span class="sheader51"><strong></strong></p>
168298		population	eng	No information available although it is common throughout its range.
168298		threats	eng	The species may be affected by many threats such as destructive fishing using dynamite, and habitat destruction.
168299		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168299		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana devdevi</span> is distributed in Manipur (India), Myanmar and Thailand.
168299		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana devde</span><em>vi</em> is found in benthopelagic environment.
168299		population	eng	No information available although it is common throughout its range.
168299		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs may be affected by dam construction and other human activities which lead to habitat destruction and degradation.
168300		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168300		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Pakistan and India
168300		habitat	eng	The species is a freshwater stream fishes found to inhabit in a benthopelagic environment.
168300		population	eng	The species is found to be rare in the upper Jhelum River. It is found at a  higher altitude than is otherwise common for <em>Bangana</em> species. It is  abundant but migratory. Current Kashmir Valley population is a captive  remnant of a much larger migrating population. The population frequency  is low in Jhelum due to stronger initial reaction to changes in the  environmental condition.
168300		threats	eng	The species may be exposed to many threats caused by change in environmental condition.
168301		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. Urgent survey work is needed to determine its total range and whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.<br/></p>
168301		distribution	eng	The species is found in Chatrickong River, Ukhrul District, Manipur, India. More research is needed to confirm other localities as its total range is not yet confirmed.
168301		habitat	eng	A hillstream fish inhabiting medium to fast torrential mountain streams. Thrive well in a benthopelagic environment.
168301		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168301		threats	eng	The area where this species has been found is affected by habitat degradation due to logging and deforestation and it is presumed that the species is being affected.
168302		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline in the wild after detailed surveys and studies on its biology.
168302		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Lairok Maru, Moreh, Chandel District, Manipur, India. The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at 4,800-5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the area of the river sub-basin that it has been recorded in.
168302		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens have been collected from streams.
168302		population	eng	More research is needed to investigate the population structure and distribution.
168302		threats	eng	The species may suffer from habitat destruction caused by siltation due to deforestation.
168303		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">   <p>More research about distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</span></p>
168303		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Sherou River, (tributary of Manipur River), south of Imphal, Chindwin drainage, Manipur, India. &#160;The range of this species is estimated to be less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
168303		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens are collected from the rivers which is mostly shallow, but there are rocky pools where the depth exceeds 3.5 m. The river has a luxuriant growth of shrubs, trees and bamboos on both banks, and paddy fields wherever there is human habitation.
168303		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168303		threats	eng	The species is overexploited for consumption.
168334		conservation	eng	<p>Lower reaches of Brahmaputra are extensively fished areas. Apart from the above the habitat shrinkage of this species is other problem. Protected areas holds some promise for this species.</p>
168334		distribution	eng	<em>Badis assamensis</em> is reported from the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River in India. Type locality is the Dibru River.
168334		habitat	eng	This is benthic freshwater fish species. As per observation it feeds on insects, earthworms and some plankton. Neotype locality was a swamp-like tributary over 1 m deep with stagnant, brownish water, situated in plains, in a forest landscape, and with trees close to the bank, trees and waterlilies in the water; sandy bottom (Kullander and Britz 2002)
168334		population	eng	The population estimates of this species are still unknown during capture conditions.
168334		threats	eng	The areas where this species is found is under deforestation and also the species is harvested in small scale for food value but this species is extracted from wild for its ornamental value as camouflage fish.
168335		conservation	eng	Research into the species population trends and distribution.<strong></strong>
168335		distribution	eng	This species is reported from tropical waters of India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal. In India and Bangladesh the species is reported from both Ganges, Mahanadi and Brahmaputra river drainage.<strong> </strong>
168335		habitat	eng	<p>Occurs solitarily in rivers, ponds and ditches. Also found in swamps. Feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. It lives in tropical freshwaters in temperatures of 23 °C - 26 °C, pH range: 6.0 - 8.0. </p>
168335		population	eng	The population estimates of this species are still unknown during capture conditions.
168335		threats	eng	The species is extensively used in study of fish behaviour and used as aquarium fish.<strong></strong>
168336		conservation	eng	<p><a href="http://www.fishbase.org/Glossary/Glossary.php?q=dorsal%20fin&language=english&sc=is"></a>  The conservation measures undertaken for this species is not known. </p>
168336		distribution	eng	<em>Badis blosyrus</em> is found in the lower reaches of Brahmaputra in Assam and Nagaland (Vishwanath&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>), and a species tentatively identified from Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India. Collected only once by the German Expedition in 1957. It may be present in Bhutan.
168336		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species, inhabiting tropical waters.
168336		population	eng	The population estimates of this species are still unknown.
168336		threats	eng	The species is extensively used in study of fish behaviour and used as aquarium fish.<strong> </strong>Water quality changes and habitat destruction is major threat to this species.
168337		conservation	eng	More information the species distribution is required and the impact of fishery activities.
168337		distribution	eng	Hill streams near Chittagong in Bangladesh, including the Matamohuri River drainage. No other material exist north of the type locality, in the adjacent Indian states of Tripura or Mizoram, or the eastern coast of Myanmar, but these areas are still to be properly surveyed (FishBase 2009).
168337		habitat	eng	It is a tropical, pelagic freshwater species.<strong> </strong>
168337		population	eng	No information available.
168337		threats	eng	Harvest for ornamental trade and subsistence fishing may be threats to the species.
168338		conservation	eng	<p>Further information on the species ecology and distribution required.<strong></strong></p>
168338		distribution	eng	<p><em>Badis corycaeus</em> is recorded in streams and from Indawgyi Lake, Myanmar. </p>
168338		habitat	eng	<p>In stream, up to 30 m wide but not very deep, about 1 m in the low water season; water colourless and clear, current moderate, surroundings consisted of secondary forest and pasture, the bank with grasses; with long-leafed submerged plants (<em>Cryptocoryne</em> sp.) growing in clumps whose bottom consisted of sand and pebbles. <br/></p><p>Described from Indawgyi Lake and several small streams around Myitkina.<br/></p>
168338		population	eng	It appears to be stable; common within its range.
168338		threats	eng	Deforestation may lead to population reduction in future, but the threats to the species are not currently known. Lake Indawgyi is impacted by sedimentation caused by upstream logging, as well as pollution from human development around the lake.
168339		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species population and distribution.
168339		distribution	eng	<p>The species is found in rivers in Myanmar. The species was first identified from a market (Kalaymyo). It has now been found in several Chindwin and Irrawadyy drainages, on the eastern slopes of the Chin Hills. It is also present in Manipur, India.<br/></p>
168339		habitat	eng	It is tropical, benthopelagic freshwater species.<strong> </strong>This species is known to be omnivore and feeds on insects and planktons.
168339		population	eng	The population estimates of this species are unknown.
168339		threats	eng	There is deforestation within the Chin Hills and most likely in other parts of its range.
168340		conservation	eng	<p>The conservation measures undertaken for this species is not known, but protected areas in lower Assam may hold good for this species. &#160;More information on the species population, distribtion, and threats is required.<br/></p>
168340		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the middle reaches of the Brahmaputra River in India (German-Indian Expedition, 1957, type locality unclear; given on type specimen label as 'Raimona' (Assam)). Concluded to mean Raimana by Kullander and Britz (2002).&#160; There are also records from the Bhoroli, Janali, and Sukajan Rivers and&#160; from Kokrajhar in Assam. It has also been collected more recently (W. Vishwanath&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2010) from one other locality in western Assam.
168340		habitat	eng	The more recent specimen was collected from a hill stream, with sandy and gravel bottom.
168340		population	eng	No information available.
168340		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known but the lower reaches of Brahmaputra are extensively fished areas. Apart from the above habitat loss and degradation an increasing problem. Protected areas like Manas holds some promise for this species.
168341		conservation	eng	<p>The conservation measures undertaken for this species is not known. Protected areas in the region hold a key for fostering conservation measures. Research into populations and distribution needed.<br/></p>
168341		distribution	eng	<p>  Widely distributed in southern Myanmar up to Mandalay (Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Salween drainages, as well as smaller drainages), and also reported from the Mekong in Chiang Rai and Nong Khai provinces, northern Thailand, and from Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001).<strong></strong></p>
168341		habitat	eng	It inhabits&#160;<strong></strong>small creeks with dense vegetation; it is common in roadside ditches and similar lentic habitats in lowlands.
168341		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
168341		threats	eng	Illegal fishing, habitat destruction and commercial exploitation for ornamental value are causes for concern, but the threats to the species are not known.
168342		conservation	eng	The impact of the Tuvai Dam on the species known range needs to be urgently investigated.
168342		distribution	eng	<em>Badis tuivaiei</em> is reported from Manipur from Tuivai and Irang rivers, in India. The species has a very restricted range of less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km²<sup>.</sup>
168342		habitat	eng	<p> It inhabits clear water montane streams and also lentic water bodies during summer; it is unlikley to be present in lowland rivers where the water is muddy. It feeds on small invertebrates and some plankton. </p>
168342		population	eng	Currently population size is unknown.
168342		threats	eng	Most of the areas are extensively fished and is also subject to deforestation. The Tuivai Multpurpose Dam project will start construction in 2010 on the Manipur-Mizoram border 500 m downstream of the confluence of Tuivai&#160; River with the Barak River and will severely impact upon the two known populations.
168343		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species distribution, and the impact of habitat loss and degradation.
168343		distribution	eng	Recorded from Meekalan, Myanmar it occurs in the Tennasserim and Salween basins (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) and reported from the Irrawaddy River by Talwar and Jhingran (1991).
168343		habitat	eng	Mountain and streams (high gradient streams); mostly found in water  falls and high gradient riffles.
168343		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
168343		threats	eng	Hill streams are threatened across the region by deforestation causing  siltation. This species inhabits streams with boulders, and mining and  quarrying will degrade its habitat.
168344		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168344		distribution	eng	This species is&#160;known only from the Baw Di Chaung and Kanamae Chaung drainages on the western face of the Rakhine Yoma in western Myanmar.
168344		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hillstreams with a predominantly rocky bottom interspersed with patches of sand (Ng 2004).
168344		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species as it has been collected from just two nearby localities.
168344		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168345		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168345		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh in India and probably in Assam, India, and Bangladesh (H.H. Ng and S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168345		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168345		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;In Arunachal Pradesh the species is caught in fewer numbers as compared to <em>Batasio batasio</em> and <em>B. tengana</em>, implying that its population is naturally rare (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168345		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168346		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168346		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in eastern Nepal. &#160;It is presumably found in the rest of the Ganges River drainage, although the exact extant to which it occurs here is unknown.
168346		habitat	eng	This species has been found in large rivers with turbid water, overlying mainly sand substrate in lotic areas, and sand/mud substrate with some submerged and emergent vegetation in lentic backwaters (Ng and Edds 2004).
168346		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168346		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168347		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168347		distribution	eng	This species is known from Meriani and in Gurfhula River near Kumapara in Assam Brahmaputra River drainage, India (Ng 2009).
168347		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom as inferred from its congeners (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168347		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168347		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168348		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats of this species.
168348		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
168348		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from cool, fast flowing streams with a sandy/rocky bottom and with riffles (Ng 2008; R. Britz <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168348		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168348		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168349		conservation	eng	More information on the distribution, biology and potential threats of this species is needed.
168349		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in the vicinity of Dibrugarh in Assam, India.
168349		habitat	eng	There is no precise information on the biology of this species, since the collection locality of the only known specimens is imprecise. &#160;This species is most similar to <em>B. tengana</em>, and it is likely that it inhabits similar habitats, i.e. larger streams and rivers.
168349		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.
168349		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168351		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.&#160;The taxonomy of the species also requires study, as the conspecificity of the populations from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system and the Irrawaddy River drainage needs confirmation.
168351		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system eastwards to the Irrawaddy River drainage.
168351		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and the lower and middle reaches of rivers.
168351		population	eng	Although this species appears to be fairly common in the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar (Vidthayanon <em>et al</em>. 2005), there is almost no information to the status of this species in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system.
168351		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168352		conservation	eng	Studies on the distribution, biology, harvest trends and potential threats for this species are essential.
168352		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clupisoma bastari </span>is known from Indravati River, tributary of Godavari River, at Lohandigura, 33  km west of Jagdalpur, Bastar District, Chattisgarh, India (Datta and Karmakar 1980). Recently this species was recorded by Desai and Shrivastava (2004) from Ravishankar Sagar Reservoir on Mahanadi in Chattisgarh. Record of this species from Narmada River basin (Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991) needs confirmation.
168352		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers in upland areas (Menon 1999).
168352		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this fish.
168352		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats remains unknown. The current threats to its habitat in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168353		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168353		distribution	eng	<em>Clupisoma roosae</em>&#160;was described from the Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar (Ferraris 2004).
168353		habitat	eng	Although the exact habitat of this species is unknown, it most likely inhabits the main channels of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries, like other congeners.
168353		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, although Ferraris (2004) reports it as being uncommon.
168353		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168354		conservation	eng	Further research on livelihood, uses, and population trends is recommended.
168354		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on">It occurs in India</st1:country-region> (Western Himalaya) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Mirza and Alam 2002).
168354		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain streams and rivers.
168354		population	eng	No information on population status is available.
168354		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168355		conservation	eng	No information is available and further research on this species is needed.
168355		distribution	eng	Known from "Moulmein" (type locality; now known as Mawlamyaing) on the Salween, and from the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
168355		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
168355		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168355		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168356		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species taxonomy, population, distribution and threats.
168356		distribution	eng	Known only from Upper Rotung, Abor Hills, Arunachal Pradesh in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Chaudhuri 1913), from an elevation of 2000 ft (ca. 600 m).
168356		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in shallow hill streams, buried in mud (Chaudhuri 1913). This genus only enters rivers and streams for breeding, when they migrate upstream; the remainder of the time it is found in mud and marshy areas.
168356		population	eng	No information on population status is available. The species is known only from the type locality and from the original description. No subsequent records of the species are available, and the area has not been surveyed in recent years.
168356		threats	eng	The habitat in the type locality is considered to be relatively unimpacted by development. The species migrates upstream in rivers and streams to breed and may be impacted by dams and other river obstructions.
168357		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
168357		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Khujairok Stream (a tributary of Yu River) at Moreh, near the adjoining borderland area of Manipur (India) and Myanmar.
168357		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain streams.
168357		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>  <p></p>
168357		threats	eng	<p>The species occurs in a degraded area where human habitation and deforestation are causing reduction of the quality of its habitat.<br/></p>
168358		conservation	eng	<p>Puyas are   officially considered endangered and protected by legislation in Peru (Law No 043- 2006-AG). But the practical enforcement of this measure   are not evident outside of one national park and the law must be strengthened   and enforced. Likewise, Peru’s pertinent authorities should be   urged&#160;to   promote Puya communities as a tourist attraction and to raise awareness of   the plant’s value among both children and adults living near existing groves.   Acción Ambiental  plan to select at least one reserve for   specific conservation measures. This   may be the huge Titankayoc site or one nearer the major tourist destination, Cusco.</p>   <p>The plant also needs to be far   better known and steps should be taken to strengthen communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raimondii</span> genetically. To this end, we plan to collect seeds from   the most divergent Puya sites, altitudinally and latitudinally, to reproduce   in nurseries as a reserve. Following   further research and if endorsed by experts seeds might ultimately be used to   cross-seed (some) existing populations. Reproducing and extending the plant, which   in a sparse habitat has significant ecological importance, is another   priority. Establishing one or more new   rodales in promising sites will be   evaluated.</p>   <p>The   ‘Queen of the Andes’ is also   of considerable ornamental value and introducing it as a dramatic landscaping   element internationally as well as nationally is another goal. The author is aware of only a few specimens   being used for such purposes in Peru’s   Puno and Cusco provinces. Preliminary contacts have already been   established with several foreign botanical gardens.</p>
168358		distribution	eng	This plant<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>usually occurs at around 4,000 m in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, but it ranges from 3,000 m up to 4,800 m (both extremes occur in Bolivia). Its communities are often very isolated from each other and can be found in pockets from Calipuy in northern Peru, Huaraz in the centre to Apurimac and Ayacucho in the south, crossing into western Bolivia’s La Paz province, Cochabamba in the centre and Potosí in the south. The most important site by far in Peru is Titankayoc - Chanchayoc in Ayacucho, while Bolivia’s largest known community is in Rodeo, Arani province. A single reference to <span style="font-style: italic;">Puya</span> species in southern Ecuador and northern Chile has not been verified.
168358		habitat	eng	Typical habitat for this species occurs at about 4,000 m but can extend from 3,000–4,800 m. At these levels, air temperatures range from very cold (as low as -20ºC or less) to an estimated maxima of 8–24ºC. Precipitation, as rain, hail or snow falls mainly from October to March. The ground is almost invariably rocky and usually sloping and friable. Drainage requirements or an inability to compete with other flora in&#160;more fertile land may account for the rarity of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raimondii</span> in damp gullies although a few specimens have been seen close to standing water. Still less clear is why a plant known to thrive in very different <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> conditions confines itself to a single spot on a mountainside when surrounded by seemingly similar terrain; or why population densities can vary considerably among and within communities.<br/><br/>  The Puya’s ability to grow and even thrive in quite different conditions (low altitude, high humidity, high temperature) in which maturity can be reached in half the time needed in the wild, makes the plant a candidate for a range of <em>ex situ</em> environments.
168358		population	eng	Thanks to a single enormous subpopulation, which could represent most of the world’s population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raimondii</span>, the number of these plants in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> may number 800,000 individuals. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bolivia</st1:place></st1:country-region> is estimated to have 30,000-35,000 plants.
168358		threats	eng	<p>The Puya is susceptible to threatening events because its communities are generally small and very isolated from each other. This has apparently rendered populations extremely homogeneous genetically due probably to autogamous inbreeding depression and so at greater risk to disease, parasites or predators accompanying climatic change. The latter is well documented and manifest in Peru’s rapidly receding glaciers. &#160;For possibly related but as yet unknown reasons, at least one population has not flowered for decades.</p><p>The major risk in most communities, however, is due to human impact including repeated fires to generate or maintain pasture land and usage as fuel or building material by local populations. An added incentive is the fear that Puyas may ‘capture’ grazing animals with their leaves’ (fearsome) inward-curving spines. This is probably very rare but not inconceivable. Native birds have been ensnared and killed this way.</p>
168359		conservation	eng	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Poropuntius </span>group from Myanmar requires further taxonomic work.
168359		distribution	eng	<span>Currently recorded from Yunnan, China and from Myanmar, on an eastern tributary of the Irrawaddy. <span style="font-style: italic;">Poropuntius margarianus</span> occurs in Longchuan Jiang and Daying Jiang and its type specimen was collected from Nampoung River (Xiao-yong and Jun-xing 2003).
168359		habitat	eng	It is found in larger streams and rivers, faster-flowing clear water.
168359		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168359		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168360		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.
168360		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan and known from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyusyu and Yakushima.
168360		habitat	eng	The species inhabits very shallow swampy areas often associated with <em>Alnus</em> trees. Larvae live under fallen leaves. The species inhabits abandoned paddy fields.
168360		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168360		threats	eng	The habitat of this species continues to be affected by water pollution from agricultural and domestic development.
168361		conservation	eng	Some localities are threatened with overgrown vegetation, meaning that the species preferred breeding habitat of under 20 cm is limited.  Trial conservation projects are under way to cut back the vegetation in order to provide decent oviposit conditions.
168361		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan and known from Honshu. The distribution range is very limited, mainly around Japan sea area (northwestern half of Honshu); a record is known from Shikoku although this is doubtful.
168361		habitat	eng	The species occurs in swampy areas in the lowlands. Found at small artificial ponds and often at places where water control takes place in the autumn season. The larvae need very clear water. The habitat of the species is usually below 20 cm high and situated in areas uninhabited by humans.
168361		population	eng	In the locality, the population is usually not common.  Very few sites are known with some 100 populations.
168361		threats	eng	This species appears to be very sensitive to habitat change.  Recent land reclamation and abandonment has resulted in the habitat becoming overgrown with vegetation, including tall reeds, which are not suitable breeding sites for <em>Sympetrum maculatum</em>.  This has caused local extinctions and there are many examples of the problem in the Tohoku-Shinshu area.  An unusual report of water pollution is also affecting the quality of the habitat through excessive debris left over from feeding swans in some ponds has been reported to cause local extinctions a few years later.
168362		conservation	eng	Although the species is being studied, more is needed into its taxonomy, population numbers and range.  Some degraded habitat has been restored, although more policy-based actions are needed to keep it at this level, and to continue to restore other degraded habitats.
168362		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan (Honshu, Shikoku).
168362		habitat	eng	The species inhabits artificial ponds but it is unclear if it is found in non-man-made habitats.
168362		population	eng	In the good site, populations still strong.
168362		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the abandonment of the water-controlled Japanese paddy field system.  In the Set-sea area, artificial ponds have been left to dry out in the autumn season; when the area was managed, the shore areas were humid and covered with decent low vegetation providing the adult pair with suitable breeding environments. Recently this type of water control system has not been used resulting in a lack of viable breeding sites for this species, causing local extinctions.  Land reclamation and water pollution also negatively affect <em>Sympetrum gracile</em>.
168363		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
168363		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan. Most western part of Fossa magna line in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu. Partly restricted in the southern Kantou area in the eastern distributional range (Boso-penisula, etc).
168363		habitat	eng	The species is found in running waters, mostly in mountains or hills.
168363		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168363		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being degraded and lost for industrial and domestic housing development.  This also brings in the common problem of water pollution to the remaining habitats.
168364		conservation	eng	Protected areas need to be established and restored to allow this species adequate breeding sites.  Research into its life history, population status and trend is needed.
168364		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan and recorded from Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.
168364		habitat	eng	The species inhabits streams, rivers and sometimes lakes.
168364		population	eng	The species has a limited distribution and is decreasing throughout its range.
168364		threats	eng	Water pollution and the destruction of riverside forest have affected <em>Stylurus nagoyanus</em> habitat.  Emerging larvae are being seriously impacted by the artificial waves caused by leisure boats on some lakes.
168365		conservation	eng	Protected areas need to be established and restored to allow this species adequate breeding sites.
168365		distribution	eng	Endemic species for Japan and known from Honshu, Shikoku, Kyusyu.
168365		habitat	eng	The species occurs in medium sized rivers with clear water and a sandy bottom. Sometimes inhabits lakes.
168365		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168365		threats	eng	Considering all of Japan, the population is still strong, but around the Kanto area (near Tokyo) the river environments are being altered and will soon not be viable for the species and in some sites they are already extinct.  The situation shows this species is rather sensitive to environmental change, so it needs monitoring.
168366		conservation	eng	Policy actions are in place, although the detail of these policies are not known.  Research into its life history, population status and trend is needed.
168366		distribution	eng	Endemic for Japan and found on the Koshiki-islands of Kamikoshiki and Simokoshiki (Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu).
168366		habitat	eng	The species is found in upper to median parts of streams: usually larvae is found in seepage areas.
168366		population	eng	Recent studies show it is common on the islands and the populations are strong.
168366		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is likely to be affected in the future by water pollution from agricultural, domestic and commercial development.
168367		conservation	eng	Policy actions are in place, although the detail of these policies are not known.
168367		distribution	eng	Endemic species to Japan known from Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu.
168367		habitat	eng	The species inhabits streams and the upper and middle parts of rivers. Sometimes inhabits lakes.
168367		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168367		threats	eng	The habitat has been and continues to be affected by the pollution from agricultural, domestic and commercial development.  The future predictions of a change in weather, specifically drought, is likely to have a negative affect on the species also.
168368		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.
168368		distribution	eng	Endemic species to Japan. Occurs in the northern parts of Japan: Hokkaido and Northern Honshu.
168368		habitat	eng	The largest populations are found in  mountain swampy areas. Smaller populations occur in spring areas at lower altitudes.
168368		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168368		threats	eng	Some localities have become extinct by reclamation.
168369		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.
168369		distribution	eng	Widespread species known from Eastern Russia, Japan and Korea.
168369		habitat	eng	The species occurs in river and stream habitats; sometimes in mountain ponds and lakes.
168369		population	eng	Common species throughout Japan; in the city area local extinction has expanded mainly due to pollution.  But the status is not serious at present and there remain many strong colonies.
168369		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the continued problem of water pollution from farming, domestic and industrial developments.
168370		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, and none appear to be needed at present.
168370		distribution	eng	Endemic to Japan, but common within its range.
168370		habitat	eng	The species inhabits running waters.
168370		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168370		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this common species.
168371		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, and none appear to be needed at present.
168371		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in the southwest of Japan and southeast Asia.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei"><br/></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam"></a>
168371		habitat	eng	The species is found in ponds, lakes, slow running streams, swamps.
168371		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168371		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this common species.
168372		conservation	eng	Policy actions are in place, although the detail of these policies are not known.
168372		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Japan and is known from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Yakushima.
168372		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mountain streams; often seen as it is one of the most abundant species of its family.
168372		population	eng	The species is common within its range.
168372		threats	eng	The species preferred habitat is becoming degraded due to logging; present and predicted changes in the climate, specifically drought, is also going to have a damaging effect on the remaining habitat.
168373		conservation	eng	Protected areas need to be established and restored to allow this species adequate breeding sites.  Research into its life history, population status and trend is needed.
168373		distribution	eng	Endemic species to Japan and recorded only from Honshu.
168373		habitat	eng	The species inhabits streams and large lakes.
168373		population	eng	Distribution is very limited, almost all localities without Shiga and Nagano prefecture became extinct in the 1960-1970’s, but in the Japanese largest lake areas of  Biwa-lake and Suwa-lake, there are still very strong populations and there are many localities.
168373		threats	eng	Almost all river sites have been damaged by water pollution.  Emerging larvae are being seriously impacted by the artificial waves caused by leisure boats on some lakes.
168374		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.
168374		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Palau (Randall and Rocha 2009). It occurs at depths of 2-25 m.
168374		habitat	eng	Inhabits coral-rich areas in back-slopes and lagoons with calm, usually silty waters.
168374		population	eng	It is common in both Palau and Papua New Guinea (Randall and Rocha 2009). Populations are presumed to be stable in general.
168374		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.
168397		conservation	eng	Information on the threats to this species are urgently required.
168397		distribution	eng	<p>The species has been reported from a restricted area of Mandalay,  Myanmar and from Manipur near the Myanmar border (Selim and Vishwanath 1996).<span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN"></span></p>
168397		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This is a benthopelagic freshwater fish inhabiting the clear streams and rivers of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;&#160;and Manipur in India (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)</p>
168397		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">There is hardly any literature to suggest about its natural population size although it is believed to be common.<br/></p>
168397		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168398		conservation	eng	More research is needed on distribution, life history, population, trends, habitat, and impacts of threats.
168398		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality in Kiphire, Nagaland, India, at an altitude of c. 900 m.
168398		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits small streams with pebbles.
168398		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168398		threats	eng	No specific major threats are identified for the species, however like all hill stream fishes in the region the habitat of this species is threatened by jhumming agriculture (swidden, or ‘slash and burn’) leading to deforestation and siltation.<br/><br/>Numerous dams are planned in the locality, including the 40 MW Yangnyu hydroelectric dam on the Tizu River. The impact of dams on the species is not certain, but such dams often lead to changes in flow regimes, changes in water quality, and loss of habitats.
168399		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168399		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Bago river drainages in Myanmar.
168399		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably inhabits large rivers like its congeners.
168399		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168399		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168400		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168400		distribution	eng	<em>Nangra bucculenta</em>&#160;was described from the Ganges River delta in Bangladesh.&#160;This species is only known from the Tangail District of central Bangladesh, a flood plain area between large tributaries in the Ganges delta (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
168400		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with turbid water and a substrate of sand or fine gravel.
168400		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species; the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.
168400		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168401		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.<br/></p>
168401		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Karong in Barak River and Noney in Iyei River (Brahmaputra drainage) in Manipur, India. &#160;It has a restricted distribution less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;The area of occupancy is inferred to be highly restricted.
168401		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams and rivers.
168401		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168401		threats	eng	The species might suffer from habitat decline caused by deforestation and other human impacts. <span style="font-style: italic;">Jhum </span>cultivation resulting in siltation has been causing damage to hill stream habitat. Destructive fishing is also widely practised in interior hill areas. &#160;The proposed Tipaimukh Dam will destroy the habitats of some populations of this restricted species.
168402		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168402		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Baw Di Chaung drainage in western Myanmar, but is expected to be found in other river systems draining the western face of the Rakhine Yoma.
168402		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from slow-flowing streams with a substrate of rocks and sand.
168402		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168402		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168403		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168403		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in central Nepal (in Tanahun, Khirenitar in Seti River drainage, and in Mahesh Khola).
168403		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers with&#160;plenty of cool and swift, rocky riffles.
168403		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168403		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168404		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168404		distribution	eng	This species is known from Barak River in Jiri, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in Manipur, India.
168404		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat of this species, but it likely inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand, like its congeners.
168404		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168404		threats	eng	The Tipaimukh&#160;Dam, a large hydroelectric dam, is planned for the Barak River. The&#160;impacts&#160;of the dam on this&#160;species&#160;are not known.
168405		conservation	eng	Some populations may be present in protected areas, such as Nameri National Park and Pakke Tiger Reserve. Further research on population and distribution is needed.
168405		distribution	eng	The species is known from streams near Tangla, Darrang District and in Dibrungharh, Kalmoni drainage between Assam-Arunachal border in India. There are less than 10 locations although the exact number cannot be confirmed with the information available.
168405		habitat	eng	Most of the species have been found in flowing streams with a sandy bed.
168405		population	eng	This species which attains a length of about 7.5 cm; is very rare.
168405		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is affected by deforestation, damming, and commercial and industrial developments.
168406		conservation	eng	No conservation action is in place. &#160;Information on the species range, habitats and threats is needed.
168406		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Salween, Sittang, and Irrwaddy drainage in Myanmar and the Brahmaputra drainage in Bangladesh and Assam, India <span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Havird and Page 2010).
168406		habitat	eng	Bottom dwelling species inhabitaing mid reaches of rivers.
168406		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168406		threats	eng	General threats due to urbanisation, logging, deforestation and sedimentation
168407		conservation	eng	Research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status, total range of distribution, actual population structure, trends and identify threats and their impacts.
168407		distribution	eng	<p>It is endemic fish species of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and reported from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sikkim</st1:country-region> (Teesta River) and it is possible that this species is found in the adjoining <st1:place w:st="on">Ganges</st1:place> drainage.</p>
168407		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species inhabiting the subtropical streams and rivers in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sikkim</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kapoor <em>et al.</em> 2002)
168407		population	eng	<span class="sheader51">No population details are available but this species seems to have a narrow distribution.
168407		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">It is be fished as a sport fish and it has a food value, it may be subject to overfishing. </p>
168408		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is also badly needed to confirm the purported decline of this species due to overfishing. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168408		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China. &#160;It is found at an altitudinal range of 3000-4000 m only.
168408		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the deeper areas of clear, fast-flowing rivers with a rocky substrate and at altitudes of above 3000 m (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;Reproduction is between May and July (Wu and Wu 1991).
168408		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its size for this species, although this species is stated to be uncommon (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995; Yue and Chen 1998).
168408		threats	eng	This species is thought to be overfished, particularly after the 1950s, when migrant Chinese began arriving in Tibet in large numbers (the species, as with other fishes, are not eaten by the Tibetan people; Yue and Chen 1998). Other threats to this species are unknown. &#160;Slow growth and prolonged sexual maturity affects the survivability of this species with respect to anthropogenic threats (Qi <em>et al.</em> 2009).
168409		conservation	eng	Research into the impact and extent of capture for the aquarium trade is urgently required, and the species requires harvesting and trade controls.
168409		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from heavily vegetated pools at the foot of a mountain near Hopong town 30 km east of Taunggyi, Myanmar, at an altitude of over 1,000 m. Its habitat is part of the Salween basin, namely the Nam Lang and Nam Pawn rivers. It has more recently been shown to exist in at least another 4 or 5 locations on the Shan plateau (Salween River basin) east of Inle, and has also been recorded from the northwest corner of Thailand adjacent to the border with Myanmar (R. Britz, per. comm. 2010).
168409		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits small heavily vegetated ponds apparently maintained by seepages in hill areas at an elevation of about 1,040 m. The fish lives in small ponds created by seeping groundwater or  overflow from small brooks or springs. <br/><br/>Like most waterbodies in the Inle drainage, the water is slightly alkaline. The habitat is heavily vegetated with Hydrocharitaceae similar to Elodea (water weed). The species shares its habitat with very few fish species; a Microrasbora similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. rubescens,</span> a rosy loach (Yunnanilus, possibly a new species) and the dwarf snakehead <span style="font-style: italic;">Channa harcourtbutleri.</span> The latter species presumably is the only known significant predator of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. margaritatus.</span>
168409		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of the species, though anecdotal reports from the aquarium trade suggest that it declined at the type locality due to over-collection.
168409		threats	eng	The population at the type locality suffered from over-exploitation, but further populations elsewhere in Myanmar and in northeastern Thailand have been recorded.
168410		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species is also needed.
168410		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Bago river drainages of Myanmar and the Chindwin drainage in Manipur, India.
168410		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams.
168410		population	eng	The population of this species in Manipur is relatively rare compared to <em>H. microphthalmus </em>(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although this is a fairly common species in Myanmar (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168410		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168411		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution and biology of this species. The taxonomy of this species also requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the different river drainages are conspecific.
168411		distribution	eng	Known from the Nujiang (upper Salween), Shiquan (upper Indus) and Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) drainages in Tibet, as well as from numerous lakes of central Tibet (e.g. Dochen Tso, Namtso, Pangong Tso, Siling Tso, Yamdrok Tso) (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995). &#160;It has also been recorded from Kashmir in India by Hora.
168411		habitat	eng	Found in slower-flowing rivers and lakes, living amongst rocks and aquatic vegetation. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and reproduces in June-July (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995).
168411		population	eng	Although there is no information on the population and its trends for this species, this is a relatively widespread and abundant species.
168411		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.
168412		conservation	eng	More research about the taxonomy, distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is significant confusion in its taxonomy. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168412		distribution	eng	This species   <span lang="EN-IN">is found in the Ganges drainage of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kullander <em>et al.</em> 1999); originally described from the northern rivers of Bengal and Bihar, especially the Mahanunda. Records are from the Giri River (Himachal Pradesh) and Nilgiri (Neilgherris or rivers on or around their base; <span lang="EN-IN">Tamil Nadu). The full distribution of the species<span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN">, as well as the records from southern India,<span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN"> requires confirmation.</span></span></span>
168412		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This is demersal freshwater species, flowing in the subtropical regions. It occurs in areas of the stream where water is moving very slow.<strong><span lang="EN-IN"></strong></span></p>
168412		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">No population datasets are available for this species.</p>
168412		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and increasing fishing pressure may affect its population. However, the threats to this species are yet unknown.<strong></strong>
168413		conservation	eng	<p>Monitoring of the species fishery and collection for the aquarium trade is essential. Further information on the species habitat and ecology is required.<br/></p>
168413		distribution	eng	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus balitora</span>  was formerly considered to include northern and northeastern India (northern &#160;Bengal, and the Gomti River at Lucknow), Nepal and Bangladesh.<br/><br/>   Recent (2008) work (K. Conway, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span>) designated a neotype for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. balitora</span> (the type locality of which is now northwestern Bangladesh in the Ganges drainage) which restricted the species to a much smaller area (including the Ganges and Brahmaputra drainages in eastern Nepal, northeast Bangladesh and adjacent West Bengal and northwest Assam only). It is not known from Myanmar.
168413		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">This species occurs in hill streams                    and rapids with pebbly and sandy bottom,                    usually associated with hard substrates.
168413		population	eng	<p>Limited information is available on the species populations. In the Barak river system there are good populations (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.). Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.      </p>
168413		threats	eng	<p>Dams are likely to effect the species habitat and population in some parts of its range (e.g. the Barak River in Assam, S.C. Dey, pers. comm.). The species is widely caught, and is taken in large quantities for the commercial ornamental trade.<br/></p>
168414		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats are identified, but the impacts need to be monitored.
168414		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Jhelum River in the Indus River drainage in Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It has also been reported from the Ganges River drainage in Nepal (Shrestha 1999)<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> and from Jammu and Kashmir, India (Rema Devi and Indra 2009). The Nepal record requires confirmation.
168414		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168414		population	eng	The population in Jhelum River is predicted to be affected in the next 5–10 years from dam construction (including the already constructed Mangla dam). Since the species is a fast flowing river specialist, damming will alter its habitat irreversibly causing drastic population declines. In addition the practice of fisheries department to release exotics into reservoirs may push to species to local extinctions in several or most locations (M. Arunachalam and W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).
168414		threats	eng	Several dams proposed on Jhelum River are potential threats to the species and its habitat within the next 3-5 years. Kullander <em>et al. </em>(1999) do not consider this species to be threatened and indicated that this species may efficiently use fish ladders if provided. However, the current situation with development activities on the river are of serious concern to the species (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm</em>.). The species will be affected drastically as it is a fast flowing river species, with dams causing pools. Also, from experience it is seen that reservoirs are stocked with exotics, which could eliminate this species.
168415		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. browni</span> is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168415		distribution	eng	The species is only found in Northern Shan States, Upper Myanmar. It is endemic to the region.
168415		habitat	eng	This fish is accustomed to varying water conditions and the presence of a considerable number of other fishes.
168415		population	eng	No information available, but the species may be declining due to over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.
168415		threats	eng	Since the species is utilised in the aquarium trade, it might suffer the threat of overexploitation.
168416		conservation	eng	The confused taxonomy of this species requires resolution and fresh material is critically needed to reassess the identity and taxonomic status of this species. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is no information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168416		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species within the Indian subcontinent is unknown. Although suspected to be found in the vicinity of Pharphing, Nepal (in the Ganges River drainage) by Regan (1907), a glyptosternine catfish matching the description of<em> M. blythii</em> has not been found in recent surveys in the area.
168416		habitat	eng	The habitats and ecology of this species are unknown, although it most likely inhabits torrential hillstreams with a rocky substrate like other glyptosternine catfishes.
168416		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168416		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168417		conservation	eng	More detailed study into its biology, population trends and threats is required. Lake Indawgi is a national park, and fishing activities are controlled.
168417		distribution	eng	The species is described from Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar.&#160;Restricted to Myanmar, the species is recorded from Lake Indawgyi, Irawwaddy tributaries around Myitkina, and recently found in southern Myanmar near Einme (R. Britz&#160;<em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).
168417		habitat	eng	In heavily vegetated areas at the border of the lake and small rivers.
168417		population	eng	In Indawgyi Lake it is quite abundant; no information for other localities.
168417		threats	eng	Threats include logging and agriculture development that result in  sedimentation. Pollution such as domestic, industrial and mining. The  impacts of these on the lake are not known and require urgent study. Not  specifically targeted by fishers, though it is collected for the aquarium trade in small quantities.
168418		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168418		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Rangoon, Sittang and lower Salween river drainages (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
168418		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with muddy bottoms (Vidthayanon <em>et al</em>. 2005), particularly in the lower reaches (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
168418		population	eng	Although there is no information on the population and trend for this species, <em>G. melanopteru</em>s is a relatively abundant species throughout Myanmar (it was the most abundant species taken at its type locality; Roberts and Ferraris 1998) and the population can be considered to be stable at this moment.
168418		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168419		conservation	eng	Research on life history, threats and their impacts on the species and populations trends are needed.
168419		distribution	eng	The species is found in upper Assam, India and China.
168419		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill streams with pebbled bottom.
168419		population	eng	There is no information on populations and trends.
168419		threats	eng	There are no major threats recorded for this species.
168420		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168420		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tista River, Brahmaputra drainage, West Bengal, India.
168420		habitat	eng	<p>This is a hillstream loach.&#160; This species is a bottom dweller. <br/></p>
168420		population	eng	Population estimates and trends of this species are unavailable.<strong> </strong>
168420		threats	eng	The population of this species is not known but there may be threats due to anthropogenic activities causing habitat alteration and loss.
168421		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
168421		distribution	eng	The species is found to be distributed in Maklang, Lokchao and Wanze streams in Manipur (Chindwin basin), India.
168421		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura reticulata </span>is a hillstream fish.
168421		population	eng	This is a rare species occurring only in hill streams. &#160;Population and trends information are lacking.
168421		threats	eng	<p>Some populations, especially in Lokchao River at Moreh are under severe threat due to development and border trade. &#160;In other areas the species is under threat from destructive fishing through poisoning and dynamiting. &#160;</p>
168422		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified
168422		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar and China.
168422		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168422		population	eng	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.
168422		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on its biology and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168423		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168423		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in eastern Nepal (at Sanghu in Mewa Khola River in Dhakuntha District).
168423		habitat	eng	Although the habitat of this species is not known, it most likely inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom, as with other congeners.
168423		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168423		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168424		conservation	eng	None required, but further information on distribution and range.
168424		distribution	eng	Recorded from Irrawaddy and Sittang basins in&#160;Myanmar.
168424		habitat	eng	Small streams and rivers, flooded agricultural land and rice fields, irrigation channels, and ponds,
168424		population	eng	It is a common species in southern Myanmar.
168424		threats	eng	No significant threats known.
168425		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution is required.
168425		distribution	eng	Reported from upper Myanmar, Irrawaddy drainage, (Prashad and Mukerji 1929; Menon 1987; Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
168425		habitat	eng	High altitude streams with rocky substrates mostly in water falls.
168425		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
168425		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
168426		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168426		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle and upper Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China, typically at an altitude of 4000 m.
168426		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the deeper waters of tributaries and river meanders.
168426		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, although it has been reported to be locally abundant by Li <em>et al.</em> (2009).
168426		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168427		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. More information on catch data is needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168427		distribution	eng	Known from the Ganges River delta of Bangladesh and India, extending inland at least as far as Bisrampur (Ferraris and Runge 1999).
168427		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lower reaches of larger rivers.
168427		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168427		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168428		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168428		distribution	eng	<em>Erethistoides ascita</em>&#160;was described from the Ganges River drainage in southern and eastern Nepal (Ng and Edds 2005).&#160;Known from the tributaries of the Ganges River flowing through the Terai, or lowland plains, of southeastern Nepal, at the base of the foothills of the Himalaya, along or near Nepal's eastern and southern border with India (Ng and Edds 2005).
168428		habitat	eng	This species inhabits&#160;pebble and cobble riffles with moderate depth (ca. 20 cm) and current velocity (ca. 25-50 cm/sec). The areas were well oxygenated, with dissolved oxygen of 7-8 ppm, and a pH of 7.5-8.0 (Ng and Edds 2005).
168428		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168428		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168429		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is present in Indawgyi lake Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar.<br/></p>  <p></p>
168429		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius thelys</span> is known only from the streams near Myitkyina, and also in Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar.
168429		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius thelys</span> inhabits ponds, swamps, streams, rivers and lakes.<br/></p>
168429		population	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.</p>
168429		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species are not known.</p>
168430		conservation	eng	Since nothing is known about this species studies on life history, distribution, population, trends, threats and impacts are recommended.
168430		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Daying River, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River, Yingjiang County, Yunnan Province,  China.
168430		habitat	eng	The species is found to inhabit the bottom of streams.
168430		population	eng	Population trends are not known for this species.
168430		threats	eng	The possible threat to the species may be of habitat destruction caused by natural environmental factors.
168431		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species is also needed.
168431		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Salween river drainages in India (Chindwin), Myanmar and Thailand.
168431		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams.
168431		population	eng	The species is declining rapidly in Manipur due to destructive fishing and habitat loss from sand and pebble mining for dam construction in Manipur River (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;In other areas there is no information on the population and its trends for this species (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168431		threats	eng	The Manipur population of this species is threatened due to destructive fishing and habitat loss from sand and pebble mining. &#160;However, the threats to this species in its core area of distribution in Myanmar are unknown. &#160;There is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168432		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168432		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Irrawady (Yangon to Mandalay), Sittang and Salween (Moulmein) in Myanmar.  <p>&#160;</p>
168432		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been found in rivers. It is a lowland species.
168432		population	eng	More research is needed to estimate the species population.
168432		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
168433		conservation	eng	Since nothing is known about this species, distribution, taxonomic and life history studies are recommended along with identification of threats and impacts of the same on the population.
168433		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura tirapensis</span> is distributed in Tirap District in Arunachal Pradesh, India.  <p>&#160;</p>
168433		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura tirapensis</span> inhabits hillstreams with pebble substrate.
168433		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168433		threats	eng	It is assumed that the species is exposed to natural calamities and anthropogenic effects.
168434		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is also badly needed to confirm the purported decline of this species due to overfishing. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168434		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River in Tibet, China.
168434		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the main channels of larger rivers. &#160;Mature adults migrate to incoming streams where they breed in gravel and sandy beds (Raina and Petr 1999). &#160;It is a bottom detritus feeder.
168434		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. Although faunistic surveys of the region (e.g. Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995) suggest that this species is still relatively common, it has also been noted that catches of individuals heavier than 500g have been declining in the mid-1990s. This suggests that the population may be in danger of being overfished.
168434		threats	eng	The decline in the number of large individuals reported by Zhang <em>et al. </em>(1995) may indicate that overfishing is a potential threat to this species. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168435		conservation	eng	As this species has not been recorded since its original description, there is no information on its population, biology and potential threats, all of which are badly needed.
168435		distribution	eng	This species has not been recorded since its original description. Its type locality is in the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
168435		habitat	eng	This species presuambly inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of sand and rock, like its congeners.
168435		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168435		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168436		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. strigillifer </span>is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168436		distribution	eng	The species is known from a small stream tributary to the Irrawaddy River, Myaing, central Myanmar, with an additional record for<span> Mytkyna, northern Myanmar.
168436		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens are collected from fast running water, bank vegetation bamboo forest, stream usually with some 50% shadow.
168436		population	eng	More research is needed to determine population trends.
168436		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, though hill streams across the region are impacted by sedimentation and hydropower development.
168437		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168437		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Longchuanjiang and Dayingjiang drainages in Yunnan, China. Both of these river drainages are tributaries that form part of the upper Irrawaddy River drainage.
168437		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a rocky substrate.
168437		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168437		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168438		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of the populations identified as this species are in critical need of a revision to resolve the true identity of <em>G. chuno</em>. More research about the true distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168438		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system, Chilka Lake and Ennur backwaters (Tamil Nadu) eastwards to the lower part of the Mekong River drainage. In Sumatra, this species is known from the lakes in the Bukit Barisan Range in western Sumatra. However, there is a possibility that the populations from South Asia are not conspecific with those from Southeast Asia.
168438		habitat	eng	This species is known from both a variety of estuarine and freshwater habitats, although a badly-needed taxonomic study might show it to be more restricted in habitat.
168438		population	eng	Although this species appears to be wide-ranging enough that the global population size is considered very large and not under threat, the confusion surrounding its taxonomy has made it difficult to assess whether or all subpopulations are conspecific.
168438		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown; this is exacerbated by the confusion surrounding the identity of this species. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168439		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the impacts of Tilapia, and the species distribution.
168439		distribution	eng	Known only from the Salween basin in the southern Shan States, Myanmar. Recorded from Inle Lake, as well as tributary streams.
168439		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">Found in Inle lake and in small tributary streams on the plateau (cold water streams, in karst areas).
168439		population	eng	No information is available; requires further research.
168439		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in part of its range, especially in Inle Lake, by the introduction of Tilapia, as well as pollution form domestic and agricultural sources.
168440		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.<br/></p>
168440		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality (Hwe-gna-sang River).<em> Schistura acuticephalus </em>is distributed in the Irrawady basin, Shan plateau, northern Shan States in Myanmar.
168440		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling fish. Schistura are generally found in well oxygenated, cooler, fast-flowing rivers.
168440		population	eng	Population may be affected by habitat destruction.
168440		threats	eng	None are known, but the known location is not well studied.
168441		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of the nominal taxa currently considered its junior synonyms require thorough study to ascertain if they are distinct species. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168441		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (Upper Brahmaputra) River drainage, as well as the numerous endorheic mountain lakes in its vicinity.
168441		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift rivers with a rocky substrate, and mountain lakes.
168441		population	eng	Little information and its trends for this species is available, but Chen<em> et al. </em>(2009) record this species as being locally abundant in the middle Yarlung Zangbo drainage.
168441		threats	eng	The nominate subspecies is under severe threat from fishing as it is one of the most important commercial species (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;However, the&#160;threats to the species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168442		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168442		distribution	eng	<em>Eutropiichthys burmannicus</em>&#160;was described from an unknown locality in Myanmar (Day 1877). This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar eastwards to the Salween River drainage in western Thailand.
168442		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the main channel of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries. The substrate in such habitats is generally sand or mud (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168442		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, although Vidthayanon <em>et al. </em>(2005) mention that it is uncommonly encountered in markets.
168442		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168443		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kakhinensis</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168443		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kakhinensis</span> known from western Yunnan, Irrawady drainage, China.
168443		habitat	eng	The species is found in small mountain streams, rivers and lake. Feeds on terrestrial insects.
168443		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168443		threats	eng	Since the species is a mountain stream fish, it might suffer the threat of destruction in habitat quality due to certain natural calamities and human interference.
168444		conservation	eng	No information on current conservation measures. Further information is required on the extent and impact of collection for the aquarium trade.
168444		distribution	eng	It is endemic to Myanmar and is known from Waloun Chaung in Rakhine State, Myanmar.
168444		habitat	eng	Found in tropical freshwaters in a small stream with shaded forested banks flowing down a steep hill and with cool (c.22<sup>o</sup>C), clear, highly-oxygenated fast running water.
168444		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168444		threats	eng	Over-collection for the aquarium trade is a possibility, but further information is required.
168445		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work is needed to determine natural populations, range of distribution and possible threats.
168445		distribution	eng	The species is known from Assam, India in small streams. It was also abundant in parts of Bengal (McClelland 1839). There have no further records since it was described.
168445		habitat	eng	The species is known from rivers, canals, ponds, beels and inundated fields. Feeds on worms, small crustaceans ans insects.
168445		population	eng	This species was common when it was first identified (McClelland 1839). More research is needed to know current population trends and abundance.
168445		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168446		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168446		distribution	eng	Pillaia kachinica is known only from two streams in the area of Myitkina, Myanmar.
168446		habitat	eng	The known specimens are from clear streams with a large amount of aquatic vegetation.
168446		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168446		threats	eng	No information, but being a remote area it is unlikely to be affected.
168447		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. &#160;Furthermore, the taxonomic status of the material from the Irrawaddy River drainage needs to be further investigated and its conspecificity with the type material from the Sittang River drainage needs to be verified.
168447		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in the Sittaung and Irrawaddy River drainages respectively. The type locality (Pathe Chaung) is a left bank tributary of the Sittang River in southern Myanmar (Britz and Ferraris 2003), while the other locality in which it has been recorded lies in the middle Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
168447		habitat	eng	The type locality (Pathe Chaung) is a small hill stream, with fast running, clear water, a sandy bottom and numerous rocks and boulders. Aquatic vegetation was absent. Water temperature was 24°C, with a pH of 8.5 and a conductivity of 70 ?S (Britz and Ferraris 2003).
168447		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, since it is only known from 17 specimens.
168447		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168448		conservation	eng	The taxonomic identity of populations from Myanmar and other regions where it has been identified from need further study to verify their conspecificity. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. The degree of impact arising from known and potential dams within the species known range need to be investigated.
168448		distribution	eng	Based on museum records, this species is known from the rivers draining the western face of the Rakhine Yoma in western Myanmar. It might be endemic from this area; other suitable areas have not been intensively surveyed, but those collections that do exist, do not contain this species. The area of suitable habitat stretching north up the coast towards and into Bangladesh has not been surveyed, and there may be populations present in these areas.
168448		habitat	eng	Like other sicydiine gobies, this species is found in relatively swift streams with a substrate of gravel and rocks. The species is diadromous, and its larvae drift to the sea where they mature.
168448		population	eng	The species has been collected a number of times from its locality, and appears common (R. Britz&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). There is no information on its population trends.
168448		threats	eng	There is no specific information on threats to the species' known habitats. However, the species is diadromous, and dams on its known rivers would have severe impacts on the species reproductive success. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.<br/><br/>There are at least three existing or planned dams on the three largest rivers that drain the western slopes of the Rakhine Yoma. The exact location in relation to the course of the rivers of these dams and their status is not known, and therefore the severity of the impacts can not be determined.
168449		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168449		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Inlé Lake in the Salween River drainage in Myanmar, occupying an area of 116 km<sup>2</sup> at 880 m elevation.
168449		habitat	eng	The species is only found in the freshwater lake.
168449		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, but Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> (2005) report this to be commonly encountered in the Inlé Lake area.
168449		threats	eng	Threats&#160;to the aquatic habitat of Inlé Lake include&#160;introduced&#160;fish species, over-fishing, and pollution from a growing&#160;urban population and increasing agricultural&#160;activities. The open water area of the lake has shrunk by more than 30% over the last 65 years (1935-2000) due to human activities such as shifting agriculture, timber removal and unsustainable cultivation practices around the lake (Sidle <em>et al</em>. 2007).
168450		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius manipurensis</span> is known only from the Loktak Lake, Manipur, India. which is&#160; a protected area. The state Government of Manipur is greately conserned about the deteriorating conditions of the <st1:place><st1:placename>Loktak</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. During 1986 the Loktak Development Authority (LDA) was constituted by the state Government to check deterioration of Loktak lake and to bring improvement in the areas of power generation, fisheries, tourism and siltation control etc. Recently, the Government of Manipur has notified the Manipur Loktak lake (Protection) Act, 2006 and Loktak lake (Protection) Rules, 2008, which would improve functioning of the authority by reorganizing and bringing legislative basis for lake management.</p>
168450		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius manipurensis</span> is known only from the Loktak Lake of Manipur, in northeastern India.
168450		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow lakes.
168450		population	eng	<p>The species is not very common and the population is declining steadily since it was first described (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).<br/></p>
168450		threats	eng	The threat to this fish is habitat loss, deterioration of water quality and over exploitation. The Loktak Lake, type locality of the fish, is facing numerous threats like siltation, eutrophication, water quality deterioration, proliferation of <span style="font-style: italic;">phumdis </span>(heterogeneous mass of soil, vegetation and organic matter) and encroachment (Kosygin and Dhamendra 2009).
168451		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168451		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Salween and Tenasserim river drainages (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
168451		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with sandy or muddy bottoms (Vidthayanon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
168451		population	eng	Although there is no information on the population and trend for this species, <em>G. dolichonema</em> is a relatively abundant species throughout Myanmar and the population can be considered to be stable at this moment.
168451		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168452		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.
168452		distribution	eng	Arunkumar and Singh (2000) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus morehensis</span> from Maklang River, Chindwin drainage (Moreh Bazar, Chandel District) Manipur in India and also from the Chindwin basin (Kalaimyo and Tamu) in Myanmar (Arunkumar and Singh 2000, Fishbase 2009, Britz 2010).<strong> </strong>
168452		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. morehensis</span> has a habit of actively burrowing in the swampy and vegetated stream bed. The inhabitants of Kwatha Village near Moreh, of the Indo-Myanmar border call it&#160; 'Tou-ngaril', according to the habitat of the fish. The fish hides under pebbles, stones, gravel, sandy beds of clear torrential stream. It makes small pits and holes in the swampy and vegetated beds of stagnant streams and water bodies (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168452		population	eng	It is possible that the species occurs in more than the two localities it is now found in. More research is needed. There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168452		threats	eng	Overexploitation, and pollution from expanding township are possible threats.
168453		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168453		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Imphal Valley (Chindwin basin), Manipur, India from where it was collected from Iril and Imphal rivers, ponds and lakes.
168453		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ater</span> inhabits rivers, lakes and ponds.
168453		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168453		threats	eng	The species is found in areas where local fishing, invasive introduced fishes, eutrophication and siltation are known threats.
168454		conservation	eng	Further studies on the biology of this species and migratory habits (if present) are needed. &#160;Information on catch data is also needed. Given that there appear to be no significant declines in population, no species-specific conservation measures are needed at present.
168454		distribution	eng	<em>Gudusia variegata</em> is known only from the Irrawaddy River drainage, but is likely to be present in the Chindwin and perhaps other rivers within Myanmar.
168454		habitat	eng	This species is apparently restricted to freshwater, where it has been found in the main channel of the Irrawaddy and its tributaries, as well as larger lakes such as Lake Indawgyi.
168454		population	eng	This species is said to be very common in the central part of Myanmar (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005), and is deemed to have suffered no significant decline in population. Although the population is currently deemed stable, current trends are unknown.
168454		threats	eng	The biology of this species is not well known, and like many river sprats, this species is probably potamodromous. The construction of dams in the Irrawaddy River drainage might thus adversely affect riverine migrations.
168455		conservation	eng	Research on impacts of threats to populations and appropriate actions are needed.
168455		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Schistura inglisi </em></strong>is described<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em> </em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong>from rivers below Darjeeling and Sikkim, eastern Himalaya.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
168455		habitat	eng	They are bottom dwellers found in torrential hill streams.
168455		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168455		threats	eng	The species is threatened by dams in Sikkim. &#160;Poisoning is a major threat to populations in the region of its distribution.
168456		conservation	eng	Further confirmation of the species range is required, and monitoring of the impacts of the ornamental trade collection.
168456		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus gracilis</span> was described from Bangladesh (Rainboth 1983) but recent studies have given the range extension of this species from Mizoram, India, (Kar and Sen 2007) and Nepal (Edds and Ng 2007). Rainboth (1983) predicted from the extent of the preferred habitat of the fish that the fish should be widely distributed throughout lower reaches of Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, and more recent collections in Assam and West Bengal have confirmed this.
168456		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus gracilis</span> is found over small pebbles in shallow running waters where the bottom is primarily sandy (Rainboth 1983).
168456		population	eng	There are no records on population trends.
168456		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168457		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168457		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Salween and Irrawaddy river drainages in Myanmar. Although it has been reported from the Salween River drainage in China (Chu and Mo 1999), this record is questionable as it likely refers to <em>G. ngapang</em> and requires verification (H.H. Ng, <em>pers. comm</em>., 2010).
168457		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168457		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168457		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168458		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168458		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra River) drainage in Tibet, China.
168458		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the shallower regions of relatively fast-flowing mountain-fed streams and rivers with a substrate of gravel or rock (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168458		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168458		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168459		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.
168459		distribution	eng	This species is so far reported from Chakpi Stream (Vishwanath and Tombi 1986) and Manipur River (Chindwin basin), Manipur (Kosygin and Singh 2008).
168459		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Punitis jayarami</span> inhabits moutain streams and rivers with moderate to fast flowing water.
168459		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168459		threats	eng	Kosygin and Singh ( 2008) reported that water quality of downstream of the Manipur River is deteriorated due to discharge of sewage from the Imphal Valley, pesticides and insecticides from the surrounding agricultural lands, polluted water from Loktak Lake and nutrients rich soil erosion from catchment area. As a result low fish diversity and catch of the river is observed in the river.
168460		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
168460		distribution	eng	Found in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, northern Bengal and Assam<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
168460		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">It occurs in shallow slow moving streams with gravel bottom.<span class="sheader51"><strong> </strong></span></p>    <p>&#160;</p>
168460		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168460		threats	eng	The species is prone to threats due to habitat loss caused by removal of gravel and sand.
168462		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of the two subspecies (<em>G. chui chui</em> and <em>G. chui longimandibularis</em>) require further study to fully confirm their status as conspecific. In addition, more research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168462		distribution	eng	This species is known from four endorheic mountain lakes in southern and western Tibet, China: Langtso, Gongzhu, Mafamu and Langa (Tchang&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>1964; Wu & Wu, 1992).
168462		habitat	eng	This species inhabits endorheic mountain lakes, where it frequents the bottom and nearshore waters.
168462		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1995) report this species as being abundant.
168462		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168463		conservation	eng	Reserach is required into the species distribution, and the impact of potential dams within the Barak drainage.
168463		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known only from its original description from Iyei River in Manipur, India.</p>                 <p>&#160;</p>
168463		habitat	eng	The species is a bottom-dwelling species of streams.
168463		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168463		threats	eng	Being a hillstream fish, the species is prone to habitat degradation.&#160; The construction of Tuivai Multpurpose Dam in Manipur-Mizoram border 500 m downstream of the  confluence of Tuivai River with the Barak River will potentially impact the species by changing the flow regime of the river.
168464		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168464		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is found in the ditches and pools of Myanmar.</p>
168464		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This is tropical surface dwelling freshwater species. Inhabiting ditches and pools of Myanmar.</p>
168464		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
168464		threats	eng	Threats to the species remain undocumented.
168465		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as well as the population needs to be continuously monitored.
168465		distribution	eng	Described from streams around Myitkina and Indawgyi Lake in northern Myanmar. Another population was discovered in the Irrawaddy delta near Einme. A third locality was identified near Mandalay in 1996; the site was resurveyed in 2003 but the species was not found.
168465		habitat	eng	Small streams and stream-side pools with dense aquatic vegetation. In Indawgyi lake is lives at the border of the lake amongst dense vegetation.
168465		population	eng	There are no detailed data, but it is expected to be stable.
168465		threats	eng	There is potential for the species habitat in Indawgyi lake to decline in quality due to urbanisation and pollution. The southern location Einme in the delta was likely destroyed in the 2008; its current status is not known. The third locality near Mandalay was resurveyed in 2003 but the species was not found.
168466		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.
168466		distribution	eng	<em>Myersglanis jayarami</em>&#160;was described from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath and Kosygin 1999). &#160;This species is only&#160;confirmed from the&#160;Laniye River at Jessami,&#160;Chindwin River drainage in Manipur. &#160;Its presence in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar is doubtful as this species is recorded from the hill stream at 1,000 m, while Myanmar lies to the east of the location at around 200m (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;The extent of occurrence of this species may be restricted to less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the high elevation zone.
168466		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a rocky substrate.
168466		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168466		threats	eng	Jhumming (slash and burn agriculture) may have some impact on the habitat, and destructive fishing may be threatening the population (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168467		conservation	eng	It is a hill stream specialist and has a narrow area of occupancy.&#160; The distribution of the species its life history, population and impacts of threats need to be studied.
168467		distribution	eng	<p>The species was originally described from Pagladia River, a tributary of Brahmaputra. Vishwanath & Juliana (2001) also reported the species from Jiri River in Manipur (Brahmaputra drainage). &#160;The inferred range of this species is just under 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;However, being a hill stream species, its area of occupancy is quite restricted.<strong></strong></p>
168467		habitat	eng	The species dwells in streams with pebble bottom.
168467		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168467		threats	eng	The species might suffer from natural calamities such as drought in hill streams and also destructive fishing by poisoning and dynamiting.
168468		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. anomalus</span> has ornamental value. It is essential to study its range of distribution, breeding habits and population. Its population in nature may show sharp decline due to overexploitation. Thus planning for conservation would be essential.
168468		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario anomalus</span> is known only from a small stream originating in the hill tracts south of Cox's Bazar, southern Chittagong Division, Bangladesh (Conway <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
168468		habitat	eng	The species is known only from the type locality. It was collected from a small pool at the base of a waterfall and from a short stretch of stream downstream of the waterfall and upstream of a highway crossing. The stream originates from the hill tracts south of Cox’s Bazar, southern Chittagong Division.
168468		population	eng	The species was recently described in 2009 (Conway <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) based on five individuals. There are no further studies on its population. Research is needed to assess its population.
168468		threats	eng	No information is available. But this colourful fish will attract ornamental fish traders. Unless proper planning is done, it is feared that there may be natural stock depletion due to overfishing.
168469		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and the likely&#160;impacts&#160;of the&#160;Tipaimukh Dam studied.
168469		distribution	eng	<em>Exostoma barakensis</em>&#160;is known only from one locality in the Iyei River, a tributary of the Barak River (itself part of the Brahmaputra River drainage) in Manipur (Vishwanath and Joyshree 2007). &#160;There have been no further studies to indicate a wider distribution.
168469		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and biology of this species, but like other glyptosternine catfishes, it is likely to inhabit torrential streams with a substrate consisting of medium to large rocks.
168469		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168469		threats	eng	<em>Exostoma barakensis</em>&#160;is known from the Iyei River, a tributary of the Barak River. A large (1500 MW) dam, the&#160;Tipaimukh Dam, is planned on the Barak River. The impact of this dam, should it be&#160;constructed,&#160;are&#160;not known, but population studies should be undertaken before&#160;construction so that impacts can be monitored.<br/>There is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains&#160;uncertain.
168470		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168470		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle Irrawaddy River drainage (type locality:&#160;Myitkyina District)&#160;in northern Myanmar (Ng and Kottelat 2007).
168470		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from hillstreams (Ng and Kottelat 2007).
168470		population	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.
168470		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168471		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work is needed to determine true range, population and threats.
168471		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. manipurensis</span> is known only from the type locality&#160; in Manipur, India. However, Barman (1987) did not clearly mention the type locality.
168471		habitat	eng	The species was found in clear hill streams. Standard length is 3.8 cm (Menon 1999).
168471		population	eng	The species&#160; has not been recorded since description and there is no information available on its population.
168471		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known, however hill streams across the region are impacted by sedimentation and hydropower development.
168472		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168472		distribution	eng	<em>Eutropiichthys britzi</em>&#160;was described from the Irrawaddy River in northern Myanmar (Ferraris and Vari 2007) and is also present in the Sittang River drainage.
168472		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the main channel of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries. The substrate in such habitats is generally sand or mud (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168472		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168472		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168473		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168473		distribution	eng	<em>Glyptothorax ventrolineatus</em>&#160;was described from the Iril River, which forms part of the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur (Vishwanath and Linthoingambi 2005). It is a widespread species with recent collections from other areas attesting this: e.g. Lokchao River at Moreh (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;Its presence in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar is to be expected.
168473		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168473		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168473		threats	eng	The population at Moreh may be threatened due to development activities for township development and border trade (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;A water pollution&#160;incident&#160;in the&#160;Iril River killed fish and other aquatic life, but the&#160;cause&#160;was not confirmed (E-PAO, May 2008).
168474		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution and biology of this species. The taxonomy of this species also requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the different river drainages are conspecific.
168474		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper reaches of the Yellow, Yangtze, Salween, Mekong, Indus and Brahmaputra river drainages, as well as the alpine lakes in the Tibetan plateau (Wu and Wu 1992).
168474		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow streams with a rocky substrate, where it feeds on aquatic invertebrates (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168474		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168474		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.
168475		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species (for wild populations) is also needed.
168475		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sittang and Irrawaddy river drainages in Myanmar.
168475		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers in the lowlands (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
168475		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, it appears to be moderately common in the wild and large numbers are being bred commercially in Thailand for the ornamental fish trade (Vidthayanon <em>et al. </em>2005).
168475		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168477		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are documented for the species. &#160;More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.<p></p>
168477		distribution	eng	K<span>nown only from Yangon, Myanmar.
168477		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers.
168477		population	eng	There is no information on population structure of this species.
168477		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known at present.
168478		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168478		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the Sittang, <strong></strong>Salween and Ataran basin, Myanmar (Britz and Maclaine 2007).
168478		habitat	eng	<p>Found in pools with turbid muddy water with marginal and dense aquatic vegetation.<br/></p>
168478		population	eng	No estimates of its population or trends are available.
168478		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
168479		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on population, biology and potential threats for this species.
168479		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Indawgyi and surrounding areas, and the Irrawaddy River drainage in the vicinity Myitkina.
168479		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from streams and lakes amongst dense aquatic vegetation.
168479		population	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trend for this species.
168479		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Lake Indawgyi is being impacted by increasing settlement and consequent pollution and other impacts.
168480		conservation	eng	More information is required on the species ecology, population and distribution.
168480		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar (Datta and Chaudhuri 1993), and from streams in the adjacent area (flowing into the Irrawaddy river).
168480		habitat	eng	Although apparently only recorded from Indawgi Lake and adjacent areas, it is reported as a <span>demersal species, present in freshwater and brackish waters (FishBase 2010).
168480		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168480		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168481		conservation	eng	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>
168481		distribution	eng	The species is known from Lokchou River, Moreh, Manipur, India and Yu Chaung near Yantan Village, Myanmar.
168481		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits mountain streams and rivers.
168481		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168481		threats	eng	No information available. However,   Lokchao River, the type locality of the species has several disturbances due to anthropogenic activities. The river flows near Moreh town, which is an active centre for international trade between <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The town is being expanded and the river is under severe threat.
168482		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is also badly needed to confirm the purported decline of this species due to overfishing. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168482		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities, but is presumed to be widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China.
168482		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deeper waters of river channels with a rocky substrate. Its chief diet is aquatic invertebrates and it spawns en masse from April to June (Wu and Wu 1992).
168482		population	eng	There is little information on the population and its trends for this species. However, Zhang <em>et al</em>. (1995) report a decline in the weight of the fishes being commercially captured as food (from more than 500 g per individual to 200-300 g in the mid 1990s), indicating a possible decline in population.
168482		threats	eng	Because it is heavily utilized as a food fish, there is some evidence that the average size of the fishes caught is in decline (Zhang <em>et al. </em>1995). Other threats to this species are unknown.
168483		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known conservation measures documented for the species. Although it is a hardy species, the impacts of threats and ornamental fish trade need to be studied and monitored to understand population trends.</p>
168483		distribution	eng	<p>The species is reported from Bihar (Jamwari River: Saram; Shalkia River: Chapra District), Rajasthan (Gambhir River: Sawai Madhopur), Uttar Pradesh (Rapti River: Gorakhpur; Koshi River: Almorha; Markonda River: Almorha), Nepal (Gandak River; Narayani River, Narsi) (Menon 1992).&#160; </p>
168483		habitat	eng	It appears to be migratory as the young ones are found in the lower hills and adults at the higher elevation;<strong>&#160;</strong>prefers rocky and gravelly streams.<em></em>
168483		population	eng	It is a fairly hardy species and has been reported fairly common in catches (CPUE) in Ramganga River.
168483		threats	eng	The areas where the species is found is deforested and siltation causes choking of water body. Besides this, sand mining and quarrying and ornamental fish trade are the other concerns. However this species is hardy and widespread.
168484		conservation	eng	Ecology and population trends of this species remains unknown.
168484		distribution	eng	It is known from the Ganges River drainage of India (Assam, Manipur, foothills of northern Bengal, Saharanpur, Dehradun of the Gangetic plains and Garo and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya (Menon 1999; Arunkumar 2000)), and Bangladesh.
168484		habitat	eng	<strong></strong>It is known to inhabit<strong>&#160;</strong>clear streams with sandy bottom.
168484		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168484		threats	eng	There are no threats identified for this species.
168485		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168485		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Assam, India.
168485		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat of this species, but it likely inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand, like its congeners.
168485		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168485		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168486		conservation	eng	Indawgyi Lake, which is one of the type localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span>, is within the confines of Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.
168486		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span> is currently known only from Myitkyina and <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Indawgyi</st1:placename> in northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar </st1:place></st1:country-region>(Kullander and Fang 2005). It may be possible that the species occurs in other areas but this has not been confirmed.<em></em>
168486		habitat	eng	Kullander and Fang (2005) have reported the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span> as fast flowing stream with clear or brownish water (pH 6.5, temperature 23.2 <sup>0</sup>C). The bottom consisted of mud mixed with stones. Land vegetation consisted of bamboo forest providing 60% shadow. No aquatic vegetation.
168486		population	eng	Population studies are not available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span> but it is suggested that <em>P. didi </em>is either relatively rare or  stenotopic (Kullander and Fang 2005).
168486		threats	eng	As this species is found in a remote area, currently there are no identified threats.
168487		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species distribution.
168487		distribution	eng	<p><strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Physoschistura raoi </span>is known from the type series from Mongyai, northern Shan States, Myanmar, in the Salween drainage. It has not been collected since original description. Kottelat (1990) has seen a possible specimen from Yunnan, China.<strong></strong></p>
168487		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physoschistura raoi</span> is a bottom-living fish, as are all loaches. Found in rivers.
168487		population	eng	No information is available; requires further research.
168487		threats	eng	No information available.
168489		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
168489		distribution	eng	<em>Triplophysa tibetana</em> is widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangpo (upper Brahmaputra) River and the Shiquan (upper Indus) River in Tibet&#160;(Wu and Wu 1992, Zhang <em>et al.&#160;</em>1995).
168489		habitat	eng	Found in slower flowing, shallow areas in lakes and rivers where there is ample aquatic vegetation. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and reproduces in June (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al. </em>1995).
168489		population	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species. However, it is fairly widespread and abundant species.
168489		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.
168490		conservation	eng	Indawgyi Lake, which is one of the type localities of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">Puntius didi</span>, is within the confines of Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.
168490		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius erythromycter</span> is occurs in most of the smaller water bodies near Myitkyina, and in Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar.
168490		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and ponds.
168490		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168490		threats	eng	As this species is found in a remote area, currently there are no identified threats.
168491		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species distribution.
168491		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacembelus dayi </span>is known from lowland areas of the Irrawaddy basin (including the Chindwin) of western Myanmar. &#160;Its distribution in the region is wide.
168491		habitat	eng	The species is known from lowland areas of the Irrawady basin.
168491		population	eng	<em>Mastacembelus dayi</em> has been confused with other species, but is likely fairly common.
168491		threats	eng	No immediate threats are known.
168492		conservation	eng	Potential threats to this species also need to be better studied immediately, especially potential impacts from proposed dams on the Barak River.
168492		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Barak River drainage (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Manipur, India. The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at 42,000 km<sup>2</sup> (the area of the Barak drainage), but the Area of Occupancy of is likely to be much less, around 1,800 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated on the length of the Barak River (c. 900 km long).
168492		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168492		population	eng	The proposed Tipaimukh Dam across Barak River will inundate at least 50% of the species' distribution range in the next five to ten years, thereby impacting the population by more than half (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).
168492		threats	eng	<em>Glyptothorax manipurensis</em>&#160;is known from the Iyei River, a tributary of the Barak River. A large (1500 MW) dam, the&#160;Tipaimukh Dam, is planned on the Barak River. The impact of this dam on this fast flowing stream specialist needs to be monitored. &#160;It is predicted that more than 50% of the range of the species may be inundated (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em> 2010). In addition, the reservoir is likely to be stocked by alien invasive fish species by the fishery department as is the practice to date.
168493		conservation	eng	Not much information on conservation status is available. &#160;Further information on the species habitat and population trends is required.
168493		distribution	eng	It is known from Yu River system, Irrawaddy drainage of India (Manipur) and Myanmar.
168493		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams and mid reaches of rivers.
168493		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168493		threats	eng	Urbanisation (road construction) and habitat loss.
168494		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and catch data also needed.
168494		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Jamuna and the Meghna River drainages, which form part of the lower Brahmaputra River drainage in Bangladesh (Ng 2005).
168494		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom.
168494		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend for this species.
168494		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168495		conservation	eng	No information available.
168495		distribution	eng	Only present in Myanmar, in Mergui Malaya (Jayaram 1991). Probably endemic to Myanmar.
168495		habitat	eng	No information available.
168495		population	eng	No information available.
168495		threats	eng	No information available.
168496		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work is needed to know more about the current range and abundance of this species, as well as the impact of collection for the aquarium trade.
168496		distribution	eng	The species is only known from east of Hopong, southern Shan States although there it is not certain that it is not present in other localities.
168496		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected from rivers and streams.
168496		population	eng	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population variations. However it may suffer from declination and fluctuation of mature individuals due to overexploitation.
168496		threats	eng	The area where this species has been recorded is remote and no major threats seem to be taking place. Since the species is used as an ideal aquarium fish, it might suffer from over exploitation but this has to be confirmed.
168497		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species (other than possible over-harvesting for the ornamental fish trade) also need to be identified.
168497		distribution	eng	Known only from the Ichamati River, India, a tributary of the Hooghly River (not to be confused with a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh bearing the same name).
168497		habitat	eng	There is insufficient information on the habitat of this species.
168497		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and its trends for this species.
168497		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.<br/><br/>It is possible that this species may be over-harvested for the ornamental fish trade, but collections for the trade have been sporadic and we do not have sufficient information on global population size to gauge its effects.
168498		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168498		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><em>Neolissochilus stracheyi</em> is found in Myanmar</st1:country-region> through <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region> and possibly to the Cardamon Range, Cambodia known from Salween, Maeklong, Chao Phraya, Mekong and peninsular and <st1:place w:st="on">southeastern Thailand</st1:place> river systems. It is also found in Manipur, India.
168498		habitat	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">Inhabits clear forested streams and rivers. Occurs in swift flowing streams. Disappears when human activities degrade aquatic habitats, as seen in other members of the genus (Rainboth 1996)</p>
168498		population	eng	This species is common in its range of distribution.
168498		threats	eng	It is a game fish with food value and hence its population is prone to overfishing. It may be affected by habitat destruction due to human disturbance.<strong> </strong>
168499		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
168499		distribution	eng	<p>The species is found in Brahmaputra basin in Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya, India. It has not been reported from any other location by subsequent workers. <br/></p><p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>
168499		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams with pebbles.
168499		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168499		threats	eng	<p>The species may suffer from habitat loss due to natural calamities and anthropogenic effects endangering the species.&#160; Deforestation and habitat loss are acute problems in Meghalaya, particularly near Barapani in Meghalaya.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
168500		conservation	eng	More research on population parameters and biology is needed.
168500		distribution	eng	Known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Salween river drainages in Myanmar and western Thailand (Ferraris 1999; Vidthayanon <em>et al. </em>2005).
168500		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams with a substrate of sand or mud. &#160;It has also been reported to be found in estuaries (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
168500		population	eng	There is no information available for this species, although it is still relatively common in Myanmar.
168500		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
168501		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168501		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parasphaerichthys ocellatus</span> is described from a muddy stream along Kamaing Jade Mines Road, Kamaing, Myitkyina District, upper Myanmar. It also occurs in Ayeyarwady tributaries around Myitkyina and in Lake Indawgyi, where it is abundant (surveyed in 1998, R. Britz&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;There is a single record (from a market) in Mandalay, central Myanmar.
168501		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been collected from small muddy streams, but it has also been collected from heavily vegetated lake margins.
168501		population	eng	It is abundant in Lake Indawgyi (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168501		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168502		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the habitats, ecology, population, and distribution of this species, as well as the impacts of collection for ornamental purposes.
168502		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Kyeintali Chaung basin in Rakhine Yoma, western Myanmar.
168502		habitat	eng	Fast flowing cool, clear, highly oxygenated mountain streams.
168502		population	eng	Nothing is known of this recently described species.
168502		threats	eng	<p>No information available for this recently described species. It is utilised in subsistence fisheries and appears in the ornamental fish trade, but there is no information available on whether these uses pose a threat to the species.<br/></p>
168504		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are recommended for this species.
168504		distribution	eng	It occurs in Myanmar (Chindwin Basin), India (Chindwin basin in Manipur), Thailand and Laos (Linthoingambi and Vishwanath&#160; 2007).
168504		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams and lakes.
168504		population	eng	No information is available. Although it is a relatively common species throughout its range it is not as abundant as other <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius </span>spp.
168504		threats	eng	No known major threats to this species.
168505		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168505		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges River at Patna and at Delhi in the Ganges River drainage.
168505		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat of this species, but it likely inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand, like its congeners.
168505		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168505		threats	eng	This species may have ornamental value, but aquarium trade needs to be investigated. &#160;The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168506		conservation	eng	<p>Further information is required on the impact of the commercial ornamnetal fish trade, and the impact on the species populations should be monitored. A better understanding of the species distribution is also required.<br/></p>
168506		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus homaloptera </span>is known from India, Myanmar, Nepal and Tibet. &#160;However, Vishwanath and Manojkumar (1995) pointed out that the species is restricted to the Ganges-Brahmaputra drainage. &#160;The species is also recorded from Nagaland (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em>)
168506		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus homaloptera </span>inhabits pebbly beds of small rapid running streams at the base of hills and pools with muddy bed (Mukerji and Hora 1935). Hora (1936) remarked that this species was not strictly localized in its distribution. However, Vishwanath and Manojkumar (1995) pointed out that the species is restricted to the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage.
168506		population	eng	No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.
168506		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known. &#160;Harvest for ornamental fish trade needs to be monitored and may be a threat in some regions, but is not fully understood.</p>
168507		conservation	eng	The species has been considered threatened in Nepal and proposed for legal protection (Rajbanshi 2002). Further information is required on the species range, potential threats, ecology and population.
168507		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus pseudecheneis</span> is recorded from eastern Nepal (Hewa Lake, Pokhara). It has also been reported from a number of sites in central and western Nepal as well (Indrawati River, Melamchi River, Arun River, Mewa Khola (Dhankuta District); B. Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm. </span>2009). The latter records require confirmation but the species can be inferred to have a wider distribution. Previously considered endemic to Nepal, the species is also recorded from India (Rema Devi and Indra 2009).
168507		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rapidly flowing torrent water streams by adhering to rocks and has modifications such as higher number of simple rays in the pectoral fins and transverse folds of skin along the belly (Yazdani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991, Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
168507		population	eng	The species is considered rare (Ranjan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) in Nepal. CPUE data never increases above 0.01 (Jha 2009) across it's range. It appears to be very much depleted, though it is probably naturally scarce (B. Jha, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm. </span>2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).<br/><br/>Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) have considered this species to be Endangered on the grounds that the species is rare based on the very low CPUE data, but there are no known threats to the species. Sampling is difficult and they are possibly under-represented in survey data, and the population in India requires confirmation.
168507		threats	eng	The species is migratory and is found in rapidly flowing torrent hill streams, and might be threatened by flow regimes changes and siltation resulting from hydropower developments and sedimentation, but research is required to understand the extent of potential impacts.
168508		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168508		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities, but is presumed to be widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China.
168508		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear, fast-flowing rivers with a rocky substrate (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168508		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although it has been reported to be locally abundant by Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1995), and He and Chen (2009).
168508		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168509		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168509		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage between Kamaing and Mogaung in northern Myanmar.
168509		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolaguvia tuberculata</span> inhabits fast-flowing hillstreams with a sandy substrate.
168509		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species,&#160;as the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.
168509		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168510		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed into threats, populations and distribution.<br/></p>
168510		distribution	eng	<em>Psilorhynchus breviminor </em>is known from the Ma Gawe River, along Kalaw-Thazi highway, close to state border between Mandalay  and Shan near village of Nampantet, 20°43.33'N, 96°29.91'E, Shan State, Myanmar. There is no information on the distribution of the species in neighbouring watersheds.
168510		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater rivers.<br/><br/><span class="sheader5">Collected from algae mats on which the species seems to be resting/feeding. The type locality is a cool, fast-flowing stream, with sand and gravel substrate, moderately shallow 30 cm deep. Associated to this species include species of the genera <em>Acanthocobitis</em>, <em>Schistura</em>, <em>Danio</em>, <em>Puntius</em>, and <em>Barilius</em> (FishBase 2009).
168510		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>     <p></p>
168510		threats	eng	<p>There is a dam downriver on the river where the type series was collected (Ma Gawe River), and there are numerous dams on river within the watershed. The species is adapted to hillstreams, and the dam is below the known habitat. The impact of the dam on the type locality is unknown.<br/></p>
168511		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Catch data and the effect of fisheries on this species is critically needed.
168511		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peigu (Paiku) Lake and Chuocuolong Lake in southern Tibet, China. The total area of both lakes is estimated at 350 km² (H.H. Hg pers. comm.).
168511		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain lakes, but enters the streams draining into the lakes to breed.
168511		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although Zhang <em>et al. </em>(1995) report this species as being abundant.
168511		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Despite its purported abundance, the effects of its harvest as a food fish on the population needs to be ascertained. The small extent of occurrence of this species makes it vulnerable to an unregulated fishery.
168512		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. The impact of habitat decline within both the Ganges (where the population was reported to be stable in 1991 (Talwar and Jhingran), and the Brahmaputra (where the the population is known to be declining).
168512		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India (Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh) and Bangladesh.
168512		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear stream and rivers with abundant aquatic vegetation.
168512		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Although never common, in Assam, the population has become very rare (S.C. Dey&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). It was recorded as common in the Gangetic basin (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). &#160;Although always present in low numbers, in the Ganges the population was reported to be stable in 1991 (Talwar and Jhingran), but in the Brahmaputra the population is known to be declining (estimated to be greater than 30% over the last decade; S.C Dey&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">pers. comm.</span>). Identified threats include siltation and habitat degradation in the Brahmaputra; the status of threats within the Ganges are not known.
168512		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown, although habitat degradation and siltation has resulted in a large populating decline in Assam. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168513		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. jayarami</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168513		distribution	eng	The species is known from streams near Mongyai, northern Shan States, Myanmar. More data is required to confirm its distribution.
168513		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens are collected from streams.
168513		population	eng	No further report after the original description.
168513		threats	eng	No information available.
168514		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168514		distribution	eng	<em>Erethistoides sicula</em>&#160;was described from a single locality in Schutunga River at Ansole in the Brahmaputra River drainage (Mansai River drainage)&#160;in West Bengal, India (Ng 2005).
168514		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is a large, shallow, fast-flowing stream with a sandy bottom. The fish were usually found hiding in clumps of aquatic vegetation (Ng 2005).
168514		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168514		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168515		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168515		distribution	eng	This species is known only from rivers of the Middle Hills and Tarai (lowlands) of western (Karnali drainage) and central (Gandaki drainage) Nepal. &#160;It is a widespread species with a range of more than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> in Nepal. &#160;It probably also occurs in the Indian state of Uttarakhand bordering Nepal on the west.
168515		habitat	eng	This species was captured exclusively in riffles, which were typically broad and shallow, well-oxygenated, and had swift water velocities over rocky substrate. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates such as caddisfly larvae (Ng and Edds 2005).
168515		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168515		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168516		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168516		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in the Koilla Khal Creek of the Feni River drainage in&#160;Bangladesh (Ng 2005). The Feni River enters into the Bay of Bengal to the east of the mouth of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system, and drains the western end of the Chittagong&#160;Hill Tracts.
168516		habitat	eng	This species&#160;was collected from a clear, shallow, moderately&#160;flowing stream with a predominantly sandy bottom (Ng 2005).
168516		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, since it is only known from five specimens. Rahman (2005) mentions that a 'large number' of specimens were obtained at the type locality, but this information dates from the late 1970s, and cannot be considered to be accurate now.
168516		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168517		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species throughout its range also need to be identified.
168517		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (in the Iril and Lokchao rivers). &#160;It is also likely to be found in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar.
168517		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168517		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168517		threats	eng	The population at Lokchao River in Moreh is under threat from development activities and border trade. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species.
168519		conservation	eng	This species is known from scanty museum records and it is necessary to obtain fresh material to verify its identity. In addition, there is&#160;no information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168519		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is unknown, although it is likely to be found in the Indus and Ganges river drainages.
168519		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably inhabits large rivers like its congeners.
168519		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168519		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168520		conservation	eng	The species is newly described and needs further research in distribution and impact of threats.
168520		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, Barak River at Khunphung, Tamenglong District, Manipur, India.
168520		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> tigrinum</span> is found to inhabit a large swift flowing hill stream with pebbles.
168520		population	eng	The species is rare. &#160;There is no documentation on population structure or trends.
168520		threats	eng	The species is overexploited for subsistence fishery and the population is known to be affected by destructive fishing.
168521		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168521		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Rangapani Khal Creek of Sylhet District, Jubaneshwari River of Rangpur District, Ghaghat River of Rangpur District, Tangam River of Dhinajpur District of Brahmaputra River drainage in Bangladesh and the Tista River (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in northeastern India (West Bengal).
168521		habitat	eng	The type locality is a clear, shallow, slow-flowing stream with a mixed substrate of sand and detritus, with the fish being found amongst detritus in areas with current (Ng 2005). In the Tista River where this species is also found, its habitat is a swift, turbid river with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168521		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, as museum holdings of this species are very scanty.
168521		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168522		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168522		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Siren River of Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. &#160;Subsequent surveys have not resulted in new populations.
168522		habitat	eng	Although the habitat of this species is not known, it most likely inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom, as with other congeners.
168522		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168522		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the proposed dams on Siang River. &#160;The fast-flowing stream specialist's habitats will be converted to pools due to the construction of dams, which could impact drastically on the populations (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168523		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed research into distribution, biology, population, habitat trends, threats and impacts are needed.</p>
168523		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius yuensis</span> is known only from the Yu River system of Manipur at the lower zones of Maklang River and Lokchao River near Moreh, Manipur, India.
168523		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain streams and rivers.
168523		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.</p><p></p>
168523		threats	eng	<p>Lokchao River, the type locality of  the species has several disturbances due to anthropogenic activities.  The river flows near Moreh town, which is an active centre for  international trade between <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>  and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  The species is threatened from decline in habitat quality in due to sedimentation from deforestation and agricultural practices around hill streams.<br/></p>
168524		conservation	eng	Populations should be monitored for impacts of dams.
168524		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
168524		habitat	eng	The species is found in fast flowing water and it inhibits primarily the edges of sandy streams. It is abundant near emergent of overhanging vegetation in lowlands (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
168524		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, it is likely to be stable.
168524		threats	eng	Shrestha (1990) has documented that the dams on several rivers in Nepal have caused shallow tail water regions below dams which are exploited by fisherman, poachers and predatory animals killing species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus sucatio</span>.
168525		conservation	eng	<p>There is an urgent need for surveys in the river where this species was recorded from to understand its current status in other parts of the river not impacted by the Khuga dam. &#160;Also, identification of threats, population, trends, biology and habitat needs are critical.</p>
168525		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Khuga River (Chindwin basin) in Churachandpur district of Manipur, in northeastern India.
168525		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius khugae</span> inhabits moderate to fast flowing river.
168525		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168525		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this fish is Khuga Dam, which was constructed recently across the <st1:place><st1:placename>Khuga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, which is the only known habitat of the fish.</p>
168526		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
168526		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy and Sittang river drainages in Myanmar, and from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).
168526		habitat	eng	This species inhabits floodplains and lowland rivers (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
168526		population	eng	There is no information available on the global population and its trend for this species, but this is a relatively common and abundant species in central Myanmar (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is rarely collected and occurs only in remote areas&#160;in Manipur&#160;(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168526		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168527		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data and information on the population (and its trends) for this species is also absent.
168527		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower reaches and estuaries of the Irrawaddy and Salween drainages eastwards to the western part of the Malay peninsular.
168527		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers.
168527		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.
168527		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168528		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>  <p></p>
168528		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Lake Indawgyi, the Nan Kywe Chaung in Myitkyina, the lower Bago River and the upper Sittoung River in Myanmar.
168528		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius pugio</span> occurs in the lakes, rivers and swamps and pools.
168528		population	eng	<p>Kullander (2008) remarked that <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius pugio</span> seems to be somewhat less abundant than other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius</span> in Myanmar.<br/></p>
168528		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
168529		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168529		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
168529		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing streams with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168529		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168529		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168530		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Catch data and the effect of fisheries on this species is critically needed.
168530		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnocypris scleracanthus</em>&#160;was described from Langtso (Langcuo) Lake in Tibet, China (Tsao, Wu, Chen and Zhu, in Wu and Wu 1992).&#160;This species is known only from Langtso (Langcuo) Lake, an endorheic mountain lake 4300m above sea level in southern Tibet, China. The lake is approximately 7.2km<sup>2</sup> in area (calculated by drawing a polygon around a satellite photograph of the lake in Google Earth).
168530		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain lakes.
168530		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1995) report this species as being abundant.
168530		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Despite its purported abundance, the effects of its harvest as a food fish on the population needs to be ascertained, the very small extent of occurrence for this species makes it vulnerable to a fishery, even if regulated.
168531		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168531		distribution	eng	This small species is known from the lower Irrawaddy River drainage in south central Myanmar, and is likely restricted to the Irrawaddy Delta (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.). However is is likely to have been under-sampled (S. Kullander <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010). &#160;The species is found in the vicinity of Rangoon and is known from the Sittang and Bago river basins (Shafer, undated).
168531		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ponds and small streams.
168531		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Anecdotal information from the ornamental fish trade, where this species is harvested as an aquarium fish suggests that this species is still reasonably abundant in the wild (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168531		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168532		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168532		distribution	eng	<em><em>Erethistoides cavatura</em>&#160;</em>was described from tributaries of the Ganges River flowing through south-central Nepal (Ng and Edds 2005), from the lowland inner Terai valleys of south-central Nepal, in or near the Chitwan National Park.
168532		habitat	eng	This species was collected in shallow (ca. 10-20 cm) gravel and pebble riffles of streams and rivers with predominantly sandy bottoms, in moderate to fast current (ca. 25-75 cm/sec). They were captured in March through December, in clear to turbid waters, at water temperatures 18-26° C, with dissolved oxygen concentrations of 8-9 ppm, and a pH of 8.0 (Ng and Edds 2005).
168532		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168532		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168533		conservation	eng	It is advocated that this general area should be conserved by declaring it as a National Park (<st1:city w:st="on">Renner</st1:city> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
168533		distribution	eng	Known only from the vicinity of Putao in northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar (</st1:country-region></st1:place>Kullander and Fang 2005<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">).</st1:country-region></st1:place>
168533		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius tiantian</span> has been collected from small rapidly flowing hill stream, with clear and colorless water, low water level, flowing through low forest, with grass and shrub along banks, and over a varied bottom with rock, gravel, and sand but no aquatic vegetation. Only one specimen of the fish was collected in a major river.
168533		population	eng	Kullander and Fang (2005) note that despite extensive collecting efforts very few specimens of <em>Puntius tiantian </em>were collected. Thus the species appears to be rare.
168533		threats	eng	Currently there are no threats documented for this species or this area. However, the place is tourist attraction. Since the species shows restricted distribution even limited tourism can be threatening.
168534		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168534		distribution	eng	<em>Nangra ornata</em>&#160;was described from northeastern Bangladesh (Gowain River and Khal at Gowainghat, northern Sylhet Province) from the Surma or Meghna river drainages (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
168534		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with turbid water and a substrate of sand or fine gravel.
168534		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species; the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.
168534		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168535		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. shanensis</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168535		distribution	eng	The species is known from Hsipaw, northern Shan States, Myanmar and Salween drainage (Kullander <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2010). Total range of this species needs to be confirmed.
168535		habitat	eng	Most of the specimens have been collected from rice-fields, small ponds, and pools of hill streams.
168535		population	eng	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population fluctuations occurring.
168535		threats	eng	Further research into the impact of the aquarium trade on the species is required given its likely limited distribution.
168536		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168536		distribution	eng	Described from Yamdok Lake (about 4500m elevation) in southern Tibet, this species is known from the endorheic mountain lakes and associated drainages in southern Tibet, China.
168536		habitat	eng	This species occupies shallower areas (0.5-1.0 m deep) in slower-flowing regions of rivers and mountain lakes.
168536		population	eng	There is little information on the population and its trends for this species, but this species is reported to be abundant (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1995).
168536		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168537		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168537		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper reaches of Giri River in Chaila area of Himachal Pradesh in western part of the Ganges River drainage.
168537		habitat	eng	The type locality was a wide (ca. 20 m), shallow (1m) river with a rocky/sandy bottom. The water was clear and swift-flowing (Ng 2006).
168537		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168537		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168538		conservation	eng	More research about the taxonomy, distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is significant confusion in its taxonomy. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168538		distribution	eng	<p>The species is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-IN">Nepal, India (several states)</st1:country-region><span lang="EN-IN">, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Thailand</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <br/></span></p>
168538		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This species is found in wide variety of habitat including streams, rivers, ponds and ditches. </p>
168538		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">Population of this species was estimated to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh but its population in other areas is not known (Tamang <em>et al.</em> 2007) </p>
168538		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by overfishing.
168539		conservation	eng	Further information required on threats, population, and ecology.
168539		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus rahmani</span> is known from a small hill stream north of Chittagong University (22°28'25.8"N, 91°46'59.3"E),  Chittagong Division, Bangladesh.
168539		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus rahmani</span> inhabits small hill streams, requiring high levels of oxygen.
168539		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species is experiencing a decline.
168539		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168540		conservation	eng	No documented conservation measures are known.
168540		distribution	eng	<p>This species is reported from Inlé Lake and Indawgyi Lake and probably more widely present in Myanmar, from the Chao Phraya drainage and Mae Khlong drainages in Thailand, from the Mekong drainage in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam, and from the Malay Peninsular southwards to Kelantan.<br/></p>
168540		habitat	eng	It is a bottom dweller and occurs in floodplains and wetlands with dense vegetation. Often mistaken as earthworms (V. Waikhom per. comm. 2010). <span class="sheader5">Most common on grassy  floodplains, often in water only a few centimetres deep (Rainboth 1996).<span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"></span></span>
168540		population	eng	There are no population estimates for this species.<strong> </strong>
168540		threats	eng	Conversion of wetlands for agriculture and urbanisation, and drying of wetlands through water abstraction will impact the species habitats.
168541		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study.
168541		distribution	eng	<em>Olyra burmanica</em>&#160;was described from the Bago Yoma in south-central Myanmar (Day 1872).&#160;There are at least three river systems draining this range of mountains (Bago, Irrawady and Sittang), but the exact distribution of this species is unknown.
168541		habitat	eng	This species is found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168541		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trends for this species.
168541		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168542		conservation	eng	Further information on the species threats, ecology, population and distribution is required.
168542		distribution	eng	The species was described by Hamilton (1822) from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system in India. It is found in Western Bengal and the neighbouring areas of Assam. It is also likely to occur in Bhutan.<span style="background-color: green;"></span>
168542		habitat	eng	Found in shallow freshwater streams of <span class="sheader51">depth 30-70 cm; the water is crystal clear and around 26 °C; dense vegetation of aquatic plants (e.g. <em>Limnophila</em>, <em>Hygrophila</em>, <em>Vallisneria</em>, <em>Ottelia</em>, and <em>Rotala</em> species); bottom cover was sand and fine gravel (Kullander and Britz 2002). It is known to breed in tank with good water quality and dense vegetation (<span class="sheader51"><a href="http://www.aqua-fish.net/show.php?h=scarletbadis">http://www.aqua-fish.net/show.php?h=scarletbadis</a>)</span>
168542		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168542		threats	eng	The area where it is occurring naturally is under deforestation and siltation and human disturbance. This species is extensively traded as aquarium fishes.
168543		conservation	eng	Further information on threats arising from the species fishery and pollution is required, as well as its distribution.
168543		distribution	eng	<p>Found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region>. It is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on">Salween</st1:place> river basin (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), and is only known from the Inlé basin.&#160;The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>. The species was described from a specimen from a market on the lake, but the genus is typically found in flowing waters, so it is considered to not be present in the lake itself. Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) report the species presence in Thailand, which requires confirmation. </p>
168543		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species inhabiting rivers; likely found only in flowing waters and not present in the lake.
168543		population	eng	<p><span class="sheader51">No population details are available but this species seems to have a narrow distribution.</p>
168543		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-IN">Pollution from a range of sources impacts the lake; sedimentation and agricultural pollution from the surrounding drainage, as well as direct pollution inputs form the growing human settlements around the lake.</p>
168544		conservation	eng	Research on distribution, biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats are needed.
168544		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Semiplotus cirrhosus</span> is known from Myanmar (Putao, Myitkyina and Machanbaw).
168544		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain streams and rivers.
168544		population	eng	No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.
168544		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168545		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
168545		distribution	eng	Psilorhynchus arunachalensis&#160;is known only from the Dirang River at Dirang, West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh, India.
168545		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rivers and streams.
168545		population	eng	<p>No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.      </p>
168545		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
168546		conservation	eng	The species' known location, cave systems, are threatened by limestone quarrying.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
168546		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura papulifera</span> is currently known with certainty only from the Krem Synrang Pamiang system, in the Jaintia Hills, eastern Meghalaya. Synrang Pamiang is an extensive system, with over 14 km of mapped cave passages and five known&#160;entrances.
168546		habitat	eng	Meghalaya experiences extremly high rainfall during May to October, but water levels remains low in winter. <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura papulifera </span>inhabits pools of standing water, rather than in flowing streams. It appears to be most abundant in areas where the pools are both deep and extensive. It is likely that it retreats to such areas as the onset of the dry season results in falling water levels, and that the larger pools offer the best resources in terms of food and relatively stable oxygen levels (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)
168546		population	eng	The species is known only from two individuals, one holotype and one paratype which Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) described. Habitat destruction might affect the population of the species.
168546		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the destruction of its habitat due to limestone extraction industry near the Synrang Pamiang. Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) suggested that the species should be moved to the Critically Endangered category in the near future.
168547		conservation	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
168547		distribution	eng	This species is known from Manipur (Chindwin-Irrawaddy drainage), in northeastern India and Myanmar.
168547		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in permanent rivers, streams, lakes and pools.<br/></p>
168547		population	eng	<p>No information available although it is beleived to be common&#160; in the Chindwin drainage in Myanmar based on recent collections from Tamu east to around Monywa (Kullander pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
168547		threats	eng	<p>No information available. However,   Lokchao river, the type locality of  the species has several disturbances due to anthropogenic activities.  The river flows near Moreh town, which is an active centre for  international trade between <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>  and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  Thus threats are expected.</p>
168548		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. <br/></p>
168548		distribution	eng	Kottelat (1990) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura  malaisei</span> from Putao, Myanmar, in the Irrawaddy basin of northern Myanmar. Also known from the Irrawady basin in Yunnan, China, but without precise locality data.
168548		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura malaisei</span> is a bottom-dwelling species in fast-flow, well-oxygenated, cool water.
168548		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168548		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by siltation caused by deforestation.
168549		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168549		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chindwin drainage in Manipur, India. &#160;It probably occurs in Myanmar in the Irrawaddy and Salween River drainages. &#160;In Manipur it has been recorded from Iril River in Bamonkampu Village, Lokchao River in Moreh and Imphal River in Sekmaijin (Vishwanath and Linthoingambi 2007).
168549		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168549		population	eng	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.
168549		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168550		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168550		distribution	eng	The species is only found in Lokchao River, Manipur, India and in Myanmar.
168550		habitat	eng	The species is found in river, streams. Their eggs are scattered, breeds in the rainy season. Feeds on small insects and copepods.
168550		population	eng	More research is needed to confirm trends of natural population.
168550		threats	eng	Lokchao River in Manipur is experiencing water pollution and destructive activities due to human inhabitation. It flows through Moreh Town, a fast developing place of international trade. The species is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to damming, logging and deforestation.
168551		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168551		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (in the Iril, Thoubal, Ithai and Lokchao rivers). &#160;It is also likely to be found in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar.
168551		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.
168551		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.
168551		threats	eng	The species is threatened in two locations -- in Ithai due to the Loktak Hydroelectric project and in Moreh due to development of city and border trade. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168552		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs further study. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168552		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar.
168552		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and biology of this species, but like other glyptosternine catfishes, it is likely to inhabit torrential streams with a substrate consisting of medium to large rocks.
168552		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168552		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168553		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168553		distribution	eng	<em>Conta pectinata</em>&#160;was described from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Assam (Ng 2005), and is also present in Meghalaya (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).
168553		habitat	eng	The habitats and ecology of this species is unknown, since the type series (and only known specimens) were obtained via the ornamental fish trade. The habitat this species inhabits is presumed to be similar to that of <em>Conta conta</em>.
168553		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168553		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168554		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168554		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ukhrul District of Manipur, in the Chindwin River drainage (part of the Irrawaddy River drainage), in India. &#160;This is a high altitude species occupying a restricted range of less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168554		habitat	eng	Although the habitat of this species is not known, it most likely inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom, as with other congeners.
168554		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168554		threats	eng	General threats such as shifting cultivation and destructive fishing may impact this species. &#160;However, these are not recorded as major threats to this species (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168555		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168555		distribution	eng	<em>Nangra assamensis</em>&#160;was described from the&#160;Brahmaputra River at Neematighat, 14 km from Jorhat, Assam, India (Sen and Biswas 1994). &#160;This species is known from larger rivers in the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages.
168555		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with turbid water and a substrate of sand or fine gravel.
168555		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species,&#160;as the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.
168555		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168556		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. nicholsi</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168556		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chagunius nicholsi</span> is known from Chindwin River at Monywa and Nam Kawng Chaung Stream at Kamaing, Myityina District, Myanmar; Manipur River at Samlong, Lokchao River at Moreh, Maklang River and Chatrickong River in Manipur, also River Meguiki and Tizu in Nagaland, India.
168556		habitat	eng	The species is found in warmer months, ie., April to September. In winter months, it does not occur in these rivers, probably migrating upstream for breeding. It is a migratory fish, most commonly found in the lower course of the river system.
168556		population	eng	Report of the species from Manipur in 1998 extended its occurrence from its type locality in Myanmar. More research is needed to investigate the populations from these two localities. The species is however, widespread but not very abundant.
168556		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is extensive habitat loss. The species is migratory. Construction of dams for water harvesting, irrigation and mini-hydel projects restrict their migratory routes. Destructive fishing is also affecting the species.
168557		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. Research is required into the impacts of dynamite and poison fishing on this species, as well as the species distribution and population size.<br/></p>
168557		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus microphthalmus </span>is known only from Chapki Stream, Chindwin basin of Manipur, India. It has been found once on a tributary of the same river, but not in other rivers within this area (W. Vishwanath, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>). It is likely only found in the upper areas of this stream.
168557		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits fast flowing hill streams with rocky bed.
168557		population	eng	<p>No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.      </p>
168557		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is threatened due to declining habitat quality due to poisoning, dynamiting, sedimentation from deforestation and jhum cultivation practices.<br/></p>  <p></p>
168558		conservation	eng	<p>Further information is required in this species and its habitat, especially its population, distribution and threats.<br/></p>
168558		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Baleshwar River (Barak River basin), Silchar, Assam, in northeastern India.
168558		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus amplicephalus</span> occurs in moderate to fast flowing water with sandy bottom.
168558		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168558		threats	eng	<p>No detailed information on threats to the species is available. The Baleshwar River is a coastal river within a degraded agricultural landscape.<br/></p>
168559		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy river drainages are conspecific. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168559		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in southern China (Yunnan) and northern Myanmar. &#160;It has also been recorded from the upper Brahmaputra River drainage in China (Wu and Wu 1992), but the conspecificity of this population with that from the Irrawaddy River drainage needs verification.
168559		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential streams with cool water and a substrate consisting of rocks, where it feeds on aquatic invertebrates (Chu and Mo 1999).
168559		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168559		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168560		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>
168560		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura paucifasciata</span> is known only from Hwe-gna-sang River in Myanmar.
168560		habitat	eng	A bottom-dwelling species found in hill streams with cool, fast flowing watrs.
168560		population	eng	The species has not been collected since its description. No information is available.
168560		threats	eng	Nothing is currently known of threats to the species.
168561		conservation	eng	<p>More research into distribution, biology, population, trends and threats are required.</p>
168561		distribution	eng	The species is known only from small streams near Myitkyina, Myanmar.
168561		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits small streams.<br/></p>
168561		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168561		threats	eng	<p>There is no threat information available.</p>
168562		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to understand the species population, distribution, threats, and ecology. Indawgyi Lake is a National Park.
168562		distribution	eng	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">The species is found in Indawgyi </st1:city></st1:place>Lake<st1:place w:st="on">, and from its tributary, the Nant Yen Khan Chaung, Kachin State, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
168562		habitat	eng	The species is found in demersal, freshwater habitat.
168562		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168562		threats	eng	Threats include logging and agriculture development that result in sedimentation. Pollution such as domestic, industrial and mining. The impacts of these on the lake are not known and require urgent study. Not specifically targeted by fishers.
168563		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.
168563		distribution	eng	Vishwanath and Laishram (2004) described<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;<em>Rasbora ornatus</em>&#160;from Lokchao River, Manipur (Chindwin drainage).</span>&#160;<em>R. ornatus</em> is known from Chatrickong River and Lokchao River, both tributaries of the Yu River, Manipur, India.
168563		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been found in hill streams.
168563		population	eng	Population may be affected by habitat destruction and other stresses. &#160;It is reported to be common (S. Kullander&#160;<em>pers. comm.&#160;</em>2010<em>)&#160;</em>in the Chindwin.
168563		threats	eng	Lokchao River, the type locality of the species has several disturbances. The river flows near Moreh town, which is an acive centre for international trade between India and Myanmar. The Moreh population is threatened from development activities and pollution (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168564		conservation	eng	Lake Rara is a national Park (Rara National  Park) and is also classified as a Ramsar site. This is one of the efforts to conserve this species in its  natural condition. More research in relation to its ecology, habitat  management and pollution status in and around its habitat is necessary.
168564		distribution	eng	<em>Schizothorax nepalensis</em> is endemic to the high altitude Lake Rara in southwestern Nepal at 2,990 m.
168564		habitat	eng	It is found in a high mountain freshwater lake.
168564		population	eng	There is no information available on population of this species. As the lake is facing threats such as exploitation, siltation and pollution, the population is thought to be in decline (e.g. Rai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
168564		threats	eng	The highly restricted distribution of this species may be threatened by pollution by army personnel and tourists, and minor forest produce collection by locals (Kafle and Savillo 2009). Overgrazing, siltation, pollution and over-exploitations have been reported by many.<br/><br/>Rai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(2002) reported the populations are decreasing rapidly due to a heavy fishing pressure, natural calamities, as well as human disturbances such as construction of dams and roads.
168565		conservation	eng	Type locality of the species is not a protected area. There is need for protection of habitat of the species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168565		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Rangriang Jowai, Jaintia Hills District, Meghalaya, India. &#160;The extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
168565		habitat	eng	Hill stream with gravel bottom.
168565		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168565		threats	eng	The species may be affected by habitat degradation due to deforestation, quarrying, limestone extraction and coal mining.
168566		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuation.
168566		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama feae</span> is known from Maklang River, Manipur, India; Myitkyina District Bhamo, Mandalay and Kakarait, Kalewa, upper Chindwin drainage, Myanmar.
168566		habitat	eng	The species has been found in rivers.
168566		population	eng	More research is needed to estimate the population of this species but it is common throughout its range.
168566		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is contruction of dams, which may disturb its habit of local migration.
168567		conservation	eng	Further information is required into the species habitat and population, and the likely impact of hydropower dams and the ornamental trade collection on the species populations and habitats.
168567		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Brahmaputra River basin, upper reaches of Assam, India (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002). Also found in the Dikrong River of Arunachal Pradesh.
168567		habitat	eng	It occurs in hill streams.
168567		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168567		threats	eng	Little is known of the habitats where the species has been reported to date. &#160;There are a number of proposed dams within Arunanchal Pradesh, and these could impact upon the species, but the nature and impact is unknown; the species is not migratory. &#160;The species is collected for the ornamental trade and is highly valued.
168568		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168568		distribution	eng	<em>Erethistoides infuscatus</em>&#160;was described from the Brahmaputra and Meghna river drainages in India and Bangladesh&#160;(Ng 2006).
168568		habitat	eng	In Bangladesh, <em>E. infuscatus</em> was collected from a large, moderately deep, fast-flowing river with a sandy/muddy bottom. The water was relatively cool (18<sup>o</sup>C) (Ng 2006).
168568		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.
168568		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168569		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. There is some evidence that what is currently identified as <em>P. acutirostris</em> may consist of more than one species, so further research into its taxonomy is necessary. Catch data for this species are also needed.
168569		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Bago river drainages in Myanmar.
168569		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers.
168569		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although it is still a relatively common species.
168569		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168570		conservation	eng	Research is required into the extent of the impact of introduced Tilapia fish in Inle Lake and tributaries.
168570		distribution	eng	<p>Known only from tributaries and the shores of Inlé Lake, near&#160;Taunggyi, in southern Shan States, Myanmar.<strong></strong></p>
168570		habitat	eng	The species is found dwelling <span class="sheader51">in a shallow lake, with dense bottom and floating vegetation, and in tributary rivers.
168570		population	eng	No information is available; requires further research.
168570		threats	eng	Invasive species of fish (e.g. Tilapia) have been introduced to Inle  Lake, and there have been declines in the number of small fish (R.  Britz,<span style="font-style: italic;"> pers. comm.</span>) as a result.
168571		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species (aside from fishing mortality) also need to be identified. Catch data and the effect of fisheries on this species is critically needed.
168571		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Xigong Lake and nearby mountain streams (that most likely drain into the lake). The lake is&#160;a closed (i.e., endorheic) mountain lake 1,300 m above sea level in southern Tibet, China and is approximately 0.15 km² in area.
168571		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mountain lakes and its associated drainages.
168571		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although this information is urgently needed.
168571		threats	eng	As this species is captured for food in artisanal fisheries, this should be considered a major threat considering its very small area of occupancy.
168572		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168572		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Tista River at Tista Barrage (in the Brahmaputra River drainage) in West Bengal, India (Ng 2006).
168572		habitat	eng	This species has been caught in swift, turbid rivers with a mixed sandy/rocky bottom (Ng 2006).
168572		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
168572		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168573		conservation	eng	Habitat of<span style="font-style: italic;"> D. kyathit</span> is not protected. But there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168573		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kyathit</span> is known from Upper parts of three right bank tributaries of the upper Irrawady near Myitkyina, the Hpa-Lap Chaung, Nogaung and Chindwin rivers in Myanmar.
168573		habitat	eng	It inhabits small stream with clear or brownish and fast running water with deep bamboo forest on both banks, more than 80% shaded, with mud and small stones on the bottom.
168573		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168573		threats	eng	The species might potentially suffer from overexploitation due to its ornamental interest in the near future and habitat destruction caused by destructive fishing.
168574		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available; catch data for this species is also badly needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168574		distribution	eng	<em>Glyptosternon maculatum</em> was described from Lhasa in Tibet, China (Regan 1905); the upper Brahmaputra River drainage. &#160;It is also reported from Arunachal Pradesh in India (Jayaram 2007)
168574		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow, rocky rivers with a moderate current, where it feeds on invertebrates. It breeds from March-May (Wu and Wu 1992).
168574		population	eng	Although there is no information on the population and its trends for this species, information from current studies (e.g. Li and Xie 2008) indicates that this is still a relatively common species.
168574		threats	eng	This species is intensively fished for food via gillnet, but more destructive methods such as electricity and poison have been utilized that may pose a threat to the population (Li and Xie 2008). Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168575		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168575		distribution	eng	<em>Oreoglanis macropterus</em>&#160;was described from the Kachin Hills (Vinciguerra 1890) and is&#160;currently&#160;known from the Irrawaddy and Salween river drainages in Myanmar and China.
168575		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of large rocks.
168575		population	eng	Although little information about the population size and trend for this species, recent surveys in China suggest that this species is relatively abundant (Kong <em>et al.</em> 2005; Chen <em>et al.</em> 2006).
168575		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168576		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168576		distribution	eng	<em>Sisor rheophilus</em>&#160;was described from the Ganges River drainage in Uttar Pradesh in Kali Nadi near Muzzaffarnagar and Ganga River at Patna, India (Ng 2003).
168576		habitat	eng	<em>Sisor rheophilus</em> has been found at the bottom of fast-flowing rivers with a sandy substrate, where it feeds on aquatic insect larvae and oligochaetes (Mahajan 1967).
168576		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168576		threats	eng	The species may have ornamental value, however, this needs verification. &#160;The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168577		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168577		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only found in Chindwin basin in Manipur and Nagaland, and has not been recorded since in subsequent surveys. Further survey is required, and it should be looked for in adjacent basins in Myanmar. Extent of Occurrence is estimated (based on the area of the river sub-basins in which it is currently known to be present) at 18,000-19,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
168577		habitat	eng	The species is found in benthopelagic freshwater environment.
168577		population	eng	No information available. But it must have been reduced because of ongoing habitat destruction.
168577		threats	eng	Continuing habitat destruction due to damming for water harvesting and hydroelectric generation may have reduced its population to minimum.
168578		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168578		distribution	eng	<p>Presently only known from its type locality at Nan Kwe stream near Myitkina, Myanmar.</p>
168578		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams.
168578		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168578		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
168579		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
168579		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Irrawaddy, Sittang and lower Salween river drainages of Myanmar, and from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).
168579		habitat	eng	This species inhabits floodplains and lowland rivers (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
168579		population	eng	There is no information available on the global population and its trend for this species, but this is a relatively common and abundant species in Moreh market, a border town between Manipur and Myanmar (W. Vishwanath<em> pers. comm</em>.).
168579		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168580		conservation	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
168580		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster labiosus</span> is known from northeast India only from the Chindwin drainage, Manipur, and from Myanmar.
168580		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been found in rivers, as well as ponds, irrigation channels, and rice fields.
168580		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
168580		threats	eng	None known for this species at present.
168581		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168581		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Salween river drainages in Myanmar and Thailand (Froese and Pauly 2009).
168581		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential streams with a rocky substrate, where it feeds on algae.
168581		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168581		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168582		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
168582		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle Irrawaddy River drainage in central Myanmar.
168582		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, streams and lakes with a sandy or muddy bottom with a lot of aquatic vegetation and not very fast flowing waters (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168582		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168582		threats	eng	Although the species is caught as a food fish, the harvest levels are not of the level to threaten its population. There are no other known threats to this species.
168583		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>  <p></p>
168583		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius padamya</span> is was described from an artificial pond in Toe Gyi village, situated just above the Anisakan Falls near Pyin Oo Lwin, on the road Mandalay-Hsipaw (Irrawaddy basin) and from the lower Chindwin River.
168583		habitat	eng	This species inhabits artificial ponds and rivers.
168583		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168583		threats	eng	<p>No information about threats to the species is available. The impact of wild collection for the aquarium trade should be studied.<br/></p>
168584		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168584		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).
168584		habitat	eng	This species inhabits larger rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168584		population	eng	Although there is no information on the population and trend for this species, <em>G. sexualis</em> is a relatively abundant species throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra system and the population can be considered to be stable at this moment (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;The species used to be more common in Nepal in the 1980s, but since 2000, it has become rare (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.).
168584		threats	eng	The use of more destructive fishing methods is believed to be the cause of decline in this species in Nepal (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;However, the threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown. &#160;Since there is little information on the biology of this species, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168585		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168585		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nujiang (Upper Salween) and Longchuanjiang (Upper Irrawaddy) drainages in Yunnan, China.
168585		habitat	eng	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of rocks, where it feeds on invertebrates.
168585		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, but data from recent field surveys (e.g. Chen <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that this species is locally uncommon.
168585		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168587		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
168587		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage eastwards and southwards to the Tenasserim River drainage in Myanmar and the Chindwin drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).
168587		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, predominantly with a muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168587		population	eng	There is no information available on the global population and its trend for this species, but this is a relatively common and abundant species in central Myanmar (Vidthayanon<em> et al</em>. 2005).
168587		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168588		conservation	eng	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.
168588		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio choprai </span>is known from Irrawady drainage, Upper Myanmar.
168588		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been collected from small rocky streams.
168588		population	eng	No information available. The species is fairly common (R. Brtiz <em>pers. comm. </em>2010) although more research is needed to know its distribution and population trends.
168588		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
168589		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of the different populations (particularly those from the Ganges and Irrawaddy river drainages) require resolution. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168589		distribution	eng	This species is definitively known from the Brahmaputra River drainage. Records of this species from the Ganges and Irrawaddy river drainages (e.g. Shrestha 2008) may refer to other species. &#160;Report of this species from Yunnan by Chen and Cao (2000) needs verification.
168589		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift rivers with a rocky substrate.
168589		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168589		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168590		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;More information on catch data is needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168590		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage eastwards and southwards to the Tenasserim River drainage. &#160;It has been collected from different parts of Imphal and Lokchao rivers and their tributaries in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al. </em>2007).
168590		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and larger hillstreams with a sandy or muddy bottom. &#160;This species spawns by building crater-like nests in the substrate and exhibits parental care of fry (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
168590		population	eng	There is no information available for this species, although it is still relatively common in Myanmar and in the lower stretches of Imphal River in India.
168590		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168591		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Currently there is no conservation measures enlisted for this species. Research is needed on the population trends, harvest trends and specific threats to the species. <strong></strong></p>
168591		distribution	eng	<em>Botia striata</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It has been recorded from Tunga and Bhadra rivers of Karnataka (Rao 1920, Shahanawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahanawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Panchaganga river and Koyna river of Maharashtra (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).&#160;Record of this species from Vamanapuram river basin in Kerala by Johnson and Arunachalam (2009) could either be a different species or an introduced population as there are no other records from this and adjoining areas.
168591		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Botia striata</span> prefers clear mountain streams (Menon 1999). It is a bottom feeder and prefers sandy and gravel bottom. The habitat of this species is getting severely altered because of recreational activities on the mountain tops, deforestation leading to siltation and pollution of the hill streams, especially in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.).
168591		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is relatively abundant in Koyna river (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). However, it is rare in Tungabhadra river (Shahanawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009).</p>
168591		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Habitat alteration is the most severe threat to the species. Deforestation leading to siltation can disturb the stream bed of gravel and pebbles, which is preferred by the fish. Recreational activities on the mountain tops and pollution of the hill streams could also be threatening as the species prefers clear water.<br/></p>
168592		conservation	eng	The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168592		distribution	eng	The species is found in Lokchao River, Moreh, Manipur (Myanmar border), 85 kilometers southeast of Imphal, Manipur. It can also be expected in the Chindwin basin, Myanmar.
168592		habitat	eng	They are mostly found amongst pebbles and shingles in rapid running hill streams and rivers.
168592		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168592		threats	eng	The species is prone to threats such as habitat destruction caused by deforestation, siltation, and other human interference.
168593		conservation	eng	<p>Information is required on the species ecology, distribution, population, and potential threats to its habitat.<br/></p>
168593		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus nepalensis </span>is known from tributary rivers of the Kali Gandaki, central Nepal, and the Kosi River in eastern Nepal. It is also found within the boundaries of the Chitwan National Park (K. Conway <em>pers. obs</em>.)
168593		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits mountain streams and tributary rivers, more common in the mid-hills.
168593		population	eng	<p>It is a very common species and locally abundant, however it is difficult to catch, and populations are difficult to estimate. <br/></p>
168593		threats	eng	No threats are known at present.
168594		conservation	eng	<p>More research into distribution, biology, population, trends and threats are recommended.</p>
168594		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius macrogramma </span>is known only from the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>streams near Myitkyina<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> Kachin State, Myanmar.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
168594		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius macrogramma </span>inhabits <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>mountain streams of Myanmar.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>
168594		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>
168594		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
168595		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168595		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Dayingjiang drainage in Yunnan, China, one of the tributaries in the upper Irrawaddy River drainage.
168595		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hillstreams with rocky substrates, where it feeds on the periphyton (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).
168595		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
168595		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168596		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.<br/></p>
168596		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura nagaensis </span>is distributed in Tizu River, Chindwin basin in Nagaland and Manipur, India. The species may be found within Myanmar in the Tizu River, but <em>Schistura</em> are often highly localised.<strong></strong></p>
168596		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura nagaensis</span> inhabits swift mountain streams with gravelly bottoms; a bottom-dwelling species.
168596		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168596		threats	eng	Shifting <em>j</em><span style="font-style: italic;">hum </span>cultuvation in the hills, particularly in the interior areas (Manipur-Nagaland border) cause harm to hill stream habitats. Another threat is use of destructive fishing: dynamiting and poisoning. &#160;The impacts of the proposed Tiju Dam is not known as the reach of the project is unknown.
168597		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
168597		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tista River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in northeastern India.
168597		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected from a swift, turbid river with a sandy/rocky substrate (Ng 2005).
168597		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, since it is only known from the holotype.
168597		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168598		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution and biology of this species. The taxonomy of this species also requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the different river drainages are conspecific.
168598		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Yangtze, Upper Mekong, Upper Salween and Upper Brahmaputra river drainages in China.
168598		habitat	eng	This species lives in swift-flowing streams, where it moves amongst rocky crevices by swimming in a saltatory manner. It feeds on algae and aquatic invertebrates. Ripe individuals are only observed in October, and the eggs are approximately 0.7 mm in diameter (Wu and Wu 1992).
168598		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, this species appears to be relatively common and widespread.
168598		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.
168599		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
168599		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainage in India (and presumably Bangladesh).
168599		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large, swift-flowing rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom.
168599		population	eng	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.
168599		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
168600		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species habitat, ecology and distribution.
168600		distribution	eng	Its type locality is Dibrugarh, the most northeastern area of Assam, it&#160;is found in the Brahmaputra River basin in Assam.
168600		habitat	eng	Forest streams, ponds, and swamps adjacent to the Brahmaputra River in subtropical rainforest conditions (Musikasinthorn 2000). This species grows to 16 in (40&#160;cm). It is a mouthbrooder as the most of the smaller snakeheads. It is probably carnivorous like other members of this genus.
168600		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168600		threats	eng	Limited information available; the only confirmed exploitation is for the aquarium trade.
168601		conservation	eng	The species is not recorded from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.
168601		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Pegu Yoma, the mountain range between the Sittaung and Ayeyarwaddy basins in lower Myanmar (Hora 1929, Kottelat 1990).
168601		habitat	eng	The species inhibits the stream with pebbly bottoms; likely to be a mountain stream specialist.
168601		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168601		threats	eng	The species is prone to threats such as deforestation and siltation leading to habitat loss.
168602		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. cunma</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuation.
168602		distribution	eng	The species is known from Chindwin drainage which covers Manipur in India and Myanmar.
168602		habitat	eng	Most specimens have been found in rivers and streams.
168602		population	eng	More research is needed to estimate natural populations although the species is widespread throughout its range.
168602		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is extensive habitat loss across its range caused by damming, use of dynamite, and destructive fishing,&#160;which restrict its local migratory habits.
168603		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.<br/></p>
168603		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura khugae</span> is recorded only from the Khuga River in Manipur (Chindwin basin), India.<strong></strong></p>                       <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>
168603		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura khugae</span> is a bottom-dwelling hill stream fish.
168603		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
168603		threats	eng	Since it is a hillstream species, it might suffer from habitat degradation such as siltation.
168617		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
168617		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK64">The species occurs from India east through Bhutan, Nepal and southern China (</a><a name="OLE_LINK64"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou,  Henan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan,  Zhejiang) </a><a name="OLE_LINK64">to the Korean Peninsula and Japan and south through Bangladesh, Indochina, the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, Malaysia and Singapore to Indonesia (eFloras 2011, GRIN 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/></span></a>
168617		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide variety of wetland habitats, including the margins of ponds, swamps, rice fields, seasonally inundated habitats along streams and low-lying wet areas.
168617		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
168617		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
168620		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
168620		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK60"></a><a name="OLE_LINK59">Widespread from </a>Philippines, Malaysia, China, Japan,&#160;Thailand, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Philippines and Australia.
168620		habitat	eng	It grows in ponds, ditches and paddy fields.
168620		population	eng	No population information on this species.
168620		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
168627		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7"><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</a></p>
168627		distribution	eng	This species is native to China and Viet Nam. In China, it has been recorded from Guandong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan. In Viet Nam is has been recorded in Son La. The sites where this plant has been recorded are not available thus the number of locations cannot be determined.
168627		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It grows in still <span class="short_text" id="result_box">water<span class="short_text" id="result_box">,  rice fields, ditches, and ponds.</span>
168627		population	eng	<p>There is not enough information to carry out a population assessment.<br/></p>
168627		threats	eng	There is no information on its major threats.
168629		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No population conservation information on this species.</p>
168629		distribution	eng	Widespread from Asia (Indonesia, India, Malaysia), Korea, Philippines, China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hebei, Heilongjiang,  Henan, Hubei,  Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Shaanxi,  Shandong,  Shanxi, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Taiwan (Province of China), the western Himalayas, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Japan, Mongolia, Myanmar, Russia (Primorskye, Sakhalin), an<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">d Australasia (eFloras 2011); Australia, and New Zealand (Kermadec Islands group (Raoul Island only), North and South Islands), and the wider western Pacific. Deliberately naturalised on the Chatham Islands by Maori.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span></span>
168629		habitat	eng	<p>Coastal to lowland in fertile wetlands, on the margins of ponds, lakes, slow flowing streams, and rivers. Less frequently found on the margins of low moor bogs. Occasionally found in muddy ground within industrial areas. <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Lakes, ponds, channels, swamps, slow-moving  rivers (efloras 2011).  </p><p></p>  <strong></strong>
168629		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends for this species, but considered stable.
168629		threats	eng	No known threats to this species.
168632		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
168632		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK64">The species occurs from Sri Lanka and India east through Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal to China and Japan and south, through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines and Indonesia to Australia, Papua New Guinea and Polynesia (Cook 1996, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005, Newman<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007, </a><a name="OLE_LINK64">Ahmed 2009, </a><a name="OLE_LINK64">Kwek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/></a>
168632		habitat	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK101">The species is a typical plant of the margins of rivers and streams, as well as occurring in moist grassland, marshes, rice fields, wet hollows in open rain forest and seasonally inundated disturbed ground., 0-1,000 m alt</a><span class="short_text" id="result_box">
168632		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
168632		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
168639		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been undertaken specifically for this species and none are needed.
168639		distribution	eng	Widespread in Asia (including throughout southern China,  Europe, North America, and <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Russia (Far East, Siberia) (eFloras 2011).
168639		habitat	eng	The species grows on the margins of standing or slow-flowing water, typically occur in river backwaters, canal margins and the margins of ponds and lakes, s<span id="lblTaxonDesc">wamps, pond sides, standing water, and also  cultivated.<br/><span class="datatitle1"></span>
168639		population	eng	The wild populations of the Pearl River region in China are small.
168639		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
168648		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species. More research is recommended to know its total range, populations and threats.<br/></p>
168648		distribution	eng	This species is only found in China where it is known from Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong and Hainan (Ye and Peng 2006).
168648		habitat	eng	It grows in fast-flowing rivers and waterfalls.
168648		population	eng	<p>No population information is available. It has only been recorded in six sites although it might be found in similar habitats with further surveys.<br/></p>
168648		threats	eng	<p>    </p>Very little is known about real threats and further research is needed.
168656		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place<a name="OLE_LINK7"><span lang="EN-US">.</a></p>
168656		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK58"></a><a name="OLE_LINK57"></a><a name="OLE_LINK63">It is found in </a>east and west Siberia, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Japan, China, Philippines and Indonesia. It has been recorded in Viet Nam in Song Hong river.
168656		habitat	eng	<span class="medium_text" id="result_box">It grows in <span class="short_text" id="result_box">shallow  lakes<span id="lblTaxonDesc">, ponds, rarely in rivers, usually in slightly acid water.<span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></p><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="medium_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><p></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></p>  <p></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
168656		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>No information on its population.<br/></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></p><p></p>  <p></p>
168656		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
168671		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place.</p>
168671		distribution	eng	Widespread from India, Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Indonesia, and China. It has been introduced in Taiwan.
168671		habitat	eng	It grows in wetlands and rice fields,  near sea level to 1,000-1,800 m asl.
168671		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends for this species.<span lang="EN-US"><p><span lang="EN-US"><u></u></p></span>
168671		threats	eng	No major threats to the global population have been identified.<span lang="EN-US"><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/><u></u></p></span>
168675		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
168675		distribution	eng	Widespread from China,&#160; India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
168675		habitat	eng	This floating aquatic plant often grows in pond and marshes.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
168675		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends for this species.
168675		threats	eng	No major threats to the global population have been identified.
168678		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="CS">Controlled management with seasonally fluctuating water level is recommended to use at least in selected localities such as protected areas. This includes lowering the water level after the fish harvest, limit cutting and scraping. More information on population size and trends is also needed.<br/></p>
168678		distribution	eng	<em>B. yagara</em> occurs from western Europe, through central Europe, European Russia, Kazakhstan and Siberia east to Amur, Kamchatka, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It occurs throughout much of China and extends south into Taiwan and Vietnam. In Europe, it occurs in a relatively discrete area defined by France in the west, Germany and Poland in the north and Austria and the Czech Republic in the south.
168678		habitat	eng	<em>B. yagara</em> usually grows in standing water bodies on  nutrient-poor acid soils, such as lakes and reservoirs. In Central Europe, it is nearly exclusively found in secondary habitats, mainly in fishpond basins, or it inhabits the fishpond littoral especially in small shallow ponds with fluctuating water level.
168678		population	eng	Although abundant populations occur in some regions, their disappearance was recorded in intensively managed fishponds. Stable abundant populations persist mainly in the Czech Republic (South Bohemia), southwest Poland (north of Wroclaw), Germany (Obere Lausitz) and Austria (fishponds by Graz). The populations are able to persist for several years under high water level in dormant tubers, and can reappear when the water level decreases. There is no information on the populations in Russia and the Ukraine.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
168678		threats	eng	<p>The major threat is intensive fishpond management such as cutting of the stands, scraping of pond bottoms, eutrophication, high long-lasting water levels. The intensity of management has increased strongly during the last decades.</p>
168684		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK9"><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species. More research is needed to discern populations, distribution and potential threats to this species.  It has been classified as rare species in China (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).</a></p>
168684		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK61"></a><a name="OLE_LINK60"></a><a name="OLE_LINK59">Widespread from </a>east Asian and southeast Asian countries to Japan. In China, it has only been recorded from <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan. Also recorded in Indonesia, south of Japan, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Indonesia it has been recorded from Java, southern Sulawesi, northeastern East Kalimantan.
168684		habitat	eng	It grows in fast-flowing rivers and waterfalls.
168684		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species. However, this is a rare species.<br/></p>
168684		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
168686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. It has been classified as rare species (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
168686		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tengchong in Yunnan, China (Wang and Chen 1996). The extent of occurrence is around 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> based on the area of the river basin where this species is found.
168686		habitat	eng	It grows in paddy fields and marshes at high altitudes.
168686		population	eng	There is no information on its wild population.
168686		threats	eng	No information available.
168690		conservation	eng	This species is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections throughout Europe. EURISCO reports 520 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. intybus</span> held in European genebanks, 130 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 95 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
168690		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">intybus </span>is native to northern, central, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia, northern Africa and the Indian Subcontinent. The species is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>distributed throughout the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992).</li><li>France: widespread, occurs in all departments in the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>  UK and Ireland: widespread throughout England and Wales; however the distribution is patchy within Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: predominantly found along the large rivers and in the south part of the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).</li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
168690		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. intybus</span> is a self-incompatible, perennial species (Kiers 2000)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> occurring in disturbed dry habitats such as roadsides, dry slopes, pastures and open stony ground as well as on the banks of rivers. <br/><br/>It is found most often on calcareous or nitrogenous soils (Kiers 2000) but is able to grow in a range of soil types. In the Netherlands it occurs in grasslands on humid and moderately rich basic soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003) and in the UK it is a lowland species of roadsides, field margins and rough grassland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In general it can be found between sea level and 1,500 m but has been found at up to 3,050 m in Turkey (Kiers 2000).
168690		population	eng	This species is widespread within its European range, with a stable population trend.
168690		threats	eng	In agricultural areas this species is known to be threatened by the use of herbicides, however it is able to grow in a large number of habitats so this poses little threat at present.
168695		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place.<br/></p>
168695		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the United States, Canada, China, and Lao PDR. In this country the species has been recorded in the province of Champasak and is included in Flora of Laos (Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It has been also recorded in Cambodia although it is not known whether it is native to the region. The species might be also present in Thailand although it is not included in 2001 Flora of Thailand where it states it has been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lemna aequinoctialis</span> (Santisuk and Larsen 2001).
168695		habitat	eng	It grows in paddy fields, ponds and other still <span class="short_text" id="result_box">water bodies.
168695		population	eng	No population information on this species.
168695		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168703		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7">It has been described as a vulnerable aquatic species in China (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Its status in India is unknown. More research is needed to determine global population trends, habitat quality and threats to this species.<br/></a></p>
168703		distribution	eng	It is found in India (Assam and Bengal), Bangladesh, Taiwan and other China provinces. <span class="datatitle">Only four wild populations have been recently recorded in China two in  Hunan, one in Yunnan, and one in Taiwan. There is no detailed information about its range in India and Bangladesh.
168703		habitat	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK43">It grows in shallow waters in lakes and marshes.</a>
168703		population	eng	This species is confined to mountainous bogs and marshes in China and the eastern Himalayas. In China it occurs as small subpopulations in restricted habitats. There is no information on population trends in other countries of its range. However, since several studies reveal a clear negative trend in China, it is estimated that the global population may be also declining.<span class="datatitle"> The subpopulation in Taiwan has  less than 50 individuals (Gituru<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002).<span class="datatitle"><br/><span class="datatitle"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span>
168703		threats	eng	The diminished populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> could be attributed to several factors including habitat degradation due to human activities, low seed set, little seed bank contribution to population growth and maintenance, a restricted habitat and poor competitive abilities.
168704		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7">There is no information available.<br/></a>
168704		distribution	eng	Widespread from China, Viet Nam, Thailand, Korea, and Japan. In China, it is found in Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Hainan.
168704		habitat	eng	It is locally common in agricultural paddy fields or ponds as an aquatic weed. It also grows in marshes and channels. It competes for nutrients with rice. It is shade-tolerant and tolerates herbicides (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/>  <br/><span class="datatitle1"><br/> <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
168704		population	eng	There is no information on global population. It is, however, a common weed in paddy fields.
168704		threats	eng	This species<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> is tolerant to herbicides (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). No major threats to the species have been reported.</span>
168705		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
168705		distribution	eng	This plant is widespread from Asia, tropical and subtropical Africa and Australia.
168705		habitat	eng	It grows in shallow water and damp heavy soils.
168705		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><u></u></p>
168705		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-US">No information on its major threats.
168709		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place.</p>
168709		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from China, Japan, Iraq, India, Viet Nam and in Primorski in eastern Russia.
168709		habitat	eng	It grows in streams, rivers, ponds and lakes.
168709		population	eng	<p>No population information available. It is widespread in China.<br/></p>
168709		threats	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">No information on its major threats.</a>
168713		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa&#160; </span>is listed     in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources  for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></p><p>    </p><p>EURISCO reports only five germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. palustris </span>held in European genebanks, none of which originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage of germplasm  from the European population is a priority for this species.</p>  <p></p>
168713		distribution	eng	<em>R. palustris</em> is native throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe south to north Africa and Ethiopia, east through the Middle East, Himalayas in Bhutan, India and Pakistan, the Caucasus, Siberia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and throughout China to the Russian Far East, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, as well as throughout most of North America. It also occurs in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand where it may not be native. It has been introduced to Central and South America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe.
168713		habitat	eng	<em>R. palustris</em> typically grows on organic mud on the margins of rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and reservoirs, in temporary pools and on disturbed ground in marshes.
168713		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. palustris</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
168713		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past or ongoing threats to this species and it is  unlikely to face any major threats in the foreseeable future.</p>
168719		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place.</p>
168719		distribution	eng	Widespread from India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indochina Peninsula, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan and Australia. In has also been recorded from southern Viet Nam.
168719		habitat	eng	It grows in lakes, ponds, rice fields and ditches.
168719		population	eng	<p>No information on this species.</p>
168719		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
168720		conservation	eng	No action has been reported so far. &#160;Since the habitat of this species is under threat from various developmental, tourism and mining activities, it is important to understand the long term impacts of this adaptable species. Continuous monitoring of habitats and populations are recommended.
168720		distribution	eng	The species is found from south China to India. In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Fujian, and Guangdong. In India it is found in the northern parts of Western Ghats from Maharashtra, Karnataka and Goa. Janarthanam and Henry (1992) have mentioned Gujarat in the in the distribution based on locality Junnar which is erroneous as Junnar is in Maharashtra. None of the other references record the presence of this species in Gujarat.&#160; All the records are from the top or foothills of Western Ghats.
168720		habitat	eng	The species grows on wet rocks, soil covered boulders and grassy slopes (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).&#160; It grows on primary or secondary bare rocky areas in the Western Ghats hills. It is dominant on basalt and lateritic rock outcrops and forms ephemeral flush vegetation. Other common habitats are marshes, swamps and stream sides.
168720		population	eng	Population data are not available. It forms dense mats of more than 100 individuals per meter in suitable habitats.
168720		threats	eng	Local grazing and trampling pressures are one of the major factors affecting this species in India. This leads to soil compacting, changes in surface drainage and nutrient loads which can affect the species in the long run (A.Watve pers. obs. 2010). &#160;Many of the locations are also undergoing changes due to tourism, windmill farming etc. but the species can occupy secondary habitats and is not much affected by these land-use changes. These are not considered as major global threats at the moment but they might be important in the future in the Western Ghats region.
168725		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">None required.<br/></p>
168725		distribution	eng	The species is widespread <span id="lblTaxonDesc">throughout tropical  and subtropical countries worldwide.<br/><br/>It is recorded  from central and southern Africa, south America, and Asia. Its Asian  distribution includes India (including the Andaman Islands)<span id="lblTaxonDesc">, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bhutan, Korea, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Thailand (<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">northern  provinces (Chiang  Mai, Chiang Rai, Tak, Phitsanulok); northeastern  provinces (Loei and Nong Khai);  central provinces (Ktung Thep and  Nakhon Nayok); and southeastern <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">and southwestern<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"> provinces (Chon Buri, Trat, Prachuap Khiri Khan) (Hedge and Lamond 1992))<span id="lblTaxonDesc">, Malaysia, <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">throughout southern Myanmar (Yangon, <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Insein, Bago, <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Pyinmana, <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Mandalay, Mottama (Tennaserim Division) to c.760 m), <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Nepal,  Japan, and China (Anhui, Fujian,  Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan,  southern Jiangsu, Jiangxi, southern Shaanxi,  Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan,  and Zhejiang provinces; eFloras 2011). It is also recorded from northern  Australia and the south Pacific.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/><br/>In  Africa it occurs in Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Central African  Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Gabon,  Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,  Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Somalia,  South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe (African Plants  Database).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">&#160;It is also recorded from the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh: herbarium record)<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
168725		habitat	eng	<p>This species is floating emergent or terrestrial. It is rather frequent in grassland, especially along riversides,&#160;chiefly&#160;in cultivated lands (Cook 1996). It is found in ponds and streamsides, evergreeen forests, fields, or as a garden weed, from 300-1,450 m (Hedge and Lamond 1992). It is found in shady, wet, grassy places, and river margins; from 200–1,900 m (Flora of China, eFlora 2011) as well as flooded agricultural fields.<a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><br/></p><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><p></p></span>
168725		population	eng	No population information is available.
168725		threats	eng	This species is not likely to be threatened.
168728		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7">    </a></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><a name="OLE_LINK7">No conservation information on this species.</a></p><a name="OLE_LINK7">  </a><p></p>
168728		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK63">Widespread</a> from Russia, China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Japan and South West Pacific.
168728		habitat	eng	It grows in ponds, paddy fields and ditches.
168728		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>It is a common plant in paddy fields (Diao 1996, He and He 2002). No information on the global population is available.<br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p><br/><p></p>
168728		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168735		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
168735		distribution	eng	Widespread from India to the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Viet Nam and Japan. It has been introduced in rice fields in Africa (Congo), Europe (Italy and Portugal), and North America (USA).
168735		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It is found in paddy fields and wetlands.<span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><br/><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><br/><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><br/>  </span></span>
168735		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><u></u></p>
168735		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168736		conservation	eng	No information.
168736		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from numerous countries across tropical Africa, Southeast Asia, Central and South America.
168736		habitat	eng	It is a rooted aquatic plant found in ponds. This species is commonly grows in shallow water of drying ponds and margins of pools.
168736		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range although the global population trend is unknown.
168736		threats	eng	No threats known.
168745		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK7"><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place. Studies and monitoring of actual population trends and distribution are needed.<br/></a></p>
168745		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China. It used to occur in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hubei, and Guizhou. However, based on a recent study (  Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), it only exists in Fujian, Jiangxi, Hubei, and Guizhou (five locations). Although extent of occurrence is wide due to the distance between localities, the area of occupancy is 0.22 km<sup>2</sup> as it is restricted to small pockets of suitable habitat.
168745		habitat	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK43">It often grows</a> in swamps, shallow-waters and paddy fields.  <table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 313px; height: 30px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
168745		population	eng	A total of 13 populations used to be found in Fujian, Hubei, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Guizhou, but so far only five extant subpopulations exist (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).These are found in Fujian (two subpopulations), Hubei  (one subpopulation), Jiangxi (one subpopulation), and Guizhou (one subpopulation). The subpopulations are small (1.35-12.54 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>).
168745		threats	eng	Over-grazing and application of herbicides threatenes the population of this species as it degrades extent and quality of suitble habitat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
168746		conservation	eng	No conservation actions required.<span lang="EN-US">
168746		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in China, India, Indochina, Indonesia, Philippine<span id="otq"><strong></strong>s, Japan and Malaysia (eFloras 2011, Flowers of India 2011).
168746		habitat	eng	<p>The species grows on paddy ridges, in grassy fields and moist lowland depressions, but it is also common in littoral areas. </p><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><p><strong></strong></p>
168746		population	eng	This species is locally common, but  <a name="OLE_LINK3">no wild population information available.</a>       <p><a name="OLE_LINK29"></a><a name="OLE_LINK28"><span lang="EN-US"></a></p>
168746		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168747		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
168747		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK64">The species occurs from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh east to China and Japan, and south through Indochina, the Philippines and the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and Australia (Yamazaki 1990, Cook 1996, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Ahmed 2009, Kwek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009, Maxwell 2009).<br/></a>
168747		habitat	eng	The species grows in a wide range of wet and dry habitats, with <span style="font-style: italic;">var. crustacea </span>occurring in predominantly dry habitats and <span style="font-style: italic;">var. godefroyi </span>in wetlands. It can occur in dry roadsides, lawns, rice fields, riversides, swamps, sandy river banks, low-lying pastures and drying-out tanks, sometimes near the sea-shore. 0-1,100 m alt.<span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"></span>
168747		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
168747		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
168748		conservation	eng	There is no information available on the conservation requirements of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. syzigachne</span> in its European range.<br/><br/>Available information is inadequate to assign an informed conservation  status. There is a need to collect and compile information on  the distribution and status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. syzigachne</span> in the region.
168748		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. syzigachne</span> occurs from the Ukraine and Central European Russia east through Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Japan, China and the Korean Peninsula. It also occurs throughout much of northern and western North America.
168748		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. syzigachne </span>mainly occurs on the margins of rivers and inundated grassland.
168748		population	eng	There is no readily available information on the status or trends in populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. syzigachne</span> in Europe.
168748		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
168749		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
168749		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Sakhalin Island south through, Japan, China, India, Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia to Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Newman<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007, Ahmed 2009, Kwek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
168749		habitat	eng	The species<span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span class="short_text" id="result_box"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"> occurs in a wide variety of wetland types, from marshy and low-lying wet ground to stream sides in deciduous or evergreen forest, 600-1,700 m alt.</span>
168749		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
168749		threats	eng	<p>Over-exploitation may impact local populations, but further research is required.<br/></p>
168750		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
168750		distribution	eng	<p><em>B.&#160;tripartita</em> occurs throughout Europe and western Asia<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and is introduced to Australia and North America (Sell and Murrell 2006). It is reported from all European countries except the Faroe Islan<span style="background-color: white;">ds, Greece, Iceland, the Azores, the Balearic Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway). </span></p>
168750		habitat	eng	<p><em>B.&#160;tripartita</em> typically occurs on relatively rich soil in wetlands such as beside rivers and lakes, wet pasture as well as peat or gravel excavations and ditches, often associated with some disturbance of the soil. It is a characteristic species of the <em>Bidentalia.</em> </p>
168750		population	eng	<p>It is widespread and abundant in France, the UK, the Netherlands and Germany, there is no evidence of a decline elsewhere in its European range.<br/></p>
168750		threats	eng	<p>No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species</p>
168751		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as vulnerable species in China (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). Research on global population trends and threats are recommended.
168751		distribution	eng	Found in China and tropical Asia. It has been recorded from India, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, Viet Nam, Indonesia, and New Guinea. Also recorded from Lao PDR under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas kingii.</span><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span>
168751		habitat	eng	<span class="short_text" id="result_box">It grows in paddy fields,  ponds and lakes.
168751		population	eng	This species is locally common, but the is no information available on global population trends.
168751		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168753		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
168753		distribution	eng	The species has a south and southeast Asian distribution to Australia. Widespread from Bangladesh, India (Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal), Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, China (Guangdong Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan), Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, and Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland). Introduced widely elsewhere as a decorative plant.
168753		habitat	eng	Not confined to wetlands, occurring in pools, marshes, low-lying wet areas and rice fields.
168753		population	eng	Populations are thought to be stable.
168753		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
168755		conservation	eng	<em>C. serotinus</em> is classed as Extinct in Switzerland and Vulnerable in Croatia,   there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
168755		distribution	eng	<em>C. serotinus</em> occurs from the Iberian Peninsula through central Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, the Black Sea, Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Middle East and the Himalayas to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, most of China, Taiwan and Vietnam. It is apparently naturalised in Australia (Northern Territory) and North America (New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware) (  The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe, it occurs throughout central Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, from Portugal north to France and east to Belarus, the Balkans and Turkey in Europe.
168755		habitat	eng	<em>C. serotinus</em> typically occurs in marshes, wet grassland, the margins of standing water bodies and seasonally inundated disturbed ground.
168755		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. serotinus </span>appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range, except in Croatia where it is known from ten sites (Nicolić and Topić 2005) and Switzerland where it is extinct (Welten and Sutter 1982).
168755		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
168756		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation actions required.<br/></p>
168756		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK60"></a><a name="OLE_LINK59">An eastern and south Asian species, it is widespread and recorded from the Russian Federation (Primorye), </a>China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei,  Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning,  Nei Monggol, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India (Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Meghalaya, Rajasthan, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal), Japan (Honshu, Kyushu), Republic of Korea, Taiwan (Province of Thailand), Bangladesh and Myanmar (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, USDA 2010).
168756		habitat	eng	It grows in ponds and lakes.
168756		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><u></u></p>
168756		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
168764		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
168764		distribution	eng	Widespread and common from China, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Japan, Indonesia, and Philippines.
168764		habitat	eng	It grows in the paddy fields, marshes, and stream sides.<span class="short_text" id="result_box">
168764		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><u></u></p>
168764		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
168772		conservation	eng	<p>No information available. More research is needed on global population trends.<br/></p>
168772		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from south European Russia to Japan and Malaysia as well as in several provinces of China.
168772		habitat	eng	This species is a common weed in rice paddy fields. It also occurs in ponds, lakes, marshes and channels.    <p><br/></p>
168772		population	eng	This species is a common weed in rice paddy fields.
168772		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168778		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation measures are in place.</p>
168778		distribution	eng	<p>Widespread in southeast Asia from Japan, Viet Nam, and the Philippines. In China, it is found in several provinces south of the Yangtze river. It has been recorded from Siphandone wetlands in Lao.<br/></p>
168778		habitat	eng	The plant is found in rice fields, channels, wet depressions and grasslands.<span class="short_text" id="result_box">
168778		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species. However it is common in China.<br/></p>
168778		threats	eng	It is locally common in wetlands. No threats have been reported.
168779		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No information available.<br/></p>
168779		distribution	eng	This species <a name="OLE_LINK43"></a><a name="OLE_LINK42">present in</a> western&#160; and South East Asia, north eastern and north western India, Sri Lanka, Java, the Philippines, the Soviet Far East, Democratic People's Republic of&#160; Korea, Japan and Australia.
168779		habitat	eng	It grows in irrigation channels, ponds, rivers, freshwater lakes, but not grown in paddy fields, often forming  a single superior submerged community. <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>    <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></span></p><p>      </p></span></span></span>
168779		population	eng	<p>There is no information about global population trends. In China, this species is locally common in the Pearl River Region and common in  the Yangtse River region, but the populations are decreasing because of  habitat degradation and destruction. </p> <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
168779		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
168780		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The plant is not considered to be in risk of extinction (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).
168780		distribution	eng	Widespread from South India and Sri  Lanka to Indochina,  Indonesia, the  Philippines and northern  Australia, but scarce  in Malaysia. Common in the mangroves of south China (i.e. Pearl River Delta, China).
168780		habitat	eng	It commonly grows on the river banks or tidal canal sides or low swampy  areas in the mangrove forests and its vicinity.
168780		population	eng	It is widespread in mangrove habitats but no population information is available.
168780		threats	eng	The species is decreasing with destruction of mangrove habitats but there are no formal studies on species population decline.
168788		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
168788		conservation	eng	Raising public awareness and further research on habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.
168788		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia and Australia. In Africa, from West (Senegal, Mali, Liberia etc.) To East (Kenya, Tanzania etc.), then downwards to South Africa. Also found in Madagascar.
168788		distribution	eng	Widespread throughout tropical Africa. Also found in China, Myanmar, Japan, Indonesia, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, New Guinea, Russia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Buthan and Australia.
168788		habitat	eng	Floating, almost totally submerged aquatic plant, growing in lakes, ponds, swamps, paddy fields and running waters.
168788		habitat	eng	It occurs in still and flowing fresh and occasionally brackish waters.
168788		population	eng	There are no global studies on this species population. It has been recorded in many localities across the world.
168788		population	eng	Widespread species, habitat generalist, therefore important population.
168788		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, although water pollution, invasion by alien species and drought can threaten the species locally.
168788		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
168790		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
168790		conservation	eng	The species is present in some Protected Areas such as Parc national de Kalamaloué (National Park IUCN Cat. II, Cameroon), Lavushi Manda (National Park IUCN Cat. II, Zambia), and Victoria Falls/Mosi-Oa-Tunya (National Park, World Heritage Site and IUCN Cat. II, Zambia).
168790		distribution	eng	It is fairly common in tropical regions of the world. Its native range includes Africa and Madagascar, India, southeast Asia, China (Anhui, Fujian, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang), Japan, Malaysia and Australia.<span class="Info"><span class="Info"> It has also been recorded in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia.<span class="Info"><em></em><br/><span class="Info"><span class="Info"><span class="Info"><em><br/></em></span></span></span>
168790		distribution	eng	Widespread in Africa, Madagascar, Asia, India, China and Japan, Malaya and the Philippines, the New Guinea mainland and Australia.<br/><br/>In Africa, present in Madagascar, almost throughout all tropical Africa from Senegal and Sudan south to north KwaZulu-Natal.<br/><br/>It is widespread across Western, Central and Eastern Africa down to Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). <br/><br/>In Tanzania it is known from Mpanda district Mahali Mts., Lubulungu stream, Ufipa district Kalambo village, Kondoa district 3km. E. of Kondoa. In Kenya, this species is widespread and has been recorded in Uasin Gishu, Kericho, Kisii, Kakamega and Kajiado.
168790		habitat	eng	The plant is an aquatic fern of stagnant water. It<span class="ListNote"> can spread rapidly, and has the ability  to survive on moist soil in and around rivers, ditches, and ponds. In eutrophic waters, it forms  dense surface mats, which degrade water quality by reducing oxygen levels.<br/><span class="ListNote"></span>
168790		habitat	eng	This is a free floating fern on water in a wide variety of aquatic habitats (ponds and backwaters of rivers) up to 1000 m above sea level.
168790		population	eng	Abundant and relatively widespread.
168790		population	eng	<span class="Info"><em></em> <span class="Info">There is no information about its global population but sometimes it forms dense mat that can compete with other floating plants.</span>
168790		threats	eng	No major threats have been described.
168790		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought although these are not major threats.
168795		conservation	eng	No information on conservation actions.
168795		distribution	eng	Widespread in India, Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Japan, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, Maluku Islands, Australia.
168795		habitat	eng	It grows in paddy fields, marshes and wet grassland between<span class="short_text" id="result_box"> 600 and 2,100 m asl.
168795		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
168795		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
168803		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place.<a name="OLE_LINK7"><span lang="EN-US"></a></p>
168803		distribution	eng	Widespread from tropical to subtropical Asia. It has been recorded from China, Japan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Malaysia, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Myanmar, Kalimantan, Irian Jaya to Papua New Guinea. It has been introduced in Europe.
168803		habitat	eng	It grows in paddy fields, ponds, and ditches.
168803		population	eng	No population information available.
168803		threats	eng	There is no information on its major threats.
168808		conservation	eng	It has been listed as a vulnerable species in China (Yu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998) due to its limited area of distribution and small populations.
168808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China. In China, it is present in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Anhui. The species has been recorded from twelve distant localities.
168808		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in swamp, shallow-water wetlands and paddy fields.</p>
168808		population	eng	There is no population information although it is not a common species and it does not form big colonies.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
168808		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
168809		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species. Some research is recommended to study how this plant is utilized, population trends and global threats. <br/></p>
168809		distribution	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Widespread from east and southeast Asia to Australia. <span id="lblTaxonDesc">In China, it occurs in Anhui, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, west of Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, southwest of Sichuan, Taiwan, south of Xizang, Yunnan, and Zhejiang. Recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Lao PDR. In Lao PDR it has been recorded in Xiangkhoang Province.</span>
168809		habitat	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">It grows in sparse <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests, scrub, wet meadows, streamsides, sunny open places, and roadsides. It is found from sea level to 3,700 m asl.
168809		population	eng	<p>No population information available.<br/></p>
168809		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>
168811		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">A study on the distribution of this species is proposed for Bangladesh toward adopting appropriate conservation measures (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Otherwise, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
168811		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India and Sri Lanka east through Nepal to China, Korea and Japan, south through Indochina and the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It is considered extinct in Bangladesh (Yamazaki 1990, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
168811		habitat	eng	The species <span class="short_text" id="result_box">mainly grows along the margins of rivers and streams, in low-lying marshy habitats and in rice fields.
168811		population	eng	No population information available.
168811		threats	eng	This species is locally common and no information on its major threats. Extinction in Bangladesh is attributed to direct habitat destruction (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
168813		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">No conservation information on this species.</p>
168813		distribution	eng	Widespread in China (except for Xizhang and Xijiang), Korean peninsular, Taiwan, Japan, Indochina and Australia.
168813		habitat	eng	It is a common weed in   river banks, mountain slopes, valleys, forest edge and fields<st1:chmetcnv unitname="m" sourcevalue="2100" hasspace="True" negative="True" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" w:st="on"></st1:chmetcnv>.
168813		population	eng	This species is locally common, but   no information on its wild population.
168813		threats	eng	No information on its major threats.
168832		conservation	eng	None known.
168832		distribution	eng	Widespread in Western Africa and also recorded in North East Africa from Sudan (Kordofan - Taiare). Also found in Madagascar and Subtropical Asia.
168832		habitat	eng	Aquatic grass, it forms great population in the edges of shallow pools, lakes and temporary water. The plants are submerged or floating with flowers spike above water. A perennial but sometimes annual.
168832		population	eng	Abundant and well distributed.
168832		threats	eng	There's no known major threats.
168850		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place or needed.
168850		distribution	eng	<p><em>Nymphoides parvifolia</em>&#160;is reported from Europe, Africa, Asia, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, introduced and naturalized in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, <st1:place w:st="on">West  Bengal</st1:place> (Cook 1996).</p>
168850		habitat	eng	<p><em>Nymphoides parvifolia </em>is a perennial herb standing fresh or brackish water (Cook 1996).</p>
168850		population	eng	<p>This is a common and abundant species.</p>
168850		threats	eng	No threats&#160;reported&#160;to the species.
168855		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions for this species are required.<br/></p>
168855		distribution	eng	The species has a very wide global distribution although its native range is not clear. It is widespread from the United States across the tropics to southeast Asia; widespread in tropical and subtropical Asia. In China is it recorded from a number of provinces (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Gui­zhou,  Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning,  Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhe­jiang), and from Bhutan,  India (Kashmir), Japan, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,  Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam; tropical Africa (Senegal to Ethiopia and from northern Somalia southward to the Transvaal and Namibia, throughout the       South Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones and also on Sao Tome and Madagascar including Zimbabwe and Mozambique), southwest Asia, Australia,  Pacific islands, and South America.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>In Australia, it occurs as far south as northern New South Wales and the northern parts of the Flinders Ranges of South Australia.
168855		habitat	eng	This species grows in <span id="lblTaxonDesc">field margins, ditches, grasslands, trail sides and river margins in sunny places between 100 and 1,200 m above sea level (eFlora 2011).
168855		population	eng	No population information is available although it is believed to be high and not declining.
168855		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
168857		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
168857		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from eastern and northeastern India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar (Dickason 1946), Thailand, Viet Nam and Indonesia (Smitinand and Larsen 1970, Ho 1999, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
168857		habitat	eng	The species will occur in most types of standing water body, including lakes, ponds, tanks and seasonal pools.
168857		population	eng	It is common in Cambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam where it can be found in many lakes and sometimes can become dominant.
168857		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
168862		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
168862		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ceratopteris thalictroides</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">is cosmopolitan in distribution occurring widely in Asia, Australia, and America.<br/></span></p>
168862		habitat	eng	<p><em>Ceratopteris thalictroides</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">occurs in semi shaded localities mostly rooted in mud, occasionally free floating and common in paddy fields, ponds (<span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-style-span">Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, <span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span">Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 1992, Nayar and Geevarghese 1993, Mahesh 2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
168862		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Widely distributed and commonly found throughout its range.</p>
168862		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
168863		conservation	eng	Due to the direct importance (and potential future development) of the species to humans (medicinal use etc.) the provisions of seeds for seed storage at suitable facility would secure the survival of the species.
168863		conservation	eng	None known.
168863		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from southern Africa to India, Indochina to Malaysia, including Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan Punjab (Flora of Pakistan; eFlora 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><p>  </p></span>
168863		distribution	eng	This species is found in tropical Africa and Asia.<br><br>It occurs From Senegal to west Cameroon. Also in  Namibia, Zambia, South Africa and Swaziland.
168863		habitat	eng	It is a herb commonly found growing on the edges of ponds, ditches and puddles after rainy season.
168863		habitat	eng	It is common on seasonal wetlands, marsy places near towns and villages, fields rice, humid ditches, pools, often brackish, littoral or estuarine waters.
168863		population	eng	A widespread species. However, some localised populations within India are declining. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>
168863		population	eng	Great occurrence on pools and shallow water.
168863		threats	eng	Locally affected in some areas by urbanization. In India some populations are affected by the conversion of wasteland area to build houses.
168863		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought
168864		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
168864		distribution	eng	This species is found in Africa, Australia China, southeast Asia and India. In Lao PDR it is found in Champasak, Kammouan and Savannakhet provinces. Two different forms of <em>Drosera indica </em>growing together have been reported from Viet Nam.
168864		habitat	eng	It is commonly found growing in wet shallow and poor nutrient soils, overlaying rocks and in wet muds, in swamps, marshes, pools and streams, and in open humid soils.
168864		population	eng	There is no specific information about global populations trends. The species grows in specific habitats and it is not very common.
168864		threats	eng	Currently no major widespread threats to this plant have been reported. It may be affected locally by habitat loss.
168865		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as vulnerable in the Northern Territory, Australia (NRETAS 2006). In this region, an inferred decline in quality of habitat and population numbers as a result of invasion by exotic weeds has been described.
168865		distribution	eng	It is native to southeast Asia and northern Australia. In the Indo-Burma region, it is present in Thailand, Viet Nam, Myanmar and Lao PDR.
168865		habitat	eng	It occurs on permanently wet swamps, freshwater pools, mudflats  in rivers, ditches and rice fields, and along canal banks. It is a pure submerged aquatic herb. It has been recorded as a component of floating mat vegetation. <em><br/></em>
168865		population	eng	It is common and widespread throughout its range.
168865		threats	eng	No major global threats are known, although this species has been listed as threatened in Australia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
168867		conservation	eng	Conservation efforts for this plant species are not required.
168867		distribution	eng	It is native to India, Bangladesh and Myanmar, Lao PDR (Inthakoun and Delang 2008), Viet Nam and Thailand. Commonly found all over India as a submerged herb.
168867		habitat	eng	This species<em> </em>occurs mostly in  streams and rivers with not too rapidly flowing water, in lowland forest.  They also live in seasonally inundated forest pools or on river banks submerged  only at high water.<span id="lblStatementDescription"><br/> <span id="lblStatementFeeding"></span>
168867		population	eng	<span class="subtitle1"><span><span>No information available.</span>
168867		threats	eng	Presently no major threats have been reported for this species.
168872		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
168872		distribution	eng	Wide distribution in South East Asia from Iran, Philippines and Indonesia, to China, Korea, Japan, and North Australia.
168872		habitat	eng	An annual or pseudo-annual in flooded rice fields, but may grow as a perennial in  constantly flooded areas. Also found in ditches, ponds, and swamps.
168872		population	eng	It is a very common species in freshwater habitats across its native range.
168872		threats	eng	No major widespread threats to this species are known.
168874		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or needed.
168874		distribution	eng	<p><em>Myriophyllum tuberculatum</em> is reported from&#160;South and Southeast Asia, and n<st1:place w:st="on">orthern Australia</st1:place> (Cook 1996). In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India it is known to occur in</st1:country-region>&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, <st1:place w:st="on">West  Bengal</st1:place> (Cook 1996).</p>
168874		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual herb, growing in tanks, lakes and marshes (Cook 1996).</p>
168874		population	eng	This species is found only occasionally.
168874		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
168878		conservation	eng	No information available.
168878		distribution	eng	Plants of this species are native to Tropical Asia.
168878		habitat	eng	Plants of this species are found commonly in shallow pools and ponds. The hairy water lily is found cultivated and also in the wild. It prefers non-acidic water and does not tolerate temperature below 15° C.
168878		population	eng	This species is fairly common.<br/><sup></sup>
168878		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats to this species.
168882		conservation	eng	No information.
168882		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"> Hygrophila pinnatifida</span> is native to the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and Malaysia. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is introduced to the United States.</p>
168882		habitat	eng	It grows in running water, rocky and gravelly streams. In vegetative stage it is totally submerged in water. Commonly found growing in large or small water bodies either floating or submerged.
168882		population	eng	No information available.
168882		threats	eng	No known major threats.
168883		conservation	eng	None required.
168883		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout Africa, Asia (tropical), Mexico and South America (Cook 1996, GRIN 2011). The species native range is uncertain, and it has been widely introduced.
168883		habitat	eng	Free-floating on the surface of water, often forming floating mats with other plants, when the water recedes it may persist in a land-form, mainly associated with areas of open water.
168883		population	eng	No information available.
168883		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
168884		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
168884		distribution	eng	Its native distribution ranges from India to New Guinea. Very common from western India to eastern New Guinea. It&#160; has been declared invasive weed in Florida and Texas.
168884		habitat	eng	The typical habitats of <em>Cryptocoryne</em> are mostly  streams and rivers with not too rapidly flowing water, in lowland forest.  They also live in seasonally inundated forest pools or on river banks submerged  only at high water.
168884		population	eng	<em>Cryptocoryne ciliata</em> is a common species of  <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocoryne </span>which can be found from western India to eastern New Guinea. There  are two varieties of this species in Borneo; <em>Cryptocoryne  ciliata </em>var. <em>ciliata </em>and <em>Cryptocoryne ciliata </em>var. <em>latifolia</em>.  The first one is more common than the second one.
168884		threats	eng	Habitat loss and pollution are likely threats to this species although there is no detailed information available. Hence, no know major threats to this species.
168889		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed.
168889		distribution	eng	The species is native to India, Sri Lanka, Myamar and Bangladesh.
168889		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in seasonal and permanent still or flowing waters, rice fields and marshy places.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
168889		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
168889		threats	eng	No major threats reported.
168891		conservation	eng	It has been listed as threatened in Queensland, Australia. Listed as endangered under Schedule 1 of the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 (Cwlth). A management plan has been set up for this species (EPA 2006). More research is needed on global population trends.
168891		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India, South East Asia, New Guinea and Queensland in northern Australia. In China, it has been report from in Fujian province only.
168891		habitat	eng	This species is mostly aquatic, growing in still or slow running water up to 0.5 m deep. It also occurs in floating inland rivers, with roots entangled in a mass of&#160;<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> <em>Pistia</em>, <em>Salvinia</em>, and decayed water plants.
168891		population	eng	No information available.
168891		threats	eng	No threats to the global population have been reported.
168903		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place or needed.
168903		distribution	eng	<p><em>Myriophyllum indicum</em> is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Cook 1996). In India it is reported from&#160;<span lang="ES">Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). &#160;</p>  <p><span lang="ES">&#160;</span></p>
168903		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb growing in ponds, tanks and low land marshes mostly near the coast (Cook 1996).
168903		population	eng	This species is found only occasionally.
168903		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
168904		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Detailed survey on population size, life history, threats and monitoring of population trends and habitat trends is essential.
168904		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocoryne cognata</span> is endemic to Maharashtra (India) (Cook 1996, Banerjee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). This species is recorded from Ratnagiri coast. Mishra and Singh (2001) reported that this species was seen in Sindhudurg, Achirine, near Vaibhawadi.
168904		habitat	eng	It is a perennial aquatic plant that grows in sand or gravel in shady streams (Cook 1996). It also grows in margins of lakes and running waters (Mishra and Singh 2001). Known only from two locations, the plant is reported to grow in shallow,  shady streams, with specimens on the banks producing inflorescences up  to 30 cm long with a long, twisted limb and yellow throat with purple  spots.
168904		population	eng	It is reported from only two locations. The population status of the species is not known.
168904		threats	eng	Industrial development, power plants and mining are major ongoing threats to the species in the Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg regions (Western Ghats). These activities are causing an important decline in extent and quality of suitable habitat.
168910		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
168910		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of Africa and from India east to China and Japan, south through Indochina and the Philippines to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Polynesia<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> (Yamazaki 1990, Cook 1996, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005, Newman 22007, Ahmed<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).
168910		habitat	eng	The species typically grows adjacent to water in seasonally inundated vegetation along streams, wet grassland, in marshes and on the margins of pools. 0-1,500 m alt.<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
168910		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant throughout much of its known range.
168910		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
168915		conservation	eng	No conservation efforts are required for this taxa..
168915		distribution	eng	The species is native to lowland areas stretching through tropical and sub-tropical the Indo-China and Indian subcontinent region; from southern India and Sri Lanka to southern China (southern Hainan, but likely to present in other provinces), Indochina (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam), Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra (Fischer 2004, eFloras 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
168915		habitat	eng	A semi-aquatic plant growing in still or stagnant water in pools, lakes, rice fields, marshy places and ditches with lower parts of the stem submerged. It is a perennial and can grow up to one meter in the tropics.
168915		population	eng	Likely common throughout its range.
168915		threats	eng	No widespread threats known at present.
168916		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or needed.
168916		conservation	eng	None at the moment, the protection of its natural habitat (permanent pond) is required.
168916		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Nymphoides indica</em> is a&#160;pantropical&#160;in distribution. In India it is reported from most of all states.
168916		distribution	eng	This Species has a very good occurrence in West Tropical Africa. It is present in many countries of West Africa . <br><br>In Central Africa: <em>N. indica</em> is found in all tropical Africa, from Senegal to South-West Africa, in Botswana and Zimbabwe<br><br>Recorded from Uganda,  between 1,100 m and 1,700 m above sea level; Tanzania (Pemba, Kigoma Lake chagu), Senegal to Ethiopia, Namibia and Mozambique. Tanzania T4 &7 - <br><br>In North-eastern Africa, the subspecies <em>N. indica occidentalis</em> is found in Sudan (Gafala, in Lande der Bongo) and Ethiopia (Lake Zana near Gabmatoseh).<br><br>In Southern Africa, the subspecies <em>N. indica occidentalis</em> is found in Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal).
168916		habitat	eng	It is a perenial herb, grows in lakes, tanks and pools and rarely in flowing water (Cook 1996).<p></p>
168916		habitat	eng	This powerfull, perennial aquatic herb, grows floating in permanent ponds of sudano-guinean savannas. In favorable conditions, brought by big rivers, this plant can still grow in dryer regions. It generally occurs in eutrophic ponds, flooded zones of rivers and border of rice fields.  It is also found in abundant populations in shallow ponds and swamps. It can tolerate considerable variation in water levels and can withstand temporary drying up of pools (when it may root at the nodes). It reproduces very effectively by vegetative means and can become a weed of waterways.
168916		population	eng	This is a common species.
168916		population	eng	Widespread plant with an important population. Rare in North-eastern Africa.
168916		threats	eng	No threats have reported for the species.
168916		threats	eng	Some of the following threats might affect the species in the future:<br>- Plantation of water demanding tree species as Eucalyptus use to dry up this type of habitat very fast.<br>- For dry season agriculture, in certain areas especially in towns, people use permanent marshes as water source to water their garden.<br>- Filling up of the pond for human settlement
168917		conservation	eng	None known.
168917		conservation	eng	None needed
168917		distribution	eng	It is native to temperate and tropical Asia (Afghanistan to China, and south to Papua New Guinea), Australia and tropical Africa.
168917		distribution	eng	This species is widespread occurring in Asia and in Africa. Naturalized in Asia.<br/><br/>In Africa it is found from Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa, but is also found in Madagascar and the Comoros.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it has been recorded in Tanzania in Musoma district, Mbulu district in Lake Manyara National Park and Tanga distric. Also found in South Western Uganda. In North-eastern Africa it is found in Sudan (Imatong Mountains), Ethiopia (Lake Tana) and Somalia.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa as <em>N. nouchali caerulea</em>, it has been recorded from Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, possibly Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa.
168917		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, floating in rivers, lakes, swamps and pools. It grows in permanent or temporary water in shallow pools, dams, and swamps, seasonal ponds, lake-edges and slow-flowing streams and rivers, mostly in water 30 to 90 cm deep, but also in water up to 3 m deep.
168917		habitat	eng	Commonly found growing in stagnant water pools or ponds. It is a rooted aquatic herb.
168917		population	eng	This is a common species. Population trends are unknown.
168917		population	eng	Widespread species, presumably important population.
168917		threats	eng	No major threats to the species are known.
168917		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species although it will potentially be affected by habitat loss and degradation by human activities.
168925		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been recommended for this species.
168925		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Africa, southeast Asia and has also been recorded in northern Australia.<br/><br/>In Thailand it has been recorded in Chiang Rai and in Lao PDR in Chedom near Bassac (Thorel).
168925		habitat	eng	This annual hydrophyte occurs in muddy soils, streams to 0.5 m depth, rivers, lakes, marshes, and paddy fields.
168925		population	eng	The species has been recorded in several localities and there are consequently a considerable number of populations.
168925		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
168929		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
168929		conservation	eng	No conservation meaures in place.
168929		distribution	eng	the species occurs in the Old world tropics, extending south of Africa to Kwazulu-natal.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Western Africa, Central and Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>Central Africa: L. obtusifolium is a Paleo-tropical species with a Soudano-zambesian distribution in Africa. The plant is also found in Asia and Madagascar.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa: Kenya - The is widely spread from sea-level to 1140 m. Described as rare, it is found in Northern Kenya districts, Kilifi, Lamu, Kisii and Magadi.<br/><br/>North-eastern Africa: Sudan (Nubia, Cordofanum, Araseh-Cool), Ethiopia, Somalia.<br/><br/>Southern Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). <br/><br/>Global distribution:
168929		distribution	eng	Widespread from tropical Africa and Madagascar to India, Sri Lanka and the Malay Islands.
168929		habitat	eng	Perennial aquatic herb, helophyte of ponds, permanent or temporary marshes, water pools, inundated grasslands with <em>Echinochloa</em> spp. and <em>Oryza</em> spp., preferably in stagnating or slow water, on clayish or clayish-sandy soil.
168929		habitat	eng	This is an aquatic herb that grows at the margin of ponds and in muddy places. Its is rather common.
168929		population	eng	No information on its population.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
168929		population	eng	The species is widely spread from sea-level to 1140 metres.
168929		threats	eng	No threats have been reported.
168929		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought, and water pollution. However, none of these have been identified as major and widespread.
168934		conservation	eng	<p>Not much information is available.<br/></p>
168934		distribution	eng	<p><em>Hoppea dichotoma</em> is&#160;endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan, <st1:place w:st="on">Maharashtra</st1:place>, Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996).&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p><p></p>
168934		habitat	eng	<p>Commonly found growing along the sides of ditches, roadsides and riverbanks,&#160;moist exposed places along river banks, at the edges of pools and tanks and in rice fields (Cook 1996).</p>
168934		population	eng	It is fairly common in tropical Asia though there may be a litle decline in the population due to habitat fragmentation.
168934		threats	eng	<p>No major threat to this species is known.<br/></p>
168935		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures in place.</p>
168935		distribution	eng	This plant is native to temperate and tropical Asia and Australasia.
168935		habitat	eng	It is commonly found growing in rice paddies, pond margins, streamsides, open forests, swampy or inundated soils.
168935		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends for this species.
168935		threats	eng	No any known major widespread threat to this species.
168936		conservation	eng	More research in taxonomy, population numbers and range is needed.
168936		conservation	eng	No information available.
168936		distribution	eng	This species has a Paleotropical distribution. It occurs in Africa, Asia and Australasia.<br><br>There are records from some countries in western Africa. The speces distribution outside western Africa is not known, possibly only found in western Africa.
168936		distribution	eng	This species is native to west tropical Africa, southeast Asia and northern Australia.
168936		habitat	eng	An aquatic herb with broad floating leaves and sometimes submerged linear phyllodes. It grows isolated or sometimes in very small tufts in still water, pools, ponds, reed bed, still handles of rivers. At the edge of permanent swamps.
168936		habitat	eng	<p>An aquatic herb with broad floating leaves. It grows isolated or sometimes in very small tufts in still water, pools, ponds, reed bed, still handles of rivers and at the edge of permanent swamps.</p>
168936		population	eng	No information is available.
168936		population	eng	Unknown.
168936		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been recorded.
168936		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
168937		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
168937		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or needed.
168937		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout the tropics except probably the pacific islands and Australia.<br/><br/>Widespread in Western Africa, extending to Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. In North Africa the species is present in Morocco and north of Egypt.
168937		distribution	eng	Widespread and common species from Africa to southeast Asia. It has also been recorded in Mexico, central America, Caribbean islands and South America.
168937		habitat	eng	<span class="ListNote">It is a free-floating plant that is  capable of forming dense mats on the surfaces of lakes, ponds, rivers and other water bodies.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
168937		habitat	eng	This floating herb, propagates mainly by stolons and forming immense colonies. It roots in shallow water on the surface of lakes, ponds, rivers and other bodies of water.<em> Pistia stratiotes</em> is a freshwater invasive weed that is found throughout the tropics and subtropics.
168937		population	eng	Gregarious species and population generally important. Widespread and not declining
168937		population	eng	Members of this species are very common weeds of waterways, sometimes obliterating water bodies. It is widespread in rivers, lakes and ponds of temperate well as tropical climates. Considered as invasive in many countries.
168937		threats	eng	R<span class="ListNote">ather than facing any major threats this plant, <span class="ListNote">where it has been introduced<span class="ListNote">, can pose a threat to native species.</span>
168937		threats	eng	This is a normally invasive species, no major threats have been identified.
168948		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions for this species have been reported.</p>
168948		distribution	eng	The species is widespread through much of south Asia and the Himalayas, from Sri Lanka east through Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and India and extending south into Myanmar (Rudd 1959, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Newman et al. 2007, Nasir <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, International Legume Database and Information Service 2010, Ithaka 2010). It is naturalised in Australia.
168948		habitat	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>typically grows on the margins of wetlands, such as lagoons, tanks and lakes as well as in swampy grassland. Found from sea level to 1,300 m
168948		population	eng	A common and widespread species
168948		threats	eng	No major threats known.
168956		conservation	eng	None required.
168956		distribution	eng	The species is recorded<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> from Sri Lanka through India and Nepal to southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Guangdong, Jiangxi,), Taiwan, Province of China,<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> and south through Bangladesh in to Indochina and the Malay Peninsula (Philcox 1970, Yamazaki 1990, Cook 1996, Newman<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1970, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, eFloras 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span></span>
168956		habitat	eng	The species grows in and around lowland ponds, streams and rice fields, also occasionally in brackish water.
168956		population	eng	No information available.
168956		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
168962		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
168962		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place or needed.
168962		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
168962		conservation	eng	Raising public awareness and further research on habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.
168962		distribution	eng	North to East then extending to Southern Africa. It is found from Morocco to Egypt, across the mediterranean coast down to South Africa through Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania in the East.
168962		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. pectinata </span>is reported from throughout Europe except Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar (UK), Greek Aegean Islands, Iceland, FYR Macedonia, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Azores, Madeira, Selvagens Islands, Russian Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, San Marino, Canary Islands and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
168962		distribution	eng	This is a widespread and cosmopolitan species, common in Europe, Mediterranean basin, Africa, and Asia, including USA and Caribbean and south American countries. It has not been recorded however in Indochina.
168962		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan, occurring in Europe, North and central Africa, Australia, North and Central America.<br/>It can be found in all the Mediterranean countries.
168962		habitat	eng	<em>P. pectinatus</em> occurs in fresh or brackish water. It tolerates high salinity, pH, and alkalinity. It is highly tolerant of eutrophic waters, and it can be present in heavily polluted sites. Turbidity is the factor that most frequently limits the growth of this species.<br/>It is an important food species for many animals (including some rare species of swans).
168962		habitat	eng	Perennial aquatic herb, submerged in lakes, rivers and brackish waters up to 2100 m. Often forms submerged monophytic meadows.
168962		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. pectinata</span> is a characteristic species of eutrophic or brackish waters, where it may form dense stands in lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams, canals, ditches, ponds and flooded mineral workings. It is tolerant of disturbance in canals and navigable rivers. It is occasionally found in highly calcareous but nutrient-poor lakes (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>
168962		habitat	eng	This species is typical of eutrophic or brackish waters, where it may form dense stands in lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams, canals, ditches, ponds and flooded mineral workings. It is tolerant of disturbance in canals and navigable rivers.
168962		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. pectinata</span> can occur as vast populations and represent the dominant vascular plant species, both in flowing and standing freshwater and in brackish or even quite saline water. It may also occur as a less abundant component of diverse aquatic plant communities.
168962		population	eng	This species is a cosmopolitan water plant common throughout its extent of occurrence.
168962		population	eng	This species is extremely common.
168962		population	eng	Widespread species, abundant population.
168962		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified, although water pollution, invasion by alien species and drought can threaten the species locally.
168962		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
168962		threats	eng	This species faces no global threats.
168964		conservation	eng	In Algeria, the species is found in the El Kala National Park. In France, it is protected at regional level in Rhône-Alpes. The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the National Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008). Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) report the species as Vulnerable for Italy and Extinct in the Wild in Latium. All this data is uncertain and new investigations on this species are necessary.<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place<br/>The following conservation and research actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Algeria and Egypt<br/>- Monitoring  of population dynamics and of existent populations, historic sites and search for new localities<br/>- Evaluation of population size<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation<br/>- Study of the species ecology and understanding of its habitat requirements
168964		conservation	eng	In France, it is protected at regional level in Rhône-Alpes. Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) report the species as Vulnerable for Italy and Extinct in the Wild in Latium. All this data are uncertain and new investigations on this species are necessary.<br/><br/>The following conservation and research actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitoring  of population dynamics and of existent populations, historic sites and search for new localities<br/>- Evaluation of population size<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation<br/>- Study of the species ecology and understanding of its habitat requirements
168964		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is occurring in southern and central Europe, western Asia and North Africa, Australia and North America.<br/>The species is found nearly everywhere around the Mediterranean Sea. In North Africa, it is found in Algeria (Alger region - Reghaia forest, El Kala) and Egypt where it is present in the Nile delta, oases of the Libyan desert (El Dakhla, 'Ain Shirif at El Qasr, El Bahariya at El Bawiti and at 'Ain Musafir), western Mediterranean coast (Mariut), and eastern Mediterranean coast (Damietta). In the eastern Mediterranean it extends from Israel, Jordan, Syria to inner Anatolia and European Turkey. It is present in Greece and extends to Italy, France, where it is sparsely distributed in the centre and the east, to northeastern and central Spain and Portugal. In Italy the distribution of this species need further investigations. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) the species occurs in northern Italy (Piedmont and Lombardia). In the Mediterranean area it is reported with doubt for Tuscany and not found anymore in Latium.
168964		distribution	eng	<em>S. supina</em> occurs in southern and central Europe, western Asia and North Africa, Australia and North America.<br/>The species is found more or less throughout the Mediterranean, it is present in European Turkey and Greece and extends to Italy, France, where it is sparsely distributed in the centre and the east, to northeastern and central Spain and Portugal. In Italy, the distribution of this species needs further investigations. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) the species occurs in northern Italy (Piedmont and Lombardia). In the Mediterranean area it is reported with doubt for Tuscany and not found anymore in Latium. Its European distribution extends north   through France, Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Bulgaria to Germany and Poland.
168964		habitat	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is an annual sedge growing in temporary pools, depressions, rice fields, alluvial flats, inundated sandy lands, damp places and around lakes, reservoirs and ponds. The species needs open, sandy places to establish a population. <br/>It is also found in low intensity rice fields and it is unlikely that it could cope with the ongoing intensification of rice field management.
168964		habitat	eng	<em>S. supina</em> is an annual sedge growing in temporary pools, depressions, inundated agricultural land, rice fields, alluvial flats, inundated sandy lands, damp places and around lakes, reservoirs and ponds. The species needs open, sandy places to establish a population. <br/>It is also found in low intensity rice fields and it is unlikely that it could cope with the ongoing intensification of rice field management.
168964		population	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is rare in Egypt and very rare in Algeria. In Israel, it appears at two localities which are not protected. It is known from at least six different localities in southern Turkey.<br/>In Italy, it is known from two sites in Lombardia, of which one disappeared and from one in Piedmont. It was reported for other regions (e.g. Tuscany and Latium) but its presence could not be confirmed recently. In Spain, it is found in 13 provinces (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its presence in Portugal needs to be confirmed, it has been reported only for São Facundo. In France, it is only known from the Camargue and has not been seen in other regions for a long time. It is present at two sites in Croatia, where it is Critically Endangered, but these sites are outside the Mediterranean region   (Nikolić and Topić 2005).
168964		population	eng	<em>S. supina</em> is known from two sites in Lombardy, of which one disappeared, and from one in Piedmont. It was reported for other regions (e.g. Tuscany and Latium) but its presence could not be confirmed recently. In Spain, it is found in 13 provinces (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its presence in Portugal needs to be confirmed, it has been reported only for São Facundo. In France, it is only known from the Camargue and has not been seen in other regions for a long time. It is present at two sites in Croatia, where it is Critically Endangered   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is also classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Welten and Sutter 1982) and Endangered in Germany (Haeupler and Muer 2000). In Hungary, the populations are declining near the country border but in the central part of Hungary, there are big and abundant populations (G. Király pers. comm. 2010).
168964		threats	eng	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is threatened by the destruction of its habitat due to urban development. The site in Lombardy occurred in rice fields and was lost when the agricultural regime changed. The species is also sensitive to hydrological changes. It is not clear why the species is scarce in the Mediterranean region.
168964		threats	eng	<em>S. supina</em> is threatened by the destruction of its habitat due to urban development. The site in Lombardy occurred in rice fields and was lost when the agricultural regime changed. The species is also sensitive to hydrological changes. It is not clear why the species is scarce in the Mediterranean region.
168966		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
168966		distribution	eng	The species is native to Africa (from Botswana to Ethiopia and Senegal) and Asia, including India (northeastern states and Chilka Lake, Orissa, but likely to be much more widespread within the country), Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Java), Thailand, China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi,   Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Ningxia,   Qinghai, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Xinjiang, Xizang, Yunnan,   and Zhejiang provinces), Cambodia, Japan, Korea, Lao PDR, Philippines,   Russia (eastern Siberia), and Viet Nam (eFlora 2011).
168966		habitat	eng	Often found in water, in marshy places, moist rocky stream banks, wet meadows, ponds and at the edge of pans in open areas or forest.<br/><span id="lblTaxonDesc">
168966		population	eng	No information is available.
168966		threats	eng	No major threats known.
168967		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place or needed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
168967		conservation	eng	No information.
168967		distribution	eng	It is native to Africa, tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia.
168967		distribution	eng	The species is present in Africa, Tropical and Subtropical Asia to North western Pacific.<br/><br/>In Africa the species has been found in Tanzania, Mozambique and Madagascar. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Rufiji district and Mafia Island.
168967		habitat	eng	Still or flowing water up to 2 metres deep; near sea level.
168967		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in shallow waters and  marshes in Australia and into south-east Asia. In Asia it is also found in paddy fields, ditches and even wells.
168967		population	eng	No information.
168967		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout its range. It is not very common in China and when found it forms small populations.
168967		threats	eng	No information.
168967		threats	eng	No major threats have been reported.
168968		conservation	eng	None required.
168968		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Pakistan east through India and Nepal to Bangladesh and Myanmar (Ramakrishnan 1964, Flann 2009, Niroula <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010),
168968		habitat	eng	Sometimes found floating but usually grows rooted in the substrate in shallow water at the edges of tanks but is also found in marshes, wet meadows, along the banks of irrigation canals and ditches and also sometimes in rice fields where it is not considered to be a pest
168968		population	eng	No information available.
168968		threats	eng	There are no major threat to this species.
168969		conservation	eng	In Western Africa it ccurs in a protected area and no further measures are needed. Further research on population numbers and range is needed for North Eastern Africa.
168969		distribution	eng	A pantropical and subtropical species found in the Guineo-Congolian and Sudano-Zambezian regions. It is widespread in western Africa, common and widespread in Eastern Africa, and present in Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in South and Central America, South East Asia and Australia.
168969		habitat	eng	It grows in flooded rice fields or old rice fields, and in flooded or moist places in Western Africa. There are an increasing number of dams in the area which will help to increase the size of the population. In North Eastern Africa it can be found in Open moist places. Perennial and sometimes annual, with a short rhizome, generally growing in tuft. Found from sea level to 1,700 m asl.
168969		population	eng	It is abundant in  Western Africa but rare in North-eastern Africa.
168969		threats	eng	Increasing frequency of droughts and expanding agricultural activities (mainly cereal crops) are the main threats. It is also more vulnerable to disturbances due to its restricted range and limited dispersal.
168974		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
168974		distribution	eng	The species <span id="lblTaxonDesc">occurs from Sri Lanka and India east through Nepal to southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong, Guangxi, Henan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, southern Shanxi, Taiwan, Yunnan)<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> and Japan, and south through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines and Indonesia to Australia (eFloras 2011). It is apparently naturalised in North America.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/></span></span>
168974		habitat	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Recorded from post-monsoon pools, rice fields and perennially wet places below 1,800 m
168974		population	eng	No information available.
168974		threats	eng	The species is found in anthropogenic habitats and is not considered to be threatened.
168975		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
168975		distribution	eng	It is a widespread species covering a large geographical range from India to the Indo-Burma region.
168975		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic plant that commonly grows on rocky, shallow river beds or along the river bank, canals, ponds, lakes and marshy places.
168975		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>No information available.<br/></p>
168975		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
168978		conservation	eng	More research is needed on current population trends and actual global threats.
168978		distribution	eng	This species is native to southeast Asia extending south to Australia and New Zealand.
168978		habitat	eng	This rush grows in swamps and peat bogs as well as in wet grasslands and stream sides.
168978		population	eng	There is no information on its global population although it is not a common species as it is considered as rare in South Australia and Tasmania.
168978		threats	eng	Threats in Adelaide, South Australia include livestock grazing and weed invasion. There is no other information on global threats to this species.
168982		conservation	eng	Information on the population size and trend and potential threats should be collected.
168982		distribution	eng	<p><em>N. nucifera</em> occurs from southwestern European Russia at the northern end of the Caspian Sea through Iran and the Caucasus to the Russian Far East, China, Japan and the Korea Peninsula. It also occurs in the Indian Sub-continent, southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea and Australia. </p>
168982		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. nucifera</span> occurs in still and slow-flowing water or lakes and rivers.
168982		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nucifera</span> in Europe.
168982		threats	eng	No information available.
168987		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and monitoring of populations and habitats are recommended at least for southern India.
168987		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes coromandelina </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">coromandelina</span> occurs in India, while <span style="font-style: italic;">I.c. </span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> macrotubercolata</span> occurs in north-western Australia.<br/>In India it is distributed in Kannur (Madayipara), Malappuram, Thrissur and Ernakulam (paddy fields and temporary pools) in Kerala, many of these populations have disappeared except in Madayipara (K.P. Rajesh and C.N. Manju pers. comm.), Kanyakumari (Achankulam pond near Marunduvalmalai) (S. Jeeva pers. comm.). &#160;The species has disappeared from Agasteeshwaram pond in Kanyakumari District (S. Jeeva pers. comm.), Kallidaikuruchi pond near the railway gate in Tirunelveli, and near Bharathidasan University in Tiruchy (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm.). It is also reported from Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Andhra Pradesh it is reported from Chandragiri hill top (Chittoor District), Pakhal Lake (Warangal District), Balapalle range (Cuddapah District) and Gobanapalem of East Godavari District (Pullaiah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2003). It is also reported from Gujarat (Tuwa) (Pilo and Pathak, 1996) It has also been recorded in Thailand (Kanchanaburi in Bao Khao) and Viet Nam.
168987		habitat	eng	This species is a fern growing in degraded wetlands, temporary pools and laterite pools. It is also reported from lakes and hill topes (<span class="addmd">Pullaiah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2003).
168987		population	eng	The populations in Tamil Nadu and Kerala are under severe threat; several populations have disappeared due to destruction of habitat, reclamation and clay mining.
168987		threats	eng	Globally, the threats to this species are not known. Habitat destruction, reclamation, clay mining, harvest for educational laboratory practices are the main threats to the species in southern India.
168988		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place or needed.<br/></p>
168988		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hygrophila polysperma</span> is native to temperate and tropical Asia from China to Thailand, Viet Nam and India. It is naturalized in North America where it has been declared as noxious weed.
168988		habitat	eng	This species is a freshwater amphibious herb. It is found in warmer climates  and prefers flowing streams, but may also be found in slow-moving waters  and in lakes. It is a fast-growing and fast-spreading species that  out-shades and out-competes other submersed plants. This plant interferes with navigation and has been known to compete with other aggressive non-native invasive plants.<br/><span class="ListNote"><span class="ListNote"></span>
168988		population	eng	<p>This species is one of the hardiest aquarium plants available.  It is particularly good for beginners because it grows in almost all conditions.  It normally grows so fast that it is important to prevent it crowding out other  plants. It has been declared as noxious and invasive weed in North America. </p>
168988		threats	eng	<p>No threats to this species have been reported.<span class="ListNote"></p>
168991		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place.
168991		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed.
168991		distribution	eng	This aquatic plant is found in tropical and subtropical regions. In Indochina, it is found in central and southern Thailand and in Viet Nam.
168991		distribution	eng	This species is native to the tropical and warm regions of the world. In Africa, it is found in Egypt, South Africa and Namibia. Some authors (RBG Kew, 2010) consider this species as introduced in Egypt.
168991		habitat	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">It occurs in ponds, lakesides, pools, and ditches. It can be found in eutrophic waters.
168991		habitat	eng	This hydrophyte is found in stagnant water, ponds, lake shores, pools, and ditches.
168991		population	eng	Although there are no global population estimates, this species is common in suitable habitats.
168991		population	eng	This species is common in North Africa.
168991		threats	eng	No threats have been reported.
168991		threats	eng	This species may be affected by competition with other invador species but this is not a major threat.
168994		conservation	eng	At least found in one protected area (Mkuze Game Reserve, South Africa) but it may be present in more. No conservation actions are required, except for better research on the popualtion dynamics. It has been listed as Critically endangered in South Africa.
168994		conservation	eng	None required.
168994		distribution	eng	A Pan-tropical species (south and south east Asia, Australia, tropical Africa south to South Africa). Tends to be highly localised around lakes and dams in low lying areas.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Western Africa and Central Africa.  Only found in one locality in South Africa (PRECIS) Mkuze Swamps, KwaZulu-Natal.
168994		distribution	eng	This species is an old world species, possibly of Indochinese origin, which occurs in tropical Asia and Africa. It is common to all countries of southeast Asia.
168994		habitat	eng	Annual or perrennial growing in marshy places, pans, pools, dams, reservoirs, ditches or sometimes floating.  It may from large floating populations and can be hazardous (Cook 2004:68).
168994		habitat	eng	The species grows in and along<span> ditches, water courses,  margins of fish ponds and rice fields in the open, from sea-level up to 1,800 m. It is able to reproduce by fragmentation and may be so abundant that it clogs water courses.
168994		population	eng	Generally found in small subpopulations.
168994		population	eng	The species is widespread and abundant throughout much of its known range.
168994		threats	eng	No known major threats to this species.
168994		threats	eng	No major widespread threats. The Mkhuze Swamps is one of the few Southern African localities for this species and the only place in South Africa. This area is threatened by quick wildfires and heavy cattle grazing, informal (illegal agriculture).
168997		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
168997		distribution	eng	Native to Temperate and Tropical Asia from China to India to Viet Nam and Indonesia.
168997		habitat	eng	<p>This plant is a large herb which can grow up to 2 m tall. It occurs in swamps, riverbanks, ditches, moist places in tropical and subtropical forests.<br/></p>
168997		population	eng	This tropical aquatic plant is widespread and common in suitable habitats and in gardens.
168997		threats	eng	No major threats to this species.
169004		conservation	eng	No conservation actions for this species have been reported.
169004		distribution	eng	It is native to southeast Asia and naturalized elsewhere.The species is found from tropical and subtropical Asia, from China (Guangdong, Guangxi) and Japan to Pakistan and Indonesia, to northern Australia.
169004		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It occurs in swampy and inundated places, pools, ditches, and marshes and is locally abundant, especially in the lowlands. It is considered as a weed of rice crops. It is also a host of <span style="font-style: italic;">Chilo polychrysus</span>, the Dark-headed Rice Borer (Kostermans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).
169004		population	eng	It is a robust, widespread and important weed, spreading by stolons and capable of dominating rice crops and wetlands.
169004		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
169011		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
169011		distribution	eng	<p>This aquatic plant has been recorded in several countries across southeast and east Asia, Indonesia and northern Australia. In China it has been recorded in the provinces of Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, NE Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, and Zhejiang. In Thailand it is found in the Chiang Mai (northern), Nakhon Ratchasima (eastern) and Ang Thong in Saraburi (central).</p>
169011		habitat	eng	It grows in ponds, lakes and streams of lowlands.
169011		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends but numerous populations have been reported.
169011		threats	eng	No threats have been reported.
169015		conservation	eng	In the United Arab Emirates, there has recently been implementation of the beginning of an effective management program that would start with baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts. This species is also protected under the UNEP Regional Seas Programme, GCC (Gulf Cooperative Council), GAOCMAO (Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation) and other agreements which relate to environmental management and pollution controls. This species also is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve, and is included in the integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme.&#160;&#160; <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila ovalis </span>is found in a marine park in Swan River and in Shark Bay World Heritage Property which contains more than 4000 km² of seagrass beds of high density in Western Australia.&#160; It cannot be damaged without a permit in New South Whales and Queensland. <br/><br/>It also occurs in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, the largest seagrass beds with the highest species diversity for a single area in Thailand. Management policies were proposed in 1998 by the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning in Thailand. <br/><br/>In the western Pacific islands, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ovalis </span>is recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas. There are also NGOs focused on conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies, suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve. Additionally, it is included in the management guide in the Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan drafted by the Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC), and monitored in SeagrassNet located in Puerto Galera (Philippines) which shows the impacts of eutrophication at the site adjacent to a coastal town (Green and Short 2003).
169015		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila ovalis</em> is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. In the Pacific, it occurs from southern Japan throughout Southeast Asia, many islands of the western Pacific, and through all but the southern coast of Australia as well as Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands and as far east as Tonga and Samoa. In the Indian Ocean, <em>H. ovalis</em> is found from southwestern Australia to East Africa and the Red Sea, including Madagascar, with some exceptions of islands or coastlines with no records. Recently <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ovali</span>s has been discovered in the Atlantic Ocean on the Island of Antigua (Short <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
169015		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila ovalis</span> is rapidly growing, with high turn-over, wide ecological range, and is considered a pioneering species. This species is one of the most common foods of the Dugong.<br/><br/>In Arabian Gulf, this species tolerates extreme conditions with salinity varying from 38-70 practical salinity units (psu) and temperatures of 10-39°C (inshore) and 19-33°C (offshore) (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>Photosynthetic studies in Tanzania indicate an enhanced photosynthetic rate in the high, frequently air-exposed, intertidal zone which may have been related to a capacity to take up the elevated HCO<sub>3</sub> levels directly. This is a pioneer species in Mozambique in exposed sandy areas close to the coastline (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>It grows rapidly and survives well in unstable and depositional environments in eastern Australia (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>It is widely distributed in Thailand because of its ability to grow in different habitats, such as mud, muddy sand and dead coral fragments in the upper littoral and subtidal areas (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Peninsular Malaysia, it is common all around the coast on muddy shores and areas exposed at low tide. This species is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western islands of the western Pacific, it is found in intertidal habitat mixed with <em>Enhalus acoroides</em> in Palau or <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> in Yap, commonly found in deep water at the offshore edge of mixed seagrass meadows (Green and Short 2003). In Micronesia, it is tolerant of 40°C temperature and low salinity (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, it has a wide vertical range, from the intertidal zone down to more than 20 m depth, and grows specially well on disturbed sediments such as the mounds of burrowing invertebrates (Green and Short 2003).
169015		population	eng	This is a common species. Its global population trend is stable or increasing as it can tolerate disturbances.<br/><br/>A 1988 survey established the existence of approximately 1,200 km² of seagrass habitat in southwestern Hervey Bay, Australia. Surveys in 1992 and 1993 add an additional 400 km² of habitat in the northeastern portion of the bay which was not surveyed in 1988. <em>Halophila spinulosa</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em> were the most common seagrasses. Following two floods and a cyclone in 1992, virtually all of the seagrasses in southwestern Hervey Bay had disappeared which represents approximately 24% of the known area of seagrass along the east coast of Queensland. This die-off is unprecedented in the past 100 years. Initial recovery was restricted to deep water (>10 m) as recorded in 1993. Only a few, unpredictable shallow sites showed signs of recovery. Deep-water recovery was resulting from germination of seeds. Communities in deeper waters were expected to recover in a few years. Recovery for the shallow water region is unpredictable but recovery from other events has taken 10 or more years (Preen <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound, Western Australia, has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads. Between 1954 and 1978 the meadow in this region reduced from 4,200 to 900 ha and leaf detritus production has reduced from 23,000 to 4,000 t dry weight/year. Seagrasses in this region include <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em>, <em>P. australis</em>, <em>P. coriacea</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, <em>H. decipiens</em>, <em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em>, <em>Heterozostera tasmanica</em>, <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, and <em>A. antarctica</em> (Cambridge and McComb 1984).
169015		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> ovalis</em> is more susceptible to elevated temperatures than some species of seagrass (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2006). Climate change is also a threat for this species, and it is collected and sold internationally for aquaria.<br/><strong></strong><br/>Oil globules and oily black films discharges negatively affect<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. ovalis</span> in the Arabian Gulf (Green and Short 2003), and overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material) occur in Kenyan and Tanzanian shores. Declining water quality due to increasing populations in coastal towns and cities is also an issue (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In India, the natural causes of destruction are cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Other threats include anthropogenic activities such as deforestation in the hinterland or mangrove destruction, construction of harbours or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction materials. Anchoring and moving of boats, ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, land filling and untreated sewage disposal (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Western Australia, threats include human activities such as direct physical damage caused by port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging, excessive loads of nutrients causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering by epiphytes, and land based activity associated with ports, industry, aquaculture, farming, direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In eastern Australia, population reduction is caused by the result of light reduction due to sediment loads in water, coastal development, dredging and marine developments, and minor damage from boating and shipping activities. This species also could be impacted by coastal runoff and to some extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it is threatened by a combination of illegal fisheries and fishing practices, and land-based activities, especially mining, reduced water quality resulting from upland clearing, development along rivers and destruction of mangrove forests (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Malaysia, loss was caused by intensive sand mining for reclamation activities in mangrove swamps as part of the construction of a condominium which resulted to suspended particles in the water settled on its leaves, blocking sunlight for photosynthesis and causing considerable stress and mortality through burial. This species also was damaged by intense winds, waves and sediment movement during the northeast monsoon storms of October 1998 to January 1999 (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific, threats include coastal development, dredging, and marina developments, climate change and associated increase in storm activity, water temperature and/or sea-level rise (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ovalis</span> is threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove cutting and coral reef damage, by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based resources, and by over exploitation of living marine resources such as fish, molluscs and sea cucumbers (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the Philippines, it is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Japan, threats occur from industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting to loss of vegetation, water pollution, disturbance of habitats by fish trawling, changes in environmental conditions due to human activities (Green and Short 2003).
169017		conservation	eng	No inmediate conservation actions are need. Taxonomy, biology and ecology are known. Further research on population numbers and range are needed.
169017		distribution	eng	This species is present from the old world tropics and subtropics extending into U.S.A. It is widespread in western Africa and north eastern Africa. Also present in Eastern Africa and Southern Africa.
169017		habitat	eng	Border of water bodies and temporary flooded depressions on sandy to muddy soils ; rice fields and market gardening.  Rhizophytic which grows in the edges of pools. In upland Kenya it is found scattered from 900-1,400 m above sea level.
169017		population	eng	Fairly common throughout its range. Populations can fluctuate due to the decrease of rains and as a consequence of a reduction of the number of pools.
169017		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought have been described as possible threats to this species.
169021		conservation	eng	More research in global population trends is required.
169021		distribution	eng	Recorded from Thailand, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and India.
169021		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers and ponds in still or slow flowing waters.
169021		population	eng	There is no information available on global population trends. It has been at least recorded from sixteen localities in Thailand (La-ongrsri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)
169021		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169023		conservation	eng	None required at present.
169023		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Iran and Saudi Arabia, east through Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India and Nepal to China and Japan, south through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It is naturalised in Hawaii, southern USA and Puerto Rico (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span> 2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span> 2009).
169023		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide variety of wetland types, from deep shaded forests, to river margins and rice fields. 160-330 m asl.
169023		population	eng	No information available.
169023		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
169024		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is needed in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
169024		distribution	eng	The species occurs as a native from Sri Lanka and Pakistan east through India, Nepal and Bangladesh to southern China and Japan and south through Indochina, the Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia to Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, Oceania and Australia (Philcox 1970, Harada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987, Yamazaki 1990, Cook 1996, Newman 2007, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, eFloras 2011). It is considered to be naturalised in Botswana, Madagascar, South Africa and Zimbabwe, as well as in Florida, Louisiana and Texas.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/><span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
169024		habitat	eng	The species occurs in low-lying marshy areas, swamps, on the margins of ponds and in rice fields.
169024		population	eng	There is little information available, however it is only known to occur sporadically in a few places in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)
169024		threats	eng	The main cause of decline in Bangladesh is loss of habitat (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), however the species is not threatened across its range.
169029		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. More research is needed to determine population trends and threats.
169029		distribution	eng	This plant is found from India to northern Australia. It has been recorded from Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
169029		habitat	eng	It grows totally submerged with emergent flowers. It can be found in rice fields and channels, also in marshy grounds.
169029		population	eng	This species is not common throughout its range. Number of populations and occurrence are not clear. For example, it was described as widespread but localised in occurrence in India (Cook<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1980). This is an old reference and needs to be supported by up to date information.
169029		threats	eng	There is no information on its major threats.
169033		conservation	eng	No&#160;conservation&#160;measures are in place.
169033		distribution	eng	This species is native to southern India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
169033		habitat	eng	It grows in permanent and seasonal ponds and lakes.
169033		population	eng	This plant is widespread and common in freshwater habitats.
169033		threats	eng	No threats identified.
169037		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.
169037		distribution	eng	Present in Tropical Africa, Tropical and Subtropical Asia to Australia and Argentina. The species is widespread in western Africa. Also found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania. In Malawi it occurs in Songani in Zomba, Lingadzi River on Kasungu Road. The species is common and widespread in Kenya from sea level to 1,800 m above sea level. In Uganda it occurs between 1,100 and 1,400 m asl Recorded from Karamoja and Teso in the north Eastern part of Uganda.
169037		habitat	eng	It grows in flooded soils, shallow waters and on banks of streams and lagoons.
169037		population	eng	the species is common throughout its range.
169037		threats	eng	Although no major widespread threats have been described, agriculture, drought, water pollution and recreation activities on shores could threaten the species locally.
169038		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
169038		distribution	eng	This plant is widespread and has been recorded in China, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Japan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Borneo, Indonesia, and north Australia.
169038		habitat	eng	In marshes, waterlogged areas, open <span id="lblTaxonDesc">wet places, ridges between rice fields, soggy soils, lowland to mountain areas.
169038		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its range.
169038		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to wetland drainage. However, this is not a widespread global threat.
169039		conservation	eng	No conservation measures described.
169039		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Viet Nam. It has been declared as a noxious weed in North America.
169039		habitat	eng	This aquatic hydrogeophyte occurs in ponds, lakes and slow-moving rivers and channels. It grows as a submerged stem plant which is attached to the substrate.
169039		population	eng	There is no information available on its global population.
169039		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been reported.
169042		conservation	eng	No conservation is required for this plant species.
169042		distribution	eng	Recorded from India to tropical Australia. Records include China<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> (Hainan (Changjiang Xian) and Hong Kong), Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar,  Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam and Oceania (including Australia) (Cook 1996, eFloras 2011, RBG Kew 2011).
169042		habitat	eng	Found in teak forests; monsoon forest, woodland and wooded grassland (in Australia); also humid meadows, shallow ditches and field borders.
169042		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia, China and Australia. In India there may be some decline but there are no published reports.
169042		threats	eng	No major threats known, though the causes of decline in India requires further investigation, and is likely to be the result of habitat loss.
169044		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place or needed.
169044		distribution	eng	<p><em>Nymphoides aurantiaca</em> is endemic to southern India, Sri Lanka. In India it occurs in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Cook 1996).</p>
169044		habitat	eng	<p><em>Nymphoides aurantiaca</em> is a annual herb grows in shallow freshwater ponds near coast (Cook 1996). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
169044		population	eng	<p>Common species throughout the range.</p>
169044		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for the species.
169045		conservation	eng	None required.
169045		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of the Indian subcontinent, east through Bhutan to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, south through Bangladesh, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Viet Nam to the Philippines and Indonesia (Philcox 1970, Cook 1996, Mudgal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, NMNH 2011)
169045		habitat	eng	Common  aquatic weed found in ponds and rice fields, marshy area, full sun (JIRCAS 2011). Typically grows in ditches, marshy wet, low-lying areas and rice fields.
169045		population	eng	No information available.
169045		threats	eng	The species is found in anthropogenic habitats and is not considered to be threatened.
169047		conservation	eng	At least one population recorded from Mae Nam Fang National Park in Chiang Mai province (Thailand). Further surveys are recommended to understand the ecology of this plant, its potential threats and actual distribution.
169047		distribution	eng	It has been recorded in Khammouan (Lao PDR), south Yunnan (China), Bhutan, northern India, Myanmar, Nepal, northern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam.
169047		habitat	eng	It is found in mountainous areas in streams attached to the rocks.
169047		population	eng	There is no information available.
169047		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169050		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.
169050		distribution	eng	Native to Madagascar, east tropical and South Africa and introduced in other parts of the tropics. It is present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Etitrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
169050		habitat	eng	It occurs in permanent and intermittent water courses, pools, lakes, and marshy and swampy areas. It is widely cultivated.
169050		population	eng	Very common
169050		threats	eng	No major threats identified.
169058		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known.
169058		distribution	eng	The species is native to tropical Asia and south west Pacific.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It has been recorded in the Indo-Burma hotspot region (Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam) as welll as from Pakistan to Bagladesh and China, including Philipines and Sri Lanka.
169058		habitat	eng	This species usually grows in wet fields and near the banks of ponds and streams.
169058		population	eng	<p>In the wild it is relatively common, but it is also cultivated.<br/></p>
169058		threats	eng	No major threats.
169076		conservation	eng	No conservation measures specifically for this species are known or needed.
169076		distribution	eng	The species is found from the eastern Himalayas to Japan and Philippines, including China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Hainan, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Jiangsu, Hubei, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Henan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Shaanxi,  Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang<span id="lblTaxonDesc">, Ningxia,  Qinghai, Shandong<span id="lblTaxonDesc">, Sichuan), Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), Korea, Cambodia, Thailand, Lao PDR, NE India, Myanmar, Viet Nam (Tuyen Quang, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc and Bac Giang province), Philippines (Luzon), Taiwan and India (Sikkim), and <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Russia (E Siberia) (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">eFlora 2011). It is naturalized in the UK and introduced widely elsewhere.<br/></span></span></span></span>
169076		habitat	eng	The species grows on the margins of ponds and on <span id="lblTaxonDesc">moist rocky stream banks in forest.
169076		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on current population trends.<br/></p>
169076		threats	eng	Populations may be locally affected by harvesting, pollution from agriculture and deforestation and the destruction of marginal plants for aquaculture development. However, none of these threats is considered place the species at risk of extinction.
169092		conservation	eng	This species is well represented in National Parks and other protected areas in parts of its range, e.g. Malaysia. Elsewhere it occurrence in protected areas needs to be verified and the protection of additional forest areas is desireable. However no specific conservation actions need to be taken for this species.
169092		distribution	eng	This species is known from India to Thailand and south to the Philippines and Java.
169092		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lyriothemis cleis</span> breeds in water filled tree holes, depressions in fallen tree trunks and small pools on the forest floor. It has been frequently found in logged over forest in Borneo, so it is tolerant of disturbance (R. Dow, pers. comm., 2010).
169092		population	eng	This is not an uncommon species in forest areas, but probably under-recorded because of its breeding habits.
169092		threats	eng	Replacement of original forest by plantation is the main threat to populations of this species, but it is widely distributed and present in many protected areas, so cannot be considered to be globally threatened.
169093		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species; expert searches must be made in Assam and other north eastern Indian states in forested areas. Until such searches are made it is difficult to plan any conservation measures that might be needed, although any such measures will centre around the preservation of areas of suitable habitat.
169093		distribution	eng	This species is known from Assam (Cachar, India) from one locality (recorded in 1921), it is also known from Goalpara (Assam) where it was last observed in 1973 (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010), it is unknown if other surveys have taken place since then. It is has also been recorded from Tibet (China), however according to Laidlaw (1917)&#160; "The locality ' Thibet ' given for this species by Selys should almost certainly be rather Assam. I have not seen an example of&#160; this, one of the smallest and probably one of the rarest of the Rhinocyphas"; Tibet is considered here to be extremely doubtful as part of the range of this species. It is likely to be found in other northeast Indian provinces (see comments under Population and Assessment Rationale).
169093		habitat	eng	It was observed in Goalpara in forest habitat, and appears to be a species of forest streams.
169093		population	eng	&#160;There is no information on the population status of this species, but it does appear to be extremely local in occurrence. However there has been insufficient expert sampling across most of northeast India, and judging by the types of records that have appeared from provinces such as Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunchal Pradesh in the last 70 years, it appears that most collectors have barely entered forest whilst searching for Odonata, so are unlikely to have found this species. As it is very small for a chlorocyphid, it is also likely to have been overlooked.
169093		threats	eng	No specific threats to the species are known. However there is a general threat of deforestation across the region, but without more data on this species, in particular if it really is as local in occurrence and dependent on forest as it appears to be from the current scanty data, it is difficult to judge how severe a threat this is.
169094		conservation	eng	Fresh data on this species are urgently needed, without such data any conservation actions that might be needed cannot be planned.
169094		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorogomphus mortoni</span> has only been recorded from Sikkim, India (Fraser 1936) and one record of a female from Nepal (Mahato 1988).
169094		habitat	eng	No information is available on habits and ecology of the species. However most species of this genus require forest and riverine habitats, and this species is very likely to be montane.
169094		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
169094		threats	eng	No information on specific threats to the species exists. Sikkim is a remote area and relatively undisturbed, however, parts of both Nepal and Sikkim are impacted by agricultural degradation and impacted in some places by hydropower development, especially within montane areas.
169095		conservation	eng	Before any conservation measures hat might be needed for this species can be planned, more data must be obtained. In particular the taxonomic issue must be resolved and, if it is a good species, information on its habitat requirements and distribution must be obtained.
169095		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype female from Kurseong (Navas 1930) in Darjeeling District in India.
169095		habitat	eng	No information is available.
169095		population	eng	No information is available.
169095		threats	eng	No information is available.
169096		conservation	eng	Without more information on habitat, distribution and threats it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed by this species. The priority must be for extensive expert sampling to take place in north eastern India and adjacent areas.
169096		distribution	eng	The species is only known to occur in Margherita and Guwahati (Assam) and Kolkata (West Bengal) in India. It should be looked for in adjacent parts of India, and in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar
169096		habitat	eng	The species was recorded from bamboo thickets near a river (Fraser 1936), but this tells us little about its breeding habitat, which could be pools in bamboo or forest, or it could be a riverine species (although this would be unusual for a <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha</span>).
169096		population	eng	Few individuals have ever been collected of this species. Fraser (1936) implies that the species was quite common at locations in Assam more than 70 years ago, but there are no more recent records from there. The details of the record from Kolkata are not known.
169096		threats	eng	Without additional information on habitat and distribution it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.
169097		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, without such data any conservation actions that might be needed&#160; cannot be planned.
169097		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in West Bengal.
169097		habitat	eng	No information available.
169097		population	eng	No information available.
169097		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
169098		conservation	eng	Further research on the existing populations, habitat and ecology and threats to the species is needed, but it is not likely to be globally threatened.
169098		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemicordulia asiatica </span>is known from southwest India and northeast India and Myanmar (Dijkstra 2007).
169098		habitat	eng	The species breeds in montane lakes and stream pools (Fraser 1936).
169098		population	eng	No concrete information is available on the current population trend of the species, but judging from the available records and the fact that it is likely to be difficult to capture, it is probably not uncommon in suitable habitat.
169098		threats	eng	No major threat is known to exist for the species, however the species high altitude habitats are under threat from&#160; degrdation from agriculrtral clearance and deforestation, as well as hydropower development.
169099		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh searches for this species in the Khasi Hills and adjacent regions, without such searches it is not possible to plan the conservation measures that may well be needed for this species. The first priority is to determine if the species is present within any protected area in the Khasi Hills, and to check that it is really endemic to these hills, which seems likely, as the species is sufficiently conspicuous and easy to capture that it should have been found elsewhere by now.
169099		distribution	eng	Known to occur only from Mawpat, Mawphlong, Barapani, Shilong and Upper Shilong, all in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India.
169099		habitat	eng	This species breeds in streams.
169099		population	eng	Based on records in Lahiri (1987) this species was quite common in the Khasi Hills in the 1960s and 1970s, but there has been no information since that time.
169099		threats	eng	More than two-thirds of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion, of which the Khasi Hills are part, have been cleared or degraded; however, extensive stretches of intact habitat can still be found in the northeastern parts. Little of the ecosystem is formally protected, however, several patches of habitat are included within sacred forests that have been traditionally protected. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity stem from the following; deforestation, especially resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal, limestone, and potentially uranium; and current and potential hydropower developments (WWF 2010). Hydropower development, deforestation, road construction, tourism and expansion of agriculture are affecting the Khasi hills, but we have no concrete information on the extent and impact of these threats on this or any other species.
169100		conservation	eng	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
169100		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India.
169100		habitat	eng	Nothing was recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is clearly montane.
169100		population	eng	No information available.
169100		threats	eng	No information available.
169101		conservation	eng	Further data is needed on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
169101		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type series and location in 'Assam', the exact location is not known.
169101		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitat of this species.
169101		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series of four specimens.
169101		threats	eng	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data.
169102		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, particularly on its distribution.
169102		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR.
169102		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forest streams. In Chiang Mai in Thailand it has been reported on a stream in a narrow corridor of woodland in agricultural land, suggesting that it is tolerant of disturbance (R. Dow, pers. comm 2010).
169102		population	eng	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, and not particularly common.
169102		threats	eng	No information is available on any existing threats.
169103		conservation	eng	There is a need for further information on distribution and habitat requirements, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
169103		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anax indicus</span> is a widely distributed species in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1988), Pakistan (Chaudhury and Aslam 2010), Sri lanka (De Fonseka 2000), India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen 2002). There are holes in its known distribution (e.g. Myanmar) but these are likely to be due to under sampling and misidentification as the closely related <span style="font-style: italic;">A. guttatus</span>, with which it has frequently been confused.
169103		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds and possibly lakes.
169103		population	eng	There is little information on populations of this species, but it appears to be quite common in parts of India at least.
169103		threats	eng	No major threat is known to exist for the species.
169104		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on the distribution and habitat requirements of this species, without this data it will not be possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed. Expert searches must be made in Assam and adjacent regions sooner rather than later.
169104		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series from Ledo in Assam, India.
169104		habitat	eng	Nothing was recorded on the habitat in which this species was collected.
169104		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series of one male and three females.
169104		threats	eng	Without further information on distribution and habitat requirements it is not possible to do more than guess at any threats that this species might face. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
169106		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169106		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidolestes malaisei</em> is known only from the holotype male, collected at Kambaiti, Kachin State, northeast Myanmar, in the 1930s (Lieftinck 1948).
169106		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat of this species, although it is likely to breed in small high gradient forest streams.
169106		population	eng	Nothing can be said about populations of this species without further data.
169106		threats	eng	It is not possible to determine the threats, if any, faced by this species without definite information on its habitat requirements and fresh information on its distribution.
169107		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for fresh information on this species.
169107		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cheerapunji, Meghalaya, India.
169107		habitat	eng	No information available. Probably hill streams like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisopleura</span>.
169107		population	eng	No information available.
169107		threats	eng	Although no specific information is available,&#160; it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development
169109		conservation	eng	This species is found in Melghat Tiger Reserve, Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kulkarni and Talmale 2008), Kanha National Park (Raju and Narayanan 2008), Gir National Park and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (www.asia-dragonfly.net).
169109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Disparoneura quadrimaculata </span>is endemic to India and widely distributed from Gujarat (www.asia-dragonfly.net) and Rajasthan (Tyagi and Miller 1991) in west to West Bengal (Mitra 2002) in east occurring in Madhya Pradesh (Fraser 1919, Raju and Narayanan 2008, Srivastava and Babu 1997) and Bihar (Mitra 2002) in between. Southwards from Gujarat its distributional range goes as far as Tamil Nadu (Benstead 2009) occurring in Maharashtra (Fraser 1924, Kulkarni and Talmale 2008, Laidlaw 1915, 1917; Patankar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Tiple <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and Karnataka (Fraser 1931, Subramanian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) in between.
169109		habitat	eng	Adults are confined to hill streams and rivers of forested landscapes. Frequently perches on emergent aquatic plants and overhanging vegetation. Breeds in hill streams (Andrew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
169109		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Disparoneura quadrimaculata</span> is quite common throughout the northern part of its range although no information on the exact population is available.
169109		threats	eng	No major threat is known to this species.
169110		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169110		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Onychogomphus maclachlani</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from a single female collected in north Myanmar prior to 1894 (Selys 1894, Fraser 1934).</span></p>
169110		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
169110		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Only a single female of this species has ever been recorded.</p>
169110		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169111		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>
169111		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Rhyothemis obsolescens</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is widely distributed in southeast Asia, with records from Myanmar to Vietnam, the Philippines and southwards to Kalimantan.</span></p>
169111		habitat	eng	This species is found in marshes, swamps, well-vegetated ponds and slow flowing rivers. It appears to require at least some forest in the vicinity of its habitats, but is tolerant of disturbance. It is most common in the lowlands, but it has been found it at over 1,000 m in Borneo (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010).
169111		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species can be somewhat local, but is common where it occurs.</p>
169111		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened across its range at known at present.<br/></p>
169112		conservation	eng	No immediate species specific conservation action needed.
169112		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in areas adjoining Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
169112		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rivers.
169112		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
169112		threats	eng	No species specific threats recorded. However, the rivers in distribution range are polluted with urban and industrial effluents.
169113		conservation	eng	It is not possible to determine any conservation actions that might be needed for this species without further data on taxonomy, distribution and habitat requirements.
169113		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type location in Afghanistan (Schmidt 1961). A subsequent record from Afghanistan of a single poorly preserved individual (Asahina 1966) and records from a location Kashmir (Asahina 1978) do not definitely refer to the same species.
169113		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat and ecology of the species.
169113		population	eng	No information is available on the existing population of the species.
169113		threats	eng	No information is available.
169114		conservation	eng	Detailed research into population size, trends and threats are needed, and further distributional data, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
169114		distribution	eng	<em>Anaciaeschna donaldi</em> is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region> (Fonseka 2000) and Western Ghats in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Fraser 1922, 1943; Kimmins 1966, Prasad and Varshney 1995). Subramanian (2007) has designated the species as endemic to <st1:place w:st="on">Western Ghats</st1:place>, although there are also records from Nepal (Shrestha and Mahato 1984, Vick 1985, 1989).
169114		habitat	eng	Prefers forests near medium to fast flowing permanent streams, and swampy bogs, ponds and marshes. It is a species of uplands and mountains.
169114		population	eng	The species is sometimes considered to be rare, although no detailed data on population numbers and trends exists. It is more likely that it is simply under-recorded.
169114		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to be the major threat to populations of this species, but it does not appear to be globally threatened at this time.
169115		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.
169115		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Megalogomphus bicornutus </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known only from Shillong in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1989).</span></p>
169115		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat requirements of this species except that the female type was “taken in June whilst ovipositing by a roadside stream” (Fraser 1934); this suggests that it may not require pristine forest habitats.</p>
169115		population	eng	No information on population sizes is available.
169115		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We do not have enough information on this species to assess any threats it might face. If it is actually confined to the Khasi Hills, then it is likely that it is threatened by habitat loss, especially if it is dependent upon forest.</p>
169116		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.
169116		distribution	eng	Known from Dehradun, Uttaranchal and Namdapha, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
169116		habitat	eng	Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hylaeothemis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. gardeneri</span> is found in forested marshes, it may occur in small marshy areas at the heads of small streams in saddles in hilly country, a common habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hylaeothemis</span>.
169116		population	eng	No population information is available
169116		threats	eng	General widespread threats such as deforestation and draining of forested swamps could be affecting populations.
169117		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169117		distribution	eng	<em>Indolestes inflatus</em> was described from, and is still only known  from, a single male collected from Maymyo, (Pyin U Lwin) Mynamar in 1925 (Fraser  1933). <em>Indolestes </em>species are often very local and hard to  find; <em>I. inflatus</em> is likely to be more widespread than the  single record suggests.
169117		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is no information available on the habitat of this species, however <span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes </span>species typical breed in standing water.</p>
169117		population	eng	Nothing can be said about populations of this species with the currently available information.
169117		threats	eng	It is not possible to determine the threats, if any, faced by this species without definite information on its habitat requirements and fresh information on its distribution.
169118		conservation	eng	More information is needed before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. The type locality is protected and has good forest cover.
169118		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality at Chirapunji, Meghalaya, India. There is no recent information about the species.
169118		habitat	eng	No information available. Probably similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx </span>sp., which breed in streams flowing through evergreen forests.
169118		population	eng	No information available.
169118		threats	eng	Like other higher altitude species, the species habitat may be at risk from forest loss from agriculture and clrearance, as well as impacts form hydropower developments.
169119		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data is needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned for this species.</p>
169119		distribution	eng	<p>Descri<span lang="EN-GB">bed from Nepal without any specific location being given (Selys 1854). Later Selys (1869) recorded it from north India, again without any specific location. The only other record is from the Doon valley in Dehradun, Uttarkhand (Singh and Prasad, 1976), however some doubts must remain over the identification of this material until it is compared with the type material.</p>
169119		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>
169119		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We have no information on populations of this species.</p>
169119		threats	eng	Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development. However, without further data on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.
169120		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Better information on the distribution, populations and habitat of this species is needed, but beyond this no conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.</p>
169120		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are records of <em>Gynacantha incisura </em>from Myanmar (Fraser 1935, 1936), Nepal (Asahina 1955, 1984, Mahato 1989, Vick 1989, Sasamoto and Ushijima 2000) and Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). The only records from Myanmar are old, from the South Shan States. Records from Nepal are mostly from the Kathmandu valley area. The only records from Thailand are from Loei province. It is likely to occur in Lao PDR.</p>
169120		habitat	eng	<em>Gynacantha incisura</em> appears to be a submontane to montane species, and judging by the recent records from Kathmandu valley, it may be tolerant of at least some degree of disturbance. Beyond this nothing is known about its habitat requirements, although it is likely to be a forest species and to breed in standing water, like other <em>Gynacantha</em> species.
169120		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although there are not many records of this species, the most recent records from Nepal (Sasamoto and Ushijima 2000) are of eight individuals taken in a few days in the Kathmandu valley area. This suggests that the species may be quite common where it occurs, and it is at present assessed as Least Concern. Further information on threats to the species and its habitats is required.<br/></p>
169120		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without better information on the habitat requirements of the species it is difficult to assess the threats, if any, faced by this species.</p>
169121		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. The priority is for expert sampling in the western Ghats and adjacent areas, and for the re-examination of the material from Nepal.
169121		distribution	eng	In India known only from the Western Ghats, where it has been recorded from Kunnoth, North Malabar (Fraser, 1934) and Silent Valley National Park, Kerala (Subramanium, 2005). However Asahina (1995) recorded this species from Nepal - this may have been a mistake, but the record cannot be discounted without examination of the specimens.
169121		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a stream species.
169121		population	eng	No specific information is available.
169121		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without more information, especially on habitat requirements and distribution.
169122		conservation	eng	Before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, additional data on this species must be gathered.
169122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorogomphus schmidti</span> is known only from the type location in Manipur, India (Asahina 1986).
169122		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species.
169122		population	eng	This species is known only from a single female, however this is just as likely to be due to a lack of sampling in northeast India as it is to genuine rarity.
169122		threats	eng	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data, especially on its habitat requirements.
169123		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed for this species.
169123		distribution	eng	Rhyothemis triangularis is distributed from India to south China and south to Java. Records from India are from Assam and from southern India.
169123		habitat	eng	This species breeds in well vegetated ponds and similar habitats (e.g. drains). It is tolerant of disturbance.
169123		population	eng	This species, although it can be somewhat local, is common across much of its range.
169123		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
169124		conservation	eng	Further research is required into the taxonomic status, population, distribution and ecology of this species, as well as threats to its known location.
169124		distribution	eng	This dubious species is known only from the Dehradun valley in Uttaranchal, India. However, only <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis pygmaea</span>  and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. clauseni</span> have been recorded from Dehradun  valley  during six years of faunal surveys between 1994  to1999.
169124		habitat	eng	According to Kumar and Prasad (1981) the species was found on the wing during March to April at Dehradun. Emergence was recorded during March. Larvae were found to inhabit perennial marshy ponds. Adults were rare and occurred within grasses at the marshy bank of ponds.
169124		population	eng	No information on the current trend of the population is available.
169124		threats	eng	No information is available.
169125		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169125		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Platygomphus feae</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from the type series collected at Bhamo in Myanmar in 1885 (Selys 1891, Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1960).</span></p>
169125		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
169125		population	eng	Known only from the type series collected more than a century ago.
169125		threats	eng	The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.
169126		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, but specific conservation actions appear unlikely to be needed.
169126		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heliogomphus selysi </span>is known from Meghalaya in India (e.g. Fraser 1934), at least two locations in Myanmar (Selys 1891, Schmidt 1964) and several locations in Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
169126		habitat	eng	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it breeds in forest streams.
169126		population	eng	Although most records are of single individuals, the number of records suggests that this might not be an uncommon species.
169126		threats	eng	Although individual populations may be threatened by deforestation, this species is sufficiently widely distributed that it is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range.
169127		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The status of this species must be resolved; if it should prove to be a valid taxon, then conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>
169127		distribution	eng	The type locality of <em>Gynacantha rotundata</em> is in the vicinity of Mumbai, India (Navás 1930); no other locations are known.
169127		habitat	eng	No data are available on the habitat of this species.
169127		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No data are available on populations of this species.</p>
169127		threats	eng	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data.
169128		conservation	eng	More information on habitat and distribution is needed, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at present.
169128		distribution	eng	<em>Watanabeopetalia atkinsoni</em> is known  from India, with records from Assam, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (e.g. Prasad and Varshney  1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Chiang Mai in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in other northern and northeastern Indian states, Myanmar and Bhutan, and might occur in Yunnan and Tibet.
169128		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, except that it is montane; however Butler (2007) records the larva from the "sluggish margin" of a torrential stream, and Brockhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) record larvae and freshly emerged adults as associated with steep mountain streams at three locations.</p>
169128		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but Fraser (1936) states that he found it "quite common at Mungpoo" and G.S. Vick (pers. comm. 2010) stated that it is "less common [than <span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster nipalensis</span>] but this is mainly due to its habits<span lang="EN-GB">."</span></p>
169128		threats	eng	It is difficult to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without more information on its habitat requirements, in particular how dependent upon forest it is and how tolerant of disturbance to its habitats it is. However, it appears to be fairly common in Nepal, and probably under-recorded, so is not likely to be seriously threatened in that country at least. Further information on the impact of ecosystem degradation caused by agricultural expansion and clearance and hydropower development is required.
169129		conservation	eng	Further data on distribution and habitat requirements is needed for this species, but specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.
169129		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sympetrum commixtum</span> is widely distributed in Himalayan India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Bhutan (e.g. Mitra 2006).
169129		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat requirements of this species is available, but it is likely to breed in ponds and similar habitats (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2010).
169129		population	eng	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, but is probably under-recorded because of its high altitude occurrence.
169129		threats	eng	Without definite habitat information it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face, but given the altitudinal range that it occupies and its likely habitats, it is not likely to be globally threatened.
169130		conservation	eng	Additional data, especially on habitat and distribution, is needed before any consrvation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for expert sampling across the known and possible range of the species.
169130		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995, Asahina 1981), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Myanmar (Fraser 1936). A number of records from Nepal are relatively recent (within the last 30 years). It should be searched for in other parts of north and north east India, and in Bhutan.
169130		habitat	eng	Very little information is available about this species, except that it is montane.
169130		population	eng	Very little information on populations of this species are available, but quite a number of records are known from Nepal, suggesting that it is quite common in that country at least.
169130		threats	eng	Further information on habitat requirements is needed before any threats that this species may face can be assessed.
169131		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;</span></p>
169131		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from the holotype female from Bhamo in Myanmar (Selys 1878, Fraser 1934).</p>
169131		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas.
169131		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen.
169131		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169132		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>
169132		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Nihonogomphus pulcherrimus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Maymyo (Pyin U Lwin) in Myanmar (Fraser 1927, 1934), two sites in Kanchanaburi in Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Orr 2003) and Vang Vieng in Laos (Sasamoto and Honda 2003).</span></p>
169132		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>
169132		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The type series consists of three males (Fraser 1927); the records from Laos and Thailand are of single individuals.</p>
169132		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169134		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">In Sri Lanka, although the species does not appear to be threatened, monitoring of populations would be advisable in view of its restricted range. Elsewhere the priority is for more information on habitat and threats.</p>
169134		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Indolestes gracilis gracilis </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known only from the highlands of southern Sri Lanka (e.g. Bedjanič <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes</span><span lang="EN-GB"><em> birmanus</em> is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933) and Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and, as the synonymous <em>I. davenporti</em>, from the India, with records from the Western Ghats (Fraser 1933) and Western Himalaya (Prasad and Kumar 1977). The record from the Western Himalaya may have been a misidentification, as Prasad and Varshney (1997) list neither <em>gracilis</em>, <em>birmanus</em> or <em>davenporti</em> from India.</span></p>
169134		habitat	eng	<em><span lang="EN-GB">Indolestes gracilis</em><span lang="EN-GB"><em> gracilis</em> is found at "Grassy edges of ponds, lakes, and marshes in the hills and mountains" of Sri Lanka (Bedjanič <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Very little information on the habitat of <em>I. g. birmanus is available</em>, but it is likely to be similar (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010).
169134		population	eng	In Sri Lanka <em>I. g. gracilis</em> is locally common (Bedjanič <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes gracilis</span><em> birmanus</em> also appears to be a local species, but possibly common where it occurs.
169134		threats	eng	Given its habitats, <em>I. g. gracilis</em> does not appear to be threatened in the uplands of Sri Lanka, although its range is certainly restricted. We do not have enough information on the populations in other parts of the range of this species (as currently understood) to assess any threats it might face.
169137		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, although there is a need for further distribution data and fresh data from Myanmar.</p>
169137		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia loogali</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widespread species with records from Myanmar (Laidlaw 1932, Fraser 1933, Schmidt 1964, Asahina 1970, 1984), Mizoram in northeast India (Prasad 1997), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1984, 1990, 1993, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Katatani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), Laos (Yokoi 2000). There is also a record of a female from Nepal (Asahina 1955), however Asahina noted differences from typical <em>loogali</em> and this record is likely to refer to a different species. It is also likely to occur in Yunnan in China, and might be found in Viet Nam.<br/></p>
169137		habitat	eng	Usually found at small forest streams in hilly and mountainous country. It is tolerant of at least some degree of disturbance.
169137		population	eng	<em>Coeliccia loogali</em> is often abundant where it occurs. There are relatively many recent records and no reason to suppose that any strong decline is taking place in most of its populations.
169137		threats	eng	The only threat to this species is likely to be from deforestation.
169138		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">For effective conservation measures to be planned, if needed, fresh searches must be made in Myanmar for this species, and the taxonomic issues need to be resolved.</p>
169138		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only certain records of <em>D. walli</em> are those from the type locality Maymyo, northern Myanmar (Fraser 1927, 1928, 1934). At least some records of <em>Dysphaea dimidiata </em>from three provinces in Thailand (Tak, Kanchanaburi and Ranong), all situated on the border with Myanmar, are considered to possibly be <em>D. walli </em>(Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; note 6 page 123).</p>
169138		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but the clearly at least  closely related <em>D. dimidiata</em> inhabits a variety of low gradient streams  and rivers, typically in forest areas, but is certainly tolerant of  disturbance. It will be a species of running waters.
169138		population	eng	Without the resolution of the taxonomic issues and much more data from Myanmar and west Thailand it is not possible to say anything about populations of this species.
169138		threats	eng	It is difficult to assess the threats to this species, if any, without the resolution of the taxonomic issues and definite information on its habitat preferences.
169139		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further data on the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia nipalica</span> is needed before conservation measures, if necessary, can be properly planned. However, conservation measures will centre on the protection and proper management of areas of suitable habitat.<br/></p>
169139		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia nipalica</span> is only known from Nepal. The type series is from Phewa Tal near Pokhara (Kimmins 1958), with fresh records from Phewa Tal in Vick (1985) and Kemp and Butler (2001). Two additional localities are known (Vick 1986): Khudi in Manang and the Malemchi Khola valley between Thimbu and Tarang Marang, in Helambu. This species appears to be confined to the wettest regions of Nepal (G.S. Vick pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
169139		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little has been published about the habitat requirements of this species, but Vick (1986) mentions wet seepages and streams and Kemp and Butler (2001) found it at "a tiny fast-flowing, rocky stream that passed through the woodland", and noted that "Individuals were seen perched on low vegetation growing close to or within the stream bed, often in shady situations". G.S. Vick (pers. comm. 2010) reports that it is found only in the wettest regions of Nepal, in seepages and waterfall areas.<br/></p>
169139		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is insufficient information available to infer much about current populations of this species, although it appears it may be locally common.</p>
169139		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species, which appears to have a rather restricted range, may be threatened by deforestation and by hydropower development.<br/></p>
169140		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, and on its tolerance to disturbance.
169140		distribution	eng	This species is known from Dehra Dun valley in Uttaranchal in India and from Nepal (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. d. carminea</span>)
169140		habitat	eng	This is a species of small streams and trickles.
169140		population	eng	No information available.
169140		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
169141		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169141		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Onychogomphus annularis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is only known from two males collected in north Myanmar prior to 1894 (Selys 1894, Williamson 1907, Fraser 1934).</span></p>
169141		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
169141		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is no&#160;population&#160;information available for this species.</p>
169141		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169142		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169142		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only certain record of <em>Onychogomphus maculivertex</em> is that of the holotype female from Meteleo in the Carin Hills of Myanmar (Selys 1891, Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1960). A record of another female from Meghalaya in India (Lahiri 1987, Mitra 1989) may well actually refer to a different species.</p>
169142		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
169142		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information is available for this species, known with certainty only from a single female collected in 1888 (Selys 1891).</p>
169142		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169145		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, extensive surveys are needed in the eastern Himalayas and adjacent regions.</p>
169145		distribution	eng	<em>Anisogomphus caudalis</em> is known from India, with records from Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), and Myanmar (Schmidt 1964). It should be looked for in other northern and northeastern Indian states, and in Nepal and Bhutan.
169145		habitat	eng	Nothing of any substance appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, although it is almost certainly a stream species; Lahiri (1987) records finding a pair near a “rolling stream”.
169145		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Few individuals of this species have ever been collected.</p>
169145		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without more data on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.</p>
169146		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>
169146		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Microgomphus loogali </span>is known only from the type series collected at Maymyo (Pyin U Lwin) in Myanmar in 1924 (Fraser 1923, 1925, 1934).</p>
169146		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species.</p>
169146		population	eng	Only the type series of one male and two females is known (Fraser 1934).
169146		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169147		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the range, distribution, and ecology of this species, and threats. However it is unlikely that specific conservation measures will be needed.
169147		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in north east India (Manipur and Nagaland), Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Sumatra and Java. It is very likely to occur in Peninsular Malaysia.
169147		habitat	eng	This species breeds in swamps, marshes, well vegetated ponds and lakes. However it is absent from many apparently suitable habitats, suggesting that there are unknown factors in its habitat preferences.
169147		population	eng	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, but may be fairly common where it does occur.
169147		threats	eng	Given its local occurrence, individual populations of this species are likely to be threatened from a variety of causes, however the species is sufficiently widespread and occupies a broad enough range of habitats that it is very unlikely to be globally threatened.
169149		conservation	eng	More data is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. However if it is endemic to the Khasi hills in Meghalaya then it is likely to be threatened, but without extensive expert sampling in the region, its range is an open question.
169149		distribution	eng	This species is known only from north-east India, with old records from the Shillong area in Meghalaya (Fraser 1936) and a more recent record of a female Mizoram (Prasad 1997); as female <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx</span> are difficult to identify this record must be regarded as dubious.
169149		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it appears to be a montane or at least upland species and it is likely to breed in small streams.
169149		population	eng	No information available.
169149		threats	eng	More data is needed before any threats that might be faced can be assessed.
169150		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the population,&#160;distribution, and&#160;potential&#160;threats to this&#160;species.
169150		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Assam in India (e.g. Fraser 1933), Myanmar (e.g. Schmidt 1964), Thailand (e.g. Kitagawa and Itchii 1999) and Lao PDR (Sasamoto and Honda 2003).
169150		habitat	eng	No information is available, but this is likely to be a species of shallow standing and possibly slow flowing waters.
169150		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
169150		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without definite habitat information. However it appears to be widespread and is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range.
169151		conservation	eng	Fresh searches need to be made for this species across its known range, and its habitat requirements need to be determined, before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.
169151		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are records of this species from Myanmar (Fraser 1933, Schmidt 1964, Asahina 1970), Thailand (Fraser 1927, 1933; <a name="OLE_LINK1">Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999</a>) and Laos (Yokoi 1999). Aside from the record from Laos, which was made in 1998, all records date from 1952 or before. Records from Myanmar are from "lower Burma" (Fraser 1933), Taunggyi (Schmidt 1964) and Maymyo (Asahina 1970). The only records from Thailand are from Prachuap Khiri Khan province (<span lang="EN-GB">Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999); that from Laos is from Thabok. All records are of one or a few individuals, and only the location in Laos can be considered as currently known.</span></p>
169151		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but it is likely to breed in standing water, as other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion</span> species do.
169151		population	eng	Nothing can be said about populations of this species with the available data.
169151		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without definite information on its habitat requirements it is not possible to assess the threats, if any, faced by <em>Ceriagrion nigroflavum</em>.</p>
169152		conservation	eng	More information on this species is urgently needed.
169152		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type location (Bankura: Susunia hill) in West Bengal, India (Mitra 2002).
169152		habitat	eng	No information available.
169152		population	eng	No information available.
169152		threats	eng	No specific threats are currently known, but Susunia Hill is a tourist attraction that attracts many visitors.
169153		conservation	eng	No information available.
169153		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series from Kurseong, Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India (Navas, 1934)
169153		habitat	eng	No information available.
169153		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series.
169153		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.
169154		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the population trend and existing threats to this species, but it does not appear to be threatened.
169154		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha bisignata </span>is endemic  to India, distributed from Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava and Babu 1997),  Maharashtra (Fraser 1928, Prasad 1996) and Orissa (Mitra 2002) to most  parts of southern India (Fraser 1928, Subramanian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Emiliyamma 2008).
169154		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha bisignata </span>is a stream breeding species.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span>
169154		population	eng	No information is available on the exact population but, the species is quite common over its range.
169154		threats	eng	No major threat is known to exist but pollution in the hill streams could be a potential threat.
169155		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further data on this species before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>
169155		distribution	eng	<p>The species<em><span lang="EN-GB"> </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known from Myanmar, where it is known only from the holotype male from the “Southern Shan states” collected in September 1923 (Fraser 1924), Thailand with all records from various sites on Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mai (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Pinratana 2003), and from Lak Sao in Lao PDR (Yokoi 2001). The sites on Doi Inthanon can be considered as one location for threat assessment purposes.</span></p>
169155		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but on Doi Inthanon in Thailand it is found in boulder strewn forest streams. However this does not mean that the species is confined to such habitats; <em>Sieboldius japponicus</em> Selys, 1854 is found in similar places in Borneo, but is also found it on low gradient pebble and sand substrate streams (R. Dow unpublished 2010).</p>
169155		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is insufficient data to make estimates of current populations of this species, but Yokoi (2001) recorded three male and one female specimens collected in a short period of time, suggesting that it can be common where it occurs.</p>
169155		threats	eng	We have insufficient data on the species to make any assessment of any threats it might face, although deforestation is likely to be the major threat to this species.
169156		conservation	eng	Not enough information for conservation assessment of this species.
169156		distribution	eng	Known to occur only from the Terai (Dampa wildlife sanctuary), Mizoram, India.
169156		habitat	eng	No information is available, but likely to be similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemis </span>sp.
169156		population	eng	No information is available.
169156		threats	eng	Growing population pressure in the hills has led to migration to and settlement the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems here. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010). The impact of these threats on the species are uncertain.
169158		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169158		distribution	eng	The only record of <em>Macromia aculeata</em> is that of the holotype from Maymo (Pyin U Lwin), Burma (Fraser 1927, 1936).
169158		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams, as is the case for most species of <em>Macromia</em>.</p>
169158		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single male collected in 1925.</p>
169158		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169159		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for more data on this species.
169159		distribution	eng	The only certain record of this species is of the type series of two females from Kumaon, Uttaranchal in India, but there is also a record from Nepal. This later record is considered unreliable here, as the specimens were not compared against type material.
169159		habitat	eng	No information available.
169159		population	eng	There have been very few records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.
169159		threats	eng	No information available.
169160		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for more data on distribution of this species, and fresh data from northeast India and Myanmar. Extensive surveying is needed across its range, a task that will be hindered in Thailand at least by ill-advised legal barriers to the collection of insects for scientific purposes in protected areas. When a better picture of its distribution becomes available, the conservation measures that need to take place will become clearer, but they will centre around protection of additional habitats and management of those habitats.</p>
169160		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Indocypha vittata </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known from Myanmar and the Lushai Hills in Mizoram, India (e.g. Fraser 1934), Kanchanaburi (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Mae Hong Song (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010<span lang="EN-GB">) in Thailand, and Lao PDR and from southern Yunnan in China (M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010). <br/></span></span></p>
169160		habitat	eng	This species is found at rather broad 10-30 m wide streams in forested upland areas, seeming to require tall or medium high bushes reaching the shoreline (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010). The forest at the location in Kanchanaburi, Thailand is somewhat degraded, so this species does not require pristine habitats.
169160		population	eng	This species appears to be very local in occurrence but it can be quite common where it occurs.
169160		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species appears to be very local in occurrence, and individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation or large-scale hydroelectric projects. However it is quite widely distributed and there are doubtlessly many undiscovered populations.</p>
169161		conservation	eng	More data on distribution and habitat is needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.
169161		distribution	eng	Known from the holotype from Myanmar (Ris 1919, Fraser 1936) and from Chantaburi and Lungsuan in Chumphon in Thailand (Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and a convincing photographic record from Trang in Thailand, dating from 2009, on the Asia Dragonfly website (http://www.asia-dragonfly.net/).
169161		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species but other species of <em>Lyriothemis</em> are confined to forest areas, their breeding habitat is typically small pools and marshy areas in forest, or in phytotelmata (water containing compartments in plants, e.g. tree holes).</p>
169161		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only relatively recent records of this species are of 16 individuals collected in Chantaburi in Thailand in 1981 over two days plus another collected in Chumphon (Asahina 1988), and the &#160;photographic record from Trang in Thailand. These suggests that <em>Lyriothemis mortoni</em> can be common where it occurs. We have no other data on population.</p>
169161		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats to this species, if any, cannot be assessed without definite information on habitat, but deforestation is likely to be the most serious threat.</p>
169162		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements are needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>
169162		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Davidius baroni</span> is known only from the type series collected at Changra, Bhutan at 1900 m in 1972 (Lieftinck 1977).</p>
169162		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species beyond the altitude (1900 m) at which it was collected (Lieftinck 1977); it is likely to be a strictly montane species and probably breeds in forest streams.
169162		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known only from one male and one female.</p>
169162		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169163		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before any conservation measures that might be needed for this species can be planned, data on its habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance must be obtained, as well as additional information on its distribution.</p>
169163		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia svihleri</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from locations in Myanmar, and from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India (e.g. Asahina 1970 where one location that is stated to be in Assam is actually in Arunachal Pradesh, Prasad and Varshney 1995). Both locations in Myanmar are near the Chinese border, so that the species can be expected to also occur in Yunnan. It is also likely to occur in the Indian states of Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.</span></p>
169163		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitats of this species, but it is very likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>
169163		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about populations of this species.</p>
169163		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We do not have enough information to assess any threats that this species might face. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>
169164		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169164		distribution	eng	Known only from the type series from Maymyo (Pyin U Lwin) in Myanmar (Fraser 1926, 1934).
169164		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
169164		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from two females from one location collected in 1924 (Fraser 1926).</p>
169164		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169165		conservation	eng	Fresh surveys are urgently needed in Myanmar and northeast India; without fresh data on habitat requirements it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed.
169165		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha hilaryae</span> is known from Myanmar, where all records are from the northern half of the country, and one location in Arunachal Pradesh in India (Lahiri and Sinha 1991). There are no records from Myanmar made after 1961, reflecting a lack of sampling of Odonata in Myanmar. Existing records (Fraser 1927, 1934; Asahina 1970) refer to Maymyo, Hampshire Falls (between Maymyo and Wetwun) and two sites near Putao in the extreme north of Myanmar. In addition there is a specimen in Naturalis, Leiden, dating from 1925, from Qui Sakan. The record from Arunachal Pradesh dates from 1983. It is almost certain to occur in Yunnan, China.
169165		habitat	eng	No information has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and it is likely to prefer clear rocky streams; it is also likely to be confined to forested areas.
169165		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Few individuals of this species have ever been collected; there is insufficient information available to infer anything about current populations.</p>
169165		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without definite information about habitat it is not possible to assess the threats to this species.</p>
169166		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is to determine if it is a distinct species, or a synonym. If it should prove to be distinct, further work is urgently required to understand its distribution and population.
169166		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from the Pithoragarh area in Utaranchal, India.
169166		habitat	eng	No information available.
169166		population	eng	No information available.
169166		threats	eng	No information available.
169169		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, more information on the habitat and distribution of this species must be obtained.</p>
169169		distribution	eng	The type series comes from Gokteik in north Myanmar (Laidlaw 1932), with additional records from Pyin U Lwin (Maymyo) (Fraser 1933, Asahina 1970). There are also records from Manipur in India (Asahina 1984 as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didyma</span> race A) and Bangladesh (Asahina 1985), none of these records date from after 1961. It occurs up to at least  1,300 m.
169169		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams in hilly and mountainous terrain (the altitude data available ranges from 45 m to 1,300 m).
169169		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Few individuals of this species (or at least recognised as such) have ever been collected; there is insufficient information available to infer anything about current populations.</p>
169169		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">It is not possible to assess the threats, if any, faced by this species with information on its habitat requirements and fresh distribution data. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region (though little is know of the current situation in Myanmar), especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/><br/></p>
169170		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169170		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes malaisei</em> is only known from the type series from Kambaiti, Kachan State, northeast Myanmar, collected in April 1934 (Schmidt 1964).
169170		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat of this species.
169170		population	eng	Nothing can be said about populations of this species with the currrently available information.
169170		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">It is not possible to determine the threats, if any, faced by this species without definite information on its habitat requirements and fresh information on its distribution.</p>
169172		conservation	eng	Additional data are urgently needed on the taxonomy, population, habitat, ecology and threats to the species.
169172		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha apicalis </span>is only known from a single female reported in 1924 from Lyallpur (currently known as Faisalabad city), Pakistan (Fraser 1936).
169172		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recoreded about the habitats or ecology of this species.
169172		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen only.
169172		threats	eng	Nothing can be inferred about any threats this species might face from the available information.
169173		conservation	eng	Fresh data and a resolution of outstanding taxonomic issues are needed before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. Expert searches for the species across its known range are the priority here, both to gather material to help resolve the taxonomic issues, and to understand if this species, apparently common in some locations in Fraser's day, has been recorded so infrequently since then.
169173		distribution	eng	This species is only known from India, where it has been recorded in Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and the Western Ghats (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), and from the Nicobar Islands (Mitra 1995), although this record seems suspect, possibly it is a misidentification of some other <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha </span>species.
169173		habitat	eng	This species is crepuscular in nature. Nothing appears to have been recorded about its habitat requirements, although presumably it is a forest species.
169173		population	eng	Although this species covers a quite a wide range in India it has not often been collected in recent times, although Fraser (1936) remarked that it was common.
169173		threats	eng	Without further information on habitat requirements it is not possible to accurately assess any threats that this species might face, although deforestation is the biggest potential threat.
169174		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169174		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster gigantica</span> is only known from Myanmar, from the Kalaw and the Chin Hills (Fraser 1924, 1929, 1936) in India.
169174		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat requirements of <em>Anotogaster gigantica</em>, but it is likely to be a species of rocky forest streams, as is the case with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster</span> species.</p>
169174		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is only known from a few individuals collected in 1923 (Fraser 1924), nothing can be inferred about current populations from the extremely scanty data available.</p>
169174		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Part of the species range, the Chin hills are one of the most remote areas of Myanmar, difficult to access. The southern parts of these hills are not very densely populated and still pretty much intact (R. Britz pers. comm. 2010), but there is evidence of slashing and burning on the eastern slopes of the area visited resulting in a burnt wood, smoky, smell along the whole valley (maybe 30 miles). If that method is applied in other areas, it would have serious impacts on the species know range, have at present there is no detailed knowledge of this area.</p><p>The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without  fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>  <p></p>
169175		conservation	eng	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed without further data.
169175		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neallogaster schmidti</span> is known from the type series from Achmede Dewane, Nuristan (Schmidt 1961, Asahina 1982) in Afghanistan and a possible record from Kalahor Glacier, Kashmir (Asahina 1982) in India, however Asahina expresses considerable doubts of this record.
169175		habitat	eng	Altitudinal records suggest that the species is montane. No more information is available on the habitats and ecology of the species, although it is likely to breed in streams.
169175		population	eng	This species is known with certainty only from two specimens.
169175		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without further data.
169176		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements are needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>
169176		distribution	eng	The only record of this species is from near Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal, made in 1986 (Vick 1988) at an altitude of ca 200 m.
169176		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing was recorded about the habitat in which the holotype of this species was collected, except that it was in tropical forest <span lang="EN-GB">(Vick 1988)<span lang="EN-GB">, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams, as is the case for most species of <em>Macromia</em>, and it can be safely assumed to be as species of streams and/or rivers.<br/></span></p>
169176		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single male specimen.<br/></p>
169176		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without more information on its distribution and habitat.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The only recorded specimen was collected in a National Park in the Nepalese terai. Growing population pressures in the hills has led to migration to and settlement of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010).<br/></span></p>
169178		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat requirements of this species.</p>
169178		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Sympetrum haematoneura</em><span lang="EN-GB"> was described from a single male collected in Kashmir (Fraser 1924, 1936). It has subsequently been found in Megahalya (Asahina 1984) and Uttarakhand (Asahina 1988) within India and in Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1984, Vick 1989, Sasamoto and Ushijima 2000) and Tibet (Asahina 1984). It should be looked for in Bhutan.</span></p>
169178		habitat	eng	Nothing definite has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, it may prefer open standing water habitats, such as ponds or lakes, as with other many <em>Sympetrum</em> species, but it might be confined to upland bogs. It is certainly a montane species. There is no information on its tolerance to disturbance.
169178		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is little information available on populations of this species</p>
169178		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without better information on the habitat requirements of this species it is difficult to do more than guess at any threats it might face. <br/></p>
169179		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>
169179		distribution	eng	<em>Macrogomphus robustus</em> is only known from the holotype, stated to be from Tibet without any further information (Selys 1854, Fraser 1934). However Laidlaw (1923), on page 25 notes that “de Selys in several cases referred material from the East Himalayas to Tibet where Assam would have been correct.” Later Laidlaw (1930) listed the species from Nepal with a question mark; this appears to have been merely guesswork on Laidlaw’s part. In summary there is serious doubt about where the single specimen of this species was collected.
169179		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species.
169179		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information on populations of this species is available.</p>
169179		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169180		conservation	eng	Fresh data on this species are urgently needed, in particular on distribution and detailed habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance.
169180		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the Garo and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, India (Fraser 1922, 1923, 1934; Prasad and Varshney 1995). It might be endemic to Meghalaya but this needs to be confirmed.
169180		habitat	eng	Little information is available on the habitat and ecology of this montane species.
169180		population	eng	Unfortunately the species has been recorded only a few times and there  is no record since Fraser (1923). This may be due to the difficulty of surveying montane forests, but this is also typical for Gomphids.
169180		threats	eng	More data are needed on the extent and impact of threats within the currently known range of the species, and large areas of its range are known to have already been deforested. <a name="threats">The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity include deforestation, especially that resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining  blocks of forests; mining for  coal and limestone (and potentially uranium) These  lands have been leased by the tribal landholders to private mining  companies (WWF 2010).<br/></a>
169181		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, but specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.
169181		distribution	eng	This species is known from India, Nepal, Thailand and Lao PDR. Records have not been seen from Myanmar, but it should occur there.
169181		habitat	eng	This species breeds in large ponds, lakes and reservoirs, occurring from sea level to over 1000 m. It is tolerant of disturbance.
169181		population	eng	This species is not uncommon where suitable habitat occurs.
169181		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be globally threatened.
169182		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>
169182		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Leptogomphus inclitus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is only known with certainty from Moolai in Mynamar (Selys 1878), two other females listed in Selys (1878) are said to “possibly belong to a distinct species” (Fraser 1934). Another record of a female from Chiang Mai in Thailand (Chujo 1941) does not appear to have been examined by any expert on Odonata and its identity must be considered suspect.</span></p>
169182		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>
169182		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Only four female specimens, of which only one can definitely be considered to belong to this species, are known.</p>
169182		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169183		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169183		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only record of this species is that of the holotype from Tao, said to be in the Carin Hills (Selys 1891, Fraser 1936, Lieftinck 1960) of Myanmar.</p>
169183		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of this species, although it is very likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>
169183		population	eng	There is no information on populations of this species.
169183		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169184		conservation	eng	Without more data it is not possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed, but if needed they will have to centre around preservation of suitable habitat.
169184		distribution	eng	The species seems to be endemic to Yunnan, China. It is only known by the holotype specimen collected from West of Pungtzula,Yunnan (Fraser 1923) and a single female collected from Yunnan, Dali (Zhou 1988) more than twenty years ago.
169184		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat ecology of this montane species, although it is likely to be a stream species.
169184		population	eng	No information on the population, the lack of records merely reflects the need for more sampling in Yunnan and adjacent regions.
169184		threats	eng	Without more data it is not possible to judge any threats that might be faced by this species.
169185		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>
169185		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only published records of <em>Heliogomphus svihleri</em> of which the assessor is aware of are of three female specimens from Hampshire Falls between Maymyo and Wetwun in Myanmar, Khao Yai in Nakhon Nayok province in central Thailand and Chiang Mai province in northwest Thailand (Asahina 1970, 1986; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).</p>
169185		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.
169185		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known only from three females.</p>
169185		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat. Deforestation caused by shifting and small-scale settled agriculture are common throughout the region.<br/></p>
169186		conservation	eng	Much more information on distribution, population sizes, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance is needed for this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive sampling of Odonata across the Himalayan region, without such sampling the needed data will not be obtained.
169186		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Recent records in the Japanese literature from northern Thailand (Katatani <em>et al.</em> 2004) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999) are considered to be in need of confirmation. Records from India are from West Bengal, Uttaranchal and Arunachal Pradesh.
169186		habitat	eng	This is a species of streams and rivers, but there is a need for information on precise habitat requirements and on tolerance to disturbance. From the available information it is not clear if the species is dependent upon forest or not.
169186		population	eng	There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.
169186		threats	eng	No information is available on any threats that this species might face.
169187		conservation	eng	The urgent need for this species is to resolve the taxonomic issue.
169187		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrionoptera dorothea</span> is known to occur only in the Duars of West Bengal, India (Fraser 1927, 1936; Prasad and Varshney 1995). Presence in parts of the river basin within Bhutan and Bangladesh is possible.
169187		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrionoptera dorothea</span> breeds in stagnant pools inside deep forests. No more information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species.
169187		population	eng	No information is available on the exact population of this species.
169187		threats	eng	Deforestation can affect this forest-dwelling species. <br/><br/>Growing population pressure in the hills has led to migration to and settlement the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems here. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010).
169188		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.</p>
169188		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus meghalayanus</em> is only known from the type locality at Rongregiri in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987).
169188		habitat	eng	The only information on the habitat of this species is as follows: “the type was collected near the outskirts of a forest on the bank of a river” (Lahiri 1987).
169188		population	eng	No information on population sizes is available.
169188		threats	eng	<p>More data are needed on the extent and impact of threats within the currently known range of the species, and large areas are known to have already been deforested. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity include deforestation, especially that resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal and limestone (and potentially uranium) (WWF 2010).<br/><br/>If&#160;<em>Onychogomphus meghalayanus</em> is a valid&#160;species, and if it is confined to the Garo Hills, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss.</p>
169189		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, information on the habitat and distribution of this species must be obtained.</p>
169189		distribution	eng	The only record of <em>Gynacantha burmana</em> is of the holotype male, collected at Palon in Myanmar in 1889 (Lieftinck 1960).
169189		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of this species, although it is almost certainly a forest species breeding in standing water.
169189		population	eng	It is not possible to say anything about populations of this species with the available data.
169189		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information available.<br/></p>
169190		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
169190		distribution	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Paragomphus risi</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from the holotype collected at Kalaw, Myanmar (Fraser 1924, 1934).</span></p>
169190		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
169190		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from a single specimen.</p>
169190		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
169192		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
169192		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the holotype from Obudu in Nigeria (Parr 1977), an upland area. The species hasn't been found in subsequent surveys at the holotype locality, or at suitable habitat across the Cameroon border. However the species may occur south of Obudu, where further surveys are needed. This and <em>P. stahli</em> are the only members of the family in Africa. Both occur only in the southern Cameroon-Nigeria border region and have their nearest relatives in South America.
169192		habitat	eng	Probably similar to <em>P. stahli </em>(rainforest streams), only specimen collected at great altitude (1,524 m). The site where the specimen was caught was a pool in a stream created by a small dam (Parr 1977).<br/><br/>The species is probably restricted to the Obudu plateau due to the particular cool climate and high altitude.
169192		population	eng	Has not been rediscovered at the type locality, last survey undertaken in December 2005. Further surveys required.
169192		threats	eng	The type locality is impacted by the Obudu resort that has recently been upgraded to an International Tourist Centre by the Cross River State Government of Nigeria. As a consequence, resort expansion and possibly water extraction to satisfy its water needs are major threats to the species. Selective illegal logging is also impacting the area around the type locality.
169193		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures. In western Africa, some localities are found in protected areas.
169193		conservation	eng	None in place. Identification of potential protected areas for this species is required.
169193		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from the Cameroon highlands in south west Cameroon and from unknown localities in south east Nigeria (recorded by Gambles (Medler 1980) but no localities given).<br/><br/>This and <em>P. gamblesi</em> are the only members of the family in Africa. Both occur only in the southern Cameroon-Nigeria border region and have their nearest relatives in South America.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.
169193		distribution	eng	This and <em>P. gamblesi</em> are the only members of the family in Africa. Both occur only in the southern Cameroon-Nigeria border region and have their nearest relatives in South America. A recent record from southeast Gabon might pertain to this species but requires further study (Meziere pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known only from the Cameroon highlands in south west Cameroon and from unknown localities in south east Nigeria; recorded by Gambles (Medler 1980) but no localities given. Known from southwestern Cameroon in the central Africa region.
169193		habitat	eng	Cool rainforest streams (i.e., submontane or piedmont lowlands (lowlands at foot of highlands)) with beds of mostly coarse gravel and stones; large larvae cling to the underside of rocks in the stream bed, while adults perch and oviposit in vegetation above seepages on the stream banks, suggesting that larvae may move from the seepages to the main part of the stream as they grow (Vick 1996, 1998).
169193		habitat	eng	Cool rainforest streams (i.e., submontane or piedmont lowlands, lowlands at foot of highlands) with beds of mostly coarse gravel and stones; large larvae cling to the underside of rocks in the stream bed, while adults perch and oviposit in vegetation above seepages on the stream banks, suggesting that larvae may move from the seepages to the main part of the stream as they grow (Vick 1996, 1998).
169193		population	eng	No information available.
169193		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.
169193		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon and south-east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.
169194		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into threats and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169194		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea to Nigeria, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest. Dumont's (1978) record of '<em>Sapho </em>sp<em>.</em>' from south eastern Senegal must also refer to this species. Replaced by <em>S. orichalcea </em> in the extreme south-east of Nigeria.
169194		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams and rivers, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
169194		population	eng	No information available.
169194		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169195		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169195		distribution	eng	The species was described from Sierra Leone; further status unclear. Identity of records from Guinea-Bissau (Schmidt 1951) is unclear, may pertain to <em>S. infumosa</em>. Collected at 1070m altitude in Loma Mountains (Sierra Leone) by Aguesse (1968).
169195		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
169195		population	eng	No information available.
169195		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169196		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Some locations are found within forests reserves but the protection given from these is limited.
169196		distribution	eng	The species is known with certainty from the forest habitats on the Ivorian, Liberian and Guinean sides of Mount Nimba, as well as Gola hills of Liberia (Dijkstra unpubl.) and Senegalese slopes of Fouta Djallon (Legrand 2003). Further presence in Sierra Leone (Loma, Gola), Cote d'Ivoire (Man) and elsewhere in Guinea (Fouta Djallon etc.) is very likely but needs to be investigated.
169196		habitat	eng	Found on rocky sections of rainforest streams (fast flowing streams); associated with hills.
169196		population	eng	No information available.
169196		threats	eng	Forest destruction, siltation of streams due to mining. Restricted to rocky streams in isolated areas of hilly terrain, is especially susceptible to widespread mining of diamonds, bauxite and iron ore in the region. The drainage of diamond mines leads to increased turbidity (reducing the visibility for larvae) and probably siltation (changing the substrate) of streams. Reduced motion (due to pits in streams) and increased water temperature as a result of sun insolation in open pits will also affect the flow, oxygen and temperature regimes of drainage streams. One such stream in Gola forest reserve in Liberia , which was rocky and therefore suitable for this species, held very low numbers by comparison to pristine stream. However, observations are too limited to speak of a trend (Dijkstra unpublished). Logging is also impacting the forested areas of the species' range.
169197		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
169197		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as  monitoring of population trends.
169197		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The type locality near Mt Cameroon, c. 400 m (uncertain), with additional recent and records near Munyenga and Kribi (which require confirmation. Old record from Liberia must be erroneous (probable misidentification), but is present in south east Nigeria (where the main cluster of localities is).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Type locality near Mt Cameroon. Both are recent Cameroon localities are from the 1970s, and require confirmation.
169197		distribution	eng	The type locality near Mount Cameroon, c. 400 m (location is uncertain), with additional recent records near Munyenga and Kribi (which require confirmation. Old record from Liberia must be erroneous (probable misidentification), but is present in south east Nigeria (where the main cluster of localities is). 11 records; one from Nigeria, the others from Cameroon. Further survey (by Vick) in the area did not find further records.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the type locality is near Mt Cameroon. Both recent Cameroon localities are from the 1970s, and require confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species presence in Cameroon (in area on north side of Cross River and near Mt Cameroon). Old record from Liberia must be erroneous (probable misidentification), but may be expected in south east Nigeria.
169197		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169197		population	eng	No information available.
169197		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.
169197		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction caused by wood extraction is believed to be potential threat.
169198		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
169198		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as  monitoring of population trends.
169198		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from extreme west Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south west Province) and Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Listed for Nigeria and may be expected there, but source unclear.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Extreme west Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south west Province).
169198		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from extreme west Cameroon (where it is known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south western Province) and Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Listed for Nigeria and may be expected there, but source unclear.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from extreme west Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south west Province).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south western Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only) and Bioko. Listed for Nigeria and may be expected there, but source unclear.
169198		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169198		population	eng	No information available.
169198		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).
169198		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).
169200		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169200		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169200		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and Bioko. Listed for Nigeria, but this requires confirmation. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.
169200		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria but this record requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon and Bioko. Listed for Nigeria, but this requires confirmation.
169200		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169200		population	eng	No information available.
169200		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).
169200		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).
169202		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169202		conservation	eng	No information available.
169202		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was Described from the Obudu Plateau of south east Nigeria and otherwise known only from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent south west Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Babenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Only two locations within the region, which are both in or near proposed protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent south west Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Babenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Only two locations within the region, which are both in or near proposed protected areas.
169202		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from a few locations in Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent SW Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Babenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Only two locations within the region, which are both in or near proposed protected areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from the Obudu Plateau of SE Nigeria (type locality) and otherwise known only from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent SW Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Bamenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
169202		habitat	eng	Rocky submontane (above 700 m) rainforest streams.
169202		population	eng	No information available.
169202		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction (selective logging and for agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat.
169202		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction (selective logging and for agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat.
169203		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169203		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Togolese type locality, "Misahöhe" (forested hill near present-day Kpalime). Surveys have been undertaken in the highlands since it was last recorded, in the 19th century, but it was not found.
169203		habitat	eng	No information available.
169203		population	eng	No information available.
169203		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture is a major threat.
169205		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169205		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Upper Guinea endemic, occurring from Guinea and Sierra Leone to western Togo. No records from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire are published, but assessor has seen specimens in Cambridge and Bulawayo museums (Dijkstra unpubl.).
169205		habitat	eng	Forested streams and smaller rivers.
169205		population	eng	No information available.
169205		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction occurring in the area is believed to be a threat the species.
169206		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169206		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Sierra Leone. (Replaces <em>C. glauca</em>)
169206		habitat	eng	Forested streams and smaller rivers.
169206		population	eng	No information available.
169206		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation caused by ongoing agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.
169207		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169207		distribution	eng	The species is known only from near Freetown (Sierra Leone) and Monrovia (Liberia), aside from a possible teneral (freshly emerged) female that was collected further inland in Sierra Leone (Lempert 1988, Terzani and Marconi 2003).
169207		habitat	eng	Probably swampy spots near mangroves (see Lapert 1988). May be tolerant of brackish water, which is rare among dragonflies, especially in Africa.
169207		population	eng	No information available.
169207		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats has occurred around Monrovia and Freetown and is ongoing.
169208		conservation	eng	In Benin there was a community based conservation project at the main site for the species (Foret de Lokoli) aiming to education and raise awareness of the sustainable use of swamp forest habitat - finished in 2005. The success of the project is unknown. No further conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169208		distribution	eng	The species is only occurs in south eastern Benin and adjacent south western Nigeria in the Lagos area (Tchibozo and Dijkstra 2003, Dijkstra 2005). Old listings for Sierra Leone and Democratic Republic of Congo appear erroneous (probably misidentification).
169208		habitat	eng	Rivers in swamp forest.
169208		population	eng	No information available.
169208		threats	eng	The species occurs in areas of very high population densities. The habitat has been severely fragmented as the swamp forest is being drained and deforested for shifting agriculture, e.g., cocoyam/ taro. Also the <span style="font-style: italic;">Raphia</span> palms are harvested to produce raffia palm wine and other non timber products (roofs, mats - weaving, etc.).
169209		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169209		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Sierra Leone and Liberia, and apparently also collected in Nigeria (Lempert 1988).
169209		habitat	eng	Forested streams and rivers.
169209		population	eng	No information available.
169209		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169210		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169210		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a few specimens from Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria (Lempert 1988, Dijkstra unpubl.).
169210		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and rivers.
169210		population	eng	No information available.
169210		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.
169211		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169211		distribution	eng	The species is only known from type pair collected at Regent in Sierra Leone, described in 2004. This is in the hills of the peninsula just south of Freetown.
169211		habitat	eng	No information available.
169211		population	eng	No information available.
169211		threats	eng	It is likely that the area where the species was found (on the outskirts of Freetown) will be impacted by the expanding city of Freetown.
169212		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169212		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species biology, ecology and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169212		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is endemic to highlands of Cameroon (Dschang, Bamenda) and adjacent Nigeria (Mambilla and Tiba Plateaux). Potential occurrence further east needs more surveys.
169212		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is considered endemic to highlands of Cameroon (Dschang, Bamenda) and adjacent Nigeria (Mambilla and Tiba Plateaux).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from western Cameroon (Dschang, Bamenda), potential occurrence further east needs more surveys.
169212		habitat	eng	Streams and small rivers in grassland, farmbush and secondary forest, up to high altitudes.
169212		population	eng	No information available.
169212		threats	eng	None known.
169213		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169213		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Cameroon. Presence in Central African Republic in likely.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known from the north of Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria (Gambles 1979). It is inferred to occur also between these locations in the savannah belt as this area has been insufficiently surveyed (Dijkstra pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Its likely to occur in central Africa, in northern Cameroon and northern Central African Republic.
169213		habitat	eng	Most likely savannah and woodland.
169213		population	eng	No information available.
169213		threats	eng	Unknown.
169214		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169214		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea) (Legrand 1983, 2003) and east Liberia (Lempert 1988).
169214		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around rainforest streams.
169214		population	eng	No information available.
169214		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be a threat to the species.
169215		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169215		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type series from two sites in Cote d'Ivoire (Legrand 1991).
169215		habitat	eng	No information available.
169215		population	eng	No information available.
169215		threats	eng	No information available.
169216		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169216		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (P) (Legrand 1993, 2003), but similar specimens that may pertain to be this species were collected in Liberia and Sierra Leone (Lempert and Terzani pers. comm.).
169216		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest streams.
169216		population	eng	No information available.
169216		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169217		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169217		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two Togolese type males collected near Kpimé (Gauthier 1987). Specimens recently collected in Ghana may be conspecific (Dijkstra pers. comm.).
169217		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest streams.
169217		population	eng	No information available.
169217		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169218		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169218		distribution	eng	The species is known only from near Vom in northern Nigeria (Gambles 1971).
169218		habitat	eng	Found on savannah habitat.
169218		population	eng	No information available.
169218		threats	eng	Vegetable farming with the use of agrochemicals is very spread the area of Vom. However the impacts of this upon the species are unknown.
169219		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169219		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Ivorian holotype and a male compared with it by Lempert (1988) from Liberia.
169219		habitat	eng	Possibly found in forested areas.
169219		population	eng	No information available.
169219		threats	eng	No information available.
169220		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169220		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Upper Guinea. Earlier records from Cameroon and further east probably all pertain to other species. It is known with certainty from Liberia, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and adjacent Togo. It was listed for Sierra Leone and Nigeria, but this must be confirmed.
169220		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169220		population	eng	No information available.
169220		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169221		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169221		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Upper Guinea endemic. Described from Guinea, and since found in Ghana and Togo. Gambles (1987) described but did not name the species and saw specimens from Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.
169221		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169221		population	eng	No information available.
169221		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
169223		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
169223		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
169223		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu) and Congo (Ketta (Ouesso Sangha) and Kelle Forests), as well as Uganda, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu) and Congo (Ketta (Ouesso Sangha) and Kelle Forests), as well as Central African Republic, Gabon, and Zambia.
169223		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from West Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola to Equatorial Guinea. Eastern localities are verified, but the western localities (western Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and southern Cameroon) require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu) and Congo (Ketta (Ouesso Sangha) and Kelle Forests).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (west Uganda).
169223		habitat	eng	Forest rivers.
169223		population	eng	No information available.
169223		threats	eng	No information available, but obviously forest destruction, particularly as a result of agriculture.
169223		threats	eng	No specific information is available, but water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are known to be affecting to the species.
169224		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169224		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
169224		conservation	eng	None.
169224		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was firstly described from southern Nigeria, from where it ranges into Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon, Gabon and Congo.
169224		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species was first described from southern Nigeria, from where it ranges into Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It also occurs in south west Cameroon.
169224		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Cameroon and recent records in Gabon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is was first described from southern Nigeria, from where it ranges into Cameroon. Recent records from southeastern Gabon.
169224		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169224		population	eng	No information.
169224		population	eng	No information available.
169224		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation and agriculture, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169224		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to ongoing agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.
169224		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169225		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169225		distribution	eng	The species is only known from damaged holotype from Port Lokko (Sierra Leone).
169225		habitat	eng	No information available.
169225		population	eng	No information available.
169225		threats	eng	No information available.
169226		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169226		distribution	eng	The species was described from Danané, western Cote d'Ivoire, specimens seen by assessor from Ghana and Togo.
169226		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest streams.
169226		population	eng	No information available.
169226		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area are believed to be a threats to the species.
169227		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169227		distribution	eng	The species is only known from western middle belt of Nigeria (Batati, near Bida, Niger Province) and adjacent Benin (Sota River) (Dijkstra 2005).
169227		habitat	eng	Possibly found in and around savannah rivers.
169227		population	eng	No information available.
169227		threats	eng	No information available.
169228		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169228		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Guinea (Mt. Nimba) and Mali (Dijkstra, unpubl.). The second record suggests the species is much more widespread as the habitat is very different to Mt Nimba. There have also been some females of the genus recorded across the western Africa region but they cannot be identified to species level. Based on this it is inferred the species has a wider distribution.
169228		habitat	eng	Probably forested streams.
169228		population	eng	No information available.
169228		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169229		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169229		distribution	eng	The species is known only from holotype from southern Cote d'Ivoire.
169229		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around forest rivers.
169229		population	eng	No information available.
169229		threats	eng	No information available.
169230		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169230		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the holotype from Mount Nimba (Guinea).
169230		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest areas, probably in streams.
169230		population	eng	No information available.
169230		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169231		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169231		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea).
169231		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest, probably in streams.
169231		population	eng	No information available.
169231		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169232		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable
169232		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea).
169232		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest areas, probably in streams.
169232		population	eng	No information available.
169232		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169233		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169233		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169233		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Its holotype is possibly from Gambia. The species is known with certainty only from Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire; other records must be checked.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Listed by Tsuda (2000) from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, which needs confirmation.
169233		distribution	eng	This species' holotype is possibly from Gambia. Known with certainty only from Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire in western Africa; other records must be checked. <br/><br/>In central Africa the species is listed Tsuda from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, which needs confirmation.
169233		habitat	eng	Forest rivers.
169233		population	eng	No information available.
169233		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169233		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169234		conservation	eng	No information available.
169234		distribution	eng	The species is known only from holotype from Sierra Leone, which is in a poor state and may pertain to <em>P. mound</em>i.
169234		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around forest rivers.
169234		population	eng	No information available.
169234		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.
169235		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169235		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the female holotype from Sierra Leone; may pertain to <em>P. moundi.</em>
169235		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around forest rivers.
169235		population	eng	No information available.
169235		threats	eng	No information available.
169236		conservation	eng	No information available but research into habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169236		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nigeria and Guinea. The assessor has seen a probable female from Liberia and probable male from Togo. Types of <em>P. bartolozzii</em> and from Sierra Leone may also pertain to this species.
169236		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around forest rivers.
169236		population	eng	No information available.
169236		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169237		conservation	eng	No information available.
169237		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Cote d'Ivoire.
169237		habitat	eng	Probably forest or savannah rivers.
169237		population	eng	No information available.
169237		threats	eng	No information available.
169238		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169238		distribution	eng	This species has been described from northern Cote d'Ivoire. The assessor has seen specimens from Gambia and one in the Paris museum which is probably from Niger.
169238		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around savannah rivers.
169238		population	eng	No information available.
169238		threats	eng	No information available.
169239		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169239		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169239		distribution	eng	Four records are known from this species: three from Cameroon (including two by Vick), one from Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from the south west Province, Cameroon (Kribi), and in Nigeria (as found in Takamanda Forest), but the status of all records needs to be assessed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon. May be expected in south east Nigeria, as found in Takamanda Forest.
169239		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Province, Cameroon (Kribi), and in Nigeria (as found in Takamanda Forest), but the status of all records needs to be assessed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon.
169239		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
169239		population	eng	No information available.
169239		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169239		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169240		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable
169240		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea); a specimen seen by the assessor from Togo may also belong here.
169240		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
169240		population	eng	No information available.
169240		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169241		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169241		distribution	eng	The species is known only from holotype from Takamanda Forest in Cameroon and may be present in south-eastern Nigeria.
169241		habitat	eng	Known from rainforest but the water type is unknown. Probably occurs in streams.
169241		population	eng	No information available.
169241		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction caused by wood extraction is believed to be a threat.
169242		conservation	eng	&#160;No information available and, therefore, research is needed.
169242		distribution	eng	The species is known with certainty only from Sierra Leone and possibly occurs also in Guinea (Pinhey 1970). Records from other parts of Africa, including Chad and Nigeria, all appear erroneous (misidentification) (Dijkstra unpub.). The species is therefore listed as Data Deficient.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan and Egypt. Both records need confirmation, but appear currently erroneous. It is therefore listed as Not Applicable in the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known with certainty only from Sierra Leone. Possibly also occurs in Guinea (Pinhey 1970). Records from other parts of Africa, including Chad and Nigeria, all appear erroneous (misidentification) (Dijkstra unpub.).
169242		habitat	eng	The habitat where this species lives is not well known. It is thought to inhabit savannah and inland wetlands.
169242		population	eng	No information available.
169242		threats	eng	No information available.
169243		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169243		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169243		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cameroon and Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from south west Cameroon (Barombi) and Gabon.
169243		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon (Barombi).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire.
169243		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and rivers.
169243		population	eng	No information available.
169243		threats	eng	Agriculture and forest destruction.
169243		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
169245		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169245		distribution	eng	The species is only known from a 100 km stretch of the Bandama River north and east of Korhogo in northern Cote d'Ivoire. Surveys are urgently required.
169245		habitat	eng	The species is known only from a river (about 30 m wide and 2 m deep in the dry season) with sandbanks, midstream rocks and high steep banks. The river is flanked by gallery forest 20-30 m wide (many tree roots hang in the water) in savannah. Adults were only recorded after several rains at the start of the rainy season from the 5th to 20th of April (1968 and 1969). They appear to fly 4 to 8 metres high around treetops in small groups (3 to 20 individuals), mainly between 4 pm and dusk. Mating appears to take place in these groups (Lindley 1970). Lindley (1974) elaborates that it "is found only [...] during Mar/Apr [...]. Its numerical status varies from year to year".
169245		population	eng	No information available.
169245		threats	eng	Possibly removal of gallery forest and siltation of rivers threaten the species.
169246		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into threats and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169246		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Togo and possibly Nigeria. Assessor has seen material from Cote d'Ivoire in Bulawayo museum.
169246		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams and rivers, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
169246		population	eng	No information available.
169246		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.
169247		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable
169247		distribution	eng	The species has been described from Mount Nimba (Guinea) and recently found in Kintampo falls in Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.). The species is difficult to catch and is assumed to be much more widespread and found in between these two locations.
169247		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
169247		population	eng	No information available.
169247		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown, but ongoing deforestation occurring in the area is believed to be affect to the species.
169248		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
169248		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
169248		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria, similar specimens from adjacent Cameroon may pertain to another species (Vick unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Its locality is Kodmin, in the Bakossi Mountains. Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, northern Cameroon likely.
169248		distribution	eng	The species is known from single locality in Nigeria and from similar specimens from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria. Similar specimens from adjacent Cameroon may pertain to another species (Vick unpubl.). <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from its type locality in Kodmin, in the Bakossi Mountains of Democratic Republic of Congo.
169248		habitat	eng	Rainforest, probably in streams.
169248		population	eng	No information available.
169248		threats	eng	In western Africa, the type locality is impacted by the Obudu resort (this has recently been upgraded to an International Tourist Centre by the Cross River State Government of Nigeria), through resort expansion and possibly water extraction. Selective illegal logging is also impacting area around the type locality.
169248		threats	eng	No information available.
169250		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169250		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169250		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from highlands in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. The only member of this otherwise Neotropical family in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.
169250		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from highlands in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.
169250		habitat	eng	Backwaters of cool, submontane (above 700 m) rainforest streams.
169250		population	eng	No information available.
169250		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands and south east Nigeria are unknown but agriculture and forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.
169250		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon and southeast Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be a potential threat.
169251		conservation	eng	Part of the species range is within the Niakola-Koba National Park in Senegal. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169251		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Upper The Gambia River in Senegal and Gambia. Dumont (1978) recorded 'small <em>M. singularis</em>' from a site in Senegal where later part of the type material of <em>M. dupuy</em>i was collected. Presumably these were all <em>M. dupuyi</em>.
169251		habitat	eng	Perched on tufts of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperacea </span>along the river (Dumont 1978) in the Gambia River.
169251		population	eng	No information available.
169251		threats	eng	There is a proposal of construction of a dam in The Gambia river in Senegal, near the border with Guinea, which will regulate the flow regime of the river. It is believed that this will not have a severe negative impact upon the species, but its real future impact is unknown. Deforestation is occurring along the river, but this is not thought to be a threat to the species as it prefers open land.
169252		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
169252		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two sites near Juarzon in south eastern Liberia, the Sinoe River and a tributary (Lempert 1988, 1992).
169252		habitat	eng	Rainforest rivers, preferring shaded sections unlike the sympatric <em>M. singularis</em>, which perches in the sun.
169252		population	eng	No information available.
169252		threats	eng	There is a potential threat of logging for wood extraction and agriculture within the species range.
169253		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169253		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d' Ivoire, Ghana, Togo and Nigeria (Dijkstra <em>et a</em>l. 2006). Possibly ranges to Guinea and Cameroon, but no specified records have been published (Legrand and Couturier 1985).
169253		habitat	eng	Deeply shaded calm and stagnant sections of streams and small rivers in rainforest.
169253		population	eng	No information available.
169253		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169255		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169255		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169255		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. Historic record from Sierra Leone is assumed to be erroneous (mislabelling of locality Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and Congo.
169255		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria. There are recent new records from Gabon and western Congo Brazzaville.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. An historic record from Sierra Leone is assumed to be erroneous due to mislabelling of locality, according to Dijkstra pers. comm..<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southwestern Cameroon and Congo.
169255		habitat	eng	Species appears to have a very specialised habitat. Larvae probably pertaining to this species were found among roots on dripping rockfaces beside a waterfall in submontane (i.e. above 700m) rainforest (Vick 1998).
169255		habitat	eng	Species appears to have a very specialised habitat. Larvae probably pertaining to this species were found among roots on dripping rockfaces beside a waterfall in submontane rainforest  (i.e., above 700m) (Vick 1998).
169255		population	eng	No information available.
169255		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be potential threat.
169255		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.
169256		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169256		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.
169256		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon and Gabon, may be expected in Nigeria, as occurs in Takamanda Forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon.
169256		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in west Cameroon, and may be expected from Nigeria, as occurs in Takamanda Forest.
169256		habitat	eng	Submontane&#160; rainforest streams (above 700 m).
169256		habitat	eng	Submontane (above 700 m.) rainforest streams.
169256		population	eng	No information available.
169256		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be potential threat.
169256		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.
169257		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169257		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria.
169257		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
169257		population	eng	No information available.
169257		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
169258		conservation	eng	No information available.
169258		distribution	eng	In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Togo, reports from Nigeria and Cameroon must be verified.
169258		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
169258		population	eng	No information available.
169258		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species are unknown, but&#160; deforestation and agriculture occurring in the area are believed to be threats to the species.
169259		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169259		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.
169259		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been collected from Obudu Plateau of south east Nigeria and Bakossi Mts of adjacent Cameroon only.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.
169259		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Obudu Plateau of south east Nigeria and Bakossi Mts of adjacent Cameroon.
169259		habitat	eng	Small streams in montane rainforest.
169259		population	eng	No information available.
169259		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction (selective logging and for agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat. In Nigeria, the Obudu plateau is threatened by by the expansion of the Obudu tourist resort.
169259		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction (for selective logging and agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat. In Nigeria, the Obudu plain is threatened due to the expansion of the Obudu tourist resort.
169260		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169260		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Sierra Leone, where it has been recorded from the following locations (villages): Yana, Kamakoni (Kimmins 1938), Newton, Kasewe (Marconi and Terzani unpubl.). These all lie relatively north-west in the country.
169260		habitat	eng	Based on the ecology of other species of the genus, it can be assumed to be a forest stream species.
169260		population	eng	No information available.
169260		threats	eng	No specific threats are known for the species. However ongoing deforestation for agriculture in this densely populated region is believed to be a potential threat.
169261		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169261		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria.
169261		habitat	eng	Forested rivers and larger streams.
169261		population	eng	No information available.
169261		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.
169262		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
169262		distribution	eng	The species is known only from near Kédougou in southeast Senegal. The site is on the border of Guinea, where the species is expected to occur as well.
169262		habitat	eng	Known only from a small stream.
169262		population	eng	No information available.
169262		threats	eng	A proposed dam in the area is likely to have major impacts upon the species by flooding some, if not all, the potential habitats of the species.
169263		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
169263		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Liberia, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.
169263		habitat	eng	Found in and around smaller rainforest streams.
169263		population	eng	No information available.
169263		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169265		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
169265		conservation	eng	No information available.
169265		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169265		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gabon. The record from Nigeria requires confirmation<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo.
169265		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species occurs in Takamanda Forest in Cameroon, possibly in Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gabon.
169265		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of Congo.It is believed to be present also in Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species occurs in Takamanda Forest in Cameroon, possibly in Nigeria.
169265		habitat	eng	Cool streams in submontane (above 700 m.) rainforest.
169265		habitat	eng	Cool streams in submontane (above 700 m) rainforest.
169265		population	eng	No information available.
169265		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
169265		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be affecting to the species.
169266		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169266		distribution	eng	<em>Gynacantha constricta</em> is a Philippine endemic species. The province of Laguna in Central Luzon, Luzon Island is the type locality. No other record is known outside this range.
169266		habitat	eng	Based on congeners, <em>G. constricta</em> probably thrives in primary to secondary forest streams and creeks where the adults hide in the vegetations during midday sun. It might also be found near rice fields and irrigation canals.
169266		population	eng	The species was collected from Central Luzon area, no details are known on its abundance. It is known only from the type material. Extensive collections (by Muller) and the University of the Philippines-Los Banos (UPLB) do not include this species, therefore it is inferred to occur in very low numbers.
169266		threats	eng	Clearance of vegetation in the area occupied by <em>Gynacantha constricta</em> is causing the loss of hiding places for the species and increases its vulnerability to predation. The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest; loss of forest cover is likely to result in the loss of breeding habitat due to siltation and pollution.<br/><br/>So far the species has been recorded only in the province of Laguna. If further data indicate that it is confined to this area, the species will be more susceptible to the threats occurring here.
169267		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169267		distribution	eng	<em>Heliaeschna simplicia</em> is recorded from Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra), Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak), Brunei and the Philippine islands of Bongao and Sanga-sanga.
169267		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest habitats. It is crepuscular and is therefore is under-recorded.
169267		population	eng	There is no available information on the population size of the species.
169267		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to the species.
169268		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169268		distribution	eng	<em>Oligoaeschna poeciloptera</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded from Luzon, Mindanao and Homonhon islands.
169268		habitat	eng	There is no information about the habitat requirement of this species. Based on reports of its congener, the species might be found in habitats as swamps, marshes and lakes.
169268		population	eng	There is no available information on the population status of the species. The species is very elusive, which could account for the low number of records.
169268		threats	eng	Based on the probable habitat of the species, it is subject to introduction of alien fish, conversion of habitat for aquaculture or rice fields, where it is at risk from pesticides.
169269		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169269		distribution	eng	<em>Tetracanthagyna bakeri</em> is recorded from Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte and Mindanao islands.
169269		habitat	eng	The species prefers montane forest streams and creeks with plenty of trees with branches above the water which are used by the female for oviposition. The water is typically slow to moderate running with muddy to sandy substrate. The larvae are found clinging to roots and submerged trunks waiting for small fishes to pass.
169269		population	eng	The species occur in low densities. Females are frequently encountered either perching or ovipositing on trees above the stream.
169269		threats	eng	The species is dependent on the presence of trees along the water course for its for oviposition and it is under threat from deforestation. Clearing of waterways will deprive the chance for oviposition site and will further reduce the number of this low density species.<br/><br/>The increase of human settlements is also a  threat to the species due to the clearing of forest and, most importantly, pollution of waterways and damming for aquaculture purposes. Several waterways in the mountain areas of Mindanao have been dammed for <em>Tilapia</em> culture which are likely to prey on the larvae of <em>T. bakeri</em>.
169270		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169270		distribution	eng	<em>Euphaea amphicyana</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Samar, Leyte, Panaon, Homonhon, Mindanao, Dinagat and Basilan islands.
169270		habitat	eng	This species prefers open spaces in forested clear flowing streams, creeks and rivers. Mostly males are seen perching on nearby vegetations or boulders. On the other hand, females prefer to stay in the tall branches of nearby trees. Larvae are found among debris in the slow moving portion of the waterways and emergence usually in late morning.<br/><br/><em>E. amphicyana</em> seems to tolerate moderate human disturbance as long as vegetations and clear running water is maintained.
169270		population	eng	The species occurs in fair number in most montane streams, creeks and rivers. There is not enough data available but observation shows a seasonal variation in population density.
169270		threats	eng	Heavy deforestation and human settlement is occurring within its range and these are a threat to the species.
169271		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169271		distribution	eng	<em>Neurobasis anumariae</em> is a Philippine endemic species, known only from Samar, Leyte and Mindanao islands.
169271		habitat	eng	This species is typical of montane habitats characterized by open creeks and shallow moderate flowing rivers with plenty of exposed rocks where adults can perch. Once present, adults are seen flying low on the water surface chasing each other. Some perch on exposed rocks and others are found in nearby vegetations especially the perching females.
169271		population	eng	The species occurs in low numbers with scattered populations.
169271		threats	eng	This species prefers open spaces and is found to colonize recently cleared portions of shaded creeks.   However, houses constructed near the river have been observed to drastically affect <span style="font-style: italic;">N. anumariae </span>populations, especially populations occurring downstream of sewage outlets. Decline of population density and even local losses of resident N. anumariae populations are known in several localities in Bukidnon and Davao provinces in just a year or two after a single house was built.<br/><br/>Ongoing human settlement expansion into upland areas in Mindanao and possibly Samar and Leyte threatens the resident population of the species and is likely to lead to its decline or loss.
169273		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169273		distribution	eng	<em>Cyrano unicolor</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded from the following islands: Luzon, Marinduque, Catanduanes, Mindoro, Negros, and Panay.
169273		habitat	eng	Based on its congener, this species is probably found in shaded streams, creeks and riverbanks. Often it is found in low densities and is seen perching on twigs above or near the waterways.
169273		population	eng	There is no information concerning the population status of the species.
169273		threats	eng	Being a forest specialist, <em>Cyrano unicolor</em> is subject to habitat degradation characterized by deforestation through logging, and clearing for farming and settlements.
169274		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169274		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinocypha dorsosanguinea</em> so far has been recorded only from Basilan Island, with an unverified occurrence in Mindanao. A report from a 2005 expedition to Mount Malindang by the University Of the Philippines' Los Banos team mentioned that the species also occurs in Mindanao. If the Malindang specimen is indeed a true <em>dorsosanguinea</em> then this is a confirmation of its proposed range.
169274		habitat	eng	The habitat is probably forest streams, creeks and rivers with plenty of vegetation.
169274		population	eng	No details known.
169274		threats	eng	No direct information is known about threats to this species, but its inferred habitat is subject to deforestations and impacts from human activities. Logging and slash and burn farming is rampant in the rural provinces of the Philippines, especially in the southern islands making this a threat to the species.<br/><br/>Observations on the <em>Rhinocypha</em> species in Mindanao shows a drastic population shift with the declining trend of the resident species and emergence of the colonizer <em>R. colorata</em>. This also could occur within the range of <em>R. dorsosanguinea</em>.
169275		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169275		distribution	eng	<em>Cercion luzonicum</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to central Luzon. Since the collection of the type material no further material has become available for study. Even the extensive R.A. Muller collection, does not include this species which shows that it is genuinely rare and might be highly threatened.
169275		habitat	eng	There are no available data concerning the habitat of the species. Probably, the species can be found in marsh, pond and lake environments.
169275		population	eng	There is no information about the population status of the species.
169275		threats	eng	The probable habitat of this species (pond, marsh and lake systems) is subject to aquaculture practices. This places the species under heavy threat of extinction as most similar habitats in the archipelago have now been converted to fish farms.
169276		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169276		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion azureum</em> is endemic to the Philippines and is recorded from central Luzon, Luzon Island.
169276		habitat	eng	Based on its congener, <em>P. azureum</em>, this species is expected to be found at riverbanks or at ponds and lakes.
169276		population	eng	There are no data available on the population status of the species.
169276		threats	eng	The species is known only from the types collected on central Luzon. This is a highly urbanized area, which places the species probably at high risk of extinction.<br/><br/>Based on its congener, the species is particularly threatened by ongoing deforestation and increasing human settlements. The majority of ponds, marshes and lakes, and some rivers in this area are used for aquaculture. Introduced <em>Tilapia</em> is the primary fish species bred there and in most cases is already the dominant species, especially in ponds and lakes. The high density of this predatory fish changes the species richness of these habitats reducing food for the larval stage of <em>P azureum</em>. The fish also is a predator to the larvae further reducing larval density.
169277		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169277		distribution	eng	<em>Teinobasis filamentum</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded from Samar Island, Bohol Island, Panaon Island, Mindanao Island and Basilan Island.
169277		habitat	eng	The species can be found  in primary to secondary forested streams or creeks and occasionally in small forest ponds.
169277		population	eng	The species has a fragmented range but is often found in fair number with males frequently encountered. The species seems to have a seasonal variation in population density with higher numbers found in July to October.
169277		threats	eng	The species is subject to deforestation, habitat conversion and human settlement including pollution. Several known sites are now cleared for housing, particularly in Mindanao.
169278		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169278		distribution	eng	<em>Teinobasis samaritis</em> is a widely distributed Philippine endemic recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Mindoro, Cebu, Negros, Masbate, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Ticao, Samar, Homonhon, Mindanao, Basilan, Palawan, Busuanga, Tawi tawi, Sanga sanga, Tandubas, and Sibutu.
169278		habitat	eng	The species can be found at banks of primary to secondary forested streams and creeks. It also occurs at ponds with rich vegetations where adults hide under the shrubs especially if disturbed
169278		population	eng	The species often occur in fair numbers.
169278		threats	eng	<em>T. samaritis</em> seem to tolerate slightly contaminated waterways as long as there is no settlement or clearance of habitat.
169279		conservation	eng	Although the species is found in a national protected area, no conservation measures directed to the species in place.
169279		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemicordulia apoensis </span>is endemic to the Philippines and is probably confined to the Mount Apo area on Mindanao.   The species has been recorded only in areas actually within the central part of the mountain. It has been recorded in five sites which are all close to each other. Based on current data, the area of occupancy is less than 500 km², but it is hoped that the species will be found in other areas as field surveys continue. Its extent of occurrence is definitely less than 5,000 km².
169279		habitat	eng	No direct information is available for this species. Based on its congener, it is probably found in forest pond and creeks where larvae stay in the muddy bottom.
169279		population	eng	There is no information available.
169279		threats	eng	Based on observations of its congener, this species' likely habitat is particularly subject to clearance and conversion to pools for the production of commercial fish species (<em>Tilapia</em>). This is commonly seen in the lower portion of the Mount Apo range and in some mountainous communities. Although this species' range area includes Mount Apo National Park, banana and other monoculture farms are encroaching more into the park area. The conversion of habitat and introduction of alien species will significantly affect the water community. This has certainly led to the decline of <em>H. apoensis</em> populations.
169281		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169281		distribution	eng	<em>Heteronaias heterodoxa</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Masbate, Sibuyan, Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Homonhon, Panaon, Bohol, Camiguin, Dinagat, and Mindanao.
169281		habitat	eng	Adults are frequently encountered in forested streams, creeks and rivers. It patrols a certain portion of the stream then flies back to the forest canopy. Larva are found clinging on the rocks against the rapid current.
169281		population	eng	The species occurs in low number but has a extensive distributional range. Larvae are frequently encountered in rapid flowing streams, creeks and rivers.
169281		threats	eng	Deforestation is an important factor affecting the population of <em>H. heterodoxa</em>.
169282		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169282		distribution	eng	<em>Idionyx philippa</em> is a widely distributed Philippine endemic species recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panaon, Homonhon, Mindanao, Dinagat, and Basilan.
169282		habitat	eng	The species is associated to shaded forest streams, creeks and rivers. It is also encountered in the forest pathways either hovering or perching on twigs. Females drop their eggs directly on the slow flowing portion of the creek where the larvae are found buried in the mud.
169282		population	eng	The species is frequently encountered hovering, sometimes in group, in shaded montane forest near or at some distance of the water.
169282		threats	eng	Deforestation and human settlement is an important factor affecting the population of this species.
169283		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169283		distribution	eng	<em>Macromidia samal</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded in Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, Mindanao and Dinagat islands.
169283		habitat	eng	There is no information about the habitat preference of the species. Based on its congener, it is likely that the species prefers forested streams, creeks and shallow rivers.
169283		population	eng	There is no available information on the population status of the species.
169283		threats	eng	Deforestation could be the most important factor that affects the population of this species.
169284		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169284		distribution	eng	<em>Heliogomphus bakeri</em> is a Philippine endemic species, which is widely distributed in the archipelago: Luzon Island, Catanduanes Island, Mindoro Island, Panay Island, Negros Island, Sibuyan Island, Samar Island, Leyte Island, Homonhon Island, Mindanao Island, Dinagat Island, and Camiguin Island.
169284		habitat	eng	This species prefers open spaces in forested streams and creeks including shallow rivers where mature adults perch on foliage of nearby vegetations. It seems to prefer clear running waters running with slow to moderate speed and with sandy-muddy substrate where larvae can be found.<br/><br/>Adult males are active during late morning until middle afternoon guarding their particular territory. Not much is known about the seasonal pattern of species.
169284		population	eng	The species is found in montane streams and shallow rivers. It occurs in low numbers and adults prefer to stay in the nearby vegetations waiting for prey or mate.
169284		threats	eng	In Mindanao, but probably also throughout the Philippines, the habitat of <em>H. bakeri</em> is under threat from deforestation and conversion to agricultural land. Near human settlements the species is threatened by pollution caused by people using the water system for laundry purposes, or for disposing or cleaning insecticide spray/tanks, or indirectly via untreated sewage being drained into rivers.
169285		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169285		distribution	eng	<em>Ictinogomphus tenax</em> is widely distributed in the Philippine archipelago. Records are known from the islands of Luzon, Marinduque, Mindoro and Mindanao.
169285		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds, marshes, swamps and lakes where adults are seen patrolling a few feet above the water surface.
169285		population	eng	The species occurs in low to fairly high numbers.
169285		threats	eng	The specific habitat is particularly subject to aquaculture but the species seems to tolerate this activity.
169286		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169286		distribution	eng	<em>Onychogomphus treadawayi</em> is a Philippine endemic species that is probably confined to Busuanga Island, which has a total area of 900 km².
169286		habitat	eng	There is information on the habitat requirement of this species. But observations on other members of the genus suggest that the species is probably a forest species.
169286		population	eng	There is no available information about the population status of the species.
169286		threats	eng	There are no direct data available on the extent of deforestation in Busuanga  Island. But like most small islands in the Philippines, it is likely to have been transformed to coconut plantations with scattered forest fragments remaining along steep ravines.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is confined to the island and if the assumed forest habitat of the species is correct, then it is likely to be subject to deforestation and clearance of watersheds for agriculture, settlement or logging. Small islands also have scarce freshwater sources; this suggests that the local human community is likely to have utilized most of the available water sources on the island, reducing suitable breeding ground for <em>O. treadawayi</em>.
169287		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169287		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacina braueri</em> is a Philippine endemic species, which is widely distributed in Luzon, Mindoro, Cebu, Negros, Masbate, Sibuyan, Samar, Panaon, Mindanao, Basilan, Camiguin, Tawi tawi and Jolo islands.
169287		habitat	eng	The species is found in low to montane habitat, preferably open spaces with flowing water. The adults are seen perching on exposed rocks and leaves beside the water. It is noted to tolerate relatively contaminated water with larvae hiding in the mud or sand.
169287		population	eng	The species is widely distributed in the Philippine archipelago with exception of the Palawan region. It occurs in low to fairly high numbers. It coexists with its congeners in some sites.
169287		threats	eng	<em>D. braueri</em> is tolerant of some pollution, but heavy contamination of waterways could be a major threat to the species.
169288		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
169288		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacina lisa</em> is a Philippine endemic species, recorded from Luzon, Mindoro and Mindanao islands.
169288		habitat	eng	Based on its congener, <em>D. lisa</em>, this is most likely a species of creeks and rivers in primary forest. It is most likely to be seen in late morning to middle afternoon. It prefers to perch on leaves and on exposed rocks and boulders in the waterways and adjacent areas.
169288		population	eng	There is no information available about the population status for this species. Based on the available records, it is likely that the species is rare and occurs in low numbers only.
169288		threats	eng	The close association of <em>Diplacina lisa</em> to forested waterways makes it susceptible to deforestation and human settlement. This is a major concern in central Luzon where urbanization is so rapid and in Mindanao where settlements penetrate deep into the mountainous areas. This is compounded by the species' fragmented range and low population densities.
169289		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169289		distribution	eng	<em>Diplacina nana</em> is a fairly well distributed Philippine endemic species, recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Cebu, Negros, Siquijor, Samar, Bohol, Biliran, Mindanao, and Dinagat.
169289		habitat	eng	The species is occasionally encountered in shaded forested streams, creeks and rivers. Larvae are found in muddy portions of the creek.
169289		population	eng	The species occurs in very low densities.
169289		threats	eng	Due to its low population density and fragmented range the species is vulnerable to degradation of its habitat. Deforestation through logging or clearing for settlement is an important factor in its decline.
169290		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place. Its known habitat is part of a protected area.
169290		distribution	eng	<em>Argiolestes realensis</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Quezon Province on Luzon Island. So far, the species has been recorded only from the area surrounding the National Botanic Garden, Real. Its total area of occupancy is estimated to be no more than 1,000 km², based on evidence of remaining suitable habitat in the area. No records of the species have come from the western or the southern provinces (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).
169290		habitat	eng	The species was reported to inhabit forest floor near forested streams.
169290		population	eng	There is no direct information concerning the population status of the species.
169290		threats	eng	<em>Argiolestes realensis</em> is a forest specialist that thrives in the forest floor near waterways. Being a specialist with a narrow area of occupancy places the species in danger of extinction. Although this species is known from the National Botanic Garden (NBG), which is under University of the Philippines-Los Banos (UPLB) land grants programme, in the 1990s the facility was targeted by rebels in the province resulting in UPLB personnel leaving the area. The NBG is still under the UPLB land grants programme, but settlers have occupied the area and deforestation is occurring there. If this species is a forest specialist requiring heavy canopy cover, then it is highly likely to be severely fragmented as deforestation restricts the species to heavily forested seepages only.
169291		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169291		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinagrion philippina</em> is a Philippine endemic species confined in Luzon, Masbate, Mindoro, Samar, Bohol and Mindanao islands.
169291		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from forested rivers where adults are seen flying at the riverbank among rich vegetations.
169291		population	eng	There is no information about the population status of the species. Based on its records, the species has a fragmented range and occur in low number in areas where found.
169291		threats	eng	Deforestation and pollution is an important factor that will affect the population status of this species. It is vulnerable to these threats because of its narrow area of occupancy, a very fragmented population and low population density in areas where found.
169292		conservation	eng	The distributional range of the species is largely covered by a national reserve. No other conservation measures for this species are in place.
169292		distribution	eng	<em>Coeliccia brachysticta</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Mindoro Island.
169292		habitat	eng	There is no direct information concerning the habitat and ecology of this species. Based on observations on its congener, it is probably a largely confined to primary forest springs, streams and creeks. Larvae are also expected to be found clinging to exposed roots in the slow current portion of the waterways.
169292		population	eng	There is no available information concerning the population status of the species.
169292		threats	eng	So far, this species is known only from its type locality and is probably restricted to Mount Halcon. Its very narrow distributional range and its association to forested habitat places the species under threat from deforestation and human settlement.<br/><br/>Although Mount Halcon is a protected area, human disturbance is likely to occur as the species is associated with water sources which locals also utilize. It is not unlikely for human settlement to occur near water sources especially in rural areas where there are no proper waterworks available.<br/><br/>Once settlement occurs, clearing for farming, and pollution from domestic and agricultural waste is likely to happen. This will eventually carry risk for extinction for a species with a very narrow range of distribution.
169293		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169293		distribution	eng	<em>Coeliccia exoleta</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Mindanao and Camiguin islands. So far, the species ahs been recorded in 12 sites.
169293		habitat	eng	The species is typical of clear forest streams with a rich vegetations where males are seen perched on grass. Occasionally it is seen near small ponds adjacent to the stream. Larvae can be found in nearby shallow slow moving portions of the stream hiding in the roots and debris. Seasonal variation in the observed numbers is not known.
169293		population	eng	The species has a very fragmented range and occurs in low numbers. It was recorded once in Camiguin, and there is reference in Muller's collection to several sites in Mindanao. Surveys of several of the Mindanao sites in recent years have failed to find the species.
169293		threats	eng	<em>Coeliccia exoleta</em> is restricted to forest streams and is under threat from habitat conversion and clearance. Pollution from agricultural sources, and also effluent from nearby houses, add to this threat. Its low population density makes the species more susceptible to human activities.
169294		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169294		distribution	eng	<em>Risiocnemis antoniae</em> is a Philippine endemic species confined to eastern Mindanao, Mindanao Island.
169294		habitat	eng	Based on its congener, the species is probably typical of forest rivulets and springs. It is probably seen perched on leaves and twigs in shaded portions above trickles. It is also possible that this species can be found at waterfalls.
169294		population	eng	There is no available information concerning the population status of the species. Exploration of several sites between the two areas where records are known did not reveal the presence of the species. It is likely that it has a very narrow area of occupancy (AOO) with a fragmented population.
169294		threats	eng	The locality where <em>Risiocnemis antoniae</em> is recorded is one of the remaining areas with good forest cover in Mindanao. It is also an area where continuous forest destruction has been going on for several years although attempts for conservation of the area are increasing.<br/><br/>The species has a very narrow area of occupancy and a fragmented population, and is therefore at high risk of extinction. Being a forest specialist, probably with strict habitat requirements, places the species in danger extinction in the near future.<br/><br/>The problem of its very narrow area of occupancy is aggravated by rapid increase of settlement of upland areas and conversion of forest habitat to farming land. Recently, mining activity in the known range of the species has expanded significantly. Several small scale and few large company clear forest areas and dug open pit mines in search for precious metals. Mine tailings for some are released directly to creeks and rivers further contaminate downhill habitat.
169295		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169295		distribution	eng	<em>Risiocnemis asahinai</em> is a Philippine endemic species known from southern Luzon, Luzon Island and Mindoro Island.
169295		habitat	eng	Based on its congener, the species is probably restricted to forest springs and streams. The adult is expected to be seen perched on leaves and twigs of vegetations surrounding the small waterways. The species probably can also be found in waterfall environments where adults are perched on the moist cliff walls.
169295		population	eng	There is no available information concerning the population status of the species.
169295		threats	eng	The species is likely to be subject to deforestation and human settlement. Clearance of habitat for human settlement or for farming will drastically affect the population dynamics of the species.
169296		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169296		distribution	eng	<em>Risiocnemis atripes</em> is a Philippine endemic species known only from  Mindanao Island.
169296		habitat	eng	The species is typical of forest rivulets, springs and streams where adults are found perched on leaves and twigs. It prefers partially shaded areas, and is also found near waterfalls where the species is seen perched in the moist walls.
169296		population	eng	The species occurs in fair numbers where found. Males are usually seen along waterways and females are frequented some distance from the water unless ovipositing along trickles.
169296		threats	eng	The close association of <em>R. atripes</em> with small waterways in forest places the species under threat of deforestation and human settlement. This is particularly seen in rural areas where households are built near waterways for easy access to water supply. This led to continuous disturbance of the environment. Clearing for farming purposes is another important factor that indirectly threatens the species by destroying its habitat. Slash and burn type of farming is the most commonly employed in most mountainous areas of Mindanao, aside from conversion of entire mountain for banana and pineapple plantation.<br/><br/>Human settlements in the area will eventually led to pollution of the surrounding environment either from domestic sources or from farm wastes. This pollutant will affect the species dynamic of the habitat leading to reduction of <em>R. atripes</em> population.<br/><br/>The continuous and rapid practice of unsustainable farming in most areas of Mindanao along with rampant logging places most forest species at risk of extinction.
169297		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169297		distribution	eng	<em>Risiocnemis atropurpurea</em> is endemic to the Philippines and is recorded from Luzon, Marinduque and Palaui islands.
169297		habitat	eng	V.P. Gapud stated that the species is frequent in low lying forest areas. Based on its congeners, it is perhaps associated with forested springs and streams where adults are found perching on leaves and twigs. It can probably also be found near waterfalls and hanging at moist cliffs.
169297		population	eng	There is no  information available but records suggests a that it is reasonably common within its range.
169297		threats	eng	Due to its association with springs, streams and waterfalls in forest areas, <em>Risiocnemis atropurpurea</em> is affected by deforestation, particularly clearing the surrounding waterways. Populations at waterfalls are especially susceptible as most waterfall environments are converted for tourism purposes without attention being paid to the impacts on resident species.
169298		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169298		distribution	eng	<em>Risiocnemis pulchra</em> is a Philippine endemic known only from the type material from Bataan, western northcentral Luzon, Luzon Island. It has not been found in nearby provinces.
169298		habitat	eng	Like its congener, the species is probably a forest specialist preferring trickles, rivulets and springs. It can also be seen at waterfall environments where adults perch on the moist wall.
169298		population	eng	There is no information available concerning the population status of the species.
169298		threats	eng	Like all members of the <em>Risiocnemis</em> genus, <em>R. pulchra</em> is subject to habitat degradation, especially deforestation and clearance for farming and human settlement. This problem is heightened by the species' narrow area of occupancy, making it more susceptible to such threats; the species' range lies along the fast developing areas in western central Luzon.
169299		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169299		distribution	eng	<em>Risiocnemis serrata</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to central and southern Luzon and Polillo islands.
169299		habitat	eng	Like its congeners, the species is typical of rivulets, springs and streams in forest. The adult could be seen resting on leaves and twigs around the waterways.
169299		population	eng	There is no information available concerning the population status of the species. However, V. P. Gapud mentioned that the species is a familiar sight in low lying woody streams so probably the species occurs in fair numbers in suitable habitat.
169299		threats	eng	Deforestation by logging or clearing for farming is the prime threat to this forest specialist. If not for its fair distribution, the species could be placed in vulnerable status.
169300		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169300		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta centrosaurus</em> is a Philippine endemic. The species is recorded in the eastern Mindanao Island in the provinces of Surigao del Sur and Davao Oriental. It has a fragmented, yet fairly large distribution along undisturbed small tributaries feeding the major riverine system in these provinces.
169300		habitat	eng	The species prefers undisturbed forest rivulets and springs that drain into large rivers. It is usually found under the shade of thick canopy with probably less than 40% sunlight reaching the forest floor. The forest ground is slightly sloping moist with plenty of trickles, and the adults are found perched on the exposed roots of ferns and twigs.
169300		population	eng	The species occur in fair numbers. Males are frequently encountered perching near small trickles under heavily shaded habitat.
169300		threats	eng	The species' habitat is subject to deforestation and pollution from human settlements. The known distributional range of <em>Drepanosticta centrosaurus</em> is in one of the few remaining forested areas in the Philippine archipelago although illegal logging and slash and burn farming are still ongoing. The continuing clearance of forest will eventually eliminate potential habitat for this species.<br/><br/>The association of <em>D. centrosaurus</em> to freshwater supply makes contact with human settlement inevitable; the species is susceptible to disturbance, habitat clearance and domestic pollution. <br/><br/>Presently, mining for various metals within the distributional range by small- to large-scale companies has led to rapid degradation of habitat as most of these mining firms employ open pit mining. Most of these mining activities do not follow sustainable mining practices, and this has led to contamination of waterways, which has also placed the larval stage under threat.
169301		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169301		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta ceratophora</em> is a Philippine endemic. The species was recorded in Palawan Province in both the Palawan and Balabac islands. It has a restricted range and occupies a small range on these two islands.
169301		habitat	eng	Based on congeners in Mindanao, this species is expected to be confined to rivulets and springs in the forest. Based on information of related species, <em>D. ceratophora</em>, it probably flies low and always within the shaded water sources.
169301		population	eng	There is no information available on the population numbers and dynamics of the species, even available voucher specimens is limited.
169301		threats	eng	<em>Drepanosticta ceratophora</em> is threatened by deforestation and human settlement. It probably occupies only a limited portion of the water bodies where it is found. Since the species is probably not able to disperse easily, it is under major threat from human activities. Clearance of vegetation removes cover for the species; this disturbance is aggravated by use of the species' habitat as a freshwater resource by rural communities. Often people will wash their laundry within the water source thus increasing pollution from soaps and detergents. This activity affects not only the adults but also the larval stages.
169302		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169302		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta krios</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to the western parts of Mindanao Island and the Sulu archipelago (Tawi Tawi Island, Batu Batu Island, and Sanga Sanga Island).
169302		habitat	eng	The species is encountered in shaded forest trickles and rivulets. It is also encountered in trickles adjacent to waterfalls.
169302		population	eng	The species occurs in fair numbers.
169302		threats	eng	Being a forest specialist, this species is vulnerable to deforestation, and particularly human settlement near waterways.
169303		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169303		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta luzonica</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Ifugao Province Luzon island. The species is only known from the holotype.
169303		habitat	eng	Based on its congener, this species is probably a forest specialist. It can be seen in shaded forest trickles and rivulets where adults perch on twigs near the ground.
169303		population	eng	There is no information concerning the population size of the species.
169303		threats	eng	Forest specialists are particularly vulnerable to deforestation and clearance for human settlement. Removal of forest cover removes cover and exposes the species to predation. Human settlement near the habitat will place the species to continuous disturbance and possibly pollution from domestic waste.
169304		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place. It is important that the population is monitored to determine whether seasonal variations, or population declines, or a combination of both are taking place. It is also essential that remaining habitat is protected to ensure the survival of this species.
169304		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Protosticta plicata </span>is a Philippine endemic species, confined to the Kawasan Falls area on Cebu Island. In 2009, surveys recorded the species only in a Kawasan River occupying about 100 m stretch of the river (10 m from the river bank to farthest noted individual), despite lot of suitable habitats in the island (R.J. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).
169304		habitat	eng	The species is reported from the Kawasan Waterfalls, one of the three small remaining patches of forest on Cebu island. Based on observations of other members of the family, the species is probably a forest specialist residing in shaded trickles.
169304		population	eng	Previously, the species was only known from one male and one female caught in 2001. In 2008, several sites were visited in Cebu (in March and August), and the species was recorded on both occasions: in March around 20 individuals were noted, and in August only two females were recorded (R.J. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009). It is not certain whether the apparent decline noted in August 2009 is a seasonal variation or a secondary effect of forest clearance carried out on 25% of the site (R.J. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).
169304		threats	eng	Being a forest specialist, <em>Protosticta plicata</em> is threatened by deforestation through logging and clearance for farms or human settlements.<br/><br/>The known habitat is considered a tourist site, which subjects the area to constant disturbance by people. Removal of waterside vegetation for pathways limits the availability of perching sites for the species. The introduction of alien plant species to beautify the place may change the habitat structure. These activities will eventually result to the decline of the population.<br/><br/>Another important problem to the species is its narrow area of occupancy. So far the species has been recorded in the Kawasan area which is less than 100 km². This places <em>P. plicata</em> at high risk of extinction unless conservation efforts are carried out to protect the species.
169306		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are in place.
169306		distribution	eng	<em>Sulcosticta striata</em> is a Philippine endemic confined in northern Luzon, Luzon Island.
169306		habitat	eng	Based on other members of the family, the species is probably typical of shaded forest trickles, rivulets and springs. Adults probably perch on twigs near the ground. Being a forest species occurring in an area where suitable habitat is being increasingly fragmented through deforestation, the population is severely fragmented.
169306		population	eng	There is no available information concerning the population size of the species.
169306		threats	eng	<em>Sulcosticta striata</em> is under threat from deforestation and reduction of canopy cover. Logging is rampant in its known range area. Clearing for farming and settlement is also a problem in most upland areas, particularly near waterways which is a favoured spot and happen to be the choice habitat of the species.
169346		conservation	eng	No information available.
169346		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus peyroni</span> is distributed in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula. Baraud (1993) mentions that this species occurs in Greece, Armenia, Caucasus, Transcaucasia (Araxe valley). <span lang="EN-US"><br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">In Greece two dead speciemes where found in<span lang="EN-US"> the roots of old  Platanus and old <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span> trees in <span lang="EN-US">Thessaly, near Elatia (25 km north-eastern Larissa city, near Ossa (Kissavos) mountain), at  120 m above sea level. <span lang="EN-US">In Thrace, near Mikros Kechros village (35-40 km north of Alexandroupolis city, Sapka mountain) three dead specimens were found in the roots of an old <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> at 900 m above sea level.<span lang="EN-US"> In Thessaly, near Theopetra village (five km south-eastren Kalambaka city) one dead specimen was found in an ants nest at 150 m above sea level. Another specimen from Greece, was reported in Olympus Mountains.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></span></span></span></p><p>It occurs in southern Bulgaria. Král and Malý (1993) cited it from several localities of the Middle Struma River Valley: Simitli, Lebnica, and Sandanski, as well as from the Eastern Rhodopes: Momchilgrad. In Guéorguiev and Bunalski (2004), a new locality is given from the Struma Valley: Kresna. <br/></p><p>It is also mentioned from Syria and Iran. In this last country, it can be another  species recently described.&#160;</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus peyroni</span> is also present in Anatolia where it  is probably very rare. This species has a marginal occurrance in Europe.</p><br/><p><br/></p>
169346		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. peyroni </span>lives in dead &#160;roots of old deciduous trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus,  Quercus, Populus</span>).
169346		population	eng	This species is very rare.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span>
169346		threats	eng	No information available.
169347		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Research is required to determine distribution of this species, population size and trends, habitat status, and threats.
169347		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Vanuatu.
169347		habitat	eng	No information is available on specific habitat requirements for this species. It possibly occurs around forest streams and creeks.
169347		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
169347		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known at present.
169353		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169353		distribution	eng	This species distributed from the east coast of India, Bangladesh and Burma, southward to Singapore and Borneo around Brunei to Australia.
169353		habitat	eng	<em>J. coitor</em> is a demersal and amphidromous species.  It inhabits shallow coastal waters, estuaries (brackish waters) and rivers.
169353		population	eng	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.
169353		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169354		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present for this species.
169354		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Sepik and Ramu rivers of Papua New Guinea.  These river basins cover an area of 100,810 km².
169354		habitat	eng	<em>E. aquadulcis</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species, found in rivers and floodplain lakes.  Generation time of this species is estimated to be 3.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2006).
169354		population	eng	Due to habitat degradation within half of this species known range, it is suspected that populations of <em>E. aquadulcis</em> are currently declining, with the prospect of accelerated decline in the future (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
169354		threats	eng	<em>E. aquadulcis</em> is threatened by habitat degradation in some parts of its range.  A large nickel extraction project, (Ramu Nickel), is in development on the banks of the Ramu River.  The pre-extraction mine development, (such as road and housing development), has already had some adverse effects on the river and will likely get worse when the mine goes into full operation (Jenkins, pers. comm.).     <br/><br/>The Sepik River basin is considered to be the largest uncontaminated freshwater system in the Asia-Pacific region, this is due to the fact that there are no large cities or developments, and therefore few human-induced impacts in the Sepik region.  However, there are future threats from mining, logging, invasive species and unsustainable fishing and agriculture practices (WWF 2006).
169355		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169355		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia and southern New Guinea.  In Australia it has a patchy yet extensive distribution across northern Australia. Its range extends from the Carson River (Western Australia) eastwards to the Jardine River on the Cape York Peninsular (Queensland), (Doupe <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In New Guinea, it is known from the Trans-Fly region. <br/><br/>It is currently known from the following Australian river systems: Carson, Ord, Victoria, Daly, Finniss, Mary, East Alligator, Roper, McArthur, Gregory, Gilbert, Norman, Mitchell, Archer and Jardine (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169355		habitat	eng	<em>A. macleayi</em> is a demersal species, that occurs along the margins of streams and swamps, often among dense aquatic vegetation.
169355		population	eng	This species is common and widespread.  It is usually abundant in those habitats in which it occurs (Pusey <em>et al.</em> 2004).
169355		threats	eng	This species is considered to be not threatened in Australia (Environment Australia 1993).
169356		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169356		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Australia.  It is distributed across a narrow coastal belt extending from the Maryborough district (Queensland) southward to Narooma (New South Wales), (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002)
169356		habitat	eng	<em>A marianus</em> is a demersal species that inhabits brackish mangrove estuaries, tidal creeks and the lower reaches of freshwater streams.  Aggregations are common among mangrove roots, log snags and aquatic vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169356		population	eng	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.
169356		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169357		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169357		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Digul and Lorentz rivers in Irian Jaya, Indonesia and the Laloki, Purari and Fly rivers in Papua New Guinea.
169357		habitat	eng	<em>A. latirostris</em> is a benthopelagic, riverine species.
169357		population	eng	The species is decreasing in parts, but detailed population figures are not known.
169357		threats	eng	Parts of this species range are threatened by habitat degradation.  The Fly River has been extensively damaged by the Ok Tedi mine, and the Laloki River is severely affected by the growing urbanization of Port Moresby, (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
169358		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169358		distribution	eng	<em>M. leiaspis</em> occurs in Madagascar, and in Southeast Asia;  from Japan south to Indonesia and east to New Caledonia and Fiji.
169358		habitat	eng	<em>M. leiaspis</em> is a demersal, diadromous species, that can be found in fresh and brackish water.  It inhabits streams, rivers, and estuaries.  It is an ovoviviparous fish, and the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
169358		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (Jenkins, Pers. comm.).
169358		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169359		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169359		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Philippines, Indonesia, and New Guinea, and ranges from New Caledonia, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and Palau in Micronesia.  Recent surveys by Jenkins (pers. comm.) have expanded the known range of this species to also include Fiji and the Solomon Islands.
169359		habitat	eng	<em>T. barbata</em> inhabits muddy inshore waters of mangrove swamps and penetrates freshwater rivers.  It possesses venom glands at the base of some of the spines.
169359		population	eng	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.
169359		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169360		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169360		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Australia and New Guinea.  In Australia, its occurs in the Gulf drainage from the Roper River system eastward to the Archer River on Cape York peninsula (Larson and Martin 1990, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169360		habitat	eng	<em>A. berneyi</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in rivers and streams, favouring slow-flowing, turbid conditions.  It is also sometimes found in brackish estuaries (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169360		population	eng	This species is not especially abundant (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169360		threats	eng	This species is considered to be not threatened in Australia (Environment Australia 1993).
169361		conservation	eng	<em>H. heptagonus</em> is a listed marine species in the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999; meaning it is an offence to kill, injure, take, trade, keep, or move <em>H. heptagonus</em> on Commonwealth land or in Commonwealth waters without a permit.
169361		conservation	eng	No information available.
169361		conservation	eng	Sustainable planning in coastal developments.
169361		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from east African coastal regions from Durban to Kenya. Indian and western Pacific distribution.
169361		distribution	eng	The species is widespread along the eastern African coastline.
169361		distribution	eng	This species' distribution ranges along the east coast of Australia, from Cape York (Queensland) to the Clarence River (New South Wales).  It is also widespread in the Indo-West Pacific region from East Africa to Melanesia, northwards to Japan (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169361		habitat	eng	<em>H. heptagonus</em> is a demersal species.  It is common in the lower reaches of rivers and streams, and in estuarine habitats, such as mangrove estuaries and tidal creeks.  It is an ovoviviparous fish; the female deposits eggs on the ventral surface of the male's trunk or tail, where they are incubated for several weeks.
169361		habitat	eng	Lower reaches of coastal streams and rivers, estuaries, sometimes in freshwater lakes (Dawson 1986).
169361		habitat	eng	Lower reaches of river systems and estuaries. Known from some lakes in the Philippines.
169361		population	eng	No information available.
169361		population	eng	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.
169361		population	eng	Unknown.
169361		threats	eng	No information available.
169361		threats	eng	None known at present. Impacts on estuarine environments e.g., over-extraction of freshwaters and coastal developments are potential threats.
169361		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169362		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present for this species.
169362		distribution	eng	This species distribution ranges from Indonesia, east to Fiji, north to the Philippines and south to New Caledonia.  However, this species can be confused with <em>C. plicatilis</em>, and therefore this species' distribution may not be as large as reported (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
169362		habitat	eng	There is very little available data regarding this species.  It is a demersal species, which can be found in brackish waters as well as freshwater.
169362		population	eng	This species may be rare within its distribution.  Jenkins (pers. comm.) has been collecting extensively throughout Fiji for six years and has never caught a single specimen.  It is also only rarely encountered in New Caledonia.
169362		threats	eng	It is likely that critical habitat of <em>C. oxyrhyncus</em> is being damaged in New Caledonia, Philippines and Indonesia due to rapidly rising human populations (Jenkins, pers. comm.).
169363		conservation	eng	In accordance with the Nature Conservation Act 1980, <em>G. bispinosus</em> was declared a vulnerable species in 1996.  In the assessment of this species, the ACT Flora and Fauna Committee found the species to satisfy the following criteria:<br/><br/>- The species is observed, estimated, inferred or suspected to be at risk of premature extinction in the ACT region<br/>in the medium-term future, as demonstrated by a current serious decline in population or distribution from evidence based on direct observation, including comparison of historical and current records.<br/>- Imminent risk of serious decline in population or distribution from evidence based on serious threat from predators, parasites or competitors.<br/>- Seriously fragmented distribution for a species currently occurring over a moderately small range or having a moderately small area of occupancy within its range.<br/><br/>An Action Plan was prepared in response to this declaration.  The legal authority of this action plan is confined to the Australian Capital Territory. This species is not listed under any similar Acts in Victoria or New South Wales (ACT Government 1999).<br/><br/>The conservation objective of this Action Plan is to maintain in the long-term, viable, wild populations of <em>G. bispinosus</em>, which is to be achieved through the following strategies:<br/><br/>- Participating in research, monitoring and experimental management aimed at identifying the cause of the continuing population decline, and preventing it.<br/>- Protecting sites and habitats that are critical to the survival of the species. This includes the upper Cotter River in the ACT, which is nationally recognised as an important site for <em>G. bispinosus</em> (Lintermans and Ingwersen 1996).<br/>- Managing activities in the upper and middle Cotter River catchment to minimise or eliminate threats to fish populations.<br/>- Increasing community awareness of the need to protect native fish and their habitats.
169363		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia.  Its distribution covers a narrow band from north-eastern Victoria, extending through south-eastern New South Wales (NSW) to the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), which is at the northern extremity of its range (ACT Government 1999).<br/><br/>An extensive survey of the NSW southern highlands (Lintermans 1998) located <em>G. bispinosus</em> in the following stream systems:<br/>- Upper Murray, including the lower reaches of the Swampy Plains, Tooma and Geehi Rivers;<br/>- Upper Tumut system, including the lower reaches of the Goobarragandra River;<br/>- Goodradigbee River;<br/>- Mountain Creek; and<br/>- Upper Murrumbidgee River between Yaouk and Cooma.<br/><br/>In the ACT, the species is now found only in the Cotter River catchment upstream of the Cotter Dam.
169363		habitat	eng	<em>G. bispinosus</em> is a demersal fish that is restricted to cool, clear, upland or montane streams with abundant in stream cover, usually in the form of boulders and cobble.  It is often found in medium to large streams where there is lower stream velocity.   It is generally found in forested catchments, where there is little sediment input to the stream from erosion or land management practices (ACT Government 1999).  <br/><br/>It is a nocturnally active species which usually occurs solitary.  Juveniles are often found in large groups among leaf litter and wood debris.  Movements are restricted to a relatively small stretch of river over the duration of the life span; the home-range of adult fish is estimated at approximately 15 meters.  <br/><br/>Breeding is seasonal, with egg-laying commencing in November, probably induced by a relatively rapid rise in water temperature.  Fecundity is low and is positively correlated with fish length.  Females are though to commence breeding in their second or third year.  Between 80 and 420 eggs are laid in a single egg mass but the natural spawning sites are unknown (ACT Government 1999).
169363		population	eng	This species has suffered a serious decline in population or distribution in the ACT region; determined from evidence based on direct observation, including a comparison of historical and current records (ACT Government 1999).  <em>G. bispinosus</em> is reported to be relatively abundant throughout other parts of its range (Jenkins, pers. comm).
169363		threats	eng	This species is occasionally caught by recreational fishers targeting trout, although it is not a desirable target due to its small size.  Therefore, overfishing is unlikely to be the primary cause of the decline of this species, but the sedimentation of streams which smothers food supplies and spawning sites is sited as a major threat to this species in the ACT region.  Interactions with introduced fish species (such as trout) are also implicated in its decline (ACT Government 1999).  It is probable that the threats to the species in the ACT region are actually widespread threats.
169364		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169364		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution from several localities in the West Alligator, South Alligator, Daly, Reynolds, Finniss, and Adelaide River systems of the Timor drainage.  It is also known from two localities in southern Irian Jaya (Larson and Martin 1990).
169364		habitat	eng	<em>T. lorentzi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits small streams and swamps, usually with abundant overhanging vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169364		population	eng	It is reported to be reasonably common in its localities, but is seldom collected or observed in the wild, (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  It may be seasonally abundant (Larson and Martin 1990).
169364		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169365		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.
169365		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central southern New Guinea and northern Australia.  In Australia it is found in the larger coastal rivers in the Gulf of Carpentaria and Timor drainages, however, their distribution seems to be patchy.  A recent study indicates it occurs in the following Australian rivers: Penticost (Western Australia), East Baines, Daly, Finnis, Adelaide, Wildman, West, South and East Alligator (Northern Territory), Leichhardt, Saxby and Norman (Queensland), (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  In southern New Guinea this species is more widespread.
169365		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits slow-moving, turbid waters, and is found most often in the brackish lower reaches of large rivers, and in coastal mangroves (Larson and Martin 1990, Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002).  They can apparently breed in both marine and freshwater, and the males carry eggs in clusters or balls attached to a hook on the head (Larson and Martin 1990).
169365		population	eng	These fish are not considered common in Australia (Larson and Martin 1990), but are reported to be more abundant in New Guinea (Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002).
169365		threats	eng	There are no threats known.
169366		conservation	eng	It has been recommended that small reserves of the alpine wetland habitat that is inhabited by <em>P. hildebrandi</em> is restored and protected (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).
169366		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the closed basin of San Cristóbal de Las Casas, a fast-growing city in highland Chiapas, Mexico.  It is severely restricted with an extremely small Extent Of Occurrence.
169366		habitat	eng	<em>P. hildebrandi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits channels and streams in the alpine wetland habitat of the San Christobal basin.  In streams it occupies both rapids and pools, but is more abundant in sites where pools are deeper and better defined (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).  The type locality (spring-fed Laguna Maria Eugenia, which was 5-6 ha) disappeared around 1950, but it did have abundant vegetation, with a rocky substrate, slight currents and a depth of 0.6 m (Miller 2005).
169366		population	eng	A population size of 1713 individuals was estimated from a survey of the Jovel sub-basin (an area of 2000 km<sup>2</sup>).  This was extrapolated to give a population estimate of approximately 40,000 individuals in the available habitat within the valley of San Cristobal.  However, in 2004, Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto estimated its population at about, or slightly more than, 8000 individuals.
169366		threats	eng	<em>P. hildebrandi</em> is likely to be threatened by introduced species.  Four introduced species are present within the range of <em>P. hildebrandi</em>, and sport fishermen observed that the introduction of the largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) in Lake Chapultepec coincided with the disappearance of <em>P. hildebrandi</em>, where it had once been abundant (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).<br/><br/>Most springs within the basin are water sources used for human consumption and irrigation.  Water destined for households is often chlorinated directly in the springs, and dead pupfish have sometimes been observed associated with this practice (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).<br/><br/>Several dams have been built within this species habitat, which fragments populations, with unknown genetic and demographic consequences.   Periodic removal of sediment also occurs; a process that takes away most water plants.  The elimination of water plants removes important spawning sites for <em>P. hildebrandi</em>, and a potential food source, as it removes plant-associated prey (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).<br/><br/>Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto (2004) estimate that this species' habitat has declined by 70% in the last 50 years, due to the draining of Lake Maria Eugenia, and sewage pollution in 60% of water areas in the sub-basin of Jovel.  They also predict that if the rate of urban growth and the associated impact on the hydrology of the basin continues, a further 50% of <em>P. hildebrandi</em>'s remaining habitat could be destroyed within the next decade.
169367		conservation	eng	SEDESO (Secretaría de Desarrollo Social) listed the species as rare (Miller 2005).
169367		distribution	eng	This restricted species is found in Mexico; in the basin of upper Rio Grijalva (Rio Grande de Chiapas), Chiapas.  This river is severely fragmented because of damming.
169367		habitat	eng	<em>V. hartwegi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits flowing streams and rivers as well as lakes, over rocks, sand, silt or mud.  Vegetation is usually sparse, or absent.  Young and juveniles congregate in backwaters (Miller 2005).
169367		population	eng	Was previously a common species.
169367		threats	eng	A series of dams have been built within the distribution of this species in the last 10 years. Apart from the dramatic habitat alteration caused by this (replacing rivers - the habitat of this species - with lakes, that are unsuitable for this species) and the resultant severe fragmentation of populations, it has drawn humans to the area and also increased pollution into the river system. Tilapia has also been present in the lakes since the 1970s or maybe early 1980s (though it does not do as well in the small rivers, where this species may more frequently be found).
169368		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169368		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Provinz Bocas del Toro, Panama (Systax 2006).  It is restricted and likely to have a small Extent Of Occurrence, but it also has many locations because of all the numerous tributaries in which it can be found.
169368		habitat	eng	<em>R. wassmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169368		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169368		threats	eng	The area in which this species lives is still relatively pristine with large areas of suitable habitat remaining.
169369		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169369		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic Slope of Mexico, in the basins of Rios Tamesi and Panuco, (including a tributary to Laguna Tamiahua), (Miller 2005).
169369		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that inhabits clear waters of spring-fed streams, ditches, canals and rivers.  Typically found in currents that may be slight to moderate but occasionally strong (Miller 2005).
169369		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169369		threats	eng	This species is resilient and unlikely to be significantly affected by the parasite <em>Bothriocephalus acheilognathi</em>, which was introduced in 1934 with the herbivorous carp <em>Ctenopharyngodon idellus</em>.  No other threats are known.
169370		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure currently in place.
169370		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pacific and Caribbean river drainage of eastern Panama.  Panama covers a total area of 78,200 km², and therefore it is suspected that <em>A. spinosus</em> has an Extent of Occurrence of less than 39,100 km².  In the eastern part of its range around Darien, it is inaccessible, pristine, and not surveyed. It may therefore also occur in Colombia.
169370		habitat	eng	<em>A. spinosus</em> is a demersal species.
169370		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169370		threats	eng	The largest threats to <em>A. spinosus</em> are habitat degradation and water pollution.  Soil erosion and deforestation are among Panama's most significant environmental concerns.  Soil erosion is occurring at a rate of 2,000 tons per year.  The nation's fish resources are threatened by water pollution.  Pesticides, sewage, and pollution from the oil industry cause much of the pollution, and as a result only 79% of rural dwellers have pure drinking water.  Water pollution in the Panama Province, in eastern Panama, in particular is approaching intolerable levels (Encyclopaedia of the Nations 2006).
169371		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169371		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cuba in the provinces of La Habana, Pinar del Rio and Isla de la Juventud.  The river basins of these provinces cover an area of 33,865 km².
169371		habitat	eng	<em>R. cylindraceus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory fish, that inhabits upland streams, rivers and lakes with clear and abundant vegetation.  The eggs of this species is able to resist partial desiccation (Koldenkova and Garcia Avila 1994).
169371		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169371		threats	eng	No threats are known.
169372		conservation	eng	This species range lies within a Ramsar Site; Humedales del Lago de Pátzcuaro but no specific management actions for this species are in operation, or have been suggested.
169372		distribution	eng	This species is found in Mexico, where it is endemic to the endorheic Lago de Patzcuaro in Zirahuen, Michoacan.
169372		habitat	eng	<em>A. diazi</em> is a demersal species, except when feeding.  It lives in and near dense beds of vegetation near shore, in lakes, spring-fed creeks and ponds.  It is generally found in clear to muddy water, over substrates of mud, sand, rocks and plants, with abundant vegetation.  This is a viviparous fish, in which gestation lasts for about 55 days.  Between 10 to 50 young are produced.
169372		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169372		threats	eng	Main causes of threat to this fish are pollution and urban development in the area.  Large-mouthed bass (<em>Micropterus</em> spp.) and carp and water hyacinth impacting upon habitat. Lake currently used for fishing, and by local communities for subsistence.  Threat in the future of expanding tourism and population surrounding the lake.  Invasive species were introduced in 1970s.
169373		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169373		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant between the Patuca River in Honduras, through Nicaragua, to the San Juan and Tortuguero rivers in northern Costa Rica.  It has also been recorded from Lake Managua (Miller and Carr 1974).
169373		habitat	eng	<em>H. tortuguerae</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits backwaters and creeks, between elevations of 0-50 m, with a low or moderate current.  Although the type material was taken from an estuary, this species is essentially riverine (Miller and Carr 1974).
169373		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169373		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the rivers of the Atlantic versant of Nicaragua, where the majority of <em>H. tortuguerae</em>'s range lies.
169374		conservation	eng	Ria Lagartos is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.  It is a well-protected and well-funded conservation area.
169374		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at the west end of Ria Lagartos, along the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.  The reserve in which it is found is well surveyed, but this is a brackish species, so other coastal localities should be surveyed.  Its rarity may be hindering any estimation of its full extent of occurrence.
169374		habitat	eng	<em>F. persimilis</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits estuaries, in brackish to salt water, over substrates varying from hard mud to soft marl and shell sand.  It was collected from a tidal channel that had a mangrove border but almost no vegetation was present.  Little is known about this species' biology (Miller 2005).
169374		population	eng	This species appears to be rare (Miller, 2005).
169374		threats	eng	No threats are currently known and further research is needed to identify if any exist.
169375		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.
169375		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Dominican Republic.
169375		habitat	eng	<em>S. gilberti</em> is a demersal species.
169375		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169375		threats	eng	No threats are known.
169376		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. There are a few small marine protected areas present within this species' restricted range (WDPA 2006).
169376		distribution	eng	This species is present in Central America from Costa Rica to Panama. It has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km²
169376		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that forms large schools among mangroves in estuaries and brackish river mouths; it is also abundant in salt pans (Allen and Robertson 1994). This species is often found in turbid, shallow surface waters. It is found no deeper than 2 m. It ingests ooze and detritus (Bussing 1998) and the diet includes zooplankton and insects. It tolerates hypersaline, brackish and freshwater environments.
169376		population	eng	It is considered uncommon in its range.
169376		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development and loss of mangrove habitat within its restricted range. It is estimated that at least 28% of mangrove area has been lost within this species range over the past 15 to 20 years (FAO 2007). As of the year 2000, there was only approximately 2,200 km² of mangrove habitat in Costa Rica and Panama (including both Atlantica and Pacific coasts) (FAO 2007).
169377		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169377		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific versant rivers of Panama, Colombia and northern Ecuador.
169377		habitat	eng	<em>R. occidentalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.  Species from the genus <em>Roeboides</em> generally prefer to live among water plants rather than in the open water of the rivers (Heckman 1998).
169377		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169377		threats	eng	No threats are known.
169378		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.
169378		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Atlantic Slope of Mexico; in the Rio Tonala basin in Veracruz; eastward into the Sibun River basin, Belize, and into Honduras and Guatemala.
169378		habitat	eng	<em>P. friedrichsthalii</em> is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits rivers, lowland streams, lakes, lagoons and swamps.  It prefers the slow moving, sluggish waters, with clear to murky or muddy water, and is normally found in depths of 1.0-1.5 m, generally no deeper than 2.0 m.  It is a carnivorous fish, that feeds on fishes and insects, and reproduces from April to August.
169378		population	eng	A fairly common species, although local invasive species could be a problem in some areas and its global population is decreasing.
169378		threats	eng	This species is being threatened by the aggressive, introduced species, <em>Parachromis managuensis</em>.  Many hybrids occur near the mouth of the Rio Usumacinta (Miller 2005).  The threat is however, only local and is not greatly impacting the total population.  <br/><br/><em>P. friedrichsthalii</em> is of economic importance as a food fish and is caught daily and sold in local markets, (Miller 2005), however there is no available catch data to be able to determine the extent of this harvesting and the impact it may have on populations.
169379		conservation	eng	Large Global Environmental Facility Mesoamerican Corridor programme.  Connecting network of Protected Areas, including in the range of this species.
169379		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic (or interior) drainage of extreme northwestern Guatemala and the Rio Grande de Comitan basin and headwaters of the Rio Grande de Chiapa in Chiapas, Mexico (Miller 1966).  These river basins cover an area of approximately 21,625 km².
169379		habitat	eng	<em>P. candalarius</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits streams, springs and lakes, seeking undercut banks in rather deep (up to 1.7 m) water that is clear to turbid over substrates of marl, mud, gravel, sand, rock and occasionally boulder.  It is generally found in areas where currents moderate to none (Miller 2005).
169379		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169379		threats	eng	Over the past 20 years, the population of rural Chiapas has grown by 4% a year, and this has put tremendous pressure on the region's natural resources.  In the highlands forests have suffered from timber extraction, charcoal burning and overgrazing. In the lowlands large areas of tropical forest have been cleared to make way for cattle pasture.  The conversion of lands to arable land and over-grazing has resulted in soil erosion, which has increased sediment in rivers and streams.  The threats are probably much higher on the Mexican side.  Large areas of habitat may remain in Guatemala.
169380		conservation	eng	More than 80% of the Sixaola River basin is either a natural protected area or an indigenous reserve, yet this system faces several threats originating mainly from the lack of bi-national coordination in establishing the management plans for the bi-national area.  A Global Environment Facility project, titled Integrated Ecosystem Management of the Binational Sixaola River Basin, is also in place.  The project's overall objectives are to protect biodiversity of linked upstream and downstream ecosystems of global significance (International Waters Learning Exchange and Resource Network 2004).
169380		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sixaola River basin, on the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica.  The river basin covers an area of 2,872 km².
169380		habitat	eng	<em>A. rhytisma</em> is a benthopelagic fish that prefers moderate to fast flowing rivers between 40 and 60 m elevation.
169380		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169380		threats	eng	There are no threats acting on its distribution range which runs on subsistence farming and small-scale cash crop operations.  Many of the rivers, including tributaries, are intact and likely to remain that way.  There are no industrial or urban centres nearby.
169381		conservation	eng	Research into the effect of basin drainage on the population for 90 years revealed high levels of species degradation, but further action is still  required to halt this rate of decline.
169381		distribution	eng	<em>C. arge</em> is a restricted species, endemic to an area of the Lerma River basin, Mexico.
169381		habitat	eng	<em>C. arge</em> is a benthopelagic fish, that is generally found in depths of at least 1.5 m, over boulders, rocks, gravel, sand and mud.<br/><br/><em>Chirostoma</em> spp. are sensitive to environmental change. Recent surveys indicate range extirpations and fragmentation due to pollution from urban centres. Restricted to springs, eliminated from lots of rivers and stretches of rivers.
169381		population	eng	From the data obtained in a study by Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. (1999), it can be estimated that habitat quality in the Rio Lerma drainage declined by 50% over the period 1975 - 1993.
169381		threats	eng	It is highly likely that <em>C. arge</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  A study of the Rio Lerma drainage concluded that the basin has experienced a staggering amount of degradation during the 20th century (Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The study analysed fish records from 116 study sites in the basin over the period 1885-1975.  By 1985-93 over half the study sites had disappeared or become so polluted that they could no longer support fishes.  Forty percent of the native fishes in the basin suffered major declines in distribution.
169382		conservation	eng	Basic research actions are needed into the species life histories: biology, habitat status and population range.  Currently, being know from one location only that is under threat from invasive species, the establishment and maintenance of protected areas are required for the survival of this species.
169382		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Apoyo on the Atlantic slope of Nicaragua.  Lake Apoyo covers an area of 21.2 km².
169382		habitat	eng	<em>A. zaliosus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169382		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169382		threats	eng	The significant presence of an introduced species, the Nile tilapia (<em>O. niloticus</em>), in Lake Apoyo from early 1990s, is posing a threat to native species of the lake, by occupying sites that some of the native species have been using for reproduction and food.  In addition, there are increasing incidences of parasites among many of the fish in Lake Apoyo.  Researchers suspect that tilapia is the vector for the parasite (Canonico <em>et al</em>. 2005).
169383		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169383		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mexico but has a sizeable distribution.  It is found in the upper part of the Rios Coatzacoalcos and Papaloapan basins (Rio de la Lana).
169383		habitat	eng	<em>P. intermedia</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits pools of clear, well-shaded streams and river margins in slight to moderate currents; with substrates of mud, sand, rock, leaves and fallen branches.  It is generally found in loose aggregations in eddying currents or rapids, and sometimes leaps up out of the water to capture flying insects.  Young occur in large numbers in the crevices of rocks along the banks, out of the current.  After about 28 days gestation, only 5 to 20 young are born.  This species is a live bearer, and has a high survival of young.
169383		population	eng	An abundant species found throughout its range.
169383		threats	eng	Logging and deforestation in basin, but not likely affecting this prolific species.
169384		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.
169384		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality; Punta Pena, in western Panama.
169384		habitat	eng	<em>R. kuelpmanni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory and non-seasonal killifish.
169384		population	eng	The global population size and trend is currently unknown.
169384		threats	eng	Intact habitat around Bocas del Torre. Not protected but habitat is needed for large tourism industry.
169385		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169385		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Pacific Slope of Mexico, near Mazatlan, Sinaloa, southward at least into the Rio Choluteca basin in Honduras.
169385		habitat	eng	<em>S. multipunctatum</em> is a demersal species that is found in and near rocky, boulder riffles of coastal streams in both uplands and lowlands, in clear, swift water.  It is a diadromous fish in which all but the larval life-stage is spent in freshwater.  Post larvae migrate from salt into fresh water (Miller 2005).
169385		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169385		threats	eng	No threats are known.
169386		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place.
169386		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Atlantic slope of southern Mexico; Rio Coatzacoalcos eastward into the Rio Usumacinta basin, and into northern Guatemala (Miller 2005).
169386		habitat	eng	<em>E. mexicanus</em> is a demersal species that inhabits arroyos and rivers of moderate to slight currents that are fairly clear to turbid.  Generally no vegetation, or green algae present, with substrates of sand, silt, clay, mud and gravel (Miller 2005).
169386		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169386		threats	eng	The ecological and hydrological integrity of the Rio Usumacinta basin, which is 106,000 km², faces numerous threats from deforestation, hydroelectric development and mineral exploitation (Hamann and Ankersen 2006).
169387		conservation	eng	The biology and ecology of the species is currently under research, but further actions are required in the recovery and management of its habitat.
169387		distribution	eng	This species is found only in Lago de Chapala and a small stretch of Rio Grande de Santiago exiting the lake (a waterfall blocks further dispersal) in Mexico.
169387		habitat	eng	<em>C. promelas</em> is a benthopelagic species that favours open, quiet waters of lakes and sluggish outlets.
169387		population	eng	This species is reported to have very low population densities across its range (Barriga-Sosa <em>et al.</em> 2002).
169387		threats	eng	Over many years Lake Chapala has suffered severe water loss; about three-quarters of its volume.  During the past 30 years, the population of Guadalajara, near Lake Chapala, has increased from one to approximately five million. Consequently the demand of water from Lake Chapala has increased enormously.  This will have the affect of reducing the area available for <em>C. promelas</em> to inhabit.  The small amount of water entering the lake is highly polluted by untreated waste water from households, industrial sewage and fertilizers from agriculture (Global Nature Fund 2002).  Lake Chapala is dying because of all the threats acting on it (Miller 2005).
169388		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169388		distribution	eng	This species is known from the harbour of the city of Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico, south to at least Brus Lagoon, Honduras.  In Belize, this species is found in the mangrove channels near St Johns College at Belize City, at Gales Point on Southern Lagoon, in the Manatee River and in the Sibun River 0.8 km upriver from Freetown (Greenfield and Thomerson 1997).
169388		habitat	eng	<em>G. yucatanum</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rivers, estuaries and inland lagoons (Greenfield and Thomerson 1997).
169388		population	eng	In a study of the goby fauna of Belize and Honduras, <em>G. yucatanum</em> was found to be the 12th most abundant species, out of 55, and was found in large numbers within its habitat (Greenfield and Johnson, 1999).
169388		threats	eng	No threats are known.
169389		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place.
169389		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mexico on the Atlantic Slope.  It is only known from above a 105 m waterfall, in the Rio Gallinas drainage. The basin has been well surveyed and the species appears to only be restricted to one (possibly two) tributaries.
169389		habitat	eng	<em>D. catostomops</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rocky riffles and ends of long pools in moderate-sized streams.  It is generally found in clear water, in depths to at least 0.7m deep over rock, marl, sand and silt (Miller 2005).
169389		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169389		threats	eng	The Rio Gallinas is currently impacted by heavy pollution from sugar mills (Danko 1993).  However the tributaries in which this species occurs are intact and not affected by the sugar mills.
169390		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place, although further research is needed into the species life history and threats.
169390		distribution	eng	This species is known from Panama, only west of Panama canal.  This range description has been based on the fact that its (undetailed) type locality is there.
169390		habitat	eng	<em>B. roswithae</em> is a pelagic, non-migratory species that inhabits small rivers.  Adults are generally found in schools.
169390		population	eng	There is little information available on this species, including its current global population trend, which remains unknown until further studies.
169390		threats	eng	The largest threats to <em>B. roswithae</em> are habitat degradation and water pollution.  Soil erosion and deforestation are among Panama's most significant environmental concerns.  Soil erosion is occurring at a rate of 2,000 tons per year.  The nation's fish resources are threatened by water pollution.  Pesticides, sewage, and pollution from the oil industry cause much of the pollution, and as a result only 79% of rural dwellers have pure drinking water (Encyclopaedia of the Nations 2006).
169391		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although they are needed as the habitat degradation caused by draining of the basin has resulted in the 40% decline of native fishes.
169391		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lerma River basin, Mexico, but only occurs in two lakes, Lagos de Patzcuaro and Zirahuen.
169391		habitat	eng	<em>C. attenuatum</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169391		population	eng	From the data obtained in a study by Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. (1999) it can be estimated that habitat quality in the Rio Lerma drainage declined by 50% over the period 1975 - 1993.
169391		threats	eng	It is highly likely that <em>C. attenuatum</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  A study of the Rio Lerma drainage concluded that the basin has experienced a staggering amount of degradation during the 20th century (Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The study analysed fish records from 116 study sites in the basin over the period 1885-1975.  By 1985-93 over half the study sites had disappeared or become so polluted that they could no longer support fishes.  Forty percent of the native fishes in the basin suffered major declines in distribution.<br/><br/><em>Chirostoma</em> spp. are particularly susceptible to environmental change. It is also heavily fished for human consumption. Some evidence that average size has decreased and population has declined. In 1985 total annual catch was 523 tons and in 2003 it had decreased to 14 tons, likely with the same fishing effort (Carillo 2006).
169392		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place, however action is needed to help preserve the population under threat from invasive species.
169392		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lake Jiloá, on Chiltepe Peninsula, Managua, Nicaragua.  Lake Jiloá covers an area of 3.8 km².
169392		habitat	eng	<em>A. jiloaensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169392		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169392		threats	eng	The Nile tilapia is a threatening invasive species.  Although not a closely related species, it may be a vector for the transmission of generalised parasites / pathogens.  It also may be a competitor or affect the water quality.  It is possible that <em>A. jiloaensis</em> is threatened by a decline in habitat quality.  Biological contamination is threatening Lake Jiloá, and the quality of the water in the lake is so poor it is not recommended for human consumption (US Army Corps of Engineers 2001).
169393		conservation	eng	This species occurs within at least one protected area, although further recovery plans are needed for the habitat and therefore species.
169393		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Petén Itza, on the Atlantic slope of Guatemala.  Lake Petén Itza has a surface area of approximately 100 km².
169393		habitat	eng	<em>A. margaritifer</em> is a benthopelagic fish.
169393		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169393		threats	eng	It is likely that <em>A. margaritifer</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  Recent forest loss (most likely due to dramatic increases in the urban population surrounding Lake Petén Itzá) has increased surface run-off and accelerated soil erosion around the lake. Nitrogen and phosphorus inputs from eroded soils, human and livestock wastes, and fertilizers have probably contributed to eutrophication of the lake.  Eutrophication is presently limited to one part of the lake, but as the population in the Petén Itzá watershed continues to increase, nutrient enrichment will likely be detected in other areas of the lake (Rosenmeier <em>et al</em>. 2004).
169394		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.
169394		distribution	eng	This species is found in Mexico, in the Rio Purificacion basin, southwest of Autlan, Jalisco. Surrounding basins have been surveyed and so this species appears genuinely restricted.
169394		habitat	eng	<em>P. turneri</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits small, generally well-shaded, usually clear streams, in and near pools with fallen tree trunks and similar protective cover.  The currents are generally slight to moderate, with substrates of sand, silt, mud, rock, leaves, brush.  The maximum known brood size is four and young evidently appear at short intervals of two weeks or less.  Reproduction is thought to occur between February and April (Miller 2005).
169394		population	eng	The global population size and trend is currently unknown.
169394		threats	eng	Threats unknown. May be threatened by pollution, though not fishing (very small species). Sugar mills may be in its distribution.  This species may have been impacted although it is unlikely to be severely threatened.
169395		conservation	eng	This species is being maintained in captivity by aquarists in North America and Europe (Miller 2005).  It has been recommended that breeding programmes are implemented so the species can be re-introduced into the original, larger pools previously inhabited by this species.
169395		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rio Teuchitlan of the Rio Ameca drainage, in Mexico.  It was re-discovered in 2003 in a very small lake.
169395		habitat	eng	<em>Z. tequila</em> is a benthopelagic fish that generally inhabits rivers, but now appears to only exist in one small pond.  The type locality was at an elevation of 1311 m, where specimens were usually caught in the quiet part of the river, at a depth of less than 1 m.  The substrate, of mud and silt, was nearly continuously stirred by domestic livestock (Miller 2005).  The only known extant population inhabits a spring pool, 4m in diameter with an average depth of 20 cm (De La Vega-Salazar <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Little is known of its biology in the wild.  In aquaria, sexual maturity can be reached within six to ten weeks.  Broods are known to number as man as 20-29 offspring, but females in their first year of reproduction have fewer than ten (Miller 2005).
169395		population	eng	Collection efforts since 1992 were unsuccessful, and it was thought that this species may be extinct in the wild (Miller, 2005), however, an extremely small population of <em>Z. tequila</em> was found in 2000-2001 in a very small pond.  This population is composed of less than 500 individuals of all ages.  Less than 50 individuals are adults (De La Vega-Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 2003).
169395		threats	eng	<p>Several exotic species have been introduced near the type locality resulting in declines in native fishes (Miller 2005). A study revealed that densities of Goodeid species were lower, or were absent, in localities in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Teuchitlan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, where introduced species were abundant of where there were more than one introduced species (De La Vega-Salazar <em>et al</em><em>.)</em><em><br/> <br/> </em><em>During recent years, the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Teuchitlan</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> has been degraded after a dam was built. It has been suggested that habitat degradation may be the reason why the extant endemic goodeids are now confined to a small area at the headwaters of the river. Once confined to the springs, the populations of these fish have been fragmented as a consequence of the springs being turned into spas, which prevents the movement of fish between pools (De La Vega-Salazar et al</em><em>. 2003a).</em><em><br/> <br/> </em><em>A compounding threat is the intensive collection of this species by specialized aquarium hobbyists and academics (De La Vega-Salazar et al</em><em>. 2003b).</em><em><br/> <br/> </em><em>The pool in which this species was re-discovered is threatened by pollution and water extraction.</em></p>
169396		conservation	eng	<em>L. spadicea</em> is listed as endangered by SEDESOL (Miller 2005).
169396		distribution	eng	This severely restricted species occurs only in Lago de Chapala, Mexico and a small stretch of Rio Grande de Santiago exiting the lake (a waterfall blocks further dispersal).  Historically, <em>L. spadicea</em> was found in the Rio Zula, Rio Duero, Lago de Cuitzeo and Rio Grande de Morelia.
169396		habitat	eng	<em>L. spadicea</em> is a parasitic, demersal species that inhabits streams, rivers and lakes over substrates of firm mud, silt and rock.  It spawns from December to January.  It is assumed that <em>L. spadicea</em> has a similar generation length to <em>L. minima</em>, which is 3.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2006).
169396		population	eng	Habitat modification and degradation of water quality have severely reduced <em>L. spadicea</em>'s distribution and abundance (Miller 2005).
169396		threats	eng	Lake Chapala and the surrounding rivers are suffering from severe habitat degradation.  This has been caused by defective administration of the water resource combined with the economic activity and population along its river basin.  This region is now one of the most eroded areas of the country (Living Lakes, 2005).  <br/><br/>Eleven major dams upstream of the Lerma River were constructed in order to divert water for industry, drinking water and irrigation.  In the 1970s Lake Chapala had a volume of 8.1 billion m<sup>3</sup>.  The current volume is 1.3 billion m³ (Living Lakes 2005), therefore Lake Chapala's volume has reduced by 84% in approximately 35 years.  81% of the Lake Chapala catchment area is used for agriculture and the portion of irrigated areas quintupled in the last 50 years (Living Lakes 2005).  <br/><br/>The water running into Lake Chapala through the river is highly polluted with heavy metals and other toxic substances as a result of insufficient waste water treatment.  Contamination of the water that supplies the lake has reached alarming levels, to the degree of causing toxicological mutations in some of the fish species that until now have survived in the vast lake.  Among the problems are the high levels of phosphorus (80 times higher than is permitted by the international standards), infestation of algae, presence of heavy metals (cyanide chromium, leads and mercury) and infestation of aquatic weeds (eutrophication). There is also a great concentration of organic residues from industrial waste products of the leather industry and the drainage of the cities in the basin (Living Lakes 2005)
169397		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169397		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic slope of northern Mexico.  It is restricted to the montane portions (headwaters of tributaries) of the Rio Gallinas drainage; a tributary to Rio Santa Maria (Rio Panuco basin), above Cascada de Tamul.
169397		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits montane rivers with well-developed riffles and long pools of clear, hard water, with depths to 2.0 m.
169397		population	eng	The global population size and trend is currently unknown.
169397		threats	eng	The Rio Gallinas is currently impacted by heavy pollution from sugar mills (Danko 1993).  However, the sugar mills are on main river stretch, not on the two tributaries this species occurs in which are still intact.
169398		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measure currently in place.
169398		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Lake Izabal basin, Guatemala, which covers an area of 6,860 km².
169398		habitat	eng	<em>A. spinosissimus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rivers.
169398		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169398		threats	eng	No threats are known.
169399		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.
169399		distribution	eng	<em>G. atripinnis</em> is endemic to Lerma-Santiago River basin in Mexico.
169399		habitat	eng	A demersal species.
169399		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
169399		threats	eng	Part of this species range is threatened by habitat degradation; a study of the Rio Lerma drainage concluded that the basin has experienced a staggering amount of degradation during the 20th century (Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. 1999).
169400		conservation	eng	Lac Azuei is a Nature Reserve, however, it appears to exist only on paper. There is no personnel and no infrastructure.  Lago Enriquillo has become the first Dominican Ramsar Site and comprises one of the cores of ENRIQUILLO – BAHORUCO – JARAGUA Biosphere Reserve.  Lago Enriquillo has been a national park since 1996 and a body of 20 park rangers now regularly survey the lake and its shores (Schubert 2006). <br/><br/>The watershed of the two lakes was chosen for the first attempt between Dominican and Haitian governments to work closely together in order to improve the environmental situation. The project, the Transboundary Environmental Program (PMT), has a team composed of Haitian and Dominican professionals. It is financially supported from the European Union and the two governments involved. The program PMT intends to establish wise use practices in both lakes and their corresponding watersheds (Schubert 2006).
169400		distribution	eng	This species' native range is Lac Azuei in Haiti (111.6 km²) and Lago Enriquillo (259.5 km²) in the Dominican Republic.  <br/><br/>It has been distributed around the world by the aquarium fish trade, but has so far only been recorded only in the Northern Territory, Australia.  It was apparently introduced to billabongs and streams in the vicinity of Alice Springs in the 1940s and 50s for the purpose of mosquito control (Duguid <em>et al.</em> 2002, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002), but is not yet established (Bomford and Glover 2004).
169400		habitat	eng	<em>G. dominicensis</em> is a benthopelagic, viviparous species, that can inhabit lakes, streams and billabongs.
169400		population	eng	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.
169400		threats	eng	There are several threats to the species' native habitat.  Urban growth in Fonds Parisien at the southern shore of Lac Azuei causes increased levels of eutrophication, visible through increased growth of algae. At Lago Enriquillo this problem is not as obvious, since all surrounding communities are more than three kilometers away from the lake shore and domestic and agricultural waste water is filtered by cattails and other vegetation. Solid waste is a great problem for both lakes, as winds blow plastics into the lakes and the surrounding communities dump rubbish into dry river beds, which gets washed into the lakes during rainy periods (Schubert 2006). <br/><br/>Lago Enriquillo's level and water conditions depend heavily on the Río Yaque del Sur. The majority of the Yaque water is diverted towards the Azua coastal plain, where it is used for irrigation.  Many times the canals that drain Yaque water toward Lago Enriquillo are filled with sediment.  In years with low rainfall Lago Enriquillo's water level drops within a short time, exposing large areas of its lake bed.  The diversion of irrigation water from Yaque del Sur is a threat to the existence of the lake.  During the last 20 years the lake has lost about two thirds of its volume (Schubert 2006).
169403		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169403		distribution	eng	This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru excluded).
169403		habitat	eng	<em>D. fasciolatus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits rivers, rarely in lakes (Eccles 1992) and feeds on plants (Riehl and Baensch 1996).
169403		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169403		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
169404		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169404		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Wouri River in western Cameroon, southward to the Rio Benito drainage system in western Equatorial Guinea.
169404		habitat	eng	<em>A. ahli</em> occurs in swamps and quiet parts of brook under forest cover in the coastal lowlands (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986). It also inhabits flood pools in the coastal rain forest and is usually found in shallow water. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
169404		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169404		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169405		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169405		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, presently only known from its type locality, Nguba II in Equatorial Guinea. It probably also occurs in other small westward flowing rivers of western Equatorial Guinea.
169405		habitat	eng	<em>F. avichang</em>&#160; is rainforest associated, found in swampy parts of brooks, usually in the shallows. It is a pelagic species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax avichang</span> lives in small temporary pools (Malumbres and Castelo 2001).
169405		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169405		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169406		conservation	eng	The species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.
169406		distribution	eng	<em>P. lufirae</em> is only known from the types from the Luifra River and effluents, Upper Congo River basin.
169406		habitat	eng	<em>P. lufirae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169406		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169406		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169407		conservation	eng	None known.
169407		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed into this species population numbers and range, and threats it is facing, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat maintenance and conservation is also required.
169407		distribution	eng	In Lower Guinea, <em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is known from the Lokoundjé and Lobe River basins in Cameroon, Douigni River in Gabon, and Kouilou River basin in Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere it is known from the Bandama River in the Ivory Coast. <em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is often found in the same habitat as <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> and, like <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em>, it seems evasive and difficult to catch, and may be more widely distributed than is presently documented.
169407		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> in western Africa, is known from the River Bandama (and Me river) in Côte d’Ivoire. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it occurs in the River Lokunje in Cameroon and in the basin of the Kouilou in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
169407		distribution	eng	This species is known from Côte d'Ivoire, and Cameroon, Congo and Gabon. <span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> is often found in the same habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium crenilabrum</span> and, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium crenilabrum</span>, it seems evasive and difficult to catch, and may be more widely distributed than is presently documented.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> is known from the Lokoundjé and Lobe River basins in Cameroon, Douigni River in Gabon, and Kouilou River basin in Congo-Brazzaville.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa: </span>It is present in the River Bandama (and Me river) in Côte d’Ivoire.
169407		habitat	eng	<em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is found around rocks in fast-flowing freshwaters. <em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is often found in the same habitat as <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em>, which is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. It is benthopelagic species.
169407		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish from freshwater.
169407		habitat	eng	This species is found around rocks in fast-flowing freshwaters. <span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> is often found in the same habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium crenilabrum</span>, which is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. It is benthopelagic species.
169407		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169407		population	eng	No available data.
169407		population	eng	No information available.
169407		threats	eng	There is evidence of continuing decline in quality of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon due to widespread farming activities. However, the sub-population in the Congo Republic is not thought to be subject to the same farming pressures.
169407		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
169408		conservation	eng	No information available.
169408		conservation	eng	Regional red listing for West Africa is Least Concern.
169408		distribution	eng	<em>P. a. annectens</em> is found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo; this subspecies is found in, but not limited to, the Volta, Chad, Bandama and Comoé basins, and temporary tributaries of Chari River.<br/> <br/><em>P. a. brieni</em> is found in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe; this sub-species is distributed throughout the upper Congo River (Luapula), middle and lower Zambezi basin and all east coast rivers south to the Limpopo River, the upper Cubango and Okavango system and Lake Rukwa. This subspecies has also been translocated to additional sites in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Ref. 7248).
169408		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Tana River (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished), Malagarazi delta and Rukwa Basin.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo, Zambezi and Okavango River Basins.
169408		habitat	eng	<em>P. annectens</em> is a demersal and potamodromous (migrates within fresh water only) species, found in marginal swamps and backwaters of rivers and lakes. It normally lives on flood plains, and when these dry up it secretes a thin slime around itself which dries into a cocoon.
169408		habitat	eng	Found in marginal swamps and backwaters of rivers and lakes (Dankwa <em>et al. 1999). Carnivorous, feeding on molluscs (Dankwa <em>et al. 1999), frogs, fish and seeds (Reed 1967). It normally lives on flood plains and when these dry up, during the dry season, it secretes a thin slime around itself which dries into a fragile cocoon. It can exist in this state for over a year, although normally it hibernates only from the end of one wet season to the start of the next (Holden and Reed 1972).</em></em>
169408		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169408		population	eng	Not known, but rare in catches compared to P. aethiopicus.
169408		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are minor commercial fisheries, collection for the aquarium trade (after Froese and Pauly 2003) and loss of wetlands due to agricultural expansion.
169408		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169409		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169409		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from Kisangani. It has been recorded from the Bangui fish market in the Central African Republic. The species is probably more widespread than currently known.
169409		habitat	eng	<em>M. traversi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169409		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169409		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169410		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn?t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
169410		distribution	eng	<em>C. mabusi</em> is known from the Congo-Lualaba system upstream the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). It is also found in Luongo River, Congo River system, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983). It is also known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
169410		habitat	eng	<em>C. mabusi</em> is a demersal species.
169410		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169410		threats	eng	A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
169411		conservation	eng	Areas of this species' range lie within protected areas.  Both Birougou and Waka National Park protect areas of the Du Chaillu Massif.
169411		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the western slopes of the Du Chaillu-Massif, in the Ngounie River system, southern central Gabon.
169411		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and occurs in fast flowing brooks and small streams in mountainous rainforest.
169411		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169411		threats	eng	This species is collected for the commercial aquarium trade.
169412		conservation	eng	Part of the Dja river forms the boundary of the Dja Faunal Reserve, (IUCN category IV).
169412		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Dja River, Cameroon.
169412		habitat	eng	<em>E. dybowkii</em>is a demersal, oviparous species, in which distinct pairing occurs during breeding.
169412		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169412		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Dja River lies within a region that forms a part of one of the world's last remaining tropical forest wildernesses (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1998).
169413		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn?t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
169413		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Luongo River, in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.  It is known only from the headwaters of the Luongo river (Snoeks, pers. comm.).
169413		habitat	eng	<em>K. paucisquamata</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169413		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169413		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species.
169414		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.
169414		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Luapula River system. in the Democratic Republic of Congo.  There are two lots identified as <em>B. luapulae</em> in the South African Institute of Aquatic Biology, from the Zambian part of the Luapula catchment area, but its identification needs to be verified (Snoeks, pers. comm.).
169414		habitat	eng	<em>B. luapulae</em> is a benthopelagic species, that has been recorded from rivers and lakes throughout its distribution.
169414		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169414		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets may affect this species.
169415		conservation	eng	Part of this species range falls within the Ivindo National Park (IUCN Category II).
169415		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ivindo River drainage system, between Koumameyong and Bélinga in northern Gabon. The Ivindo river drains an area of 11,770 km².
169415		habitat	eng	<em>A. georgiae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that inhabits small, mostly swampy brooks in the rainforest.
169415		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169415		threats	eng	This species is collected for the commercial aquarium trade. However it is distributed within an area which is virtually uninhabited and where there is very little disturbance (WWF 2006).
169416		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Salanka National Park.
169416		distribution	eng	<em>N. symoensi</em> is known from the Luapula system.
169416		habitat	eng	<em>N. symoensi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in temporary pools and river drainages (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986). This species is a bottom spawner with four months incubation (Huber 1996).
169416		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169416		threats	eng	Fishing with poison, and commercial insecticides are both causing a deterioration of the species habitat.
169417		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169417		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Laboebarbus surkis</span> has been reported from Lake Tana and Didessa River, Ethiopia.
169417		habitat	eng	<em>B. surkis</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates all over the lake, generally in water of no more than 3 m depth.  It is a macrophytivore; specimens smaller than 15 cm feed mainly on zooplankton and insect larvae, macrophytes increase in importance with size and finally make up most of the diet.
169417		population	eng	The population of the species is not exactly known. However, it is a rare species in Lake Tana.
169417		threats	eng	Overexploitation is the major threat facing the species in Lake Tana. There are also a number of threats facing Lake Tana including silt load, pollution, drainage, water level fluctuation and over-exploitation of specific fish species.  There are also threats to the surrounding area of the lake, in the form of deforestation, population pressure and degradation (FAO 2004).  In addition to these threats that <em>B. surkis</em> is already facing, its vulnerability to any introduced species should be noted; <em>B. surkis</em> is one of 18 species of barbus fish that have evolved in Lake Tana, the only extended cyprinid species flock in Africa and the only intact flock in the world.  The only other known flock, in Lake Lanao, in the Philippines, was decimated by introduced species (Lakenet 2004).
169418		conservation	eng	The Malagarasi-Muyovozi Wetlands is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.
169418		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities in the Malagarasi River basin, Tanzania; from the delta and in the river a few kilometres upstream from Ilgala.  The river basins in which <em>N. devosi</em> occurs, cover an area of 7,037 km².
169418		habitat	eng	<em>N. devosi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169418		population	eng	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.
169418		threats	eng	There is a great number of threatened species within the Malagarasi River system.  Major threats to species include loss of habitat due to agricultural encroachment into wetland areas and the eutrophication and sedimentation of the riverine habitat (Darwall <em>et al</em>. 2005).
169419		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169419		distribution	eng	<em>M. macrops</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is not known from east of the Congo mainstream. Ongoing studies indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">Myomyrus macrodon</span> is restricted to the Lower Congo region (Staissny and Sullivan, in prep.).
169419		habitat	eng	<em>M. macrops</em> is a demersal species.
169419		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169419		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169420		conservation	eng	None known.
169420		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Found in the Gambia and Senegal rivers in Gambia and Senegal and in the Niger River drainage system in Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria. Also present in the coastal areas of Senegal, Gambia, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Togo, Benin and Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin in Chad, Northeastern Nigeria, northern Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Weedy parts of rivers, swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the Guinean and Sudanese savannah, and coastal lagoons. Has a large distribution between Senegal in western Africa and Sudan in eastern Africa.
169420		distribution	eng	This species is known from weedy parts of rivers, swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the Guinean and Sudanese savannah, and coastal lagoons. It has a large distribution between Senegal in western Africa and Sudan in northeastern Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Africa:</span> It is present in Bahr el jebel, White Nile Basin.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa:</span> It is found in the Gambia and Senegal rivers in Gambia and Senegal and in the Niger River drainage system in Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria. It is also present in the coastal areas of Senegal, Gambia, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, and the Lake Chad basin in Chad, northeastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon.
169420		habitat	eng	<em>E. bifasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the savannah, weedy parts of rivers and swamps in coastal areas.  It browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles.
169420		habitat	eng	Occurs in swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the savannah, weedy parts of rivers and swamps in coastal areas (Romand 1992). Browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. Not a seasonal killifish, non-migratory.
169420		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169420		population	eng	No data on population trends.
169420		threats	eng	None known
169420		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169421		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169421		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannocharax brevis</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and Upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kasai River basin and in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
169421		habitat	eng	<em>N. brevis</em> is a pelagic species.
169421		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169421		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169422		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169422		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocephalus squalostoma</span> is known from the type locality, Lukinda basin, tributary of Lake Mweru and from Kafushia, Wiswila River, Luapula River system.
169422		habitat	eng	<em>P. squalostoma</em> is a demersal species.
169422		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169422		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169423		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169423		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal rivers of Cameroon, Gabon and Congo.
169423		habitat	eng	<em>A. taeniurus</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits rivers.  <em>Alestes</em> species migrate longitudinally according to seasonal hydrological regime (Winemiller 2003).
169423		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169423		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169424		conservation	eng	Regional red listing for West Africa is Endangered.
169424		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Africa. It has only been collected from the Niger delta.
169424		habitat	eng	<em>A. smykalai</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits creeks and rivers.  The average lifespan for an African Tetra (members of the family <em>Alestidae</em>) is five years.
169424		population	eng	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.
169424		threats	eng	<em>A. smykalai</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The Niger Delta has suffered extensive environmental pollution and the crisis is still on going.  The Niger Delta is endowed with immense natural resources, particularly crude oil, and in addition, Nigeria has the largest natural gas reserves in Africa.  As a consequence, environmental problems arise from oil and gas-related development activities, oils spills, refinery operations, oil transportation, gas flaring, dredging of canals and land taken for the construction of facilities.  Areas near such outfalls are subjected to chronic pollution, which is of significance for fish resources and fisheries (Laë <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Construction of dams along the Niger River during the last 25 years has significantly disrupted the hydrological balance of the lower Niger River (Bustamante 2002).  Population pressure and agricultural land degradation also exacerbate biodiversity losses in the region as they induce people to expand agricultural production and increase fishing pressure (Bustamante 2002).<br/><br/>In addition to habitat degradation, it is possible that <em>A. smykalai</em> is negatively affected by introduced species.  In Nigeria, nine species were introduced since the 1970s, mainly for aquaculture.  The ecological effects of these introduced species are unknown (Laë <em>et al.</em> 2004).
169425		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169425		distribution	eng	This Lower Guinea endemic is widespread within the Ogowe basin (although apparently absent from the upper Ivindo). It also occurs in the Niari-Kouilou.
169425		habitat	eng	<em>S. walkeri</em>&#160; has been taken both in small streams and in deep water among rocks in the Ogowe River channel. It is a demersal species.
169425		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169425		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169426		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169426		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the coast of Lake Malawi.  It is present along the east coast of Lake Malawi in Tanzania and Mozambique and on a few places in the north of Malawi on the west coast (Snoeks, pers. comm.).
169426		habitat	eng	<em>P. macrophthalmus</em> is a demersal species, which seems to be restricted to the upper 2-4 m of the intermediate habitat in sheltered bays.
169426		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169426		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution threaten the Lake Malawi's fish, especially the cichlids.  Clearing of timber for building, firewood and cultivation has increased around the lake.  Because of the limnological characteristics of the lake, should it be contaminated, the renewal time would be in the order of 1,700 years (UNEP - Protected Areas Programme 1983).
169427		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169427		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Varicorhinus robertsi</span> is only known from the type locality: the Sanga waterfalls at the tailwaters of the hydroelectric dam at Sanga on the Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin.
169427		habitat	eng	<em>V. robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169427		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169427		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown at present.
169428		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169428		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus deguidei</span> is only known from the type locality: Yokolo village, swamps of the Boteli River, Ikela region, Congo River system, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Matthes 1964).
169428		habitat	eng	<em>B. deguidei </em>is a benthopelagic species. It is a polyphagous species; the stomach contained sand, debris of higher plants (fibres and little graisn), Entomostraca (Cladocera), Hydracarina and aquatic larvae (Ceratopogonids, Chironomids, Trichopterans) (Matthes 1964).
169428		population	eng	This species is only known from two specimens (Snoeks, pers. comm.).
169428		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the type locality of <em>B. deguidei</em> as it is in a remote and inaccessible region.
169429		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known. More information is needed on this species' distribution before an assessment can be made.
169429		distribution	eng	<em>T. intermedius</em> is only known from the type locality: Luluabourg (Kananga), Lulua River, tributary of the Kasai River, Central Congo basin (Skelton and Teugels 1986).
169429		habitat	eng	<em>T. intermedius</em> is a demersal species.
169429		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169429		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
169430		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169430		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, which has a surface area of 32,820 km².
169430		habitat	eng	<em>E. albini</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169430		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169430		threats	eng	In recent years, Lake Tanganyika has been threatened by habitat degradation, largely as a result of increased population pressures.  High fishing pressure and the use of destructive methods has had a great impact on fish stocks and the majority of fish species.  Large-scale deforestation and farming practices have caused a dramatic increase in soil erosion rates, increasing the rate of sediment influx in the lake.  The rapid increase in population density has also resulted in an increase in water pollution in the lake.  This includes untreated wastewater discharges and agricultural runoff (Jorgensen <em>et al</em>. 2006).
169431		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169431		distribution	eng	<em>S. nyongensis</em> is a Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality 12 km south of Eseka, Nyong River, Cameroon. The species has not been recorded in recent surveys above the waterfalls (pers. comm. Brummett, R.) but this record is from below the Mpoumé Falls.
169431		habitat	eng	<em>S. nyongensis</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).
169431		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169431		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from small scale palm oil agriculture.
169432		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169432		distribution	eng	<em>N. ogoensis</em> is only known from Franceville, Ogowe basin, Gabon.
169432		habitat	eng	<em>N. ogoensis</em> is a pelagic species.
169432		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169432		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169433		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169433		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Grasseichthys gabonensis</span> is only known from scattered localities in the Ivindo, and larger Ogowe Basin of Gabon. A new species is being described from the central Congo River basin (Stiassny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Schelly and Britz, in prep.).
169433		habitat	eng	<em>G. gabonensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169433		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169433		threats	eng	This species is threatened by iron mining.
169434		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169434		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality Oshwe, Lake Mai-Ndombe, Central Congo River basin.
169434		habitat	eng	<em>A. opisthophthalmus</em> is a demersal species.
169434		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169434		threats	eng	There are reports that the region in which <em>A. opisthophthalmus</em> is known from is threatened by large-scale clearing for agriculture, urban development and mining, which results in soil erosion and water pollution which could threaten this species (WWF 2001). In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.
169435		conservation	eng	Regional red listing for West Africa is Least Concern.
169435		distribution	eng	<em>E. o. olbrechtsi</em> occurs in Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire (Tai area) and Guinea; <em>E. o. dauresi </em> is restricted to forest streams of the Bandama basin in Côte d'Ivoire, and <em>E. o. kassiapleuensis</em> occurs in western Côte d'Ivoire.  This species is endemic to West Africa.
169435		habitat	eng	<em>E. olbrechtsi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits swamps, small streams and rivers.
169435		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169435		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169436		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169436		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the Ogowe and Kouilou River basins.
169436		habitat	eng	<em>A. boutchangai</em> is a demersal species that inhabits rivers.
169436		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169436		threats	eng	In the Kouilou basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not thought that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
169437		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169437		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo luluae</span> is only known from the holotype from the Lulua River, and from one specimen caught on the Aruwimi River, Central Congo River basin (Tshibwabwa 1997).
169437		habitat	eng	<em>L. luluae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169437		population	eng	No information available.
169437		threats	eng	Threats are unknown for this species.
169438		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169438		distribution	eng	<em>S. robustus robustus</em> is found in Lake Malawi and the upper Shire River.  It is also reported from Luongo River in the Congo system, Zambia.  It has been translocated to the upper Ruo River in Malawi and also to Swaziland.<br/><br/><em>S. robustus jallae</em> is found in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, upper and middle Zambezi, Luangwa, Luapula-Moero, Lualaba and Kasai rivers.  It has been translocated to localities in Zimbabwe, to the Limpopo River and Natal, South Africa (FAO 1970).
169438		habitat	eng	<em>S. robustus</em> is a demersal fish, most frequently found in the shallows.  It has been found over sandy and vegetated areas as well as over rocky substrates.   Larger specimens prefer deep main channels and permanent lagoons, whereas smaller fishes occur mainly in lagoons and secondary channels.  <br/><br/>It is an oviparous fish that breeds in the summer, nesting along vegetated fringes of mainstreams.  The females incubate the eggs in their mouths.
169438		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169438		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169439		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169439		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from a limited area north of Eseka in Cameroon, and from a few small brooks in the upper Kelle River system.
169439		habitat	eng	<em>E. esekanus</em> occurs at the base of a range of hills that separate the coastal lowlands from the inland plateau (from a limited area north of Eseka in Cameroon) and at a few small brooks. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks between the inland plateau and coastal lowland (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986). <span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys esekanus</span> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
169439		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169439		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species although the primary threat to habitat in this region is deforestation, which is likely to result in soil erosion and increased sediment in streams and rivers in the area.
169440		conservation	eng	Part of the northern species distribution is covered by a protected area. The forest of the region is protected.
169440		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from a limited number of localities between Libreville and Cap Esterias in northwestern Gabon.
169440		habitat	eng	<em>A. alpha</em> occurs in clear creeks under forest cover, usually over a sandy soil, in the coastal plain. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
169440		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169440		threats	eng	This species' range lies very close to the city of Libreville, which has a population of over 400,000.  This poses a number of threats to <em>A. alpha</em>.  An increase in population, prompted by opportunities for agriculture and employment, results in conversion of natural habitat to urban settlements and agricultural plantations.  Together with poor resource management practices inland, this has caused accelerated rates of coastal erosion in Gabon, which may eventually effect the habitat of <em>A. alpha</em>.  An increase in population density is also likely to result in increased levels of water pollution.
169441		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169441		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alestopetersius hilgendorfi</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley pool) and the Central Congo River basin.
169441		habitat	eng	<em>A. hilgendorfi</em> is a pelagic species.
169441		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169441		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169442		conservation	eng	Part of Lake Edward lies within the Virunga National Park.
169442		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Edward, which has a surface area of 2,253 km².
169442		habitat	eng	<em>P. paradoxus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169442		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169442		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169443		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169443		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parananochromis caudifasciatus</span> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. It also occurs in the forested area of Southern Cameroon in the Nyong, Lokoundje and Ntem systems, north Gabon, and Río Muni.
169443		habitat	eng	<em>P. caudifasciatus</em> is a demersal species, restricted to forested areas.  It spawns in caves.
169443		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169443		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169444		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169444		distribution	eng	This species&#160; is known from the Lomela, Tshuapa and the Mongala River systems and from the Yangambi region, Central Congo River basin.
169444		habitat	eng	<em>S. polli</em> is a demersal species.
169444		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169444		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169445		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169445		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus caudosignatus</span> is only known from the type locality Alto Cuilo, Kasai, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
169445		habitat	eng	<em>B. caudosignatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169445		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169445		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
169446		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169446		distribution	eng	This species is known from Somalia.
169446		habitat	eng	<em>P. gliroides</em> is a demersal species.
169446		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169446		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown at present.
169447		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169447		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus chiumbeensis </span>is known from the Kasai (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Kwango and Kwilu (Angola).
169447		habitat	eng	<em>B. chiumbeensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169447		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169447		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. However, due to the low population densities in this region, and the movement of many rural people to cities where security is better, large stretches of habitat are presently unaffected by human settlement and activities (WWF 2001).
169448		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known. There should be monitoring of the population impacts of the threats, particularly of the harvest levels.
169448		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northern Gabon. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Benitochromis batesii</span> on Fernando Poo need confirmation.
169448		habitat	eng	<em>B. batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. The females are mouth brooders, laying a maximum of 100 eggs.
169448		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169448		threats	eng	Harvesting of this species may pose a threat; this fish is collected seasonally in Cameroon for the aquarium trade. Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region also leads to sedimentation and habitat loss.
169449		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169449		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Kouilou, Louessé, Lefali, Bouenza and upper Nyanga River systems in southern Congo-Brazzaville, and the upper Nyanga River system in southern Gabon.
169449		habitat	eng	<em>A. louessencse</em> is a benthopelagic fish, that inhabits brooks and small streams in the rainforest and forested savannah of the inland plain.  They are usually found in very shallow areas.
169449		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169449		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation, which heavily impacts the river.
169450		conservation	eng	No information available.
169450		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169450		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Malagarasi system.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo basin.
169450		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Kwango and the Kasaï River systems, Central Congo River basin. Records have been made from affluent rivers along both banks of the Lower Congo River and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
169450		habitat	eng	<em>V. macrolepidotus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169450		habitat	eng	Found in both deep and flowing waters where it feeds on varied benthic food items including, insects, ostracods and worms.
169450		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169450		population	eng	Not known
169450		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries and farming extension in river valleys.
169450		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169451		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169451		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannocharax hollyi</span> is only known from the type locality Fort Sibut, the Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin.
169451		habitat	eng	<em>N. hollyi</em> is a pelagic species.
169451		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169451		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169452		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known. Monitoring of the population and the habitat would be beneficial.
169452		distribution	eng	This species is known only form its type locality (a channel in front of the refuge Jipo) in Malebo Pool, a large riverine lake shared by the Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo, formed by the widening of the Congo River (Roberts 2003).
169452		habitat	eng	<em>D. brieni</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand.
169452		population	eng	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.
169452		threats	eng	Malebo Pool faces some environmental threat. Urbanisation at the pool forms a problem in the region through sewage  cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat  traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the  general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.  Much of the area became deforested following development of the railway along the Lower Congo in the early 1900s but gallery forests still line sections of the river through the Lower Congo (Stiassny 2003).  However, the effect of deforestation on <em>D. brieni</em> is not known.
169453		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169453		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small range, probably restricted to the upper reaches of the Ituri River and its tributaries and westerly, up to the Lindi River (Bafwasené) and tributaries in the Ituri forest, at elevations over 500 meters in the northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to Van der Zee and Hubert (2006) it cannot be excluded that it has a much larger distribution area in the eastern part of the Congo River basin.
169453		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and occurs mainly in the weedy and shallow parts of brooks, small streams, pools and swamps (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986).
169453		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169453		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the commercial aquarium trade.
169454		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169454		distribution	eng	<em>S. multimaculatus</em> is only known from the type specimen from Banzyville on the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.
169454		habitat	eng	<em>S. multimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits muddy bottoms down to at least 100 m in lake (Eccles 1992). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
169454		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169454		threats	eng	<em>S. multimaculatus</em> is of minor importance as a commercial fishery; there is no evidence that this has a great effect on the population, however this should be monitored in the future.
169455		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
169455		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, Upper Congo River basin.<em><br/></em>
169455		habitat	eng	<em>S. unicolor</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
169455		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169455		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
169456		conservation	eng	None known.
169456		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169456		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo dhonti</span> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Tanzania<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> It occurs in the southern course of the Central Congo River basin: from Cafunfo, Kwango River and from Dundo Luachimo River. It is widely distributed in the Upper Congo River basin. Specimens from the Mpozo River in Lower Congo have tentatively been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dhonti</span> by Tshibabwa, but these require further investigation.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> This species is present in the Malagarasi River basin (Tshibwabwa 1997).
169456		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo dhonti</em> is known from the southern course of the Central Congo River basin: from Cafunfo, Kwango River and from Dundo Luachimo River. It is widely distributed in the Upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin. (Tshibwabwa 1997). Specimens from the Mpozo River in Lower Congo have tentatively been identified as L.dhonti by Tshibabwa, but these require further investigation.
169456		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo dhonti</em> is benthopelagic species.
169456		habitat	eng	<em>L. dhonti</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169456		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169456		population	eng	No information available.
169456		threats	eng	None known
169456		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169457		conservation	eng	No information available.
169457		conservation	eng	None known.
169457		conservation	eng	None known. Further taxonomic investigation of this species is needed, as well as monitoring of population trends.
169457		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Citharinus congicus</span> is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> It is found throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded), and from the Ruaha River in Tanzania.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> Ruaha River (Daget 1984) and Rufiji River (Eccles 1992) in Tanzania.
169457		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Citharinus congicus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded), and from the Ruaha River in Tanzania.
169457		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong> Ruaha River (Daget 1984) and Rufiji River (Eccles 1992).
169457		habitat	eng	<em>C. congicus</em> is a pelagic species.
169457		habitat	eng	<em>Citharinus congicus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits rivers (Eccles 1992).
169457		habitat	eng	No information available.
169457		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169457		population	eng	No information available.
169457		threats	eng	No information available.
169457		threats	eng	None known.
169457		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169458		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169458		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus owenae</span> is known from the type locality, Lake Bangweulu, Chilui Islands, and from the Chambezi River, Zambia.
169458		habitat	eng	<em>B. owenae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169458		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169458		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169459		conservation	eng	There is no implemented conservation measure, although regulations have been formulated and proclaimed.
169459		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
169459		habitat	eng	<em>L. macrophtalmus</em> is a benthopelagic species.  It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates (with slight preference for rocks), usually in water deeper than 3 m.  It feeds on insects (both larvae and adults); small specimens also eat zooplankton, while large ones sometimes exclusively feed on fish.
169459		population	eng	There is no concrete information on the population size of this species. However, the species is one of the rare species in Lake Tana.
169459		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the fish resource is a major threat to the species. There are also a number of threats facing Lake Tana including silt load, pollution, drainage, water level fluctuation and over-exploitation of specific fish species.  There are also threats to the surrounding area of the lake, in the form of deforestation, population pressure and degradation (FAO 2004).  In addition to these threats that <em>L. macrophtalmus</em> is already facing, its vulnerability to any introduced species should be noted; <span style="font-style: italic;">L</span><em>. macrophtalmus</em> is one of 18 species of barbus fish that have evolved in Lake Tana, the only extended cyprinid species flock in Africa and the only intact flock in the world.  The only other known flock, in Lake Lanao, in the Philippines, was decimated by introduced species (Lakenet 2004).
169460		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169460		distribution	eng	<em>S. nigrifluvi</em> is endemic to Guinea.
169460		habitat	eng	<em>S. nigrifluvi</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits quiet brooks, swamps and weedy parts of small streams.
169460		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169460		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to biodiversity in Guinea, including deforestation, mining, and pollution.  However, as the range of <em>S. nigrifluvi</em> is not known it is not possible to assess the extent to which the threats affect this species.
169461		conservation	eng	None known.
169461		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus rouxi</em> is only known from the vicinity of Luluabourg, in the rapids of the Lulua River, Kasaï region.
169461		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus rouxi</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species with a maximum recorded TL of 7.5 cm (Snoecks and De Boeck 1991).
169461		population	eng	No information available.
169461		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
169462		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169462		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phago intermedius</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central River basin. It is also known from Kabelwe, Upper Congo River basin.
169462		habitat	eng	<em>P. intermedius</em> is a pelagic species.
169462		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169462		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169463		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169463		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Victoria, which has a surface area of 67,075 km².
169463		habitat	eng	<em>B. profundus</em> is a benthopelagic species, that occurs in offshore localities.
169463		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169463		threats	eng	There are numerous threats facing Lake Victoria, including eutrophication, over-exploitation of fisheries, introduced exotic species, and climate change.  These threats are compounded by rapid population growth in the lake's catchment area.  Pollutants enter the lake in the form of domestic and industrial wastewater, solid wastes, sediments from soil erosion in the catchment area, agricultural wastes and atmospheric deposition.  The lake has a long water retention time, meaning that pollutants entering the lake remain in it for a long time.  Parts of the lake are now considered dead zones, unable to sustain life due to oxygen deficiency  in the water.  The threats facing the lake have reduced the biodiversity of the lakes fauna, most notably the phytoplankton and fish (Kayombo and Jorgensen 2006).
169464		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
169464		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
169464		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. The species is a prawn-eater.
169464		population	eng	No information available.
169464		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
169465		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169465		distribution	eng	<em>S. velifera</em> is found in the Sanaga River system, Cameroon.
169465		habitat	eng	<em>S. velifera</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169465		population	eng	The global population is thought to be decreasing based on past data and future predictions, although detailed numbers are not known.
169465		threats	eng	In Cameroon there are several point sources of water pollution from industry, however the major source of pollution is an absence of sewage systems in urbanised areas (Calamari 1985).<br/><br/>Construction of a 1,500 km pipeline, which will link oilfields in southern Chad to the coast of Cameroon, began in 2000.  The pipeline will run along the Sanaga river and will make 17 river crossings in Cameroon, and is a potential source of water pollution in the area.
169466		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
169466		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
169466		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
169466		population	eng	No information available.
169466		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
169467		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169467		distribution	eng	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is known from the Mwamedjwel River, a very small stream 2-3 km west of Yokadouma (Bangue-Boumba-Ngoko-Sangha in Cameroon). It is possibly also known from the Lubazi River, tributary of the Luala River, Lower Congo River basin, but this material has to be re-examined.
169467		habitat	eng	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
169467		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169467		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169468		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.
169468		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the upper Cross River system of western Cameroon, where is restricted to the vicinity of the village of Mbio.
169468		habitat	eng	<em>F. mirabilis</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits brooks and small streams in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax mirabilis</span> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
169468		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169468		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
169469		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
169469		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
169469		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
169469		population	eng	No information available.
169469		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
169470		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169470		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo simpsoni</span> is known from the Lower, Central and Upper reaches of the Congo River, including Cafunfo and the Kwango River (Angola) and the Dja River (Cameroon).
169470		habitat	eng	<em>L. simpsoni</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169470		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169470		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169471		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169471		distribution	eng	<em>A. celiae</em> is restricted to the middle Mungo drainage system in western Cameroon.
169471		habitat	eng	<em>A. ceilae</em> is a benthopelagic species which occurs in wells, brooks, swamps and pools in the rainforest and secondary savanna.
169471		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169471		threats	eng	<em>A. celiae</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, however the extent to which wild specimens are removed for this purpose is not known.
169472		conservation	eng	The records from the Dungu River are located in the Garamabe National Park.
169472		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus amanpoae</span> is known from the Amanpoa River and from Mauda and the Dungu River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
169472		habitat	eng	<em>B. amanpoae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169472		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169472		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169473		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169473		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus mirabilis</span> is only known from the type locality Mawambi, Ituri, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
169473		habitat	eng	<em>B. mirabilis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169473		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169473		threats	eng	Due to increasing human population, poverty and the ongoing civil wars in Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo, the habitat in the region which <em>B. mirabilis</em> occurs is facing increased threats.  Overgrazing of cattle as well as slash and burn agriculture have degraded much of this region (WWF 2001). Fishing with grenades and poisioning have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
169474		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169474		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the central Congo basin.
169474		habitat	eng	<em>B. hutsebouti</em> is a pelagic species.
169474		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169474		threats	eng	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.
169475		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn?t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most eastern point of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
169475		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lufira River, Lake Mweru and the Luapula River. It has been recorded from Nyonga as well.
169475		habitat	eng	<em>T. mylodon</em> is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits streams and lakes. It feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, but also (in small quantities) on crustaceans and molluscs (Lamboj 2004). It is a maternal mouthbrooder (Stiassny 1989).&#160; Marked intolerance to oxygen lack (Jackson 1961).
169475		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169475		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. There are mining threats in the Katanga region.
169476		conservation	eng	Part of the range of <em>C. microps</em> is within the Upemba and Kundelungu National Parks, and the Lufira River biosphere reserve.  The National Parks are IUCN category II protected areas and, for the most part, are managed as a strict nature reserve, although tourist use of certain areas is allowed.
169476		distribution	eng	<em>C. microps</em>&#160; is known from the Lukima River at Kiamakoto and in the Lufira River, Upper Congo River basin (Matthes 1965).
169476		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis microps</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It has an omnivorous diet with a tendency towards carnivory that consists of sand, plant debris, sometimes filamentous algae, freshwater sponges, Ostracods, often in great numbers and aquatic insect larvae (Chironomids, Odonates, Simulids) (Matthes 1965).
169476		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169476		threats	eng	The Lufira was dammed at Mwadingusha in 1947 for the purpose of power generation, and fishing occurs in parts of the river, at least on a subsistence level.  However, the extent to which <em>C. microps</em> is affected by these activities is unknown, and it occurs within protected areas.
169477		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures or actions known.
169477		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannocharax gracilis</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central Congo River basin. It is expected to be more widespread in the Central Congo basin than currently known.
169477		habitat	eng	<em>N. gracillis</em> is a pelagic species.
169477		population	eng	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.
169477		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
169495		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species. More research is needed regarding the impacts of threats (particularly dams).
169495		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong basin in China (Yunnan Province), Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia, and Viet Nam, and the Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins in Thailand.
169495		habitat	eng	Usually found in clear, flowing waters over a variety of substrates.  Occurs in medium to large-sized rivers and moves out onto the floodplain during high water. Migrates up the Mekong River from the Tonle Sap to southern Lao PDR between November and February (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
169495		population	eng	This is an abundant species in the Mekong basin and is the sixth most abundant species in the fence filter trap fishery at the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR, making up over 4% of the catch in the 1990s (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
169495		threats	eng	There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are a threat in both the Chao Phraya; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen. Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle. In the Mekong basin there are a number of planned mainstream and tributary dams which are a threat to this migratory species. Overfishing is a further potential problem, and populations in the Chao Phraya are impacted by heavy pollution.
169496		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169496		distribution	eng	This species distribution ranges from India to Tahiti and north to China.
169496		habitat	eng	<em>P. elongatus</em> is a demersal and amphidromous species which is found in mudflats of estuaries and the freshwater tidal zone of rivers.  <em>P. elongatus</em> is a amphibious air-breather.
169496		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169496		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169497		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169497		distribution	eng	<em>S. cingulata</em> is found in the Mekong basin in northern Laos and Thailand.
169497		habitat	eng	<em>S. cingulata</em> is a demersal species, found in muddy streams with fairly swift to very swift flowing water.
169497		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169497		threats	eng	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.
169498		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169498		distribution	eng	<em>R. chiengmaiensis</em> is known from the Chao Phraya basin in northern Thailand.
169498		habitat	eng	<em>R. chiengmaiensis</em> is a demersal species.
169498		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169498		threats	eng	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'<br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>R. chiengmaiensis</em> in the Chao Phraya and basin; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.
169499		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169499		distribution	eng	<em>S. cebuensis</em> is found in the Philippines.
169499		habitat	eng	<em>S. cebuensis</em> is a demersal species which seems to prefer smaller drainages in clear hill streams.
169499		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169499		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169500		conservation	eng	The lower part of the Kinabatangan River is protected as the Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary.
169500		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kinabatangan River, Sabah, (Siebert 1991).  The Kiinabatangan River basin has a catchment area of 14,065 km².
169500		habitat	eng	<em>A. octoactinotos</em> is a demersal species.
169500		population	eng	The population details are presently unknown.
169500		threats	eng	The Kinabatangan River basin faces a number of threats, including clearing for agriculture, logging and oil palm plantations.  Water quality has been declining since the 1960s, when commercial logging started in the upper catchment, and worsened in the 1980s when the oil palm plantations and mills began operations. The main pollution sources in the catchment are effluent from palm oil mills, pesticides, and fertilizers; sediment from plantations; sediment from logging activities; and sewage and refuse from villages along the river (Indran 2006).
169501		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169501		distribution	eng	The species is found in Lao PDR, throughout the Nam Ma River, Houaphan Province (Kottelat 2000, 2001), and in Viet Nam (the Nam Ma basin, Lam River and the Rao Nay which drain to the coast (at Vinh and at Dong Noi) Freyhof and Serov 2001).
169501		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
169501		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169501		threats	eng	No specific threat known, but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The lower part of the Ma River is impacted by agriculture, urban development and pollution.
169502		conservation	eng	Northern New Guinea is still relatively undisturbed, with 19% of the region covered by protected areas.
169502		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Papua New Guinea.
169502		habitat	eng	<em>G. multisquamata</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits swampy lagoons, lakes and small side channels of large rivers.  It is the only known floodplain dwelling rainbowfish.  It is usually found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs and branches, or among reeds and other shoreline vegetation.
169502		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169502		threats	eng	At present, the region which <em>G. mulitisquamata</em> inhabits is largely undisturbed.  However, future threats to biodiversity in northern Papua New Guinea include regional development plans such as construction of large scale industrial areas, forest concession, coal mines, and the proposed Mamberamo Dam.  The construction of the Trans-Irian Highway, to connect Jayapura and Wamena, will speed up the development of this area by giving improved access (Birdlife International 2003).
169503		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169503		distribution	eng	<em>S. beauforti</em> is found in China, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.  It is distributed throughout the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, and the northern Malay Peninsula.
169503		habitat	eng	<em>S. beauforti</em> is a demersal species found in small and medium-sized rivers, usually associated with clear water, swift current and stony to rocky substrate.&#160; In the lower Mekong <em>S. beauforti</em> enters the flooded forest during the high-water periods and returns to the rivers during November and December.
169503		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.
169503		threats	eng	A major threat to <em>S. beauforti</em> is removal from the wild for the aquarium trade, and to a lesser extent for human consumption.  <br/><br/>The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <em>S. beauforti</em> is known to be intolerant of nitrates, rapidly disappearing from areas where fertilizers are applied to crops (Froese and Pauly 2006).  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>S. beauforti</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to <em>S. beauforti</em> in the Mekong basin or the freshwater system of the Malay Peninsular, however as these areas are adjacent to the known river basins it is assumed to be similar in land use and environmental threats to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.  This may not be to the extent of the threats in the Chao Phraya and Mekong, although it is known that there is at least one large dam, the Srinakarin Dam, on the Mekong River.
169504		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169504		distribution	eng	The species is found in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia; this species has been reported in the Chao Phraya, Mekong, Maeklong basins and southeast Thailand river systems (including upper peninsular Thailand). Introduced to Singapore, but continued presence is not certain.
169504		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow standing water of paddy fields and ditches (Rainboth 1996).  It seems to prefer vegetated areas with floating aquatic vegetation and rooted aquatic macrophytes, as well as flooded terrestrial grasses.
169504		population	eng	The population is thought to be declining in parts of its range due to habitat loss, particularly the Chao Phraya in Thailand; C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm. 2011), however it is still very common in some places (e.g. wetlands around Phnom Penh; W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).
169504		threats	eng	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; UNESCO (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  No detailed information is known about potential threats to the species in the Maeklong basin or the freshwater system of southeast Thailand, however as these areas are adjacent to the known river basins it is assumed to be similar in land use and environmental threats to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.<br/><br/>Wetland loss is a likely threat in some parts of the range, through agricultural reclamation and conversion in urban areas.
169505		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
169505		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong basin, including major tributaries (e.g., the Xe Kong drainage; Kottelat 2011) in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand (Lamberts and Sarath 1997, Kottelat 2001). Vidthayanon (2008) does not record the species' presence in the Mekong delta, although presence there can be expected, and Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000) record the species from the Dong Nai in southern Viet Nam. Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) record the species from Kampot, on the south coast of Cambodia.
169505		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the mainstream of rivers.
169505		population	eng	Population trend is not known although it is a common species.
169505		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been reported. A major future threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation  from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more  of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects  include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and  changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International  Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of  pollution in the lower Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used  for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing  further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle. The scale of impacts from these threats is not known.
169506		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169506		distribution	eng	This species is known from Malaysia and Indonesia.
169506		habitat	eng	<em>R. chrysotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169506		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169506		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169507		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169507		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lake Mainit (approximately 142.5 km²), in the northeastern part of Mindanao, in the Philippines.
169507		habitat	eng	<em>N. thessa</em> is a benthopelagic species, in which fertilization is internal and eggs are attached to the substrate via adhesive filaments.  Pelvic fins in males are modified to form part of a complex thoracic clasping organ.
169507		population	eng	Population details are lacking; all that is presently known is that the species endues a limited range.
169507		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to Lake Mainit.  Erosion from the mountainside where timber and mining companies operate has caused silt deposition in the lake.  Mining waste, domestic sewage, fertilizers and pesticides are serious pollutants of the lakewater (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1991).
169508		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169508		distribution	eng	<em>O. exodon</em> is found in the Mekong basin, in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand.
169508		habitat	eng	<em>O. exodon</em> is a pelagic and potamodromous species which occurs in pools of large rivers and in flooded forests during the rainy season.  This species feeds mainly on plant matter including fruits, leaves, and flowers, with some insects and crustaceans and is known to reproduce in non-flowing waters near the river shore during lowest water levels. <br/><br/><em>O. exodon</em> undertakes lateral migrations from the Mekong mainstream into floodplain areas during the flood season and returns to the Mekong River or other permanent water bodies during the dry season; these movements are triggered when water levels change.
169508		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169508		threats	eng	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).  Changes in river hydrology may have more of an effect on <em>O. exodon</em> than some other species as it is potamodromous, with migration into flood plain areas triggered by changes in the water level.  <br/><br/>Furthermore, there are reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing additional disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.  This species is also harvested throughout it's range.
169509		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169509		distribution	eng	<em>O. serokan</em> is known only from a swamp near the mouth of Sungai Lembang, in Sumatra, Indonesia.
169509		habitat	eng	<em>O. serokan</em> is a pelagic species.   It was found in a swamp, in very dark water, 0.3 - 1.0 m deep with many fallen leaves and branches, over muddy substrate.
169509		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169509		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169510		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169510		distribution	eng	<em>G. gracilis</em> is found in northern Viet Nam.
169510		habitat	eng	<em>G. gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169510		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169510		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to freshwater ecosystems in northern Viet Nam including industrial and domestic pollution, dredging, damming, destructive fishing practices, and the clearance of fringing habitats.  For example, the delta of the Red River in north Viet Nam was once highly productive, but is 'now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas' (World Bank 2005).<br/><br/>However, there are areas in northern Viet Nam that are more remote and therefore have not been affected by the above factors.  Therefore, as the precise range of <em>G. gracilis</em> is not known it is not possible to assess the affect of the threats on this species.
169511		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169511		distribution	eng	This species is found in Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia (in the Endau and Sedili drainages) and Indonesia (in Pulau Bintan).
169511		habitat	eng	A nocturnal, demersal species that occurs in clumps of vegetation in streams with flowing waters.
169511		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169511		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169512		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level. Further survey work and research is required for this species.
169512		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Nam San, a tributary of the Nam Ngum in the Mekong, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, 2001). The Nam San stream now enters into the Nam Ngum 1 dam reservoir (completed in 1971). Presence within other tributaries within the Nam Ngum drainage is not known.<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at less than 898 km<sup>2</sup> and the Area of Occupancy at 98 km<sup>2</sup>, both based on the extent of the Nam San above the reservoir.
169512		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
169512		population	eng	The current population trend of the species is not known, however it is inferred to be declining as a result of mining activities observed within the watershed in 2012 (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012).
169512		threats	eng	The Nam Ngum 1 dam&#160; was completed in 1971 and the species is only known from above above the reservoir of this dam. Whilst further dams and flow control developments are proposed within the Nam Ngum basin (the "Nam Ngum hydropower cascade"), it is not thought that these will directly impact the Nam San. The Nam Ngum 2, north of the Nam Ngum 1 dam, is now operational (2012), and there are at least six further proposed  projects at various stages: Nam Ngum 3, Nam Ngum 5, Nam Lik 1 and 2 and Nam Bak 1 and 2 (International Rivers 2011, Vattenfall 2011). The scale and nature of the impacts arising from these subsequent dams is not clear and further information on the distribution of the species is required before the nature of the threat from dams can be determined.<br/><br/>The surrounding habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in  the area. Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and  agricultural pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Additional surveys in the area in 2012  found extensive small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that  impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and a there is a  large-scale Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is  possible that iron ore extraction may occur.
169513		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169513		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cambodia, Lao, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia.
169513		habitat	eng	<em>R. tornieri</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in streams, canals and ditches in lowland floodplains.  It can often be found at the water surface.
169513		population	eng	<em>R. tornieri</em> is reported to be common in the Pahang River Basin, Malaysia (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
169513		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present, although it is collected for the pet/aquarium trade and for human consumption it is not thought to be causing a decline at the present rate.
169514		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level. Further research to determine the species' current distribution and population status is required.
169514		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Inlé basin in Myanmar. It was previously thought to be restricted to the lake, but has now been reported from surrounding streams in the lake catchment (S. Kullander pers. comm. 2011). The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>, in fewer than five locations (the lake itself and the surrounding streams).
169514		habitat	eng	<em></em>A demersal species, found in a freshwater lake and tributaries.
169514		population	eng	Population details are lacking; all that is presently known is that the species has a limited range.
169514		threats	eng	Pollution from a range of sources impacts the lake; sedimentation and  agricultural pollution from the surrounding drainage, as well as direct  pollution inputs from the growing human settlements around the lake.<br/><br/>Akaishi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) analysed water quality in the lake and found it to be eutrophic. Sidle<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2007) found the lake to be impacted by a range of pollutants, and to have reduced in surface area as a result of siltation and abstraction.
169515		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169515		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Indonesia; in Sumatra, Java, Belitung and Bangka.
169515		habitat	eng	<em>B. picta</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits quiet areas in flowing water.  It can be found in mountain streams up to 1,500m above sea level.
169515		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169515		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169516		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169516		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kapuas River drainage, West Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia.
169516		habitat	eng	<em>A. chamaeleon</em> is a demersal species.
169516		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169516		threats	eng	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  It is likely that other rivers in the Kapuas basin are also affected.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2006).
169517		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169517		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Borneo.
169517		habitat	eng	<em>L. hosii</em> is a demersal species.
169517		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169517		threats	eng	There are a number of threats facing habitats in Borneo, including deforestation and conversion of land to large plantations, however, the extent to which <em>L. hosii</em> is affected by such threats is not known.
169518		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169518		distribution	eng	<em>Y. brevis</em> is known only from Inle Lake (approximately 120 km²) and the nearby He-Ho plain in the Southern Shan States, Myanmar.  The outlet of Inle Lake disappears into the ground at some distance from the lake; it is thought that it's waters finally reach a tributary of the Salween River (Kottelat and Chu 1988).
169518		habitat	eng	<em>Y. brevis</em> is a demersal species found in still and slow running waters; it occurs in a shallow lake, with dense bottom and floating vegetation.
169518		population	eng	The population details are presently unknown.
169518		threats	eng	Akaishi<em> et al</em> (2006) analysed water quality in Inle Lake and found it to be eutrophic.  Concentrations of PO<sub>4</sub>-P, NO²-N, NO³-N and coliform bacteria were relatively high, which could be a result of domestic and agriculture uses; both tourism and agriculture are increasing in the area.
169519		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169519		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra and unconfirmed records from Kalimantan). The northernmost record in Thailand is from Phunphin in  Surathani Province. The extent of its distribution in Indonesia is less certain.
169519		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species that inhabits slow-flowing forest streams and freshwater swamps.  The water where spawning occurs has a maximum depth of 15 cm and thick vegetation.
169519		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the population size and trend are unknown.
169519		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present. It is impacted by forest loss (e.g. in Singapore) and likely by sedimentation, but further research is required.
169520		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of habitat trends is recommended.
169520		distribution	eng	The species is known from the streams in the foothills bordering the north of the central plain of Thailand: Mae Nam Yom in Phrae and Lampang Provinces, Mae Nam Nan in Phitsanulok Province (Kottelat 1990). Its range is not known exactly.
169520		habitat	eng	The species is found over pebbles in small shallow streams, even in open areas.
169520		population	eng	No information available.
169520		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic alteration of stream morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
169521		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169521		distribution	eng	<em>O. pointoni</em> is found in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand.
169521		habitat	eng	<em>O. pointoni</em> is a pelagic species which occurs at the surface in medium-sized rivers.
169521		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169521		threats	eng	The waters of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>O. pointoni</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  <br/><br/>Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.
169522		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169522		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Aiborei River, part of the Siriwo drainage, in northern West Papau.  The Aiborei River could not be located, but the Siriwo River basin covers 4,765 km².
169522		habitat	eng	<em>C. alleni</em> is a benthopelagic species that is found in rivers or streams where the substrate consists of gravel and rocks, and the water is cold, clear and fast-flowing.
169522		population	eng	The population details are presently unknown.
169522		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species at present.  Approximately 90% of the natural habitat in this region is still intact (WWF 2001).
169523		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169523		distribution	eng	This species is found in tributaries of the Aikwa (Iwaka) and Kopi Rivers in the Timika-Tembagapura region of Irian Jaya, Indonesia.  These river basins cover an area of 14,077 km².
169523		habitat	eng	<em>P. pellucidus</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in shallow streams usually slow-flowing through dense rainforest.  It is always found in clear water which may be deeply stained with tannin, and substrates vary from sand to gravel, pebble and rocks.  Species within the family Pseudomugilidae normally congregate in schools.
169523		population	eng	The population details are presently unknown.
169523		threats	eng	The Grasberg copper and gold mine, situated in the Sudirman Mountains, has polluted the Aikwa River and resulted in the death of fish.  A large, dam−like structure was built to contain the enormous amount of mine tailings, which are then dumped into the headwaters of the Aikwa River.  Tailings have also sheeted sideways across the floodplain, contaminating the Tipoeka, Minajerwi and Kopi rivers and a large area of land in between (Bryce 1995, Nilsson 2005)
169524		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169524		distribution	eng	<em>E. munense</em> is distributed throughout Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia; this species is known from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Maeklong basins.
169524		habitat	eng	<em>E. munense</em> is a benthopelagic species found among boulders and rocks.  During the flood season, it moves into inundated forests and returns to the river as water levels recede.
169524		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169524		threats	eng	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>E. munense</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to <em>E. munense</em> in the Maeklong basin, therefore it is assumed to be similar to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.
169525		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169525		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lake Towuti system in central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
169525		habitat	eng	<em>N. towoetii</em> is a pelagic species.
169525		population	eng	Population details are lacking; all that is presently known is that the species endues a limited range.
169525		threats	eng	Within the Lake Towuti basin also lies Lake Matano.  The human population is expanding rapidly in the lake basin.  Lake Matano, which lies within the Lake Towuti basin, is polluted by nearby nickel mines, and there is also some disturbance from a hydro-electric power station. Many exotic fish species have been introduced in the lakes, and these introductions continue.  The main threats to the endemic fishes are pollution of the lakes with organic effluents from the rapidly expanding human population, and the introduction of exotic fish species.  In addition, there are plans to carry out logging in the forests around Danau Towuti, which may increase sediment in the lake (Silvius and Berczy 2006).
169526		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169526		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Sumatra, and North Selangor, in east Malaysia.  <br/><br/><em>B. bellica</em> has also been introduced into the Dominican Republic.  During hurricane 'David', <em>B. bellica</em> escaped, presumably from a tropical fish farm or a private aquarist, into the polluted waters of the Rio Ozama where they are now abundant.
169526		habitat	eng	<em>B. bellica</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been found in dark-coloured acid ditch waters in disturbed forests, but the species is more common, and the specimens obtained are generally large in size, in the North Selangor blackwaters, (the peat swamp water habitat in Peninsular Malaysia), suggesting that it is the preferred habitat (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).
169526		population	eng	The species has a large global distribution, although it is not known if the population of <em>B. bellica</em> is increasing or decreasing.
169526		threats	eng	Peat swamp forests are a threatened habitat; many have been converted to paddy, pineapple or oil palm plantations, or developed for some other use (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).
169527		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169527		distribution	eng	<em>P. hypselopterus</em> is found in Kalimantan, Indonesia, and Ponape [also spelled Pohnpei], in the Federated States of Micronesia.
169527		habitat	eng	<em>P. hypselopterus</em> is a demersal species, found in fresh and brackish waters.
169527		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169527		threats	eng	Habitats in Borneo and Pohnpei are threatened by degradation.  Over the last 20 years, Pohnpei's native forests have been reduced by more than two-thirds, primarily for the cultivation of the plant <em>Piper methysticum</em>.  This has resulted in increased soil erosion, which runs into streams, mangroves and lagoons (The Nature Conservancy 2007).  A major threat to habitats in Borneo is the conversion of forests into oil palm plantations, which will result in similar problems to those in Pohnpei.
169528		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169528		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.
169528		habitat	eng	<em>A. hendricksoni</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits fast-flowing, freshwater streams.
169528		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169528		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169529		conservation	eng	The species has been assessed as 'Endangered' in Thailand due to habitat loss (Vidthayanon 2005). Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011) considered the species 'Vulnerable at the global scale due to population declines inferred from habitat loss.
169529		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Thailand (including Nakhon Phanom and Nong Khai provinces) (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, Roberts 1998, Kottelat 2001). It is also possibly present in Cambodia as it has been collected near the Cambodia border (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011); Vidthayanon (2005) shows presence in Cambodia in the Mekong above Phnom Penh, without details.
169529		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky rapids of the Mekong mainstream and its larger tributaries. The species is elusive and may be under-reported.<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at start of hydrological year (Oct - Nov) (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p>
169529		population	eng	The population trend is unknown.
169529		threats	eng	Planned dams in the mainstream of the Mekong, as well as existing and proposed dams on many of its tributaries within the species range, are potential threats to this species. This will cause habitat degradation, disruption of the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen. Pollution from a range of sources may also impact the species in parts of its range.
169530		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169530		distribution	eng	<em>H. hongus</em> is found in northern Viet Nam.
169530		habitat	eng	<em>H. hongus</em> is a demersal species.
169530		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169530		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169531		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level. Further research into the species distribution and threats is required.
169531		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality 'Malwedaung' in Tenasserim (now the Tanintharyi region), southern Myanmar. Mahlwe Taung is a mountain range (Kottelat 1990).
169531		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species, found in hillstream/mountain streams, in well oxygenated water.
169531		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169531		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present. The species habitat would be impacted by pollution and changes to flow regimes arising from dam development.
169532		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169532		distribution	eng	This species is found in Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Borneo and Sumatra.
169532		habitat	eng	<em>R. elegans</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits forest streams.
169532		population	eng	This species is reported to be common in the Pahang River Basin, Malaysia (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
169532		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169533		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Borneo.
169533		habitat	eng	<em>G. lepidogaster</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits riffles.
169533		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169533		threats	eng	There are numerous threats to habitats in northern Borneo; including deforestation and conversion of land for large agricultural projects, which is likely to result in increased soil erosion and sediment in rivers and streams.
169534		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169534		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mendolong area, Sipitang District, on the west coast of Sabah, (northern Borneo).
169534		habitat	eng	<em>S. sabanus</em> is a demersal species, like all loaches, and is capable of burying itself in mud, sand or gravel when disturbed.
169534		population	eng	The population details are presently unknown.
169534		threats	eng	The development of the paper and pulp mill industry within the Sipitang area pose a threat to the ecosystem.  The plantations of trees grown to supply the pulp mill and associated logging practices will probably increase the suspended sediment in the Mengalong River, which may possibly also flood more frequently in the future. The possibilities of pollution should be investigated and remedies sought (Phillipps 2006).
169535		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169535		distribution	eng	<em>G. interspinalum</em> is found in China, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam; this species is known from the Red and Nam Ma river basins.
169535		habitat	eng	<em>G. interspinalum</em> is a demersal species which inhabits fast-flowing water, and rapids.
169535		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.
169535		threats	eng	There is a high level of water pollution in the Red River in both China and Viet Nam; mining is a major industry in the headwaters of the Red River, and agriculture, urbanisation and industry contribute to pollution throughout the length of the river.  A decline in fish biodiversity has been seen in the Red River delta (WEPA, no year).&#160; No details are known about threats in the Nam Ma river.
169536		conservation	eng	The cave is situated within the Thung Salaeng Luang National Park (IUCN category II), and the species is listed under the Thai Wildlife Protection Act 1992. The cave was first formally explored in 2003 (Ellis 2010).
169536		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Tham Prawangdaeng cave in Phitsanulok Province, northern Thailand, from where the species was first described in 2003 (Vidthayanon and Kottelat 2003). The length of the cave stream (based on the length of the cave itself) is estimated at between 3.7 km (Ellis 2010) and 13 km. It is considered very likely that the range of the species does not extend beyond the Tham Prawangdaeng cave or karst formation.
169536		habitat	eng	The species is a blind, cave dwelling fish. Larger fish occur in the deeper zone, far from the entrance of the cave (Vidthayanon and Kottelat 2003).
169536		population	eng	Information on the species' population trend are unknown.
169536		threats	eng	A potential risk to this species is collection for the aquarium trade, due to interest in the unusual habitat needs of this recently described blind, cave-dwelling loach. The species is also vulnerable to water pollution from domestic pollution and agricultural activities, and disturbance by visitors.
169537		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169537		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Borneo.
169537		habitat	eng	<em>O. sarawakensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169537		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169537		threats	eng	Though there are a number of threats to habitats in northern Borneo, including deforestation and conversion of land to large plantations, it is not known the extent to which <em>O. sarawakensis</em> is impacted by such threats.
169538		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169538		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Asia, from Myanmar, through Thailand, to Indonesia and Malaysia.
169538		habitat	eng	<em>P. binotatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs from sea level to at least 2,000 m above sea level and is commonly found below waterfalls in isolated mountain streams and on small islands inhabited by few other freshwater fishes.  It also inhabits medium to large rivers, stagnant water bodies (including sluggish flowing canals) and brooks of the middle Mekong.  It is found in middle to bottom depths in fairly shallow waters.
169538		population	eng	<em>P. binotatus</em> is reported to be common in the Pahang River Basin, Malaysia (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996), and in Singapore (Lim and Ng 2006).
169538		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169539		conservation	eng	Research into the current population trends, distribution and impacts of known threats is needed. The part of the EOO upstream of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir is a protected area (Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA).
169539		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Nam Theun, in central Lao PDR where it is found throughout the catchment (Nam Theun 2 Power Company 2005). It is also present in the Nam Gnouang (which joins the Nam Theun) (Kottelat 1998, 2001), and is now probably largely restricted to the parts of drainages above the dams. An earlier single record from the Xe Banghiang drainage seems erroneous (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence (based on the area of the two drainages where the species is recorded) is 7,994 km<sup>2</sup>, however this includes significant areas of unsuitable habitat (e.g., reservoirs).
169539		habitat	eng	This species prefer stretches with swift current and stony or rocky substrate, but is occasionally found over gravel or sandy substrate.
169539		population	eng	It was one of the most abundant species of the genus in the catchment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), however populations will have been impacted by dams. Whilst populations are assumed to have declined until completion of the Nam Theun 2 dam, and are probably present only at low densities downstream of the dams and in the reservoirs, they are expected to be stable in areas upstream in the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang (although impacted by pollution in the Nam Phao (a Nam Theun tributary).
169539		threats	eng	Several dams exist on the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang rivers: the Theun-Hinboun (commissioned in 1998), Theun-Hinboun Expansion (in construction) and the Nam Theun 2 (commissioned in May 2010). The impacts of the completed and proposed dams are not fully understood, however all have inundated long stretches of the river and have impacted the flow regime downstream. This species is not able to survive in standing water of reservoirs, although it may be present at low densities. Gold mining also takes place within the species range, and impacted by pollution from a range of sources in the Nam Phao (a Nam Theun tributary).
169540		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169540		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sumatra, Borneo and Nias.
169540		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
169540		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169540		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169541		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169541		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sumatra, including Bangka, and the North Selangor peat swamp forest in Peninsular Malaysia.
169541		habitat	eng	This is a stenotopic acid blackwater species.  The neotype from Sumatra was collected in a clear stream adjacent to a disturbed peat swamp (Tan and Ng 1996).
169541		population	eng	This species has been previously regarded as rare or very rare, but in a recent survey it was collected in large numbers in the North Selangor peat swamp forest.  It's apparent rarity is likely to be due to imperfect sampling of their preferred habitat, i.e. blackwaters (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).
169541		threats	eng	<em>O. leiacanthus</em> inhabits a fairly threatened type of habitat.  Borneo and Sumatra have lost 46% of their original peat swamp forest cover (UNEP 1997).  Large areas of peat swamp in Sumatra have been drained, mainly for transmigration settlements and large-scale development projects.  The drainage of one area dries neighbouring areas, and therefore fires are common (WWF 2001).  The North Selangor peat swamp forest was also previously more extensive than it is now, as development has sharply reduced the total area covered.  Large areas have been converted to paddy, pineapple or oil palm plantations, or developed for some other use.  (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).
169542		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169542		distribution	eng	This species is only found only in Luzon, Philippines.
169542		habitat	eng	<em>G. stellatus</em> is a demersal species.
169542		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169542		threats	eng	Population growth in the Philippines is resulting in increasing threats to Luzon, including habitat conversion.  Mining also poses a threats to some areas of the island (WWF 2001).
169543		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169543		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Kapuas River basin, in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.
169543		habitat	eng	<em>P. myersi</em> is a demersal species.
169543		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169543		threats	eng	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  It is likely that other rivers in the Kapuas basin are also affected.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2006).
169544		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169544		distribution	eng	<em>M. lepturus</em> is found in the Mekong basin in China, Lao PDR, and Thailand.
169544		habitat	eng	<em>M. lepturus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169544		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169544		threats	eng	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.
169545		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169545		distribution	eng	This species distribution ranges from Thailand to Indonesia.
169545		habitat	eng	<em>K. micronema</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in rivers, streams, and lakes as well as in impoundments.
169545		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169545		threats	eng	This species is an important component of the gill net fishery, and there is some evidence it may be threatened by over-fishing.  In the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, Borneo, a study revealed that larger specimens of this species are fairly rare.  The ratio of the typical size in the catch to the expected maximum size was less than 0.3522, and so the species was considered “possibly over-fished", (Dudley 2000).
169546		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169546		distribution	eng	The species is found in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Known from the Mekong river basins, the Malay Peninsula, and coastal streams of southeast Thailand and Cambodia. In Lao PDR it is recorded from Savannakhet and from Nam Ngum. The type locality is from Cambodia (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<span style=""><br/></span>
169546		habitat	eng	Found in ditches, canals and ponds often in areas with extensive growth of submerged aquatic plants. This species is encountered mainly in stagnant water bodies including sluggish flowing canals as well as in medium to large rivers, marshes. Moves seasonally to flooded habitats ('black' movement strategy; Rainboth 1996).<br/><span style=""></span>
169546		population	eng	<span style=""><span style="">This species is locally common throughout suitable habitats within its range.</span>
169546		threats	eng	There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are a threat to the species; the effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen.  More dams are currently under construction and are planned for the future. Water from the Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.  There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to the species in the freshwater system of southeast Thailand and Cambodia, or the Malay Peninsula, however it is assumed the these areas have similar land use and hence environmental threats to that of the Mekong basins, although possibly not to such an extent.<br/><span style=""></span>
169547		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169547		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Indochina, from Thailand to Borneo and Java.
169547		habitat	eng	<em>P. oxygastroides</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits rivers and lowland wetlands including peat canals.  It is found in medium to large-sized rivers and is also common in seasonally flooded forest.  It leaves the flooded forest in November as the water levels begin to decline substantially.  It is more common in habitats disturbed by farming activities.
169547		population	eng	<em>P. oxygastroides</em> is reported to be uncommon in the Pahang River Basin (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
169547		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169548		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169548		distribution	eng	<em>M. bocourti</em> is found in the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam.
169548		habitat	eng	<em>M. bocourti</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species which occurs in medium to large-sized rivers.
169548		population	eng	<em>M. bocourti</em> is rare throughout its range (Froese and Pauly 2006)
169548		threats	eng	The waters of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, are heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of reduced water quality in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects which are an additional threat to <em>M. bocourti</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved o².  Dams also act as a physical barrier, which is especially pertinent to <em>M. bocourti</em>, a potamodromous species.  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  <br/><br/>Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.
169549		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169549		distribution	eng	<em>S. tubulinaris</em> is endemic to the Nam Theun of the Mekong basin in Laos.
169549		habitat	eng	<em>S. tubulinaris</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in stretches of water with relatively slow current and gravel or sandy substrate.
169549		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169549		threats	eng	The Nam Theun 2 Hydropower Project is a major threat to any species inhabiting the Nam Theun basin; this dam, construction of which started in 2005 and is planned to be completed in 2009, will divert a large proportion of water into the Xe Bang Fai River.  <br/><br/>Dams cause massive ecosystem disturbance and habitat fragmentation both during and after construction; they alter water flow, temperature, and nutrient content of waterways.
169550		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169550		distribution	eng	<em>P. macronema</em> is found in Borneo, Java and Indochina.
169550		habitat	eng	<em>P. macronema</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that inhabits rivers, lakes and reservoirs.   It moves into tributary streams and flooded forests along with many species of cyprinids and other species of visually oriented catfishes when water transparency decreases.   It commonly forms large schools.<br/><br/>Migratory catfish like <em>P. macronema</em> rely on deep-water pools for critical protection during migrations up the mainstream Mekong River.  These catfishes move upstream at night, while stopping to concentrate in deep-water pools during the day (Baird 2006).
169550		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169550		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169551		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169551		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Thailand to Indonesia and is known from the Mekong basin.  In the Mekong basin, it is found in freshwater well upstream in the Tonlé Sap, Cambodia.
169551		habitat	eng	<em>M. wolffii</em> is a demersal species that occurs most commonly in the tidal zone and brackish water reaches of large rivers, but also occurs in streams and lakes.
169551		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169551		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169552		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169552		distribution	eng	<em>P. hotaya</em> is found in northern Viet Nam.
169552		habitat	eng	<em>P. hotaya</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169552		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169552		threats	eng	The exact distribution of <em>P. hotaya</em> is not known, however there are a number of threats to freshwater ecosystems in the north of Viet Nam including industrial and domestic pollution, dredging, damming, destructive fishing practices, and the clearance of fringing habitats.  For example, the delta of the Red River was once highly productive, but is 'now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas' (World Bank 2005).
169553		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169553		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kapuas River, in Kalimantan, Indonesia.
169553		habitat	eng	<em>S. vaillanti</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169553		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169553		threats	eng	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).<br/><br/>In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2001).
169554		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169554		distribution	eng	This species is found in Thailand, West Borneo, Northeast Malaysia and the Philippines.
169554		habitat	eng	<em>N. bicornis</em> is a benthopelagic, schooling species found in quiet waters around aquatic plants in mangroves, in brackish waters.  Fertilization is internal and eggs are attached to the substrate via adhesive filaments.
169554		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169554		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169555		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169555		distribution	eng	This species is found in in the Mahakam River basin, in East Kalimantan, Borneo.
169555		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits black water streams under forest cover with quite a swift current.
169555		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169555		threats	eng	Threats to the Mahakam River basin includes habitat loss due to land conversion, unpredictable changes in the hydrology because of dredging activities, dam building, river control, mining, logging and plantation activities.  Pollution in the basin is increasing, in the form of pesticides (more than 100,000 ha of oil palm plantations are being set up) and mercury (caused by gold mining activities).  In addition, illegal logging of riparian forest is causing increased sedimentation.  Though <em>C. lubricus</em> is not known to be targeted by fisheries, it is likely to be affected by over-fishing and unsustainable fishing techniques such as electro-fishing and intentional fish poisoning with pesticides (Global Nature Fund 2002).
169556		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169556		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Borneo.
169556		habitat	eng	<em>P. borneensis</em> is a demersal species.
169556		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169556		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to habitats in northern Borneo, including deforestation and conversion of natural habitat to agricultural land, which may result in increased soil erosion and sediment in streams and rivers.
169557		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169557		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Mekong basin (Cambodia, Lao and Thailand) through Malaysia to Indonesia.
169557		habitat	eng	<em>A. nefastus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in flowing waters of rivers and streams.  It may also be found in flooded forests and plains during the river's high water levels.  This is an aggressive species that feeds mainly on fish fins rays and scales.
169557		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169557		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169558		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169558		distribution	eng	<em>C. burmanica</em> is endemic to Myanmar.
169558		habitat	eng	<em>C. burmanica</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169558		population	eng	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.
169558		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169559		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169559		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from Terengganu, Selangor, Perak and Pahang (Peninsular Malaysia); Pulau Bintan (Riau Archipelago) and Kalimantan Barat and Kalimantan Tengah (Borneo).
169559		habitat	eng	<em>O. fumidus</em> is a demersal species that is restricted to peat swamps.  It has been collected from shallow blackwaters in a peat swamp heavily disturbed by logging activities.
169559		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169559		threats	eng	<em>O. fumidus</em> inhabits a fairly threatened type of habitat.  Borneo and Sumatra have lost 46% of their original peat swamp forest cover (UNEP 1997).  Large areas of peat swamp in Sumatra have been drained, mainly for transmigration settlements and large-scale development projects.  The drainage of one area dries neighbouring areas, and therefore fires are common (WWF 2001).  The North Selangor peat swamp forest was also previously more extensive than it is now, as development has sharply reduced the total area covered.  Large areas have been converted to paddy, pineapple or oil palm plantations, or developed for some other use.  (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).
169560		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169560		distribution	eng	<em>R. ennealepis</em> is found in western Borneo, in tributaries of the Sungai Pinoh, within the Kapuas River basin (Roberts 1989).  The Sungai Pinoh River basin covers an area of 10,189 km².
169560		habitat	eng	<em>R. ennealepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169560		population	eng	The population details are presently unknown.
169560		threats	eng	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  It is likely that other rivers in the Kapuas basin are also affected.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2006).
169561		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169561		distribution	eng	<em>O. minutillus</em> is found in the Yunnan region of China, Rangoon in Myanmar, throughout Thailand (Magtoon<em> et al</em>. 1992), and has also been reported from Lao, Cambodia and Vietnam (Froese 1996).
169561		habitat	eng	<em>O. minutillus</em> is a benthopelagic fish which inhabits ponds, ditches and paddy fields (Magtoon <em>et al</em>. 1992) and clear water swamps (Kottelat 2001).
169561		population	eng	<em>O. minutillus</em> is reported as common at least throughout Thailand (Magtoon 1992).
169561		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169563		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169563		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected in 1914 in Bulungan, eastern Borneo.
169563		habitat	eng	<em>K. lumholtzi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169563		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169563		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169564		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in place at habitat or species level. Research is required.
169564		distribution	eng	The species is found in the lower Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap River) (Rainboth 1996, Chea and Hortle 2005), and Viet Nam, the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand (and throughout Thailand), Malaysia (Peninsular and probably Sarawak) and Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Borneo; Roberts 1989, Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993).<br/><span>
169564		habitat	eng	Inhabits high gradient streams over rocky substrates in well-oxygenated waters.
169564		population	eng	No information available.
169564		threats	eng	No specific threat known but logging, deforestation, mining and agriculture occurs in the EOO of the species, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
169565		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169565		distribution	eng	<em>A. kyphus</em> is found in Thailand and northern Viet Nam.
169565		habitat	eng	<em>A. kyphus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169565		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169565		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169566		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169566		distribution	eng	<em>E. microps</em> is endemic to Thailand.
169566		habitat	eng	<em>E. microps</em> is a demersal species which is found in fresh and brackish waters.
169566		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169566		threats	eng	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.
169567		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169567		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern Borneo.
169567		habitat	eng	<em>C. nigriloba</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169567		population	eng	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.
169567		threats	eng	There are a number of threats facing habitats in eastern Borneo, including deforestation and large agricultural projects, however, the extent to which <em>C. nigriloba</em> is affected by these threats is not known.
169568		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.
169568		distribution	eng	This species is found in the middle Kapuas basin.
169568		habitat	eng	<em>B. pinguis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169568		population	eng	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.
169568		threats	eng	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).<br/><br/>In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2001).
169587		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169587		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean, (the Karnataka Coast of India, Bay of Bengal, the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand at the mouth of the Pakcham River, Penang), and also in the Gulf of Thailand, Singapore and Viet Nam.
169587		habitat	eng	<em>N. galatheae</em> is a pelagic, filter feeding, anadromous species. It inhabits marine waters, but enters (and presumably breeds in) freshwater.
169587		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169587		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169588		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169588		distribution	eng	<em>P. opisthoptera</em> is known from the type locality, on the Nujiang (Salween River) system in Yunnan, China.
169588		habitat	eng	<em>P. opisthoptera</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169588		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169588		threats	eng	A series of dams have been proposed for the Salween River, however the impacts of these on <em>P. opisthoptera</em> are unknown..
169589		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169589		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lakes Yessey, Siltak and Bezymannoye in the basin of the Khatanga River, and in the Khantaiskoye Lake in the Yenisey drainage and is probably present in lakes of the Gydanskiy Bay basin (all on the Taimyr Peninsula) in the Russian Federation.
169589		habitat	eng	<em>S. tolmachoffi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits lakes.
169589		threats	eng	The species is the object of local fisheries and in part of its range it is heavily impacted by pollution from heavy metal mining.
169590		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169590		distribution	eng	<em>L. ocellicauda</em> is found along the coasts of the East China Sea, Yellow Sea and Po-Hai (Iwata and Jeon 1995).
169590		habitat	eng	<em>L. ocellicauda</em> is a demersal species of coastlines and estuaries, which prefers shallow water with muddy bottoms (Iwata and Jeon 1995).
169590		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169590		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169591		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169591		distribution	eng	<em>L. longirostris</em> was described from Japan, and was later reported in China from the Amur south to the Min Jiang river (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  No details about occurrence of the species in Japan are known.
169591		habitat	eng	<em>L. longirostris</em> is a demersal species.
169591		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169591		threats	eng	<em>L. longirostris</em> may be locally threatened - Chen <em>et al</em>. (no date) state that before the damming of the Yangtze at Gezhouba <em>L. longirostris</em> accounted for about 10% of the catch composition, but now 'it can’t be found at market and the catch of the adult is not plentiful'.
169592		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169592		distribution	eng	<em>A. macropterus</em> is found in the Hab (Hub) River basin in southwestern Pakistan.
169592		habitat	eng	<em>A. macropterus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169592		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169592		threats	eng	The Hub River is dammed near Karachi, but the affect of this on <em>A. macropterus</em> is unknown.
169593		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169593		distribution	eng	<em>L. fimbriata</em> is endemic to China, found in the upper and middle drainage areas of the Chang-jiang (Yangtze River).
169593		habitat	eng	<em>L. fimbriata</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169593		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169593		threats	eng	There are a number of threats to freshwater biodiversity in the Chang-jiang (Yangtze River), including pollution, however <em>L. fimbriata</em> inhabits tributaries where this is not such a great threat as in the mainstream (F. Fang, pers. comm.).
169594		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. There are plans by the local government to declare the New Amarambalam Reserve Forests to which <em>G. davissinghi</em> is endemic to, as a protected area.
169594		distribution	eng	Known only from the Karimpuzha and Paanapuzha tributary of River Chaliyar inside the New Amarambalam Reserve Forest, Kerala, India (Manimekalan and Das 1998).
169594		habitat	eng	Known to occur in torrential streams, where it is found restricted to rapids and cascades.
169594		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <em>G. davissinghi</em>.
169594		threats	eng	Destructive fishing practices including the frequent use of plant poisons and dynamites is one of the major threats to the fish fauna of the Karimpuzha and Paanapuzha tributaries (Baby <em>et al.</em> 2010).
169595		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169595		distribution	eng	<em>T. kuroiwae</em> is found throughout the Japanese Archipelago.
169595		habitat	eng	A demersal and amphidromous fish, <em>T. kuroiwae</em> inhabits the lower to middle reaches of rivers and lakes throughout Japan.
169595		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169595		threats	eng	No known threats to the population throughout Japan, however on a localised scale threats do exist.  For example the species has been reported at Lake Biwa (Matsuda 2000) where threats include environmental degradation from pollution and land reclamation, and the introduction of non-native predators (e.g. Bluegill and Bass).
169596		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169596		distribution	eng	<em>G. nicholsi</em> is endemic to the Yangtze River basin; Fu <em>et al</em>. (2003) found this species recorded only from the lower mainstream sub-basin.
169596		habitat	eng	<em>G. nocholsi</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in headwaters and tributaries.
169596		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169596		threats	eng	Threats in the Yangtze basin include drainage for land reclamation, overfishing, pollution, sedimentation and introduction of non-native species, however the species is found in the tributaries and headwaters of the Yangtze where these impacts are not as severe (F. Fang, pers. comm.).
169597		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169597		distribution	eng	<em>P. brashnikowi</em> is found in the upper and middle Amur basin, east Asia.
169597		habitat	eng	<em>P. brashnikowi</em> is a benthic species.
169597		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.
169597		threats	eng	<em>P. brashnikowi</em> is locally threatened by overfishing (mainly bycatch), and by pollution from untreated or poorly treated waste water from agriculture, industry, and households, including contamination from oil products, fertilizers, and by-products from gold mining.
169598		conservation	eng	Further research to confirm the distribution and threats to the species is required.
169598		distribution	eng	<em></em>The species is known from the Salween watershed in Thailand and in Myanmar (since the Salween makes the boundary) (Kottelat 1982, 1990).<br/><br/>Current records from outside the Salween (at Chiang Mai, Thailand, from India, and Yunnan in China) are considered erroneous.
169598		habitat	eng	The species is an omnivorous species that inhabits torrential streams.
169598		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable. A recent study considered the species to be common (Department of Agriculture 2009).
169598		threats	eng	The species is threatened by destructive fishing techniques, such as dynamite and poisoning.
169599		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169599		distribution	eng	<em>T. obscurus</em> is found in the northwest Pacific Ocean (East and South China Seas), and also in inland waters in China and the Korean Peninsula.
169599		habitat	eng	<em>T. obscurus</em> is an anadromous and demersal species.
169599		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169599		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169600		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169600		distribution	eng	<em>V. homalocephala</em> is known from the Pearl River, near the town of Lia Jiang, China.
169600		habitat	eng	<em>V. homalocephala</em> is a demersal species.
169600		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169600		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169601		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169601		distribution	eng	<em>T. turpanensis</em> is endemic to the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China.  The species has been recorded from the river in Turpan City and from Shan Shan County as well as Urumqi City in Xinjiang Autonomous Region.
169601		habitat	eng	<em>T. turpanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169601		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169601		threats	eng	No widespread threats known to the area in which the species is found.
169602		conservation	eng	Captive breeding programs which have been developed for the purpose of aquarium fish trade can also be used for stock enhancement and ranching purposes. There is also a need to monitor populations at sites which are under threat from habitat alteration and pollution.
169602		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario malabaricus </span>is known from peninsular India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) as well as Sri Lanka (Shaji and Easa 2003, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Pethiyagoda 1991, Remadevi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is known to be common in northern regions of Kerala (Shaji and Easa 2003), where it has been recorded from as many as fourteen rivers (Biju 2005).
169602		habitat	eng	<em>D. malabaricus</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in a variety of habitats from boulder-strewn mountain torrents to small pools in dry zone streams where it feeds on terrestrial insects and detritus.  It forms medium sized shoals and prefers flowing water. It spawns in shallow water, among marginal weeds and roots, usually after heavy rains (K. Rema Devi pers. obs.).
169602		population	eng	There are no estimates of the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. malabaricus</span>. Nevertheless, their populations are known to be stable in the major rivers where they are found.
169602		threats	eng	Although there are no species specific threats, the habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. malabaricus</span> in the hill streams of Western Ghats are threatened by multple stressors including habitat alteration, pollution, invasive alien species and indiscriminate fishing. However, these may not lead to population declines of the species&#160;in the near future.
169603		conservation	eng	No conservation actions directed towards this species are currently in place. The species is known from several protected areas including Periyar Tiger Reserve, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and Amarambalam Reserve Forest. Research is needed on the population trends and harvest trends for this species. There is also a need to monitor the population status of this species.
169603		distribution	eng	<em>B. bakeri</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it has been recorded from mid- and higher-elevation streams of major rivers in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Raagam and Remadevi 2005, Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Kerala, it is known from Periyar, Kabini, Chalakudy, Valapatanam, Chaliyar, Neyyar, Pampa, Vamanapuram, Kallada, Ithikkara, Karamana, Bharatapuzha, Muvattupuzha, Meenachil, Manimala, Achankovil, Pambar, Chandragiri, Karyangode, Kuppam, Bahavani (Baby <em>et al</em>. 2010, Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Thomas 2001, 2004, Biju 2005, Shaji and Easa 2003). In Tamil Nadu, this species has been recorded from the drainages inside the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2005) and Chittar, Periyar and Pampa river basins (Arunachalam 2000, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009). In Karnataka the species is recorded from Sharavathi River basin (Sreekantha 2007). Records of this species from Ujani wetland in Maharashtra (Sarwade and Khillare 2010) and Mizoram, Tripura and Barak drainage (Kar and Sen 2007) need conformation.
169603		habitat	eng	This fish is known to occur in rapid and run microhabitats (Abraham <em>et al</em>. 2010) mainly in low to moderate gradient streams with bed rock, boulders, cobbles and gravel as major substrates (Thomas 2004).
169603		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bakeri</span>. However this species is known to be common in most rivers of Kerala (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
169603		threats	eng	Many of the rivers in which <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bakeri </span>occurs are threatened by habitat degradation, exotic fish species and pollution. However, as this species is common, these threats may not lead to their population declines in the near future.
169604		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169604		distribution	eng	<em>T. kullmanni </em>is known from Afghanistan.
169604		habitat	eng	<em>T. kullmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169604		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169604		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169605		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place at present.  The distribution and numbers of this species in the Namak Lake basin should be examined by field studies to determine the population status (Coad, pers. comm.).
169605		distribution	eng	<em>C. buhsei</em> is found in the Lake Namak basin, Iran.
169605		habitat	eng	<em>C. buhsei</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169605		population	eng	There is no information available on the population numbers of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. buhsei</span> at present, although it is thought to be stable.
169605		threats	eng	The Namak Lake basin lies mostly in Markazi (= Central) Province which contains Tehran and a very large human population with great demands on limited water resources, however, <em>C. buhsei</em> is probably not under any immediate threat (Coad, pers. comm.).
169606		conservation	eng	Lake Orumiyeh lies within a National Park, IUCN Category II, and is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.
169606		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lake Orumiyeh basin, in north-western Iran, apparently in southern and western tributaries, although records of <em>A. microlepis</em> from the middle Agi Chai or Talkheh River near Tabriz are presumably of <em>A. urmianus</em> (Coad, 2005).  The Lake Orumiyeh basin drains a closed catchment of over 50,000 km².   The species most likely occurs in many rivers of the Orumiyeh basin (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.) however determining the distribution of <em>A. urmianus</em> may have been hindered by the confusion with <em>A. microlepis</em>.
169606		habitat	eng	<em>A. urmianus</em> is a benthopelagic species.  Details of habitat requirements are unknown but is has been collected in both river and lakes (Coad 2005).
169606		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series and a few other specimens in museum collections. Its status is unknown (Coad 2005).
169606		threats	eng	The past two decades have seen an intensification of water resource and agricultural development in the basin, and as a result the Orumiyeh Basin has suffered intensive and increasing water stress (Salavitabar 2005), which is a potential threat to <em>A. urmianus</em>.
169607		conservation	eng	No
169607		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single tributary of the Song Da (Black) River, Jingdong County, Yunnan Province in southern China (Huang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987, Kottelat 2001, Zhu 1995), and could be expected to occur in parts of this drainage in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
169607		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in stream with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
169607		population	eng	No information available.
169607		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169608		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169608		distribution	eng	<em>S. altidorsalis</em> is endemic to the Sistan basin of Iran, and presumably adjacent Afghanistan.
169608		habitat	eng	<em>S. altidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been reported from pools in dry river beds and still, reedy channels in Sistan.  The fish enter the flooding Lake Hamuns from the upstream parts of rivers, and return to more permanent rivers when water levels fall (Coad, pers. comm.).
169608		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169608		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169609		conservation	eng	Conservation actions for protecting <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> have been taken up by both private and government organizations in the Western Ghats. The Tata Electric Company at Lonavala, Pune; Wildlife Association of South India (WASI) and the Department of Fisheries (Karnataka) have been involved in large scale captive breeding and stock enhancement of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> in the rivers and reservoirs of Maharashtra and Karnataka. The College of Fisheries at Mangalore, Karnataka have perfected the cryopreservation techniques for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span>. There are many temple sanctuaries in Karnataka (Sringeri, Chippalgude, Sishila) and Kerala (Kulathupuzha) where <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> are protected from exploitation.
169609		distribution	eng	Known from the major rivers and reservoirs of central and peninsular India (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala) as well as Sri Lanka (Pethiyagoda 1991, Shaji and Easa 2003, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
169609		habitat	eng	<em>T. khudree</em> is a mesopelagic species, preferring cool, fast-flowing, rocky streams, but also occurs in rivers, tanks, reservoirs and cold-water lakes. It is known to move to the upper reaches of small streams to spawn.
169609		population	eng	There is no comprehensive information on the population status of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> from either the Western Ghats or Sri Lanka. As this species is the most intensively exploited freshwater fish in the upper reaches of most river drainages (including reservoirs) in the Western Ghats, it is reasonable to believe that populations have declined in the recent past. A recent study from the Southern Western Ghats in Kerala indicated that <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> populations in both rivers and reservoirs are being subjected to high levels of fishing pressure, and at some sites the fishery is facing an impending collapse (Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). Fishing mortality (<span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>) as high as 0.8 year<sup>-1</sup> and exploitation rates (<span style="font-style: italic;">E</span>) as high as 0.84 were encountered at some reservoirs of this region ((Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). The species has faced a drastic decline in the northern Western Ghats and has almost disappeared from its type locality in Mula-Mutha river of Pune (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).<br/><span class="apple-style-span">
169609		threats	eng	Fishing is the major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> in the Western Ghats. Local fishers in the region have indicated that catches of <em>T. khudree </em>have declined drastically in the last few years, and only smaller juveniles appear in the nets, compared to large adults that were frequently caught in 1980’s (Minimol 2000, Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press.). Use of dynamite for catching <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree </span>is prevalent in most of the rivers and reservoirs of Kerala. Dynamite fishing has been documented from the Southern WG since the early 1940’s and continues to be one of the most widely used destructive fishing techniques practiced in the region (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160; Although dynamite fishing has been banned vide the Travancore Cochin Fisheries Act of 1950 (Government of Kerala, India) there is very little enforcement, and the practice continues to exist even inside protected areas of the region (Abraham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Alien Invasive species especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambicus</span> are known to be a major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> in Periyar Lake, one of the major habitats for this species in Southern Western Ghats (Arun 1999, Kurup<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree</span> is also threatened by loss of habitat and pollution from multiple sources in the upper reaches of many rivers of Western Ghats. Pollution of rivers, heavy harvest and competition created by the introduced carps hae been suggested as major causes for the disappearence of this speceis from its type locality in Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).
169610		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169610		distribution	eng	<em>A. melanogaster</em> is found in Northern Honshu and the Kanto Plain, Japan.
169610		habitat	eng	<em>A. melanogaster</em> is a benthopelagic fish found in fresh, and sometimes brackish waters.
169610		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169610		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169611		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169611		distribution	eng	The species is found in almost all of the hill streams in Manipur, India, draining to the Chindwin River, and in Myanmar.
169611		habitat	eng	<em>P. burtoni</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits hill streams and rivers at foot hills.
169611		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169611		threats	eng	This part of India and Myanmar is mountainous and sparsely populated with no known direct threats to the species.  The species is utilised as a food fish, however there is no evidence that this is having an adverse effect on population size.
169612		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169612		distribution	eng	This species occurs on South Andaman Island, but has also been reported from Corbyn's Cave in North Andaman.  <em>M. insularis</em> is found in more than 5 locations and most likely less than 10.
169612		habitat	eng	<em>M. insularis</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species which inhabits rivers and streams.  It is an ovoviviparous fish.  The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
169612		population	eng	<em>M. insularis</em> is reported to be fairly common in South Andaman Island.
169612		threats	eng	<em>M. insularis</em> may be threatened by habitat degradation.  Increasing human settlement in the Andaman and Nicobar islands from the mainland, as well as refugees from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, have lead to damaging activities such as exploitation and clearing of mangroves for agriculture and housing, illegal logging, and development of aquaculture.  Development of tourism and recreational activities also exerts stress on the natural resources of these islands.
169613		conservation	eng	<em>S. vinciguerrae</em> was assessed as Endangered within India in 1998 due to the species' restricted distribution and continuing decline in the quality of habitat (Molur and Walker 1998).&#160; Monitoring of the population is recommended, to assess whether destructive fishing techniques are having a detrimental effect on the species.
169613		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Irrawaddy and Salween River basins in Myanmar, and the Chindwin drainage in Myanmar and Manipur, India.
169613		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and occurs in small streams with pebbly bottom.  It is also found in channels with very swift currents and bare bottoms.
169613		population	eng	Currently there is no data on the population number of this widespread species.
169613		threats	eng	<em>S. vinciguerrae</em> is threatened by destructive fishing practices, such as dynamite and poisoning, which not only cause direct mortality of individuals, but also result in pollution and habitat degradation.
169614		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169614		distribution	eng	<em>Amblypharyngodon microlepis</em> is known from the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India, and has also been reported from Bangladesh (Rahman 1989, Ahmed 1991, Talwar and Jhingaran 1991, Menon 1999).
169614		habitat	eng	It is&#160;a benthopelagic species, found in ponds, ditches and slow moving streams.
169614		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169614		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169615		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169615		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout Russia, China and the Korean Peninsula, to Japan, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin Island.
169615		habitat	eng	<em>C. annularis</em> is a demersal species, also found in brackish water.
169615		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169615		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169616		conservation	eng	The Dalai Lake is in a Biosphere Reserve.
169616		distribution	eng	<em>T. intermedia</em> is only known from it's type locality, Hu-lun Lake (Dalai-Nor), China, but it is thought that this species ranges beyond the lake as the genus is typical of running water (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  No other research has been undertaken since it's description.
169616		habitat	eng	<em>T. intermedia</em> is a demersal species found at high altitude.
169616		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169616		threats	eng	Dalai Lake is in a remote area where the local population do not eat fish and pollution levels are low, therefore no major threats are known.
169617		conservation	eng	There is a need for concerted studies to determine the exact distribution ranges of this species and clear the existing taxonomic ambiguities within the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus</span>. As there are no recent records of this species, it is to determined whether these are attributed to large scale population declines throughout its range or taxonomic issues. The Nethravati and Kabini rivers of Karnataka and Kerala, where the species might be existing, needs to be surveyed extensively.
169617		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). There seems to be a uncertainty regarding the exact distribution of this species. Apart from Nethravati River (which is around the type locality) (Menon 2004), <span style="font-style: italic;">H. thomassi</span> has been recorded from Periyar (Thomas 2004), Kabini (Shaji and Easa 2003) and Kallada rivers (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) in Kerala. Recent studies have indicated that only three species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus</span> viz. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. curmuca, H. kolus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. kurali </span>is present in River Kallada (Abraham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and that the reports of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. thomassi</span> from this river are not correct and are cases of&#160; misidentifications (Robin Abraham pers. comm). Given the taxonomic ambiguities existing within the Genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus, </span>the records of this species from Periyar (Thomas 2004) and Kallada (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) needs to be validated and are excluded from this assessment.
169617		habitat	eng	<em></em>It inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers below the Ghats, in forested areas (Menon 1999).
169617		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. thomassi</span>, nor are they any recent records from anywhere in Kerala or Karnataka. It is also known that an extensive search in South Canara turned up only one specimen (Menon 2004).
169617		threats	eng	The Nethravati drainage is known to be threatened by sand mining and pollution.
169618		conservation	eng	The Kumaradhara in Bisle Ghat should be preserved as an important habitat for the species (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.). Measures such as no-take zones and freshwater sanctuaries, as well as captive breeding for stock enhancement are also recommended.
169618		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Etroplus canarensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and known from the Kumaradhara and Nethravati Rivers in Karnataka (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.).
169618		habitat	eng	Unlike other members of the genus <em>E. canarensis is a strict freshwater species (Anon 2007-2010). <br/></em>
169618		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. canarensis</span>, but aquarium hobbyists who have been monitoring its habitats suggest that the populations are relatively stable (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.).
169618		threats	eng	One of the major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. canarensis </span>is the unmanaged collection for the aquarium hobby. Since the populations are restricted to two locations, indiscriminate collections can possibly wipe out the species. However, with the increase in availability of captive bred fish from Indonesia, pressure on wild collection seems to have declined. Additional threats include both intentional and unintentional harvest as a food fish, pollution from agricultural and domestic sewage, and habitat alteration due to sand mining. In 1996 many fish in the Kumaradhara River died from pesticide poisoning (Gadgil <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The habitat in the Kumaradhara is in reasonably good shape, with very little human impact (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.).
169619		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169619		distribution	eng	<em>S. pelzami</em> is found in found in the Tedzhen and Murgab rivers of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan including Iranian drainages of the former known as the Hari River in its Iranian reach.  It is recorded from the Jam River, the Sharak River, the Akhland River near Mashhad, the Kashaf River and various smaller water bodies in Khorasan, the upper Kal Shur, Jajarm and Jovein rivers in the Kavir basin, as well as Cheshmeh Ali at Damghan and Cheshmah Badash near Shahrud, (Coad, pers. comm.).
169619		habitat	eng	<em>S. pelzami</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169619		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169619		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169620		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169620		distribution	eng	<em>C. k. orientalis</em> is found in Kazakhstan, in the Chu River from the lower reaches to the region of Frunze.<br/><br/><em>C. k. kuschakewitschi</em> is found in the Syr Darya (up to Kara Darya at Balykchi) and Amu Darya (upto Panj), and Zeravshan rivers, in Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.), Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.
169620		habitat	eng	<em>C. kuschakewitschi</em> is a demersal species; Nikolski (1933) found this species more frequently in fast flowing section of the River Chu.  The species prefers the mid- and foothill-zones of rivers (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.).
169620		population	eng	Nikolski (1933) frequently found <em>C. kuschakewitschi</em> in the Chu River, but the species has not been recorded in the Chu in Kazakhstan for 40 years and is considered to be close to extinction in the Chu in Kazakhstan; in the 1990s a survey failed to find the species in the Chu (Bogutskaya, Pers. Comm.).<br/><br/>Kamilov (2003) states that the species has become rare in Uzbekistan since the damming of the Amu Darya (up to Panj) in the 1950s.  The status of the species in the Syr Daya in Kazakstan is unknown, but there are potentially declines here, also as a result of damming in the 1950s (Bogutskaya, Pers. Comm.).
169620		threats	eng	Kamilov (2003) states that <em>C. kuschakewitschi</em> has become rare in Uzbekistan because the species has been unable to adapt to changes, including irrigation and the introduction of alien fish species, to the freshwater environment.  It is not known the extent to which these changes have affected other parts of the range of <em>C. kuschakewitschi</em>.<br/><br/>Species populations most likely declined in the 1950s due to damming of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya at this time (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). The reasons for the species' possible extirpation in the Chu is unknown, although channelization is a possible cause (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.).
169621		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169621		distribution	eng	<em>C. qionghaiensis</em> is endemic to Qiong Lake (10km²), Yunnan, China.
169621		habitat	eng	<em>C. qionghaiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169621		population	eng	<em>C. qionghaiensis</em> is very rare, possibly extinct, in the lake since population declines as a result of competition and hybridisation with introduced species, overfishing and pollution; it is suspected that the population has declined by over 80% in the past 21 years.
169621		threats	eng	The species has been heavily impacted by pollution and overfishing in Qiong Lake.  Furthermore, <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> was introduced into the lake in the 1980s to improve fishery catches, and has hybridised with and outcompeted <em>C. qionghaiensis</em>.
169622		conservation	eng	Lake Rara is in the Rara National Park, which is an IUCN grade II protected area.  Tourism levels within the National Park are low.
169622		distribution	eng	<em>S. macrophthalmus</em> is endemic to Lake Rara in the Nepalese Himalaya.  The lake has an area of approximately 9 km².
169622		habitat	eng	<em>S. macrophthalmus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169622		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169622		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169623		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action plan in place directed towards this species. Further research on population trends, harvest levels, and further monitoring has been recommended.
169623		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudosphromenus dayi</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and it occurs in the coastal areas in southern Kerala (Menon 1999, Cherian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Narayanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Beevi and Ramachandran 2009).  The species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 14,000-16,000 km².
169623		habitat	eng	<em>P. dayi</em> inhabits fresh and Brackish waters in lentic conditions (Menon 1999). It is a pelagic species which is found along the margins of rivers, ditches and swamps. The species occurs in brackish water and enters freshwater. The male will build a bubble nest either under a rock cave or at the surface under floating plants. About 200 to 300 eggs are laid per spawn. The female will help the male gather the eggs and place them in the bubble nest (Mills and Vevers 1989).
169623		population	eng	This species is suggested as very common in Chalakkudy River, Muvattupuzha River and Periyar River (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009). However, its population status in other areas is not known.
169623		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a major threat to the fish biodiversity of Kerala.  This includes habitat alteration due to deforestation and intensive agriculture activities in the catchment areas; industrial, agricultural and domestic pollution; and habitat destruction by sand mining.  The species is fished primarily for the aquarium trade (Rema Devi pers. comm.), however may also be affected by fishing targeted other species in the area, including the use of small mesh size nets and destructive fishing practices (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004).
169624		conservation	eng	The habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. hughi </span>are mostly inside protected areas such as the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park and Chinnar Wildllife Sanctuary. Hence there is some degree of protection to this species. However, in the absence of information on population, and on-going threats from pollution and unintentional fishing, there is a need for studies on the demography and population ecology of this species.
169624		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra hughi&#160;</span>is endemic to the southern Western Ghats where it is known from the Cardamom, Palani and Anamalai Hills (Jayaram 1999). It has been recorded from the Rivers Pambar, Periyar (Thomas 2004, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)&#160; Neyyar and Vamanapuram (Abraham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) as well as from the drainages inside the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Remadevi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). <em><br/></em>
169624		habitat	eng	<em>G. hughi </em>is a benthopelagic fish, found in mountain streams.The young are free swimmers and are found in the more clean waters closer to the banks and in pools and puddles along the course of the stream.  The food of young is different from the adult stage.  The young, at 15–35 mm standard length (SL), are omnivorous including earthworms, aquatic insects, mostly larvae of chironomids and ephemeropterans and bits of filamentous algae and detritus in their diet.  The fish later takes to feeding on vegetable matter (mainly algae) with a change in its mode of living, to life close to the substratum of the rapid waters of the streams (Silas 1955).
169624		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. hughi</span>.
169624		threats	eng	The Cardamom, Palani, Anamalai and Ashambu hills, where <span style="font-style: italic;">G. hughi</span> is known to occur is under threat from a variety of stressors including habitat loss due to plantations, pollution and destructive fishing practices (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
169625		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169625		distribution	eng	<em>S. tongiorgii</em> is only known from the type locality (recorded once) from the Kul river basin, Iran.
169625		habitat	eng	Little information is known about the habitat and ecology of this species;<em> Seminemacheilus sp.</em> are most often found in fast flowing upper courses (Krupp pers. comm.).
169625		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169625		threats	eng	Water extraction is common in the region, and is therefore a potential ongoing threat to<em> S. tongiorgii</em>.
169626		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169626		distribution	eng	<em>T. xichangensis</em> is found in Aaning He (river), Xichang town, Sichuan, and the Jingshajiang sub-basin of the Yangtze river.
169626		habitat	eng	<em>T. xichangensis</em> is a benthopelagic fish.
169626		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169626		threats	eng	This species is found in a remote area which is sparsely populated, there are no known threats to the species.
169627		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific conservation action in placve directed towards this species. It has been recommended that deep pools in the course of the Krishna and Tungabhadra, where the fish settles down in summer during the period of low discharge of water, should be identified and some declared as sanctuaries for the protection of the species (Menon 2004). Research is needed on the population trends and harvest trends of this species.
169627		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo potail</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). This species occurs in tributaries of Krishna River system namely Bhima River and its tributaries (Sykes 1841, Fraser 1942, Sarwade and Khillare 2010, Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.), Krishna River (Jayaram and Dhas 2000) and Tungabhadra River (David 1956, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The species has also been recorded from Kaveri Rver system (Shaji and Easa 1995, Rajeev Raghavan and Anvar Ali pers. obs.). David (1963) suggests that the species also occurs in Godavari, however, there are no reliable records. Menon (1999) suggests that the species occurs only in Krishna river system and excludes Kavery River system. Thus, it is essential to evaluate the taxonomic status of the fish from Kavery River system. Report of the species from Hyderabad (Chandrashekar 2004) needs more support and the paper also does not mention the exactly locality from where the species was collected.<br/><br/>The inferred extent of occurrence (EOO) of the species is large as it is distributed throughout the Western Ghats. However, the EOO is suspected to be declining as it is known that the populations of the species described from Mula-Mutha River by (Fraser 1942) are likely to be locally extinct (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
169627		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo potail</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits rivers and streams in the upper reaches (Menon 1999). Habitat quality where the species is found is declining due to alterations caused by  anthropogenic activities including organic and inorganic pollution (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, N. Dahanukar pers. obs.).
169627		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo potail</span> is rare throughout its range (Shahnawaz and  Venkateshwarlu 2009, Sarwade and Khillare 2010, Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.). The species was recorded in good numbers from Mula-Mutha rivers Pune, Maharashtra by Fraser (1942), however, subsequent studies by Tonapi and Mulherkar (1963), Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000, 2003) and Wagh and Ghate (2003) were could not record it. In fact it is suspected that the species is locally extinct from Pune (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). In Kerala, a population reduction of 99% has been observed over the past two decades (Kurup <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is no quantitative estimate of population decline of this species from Karnataka and Maharashtra, even though the species is likely to be facing a drastic decline in these areas too (based on the discussions with the fishermen from where the species is recently recorded, Neelesh Dahanukar pers. comm.). Based on the decline of the species in Kerala population, which might be just 20% of the total population of of this species, the conservative estimate of global decline of the species could be assumed to be between 50 to 60%.<br/><br/>The decline could be because of habitat alterations caused by anthropogenic activities including pollution, harvesting of the fish and competition created by introduced carps (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Menon 2004).
169627		threats	eng	Habitat alterations caused by  anthropogenic activities including organic and inorganic pollution, harvesting of the fish and  competition created by introduced Gangetic carps could be the possible threats contributing to the population decline of this species (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Menon 2004).
169628		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169628		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sea of Okhotsk and migrates up the Penzhina River to spawn, Penzhino, Russia.  The Penzhina River drains a large basin, however the area of the spawning grounds is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².
169628		habitat	eng	<em>C. subautumnalis</em> is a pelagic predator in the sea and benthopelagic in rivers.
169628		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.
169628		threats	eng	<em>C. subautumnalis</em> is being overfished in the Sea of Okhotsk and in the Penzhina river during migrations for spawning.
169629		conservation	eng	More research on the biology and ecology of the species, and harvesting levels is recommended.
169629		distribution	eng	<em>S. manipurensis</em> was described from the Challou river and Wanze stream in the Chindwin drainage, in India and Myanmar (R. Devi, pers. comm.).
169629		habitat	eng	<em>S. manipurensis</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits high altitude, flowing hill streams with rocky beds.  Smaller individuals tend to be found in shallow and fast flowing waters while larger ones are found in deeper, slower waters.
169629		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169629		threats	eng	This species is favoured as a food fish (R. Devi, pers. comm.) however it is not known whether this is causing significant population declines of the species.
169630		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169630		distribution	eng	<em>A. xundianensis</em> is restricted to Quingshui Lake (estimated area of 10km²), on the Jinsha Jiang tributary of the Yangtzee River.
169630		habitat	eng	<em>A. xundianensis</em> is a pelagic species.
169630		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169630		threats	eng	Threats in the Quingshui Lake are unknown, however it is believed that the species is fished.
169632		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169632		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean, and is also found in the lower reaches of rivers flowing into the ocean; from Mozambique and Madagascar to Sri Lanka, the east coast of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sumatra.
169632		habitat	eng	<em>A. dussumieri</em> is a demersal fish, found along the coast and in estuaries and mangroves.  It also enters the lower parts of rivers.
169632		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169632		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species; although the species is known to be harvested for food, it is not thought to be at a rate to cause concern.
169633		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169633		distribution	eng	This species is known from Northern India (Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Orissa), Bangladesh, Nepal (in Kosi and Karnali rivers to an altitude of 1,650 m), Myanmar and Pakistan (known from North West Frontier Province and Punjab).
169633		habitat	eng	<em>L. angra</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species that inhabits rivers, lakes and ponds.  This is a herbivorous column feeding species.
169633		population	eng	It is likely that this species' abundance varies over its range.  In Nepal it is reported to be a common species (Sreatha 1999), but in the Hakaluki Haor wetland system, in the north eastern region of Bangladesh, it is considered to be nearly extinct (Warne 2005).
169633		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169634		conservation	eng	Studies need to be carried out to understand the exact distribution range of this species and also determine its life history and ecology. It has been recommended that a natural history reserve be set up near Karamanai, Trivandrum for the protection of this species (Menon 2004).
169634		distribution	eng	<em>M. fossorius</em> is endemic to Kerala (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Apart from its type locality, the fields adjoining the Karamanai River near Karamanai village, Trivandrum (Nayar 1951), they have also been collected from paddy fields in Trichur (Remadevi pers.obs.), and from near Edathua (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.). in Kerala. Shaji and Easa (2003) mentions that it is found in the coastal districts of Kerala without mentioning the locations.<br/><br/>Even though the extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is 15,000-16,000km² (calculated as the area of known and inferred hydrobasins), it is likely to be restricted to an area of occupancy (AOO) of 300-500 km² as it prefers marshy areas and swamps.
169634		habitat	eng	<em>M. fossorius</em> inhabits swamps, paddy fields and kole wetlands (Shaji and Easa 2003) as well as marshy areas in banana plantations at about two to three feet deep.  This species has abandoned its aquatic habitat and taken to a burrowing mode of life, and possesses pharyngeal pouches for air breathing (Remadevi pers.obs.).
169634		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. fossorius</span> but it is rare (Menon 2004) and recent collections have been based only on a few specimens.
169634		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the single major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. fossorius</span> in its native range. Most of the locations from where <span style="font-style: italic;">M. fossorius</span> has been recorded are near human habitation and/or agricultural areas, which are threatened by increasing urbanization and associated anthropogenic factors such as pollution.
169635		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169635		distribution	eng	<em>L. chuanchicus</em> is endemic to China, found in the upper reaches of Huanghe (Yellow River).
169635		habitat	eng	<em>L. chuanchicus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169635		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169635		threats	eng	No known major threats; within much of the species' range the human population do not eat fish for religious and cultural reasons.
169636		conservation	eng	Chilika Lake is Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.  Further research on the species' population and ecology is recommended.
169636		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chilika Lake and the Godavary estuary, on the east coast of India.
169636		habitat	eng	<em>B. ostreicola</em> is a demersal, amphidromous fish, which inhabits backwaters and estuaries.
169636		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169636		threats	eng	Adverse changes are occurring in the ecological character of Chilika Lake. The primary drivers for these changes are population growth and catchment degradation.  The resultant problems, which include increased siltation, weed infestation and pollution, have posed a major threat to the sustainability of fisheries, wildlife and water quality of the lake. Overall, the general biodiversity and productivity, including that of economically valuable species in the lake, is under threat. Uncontrolled expansion of prawn aquaculture into the lake is expected to exacerbate this threat (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/><br/>Soil erosion is prevalent in the catchment of Chilika due to over-grazing, illicit felling, cultivation along hill slopes, and clearance of vegetation for rehabilitation and agriculture.  Restriction of the hydraulic capacity of the inlet that connects the lake to the sea has reduced flushing of the lake and has led to a decrease in salinity and the loss of some marine and brackish water species from the ecosystem (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/><br/>Increased siltation and decreased salinity has promoted the spread of major weed species more tolerant of fresh and brackish water. These include <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, <em>Azolla pinnata</em>, and <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>.  Increased coverage of weed species has occurred mainly in the northwestern end of the lagoon and has restricted the feeding and breeding grounds of many fish of economic importance (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Although water pollution from industrial sources is not a major problem around the lake, fertilizer and pesticide residues from nearby agricultural fields pose a serious problem in the northern part of the lake. Similarly, sewage and the waste water from the peripheral small villages and towns, including Balugaon and Rambha, is posing a pollution problem, although at present it is not considered a significant threat.  Although pollution is not yet seen as a major problem for Chilika, it has the potential to increase, and management responses may become increasingly necessary (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).
169637		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169637		distribution	eng	<em>Y. pachycephalus</em> is known only from it's type locality at the Weizhangho stream, Yangliu, Yunnan, China.
169637		habitat	eng	<em>Y. pachycephalus</em> is a demersal species which inhabits torrential waters under rocks.  The type locality has high cliffs of shale on both banks (Kottelat and Chu 1988).
169637		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169637		threats	eng	No direct threats to <em>Y. pachycephalus</em> are known.
169638		conservation	eng	The species is found in the Tianmushan reserve which offers protection as fishing is banned within the reserve, however it is not known what proportion of the species range falls within the reserve.
169638		distribution	eng	<em>L. tchangi</em> is only known from it's type locality, the Tianmu Mountain in Zhejiang province of China.
169638		habitat	eng	<em>L. tchangi</em> is a demersal species.
169638		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169638		threats	eng	This species is found in a heavily populated area, it is thought that the increase in human population has caused a decline in the population as a result of fishing pressure and pollution, although this species is known from mountain streams where pollution is likely to be at a lower level than in the main course of the river (Fang, pers. comm.).  Some of the range is within a Mountain Park however it is not known what proportion.  The threats outside the protected area are likely to have a large impact on the species, if it ranges this wide.
169639		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169639		distribution	eng	<em>T. obtusirostra</em> is only known from it's type locality, a lake (unnamed) in Ka Qu (town) near the origin of the Huang He.
169639		habitat	eng	<em>T. obtusirostra</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169639		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169639		threats	eng	The type locality is a sparsely populated and remote, therefore there are no known threats to this species.
169640		conservation	eng	The Dalai Lake, home to <em>T. dalaica</em>, is in a Biosphere Reserve.
169640		distribution	eng	<em>T. dalaica</em> is only known from it's type locality, Hu-lun Lake (Dalai-Nor), China, but it is thought that this species ranges beyond the lake as the genus is typical of running water (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  No other research has been undertaken since it's description.
169640		habitat	eng	<em>T. dalaica</em> is a benthopelagic fish found in running water.
169640		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169640		threats	eng	Dalai Lake is in a remote area where the local population do not eat fish and pollution levels are low, therefore no major threats are known.
169641		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169641		distribution	eng	<em>O. furcocaudalis</em> is known from type locality, the Xi-Jiang (West River of the Pearl River basin).  Outlet of subterranean waters near Rongshui town, 25°N, 109°E, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
169641		habitat	eng	<em>O. furcocaudalis</em> is a demersal species.
169641		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169641		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169642		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169642		distribution	eng	<em>A. kreyenbergii</em> is known from Zhejiang province of China (Yuan <em>et al</em>. 2006).
169642		habitat	eng	<em>A. kreyenbergii</em> is a pelagic species.
169642		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169642		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169643		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169643		distribution	eng	<em>G. tsinanensis</em> is found in the Shandong province of China.
169643		habitat	eng	<em>G. tsinanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169643		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169643		threats	eng	Direct threats to <em>G. tsinanensis</em> are not known, however there are a number of potential threats to the species including pollution and overfishing.
169644		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169644		distribution	eng	<em>M. swinhonis</em> is found in China, Korea and Japan, and has been introduced to Uzbekistan.
169644		habitat	eng	<em>M. swinhonis</em> is a demersal species which prefers to reside in lakes.
169644		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169644		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169645		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169645		distribution	eng	<em>T. orientalis</em> is endemic to China, it is found in the upper reaches of the Huang he (Yellow River), Qaidam, Hexi Corridor.
169645		habitat	eng	<em>T. orientalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169645		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169645		threats	eng	The area in which the species is found is remote and sparsely populated; the population in this area do not eat fish.
169646		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169646		distribution	eng	<em>T. bifasciatus</em> is found in China and Japan, and has been introduced to the west coast of the United States of America via ballast water.
169646		habitat	eng	<em>T. bifasciatus</em> is a demersal species found in fresh and brackish waters.  This species prefers hard substrates.
169646		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169646		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169647		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169647		distribution	eng	<em>N. polytaenia</em> is found in the Chinese part of the Irawaddy river in the Yunnan province.  This species is only known from its type locality, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River, Tengchong County, Yunnan Province.
169647		habitat	eng	<em>N. polytaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in tributaries and upper reaches.
169647		population	eng	Currently there is no information available on the population trend or size of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. polytaenia</span>.
169647		threats	eng	In the Yunnan area the Irawaddy is quite polluted, and fishing is also prevalent in the area.  However this species inhabits tributaries of the main river so may not be heavily affected by these threats (F. Fang, pers. comm.).
169648		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169648		distribution	eng	<em>A. bicornis</em> is only known from the type specimen recorded from near Liu Ku (settlement) near the middle reaches of the Salween (Nujiang) River, China.
169648		habitat	eng	<em>A. bicornis</em> is a demersal species which feeds mainly on detritus and filamentous algae.
169648		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169648		threats	eng	There are plans for a series of dams in the Slween River, which may pose a future threat to <em>A. bicornis</em>.
169649		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169649		distribution	eng	<em>P. intermedia</em> is found in the Chinese part of the Hong (Red) River, in Yunnan.
169649		habitat	eng	<em>P. intermedia</em> is a demersal species.
169649		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169649		threats	eng	Pollution and fishing pressure are potential threats to <em>P. intermedia</em>.
169650		conservation	eng	Further research into the biology of this species is recommended.
169650		distribution	eng	<em>P. berdmorei</em> is found only in streams draining into the Yu River, a tributary of the Chindwin, in Myanmar and probably India.  The Yu River has a drainage basin of 6,335 km².
169650		habitat	eng	<em>P. berdmorei</em> is a demersal species.
169650		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169650		threats	eng	<em>P. berdmorei</em> is found in a mountainous and sparsely populated area where there are no known threats to the species.
169651		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169651		distribution	eng	<em>S. reevesii</em> is known from the Pearl River, Guangdong, China.
169651		habitat	eng	<em>S. reevesii</em> is a demersal species.
169651		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169651		threats	eng	Fishing and pollution are potential threats to this species, although the direct effect of these factors on <em>S. reevesii</em> is not known.
169652		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169652		distribution	eng	<em>S. heterochilus</em> is only known from the type locality, near the city of Ya'an, Sichuan, China, which is located in the Yangtze River basin.
169652		habitat	eng	<em>S. heterochilus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169652		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169652		threats	eng	Ya'an is a remote city with only limited development and the majority of inhabitants do not eat fish for religious reason, therefore there are no major threats to <em>S. heterochilus</em>.
169653		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169653		distribution	eng	<em>N. argentea</em> was described from the city of Xiangzhou (now Zhu Hai city) Guangdong province, China.
169653		habitat	eng	<em>N. argentea</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169653		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169653		threats	eng	Species of the same genus (e.g. <em>N. taihuensis</em>) are exploited for food on an international scale (F. Fang, pers. comm.), therefore overfishing is also a potential threat to <em>N. argentea</em>.
169654		conservation	eng	No protective measures have been taken but it has been recommended that the deep pools in the course of the river where the brooders generally rest during summer should be identified and some of them declared as fish sanctuaries for the protection of the species (Menon 2004).
169654		distribution	eng	<em>Hypselobarbus pulchellus</em> is known only from its type locality in South Canara, in Karnataka, India.  The species may have a wider distribution, or be possibly extinct, as a survey in its type locality failed to find the species.  Menon (2004) believes that <em>H. pulchellus</em> probably has a very restricted distribution today, if indeed it is still extant.
169654		habitat	eng	<em>H. pulchellus</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits the deeper part of large streams and rivers along the base of Ghats.
169654		population	eng	Since this species was described in 1870 from South Canara, Karnataka, no specimen of this species has been found.  Recent searches in the lower reaches of Kumaradhara, a tributary of Netravati in South Canara, failed to find<em> H. pulchellus</em> (Menon, 2004). <br/><br/>Furthermore, it is very difficult to tell this species apart from <em>H. dobsoni</em> and <em>H. jerdoni</em>.
169654		threats	eng	Deforestation and the spread of agricultural practices during the last century have changed the physical habitat of the rivers of the western face of the Western Ghats and has likely had an adverse affect on <em>H. pulchellus</em>.  Overfishing is also a threat to the species.
169655		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169655		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Lokchao river and the lower Maklang river, near the borderland areas of Manipur, India and Myanmar.
169655		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and inhabits fast flowing parts of hill streams and rivers; on water bodies full of shingles, pebbles, stones and rocky.
169655		population	eng	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.
169655		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this region; large areas of natural habitat are still intact (WWF 2001).
169656		conservation	eng	Further research into population trends and range, and suitable harvest levels have been recommended.
169656		distribution	eng	The species in found in lakes in Katanga river drainage (Boganidskoye Lake) and Pyasina river system (Lama, Keta, Sobach'ye, Glubokoye, Kapchuk lakes) on the Tamyr Peninsula, lakes in the headwaters of Anadyr River (El'gygytgyn, Pennoye, Baran'ye) the fish from Anadyr drainage may represent a distinct species.
169656		habitat	eng	<em>S. boganidae</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits lakes.
169656		population	eng	<em>S. boganidae</em> is reported to be a common species (Armand <em>et al.</em>, 2001).
169656		threats	eng	The population in the Anadyr drainage is potentially impacted by overfishing and overfishing of its prey species. At El'gygytgyn the species is threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation from drilling/boring.
169657		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169657		distribution	eng	<em>X. hupeinesis</em> is only known from the type locality, in the Changjiang (Yangtzee River) in the Hubei Province of China.
169657		habitat	eng	<em>X. hupeinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169657		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169657		threats	eng	The species is found in the main channels of the Changjiang (Yangtzee River) where there are a number of threats to freshwater biodiversity, including damming and other hydrological alterations, pollution, and overfishing.
169658		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place directed towards this species. Research on the population trends, harvest trends and specific threats are essential.
169658		distribution	eng	<em><span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama vigorsii</span> </em>is endemic to peninsular India (Menon 1999) and it is distributed widely in Maharashtra (Sykes 1841, Hora and Misra 1937, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Yazdani and Singh 1990, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Heda 2009, Sarwade and Khillare 2010, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), Karnataka (David and Rajgopal 1974), Andhra Pradesh (Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), Orissa (Jones and Sujansingani 1954, Job <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1955), Chattisgarh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007) and Madhya Pradesh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007). It is known from Krishna, Godavari and Mahanadi river systems.
169658		habitat	eng	The species inhabits fast flowing streams and rivers (Menon 1999). It is also found in reservoirs (Jones and Sujansingani 1954, Job <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  1955, David and Rajgopal 1974, Yazdani and Singh 1990, Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It attains a total length of 30 cm (Menon 1999). It is a column feeder preying upon smaller fish and insects (David and Rajgopal 1974).
169658		population	eng	This species is relatively common in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra.
169658		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
169659		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169659		distribution	eng	<em>B. altayensis</em> is found Xinjiang Provence in China, and possibly from Mongolia (Kottelat 2006).
169659		habitat	eng	<em>B altayensis</em> is a demersal species.
169659		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169659		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <em>B. altayensis</em>; this region of China is sparsely populated and there is very little fishing pressure and only minor pollution. (F. Fang, pers. comm.).
169660		conservation	eng	No protective measures are in place but it has been recommended that the habitat of this fish should be protected from pollution by anthropogenic activities (Menon 2004).  Regular monitoring of the water quality of the streams in its range are essential to protect this species (Menon 2004). Research is needed on the population trends and harvest trends of the fish.
169660		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the peninsular India.  It is reliably recorded only from the Krishna River system and its records from Narmada (Dubey 1984) needs taxonomic validation. Menon (1999, 2004) suggests that the record of this species from the Kaveri River system by Hora and Law (1941) needs conformation. The record of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gagata itchkeea</span> from Godavari River at Deolali (David 1963, Menon 1999) comes from a correction of the record of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nangra viridescens</span> by Hora and Misra (1937). However, the species account for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Nangra viridescens</span> (also from Godavari River at Deolali) by Fraser (1937) does not exactly match the description of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gagata itchkeea</span> collected from Pune (Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.).<br/><br/>In the Krishna River system, this species is known from Mula-Mutha river of Pune (Fraser 1942, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003), Panchaganga River at Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956), Pavna River (Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Krishna River at Solapur (Jadhav and Yadav 2009), Krishna River between Wai to Bagalkot and between Jamkhandi to Lingalagattu (Jayaram 1995), and the Tungabhadra River (Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>The species is also recorded from Eastern Ghats (Devi and Indra 2003) but the exact locality is missing.<br/><br/>Even though the expected extent of occurrence (EOO) for the species is large, it is a habitat specialist and prefers clear, non-polluted, hill streams and high reaches of the river. So the conservative estimate for the area of occupancy (AOO) is likely to be between 1,000 and 1,200 km², with 7-10 fragmented locations.
169660		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gagata itchkeea</span> inhabits rapid flowing streams of the higher reaches of the river (Menon 1999). It prefers rocky and gravelly beds and the young are often found under stones and pebbles (Menon 2004). It attains a total length of 7.6 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The habitat of this species is declining because of the anthrapogenic activities such as deforestation and recreational activities leading to siltation  and pollution of the rivers.
169660		population	eng	The species is rare throughout its range (Menon 2004). The population of this speceis in Pune and adjacent areas are declining (Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.) probably because of the habitat alterations caused by deforestation and recreational activities leading to siltation and pollution of the rivers.
169660		threats	eng	<em></em>The habitat of this species is declining because of the anthrapogenic  activities such as deforestation and recreational activities leading to  siltation  and pollution of the rivers. Fishing can also be a threat to the species as the species is often present as a large shoal and hence more vulnerable to large catches.
169661		conservation	eng	The whole of Iriomote Island is within the Iriomote National Park (IUCN category V) and is designated a Forest Ecology Conservation Area, however this does not provide much protection for <em>A. imperiorientis</em> and possibly adds to the potential for tourism to affect the species.
169661		distribution	eng	<em>S. imperiorientis</em> is known only from the Nakama River, Iriomote Island, Japan.  Iriomote Island is 282km², and the Nakama River is 17.5km long.
169661		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic fish, <em>S. imperiorientis</em> prefers to inhabit areas of boulders with a rock and gravel bottoms in clear streams.
169661		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169661		threats	eng	Tourism on Iriomote Island is a potential cause of habitat degradation, and is therefore a threat to <em>S. imperiorientis</em>; boat trips are currently operating on the Nakama River.
169662		conservation	eng	To regulate the harvest and trade of this cyprinid, the Government of Kerala (India) has initiated management plans including fixing total allowable catch (TAC), restrictions on gear size, closed seasons. There are also plans to demarcate certain key <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span> habitats as sanctuaries and no take zones (Mittal 2009).&#160; Although the captive breeding technology for this species has been developed by both researchers and hobbyists (Manoj et al. 2010; Mathew 2008; Mercy et al. 2010), commercial scale operations have not started. There are reports that<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. denisonii i</span>s being captive bred in Indonesia and Singapore and exported (Mittal 2009), but the impacts of such operations on the collection and exports from India is yet to be understood. <br/>Life history studies on the species have been conducted by Radhakrishnan and Kurup (2008) and Harikrishnan et al. (2008) studied the population dynamics in \the rivers of Kerala.&#160;Distinct genetic stocks identified in Chandragiri, Valapattanam and Chaliyar rivers (Lijo unpublished PhD thesis, NBFGR).<br/>A species specific conservation plan requires urgent attention.
169662		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius denisonii</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats where it occurs as fragemented populations in the states of Kerala and Karnataka (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2010, Prasad <em>et al</em>. 2008). Known from the rivers Chandragiri (Biju 2005, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004), Valapatanam (Biju 2005), Karyangod (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006), Chaliyar (Shaji <em>et al</em>. 2000), Kuttiyadi (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.), Bharatapuzha (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004),&#160;Sullya (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.comm),&#160;Kuppam, Iritti, Anjarakandipuzha and Bhavani River in Chavadiar (Mercy 2010; A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Populations have also been reported from Chalakudi (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2006), Periyar (Thomas 2004), Manimala (Thomas 2004), Achenkovil (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Pampa (Thomas 2004). These localities however represent <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis</span> (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).
169662		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span> is a stream dwelling fish with an affinity towards rocky pools, edges with thick overhanging vegetation along its banks (Radhakrishnan 2006; Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). However they have also been observed from a wide variety of riverine habitats including run, glide and riffles with sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders as substrates (Biju 2005). They are gregarious and often appear in shoals. The species is known to spawn during the North East Monsoon in the months of November-January (Manoj <em>et al</em>. 2010; R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
169662		population	eng	The total population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span> is unknown. However the species is considered to be rare (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2006, Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> Studies conducted at Cochin University of Science and Technology have indicated that populations of <em>P. denisonii</em> has declined at a rate of 70% at key collection sites (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006). A recent ongoing study by the Conservation Research Group, St. Albert's College, Kochi has observed that the species is overfished in Valapatanam River (exploitation rate E = 0.596) in Kerala (Raghavan 2010). In another completed study by MPEDA, based on the secondary data collected from the collectors, the catch by the collectors increased from 2003 to 2007 in Valapattanam, Kuttiyadi, Chalayar and Chandragiri rivers (Mercy and Malika 2010).
169662		threats	eng	Collection for the international aquarium pet trade is the single major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii&#160;</span> (Mittal 2009, Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Harvest of 'yet to be mature' juveniles as well as brooders is a major concern as the fishery is unregulated and 'open access'. In addition, there is an on-going decline in habitat quality at prime habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span> due to pollution from plantations as well as domestic sources. Destructive fishing for larger food fish using dynamites and plant poisons also affect <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span> as they share habitats with the larger cyprinids.
169663		conservation	eng	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> was classified as EN by a Japanese IUCN assessment in 1999 (Environment Agency of Japan 1999), however the justification behind the allocation of this category is not clear.<br/><br/>Different conservation programs may be required for the two different groups of <em>C. takatsuensis</em> (Shimizu <em>et al</em>. 2004).
169663		distribution	eng	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> is endemic to Japan, distributed in the western part of the Chugoku district, northern Kyushu, and western Shikoku.  The Extent of Occurrence of <em>C. takatsuensis</em> is estimated at 22,652 km², based on collection data from Kimizuka <em>et al</em>. (1982) and Shimizu <em>et al</em>. (2004).
169663		habitat	eng	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> is a benthopelagic fish, almost exclusively inhabiting the upper reaches of rivers, preferring slow flowing areas with stony bottoms (Kimizuka <em>et al</em>. 1982).
169663		population	eng	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> occurs in small populations which are isolated from one another (Kimizuka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1982).
169663		threats	eng	Development on land adjacent to inhabited streams has caused habitat reduction and increased sedimentation, which has resulted in a decrease in the population size (Environment Agency of Japan 1999).
169664		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169664		distribution	eng	<em>P. oligolepis</em> was described from Yangzong Hai, a lake the upper most reaches of the Xijiang basin in Yunnan, China.  The lake has an area of approximately 29 km².
169664		habitat	eng	<em>P. oligolepis</em> is a demersal species.
169664		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169664		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this recently described species, however there are potential threats in the area, including pollution and fishing pressure.  More detail regarding the distribution of <em>P. oligolepis</em> is required to assess the threats to the species.
169665		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169665		distribution	eng	<em>Y. parvus</em> is found in Nan Tong, in Kaihuan County, Yunnan, China.  Research was carried out to find the location of Nan Tong and Kaihuan County, however it was not possible to find any information with the precise location of either place.
169665		habitat	eng	<em>Y. parvus</em> is a demersal species which was found in a cave outlet.
169665		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169665		threats	eng	The location of this species cannot be accurately known, therefore it is not possible to state the threats to the species.
169666		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169666		distribution	eng	<em>S. intermedius</em> is only known from the type locality, from the town of Jinan near the Huanghe (Yellow River).
169666		habitat	eng	<em>S. intermedius</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169666		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169666		threats	eng	Pollution and overfishing (in the most part as bycatch) are potential threats to <em>S. intermedius</em>.
169667		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169667		distribution	eng	<em>T. moquensis</em> is known from Xiaman Lake, Sichuan, although it may range beyond this area.
169667		habitat	eng	<em>T. moqeunsis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169667		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169667		threats	eng	The lake is in a remote, sparsely populated area, so it is unlikely that there are threats to the species.
169668		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169668		distribution	eng	<em>S. macrolepis</em> is endemic to China; the type locality of this species is the Yangtze River.  The species has been introduced to various parts of China for intensive aquaculture in ponds (Ma <em>et al</em>. 2003).
169668		habitat	eng	<em>S. macrolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
169668		population	eng	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.
169668		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known for this species.
169669		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards this species. Research is essential on understanding the population trends, harvest trends and threats to the species.
169669		distribution	eng	<em>Proeutropiichthys taakree</em> occurs in peninsular India and is known from Krishna and Godavari River systems of Deccan (Menon 1999, David 1963, Hora and Misra 1937, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Hiware 2006, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><br/>Distribution of this species in the Kaveri River system comes from synonymy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe sykesii</span> with <span style="font-style: italic;">Proeutropiichthys taakree</span>. However, recent studies in the Kaveri River system have not recorded this species. Similarly, records of this species from southern Kerala by Johnson and Arunachalam (2009) also needs further support as many other studies in the same area have not reported this species.
169669		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Proeutropiichthys taakree</span> inhabits freshwater and tidal rivers (Menon 1999). It is also found in upstream rivers in the hilly areas.  It feeds on the surface and water column; mainly on surface and terrestrial insects washed into the reservoir.
169669		population	eng	In Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune, Maharashtra, the species <em></em> is reported to be rare and decreasing (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). However, Sahanawaz and Venkateshwarlu (2009) suggests that the species is common in Tungabhadra River, while Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) suggest that the species is found in moderate amount in Koyna River.
169669		threats	eng	The decline of this species in Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune is suggested as a result of pollution and over-harvesting (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Yadav (2000) has considered this species as threatened. Threats to the global population, however, are not known.
169670		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
169670		distribution	eng	<em>N. nangra</em> occurs in Pakistan, India (in the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers), Bangladesh and Nepal.
169670		habitat	eng	<em>N. nangra</em> is a demersal species, which inhabits the upper reaches of rivers.
169670		population	eng	<em>N. nangra</em> is reported to be a rare species in Nepal.<br/><br/>Molur and Walker (1998) reported a 30% decline in <em>N. nagra</em> in ten years, however the data behind this is not known, and no information for the most recent ten year period are available.
169670		threats	eng	Pollution and loss of habitat from anthropogenic factors are likely threats to this species.
169671		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
169671		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kumaon Himalaya, in India, in the upper reaches of the Indus system.
169671		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, omnivorous fish which inhabits mountain streams.
169671		population	eng	<em>S. kumaoensis</em> is reported to be a rare species (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.).
169671		threats	eng	Competition from introduced carp threatens <em>Schizothorax</em> sp. In the area, so are likely to also have a detrimental affect on <em>S. kumaonensis</em>.  This species is also threatened by overexploitation, loss of habitat and siltation.
169672		conservation	eng	There is a need to study the population status and life history traits of this species to inform conservation actions.
169672		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus petrubanarescui </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it is known from only two locations in the Nethravati River (Menon 1984) and Kabani River (Kurup<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004, Shaji and Easa 2003). The species is restricted to less than 300 km² area of occupancy.<br/><br/>The previous assessment for this species included a record from the Chalakudy River in the distribution, however this record is now known to be incorrect and is therefore excluded from this reassessment.
169672		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitats or ecology of this species. However, like all nemacheiline loaches, it may also inhabit fast flowing streams in riffles, rapids or run microhabitats. <em><br/></em>
169672		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species. The species is known to be rare as many comprehensive collections in Kabani have not recorded this species (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
169672		threats	eng	Although species specific threats are not known, the habitats where <span style="font-style: italic;">N. petrubanarescui </span>are known to occur are threatened by habitat alteration, sand mining and pollution.
169676		conservation	eng	This species is not found within any protected areas.
169676		distribution	eng	This species has one of the smallest ranges of all Indo-Pacific coral reef fishes, approximately 275 km<sup>2</sup>, extending between Samarai Island (10<sup>o</sup>36.50'S, 150<sup>o</sup>39.64'E) and the southeastern corner of Basilaki Island (10<sup>o</sup>39.68S, 151<sup>o</sup>04.50'E) in Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. The estimated area of occupancy within this habitat is 15 km<sup>2</sup>.
169676		habitat	eng	This species is confined to a very limited area. Despite extensive searching in other parts of Milne Bay Province (which includes approximately 265,000 km<sup>2</sup> of ocean) during five visits, it was only seen in a small area. The species is apparently associated with relatively cool temperatures. Allen (1998) reported the occurrence of exceptionally low water temperatures in this area, between 22-24 <sup>o</sup>C, compared to 26-28 <sup>o</sup>C in other parts of Milne Bay Province. Perhaps strong currents that sweep southward through narrow passes between islands cause displacement of surface waters and consequent upwelling of colder waters from below.
169676		population	eng	The total population is thought to be less than 1,500 individuals. Over the past 25 years, a definite decline in population numbers has been observed (G. Allen pers. comm. 2010).
169676		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well understood. The species is clearly dependent on a pattern of cool-water upwelling from depth. Climate-associated changes in ocean circulation and increasing temperatures may be associated with the observed decrease in population numbers.
169677		conservation	eng	The holotype of this species was collected in the Dothalugala Man and Biosphere Reserve (Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species has been recorded from the Knuckles Forest Reserve (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). Further research into the ecological requirements and threats to this species are needed. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes for school students and communities about this species. Protection of areas of suitable habitat are needed, as is restoration of degraded areas (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).
169677		distribution	eng	This recently described species is restricted to the Knuckles Mountains (= Dumbara Hills) of central Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Animals have been collected at altitudes of around 1,000 (Gammaduwa) to 1,550 m (Dotalugala) asl.
169677		habitat	eng	Animals have mostly been observed in areas of abandoned and in-use cardamon plantations containing large trees (Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), however, it has also been recorded from moist sub-montane forest and the pygmy forest formations of the Knuckles Range (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). It is an arboreal species, most frequently observed resting on tree trunks or branches (Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is an ovoviviparous species.
169677		population	eng	It has only rarely been collected or observed. There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
169677		threats	eng	Although the species can be found in cardamon plantations the understorey of this habitat is seasonally cleared, increasing the threat of predation. Areas of natural pygmy forest habitat are currently being lost through die-back. The species is additionally threatened by loss of habitat resulting from fires set to clear land for agricultural use (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).
169679		conservation	eng	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas.</p>
169679		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sulawesi (Indonesia), Palau and a single specimen from southern Japan, with unconfirmed reports from American Samoa. It likely occurs in intervening areas, but has escaped attention due to its deep dwelling habits. It occurs at depths of 5-155 m, although it is known from less than 120 m by only one juvenile specimen at Miyazaki, Japan.
169679		habitat	eng	It occurs on deep, outer reef slopes and drop-offs, in small caves and among large rubble.
169679		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, although it appears to be relatively common in its habitat in Palau. It is presumed to be stable.
169679		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It appears to have a wide distribution and occurs at depths that are not easily accessible, without substantial habitat loss.
169685		conservation	eng	The area where this species was collected from may not be protected. No conservation action is in place for this species. Research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
169685		distribution	eng	The original description stated that the species was collected from Padang, the largest city of West Sumatra at sea level. It is known from the holotype described in 1924 and has not been found again. It is the sole member of the genus.
169685		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its ecology and habitat. The type locality is in Padang, therefore it is presumed that the species occurs in forests and may be fossorial or semi-fossorial.
169685		population	eng	There is no information on the population size for this species as it is known from only one specimen.
169685		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169687		conservation	eng	This species can be found within protected areas. Further research is needed into the population trends and threats of this species.
169687		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in eastern, southern and western Australian waters. It also ranges across the Bass Strait Islands and Tasmania.
169687		habitat	eng	This species inhabits water-associated areas such as riparian woodlands and watercourses, feeding on amphibians and bird hatchlings on certain islands.
169687		population	eng	The population densities of this snake may be extremely high (Firmage and Shine 1996). However, the population in the Flinders Range is in decline (Cogger <em>et al</em> 1993).
169687		threats	eng	The Flinders Range subpopulation is being threatened by overgrazing, clearance of habitat, soil erosion, water pollution, inappropriate fire regimes, and loss of food to trout, an introduced competitor (Cogger <em>et al</em> 1993). However, these factors are not thought to constitute major threats to the species as a whole.
169692		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It is confirmed to inhabit the Virachey National Park, Phnom Nam Lyr Wildife Sanctuary, and Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further research is needed into its ecology, habitat status and threats, and population monitoring is recommended.
169692		distribution	eng	This species has been found from Nha Trang, southeastern Viet Nam and the Ba Den Moutnains, Tay Ninh, Viet Nam. It has recently been recorded from Ninh Thuan Province, in Nui Chua National Park (Ngo and Ziegler 2009). It has also been found from north-eastern and eastern Cambodia from the provinces of Stung Treng and Mondolkiri (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Its estimated extent of occurrence exceeds 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
169692		habitat	eng	This species has been found in disturbed coastal forest, from rock walls which sometimes bordered footpaths, next to buildings in forests, riverbanks and from rocky outcrops.
169692		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
169692		threats	eng	Forests in Viet Nam and Cambodia are under threat from deforestation to make way for agricultural and urban areas. This threat of habitat change is likely impacting this species at a local scale, but is unlikely to be severe enough to cause population declines.
169694		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action to be taken at the moment. However, exploitation of animals for the pet trade should be monitored.
169694		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to Yemen's Socotra Archipelago, where it is found on Socotra and Samha islands. It is known from 48 localities in Socotra and one on Samha Island. It occurs from sea level to 938 m in elevation, over an area of 3,665 km²<sup></sup>. The species' area of occupancy is estimated to be 180 km².
169694		habitat	eng	Razzetti <em>et al.</em> (2010) found the species active during night on cliffs, rocks, large boulders, caves, trunks of trees (<em>Dracaena</em>, <em>Phoenyx</em>, <em>Tamarix</em> and also <em>Adenium</em>), inside buildings, and inactive during the day under stones in <em>Croton</em> bushlands and below <em>Dracaena</em> trees, as well as in tree holes (<em>Boswellia</em> spp.).
169694		population	eng	While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20  years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three  years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be  verified. This species is widespread on the whole island but usually at low densities, and population size is unknown.
169694		threats	eng	No strong threats to this species are known since it inhabits remote and largely inaccessible cliffs and rocky areas. It is also tolerant of some human disturbance. Attention should be paid to illegal exportation of eggs and live individuals for the pet trade.
169695		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the potential threats of this species and population monitoring are needed due to its restricted range.
169695		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra Island, Yemen, where it is known from 40 localities (Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2008). This island has an area of 3,625 km²<sup></sup>. It does not occur on the associated islands of Abd al Kuri, Samha and Darsa (Rösler and Wranik 2006).
169695		habitat	eng	<p>Recent research (Sindaco <em>et al.</em> 2008, Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. trachyrhinus</span> is fairly common in different habitats including the widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">Croton</span> bushlands, barren stony plains, vegetated sand dunes, sparse and dense shrublands, wadi areas. During diurnal transects it was found under stones; at night it was observed active on ground and also on trunks of bushes and on <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix </span>bark (Sindaco&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008, Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). &#160;<em>H. trachyrhinus</em> has been reported up to at least 1,000 m (Schätti and Desvoignes, 1999).&#160;</p>
169695		population	eng	The species is fairly common in different habitats of the island&#160;(Razzetti <em>et al.</em> 2011). While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20   years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three   years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be   verified
169695		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting the species. Habitat degradation through grazing by introduced goats and urban development may be causing local declines in the quality of shrubland on Socotra Island; however, this gecko appears not to be wholly reliant on these habitats.
169698		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution coincides with a number of protected areas. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.
169698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Republic of South Africa. It occurs in the upland areas of the Albany region, from the Suurberg to the Great Fish River (Branch 1998). This species has an area of distribution approximately equal to 7,113 km².
169698		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandstone and shale outcrops in karroid thicket and grassy fynbos (Branch 1998). It lives on small rocky outcrops, under thin flakes and under large rocks.
169698		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
169698		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats affecting this species. A recent study by Rouget <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated that 30% of the Cape Floristic Region is currently transformed by agriculture, urbanization and invasive plants. The grassy fynbos habitat contains 25% agricultural land cover, with 65% of the remaining area currently invaded by alien plants at low densities and 5.9% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Degradation of the succulent thicket habitat has been attributed to overgrazing by domestic livestock, clearing of land for agriculture, fuel-wood collection, invasion by introduced plants, mining and urbanization (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2004). After an analysis of the contemporary situation, Palmer <em>et al.</em> (2004) conclude that the natural thicket habitat "remains under serious threat", as 75.5% has been assessed as moderately to severely degraded.<br/><br/>This species occurs in the upland areas of the Albany region, in an area with few urban areas. As such, it is unlikely that the species is affected by threats associated with increased urbanization. Fuel-wood collection and mining are likely to present localized threats only. It is unknown to what extent this gecko is threatened by the introduction of non-native plants. At present, conversion of land to agriculture and overgrazing may present the main threats to this species.
169699		conservation	eng	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Insufficiently Known' and possibly 'Rare'. &#160;Most of its range falls within Richtersveld National Park, which although degraded by small stock grazing and mining activities, is a protected area (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed on the distribution and population numbers of this species.
169699		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Richtersveld, South Africa, and adjacent southern Namibia (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Namibia, it is known only from Macmillan's Pass, near Rosh Pinah, Karas District. This species is likely to be found in other areas as it is thought that only 30% of this species' range is in Namibia.
169699		habitat	eng	This species occurs on small rocky outcrops in the arid Succulent Karoo shrubland. It shelters under granite flakes on isolated boulders. Branch (1998) remarks "very localized; rarely more than one or two individuals on a boulder".
169699		population	eng	This species is reported to be 'possibly rare' (Griffin 2003).
169699		threats	eng	The primary threat to the Karroo habitat of this species is habitat degradation due to overgrazing. Degradation is most severe on communally grazed lands (Seymour and Dean 1999) and overgrazing in this region of South Africa has been shown to have negative impacts on vertebrate diversity (Joubert and Ryan 1999).
169700		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring and research into the population numbers and threats of this species is needed. Effective management may help to reduce pressure on the natural habitat of this species.
169700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Republic of South Africa. It occurs in the Western Cape fold mountains, from Bokkeveldberge in the north, through the Cedarberg and adjacent mountain ranges, to Ceres (Branch 1998). <br/><br/>It is also found on the isolated Piketberg (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 1997). This species has an area of distribution approximately equal to 9,559 km².<sup></sup>
169700		habitat	eng	This species usually inhabits summit sandstone outcrops in mountain fynbos, but is also found in coastal renosterveld (Branch 1998).
169700		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
169700		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats to this species. At present 7.5% of the mountain fynbos habitat is under agricultural land uses (Rouget <em>et al.</em> 2003), with pine plantations driving much of the conversion (Branch 1998). Invasive alien plants also threaten the montane fynbos, as 90% of the mountain fynbos has been invaded at low densities, with 2.3% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unlikely that this low-level invasion of non-native plants is presenting a threat to this species, and agriculture is still a localized threat only in the mountain fynbos.<br/><br/>The coastal renosterveld is perhaps a more altered habitat, with 80.6% under agricultural land use, 17.1% invaded at low densities by alien plants, and 1.1% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). While agriculture may pose a significant threat to the species in this habitat, it makes up the minority of this species' range.
169714		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Reserva  Nacional de Paracas and Lomas de Lachay (M. Lundberg pers. comm., A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). Further research into the population numbers, habitat and threats to this species are required, and population monitoring is recommended.
169714		distribution	eng	This species is found in the coastal desert of Peru, from Huacho (Lima)  southward to Paracas (Ica) and Aguada de Loma (Arequipa). (Icochea 1998, A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). This species is found between sea level and 750 m above sea level. Its estimated extent of occurrence is 5,811 km².
169714		habitat	eng	This species is found primarily in coastal sand dunes and on beaches, but it is also found in inland hyper-arid habitats (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).
169714		population	eng	This species is generally rare; populations occur at low densities in the desert (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).
169714		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of urban and agricultural expansion. This is likely to be causing population declines in the abundance of this species.
169717		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist at present. Further research is required in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population. Creation of fenced areas would help to protect the species habitat.
169717		distribution	eng	This skink is endemic to Socotra Island in Yemen, where it has been found between 10 and 1,463 m asl. The island's area (3,625 km²) is treated here as its extent of occurrence, while its area of occupancy is estimated as being 144 km²<sup></sup>.
169717		habitat	eng	The species was observed mainly in areas with some vegetation cover (bushes, grass, trees) and sparse stones, it was found in a large sink-hole crater in the limestone plateau and in palm groves. Nothing is known about its reproductive biology.
169717		population	eng	While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified. At high altitudes it seems to be quite frequent, while at lower elevations animals seem limited to well vegetated places such as date palm groves. As this is a secretive lizard, its occurrence and abundance could well be underestimated.
169717		threats	eng	A possible threat is the reduction of vegetation cover and the loss of soil caused by overgrazing. Although grazing by introduced goats is widespread throughout the island, at present it does not heavily affect this species' core habitat, and the lizard remains common and widespread in the highlands.
169746		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Other than general habitat conservation, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169746		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Luzon, Polilo, Catanduanes and Tablas. Populations have been reported from between 100 and 1,400 m asl.
169746		habitat	eng	This species is a forest obligate, found in dipterocarp, old growth and secondary tropical moist forest. Animals have been collected from under rotting leaves and logs and on the open forest floor.
169746		population	eng	This species is fairly abundant in appropriate habitat.
169746		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to some populations of this species.
169747		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary and is probably present within additional protected areas. Further studies are need to better determine the distribution of this species.
169747		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from Malabutuan, Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary (950 to 1,200 m asl), Agusan, Hilong-Hilong and Mount Apo. The map of this species distribution remains provisional. It has an elevational range of 950 to 1,200 m asl.
169747		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known. The type series were collected among rocks on stream bed in tropical moist forest at 600 to 750 m asl. It appears to need shaded riverine habitat rather than primary forest, although further studies are needed into the adaptability of this species to habitat modification.
169747		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169747		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species. It is presumably threatened by nickel (the area of Hamiguitan) and iron mining activities within its range.
169748		conservation	eng	The few known specimens were collected in the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park. There is a need for additional research, including field surveys, to better determine the range of this and other <em>Luperosuarus</em> species. Habitat protection is needed throughout much of the species known and possible range.
169748		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality, 'a forested area in the center of the NW Panay Peninsula' on the island of Panay in the Philippines (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is suspected that the species is (or may have been) more widely distributed in forested areas on the Philippines islands of Panay, Negros, Cebu, Guimara and Masbate (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007). The species was found at 450 m asl.
169748		habitat	eng	Eggs of this species were attached to a dead <em>Pandanus</em> plant, close to a small river in slightly disturbed, primary lowland limestone forest (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007). There have been a few sightings of adults on tree stems within the forest during nighttime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Possible records from the island of Negros are from secondary forest edge to primary limestone forest. Captive specimens were found to prefer crevices in bark when inactive during the day (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007).
169748		population	eng	This species is at present only known from three recently collected specimens. This may be a difficult to survey arboreal species, or it might be naturally rare.
169748		threats	eng	The general threats to this species are likely to be logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
169749		conservation	eng	It is not known whether viable populations of this species are within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve remaining areas or patches of suitable lowland forest. Additional research is needed into the current distribution and population size of this species.
169749		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands, where there are records from the islands of Luzon (including Bataan), Mindoro, Sibuyan, Panay and eastern Mindanao (Diuata Range). Recently, it has rarely been recorded during surveys, with collections only from Marinduque Island, Panay (at 200 m asl), and the mountains of northern Luzon (about 500 m asl).
169749		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species that feeds upon small lizards and skinks. On Panay it has been recorded within both primary and secondary lowland tropical moist forests, and in sparsely populated cultivated areas close to forest. It seems possible that this species needs some forest cover to persist. An clutch of egs have been recorded from a tree hole.
169749		population	eng	While there is little population information available for this species, it appears to have declined significantly since the 1940s.
169749		threats	eng	The species is seriously threatened by the ongoing loss of lowland forest within the Philippines, principally through conversion of land to agricultural use (including slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture), extraction of timber, conversion of land to plantations, and mining activities.
169750		conservation	eng	It is possible that this species is present in the Central Cebu Protected Landscape. There is a need to relocate this species and to better determine its taxonomic status.
169750		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single collection (unspecified locality) from the island of Cebu in the Philippines (Savage 1950).
169750		habitat	eng	There currently appears to be no information available on the natural history of this species. Many of the other members of the genus are fossorial forest dependent animals.
169750		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
169750		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened by deforestation. The island of Cebu is largely limestone, with very few areas containing suitable deep soil, most of these sites have been converted to agricultural use (including the application of inorganic pesticides).
169751		conservation	eng	It is present within a protected area, and may be within the Mount Pangasugan protected area. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.
169751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the islands of Leyte (recorded from the localities of Burawen and Mahaplag) and Samar. It is known from 50 to 400 m asl.
169751		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic species, associated with streams, rivers, rocks and crevices in the forest and at the forest edge (Gaulke 2004; J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).
169751		population	eng	This is considered to be a fairly common species in suitable habitat.
169751		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being lost relatively quickly through commercial logging and conversion of land to other uses, including mining activities and local 'kaingin' agriculture.
169752		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Additional taxonomic work is needed to better understand the relationship between the four subspecies.
169752		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It is represented by four subspecies; <em>B.b. boulengeri</em> from the islands of Polillo, southwest Luzon and Marinduque; <em>B.b. boholensis</em> from Bohol island; <em>B.b. mindorensis</em> from Mindoro Island; and <em>B.b. taylori</em> from Panay, Negros, Cebu, Ponson, Poro, Pan de Azucar, Inampulugan, Danjugan and Siquijor Islands (Brown and Rabor 1967, Brown and Alcala 1960, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). It occurs between sea level and 800 m asl.
169752		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species found underneath rotting logs, in leaf litter and amongst similar ground cover in primary and secondary tropical moist forest. It has also been found in coconut plantations close to forest (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000)
169752		population	eng	In general, it is not considered to be an especially rare species.
169752		threats	eng	The species is threatened through the conversion of forest to agricultural land, and deforestation through logging for timber.
169753		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros (Negros-Canlaon, Cuernos de Negro), Panay (Pan de Azucar [Alcala, 1969]), Pan de Azucar and Masbate. It ranges between sea level and 1,600 m asl.
169753		habitat	eng	This is a forest species. It is found primarily on the forest floor under leaves and logs and occasionally on the lower tree trunks. It is often seen along forest streams but not in brightly sunlit areas. This species has not been found in young secondary forest but has been taken in abaca groves adjacent to the forest. It ranges from near sea level to about 1,200 m asl in the submontane forest of Negros.
169753		population	eng	It appears to have declined in density on Negros. It is abundant in the lowland dipterocarp forest (primary and disturbed) on NW-Panay Peninsula (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2001).
169753		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although further studies are needed to confirm this.
169754		conservation	eng	It seems likely that this species is present within protected areas in the northern part of the Sierra Madre mountain range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169754		distribution	eng	This poorly known snake is endemic to the Philippines, where it is has been recorded from Luzon (the Sierra Madre), and more recently from Camiguin Norte, Babuyan Claro and Dalupiri (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007; Broad and Oliveros 2005). It is generally a lowland species occurring between 50 and 800 m asl.
169754		habitat	eng	This mostly arboreal species is known from both pristine and disturbed old growth tropical moist forest, but has also been collected from secondary forest and forest edge habitats.
169754		population	eng	As with other members of the genus, this species naturally occurs at low densities.
169754		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by ongoing habitat loss and fragmentation, mostly related to slash and burn agricultural practices, and logging operations (including illegal extraction).
169755		conservation	eng	The species is found within protected areas of the Sierra Madre Mountain Range (Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Quirino Protected Landscape, Casecnan Protected Landscape) and the Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal Protected Landscape.
169755		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the central and southern Sierra Madre Mountain Range (including Mount Banahao) of Luzon Island. Reports of this species from  Mount Twin Peaks Botanical Garden in Baggao, Cagayan Province need verification (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It ranges between 300 and 1,200 m asl.
169755		habitat	eng	The species is associated with riparian vegetation alongside cool mountain streams in primary forest, degraded primary forest fragments, and secondary forest.
169755		population	eng	The species is fairly common in preferred habitats.
169755		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation. Diversion of water from mountain streams for agricultural purposes is a potential threat to the species.
169756		conservation	eng	The species is found within Balbalasang National Park, and Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. Further studies are needed to fully determine the range of this species.
169756		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Batan and Itbayat in the Batanes Islands, from Calayan Island, and from the high mountains of northern Luzon Island, with a recent report that the species is also present on the coast of northern Luzon (R. Brown, pers. com. 2007). It has been recorded up to 900 m asl.
169756		habitat	eng	The species is found on cliffs in the mountains of northern Luzon. It is found mainly at the forest edge, and its preferred habitat appeared to be scrubby bamboo.
169756		population	eng	This is generally considered to be a common species.
169756		threats	eng	The clearing of suitable habitat for other uses is probably the main threat to this species.
169757		conservation	eng	The species is found within Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park on Sibuyan Island. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169757		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found on the islands of Romblon, Tablas and Sibuyan at low elevations.
169757		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from both undisturbed and secondary forest, cultivated land (including coconut groves [M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008]) and residential areas. Specimens have been collected from bark crevices on tree stumps, and from rock crevices and limestone caves.
169757		population	eng	This species is abundant within its small range.
169757		threats	eng	While there is very little forest left within the range of this species, and mining for marble is taking place in the area, the species seems to be very tolerant of a range of habitats and there appear to be no major threats.
169758		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Malindang Natural Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to the species.
169758		distribution	eng	This little known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has only been recorded from the type locality of Dapitan Peak (at 1,700 m asl) on the Zamboanga Peninsula of the island of Mindanao. There has been little surveying work undertaken on adjacent mountains, and it is possible that the species ranges more widely (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169758		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in transitional submontane-montane forest at about 1,700 m asl. Nothing further is known about the natural history of this species.
169758		population	eng	It is presently known only from the holotype described in 1963.
169758		threats	eng	There are perhaps no threats to this species as the area of collection is high and steep, and unsuitable for local agriculture ('kaingin'). It is possible that this species may be impacted by climate change, however, further details of its distribution and natural history are needed to better determine this.
169759		conservation	eng	The species is known from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the two recognized subspecies.
169759		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. There are two subspecies, <em>S. c. coxi</em> is known from the islands of Mindanao, Leyte, Samar and Camiguin. <em>S. c. divergens</em> has been recorded from Panay, southwestern Luzon, Marinduque and Mindoro Islands. It ranges from sea level to about 1,600 m asl.
169759		habitat	eng	Populations are largely restricted to old growth and secondary tropical moist forest. Animals have been collected from under the detritus of rotting logs on the forest floor in dipterocarp and lower submontane forests in the Mount Halcon area on Mindoro Island. Occasionally, they are found in and near stream beds, but appear to be mainly a forest species.<br/><br/>Animals have been recorded in the lowland dipterocarp forest in northern Panay (Municipalities of Pandan and Sebaste) juveniles were observed oftenly along watercourses and in dried up streambeds, while adults were seen more frequently in distance to the water (M. Gaulke pers. obs.).
169759		population	eng	This species is not very abundant.
169759		threats	eng	General ongoing habitat loss through deforestation is a threat to this species.
169760		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide distribution, it seems likely that it is present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.
169760		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread endemic of the Philippines. It has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Mindoro, Tablas, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Catanduanes, Mindanao Lubang, and Basilan. It has a wide elevational range, being found from close to sea level to around 1,000 m asl.
169760		habitat	eng	This snake may be found burrowing in humus under rotting logs, under flat rocks, and between tree buttresses (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). It has been recorded from disturbed habitats (for instance under logs in coconut plantations) on Luzon and Catanduanes.
169760		population	eng	In general this appears to be an abundant species.
169760		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169761		conservation	eng	The species is widely distributed and is in many protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169761		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Mindanao faunal region. There are two subspecies. <em>B. g. gracilis</em> has been recorded from the northern and southern parts of Mindanao and from Basilan Island; <em>B. g. hilong</em> is known from northeastern parts of Mindanao, Bohol, Camiguin, Samar and Leyte islands. It has been recorded from around 50 to 1,000 m asl.
169761		habitat	eng	Animals can be encountered under general detritus and logs on the forest floor. They are also found under dry, rotting coconut logs close to sea level. It is present in a wide range of habitats, from forest to disturbed areas.
169761		population	eng	This species is very abundant.
169761		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by deforestation and the burning of groundcover in coconut plantations.
169762		conservation	eng	This species is found within numerous protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169762		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Mindoro, Calotcot, Tablas, Sibuyan, Lubang, Camiguin Norte and Masbate (Brown and Alcala 1980). It ranges from close to sea level to about 800 m asl.
169762		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, and has also been within coconut groves and similar plantations. Animals seem to be largely terrestrial and are found in leaf litter, under rotting logs, and amongst similar ground cover (Brown and Alcala 1980).
169762		population	eng	This species is fairly common in forest habitats.
169762		threats	eng	It seems possible that severe deforestation is a localized threat to this species.
169763		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. There is a need for further research into the impact of collection and persecution of populations on this species.
169763		distribution	eng	This widespread species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Dinagat, Siargo, Camiguin Sur, Bohol, Leyte, Samar and Mindano (including Bukidnon, Agusan Province, Lanao Province, Misamis Occidental and the Zamboanga Peninsula). It has been recorded from sea level to around 800 m asl.
169763		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats from tropical moist forest, to various modified habitats including rice fields, pineapple plantations, coconut groves and rural villages.
169763		population	eng	This species appears to be generally common, although there are suggestions of declines in parts of its range (such as the Zamboanga Peninsula [A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007]).
169763		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened through direct persecution (including local government bounties in some areas) and collection for traditional medicinal use and food. There is some export of this species to China, possibly for use in traditional medicine (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169764		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas on Mindanao. There is a need for additional field surveys to better determine the range of this species and to more fully understand the species' ecological requirements. Taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the relationship between this lizard and other Mindanao <em>Tropidophorus</em> sp.
169764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from a number of localities, including Mount Apo, Dapitan, Mataling River Falls, Cotabato and the south side of Mount Hilong-Hilong. It has an elevational range of 450 to 1,200 m asl.
169764		habitat	eng	There is little known about the natural history of this species. Animals have been recorded from damp soil under logs or rocks with tropical moist forest (Brown and Alcala 1980). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat modification. It is an ovoviviparous species.
169764		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169764		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species.
169765		conservation	eng	It is not known if this snake is present within any protected areas. There is a need to protect remaining areas of suitable forest habitat. Additional surveys are urgently needed to locate viable populations of this species, and to learn more about the species ecological needs.
169765		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from many islands. Although there are numerous old records of this species, it has been rarely detected during recent surveys, with the only recent collections being from Marinduque Island, Panay Island (at 200 m asl), and the mountains of northern Luzon (at about 500 m asl).
169765		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal snake that may be restricted to lowland tropical moist forest. Additional studies into the natural history of this species are needed to confirm this.
169765		population	eng	While there is little population information available for this species, it appears to have declined significantly since the 1940s.
169765		threats	eng	The species is seriously threatened by the ongoing loss of lowland forest within the Philippines, principally through conversion of land to agricultural use (including slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture), extraction of timber, conversion of land to plantations, and mining activities.
169766		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from protected areas throughout the island of Palawan. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.
169766		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from Palawan, Busuanga and Culion Islands, and seems likely to be present on Dumaran and Balabac Islands. It has been collected from sea level up to 975 m asl.
169766		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, and also from disturbed areas of habitat.
169766		population	eng	This snake is both abundant and widespread.
169766		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.
169767		conservation	eng	The species is present in different protected areas (e.g., NW-Panay Peninsula, Central Panay Protected areas). It is protected by National Legislation and listed on CITES Appendix II. There is a need for monitoring and regulation of the trade in this species.
169767		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Panay, Cebu, Masbate, Guimaras, Romblon, Ticao, Boracay, Sibuyan, Tablas, Siquijor and Bantayan. It occurs from sea level to around 700 m asl.
169767		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, including dipterocarp lowland forest and cultivated areas. Preferred habitat are mangroves, with the species being common in fishpond areas (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Animals are common in distrubed habitats (such as coconut plantations) and can be found along beach fronts.
169767		population	eng	It is quite common to abundant over much of its range (although apparently rare on Cebu).
169767		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by overhunting for subsistence food, leather, the pet trade and for curios.
169768		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. Awareness programmes are needed to reduce levels of persecution. Better control and enforcement of legislation to regulate the exotic food trade is also needed. International trade in this species is regulated by CITES.
169768		distribution	eng	This generally lowland species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, and Marinduque. It is found up to elevations of 800 m asl.
169768		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species is found in a wide range of habitats, from primary tropical moist forest to agricultural and urban areas.
169768		population	eng	Historically, this species was described as common in coastal areas. It appears to now be more rare.
169768		threats	eng	The species is widely persecuted, especially in and around agricultural areas. Animals are collected for the exotic food trade (within the Philippines), and to a much lesser degree, for the pet trade. This snake is also collected and used for anti-venom production by the Research Institute for Tropical Medicine (RITM).
169769		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the Protected Area of the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). There is a proposed protected area in the Central Panay Mountains which would conserve populations of this snake. More surveys are needed on Panay to fully determine the habitat preferences of the species, and especially to better understand whether it can persist in disturbed habitats.
169769		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Panay Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded from Mount Madja-as, Barangay Alojipan, in the Municipality of Culasi, Antique Province (Brown <em>et. al</em>. 2000), and recently from the Pandan Peninsula in northwestern Panay (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). There is a record from the Panay Penisula, at 450 m asl (Gaulke 2001) as <em>Hologerrhum sp</em>., and recently in the northern part of the West Panay Mountain Range, at about 300 m asl. It has been recorded between 200 and 1,600 m asl.
169769		habitat	eng	The habitat from which <em>H. dermali </em>was collected on Mt. Madja-as has been classified as the transition zone between mixed dipterocarp (submontane) and mossy (upper montane) forests (Whitmore 1984, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997). The forest consisted of two strata (a canopy of 10 m, and a subcanopy of 3–4 m with emergent trees as high as 18 m); herb and shrub layer vegetation was also abundant. The forest near the collection site was mossy and contained high densities of epiphytic ferns and orchids. Topography was qualitatively characterized as steep, with numerous valleys bordered by sheer rock escarpments and forest-covered ridges (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). Specimens were collected close to fast flowing streams, and can also be found inside forest far from water (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). Animals have also been found under rocks and rotting logs inside primary forest on limestone substrate (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007).
169769		population	eng	It appears to be a naturally rare species, with very few specimens known from Mount Madja-as. Only a single specimen has been found during three years of surveys on the Pandan Peninsula (A. Demegillo and M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169769		threats	eng	Brown <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that this species is presumably reliant on the closed-canopy rain forests of the western portions of Panay. Accordingly, most should be considered severely threatened by deforestation (see Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent survey work in the northwestern portions of Panay indicates that <em>Hologerrhum dermali</em> occurs in forested habitats at lower elevations as well as the montane localities. Unfortunately, the low elevation forests of Panay Island have nearly all been removed by an aggressive timber industry in the central Visayas (Brown <em>et. al</em>. 2000).
169770		conservation	eng	The species is found in a number of protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
169770		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and is found on the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Masbate, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Catanduanes, Leyte and Samar Islands. On Luzon, the species appears to be restricted to the southern part of the island. This species ranges from sea level to around 800 m asl.
169770		habitat	eng	Animals have been found under moist humus and logs on the forest floor, and under rocks and logs in the beds of forest streams. It very abundant in this habitat, but does not appear to be restricted to it, being found in secondary forest and disturbed areas, and in agricultural areas adjacent to forest.
169770		population	eng	This species is very common in appropriate habitat.
169770		threats	eng	Severe habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species. The species is traded at a low level (mainly within the local pet trade), and this seems unlikely to be a major threat.
169771		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
169771		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Polillo, Negros, Bohol, Marinduque, Sicogon and Gigante North (McDiarmid 1999, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). The four synonyms <em>Typhlops dendrophis</em>, <em>Typhlops longicauda</em>, <em>Typhlops mindanensis</em> and <em>Typhlops rugosa</em> were all collected from the locality of Bunawan, Agusan del Sur, in Mindanao.
169771		habitat	eng	Animals have been found in epiphytic ferns in the trees of moist forests at low to medium elevations (Alcala 1986, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000).
169771		population	eng	This species appears to be known from very few specimens, some of which were destroyed during World War II.
169771		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but presumably include deforestation through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
169772		conservation	eng	It is possible that the recent Philippines Cave Act legislation may have reduced guano collection within the species range. It seems possible that this gecko is present in most of the protected areas of Palawan.
169772		distribution	eng	This pecies is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on the island of Palawan at low elevations and is also present on the islands of Dumaran, Busuanga, Calauit, Culion. It is likely to range onto the small islets north of Palawan, since it is found in rocky areas. It is found from around sea level to about 900 m asl.
169772		habitat	eng	This species is present in both tropical moist forest and areas of rocky substrate, such as karst formations and caves. Animals have been found beneath loose tree bark, on boulders near streams and in canyons. The species lays eggs in rock crevices and in similar sites, with animals seeming to return to the same places to nest.
169772		population	eng	It can be an abundant species, especially within cave habitats.
169772		threats	eng	Populations in caves are often thretaned by the mining of bat guano, and other more general disturbances. Within the Victoria Range mining is considered to be a major threat. It is not hunted or collected for trade.
169773		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Malindang Natural Park and the Agusan Marsh protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
169773		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (including Mount Malindang), Dinagat, Siargao, Leyte and Samar. It occurs from around 400 to 1,100 m asl.
169773		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland riverine forest. It can be found in both primary and slightly disturbed secondary forest habitats. Animals are often encountered on large boulders close to the fast-flowing streams. Taylor (1915), noted that specimens collected at the type locality (Bunawan in the upper Agusan River Valley) were mostly collected from a pile of rotting logs, with a single specimen found in a tree hole a couple of metres above the ground.
169773		population	eng	In general this is a very common species.
169773		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation from logging operations and conversion of land to other use is considered to be the major threat to this species.
169774		conservation	eng	The species is found within Aurora Memorial National Park and Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. It may also occur in the Quirino Protected Landscape. Further surveys are needed to determine the range and ecology of this species.
169774		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only on the island of Luzon.  It has been recorded from Mount Maaling-aling, in Aurora Province, and there is a new record from the old town of Balbalan Proper. Two specimens of <em>Sphenomorphus</em> found in Quirino Province have been preliminarily identified as this species. It ranges from 400 to 1,000 m asl.
169774		habitat	eng	Animals have been found under small stones, leaf litter, and other forest debris. It is known from both primary forest (such as mixed dipterocarp and mossy upper montane forest) and secondary growth.
169774		population	eng	The species is moderately common in Aurora Memorial National Park.
169774		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species. There is selective logging ongoing even within formally protected areas.
169775		conservation	eng	The species is found within the Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
169775		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Philippines, where it has been recorded from Lepanto, Bauko and Balbalasang in Mountain Province, of the Cordillera Region, northern Luzon Island. It occurs between 300 and 900 m asl.
169775		habitat	eng	The species seems to largely be a rare forest species, however, it was also collected in agricultural areas at two localities, indicating that it may not be forest obligate. An animal has been observed moving in the forest litter, along sun spots within the forest on dry ridges in Balbalasang.
169775		population	eng	It does not appear to be a very common species.
169775		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.
169776		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least three protected areas (including Auroria Memorial National Park and Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest for this species.
169776		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the island of Luzon in multiple localities along the Sierra Madre Mountain Range and few locaties in the Cordilleras. It is known from between 250 and 850 m asl.
169776		habitat	eng	Animals are generally fossorial, and are usually found under logs and similar ground cover in both primary and secondary forest.
169776		population	eng	The species seems to be fairly common in good forested areas.
169776		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.
169777		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. There is a need to protect riparian habitat along streams used by this species. Additional studies into the systematic status of the subpopulations of this species is needed.
169777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Lubang, Luzon, Mindoro, Polillo, Catanduanes, Marinduque, Guimaras, Cebu, Panay and Negros. It has been recorded from between close to sea level to around 1,400 m asl.
169777		habitat	eng	This species is found close to rocky rivers and streams, and other similar rocky freshwater habitats. It appears to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation, and has been reported near to villages. The main prey of the species are fish.
169777		population	eng	This snake is reasonably common, especially in areas close to water.
169777		threats	eng	It seems likely that general sources of water pollution, especially where they results in a decline of fish populations, represent a serious threat to this species.
169778		conservation	eng	It is present in the Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape, Mount Apo National Park and Mount Kitanglad Natural Park. There is an urgent need to review the taxonomy of the Philippines <em>Gonocephalus</em> to better determine the distributions of the three species.
169778		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the island of Mindanao (including Mount Kitanglad and Mount Apo), Camiguin Sur, Bohol, Samar and Leyte in the Philippines. Records from Mindoro may be in error and need further investigation (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). It is also possibly present on the islands of Luzon and Polillo. The species' distribution in very unclear owing to misidentifications between this species and <em>Gonocephalus interruptus</em> and <em>G. sophiae</em>. It ranges from sea level to around 1,400 m asl.
169778		habitat	eng	Aniamls have often been recorded from secondary tropical lowland and edge forest habitats. It is most abundant in regenerating second growth (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).
169778		population	eng	This species is common in the Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape on Bohol. It is uncommon on Samar.
169778		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some trade in this species for pets, however, at present levels it seems unlikely to represent a major threat to the species.
169779		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Irawan watershed, situated within the Palawan Flora and Fauna Watershed Reserve. There have been no recent surveys for this species, and additional fieldwork is needed to learn more about the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
169779		distribution	eng	This little known species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It seems to be known only from the area of Thumb Peak where animals have been collected at 100 to 300 m asl. There have been no recent surveys for this species.
169779		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected from the axils of fronds of arboreal ferns about 15 m above the forest floor in tall trees (Brown and Alcala 1978). It has not been recorded since the 1960s with few recent surveys taking place on Palawan.
169779		population	eng	There is no clear information on the abundance of this species, which is currently known from a very few specimens.
169779		threats	eng	This species is presmably threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation by logging operations and the general conversion of forested land to other uses.
169780		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need to protect remaining areas of forest within the Sulu Archipelago. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional field surveys are needed to locate any remaining populations of this species.
169780		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Sibutu and Bubuan in the Sulu Archipelago. In view of the generally low sampling effort within its range, it is possible that the species occurs on Tawi-Tawi and other nearby islands.
169780		habitat	eng	While little is known concerning the natural history of this species, several specimens were observed actively climbing at the tops of a small tree in a degraded, low elevation, limestone forest on Sibutu Island (Gaulke 1995).
169780		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169780		threats	eng	The species is significantly threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, and the conversion of land to other uses. The population on Sibutu observed by Gaulke (1995) might be extirpated, as during a subseqent visit to the site, the forest where they were observed was found to have been completely logged.
169781		conservation	eng	The species is currently known only from the relatively well managed Mount Malindang Natural Park (C. Custodio pers. comm. 2007). Further field studies are needed to determine whether the species is endemic to Mount Malindang, or whether it occurs more widely on the Zamboanga Peninsula. It is possible that the species is associated with mountain forest streams, and natural history studies are needed to learn more about this snake.
169781		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from two localities on Mount Malindang, Zamboanga del Norte Province on the island of Mindanao. It is possible that it may be present in similar habitat on other mountains in the Zamboanga Peninsula (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is known from around 1,000 m asl.
169781		habitat	eng	This is a tropical moist forest species recorded alongside mountain streams, it is present in primary and possibly secondary forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). The forest on Mount Malindang begins about as low as 800 m asl, and the species may be present in these lower elevation forests (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). It may be an oviparous species.
169781		population	eng	There are currently only two rrecords of this snake, both from Mount Malindang.
169781		threats	eng	The leading threats to the forest on Mount Malindang are illegal timber extraction, and expanding agriculture (seemingly especially on the southeastern side) (C. Custodio and A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007).
169782		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.
169782		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Philippines, where the indistinct collection details of the type series, only 'Philippines' is recorded, means that the range remains very poorly known (Brown and Alcala 1980).
169782		habitat	eng	There currently appears to be no information available on the natural history of this species.
169782		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype.
169782		threats	eng	The threats to this species remain unknown.
169783		conservation	eng	This species is found in multiple protected areas, including on Samar and Leyte. Additional research is needed into the possible trade in this species for medicinal use.
169783		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been collected on the islands of Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao and Samar. It is found at elevations of around 200 to 900 m asl.
169783		habitat	eng	This appears to be a forest obligate species, restricted to primary and possibly mature second growth forest.
169783		population	eng	This large-bodied species appears to occur at low densities. It has only been collected a few times in the recent past.
169783		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation (including for agricultural conversion) is the major threat to this species. Forest disturbance, for instance through selective logging, is likely also a threat. It is not known with certainty if this species is collected for traditional medicinal use, and further studies are needed to determine this.
169784		conservation	eng	The species is found in a number of protected areas within its range. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
169784		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on Luzon, Mindoro (Sison 2001), Masbate, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Polilo and Catanduanes (though it is probably a species complex). It ranges from close to sea level to 1,100 m asl.
169784		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in a range of habitats (forests, secondary growth, highly disturbed areas, the edges of agricultural areas). It is a burrowing snake, found in both dry areas and near water, but may be slightly more common in riparian areas.
169784		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not known.
169784		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
169785		conservation	eng	The species was collected within the Quirino Protected Landscape. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
169785		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from Mount Lataan (at 900 m asl), on the western slopes of Sierra Madre mountain range, Barangay Disimungal, Municipality of Nagtipunan, Quirino Province.
169785		habitat	eng	There is little infromation currently available on the habitat and ecology of the species. The single specimen was first observed gliding/parachuting from the canopy (estimated 8-15 m) and was collected where it landed at 1.5 m above the ground on the trunk of a large tree (70-70 cm dbh).
169785		population	eng	It is currently known only from a single specimen.
169785		threats	eng	The potential major threat to the species is habitat loss due to deforestation from logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
169786		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in the Mount Maloindang protected area, although this requires confirmation. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, natural history and adaptability of this species.
169786		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Camiguin and Mindanao. On Mindanao, it has been recorded from the Zamboanga del Norte, the area of Lake Lanao and Mount Busa. It has been recorded from around 350 to 1,500 m asl.
169786		habitat	eng	Animals have reportedly been collected in moist soil under rotting logs and rocks, and also among rocks of stream beds, within forested areas (Brown and Alcala 1980). It is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat modification.
169786		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169786		threats	eng	There is active logging in areas from which this species has been recorded (e.g., around Lake Lanao), and it is presumably additionally threatened by conversion of forest to other uses.
169787		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas in eastern Luzon including the Cordilleras, and Mount Isarog Natural Park in the Bicol Region. It has been recorded from Aurora Memorial National Park (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.
169787		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon (in the Sierra Madre, Cordillera Region and Caramoan Peninsula) and Panay. The species has been collected at 850 m asl on Panay.
169787		habitat	eng	A specimen from Panay was collected on a rocky, sparsely vegetated mountain slope. On Luzon, the species was collected underneath rotten logs in primary and secondary forests (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats
169787		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species, and is known from fewer than 20 records.
169787		threats	eng	Deforestation resulting rom the ongoing conversion of land to agricultural use by various means, and through logging operations at a number of scales are the major threats to this species.
169788		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from protected areas on Luzon Island, from the Sibulan Watershed Reserve on Polillo Island and from proposed protected areas on Mindoro Island. Additional studies are needed to better determine the dependence of the species on forested areas.
169788		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands, where it has been recorded from Batan, Luzon, Mindoro, Catanduanes and Polillo. Animals have been found between 125 and 850 m asl.
169788		habitat	eng	This species occurs in in a range of habitats, from primary forests to very disturbed second growth. It has been collected in forested streams and in agricultural areas away from water. Recent specimens were found crossing a road in Mount Palay-Palay, Cavite (coastal forest area).
169788		population	eng	The species is patchily distributed and occurs at low abundances, but it is known from a wide elevational range on many islands.
169788		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation (conversion of land to agricultural use and logging).
169789		conservation	eng	Studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and possible threats to this poorly-known species.
169789		distribution	eng	This poorly known snake might be endemic to the Philippines, as it is known only from the 1846 holotype labelled "Manlia, Philippines" (Ota 2000). It is possible that the species was not collected from the Philippines, but was brought to the country and mistakenly tagged as collected in Manila.
169789		habitat	eng	There appears to be little, if anything, known about the habitat or ecology of this species.
169789		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
169789		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169790		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded within a number of protected areas on Negros. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species. Specific research is needed into the persistence of populations in deforested areas.
169790		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Cebu, Masbate, Panay, Pan de Azucar, and Calagna-an, and may be present on Guimaras Island. There are historical records from Luzon, Mindanao, and the Calamianes Islands, but presence on these islands needs to be verified.
169790		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in areas with primary, secondary or old growth tropical moist forest cover; it also appears to persist on islands without forest.
169790		population	eng	It can be a fairly common species in parts of its range (such as on Negros Island).
169790		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation (and especially clear-cutting) may be the main threat to this species. However, it appears to persist on islands without forest.
169791		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
169791		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon (including Mount Isarog), Tablas and Marinduque.
169791		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. It may be associated with forest habitats, however, this requires confirmation. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.
169791		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species. It appears to be known from very few specimens.
169791		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169792		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species. It likely occurs within some protected areas.
169792		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It has been collected recently from disturbed areas in low elevation, below 200 m asl (Irawan near Puerto Princesa, and near Brooke's Point in Southern Palawan), and appears to have a wide range on the island.
169792		habitat	eng	While there are few details available on the natural history of this species, it appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance, with animals being found in highly degraded areas (such as bamboo stands).
169792		population	eng	Little is known about this species, but it may possibly be widespread with a generally low abundance (this is typical of genus).
169792		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
169793		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this little-known species.
169793		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it ias known only from the type locality of Anuling Mountain, at the eastern tip of the Caramoan Peninsula on Luzon Island. It was collected at 150m asl (Wynn and Leviton 1993, McDiarmid<em> et al</em>. 1999).
169793		habitat	eng	Further details are needed on the life history of this species.
169793		population	eng	There is little information about the abundance of this species.
169793		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169794		conservation	eng	The area in which the species was found is protected within Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, abundance, threats, and conservation status of this poorly-known species.
169794		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands, where it is known only from Luzon, with a single specimen collected at Balbalan and another at Kalinga, both collected in 1917. There is a record from Mindoro, although this may be in error. The specimens on Luzon were collected at around 850 m asl.
169794		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this little-known snake.
169794		population	eng	This species is known only from two old 1917 specimens.
169794		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The area of Luzon where the species was collected is a mix of forest and agricultural areas, and has probably not changed much over the past 100 years.
169795		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Twin Lakes Balinsasayaw Natural Park. Further field surveys are needed within remnant areas of forest on Negros to locate additional populations of this species. There is a need to actively protect areas of suitable forest habitat.
169795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Negros Island in the Philippines, where it has been reported from Cuernos de Negros and Ayungon, in the central part of the island (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It may be present in norther Negros, although this requires confirmations. It has an elevational range of 500 to 1,600 m asl.
169795		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial to subfossorial species, found amongst the forest leaf litter, humus and rotting logs. It has been collected in both primary and secondary forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169795		population	eng	This snake appears to be naturally rare, and is known from very few specimens.
169795		threats	eng	This species is restricted to forested areas. It is threatened by general deforestation resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use (slash and burn 'kaingin') and logging operations.
169796		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed to better determine the current distribution of this species and to more clearly understand its adaptability to habitat modification.
169796		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south of the island of Negros in the Philippines, where there are records from the localities of the Lake Balinsasayao area; Camp Look-out; Valencia; Mount Talinis and Cuernos de Negros. The species is poorly surveyed, and may range over much of Negros. It is possible that the species is also present on the island of Panay, however this needs confirmation (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It ranges between 300 and 1,100 m asl.
169796		habitat	eng	This arboreal species has been recorded from dipterocarp and submontane tropical moist forests, and from coconut groves at Cuernos de Negros. It has been found at elevations of about 300 to 1,100 m. It is an ovoviparous species.
169796		population	eng	It appears to be abundant at Cuernos de Negros in coconut groves. It is only encountered through the use of very directed surveying methods.
169796		threats	eng	This species is threatened by ongoing deforestation in the lower elevations of Mount Talinis and Cuernos de Negros.
169797		conservation	eng	This species is found widely within and outside protected areas.
169797		distribution	eng	This species is enedmic to the Philippines. Based on specimens examined by Alcala and Brown (1980), the subspecies <em>S. j. jagori</em> is present on the islands of Basilan, Camiguin, Bohol, Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, Polillo, Marinduque, Luzon and Mindoro; with <em>S. j. grandis</em> occurring on the islands of Caluya, Cebu, Masbate, Negros, Panay, Sicogon, Guimaras and Gigante. It is found between sea level and 1,000 m asl.
169797		habitat	eng	Animals can be found on the forest floor throughout the dipterocarp and submontane zones. Populations can persist within older secondary forest and abaca (banana and hemp plantations) patches bordered by forest. The species can also be found in villages and agricultural areas.
169797		population	eng	This is a common to abundant species.
169797		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
169798		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Mount Malindang Natural Park, and may be present within the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary. There is a need for further field surveys in order to learn more about the distribution, natural history and threats to this little-known species.
169798		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the Diuata mountain range, Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Malindang, Agusan Marsh, Mount Apo (Baracatan), and Mount Busa (South Cotabato). It may be present throughout much of the mid-elevation forest of Mindanao (A. Diesmos and R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It has been reported from sites between 600 and 1,200 m asl, but has also been recorded from the lower elevation Agusan Marsh.
169798		habitat	eng	This may be a primary tropical moist forest obligate. Other species in the genus have been recorded from secondary forest, and this may also the the case with this snake.
169798		population	eng	It is known only from a few scattered records.
169798		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is deforestation, resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use (including slash and burn 'kaingin' cultivation), development of pineapple plantations, logging (including illegal extraction) activities, and mining.
169799		conservation	eng	The species may be present in the Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
169799		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently known only from the area of Barangay Balbalasang in the Municipality of Balbalan, Kalinga Province, Luzon Island, the Philippines (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007). Specimens have been collected between 900 and 1,050 m asl (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007).
169799		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in an area now dominated by pine forest and grassland or brushy secondary growth, and from cultivated land surrounded by a lower montane to midmontane transitional tropical moist forest dominated by oaks (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007). The species is fossorial or semi-fossorial, and was probably collected by chance in agricultural areas where the ground had been disturbed (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although it might be able to persist in these modified habitats, it is likely to have an original habitat of montane tropical moist forest, and it is possible that both known specimens were washed down from higher mountains during heavy rains (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007).
169799		population	eng	It appears to be currently known only from the small type series.
169799		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169800		conservation	eng	This species is present in the NW-Panay Protected Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.
169800		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Panay (collected at Makato and likely to range more widely), Inampulugan (between Guimaras Island and Negros Island), Boracay (northwest of Panay Island) and Sibuyan (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It might also be present on the islands of Negros and Guimaras (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It ranges from close to sea level to around 330 m asl.
169800		habitat	eng	This fossorial species has been recorded amongst ground cover in patches of secondary forest, coconut groves and bamboo groves (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000).
169800		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169800		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.
169801		conservation	eng	The species is found in Mount Canlaon Natural Park on the island of Negros. It is relatively common in the NW-Panay Protected Area. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution of the species, and the report of this species from Luzon Island.
169801		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Panay, Masbate, Cebu, and Romblon. The presence of this species on Luzon appears to be based on a single specimen, possibly of <em>P. oxycephalum</em>, collected in 1959. Further field studies are needed to confirm the presence of this species on Luzon. It is found from around 200 to 1,600 m asl.
169801		habitat	eng	This snake is semi-fossorial, being found under rotting leaves on the forest floor of both primary and secondary forests. It has been collected at 600 m on the edge of an agricultural area, within secondary forest, in central Negros. During and after strong rains animals can be found on the forest floor and on forest-trails (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169801		population	eng	The species appears to be quite common in appropriate habitat.
169801		threats	eng	This species is restricted to forested areas. It is threatened by general deforestation resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.
169802		conservation	eng	This species is found widely within and outside of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species.
169802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Bataan, Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes, and recently from Calayan Island. A record of this species from Lubang Island is a misidentification (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It is found from the lowlands to around 1,200 m asl.
169802		habitat	eng	Animals can be found in forested areas, but are also very common in agricultural areas, coastal scrub, and grasslands.
169802		population	eng	In general, this seems to be a fairly common snake.
169802		threats	eng	There are not believed to be any major threats to this species.
169803		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of forest on Dalupiri Island, and to undertake additional research into the distribution (especially for the islands of Calayan and Camiguin Norte), ecological requirements, and threats to this little-known species.
169803		distribution	eng	This Philippines endemic species is known from a 1990 survey on Dalupiri Island, in the Babuyan Island Group, Cagayan Province (Ota and Ross 1994). Recent specimens may have been collected from Calayan and Camiguin Norte Islands, although this needs confirmation (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). The known range is 52km2, though if confirmed, the additional records would expand the range to perhaps 300 km².
169803		habitat	eng	It seems to be only known with certainty from three specimens collected along a forest trail (Ota and Ross 1994).
169803		population	eng	The species is currently known only from three specimens.
169803		threats	eng	The forest on Dalupiri Island is highly fragmented and the remaining habitat is continuing to degrade because of ranching activities in the area. There are forest remnants that may support the species on cliffs. Although the three confirmed specimens were collected in forest, further studies into the threats to the species are needed as closely related species are often not restricted to forest.
169804		conservation	eng	This species is present in some protected areas, including Mount Apo and Mount Malindang on the island of Mindanao. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
169804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (including a recent collection on Mount Apo at 950m asl), Camiguin Sur, Basilan, Samar (although not recorded in a recent survey [J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007]), Leyte, Malindang and may be present on Cebu.  It occurs from close to sea level to around 1200 m asl.
169804		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is often associated with aerial ferns and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plants. It has been recorded from lowland and lower montane tropical moist forest, and is fairly common (on Camiguin Sur) in coconut groves.
169804		population	eng	This is considered to be a fairly common species in suitable habitat.
169804		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It seems to be well adapted to conversion of natural habitats to other uses.
169805		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in protected areas on the islands of Negros and Panay. Further studies are needed into the natural history and distribution of this species.
169805		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Samar (an old record), Negros (locations include Cauayan, Negros Oriental, Cuernos de Negros, Maite River-north peak of Cuernos de Negros and Camp Lookout), Bohol (historical record from Sierra Bullones at 300 m asl), Siquijor (historical record with no locality given) and Cebu (historical record with no locality given). There are additional recent records of this species from the islands of Panay (where it occurs in the dipterocarp forests on the NW-Panay Peninsula, and at least in the northern parts [Pandan, Sebaste, Culasi] of the West-Panay-Mountain-Range) (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2003), and Leyte (collected in 2002 at Baybay), although the identification of these specimens needs to be confirmed (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It occurs at elevations of 300 to 1100 m asl.
169805		habitat	eng	This species is known from both primary and secondary dipterocarp and submontane forest. Recent collections at Camp Lookout, Negros, took place in very degraded forest. Animals are often found in the leaf axils of aerial ferns. The eggs are found mainly on the leaves of <em>Pandanus</em> sp., but even are laid in crevices of bamboo buildings and fences within disturbed forests (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169805		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population density is relatively high in suitable habitats (lowland dipterocarp forest, secondary forest) on Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169805		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, conversion of land to agricultural use and similar activities.
169806		conservation	eng	This species is found within some protected areas in central Palawan. There is a need to maintain remaining areas of suitable lowland forest in Palawan. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species on both Palawan and Mindoro, and to better determine the species tolerance of habitat modification.
169806		distribution	eng	This lowland species is known only from the islands of Palawan and Mindoro in the Philippines. On Palawan, it has been recorded from the centre and the north of the island (at El Nido); on Mindoro, it is known only from a single specimen collected at the southern tip of the island (J.C. Gonzalez pers. com. 2007). Animals have been recorded between 50 and 150 m asl.
169806		habitat	eng	This rarely seen arboreal lizard has been recorded from primary dipterocarp forest, coastal forests and disturbed, scrubby coastal vegetation (although the species persistence here is uncertain). Within forest, most specimens have been taken in aerial ferns situated 7 to 28 m in the trees, with a few animals found on tree trunks.
169806		population	eng	It appears to be either a rare, or at least a difficult to collect, species.
169806		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. Most lowland forest in Palawan has now been cleared. While there is still some lowland forest in the Puerto Princesa area, where this species is found, this is likely to be lost through development of the area over the next five years.
169807		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Additional studies into the taxonomic relationship between <em>Gekko mindorensis</em> and <em>G. monarchus</em> are needed, as are further studies into the distribution of these two species.
169807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippine. It is often confused with <em>Gekko monarchus</em>, but has currently been recorded from the islands of Mindoro, Luzon (Zambales), Calagna-an, Caluya, Carabao, Negros, Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008), Cebu, Mactan, Semirara, Sicogon, Lubang, Masbate and Catanduanes. It ranges from near sea level to around 900 m asl.
169807		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of microhabitats including among detritus on the forest floor, under rotting logs in forests, beneath bark, on the surface of stumps and living trees, and in arboreal ferns at heights 25 to 50 feet. Animals can be found in caves and rock crevices. The species tends to congregate around rivers and streams, but this is not considered to be their primary habitat.
169807		population	eng	Although there is little information on the abundance of this species, it does appear to be more common in limestone forest.
169807		threats	eng	The conversion of land to agricultural use, and logging for timber are the main threats to the species. The disturbance of caves and limestone areas is considered to be an additional threat.
169808		conservation	eng	It seems likely that this species is present within some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species as a whole.
169808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded on the islands of Bohol, Lapinin Chico, Leyte, Samar (McGuire and Alcala 2000).
169808		habitat	eng	This species is found in relatively open habitats, and it seems likely that, prior to logging in the Philippines, it occurred along the edges of forest clearings and in relatively open areas of primary and secondary. The species is now largely found in open coconut plantations where it is often the only species of <em>Draco</em> encountered.
169808		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169808		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169809		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Mount Apo and Mount Malindang protected areas. Further research is needed into the threats to this species, in particular from mining and dam construction, and also into the persistence of this species in disturbed habitats.
169809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Bohol, Mindanao (localities include Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Apo, Agusan Marsh and Cotabato) and Samar. It may be present on the islands of Dinagat and Siargao. It is found from close to sea level and 1,200 m asl.
169809		habitat	eng	This water snake is associated with streams and rivers in primary forested areas. It has been recorded in forest remnants and at the forest edge.
169809		population	eng	It appears to be a relatively rare snake with only a single, or very few, specimens recorded from each site.
169809		threats	eng	The species is threatened by ongoing deforestation over its range. More localized threats include mining activities and the construction of dams.
169810		conservation	eng	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from the protected area on the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169810		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in south central Mindanao (Mount Apo), Samar, Bohol, Cebu, Panay, Tablas, Sibuyan, Guimaras, Masbate, Mindoro, Calagna-an, Caluya, Sibay, Boracay and adjacent small islands. There are three recently collected specimens from Luzon Island that may be assigned to this species (R. Brown and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It occurs at elevations of sea level to around 700 m asl.
169810		habitat	eng	The species is very common in coastal coconut plantations, with animals often found in aerial ferns. It is present in the dipterocarp forest of NW-Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It probably occurs in a wide range of habitat types, but is especially common in agroforesty areas and coconut groves.
169810		population	eng	It can be abundant in suitable habitat.
169810		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
169811		conservation	eng	Although the species has not been recorded with certainty from a protected area, Buhisan dam is part of the Central Cebu Protected Landscape. There is an urgent need to secure the protection of remaining fragments of tropical moist forest on Cebu.
169811		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cebu Island in the Philippines (Brown and Alcala 1980). It was initially collected by Brown and Rabor (1967), who recorded it from 40km southwest of Cebu City (at the localities of Tapal, Mantalungon, Barile and Buhisan). It has also been possibly collected at Buhisan dam, and may be present at Alcoy and Tabunan (L.M. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2007). The map shows the approximate area of these localities.
169811		habitat	eng	Animals have been reported from among ground cover (leaf litter, logs and coconut husks) in primary and mixed secondary tropical moist forest (including coconut and banana trees) (Brown and Alcala 1980). It is an ovoviviparous species.
169811		population	eng	The abundance of this species is poorly known. Brown and Rabor (1957) collected 13 specimens including the holotype.
169811		threats	eng	Much of the original forest of Cebu has now been cleared, with remaining suitable habitat threatened through conversion to agro-forestry systems (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Gmelina arborea</span> and teak plantations), mango plantations, and for the production of cut-flowers.
169812		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
169812		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Marinduque, Bohol, Camotes, Luzon, Mindanao and Mindoro (McDiarmid <em>et al</em>. 1999).
169812		habitat	eng	While little is known about the species natural history, it is likely to be found in loose soil and leaf litter within wooded habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
169812		population	eng	There is no information on the abundance of this species.
169812		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169813		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in Mount Apo Natural Park. Mount Hilong-Hilong appears likely to become a protected area in the near future. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
169813		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is endemic to the south and east of the island of Mindanao. It has been recorded from Mount Apo and Mount Hilong-Hilong (Agusan del Norte), but has not been collected from Zamboanga (Brown and Alcala 1978. It occurs at elevations of 550 to 1,400 m asl.
169813		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is present in both dipterocarp and submontane forest. It seems possible that this species will be present in both primary and secondary forest. Most specimens have been collected from the leaf axils of aerial ferns and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus</span>, with a single animal collected from the forest floor.
169813		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169813		threats	eng	The species is likely to be generally threatened by deforestation on Mindanao resulting from logging, and conversion of forested areas to other uses.
169814		conservation	eng	The only confirmed collection took place within the proposed Samar Island Natural Park. There is a need to ensure that natural habitat is adequately maintained within the species known range. Additional field studies are needed on Samar to better understand the distribution, natural history and threats to this snake.
169814		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the island of Samar in the Philippines where it is currently known only with certainty from the type specimen collected at "Lungib Ginbagsangan, 12°00'00"N-124°55'40"E, about 32 km by air NNE of Catbalogan, 40 m asl [Barrio Kag-Toto-Og; Provincia Samar Occidental (= Western Samar Province)]" (Lanza 1999). It is possible that additional specimens may have recently been collected, or are currently mislabeled in collections, however this needs to be confirmed (J.C. Gonzalez and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169814		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the natural history of this species. Lanza (1999) records that "The specimen was collected at 7 a.m., right at the entrance of a cave situated 20 m above the bed of La Blanca Aurora River, on a steep slope covered by a thick forest".
169814		population	eng	It appears to be currently known only from a single specimen.
169814		threats	eng	There is heavy deforestation underway in the area of collection, often through the use of "kaingin" slash and burn agriculture and mining activities. It is not known to what degree this habitat conversion is impacting populations of this poorly known snake.
169815		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from numerous protected areas. Additional general studies are needed into the possible threats to this species.
169815		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Catanduanes, Inampulugan, Leyte, Samar (Maren Gaulke pers. comm. 2008), Luzon, Mindoro, Lubang, Mindanao, Negros, Cebu (Juan Carlos Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007), the Polillo Islands, Bohol and Panay (Alcala 1986, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Animals have been found between sea level and 2,500 m asl.
169815		habitat	eng	This species has been found mostly in lowland and montane tropical moist forest, but has also been recorded from disturbed habitats. Ferner <em>et al</em>. (2000) recorded an animal on Panay in a coconut tree adjacent to forest at 900 m asl.
169815		population	eng	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species (Alcala 1986), and it seems to be difficult to find.
169815		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified for this species. It is possible that general deforestation and habitat fragmentation may represent a threat to some populations, however, the species has recently been recorded from disturbed areas. There might be some limited collection of this species for the pet trade, although this requires further investigation.
169816		conservation	eng	Animals have been recorded within the proposed Mount Mantalingahan protected area.
169816		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines, where it is known only from Thumb Peak (Salakot) and the Brooke's Point areas of Palawan Island. It has been collected from 300 to 900 m asl.
169816		habitat	eng	It is usually found close to streams in tropical moist forest, although a single specimen was collected in a drier open forest away from water at 900 m asl
169816		population	eng	This species is common along streams.
169816		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation (including mining activities) is the major threat to this species.
169817		conservation	eng	There are records of this snake from the Mount Canla-on protected area. Remaining areas of lowland tropical moist forest, most especially within the largely deforested Visayan Islands, urgently need enforced protection. Additional research is needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this snake.
169817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (northeastern Mindanao, Diwata Mountain Range), Negros, Tablas, Panay and Cebu. There is a single old record from Luzon (from "Manila") which is uncertain and needs to be verified. It seems to be a lowland species recorded from around sea level to about 800 m asl.
169817		habitat	eng	This is a poorly-known species, with few details on its natural history other than is appears to be a snake of lowland forests found under rotting logs and forest floor debris (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is semifossorial, and has been observed actively hunting for frogs during the daytime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169817		population	eng	It is fairly common in undisturbed and disturbed lowland forests and forest edges in the northern part of Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169817		threats	eng	The continuing loss of lowland tropical moist forest in the Philippines, through logging activities, conversion of land to agricultural use, and other activities (such as mining) are considered to be serious threats to this species.
169818		conservation	eng	It is possible that species is present in the Mount Matutum Protected Landscape, although this requires confirmation. Field surveys are needed to relocate this species.
169818		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has only been recorded from the area of south central Mindano Island, the Philippines. The type locality is Glan in Cotabato Province (Taylor 1925). The species may occur more widely at low elevations (probably below 1,200 m asl) (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). The range map for this species is highly approximate.
169818		habitat	eng	There are currently no certain data on the habitat requirements of this species. It is presumed to be a fossorial species that lives within leaf litter, and other ground cover, possibly in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). Congeners have been recorded from areas of agroforestry.
169818		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169818		threats	eng	It is possible that the major threat to this species is deforestation, resulting in some areas from the conversion of land to pineapple and oil palm plantations.
169819		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species falls within the protected Cabadbaran watershed. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169819		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from the south side of Mount Hilong-hilong (at 1,234-1,700 m asl); from the Sipangpang municipal watershed (75-780 m asl); from Surigao del Sur and San Isidro (Mount Hamiguitan 545-785 m asl). It could range more widely within the mountains of Mindanao. The taxonomic identity of many of these records needs confirmation. It ranges between 75 and 1,540 m asl.
169819		habitat	eng	Brown and Alcala (1980) report that it can be found under leaves on the forest floor. There are few additional details concerning the natural history of this species.
169819		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169819		threats	eng	The species appears to be principally threatened by ongoing or proposed mining operations. Local slash and burn agriculture 'kaingin' only reaches 700 m asl in the areas where this species has been recorded.
169820		conservation	eng	It is unclear if this species is truly present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to review the taxonomy of the Philippines <em>Gonocephalus</em> to better determine the distributions of the three species.
169820		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. Its distribution in very unclear owing to misidentifications between this species and <em>Gonocephalus semperi</em> and <em>G. sophiae</em>.
169820		habitat	eng	It is presumably present in secondary forest habitats, similar to those recorded for <em>Gonocephalus semperi</em> and <em>G. sophiae</em>.
169820		population	eng	The abundance of this species is difficult to determine because of identification problems.
169820		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear, but it may be threatened by deforestation through logging activities and conversions of forest to agricultural land.
169821		conservation	eng	This species is found in numerous protected areas. Studies on its collection for the medicinal trade and its ability to persist in disturbed areas away from forest are needed.
169821		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Bohol, Dinagat, Jolo, Lapac, Leyte, Lugus, Mindanao, Ponson, Samar, Sanga-sanga, Siargao and Tawi-tawi. It is found at elevations of sea level to around 600 m asl.
169821		habitat	eng	This appears to be a species of primary and secondary forest, but may be found on coconut trees immediately adjacent to and contiguous with natural forest. It is not present in open plantations of coconut trees (Gaulke 1993).
169821		population	eng	This species appears to be very common in coconut stands, even in heavily disturbed areas (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It is common in the lowland forest of Sanga Sanga Island (Sulu Archipelago, Tawi Tawi Group), with often two to four individuals observed on one tree (Gaulke 1993).
169821		threats	eng	The conversion of forested land to other uses is likely to be a localized threat to this species. In general, this genus is collected due to a belief that they are beneficial for asthma, however, at present, this is likely not a major threat to this species.
169822		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Further studies are needed into the potential threats to this species.
169822		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Samar, Luzon, Mindoro, Calotcot, Sibuyan, Lubang, and Sicogon Islands. It ranges from close to sea level to around 1,000 m asl.
169822		habitat	eng	This species is found under leaves and logs as well as in open spaces on the forest floor. They are found in both dipterocarp tropical moist forest and secondary growth. Animals have also been collected from dry stream beds.
169822		population	eng	This species is fairly abundant.
169822		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species.  It is hunted for local consumption by a tribal group on Mindoro although it is not known if this represents a significant threat to the species..
169823		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas on Samar, Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao. Further studies are needed into the possibility of trade in this species.
169823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao and Samar. It occurs at elevations of around 200 to 800 m asl.
169823		habitat	eng	This species is found primary and secondary forests, with animals also recorded from adjacent coconut groves.
169823		population	eng	The population abundance of this species is not known.
169823		threats	eng	The species is threatened by ongoing deforestation by timber operations and conversion of land to agricultural use. It is not known with certainty if this species is collected for traditional medicinal use, and further studies are needed to determine this.
169824		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
169824		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species is known only from the indefinite locality of "Filipinas", and is probably from Luzon Isand in the Philippines (Taylor 1922, McDiarmid <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is not mapped here owing to the uncertainty of its range.
169824		habitat	eng	There are no details of the species ecological needs.
169824		population	eng	It appears to be known only from the holotype specimen.
169824		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169825		conservation	eng	Within the Philippines this species has been recorded from the Mount Malindang protected area, the proposed Samar Island Natural Park, Mount Apo Natural Park and Pasonanca Natural Park. There is a need to conserve areas of intact primary forest within the range of this species.
169825		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is represented by two subspecies. The nominate form, <em>Cyclocorus nuchalis nuchalis</em>, is found on the islands of Mindanao (localities include Mount Malindang, Diuata Mountains, Mount Apo, Mount Hilong-Hilong and Pasonanca Natural Park [A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007]), Siargo (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007), Camiguin, Leyte and Samar; <em>C. n. taylori</em> is present on Basilan. It is found up to 1,400 m asl (Mount Malindang).
169825		habitat	eng	This is a semi-fossorial species of tropical moist forest. Animals can be found hiding under leaf litter, logs, and similar ground cover. It has been recorded from riparian forest, forest remnants, secondary forest, and in coconut plantations at the forest edge (J.C. Gonzalez and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is an oviparous species.
169825		population	eng	This is a secretive, and rarely encountered species.
169825		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by deforestation, through conversion of land to agricultural use, plantations and logging for timber.
169826		conservation	eng	Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169826		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines.
169826		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species is found amongst humus and leaf litter in forest. Other members of this genus have been found in disturbed areas.
169826		population	eng	It appears to be known only from the initial collection.
169826		threats	eng	It is believed to be threatened by deforestation resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, and logging operations.
169827		conservation	eng	The lake is a proposed protected area, and fishing within the lake appears to be regulated. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This is a very poorly known species, and further studies on its ecology, abundance, and range are urgently needed. There have been no detailed studies on this species since the early 1990s.
169827		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has only been recorded from Lake Buhi (19 km²), on the Bicol Peninsula of Luzon (Murphy 2007). A few additional specimens were collected in the early 1990s, but there have been no other sightings since this time (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). A number of freshwater fish species present in Lake Buhi have also been found in two small neighbouring lakes (including the protected Lake Manapao), and it is considered possible that <em>C. microlepis </em>may also be present here, although this needs confirmation. Lake Buhi lies at around 200 m elevation (Karns <em>et al</em>. 2000).
169827		habitat	eng	This is a poorly-known freshwater snake, possibly with similar ecological requirements to the congener <em>C. rynchops</em>. Very little information is available on the natural history of this species. Individuals of this species are sometimes removed from shallow water in fish ponds near Lake Buhi during the night (Murphy 2007). This species most likely uses the forest floor habitat surrounding the lake. It is also likely that this species can live in relatively disturbed and modified habitats.
169827		population	eng	There are currently no data available on the abundance of this species.&#160; It is considered fairly common within its limited range (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009), however, its known distribution is a single lake (19 km²<sup></sup>) that continues to experience habitat degradation due to human encroachment.
169827		threats	eng	The area surrounding the lake is fairly densely populated by humans which has caused habitat degradation of the shores of the lake and decreased water quality. Much of the forest habitat around the lake has been cleared with little remaining forest in patchy, secondary growth. Another threat may include pollution from domestic waste causing habitat degradation. Direct persecution from humans is also a possible threat (J.C. Gonsalez pers. comm. 2009).
169828		conservation	eng	It is possible that the species might occur in the nearby Balbalasang-Balbalan protected area, however, this requires confirmation. General field studies are needed into the distribution, ecological requirements and potential threats to this poorly-known species.
169828		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens collected at circa 1,980 m asl in mountains near Banaue, Mountain Province, northern Luzon Island, the Philippines (Taylor 1963).
169828		habitat	eng	Taylor (1963), does not provide any details on the habitat and ecology for either of the two known specimens. It is not known if it can persist in degraded habitats.
169828		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
169828		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169829		conservation	eng	There are ongoing projects on Panay to conserve remaining areas of suitable habitat, and on the biology and habitat requirements of this lizard, run by non-governmental organizations (Biologische Patenschaften e.V., Eschborn [BIOPAT] and Philippine Endemic Species Conservation Project [PESCP]). The species is present in the Central Panay and North West Panay protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
169829		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Panay in the Philippines. It is generally distributed  in the still forested parts of the mountain ranges of northwestern and western Panay. Animals have been recorded from around 200 to 1,000 m asl.
169829		habitat	eng	This highly arboreal species is associated with large trees in primary lowland tropical moist forest. It has been recorded between 200 to 1,000 m asl, however, it is particularly rare above 600 m asl. This is a highly specialized frugivorous monitor lizard. It reportedly needs Dipterocarpaceae as sleeping places (Gaulke 2005). It is unlikely to be present in modified habitats, especially where food trees are absent.
169829		population	eng	It appears to be a very rare species. Only twelve animals have been caught since 2002.
169829		threats	eng	The species is considered to be very threatened by the loss and degradation of its lowland forest habitat, through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. In addition to the threat of habitat loss, this lizard is a favourite food animal, possibly related to its frugivorous diet, and overhunting represents a serious threat to the species.
169830		conservation	eng	The species is within the proposed Samar Island Natural Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169830		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the type locality of "Tarabucan, four miles southeast of spur of Sigarag Mountains, Matuguinao Municipality, extreme northern Western Samar".
169830		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known, but it is likely to be associated with forest or similar wooded habitats.
169830		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype.
169830		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. If it is associated with forest habitats, then deforestation through logging and conversion of land to alternative uses are probable threats.
169831		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.
169831		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (from Mount Apo, Sarangani, and near to sea level), Camiguin, Leyte, Samar (including Mount Huraw at 400 m asl), Bohol (950 to 1,200 m asl), Basilan and the Sulu Archipelago (from Takela and Tiepono). It is found between sea level and 1,200 m asl.
169831		habitat	eng	This species has been found under leaves and rotting logs, and between tree buttresses in the dipterocarp and submontane forest. At Sarangani it can be found in scrub vegetation amongst most types of gorund cover (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). On Samar it has been found in the overhangs of cliffs (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).
169831		population	eng	In general, this is a common species.
169831		threats	eng	There is some localized threat to this species by the conversion of land to other uses, including the local 'kaingin' agriculture.
169832		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Central Panay Mountains Natural Park. Further studies are needed to more fully determine the range of this species. There is a need to prevent further loss of suitable forest habitat on Panay.
169832		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mount Madja-as on the island of Panay, in the Philippines. It is considered possible that this species may also be present in central Panay, although this requires confirmation (A. Diesmos pers. comm., 2007). It has been collected at elevations between 900 and 1,125 m asl.
169832		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded in the transition zone between lowland and montane forest. Most specimens have been collected in leaf little and loose soil on the forest floor (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997).
169832		population	eng	It is known from very few specimens.
169832		threats	eng	Although there are no major threats to the species at present, there is a plausible threat that local 'kaingin' agriculture could move into the higher elevations where this species is found.
169833		conservation	eng	The species is found in several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the islands of Negros, Inampulugan, Panay, Boracay, Calagna-an, Caluya, Sicogon, Sibuyan, Tablas, Masbate, Camiguin Norte, and Luzon (northern cordillera, northern coast and Calayan Islands). A historical record of this species from Jolo is an error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It ranges from near sea level to 1,600 m asl in the lower part of the submontane zone.
169833		habitat	eng	Animals are found in loose soil and humus under leaves and rotting logs on the floor of primary and secondary tropical moist forest. It can persist in moderately disturbed areas.
169833		population	eng	The species is very common in forest.
169833		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to severe deforestation is the major threat to this species.
169834		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas.
169834		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Sibuyan,  Mindoro, Tablas, Calagna-anon, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Poro, Pacijan, Danjugan, Guimaras, Ponson, Sicogon, Gigante South, Bohol, Siquijor, Samar, Leyte, Camiguin and Mindanao. It ranges between sea level and 1,650 m asl.
169834		habitat	eng	This species is a forest obligate, found in both old growth and secondary forest. Specimens have been taken from beneath detritus such as rotting leaves and logs and on the open forest floor.
169834		population	eng	This species is fairly abundant in appropriate habitat.
169834		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.
169835		conservation	eng	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.
169835		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It is known only with certainty from the original 1959 collection from the Victoria Range (three specimens). There was a possible recent sighting of this species at Irawan (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). The elevation of collection is not recorded, but it seems likely that this is a high elevation species.
169835		habitat	eng	Brown and Alcala (1980) record that two of the three known specimens were found beneath logs on the forest floor. The Victoria Range is generally comprised of ultramafic soil, with stunted forests.
169835		population	eng	It remains known only from three specimens.
169835		threats	eng	Mining is a major threat to the Victoria Range, and the government has encouraged investment from mining companies. It is unclear as to what degree these activities impact this species.
169836		conservation	eng	Although this species is present within the North West Panay Peninsula protected area, most of the known localities are outside of the protected area (which does not include the entire peninsula) (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Further studies are needed to better determine the full extent of the species distribution.
169836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Panay in the Philippines. It has currently only beed recorded from the northwest Peninsula of the island. It is found from coastal areas up to around 300 m asl.
169836		habitat	eng	Animals are generally associated with limestone caves and around limestone outcrops, in both primary and secondary forest areas, and also in disturbed areas adjacent to forest.
169836		population	eng	It is relatively abundant within its limited range (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169836		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although applications for the mining of marble have been made in the past, these have been rejected as the proposed location is within the North West Panay Peninsula protected area. However, should any new applications for mining be successful then this would likely be a significant threat to the species. One perhaps minor threat from local visitors to the caves, is the habit of lighting fires inside, and using torches, sometimes destroying gecko egg clutches with these fires (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169837		conservation	eng	This species is found widely within and outside of protected areas.
169837		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. There are two subspecies, <em>S. a. abdictus</em> is presently known from the islands of Mindanao, Camiguin, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, Dinagat and Siargao; <em>S. a. aquilonius</em> is known from southern Luzon, Polilo, Catanduanes, and Lubang. It ranges from sea level to around 1,000 m asl.
169837		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest and disturbed areas (coconut groves, banana plantations). <em>S. abdictus</em> specimens were collected among the leaves and under rotting logs on the forest floor, and among rocks and wood along stream beds.
169837		population	eng	This species in abundant in a range of habitats.
169837		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a localized threat to this species, though it persists in degraded areas.
169838		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Additional studies into the taxonomic relationship between <em>C. annulatus</em> and <em>C. philippinicus</em> are needed.
169838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and while there is some confusion with <em>C. philippinicus</em>, it appears to be present on the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Jolo, Bohol, Camiguin, Leyte, Cebu, Pacijan, Negros, Tawi Tawi, Palawan and several islands in central and western Philippines. It is found from near sea level to elevations around 1,200 m asl.
169838		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of microhabitats, including among detritus on the forest floor, under rotting logs in forests, beneath bark, on the surface of stumps and living trees, and in arboreal ferns at heights 25 to 50 feet. Animals have been recorded from secondary forest (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000), and from coconut trees and piles of husks (Brown and Alcala 1978). It seems to congregate in suitable habitat close to rivers and streams.
169838		population	eng	There is little information on the abundance of this species, however they seem to be rarer at higher elevations.
169838		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
169839		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Malagos Watershed protected area, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed into this species as a whole.
169839		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Bongao, Jolo, Mindanao (including atypical specimens from Malagos and Mount Apo), Sanga-Sanga, Siasi and Simunul; and is possibly present on the island of Tawi-Tawi. It ranges from sea level to about 1,500 m asl.
169839		habitat	eng	Populations of this species have been found in second growth forest and in coconut groves adjacent to secondary forest. It is an oviparous species.
169839		population	eng	McGuire and Alcala (2000), report that this species has previously been found to be common in the Sulu Archipelago, and note that it is likely to remain common in view of its adaptability to modified habitats. It is a very common inhabitant of coconut groves and trees in cultivated areas of the Zamboanga Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. obs. 2006/2007), and was very common on several visited islands of the Sulu-Archipeligo at the beginning of 1990s (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). The population of this species may be increasing with the conversion of closed forest to more suitable open habitats.
169839		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is possible that some local declines have occurred through the use of pesticides, however, this requires verification.
169840		conservation	eng	The species is found within the Catanduanes Watershed Forest Reserve (management board active since 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to Catanduanes Island (about 1,500 km²). It has been recorded from around 200 to 800 m asl.
169840		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, as well as from forest edge areas.
169840		population	eng	This species is moderately common.
169840		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.
169841		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve any remaining areas of suitable forest close to the type locality of the species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
169841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from the type locality of Malalag, Kibwalan, Davao del Sur in South Cotabato, Mindanao Island Island. The location of the type locality appears to be unclear and the species is not mapped here.
169841		habitat	eng	There appears to be little recorded about the habitat from which this species was collected. Other members of this genus usually require reasonably intact forest, and are somewhat fossorial in nature.
169841		population	eng	This snake is known only from the type specimen.
169841		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly-known, but as it seems likely to be a forest obligate, ongoing deforestation on Mindanao (e.g., for conversion of land to banana and pineapple plantations) appears to be a threat to the species (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169842		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas, including Mount Malindang and Mount Apo. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
169842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao and Basilan. On Mindanao it is known from the Zamboanga Peninsula (Dapitan Peak); Mount Busa; Diuata; possibly Mount Apo, but no records from Mount Kitanglad. It has been recorded between 300 and 900 m asl.
169842		habitat	eng	This is largely a forest floor species that has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, and also from more disturbed areas of secondary growth.
169842		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169842		threats	eng	There is widespread deforestation taking place in the lowland range of this species, through logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use. It does, however, appear to be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification.
169843		conservation	eng	It seems likely that this species will be found within protected areas throughout Palawan. Further studies are needed to monitor the impact of wild collection of this species for the international pet trade. Increased customs enforcement are needed to prevent illegal exports of this species.
169843		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Palawan, Balabac and Culion, and is considered likely to be present on Dumaran, Coron and adjacent small islands. It has been found from sea level to around 700 m asl.
169843		habitat	eng	The species is generally associated with forest, or wooded, habitats ranging from primary tropical most forest to degraded secondary scrub. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.
169843		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169843		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by severe habitat loss (such as clear-cutting), however, much of its range still presumably contains large areas of suitable habitat. Although the species has been heavily targeted for the international pet trade (with Europe being a key market), there does not appear to have been a noticeable decline in populations - although further field studies are needed to confirm this.
169844		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. Other than general monitoring of population levels, no direct conservation measures are currently needed as a whole. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
169844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and is found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Sabtang, Batan, Palawan, Calamianes, Polilo, Balabac, the Semirara Islands (observations by M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008 for Balabac and the Semirara Islands) and the islands of the Sulu Archipelago.
169844		habitat	eng	The preferred habitats are mangroves, with the species common in fishphond areas (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Animals are tolerant of habitat degradation, and are regularly recorded from secondary forest, disturbed forest and agricultural areas.
169844		population	eng	It is an abundant species.
169844		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is heavily traded for the food and pet trade (capture of hatchlings and juveniles), this does not appear to be having a significant impact on the species population as a whole.
169845		conservation	eng	It is possible that this species persists in Mount Dajo National Park, however, social unrest on the island of Jolo currently precludes any surveys to confirm the species presence here. There is a need to re-examine the only known specimen allocated to this species from Mindanao, to resolve the possibility of <em>Luperosaurus joloensis</em> presence on this island.
169845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, with Brown and Alcala (1978) recording it from the islands of Jolo and Mindanao. The Mindanao record is currently considered to be tentative (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169845		habitat	eng	Although the natural history of this species is very poorly known, it seems highly likely that this is an arboreal species associated, perhaps, with largely undisturbed (coastal?) forest. There is very little forest remaining on the heavily deforested island of Jolo. Possible habitat appears to be restricted to areas of secondary forest on the island's two mountain tops.
169845		population	eng	There are no clear details available on the natrual abundance of this species, and it remains known from a very small number of specimens.
169845		threats	eng	There is considerable habitat loss ongoing on the island of Jolo with little seemingly suitable forest remaining. It is likely that the species is seriously threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, and conversion of land to other uses.
169846		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes for local people to reduce persecution of this species.
169846		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the islands of Negros, Catanduanes, Luzon, Panay, and Polillo. A record from the island of Leyte is probably an error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). This species is found in the lowlands between 250 and 1,000 m asl.
169846		habitat	eng	This is generally a species of lowland tropical forests, although it appears to be tolerant of a wide variety of habitats. During the day, the species is usually found on the forest floor, while at night, animals are more often encountered in vegetation near to water. Most sightings of this snake in the forests of northwestern and northern Panay (where it is quite common) took place directly at or even in watercourses (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169846		population	eng	While animals are patchily distributed, the species can be quite common within appropriate habitat.
169846		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general deforestation resulting from land conversion (by e.g., agriculture, timber extraction, etc.). It is also heavily persecuted because it is a large-bodied species that is often mistakenly identified as a venomous cobra.
169847		conservation	eng	It seems likely that this species is present in some protected areas. In general, no conservation measures, other than general research, are currently needed for the species as a whole.
169847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Siquijor, Bohol, Cebu, Leyte, Poro, Pacijan, Samar and Bohol.
169847		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in the leaf axils of coconut trees, but has also been found in trees of the lowland dipterocarp forest, fresh water swamp forest and scattered tees in savanna-like areas. It can be found in many modified habitats including coconut groves, secondary forests and in some urban areas.
169847		population	eng	This is often a widespread and common species, although there are few specimens from Bohol and Samar.
169847		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169848		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
169848		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. The type specimen was collected at about 1,700 m asl on Dapitan Peak, Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao Island, in 1857. A second specimen was collected in 1956 in southern Luzon (Brown and Alcala 1956).
169848		habitat	eng	This is a very poorly known species. The Dapitan Peak specimen was collected in transitional submontane-montane forest at about 1,700 m asl.
169848		population	eng	It is known only from the two collected specimens.
169848		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are not known,  it seems likely that it is threatened to some degree by deforestation
169849		conservation	eng	The species is in a proposed protected area on Babuyan Claro, which has extremely low human population density.  In addition, there are very few people living on Camiguin Norte. In general, further field research is needed for this little-known species.
169849		distribution	eng	This lowland species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from Camiguin Norte Island and Babuyan Claro Island (newly observed in 2006), both in the Babuyan Island Group, Cagayan Province (Ota and Ross 1994; R. Brown and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). The total range size is under 300 km².
169849		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from leaf axils of palm trees during the day, and on palm tree trunks during night (Ota and Ross 1994).  It has been collected in forest and agricultural areas in Camiguin and in disturbed coastal secondary growth in Babuyan Claro.
169849		population	eng	This species appears to be common within its limited range.
169849		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. It may be threatened to some degree by forest loss in Camiguin Norte, but this requires further confirmation.
169850		conservation	eng	The species may potentially occur in the Balbalasang-balbalan protected area, as this is close to the area of specimen collection. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this snake.
169850		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is collected only from the northern part of the Cordillera Central (Barrio  Cabatacan, Lasam, Cagayan Province and Butiqui, Mountain Province) on Luzon Island (Ota and Ross 1994). It appears to be a lowland species.
169850		habitat	eng	Although little is known about the natural history of this species, the holotype was collected in a shrub, approximately two metres from the ground in the evening (Ota and Ross 1994). The habitat from which it was collected is unclear from the species description.
169850		population	eng	The species is recently-described, and may only be known from the two animals in the type series.
169850		threats	eng	There is currently no data available on the major threats to the species.
169851		conservation	eng	The Pasonanca Natural Park is considered to be very well protected (with armed guards), most especially as this area is the main water catchment for the Zamboanga Peninsula. Additional studies are needed to better determine the geographical range of this species.
169851		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, where it is known from the well protected Pasonanca Natural Park, on the Zamboanga Peninsula. In view of the species secretive habits, it may be more widely distributed on the Zamboanga Peninsula.
169851		habitat	eng	This small species is associated with forest leaf litter. It is an oviparous species. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded habitat.
169851		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.
169851		threats	eng	Although the species is currently known from a limited area, there appear to be no major threats operating. To the north of the known range there is some limited small-scale mining and gold panning, with timber poaching common in these areas.
169852		conservation	eng	This species is found within established protected areas on the islands of Negros, Polilo and Bohol, and also within proposed protected areas on the islands of Mindoro and Mindanao. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the three subspecies, and also on the threats to each island population.
169852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from three subspecies. The subspecies <em>L. a. auriculata</em> is present on the islands of Negros and Masbate; <em>L. a. kempi</em> is present on the islands of Mindoro (collected at 700 m asl) and Tablas; and <em>L. a. herrei</em> is present on the islands of Polillo, Bohol and northeastern Mindanao. The species has been recorded between 100 and 1,300 m asl.
169852		habitat	eng	This species is present in both primary and secondary dipterocarp and submontane tropical moist forests, with animals being most regularly recorded from leaf axils and root masses of aerial ferns at various heights. It is possible that this species has a preference for disturbed forest habitats (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).
169852		population	eng	This species is moderately common in appropriate habitat.
169852		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation resulting from logging activities, and conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. The collection of epiphytes for ornamental use may be represent an additional, perhaps localized, threat to this species.
169853		conservation	eng	It is found within the proposed protected area of Central Panay Mountains. There is a need to ensure the protection of suitable forest habitat for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and possible threats to this recently described species.
169853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Panay in the Philippines, where it is known only from the western foothills of Mount Madja-as (11°23' N, 122°09' E), within the islands western coastal mountain range (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has been collected at 1,410 and 1,500 m asl.
169853		habitat	eng	Brown <em>et al</em>. (1999), record that "The forest near the collection site was mossy and contained high densities of epiphytic ferns and orchids. The topography was qualitatively characterized as steep, with numerous sheer rocky valleys and forest-covered ridges (see Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997 for more details.) Both holotype and paratype were found beneath logs". The species may be present at lower elevations, however, this requires confirmation.
169853		population	eng	It is currently known only from the holotype and the paratype.
169853		threats	eng	There appear to be no immediate threats to the species, however, slash and burn 'kaingin' currently only at lower elevations (up to 500 m asl) is a potential threat to the species.
169854		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Mount Kitanglad Natural Park, Mount Malindang National Park and the Malagos Watershed protected area. Additional field studies are needed to better determine the range of this species.
169854		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao and Basilan and is known to be present on Samar, Leyte and Dinagat (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). On Mindanao it has been recorded from a number of localities including Malagos, Kitanglad and may be present in parts of eastern Mindanao. It ranges from around sea level to around 800 m asl.
169854		habitat	eng	This is a lowland tropical forest species, which has been recorded in areas of degraded forest (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).
169854		population	eng	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species.
169854		threats	eng	The species is threatened by rapid ongoing deforestation on the island of Mindanao, resulting from commercial and illegal logging operations, conversion of land to 'kaingin' slash and burn agriculture, and conversion of forest to plantations. It is a relatively large snake which may be killed directly on sight by local people.
169855		conservation	eng	The species was collected within the Balbalasang-Balbalan protected area. Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance, range, and conservation status of this species.
169855		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Balbalan, in Mountain Province, Luzon Island, the Philippines. Two specimens were collected at 950 m asl in the 1920s. Earlier reports from Catanduanes Island are likely to be in error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).
169855		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly-known, with little information other than it is known only from high elevations in the mountains of northern Luzon. The species was collected within the vicinity of Balbalan, which seems to be an agricultural area, but with forest nearby.
169855		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169855		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are not known. If it persists in agricultural areas, chemical pollution may pose a threat to the species.
169856		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Further research is needed into the ecology, conservation status, and abundance of this species.
169856		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque, and Polillo. It has been found between 200 and 1,500 m asl (most collections have been between 800 and 1,500 m asl).
169856		habitat	eng	This rare snake was encountered on large, flat rocks above 1,500 m asl on Mount High Peak, Zambales. It has been found in dry bamboo stands in Mount Banahao and in secondary forest in Mount Cagua. It is known from creek beds as well as areas away from water.
169856		population	eng	This is a rare species, likely occurring at naturally low abundances.
169856		threats	eng	In general, habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.
169857		conservation	eng	The species is known from a number of protected areas. Further studies are particularly needed into the taxonomic status of the this species, as the three subspecies seem likely to represent distinct species.
169857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Cebu, Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Polillo, Catanduanes and Masbate (Gaulke and Altenbach 1994). It is possible that the species is present on the island of Mindoro, but this needs to be confirmed. It is a lowland species found up to 900 m asl.
169857		habitat	eng	While generally associated with tropical moist forest, animals can also be found in disturbed areas close to forest.
169857		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169857		threats	eng	The species is threatened by general habitat conversion to agricultural land, and deforestation through timber extraction.
169858		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from some protected areas including Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Hilong-Hilong and the Taft Forest Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is represented by two subspecies. <em>B. s. schadenbergi </em>ranges through Basilan Island and the Zamboanga Peninsula and Davao areas of south central Mindanao; <em>B. s. orientalis</em> is present in south central and northeastern Mindanao, Bohol, Camiguin Sur, Leyte and Samar (Taft Forest Reserve). It has been recorded between 50 and 1,500 m asl.
169858		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from both primary dipterocarp and second growth tropical moist forest, and also from adjacent areas of agroforestry (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). Animals are found under leaves, loose soil, and logs in the forest floor (Brown and Alcala 1980).
169858		population	eng	Although the abundance of this species is not well known, there are many museum specimens.
169858		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of its forest habitat through illegal logging operations and conversion of land to other uses, including local slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture.
169859		conservation	eng	It is unclear whether this species is present in any protected areas. On Luzon it may occur in the Bicol and Sierra Madre protected areas. On Polilo, it might be present in the Sibulan Watershed Reserve. Overall, further studies are needed to better understand the distribution, ecology and threats to this largely enigmatic species. This research is a priority as, in view of the considerable habitat loss that has taken place within the species range, there is certainly potential for this species to be recognized as a candidate for conservation activities.
169859		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has historically been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Negros, Panay, Camiguin Sur, Lubang and Polilo and might occur on Catanduanes. In view of current unresolved identification issues, there are ongoing difficulties in defining the distribution of this species. Gaulke<em> et al</em>. (2007), restrict the known range of <em>L. cumingii</em> to south Luzon and Polillo, with further research needed to resolve identification issues for other islands within the species historical range. Animals from Panay (and possibly Negros) are now possibly allocated to the newly described <em>L. cornfieldi</em> (see Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007, for additional details). It has been recorded from near sea level to around 700 m asl.
169859		habitat	eng	As with most <em>Luperosaurus</em>, very little is known about the natural history of this species. It may be found in either the high canopy of primary and secondary forest, or coastal forest (much of which has now been cleared over the species range).
169859		population	eng	Although the species is known from a number of specimens, it appears to occur at a natually low abundance.
169859		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are presumably general deforestation through logging operations, conversion of land to agricultural use and similar activities.
169860		conservation	eng	It is presumably present in some protected areas. In general, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. Further research is needed on the Zamboanga Peninsula to confirm the absence of this species.
169860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Camiguin Sur, Dinagat and Mindanao. On Mindanao it appears to be absent from the Zamboanga peninsula; visits to different localities on the Zamboanga Peninsula in 2006 and 2007 did not record any specimens (A. Demegillo and M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169860		habitat	eng	This is a species of relatively open habitats. Before logging in the Philippines commenced, it seems probable that this species was originally found at the forest edge and in forest clearings. Populations now primarily persist in coconut plantations.
169860		population	eng	There are many specimens of this species in museum collections. It is common, and possibly increasing with expanding coconut plantations.
169860		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169861		conservation	eng	The area that it is found in is generally well protected. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
169861		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from Batan Island (70 km²) (Ota and Ross 1994), the neighboring Sabtang Island (16 km²), with recent reports of the species from Calayan Island (Oliveros <em>et al</em>. 2004). It may be found on other smaller neighboring islands. It is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl.
169861		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded from the forest floor and from bushes (Ota and Ross 1994), and may be found at forest edges, and in adjacent agricultural areas. It may feed on reptilian eggs (Ota and Ross 1994).
169861		population	eng	Although it is poorly known, this appears to be a common species.
169861		threats	eng	There currently seem to be no major threats to this species. It is found in areas that are well protected, with a low human population density, no logging, hunting, or other potential threats.
169862		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Additional studies into the taxonomic relationship between <em>C. annulatus</em> and <em>C. philippinicus</em> are needed.
169862		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and is found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Polillo, Dinagat, Samar, Panay, Catanduanes, Lubang, Sibuyan, and Romblon. It occurs from sea level to around 1,200 m asl.
169862		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of microhabitats, including among detritus on the forest floor, under rotting logs in forests, beneath bark, on the surface of stumps and living trees, and in arboreal ferns at heights 25 to 50 feet. It seems to congregate in suitable habitat close to rivers and streams. Animals is usually found on tree stems and large leaves, and on big rocks along and within watercourses in forests (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It has been observed inhabiting entrances of some of the limestone caves on the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169862		population	eng	There is little information on the abundance of this species, however they seem to be rarer at higher elevations. It is very common in the primary and secondary forests on Panay up to about 600 m asl (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169862		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are deforestation through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
169863		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation actions are currently needed for the species as a whole.
169863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Palawan and Busuanga, the Calamian Islands, the Culion Islands, and Calauit Island.
169863		habitat	eng	In general, this seems to be a snake of primary and secondary lowland tropical forest, but is also found in heavily disturbed areas.
169863		population	eng	It appears to be a quite common species.
169863		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169864		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
169864		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the central and southern parts of the island of Palawan. It has been recorded from the locality of Mount Mantalingahan (municipality of Brooke's Point, east and west side of the mountain). It has an elevational range of 60 to 950 m asl.
169864		habitat	eng	This little known species has only been recorded from intact primary forest. Animals have been encountered in bamboo stands in forest gaps, on the trunks and buttresses of trees, in the leaf axils of <em>Pandanus</em>, on the forest floor and under loose tree bark. All records are from intact forest, and it is uncertain if the species can persist in secondary forest.
169864		population	eng	It is a rarely seen crepusculor species.
169864		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations and conversion of primary forest to other uses.
169865		conservation	eng	This species is presumably present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
169865		distribution	eng	This poorly known species was described from the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindoro (type locality), Cebu , Negros (historical records), Panay (Ferner<em> et al</em>. 2000) and Sicogon (although this record may refer to an undescribed species - J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). Taylor (1918) also referred five additional specimens of <em>Hemiphyllodactylus</em> from the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines to this species. It has been recorded up to 500 m asl.
169865		habitat	eng	Although the natural history of this species is poorly known, it has been recorded from second growth forest, mangroves and beach forests.
169865		population	eng	The abundance is not known, and it is presumed to be an easily overlooked species.
169865		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169866		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in the Agusan Marsh protected area although confirmation is needed. The species remains quite poorly known and additional details are needed on its distribution, natural history and threats.
169866		distribution	eng	This little known species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from Agusan Province (in northeastern Mindanao) and from coastal Cotabato (southern Mindanao), with new records Sultan Kudarat Province, Southern Mindanao (200-300 m asl), and from Zamboanga Del Sur Province (450m asl, Zamboanga Peninsula, West Mindanao) (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). The specimen from Zamboanga might turn out to be a different subspecies or a closely related species (M. Gaulke and A. Alcala [in press]). It is found from sea level to at least 300 m asl.
169866		habitat	eng	Taylor (1915) states that specimens were collected in tall grass along the marshy Agusan River. The specimens from Sultan Kudarat were found on broad leaf blades of low shrubs and on the forest floor of a disturbed, primary lowland forest (200-300 m asl) close to the Sangay River (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). The specimen seen in Zamboanga del Sur was observed sunbathing at noontime on a broad leaf of a shrub in about 1.5 m height along the lakeshore vegetation of Lake Wood (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It has been believed, on evidence of congener habitat, that this is a coastal species present in mangroves and swamps (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169866		population	eng	There are currently no direct details available on the abundance of this species.
169866		threats	eng	The species is presumably threatened by habitat loss, through the conversion of marshlands to other uses, and the loss of mangroves through conversion to fishponds, and logging for charcoal and firewood. There have been declines in <em>Emoia</em> populations in the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao, although these may refer to <em>E. atrocostata</em> rather than <em>E. ruficauda</em> (A. Demegillo pers. comm., 2007).
169867		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169867		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Batan Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded between sea level and 900 m asl.
169867		habitat	eng	Animals can be found in secondary forest, degraded forest and developed areas (such as rural gardens). It is usually found on the trunks of these trees at a height of around 1.5 to 6 metres.
169867		population	eng	It is extremely common and highly conspicuous.
169867		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it has a generally restricted range, it is very tolerant of habitat disturbance.
169868		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the protected Sibulan Watershed Reserve on Polillo, and has been recorded from the Bicol National Park on Luzon. Further research is needed into the distribution on Luzon. There is a need to monitor levels of trade in this species, with a view to identifying any potential future threats.
169868		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the island of Polillo and from a single specimen collected in 1995 from Bicol National Park, Camarines Norte, on the island of Luzon.
169868		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found in intact, secondary and residual forests. Animals can be found on the leaf axils of screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> sp.), giant "gabi" taro leaves (<em>Allocasia</em> sp.), <em>Musa</em> sp., and small palms. The females deposit their eggs on the leaf axils of host plants (J.C. Gonzalez pers. com. 2007).
169868		population	eng	It is very common on Polillo, however it remains known only from a single specimen on Luzon.
169868		threats	eng	There has been low level trade of the species in the recent past. This seems unlikely to currently constitute a major threat to this species.
169869		conservation	eng	This species is found widely within and outside of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is represented by three distinct subspecies, <em>L. p. pulchella</em> is present on the islands of Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, southern and central (Zambales) Luzon, Bohol and Polillo; <em>L. p. taylori</em> has been recorded from the islands of Negros and Panay; <em>L. p. levitoni</em> is restricted to the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon. It ranges between 250 and 1,100 m asl.
169869		habitat	eng	The species is arboreal and can be found on exposed trunks of trees in the dipterocarp or submontane tropical moist forests. It is common in secondary forest and highly disturbed habitats.
169869		population	eng	The species is locally abundant with a patchy distribution.
169869		threats	eng	Severe habitat modification may be a localized threat to this species. It is known to persist in secondary growth and disturbed areas.
169870		conservation	eng	This species is present in the proposed protected area of Mount Mantalingahan, and in the protected watershed surrounding the town of Puerto Princesa. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species.
169870		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Palawan, where it ranges from Puerto Princesa to the southern tip of the island. It has recently been collected Brooke's Point (200 m) and on Mount Mantalingahan (round 700 m). The species is found between 200 and 1,000 m asl.
169870		habitat	eng	Brown and Alcala (1978) report that it is found beneath logs and rocks on the forest floor. More recent collections have only been in close proximity to rivers and streams, where animals were found on rocks and logs. It can also be found underneath the bark of fallen trees, and has been recorded from gallery forest including tree plantations with undergrowth, secondary forest, and old growth forest. It is possible that the species is largely restricted to riparian areas, however, additional field studies are needed to confirm this.
169870		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species. Other members of the genus can be found at a moderate abundance in preferred habitats.
169870		threats	eng	Logging and the conversion of forested areas to agricultural use are considered to be the major threats to this species.
169871		conservation	eng	The species is present in Mount Canlaon and Cuernos de Negros protected areas. On the island of Tablas, it possibly occurs in the Calatrava, San Andres, and San Agustin Watershed Forest Reserves. Additional general studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
169871		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Negros and Tablas in the Philippines. On Negros it has been recorded from Mount Canalon, Cuernos de Negros, Mount Talinis, Lake Balinsasaya, San Jose and San Agustin; and is believed to be widespread throughout coconut groves on the island. It ranges from around 250 to 1,200 m asl.
169871		habitat	eng	This species is found in the axils of fronds of coconut trees. It also occupies the arboreal fern microhabitat in the dipterocarp and submontane forests at Mount Canlaon (Brown and Alcala 1978).
169871		population	eng	It is a relatively common species.
169871		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although there may be some localized threats through conversion of land to traditional slash and burn agriculture ('kaingin').
169872		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas (including Mount Hilong-hilong, Mount Malindang, Malagos, and Agusan). Further general research is needed into this relatively poorly-known species.
169872		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Samar, Leyte (including the locality of Baybay) and Mindanao (including from Pasonanca, Malagos, Mount Malindang, Mount Busa, Mount Hilong-hilong and Agusan Marsh). It ranges between sea level and 1,000 m asl.
169872		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, possibly from wooded swamp forests and from some disturbed habitats. It is an oviparous species.
169872		population	eng	There are very few specimens in collections, and the abundance of this species is not well documented.
169872		threats	eng	This species is threatened by general deforestation within its range. Animals are frequently killed when encountered.
169873		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in Mount Dajo National Park on the island of Jolo, although this needs to be confirmed. Further surveys and habitat protection ared urgently needed for this little known species.
169873		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Jolo, Butinian, Bubuan, Lapac, Papahag and Tawi-tawi (Brown and Alcala 1980).
169873		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species. Taylor (1922) notes that specimens from Jolo Island were found under leaves and trash along a small stream (Brown and Alcala 1980).
169873		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169873		threats	eng	There are significant levels of commercial logging within the Sulu Archipelago, and it is probable that these activities represent a major threat to this forest species.
169874		conservation	eng	If the species is found in southeastern Luzon, it might be in the Bulusan Volcano Natural Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species
169874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the type specimen collected in 1961 from the locality of "San Roque" (assumed to be in the Sorsogon Province on the southeastern tip of Luzon Islands, but needing verification) (Brown and Alcala 1980). Several surveys in the vicinity of San Roque in Southeastern Luzon failed to detect this species.
169874		habitat	eng	No information available. It can be inferred from its taxonomic affinities that it is a forest species.
169874		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169874		threats	eng	The main threat may be habitat loss due to deforestation.
169875		conservation	eng	This species possibly occurs in Mount Dajo National Park and the Basilan Natural Biotic Area, however this needs confirmation. There is an urgent need to protect any remaining areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.
169875		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Jolo, Lapac, Taw-itawi, Sanga Sanga, Papahag and Bongao.
169875		habitat	eng	This is a forest floor species recorded from secondary forest (and presumably present in primary forest), but not significantly degraded forest. Animals have been found under logs, among leaves and hiding in similar forest ground cover. It is an oviparous species.
169875		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169875		threats	eng	This species is very threatened by extensive and continuing illegal deforestation throughout the Sulu Islands and Basilan.
169876		conservation	eng	The species is within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. Further studies are needed into the origin of animals held in captivity outside of the Philippines.
169876		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has a restricted range on the islands of Batan and Sabtang. There are recent records of <em>Trimeresurus</em> from Calayan island that may be attributable to this species, but need verification (see Oliveros<em> et al</em>. 2004).
169876		habitat	eng	Animals are found in a number of habitats, ranging from undisturbed tropical moist forest to agricultural areas (including water-buffalo wallows). They appear to congregate near water for hunting, but are not dependant on this habitat and can be found more widely.
169876		population	eng	The species is very common on Batan, but less abundant on Sabtang.
169876		threats	eng	The species is well known in the international pet trade. Although exportation of wild animals is illegal, the species is widely found outside of the Philippines. It breeds well in captivity, and the origin of the many animals outside of the Philippines is unclear. This species has an extremely small range and is potentially threatened by stochastic events.
169877		conservation	eng	The species is found within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.
169877		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from Itbayat and Batan Island. It has been recorded between sea level and 750 m asl.
169877		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forests, agricultural areas and gardens in residential areas. Populations have also been recorded from within coastal pandan vegetation.
169877		population	eng	The species is very common and adaptable.
169877		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169878		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.
169878		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the island of Luzon (restricted to the Northern Cordilleras). It has been recorded from the island of Sibuyan (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Records from Subic and Catanduanes should be viewed with caution, and a recent listing of this species from Panay (Iloilo district) and records from Negros are almost certainly an error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from around 400 to 800 m asl.
169878		habitat	eng	There is very little known about the natural history of this species, although it is presumed to be arboreal. Animals have been recorded in agricultural areas, although additional details on their persistance in modified habitats are needed. All specimens observed on Sibuyan were seen on the upper part of coconut trees during daytime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169878		population	eng	It is only known from the initial collection taken in 1907, and from four additional specimens collected over the past ten years (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).
169878		threats	eng	Threats to this species are currently not known. It might tolerate a degree of habitat degradation, as animals have been reported from agricultural areas and some congeners appear to prefer disturbed sites.
169879		conservation	eng	It seems likely that this species is present within some protected areas (e.g., Mount Matutum), however this needs to be confirmed. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169879		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has only been recorded from south central Mindanao; Taylor (1925) collected the type specimen from Cotabato Province, and it has been collected from Digos near to Davao city.
169879		habitat	eng	All specimens of this species have come either from low vegetation along beaches, open areas and the mouths of streams, or from coconut groves at sea level. Members of this genus are terrestrial and are often found in modified habitats, although more details are needed into the adaptability of this species.
169879		population	eng	Although there are currently no details available on the abundance of this species, congeners can be common to abundant.
169879		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. As with other members of the genus, it may be resilient to habitat modification.
169880		conservation	eng	In general, no conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. There is a need to occasionally monitor the population of this lizard and the possibility of mining development on the islands.
169880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Gigante Island and North Gigante Island, and nearby islets, located off of the northeast of Panay Island in the Philippines. It is found from sea level to around 200 m asl.
169880		habitat	eng	Animals are found throughout much of the rocky limestone islands, and may be encountered in caves, in rock crevices, in the islands karst forest and on rocky coastal cliffs.
169880		population	eng	In general, this is a very common species within its restricted distribution.
169880		threats	eng	There is some phosphate mining within one of the caves that this species has been recorded within, and it seems possible that this disturbance may be a localized threat to the species. The islands are regularly visited by fishermen from the nearby fishing grounds, although the impact of this on the species is not known. Possibly the most significant threat would be extensive of mining for phosphate on the island, however, this is not taking place at present and there are no known plans to further develop mines on the islands.
169881		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas including Mount Apo, Mount Malindang, and the proposed Mount Hilong-Hilong protected area. Further research is needed into the impact of harvest of this species.
169881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Bohol, Biliran, Leyte, Samar (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007), Dinagat, Basilan, Camiguin Sur and Mindanao (locations include the Diauta Range, Mount Hilong Hilong, Malindang and Suigao del Sur) and is possibly present on Masbate (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is found at elevations of around 70 to 1,200 m asl.
169881		habitat	eng	This species is a water snake associated with streams and rivers. Animals have been found in primary and selectively logged forest, often in gallery forest or riparian vegetation. It largely feeds on frogs and similar prey.
169881		population	eng	This is often a common species.
169881		threats	eng	The species is generally threatened by deforestation, and more specifically by the disturbance of water courses by mining and damming activities. There is some collection of this species for use in traditional medicines (e.g., on Bohol), and possibly for research into the venom, although it is not known how significantly this collection impacts populations.
169882		conservation	eng	It is possible that this species is, or was, present in both Timpoong and Hibok-Hibok Natural Monument (Camiguin Sur) and Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (Mindanao). Targeted surveys are urgently needed to rediscover the species and clarify its distribution, ecology, threats and conservation status.
169882		distribution	eng	This little known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Camiguin and possibly Samar.
169882		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Taylor (1922) recorded animals from the old tree stumps and hollow trees in tropical moist forest.
169882		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169882		threats	eng	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is possibly threatened by the loss of forest through conversion of land to agricultural use, and logging operations.
169883		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Apo National Park and Camotes Island Mangrove Swamp Forest Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.
169883		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Mindoro (including Mount Halcon), Marinduque, Samar, Cebu, Camotes, Poro, Pacijan, Negros, Ponson, Mindanao (Mount Apo up to 1,000 m asl) and possibly Tablas. The range map for this species is very approximate, with islands from which the species has been recorded mapped.
169883		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from secondary forest and wooded grasslands. It appears to be able to persist in highly disturbed areas.
169883		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169883		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
169884		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in numerous protected areas. There is a need to conserve areas of lowland forest throughout the range of this species. Further research is needed to better determine the impacts on this species of habitat loss through mining operations and dam construction.
169884		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands where it is known from the islands of Basilan, Mindanao (localities include Mount Hamiguitan, Surigao del Sur, Mount Hilong-Hilong, Mount Kampalili, Mount Malindang, Agusan Marsh, Mount Apo, the Diauta Range and the Malagos Watershed), Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Dinagat and Siargao. It is found between 75 (Surigao del Sur) and 2,100 m asl (Mount Apo).
169884		habitat	eng	This species seems to be associated with riparian habitat and streams in tropical most forest, including disturbed and selectively logged areas. It has been recorded feeding on frogs. This is an oviparous snake.
169884		population	eng	It seems to be a fairly common species.
169884		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use (including fruit plantations), logging operations, mining activities and dam construction.
169885		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed to better understand the systematic status of the recognized subspecies and isolated populations. This especially applies to currently recognized subpopulations, that may be threatened at a global level (such as that of Luzon). Additional fieldwork is needed to determine the impact of collection or persecution on some subpopulations.
169885		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Camiguin Norte, Luzon, Catanduanes, Panay (Gaulke 2001), Bohol, Mindanao, Polillo, Dinagat and Siargao. It is common at low elevations, and has been recorded at 700 m asl in Camiguin Norte, at 600 m asl on Mount Banahaw and between 300 and 400 m asl on Bohol.
169885		habitat	eng	This species may be encountered in a wide variety of habitats, ranging from lowland disturbed sites to mid-elevation primary tropical moist forest. Animals have been recorded within both agroforesty and second growth forest habitats. Individuals can be found close to water hunting frogs and similar prey.
169885		population	eng	It can be a common species in disturbed habitats.
169885		threats	eng	The species is adaptable, although it can be threatened by severe habitat loss. Animals are collected for the pet trade and suffer from opportunistic persecution, and while it is unlikely that these constitute major threats to the species as a whole, certain subpopulations (such as that of the Bicol Peninsula) might be significantly impacted.
169886		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169886		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines, where it was collected in the Thumb Peak and Brooke's Point area in the 1920s and 1940s (three specimens in two localities). It was collected at around 300 m asl.
169886		habitat	eng	There currently appears to be no information available on the natural history of this species.
169886		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169886		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is likely to be the threat for this species.
169887		conservation	eng	The species is found within Mount Isarog National Park and Mount Mayon National Park. Further studies are needed into the likelihood of future threats to this species.
169887		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the islands of Luzon and Marinduque. On Luzon, it is known from Mount Isarog (Brown <em>et al</em>., 1995); Mount Mayon; the Mount Malinao range; and was recently reported from Mount Mingan, Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija (Duya, <em>et al.</em>, unpublished report [A. Diesmos pers. comm., 2007]). It ranges from around 900 to 1,400 m asl.
169887		habitat	eng	Animals are found in primary mid-montane forest, and disturbed primary forest. The species has been collected underneath rocks and logs, as well as in leaf litter.
169887		population	eng	The species is fairly common in appropriate habitat.
169887		threats	eng	The species has a relatively restricted distribution, and it might be threatened by deforestation at higher elevations, especially on Marinduque island and on the Bicol Peninsula of Luzon (clearing currently extends to about 900 m). There is also a possible threat of mining operations on Marinduque. There is continuing volcanic activity on Mount Mayon that may threaten the species..
169888		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, ecological requirements and threats to this recently described species.
169888		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from northwestern Panay Island in the Philippines (Gaulke 2002), but may range more extensively on the island (A.  Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to about 600 m asl (A. Demegillo and M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169888		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is both terrestrial and arboreal, and may be found in primary and secondary lowland tropical moist forests, in densely vegetated cultivated areas, and in rural gardens. It does not appear to be a forest dependent species, as animals have been found in residential areas (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007).
169888		population	eng	It was previously known only from the holotype and two additional specimens (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). More specimens have recently become available (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169888		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by severe deforestation of its habitat.
169889		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas including Mount Canlaon and Cuernos de Negros.
169889		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Panay, Carabao, Boracay, and Inampulugan. The species was collected all over Negros in the 1950s (La Castellana, Mount Canlaon area from 300 m to 900 m asl); Boracay in 1970; Inampulugan in 1967, in cultivated areas; with it is widely distributed on Panay (Municipalities of Pandan, Sebaste, and Culasi) with records from Aklan Province (at sea level to 0-500 m asl), and Mount Madja-as (Antique Province at 200 m asl). It has been recorded between sea level and 900 m asl.
169889		habitat	eng	This largely fossorial species is found in both primary and well-generated second growth forest, and within coconut plantations (Brown and Alcala 1980, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). Animals can be encountered within the forest leaf litter, under logs and sometimes under the husks of coconuts. It is an ovoviviparous species.
169889		population	eng	There are many specimens in museum collections, including more than 50 animals collected on the island of Negros.
169889		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169890		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.
169890		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been collected from the islands of Luzon, Negros and Marinduque (McDiarmid <em>et al</em>. 1999). The type locality is Mount Maquiling on Luzon Island.
169890		habitat	eng	While little is known about the species natural history, it is likely to be found in loose soil and leaf litter within wooded habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.
169890		population	eng	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.
169890		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169891		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Mount Kitanglad Natural Park, which is generally considered to be one of the best managed terrestrial parks in the Philippines. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.
169891		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Kitanglad, on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been collected at 1,500 m asl.
169891		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly known. Congeners have been recorded from forest leaf litter.
169891		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169891		threats	eng	There appears to be little threat to this species. The area of distribution is very steep and generally unsuitable for agricultural use.
169892		conservation	eng	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species.
169892		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been reported from the islands of Luzon (recorded at Limay, Bataan and in the south), Bohol, southern Mindanao (including the Zamboanga Peninsula), Masbate, Dinagat, Siargao, Samar, Leyte and Polilo. It ranges from around 100 to 800 m asl.
169892		habitat	eng	The species is a forest obligate that can be found in both primary and secondary forest (including disturbed gallery forest on Leyte), with animals usually encountered on tree stumps and trunks, and among vines.
169892		population	eng	Although the species is often considered to be naturally rare, they appear to be abundant in the Diwata Mountains of Mindanao and in central Leyte.
169892		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, presumably resulting from logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use. There is a small trade in this species that seems unlikely to be a major threat.
169893		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and while it is not known to be present in any protected areas, it may occur in Mount Dajo National Park on the island of Jolo. It is possible that unrest and conflict within the region, between the Philippines military forces and Abu Sayyaf rebels, may be inadvertently conserving the habitat of this snake. Further studies are needed into this poorly-known species, perhaps most urgently, to determine whether viable populations of the species are present on the island of Borneo. Site protection and management are also proposed.
169893		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. meyerinkii</span> has been recorded from the Philippines on the Sulu Archipelago islands of Bongao, Jolo, Papahag, Sibutu and Tawi-Tawi.  In the Philippines it was last recorded by the island of Tawi Tawi in the early 1990s (Gaulke 1995). According to Malkmus <em>et al</em>. (2002), it is possibly also present in Sabah (East Malaysia) on the island of Borneo, although it wasn't included in the guide to the snakes of Borneo by Stuebing and Inger (1999), and its presence here requires confirmation.<br/><span style=""></span><span style=""></span>
169893		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species remains poorly known. On Sibutu Island it was observed to live semifossorial in heavily disturbed lowland forest. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.
169893		population	eng	There is little known about the abundance of this species. No information is available for the possible subpopulation from Sabah.
169893		threats	eng	Within the Philippines there is no forest left on the small islands from which the species has been recorded, and commercial logging operations are currently deforesting the larger islands.
169894		conservation	eng	The species was not collected in a protected area, and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
169894		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from two specimens collected in Baguio in the mountains of norther Luzon during the early 1900's (Brown and Alcala 1980).  It was collected at about 900 m asl.
169894		habitat	eng	The species was collected during an excavation for a church and during the ploughing of a field (Brown and Alcala 1980). No further details about the natural history of this species are available.
169894		population	eng	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.
169894		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
169895		conservation	eng	This species is present within the protected area on the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. There is an urgent need to review the taxonomy of the Philippines <em>Gonocephalus</em> to better determine the distributions of the three species.
169895		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Mindanao and Panay (Northeast and Central Range 200 to 800 m asl). It may be present on Suigao, Luzon, Samar, Palawan and the Calamianes, but the presence here needs to be confirmed. The species' distribution in very unclear owing to misidentifications between this species and <em>Gonocephalus interruptus</em> and <em>G. semperi</em>. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,200 m asl.
169895		habitat	eng	This appears to be a mainly arboreal forest obligate, that has been recorded from both primary and secondary lowland forests. The species is oviparous, with egg deposition taking place in small holes dug in the banks of forest rivers.
169895		population	eng	The species seems to be common in some areas. It is rather common in some areas on Panay, along watercourses in primary and secondary lowland forests (up to around 600 m asl), being rarer away from water and along forest edges (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).
169895		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species. There is an increasing threat from collection for the pet trade.
169896		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Hilong-hilong protected area, and is likely to be present in some other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the tolerance of this species to habitat modification.
169896		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the islands of eastern Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte, and is possibly present on Samar (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). On Mindanao it has been reported from Mount Hilong-hilong and Diuata. It ranges between 500 and 1,500 m asl.
169896		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested areas (including ultrmafic forest) where animals can be encountered in shrubs, under fallen logs, amongst leaf litter and similar forest floor ground cover. It is not known if this species can persist in modified habitats. Eggs have been found in the crevices of fallen trees (Brown and Alcala 1980).
169896		population	eng	It can be common in suitable forest habitats.
169896		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species.
169897		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas (including Mount Apo and Mount Malindang). It is protected by national legislation and listed on Appendix II of CITES. There is a need for increased monitoring of the trade in this species.
169897		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, Leyte, Basilan, Bohol and Jolo. It is usually found below 1,000 m asl.
169897		habitat	eng	The preferred habitats are mangroves, and it is relatively common in fishpond areas (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Animals can be found in tropical moist forest, but can also reach high population densities in modified habitats.
169897		population	eng	In general while this is still a relatively common species, it is suspected that populations are undergoing some declines because of overharvesting.
169897		threats	eng	Although this is a widespread species, it is heavily harvested illegally (contravening national legislation), for local and national consumption, and to a lesser degree for the national and international pet and leather trade. Stuffed individuals are still being sold, even in remote areas of Mindanao (observations by M. Gaulke, from 2006 and 2007).
169898		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from protected areas on Palawan. Additional field studies are needed to further investigate the distribution, natural history and threats to this little-known snake.
169898		distribution	eng	This little-known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been reported from Mount Mantalingahan in the south of the island of Palawan, and from Culion Island and Calauit Island located to the north of Palawan. It islikely to be found at localities between the known sites, however ther are currently no data to support this possible range extension. The species occurs from around sea level to about 900 m asl.
169898		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species, recorded in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest.
169898		population	eng	This snake appears to be naturally rare, although animals seem to be generally difficult to find..
169898		threats	eng	The leading threat to this species is habitat loss resulting from deforestation by mining activities, conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.
169899		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a general need to maintain suitable forest habitat for this species.
169899		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (including recently from Mount Busa, the Diuata Range and Mount Hilong-hilong), Leyte, Samar (recently collected at 400 m asl [J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007]), Dinagat and Bohol (including old records from Rajah Sikatuna  and Sierra Bullones). It has been reported at elevations of 400 to 1,150 m asl.
169899		habitat	eng	This species is partially arboreal, with animals observed up to 20 m on trees (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). It has frequently been recorded in secondary or disturbed forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is an oviparous species.
169899		population	eng	This is generally a common species.
169899		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.
169900		conservation	eng	It is found within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Batanes (Itbayat Island and Batan Island), and may also be present on Bubuyan Claro Island. It ranges from around sea level to 600 m asl.
169900		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide range of habitats including in agricultural and residential areas, caves and degraded forest. It appears to be more common in disturbed areas.
169900		population	eng	This species is very abundant within its limited range.
169900		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169901		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measure in place for this species, and it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of forest within the Sulu Archipelago. Field studies are needed to determine the range, habitat requirements and threats to this species.
169901		distribution	eng	This poorly known snake has only been recorded from an indistinct locality in the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines. It may have been collected on the island of Sulu. The maps shows the possible range of this species including the islands of Sibutu, Bongao, Sanga-sanga, and the small island between Tawi-Tawi and Jolo.
169901		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species. Other members of the genus are small burrowing species, usually associated with forest habitats.
169901		population	eng	This species is known only from holotype.
169901		threats	eng	There is extensive, often illgegal, logging underway in the Sulu Archipelago. Much of this timber is transported to Malaysia and Mindanao.
169902		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Mount Canlaon, Mount Talinis-Twin Lakes Natural Park, North Negros Forest Reserve, and North East Panay Peninsula Park. There is a need to maintain primary forest habitat within the ranges of this species. Further taxonomic studies are needed into the identification of animals from Mindanao, Basilan and Luzon.
169902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Cebu; Masbate (not mapped here as the last record of this forest snake was from the 1950s, since which the island has been virtually deforested with forest possibly remaining at Milagros); Negros (most records from this island (most recent from 2004); recorded from Lake Balinsasayao; recently seen at Ayungon [R. Brown pers. comm. 2007]); Panay (localities including Mount Mafja-as, Culasi and Sibalom); Basilan and Mindanao (including Mount Apo; seemingly not present on the Zamboanga Peninsula). It may also be present on Samar (J.C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2007), Luzon (old record requiring confirmation and not mapped here); Lubang (identification requires verification). It ranges from around sea level to about 1,200 m asl.
169902		habitat	eng	This semi aquatic snake is associated with streams, rivers and lakes, within intact tropical moist gallery forest. There are some records from outside of primary habitat, and it may be able to persist in lightly disturbed forest, however further studies are needed to confirm this (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). On Cebu and Negros, animals are often restricted to forest fragments on limestone substrate (presumably related to the general lack of suitability of these areas for cultivation).
169902		population	eng	In general, this species is recorded to be common within suitable habitat (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169902		threats	eng	This species is generally threatened by habitat loss, largely through conversion of land to agricultural and other uses, mining activities (e.g., on Cebu) and logging operations. As with many snakes, animals are often killed when encountered.
169903		conservation	eng	It is found in a number of protected areas and forest reserves in Luzon. There is an urgent need to preserve any remaining areas of coastal forest habitat. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and conservation status of this species.
169903		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from many localities on the islands of Mindoro and Luzon (being seemingly absent from the Bicol Peninsula). It appears to be a lowland species found between sea level and 600 m asl.
169903		habitat	eng	This forest floor species is historically associated with coastal forests, but can also be found in mid-montane tropical moist forest. On Mindoro, it has been found in secondary growth forest adjacent to primary forest.
169903		population	eng	It seems to be naturally not an abundant species.
169903		threats	eng	Continuing deforestation is the major threat to this species. Most coastal forests, a major part of the species' habitat, have been destroyed over the past 100 years.
169904		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas on the island of Sibuyan. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
169904		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindoro, Romblon, Semirara and Sibuyan. It is found at elevations of between sea level and 800 m asl.
169904		habitat	eng	Although the species is found in tropical moist forest, it is common in both degraded forest, plantations and agricultural areas.
169904		population	eng	The species can found at extremely high abundances in modified habitats.
169904		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
169905		conservation	eng	The species is known from a number of protected areas.
169905		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Samar, Leyte, Tintiman, Tilmubo, Lapinig Chico and Lapinig Grande, as well as from southeastern Luzon. There are additional recent records from Bohol, and from northeast Mindanao (Diwata Mountains). It ranges from about 100 to 850 m asl.
169905		habitat	eng	Animals are associated with humus, leaf litter, rotten logs and similar ground cover in tropical moist forests. It can be found in both primary and secondary forest, but is not present in coastal areas or cultivated land.
169905		population	eng	This species is considered to be very common in suitable habitat.
169905		threats	eng	General habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species.
169906		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mount Canlaon National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.
169906		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Canlaon Volcano, Negros Island, the Philippines (Taylor 1917). It was collected at around 750 m asl.
169906		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species is poorly known, it may be a fossorial forest species, with animals present under logs and amongst leaf litter (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
169906		population	eng	It appers to be known only from the holotype, that was destroyed in the bombing of Manila in World War II.
169906		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. The type locality has been wholly deforested.
169907		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from the Malagos Watershed protected area. There is a need to protect remaining areas of mature forest within the range of this species. Additional research is needed into the natural history of this little known species. There is a need to clarify the systematic status of populations from Mindoro, and to determine whether the species is present on Samar.
169907		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from Mindanao (including Zamboanga), Maripipi, Dinagat and Leyte, with observations of it occurring on Mindoro and Basilan. Reports of the species from Catanduanes appear to be in error (A. Diesmos and R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It might be present on Samar, however this needs confirmation. It is a lowland species found between sea level and 300 m asl.
169907		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, arboreal species is found in areas of mature primary and secondary forest (including mahogany plantations). It is an oviparous species.
169907		population	eng	This is a rarely see, secretive, species.
169907		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operationas and the conversion of forested land to other uses. There is no recorded trade in this specis, although other species in the genus have been reported in trade.
169908		conservation	eng	The whole island of Babuyan Claro is managed under a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Claim (CADC). There are two settlements on Babuyan Claro but the vast majority of the forest along the coastline is intact. Further studies are needed to determine whether this species is a coastal forest specialist.
169908		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Babuyanes group of islands, at the northern tip of the island of Luzon, in the Philippines. It has been recorded from the islands of Calayan, Barit, and Babuyan Claro. It is found from sea level to around 50 m asl.
169908		habitat	eng	The species seems to be associated with forests on the islands, and can be found in trees and shrubs along the coast. The forest in Babuyan Claro extends to the coast with very minimal human disturbance.
169908		population	eng	While the species has only been collected once on Calayan, it is moderately common on Barit and is considered to be abundant on Babuyan Claro.
169908		threats	eng	Coastal forest habitat on Calayan has declined in the last 100 years; presumably through extraction of timber and firewood, and the conversion of land to agricultural use. The forest on Babuyan Claro seems to be intact and is not currently threatened here.
169909		conservation	eng	The species is found within a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species.
169909		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to Luzon Island. It has been recorded from Mount Banahaw (Brown and Alcala 1980) and Mount High Peak, Zambales, (Brown, Ferner and Sison 1995). Recent surveys have recorded populations in Balbalasang and Aurora (Mount Mingan). There is a possible record at 800m on Mount Makiling (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,600 m asl.
169909		habitat	eng	The species is a mid to upper montane specialist. Animals have been collected under general leaf litter and rotten logs, and in thick moss on the forest floor.
169909		population	eng	The species is fairly common in appropriate habitat.
169909		threats	eng	Although the range of this species is currently intact forest, it may be threatened in the future by habitat loss due to deforestation resulting from logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use.
169910		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;">B. hybrida</span> is recorded  as an accepted species by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) which currently  forms the taxonomic core of the CWR Catalogue for Europe and the  Mediterranean (Kell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) for the Chenopodiaceae family.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>However, Euro+Med PlantBase has recently been revised and updated for the Chenopodiaceae family and the species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is now recorded as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. trigyna</span> (Uotila 2011). The Plant List (2010) record it as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span>. The taxonomic status of this species therefore requires clarification.
169910		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Beta hybrida</span> was described from Ukraine, but it is now considered to be a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. trigyna</span>.
169910		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the habitat of  this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
169910		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.<br/></p>
169910		threats	eng	There is no information available about the potential threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
169911		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.   <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 56 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrocarpa</span> held in European genebanks, 42 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 30 originate from within Europe—Spain (24), Cyprus (three), Portugal (one), Greece (two)—and all are stored in either Spain or Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
169911		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrocarpa</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa and Macaronesia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Although the extent of occurrence (EOO) is >20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, the species is known from only 24 localities and the area of occupancy (AOO) is <500 km<sup>2</sup> (Frese 2005).
169911		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> macrocarpa</span> grows in dry sites in full sun and can be found growing on dams beside salt pans (Frese 2004, 2005). It is an annual hermaphrodite, and a mainly an inbreeding self-pollinated species (Frese 2005). It is also found in salt marshes, always in coastal areas.
169911		population	eng	Data collected from populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> macrocarpa</span> in Spain and Portugal showed a large variation between populations in effective population size (N<sub>e</sub>) and in the area populated by flowering and vegetative plants. Of the 17 populations surveyed in Spain, the minimum N<sub>e</sub> was eight and maximum 3,000, while the minimum area populated was 0.009 km<sup>2 </sup>and maximum 10 km<sup>2</sup>. Of the seven populations surveyed in Portugal, the minimum N<sub>e</sub> was seven and maximum 1,000, while the minimum area populated was 0.005 km<sup>2 </sup>and maximum 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990, Frese 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
169911		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The survival of <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> macrocarpa</span> is to some extent linked to the traditional management of sea salt producing areas; the species is likely to be under threat if sea salt production methods are modernized (Frese 2004). Aquaculture and tourism are also major threats to the species.
169912		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983), the Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nana</span> is not currently conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>and for biological reasons (genetic drift)<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span> conservation is not an alternative. So far, only two plant explorations to monitor the species systematically have been organized (Dale 1980, 1981; Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 31 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Active<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span> conservation is needed, including population and habitat monitoring and an investigation of the threats posed by grazing regimes and potentially by climate change.
169912		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nana</span> is endemic to the mountains of south and central Greece (RBG Edinburgh 1998). The species has been observed on six mountains and at a total of 26 sites; the area of occupancy (AOO) by site ranges  from 10 to 10,000 m² (Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>). The total AOO was approximately 0.028 km² in 2005.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
169912		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">B</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> nana</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is a high altitude montane species which grows on limestone in areas of short, open turf, often close to snow patches </span><span style="background-color: white;">(Strid 1995)</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">. It is a perennial hermaphrodite and a self-pollinating inbreeder, which flowers from June to August (Strid 1995)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>.   It is an inconspicuous diploid (Frantzén <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">and Gustavsson 1983)<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> plant species, with a small rosette of leaves approximately 10–20 cm in diameter, depending on the fertility of the soil. The plant is said to be self-fertile, producing few seed stalks with 10–25 flowers per spike between June and August. The monogerm seedballs dehisce to the ground in the vicinity of the seed plant while still green.<br/><br/>The general habitat for <em>B. nana</em> is in closed or open depressions with relatively moist soil above 1800 m asl.&#160; The climate at this altitude is cool and moist because clouds often build up around the mountains. The subpopulations are mainly found on ranges facing east or northeast where temperatures are lower during the summer afternoons. Plants also grow in crevices between rocks and in disturbed areas, such as rough tracks or severely grazed open plant communities. The prostrate growth habit protects the head of the storage root from being damaged by grazing animals (Dale 1980, 1981<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>; Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).&#160; However, it is possible that a certain degree of grazing may keep the associated flora short, thereby promoting the survival of the species.  Dale (1980) noted that germination of the seed has proved difficult and assumed that the extremes of temperatures in the natural habitat, leaching of inhibitors, as well as enzymes in the gut of animals, may all play a part in successful germination.&#160;</span></span></span>
169912		population	eng	Passport data from 20 subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nana</span> were recorded by M.F.G. Dale during a collecting mission in Greece in 1980 (filed at the Julius Kühn-Institut (JKI), Quedlinburg, Germany) (Frese 2004). In his report on collection of <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nana</span> in 1981, Dale (1981) reported that the population was stable. Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) estimated a total of 5,000 plants with the number of plants per site ranging between a few to > 1,000 individuals. The authors found that the subpopulation on Taygetos mountain (the southernmost part of the natural distribution area) was not in good health; however, the population as a whole is thought to be stable—in 2005, the authors found reproducing plants at all localities described by Dale (1980, 1981) and at one additional locality.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
169912		threats	eng	Overgrazing is a threat to this species (Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), while on the other hand, lack of grazing can also have a negative impact. As a high altitude montane species restricted to limestone habitats, <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> nana</span> may also be under threat of rising temperatures due to the effects of climate change.
169914		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p><p>It occurs in several protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.</p>      <p>EURISCO reports 18 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. trigyna</span> held in European genebanks, eight of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these, four originate from within Europe: two from Germany, one from Poland and one from Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
169914		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> trigyna</span> is native to east and southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and western Asia (USDA, ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
169914		habitat	eng	This species is found in vineyards and cultivated fields in lowland areas.
169914		population	eng	It is sporadically distributed in Crimea and is extinct in lowland parts of Ukraine. It is rare in Romania.
169914		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
169915		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the threat and/or conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Norway: Near Threatened (NT) (approaching B1a+2a) (Kålås <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).</li><li>Denmark: Least Concern (LC) (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Germany: <span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">Red List category 4; not protected (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010).</span></li></ul>EURISCO reports 596 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>held in European genebanks, 114 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these accessions, 86 originate from within Europe: Belgium (two), Croatia (one), Cyprus (five), France (15), Germany (four), Greece (nice), Ireland (12), Italy (20), Netherlands (one), Portugal (two), Slovenia (one), Spain (three), Sweden (one), United Kingdom (10) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
169915		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>is native to northern, middle, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to western Asia, the Caucasus, northern Africa and Macaronesia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Europe, this taxon is known from 1,300 localities (Frese 2005).<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>in Europe is available for the following countries:<br/><br/><ul><li>France: occurs in most coastal departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Germany: it occurs along the coast and on islands in the North Sea (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). The area of occupancy (AOO) is approximately 1 km² (Frese 2005).</li><li>Ireland: widespread around the entire coast (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Italy: along the coastline.</li><li>Netherlands: occurs in coastal regions (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).</li><li>Norway: present along the coastline in the southeast; the extent of occurrence is 26,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 132 km².</li><li>Portugal: Algarve, scattered along the coastline.</li><li>Spain: around the coast.</li><li>Sweden: southwestern coast.</li><li>United Kingdom: widespread along the coast of England, Wales and Northern Ireland; however, in Scotland it is patchily distributed around the coast and absent from the northeastern coastline (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li></ul>
169915		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> vulgaris</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>is mainly distributed along the coast—plants are most prevalent on beaches in a narrow band between the high tide zone and the start of the denser coastal vegetation. The taxon also occurs on cliffs and in disturbed inland sites, including at high altitudes and in depressions (Frese 2004). It is an outbreeding, wind-pollinated monoecious hermaphrodite (Frese 2005).<br/><br/>Specific habitat types in Europe include:<br/><ul><li>Spain and Portugal: sandy, saline enclaves, and loamy ruderal areas.</li><li>Slovenia (Adriatic Sea coast): saline pans.</li><li>Cyprus: rock fissures and sea walls, salt marshes, occasionally as a weed of cultivated or fallow fields inland, from sea level to 500 ft (Meikle 1985).</li><li>Germany: eutrophic, salty grassland, cliffs.</li><li>United Kingdom: according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) this is a lowland subspecies which occurs on coastal rocks and cliffs, salt marsh drift-lines, sea walls and on sand and shingle beaches. It can also be found on coastal waste ground and very occassionally on rubbish tips and roadsides further inland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) report that the taxon can be found in pioneer vegetation on brackish humid soils.</li></ul>
169915		population	eng	Knowledge of the population size and trend of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>in Europe is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Portugal: data collected from 29 subpopulations <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>showed a very large variation between subpopulations in effective population size (N<sub>e</sub>) and the area populated by flowering and vegetative plants, with a minimum N<sub>e</sub> of 8 and maximum of 1,000, and minimum area populated of 0.001 km<sup>2</sup> and maximum of 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Frese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1990; Frese 2004).</li><li>Germany: <span style="background-color: white;">the population size is estimated to be 100 individuals (Frese 2005).</span> The subpopulations have been reported to be fluctuating; for example, at Burgtiefe, the subpopulation size was recorded as 35 in 1997, 100 in 1999 and 17 in 2001, while at Burger Binnensee the subpopulation size was recorded as 20, 40 and more than 70 in the same years (Frese 2005).<span style="background-color: white;"></span></li><li>Norway: scattered subpopulations comprising only a few plants. Some subpopulations are expanding whilst others are destroyed after a hard winter (Å. Asdal pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Netherlands: before 1950, the taxon occurred in 25 hour-squares and after 1950 in 45 hour-squares (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) report that the taxon is present in 31–100 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></li></ul>
169915		threats	eng	It is threatened by the development of coastal areas for tourism (Frese 2005), the use of herbicides, <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">construction of buildings and roads, traffic and recreational activities.</span> Cold winters have an adverse effect on the taxon—it will benefit from an increase in temperature.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span>
169948		conservation	eng	Size limits are imposed on the harvest of this species; a minimum legal size limit of 11.5 cm (CL, Holthuis 1991). Also, there is a closed fishing season 15<sup>th</sup> May to 30<sup>th&#160;</sup>September and the taking of&#160;ovigerous females is banned (Holthuis 1991).&#160;<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biomass and catch per unit effort of this fishery.
169948		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the waters of the Juan Fernandez Archipelago (33º35º-33º49ºS 78º45º-80º49ºW), and Islas Desventuradas (26º17º-26º22ºS 79º50º-80º6ºW) (Holthuis 1991) off the coast of Chile.
169948		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky and sandy substrates at a depth range of 2- 200 m (Holthuis 1991). This species migrates to deeper waters around the end of September, and returns to shallow waters in January (Holthuis 1991). It feeds on algae, mollusc, crustaceans and animal matter (Holthuis 1991).
169948		population	eng	<p>Early documentation of this species describe it as 'abundant' around these Chilean Islands (Holthuis 1991). Conversely, later transactions show declines in population, from landings of 120 tonnes between 1952 and 1964 to ~12 tonnes between 1979-1980 (Arana and Vega 2000). More recently the FAO have documented an increase in annual catch in 1987 (32.7 tonnes) and 1988 (26.3 tonnes) (Holthuis 1991). Arana and Vega (2000) conducted a survey in 1996/7 and found that catch per unit effort varied between 0.53 and 0.59 lobsters per trap.&#160;</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
169948		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is the commercial fishery in the area. It is a species with a restricted range. It is also susceptible to environmental impacts, such as temperature changes on the survival of larvae settlement.
169949		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been listed by the Council of Europe as a protected species in the <a name="debut">Convention on the Conservation </a>of European Wildlife and  Natural Habitats (Council of Europe 1979).<br/></p>
169949		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean and in the Eastern Atlantic (Holthuis 1991). In the Eastern Atlantic, it is known from the south coast of the United Kingdom down to the Canary Islands, and includes the Azores and Madeira (Holthuis 1991).
169949		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 4-50 m (Holthuis 1991). This species inhabits mud and rock substrates, but can also be found in fields of <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span> species (Holthuis 1991). It has also been found in artificial reefs and areas designated to the 'protection of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span> meadows from illegal trawling and, if possible, restore it to its past size' (Relini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
169949		population	eng	<p>There is no overall population information available for this species. However, this species has experienced a local decline in Cape Creus, Spain, where it was previously caught in small quantities, but now it is considered to be 'very rare' (Linares 2008 in Lloret and Riera 2008). In contrast, it is described as one of the common marine species off the&#160;Lebanese&#160;coast (Majdalani 2004).<br/></p>
169949		threats	eng	This species is threatened locally by habitat loss due to decreasing <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia </span>fields, and also by over-fishing by hand in some areas (Holthuis 1991, Relini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), but this is not considered a major threat to the species over its entire range.
169951		conservation	eng	In New Caledonia's artisanal fishery, Coutures and Chauvet (2001) calculated a maximum yield at weights of 350 to 400 g (for a fishing effort corresponding to a mortality rate of 0.15). This size corresponds to an age of two to four years, at which point the lobster is already an adult. The minimum size at first capture was recommended at 7.5 cm (Coutures and Chauvet 2001).<br/><br/>In Taiwan a minimum size limit of 20 cm total length is set for all spiny lobster species.. However, this is not enforced, and egg-bearing females and small lobsters are common at local markets (Chang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>In the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) there are several management tools. The Provisional Zonation Scheme, agreed in 2000, divides the GMR into three zones (coastal, open water and port), and permits fishing in 78% of the coastal zone (the other 22% being either no-take or tourist areas) (Hearn 2008). The primary fisheries management tool is the Five Year Fishing Calender (2002 - 2006). This regulates the lobster catch to 4 months of the year, stipulates a minimum landing length of 26 cm, and bans the catch of ovigerous females (Hearn 2008). Quotas have been hinted at but not formally laid out, although corrective measures must be taken if catch per unit effort (CPUE) falls below a threshold of 5.8 kg diver day<sup>-1</sup> (which it has done several times since 1998). These include closure of areas, reduction in effort, and a quota no greater than 31 tonnes of lobster tails (Hearn 2008). Monitoring and independent surveys are also carried out by fishers and scientists (Hearn 2008).<br/><br/>Solomon Islands: legislation bans the sale or purchase of this species with a carapace length of less than 8 cm and ovigerous females (Richards <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994).<br/><br/>Seychelles: There is a monitoring programme in place for this species, operating three months/yr and beginning in 1992 (Robinson and Azemia 2007).<br/><br/>Although some species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, further research is required to determine an accurate index of abundance for this species, and the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. In addition, stricter enforcement of current management regimes is necessary.
169951		distribution	eng	This species has the widest distribution of any of the spiny lobsters. It occurs in the Indo-West Pacific and East Pacific regions (Holthuis 1991), south from the Red Sea to South and East Africa, Madagascar and surrounding islands; through the Indian Ocean and South China Sea to Japan, the Phillippines, Indonesia, Hawaii, Samoa and the Tuamotu Archipelago; northern and eastern Australia; and as far east as the islands of the west coast of the US (the Galapagos and Revillagigedo Archipelagos, and Cocos and Clipperton Islands), and Mexico (Sinaloa, Nayarit and Guerrero).
169951		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species commonly inhabits depths of 1 to 4 m (maximum 16 m), on rocky substrates (Chan 1998). It is often found in the outer reef slopes, subtidal zone or surge channels, and as such can occur on small islands or near arid coasts (Holthuis 1991). In the western Pacific females seem to be reproductive all year round (Chan 1998). In the Galapagos fecundity ranges from 200,000 to 600,000 eggs / yr, and females reach maturity at a total length of 25 - 30 cm (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007). In the Phillippines this species may have up to five broods per year (Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Natural mortality (M) in the Marshall Islands was calculated as 0.42 yr<sup>-1</sup> (Ebert and Ford 1986). This species has been successfully cultured in the laboratory (Nelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<br/><br/>Although not known for this species, other Palinurid lobsters reach sexual maturity at three to four years and longevity ranges from 10 to 14 years (Frisch 2007).
169951		population	eng	This species is "rather abundant" in islands off the coast of the US and Mexico (Fischer and Bianchi 1984). It is common off Mozambique but "generally scarce" in South African waters (Steyn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Its population density was estimated as 95 individuals per kilometre of the reef edge in the tropical west Pacific (Ebert and Ford 1986). However, in many parts of its range this species appears to decline as a result of intense fishing pressure (both commercial and subsistence).
169951		threats	eng	Although this species is harvested across its range, declines are localised and not known across the entire range.
169954		conservation	eng	<p>The management plan of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Hawaii</st1:state></st1:place> fishery incorporated: closed seasons, minimum size limits, no retention of egg bearing females, the incorporation of escape vents in pots, accurate recording of log data, and revised yearly quotas (Pooley and Kawamoto 1998, Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004). </p>    <p>In the event that the trap fishery in southeast <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> progresses beyond developmental status, a formal process would be undertaken to develop appropriate management strategies. Within the area of the fishery, a number of closed waters have been declared under the <em>Fisheries Regulations 1995</em>, and no fishing is allowed in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP). All commercial fishers in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> have a legal obligation to provide information about their fishing activity via daily logbook reporting (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>  <p>Other regulations implemented would include: </p>  <ul><li>The size of the apparatus      in waters shallower than 100 m: 1 ­m­<sup>3</sup> in overall volume, and in waters      100 m and deeper 195 cm x 120 cm x 120 cm</li><li>Floats to be at least 15 cm      in diameter</li><li>Floats for traps set in      strings - orange in colour</li><li>Floats for single traps -      any colour except orange</li><li>Floats must have markings      showing the owner?s boat name and boat marking</li><li>Not more than 200 traps      per operator</li><li>Each operator may have 210      traps in possession but those in excess of 200 must be unassembled</li><li>In waters less than 20 m -      traps set singly</li><li>In waters 20 - 100 m - set      in strings of up to 25</li><li>In waters over 100 m - set      in strings of up to 50</li><li>It is prohibited to take      berried females or setose females (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</li></ul>    <p>Because this <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> trap fishery only operated on a very limited developmental scale, and over a time frame of only four years, the lobster stocks are not likely to have been seriously affected. The current permit conditions provide the Queensland Fisheries Service (QFS) 'extensive powers to ensure the sustainable management of the fishery, allowing the suspension or cancellation of permits if a deleterious effect on stocks of Slipper and Spiny Lobster or any other fish species (including bycatch and byproduct) has been caused or is imminent or may be reasonably be expected due to activities under the permit' (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>    <p>For a comprehensive report on the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> developmental trap fishery, see Sumpton <em>et al</em>. (2004).</p>  <p>    </p><p>A decline in global captures of <em>Scyllaridae</em> has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). <br/></p><p></p>
169954		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region from the Red Sea and the western Indian Ocean (Mauritius), to Japan (Sagami Bay),   Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Hawaii, Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, West Australia) (Holthuis 1991, DEWHA 2009), and New Zealand (A. MacDiarmid, pers. comm. 2009). This species is likely to have a larger distribution than is currently known. The type locality of this species is probably Nagasaki in Kyushu, Japan (Hotlhuis 1991).
169954		habitat	eng	This species is reportedly captured on coral reefs and rocky bottoms with recorded depths ranging from 10 to 135 m (Chan 1998, Sumpton <em>et al</em>. 2004) to 60 to 200 m (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). There is disagreement over at what depth this species is most commonly found: less than 50 m (Chan 1998); greater than 80 m (Sumpton <em>et al</em>. 2004); and between 100 to 150 m (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). <br/><br/>This solitary species shelters during the day and forages at night, feeding on a diet mainly consisting of&#160;bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007).        It inhabits the near coastal waters in winter to early spring (when water temperatures are at their lowest), and migrates to deeper waters in summer for breeding requirements (Sumpton <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>This species is probably the largest of the genus with a maximum body length of 50.5 cm, although it most commonly reaches between 16 and 30 cm (Chan 1998).<p><em></em></p>
169954		population	eng	The <st1:place w:st="on">Northwestern  Hawaiian Islands</st1:place> populations of this species should be treated as one metapopulation (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). <br/>There is very little specific population information available for this species, however it has been described as "apparently nowhere abundant and in some places even uncommon" (Chan 1998).
169954		threats	eng	<p>The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was established in 2000 which may prohibit commercial lobster fishing in the NWHI indefinitely, therefore this fishery does not pose a continuing threat to this species (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). </p><p>The by-catch of this species in other regions may cause localised declines.<br/></p>
169955		conservation	eng	There are a number of local and national regulations in place to prevent over-exploitation of the European Lobster fishery. A number of countries have imposed national minimum legal size limits, closed fishing seasons, and have prohibited the collecting of berried females. In an effort to protect lobster spawning potential in some areas, berried females caught may be V-notched on the tail before being returned to the sea.&#160; Under local by-laws or voluntary bans, such lobsters may not be landed until the V-notch has grown out (M. Bell. pers. comm. 2010). As of January 2002 an EU wide minimum legal size of 87 mm (CL) was imposed (Cobb and Castro 2006). This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Aquaculture production of lobsters is a small industry at present, but there is a growing interest in its potential for areas where there have been significant population declines. There are 3 types of aquaculture practice: product enhancement, resource enhancement and full grow out. Product enhancement removes undersized wild individuals and then maintains them in culture facilities where they are fed until they reach a marketable size. Resource enhancement or stock enhancement has been practised for the last century, especially within north american and european fisheries. Local fisheries are regularly stocked with hatchery reared individuals. This practise was developed at a time when there was some concern that the wild fisheries would not be able to keep with the rate at which wild stocks were being exploited.
169955		distribution	eng	This species has a broad, geographic range across the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the northern part of its range it can be found from the Lofoten Islands in Norway, to the southeast of Sweden and Denmark, though cannot be found in the Baltic Sea. Its range then extends along coastal mainland Europe, including the United Kingdom and Ireland, south to the coast of Morocco. It can also be found along the coastline of the Mediterranean and the western Black Sea, though is not found in such great abundance (Holthuis 1991, Cobb and Castro 2006, Prödohl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
169955		habitat	eng	This species is found within the continental shelf to depths of 150 m, though is more commonly found at depths above 50 m (Holthuis 1991). It is typically found on rocky substrates, but may also burrow into cohesive mud or form depressions in sand (Cobb and Castro 2006). This species uses rocky reefs for shelter, especially during moulting. It is a nocturnal species which feeds on mussels, hermit crabs and polychaetes. The European Lobster will not typically mature before 5-8 years; although like many other lobster species, this is largely dependent on water temperature (Prodöhl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Spawning usually occurs during the summer months and eggs are carried for 9-12 months.&#160; Planktonic larvae may be dispersed widely over a development time of 5-10 weeks, while adult lobsters typically move over relatively short distances (M. Bell pers. comm. 2010).
169955		population	eng	This is an abundant species that is harvested in commercial quantities in parts of its range. The main fishing grounds are now the United Kingdom, Ireland, Channel Islands and France (Cobbs and Castro 2006). Landings were relatively steady until 1963 when they peaked at 4,800 tonnes and then dropped to around 2,300 tonnes. In the 1970s, landings fell further to around 1,800-1,900 tonnes but started to show signs of recovery in the early 1980s when they fluctuated between 2-3,000 tonnes. In 2006, 2007, 2008 landings were at around 4,300 tonnes (FISHSTAT Plus 2000).
169955		threats	eng	<p>The greatest threat is the commercial scale exploitation of this species as a human food source. This species is harvested throughout its range, but the main fisheries occur around the United Kingdom, Ireland, France and the Channel Islands (Cobb and Castro 2006). This species was once taken in greater quantities in both Norway and Turkey, but significant declines in population size in the 1960s and 1970s have reduced the annual catch to a fraction of what it was formerly (FAO 2009). However, since the 1980s global landings of this species have been steadily increasing (FAO 2009).<br/></p>
169956		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, some of its distribution coincides with protected areas (Hibberd 2009).</p>
169956		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Kerguelen Islands and Heard Island in the Southern Ocean (Burukovsky and Averin 1976, Holthuis 1991).
169956		habitat	eng	This species is found on muddy substrates, at depths of between 560 to 1220 metres (Holthuis 1991).
169956		population	eng	This species was noted as common in the Kerguelen Plateau (Hibberd 2009).
169956		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
169957		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
169957		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indo-West Pacific region: East Africa (Tanzania, Zanzibar, Kenya and Somalia), the Andaman Sea, the South China Sea (not including the Philippines), and Indonesia (Holthuis 1991, Tshudy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>Several older records have been since disputed on taxonomic grounds; for example, specimens from Australian and Philippines are likely a different species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Metanephrops velutinus</span>), as are those from southern Africa and the Mozambique channel (<span style="font-style: italic;">M. mozambicus</span>) (Chan and Yu 1991, Tshudy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Chan 1997). A recent molecular analysis of the entire genus upheld the separate classification of these three closely related species (Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
169957		habitat	eng	This species ranges from 250-750 m in depth, but is mostly found between 300-450 m (Holthuis 1991). Its substrate is hard mud, and it "possibly lives in burrows" according to Holthuis (1991).
169957		population	eng	According to Chan and Yu (1991) this species is actually quite poorly known. This is because most of the previous records, including commercially-caught specimens, belong to different species. It was caught in small quantities off the northeast coast of Somalia (Van Zalinge 1988) and Kenya (de Sousa 1988), and more regularly in southern Zanzibar at depths of 205-300 m (Jiddawi and Pandu 1988). Its highest abundance was thought to be in the South China Sea (Carpenter and Niem 1998), though this is now severely depleted due to fishing pressure (T.Y. Chan pers. comm. 2009).
169957		threats	eng	This species was mentioned as "a potential fishery resource off Hong Kong" (Longhurst 1970). Holthuis (1991) thought this was likely to be true in other parts of its range. This was due to its size and habitat, on trawlable seabeds, and it was described as "the only species [of lobster] of some commercial importance at this time in the Western Indian Ocean" (Fischer and Bianchi 1984). It was caught in small numbers by trawling off the coast of Somalia (Van Zalinge 1988), and in greater numbers at the southern end of the Zanzibar channel where it is not exploited (Jiddawi and Pandu 1988). Attempts in Kenya to develop offshore trawling were unsuccessful (de Sousa 1988). Chan and Yu (1991) supposed that due to its large size, commercial trawling of this species may be viable; however, it is unknown how widely this has been taken on since then.
169958		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
169958		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution along the western Atlantic from: Massachusetts and Bermuda down to Santa Catarina in Brazil, including the entire Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (Holthuis 1991, Tavares 2002, Dall'Occo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The type locality for this species is 'Fish Hawk' Station 873, off Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, USA (40º02'N 70º57'W) at a depth of 182 m (Holthuis 1991).
169958		habitat	eng	This deep sea species can be found at depths between 130-830 m, but mostly occurs between 200-600 m. It inhabits a substrate of mud or fine sand (Holthuis 1991).
169958		population	eng	This species has been described as widespread and common in certain areas of the Gulf of Mexico, including the Mexican Ridges and the Campeche Bank (Wicksten and Packard 2005, Escobar-Briones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
169958		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.  <p>&#160;</p>
169959		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known what impact deep-sea trawling has had on this species, therefore further work is recommended to determine whether populations are stable or decreasing.
169959		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Atlantic coast of South America: from Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Holthuis 1991) to Santa Catarina, Brazil (M. Butler and A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
169959		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths from 50-150 m (Holthuis 1991).
169959		population	eng	According to Holthuis (1991) this species is "rather rare", although it is quite commonly found being sold frozen in Brazilian fish markets (Tavares 2002).
169959		threats	eng	Intensified trawling since the late 1990s, from Brazilian and foreign fishing fleets, is the biggest threat to this species through direct (catches) and indirect (habitat and ecosystem degradation) means (Perez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In addition, discarded by-catch from the gillnet monkfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius gastrophysus</span>) fishery, off the south coast of Brazil, may also be a threat to this species (Perez and Wahrlich 2005).
169960		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
169960		distribution	eng	This species is known from Queensland, New South Wales in Australia, the Kermadec Islands of New Zealand (Holthuis 1991), and the West Norfolk Ridge (Haddy <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).
169960		habitat	eng	This species is known from soft, stony substrates (Holthuis 1991) at a depth range of 80 - 560 m. It is most commonly found between 150 - 250 m (Haddy <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).
169960		population	eng	This is the second most abundant <span style="font-style: italic;">Ibacus</span> species in the South Queensland prawn trawl fishery (Haddy <em>et al.</em> 2007).
169960		threats	eng	There is no targeted fishery for this species, though it is taken as by-catch of the eastern king prawn trawl fishery. The annual catch of this species is small and is taken in combination with king prawns in the winter months (Haddy <em>et al.&#160;</em>2007). Daytime catch rates of this species can be as high as 15 kg/hr off northern New South Wales (Gorman and Graham 1978).
169962		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.</p>
169962		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-west Pacific area including Natal, Mozambique, Madagascar, Laccadive Islands, Japan, Philippines, New Caledonia, Indonesia, the Solomon Islands, the South China Sea, and Queensland in Australia (Holthuis 1991; Poore 2004; Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>This species has many synonyms and as such has many type localities.<br/>The type locality of this species is the 'Challenger' Station 191, south of New Guinea at a depth of 1463 m (lat. 5º41'S., long. 134º4'30' E.).<br/>The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthacaris opipara</span> is the southwest part of the Indian Ocean near Durban, at a depth of 830-850 m (29º57'6'- 29º52'5'S., 31º46'2'-31º52'5'E). <br/>The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phoberus brevirostris</span> is the East China Sea at a depth of 300-900 m (29º00'-30' N, 127º00'-30'E) (Holthuis 1991).
169962		habitat	eng	This deep sea species inhabits a muddy or coralline substrate (Holthuis 1991) and has been found between depths of 300 and 1,463 m deep.
169962		population	eng	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.</p>
169962		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. This species is presently only taken in small quantities in deep water trawls.<br/></p>
169963		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.
169963		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mozambique Channel: north from KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa to Mozambique, Madagascar (Chan and Yu 1991),and as far north as Tanzania (A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
169963		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths ranging from 200-750 m, although it is most common between 400-500 m (Holthuis 1991). It is typically found on soft, muddy bottoms (Holthuis 1991, MacPherson 1990). Females are ovigerous between December and June (Holthuis 1991).
169963		population	eng	There is no direct population information for this species, although Chan and Yu (1991) reported that populations were abundant and not affected by commercial trawling. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) increased during the 1990s, suggesting it was recovering from harvesting, and catch volume has remained stable for over a decade in the Indian Ocean (FAO).
169963		threats	eng	The deep-water trawl fishery in South Africa is relatively small in scale, and effort has fluctuated over the last two decades (a decline in effort in the early 1990s due to logistical problems, followed by an increase in effort after 1995 when more vessels entered the fishery) (Fennessy and Groeneveld 1997).
169964		conservation	eng	<p>Many recent studies have focused on investigating the life history traits of this species (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003, Pinheiro and Lins-Oliveira 2006, Góes and Lins-Oliveira 2009) and it is hoped that there is now enough ecological knowledge to impose the same fishery management strategies for this species as with similar species in northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p><p>The species is caught with lobster traps (Holthuis 1991), but is most frequently harvested by divers, a method not regulated by current legislation (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003).</p>  <p>It is suggested that there is the implementation of a minimum size limit, a fishing season, and no-take zones. In addition, long-term monitoring plans, in particular recording catch-per-unit-effort, should be applied in order to guarantee that the stocks of this species remain at sustainable levels.</p>
169964		distribution	eng	This species is distributed off the extreme northeastern coast of Brazil (Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, and Pernambuco States) and the Central Atlantic Islands (São Pedro and São Paulo Archipelago, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, <st1:city w:st="on">Trinidad</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cape  Verde</st1:country-region>, Canary, Ascension and <st1:place w:st="on">Saint  Helena)</st1:place> (Vianna 1986, Holthuis 1991, Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The type locality of this species is Recife in Pernambuco State, Brazil (Holthuis 1991).
169964		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal species inhabits offshore regions with rocky substrates, and can be found in caves and crevices (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003, Pinheiro and Lins-Oliveira 2006). It can be found at depths of between 0 and 35 m, but is most commonly caught no deeper than 25 m (Holthuis 1991).</p><p>This species is an om­nivorous, opportunistic, and generalist feeder, consuming a great diversity of available prey from several trophic levels (Holthuis 1991, Góes and Lins-Oliveira 2009). It has been found to eat (in order of importance) fish, crustaceans, green algae, calcareous algae, and rocks (Góes and Lins-Oliveira 2009). </p>    <p></p>  <p>Male specimens have been found to be generally larger and heavier than females (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003). The carapace length for this species varies from 3-19 cm (males) and 2-15 cm (females), and the total body length varies from 7-39 cm (males) and 5-38 cm (females) (Holthuis 1991). It is thought that this size difference may be due to females hiding themselves away from predators during the breeding season, resulting in reduced foraging time; whereas foraging behaviour in males was found to be constant during the reproductive season (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003).</p>  <p>This species has an average fecundity equal to 56,160 eggs per female (lowest observed fecundity was approximately 44,000 eggs from a specimen of 16.5 cm total length (TL), while the largest observed fecundity was of 97,120 eggs from a specimen of 19.4 cm TL) (Pinheiro and Lins-Oliveira 2006). Amongst the three most commercially harvested species of Spiny Lobster in northeastern Brazil (this species, <em>Panulirus argus</em> and <em>P. laevicauda</em>), this species has the lowest reproductive potential, although this may be due to the reduced size of this species in comparison with the other two species (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003, Pinheiro and Lins-Oliveira 2006).&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
169964		population	eng	<p>Edwards and Lubbock (1983 in Góes and Lins-Oliveira 2009) quote that this species was the most abundant decapod in the São Pedro and São Paulo Archipelago, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species has been described as the most abundant coastal lobster in the Cape Verde Islands (Holthuis 1991).</p><p>    </p><p>Specific population information on this species is unavailable. There is no FAO data on catches of this species. From information known, this species is most likely over-exploited by legal and illegal harvesting throughout its range and the population will have decreased substantially from its original biomass. It is suspected, that in light of data from other lobster fisheries around the world, that the population has been reduced by at least 80 % (M. Butler, A. Cockcroft, and A. McDiarmid pers. comm 2009).<br/></p>  <p></p>
169964		threats	eng	The main threat facing this species is from harvesting. Although this species has been described as abundant in parts of its range, it is known that the stock of Spiny Lobsters in northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region> has been dramatically depleted in the last few decades. The lack of legislation currently protecting this species means that unless an appropriate management strategy is implemented it could be at risk of over-exploitation, especially in the northeastern Brazil part of its range (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The stock of Spiny Lobsters in northeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region> has been dramatically depleted in the last decades, mainly due to illegal and fishing activities. Increase in the fishery effort is due mainly to its high economic value added to the lack of appropriate legislation to protect the stock (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em> 2003).
169965		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is recommended that populations and harvest levels off the northwest coast of Australia continue to be monitored, with the possibility of stricter controls on the fishery in the future.
169965		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the northwest coast of Western Australia, near Port Hedland (Holthuis 1991). Its distribution may extend northwards to Indonesia and the Philippines, although records outside Australia are patchy (Chan 1997).
169965		habitat	eng	This species occurs on <span style="font-style: italic;">Globigerina</span> at depths of 418 m to 500 m (Holthuis 1991, Australian Faunal Directory 2008). It commonly feeds on other crustaceans, but also fish and squid (Wassenberg and Hill 1989). Females are thought to mature at 4+ years (~ 40 mm carapace length), and maximum lifespan is 10-12 years (Rainer 1992). Clutch size is approximately 1,200 eggs (R. Wahle pers. comm. 2009).
169965		population	eng	This species is abundant off the northwest coast of Australia, but spread unevenly across this part of its range (Poore 2004). It is rarely found in the Philippines and Indonesia (Chan 1997). Measures of population abundance (e.g., catch per unit effort) show fluctuations both annually and seasonally, but a steady decline since 1985 is apparent (Lynch and Garvey 2005).
169965		threats	eng	This species is fished commercially by trawlers off the northwest coast of Australia. It was the most abundant lobster off the northwest Australian coast, making up 38% of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Metanephrops </span>catch in the 1980s (Wallner and Phillips 1988). In 1984 this species made up 32.5% of the total trawl catch by weight, compared to 50% shrimps, 12.1% <span style="font-style: italic;">M. velutinus, </span>and 5.4% <span style="font-style: italic;">M. boschmai</span> (Davis and Ward 1984). <br/><br/>Since 1985, when the commercial fishery began in earnest, annual catches have fluctuated (see "Use and Trade") but there has been an overall steady decline in catch volume of around 44 % over three generations (for calculations see below; data from Lynch and Garvey 2005). However, this has coincided with a decrease in fishing effort (hours trawled) which complicates interpretations of decreasing catch volume (Lynch and Garvey 2005).<br/><br/>Data for catch per unit effort (CPUE) for all three commercial Australian lobster species shows an overall decline from around 14 kg/hr in 1985 to 9 kg/hr in 2003 (assuming an increase in fishing power of 1% per annum), with the lowest levels recorded in 2002 (Lynch and Garvey 2005). CPUE data is available for this species at one fishing ground (Rowley Shoals); this shows a linear decline over three generations from approx. 11 kg/hr in 1991 to 9 kg/hr in 2003. This amounts to an approx. 18 % decline over the period (Lynch and Garvey 2005).<br/><br/>Despite this, it is not believed that this species is being significantly impacted by commercial trawling (Lynch and Garvey 2005). This is due to several factors: firstly, there is no evidence that the fishery is being "mined" (vessels continuously find new areas of high abundance which are exploited until depletion, gradually fishing down the entire stock until a sudden and unanticipated collapse occurs), as most of the fishing grounds have been in constant use since 1985; secondly, a comparison of length frequencies between the early years of the fishery and 2004 shows no significant change in the size range of scampi being caught, giving evidence that CPUE's are not being distorted by "growth overfishing" (the practice of targeting greater numbers of smaller scampi to sustain total catch volumes) (Lynch and Garvey 2005).<br/><br/>* Calculations for catch volume decline:<br/>Age at maturity = 4 years. Longevity = 12 years (Rainer 1992).<br/>Generation length = longevity - maturity / 2 = (12 - 4 )/ 2 = 4 years.<br/>Three generations = 1991 to 2003: volume in 1991 = 18 tonnes; 2003 = 10 tonnes. Decline = 44%.
169966		conservation	eng	Harvest regulations for this species are in place as a result of advice from the Mexican government (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006). This fishery is regulated by closed fishing seasons, minimum size limits, and limited fishing effort and gear use. Fishery controls seek to maintain half the estimated biomass of the stock (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006). Voluntary fishing quotas are in place for this species and are adhered to by 95% of fishers (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006).<br/><br/>In 2004, this fishery was awarded Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification (Marine Stewardship Council 2010, Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006).
169966		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southern California, USA to the Bay of Magdalena, Baja California, Mexico, possibly including the Gulf of California (Holthuis 1991).
169966		habitat	eng	This species is found in the littoral zone in tide pools, to depths of 65 m on rocky substrates (Holthuis 1991).
169966		population	eng	This species is commercially harvested as a food source throughout its range. The main fishing grounds are between Cedros Island and Punta Abreojos (most of which is contained within the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve); 80% of the Mexican landings come from this region (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006). The catch of this species over the last 20 years in the USA has remained relatively constant at approximately 300 tonnes, while in Mexico it has increased from 1,100 tonnes to 1,700 tonnes. Due to the stringent measures currently in place, the fishery is said to be in a stable state with fluctuations in landings likely as a result of changes in environmental conditions and recruitment levels (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006).
169966		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting upon this species.
169967		conservation	eng	<p>There are a number of species-specific conservation measures in place to regulate the fishery of this species. Management strategies include: minimum legal sizes for harvest; restrictions on fishing gear type type and mesh size; total allowable catch limits (TAC) (Bell, Redant and Tuck 2006).<br/><br/></p>
169967		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species ranging from Iceland, the Faroes and Norway in the north of its range, to the Atlantic coast of Morocco in the south including the west and central region of the Mediterranean. It is however absent from the eastern Mediterranean, the Baltic Sea, the Bosphorus and the Black Sea (Holthuis 1991).
169967		habitat	eng	The species spends much of its time inside burrows constructed in muddy substrates.&#160; Emergence behaviour varies with depth and is related to light levels and other external factors.&#160; Adults are opportunistic predators and scavengers feeding on a range of benthic invertebrates.&#160; Reproductive frequency depends on latitude, varying from annual cycles in the southern part of the range to biennial cycles in the northern part. Spawning occurs in late summer or early autumn and ovigerous females remain in their burrows until the eggs hatch in late winter or early spring.&#160; Larvae are planktonic and settle in muddy substrates after 3-7 weeks (M. Bell pers. comm. 2010). Although specimens can reach up to 24 cm in length, this species is normally found between 10-20 cm in size (Holthuis 1991). Age at first maturity is thought to be around 2-3 years (Froglia and Gramitto 1981, Orsi Relini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
169967		population	eng	This species is found in commercial quantities throughout much of its range. Landings of this species have steadily increased since the 1950s from around 10,000 tonnes, to around 50-70,000 tonnes in the 2000s (FAO 2010).
169967		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is the commercial scale harvest for human food across its range. The largest fishing grounds for this species occur in the North Sea, the West of Scotland and the Irish Sea. It is also taken in the Bay of Biscay, the Iberian coast, Moroccan coast, Western and Eastern Mediterranean, and the Adriatic but in much smaller quantities (Bell, Redant and Tuck 2006).<br/><br/>Levels of fishery exploitation vary widely between individual stocks (Bell, Redant and Tuck 2006). ICES assessments indicate that many of the stocks with a long history of exploitation in the North Sea, to the west of Scotland and in the Irish and Celtic Seas, are fully exploited in terms of yield per recruit, but stock levels are relatively stable and with no evidence of recruitment declines (ICES 2003, 2004). New fisheries have developed over recent years on some large offshore stocks in the North Sea (notably the Fladen Ground and Norwegian Deeps) and there appears to be scope for further increases in fishing pressure on these grounds. In contrast. there have been declines in stock abundance in some southern areas, including the Bay of Biscay and, particularly, Atlantic shelf edge grounds around the Iberian peninsula, but it is not clear that recruitment declines have resulted from overexploitation (M. Bell pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Trawling is the primary method of fishing. Vulnerability to trawling is strongly related to burrow emergence behaviour, and in areas where much of the fishing occurs in winter (e.g. the Farn Deeps grounds) there is a lower fishing mortality of females owing to the non-emergence of ovigerous individuals. Small creel fisheries also occur, notably in sea lochs in the west of Scotland. This is considered a more sustainable method of fishing than trawling, although there are concerns that larger numbers of ovigerous females are taken in creels (M. Bell pers. comm. 2010).
169968		conservation	eng	Management strategies for this species are few; any existing strategies are based on precautionary principles (Frisch 2007).
169968		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the Indian Ocean (east coast of Africa and the Red Sea) east to Japan, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Northern Australia (Holthuis 1991).
169968		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas of coral reef, most often on the seaward edge of reef plateaus, where it utilizes the reef and rocks for shelter. It is found in shallow waters, to a maximum depth of 15 m (Holthuis 1991). Furthermore, they are nocturnal and they only aggregate in very small numbers (Frisch 2007).
169968		population	eng	This is a common species. It is harvested throughout its range, but is mostly for local use (Holthuis 1991). It is harvested by artisanal, recreational and commercial fishers predominantly within Kenya, India, Palau, New Guinea, and the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. Global catches are comparatively low compared to other Palinurid species at approximately 1,000 to 8,000 kg year<sup>-1</sup> per country (MacDonald 1982, Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993). In India this species only comprises a very small proportion of the palinurid catch (Radhakrishnan <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is exploited at low to moderate levels (Vijayakumaran and Radhakrishnan 1997). Commercial catches of this species were sampled from 1969 to 1970 in Palau. Results indicated that the population had undergone very little fishing pressure, and both sexes were equally abundant. Recruitment appears to occur all year round (MacDonald 1982). In a study of Palinurid catch composition from Sri Lanka, this species comprised only 3% of the total catch (Jayawickrema 1991).
169968		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing localized declines due to fishing, but this is not believed to impacting upon the global population.
169969		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to confirm whether this species is still found in large quantities in the Gulf of Panama, and to determine the abundance in other areas of its range.<br/></p>
169969		distribution	eng	The known distribution of this species is eastern Pacific region from the Gulf of California in Mexico, to Tumbes, Peru (Holthuis 1991).<br/>The type locality for this species is La Paz, Baja California, Mexico (Holthuis 1991).
169969		habitat	eng	This species prefers a substrate of sand or mud, sometimes with rocks. It is most commonly found at depths between 2 and 25 m, but has been found as deep as 90 m (Holthuis 1991).
169969		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. However, exploration trawls in the Gulf of Panama found it in fairly large quantities (Holthuis 1991).
169969		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats to this species.<br/></p>
169970		conservation	eng	<p>To ensure that this species does not become over-harvested, a management strategy needs to be implemented. Since this species is mainly a by-catch component of demersal trawling, limiting effort or setting mesh size limits may not be a suitable strategy. Minimum legal size limits (MLS) would be preferable as undersized lobsters can then be returned alive to the water. Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2008) report that the functional maturity of this species occurs at a carapace length (CL) of 8.5 cm, and mean fecundity was related to a mean CL of 9.5 cm. They suggest a size of 9 cm CL as the female MLS. In their study they also ascertained that the breeding period of this species is seasonal, and therefore recommend that the capture of this species should be prohibited from November to January, when they found that the percentage of ovigerous females was greater than 50%&#160;(Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>    <p>Further research is recommended to give an indicator of the species' current abundance, and monitoring should be ongoing to ensure that harvesting is not having a deleterious affect on this species' survival.</p><p>    </p><p>A decline in global captures of <em>Scyllaridae</em> has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). Further research is necessary to determine the impact that global harvesting is having on specific species, and to clarify if the documented decline is due to reduced populations or simply reduced effort.</p>  <p></p>
169970		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic region from the southern &#160;Brazilian states to northern Argentina&#160;&#160;(Holthuis 1991, Santana&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007).&#160;Along the Argentinean coast the species has been reported in the Buenos Aires Province (38°45'00" S 57°50'00"W) (Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>The type locality for this species is Ubatuba in São Paulo State, Brazil (Holthuis 1991).
169970		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy bottoms, and is also found hidden in rocky crevices (Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) at depths of 30-300 m.&#160;This nocturnal species shelters during the day and forages at night feeding mainly on bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007).
169970		population	eng	There is very little population information available for this species. Nomura and Fausto Filho (1968) described this species as abundant in north and northeast Brazil, but there is no recent data to confirm whether this is still the case.&#160;Considering the volumes which have been harvested since 2000 (see Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), it is likely that this species is abundant. However, it is unknown what affect harvesting is having on this species' population.
169970		threats	eng	The harvesting of this species is likely to be its greatest threat, though this is unlikely to be a major threat at this time as it is taken as incidental catch rather than forming a targeted fishery.<br/><br/>There is unlikely to be a trap fishery for this species as they do not often go into traps. In a study in Florida in 2000, twenty thousand traps were set for a season - 150 individuals were caught.
169971		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.
169971		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the east coast of Japan, near Sagami Bay, to Taiwan (Holthuis 1991, Okamoto 2008).
169971		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths from 300 m to 400 m (Holthuis 1991).
169971		population	eng	Very little is known about populations of this species. It is more abundant than <span style="font-style: italic;">Metanephrops japonicus </span>in Japan, but uncommon in Taiwan (Chan and Yu 1991).
169971		threats	eng	This species is harvested across its range, but there are no species-specific catch data so the impact on the population is not known.
169972		conservation	eng	Trawl fishery access within the range of this species is restricted using a mixture of: vessel retrictions, competitive catch&#160;limits, and individually allocated catch limits. Since October 2004, this species was introduced to the Quota Management System (QMS) which directly controls harvest levels for distinct fish stocks in Quota Management Areas (QMA)   (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft, A.B. MacDiarmid and R.A. Wahle pers. comm. 2008). <br/>
169972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand, and is found on the continental shelf around both islands as far east as the Chatham Islands (Holthuis 1991).
169972		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mud or sandy mud substrate at depths of 140-640 m (Holthuis 1991). Its size at maturity is 30 mm, which it usually achieves after three to four years, and may live for up to 15 years (Cryer and Oliver 2001). It has a very large egg size associated with low fecundity (about 10-20% of other commercial species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Nephrops norvegicus)</span> (MacDiarmid and Sainte-Marie 2006).
169972		population	eng	In the Bay of Plenty, off the coast of New Zealand's North Island, this species made up more than 60% of the invertebrate catch in trawl surveys (Cryer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). Estimates of abundance from underwater photography in the same location ranged from 12-28 million animals (including those spotted in burrows and walking), down to 2-11 million (just those animals walking on the sediment, i.e. most susceptible to capture by trawl), although the latter estimate is far less reliable (Cryer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Biomass estimates over the period 1998 to 2003 showed a decline: for all visible scampi, from 988 tonnes to 509 tonnes, and for extrapolations based on burrow openings, ~5,500 tonnes to 3,600 tonnes.<br/><br/>Although little information is available on population structure, preliminary genetic work suggests a high degree of heterogeneity, with up to four genetically distinct sub-populations. Other evidence supports the treatment of these as separate management units (NZ Ministry of Fisheries 2009).<br/><br/>Catch per unit effort (CPUE) has declined since 1995 (Cryer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), although with different timing patterns in different Quota Management Areas (QMAs). SCI1 (Auckland East), the oldest fishery, and SCI2 (Central) have both shown declines since peaking in the mid-1990s, and have been relatively stable, although at historically low levels since 2000. SCI3 (<span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder2_ctl01_lblTitle" class="h1">South East Coast and Western Chatham Islands), the largest fishery, increased gradually before peaking in 2000 and has declined since to low levels. SCI4A (Chatham Islands East) peaked in 2001 before declining rapidly. SCI6A (Auckland Islands), the second largest fishery, declined rapidly in the early 1990s and has been stable since then. No areas of the fishery show an increasing trend in CPUE, although trends fluctuate. All fishery areas for which data exists have shown substantial declines of between 30 and 80%   (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft, A.B. MacDiarmid and R.A. Wahle pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Stock assessments for this species have been hampered by the lack of a reliable index of abundance (for example, research trawl and commercial CPUE both suffer from temporal changes in catch vulnerability) (Cryer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). <span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder2_ctl01_lblTitle" class="h1">Assessments of abundance vary according to which estimate is used: if biomass of visible scampi is used, landings represent a significant (12.1 to 27.6%) proportion of total scampi biomass, but if extrapolations from burrow counts are used, fishing only accounts for 2.2-3.6% of the total stock in the Bay of Plenty (Cryer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Those based on visible scampi are likely to be conservative and affected by seasonal and diurnal changes in lobster emergence, while those based on burrow counts assume that burrow occupancy is constant from year to year (which is thus far unknown).<br/><br/>Estimated declines in biomass are consistent with a decline in commercial catch per unit effort (CPUE) since 1996 (Hartill and Cryer 2003); &#160;in recent years Total Allowable Catch (TAC) targets have not been met due to fleet economics. CPUE data is available which shows consistent patterns among fishing areas of gradual or rapid increases followed by declines since around 2000 (NZ Ministry of Fisheries 2009). However, these unstandardized analyses are not considered reliable indices of abundance by the Shellfish Fishery Assessment Working Group, and should therefore be interpreted with caution.</span>
169972		threats	eng	This species is only commercially exploited in a few parts of its range. This is because there are large areas where there is muddy ground broken up with rocky ground and therefore not trawlable. Thus creating natural refugia. Only the emergent fraction is harvested at any one point in time, and only the high density aggregations are exploited. Furthermore, there is a responsive management regime in place, and there are fishery indepenedent surveys coming into place. (A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009)<span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder2_ctl01_lblTitle" class="h1"><span id="ctl00_ContentPlaceHolder2_ctl01_lblTitle" class="h1"> However, according to the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries "There are no stock assessments or yield estimates for any scampi stock. It is not known if recent catches and current catch limits for any scampi stock are sustainable in the long term..." (NZ Ministry of Fisheries 2009).<br/><br/>Furthermore, trawling can indirectly affect scampi and other species through impacts on seabed habitats; it has been shown to reduce benthic biodiversity (NZ Ministry of Fisheries 2009). Small amounts of scampi may also be taken as bycatch during trawls for other species, although this is not thought to be a major threat.</span>
169973		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
169973		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in the western Atlantic from Florida to Brazil, including the Caribbean Sea and the Lesser Antilles (Holthuis 1991, Dall'Occo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The type locality of this species is 16-20 miles south of Dry Tortuqas, Florida at a depth of 1,065 m (Holthuis 1991).<br/></p>
169973		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species can occur in depths between 655-1,300 m, but is most commonly found between 800-1,300 m. It inhabits a sand or mud substrate, occasionally with rubble (Holthuis 1991).</p>
169973		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
169973		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
169974		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
169974		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region including the Gulf of Aden, East Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Kenya, Mozambique Channel, Madagascar), the Bay of Bengal, Japan (Sagami Bay to Tosa Bay), Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia and Australia (West Australia and Queensland) (Holthuis 1991, Zarenkov 2006, DEWHA 2009). It is likely that this species is also distributed in: Malaysia, Cambodia, Viet Nam, southeast China, and Korea (A.C. Cockcroft and A. B. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>  <p>The type locality for this species is 25 miles off <st1:placename w:st="on">Ross</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Island</st1:placename> on the eastern coast of the Andaman Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, from a depth of 476-550 m (Holthuis 1991). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
169974		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species can be found at depths of 170-1,060 m, but is most commonly found between 500-750 m. This species inhabits soft muddy substrates, and can reach a maximum body length of 15 cm, although most commonly specimens are around 10 cm in size (Holthuis 1991).</p>
169974		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
169974		threats	eng	<p>This species may be threatened locally by harvesting, but this is not considered a major threat to the species over its entire range.</p>
169976		conservation	eng	<p>There are regulations in place governing the harvesting of this species within part of its range. There is a legal minimum size of 69 mm (carapace length) and a closed season of 120 days from February to May, in order to safeguard reproducing females during the spawning period, to protect new recruits, and to allow the growth and increase in weight of the population (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006). Furthermore, strict control is also exercised over the prohibition of the taking of berried females, as well as the number of fishing gears and boats utilized, and boat replacement (Baisre and Cruz 1994).</p><p>Further research is needed to determine an appropriate index of abundance for the global population of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range. <br/></p>
169976		distribution	eng	This species has a broad geographic range from Bermuda and east coast USA, south to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico (Holthuis 1991). It is also known from Cape Verde (Freitas and Castro 2005)
169976		habitat	eng	This species is found up to a depth of 90 m within a range of habitat types, including rocky reefs, coral reefs and seagrass beds, which are utilized for shelter (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>In Florida, they typically moult 2 - 3 times a year from March to July, and December to February (Williams 1984). The timing of moulting is affected by water temperature/ geographic region (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft, A.B. MacDiarmid and&#160; R.A.Wahle pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Egg production in females has been shown to be greatly reduced in fished populations, compared to unexploited populations, with females in the exploited population producing only 12% of eggs (Lyons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1981). Age at maturity is estimated at 2 years, and longevity at 12 years (Chávez 2001) although individuals of 20 years have been noted (Ehrhardt 2005). Furthermore, size at maturity differs with locality. Estimates for size at 50% maturity range from 81 mm (CL) in Cuba, to 92 mm (CL) in Colombia (FAO 2001).
169976		population	eng	This species is widely distributed within the western central Atlantic and supports important fisheries in many of the countries within this area.&#160; However, recent assessments have indicated this species is being fully or over-exploited over much of its range (Cochrane and Chakalall 2001).<br/><br/>Four stocks have been identified by the FAO (2001) according to the nature of the coastal shelf and prevailing currents which thereby affect recruitment. These stocks detail the major lobster producing countries, although there are many other countries that also utilize this resource:  <p>Southern Stock: Brazil, Venezuela, Dominican Republic and Lesser Antilles.</p>  <p>South Central Stock: Colombia, Nicaragua, Honduras and Jamaica.</p>  <p>North Central Stock: Mexico, Belize and southern Cuba.</p>  <p>Northern Stock: North Cuba, USA (Florida), Bahamas, Turks and Caicos and Bermuda.</p>      <p>Landings of this species over the last 50-60 years, have fluctuated significantly, peaking at 37,500 tonnes in 1995/1996. Both the Northern and Southern stocks have shown an increase in landings, while the South Central stock appears to have stabilized, and the North central stock has shown a decline (FAO 2006). The biggest producing countries include Cuba, the Bahamas, Brazil, Nicaragua and the USA, which in 1998 accounted for over 88% of the global landings. This species is harvested using a number of gear types including traps, gill nets, by hand (divers), and aggregating devices known as 'pesqueros' or 'casitas' (FAO 2006).</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bahamas</span>: Stock biomass abundance (as estimated from length cohort analysis) is reported to be showing a declining trend of 33% between 1992 and 2001 when it peaked at 24 million pounds and declined to 16 million pounds. There has also been a decline in the average size of lobsters since 1991/1992 when average tail weight peaked at 7.95 oz and declined to ~7.45 in 2001/2002 (Gittens and Braynen 2002). </p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bermuda</span>: Between the 1950s and early 1970s catches of this species fluctuated between 150 and 200 tonnes with a peak in 1968 at 250 tonnes. As of the 1970s there was a decline in catch to between 10 and 40 tonnes per annum. This decline in landings is likely a result of a conservation program started in 1975 which prohibited the removal of individuals less than 92 mm (CL); a closed fishing season between 1<sup>st</sup> April and 31<sup>st</sup> August over the breeding season; prohibition of the removal of berried females; protection of juveniles in nursery areas around the North Shore and inshore waters of the sounds and harbours (Evans and Evans 1995). Catch per unit effort (CPUE) is seen as an appropriate index of abundance when studying the Bermuda population, as annual sea temperatures fluctuate very little in this region and thereby have little effect on the catchability coefficient. During the period 1975-1986 there was an overall increase in CPUE from just 0.4 lobsters trap/ haul to above 0.6 lobsters trap/ haul (Evans and Evans 1995). During the period 1996-2001 CPUE was reported as relatively stable for the offshore fishery while the inshore fishery has shown a declining trend. In 2001/2002 fishing effort was reduced; total landings were still down in this season but CPUE was significantly higher (2.29 in 2001/2002 compared to 1.70 in 2000/2001) (Trott, Luckhurst and Medley 2002).</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>: There has been a significant decline in the CPUE in the spiny lobster fishery in this region from ~1.2 kg/trap in 1965 to 0.6 kg/trap in 1997. There are also reports that 10% of the landings consist of undersized individuals (Carcamo 2003).</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>: Since 1959, there has been a significant increase in the landings of this species from 1,000 tonnes to over 10,000 tonnes in the early 1990's. There has since been a subsequent decline to annual landings ranging from 6,000 to 8,000 tonnes (FISHSTAT Plus 2000). During the period 1974 to 1993 CPUE declined from ~0.30 to ~0.15 (FAO 2001), a decline of ~50%. Abundance estimates (estimated by tuned length cohort analysis) show a significant decline since 1993 from ~25 to 30 million down to around 15 million in 1997. During this period there was a number of new fishing vessels entering the fleet, as well as an increase in the use of gillnets, traps, scuba divers and free divers. However the stock abundance of this fishery is largely driven by variable levels of recruitment which are brought about by environmental changes such as ENSO events. This in combination with a growing intensity in the fishing fleet could result in ongoing declines in abundance (FAO 2001).</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Cuba</span>: There are four lobster management zones in Cuba: North Western which accounts for approximately 2% of the landings; North Eastern which accounts for approximately 15% of the landings; Gulf of Batabano which accounts for approximately 60% of the landings; South Eastern which accounts for approximately 23% of the landings (Cruz and Adriano 2001). <span lang="EN-GB">In 1953, landings of this species increased from approximately 1,000 tonnes per year to a peak of 13,578 tonnes in 1985. There has since been a subsequent decline to 4,401 tonnes in 2006. This species is of huge economic importance to Cuba and represents approximately 60% of the country's gross income from fisheries (Baisre and Cruz 1994). The particularly high landings from 1978 to 1988 was largely due to an increase in fishing effort. Cruz and Phillips (1994) found the number of pesqueros deployed on the fishery rose from 440,000 in 1975 to 856,000 in 1983 and 1,230,600 in 1987, as well as strict compliance with minimum legal size limits, and the closed fishing season (Puga <em>et al.</em> 1992). The decline in catch as of 1988 may be in part due to hurricane Gilbert which is thought to have affected lobster nursery grounds (Cruz Font 2002). Ninety percent of the lobster catch is comprised of lobsters aged 2 to 6 with 55% aged 3 to 4 (Cruz Font 2002). In the report by Cruz Font (2002) their calculations indicate that an increase in current fishing effort could result in higher catch as actual fishing mortality is lower than maximum yield, however this does not take account of the resulting effect on spawning stock biomass. The authors recommend that instead of defining a biological reference point (BRP) based on yield per recruit such as F<sub>max</sub> and F<sub>0.1</sub> , they recommend adopting a view which focuses on spawning stock or egg production in order to preserve reproductive potential (calculated as reference fishing mortality F<sub>x%</sub> representing a spawning stock biomass per recruit that is x% of that with no fishing). A BRP of 35-50%, based on spawning biomass, is recommended. </p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Jamaica</span>: There has been an ongoing increase in the landings of this species since the early 1980's. Landings then peaked at ~700 tonnes in 2005. During this time intensity of the fishing fleet has increased significantly, however CPUE data is not available due to lack of cooperation from fishers (Kelly 2002).</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>:&#160; Over the history of this fishery, effort has increased linearly. Rates of fishing mortality (<span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>) have reached levels of 0.53 per year while natural mortality is calculated at 0.35 per year. Regulations include annual fishing quotas which are defined by changes in annual recruitment; prohibition of fishing during periods of maximum recruitment and egg-laying (May-June); prohibition on removal of berried females. However at present there is no effective means to monitor or control these regulations. There has also been a decline in the mean length of individuals being harvested from 163 mm in 1990/1991 to 159 mm in 2002/2003 indicating growth-overfishing. Biomass estimates were obtained by means of length cohort analysis and indicate considerable fluctuations over the period 1990 - 2002. In the season 1998/1999 abundance fell to below 3,636 tonnes, while in season 1999/2000 it exceeded 5,454 tonnes but subsequently declined to below 3,636 tonnes in 2001/2002. The decline in 1998/1999 could be related to the effect of hurricane Mitch on nursery grounds and thereby affecting recruitment (Navarro 2002).</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Puerto Rico</span>: Over the period 1988-2001, landings of this species rose from ~150,000 pounds to 250,000-300,000 pounds per year (Matos-Caraballo <em>et al.</em> 2007). During this time CPUE for each gear type has also shown an increase. Average size of individuals has increased from the period 1988-1994 to 1995-2001 perhaps as a result of good enforcement of the minimum size limit (Matos-Caraballo <em>et al.</em> 2007). </p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Florida</span>, United States of America-Since the 1970s the landings of this species have been fairly stable with some fluctuation occurring. Prior to this CPUE peaked at over 100 lbs/trap and then declined to ~10 lbs/trip in 1975. Since the fishing season of 1990/1991 the catch rate per trip has been steadily increasing from ~0.75 pounds/trip to ~1.12 pounds/trip in 1999/2000. Spawning stock biomass of females has also increased during the period 1993/1994 - 1999/2000 from ~2.5 million pounds to ~3 million pounds, while male biomass has shown some variability between ~1.8 and ~2.3 million pounds (Muller <em>et al.</em> 2000). Recruitment levels appear to be higher following the Trap Reduction Program which was implemented in 1992/1993, with numbers of age 2 lobsters rising from an average of 9.1 million lobsters, to 12.6 million lobsters (Muller <em>et al.</em> 2000). In 2000, Matthews considered the fishery to be in a stable state.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>: During the period 1950-1977, the landings of this species fluctuated between 100-200 tonnes per annum. Between 1977 and 1993 the landings then showed more dramatic fluctuations between 250 and 1200 tonnes per annum. This was followed by a subsequent decline to approximately 100 tonnes from 1998-2001 but has since shown an increase to approximately 1,100 tonnes. There is no formal data on fishing effort in Venezuela although sporadic reports have been made by Parque Nacional Archipiélago los Roques (PNALR). From 1994 to 1997, free divers CPUE is said to have decreased significantly (5,157 kg per diver per season to 2,966 kg per diver per season), while trap catches are thought to have increased during this same period from 80.2 kg per trap per season, to 93.2 kg per trap per season in 1996, and 90.8 kg per trap per season in 1997 (FAO 2001). At present ~95% of the landings of this species are derived from Los Roques Archipelago National Park (Yallonardo <em>et al</em>. 2001). Size frequency of lobsters taken during the period 1986-1988 and 1998-1999 did not differ significantly indicating that growth overfishing does not appear to be a problem. Mean CPUE by trapping increased from 2.29 kg/trap/month in 1986-1988, to 2.31 kg/trap/month in 1998-1999, and CPUE by diving increased from 133 kg/diver/month in 1986-1988, to 155.65 kg/diver/month in 1998-1999 (Yallonardo <em>et al.</em> 2001). While a decline in the landings was noted in the trap fishery (158,363 kg to 93,555 kg) this is likely related to a decline in the number of traps being used over this time period (275 traps to 225 traps) (Yallonardo <em>et al.</em> 2001). While the conclusion of this study implicates stability in the fishery, the authors note that only a single data point was used for the period 1986-1988.</p>
169976		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is disease (PAV1) which effects one in four recruits in the Caribbean (M. Butler pers. comm. 2009), which could be contributing to the declines in the population. Furthermore, climate change related impacts could possibly be contributing to the resilience of this species to the disease. This species is a also commercially and recreationally caught species and over-exploitation has caused declines.<br/><p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
169977		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is recommended to determine whether or not this species is synonymized with <span style="font-style: italic;">Nephropsis stewarti, </span>and to establish the species' distribution and possible threats .
169977		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from its type locality Saya de Malha (part of the vast undersea Mascarene Plateau) in the western Indian Ocean to the east of Madagascar, at a depth of 550 m (Holthuis 1991).<br/></p>
169977		habitat	eng	<p>This is a deep sea species, occuring at 550 m in depth. The total length of the holotype is 7.75 cm (Holthuis 1991).</p>
169977		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species as it is known only from the type specimen.
169977		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
169978		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
169978		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, the western central Pacific and the Coral Sea (Holthuis 1991). It is reported off Africa from Madagascar and Mozambique to Djibouti (Holthuis 1991). It is also known from the Gulf of Aden to the Arabian Sea, and in the South China Sea from Taiwan to the Philippines and Indonesia (Holthuis 1991). It has also been reported from northern Australia, Fiji and New Caledonia (Holthuis 2002).
169978		habitat	eng	This species is found on mud and sand substrates, at a depth of 160 to 484 metres but more often between 170 and 210 metres (Holthuis 1991).
169978		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
169978		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
169979		conservation	eng	There are some management measures in place such as minimum legal sizes in India, although this requires more stringent regulation (Radhakrishnan&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005).&#160;<br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution and threats.
169979		distribution	eng	This species is found from the southern Red Sea, Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Philippines and southern Japan (Burton and Davie 2007). It may also be found in India but new specimens are needed to confirm this. This species was recently mistaken for&#160;<em>Thenus parindicus</em> and <em>Thenus australiensis</em>, both of which are fished off eastern Australian. As such reports of this species in fisheries reports of the area are false (P. Davie pers. comm. 2010).
169979		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy coarse substrates and mud with possibly shells and gravel at depths of &#160;8 - 100 m, although it is more commonly found from 10 - 50 m (Holthuis 1991). This is a slow growing species with a well-defined breeding period (Radhakrishnan&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005). The high fecundity, wide dispersal and long-lived nature of this species larvae render this species resilient to complete extirpation from an area (Mikami and Greenwood 1997).
169979		population	eng	This is a common and well-studies species. It is caught as by-catch in some areas, and is targeted in others (Radhakrishnan&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2005). There have, however, been collapses in some fisheries of this species off the Indian coast (Radhakrishnan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
169979		threats	eng	<p>This species is currently threatened by over-fishing, which has caused localized declines and collapses of some fisheries (Radhakrishnan&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005).&#160;</p>
169980		conservation	eng	An annual fishing quota of 400 tonnes is in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further surveys for this species are needed along the South West Indian ridge in order to better understand both distribution and abundance.
169980		distribution	eng	This species was originally only known from the St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands in the southern Indian Ocean, with a single specimen has also been reported from the Kerguelen Islands (Holthuis 1991), however recently additional specimens have been collected from seamounts along the South West Indian ridge (J. Groeneveld pers. comm. 2011). These indicate that the species is far more widely, but sparsely, distributed along the South West Indian ridge than previously thought.
169980		habitat	eng	Typically this species is found on rocky substrates at a depth range of 0-60 m, although is most commonly found in the kelp zone at a depth range of 10-35 m (Holthuis 1991). Females are most commonly taken from May to October, while males are most commonly taken from November to April (Holthuis 1991).
169980		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
169980		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is high levels of exploitation. An intrinsic threat is this lobster's extremely restricted range. This species is also susceptible to environmental fluctuations for both adult and larval stages, and also to single catastrophic events.
169981		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Very little is known about this species: It is recommended further research is undertaken to determine the species' distribution and ecology.<br/></p>
169981		distribution	eng	This deep sea species is restricted to the western Atlantic in the Florida Straits and northwest of Anguilla. Poupin (1994) reported this species from the French Antilles and comments that it is less common than <em>Eunephrops cadenasi</em> in this region. The type locality for this species is the Silver Bay station 2483 in the Florida Straits, at a depth of 550 m (26º25.5'N 79º01'W) (Holthuis 1991).
169981		habitat	eng	This species inhabits muddy substrates (Holthuis 1991).
169981		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Poupin (1994) comments that this species is less common than <em>Eunephrops cadenasi</em> around the French Antilles.
169981		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species but nothing is known on it as it is presently only known from a few specimens.<br/></p>
169982		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed to better understand possible threats, habitat and biology.
169982		distribution	eng	This species was originally thought to range from Table Bay (33º55'S-33º06'S 18º22'E-27º49'E) to East London (Kensley 1981, Holthuis 1991), however, new collections in the early 1990s extended it's range to Transkei (Kado <em>et al.</em>&#160;1994 in Kornfield <em>et al.</em>&#160;1995).
169982		habitat	eng	Due to the rarity of this species, little is known on its biological or ecological requirements (Holthuis 1991). Collection of a couple of specimens has found in a "salt-water rock pool" (Stebbing 1900, Holthuis 1986) and on Sea Point Beach (Barnard 1950, Holthuis 1986).
169982		population	eng	This is a very rare species known from approximately 34 specimens (Holthuis 1991, Kado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). In 1992, a specimen was found at Dassen Island, and this reporting led to the find of 20 additional individuals which were regurgutated from the stomaches of fish (Kado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). This is a very well studied area of coastline. Targeted surveys for this species, as well as regular sampling for other taxa have recovered no additional specimens since then (A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
169982		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial value (Holthuis 1991). However, there is a major threat to this species due to the extremely low population size which makes it susceptible to a number of events, especially the risk of reproductive failure. It is unknown why the population is at this very low level.
169983		conservation	eng	<p>This species was declared a marine species in need of protection in the western Mediterranean (Spanier 1991 in Spanier and Lavalli 2007). It is subject to the 92/43/EEC (European Economic Community) Council Directive (1992) dealing with the preservation of natural and seminatural habitats, as well as wild flora and fauna (Habitats Directive; Annex V: Animal and plant species of Community interest); therefore exploitation may be subject to management measures (Pessani and Mura 2007). Harvesting in <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place> was forbidden between 2000 - 2003 (Pessani and Mura 2007). However, the establishment of fishery regulations was too little, too late, for the dwindling populations of this species in the Azores and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>, which may not be able to recover (Bianchini and Ragonese 2007). </p>  <p>A global management strategy for this species needs to be implemented in order to maintain stocks at sustainable levels. The rocky outcrops that are the preferable habitat for this species are limited in the southeastern <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>. Therefore management should focus on these ecosystems which also serve as preferred grounds for other economically important species such as groupers, bream and octopuses (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). <br/></p><p>    </p><p>A decline in global captures of <em>Scyllaridae</em> has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). Further research is necessary to determine the impact that global harvesting is having on specific species, and to clarify if the documented decline is due to reduced populations or simply reduced effort.</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
169983		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean except in the northern and <st1:place w:st="on">central  Adriatic</st1:place>. It is also found in the central eastern Atlantic from the coast of Portugal (near Lisbon) to Senegal, Madeira, the Azores, the Selvagens Islands, and Cape Verde Islands (Holthuis 1991, Pessani and Mura 2007). The type locality for this species is in the Mediterranean from the coast near Rome  (Holthuis 1991).
169983		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species forages at night and shelters during the day in lairs within rocks or in underwater caves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). It typically dwells inshore on: rocky substrates, inhabiting shallow subtidal zones dominated by barrens, seaweeds, deeper subtidal zones dominated by reef animals, and sponge gardens. It is normally found in depths between 2 and 50 m; but has been recorded up to 400 m deep (Pessani and Mura 2007).  <p>Gregarious in nature (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007), this species eats bivalves and gastropods (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007, Pessani and Mura 2007) and can reach total lengths of up to 45 cm; but is normally not more than 30 cm (Pessani and Mura 2007).</p>  <p>This species is thought to reproduce seasonally in the warmer months from June to August (Holthuis 1991, Hearn <em>et al</em>. 2007), and its fecundity ranges from 100,000-356,000 eggs per female (Sekiguchi <em>et al. </em>2007). No juveniles of this species have ever been found and it has been speculated that these life-stages may inhabit deep sea habitats (Lavalli <em>et al.</em> 2007). Generation length is unknown.<br/></p>
169983		population	eng	<p></p>This species is the subject of intensive harvesting and as a result it has become rare along the European coast of the west Mediterranean and in its Atlantic Ocean range of distribution. It is still quite common in the eastern Mediterranean along the coasts of Israel, Cyprus and Turkey, the southern coast of Crete (Greece), and along the North African coast (Pessani and Mura 2007).<br/><br/>A reasonable population of the species has been discovered off the coast of Albania, probably due to the fact that the fishery here is not as well developed as in the rest of the Mediterranean (Pessani and Mura 2007).<br/><p></p>
169983		threats	eng	The main threat facing this species is over-harvesting. Although still common in parts of its range, this species has been over-exploited in the Azores and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> to the extent that these stocks may not be able to recover (Bianchini and Ragonese 2007).
169984		conservation	eng	Management of the fishery includes a ban on the taking of egg-bearing females, a minimum legal size limit of 50 mm carapace length which is based on their size at sexual maturity (Stewart, Kennelly and Hoegh-Guldberg 1997).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to clarify whether CPUE is an appropriate index of abundance for this species.<span class="refPreview" id="refp_2">
169984		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia: Queensland [Latitude 28<sup>o</sup>S] south to Western Australia near Geraldton (Holthuis 1991).
169984		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrates such as clay, sand and mud in which they burrow. They can be found at a depth range of 15 - 650 m, but are most common at 150 m (New South Wales Department of Primary Industries 2009). Fecundity ranges from 5,000 - 37,000 eggs (Stewart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). This is a long-lived species to up to 18 years. It is relatively sedentary with recaptures within 5 km after 10 years (Stewart 2003).
169984		population	eng	This is a common species. This species is caught regularly in prawn trawl fisheries in Australia.<br/><br/>This species is commercially harvested throughout its range. It is taken in trawls and sold fresh in markets (Holthuis 1991, Haddy 2007). Landings are said to have declined significantly over the last 5 years (Stewart 2005). Historically, this species was by-catch of the prawn fishery; however in recent years in response to the increased consumer demand, this species is now targeted by fishers. The increased fishing effort has led to significant declines in the catch, and reduced average size of specimens (Stewart 2005; Stewart <em>et al.</em>1997). However, catch per unit effort data indicates that abundance may in fact be relatively stable (if taken as an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon). In 1990/1991 the catch of both this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ibacus chacei</span>, totalled around 28 tonnes with an average of 3.885 kg/day. The catch peaked at around 85 tonnes in 1995/1996 with a daily harvest rate of 6.6 kg/day. The annual harvest declined again to 25 tonnes in 1999/2000 with a harvest rate of 1.85 kg/day but rose again to 76 tonnes in 2003/2004 and a harvest rate of 5 kg/day. In 2008/2009 the harvest rate was at a low of 16.7 tonnes but with a harvest rate of 5.33 kg/day (Stewart pers. comm. 2009) (Note:&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Ibacus peronii</span> only makes up a small fraction of this 2 species catch). Much of the landings of this species are taken in New South Wales and Victoria (Haddy <em>et al.&#160;</em>2007).
169984		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is exploitation by fisheries. There has been a recent switch from this species being taken as by-catch, to a targeted fishery due to consumer demand.
169985		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
169985		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-West Pacific region including Madagascar, the Philippines, Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania), the Tanimbar Islands in the Maluku Province of Indonesia, the Chesterfield Islands in New Caledonia, and Japan (Holthuis 1991, Poore 2004, Zarenkov 2006, DEWHA 2009). This species is likely to occur in other areas of Indonesia and Melanesia.<br/>The type locality for this species is the Philippines (13º53.7'N 119º56.3'E) at a depth of 970 m (Holthuis 1991).
169985		habitat	eng	This deep sea species occurs at depths between 720-1305 m (Poore 2004). The maximum length of this species is unknown, but the carapace length, including rostrum varies from 1.6-3 cm in males, and 1.5-3 cm in females (Holthuis 1991).
169985		population	eng	Poore (2004) describes this species as rare in Australia, however there is insufficient population information available for other areas of this species' range.
169985		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
169986		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
169986		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed in the western Atlantic from Bermuda down to Santa Catarina, Brazil&#160;(Holthuis 1991, Tavares 2002, Dall'Occo&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007). It includes: the Bahama Islands, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea (32ºN - 7ºN) (Holthuis 1991, Tavares 2002, Dall'Occo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
169986		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species occurs at depths of 420-1,260 m, but most commonly between 500-800 m, inhabiting a mud or sandy substrate (Holthuis 1991).</p>
169986		population	eng	This species has recently been described as common in the upper continental slope in the Gulf of Mexico, and found to be one of the most frequent and abundant species in a study by Escobar-Briones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008).
169986		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
169987		conservation	eng	Management restrictions on the Torres Strait Fishery include a minimum size limit, closed fishing season, restrictions on the gear type and number of licences. For example, through the 1990s the fishery was managed in such a way as to allow ~70% escapement of individuals by employing a minimum size limit of 100 mm, a ban on 'hookah' diving during October through November, and only allowing free dive fishing. &#160;Furthermore, in response to the decline in landings in 1999, management strategies were revised based on a CSIRO fishery model and were employed as of 2002. These new management strategies include a ban on fishing during October through November, a ban on 'hookah' diving during December through January, and a minimum size limit of 90 mm (CL). From 2003 to 2005 non-islander fishing effort was reduced by 30% to try and maintain total catch under the maximum sustainable yield of 640 tonnes whole weight&#160;<em style="font-style: normal;">(Dennis <em>et al.</em> 2006).</em><br/><br/>Further information and monitoring of CPUE is required on the harvest levels of this species off East Africa and how stock abundance has changed over time.
169987		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indo-West Pacific. It ranges from Natal in South Africa, along the coast of East Africa and the Red Sea, to southern Japan, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Australia (Northern Territory south to New South Wales), New Caledonia and Fiji (Holthuis 1991). A single specimen has been collected from the Red Sea off the coast of Israel (Holthuis 1991).
169987		habitat	eng	This species is known from slightly turbid coastal waters, sandy and muddy substrates, rocky and coral reefs; most commonly to depths of 8 m, though there are a few records documenting it to 50 m (Holthuis 1991).
169987		population	eng	This species is abundant in parts of its range.<br/><p> <span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Torres Strait Fishery</span><br/> </p><p>The largest of the fisheries on this species exists in the Torres Strait and the east coast of Papua New Guinea. Prior to the 1960s this was an artisanal fishery which has since expanded to a commercial scale. The fishery is managed by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) under the Protected Zone Joint Authority (PZJA) (Ye <em>et al.</em> 2006). Management of the fishery has placed a limit on the number of licences allocated to non-islander fishers, while the islander fisher sector has been allowed to expand. The commercial fishery has grown gradually since the 1960s and now has some 24 freezer boats in operation and ~500 dinghies (Pitcher and Bishop 1995). As the lobsters will not enter pots, most individuals are caught by spearing or by free divers in shallower waters (Pitcher, Dennis and Skewes 1997). During the 1970s/1980s this species was caught in prawn trawls, however a ban was put in place in 1984 to conserve migrating breeding individuals&#160;<em style="font-style: normal;">(Dennis <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;Over the past three decades, the annual catch of this species has ranged from 120 to 800 tonnes with an average of 480 tonnes. Annual catches showed an increasing trend until 1999 when they declined dramatically until 2001. Since 2001 catches have increased once again and are now above the long term average.</em></p>    <p>As of 1989, Australia's&#160;Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (<em style="font-style: normal;">CSIRO) started to conduct visual surveys during May and June to gain information on recruit abundance and thereby make future forecasts on the stock abundance. Their surveys on numbers of individuals in year class 1+ and 2+ confirm the population crash as seen during 1999-2001 and the subsequent increase in landings; since 2001 there has been an increasing trend in the number of year class 1+ and 2+ individuals, other than in 2005 when there was a small decrease (Dennis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Until 1997, there was no formal system in place for monitoring catch per unit effort (CPUE), however the AFMA logbooks have since been made compulsory&#160;<em style="font-style: normal;">(Dennis <em>et al.</em> 2006)<em style="font-style: normal;">.</em></em></em></p><p><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">India Fishery</span><br/></p><p>In the southwest fishery of India, this species is landed in very small quantities. However,&#160;in the southeast coast fishery it is landed in significant quantites and during the period 1993-2002 it dominated 60.6% of the total lobster catch (Radhakrishnan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). During this time this species increased in length from 175 mm (TL) to 195 mm (TL). From 1993 to 1998 the CPUE&#160; for this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. homarus</span> in the gill-net fishery at Kayalpattinam, fell from ~6.5 kg/unit to almost 0 kg/unit, however in 1999 it rose again to ~1.5 kg/unit and has remained relatively stable till 2002. From 1993 to 1998, the gill-net fishery at Tharuvaikulam also saw a dramatic decline from ~2.25 kg/unit to ~0.1 kg/unit. Between 1999 and 2001 it remained at this level and then rose to ~0.6 kg/unit in 2002 (Radhakrishnan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Much of the inshore catch of this species comprises juveniles and subadults, which may have an adverse effect on the future viability of this population, however it is possible that adults are migrating to deeper waters in the Palk Strait to breeding grounds and are thereby protected from exploitation (Radhakrishnan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).</p><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">South Africa Fishery</span></p><p>This species is taken in very low quantities off South Africa, but is more common and important to fisheries in Mozambique (Steyn, Fielding and Schleyer 2008).</p><p><span style="text-decoration: underline;">East African Fishery</span></p><p>This is the most important Palinurid species to Kenyan fisheries (Kulmiye and Mavuti 2005) and is the most abundant species of palinurid off the coast of Tanzania (Kyomo 1999). This species occurs in small numbers off Madagascar (Pichon 1964). <br/></p>In Kenya, this species is fished across the country, however much of the catch is derived from around the islands of Lamu, Manda, Pate and Kiwayu. It is mainly caught by divers at a maximum depth of 7 m. In 1984 the total landings were reported at 127 tonnes (de Sousa 1988).
169987		threats	eng	There are no major threat processes currently impacting this species. It is harvested throughout its range and there have been previous declines and fluctuations in landings, however the majority of operations harvesting this species are small-scale and presently well-managed with appropriate restrictions in place&#160;(Dennis, Prescott, Ye and Skewes 2006).
169988		conservation	eng	There are no fishery regulations for this species within Caribbean countries, but it is indirectly protected by minimum landing size limits imposed for other species of lobster in some countries. &#160;Research on population demographics and possible threats; the collection of&#160;accurate fisheries data; and monitoring of CPUE to create a baseline of data, are recommended to measure trends into the future.
169988		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Atlantic Ocean, where it is found in coastal waters of Bermuda, the Bahamas, South Florida, Belize, Panama, the Caribbean Arc (Cuba to Trinidad), Curaçao, Bonaire, Los Roques, and Suriname (Holthuis 1991).
169988		habitat	eng	<a name="Habitat">This species is found on coral and rocky reefs at a depth range of 2 - 23 m. It may also be found on lagoonal patch reefs, but numbers are usually low (Sharp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). It is most commonly found on the fore reef in crevices and under coral heads (Sharp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). This species feeds on bivalves, chitons, other crustaceans, bivalves and gastropods (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997)</a><a name="Habitat">. This species will not leave reef habitat and have high reef fidelity, which makes them susceptible to local depletion </a><a name="Habitat">(Robertson and Butler 2009)</a><a name="Habitat">.<br/><br/></a><a name="Habitat">Size at maturity is affected by a number of factors, namely food availability and quality, water temperature, fishing pressure and density dependent growth (Evans<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>and Evans&#160;1995). In Bermuda, the breeding season for this species is restricted to May through to October (Evans and Lockwood 1994) but spawns all year round in other areas of its range (Sharp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).</a><a name="Habitat"> Male specimens from Florida reach sexual maturity at 36-37 mm (CL), age 2 - 3 years (Robertson and Butler 2003).<br/><br/><br/></a><a name="Habitat"></a><a name="Ecology"></a><a name="Ecology"></a><a name="Ecology"></a><br/><a name="Habitat"> </a>
169988		population	eng	This is a common species, but is reclusive and often only seen at night. This species is harvested (not on a commercial scale) throughout its range, however there are no fisheries data available. &#160;There is very little data on the global population, although there is evidence to suggest that there have been declines of approximately 70% from comparisons of fished and protected areas in Belize (Acosta and Robertson 2003).
169988		threats	eng	There are no comprehensive fisheries data available to determine level of threat to this species; however, a potential threat is over-exploitation by unmonitored artisinal fisheries.
169989		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; <br/></p>
169989		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, from the east coast of Africa to the Indo-West Pacific and East China Sea (Holthuis 1991). Specifically it is known from Tanzania, Madagascar, Japan, Taiwan, China, Philippines, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Fiji (Holthuis 1991, Holthuis 2002).
169989		habitat	eng	This species prefers mud and sand substrates (Holthuis 1991).
169989		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
169989		threats	eng	<p>While this species is taken as bycatch in parts of its range, this is not considered to pose a major threat to this species at this time.<br/></p>
169990		conservation	eng	<p>Management strategies for this species need to be developed and enforced to maintain the population at a sustainable level in regions where it is over-exploited. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and that there is regular monitoring of Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) data to create a baseline to measure trends into the future.</p>
169990		distribution	eng	This species has a broad geographic range from Pakistan and India to Viet Nam, the Philippines, Indonesia, northwest Australia, and the Gulf of Papua (Holthuis 1991).
169990		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in coastal waters on muddy and rocky substrates to a depth of 40m, although it is occasionally seen at 90 m; and is often seen near river mouths (Holthuis 1991).
169990		population	eng	The landings of this species in India have shown a dramatic decline. In the northwest coast fishery, landings fell from 189 tonnes in 1987, to 3.9 tonnes in 2002. The average size of individuals being landed has also shown a significant decline from 65.8 mm (CL) in males and 74.9 mm (CL) in females in 1997 to 1.5 mm (CL) in males and 47.9 mm (CL) in females in 2001. The same has also been seen in the Mumbai fishery where landings in 1985 were at 390 tonnes; there was a subsequent decline to approximately 100 tonnes in 1989 where it has remained relatively constant since. Relative yield per recruit analysis indicates that yield can be maximised when exploitation rates are at 0.46 for males and 0.53 for females. Current exploitation rates are estimated at 0.65 for males and 0.63 for females (Radhakrishnan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is said to be commercially important in Thailand, however no information exists on harvest levels.
169990		threats	eng	This species is subject to localised over-exploitation by fisheries in India. It is also threatened by incidental catch in parts of its range where it is found on muddy substrates.
169991		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p><p>    </p><p></p><p></p>
169991		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, East Africa, Gulf of Aden, Pakistan, and the west coast of Thailand (Holthuis 1991). &#160;The type locality of this species is "Eylath in the Gulf of Aqaba, Israel" (Holthuis 1991).
169991		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species shelters during the day and forages at night feeding&#160;on dead fish and molluscs and has been observed opening and feeding on giant clams (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tridacna </span>sp.) (Holthuis 1991, Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). It lives on coral and rocky reefs at depths of 5 - 112 m.
169991		population	eng	There is no population information about this species.
169991		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It makes up a small percentage of the by-catch of a Kenyan fishery but this does not major threat too the global population. It is also caught for human consumption, but catch per unit effort data (CPUE) is&#160;unavailable.<br/></p>
169993		conservation	eng	There are a number of fishery regulations in place for this species; minimum legal size, closed fishing season (July - October), prohibition on the collection of berried females, and control of fishing effort (Pèrez-González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002); although these are not always adhered to due to a lack of strict enforcement (Pèrez-González 2008).
169993		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern Pacific: It is endemic to the west coast of Mexico, ranging from Magdalena Bay, Baja California, south to the Gulf of Tehuantepec (Holthuis and Villalobos 1961, Williams 1986, Holthuis 1991).
169993		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky reefs, in clear waters to a depth of 30 m (Holthuis 1991, Briones-Fourzán and Lozano-Álvarez 2003).
169993		population	eng	This species is harvested as a food source throughout its range, although it is taken in relatively low numbers (Briones-Fourzán and Lozano-Álvarez 2003). It is harvested from December to June (Pèrez-González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). The annual landing for this species and <em>P. gracilis</em>, is approximately 500 - 600 tonnes (Pèrez-González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), predominating the fishing along the western coast of Mexico (Pèrez-González 2008). &#160;<br/>Specific population information on this species is unavailable. There is no FAO catch per unit effort (CPUE) data for this species.
169993		threats	eng	Although harvested throughout its range it is not caught in large enough quantities or at high enough intensities to be significantly impacted by this threat. However, there is evidence that fisheries are not adhering to restrictions currently in place which may be impacting the species; for example, in relation to size limits,&#160;Pèrez-González (2008) notes&#160;"during the last three decades, the mean size of the lobster catch decreased significantly in SE Gulf of California, suggesting a low rate of compliance with fishery regulations due to a lack of strict enforcement."
169995		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; <br/><br/>Further research on the abundance of this species is needed.
169995		distribution	eng	This species is only known from three South Pacific Islands (Society, Tuamotu and Gambier Islands) with a possible larva of the species reported from 14<sup>o</sup>13.6'S 126<sup>o</sup>00'W in the Pacific Ocean (Holthuis 1991). This species is endemic to the South Pacific (UNEP-WCMC 2009).
169995		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the shallow waters of coral reefs, on sandy bottoms (Holthuis 1991).
169995		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
169995		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is unlikely to face any major threat. It is harvested at a subsistence scale for food but is of little interest to fisheries. This is not likely to pose a significant threat to the population.<br/></p>
169996		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with well-managed protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef, which is a World Heritage Site and partly designated as a marine reserve (the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park).
169996		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the Indo-west Pacific region, including New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and Queensland, Australia (Holthuis 1991). This species is also found in Tonga (Udagawa and Fa'anunu 1995) and Vanuatu (Amos 2007) recorded as New Hebrides by Holthuis (1991).
169996		habitat	eng	This species is found in the shallow water on reef ecosystems, to a depth of 6 metres, often in surge channels, and usually on the exposed side of the reef. This species is often found hiden in crevices and marine caves during day light, and often attached to the ceilings of the caves (Holthuis 1991; Carpenter and Niem 1998). &#160;This species is found in same habitat as&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus penicillatus</span>&#160;(Carpenter and Niem 1998).
169996		population	eng	This species is considered to be 'very common' by Coutures (2001).
169996		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not face any major widespread threat. In parts of its range it is caught by divers, and sold in local markets for food, however this is unlikley to be driving significant declines in the popualtion.<br/></p>
169997		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p><p>    </p><p>A decline in global captures of <em>Scyllaridae</em> has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). Further research is necessary to determine the impact that global harvesting is having on specific species, and to clarify if the documented decline is due to reduced populations or simply reduced effort.</p>  <p></p>
169997		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic region including Brazil (from Maranhão State to Santa Catarina State), and Dominica and the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean (Holthuis 1991, Dall'Occo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Santana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The distribution of this species is likely to be wider than is currently known (Santana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>The type locality for this species is Bahia, Brazil (Holthuis 1991).
169997		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the life history and habitat preferences of this species (Holthuis 1991). This nocturnal species shelters during the day and forages at night feeding mainly on bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). It is found at depths varying from 22-38 m (Holthuis 1991).
169997		population	eng	There is insufficient population information for this species.
169997		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
169999		conservation	eng	There are restrictions on gear type and total allowable catch and total allowable effort. Measures have been put in place to reduce the number of vessels exploiting this fishery. An operational management procedure (OMP) is being developed for this species which will assist in the management (A. Cockcroft <em>pers comm.&#160;</em>2009). Further monitoring of CPUE data is required to understand current and future trends in this species population.
169999		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cape Province to Port Alfred in South Africa (Holthuis 1991). It is also reported from Fort Dauphin in Madagascar by Crosnier and Jouannic (1973), however it is likely this is a misidentification (A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
169999		habitat	eng	This species utilises rocky areas for shelter at a depth range of 55 - 360 m (Holthuis 1991). This species may live for more than 30 years (Groeneveld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160; 2006).
169999		population	eng	This species is commercially harvested along the South African continental shelf and the Algulhas Bank (Groeneveld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The fishery began in the 1970s when it was exploited by both foreign and local fishing vessels, however foreign vessels ceased fishing in 1976 (Groeneveld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). <br/><br/>Landings have fluctuated over the last 35 years as fishing effort has been adjusted to account for the observed declines in catch per unit effort (CPUE) (Groeneveld 2003). Since the start of the fishery in 1974, CPUE has declined from just above 0.22 kg tailmass/trap, to 0.065 kg tailmass/trap in 2004/2005 representing a decline of approximately 70% over this period (Groeneveld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In 1998, one company was caught illegally fishing which was driving down the CPUE. With corrected figures, the decline was probably closer to a 30 % decline from 1985 and 1999 (A. Crockford pers. comm. 2009). Since 2001 the number of fishing vessels was reduced by 30% and CPUE have started to increase at a rate of 9% per year (Groeneveld 2003).
169999		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over-exploitation. &#160;Further information, in particular CPUE data from 2005 onwards is required to determine whether this species is currently being impacted by over-exploitation and thus suffering population declines.
170000		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.</p>
170000		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the Straits of Florida, and the coast of Brazil (Palomares and Pauly 2009).<br/>The type locality for this species is Blake Station 264, off Grenada, West Indies (12º03'15'N 61º48'30'W) (Holthuis 1991).
170000		habitat	eng	This deep sea species inhabits burrows in soft mud substrate (Holthuis 1991). This species has been found within a depth range of 293 - 878 m. &#160;Although the species can reach 40 cm in length, it is more commonly found at 25 cm (Palomares and Pauly 2009).
170000		population	eng	Tavares (2002) records this species as having been 'obtained in sizeable quantities' during exploratory deep trawling operations in the Caribbean. Escobar-Briones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) found the species to be common in the Mexican Ridges and Campeche Bank in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico.
170000		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, it may be that at some point in the future if it is deemed commercially viable to harvest this species.<br/></p>
170002		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
170002		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region. It is known from southeast Africa: &#160;Inhambane in Mozambique to Cape Province in South Africa (24º to 34º50'S) (Holthuis 1991). There is some evidence it may also occur further west along the Cape Province coast (A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The type for this species is Port Elizabeth in Cape Province, South Africa (Holthuis 1991).
170002		habitat	eng	This species has a depth range of 37 to 380 m, but is most commonly found in depths of less than 100 m (Holthuis 1991). It inhabits a substrate of mud, or fine sand into which it digs (Holthuis 1991), but also found on deep-reef fringes, and light foul ground (A. Cockcroft and A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009). This species shelters during the day, and forages at night, feeding mainly on a diet of bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007).
170002		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170002		threats	eng	Increased commercial trawling could be a threat, thereby increasing volume of by-catch&#160; utilised for food.
170003		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research efforts need to focus on establishing a monitoring program for this species to determine rates of decline.
170003		distribution	eng	This species is known from Taiwan, off the northeast and southwest coasts (Chan and Yu 1991, Holthuis 1991, Chan 1997, Tshudy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and Korea (Kim and Choi 2003).
170003		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky sea floors at depths of 150-450 m (Chan and Yu 1991).
170003		population	eng	This species is commercially caught in Tawian, although in smaller numbers compared to related species (Chan and Yu 1991). The reason for this is unknown; it may be due to it being more difficult to catch (inhabiting deeper and more rocky areas difficult to trawl), or less abundant (Chan and Yu 1991).
170003		threats	eng	This species is caught for human consumption; however, "it is less common in the markets than other species" (Holthuis 1991: 68). The catch of this species is declining but there is a lack of fishery statistics from which to calculate rates of decline (T.Y. Chan pers. comm. 2009).
170004		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170004		distribution	eng	This species is found from Taiwan, Province of China, to the Philippines and as far south as north-western Australia, Fiji and New Caledonia&#160; (Holthuis 1991, Holthuis 2002). This includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Singapore and China (Holthuis 1991).
170004		habitat	eng	Although this species has been reported at depths between 15 and 150 metres, it is more usually found at 40 to 75 metres (Holthuis 1991). It prefers any form of soft substrate, from algae to mud and sand (Holthuis 1991).
170004		population	eng	This species is described as common in the South China Sea, particularly around the Philippines (Holthuis 2002).
170004		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170005		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; <br/></p>
170005		distribution	eng	This species is known from Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, New Caledonia and Japan (Holthuis 1991). It is found on the northwest cost of Madagascar near Majunga and on the southeast coast near Fort Dauphin (Holthuis 1991). In Japan it is only present from the Kii Peninsula to the south coast of Shikoku Island and the Ogasawara Group  (Holthuis 1991). Recently larvae were found off the east of Luzon Island, Philippines (Minami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
170005		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found on rocky substrates (Holthuis 1991), at a depth range of 40-200 m.
170005		population	eng	This species has been caught over 200 times between 1973 and 1985 off Japan, which has been suggested as evidence that it is not as rare as originally thought (Poupin 1994).   There is no overall population information available for this species.
170005		threats	eng	<p>There are no known major threats to this species. A fishery for this species seems unlikely given its rarity.<br/></p>
170006		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to attain an appropriate index of abundance for this species, and to establish the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range.
170006		distribution	eng	This species is known from Japan (38º30'N to the Ryukyu Islands), Korea, China and Taiwan (Holthuis 1991).
170006		habitat	eng	This species is found on exposed rocky shores at a depth range of 1-15 m (Kittaka and Kimura 1989, Holthuis 1991).
170006		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170006		threats	eng	This species is harvested in Japan, South Korea and China. Landings of this species in Japan, are said to have remained stable at 1,000-1,500 tonnes annually since the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, as a result of strict controls on fishing gear, fishing seasons, and fishing grounds (Kawaguchi 1983). However, between 1975 and 1985, the national landings of this species declined to approximately 1,050 metric tons annually (Nonaka 1988). Current demand for lobster in Japan far exceeds the domestic supply with imports making up over 90% of the lobsters sold in Japan (Anonymous 1990).<br/><br/>Research into larval production of lobsters, with emphasis on this species, has been undertaken in Japan (Kittaka 1988, Yamakawa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1989, Kittaka and Kimura 1989). With advances in mass larval production, the possibility of restocking/enhancing the fishery has become a realistic option (Yamakawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Kittaka and Kimura 1989).
170007		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being exploited by fisheries within its range.
170007		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the western Indian Ocean, including the coastlines of Zanzibar, Mozambique, Natal (South Africa), Madagascar and the Saya de Malha Bank (near, but not belonging to the Seychelles) (Holthuis 1991).
170007		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit soft substrates (sandy mud or sand) at depths from 228 metres to 450 metres (Holthuis 1991).
170007		population	eng	This species is scarce on trawl grounds (Holthuis 1991).
170007		threats	eng	This species is considered a commercial species, although it is not clear if this is on a small scale or large scale.
170008		conservation	eng	<p>A decline in global captures of&#160;<em>Scyllaridae</em>&#160;has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). <br/></p><p><strong>Hawaii</strong></p><p>The management plan of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Hawaiian</st1:state></st1:place>&#160;fishery incorporated closed seasons, minimum size limits, no retention of egg bearing females, the incorporation of escape vents in pots, accurate recording of log data, and revised yearly quotas (Pooley and Kawamoto 1998, Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p><p><strong>Queensland</strong></p>    <p>In the event that the trap fishery in southeast <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> progresses beyond developmental status, a formal process would be undertaken to develop appropriate management strategies. Within the area of the fishery, a number of closed waters have been declared under the <em>Fisheries Regulations 1995</em>, and no fishing is allowed in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP). All commercial fishers in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> have a legal obligation to provide information about their fishing activity via daily logbook reporting (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>  <p>Other regulations implemented would include: </p>  <ul><li>The size of the apparatus      in waters shallower than 100 m: 1 ­m­<sup>3</sup> in overall volume, and in waters      100 m and deeper 195 cm x 120 cm x 120 cm</li><li>Floats to be at least 15      cm in diameter</li><li>Floats for traps set in strings - orange in colour</li><li>Floats for single traps -      any colour except orange</li><li>Floats must have markings      showing the owner?s boat name and boat marking</li><li>Not more than 200 traps      per operator</li><li>Each operator may have 210      traps in possession but those in excess of 200 must be unassembled</li><li>In waters less than 20 m -      traps set singly</li><li>In waters 20 - 100 m&#160; set      in strings of up to 25</li><li>In waters over 100 m&#160; set      in strings of up to 50</li><li>It is prohibited to take      berried females or setose females (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</li></ul>      <p>As the&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> trap fishery is only operated on a very limited developmental scale (a time frame of only four years), the lobster stocks are not likely to have been seriously affected. The current permit conditions provide the Queensland Fisheries Service (QFS) with extensive powers to ensure the sustainable management of the fishery. It allows them to suspend or cancel permits if a deleterious effect on stocks of Slipper and Spiny Lobster, or any other fish species (including bycatch and byproduct) has been caused, or is imminent, or may reasonably be expected due to activities under the permit' (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160;For a comprehensive report on the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> developmental trap fishery, see Sumpton <em>et al</em>. (2004).</p>    <p>  <br/></p><p><br/></p>
170008		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-West Pacific region from East Africa to Japan, Hawaii, Melanesia, New Caledonia and Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, West Australia) (Holthuis 1991, DEWHA 2009). It is likely that this species has a wider distribution than is currently known.<br/>The type locality of this species is Mauritius (Holthuis 1991).
170008		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits reefs and rocky areas (Holthuis 1991). It shelters during the day, and forages at night where it feeds mainly on bivalves (Chan 1998, Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). It has a maximum total length of 40 cm, although usually only reaches 20 cm (Holthuis 1991, Chan 1998). There are conflicting reports of the depth preferences of this species: Dinardo and Moffit (2007) suggest between 30 -120 m, whereas Holthuis (1991) and Chan (1998) suggest a shallower range of 5-80 m. This is also reflected in the 'most common' ranges, with 50 -70 m and 20-50m, respectively.<p>This gregarious species attains sexual maturity at a carapace length of 6.6 - 6.7 cm, although variation was found between reefs (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). Ovigerous females occur throughout the year with peak abundance between May and July, and their fecundity ranges from 54,000 - 227,000 eggs per female (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007, Sekiguchi <em>et al. </em>2007). The phyllosoma of this species remain pelagic for 3 - 6 months prior to transforming into benthic juveniles (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007).</p>
170008		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;However, Chan (1998) described it as 'apparently nowhere abundant in the Western Central Pacific'.&#160;Comparatively, DiNardo and Moffitt (2007) state that it is currently the dominant lobster species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The <st1:place w:st="on">Northwestern  Hawaiian Islands</st1:place> populations of this species should be treated as one metapopulation (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007).
170008		threats	eng	<p>The Queensland Fisheries Service (QFS) considers that the fishery does not pose a significant threat to the sustainability of this species. The fishery landed less than 5 tonnes of Slipper Lobster each year between 1998 and 2001, and in 2002/2003&#160; no Slipper Lobsters were landed (Sumpton <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>  The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was established in 2000 which may prohibit commercial lobster fishing in the NWHI indefinitely, therefore this fishery does not pose a continuing threat to this species (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007).
170009		conservation	eng	There are a number of management restrictions in place for this species though these vary according to fishing area. Restrictions include: closed fishing seasons and areas, prohibition of removal of berried females, minimum legal size limits, restrictions on gear type and number of fishing vessels, and annual quotas.
170009		distribution	eng	This species range extends from Labrador, Canada to North Carolina, USA (Cobb and Castro 2006). Van der Meeren <em>et al.</em> (2006) also note that it has been found in Iceland during the 1960s and more recently in Norway (2005). The Icelandic presence was not genetically&#160;verified, and it is believed that the waters are too limnic for this species to survive (van der Meeren <em>et al.</em> 2006). The&#160;Norwegian&#160;specimens are thought to have been introduced by imports of the species (van der Meeren <em>et al.</em> 2006).
170009		habitat	eng	This species lives in a wide variety of habitats, but is reliant on shelter. It is most commonly found on rocky reefs, but at depths of 700 m it can be found inhabiting burrows in the walls of submarine canyons (Cobb and Castro 2006); however, it is most commonly found between depths of 0-50m. Post larvae settle in shallow water&#160; (less than 30m) and are associated with cobble/boulder habitats. As they grow that asscoation relaxes, and they undergo short distance movements with expansion into longer distance movements. Deep water populations are derived from shallow water recruitement. Deeper water individuals are typically found on mud habitats, peat reefs, seagrass beds, and sandy depressions (Lawton and Lavalli 1995). Deep water individuals are typically found on similar substrates as well as clay substrates. They are found at temperatures ranging from 5º C to 20º C; but can tolerate a temperature range of 1º C to 30.5º C (van der Meeren <em>et al.&#160;</em>2009).
170009		population	eng	<p></p><p>Due to widespread exploitation of this species, accurate assessments of abundance are hard to produce (Forgarty 1995). This said, it is believed this species’ population has been “relatively robust under exploitation” (Forgarty 1995:132). Causes for this resilience are unknown, although Anthony and Caddy (1980) suggest the “role of refugia of lightly exploited groups that provide a larval subsidy to more heavily exploited groups.” (Fogarty 1995:132). </p>  <p>A more detailed picture of the population dynamics can be ascertained by sectioning the population by fisheries. In the <st1:country-region w:st="on">United States of America</st1:country-region> there are three recognised fisheries: <st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Maine</st1:placename>, Georges Bank, and <st1:place w:st="on">Southern  New England</st1:place>. These fisheries are managed by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC), under amendment 3 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan. Comparatively, the Canadian fishery is managed through a network of 28 inshore Lobster Fishing Areas (LFA) and on offshore LFA (Fisheries Resource Conservation Council 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><strong>United States</strong></st1:place></st1:country-region><strong> Fisheries</strong></p>  <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"><em>Gulf</em></st1:placetype><em> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Maine</st1:placename></em></st1:place><em> Population </em></p>  <p>The commercial landings of this species have generally shown an upward trend since 1981; from around 15,000 mt to a peak of 36,500 mt in 2004 (Idoine 2006). Abundance indices indicate a large degree of inter-annual variation in both male and female abundance; however there is a general upward trend until 2005 when there is a sharp decline from around 2.0- 2.5 down to 0.5-1.0 (stratified mean number per tow, Idoine 2006). However, the 2006 data shows an increase again to between 1.0-1.5 stratified mean number per tow (Idoine 2006). </p>  <p>Abundance estimates are currently well above the target of 69.62 million lobsters (Idoine 2006). In 2003, the abundance was estimated at around 100 million individuals (Idoine 2006).</p>  <p><st1:place w:st="on"><em>Georges Bank</em></st1:place><em> Fishery</em></p>  <p>Between 1982 and 2000, landings in this fishery were relatively stable and fluctuated between 1,000 mt and 1,700 mt. In 2000 they then increased up to a peak of 2,300 mt in 2005.</p>  <p>Abundance indices for males and females have shown similar trends since 1981 with female index increasing from around 0.72 to 1.51 stratified mean number per tow in 2002, and the male index increasing from around 0.62 to 0.98 stratified mean number per tow (Idoine 2006). However, both indices have since declined to around 1.04 and 0.23 (stratified mean number per tow) for females and males respectively in 2006. Abundance of lobsters has also shown considerable fluctuations since 1982 between 6 million and 9.5 million lobsters (Target = 8.61 million, threshold = 7.95 million, Idoine 2006). Since 2001 abundance has been above the target at about 9 million lobsters (Idoine 2006).</p>  <p><st1:place w:st="on"><em>Southern New England</em></st1:place><em> Fishery</em></p>  <p>Landings from this fishery started at around 2,500 mt in 1982, and peaked at 10,100 mt in 1997. They have since declined to around their 3,000 mt in 2005, which is around the 1982 level.</p>  <p>Survey indices conducted by Connecticut show a greater number of males than females in the tows, with both peaking at 25 and 12 respectively in 1997. Subsequently there has since been a decline to 1.31 for females and 2.88 for males (stratified mean number per tow, Idoine 2006).</p>  <p>Abundance estimates for this species were low in the 1980s and below the threshold of 22.31 million lobsters, but peaked at 45 million lobsters in 1997 (above the target of 23.9 million lobsters, Idoine 2006). They have subsequently declined again to a record low of 12.3 million in 2003 and are currently estimated at around 14 million (Idoine 2006).</p>  <p><strong>Canadian Fisheries <br/></strong></p>  <p><strong>&#160;<em>Gulf of St. Lawrence - LFAs 23, 24, 25, 26a, 26b</em></strong></p>  <p>Landings in this fishery were at around 8,000 tonnes in the 1950s and peaked in the 1990s at around 18,731 tonnes. There has since been a decline in the landings to ~17,012 tonnes in 2001. Landings per unit area (LPUA) are considered an index of productivity within a given fishing area. From the 1970s through to the 1990s all fishing areas showed an increase in LPUA. There was a decline in landings in 2000; apart from LFA 24, which showed a further increase. Information on fishing effort from each of the separate fishing grounds indicates that fishing effort in all regions has remained relatively constant between 1984 and 2001. Exploitation rates are high in all fishing areas at around 70% (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2002).</p>  <p><em>Quebec <br/></em></p>  <p>Lobster landings is Quebec have shown an upward trend since the 1970s and rose to 3,135 tonnes in 2003. Sixty six percent of these landings came from: Magdalen Island (28.5%), Gaspé Peninsula (3.6%), Anticosti Island, and the North Shore (1.3%). Exploitation rates are high at: 75% in the Magdalen Islands, 85% in the Gaspé Peninsula, and 20% at Anticosti Island.</p>  <p>Magdalen Islands</p>  <p>Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE) data for the Magdalen Islands indicates a peak in 1992 at around 1.1 numbers/trap or 0.55 kg/trap with a subsequent decline. However, CPUE has remained relatively stable since 1994/1995. This trend is said to generally reflect the trend in the southern archipelago. &#160;</p>  <p>Gaspé Peninsula</p>  <p>CPUE data for this region shows an increase from around 0.5 numbers/trap in 1988 to ~0.85 numbers/trap in 1996. There has since been a decline to around 0.45 numbers per trap in 2004 which is below the average for 1986-2002.</p>  <p>North Shore</p>  <p>CPUE ranged between 0.2 and 0.4 numbers/ trap between 1993 and 2003; with the lowest value being recorded in 2002. In 2003 it rose again, but is still below the average. </p>  <p><em>Eastern Cape Breton - LFAs 27-30</em></p>  <p>Landings of this species have fluctuated greatly over time. They peaked at around 4000 tonnes in 1990 and subsequently declined to between 1,480 tonnes in the late 1990?s. They have since shown an increase in 2001 to 1,987 tonnes. Mean catch rates (expressed as kg per trap haul) have generally remained stable in all fishing areas other than a noted decline in LFA 27 and LFA 30 in 1997, however these have since stabilized (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2004a).</p>  <p>Eastern Shore Fishery - LFAs 31A, 31B, 32</p>  <p>Landings data shows an upward trend in all areas between 1993 and 2000 with a very slight decline in 2001. The catch rate (expressed as kg/trap haul) has also shown an increase in all areas between 1996 and 2002. There was no overall increase in the median size of individuals in each area and no overall increase in the number of observed berried females despite put-backs (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2004b).</p>  <p>Nova Scotia - LFA 33</p>  <p>Since 1989 the landings of this species have increased to around 2,753 mt in 2001/2002. Indicators of pre recruit numbers/trap haul showed no overall change or a negative trend between 2000 and 2003. The number of observed berried females however, has increased from 2000. Exploitation levels also declined during the period 1999-2003 (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2004c).</p><p></p>
170009		threats	eng	In the nearshore Southern New England stock there have been prevalence rates of shell disease of about 30%. This threat is localized to warmer water regions.<br/><br/>This is the largest commercial fishery of any lobster fishery in the world (R. Wahle pers. comm. 2009).
170010		conservation	eng	The fisheries are now closed for this species in Mozambique while there is limited by-catch from a small multi-species trawl fishery in South Africa.
170010		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mozambique to Natal in South Africa, including Madagascar (Holthuis 1991).
170010		habitat	eng	This species is found on muddy and sandy substrates, as well as coral fragments and rocky substrates (Holthuis 1991). It is found at a depth range of 100 - 600 m but is more often found between 100 - 350 m (Groeneveld 2000).
170010		population	eng	<p>This species has been directly targeted by commercial fisheries. It was taken by a trap fishery in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region>, and two separate multi-species trawl fisheries in <st1:country-region w:st="on">South  Africa</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Groeneveld 2000). There is a lack of catch data and biological data for this species, making it difficult to assess the status of the population. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> the fishery which first began in the 1920s, has since shown a significant decline in the landings (Groeneveld and Cockcroft 1997) and so has since diversified to catch other species (Groeneveld and Melville-Smith 1995). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:place></st1:country-region> the fishery didn't start until the 1980s; landings peaked at 300 tonnes then declined sharply until it was no longer economically viable to continue the fishery. It was then abandoned in 2000 (Groeneveld <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/> <br/> The FAO reports landings data for this species, however there is no account for fishing effort. Groeneveld (2000) reports catch per unit effort (CPUE) for the trawl fishery in South Africa for the period 1993 to 1997: 1993 - 2.71 kg/h<sup>-1</sup>; 1994 - 1.60 kg/h<sup>-1</sup>; 1995 - 1.30 kg/h<sup>-1</sup>; 1996 - 1.02 kg/h<sup>-1</sup>; 1997 - 1.06 kg/h<sup>-1</sup>. Landings and CPUE data for the trap fishery in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> is as follows: 1994 - 89 tonnes/ 0.606 kg/trap; 1995 - 50 tonnes/ 0.634 kg/trap; 1996 - 30.9 tonnes/ 0.297 kg/trap; 1997 - 7.4 tonnes/ 0.159 kg/trap. There is an apparent significant decline in catch between 1993 and 1994, however without a greater time series, it is difficult to interpret this as a long term trend. Results from this study also indicate that a maximum sustainable yield of 60 tonnes a year for both the trap and trawl fishery would have been realistic; landings in 1994 and 1995 exceeded this limit which may account for the apparent decline in catch during this period.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170010		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species as the fishery for this species is now closed. It is occasionally still captured as by-catch.
170011		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170011		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Western Indian Ocean, including the coasts of Somalia, Pakistan, southwest and south India, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Mannar (Holthuis 1991), and along the coast of Myanmar (Nakken and Aung 1980).
170011		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths between 180-1,300 metres, but is most commonly found between 180-300 metres; and is found on substrates of coarse sand, hard muds and shells (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>This species was found in the Chinnamuttom region of India both during monsoons and post monsoons (Vijayanand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
170011		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170011		threats	eng	This species is fished commercially and on a subsistence level within parts of its range, however, this is not believed to impacting upon the global population.
170013		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on population, harvesting and other possible threats is recommended.
170013		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on the northwest coast of Maizuru, 135<sup>o </sup>15' E; on the Pacific coast from Tokyo Bay 140<sup>o</sup> south westward to Ryukyu Islands, Japan (Holthuis 1991).
170013		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters up to 20 metres deep, on shore reefs (Holthuis 1991). The maximum total body length is approximately 16 cm (Holthuis 1991).
170013		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170013		threats	eng	This species is harvested as a food source, but there is no indication of whether this fishery is over-exploited and how it is affecting the population.
170014		conservation	eng	Management restrictions for this species include a minimum legal size limit, and restrictions on the number of boats and gear types used, however these are not well adhered to (Phillips 2006). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted by fishing. In addition, a management strategy for this species needs to be developed and enforced, in order to maintain or rebuild populations of this species to a sustainable level.
170014		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Bermuda and Florida to Brazil, including the Yucatan and Caribbean Sea (Holthuis 1991). However, it is very rare north of Colombia (M. Butler pers. comm. 2009).
170014		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water down to 50 m on rocky reef and coral reef. It is found co-existing with <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus argus</span> (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft and A.B. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2008).
170014		population	eng	This species is harvested throughout much of its range, however the main fishery occurs off the coast of Brazil. It is mainly fished using traps and gill nets. Landings data is not specific to this species, however the situation is thought to be similar of that in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus argus</span> fishery of Brazil. This species comprises 15% of the palinurid catch in Brazil (FAO/WECAFC 2006).<br/><br/>Specific population information on this species is unavailable. There is little FAO data on catches of this species. From information known, this species is most likely over-exploited by legal and illegal harvesting throughout its range and the population will have decreased substantially from its original biomass (M.J. Butler, A.C.&#160; Cockcroft and A.B. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009).
170014		threats	eng	Over-exploitation by fisheries is a major threat to this species (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft and A.B. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2008).
170015		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170015		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bermuda, the Bahamas, southern Florida, Yucatán, West Indies, and the Pernambuco and Bahia states of Brazil (Carpenter 2002).
170015		habitat	eng	This species utilizes coral and rock for shelter and can be found at a depth range of 0-35 m (Carpenter 2002).
170015		population	eng	This species is scarce (Carpenter 2002), however this might be due to the cryptic nature of reef lobsters (Titgen and Fielding 1986).
170015		threats	eng	This species is not currently threatened by any major threat processes. There is no directed or commercial fishery for this species, however it is taken by divers, and it is occasionally taken as incidental by-catch by other fisheries (Carpenter 2002).
170016		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170016		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the Indo-West Pacific region, including the Malay Archipelago, the Philippines and Indonesia (Holthuis 1991).
170016		habitat	eng	This species occurs on soft substrates of mud and sand at depths of 520-683 metres (Holthuis 1991). Ovigerous females have been found in April (Holthuis 1991).
170016		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170016		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.
170017		conservation	eng	There are some specific conservation measures in place for this species. In Australia, Queensland fisheries have imposed a minimum size restriction (carapace width of 104 mm) for this species (Sumpton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). There is a tagging system in place in New Zealand which is designed to reduce illegal harvesting (Yandle 2006). Additionally the 'National Rock Lobster Management Group' created in 1992, and the Rock Lobster Steering Committee have developed a harvest strategy to manage stock levels, which has incorporated traditional Maori cultural concerns (Yandle 2006). A research programme is also in place in New Zealand (Yandle 2006). Various minimum legal tail sizes depending on the location and whether for commercial or recreational purposes are imposed (New Zealand Government 2008). In Australia for commercial and recreational fisheries, the standard carapace lengths are between 104 mm and 180 mm (Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This species can also be found in a number of Marine Protected Areas (Freeman 2008).
170017		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Australia and New Zealand, including the Chatham and Kermadec Islands (Holthuis 2002). Specifically, it is known from Tweed Heads, New South Wales to Tasmania (Montgomery and Craig 2005). It is mainly found in the north of the North Island, New Zealand (Ministry of Fisheries Science Group 2008). In Australia, it is more abundant at higher latitudes (above 34 degrees), compared to the southern part of its distribution (Montgomery and Craig 2005).
170017		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs between 0-155 m (Holthuis 1991). Juveniles settle on rocky reefs upon maturation while sub-adults migrate to the northern tip of the northern Island where they settle and breed. Adults commonly occur on low-lying reefs. They are found on sand, gravel and rocks (Holthuis 2002). This species is known to migrate, from higher to lower latitudes for spawning (Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). There appears to be a seasonal migration between continental shelves during winter months to shallow near-shore reef environments during summer (Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <br/><br/>The Australian population is genetically different to the New Zealand population (Montgomery and Craig 2005).
170017		population	eng	This is a common species, and is commercially harvested in both Australia and New Zealand (Montgomery <em>et al.</em>&#160;2009).<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>&#160;In Australia this species is part of a managed fishery, where there are 131 shareholders which are bound by a total allowable commercial catch (TACC) (Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This is set by the New South Wales Fisheries Management Act 1994 and is divided between the shareholders (Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In 2007-2008 this was set at 124 tonnes, bringing in a revenue of around $5 million Australian dollars&#160; (Liggins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, in Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This species is usually caught in a baited trap, although a small proportion can be taken by hand (Montgomery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).&#160;<br/>The data for this species have shown that landings have been fairly consistent over the past thirty years (FishStat 2000). However, CPUE has declined between 1969-1970 and 1991-1992 for New South Wales stock:<br/>CPUE (kg per fisher trap month) data:<br/>1969-1970: 13, 1970-1971: 9.5, 1971-1972: 18, 1972-1973: 9.5, 1973-1974: 9, 1974-1975: 13, 1975-1976: 7, 1976-1977: 8 1977-1978: 7, 1978-1979: 7, 1979-1980: 5, 1980-1981: 4, 1981-1982: 5, 1982-1983: 4, 1983-1984: 4, 1984-1985: 4, 1985-1986: 4, 1986-1987: 4, 1987-1988: 4, 1988-1989: 4, 1989-1990: 3, 1990-1991: 3, 1991-1992: 3 (Montgomery 1993).<br/><br/>The landings (which do not account for increase in effort or restrictions in quotas) are given below (tonnes): Australia (Fishstat 2000).<br/>1978: 93<br/>1979: 68&#160;<br/>1980: 108&#160;<br/>1981: 99&#160;<br/>1982: 144<br/>1983: 155&#160;<br/>1984: 158&#160;1985: 167&#160;<br/>1986: 150&#160;<br/>1987: 200&#160;<br/>1988: 210&#160;<br/>1989: 79<br/>1990: 87&#160;<br/>1991: 86<br/>1992: 98&#160;<br/>1993: 100&#160;<br/>1994: 143&#160;<br/>1995: 151&#160;<br/>1996:&#160; 97&#160;<br/>1997: 104&#160;<br/>1998: 108&#160;<br/>1999: 110 &#160;<br/>2000: 117&#160;<br/>2001:&#160; 103&#160;<br/>2002: 103&#160;<br/>2003: 122&#160;<br/>2004: 108&#160;<br/>2005: 99&#160;<br/>2006: 101&#160;<br/>2007: 110<br/><br/><strong>New Zealand</strong><br/>In New Zealand, this species is also taken during recreational fishing, for customs by Maori and also illegally, for which there are no precise data (Ministry of Fisheries Science (Comps.) 2008). The status of the stock of this species is unknown (Ministry of Fisheries Science (Comps.) 2008).<br/><br/>As this species is harvested along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Jasus edwardsii </span>under the name of 'rock lobster', it is often difficult to obtain data for this species alone (Ministry of Fisheries Science Group (Comps.) 2008).<br/><br/>The landings (which do not account for increase in effort or restrictions in quotas) are given below (tonnes):<br/>Year: New Zealand&#160;(Fishstat 2000)<br/>1978: &#160;40<br/>1979: &#160;40<br/>1980: &#160;40<br/>1981: &#160;40<br/>1982: &#160;40<br/>1983: &#160;40<br/>1984: &#160;32<br/>1985: &#160;14<br/>1986: &#160;8<br/>1987: &#160;0.5<br/>1988: &#160;0.5<br/>1989: &#160;0.5<br/>1990: &#160; 2<br/>1991: &#160;21 <br/>1992: &#160;15<br/>1993: &#160;8<br/>1994: &#160;5<br/>1995: &#160;8<br/>1996: &#160;64<br/>1997: &#160;54<br/>1998: &#160;16 <br/>1999: &#160;13 <br/>2000: &#160;35<br/>2001: &#160;10<br/>2002: &#160;8 <br/>2003: 16<br/>2004: 19<br/>2005: 19<br/>2006: 29<br/>2007: 29
170017		threats	eng	<p>Commercial exploitation of this species does not pose a significant threat to the population numbers at the present time. There are no other known major threats to this species.<br/></p>
170018		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170018		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed in the eastern Pacific from <st1:city w:st="on">Baja</st1:city> <st1:state w:st="on">California</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, along the coast to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Valparaiso</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region></st1:place> (27ºN 32ºS). Previous records from the Galapagos and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Marion</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Islands</st1:placename></st1:place> are erroneous (Holthuis 1991, Hendrickx 2003).</p>
170018		habitat	eng	This deep sea species inhabits a mud, sand or gravel substrate, and is tolerant of severely hypoxic conditions (0.38 to 1.4 ml O2/l) (Hendrickx 2003). This species occurs at a depth range of 270-1,238 m.
170018		population	eng	In the Gulf of California (Mexico) this species is known to dominate decapod crustacean communities, and has been described as abundant at depths between 1,050-1,310 m (Hendrickx 2003).
170018		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170019		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the population size of this species and the level and impact of possible commercial trawling within its range.
170019		distribution	eng	This species is known from four localities in the South China Sea: off the coast of Viet Nam (between 15º53'N-16º00'N and 109º25.3'E-109º33'E) (Holthuis 1991), the northwest coast of the Phillippines (Chan 1998), and Indonesia (edge of shelf in the Gulf of Tonkin) (Macpherson 1990).
170019		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 205-407 m in mud substrate, sometimes with shells present (Holthuis 1991). Females are ovigerous in September (Holthuis 1991).
170019		population	eng	This species is often caught in large numbers in experimental trawls around the Philippines (Chan 1998).
170019		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
170020		conservation	eng	<p>As a World Natural Heritage Site and multi-use marine reserve, the Galapagos must ensure sustainability and minimize the ecological impact of all of its activities. The fishery for this species is open all year round. Besides a ban on landing ovigerous females, and the implementation of No-Take Zones, the fishery is essentially unregulated. A maximum of 5 kg of tails per person may be exported upon application for a permit (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007, Viteri and Chavez 2007). There is a preliminary (as yet not enforced) zonation scheme within the GMR which prohibits extractive activities in a further 18 % of the coastal waters (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007). The GMR Five-Year Fishing Calendar recognized the need to incorporate a closed season, minimum landing size, and identification of nursery areas for this species by the end of 2004. As of July 2006 that was still pending (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p>Further research should target the early life history of this species including the identification of nursery areas, more knowledge about population status and threats across it's range, and also if it has a wider distribution than formally attributed to it.</p>  <p>Recommended conservation strategies include the creation of a minimum landing size and the implementation of an appropriate closed season for the harvesting of this species is necessary in order to protect the population, and in particular ovigerous females (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007).&#160;</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
170020		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Pacific including: the Gulf of California in Mexico, the Galápagos Archipelago, and Ecuador. There is a report of larva probably belonging to this species, at 200 miles north of Clipperton Island, to the south-west of Mexico (Holthuis 1991).     This species is likely to occur along the scattered islands running from Baja California, to the Galápagos e.g. Clipperton Is, Cocos Is., Roca Partida (M. Butler pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The type locality for this species is 'Post Office Bay, Charles Island, Galapagos Archipelago' (Holthuis 1991).
170020		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal, mostly solitary species forages during the night and shelters during the day. It can be found on platforms, crevices, and on vertical walls down to a depth of 20 m (Holthuis 1991, Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). This is a diver fishery and so this species has only been collected to 20 m, however it may extend down to about 50 m (M. Butler pers. comm. 2009). Its diet consists mainly of bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007).</p><p>This is a relatively slow growing species, with sexual maturity being reached at more than 6 years (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007) or at a total length of 20 to 25 cm (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species has a clear seasonal breeding pattern, with ovigerous females occurring in the warmer months from December to May (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007). This species is likely to reproduce once a year at the most, and the fecundity is between 87,000 - 360,000 eggs per female (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
170020		population	eng	<p>There is little population data available for this species. In the north and far north of the Galapagos archipelago, where sea surface temperatures are highest, this species has been found to be rare (less than one individual observed per diver hour). In other areas of the archipelago this species showed higher levels of abundance; ranging between two and four individuals observed per diver hour (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is less abundant in the immediate subtidal zone, where approximately 5 individuals have been observed per diver hour. This abundance more than doubled at depths greater than 10 m (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007). Population data for Mexico is not available.<br/></p>
170020		threats	eng	<p>The main threat facing this species is the increase in the catch and demand within the fisheries sector as described in the Use and Trade section. The decline in the catches of the predominantly harvested Spiny Lobsters (<em>Panulirus penicillatus</em> and <em>P. gracilis</em>) from a maximum of 85 tonnes of tail in 2000 to 25.7 tonnes in 2005, has coincided with an increase in catch and demand for this species (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007). The decrease in Spiny Lobster catch together with the progressive and severe depletion of the Sea Cucumber population since 2000, raises concerns as to the sustainability of fisheries as a whole within the GMR (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>    <p>Hearn and Toral-Granda (2007) encourage a cautious approach to the development of a Slipper Lobster fishery. This species exhibits characteristics such as low fecundity, slow growth, and relatively easy catchability. These factors together with the species possible endemic status, low abundance, its value in relation to the Spiny Lobsters, plus the track record of the local fishing sector in overexploiting their resources all mean that this species is at potential risk of overexploitation.</p><p>There are no clearly identified threats from the Mexico part of this species' range, though it should be noted that there are significant fishing industries in this area (FAO 2010). &#160;Although these are often specialised for other species, such as sardines or tuna, lobsters could potentially be taken as by-catch.&#160;</p>
170021		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170021		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the Western Atlantic region: from southern Florida and the Bahamas, through the Mosquito Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, south to French Guiana (Holthuis 1991).
170021		habitat	eng	This species occurs on sand or mud, coralline sand, rubble, blue and grey mud substrate. It occurs at a depth range of 230-700 m, though most commonly between 300-500 m (Holthuis 1991).
170021		population	eng	This species is abundant in parts of its range (T.Y. Chan pers. comm. 2009).
170021		threats	eng	Holthuis (1991) stated that this species was not actively fished at the time, although it was "taken in commercially attractive quantities [ca 10 kg/h] during exploratory trawling operations in the western Caribbean Sea [Nicaragua and Colombia]". This species was caught in a few hauls at a depth of 300 m off the coast of Venezuela, close to Margarita Island (Saetersdal 1999). The situation was much the same in 2002, when Tavares (2002) stated that this species was "still not actively fished for at present".<br/><br/>According to the FAO's 1994 assessment of Caribbean fisheries; crustaceans, including lobsters, were not considered overexploited. However, this is an overall estimate, and does not give an accurate picture of local stocks which can vary greatly (CEP 2001). Furthermore, a major threat to lobsters in the Caribbean is the destruction of mangrove forests, which adversely affects juvenile nursery grounds and renders the coastline vulnerable to erosion (CEP 2001).
170022		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;</p><p>Further research is recommended to determine whether this species is a true Easter Island endemic, and to learn more about the ecology, abundance and any threat that may be affecting this species.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
170022		distribution	eng	This species is only known to occur in Easter Island (Poupin 2003).<br/>The type locality for this species is Hanga Pico, in the southwest of Easter Island (Holthuis 1991).
170022		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information for this species.
170022		population	eng	There is very little known population information. All four records are known from captures in lobster traps.
170022		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats.</p>
170023		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the extent of this fishery, with data on fishing effort and landings.
170023		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indo-west Pacific and East Africa. It ranges from: Kenya to Cape Province, Madagascar to the Mauritius-Seychelles Ridge, from Korea and Japan, to the South China Sea including Taiwan, Viet Nam, the Philippines, and Western Australia (Holthuis 1991).
170023		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft sediments at a depth range of 37 - 400 m (Holthuis 1991).
170023		population	eng	There is no population information available. This species is caught as by-catch throughout its range.<br/><br/>The combined landings of this species&#160; and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. ciliatus</span> reported for Taiwan, are as follows (tonnes):<br/>1989 - 663; 1990 - 310; 1991 - 389; 1992 - 514; 1993 - 456; 1994 - 236; 1995 - 1,224; 1996 - 1,115; 1997 - 642; 1997 - 642; 1998 - 696; 1999 - 676; 2000 - 1,600; 2001 - 1,607; 2002 - 1,005; 2003 - 1,637; 2004 - 1,596; 2005 - 1,553; 2006 - 1,570 (FISHSTAT Plus 2000). Further species specific information is needed on whether the increases or decreases in the landings reflect changes in fishing effort.
170023		threats	eng	This species is harvested for food in Korea, Taiwan and Japan and is sold fresh in local markets, where it is taken by trawlers and long line (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>There is no targeted fishery for this species in the Western Indian Ocean, although it is common in trawls, with numbers as high as 22.6 kg per hour (Ivanov and Krylov 1980). The by-catch of this species is not thought to pose a significant threat to the population at this time.
170024		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170024		distribution	eng	This species is only known from South Georgia Island and southeast of the Falkland Islands (Holthuis 1991). The two locations were given as 55º01?-55º10?S 39º55? - 39º46?W and 6º04? - 60º08?S 35º59? 36º04?W (Holthuis 1991).
170024		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. Specimens have been collected from a depth range of 1,976 - 3,040 m (Holthuis 1991).
170024		population	eng	As only four specimens of this species have ever been collected, the total population is unknown (Holthuis 1991).
170024		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170025		conservation	eng	There are a number of conservation measures in place for this species including minimum legal size, protection of berried females, restriction on the number of fishing boats, types of gear allowed, number of lobster pots, sanctuaries, closed fishing seasons, total allowable catch (Booth 2006).
170025		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia (Geraldton in western Australia, south and around Tasmania, up to Coffs Harbour on east coast Australia), New Zealand (ranging from Three Kings Islands to Auckland Islands including Chatham Islands), and areas of the Tasman Sea (seamounts and rises) (Phillips <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Booth 2000, Booth 2006).
170025		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found on rocky reefs; but may also be found on light foul ground, seamounts and rises (Booth 2006). It is typically found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 200 m (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>This species feeds on molluscs, other crustacea, echiniods, and algae (Booth 2006). This species can make migrations of 460 km (Street 1971).<br/><br/>The maximum size recorded for a male specimen is 235 mm (CL) and for a female 180 mm (CL) (Holthuis 1991). Female age at maturity is estimated to range from 3 - 7 years (NIWA unpublished data cited in Booth 2006, Annala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980).
170025		population	eng	This species is of huge commercial importance within Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania. This species is harvested as a human food source; most commonly using baited traps. The majority of the global catch is taken in the South Australia fishery with an annual average landing of 2,500 tonnes (Phillips <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Tasmania has an average annual landing of 1,500 tonnes, while Victoria has an annual landing of 400 - 500 tonnes. The Western Australia fishery has the smallest annual landings of less than 100 tonnes.<br/><br/><p><strong>Tasmanian Fishery</strong><br/> </p><p>Commercial catch in 2007/2008 was 1513.435 tonnes which is 99.37% of the TACC set at 1523 tonnes.<br/></p><p>Fishing effort and harvest rates vary significantly across the Tasmanian fishery. Effort peaked in 1992/1993 when 2.07 million pots were in use. Today, there are approximately 1.29 million pots in use. In 1998/1999 a quota management system was initiated at which point 1.59 million pots were in use though there has been a slight increase in effort in the last two years. The Tasmanian Southern Rock Lobster fishery is divided into 8 fishery areas. In recent years fishing effort is reported to have declined in areas 1, 2, 4 and 5.&#160;Comparatively, there have been slight increases in Areas 3 and 6, and larger increases still in Areas 7 and 8. Record high catches are being seen in Area 1 and 8, with high catches also seen in Area 7. Areas 3, 4 and 5 are showing record low catches despite the reduced effort in 4 and 5. On the whole catch rate has increased by 41% when compared to the reference year (year between 1993 and 1995 with the lowest catch per unit effort (CPUE) but declined by 2.5% compared to the previous fishing season 2006/2007. Over the last 18 years statewide CPUE (defined as total catch divided by total pot lifts) has risen from a low if 0.818 in 1994/1995 to a high of 1.204 in 2005/2006 with a subsequent slight decline to 1.163 in 2007/2008. The Total Allowable Commercial Catch (TACC) is still being attained largely due to the increased effort that has been seen in the southern areas: 1, and 8. It is unlikely that these high catches shall be maintained. When effort and catch are combined, catch rates are as follows: rising or stable in Areas 3, 5, 7 and 8; declining in Areas 1, 2 and 6.</p>    <p>The legal-sized biomass of the fishery is declining in Areas 1 and 6, and increasing in Areas 3 and 7. There has also been an observed rise in biomass in Area 5 though is likely due to a reduction in catch as opposed to increased recruitment. Area 7 is currently undergoing high levels of recruitment into legal size. On the whole the biomass levels are significantly higher than the reference year of 1993/1994 when legal-sized biomass was estimated at 2,872 tonnes. The 2006 legal-sized biomass estimate was 5,181 tonnes while the 2007 estimate was 4,982 tonnes which is a 3.8% decrease. Mature biomass is also showing a downward trend since 2004 from a high of ~6,800 tonnes to ~6,250 tonnes in 2006/2007. Mean weight however has been slowly increasing over time.<br/></p><p>Statewide egg production is at 47.4% of the virgin population levels, however areas 3,4,5 and 6 are below the recommended 25% threshold. These are the northern areas of the fishery which are currently exhibiting declines in catch.<br/></p>        <p>Recruitment in Areas 3,4 and 5 has been below average for the last few years, but above average in Areas 1,7 and 8 although the source of recruitment for areas 1 and 8 is now in decline (Haddon and Gardner 2009). <br/></p>    <p>The number of licenses within the recreational fishery has increased dramatically from 8,500 in 1995 to 20,008 in 2006/2007.<br/></p>    <p>Despite the record high catches across the state when compared to 1994/1995 levels, the process of stock rebuilding appears to have stalled. Area 5 is the only area in which stock abundance is exhibiting a positive trend which is due to a prolonged period of lower harvest.&#160; <br/></p><p>Projections looking at the chance of biomass increasing by 2012/2013 (assuming a TACC of 1523 tonnes; recreational catch staying the same; recruitment reverts back to typical levels) indicate that Areas 2,3,4,5,6 have a good chance of biomass increasing while Area 1, 7 and 8 are very likely to decrease further. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p><p><strong>Northern Zone Rock Lobster Fishery</strong><strong> </strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This zone incorporates all the South Australian waters between the mouth of the Murray River and the Western Australia border and covers 42 marine fishing areas.</p><p>Landings of this species have remained stable throughout the 1970s and early 1980s at around 600 - 700 tonnes. In 1985 the catch rose from 657 tonnes to 1,221 tonnes, and subsequently declined to around 900 tonnes in the mid 1990s. They then rose again over 1,000 tonnes in 1998 and 1999. In 2004 the catches were at a record low of 446 tonnes. Although it is important to note that the decline in catch in 2000 may be partly attributed to an increase in the minimum legal size limit. The decline in 2001 and 2002 may also be a reflection of a lowering of fishing effort.</p><p>There was a slight increase in catch to around 491 tonnes in 2006, but in 2007 this fell again to 459 tonnes which is 88% of the TACC (520 tonnes). Fishing quotas were introduced in 2002.</p><p>Historically, fishing effort was at its highest in 1991 at 805,139 potlifts when the record landings were made, however it has gradually declined and is now at about 615,732 which is still higher than 1970/1980 levels when landings were higher. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) was at its highest in the late 1980s at ~1.50 kg/potlift but has subsequently declined to around 0.76 kg/potlift in 2007.</p><p>The mean weight of lobsters reached its lowest point in 1988 and 1989, with 2001 showing the highest mean weight on record (1.21 kg). However in 2002, 2003, and 2004 mean weight decreased again to 1.08 kg but then increased to 1.13 kg in 2007. Length frequency data suggests that there has been no significant change in the mean length of males and females between 1995 and 2000. Numbers of spawning adults has decreased significantly between 1997 and 2007 by about 77% from around 0.09 spawners/potlift to 0.02 spawners/potlift in 2007. Biomass estimates for the fishery indicate a 70% decline since 1980 when it was estimated at 5,311 tonnes compared to the estimate of 1,581 tonnes in 2007. This fishery is currently considered to be in an overfished state (Linnane, McGarvey and Feenstra 2009).</p><p><strong>Southern Zone Rock Lobster Fishery</strong></p><p>This zone incorporates all South Australia waters from the mouth of the Murray River to the border of Victoria and is divided in 7 marine fishing areas.</p><p>Catches between 1970 and 1983 were variable and there is some sceptisism over the reported catches during this period. From 1984 to 1990 catches were around 1,500 tonnes but then increased in 1991 to 1,940 tonnes but subsequently declined to 1,670 tonnes in 1993. In 1993 a TACC of 1,720 was implemented of which only 1,668 tonnes was harvested. Since 1996 there has been a gradual increase in landings to around 1,900 tonnes but then declined slightly to 1,849 tonnes in 2007. Since the peak in landings in 1991, fishing effort has been reduced dramatically from its peak in 1991 at 2 million potlifts to a low of 854,000 potlifts in 2002. It has since increased again to 1,661,428 potlifts in 2007. Catch per unit effort rose from 0.93 kg/potlift in 1996 to 2.1 kg/potlift in 2002, but then fell again to around 1.1 kg/potlift in 2007.</p><p>Mean weight of lobsters in 2007 is similar to that seen in the 1970s at around 0.83 kg though it has varied considerably over time between 0.77 and 0.89 kg. Length frequency data suggests that there has been no significant change in the mean length of males and females since 1993 when the quota was introduced. Numbers of spawning individuals has dramatically declined from a high in 2002 of 0.51 spawners/potlift to 0.14 spawners/potlift in 2007. Biomass estimates for this fishery show that it peaked in 2002 at 6,085 tonnes but has since declined to around 4,041 tonnes in 2007. Egg production levels have also shown a similar trend with a high of 684 billion eggs in 2003 and a low of 460 billion eggs in 2007.</p><p><strong>Victorian Rock Lobster Fishery</strong></p><p>This fishing zone is split into the Western Zone and Eastern Zone.</p><p>Landings in the Western Zone have fluctuated considerably since 1978 but recently peaked at ~550 tonnes in 2000 and then declined to ~330 tonnes in 2006 (Department of Primary Industries 2008). CPUE in this zone started at ~0.85kg/potlift in 1978 and declined to ~0.50 kg/potlift in 1990 but then rose again to ~0.71 kg/potlift in 2003 but have since fallen to ~0.49 kg/potlift in 2006(Department of Primary Industries 2008). In the Eastern Zone landings were high in the late 1970s at ~120 tonnes but declined to ~70 tonnes in the late 1980s where they have remained ever since(Department of Primary Industries 2008). CPUE in this region also declined from around 0.70 kg/potlift in the late 1970s to a low of ~0.25 kg/potlift in 1996 but have since increased to ~0.42 kg/potlift in 2006 (Department of Primary Industries 2008).</p><p><strong>New Zealand Fishery</strong></p><p>This fishery covers the North and South Islands, as well as the Chatham Islands. The fishery is divided into 3 substocks: NSN - northern stocks CRA1 and 2; NSC - central stocks CRA3, 4 and 5; NSS - southern stocks CRA7 and 8.<br/></p><p>Since 1991, there has been a decline in the catch of this species from 2,907.4 tonnes, to 2,464.8 tonnes in 2007/2008. However, over this time a TACC limit has been imposed which has also declined from around 3,793 tonnes in 1991 to 2,766.6 tonnes in 2007/2008.</p>Catch per unit effort data for both the North and South Islands indicates some variability since the early 1980s from a high of 1.96 kg/potlift in 1979/1980 to a low of 0.48 kg/potlift in 1992/1993, however it has since increased again to 1.04 kg/potlift in 2007/2008. The Chatham Island stock also declined in CPUE from 2.33 kg/potlift in 1979/1980 to 0.88 kg/potlift in 1996/1997 but then increased again to around 1.53 kg/potlift in 2007/2008.
170025		threats	eng	Overexploitation has been consigned to history as the fisheries are now well managed. This is an attempt to increase the biomass. In some cases there have been increases, and stable fluctuation.
170026		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>As this species is known from areas in which major fisheries operate, further research is needed on the possible by-catch levels.
170026		distribution	eng	This species is known from the South China Sea, the Philippines, Moluccas in Indonesia, and New Caledonia (Holthuis 1991).
170026		habitat	eng	This species can be found on sand and mud substrates at a depth range of 186 - 457 m (Holthuis 1991).
170026		population	eng	There is no population information on this species.
170026		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial interest, and owing to its lack of meat is unlikely to be of future commercial interest (Holthuis 1991).
170028		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p><p>A decline in global captures of <em>Scyllaridae</em> has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). Further research is necessary to determine the impact that global harvesting is having on specific species, and to clarify if the documented decline is due to reduced populations or simply reduced effort.</p>  <p></p>
170028		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern central Atlantic region from northern Senegal to northern Namibia in West Africa (Holthuis 1991, Bianchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The type locality for this species is Butri, Ghana (4º50'N 1º56'W) (Holthuis 1991).
170028		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits a substrate of sand and rock, or occasionally mud (Holthuis 1991, Bianchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It shelters during the day and forages at night, feeding mainly on bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). There are reports of this species occurring at depths of up to 300 m, although it is most commonly found between 5 to 70 m. This species can reach up to 32 cm in total length but usually is not more than 25 cm (Holthuis 1991, Bianchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
170028		population	eng	There is insufficient population information about this species.
170028		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. The impact of harvesting on this species is unknown.<br/></p>
170029		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170029		distribution	eng	This species is known from Carriacou Island in the Grenadines, to the mouth of the Amazon River near Amapá and Pará States, Brazil (Holthuis 1991).
170029		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a number of substrates including sand and coral, sandy calcarenite, and mud (Holthuis 1991). It has typically been taken from a depth range of 120 - 298 m, however a specimen has also been taken from the littoral zone and another specimen from 4111- 4122 m although the deep water specimen was never published (Holthuis 1991, Chand and Yu 1995).
170029		population	eng	This is a rare species (Chan and Yu 1995).
170029		threats	eng	This species is not impacted by any major threat processes.
170030		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the abundance of this species, or catch per unit effort to better understand how harvest levels are impacting the population.<br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
170030		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic region from Venezuela (Sucre State) to Brazil (Rio Granda do Sul State) (Holthuis 1991, Santana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The type locality for this species is off the Suriname coast at a depth of 42 m (6º41'N, 55º26.5'W) (Holthuis 1991).
170030		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits a muddy substrate, sheltering during the day and foraging at night, feeding mainly on bivalves (Holthuis 1991, Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007).
170030		population	eng	There is very little population information available for this species. Nomura and Fausto Filho (1968) described this species as abundant in north and northeast Brazil, but there is no recent data to confirm whether this is still the case.
170030		threats	eng	<p>    </p>The harvesting of this species for food is limited at this time to an annual catch of approximately 100 tonnes off the northeast coast of Brazil (Isaac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Without knowing the abundance of this species, it is difficult to determine whether this is a considerable threat to the population.<br/><p></p>
170031		conservation	eng	In the Maldives management measures in the spiny lobster fishery include: an export ban (harvest is for local consumption only); minimum size restrictions; and a ban on harvesting berried (egg-bearing) females under 25 cm total length. Monitoring and enforcement of these measures is often weak (Adam 2006).<br/><br/>Since the revision of this species' taxonomy there is uncertainty about the distributions and exploitation levels of this and two other similar cryptic species (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. longipes longipes </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. longipes bispinosus</span>) (Chan and Ng 2001, Juinio-Menez and Gotanco 2004).
170031		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely in the Indo-West Pacific from the Maldives, Japan, Taiwan, Viet Nam, the Philippines (the eastern and southern coasts), Indonesia (Sulawesi, Irian Jaya), and the Polynesian islands (Chan and Chu 1996, Juinio-Menez and Gotanco 2004). It is thought to also occur in the Solomon Islands, New Hebrides, Wallis and Futuna, and probably off northern Australia (Chan and Chu 1996). Adults were recently recorded off the Galapagos Islands (Isabela) after the 1997/98 El Nino event. These were almost certainly vagrants rather than invasives or introductions (Charles Darwin Foundation and WWF 2002), although there have been sporadic reports each year since then (Hickman and Zimmerman 2000). This species range is likely to be extended upon further directed surveys.
170031		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow rocky and coral reef areas to about 20 m in depth (Chan and Chu 1996).
170031		population	eng	This species is "caught throughout its range, but apparently nowhere abundant" according to Chan (1998), although Ravago and Juinio-Meñez (2002) describe it as "relatively abundant" in the eastern Philippines, off Samar. It is rare in fish markets in Taiwan, and in Hong Kong is imported, often from Indonesia (Chan and Chu 1996). It is also very rare off mainland Japan (Honshu Island) (Chan and Chu 1996).
170031		threats	eng	This species is caught throughout its range, but separate statistics are unavailable because of taxonomic issues and former confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. longipes</span> (Chan 1998).<br/><br/>In the Phillippines this species is caught in mixed catches with two subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus longipes </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">P. l. longipes </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. l. bispinosus</span>) with which its range overlaps, making up 26% of the catch in Guiuan, eastern Samar (Ravago and Juinio-Meñez 2002).<br/><br/>In the Bonin Islands (southeast of mainland Japan) this and other species of spiny lobster are caught using baited cages set on the rocky sea floor (Nishikori and Sekiguchi 2001).<br/><br/>In the Maldives this is one of five <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus </span>spp. exploited for the local tourist market. Catches appear to be levelling off; however, lobsters are increasing in value suggesting that reduced abundance is driving prices up (Adam 2006). Catch statistics for all species are reported below (in numbers landed):<br/><br/>1995 - 23,000; 1996 - 37,523; 1997 - 37,543; 1998 - 29,375; 1999 - 24,183; 2000 - 23,483; 2001 - 43,172; 2002 - 59,980; 2003 - 48,120; 2004 - 41,644.<br/><br/>Over the same period the unit value (Rupees / lobster) has increased from 66.3 in 1995 to 112.25 in 2003 (Adam 2006).<br/><br/>In the Galapagos this is one of four lobsters fished by SCUBA divers. Catch per unit effort (CPUE, in kg diver day<sup>-1</sup>) data was relatively constant from 1997 to 2001 (Guime 2003):<br/><br/>1997 - 6.7; 1998 - 5.8; 1999 - 7.0; 2000 - 9.5; 2001 - 7.0<br/><br/>The recent taxonomic split, and uncertainty of which species is which, means that former literature on this species is unreliable.
170032		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170032		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region including the western Indian Ocean (Maldives, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region> (Makassar Strait, Aru Islands), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Papua New Guinea, Australia</st1:country-region> (West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania), New Zealand and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Caledonia</st1:place></st1:state> (Holthuis 1991, Bateson 2003, Zarenkov 2006, DEWHA 2009, Palomares and Pauly 2009). It is likely that this species also occurs off Australia's Northern Territory, in other areas of Indonesia and Melanesia, the Bay of Bengal, and possibly along the east coast of Africa (A.C. Cockcroft and A.B. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
170032		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species can be found at depths of 786-2,029 m, but is most commonly found between 1,600-1,900 m, inhabiting a muddy substrate (Holthuis 1991).</p>
170032		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170032		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170033		conservation	eng	<p>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research into the population demographics, life history, and distribution of this species is suggested as these data are lacking; as well as research in to possible threats to this species. &#160;</p>
170033		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guam, Western Samoa and French Polynesia, specifically the Tuamotu Archipelago and Tahiti (Holthuis 1991, Poupin 1996, Paulay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
170033		habitat	eng	This species lives at great depths of between 220 and 300 metres (Holthuis 1991).
170033		population	eng	This species has been described as very rare (Holthuis 1991). There is currently no other population information available for this species.
170033		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.</p>
170034		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170034		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the central and lower east coast of Australia including south Queensland, and Malabar, Port Stephens, Newcastle, and Port Jackson in New South Wales. It also occurs in the Hauraki Gulf on the North Island of New Zealand (Holthuis 2006, DEWHA 2009). It is possible that this species is also found in the New Caledonia-New Hebrides area and from the Tuamotu Archipelago: Michel (1971, <em>cited in</em> Holthuis 1991) mentioned larvae from this area that he tentatively assigned to this species, but it is possible that they actually were specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Arctides regalis</span>.<br/>The type locality for this species is in an area of ocean off Malabar, New South Wales, Australia, at a depth of 146 m (27 º35'S 152º35'E) (Holthuis 1991).
170034		habitat	eng	This species shows a preference for clear water with a rocky substrate (Holthuis 1991). &#160;This species has been recorded within a depth range of 5 - 146 metres.
170034		population	eng	This species was described as 'uncommon' by Poore (2004).
170034		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species. It is incidentally taken in lobster pots set for other species in some parts of its range.<br/></p>
170035		conservation	eng	<p>Management strategies for this species need to be developed and enforced to maintain or rebuild the population to a sustainable level. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and monitoring of CPUE to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future.</p>
170035		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Eastern Atlantic: Its range extends from west coast Ireland, south to southern Senegal. It is also known from the Mediterranean (to the west of Sicily at about 16<sup>o</sup>E), but not the Adriatic (Holthuis 1991).
170035		habitat	eng	This species can be found within the continental shelf, especially within canyons, on rocky reefs and muddy substrates at a depth range of 180 to 600 m, though it is most commonly found between 200 - 400 m (Postel 1966, Holthuis 1991). It feeds on molluscs, dead fish, crustaceans, polychaetes and echinoderms (Maigret 1978).
170035		population	eng	This is a common species. This species has suffered serious declines in the past, but has shown the ability to rebuild when fishing pressure is reduced.<br/><br/>This species is commercially harvested for food throughout much of its range. Exploitation began in the 1950s off the coast of northwest Africa; by the 1960s 40 boats were harvesting the lobsters using a mix of baited traps and bottom trawls (Maigret 1978). <br/><br/>In 1961, the French landings are said to have peaked at 3,600 tonnes, but quickly fell to a catch of 200 tonnes in 1970. Fishing effort was then significantly reduced, which followed with an increase in landings to 900 tonnes in 1986. In 1987, the Portugese fishing fleet was granted lobster netting rights by the European Commission; this led to an increase in poaching and the fishery collapsed once again. In 1990 the French stopped harvesting this fishery (Goñi and Latrouite 2005). Today, this species is mostly taken as by-catch of the demersal fish fisheries off Mauritania (Goñi and Latrouite 2005). This species is still targeted in the Bay of Biscay, but it has not proved economically viable as a sustained fishery owing to rapid declines in catch and few good fishing grounds (Goñi and Latrouite 2005). The situation is much the same in the Mediterranean where it is most often taken as by-catch; high yields are also followed by crashes in the landings (Goñi and Latrouite 2005).
170035		threats	eng	<p>Considering past population crashes due to harvesting this species may be threatened by over-exploitation again in the future. &#160;However information suggests harvesting has now dropped to levels that do not impact the global population&#160;(Goñi and Latrouite 2005).</p>
170036		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Studies have investigated captive rearing of this species with some success (Okamoto 2005, 2008). This is part of a project initiated to develop land-based aquaculture in order to restock overfished areas (e.g., Suruga Bay); something which has not been achieved with any nephropid lobster (Okamoto 2008).<br/>Further work is needed to determine the impact of trawling on populations, especially those which might be affected by high fishing pressure. If there is evidence that populations are being severely impacted further measures may need to be introduced (if not already in place) to limit the size and/or timing of catches. These include: license limitation; vessel restrictions; seasonal closures or periods of no fishing and minumum size limits. Although Chan and Yu (1991) reported no change in size distribution in harvested populations.
170036		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the Pacific coast of Japan: from Choshi, Honshu to the east coast of Kyushu (Holthuis 1991).
170036		habitat	eng	This species is found in mud substrate at depths of 200-440 m, preferring 200-300 m (Holthuis 1991).
170036		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
170036		threats	eng	The stock of Sagami Bay appears not to be large, and is threatened by high fishing pressure. So far this has not caused a significant change in the size distribution of the catch, although this may be due to the aggregating nature of this species into size groups (Chan and Yu 1991). Over-fishing has resulted in decreased numbers. Rearing of juveniles in captivity has been successful (Okamoto 2008). However the lack of catch per unit effort data makes it difficult to interpret these observations.
170037		conservation	eng	<p>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.</p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>
170037		distribution	eng	This species is found in East Africa, specifically Tanzania, Mozambique, the Comoros Islands, northern Madagascar and Seychelles (Holthuis 1991). In the west Pacific it is known from Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan and the south of Japan (Holthuis 1991). It is also found in northern Australia and New Caledonia (Holthuis 1991).
170037		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths between 6 and 79 m, but more often found between 10 and 50 m (Holthuis 1991). This species prefers soft substrates such as sand and mud, occasionally along with shells, pumice, foraminiferans or bryozoans (Holthuis 1991).
170037		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
170037		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, though this species is occasionally taken for food.<br/></p>
170038		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research into the levels which this species is caught as by-catch is suggested as these data are lacking. &#160;</p>
170038		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the waters off southern South America and the Scotia Sea (Holthuis 1991). Specifically it is found off the continental shelf, between 37? and 57ºS and 35? and 76ºW (Holthuis 1991). This includes Argentina to Chile, out to the areas north, east and southeast of the Falkland Islands and the east of South Georgia (Holthuis 1991).
170038		habitat	eng	This species can be found at depths between 122 and 2516 metres, but is more likely to be found between 122 and 900 metres (Holthuis 1991, Laptikhovsky 2009).
170038		population	eng	This species is described as common in the deep waters of the Patagonia region and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Boschi 1979).
170038		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170039		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to determine present population size and the impact of commercial exploitation.
170039		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the northeast and south coasts of Taiwan (Holthuis 1991).
170039		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 150-400 m, preferring depths of approximately 250 m, with mud or sand substrates (Holthuis 1991). Spawning is in late autumn (Holthuis 1991).
170039		population	eng	This species is more abundant than the related <span style="font-style: italic;">M. thomsoni</span> (Chan and Yu 1987).
170039		threats	eng	This species is fished commercially by baby shrimp trawlers (Chan and Yu 1991), however it is known what impact commercial exploitation is having on the population numbers of this species.
170040		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine its distribution and population size, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.
170040		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in the Arafura Sea (5º53.8"S 132º48.8"E) (Holthuis 1991), and a more recent specimen from the Kai Islands, Indonesia (Chan 1997).
170040		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 443-560 m in muddy substrates (Holthuis 1991, Chan 1997).
170040		population	eng	Little is known about populations of this species. According to Chan (1997), it "seems to be very rare as only one specimen was obtained by ... intensive samplings ... and the specimen was collected from almost the same location and depth as the type".
170040		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is not known if it is fished or has commercial value (Holthuis 1991).
170041		conservation	eng	In the Cu Lao Cham Islands, Viet Nam, which is an important nursery refugia<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and spawning area for this species, several protection measures are in place; including a closed season from April to August, and a ban on the use of explosives and poison (UNEP 2006).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the impact of harvesting on populations throughout the range of this species, particularly off Viet Nam where juveniles are the primary target for use in aquaculture. In addition, management strategies for this species need to be developed and enforced to maintain or rebuild the population to a sustainable level. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and monitoring of catch per unit effort to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future.
170041		distribution	eng	This species is found along the southern Chinese coast (from Shanghai to Shantou), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Viet Nam (Quang Nam to Nam Dimh province), and the Gulf of Thailand (off Chonburi province) (Holthuis 1991).
170041		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky areas and reefs at depths of less than 40 m (Chan 1998). It has a rapid growth and reaches a large size, making it valuable for export (Thuy and Ngoc 2004).
170041		population	eng	This is "the dominant spiny lobster species in the South China Sea" (George 2005). From the Gulf of Tonkin to An Luong edge in Viet Nam this is the main species found, making up 85% of all lobsters. It is less common elsewhere in Viet Nam (Thuy and Ngoc 2004), and is apparently rare in the Gulf of Thailand (Chan 1998).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam there was very little commercial exploitation of spiny lobsters before 1975. Between 1975 and 1980 lobsters were caught by diving, and catches were in the tens of hundreds of tonnes per year (for domestic use only). Since 1980, and the improvement in fishing gear, lobsters were more often caught by trawlers and catches rose to 500 - 700 tonnes per year. The size of this species was around 1-2 kg per individual during this period. Since the 1990s average size has decreased, and as a result fishermen began raising lobsters in cages to attain export sizes. By 2004 there were over 30,000 lobster cages with a cultured yield of 2,000 tonnes/yr (Thuy and Ngoc 2004).<br/><br/>Estimates of catch per unit effort (CPUE) are rare, but in Viet Nam fishers generally catch three to 10 lobsters per day (Hung and Tuan 2009). Juvenile lobsters in Viet Nam are mostly caught for aquaculture; the catch increased from 0.5 million in 1999 to 2.5 million in 2003, which stayed constant until 2006 and 2007, when catches were two and one million lobsters respectively (Hung and Tuan 2009). Demand for juveniles showed much steeper increases in some areas than others; for example, in Hon Mot (near Nha Trang) there was a rise in demand from 400 in 1997 to 17,000 in 2002 (Dung 2007). This has caused severe depletion in local stocks, with potential impacts on future recruitment.
170041		threats	eng	This species is impacted upon by over-exploitation throughout its range (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft and A.B. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2008). In Viet Nam, collection of wild juveniles for aquaculture is an added threat to the wild population (Hung and Tuan 2009).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong><a href="http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&q=&vps=6&jsv=191a&sll=8.320212,103.249512&sspn=15.02406,19.753418&ie=UTF8&geocode=FbviuAAdkPh_Bg&split=0" log="miw" onclick="this.blur();openInfoWindow('A');return false;"><span class="gcpaddrlink"><strong></strong></a></strong></span>
170042		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170042		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cape Province, South Africa (Stebbing 1902); Valdivia Bank, Namibia; Ile Saint-Paul, French Southern and Antarctic Lands; and New Zealand&#160;(Holthuis 1991). A larval specimen has also been taken from New South Wales, Australia (Holthuis 1991). This species has also been found on seamounts along the Kermadec Ridge (A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009).
170042		habitat	eng	This species has been collected on muddy substrates with coral and rock at a depth range of 370 - 841 m (Holthuis 1991), however this species is most abundant on steep-sided volcanic seamounts (A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009).
170042		population	eng	This species is locally abundant on suitable seamounts (A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009). Video transects indicate it to be found every 20 m in some areas (NIWA <span style="font-style: italic;">unpublished data, </span>A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009).
170042		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species and there is no targeted fishery for this species.
170043		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170043		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution through the Indo-pacific, ranging from the east coast of Africa, to Iles Glorieuses, Comoro Islands, Japan, Indonesia, and New Caledonia (Chan and Yu 1995). There is also a new record from the Maldives (de Bruin 1995).
170043		habitat	eng	This species is known from deep reef slopes at a depth range of 205 - 670 m (Chan and Yu 1995).
170043		population	eng	This is a rare species (Chan and Yu 1995).
170043		threats	eng	There are no threats impacting this species.
170044		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170044		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Atlantic between the Faroe Islands and Namibia (61ºN and 24ºS). Records of the species from the Indo-West Pacific region are thought to probably refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Nephropsis sulcata</span> (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>The type locality of this species is thought to be 'Knight Errant' Station 30 in the Faroe Channel (59º33'N 7º14'W) at a depth of 1,015 m (Holthuis 1991).
170044		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species can be found in muddy, sand, rock, and coral substrate at depths ranging from 470-1,804 m, but most commonly between 900-1,400 m (Holthuis 1991). <br/></p>
170044		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170044		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170046		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the impact of harvesting and other possible threats is recommended.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the landings and catch per unit effort is needed.
170046		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Cape Verde Islands (Holthuis 1991).
170046		habitat	eng	This species is found on steep slopes and rocky bottoms at a depth range of 50-300 m (Holthuis 1991).
170046		population	eng	A fishery for this species was attempted in the 1960s, but the returns were poor (typically two lobsters per pot per day). Longhurst (1970) reported landings of 10-20 tonnes, with the potential for 1,000 tonnes including other species. There was also a considerable loss of lobster pots on the rough bottom (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>There is small fishery for this lobster in existence; in 1976 there was a catch of 50 tonnes reducing to 35 tonnes in 1999. This constitutes an approximate 30% decline in landings over this time period. There is no subsequent information on catch data (Groeneveld <em>et al.</em> 2006 in Phillips 2006).
170046		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by over-exploitation given its small distribution around the Cape Verde Islands.
170047		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed. &#160;Research in to this species' population, ecology and life history, distribution, and possible threats is needed to better understand this species.
170047		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mozambique and Somalia (Holthuis 1991).
170047		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep reef slopes, and so far is known from a depth range of 59 - 406 m (Holthuis 1991, Chan and Yu 1995).
170047		population	eng	This is a rare species (Chan and Yu 1995). This species is only known from a few specimens.
170047		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is impacted by any major threats.
170048		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170048		distribution	eng	This species has a broad geographic range from Japan south to Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and west to India and Madagascar (Chan and Yu 1995).
170048		habitat	eng	This species is known from rocky habitats, and deep reef slopes (Holthuis 1991, Chan and Yu 1995). It has been collected from a depth range of 71 - 118 m (Chan and Yu 1995).
170048		population	eng	This is a rare species (Chan and Yu 1995).
170048		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species. A couple of individuals are taken in lobster pots each year off the coast of Japan. These are considered of high value and kept for the aquarium trade (Chan and Yu 1995).
170049		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170049		distribution	eng	This species has a broad geographic range: It is currently known from the Arabian coast of the Red Sea; Mauritius; Phuket in Thailand; Ryukyu Island in Japan; Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia; Kiriwina Islands in Papua New Guinea; Savo Island in the Solomon Islands; Ifaluk in the Caroline Islands; Hawaiian Islands. Additionally, larvae and juveniles have been found off East Africa; Natal in South Africa; New Caledonia; New Hebrides; Tuamotu Islands (Holthuis 1991).
170049		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from coral reefs and marine caves at a depth range of 9 - 27 m (Holthuis 1991). It is a cryptic, nocturnal species (Titgen and Fielding 1986).
170049		population	eng	This species is rare but this might be due to its cryptic nature (Titgen and Fielding 1986).
170049		threats	eng	There is no directed commercial fishery for this species due to its rarity. It is occasionally taken in gill nets and by hand (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>This species may be locally impacted by threats to its habitat including destructive fishing practices, coastal pollution and development, storms, and tourism but there is currently no information to substantiate this and these are likely to only trigger localised declines.
170050		conservation	eng	The North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF) is managed under a limited entry policy. Seven permits are granted, and several restrictions are placed on vessels: only one vessel is allowed on a permit at any one time, vessels cannot tranship product to another vessel, and vessels are only allowed to use trawling methods (Lynch and Garvey 2005).<br/><br/>It is recommended that populations of this species population and harvest levels continue to be monitored, and if declines continue then stricter controls on trawling are imposed.
170050		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern Indian Ocean region off the west and south coasts of Australia: from Port Hedland to Eucla in the Great Australian Bight (Holthuis 1991, Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
170050		habitat	eng	This species lives in mud or mud/rubble substrates at depths of 300-500 m (Holthuis 1991, Poore 2004). This species diet is largely comprised of fish (Wassenberg and Hill 1989). It is a strongly K-selected species, reaching maturity after three to five years, and living for up to 12 years (Rainer 1992). Females spawn annually, producing 100-900 larvae per brood (DEH 2004).
170050		population	eng	This species was the most common of the four <span style="font-style: italic;">Metanephrops </span>species occuring off the northwest coast of Australia (George 1983). However, recent fisheries data suggest scampi populations might be declining, as both annual catch and catch per unit effort (CPUE) have decreased since the fishery opened in 1985 (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft, A.B. MacDiarmid and R.A. Wahle pers. comm.. 2008).
170050		threats	eng	In the past this species was largely unexploited off the northwest Australian coast, partly due to its smaller size (compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Metanephrops </span>species) which made it less marketable (Wallner and Phillips 1988). Holthuis (1991) stated that "more exploration [into fisheries potential of this species] remains necessary".<br/><br/>It is now a target species in the North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF), which may constitute a threat due to its slow life history (three to five years to maturity, six to eight years to attain commercial size, extended incubation period, and relatively small annual broods), meaning that sustainable yields are likely to be low (DEH 2004, Lynch and Garvey<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2005).<br/><br/>Data collected by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority suggest that populations of this species are declining due to commercial trawling, although the severity of decline is unknown (Lynch and Garvey 2005). Fishing effort has decreased in recent years since peaking in the late 1980s, which may be allowing populations to recover. There appears to be no evidence of the fishery being "mined" (vessels continually moving to new areas of high abundance and depleting stocks locally, until the entire fishery has been exploited to such an extent that a sudden collapse may occur). The size frequency distribution of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Metanephrops </span>species has not changed significantly over the period of exploitation (Lynch and Garvey 2005); this suggests that vessels are not having to shift their targets towards a greater number of smaller individuals due to over-harvesting of mature lobsters.
170051		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;
170051		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chilean coast between Huasco, in the state of Atacama and Constitución, in the state of Maule. It is also known from lslas Desventuradas, and near Juan Fernandez Islands (George 1976, Holthuis 1991).
170051		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy mud and gravel substrates (Holthuis 1991) at a depth range of 175 - 550 m .
170051		population	eng	This species is abundant in parts of its range (Báez and Ruiz 1985).
170051		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. It is taken as by-catch in a number of shrimp fisheries, but it is not a targeted species. There is interest in a potential commercial fishery of this species (Weinborn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
170052		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170052		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed in the western Atlantic, including&#160;<st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city>Florida, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Bermuda, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the US Virgin Islands (Holthuis 2006, Palomares and Pauly 2009). The larvae of this species has been found in the 'Bermuda triangle' area which includes Bermuda, the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">the United States </st1:country-region>from North Carolina to south Florida, the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bahamas</st1:country-region> and the north of <st1:place w:st="on">Puerto Rico</st1:place> (Holthuis 1991). In the Bermuda area - 22°50' to 33°02'N and 64°33' to 78°27'W.</p><p>This species has many synonyms and therefore many different type localities. The type locality for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scyllarides guineensis</span> is the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region>, <st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place>. However, as the species has not been reported from West Africa before or since, there is some doubt about the correctness of this type location.<br/> The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sculptus</span> is not known, but the holotype is labelled 'Méditerranée' which is likely to be incorrect.<br/> The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sculptus bermudensis </span>is <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> (Holthuis 1991).<br/> <br/> </p>
170052		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the outer reefs. The larvae are planktonic, and have been found at depths from 0 m up to 400 m (Holthuis 1991, Holthuis 2006).
170052		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species. However, Holthuis (2006) describes this species as "very rare and difficult to obtain... it may have a range much wider than we know it now".
170052		threats	eng	<p>    </p>There are no known major threats to this species.  <p></p>
170053		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170053		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Indonesia and Australia, from the Coral Sea off Queensland west to Melville Island off Western Australia (Holthuis 1991, Chan 1997).
170053		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths from 260-480 m (Poore 2004), in soft sediments such as fine mud (Holthuis 1991). It is thought that this species is not solitary (Holthuis 1991). Spawning occurs later with this species than with other Australian scampi, possibly due to its distribution in the far north of the fishery and in the shallowest depth zone (Wallner and Philips 1995).
170053		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170053		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species. It does not appear to be a major target species in either Australian or Indonesian scampi fisheries (Wallner and Phillips 1995, Chan 1998, Sumiono 2009).
170054		conservation	eng	The only management measure in place for this species is the prohibition of retaining berried females (Haddy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Further research is recommended on this species to clarify fishing landings and effort in order to monitor population trends.
170054		distribution	eng	This species is known from Japan, Republic of Korea, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, and the east and west coasts of Australia (Holthuis 1991).
170054		habitat	eng	This species can be found on soft and rocky substrates at a depth range of 30-318 m (Holthuis 1991), where it feeds on bivalves, gastropods, scaphopods, crustaceans&#160;and foraminiferans (Wassenberg and Hill 1989).<br/><br/>Mature females of this species off Queensland can reach 59-104.3 mm (CL) with a fecundity of 20,000-100,000 eggs (Haddy<em> et al.</em> 2004).
170054		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
170054		threats	eng	This species is commercially harvested as a food source. The main fishery is found off Townsville (restricted to a small well-defined area of about 70 x 20 km), Queensland, though it is also taken as by-catch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Haddy <em>et al.</em> 2004). Since 2000, there has been a reported decline in the catch of this species from the Townsville fishery (Haddy<em> et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>This species is also harvested around Japan, Taiwan, Korea, China and the Philippines, but due to the low density of this species in these areas, it is not taken in large quantities (Holthuis 1991).
170055		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;&#160; <br/></p>
170055		distribution	eng	This species is known from East Africa, specifically from the Red Sea to Mozambique, including northern Madagascar, Comoros and Socotra (Holthuis 1991). It is also found in the South China Sea, from Taiwan to the Philippines and Indonesia (Holthuis 1991). Other places where this species is known include Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and China (Holthuis 1991). This species can be found off northern Queensland, Australia and Tamil Nadu, India (Holthuis 1991).
170055		habitat	eng	This species is found between 20 and 60 metres, although occasionally at 100 to 200 metres (Holthuis 1991). It perfers mud or sand substrates, that can contain 'coral, shell grit or rubble' (Holthuis 1991).
170055		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
170055		threats	eng	<p>This species is occassionally taken as by-catch but this poses no major threat to this broadly distributed species.<br/></p>
170056		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been listed by the Council of Europe as a protected species in the <a name="debut">Convention on the Conservation </a>of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Council of Europe 1979). Further research into the population demographics and potential threats is suggested as these data are lacking. &#160;<br/></p>
170056		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the throughout the Mediterranean&#160;(Lindley&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2004);&#160;as well as the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands and Madeira (Holthuis 1991).
170056		habitat	eng	This species is found between 5 and 100 metres (Holthuis 1991). This species lives on sandy and coralline substrates and <span style="font-style: italic;">Caurlerpa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span> beds in the Mediterranean.
170056		population	eng	<p>There is no overall population information available for this species. This is a common species and is captured in trawl fisheries.&#160;</p>
170056		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, this species has experienced a local decline in Cape Creus, Spain, where it was previously caught in small quantities, but now it is considered to be 'very rare' (Linares 2008 in Lloret and Riera 2008).</p>
170057		conservation	eng	Further research on this species is required, including: population demographics, life history and ecology, and possible threats. &#160;Additionally further information is needed on harvest levels of the fishery, and any management restrictions currently in place. &#160;It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and monitoring of catch-per-unit-effort is carried out, to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future.
170057		distribution	eng	This species is known from Easter Island and Pitcairn Island in the Southern Ocean (Holthuis 1991); and the Austral Islands, French Polynesia (Carpenter and Niem 1998, Poupin 2003).
170057		habitat	eng	This species can be found hiding in rocky crevices at a depth range of 0 - 5 m (Holthuis 1991).
170057		population	eng	Specific population information on this species is unavailable. There are no FAO data on catches of this species.<br/>This species is harvested at Easter Island and the Pitcairn Islands. These are small scale fisheries that harvest lobsters by means of spears, hand, pots and gill nets (Holthuis 1991). Population numbers of this species are said to have been severely reduced in recent years as a result of harvesting (DiSalvo and Randall 1993).<br/>    <p>&#160;</p>
170057		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by over-exploitation, however there is no information currently available to substantiate this.
170059		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on population demographics and possible threats is needed as these data are lacking.
170059		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Central Pacific Ocean, from Kapingamarangi (Federated states of Micronesia) through to the Marquesas, including Marshall, Gilbert and Phoenix Islands (Holthuis 1991). This species is endemic to the South Pacific (UNEP-WCMC 2009).
170059		habitat	eng	This species occurs in or near reefs in shallow waters, and has a maximum body (carapace) length of approximately 15cm (Holthius 1991).
170059		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170059		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">While there is no specific data available on this species, the rest of the genus is harvested at a subsistence scale for food, so it is likely that this species is also taken (Holthuis 1991).<br/></p>
170060		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>
170060		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Caribbean Sea off the coast of Central and northern South America, from Belize to Colombia (16º58' to 9º24'N, 76º3 1.5' to 87º53'W) (Holthuis 1991). The type locality for this species is off the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua (12º25'N 82º15'W) at a depth of 546-582 m (Holthuis 1991).
170060		habitat	eng	This deep sea species is found on muddy ocean bottoms (Holthuis 1991), at a depth range of 455-728 m.
170060		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170060		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/><p><br/></p>
170061		conservation	eng	<p>This species is harvested throughout its range, but the management strategies vary between countries.   A management strategy for this species need to be developed and enforced to maintain or rebuild the population to a sustainable level. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and monitoring of CPUE to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future.<br/></p>  <p><strong>Mexico</strong></p>  <p>The fishing season varies from 5-7 months depending on the region (Briones-Fourzan and Lozano-Alvarez 1992), and the harvesting of ovigerous females is forbidden (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further research in this area is required to determine how harvest levels are affecting the Mexican populations of this species.</p>    <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Galapagos</span></p>  <p>The Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) Management Plan agreed a Provisional Zonation Scheme in 2000: This scheme divides the GMR into three zones: coastal, open water and port areas. In the coastal zone, fishing is permitted in 78 % of the area, with the remaining 22 % made up of several no-take areas and tourist sites (Hearn 2008). </p>  <p>The GMR Management Plan also includes a Five Year Fishing Calendar (2002?2006), which provides regulations for the lobster and sea cucumber fisheries and sets research priorities for all fisheries (Hearn 2008). &#160;The Fishing Calendar identifies indicators with threshold values below which corrective measures must be taken. These are: closure of areas, reduction in effort, and a global quota not greater than 31 tonnes of lobster tails when overall catch per unit effort (CPUE) drops below a threshold of 5.8 kg per diver day (Hearn 2008).</p>  <p>The three main sets of regulations for the lobster fishery are: </p>  <ul><li>A fishing season of 4 months extending      from September to December (Briones-Fourzan      and Lozano-Alvarez 1992)</li><li>A minimum landing size of 26 cm      total length (Hearn 2008)</li><li>A ban on landing      ovigerous female lobsters (Guzman <em>et      al.</em> 2008)</li></ul>  <p>However, despite these efforts, it is clear that the fisheries management system has failed. There is a growing awareness in the community that a shared vision for the GMR is required. A new fisheries management plan is currently under construction, with the participation of the fishing sector, Galapagos National Park Service, Charles Darwin Foundation, the provincial planning authority (INGALA) and the National Fisheries Institute (Hearn 2008).</p>  <p>If this new strategy maintains effectiveness, then this should help to sustain the GMR populations of this species.</p>  <p><strong>Panama</strong></p>  <p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region> the fishing season is open year round, although the harvesting of ovigerous females is forbidden (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p>Basic information about the life history of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region> populations - necessary for making management decisions - has never been obtained. This has not deterred the enactment of laws governing this species. Executive Decree No. 15 (March 1981), established a minimum capture length of 6 cm carapace length (CL) based on the assumption that this was the size of individuals that had reproduced at least once during their lifetime. However, a recent study of a similar <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> species, <em>Panulirus argus</em>, showed that all individuals with 6 cm CL were immature. This law therefore potentially provides no spawning protection to this species in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008). </p><p>From the information gathered in their study, Guzman&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2008) recommend the implementation of a minimum capture length of 8.4 cm CL; a fishing season no longer than 6 months; management decisions involving local fishermen and native peoples; no-take areas; and long-term monitoring plans. They believe that having these measures in place would be the best current option to insure the long term sustainability of the stocks of this species in the&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;region (Guzman<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).</p>  <p>The biggest archipelagos in Pacific Panama, Las Perlas and Coiba, were declared as protected areas in 2007 and 2004, respectively. This protection should commit them to the regulation of all fisheries within these areas (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p><br/></p>
170061		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Pacific from Baja California in Mexico, down to Paita in Peru, including the Galapagos Islands (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>The type locality of this species is the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico (Holthuis 1991).
170061		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal species can tolerate a wide range of turbidity, and inhabits both rocky and gravel-sand bottoms, found in depths of < 1 m to approximately 40 m (Briones-Fourzan and Lozano-Alvarez 1992). This species is a habitat generalist and has a diet consisting mainly of molluscs, but also worms, small crustaceans, and algae (Briones-Fourzan and Lozano-Alvarez 2003, Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>           <p>Ovigerous females occur throughout the year, and have been found to be capable of 3-4 broods in a single year (Briones-Fourzan and Lozano-Alvarez 1992, Quackenbush 1994). Briones-Fourzan and Lozano-Alvarez (1992) report that the smallest ovigerous female they found measured 4.9 cm carapace length (CL), and that small lobsters (< 6 cm CL) had a shorter spawning season and started reproducing later than larger females (> 7 cm CL). Females between 6.5 and 8 cm CL had the highest index of reproductive potential, due to their highest numbers in the population and their number of broods per year (Briones-Fourzan and Lozano-Alvarez 1992). The maximum total body length is 32 cm (males) and 30 cm (females) (Holthuis 1991).<br/></p><p>Seasonally, this species migrates between deep and shallow waters. This may be to forage, or to search for refuge and optimum conditions to reproduce, or it may be in response to disturbances such as hurricanes and storms. In the northern hemisphere, this species migrates to coastal shallow waters in November and December and remains there until May (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
170061		population	eng	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p>Specific population information on this species is unavailable. There is no FAO data on catches of this species. From information known, this species is most likely over-exploited by legal and illegal harvesting throughout its range and the population will have decreased substantially from its original biomass (M. Butler, A. Cockcroft and A. McDiarmid pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>In a study by Guzman <em>et al.</em> (2008) in Las Perlas and Coiba Archipelagos, Panama, it was found that the number of surveyed lobsters was "shockingly low" for both archipelagos and average densities were "dismal" (4.1 ± 8.8 ind./ha and 5.3 ± 7.6 ind./ha, respectively). Using these values, Guzman <em>et al.</em> (2008) presented rough extrapolations of population sizes, equalling approximately 90,200 lobsters for Las Perlas and approximately 130,700 lobsters for Coiba. These abundances are probably underestimates, as new recruits are often missed in visual surveys on reefs and rocky areas. &#160;These projected population size estimates amount to only about 23-24% of the total production of lobsters from both coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 2005, assuming each lobster weighs on average 1 kg (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>    <p>    </p><p><strong>Galapagos Fishery</strong></p><p></p><p>Historically, spiny lobster landings have fluctuated (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007). The Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) lobster fishery experienced its worst year during the 1997-1998 El Niño event, when catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) dropped to its lowest historical value (5.8 kg per diver day) and total catch was 31 tonnes of tails. However, there were signs of significant recovery over subsequent years, so the 1998 values were adopted from then on as precautionary threshold levels (Hearn 2008). &#160;In the 2000 lobster-fishing season (Sept - Dec), the set quota was reached by 31 October. This was much earlier than anticipated and was the result of a huge increase in the fishing effort in comparison with the 1999 season (73 % increase in active fishers and 107 % in fishing vessels).&#160;After 2001, catches and CPUE declined steadily each year until 2004, when CPUE dropped to 4.6 kg per diver day. Corrective measures were not taken and CPUE dropped further in 2005 (Hearn 2008). CPUE data presented in graph form by Hearn (2008) for  and <em>Panulirus gracilis</em> together show ~55% decline between 1995 and 2005.&#160;</p><p>In recent years catches have declined steadily from a maximum of 85 tonnes of lobster tails in 2000, to 34.3 tonnes in 2005, causing increased concern over the sustainability of the fishery in the long term and the effectiveness of the current management strategy (Hearn and Toral-Granda 2007).</p><p>Other indicators which point to the decline in Spiny Lobster species include:</p><ul><li>The size structure of lobster landings has shifted 4 cm towards smaller sizes between 1978 and 2005 (Hearn 2008).</li><li>The percentage of undersized lobsters landed in the catch has increased and now exceeds 30 % (Hearn 2008).</li><li>Although it is prohibited, a significant amount of ovigerous females are landed during the harvesting season, and there is widespread practice of scrubbing (removing the eggs from the pleopods) (Hearn 2008).</li></ul><p></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>
170061		threats	eng	<p>The biggest threat faced by this species is over-exploitation:&#160;In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region>, there are already signs that this species has been over-harvested (Guzman <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>    <p>In the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR), the main threat to this species is the lack of a coordinated harvest management strategy. The human population in the Galapagos is relatively young and is increasing rapidly. The community is characterised by a vicious cycle of rapid expansion, overcapitalization and overexploitation of natural resources. There is no shared vision for sustainable use of island resources (Hearn 2008). Political instability has weakened the institutions charged with the administration of the islands, and the promise of unrestricted fisheries is a guaranteed vote winner. &#160;As a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the GMR has attracted attention from a range of foreign cooperation agencies and NGOs. However, efforts are not always coordinated, and fishing cooperatives have complained about unfulfilled promises (Hearn 2008).&#160;</p>
170062		conservation	eng	There are few restrictions on the harvest of this species. The few restrictions that do apply, such as minimum legal size, are poorly adhered to.<br/><br/>Further research on this species ecology is recommended. &#160;Management strategies for this species need to be developed and enforced to maintain or rebuild populations to a sustainable level. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and monitoring of CPUE to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future.
170062		distribution	eng	This species has a broad geographic range extending from East Africa to Japan including Indonesia, Australia, New Caledonia and the Marquesas Archipelago (Holthuis 1991).
170062		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in very shallow waters (1 - 15 m), although can be found to depths of 90 m. It utilises rocky reefs for shelter (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>In Kenyan waters, functional maturity in females is said to be attained at 5.05 cm (CL) while in males it is 5.75 cm (CL) (Kulmiye, Mavuti and Groeneveld 2006).
170062		population	eng	The main concentrations of this species are said to be off the coast of East Africa and Indonesia (Pollock 1993).<br/><br/>This species is harvested throughout much of its range, although it most commonly taken in Kenya, South Africa and Indonesia. Despite this species widespread nature, information on harvest rates, and species ecology and biology is lacking (Kulmiye and Mavuti 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Africa</strong><br/>It is the second most important lobster fishery in Kenya (Kulmiye and Mavuti 2005) and accounts for 32% of the catch (Kulmiye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). The Kenyan lobster fishery is artisinal with spears constituting the main fishing method (Kulmiye and Mavuti 2005). Annual harvest of <em>Panulirus</em> species (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. homarus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. longipes, P. ornatus, P. penicillatus and P. versicolor</span>) is approximately 70 tonnes.<br/><br/>In Somalia, the annual landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus</span> spp. is approximately 2,100 tonnes, of which this species constitutes the majority of the catch (Phillips and Melville-Smith 2006).<br/><br/>Along the coast of South Africa, this species comprises a significant portion of the intertidal lobster fishery where there is a subsistence and recreational fishery. The recreational fishery is said to harvest approximately 150 tonnes per year (Cockcroft and Payne 1999). Due to poor enforcement, fishing of individuals below the minimum legal size of 65 mm (CL) is common (Fielding&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>1994).&#160;<br/><strong><br/>Asia</strong><br/>This species is the most important lobster fishery off India particularly around Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This is a commercial fishery; gear types include anchor hooks, traps and gill nets (Holthuis 1991) and trammel nets (Radhakrishnan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In the southwest coast fishery (mainly Colachel and Muttom) landings have decreased from a peak of 301 tonnes in 1966 to 4 tonnes in 2002 of which <span style="font-style: italic;">P. homarus</span> comprised 92% of the catch. In the southeast coast fishery (Kanyakumari to Chennai), the gillnet fishery of Kayalpattinam saw increases in catch from 42.2 tonnes (catch per unit effort = 6.5 kg/unit) in 1993, to 50.6 tonnes (catch per unit effort = 5.5 kg/unit) in 1994, however there has been a subsequent decline to only 4.4. tonnes (catch per unit effort = 1.1 kg/unit) in 2002. There was also an observed decline in the average length of caught individuals from 245 mm (TL) in 1978 to 145 mm (TL) in 2002, indicating growth overfishing. The other major gill net fishery in the south-east, Tharuvaikulam, has also seen notable declines from 11 tonnes (catch per unit effort = 1.1 kg/unit) in 1993, to 1.1 tonnes (catch per unit effort = 0.6 kg/unit) in 2002.&#160;<br/>This species is also harvested in Taiwan and Thailand (Holthuis 1991) although no data appears to be available on harvest rates or landings.
170062		threats	eng	Over-exploitation by fisheries is likely to be a localised threat to this species.
170063		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.</p>
170063		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution throughout the Indo-west Pacific region encompassing: Mauritius, Reunion and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean; south Honshu in Japan; New Caledonia; Tuamotu Islands; the Hawaiian Islands; Johnston Island and Easter Island (Johnson 1971, Holthuis 2006). It is likely that this species has a wider distribution than is currently known.<br/>The type locality for this species is a reef near to Coconut Island, Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii (Holthuis 1991).
170063		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found on the exposed areas and outer edges of coral reefs; hiding in rock cavities and caves during the daylight hours. This species is a scavenger and feeds on detritus (Holthuis 2006). This species has been found within a depth range of 5 - 50 metres.
170063		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170063		threats	eng	<p>As an inhabitant of coral reef, this species is susceptible to the indirect effects of coral bleaching from increased ocean temperatures and acidification. This could pose a potential future threat for this species. It is incidentally taken for the aquarium trade. At present this species is not considered to face any major threats.<br/></p>
170064		conservation	eng	The primary fishery for this species, the North West Slope trawl Fishery (NWSTF, which provides approximately 70% of Australia's scampi production) introduced permits in 1996 to limit entry after substantial declines in catch rates of target species (scampi and deep water prawns). AFMA (the Australian Fisheries Management Authority) issued a direction banning fishing in the northeast of the fishery for two years, in order to amend boundaries. This is likely to further impact populations of this species as fishing is targeted back towards scampi (Sampaklis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Monitoring of the abudance of this species is needed to ensure stock stability.
170064		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Phillippines down to eastern Indonesia (including the Kai and Tanimbar Islands) and Australia. In Australia it is found on the northeast coast of Queensland, and from the northwest coast of Western Australia south to the Great Australian Bight (Chan 1997, Poore 2004). Specimens were previously mistaken for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. andamanicus</span>, which has a more westerly distribution in Indonesia to the Indian Ocean (Chan and Yu 1991).
170064		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 240-700 m, and is most common at 350-450 m (Holthuis 1991). It makes deep burrows in soft sediment (Wallner and Phillips 1995). Furthermore, this species recruits to the fishery at + 4 years and can live up to 12 years (Wallner and Phillips 1995).
170064		population	eng	This is one of the most abundant lobster species off the northwest coast of Australia (Poore 2004).
170064		threats	eng	Non-selective exploitation, e.g. trawling, could lower the reproductive potential of the population to the point where recruitment is affected. This species has a low fecundity (like metanephropids), and females exhibit higher catchability after spawning which has in the past (Oct 1987) skewed sex ratios (Wallner and Phillips 1995). Trawling may also indirectly impact the larval and juvenile phases, which co-inhabit similar habitats to adults, through burrow destruction or removal of food species (Wallner and Phillips 1995). <br/><br/>Catch per unit effort (CPUE) in a small productive fishing ground&#160;–&#160;where this species was dominant&#160;–&#160;showed initial rapid declines (from 1984 when surplus standing stock was removed), before stabilizing at low levels by the end of 1989 (Wallner and Phillips 1995). Short-term increases over this period were apparently the result of reduced fishing effort, suggesting that this species may recover quicker than expected.<br/><br/>Anecdotal evidence from the industry suggested that the average size of Australian scampi had declined since the opening of the fishery; this contradicts a 2005 stock assessment (Lynch and Garvey 2005) which found no significant change in length-frequency distribution of this species. The 2005 assessment also showed a decline in CPUE (Lynch and Garvey 2005). This has not been updated as no assessment was conducted in 2008, and despite catch rates declining further there are no biomass estimates and the report concluded that "the overfishing status for scampi remains uncertain" (Sampaklis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><br/>However, although this species may be overfished within the Australian part of it s range, there is no evidence for it being impacted upon by any threats on a global level (M.J. Butler, A.C. Cockcroft, A.B. MacDiarmid and R.A. Wahle pers. comm. 2008).
170065		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170065		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kenya to Natal in South Africa (Holthuis 1991); the Sunda Shelf in the Straits of Malacca (Chan 1997, Ng 1992) and from Java and Indonesia (Wowor 1999).
170065		habitat	eng	This species is found on rough substrates with sand and mud at a depth range of 216 - 375 m (Holthuis 1991)
170065		population	eng	This species supports a commercial fishery in parts of its range, so is thought to be relatively common (Ivanov and Krylov 1980). In Indonesia, this species is not thought to be locally abundant, but occurs in sufficient quantities for it to appear in local markets (Wowor 1999).
170065		threats	eng	Apart from Tanzania, there is no known commercial fishery elsewhere within this species' range (Holthuis 1991). This species is not thought to be palatable and at present both the African fishery (excluding the commercial operation off Tanzania) and the Indonesian fishery are minor (Wowor 1999). The one commercial fishery off the coast of Tanzania may be causing local declines, although this is unlikely to be threatening the global population of this species.
170066		conservation	eng	<p>A management strategy for this species need to be developed and enforced to maintain or rebuild the population to a sustainable level. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected and monitoring of CPUE data initiated, to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future.</p>
170066		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Palinurus longipes longipes</span> is known from East Africa to Thailand, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Indonesia (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Palinurus longipes bispinosus</span> is known from Japan south through Micronesia to Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Cook Islands, New Caledonia and east coast Australia.
170066		habitat	eng	This species is known from rocky and coral reefs in shallow waters to a maximum depth of 18 m (Holthuis 1991), although it has also been reported at 122 m.&#160;<br/>The average total body length is between 20 and 25 cm, with a maximum 30 cm total body length (Holthuis 1991).
170066		population	eng	This species is said to be common (Gomez, Juinio and Bermas 1994). However specific population information on this species is lacking.&#160;<br/><br/>This species is harvested throughout much of its range, however most fisheries are artisinal in nature. Individuals are typically caught using spears, traps, tangle nets, and lobster pots (Holthuis 1991). &#160;<br/><br/>In the Philippines this species comprises 66% of the total lobster catch (Gomez and Juinio 1985). The subpopulations of this species are said to be 'small and over-exploited' (Gomez, Juinio and Bermas 1994).<br/> <br/>The reported annual landings for this species in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea are as follows:<br/>1997 - 1,082 tonnes; 1998 - 1,098 tonnes; 1999 - 1,166 tonnes;&#160; 2000 - 1,716 tonnes; 2001 - 1,924 tonnes;&#160; 2002 -1,782 tonnes; 2003 - 2,082 tonnes (FISHSTAT Plus 2000), which shows an overall increase between 1997 and 2003; however as this information does not account for effort it cannot be inferred that the population of <em>Panulirus longipes</em> in this region is stable or increasing.<br/><br/>From information known, this species is most likely over-exploited by legal and illegal harvesting in parts of its range.
170066		threats	eng	Over-exploitation poses a localised threat only. There are no known widespread threats to this species.
170067		conservation	eng	The fishery for this species was closed in 2000, upon the creation of the Northwest Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Were it to re-open in the future - which is conditional on the recovery of lobster populations - several management practices should be put in place. The first of these is a minimum size limit, as past "retain all" policies, introduced in 1996 to reduce discard, were detrimental to populations of this species. DeMartini<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2003) recommend a larger limit than the previous 50 mm used until 1996, in order to protect smaller females which are now the primary egg-producers. This may help to counter recruitment overfishing (DeMartini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).<br/><br/>Necker Island is an important focus for stock recovery efforts, as it is thought to be an important source of larvae for the rest of the fishery. This tallies with a novel metapopulation-based approach to the fishery (DiNardo and Marshall 2001), based on the premise that "overfishing or depletion of local populations could<br/>result in catastrophic impacts to the population as a whole (e.g. a reduction in average recruitment or recruitment failure), particularly when a large number of local populations or the most productive populations are overfished". This calls for the collection of higher-quality population data, which is being addressed by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu Laboratory (NMFS-HL) in the form of a research and monitoring plan.
170067		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Hawaii, including the Northwest Hawaiian Islands (Holthuis 1991).
170067		habitat	eng	"Shallow water" under rocks and crevices on rocky bottoms, according to Holthuis (1991), although it has been recorded as deep as 143 m. This species is nocturnal. Although longevity and age at maturity are not known for this species, inference from similar species (e.g., the Caribbean Spiny Lobster <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus argus</span>) suggests a longevity of up to 20 years and sexual maturity at around four years.<br/><br/>Changes in recruitment levels for this species are related to Pacific sea levels four years earlier (Polovina and Mitchum 1992<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).
170067		population	eng	In the past there were striking contrasts in abundance between different Hawaiian islands; e.g., Maro Reef adjusted landings were more than 300 times those from Lisianski Island, despite both being of similar size and depth and only 330 km apart (Parrish and Polovina 1994). This suggests a highly heterogeneous population structure for this species, determined partly by habitat topography. Generally catches were lowest on banks with summits deeper than 30 m (Parrish and Polovina 1994).<br/><br/>In&#160;<st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Hawaii,</st1:place></st1:state></st1:place></st1:state>&#160;there has been a commercial lobster fishery in operation in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) since the mid-to late 1970s - with a one year closure in 1993 - primarily targeting this species and the Blunt Slipper Lobster (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scyllarides squammosus</span><em><em></em></em>)&#160;(Pooley and Kawamoto 1998). &#160;Catches showed large year-to-year fluctuations, but despite this, it is Hawaii's most valuable demersal fishery (Parrish and Polovina 1994). Two banks: Necker Island and Maro Reef, were the focus of especially high fishing effort after 1980, with subsequent declines in catch per unit effort (CPUE: 37 and 68 % respectively of 1977 and 1987 levels). There was also a significant shift towards decreasing carapace length in the same period (Polovina 1989).<br/><br/>Fivefold declines in CPUE were observed at Necker Bank through the late 1980s and 1990s, both for commercial catch-per-trap haul and in research landings of all size groups (including juveniles) (DeMartini&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2003). This occurred simultaneously with increasing size-specific fecundity, a compensatory response consistent with decreases in median body size at sexual maturity (DeMartini&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2003). The result of this was that egg production was dominated by smaller females, partly due to the poor representation of large females in the population (DeMartini&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2003).<br/><br/>As landings of all species were showing declines, in 2000 the NWHI fishery was closed as a precautionary measure due to increasing uncertainty of the population models used to assess stock status. Later on that year the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was established which may prohibit commercial lobster fishing in the NWHI indefinitely (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). For catch data from the NWHI fishery whilst it was in operation see DiNardo and Moffitt (2007).<br/><br/>CPUE data for this species from 1983 (mature lobster landings/trap hauls; data from DiNardo and Marshall 2001):<br/>1983 - 2.47; 1984 - 1.83; 1985 - 0.96; 1986 - 0.65; 1987 - 0.49; 1988 - 1.06; 1989 - 0.88; 1990 - 0.50; 1991 - 0.44; 1992 - 0.36; 1993 - closed; 1994 - 0.51; 1995 - 0.55 (experimental fishery); 1996 - 1.07; 1997 - 0.79; 1998 - 0.40; 1999 - 0.31; 2000 - fishery closed.<br/><br/>This suggests an approximately 87 % decline in CPUE between 1983 and 1999 across the NWHI fishery. Surveys at&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Necker</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;showed a drop in CPUE of 80 % between 1988 and 1999, with that of 2-year old lobsters declining by 85 % over the same period, suggesting recruitment to the fishery is also suffering. Data from other Hawaiian islands (e.g.,&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Laysan Island</st1:place>) also show steep CPUE declines (DiNardo and Marshall 2001).
170067		threats	eng	The NWHI fishery has been closed since 2000 and a protected area now covers this species' distribution, therefore there are no current threats impacting this species. &#160;Previous declines in catch per unit effort (CPUE) of over 80 % have been recorded for this species between 1983 and 1999&#160;(DiNardo and Marshall 2001), which had knock-on effects in relation to fecundity&#160;(DeMartini&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2003),&#160;but there is no information to indicate this has had a long-term impact on the species.
170068		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further surveys of this species are needed to better understand distribution, abundance and possible threats.
170068		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Philippines and the Australian part of the Timor Sea.
170068		habitat	eng	The species lives on firm, muddy substrates on slopes at depths of 150-300m.
170068		population	eng	This species is known from 17 specimens from two locations. There is no population information available. The first specimen was caught in a trawl from the research ship the Albatross in 1908, but not described until 1975. There were surveys carried out to try to catch the species again in the Timor Sea in 1978, and three specimens were found. Surveys in the Philippines in 2007 could not find any (P. Ng pers. comm. 2009).
170068		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. Deep water trawling vessels in the Philippines may be a threat, though there is not a high level of trawling at the present time. This species appears to be very localised which makes it more susceptible to threats.
170069		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170069		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific region including: the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and areas around <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Holthuis 1991). It is likely that this species has a wider distribution than is currently known, which may include areas in the South China Sea and the Philippines (R.A. Wahle pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>  <p>The type locality of this species is 'Investigator' Station 162 in the <st1:place w:st="on">Bay of Bengal</st1:place> (13º51'12'N 80º28'12'E) at depths of 265-457 m (Holthuis 1991).</p>
170069		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits a muddy substrate (Holthuis 1991), at a depth range of 200-500 m. <br/></p>
170069		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170069		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
170070		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170070		distribution	eng	This species is found from Okinawa Island in the Ryukyu Islands off Japan (Komai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005); Taiwan; the South China Sea; Port Hedland in Western Australia (Holthuis 1991) and east coast Australia (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and Arts 2009).
170070		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft muddy substrates, and in the crevices of limestone rocks at depths of 200 - 600 m (Holthuis 1991, Komai <em>et al</em>. 2005).
170070		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
170070		threats	eng	There is no known commercial fishery for this species, although there is potential for development owing to the accessible depths at which this species can be found (Holthuis 1991).
170071		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170071		distribution	eng	This species is known along the Western Atlantic region, from Florida to Bahia, north east Brazil (including the island of Fernando de Noronha, and the states of Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Alagoas, and Espírito Santo) (Holthuis 1991; Tavares 2002). This species is also distributed along the mainland coast of the Caribbean Sea, and the West Indian Islands (Hothuis 1991) and the western Caribbean islands (Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca 2004). This species is also distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region from east and southeast Africa, to Hawaii and Polynesia (including: India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the&#160;Philippines, and Melanesia) (Holthuis 1991).
170071		habitat	eng	This species occurs between 0-20 metres deep, in coral and stone reefs, with a sandy bottom habitat. It is nocturnal and is often found hiding in crevices during the daytime, occasionally in small groups (Holthuis 1991).
170071		population	eng	This species is considered 'rare' by Coutures (2001). &#160;Additionally&#160;Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca (2004) state this species to be rare in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Western Caribbean in adult form.
170071		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The main threat to this species is that of harvesting for food. However this is not a targeted fishery, and most specimens are taken incidentally within the Spiny Lobster fishery so this is unlikley to pose a signifcant threat to the population.<br/></p>
170072		conservation	eng	In South Africa there are a number of fishery management measures including a closed season from 1st June to 15th November; minimum size limit of 75 mm (CL) for commercial fishermen and 80 mm (CL) for recreational fishermen; prohibition of retaining berried females; inspection of landings; recreational bag limits; Total Allowable Catch; restricted fishing zones. Total Allowable Catch (TAC) limits steadily declined in response to declining stock (FAO 2001), but the TAC&#160; have now stabilised. Additionally its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas where dense populations are found with full size range (reference?).
170072		distribution	eng	This species is found around southern Africa, from Cape Cross in Namibia to Algoa Bay in Cape Province, South Africa (Holthuis 1991). The bulk of the population is found from Cape Point to Luderitz in Namibia.
170072		habitat	eng	This species is found at a depth range of 5-200 m on rocky bottoms. They are typically found in deep crevices (Pollock 1979). It's diet includes a mix of mussels, barnacles, small molluscs and crustaceans (Barkai and Branch 1988).<br/><br/>Female age at maturity is estimated at five years (Pollock 1986). Longevity is approximately 30-40 years (A.C. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
170072		population	eng	There is no specific population data for this species, however, it is considered common and abundant and&#160;is of significant commercial importance, being harvested as a food source using lobster pots and hoop nets (Holthuis 1991).
170072		threats	eng	Over-exploitation was a previous threat which caused 60-70 % declines in the past. However, the fisheries are now well managed, in an attempt to increase the biomass (reference?).<br/><br/>Environmental fluctuations is another possible threat resulting in decreased settlement of post-larvae and pre-recruit growth (reference?).<br/><br/>Another threat is sperm limited fertilisation due to the skewed sex ratio in the fished population (reference?).
170073		conservation	eng	<p>The following fishery management measures are in place to ensure sustainable practices (The Department of Fisheries 2004):&#160;</p><p></p><ul><li>From 1993-1994 a period of 2.5 months has been set at the start of the open season when a minimum size limit of 77 mm is in place to allow immature lobsters a chance to migrate and mature.</li><li>It is illegal to take mature females when in breeding condition, when carrying eggs or tar spots (sperm packets)</li><li>Pot size and number are regulated, as well as escape gaps (54 mm) to allow immature individuals to escape. &#160;Hours when, and depths at which, pots are pulled to the surface are regulated.</li><li>Any new technology that may enhance fishing efforts and increase exploitation (such as underwater video cameras) must be assessed and approved.</li></ul>Research regarding this fishery includes: computer models of the lobster fishery used as the basis for catch prediction and stock management; commercial catch monitoring (Abrolhos Fremantle, Lancelin, Jurien and Dongara sites); and the study of egg production, peurelus (between larvae and&#160;juvenile) settelment and age at maturity (The Department of Fisheries 2004).<p></p><p>The Department of Fisheries staff act as advisers to the Rock Lobster Industry Advisory Committee&#160;(RLIAC) and there is close consultation between this body, the Department of Fisheries, the fishing industry and the Minister on the status of the rock lobster fishery. Public submissions are welcomed and considered by the RLIAC (The Department of Fisheries 2004). &#160;Continued monitoring will ensure the population of this species is sustained, and prevent over-exploitation.</p><p>In 2000, the fishery was awarded the Marine Stewardship Council certificate for operating in an ecologically sustainable way.</p>
170073		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the coast of Western Australia, from Northwest Cape to Hamelin Harbour including offshore islands (Holthuis 1991).
170073		habitat	eng	This species can be found sheltering in vegetated rocky reefs and coral reefs at a depth range of 0 - 120 m, although is more commonly found to depths of 90 m (Holthuis 1991).
170073		population	eng	There are no detailed population data for this species. &#160;It has been said to be an abundant species in areas of suitable habitat, with the Western Australia Rock Lobster fisheries catching over 10,000 mt annually (Holthuis 1991).<br/><p><u><br/></u></p>
170073		threats	eng	This species is harvested throughout its range. &#160;Overall harvesting does not pose a threat to this species, however it does appear to be more vulnerable in some areas where exploitation is greatest (Caputi&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). &#160;Despite coastal development along Western Australia the species does not appear to impacted by this threat (The Fisheries Department 2004).<br/><p><u><br/></u></p>
170074		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is recommended on this species to clarify its population, distribution, and possible threats. &#160;</p>
170074		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in the Coral Sea, given as 'Marion Plateau, off Townsville, Queensland, Australia: 19º05.00'S, 149º26.75'E, 425 m (Holthuis 1991).
170074		habitat	eng	This species was collected at 452 metres (Holthuis 1991) from an unknown habitat.
170074		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
170074		threats	eng	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.</p>
170075		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;</p><p><br/></p><p></p>
170075		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic from South Carolina in the United States and Bermuda, down to São Paulo in southern Brazil. It includes the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea (Holthuis 1991).&#160;<br/>The type locality for this species is Jamaica (Holthuis 1991).
170075		habitat	eng	This species has a depth range of 0 to 180 m, but usually occurs between 1 and 64 m (Holthuis 1991). This nocturnal species shelters during the day and forages at night feeding on bivalves. It inhabits the outer reefs, demonstrating a preference for shelters located within complex, high-relief coral habitat, preferring to hang from the ceiling of the shelter rather than occupying the floor. This solitary species shows a high degree of den-fidelity (Lavalli <em>et al.</em> 2007, Sharp <em>et al.</em> 2007).
170075		population	eng	This species has been described as one of the most abundant non-predatory crevice-dwellers in a study on a Mexican coral reef (Lozano-Alvarez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). The phyllosomas of this species have recently been described as occurring in high densities along the Campeche Bank area of the Gulf of Mexico (Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca 2004).
170075		threats	eng	In the&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Florida Keys</st1:place>, this species makes up a small percentage of the by-catch in the Spiny Lobster (<em>Panulirus argus</em>) traps and collection by divers. However, this species is infrequently encountered, and during one season only 155 scyllarid lobsters were found in approximately 21,000 lobster traps sampled (Matthews&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005 in Sharp&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).&#160;<br/>It is suitable for human consumption, but is not fished on a large scale.&#160;<br/>As an inhabitant of coral reefs this species is susceptible to any damage to the reef caused by tourism and climate change.
170079		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the harvest levels and fishing effort is required.
170079		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippines (Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>It was previously also found from southern Japan, Taiwan and the South China Sea. However, Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) found this form to be highly genetically divergent from the Philippines form, and split them into two distinct species. The widely distributed form (formerly known as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. thomsoni</span>) is now called   <em>M. taiwanicus.</em>
170079		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy mud bottoms at depths of between 120-287 m (Wallner and Phillips 1995, Macpherson 1990).
170079		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170079		threats	eng	This species is harvested as a food source. The degree to which this is impacting the population is unknown.
170080		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170080		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the Indo-west Pacific region, to the western Indian Ocean (Holthuis 1991). It is also known from Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea and Western Australia (Holthuis 1991, Sekiguchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996) as well as New Caledonia (Coutures and Booth 2004), Tonga (Sekiguchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), and the Maldives (de Bruin 1995).
170080		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft substrates (mud or sand) at a depth range of 274-536 m (Holthuis 1991).
170080		population	eng	This species is considered to be abundant off the Maldives (de Bruin 1995).
170080		threats	eng	At present there is no targeted fishery for this species. It is taken as by-catch in some parts of its range. Attempts have been made to establish a fishery off Kenya, however these have ceased and no further attempts have been made. At present, the harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat to the population.
170081		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the levels of harvest.
170081		distribution	eng	This species is known from: Japan (specifically from Niigita on the west coast and Tokyo Bay on the east, Holthuis 1991), south coast of Korea, the South China Sea, Taiwan, east coast of the Philippines (Chan 1997).
170081		habitat	eng	This species can be found on soft substrates, such as sand, mud and clay at a depth range of 49 - 324 m (Holthuis 1991). It prefers salinities of 34 ppt and temperatures between 14<sup>o</sup>C and 24<sup>o</sup>C (Chen 1999).
170081		population	eng	Bürger, around the year 1830, noted that this species could be found on a daily basis in the&#160;fish-markets&#160;of Nagasaki and nearby areas (in Holthuis and Sakai 1970:112).&#160;<br/><br/>The landings of this species&#160; and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. novemdentatus</span> reported for Taiwan, are as follows (tonnes):<br/><br/>1989 - 663; 1990 - 310; 1991 - 389; 1992 - 514; 1993 - 456; 1994 - 236; 1995 - 1,224; 1996 - 1,115; 1997 - 642; 1997 - 642; 1998 - 696; 1999 - 676; 2000 - 1,600; 2001 - 1,607; 2002 - 1,005; 2003 - 1,637; 2004 - 1,596; 2005 - 1,553; 2006 - 1,570 (FISHSTAT Plus 2000).<br/><br/>Further species specific information is needed on whether the increases or decreases in the landings reflect changes in fishing effort, or population changes.
170081		threats	eng	This species is caught for human consumption (Holthuis 1991), but it is unknown what effect this is having on the population.
170082		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170082		distribution	eng	This species is distributed&#160; in the western Atlantic including the Bahamas, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, Tobago, and down to São Paulo, Brazil (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>The type locality for this species is 'Blake' Station 33, north of Yucatan Bank (24º01'N 88º58'W) at a depth of 2,560-2,870 m (Holthuis 1991).
170082		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species has a depth range of 878-2,560 m, but is most commonly found between 1,100-1,900 m (Tavares 2002). It inhabits muddy substrates (Tavares 2002).</p>
170082		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170082		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
170083		conservation	eng	To manage the harvesting of this species the following restrictions are in place: total allowable commercial catch for each individual catch, as well as gear restrictions, and minimum size limits&#160;(A. MacDiarmid and A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
170083		distribution	eng	This species is known from the continental shelf of the Tristan da Cunha Islands (Inaccessible Is., Tristan Is., Nightingale Is., and Gough Is.) and the Vema Seamount, in the Southern Ocean (Holthuis 1991).
170083		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky substrates, in kelp at a depth range of 0 - 200 m, although it is most commonly found between 20 - 40 m (Holthuis 1991).
170083		population	eng	This species is common within its range (A. MacDiarmid and A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2009).
170083		threats	eng	This species is harvested commercially; however, this is not believed to pose a threat to this species (Pollock <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
170085		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.</p><p>Further collections of this species are needed as little is known on its ecology or abundance.<br/></p>
170085		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western Atlantic in the southwest Caribbean Sea off Colombia and Panama (Holthuis 1991).<br/>The type locality for this species is 'Albatross' Station 2143, in the Gulf of Darien (Caribbean Sea), at a depth of 284 m (lat 9º30"45' N, long 76º25"30'W) (Holthuis 1991).
170085		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a soft substrate of mud or coralline rubble (Holthuis 1991). &#160;This species has been collected from a depth range of 230 - 360 m.
170085		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Holthuis (1991) described the species as scarce.
170085		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.<br/></p>
170086		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170086		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region including: the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the <st1:placename w:st="on">Andaman</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>, northern Laccadive Sea, south of Sri Lanka, the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Holthuis 1991, Zarenkov 2006). <br/></p>  <p>The type locality of this species is "Investigator" Station 177, in the Arabian Sea north of the <st1:place w:st="on">Laccadive Islands</st1:place> at a depth of 1,163 m (13º47'49'N 73º7'E) (Holthuis 1991).</p>
170086		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species inhabits a mud or sandy mud substrate (Holthuis 1991), at a depth range of 315-1,314 m. <br/></p>
170086		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170086		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>
170087		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
170087		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia (New South Wales, around Victoria, to South Australia), and New Zealand (North and South Island, and Chatham Islands) (Holthuis 1991).
170087		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft muddy bottoms at a depth range of 20 - 455 m (Holthuis 1991). It is known to bury itself with mud and sand (Holthuis 1991). It is reported to have a brood fecundity of 1,734–14,762 (Haddy <em>et al.</em> 2005). The ecological characteristics of slipper lobsters make them resistant to extinction as they are highly fecund with well connected populations via long-lived larvae.
170087		population	eng	This is a common species in areas of suitable habitat and can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>This species is of no interest to fisheries in New Zealand (Holthuis 1991). While this species is not a targeted species, it is taken in commercial quantities in the Eastern Deepwater Trawl Fishery in Australia (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004). Approximately 200 tonnes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ibacus</span> species is taken annually in Australian waters, most of which is taken as by-catch by the prawn fisheries. The catch rate fluctuates greatly between 0 to 50 kg/hr, though they are normally in the range of 5 - 10 kg/hr (Graham unpublished data cited in Haddy <em>et al.</em> 2007).
170087		threats	eng	A threat is bycatch in the prawn fisheries, but is not believed to pose a significant threat at this time.
170088		conservation	eng	<p>The status of this stock is completely unknown and there remains a need for further life history information, especially regarding recruitment dynamics, growth rates, behaviour and reproductive biology before an effective assessment can be undertaken (Sharp <em>et al.</em> 2007). Harvest levels in Florida should continue to be monitored, and further research should include the extent that this species is harvested throughout its range, and the effect that this is having on the species' population.</p><p>    </p><p>A decline in global captures of <em>Scyllaridae</em> has been documented, although information on specific species is lacking (Spanier and Lavalli 2007). Further research is necessary to determine the impact that global harvesting is having on specific species, and to clarify if the documented decline is due to reduced populations or simply reduced effort.</p>    <p>A management strategy for this species needs to be developed and/or enforced to maintain or rebuild the population to a sustainable level, especially the prohibition on the landing of egg bearing females. It is recommended that accurate fisheries data be collected, and monitoring of CPUE to create a baseline of data to measure trends into the future. </p>    <p></p>
170088		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic region including Bermuda and the east coast of the United States from North Carolina, around Florida, and throughout the entire Gulf of Mexico (Holthuis 1991). It is likely that this species also occurs in the Bahamas.<br/>The type locality of this species is "among the Florida Keys .... at the Tortugas and .... from Key West" (Holthuis 1991).
170088		habitat	eng	This solitary species is found on rock and coral habitat and sandy substrates, sometimes mixed with mud, shells, particularly during migration (Holthuis 1991, Tavares 2002, Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007, Sharp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is nocturnal, foraging at night on a diet of bivalves, and sheltering during the day by burying itself under the substrate (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007, Sharp <em>et al.</em> 2007)    <p>This species grows very rapidly (it can attain 30 cm total length in 16 - 18 months under laboratory conditions) and sexual maturity is attained at a relatively young age of between 2-3 years (Lavalli <em>et al. </em>2007). This species is thought to reproduce seasonally, in the warmer months (Hearn <em>et al</em>. 2007), and has a long larval duration of 8-9 months (Webber and Booth 2007).</p>  <p></p>
170088		population	eng	This is a common species, but not abundant. There is some population structure data available from trawl fisheries and diver catches. There are no trend data.
170088		threats	eng	The biggest threat facing this species is likely to be from harvesting. However, because current range-wide harvesting levels are unknown, the extent of this threat cannot be assessed.
170089		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
170089		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from the South China Sea to western Australia (Holthuis 1991). Specimens have also been recorded from Pratas Island, the Philippines, and Indonesia (the Kai and Tanimbar Islands, and the Makassar Strait) (Chan 1997).
170089		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deep waters between 300-940 m, usually over 500 m (Chan 1997). It has a very large body size (Chan 1997), and prefers soft substrates (Chan 1998).
170089		population	eng	Although widespread this species is "nowhere abundant" (Chan 1997).This may be due to the difficulty of sampling or fishing within the deep waters inhabited by this species (Chan 1997).
170089		threats	eng	Suitable fishing grounds for this species have not been located (Chan 1997), although Holthuis (1991) and George (1983) considered the commercial prospects encouraging. It is occasionally caught in small quantities during deep-water trawls, and due to its large size it is potentially attractive for fisheries with developments in deep-sea fishing gear (Chan 1998).
170090		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on population, harvest levels and threats is recommended.
170090		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Easter Island (Holthuis 1991).
170090		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky habitat in shallow waters; the species can be found in marine caves and crevices during the daytime (Holthius 1991).
170090		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170090		threats	eng	This species is endemic to Easter Island and is fished for food. It is sold within local restaurants: with the increased tourism trade in the area, this will increase pressure on this species. There is no data available on the rate at which it is harvested, and hence no indication of the levels of exploitation and the possible impact on the population.
170091		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further collections of this species are needed to better describe the range.
170091		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected in the southern islands of Izu Ridge at the Ogasarawa Islands approximately 1,000 km South of Tokyo, Japan and Hachijo Island at the northern end of Izu Ridge approximately 300 km South of Tokyo (Sekiguchi and George 2005).
170091		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from open caves down deep volcanic slopes in clear water with surface temperatures ranging between 19 to 29<sup>o</sup> (Sekiguchi and George 2005).
170091		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
170091		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
170092		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170092		distribution	eng	<p>This species is distributed throughout the Indo-West Pacific region from <st1:state w:st="on">KwaZulu-Natal</st1:state> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region>, the Mozambique Channel,<st1:placename w:st="on"> Laccadive</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>, South China Sea, the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> (West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania<st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state>), Coral Sea, <st1:placename w:st="on">Chesterfield</st1:placename> and Tanimbar <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Caledonia</st1:place></st1:state> (Holthuis 1991, Zarenkov 2006, DEWHA 2009). This species probably has a wider distribution than is currently documented, including areas of East Africa, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and Melanesia (R.A. Wahle pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p>
170092		habitat	eng	<p>This deep sea species inhabits a muddy substrate (Holthuis 1991), at a depth range of 200-1,100 m. The maximum length is unknown, but the carapace length including the rostrum is between 1.5-3 cm in males, and 1.8-3.4 cm in females (Holthuis 1991).</p>
170092		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
170092		threats	eng	<p>It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170093		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; <br/></p>
170093		distribution	eng	This deep sea species is found in the western Atlantic off the Bahamas; in the Caribbean Sea near Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique and Colombia; and in the Gulf of Mexico north of Cuba (Holthuis 1991, Paulmier and Gervain 1994, Tavares 2002).<br/><br/>The type locality for this species is the Nicholas Channel, south of the Cay Sal Bank (Bahamas) at a depth of 550-576 m (Lat. 23º21'N, Long. 79º58'W) (Holthuis 1991).
170093		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths between 434 and 607 m, but is most commonly found between 450 and 550 m (Tavares 2002).
170093		population	eng	This species has been described as occuring in 'sizeable quantities' in Guadeloupe (Tavares 2002).
170093		threats	eng	<p>This species is harvested in parts of its range, but not on a scale that is of concern to the sustainability of the global population.<br/></p>
170094		conservation	eng	Attempts have been made to breed this species in captivity. There is little management in place for this species, apart from minimum catch sizes in a few countries. No controls appear to be placed on its trade internationally. <br/><br/>At present there exists too little quantitative information to draft a management plan for this species, although it is clear that stocks are being fully or overexploited in at least part of its distribution. Therefore the emphasis must be on collecting high quality data on population sizes and trends throughout the range of this species, as well as information on threats. In the Cape Verde Islands, Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) proposed the introduction of a maximum landing size, in addition to the pre-existing minimum landing size (MLS) of 20 cm total length (TL), to protect larger females who dominate egg production. They also recommended increasing the MLS to 25 cm TL, equivalent to increasing the minimum landing weight from 500 g to 600 g, to protect more effectively reproductive females (Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In Ghana, where the predominant form of fishing is beach-seining, Nunoo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) recommend a three-month seasonal closure (between May and July) as the most practical way of sustainably managing artisanal fisheries. This approach is supported by fishers and evidence, from other African countries, of large post-closure gains in catches (Nunoo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
170094		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern Atlantic region, from the west coast of Africa (Namibia to Morocco), and the western Mediterranean, along the east coast of Spain and south coast of France (Holthuis 1991).
170094		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow water to 55 m, mostly being found between 5-15 m on rocky bottoms (Holthuis 1991), although in Gabon it is found on sandy bottoms (Sætersdal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). Spawning occurs year round, peaking from June to September in the Northern Hemisphere and January to March in the Southern Hemisphere (Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). This species performs vertical reproductive migrations, moving from 2-20 m to 20-55 m from June to August in Senegal, to follow cooler water (Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
170094		population	eng	This species was previously common throughout its range, but decades of overfishing have reduced many populations, and stocks in several countries are classified as 'over-exploited'. However, it is still locally abundant in some areas; for example, off the coast of Gabon (Bianchi 1992).<br/><br/>Specific population information on this species is unavailable. There are no FAO data on catches of this species. From information known, this species is most likely over-exploited by legal and illegal harvesting throughout its range and the population will have decreased substantially from its original biomass (M.J. Butler and A.C. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2008).
170094		threats	eng	This species is fished throughout its range, usually with vertical nets, lobster pots, or by trawling (Holthuis 1991). It is sold locally fresh, or frozen in France and Spain. According to the FAO, northern and southern stocks of this species are "probably overexploited" (Caramelo and Tanstad 2005).<br/><br/>Angola: There is a 'fairly significant' artisanal spiny lobster fishery; landings range from 100 to 200 tonnes per year, with a sharp increase since 1999 to nearly 700 tonnes. This is the main species caught in the provinces of Luanda, Kuanza Sul and Bengo, where there is no control or monitoring of lobster fishing. However, the fishery appears to be in a very undeveloped state and very little is known about either the fishery or the lobster resource (Agostinho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).<br/><br/>Nigeria: This species is caught as by-catch (FAO 2001).<br/><br/>Ghana: Marine fisheries in Ghana are mainly artisanal, with the most common mode of fishing beach-seining (Nunoo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This is a destructive form of fishing, and may impact spawning populations of many species.<br/><br/>Cameroon: This species is "commercially important", and is harvested by an artisanal fishery and commercial fleets (FAO 2001).<br/><br/>Morocco: This species is fished, along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Panulirus elephas</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mauritanicus, </span>by a fleet of large wood artisanal vessels using gillnets, as well as smaller boats based near specific fishing locations. The total catch for the three species in 2002 and 2003 was 166 tonnes and 112 tonnes, respectively. There is no regulation apart from a minimum landing size of 170 mm total length for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. elephas </span>(<span class="a">Goñi and Latrouite 2005).<br/><br/>Senegal: Landings in the 1960s from Senegal and Mauritania were 225 to 450 tonnes, which was exported directly to France (Gulland 1970).<br/><br/>Mauritania: This species is fished using nets, operating from <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Nouadhibou in the north of the country. The number of vessels is uncertain, although in 1987 there were 86 exclusively fishing lobster and six fishing for lobster plus other species. There are two main stocks, north and south. The northern stock, extending from Cape Blanc to Villa Cisneros was fished intensively in the past, and despite a reduction in take is still showing signs of overexploitation (e.g., decrease in average length of landed lobsters). This has a potential of 300 tonnes for 333 km of coastline. The southern stock has a lower potential - around 175 tonnes - and has been overfished for a long time. Fishing for this species also has wider ecosystem effects such as reducing prey for the Critically Endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal (<em>Monachus monachus</em>) (Guarrera 2003).<br/><span class="a"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><br/>Fishing statistics for both stocks (north and south) are available from 1984 to 1992:<br/><br/>Total landings, metric tonnes:<br/>1984 - 231; 1985 - 167; 1986 - 261; 1987 - 225; 1988 - 104; 1989 - 119; 1990 - 42; 1991 - 76; 1992 - 40<br/><span class="a"><br/>CPUE, kg / trip:<br/>1987 - 9.3; 1988 - 10.3; 1989 - 22.3; 1991 - 25<br/><br/>Ivory Coast: Landings data is only available from the 1960s, when catches were 10 to 45 tonnes annually (Gulland 1970).<br/><br/>Cape Verde Islands: This is one of four species of commercial interest in the spiny lobster fishery. Annual catch potential until 1992 was thought to be around 1,000 tonnes for all four species, with actual catches ranging from 25 to 106 tonnes. Since then the focus has switched to Horse Mackeral (<em>Trachurus trachurus</em>)<span class="a"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span class="a"><span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span class="a">. Demersal surveys from 1995 to 1999 showed a decreasing CPUE trend, with the conclusion that all were overexploited (Martins 2002).This species is heavily fished at most of the islands, and accounts for 71 % of the catch in the northwest islands (Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is caught by divers or traps down to depths of 55 m. <br/><br/>Portugal: This species is traded alive (total spiny lobster catch in 2005, incl. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. elephas</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mauritanicus</span>: 70 t), and fetches 48 Euros kg<sup>-1</sup> in local markets (Barrento <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</span></span></span></span></span>
170095		conservation	eng	<p>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; <br/></p>
170095		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea (Holthuis 1991). Specifically, it is found in the Gulf of Mexico from the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico to the coast of Florida, USA, and the east coast of Nicaragua (Holthuis 1991, Wolff 2009). In the Caribbean Sea, it has been found off Sombrero Island and Grenada (Holthuis 1991).
170095		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft, flat muddy bottom environments, at depths of between 640 and 1,054 metres (Holthuis 1991).
170095		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
170095		threats	eng	This species is not impacted by any major threats.
170096		conservation	eng	<p>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/></p>
170096		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indo-west Pacific (Chan and de Saint Laurent 1999). Specifically, it is known from Japan, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar and New Caledonia (Chan and de Saint Laurent 1999).
170096		habitat	eng	This species is known from bathyl depths of between 366 and 1,100 metres (Holthuis 1991).
170096		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170096		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. There is no commercial fishery for this species due to the depths at which it is found though it is only occasionally picked up as by-catch (Holthuis 1991).
170097		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the trends in catch for this species and the extent to which it is harvested.
170097		distribution	eng	This species is known from several circum-tropical regions of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Holthuis 1991): including the Western Indian Ocean; the&#160;Hawaiian&#160;archipelago; the Gilbert Islands; Tahiti; Bermuda; southern Florida in the USA; and the Caribbean arc from Cuba to Isla Margarita in Venezuela. This species is also known from Espiritu Santo in southern Brazil (Holthuis 1991), suggesting it may occur along the entire tropical east coast of South America.
170097		habitat	eng	This species is found on the outer part of coral reef slopes and rocky reefs at a depth range of 0 - 300 m, although is most commonly found between 50 - 100 m (Holthuis 1991).
170097		population	eng	This is an uncommon, but widely distributed species (Holthuis 1991). There may be some localised declines due to by-catch but there is insufficient fisheries data to support this (Aiken 1984).
170097		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken in lobster fisheries as by-catch, however it is not a commercial targeted species (Aiken 1984).
170098		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">B. balearica</span> occurs in protected areas and in SCIs.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. balearica</span> stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
170098		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. balearica</span> is endemic to Mallorca in the Balearic Islands (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).
170098		habitat	eng	It grows on inland cliffs, in limestone areas and in oak forests.
170098		population	eng	This species is locally common.
170098		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; however, forest degradation and livestock grazing may have a detrimental effect.
170099		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 21 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. barrelieri</span> stored in European genebanks, of which 17 are recorded as wild collected material. The majority of these accessions (16) were collected within Europe (in Spain) and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). <br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas.
170099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. barrelieri</span>&#160; is native to the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) and north Africa (Algeria and Morocco) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
170099		habitat	eng	It is a ruderal species found in wastelands, grasslands, on riverbanks and in sandy soil.
170099		population	eng	It is a very common species.
170099		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although livestock grazing could pose a threat to some subpopulations.
170100		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).  <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. cadmea</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.  <br/><br/>Information about its precise distribution, and the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
170100		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cadmea</span> is Endemic to Greece (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) where it has been found near Thivai (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964).
170100		habitat	eng	It grows on clayey hills (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise habitat of this species.
170100		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
170100		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
170101		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. cossoniana</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
170101		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cossoniana</span> is native to south Spain, Algeria and Morocco (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
170101		habitat	eng	It is found in grasslands, at the base of cliffs and in ruderal places.
170101		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.</p>
170101		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
170102		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 105 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. cretica</span> held in European genebanks, 101 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Ninety-one of these accessions are reported to originate from Greece and these are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (48) and the Greek Genebank, Agricultural Research Centre of Macedonia and Thrace, National Agricultural Research Foundation (43) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
170102		distribution	eng	Native to Greece (mainland and Crete), Turkey and Lebanon (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), as well as the East Aegean Islands (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">B. cretica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">aegaea </span>is also found at one locality in Israel, while <span style="font-style: italic;">B. cretica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cretica</span> is probably introduced in Lebanon (Snogerup<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1990).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
170102		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cretica</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cretica </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">grows on limestone cliffs or in gorges, as well as small ravines and limestone pavement. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">B. cretica</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">aegaea </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">is found on limestone islets, which usually have sparse vegetation and little soil, and is sometimes found growing in rocky areas near cliffs. This subspecies can be found from sea level to 1,050 m. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">B. cretica</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">laconica </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">is usually found growing in open, almost vertical surfaces of limestone cliffs from 150–650 m (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).</span></span>
170102		population	eng	This is a common species and the population is thought to be increasing.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170102		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species as it mainly grows on inaccessible cliffs (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).
170103		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>In Slovakia is <span style="font-style: italic;">B. elongata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">elongata</span> listed as Critically Endangered (Baranec and Šípošová 2002); however, some authors believe that it should be re-classified nationally as Extinct (Eliáš Jr. unpublished). In Hungary, it is listed as Near Threatened but it is not protected   (Király 2007).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 24 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. elongata</span> held in European genebanks, 22 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However none of the wild accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
170103		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. elongata</span> is native to middle, east and southeastern Europe, northern Africa, western Asia, the Caucasus, Siberia, middle Asia and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. elongata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">elongata </span>was historically recorded at two localities in the southwest: 1) Nána and 2) Kamenica nad Hronom (Baranec and Šípošová 2002). Both localities were found in the first half of the 20th century and have not recently been found (Eliáš Jr. unpublished).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">B. elongata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">integrifolia</span> is a casual alien in Slovakia (Baranec and Šípošová 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">B. elongata </span>occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Gödöllöi-hills), Transdanubian Mountains (Vác, Visegrád mountains, Pilis, Buda-mountain, Vértes, Bakony, Balaton region), South Transdanubia (Baranya), Little-Alföld and Great Hungarian Plain (Danube region, Danube-Tisza köze region, southern part of Tiszántúl region)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
170103		habitat	eng	In Hungary, this species favours calcareous soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals, loess, clay, loam soils. It grows in loess walls (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyro–Kochietum prostratae</span>), loess steppe grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salvio</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">nutanti–nemorosae</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;">–Festucetum rupicolae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Agropyretum intermedii</span>) and embankments   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
170103		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
170103		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
170104		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. fruticulosa </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> djafarensis</span> is listed as Vulnerable D2 in the 2000 Red List of the Spanish Vascular Flora (Dominguez Lozano 2000).<br/><br/>Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. fruticulosa</span> occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 59 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. fruticulosa</span> held in European genebanks, 42 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 23 originate from within Europe of which 10 originate from Italy and 13 from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
170104		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. fruticulosa</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe (south Croatia, Italy, including Sardinia and Sicily, south-central France, east and south Spain), as well as northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
170104		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. fruticulosa</span> is found in sunny, dry areas with scarce vegetation in coastal regions, and is also found in sandy soils.
170104		population	eng	It is widespread and common in both in Italy and Spain, with stable subpopulations in these countries. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
170104		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the use of herbicides where it occurs in vineyards.
170105		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>In Italy this species is considered to be at a low level of risk of extinction and in one of the regions it is assessed as Vulnerable. It was classified as Rare (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk) in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 13 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gravinae</span> held in European genebanks; however, only one is reported to originate from Italy (stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.
170105		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. gravinae</span> is native to central and south Italy, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It occurs in six regions in Italy.
170105		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky and stony places (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964).
170105		population	eng	This species is not common.
170105		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
170106		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 39 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. incana</span> held in European genebanks, 30 of which are reported to have originated from Italy. The majority of these accessions are stored in Spain (27) with two stored in Germany and one stored in the UK (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection from the other countries of its range is recommended.<br/><br/>It has been listed as Vulnerable in Albania (Vangjeli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).<br/><br/>A review of its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status is needed, as well as further research into the effect of hybridization on the genetic diversity of the subpopulations.
170106		distribution	eng	It is native to native to east and southeastern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010, Marhold 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170106		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It grows on limestone cliffs, among rocks and stones below the cliffs, rocky slopes with maquis vegetation and in disturbed vegetation in towns and on roadsides (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).</span>
170106		population	eng	Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded 22 subpopulations ranging in size between 1–10 and >1,000 plants. Most comprised 51–100 or 101–1,000 individuals. The authors reported that some previously known subpopulations had gone extinct.
170106		threats	eng	It is threatened by road construction and building works, fires, invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia </span>spp.), genetic pollution from cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span>, coastal development, and recreation and tourism (Snogerup<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1990).
170107		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. montana</span> occurs in several protected areas, including SCIs. It is considered Low Risk in two regions in Italy and Vulnerable in another (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). In France, it is protected in the regions of Languedoc-Roussillon and  Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (Association Tela  Botanica&#160; 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. montana</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
170107		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. montana </span>is native to northwest Italy, south France and northeast Spain (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). In France it occurs in the five departments of   Pyrénées Orientales,   Drôme,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and   Alpes-Maritimes (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
170107		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It grows on or below limestone cliffs and on rocks and walls, often in disturbed ground and maquis (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). The authors note that several localities are within towns, two are on rocky islets and although it is usually a coastal species, it can also occur in Alpi Apuanae up to 1,000 m asl.<span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
170107		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded 25 subpopulations, ranging in size from 11–50 plants to >1,000 plants; however, the majority of subpopulations comprised 101–500 plants. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">subpopulation</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> in Spain</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">is small and the plants are scattered.</span></span></span></span>
170107		threats	eng	Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) note that many subpopulations along the French and Italian Riviera are located in or near towns and settlements and are therefore permanently at risk of extinction or genetic pollution from culitvars grown in gardens. The authors also cite human activities, building work, stone quarrying, competition from forest vegetation and closing maquis vegetation as threats to some subpopulations. Soil erosion and grazing are additional threats.
170108		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.   <br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 352 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. nigra </span>held in European genebanks, 66 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 36 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
170108		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">nigra </span>is thought to be native to many parts of Europe, as well as temperate Asia, northern and northeast tropical Africa and the Indian Subcontinent; however, it is widely naturalized and its exact native range is obscure (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170108		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. nigra</span> is found as a ruderal across Europe, occurring on riverbanks, modified farmland and roadside verges. According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), this is a lowland species in the UK, present by rivers, on sea-cliffs, by roadsides, on waste ground and also at the edges of arable fields. In the Netherlands occurs in pioneer and ruderal vegetation on fertile and humid soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
170108		population	eng	This species is widespread in France, Romania and Portugal, forming persistent subpopulations in the UK and exists in scattered, isolated subpopulations in Spain. It is thought to have a stable population trend across Europe. Currently the species is known to occur in 3,001–10,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Netherlands (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
170108		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
170109		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. nivalis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. nivalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">jordanoffii </span>is listed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(iii);С2a(i) in the Red List of Bulgarian vascular plants (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas.
170109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. nivalis</span> is native to southwest Bulgaria and northern Greece (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
170109		habitat	eng	It is a montane species, found in grasslands and forests.
170109		population	eng	This species is rare.
170109		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
170110		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>In Germany, the locality in which this species occurs is protected under national law. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the regional Red List for north of country (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). In France, it is protected in the regions of Basse-Normandie and Poitou-Charentes in the west of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 8,007 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span> held in European genebanks, 252 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 163 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span class="Apple-converted-space">
170110		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span> is native to northern, middle and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>where&#160; it occurs along the coasts of the United Kingdom, Schleswig-Holstein in Germany, the west and north coasts of France and the north coast of Spain.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/><br/>B. oleracea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">oleracea</span> grows on the coasts of northern Spain, western and northern France, the British Isles and Helgoland; however, many occurrences have been regarded by various authors as introductions (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).<span style="font-style: italic;"> B. oleracea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgeaui </span>is endemic to the Canary Islands, where Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) record it as occurring on Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera and Tenerife. However, Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) noted that the taxon (which they refer to as <span style="font-style: italic;">B</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgeaui</span>) probably only exists as a single small population on La Palma.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>In Germany, this species is only found at one locality, while in France, it occurs in 12 departments in the north, northeast and northwest and 30 departments in the southern half of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It has a patchy distribution throughout England, Wales and parts of Scotland, and has only be recorded in 10 localities in Northern Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). However, according to same authors, it is only native in a few localities in the west  and on the south coast (mainly Cornwall and Wales), five localities in the northeast and eight localities in Scotland—the rest of the occurrences are considered to be alien.
170110		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">oleracea </span>usually grows on limestone and chalk cliffs (as well as sometimes below cliffs among shrubs), in scree, and sometimes on steep, grassy slopes (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). The same authors note that In Helgoland, it grows in open, rocky places. It is also known to occur in maritime grassland, inland quarries, waste places and on roadsides (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgeaui </span>grows on cliffs and rocks in shady places of the barrancos (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).
170110		population	eng	Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded subpopulation sizes of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">oleracea </span>ranging from 1–10 to >1000 plants. In Germany, the taxon is only known from one locality and this subpopulation is decreasing. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgeaui</span> probably only occurs as a single small population on La Palma<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).
170110		threats	eng	In Germany, intensive sheep grazing has caused a severe decline in the subpopulation of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">oleracea</span>. Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) note that some localities are threatened by quarrying and introgression from cultivated forms.
170111		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 15 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oxyrrhina</span> stored in European genebanks, 11 of which originate from within Europe. Nine of these originate in Spain (stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) and two in Portugal (one stored in Madrid and the other in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas.
170111		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. oxyrrhina</span> is native to Portugal, south and central Spain, and Morocco (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
170111		habitat	eng	It is found in sub-littoral sands or inland sandy soils.
170111		population	eng	Populations are clustered across the Iberian Peninsula, but it is locally common.
170111		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
170112		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. rapa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">campestris </span>is listed as Vulnerable in the Red List of Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 3,039 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rapa</span> held in European genebanks, 135 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 17 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Research is needed to distinguish the wild subpopulations of this species to inform conservation planning. In a study by Andersen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009), "the overall pattern of genetic variation and structure in <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rapa</span> showed that cultivated and wild <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rapa</span> accessions formed two almost separated clusters". This study concluded that many processes—including naturalization, spontaneous introgression, breeding and agricultural practices—affected the genetic structure of wild and cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rapa</span> populations.
170112		distribution	eng	The exact native range of the species is obscure as it is widely naturalized. However, it is reported to be native to many countries throughout Europe.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of the species in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>France: widespread across the majority of the country, although largely absent from the departments to the northeast and far west (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom:   widespread throughout England, Wales and Northern Ireland with a patchy distribution throughout Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Ireland:   widespread throughout the whole of the country (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></li></ul>
170112		habitat	eng	In the United Kingdom, it grows on riverbanks, roadsides, in arable fields and on rubbish tips (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Further research is needed to gather information about the full range of habitat preferences of this species.
170112		population	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in the wild.
170112		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
170113		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. repanda </span>has been nationally assessed as Vulnerable in Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and it is protected in several regions of the country (e.g., Murcia, Catalonia and Aragon). It occurs in protected areas in Spain, while in France it is protected in the region of Languedoc-Roussillon in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2010). It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 40 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. repanda </span>held in European genebanks, 39 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these, 36 originate from within Europe. Three originate from France (two of which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain, and one of which is stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and 33 originate from Spain (stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<p>According to experts present at a European CWR Red List workshop convened in Portugal, April 2010, most of the subspecies already have been collected and stored in genebanks.</p>  <span class="Apple-converted-space">
170113		distribution	eng	Native to southeastern and southwestern Europe (northwest Italy, south France and Spain), and northern Africa (Algeria and Morocco) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources program 2010). In France it occurs in the south and southeast departments of   Ariège,   Hérault,   Lozère, Gard,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Vaucluse,   Drôme,   Isère, Savoie, Hautes-Alps, Alps-de-Haute-Provence, Var and Alpes-maritimes (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
170113		habitat	eng	It is found on mountain summits in rocky areas and forest clearings.
170113		population	eng	The population has a disjunct distribution but locally common.
170113		threats	eng	As a high altitude species, it is likely to be affected by climate change. It is also threatened by hybridization.
170114		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. rupestris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hispida </span>is listed as Endangered in Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. rupestris</span> is reported by the European Environment Agency (2010) to occur in 31 Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 20 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rupestris </span>held in European genebanks, 19 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; of the wild accessions, 17 originate from Italy, 15 of which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain and two of which are stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
170114		distribution	eng	The native range of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rupestris</span> is unclear. According to Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1964), it is native to Sicily and southern Italy. However, Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) record it as endemic to west Sicily (mainly in coastal localities), noting that occurrences reported in the 1930s from Campania near Napoli and from Sorrentino have not been found and no voucher material seen, and that these reports were probably based on escaped garden material of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span>. USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010) also record it as endemic to Sicily. However, the assessors believe it to be native to Sicily and Calabria.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170114		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It grows on limestone (or occasionally sandstone) cliffs in sheltered positions usually of north aspect from sea level to 1,100 m asl (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).</span>
170114		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded 10 subpopulations ranging in size between 11–50 (one subpopulation) and >1,000 (two subpopulations) individuals. Several of the subpopulations interact with other wild and cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">B. villosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. incana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleracea</span>).</span>
170114		threats	eng	Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) report livestock grazing (by goats and sheep) as a major threat to this species. The authors also note that it is threatened by building work, genetic pollution from crops and "human activities". Fires pose an additional threat.
170115		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. souliei</span> held in European genebanks, six of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, none of the wild accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.
170115		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. souliei </span>is native to Sicily and northwest Africa (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170115		habitat	eng	In grows in dry places and arable land (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964).
170115		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
170115		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
170116		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. tournefortii</span> is classified as Low Risk in one region in Italy (Basilicata) according to the Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="background-color: white;"> (1997).</span> <br/><br/>Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. tournefortii</span> occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 58 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. tournefortii</span> held in European genebanks, 31 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, seven originate from within Europe (six from Spain and one from the UK). All seven wild accessions are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
170116		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. tournefortii</span> is native to Greece (including Crete), Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), east and south Spain, western Asia (including Cyprus), northern Africa, central Asia, Caucasus, Arabian Peninsula and Pakistan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170116		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rocky and sandy areas, mainly close to the sea.
170116		population	eng	This species is known to be common in Cyprus and Greece, and locally abundant in sandy areas in Spain. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
170116		threats	eng	As this is a coastal species it is known to be affected by increasing levels of tourism. It is also threatened by fires in Italy.
170117		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. villosa</span> was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 20 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. villosa</span> held in European genebanks, 18 of which are reported to originate from within Europe; 16 are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain and two in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Natura 2000 sites, Rocche di Entella (European Environment Agency 2010). Population and monitoring and management is needed at these sites.
170117		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. villosa</span> is endemic to northwest and central Sicily (Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170117		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It grows on limestone (rarely sandstone) cliffs, usually of north aspect or in other shady places, from near sea level to 1,000 m (Snogerup </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 1990).&#160;</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
170117		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) recorded nine subpopulations—the maximum population size was >1,000 plants (one subpopulation) and the minimum 11–50 plants (two subpopulations).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> The authors noted a decline in subpopulation size </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(of up to 50%)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">at some localities </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">between 1973 and 1984. However, it is thought that the current population trend is stable. <br/><br/>There are several subpopulations which show morphological variances. </span></span></span></span>
170117		threats	eng	Livestock grazing (mainly goats and sheep) is a major threat to this species. Snogerup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) also noted that quarrying, burning of slopes and introgression from cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">B. oleacea</span> were threatening some subpopulations.
170118		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution, biology and the potential threats facing this species is needed.
170118		distribution	eng	<em>Danionella priapus</em> is known only from the type locality (Jalpaiguri District, Brahmaputra drainage, Jorai River, a tributary of  the Sankosh at Laskarpara, outskirts of Barobisha town, Brahmaputra River drainage, West Bengal, India.
170118		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a slow-flowing stream with a sandy bottom and dense aquatic vegetation.
170118		population	eng	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.
170118		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to the area have also not been adequately identified. Specimens for the aquarium trade are reported to be collected from the type locality.
170119		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
170119		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Koladyne River at Kolchaw in Lawntlai District, Mizoram, India<em></em> (Anganthoibi and Vishwanath 2009).
170119		habitat	eng	This species has been found in swift-flowing rivers with a rocky bottom (Anganthoibi and Vishwanath 2009).
170119		population	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.
170119		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
170120		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
170120		distribution	eng	This species is known only from small streams on the western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, north and south of Thandwe in southwestern Myanmar.
170120		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested streams with a substrate of stones, pebbles and rocks. &#160;In the dry season, these streams typically become a series of interconnected pools, to which these fishes are largely restricted.
170120		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;However, the very restricted distribution suggests that the population is not very large and may be vulnerable to over-exploitation.
170120		threats	eng	Collection of live fishes for the ornamental fish trade, while infrequent, may present a potential major threat to the population, because its restricted distribution indicates that the global population may be small. &#160;Other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
170121		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
170121		distribution	eng	This species is known only from small streams on the western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, near Thandwe, Kyeintali and Sittwe in Myanmar. &#160;It may be more widespread than what is known, however, the range will not extend beyond 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
170121		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested streams in low flow areas of pools with dominant substrates of rock, pebbles and gravel. &#160;In the dry season, they are confined to deep pools.
170121		population	eng	In the type locality and also from small streams nearby their population is high but there is no information known on the population trends for this species.
170121		threats	eng	While collection of live fishes for the ornamental fish trade may present a potential threat to the population, its effects are presently unknown because no information on the population and its trends for this species is known, as is the intensity of harvest for the trade (although observations indicate that this species is infrequently collected). &#160; Other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
170122		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included in the Red Data Book (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995). The population of the plant is included in the NATURA 2000 site GR2550006.</p><p>Information on the population size and trend, as well as potential threats should be collected, and further taxonomic investigation is recommended.<br/><br/></p>
170122		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to the Taygetos mountain range in the southern Peloponnisos, Greece. Its extent of occurrence is less than 70 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 20 km².
170122		habitat	eng	The taxon is found in damp calcareous screes, in semi-shade, in the upper part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> zone and at alpine levels. It grows at altitudes from 1,600 – 2,200 m asl.
170122		population	eng	The taxon is known from a few collections only and is characterised as rare and uncommon (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Tan and Iatrou 2001). There is no data on population size or trends or on the number of locations or subpopulations.
170122		threats	eng	There is no data on the conservation status of the habitat or on any threats affecting the population. Nevertheless, the habitat of the plant is not easily accessible.
170159		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least one marine protected area but no specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170159		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic, from southern Portugal to Angola, including the Canary Islands and Sao Tome Principe. It is present in most of the Mediterranean Sea except for the northwestern coast (single record from France), northern Adriatic and northern Aegean Seas.
170159		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It inhabits hard substrata (rocks and rubble) to  200 m, but is mostly present between 50 and 100 m. The older individuals in the deeper part of the range, the young are more in inshore areas. It is a carnivorous species that mainly feeds on bivalves, crustaceans, and fishes. Its sexual maturity occurs at 2 years old (20 cm). The spawning season is between spring and autumn over soft substrata in shallow waters (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>This species has a maximum total length of 90 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170159		population	eng	This species is moderately common in the east Mediterranean Sea and uncommon in the central Aegean Sea and other parts of the Mediterranean.<br/><br/>In Turkey, landings have decreased from 180mt in 1995 to 80mt in 2006. There has been a greater than 50% decline in catches over a period of 10 years (catch landings are: 1995 180mt, 1996 159mt, 1997 70mt, 1998 70mt, 1999 140mt, 2001 35mt, 2002 57mt, 2006 80mt (Turkish Statistical Institute Annual Reports). Adult sizes are getting smaller in catches in Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>In Moroccan waters, the current biomass is estimated to be below that producing maximum sustainable yield. Current fishing mortality is estimated to be 16 percent greater than that which would produce a sustainable yield at current biomass levels. This indicates that the stock is overexploited. Fishing effort needs to be reduced by at least 20 percent to bring biomass back to a sustainable level.
170159		threats	eng	Efforts targeting this species are semi-industrial (Israel), artisanal and recreational. This species is caught with beach seines, trammel net, bottom long lines, gill nets, spear fishing, and handlines. It is regularly present on the markets of Tunisia, occasionally elsewhere and rare in Morocco and Turkey. It is one of the most expensive fishes in Turkey (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
170160		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170160		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to South Africa, including the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe, and northwards to Mozambique in the western Indian Ocean. It is present in the Red Sea. It is present in all of the Mediterranean Sea and Marmara but is not found in the Black Sea.
170160		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits the rocky and sand-muddy bottoms and seagrass beds down to 80 m. It is a gregarious species, entering exceptionally in coastal lagoons (Tortonese 1975, Bauchot and Hureau 1986, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The longevity of this species is 12 years (Kraljevic <em>et al.</em> 1996), its maximum length is 55 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The parameters of mortality are: Z = 0.79, M = 0.61 (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2005), Z = 0.77, M = 0.42 (Kraljevic<em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The parameters of the growth model of Von Bertalanffy are: Linf = 30.9 cm, K = 0.21, to = -0.99 (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2005), Linf = 40.05 cm, K = 0.19, to = -0.94 (Kraljevic <em>et al.</em> 1996), Linf = 33.27 cm, K = 0.27, to = -0.057 (Suau 1970), Linf = 26.55 cm, K = 0.20, to = -1.81 (males) and Linf = 32.6, K = 0.13, to = -2.12 (females) (Turkmen and Akyurt 2003). The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.242 (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2005), 3.063 (Kraljevic <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The sex-inversion occurred between 21 and 30 cm (4-9 years). Males reached sexual maturity at 16.2 cm (2.5 years) and females at 19.04 cm (3.6 years). The spawning period occurs from May to September, while the gamete emission peaks in June-August (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Adriatic Sea, sex inversion occurs mainly at lengths between 24.1-35.2 cm (4-8 years) (Kraljevic <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Turkey, reproductive activity occurs between April and August and the length at first maturity is 13.4 for males and 13.9 cm for females (Turkmen and Akyurt 2003).<br/>  <br/><em>L. mormyrus</em> is a carnivorous species feeding on benthic invertebrates, mainly polychaetes and bivalve molluscs. Ontogenetic variation in the diet composition shows that while growing, the fish become more generalist feeders. In the summer season, the fish becomes more selective feeders (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2005).
170160		population	eng	Recent research in Israel indicates that current individuals are smaller than known from historical museum specimens and most specimens currently caught are one year old and mature (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007). This same trend is observed in Turkey (C. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch statistics from 1996 to 2005 ranged from 718mt to 1,184mt and were fairly stable over this period, with fivecountries reporting catch data.<br/><br/>This species is common in east and south Mediterranean Sea but less common in north-west Mediterranean Sea.
170160		threats	eng	This species is mainly caught by trammel net and secondarily by other gear such as gill nets, beach seines and fyke nets.<br/><br/>The negative physical impact of some fishing practices like trawling on seagrasses, and  especially <em>Posidonia</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">oceanica</span> beds, have been confirmed to reduce or eliminate this species in these habitats in some parts of the Mediterranean (Tudela 2003).
170166		conservation	eng	This species may occur in marine protected areas and areas restricted to trawl fishing. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170166		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to Nigeria, but not on the eastern Atlantic islands. It is found in the southern and eastern Mediterranean Sea, including Ionian and Aegean seas, but not in Marmara or the Black Sea.<br/><br/>This species is caught in bottom trawls and shows preferential seasonal aggregations in specific regions. There is little scientific information on this species in the Mediterranean.
170166		habitat	eng	It is a demersal species that inhabits various types of substrata but prefers gravel or rubble from 20 to about 500 m depth. It mainly feeds on crustaceans and fishes but also takes molluscs. <br/><br/>Its reproduction occurs in spring at 50-100 m and its maturity is reached at 10cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). In Tunisia, reproduction occurs between July and October and its sexual maturity occurs at two years old (15 cm) (Chemmam-Abdelkader <em>et al.</em> 2002). The longevity is seven years in Tunisian waters and the parameters of the Von Bertalanffy model are: Linf = 33.54cm, K = 0,191, to = -1.434 (Chemmam-Abdelkader <em>et al.</em> 2004).
170166		population	eng	The maximum total length of this species is 45cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is common in the north Aegean Sea and is usually caught together with <em>Pagellus erythrinu</em>s (B. Yokes pers. comm.2007). There are no separate catch statistics recorded by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (data are probably aggregated with <em>Pagellus erythrinus</em>).
170166		threats	eng	It is a commercial species. Fishing operations targeting this species include semi-industrial, artisanal and sport fishing vessels.  <em>D. maroccanus</em> is caught with trawl nets, bottom long-lines, gill and trammel nets and hand  lines.  There are large landings from trawl nets in east Algeria.  It is regularly present in the markets of Sicily, Morocco and Cyprus, occasionally or rarely somewhere else.
170169		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas but there is no apparent conservation effect because it is not a top predator. Fishing regulations are recommended because of its slow maturing reproductive strategy. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. salpa</span> (mainly large individuals) benefit from fishing protection and tend to concentrate in marine protected areas (with the exception of Port-Cros), resulting in enhanced grazing pressure (Prado <em>et al.</em> 2008).
170169		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay), with one record from the North Sea, to Sierra Leone, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, and Cape Verdes. It is also present southwards from Congo to South Africa. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the southwestern and southeastern Black Sea.<br/><br/>In the east Mediterranean Sea, there is some circumstantial evidence that this species is being displaced by <em>Siganus luridus</em> and <em>S. rivuluatus</em>, which are both herbivores and very successful Lessepsian migrants (Lumberg <em>et al.</em> 2004,2005). This species became very rare along the Lebanese coast despite the large numbers existing in the 1930s (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2004).
170169		habitat	eng	This species is the only known vertebrate grazer of <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> meadows in the Mediterranean Sea. It is a demersal species, found over rocky substrates and sandy areas with algal growth until 70 m. Gregarious, it sometimes forms sizeable schools. Juveniles are mainly carnivorous on crustaceans, while adults are almost exclusively herbivorous. Some individuals become toxic after ingestion of <em>Caulerpa</em> (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>This species is characterized by a protandric hermaphroditism and the sex change process occurs between 24 and 31 cm of total length, corresponding to a wide range of ages (3-7 years). The size at maturity is 19.5cm, at which almost all individuals are males. Two distinct spawning periods are observed: one in spring, from March to May, and the other in autumn, from the end of September to November. During the first year, compensatory growth occurred in the individuals born in the two periods. The parameters of the growth model of Von Berthalanffy are: Linf = 37.2 cm, K = 0.27, to = -0.53. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.04 (Criscoli <em>et al.</em> 2006). Sex change occurs at 25 cm total length and 3.75 years of age (Buxton and Garrat 1990).
170169		population	eng	The maximum length of this species is 51cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>In east Mediterranean Sea, there is some circumstantial evidence that this species is being displaced by <em>Siganus luridus</em> and <em>S. rivuluatus</em> which are both herbivores and very successful Lessepsian migrants (Lumberg <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landing statistics show a steady increase of the last 50 years with a peak in the early 1990s at around 4,000mt and stabilizing at around 2,000mt from 1996 to 2005.<br/><br/>This species is very common and very abundant in suitable habitats throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea.
170169		threats	eng	This species is targeted by semi-industrial, artisanal and recreational fishing efforts. It is typically caught with beach seines, small purse seine, bottom nets, lift nets, and handlines. It is regularly present on the markets of Spain, Tyrrhenian Sea, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco, occasional in France, Adriatic Sea and Israel and rare in Sicily&#160; (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). This species has a very slow maturing reproductive strategy (nearly 4 years).<br/><br/>This species is affected negatively by the illegal date-mussel shellfish harvesting which has spread in the Mediterranean (Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2004).
170186		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas. Size limits should take into consideration its protrandic hermaphrodotism (sex change occurs at around 50cm total length). More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170186		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Angola, including the Canary Islands and Sao Tome Principe. It is common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, but not along the northwestern coast, and not in the northern Adriatic Sea.
170186		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It occurs on the shelf on rocky and rubble substrata, on steep drop-offs, around wrecks, as well as on sand around rocks, from 20 to 220 m, mainly from 40 to 130 m. The young are close to shore while the adults occur offshore in the vicinity of the continental slope (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It mainly feeds on crustaceans, fish and cephalopods (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The smallest mature males and females captured were 38.70 cm in total length (TL) and 39.80 cm in total length (TL) respectively. <br/><br/>Fernandez-Palacios <em>et al.</em> (1994) described <em>D. gibbosus</em> as protandrous, while Pajuelo and Lorenzo (1995) described it as a protogynous hermaphrodite. In Grubisic <em>et al.</em> (2007), this species is a rudimentary hermaphrodite. Von Berthalanffy growth parameters are: Linf = 107.24cm, K = 0.12, to = -0.90. It spawns partially in August, September and October. The mean value of absolute fecundity is 1,672 million eggs (Grubisic <em>et al.</em> 2007). The maximum length of this species is 100 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170186		population	eng	This species is rarely caught around the coasts of north Mediterranean Sea.
170186		threats	eng	This is a commercial species but separate catch data are typically not recorded. It is caught with trawl nets, bottom and surface long-lines, gill nets, trammel nets, and hand lines. It is regularly present in markets in Israel, but occasionally in Sicily, Greece, Morocco and rarely in Italy, Turkey and Egypt (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It has a high potential for commercial culture (Fernandez-Palacios <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>High commercial value, caught with line gear (adults), bottom trawls and traps. Marketed fresh, frozen or dried salted, it also is used for fishmeal and oil.
170197		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170197		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from northern Spain (Bay of Biscay) to Angola, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the western Black Sea.
170197		habitat	eng	This is a typical midwater species inhabiting coastal areas, above rocky bottoms and <em>Posidonia</em> beds to 30 m (Bauchot and Hureau 1986). It is often abundant in light-penetrating caves (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007), and is found close to the bottom during mating season (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). This species has a longevity of 11 years and a maximum total length of 30 cm. The coefficients of mortality are Z = 1.08, M = 0.47. <br/><br/>The coefficient of allometry of the total length-weight relationship differs significantly between sexes; this indicates positive allometric growth for females (3.123) and isometric growth for males (3.017). The parameters of the growth model of Von Bertalanffy are: Linf = 34.13, to = -0.75, K = 0.20 (Females), K = 0.23 (M). The reproduction season is between April and June. This species is gonochoric, but some individuals are hermaphroditic protogynous. All individuals larger than 29.3 cm are female (Pallaoro <em>et al.</em> 1998). This is an omnivorous species that mainly feeds on small invertebrates (Fischer<em> et al.</em> 1987). In the east central Adriatic Sea, the main food for specimens of the 1-year age group is copepods (Pallaoro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
170197		population	eng	This species is overfished in the east Adriatic Sea with an exploitation rate of E = 0.56 (Pallaoro <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>In Turkey, landings ranged from around 100 to 300mt from 1995-2006 with peak landings occurring in 2006 (Turkish State Statistical Organization Annual Reports).<br/><br/>It is common to very common and abundant in appropriate habitats around the Mediterranean Sea.  It is rare in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings data from 10 countries show a steady increase in landings (and presumably from increased effort) then a peak of around 2,000mt between 1985-1994, thereafter to 2005, it is stable at around 1,000mt. Most of this overall decline is due to decreases in landings in Greece.<br/><br/>There is some anecdotal evidence of competition with Lesesspian migrant <em>Pempheris vanicolensis</em>, potentially displacing <em>Oblada melanura</em> (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><br/>Natural predation may be a factor controlling populations in the East Adriatic Sea (Pallaoeo <em>et al.</em> 1998) where high fishing pressure is also present.  Shellfish harvesting of mussels through reduction of macroalgae habitats has also shown to affect local populations (Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2004).
170197		threats	eng	This is an important food fish, with total landings of 862 tons in 2005. It is fished semi-industrially and as a game fish. The fishing gears are: beach seines, trawl and deep nets, handlines and hooks. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Egypt, Cyprus and in Adriatic Sea, but is only occasionally found in north African markets and in Israel. It is rare in France. It strongly avoids any areas with mariculture cages and suffers substantial habitat loss in Turkey (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
170220		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170220		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal to Angola, including Madeira, the Canary Islands and Sao Tome Principe. In the Mediterranean it is mainly found in the southern and eastern regions and around Greece and Corsica, with single records from Sicily and the Adriatic.
170220		habitat	eng	This is a demersal that inhabits hard substrata (rock or rubble) until 170 m. Juveniles occur near the coast. This species is carnivorous, mainly feeds on molluscs including cephalopods, and also on crustaceans. Reproduction occurs during the end of the winter (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>The maximum total length of this species is 80cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170220		population	eng	This species is not common throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea. There are no fisheries statistics available for this species.
170220		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial value. Its fishery is economical, artisanal. This species is caught with trammel net, bottom-line and handlines.
170224		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.  There is a minimum size limitation of 15 cm in Turkey. It is recommended to implement fishing regulations that ensure this species won't be targeted during the short spawn period of females. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170224		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the southern British Isles to Guinea Bissau, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, and Cape Verdes. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the western Black Sea.
170224		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, found in inshore waters on various substrata (rock, gravel, sand, and mud) to 320 m, most commonly from 20 to 100 m. The younger individuals are near the coast. They move to deeper waters during winter.  This is an omnivorous species, but mainly feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes. <br/><br/>Reproduction occurs from spring to autumn in relation with hydrologic conditions. There may be two different reproduction seasons in the southern portions of the Mediterranean. This species is a protogynic hermaphrodite; the females become males in their third year, at sizes of about 17 cm. Sexual maturity occurs at 1-2 years old (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>Trawling  has direct negative impacts on this species (FAO), at least in the Alboran Sea (GFCM).<br/><br/>The maximum total length of this species is 60 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170224		population	eng	This species is very common and abundant in its habitats.<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch data from the Mediterranean Sea shows a steady increase in landings to a peak of around 11,000mt in the mid 1980s and stabilizing around 5,000mt from 1996 to 2005.<br/><br/>In an indication of the severity of overfishing affecting the region, survey results show that catches of two commercially valuable fish species, red mullet (<em>Mullus barbatus</em>) and common pandora (<em>Pagellus erythrinus</em>) declined ten fold in the years between 1984 and 1999 Cemal, A. pers. comm. 2007
170224		threats	eng	This is an important species that is targeted by semi-industrial, artisanal and recreational efforts. This species is caught with trawls, trammel net, gill net, bottom long lines and hand lines. It is regularly present on the markets and commercialised fresh and frozen (Fischer <em>et al.</em>1987).<br/>                                                                                      <br/> In the eastern Aegean Sea, a high accumulation of heavy metals was registered in the organs of this species (Uluturhan and Kucuksezgina2007).
170229		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170229		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from the eastern UK and English Channel to Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and Marmara, but not in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>Pagellus acarne</em> is mainly distributed on the continental shelf, with a relatively higher abundance in the western part of the Mediterranean basin (Greco <em>et al.</em> 2002).
170229		habitat	eng	Adults inhabit various types of soft substrata, especially sand and mud down to 500 m depth, but are more common between 40 and 180 m. The young are found nearer to the shore and also on seagrass beds. It is omnivorous, but prefers worms, molluscs, small crustaceans and fish larvae (Fischer <em>at al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>Reproduction occurs between June and September (west Mediterranean Sea) or September and November (eastern Mediterranean Sea). It is a protandric hermaphrodite (most individuals are first males, then become females at a size of about 17 and 29 cm (2 to 7 years). The sexual maturity occurs at 2 years old (13 to 18 cm) (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is a typical schooling species (Louisy 2002). The maximum total length of this species is 36 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170229		population	eng	It is common in most suitable habitats in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization catch statistics are inconclusive with fluctuations between 90 and 670mt from 1996 to 2005.
170229		threats	eng	This species is commercially important and is targeted by semi-industrial, artisanal and sportsfishing efforts. It is caught mostly by trawl net (although not targeted) and also by beach seine, trammel net, and purse seine.  It is regularly present on the markets of Spain, Morocco, France, Sicily, Turkey and Cyprus. It is occasionally in the markets of Tunisia, Greece, Israel and Egypt. It is marketed fresh or frozen (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170232		conservation	eng	This species occurs in bays in Turkey that are restricted to trawling. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170232		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Namibia, including the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe. It is found in most of the Mediterranean Sea except for the northwestern coast (Louisy 2002) and the northern Adriatic, and is also absent from some of the larger Mediterranean Islands. It is present in Marmara but not the Black Sea.
170232		habitat	eng	This is a demersal and benthopelagic species. It inhabits rocky, muddy, or sandy-muddy substrata, from 20 to 250 m, but is typically lower than 60 m in Turkey at least (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). Individuals descend to greater depths with growth. The stocks migrate seasonally between the coast and deeper waters in accordance with local hydrographic conditions and their life cycle. They mainly feed on fishes and crustaceans and the young eat plankton. Their reproduction occurs in April-May in the south, in July-August in Aegean Sea and during winter in west Mediterranean Sea. They become mature at 2 years old (24 cm) (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The maximum total length of this species is 65 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170232		population	eng	Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch data for the Mediterranean Sea are restricted to Spain and Greece reports. These data are not comprehensive enough to be reliable for a proxy for population trends.
170232		threats	eng	This species is a secondary catch of the semi-industrialized fishing (Adriatic, Cyprus) and a sought after by small-scale and sport fishing. Between 1996 and 2005 reported FAO landings ranged between around 300 and 1,000 mt for the Mediterranean Sea. It is caught with trawl nets, bottom palangres, lines with hand and bow nets. It is regularly present in most of the markets, occasionally in Tunisia and Israel, rarely in Egypt.
170244		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas. Better monitoring for this species is recommended. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170244		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southern Norway and around all of the British Isles to western Sahara, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is common in the western Mediterranean but is rarer east of Sicily, except for parts of the Adriatic, Aegean and Marmara, and absent from eastern to southeastern Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
170244		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal fish, occurring in depths from the inshore waters above various bottoms (rocks, sand and mud), down to 400 m (Bauchot and Hureau 1986). The young individuals are found near the coast, while the adults occupy the slope of the shelf (Bauchot and Hureau 1986). It is omnivorous, but mainly feeds on pelagic invertebrates, eggs, larvae and young fishes. It is a protandric hermaphrodite and becomes female at 20-30 cm length.  Sexual maturity occurs at 4-5 years (22-25 cm). The maximum total length of this species is 70 cm. Its longevity is 13 years (Fisher <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>The allometric coefficient of the length–weight relationship is 2.9339. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters based on data from otoliths are L∞ = 49.2cm, k = 0.106, to = -1.81 for males and L∞ = 49.5 cm, k = 0.100, to = -2.29 for females, whereas based on scale reading were L∞ = 46.1 cm, k = 0.082, to = -3.40 for males and L∞ = 52.8 cm, k = 0.059, to = -4.73 for females (Chilari <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Ionian Sea, L∞ = 25.12, K = 0.186, to = -2.72 (Mytilineou and Papaconstantinou 1995). In the Strait of Gibraltar, the growth parameters in both sexes were obtained according to the von Bertalanffy equation: Linf = 58cm, K = 0.169, to = -0.668 (Sobrino and Gil 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning has occurred in March–April, at a size of 28.0 cm and age three years in males and at 29.5 cm and four years in females (Micale <em>et al.</em> 2002).  According to Gill and Sobrino (2001), spawning (from GSI estimation) occurs during the first quarter of the year and length-at maturity estimates are 30.14 (males) and 35.72 cm (females).
170244		population	eng	It is locally abundant in some places of the Aegean Sea (Bizsel and Yokes pers. comm. 2007), common along Algerian coast (H. Kara pers. comm. 2007) and common in south-west France (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch data for this species show a steady increase to around 50-140mt to 2005. This increase is likely due to improved recording for this species.
170244		threats	eng	It is an important foodfish, marketed fresh and frozen. This species is caught with trawls, trammel nets and bottom long lines. Fishing efforts are semi-industrial, artisanal and recreational. It is present regularly on the markets of France, Spain, Morocco, Italy, but occasional in Sicily, Tunisia, Greece, Turkey and rare elsewhere (Fischer <em><em>et al.</em></em> 1987).<br/><br/>This is considered a priority species for General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. This species has suffered a population decrease in the Adriatic Sea (Mladineo 2006).  It is easy to find this species in the coastal countries on the Western Mediterranean such as Italy, Spain, France, Greece or Tunisia.
170245		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas. It is recommended to restrict spear fishing and to establish minimum sizes in catches (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007) and to enforce minimum size catch in areas where it is already established (e.g., 20 cm in Turkey) (Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170245		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the British Isles to Cape Blanc, Mauritania, and from southwestern France to western Sahara including Senegal and around the Canary Islands and Madeira. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, though more common in the south, the western Black Sea, and the Balearic Islands.
170245		habitat	eng	This species is littoral and benthopelagic, it lives on rocky bottoms and <em>Posidonia</em> beds until 150 m, but mainly between 15-50 m (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is common at depths of 60 m, but is also found down to 100 m (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). It's a gonochoric species with spawning taking place between the end of March and May. Males and females older than one year mature almost simultaneously. Sexually mature females were detected at the minimum standard length of 21cm (Loir <em>et al.</em> 2001). It feeds on fishes and cephalopods. This species has a longevity of 33 years (Chemmam-Abdelkader <em>et al.</em> 2004). Its maximum length is 100 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>This species has a longevity of approximately 30 years, and can mature as both a male and female at 1 year of age (Loir <em>et al.</em> 2001).  Generation length is therefore estimated to be about 13 years.
170245		population	eng	There is significant decline in Turkey (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007). Recovery time in marine protected areas is slow, around 10 years (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Fisheries Statistics (2007), this species reached a peak in exploitation levels from 1984-1995 at around 3,000 t to nearly 7,000 t (1990). In 1996 landing data reduced to around 2,200 t and it has steadily decreased to less than 1,000 t over the 5 years to 2005. There is considerable question about the accuracy of these data. However, the overall trend from data collected from around 12 countries appears to be an increase in effort peaking in the 1980s and 1990s. There is no reason to assume that effort has declined in recent years and therefore the catch trend over the last 20-25 years that shows approximately 30% decline overall,  is probably a good estimate of population trends.
170245		threats	eng	It is an important food fish and the fishery is semi-industrial and artisanal. It is caught with beach seines, trawl nets, gill nets, trammel nets, bottom long-lines, and lines. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Tunisia, Morocco, but is occasionally in France and rarely in Israel. Landings of this species in the Mediterranean Sea reached 868 tons in 2003. <br/>Some attempts to culture this species have been successful. Nevertheless, for large-scale culture to become profitable, several very important issues still have to be solved. It will be necessary to reduce the high mortality rates during larval and postlarval stages and improve the low survival rates due to pathological processes, malformations, etc.<br/><br/>Fisheries and eutrophication are listed as threats in Turkey (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Spear fishing is still a major threat for this species (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Demand for this species increased dramatically in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s due to increase in coastal resorts and restaurants (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
170251		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It can occur in marine protected areas. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170251		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from southern Norway and the British Isles to Angola, including the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes, and the Sao Tome-Principe Islands, Azores and Madeira. It is common in all of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is present in the Balearics.
170251		habitat	eng	It is a gregarious, demersal, semi-pelagic species found as deep as 350 m on a variety of substrata (sand, mud, rocks and seaweeds), but is more common at depths under 150 m, moving up to the surface during the night (Bauchot and Hureau 1986, Sanches 1992). This species is omnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans. <br/><br/>Some uncertainty remains concerning the reproduction and hermaphroditism accounting for a larger proportion of the population in larger size classes (Girardin 1981). The spawning season is extending from January to May. Its length at first sexual maturity is 12 cm for males and 13cm for females. Relative fecundity ranged from 288 to 584 egg per g (El Agamy <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>It is typically infected with isopods (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). This species has seven years longevity (Khemiri <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its maximum total length is 36cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
170251		population	eng	It is ubiquitous and common throughout the Mediterranean Sea coastal waters.<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics (2007) list this species from 1950 to 2005 with a range of 8,300 mt to 33,491 mt landed. The recent landing show a relatively stable landings ranging from around 23,000 mt to 30,000 mt.
170251		threats	eng	Landings of this species in the Mediterranean Sea reached around 30,000 mt tons in 2005. It constitutes about 2.3% of the total Egyptian Mediterranean Sea catch (General Authority for Fish Resources Development&#160; 2003). It is caught by bottom trawls, purse seines, beach seines and trammels nets. It is used fresh and frozen.
170253		conservation	eng	Studies should be undertaken to determine if individuals raised in aquaculture are genetically polluting the wild stock. This species relies very heavily on estuarine lagoons as nursery grounds and these habitats need to be preserved for this species to survive.
170253		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic, from eastern and southern United Kingdom, with a single record from southern Ireland, to Senegal, including the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the western and southern Black Sea.
170253		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits seagrass beds and sandy and rocky substrata as well as in the surf zone commonly to depths of about 30 m, but adults may occur to 150 m depth. This is a sedentary fish, either solitary or in small aggregations. In spring, it often occurs in brackish water coastal lagoons and estuaries. It is mainly carnivorous, but is accessorily herbivorous. It feeds on shellfish, including mussels and oysters, and crustaceans. Fish and molluscs  constitute the favourite prey in Mellah lagoon (Chaoui <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This is a protandric hermaphrodite species, the males become females at about 3 years of age, maturing first as male during the first or second year of age (20-30 cm) and after the second or third year of age (33-40 cm) as female. The spawning happens generally from October to December, with sequenced spawning during the whole period. The eggs incubation lasts about 2 days at 16-17°C, larval stages last about 50 days at 17.5°C or about 43 days at 20°C. Egg size is 0.9-1.1 mm and larval length at hatching is 2.5-3.0 mm.<br/><br/>The growth parameters of the Von Bertalanffy equation are: <br/>L∞ = 55.33cm, K = 0.513, to = - 0.282 (Chaoui et al. 2006),  L∞ = 62cm, K = 0.221, to = - 0.774 (Lasserre and Labourg 1974), L∞ = 59.76cm, K = 0.153, to = - 0.711 (Kraljevic and Dulcic 1997). The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.06 (Chaoui <em>et al.</em> 2006), 2.88 (Lasserre and Labourg 1974), 3.05 (Kraljevic and Dulcic 1997).<br/><br/>The maximum total length of this species is 70cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Its longevity is 12 years (Kraljevic and Dulcic 1997).
170253		population	eng	It is common and abundant in the Mediterranean Sea but relatively rare in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>Catch statistics indicate a slow and steady increase from 1950 to the mid-1980s. Thereafter there was a rapid increase from several hundred mt to over 90,000mt. This increase is most likely because of wild caught escapees from aquaculture and also because aquaculture specimens are not always adequately separated from wild caught specimens in the statistics.<br/><br/>A small scale study in the Mediterranean revealed  variation in the genetic structure of populations between the Adriatic Sea, the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Sardinian Channel. This species subdivision still needs to be clarified, in particular through further analysis covering the whole of the species' distribution, and also seasonal or year to year variation (Aqua Breeding).
170253		threats	eng	It is a very important commercial species. It is one of the most important fishes in aquaculture. The main catching methods are the beach seines, bottom long lines, trawl nets, gill nets, trammel nets, spear fishing and handlines. It is regularly present in the markets throughout the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>There may be a problem of genetic pollution of the wild stocks here through interbreeding with the numerous artificially bred aquaculture escapee fish, as in the case of <em>D. labrax</em> (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This species has the additional complication of being one of the two major aquaculture fish species in the Mediterranean, and the extent of genetic "pollution" from aquaculture cage escapees is not known. Overfishing is reported in the Mediterranean (FAO 2007, Llenoart<em> et al.</em> 2008). However, it is still a very common, if not abundant, species in the Mediterranean.  Wild stocks are heavily impacted by spearfishing.
170258		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
170258		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from northern Norway and around all of the British Isles to Namibia, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and in the western Black Sea.<br/><br/>This species has the additional complication of being one of the two major aquaculture fish species in the Mediterranean, and the extent of genetic "pollution" from aquacultue cage escapees is not known.
170258		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous species found over seagrass beds and rocky and sandy substrata to about 300 m, the young individuals until 50 m. They are gregarious, sometimes in large schools. Omnivorous, it is feeding on seaweeds and small invertebrates, especially crustaceans. This is a protogynic hermaphrodite species, the reproduction occurs between February and May and it lays eggs on sandy bottom (Fischer <em>at al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>The total potential annual fecundity varies between 31,670 and 554,070 eggs per female. Its relative fecundity reach a maximum of 850 eggs per g in the 30.5 to 31 cm length class (Dulcic <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>The maximum total length of this species is 60 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Its longevity is 6 years (Bradai 2000).
170258		population	eng	There is little population information for this species.<br/><br/>A small scale study in the Mediterranean revealed  variation in the genetic structure of populations between the Adriatic Sea, the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Sardinian Channel. This species subdivision still needs to be clarified, in particular through further analysis covering the whole of the species' distribution, and also seasonal or year to year variation (Aqua Breeding).
170258		threats	eng	It is an important commercial and food fish. Its fishery is semi-industrial, artisanal and recreational with landings of 3,805 t in 2003 in the Mediterranean Sea. Fishing gears are beach seines, trawls and handlines. Overfishing is reported in the Mediterranean (FAO 2007, Lleonart 2008). However, it is still a very common, if not abundant, species.  Wild stocks are heavily impacted by spearfishing in the Mediterranean.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><br/><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
170260		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many marine protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170260		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to Portugal and southwestern Spain, including Madeira and Canaries. It is found in all of the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
170260		habitat	eng	The annular seabream<em> Diplodus annularis</em> is a demersal marine fish found in groups above sandy bottoms and seagrass bed habitats, at depths ranging from 0 to 100 m. The sexes are usually separate, although these fish are potential hermaphrodites, as certain individuals are protandric (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). In the Adriatic Sea, juveniles are omnivorous and prefer algae and plants, while adults are omnivorous and prefer animals. Its principal prey items (by decreasing importance) are Chlorophyta (dominant taxa <em>Cladophora</em> sp. and <em>Enteromorpha flexuosa</em>), Decapoda (dominant species <em>Upogebia pusilla</em>), Gastropoda (important species <em>Rissoa ventricosa</em> and <em>Alvania</em> sp.), Bivalvia and Spermatophyta, as well as other food items (mostly unidentified Crustacea and fish eggs). Differences in diets among seasons are not significant (Matic-Skoko <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Gulf of Annaba (Algeria), macrophytes and ascidians constitute the main diet. Eighteen other taxa are identified in stomach contents, including 9 shellfish, 4 molluscs, 2 tunicata, 1 annelida, 1 cnidaria and 1 echinodermata (Derbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>This species spawns from April through the end of August, with a peak in May. Overall male to female ratio is 1.00:1.05. This species is a rudimentary hermaphrodite in the Adriatic Sea. Total lengths (TL) at 50% maturity is 9.0 cm for males and 10.0 cm for females. Its length–weight relationship showed close to isometric growth (b = 3.073). Parameters of the von Bertalanffy growth equation are: Linf = 23.95 cm, K = 0.126 per year, to = -1.664 year (Matic-Skoko <em>et al.</em> 2006). Linf = 20.37 cm, K = 0.54 per year, to = -0.033 year (Gordoa and Moli 1997). Linf = 17.12 cm, K = 0.56 per year, to = -0.022 year (Girardin 1978). The maximum total length of this species is 25 cm. Its longevity is seven years (Gordoa and Moli 1997). The mortality parameters are Z = 0.72, F = 0.33. <br/><br/>In the Gulf of Annaba, this species is a rudimentary hermaphrodite. It spawns from April to July and its first sexual maturity occurs at 12.1 cm in the males and at 12.7 cm in the females. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.096 (Nouacer and Kara 2001). Longevity of this species is five years and the parameters of the Von Bertalanffy model are Linf = 19.54 cm, K = 0.46, to = -0.56. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 3.137 (Nouacer and Kara 2003).
170260		population	eng	This species is relatively rarer at present than it has been in the past, although it is still quite common.  It is considered as an important species in artisanal fishing and recreational fishing (anglers) in the Mediterranean.  Studies show that in terms of biomass, this species has shown a decreasing tendency with time (Mouillot <em>et al.</em> 2008).  marine protected areas have been shown to benefit this species (Ojeda-Martinez <em>et al.</em> 2006).The exploitation ratio for this species in the Mediterranean Sea is E = 0.46 (Matic-Skoko<em> et al.</em> 2006). It is very common in coastal areas and is abundant wherever <em>Posidonia</em> beds and photophilic algae are present.<br/><br/>It is generally not more common in marine protected areas than outside marine protected areas since it is a prey fish rather than a predator (Francour 1994).<br/><br/>In Turkey, catch data are: 1995  304mt, 1996 456mt, 1997 500mt, 1998 315mt, 1999 550mt, 2001 280mt, 2002 548mt, 2006 552mt. These figures are therefore stable (Turkish State Statistical Organization Annual Reports 1996-2007).
170260		threats	eng	It is a commercial species. Fishing includes semi-industrialized (Sicily and Adriatic), artisanal and sport vessels.  It is caught with trawl nets, beach seines, hand lines, bottom long lines and gill and trammel nets. It is regularly present in most of the markets, common in Israel but rarely seen in markets in Morocco.
170261		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas. Conservation measures should include spear fishing limitations. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170261		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present in all of the Mediterranean Sea and the southern Black Sea.
170261		habitat	eng	This species is demersal; it generally forms schools that occupy various habitats constituted of rocks, sand and<br/>seagrass beds, at depths ranging from 0 to 160 m, but more common in less than 50 m. It feeds on crustaceans, worms and molluscs (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>This species is hermaphrodite, and reproduction occurs in autumn in west Mediterranean Sea.  Sexual maturity occurs at two years old (17 cm) (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The parameters of the Von Berthalaffy growth model are: Linf = 28.78cm, K = 0.389, to = -0.657 (Gordoa et Moli 1997), Linf = 26.77, K = 0.255, to = -0.607 (Man-Wai and Quignard 1984), Linf = 23.47, K = 0.224, to = -1.446 (Bradai 2000). The maximum total length of this species is 45 cm (Fischer<em> et al.</em> 1987) and its longevity is eight years (Bradai 2000).
170261		population	eng	This species is common and abundant throughout the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>The catch statistics for Turkey are: 1995 2,152mt, 1996 1,889mt, 1997 1,250mt, 1998 1,500mt, 1999 1,560mt, 2001 375mt, 2002 203mt, 2006 185mt. An average of 16% of the catch come from Turkish Black Sea.
170261		threats	eng	Fishing for this species includes semi-industrial (Sicily, Adriatic and Egypt), artisanal and game fish efforts. The fishing gears are: trammel net, gill nets, handline, bottom long line and spear fishing. This species is usually present in the markets of Sicily, Italy, Spain, Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, Tunisia, Morocco, France and Adriatic Sea. It is marketed fresh.<br/><br/>Spear-fishing may alter the escape response of this species from natural predators, although marine reserves may re-establish natural behaviour patterns (Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2008) - Distinct subpopulations of this species are present in the Mediterranean (Arculeo <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/>Relative yield-per-recruit analysis shows that this species is not over exploited by longlines in southern Portugal (Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> 2005).
170262		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas. Conservation measures should include spear fishing limitations. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
170262		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic, from northern Spain (Bay of Biscay) to Sierra Leone, including the Canary Islands and Cape Verdes. It is present in all of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea except for the northwestern coast and the Sea of Azov.
170262		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic marine fish found in schools over rocky or sandy bottoms with vegetation, down to depths of about 150 m, but most abundant up to 60 m. Younger individuals can also be found in brackish waters and may live in littoral pools (sometimes in brackish waters and lagoons), the adults often occur in the surf zone. They feeds on seaweeds, worms, molluscs and shrimps (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia), longevity is six years. The parameters of the Von Bertalanffy growth model are: Linf = 23.19cm, K = 0.472, to = -0.248. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 2.782 (Bradai 2000). The maximum total length of this species is 60 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>It is one of the most important candidate species for aquaculture in Turkey (Saka <em>et al.</em> 2007).
170262		population	eng	This species is very common in the Sea of Marmara and Aegean Sea (B. Yokes and C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). This species is also common in Israel (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007), in Algeria and in west Mediterranean Sea (M.H. Kara and P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).
170262		threats	eng	The fishing of this species is semi-industrialized (in Sicily), artisanal and game fish. It is caught with trawl and pelagic nets, beach seines, hand lines, bottom long lines, gill and trammel nets, and spear fishing. It is present in most markets, but infrequent in France. Its rearing still takes place on an experimental, pilot and small commercial scale, due to nutritional and pathological problems linked to a lack of knowledge concerning nutritional requirements and feeding sequences (Abellan and Basurco 1999).<br/><br/>Mixozoan infections cause major losses to this species (Pelenzuela 2006).
170280		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas. There are no know fisheries regulations.
170280		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Spicara maena</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, recorded from  Portugal, Morocco, and the Canary Islands including the Mediterranean  and Black Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean <em>S. maena</em> has been recorded from the Iberian coasts (Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Gulf of Lions (Claudet <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006), the central Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, arpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Vega Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005), the northern Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003), the central Adriatic Sea (Dulcic <em>et al.</em> 2000, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), and in the Aegean Sea (Petrakis and Stergiou 1996, Tserpes <em>et al.</em> 1997, Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007). It is also present in the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
170280		habitat	eng	This is a demersal to midwater, neritic species. It is common over <em>Posidonia</em> beds and on sand or muddy substrata (Tortonese 1986). It occurs at a depth range of 30 to 90 m (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005), from shallow water to a depth of 50 m (Louisy 2002). In the Ligurian Sea this species was caught up to 110 m depth (Relini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986). This species feeds on zooplankton and is a protogynous hermaphrodite. In the Ligurian Sea juveniles were sampled with purse seines in shallow waters (< 30 m) between November and January (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005).
170280		population	eng	In the Mediterranean, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch statistics were not recorded for this species until the late 1980s and then mostly from Tunisia and later from Greece. The catch mostly fluctuated between around 200 and 500mt per year in Tunisia over the last 20 years.<br/><br/>Petrakis and Stergiou (1996) collected 2,385 specimens in the south Euboikos Gulf in 1992 and 1993 with a commercial small-scale fishing vessel, using gill nets.<br/><br/>Dulcic <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported 1,130 specimens, with length varying from 7.8 to 27.5 cm TL, collected by professional fishermen equipped with beach seine nets, during the spawning season of blotched picarel from 16 September to 10 October 1996 in the eastern central Adriatic.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) caught 744 specimens with gill nets and long lines during 1997 to 1998 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, Greece).<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected 1,105 specimens, with length ranging from 11 to 22 cm TL, from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) collected 494 specimens from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls, with TL ranging from 8.0 and 18.1 cm.<br/><br/>Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003) collected 181 specimens, with length varying from 11.3 to 23.4 cm TL, from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean). The collections were made using gillnets (during October 1997 to October 1998). and trammel nets (during October 1999 to September 2000). Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90 m.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 33 specimens, with length varying from 7.8 to 15.3 cm TL, in three eastern Adriatic estuarine systems using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) from October 1998 to December 2003.<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) collected 14 specimens using three artisanal fishing boats comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. <br/><br/>Valle <em>et al.</em> (2003) collected 92 specimens, with length varying from 4.7 to 21.2 cm TL, in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postinguet, San Juan, Campello, Villajoyosa): 108 samples were taken up to a 20 to 22 depth with a beam trawl.
170280		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is mainly caught by trawls, seines, gill nets trammel nets, and lines.
170283		conservation	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in marine protected areas but typically there is no effect on abundance or size. Fisheries statistics need to be separated for the different picarel species and more population studies.
170283		distribution	eng	<em>Spicara smaris</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, occurring in the entire Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, southern Sea of Azov, and the Atlantic coasts from Portugal to Morocco, including the Canary Islands and Madeira (Heemstra 1990).
170283		habitat	eng	This species is midwater and demersal, occurring at a depth range from 15 to 170 m, but down to depth of 328 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It inhabits <em>Posidonia</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">oceanica </span>beds and muddy substrata. It occurs in schools except during breeding (Tsangridis and Filippousis 1992). It spawns on detritic sandy substrata and <em>Posidonia</em> beds, where the nests are excavated. A brightly collared male actively guards each nest, while females and some males swim above the area. At the end of the incubation period, the males lose their coloration, group into large schools and move to feeding places.
170283		population	eng	Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics from the Mediterranean Sea are aggregated for all species of picarels and show fluctuation of around 15,000mt form the late 1950s to the early 1990s down to around 10,000mt and then around late 1990s starting to fluctuate between 7,000 and 9,000mt from late 1990s to 2005. We assume the average age of mature individuals for these species is probably less than 4 to 5 years.<br/><br/>The species is common to very common and abundant throughout its range in Mediterranean, but it is less common in Sea of Marmara and Black Sea.<br/><br/>Vidalis and Tsinemidis (1996) sampled 2,614 specimens, collected on a monthly basis off Iraklion (Fishing Grounds N.4 and N.51), from April 1988 until June 1989. Furthermore, 5,688 specimens were collected on a seasonal basis, almost in all fishing grounds, trawled by commercial boats, off Crete, from April 1988 until August 1990. The pooled total sample amounted 7,302 specimens.<br/><br/>Vidalis <em>et al.</em> (1997) collected 2,645 specimens, with length varying from 9.1 to 16.7 cm TL, by means of trawls in six different localities of the Aegean Sea (Iraklion, Agia Galini, Cyclades, Thermaicos Gulf, Kavala, Alexandroupoli).<br/><br/>Dulcic <em>et al.</em> (2003) collected 198 males and 809 females, with length varying from 6.3 to 19.8 cm TL, by means of trawls and beach seine in the Eastern Adriatic Sea (Croatian Coast), during April and May in 1999.<br/><br/>Valle <em>et al.</em> (2003) collated 31 specimens, with length varying from 10 to 17 cm TL, caught by means of trawls (108 hauls) at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juna, Campello, Villajoyosa) in November 1995.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al. </em>(2006) caught 231 specimens by means of gill and trammel nets in the North Aegean Sea, with TL from 11.5 to 18.7 cm.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) caught 231 specimens, with length varying from 11.5 to 18.7 cm TL, from a survey conducted with gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) collected 27 specimens from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls, with TL ranging from 10.0 and 15.1 cm.<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) collected 23 specimens using three artisanal fishing boats comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey.<br/><br/>Tunesi <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded juveniles occurring in the Ligurian sea (sampled with purse seine) from May to August and in November.<br/><br/>Tokac <em>et al.</em> (2004) caught 2,922 specimens by means of trawls (25 hauls) in the north Aegean Sea, with TL from 9 to 15 cm.<br/><br/>In the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean report (FAO-GFCM 2005), fishing operations in the Saronikos Gulf conducted with trawls and beach seine in 1998 caught 70 t and 59 t respectively. The stock was considered moderately exploited.<br/><br/>Stergiou <em>et al.</em> (2004) collected 1,469 specimens, with length varying from 5.8 to 17 cm TL, were collected using various fishing gears (trawls, beach-seines) in Cyclades (Aegean Sea) during 1995 to 2000.
170283		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is mainly caught by trawls, beach seines, gill nets, trammet nets, and purse seines.
170284		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
170284		distribution	eng	<em>Centracanthus cirrus</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal, Morocco (off south coast), the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. It has been reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005) and also occurs in the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin <em>C. cirrus</em> was recently reported in the southern (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999) and central (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004) Tyrrhenian Sea, in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), in the north Adriatic Sea, and in the northern Aegean Sea (Cicek <em>et al.</em> 2006).
170284		habitat	eng	This is a demersal to midwater, neritic species. It is typically found over rocks or gravel substrata (Heemstra 1990), especially around offshore islands. It must also occur over soft substrata since it is caught mostly by trawls. It occurs to a depth of 200 m (Heemstra 1990) and from 327 to 464 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is most common at 30 to 80 m (Louisy 2002).
170284		population	eng	Cicek <em>et al.</em> (2006) carried out a study in Babadillimani Bight at the western entrance of Mersin Bay (northeastern Mediterranean). Monthly sampling was carried out from May 1999 to April 2000, and 102 specimens, with length varying from 8.7 to 13.7 cm TL, were caught from depths of 20 to 100 m.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) sampled this species during two trawl surveys (in autumn 1997 and 1998) in the Strait of Sicily. Mean density values were from 247 to 300 specimens from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>The species is common to not common through most of its Mediterranean range, it is more common around offshore islands.
170284		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is mainly caught in trawls and can be a prominent part of bycatch (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
170306		conservation	eng	Some countries have management schemes and local regulations to protect the stocks of this species (Collette and Nauen 1983). For example, the USA has catch quotas in place based on estimated population biomass. In the northeastern Pacific, current catch efforts are relatively low and in recent years, current catch is well below this recommended quota or harvest guideline.
170306		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Pacific Ocean. In the Eastern Pacific, it ranges from Alaska to the Gulf of California and central Mexico, including the Revillagigedo Islands. It also occurs from Panama to southern Chile (45°,41'S), including the Cocos, Malpelo and the Galápagos Archipelago.
170306		habitat	eng	This is a coastal pelagic species, that is to a lesser extent epipelagic to mesopelagic, over the continental slope. It is found to depths of 300 m. Schooling by size is well developed and initiates at approximately 3 cm (Collette and Nauen 1983). It may also form schools with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda chiliensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachurus symmetricus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sardinops sagax</span> (Collette 1995). This species stays near the bottom during the day and goes up to the open water at night (Maigret and Ly 1986) where it feeds on copepods and other crustaceans, fishes and squid (Collette and Nauen 1983).<br/><br/>Spawning most often occurs at water temperatures of 15–20°C. This species spawns in several batches, with 250–300 eggs per gram of fish, with the total number of eggs per female ranging from 100,000–400,000.<br/><br/>This species has an average longevity of approximately seven years (Caramantin-Soriano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), although longevity can be as high as 14 years based on size-frequency growth studies in the USA and Mexico (Dorval <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Age of first maturity is approximately 2–4 years (Watanabe and Yatzu 2006, Gluyas-Millán and Quiñonez-Velázquez 1996).&#160; Generation length is therefore is estimated to be 4–6 years.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 64 cm total length (TL). The all-tackle angling record is of a 2.17 kg fish caught off Guadalupe Island, Mexico in 1986 (IGFA 2011).
170306		population	eng	The total world catch of <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber colias</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber japonicus</span> went from 52,996 mt in 1960 to a maximum of 3,412,594 mt in 1978 and then dropping back off from 962,978 to 1,546,906 mt between 1990 and 1995 (Hernandez and Ortega 2000).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific</span><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, FAO reported landings from 1973–2005 fluctuate from 150,000 to 950,000 mt per year (FAO 2009). Although these landing data have fluctuated widely from 1995–2005, they have shown an apparent increase (Canales 2006). In Chile, Peru and Ecuador landing statistics over the past 10 years are highly fluctuating between 400,000 and 835,000 mt, with an increasing trend in reported catch landings (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>This species is not very heavily targeted in Chile (with average annual catches of 200,000 mt), but it is caught as bycatch. In general there is no well-developed fishery for mackerel in Chile. This species is targeted in Peru, but catch landings have fluctuated. Between 1985–2007, the highest landings of 390,000 mt were in 2002. However based on acoustic sampling, biomass since 1999 has been reduced likely due to a shift in abundance and changes water temperature (Cardenas pers comm 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Pacific</span><br/>An assessment of the northeastern Pacific stock that extends north of Ounta Abreojos, Baja California north to southeastern Alaska shows spawning stock biomass (SSB) in a period of low abundance from 1940–1977, and then increasing in the late 1970s reaching a peak of 662,372 mt in 1982. Since 1982 spawning stock biomass (SSB) has declined, reaching an estimate of 86,777 mt in 2007. The recommended harvest quota in the U.S. for the 2007–2008 fishing season is 361% higher than the 2006–2007 quota, and higher than the maximum yield since 1992–2003 (Dorval <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest Pacific</span><br/>Based on stock assessments of populations of this species in the Japan and the Tsushima Current between 1995–2005 (Watanabe 2009), SSB peaked in 1979 at 1,400,000 mt, and then declined to less than 38,000 mt in 2002, where it remained low but stable until 2004 when it increased to 300,000 mt in 2006 and then has slightly declined. In the Tsushima Current, SSB since 1973 averaged 350,000 mt, with a peak of 550,000 mt in 1989 and a low of 100,000 mt in 2004, and then has increased again to about 200,000 mt in 2006. Both stocks have increased in the past 10–12 years, likely due to better recruitment associated environmental changes and reduction in number of vessels and seasonal closures.
170306		threats	eng	This species is caught with purse seines, often together with sardines, sometimes using light. It is also caught with trolling lines, gill nets, traps, beach seines, and midwater trawls. It is taken in sports fishing in California, and in small  purse seines. In Mexico, it is caught in small purse seines, drift nets and  recreational fisheries.
170307		conservation	eng	Listed as a highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea.<br/><br/>Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>The EU Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) is concerned about the lack of attention given to this species, because it might be affected by the same problems of other billfish species. STECF recommends that this species should be accurately monitored (STECF 2009).
170307		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Atlantic offshore waters from 40°N to 35°S.<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species has been frequently recorded between 20–33°S and 40–50°W (Amorim pers. comm. 2010). It has also been recorded in northeast Brazil from 57–240 m depth (Nobrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
170307		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanic species. It is chiefly found in offshore waters, usually above the thermocline. It feeds on pelagic fishes and squids.<br/><br/>Maximum size exceeds 200 cm in body length and 58 kg in weight. Longevity is probably four years. No sexual dimorphism is reported. First spawning probably occurs at the end of the first year and few females apparently survive beyond a second spawning. Females probably spawn once a year. Spawning takes place throughout wide areas of the tropical and subtropical Atlantic from late November to early May. Eggs are undescribed (Robins 1975, Nakamura 1985, de Sylva and Breder 1997, Richards and Luthy 2005).<br/><br/>In northeast Brazil, only juvenile and resting individuals have been collected. Therefore the region is considered a resting ground, not a spawning area (Souza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). Maximum size recorded is 161 cm lower jaw FL (Amorim 1979).<br/><br/>In the Caribbean, gonad index values for females were present from May to August (Arocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The all-tackle angling record is of a 58 kg fish caught off Puerto Rico, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands in 1999 (IGFA 2011).
170307		population	eng	There are no fisheries that target this species. It is incidentally caught by anglers (Nakamura 1985). Historically, it was reported together with ICCAT Sailfish catches and now sometimes confused with Roundscale Spearfish (Graves pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Reported catches for this species fluctuate widely (FAO 2009).
170307		threats	eng	This species is primarily taken as bycatch by longline fisheries, but also by purse seines, trolling, by some artisanal gears and also by various sport fisheries located in both sides of the Atlantic. The increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices (FADs) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is possibly increasing the vulnerability of these stocks (STECF 2009).
170308		conservation	eng	At least a portion of this species range overlaps the Great Barrier Reef Marine Protected Area. More research is needed on this species biology and population trends, especially as there is a directed fishery for this species in Queensland.
170308		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in the western Pacific and is known only from the northern coast of Australia, south to Shark Bay in Western Australia, along the east coast of Queensland south to northern New South Wales (Collette and Gillis 1992). </p>
170308		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and oceanodromous. It forms schools near individual bays and reefs in Barrier Reef waters. With the rising tide, they move into shallow water over the reef flats, feeding on schools of clupeoid fishes that concentrate there.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 130 cm fork length (FL), 11.5 kg (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). The all-tackle angling record is of a 12.3 kg fish taken off Bribie Island, Queensland, Australia in 1989 (IGFA 2011).
170308		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. The only fishery directed at this species is in Queensland (Collette and Nauen 1983).
170308		threats	eng	This is a commercial species with a directed fishery where it is used as bait in Queensland, Australia.
170309		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species, listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>In the Western Central Pacific, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) is tasked to undertake precautionary measures that will not permit increases in fishing mortality until the estimates of stock status are more certain. The Commission is tasked with reporting the number of vessels fishing for striped marlin and report on catch levels.<br/><br/>There are no conservation measures for this species in the Eastern Pacific. It is recommended that there should not be an increase in fishing for this species in the northern population in the Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Similarly, the International Scientific Committee for Tuna and Tuna-like species for the North Pacific Ocean (ISC) recommended that fishing mortality for Striped Marlin in the North Pacific not be permitted to exceed current levels.<br/><br/>There are no management measures for Striped Marlin in the Indian Ocean.
170309		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters of the Indo-Pacific and strays are occasionally found in the southeastern Atlantic. It is strongly oceanic, and rarely enters coastal waters. It is the most widely distributed of all Pacific billfishes, especially in the eastern and northern Central Pacific, where it is much more abundant than in the Western Pacific.<br/><br/>Historic Japanese longline records indicate that adult Striped Marlin have a somewhat horseshoe shaped distribution in the Pacific Ocean (Nakamura 1985) which is unique among Pacific billfish and tunas. The base of this distribution is centred on the south central American coast, and has extensions which run either side of the equator right across to the Western Pacific Ocean (Nakamura 1985). The central equatorial region in the western and central Pacific is characterized by very low and intermittent hook rate for Striped Marlin, and thus is not considered part of their normal distribution (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975).<br/><br/>According to early longlining data, the areas of highest abundance were in the central north and the eastern Pacific, while the waters of the south and western Pacific were areas of lesser abundance (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975). In the south and southwest Pacific, adults are most abundant during the spring and summer and least abundant in the winter. This region includes eastern Australian, where striped marlin are present from the Coral Sea to Tasmania (depending on currents and seasons).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific the distribution stretches from California to the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands.
170309		habitat	eng	This widely distributed pelagic and oceanodromous species is usually found above the thermocline. It has been found to depths of 289 m. It generally inhabits cooler water than either Black Marlin or Blue Marlin (Nakamura 1985). Abundance increases with distance from the continental shelf; usually seen close to shore only where deep drop-offs occur (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). It is mostly solitary, but forms small schools by size during the spawning season. They are usually dispersed at considerably wide distances.<br/><br/>It feeds on a wide variety of fishes, crustaceans, and squids. Larvae are most abundant in the respective local early summers. The seasonal occurrence of mature females coincides with that of the larvae. The lower temperature limit in the distribution of larvae is approximately 24°C, both in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Spawning sites are between 10°S and 30°S in the southwest Pacific and 10°S and 20°S in the northeastern Indian Ocean (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).<br/><br/>Transmitted temperature and depth data indicate Striped Marlin spend 80% of their time in the mixed layer including 72% of their time in the top 5 m. Temperature data indicated 75% of the Striped Marlin’s time was spent in water temperatures between 20°C and 24°C (Sippel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The results of an assessment of Striped Marlin in the northeast Pacific (Hinton and Maunder 2011) estimated that the unfished generation time (mean age weighted by fecundity at age) was about 5.3 years (Hinton pers. comm. 2011). This generation length has been applied to all stocks of Striped Marlin.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 420 cm total length (TL). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 224.1 kg fish caught off Tutukaka, New Zealand in 1986 (IGFA 2011).
170309		population	eng	McDowell and Graves (2008) indicate that there are four stocks of this species: one centred in Hawaii, one in Australia and New Zealand, and two in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. At present, assessments have been conducted for the Southwest Pacific (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and for the northeastern Pacific (Hinton and Maunder 2011). Preliminary assessments have been conducted for the entire Pacific (Brodziak and Piner 2010), but a new stock assessment for the northwest Pacific is needed. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) data are available for the Indian Ocean (IOTC 2009), but a full stock assessment is needed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southwest Pacific</span><br/>The assessment model considered a single population of Striped Marlin within the region (the area is defined as the region from the equator to latitude 40ºS and from 140ºE to 130ºW). The estimated decline in spawning biomass over a three generation length period (from 1991–2006) was 8% (Figure 23, Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The results of the model were considered preliminary, as there remains a great deal of uncertainty regarding some of the key parameters included in the assessment model, in particular natural mortality and growth. Generally, the assessment indicates that current levels of fishing mortality may approximate or exceed FMSY and current biomass levels may approximate or be below BMSY (Langley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The fishery is not considered to be well managed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeastern Pacific</span><br/>There have been a number of studies of the stock structure of Striped Marlin in the Pacific Ocean. The most recent found that there was a single stock of Striped Marlin in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the assessment was based on this assumption. Spawning stock biomass was estimated using a Stock Synthesis model. Over a three generation length period (1992–2008), the population decline was calculated to be 0% as the spawning biomass has been increasing since 2003 (Figure 5.2.3.1, Hinton and Maunder 2011). The results indicate that the Striped Marlin stock in the Northeast Pacific is not overfished, and overfishing is not occurring.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest Pacific</span><br/>There is a need for a new stock assessment for the northwest Pacific. Previous assessments have been conducted combining data from both eastern and western North Pacific (ISC 2007, Brodziak and Piner 2010). Using the available data from Brodziak and Piner, a decline of 55–60% was estimated for the North Pacific stock as a whole. It is likely that declines are in the order of 40–50% for the Northwest Pacific (Hinton pers. comm. 2011). A value of 55% was used for this stock, however, more information is needed to characterize declines for this population. This stock is not considered to be well managed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>Nominal yearly CPUE of Japanese longliners in northwest Australia has declined 40.1% over a three generation length period (1991–2007; Figure 40, IOTC 2009). The CPUE decline for Japanese longliners in the Seychelles was 95% over the same period (Figure 40, IOTC 2009). An average of these two declines was used to characterize the population in the Indian Ocean, however these data are limited and catch data from other industrial fisheries such as longliners of Indonesia and Philippines are not available. The stock is not considered to be well managed and more information is needed to understand population declines for Striped Marlin in the Indian Ocean.
170309		threats	eng	An important commercial and recreational resource throughout its range, with the largest catches taken as bycatch by the pelagic longline fisheries targeting tunas. Commercial catch is taken mostly by surface long lining with less than 1% of the total catch taken by harpooning. The quality of the flesh is among the best of the billfishes for sashimi and sushi. It marketed mostly frozen, sometimes fresh. The observed distribution of several large pelagic predators, including the striped marlin, has significantly contracted from the 1960s to 2000 (Worm and Tittensor 2011).<br/><br/>In the western central Pacific Ocean (WCPO), catches of Striped Marlin were dominated by the Japanese longline fleet until the early 1990s. Taiwanese and Korean fleets have reported relatively small catches of Striped Marlin since the mid 1960s and mid 1970s, respectively. However, Taiwanese catches have increased in recent years, mainly due to the high effort of this fleet in the eastern temperate WCPO, targeting mainly Albacore Tuna. Longline fleets of Pacific Island Countries and Territories, and by Australia and New Zealand, have reported increasing catches since the early 1990s mainly due to the development of these domestic fleets. Catches by Australian longline fleets have rapidly increased in recent years due, at least in part, to specific targeting of striped marlin by some vessels during some periods. Since 1987, longline fleets operating in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) have been prohibited from landing Striped Marlin in an attempt support recreational fisheries in the north of the country (Kopf 2005). Extensive recreational fisheries exist throughout the southwest Pacific Ocean (Whitelaw 2001, Bromhead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Kopf 2005) although total catches by recreational fisheries are very small relative to commercial catches. In addition, a high proportion of Striped Marlin are (tagged and) released by recreational fisheries in the WCPO (up to 60%, Holdsworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, in Kopf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). However, studies into the survival of recreationally captured marlin have estimated that between 0–50% of marlin suffer post-release mortality due to hook damage, stress or increased susceptibility to predation (Pepperell and Davis 1999), although studies are rare, sample sizes are typically small and the durations of monitoring of post-released fish are relatively short (e.g., maximum of 93 days for Striped Marlin, Domeier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>Fishing in the tropical eastern Pacific region is by both industrial and artisanal fisheries. Striped Marlin are caught mostly by the longline fisheries of Far East and Western Hemisphere national. Lesser numbers are caught by recreational, gillnet and other fisheries. This species may be threatened by the expansion of long line fisheries and also increased artisanal fisheries in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
170310		conservation	eng	Drift nets were prohibited in the Mediterranean Sea in 2002 by the EU.
170310		conservation	eng	This is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO) previous to 2008, the Inter-America Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) had small area-wide closures for 6-weeks on purse-seining for tuna in the eastern Pacific.All purse-seine vessels of more than 182 metric tonnes of carrying capacity that fish in the EPO for Yellowfin, Bigeye, and Skipjack tunas were required to stop fishing in the EPO for a period of 59, 62, and 73 days during 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. The closures can be for either of two periods, August–September or November–January (ISSF 2010). Skipjack Tuna is a notoriously difficult species to assess. Due to Skipjack’s high and variable productivity (i.e., annual recruitment is a large proportion of total biomass), it is difficult to detect the effect of fishing on the population with standard fisheries data and stock assessment methods. This is particularly true for the stock of the EPO, due to the lack of age-frequency data and the limited tagging data. One of the major problems mentioned above is the uncertainty as to whether the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of the purse seine fisheries is an appropriate index of abundance for Skipjack Tuna, particularly when the fish are associated with fish-aggregating devices (FADs). Purse seine CPUE data are particularly problematic, because it is difficult to identify the appropriate unit of effort (Maunder 2010). Since the stock assessments and reference points for Skipjack Tuna in the EPO are so uncertain, developing alternative methods to assess and manage the species that are robust to these uncertainties would be beneficial.<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, there is currently no specific regulation in effect for Skipjack Tuna. However, with the aim of protecting juvenile Bigeye Tuna, the French and the Spanish boat owners voluntarily decided to apply a moratorium for fishing under floating objects between November and the end of January for the 1997–1998 and 1998–1999 periods. ICCAT implemented a similar moratorium from 1999 to January 2005. This moratorium has had an effect on Skipjack Tuna catches made with FADs. On the basis of a comparison of average catches between 1993–1996, prior to the moratoria, and those between the 1998–2002 period, the average Skipjack Tuna catches between November and January for the purse seine fleets that applied the moratoria, were reduced by 64%. During that period (1998–2002), the average annual Skipjack Tuna catches by purse seine fleets that applied the moratoria decreased by 41% (42,000 t per year). However, this decrease is possibly a combined result of the decrease in effort and the impact of the moratoria (the average annual catch per boat decreased only 18% between these two periods). This moratorium area was reduced significantly in spatial and temporal coverage in 2001. The ICCAT-SCRS recommends that catches not be allowed to exceed MSY (ISSF 2010, STECF 2009).<br/><br/>In the Western and Central Pacific, there is a limit on the use of FADs and purse seiners, and to reduce the catch of long liners to reduce bycatch for Bigeye Tuna, all of which may have positive conservation effects for this species.
170310		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal in seas warmer than 15°C. In the Eastern Pacific it occurs from British Columbia to northern Chile, including all of the oceanic islands. It occurs in the Mediterranean but is not found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea or the Black Sea. It is found throughout the warm Atlantic, including the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico.
170310		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan in tropical and warm-temperate waters.  It occurs in the Mediterranean. It has been caught in small numbers in October-November 2008 along the coast of Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). It seems that it started to appear recently.
170310		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, found in offshore waters. Larvae are restricted to waters with surface temperatures of 15°C to 30°C (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993).  It exhibits a strong tendency to school in surface waters with birds, drifting objects, sharks, whales and may show a characteristic behaviour like jumping, feeding, foaming, etc.  It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, cephalopods and molluscs; cannibalism is common.  It is preyed upon by large pelagic fishes (Hart 1973).  <br/><br/>It spawns throughout the year in the tropics (Muus and Nielsen 1999), where reproductively active female skipjack tuna spawn almost daily.
170310		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species is found in offshore waters to depths of 260 m. The larvae are restricted to waters with surface temperatures of 15–30°C in Australia (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). This species exhibits a strong tendency to school in surface waters with birds, drifting objects, sharks, and whales. This species feeds on fish, crustaceans, cephalopods, and molluscs. It is preyed upon by large pelagic fishes (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). In the western Atlantic it is commonly found in mixed schools with Blackfin Tuna, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus atlanticus</span>.<br/><br/>This species is very fast-growing, short-lived, and very fecund. Maximum size recorded is 111 cm fork length (FL) (Bayliff 1988) and 34.5 kg. Longevity is estimated to be between 6–8 years (Garcia-Coll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Collette 2010), and age of first maturity is estimated to be 1.5 years (Maunder and Harley 2005). Size at first maturity is 40–55 cm FL, depending on the area (Collette and Nauen 1983, Matsumoto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984, Wild and Hampton 1994, Schaefer 2001). Estimated length at 50% maturity for females is 42 cm (Cayre and Farrugio 1986, Stequert and Ramcharrun 1996).<br/><br/>This species sex ratio is about 1:1 but fisheries that rely on young, immature fish are dominated by females, while those that capture older fish are mostly male. This species spawns several times per season in batches: at sea surface temperatures of 24–29°C throughout the year in the Caribbean and other equatorial waters, and from spring to early fall in subtropical waters, with the spawning season becoming shorter as distances from the equator increases (Erdman 1977, Collette 2010). In tropical waters, reproductively active female Skipjack Tuna spawn almost daily. Models of migration have been proposed, especially from the central Pacific into the eastern Pacific. Fecundity increases with size but is highly variable, the number of eggs per season in females 41–87 cm FL ranges from 80,000 to 2,000,000 (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 108 cm FL, 32.5–34.5 kg. The all-tackle angling record is of a 20.54 kg fish caught off Baja California, Mexico in 1996 (IGFA 2011).
170310		population	eng	It is not abundant in the Mediterranean, with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings reporting a fluctuating catch around 100mt from 1996-2005. Catch statistics are incomplete for this species. Catch is slowly increasing in the Mediterranean in recent years (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>Katsuwonus pelamis</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean (1996–2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): - (1996), - (1997), - (1998), - (1999), - (2000), - (2001), 36 (2002), 156 (2003), 179 (2004), 28 (2005).
170310		population	eng	Reported worldwide landings fluctuate greatly, but show a gradual increase from 158,600 tonnes in 1950 to 2,480,812 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>Catch summary statistics for 2000–2004 and the status of the stock (Majikowsk 2007) include the following:&#160; 93,000–133,000 tonnes/year in the Eastern Atlantic where the status of the stock is unknown; 22,000–31,000 tonnes/year in the Western Atlantic where the status of the stock is unknown; 422,000–489,000 tonnes/year in the Indian Ocean where the status of the stock is Moderately to Fully exploited; 282,000–439,000 tonnes/year in the Eastern Pacific where the status of the stock is Moderately exploited; 1,136,000–1,295,000 tonnes/year in the Western and Central Pacific where the status of the stock is Moderately exploited.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO)</span><br/>FAO landings data from 1976–2005 vary from approximately 25,000–140,000 tonnes caught annually in the eastern tropical Pacific (FAO 2009). Landings data have been relatively constant over the last 20 years, and between 35,000 and 100,000 tonnes. In general, the Skipjack Tuna global population in the EPO has been high for the last 30 years perhaps related to increased frequency of El-Niño events. Therefore, the general eastward expansion of the Skipjack habitat predicted in this simulation is very plausible (Loukos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Worm and Tittensor 2011).<br/><br/>The last full assessment for Skipjack Tuna in the EPO was in 2005 (Maunder and Harley 2005), although an evaluation of a set of fishery indicators was given in 2008 (Maunder 2010). Reported landings from 1976–2005 (IATTC 2008) varied from 52,000–311,000 metric tonnes per year in the Eastern Pacific including California. The recruitment of tuna to the tropical eastern Pacific region is highly variable and is thought to be the reason for the large variations in stock size. The average weight of this species has been declining since 2000, and the 2007 average weight is approaching the lower reference level. The biomass, recruitment, and exploitation rate has also been increasing over the past 20 years. The main concern with this species' stock is the constantly increasing exploitation rate. However, the data- and model-based indicators have yet to detect any adverse consequence of this increase. There have been observed declines in average weight, and average weight is near its lower reference level, which can be a consequence of overexploitation, but it can also be caused by recent recruitments being stronger than past recruitments (IATTC 2008, Maunder 2010). For example, a group of relatively strong cohorts entered the fishery in 2000–2003.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO)</span><br/>Within the equatorial region, fishing mortality increased throughout the modelled period (1952–2007) and is estimated to be highest in the western region in the most recent years. The impact of fishing is predicted to have reduced recent biomass by about 40% in the western equatorial region and 20% in the eastern region (Langley and Hampton 2008). However, this most recent assessment for Skipjack Tuna in the WCPO (Langeley and Hampton 2008) concluded that the stock was not in an overfished state nor was overfishing occurring. Nothing has been observed in the fishery that indicates that this conclusion should be changed, although some mild concern over possible shifts in distribution of Skipjack Tuna in the northern regions of the WCPO has been expressed (Joseph 2009, ISSF 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>An attempt was made in 2003 to assess the stock status but due to the large uncertainties in the information needed to conduct a complete assessment, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) only analysed different fishery indicators that could provide a general understanding of the state of the stock (i.e., trends in catches and nominal catch per unit effort (CPUE), average weight in the catches, length-based cohort analysis (IOTC 2008, IOTC 2009, STECF 2007). In spite of not having a full stock assessment for this species, the analysis did not show reasons for concern, as catches have continued to increase as effort increased and the majority of the catch comes from fish that are already sexually mature (greater than 40 cm), as the fishing pattern by size indicates. However, length-based cohort analyses indicated a growing catch of smaller size fish due to the fishery with fish aggregating devices (FADs) (STECF 2007).<br/><br/>Preliminary data indicate that catches in 2007 may be the lowest since 2002 (IOTC 2009), possibly due to the lack of fishing in areas patrolled by pirates. However, the range of stock indicators available does not currently signal any problems in the fishery, and catches have continued to increase as effort increased (IOTC 2009, STECF 2009). Furthermore, the majority of the catch comes from fish that are sexually mature (greater than 40 cm) and therefore likely to have already reproduced (STECF 2009). The IOTC has recommended that this species should be carefully monitored given current fishing pressure as it is clear that current catches cannot be increased indefinitely (IOTC 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>The Atlantic population is divided into eastern and western stocks; with the eastern stock contributing the majority of catches (~ 80%). Stock assessments for eastern and western Atlantic Skipjack Tuna were conducted in 2008 using available catches to 2006 (STECF 2009). In summary, it appears that both stocks in the Atlantic are currently being fished at levels below maximum sustainable yield (MSY), and the stocks are not being overfished, and are not considered to be in an overfished state (ISSF 2010). The total catches obtained in 2008 in the entire Atlantic Ocean were close to 149,000 t which represents the catch average of the last five years (STECF 2009). This species is not abundant in the Mediterranean with FAO reported landings fluctuating around 100 t from 1996–2005. Although catch is slowly increasing in the Mediterranean in recent years, statistics in the Mediterranean are incomplete (Di Natale pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Atlantic, the preliminary estimates of catches made in 2008 amounted to 127,000 t, representing an increase of 3% as compared to the average of 2003–2007. A Bayesian method, using only catch information estimated the MSY (under a Schaefer-type model parametrisation) at 143,000–156,000 t, a result which agrees with the estimate obtained by the modified Grainger and Garcia approach: 149,000 t. In addition, two non-equilibrium surplus biomass production models were applied for eight time series of CPUEs, and for a combined CPUE index weighted by fishing areas. In general, the range of plausible MSY values estimated from these models (155,000–170,000 t) were larger than in the Bayesian model based on catches. It is therefore difficult to estimate MSY under the continuous increasing conditions of the exploitation plot of this fishery (one-way of the trajectory to substantially weaker effort values) and which as a result, the potential range distribution of some priors needs to be constrained (e.g., for growth rate, or for the shape parameter of the generalized model) (ICCAT 2009, STECF 2009). Although there are discrepancies among various models that create difficulty in estimating MSY, it is unlikely that Skipjack Tuna is over exploited in the eastern Atlantic (ICCAT 2009, STECF 2009).<br/><br/>In the Western Atlantic, the major fishery is the Brazilian baitboat fishery, followed by the Venezuelan purse seine fleet (ICCAT 2009, STECF 2009). Catches in 2008 in the West Atlantic amounted to 22,000 t representing a decrease of 17% as compared to the trend observed for recent years. Catch only model estimated MSY at around 30,000 t (similar to the estimate provided by the Grainger and Garcia approach) and the Bayesian surplus model (Schaefer formulation) at 34,000 t. Other analyses using Multifan-CL indicated MSY convergens to about 31,000–36,000 t. For the western Atlantic stock, in light of the information provided by the trajectories of B/BMSY and F/FMSY, it is unlikely that the current catch is larger than the current replacement yield (ICCAT 2009, STECF 2009).
170310		threats	eng	Skipjack Tuna make up 60% of the commercial tuna catch worldwide and is mostly used for canning. They are taken at the surface mostly with purse seines and pole-and-line gear, but is also caught by trolling on light tackle using plugs, spoons, feathers, or strip bait (Collette 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO)</span><br/>In the EPO, this species is primarily caught with purse seines, and with pole and line and long-line to a lesser degree. It is an important game fish in Panama (D'Croz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). More recently this species is being fished with drifting floating objects. The large increase in catch observed in the past 10 years is primarily due to fishing with fish aggregating devices (FADs) in the equatorial eastern Pacific. There is a continuously increasing exploitation rate in the EPO, but models do not predict widespread population decline (IATTC 2008). Given the reduction in larger predators, it is expected that this species is relatively abundant. However, there is a decreasing average weight and increasing catch effort with no comprehensive stock assessment in this region (STEFC 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO)</span><br/>Although Skipjack Tuna are the most intensively fished species in the central Pacific Ocean, biomass appears to have remained relatively stable between 1952–1998 (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). A Japanese pole-and-line fleet previously dominated the fishery, but it is now dominated by purse seiners, and catches by this gear have shown an increasing trend for three decades (ISSF 2010). Over the past five years, the catch has been at record high levels exceeding 1.2 million tonnes annually and accounting for more than 65% of the annual catch of principal tuna species in the region (STECF 2007). In the WCPO, the level of catch is very high, and some boats are not recording catches, and there are difficulties in monitoring the various fleets concerned (STECF 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>In the Indian Ocean this species is mainly caught by purse seine, gillnet and bait boat (IOTC 2008). The high productivity life history characteristics of Skipjack Tuna suggest this species is resilient and not prone to overfishing, and the stock status indicators suggest there is no need for immediate concern about the status of Skipjack Tuna. However, it is clear that catches cannot grow at the current rate indefinitely (STECF 2007). The effect of FAD fishery on juveniles of other tuna species should be strictly monitored and evaluated.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>The numerous changes that have occurred in the Skipjack Tuna fishery since the early 1990s (such as the use of FADs and the expansion of the fishing area towards the west) that have brought about an increase in Skipjack Tuna catchability and in the proportion of the stock that is exploited. At present, the major fisheries are the purse seine fisheries, particularly those of Spain, France, Cape Verde, Guatemala and Ghana, followed by baitboat fisheries of Ghana, Spain and France. Increasing harvests and fishing effort could lead to involuntary consequences for other species that are harvested in combination with Skipjack Tuna. In the West Atlantic, the major fishery is the Brazilian baitboat fishery, followed by the Venezuelan purse seine fleet (STECF 2009). The Brazilian bait boat fleet of Santa Catarina State yields almost half of the Skipjack Tuna catches in the West Atlantic (Andrade and Kinas 2004).With respect to the West Atlantic, the fishing effort of the Brazilian baitboats seems to be stable over the last 20 years.&#160; There has been a recent increase in Skipjack Tuna catchability from 1–13% per year since the early 1980s. The change in the selectivity pattern observed for the purse seine fishery suggests that this fleet is mainly targeting juvenile tunas (ICCAT 2008). In the insular Caribbean, this species is important to the artisanal fishery (Mahon 1996). In the Mediterranean, this species may be caught with drift nets.<br/><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-converted-space"></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-converted-space"><p></p></span></span></span>
170310		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with seines, but is also taken by trolling on light tackle using plugs, spoons, feathers, or strip bait, and by longline (Collette 2001).  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean this species is also taken by drift net.
170311		conservation	eng	There is no species-specific information available for this species. Effort information is needed to better interpret the increase in landings.
170311		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Persian Gulf, India and Sri Lanka to southeast Asia, north to Hong Kong and Wakasa Bay, Sea of Japan.
170311		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic migratory fish inhabiting coastal waters at depths to 200 m, it sometimes enters turbid estuarine waters, and is usually found in small schools.  It feeds mainly on small schooling fishes (especially sardines and anchovies), squids and crustaceans.  Fishing peaks in the months of November and December in Eastern Thailand, late Dec and January in the northern part of the Gulf and January to March in its western part.<br/><br/>Adults can reach a maximum length of 76 cm fork length. Maturity is reached at around 48–52 cm total length (TL) or 1–2 years old in southern India, and about 40 cm (TL) in Thailand. Length at 50% maturity is 37.5 (cm) for females (Krishnarnoorthy 1958). Based on the occurrence of ripe females and the size of maturing eggs, spawning probably occurs from April to July in southern India and in May in Thailand waters. Fecundity increases with age in the Indian waters, ranging from around 400,000 eggs at age two years to over one million eggs at age four years (IOTC 2007). This species may live to be 16 years old (Devaraj 1977).
170311		population	eng	FAO worldwide reported landings show a gradual increase from 300 tonnes in 1950 to 39,086 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>The Indo-Pacific King Mackerel is mostly caught by gillnet fisheries in the Indian Ocean, in particular artisanal fleets from India and more recently Indonesia. The catch estimates for Indo-Pacific King Mackerel were derived from very small amounts of information and are therefore highly uncertain. The catches are based on the information available at the Secretariat and the following observations on the catches cannot currently be verified. Estimated catches have increased steadily since the mid 1960s, reaching around 10,000 t in the early 1970s and over 30,000 t by 1989. The average annual catch estimated for the period 2003–2007 is 31,600 t. In recent years, the countries attributed with the highest catches are Indonesia, India and Iran (IOTC 2007). The Indian Ocean catch data has been relatively stable since 1983, but there is no information on effort to interpret these landings, and no recent stock assessment. In India and in the middle of its range, many reported catches are mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. lineolatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. koreanus</span>.
170311		threats	eng	This species is highly commercial and caught with gill-nets, midwater trawls, purse seines, bamboo stake traps, set nets and by trolling.  It is marketed mainly fresh; also dried-salted, smoked and frozen (Collette 2001). In India, this species is caught with hand-lines and boat seiners in offshore waters. Small quantities of frozen product are exported to Europe and North America.
170312		conservation	eng	Highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Serafy 2009).<br/><br/>Marlin species are a special case because by-catch in the longline fisheries concentrating primarily on tunas causes the majority of fishery mortality (>90%) for marlin (Kitchell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In the Pacific, marlin are most frequently captured on the shallow hooks of a longline set (those close to the floats), and removing less than 15% of the hook sets adjacent to floats would decrease marlin catch by as much as 50% (Kitchell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, Billfish cannot be taken commercially in Peru, Panama, Nicaragua, and Guatemala, and all recreational fishing is catch and release in Panama, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. It is protected in Mexico, as there is a 50 miles coastal zone area where this species cannot be taken commercially, and there is a larger conservation zone off of Baja California where it cannot be taken commercially. Commercial harvest in Costa Rica is limited to15% of all landings.
170312		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific, and occasionally enters temperate waters. Stray individuals migrate into the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Cape of Good Hope, but the existence of Atlantic breeding stocks is unlikely. In the Eastern Pacific it is found from southern California to the southwestern and northeastern Gulf of California to Chile, including all of the oceanic islands.
170312		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species is usually found in surface waters above the thermocline at temperatures from 15–30°C, often close to land masses, islands and coral reefs. It is found to depths of 100 m. It feeds on fishes, squids, cuttlefishes, octopods, large decapod crustaceans, and mostly on small tunas such as Skipjack, Yellowfin, Bigeye, and Frigate tunas (Nakamura 1985). This species can grow to be 700 kg.<br/><br/>Billfishes are at or near the apex of pelagic food webs, have broad diets, grow very rapidly, have high fecundity, and, in some cases show long-distance migrations (Kitchell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). All billfish live at least 9–12 years, with a fecundity of 0.75 to 19 million eggs, increasing with size. Females are usually larger than males, and larvae are pelagic (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Males and females are indistinguishable externally, but females attain a much larger size. Sex ratio varies with area and season. In Taiwan waters, all black marlin greater than 270 cm LJFL were females. Length of males at first maturity was about 140 cm, and 230 cm for females. Age at first maturity not known. Intensive spawning occurs in the Coral Sea, especially during October and November. Water temperatures about 27–28°C during spawning.&#160; Egg counts of ripe females totalled about 40 million (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 707.61 kg fish caught off Cabo Blanco, Peru in 1953 (IGFA 2011).
170312		population	eng	There is no stock assessment for this species. Based on reported landings to FAO, the world catch for this species is variable, but shows a gradual increase from around 5,000 tonnes in the 1950s to 10,826 tonnes in 2006 and from 2,373 to 3,440 metric tonnes per year between 1978–1982. Many landings of marlins do not specify this species, and it is discarded when caught as by-catch by long-line fisheries, and is not quantified.<br/><br/>The landing information on marlins for the whole Pacific Ocean is not available, except for the FAO statistics. Based on the FAO Year Book (1996), recently 47,000 metric tons of marlins were caught in the Pacific. Blue Marlin occupied about 42% of the total catch, Striped Marlin occupied about 25%, Sailfish 10%, and Black Marlin 5%, but “marlins” occupied 19% of the total, respectively. The category of “marlins” includes catch of other marlins than Blue Marlin, Striped Marlin, Black Marlin, and Sailfish, and also includes the catch of species unknown. International management authority of the Black Marlin in the Pacific is shared by the Inter American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC). There has never been an assessment of the status of black marlin in the Pacific, but landings trends over the past thirty years have been generally declining.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, catch per unit effort (CPUE) exhibited dramatic declines since the beginning of the fishery in the 1950s with catches in the initial fishing grounds decreasing substantially. Nominal CPUE in the northwestern Australian area has declined from 2.0 to about 0.25 (approximately 87%) since 1977, while nominal CPUE in the Seychelles area has been very low and has declined from 0.3 to 0.2 (30% decline) since the 1970s (IOTC 2009).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, FAO (2006) landing data from 1995–2005 has shown a rapid increase from 300 metric tonnes to 1,400 metric tonnes. Landings data from IATTC (2008) for Black Marlin taken by purse seine and long-line in the Eastern Pacific vary from 100 to 417 metric tonnes per year from 1978 to 2007, with a uniformly low catch. However, Black Marlin are often difficult to identify and the catch of unidentified billfishes increased from a few hundred to thousands of metric tonnes during this time frame. In the Eastern Pacific specifically, quantities of billfish caught are not attributed to a single species and many countries are not reporting the catch.<br/><br/>In Mexico, the majority of the marlin catch comes from the Gulf of California (89%), the remainder coming from the Gulf of Tehuantepec (11%). The total recreational catch of billfish has increased since 1990 (first year of reported data) from approximately 12,000 to 33,000 fish in 2005. Recreational fishing effort has also been increasing during the same time period from approximately 4,000 fishing trips in 1990 to 37,000 trips in 2005. Striped Marlin is the dominate species caught in the recreational fishery accounting for approximately 68% of the total catch. Sailfish account for 25% of the total recreational catch, followed Blue Marlin at 7% and Black Marlin at < 1% (ISC 2007).<br/><strong></strong>
170312		threats	eng	Caught mainly by commercial longliners, trolling, harpooning and sometimes by set nets and gill nets. It is mostly caught by surface tuna long liners. This species may potentially be threatened by artisanal and commercial long-line fisheries, and it is commonly taken as bycatch in purse seiners, and it is sometimes discarded. It is a important species in sport fisheries, and is targeted by artisanal fisheries.<br/><br/>This species is taken as bycatch similar to blue and striped marlin, primarily in long-lines and secondarily in purse seines, but the quantity is generally not recorded. There is a significant lack of&#160; CPUE data.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, this species is caught by tuna longliners and is also a very important sportsfish off Peru, Ecuador, and northeastern Australia (Matsumoto and Bayliff 2008). Little data exists for landing data from countries in the Eastern Pacific.
170313		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. There is a need for robust fishery data to support the provision of management advice for bonito in the Pacific and there is a need to collect data on catches from the Western Central Pacific Ocean, and from artisanal fisheries throughout the Pacific. There is also a need to investigate and explain the reasons behind the recently observed peak catches reported from the Eastern Pacific. The limited distribution of some species of bonito together with the growing demand for bonito for high quality canned products require close monitoring of this species (STECF 2009).
170313		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific, but with many gaps in its known distribution.
170313		habitat	eng	This is a coastal pelagic species (Collette 1995) that can be found schooling with small tunas to depths of 30 m. It is also found around some islands. It feeds on clupeoids, other fishes, squids, and decapod crustaceans. It occurs at temperatures of 13.5–23°C.<br/><br/>There is little known on this species biology. Length of maturity at 50% was estimated at 54 cm fork length (FL) (Silas 1964).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 102 cm FL. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 10.65 kg fish caught off of Victoria, Mahe, Seychelles Islands in 1975 (IGFA 2011). Average Annual Fecundity is 80,000–115,0000.
170313		population	eng	Fisheries for this species are not well-developed (Collette and Nauen 1983). This species is mainly caught in artisanal fisheries, and catch landings are generally not reported for this species.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, there has been a decrease in the landings of combined bonito species <span style="font-style: italic;">(S. orientalis</span>  and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. chiliensis)</span> since 1999 (IATTC 2008). Historical catch for these combined species in the eastern  Pacific ranged from about 26 to 14,227 t, with a previous peak in 1990.  Total preliminary catch in 2007 was about 17,610 t, a new historical  peak and about five times higher than the previous year. The 2007  catches are also five times higher than the average catch (3,622 t) in  the last 20 years (1987–2006). Preliminary 2008 catch estimates show a strong reduction (-86%) compared to the  same period in 2007 (STECF 2009). However, it is not known what is driving this fluctuation, and is most likely that only a small proportion of these landings data are for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. orientalis</span>, as the majority of the catch was from Chile and Peru which are probably <span style="font-style: italic;">S. chiliensis.</span>
170313		threats	eng	This species is caught with other scombrids with troll lines, encircling nets (Collette 1995) purse seines and drift nets. For all Pacific bonito species, almost all catches  (about 93%) are made by purse seiners, however the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) has noted that these species are also caught  by artisanal fisheries and catches are not reported (STECF 2009).
170314		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species, listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>In some areas, long-lining is restricted to protect fish stocks for sport fishing. Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Pine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Serafy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Marlin species are a special case because bycatch in the longline fisheries concentrating primarily on tunas causes the majority of fishery mortality (>90%) for marlin (Kitchell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In the Pacific, marlin are most frequently captured on the shallow hooks of a longline set (those close to the floats), and removing less than 15% of the hook sets adjacent to floats would decrease marlin catch by as much as 50% (Kitchell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>For Blue Marlin in the Atlantic, the ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (ICCAT–SCRS) in 2008 asked the Commission, at a minimum, to continue the management measures already in place because marlins have not yet recovered. The Commission should take steps to assure that the reliability of the recent fishery information improves in order to provide a basis for verifying possible future rebuilding of the stocks. Improvements are needed in the monitoring of the fate and number of dead and live releases, with verification from scientific observer programs; verification of current and historical landings from some artisanal and industrial fleets; and complete and updated relative abundance indices from CPUE data for the major fleets. Should the Commission wish to increase the likelihood of success of the current management measures of the marlin rebuilding plan, further reduction in mortality would be needed, including: implementing plans to improve compliance of current regulations; encouraging the use of alternative gear configurations, including certain types of circle hooks, hook/bait combinations etc., in fisheries where its use has been shown to be beneficial; and broader application of time/area catch restrictions.<br/><br/>Given the recent importance of the catch from artisanal fisheries, and to increase the likelihood of recovery of marlin stocks, the Commission should consider regulations that control or reduce the fishing mortality generated by these fisheries. The Commission should encourage continued research on development of methods to incorporate this information into stock assessments in order to provide a basis for increasing the certainty with which management advice can be provided.<br/><br/>The Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) stresses the need for correct identification and reporting of billfish species in all&#160; fisheries. Furthermore, STECF notes that the 2007 ICCAT–SCRS report indicated the potential for the stocks of blue marlin and white marlin to recover to the BMSY level. However, recent increases in catches of Blue Marlin by artisanal fisheries on both sides of the Atlantic may compromise the effectiveness of the ICCAT plan (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>Recent analyses suggest that the recovery of blue marlin stock might proceed faster than would have been estimated at the 2000 assessment, provided catches remain at the level estimated for 2004. Some signs of stabilization in the abundance trend are apparent in the most recent catch per unit of effort data of Blue Marlin (2000–2004) Recommendations [Rec. 00-13], [Rec. 01-10] and finally [Rec. 02-13] placed additional catch restrictions for Blue Marlin and White Marlin. The first established that the annual amount of Blue Marlin that can be harvested by pelagic longline and purse seine vessels and retained for landing must be no more than 33% for White Marlin and 50% for Blue Marlin of the 1996 or 1999 landing levels, whichever is greater. That recommendation established that all Blue Marlin and White Marlin brought to pelagic longline and purse seine vessels alive shall be released in a manner that maximizes their survival. The provision of this paragraph does not apply to marlins that are dead when brought along the side of the vessel and that are not sold or entered into commerce. Catches of both species have declined since 1996–99, the period selected as the reference period by the recommendations. Since 2002, the year of implementation of the last of these two recommendations, the catch of Blue Marlin has been below the 50% value recommended by the Commission. This analysis represents only longline caught marlin even though the recommendations referred to the combined catch of pelagic longline and purse seine because the catch estimates of billfish by-catch from purse seine vessels are more uncertain than those from longline. More countries have started reporting data on live releases in 2006. Additionally, more information has come about, for some fleets, on the potential for using gear modifications to reduce the bycatch and increase the survival of marlins (ICCAT 2007).<br/><br/>Catches of Blue Marlin in the Indian Ocean are very poorly reported and there is need of better data to evaluate the condition of the Indian Ocean stock.
170314		distribution	eng	An epipelagic oceanic species, blue marlin is often found in wide open blue waters with surface temperatures between 22° and 31°C. It is the most tropical of the billfishes. Its latitudinal range changes seasonally, expanding northwards and southwards in the warmer months and contracting towards the equator in colder months.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific it is found from California to the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands. In the Atlantic Ocean, adults are commonly found in the tropics within the 24°C isotherm.<br/><br/>In both the eastern tropical Pacific and the eastern tropical Atlantic, Blue Marlin concentrate in shallower waters than in the western part of both oceans due to hypoxia-based habitat compression over oxygen minimum zones in the eastern tropical seas (Prince <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><p><br/><sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_blue_marlin#cite_note-17"><span></a></sup></p>
170314		habitat	eng	This epipelagic and oceanic species is mostly confined to the waters on the warmer side of the 24°C surface isotherm and known to undergo seasonal north-south migrations. It is found to 1,000 m depth but spends the highest percentage of its time at shallower depths, and is not usually seen close to land masses or islands, unless there is a deep drop-off of the shelf. This species can dive as deep as 1,000 m, but it remains mostly within the upper 40 m. It is believed to form small-scale schools of at most 10 individuals. Larger fish tend to swim solitarily (Nakamura 1985) but smaller ones form aggregations.<br/><br/>It feeds on squids, tuna-like fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods (Nakamura 1985). Spawning probably takes place year-round in equatorial waters to 10°N/S and during summer periods in both hemispheres to 30°N/S, in both the Indian and Pacific oceans (Kailola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). In the southern hemisphere, concentrations of spawning fish probably occur around French Polynesia (Howard and Ueyanagi 1965). In Brazil, spawning occurs February to March from 20–23°S, primarily in the Abrolhos Archipelago (Amorim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Most of the individuals captured at this location have been juveniles (Amorim pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Maximum time at large recorded is 11 years (Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Maximum age is estimated to be at least 20 years (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991). Maximum age is estimated in the Pacific as 27 years (females) and 18 years (males) (Hill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Age estimation in marlins is problematic and longevity information from the Pacific has also been applied to the Atlantic. Age at maturity is estimated to be two years (Prince <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, Torres-Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Using longevity estimates of 20 years and 27 years, and age of maturity of two years, the generation length was estimated to be between 4.5–6 years. The generation length is calculated as: age of first reproduction + z * (longevity - age of first maturity), where z is 0.15 (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 636-kg fish caught off Vitoria, Brazil in 1992 (IGFA 2011).
170314		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>The most recent stock assessment for Blue Marlin (ICCAT 2007) used a Bayesian Surplus Production model to estimate biomass from 1990 through 2006. The remaining data series (1956–1989) are based on biomass estimates from the previous stock assessment (ICCAT 2002). Population declines were examined using a generation length estimated between 4.5 and 6 years. Over a three generation length period of 14 years, the decline was 60% and over a three generation length period of 18 years, the decline was 64%. These declines were calculated using a linear regression over each of the time periods examined. Population reduction for Atlantic blue marlin was therefore estimated to be between 60% and 64%. For all of the models for which the stock productivity was constrained to be near the productivity estimated by the last full assessment, the current biomass was estimated to be at or below biomass at maximum sustainable yield (BMSY) and current fishing mortality rates were above FMSY. The stock is therefore not considered to be well-managed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Pacific Ocean</span><br/>The best knowledge currently available indicates that Blue Marlin constitutes a single world-wide species (Buonaccorsi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2001, Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and that there is a single stock of Blue Marlin in the Pacific Ocean (Hinton 2001). No recent estimates of biomass or catch per unit effort (CPUE) were available. Biomass estimates from the last stock assessment for Pacific Blue Marlin (Kleiber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) were available only until 1997. We therefore used estimated catch data from the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) (Hinton, unpublished data 2011), which were the only available recent data. We assume that effort has remained stable or has increased over the time period examined. Based on catch data and a generation length of 4.5–6 years, we estimated declines of 5% over 14 years (1996–2009) and 19% over 18 years (1992–2009) using linear regression. We consider that these estimates of decline (based on catches) are likely conservative. This stock is not considered to be well-managed and there is urgent need for a newer stock assessment to evaluate population trends.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>Nominal yearly CPUE of Japanese longliners in Northwest Australia has declined 58.9% over a 14 year period (1993–2007) and 70.6% over a 18 year period (1989–2007; Figure 40, IOTC 2009). The CPUE decline for Japanese longliners in the Seychelles was 79.5% over 14 years and 56.9% over 18 years (Figure 40, IOTC 2009). For each time period considered, an average of the declines in Northwest Australia and the Seychelles was used to characterize the population in the Indian Ocean. The decline in the Indian Ocean ranged from 63–69% depending on the time period considered. It is important to note that these data are limited and catch data from other industrial fisheries such as longliners of Indonesia and Philippines are not available. The stock is not considered to be well managed and more information is needed to understand population declines for blue marlin in the Indian Ocean.
170314		threats	eng	In the Pacific, Blue Marlin are an incidental catch of longline fisheries, bycatch in swordfish fisheries, and an important resource for big game recreational fishing. More than 73% of reported landings are incidental to large offshore longline fisheries, and other major fisheries are the directed recreational fisheries of the USA and other countries (Restrepo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Protections efforts for blue marlin have continued to decrease in recent years, as deeper longline gear is introduced (Uozumi 1999).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic new fleets have harvested large catches of Blue Marlin,  including artisanal fish aggregating devices (FAD) fisheries in the  eastern Caribbean islands and a new artisanal fleet of small longliners  operating off Brazil between 18°S and 30°S. This species is primarily  taken as bycatch by longline fisheries, but also by purse seines, by  some artisanal gears which are the only fisheries targeting marlins and  also by various sport fisheries located on both sides of the Atlantic. The increasing use of anchored FADs by various artisanal and sport  fisheries is causing greater vulnerability of these stocks (STECF 2009).  For example, over the last fifteen years, Antillean artisanal fleets  have increased the use of Moored Fish Aggregating Devices (MFADs) to  capture pelagic fish. Catches of Blue Marlin caught around MFADs are  known to be significant but reports on these catches made to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) are  very incomplete (ICCAT 2006).
170315		conservation	eng	A highly migratory species, listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Serafy<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).
170315		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the tropical and temperate Indo-Pacific, and enters the eastern Atlantic (via Cape of Good Hope) but does not spawn there. Although it seems unlikely, vagrants have been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific it is found from California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands.
170315		habitat	eng	This species is oceanic and epipelagic, and is generally found above the thermocline (Nakamura 1985). It is found well offshore and rarely enters coastal waters. It feeds on fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans.<br/><br/>This fish can weigh up to 52 kg. Average length of fish caught in long lines is 135cm eye fork length in the eastern Pacific. Maximum size is about 2 m and 52 kg in weight. Females are on average slightly larger than males.<br/><br/>Spawning is believed to occur mainly during winter months, especially in warm offshore currents with surface temperatures of about 25°C. Diameters of eggs shed range from 1.3–1.6 mm (mean 1.442 mm) in the equatorial western Indian Ocean (Collette 2010, Nakamura 1985).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 230 cm total length (TL). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 50 kg fish caught in Botany Bay, Sydney, Australia in 2008 (IGFA 2011).
170315		population	eng	This is a rare species. The annual take from bycatch is estimated at several hundred metric tonnes per year (Nakamura 1985). FAO reported worldwide landings are very low, and range from eight tonnes in 1995 to 38 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>From 1994–2004 in the Eastern Pacific, landings varied between 100 and 300 metric tonnes per year. Prior to this time, there was no reporting of landings specific to this species. Landings data are now increasingly reported (IATTC 2008). Reported catches have increased since 1994, reaching a peak of 304 tons in 2001. Recent catches appear stable (274 t in 2002, 293 t in 2003, 208 t in 2004, 278 t in 2005 and 263 t in 2006). The preliminary catch estimate in 2007 is only 2 tons. EU-Spain in 2007 reported very low catches, 0.1 t in the western central Pacific and <0.01 t in the eastern Pacific (STECF 2009).
170315		threats	eng	There are no special fisheries for this species, but it is caught incidentally by commercial long lines and trolling. It is also caught by sports fishermen.<br/><br/>This species is taken as bycatch, similar to blue and striped marlin, primarily in long-lines and secondarily in purse-seines, but the quantity is not generally recorded.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Pacific</span><br/>The Shortbill Spearfish is occasionally taken as a bycatch in various fisheries or is a target species in some artisanal or recreational fisheries. The Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries of the EU (STECF) notes that quantities of billfish caught in the Pacific Ocean are still not reported by species and many catches known to occur are not reported at all. The lack of reliable catch data is affecting the understanding of this stock and the management advice (STECF 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic</span><br/>This species is primarily taken by longline fisheries (including various EU longline fisheries), but also by purse seines (including EU purse seiners), some artisanal gear and also by various sport fisheries located on both sides of the Atlantic. The increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices (FADs) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is possibly increasing the vulnerability of these stocks (STECF 2009).
170316		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this  species, except in Australia where there are minimum size and bag  limits. The Queensland Fishery is regulated under Queensland's Fisheries Regulations 1995. Regulations include a minimal size limit of 75 cm, that applies to both commercial and recreational fishers on the East Coast of Queensland. Recreational fishers are also limited to 30 school mackerel per fishing trip. These licenses also regulate fishing practices and gear.<br/><br/>Effort data is needed to interpret national and regional catch landings. This species likely comprises a number of stocks throughout its range, and conservation measures may be better implemented by national agencies, rather than regional management organizations.
170316		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea and South Africa to Southeast Asia, north to China and Japan and south to southeast Australia, and to Fiji. It is an immigrant to the eastern Mediterranean Sea by way of the Suez Canal where it can be found westward to at least Tunisia (Ben Souissi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In the southeast Atlantic, it is has been reported from St. Helena as a vagrant.
170316		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. It is distributed from near the edge of the continental shelf to shallow coastal waters, often of low salinity and high turbidity. It is also found in drop-offs, and shallow or gently sloping reef and lagoon waters. It inhabits coastal waters at depths to 200 m (Collette 2001), but is more frequently caught in areas less than 100 m depth. It usually hunts solitarily and often swims in shallow water along coastal slopes. It is known to undertake lengthy long-shore migrations, but permanent resident populations also seem to exist. It is found in small schools. It feeds primarily on small fishes like anchovies, clupeids, carangids, also squid, and penaeid shrimps.<br/><br/>Depending on temperature regime, the spawning season may be more or less extended. In Australian waters, each female spawns several times over the season, about two to six days apart, depending on the locality. Spanish Mackerel spawn off the reef slopes and edges, and they form spawning aggregations in specific areas.<br/><br/>This species has an age at first maturity of about two years (Devaraj 1981, Grandcourt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Mackie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Claereboudt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In north Queensland, Australia the oldest male was 10 years (127 cm, 19.0 kg), and the oldest female 14 years (155 cm, 35 kg). This species may live up to 15 years (IOTC 2006), 16 years (Grandcourt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and maybe as long as 22 years (Mackie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Generation length is conservatively estimated to be at least 8–9 years, but possibly may be longer.<br/><br/>The all-tackle angling record is of a 44.91 kg fish caught off Scottburgh, Natal, South Africa (IGFA 2009).
170316		population	eng	This species is taken throughout its range by commercial, artisanal, and recreational fisheries. Worldwide reported landings show a gradual increase from 7,186 tonnes in 1950 to 23,5985 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>The species comprises at least two stocks in the Indo-Pacific separated by the Wallace Line (Suleman and Ovender 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>Catch estimates for Narrow-barred Spanish Mackerel are highly uncertain. The catches of Spanish Mackerel increased from around 50,000 t the mid-1970s to 100,000 t by the mid-1990s. The current average annual catch is around 112,200 t (for the period 2002 to 2006), with most of the catch obtained taken from the west Indian Ocean area. In recent years, the countries attributed with the highest catches of Spanish Mackerel are Indonesia, Madagascar, Pakistan, Iran and Saudi Arabia. The overall catch in the eastern Indian Ocean is relatively stable, whereas in the western Indian Ocean it peaked in 1988 and has levelled off since then (IOTC 2006).<br/><br/>Some localized, sub-regional assessments have been carried out (Ben Meriem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Devaraj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Motlagh and Shojaei 2009), but none at a regional level. In the Persian Gulf, catch increased from 3,939 t in 1997 to 8,149 t in 2003 mostly from gillnets but also handlines, and this species is considered to be heavily overexploited (Motlagh and Shojaei 2009, Shojaei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Oman, it is estimated that at the current fishing mortality rate of 16% for females and 27% for males, the fishery is overfished with a high chance of recruitment failure in the near future (Govender <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Similarly, in the Arabian Sea, the fishing mortality rate greater than four times the optimum, and the resource is heavily exploited (Grandcourt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In South Africa, a recent report indicates that there is no indication of overfishing (Govender 1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span><br/>Several stock assessments have been carried out in eastern Australia (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) that indicated the stock was around 40–50% of the unfished biomass. The commercial catch per unit effort (CPUE) of Spanish Mackerel has historically exhibited a stable trend, despite inter annual variability in total catch. Assessments have also been carried out in northern Australia (Buckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), the Torres Strait (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and in western Australia a number of models were explored, and indicated that this stock may be fully exploited to somewhat overfished (Mackie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In the Torres Strait, there has been an estimated 40% decline in biomass since 1980 (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Based on assessments in 2000 and 2002, it was acknowledged that there was a significant degree of uncertainty in fisheries models because the fisheries for this species in Queensland were projected to collapse (Tobin and Malupusan 2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span><br/>In 1996, a stock assessment of this species along the western coast of India indicated that present exploitation rate should be reduced by 60%, based on estimated maximum sustainable yield (MSY) (Deveraj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). Urgent measures are needed to regulate the trawlers and drift gill nets.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southeast Asia</span><br/>There is no information on stock assessments or specific fisheries for this species. In Taiwan, this species is a bycatch species in gillnet and trawling. In the Western Central Pacific, this species is recorded as bycatch in a number of different fisheries. FAO reported landings are increasing, but effort is not known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean</span><br/>In the Mediterranean region, this species represents 2.08% total catch of Egyptian Mediterranean coast and its main food is the anchovy, <span style="font-style: italic;">Engraulis encrasicolus</span> (Bakhoum 2007). This species is reported to the FAO in catches from Libya where it is targeted.
170316		threats	eng	This is a highly commercial species caught primarily with gillnets, but also caught with purse seines, bamboo stake traps, mid-water trawls, rod and reel and by trolling (Collette 2001). This species is also taken as bycatch in long-line, purse-seine and gill net gear targeting larger scombrids.<br/><br/>A lipid-soluble toxin, similar to ciguatoxin has been found in the flesh of specimens caught on the east coast of Queensland, Australia.  <br/><br/>This species is considered to be under intense fishing pressure in Oman, and urgent management is recommended (Claereboudt<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
170318		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Although landings are increasing, without information on effort, it is not known if current fishing activities are affecting population abundance. Better reporting is needed to determine species specific landings if possible. Additionally, given the high combined landings for this species and unknown level of effort and the absence of an international management body, further monitoring of this species is needed on the national level.
170318		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific Ocean from the Andaman Sea to Thailand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands and Fiji.
170318		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous and is found in estuarine habitats with slightly reduced salinities and in areas where surface temperature range between 20–30°C. It forms schools of equally sized individuals, and feeds chiefly on microzooplankton with a high phytoplankton component. Batch spawning is believed to extend from March through September.<br/><br/>Length at 50% maturity ranges from 15–18 cm fork length (FL) (Sudjastani 1974, Isa 1986, Pairoh 1987), and has an estimated longevity of at least two years (Tandog-Edralin 1988, Isa 1986, Pairoh 1987).
170318		population	eng	Catches of the three species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> are not usually recorded separately. <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger brachysoma</span> is the most important commercial species of mackerel in the Philippines (Collette and Nauen 1983). Reported worldwide landings show gradual increase for all three <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> species, with combined reported landings increasing from 200,000 tonnes in 1950 to over 800,000 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>There are many small national reports with information on surveys of length-weight relationships and length frequency data, but there is no consolidated information on abundance or the impact of fisheries on this species population.
170318		threats	eng	This species is highly commercial, and is caught with a number of different gears including purse-seines, fish corrals, gill-nets, cast and drift nets, and by dynamiting. It is marketed fresh, frozen, canned, dried salted and smoked (Collette 2001). In the Philippines, this is a highly commercial species caught by seines, and where landings range from 10,000 to 50,000 tonnes per year. <br/><br/>Worldwide reported landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> spp. are increasing, and although there is no information on effort, it is also assumed to be increasing.
170319		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
170319		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Data on the catch composition, biology and trends for small tunas are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, thanks to the ICCAT/GFCM joint expert group in 2008. More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. The SCRS suggests that countries be requested to submit all available data to ICCAT as soon as possible, in order to be used in future meetings. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. ICCAT/SCRS, in 2008, reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions.&#160; ICCAT-SCRS in 2009 noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins. Therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2009).
170319		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, the range of this species is cantered in the southern Mediterranean Sea extending to Dakar.  It is not known from Madeira, the Canary Islands or Cape Verde.  There is one record from Oslo (1879).
170319		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, its range is centered in the southern Mediterranean Sea extending to Dakar. It is not known from Madeira, the Canary Islands or Cape Verde. There is one vagrant record from Oslo (1879).
170319		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous and neritic species, confined primarily to temperate waters, but juveniles may be encountered in waters of up to 30°C.  It forms small schools at the surface so that the first dorsal fin stands out of the water like that of sharks. It is also frequently associated with birds.  It feeds on small fishes, especially sardines, anchovies, jacks, mackerel, bogue and others.  A female weighing 5 or 6 kg may carry some 500 to 600,000 eggs, which are spawned in portions.
170319		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous and neritic species, confined primarily to temperate waters, but juveniles may be encountered in waters of up to 30°C.  They form small schools at the surface, also frequently associated with birds. This species feeds on small fishes, especially sardines, anchovies, jacks, mackerel, bogue and others.  <br/><br/>Length of maturity at 50% is 43.5cm fork length (FL) for females and 45 cm FL for males. Both sexes mature at two years in Tunisia (Hattour 2000). In Tunisia, spawning is from May to September (Hattour 2000). A female weighing 5 or 6 kg may carry some 500–600,000 eggs which are spawned in portions.
170319		population	eng	Estimated landings (t) reported to ICCAT for <em>O.unicolor</em> in the Mediterranean in the last 10 years for this species: 2005 = 2, 2004 = 8, 2003 = 23, 2002 = 137, 2001 = 154, 2000 = 145, 1999 = 217, 1998 = 130, 1997 = 227, 1996 = 132 (ICCAT 2007). The Mediterranean countries with landings of <em>O. unicolor</em> were Algeria (with highest landing values), Maroc, Tunisie and Libya.
170319		population	eng	There is no fishery directed at this species. It is generally only taken incidentally (Collette and Nauen 1983). <br/><br/>Reported worldwide landings are generally low, and range from 100 tonnes reported in 1950 to over 1,000 tonnes reported in the early 2000s (FAO 2009). Landings reported to International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) in the Mediterranean in the last 10 years range from 132 tonnes in 1996 to just two tonnes in 2005. The Mediterranean countries with landings of this species were Algeria (with highest landing values), Morocco, Tunisia and Libya (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>  In the Mediterranean and Black Sea, 28% of the total reported catch in the 1980–2007 are small tuna species, however several countries from this region are not reporting catches to ICCAT. It is commonly believed that catches of small tunas are strongly affected by unreported or under reported data in all areas (STECF 2009). In the 1980s there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 tonnes, which included 533 t of Plain Bonito.
170319		threats	eng	Small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). There is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).
170319		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. Landing data from Mauritania, Morocco, Portugal reach to 1,000 tons/year. It is caught mainly with hooks and lines.
170320		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), especially Cocos, Galápagos and Malpelo Marine Protected Areas. <br/><br/>There have been previous Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) area wide closures in the Eastern Pacific for all species (including this one), such as the six-week periods from 1 Aug–11 Sept and from 15 Nov–31 December.
170320		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from San Simeon, California and the lower half of the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including all the offshore islands and Galápagos. Also, two stray specimens (vagrants) were caught in the Hawaiian Islands (Collette and Nauen 1983).
170320		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species rarely occurs where surface temperatures fall below 23°C. Its larvae are more frequently encountered at temperatures above 26°C. It is mostly confined to surface waters within about 240 miles off the mainland (CENAIM 1992). It can form multi-species schools with <span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus albacares</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Katsuwonus pelamis</span>. It is an opportunistic predator which shares its feeding pattern with other tunas and probably competes for food with other species such as Yellowfin Tuna, Common Dolphin, and Oriental Bonito.<br/><br/>The length at 50% maturity for this species is estimated to be 47 cm (Schaefer 1987).<br/><br/>This species spawns extensively, both geographically and temporally, throughout its respective range (Schaefer 2001). Although spawning distributions of all three <span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus</span> species have been reported to be restricted primarily to peripheral areas and around islands within their respective ocean basins (Yoshida 1979, Nishikawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985), spawning in the eastern tropical Pacific has been shown to be widely distributed from coastal to oceanic waters (Schaefer 1987). The batch fecundity of this species has been shown to increase with latitude in the Eastern Pacific (Schaefer 1987).<br/><br/>Maximum size is 84 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle gamefish record is of a 11.79 kg fish caught on Thetis Bank, Baja California in 1991 (IGFA 2011).
170320		population	eng	There is no specific fishery for this species but it may be taken incidentally. Yearly catches in the eastern Pacific in the 1970s totalled around 1,500 tonnes yearly (Collette 1995). FAO reported landings highly fluctuate and range from 0.5 tonnes in 1971 to a high of 3,299 tonnes in 1980 to 151 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). Purse seine landings for this species reported by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (IATTC) (2008) range from 1,000 to 4,000 tonnes over the 1993–2007 time period, with no observable trend in these data.
170320		threats	eng	The main method of harvesting this species is using purse seines, although it is also caught with pole and line. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panamá (Vega 2004). This species is also targeted in Ecuador. Historically this species was targeted and canned in Costa Rica. It was important previously as a sport fish in Gorgona, Colombia (Rojas pers. comm. 2008).
170321		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. More research is needed on this species biology and population trends.
170321		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific and is restricted to the northern three quarters of Australia (absent from the south coast) and the southern coast of Papua New Guinea (Collette and Nauen 1983).
170321		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic, neritic species that forms schools of several hundred individuals. No information is available on its biology. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 0.96 kg fish taken in the Macleay River of Australia in 1995 (IGFA 2001). During midwinter months, sizeable schools move inshore to feed on surface accumulations of clupeids and anchovies (Grant 1987).
170321		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species lacks commercial interest but is taken as bait for snappers by commercial and sports fishermen (Collette and Nauen 1983).
170321		threats	eng	The leaping bonito lacks commercial importance in Queensland but is taken as bait for snappers by commercial fishermen, and for marlins and sharks by sport fishermen.
170322		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
170322		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species mentioned in the Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Pine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Serafy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).   In the US Atlantic, commercial harvest and import of either species of marlin is prohibited. The recreational fishery is limited to a total landing of 250 blue and white marlin combined per year. Bermuda and Bahamas similarly do not allow commercial harvest of these species. Mexico allows no commercial take within 50 miles off its coast. In the Brazilian Atlantic, there is a mandatory release of all live marlin caught and a prohibition of sale of any marlin landed. There are no conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) recommendations [Rec. 00-13], [Rec. 01-10] and finally [Rec.  02-13] placed additional catch restrictions for blue marlin and white  marlin. The latter established that “the annual amount of blue marlin  that can be harvested by pelagic longline and purse seine vessels and  retained for landing must be no more than 33% for White Marlin and 50%  for Blue Marlin of the 1996 or 1999 landing levels, whichever is  greater”. That recommendation established that, “All Blue Marlin and White Marlin brought to pelagic longline and purse seine vessels alive  shall be released in a manner that maximizes their survival. The  provision of this paragraph does not apply to marlins that are dead when  brought along the side of the vessel and that are not sold or entered  into commerce”. Catches of both species have declined since 1996–99,  the period selected as the reference period by the recommendations.  Since 2002, the year of implementation of the last of these two  recommendations, the catch of white marlin has been at about the 33%  value recommended by the Commission. This analysis represents only  longline caught marlin even though the recommendations referred to the  combined catch of pelagic longline and purse seine because the catch  estimates of billfish by-catch from purse seine vessels are more  uncertain than those from longline. In 2006, more countries started  reporting data on live releases. Additionally, more information  has come about, for some fleets, on the potential for using gear  modifications to reduce the by-catch and increase the survival of  marlins (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>The ICCAT-SCRS in 2006 requested the ICCAT, at a minimum, to continue the management measures already in place because marlins have not yet recovered. The Commission should take steps to assure that the reliability of the recent fishery information improves in order to provide a basis for verifying possible future rebuilding of the stocks. Improvements are needed in the monitoring of the fate and amount of dead and live releases, with verification from scientific observer programs; verification of current and historical landings from some artisanal and industrial fleets; and complete and updated relative abundance indices from CPUE data for the major fleets. Should the Commission wish to increase the likelihood of success of the current management measures of the marlin rebuilding plan, further reduction in mortality would be needed, for example by: implementing plans to improve compliance of current regulations; encouraging the use of alternative gear configurations, including certain types of circle hooks, hook/bait combinations etc., in fisheries where its use has been shown to be beneficial; broader application of time/area catch restrictions.<br/><br/>Given the recent importance of the catch from artisanal fisheries, and to increase the likelihood of recovery of marlin stocks, the Commission should consider regulations that control or reduce the fishing mortality generated by these fisheries. The Commission should encourage continued research on development of methods to incorporate this information into stock assessments in order to provide a basis for increasing the certainty with which management advice can be provided. STECF stresses the need for correct identification and reporting of billfish species in all EU fisheries.
170322		distribution	eng	Found throughout warm waters of the Atlantic from 45°N to 45°S including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Mediterranean&#160; (Nóbrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Records from the Mediterranean Sea and from Bretagne, France seem to be based on a few straying individuals.<br/><br/>Its distribution shows some seasonal variation, being most found in the highest latitudes only during warmer periods of the year (Ferreira and Hazin 2004). It is normally found in waters where the surface temperature is above 22°C, in waters over 300 m in depth and within a salinity range from 35–37% (Ferreira and Hazin 2004).<br/><br/>Previous reports have mentioned spawning of White Marlin off southeast Brazil in the same area where Blue Marlin spawn, but later in the year from April to June. Off southern Brazil (25–26ºS and 40–45ºW) White Marlin spawn from December to March. In the northwest Atlantic, White Marlin have been reported to spawn in the Gulf of Mexico in June. Recent reports confirm that White Marlin also spawns offshore and north of the Antilles (19–23ºN and 60–70ºW) between April and July.
170322		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic Ocean, this species is roughly found from 45°N to 45°S in the south-west Atlantic and 35°S in the south-east Atlantic. Records from the Mediterranean Sea and from Bretagne, France seem to correspond to a few straying individuals. It is classified as 'reduced' (Mooney-Seus and Stone 1997).  It is unclear whether there are two separate stocks or a single population in the Atlantic.  This is a highly migratory species mentioned in the Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).
170322		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that usually occurs above the thermocline. Its distribution varies seasonally, reaching higher latitudes in both the north and south hemispheres only during the respective warm seasons. It is usually found in deep (over 100 m) water with surface temperatures over 22°C and salinities of 35 to 37 ppt.  Currents of 0.5 to 2 knots occur over much of its habitat. It feeds on fishes and squids. It migrates into subtropical waters to spawn, with peak spawning occurring in early summer. The spawning areas are found in deep and blue oceanic waters, generally at high temperatures ranging from 20° to 29°C except in the south Atlantic gyrals, and high surface salinities (over 35 ppt).
170322		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that usually occurs above the thermocline. Its distribution varies seasonally, reaching higher latitudes in both the north and south hemispheres only during the respective warm seasons. It is usually found in pelagic habitat in waters over 50 m depth with surface temperatures over 22°C and salinities of 35–37 ppt.<br/><br/>It migrates into subtropical waters to spawn, with peak spawning occurring in early summer. The spawning areas are found in deep and blue oceanic waters, generally at high temperatures ranging from 20–29°C except in the south Atlantic gyrals, and high surface salinities (over 35 ppt).<br/><br/>Lucena-Fredóu and Asano-Filho (2006) found individuals ranging from 153–290 cm (upper jaw fork length (FL) in the Brazilian northern coast. The 290 cm animal is the largest recorded to date, with a weight of 120 kg. Nóbrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) caught individuals from 105–207 cm of fork length (FL) on Brazilian northeast.<br/><br/>Longevity is estimated at 15 years (Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Hazin (<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep) studying individuals from Brazilian northeast, found a size at first sexual maturity (at L50) of 138.5 cm of&#160; low jaw fork length (LJFL) for males and 145 cm for females, and a higher mean of gonad index in May and June for both genders. The age of maturity was estimated to be 2.5–4 years of age (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). There is no apparent sexual dimorphism but females attain larger sizes than males.<br/><br/>Given an observed longevity of 15 years and a length of maturity (L50) of approximately 145–160 cm, we infer an age of 50% maturity of 2.5–4 years (both sexes) and a generation length of&#160; 4.5–6.5 years (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>White Marlin are known to frequently kill or stun their food by spearing it or hitting it with their bill (Nakamura 1985). Squids are an important part of their diet but they also feed on crustaceans and a wide variety of fishes such as dolphinfish, jacks, and flyingfishes (Nakamura 1985, Vaske <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 82.5 kg fish caught off Vitoria, Brazil in 1979 (IGFA 2011).
170322		population	eng	This species is occasionally caught in the Mediterranean Sea with no known population information.
170322		population	eng	This species is occasionally caught in the Mediterranean Sea with no known population information. It is unclear whether there are two separate stocks or a single population in the Atlantic (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The most recent ICCAT stock assessment considers a single stock in the Atlantic (ICCAT 2007).<br/><br/>Catch for the Atlantic: recorded since 1956 when total catch was minimal; peaked in 1965 at nearly 5,000 t, then oscillated between 1,000 and 1,500 t until 1993; increased to 1,900 t in 1994; declined below 1,000 t from 1995–2004 (ICCAT 2007). During the 2006 marlin assessment it was noted that catches of Blue Marlin and White Marlin continued to decline through 2004. The estimate for 2005 was 597 t. The recent biomass most likely remains well below BMSY estimated in the 2002 assessment. Over the period 2001–2004 combined longline indices and some individual fleet indices suggest that the decline has been at least partially reversed, but some other individual fleet indices suggest that abundance has continued to decline. Confirmation of these recent apparent changes in trend will require at least an additional four or five years of data, especially since the reliability of the recent information has diminished and may continue to do so.<br/><br/>It is important to note that the decrease in catches is associated with ICCAT regulations that were put in place in 2001 regarding the mandatory release of live white marlin taken by pelagic longlines. In addition in 2003, there was the imposition of catch limits to 33% of the 1996 or 1999 reported values. Countries are now reporting their landings, not their total catch.<br/><br/>The most recent stock assessment (ICCAT 2007) used a Bayesian Surplus Production model to estimate biomass from 1990 through 2006. The remaining data series (1956–1989) are based on biomass estimates from the previous stock assessment (ICCAT 2003). Population declines were examined using a generation length estimated between 4.5 and 6.5 years. Over a three generation length period of 13 years, the decline was 8.67% and over a three generation length period of 20 years, the decline was 36.74%. These declines were calculated using the biomass estimate of the first to the last year of the range examined. Population reduction for Atlantic White Marlin was therefore estimated to be between 9% and 37%.<br/><br/>In addition, there is still a high degree of uncertainty regarding biological parameters for this species. Landings of White Marlin may also be misidentified with <span style="font-style: italic;">Tetrapturus georgii</span>. The proportion of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. georgii</span> has increased dramatically in catches from 2–32 % in the past decade, which increases the uncertainty of the status of White Marlin (Beerkircher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
170322		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. Its main catching method is hooks and lines.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is occasionally caught by trolling in sport fishery (E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007) but is not a commercial species.
170322		threats	eng	This species is primarily taken by longline fisheries (including various EU longline fisheries), but also by purse seines (including EU purse seiners catching a few hundreds tonnes yearly), by some artisanal gears which are the only fisheries targeting marlins (Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, including EU ones in the Antilles) and also by various sport fisheries located in both sides of the Atlantic.<br/><br/>Over 90% of the reported landings are attributed to bycatch in longline fisheries and there are also important directed recreational fisheries (Restrepo et al. 2003). Despite voluntary conservation measures, mandated minimum size limits, and wide acceptance of catch-and-release, white marlin are currently considered to be severely overfished (Restrepo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Jesien <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The most recent assessment (ICCAT 2007) states that the biomass for 2000–2004 most likely remained well below the BMSY estimate in the 2002 assessment (ICCAT 2007). The observed distribution of several large pelagic predators, including the white marlin, has significantly contracted from the 1960s to 2000 (Worm and Tittensor 2011). A petition to declare white marlin an endangered species in the USA was not accepted (White Marlin Review Team 2002).<br/><br/>The increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices (FADs) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is increasing the vulnerability of these stocks (STECF 2009).
170323		conservation	eng	This species is managed in the US under the Fishery Management Plan for Coastal Migratory Pelagic Resources. The management bodies are the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) and the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC). The management plan establishes a number of conservation measures that have helped to recuperate Spanish Mackerel fisheries including determine quotas, bag limits and trip limits. Drift gill nets were banned in 1989.<br/><br/>There are no known&#160; species specific conservation actions in place in Mexico.
170323		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Western Atlantic from Cape Cod to Miami (USA) and the Gulf of Mexico coasts from Florida, USA to Yucatan, Mexico.
170323		habitat	eng	This is a migratory species that moves north along the Atlantic coast of the United States and north and west along the Gulf of Mexico in the spring and returns in the fall (Collette and Russo 1984). It can also enter estuaries. Larvae are found in surface waters between 19.6–29.8°C with a salinity of 28.3–37.4 ppt. It feeds mainly on small fishes (clupeoids and anchovies), but also on penaeoid shrimps and cephalopods.<br/><br/>Maximum size length estimate this species is 91 cm fork length (FL). Sexual maturity in Florida is attained by age two at 25–32 cm FL for females and 28–34 cm for males (Klima 1959). This species lives to nine years in the Gulf of Mexico (Fable <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987), and to 11 years in the Atlantic (Schmidt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1993). Generation length is estimated to be four years.<br/><br/>The all-tackle angling record is of a 5.89 kg fish taken in Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina in 1987 (IGFA 2011). This is a migratory species that moves north along the Atlantic coast of the United States and north and west along the Gulf of Mexico in the spring and returns in the fall (Collette and Russo 1984).
170323		population	eng	This is an important recreational, commercial and artisanal species throughout its range. Homogenous distribution of genetic variance among samples from widely spaced geographic regions (Chesapeake Bay, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Gulf of Mexico) was consistent with the hypothesis that Spanish Mackerel comprise a single intermingling genetic stock (Buonaccorsi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Although there are no genetic differences between the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico stocks, they are managed separately. Total catch reported is probably underestimated due to reporting of unclassified <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus</span> species captures as well as the probably inadequate reporting of artisanal and recreational catches (Manooch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978). International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) annual catches reached 16,725 t in 1996. Average estimated landings from 1980 to 2004 is 12,739 t with a drop-off between 1998 through 2003 where landings oscillated between 8,000–10,000 t then increasing again to just below 14,000 t in 2004 (ICCAT 2006).<br/><br/>In the 1980s, this species was considered overfished throughout its US range. Posterior management measures have been effective in rebuilding the stocks to currently healthy levels. The spawning stock biomass (SSB) is currently higher than the SSB maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and fishing mortality (F) is lower than FMSY for both the U.S. south Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico stocks (SEDAR 2008, NMFS 2003). The fishery independent Seamap index from 1990 to 2007 shows that there is a lot of variation in age one biomass, but there is no current indication of decline (SEDAR 2008).<br/><br/>In Mexico, a 1994 assessment found that the stock on the Mexican side was slightly under-exploited (Chavez 1994). More recent data from the Institute Nacional de Pesca (2004) show this species to be fully-exploited. Catches have been in decline since 1994 in Mexico however, there is uncertainty surrounding the causes of the decline.
170323		threats	eng	This is a highly commercial fish taken by gillnets, purse seines and on line gear. Casting, live-bait fishing, jigging, and drift fishing are also employed in capturing this species in the recreational fishery. Aerial spotting is sometimes used in locating the fish.
170324		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Although landings are increasing, without information on effort, it is not known if current fishing activities are affecting population abundance. Better reporting is needed to determine species specific landings if possible. Additionally, given the high combined landings for this species and unknown level of effort and the absence of an international management body, further monitoring of this species is needed on the national level.
170324		distribution	eng	This Indo-West Pacific species is found from India to Fiji,and as far north as Taiwan.
170324		habitat	eng	This epipelagic, neritic species, occurs in waters where surface temperatures do not fall below 17°C.  It forms schools of equally sized individuals.  It feeds on the largest zooplankton organisms, thus complementing the planktonic food spectrum of the other two <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> species.<br/><br/>Little life history information exists for this species. Longevity is estimated to be between 1-3 years in the Philippines (Lavapie-Gonzalez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Aripin and Showers 2000).
170324		population	eng	Catches of the three species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> are not usually recorded separately.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Reported worldwide landings show gradual  increase for all three <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> species, with combined reported landings increasing from 200,000 tonnes in 1950 to over 800,000 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).
170324		threats	eng	This species is highly commercial, and is caught with a number of different gears including purse-seines, fish corrals, gill-nets, cast and drift nets, and by dynamiting. It is marketed fresh, frozen, canned, dried salted and smoked (Collette 2001). It is taken along with other species of <em>Rastrelliger</em> off Taiwan Province of China, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. <br/><br/> Worldwide reported landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> species are increasing, and although there is no information on effort, it is also assumed to be increasing.
170325		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, in Mexico, there is a sport fishing limit of 10 per day per person, and no more than five of a single species for all sport fisheries. In Peru, there is a minimum catch size of 60 cm and there is a maximum tolerance of 10% juveniles in the catch.<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species biology, particularly on age, growth, reproductive biology, and natural mortality rates.
170325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from La Jolla and Santa Monica in southern California (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1963, Miller and Lea 1972) and the Gulf of California to Antofagasta, Chile including the Galápagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
170325		habitat	eng	This is a schooling species that is believed to spawn close to the coast throughout most of its range (Collette and Nauen, 1983). It occurs near the surface of coastal waters to over bottom on the continental shelf. In Colombia (Artunduaga Pastrana 1976), adults feed on small fishes, particularly anchovies (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa</span> and Cetengraulis) and clupeids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontognathus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthonema</span>). Off of Mexico the spawning season extends from July to September.<br/><br/>In Mexico, gonad maturity in females begins in April with spawning taking place in May (Aguirre-Villaseñor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Maximum incidence of ripe females occurs between November and April in Colombia, with a fork length of 26–32 cm at first maturity (Artundaga Pastrana 1976). In the Gulf of California, the size at first maturity is 44.3 cm corresponding to an age of three years (Aquirre-Villasenor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Ripe females are found between late August and the end of November in the Gulf of Nicoya (Erdman 1971). Spawning takes place near the coast over most of its range, off Mexico in July through September (Klawe 1966).<br/><br/>Based on a maturity range of 1–8 years inferred from <span style="font-style: italic;">S. maculatus</span> (Schaefer 2001), and an estimate of the average age of 50% maturity, a generation length of approximately 2–4 years is estimated. However, there is very little biological information to accurately determine generation length.<br/><br/>Maximum size is 97 cm FL, 8.2 kg. The all-tackle game fish record is shared by two 8.16 kg fish from Ecuador caught in 1990, one from Salinas, and the other from Isla de la Plata (IGFA 2011).
170325		population	eng	This species is frequently taken by anglers along the Pacific coast of Central America and is abundant enough to support a commercial fishery. FAO worldwide reported landings show a gradual, but variable, increase in landings from 500 tonnes in 1950 to 12,102 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). These landings of this species appear to be fairly stable between 5,000 and 10,000 metric tonnes over the last 10 years (1995–2005). These data are mostly from Mexico and Panama, but landings also fairly stable in Nicaragua, Colombia and Peru. In 1995, the average catch in Colombia was 600 metric tonnes, and has reduced to 400 metric tonnes in the last five years (Acero pers comm 2008). There are large fluctuations in Peruvian landings, and there appears to be higher catches after El Niño events (Cardenas pers comm 2008).<br/><br/>In summary, the regional landing data show no clear trends with periodic fluctuations in catch.
170325		threats	eng	This is an abundant game fish along the Pacific coasts of Mexico and Central America, and it is important in commercial fisheries. It is caught by gill nets in artisinal fisheries throughout Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama and Colombia, with no fisheries regulations for this species.
170326		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Better reporting, and more catch and effort information is needed for most species of small tunas in the  Atlantic.
170326		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in the Mediterranean Sea.
170326		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from the Canary Islands and Senegal south through the Gulf of Guinea to Baía dos Tigres, in southern Angola. It is rarely found in the northern Mediterranean Sea, along the coasts of France and Italy.
170326		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic in the Canary Islands and Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea and Baía dos Tigres, Angola.  It is rarely found in the northern Mediterranean Sea, along the coasts of France and Italy.
170326		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that inhabits warm waters (Schneider 1990).&#160; It enters coastal lagoons and feeds on clupeids particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Ethmalosa fimbriata</span> (Fagade and Olaniyan 1973). It reproduces in July to August in Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986) and April to October in Senegal (Cayre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993); and February to September in Guinea-Bissau (Kromer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).<br/><br/>Length at maturity at 50% was estimated in Senegal for males to be 33.1 cm fork length (FL) and 34.1 cm FL for females (Diouf 1996). In Guinea-Bissau, length at 50% maturity was 33.5 cm FL for females and 32.2 cm FL for males (Kromer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 100 cm FL. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 6 kg fish caught off Grand Bereby, Ivory Coast in 1998 (IGFA 2011).
170326		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that inhabits warm waters (Schneider 1990). It forms schools close to the shore (Frimodt 1995).  It enters coastal lagoons and feeds on clupeids, particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Ethmalosa fimbriata</span> (Fagade and Olaniyan 1973). It reproduces in July to August (Maigret and Ly 1986).
170326		population	eng	In the eastern Atlantic this species is concentrated in the Gulf of Guinea from the Canary Islands south to southern Angola. It is also found, rarely, in the northern Mediterranean (Collette and Russo 1979).  No other population information is available for this species.
170326		population	eng	This species is taken throughout the Gulf of Guinea  but catches are only reported from Ghana and Angola and range from 700 metric tonnes in 1978 to 4,412 metric tonnes in 1980, decreasing to 2,051 metric tonnes in 1981 (Collette and Nauen 1983). Reported worldwide landings range from a high of 5,060 tonnes in 1983 to 771 tonnes in 2005 (FAO 2009). However, these catch statistics are questionable because reporting is not consistent.
170326		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is caught with seines (Frimodt 1995).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean it is only incidentally caught by pelagic long lines.
170326		threats	eng	This species is caught with mostly in purse seines. In the Mediterranean it is only incidentally caught by pelagic long lines.<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>
170327		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. This species may be present in some marine protected areas within its range.
170327		distribution	eng	This species is found from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in the western Atlantic including the insular Caribbean.
170327		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in clear waters around coral reefs, occasionally forming schools.  It feeds on clupeoids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Harengula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Jenkinsia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthonema</span>) and atherinids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Allanetta</span>), squids, and shrimps (Randall 1967).<br/><br/>Length at 50% maturity in Florida is 35 cm fork length (FL) for males and 38 cm FL for females, with fecundity estimates of 161,000–2,234,000 eggs per female (Finucane and Collins 1984). In Puerto Rico, length at 50% maturity is 35 cm (FL) for males and 41.3 cm (FL) for females (Figuerola-Fernandez 2003). Spawning in Puerto Rico occurs year round with a peak from April to September.<br/><br/>Maximum length in Florida is 83.5 cm FL (Beardsley and Richards 1970). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 7.76 kg fish caught at Islamadora, Florida in 1986 (IGFA 2011).
170327		population	eng	Reported worldwide landings are relatively low, and range between 100 and 800 mt from 1950–2005 (FAO 2009). However, landings have likely been under-reported, and landing may be pooled with other Atlantic species. Landings in Puerto Rico were approximately 200 metric tons in 2001 (Figuerola-Fernandez 2003).
170327		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species taken recreationally and with gillnets, purse seines and with line gear.
170328		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Although landings are increasing, without information on effort, it is not known if current fishing activities are affecting population abundance. Better reporting is needed to determine species specific landings if possible. Additionally, given the high combined landings for this species and unknown level of effort and the absence of an international management body, further monitoring of this species is needed on the national level.
170328		distribution	eng	This Indo-West Pacific species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Indonesia, north to the Ryukyu Islands and China, south to Australia, Melanesia and Samoa. It entered the eastern Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal (Collette 1970).
170328		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal bays, harbors and deep lagoons, usually in some turbid plankton-rich waters. A common, coastal pelagic species, often found in large schools. Off India, batch spawning extends from March through September.  It feeds on phytoplankton (diatoms) and small zooplankton (cladocerans, ostracods, larval polychaetes, etc.).  Small groups were seen eating eggs of Cheilio inermis straight after their spawnings.  Adult individuals feed on macroplankton such as larval shrimps and fish.<br/><br/>There are many reports on life history and other information for this species compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger </span>species (Noble and Geetha 1992). Size at first maturity is approximately17–20 cm (Tampubolon and Merta 1987, Sivadas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and longevity is estimated to be approximately four years (Mehanna 2001).
170328		population	eng	Catches of the three species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> are not usually recorded separately.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Reported worldwide landings show gradual  increase for all three <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> species, with combined reported landings increasing from 200,000 tonnes in 1950 to over 800,000 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>In India, from 1993-1999, annual average catch was around 200,000 tonnes but has declined to 90,000 tonnes (Johannan and Nair 2002). In one region of&#160; Mangalore-Malpe, Karnataka in Eastern India, this species is considered at to be exploited at levels higher than optimum, indicating greater fishing pressure than sustainable levels (Rohit and Gupta 2004). Other studies (Abdussamad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) report that since the species mature at an early age and spawn round the year,  present fishing pattern appears to have no adverse impact on recruitment, and currently the resource is exploited near the optimum level and there  appears to be no immediate threat for the stock.
170328		threats	eng	This species is highly commercial, and is caught with a number of different gears including purse-seines, fish corrals, gill-nets, cast and drift nets, and by dynamiting. It is marketed fresh, frozen, canned, dried salted and smoked (Collette 2001).<br/><br/> Worldwide reported landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rastrelliger</span> species are increasing, and although there is no information on effort, it is also assumed to be increasing.
170329		conservation	eng	In Taiwan, this species and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Scomber japonicus</span> can only be caught by eight sets of purse-seine vessels. In New Zealand and Australia, there are recreational bag limits and catch limits for all mackerel species. More information on the status of the stock in other parts of this species range is recommended.
170329		distribution	eng	This species is present in the western Pacific from China and Japan to Australia and New Zealand, extending east to the Hawaiian Islands. In the Eastern Pacific it is a resident only in the Revillagigedo Islands. It also occurs in the Red Sea. It is relatively rare in tropical waters.
170329		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species occurs in coastal waters (Collette 1995) and also in oceanic waters (May and Maxwell 1986) to depths of 300 m. This species schools by size, and schools may include Jack Mackerels and Pacific sardines. They are plankton feeders, filtering copepods and other crustaceans, but adults also feed on small fishes and squids.<br/><br/>This species has an age of first maturity of two years (Stevens <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984), and longevity is eight years in Australia (Stevens <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984). However, this species is larger and longer lived in New Zealand, where longevity has been estimated to be as high as 24 years (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and length of first maturity is 28 cm (approximately three years) (Manning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Japan, this species has an age of first maturity of one year and the longevity is approximately six years (Uozumi pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Generation length in Japan, is therefore estimated to be 2–3 years, however it may be higher in Australia and New Zealand.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 40 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle angling record is of a 1.36 kg fish caught off Kochi, Japan in 2000 (IGFA 2011).<br/><strong> </strong>
170329		population	eng	There are important fisheries for this species in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand but no catch data has been identified for this species in these countries (Collette and Nauen 1983). Some reported landings for this species may be mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. japonicus</span>. However, the majority of the reported worldwide catch is from New Zealand (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>In Japan and the Tsushima Current spawning stock biomass for the Pacific Stock has been estimated to be steadily since 1995 from 50,000 to 150,000 tonnes with a peak of 300,000 tonnes in 2006 (Watanabe pers comm 2009). Estimated spawning stock biomass for the East China Sea fluctuates between 40,000 to 80,000 tonnes from 1992 to 2007 (Watanabe pers comm 2009).
170329		threats	eng	This species is caught with encircling nets (Collette 1995) in some parts of its range. In Japan, this species has a lower price than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. japonicus</span> which is considered to have a better taste (Uozumi pers comm 2009).
170330		conservation	eng	More information is needed to determine the status of the western population, and if the assessment conducted on the East coast are inclusive.<br/><br/>There are bag and size limits for this species. The Queensland Fishery is regulated under Queensland's Fisheries Regulations 1995. In response to concerns about sustainability, some major changes in management were made in 2002 and 2003 that apply to both commercial and recreational fishers (Staunton-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The minimum legal size was increased from 50 to 60 cm total length, the recreational bag limit was reduced from 30 to five fish per person, and the use of nets to target spotted mackerel was prohibited. Since these changes to management, line fishing has become the main commercial method to catch Spotted Mackerel.<br/><br/>To improve and develop the stock assessment there is a need for: 1) a more comprehensive and structured monitoring approach to the collection of appropriate age-structured data from both the commercial and recreational sectors; 2) the recording of a better measure of effort and species identification in the commercial logbooks and recreational diaries to provide a more reliable indicator of CPUE; 3) a review of the historical catch data to confirm the assumed commencement of the fishery and magnitude of the catches; 4) a robust evaluation of the selectivity functions for the different fishing gears; <br/>5) an appraisal of the protocols used to age spotted mackerel; 6) a fishery-independent measure of changes in stock size; 7) investigations into the fecundity, spawning, recruitment processes and environmental-catch distributions of Spotted Mackerel; and 8) a periodic review and update of the data and models used in the assessment via a systematic and transparent stock assessment review process (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Furthermore, recent management measures also need to be assessed in the future, and more prudent actions may be needed, if fishing pressure increases in the recreational sector or the commercial catch quota is exceeded.
170330		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the northern coast of Australia, from the Abrolhos Islands region of Western Australia to Coffs Harbour and Kempsey in central New South Wales; also occurring in southern Papua New Guinea from Kerema to Port Moresby.
170330		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic, oceanodromous, and found more commonly in offshore, open waters away from reefs and shoals. It forms large schools which move close inshore along the coast of Queensland, where it is commonly taken between December and April or May. It feeds largely on fishes, particularly anchovies and sardines, with smaller quantities of shrimps and squids (Begg and Hopper 1997). Common fork length ranges 50–80 cm.<br/><br/>Spotted Mackerel spawn between August and October in northern Queensland waters with peak spawning occurring in September (Begg 1998). They grow quickly for the first three years of life, and demonstrate sex-specific growth rates, with females tending to grow faster and to larger sizes (Begg and Sellin 1998). Considerable variation in length is found for any given age of Spotted Mackerel, where they have been aged up to seven years and observed to 105 cm total length (TL) and 7.4 kg. Female and male Spotted Mackerel reach maturity at about 60 cm and 52 cm TL, respectively, within 1–2 years of age (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Generation length is estimated to be between 3–4 years.<br/><br/>Tagged Spotted Mackerel move long distances, with about 39% recaptured over 100 km from the release site (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). The longest movement was 1,100 km over 228 days. These movements, together with spatial and temporal patterns of tagging effort and commercial fishing harvest, indicate a single eastern stock that undertakes a seasonal migration associated with spawning and feeding along the Queensland and New South Wales coasts (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Staunton-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>The all-tackle angling record is of a 9.25 kg fish caught off South West Rocks, New South Wales, Australia in 1987 (IGFA 2011).
170330		population	eng	A stock assessment (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) for this species' population off the Australian east coast (northern Queensland to northern New South Wales), based on data from 1960–2002, showed 2002 biomass levels to be between 33% and 63% of pre-1960 unfished or virgin biomass levels. This assessment indicated that the estimated 2002 biomass was above BMSY. Model projections suggest catches of greater than 300–350 tonnes in 2003 have a high risk of reducing the population in relation to maximum sustainable yield (MSY). Annual landings in 2009–2010 reached 71% of the total allowable catch (TAC) (ASR 2011).<br/><br/>This Queensland stock in 2004 was considered fully fished, with commercial landings of 60–120 t and a recreational catch of about 150 t (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Commercial landings in New South Wales have fluctuated, and averaged around 20–30 t between 1990 and 2009, with a high of 60 t in 2000 and a low of around 10 t in 2009. However, catches are not considered a robust indicator of abundance (Queensland Fisheries 2010).<br/><br/>There is no information available for the remaining parts of this species' range. This may be because the Queensland portion of the range represents the most important part of the fishery.
170330		threats	eng	<p>This is an important species for recreational and commercial fishers in Queensland, Australia. It was a major part of the set gillnet and ring-net commercial fisheries (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1998), but since 2004 it has been predominantly a line-fished species. The highly aggregated, near-surface schooling behaviour of the stock coupled with its predictable seasonal movements along the east coast allows ease of targeting by both the commercial and recreational sectors; thereby making the stock susceptible to over-fishing. In 1999–2000, commercial catches of Spotted Mackerel increased significantly in response to the development of valuable overseas export markets. The 2009–10 SS and ASR reports that the east coast harvest was 100 tons of commercial catch (12 t net and 88 t line), 11 t of charter and 305 t recreational (A. Garland, pers. comm. 2011). The Gulf of Carpentaria commercial sector has not reported any harvest since 2008 (the catch between 2003 and 2008 was less than 400 t).<br/>&#160;<br/>Indications from the earlier assessment, besides the relatively flat CPUE time series, suggest that the eastern Spotted Mackerel stock was most likely being harvested near or exceeding maximum sustainable levels, and was at risk of being over-fished (Begg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In the 2009–2010 stock assessment, it was recorded as sustainably fished with the justification of a predominantly line fished species since 2004 (SS 2011).</p>
170331		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservations measures in the Mediterranean Sea.
170331		conservation	eng	This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas. There are limited species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the US Atlantic, the harvest of this species is restricted to hook and line gear (SAFMC 2003). Area wide annual closures of 62 days exist for this species in the Eastern Pacific, and there is also a FAD closure in the western and central Pacific for two months a year (WCPFC 2009).<br/><br/>The status of Wahoo resources in the western central Atlantic remains unclear. Reliable Wahoo catch and fishing effort data from this area, improved knowledge of migration patterns, reproductive characteristics and critical habitat, validation of age, growth and mortality estimates, and a more comprehensive analysis of stock structure for the entire Atlantic are needed for informed Wahoo stock assessment and management (Oxenford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
170331		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans in tropical and subtropical waters, including the Caribbean and Mediterranean seas.
170331		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans in tropical and subtropical waters, including the Caribbean and Mediterranean seas. In the Eastern Pacific, it occurs from northern Baja at least to Loretto in the Gulf of California, south to northern Peru, including all of the oceanic islands. In the southern Atlantic, this species has been found as far south as 45°S.
170331		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, epipelagic species frequently found solitarily or forming small, loose aggregations rather than compact schools. It is found to at least 340 m (Nobrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It feeds on fishes and squids. This species feeds on cephalopods around São Pedro and São Paulo Archipelago (Andrade <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), where the Flying Fish <span style="font-style: italic;">Cypselurus cyanopterus</span> is also an important food item, together with other fishes, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Oxyporhamphus micropterus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylopterus volitans</span> (Vaske-Junior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>Its spawning season in Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas and Bermuda is from at least May–October (Oxenford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In St. Peter and St. Paul's rocks spawning occurs in April and May. Individuals caught in this region are primarily adults that are gathering to spawn (Melo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Females are multiple batch spawners and are highly fecund. An individual female might spawn every 2–6 days, a total of 20–62 times during a spawning season. The mean batch fecundity in the northern Gulf of Mexico is 1.1 million eggs resulting in a total annual fecundity of 30–92.8 million eggs (Brown-Peterson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Batch fecundity for Florida and the Bahamas ranged from 0.8–1.7 million eggs (Jenkins and McBride 2009). Fish in different maturity stages are frequently caught at the same time. This is a fast growing species with high mortality.<br/><br/>This species exhibits early sexual maturity, usually within the first year. Generation length is estimated to be between 3–5 years (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Average reproductive age is one year for females and two years for males. The species lives on average for 5–6 years (Oxenford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), but can live as long as nine years (McBride <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Melo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). In the northern Gulf of Mexico, 50% sexual maturity in males is reached before 93.5 cm fork length (FL), probably at an age of one year. In females, size at 50% maturity is approximately 102 cm FL, at an estimated age of two years (Brown-Peterson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). For the Bahamas and Florida, 50% female maturity at 92.5 cm (FL) at 0.6 years of age (Mackie Jenkins and McBride 2009). In St. Peter and St. Paul's the first sexual maturity for males was at 101 cm and at 110 cm for females, which corresponds to an age of approximately 3.8 years (Melo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>The maximum recorded length is 200 cm in Cape Hatteras, US (Hogarth 1976) and the maximum weight recorded is 84.5 kg (IGFA 2011).<br/><em></em>
170331		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that is frequently solitary and sometimes forms small loose aggregations rather than compact schools.  It feeds on fishes and squids.  Spawning seems to extend over a long period, and fish in different maturity stages are frequently caught at the same time.
170331		population	eng	In the Mediterranean this species is not a typical resident and occurs sporadically. There are no separate catch statistics for this species in the Mediterranean and no population information except that sporadic catches are increasing (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).
170331		population	eng	The population is estimated to be relatively stable, primarily due to their rapid growth rate and reproductive potential. Reported worldwide catches show a gradual increase from 100 t in 1960, to 3,392 t in 2006 (FAO 2009). It is possible that this increase may represent an improvement in documentation and/or increase in fishing effort.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic</span><br/>Estimated catches in the Atlantic and Caribbean between 1983 and 2007 are variable and range between a peak of 3,085 mt in 1997 and a low of 920 mt in 1985 (ICCAT 2009). It is important to note that variability in catches might be more related to reporting rate than to actual fluctuations in the population (Hazin pers. comm. 2010). There is a pronounced seasonal abundance of this species at least in the Western Atlantic (SAFMC 2003).<br/><br/>The most recent stock assessment for the eastern Caribbean (CRFM 2007) concluded that there was no decline in the catch rate, but that the data were insufficient. The mean catch rates between 1996 and 2006 fluctuated between 20–25 kg/trip without a clear trend. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) data were used from only two countries, Barbados and St. Lucia. The recommendation was that there should be a precautionary approach to the development of the fishery (CRFM 2007). The status of Wahoo resources in the western central Atlantic remains unclear.<br/><br/>Between 1990 and 2009, the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico recreational landings fluctuated between 22,000 and 110,000 fish/year without discernible trend (R. Nelson pers. comm. from NMFS Fisheries Statistics Division 2010).&#160; During the same time period, reported U.S. commercial landings peaked at 165 mt in 1993 and then steadily declined to 61 mt in 2008 (R. Nelson pers. comm. from NMFS Fisheries Statistics Division 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean</span><br/>Catches of this species are generally not reported in the Mediterranean, as this species is not a typical resident and occurs only sporadically.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Tropical Pacific</span><br/>Landing data from the Eastern Tropical Pacific region show recent increases in landings (FAO 2009). There are no data to suggest that the increase in landings is negatively affecting the population.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>Only minimal catches are reported for the Indian Ocean (IOTC 2007).
170331		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any organized fisheries for this species in most areas (Collette and Nauen 1983), but this species is targeted in the western Atlantic by both commercial and recreational fisheries, where landings are most certainly under reported for this species (Oxenford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). This species is typically caught by trolling, hook and line and as a bycatch in purse-seine and longline fisheries (Collette 1995).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, this species is often caught as bycatch in purse seines, especially given the increased effort using Fish Aggregating Devices (FADS). No stock assessment has been carried out. In the Atlantic, small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. In the southwest Atlantic this species is caught by artisanal handline and trolling in the northeast and central Brazil, as bycatch in industrial longliners and game fisheries (Nobrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Amorim and Silva 2005).<br/><br/>Increasing using of FADs, both fixed and those used in the tropical tuna purse seine fishery, has increased the directed and bycatch mortality of Wahoo throughout its range. However, there is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).
170331		threats	eng	This is a commercial species.  It is typically caught with seines and is an important sport fish in some areas (Collette 1995).
170332		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More information is needed on this species biology, harvest levels and population trends.
170332		distribution	eng	This species is found in the temperate southwest Pacific, ranging around southeastern Australia, Norfolk Island and northern New Zealand.
170332		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. It schools by size and matures from January through April. It is found in schools in the inshore coastal waters of Queensland and feeds on various fish (Yoshida 1980). This species biology is not well known.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 100 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle angling record is a 9.4 kg fish caught off Montague Island, New South Wales in 1978 (IGFA 2011).
170332		population	eng	There is no well-developed fishery for this species (Collette and Nauen 1983). Among the bonitos found in Australia, this species constitutes the majority of the catch. Reported landings in Australia since 1990 are approximately 100–150 tonnes per year, with a peak of 275 tonnes in 1998–1999 (NSW Department of Primary Industries 2008).
170332		threats	eng	<p>This is a minor commercial species caught with hook and line and providing first-rate sport to anglers using the lightest tackle (Grant 1982). It is also used as bait for billfishes, sharks, and tunas &#160;(Yoshida 1980, Grant 1982). </p>
170333		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea.<br/><br/>Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Serafy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>The EU's Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) is concerned about the lack of attention to this species, because it might be affected by the same problems of other billfish species. STECF recommends that this species should be accurately monitored (STECF 2009).
170333		distribution	eng	This species is known from the entire tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Originally described from Madeira and reported from several other eastern Atlantic localities but only recently known with certainty from the western Atlantic (Shivji <em>et al</em>. 2006).
170333		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous; found in subtropical waters. Very little is known on&#160; its reproductive biology (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Maximum size for this species is at least 160 cm body length (Robins 1974). Maximum weight is 180 kg. In Brazil, maximum size recorded is 180 cm lower jaw FL (Piva-Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 31.75 kg fish caught in Baltimore Canyon off Maryland (IGFA 2011).
170333		population	eng	There is no catch data available for this species (Nakamura 1985).<br/><br/>This species is easily misidentified in the field and it is likely that most captures of this species have been classified as white marlin or long bill spearfish&#160; until only recently (Beerkircher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Beerkircher and Serafy 2011).&#160; The proportion of this species in landings classified as long bill spearfish or marlin is temporally unstable (White Marlin Biological Review Team 2007).
170333		threats	eng	This species is primarily taken as bycatch by longline fisheries (including various EU longline fisheries), but also by purse seines (including EU purse seiners), by some artisanal gears (including EU ones in the Antilles) and also by various sport fisheries located on both sides of the Atlantic. The increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices (FADs) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is possibly increasing the vulnerability of these stocks (STECF 2009).
170334		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species mentioned in the Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department, 1994).<br/><br/>While generally not a target species for commercial fleets, spearfish and billfish catches, including those from the recreational fishery, should be monitored carefully. Catches of Mediterranean spearfish must be reported by all Mediterranean States concerned,&#160; according to the European Community data collection framework (STECF 2009).
170334		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is abundant around Italy and recently reported from Tunisia (Hattour 2006). There are no confirmed reports from the Black Sea. Catches have also been reported from the Aegean Sea (Pennetti pers. comm. 2008), but no adults have been reported in the northern part.
170334		habitat	eng	This is a epipelagic species. It is the most common istiophorid in the central basin of the Mediterranean Sea and completes its life cycle inside this sea as far as is known (Nakamura 1985). It probably swims in the upper 200m water layer, generally above or within the thermocline. It travels in pairs, which possibly corresponds to a feeding behaviour. It feeds on pelagic fishes. Spawning occurs in the spring (Sparta 1953, 1961).<br/><br/>Maximum size exceeds 240 cm in body length and 70 kg in weight. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 41.2 kg fish taken off Madeira (IGFA 2011).    Little is known about the biology of this species.
170334		population	eng	Up to 40 fish were caught in the sport fishery over three years in Majorca (Masuti pers.comm. 2008). In Turkey, this species is mostly caught in bycatch and sport fishing, and in recent years the catches appear to be increasing (Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Catches are known to occur in all the Mediterranean Sea states where driftnet and longline fishing is carried out (STECF 2007). Landings data are limited, but appear to have increased in the most recent years, certainly over a level of about 100t, even considering that very few countries (Italy, Spain and Portugal) are reporting their catches to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). In 2005 and 2006 catches have shown fluctuations. The geographic distribution of the species appears to be influenced by oceanographic conditions.<br/><br/>There are no visible trends in International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) data as only a few countries report their data.
170334		threats	eng	Taken at the surface by harpoons, longlines, driftnets and set nets incidental to fishing for swordfish, bluefin tuna, and albacore (Nakamura 1985, STECF 2009).<br/><br/>This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is mainly a bycatch of tuna fisheries. It is typically caught with hooks, lines and driftnets. It is also one of the target species for the traditional harpoon fishery and is occasionally fished in sport fishing activity. This species is highly exposed to lipophilic xenobiotic contaminants (Fossi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002).
170335		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions for this species in Brazil. However, as it is estimated that one third of individuals caught in northeastern Brazil are immature, it is recommended to regulate mesh size (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). It is also recommended that newer stock assessments be conducted.<br/><br/>In Trinidad, fishing effort is not controlled. There are regulations to specify the maximum length and depth and minimum mesh size for gillnets (11cm). Similar regulations are imposed for seines, with maximum dimensions for the nets and minimum mesh size requirements. Individuals less than 305 mm may not be taken or sold (Martin and Nowlis 2004).
170335		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic along the Caribbean and Atlantic coasts of Central and South America from Belize to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
170335		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. brasiliensis</span> is an epipelagic, neritic species, found up to 130 m depths, most commonly found on a depth range from 20–60 m (Nóbrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It concentrates on coastal areas, and is common on rocky coasts, open beaches and islands. It does not migrate extensively, although some seasonal movement appears to occur off Trinidad (Sturm 1978). It tends to form schools and enters tidal estuaries. It feeds largely on fishes, with smaller quantities of penaeid shrimps and loliginid cephalopods.<br/><br/>This species spawns over the continental shelf, probably between 15 and 36 m of depth (Fonteles-Filho 1988). In Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, the rainy season influences maturation, and individuals maturate later during the rainy season, with a peak of reproduction from March to June (Ximenes de Lima <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>In northeast Brazil, this species has a sex ratio of 4:1, with males being more abundant than females (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). In North Brazil, Lima (2004) found a sex ratio of 1:2, favourable to females, which also showed a larger average length.&#160; For samples caught in Maranhão, reproduction takes place on the dry season, from June to November. In this region, length at first maturation is 41.1 cm for females and 44.3 cm for males, which would correspond to three years for females and four years for males (Lima 2004). However, in Rio Grande do Norte the length at first maturity of females has decreased from 41 cm&#160; in the 1970s to 28 cm (TL) in 2007 (Ximenes de Lima <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species may live up to 13 years, reaching 1 m of total length (Fonteles-Filho 1988).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 125 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle angling record is a 6.71 kg fish caught off Managaratiba, Brazil in 1999 (IGFA 2011).
170335		population	eng	This species is one of the most important marine commercial fishes in northeastern Brazil but most of the catch was previously reported as <span style="font-style: italic;">S. maculatus</span> (Collette and Nauen 1983).<br/><br/>Reported worldwide landings for this species range from 300 mt in 1950 to 6,960 mt in 2006, with a peak of 9,510 mt in 1988 (FAO 2009). The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna in the Atlantic amounted to 55,876 mt, of which 3,247 mt was estimated to be <span style="font-style: italic;">S. brasiliensis</span> (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>There is only one stock in the Brazilian north and northeastern Exclusive Economic Zone (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009), however, no single stock assessment for this species in Brazilian waters has been conducted. In northeast Brazil, this species has a total mortality rate (Z) of 0,628 year<sup>-1</sup>, natural mortality= 0,30 year<sup>-1</sup>, fishing mortality= 0,33 year<sup>-1</sup>, exploitation rate = 0,52 and survival rate = 53,3% (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). The theoretical maximum harvest rate (F) for sustainable exploitation for this species in Northeast Brazil was 0.60, which means that the species is being exploited at its maximum sustainable level. In Northeast Brazil, average annual biomass is estimated to be 4,237 t, and 35.9% of the stock is being exploited annually (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). However there has been a decrease of average length of individuals caught, from 50.3–38.2 cm total length (TL) between 1998 and 2000 (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009), and by 33% from the 1960s to 2000 (Lucena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In North Brazil (e.g., Amapá, Pará and Maranhão), the population is also at its maximum exploitation limit (Lessa 2006, Souza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>The Caribbean represents a very small proportion of the species' range. In Trinidad, it is an important commercial and recreational species targeted by artisanal fisheries. A stock assessment in 1991 categorized this species in the waters of Trinidad as fully exploited (Henry and Martin 1992). The more recent assessment (Martin and Nowlis 2004) indicated that this species' biomass was below maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and that F was above Fmsy.&#160; However, this most recent stock assessment was based on two different models with some conflicting results. In general, there is uncertainty in these results, and the recommendation is continued fishing at current levels.
170335		threats	eng	This species is fished throughout northern and northeastern Brazil by gillnets, hand-line and beach-seine fisheries. The decline in the abundance of this species over the last few years has been exhaustively cited by the fishermen who relate this decline in catch to overfishing. Two stock assessments from north and northeastern Brazil (Souza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Nobrega and Lessa 2009) indicate that the species is fully exploited, and the decrease in average body length and catches in both areas suggest that overfishing is occurring. Juveniles up to two years old are often caught on northeastern western coast in small meshed nets for sardine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthonema oglinum</span>) (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). This species is also caught as bycatch.
170336		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This is listed as a highly migratory species in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994). More information is needed on this species population and the impact of  fisheries, especially as it seems that many catches are not being  reported
170336		distribution	eng	This is an Indo-West Pacific species. It is found in warm waters including oceanic islands and archipelagos. A few stray specimens have been collected in the eastern tropical Pacific (Collette and Nauen 1983).<strong></strong>
170336		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species occurs in open waters, but it always remains close to the shoreline. It is found to 50 m depth. The young may enter bays and harbours. It forms multi-species schools by size with other scombrid species, comprising from 100 to over 5,000 individuals. It is a highly opportunistic predator feeding indiscriminately on small fishes, especially on clupeoids and atherinids (e.g., 78% by weight, 71% frequency in eastern Australia, Griffiths et al. 2009). It also feeds on squids, crustaceans and zooplankton (Collette 2001).<br/><br/>Yesaki and Arce (1994) and Muthias (1985) report the apparent length at 50% maturity for this species off India to be 43 cm. A study conducted in Taiwan found the age at first maturity to be two years (Chiou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Longevity has been estimated at six years (Landau 1965).<br/><br/>This species spawns extensively, both geographically and temporally, throughout its range (Schaefer 2001). Although spawning distributions of all three <span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus</span> species have been reported to be restricted primarily to peripheral areas and around islands (Yoshida 1979, Nishikawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985), spawning in the eastern tropical Pacific has been shown to be widely distributed from coastal to oceanic waters (Schaefer 1987).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 100 cm fork length (FL), about 13.6 kg. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 13.15 kg fish caught off Isla Clarion, Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico, in the eastern Pacific outside the usual range of this Indo-West Pacific species (IGFA 2011).
170336		population	eng	The reported world catch for this species between 1975 and 1981 fluctuated between 44,000 and 65,000 metric tonnes per year. The countries with the largest landings are currently the Philippines and Thailand (FAO 2009). In the Philippines and Indonesia, the catch includes many small individuals (N. Miyabe pers comm 2009).This species is considered abundant in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>Worldwide reported landings show a gradual increase from 20,400 tonnes in 1950 to 282,359 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). There are only sub-regional stock assessments for this species, generally based on short time series. For example, in Sri Lanka this species was considered to not be fully exploited (Dayaratne and Silva 1991). Based on a length-structured VPA for 2003–2006 in Veravel, India, it seemed likely that maximum yield and yield/recruit could be obtained by increasing the amount of fishing by 80% (Ghosh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>There is no information on stock structure in the Indian Ocean. From 1958–2007, catches in the Indian Ocean have increased from 3,000 to 125,000 tonnes (IOTC 2007).
170336		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is occasionally caught in multi-species fisheries, mainly by surface trolling; also with gill nets and purse seines. It is also caught as bycatch in industrial purse seines. It seems that there are many catches of this species that are not reported, for example it is caught in Madagascar and Zanzibar (Tanzania).
170337		conservation	eng	The Queensland Fishery is regulated under Queensland's Fisheries Regulations 1995. Regulations include a minimal size limit of 50 cm, that applies to both commercial and recreational fishers on the East Coast of Queensland. Recreational fishers are also limited to 30 school mackerel per fishing trip. These licences also regulate fishing practices and gear. The commercial fishery fundamentally changed with the introduction of new conservative quota management arrangements in July 2009 so it is not yet possible to determine regional catch trends and overall stock status (SS 2011).
170337		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific from southern Papua New Guinea and northern Australia, and from Shark Bay, Western Australia to southern New South Wales (Collette and Nauen 1983). Reports of this species from Thailand and Malaysia are based on misidentifications.
170337		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. It is found more commonly around coastal headlands and rocky reefs but is also caught offshore. Broad-barred Mackerel can tolerate low salinity waters and thus can inhabit near shore areas such as river mouths and estuaries (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Juveniles (4.5–10 cm length) are commonly encountered during November along the beaches of Townsville, Queensland and grow to twice this size by January. They are pelagic predators, feeding exclusively on baitfish (sardines and herrings).<br/><br/>The biology of this species is virtually unknown. Along the eastern Australian coast, length of 50% maturity is 67.45 cm fork length (FL) for males and 81 cm (FL) for females, and longevity is estimated to be 12 years based on a growth study using otoliths (Cameron and Begg 2002).<br/><br/>Maximum size is 120 cm FL, 10 kg. The all-tackle angling record is of a 9.3 kg fish taken at The Patch, Dampier, Australia in 1997 (IGFA 2011).<br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>   <p>&#160;</p>   <p>&#160;</p>
170337		population	eng	<p>This species is taken with others of its genus in a fishery in Queensland. The reported annual catch has varied between 193–444 tons during 2006–2010 with the most recent catch (2009–2010) 193 tons of which 181 tons were caught with nets and 12 tons by line (ASR 2011). There seem to be at least four stocks or population management units of this species (Charters 2010, Newman et al. 2010) complicating management (SS 2011).<br/></p>
170337		threats	eng	This is a commercial species taken by gillnets, set lines, and trolling with small lures or cut bait. It is captured in sheltered waters by set-netting and is an important target for sports fishermen who fish by trolling (Grant 1987). Broad-barred Mackerels are also taken by trawlers in the Gulf of Papua. Four species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorous</span>, including <span style="font-style: italic;">S. semifasciatus</span>, along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Grammatorcynus</span> form Queensland's second most important fin-fishery. Fish of 60–90 cm (FL) are caught on fishing grounds north of Yeppoon, Queensland in November, while small size groups are taken in estuaries north of Moreton Bay (Collette 2001). This species may be threatened by targeted fishing in spawning sites.
170338		conservation	eng	This is a highly migratory species is listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>Size limitations, encouragement of catch-and-release sport fishing, and recommendations for using circle hooks instead of J-hooks are measures designed to increase survival in catch-and-release sport fishing (Serafy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In some areas long-lining is restricted to protect populations of billfishes for sports fishermen. The sports fisheries have mostly developed catch and release programmes rather than keeping the fish. In Costa Rica, Sailfish cannot be targeted in commercial fisheries and can only be landed as bycatch. Only 15% of catches are allowed to be sailfish, so some of the fish are discarded and the catch is likely under reported.<br/><br/>The catch of Sailfish by Japan, Korea, and Taiwan include the catch of Spearfish, though species-specific catch data are beginning to be collected in the Japanese longline fishery. It is probable that there may be other source of bias in landing information. It is necessary to review and check the catch of billfish country by country in detail (Uozumi 1999).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, the International Commission fr the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (ICCAT-SCRS) in 2009 recommended that catches for the eastern stock should be reduced from current levels. The Committee recommended that catches of the western stock of sailfish should not exceed current levels. Any reduction in catch in the West Atlantic is likely to help stock re-growth and reduce the likelihood that the stock is overfished. Artisanal fishermen harvest a large part of the sailfish catch of the western sailfish stock. The ICCAT-SCRS is concerned about the incomplete reporting of Sailfish catches, particularly for the most recent years, because it increases uncertainty in stock status determination. The ICCAT-SCRS recommends all countries landing or having dead discards of Sailfish, report these data to the ICCAT Secretariat (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>No ICCAT regulations for Sailfish are in effect, however, some countries have established domestic regulations to limit the catch of Sailfish. Among these regulations are, requirement of releasing all billfish from longline vessels, adoption of circle hooks, and catch and release strategies in sport fisheries (ICCAT 2009). Regulations for the U.S., Bahamas and Bermuda include no commercial sale. The Mexican government allows Sailfish to be taken only with sport fishing gear (de Guevara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
170338		distribution	eng	In the Indian and Pacific oceans, this species occurs between approximately 45.5°N and 40.35°S in the western Pacific, 35°N and 35°S in the eastern Pacific, 45°S in the western Indian Ocean and 35°S in eastern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, this species is found from southern California and the lower three-fourths of the Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands.<br/><br/>This species is found in tropical and temperate waters approximately 40°N in the northwest Atlantic, 50°N in the northeast Atlantic, 40°S in the southwest Atlantic, and 32°S in the southeast Atlantic. It has entered the Mediterranean Sea from the Red Sea via the Suez Canal.<br/><br/>In both the eastern tropical Pacific and the eastern tropical Atlantic, sailfish concentrate in shallower waters than in the western part of both oceans due to hypoxia-based habitat compression over oxygen minimum zones in the eastern tropical seas (Prince <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
170338		habitat	eng	This oceanic and epipelagic species is usually found above the thermocline to depths of 40 m. It is most densely distributed in waters close to coasts and islands. This species occasionally forms schools or smaller groups of 3–30 individuals but often occurs in loose aggregations over a wide area. It most likely schools by size. This species undergoes spawning migrations in the Pacific (Nakamura 1985), and feeds mainly on fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods.<br/><br/>Appears to spawn throughout the year in tropical and subtropical waters of the Pacific with peak spawning occurring in the respective local summer seasons. Spawning occurs with males and females swimming in pairs or with two or three males chasing a single female (probably a mating behaviour). Around Florida in the USA, this species often moves inshore into shallow waters where females, swimming sluggishly with their dorsal fins extended and accompanied each by one or more males, may spawn near the surface in the warm season. However, spawning in offshore waters beyond the 100 fathom isobath was also reported from south of Cuba to Carolina, USA. Off southeast Florida, a 33.4 kg female may shed up to 4.8 million eggs in three batches during one spawning season.<br/><br/>This species has a fast growth rate. Using the best available data, longevity is estimated to be 13 years and age of maturity 2.5 years (Prince <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, IUCN SSC Tuna and Billfishes Specialist Group). No external sexual dimorphism, but females grow larger than males. Fecundity increases sharply with size of the female (Nakamura 1985, de Sylva and Breder 1997, Richards and Luthy 2005, Chiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Using a longevity of 13 years and age of maturity of 2.5 years, the generation length was estimated to be 4.3 years. The generation length is calculated as: age of first reproduction + z * (longevity - age of first maturity), where z is 0.15 (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Sailfish grow larger in the Pacific than in the Atlantic. The all-tackle game fish record in the Pacific is of a 100.24 kg fish caught off Santa Cruz Island, Ecuador in 1947 while the largest sailfish from the Atlantic was only 64 kg and was caught off Luanda, Angola in 1994 (IGFA 2011).
170338		population	eng	Sailfish are divided into stocks of the Western Atlantic, Eastern Atlantic, Eastern Pacific, Western Central Pacific and Indian Oceans.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Atlantic Ocean</span><br/>There are two stocks of Sailfish in the Atlantic: one in the western Atlantic, and one in the eastern Atlantic. There is considerable uncertainty regarding the status of Atlantic Sailfish stocks, but most models present clear evidence of overfishing and that stocks are overfished, more in the east than in the west. The eastern stock is more productive than the western, probably providing greater maximum sustainable yield (MSY). The eastern stock is probably suffering stronger overfishing and has been reduced further below the level that would produce MSY than the western stock. Both eastern and western stocks suffered greatest declines prior to 1990. Since 1990, trends in relative abundance conflict between different indices, with some indices suggesting declines, other increases, and others not showing a trend. Examination of length frequencies do not show changes in the average length or length distribution&#160; (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>Using combined indices of relative abundance (Table 9, ICCAT 2009), both eastern and western Atlantic Sailfish stocks appear to be stable or increasing over the three generation length period (13 years). The combined indices were chosen over the biomass indices, as the population models which estimated biomass were not considered to be a good fit to the available data. Overall, there is data uncertainty, but the combined indices suggest no strong changes over the length of period examined. The greatest declines in Atlantic Sailfish occurred prior to the three generation lengths.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific Ocean</span><br/>There has been no effort to assess the status of Sailfish or Spearfish species in a comprehensive manner in the Pacific. There has been no stock assessment for the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP). Catches have been fairly stable over the past 10–25 years at around 2,000 mts, however catches are likely higher than reported given that they are grouped in billfishes. There has not been any real directed fishing for this species recently. It is a very important sportfish in the ETP. There are some indications of localized declines. Overall Sailfish abundance is 80% below the 1964 levels in Costa Rica, Guatemala and Panama (Erhart and Fitchett 2006). Trophy fish sizes are 35% smaller than unexploited sizes (Erhard and Fitchett 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Central Pacific</span><br/>Data for sailfish are not routinely recorded, however, it is inferred that no significant declines are occurring.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span><br/>In the Indian Ocean, Sailfish landings are sometimes combined with other billfish species. The landing information on Marlins and Sailfish for the whole Pacific Ocean is not available, except for the FAO statistics which are not informative as the species are reported as a mixed group. There have been reports of decline in sailfish in India and Iran (IOTC 2009), but no information is available on effort. Catches in the Indian Ocean are generally thought to be increasing.
170338		threats	eng	This is a commercial fish that is also caught as bycatch in the global long-line tuna fishery. It is also accidentally caught by commercial fishermen with surface drift nets by trolling, harpooning and set netting. It is most important as a sports fish. The flesh is dark red and not as good as that of marlin. Sport fishing could pose a potential threat locally, especially as this species is found primarily near shore and around islands.<br/><br/>The greatest catch rates in the world for sailfish occur in the Eastern Pacific ocean off Central America where this species supports multi-million dollar sport fisheries (catch and release) (Erhart and Fitchett 2006). In the national long-line fisheries in Costa Rica, many of the fishes are discarded as the fisheries are only allowed to bring in 15% of the catch as sailfish, so that catch are likely under reported. Costa Rica dominates the catch in the Eastern Pacific. Recent catch per unit effort (CPUE) data from the recreational fishery off of Central America has generated cause for concern (Kitchell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, this species is taken primarily by longline fisheries, but also by purse seines, and by some artisanal gears which are the only fisheries targeting marlins (Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire) and also by various sport fisheries located on both sides of the Atlantic. The increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices (FADs) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is increasing the vulnerability of these stocks. Many assessment model results show evidence of overfishing, more so in the eastern than in the western Atlantic stocks (STECF 2009).
170339		conservation	eng	This species is managed in the U.S. under the Fishery Management Plan for Coastal Migratory Pelagic Resources. The management bodies are the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) and the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC). The management plan establishes a number of conservation measures that have helped to recuperate king mackerel fisheries including determine quotas, bag limits and trip limits. Drift gill nets were banned in 1989. Size limit in commercial and recreational fisheries is 24 inches fork length (FL).<br/><br/>There are no specific conservation measure in place in Brazil, however there is a restriction on the length of gillnets which may not exceed 2.5 km. This is poorly enforced. The distribution of this species in Brazilian waters may coincide with some marine protected areas where further fishing regulations may apply.<br/><br/>In Trinidad,&#160; fishing effort is not controlled. There are regulations to specify the maximum length and depth and minimum mesh size for gillnets (11 cm). Similar regulations are imposed for seines, with maximum dimensions for the nets and minimum mesh size requirements (Martin and Nowlis 2004).<br/><br/>In the Bahamas, fishing for this species is allowed only with hook and line. Each vessel may have a maximum of six poles. Any migratory fishery resource that is caught shall not in total consist of more than six Kingfish, Dolphin, Tuna or Wahoo per vessel and any resource not intended to be used shall not be injured unnecessarily but be returned to the sea alive.
170339		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic from Massachusetts, USA to Santa Catarina State, Brazil. A record exists for St. Paul's rocks (Lubbock and Edwards 1981), however this may represent a vagrant as there have been no records in the last 15 years despite close monitoring (Hazin, Lessa and Fredou pers. comm. 2010).
170339		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and oceanodromous and is often found in outer reef areas. Larvae are encountered in surface waters of 26.3–31°C and 26.9–35 ppt. It feeds primarily on fishes, in particularly clupeids with smaller quantities of penaeid shrimps and squids. It occurs singly or in small groups often in outer reef areas. Large schools have been found to migrate over considerable distances along the Atlantic U.S. coast, water temperature permitting.<br/><br/>In the northwest Atlantic, King Mackerel spawn from May to November, with males maturing between 2–3 years and females between 3–4 years (Beaumariage 1973, Funicane 1986)s. In Puerto Rico, spawning occurs year-round, with a peak from April–August (Figuerola-Fernandez and Torres-Ruiz 2003). In Ceara State, Brazil, spawning occurs from October to March. In the western Gulf of Mexico, spawning is from May to September (McEachran 1980). Longevity can reach 32 years for females and 26 for males (Nobrega and Lessa 2009). Average generation length across the species range has been estimated at nine years (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
170339		population	eng	Total catch for this species in the Atlantic is probably underestimated due to reporting of unclassified <span style="font-style: italic;">Scombermorus </span>species captures as well as the probably inadequate reporting for artisanal and recreational catches (Manooch 1979).&#160; In the 1980s there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. Reported landings for 1989–1995 decreased to approximately 92,637 t, and since then values have oscillated, with a minimum of 69,895 t in 1993 and a maximum of 123,600 t in 2005. Declared catches were 79,228 t in 2006 and 74,087 t in 2007. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 t. The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna amounted to 55,876 t, of which 3,755 t was King mackerel (STECF 2009). There are more than 10 species of small tunas, but only five of these account for about 88% of the total reported catch by weight. These five species are: Atlantic Bonito (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span>), Frigate Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>) which may include some catches of Bullet Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span>), Little Tunny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus alletteratus</span>), King Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus cavalla</span>), and Atlantic Spanish Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus maculatus</span>) (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>Tagging efforts in the 1970s and 1980s indicated that there are three migratory groups of King Mackerel in United States waters: a western Gulf of Mexico, Eastern Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic (Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Sheppard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Since there are no genetic differences between the two Gulf of Mexico populations, the species is managed as two migratory stocks: Gulf of Mexico and the southeastern US coast (Gold <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Winter migrations occur from both stocks to south Florida where the mixed stock is targeted by a winter fishery. The south US Atlantic stock contributes a significant percentage of landings in the winter mixing zone (Clardy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In the 1980s, this species was considered overfished throughout its US range. The Gulf of Mexico population which has experienced an estimated 2.5-fold increase in spawning stock biomass since the early 1990s displayed a decline in size-at-age for ages 2–7, while the Atlantic population, which has experienced an approximately 45 decline in estimated spawning stock biomass over the same time period, displayed an increase in size-at-age for ages 4–10 (Shepard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Posterior management measures have been effective in rebuilding the stocks to currently healthy levels. The estimated spawning stock biomass (SSB) is currently higher than the SSB maximum sustainable yeild (MSY) and F is lower than FMSY for both the US south Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico stocks (SEDAR 2009, Ortiz 2004). In the U.S., estimates of the SSB for the U.S. South Atlantic stock have declined, ranging from a peak of 12.8 million fish in 1981/82 to 5.9 million in 2001/02. For the Gulf of Mexico stock, the SSB has generally increased from 4 million fish in 1984/85 to 17.2 million in 2006/07 (NFMS SAR 2009). However, this species is considered to have recovered to a healthy level in the U.S.<br/><br/>In northeast Brazil, it is considered near fully exploited (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Preliminary stock assessment efforts in Trinidad conclude that the stock may be overfished (Hogarth and Martin 2006).<br/><br/>In the U.S., estimates of the SSB for the U.S. South Atlantic stock has declined, ranging from a peak of 12.8 million fish in 1981/82 to 5.9 million in 2001/02. For the Gulf of Mexico stock, the SSB has generally increased from 4 million fish in 1984/85 to 17.2 million in 2006/07 (NFMS SAR 2009).<br/><br/>Between 1976 and 2004, the weight landed in northeastern Brazil (from the state of Piauí to the state of Bahia) rose from 10.9% to 29% (mean=19.4%) of the total catch throughout its entire area of occurrence (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). The states of Ceará (1,579 t) and Bahia (541 t) contributed the largest volumes in the northeastern region, accounting for 59% and 20.2% of the overall catch, respectively (Nóbrega and Lessa 2009). In northeastern Brazil Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) assessed the exploitation status of the stock and estimated a mean annual biomass of 12,742 t for a mean yield of 3,307 t/year, indicating that, despite being underexploited, the stock is near its maximal exploitation limit.
170339		threats	eng	This is a commercial species caught with purse seines, gillnet, hook and line and other methods. It is an important species for recreational, commercial, and artisanal fisheries throughout its range. It is potentially ciguatoxic in certain areas.
170340		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species biology and population trends.
170340		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal in southern temperate waters. There are a few records from Hawaii (Ito <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994), which are likely vagrants.
170340		habitat	eng	This species occurs over deep oceanic waters, from the surface to below 200 m. Stomach contents of the specimen from north of the Hawaiian Archipelago included onychoteuthid and ommastrephid squids, vertebrae and fin rays from an unidentified fish, bird feathers and parasitic nematodes (Ito <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). This species biology is poorly known. Larvae of this species have never been identified.
170340		population	eng	This species is not of commercial interest but is taken as bycatch by Japanese longliners (Collette and Nauen 1983). It is estimated that this species was caught at approximately 900 t annually from 1990 to the early 2000s (Miyabe pers. comm. 2010). It is also caught by other nations that have quotas for Southern Bluefin Tuna. There is no other population information for this species.
170340		threats	eng	This species is taken as longline bycatch by Japanese fishing for <span style="font-style: italic;">Thunnus maccoyii</span> (Southern Bluefin Tuna). It is sometimes eaten in Japan.
170341		conservation	eng	Mexico has quotas in place to limit the amount of fish that can be caught for fish farms. There is no longer any US catch for this species, and historically high catches for the U.S. are likely due to U.S. fishing in Mexican waters.
170341		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is a temperate species that also extends into tropical waters. There are records of this species in New Zealand and French Polynesia. More information is needed to confirm this species distribution to these areas, and there is no evidence of spawning in these areas.
170341		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic and usually oceanic species, but seasonally comes close to the shore. It tolerates wide temperature ranges and forms schools by size, sometimes with other Scombrids. It migrates between June and September in a northward direction along the coast of Baja California, Mexico and California. A model of migration is presented by Bayliff (1994). It is found to 550 m depth. It is a voracious predator that feeds on a wide variety of small schooling fishes or squid, and also eats crabs and less sessile organisms (Collette and Nauen 1983).<br/><br/>Longevity may be as long as 15 years (Hsu 2000) or 26 years (Shimose 2009). Spawning occurs between Japan and the Philippines in April, May, and June, off southern Honshu in July, and in the Sea of Japan in August.&#160; The sex ratio is about 1:1. Size at first maturity is 150 cm FL and 60 kg at an age of approximately five years. Batch fecundity increases with length, from about five million eggs at 190 cm FL to about 25 million eggs at 240 cm FL (Collette 2010, Schaefer 2001, Sawada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>Based on maturity and longevity studies (Collette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), the generation length of this species is estimated to be between 7–9 years.<br/><br/>The all-tackle game fish record is of a 325 kg fish caught off Westport, New Zealand in 2007 (IGFA 2011).
170341		population	eng	FAO worldwide reported landings show a increase from 1,452 tonnes in 1950 to 31,542 tonnes in 1961, then gradually decreasing to less 8,049 tonnes in 1984. Landings from 1985 to present have fluctuated, but are relatively stable between 5,800–10,000 tonnes from 1985–2006 (FAO 2009). In the Pacific, the catch from 2000–2004 is reported as 16,000–29,000 tonnes/year, and the status of the stock is Fully Exploited (Majikowski 2007). In April 2011, the Southwest Fisheries Science Center of the US National Marine Fisheries Service found that overfishing is occurring on Pacific Bluefin Tuna but that the stock was not in an overfished condition (Menashes 2011).<br/><br/>For the entire Pacific, half of the stock is caught in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, and the other half in the Western Pacific Ocean. The Eastern Pacific is likely half of the Pacific catch, but no good stock assessment exists. Based on FAO data, there is an apparent decrease in total landings for the Eastern Pacific between 1994–2004 from approximately 9,000 mt to approximately 3,000 mt, but data from the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) over the same time period is relatively constant at around 2,000–3,000 mt with some peaks of 8,000 mts and 9,000 mts in 2004 and 2006 (IATTC 2008). The majority of the catch is off of Baja California. Catch numbers have naturally fluctuated based on population migration. This species spawns in the Sea of Japan, and an unknown proportion migrates to the Eastern Pacific, stays a few years, and then migrates back to the Western Pacific. Fluctuations in catch in the Eastern Pacific are thus results of the proportion of migrants that come to the Eastern Pacific. Similarly, the consecutive years of above average catches in the Eastern Pacific (mid-1950s to mid-1960s) and below-average catches (early 1980s to early 1990s) could be due to consecutive years of above-average and below-average recruitments (IATTC 2010).<br/><br/>Based on a 2008 stock assessment (ISC 2008), evaluation of the stock is not straightforward. From the late 1980s, spawning stock biomass (SSB) has recovered to about 30,000 t by the mid-1990s, and then declined again to 20,000 t. At this level, SSB in 2005 was near the median level over the assessment period (1952–2004). Total catch fluctuated widely in the range of 9,000–40,000 t during the assessment time period, while recent catches have been near the average for the assessment period (~22,000 t). Over the entire catch history, annual catch has never attained the equilibrium catch at FMSY (45,000 t).<br/><br/>Based on updates to this assessment that were conducted in 2009 (ISC 2009) and 2010 (ISC 2010), the estimated spawning biomass in 2008 declined from the last estimate of 2006 and is in the range of 40–60% of the historically observed spawning biomasses. Average fishing mortality from 2004–2006 (F2004-2006) has increased for all age classes, and 30-year projections predict that at F2004-2006 median spawning biomass is likely to decline to levels around the 25th percentile of historical spawning biomass with approximately 5% of the projections declining to or below the lowest previously observed spawning biomass. At F2002-2004 median spawning biomass is likely to decline in subsequent years but recover to levels near the median of the historically observed levels. In contrast to F2004-2006, F2002-2004 had no projections (0%) declining to the lowest observed spawning biomass (ISC 2010).<br/><br/>Based on linear regression of estimated SSB (ISC 2008, ISC 2009), the stock shows an increasing trend over the past 21–27 years (from 1984–2006 and from 1986–2006).
170341		threats	eng	In the Northern Pacific, this species is fished with set net, trolling, and purse seines. Most of the catch in the Eastern Pacific is taken by purse seines. A considerable portion of the purse seine catch is transported to holding pens for fattening and later sale as sashimi grade fish (IATTC 2008).
170342		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. This species may occur in some protected areas within its range, such as the Great Barrier Reef. More research is need on this species biology and population trends.
170342		distribution	eng	This Indo-Pacific species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to French Polynesia, north to Japan, south to Australia. Its distribution is disjunct as this species is found primarily around reefs. There are several records from Taiwan (Taiwan Fisheries Research Institue FRIP 21529) that was caught as bycatch in tuna long-line.
170342		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and oceanodromous, found offshore mainly around coral reefs, and may occur to depths of at least 300 m (Braud and Grand Perrin 1984). It is generally solitary or occurs in small schools of six or less. It preys on small schooling fishes such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Decapterus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Caesio</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nasio</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus, Pterocaesio</span> and adults may be ciguatoxic (Randall 1980).<br/><br/>Size at first maturity is 65 cm&#160; fork length (FL) (Lewis<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1983).  Maximum Size is 247 cm FL. The all-tackle angling record is of a 104.32 kg fish caught off LeMorne, Mauritius in 1993 (IGFA 2011).<strong></strong>
170342		population	eng	There are no fisheries directed specifically at this species but it is regularly caught in small numbers mostly in artisanal fisheries with hand-lines, pole, and trolling during certain seasons in many parts of its range (Collette and Nauen 1983).<br/><br/>FAO worldwide reported landings fluctuate, but in general show a gradual increase in reported catch from 94 tonnes in 1971 to a high of 808 tonnes in 2003 (FAO 2009).
170342		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species that is caught mainly by pole-and-line, and is also caught in sport fisheries&#160; There are no fisheries directed specifically at this species but it is regularly caught in small numbers mostly in artisanal fisheries with hand-lines, pole, and trolling during certain seasons in many parts of its range (Collette and Nauen 1983). Initial high catches are usually not maintained, perhaps because it is a solitary species and does not school.
170343		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. Recommended research includes more information on catch landings and effort for this species. More research is needed on this species biology, this is one of the least known <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomoru</span>s<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>species because it has been confused with other species and is not common.
170343		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the west coast of India and Sri Lanka along the continental shelf eastward to Sumatra, Indonesia and Singapore, and northward to China, Korea, and Wakasa Bay, Sea of Japan. This species' distribution does not extend past Sumatra in the East Indies.
170343		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous, and occurs to at least 100 m depth. It feeds on small schooling fishes, such as sardines and anchovies and on shrimps.
170343		population	eng	There is little population information available. This species is not abundant. It is not typically distinguished from other <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus</span> species in catch reports (Collette and Nauen 1983).
170343		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species in some parts of its range that is marketed fresh and dried-salted and is taken by drift gill nets (Collette 2001).This species makes up an important part of the drift net fishery in Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, India.
170344		conservation	eng	No fishery management plan currently in place for this species, except a prohibition on drift nets in EU countries.
170344		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is a highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department, 1994). No fishery management plan is currently in place except a prohibition on drift nets in EU countries.<br/><br/>Data on the catch composition, biology and trends are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, thanks to the ICCAT/GFCM joint expert group in 2008. More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) suggests that countries be requested to submit all available data to ICCAT as soon as possible, in order to be used in future meetings. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. ICCAT/SCRS, in 2008, reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions.&#160; ICCAT-SCRS in 2009 noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Given that, many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins, therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2009).
170344		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. It is considered vagrant in the Mediterranean Sea. However, there are only a few records of this species in the Atlantic as most of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> in the Atlantic are <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span>.<br/><br/>The Eastern Pacific population is recognized as a subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard brachydorax</span> (Collette and Aadland 1996), which occurs from California to the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru, and all the oceanic islands except Clipperton (Robertson and Allen 2006).
170344		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. It is considered vagrant in the Mediterranean Sea. However, there are only a few records of this species in the Atlantic as most of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> in the Atlantic is <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei.</span>   The eastern Pacific population is recognized as subspecies <em>Auxis thazard brachydorax</em> (Collette and Aadland 1996).
170344		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is also epipelagic in neritic and oceanic waters (Collette 1995).  It feeds on small fish, squids, planktonic crustaceans (megalops), and stomatopod larvae (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <em>A. thazard thazard</em> is considered an important element of the food web because of their great abundance, particularly as food for other species of commercial interest.  It is preyed upon by larger fishes, including other tunas and billfishes (Frimodt 1995).  In correlation with temperature and other environmental changes, the spawning season varies with areas, but in some places it may even extend throughout the year. IT is an Intra-Mediterranean migratory species.
170344		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that is also epipelagic in neritic and oceanic waters (Collette 1995). Adults are coastal or near-coastal, while juveniles are more widely spread throughout the world's ocean. It feeds on small fish, squids, planktonic crustaceans (megalops), and stomatopod larvae. Because of their abundance, they are considered an important element of the food web, particularly as forage for other species of commercial interest. It is preyed upon by larger fishes, including other tunas and billfishes.<br/><br/>Longevity is approximately four years. The smallest maturing female off the west coast of Thailand was 31–33 cm fork length (FL), and the length at 50% maturity in the Gulf of Thailand was 34–37 cm FL (Yesaki and Arce 1994, Collette 2010). Length at maturity 50% is 30.5 cm FL in India (Muthiah 1985). Average estimated length-age relationships in the equatorial Atlantic are 22.9 cm at one year, 30.4 cm at two years, 36.7 cm at three years and 40.4 cm at four years (Grudtsev and Korolevich 1986).<br/><br/>Fecundity estimates range from 78,000 to 1.37 million eggs in 31.5–44.2 cm females. In correlation with temperature and other environmental changes, the spawning season varies with areas, but in some places it may even extend throughout the year. In the southern Indian Ocean, spawning extends from August to April, north of the equator from January to April at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher (Klawe 1963, Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 62 cm FL. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 1.72 kg fish caught off Hat Head, New south Wales, Australia in 1998 (IGFA 2011).
170344		population	eng	Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) does not report statistics for this species. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) includes statistics for Frigate tuna which are suspected to include both <em>A. rochei</em> and <em>A. thazard</em>, over the period of 1996-2005 landings fluctuated between 2067-5531 mt. No assessment summary is given for this species from the Mediterranean. GFCM is now starting a project to collect data on small tuna-like species in the Mediterranean (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). This is a common species in fisheries and abundance changes from place to place every year (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Landings data (t) from Algeria, Croatia, Spain, Greece, Italy, Malta, Maroc, Serbia & Montenegro and Tunisia (in metric  tonnes): 1996=2509, 1997=3070, 1998=2286, 1999=2067, 2000=2694, 2001=4242, 2002=5099, 2003=2450, 2004=5531, 2005=777. The highest value of landings occurred from Spain (7938 t) followed by Italy ( 7807 t) and Morocco (6319 t) (ICCAT 2007).
170344		population	eng	This species (along with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span>) is considered to be extremely abundant in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>FAO does not report statistics for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> spp. catches are generally not identified to species. Worldwide reported landings for <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> spp show a gradual increase from 22,278 t in 1950 to 256,325 t in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, most catches reported as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. thazard</span> are probably <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span>. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) includes statistics for Frigate Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>) which are suspected to include both <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. thazard</span>. In the total catch of Frigate Tuna, the proportion of each of the two species is not known. Recent ICCAT estimates (ICCAT 2009) range from 21,000 (1987) to 3500 (2008) t. This species may be less abundant than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span> in the Atlantic.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this is a common species in fisheries and abundance changes from place to place every year (Di Natale pers. comm. 2008). No assessment summary is given for this species from the Mediterranean. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) is now starting a project to collect data on small tuna-like species in the Mediterranean (Di Natale pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In the 1980s there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. Reported landings for the 1989–1995 period decreased to approximately 92,637 t, and since then values have oscillated, with a minimum of 69,895 t in 1993 and a maximum of 123,600 t in 2005. Declared catches were 79,228 t in 2006 and 74,087 t in 2007. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 t. The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna amounted to 55,876 t, of which 6,018 t was Bullet Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span>) (STECF 2009). There are more than 10 species of small tunas, but only five of these account for about 88% of the total reported catch by weight. These five species are: Atlantic Bonito (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span>), Frigate Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>) which may include some catches of Bullet Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span>), Little Tunny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus alletteratus</span>), King Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus cavalla</span>), and Atlantic Spanish Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus maculatus</span>) (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>The catch for 2007 of this species in the Indian Ocean was 41,700 tonnes compared to 3,700 tonnes of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span> (IOTC 2007).
170344		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial interest. <em></em>It is typically caught with seines.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean the price of this fish is low but quantity can be important in local markets. It is caught mostly by purse seine, set surface gill nets, and small drift nets (the latter banned in EU countries in 2002), hand and troll lines, and traps.
170344		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial value. It is caught with beach seines, shore seines, drift nets, pursue seines, hook-and-line, gill nets and by trolling.<br/><br/>Overall trends in the small tuna catch may mask declining trends for individual species because annual landings are often dominated by the landings of a single species. These fluctuations seem to be partly related to unreported catches, as these species generally comprise part of the bycatch and are often discarded, and therefore do not reflect the real catch. It is commonly believed that catches of small tunas are strongly affected by unreported or underreported data in all areas. Small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). There is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).
170345		conservation	eng	It is a highly migratory species listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994). In Turkey there is a minimum landing size of 45 cm.<br/><br/>Data on the catch composition, biology and trends are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)/General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) joint expert group 2008). More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. In 2008, the ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions.&#160; ICCAT/SCRS in 2009 noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Given that, many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins, therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2009).
170345		conservation	eng	There is a minimum landing size for Turkey of 45 cm. No other conservation measures in place.
170345		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic Ocean in tropical and subtropical waters, including the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. It is a highly migratory species, listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (Food and Agriculture Organization Fisheries Department, 1994). Recently, Oray and Karakulak (2005) observed concentrations of <em>E. alletteratus</em> larvae in the eastern Mediterranean basin zone.
170345		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic Ocean in tropical and subtropical waters, including the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Guinea and west Africa.<br/><br/>Oray and Karakulak (2005) observed in the eastern Mediterranean basin zone high concentrations of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. alletteratus</span> larvae. It is found at least to 10°S in Brazil (Lessa pers comm. 2010), and to the border of Argentina (Figueiredo and Menezes 2000).
170345		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated and oceanodromous species found in neritic waters close inshore (Cervigón 1994). It is found in surface waters, mainly on the continental shelf. Less migratory than <span style="font-style: italic;">Katsuwonus pelamis</span> or other tunas, it is usually found in coastal areas with swift currents, near shoals and offshore islands. In the Mediterranean it is also found far offshore. This schooling species is an opportunistic predator which feeds on primarily on fishes (mainly clupeoid), but also on crustaceans, squids, hyperiid amphipods, heteropods and tunicates (Bahou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Falautano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160; Eggs are shed in several batches when the water is warmest.<br/><br/>Little Tunny spawns extensively, both geographically and temporally, throughout its respective range (Schaefer 2001). Eggs are shed in several batches when the water is warmest. Although spawning distributions of all three <span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus </span>species have been reported to be restricted primarily to peripheral areas and around islands within their respective ocean basins (Yoshida 1979, Nishikawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985), spawning in the eastern tropical Pacific has been shown to be widely distributed from coastal to oceanic waters (Schaefer 1987).<br/><br/>In Tunisia, the sex ratio is 57.77% females (Hajjej <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). GSI indicated spawning June–Sept. Size at first maturity 43.13 cm fork length (FL) for females, 42.12 for males. Length-weight W<sub>t</sub> = 0.0329.FL2.8101 for females, 0.0368.FL2.7832 for males.<br/><br/>This species has an estimated longevity of between eight and 10 years (Cayre and Diouf 1983, Landau 1965), with an estimated age of first maturity of two or three years (Landau 1965, Hattour 2000, Kahraman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately four years.<br/><br/>Maximum size is 100 cm FL. The all-tackle gamefish record is a 16.32 kg fish taken in Washington Canyon, New Jersey in 2006 (IGFA 2011).
170345		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated and oceanodromous species, found in neritic waters close to shore (Cervigón 1994). In the Mediterranean it is also found far offshore. This schooling species is an opportunistic predator which feeds on virtually everything within its range, for example crustaceans, fishes (mainly clupeoid), squids, heteropods and tunicates.  Diving bird flocks may indicate large schools (Lieske & Myers 1994). Eggs are shed in several batches when the water is warmest.
170345		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) statistics are very weak for this species with many countries not reporting catches for many years. Landings reported for the period of 1997-2002 fluctuated around 2,500mt. More recent catch reports are not yet complete. This species is sporadically caught. Larger specimens are becoming more available in recent years (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>Euthynnus alletteratus</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 52 (1996), 39 (1997), 51 (1998), 18 (1999), 24 (2000), 103 (2001), 200 (2002), 47 (2003), 96 (2004), 232 (2005).
170345		population	eng	This species is caught in relatively small quantities throughout its range. Reported worldwide landings range from 3,592 t in 1950, to 10,308 t in 2006, with a peak of over 26,000 t reported in 1983 and in 1990 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>In the 1980s there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. Reported landings for the 1989–1995 period decreased to approximately 92,637 t, and since then values have oscillated, with a minimum of 69,895 t in 1993 and a maximum of 123,600 t in 2005. Declared catches were 79,228 t in 2006 and 74,087 t in 2007. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 t. The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna amounted to 55,876 t, of which 11,552 t was <span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus alletteratus</span> (STECF 2009). There are more than 10 species of small tunas, but only five of these account for about 88% of the total reported catch by weight. These five species are: Atlantic Bonito (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span>); Frigate Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>), which may include some catches of Bullet Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span>); Little Tunny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus alletteratus</span>); King Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus cavalla</span>); and Atlantic Spanish Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus maculatus</span>) (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) statistics are very weak for this species with many countries not reporting catches for many years. Landings reported for the period of 1997–2002 fluctuated around 2,500 t. This species is sporadically caught and larger specimens are becoming more available in recent years (Di Natale pers. comm 2008).<br/><br/>In the Caribbean, landings for this species are aggregated as small tuna (Oxenford pers. comm. 2010, Mahon 1996). This species is caught in small quantities in Brazil by several artisanal fisheries in northeast Brazil (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In northeast Brazil, this species comprised 59.4% of total catch in a survey in Ceara state; 16.4% in Piaui and (15.6%) norte da Bahia (Norbrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
170345		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that is part of a multispecies fishery. In open waters it is fished with purse seines and trolling lines; juveniles are also taken with beach seines.<br/><br/>Almost all the commercial catches (99%) are taken by purse-seiners (2,067 t retained and 1,434 t discarded) (STECF 2009). Specialized traps (madragues) are used in Tunisia and Morocco. This species is caught in the artisanal gillnet fishery in northeast Brazil (Nobrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is an important resource in Venezuela where they are caught in beach nets, hook and line (Ramirez-Arredondo 1990). Because of its abundance in inshore waters it is a popular sportfish on light tackle, commonly taken by trolling feather jigs, spoons, or strip bait. It is also popular and very effective as live bait for sailfish.<br/><br/>Overall trends in the small tuna catch may mask declining trends for individual species because annual landings are often dominated by the landings of a single species. These fluctuations seem to be partly related to unreported catches, as these species generally comprise part of the bycatch and are often discarded, and therefore do not reflect the real catch. The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) pointed out the relative importance of small tuna fisheries in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, which account for 28% of the total reported catch from 1980–2007. Several countries from the Mediterranean and Black Sea are not reporting catches to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). It is commonly believed that catches of small tunas are strongly affected by unreported or underreported data in all areas. Small tunas are exploited mainly by coastal fisheries and often by artisanal fisheries, although substantial catches are also made, either as target species or as bycatch, by purse seiners, mid-water trawlers, handlines, troll lines, driftnets, surface drifting long-lines and small scale gillnets. Several recreational fisheries also target small tunas. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse-seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). There is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).
170345		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that is part of a multispecies fishery. Specialized traps (madragues) are used in Tunisia and Morocco. It is also caught by drift net and long lines, hand and troll lines.
170346		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Research is needed to determine the status of this species population, in addition to more information on its biology.
170346		distribution	eng	This western Pacific species is found in Akita, Honshu, Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea and China south to Viet Nam and Cambodia where it enters the Mekong River. This is the only scombrid species that moves long distances into freshwater.
170346		habitat	eng	This species travels 300 km up the Mekong River, above Phnom Penh but believed to reproduce only in marine waters, although D’Aubenton and Blanc (1965) reported on juveniles as small as 165 mm fork length (FL) from Tonle Sap, Cambodia. It feeds on fishes and swims well upstream river because of easy food availability. It is an epipelagic, neritic and estuarine species. There is no information on biology available. This is likely a long-lived species given its relatively large size.<br/><br/>Maximum size is probably longer than 218 cm FL, 131 kg. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 131 kg fish caught off Cheju-Do, Korea in 1982 (IGFA 2011).
170346		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is not common. There is no catch report for this species between 1975–1981 but it is a prized food fish in Japan and possibly in China (Collette and Nauen 1983). However, this species is likely confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. niphonius</span> in central to southern China.
170346		threats	eng	It is a prized food fish in Japan and probably in China as well. It is caught in the Mekong River of Cambodia and commanded a high price in the Phnom Penh market in 1964 (D'Aubenton and Blanc 1965). It is utilized fresh, dried or salted and smoked and is consumed pan-fried, broiled and baked. However, this species is not currently common in markets in Japan (Uozumi pers comm 2009).
170347		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. This species is not known to occur in any marine protected areas. More research is needed on this species distribution and biology.
170347		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Gulf of Papua off the mouth of the Fly River, but may be more widespread as there are records from the Timor Sea (Buckworth and Clarke 2001).
170347		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous; it is neritic species found in turbid waters, likely to a depth of 50 m. Sexual maturity is attained at much less than 30 cm fork length (FL). It is the smallest species in the genus.
170347		population	eng	There is little population information for this species. It is trawled in the Gulf of Papua but lacks commercial significance (Collette and Nauen 1983).
170347		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species taken in trawls.
170348		conservation	eng	Beach-seine netting of this species is prohibited in South Africa because netted shoals comprised only immature fish (Van der Elst and Collette 1984). There is a bag limit of 10 fish per fisher per day in South Africa. The European Union has requested countries to report the catches of this species yearly (PE Const 3620/2/08 11 March 2009) as more information is needed on species specific landings and effort.
170348		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean from Seychelles, Kenya and Zanzibar to South Africa and along the west coast of Madagascar.
170348		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous, and neritic species. It forms large schools in the Zanzibar Channel from March to September. It feeds mainly on anchovies (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoviella</span> sp.), clupeids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Amblygaster</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Sardinella fimbriata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sardinella perforata</span>), other small fishes, squids, and mantis shrimps (Williams 1964, Van der Elst and Collette 1984).<br/><br/>In South Africa, 50% maturity for this species is attained at age of two years and a length of 72–74 cm fork length (FL) for males, 76–78 cm for females (Van der Elst and Collette 1984). Longevity is estimated to be six years (Chale-Matsau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).<br/><br/>Maximum size is 120 cm FL, 12.5 kg. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 12.5 kg fish caught off Mapelane, Zululand, Natal, South Africa in 1997 (IGFA 2011).
170348		population	eng	This species is seasonally important in Tanzania and Kenya (Collette and Nauen 1983). There is a big sport fishery in South Africa for this species. However, there are no reported landings of this species, as they may be mixed with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus</span> species in some parts of its range.<br/><br/>In South Africa, this species has been reduced by 50% of its unfished biomass and is considered optimally exploited (Chale-Matsau<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1999).
170348		threats	eng	This is a commercial species which is taken with gillnets.&#160; In commercial fisheries in South Africa it is typically an incidental catch. It is very important in the recreational line fishery in South Africa (Van der Elst and Collette 1984, Chale-Matsau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). Spearfishermen also take Queen Mackerel in Natal. There are clashing interests between recreational and commercial fishermen over the right to exploit the species in Natal (Van der Elst and Collette 1984). Fishing  Fishing effort in Madagascar has more than doubled since 1980 (Laroche and Ramananarivo 1995).
170349		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. More information is needed on this species biology and population trends.
170349		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southern Ocean and is circumglobal. One individual was taken in Los Angeles Harbor (Fitch and Craig 1964) and another from the North Pacific subarctic gyre (Schaefer and Childers 1999), both probably vagrants. This species has also been reported from Santo City, Sao Paulo, Brazil (A. Amorim pers. comm. 2010).
170349		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. It is an occasionally schooling species which feeds mainly on krill (euphausiids), squids, copepods, and small fishes. Juveniles are found between 20 and 35°S at surface temperatures ranging from 19 to 24°C (Collette 2002).<br/><br/>Spawning is presumed to take place during the summer months (Oct–Dec) over a wide range of the temperate Indian and South Pacific oceans north of 31°S (Yatsu 1995, Collette 2010). Both sexes have a reported length at first maturity of 71.5 cm fork length (FL) in Tasmania (Wolfe and Webb 1975) but there are no other studies to support this.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is recorded as 105 cm FL. The all-tackle gamefish record is a 11.9 kg fish taken off Taiaroa Heads, Otago, New Zealand in 2001 (IGFA 2011).
170349		population	eng	There is no special fishery for this species but it is incidentally caught, largely by the Southern Bluefin Tuna fishery (Collette and Nauen 1983). Reported catches worldwide are only 15 t in 2002, 6 t in 2003, 11 t in 2004, and 6 t in 2006 (FAO 2009). However, the major fishing nations for Southern Bluefin Tuna do not report bycatch landings for this species.&#160; In the southwest Atlantic, small catches have been reported from the Falkland Islands. This species was reported to be locally abundant in the Southern Ocean (Yatsu 1995).
170349		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species that is taken incidentally by tuna longliners fishing for southern Bluefin Tuna and by purse seiners, buy this is not considered a major threat at presen (B. Collette pers. comm. 2010).
170350		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
170350		conservation	eng	This highly migratory species is listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. Anywhere that there are minimum catch size or limits for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hippurus</span>, this species would also receive protection as it is smaller.
170350		distribution	eng	<em>Coryphaena equiselis</em> has a worldwide distribution in tropical to warm temperate waters. It is frequently misidentified as juvenile or female <em>Coryphaena hippurus</em>. It is a highly migratory species, listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>There are four records of <em>C. equiselis</em> from the Mediterranean: one record from Algerian coast (Djabali <em>et al.</em> 1993), one from the Ligurian Sea north of Corsica, one from the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Sicily, and one from the southern Aegean Sea, east of Peloponisos.
170350		distribution	eng	This species is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas.<br/><br/>There are four records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaena equiselis</span> from the Mediterranean: one record from the Algerian coast (Djabali <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993), one from the Ligurian Sea north of Corsica, one from the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Sicily, and one from the southern Aegean Sea, east of Peloponisos. There are large catches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaena</span> spp in the Mediterranean, but the vast majority is <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hippurus</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. equiselis</span> is likely a vagrant in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>It has been found to depths of 119 m (Nobrega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
170350		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species, primarily found in oceanic areas but it may also enter coastal waters (Collette 1995). It usually forms schools. The species is known to follow boats and may be found under floating objects (Collette 1995). It feeds on small fishes and squid (Collette 1995).
170350		habitat	eng	This pelagic, oceanodromous species is primarily oceanic but may enter coastal waters. It usually forms schools. It follows boats and may be found under floating objects. It feeds on small fishes and squid.<br/><br/>This species is fast-growing and short-lived. Maximum size is 75 cm, but more commonly is found to 50 cm. The all-tackle gamefish record is of a 3.86 kg fish taken in Baltimore Canyon, Maryland in 2008 (IGFA 2011). This species is much smaller and less important to fisheries than <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hippurus</span>. Age at first maturity is 3–4 months. Spawning is probably year-round at water temperatures greater than 21°C (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Ditty 2005, Collette 2010).
170350		population	eng	Population in the Mediterranean is not known (only four records, but scattered from west to east).
170350		population	eng	This species is smaller and less important to commercial fisheries than <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hippurus</span>. There are no catch statistics for this species. In the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) catch statistics this species is grouped with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hippurus</span>. The juveniles of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. equiselis</span> are more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hippurus</span> (Gibbs and Collette 1959).
170350		threats	eng	Although there is no directed commercially fishery, it is taken incidentally. There are no major threats to this species. It is widespread and very prolific.
170350		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance (outside the Mediterranean).&#160; The species can be caught with a variety of fishing gears. This species has also been used for experimental aquaculture.<br/><br/>In Malta, there is a local fishery for <em>C. hippurus</em> and this species may appear as incidental catch in this fishery (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
170351		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to determine the impact of fisheries on this species population, including better catch and effort information, and more comprehensive stock assessments.
170351		distribution	eng	This Indo-West Pacific species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Papua New Guinea, north to Japan, and south to Australia. The population does not appear to be continuous.
170351		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. It is a predominantly neritic species avoiding very turbid waters and areas with reduced salinity such as estuaries. It may form schools of varying size. It feeds on a variety of fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans, particularly stomatopod larvae and prawns.<br/><br/>Maximum size is about 130 cm fork length (FL), and longevity at least five years. The smallest mature female in Thailand was 43 cm (FL), although fifty percent of females in the Gulf of Thailand were mature at 39.6 cm (FL). Fecundity of fish ranging in size from 43.8–49.1 cm varies from 1.2–1.9 million eggs (Collette and Nauen 1983, Yesaki 1994, Collette 2010). In Australia, longevity is estimated to be about 10 years (Wilson 1981), and age at first maturity in Thailand is estimated to be two years (Boonragsa 1987). This species may live as long as 18 years in the central Indo-Pacific (Grifiths <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>  This species probably spawns more than once a year, perhaps in two spawning seasons in the Gulf of Thailand. Spawning of this species is reported to be confined to coastal waters, based on the occurrence of their larvae which were collected at surface water temperatures of 28°C (Nishikawa and Ueyanagi 1991). It appears there are two distinct spawning seasons for this species off the west coast of Thailand: a major spawning period during the northeast monsoon from January to April and a minor spawning period during the southwest monsoon in August-September. Spawning is also apparently seasonal for this species off Papua New Guinea and off New South Wales, occurring during the austral summer (Yesaki 1994).<br/>  <p>Maximum size is 130 cm FL. The all-tackle game fish record is of a 35.9 kg fish caught off Montague Island, New South Wales, Australia in 1982 (IGFA 2011).</p>
170351		population	eng	There are no known stock assessments for this species. FAO reported worldwide landings show a gradual increase from 600 tonnes in 1950 to 250,030 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). There is no effort information for this species. In recent years, the countries attributed with the highest catches of longtail tuna are Indonesia, Iran, Oman, Yemen and Pakistan (IOTC 2006).
170351		threats	eng	There are two major fishing grounds for Longtail Tuna, one off the South China Sea coast of Thailand and Malaysia and the other off countries bordering the North Arabian Sea. Longtail tuna is caught mainly by gillnet and in a lesser extent by artisanal purse seiners.This species is caught in the recreational fishery in Australia, and is caught as bycatch in trawling. Most of the global catch is taken in the western Indian Ocean. Catch of this species is increasing in many areas but landings are frequently confused with Yellowfin Tuna in some regions.<br/><br/>This species grows more slowly and live longer than other tuna species of similar size. Coupled with their restricted neritic distribution, longtail tuna may be vulnerable to overexploitation by fisheries, and caution needs to be exercised in managing the species until more reliable biological and catch data are collected to assess the status of the population (Griffiths <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
170352		conservation	eng	Pacific Bonito is included in the federal Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan as a "monitored species", meaning it is not actively managed. Currently, only California statues and regulations apply to the take of this species. If there is an increase in take of Pacific Bonito, its status could be changed to actively managed. It is legal to target Pacific bonito commercially and recreationally year round (California Department of Fish and Game 2010).<br/><br/>After the last population assessment in 1982, a minimum size limit of 24 inches (61 cm) or five pounds (2.3 kg) was instituted for both commercial and recreational fisheries. In the recreational fishery there is a ten fish bag limit and up to five undersized fish can be retained. Commercial vessels fishing with round haul gear (e.g., purse seine, lampara net) may retain 18 or less by number of undersized fish. When using gill or trammel nets, only 1,000 pound (454 kg) or less of undersized Pacific bonito may be retained (California Department of Fish and Game 2010).<br/><br/>The minimum size for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. chiliensis lineolata</span> in Peru is 52 cm FL with a maximum tolerance of juveniles od 10% of the catch. There are no catch quotas.
170352		distribution	eng	<p>Pacific Bonito are endemic to the Eastern Pacific and are divided into two geographically distinct populations. The California fishery targets the northern subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda chiliensis lineolata</span>, which ranges from the Gulf of Alaska to the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico. This population is centred between southern California and central Baja California, Mexico and moves farther north in warm water years. The southern subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda chiliensis chiliensis</span>, is found off the western coast of South America from Colombia to Chile. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda orientalis</span> is present in the gap between the two subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. chiliensis</span> (Collette and Chao 1975).<br/></p>
170352		habitat	eng	This pelagic and oceanodromous species is found inshore and forms schools by size. It feeds on a variety of small schooling fishes, squids, and shrimps (Collette and Nauen, 1983).<br/><br/>Males can mature and spawn at one year of age at a length of approximately 51 cm. Females usually spawn more than once per season beginning at two years of age. However, most are approximately 69 cm long or three years old at first spawning (California Department of Fish and Game 2010). It is not likely to live longer than six years. Generation time is estimated to be around 3–4 years.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 102 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 9.67 kg fish caught at 181 Spot off California (IGFA 2011).
170352		population	eng	The northern subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda chiliensis lineolata</span>, is a component of the commercial purse seine fishery as well as a popular recreational fish in southern California. Catch landings for this subspecies have greatly fluctuated, and therefore it is difficult to estimate the effect of fishing on its population. It is not clear what is causing these fluctuations. Pacific Bonito populations fluctuate on a decadal scale in a similar manner as the northern anchovy. Current conditions indicate that the eastern Pacific is in a warm water regime that favours Pacific Sardine over Northern Anchovy, which is a primary prey species for Pacific Bonito. It is therefore thought that these fluctuations in both anchovy and Pacific Bonito are associated with warm and cold water periods of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (California Department of Fish and Game 2010).<br/><br/>Commercial landings for this subspecies have declined steadily since the mid 1980s, but have increased moderately in recent years, from 291 metric tons in 1997 to 803 metric tons in 2008. The trend over the last 15 years seems to be low landings for most years interspersed with high yield years. Competition with higher valued fisheries was likely part of the decline observed in landings during the 1980s and 1990s. Additionally, increased regulation, decreased stocks and lower market demand likely contributed to the decline. In 1982, Mexico began restricting foreign vessel access to its near-shore fisheries. Prior to this closure, 50–90% of Pacific Bonito landed in the United States was caught off the coast of Baja California, Mexico. Now less than 10% originates in Mexican waters (California Department of Fish and Game 2010).<br/><br/>FAO reported landings for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda chiliensis</span> (both subspecies) highly fluctuate and range from 35,016 tonnes reported in 1950 to 11,3161 tonnes in 1961; to 2,383 tonnes reported in 2003 and 6,243 tonnes reported in 2006 (FAO 2009). Landings in California and Mexico have fluctuated greatly over the past 50 years from less than 1,000 metric tons to nearly 14,000 mt in the early 1970s (worth $1,222,000 in total California landings in 1976) (Collette and Nauen 1983). Combined landings of U.S. and Mexico in 1995 was about 6,800 mt, while in the last five years (2000–2005), the landings have been under 500 mt (FAO 2009), representing a decline of over 90%, assuming landings are a good proxy for population trends.<br/><br/>The combined Chilean and Peruvian landings of the southern subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda chiliensis chiliensis</span>, went from almost zero in 1,940 mt to a peak of around 110,000 mt in 1961 and dropped off to about 40,000 mt in 1973 (Collette and Nauen, 1983). From 1995–2005 the catch reduction went from around 30,000 mt per year to around 1,000 to 5,000 mt per year (FAO 2009). Reported landings for this species (in Ecuador, Chile and Peru) plunged to between 1,000 and 5,000 mt per year between 1998 and 2005. A conservative estimate is a reduction in catch of around 80% since 1995.<br/><br/>In Peru, however, there was a decrease in effort during the late 1990s which may reflect the decrease in catch at this time. Also drops in catch may be related to reduction in anchovies, but also during this time there was an increase in effort for Jack Mackerel and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber japonicus</span>. Although the catch is rising again in 2005 and 2006, this is likely due to an increase in fishing effort.<br/><br/>In Chile, less than 10,000 mt in the 1960 and 1970s was estimated to be caught, and this was the period of the highest catches (R. Sierra pers. comm. 2008). FAO data for catches from Chile are not necessarily correct for this species, especially in the 1980s.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, landings data are combined for two bonito species, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. orientalis</span> and both subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. chiliensis</span> (IATTC 2008). The maximum catch was 14,000 metric tonnes in 1977 and 1990. After 1999 the total catch dropped from thousands metric tonnes to under 1,000 metric tonnes per year with a minimum of 43 in 2003, but may be increasing again as 3,600 tonnes was reported in 2006 (IATTC 2008). It is most likely that the majority of these landings data are for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. chiliensis chiliensis</span>, as the majority of the catch was from Chile and Peru.
170352		threats	eng	<p>This species is important in minor commercial fisheries. It is harvested in the USA and Mexico, primarily using purse seines, and is also important in sport fisheries in California. Targeting of this species off California occurs primarily off San Pedro with smaller purse seine boats, with consistent effort. Total catch of all three populations of bonitos (including <span style="font-style: italic;">S. orientalis</span>) in the eastern tropical Pacific was reported by Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) as 10,000 metric tons, dropping to 300–2,600 mt in 2000–2005, and then increasing to 17,000 mt in 2007 (IATTC 2008).<br/></p>
170353		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. More research on this species biology, population status, and catch landings and effort is needed.
170353		distribution	eng	This is an Indo-West Pacific species that is found along the west coast of India and Sri Lanka eastward to Thailand, Malaysia and Java. This species does not extend further out in the East Indies beyond Wallace's Line.
170353		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. Unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">S. commerson</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guttatus</span>, this species is not encountered in very turbid waters or waters with greatly reduced salinity. It feeds primarily on small pelagic fishes particularly clupeoids (Devaraj 1999). Feeding is active around 7 p.m. and between 5 and 9 a.m.<br/><br/>Little is known about the biology of this species. Length at first maturity is 70 cm total length (TL) at age two years (Devaraj 1986). Spawning takes place in inshore waters out to a distance where the water is about 25 m.
170353		population	eng	This species is likely more abundant than <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus koreanus</span> but less abundant than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guttatus</span>.There are small fisheries for this species in Thailand, Malaysia, and India (Collette and Nauen 1983). FAO worldwide reported landings are low and variable, from 165 tonnes reported in 1982 to 14 tonnes reported in 2002 (FAO 2009). Landing data for this species is often mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guttatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. koreanus</span>.
170353		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that is caught with gillnets. It is also taken with midwater trawls, purse seines, and by trolling.  It is taken from October through November along the Thai coast in the Indian Ocean; in Malaysia from November through February in the west coast, from March through July in the south, from February through March  and from August through November in the east; in India from May through September with other seerfishes (Collette 2001).
170354		conservation	eng	Several eastern Atlantic countries have minimum landing sizes for this species:&#160; EU (18 cm), Ukraine (15 cm), Turkey (20 cm), Bulgaria (22 cm), Romania (23 cm).<br/><br/>ICES advises that any agreed total allowable catch (TAC) should cover all areas where Northeast Atlantic Mackerel are fished. The agreed management plan (F between 0.2 and 0.22) would imply catches between 527 000 t and 572 000 t in 2010. The SSB is expected to remain stable in 2011 for a catch in this range. ICES further advises that the existing measures to protect the North Sea spawning component remain in place. These include: areas restricted to fishing, seasonal closures, and minimum landing size (30 cm in North Sea and 20 cm in Skagerrak). In June 2009, an agreement was concluded between contracting parties to the Coastal States on mackerel banning high grading, discarding, and slipping from pelagic fisheries targeting mackerel, horse mackerel, and herring beginning in January 2010 (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>For the western Atlantic stock, there are no management measures in place. However, the most recent stock assessment recommends that annual total catches do not exceed the average total landings (80,000 mt tonnes) over the last three years (TRAC 2010).
170354		conservation	eng	The EU list the minimum landing size as 18 cm. Ukraine minimum landing size is 15 cm. Turkey minimum landing size is 20 cm. Bulgaria minimum landing size is 22 cm. Romania minimum landing size is 23 cm.
170354		distribution	eng	In the western Atlantic this species is present from Labrador to Cape Lookout. This species is present in the eastern Atlantic including the southwestern Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean and Black Sea.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin <em>S. scombrus</em> occurs from the Catalan Sea (Zardoya <em>et al.</em> 2004), Gulf of Lions (FAO GFCM 2005), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zardoya <em>et al.</em> 2004), Strait of Sicily (Zardoya <em>et al.</em> 2004), Tunisian waters (Ben Soussi <em>et al.</em> 2005), Adriatic Sea (Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zardoya <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> 2005, Perugini <em>et al.</em> 2007) and Aegean Sea (Zardoya <em>et al.</em> 2004, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007).
170354		distribution	eng	In the western Atlantic this species is present from Labrador to Cape Lookout, U.S. and in the eastern Atlantic from Iceland to Mauritania, including the southwestern Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean and Black seas.
170354		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is abundant in cold and temperate shelf areas, and forms large schools near the surface.  <em>S. scombrus</em> overwinters in deeper waters but move closer to shore in spring when water temperatures range between 11° and 14°C.  This species is mainly diurnal and feeds on zooplankton and small fish.  Eggs and larvae are pelagic.  Recruitment in the Mediterranean Sea has been poor and unstable.  After spawning, adults feed very actively, moving around in small shoals (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
170354		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is abundant in cold and temperate shelf areas, and forms large schools near the surface. They overwinter in deeper waters but move closer to shore in spring when water temperatures range between 11° and 14°C. Mainly diurnal, it feeds on zooplankton and small fish. Eggs and larvae are pelagic.<br/><br/>Maximum size for this species is 66 cm, although fish greater than 50 cm are uncommon. This species matures at approximately age two (O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993), with 100% maturity at age seven in some populations of the eastern stock (Skagen 1989). For the Western stock longevity is estimated to be about 12 years (Gregoire 1993), and for the Eastern stock longevity is estimated to be 18 years (Villamor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Generation length is therefore conservatively estimated to be about 3.5 years in the Western stock and 6.5 years in the Eastern stock (Collette et al. 2011). Disparities in longevity between stocks may valid, or may be due to differences in methods of age determination, environmental factors, and/or response to fishing pressure over time.<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 66 cm fork length (FL). The all-tackle game fish record is of a 1.2 kg fish caught in the Kraakvaag Fjord, Norway in 1992 (IGFA 2011).
170354		population	eng	Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Catch statistics show that between late 1980s and 2001 fluctuations between 5,000-10,000mt occurred and in recent years there has been an increase in landings to around 15,000mt, followed by another decline in 2005. It is likely that these catch statistics are mixed with<em> Scomber colias</em> (Chub mackerel, ex. <em>S. japonicus</em>). This is a common species that is locally abundant but also known to disappear from some localities in different years. <br/><br/>54 specimens, with length varied from 22 to 31.1 cm TL, were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005 (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006) <br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) collected 4 specimens using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/>Perugini <em>et al.</em> (2007) recorded 2 specimens ( 22.0 and 32.0 cm TL) from the Central Adriatic Sea, Italy, within 40 miles of Pescara by local boats using deep-sea trawls at a water depth ranging from 220 to 280 m.<br/><br/>1167 specimens with length varied from 17.3 to 41.4 cm were collected throughout the period of January 1998 to February 2003 in the eastern Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea, by purse seine and beach seine (Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> 2004)<br/><br/><em>Scomber scombe</em>r annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 5860 (1996), 3451 (1997), 5021 (1998), 2679 (1999), 5006 (2000), 4471 (2001), 4731 (2002), 5885 (2003), 8865 (2004), 13133 (2005).
170354		population	eng	There are two separate populations, eastern and western, with little or no interchange. Separate stock assessments are conducted for each (ICES and DFO+NOAA).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic</span><br/>The east Atlantic Mackerel stock is currently considered to comprise three main unit stocks (southern, western and North Sea), with variable proportions of these three mixing in the northerly feeding grounds. The southern component spawns in Spanish and Portuguese waters, and the western component spawns in the Bay of Biscay and northwards around Ireland and west/northwest of the U.K. The eastern Mediterranean populations (Greece, Italy) are separated genetically from the western Mediterranean stock (Barcelona) which forms a panmictic unit with eastern Atlantic populations (Zardoya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The third component spawns in the North Sea and Sakgerrak. Although the North Sea spawners form to some extent a discrete unit from the other ones, commercial catches cannot be allocated to individual stocks, and therefore assessments are undertaken for the combined stock (ICES 2006).<br/><br/>For the Western Component, estimates of the spawning stock biomass (SSB), derived from egg surveys, indicate a decrease of 14% between 1998 and 2001 and a 6% decrease from 2001 to the 2004 survey. The results from 2007 indicate a 5 % increase from 2004 to 2007 (STECF 2009). For the North Sea Component, the 2002 and 2005 triennial egg surveys in the North Sea both indicate similar egg production, but in 2008 it has decreased by about 40% (STECF 2009). For the Southern Component, catches increased from about 20 000 t in the early 1990s to 44 000 t in 1998, and were close to 50 000 t in 2002. Estimates of SSB, derived from egg surveys, are highly variable, and give average estimates of around 16% of the combined North Eastern Atlantic mackerel stock (1995–2007) (STECF 2009). The main catches are taken in the North Sea (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 50%), the Norwegian Sea (10%), west of UK and Ireland (15–20%), south of Ireland and in the Channel (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 15%) and the rest in the southern area.<br/><br/>Based on the most recent ICES estimate of SSB in 2009, the eastern stock is classified as having full reproductive capacity. Fishing mortality in 2008 is estimated to be just above Fpa (precautionary fishing mortality). SSB has increased by 47% since 2002 and is currently estimated to be above Bpa (precautionary biomass). The 2002 year class is the highest on record. Subsequent year classes are estimated to be about average (STECF 2009). The SSB is expected to remain stable in 2011 for a catch in the range of 527,000–572,000 tons (STECF 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic</span><br/>The northwest Atlantic Mackerel stock has been evaluated jointly by NOAA in the US and DFO in Canada (TRAC 2010). There is a high degree of uncertainty in this assessment, and available data do not allow for estimation of biological reference points. The current recommendation is that catch not exceed the average total landings of 2006–2008 (80,000 mt) until more information is available (TRAC 2010).<br/><br/>Based on a generation length of between 3.5 and 6.5 years (Western and Eastern Stocks respectively), decline can be measured over a period of 11–20 years. The TRAC 2010 report shows a SSB decline in the Western Stock of approximately 53% over 20 years (1987–2008) and a 33% over 11 years (1997–2008). Based on the ICES 2009 assessment (ICES 2009), the eastern stock SSB has declined 10% over the past 20 years (1987–2008), with&#160; no decline over the past 11 years (1997–2008). Declines were calculated based on linear regression of SSB biomass over time. The most recent stock assessment (ICES 2009), the SSB in the eastern Atlantic was estimated to be 1,670,000 tonnes. The SSB for the western Atlantic stock is estimated at 144,000 mt tonnes (roughly ten times smaller) (TRAC 2010). Based on these proportions, there has been a total SSB decline of between 3 and 14% over the past 11–20 years across the global range of this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
170354		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with trawls, purse seines, gill and trammel nets. It is an important recreational species, fished with hook and line. Climate change may affect the distribution of this species, with possible movement towards the north, making it available for exploitation by additional nations. It is unknown whether this represents an expansion of habitat or if contraction will occur in the southern part of its range.
170354		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with trawls, seines, gill and trammel nets. The species is traded fresh, frozen, smoked and canned and eaten fried, broiled and baked (Frimodt 1995).  There are two stocks in the north-east Atlantic:  North Sea (east) and British Isles (west).  The North Sea stock decreased dramatically in the 1960s because of direct overfishing. The South-West Mackerel handliners fishery of this species has been certified by the Marine Stewardship Council (http://www.msc.org/) as well-managed and sustainable.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean this species is caught commercially and is canned. The major capture method is by purse seine, but also caught by gill nets, drift nets, handline and troll lines.
170355		conservation	eng	No fishery management plan is currently in place for this species except a prohibition on drift nets in EU countries.
170355		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is a highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (FAO Fisheries Department, 1994). No fishery management plan currently in place except a prohibition on drift nets in EU countries.<br/><br/>Data on the catch composition, biology and trends are now available from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, thanks to the ICCAT/GFCM joint expert group in 2008. More information, particularly on specific fishing effort, is needed from all areas. The small tuna fishery seems to be quite important for the coastal communities, both economically and as a source of proteins. The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics (SCRS) suggests that countries be requested to submit all available data to ICCAT as soon as possible, in order to be used in future meetings. No management recommendations have been presented by ICCAT due to the lack of proper data, historical series and analyses. ICCAT/SCRS, in 2008, reiterated its recommendation to carry out studies to determine the state of these stocks and the adoption of management solutions. ICCAT-SCRS in 2009 noted that there is an improvement in the availability of catch and biological data for small tuna species particularly in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. However, biological information, catch and effort statistics for small tunas remain incomplete for many of the coastal and industrial fishing countries. Given that, many of these species are of high importance to coastal fishermen, especially in some developing countries, both economically and often as a primary source of proteins, therefore the SCRS recommends that further studies be conducted on small tuna species due to the limits of information available (STECF 2009).
170355		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan in warm waters and is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, including the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>The Eastern Pacific population is recognized as a subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei eudorax</span> (Collette and Aadland 1996), and ranges from California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galápagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.<br/><br/>Recently Oray and Karakulak (2005) observed in the Eastern Mediterranean basin zone concentrations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span> larvae. It is an intra-Mediterranean migratory species.<br/><br/>This species has been recently reported from central Brazil (Stein 2006), but no recent specimens have been collected from the north (Lessa and Fredou pers. comm. 2010) or south (Amorim pers. comm. 2010) of the country. However, there may have been misidentifications of this species with <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>.
170355		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, including the Mediterranean Sea.  The eastern Pacific population is recognized as subspecies <em>Auxis rochei eudorax</em> (Collette and Aadland 1996).  It is a highly migratory species, listed under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (Food and Agriculture Organization Fisheries Department, 1994). Recently Oray and Karakulak (2005) observed concentrations of <em>A. rochei</em> larvae in the Eastern Mediterranean basin zone.
170355		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. Adults are principally caught in coastal waters and around islands (Collette 1995).  It forms schools and feeds on small fishes, particularly anchovies, crustaceans (especially crab and stomatopod larvae) and squids.  Because of their high abundance, they are considered an important element of the food web, particularly as forage for other species of commercial interest. Fecundity ranges between 31,000 and 103,000 eggs per spawning episode, depending on the size of the fish.  This is an Intra-Mediterranean migratory species.
170355		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that forms schools. It is an off-shore predator feeding on whatever abundant resource is available with a preference for planktonic crustaceans, small cephalopods, and fish larvae. Among crustaceans, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperiidean amphipods</span> are often the most important followed by a euphausiids (Mostarda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Because of their abundance, they are considered to be an important element of the food web, particularly as forage for other species of commercial interest.<br/><br/>Longevity is five years, and males and females are of equal length. Adults can grow to 50 cm fork length (FL). Bullet Tuna mature at around two years old, or about 35 cm FL, but this can vary by region. Length at first maturity in the Philippines 17 cm FL, generally before one year of age. Length at 50% maturity of both sexes off India 24 cm and 18.8 cm in the Philippines (Yesaki and Arce 1994, Niiya 2001, Collette 2010). Age of first maturity in Japan is 1.25 years with a longevity of two years (Niiya 2001). Length at first maturity for females is 23.8 cm FL&#160; and 24 cm FL for males in India (Muthiah 1985).<br/><br/>It is a multiple spawner with fecundity ranging between 31,000 and 103,000 eggs per spawning (according to the size of the fish). Larval studies indicate that Bullet Tuna spawn throughout its range (IOTC 2007). The spawning season varies from region to region at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher. In the Gulf of Mexico, peaks of batch spawning are reported from March to April, and from June to August while in coastal waters from Cape Hatteras to Cuba and in the Straits of Florida, spawning begins in February. Fecundity estimates range between 31,000 and 162,800 eggs per spawning correlated with the size of the female (Collette 2010).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 50 cm FL. The all-tackle gamefish record is of a 1.84-kg fish taken off L’Ampolla, Spain in 2004 (IGFA 2011).
170355		population	eng	FAO does not report statistics for this species. The International Commission for the Coservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) includes statistics for Frigate Tuna which are suspected to include both <em>A. rochei</em> and <em>A. thazard</em>.  Over the period of 1996-2005, landings fluctuated between 2,067-5,531 mt. No assessment summary is given for this species from the Mediterranean. GFCM is now starting a project to collect data on small tuna-like species in the Mediterranean (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). This is a common species in fisheries and abundance changes from place to place every year (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Landings data (t) from Tunisia and Turkey: 1996=0, 1997=0, 1998=0, 1999=316 (only Turkey), 2000=316 (only Turkey), 2001=316 (only Turkey), 2002=316 (only Turkey), 2003=989 (only Tunisia), 2004=0, 2005=0 (ICCAT 2007).
170355		population	eng	Juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> are the most abundant juvenile tunas in the world and they are widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters.<br/><br/>FAO does not report statistics for this species as <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> spp. catches are generally not identified to species. Worldwide reported landings for <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis</span> spp show a gradual increase from 22,278 tonnes in 1950 to 256,325 in 2006 (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) includes statistics for Frigate Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>), which are suspected to include both <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. thazard</span>. In the total catch of Frigate Tunas, the proportion of each of the two species is not known. However, almost all catches from Venezuela in the Atlantic and from countries in the Mediterranean are thought to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span> (Collette and Nauen 1983). ICCAT estimates (ICCAT 2009) for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rochei</span> range from 12,000 t in 1990, to 2,600 t in 1999.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this is a common species in fisheries and abundance changes from place to place every year (Di Natale pers. comm. 2008). No assessment summary is given for this species from the Mediterranean. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) is now starting a project to collect data on small tuna-like species in the Mediterranean (Di Natale pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In the 1980s there was a marked increase in reported landings of all small tuna species combined compared to previous years, reaching a peak of about 139,412 t in 1988. Reported landings for the 1989–1995 period decreased to approximately 92,637 t, and since then values have oscillated, with a minimum of 69,895 t in 1993 and a maximum of 123,600 t in 2005. Declared catches were 79,228 t in 2006 and 74,087 t in 2007. A preliminary estimate of the total nominal landings of small tunas in 2008 is 55,876 t. The 2008 preliminary catch of small tuna amounted to 55,876 t, of which 6,018 t was Bullet Tuna (STECF 2009). There are more than 10 species of small tunas, but only five of these account for about 88% of the total reported catch by weight. These five species are: Atlantic Bonito (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda sarda</span>), Frigate Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis thazard</span>) which may include some catches of Bullet Tuna (<span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span>), Little Tunny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euthynnus alletteratus</span>), King Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus cavalla</span>), and Atlantic Spanish Mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus maculatus</span>) (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, most of the catch of Frigate Tunas are <span style="font-style: italic;">A. thazard</span> rather than this species.
170355		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. <em>Auxis rochei</em> and <em>A. thazard</em> landing data from Philippines, Japan, and India range from 100,000 to 500,000 individuals per year.   It is typically caught with seines and is also caught with encircling nets and troll lines (Collette 1995).  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea the price of this fish is low but quantity can be important in local markets. It is caught mostly by purse seine, set surface gill nets, and small drift nets (the latter banned in EU countries in 2002), hand and troll lines, and traps.
170355		threats	eng	This is a species with high regional commercial importance. It is caught by pole and line and as bycatch in a variety of gears including gill nets. It is also taken incidentally in artisanal purse seines. Since 1991, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs) by tropical purse seiners may have led to an increase in fishing mortality of small tropical tuna species (STECF 2009). However here is a general lack of information on the mortality of these species as bycatch, exacerbated by the confusion regarding species identification (ICCAT 2009).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea the price of this fish is low but quantity can be important in local markets. It is caught mostly by purse seine, set surface gill nets, and small drift nets (the later was banned in EU countries in 2002), hand and troll lines, and traps.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, there are no major threats for this species. They are sometimes caught as bycatch in purse seines, but are discarded, but it is not known the amount that is caught.
170356		conservation	eng	This species is cultured and released in the Inland Sea in Japan. In Japan, there are regulations to control effort (including regulating the number of boats and catch size) as well as seasonal closures in the Inland Sea. However, more information on the harvest and population status of this species population is needed in China and Korea.
170356		distribution	eng	In the northwest Pacific this species is confined to the subtropical and temperate waters of China, the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan north to Vladivostok, former USSR. This species may occur to southern China, including Hainan Island. This species may be increasing its range in the north of Japan.
170356		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic, oceanodromous, and found near shore (including semi-enclosed sea areas). It undergoes a spawning migration in spring (March to June) and a feeding migration in fall (September to November) in the Inland Sea of Japan.  It feeds on small fishes. Larvae exhibited almost exclusive piscivory from first feeding in tanks (Shoji and Tanaka 2001, 2004).<br/><br/>Length of maturity at 50% is 60   cm fork length (FL) for females and 40 cm FL for males in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Inoue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Longevity is estimated to be six years based on a growth study using scales in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kishida <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985), and maximum length is 103 cm FL. Generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately 2–3 years.<br/>  <p>Maximum size is more than 100 cm FL, 9.4 kg. The all-tackle game fish record is a 9.35 kg fish caught at Shirasaki, Wakayama, Japan in 2007 (IGFA 2011).</p><p>There are two migrations in the Inland Sea of Japan, a spawning migration in the spring (March to June) and a feeding migration in the fall (September to November) according to Hamada and Iwai (1967).</p>  <br/><p><br/></p><p></p><p>&#160;</p>
170356		population	eng	This species is taken throughout its range but is the most important <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus</span> species in Japan. FAO worldwide reported landings show a gradual increase from 1,900 tonnes in 1950 to 60,685 tonnes in 2006 (FAO 2009). It is an important fishery in South Korea, where 40,000 tonnes were recorded in 2007, and where 50% of the global catch occurs. Reported landings in China may not be accurate.<br/><br/>Two different stock assessments have been conducted in the East China Sea and in the Inland Sea. In the East China Sea, this species is caught by purse seiners, and catch per unit effort (CPUE) since 1994 by Japanese purse seiners is increasing. In the Inland Sea, this species was very depleted in the past as estimated biomass in 1985 was 60,000 tonnes and dropped to 2,000 tonnes in 1998. There is a slight increase to 5,000 tonnes in 2007 based on recovery program that begin in 2002 with a restocking program (Uozumi pers comm 2009). In the western part of Japan, catches are increasing as this species is likely increasing its range because it used to be rare in this region. There are no major fisheries for this species on the eastern part of Japan.<br/><br/>In Taiwan, reported catches of this species to FAO have declined from 15,000 tonnes in 2007 to 1,400 tonnes in 2008, but this needs to be confirmed as catches are reported from distant water long-lines which are not normally used to catch this species (Chang, pers comm 2009).
170356		threats	eng	This is a highly commercial species caught with gillnets, purse seiners and set nets.  This species is the most important <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomberomorus </span>species in Japan, where it is cultured and released for fisheries.
170357		conservation	eng	There is a minimum size limit of 18 cm for all <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber</span> species in the European Union and Turkey. In the Mediterranean, a targeted management plan for this species is needed to reverse long  term declining trends. Better data on fishing and fishing effort will  help to further assess this species in the future.
170357		conservation	eng	There is a minimum size of 18 cm for <em>Scomber</em> species caught in European Union and Turkey.
170357		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean and Black Sea. It is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber japonicus</span> in the Indo-Pacific. In the Atlantic, the range of this species is not continuous between the east and west and north and south. These should be considered separate stocks or populations.
170357		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea.  It is replaced by <em>Scomber japonicus</em> in the Indo-Pacific.
170357		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is also a coastal pelagic species, to a lesser extent epipelagic to mesopelagic over the continental slope (Collette and Nauen 1983).  Schooling by size is well developed and initiates at approximately 3 cm (Collette and Nauen 1983). It may also form schools with <em>Sarda</em>, bonitos, jades, and clupeids (Collette 1995).  <br/><br/>It stays near the bottom during the day and goes up to the open water at night, (Maigret and Ly 1986) where it feeds on copepods and other crustaceans, fishes and squids (Collette and Nauen 1983).  A recent study on feeding habits in the Aegean Sea underline that teleosts and taliaceans were their main prey items(Sever <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is said to move to deeper water and remain inactive during the winter season (Nikol'skii 1954). <br/><br/>Spawning most often occurs at water temperatures of 15° to 20°C.  It spawns in several batches with 250 to 300 eggs per gram of fish with the total number of eggs per female ranging from 100,000 to 400,000.<br/><br/>Based on <em>Scomber japonicus</em>, this species likely has a longevity of approximately 7-14 years, with an age of first maturity of 2-4 years (Sato 1990, Dorval 2007, Caramantin-Soriano et al. 2008). Generation length is therefore estimated to be approximately 4-6 years.
170357		habitat	eng	This species is a coastal pelagic species, and to a lesser extent epipelagic to mesopelagic over the continental slope (Collette and Nauen 1983). Schooling by size is well developed and initiates at approximately 3 cm (Collette and Nauen 1983). It may also form schools with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarda</span> species, bonitos, jacks, and clupeids (Collette 1995).<br/><br/>This species feeds on small pelagic fishes such as anchovy, pilchard, sardinella, sprat, silversides, and also pelagic invertebrates. In Mauritania, it is reported to stay near the bottom during the day and goes up to the open water at night (Maigret and Ly 1986). It feeds on copepods and other crustaceans, fishes and squids (Collette and Nauen 1983).<br/><br/>This species may live to 13 years (Carvalho 2002), and has a length at 50% maturity of approximately 18 cm corresponding to an age of about two years (Hattour 2000).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
170357		population	eng	This species is common throughout the Mediterranean and abundant particularly in the southern part. <br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings for this species show steadily increasing catches from 1950 to mid-1980s where it peaked at nearly 40,000 t. Since then, there are wide fluctuations with a general decreasing trend, but recent years show another peak around 23,000 t. One problem with these statistics is that many countries are not reporting their catches. Overall, it is estimated that there has been a steady decline in landings of approximately 30% since the 1980s, and 20% since the 1990s.
170357		population	eng	This species is common throughout the Mediterranean and is abundant particularly in the southern part.<br/><br/>Worldwide reported landings for this species show steadily increasing catches from 1950 to mid-1980s where catches peaked at nearly 40,000 mt. Since then, there are wide fluctuations with a general decreasing trend but recent years show another peak around 23,000 mt (FAO 2009). One problem with these statistics is that many countries are not reporting their catches.<br/><br/>Since 1991, total Chub Mackerel catch over the Atlantic has shown an increasing trend, reaching a maximum of more than 262,000 t in 2008. To the south of Cape Blanc where the European fleet operates, total Chub Mackerel catch increased over the period 1990–1996, reaching around 100,000 t. It then decreased to reach the low level of around 2,000 t in 1999. Catch then progressively increased until 2003 when a record of 133,000 t was recorded. Since then catches have heavily declined with 38,000 t recorded in 2005 and 33,000 t in 2006, reaching around 80,000 t and 60,000 t in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Assessments were carried out by applying a Schaefer dynamic surplus production model and ICA. Results showed the stocks to be Fully Exploited (STECF 2009).<br/><br/>Since 2003 there has been at least a 50% decline in catches based on the Fully Exploited status in the eastern Atlantic (STECF 2009), although there is no information on current effort. In Argentina this used to be an important commercial species, however, this fishery no longer exists.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this is a common and locally abundant species that has fairly high, fluctuating catches. There has been a steady decline in landings of this species since the 1980s which is confirmed by anecdotal evidence from fishery experts. However, within the last 10 years (generation length of three years) the fluctuations have been inconclusive in terms of any trend. Current exploitation levels are intense with technological creeping (advances) and because of the steady decline over the past 20 years this species is regionally considered Near Threatened based on population declines suspected to be approaching 30% based on A2d. Recent decreases in population trends may be parallel with recent increases in <span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber scombrus</span>.
170357		threats	eng	This species is caught mostly by purse seines, but also by gill nets and hand lines. In the Mediterranean the technology used to catch this species is becoming more sophisticated. In addition, there is a large demand for this species, especially for the canning industry that allows greater exploitation beyond current demand.
170357		threats	eng	This species is caught mostly with purse seines, often together with sardines, and sometimes using  light trolling lines, gill nets, traps, beach seines and midwater  trawls. In the Mediterranean the technology used to catch this species is becoming more sophisticated.
170358		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species biology, distribution. and population trends.
170358		distribution	eng	This Indo-West Pacific species is found from the Red Sea eastward to the Andaman Sea and from the Ryukyu Islands to the northern coasts of Australia, including the Marshall Islands and Fiji. However, it is not clear if the distribution is continuous around Indian subcontinent (Silas 1963). There are two specimens from Orchid Island, Taiwan taken at 200 m (Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute Catalogue number FRIP22383).
170358		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and oceanodromous. It inhabits open water but is often seen swimming near outer reef walls or deep clear-water slopes. It is likely found in waters deeper than 15 m. It is found mostly in shallow reef waters where it forms large schools. It feeds on crustaceans and fishes, particularly clupeoids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sardinella</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Thrissocles</span>), but also other fishes such as barracudas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphyraena</span>) and triggerfishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Balistes</span>). Its search and attack patterns have been described on the Great Barrier Reef (Auster 2008).<br/><br/>Age at first maturity in Fiji seems to be attained at 40–43 cm fork length (FL) (Silas 1963, Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983), and spawning season may be from October to March (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983).<br/><br/>Maximum Size is 60 cm FL. The all-tackle angling record is of a 3 kg fish taken off Willis Island, Queensland, Australia in 2006 (IGFA 2011).
170358		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is a commonly caught fish by trawling in the south Pacific (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987).
170358		threats	eng	<p>In Fiji and the Andaman Islands, this species is taken in artisanal fisheries. It is a minor commercial fish that is caught with hooks and lines and is marketed canned and frozen (Collette 2001). This species is a commonly caught fish by trolling in the South Pacific (Preston<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1987). </p>
170361		conservation	eng	A subpopulation is included in two natural  parks: Regional Park of Orobie Begamasche and Regional Park of Orobie Valtellinesi. The species have been proposed for their inclusion in the list of protected species of Lombardy (regional law).
170361		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is endemic to the alpine region of Italy, where it is only found in the Orobic and Raethian Alps (Lombardy Region, province of Sondrio and province of Bergamo). <span style="font-style: italic;">Sanguisorba dodecandra</span> has a discontinuous distribution, whereby it is restricted to some valleys of the Orobian Alps chain. In the Raethian Alps this species is found in two small growing sites. </p>  <p>The biggest populations are found in the province of Sondrio, in some lateral valleys of Valtellina: Livrio Valley, Scais-Venina Valley, Armisola Valley, Arigna Valley, Togno Valley. Anthropogenic occurrences also exist in Valmalenco. </p>  <p>Many occurrences are also recorded in the province of Bergamo. In particular subpopulations are known from the valleys of Brembana, Mora, Scalve, and Seriana. The southern limit of this plant's range is situated close to Mount Pizzo Arera, and near the villages of Ponte Nossa and Casnigo.<br/></p><p></p><p>It is estimated that the species occurs at around 20 locations. Its extent of occurrence, measured by a GIS database, is 1,100 km<sup>2</sup>, while the area of occupancy is 516 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>  <p></p>
170361		habitat	eng	The species grows in humid environmental conditions, inside tall forb communities, at the border of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus viridis</span> shrublands. It can also be found close to riparian habitats. From a phyto-sociologic point of view it can be ascribed to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostylion alliariae</span> alliances and to <span style="font-style: italic;">Carici piluliferae-Epilobion angustifolii</span> communities.
170361		population	eng	The population size is unknown. Nevertheless, the species is common where it grows.
170361		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main threat to the species is climate change as the species grows in wet areas close to streams. Global warming could reduce the&#160;extent of wet habitats in the near future. One subpopulation could be threatened by a dam that will probably be built in the next years.</p><p></p>
170363		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
170363		distribution	eng	This species extends from Eritrea, through northern and eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia to northeast Kenya. This species is found at altitudes between sea level and approximately 2,100 m above sea level. The species has also been recorded in southern Ethiopia (Largen and Spawls 2006). Its type locality is Sooroo Pass in Southern Eritrea.
170363		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky hills and outcrops in dry savanna and semi-desert country.
170363		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170363		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Habitat loss and land degradation due to fuelwood extraction and agricultural expansion are localized threats within this species' range but do not significantly affect the species.
170364		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.
170364		distribution	eng	This species is found from Eritrea, south through East Africa to coastal KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Botswana and northern Namibia (Branch 1998). The western limit of the distribution is the western Democratic Republic of the Congo (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species occurs from sea level to 2,400 m above sea level, although in East Africa it is most common from 1,300 to 2,000 m above sea level.
170364		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open savanna. A study on <em>A. atricollis atricollis</em> found that this subspecies preferentially inhabits thorn trees, followed by common sugarbush and dead trees. It was also found to select trees with larger diameters, denser canopy cover and a higher parasitic load (Reaney and Whiting 2003). Within Semuliki National Park, this species was often found in the vicinity of human settlements (Necas <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/>This agamid is predominantly arboreal, and comes to the ground only to cross to another tree or to feed. This species is diurnal and oviparous, with clutch sizes of 4-15 (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
170364		population	eng	Patterson (1987) reported that this species appears to be common in Kruger National Park. A resident pair was found on almost every tree, even in anthropogenically disturbed areas.
170364		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range.
170365		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out as there is still debate on the systematics.
170365		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution but is found in many countries throughout southern and eastern Africa. It is found in Eritrea in the north, south through Ethopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. It is also found northwest through Botswana to Namibia, Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and southward to South Africa (Loveridge 1957). It can be found from sea level to a maximum altitude of 2,200 m above sea level. (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
170365		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist savanna, dry savanna, shrubland, rocky outcrops, woodland, and forest clearings (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
170365		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170365		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
170366		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the ecology, abundance, population trends and habitat status of this species is needed.
170366		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Asia from Myanmar and northern Thailand, through Lao PDR to Viet Nam and south to Cambodia (Teynie 2004, Stuart 1998). It also occurs in the southern Chinese provinces of Yunnan, Guangix, Guangdong, Fujian and Hainan (Adler 1993). This species has been found as low as 100 m above sea level.
170366		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and found in the trees of primary forest, often near streams (Teynie 2004), though it is also reported to inhabit low vegetation (Stuart 1999).
170366		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170366		threats	eng	Forests in this region are under pressure from logging and agricultural expansion. In Thailand, the forest area declined by 28% between 1976 and 1989 (Cropper <em>et al</em>. 1999) and by 30% in Lao PDR between 1940 and 1999 (Foppes and Ketphanh 2000). Similar patterns of habitat loss are occurring in other parts of this species range. Because this species is only known from primary forest, habitat degradation and destruction is likely to be a major threat and cause population declines.
170367		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
170367		distribution	eng	This species was originally reported from Gambia and southern Senegal and in "Mélacorée" which may refer to a locality in Guinea (Rochebrune 1884).
170367		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
170367		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170367		threats	eng	This species is found within a range that is experiencing habitat loss  and degradation due to agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and possible  logging activity, however, the impact of these threats on the species is not known.
170368		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Further research should be carried out to determine the full range of this species.
170368		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the border of the Sahara Desert in West Africa and it is thought to occur from Mauritania through Mali to Niger (Joger 1981). It may also extend its distribution into into western Chad (I. Ineich pers. comm.). Its has been captured near the border of Algeria and Nigeria and may also be native to these countries.
170368		habitat	eng	This species is a "sahelian" endemic and inhabits sandy and hard-soiled areas between the southern edge of the Sahara Desert and the transitional zones between wooded steppe and dry savanna (Joger 1979). The western form found in Mauritania, which may belong to a yet unnamed distinct species, occupies preferentially steppes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia</span>, while the eastern form, which includes the populations of the type locality, occurs mostly in dry savanna remnants (I. Ineich pers. comm.). While this species occurs in areas of sand regularly flooded by the sea, it does not appear to inhabit sandy littoral dunes (Crochet <em>et al.</em> 2003).
170368		population	eng	Joger (1996) reports that this species is locally abundant by the coast of southern Mauritania and northwest Senegal.
170368		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
170369		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
170369		distribution	eng	This species was described from a single animal collected at Om Hajer in Eritea and the name has never since been applied to any other specimen (M. Largen pers. comm. 2008).
170369		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
170369		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen.
170369		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
170370		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
170370		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in southern Namibia and in  South  Africa in the Western and Northern Cape provinces (Branch  1998). The  taxonomic status of an isolated population in north-western  Free  State is under investigation  (M. Bates in prep.). <defanghtml_span style="font-family: Arial; color: navy; font-size: 10pt;"></defanghtml_span></p>
170370		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits semi-desert, coastal dunes and arid salt pans. &#160;Specimens  take shelter in short tunnels excavated at the  bases of bushes in open, sandy  vegetation, and frequently use burrows in ground squirrel colonies (Branch  1998).<defanghtml_span style="font-family: Arial; color: navy; font-size: 10pt;"></defanghtml_span></p>
170370		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170370		threats	eng	It is unlikley that any major threat is impacting this species.
170371		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in the Masai Mara Game Reserve and Arusha National Park (Razzetti and Msuya 2002, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). No conservation measures are required.
170371		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa, occurring from the Masai Mara south-west through the Serengeti, around the southern shore of Lake Victoria, across to eastern Rwanda and Burundi and then south into southern Tabora District in Tanzania. It might also occur north of the Masai Mara, but this has not been confirmed. It occurs from 1,000 to 2,200 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
170371		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal and inhabits medium to high savanna and grassland. It is common on rock outcrops, and will shelter in the spaces between large boulders or under exfoliating flakes of granite. Around human habitation, the species has been found in the spaces of corrugated iron roofs and mud walls (Yarnell and Jones 2001, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species has been observed living in social groups of around ten individuals. Although this behaviour provides benefits such as increased thermoregulation at night and decreased predation risk, Yarnell and Jones (2001) speculate that the species may have been forced into this congregatory lifestyle due to the limited number of crevasses that provide shelter.<br/><br/>Loveridge (1923) describes that females were known to have between six and eight eggs developing in the ovaries.
170371		population	eng	This species is locally abundant
170371		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
170372		conservation	eng	While there are no direct conservation measures for this species, there are protected areas within its range. There is a need for further research into population size and the impacts of harvesting on this species.
170372		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the eastern desert of Egypt, through eastern Sudan, northern Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti to northern Somalia (Baha El Din 2006, Sindaco and Jeremcenko 2008). It occurs around sea level to up to at least 1,000 m above sea level.
170372		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in dry rocky mountainous or hilly regions (Baha El Din 2006), where it prefers vegetated wadis (<em>Acacia</em> scrub). It can tolerate fairly arid conditions (Baha El Din pers. comm). The species is found in higher altitudes in the northern parts of its range, but also occurs in lowlands, for example in its southern Egyptian range (Baha El Din 2006).<br/><br/>The breeding biology of this species is not well known. It is largely insectivorous, although it may eat some vegetable material. It is generally not found in cultivated land.
170372		population	eng	In Egypt, this species is widespread at low densities with a patchy distribution (Baha El Din 2006).
170372		threats	eng	In Egypt, this species appears to be locally threatened in parts of its range by collection for the pet trade. However, the trade volume and impact of this collection on the total population is unclear (Baha El Din 2006). It is locally threatened by quarrying in Egypt, and this threat is expected to become more important in the future. However, there is no indication that these are major threats to the wider population at this time.
170373		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, although parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas.
170373		distribution	eng	This Australian species ranges from the Northern Territory to west and central Queensland (Cogger 2000).
170373		habitat	eng	This species is aboreal. It is seldom observed more than five metres from a tree or vegetation and appears to be particularly abundant near permanent waterways (Thompson and Thompson 2001). It occurs in a range of habitats including coastal sand dunes, grassland and savanna, shrubland, and even swamp and mangrove areas.
170373		population	eng	This species is reported to be abundant in northwestern Australia (Thompson and Thompson 2001).
170373		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.
170374		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species. However, the distribution of this species may fall within protected areas. Research into the population trends and threats of this species is suggested to ensure any significant declines are noted in the future
170374		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Australia. In western Victoria and neighbouring regions of South Australia and in the region of the Eyre Peninsula and coastal regions of the Great Australian Bight (Cogger 2000).
170374		habitat	eng	This species occurs in heath and shrubland (Clemann <em>et al.</em> 2005, Cogger 2000).
170374		population	eng	This species has been reported as common (Robley and Wright 2003).
170374		threats	eng	This species, like many Australian reptiles, may be threatened by introduced species including foxes. This, however, is not considered to constitute a major threat to this species at present because significant population declines have not been reported.
170375		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research on population numbers and habitat should be carried out and its population and habitat trends should be monitored.
170375		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Tioman Island, Singapore (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999), the Seribuat Archipelago (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006), and Sarawak (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found from Sabah (East Malaysia) (Manthey 2008). It may also be found in Indonesia on Simalur, Nias, Sumatra, Singkep, Kalimantan and Natuna Island (Uetz 2006, M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).
170375		habitat	eng	Members of the genus <em>Aphaniotis</em> are known to be tree- and bush-dwellers, in primary lowland moist forests and hilly regions in the general vicinity of running water (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Grismer <em>et al.</em> (2006) state that this species is an arboreal, diurnal lizard commonly found in undisturbed closed canopy forests, where it perches on the sides of trees and vines.
170375		population	eng	In the Seribuat Archipelago, this species occurs in 'unusually high densities' on the islands of Babi Besar, Babi Tengah, Babi Hujong and Aceh (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It inhabits similar habitats to smaller Draco species, so the absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. melanopogon</span> from the interior of these islands may be caused by competitive exclusion (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006). Generally, where <em>A. fusca</em> does occur sympatrically with any of the other smaller <em>Draco </em>spp<em>.</em> (i.e. Tioman, Tinggi, Sibu), it occurs in much lower densities (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In the forested lowlands of peninsular Malaysia, as well as the suburbs of Kuala Lumpur, the species seems to be relatively common (M. Auliya pers. comm.).
170375		threats	eng	The extent of impact of threat process on this species are not well understood. As it is a primary forest dweller, this species is likely impacted by habitat degradation due to human-driven deforestation, as a result of deforestation in parts of it range which occurs in a region where lowland forest is retreating very fast, especially due to oil palm plantations. More than 75% of forest in tropical Asia, the Philippine archipelago, Indochina, Malay Peninsula, India, Java, and Lesser Sundas has been deforested. Over half the forest cover remains in Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and New Guinea, however, they are experiencing rapid conversion (Laurance 1999).
170377		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its habitat and threats and population monitoring are needed.
170377		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across the Indo-Gangetic plains, ranging from Bangladesh through the Central and United Provinces of India (Smith 1935), and west to the upper and lower Indus Valleys in Pakistan. Its definite records are from Sindh and Punjab, District Jhang (Mertens 1974, Khan and Mirza 1977). It occurs at elevations between 50 to 200 m above sea level (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). Although this species has a wide distribution, it is severely fragmented across its range (M.S. Kahn pers. comm. 2010).
170377		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid environments such as dry forest and has been collected from hard barren desert and desolate areas (Khan 2006). It is a diurnal and crepuscular species and shelters in burrows close to the roots of thorny bushes, and feeds on insects, leaves and flowers (Khan 2006). The female is larger than the male and more brilliantly coloured during breeding season, which extends from April to June; 4-6 hard shelled white eggs are laid in burrows.
170377		population	eng	The Short Tail Ground Agama is rare (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). In the upper and lower Indus Valleys in Pakistan it is considered rare and has a patchy distribution (Khan 2006).
170377		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). It is likely impacted by conversion of land to agricultural purposes and the pressures associated with a growing human population and settlements. This species is slow moving and has easily been caught (M.S. Kahn pers. comm. 2010). It also has a reputation for being particularly harmful, which contributed much to its depletion (M.S. Kahn pers .comm. 2010).
170378		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research to confirm the full distribution and threats to this species should be carried out, as well as population and habitat monitoring.
170378		distribution	eng	There is uncertainty surrounding the distribution of this Asian lizard<em></em>. It is known to occur in Java, Bali, southeastern Borneo, Nias Island, and Sulawesi in Indonesia, Mindanao in the Philiipines, and Prachin Buri in south-central Thailand (Hallermann 2005). <br/><br/>It may also occur more widely in the Philippine Islands, as there are four specimens that are probably from the archipelago but do not have a specific locality given (Hallermann 2005). De Rooij's 1915 records from the islands of Salibabu, Karakelong and Talaud (all in the Talaud Archipelago) have not been verified, but may be correct. Lastly, the Nicobar Islands locality is incorrect, and its occurrence in southern India at Pondicherry is questionable, although may be due to introduced individuals (Hallermann 2005). <br/><br/>This species is known to occur between 100 and 1,400 m above sea level.
170378		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal (Sharma 2002) and inhabits moist lower montane forests, secondary forests, and plantations (McKay 2006). <br/><br/>This oviparous agama is known to have spindle-shaped eggs (Smtih 1935).
170378		population	eng	McKay (2006) states that this species is frequently encountered.
170378		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species is likely to be undergoing loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion and logging, however, areas of suitable habitat remain.
170379		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, for example the Phnom Nam Lyr Wildife Sanctuary in Cambodia. Further research on the population range, biology and ecology, and threats of this species is suggested. Population and habitat monitoring is recommended. The establishment and management of new protected areas is suggested to provide further safeguards for this species.
170379		distribution	eng	This species has only been found in the southern Annam Highlands in southern Viet Nam and eastern Cambodia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 19,585 km²<sup></sup>.
170379		habitat	eng	This species is found in the southern Annamites montane rainforest. A recent specimen was taken from deciduous dipterocarp forest with a grassy under-storey.
170379		population	eng	Prior to the recent record from Phnom Nam Lyr Wildife Sanctuary, only three specimens were known: two from Mohout in Cambodia, and a third obtained by Smith (1935) at Dalat on the Langbian Plateau in southern Viet Nam (Stuart <em>et al.</em> 2006).
170379		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural industry and expansion of plantations.
170380		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to this species' restricted range, research on its habitat status, population numbers and threats is advisable.
170380		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Myanmar. The distribution of this species is restricted to the Chin Hills, Chin State, and the Ponnyadaung Range, Sagaing Division at elevations ranging from 730 to 1,940 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,306 km<sup>2</sup>
170380		habitat	eng	This species is most common in areas of shifting cultivation and extends into secondary forest, but is not found in primary forest (Vindum <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is mostly ground dwelling, but may climb onto the base of trees.
170380		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170380		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.
170381		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. The main threat identified was habitat loss and the future research that was recommended included population monitoring and life-history studies. However, a threat category was not assigned.
170381		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Western Ghats and is found in the Anaimalai, Tinnevelly and Sivagiri hills and the Malabar coast (Smith 1935, Sharma 2002).   Manthey (2008) mentions an isolated single record from Mahabaleshwar, in northern Western Ghats (Maharasthtra state, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>). The area in which this species is distributed is estimated to be 47,424 km²<sup></sup> and it has an upper elevational limit of 1,800 m above sea level.
170381		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry and moist deciduous forest, as well as primary rainforest (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2003)   and associated altered habitats such as tea, coffee, and cardamom plantations (S.R. Ganesh pers. comm.).
170381		population	eng	Ishwar <em>et al.</em> (2003) surveyed the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) and 14 rainforest fragments in the Anaimalai Hills, both in the Western Ghats mountains. This species "dominated the arboreal reptile community" in the protected area and, moreover, rose to be the most dominant agamid in the fragmented forest. As a result, Ishwar <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggest that this species is a habitat generalist and appears to be unaffected by forest fragmentation.
170381		threats	eng	The area in which this species is distributed has, and continues to, undergo habitat loss and degradation. However, this species is known to adapt well to fragmented forests (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2003), so this cannot be considered a threat to this species.
170382		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
170382		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Yarang, Medog County, Tibet, China (Zhao and Adler 1993).
170382		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
170382		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170382		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this speices is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
170383		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in a number of protected areas within its range, including the Sinharaja Natural Heritage Wilderness Area. However, illegal logging, mining and human encroachment remain a threat even in this protected area (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Conservation measures are required to ensure that the protected areas within this species' range are managed and further habitat loss is prevented. Further research into the species' population and habitat should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.<br/>This species was listed as Endangered B1ab(i,iii) in the 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka'.
170383		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and occurs in the southwestern wet zone. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,300 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 60 and 990 m above sea level.
170383		habitat	eng	This species<em> </em>is a ground-dwelling species that inhabits dense, high canopy, natural forest and is apparently restricted to the undisturbed and fragmented, moist lowland and submontane dipterocarp forests (Pethiyagoda and Manamendra-Arachchi 1998, Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994) and moist lowland rainforest (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010). Recent observations by de Silva (pers. comm. 2010) found that this species is semi-arboreal as over 50 animals were observed on the stems of small plants about 6 to 20 cm above ground. This species was also found on leaf litter and occasionally on moss covered roots of large trees or on decaying logs.
170383		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Sri Lanka, according to Bahir and Surasinghe (2005); however, Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) reports it as "the most common horned lizard in the lowlands" (of the two other Cetophoras species) and recent observations show that it is common in lowland rainforests (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).
170383		threats	eng	Senanayake (1980) states that the species is "extremely intolerant of habitat disruption and disappears when primary rain forest cover is lost". Severe deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. In 2005 it was estimated that only 5% of the island's original wet zone forest, where the species occurs, remained (Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). While there have been some reforesting attempts, these have mainly consisted of monoculture, exotic species and do not support high numbers of native vertebrates (Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994). This species was considered Endangered by Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) due to its restricted and fragmented range and the ongoing threat of deforestation.
170384		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Kakadu National Park, and is likely to occur in others. Localized populations of this species are monitored to study the impact that major threats such as fire are having on its population abundance. Population monitoring should be extended to other populations, and research into its harvest levels should be carried out.
170384		distribution	eng	This lizard is distributed in a band across northern Australia, from the Kimberley district, Western Australia, through northern Northern Territory, to Cape York Peninsula and eastern Queensland. It also occurs in southern New Guinea.
170384		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal and diurnal lizard, occurring in dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands (Cogger 2000).
170384		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
170384		threats	eng	Various threats are likely to be causing declines in this species. Late dry season fires in the Northern Territory were responsible for an approximate 30% mortality rate in a small monitored population in Kakadu National Park, though no mortality was recorded in the early dry season fires (Griffiths 1994). Local population declines have also been reported after the arrival of the cane toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em> (Breeden 1963). Predation by cats has also caused declines in this species (Brook <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea, this species is reported to be "highly sought after for the pet trade" (Allison 2006).
170385		conservation	eng	Part of this species' distribution coincides with Lake Eyre National Park. Research into the population numbers, threats, and habitat is suggested and population monitoring is recommended to ensure this species does not become threatened in the future.
170385		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Lake Eyre Basin in South Australia and inhabits the margins of Lake Eyre, Lake Callabonna, Lake Frome and Lake Torrens (Mitchell 1973). The area in which this species is distributed is 62,601 km².
170385		habitat	eng	This species is highly specialized and inhabits burrows in the salt-encrusted, vegetation-free margins of lakes in the Lake Eyre basin, though by the wetter Lake Torrens it is found in the low shoreline vegetation (Cogger 2000).
170385		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170385		threats	eng	It has been suggested that some species of the Lake Eyre basin may be threatened by climate change and the subsequent increased flooding of its dry salt water lake habitat (Read 2003). However, this is not considered a major threat at this time as this species is tolerant of flooding (Swan pers. comm.).
170386		conservation	eng	It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.
170386		distribution	eng	This species occurs in arid and semi-arid areas from the central and northern coasts of Western Australia through central and northern Australia to central Queensland and New South Wales.
170386		habitat	eng	This burrowing species inhabits open arid areas, particularly sandy dune-type habitat and is tolerant of grazed habitat. Surveys have found that this species increases in abundance in grazed areas and likewise may increase in cleared or burnt areas (Read 2002).
170386		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
170386		threats	eng	This species is tolerant of habitat degradation caused by grazing and is under no major threats at this time.
170387		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population trends, threats, abundance and habitat status of this species are suggested to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future.
170387		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Western Australia (Cogger 2000, LeBas and Marshall 2000).
170387		habitat	eng	This species exclusively inhabits granite outcrops and is found sheltering in crevices and under rocks (LeBas 2001, Cogger 2000).
170387		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170387		threats	eng	This species inhabits isolated rocky outcrops and its naturally fragmented habitat is further divided by land clearing and agricultural activities including cattle ranching. However, investigations have showed that the survival of this species does not appear to be impacted by inbreeding depression (Lebas 2002) and the increased habitat fragmentation should not be considered a major threat at this time.
170388		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range are likely to coincide with protected areas. Further research into the threats, population trends and habitat status of the species is needed to determine the impact of land clearing and agricultural activity on the population of this species in the future.
170388		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north-central Southern Australia and occurs in the interior of the state between the Indulkana Range and Oodnadatta in the north, and Cobber Pedy and the Davenport Range in the south (Johnston 1992).
170388		habitat	eng	Like other species in this genus, this species inhabits barren rocky outcrops.
170388		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170388		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is naturally fragmented, however, its populations may be further divided by land clearing and agricultural activity. But, as no declines have been reported, this is unlikely to be a major threat at this time
170389		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Further research into the threats, biology, population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed as some future mining activity may take place within its range. Population monitoring is also recommended.
170389		distribution	eng	This Australian species is known from three disjunct subpopulations, two in the north of the Northern Territory and one on the northwest coast and adjacent plateau of the Kimberley Division, Western Australia.
170389		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low vegetation in woodlands and grassy stony hills and escarpments (Cogger 2000).
170389		population	eng	Juveniles of this species were reported to be relatively common on rocky slopes and grassy ridges during surveys of Frances Creek area of the Northern Territory (Reilly <em>et al.</em> 2006).
170389		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is under a major threat.
170390		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the ecology, threats and habitat status of this species is suggested so that it can be determined whether this species is threatened. Population monitoring is also recommended.
170390		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality at Crystal Creek, Admiralty Gulf, in northwest Kimberley, northwestern Western Australia (Cogger 2000).
170390		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat requirements of this species. Based upon the single known location, it is possible that this species inhabits woodland habitat in the region.
170390		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the holotype, collected in 1972 (Storr 1974).
170390		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. It may be experiencing habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation due to mining and agricultural activity including cattle grazing, which takes place over much of the region.
170391		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Research into the population trends, threats and habitat status of this species is needed, as is population monitoring, to ensure a threat category is not triggered.
170391		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the northern interior of Western Australia and the interior of most of the Northern Territory (Cogger 2000).
170391		habitat	eng	This species primarily inhabits grassy, rocky plains and hills, though it can be found in a range of habitats including arid shrublands and tropical woodlands (Cogger 2000).
170391		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170391		threats	eng	While this species may be undergoing localized habitat loss and degradation due to threats including overgrazing, land clearing and mining, this is not thought to constitute a major threat to this species at present.
170392		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at present or needed.
170392		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern South Australia and is endemic to the Great Victoria Desert.
170392		habitat	eng	This arid species inhabits grass clumps in mallee habitat (Cogger 2000).
170392		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170392		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted on by any major threat process as the area in which it is distributed remains fairly undisturbed.
170393		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. While there are protected areas on Borneo, many are still degraded by human activities. Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, habitat status and threats, and population monitoring is recommended.
170393		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo. However, further information on its exact distribution is lacking. It has been found 700 m above sea level.
170393		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to be arboreal and inhabit moist forests, based on its morphology and distribution.
170393		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170393		threats	eng	The lowland forests across Borneo, and particularly Kalimantan, are under intense pressure, principally from agricultural expansion, conversion to plantation, and large-scale logging operations. Most of the productive forests of East Malaysia have either been already logged or placed under logging concessions (Das 2006). Rapid deforestation is also occurring in even secondary forests in Sarawak and Sabah (R. Inger pers. comm.).
170394		conservation	eng	This species is on the National Red List for Thailand (ARCBC 2006). It occurs in Crocker Range National Park in Sabah (Das 2006). This national park, also known as Taman Negara Banjaran Crocker (IUCN Category II; 1,406 km²), contains the Crocker Range Virgin Jungle Reserve (IUCN Category 1a; 33 km²). The park is subject to significant threats, principally from encroachment, and the expansion of village settlements already present within the park (UNEP-WCMC 2006). More research is needed into this species abundance and trends. The habitat status of this species should be monitored.
170394		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Sabah and Sarawak and Kalimantan on Borneo (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), Java, Sumatra, and Thailand. It has been recorded at elevations up to 1,035 m above sea level (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006), but in Borneo has mainly been found at elevations below 300 m above sea level (R. Inger pers. comm.).
170394		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary rainforest (ARCBC 2006) and is likely to be strictly arboreal. In a survey of the Crocker Mountain Range in Sabah on Borneo, it was included amongst montane taxa (Das 2006) but has also been found in the lowland forests of Sabah and central Sarawak (R. Inger pers. comm.).
170394		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170394		threats	eng	The island of Borneo is approximately 71.9% forested, but is suffering high levels of deforestation, particularly in the lowlands (Das 2006). Most of the productive forests of East Malaysia have either been already logged or placed under logging concessions (Das 2006). As this species is restricted to primary forest, deforestation, which is mainly due to agricultural and human settlement expansion and logging, is likely to impact its population and R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that in Borneo specifically its continued status is dependent on the rate of deforestation.
170395		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats, abundance and habitat status of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended. New protected areas are required in order to reduce the rate of habitat loss in the area.
170395		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Indonesia and is known from islands in the North Maluku and Maluku island groups in eastern Indonesia (McGuire 2007).
170395		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be a forest species that requires canopy cover. However, it has been collected from patches of disturbed forest and in coconut palms and fruit trees near the forest edge, though it is not found in open stands of coconut palms (McGuire 2007).
170395		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170395		threats	eng	This species has likely experienced habitat loss and degradation due to logging, expansion of agriculture, and conversion of forest to plantation. Forests in the Maluku island groups saw up to 13% decline in forest cover between 1985 and 1997 and continued deforestation is expected due to the the ongoing expansion of timber and palm oil plantations (FWI and GFW 2002).
170396		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Thailand (ARCBC 2006). There are protected areas within this species range, providing some small safeguard. More research is needed on this species habitat status, and degree of threat. Population monitoring should also undertaken.
170396		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Arunachal Pradesh, India, across southeast Asia and in southern China, including the province of Hainan (Sharma 2003, Taylor 1963). It has been found up to elevations of 2,590 m above sea level.
170396		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and occurs in evergreen and occasionally deciduous forest, almost entirely in medium to large trees (Inger and Colwell 1977). It also inhabits mangrove forests (Wetlands International 2006). It is often seen outside of forests (Langkawi), near human settlements (Thailand, Laos), in coconut plantations (Thailand), and in coffee plantations (Laos) (U. Manthey pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Like other species in the genus, it is able to glide using wing-like patagial membranes.
170396		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170396		threats	eng	Forests in this region are under pressure from logging, development such as road-building, and agricultural expansion, and as such, this species is likely to experience some population declines because of habitat loss and degradation in some areas of its range.
170397		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat status of this species is needed as well as monitoring of trends in population size.
170397		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Mons and Tanintharyi regions of Myanmar, including the Mergui archipelago through into Thailand and east to the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (G. Zug pers. comm. 2010, Smith 1943).
170397		habitat	eng	Like other members of this genus, this species is able to glide using wing-like patagial membranes and is likely to be mainly arboreal, occurring in evergreen and possibly deciduous forests. &#160;This species is also sometimes found in coconut plantations (U. Manthey pers. comm. 2010).
170397		population	eng	This species is reported as common (Sharma 2002).
170397		threats	eng	Forests in this region have experienced deforestation due to logging, both legal and illegal, development such as road-building, and agricultural expansion. Habitat fragmentation due to infrastructure development may also impact upon this species locally, however, despite these threats, large portions of forest habitat remain and habitat degradation is not considered a major threat to this species at this time.
170398		conservation	eng	It likely that this species occurs in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed on this species' population and habitat status, and population monitoring is recommended.
170398		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Malay Peninsula, the Borneo areas of Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan, Sumatra, the Mentawai Islands, Nias, Nako, and Pinang and Tioman Islands (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has also been found in Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Manthey 2010).
170398		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is native to primary rainforests up to elevations of 1,400 m (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), however, they have also been documented in secondary forests (Iskander 2004). They occur mainly along streams of all sizes and perch at night on twigs and branches overhanging water, with juveniles occurring at lower levels than the adults (R. Inger pers. comm.)
170398		population	eng	This species is among the most widespread lizards in Borneo (R. Inger pers. comm.)
170398		threats	eng	This species is likely impacted by the ongoing deforestation occurring in the region, however, significant areas of suitable habitat remain and this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
170399		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat status are suggested.
170399		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in northern Sumatra at 1,200 m above sea level (Manthey and Denzer 1991).
170399		habitat	eng	The two individuals collected were found in secondary rainforest near a stream, one upon the trunk of a tree and the other on the ground (Manthey and Denzer 1991).
170399		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
170399		threats	eng	Forests on the island of Sumatra saw up to a 29% decline in forest cover between 1985 and 1997 and continued deforestation is expected due to the ongoing expansion of timber and palm oil plantations (FWI and GFW 2002). The habitat may also be deleteriously impacted by agricultural activity. However, as this species appears to prefer montane environments it is less likely to be impacted upon by these threats.
170400		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, population trends, range, abundance and habitat status is suggested.
170400		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of Si-Rambé Forest in northern Sumatra.
170400		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat preferences of this species, however, based on its known region of occurrence, it may inhabit tropical lowland forest.
170400		population	eng	Das (2006) cites this species as an example of an Indonesian lizard which is very poorly known. It appears to only be known from a single collection.
170400		threats	eng	The lowland forests of Sumatra have been almost entirely cleared and in 2002 it was predicted they would disappear entirely by 2005 to 2010 (FWI and GFW, 2002). This loss of habitat is due to human activities including expansion of agriculture and grazing land, conversion of forest to plantation and logging. However, as this species is only known from one specimen, the effect of these threat processes on the species are unknown.
170401		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Conservation measures, such as effective management of protected sites, are required to ensure that deforestation does not become more of a widespread threat.
170401		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. This species is known from Papua New Guinea, Papua Province of Indonesia, from the Aru and Kei Islands, and Yapen (Jobi) Island (Manthey and Denzer 2006).
170401		habitat	eng	This species apparently occurs in both lowland and montane rainforest habitats. As with all members of this genus, this species is highly arboreal.
170401		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170401		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon this species, however, this species may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.
170402		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the full distribution of this species and if any threat processes are acting upon it.
170402		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. The type locality is the Arfak Mountains (West Papua Province) and it is apparently only known from this locality despite some museum records listing it from other localities (Manthey and Denzer 2006).
170402		habitat	eng	This species is found within moist forest. As with all members of this genus, the species is highly arboreal.
170402		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170402		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
170403		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but parts of its range coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
170403		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeast Asia and has been collected from the Tonkin area of northern Viet Nam. It also occurs in China, from central Sichuan Province east into Chongqing, and south to&#160;Guangxi and Guangxi&#160;Provinces (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010). It has an elevational range of 800 to 2,000 m above sea level (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 2003).
170403		habitat	eng	This species mainly lives in the forests of mountain areas, evergreen forest and shrubs, and may be found on the banks of streams. Peak activity of this species occurs from July to September. &#160;The female lays eggs in July; the average clutch size is 3-6 eggs (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010).
170403		population	eng	This species is quite common in its locality (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010).
170403		threats	eng	This species is widely distributed and although it may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, hydroelectric power station construction, and logging, these should not be considered major threats at present. &#160;Harvesting for the pet trade is becoming an increasing problem (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010).
170404		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
170404		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and is distributed from eastern Tibet and Sichuan east to Hubei, north to southern Gansu and Shanxi, and south to the Yunnan Province (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It has an elevation range between 350 and 3,450 m above sea level (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, U. Manthey pers. comm. 2010).
170404		habitat	eng	This species has been described as subarboreal (Schulte <em>et al.</em> 2002). There are numerous habitat types within its range and it may inhabit meadow lands; however, the habitat preference of this species is shrubland (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010), living along the terrestrial areas within the vicinity of large rivers (U. Manthey pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Egg laying activity occurs in July with an average clutch size of six eggs (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010).
170404		population	eng	This species is relatively common (F. Xie pers. comm.).
170404		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion, infrastructure development and logging. Harvesting for the pet trade occurs only at a small scale. However, due to its large distribution these cannot be considered major threats at present.
170405		conservation	eng	This species is included on the Sichuan Province protected species list and has been flagged as a possibly extinct or taxonomically invalid species by the People's Republic of China Endangered Species Scientific Commission (Zhao 1998). Further research into the distribution, and population of this species should be carried out. A survey of the area has been conducted and this species has not been found again. It has been suggested that the individual specimen may actually be a variation of a related species (F. Xie pers. comm.) and therefore research into taxonomy has also been recommended.
170405		distribution	eng	This species occurs in China and is only known from the type locality of Yibin Shi in the Sichuan Province (Zhao and Adler 1993).
170405		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, however, based on the location of the type locality it may inhabit evergreen forests, although as the locality is not specific, this may be incorrect.
170405		population	eng	This species is only known from one specimen.
170405		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region, particularly in the Sichuan Province, due to land clearing for the expansion of agricultural and grazing land and increased firewood and timber demand (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, it is not known what impact this may have on this species.
170406		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as LR/lc, under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 2.3. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the taxonomic uncertainty that surrounds the genus <em>Japalura</em>. Monitoring of this species is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
170406		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern India and eastern Nepal. It occurs in the Annapurna region of Nepal, and eastwards into Sikkim and West Bengal (Schleich and Kästle 2002). Macey <em>et al.</em> (2000) also recorded this species in Xizang, Tibet. Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that specimens collected in southern Tibet have previously been misidentified as <em>Calotes jerdoni</em>. This species is found between 900 and 2,900 m above sea level.
170406		habitat	eng	This species is a terrestrial, rock-dwelling agamid (Sharma 2002). In Nepal, it is known from wet monsoon and rhododendron forests, and is most frequently encountered along forest edges (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
170406		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in Zhangmu (J. Macey pers. comm.). Schleich and Kästle (2002) report that in Ghorepani relatively high densities of this species were found.
170406		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation. Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that the sporadic distribution of this species may be caused by the lack of remaining moist broadleaf forests.
170407		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was thought to occur over an area larger than 50,000 km², and in many locations. However, it was considered to be threatened by habitat loss and human interference. As a result, a thorough programme of surveys and population monitoring was recommended, as well as research into its life history. <br/><br/>Sharma (2002) states that this species is "not endangered".
170407		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern India in Sikkim and the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal. It is also found in Nepal in the extreme east around Ilam (Schleich and Kästle 2002). It has been recorded from 100 to 2,700 m above sea level (Sharma 2002, Schleich and Kästle 2002).<br/>This species has also been collected from District Park, Zebawk, Lunglei district, Mizoram, India (Mathew 2006).
170407		habitat	eng	This montane species inhabits dense and low vegetation along the margin of woods or roads, where it often hides between rocks (Schleich and Kästle 2002). It occurs in one of the most moist regions of Nepal.
170407		population	eng	This species is not common (R. Mathew pers. comm.).
170407		threats	eng	In Nepal, Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that this species is limited to a very narrow strip of land and "is threatened there by any agricultural activity". The area where this species was collected in the Lunglei district, India, is being developed into a sports complex, and a bridge and other modern structures are also being constructed. As a result the shrinking forest cover may have an adverse effect on the population density of this species in this area (R. Mathew pers. comm.). However, the majority of the distribution lies in other areas where this threat is not impacting the species.
170408		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em>.</em> A large proportion of its range is distributed within the Pamir National Park, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.
170408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pamir mountains, centred in Tajikistan. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 137,880 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found up to 3,400 m above sea level.
170408		habitat	eng	This is a montane species, inhabiting rocks, precipices, ruins, and ravines (Szczerbak 2003). It climbs shrubs and trees and takes refuge in cracks between rocks, voids under stones, and in burrows.
170408		population	eng	Szczerbak (2003) notes that this is a common species.
170408		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of land change for agriculture.
170409		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species occurs in protected areas, including the Sinharaja Natural Heritage Wilderness Area. This reserve contains 6,500-7,000 ha (65-70 km²) of unlogged forest, however, illegal logging, mining and human encroachment remain a threat even to such protected area (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further population monitoring is needed for this species.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Near Threatened in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka.'
170409		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and occurs in the southwest wetzone of the country (Bartelt <em>et al.</em> 2005), although it has also been recorded from locations in the intermediate zone. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,373 km²<sup></sup>. This species has an elevation range between 30 and 1,500 m above sea level.
170409		habitat	eng	Goonawardena and de Silva (2005) state that this species is most commonly found in closed canopy sub-montane rainforest. It is also known to occur in abandoned tea plantations, and occasionally in forest gardens. Bambaradeniya <em>et al.</em> (1997) report that it regularly occurs in heavily planted home gardens, and A de. Silva (pers. comm. 2010) notes it has adjusted to live in home gardens but is facing predation from the common coucal (<em>Centropus sinensisi</em>) and Toque monkey (<em>Macaca sinica</em>) as a result.
170409		population	eng	This species is "uncommon" in Sri Lanka, according to Bahir and Surasinghe (2005). &#160;However, A. De Silva (pers. comm. 2010) comments that during the last three decades nearly 500 specimens have been collected from many localities. &#160;In Kosgama lowland forest the population is almost zero due to intensive logging activities (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).
170409		threats	eng	Sri Lanka has suffered severe deforestation due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. In 2005 it was estimated that only 5% of the island's original wet zone rainforest, where this species occurs, remained (Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). While there have been some reforesting attempts, these have mainly consisted of monoculture, exotic species and do not support high numbers of native vertebrates (Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994). The expansion of human settlements is a critical and ongoing threat (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2008). This species was considered Endangered by Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) due to its restricted and fragmented range and the ongoing threat of deforestation. <br/><br/>This species is also of interest to the international pet industry (Shiau <em>et al.</em> 2006) and therefore harvesting from the wild is likely to be a threat.
170410		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the locality in which this species was collected is connected to the Khaptad National Park by a two kilometre wide strip of forest at Tham. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
170410		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one single locality, Agaupani village in Bajura District, Nepal.
170410		habitat	eng	This species has been found within cultivated areas both on small bushes and stone walls. It has also been found in mixed temperate oak-rhododendron-coniferous forest, where it is limited by the availability of basking areas.
170410		population	eng	Six specimens of this species are currently known, all of which were collected in 1997 (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
170410		threats	eng	This species occurs within an area that is threatened by habitat loss due to fire, shifting cultivation, urbanization and timber and plant harvesting. However, it is not known what impact these threats are having on the species.
170411		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
170411		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Zhao and Adler 1993).
170411		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the large Tarim Basin desert of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Guo and Wang 2007).
170411		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170411		threats	eng	This species is known from an area of low human population density and it is therefore unlikely that it is affected by any major threats.
170412		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy and potential threats to this species should be carried out.
170412		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur from the southern coast of Balkhash Lake in Kazakhstan eastward to northwestern China (Xinjiang Uyigur Autonomous Region).
170412		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-desert, in inter-dune hollows, in the base of sand dunes, and in takyrs.
170412		population	eng	In 1997, up to 80 individuals per hectare were found (N. Ananjeva pers. comm.).
170412		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
170413		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
170413		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from inner Mongolia to northwestern China.
170413		habitat	eng	This species appears to prefer habitat with high vegetation cover and low soil moisture including deserts and plains in the regions (Xu and Yang 1995).
170413		population	eng	This species has been described as a dominant species in the desert habitats of northwestern China (Xu and Yang 1993).
170413		threats	eng	This species is known from an area of low human population density and while some portions of its range may be degraded due to agricultural expansion and mining, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
170414		conservation	eng	This species was regionally assessed in the Red Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan (2003) as EN B1ab(i-v), using 2001 IUCN Categories and Criteria (ver. 3.1). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status should be carried out.
170414		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Fergana Valley, which lies mostly in Uzbekistan, but also enters Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The Valley is surrounded by the Alatau and Alai Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,214 km<sup>2</sup>.
170414		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from sandy and clay-sandy soils in stony habitats with scarce vegetation.
170414		population	eng	This species was reported as locally abundant in the 1960s and 1970s but is now considered rare in many of the environments that it once inhabited; in locations where it is present, it is only found in low densities (State Committee for Nature Protection of the Republic of Uzbekistan 2003). However, Szczerbak (2003) reported that ten individuals were found along a one kilometre walk suggesting they are still abundant in some areas. Szczerbak (2003), however, also notes that this is a declining species. N. Ananjeva (pers. comm.) states that this species is rapidly declining.
170414		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, in particular from the irrigation of desert land.
170415		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
170415		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Xinjiang and Tibet to Nepal, Jammu, and Kashmir in India.
170415		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temperate deserts and montane grassland and shrubland. This species is viviparous.
170415		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
170415		threats	eng	The species is found within an area of low human population density. Although localized habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and mining may be occurring, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
170416		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
170416		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in China (in the provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, and Nei Mongol) and Mongolia (Zhao and Adler 1993, Ananjeva <em>et al.</em> 2004).
170416		habitat	eng	This species is found in stony plains with sparse vegetation as well as sand dunes (N. Ananjeva pers. comm.).
170416		population	eng	This species has been reported as the most abundant lizard in northern Mongolian deserts (Rogvin <em>et al.</em> 2001).
170416		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
170417		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
170417		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across Xinjiang through Gansu and Qinghai and into northwestern Sichuan (Zhao and Adler 1993). Its&#160;elevation&#160;range is 2,000 - 4,500 m above sea level (F. Xie pers. comm. 2010).
170417		habitat	eng	This terrestrial, viviparous species inhabits open land such as arid and semi-arid grasslands and other sparsely vegetated habitat (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2005) in the foothills of Kunlun Mountain, Qaidam Basin, and Qilian Mountain, including Zoige and Hongyuan region (Guo and Wang 2007). It cannot tolerate temperatures below -2.5°C and is known to shelter in burrows to avoid low temperatures (Wang <em>et al.</em> 2005, Wu <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;The average clutch size for this species is 2-4.
170417		population	eng	This species is very common (F. Xie pers. comm.).
170417		threats	eng	This species is known from an area of low human population density and although some portions of its range may be degraded due to agricultural expansion and mining, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
170419		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species at the present time.
170419		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and southeastern Australia, excluding Cape York Peninsula and Tasmania (Cogger 2000).
170419		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry woodlands, although it also occurs in agricultural land and urban areas and is encountered basking on roads and fence stumps (Abell-Davis 2000, Cogger 2000).
170419		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (Cogger 2002).
170419		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing the effects of habitat loss and degradation due to factors including land clearing and cattle grazing. Its abundance has been shown to significantly decline as a result of grazing (Kutt and Woinarski 2007). However, due to its apparently flexible habitat requirements, this should not be considered a major threat at this time. This species is also of interest to the international pet industry.
170420		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was assessed as LR/nt, under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 2.3, and is thought to be locally threatened by habitat loss. It was recommended that this species receives more research effort into its taxonomy. Further monitoring of the population and its habitat status should be carried out in order to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.
170420		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in India. It is known to occur in Bihar in eastern India, and along the rocky hills of the Eastern Ghats southward to Kanyakumari in the extreme south of India (Daniel 2002). An introduced population has been reported to occur in Germany (R. Radder pers. comm.). This species is known to occur up to 2,000 m above sea level.
170420		habitat	eng	This is a strictly terrestrial, rock-dwelling lizard (Sharma 2002). From its wide distribution, it is inferred that this species is found in a variety of habitats, including dry forests, moist forests, and dry shrublands.
170420		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that this species is found "in abundance" and Daniel (2002) notes that it is "common at low elevations" and in the vicinity of Bangalore. A recent study in three areas around the village of Hampi, Karnataka, found an average density of 90 individuals per hectare (Radder <em>et al.</em> 2005).
170420		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.
170421		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed on this species to investigate its exact range, abundance and ecology.
170421		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tonkin region of northern Viet Nam and from Guangxi, China (Hallermann and Böhme 2000, Zhao and Adler 1993).
170421		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in montane areas (Smith 1935). There is little information available on the species, however, members of this genus are usually found on trees and bushes in tropical montane forest (Hallermann and Böhme 2000).
170421		population	eng	This species appears to only be known from a few specimens.
170421		threats	eng	Significant levels of deforestation have already occurred in this region and this species may be experiencing ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of agriculture and shifting agriculture, logging and expanding human settlements. However, as this species inhabits high elevations in this area, the population declines it may experience are not likely to be severe.
170422		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat status is suggested. In particular, the extent to which habitat degradation and loss is impacting this species at higher elevations should be investigated.
170422		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of western Malaysia and is known from three mountains: Gunung Tahan, Gunung Lawit and possibly Gunung Gedong (Hallermann and Böhme 2000).
170422		habitat	eng	The specimens of this species have been collected from bushes and low vegetation and like other members of this genus, it may inhabit open tropical mountainsides at 1,500 m above sea level and higher (Hallermann and Böhme 2000).
170422		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens.
170422		threats	eng	The impact of threats on this species are unknown due to the scarcity of specimens and knowledge of its ecology. However, the region in which this species is found is undergoing widespread habitat loss, although mainly at lower elevations. Given the extent to which this region is being degraded, it is likely that this species is being impacted.
170423		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, range, abundance and habitat status is suggested.
170423		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java (Hallermann and McGuire). There is no further information about its distribution.
170423		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown
170423		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
170423		threats	eng	This species is likely to have experienced severe habitat loss due to human activities including the conversion of forests to agricultural land and plantations, the increase in slash-and-burn farming and logging, as well as pressures associated with a growing human population. Forests on the island of Sumatra saw up to a 29% decline in forest cover between 1985 and 1997 and continued deforestation is expected due to the ongoing expansion of timber and palm oil plantations (FWI and GFW 2002). Das (2006) notes that almost all of the lowland forests of Sumatra have been lost and in 1991 habitat loss was estimated to be 91% on the island of Java. However, it is unknown how these threats may be affecting the species.
170492		conservation	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> is confirmed or presumed to occur in a substantial number of National Wildlife Refuges, National Preserves, Wildlife Management Areas, and TNC properties throughout its range. </p>  <p><em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> is considered secure throughout much of its geographic range and no specific conservation actions appear warranted at present (Lindeman 2008). </p>  Studies documenting population status, structure and dynamics, habitat usage, and other ecological information on the species would be desirable.
170492		distribution	eng	<em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> inhabits the southcentral United States, from central Texas through southeastern Oklahoma, southern Arkansas, most of Louisiana and Mississippi to extreme southwestern Alabama (Iverson 1992, Lindeman 2008)
170492		habitat	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> typically inhabits medium to large flowing streams with sand, gravel or cobble bottoms, but also occurs in lakes and swamps. The presence of deadwood, both above water for basking and underwater for retreats, appears to be a significant factor determining habitat suitability. (Lindeman 2008). </p>  <p><em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> is almost exclusively carnivorous, feeding on aquatic insects, clams, snails and crayfish, with molluscs increasing as a proportion of diet as the animals grow. </p>  <p><em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> reaches 13-16 cm carapace length (CL), with the record size being 20.9 cm CL. There is little difference in sizes between the sexes. </p>  <p>Animals, apparently of both sexes, reach maturity at 8-12 cm CL at four to eight years of age. Two to three clutches of one to seven eggs per year are typical (Lindeman 2008). Hatchlings measure about 25-28 mm CL and weigh 3-4 g (Iverson 2002).</p>
170492		population	eng	<p>Population status and trend data for <em>Sternotherus carinatus</em> is not particularly comprehensive, but anecdotal information indicates that the species is abundant and stable in a variety of locations across its range; the main exception is the population of the Pascagoula river, where a combination of pollution and habitat modification have reduced populations of this and other turtle species (Lindeman 2008). </p>
170492		threats	eng	<p>Specific populations, particularly in the Pascagoula, are under potential threat from or have actually been impacted by toxic pollutants, deadwood snag removal for navigation purposes, sand and gravel mining, sedimentation, and impoundment. Animals coincidentally caught during fishing may be killed. Some animals, mainly hatchlings, are traded as pets. None of these threats is considered to be sufficiently severe or extensive to threaten the species’ survival for the foreseeable future. </p>
170493		conservation	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus minor</em> is protected from commercial exploitation in Florida, Mississippi,  and Tennessee, while personal collection is restricted; the species is not protected or regulated in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, at federal level or under CITES. It is listed in Tier IV - Moderate Conservation Need of the Virginia Wildlife Action Plan.&#160; </p>  <p><em>Sternotherus minor minor</em> occurs in a substantial number of protected springheads and spring runs in Florida, and presumably in other protected areas. The occurrence of <em>peltifer</em> populations in protected habitats remains unconfirmed. </p>  Recommended measures include public awareness and education to reduce wanton destruction of this and other turtles, appropriate management of protected and other suitable habitats, and monitoring of key populations.
170493		distribution	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus minor</em> occurs from southwestern Virginia through eastern Tennessee and extreme western North Carolina through most of Georgia, northern peninsular and panhandle Florida, Alabama and Mississippi, and the Pearl River basin of Louisiana. </p>  <p><em>Sternotherus minor</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">minor </span>occurs on the Atlantic side of the Appalachians in Georgia, in Florida and southeastern Alabama. </p>  <p><em>Sternotherus minor</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">peltifer</span> ranges from the Cumberland-Appalachian basin of SW Virgina, eastern Tennessee, extreme western North Carolina and NW Georgia through northern and western Alabama, eastern Mississippi and Louisiana. </p>
170493		habitat	eng	<p><em>Sternotherus minor</em> inhabits a variety of wetlands; clear waters with sand bottoms and submerged fallen trees and snags, such as spring heads and runs, are preferred, but the species is also known from creeks, rivers, oxbows, swamps and sinkhole ponds (Zappalorti and Iverson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sternotherus minor</span> is mainly carnivorous, feeding on a variety of aquatic invertebrates when young but shifting to a diet dominated by freshwater snails and clams as they grow (Zappalorti and Iverson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>In ssp. <em>minor</em>, males mature at about three to six years of age at about 5.5-6.0 cm carapace length (CL), and may reach up to 12 cm CL. Females mature at about five to eight years of age at about 7.0-8.0 cm CL; females grow slightly larger than males, reaching 14.5 cm CL. (Zappalorti and Iverson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). No maturity data is available for ssp. <em>peltifer</em>, whose largest recorded individual measured 11.7 cm CL. </p>  <p>Florida females of subspecies minor produce about three (one to five) clutches of about 3.3 (on to five) eggs, for an annual output of 6-12 eggs. Hatchlings measure 22-30 mm CL and about 3 g. Longevity may exceed 20 years; Generation length is unknown (Zappalorti and Iverson 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).</p>
170493		population	eng	Loggerhead Musk Turtles are generally abundant in suitable habitat; the highest turtle density recorded concerns this species, routinely being estimated at densities over 100 animals per hectare (review by Zappalorti and Iverson 2006), with the highest calculated density at 2,857 animals per hectare in a NW Florida springhead (Cox and Marion 1979), and over 500 individuals being observed in a day of snorkeling (Marchand 1942, in Zappalorti and Iverson 2006). From no records in Rainbow Run in the 1940s, the species has apparently entered and established itself there since, having attained an estimated density of 127 animals/ha, 12.5 kg/ha, or 66% of total turtle biomass by 1992 (Meylan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992).
170493		threats	eng	<p>Individuals and populations of <em>Sternotherus minor</em> may be impacted by a variety of causes: </p>  <p>Habitat impacts including degradation, pollution and loss, through impoundments and hydrological changes, affects turtles directly as well as their molluscan prey base. </p>  <p>Individual turtles are injured or killed through propeller strike, roadkilled when on nesting excursions, or injured or killed after taking fishermen’s baited hooks. </p>  <em>Sternotherus minor</em> is traded in some numbers as pets; no data is available whether these are wild-collected or captive-bred.
170494		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pulchra</em> is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. </p>  <p>The species is protected under State regulations in Alabama as a Protected Nongame Species, while it is listed as Rare in Georgia but take is currently unregulated.&#160;</p>  <p>Graptemys pulchra occurs in several protected areas across its range (Lindeman, pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</p>  <p>Conservation measures needed include closing commercial and unregulated personal take in Georgia, and population monitoring and (further) distribution and status surveys throughout its range.&#160;</p>
170494		distribution	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pulchra</em> is distributed through the Alabama river system of Alabama, northeastern Mississippi and northwestern Georgia, USA, including the Black Warrior, the Cabaha, the Sipsey, the Tombigbee, the Mobile, the Alabama, the lower Tallapoosa, and the Coosa Rivers (Ernst and Lovich 2009, Lindeman, pers. comm. 2010).</p>
170494		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pulchra</em> inhabits relatively large, swift-flowing creeks and rivers, preferably with abundant basking sites in the form of fallen trees and brush piles. </p>  <p>Males and juveniles feed predominantly on insects, while mature females feed predominantly on freshwater mussels and other molluscs. </p>  <p>Males reach a maximum of 13 cm carapace length (CL), females 27.3 cm CL. Females mature at about 14 years of age, while males mature at 8–10 years old (Ernst in Ernst and Lovich 2009). Mature females produce 1–2 clutches of on average 3.54 (range 1–5) eggs (Goode 1997). Hatchlings measure about 25–29 mm CL (Lovich in Ernst and Lovich 2009). Longevity is considered to exceed 20 years (Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>
170494		population	eng	<p>Density of 2.3–3.8 basking animals per km of river was reported during surveys in 2001 and 2003 (Blankenship <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). </p>  <p><em>Graptemys pulchra </em>was considered the fifth rarest <em>Graptemys</em> species by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. </p>
170494		threats	eng	Increased egg predation rates from subsidized raccoons (i.e., unnaturally large raccoon populations subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) and other native predators may be of concern.   <p>Impacts on native mussel populations from riverine developments and pollution may be offset to some degree by the spread of the invasive Asian <em>Corbicula</em> mussel. </p>  <p>Riverine development including snag removal on behalf of shipping and boating removes prime basking sites, potentially reducing individual fitness.&#160;</p>
170495		conservation	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em> inhabits several large protected areas, including the Everglades National Park, Okefenokee NWR, and several State or local authority protected areas. </p>  <p>Minimizing wetland isolation and loss, mitigating the impacts of roads and residential developments near waterbodies, ensuring connectivity between wetlands and turtle populations, baseline distribution and population status surveys, and monitoring of sample populations, would all be highly desirable conservation measures (Jackson 2006, 2010). </p>  <p><br/></p>
170495		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em> is found throughout peninsular Florida, in the Okefenokee Swamp of southern Georgia, and in an isolated population in the Florida panhandle, near Tallahassee. Introduced populations have been reported from San Marcos, Texas, and Tortola, British Virgin Islands (Jackson 2010). </p>
170495		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em> inhabits a variety of freshwater habitats with abundant vegetation, including ditches, wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes, and streams, mangrove-bordered creeks slow-flowing rivers and spring runs. Some individuals occur in brackish (30% saltwater) situations. </p>  <p><em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em> is strictly herbivorous after its early juvenile years, feeding on a variety of aquatic plants. </p>  <p>Females average 30.5 cm carapace length (CL) and 4 kg body mass; the largest reported female was 37.5 cm CL, while males can reach to 30 cm CL. Females mature at about 27-29 cm CL at an age of seven to eight or more years, males from 19-23 cm CL and a minimum of three years onwards. Adult females produce three to six clutches of on average 14.6 (range 7-26) eggs annually, for a mean annual reproductive output of 64.4 eggs (Jackson 2010). Hatchlings measure about 32 (28-38) mm CL. </p>
170495		population	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em> is generally abundant in suitable habitat and may be the numerically dominant freshwater turtle; densities of 4-22 individuals per hectare have been reported from open, suboptimal habitats to 78 animals/ha in prime locations. Overall, populations appear to be mostly stable ( Jackson 2006, 2010). </p>  <p>NatureServe (2006) considered the species as abundant throughout peninsular Florida and especially common in the Everglades, and assessed it as G5, or Least Concern, in 1996. </p>
170495		threats	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys nelsoni</em> has been reported as subject to a variety of impacts, including habitat degradation due to pollution and wetland loss, collection for pet trade and local human consumption, accidental mortality from cars and boat propellers, and increased predation levels. </p>  <p>Impacts from invasive nest predators (fireants) and possibly subsidized native predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements), such as raccoons and possums, have been reported but appear not to represent a significant threat at present levels. Invasive non-indigenous red fire ants are known to predate on turtle nests, where they feed on pipped eggs, and sting, kill and subsequently feed on turtle hatchings (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2001). While this has been document for the green and loggerhead turtles, it may also threaten <em>P. nelsoni</em>, as this species is known to lay eggs in alligator nests, 20% of which are infested with fire ants in central Florida. A study on ant predation on <em>P. nelsoni</em> found that in an affected nest, 70% of the hatchlings were killed by fire ants either during pipping or shortly after hatching (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2001). </p>  <p>Overall, however, the species is sufficiently adaptable to current land use patterns and non-natural mortality impacts in its range, and its overall population status appears stable. The species was assessed as G5, or Least Concern, by NatureServe in 1996 (NatureServe 2006). </p>
170496		conservation	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys peninsularis </em>is protected from commercial exploitation in Florida, and substantial populations occur in several protected areas. Safeguarding ecosystem integrity in the face of invasive species and human habitat alteration appear primary requirements, while continuing the current long-term population monitoring program at Rainbow Run and expanding turtle monitoring to other locations would be welcome. Extensive recommendations for conservation were provided by Thomas and Jansen (2006). </p>
170496		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys peninsularis</em> occurs through most of peninsular Florida; the precise northern limits of occurrence are unclear given the historically complicated taxonomy and identification of individuals and the wide zone of apparent intergradation with <em>floridana</em> from Ocala to Tallahassee (Thomas and Jansen 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>
170496		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys peninsularis</em> inhabits nearly any freshwater body within its range that provides soft sandy bottom, abundant basking sites and extensive submerged vegetation, occurring in streams, rivers, canals, lakes, springs and ponds. It occasionally enters brackish water (Ernst and Lovich 2009) </p>  <p><em>Pseudemys peninsularis</em> is apparently exclusively vegetarian, feeding on a wide variety of submerged aquatic plants, as well as some floating and marginal plant species (reviews by Thomas and Jansen 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>  <p>Females reach up to 40.3 cm carapace length (CL), while males do not exceed 35 cm CL. Males reach maturity at three to six years at 12–15 cm CL, while females mature at age 5–15 years and 24–30 cm CL. Mature females produce at least two, possibly up to six, clutches of on average 15 (range 6–29) eggs annually. Hatchlings measure 19–36 mm CL and 7–10 g (Thomas and Jansen 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). Longevity and generation time have not been documented.<br/></p>
170496		population	eng	<p>Within its limited range, <em>P. peninsularis</em> is generally abundant where it occurs. Densities of 44-48 individuals per hectare have been reported for different rivers (Kramer 1995, Giovanetto 1992, in Thomas and Jansen 2006). Densities and proportional abundance compared to syntopic <em>P. concinna suwanniensis</em> and <em>P. nelsoni</em> changed over time in Rainbow Run since the first study in 1942, with the species retaining similar proportions within the <em>Pseudemys</em> numbers, but becoming proportionally less common overall (which may reflect increased aboundance of <em>Sternotherus minor</em>) (Huestis and Meylan 2004).&#160; &#160;</p>
170496		threats	eng	<p>Threats reported for <em>Pseudemys peninsularis</em> include habitat destruction and pollution; alteration of aquatic vegetation abundance and structure by intensive grazing by introduced Asian Carp (<em>Ctenopharyngodon idella</em>) as well as direct competition for the aquatic plant resource; degradation of water-edge habitat, including loss of optimal nesting sites; collection of animals for consumption by humans and as pets; direct mortality from boat propeller strikes and road mortality when crossing roads; and wanton mortality from shooting, and killing by fishermen as perceived competitors (reviews by Thomas and Jansen 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009). </p>
170497		conservation	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys texana</em> occurs in several riverside protected areas. Commercial collection of turtles in Texas public waters was ended in 2007. </p>  <p>Monitoring of populations at representative locations would be welcome, as would further research on the natural history and conservation needs for the species. </p>
170497		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys texana</em> inhabits the river systems of central Texas, specifically the Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe and San Antonio systems. </p>
170497		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys texana</em> inhabits mostly rivers but also utilizes reservoirs and impoundments, nearby cattle tanks, canals and irrigation ditches; great densities are reached in clear water with dense aquatic vegetation beds </p>  <p><em>Pseudemys texana</em> feeds almost predominantly on submerged aquatic vegetation, with aquatic invertebrate prey representing a small dietary component (Fields <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Lindeman 2007). </p>  Males may reach 25.3 cm carapace length (CL), females exceptionally may attain 33 cm CL. Maturity is reached by males from their second year onwards, at 9 cm CL, while females can be mature at 22.3 cm CL. Clutch size averages 8.5 eggs (range 6-9). (Lindeman, 2007). Hatchling size, longevity and generation time have apparently not been reported.
170497		population	eng	<p><em>Pseudemys texana</em> is generally abundant where it occurs. Vermersch (1992) speculated that the creation of impoundments and other shallow vegetated waterbodies within its range has increased its abundance. Despite pollution of the San Antonio river, the species appeared more abundant there in 1992 than in the late 1960s (Vermersch 1992), while <em>Graptemys caglei</em> disappeared from the river over the same period. </p>
170497		threats	eng	No specific threats to <em>Pseudemys texana</em> appear to have been reported.
170502		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mauremys reevesii</span> is listed in CITES Appendix III (China). Assurance colonies (comprising animals of generally unknown geographic origin and genetic profile) and large-scale commercial farm holdings will ensure that the species itself will not go extinct anytime soon, but it has already disappeared as a common landscape species across most of its range; its best prospects for survival in the wild lies in strict protection and appropriate management of lowland wetland protected areas within its original range, and eventually re-introduction into regions where the species has been extirpated by overexploitation.
170502		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mauremys reevesii</span> is native to most of temperate and subtropical China, North Korea and South Korea; populations also occur in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Japan, though these may be historic introductions by humans (Fong and Chen 2010). Populations recorded from Timor (Indonesia), Timor Leste and Palau certainly originated from human introductions.
170502		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mauremys reevesii</span> is a generalist inhabitant of vegetated shallow lowland ponds, pools and marshes, including wetlands in agricultural landscapes if the species is not collected. It feeds on a variety of plant and small animal matter, with snails possibly representing a significant part of the diet of mature females.<br/><br/>Males rarely exceed 11 cm carapace length (CL), females can reach up to 24 cm CL. Females reach maturity in about five to six years in captivity and may produce several clutches of three to five eggs annually; reproductive data of wild populations appear unreported.
170502		population	eng	Historically a common and widespread species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mauremys reevesii</span> is now a rare species in the wild. The species is commercially farmed in vast quantities in P.R. China and captive populations likely amount to millions of individuals.
170502		threats	eng	Wild populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mauremys reevesii </span>are threatened first and foremost by intensive targeted collection to supply the consumption, medicinal and aquaculture supply trades.<br/><br/>In addition,    habitat destruction and degradation due to urbanization and pollution is also an important threat for this lowland species.
170531		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Greece and its known sites are outside of protected areas. <br/> The systematics of the group, where this species belongs to, is very out of date and probably incorrect, therefore it needs revision. Research activity should focus on this point.</p>
170531		distribution	eng	This is a Greek endemic. According to Schütt (1977), this species is distributed on the Peloponnes peninsula (Greece). Schütt mentions 25-30 known locations, but this number probably underestimates the real number. The extent of occurrence is over 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> with an area of occupancy of around 100 km<sup>2</sup>. Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170531		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>
170531		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170531		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170532		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Italy but there is at least one sub-population which lives within a protected area: Parco del Cilento. It would be important to confirm (by genital morphological and molecular methods) the systematic position of Apulian and Campanian sub-populations. First of all, research activity should focus the systematics and the better exploration of the distribution of this species.</p>
170532		distribution	eng	This is an Italian endemic. According to Forcart (1965) its distribution is restricted to Calabria (Monte di Tiriolo and Monte di Stella). Paget (1962) (cited by Alzona 1971) indicates this species is also from Apulia. Recently, some new sub-populations were discovered in Campania, but the Calabrian and Campanian ranges are not continuous (Enrico Zallot personal communication). Until the existence of the Apulian sub-populations are proven, the area of occupancy (44 km<sup>2</sup>)&#160; and extent of occurrence (7,200 km<sup>2</sup>) calculations are based only on certain distribution records.
170532		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170532		population	eng	<p>Despite the systematic uncertainty associated with this species, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating. The two Calabrian sub-populations (Monte Stella and Monte Tiriolo) and some other Campanian sub-populations which certainly belong to this species were last visited in 2007 and seemed stable (Zallott personal communication).<br/></p>
170532		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170533		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy, but the only known sub-population occurs within a protected area (Parco Naturale Regionale delle Madonie). The geographic range and number of sub-populations are not exactly known. Research activity should focus on the monitoring of the only known habitat and the exploration of the range and further sub-populations of this species.
170533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sicily (Italy). In the original description, there was no specific type locality mentioned. Only one sub-population is known, which has been discovered just recently (by F. di Libero; Enrico Zallot pers comm). The potential range of the species is quite unexplored, so it can be assumed that further sub-populations will be found that will increase the area of occupancy as well as the extent of occurrence, and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
170533		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170533		population	eng	Only one sub-population is known. However, it can be supposed that there are further undiscovered sub-populations nearby. There is no information as to if the only known sub-population has shown the signs of fluctuation or decline. It is presumed to be stable.
170533		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is probably not very sensitive to ecosystem modification, it might be threatened only by complete or severe destruction of the habitat (quarrying, urban development, etc). Any threats should be taken seriously unless new sub-populations are discovered.<br/></p>
170534		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. There is at least one population which lives within protected areas: that of&#160; "Riserva Naturale Orientata Monte Cofano" Regional Reserve. The species' range is quite unexplored, so research activity should focus on this point, as well as the systematics of the group based on anatomy and molecular markers.
170534		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in north-western Sicily and has an extent of occurrence of 900 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of 25 km<sup>2</sup>. Its area typica is near Calatafimi. According to Enrico Zallot (pers. comm), further locations, where this species occurs are: Erice, Segesta, Mte Cofano, Mte Pecoraro, Mte Bonifato. Due to the fact that Sicilian <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlostoma</span> species are difficult to distinguish on a shell morphology basis, there might be further unpublished/unrecognised material in collections. For example, each <span style="font-style: italic;">C. alleryanum</span> in the collection of Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) was misidentified (E. Zallot pers. comm). Moreover, the potential range of the species is quite unexplored, so it can be assumed that further sub-populations will be found. There is no reason to suppose that area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.    <p>&#160;</p>
170534		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170534		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that&#160; potential habitats are not really sensitive, and therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170534		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170535		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Slovenia and Austria. There is at least one population that lives within a protected site (Logarska dolina Landscape Park in Slovenia). No conservation actions are currently required.
170535		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern Alps in eastern Karawanken and Steiner Alps in Austria and the Julian Alps in Slovenia. It also has a remote occurrence in the western Dinaric Mountains (Sneznik in Slovenia). There are several published distribution records in Klemm (1973), Frank (1996), Bole (1994) and Gittenberger (1971) and some further unpublished material in the collection of the HNHM, Willy de Mattia (Trieste) and Enrico Zallot. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (80 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (3,600 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170535		habitat	eng	Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas) where it is usually found among or under stones or among leaf litter in shaded places at the base of rocks. This species is usually not found on the bare, exposed rock surfaces. It is often found in the same areas as <em>Cochlostoma septemspirale. </em>
170535		population	eng	<p>Within its geographic range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 20 known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170535		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by deforestation. Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.&#160;</p>
170536		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in France. It is expected that part of the population occurs within protected areas (probably in the Parc naturel régional de la Chartreuse). No conservation actions are currently required.
170536		distribution	eng	According to Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN) this species is endemic to a narrow range in the western Alps in France (Alpes de la Savoie, Alpes Dauphiné between Grenoble and Aix-en-Bains), and INPN provides 10 known distribution records. Germain (1931) mentions two further locations in the Alpes Maritimes, which are not accepted by INPN, and are therefore not considered in this assessment (including area of occupancy and extent of occurrence calculations). Despite this species occurring within a narrow range there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (40 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (2,400 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170536		habitat	eng	Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species it is associated with rocky woods (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found among or under stones; among leaf litter in shaded places at the base of rocks or trees or sometimes on the rock surface (Germain 1931).
170536		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that&#160; potential habitats are not really sensitive. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170536		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Sub-populations could in theory be threatened by deforestation. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170537		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Spain. At least a part of its range is within a protected site (Picos d' Europa National Park).
170537		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Spain (Province Asturias) within a relatively narrow range. Gofas (2001) publishes seven distribution records (within a range of 15 km<sup>2</sup>). Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (15 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (15 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170537		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170537		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not very sensitive to threats. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p> </p>
170537		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is not sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, etc.). Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170538		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Croatia, but not in the other two countries where it occurs. Several populations occur within protected areas in Montenegro (Lovcen National Park, Kotor-Risan Bay World Heritage Site and the planned Rumija Regional Park). Research activity should focus on the taxonomy of the species group where this species belongs to, with special regard to the systematic position of "<span style="font-style: italic;">C. auritum gjonii</span>"
170538		distribution	eng	This species is distributed mainly in the Montenegrian coastal zone. Northwards it reaches the southernmost part of Croatia (Konavli Mts) and southwards it extends to the north-western part of Albania (Tarabosh Mts and Kakaric). There are contradictory data regarding its Albanian occurrence: e.g. Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996) incorrectly indicates this species from southern Albania (Mali Cikes) [that is actually <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tessellatum</span>, deposited in NHMW, Fehér unpublished data]. There are at least 50-70 known locations (Fehér 2004, HNHM unpublished data), and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (250 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (2,200 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170538		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170538		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are several known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170538		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170539		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Spain, although at least a part of its populations live within protected areas in the Picos de Europa National Park and<span class="hotel-pricefield"><span class="hotel-price" dir="ltr"><span class="hotel-price-arrow"> <span><span><span dir="ltr">Parque Natural de Fuentes Carrionas y Fuente Cobre-Montaña Palentina. No conservation actions are currently required.<br/></span></span></span>
170539		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern Spain (in the Basque county, Cantabria and Asturia). Within its range, this species is not rare: at least 80 locations are published by Gofas (2001). Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (300 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (8,500 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170539		habitat	eng	According to Gofas (2001), this species prefers rocky habitats in limestone areas where it is usually found among mounds of loose large stones in shaded places at the base of rocks. This species is usually not found on bare, exposed rock surfaces. It is sometimes found in the same areas as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlostoma hidalgoi</span>, but they are separated by the habitat type (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. hidalgoi </span>prefers the rock surface).
170539		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170539		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170540		conservation	eng	This species is protected at the national level in Croatia and at least part of the sub-populations for both subspecies live within protected areas (Bijele und Samarske stijene Strict Reserve, Velebit Nature Park). First of all, the systematic position of the two subspecies should be clarified by anatomy and molecular markers to confirm or reject if they are distinct species and/or distinct conservation units as well as their relation with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. elegans</span> (e.g. Soós supposed that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. braueri </span><span style="font-style: italic;">latestriatum</span> is simply an abnormally built <span style="font-style: italic;">C. elegans</span>). No conservation actions are required at present.
170540		distribution	eng	The species is a Croatian endemic. In the original description the only location for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. braueri braueri</span> was: Klek Mt. near Ogulin and there were two locations for <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">C. braueri latestriatum</span>: Vaganski Vrh and Visocica in the Velebit Mts. In the collections of the Natural History Museum Wien (NHMW) (Vienna), IZPAN (Warsaw), Berlin Zoological Museum (ZMB) (Berlin) and the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) (Budapest) there are further material:<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">C. braueri </span><span style="font-style: italic;">braueri</span>: Grosse Kapella (=Velika Kapela Mts), Modrus, Bijele Stijene;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">C. braueri </span><span style="font-style: italic;">latestriatum</span>: Visocica, 934 m.<br/>The two subspecies have distinct and remote ranges, therefore two distinct extent of occurrence polygons were drawn and the extent of occurrence was calculated accordingly (530 km<sup>2</sup>). <br/>This is not a frequent species, but the species' range and distribution is far from being well studied and further locations might be discovered in the future. At the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170540		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170540		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is only partial information on population trend. The Klek population was checked in 2009 (E. Zallot) and the Visocica population in 2008 (L. Nádai). Being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not very sensitive and therefore there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170540		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170541		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Croatia. However, some of the sub-populations live within protected areas, such as in Park Prirode Biokovo. No conservation actions are required at present.
170541		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern Dalmatia along the Adriatic coast south of Makarska and Brac Island down to Dubrovnik and the Konavli Mts. <br/>Wagner (1906) gives one location in Bosnia-Hercegovina (Ljubuski). The type locality of<em> </em><em>C. cinerascens beauforti</em> <em> </em>is "Jankao vrh Crivoscie" which probably refers to Jankov vrh in the Krivosije Mts, Montenegro (Stamol 2010). As regards its presence in Montenegro, neither in the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) nor in the private collection of Peter Subai (Aachen) are records from Montenegro in spite of the fact that Montenegrian mollusc fauna is well represented in these collections. Therefore, the Montenegrian occurrence is believed to be uncertain which needs confirmation, and therefore not considered in the extent of occurrence calculation. There are at least 10 to 15 known locations, although this is likely to be an underestimation.<br/><br/><br/><br/><em><br/></em>
170541		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170541		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 10-15 known sub-populations and those sub-populations, which were visited in recent years, did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170541		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170542		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in France and, according to INPN, its known locations are outside of protected areas. It would be important to clarify the systematic position of this species (by genital morphological and molecular methods). First of all, research activity should focus on this point. No conservation actions are currently required however.
170542		distribution	eng	According to Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN) this species is distributed in France in Burgundy, Yonne and Haute-Marne in at least six known locations. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (25 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (6,300 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170542		habitat	eng	<p>Although this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found among or under stones; among leaf litter in shaded places at the base of rocks or sometimes on the rock surface. </p>
170542		population	eng	<p>Despite the systematic doubt, if this species is really a distinct taxon there is no reason to suppose that the number of its sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170542		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>.</p>
170543		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Greece. However, some of the sub-populations live within the Samaria Gorge National Park. The geographic range and number of sub-populations are not exactly known. Research activity should focus on the monitoring of the known sub-populations, in order to reveal if the low number of live specimens is a normal phenomenon or if there is a decline, and the exploration of the range and further sub-populations of this species. No conservation actions are currently required.
170543		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western part of Crete Island. Schütt (1977) lists five locations and in the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) there are further unpublished materials from five different sites. Its potential range is unexplored, so it can be presumed that there are further undiscovered sub-populations. On the other hand, this species does not appear to be abundant at all. According to personal communication with Barna Páll-Gergely and Péter Subai, this species is difficult to find within its range. However, there is no reason to suppose that the area occupancy (40 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (1,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170543		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170543		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. Being a rock-dwelling species one might assume that potential habitats are not really sensitive. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.. However, this species is rare within its range and sub-populations are not abundant. According to Barna Páll-Gergely it was very difficult to find live specimens in the Samaria Gorge in June, 2006.<br/></p>
170543		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170544		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. However, at least some of the known populations are within protected areas such as Riserva Statale Pania di Corfino in Tuscany and Parco del Monte Cucco in Umbria. The systematics of this group (i.e. the relationship between <span style="font-style: italic;">C. crosseanum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. agriotes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gualfinense</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pinianum</span>) should be clarified using anatomical and molecular methods. Research activity should focus on this point. No conservation actions are required at present.
170544		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Italy where there are at least seven known locations. According to Alzona (1971), it occurs in the Appennino umbro-marchigiano (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. agriotes</span>) and in Tuscany (Valle della Lima; Valle del Corfino, and Canigiano) (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. gualfinense</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pinianum</span>). There are at least seven known locations and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (30 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (18,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating (Enrico Zallot, pers comm).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>
170544		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170544		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that&#160; potential habitats are not really sensitive. The sub-populations which were recently visited did not show signs of any decline (Enrico Zallot, pers comm), therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170544		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170545		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Montenegro and its sub-populations live outside of protected areas. However, the planned Orjen National Park might cover the known locations of this species, or at least a part of them (see Porej and Stanišić 2009).<br/>The systematic position of this species as well as its relationship to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlostoma erika</span> would be important to study. The distribution range of the species should be better studied too. The known populations should be monitored if the potential threats became actual threats.
170545		distribution	eng	This species lives in some caves of the Radostak Mts. (=Monte Falcone) near Herceg-Novi, Montenegro. See Gittenberger (1976) for known locations. Some location data are not given precisely, therefore the number of locations are estimated at around three to five. Fauna Europaea incorrectly indicates that this species is from Croatia (see notes of Stamol 2010). At the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170545		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a karstic area where known locations are caves or  near the entrances of caves. The species is most probably troglobiont, but  there is little information on its ecology.
170545		population	eng	<p>Only a few sub-populations are known. Due to the hidden life of this  species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason  to suppose that the number of mature individuals are declining or  extremely fluctuating.</p>
170545		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road constructions or by other reasons. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical. The caves are located near Kotor Bay, which is a tourist focal point. So it is a potential threat in the future if caves where this species occurs became targets of tourist activity.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170546		conservation	eng	This species is protected at the national level in Croatia and at least some of the sub-populations live within protected areas (such as in the Velebit Nature Park with the ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. imotschiense</span> occurring in Modro Jezero Natural Monument). The systematics of this species and its relation to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. elegans</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. mostarense</span> should be clarified by anatomy and molecular markers. No conservation actions are currently required.
170546		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Velebit Mts. in Croatia, between Senj and Obrovac. There are at least 25-30 known locations, but this number might be underestimated. Thus, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <br/>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. imoschiense</span> is known only from the vicinity of Imotski. This occurrence is nearer to the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cinerascens</span> than to the main range of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. elegans</span>, therefore the extent of occurrence was calculated for two distinct polygons.
170546		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170546		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 25-30 known sub-populations and those visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170546		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170547		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Montenegro. Its known site falls near the area of the Lovcen National Park, but probably is out of that (see Porej and Stanišić 2009). The geographic range and number of sub-populations are not exactly known. Research activity should focus on this point. The karstic plateau over the cave system, where this species lives should be protected.
170547		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Montenegro where it has been found in three locations within a narrow range (Popova Pecina, Duboki do Pecina and a unnamed cave near Krstac and Njegusi villages) (Gittenberger 1976). The species possibly lives in other nearby caves, but its range is very narrow. At the present moment we see no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170547		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a karstic area where known locations are in caves or near to the entrances of caves. The species is most probably troglobiont, but there is little information on its ecology.
170547		population	eng	Only a few sub-populations are known. Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170547		threats	eng	The known sub-populations live in caves beneath a karstic plateau. There is livestock farming on the plateau so one might presume that farming activity might pollute the groundwater which could in turn affect this species. However, this is not a particularly realistic threat. This plateau is near the famous touristic focal point, Kotor Bay, and near to the Montenegrin national monument, Njegus mausoleum. Any construction work or disturbance might increase in the future in connection with tourism. And it might have a negative effect on this species.
170548		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Greece and its known range is outside of protected areas.<br/>The geographic range and number of sub-populations as well as the systematic position of this taxon are not exactly known. Research activity should focus on the exploration of the range of this species and its systematic position should be also clarified. The known population should be protected unless further sites are discovered.
170548		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Greece: Evia (=Euboea Island), Mt. Delfi. Schütt (1977) mentions another location: "Euböa: Mt. Sukaro", which is hard to identify and indeed may refer to the same location as the type locality. Therefore, to our present knowledge this species occurs within a narrow range in Evia Island, Greece. There is no recent information about  the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations, but we have no reason to suppose that they are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170548		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170548		population	eng	There is no recent information about  the area of occupancy, extent of  occurrence or the number of locations, but we have no reason to suppose  that they are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170548		threats	eng	<p>This species is probably not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. However, it would be threatened only by the total destruction of the habitat (quarrying, road construction, residential development, etc.). At the moment, this is considered to be rather an hypothetical threat.<br/></p>
170549		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Albania. Its known sites are outside of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are necessary at present.
170549		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from northern and north-eastern Albania. In the collection at the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) there are material from at least ten locations and, according to field experience, it is very common in the limestone zones of the Munelle, Shent and Zebe Mts. There are further, sporadically distributed sub-populations in the Gjalica Mts.(Ura e Lapaves, Bicaj gorge) and one location is known between the Shent and Gjalica Mts. (in Tej-Drinit). Probably, it will be found in several further locations in the Munelle, Shent and Zebe Mts, so the number of locations could be over 25. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (100 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (440 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170549		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>
170549		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. The sub-populations which are regularly monitored do not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.<br/></p>
170549		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170550		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Spain. There is at least one population, at Anisclo gorge, which lives within a protected area (Ordesa National Park). No conservation actions are currently required for this species.
170550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the valleys of the Cinca River in the Pyrennées Mountains in northern Spain. Gofas (2001) published nine known locations. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (40 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (250 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>
170550		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170550		population	eng	<p>Being a rock-dwelling species, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170550		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170551		conservation	eng	This species is protected only in Croatia among the countries where it occurs. Having a relatively large range   there are several sub-populations that live within protected areas. The systematic position of its subspecies and related species should be clarified by anatomy and molecular markers. No conservation actions are currently required.
170551		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the south-eastern Alps down to north-western Greece. According to Alzona (1971) it does not live in Italy, but it has been found recently in Italy near Gorizia (Willy de Mattia, unpublished). Fauna Europaea incorrectly indicates that this species is also from Romania. Distribution records are provided by: Wagner (1897), Klemm (1973), Soós (1943), Bole (1994), Schütt (1977), Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) and Dhora and Welter-Schultes (1996). There are at least 100 known locations and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (400 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (100,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170551		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170551		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 100 known sub-populations and the sites which have been visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline.<br/></p>
170551		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170552		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Greece, although at least some of the known populations live within protected areas (Parnitha National Park and Parnassos National Park). <br/>  The systematics of the group is very  out of date and probably incorrect and therefore needs revision.  Research activity should focus on this point. No conservation actions are currently required.
170552		distribution	eng	According to Schütt (1977), this species is distributed in Central Greece (Parnassos Mts., Oeta (=Iti) Mts, Dirphi Mts, Delphi Mts, Tinos Island, Xeronisi Island, Euböa Island). Schütt mentions 20 known locations,  but this number probably underestimates the real number. Currently there is  no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (80 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (21,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are  declining or extremely fluctuating.
170552		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170552		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare, therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170552		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170553		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Austria, Italy or Slovenia. Having a relatively large range there are several  sub-populations that live within protected areas. No conservation actions are currently required for this species.
170553		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern and eastern Alps (Prealpi Venete Dolomiti, Alpi Carniche e Giulie in Italy, Karnten in Austria and north-western Slovenia). <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">henricae</span><em></em> <span style="font-style: italic;">huettneri</span> has a somewhat distinct range in the vicinity of Hallstadt (Austria) and the nominate form has one known remote location in the Tirol (Reutte gorge). Some distribution records are published by Wagner (1897), Klemm (1973), Alzona (1971) and Bole (1994), but based on the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) and the private collection of Enrico Zallot, the number of known locations/sub-populations is over 100 and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (500 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (20,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170553		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170553		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species is very frequent. There are more than 100 known sub-populations and those sites which were visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170553		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170554		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in France or Spain. Some of the known sub-populations occur within protected areas such as Urbasa y Andia, Parque Nacional de Picos de Europa, Parque Natural de Fuentes Carrionas y Fuente Cobre-Montaña Palentina. No conservation actions are currently required.
170554		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern Spain in Asturia, Cantabria and the Basque country. At least 100 Spanish locations are listed by Gofas (2001) and there is one population in France (Pyrénées Atlantiques: La Pierre St. Martin) according to Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN). The species has an area of occupancy of 400 km<sup>2</sup> and a projected extent of occurrence of 28,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
170554		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170554		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare and therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170554		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170555		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Albania. But at least six known sub-populations live within protected areas: in Park Kombetar Mali Dajtit and in the protected site: Bardhet Bize. No conservation actions are currently required.
170555		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Central Albania. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hoyeri lillae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hoyeri </span><span style="font-style: italic;">csikii</span> have only one known location each and the nominate form is known from at least ten sites (Fehér 2004 and Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM), unpublished data). The extent of occurrence is projected to be 1,150 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy is 50 km<sup>2</sup>.
170555		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170555		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. The sub-populations which are regularly monitored do not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.<br/></p>
170555		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170556		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.
170556		distribution	eng	This species, if valid, is found in Italy.
170556		habitat	eng	Due to the taxonomic uncertainty, there is no reliable information.
170556		population	eng	Due to the taxonomic uncertainty, there is no reliable information.
170556		threats	eng	Due to the taxonomic uncertainty, there is no reliable information.
170557		conservation	eng	This taxon is protected at the national level in Croatia. First of all the taxonomic uncertainties should be clarified.
170557		distribution	eng	Braun (1887) gives the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kleciaki kleciaki</span> as "Lesina" (=Hvar Island). Wagner (1906) gives two further locations: Krivosie Mt. (in Montenegro) and Biokovo Mt. near Makarska in Croatia. In the collection of the Natural History Museum Wien (NHMW) (Vienna) there is a further lot from "Trappani, Sabbioncello" (= Trpanj, Peljesac Peninsula) (det Wagner AJ). Schütt (1977) published another material originated from or determined by AJ Wagner as "Akarnanien, Pindus" in Greece.<br/>According to Wagner (1906) the sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kleciaki arnautorum</span> lives in southern Montenegro and Northern Albania and there should be at least 15-20 known sub-populations (Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996, Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM), unpublished data).<br/>Due to the taxonomic uncertainty, we cannot exactly know which and how many species the literature records refer to. But as long as the forthcoming revision is completed, the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and number of locations are calculated on the basis of the published records following the concept of Fauna Europaea. In this case we have no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or number of locations are declining or fluctuating.
170557		habitat	eng	<p>This is probably an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas.<br/></p>
170557		population	eng	Due to the taxonomic uncertainty, there is no information about population trends. However, being a rock dwelling animal, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170557		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, it should not be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, constructions, etc.). As long as taxonomic uncertainties are not clarified however, there is no sense to speculate on hypothetical threats.<br/></p>
170558		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in France. Some of its sub-populations live within protected areas however, such as in the National Park Alpes Maritimes. No conservation actions are currently required.
170558		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-eastern France. Distribution data are provided by Alzona (1971), Germain (1931), Gargominy and Ripken (2006) and the Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN) database. There are at least 28 distribution records and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (100 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (6,200 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170558		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>
170558		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 28 known locations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170558		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170559		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Spain or in France. At least some of the sub-populations occur within protected areas: Parc Natural del Montseny, Parc Natural de la Muntanya de Montserrat, Parc Natural del Cadi-Moixeró in Spain. No conservation actions are currently required.
170559		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern Pyrennées Mountains in France and Spain. There are two known locations in France and at least 50 in Spain (Gofas 2001).  There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (200 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (13,600 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170559		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170559		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are several known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170559		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170560		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Italy, however there are at least a few sub-populations that occur within protected areas. First of all the systematics of this species should be clarified by anatomy and molecular markers and after this, the distribution should be explored. It is thought that no conservation actions are currently required.
170560		distribution	eng	During this assessment, the Fauna Europaea concept was followed. According to that, this species is distributed in the Appennin Mountains, Italy. However, a competent Italian expert, Enrico Zallot, believes that in the Appennin Mountains, several species live (which were partly believed the synonyms of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. montanum</span>, and are partly undescribed). If that were true <span style="font-style: italic;">C. montanum</span> s. str. would occur within a much smaller range than it is believed now. <br/>Some <span style="font-style: italic;">C. montanum</span> locations were recently visited and&#160; those sub-populations seemed stable, therefore there is no reason to suppose that area of occupancy (50 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (27,500 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
170560		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170560		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. The sub-populations which were visited recently did not show signs of any decline. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170560		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170561		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Bosnia-Hercegovina and the whole population lives outside of protected areas. First of all, the species' systematic relationship with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cinerascens</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. elegans</span> should be clarified. Secondly, the potential range of the species should be better explored to see if any conservation actions are required.
170561		distribution	eng	This species was reported from three localities in the vicinity of Mostar (Bosnia-Hercegovina): Podvelez and the slope of the Hum Mountain near Mostar. In the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) there is an unpublished lot from nearby (Velez Mts. Humilisani village, East of Potoci, collected in 1999), which might also belong to this species. To our present knowledge, this is a narrow range endemic species. The potential range is unexplored, therefore it is not easy to determine the number of living sub-populations and as such the area of occupancy (12 km<sup>2</sup>) and extent of occurrence (280 km<sup>2</sup>) is just roughly estimated.<em> </em>However, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170561		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170561		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is only partial information on population trend. The Podvelez population was checked in 2000 and the Humilisani population in 1999. Being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not particularly sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170561		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or any other realistic threats. But only a few sub-populations are known, and are located near a large city, Mostar. Two of the known locations are hills around the city, which were used as military bases during the Siege of Mostar (1992). Probably this military activity did not affect the species as the Podvelez population was last found in 2000. Local sub-populations are threatened by the complete or severe destruction of that rocky habitat (e.g. construction works, quarrying, etc.), but these seem to be hypothetical threats now.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170562		conservation	eng	This species is protected at the national level in Croatia, but not protected in Austria or Slovenia. Some sub-populations occur within protected areas: such as in the Risnjak National Park, Velebit National Park in Croatia, Sneznik Natura 2000 protected area and <span class="tl">Kamnik-Savinja Alps Natura 200 site in Slovenia. First of all the systematic positions of. <em>C. nanum dubia</em><span class="tl"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. stossichi </span>should be clarified. No conservation actions are currently required.</span>
170562		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern Alps and the north-western part of the Balkans, from the Steiner Alpen in Austria and Krain in Slovenia and down to the Velebit Mts. in Croatia. The northern part of the range is inhabited by the nominate form whereas the southern part of the range is <em>C. nanum dubia</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. There are at least 10-15 known locations (Wagner 1897, Bole 1994, Klemm 1973, Soós 1943 and unpublished material in the collections of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM), Willy de Mattia and Enrico Zallot). There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (50 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (11,500 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170562		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170562		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 10-15 known sub-populations and those which were visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170562		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170563		conservation	eng	According to the Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN) database, this species is not protected in France. Some of its populations live within protected areas such as in the Pyrénnées National Park. No conservation actions are currently required.<br/><h2><br/></h2>
170563		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern France in the northern Pyrennés Mountains: Haute-Garonne, Ariége and Aude provinces. Gofas (2001) published 25 locations. Further records are mentioned on the Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN) database. The species has an extent of occurrence of 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
170563		habitat	eng	This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.
170563		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170563		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170564		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in France or Spain. Some of the sub-populations live within protected areas such as the Urbasa y Andía protected area in Spain and Parc National des Pyrénnées in France. No conservation actions are currently required.
170564		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Central Pyrennean Mountains of France and Spain. The nominotypical subspecies lives exclusively in France, while <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlostoma obscurum laburdense</span> is recorded from both countries. According to the Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN) database, there are at least five known distribution records for the species in France. According to Gofas (2001, sub <span style="font-style: italic;">C. crassilabrum</span>) there are several locations for this species in Spain, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">laburdense</span> is not treated separately.
170564		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170564		population	eng	Within its relatively large range, this species seems to live in fragmented subpopulations. According to the INPN database (France), there are only four records known for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. o. obscurum</span> (the last record is from 2011), while the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. o. laburdense</span> is only recorded from a single locality in France (the subpopulations from the three French type localities are extinct). The French subpopulations seem to be rare, the last records of this species are almost 10 years ago. The current situation of the subpopulations in the Spanish range is not known and needs urgently to be reassessed.
170564		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170565		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Spain at the national level and its known sub-populations live outside of protected areas. However, no conservation actions are currently required.
170565		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Spain (Cantabria). Gofas (2001) provides six distribution records, of which four are in a close vicinity, near Seldesuto and Alisas. Another location is "Valle de Asón" and a third one is Las Machorras in Burgos county. The extent of occurrence is 220 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy is 12 km<sup>2</sup>.
170565		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170565		population	eng	The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific  information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species  it is known that potential habitats are not really sensitive,  therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations  or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely  fluctuating.
170565		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170566		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Greece and the known locations are not protected. First of all the systematic position of this species should be clarified by anatomy and molecular markers, and second, the species' range should be better explored.
170566		distribution	eng	This species is a Greek endemic and was described from Epirus. Klemm (1962) provides three locations: Paraskevi (type locality), Katarrakti and Kataphigi. AnimalBase provides one another location (Vikos gorge), but those depicted specimens possibly belong to another species.
170566		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks. So far, this species was found in high altitudes.<br/></p>
170566		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and only three sub-populations are known. However, it is supposed that there are further undiscovered sub-populations nearby and also the size of the range could be much larger. There is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not really sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170566		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>.</p>
170567		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. At least two sub-populations live within protected areas: Monte Gallo and Monte Pellegrino are regional reserves in Sicily. Research activity should focus on the better exploration of the species' range and its sub-populations, and known sub-populations should be monitored. If no further sites are found, the four known locations should be protected.
170567		distribution	eng	According to Fauna Italia and Fauna Europaea, this is a Sicilian endemic species. Alzona (1971) gives the following locations: Monte Pellegrino near Palermo, Monte Gallo near Palermo and Isola di Favignana. There is another Sicilian location: Pioppo near Palermo (E. Zallot, pers comm.). Alzona (1971) mentions one location outside of Sicily<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>: Campania, Monte S Angelo. As this record is not reinforced, the occurrence was not considered in this assessment. The area of occupancy is 16 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is 120 km<sup>2</sup>.
170567		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170567		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not really sensitive, therefore, it is not thought that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170567		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or any other realistic threats. But only a few sub-populations are known; three of which are located around a large city, Palermo. So there is a plausible threat that the sub-populations might be affected by disturbance caused by recreational activity or by complete or severe destruction of that rocky habitat (e.g. construction works).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170568		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Greece and its known locations are outside of protected areas. It would be important to clarify the systematics by genital morphological and molecular methods of the species group. First of all, research activity should focus on this point.</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170568		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern part of the Peloponnesos Peninsula (Greece). There are five published locations (Schütt 1981) but, considering how relatively unexplored that part of Greece is, there might be more than five extant sub-populations. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (20 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (700 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170568		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas including conglomerate. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170568		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that&#160; potential habitats are not really sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170568		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170569		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Spain and France. Some of the sub-populations live within protected areas: Parc national des Pyrénées in France, and in Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido in Spain. No conservation actions are currently required.
170569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central part of the Pyrenées Mountains in the provinces Hautes-Pyrénées,  Pyrénées Atlantiques in France and Huesca in Spain. There are at least 20 known sub-populations (Gofas 2001, Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN)) and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (80 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (1,800 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170569		habitat	eng	According to Gofas (2001), this species prefers rocky habitats in limestone areas, where it is usually found in shaded rock surfaces or among mounds of loose large stones in shaded places at the base of rocks.
170569		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 20 known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170569		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170570		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Spain, France or Italy. Being very abundant and widespread there are likely to be some sub-populations that live within protected areas. No conservation actions are currently required.
170570		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern France in the provinces of Rhone-Alpes, Provance-Alpes-Cote d'Azur and Languedoc-Roussillon. It was found also in Italy in Ligurian. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. patulum fontqueri</span> lives in north-eastern Spain in South Tarragona and North Comunidad Valenciana. According to Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN), there are around 100 known locations in France. The area of occupancy is 400 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is 90,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
170570		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>
170570		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species is frequent. There are at least 100 known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170570		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170571		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. Some of the sub-populations live within protected areas such as in Parco Nazionale Dolomiti Bellunesi, Riserva naturale Campobrun and Parco Naturale Regionale della Lessinia. No conservation actions are currently required.
170571		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southern and south-eastern part of the Alps at Prealpi Venete, Dolomiti and Alpi Carniche. Within this range, the species is quite frequent and there are at least 60 to 80 known locations. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (300 km<sup>2</sup>), the extent of occurrence (8,100 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170571		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170571		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are several known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating. Those which were recently visited did not show signs of any decline.</p>
170571		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170572		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. Some of the sub-populations live within protected areas, such as in Riserva Naturale Sorgente Funtanì and Parco Alto Garda Bresciano. No conservation actions are required for this species.
170572		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southern part of the Alps in Prealpi Lombarde and Alpi Retiche meridionali in Italy. There are at least 15 known sub-populations (Enrico Zallot and Willy de Mattia pers. comm.), but this number is probably well underestimated. The area of occupancy is 60 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is 3,250 km<sup>2</sup>.
170572		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170572		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 15 known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170572		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170573		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Albania or Montenegro and it is outside of protected areas. <br/>There are described subspecies which are known from narrow ranges and  therefore one might consider them as conservation units which need to be  protected. However, the systematics at subspecies-level is out of date and probably incorrect, therefore it needs revision. Research activity should focus on this point. No conservation actions are currently required.
170573		distribution	eng	Its type locality is "Hercegovina: Berušica near Avtovac". However, even if this refers to an existing sub-population, it should be a small, remote, sub-population. Since 1901, there is no published information as to if this location was successfully recollected and the existence of this population was reinforced. Therefore this is not considered in the extent of occurrence calculation.<br/>The main area of this species is in southern Montenegro and northern Albania between the lower Moraca and the Drin valleys. Despite of intense field activity in recent years (Zoltan Fehér, pers comm.), this species could not be found north-westwards of the lower Moraca valley.<br/>There are at least 35-50 known sub-populations (Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001 and the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM), unpublished data) and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (200 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (2,400 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170573		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170573		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. The sub-populations which are regularly monitored do not show signs of any decline. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating. </p>
170573		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170574		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. Some of its sub-populations live within protected areas, such as in Parco Regionale di Porto Conte and in Parco Nazionale del Gennargentu. As its range is quite unexplored, research activity should focus on the exploration of the range and further sub-populations of this species. No conservation actions are currently required.<br/><p>&#160;</p>
170574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardegna Island where it is known from the vicinity of Dorgali from Monte Oliena, from the vicinity of Sant' Antioco, from the vicinity of Siliqua. In the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) and of E. Zallott, there are further records from Cedrino, Mte Bardia, Capo Caccia, Ispingoli and Cala Fuili. Regarding that the potential range is quite unexplored this number might be an underestimation. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (40 km<sup>2</sup>) and the extent of occurrence (25,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170574		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170574		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there are no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170574		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170575		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Croatia. There are several sub-populations that live within protected areas. Although the sub-populations in southern Italy look morphologically identical to this species it should be confirmed or rejected by molecular methods too. The sub-populations in the southern part of the range (Albania, etc) are ecologically (in terms of habitat preference) different from the typical form. The systematic relevance of this difference should also be studied in the future. No conservation actions are currently required.
170575		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Balkans along the Adriatic coastal zone from north-eastern Italy, Slovenia and Croatia southwards to Albania and the Ionian Islands (Korfu, Kefallonia). There are sporadic occurrences in the Peloponnes Peninsula. This species also has a remote sub-area in southern Italy (Calabria). (Wagner 1897, Wagner 1906, Stamol 2010, Maassen 1980, Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Schütt 1977, Rähle 1980). Although there are no published records from Bosnia-Hercegovina, it is probable that it occurs in the Adriatic coastal part of that country too. An occurrence in Kosovo is proved by an unpublished record (collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museaum (HNHM): between Cakor pass and Pec). The area of occupancy is 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
170575		habitat	eng	In the northern Adriatic part of its range, where it occurs in the coastal zone, this is an obligate rock-dweller, associated with limestone areas and usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks. In Albania, however, this species lives farther from the coast among the mountains, and in this part of the range it inhabits forests and shrubs, where it is usually found among or under stones; among leaf litter in shaded places at the base of rocks or sometimes on the rock surface.
170575		population	eng	Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 100-150 known sub-populations and those which were visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170575		threats	eng	This species does not seems to be sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations could hypothetically be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation, etc.) in the southern part of the range. Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170576		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in the countries where it occurs. Having a relatively large range  there are several sub-populations that live within protected areas. No conservation actions are required.
170576		distribution	eng	This is the most widely distributed <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochostoma</span> species with an extent of occurrence of 550,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It lives in the eastern part of France (Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN)), probably in Belgium, in southern Germany (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983), in Austria (Klemm 1973), in northern Italy (Alzona 1971), in Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998), in Slovenia (Bole 1994), in Croatia (Soós 1994), in Bosnia-Hercegovina and Serbia (Tomic 1959) and in northern Montenegro (Varga 1980). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><em>septemspirale </em><span style="font-style: italic;">heydenianum</span> is distributed southwards from the Steiner Alpen, in Slovenia and in the Kapela Mts in Croatia. the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><em>septemspirale </em><span style="font-style: italic;">bosniense</span> lives in eastern Bosnia, in Serbia and in Montenegro. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><em>septemspirale </em><span style="font-style: italic;">riedeli</span> was described from the Montenegrian- Serbian border zone. There are more than 200 known locations and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170576		habitat	eng	Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated  with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually  found among or under stones or among leaf litter in shaded places at the  base of rocks. This species is usually not found on the bare, exposed  rock surfaces.
170576		population	eng	<p>Within its large range, this species is abundant. There are at least 200 known sub-populations and those which were visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170576		threats	eng	<p>This species does not seems to be sensitive to ecosystem modification or  other realistic threats. Local sub-populations could hypothetically be  threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation  (deforestation, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large  number of sub-populations, local events do not affect the whole  population significantly.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/> </p>
170577		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy or France. Each known French sub-population live within the Parc du Mercantour and probably the the Italian sub-population lives within the borders of Parco Naturale Regionale delle Alpi Liguri. The systematic relationship between <span style="font-style: italic;">C. patulum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. simrothi</span> should be clarified on the basis of genital morphology and molecular markers. No conservation actions are required.
170577		distribution	eng	This species is distributed within a narrow range in the south-western part of the Alps both in France and Italy in the valleys of Roya, Bevéra and Nervia Streams (Alzona 1971, Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2002, Gargominy and Ripken 2006). There are at least six known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (25 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (130 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170577		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170577		population	eng	Within this narrow range the known sub-populations are abundant (Gargominy and Ripken 2006: Fig 3) and stable and therefore there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170577		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events are not thought to affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170578		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Croatia and the known sites are out of protected areas. It should be important to explore the potential range of this species, to identify and discover further sub-populations, to monitor their conservation status and to study the systematics of the species group. If no further sites are discovered, the four known localities may require protection.
170578		distribution	eng	This is a narrow range endemic species, there are only a few known locations near Rijeka in Croatia: Skrljevo, Ponikve, Kukuljanovo, Recica Spring (Wagner 1897, Soós 1943). However, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (16 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (65 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170578		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
170578		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170578		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the rocky habitat (quarrying, constructions, etc.). Considering that this species has a narrow range and there are a few known locations near a large city Rijeka, this threat in the future is not absolutely improbable.</p>
170579		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Croatia (named as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlostoma sturany</span>). Some of the sub-populations might occur within protected areas, such as in the Velebit Nature Park. First of all, the systematics of this group should be clarified and then the range should be better explored. No conservation actions are necessary at present.
170579		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Slovenia (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">cochlostoma</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> zawinkanus</span>) to northern Albania (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">cochlostoma</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">scalariniformis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">cochlostoma</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">mnelense</span>). There are several known populations in Albania and Montenegro (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">cochlostoma</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">scalariniformis</span>) and there is no reason to suppose that area of occupancy (100 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (46,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170579		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170579		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and, also due to the taxonomic uncertainty, there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170579		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170580		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in France or Italy. There are several sub-populations that live within protected areas: Parc du Mercantour in France, Parco Naturale Alpi Marittime and Parco Naturale Alta Valle Pesio in Italy. No conservation actions are currently required.
170580		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south-western part of the Alps in France and Italy. According to the Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN), Gargominy and Ripken (2006) and personal communication of Enrico Zallot, there are at least 30 known locations. Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (120 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (720 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170580		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170580		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are several known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170580		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170581		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Croatia, but not in Slovenia, Austria and Italy. There are several  sub-populations that live within protected areas, such as in Triglav National Park, Skocjan, Juliske Alpe, Kamniske Alpe, Sneznik protected areas in Slovenia; Dobratsch in Austria and Ucka in Croatia. The systematic position of this species in terms of the validity of its subspecies and its relationship with other taxa of this species group (<span style="font-style: italic;">C. waldemari</span>) should be clarified using anatomy and molecular markers. No conservation actions are required.
170581		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the vicinity of Trieste in Italy, in the Istrian Peninsula, in Cres Island, in western Slovenia and in the Kapela Mountains in Croatia. Mildner (1997) has also reported an occurrence in Karnten (Austria). Fauna Europaea incorrectly indicates that this species is from Serbia and Albania (Fehér and Erőss 2009).
170581		habitat	eng	<p>This species is primarily associated with rocky (limestone) habitats. Usually, living specimens can be found on the rock surface but it can also be found in shaded crevices, among moss or under smaller stones at the bases of rock walls.</p>
170581		population	eng	Within its range, this species is very frequent. There are at least 100 known sub-populations and those which were visited in recent years did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170581		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170582		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at the national level in Albania or Greece. Some of the sub-populations occur within protected areas, such as Park Kombetar Llogara, Bredhi Hotoves protected area and Uje i Ftohte protected area in Albania, and Ainos and Pindos National Parks in Greece. No conservation actions are required.
170582		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern Albania, in north-western Greece (Epirus) and on the Ionian Islands of Corfu, Zakynthos, etc. Around 50 distribution records were published by Sattmann and Reischütz (1988), Sattmann and Reischütz (1994), Reischütz and Sattmann (1990), Schütt (1977), Fehér <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001). In the collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM) there are material from at least 50 unpublished Albanian locations.<br/>The number of known locations is at least 100, but, this probably underestimates the real value. Therefore there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (400 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (30,000 km<sup>2</sup>) are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170582		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170582		population	eng	<p>Within its relatively large range, this species does not seem to be rare. The sub-populations which are regularly monitored do not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.<br/></p>
170582		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170583		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Italy. Some of the sub-populations live within protected areas, such as Parco Regionale dei Colli Euganei and Parco Naturale Regionale della Lessinia. No conservation actions are required.
170583		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Prealpi Venete, Colli Berici and Colli Euganei Mountains in Italy. According to the personal communication of Enrico Zallot and Willy de Mattia, the are at least 20 known sub-populations. Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (80 km<sup>2</sup>), the extent of occurrence (2,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170583		habitat	eng	Though this is not an obligate rock-dwelling species, it is associated with rocky habitats (mostly in limestone areas), where it is usually found among or under stones or among leaf litter in shaded places at the base of rocks. This species is usually not found on the bare, exposed rock surfaces.
170583		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are several known sub-populations and there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170583		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species is not very sensitive to  ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Local sub-populations  might be threatened by deforestation. However, these events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170584		conservation	eng	This species in not protected in Austria, Croatia or Slovenia. Some of the sub-populations live within protected areas, such as Triglav National Park, <span class="new">Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe Natura 2000 site and Snežnik Natura 2000 site in Slovenia. The systematic position of this species and its relationship with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tergestinum</span> should be clarified by anatomy and molecular markers. No conservation actions are required.
170584		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the south-eastern Alps (Karawanken in Austria and Krain and Juli Alps in Slovenia) and the neighbouring Dinaric Mountains, Kapela in north-western Croatia. There are more than 20-25 known locations (Klemm 1973, Bole 1994, Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983, and unpublished records in the collections of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (HNHM), Willy de Mattia and Enrico Zallot). Currently, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (100 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (10,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170584		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated with limestone areas where it can be found either on bare limestone rock walls or, in higher altitudes, in rocky grassland under stones.</p>
170584		population	eng	<p>Within its range, this species does not seem to be rare. There are at least 20-25 known sub-populations and those which were visited in recent years, did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170584		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170585		conservation	eng	This species is not protected at the national level in Italy. At least two sub-populations live within protected areas in Sicily: Riserva Naturale Orientata Cavagrande del Cassibile and in the Riserva Naturale Orientata Pantalica,Valle dell'Anapo and Torrente Cava Grande. The systematic relationship between the three subspecies should be studied by genital morphological and molecular methods, in order to reveal whether or not they should be treated as distinct units of conservation. No conservation actions are currently required.
170585		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southern part of the Italian mainland and in Sicily. The three subspecies have clearly separated ranges: <em>C. westerlundi </em><span style="font-style: italic;">westerlundi</span> lives in Calabria (typical locations are Monte Stella and Monte Consolino (Alzona 1971)), <em>C. westerlundi </em><span style="font-style: italic;">yapigium</span> lives in Apulia and <em>C. westerlundi </em><span style="font-style: italic;">dionysii</span> lives in Sicily (typical location is Syracuse). According to Enrico Zallot and Willy de Mattia (pers. comm.), there are at least three known and recently visited <em>C. westerlundi </em><span style="font-style: italic;">dionysii</span> sub-populations, two known and recently visited <span style="font-style: italic;">westerlundi</span> sub-populations and six known and recently visited <em>C. westerlundi </em><span style="font-style: italic;">yapigium</span> sub-populations. But the species range is far from being well explored, so it is reasonable that further locations can be discovered in the near future. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (45 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (11,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
170585		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170585		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored, but the sub-populations which were recently visited did not show signs of any decline. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
170585		threats	eng	Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.
170587		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Italy or France. There is at least one existing sub-population that lives within a protected area: in the Parco Naturale Regionale di Portofino, south of Genova. Based on old literature records, this species probably had a larger range a century ago. Research activity should focus on the exploration of the old range, rechecking old distribution records and monitoring currently known sub-populations in order to confirm or debate if the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or the number of sub-populations are declining or extremely fluctuating. However, no conservation actions are required at present.
170587		distribution	eng	This species has distribution records from the Ligurian Riviera (up to the Lower Roja (=Roya) valley) and from the Ligurian Mountains (Appennino Ligure, both in the south-western and the north-eastern slopes (Alzona 1971)) in Italy. There are some records from the 19th century, reporting this species from the vicinity of Nice, but attempt to rediscover this species in France in the past decades were failed (see also Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN)), and therefore Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) considers that this species is extinct in France. Enrico Zallot says (personal communication) that this species was found recently only east of Genova in the Ligurian Riviera. Therefore, it was not found recently in the northern slope of the Ligurian Mountains and west of Genova in the coast. This might be considered as evidence that the area of occupancy (30 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (2,000 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or at least fluctuating. However, the number of recent locations are still more than five.
170587		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
170587		population	eng	Historical records suggest that some decades ago, this species had a larger range and more existing sub-populations than now. Thus, one might conclude that there is a declining population trend. But this decline, if there was any decline, happened earlier than the past 10 years. Recently visited sub-populations in eastern Liguria seemed stable and abundant (Enrico Zallot pers comm).
170587		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
170598		conservation	eng	In most countries this species is not considered to be of conservation interest. No species specific conservation actions are in place. Research actions include further research to monitor future changes in habitats, as a proxy for changing populations.
170598		distribution	eng	This small gastropod is found in brackish areas throughout the Atlantic and western Mediterranean coasts. Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) report the species from Republic of Ireland (Eire) Great Britain (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), Netherlands, Belgium, France (mainland), Canary Islands (Spain), Azores (Portugal), Madeira (Portugal), Italy (mainland), Sardinia (Italy), Sicily (Italy), Malta, Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (mainland) and Portugal (mainland).
170598		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters in estuaries and salt-marshes.
170598		population	eng	There is no data on population trends, although the species is generally frequent where present.
170598		threats	eng	There are no specific threats across the range of this species, but localized threats due to loss of habitats from land reclamation in estuaries (for industrial units and marinas) and water pollution from industrial sources (shipping).
170601		conservation	eng	In most countries, the status has not been assessed, as it lies in the interface between marine and freshwaters, hence more data is required on distribution and threats to the species.
170601		distribution	eng	This brackish water species is widespread in Northern Europe, especially on the Atlantic coasts, extending into the western Mediterranean. Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (Fauna Europea 2006) list the range as Netherlands, Belgium, France (Mainland), Corsica (France), Madeiran Islands (Portugal), Azores (Portugal), Balearic Islands (Spain), Spain (Mainland).
170601		habitat	eng	This species occurs on edges of brackish water bodies, usually on mud or under vegetation, estuaries, saltmarshes and lagoons.
170601		population	eng	There is no recent data on population status or trends for this species.
170601		threats	eng	The major threats lie in change of habitat such as conversion and reclamation of land for industrial areas, harbour developments, construction of sea-defences, leading to habitat loss for the species.
170623		conservation	eng	Conservation actions required include ensuring that river flow levels do not decline and hence do not impact the water levels in the caves, along with reduction of agricultural pollution of waters and pollution from domestic sources which can endanger these habitats.
170623		distribution	eng	<em>Zospeum exiguum</em> is endemic to Slovenia and Croatia. In Croatia it is known only from two localities in the source region of the Kupa River while in Slovenia it inhabits only the area of Kupa River and upper part of the River Ljubljanica (Stamol pers. comm. 2010).&#160; This species, unlike the other species of <em>Zospeum</em>, lives in the water of the river, not the drier parts of the cave.<p>&#160;</p>
170623		habitat	eng	This species lives in  caves, but unlike other <em>Zospeum</em> species, which are land snails, this species is actually found in flowing water. In Slovenia it inhabits only the area of Kupa River  and upper part of the River Ljubljanica area.
170623		population	eng	<p>&#160;There is little data on the population trends for this species.<br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
170623		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are declining levels of water due to changing river flow with offtake and storage of water for hydroelectric schemes, and  pollution of waters can endanger these habitats.
170833		conservation	eng	The species is protected by legislation as well as occurring in protected areas.&#160; <br/><br/>Listed in EU HSD Annex 2 (Animal and plant species of Community interest whose conservation requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation) and Schedule V (Animal and plant species of Community interest in need of strict protection) of the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations, 2006 (Government of Malta).<br/><br/>Most of the EOO/AOO on the coastal cliffs to the west of Malta, as well as the whole of the islet of Filfla are now SACs and Natura 2000 sites under the EU’s ‘Habitats Directive’ and protected by national legislation on Malta. <br/><br/>However there is no recent data on the status of the populations, hence information is required for:<br/><ul><li>Surveys of present EOO and AOO. </li><li>Quantitative estimates of population size. </li><li>Studies on basic biology.</li><li>Assessment of the taxonomic status of the Filfla population using modern molecular methods.</li></ul>
170833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Malta, including the islet of Filfla. On the island of Malta it is found in an area of ca 16 km<sup>2</sup> in western Malta. Within the AOO on Malta, the species is limited to karstland bordering coastal cliffs or capping inland hills; a significant extent of this habitat has been covered with soil as part of an agricultural reclamation project - the precise area is uncertain, but there is a sparse distribution within the EOO. On the offshore islet of Filfla, surveys made in the early 1990s found the population to be limited to an area of 10 m<sup>2</sup> towards the centre of the islet (Schembri, reported in Giusti <em>et al</em>.&#160;1995). The islet of Filfla has an area of suitable habitat of ca 2 ha.
170833		habitat	eng	A limestone dwelling species, the species is limited to karstland bordering coastal cliffs or capping inland hills.
170833		population	eng	The population on Filfla was quite numerous in the past, but was noted to have declined (Giusti <em>et al</em>. 1995). The Maltese population is also declining (Giusti <em>et al</em>.&#160;1995).
170833		threats	eng	Habitat restoration on the main island has lead to some areas of suitable habitat being covered by top-soil to 'reclaim' the land for agriculture. In the past, during the 1990s, areas were noted for declining area of habitat where sites were lost to various developments. &#160;Little active survey work has been done on populations since the mid 1990s, so much of the data is based on habitat trends.
170897		conservation	eng	Research is needed on the population trend of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Leiostyla tesselata </span>and the potential threats it is facing.
170897		distribution	eng	This species is only found on the island of Santa Maria in the Azores.&#160;Morelet (1860: 206) stated that it is found on the interior mountains of Santa Maria; it is found on the Pico Alto complex, but also on the eastern end of the island (Backhuys 1975; Martins&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991).
170897		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla tesselata </span>lives in forested habitats, endemic and secondary.
170897		population	eng	The population trend is unknown.
170897		threats	eng	This species is uncommon; but because it has adapted to secondary forests, no man-made threats are foreseen. However, a general trend has been noticed in Santa Maria, whereas endemic species are now absent from sites otherwise rich fifteen years ago. This trend is being investigated to ascertain its origin as it is a threat to the rich endemic fauna of this small island.
170925		conservation	eng	The goats have recently been removed (programme over the last 10 years),  and as such the vegetation is being restored, hence the species should  benefit from these actions. Habitat monitoring will be required to get future population trend data.
170925		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands; it is found only at three locations on the island of Deserta Grande, two near the north end and one close to Doca on the west coast. It also occurs at three closely adjacent sites at the south end of Bugio (Seddon 2008, Cameron and Cook 1999).
170925		habitat	eng	This species occurs in crevices and hollows on rocky slopes and cliffs (Cameron and Cook 1999).
170925		population	eng	There is insufficient data to assess population trends.
170925		threats	eng	There was past decline of habitats due to goats on islands, which will have impacted this species. The goats have recently been removed (programme over the last 10 years), and as such the vegetation is being restored, hence the species should benefit from these actions. Introduced rabbits are also impacting the species.
171004		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">This  species is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive Annex II and  the Council of Europe Bern Convention Appendix 2. Further survey work on the south coast in remote ravines to determine if the species is still extant.&#160; <br/></span></span></span>
171004		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the main island of Madeira. Wollaston (1878) commented that it was found at several sites including Ribeira de Santa Luzia, Ribeira de Sao Jorge and Santa Anna. However there are no recent records of this species (Seddon 2008). There have been numerous surveys in the Ribeira de Santa Luzia and Ribeira de Sao Jorge in the last 30 years, some specifically looking for this species, but as yet, there are no recent records of this species (Seddon 2008). The habitats have been modified extensively since Wollaston collected the species in 1870, as these valleys all lie on the edge of urbanisations.<br/></p>
171004		habitat	eng	Two of the valleys lie on the edge of urbanisations and so the habitats have been modified since 1878, with only small remants of Laurisilva forest remaining.
171004		population	eng	Not possible to establish trends, as the species declined in 1870s. There have been numerous surveys since 1970, at many different points on the island, over different seasons using different sampling methodologies, and as yet the species has not been located.
171004		threats	eng	The major threats to the species were loss of habitat, as much of the forest on the south coast where the species may have been found has been changed to agricultural land, plantations, urban developments and residential gardens.
171099		conservation	eng	Habitat monitoring is required at known sites to identify future changes in habitat quality, as at present the species is only threatened by extreme weather events or forest fires, but it has a very restricted range, that could be vulnerable to declines if habitat quality declines.
171099		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it is only known from the type locality in the valley of Ribeira de Faja da Nogueira on the northern slopes of Pico Arreiro (Seddon 2008).
171099		habitat	eng	This species is found in litter ledges on north-west facing crags and slopes within <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea </span>and laurel woodland.
171099		population	eng	There are no data on population trends.
171099		threats	eng	This species lies within a remote, relatively inaccessible area,&#160; where the risk is mainly loss of habitat, possibly from forest fires or storms changing stability of hillslope vegetation and increasing erosion.&#160; This threat is relatively low level.
171179		conservation	eng	This species was not listed as threatened in 1983 (Wells <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984). It was reviewed in 1990 and again not thought to be threatened (Wells and Chatfield  1992).
171179		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, mainly on the north side of the island, from central laurisilva forests down to the north coast between São Vicente and Porto Moniz and near Boaventura (Seddon 2008).
171179		habitat	eng	The species occurs at coastal and intermediate elevations on the northern laurisilva forest areas of Madeira.
171179		population	eng	There is insufficient information to determine population trends, although probably stable.
171179		threats	eng	As some of the area lies in protected areas, then the main threats of habitat degradation have been lessened, although some risks lie in tourist developments close to major roads and forest/grassland fires.
171238		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place for this species, however research work should be undertake to establish whether the species can colonise the artificial habitats provided by plantations and tourism developments (gardens, walls, bridges), as the coastal areas are the more developed habitats on Madeira.
171238		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, where it is restricted to Madeira where it is found in coastal habitats all around the island.
171238		habitat	eng	This species is found on ledges and rock faces on coastal crags, walls and other rocky habitats all around the island. Wollaston (1878) noted the affinity to <span style="font-style: italic;">Sempervivum tabulaeformis</span>, finding specimens around the dried leaves and roots.
171238		population	eng	The population is considered to be stable.
171238		threats	eng	Like <span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla fusca</span>, this species is found in dry habitats, on ledges and rock faces on coastal crags, walls and other rocky habitats all around the island and so it is only under localised threats of habitat disturbance due to tourism developments (gardens, walls, bridges)
171321		conservation	eng	Sites that are impacted by fire should be revegetated as soon as possible after the events, as this will minimise soil erosion which would impact this species. This species was not listed in 1983 (Wells <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984), and reviewed again in 1990 and not thought to be threatened (Wells and Chatfield 1992).
171321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands; it is only found on Madeira, where it is widespread at intermediate elevations. It is known at more than 26 sites on mainland Madeira and likely to be high in the inaccessible valleys.
171321		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on crags, varying from shaded to unshaded habitats.
171321		population	eng	Population trends are not known, however believed to be stable.
171321		threats	eng	The species is only locally threatened, for example, some sites may have been impacted by the forest fires in August 2010.&#160; In general, most sites lie in protected areas or within inaccessible valleys on the high cliffs, and so the threats are likely to be minimal.
171383		conservation	eng	More research on the taxonomy is needed.
171383		distribution	eng	This species is known from São Miguel, Graciosa, São Jorge and Pico islands in the Azores.
171383		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla rugulosa</span> lives in forested habitats, endemic and secondary, but Backhuys (1975) found some specimens on Pico island, at the edge of arable land under plant-covered stones.
171383		population	eng	This species is found on São Miguel, Graciosa, São Jorge and Pico islands in the Azores. Morelet (1860) described this species based on only one specimen from Pico island, but Backhuys (1975) found some specimens, on Pico island, at the edge of arable land under plant-covered stones. This is a rare species, found primarily in forests.
171383		threats	eng	This species is uncommon; however, because it has adapted to secondary forests and is found on several islands, no threats are foreseen.
171407		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More information on the distribution and the population of the species is needed.
171407		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Island of Tenerife. It has been described from Tenerife and La Palma, but the presence of this species on the last island has already been questioned by Wollaston (1878: 453), who recorded this species from wet rocks above the village of Garrachico.
171407		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded to live on wet rocks.
171407		population	eng	There are no population data available.
171407		threats	eng	There are no threats known to this species, because of a general lack of information.
171449		conservation	eng	Further survey work are required to determine the impact of the recent forest fires in August 2010 and the major storms in February 2010.
171449		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran islands, it is only found on the summit areas of central Madeira on the north side in the laurisilva zone and towards the northcentral coast., where it has an estimated area of occupancy of under 70 km², and at least&#160; six different valleys.
171449		habitat	eng	This species is found on the trunks of laurisilva trees, in moss and under bark (Seddon 2008).
171449		population	eng	There are no recent data on population trend.
171449		threats	eng	Cameron (pers. comm. 2010) notes that that the species requires large trees and is rarely found on young  trees. He argues that these large trees are more vulnerable to storm  damage and fires, and give the recent flood, storms and fires on  Madeira, the species should be considered at higher risk. Any changes to the laurisilva zone which changes the numbers of large trees, such as logging, tourist developments, might impact the species.
171506		conservation	eng	No conservation areas have yet been designated for <em>Leiostyla irrigua</em>. Further research is needed to establish whether there is a clinal range with other similar species, and studies are ongoing (Cameron and Pokrysko, pers. comm., 2010). The range of the species lies partly in the Special Protected Area (Laurisilva de Madeira).
171506		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira,&#160; where it is found mainly in the central laurisilva forests and on the north coast between São Vicente and Porto Moniz (Seddon 2008).
171506		habitat	eng	It is often found on wet rock faces and crags resting on <em>Marchantia</em> and dripping grasses in laurisilva forests, usually in the spray zone near waterfalls.
171506		population	eng	There are no recent data to establish population trends, but it is believed to be stable.
171506		threats	eng	The species is found on rock ledges on large crags and on rocky slopes and hence habitat degradation (blasting crags during road enlargement schemes) and changes to the damp habitats (fire, extraction of water) are two of the major threats to these species.
171522		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.
171522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of La Palma, Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain.<br/>Wollaston (1878: 454 ff) records this species from several localities: Tenerife: Taganana, Agua Garcia; Esperanza-forest near La Laguna. La Palma: El Monte above Barlavento; Cumbre above Buenavista; Pinal near the edge of the Caldeira Taburiente. El Hierro: dense forest region of El Golfo, in the N of the island.
171522		habitat	eng	This species lives in the high altitudes of the islands in the wet pine forests.
171522		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
171522		threats	eng	There are currently no threats known to this species . However, deforestation can destroy its habitat completely.
171587		conservation	eng	Research action needed includes establishing the status of the outlier populations in the Mediterranean, as well as gaining better understanding of the potential impact of climate change on this species.
171587		distribution	eng	The main distribution for this species is in NW Europe, where it is recorded from the Republic of Ireland (Eire) Great Britain (UK), Channel Islands (UK), Northern Ireland (UK), France (Mainland), Madeiran Islands (Portugal), Bulgaria, Spain (Mainland), and Portugal (Mainland) (Bank <em>et al</em>. unpublished manuscript). Seddon <em>et al</em>. (1993) recorded the species from isolated localities in southern Spain (Grenada) and Algeria, but these records are based on shell characters and fossil range which extended to Italy, and hence further research using modern molecular techniques would be useful to confirm the southern part of the range. In France it is only known from isolated localities in Brittany and Ile de Ré. It is more widely present in the northern coastal regions of Portugal and Galicia (Spain).
171587		habitat	eng	Common in wet, shaded habitats on neutral to base-rich soil. Usually found attached to twigs or larger branches in leaf litter on the ground - not a species which climbs on trees or walls (Anderson 2012, <a href="http://www.habitas.org.uk/molluscireland/species.asp?ID=102">Habitas web-site</a>)
171587		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends for this species.
171587		threats	eng	There are localised threats to the species through habitat loss. It may also be vulnerable at some sites due to changing climate reducing the humidity of microhabitats.
171656		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy.
171656		distribution	eng	This species is found on all islands of the Azores.
171656		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L.fasciolata</span> lives in forested habitats, where it can be found under dead leafs, as well as under heaps of rocks and stone walls, from xeric, littoral habitats, e.g. Ilhéu de Vila Franca do Campo (Martins 1995), to the endemic forest, e.g. Lagoa Seca, Flores island (Backhuys 1957: 94). It is very common under rocks, mainly at lower altitudes; in forests it can also be found on the underside of the leafs of live <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium gardneranum</span>, but more commonly hiding in the curled, dry leafs of that same plant.
171656		population	eng	Morelet (1860:199) states that this species is common under stones on all islands and Backhuys (1975:95) that it is one of the most common land molluscs in the archipelago. Although the group is presently under revision, this appears to be the case; the material collected on Corvo needs deeper study, but it is provisionally assumed as <span style="font-style: italic;">L. fasciolata</span>. This species is abundant throughout the islands in dry environments as in forested areas, preferentially near the sea. In Pico island it was found from 10 m to about 550 m (Martins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), but Backhuys (1975: 94) reported it from 915 m, on Flores island. This currently widespread species is most probably a complex, so its representation on the various maps is mostly circumscribed to the typical specimens, and may not reflect the true extent of the taxon.
171656		threats	eng	Due to its wide range of habitats, no threats are foreseen.
171758		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions specific to the species. However, some  parts of the range lie in protected areas, so some habitat protection  is provided.
171758		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran archipelago. It is mainly found at intermediate elevations on Madeira within the laurisilva zone were it is present at over 14 sites. It is probably present at other sites at similar elevations in these steep-sided valleys.
171758		habitat	eng	It is mainly found at intermediate elevations on Madeira within the laurisilva zone, where it is on ferns and amongst moss and lichen on the trunks of laurels.
171758		population	eng	There is no data on population trend, but it is presumed to be stable, even if it is present in low density in samples from the leaf-litter in the Laurisilva forests.
171758		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to the species which lies on five different islands in two different island groups.
171761		conservation	eng	Part of the range falls within a designated protected area on Pta da Sao Lourenco, however  there are no known actions for this species. No conservation  actions are considered necessary although habitat monitoring of sites for other species would provide indication of population trends.
171761		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, where it is present within all the coastal regions and also recorded from two sites on Deserta Grande (Cameron and Cook 1999). There are old records from Bugio (Wollaston 1878), but the sites were not located in recent surveys (Cameron and Cook 1999).
171761		habitat	eng	The species is found under stones and on rock ledges and crags in dry coastal regions of Madeira.
171761		population	eng	There are no evidence of declining populations at present.
171761		threats	eng	One of the smaller species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leiostyla</span>, the major threat to this species would be habitat loss, however at present the majority of the range is still intact, and hence it is not considered threatened.
171789		conservation	eng	The issue of the relationship of this species to <em>G. dohrni</em> needs to be resolved; if it should prove to be genuinely distinct then more data on its distribution is needed before the threats it faces can be assessed.
171789		distribution	eng	This species was described from Sintang in central west Kalimantan and has subsequently been recorded from Sarawak (Hisamatsu and Sasamoto 2003, however other records are certainly wrongly identified in this publication, so the record of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species must be considered doubtful) and from Singapore and Thailand.
171789		habitat	eng	Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat of this species as “lowland forests”; it is likely to breed in forest pools, as is the case with other<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>species belonging to the same genus.
171789		population	eng	There is not enough information available to make statements on populations of this species.
171789		threats	eng	There is not enough information to assess the threats faced by this species.
171790		conservation	eng	Currently, there appears to be no need for any conservation action.
171790		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found throughout much of Southeast Asia.</p>
171790		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in marshy areas and pools in a wide variety of lowland forests, including extremely disturbed areas and small patches of forest such as <span style="font-style: italic;">fung shui</span> woodland. Also found in aquaculture ponds.</p>
171790		population	eng	There is no precise information on the population, but it is common across its range.
171790		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this resilient species.
171791		conservation	eng	There is a need for taxonomic work on this genus, and for more data on the distribution of this species, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
171791		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sumatra, Belitung, the Natuna Islands, Borneo (Lieftinck 1954), Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005), Singapore and southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
171791		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Habitat preferences include swampy lowland forest, including disturbed forest.</p>
171791		population	eng	Although there are not all that many published records due to its crepuscular flying habits, this species is quite often encountered and is likely to be quite common in suitable habitat.
171791		threats	eng	Deforestation and plantation establishment are threats to this species, and large scale hydroelectric projects are likely to be threats to some populations (e.g. in Sarawak), but there is no indication that it is globally threatened.
171792		conservation	eng	Further data on the distribution and habitat requirements of this species are needed, but beyond that no specific conservation measures appear to be required.
171792		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in southeast Asia, and records are known from Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Lieftinck 1954); Palawan in the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997); Singapore (Tang<em> et al</em>. 2010), Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) where there are records from Chiang Mai, Lampang, Nakhon Nayok, Trang, and Chiang Rai (Katatani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004); Myanmar (Fraser 1936) and from Viet Nam (Lieftinck 1953), although the source of this record is not known. Published records from Borneo are from west, south and east Kalimantan, but it has also been found in Sarawak, and a specimen from Sabah has been seen; it is to be expected in Brunei Darussalam. It should also occur in Peninsular Malaysia, Cambodia and Lao PDR, and possibly Yunnan.
171792		habitat	eng	Nothing has been published on the habitat of this species, but both locations in Sarawak where the assessor has found it were in the vicinity of peat swamp forest, which have been disturbed to a greater or lesser extent.
171792		population	eng	Most or all records of this species are of single individuals, but for a crepuscular tropical aeshnid this is not unusual.
171792		threats	eng	Deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak) are certainly threats to some populations.
171793		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
171793		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Thailand, northern Myanmar and Yunnan, China.
171793		habitat	eng	It occurs in forested montane streams, including disturbed forest.
171793		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
171793		threats	eng	There is no information available to assess any potential threats.
171794		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
171794		distribution	eng	This species is recorded widely from Peninsula Malaysia to Thailand. &#160;There is a record from Lao PDR, but this needs to be confirmed.
171794		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and upland forest streams, tolerant of at least some disturbance.
171794		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
171794		threats	eng	This is a forest species, and there is increased forest disturbance across its range, however it is not known how this is affecting this species.
171795		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas. More data is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements, and potential threats.
171795		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern China, northern Thailand, central Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam.
171795		habitat	eng	It occurs in forested montane streams, including disturbed forest.
171795		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
171795		threats	eng	No major threats have been found to affect the species.
171796		conservation	eng	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
171796		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only record of this species is from northern Viet Nam (Martin 1904), without specific location. A more recent record (Do <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) from Cuc Phong National Park in northern Viet Nam is a misidentification (M.C. Do pers. comm. 2011).</p>
171796		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is almost certain to breed in streams.</p>
171796		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing can be said about of populations of this species from the available information.</p>
171796		threats	eng	Without more information on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.
171797		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for fresh data from Sumatra, and further data on the distribution of this species, and on threats and its ability to survive in plantation areas. The chances of survival of this and other forest stream odonates in areas being converted to plantation would be greatly improved by the provision of adequate buffer zones of original vegetation around streams. Beyond this no specific measures appear to be needed at this time. The species is certainly present in some large protected areas, for instance Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Endau Rompin National Park in Peninsular Malaysia.</p>
171797		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern Thailand (e.g. Hämälainen and Pinratana 1999) as far north as Trang, Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), and Borneo. No published records records and no specimens from Kalimantan are known from, but it occurs in Sarawak (e.g. Dow and Reels 2008), Sabah (e.g. Huisman and van Tol 1989) and Brunei (Orr 2001) and must occur in Kalimantan.
171797		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “clear, swift flowing forest streams, 0-600 m”. However it is abundant on the highly turbid Pa’Dapur river in the Tama Abu range in Sarawak, and along some sections where the species was abundant the forest was extremely disturbed (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011). It also occurs on the Sungai Melinau on the border of Gunung Mulu National Park in places where the forest is extremely disturbed on the non-park bank. This species is clearly tolerant of some disturbance to its habitats. It has been found above 1,100 m in the Tama Abu Range (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011). There is no evidence yet that it can survive in plantation streams.
171797		population	eng	Although there are not many records of this species, it can be quite common in parts of its range; in the Tama Abu Range in Sarawak it is encountered with some frequency and in 2005 it was extremely abundant on the Pa’Dapur river near Bario.
171797		threats	eng	Individual populations are threatened by deforestation, large-scale hydroelectric projects and plantation establishment.
171799		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further distributional data, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.</p>
171799		distribution	eng	The species is known from Java and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). In addition there is convincing photographic records from Cambodia (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011), and it has been recorded from Ang Trapaeng Thmor, northwest Cambodia (Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It has recenlty been recorded from U Minh Thuong National Park in the southern province of Kien Giang in Viet Nam (Do Manh Cuong and Bui Huu Manh, pers. comm. 2011). It should be looked for in Myanmar and Lao PDR.
171799		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “Marshes and open swamp forest, including landward margins of mangroves. It also occurs on shady well-vegetated ponds.
171799		population	eng	Although there are not many records of this species, it appears to be locally common. It is likely to be under-recorded.
171799		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Some individual populations of this species may be threatened by loss of habitat to agriculture and plantations, but overall it does not appear to be threatened.</p>
171800		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
171800		distribution	eng	The species is known from Sumatra, including Belitung, and Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Tawi Tawi in the Sulu region of the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Thailand including southern Thailand and Chantaburi Province in southeastern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Kitagawa and Katatani 2002) and Lao PDR. It has been recorded from Cambodia at Seima Protection Forest in Mondulkiri (Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is also reported from Singapore, certain Indonesian islands, the Philippines (Tsuda 2000; Orr 2005, cited in Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It is likely to occur in Myanmar and Viet Nam.
171800		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “weedy ponds and lowland marshes”; additionally it has been found to be quite common on slower parts of a rather open lowland stream near Kuching in Sarawak.
171800		population	eng	Orr (2005) states of Malaysian populations that this species is “local and generally uncommon”, but although it can be rather local in occurrence it is usually common where it occurs. It is probably under-recorded, especially as it is easily mistaken for the very common <em>Brachydiplax chalybea</em>, which occurs in similar habitats.
171800		threats	eng	This species, that occurs in open and disturbed habitats, and does not appear to be threatened.
171801		conservation	eng	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species without further data.
171801		distribution	eng	The species is known from one male from 'Taweing' (Tavang?), Lao PDR and one female from Muang Baw, near Vientiane in the same country (Fraser 1933).
171801		habitat	eng	The male was collected in “evergreen forest”; nothing else has been recorded on the habitat of this species. Although it seems likely that this is a forest dependent species, more data is needed to confirm this.
171801		population	eng	Nothing can be inferred about populations of this species from the available information.
171801		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be reliably assessed without more data.
171803		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to assess the impact of shell collecting on this species.
171803		distribution	eng	Brandt (1974) lists this species as occurring in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra and Java), and possibly also in Lao PDR, Cambodia, southern Viet Nam, and Sulawesi (although the authenticity of these reports is uncertain).<br/><br/>In Thailand it is found "sporadically in the south", in the Mae Klong, Chai Praya and Prachinburi drainage systems. It is also found in the Mekong, although in most parts of the drainage it is replaced by the closely related <em>Physunio eximius</em> (Lea 1856).
171803		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and streams (Brandt 1974).
171803		population	eng	This species is "not uncommon" in southern Thailand (Brandt 1974).
171803		threats	eng	The shells of this species are traded on the internet, and can be commonly found on auction sites. It is unknown whether this is severely impacting populations across the range of this species.
171804		conservation	eng	<p>No information is known concerning the conservation of this species.</p>
171804		distribution	eng	<span style="">Brandt (1974) gave the  distribution as the Takrong River (</span>Nakhon Ratchasima Province)<span style=""> and Lam Se Bok, a lower  tributary of the Mun River in eastern Thailand. He also reported it from Lao PDR in the Mekong  (e.g., from Pakse) and Sedone rivers. Kittivorachate and Yangyuen (2004) record the species from the Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. The full distribution is unknown, but is likely to be more widely present within the the known range within the Mekong basin. There is a single record from the northern Chao Phraya drainage (</span><span class="st">National  Museum of Natural History (USNM), which requires confirmation.
171804		habitat	eng	It is a small species which inhabits rivers.
171804		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
171804		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species is available. It is assumed that the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification</p>
171805		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
171805		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand (Tesana 2002). It is specifically known from the Lam Ta Khong Reservoir in Nakhon Ratchasima and the Ulbroratana Reservoir, in Khon Kaen (Tesana 2002, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004). It is also found in the River Mun basin (Kovitvadhi and Kovitvadhi 2003).
171805		habitat	eng	This species is found in reservoirs and rivers (Tesana 2002).
171805		population	eng	A total of 554 individuals of this species was found in the three sampled areas of the Lam Ta Khong Reservoir in Thailand, and 130 in the Ulbroratana Reservoir, in Khon Kaen (Tesana 2002, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
171805		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species as it inhabits at least two reservoirs.
171806		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed to define the current distribution and population trends of this species.</p>
171806		distribution	eng	<span style="">Heard (1976) reported the first collection of  this species since it was described by Lea in 1869 from 'Siam'. Heard  collected shells of this species from a roadside ditch</span><span style=""> 12.3 km northwest of Kanchanaburi, near the Kwai Yai River in </span><span style="">Kanchanaburi </span><span style="">Province. No  live specimens were found in the Khwae Yai river at Ban Nong Bua (2.5 km  south of the shell sited), nor in the Khwae Noi River or in the Mae  Klong River which receives those tributaries. </span><span style="">Brandt (1974) did not report this  species from Thailand.</span><span style=""><br/></span>
171806		habitat	eng	<p>No information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species.</p>
171806		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species, but based on the comments of Brandt and Heard, this is a rare species.</p>
171806		threats	eng	<p>No information on the threats to this species is available. <br/></p>
171807		conservation	eng	Research is needed, particularly on this species' distribution, ecology and potential threats.
171807		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Khwae Noi River at Ban Ta Ngam, Phitsanulok, Thailand (Deein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). It is currently known from a c.4 km stretch of the river.
171807		habitat	eng	The species was found in deep waters of the river with moderate currents on a mud latteritic substrate or on fine to medium gravel interspersed with mud. It occurs at depths from ten to twelve metres.
171807		population	eng	No information on the population of the species was available.
171807		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known. General threats such as dams, habitat degradation and water pollution may affect the species, but more information on ecology and distribution is required to assess the impact of these on the species.
171809		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p><p><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. murphyi</span> was <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">listed as <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">Vulnerable (VU) D2 in the Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular Española<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"> <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"> <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">(Dominguez Lozano 2000) and as Endangered (<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">EN) B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) in the<span class="longtext1"> Lista Roja 2008 de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008)<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>  <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">There is currently no conservation management plan for this species. However, it is known to occur in a protected area and it is recommended that the management plan for this site is adapted to incorporate the monitoring and management of this species.   <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 16 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">murphyi</span> <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">held in European genebanks; however, none of these are reported to originate from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010)<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">. Collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage of germplasm from the European subpopulation is a priority for this species.<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><br/><span class="longtext1">  <span class="longtext1"><br/><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
171809		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. murphyi</span> is native to Spain and Morocco (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009). In Spain i<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">t is<span class="longtext1"> found in the province of Cádiz-Onuba-Algarviense and is<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"> known only from a small number of localities in the townships of  Medina Sidonia Alcalá de los Azules, Grazalema, Los Barrios, Vejer de la  Frontera and Tarifa. <span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">It was discovered in the former Laguna de la Janda (Cádiz, Spain).<br/><br/> Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.</span></span></span></span></span>
171809		habitat	eng	<span class="longtext1">It grows in grasslands on slightly damp, deep <span class="longtext1">clay soil<span class="longtext1">; also<span class="longtext1"> on roadsides, the edges of plantations and undisturbed areas. It can survive moderate grazing and appears in semi-natural grasslands. <span class="longtext1">It is associated with the <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Arrhenatheretea</span> R. Tx. 1937 community, which includes species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum bulbosum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena sterilis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">barbata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phalaris coerulescens</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Daucus muricatus</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lolium rigidum</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hedysarum coronarium</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Carduncellus caeruleus, Tragopogon hybridus, Dactylis glomerata</span> var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">hispanica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus maximus</span>.</span></span>
171809		population	eng	<span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1"><span class="longtext1">This species is only abundant in one subpopulation which is located on the slope north of the Loma de San Bartolomé, between the beach at Bolonia and the Tarifa–Cádiz road. This subpopulation consists of several hundred individuals. <span class="longtext1">In both Spain and Morocco, the subpopulations are decreasing due to human activities. </span></span>
171809		threats	eng	<span class="longtext1">As this species is sometimes found in the proximity of fertile soils associated with cultivation, fertilizer use poses a major threat. In addition, the transformation of grasslands to <span class="longtext1">rain-fed crops<span class="longtext1"> could pose a threat.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
171812		conservation	eng	<p>This species is found within the Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park and in some areas of Canaima National Park (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. December 2009). More research is needed on its distribution and population status.<br/></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>
171812		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the lowlands and highlands (400–1,800 m asl) of the Venezuelan Guayana and extreme northern Brazil, east of the Sierra de Maigualida-Parima (Barrio-Amorós and Brewer-Carías 2008). It may possibly also occur in Guyana.
171812		habitat	eng	This species is found in both lowland and montane forests. Individuals have been found sitting on branches and leaves about 0.5–2 m above water or on rock faces near small waterfalls (see Barrio-Amorós and Brewer-Carías 2008). It is presumed to breed in water.
171812		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be a relatively common species (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. December 2009).<br/></p>
171812		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been observed (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. December 2009).
171815		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information is available on the conservation of this species. There is very little known about its population so any research would be helpful. Clarification of the species' distribution is also needed.<br/></p>
171815		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Myanmar (Tenasserim River) and Thailand (Brandt 1974). Brandt (1974) reported this species in Thailand from a reservoir of Uthong, and from the Klong Rapipat and the Bang Pa-In Royal Palace in Ayutthaya Province, however the species apparently has a much wider distribution, with presence reported from the Mekong watershed in northeastern Thailand; Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen Province (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), from the mouth of the Songkhram River (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and the Lam Ta Khong reservoir, Nakhon Ratchasima Province (Tesana 2002).<br/><br/>Pham (2002) reports the species from the Mekong delta in southern Viet Nam, noting that it is found widely in estuaries and coastal areas of the Mekong delta and is likely to be present in Cambodia, as well as in Lao PDR; these recent records require confirmation. A report from Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India (Janaki Ram and Radhakrishna 1984) is considered unlikely.
171815		habitat	eng	This species inhabit rivers and&#160;reservoirs. They are found attached to solid surfaces in fresh water by their byssal threads. Pham (2002)&#160;considers&#160;that the species is a marine species that has moved inland, it is found in coastal and estuarine areas.
171815		population	eng	No information is available on the population structure for this species.
171815		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
171817		conservation	eng	Research into the species' current distribution, ecology, and threats is needed.
171817		distribution	eng	Brandt (1974) notes the type locality for the species as Singapore. The species is distributed in southeast Asia from southern Thailand (Brandt (1974) listed localities for Thailand as including the Tapi River, the Tale Luang (Songkhla Lake) and the Chantaburi River) and possibly southern Myanmar, to Malaysia, Indonesia, Japan, and the Philippines.
171817		habitat	eng	Brandt (1974) lists the habitat as "fresh and brackish water, in estuaries of rivers and in large lakes but also found&#160; in one population about 120 km away from the sea. The animals live attached by their byssus to stones, poles and larger molluscs."
171817		population	eng	No information is available on the population status for this species.
171817		threats	eng	No information on threats to this species was found.
171818		conservation	eng	<span style="">No information was found about conservation of this species.</span>
171818		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern China and southeast Asia. Morton and Dinesen (2010) list the distribution of the species in China as: Yangtze basin - the lakes Dongting (Hunan Province), Yuangkian (Jiangsu Province), Chow-Wen-Miao, Chiang-Kia-Tsui,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Jiangyin ('Siangyin'; Jiangsu Province) and Yoyang  and adjacent rivers, and the <span class="mw-redirect">Xiang River, near Changsha, Hunan Province). Also present in Thailand (Kwai River, Batambang, the mouth of the Kompong-Som River, the Mekong south of Nakon Ponom, the Maenam Mun River, the Lam Chi River, the Chao  Phraya and Pasak rivers, the Tapi River, Tale Luang near Pattalung, Mekong branch at Muang Sene, Khong Island. Recorded from Lao PDR from the Kaek River, Huai San and Huai Koa Man in Loei Province, and from Cambodia (Lake Tonli Sap),Viet Nam (Lake Vin-Long, Mekong, Rham-Pehn, Cochinchine, Tonkin), Lao PDR in the Mekong drainage, Korea and Japan.<br/><br/>Brandt (1974) listed it from Mekong River south of Nakon Panom, Maenam Mun River, Lam Chi River, Chao Phraya and the Pasak River. In many klongs and tributaries to the Chao Phraya River, in the Maeklong River, in the south it reaches the Tapi River and Tale Luang near Pattalung.<br/><br/>This species has been introduced in Argentina in 1991 by commercial shipping, and is now present elsewhere in south America (e.g., the Paraguay River system and the Pantanal wetland in Brazil, and expansion into north American river systems could be expected; Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The native range of the species is unclear; Magara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001) consider the species native to China, and introduced to all other countries.
171818		habitat	eng	Brandt (1974) gave the habitat of the species as "Freshwater but does not avoid the tidal zone. Never found in brackish water and in the estuarine areas of rivers. The species occurs in colonies fastened by the byssus to rock, poles and larger species of molluscs."<br/><br/>Mean shell length 2-8 mm, uses byssal threads to attach to substrates. The species is considered adults when they become sexually mature at about 1 year of age. Females typically comprise two-thirds of population. Ecological tolerances and parameters vary widely by geographical location; populations are capable of adapting to suit various habitats. Attach byssally to available substrates, forming dense aggregations (often establishing colonies with densities of 80,000 m<sup>-2</sup>) (Crosier and Molloy undated).<br/><br/>It is an Euryhaline freshwater species (primarily a freshwater species, capable of tolerating brackish waters and maintaining substantial populations in estuarine habitats). Tolerant of polluted and contaminated water conditions. Capable of inhabiting waters with relatively low calcium and pH levels (Table 1), heated waters, and organically-enriched waters subject to periodic hypoxia (Crosier and Molloy undated).
171818		population	eng	No information on the status or size of populations but widely distributed and spreading in introduced areas.<span style=""><span style=""><br/></span>
171818		threats	eng	<span style="">No information was found about threats to this widespread species.</span><span style=""></span>
171821		conservation	eng	A biomonitoring program analysing the ecological health of the Mekong River is being developed by the Mekong River Commission (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Surveys have been carried out from 2004 to 2009 as a response to the 1995 Agreement on Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin (Davidson<em><em> et al.</em></em> 2006). This was signed by Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand and Viet Nam (Davidson <em><em>et al.</em></em> 2006). Further research is recommended to establish this species' population abundance, and the impact of potential threats.
171821		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam (Brandt 1974, Davidson<em> et al.</em> 2006). This species was found at several sampling sites on the Mekong River, including a 400 m long pool of the Pursat River, Pursat town, 4 km above Prek Thot village in Cambodia (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Viet Nam, it was found in the Bassac River, upstream of Chau Doc and in the Sre Pok River (Davidson<em> et al.</em> 2006).
171821		habitat	eng	This species has been found in pools and rivers (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2006). These included a 400 m long pool and two river sites, one which was 330 m wide and had a substrata of clay and mud, the other was 110 m wide with sandy and rocky outcrops (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2006).
171821		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
171821		threats	eng	Threats to this species arise from the use of the Mekong River by livestock such as water buffalo and intense agricultural practices, resulting in high concentrations of phosphorus (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2006). As this river runs through areas of high human population densities, people use the river water for washing and 'other domestic purposes' (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2006). No specific major threats have been described for this species within its range.
171822		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is recommended into this species' full distribution, population size, ecology and threats as there is currently a lack of information available.
171822		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is the Mun River, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
171822		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Brandt 1974).
171822		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
171822		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
171823		conservation	eng	Surveys in Dien Bien province (Viet Nam) and Lao are needed in order to have more data on the recent status of this species (populations and their distribution areas, host fishes, etc.). Conservation actions are needed to protect its habitat from direct and indirect impacts. Overexploitation of this species needs to be prevented.
171823		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>This species is known to occur in Dien Bien Phu city of Dien Bien province in northwestern Viet Nam. It may also be present in neighbouring Lao PDR, but this needs to be confirmed.
171823		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains. As in other species of mussels, this species has a complex life cycle wherein fertilized eggs develop into larvae, called glochidia, in the marsupium of the female mussels. Glochidia, when released from the female, must come in contact with a passing fish and attach to the gills, fins, or body of that fish. These glochidia can only survive on a specific species of fish. If a glochidium attaches to a fish that is not the species it is looking for, it will not survive (McMahon and Bogan 2001). Being host specific can make a mussel extremely sensitive to human impacts.
171823		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
171823		threats	eng	<p>Overexploitaiton, deforestation and mining threaten the survival of this species.<br/><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
171825		conservation	eng	<span style=""></span>The species is considered to be vulnerable in Thailand and Viet Nam. Surveys need to be conducted within the species range to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species, and threats to this species. Conservation actions that are needed include protection of its important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.
171825		distribution	eng	The species is known from Thailand in the Chao Praya River and tributaries including the Pin, Nana, Kwae Noi and Kaek rivers. It is also found in the Maeklong River between Ratburi and Kanchanaburi, and tributaries Maenam Kwae Noi and Kwae Yai. It has also been reported from the Maeklong dam, also in Kanchanaburi Province (Kovitvadhi and Kovitvadhi 2009). In Viet Nam it is reported from the Song Lo (Phu Tho and Tuyen Quang provinces) and Song Koi (Red River), northern Viet Nam. Whilst Brandt (1974) records that the species is absent from the Mekong basin and the Tonle Sap in Cambodia, there is a record which may pertain to Cambodia (<span class="small">'Battambang, prov de Salabury (Siam)', Voyage de M. Bocourt, 1862; Graf and Cummings 2011).
171825		habitat	eng	This species is found only in rivers and is not found in still waters (Brandt 1974).<br/><br/>It inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains. As other species of mussels, it has a complex life cycle wherein fertilised eggs develop into larvae, called glochidia, in the marsupium of the female mussels. Glochidia, when released from the female, must come in contact with a passing fish and attach to the gills, fins, or body of that fish. These glochidia can only survive on a specific species of fish. If a glochidium attaches to a fish that is not the species it is looking for, it will not survive (McMahon and Bogan 2001). Being host specific can make a mussel extremely sensitive to human impacts.
171825		population	eng	In Viet Nam populations are declining due to reduction of the quality of its habitat as a result of overexploitation, dams, mining and water pollution from industrial sources. Populations have also declined in Thailand as a result of declines in water quality (Khrueanet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
171825		threats	eng	The species is heavily collected across its range for food for consumption and sale locally, as well as for use in the production of decorative items and producing artificial freshwater pearls. The species is likely to be impacted by habitat modification and destruction due to dams, canalisation and pollution (siltation and contaminates associated with construction, agriculture, mining, and forestry practices).
171826		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are proposed although taxonomic research is recommended.<br/></p>
171826		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in eastern and southeastern Asia, from eastern and southern China (including Taiwan and Hong Kong), to northern and north-central Viet Nam and Cambodia (Graf and Cummings 2011). Haas (1969) reported the species from China, Taiwan (Province of China), northern Viet Nam and Cambodia. Ðặng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1980) reported the species from Ha Noi and Bac Thai provinces, Viet Nam, and Do (pers. comm. 2012) recently collected the species in Nghe An Province, close to the border with Lao PDR, and presence in Lao PDR can be expected.<br/><br/>Presence in Japan has been reported based on a review of museum specimens (Graf and Cummings 2011; e.g., 'Shiogiei, Shinam, Japan'), however Haas (1969:389) lists only China, Taiwan, 'Tonkin' and Cambodia, whilst other recent sources (e.g., Kondo 2008) mention only <span style="font-style: italic;">Cristaria plicata</span> as present in Japan. The only confirmed record of the species from Japan is from the Nagura River system on lshigakijima lsland, in the Ryukyu Archipelago (Imai 2008).<br/><br/>A subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Cristaria discoidea reiniana</span> Martens, 1875 was described from Japan, however it is now considered a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinanodonta woodiana</span> (Bogan pers. comm. 2012).<br/><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span></span>
171826		habitat	eng	<p>It is known from rivers and large streams. No specific information was found on the habitat or ecology of this species.</p>
171826		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171826		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species was found. It is assumed that the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification. No specific major threats are known.<br/></p>
171827		conservation	eng	<p>Urgent research needs to be done to verify that it is a valid species and not a variety of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plicata</span>, as well as biological research. No information was found concerning the current conservation of this species although a monitoring programme is in place to evaluate the quality of water in both rivers.<br/></p>
171827		distribution	eng	This species is know to occur in northeastern Viet Nam in the provinces of Cao Bang, Bac Giang, Hai Duong, Ha Nam, Nam Dinh and Ninh Binh.
171827		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large rivers streams and rivers with mud silty bottom in lowlands and midland.
171827		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171827		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are over-exploitation, dams dredging, channelization, urbanization and pollution (siltation and contaminates associated with construction, agriculture, mining, and forestry practices).
171828		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
171828		distribution	eng	The river Da in Viet Tri city of Phu Tho province is the only known location for this species (Dang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1980) This species may have a very limited distribution in northeastern Viet Nam.
171828		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in mountains.
171828		population	eng	Its population size and current population trend is not known. Several surveys have been carried out in the region but it has not been seen since its description (V. Do pers. comm. 2011).
171828		threats	eng	Deforestation, dams, dredging, channelization and mining have destroyed and polluted this species' habitat, but this is only inferred as no specimens have been found again.
171830		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on conservation measures in place. Research is recommended to define the precise location of this species.<br/></p>
171830		distribution	eng	Simpson (1900) listed this species as known only from China. Heude (1883) gives just a type locality ('rapids of Ning-Qouo Bien, Kien-Te Hien'). It is listed  by Dang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(1980) from China and northern Viet Nam, but the localities are unknown.
171830		habitat	eng	<p>The species lives in rapids in clean waters.<br/></p>
171830		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
171830		threats	eng	As the precise location of this species is unknown, it is not known what threats there may be to this species.
171832		conservation	eng	<p>Research is needed into the species' ecology and distribution.<br/></p>
171832		distribution	eng	<span style="">The species is widespread in southeast Asia, and has been reported from southern Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand.</span><br/><br/>Haas (1969) recognised this species from Thailand and China and a sub-species from 'Cochincina' (southern Viet Nam). Brandt (1974) questioned the Chinese  record of Haas and listed Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Peninsula Malaysia, but then suggested that the species may be present in southern China and northeast China in the Mekong watershed. <span style="">In Thailand it is known from central and eastern areas, with records from Nong  Kai, Udon, Nakon Panom, Nakon Sakon, Buriram, Korat, Surin, Sri Saket,  Ubon, Saraburi, Ayutthia, Supanburi, Bangkok, Thonburi, Chiang Mai,  Pattalung, Pitsanulok, Trat, Chaiyapum, Nakon Sritammarat, Ang Tng,  Sakon Nakon, Ratburi (Brandt 1974).</span><span style=""> Heard (1974) reported it from throughout the Chi and Mun river basins in Thailand.<br/></span>
171832		habitat	eng	<p>Recorded from rivers; no information was found on the ecology of this species.</p>
171832		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171832		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species was found. It is assumed the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification</p>
171833		conservation	eng	No information is known concerning the conservation of this species. The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved.
171833		distribution	eng	The species is known from the&#160;Mekong basin&#160;in&#160;Thailand, Cambodia, and southern Viet Nam (Haas 1969, Brandt 1974). Few location records are available; Graf and Cummings (2011) report museum records from Khon Kaen, Thailand, from Luang Prabang and 'Outhene River (possibly Nam Ou) in Lao PDR, and from 'Sombor' (possibly Sambor, north of Kratie on the Mekong in Cambodia).
171833		habitat	eng	<p>No detailed information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species.</p>
171833		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
171833		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species was found. It is assumed that the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification.</p>
171835		conservation	eng	<p>No information is currently available concerning the conservation of this species. Research is highly recommended to determine if the species is still extant.<br/></p>
171835		distribution	eng	This species has been only recorded from the Mun river at Pibun Mangashan, Thailand, only known from the type locality (Brandt 1974).
171835		habitat	eng	<p>It is known from a large river but no specific information is available about the habitat or ecology of this species.</p>
171835		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
171835		threats	eng	<p>No information is available on threats to this species where it was found. There is a dam that may change the flowing regime of the Mun River but its impact to the species is unknown (Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
171836		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to the confusion of this species' taxonomy based on morphological characters (e.g. Haas 1969, Brandt 1974, Graf and Cummings 2008) further work using molecular methods is recommended to resolve these issues. Research is also recommended into this species full distribution, population size and trends.
171836		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River, specifically Sambor in Cambodia, and Khong Island and Champassak in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Brandt 1974), and the Mun River at Rasi Salai in Thailand (Zilch 1983). Heard (1974) did not report this species from the Mum or Chi rivers in Thailand.
171836		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Brandt 1974).
171836		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
171836		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species. However, the Mekong River where it has been found faces many threats, including planned major hydropower developments which would drastically alter the river's ecology (International Rivers 2009).
171837		conservation	eng	<p>No information was found concerning the conservation of this species. Research is needed into the species' distribution, population trends, and threats.<br/></p>
171837		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam. In Thailand, it is known from the Mekong, Mun, Chi, Choen, and Songkram rivers, Klong in the Palace Garden of Bang Pa-In, Bung Boraphet, Ban La Pho, Pitsanulok Province, and the Pong River, Kon Kaen Province (Brandt 1974).
171837		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits the sand bottom of rivers.<br/></p>
171837		population	eng	<p>Populations of this species are declining rapidly in Thailand due to environmental degradation, resulting in water quality problems, dredging, damming, reduction of fish host and increasing commercial demand for mussel use (Areekijsereea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/></p>
171837		threats	eng	<p>Environmental  degradation, resulting in water quality problems, dredging, damming,  reduction of fish host and increasing commercial demand for mussel use are threatening the species. </p>
171838		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
171838		distribution	eng	This species is predominantly known from the Mekong drainage in Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand and Cambodia (Brandt 1974). Outside this distribution it is only recorded from a few localities: in Thailand, the Srakeo River near Khlong Satung, the Kaek River in Phitsanulok (Brandt 1974), and the Borapet Reservoir (Junk 1977), and in Cambodia, "Grand Lac" (Tonle Sap Lake), and the Sekong River at Stoeng Treng (Brandt 1974, Zilch 1983).
171838		habitat	eng	This species lives on the bottom of rivers, reservoirs and lakes (Junk 1977).
171838		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
171838		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species. However, the Mekong River is threatened by various processes, including several major dam construction projects - although it is unknown how these are affecting this species (Baird 2009). <br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>
171839		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine current population size, distribution and trends, as well as the impact of pearl harvesting across its range.
171839		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Thailand (Brandt 1974). It has been recorded from the Mekong and Kwai Noi Rivers (Panha and Kosavititkul 1997, Pednekar 1997), and from the Klong Rapipat, Maenam Pasak and Lop Buri Rivers (Brandt 1974).
171839		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers (Brandt 1974).
171839		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
171839		threats	eng	This species is collected and artificially cultured for pearl. There is an active trade in shells and pearls of this species (CIBJO 2008).
171840		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on population trends and current distribution is needed, as well as the level of natural harvesting. Beyond this, continued work on in vitro culturing should be complemented with efforts to reintroduce this species into parts of its range where declines have been observed.
171840		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mae Klong River in the Kamchanaburi province of Thailand, as well as its tributaries the Maenam Kwai Noi and Maenam Kwai Yai (Brandt 1974). <br/><br/>In Thailand it is also recorded from the upper reaches of the Chao Praya River and its tributaries - the Pasak, Ping, Nan, Kaek, and Kwai Noi Rivers - in Phitsanulok province. In southern Thailand it is found in the Prachinburi River, and the Khlong Saen in Phatthalung province.<br/><br/>Reports from the Mekong and Tonle Sap in Cambodia require confirmation (Brandt 1974).
171840		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs. Adults spawn from October to May, peaking in December to January (Kovitvadhi <em>et al. </em>2006). The glochidia of this species infect Common Carp, Nile Tilapia, and Hybrid and Striped Catfish, and have a transformation period of 6-12 days (Uthaiwan <em>et al.</em> 2003). This is a pearl-producing species.
171840		population	eng	Uthaiwan <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported that "the number of these mussels available to support the pearl industry is rapidly decreasing in natural habitats." According to Kovitvadhi <em>et al.</em> (2006) the population reduction is so severe that the species is nearly extinct in the wild, although there have been efforts to culture the mussel <em>in vitro </em>(Kovitvadhi <em>et al. </em>2006, 2009).
171840		threats	eng	This species is harvested for pearl, as well as a source of protein and for ornamental purposes (Kovitvadhi <em>et al. </em>2006). Other threats include habitat loss, sedimentation, reduction in water quality (from human and industrial waste, and agricultural chemical runoff) and the decrease in host-fish populations.<br/><br/>According to Uthaiwan <em>et al.</em> (2003) pearl-producing mussels - particularly those species endemic to Thailand - are declining in natural habitats. However, this species is easily cultured <em>in vitro</em> with a high success rate (Kovitvadhi <em>et al. </em>2006, 2009).
171841		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces in northeast Viet Nam&#160; in order to obtain data on recent status of this species (populations and their distribution areas, host fishes, etc.). Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.
171841		distribution	eng	The species is distributed only in northeast Viet Nam. Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces are the most important sites for this species. Some individuals of this species were recorded in Viet Nam 30 years  ago but it has not been found again (V. Do pers. comm. 2011). <br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>Simpson (1914) listed the type locality as Bas Luc-Nam village of Van-Ien, Tonkin. Haas (1969)&#160; listed  the distribution as Tonkin. Dang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(1980) lists this species from  northern Viet Nam and other data is from Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces, Viet Nam.
171841		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountain areas.
171841		population	eng	<p>This species is very rare (V. Do pers. comm. 2011). There is very little information about its population, as it has not been found for 30 years, it is inferred that the population is declining.<br/></p>
171841		threats	eng	Deforestation, mining and water pollution have deteriorated&#160; the quality of the habitat of this species as well as of its host fish species. Its proximity to the cities of&#160; Lang Son and Cao Bang is a source of water pollution affecting to this species.
171842		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, and Ha Noi to get information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species.
171842		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Cao Bang, Bac Kan, and Thai Nguyen provinces as well as in the capital, Ha Noi.
171842		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountain areas.
171842		population	eng	This species is not common. There is hardly any information available on this species. According to Do (pers. obs.) the population is declining each year as the numbers found in the field are lower every year.
171842		threats	eng	Overexploitation, deforestation, urbanization and mining are the major threats to the survival of this species.
171843		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Cao Bang, Viet Nam and Tay Giang, China to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological  requirements of this species. Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its  important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing  exploitation of this species.
171843		distribution	eng	This species was known to occur in the Bang  River in Cao Bang province in Viet Nam and has been reported in Tay Giang (Kwangsi) in southern China. However its presence in China is uncertain and it may be possibly extinct in Viet Nam.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
171843		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountain areas. As many other freshwater mussel species, the life cycle of this species is quite complex. Fertilized eggs develop into larvae, called glochidia, in the marsupium of the female mussels. Glochidia, when released from the female, must come in contact with a passing fish and attach to the gills, fins, or body of that fish. These glochidia can only survive on a specific species of fish. If a glochidium attaches to a fish that is not the species it is looking for, it will not survive (McMahon and Bogan 2001). Being host specific can make a mussel extremely sensitive to human impacts.
171843		population	eng	<p>Before 1975, this species was quite common in Bang River. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, this species was overexploited, and shells were sold to Chinese for making buttons, medicine, handicrafts and pearl cultures. In 2000-2001 and 2007-2010, surveys could not found any specimen of this species, and local people also said that they had not seen this species for long time (V. Do pers. comm. 2011). It is estimated that population has declined at least 80% in the last 30 years, and it may now be extinct.</p>
171843		threats	eng	Overexploitation, deforestation and mining threaten the survival of this species.
171844		conservation	eng	This species requires surveys in northeast Viet Nam, in the Bang and Lo rivers region, to determine the current status of its population and distribution. Its habitat needs to be protected from direct and indirect impacts.
171844		distribution	eng	Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1980) list this species in two localities. It is distributed only in northeast Viet Nam where Bang river in Cao Bang province and Lo river in Phu Tho province are the most important sites. However, it may be possibly extinct in Viet Nam as no specimens have been found in the last 30&#160; years in spite of the survey work conducted in the area. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
171844		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171844		population	eng	<p>This species is rare and there is very little information on its population. It has not been found again in spite of the survey work carried out in the area and therefore population decline has been observed.<br/></p>
171844		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are believed to be deforestation and mining.
171845		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Cao Bang and Vinh Phuc to collect data on the population, distribution and ecological   requirements of this species. Conservation actions are needed to protect its habitat from direct and indirect  impacts. Exploitation of this species needs to be prevented.
171845		distribution	eng	This species is distributed only in northeast Viet Nam. Cao Bang and Vinh Phuc provinces are the most important sites for this species (Dang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1980).
171845		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171845		population	eng	This species is rare and there is very little information on its  population. It has not been found again in spite of the survey work  carried out in the area and therefore  population decline has been inferred. General ecological surveys were conducted in the last 30 years for all   the freshwater species found in the area but not focused only on<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. nodulosa.</span>   During these, the species was not found although it is possible that   small populations still may survive. As a result, a population decline   of 80% of the population over the last 75 years (three generations) is inferred for the species.
171845		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are believed to be deforestation and mining.
171846		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Ha Nam and Ninh Binh provinces to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species. Preventing its exploitation and protecting its habitat from direct and indirect impacts are needed to conserve this species.
171846		distribution	eng	This species is distributed only in northeastern Viet Nam. Ha Nam and Ninh Binh provinces are the most important sites for this species.<span style="background-color: white;"></span>
171846		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in mountain valleys.
171846		population	eng	This species is not common and there is very little information on its population. Populations are observed to be decreasing through the survey work conducted (Do pers. obs. 2011). A decline of 50% of the populations is inferred for the last 10 years.
171846		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are mining and water pollution from domestic sources.
171848		conservation	eng	<p>The identity of the species requires confirmation based on fresh specimens.<br/></p>
171848		distribution	eng	<span style="">Haas (1969) noted that this species had not been figured and was known only from the type locality, Thuyen Quan, northern Viet Nam. There are no records since it was described in 1902.<br/></span>
171848		habitat	eng	No information was found on the habitat or ecology of this species.
171848		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171848		threats	eng	<p>Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.</p>
171849		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Bang river in northeast Viet Nam to obtain information on the population, distribution, and ecological requirements of this species. Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.
171849		distribution	eng	This species is distributed only in northeast Viet Nam where it is known from Bang River in Cao Bang province.
171849		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171849		population	eng	This species is not common and there is very little information on its population. Surveys conducted indicate observed declines in population (V. Do pers. comm. 2011).
171849		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are overexploitation, water pollution, mining&#160; and deforestation.<br/></p>
171851		conservation	eng	Conservation measures in the area are unknown. Site protection is recommended as well as research.
171851		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the middle reaches of the Mun river in Thailand.
171851		habitat	eng	It lives in hard clay substrates of the river (Brand 1974).
171851		population	eng	The is no information on population but it may be very localized because its habitat requirements are very specific.
171851		threats	eng	Threats in the area that may be affecting the species are water pollution, damming and increasing siltation.
171853		conservation	eng	No information is available on conservation actions for this species. Water quality management is recommended. Research is needed to confirm the full current distribution of the species.
171853		distribution	eng	The range of this species is the northeast of Viet Nam, in Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces, and from the Red River delta east of Ha Noi (Haskoning 2008). It is also recorded from Hue Province, in the centre of the country. Graf and Cummings (2011) reviewed museum records of the species from the 'Mekong', 'Phuc Son', 'That Khe', and 'Nam Cham'.
171853		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171853		population	eng	This species is common. Survey work in Viet Nam shows that populations are slowly declining (Do pers. obs. 2011).
171853		threats	eng	Water pollution from industrial sources and overexploitation are the main threats to the survival of this species.
171855		conservation	eng	<p>Surveys need to be conducted in Thai Nguyen and Bac Kan provinces in Viet Nam to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species. Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.</p>
171855		distribution	eng	This species is distributed only in Thai Nguyen and Bac Kan provinces in northeastern Viet Nam.
171855		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171855		population	eng	This species is not common and there is very little information on its  population. A decline of about 70% of the populations is inferred for the  last 10 years based on the observations of the Can and Nhue-Day Rivers Monitoring Program (V. Do pers. comm. 2011).
171855		threats	eng	<p>Mining is the major threat to this species, and urbanization, overexploitation, deforestation and also threaten the survival of this species.</p>
171856		conservation	eng	The taxonomic position of the species requires resolution, and in addition data are required on the current distribution, population trends, and threats to the species.
171856		distribution	eng	The species is apparently known from three specimens; 'Yon-Bag, Tonkin' (Senckenberg Museum), 'Tonkin' (Bryant Walker Collection), and <span class="small">'Men Kong [Mekong], Tonkin, Indo-China', (Walter J. Eyerdam Collection; ex. Fruhstorfer) (source: MUSSELp project database). Other records of this species may be identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. micheloti </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">O. puglia.</span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>If, during recent surveys carried out by Do Van Tu and his colleagues, further specimens were not found in the Bay of Tonkin then it should  be considered as possibly extinct. In  Chinese literature (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979) neither <span style="font-style: italic;">gladiator </span>nor <span style="font-style: italic;">pugio </span>are mentioned  from China, so it is certainly not abundant there.
171856		habitat	eng	No information available.
171856		population	eng	There are no current data available, however van Damme (pers. comm 2011) did not find any references to specimens collected after the 19<sup>th</sup>  Century.
171856		threats	eng	Research is needed into threats to this species and its habitats.
171857		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in&#160; Phu Tho, Vinh Phuc, Ha Noi, Hoa Binh, and Quang Tri provinces in Viet Nam to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species. Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.
171857		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Phu Tho,Vinh Phuc, Ha Noi, Hoa Binh, and Quang Tri provinces in north and central Viet Nam.
171857		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in lowland and midland.
171857		population	eng	This species is not common. Surveys conducted during the last 10-15 years indicate observed declines in populations of about 15%   (V. Do pers. comm. 2011).
171857		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to the species is water pollution from industry and urban areas. Overexploitaiton, deforestation and mining are also threatening to this species.</p>
171858		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Cao Bang, Phu Tho, Vinh Phuc provinces in Viet Nam&#160; to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species. Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.
171858		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Cao Bang, Phu Tho, and Vinh Phuc provinces in northeastern Viet Nam.
171858		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171858		population	eng	This species is not common. Population decline has been observed through  surveys during the last 20  years and is inferred to be approximately 50% in the  last 10 years (Do  pers. comm. 2011).
171858		threats	eng	Overexploitation, deforestation and mining threaten the survival of this species.
171859		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
171859		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Sagaing, Zayleyman (near Myitkyina), Pegu (now Bago) and Tavoy (Dawoi) in Myanmar. It appears to be widely present within the Irrawaddy and other basins in Myanmar.
171859		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers.
171859		population	eng	<p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>
171859		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
171860		conservation	eng	Information on the current distribution and population trends of the species is needed, as well as confirmation of its taxonomic status.
171860		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong basin (both the mainstream and some major tributaries) from Luang Prabang southwards in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and probably Viet Nam (Brandt 1974, Graf and Cummings 2011).
171860		habitat	eng	Recorded from the Mekong mainstream and major tributaries; no fine habitat details are available.
171860		population	eng	No information available.
171860		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks, sedimentation, and changes to flow regime of the river (Osborne 2009). The ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are well known (e.g., Vaughn and Taylor 1999, Temcharoen 1992, Seddon 2003). Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992). The scale of these threats on this species can not be confirmed without greater detail on its ecology and distribution.
171861		conservation	eng	Research on the species' current distribution and population trends is required.
171861		distribution	eng	Described from Phitsanulok, Chao Phraya (Maenam) River, Thailand (Graf and Cummings 2011), nothing is known of the species' distribution, and it is apparently known only from the type and type locality.
171861		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
171861		population	eng	No information available.
171861		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
171863		conservation	eng	Little is known of this species, with few available known records. Research is required on taxonomy, population, ecology and threats.
171863		distribution	eng	The species was described (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio substriata</span> Lea, 1856) from 'Siam' (Thailand). The species appears to be restricted to the Maeklong and Chao Phraya drainages and the Kwae Noi, Kwai Yai, Chao Phraya, Ping, Nan and Kaek (at Phitsanulok) rivers in central and northern Thailand (Brandt 1974, DoF 2007).
171863		habitat	eng	No information available; recorded from mainstream rivers.
171863		population	eng	No information available.
171863		threats	eng	Parts of both the Maeklong and Chao Phraya drainages are heavily impacted by pollution from a range of sources (industrial, domestic and agricultural). As nothing is known of the ecology of this species, it is not possible to assess the impact of these threats.
171865		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is recommended to determine whether recent apparent declines in the Mekong River are reflected througout the range of this species.
171865		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand (Brandt 1974). In Thailand it occurs from Phang-nga in the south to Chiangrai in the north, as well as in the Mekong and most of its tributaries, and the Chao Praya drainage (Brandt 1974).
171865		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lotic ecosystems. It has a low tolerance to river pollution and human disturbance (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
171865		population	eng	According to Brandt (1974) this species is "rather common" in Thailand. However, a recent survey of the Mekong River and its tributaries found the species at only two sites on the river, both in Viet Nam - Tan Chau in the south and Sre Pok River in the east of the country (Davidson <em>et al. </em>2006). Later surveys at these sites found no further specimens (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
171865		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species. However, the Mekong River is threatened by various processes, including several major dam construction projects - although it is unknown how these are affecting this species (Baird 2009).
171866		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends.
171866		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. Records include <span class="small">the Nam Sebay, affluent of the Nam Moun, Lao PDR, and the '<span class="small">Lao Mountains, Camboja' <span class="small">(H. Cuming Collection). In Thailand, records include <span class="small">the Mun River (at Sri Saket and <span class="small">Ban Ta Tum<span class="small"> <span class="small">(Surin Province) <span class="small">(Brandt 1966, 1974; Graf and Cummings 2011)), and Ubon Ratana District, Khon Khean<br/>Province (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>A record from the Lam Chi River, Ban Wa Wa, Ayutthaya, Thailand (</span><span class="st">National Museum of Natural History; Smithsonian Institution) in the Chaioo Phraya basin requires confirmation.</span></span></span>
171866		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers. The species is viviparous (does not lay eggs) and has a parasitic larval stage.
171866		population	eng	No information available.
171866		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
171867		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species' current distribution and population trends, and its ecology.
171867		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong in Cambodia, Thailand and Lao PDR, and west to the Chao Phraya in Thailand. Records include <span class="small">from the Me Ping River (Kamphaeng Phet Province<span class="small">) in northwestern Thailand and from <span class="small"><span class="small"><span class="small">Aranyaprathet, <span class="st">Sa Kaew Province<span class="small"><span class="small">, Thailand (Brandt 1966, Brandt 1974).<span class="small"><span class="small"> In Cambodia records include the 'Grand Lac' (Tonle Sap Lake) and <span class="small">Stung Bang Hot<span class="st"><span class="small"><span class="small"> (Graf and Cummings 2011). A record of the species from the Malay&#160;Peninsular&#160;(Ban Na San, Surat Thani, Thailand) requires confirmation but is not unlikely.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
171867		habitat	eng	Recorded from freshwater rivers. The species is viviparous (does not lay eggs) and has a parasitic larval stage.
171867		population	eng	No information available.
171867		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
171868		conservation	eng	<p>Research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
171868		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physunio micropteroides</span> was described from the type locality, Yawnghwe Plain in Myanmar. There is an unverified record from Kosum Phisaiis district in the northern part of Maha Sarakham Province, northeastern Thailand (GBIF; Academy  of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia), but there seem to be other records from Thailand, and the species should also be looked for more widely within Myanmar. The species is also recorded from Bangladesh ("Fenchuganj").
171868		habitat	eng	This species is found in slow flowing and sluggish streams with muddy bottom in shallow (c. 1 m) water.
171868		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
171868		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known, and further research is required.
171869		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species' current distribution and population trends is needed.
171869		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong basin in Thailand, Cambodia, and southern Viet Nam (a specimen from 'Cochin China', a region encompassing the southern third of Viet Nam (Graf and Cummings 2011<span class="st">) and from <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"> <span class="hps">Cat Tien National Park <span class="st">(DoF 2007, Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)). There is also a record from the Yom River (th<span class="st">e main tributary of the Nan River, which is itself a tributary of the Chao Phraya River) in northern Thailand (Jivaluk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</span></span>
171869		habitat	eng	Found in larger rivers; no other details of ecology available.
171869		population	eng	No information available.
171869		threats	eng	Research is needed into threats to the species and its habitats.
171870		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
171870		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong drainage in Thailand and Lao PDR (Brandt 1974, Graf and Cummings 2011). In Thailand, it is recorded from Phu Phan National Park Sakhon Nakhon Province, Khon Kaen (Maenam Pong) (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), Nakhon Phanom, Ubon Ratchathani, Roi Et (Lam Chi River), Sakon Nakhon (Maenam Songkran (Brandt 1974)), Surin, Loei, and Chaiyaphum provinces, and from Pakse in Lao PDR. A record of the speceis from the Chao Phraya drainage in Thailand (Huai Kha Khaeng Reserve, Huai Kha Khaeng River, Uthai Thani, Thailand; NC State Museum of Natural Sciences) requires confirmation.<br/><span class="small"><span class="small"><span class="small"></span>
171870		habitat	eng	Recorded from freshwater rivers, and from a reservoir (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
171870		population	eng	No information available.
171870		threats	eng	Not likely to be threatened across its range, but no information available.
171874		conservation	eng	No information available.
171874		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Southeast Asia. It has also been introduced to the Philippines. <strong></strong>
171874		habitat	eng	This is a resistant species that inhabits different environments. As many other freshwater mussel species, the life cycle of this species is quite complex. Fertilized eggs develop into larvae, called glochidia, in the marsupium of the female mussels. Glochidia, when released from the female, must come in contact with a passing fish and attach to the gills, fins, or body of that fish. These glochidia can only survive on one or some specific species of fish. If a glochidium attaches to a fish that is not the species it is looking for, it will not survive (McMahon and Bogan 2001). Being host specific can make a mussel extremely sensitive to human impacts.
171874		population	eng	This species is very common. The Vietnamese populations however are known to be declining. This has been observed, and known through interviews with local people (V. Do pers. comm. 2011). No information is available about other countries.
171874		threats	eng	Industrial development, pollution and overexploitation threaten the survival of this species in Viet Nam. In other regions, there is no information about threat but it is believed that there are no major threats.
171875		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current threats, distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
171875		distribution	eng	The species is known from Thailand (Chao Phraya drainage (Bon Maha Hui, Ang Tong Province) and the Mun River (Mekong drainage); Khamnakha 2002), Lao PDR (Nang Njang, Vientiane), and Cambodia (historical specimens from Battambang, Kampot, Phnom Penh, and 'Grand Lacs (probably the Tonle Sap Lake) (Graf and Cummings 2011), and a recent specimen from the Mekong in central Cambodia; Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Thailand, DoF (2007) reports the species from northeastern Thailand.
171875		habitat	eng	Found in rivers; no finer ecological data available.
171875		population	eng	No information available.
171875		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
171876		conservation	eng	Research is required into the&#160;species' distribution&#160;and taxonomic status.
171876		distribution	eng	The species was described from 'Tonkin',&#160;northern&#160;Viet Nam (Simpson 1914), and recorded by Dang<em>&#160;et al.&#160;</em>(1980) as present in Lang Son Province, however, Dang's description<span class="hps"> is completely based on Simpson (1914). There are no available recent records of the species (Tu pers. comm. 2011). Further survey work is required to confirm the species' current distribution, and it could be present in adjacent parts of the drainages in China.
171876		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the species' ecology or habitats.
171876		population	eng	No information available.
171876		threats	eng	Without further&#160;information&#160;on the species' distribution, habitat and ecology, nothing can be said of the species' threats.
171878		conservation	eng	Surveys need to be conducted in Bang and Ky Cung rivers in northeastern Viet Nam to obtain information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species. To conserve this species, it needs to be protected from exploitation and its important habitats should be protected from direct and indirect impacts.
171878		distribution	eng	It is distributed in Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces in northeast Viet Nam where Bang river and Ky Cung river are the most important sites for the species.
171878		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains.
171878		population	eng	Before 1975, this species was quite common in Bang River, Cao Bang province and Ky Cung River, Lang Son province. Since 1975 and especially since 1990 up to the present, the population of this species has massively declined. In 2000-2001 and 2007-2010, surveys could not find any live specimen of this species (V. Do pers. comm. 2011). It is estimated that the population has suffered at least a 50% decline in the last 30 years.
171878		threats	eng	Overexploitaiton, deforestation and mining are the main threats to the survival of this species.
171879		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine its present population size, distribution and threats.
171879		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong basin in Thailand and Cambodia. In central Thailand this species is found in the Sing Buri and Lop Buri Rivers, the Tha Chin River at Suphan Buri, and Ang Thong province. It also occurs in several tributaries of the Mekong. In Cambodia it is reported from the west and south of the country (Brandt 1974). A recent survey in 2006 of countries adjacent to the Mekong (Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam) found this species at only two sites, and in low densities, in the Delta region around 40 miles downstream of Phnom Penh (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009).
171879		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lotic ecosystems, and appears moderately able to tolerate human impacts (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). In the Mekong, it was recorded in the main river and a tributary in sand or mud substrates, at depths of seven to 15 m. These localities had high algal biomass (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009).
171879		population	eng	Only three individuals of this species were recorded in a recent survey of the Mekong River in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009).
171879		threats	eng	In the Mekong River this species occurs in areas of high human impact (e.g., nutrient input from agricultural runoff, sewage, human and animal waste disposal) (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is not known how these threats affect this species; it was, however, scored moderately high (56/100) for tolerance to human-generated stresses (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>The Mekong is also currently being developed in several areas for large hydropower projects (International Rivers 2009). Again, it is not known how such large-scale development will affect this species.
171882		conservation	eng	<p>Further information is needed on the current distribution and population trends of this species.<br/></p>
171882		distribution	eng	<span style="">Brandt (1974) reported this species from Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam, and as probably present in northern Myanmar and </span><span style="">China (</span><span style="">Yunnan Province).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it is known from north, northeast, east and southeast Thailand, not from west and southern Thailand. Known specimens (MUSSELp) are from Lao PDR (Sedone River at Pakxe), Thailand ('riv. de Sutrang'; Chong Mek, Ubon Ratchathani Province), Cambodia ('Loas Mountains'; Kampot; Tonle Sap Lake), Viet Nam ('Cochinechine' (southern Viet Nam)). There is also a record from Java, but this record is considered unreliable.</span>
171882		habitat	eng	Brandt (1974) lists mountain streams and rivers with sandy ground.
171882		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171882		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species was found. It is assumed the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification.</p>
171883		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place. Research in biology, ecology, distribution and threats of this species is needed .<br/></p>
171883		distribution	eng	It has been described from Than Muoi village, Quang Lang commune, Chi Lan district, Lang Son province, Tonkin Province Viet Nam (Haas 1969)<span style="background-color: white;">. Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) list this species from north Viet Nam, including area around Vinh Yen and Ha Noi.
171883		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>It has been found in streams and rivers in midland and highlands.</p>
171883		population	eng	<p>The populations are inferred to be rapidly decreasing (with a rate of more than 70% of the population in the last 10 years) as the survey work conducted in the region in the past 20 years show only a few specimens remain (V. Do pers. obs. 2011).<br/></p>
171883		threats	eng	<p>Mining and urbanization and water pollution from industry are the major threats to the species in the region.<br/></p>
171885		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures in place. Research on biology, ecology and threats to the species is needed, and the taxonomy needs to be confirmed.<br/></p>
171885		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It has been recorded from Viet Nam (Dang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1980). Simpson (1914) lists the species from Cambodia, but its presence there is uncertain.
171885		habitat	eng	<p>It lives in rivers on muddy or sandy substrate.<br/></p>
171885		population	eng	<p>The populations in Viet Nam are inferred to be rapidly decreasing (with a rate of  more than 70% of the population in the last 10 years) as the survey  work conducted in the region 20 years have found only few specimens (V. Do  pers. obs. 2011).</p>
171885		threats	eng	<p>Overexploitation and water pollution are the main threats to the species.<br/></p>
171886		conservation	eng	<p>Information on the current distribution and population trends of the species is needed.<br/></p>
171886		distribution	eng	<span style="">The species is w</span>idespread in Indochina (Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Lao PDR), Indonesia (Sumatra and Java), and Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia). Presence in Borneo is also reported. Recorded  from Singapore (Yang 1990) where it is considered to result from introductions from the food or ornamental fish trade.<br/><span style=""><br/>Brandt (1974) lists the nominate subspecies as from Indonesia and recognized three subspecies in southeast Asia; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon v. ellipticus</span> Conrad, 1865 central and eastern Thailand, Cambodia, south Viet Nam, and in Thailand in drainages of Mekong, Chao Praya, Bang Prakon and the Mekong; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon v. chaperi</span> (Morgan, 1885) Malaysia, peninsular Thailand and possibly some from southeastern Thailand; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon v. tumidus</span> (Morelet, 1866) from Mekong and tributaries in Cambodia, southern Lao PDR and in Thailand known only from the Mekong at Bandan.
171886		habitat	eng	<span style="">Brandt (1974) reported the species from rivers such as the Mekong and also in standing waters.<br/></span>
171886		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171886		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>
171888		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are known to be in place. Research is needed to estimate the current status of this species, its biology, ecology and threats, including targeted surveys to estimate its distribution.<br/></p>
171888		distribution	eng	Haas (1969) described the distribution of this species as   mountain streams of southern and central China, including the Yangtze and Huang He basins in China, as far north as <span class="st">Nanjing (Graf and Cummings 2011). The species is also reported from provinces in Viet Nam including    Chi Ne,   Hoa Binh; Ngan Son, Bac Kan; Phu Tho; Huong Son, and Ha Tinh (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1979)
171888		habitat	eng	The species lives in very clean mountain streams.
171888		population	eng	<p>The Chinese population is very rare, and it has not been listed by Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1979). The Chinese populations are believed to have declined (Van Damme pers. obs. 2011). The Vietnamese populations are quite rare (Do pers. comm. 2011). Four populations are inferred.<br/></p>
171888		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation is a threat to this species at present, as well as increasing impacts related to human settlements such as water pollution.<br/></p>
171889		conservation	eng	<p>No information is known concerning the conservation of this species. The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved. Efforts to control and reduce water pollution are required.<br/></p>
171889		distribution	eng	<span style=""><span style="">Brandt (1974) listed the distribution as eastern India (Manipur and Assam in the Chindwin drainage, and possibly the upper Brahmaputra), Myanmar, the Mekong River (Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia) (Graf and Cummings 2011). In Thailand it is known from Yala in the south, to the northern border, but it is not found in the Maekhlong River basin. Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1980) reported it from Cao Bang and <span style=""><span style="">Vinh Phuc</span><span style=""><span style="">, Viet Nam. Haas (1969) records the species from 'Tonkin' (northern Viet Nam), Cambodia, and Thailand. Presence in Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia (Borneo) requires confirmation.<span style=""></span></span></span>
171889		habitat	eng	<p>The species is known from rivers.<br/></p>
171889		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
171889		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are water pollution from mining and over-exploitation for food.<br/></p>
171891		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Research into population size and trend is needed.
171891		distribution	eng	<span style="">The species (with recognised synonyms) is recorded from Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, and Sumatra), Malaysia (Peninsular and Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah)), Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR and from Thailand.<br/><br/>Haas (1969) listed <span style="font-style: italic;">U. contradens</span> from Java. Brandt (1974) considered <span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra</span> and lumped many of the described species under <span style="font-style: italic;">U. contradens</span> as a ring-species, and recognised 6 subspecies in Thailand but all may be ecophenotypes.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra c. ascia</span> Hanley, 1856 is described from Penang and listed from the Malay Peninsula south of <span class="st">Ratchaburi <span style="">Province. In Thailand it is known from the Phetburi River southwards. Haas (1969) reported this as a valid species and listed it from Penang, Sumatra, Cambodia and two synonyms from Borneo.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra c. rusticoides</span> Brandt, 1974 is known only from the type locality Klong Sog, between Surath Thani and Takua Pa.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra c. tumidula</span> Lea, 1856 is known from Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, southern Viet Nam.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra c. rustica</span> Lea, 1856 is known from Petburi River, drainages of the Chao Praya River, and Bang Prakon river (the upper reaches of which are called Klong Saturn and the middle reaches of the Prachinburi River); also Mekong basin in Thailand and Cambodia.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra c. crossei</span> Deshayes, 1876 is known from Mekong and eastern affluents between Tha Uthen and Ho Chi Min City [Saigon].<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Uniandra c. fischeriana</span> Morelet, 1883 is found only in the Sutrang River in eastern Thailand and western Cambodia.</span>
171891		habitat	eng	<span style="">Found in rivers, trenches, canals, klongs and ponds.<br/></span>
171891		population	eng	<p>This is a very widely distributed species.<br/></p>
171891		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species was found. It is assumed the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification.</p>
171892		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution, population trends and threats, as well as its taxonomic status.
171892		distribution	eng	The species is recorded (as the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Contradens gratiosus</span>) from 'Bengal' (India (West Bengal) or Bangladesh), Myanmar and the Mekong in Cambodia and southern Viet Nam ('Cochin') (Graf and Cummings 2011). The record from India requires confirmation.
171892		habitat	eng	Found in larger rivers, but with no specific details.
171892		population	eng	No information available.
171892		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species. It is assumed that pollution and habitat modification may affect the species.
171894		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to obtain fresh specimens for taxonomic comparison to confirm the status of the species' populations in Viet Nam and in Indonesia. Information on the population, distribution and ecological requirements of this species is also needed. Conservation actions which are needed include protection of its important habitats from direct and indirect impacts, and preventing exploitation of this species.
171894		distribution	eng	This species may have a very limited distribution in northeast Viet Nam (Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces), where the type specimen of this species was collected according to Haas (1930). However (see Taxonomic Notes), possible synonyms of the species have also been recorded from Indonesia (Borneo and Sumatra).
171894		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers in midlands and mountains. As in other species of mussels, this too has a complex life cycle wherein fertilised eggs develop into larvae, called glochidia, in the marsupium of the female mussels. Glochidia, when released from the female, must come into contact with a passing fish and attach to the gills, fins, or body of that fish. These glochidia can only survive on a specific species of fish. If a glochidium attaches to a fish that is not the species it is looking for, it will not survive (McMahon and Bogan 2001). Being host specific can make a mussel extremely sensitive to human impacts.
171894		population	eng	There are few records of this species and there is no information about the population except the first description by Haas (<span style="">1930).<br/></span>
171894		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining have destroyed and polluted habitats of this species and its host fish species.
171895		conservation	eng	<p>No information is known concerning the conservation of this species. Research is needed on the geographic range of the species, and potential threats.<br/></p>
171895		distribution	eng	<span style="">The species is only known from the type locality in the Mekong River between Thakhek (Lao PDR) and Nakon Phanhom (Thailand) (Brandt 1974, Graf and Cummings 2011).<br/></span>
171895		habitat	eng	<p>It has only been found in a river.<br/></p>
171895		population	eng	No information is available on the population of this species.
171895		threats	eng	<p>No information on threats to this species is available. It is assumed the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification.</p>
171897		conservation	eng	<p>No information was found concerning the conservation of this species. Research on the geographic range of the species is needed.</p>
171897		distribution	eng	<span style="">Brandt (1974) reported this species from Mekong River in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia. In Thailand it is also known from Songkhram River and Huai Mae Un near Sri Songkhram. In Viet Nam it is found in Sa Thay River in Kon Tum and Gia Lai provinces.<br/><br/>The species is also known from the type localities for <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio fabagina</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio molleuri</span> in the Mekong River at Sambor, Cambodia and at Muonngsun, Lao PDR.
171897		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in rivers.<br/></p>
171897		population	eng	<p>No information was found on the population of this species.</p>
171897		threats	eng	<p>No information on the threats to this species was found. It is assumed that the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification</p>
171899		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution and ecology of the species is needed.
171899		distribution	eng	Recorded from India (the Andaman and Nicobar islands). Brandt (1974) notes a population in Thailand (the Mae Noi River between Krabi and Trang) tentatively identified as this species.
171899		habitat	eng	No information on this species; recorded from brackish and possibly freshwater systems.
171899		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species.
171899		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
171900		conservation	eng	No information was found on the conservation status of this species. Taxonomic revision of the genus is required.
171900		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mekong basin in Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Brandt (1974) reported the distribution as 'Tonkin, Viet Nam, Mekong and tributaries, Maenam Ping and tributaries and Peturi River (<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); ">Phetchaburi</span>), Thailand'.
171900		habitat	eng	Information on its ecology is lacking; it is known from rivers and streams.
171900		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species.
171900		threats	eng	Threats are not known but are assumed to be same as other freshwater molluscs and includes pollution and sedimentation.
171901		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is required to determine the status of the species.
171901		distribution	eng	<span style=""><span style="">Brandt (1974) listed the distribution of this species as Cambodia and Thailand; he tentatively identified this species from Glaeng District, </span><span style=""><span style="">Rayong</span><span style=""><span style=""> Province, Thailand.</span></span>
171901		habitat	eng	No information is available on the ecology of this species.
171901		population	eng	There is no information on the populations of this species.
171901		threats	eng	Threats are unknown but would include pollution.
171903		conservation	eng	<span style="">Research is needed to confirm the current distribution, population trend, and threats to the species. Taxonomic research is required to confirm the taxonomic status of the species.<br/></span>
171903		distribution	eng	<span style=""><span style="">The species is reported from northern Viet Nam. It reportedly occurs in Hai Phong city although its presence is uncertain.<br/><br/></span>
171903		habitat	eng	<span style="">The genus occurs in freshwater lakes, rivers and small creeks often in sand substrates.<br/></span>
171903		population	eng	<span style=""><span style="">There is no information on the populations of this species but most Corbicula are abundant.<br/></span>
171903		threats	eng	<span style=""><span style="">The major threats to this species are from industrial development and pollution.</span>
171906		conservation	eng	It is not thought that the species requires any conservation actions, though research into the species full distribution is needed, as the distribution presented here is incomplete.
171906		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from marine, brackish, and occasionally freshwater environments, from eastern India (Orissa (Chilka Lake, the type locality) and West Bengal (Sundarbans); Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) to the Philippines. Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (1980) and Brandt (1974) did not report this species from Viet Nam or Thailand. There is also a record from northern Australia (Cosel 2010). The species is apparently distributed across the Andaman Sea, the northern Indian Ocean, and coastal areas of southeast Asian countries (Madhyastha pers. comm. 2011).
171906		habitat	eng	Ramakrishna and Dey (2007) reported this genus as being estuarine and occasionally occurring in freshwater, whilst Cosel (2010) records the species as marine.
171906		population	eng	No information was found on the population status of this species.
171906		threats	eng	No information on threats to this species were identified.
171907		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place. More research is in need to assess this species in a different category.
171907		distribution	eng	The type locality is Chanthaburi, Thailand. It is also known from the Pasak River near Saraburi (Brandt 1974).
171907		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitats where it is found.
171907		population	eng	No information is available on the population of this species.
171907		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
171910		conservation	eng	No information is available on conservation measures. Research on the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species is recommended.
171910		distribution	eng	The type locality is Klong Bang Sue at Bangkok. It has also been recorded from Klong Ban Ko at Prapadeaeng Samut Prakan and Kong Bang Pra, Chonburi (Brandt 1974).
171910		habitat	eng	It is known from klongs (channels) but no specific habitat information is known.
171910		population	eng	No information available.
171910		threats	eng	No major threats are currently affecting this species.
171911		conservation	eng	<span style="">No information was found concerning the conservation of this species.<br/></span>
171911		distribution	eng	Brandt (1974) listed this species from Indonesia (Java and Sumba), Lao PDR and Thailand. It is the most common species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium </span>in Thailand and was found in all provinces. In Lao PDR it was was collected from the Maenam Moei River. There is a record from Singapore (Tan and Woo 2010) and it is inferred to be present in Peninsular Malaysia. It is also known from Myanmar.
171911		habitat	eng	<span style="">This species is on the border of the Paleartic region and especially affected by rising temperatures related to climate change. It appears to be very tolerant in both the lowland and highlands of Thailand, and is found in a variety of wetland habitats. It is spread by birds.<br/></span>
171911		population	eng	Brandt (1974) claims this is the most common and widespread species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium </span>and occurs in all provinces in Thailand.
171911		threats	eng	<span style="">No information on the threats to this species was found. It is assumed that the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification<br/></span>
171912		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Research and monitoring of the species ecology, distribution, and potential threats is required.<br/></p>
171912		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium prasongi</span> is reported from southeast Asia (Thailand) Brandt 1974) and Nepal. In Nepal, this species is widely distributed (Nesseman <em>et al.</em>, 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; P. prasongi</span> appears to be a more widely distributed species, previously overlooked due to its minute size, or mistaken for immature <span style="font-style: italic;">P. annandalei.</span> Presence within other countries within the region (India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Bhutan) seems likely.<span style="background-color: green;"></span>
171912		habitat	eng	In Nepal, this species is confined to running water and found in unpolluted to slightly polluted waters; <span style="font-style: italic;">P. prasongi </span>replaces <span style="font-style: italic;">P. annandalei </span>below 800 m asl.
171912		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. prasongi </span>is locally  abundant in Nepal. However, the population status of the species is not known.&#160; <br/></p>
171912		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information on threats to this species is available.</p>
171913		conservation	eng	<span style="">Research into the species' distribution, ecology, and population trends is needed.<br/></span>
171913		distribution	eng	The species is known from Thailand (12 localities from the extreme north (Fang in Chiang Mai  Province) to the south (Khrabi, Satun Province, and Songkhla lake, Songkhla and Phatthalung provinces), including Loei and Phetchabun provinces). It is known from only two localities in Sumatra ('Ajer Tengenang, near Fort de Kock [Bukittinggi]' and 'Balege'; cited in Brandt 1974), and has also been found in one locality in Peninsular Malaysia (east of Ipoh) and another locality in Lao PDR (south of Pakxe) (Brandt 1974).
171913		habitat	eng	The species is found in lakes and probably other water bodies.
171913		population	eng	There is no information on populations.
171913		threats	eng	No major threats are known to be affecting this species.
171925		conservation	eng	Research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Protected areas should be established and management plans executed. The effects of conservation measures should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
171925		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of Greece near Thessaloniki and on some Greek islands. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends through Turkey to Jordan and the north of Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
171925		habitat	eng	The False Apollo can be found in the early spring in sheltered places in olive groves, vineyards, on rocky slopes with bushes and in open woodland. They are also seen in damp places, such as stream margins. They use various birthworts (<em>Aristolochia</em> spp.) as larval foodplants, such as Birthwort (<em>A. clematitis</em>) and on Samos and Lesbos, <em>A. bodamae</em>. Unlike other <em>Papilionidae</em>, the caterpillars cannot be seen on the foodplants, as they live hidden in a spun leaf. The False Apollo has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage in the ground. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
171925		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
171925		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agricultural activities and land claims. The intensification of agriculture caused the disappearance of the foodplants over large areas. Abandonment leads to shrub invasion and finally to the loss of suitable habitat. Furthermore fires can destroy habitat patches.
171926		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
171926		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Azores. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. azorina</span> occurs on Faial, Pico, Sao Jorge, Terceira, Flores and Corvo (although some authors consider the population on the two latter (western) islands to be <span style="font-style: italic;">H. occidentalis</span>). Its elevational range is 400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
171926		habitat	eng	The Azores Grayling is a butterfly of sheltered places on grassy slopes on the Azores. The butterflies are often observed on flowers where they come for nectar. The only foodplant is probably <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca jubata. </span>The Azores Grayling has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (33%), heath and scrub (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%).
171926		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
171926		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
171928		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Especially egg-counts have proven to be very effective and are possible with a small time-investment.
171928		distribution	eng	In Central Europe, this species is found from the south of Sweden down to the north of Spain and from France eastwards. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore present east through Siberia to Mongolia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
171928		habitat	eng	The Alcon Blue occurs in local, scattered populations, on low-lying wet heathland, on moist fen meadows and bogs and on dry calcareous grasslands. In some publications it is referred to as two distinct species: <em>P. alcon</em> on wet heathland, moist fen meadows and bogs at low altitude and <em>P. rebeli</em> on dry and subalpine calcareous grasslands. However, genetic research has shown that both have to be considered as being one species. The bright, white eggs are easy to find. They are laid on the flowers and sepals of Marsh Gentian (<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em>) or Willow Gentian (<em>G. asclepiadea</em>) in the case of the wet <em>P. alcon</em> form, and on Cross Gentian (<em>G. cruciata</em>) by the dry <em>P. rebeli</em> form. At first, the small caterpillars feed on the ovaries of the foodplant, but they pass the later instars in the nests of various <em>Myrmica</em> ants, <em>M. ruginodis</em>, <em>M. scabrinodis</em> and sometimes <em>M. rubra</em>. They hibernate and pupate in the ant nests. The Alcon Blue has one generation a year. <br>Habitats of the form <em>alcon</em>, adapted to wet localities: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (30%), mesophile grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%). <br>Habitats of the form <em>rebeli</em>, adapted to dry localities: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (5%).
171928		population	eng	This species always occurs in local, isolated populations and is restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Russia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
171928		threats	eng	Changes in agricultural management (improvements like land drainage as well as abandonment) threaten this species in grasslands. Fragmentation and isolation is the most important threat on heathlands, although the species can survive for a long time in small habitat patches. In Western Europe (the Netherlands, Belgium), it is also threatened in nature reserves by habitat degradation of wet heathlands, caused by large-scale lowering of groundwater table and nutrient input.
171932		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation actions for this species.&#160; Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine range,&#160; population trends and threats to this species.
171932		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Greece by Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2006, Fauna Europea).&#160; Gloer and Maassen (2009) list the species as present on Corfu, but little other data is currently available on the distribution on Corfu.
171932		habitat	eng	The habitat is uncertain.
171932		population	eng	There is little recent data, so population trend is not known.
171932		threats	eng	There is no specific threat data for this species, although over-abstraction of water maybe an issue.
171934		conservation	eng	<p><em>Daphniola louisi</em> is not protected in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region></st1:place>, but the Monastery of Kessariani is a part of the protected site: GR3000006 “Ymittos-Aesthitiko Dasos Kessaianis-Limni Vouliagmenis” of Natura 2000 network. Appropriate site protection is needed to prevent further habitat degradation and population declines. Research is needed relating to the extent of the impact of the fish introduced to the pools on this species.<br/></p>
171934		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece. It was described recently from artificial pools near the springs at Kessariani, near to Athens (Falniowski and Szarowska 2000).
171934		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring species, where the site was modified many centuries ago by Hadrian to allow water to be used to supply drinking water to Athens.
171934		population	eng	Population decline has been observed in recent years.
171934		threats	eng	This site has been used for the supply of domestic water for centuries. Falniowski (pers. comm. 2009) notes that originally the species could be found in abundance, however recently the population abundance has changed, since the introduction of fish to the pools.     <p>    </p><p>High tourism pressure at this site leads to disturbance of the outflow point and the reservoir. Also, pollution and over-abstraction of water for irrigation is a threat to the species. </p><p></p>
171935		conservation	eng	The species has been proposed for listing as Vulnerable A3c  in the Spanish Red List of Invertebrates and as Vulnerable A2c; B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) in the Andalusian Red List of Invertebrates. Special conservation interest must be devoted to the population of the Ruidera lakes. More research is needed on the population and distribution of this species, as well as on the habitat trends.
171935		distribution	eng	<p>This species lives in the&#160;river basins of the&#160;south-western <st1:place w:st="on">Iberian Peninsula</st1:place>.&#160;Live populations are distributed throughout the Guadiana, Mira and Sado river basins in Spain and Portugal.&#160;In Portugal it is known from Mira (<st1:placename w:st="on">Torgal</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype>) and Sado basins.&#160;It occurs in several tributaries of the Guadiana river in Spain (Estena, Milagro, Bullaque, Guadalmez) and Portugal (Amoreiras, Azambuja, Barranco do Vidigao, Caia, Chança, Foupana, Limas, Lucefecit, Marmelar, Odeleite, S. Pedro, Terges e Cobres, Vascao). There is&#160;one population at the Ruidera lakes (Guadiana river, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>).&#160;</p><p><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></p>
171935		habitat	eng	This species lives in temporary Mediterranean-type streams, on shores and slopes under the tree shadow, generally on sandy or muddy substrate at pool areas that do not dry up during the dry season. It can live in lakes (Ruidera lakes). In the dry seasons, specimens survive in isolated populations which take refuge in pools together with the fish. <br/><br/>Maturing of larvae (glochidia) is not always synchronous. <em>Unio tumidiformis </em>has proven to be an unusual host-specific species, apparently parasitizing only fishes of the genus <em>Squalius</em>, regardless of the mussel and fish species being sympatric or not. Successful encapsulation or complete metamorphosis was observed in five species: <em>S. alburnoides </em>complex<em>, S. aradensis, S. caroliterti, S. pyrenaicus </em>and <em>S. torgalensis</em>.
171935		population	eng	It is estimated that between 30 and 35% of the total populations have been lost in the last 50 years. The generation length is 15–25 years, providing three generations as 45–75 years. Also one subpopulation which had thousands of specimens until 2005 is now practically extinct after the drought in that year. There is one good population at the Ruidera lakes (Spain).
171935		threats	eng	<p>The habitat of this species is threatened by change of hydrologic regime of the streams, natural droughts, gravel extraction, water extraction, dams and impoundments. Loss of host fish, due to the introduction of exotic fish competitor, is also negatively affecting the species, as well as the increase of pollution due to intensive farming and industry.</p>
171936		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Further data is required on distribution, population trends and threats, as the area is quite developed, therefore the species may be under threat.
171936		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands of Spain, where it is described from one location, Torrent de Fornalutx, Soller Stadt, Mallorca (Glöer and Beckmann 2007)</p>
171936		habitat	eng	This species is found in a freshwater river entering the bay at Soller Stradt.
171936		population	eng	This is a recently described species so there is no data on population trends.
171936		threats	eng	As this is a recently described species the threats to it are not fully evaluated, however there are likely to be pressures on water supplies in the region as well as possible pollution from the urban developments in the catchment.
171938		conservation	eng	There are no known actions in place for this species, but further investigations in to the distribution and threats to the species are urgently needed as it has a very restricted distribution and has already been lost from one site. Site management is required to prevent degradation of the remaining known site.
171938		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to Spain, where it is only known from the type locality, Ereno, near to Arieta, Province Navarra, Vizcaya (UTM grid square WP30). Possibly it is present at another site but the material was lost after collection (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>
171938		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater spring-snail species.
171938		population	eng	There are no population trend data available for this species.
171938		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are changes to the hydrological regime, water quality and vegetation in the springs (Rolan pers. comm. 2010, Verdu and Galante 2009).
171939		conservation	eng	Further research is required to determine whether there is any known impact from pollution on the fauna of the lake to determine whether the species is highly threatened, as well as further distributional data.
171939		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Pamvotis, Greece, where specimens were found on the shores of an island on the southern side of the Lake (Gloer and Pesic 2006).
171939		habitat	eng	This species lives on freshwater lake margins.
171939		population	eng	This is a recently described species, based in part on Museum Collection records, and the status requires review.
171939		threats	eng	The main threats to the species lie in the threats to the lake from pollution, both agricultural (Nitrates) and domestic (sewage).&#160; However K. Radea (pers. comm. 2010) considered that the threats are unlikely to be significant in their impact on the lake fauna.
171940		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species and surveys are recommended to establish threats, distribution and population trends to enable a revised conservation assessment.
171940		distribution	eng	The species is known from the island of Lesbos, Greece (Bank 1988).
171940		habitat	eng	Freshwater springs are the presumed habitat for this species.
171940		population	eng	There is no data on recent population trends of this species.
171940		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species, but all freshwater springs are facing issues as the result of increased frequency of drought events as well as over-abstraction of water for water supplies, especially in tourist areas.
171942		conservation	eng	The species is protected in Croatia, however the pollution is still a problem for this species and urgent conservation actions are required to control polluting sources and reduce groundwater use for the extant populations.
171942		distribution	eng	This species is known around seven locations is Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia & Hercegovina. In Slovenia the species is known from one site where it was found as shell deposits. In Croatia there were originally 15 sites described from five sub-populations in the 1960s, but following extensive surveys only three have been rediscovered over the last two years. In Bosnia & Hercegovina it has been described from 13 sites of which four populations have been re-discovered (although not all original sites have been searched). According to Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) in Bosnia & Hercegovina the species has been recorded from six cave systems at Lusci Palanka, Dabarska Pecina, Tihalijina, Metkovic and Popova Polje as well as from shells in springs at Isvir Krupe and Vrgarac. The main cluster of sites are between Spilt, Mostar and Dubrovnik.
171942		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from cave systems where it cements onto the rock surfaces. It lives as clusters of shells attached to the cave walls, with the waters having a relatively constant temperature of 9°C and the clusters are not exposed to sunlight. These caves are only accessible during the summer periods, when after periods without rain, water levels within the caves drop, allowing access. This drop in water level is thought to be the trigger for reproduction, when the sperm are released into the water, and then in all probability ‘inhaled’ by the females from the water. The eggs are brooded internally and either released as larva with a short planktonic life, or as ‘crawl away’ juveniles, as is the case with <em>Corbicula fluminea</em>.
171942		population	eng	There are few data on population trends. In Bosnia & Hercegovina there is good evidence of serious declines. This species is believed to be long-lived, based on the growth rings in the shell, with an assumption that one growth ring is laid down each year. The estimated age of an individual 12.7 mm in length was 25 years, and the largest known shells are over 25 mm (Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) also suggests that sometimes there are years with high juvenile mortality and little recruitment.
171942		threats	eng	Main threats to the species come from pollution of groundwaters from domestic sources and agricultural runoff. &#160; Although the species is able to withstand a late summer/early autumn drop in water levels, it would also be vulnerable to longer periods of draw-down (water extraction) as would happen if these cave waters were to be heavily exploited as a source of artesian waters for domestic supplies.
171943		conservation	eng	<p><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> </st1:place>is under various transboundary projects focused on ecosystem management. Population trends monitoring, habitat monitoring, water quality monitoring and critical levels of pesticide monitoring are required. </p>
171943		distribution	eng	A recently described species that is listed as endemic for <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, known only from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename>, and may occur in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, &#160;as similar biotopes exist there.<br/><br/>It has been found in 8 sites (River Crnojevića, Malo Blato, Vranjina, Tanki Rt, Karuč, Plavnica, Vitoja, Virpazar).
171943		habitat	eng	<p>Lives in the littoral part of the lake; different habitats but mostly in vegetation consisting of Ceratophyllum and Myriophyllum. &#160;</p>
171943		population	eng	It is known from many of the sites where collecting occurred, and occurred throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">the Montenegro</st1:country-region> side of <st1:place w:st="on">the Lake Skadar. Might also be present in the Albanian side of Lake Skadar.<br/></st1:place>
171943		threats	eng	<p>The main threat for this species is the rapid process of eutrophication in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further, the spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc should be captured for coastal (part of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:place></st1:country-region>) water drinking. <br/></p>
171945		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known for this species which is endemic for Skadar Lake drainage (Montenegro) and for Albanian part of Skadar Lake (Dhora 2009).
171945		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia radomani </span>is endemic to Albania & Montenegro.    It is known from Lake Skadar and many of the tributaries that flow into the lake. It is the most abundant species in the Zeta River, as well as in the Drin River Catchment and Shkodra lake drainage (Feher & Eross, 2009).
171945		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater lakes and rivers.
171945		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
171945		threats	eng	The major threats lie in the decline in habitat quality, due to the rapid process of eutrophication in Skadar Lake and infiltration of domestic waste waters causing water pollution in most of the rivers in southern Montenegro.
171946		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this recently described species, however research is required to determine the distribution and threats to the species.
171946		distribution	eng	This recently described species is only known from the type locality, where it is found at Psili Ammos (east of Pythagorio) near a freshwater-lake, on Samos Island, Greece  (Glöer and Maasen 2009). Further data is required to confirm how extensive the range of the species on the island is.
171946		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater pools and lake margins.
171946		population	eng	There is no data on current population status, as this is a recently described species.
171946		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this recently described species.
171948		conservation	eng	This recently described species has unknown threats and the range may be limited, so conservation actions required include more data on range and threats.
171948		distribution	eng	This newly described species is currently known from a fast flowing stream in the Soller region on the island of Mallorca, Spain.
171948		habitat	eng	The species was found on the bed of a freshwater stream on consolidated, calcareous rocks.
171948		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
171948		threats	eng	Any threats to this newly described species are unknown.
171952		conservation	eng	This recently described species has no known conservation actions. More data is required on distribution, population trends and threats as well as habitat monitoring at the single known site to establish if there is any decline. If this is found to be the case, the location would require protecting.
171952		distribution	eng	This recently described species is currently only known from single location, a spring at Cherni Osam River in the Stara Planina Mountains.
171952		habitat	eng	The species has been found in freshwater springs close to a river in the mountains.
171952		population	eng	There is no population trend data on this species as it is recently described.
171952		threats	eng	The freshwater springs are currently in good state, although there is some tourism present at the site, as the site is high altitude and close to a route used by tourists, so there is the possibility of localised pollution from domestic sources.
171953		conservation	eng	The species was recommended for urgent inclusion in the Spanish Red List, as Endangered, based on its single location, low density of population and threats from habitat degradation (Verdu and Galante 2009).&#160; It was proposed for   Andalusian Red List of Invertebrates: Endangered A4c; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)c(iv)+C2b. Actions  are required to look at ex-situ breeding to conserve the species as  well as catchment management plans to maintain habitats for the species. Efforts should be made to attempt to increase the known range of the species and to determine if the population at the known site is still extant after it completely dried out in 2007.
171953		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality in Europe where live specimens have been recently found in the Barbate River, Cádiz, southwest Spain. Elsewhere the species is known from Atlantic rivers of south Iberia and Morocco where two localities were found recently in the Beth River, Sebou basin, northwest Morocco (Araujo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
171953		habitat	eng	This species has been found in temporary Mediterranean-type streams and in substrates of sand and gravel at pool areas that do not dry up during the dry season. In the Spanish river, the species shares its habitat with <span style="font-style: italic;">Potomida littoralis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio cf. pictorum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonta cf. anatina</span>, whereas in Morocco it was found living with another species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Unio</span> and with <span style="font-style: italic;">Potomida</span> sp. (Araujo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
171953		population	eng	There is no population trend information as the species is only known from a few specimens, although the habitat is being degraded, with the site completely drying out in 2007, and it is uncertain whether this population is still extant. This has not been confirmed either way.
171953		threats	eng	The species' habitat is threatened by change in the hydrological regime of the streams through natural droughts, water detraction, dams and impoundments, the loss of host fish populations and increases in intensive farming and industry.
171954		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine the distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
171954		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Cetina River Drainage (Glöer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Glöer and Pesic 2007).&#160; Recently Glöer and Beran (2009) reviewed material collected at Omiš, on River Cetina near the coast in Dalmatia, and confirmed the presence of the species in the river. The lower part of the river from the Gubavica Falls (49 m a.s.l.) near the village of Zadvarje (20 km from Omiš), is less gorge-like, although still fast flowing.
171954		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower parts of freshwater rivers.
171954		population	eng	The species has been recently collected, but there is no population trend data.
171954		threats	eng	The species lives in a freshwater river, where the flow is managed as there are several hyrdolectric dams across the lower courses of the river, and there may be some threats from flow management, however the impact on the species is uncertain, as it may occur elsewhere in the catchment.
171955		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are know for this species, however the species is present in a managed habitat, a Ramsar site and as such surveys should be carried out in small rivers and streams to determine if the species is present more widely in the catchment. Habitat management is needed to ensure these rivers are not impacted by pollutants. Population monitoring would identify potential declines of this species.
171955		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Balearic Islands of Spain, where it is described from two locations: Parc Albufera, S'Illot and Port Alcudia, Mallorca (Glöer and Beckmann 2007). Port Alcudia is a small harbour for fishing and has a small marina for yachts. S'illot is at the southern end of the Protected Area of Parc Albufera. The area of the Parc is quite extensive, and the distribution of the species is currently uncertain, as it is recently described and separated from the widespread species <span style="font-style: italic;">B. tentaculata</span>.<br/></p>
171955		habitat	eng	This species has been described from small rivers adjacent to roads (possibly within managed channel areas). It may occur more widely within the catchment.
171955		population	eng	This species was recently described, and as such no population trend data is available.
171955		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, as it is recently described. It lies in the edge of a national park (also a Ramsar site) and as such may lie within the managed catchments. It may be vulnerable to water pollution and variability in water flow levels.
171956		conservation	eng	Further research is required to determine whether there is any known  impact from pollution on the fauna of the lake at one of the known sites to determine whether the  species is highly threatened, as well as further distributional data on the region between the two known sites to determine if the species is more widespread.
171956		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from Greece, where it was described from nomos Joannina, springs near monastery Velas, South-South-West of Konitsa (Glöer and Maasen 2009).&#160; They noted that the species was also recorded from Lake Pamvotis by Mousson (based on the illustrations given in Frogley and Preece 2007). They also comment that the material that we investigated was found ca. 50 km north of Ioannina, thus this species is not endemic to Lake Pamvotis.
171956		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater spring pools and lake margins (Glöer and Maasen 2009).
171956		population	eng	There is no information on population status for this recently described species, but it should be noted that the data was in part based on Museum collection material collected over 15 years ago, so modern surveys are required.
171956		threats	eng	There is no known data on the threats to this species, although Lake Pamvotis is known to be polluted from nitrates (agricultural sources) and sewage (domestic sources). Further data on impact of these threats on the species is required.
171957		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for the species. Lake Skadar has some ecosystem management plans in place, however, this species requires habitat management to maintain the ecosystem in view of the possible lake-level changes and eutropication, as it&#160;                lives in the littoral part of the lake between the emergent and floating vegetation.&#160; Survey-work is required to establish the number of subpopulations in Albania.
171957		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia skadarskii&#160; </span>is an endemic species of Lake Skadar, between Montenegro and Albania. It is known from 3 sites,   Karuč, Vranjina, Island Kom. This species is   listed for the Albanian part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Dhora 2009) but without locality.
171957		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia skadarskii </span>lives in the littoral part of the lake between the emergent (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites communis, Typha angustifolia, Scirpus lacuster</span>) and floating (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea alba, Nuphar luteum, Trapa natans</span>) vegetation.
171957		population	eng	Population size and trends for the species is unknown.
171957		threats	eng	The lake is suffering rapid eutrophication as the result of agricultural activities and pollution from domestic sewage.&#160; There is also offtake of water from parts of the lake for domestic supplies in the towns adjacent to the lake.
171958		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species, but further investigations into the distribution and threats to the species are urgently needed. Conservation actions needed include a education programme on habitat management to maintain the species and protection of the site.
171958		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, where it is only known from two springs in Villazon, near&#160;Salas in Province&#160;Asturias (Arconada et al. 2007):</p><ul><li>Villazón, Salas, Fuente Caliente, Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ21)</li><li>Villazón, Salas, Province Asturias (UTM grid square QJ21) cemetery washing place.</li></ul>
171958		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs in the village. The species has already been lost from one spring site (Rolán pers. comm. 2010).
171958		population	eng	This species was recently described. There are no data on population trends.
171958		threats	eng	This species is only know from the type locality: a managed spring site in a village which is utilised for water. Another spring close to the village from which it was collected many years ago has been destroyed (Rolán pers. comm. 2010).
171960		conservation	eng	None in place. The conservation actions are needed to establish the uncertain species distribution and status.
171960		distribution	eng	The range of this species is currently under review, as is the status of the species. Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) listed the species for Croatia. Anistratenko and Stadnichenko (1995: 150) gave their range description “Sicily, Balkan  peninsula, shores of northern part of the Black and Azov seas and  Caspian Sea”. Beriozkina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (1995: 36,  Fig. 5a) illustrated <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia majewskyi</span> from the Rostov Region. Gloer  and Maassen (2009) commented that the identity of the species  used  for the range description of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia majewskyi</span>  is questionable.
171960		habitat	eng	The habitats are uncertain, given the uncertain species status.
171960		population	eng	The population trend is uncertain, given the uncertain species status.
171960		threats	eng	The threats are uncertain, given the uncertain species distribution and status.
171961		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action specifically for this species, however, a water management plan in the region is in place, although there are still substantial problems due to pollution. Hence existing water legislation needs to be enforced and fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes needs to be drastically reduced. Longer term, regional cooperation between Albania, FYROM and Greece would be an asset for coordinated conservation action to improve the water quality in the Prespa Lake.</p>
171961		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the Prespa Lake, between Albania, FYROM and Greece.</p>
171961		habitat	eng	<p>This littoral species lives in weedy areas of the lake, where habitats are declining due to influx of pesticides, herbicides and other pollutants from groundwater and surface run-off.<br/></p>
171961		population	eng	<p>This species is frequent in suitable habitats in the lake.</p>
171961		threats	eng	<p>Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake and could be impacting this species. In addition habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, could threaten this lake species in future.</p>
171962		conservation	eng	Lake Trichonis is a Natura 2000 site, and as such could benefit from protection and from control on water exploitation.
171962		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, and it is known from several subpopulations all restricted to the southern shore of Lake Trichonis.
171962		habitat	eng	The species is found in the littoral zone within the lake.
171962		population	eng	There is no detailed information on population trend.
171962		threats	eng	The most severe threats come from over abstraction of water from the lake or lack of rainfall that lead to changing lake levels as the species occurs in a narrow belt in the lake. Other threats come from invasive species, changing water quality with increasing nitrate content following water draining into the lake from streams carrying agricultural fertilizers used on the land and inflow of sewage. The very recent appearance of another globally invasive gastropod species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamopyrgus antipodarum</span>, in Lake Trichonis is of greater concern for the other native Gastropod species in the lake (Radea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
171963		conservation	eng	This species requires research on threats, population trends and distribution.
171963		distribution	eng	This species is listed for Montenegro by Fauna Europea, but there is little recent data on the range.
171963		habitat	eng	There is no data on habitat for this species.
171963		population	eng	There is no known population data on this species.
171963		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
171964		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are know for this species, however the species is present in a managed habitat, and as such surveys should be carried out in adjacent springs to determine if the species is present outside the gardens and habitat management is needed to ensure these are not impacted by pollutants. Population monitoring is recommended to identify potential declines of this species.
171964		distribution	eng	This recently described species was found in the ponds in the Jardín Botánico de Sòller, Mallorca, Balearic islands of Spain and is only considered to be found at the type locality (Glöer and Beckmann 2007).
171964		habitat	eng	This species is found in the ponds in the Jardín Botánico de Sòller.
171964		population	eng	There is no population trend data as this species was recently described.
171964		threats	eng	The major threats to the species remain in the management of the Botanic garden water bodies, as degradation of the habitats through 'cleaning' and pollution events could potentially impact the species.
171965		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for the species. However,    <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> </st1:place>is under various transboundary projects focussed on ecosystem management. More research on habitat trends and population size and distribution is needed.
171965		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia zeta</span> is   endemic for <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename>. It is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region> and is also listed for the Albanian part of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Dhora 2009) but without locality. In tems of detailed records, the species is only known from 5 sites on the Lake Skadar. They are Tanki Rt, Malo Blato, Vranjina, Karuč, spring Girnje Vrelo in Dobre Vode village (near Bar).
171965		habitat	eng	This species lives under the stones on mud substrate in the littoral part of the Lake Skadar.
171965		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown for this species.
171965		threats	eng	Rapid process of eutrophication is taking place in the Lake Skadar. Further, the spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc is captured for drinking water use in coastal Montenegro. The spring Gornje Vrelo is partly captured for local drinking water.
171967		conservation	eng	<p>The species is strictly protected by law in Lower Austria. However it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>
171967		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella lunzensis</span> is endemic to Austria, specifically the north eastern Alps.   It was recently described by Boeters in 2008 from lake Untersee at Lunz, Lower Austria.
171967		habitat	eng	This freshwater species differs from most other<em>&#160;</em>species in this genus, as it was sampled from a lake, not a spring, although there are various unconfirmed records based on shells from lakes, at present it is known only from this one lake.
171967		population	eng	The population trend for this species remains unknown as no live individuals has been found.
171967		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to this species is from pollution, mainly from fertilisers as a result of agricultural practices. The lake is also used for recreational activities, which may disturb the  bottom where the species is found.</p>
171968		conservation	eng	<p>No specific actions exists for this species, but there are some conservation actions in place for the Lake itself. Distributional data is required.</p>
171968		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia hambergerae </span>is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, where it is only known from the River Plavnica near Gornja Plavnica, area of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename></st1:place>. This species has recently been described but the distribution is uncertain. There are also records from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, however, these records are unconfirmed and therefore the range maybe more extensive.
171968		habitat	eng	This specie inhabits freshwater lake margins and rivers.
171968		population	eng	As this species has been recently described, the population size and trends are not known.
171968		threats	eng	There is rapid eutrophication taking place in Skadar Lake. In the last years, the area of Plavnica (at Skadar Lake) is devastated by the development of a local tourist centre and a littoral part of the lake at Plavnica is deepened to consent of the local touristic ships.
171972		conservation	eng	<p>Approximately half of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
171972		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the eastern part of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from three locations and five sites.<br/></p>
171972		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
171972		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.</p>
171972		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats known to this species.</p>
171973		conservation	eng	All the populations are included in a regional protected area of the Serra d'Espadà (Castellón), but a conservation plan is needed. New sampling efforts are needed to define the Area of occupancy and population size, and to determine the effects of human disturbances on the population.
171973		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Valencian autonomous community of Spain, where it is restricted to the Sierra de Espadà in the Castellón province.
171973		habitat	eng	It lives in dry environments, in the herbaceous stratum in cork forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span>) and in successional shrubs (such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus monspeliensis, Erica scoparia, </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lavandula stoechas</span>), accompanied occasionally by maritime pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span>), on soils of siliceous substratum.<br/><br/>&#160;It is associated with some other terrestrial molluscs species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypnophila malagana, Rumina decollata, Xerocrassa subrogata, Pseudotachea splendida</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberus alonensis</span>.
171973		population	eng	This species present with a low population density, with only four live specimens&#160; found during annual surveys conducted over the past sixteen years. <br/><p>&#160;</p>
171973		threats	eng	The main threat to this habitat comes from fires, which in 1994/5 destroyed approximately 800 ha of pine forest, and in 2009 destroyed approximately 8.2 ha (Martínez-Ortí and Puente, in press). Other threats to this species include grazing, human activities (e.g. road  construction), cutting of trees for corks and associated  activities (altering the vegetation and substratum of the habitat), tourism (localities are within a nature reserve), and quarrying. The effects of these threats could be compounded by the small number of locations, low population density and limited dispersal ability of this species.
171974		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed, even if the conservation of the biotope is recommended.
171974		distribution	eng	The species is widespread on the Teno mountains of Tenerife, in the Canary islands (Spain).
171974		habitat	eng	This species occur from dry open rocky drifts over the dry lowland-vegetation with shrubs (Piso basal) up to the dry laurel-forests (Laurisilva).
171974		population	eng	This species is widespread and the population is estimated to be stable.
171974		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Clearing of forest might impact the species locally.
171975		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;&#160;Further studies are needed on the distribution and habitat and ecology of this species.</p>
171975		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece and it is currently know only from a small area in Peloponnese (south Greece) (Gittenberger 2008).
171975		habitat	eng	The species was found in the westslope of&#160;Mt. Skollis near Santameri (700 m above sea level) (Gittenberger 2008).
171975		population	eng	The species is known from the 15 individuals used for the description of the species (Gittenberger 2008).&#160;There is no available information regarding the population trend of the species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
171975		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is not ant known direct threat for the species now or in the near future.</p>
171976		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but its habitats should be conserved, particularly the few remaining moist places in eastern Sicily.
171976		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Sicily. It was also indicated by Forcart (1965) for the Italian mainland which opinion is followed by Fauna Europaea (Bank 2011). But Reitano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) consider&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Monacha  rizzae</span> as an endemic species of Sicily, restricted to the eastern part of the island. Currently, the species is known from four localities (Grotta Palombara, Cava d'Ispica, environs of Siracusa, Monti Iblei).
171976		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid to dry habitats; riparian biotopes alongside water courses, in moist litter, but also in dryer zones under stones, litter or stands of herbaceous plants.
171976		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
171976		threats	eng	The main threats to this species is related to changes in land use, urbanisation, pasturing and desiccation.
171977		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at a national level in Albania and other known  sites are out of protected areas. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is not any data on the number of sub-populations. These are the points that should be studied and clarified first.
171977		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwestern Albania. Empty shells have been found in three locations in the debris of the River Drim, upstream of Koman. As only empty shells were found in fluvial debris so far, we do not know exactly where this species lives. It is impossible to determine the number of living subpopulations and area of occupancy (AOO), and even Extent of occurrence (EOO) are just roughly estimated.<span class="link_allat"><em> </em>However, there is no reason to suppose that the Extent of occurrence (EOO), Area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
171977		habitat	eng	<p>This species was found only in floodline debris as empty shells, but based on knowledge of related species it is possible to infer that it occurs in the subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.</p>
171977		population	eng	So far, only empty shells of this species have been found in fluvial debris. Therefore it is impossible to infer population trend.
171977		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by quarrying, urbanisation or road construction. Waste disposal sites can also have a negative impact on the species habitat through the leaching of chemicals. However, the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.<br/><br/></p>
171978		conservation	eng	The habitat of this species should be protected.
171978		distribution	eng	The species is known from one location on the Teno peninsula in Tenerife. &#160;Originally this species was described based on subfossil material, however it is now known living from this small region.
171978		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species which occurs on rocky slopes with typical piso basa vegetation with the species living amongst the roots and in crevices. &#160;The species lived on plant detritus.
171978		population	eng	There are no population data available.
171978		threats	eng	Minor levels of threat due to disturbance of the habitat due to small scale developments for recreational use of the area.
171979		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this recently described species. More research is needed on the population and distribution of the species.
171979		distribution	eng	According to AnimalBase Project Group (2010), the species lives in the south of Italy (Campania, Basilicata).
171979		habitat	eng	According to AnimalBase Project Group (2010), the species lives in leaf litter of deciduous forests, under limestone rocks and stones.
171979		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
171979		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting the species at the moment, except quarrying and road construction.
171980		conservation	eng	<p>Small parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
171980		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the southeastern parts of the&#160; island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from five locations and eight sites.<br/></p>
171980		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), pine forests and even in Fayal-Brezal.</p>
171980		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.</p>
171980		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
171981		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
171981		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the northern parts of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from three locations and six sites.<br/></p>
171981		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), pine forests (Pinar) and Fayal-Brezal.</p>
171981		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
171981		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by increasing land-use by the municipality of Vallehermoso. However the destruction of the entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
171982		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
171982		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to a small area in the Teno alto and bajo in the north-west of the island of Tenerife. This species is recorded from three locations and three sites.<br/></p>
171982		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
171982		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
171982		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to this species.</p>
171983		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the last version of the Norwegian Red List (2010), but is not evaluated in the latest Swedish Red List. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.
171983		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northernmost Sweden and Norway. It has only been recorded from two localities in the very northernmost part of Sweden (Pältsan) and seven in the adjacent part of Norway (Finnmark county, in the river valleys of Tana elv and its tributary Anarjohka) (von Proschwitz 2010).
171983		habitat	eng	This species lives in brook valleys or mountain slopes with mountain birch and often Salix shrubs. The Norwegian localities are situated at 180-200 m altitude; the Swedish somewhat higher, at 520–620 m altitude
171983		population	eng	There are no population data available.
171983		threats	eng	Destruction or alteration of habitats through exploitation, road construction etc. is the main threat for this species.
171984		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
171984		distribution	eng	<p>This species is living in a small area on the Jandia Peninsula on Fuerteventura. This species is recorded from two locations and four sites.<br/></p>
171984		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs on lichen-rich rocks. </p>
171984		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
171984		threats	eng	<p>The main threat for this species is trampling and overgrazing by goats.</p>
171985		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action regarding the species. Research activities are recommended on populations studies and distribution and on the ecology of the species.</p>
171985		distribution	eng	The species is known from Croatia, Montenegro, north&#160;Albania&#160;and north-western Greece (Subai 2008, Feher and Eross 2009).
171985		habitat	eng	The species is found &#160;in limestone areas, close to streams in the soil of forested areas.
171985		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information regarding the population trend of this species. This species is thought to be relatively common.</p>
171985		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future. The ecology of the species is&#160;understudied.</p>
171987		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oestophora</span> <em>mariae</em>&#160;is only known from one locality in Sierra de Castril Natural Park. More research is needed on the population, ecology, distribution and habitat of this species and the threats it faces. It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent discovery, it has not been included in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) nor in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
171987		distribution	eng	This Andalusian endemic species is only known from the type locality in the north of the province of Granada (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
171987		habitat	eng	“Sierra de Castril” is a group of calcareous mountains located inside the bowl of the river <st1:place w:st="on">Guadalquivir</st1:place>, that climatically belongs to the Mediterranean continental region with extreme temperatures and annual average rainfall of about <st1:metricconverter productid="400 mm" w:st="on">400  mm</st1:metricconverter>. The bioclimatic belt and the land use of the area where the specimens were collected were meso-Mediterranean and dense wooded formation (coniferous), respectively. Specimens were located under stones associated with decaying vegetable matter (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
171987		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
171987		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not very well known.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Oestophora</span> <em> mariae</em>&#160;mainly lives in the Natural Park of Sierra de Castril (Granada provinces). Possible threats include impacts of fires, recreational activities and&#160;stochastic episodes, the last two specially <br/>as the only known location for this species is the type locality. More studies are needed to define other threats, such as the impact of the pine forest afforestations that have displaced the natural vegetation, especially as the long term effects of this habitat change for this species are unknown.<em></em>
171988		conservation	eng	Conservation actions should be focused to habitat preservation. Cabrera Archipelago is a Natural Reserve (National Park) which allows the preservation of this land in its almost virginal condition. Studies about the population and biology of this species would be of great interest in order to better design conservation actions. Its area of occupancy should be better delimited.
171988		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Balearic Islands in Spain. It is restricted to the southeast of Mallorca Island and the Cabrera Archipelago. In Mallorca it extends along a narrow area near the coast, between the Cap de ses Salines and S'Estanyol.
171988		habitat	eng	This species lives in very dry, open and sunny habitats, near the coastline, in places with sand and calcareous stones substratum and with Mediterranean herbaceous and shrubland vegetation.
171988		population	eng	There are no population studies, but the population trend is assumed to be stable.
171988		threats	eng	Presently, urban and tourism development is not a major threat for this species. There are only two main urban areas with the rest of the coast where this species is living, being well preserved. The development of new residential areas is only a future threat. The main threats are recreational activities and fire risk.
171992		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at a national level in Albania and its known site is outside of protected areas. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known, therefore, research activity should focus on that.&#160;Any threats should be taken seriously only if there is really only one subpopulation, as it is believed now. Otherwise, there are no realistic threats to the whole population.</p>
171992		distribution	eng	This species lives in the Tomor Mountains in Albania. So far, this species is known from the type locality Qafa e Devris, so it seems to be a narrow range endemic species. The species is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO), are declining or extremely fluctuating.  <p>&#160;</p>
171992		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with a limestone area. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
171992		population	eng	The potential locations of the species are difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite unexplored. There are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
171992		threats	eng	<p>  This species is probably not very sensitive to ecosystem modification. It might be threatened only by the total destruction of the habitat (quarrying, road construction, etc.). Any threats should be taken seriously only if there is really only one subpopulation, as it is believed now. Otherwise, there are no realistic threats to the whole population.</p>
171996		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in the countries where it occurs, but some of the subpopulations may occur in protected areas. The geographic range and the existing subpopulations of this species is not exactly known, therefore research activity should focus on these points.
171996		distribution	eng	According to P. Subai (2011), this species is known from the west to north-west of Bulgaria and the east of Serbia. There are two geographically close records known from Greece (Macedonia). The gap between both areas may be an artefact due to missing collection efforts.
171996		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.</p>
171996		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
171996		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly "hypothetical".</p>
171997		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at a national level in Albania and its known  site is out of protected areas. The geographic range of this species is  not exactly known, therefore, research activity is urgently required to focus on that. If no further sites are found the one known site should be protected.
171997		distribution	eng	This species lives in the Tomor Mountains in Albania. So far, this species is  known from the type locality one km from Maja e Kulmakut, so it seems to be a narrow  range endemic species. The species is far from being well studied and  new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to  suppose that the area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) are declining or extremely fluctuating.
171997		habitat	eng	This is a rock-dwelling species, associated with a limestone  area. It has been found on bare rock surfaces, in crevices or at the base  of rocks.
171997		population	eng	Due to the fact that the potential locations of the species are  difficult to access and therefore the species’ range is quite  unexplored, there are no data on population trend. However, there is no  reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature  individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.
171997		threats	eng	<p>  This species is probably not very sensitive to ecosystem modification and may be threatened only by the total  destruction of the habitat such as from quarrying. Any threats should be taken seriously only if there is really only one subpopulation, as it is believed now. Otherwise, there are no realistic threats to the whole population.</p>
172000		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;No conservation actions in effect currently.
172000		distribution	eng	This is a recently described new species for science (Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2004). Although the species is known from a small area of Ossa Mountain, in Thessalia and from just 11 individuals/shells, it is quite possible to have a wider distribution and larger populations.
172000		habitat	eng	Calcareous areas with shrublands (phrygana and maquis) above 700 meters.&#160;<em><br/></em>
172000		population	eng	The species is known from 11 shells/individuals (see Triantis <em>et al</em>. 2004).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.
172000		threats	eng	There is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.
172001		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oestophora</span><em> prietoi</em> is mainly distributed in the Cazorla&#160;Natural Park. It is also included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent discovery, it has not been included in the Spanish Atlas of the Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) nor in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). More research is needed on the population, ecology and distribution of this species, as well as the threats it faces. Educational information and guidance for park management are also important conservation measures.
172001		distribution	eng	<p>This is an Andalusia endemic species, found in Sierra de Cazorla (Baetic Cordillera) and on the first slopes of the Sierra Morena in the Andalusian provinces of <st1:city w:st="on">Jaen</st1:city> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Cordoba (Spain) (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)</st1:city></st1:place>.</p>
172001		habitat	eng	It mainly&#160;lives&#160;on meso-Mediterranean inland limestone mountains in northern <st1:place w:st="on">Andalusia</st1:place>. All the localities where the species was found were situated near the high course of the Guadalquivir river (between 500 to 715 m asl), except the one in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">province of Cordoba</st1:city></st1:place>, that belongs to the medium course (149-185 m asl) and is also the only locality situated in the thermo-Mediterranean bioclimatic belt. <em>O. prietoi</em> was found associated with conifers, mainly in woodland-forestry zones but also in pastures with dispersed coniferous trees. It was found in a great variety of refuges such as trunks, moss, walls and crevices, and particularly among stones and fallen leaves. It is resistant to anthropic influence, being able to live under rubble (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
172001		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
172001		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not very well known, but they are probably limited, as <em>O. prietoi</em>&#160;mainly occurs in the Natural Park of Cazorla (Jaén province), one of the most significant and well managed Spanish Protected Areas. The only possible threat are the effects of recreational activities due to the increasing tourism to this area. More studies are needed to identify other threats.
172004		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
172004		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the eastern parts of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from one location (comprising two sites in close proximity to each other).<br/></p>
172004		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
172004		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
172004		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
172005		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
172005		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the small Island of Marettimo (Aegadian Islands), west of Sicily (Italy). This species is restricted to the small Island of Marettimo, where it has been found in two sites. Observations indicate that, concerning the <span style="font-style: italic;">Schileykiella</span>-species, the actual distribution in each site is not larger than approx. 20 x 20 m.
172005		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilous species, living in leaf litter in woody or maquis biotopes, or under stones in open garigue and steppe, usually on calcareous substrata in Mediterranean shrub vegetation.
172005		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
172005		threats	eng	Fire can destroy the habitat completely, and pasturing and trampling are also threatening the subpopulations.
172006		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>The species is not protected at national level in Albania. Its known sites are out of protected areas.</p>  This is a recently discovered species. The geographic range of this species is not exactly known and there is hardly any data on its subpopulations. Any research activity should focus on these points. No conservation actions are required currently for this species.<br/><p></p>
172006		distribution	eng	This species lives in North Albania. There are known subpopulations from the following sites: Zall-Rec in the Lura Mountains, Gurri i Arrenit, Gurore in the Valbona valley and Nanshene in the Shent Mountains. Furthermore, empty shells of this species were also found in the fluvial debris of the Drin River, upstream of Komani (Subai 2008, HNHM Collection unpublished data). It is far from being well studied and new locations might be discovered in the future. There is no reason to suppose that the extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
172006		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats.</p>
172006		population	eng	<p>    </p><p>Due to the hidden life of this species, there is no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that the number of subpopulations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>  <p></p>
172006		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean parts of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying or by other reasons such as from leaching from waste disposal sites. However, the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly hypothetical.
172010		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
172010		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the eastern parts of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from one location and six sites.<br/></p>
172010		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
172010		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are supposed to be stable.</p>
172010		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
172011		conservation	eng	The habitat of this species and the Jandia peninsula should be  protected. Tourist development, as well as the trampling by wild goats  should be restricted. More research is needed on the population and  distribution of the species, and habitat trends should be monitored.
172011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Canary islands where it is restricted to the Jandia peninsula in Fuerteventura. The area of occupancy is 4 km<sup>2</sup> and it is thought to be a relict distribution (Groh, pers. comm., 2010), based on the subfossil distribution.
172011		habitat	eng	<p>This ground-dwelling species which occurs on rocky slopes with typical montane vegetation with the species living on stones, in crevices and on crags/walls. &#160;The species lived on lichens.</p>
172011		population	eng	<p>This species is medium-sized and thus these are moderately susceptible to disturbance by trampling by goats. The population is thought to be stable to slightly decreasing.<br/></p>
172011		threats	eng	<p>The species is threatened by overgrazing and goats trampling. &#160;Future threats from hotel developments and road linkages if the peninsula is developed.</p>
172012		conservation	eng	The species is not protected in Bulgaria, and the known localities are out of protected areas. Research is recommended on the population trend of this species, as well as the general habitat and ecology and possible threats.
172012		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a small area in the eastern Rodopes Mountains in Southeast Bulgaria. Until now, this area is restricted from east of Kardzali between the city and the Greek border (Dedov and Subai 2006).
172012		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is open terrain with bushes, grass, <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica </span>and single trees. Specimens can be found on bushes among <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica </span>and under stones (Dedov and Subai 2006).
172012		population	eng	The species is far from being well studied as it was described in 2006. It is impossible to infer population trend.
172012		threats	eng	<p>This species might be threatened by serious ecosystem modifications (which affect either the rocks or the vegetation in their habitats), because the known localities are close to populated places. These could be deforestation, logging, recreational activities, quarrying and constructions. Any threats should be taken seriously if the range of this species is really as narrow as reported.</p>
172030		conservation	eng	It is recommended to conduct biological studies and population estimates, as well as species and habitat monitoring.&#160;Some of the subpopulations live in protected sites (i.e. Sierra Norte de Sevilla Natural Park).&#160;This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" &#160;promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).&#160;Due to its recent discovery, it has been neither included in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009), nor in the Red Book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperón and Moreno 2008).
172030		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain and <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs in the Sierra Morena mountain chain in the north of the provinces of Sevilla, Córdoba and Jaén (Andalusia) (Arrébola, Prieto, Puente and Ruiz 2006).
172030		habitat	eng	<em>H. zapateri</em> lives in lower places of the non-calcareous Sierra Morena, in areas dominated by <em>Cistus</em> spp. (specially <em>C. ladanifer</em>) associated with <em>Quercus suber</em> and <em>Q. rotundifolia</em>. It can be found under stones, below and at the base of trunks, and other refuges in humid and shaded places&#160;(Arrébola, Prieto, Puente and Ruiz 2006).&#160;<em>H. zapateri</em>&#160;and&#160;<em>G. gasulli</em>&#160;show certain ecological common aspects and occupy similar biotopes in contiguous areas of the Sierra Morena.
172030		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
172030		threats	eng	As <em>H. zapateri</em> and <em>G. gasulli</em>&#160;show certain ecological mutual aspects and they occupy similar biotopes in contiguous areas of the Sierra Morena, the threats affecting them are also partially common. Despite the fact that both species ranges are mainly included in protected areas, some of the localities where they have been cited are near human settlements with some intensive agricultural or livestock development. These threats, along with other human activities, have heavily degraded these localities and the species could progressively&#160;disappear from these areas.&#160;It would be important to quantify the proportion of the area of occupancy affected by these threats and the proportion that corresponds to more natural and better preserved places. Fires might impact the species too.
172032		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring should be implemented to assess changes in habitat status they may impact the species. Pollution management could be implemented.
172032		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella bachkovoensis </span>is known from only one type locality: a stream in the Western Rhodopes, Bulgaria (Spring near Bedechka River, park “Krairechen”, town of Stara Zagora). The length of this stream is approximately 200 m. It is possible that this species occurs in other similar locations.
172032		habitat	eng	This species lives in a small stream that is 40-50 cm in width, 5-10 cm in depth and passes through granite rocks situated beneath a large limestone area. The site is surrounded by grass vegetation and has single <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans regia</span> trees. Water temperature of the stream was 6.4° C (measured 15/03/2009), and oxygen -9.2mg/1. This species co-exists with <span style="font-style: italic;">Galba trunculata</span>.
172032		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend of this species is currently available.
172032		threats	eng	Pollution arising from a nearby farm has been shown to be negatively impacting the habitat of this species.
172033		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring would be recommended to identify future changes in habitat quality.
172033		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known to occur only in the Gargina Dupka Cave, Mostrovo Village in the Western Rhodopes, Bulgaria. &#160;In this cave it is found in a 20 m stretch of stream near to the cave entrance.</p>
172033		habitat	eng	<p>This species is troglophilic which occurs within a short (~20 m) stretch of stream in the entrance of a cave. Water temperature, measured on 14/03/2009, was 8.2ºC and oxygen levels -9.4 mg/1.</p>
172033		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend is available for this species.
172033		threats	eng	Although no current threats to this species are recognised, pollution and habitat degradation resulting from future visitors to the cave is considered a possible future threat.
172034		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species. More research on the population would be needed.
172034		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria. It is found in one single spring near to the Bedechka river, in the Krairechen Park, near to the town of Stara Zagora, Bulgaria. It is thought to only occur in a stretch of stream measuring a few metres.
172034		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a karstic spring, where it is found on stones and moss.
172034		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.
172034		threats	eng	Although there are no current threats recognised for this species, both habitat destruction and pollution (from industrial and domestic sources) are recognised as potential future threats.
172035		conservation	eng	The Lepenitsa Cave is a nationally protected site, but habitat monitoring is recommended to determine future changes to conservation status of this species.
172035		distribution	eng	<em>Bythinella gloeeri </em>is endemic to Bulgaria, and at present, it is known only from a river in the Lepenitsa Cave (273 metres in length), south of the town of Velingrad (Batashki Ridge, Western Rhodopes).
172035		habitat	eng	This species lives under stones in the underground river of Lepenitsa karstic cave, where water temperatures are around 8.4° C. These waters provide drinking water to the nearby town of Velingrad. The total length of the cave is 1525 m with a displacement of >10 m. The cave comprises 3 levels with a stream flowing for 273 m along the lowest. The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gloeeri </span>currently exists only in cave conditions and, although it is unclear if this range extended outside of the cave prior to human influence, no evidence supporting this has been found at nearby locations.
172035		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.
172035		threats	eng	Despite its protected status, the Lepenitsa cave is highly polluted and disturbed as a result of unregulated public visiting. In addition, there is an ongoing construction project, aimed at increasing tourism to the site. If <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gloeeri</span> is to persist at this site, then the use of chemical agents, excessive walking in the stream and constant strong lighting must be avoided.
172036		conservation	eng	Although no current conservation actions are in place for this species, it is recommended that surveys to determine the status of the known population, as well as the presence of possible new populations, are conducted.
172036		distribution	eng	<p>This species in believed to be a Bulgarian endemic as it has been found at only one type locality. This location is a 5 metre stretch of stream near to the Bistritza river, south of Dolna Banya in the Rila Mountains. However, it is unknown whether this is the full extent of the species' distribution and its occurrence at other locations is possible.</p><p>Even though, the location of this site is only few kms outside the  dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region, we  considered this species as being Mediterranean. This decision has been taken based on climatic and  geological similarities of the region with the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
172036		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a shallow (around 1-3 cm in depth) stream with a granite substrate. This stream is surrounded by <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica </span>woodland and is filled with decaying organic matter from these trees.
172036		population	eng	The population status and trend for this species is unknown.
172036		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance due to deforestation is thought to be the main threat to this species.
172037		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species. As this species may be more widespread, further survey work is required to establish the range and any threats.
172037		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it has been found in the Rhodope mountains (near Bachkovo and Pavelsko), and in Mesta River Valley. As a recently described species in an area with little survey work, it is expected to be present in other locations in the mountains.
172037		habitat	eng	The species lives in small rivers and springs with various temperatures.&#160;The water temperature at the Bachkovo water source was 12° C, oxygen was 9.3 mg/l, at Pavelsko they were respectively 8.2° C, and 8.4 mg/l. It is possibly a calcareous species because it was found in areas of visibly calcium rich waters.
172037		population	eng	This is a recently described species, so there is no data on population trends.
172037		threats	eng	<p>The major threats to the species are from water pollution from agricultural, domestic, and industrial sources, and habitat degradation resulting from piping of the spring waters.</p>
172038		conservation	eng	The prevention of entrance to the site by cattle, the limitation of water extraction and the careful control of any pesticide use are all recommended conservation actions. Further, the full protection of both the area and the species by law is recommended.
172038		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found at one site only. This site is the area where the water emerges from the spring of Chirpan Bunar Cave, and flows into a small pond. The total area of inhabitance is approximately 2 metres of the spring's length. The cave is situated 3 km east of the village of Bolyarino, in the Upper Thracian Lowland, Bulgaria.
172038		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a limestone lowland area, where running surface waters emerge from a cave and fill a small pond. This type locality is the spring of a small river that is surrounded by pastures and agricultural lands.
172038		population	eng	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.
172038		threats	eng	Threats to this species include direct damage from cattle, extraction of water from the pond for irrigation of agricultural lands, and the nearby use of pesticides.
172039		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place, although the habitat monitoring would be recommended, along with protection of the habitat.<br/></p>
172039		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found in the Gargina Dupka cave in Dobrostan karst system (West Rhodope Mountains). The area of the cave system is very short, only 200 metres.
172039		habitat	eng	This species is troglobite, i.e. is adapted to live permanently in cave environment.<strong> </strong>The cave has two closely situated entrances and a stream that flows out from the lower one. There is a catchment of its waters at the cave antechamber which drives away about 70% of the stream for drinking needs. The total cave length is 524 m. The specimens live under stones in a limestone cave stream, which has shallow (at average around 10-15 cm) and calm waters in winter and summer, and deep (max about 1-1.5 m) and fast running ones at rainy seasons (Markov, pers. comm.). Live specimens were collected 50 meters from the cave’s entrance, where the environmental conditions were characteristic for a cave. There was no light entering, air temperature 6.6° C, and that of the water 9.6° C with oxygen level of 9.0 mg/l. Living snails were found along the whole stretch of the stream up to the surfacing of the stream from a narrow cave whole, close to the cave’s end. At the cave’s middle parts there was a large mound of guano beneath a large bat colony, and close to the stream. At this area the oxygen in the stream dropped a little to 8.8 mg/l, the water temperature was similar, while the air warmed to 10.3° C. The only macro invertebrate animal species found to live with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. markovi </span>were flat worms <span style="font-style: italic;">Planaria</span> sp. which could be the only predator of the snails. Taking 117 at random 2x2 cm<sup>2</sup> square samples (14.03.2009) from under stone surfaces in the stream, we collected a total of 16 individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. markovi</span> which showed a relative density of 0.14 individuals per 2 cm<sup>2</sup> (min-max = 0-2 individuals).
172039		population	eng	Live specimens were collected 50 metres from the cave’s entrance, where the environmental conditions were characteristic for a cave. Living snails were found along the whole stretch of the stream up to the surfacing of the stream from a narrow cave whole, close to the cave’s end. Taking 117 at random 2x2 cm2 square samples from under stone surfaces in the stream, we collected a total of 16 individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. markovi </span>which showed a relative density of 0.14 individuals per 2 cm2 (min-max = 0-2 individuals),  (Gregoriev, pers. comm., 2009).
172039		threats	eng	Main threats include organic and chemical pollution (domestic,  agriculture) active at the cave entrance. There are occasional losses of individuals by cavers and other visitors of the cave when walking in the stream.
172041		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended to detect potential habitat degradation from pollution which could potentially cause population declines.
172041		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it was found in a&#160;small spring (water source), in the tributary of the Pavelsko village main river (West Rhodopes), south of the village.
172041		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs. It lives in springs that are visibly rich in calcium (stone surfaces were covered in a thick stratum of calcium carbonate, which also acted as a cement sticking the stones together) with a lot of rotting plant matter, with&#160; a temperature of 8.4° C, and oxygen content of 7.2 mg/l. The spring was filled mainly with dead leaves of <em>Juglans regia</em>, which was growing nearby.
172041		population	eng	This species was recently described, so there is no data on population trends.
172041		threats	eng	The main threat to the site is pollution of the spring waters from both agricultural and domestic sources.
172049		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 317 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fatua</span> held in European genebanks, 152 of which are recorded as being from wild or weedy sources. Of these wild accessions, 89 originate from European countries (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). The species is therefore currently well preserved in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections, although most of these collections pre-date 1990 and fresh collection of material would be beneficial.
172049		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fatua</span> is thought to be native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia, northern and northeast tropical Africa, and the Indian Subcontinent. However, the species is naturalized throughout temperate regions and its native range is obscure (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span style="background-color: white;">Native occurrences recorded in this assessment are primarily those according to </span>Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009). However, <span style="background-color: white;">according to Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), its origin in Madeira is uncertain and according to experts present at a European CWR Red List workshop convened in Portugal, April 2010, it is not native to Crete.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: it is a common weed distributed throughout the whole country (Eliáš Jr. unpublished). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></li><li>Greece: found in the north and there are recent records from central parts of the country (Damanakis and Economou 1986).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in all departments with the exception of   Maine-et-Loire to the west (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>UK: widespread throughout England although becoming patchy in the north of the country; it also has a patchy distribution throughout the whole of Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Within Scotland it occurs in more localities to the east than west (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Ireland: patchy distribution across the country; occurs in more localities to the east than to the west (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: widespread, especially in the south and east of the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<br/></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172049		habitat	eng	This species grows as a weed of cultivated land emergent with annual crops, and in grasslands and orchards. It is dependent on open and disturbed soil. In the UK and Ireland it is usually found in lowlands, on roadsides and in waste ground (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In the Netherlands the species was rare before 1940, but after the extension of the summer cereal cultivation the species became a problematic weed in barley and oat cultivations and spread through the country due to the use of uncleaned seed and harvest machines. After the 1960s&#160; the species declined as the cultivation of&#160; summer cereals was reduced and specific herbicides were developed to eradicate it. Currently, the species is found on disturbed road verges and ruderal areas in the Netherlands (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).
172049		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Slovakia, frequent in Portugal,&#160; Spain, Madeira and the Canary Islands, sporadic but locally frequent in Hungary, sporadic in Belarus and rare in Greece. In the Netherlands, the species occurred in 274 hour-squares before 1950 and 643 hour-squares after 1950 (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Currently, the species can be found in 301–1,000 km grid squares in the Netherlands (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
172049		threats	eng	There currently are no major threats to this species.
172050		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. podolicum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Research is needed to clarify the precise distribution of this species, as well as the population size and trend, potential threats and its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status.
172050		distribution	eng	According to Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. podolicum</span> is native in east Hungary, north Romania, west Ukraine and Central and South European Russia. However, G. Vörösváry (pers. comm. 2010) noted that it is not included in the Flora of Hungary.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172050		habitat	eng	It grows on dry steppes and stony slopes (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172050		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172050		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172051		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. staticiforme</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in  Europe (1982 edition) as 'nt' (neither rare nor threatened) (Council of  Europe 1983).<br/><br/>Information is needed on the precise distribution, habitat, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172051		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. staticiforme </span>is native to southern Greece and Crete (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980). Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) also record it as native to western Turkey.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172051		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172051		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172051		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172052		conservation	eng	This species is not native to Europe; therefore, no conservation actions are in place or needed.
172052		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aflatunense</span> is native to Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) it is also native to Slovakia; however, P. Eliáš (pers. comm. 2010) confirmed that it is not native to this country.
172052		habitat	eng	The habitat is not known and not researched as this species is not native to Europe.
172052		population	eng	There are no native populations in Europe.
172052		threats	eng	There are no native populations in Europe; therefore, the threats to this species have not been researched.
172053		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. EURISCO reports five germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. involucratus</span> stored in European genebanks; however, the origin of these accessions is Turkey (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the European populations is needed. <br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas.
172053		distribution	eng	Native to Greece (including Crete), Cyprus and western Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), as well as to the East Aegean Islands (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172053		habitat	eng	It can be found on dry rocky slopes and open pine forests (Miekle 1977, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004). In Crete it grows at altitudes of 0–1,450 m in calcium rich areas, rocky crevices and scree, as well as near the seashore (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993). It is also present in garrigue.
172053		population	eng	This is a relatively widespread and abundant species—the population is stable.
172053		threats	eng	Increase in frequency and intensity of fires might impact this species.
172054		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. canariensis</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU) B2ac(iv) in the Lista Roja 2008 de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas, both on Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.<br/></p><p>EURISCO reports 26 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. canariensis</span> held in European genebanks, 19 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, of the wild accessions, none are reported to originate from Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
172054		distribution	eng	According to Izquierdo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2004), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. canariensis</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands where it occurs on the islands of Tenerife, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. However, <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Valdés and Scholz; with  contributions from Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009) and </strong>USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010) record it as native to the Canary Islands and Morocco. According to J.A. Reyes Betancort and A. Santos Guerra (pers. comm. 2010) it occurs on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura and there is an old mention of it from Tenerife. However, they have not found it outside of the Canary Islands.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172054		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It grows in abandoned cultivated areas above 200–300 m and in stony places in grassland.</span>
172054		population	eng	It is fairly common on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura where it is locally abundant and stable.
172054		threats	eng	It is threatened by grazing—especially on Fuerteventura.
172055		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 15 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. longiglumis</span> held in European genebanks, 11 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, there is no indication that any of this material was collected in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span><em>A. longiglumis </em>is found within the boundaries of Donaña and La Brena y Marismas del Barbate National Parks (A. Katsiotis pers. comm. 2010).
172055		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. longiglumis</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980), it is found in south Portugal and southwest Spain, while Valdés and Scholz, with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009) record it as native to Spain, Portugal and Sardinia. However, according to A. Katsiotis (pers. comm. 2010), it is only found in southern Spain in Europe.
172055		habitat	eng	It grows in sandy or rocky places near the sea (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172055		population	eng	<p>"Good size populations" occur in southern Spain (A. Katsiotis pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
172055		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172056		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports 95 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. sylvestre</span> held in European genebanks, 76 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 58 originate from within Europe; 55 from Hungary, one from Poland, one from Romania and one from Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). As this does not adequately cover the distributional range of this species in Europe, further germplasm collection from under-represented areas should be carried out as a priority for this species.</p>
172056		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sylvestre</span> is native to east and southeastern Europe, western and central Asia, and the Caucasus (Valdés  and Scholz; with      contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly        2009; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172056		habitat	eng	This ruderal species is found in lowland areas, pastures and sandy habitats in Europe. In Hungary it is known to occur on calcareous, warm ,dry, loose,&#160; and sandy soils, which are poor in nutrients and rich in alkaline minerals. It grows in sand steppes grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brometum tectorum secaletosum</span>), and is codominant and a character species of this community. It is also found in other sand steppes vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetum vaginatae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco vaginatae-Corynephoretum</span>) and weed vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lolio-Plantaginetum majoris</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172056		population	eng	This species is locally common in Hungary, especially in the centre (Great Hungarian Plain), but is rather rare in Romania. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172056		threats	eng	<p>There are currently no major threats to this species.</p>
172057		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">EURISCO reports 10 germplasm accessions held in  European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy  origin. All of these wild accessions originate from within Europe: France (one), Germany (one), Portugal (two)  and Slovakia (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Lithuania: listed in the red data book as category 2 (Vulnerable).</li><li>Finland: <span lang="EN-GB"> classified as Least Concern (LC), but considered Regionally Threatened in parts of its  distribution.</li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Denmark: <span style="font-style: italic;">Allium vineale</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">vineale</span> is classified as Least Concern (LC) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">).</span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Netherlands: not threatened.</span></span></li></ul>
172057		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vineale</span> is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as western Asia, the Caucasus, northern Africa and the Canary Islands (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span lang="EN-GB">However, its origin in the Canary Islands is uncertain (Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The altitudinal range of this species 0–2,650 m (Mathew 1996).<br/>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">Information on the distribution is available for the following countries:</p><ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Finland: occurs in the southern part of the country.</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">France: widespread, occurs in all departments with the two exceptions of Oise in the north and Territoire de Belfort to the east (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Germany: occurs throughout in mountainous regions.</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Portugal: found throughout the country except the Algarve.</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Slovakia: scattered throughout the country—more abundant in the south (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992).</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Spain: found throughout the country except the south.</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">UK: widespread across the southern half of the UK including Wales and the Channel Islands, becoming less widespread in the northern half of England and has a patchy, coastal distribution in Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) all occurrences in Northern Island are alien.</li></ul><span lang="EN-GB"></span>
172057		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs in meadows, marshes, waste places, cultivated fields and <span lang="EN-GB">along riversides and <span lang="EN-GB">roadsides from sea level to 2,650 m <span lang="EN-GB">(Mathew 1996). <br/></span></span></p><p>According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  (2002) it prefers dry, neutral or calcareous soils, dry  grasslands, hedgerows, roadsides and cultivated ground in the UK. It is also known to  occur on coastal cliff ledges in western Scotland and in lowland  areas although it does reach 455 m in northwest Yorkshire (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In Spain and Portugal it is most often found in crop fields, fallow fields, roadsides and stream banks, occurring as a weed in vineyards. <span lang="EN-GB">In roadside sites in Lithuania this species is often found alongside <span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. oleraceum. </span>While most often found in grassland in the Netherlands, it can also be found in forests and  shrubland (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).&#160; </span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. vineale</span> flowers between June and August <span lang="EN-GB">(Mathew 1996). </span></p><p></p>
172057		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is extremely variable, but it is often widespread due to its ability to produce many bulbils (secondary bulbs) which are readily distributed by agricultural activities (Mathew 1996). However, it is noted to be infrequent in Finland and rare in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.</p>
172057		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>  <span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
172058		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. pervestitum</span> is listed in the Red Date Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Endangered and is included in the Red Data Book of Crimea which is in preparation.</p><p>It occurs in the Podilski Tovtry National Park and Kazantip reserve. Protection of subpopulations on the Azov Sea coast and in Sivach gulf is needed. </p>  No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pervestitum </span>are reported by EURISCO (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) or SINGER. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172058		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. pervestitum</span> is endemic to Ukraine where it has a disjunctive distribution in two main areas: a) in the valley of the Dnister River and its tributary Muksha River in Podolian upland (Chmelnicka and Ternopilska regions) and on the Azov Sea coast, and b) at Sivach gulf (Crimea and Zaporizska region) and on Kazantip Peninsula in Kerczenskij Peninsula (Seregin 2004). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km².  </p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
172058		habitat	eng	It grows in saline soil near rivers and on the Azov Sea coast in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festueo</span>–<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonnietea </span>(class <span style="font-style: italic;">Linonio–</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Festucion</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>alliance). In the Podolian upland it grows on calcareous rocks in steppe communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Bronatea </span>(class <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalo Stipioallianee</span>).
172058		population	eng	<p>Very small subpopulations are found near Mordvinivka village (Zaporizska region), in flood plains of the Molochna River, on the Azov Sea coast and in the valley of Dnister and Mukcha Rivers in Podolian upland. Some subpopulations have gone extinct. </p>
172058		threats	eng	<p>This species is threatened by changes in the hydrological conditions of the soil due to limestone quarrying, as well as urbanization.</p>
172059		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. muricatus</span> occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 27 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. muricatus</span> held in European genebanks, 23 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 18 originate from within Europe: 16 from Greece (all of which are stored in Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland), one from Portugal (Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and one from Spain (stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172059		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. muricatus</span> is native to Corsica, Italy, Portugal and Spain in Europe, as well as north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). However, according to&#160;Association Tela Botanica (2000–2010) this species is not present in Corsica.
172059		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. muricatus</span> is a ruderal plant, found in dry open areas, including slopes, roadsides and garrigue (Mediterranean scrub vegetation) (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004).
172059		population	eng	This species is common and widespread where it occurs.
172059		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172060		conservation	eng	In France, this species is proetced in the region of Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur in the southeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports five germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. trifoliatum</span> held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010)<span class="Apple-converted-space">. Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><span class="Apple-converted-space"></span>
172060		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. trifoliatum</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus) and northern Africa (Egypt) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it is widespread&#160; in Botanical divisions 1 and 3–8 (Meikle 1985) and is found "mainly in the north-central area on the north side of the range" (Viney 1994).<br/><br/>In France, this species was previously found in the two southeastern departments of   Alpes-Maritimes and Var but is no longer thought to be present (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172060		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, it grows in pastures, salt steppe, in garrigue, on rocky hillsides and occasionally in  cultivated or fallow fields, from sea level to 1,000 ft; it flowers from March to May (Meikle 1985, Viney 1994).
172060		population	eng	In Cyprus, it has been described as "locally common" (Meikle 1985) and "not uncommon" (Viney 1994).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172060		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172061		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. triquetra</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It occurs in a protected area.
172061		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. triquetra</span> is native to the western Mediterranean countries of Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon and Syria. In Cyprus, it is found in the mountains near Limassol, in more than five locations. The area of occupancy (AOO) is only 30–40 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup></sup>
172061		habitat	eng	It grows on chalky cliffs or on serpentine, as well as among shrubs, clearings in pine forests and on large boulders in river beds.
172061		population	eng	This species is a locally common.
172061		threats	eng	This species is threatened by an increase in fire frequency.
172062		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 120 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. comosa </span>held in European genebanks, 111 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 104 originate from within Europe. The European countries of origin of these accessions are Greece (99) and Bulgaria (five) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is needed from populations in Albania, Bulgaria and Cyprus, and probably European Turkey also.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>A. comosa</span> is found in  protected areas in Greece; however, genetic reserves have not been  identified and it is not currently monitored or actively managed. A  population monitoring programme needs to be implemented throughout its  range and management plans put in place at selected sites if necessary.
172062		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to southeastern Europe (Albania, Bulgaria, Cyprus and Greece) and western Asia (Turkey) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Bulgaria this species is found in the Trakia valley, in Cyprus it occurs in the the coastal areas of the north  and east, and in Greece it is found in the mainland, in Crete and some of the East Aegean Islands.
172062		habitat	eng	It occurs on roadsides, in grasslands, on hillsides, in garrigue (van Slageren 1994) and less frequently in the margins of  cultivated land (e.g., olive groves). In Cyprus, it grows near the coast on the edge of plantations. It grows mainly on limestone in clay–loam soils and flowers and fruits from May–July (van Slageren 1994).
172062		population	eng	This species is locally rare but the current overall population is stable.
172062		threats	eng	Overgrazing, the use of herbicides and development for tourism might be affecting this species in some parts of its range.
172063		conservation	eng	In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. subhirsutum</span> is protected in the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the southeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports five germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. subhirsutum </span>held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This accession originates from Italy and is stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <span class="Apple-converted-space">
172063		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. subhirsutum</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, Macaronesia (La Palma), Turkey, and northern and northeast tropical Africa (USDA, ARS, Natioanl Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, this species occurs in the six departments of   Finistère,   Côtes d'Armor, Morbihan,   Ille-et-Vilaine,   Vendée and Sarthe in the northwest and the five departments of Cantal, Aveyron, Gard,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var in the southeast. It also occurs on Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172063		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky or sandy places (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172063		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172063		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species. It may be affected by coastal development.<br/></p>
172064		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports 4,749 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. avium</span> held in European genebanks, 15 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these wild accessions originate from within Europe: Ukraine (eight), Greece (six), Italy (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be undertaken from throughout its European range.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.
172064		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> avium</span> is native throughout northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as western Asia and the Caucasus, and has naturalized in many areas of the world (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span>  <p>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Slovakia: common species everywhere except high mountain regions in north and northeastern parts of the country (Bertová 1992)<br/></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Norway: present mainly in southern coastal lowland areas; rare inland (Å. Asdal pers. comm. 2010).<br/></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Spain: found mainly in the north (D. Draper pers. comm. 2010).<br/></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">France: widespread; occurs in all departments throughout the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010)</span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">  United Kingdom: widespread across the whole of England, Wales and Northern Ireland; also widespread throughout Scotland but patchy in the far north (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Ireland: prevalent in the east, becoming patchier towards the western coast (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Netherlands: widespread at a moderate frequency (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Portugal: o</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">ccurs  in the centre-north of the country. There is an occurrence in Sintra,  which is near Lisbon and more to the south of the country, but Pinto da  Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1991) believes that these are plants that might have escaped from cultivation.</span></li></ul>
172064		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species grows in </span><span style="background-color: white;">humid woods of deciduous trees, dry forests, forest margins, shrubwoods, alongside gullies and rivers, as well as in humid areas with deep soil, mostly in mountainous areas.<br/><br/></span>
172064		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The European subpopulation is suspected to be stable.<br/></span>
172064		threats	eng	Even though this species is sometimes harvested from the wild, it is managed properly and can seed easily, so this is not considered to be a significant threat.
172065		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. subvillosum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine its precise distribution, population size and trend, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status and potential threats.
172065		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. subvillosum</span> is native to the Azores, south Portugal to Sicily, and northwest Africa (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172065		habitat	eng	It grows on maritime sands and in grasslands (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172065		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172065		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species. It may be affected by coastal development.<br/></p>
172066		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. decipiens </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">is included in the regional Red Lists of Ulyanovskaya and Chelabinska (in the Urals) (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005). It occurs in the Ukrainian steppe reserve (departments Kamjani Mogyly and Chomutovskij steppe) and in Karadagh reserve.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. decipiens</span> are reported by EURISCO (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) or SINGER. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p></span>
172066		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. decipiens</span> is native to east Europe (South European Russian Federation and Ukraine), as well as Kazakhstan, Central Asia and Caucasus (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). In Europe, this species grows in the steppe zone and eastern part of the forest steppe zone of Ukraine and European Russia (from Dnieper basin to Don basin) and it is also found in Stavropolskij region (Russia) and in the Crimean Mountains (Seregin 2007).  <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow; font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
172066		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on the margins of deciduous hardwood forest (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. petraea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus orientalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus orientalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. betulus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. caucasicus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span>), in steppe, on rocky slopes, among shrubs and occasionally in saline meadows, and flowers from May to June (Seregin 2007).<br/></p>
172066		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations in the mountains are large and contiguous; however the lowland subpopulations are small. </p>
172066		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are tourism, recreation and silviculture on steppe slopes.</p>
172067		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>(beet) is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and although the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Patellifolia </span>is not listed, it is part of the beet gene pool.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas and SCIs; however, active monitoring and management is required.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. patellaris</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172067		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> patellaris</span> is native to Spain, Sicily, Macaronesia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), as well as to mainland Portugal. According to the International Database for <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>and CWRIS-AEGRO-PLIS (accessed 12 July 2010)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, the taxon has been found at 67 localities.  I</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">n Portugal, </span><em style="background-color: white;">P</em><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><em style="background-color: white;"> patellar</em><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">is</span><span style="background-color: white;"> occurs</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> in Extremadura and Algarve provinces (Ca</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">stroviejo </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 1990).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172067		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> patellaris </span>can be found in full sun on dry roadsides or ruderal places in or around villages (Frese 2004) and in Portugal it can be found growing <span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span class="shorttext">in crevices of limestone <span class="shorttext">sea cliffs. </span><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is adapted to arid conditions with annual rainfall between 100 and 300 mm (Frese 2004). It is a mainly inbreeding, self-pollinated hermaphrodite (Frese 2005).<br/><p><span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext"><br/></span></p></span></span></span></span>
172067		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">species is common and widespread in the Canary Islands. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Lanzarote, more  than 500 individuals were recorded at Las Brenas, 1 km east of Femes</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">; the extent of occurrence (EOO) of this population  was estimated to be around 10,000 m<sup>2</sup> (Frese 2005). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In mainland Portugal, only one locality is known and the species is rare in Sicily. In Spain it is local and scattered.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172067		threats	eng	The tourist industry is likely to have a significant impact on ruderal sites in villages and along roads (Frese 2004).
172068		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. alpestris</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010); however, two accessions are known to be stored in the genebank of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>The area in which this species grows is protected. Population monitoring is recommended.
172068		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. alpestris</span> is endemic to the Ida mountains in Crete (Feráková 1977).
172068		habitat	eng	This species is occurs mainly in the high mountain massifs of Crete above 900 m (rarely descending to 100 m asl) and grows on rocky slopes, in dwarf shrub communities, calcareous garrigue, scree and rubble (Fielding and Turland 2005). Feráková (1977) noted that this species can often be found growing at altitudes of up to 2,500 m asl.
172068		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
172068		threats	eng	The area in which this species grows is already degraded and overgrazing might pose a threat. As this species mainly grows at high altitudes, climate change may impact it in the future.
172069		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. longidentata</span> was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk). Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1997) listed it as Low Risk.<br/></p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. longidentata</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.
172069		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. longidentata</span> is endemic to central and northeastern Sardinia (Feráková 1977).
172069		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. longidentata</span> is a calciphilous species, preferring shady limestone rocks and a humid climate in canyons and northwest facing slopes (Feráková 1977).
172069		population	eng	It is a rare species.
172069		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172070		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. spinosum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172070		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. spinosum</span> is native to south Europe, north Africa (Libya) and west Asia (Turkey) (Greuter 2006–2009).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, this species is found in the Paphos, Troodos, Morphou, Kyrenia and Rizokarpaso areas (Botanical divisions 1, 2, 6, 7 and 8) (Meikle 1985).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172070		habitat	eng	This perennial, self-incompatible  species (Kiers 2000) is found in disturbed areas such as roadsides, as well as in coastal areas on clay flats or maritime sands and rocks, and occasioanlly in sandy fields, at or near sea level  (Meikle 1985). In Crete, it can also be found in mountainous areas up to 2,100 m (Kiers 2000).
172070		population	eng	It is locally common in Cyprus (Meikle 1985). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172070		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172071		conservation	eng	It has been suggested that the species is Near Threatened (Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>The subpopulations are found within the Nebrodi Regional Nature  Park.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. crescimannoi</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species.
172071		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. crescimannoi</span> is endemic to Sicily (Raimondo 2008, Kurtto 2009) where it is confined to the submontane belt of the Flascio river basin on the northern slopes of Monte Soro in Floresta and Randazzo municipalities in the northeast of the island (Raimondo 2008).
172071		habitat	eng	It is found in deciduous <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>woods from 1,000–1,600 m asl (Raimondo 2008).
172071		population	eng	Raimondo (2008) notes that numerous, often old individuals occur in the area in which it has been found and that it flowers in April to May, with fruits ripening in October to November.
172071		threats	eng	<p>There are currently no threats to this species.<br/></p>
172072		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria vesca</span> is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</p>As it is a widespread species, some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.<br/>    <br/>EURISCO reports 130 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. vesca</span> held in European genebanks, 28 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 11 originate from within Europe: Austria (one), Croatia (three), Italy (four), Spain (two) and the Ukraine (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172072		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">vesca</span> is native to and widely distributed throughout northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia and North America, and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:  <br/><ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Finland: found throughout the country but most frequently in southern and central parts  (<span lang="EN-GB">H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010).</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">France: widespread; occurs in all departments within the country, including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">2010).</span></span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Ireland: widespread throughout the whole of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Netherlands: occurs throughout the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).</span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Norway: occurs all over, but is more frequent in the south.</span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Portugal: common in central, northern and Algarve regions; thought to be not present in the centre of the country.</span></span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">UK: widespread distribution throughout England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</span></li></ul><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><p><span lang="EN-GB"></p></span></span>
172072		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F. vesca</span> is often found in woodland and shrub areas in Europe. In Finland it can be found in <span lang="EN-GB">herb-rich and heath f<span lang="EN-GB">orest, field and road edges, and in open and/or rocky fields <span lang="EN-GB">(<span lang="EN-GB">H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">. In the UK it occurs in woodland and scrub habitats, hedge banks, railway banks, roadsides, on rocky  outcrops and in scree in upland areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is also known to colonize open areas in quarries and chalk pits, is able to grow on walls and prefers dry, stony soils  (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) report that in the Netherlands the species occurs in forests and  shrub habitat on humid/dry and basic soils with a low fertility. It  can also be found in grasslands with a humid and moderately fertile  soil.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span>
172072		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its European range. However, according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), there may have been a decline in its frequency in the last 40–50 years in the UK. In the Netherlands it occurred in 532 hour-squares before 1950 and after 1950 in 406 (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) report that the species occurs in 1,001–3,000 1x1 km grid squares. The species is included in the Dutch Red List and is considered as sensitive.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB">
172072		threats	eng	Although this species is common in Finland and Norway, it is losing suitable habitat due to a lack of grazing, leading to a decrease in the number of subpopulations in these countries. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout the rest of its European range.
172074		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.   <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. crinitus</span> held in European genebanks, one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from Spain and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   Further collection and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.<br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas but is probably not actively managed.
172074		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. crinitus</span> is native to southern Spain and Portugal, as well as to north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172074		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It grows in grasslands, cultivated land, drylands, degraded shrubland, cultivated field margins and on roadsides—mainly in acid soils.</span>
172074		population	eng	It is a widespread species.
172074		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172075		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">A. inaequale</span> is not included in Red Data Book of Ukraine but is included in the Red Data Book of Crimea which is in preparation (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>It is included in the regional Red Books of Lypetskaya, Orlovskaya and Kurskaya (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005).<br/><br/>It occurs in Jelaneckij steppe reserve and in Buzkij Gard national park in Mykolaivska region.<span class="msoIns">  <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">No germplasm accessions of A. inaequale are reported by EURISCO (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) or SINGER. A review of the ex situ conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage should be carried out as necessary.</span><span class="msoIns"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span>
172075		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. inaequale&#160;</span> is native to east Europe and Central Asia, as well as the Caucasus. In Europe it is native to central and South European Russian Federation, Moldova and Ukraine with Crimea. There is one record of this species in Alah Bair protected area in Constantia county in Romania but it is not included in the national Flora. <br/><br/>This species is common in Donezka Lesostep (Donezk and Lugansk regions) and rare in the steppe zone of Ukraine and in the western part of lesosteppe (forest) steppe of Ukraine. In Crimea it grows in the Crimean mountains along the Black Sea coast where it is only found on the steppe slopes near Balaclava town (Rubcov 1972).
172075		habitat	eng	<p>In Ukraine it grows on limestone, chalk and granite slopes in steppe communities, <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipetum </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Capillata</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Botriochloetum </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Ishaemum</span>).</p>
172075		population	eng	<p>In the eastern part of its range in Ukraine, the subpopulations are large, while elsewhere in Ukraine the subpopulations are isolated and small. It only occurs at one locality is in Crimean Mountains.</p>
172075		threats	eng	<p>In Ukraine it is threatened by tourism and recreation, as well as silviculture on steppe slopes.</p>
172076		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/>    </p>EURISCO reports 15 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. aureus</span> held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, none of these are reported to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172076		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. aureus</span> is native to Cyprus, Italy and Spain, as well as to northern Africa and parts of western temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, this species is found in the Larnaca, Nicosia and Kerynia areas (Botanical divisions 4, 5, and 7) (Meikle 1977).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172076		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, it grows in cultivated areas from sea level to 100 ft (Meikle 1977).
172076		population	eng	In Cyprus, it has been recorded as rare (Meikle 1977). It is thought to only occur at five localities.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172076		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172077		conservation	eng	In Liguria it is protected by law and it occurs in at least one protected area. It is considered Low Risk in Piemonte.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutiflorum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172077		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutiflorum</span> is native to south France, Corsica and northwest Italy (Mathew 1996). In France this species occurs in the south and southeastern departments of   Aude, Pyrénées Orientales, Bouches-du-Rhône, Var, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Alpes-Maritimes, as well as in Haute-Corse and Corse-du-Sud (Association Tela  Botanica 2000–2010). In Italy it is present in Liguria and there are unconfirmed occurrences in Piamonte. It has been cited as occurring in Spain but this is erroneous.
172077		habitat	eng	It grows mainly at low altitudes near the sea in sandy and rocky places and flowers May–June (Mathew 1996).
172077		population	eng	In Italy the subpopulation is small but it is believed to be stable. It is extremely isolated from the main subpopulation and it is rare.
172077		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however, the population is vulnerable due to being severely fragmented.
172078		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. klokovii</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. <br/></p><p>It is protected <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> in Granitno-stepove Pobuszje National Park and in the Labirynt protected landscape unit. It is in the collection of the National Botanical Garden of the Ukrainian Academy of Science in Kyiv.</p>  <p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. klokovii </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p><p><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>
172078		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. klokovii</span> is endemic to Ukraine (Kurtto 2009) where it is a narrow endemic of Pridnjiprovian upland, distributed in the basin of the South Bug River in Mykolaivska region (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172078		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on granite slopes of the Ukraine crystalline massive in cobble soils among brushwood of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamneto–Prunetea</span> community. </p>
172078		population	eng	<p>There are no more than 10 localized subpopulations in Arbusinkij, Pervomajskij and Vosnesenskij districts in Mykolaivska region. The subpopulations comprise very few adult individuals and seedlings are absent. Seed productivity is very low (10–50 fruits per individual).</p>
172078		threats	eng	It is threatened by mining for granite and construction of hydrological systems, as well as by tourism and recreation.
172079		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aethusanum </span>was listed in the Liste Rosse Regionali delle Piante d'Italia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Vulnerable (V).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. aethusanum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Information is needed on the population size and trend, the habitat, potential threats and its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172079		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. aethusanum</span> is endemic to Sicily (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007) where it is only found on the island of Favignana<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. The island covers an area of less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></span></span>
172079		habitat	eng	<p>There is no information available about the habitat of this species.</p>
172079		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.</p>
172079		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172080		conservation	eng	Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Cyprus: all of the six localities where it has been recorded are in Natura 2000 sites and five of these are in protected state forest land. It is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</li><li>Slovakia: the species is evaluated as Critically Endangered (CR) (Somogyi 1999).</li><li>Central Russia: included in regional red list of two districts: Orlovskaya and Rjazanskaya.</li></ul>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. paniculatum </span>held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This&#160; accession originates from Cyprus and is stored in the National Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
172080		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> paniculatum </span>is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, parts of western Asia and the Russian Federation, as well as Macaronesia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>This species is noted to be widespread in Romania, Portugal, Spain and France (except the northeast and Corsica) but less so in the Russian Federation. In Cyprus it has been recorded at six localities (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), with Viney (1994) recording occurrences between Famagusta and Salamis, and north of Haspolat. The altitudinal range in Cyprus is 1,000–1,650 m (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Slovakia this species has been found at seven localities in the south and southwest. However, only two localities are presently confirmed (Somogyi 1999): Svätý Peter, Kurta Hill, and Hosti?ovce, Ve?ká Lysá Hill. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172080		habitat	eng	This species is often found in forest edges and clearings, but can also be found in dry rocky areas.&#160;For example, in Crimea, Russian Federation and Slovakia it can be found  in clearings and in edges of forests, while in Spain it can be found in dry  meadows, scrubs, rocky slopes and salt marshes, from sea level to 3,000 m. <br/><br/>In Cyprus the species occurs on rocky mountain sides, rock crevices and screes, as well as in open pine forests, from 1,000 to 1,650 m (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). It can also be found on sandy flats (between Famagusta and Salamis), and sandstone hills (north of Haspolat) (Viney 1994).
172080		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. paniculatum</span> is common in Spain, Portugal and Romania, and widespread and common throughout Italy. However, it is known to be very rare in Slovakia, with only a few individuals known at the two localities where it is found. In Cyprus the overall subpopulation size is about 500 plants and it is uncommon in the north of the country (Viney 1994). The subpopulations at each of the six localities in Cyprus ranges between 30 to 100 plants (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172080		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. paniculatum</span> is known to be threatened in Cyprus by road improvements and recreational activities (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and in Slovakia by the invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>.
172081		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. neapolitanum</span> held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Both of these wild accessions originate from Cyprus and are stored in the National (CYPARI) Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
172081		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. neapolitanum</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, Macaronesia, western Asia and northern Africa (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Its origin is uncertain in Madeira (Borges<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008) and the Canary Islands (Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>In France, this species occurs within 15 departments in the south of the country and three departments in the west (Côtes d'Armor,   Ille-et-Vilaine and Mayenne). It is also present in Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172081		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, it grows in fields and ditches and flowers from February to May (Viney 1994).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat preferences of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172081		population	eng	The taxon is reported to be "quite common" in Cyprus (Viney 1994).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172081		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172082		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. discolor</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Information is needed about the habitat, population size and trend of this species, as well as its <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation status and potential threats.
172082		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. discolor</span> is native to the Greek East Aegean islands (Rhodes), Asiatic Turkey, Lebanon and Syria (Kurtto 2009).
172082		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172082		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in Europe.</p>
172082		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172083		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Great Britain (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and the Netherlands (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In Denmark it is listed as Least Concern (LC) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>EURISCO reports five germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. oleraceum</span> held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these four wild accessions originate from within Europe: one from Denmark, one from France, one from Germany and one from Iceland. Three of the accessions are stored in Germany and the accession originating from Iceland is stored in Nordic Genetic Resource Centre, Sweden (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.
172083		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">oleraceum</span> is native to parts of northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as the Russian Federation, and is naturalized elsewhere in temperate regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on the distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Finland: occurs in south-central and southwestern parts of the country.</li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">France: located in all departments in the country with seven exceptions in the northwest </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</span></span></span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Lithuania: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>concentrated in the south and east and rarer in the north (Karpavičienė 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Netherlands:  predominantly distributed along the large rivers  (Rhine, IJssel and Meuse) and along the western North Sea coast  (provinces: Sealand, South and north Holland). The species is not found  in the north (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">UK: limited occurrence in eastern Scotland, relatively widespread in the north of England, can also be found to the west of England along the Welsh border (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In addition, this species has a patchy distribution across East Anglia and the south <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172083		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. olerac</span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">eum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">can be found in </span>sunny and dry habitats, such as dry grasslands, forest clearings and shrublands.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">In Finland the species occurs in rocky, sloping fields, and herb-rich forest fields, while in <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Lithuania it is found in </span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">light and warm areas such as floodplains of rivers and slopes of hills in the main highlands in southern, southeastern and southwestern parts of the country. It is usually found on dry and moderately moist, light sand and sandy loam soils of low fertility (Karpavičienė 2004). <br/></span></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">In the UK it can be found on grasslands which are dry, sloping and calcareous, preferring open and sunny areas, also the banks of floodplains (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <br/></p><p>According to Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1985) the species occurs in dry grasslands along the large rivers in the Netherlands, as well as on road verges and along dikes.<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
172083		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. oleraceum</span> is thought to be widespread and frequent to common throughout most of Europe. However, <span lang="EN-GB">according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) this species is thought to be showing signs of decline throughout the UK and according to experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop convened in Portugal, April 2010, several subpopulations in Portugal have a reduced number of indivi<span style="background-color: white;">duals. In addition, </span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: white;">Tamis </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;">  (2003) note that the species can be found in 101–300 km grid squares across the Netherlands and indicate that the species can be considered as  vulnerable.</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span></span>
172083		threats	eng	In the Netherlands the species is threatened by the loss of dry streamland grasslands  along the large rivers, due to chemical fertilizers and de-gravelling (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). While it is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Finland, it is considered regionally   threatened<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> in central parts of the country.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172084		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisum</span> is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the garden pea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">P. fulvum </span>is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>  germplasm collections, with only two accessions being held by N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation),    Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 80 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 67 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only two originate from within Europe. One of these wild accessions originates from Cyprus (stored in National (CYPARI) Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus) and the other from the UK (stored in Institute of Plant Production n.a. V.Y. Yurjev of UAAS, Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  Although  it occurs in protected areas, there is no active management,  but it is  likely to be passively conserved in      many existing   protected  areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in  these   sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to  population  loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
172084		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cyprus, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Israel and Jordan.
172084		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisum fulvum</span> is found in rocky, limestone slopes (Davis 1970) often growing between boulders on the edges of cultivation (Maxted and Ambrose 2001).
172084		population	eng	This species is rare in Europe. It is known from two locations in Cyprus and is restricted in Greece.
172084		threats	eng	This species tends to grow among limestone boulders, is currently threatened by overgrazing and because of its rarity and restricted distribution could be adversely impacted by land management changes, increase in fires and climate change.
172085		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. convallarioides</span> are reported by EURISCO (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) or SINGER. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><span class="msoIns"><br/>The species occurs in Mys Mortjan reserve and Nikita Botanical Garden, where it is component of natural vegetation.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172085		distribution	eng	Native to south Crimea, Turkmenistan, Transcaucasus, Iran and Iraq (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). In Europe, it occurs in the western part of Crimean mountains on the Black Sea coast (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).
172085		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on dry rocky slopes from the foothills to the middle belt of the mountains in light hornbeam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus orientalis</span>) and oak (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>) forest.</p>
172085		population	eng	<p>The species occurs at 10 known localities in Crimea. The subpopulations are isolated, each occupying a small area and comprising few individuals.<br/></p>
172085		threats	eng	It is threatened by tourism and recreational activities.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172086		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>  EURISCO reports 714 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops tauschii </span>held in European genebanks, 632 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, seven originate from within Europe: (Belgium (one), Bulgaria (one), Denmark (one), Germany (two), Portugal (one) and Sweden (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, collections from Ukraine and South European Russia are not reported. Further research into the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of European populations of this species is needed and collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be actioned as priority if necessary.<br/><br/>Active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation (including monitoring and appropriate management) at both European localities is needed. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172086		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to east Europe (Crimea and European Russia), western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, the Indian Subcontinent and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Its presence as an introduced species has been reported from the USA and a number of European countries; including Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy and the Netherlands (van Slageren 1994). <br/><br/>In Crimea, the species is found at only two small localities, one around Sudak (Fedorov 1974) and the other on the coast of the Azov Sea on the Kerczenskij Peninsula. The latter locality was documented in 1982 with a herbarium specimen; however, a search for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops tauschii</span> at this locality in 2009 was not successful (Diederichen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In the South European Russian Federation its distribution is limited to the Krasnodarski Krai region. Its overall area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172086		habitat	eng	It is found on open rocky slopes, in gravel, on light sandy or, conversely, heavy clay soils of the plains (sometimes even slightly solemnized ones), on beaches, dry hills, and near roads (Chukhina and Antonov 2003–2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172086		population	eng	In the Russian Federation, it is only present in small patches with a few individuals in each. According to Golubev (1996), the Crimean subpopulations are abundant; however, field surveys in 2009 confirmed that one of the Crimean subpopulations has gone extinct (Diederichen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The exact population size and trend of this species are unknown, but the area, extent and quality of the habitat are declining.<span class="msoIns">
172086		threats	eng	The populations in Crimea are very fragmented and under threat as they are near a city where development for tourism and recreational activities has led to a decline in the habitat<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. In Krasnodarski Krai, infrastructure development for olympic games and leisure activities are threatening the populations. Around Sochi, natural habitats are being destroyed by these activities. As this kind of infrastructure development is the main threat and taking place on a large scale, the number of locations can be defined as being five or below.
172087		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. palmensis</span> occurs in the National and Natural Park on La Palma.<br/><p>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. palmensis </span>which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
172087		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. palmensis</span> is endemic to La Palma (Greuter 2006–2009) where it can be found in the high mountain areas of the north and south (Caldera de Taburiente and Cumbre Vieja).
172087		habitat	eng	It grows in shrubland above the tree line and in open areas of the upper limit of the pine forest in communities dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpus viscosus</span>. This habitat is common in the north of the island and less common in the south where the species tends to grow in open areas caused by past volcanic activity and in open areas of the pine forest.
172087		population	eng	It is common and widespread throughout the north of the island where it occurs as two isolated subpopulations. The population is increasing due to the eradication of goats.
172087		threats	eng	The species is threatened by grazing by the introduced Arrui, feral goats and rabbits. It is also affected by the construction of new roads and construction works for astronomical research.
172088		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in Hungary   (Király 2007).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. dasyphylla</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172088		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. dasyphylla</span> is native to middle, east and southeastern Europe (Kurtto 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Hungary, this species occurs in the Transdanubian Mountains (Pilis mountain, Tapolca, Sümeg), south Transdanubia (Baranya) and Great Hungarian Plain (Danube region)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172088		habitat	eng	In Hungary, this species grows in mixed oak–hornbeam forests and in riverine hardwood forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orno–Quercetum</span>) and can grow in a range of soil types   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172088		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172088		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172089		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tatarica</span> held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe, both of which originate from Germany and both are stored in Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands Plant Research International, Netherlands (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). As these accessions do not represent the native range of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tatarica</span> germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
172089		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tatarica</span> is native to southeast Europe and Asia, and has spread to western, northern and central Europe (Feráková 1977). Outside of Europe this species occurs across Asia, eastwards to China and Tibet and in North America (Feráková 1977).
172089		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tatarica</span> is found within steppe communities, but also occurs in coastal areas on sands, often in saline conditions (Feráková 1977). The most common habitats for this species are on saline, unfertile soils (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In Germany, Denmark and the Balkan Peninsula the species is noted as surviving on exposed beeches and cliffs, while in central and northern Europe this species is found disturbed sites, such as railways and roadsides (Feráková 1977). This species can be found at high altitudes, up to 5,000 m in some parts of Tibet (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tatarica</span> is perennial and grows in large colonies due to its ability to reproduce vegetatively (Feráková 1977).
172089		population	eng	This species is rare in Europe.
172089		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172090		conservation	eng	In Slovakia<span lang="EN-GB"> and Czech Republic,<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. padus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">borealis </span>is listed as Critically Endangered (CR)<span lang="EN-GB"> (<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Holub and Procházka 2000<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">, Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001,<span lang="EN-GB"> <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Procházka <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">2001<span lang="EN-GB">). It is <span lang="EN-GB">protected in the central/eastern region of&#160; Bourgogne (Association Tela Botanica 2000–<span lang="EN-GB">2010) but is c<span lang="EN-GB">lassified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010<span lang="EN-GB">).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. padus</span> held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">Germplasm collection and duplicated<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.    <p>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. </p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172090		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">padus</span> is native to many parts of northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as being widely distributed across parts of temperate Asia. The species is also native to Morocco and is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, national Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">P. padus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">padus</span> is a common species of the Slovakian flora and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. padus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">borealis </span>(A. Blytt) Nyman a rare taxon of mountain regions<span lang="EN-GB"> in northwest, north and northeastern parts of the country (Bertová 1992, Holub and Procházka 2000), with a similar pattern found in the Czech Republic and Hungary.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">padus</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> occurs throughout Finland, with <span lang="EN-GB"><em>P. padus</em> ssp.<em>padus</em> common in southern and central parts of the country but less frequent in the north and <span lang="EN-GB"><em>P. padus</em> ssp. <em>borealis</em> occurring in the north <span lang="EN-GB">(H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010). <p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">It is rare in Portugal, probably as this is at the limits of its range, but is fairly widespread in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), UK and Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Netherlands (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).<br/>  </span></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p></span></span></span></span>
172090		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is often found in forest and scrub in Europe, most frequently on calcareous or base-rich substrates, avoiding very dry or very acidic conditions.<span lang="EN-GB"> <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">It can be found in moist woodland and scrub, along streams and shaded rocky areas in the UK (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> In Finland it occurs in herb-rich forests, waterfront thickets and forest edges, and is mostly found in open lowland forest in Hungary and the Czech Republic. <span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span></p><p>It is able to grow in various soil types, preferring damp calcareous or base rich soils in the UK (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and is recorded as occurring on humid, poor, slightly acid soils and also on humid, moderately fertile soils in the Netherlands (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).<span lang="EN-GB"></p>
172090		population	eng	According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002), the distribution of this species has remained unchanged in the last 40–50 years. In the Netherlands the species occurred in 1,001–3,000 1x1 km grid squares in the period 1902–1949, while in the periods 1975–1987 and 1988–1999 it was recorded in more than 10,000 (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).   <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range</p>
172090		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. padus</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">borealis</span> however is threatened by forest fires, among other threats.
172091		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. secalinum</span> is listed as Least Concern in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). It is not threatened in the Netherlands. <br/><br/>In Germany, it is evaluated as endangered (Red List category 3) but it is not protected (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). In France, it is protected in the region of Alsace (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 23 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. secalinum</span> held in European genebanks, 20 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 18 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172091		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> secalinum</span> is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to Macaronesia and northern Africa (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Progam 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Greece: in the north and on Corfu island (Damanakis and Economou 1986).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in the majority of departments excluding Nord, Paris,   Hauts-de-Seine and   Val-de-Marne to the north,   Territoire de Belfort, Doubs,   Rhône,   Isère and Savoie to the east,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence to the southeast, Creuse in the centre and five departments to the southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Germany: occurs mainly in the north on the coasts of the Baltic and Northern Seas, as well as in plains and lowlands in the central area of the country (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). </li><li>UK: widespread throughout the southern half of England, with a patchy distribution in Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). All occurrences in Scotland and Northern Ireland are recorded by Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) as being alien.</li><li>Ireland: has a patchy distribution throughout the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: occurs along the large rivers and in coastal areas throughout the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).</li></ul>
172091		habitat	eng	In Germany, this species grows in coastal salt meadows, pastures and grasslands (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010). In the UK, this lowland species grows in meadows and pastures, along roadsides and in river valley floodplains—it prefers sticky, clay soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). At the coast it is often found in grazing marsh grasslands and on earthen sea walls (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Netherlands, it grows in brackish wet soils and in humid and very fertile soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
172091		population	eng	Knowledge of the European population at national level is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Greece: not frequent.</li><li>Germany: the population is decreasing, mainly in southern parts of its range.</li><li>UK: according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species’ distribution has declined very slightly in the north and west of Britain.</li><li>Ireland: according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species’overall distribution is stable.</li><li>Netherlands: before 1950 the species occurred in 479 hour-squares and after 1950 in 531 (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) report that the species occurs in 1,001–3,000 km grid squares. <br/></li></ul>
172091		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172092		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 256 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. bulbosum</span> held in European genebanks, 212 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 51 originate from within Europe. The majority originate from within Greece (34) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
172092		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. bulbosum</span> is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as western and central Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), the Caucasus and northern Africa, and it is naturalized in north America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172092		habitat	eng	This perennial species is found in a wide range of habitats such as dry grasslands, shrubland, dry hillsides, wet meadows and coastal sites. It can also be found in secondary habitats such as abandoned fields and roadsides.
172092		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. bulbosum</span> has a high population density, is widespread and has stable subpopulations.
172092		threats	eng	There are no currently major threats to this species.
172093		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. setifolius</span> are reported by EURISCO to be stored in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of its <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation status is required and germplasm collection and storage should be undertaken if necessary.<br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas but is probably not monitored or actively managed.
172093		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. setifolius</span> is native to Portugal and Spain (southwest) and parts of north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172093		habitat	eng	It grows in scrublands and on slopes and roadsides, in acid or serpentine soils.
172093		population	eng	It is widespread in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal it occurs in the centre–south of the country (Pujadas Salvà 2003).
172093		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172094		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>In Hungary, neither <span style="font-style: italic;">H. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">murinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">murinum</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>or ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">leporinum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> are protected   (Király 2007). In Germany, the species is not threatened or protected (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010) and it is not threatened in the Netherlands.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 276 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. murinum</span> held in European genebanks, 157 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 125 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172094		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">murinum </span>is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia, northern Africa, Macaronesia and the Indian Subcontinent, and is widely naturalized in other regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span style="background-color: white;">According to </span>Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009), it is native to the Azores and the Canary Islands; however, ac<span style="background-color: white;">cording to Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005), this species is introduced in the Azores, while Izquierdo <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004)<span style="background-color: white;"> record its origin as uncertain in the Canary Islands. Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) confirm its native status in Madeira.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs widely throughout the country (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992).</li><li>Greece: widespread from the north to the islands, including Crete (Damanakis and Economou 1986).</li><li>Cyprus:<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. murinium </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">murinum</span> has recently been recorded in the Paphos and Limassol areas (Botanical divisions 1 and 3) (Hand 2001).</li><li>Hungary: widespread. <span style="font-style: italic;">H.murinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">leporinum</span> frequently occurs in salt meadows in the east  (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in all departments and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>UK: widespread throughout England and Wales, but less so in northern England and into Scotland where it has a patchy distribution, mainly occurring along the eastern coast (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). According to the same authors, it is restricted to only seven localities in Northern Ireland.</li><li>Ireland: occurs on the eastern coastline with a patchy and sparse distribution across the rest of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: widespread but less common in the northeast (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<br/></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
172094		habitat	eng	In Greece, this weedy species grows in grasslands, and in cultivated fields and field margins.<br/><br/>In Hungary,<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. murinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">murinum</span> is found in weedy vegetation along roadsides, in arable land, pastures and in salt meadows, while <span style="font-style: italic;">H. murinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">leporinum</span> is found in salt meadows (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><br/>  In the UK, this lowland species grows in a range of conditions, including fertile soils, disturbed ground, on roadsides, pavements, walls, railway banks and in rough grassland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In the Netherlands, it occurs in pioneer vegetation in moderately to very fertile and humid soils, as well as in dry and very fertile soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
172094		population	eng	It is reported to be common and stable in Greece, stable in Britain and increasing in Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002), and increasing in the Netherlands where it was recorded in 875 hour-squares before 1950 and 995 hour-squares after 1950 (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) report that the species is present in more than 10,000 km grid squares in the Netherlands.
172094		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it could be affected by the use of herbicides.
172095		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pendulinum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species.
172095		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pendulinum</span> is native to Italy (mainland, Sardinia and Sicily) and Corsica (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172095		habitat	eng	It grows in woods and damp, shady places (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172095		population	eng	It is thought to be a common species.
172095		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172096		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rubrovittatum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. It is recommended that population monitoring and any necessary management actions are incorporated into the existing site management plans.
172096		distribution	eng	Native to Crete (including Kárpathos) and Cyprus (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). In Cyprus, it has been recorded in the Larnaca, Nicosia and Kyrenia area (from the summit of Yaila and from Haspolat – Viney 1994).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172096		habitat	eng	It grows in dry, rocky places on calcareous formations, sometimes in saline pastures or in clearings in pine forests, from sea level to 600 m (Mathew 1996). It&#160; flo<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">wers from May to June (Viney 1994).</span>
172096		population	eng	This is a rather rare species in Cyprus (Meikle 1985, Viney 1994).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172096		threats	eng	Increasing frequency and intensity of fires may pose a threat to this species.
172097		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cassium</span> held in the genebank of the Millennium Seed Bank, Royal Botanic  Gardens, Kew, Wakehurst Place. The country of origin of the material is Lebanon (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. Population monitoring is needed in order to ascertain the population trend. Climate change modelling is also recommended as this species occurs at high altitude and could be particularly affected by increasing temperatures.
172097		distribution	eng	Native to Cyprus, southern Turkey and Lebanon (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). In Cyprus, it is found in the Troodos and Pafos areas.
172097		habitat	eng	It grows on stony slopes and banks at high altitudes, on igneous mountainsides (Meikle 1977). It is also found in arid garrigue in the Pafos region and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> forests.
172097		population	eng	This species is locally common.
172097		threats	eng	There are no immediate major threats to this species; however, as it grows at high altitudes, it could be particularly affected by climate change.
172098		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 128 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ae. ventricosa</span> held in European genebanks, 109 of which    are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these, 46  originate   from within Europe, 29 of which are reported by EURISCO to originate from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from other parts of the species' European range is recommended.
172098		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">ventricosa </span>is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, and to northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it has been recorded in the north of the island.<br/><br/>In France, it occurs in nine departments in the south and southeast:   Alpes-Maritimes, Var,   Bouches-du-Rhône,   Vaucluse,   Haute-Loire,   Ardèche,   Hérault  , Aude and   Hautes-Pyrénées (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>According to data presented by van Slageren (1994), it is widespread in south and east Spain, and in the south of France.
172098		habitat	eng	Van Slageren (1994) notes that it grows in grasslands, fallow, roadsides, sandy wadis, as well as in and on the edges of plantations of olive, fig and almonds, and of various cereal crops, and that it can also be found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia </span>scrub, oak forests and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Poterium</span>-dominated vegetation. It often grows with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>species and sometimes hybridizes with cultivated wheats. It favours soils with limestone as the parent rock and clay and sandy loams, but has also been found growing in poor, stony soils, as well as in saline conditions and marshy riversides. Rainfall at the sites where it grows varies in the range 100–600 mm (van Slageren 1994).
172098		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172098		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential major threats to this species. It could be affected by introgression from cultivated wheats.<br/></p>
172099		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. narcissiflorum</span> held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
172099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. narcissiflorum</span> is native to northwest Italy, southeast France and northwest Portugal (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, it occurs in six departments in the southeast of the country:   Alpes-Maritimes,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence,   Hautes-Alpes,   Isère,   Drôme and Vaucluse (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).   <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
172099		habitat	eng	It grows on screes (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172099		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172099		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172100		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. hymettium</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed as Insufficiently Known (K) in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants of Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983).<br/>  <p>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.</p>
172100		distribution	eng	Endemic to south and east Greece (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172100		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172100		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172100		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172101		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. breviradium</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Information about the habitat, population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172101		distribution	eng	Native to southern Albania, north–central Greece and southern Former Yugoslavia (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980<span style="background-color: white;">). Its</span> distribution in the Former Yugoslavian countries requires further investigation.
172101		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It occurs in mountainous areas. Further research is needed to gather information about the specific habitat of this species.<br/></span>
172101		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.<br/></p>
172101		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172102		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. massaessylum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">It occurs in several protected areas. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Considering that the distribution of this species in Europe is restricted to the Iberian Peninsula, and despite its frequency it is recommended that a monitoring plan should be implemented. </span>
172102		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. massaessylum</span> is native to Portugal, Spain, Algeria and Morocco (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172102		habitat	eng	It grows in abandoned fields, shrubland, drylands, dehesas (wooded pastureland) and clearings in low density pine and oak forests. It is also found in wet meadows, grasslands and on riverbanks.
172102		population	eng	This species is common in the Iberian Peninsula.
172102		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172103		conservation	eng	Part of the population occurs in protected areas but it is not monitored or actively managed. It is recommended that the management plans of these protected areas are adapted to include this species. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. autumnale</span> stored at the genebank of the Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of  Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment in Cyprus (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collections should be made and duplicated in another genebank.
172103		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cyprus where it has been found in the Trodos mountains and the north coastal belt, in a ravine above Alsancak and in   Çamlibel<span style="background-color: white;">, Kar  ?iyaka and </span>Tatlisu (Viney 1994).    It is known from 13 sites (including Saitas), but probably occurs in other localities too.  Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172103		habitat	eng	It has been found growing in pine litter (in a ravine above Alsancak). It is also found in garrigue, on limestone, sandstone or igneous hillsides, and sometimes in vineyards or hedgerows. It flowers in October and November (Viney 1994).
172103		population	eng	Although Della (2000) described this species as uncommon, it is actually quite widespread in the north and centre of the island and was excluded from the national Red List (Department of Forestry unpublished data) on the basis that it was not rare.
172103		threats	eng	It is threatened by an increase in fire frequency and intensity.
172104		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. melanantherum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>An<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span> gap analysis is needed to ascertain whether this species occurs within existing protected areas. If it does, recommendations should be put forward to incorporate it into the existing management plan of the site. A review of the threats that may affect this species is also needed.
172104		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Balkan Peninsula (Serbia, Bulgaria and northeast Greece) (Strid and Tan 1991). According to Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) and USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), it is also native to Macedonia. Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) specify that it occurs in east Macedonia and southeast Serbia. Strid and Tan (1991) record sightings on the mountains of Vroundous and Rodhopi (Elatia area).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172104		habitat	eng	This species occurs in meadows and pastures up to 2,000 m asl (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980), as well and rocky places (Strid and Tan 1991). It flowers in late July and August (Strid and Tan 1991).
172104		population	eng	This is a relatively common species.
172104		threats	eng	The main threats are not known.
172105		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 543 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgare </span>of wild origin stored in European genebanks; however, only 12 of these are reported to have originated in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the European populations is needed to ensure that the broadest range of genetic diversity is available for future potential use in crop improvement programs.
172105		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. vulgare</span> is native to Greece and Cyprus; it is also native to temperate Asia, east to China and Taiwan, the Indian Subcontinent and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172105		habitat	eng	It is found in the margins of cultivated fields and favours rocky places and dry areas.
172105		population	eng	This is a common and abundant species.
172105		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172106		conservation	eng	<p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. macrophylla</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary. <br/></p><p>Research on the distribution, habitat, population size and trend, as well as potential threats is needed.<br/></p>
172106		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to central and eastern European Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia (Greuter 2006–2009). This species has been widely introduced to Europe where it has become naturalized.
172106		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the habitat of this species.
172106		population	eng	There is no information available about the European population of this species.
172106		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172107		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pilosum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in     Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red  List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not    Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Information is needed on the precise distribution, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172107		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pilosum</span> is endemic to Greece; however, its exact range is unclear. According to Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) it is restricted to the Cyclades, although the authors note that a 'closely allied, if not conspecific plant' occurs in the Peloponnese, near Messini (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980 p. 62). Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) records it as endemic to mainland Greece, while Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) record is as endemic to the Greek East Aegean Islands.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172107		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172107		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172107		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172108		conservation	eng	<p>It is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).</p><p>EURISCO reports six germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. roseum </span>held in European genebanks, all of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. These all originate from Portugal and are stored in Portuguese Bank of Plant Germplasm (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p><p>  </p><p>Information about the overall population size and trend is needed, as well as the identification of potential threats in countries other than Cyprus. A review of the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species is also required.</p>
172108		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">roseum </span><span style="background-color: white;">is native to parts of southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as western Asia, Macaronesia and northern Africa, and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In France, it occurs in 27 departments to the south and west, as well as in Corsica and the departments of Haut-Rhin in the northeast and    Seine-Saint-Denis in the Région Parisienne (Association Tela Botanica  2000–2010). In Cyprus the species has been recorded at&#160; three localities from 380–570 m (Tsintides</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> et al. </span><span style="background-color: white;">2007).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172108		habitat	eng	It is found in dry fields, along roadsides among phrygana and on river banks in Cyprus, within an altitudinal range of 380–570 m (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172108		population	eng	In Cyprus the overall population was estimated at 658 plants (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172108		threats	eng	In Cyprus, all subpopulations are found on private property and are threatened by land clearance and the use of herbicides (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
172109		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. curtum</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. Monitoring of the population is recommended.
172109		distribution	eng	Native to western Asia and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In the EU the species is only native to Cyprus where it is known from near Iskele and Salamis (Viney 1994), Nicosia, Larnaca and Famagusta districts (botanical divisions 4 and 5). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
172109		habitat	eng	It is found on sandy seashores and sandy coastal fields. It also occurs in pine forests, garrigue and on rocky cliffs. It flowers from May to June (Viney 1994).
172109		population	eng	This is a rare species (Viney 1994). It is found at more than 10 localities, but with a low number of individuals at each site.
172109		threats	eng	Development for tourism is a threat to some subpopulations.
172110		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. ursinum</span><span lang="EN-GB"> is classified as <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> Least Concern (LC) in the Netherlands (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) and in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010), while <span lang="EN-GB">in Finland it is Near Threatened (NT)<span lang="EN-GB">. <br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ursinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ucrainicum</span> is not protected   (Király 2007).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>EURISCO reports 19 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 12  of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild  accessions, nine originate from within Europe. These wild accessions  originate from the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Norway, Sweden  and Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.</span></span></span></span></span>
172110		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">ursinum</span> is native to parts of northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as the Caucasus and western Asia (Turkey) (Hulten and Fries 1986, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">Information on the distribution is available for the following countries:<br/></p><ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Finland: occurs in the southern part of the country.<br/></span></li><li>France: widespread, occurs in all departments with the exceptions of    Seine-Saint-Denis in the Région Parisienne and four departments in the  south; Tarn-et-Garonne,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and   Alpes-Maritimes  (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Hungary: <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ursinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ucrainicum </span>   occurs in the southeast (except Pilis and Budai mountains), West  Transdanubia (Sopron, Kemeneshát), South Transdanubia (Bakonalja, South  – Zala, Baranya), Szigetköz region, Danube region: Csepel island, north  Alföld region: rare, Dráva floodplain, Nyírség: Bátorliget. In Hungary  mainly ssp. <em>ucrainicum </em>is found, however in western parts of Hungary ssp. <em>ursinum</em>  or transitional forms are rarely found at Sopron, Ágfalva, Vas County: Káld, Zala  County: Tapolca, Lesenceistvánd, Somogy County: Kaposvár–Bőszénfa,  Kisalföld region: Rajka–Dunakiliti, Mosonszentjános, Danube landscape:  Szigetújfalu, Visegrádi mountain: Pilismarót   (Soó 1966, Kevey 1978,  Simon 1992).</li><li>Ireland: relatively widespread across the whole of the country (Preston  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Lithuania: <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ursinum </span>is concentrated in central and western lowlands but is rare in southern and eastern areas (Karpavičienė 2004).</li><li>Netherlands: indigenous in the south of Limburg, and is possible in some places on the North Sea coast (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).</li><li>Norway: found in southern coastal areas and in the fjords.</li><li> Portugal: occurs in one region in the northeast.</li><li> Slovakia<span style="font-style: italic;">: A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ursinum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ucrainicum </span>occurs throughout the country especially in hills and submountain regions, <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> ursinum</span> L. ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ursinum</span> is known only around the town of Bratislava (western Slovakia) (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992).</li><li>Spain: occurs in the north.</li><li>UK: widespread although marginally less widespread in northern Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li></ul>
172110		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. ursinum</span> is found in forest areas, preferring <span lang="EN-GB">shady, wet, humid habitats. <span lang="EN-GB">For example, it occurs <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">in lowland areas, in moist woodlands, riverbanks and hedge banks <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">in the UK (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> and in<span lang="EN-GB"> herb-rich forests<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> in Finland<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">. Less frequently it can be found in rock crevices, scree and on cliff ledges by the coast (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In Hungary this species is often a c<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">onstituent of many beech and hornbeam–oak sub-associations, found in <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">fresh or humid, loose, alkaline rich and poorly acid soils with medium humus loam-, adobe-, poured-, and detritus soils<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172110		population	eng	<p>This species often has a scattered distribution, but when found exists in groups of many individuals. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout its range. </p>
172110		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout its European range.</span></p>
172111		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rupestre</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172111		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. rupestre</span> is native to Bulgaria, Crimea, north Turkey and Caucasus (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172111		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It grows on among rocks and on stony slopes (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).</span>
172111		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.</p>
172111		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172112		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">in situ</span><span style="background-color: white;"> conservation status of this species is unknown. Information is needed on its distribution, habitat, population status and threats. </span><br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallens</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010)<span style="background-color: white;">—the </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">ex situ</span><span style="background-color: white;"> conservation status of this species needs to be determined.</span>
172112		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallens</span> is native to southeastern and south-central Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus) and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France, the species is present in 14 departments in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172112		habitat	eng	Its habitat is unknown although it possibly grows in dry grassy meadows and rocky areas.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172112		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.</p>
172112		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172113		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bornmuelleri</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). The <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Research is needed on the distribution, population status and trend, and habitats and ecology of this species, as well as on potential threats. Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is also a priority.
172113		distribution	eng	According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), this species is only native to Greece. However, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) report it as native to Macedonia to northern Greece. The occurrence data recorded in this assessment is as reported by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172113		habitat	eng	The exact habitat is not known but it is mainly found in places with high atmospheric humidity, and with cold winters and mild summers.
172113		population	eng	There is no information available about the population status or trend of this species.
172113		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172114		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. florentina</span> held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p>
172114		distribution	eng	Native to southeastern Europe and Turkey (Kurtto 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172114		habitat	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.
172114		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172114		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172115		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO records 97 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. barbata</span> in European genebanks, 38 of which are of wild or weedy origin. Some of these accessions were collected in Europe (31) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) — the most recent collections appear to have been made in the 1990s. No further conservation measures are needed.
172115		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. barbata</span> is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia, Macaronesia, northern Africa and the Indian Subcontinent, and is naturalized in the Azores, Australia and the Americas (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Its origin in the Canary Islands (</span><span style="background-color: white;">Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and<span style="background-color: white;"> Madeira (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) is uncertain.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span>
172115		habitat	eng	Very successful in disturbed and undisturbed sites, preferring shallow stony hillsides, open parkland, pastures and cultivated land. It does not favour shrubby or forested sites.
172115		population	eng	Widespread and common everywhere with a stable or increasing population trend.
172115		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172116		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Triticum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p>  <br/>EURISCO reports 3,086 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. monococcum</span> stored in European genebanks, 1,407 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, only 48 of these wild accessions are reported to have originated in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010); therefore, further collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the European populations is needed.<br/><br/>Research into the effects of gene flow from cultivated wheat is needed.
172116		distribution	eng	Native to east and southeastern Europe (Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia and Crimea), western Asia and the Caucasus (Valdés  and Scholz; with      contributions from  Raab-Straube and  Parolly        2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172116		habitat	eng	This species occurs in field margins, grasslands and on roadsides; it favours rocky places and dry areas.
172116		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species. It was widely cultivated in the past, but today, it is only cultivated in Romania and Georgia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172116		threats	eng	Hybridization with cultivated wheat is threatening the genetic diversity of the wild populations.
172117		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Further studies are needed into the distribution and population status in Cyprus and the Canary Islands and its <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status needs to be determined as no germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. durieua</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172117		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. durieua</span> is native to southwestern Europe (Portugal and Spain), western Asia (including Cyprus), northern Africa and Macaronesia (Tenerife) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), it is probably introduced in Tenerife.<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it has been recorded at two localities with the last record dating back to 1974. During the national Red List assessment in Cyprus it was not adequately searched for and was therefore classified as Data Deficient (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172117		habitat	eng	It is found in ruderal areas and cultivated land, pasturelands, open grasslands, on rocky, calcareous, granitic and shale soils. In Cyprus it is found on dry, stony hillsides from 150 to 300 m (Meikle 1977).<span style="background-color: white;"> In Iberia it occurs from 100 to 1,700 m asl (Pujadas Salvà 2003).</span>
172117		population	eng	It is widespread and common in the Mediterranean region. Further surveys are required to ascertain its population status in Cyprus.
172117		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species but livestock grazing is a minor threat.
172118		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. corsicum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172118		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. corsicum</span> is endemic to Corscia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007, Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It is found on the eastern coast of Corsica, from Bastia to Solenzara (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).<br/><br/>Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
172118		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal, sandy places (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological   Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006). Reproduction is mainly vegetative in the wild.
172118		population	eng	This species is found in localized, dense patches and has been noted at five or six localities; however, only one locality has been confirmed, which may indicate a decline in the species or that the subpopulations are sporadic (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).
172118		threats	eng	This species is threatened by tourism and recreational activities (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological    Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).
172120		conservation	eng	<p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. myrianthum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  </p>
172120		distribution	eng	Native to Libya, Turkey and Iran (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172120		habitat	eng	<p>There is no information available about the habitat of this species.</p>
172120		population	eng	This species only has a marginal distribution in Europe.
172120		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172121		conservation	eng	<p>This species is classified as Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and regionally endangered in Germany.</p><p>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. </p>  EURISCO reports 12 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mahaleb</span> held in European genebanks, only  one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild  accession originates from, and is stored in, Greece (Greek  Genebank, Agricultural Research Centre of Macedonia and Thrace, National  Agricultural Research Foundation) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>.
172121		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. mahaleb</span> is native to central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia, the Caucasus, the Indian Subcontinent and Morocco (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France this species is widespread, occurring in the majority of departments throughout the  country. It is not recorded in the western departments of   Finistère,  Morbihan,   Côtes d'Armor,   Ille-et-Vilaine, the northern departments  of   Hauts-de-Seine and   Seine-Saint-Denis and the eastern department  of   Territoire de Belfort (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It is found in the warmer regions of the Czech Republic and is common in the south of Germany where it is at the northern limits of its distribution. It is found mainly in north and northeastern Iberia, and is rarer in the southwest.
172121		habitat	eng	It can be found in gorges, crevices, stream edges, oak forest  clearings and at the bottom of rocky cliffs in Iberia and Italy; preferring cool shady calcareous soils, mostly in  mountains. In the Czech Republic it prefers dry sunny slopes, and is found among shrubs and oak forests. It is <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>often found particularly on limestone and andesitic substrates in hills in Slovakia (Marhold and Wójcicki 1992).
172121		population	eng	This species is stable in Slovakia. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172121		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest management and changes to land uses in Germany. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout the rest of its European range.
172122		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. amethystinum</span> held in European genebanks, which is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It is noted on the list of protected species in Bulgaria and is considered as Near Threatened in the Red List of Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007).
172122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> amethystinum </span>is native to western Asia (Turkey) and parts of east and southeastern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and can be found between<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>0–1,600 m<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Mathew 1996).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/>In Cyprus this species has been recorded at 14 localities (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), including below Değirmenlik (Viney 1994).
172122		habitat	eng	This species can be found in  well drained, sunny areas in rocky places, maquis, open <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>woods, and in cultivated and abandoned fields. It flowers from May to June (Mathew 1996).
172122		population	eng	This species is stable across its European distribution and is known to be relatively widespread in both Bulgaria and Greece. Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) postulated that it forms quite large populations in Cyprus, and there was neither decline of its population nor degradation of its habitat.
172122		threats	eng	The species is threatened by urban sprawl and by the use of herbicides.
172123		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tenerrima</span> occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites, particularly by controlling livestock grazing. Further information is needed on the precise distribution of of this species, as well as its population size and trend.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tenerrima</span> held in European genebanks, all of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe. All originate from Spain; with three stored in the Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands Plant Research International, Netherlands, one in the Genebank Department - Vegetable Section Olomouc, RICP Prague, Czech Republic and one in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172123		distribution	eng	This species is native to France and Spain and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to (Greuter 2006–2009) this species is native to Italy, however its presence is uncertain.
172123		habitat	eng	This species favours calcium-rich rocky habitats, occurring on shady limestone screes and slopes and old walls as well as in grassy areas in lowland to subalpine habitats (Feráková 1977, Davies and Gibbons 1993).
172123		population	eng	Within Europe, the main subpopulation occurs in Spain where it is common. It is fragmented and scattered throughout the rest of its European distribution.
172123		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. However, it is threatened by the use of herbicides and the grazing of livestock where it occurs in arable land.
172124		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. parciflorum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species.
172124		distribution	eng	&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">A. parciflorum</span> is native to Corsica and Sardinia (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007, Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172124		habitat	eng	It grows among rocks (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980); specifically, on rocky and stony mountain slopes (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172124		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172124		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172125		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cupani </span>held in European genebanks, both of which originate from Cyrpus and are stored in the National (CYPARI) Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172125		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. cupani</span> is native to central and eastern Mediterranean, including north Africa (Algeria and Morocco) (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, the endemic subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cupani</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cyprium </span>occurs in the north of the island (to the north of Haspolat) and is rarely found in the South (Viney 1994). It is recorded in the Nicosia and Morphou areas (Botanical divisions 5 and 6) (Meikle 1985).
172125		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cupani </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cyprium </span>has been recorded (rarely) from dry hillsides and "sterile" fields in the south; in the north (north of Haspolat), it is found in turf over Kythrean sandstone (Viney 1994). It flowers from May to June. It grows at altitudes of 50–1,500 ft (Meikle 1985). Further research is needed to gather information about the preferred habitats of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172125		population	eng	Meikle (1985) classified the taxon as rare in Cyprus—it is found at more than five localities, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be more than 20 km<sup>2</sup> and the subpopulation comprises more than 2,500 plants. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172125		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172126		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. junceum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>In Cyprus, the species occurs in several protected areas. Population monitoring is recommended.
172126		distribution	eng	Native to Greece (Rhodes), Cyprus and Turkey (Mathew 1996, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Cyprus, it</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> is found in the north of the island (east of Ilgaz, beside the track to Karaman and on limestone cliff niches above the Girne Pass) (Viney 1994), in the western part (Pafos area) and near Limassol (botanical divisions 1, 3 and 7).</span></span>
172126		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It grows in sandy and rocky places, dry pastures, garrigue, and on cliffs, often on limestone formations or igneous hillsides (Meikle 1977, </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Viney 1994) at altitudes of 0–1,000 m (Mathew 1996). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172126		population	eng	This species is locally abundant&#160; in Cyprus (Viney 1994). There is no information available about the size or trend of the population in Greece.
172126		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
172127		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops triuncialis</span> is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections throughout Europe. EURISCO reports 1,506 <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops triuncialis</span> accessions held in European genebanks, 1,260 of which    are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 581  originate   from within Europe. The majority of accessions originate from Greece (104), Portugal (104), and Bulgaria (123) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172127		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">triuncialis </span>is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Subcontinent and northern Africa; the species is naturalized in the USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France this species occurs in 24 southern departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172127		habitat	eng	The primary habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops triuncialis </span>is dry, rocky and sunny areas such as steppes with annual grasses. It can also be found growing on roadsides and in disturbed areas and may occasionally be found in forests. This species can grow in saline conditions and as such can be found in coastal habitats such as beaches.
172127		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in southern Europe with an increasing population trend.
172127		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172128		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tardans</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in   Europe (1982 edition) as 'nt' (neither rare nor threatened) (Council of   Europe 1983).<br/><br/>Information is needed on the population trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172128		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. tardans</span> is endemic to Crete (Tutin<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1980, Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007), where it is found in the west, centre and east of the island, as well as on Karpathos and Kasos (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).
172128		habitat	eng	It grows on calcareous cliffs and in crevices, among rocks of gorge-beds, and in garrigue and fallow fields, at altitudes of 100–1,900 m (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).
172128		population	eng	<p>It is widespread on Crete (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).<br/></p>
172128		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown. However, it is unlikely that this species is significantly impacted by any potential threats since it grows in in accessible places, such as on cliffs and in crevices, and can also grow in disturbed habitats and at a wide range of altitudes.<br/></p>
172130		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. ventricosa</span> is found in National Forest Parks and in NATURA 2000 sites. It is recommended that monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the management plans of these sites.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 21 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ventricosa</span> held in European genebanks, 18 of which are confirmed to have been collected in Cyprus and are of wild or weedy origin. They are stored in the National Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172130		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to western Asia (including Cyprus), the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), this species is on the edge of its range in the EU. In Cyprus, it is found in the central part of the island at the botanical subdivisions 2 (Troodos), 4 (Larnaca), 5 (Nicosia) and 6 (Morphou).
172130		habitat	eng	It grows in dry, stony soils in the openings of Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation.
172130		population	eng	This species is found in scattered patches; however, at some localities it forms dense populations (Agricultural Research Institute Genebank unpublished data).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172130		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat degradation due to past forestation works and expansion of agricultural land.
172131		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. favosum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) as 'nt' (neither rare nor threatened) (Council of Europe 1983).<br/><br/>Information is needed on the distribution, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status.
172131		distribution	eng	Endemic to northern Greece (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172131		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172131		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172131		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172132		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. proponticum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172132		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">proponticum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is native to Turkey, including Turkey-in-Europe (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">proponticum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">proponticum</span> occurs in western Turkey in the provinces of Aydin, Balikesir, Izmir, Manisa and Tekirda from 0 to 600 m (Mathew 1996).
172132		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">proponticum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">proponticum</span> grows on rocky slopes, coastal cliffs and beaches, as well as in maquis, and can also be found growing on walls, in ruins and in vineyards; it flowers (May–) June–July (Mathew 1996).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172132		population	eng	There is no information available about the population of this species in European Turkey.
172132		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species in European Turkey.
172133		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. lineare </span>is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001) and as Critically Endangered in Slovakia (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It is a nationally protected species in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lineare</span> held in European genebanks but they are not reported to be of wild origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
172133		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. lineare</span>&#160; is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, Russian Federation, Kazakhstan and Mongolia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France, it is confined to the departments of   Isère and   Hautes-Alpes to the east (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172133		habitat	eng	It grows in dry grassland, on slopes and in forest edges.
172133		population	eng	This species is very rare in Slovakia, possibly only occurring at one locality<span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> It is also rare in the Czech Republic where there are scattered occurrences across the country; however, it is thought to be stable. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.  </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><br/></span></span>
172133		threats	eng	It may be threatened by fires but other threats are unknown.
172134		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports 1,291 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. serriola</span> held in European genebanks, 1,247 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 709 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
172134		distribution	eng	According to<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010)<span style="font-style: italic;">, L</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> serriola</span> is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia, northern and northeast tropical Africa, Macaronesia and the Indian Subcontinent, and is widely naturalized in other regions. Greuter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006–2009) also record the species as native in Macaronesia; however, according to Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), its origin in the Canary Islands is uncertain and according to Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) its origin in Madeira is also uncertain.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of this species is available for the following European countries:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>common in lowland and hilly regions (Dostál and Červenka1992).</li><li>Cyprus: widely distributed (botanical divisions 2–7) (Meikle 1985).</li><li>Hungary: widespread   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: widespread; recorded in all departments except   Rhône (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom: widespread throughout the southern half of England with a patchier distribution in Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has only been recorded at three localities in Scotland and one in Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: predominantly occurs in the central and the south part of the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).&#160; <strong></strong></li></ul>
172134		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. serriola</span> is distributed through lowland and montane regions and is most frequently found in sunny exposed areas on fertile soil (Feráková 1977). The species grows in large numbers in disturbed areas such as in towns and cities and can also be found in screes and quarries as a pioneer species (Feráková 1977). It can grow at high altitudes (3,100 m in Afghanistan), but is restricted to low altitudes of 80 m in Britain; however, it is most frequently found at altitudes of 200–600 m in Europe (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it grows in cultivated and waste ground or on stony mountainsides and summits, from sea level to 6,400 ft (Meikle 1985). In Hungary, it grows in arable land, cereal and stubble fields, vineyards, and in ruderal and weedy communities, typically as part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodio Scleranthea</span> community (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). In the United Kingdom, it is most commonly found on roadsides, in waste ground, gravel pits and on sea walls—it can easily and rapidly colonise newly turned soil (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Netherlands, it can be found in pioneer vegetation on humid to dry, moderately fertile to very fertile, basic to neutral soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
172134		population	eng	This species is common throughout its European range and according to Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1985) is increasing in the Netherlands. The authors reported that it occurred in 80 hour-squares before 1950 and in 382 hour-squares after 1950, while Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) note that the species is currently present in 3001–10,000 1x1 km grid squares.
172134		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.
172135		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Romania, </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">it is listed as Critically Endangered in the 2009 Red Data Book and is protected at national level<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> It is also included in the regional Red Data Books of Bashkortostan, Samarskaya and Orenburgskaya, Russia (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005) and is listed in the Red Data Book in Ukraine as Endangered (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in the Podilski Tovtry National Park, while in Bashkortostan it occurs in Bashkirskij national reserve and in Shulgan-Tach reserve and at two natural monuments. In Romania it occurs in Cheile Turzi reserve in Transilvania and has been proposed for protection on Paring Mountain.   <br/><br/>All the European subpopulations require protection and active conservation managemernt.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><br/>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">obliquum</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, this accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">. Collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the European subpopulations is required.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172135		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">A. obliquum</span> is widespread in the southern Urals, southern Siberia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia (Near-Balkhash area, Tien Shan, Saur, Tarbagataj), Mongolia and China. Its European range is represented by some disjunct isolated localities in Russia, Ukraine and Romania. <br/><br/>In European Russia, it occurs in Near-Ural and Volga-Kama natural regions (Bashkortostan Republic and Samaraskaja regions) in the southeast. In Ukraine, there is a single isolated occurrence in Podolian upland, on the left bank of the Smotrich river near Ustja village, Kamieniec-Podolski district, Chmelnitzka region (Omelczuk-Mjakushko 1979, Diduch 2009). In Romania, this species is only found at two localities: Cheile Furzii, at 400–500&#160;m asl and on Paring Mountain at 1,900&#160;m in the southern Carpathians (Ploaie 1990).</span>
172135		habitat	eng	It occurs in meadows, on wooded mountain slopes and banks of mountain rivers (Chukhina 2003–2009). In Romania it is found on calcareous, stony, steppe slopes (60–80 degrees) in forests. On Paring mountain it grows in the subalpine zone in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pineta mugi</span> community on crystalline rocks in the glaciated valley. At Bashkortostan it grows in steppe shrublands, in forest edges and in meadows.   <p>In Ukraine it grows in calcareous steppe on sheltered slopes (450<sup>o</sup>) in rendzina soil in the ecotope between the meadow steppe community <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirsio</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium pinnati</span> and petrophilous community <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo-Scleranthetea</span>.</p>
172135		population	eng	In Romania, the subpopulations are very small and isolated, and probably decreasing. The subpopulation on Paring mountain occupies an area of only 2&#160;m<sup>2</sup>. The single Ukrainian subpopulation comprises around 2,500 individuals with a population density of 2–5 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup>. In Bashkortostan, the isolated subpopulations are restricted in area, but have a high population density.
172135		threats	eng	In Romania, the main threat was consumption of this plant by locals in the past. In Ukraine, the main threat is the species' narrow ecological tolerance and absent of suitable ecotopes.
172136		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. broteri</span> held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe: one from Cyprus and the other from Greece. Both are stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. broteri</span> is native to southeastern Europe as well as to temperate Asia and north Africa (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it is recorded from Paphos, Troodos and Larnaca (Botanical divisions 1, 2 and 4) (Meikle 1977). <br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172136		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, this species grows in cultivated and waste ground, in vineyards and on roadsides at an attitudinal range of 100–4,500 ft (Meikle 1977).
172136		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172136		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172137		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. frigidum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in  Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172137		distribution	eng	Native to southern Greece, southwest Turkey and the Turkish East Aegean Islands (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172137		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172137		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in Europe.</p>
172137		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172138		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>There are no direct <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation measures in place for this species and it is not present within a protected area. It requires urgent <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation attention as it is only known from three small subpopulations which are threatened by forestry activities and pollution.<br/><br/>EURISCO records only seven accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. insularis</span> held at the genebank of the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland; however, none of these accessions are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172138		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. insularis</span> is native to Sicily and Tunisia (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009). In Sicily, it is present at three locations in the south-southeast of the island. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172138		habitat	eng	It grows close to humid areas around ponds and lakes with alluvial crumbling clay.
172138		population	eng	It is known only from three subpopulations—two in restricted areas (fenced and regulated by the regional Forest Department but planted with eucalyptus and more recently with pine trees) and one at an unprotected site. The subpopulations are not big and they are usually mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sterilis</span>, making it difficult to identify stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. insularis</span> and thus to estimate their true size.
172138		threats	eng	A major threat is the planting of pine trees by the Forest Department. Air-borne pollution from a nearby oil refinery could also threaten this species.
172139		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. circinnatum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in   Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red  List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk)<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">and is protected by Greek Presidential Decree 67/1981 </span><span style="background-color: white;">(</span><span style="background-color: white;">Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania 2008)</span><span style="background-color: white;">.<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status.
172139		distribution	eng	Endemic to Crete (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006), where it is known from six localities in the northwest, centre-north, northeast and east of the island and grows at altitudes ranging from 50 to 250 m (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172139		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It grows on calcareous cliffs, in crevices, </span><span style="background-color: white;">in garrigue, and </span><span style="background-color: white;">in soil pockets between rocks and flowers from February–April (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).
172139		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172139		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172140		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the precise distribution, habitat, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status throughout its range.<br/><br/>In Slovakia some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from within Europe (Italy) and is stored in the Banco de Germoplasma, Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="background-color: white;"> Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
172140		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. flavum </span>is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia, Caucasus and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on the distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Bulgaria: widespread throughout the country.<br/></li><li>Czech Republic: found in warm regions in south Moravia.<br/></li><li>Hungary: throughout north Hungarian mountains, western Transdanubia and Great Hungarian Plain.</li><li>Italy: occurs in 10 regions in central to southern Italy.</li><li>Romania: widespread throughout the country.</li><li>Slovakia: occurs throughout the country (Eliáš Jr. unpublished).</li></ul><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172140		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry, sunny habitats, such as scree, slopes and dry grasslands. For example in Hungary it occurs in open and closed rocky grasslands and basaltic rocky scree, and in the Czech Republic, Italy, Romania and Bulgaria is known to grow in rocky pockets and dry slopes.
172140		population	eng	This species is noted to have a stable population trend in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Bulgaria, Italy and Romania. It is noted to be locally common in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Italy. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend throughout the rest of its range.
172140		threats	eng	Secondary succession is a threat all over Europe to this species, due to a decline in grazing.
172141		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions stored in Cyprus (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.
172141		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cyprus where it has been recorded in most parts of the island (Mathew 1996).
172141		habitat	eng	It grows in garrigue or on dry, rocky hillsides, occasionally in crevices on cliffs or rocks, or in dry river beds and on limestone or igneous formations. It can also be found on roadsides, in waste ground and in field margins. It flowers from June to July (Mathew 1996).
172141		population	eng	This species is quite common (Meikle 1977, Viney 1994).
172141		threats	eng	There is no specific threat to this species.
172142		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">F. moschata</span> is listed as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It is also considered to be severely threatened in the Netherlands and is listed in the Dutch Red List (C. Kik pers. comm 2010). In Hungary, the species is not protected   (Király 2007). <br/><br/> EURISCO reports 35 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. moschata</span>  held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This accession originates from Italy and is maintained at the Fruit Growing  Research Institute Maracineni-Arges, Romania (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172142		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">moschata </span>is native to north, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, and the Caucasus.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>common throughout the country, except for the high mountain regions in the north and southeast (Zahradníková 1992).</li><li>Hungary: occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains and Transdanubia, and in the Great Hungarian Plain (Danube-region, Danube-Tisze köze-region, Tiszántúl region, Nyírség)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>Germany: widespread throughout&#160; the whole country (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>France: present in 51 departments in the northern, northeastern and central parts of the country. Less widespread in the west. (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Netherlands: occurs in the middle and southern parts of the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).</li></ul>  <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
172142		habitat	eng	This species primarily grows in forests and woodlands. In Germany, it it occurs on plains and in hilly regions. In the Netherlands, is also grows in brushwood in humid and moderately fertile soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>In Hungary, it occurs in dry oak woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orno–Quercetum</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">pubescenti cerris</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetum petraeae–cerris pannonicum, Tilio argenteae–Quercetum petraeae–cerris</span>) karst scrub forests, scree forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuriali–Tilietum</span>), forests of ravines (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllitidi–Aceretum</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetea</span> species and favours acidofrequent, fresh, rich in nutrients, clay, loam, sandy, loess, or slightly acidic soils (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172142		population	eng	In Hungary, this species is reported to be frequent to sporadic (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). It is common in Germany but very rare in the Netherlands. Prior to 1950 in the Netherlands, the species occurred in 34 hour-squares; however, Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) reported that it occurs in only 1–3 1 km grid squares.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172142		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172143		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in    Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red   List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not   Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk) at regional level (Greece) and as Vulnerable (V) globally (Council of  Europe 1983).<br/><br/>Information about the habitat, population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172143		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. longanum</span> is native to mainland Greece and Crete (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007), as well as Sirna and Astipalaia (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980). It is also native to Egypt and Libya (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172143		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172143		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in Europe.</p>
172143		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172144		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. callimischon</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in  Europe (1982 edition) as 'nt' (neither rare nor threatened) (Council of  Europe 1983).<br/><br/>Information is needed on the precise distribution, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172144		distribution	eng	Native to the southern Greece and Crete (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980) and southwest Turkey (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172144		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It grows on rocky ground and flowers from September–October (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).</span>
172144		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in Europe.</p>
172144		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172145		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>EURISCO reports 55 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peregrina</span> held in European genebanks, 45 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 16 originate from within Europe. Eleven originated from Greece, three from Cyprus, one from Sweden and one from the UK  (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A full review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary from the European populations to ensure that the widest range of genetic diversity is conserved for future potential use.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. peregrina</span> occurs in  protected areas. Although a common species, the implementation of a  monitoring programme is recommended at these sites.
172145		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to southeastern Europe (Greece), western Asia (Cyprus), the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula and northern Africa, and naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172145		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry, ruderal sites on hillsides, mountain slopes and in coastal areas in sparse and open herbaceous vegetation, garrigue, semi-steppe batha, heaths, maquis, <span style="font-style: italic;">Zygophyllum </span>shrubland, open oak and pine forests, and plantations (van Slageren 1994). It prefers limestone (but also grows on a range of other parent rock types) and favours sandy soil; it can grow in very shallow, stony soil (van Slageren 1994). It can also be found growing on roadsides. In Cyprus, it is also found on coastal sand dunes.
172145		population	eng	This is a common species and the population is stable.
172145		threats	eng	The main threats are coastal development and the use of herbicides. Increased periods of drought seems to favour this species.
172146		conservation	eng	According to Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fruticosa</span> is listed as Vulnerable in Slovakia. In Germany, it is evaluated as 'strongly endangered' (Red List category&#160; 2), but it is not protected. It is also not protected in Hungary (Király 2007).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fruticosa</span> held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172146		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. fruticosa</span> is native to middle, east and southeastern Europe, the Russian Federation (Caucasus and Siberia), Kazakhstan and China, and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: occurs in the south (Marhold and Wójcicki 1992).</li><li>Hungary: occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (in Cserhát absent, in Börzsöny rare), Transdanubian Mountains (Bakony margin: Tapolcafő), Western Transdanubia (Sopron-Göcsej), South Transdanubia (North Zala, Outer Somogy, Mecsek, Villány mountains, Tolna Hills) and Great Hungarian Plain (Kisalföld Plain, Danube region, Danube-Tisza köze region, Tiszántúl region: Mezőcsát, Ohat)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li></ul>  <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
172146		habitat	eng	It grows inside and on the margins of mixed forests and in dry, warm hedges. Specifically, in Hungary, it grows in shrub steppes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crataego–Cerasetum fruticosae</span> communities), karst shrub woodlands, dry oak woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orno–Quercetum</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">pubescenti–cerris</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Corno–Quercetum</span>), meadow steppes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulsatillae–Festucetum rupicolae subcarpaticum</span>), rocky grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa badensi–Caricetum humilis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunion spinosae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetalia, Festucetalia vale</span> associations), and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Berberidion</span> communities   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). It prefers calcareous, warm, dry, loose, shallow, rocky-, debritus-, clay-,  sand-, limestone-, and andesite soils rich in nutrients and alkaline  minerals (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172146		population	eng	In Slovakia, this species is relatively abundant and the population trend is stable. In Hungary, it is frequent to sporadic, and sometimes rare. The population trend in Germany is decreasing.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172146		threats	eng	It is threatened by intensive, industrial forest use.
172147		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. macedonicum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in   Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red  List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not  Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172147		distribution	eng	Endemic to northeast Greece (Pangaion) (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007), where it has been found growing on the mountains of Tzena, Pangeon and Orvilos (Strid and Tan 1991).
172147		habitat	eng	According to Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) it grows in sandy ground at altitudes of 1,650–1,700 m, while Strid and Tan (1991) note that it grows on limestone in dry, rocky grassland from 700–1,200 m to 2,000 m.
172147		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172147		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172148		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. obtusiflorum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the precise distribution, population size and trend of this species, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status and potential threats.
172148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. obtusiflorum </span>is endemic to Sicily (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172148		habitat	eng	It grows in maritime sands, and on cliffs and hillsides (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172148		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172148		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172150		conservation	eng	It probably occurs within the boundaries of several protected areas in Portugal and Spain, but it is not monitored and actively managed. Assessment of the population trend and potential threats, as well as an <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> gap analysis are needed. The implementation of a population monitoring programme is recommended.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. baeticum</span> which originates    from Portugal and is stored in the Portuguese Bank of Plant Germplasm  (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/> </span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172150		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. baeticum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is native to central and southern Spain, south, central and north </span><span style="background-color: white;">Portugal, and northern Africa. In north Portugal it has been recorded from the Parque Natural do Douro Internacional, Mogadouro.</span>
172150		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky crevices, fields, sandy places and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>scrub from sea level to 2,500 m (Mathew 1996). It is also found on riverbanks, roadsides and in fallow fields.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172150		population	eng	This species is not common in Portugal. In Spain it occurs in seven provinces in the centre and soutwest of the country. The population trend is unknown.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>
172150		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species.
172151		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>EURISCO reports 23 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bicornis</span> held in European genebanks; however, only one was reported to have been collected in Cyprus (stored at the National Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of  Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and storage is recommended as material was collected 20–25 years ago. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. bicornis</span> is listed as Vulnerable (B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v)) in the Red Data  Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;">  et al</span>. 2007). Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. A monitoring programme should be implemented.
172151		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to northern Africa (Egypt and Libya), the Arabian Peninsula (Kuwait) and western Asia (Cyprus, the Sinai, Israel, Jordan and Syria) (USDA, ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In the EU, the species is only found in Cyprus where it has been recorded at eight sites (six locations) (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The precise extent of occurrence (EOO) is unknown but the island is only 9,200 km<sup>2</sup> in size. The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 100 km<sup>2</sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172151		habitat	eng	Grows mainly in lowland coastal areas of sandy loams, open sands or stabilized sand dunes; soil types are light sandy, sandy-calcareous or sandstones; rainfall: 75–450 mm in Cyprus  (van Slageren 1994). In Cyprus it has been found on sand dunes and sandy seashores at sea level, sometimes up to 1 km from the shore (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). Flowers and fruits from March to May, though probably somewhat later in Cyprus (van Slageren 1994).
172151		population	eng	The species is 'uncommon throughout its range' (van Slageren 1994). In Cyprus the overall population is estimated to be more than 20,000 plants; however, it is suspected that the population is declining (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).
172151		threats	eng	In Cyprus the species is threatened by habitat loss, mainly due to development for tourism, recreational activities and at some localities by competition from invasive alien species (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
172152		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. scythicum</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. It occurs in Chornomorskij Biosphere Reserve.<strong><span class="msoIns"></strong></p>  No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scythicum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172152		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. scythicum</span> is endemic to southeastern Ukraine where it is found on the Black Sea coast in Chersonska region, Goloprystanskij and Chaplinskij districts.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow; font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>
172152		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in pods with saline soils in communities of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonio–Festucion </span>alliance, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Limonictalia </span>class.</p>
172152		population	eng	<p>In first part of the 19th century, there was a large subpopulation of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scythicum</span> in Dzambek and Solonij pods (plains with saline soils in southern Ukraine) in the territory of the Askania Nova Biosphere Reserve (Chaplinskij district, Chersonska region). Now these pods have been converted to arable land and it is thought that these subpopulations are extinct. Other subpopulations are very small; for example, a single subpopulation in Chornomorskij Biosphere Reserve comprises only 59 adult individuals. </p>
172152		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by ploughing and changes in the hydrological regime of soils. </p>
172153		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">In Portugal<span style="font-style: italic;">, A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> schmitzii </span>is not actively conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>, although the species has historically been recorded  in four conservation areas throughout its range. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Given the lack of detailed information on both the presence and health of the extant populations, surveying and monitoring is needed. Since some of the populations occur within conservation areas, active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>conservation (with a management plan) should be undertaken in these areas. <br/>The species has been assessed in Portugal as <span style="background-color: white;">Indeterminate (Dray 1985)</span><span style="background-color: white;">, </span><span style="background-color: white;">Vulnerable (Ramos Lopes et al.  1990), and </span><span style="background-color: white;">Vulnerable (Alves et al. 1999). <br/>In Spain this species is considered Vulnerable (</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">B2ab(iii, v)c(iv); D1+2)</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular Espanola 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">It was included in the </span><span style="background-color: white;">List of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe</span><span style="background-color: white;"> (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) as Rare (R) in Portugal (</span>not  Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk)<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span> <br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">schmitzii </span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). </span><span style="background-color: white;">The taxon is not currently conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>—representative samples should be collected and conserved in duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172153		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. schmitzii</span> is endemic to Portugal and Spain.<span style="background-color: white;"> In Portugal, </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> schmitzii</span><span style="background-color: white;"> has been recorded in and alongside some of the major national rivers (Douro, Guadiana and Tejo) and/or its affluents/effluents (such as Xarrama River, an affluent of Sado River). Its area of occupancy&#160; (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></span>
172153		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">In Portugal, </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> schmitzii</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> occurs along stream margins and humid rock fissures (Franco and Rocha Afonso 1994), as well as in riverbeds which are very unique habitats because their plant communities are protected from competition due to its cyclic perturbation (flooding), especially as a result of the construction of dams (Quercus 2005). It grows in cambisol, lithosol and luvisol and tolerates both acid, neutral and alkaline soils; however, a higher number of populations are associated with acid soils. The taxon grows in temperatures ranging from 12.5 to 17.5<sup>o</sup>C with a higher number of records in the range of 12.5 to 16</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><sup>o</sup></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">C. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">schmitzii </span><span style="background-color: white;">grows in areas where radiation ranges from 150 to 165 Kcal/cm</span><sup>2</sup><span style="background-color: white;"> with two localities at 140 to 145 Kcal/cm</span><sup>2</sup><span style="background-color: white;">, with incidence in 150 to 155 Kcal/cm</span><sup>2</sup><span style="background-color: white;"> and sunlight of 2,200 to 3,100 hrs. It is found at sites with 400 to 1,000 mm of rainfall, with less than 50 to 100 days rainy days (with a higher number of records at 50 to 75 days), and with one to 50 days of frost (Magos Brehm 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/><br/></span></span></span>
172153		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The </span>population trend<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">in Spain </span><span style="background-color: white;">is decreasing </span><span style="background-color: white;">and possibly also in Portugal.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172153		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span>Any construction near the rivers/streams where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. schmitzii </span>occurs, that aims at stabilizing its riverbanks, is likely to affect population dynamics (Quercus 2005), as well as construction of dams which will inevitably destroy the habitat.<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span></span></span>
172154		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">talijevii</span> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is thought that this is not a valid species; rather, it is a form of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. ampeloprasum</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></span>
172154		distribution	eng	According to Mathew (1996), this species is endemic to southeast Ukraine where the type specimen was collected in 1898 near Maschlykovka by the Krynka River. Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) also record it from Ukraine (southeast of Donetsk)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. However, this species is probably not valid as it has only been described based on a single specimen and it has not been collected since 1898 (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).
172154		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Mathew (1996) recorded this species as growing on chalky slopes and flowering in June.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> The specific habitat type is not described.</span>
172154		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is thought that this is not a valid species; rather, it is a form of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. ampeloprasum</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span>
172154		threats	eng	<p><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is thought that this is not a valid species; rather, it is a form of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. ampeloprasum</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></p>
172155		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisum</span> is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on  Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the garden  pea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>Overall <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sativum </span>is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>   germplasm collections, with accessions being primarily held by N.I.  Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St.  Petersburg, Russian Federation),    Aegean Agricultural Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey); ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of  Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks (Maxted and Ambrose 2001). It would be beneficial to review that all varieties are represented by accessions from throughout their geographic range.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 20,201 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 536 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 85 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  Although   it occurs in protected areas, there is no active management,  but it  is  likely to be passively conserved in      many existing   protected   areas&#160; throughout its range. As its      conservation in  these    sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to  population   loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sativum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arvense</span> is classified as Endangered (Eliáš P. jun  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sativum </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> elatius</span> is classified as Endangered in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172155		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> sativum </span>is native in parts of east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as in western Asia, the Caucasus, and northern and northeast tropical Africa. The taxon is cultivated worldwide and widely naturalized. (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010)<span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Portugal, </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">P</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> sativum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">sativum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is known to occur in Alto Alentejo (south of the country) (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999–2000) whereas, <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> sativum </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">elatius</span> is widely distributed (Magos Brehm 2004).<br/><br/>In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments although largely absent in central and northwestern departments (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>It does not occur on inventory lists in the Netherlands, however it is cultivated widely in the country.</span>
172155		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Wild <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisum sativum</span> is found primarily in disturbed land on the edges of cultivation (Maxted and Ambrose 2001). In Portugal and Spain, <span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">P</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> sativum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> tends to occur in pastures, shrublands, track borders and cultivated fields; it is sometimes cultivated or escaped from cultivation (Talavera <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999–2000). <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> sativus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">elatius</span> occurs as a non ruderal taxon in open areas.</span>
172155		population	eng	The exact population size of the wild varieties is unknown, but as a whole they are considered relatively common throughout their range (Maxted and Ambrose 2001).
172155		threats	eng	The wild varieties tends to grow on the edges of cultivation and as such are currently  threatened by changes in land management, more extensive use of herbicides,  increase in fires and climate change.
172156		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. heldreichii</span> held in European genebanks; however, none of these are reported to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p><p>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in   Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red  List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not  Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).</p><p>  </p><p>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.</p>
172156		distribution	eng	Endemic to northern Greece (Mathew 1996) where it is found in Macedonia and Thessaly (Papiomitoglou 2006).
172156		habitat	eng	It grows on rocky mountain slopes at altitudes of 700–2,000 m and flowers from June–August (Mathew 1996). However, according to Papiomitoglou (2006) it flowers from late March to early July.
172156		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172156		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172157		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. triquetrum</span> which originates from Spain and is stored in the Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
172157		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. triquetrum</span> is native to Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), France (including Corsica), Spain (including the Balerares), Madeira islands, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, Nation Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, this species occurs in the seven departments of   Finistère,   Côtes d'Armor, Morbihan,   Ille-et-Vilaine, Manche,   Maine-et-Loire and   Vendée in the northwest,    Alpes-Maritimes in the southeast and both departments on Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172157		habitat	eng	It grows in woods, on stream-sides and in damp, shady places (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172157		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172157		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172158		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. ericetorum</span> is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in Slovakia  (Somogyi 2002). In France, this species is protected at a regional level in the following  three regions: Limousin, Pays de la Loire and Bretagne (Association Tela  Botanica 2000–2010). In Portugal, it has been recommended that the species should be included in the management plans of the protected areas in which it occu<span style="background-color: white;">rs (Neto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ericetorum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172158		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. ericetorum</span> is native to south, southwestern and eastern Europe (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> In Slovakia, this species was recently confirmed <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">from</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> one locality in the east—Ko?ice, part ?aca (Somogyi 2002). This subpopulation is very vulnerable as it comprises only a few individuals near a rural road (Somogyi 2002). In Portugal, it occurs in the northeast and was recently discovered in southern Portugal near Sado River. In France, it occurs within 17 departments to the west and southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/></span></span></span>
172158		habitat	eng	It grows in heathlands and in rocky places.
172158		population	eng	It is rare in Slovakia. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species from throughout its range.
172158		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172159		conservation	eng	Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: Vulnerable (VU) according to Somogyi (2002). </li><li>Czech Republic: Endangered (EN).</li><li>Poland: this species is probably extinct in this country (unconfirmed).</li><li>UK: Vulnerable (VU) (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).</li><li>Spain: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sphaerocephalon</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ebusitanum </span>is listed as Vulnerable (VU) (Moreno 2008).<br/></li></ul>In Hungary, <em>A. sphaerocephalon</em> ssp.<em> descendens </em>  is not protected (Borhidi and   Sántha 1999).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>EURISCO reports 32 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 16 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 13 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172159		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sphaerocephalon</span> is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus), Macaronesia (Canary Islands), Caucasus and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>However, its origin in the Canary Islands is uncertain (Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>This species is noted to be widespread in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), Portugal, Spain and Germany. In Slovakia it occurs mainly in the south of the country. In the UK this species occurs in only six localities in the south of England and the Channel Islands (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). However, according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), it is only native in two of these localities (Avon Gorge, Gloucester and St. Aubin's Bay, Jersey). It is possibly extinct in Poland.<br/> <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172159		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sphaerocephalon</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sphaerocephalon </span>occurs in dry, stony or rocky slopes, waste places, cultivated fields, roadsides, beaches, scrubland, from sea level to 1,550 m; flowering between June and July (Mathew 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>A. sphaerocephalon</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arvense </span>can be found in cultivated and abandoned fields, and scrubland; up to <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 1,500 m (Mathew 1996).<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/><br/>A. sphaerocephalon </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">trachypus</span> is found in rocky places and limestone cliffs; up to <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 1,500 m (Mathew 1996). <br/><br/>In Hungary,   <em>A. sphaerocephalon</em> ssp.<em> descendens</em>   grows in rocky grasslands, steppe grasslands, forest steppe grasslands and loess steppe grasslands, and prefers alkaline soil, dry, warm, loose, alkaline rich with medium humus stone- detritus-, adobe-, loess-, and sandy soils<em></em> (Soó 1966).
172159		population	eng	This species is described as widespread and is capable of rapid proliferation due to freely-produced bulblets (Mathew 1996). In Slovakia, where large subpopulations occur in the south of the country  (Somogyi 2002), the population trend is described as stable. In the UK, at the two localities (Avon Gorge, Gloucester and St. Aubin's Bay, Jersey) at which this species is classified as native, the subpopulations are very small (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172159		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172160		conservation	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Portugal<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">pruinatum</span> is not actively conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>, although the species has historically been recorded <span style="background-color: white;"></span> in at least four conservation areas. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Given the lack of detailed information on both the presence and health of the extant populations of this species, surveying and monitoring is needed. Since some of the populations occur within conservation areas, active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>conservation (with a management plan) should be undertaken in these areas.<br/><br/>In Spain, this species occurs in protected areas and is listed as Vulnerable (VU) D1 in the Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pruinatum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). The taxon is not currently conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>—representative samples should be collected and conserved in duplicate <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>collections.
172160		distribution	eng	In Portugal it has historically been recorded at localities from the northeast to the south of the country.<span style="font-style: italic;"> A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pruinatum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">bulbiferum</span> has historically been recorded in very few localities: Serra da Estrela, a mountain in the northeast of the country where it was recorded in the 1960s, Cascais, where it was recorded in late 19th century, and Sesimbra, where it was recorded in the 1970s. The latter two sites are in the centre-west of Portugal. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of the species in Portugal is 36,747 km<sup>2</sup>—this was estimated from herbarium specimens collected between 1956 and 2005; specimens collected before 1956 were not included in the calculation. In Spain it occurs in the southwestern part of the country.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172160		habitat	eng	It is found in forests, agricultural land, uncultivated fields, inland waters and <span style="background-color: white;">urban </span>areas (Magos Brehm 2009). It has also been recorded in xerophytic woods (Franco and Rocha Afonso 1994), pine woods with sandy soil, cork oak plantations, fallow ground and limestone areas. It grows in cambisol, fluvisol, lithosol, luvisol, podzol, regosol and solonchak and tolerates acid, neutral and alkaline soils; however, a higher number of populations are associated with cambisol and luvisol, and with acid soils. The taxon grows in temperatures ranging from 10ºC to&#160; more than 17.5ºC, with a higher number of records in the range of 16 to 17.5ºC. Radiation has been recorded in the range of 145 to 165 Kcal/cm<sup>2</sup> with incidence in 155 to 160 Kcal/cm<sup>2</sup> and sunlight of 2,300 to more than 3,100 hrs. It is found at sites with 400 to 1,600 mm of rainfall (with a higher number of records at sites with 600 to 700 mm) and less than 50 to more than 100 rainy days (with a higher number of records at 50<span style="background-color: white;"> to </span>100 days). The sites have less than one to 40 days of frost.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pruinatum</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">bulbiferum</span> occurs in forests as well as in agricultural fields and has been recorded in regosol and acid soil. The taxon grows in temperatures in the range of 16 to 17.5ºC. Radiation has been recorded in the range of 155 to 160 Kcal/cm<sup>2</sup> and sunlight of 2,900 to 3,000 hrs. It is found at sites with 500 to 600 mm of rainfall, 50 to 75 rainy days and 5 to 10 days of frost (Magos Brehm 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172160		population	eng	There is no current knowledge of the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pruinatum</span>; however, Franco and Rocha Afonso (2004) reported it as an infrequent species, while Sampaio (1988) considered <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pruinatum </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">bulbiferum</span> to be rare. The species was included in the List of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (Council of Europe 1983). Based on a reduction in the extent and quality of habitat of this species due to intensive tourism and urban development during the past 30 years, it is suspected that the population has decreased; however, there is insufficient data available to infer that the population is continuing to decline. The population in Spain has less than 1,000 mature individuals (Moreno 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172160		threats	eng	Although specific threats have not been recorded in Portugal, some of the populations occur in areas where tourism and urban expansion have been intensive—at least in the last 30 years. These populations have not been surveyed recently, so it is not possible to know whether they are still extant.
172161		conservation	eng	In France, this species is protected on a national level (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. chamaemoly </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172161		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. chamaemoly</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, it occurs in six departments in the south and southeast of the country (Alpes-Maritimes, Var,   Bouches-du-Rhône,   Hérault, Aude and   Pyrénées Orientales) and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172161		habitat	eng	It grows in grassland and sandy ground (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172161		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172161		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172162		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. cerasifera</span> has been listed as Vulnerable in Albania (Vangjeli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).</p><p>EURISCO reports 1,317 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. cerasifera</span> held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these, only two originate from within Europ (Spain) and are stored&#160; at the Estación Experimental de Aula Dei, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></p>
172162		distribution	eng	Native to southeastern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, Indian Subcontinent and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172162		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172162		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172162		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
172164		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. brigantina</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.
172164		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. brigantina</span> is native to France and Italy (Kurtto 2009). It is only found in a few alpine valleys near Briancon, between France and northwest Italy. In France it is confined to the three southeastern departments of Alpes-Maritimes,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Hautes-Alpes (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172164		habitat	eng	It grows in arid places in shrub thickets in the Alps, above 1,400 m (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172164		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172164		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172165		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. plumieri</span> has been evaluated by D.  Dimitrova as Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). In France, the taxon (recorded as syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicerbita plumieri</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is protected in the central region of Limousin (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. plumieri</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/><span class="Apple-converted-space">
172165		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. plumieri</span> is native to the Alps and Pyrenees, with an isolated occurrence in  Bulgaria—a reported occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>the species in FYR Macedonia has been mistakenly identified and actually refers to  <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pancicii</span> (V. Stevanović pers. comm 2010). The species has been introduced to other parts of Europe, where it has become naturalized.<br/><br/>In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. plumieri </span>(recorded as syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicerbita plumieri</span>)  occurs in departments to the southwest, south and centre of the country  as well as the departments of Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin, Vosges and    Territoire de Belfort to the northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The taxon only occurs at one locality in the southwest of Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).
172165		habitat	eng	It grows in open forests, mountain shrublands and eutrophic slopes of open woodland.
172165		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172165		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172166		conservation	eng	Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Poland: Vulnerable (VU); <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scorodoprasum </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rotundum </span>is Critically Endangered (CR). </li><li>Norway: <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scorodoprasum</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scorodoprasum </span>is Near Threatened (NT).</li><li>Germany: classified as Endangered (EN).</li><li>Czech Republic:  <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scorodoprasum </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rotundum </span>is classified as Endangered (EN) (although listed at species level: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rotundum</span>).</li><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scorodoprasum </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rotundum</span> is Vulnerable (VU) (although listed at species level: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rotundum</span>).</li><li>Finland: classified as Least Concern (LC).</li><li>Denmark: classified as Least Concern (LC) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</li><li>Luxembourg: Endangered (EN) (Colling 2005).</li><li>Switzerland: Vulnerable (VU) (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>EURISCO reports 18 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scorodoprasum</span> held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only two originate from within Europe. One originates from the German Democratic Republic and the other from Norway (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.
172166		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> scorodoprasum </span>is native to parts of northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as western Asia (Turkey). The taxon is widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere in the world (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on the distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Finland: occurs in the southwestern part of the country.</li><li>France: widespread in the east of the country, occurring in 39 departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Lithuania: concentrated in the west of the country (Karpavičienė 2004).</li><li>Netherlands: occurs along the large rivers and along the North Sea coast (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1985).</li><li>Poland: found in up to 100 sites, more often in the western part of the country.</li><li>Slovakia: scattered throughout  the country (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992), more abundant is in western,  southwestern and southern parts (Eliáš Jr. unpublished).</li><li>UK: widespread in northern England (mainly Cumbria and Yorkshire); also occurs in eastern Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li></ul>
172166		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species grows in fields, hedgerows, grassy places, scrub, vineyards, roadsides and waste places, usually at low altitudes; flowering between May and July (Mathew 1996).<br/></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  (2002), this species occurs in the UK on lowlands including rough grassland, waste  ground, road verges, track sides and by railways. It is also known to  occur on sandy river banks, open woodlands on well-drained soils and in  coastal areas (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland and Norway the species is found in herb-rich forests, <span style="background-color: white;">slope and shore fields</span>, while occurring in <span lang="EN-GB">mostly flooded meadows, dry meadows and forest edges in Lithuania<span lang="EN-GB">. Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1985) note that the species can also be found in groves which occur along the large rivers and on the edges of river valleys in the Netherlands.</span></span></p><p><br/></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-GB"></p>
172166		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. scorodoprasum </span>has a stable  population trend in Slovakia (Eliáš Jr. unpublished),  and is described as rare in Lithuania, infrequent in Finland and locally abundant in Estonia (the northeastern limit of range). In both Norway and Poland it is noted that there is a tendency for old sites to disappear and new ones to occur, with some older 'lost' subpopulations in Norway becoming re-established. In the Netherlands it is found in few localities but it has not declined since the 1950s (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Further  research is needed to gather information about the population size and  trend throughout the rest of its range.
172166		threats	eng	This species is threatened in Europe by changes in land use due to the abandonment of grazing, intensification of agriculture, modification of forest land to roads, and urbanization.
172167		conservation	eng	<p>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) as Insufficiently Known (K) and in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk). In Murcia this species is considered Vulnerable.<br/></p>It occurs in protected areas in the region of Comunidad Valenciana. According to the European Environment Agency (2010), it is found in six Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. melananthum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172167		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. melananthum</span> is endemic to southeast Spain (Almeria and Murcia) (Mathew 1996). It is also present in the provinces of Alicante and Malaga.
172167		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky and sandy places from sea level to 400 m and flowers from May to June (Mathew 1996). It is also found in drylands and in steppe vegetation.
172167		population	eng	The subpopulation of Malaga is isolated and in Murcia it is rare.
172167		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species.
172168		conservation	eng	According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005), it is Extinct in the Wild. Further research is needed to determine the conservation and threats status of this species.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. permixtum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172168		distribution	eng	The geographical distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. permixtum </span>is unclear. Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) noted that it occurs in the central Mediterranean region (Corsica to Malta). According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) it as native to mainland Italy, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia and Corsica. However, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) record it as native only to mainland Italy and Sicily. Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) also noted that the taxon needs further study. The distribution recorded in this assessment is based on data from Euro+Med PlantBase (2006).
172168		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172168		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172168		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172170		conservation	eng	Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sylvestris</span> is available for the following European countries:<br/><ul><li>Germany: Endangered; there is an ongoing rescue management project in place (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Finland: Vulnerable (H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010).</li><li>Denmark: Least Concern (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</li><li>Netherlands: Least Concern (C. Kik pers. comm. 2010).<br/></li><li>Germany: possibly threatened but no regional data on occurrences (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010).<br/></li></ul><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">  <p>It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of the protected areas in which it occurs.</p>  <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">EURISCO reports 52 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sylvestris </span>held in European genebanks, only  one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin and does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue  2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the effect of hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. domestica</span> on the genetic diversity of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sylvestris</span>.<br/></span></span></span></span></span>
172170		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">sylvestris</span> is native to many parts of northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Finland: occurs in the southwest.</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Norway: scattered in the north<span lang="EN-GB">; <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">more common in south. </span></span></li><li>Slovakia: common throughout the country (Marhold 1992).&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Netherlands: widespread (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).</span></li><li>Portugal: only in the north.</li><li>Spain: widespread.</li><li>France: widespread throughout the most of the country but not recorded in the departments of Paris and   Seine-Saint-Denis in the north,   Rhône to the east or Lot-et-Garonne to the southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom: widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland, although its distribution is patchy in northern Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Ireland: widespread throughout the whole of the country (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></li></ul><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span>
172170		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">In Finland, this species grows in rocky, herb-rich forests, waterfront thickets and forests and rich meadows—it favours limy soil (H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010). In the United Kingdom and Ireland it grows in hedgerows, scrub, copses, roadsides and also on rough ground (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), while in the Netherlands, it grows in forests and shrubwoods on humid and moderately fertile soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Where the species grows in forest margins, it has to compete with taller forest species. In Iberia, it grows from sea level to 1,800 m, in Germany the maximum altitude is 1,000 m, while in Norway it is 550 m.</p>
172170		population	eng	Knowledge of the European subpopulation is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Finland: infrequent.<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Italy: not very common.</span></li><li>Slovakia: stable.</li><li>Germany: common but hybridized with cultivated plants.<span lang="EN-GB"></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Netherlands: before 1950 the species occurred in 124 hour-squares and after 1950 in 628 hour-squares (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) reported that the species occurs in 3,001–10,000 1x1 km grid squares. <br/></li></ul>
172170		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The main threats are hybridization with <em>M. domestica</em> and forest management, particularly as the species tends to grow in forest margins. As <span lang="EN-GB">the plants mainly occur as isolated individuals, rather than as viable populations, they are susceptible to events.<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span>
172171		conservation	eng	Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tenella</span> is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Croatia: Critically Endangered (Nikolić and Topić 2005).</li><li>Slovakia: Endangered (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).</li><li>Hungary: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Near Threatened   (Király 2007) and protected according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant  and animal species and the Goverment decree on the Natura 2000 sites  for the restoration of natual habitats and the maintenance of viable  populations of protected species. <br/></li></ul>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tenella</span> but it is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172171		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. tenella</span> is native to middle, east and southeastern Europe, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation (Siberia) and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is known from the southwest only. Maglocký (1999) pointed out seven sites. Recently, three localities were confirmed: 1) Gbelce, Drieňová hora Nature Reserve, 2) the Belianske kopce Hills, where some local subpopulations were confirmed, and 3) Kamenica nad Hronom, the Burdov Nature Reserve, with some local micro-populations (Eliáš Jr. unpublished). The origin of the occurrence in the Devínska Kobyla Hills near Bratislava is doubtful (Bertová 1992). One site was found near stone-pit Dlhý vrch in the Slovak karst National Park, but it is regarded as secondary (Šuvada pers. comm. 2009 , cited by P. Eliáš  pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (but is absent in Cserhát- and Börzsöny mountains), Transdanubia (Tolna, Villány-mountains), Great Hungarian Plain (Danube region,&#160; Danube-Tisza köze region: Monor, Tóalmás, Bácsvaskút,&#160; Tiszántúl-region: Kál-Kápolna, Kerecsend, Tiszavasvári, Ohat, Fegyvernek, Kondoros, Kisszsénás, Csorvás, Kaba)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172171		habitat	eng	According to Soó (1966) and Simon (1992), in Hungary, this species grows in shrub steppes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crataego–Cerasetum fruticosae</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pruno spinosae–Crataegetum</span>), in association with almond shrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdaletum nanae</span>), in Karst shrub forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceraso</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">mahaleb</span>)–<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetum pubescentis</span>), loess oak woods (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aceri</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">tatarico</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;">–Quercetum pubescenti–roboris</span>), salt oak woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco pseudovinae–Quercetum roboris</span>), and in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunion spinosae</span> species. It can grow in a range of soil types, but mainly is mainly found in loess soil (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172171		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172171		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. tenella</span> is nationally threatened in some countries but further research is needed to determine the threats affecting these subpopulations.
172172		conservation	eng	In France, this species is protected at a regional level in the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It occurs in in several protected areas in Spain—it is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nigrum</span> held in a European genebank; however, it is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172172		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. nigrum</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Cyprus the species has been recorded near Aslanköy, near De?irmenlik, Çanlibel, Geçitköy and Alsancak (Viney 1994). In France it occurs within eight departments to the south:   Charente-Maritime, Gironde, Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, Aude,   Hérault and   Bouches-du-Rhône; it also occurs in two departments (Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin) in the northeast and one department (Ain) in the east of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010)<span style="background-color: white;">. According to Govaerts </span><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007), this species occurs in Corscia; however, according to Association Tela Botanica (2000–2010) it is only native to mainland France.
172172		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. nigrum</span> occurs in abandoned crop fields and dry grasslands. For example, in Cyprus the species grows in cornfields and wasteland; flowering between March and April (Viney 1994).
172172		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172172		threats	eng	Hybridization with related wild species may pose a threat.
172173		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. parnassicum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in   Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red  List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not  Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172173		distribution	eng	Endemic to Greece (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), where it occurs in the mountains of the south (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172173		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky areas (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172173		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172173		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172174		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. lojaconoi</span> was listed in the 1989 Red Data Book for the Maltese Islands (Schembri and Sultana 1989), but no conservation status is given. However, in the1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998), it was listed as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk). <br/></p>  The species is protected under Maltese national legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Natura 2000 sites, but most of these areas lack management plans and no active management for conservation takes place. Many of these areas are subject to various degrees of human disturbance and are vulnerable to invasive species. <br/><br/>More research is needed on the distribution and population trend of this species and a monitoring programme should be implemented, both within and outside protected areas.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lojaconoi</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
172174		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. lojaconoi</span> is endemic to Malta (Lanfranco and Lanfranco 2003, Weber and Kendzior 2006, <span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005–2007, Borg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007<span style="background-color: white;">).</span> It occurs on the three largest islands of the Maltese archipelago (Malta, Gozo and Comino) and is generally found in coastal areas.   Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is suspected to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
172174		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>  <p>It grows in coastal sites, generally in pockets of shallow soil among rocks in steppe and garrigue and along the sides of rocky valleys. It flowers in June and July.</p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172174		population	eng	<p>The species has been described as "infrequent" (Lanfranco and Lanfranco 2003, Borg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and rare (Weber and Kendxior 2006). While it has a very restricted distribution, there is no indication of major population declines or fluctuations over recent years. Overall, the population trend is thought to be stable</p>
172174		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are human disturbance (trampling, illegal off-roading, off-road parking, hunting, picnics, unauthorized dumping of rubbish, bird trapping, nearby quarries), the spread of alien invasive species and planting of alien species, which are reducing the quality of much of its habitat. It is very inconspicuous plant and is not subjected to any direct exploitation. </p>
172175		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. aurea </span>is listed as Endangered in the Red List of Romania (S. Strajeru pers. comm. 2010).&#160; <br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas in some countries—it is recommended that monitoring of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. <br/><br/>Further research is needed into its distribution.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. aurea</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172175		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Europe (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Bulgaria it has been found in the central region (Vitosha mountains) and on the Kalofer, Osogov and Strandzha plateaus (Feráková 1977). Băile Herculane in Banat is the only known location of this species in Romania (Feráková 1977). It grows at altitudes of up to 1,700 m&#160; (Feráková 1977).
172175		habitat	eng	It grows in montane and subalpine habitats, preferring stony slopes, wood clearing and calcareous soils. It is found in shrub and forest habitats, on moderately wet soils.
172175		population	eng	It is widespread in Bulgaria and Greece, but has extremely small populations (of only a few individuals) in the south of Mehedinti mountains in Romania. The overall population trend is stable.
172175		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172176		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. halophilus </span>stored in the Genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>The species has been successfully propagated in  vitro and plants regenerated both by shoot proliferation and  somatic embryogenesis (induced in cotyledons and root segments) (Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).  Plants obtained by these two methods have been successfully  acclimatized and reintroduced in their natural habitats, showing that in vitro propagation is a useful tool to be used in the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>management of the populations of this species (Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Apart from this reintroduction project, populations are not actively conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>,  although it has historically been recorded  in at least five conservation  areas across its range.<br/><br/>Given the lack of detailed information on both the  presence and health of the extant populations of the taxon, surveying and monitoring is needed. Since some of the  populations occur within conservation areas, active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>conservation (with a  management plan) should be undertaken in these areas.<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172176		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. halophilus </span>is endemic to Portugal where it occurs along the west coast, extending from the north to the south, as well as in the western part of the southern coast (Magos Brehm 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 9,156 km²—this  was estimated from herbarium specimens collected between 1956 and 2005;  specimens collected before 1956 were not included in the calculation. Note that this species occurs exclusively along the coast and as the EOO was estimated from the area of the convex polygon that encompasses the locations of occurrence, it also includes areas inland that are probably unsuitable for the species; therefore, the EOO value is likely to be over-estimated.
172176		habitat	eng	It is found in steep coastal areas, fossile dunes (Pujadas Salvà 2003), grassy areas near coastal cliffs, limestone, together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Crucianella </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Helichrysum </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis </span>spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta vulgaris </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritima </span>(Magos Brehm 2009). It grows in luvisol, cambisol and podzol and tolerates both acid, neutral and alkaline soils; however, a higher number of populations are associated  with luvisol, and with acid soils. The taxon grows in  temperatures ranging from 12.5–17.5ºC, with a higher number of  records in the range of 16–17.5ºC. Radiation has been recorded in the  range of 140–165 Kcal/cm² with incidence in 155–160  Kcal/cm² and sunlight of 2,400 to >3,000 hrs, with a higher number of records at 2,800–2,900 hours. It is found at  sites with <400–1,200 mm of rainfall (with a higher number of records  at sites with 400–700 mm) and 50–75 rainy days. The sites have <1–10 days of frost, with higher number of localities with <1 day (Magos Brehm 2009).
172176		population	eng	There   is no detailed information about the population of this species. However, given that it occurs along the coast where tourism has been increasing (and hence the quality and extent of habitat has been decreasing) during the past 30 years (and continuing), it is suspected that the population is decreasing.
172176		threats	eng	Although specific threats have not been recorded, some of the  populations occur in areas where tourism and urban expansion have been  intensive—at least in the last 30 years. Further, since the species occurs in areas where invasive species are a problem, it is suspected that invasive species are an additional threat.
172177		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">D. guttatus</span> is listed as Vulnerable in the The Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/>.<br/>The subpopulation in Cyprus is in Rizoelia National Forest Park which is a Natura 2000 site (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports five germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. guttatus</span> held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All four of these wild accessions originate from within Europe. One originates from Albania (stored in the Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and the other three originate from Greece (two are stored in the Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany and the other is stored in Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172177		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">guttatus </span>is native to southeastern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it has been recorded at only one locality in Rizoelia National Forest Park (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172177		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, this species has been found on dry slopes among sparse phrygana vegetation and in field margins at altitudes of 0–100 m (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).
172177		population	eng	In Cyprus, the population is estimated to comprise around 4,000 to 6,000 plants (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172177		threats	eng	In Cyprus, it is threatened by forestation, and recreational and park development activities (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Further research is needed to gather information about the threats to this species throughout the rest of its range.
172178		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 47 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. kotschyi</span> held in European genebanks, 33 of which   are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates   from within Europe, and this is reported to have been collected in Greece. This accession is stored in Germany (Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172178		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Europe, it is found in Cyprus and in some of the East Aegean Islands.
172178		habitat	eng	This species is only at the margin of its global range in Europe and is  therefore considered to be Not Applicable for a European assessment.
172178		population	eng	This species is only at the margin of its global range in Europe and is therefore considered to be Not Applicable for a European assessment.
172178		threats	eng	This species is only at the margin of its global range in Europe and is  therefore considered to be Not Applicable for a European assessment.
172179		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>According to Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) and Dít? <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) <span style="font-style: italic;">H. geniculatum</span> is evaluated as Critically Endangered (CR) in Slovakia. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports six germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. geniculatum</span> held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However it is known that seeds from sites of Tvrdo?ovce and Mo?enok in Slovakia are stored in the Slovak Gene Bank in Pie??any. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>storage should be carried out as necessary.
172179		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. geniculatum</span> is native to central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), the Caucasus, Indian subcontinent and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>  Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>France: occurs along the western coast in the departments of   Loire-Atlantique,   Vendée,   Charente-Maritime and Gironde as well as the southern departments of   Hérault, Gard and Var, as well as in both departments in Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Greece: widespread throughout the country.<br/></li><li>Hungary: rare in north Hungarian mountain margins; frequent in Great Hungarian Plain and western Transdanubia.</li><li>Portugal: quite common throughout the country.<br/></li><li>Slovakia:<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> distributed in west and southwestern Slovakia only, circa 17 locations were  documented since the end of the 19th century. Recently, the species was confirmed  on five sites: (1) Tvrdo?ovce, north from the railway station; (2)  Tvrdo?ovce, around the Ráczovo jazierko pool; (3) ?urany, Akomá?  farmstead; (4) Mo?enok, Siky farmstead; and (5) Horná Krá?ová (Dít? <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). <br/></li></ul>
172179		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. geniculatum</span> is found in disturbed habitats, often in saline and dry places, but occasionally in freshwater areas. It can also be found in grasslands, river banks and in sandy soils in coastal areas.  The species is strongly dependent on grazing.
172179		population	eng	This species is stable across its European range.
172179		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172180		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. singularis</span> is protected by law in Andalucia and is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the 2008 Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It occurs in protected areas. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. singularis </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172180		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. singularis</span> is endemic to southeast Spain (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
172180		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky slopes on high mountains.
172180		population	eng	It is rare, localized and has a fragmented population.
172180		threats	eng	As this species grows at a high altitude, it is likely to be particularly affected by climate change.
172181		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. phthioticum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in    Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) as Rare (R) (not   Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172181		distribution	eng	According to Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2005–2007), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. phthioticum</span> is native to central Italy, central Greece (southwest of Lamia), and central Bulgaria. However, it is recorded by Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) and Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) as endemic to Greece, where it is restricted to Oiti, southwest of Lamia, in the south-centre of the country (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172181		habitat	eng	It grows in mountain pastures (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172181		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172181		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172182		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. kermesinum</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>Research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.
172182		distribution	eng	Endemic to Slovenia (southeast Alps) (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172182		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172182		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172182		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172183		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>(beet) is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture and although the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Patellifolia </span>is not listed in the Treaty, it is part of the beet gene pool.<br/><br/>The International Database for <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>reports the existence of 57 germplasm accessions (IDBB 2010).<br/><br/>It occurs in several protected areas.
172183		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> procumbens</span> is endemic to Macaronesia (Madeira and the Canary Islands) and Cape Verde (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Borges<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2008), it occurs on Madeira, Porto Santo and Selvagens; however, the assessors believe that its status in Selvagens is uncertain.
172183		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;">This species is found in coastal areas, amongst rocks and degraded soils. It is a ruderal species and tolerates habitat disturbances.&#160;</span>
172183		population	eng	It is a common species both in Madeira and the Canary Islands.
172183		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;">The tourist industry is likely to have a significant impact on ruderal sites in villages and along roads (Frese 2004).</span>
172184		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. atropurpureum</span> held in the Portuguese Bank of Plant Germplasm (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>In Serbia this species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) (A1c;A2c; B1+2, C1;C2a) (Stevanović in prep.).<br/><br/>It is not known whether this species is afforded any protection <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span> gap analysis is recommended as well as monitoring of population trends.
172184		distribution	eng	Native to middle and southeastern Europe, and to Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), it <em></em> is distributed from western Hungary, coastal  and northeastern Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia to the  eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula and western Asia (Valev and  Asenov 1964, Tatić 1975, Ilijanič and Šegulja 1979). Singh and Kachroo (1976) noted that the species also occurs in eastern Asia and northern  India. According to P. Eliáš, <em>A. atropurpureum </em>was not found in Slovakia before 2003 and is therefore considered by some experts to be an introduced species. However, some authors (e.g.<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>Dostál and Červenka 1992<span style="background-color: white;">) </span>believe it to be native; therefore, it is recorded in this assessment as 'origin uncertain'. It has been recorded as an introduced species in Austria (Melzer 1963, Stearn 1980) and the Czech Republic (Pyšek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary, it occurs in the north Hungarian mountains (Gyöngyös, Pásztó), western Transdanubia (Sopron, Csepreg), south Transdanubia (Somogy, Baranya, Tolna), Great Hungarian Plain (Kisalföld Plain, Danube-region) and Tiszántúl region (Soó 1973, Simon 1992). In Serbia it has a scattered distribution only in the Panonian region (Vojvodina) where it is recorded in Banat, Bačka and Srem (Anačkov 2009). Some old records cited in the literature on the occurrence of the species in east  Serbia are erroneous and probably refer to the closely related species <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cyrilli</span> Ten. (Anačkov 2009). In Slovakia, three localities are known <span style="background-color: white;">(</span>Eliáš <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.)<span style="background-color: white;">:</span> 1)   Bratislava, part Rusovce<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>, 2)   Bešešov and 3) Bretka<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. In Greece it is found in the Olympus Mountains.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172184		habitat	eng	It is found in open forests and grasslands, as well as in semi-ruderal places such as road verges, cultivated fields and abandoned pastures.
172184		population	eng	This species is widespread in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. In southeastern Hungary and northern Serbia (Vojvodina) its distribution is sporadic. In Serbia, all populations are small and fragmented and are decreasing significantly due to anthropogenic pressures. Some subpopulations in Serbia are already extinct.
172184		threats	eng	The habitats of this species in Serbia are threatened significantly by improvements to the road infrastructure and urbanization.
172185		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pumilum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>storage should be carried out as necessary.  <br/><p></p>
172185		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pumilum</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, the Caucasus, northern Africa and west Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172185		habitat	eng	It is an annual, self compatible species, occurring in disturbed or ruderal sites such as roadsides, wastelands, fields and fallows, usually on calcareous soil (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Kiers 2000).
172185		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pumilum</span> is widespread across its European range.
172185		threats	eng	There are no threats reported for this species.
172186		conservation	eng	<p>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in Europe (1982 edition) (Council of Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk). It was classified as Low Risk in the Liste Rosse Regionali delle Piante d'Italia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<br/>    </p><p>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. insubricum</span> held in European genebanks, neither of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, material is known to be conserved at the  Millennium Seedbank Project, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK and the seedbank in Lombardia, Italy. <br/></p><p>It  occurs in a SCI in Sicily.<br/></p>
172186		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. insubricum</span> is endemic to Italy (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006) where it is found in the southern Alps (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007) in the region of Lombardy (Walter and Gillett 1998). Specifically, it occurs between Lake Como and Lake Garda (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172186		habitat	eng	It grows on calcareous rocks and scree at altitudes of 800–2,100 m (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172186		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172186		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172187		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Information about the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>   conservation status of this species is not available. <br/><br/>EURISCO Catalogue (2010)  reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. hybrida</span> held in European genebank  collections (one each in Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey). The accession held in Turkey at the genebank of the Aegean Agricultural Research Institute is recorded as wild-collected, while the other two accessions are recorded as landrace material (genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research in Germany) and of unknown origin (Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K. Malkov', Bulgaria). <br/><br/>Further collection of wild origin material is required as well as research to clarify the native range of the taxon.
172187		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There is some dispute about the native status of <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> hybrida </span>in  Europe, which is recorded by USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010) as native to northern, middle and southwestern Europe (as well as temperate Asia, the Indian Subcontinent and former Soviet Union), but also as "probably naturalized in most countries". According to Valdés and Scholz, with contributions from  Raab-Straube and  Parolly (2009) (based on Baum 1977), the taxon is native to Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, Great Britain, Belarus, Denmark with Bornholm, France, Germany, Lithuania, central, eastern, northern and northwest European Russia, Sweden, and Ukraine (as well as to Armenia, Georgia and Asiatic Turkey). <span style="background-color: white;">However, national experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop  convened in April 2010 believe the taxon to be introduced in Europe. The  native range of this species therefore requires clarification. The  occurrences recorded in this assessment are taken from </span>Valdés and  Scholz, with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (which are based on Baum 1977).
172187		habitat	eng	<p>According to Baum (1977), it grows on mountain slopes and hills, in valleys, and in the clearings of oak forests. In its natural habitat, it is found at high elevations; however, it also grows as a weed of cultivation. It mainly flowers from July to August, but can also be seen flowering from March to October (Baum 1977).</p>
172187		population	eng	Information about the population of this species is not available as its native range is uncertain.
172187		threats	eng	Information about threats to this species is not available.
172190		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span lang="EN-GB">EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sibirica</span> stored in the genebank of the Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands—it was collected in Kontiolahti, Valkealampi (Finland) in 1999 (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. sibirica</span> is listed in the Red List for Norway as Near Threatened approaching Criterion B2b(iii,iv).<span lang="EN-GB">  In Finland and Sweden, it is classified as Least Concern, but is considered  Regionally Threatened in the southernmost area of occurrence in Finland.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
172190		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. sibirica</span> is native to northern and eastern Europe, as well as the Russian Federation (Siberia and Russian Far East), Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China and Japan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Greuter (2006–2009), this species is native to Ukraine; however, V. Melnyk (pers. comm. 2010) notes that the records of its occurrence in Ukraine are unreliable and that there are no herbarium specimens of the taxon in collections in Ukraine or Russia.<br/>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">In Finland, this species is found throughout the whole country, although it is less frequent in the southwest. In Sweden it is found along the big rivers in the northern half of the country below the Scandinavian mountains, but is absent in the south. <span lang="EN-GB">In Russia, it is present in the north, northwest and central Volga region. In Norway it is found in inland northern areas where the extent of occurrence (EOO) is 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 360 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></span></p><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172190		habitat	eng	It is found in damp woods in clearings and woodland margins, as well as roadsides, river sands and gravel (Feráková 1977). In woodland, it is often found in areas which are dominated by Alder (Feráková 1977). In Finland and Sweden it is found growing on the shores of lakes and rivers. In the Russian Federation, it is found in damp forests and meadows, forest tundra and steppe zones, and is also frequently found in ruderal places and rarely among crops (Kravchenko 2008). In Norway, it is found in river basins and inland valleys where it grows on river shores, in meadows, in moist forest edges and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>/bushy habitats. The species is affected by the changing flow of rivers.
172190		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is frequent in Belarus and Russia and is quite common in Norway, though sparsely distributed. In Sweden it </span>is common and considered to be a problematic opportunist as it often takes over in boreal wet meadows. <span style="background-color: white;">The subpopulations in Finland and Sweden are stable (possibly even increasing in Sweden), but in Norway the subpopulations have declined due to the regulation of waterways in connection with the construction of hydroelectric power plants.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
172190		threats	eng	In Norway, manmade fluctuations of water flow in connection with hydroelectric power plants negatively affects the species' habitat.
172191		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. acanthifolia </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species. <br/><br/>Research is needed into the population size and trend, as well as the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species.
172191		distribution	eng	It occurs in southeast Europe (Greece) and western Asia (Turkey) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Greece, the species occurs on the mainland, in Crete and the East Aegean Islands (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). It is found from 3–1,170 m (Feráková 1977).
172191		habitat	eng	This perennial species grows on south, north and southeastern exposed calcareous slopes, and has been found in Cretan gorges (Feráková 1977, Polunin 1980).
172191		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
172191		threats	eng	Development for tourism may pose a threat to this species.
172192		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the precise distribution, habitat, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 404 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ampeloprasum</span> held in European genebanks, 28 of which   are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 16 originate   from within Europe. Eight of these are recorded as originating from Portugal, one from Greece, six from Yugoslavia and one from Malta (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172192		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010),<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. ampeloprasum</span> is native to northern, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, Macaronesia (Canary Islands), western Asia, the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula and northern Africa. However, it is probably introduced in the Canary Islands (Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>It is widespread across south and west Europe, especially in Mediterranean regions; populations in southwest England, Wales and Ireland may be the result of ancient introductions (Mathew 1996). <br/><br/>Populations in the UK are limited to the southwest of England (mainly Cornwall), Guernsey, the  northern coast of Wales, the east of Northern Ireland, with only one  locality in Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172192		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in fields, areas formerly cultivated, vineyards and on roadsides; more rarely it can be found on rocky hillsides, cliffs and coastal beaches, and in pine forests. For example <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in the UK it <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs near the sea in sandy and rocky areas, as well as in  disturbed areas such as old fields and hedge banks, sheltered  cliff-slopes, alongside paths and in drainage ditches (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <br/><br/>In Cyprus it occurs in <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">fields and wasteland, or on stony hillsides, especially near the coast; flowering from May to June (Viney 1994). In Spain and Portugal this species has been found in forest clearings, scrub lands, meadows, dunes, cliffs, crop areas, wastelands, marsh, roadsides and salt marshes.<br/><br/>The altitudinal range of this species is 0–2,000 m (Mathew 1996).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span>
172192		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species. However it is noted that this species is "not uncommon" in Cyprus, especially near the coast between Girne and Lapta, and Salamis and Bo?az   (Viney 1994) and widespread and abundant in Portugal and Spain.</p>
172192		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
172193		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. polyanthum</span> held in European genebanks, which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This accession originates from Spain and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172193		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Mathew (1996)</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">records </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. polyanthum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> from southwest France, Corsica, northeast Spain and the Balearic Islands. However, according to Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007), this species also occurs in Italy and Morocco. <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Association Tela Botanica (2000–2010)</span> record this taxon as <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A. porrum </span><span style="background-color: white;">ssp.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> polyanthum</span>; according to this source, the taxon <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">is relatively widespread in the southern half of the country but also occurs in the northeastern department of Haut-Rhin. <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">The uncertainty about the exact distribution of this taxon is probably due to its uncertain taxonomic status as some authors (for example, Aedo in prep.) do not recognize it at species level. </span></span></span></span>
172193		habitat	eng	It grows in and near fields from sea level to 400 m asl and flowers from May to July (Mathew 1996).
172193		population	eng	Due to the uncertain taxonomic status of this species, it is not possible to record any information about the population size and trend.
172193		threats	eng	<p>Due to the uncertain taxonomic status of this species, it is not  possible to record any information about potential threats.</p>
172194		conservation	eng	<p>This species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Lithuania (<span style="background-color: white;">Rašomavičius 2007</span>)<span lang="EN-GB"> and as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010<span lang="EN-GB">).<br/></span></p><p>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. </p>  The Portuguese endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa </span>ssp.  <span style="font-style: italic;">insititioides</span> occurs partly in the Natural Park of Serra de Aire e Caindeeiros (Espírito-Santo1992) and the Natural Park of Sintra-Cascais (Espírito-Santo 1996). According to Espírito-Santo (1996) there is no need to undertake special conservation measures.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">EURISCO reports 30 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa </span>held in European genebanks, 13 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe—four from Spain (stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain) and one from France (stored in Nikitskyi Botanical Gardens, Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span>
172194		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">spinosa</span> is native to and widely distributed throughout northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, and is also native to Iran, Turkey and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. spinosa </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">insititioides</span> is an endemic species from centre-west areas of Portugal, although there are records from the northeastern part of the country dating back the end of the 19th century (Espírito-Santo 1996).<span lang="EN-GB"><br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">spinosa</span> is common throughout the country; <span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dasyphylla</span> is distributed in the south (Bertová 1992).</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">France: widespread, occurring in all departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–<span lang="EN-GB">2010).</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">  UK: widespread in all areas of England, Wales and Northern Ireland; also widespread in Scotland although its distribution becomes patchy in the far north (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002. </span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Ireland: widespread across the whole of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Netherlands: widespread (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1985).</span></li></ul></span>
172194		habitat	eng	This species is able to grow in various soil types, occurring in open woodland, scrub, hedgerows, scree and cliff-slopes in the UK (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Finland it is found in <span lang="EN-GB">forest edges, roadside thickets, rocky sites and meadows, favouring limy soil. The Portuguese endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">insititioides</span> occurs in alkaline soils and is frequent in woods, ditches, edges of paths and hedges (Espírito-Santo 1996).
172194		population	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">It is reported to be widespread and common in many countries and is known to be stable in Slovakia, <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Italy, Spain, Portugal<span lang="EN-GB">, the Netherlands and the UK.<br/></span></span>
172194		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">There is thought to be some hybridization occurring with cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">P. domestica</span>, which is threatening the genetic integrity of the species.<span lang="EN-GB">&#160; <span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span>
172195		conservation	eng	This species is known to naturally occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Czech Republic: Endangered (EN)</li><li>Denmark: Least Concern (LC) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010)</li><li>Germany: Endangered (EN) in parts of the country (<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">carinatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pulchellum</span> is Critically Endangered (CR) in southern parts) </li><li>Slovakia: evaluated as Vulnerable (VU) (Somogyi 2002)</li></ul>In France this species is protected in the region of Alsace (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. carinatum</span> held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin and originate from Croatia. One accession is stored in Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Croatia and the other in the Genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172195		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. carinatum</span> is native to northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, and to Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172195		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. carinatum</span> grows in open habitat such as rocky slopes, dry grasslands, forest edges, primary vegetation and shrubland. Numbers of individuals decline when taller species of shrubs and trees move in.
172195		population	eng	In Slovakia the population is stable, especially in the western and central part of country, and is locally abundant (Somogyi 2002). However, in the Czech Republic, the species is considered rare and occurs as scattered subpopulations. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend throughout the rest of its range.
172195		threats	eng	The destruction of suitable habitat through natural and man-made fire, as well as secondary succession can be threats to this species in Europe.
172197		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stamineum</span> stored in the genebank of the Millennium Seed Bank, Royal Botanic  Gardens, Kew, Wakehurst Place, UK; however, the data indicate that none of these accessions are from wild or weedy origins and none were collected in Europe   (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the European populations is needed.<br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. Incorporation of these subpopulations in the management plans of these sites is recommended. <br/><br/>It is not considered to be threatened in Cyprus.
172197		distribution	eng	Native to Greece, western Asia (including Cyprus) and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It occurs in the north of Greece. In Cyprus it is found in Troodos, Nicosia and Kyrenia areas (botanical divisions 2, 5 and 7) (Meikle 1985, Viney 1994).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172197		habitat	eng	In Cyprus, this species grows on eroded sandstone or on limestone or igneous mountainsides under pine trees; it flowers from May to August (Viney 1994).
172197		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is relatively widespread in the north of Greece and Cyprus</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span>
172197		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
172198		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 80 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> caudata</span> held in European genebanks, 72 of which  are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 71 originate  from within Europe, and the majority of these (64) originate from Greece, six from Bulgaria and only one from Hungary (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172198		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops caudata</span> is native to southeastern Europe (recorded under the synonym&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span><span style="font-style: italic;"> dichasians</span>) and to western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to van Slageren  (1994), the species is introduced in Europe, however Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1964–1980) consider it to be native to eastern Europe, while Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009) record it as native to parts of south and southeast Europe. The occurrences recorded in this assessment are those recorded by Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009).<br/><br/>Although it has been recorded at a maximum altitude of 1,850 m, it is predominantly a lowland species, with most records from below 400 m (van Slageren 1994).
172198		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Aegilops caudata</span><span style="background-color: white;"> occurs in areas where the average annual rainfall is in the range of 300</span>–<span style="background-color: white;">700  mm, flowering and fruiting from May to August (van Slageren 1994). It can be found in fallow, roadsides, grassland (including steppes), field margins and within fields of crops such as wheat, in various forest types and more rarely in silty and even maritime locations. It occurs most often on dry, rocky slopes of limestone; more rarely on shales, schist, sandstone or granite.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172198		population	eng	This species is known to be stable in its native range in Europe. Van Slageren (1994) notes that it is known to form dense stands, often together with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>species.
172198		threats	eng	It is threatened by overgrazing in some areas.
172199		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. integerrimum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172199		distribution	eng	According to Mathew (1996), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. integerrimum</span> is endemic to northeast Greece, while according to Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007), it occurs in east–central Greece on Mount Olympus.
172199		habitat	eng	It grows in dry, grassy places and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span> scrub at altitudes of 50–600 m (Mathew 1996).
172199		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172199		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172200		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. clauda</span> held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin,only one of which originates from within Europe (Bulgaria) and is stored in Institute for Plant Genetic Resources, Bulgaria (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.   <br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the precise distribution of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. As <span style="font-style: italic;">A. clauda</span> is a colonizing species, it might not be suited for protected area conservation.
172200		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. clauda</span> is native to southeastern Europe, temperate Asia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172200		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. clauda</span> occurs in newly planted forests, undergrazed areas, disturbed lands around building sites and road verges. Historically, it was successful growing in maquis and  open forests, but is now absent from these habitats. It flowers from March to July.
172200		population	eng	This species is common and locally abundant in most parts of its range. The European population is thought to be increasing, probably mainly due to the species' ability to colonize disturbed habitats.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172200		threats	eng	Grazing poses a threat to this species.
172201		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. meteoricum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Information is needed on the precise distribution, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172201		distribution	eng	Native to Albania, Greece and Former Yugoslavia (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). Its distribution in the Former Yugoslavian countries requires further investigation.
172201		habitat	eng	It grows on mountain rocks and dry hillsides (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172201		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172201		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172202		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Triticum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. parvicoccum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A detailed review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is urgently required in order to identify and multiply existing germplasm samples.
172202		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. parvicoccum</span> is formerly native to Albania, Bulgaria, Crete, Cyprus, Macedonia, Malta, Montenegro and Serbia, as well as western Asia (Valdés  and Scholz; with      contributions from  Raab-Straube and   Parolly        2009).
172202		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the former habitat of this species.</p>
172202		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. parvicoccum</span> is presumed extinct (Valdés  and Scholz; with      contributions from  Raab-Straube and   Parolly        2009).
172202		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the threats that caused the extinction of this species in the wild.</p>
172203		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. trilobata</span> stored in European collections; however, the sample status and country of origin are not recorded (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection of germplasm from the Euopean populations is a priority for this species. A monitoring program should also be implemented.
172203		distribution	eng	Native to southeastern Europe (south Bulgaria and northeast Greece), and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Bulgaria, it is found in east Rhodopi.
172203		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forests.
172203		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown.
172203		threats	eng	An increase in fire frequency and intensity may pose a threat to the species.
172204		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Due to the widespread, weedy nature of this species, active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation is not required. <br/><br/>EURISCO records 424 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sterilis</span> held in European genebanks, 239 of which are known to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 38 are recorded as originating in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172204		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sterilis</span> is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia, Macaronesia, northern Africa, northeast tropical Africa and the Indian Subcontinent, and is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Valdés and Scholz, with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009), it is native to the Canary Islands and Madeira; however, its origin is recorded as uncertain by <span style="background-color: white;">Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) in the Canary Islands <span style="background-color: white;">and by <span style="background-color: white;">Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) in <span style="background-color: white;">Madeira</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span>
172204		habitat	eng	It grows in cultivated land (especially cereal crops), waste ground, gardens—any habitat disturbed by humans. It prefers deep soils and is not usually found in areas where the soil is very hard. It is also found on rocky mountain slopes.
172204		population	eng	It is a common weed of cereal crops, which is widespread throughout Europe and considered as a highly noxious weed because of its strong herbicide resistance.
172204		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species.
172205		conservation	eng	Knowledge of the national threat status of this species in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: Endangered (EN) (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).</li><li>Germany: threatened, and is thought to be extinct in the south of the country.</li><li>Austria: Endangered (EN) (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).</li><li>Luxembourg: Critically Endangered (CR) (Colling 2005).</li><li>Great Britain: Endangered (EN) (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).</li><li>Switzerland: Endangered (EN) (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).</li></ul>EURISCO reports 195 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. saligna</span> held in European genebanks, 179 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 72 originate from within Europe, 35 of which originate from Italy (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172205		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">L</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> saligna</span> is native to northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Slovakia: distributed in lowlands throughout the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992).</li><li>Portugal: found in the centre-west and centre-south.</li><li>France: widespread—its occurrence is recorded in the majority of departments throughout the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>  UK: confined to East Anglia and the southeast of England (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is also recorded to occur along the Severn Estuary in both England and Wales and in two localities in the southwest of England—however, these occurrences are recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: extinct, but grew formerly in the southwest of the country (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).</li></ul>
172205		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. saligna</span> prefers open, sunny, exposed habitats, from lowland to low montane areas. Most frequently this species can be found near the sea (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) or in waste places, arable land, roadsides and river banks (Feráková 1977). It prefers warm, fertile, mildly dry and salty soil (Feráková 1977) but it can be also be found on poor pastures and waysides (Polunin 1969).<br/><br/>It is often found between 0–300 m but it has been recorded up to 2,400 m (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In the UK this lowland species occurs most commonly on disturbed sandy shingle and old sea walls, and on sparsely vegetated ground (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) note that it used to grow on the banks of rivers and ditches in East Anglia, and rarely on paths and cliffs in Essex. In the Netherlands this species occurred in grasslands with humid and moderately fertile basic soils (Tamis<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003).
172205		population	eng	This species is rare throughout much of its native range and is thought to be declining in Germany. In the UK, it has suffered a severe decline (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002); this is thought to be due to sea wall refurbishment and river engineering. In 1930 it was extinct at approximately half its known sites but persisted in East Anglia until 1953 (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the 1990s, the Sussex population suffered a severe decline due to inundation by sea water, but due to benefits from cattle grazing, the Essex population is thriving (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
172205		threats	eng	In the UK it has declined due to sea wall refurbishment and river engineering. It is also threatened by the use of herbicides and by the reconstruction/restoration of historic sites.
172206		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. saxatile </span>held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin.&#160; However none of these accessions are reported to have been collected in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.   <br/><br/>Oltean <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1994) note that this species is rare in the national Red List of Romania, therefore, national level monitoring is required in this country.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172206		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. saxatile</span> is native to southeast Europe, Ukraine (including Crimea), Kazakhstan and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172206		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur on stony slopes. Further research is needed to gather more information about the habitat and ecology of this species.
172206		population	eng	&#160;This species is widespread and stable across southeastern Europe. It is abundant in Bulgaria, but less common in Italy and rare in Romania.
172206		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172207		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. orientale</span> held in European genebanks; however, it is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species to ensure material is available for future potential use in crop improvement programs.<br/><br/>An<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span> gap analysis is  needed to ascertain whether this species occurs within existing  protected areas. If it does, recommendations should be put forward to  incorporate it into the existing management plan of the site.
172207		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS National Genetic Resources Program (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. orientale</span> is native to Greece (where it is indicated that it possibly occurs in the Aegean region) and Cyprus in Europe, and its distribution extends to western Asia and northern Africa. Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) note that records from Former Yugoslavia are doubtful but that it possibly occurs in the East Aegean region, while Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) records it as native to Greece, Former Yugoslavia and Cyprus.<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it occurs in several areas (e.g., 'above Deirmenlik, Kantara, Ziyamet') (Viney 1994).
172207		habitat	eng	In Cyprus this species grows in cereal fields. It flowers from February to April (Viney 1994).
172207		population	eng	This species is not rare.
172207		threats	eng	The application of herbicides is a potential threat to this species, although in Cyprus, the use of herbicides is currently not very common and therefore not thought to be a major threat.
172208		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span><span style="font-style: italic;"> contracta</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, this species has probably been collected under the name of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span><span style="font-style: italic;"> neglecta</span> or&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span><span style="font-style: italic;"> triaristata</span>.   A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172208		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops contracta</span> is native to Greece (mainland, Crete and east Aegean Islands) and Asiatic Turkey (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009).
172208		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172208		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172208		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172209		conservation	eng	Knowledge of the national threat and/or conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. suaveolens</span> is available as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Switzerland: Endangered (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>France: protected in the region of Alsace (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Hungary: <span style="background-color: white;">it is a </span>protected species and listed as Vulnerable (Király 2007).</li><li>Italy: Vulnerable (1995)</li><li>Germany: categorized as endangered (category 3) on the German Red List.<br/></li></ul>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. suaveolens</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172209		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. suaveolens</span> is native to middle, southeastern and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>France: occurs in the two northeastern departments of Bas-Rhin and  Haut-Rhin and the two southwestern departments of Gers and Lot  (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Germany: restricted to the south of the country (Baden-Württemburg and Bayern regions). <br/></li><li>Italy: occurs in five regions in the north.</li><li>Hungary: found in the margins of the Transdanubian Mountains, Transdanubia (Bakonyalja, Sopron,  Őrség) and the Great Hungarian Plain (Kisaföld Plain till Esztergom, Tata)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/></li></ul><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172209		habitat	eng	In Hungary, this species grows in wet sites or sites with variable water levels (damp meadows, rich fen meadows and reed beds). It prefers soils rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals, but can grow in neutral, loam-, clay-, and turf soils   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172209		population	eng	Population information is not available throughout the range of this species; however, it is known to be rare but stable in Hungary and rare and declining in Germany.
172209		threats	eng	<p>Information about the threats to this species is not available.<br/></p>
172210		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>This species is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> germplasm collections. EURISCO reports 4377 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota</span> held in European genebanks, 408 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 294 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172210		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">carota </span>is native to Europe, temperate Asia and northern Africa, and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>One subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;">D</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">carota </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">azoricus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) is endemic to the Azores<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Three subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota</span> occur in Denmark; however, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">carota</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sativus</span> are both introduced—only <span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">gummifer</span> is native (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/>This species is widespread in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), Great Britain, Northern Ireland and Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and present throughout the Netherlands but less so in the north eastern part of the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).
172210		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota</span> is found in banks, fields and waysides across Europe (Polunin 1969). It is found in dry rough open areas in the Mediterranean, often in waste places and roadsides and field margins including sandy and stony pastures (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004, Fletcher 2007). <br/><br/>It prefers quite infertile, well-drained and calcareous soils in the UK, and can be found within habitats such as on chalk downs, grassland on roadsides, waysides and railway banks, quarries, chalk and gravel pits, and waste ground (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Netherlands this species occurs in grasslands with humid and dry, moderately fertile basic soils, and in grasslands which can be humid or dry on poor basic soils (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
172210		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout its range, with a stable population trend. However, Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) note that it has declined at the northern fringe of its range.
172210		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">D. carota </span>at the species level. However, for subspecies with specific habitats or a restricted range, threats include tourism and construction.</p>
172211		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. muralis</span> is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Denmark: Least Concern (LC) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</li><li>Hungary: not protected   (Király 2007).</li><li>Finland: nationally classified as Least Concern (LC), but considered as Regionally Threatened (RT) within its  northernmost region of occurrence.</li><li>Germany: it is not threatened and not protected (<span lang="EN-GB">Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>Netherlands: Least Concern (LC) (<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<br/></span></span></span></span></li></ul><span lang="EN-GB">No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. muralis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</span></span></span></span>
172211		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">muralis</span> is native to and distributed widely throughout Europe, west to Turkey and the Caucasus, and is also native to north Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) (Greuter 2006–2009).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Finland: occurs in the southern and south-central part of the country.&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Germany: widespread across the whole country (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>Hungary: frequent in the North Hungarian Mountains and Transdanubia, and sporadic in the Great Hungarian Plain (Little Alföld, Danube region, Danube-Tisza region:Monor, Pilis, Tiszántúl region: along the Tisza River, Szarvas, Nyírség, Dráva-sík)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>Norway: present in the south, up to Nordland county.</li><li>France: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>widespread; known to occur in all departments with the exception of Gers (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>widespread throughout the majority of England and Wales; however, its distribution is patchy across Scotland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). There are 19 localities in which this species occurs in Northern Ireland; however, they are all recorded as alien (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Netherlands: infrequent in central and southern parts of the country (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<br/></span></span></span></span></li></ul>
172211		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species grows in f<span lang="EN-GB">orests, along water courses and in     secondary habitats, from<span lang="EN-GB"> lowland to high altitude.<span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">It has been reported nationally to grow in the following specific habitats:<br/></p><ul><li>Finland: shady herb-rich forests and rocky sites as well as springs.</li><li>Germany: eutrophic sites, acidic forests, open woodland.</li><li>Hungary: beech and hornbeam woodlands and dry oak forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetum petraeae-cerris</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Querco-Fagetea</span> species   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). It grows in a range of soil types but favours nitrogen enriched, fresh, loose loam and sandy soils.</li><li>Great Britain: shaded walls, rocky outcrops, hedge banks, in woodland, wood margins and scrub (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It prefers chalk and limestone but has also been found to grow on acidic rocks (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: pioneer vegetation, humid walls, forests and shrubwoods with a moderately fertile soil, which can be weakly basic or acid (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). </li></ul><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p>
172211		population	eng	Knowledge of the European subpopulations of this species is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Great Britain: according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), the distribution of this taxon has remained largely unchanged since the 1962 Atlas was published.</li><li>Netherlands: before and after 1950 the species occurred in 176 hour-squares (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) reported that the species is present in 301–1,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The species does not show any decline in the Netherlands.&#160;<span lang="EN-GB"></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Slovakia: a common species (Dostál and Červenka1992).</span></li><li>Germany: common and widespread (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).</li><li>Norway: quite common (Å. Asdal pers. comm. 2010).<br/></li></ul><br/><span lang="EN-GB">
172211		threats	eng	It is threatened in some localities by building work and reconstruction/restoration of historic sites.
172212		conservation	eng	<p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. incensiodorum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p>
172212		distribution	eng	Endemic to Croatia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172212		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172212		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172212		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172214		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>EURISCO reports 726 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops geniculata</span> are held in European genebanks, 526 of which   are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 461 originate   from within Europe. According to EURISCO, most accessions originate from Portugal (134), Spain (70), Italy (86) and France (90) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops geniculata</span> is known to be found within protected areas. As such it is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.</span>
172214		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">geniculata </span>is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia, the Caucasus and northern Africa, and is naturalized in other parts of Europe and in southwestern USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). For example it was introduced to Slovakia as a casual alien in 1960 in ?túrovo railway station (Eliáš  Jr. unpublished). There have been occasional findings in the Czech Republic and Hungary  where it occurs as an adventive species.<br/><br/>The native range of this species in relation to Macronesia is unclear. USDA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) lists this species as native to the Canary Islands, while Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) state that the origin in these islands is uncertain.<br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172214		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops geniculata</span> is found in mainly in dry places, rocky slopes, road sides, steppe localities and in Mediterranean macquis vegetation (van Slageren 1994).
172214		population	eng	Where <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops geniculata</span> is found, it is noted to occur in large numbers (van Slageren 1994).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172214		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species in its main range. However, in the places where the species is adventive, strong winters can cause it to disappear. In Bulgaria the change of land use, such as the intensification of agriculture, as well as abandonment can affect the species.
172215		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. intricata</span> stored in the genebank of the Millennium Seed Bank Project, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Wakehurst Place, UK; however, the accession is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin or to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species. <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas in the Parnassos Mountains, Greece. It is recommended that monitoring of this species is incorporated into the management plans of these sites.
172215		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. intricata</span> is found in southeastern Europe (Greece and Albania) and western Asia (Turkey) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Greece, it is found in northern and central areas. It can reach altitudes of 2,000–2,400 m (Feráková 1977).
172215		habitat	eng	It grows on limestone slopes and screes, in montane and subalpine habitats (Feráková 1977).
172215		population	eng	The population size and trend is unknown.
172215		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to this species .
172216		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Aegilops speltoides</span> occurs in  protected areas. Although a locally abundant species, the   implementation of a monitoring programme is recommended at these sites.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 242 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span><span style="font-style: italic;">speltoides </span>held in European genebanks, 193 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 31 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). As this is one of the most important wheat wild relatives (a major contributor to the 'S' genome of wheat), it should be further collected throughout its European range to ensure that the widest pool of genetic diversity is available for future potential use. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172216		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to southeastern Europe (Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey-in-Europe) and western Asia (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009). It is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Europe, it is at the northwestern limit of its range.
172216		habitat	eng	It is a weedy species found growing in field margins, orchards and forest edges, as well as in grassland. It usually grows among small rocks.
172216		population	eng	This is a locally abundant species found in patches. The population is stable.
172216		threats	eng	The use of herbicides is a threat to this species in some localities.
172217		conservation	eng	<p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. jubatum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/></p><p>It is included in the list of protected species in Bulgaria (K. Uzundzhalieva pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></p><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172217		distribution	eng	Native to Bulgaria (where it is presumed extinct) and northwest Asiatic Turkey (Mathew 1996, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).
172217		habitat	eng	It was found in calcareous rocky places from 200 to 1,000 m (Mathew 1996).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172217		population	eng	This species has not been found in Bulgaria since its original collection in 1844 (Mathew 1996).
172217		threats	eng	The threats that caused its decline are unknown.
172218		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops cylindrica</span> is assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/>EURISCO reports 1,077 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops cylindrica </span>held in European genebanks, 915 of which   are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 242 originate   from within Europe; including 108 from Hungary and 69 from Bulgaria (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172218		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops cylindrica </span>is native to middle, east and southeastern Europe, western and middle Asia, and the Caucasus, and is naturalized in other parts of Europe and North America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, all native recently recorded occurrences are located in the southwest around Kamenica and Hronom villages in the foothills of the Burda Mountains. Three subpopulations are known, including some tens of individuals and the population trend is stable. Two historical native sites were recorded in the Belianske kopce Hills near the village of Nána; however, these occurrences were recently not found. In addition to the known native occurrences, the species has been found at 11 secondary sites in southwest and southeast Slovakia, five of which were recently confirmed (Dunajská Streda, Sere?, Ch?aba, Dobrá, ?ierna and Tisou).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172218		habitat	eng	It grows in sandy soil along the Danube River, and can also be found on roadsides and in wastelands. It prefers dry, hot places and grows in steppe in the Balkans.
172218		population	eng	Overall, the European population is locally common where found and reported to be increasing.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172218		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is nationally threatened in Slovakia but the threats are not recorded. There are no major threats reported for most of the European subpopulations.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172219		conservation	eng	It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Liste Rosse Regionali delle Piante d'Italia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).  <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lopadusanum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It occurs in a protected area.
172219		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. lopadusanum</span> is endemic to Lampedusa, Sicily (Bartolo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). This region covers an area of 25 km<sup>2</sup>.
172219		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172219		population	eng	It is a rare species and the population is small.
172219		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the main threats to this species; however, it is thought that it could be affected by pesticide use.
172220		conservation	eng	In France this species is protected at a national level (Association Tela Botanica 2010) and in Spain it is protected in the region of Castilla y Leon.<br/><br/>The European Environment Agency (2010) lists 19 Natura 2000 sites in which this species occurs.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. moly </span>stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172220		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. moly</span> is native to south and north France and central, east and southern Spain. It has a widespread but fragmented distribution. In France it occurs in the three departments of Lot, Aude and   Hérault in the south and the two departments of   Val-d'Oise and Marne in the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172220		habitat	eng	It grows in badlands, on mountain ledges and in forest clearings, mainly on calcareous soils.
172220		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172220		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species.
172221		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Secale </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/>    </p><br/>EURISCO reports 77 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. strictum</span> held in European genebanks, 71 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 34 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172221		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. strictum</span> is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, the Caucasus, western Asia (Valdés  and Scholz; with      contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly        2009), and Morocco (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Greece, it is recorded from the north and in Corfu (Damanakis and Economou 1986).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172221		habitat	eng	This perennial species grows in grasslands.
172221		population	eng	It is rare in Greece and the population trend unknown.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172221		threats	eng	Overgrazing (smallholder farming) is a potential threat.
172222		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. reuterianum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172222		distribution	eng	Native to the East Aegean Islands (Khios and Samos) and Turkey (Mathew 1996).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172222		habitat	eng	It grows on stony mountain slopes on limestone formations at altitudes of 1,800–2,100 m and flowers from July to August (Mathew 1996). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172222		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in Europe.</p>
172222		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172223		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops neglecta</span> is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections throughout Europe. EURISCO reports 223 <span style="font-style: italic;">Ae. neglecta</span> accessions held in European genebanks, 185 of which   are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 147 originate   from within Europe. The majority of accessions are stored in genebanks in Germany and Czech Republic (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172223		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">neglecta </span>is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia, the Caucasus and northern Africa (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009). In France this species is present in 17 departments in the south and southeast of the country and one department (Bas-Rhin) in the northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172223		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops neglecta</span> is found in mainly dry or disturbed areas, such as dry slopes, rocky slopes, roadsides, grassland and the edges of cultivated land. Occasionally it can be found in forests and woodland habitats.
172223		population	eng	The population trend is stable over most of its range. For example it is known to be widespread and common throughout Portugal and Bulgaria, with stable populations reported in Greece and Bulgaria. Van Slageren (1994) notes that it is locally abundant in southern France, from where this species is described. However it is noted to be very rare in the Canary Islands.
172223		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172224		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. chrysonemum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). <br/><br/>Due to the uncertain taxonomic status of this species, there is no information available about its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species.
172224		distribution	eng	Endemic to Spain (Sierra de Cazorla) (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172224		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information available about the habitat of this species.</p>
172224		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.<br/></p>
172224		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information available about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172225		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosa</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>storage is a priority for this species.<br/>  <p>Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosa</span> occur naturally in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. </p>
172225		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosa</span> is native to southeastern Europe, as well as to parts of temperate Asia (Greuter 2006–2009).
172225		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosa</span> is found across a wide altitudinal range, from sea level to mountains, and in many different types of habitats, such as in bare stony hillsides, garrigue, bushes, open pine forests and on muddy soil flats.
172225		population	eng	This species is stable in Europe and is known to be widely spread in Cyprus. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172225		threats	eng	<p>There are currently no major threats to this species.</p>
172226		conservation	eng	In Hungary, this species is classified as Near Threatened   (Király 2007) and is protected according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant and animal species and the Government decree on the Natura 2000 sites for the restoration of natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of protected species. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. moschatum</span> which originates from and is stored in Armenia (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Research into the range and population trends of this species is  required as well as germplasm collection and storage from throughout its  range.
172226		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. moschatum</span> is native to east, central and southern Europe to northwest Turkey, as well as the Caucasus to northwest Iran (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007). In mainland Spain, it is found in the east, while in France it occurs within 11 departments in the southeast of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). In Hungary it is found in the North Hungarian Mountains (Gödöllöi  Hills), Transdanubian Mountains (Buda-mountain, Balaton region) and  Great Hungarian Plain (Danube-Tisza köze region to Csepel-Island)   (Soó  1966, Simon 1992).
172226		habitat	eng	It grows in scrub (specifically karst scrub woodlands in Hungary), dry oak woodlands, Austrian black pine plantations, sandy steppe, rocky grasslands, dry meadows,&#160; rocky outcrops and slopes in calcareous and gypsum soils. In Hungary it grows in calcareous, warm, dry, loose soils, rich in  nutrients and alkaline minerals, neutral soils rich in humus, loam-,  loess debris- and sandy soils, on limestone and on dolomite   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172226		population	eng	Information about the European subpopulations of this species is lacking; however it is thought to be widespread and common in the south part of Europe, but rarer and scattered in the rest of its range. It is reported as rare in Romania, while in Croatia it is scattered in coastal areas and possibly rare.
172226		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction due to development for tourism.
172227		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. perennis</span> is listed as Lower Risk (LR) in Slovakia (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It is not protected in Hungary<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>   (Király 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. perennis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">granatensis </span>Charpin & Fern. Casas is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Spain (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>The species is known to occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 33 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. perennis</span> held in European genebanks, 27 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 12 originate from within Europe. Three of these originate from France (stored in Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands Plant Research International, Netherlands), six originate from Germany (stored in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and three originate from Switzerland (two of which are stored in Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands Plant Research International, Netherlands and one is stored in Genebank Department - Vegetable Section Olomouc, RICP Prague, Czech Republic) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172227		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. perennis</span> is native to parts of central, eastern, southeastern and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of this species is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>scattered across the whole country except for the northern-most regions (Dostál and Červenka 1992).</li><li>Czech Republic: Vulnerable (Holub and Procházka 2000).</li><li>Hungary: North Hungarian Mountains (Gömör-Torna Karst region, Sátor mountain, Bükk-mountain, Mátra mountain, Karancs, Cserhát mountain), Transdanubian Mountains (Visegrád-mountain, Pilis-mountain, Buda-mountain, Gerecse-mountain, Velence-mountain, Várpalota) and Western Transdanubia (Sopron)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in the majority of departments except for nine departments to the northwest, Haut-Rhin and   Territoire de Belfort to the east, Creuse and Haute-Vienne in central France, Landes and Gers in the southwest, and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></li></ul>
172227		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. perennis</span> grows in lowland to subalpine habitats, preferring calcium rich habitats such as rocky limestone slopes and long warm vegetative periods (Feráková 1977, Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It can also be found in sunny exposed areas and grassy slopes and vineyards (Polunin 1969, Feráková 1977), as well as dry oak forests, eutrophic ruderal sites, semi-dry meadows and pastures. Specifically, in Hungary, it grows in rocky grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerio-Festucetum pallentis</span>), rocky steppes, sloped steppes and&#160; forest steppe meadows   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
172227		population	eng	The population trend in Slovakia is stable (P. Eliáš pers. comm. 2010) and is thought to be decreasing in Germany (R. Vögel pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172227		threats	eng	It is under threat in Europe due to the destruction of its natural habitats (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The specific threats are however not known.
172228		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. luteolum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in     Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red    List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not    Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172228		distribution	eng	Endemic to Greece (Cyclades) (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172228		habitat	eng	It grows on cliffs and in scrub (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172228		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172228		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172229		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>As it is thought that this species is not native to Europe, no conservation actions are in place or needed.
172229		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">H. brevisubulatum</span> is native to southeast European Russia, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Russian far east, Mongolia, China, and the Indian Subcontinent. Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009) record it as native to central, eastern and south European Russia. However, according to T. Smekalova (pers. comm. 2010), there are no native populations in European Russia.
172229		habitat	eng	As it is thought that this species is not native to Europe, the habitat and ecology has not been researched.
172229		population	eng	According to T. Smekalova (pers. comm. 2010), there are no native populations of this species in European Russia.
172229		threats	eng	As it is thought that this species is not native to Europe, there are no threats to record.
172230		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <p>Population monitoring is needed.</p>
172230		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. glaber</span> is native to Cyprus in Europe, as well as to western temperate Asia and parts of north Africa (Israel and Egypt) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Cyprus, this species is found in Ktima, Yialia, the coast near Dhavlos and near Rizokarpaso (Miekle 1977).
172230		habitat	eng	It grows in sand and sand dunes near sea level (Meikle 1977). It is an annual or bi-annual plant which flowers from April to June.
172230		population	eng	Miekle (1977) noted that this species is rather rare in Cyprus.
172230		threats	eng	The main threat is development for tourism and recreational activities.
172231		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. victorialis</span> <span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">is classified as Endangered (EN) in both Hungary and the Czech Republic.</span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"> In Portugal,</span><span style="background-color: white;"> this species</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">is not actively conserved </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">in situ</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, although it has been recorded  in two conservation areas across its range. The localities in Serra da Estrela were monitored in 1996 (Fidalgo 1996) and some of the localities have since been studied regarding size, threats and genetic diversity (Magos Brehm 2009). Since subpopulations occur within conservation areas, active </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">in situ </span><span style="background-color: white;">conservation (with a management plan) should be undertaken in these areas. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In this country, the species has been assessed as Rare (Dray 1985) and Near Threatened (Aguiar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">EURISCO  reports 12 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. victorialis</span>  held in European genebanks; however, none are  reported to originate  from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and  duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">    <p></p></span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><p></p>  <span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172231		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">victorialis</span> is native to and has a wide distribution across central, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia, the Indian Subcontinent and Alaska (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Information on its distribution is available for the following countries:<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><ul><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Bulgaria,</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Czech Republic and Germany</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">: occurs in mountain areas.</span></span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">France:  present in 31 departments in eastern, central, southern and  southwestern parts of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Hungary: found in North Hungarian Mountains (Bükk: Ablakosk?-valley) and Transdanubian Mountains (Bakony: Burok-valley, Esztegár-valley).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Portugal: </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">occurs  in two main regions with few known localities: Serra da Estrela  (northeastern part of the country) and another region comprising Serra  do Gerês and Serra da Peneda (northwest Portugal).</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Slovakia: scattered in submontane to subalpine regions throughout the  country (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992).</span></li></ul><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
172231		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">A. victorialis</span> can be found in forest areas, rocky habitats and subalpine meadows and pastures.<span style="background-color: white;"> <br/><br/>In Hungary it prefers alkaline  soils, and can be found in fresh, loose forest-, debris-, and loam soils  rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals. Most often it can be found in Karst forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fago</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Ornetum  hungaricum</span>), rock forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerio</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagetum</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthero</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagion</span> (and  <span style="font-style: italic;">Orno</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagetum</span>) species, otherwise in subalpine tall grass communities and  meadows. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs in <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Abieto</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagetum</span> forest areas. <span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>In Portugal, </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> victorialis</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is an orophyte (sub-alpine plant) preferring sites where snow accumulates for prolonged periods (Fidalgo 1996); preferring rocky areas and altitude pastures (Franco and Rocha Afonso 1994), shaded places, along streams and springsides, associated with other hygrophyte plants, in inland cliffs (some populations in Serra da Estrela) and in soils rich in humus (Magos Brehm 2009). Most of the localities are sited in ranker soils, followed by cambisol and lithosol; the taxon occurs only in acid soils. The species grows in temperatures ranging from <7.5 to 12.5ºC, with a higher number of records in the range of <7.5 to 10ºC and a single record occurring at 15–16ºC. It is found at sites with 1,400 to >1,800 mm of rainfall (with one site at 600 to 700 mm and another at 800 to 1,000 mm), and 50 to >100 rainy days (with a higher number of records at >100 days). The sites have 10 to 70 days of frost (Magos Brehm 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/></span></span>
172231		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The </span> population size and trend of this species in the majority of its range is unknown. However, in <span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">Slovakia </span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Dostál and ?ervenka 1992)</span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">, Hungary, and the Czech Republic there is a generally scattered distribution of small subpopulations. </span><span style="background-color: white;">A recent population genetic diversity study of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> victorialis</span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> in Portugal showed that subpopulation sizes vary from a few dozen individuals to a few thousand (Magos Brehm 2009). In Serra da Estrela, Fidalgo (1996) estimated a total of approximately 2,000 individuals. The surveyed subpopulations (from the two occurrence areas in Portugal) do not show any sign of decline, despite the threats they may be facing. Generally, the subpopulations are difficult to find and occur in very remote places to which few humans have access.</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172231		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>The threats to this species in the majority of its European range are unknown. However, i<span style="background-color: white;">n Portugal the main threats are collecting and rock climbing (Fidalgo 1996), as well as grazing and fires (which may not be a major threat as the subpopulations occur along streams and in humid areas) (Magos Brehm 2009). </span>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout its range.</p>
172232		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gomphrenoides</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in  Europe (1982 edition) as 'nt' (neither rare nor threatened) (Council of  Europe 1983).<br/><br/>Information about the population size, trend and potential threats is needed, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172232		distribution	eng	Endemic to Greece where it is found on the mainland (south), southern Peloponnese and Kithira Island (Mathew 1996).
172232		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky places at low altitudes and flowers from April–June (Mathew 1996).
172232		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172232		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172234		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. albidum</span> held in European genebanks; however, none of these are reported to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>Research is needed on the populations trends.
172234		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. albidum</span> is native to east and southeastern Europe, as well as western Asia (Turkey) and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172234		habitat	eng	The exact habitat is unknown.
172234		population	eng	This species is widespread.
172234		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172235		conservation	eng	It is listed as Vulnerable in the Lista Roja 2008 de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs in the Natura 2000 sites, La Retuerta y Saladas de Sástago and Monegros (European Environment Agency 2010). <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pardoi</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172235		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pardoi </span>is probably endemic to Spain; however, there are differing opinions about its native range. According to Mathew (1996) it is endemic to Spain where the author notes that it occurs in the provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza; however, Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) noted that its status in Spain was uncertain and that it possibly also occurs in Algeria and Tunisia. The authors also noted that this species may be a variant of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ampeloprasum</span> L. <span style="background-color: white;">According to </span>Molero Briones (2004) (citing Pastor and Valdés 1983 and Gamarra and Fernández Casas 1989), it is endemic to three provinces in Spain: Aragón y Matarraña, Monegros and bajo Somontano. Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) and Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007) record it as native to Spain, Algeria and Tunisia but this may be based on the revision of the genus by Pastor and Valdés (1983) who cited it from north Africa but noted that  there is no certainty that this species is present there  because the description of material found there by Maire in 1958 could  have been based on Spanish material.<span style="background-color: white;"> In this assessment, we assume that the taxon is endemic to Spain, especially as the most recently published account is by </span>Molero Briones (2004) in the Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España.
172235		habitat	eng	According to Mathew (1996), it grows near fields from sea level to 400 m asl and flowers in June and July. It is also found in cereal fields and on roadsides (Molero Briones 2004).
172235		population	eng	There are 24 subpopulations confirmed in Spain with a total of 8,000 individuals (Molero Briones 2004).
172235		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are changes in land use and agricultural techniques, and the use of pesticides (Molero Briones 2004).
172236		conservation	eng	The subpopulation in Calabria is listed as Data Deficient and the subpopulation in Sicily is considered as Low Risk (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lehmannii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172236		distribution	eng	According to Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) (who recognize the taxon as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallens </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> siciliense) </span>and Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005–2007), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lehmannii&#160; </span>is endemic to Sicily. However, according to Garbari and Raimondo (1987), it also occurs in Calabria.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172236		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172236		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172236		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
172237		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. cerasifera</span> has been listed as Vulnerable in Albania (Vangjeli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172237		distribution	eng	Native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, and Turkey (Kurtto 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
172237		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172237		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172237		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172239		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scaberrimum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.
172239		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. scaberrimum</span> is native to southeast France (Hautes-Alpes, near Gap) and northwest Italy (Piedmont, in the Cuneo area) (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Mathew 1996). According to Association Tela Botanica (2000–2010), in France it occurs in the departments of Drôme, Vaucluse,   Bouches-du-Rhône,   Hautes-Alpes,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Var.<br/><br/>Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1980) note that it is possibly a naturalized species of uncertain provenance.
172239		habitat	eng	This species grows in fields at altutides of around 1,000–1,500 m and flowers from June to July (Mathew 1996).
172239		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172239		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species. As it is associated with cultivated&#160; land, it could be threatened by changes in agricultural practices.<br/></p>
172240		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas throughout its range. It is recommended that monitoring and management is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. <br/><br/>In Norway, this species is listed as Endangered (EN) in the 2006 Red List. <br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the region of Alsace (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 22 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, eight of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe—one originates from Austria and the other from Germany. Both are stored in Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.
172240		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. senescens</span> is native to central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, Siberia, Kazakhstan, Russian far east, Mongolia, China and Korea (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on its distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>France: confined to the department of   Ariège in the south and the  departments of   Haute-Savoie and   Isère in the east (Association Tela  Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Hungary: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. senescens </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">montanum</span> is found in the North Hungarian Mountains, Western Transdanubia (Sopron-Vas, ?rség), Transdanubia (Bakonyalja) and south Transdanubia (Mecsek, Villány-mountains).</li><li>Norway: occurs in few localities in the south of the country.</li><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. senescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">montanum</span> occurs in scattered localities throughout the country (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992).</li></ul>
172240		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. senescens</span> can be found on dry rocky slopes and in arable land, including grassland and pastures. In Hungary this species prefers alkaline, dry soils, poor in nutrients, rich in alkaline minerals, neutral loam-, clay-, loess&#160; and sandy soils.
172240		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. senescens</span> has a stable population trend in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Hungary, and is noted as rare in Norway and Portugal. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend throughout the rest of its range.
172240		threats	eng	Reforestation of cultivated areas and increasing urbanization is known to be a threat to this species in Finland. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species in other countries throughout its European range.
172241		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. atroviolaceum</span> is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in Serbia (Stevanović 1999) and Slovakia (Somogyi 2001), and as Near threatened (NT) in Hungary (Király 2007).<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. atroviolaceum </span>held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
172241		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. atroviolaceum</span> is native to middle, east and southeastern Europe, western and middle Asia, and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:</span><br/><br/><ul><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Slovakia: reported from 15 localities in the west and southwest; however, recently, only three of these occurrences were confirmed: 1) Rusovce, </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Bratislava</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, 2) Tomášov, Vlky farmstead <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Somogyi 2001)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">, and (3) Ivanka pri Dunaji (Eliáš Jr. unpublished). The size of the known current subpopulations is around 2–15 individuals (P. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Eliáš&#160; pers. comm. 2010)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li><li>Romania: occurs in the south and northeast of the country.<span style="background-color: white;"></span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Italy: found in four regions in the south</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></li><li>Hungary: Transdanubian Mountains (Visegrád-, Buda-, Bakony- mountains, Balaton region), Western Mountains (Sopron, Csepreg), South Transdanubia (Tolna), Great Hungarian Plain (Mezőföld (Plain) region, Duna region) (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li></ul>  <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
172241		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in lowland areas in Europe, where it grows in fields and vineyards and on roadsides. <span style="background-color: white;">It favours alkaline soils, dry, loam-, and loess soils, rich in nutrients and humus</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"> (Soó 1966, Simon 1992)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><br/></span></span></span></span>
172241		population	eng	The subpopulation in Hungary is not widespread, but it is locally common where found and stable. In Slovakia it is very rare; there are only three known subpopulations comprising less than 100 mature individuals in total in an area of less than 10   km². It is rare in Romania.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172241		threats	eng	In Slovakia, the subpopulation decline has been caused by the abandonment of vineyards. It is likely to be affected in the future by housing developments and improvements to the road infrastructure.
172242		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sipyleum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Information is needed on the precise distribution, habitat, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172242		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sipyleum</span> is native to Greece and Turkey.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>In Greece it occurs in Astipalaia (southeast Aegean region) and Khios, while in Turkey it occurs in western Anatolia (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172242		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
172242		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species in Europe.</p>
172242		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172243		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. marschalianum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Research is needed on its distribution in Former Yugoslavia, as well as on the population size and trend, habitat and potential threats. A review of its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status is also needed.
172243		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. marschalianum</span> is native to Bulgaria, Romania, Former Yugoslavia and Ukraine (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007)<span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Further research is needed</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> to ascertain the distribution of this species in Former Yugoslavia—it is not recorded by Govaerts </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. (2005–2007) at national level in this region.</span></span>
172243		habitat	eng	The exact habitat is not known.
172243		population	eng	This species is widespread, but the population size and trend are not known.
172243		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are unknown.
172244		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cyrilli </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172244		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. cyrilli </span>is native to southern France, southern Italy, Greece to western Turkey (including the East Aegean Islands and Asiatic Turkey), and Crimea (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172244		habitat	eng	It grows in cultivated ground (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).
172244		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172244		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172245		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. guttatum </span>is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus after searches for the species over three years were unsuccessful (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. guttatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dalmaticum</span> is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Serbia (Stevanović 1999).<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. guttatum</span> held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from Greece and is stored in the Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory, Research Institute of Vegetable Crops, Poland (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>    The species is known to occur in protected areas but is not actively monitored and managed.
172245		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> guttatum</span> is native to parts of east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, and to Turkey (USDA, ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of this species in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Cyprus: it has previously been recorded at two localities; however, during the national Red List assessment, searches for three successive years were unsuccessful (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).</li><li>Crimea: it is only found in alpine meadows and on beaches in the south.</li><li>France: occurs in the two departments of Corsica:   Haute-Corse and   Corse-du-Sud (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/></li></ul>In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. guttatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">guttatum </span>is native to Bulgaria, Romania, the East Aegean Islands, southwest European Russia and Crimea; ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sardoum </span>to Portugal, east through the Mediterranean region to the Balkans; ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dalmaticum </span>to Former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria and Turkey-in-Europe; and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dilatatum </span>to Crete (Hania and Rethymnon provinces) (Mathew 1996).
172245		habitat	eng	Meikle (1985) notes that in Cyprus <span style="font-style: italic;">A. guttatum</span> is found in garrigue on igneous hillsides at 2,500 to 3,000 ft. It can also be found in dry meadows, heathlands and in sandy soils. In Crimea, it grows on beaches in the south and in alpine meadows.<br/><br/>Information about the specific habitat and phenology of the subspecies is provided by Mathew (1996):<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span><ul><li><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">guttatum</span>:  rocky hillsides, screes, sandy coastal areas, open coniferous woods,  scrub, roadsides, from sea level to 2,400 m; flowers July–August.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;"> sardoum</span>: rocky places, macquis, open coniferous woods, vineyards, from  sea level to 2,200 m; flowers July–August.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dalmaticum</span>: rocky places, open woodland, scrub, from sea level to 660 m (and probably  higher); flowers July–August.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">dilatatum</span>: dry rocky places, open  pine woods and cliffs, 400–800 m; flowers July–August.</li></ul>
172245		population	eng	In Portugal and Spain, this species is common and widespread. However, in Romania it is rare and the subpopulations are small, while in Crimea it is very rare and in Croatia the subpopulations are scattered.
172245		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction due to urbanization and tourism expansion in coastal regions. Hybridization with related wild species may also affect some subpopulations.
172246		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. horvatii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172246		distribution	eng	Endemic to Croatia (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172246		habitat	eng	It grows on coastal rocks (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172246		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172246		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172247		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.&#160;&#160; <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 76 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. columnaris</span> held in European genebanks, 55 of which  are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, only three accessions are reported to have been collected from Greece (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the population in Greece is required. <br/><br/>It is known to occur in at least five protected areas. Monitoring of the populations at these sites is recommended.
172247		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to western Asia and the Caucasus (van Slageren 1994, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Europe, it is found only in Greece (mainland, western Crete and  Rhodes). The species is occasionally found at sea level (van Slageren 1994). <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>
172247		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in disturbed habitats, such as dry, open fields, roadsides and hillsides; more rarely in forests (e.g. of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span>). It is mainly found on limestone—less frequently on basalt. Soil textures are predominantly stony, with additional clay, (clay) loam, and occasionally sand. It is often found growing with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>species. Annual rainfall of 450–1,250 mm indicates that the species prefers a wetter environment than most other <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span>. It flowers and fruits from June to August (van Slageren 1994).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172247		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range (van Slageren 1994) but the population is thought to be stable.
172247		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
172248		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stearnii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas.
172248		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. stearnii</span> is endemic to the south, centre and east of the Iberian Peninsula (Aedo in prep.).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172248		habitat	eng	It is found in herb communities, in arable land and on roadsides (Aedo in prep.).
172248		population	eng	It is widespread in Spain and localized in Portugal.
172248		threats	eng	Changes in land use is the major threat to this species.
172249		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>It is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). <br/> <br/>As it is a widespread species, some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 35 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. viridis </span>held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin but only one of which originates from within Europe. This accession originates from Ukraine and is stored in the Research Station of Medicinal Crops, Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
172249		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">viridis</span> is native to parts of northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as parts of temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>  Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:<span lang="EN-GB"><br/><ul><li><span lang="EN-GB">Finland: rare, occurring at a low frequency in the southwestern part of the country<span lang="EN-GB"> (<span lang="EN-GB">H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010).</span></li><li>France: widespread, occurs in all eastern departments but present in  fewer departments to the west of the country (Association Tela Botanica  2000–2010).</li><li>Germany: occurs throughout the country.</li><li>Norway: present in the southeast only.</li><li>Spain: restricted to the northeast and centre-north of the country.</li></ul><span lang="EN-GB">        <p><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p></span>
172249		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">F. viridis</span> is found on the slopes of rivers and lakes, in forest clearings,<span lang="EN-GB"> field and road edges and open fields, <span lang="EN-GB">preferring <span lang="EN-GB">alkaline soil<span lang="EN-GB">. It can tolerate a low level of human disturbance.</span></span></p>
172249		population	eng	This species is widespread and stable throughout most of its European range. However, it is rare in Finland.
172249		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>In Finland this species in threatened by potential hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">F. vesca</span> (<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">H. Korpelainen pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout the rest of its European range.</span></span></p>    <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
172250		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it is found in National Forest Parks and in Natura 2000 sites. It is recommended that the species is incorporated into the management plans of these sites to ensure that it is monitored and actively managed. <br/><br/>EURISCO records 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. eriantha</span> stored in the genebanks of the Agricultural Research Institute in Cyprus (eight wild accessions collected in Cyprus), the Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K. Malkov', Bulgaria (one wild accession collected in Bulgaria), and the Institute of Grassland and  Environmental Research in the UK (two accessions of unknown origin) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further collection and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from Bulgaria, Greece, Spain and Ukraine is needed. <br/><br/>In Greece, surveys to confirm old occurrence records is needed.
172250		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. eriantha</span> is native to parts of east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to western and middle Asia, the Caucasus and northern Africa (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>In Cyprus, it is found in the coastal belt of the island and in Greece it is restricted to Crete where records only exist from 1904 and 1943.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172250		habitat	eng	In Cyprus it is found on roadsides, bare hillsides and in openings of Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. The species is associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus brantii</span> and can be found growing on calcareous slopes, in sandy areas and steppe. It needs a level of grazing as it can get out-competed by other plants.
172250		population	eng	In Cyprus it is found in scattered patches of a few plants but is quite abundant (ARI genebank data). In Bulgaria it is common.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172250		threats	eng	In Cyprus, habitat degradation due to forest management is a threat in some localities. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172251		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. erubescens </span>is not included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine but it is included in the Red Data Book of Crimea which is in preparation (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). It occurs in Caradagh, Yaltinskiy and Crimean reserves, in botanical zakazniks Carabi-jajla and Novij Swit.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. erubescens</span> held in  European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and  duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
172251		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. erubescens</span> is native to Crimea, the Caucasus and northern Iran. It grows on the southern slopes of the Crimean mountains at altitudes of 300–1,000 m asl, and in Caucasus, Dagestan and Chechnya republic of the Russian Federation, Armenia and Azerbaijan from 20–1,980 m (Seregin 2004).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172251		habitat	eng	In the Crimean Mountains it is restricted to xerophytic conditions of taluses on sunny slopes with sparse vegetation cover (Seregin 2004).
172251		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>The species is very rare in the Crimean Mountains where it is represented by a few small isolated subpopulations; however, it is widely distributed and locally common in the Caucasus (Seregin 2004).<br/></p>  <p><br/><span class="msoIns"></p>
172251		threats	eng	The main threats are tourism and recreation.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172252		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">Knowledge of the national threat status of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">angulosum</span><span style="background-color: white;">&#160;</span><em></em><span style="background-color: white;">is as follows:</span><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: Endangered (EN) (Somogyi 2002)</li><li>Poland: Vulnerable (VU) (Zarzycky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992)<br/></li><li>Croatia: <span style="background-color: white;">Endangered (EN) (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;">Switzerland: </span><span style="background-color: white;">Vulnerable (VU) (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)<br/></li></ul>In France this species is protected in the following four regions: Alsace,   Champagne-Ardenne, Rhone-Alps and Ile-de-France (Association Tela   Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Information is needed on the precise distribution, habitat, population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">in situ</span><span style="background-color: white;"> conservation status from throughout its range.</span><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span>EURISCO reports 12 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. angulosum </span>held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe (from Romania) and is stored in Suceava Genebank, Romania (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
172252		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. angulosum</span> is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as the Russian Federation and Kyrgyzstan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>France: present in 18 departments to the west of the country and one  department (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) in the southwest (Association Tela  Botanica 2000–2010).<br/></li><li>Italy: found in six regions in the north.<br/></li><li>Poland: mainly southern and eastern areas.</li><li>Romania: central, west and northeastern parts.</li><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs mainly in lowland areas (Somogyi 2002).</li></ul>
172252		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. angulosum</span> occurs in most frequently in moist lowland areas. For example in Poland and Hungary it occurs as a lowland species in wet meadows and pastures, marshlands, moorlands, high sedge meadow vegetation,  flood plain woods and sandy meadows. This species prefers moist alkaline soils, rich in nutrients.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span>
172252		population	eng	<p>The population trend is stable in Slovakia and Hungary, and stable and common in Romania. In the Czech Republic this species is stable but rare in lowland areas, with a large decline in the number of sit<span style="background-color: white;">es in Poland (Zarzycky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992). <br/></p><p><span style="background-color: white;">While there is some information available for this species, further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout its range.<br/></span></p>
172252		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. angulosum</span> is currently threatened in Slovakia due to habitat destruction caused by both waste disposal on viable habitats and the modification of moist areas for arable farming. This modification of arable land by water extraction is also noted to be a threat to this species in the Czech Republic. It is listed in the 1992 <span style="background-color: white;">List of Threatened      Plants in Poland </span>due to the decreasing number of sites in this country (Zarzycky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
172253		conservation	eng	This species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and <span style="background-color: white;">in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000).</span> Information is needed about the European population size and trend, as well as its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status and potential threats.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 26 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. viminea </span>held in European genebanks, 23 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 11 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172253		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. viminea</span> is native to central and southern Europe, as well as to north Africa and temperate parts of Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It occurs in the southern half of France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010) and in west, southwest, south and southeastern parts of Slovakia (Dostál and Červenka 1992). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>L. viminea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chondrilliflora</span> is restricted  to southern France (Rhone River Valley and southeast  France), Italy, the  Iberian  Peninsula, and isolated localities in Switzerland and  Serbia (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;">L. viminea</span> ssp.  <span style="font-style: italic;">ramosissima</span>  occurs in France and the Iberian Peninsula (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
172253		habitat	eng	It grows on dry, exposed slopes and cliffs, on base rich rocks and can also be found in shrub and grasslands (Feráková 1977, Davies and Gibbons 1993). This is a lowland and submontane species, optimally existing between 200–400 m, but in exceptional cases it has been found over 1,500 m (Feráková 1977).<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. viminea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">chondrilliflora</span> occurs in dense populations along roadsides and vineyards (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
172253		population	eng	This species is widespread in its native range in France but scattered in Slovakia and thought to be decreasing in Germany. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend throughout the rest of its European range.
172253		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172255		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas in Crete and Rhodes but is not monitored or  actively managed. A monitoring programme should be implemented.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><br/>  EURISCO reports 74 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops umbellulata</span> held in European genebanks, 64 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, three originate from within Europe—one from Bulgaria, one from Greece and one from the UK, all of which are stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection from the European populations is a priority for this species.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172255		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to southeastern Europe, western Asia and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Cyprus, it has only been collected once from the Nicosia region in 1983.
172255		habitat	eng	It occurs in grasslands and on disturbed roadsides—less frequently in the margins of cultivated land (e.g., olive groves).
172255		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in scattered populations.
172255		threats	eng	The main threats are overgrazing and the use of herbicides.
172256		conservation	eng	Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><ul><li>Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia:<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpinum</span> is classified as Vulnerable (VU).</li><li>Finland: <em>A. schoenoprasum</em> ssp. <em>alpinum</em> is classified as Near Threatened (NT), while <span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> schoenoprasum </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">schoenoprasum </span>is classified as Least Concern (LC).</li><li>Denmark: this species is classified as Data Deficient (DD) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</li></ul>In France this species is protected in the region of Bretagne in the west (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).    <p>EURISCO reports 174 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 76 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 73 originate from within Europe. The majority of these wild accessions originate from Sweden (40) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
172256		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> schoenoprasum</span> is native to many parts of northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia, Canada, the USA, India and Pakistan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>Information on the distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Czech Republic: </span><em style="background-color: white;">A. schoenoprasum</em><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><em style="background-color: white;">alpinum</em><span style="background-color: white;"> is known in three localities in national parks and</span><em style="background-color: white;"> A. </em><em style="background-color: white;">schoenoprasum</em><em style="background-color: white;"> </em><span style="background-color: white;">ssp. </span><em style="background-color: white;"></em><em style="background-color: white;"> schoenoprasum</em><span style="background-color: white;"> is widespread along the Elbe and Vltava Rivers.</span></li><li>Finland: occurs in the whole country but most frequently in the south.<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">schoenoprasum </span>occurs in the south with one known occurrence in central-northern Finland<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpinum</span> occurs in the northern-most part of the country.</li><li><span style="background-color: white;">France: widespread, occurs in over half of the country's 100 departments, but is marginally less widespread in the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</span></li><li>Iberia: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">orosiae</span> from western Pyrennes and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">schoenoprasum</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> latiorifolium</span> from Sierra De Guadarrama.</li><li>Ireland: limited distribution, occurring in only seven localities (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). However, according to Preston<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2002), it is only native in two of these localities (in the west).</li><li>Netherlands: distributed along the large rivers (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).</li><li>Norway: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">schoenoprasum</span> occurs in the south and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpinum</span> in the north.</li><li>Portugal: occurs in the northwest.</li><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpinum</span> is scattered in mountain regions in northern and northwestern parts of the country (Dostál and ?ervenka 1992).</li><li><span style="background-color: white;">UK</span>: patchy distribution  throughout England and parts of Scotland, but has only be recorded in  one locality in Northern Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). However, according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), it is only native in a few localities in the west (mainly Cornwall and Wales) and the northeast.</li></ul> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172256		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">schoenoprasum </span>grows along river banks and in wet meadows<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>while <span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpinum </span>occurs in alpine grasslands, on rocky ledges, in crevices and dry places with little soil. <br/></p><p>In the UK, this species occurs in a range of lowland habitat types but is most  commonly found on thin soils over  limestone, serpentine and igneous rocks. It is also known to grow in  rank grass on deeper soils and  within crevices in riverside bedrock  (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Finland the species is found in agricultural habitats<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>, rocky areas and shores.</p>
172256		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. schoenoprasum </span>has a stable population trend in Slovakia and is noted as common where it is found in Germany and Norway. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend throughout the rest of its range.
172256		threats	eng	<p>In Finland, <em>A. schoenoprasum</em> ssp. <em>alpinum</em> is threatened by habitat destruction through tourism and has been classified as Near Threatened (D2). This species is also known to have been threatened in the Netherlands by the modification of riverdunes (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).<br/></p>
172257		conservation	eng	It is found in Troodos National Forest which is a NATURA 2000 site (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tetrantha </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, some material is known to be conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>.
172257		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tetrantha</span> is endemic to Cyprus where it is restricted to Troodos National Forest Park (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). The area of occupancy (AOO) is no more than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
172257		habitat	eng	It is found on dry, igneous slopes, at an altitudinal range of 1,520–1,920 m, and in rocky places in large openings in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pallasiana </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus foetidissima</span> woodland (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
172257		population	eng	This species occurs as scattered plants around the highest point of Troodos mountain (Chionistra). The overall population is estimated to comprise 1,000–1,500 plants.
172257		threats	eng	This species is threatened by trail maintenance, trampling and over-collection (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). A subpopulation at Chionistra was partly destroyed some years ago by telecommunication and military works.
172258		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cyprica</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.
172258		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cyprica</span> is endemic to Cyprus where its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 1,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
172258		habitat	eng	It occurs on shady mountain sides or stream sides, under pines, cedars or junipers; usually at high altitudes.
172258		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
172258		threats	eng	There are no major threats known; however, climate change might have a notable impact on this species as it grows at high altitudes. An increase in fire intensity and frequency might also have a negative impact.
172259		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. albiflorum</span> are reported by EURISCO (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) or SINGER. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>The species is included the Red Data Book of Crimea (Golubev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999) and occurs in at least one protected area.
172259		distribution	eng	It is native to Crimea and northern Caucasus (Dubovik 2005). In Ukraine it grows in the Crimean mountains where it occurs on the mountain massifs, Aj-Petri Babugan-Jajla and Derek-Kuczuk jajla (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). &#160; <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172259		habitat	eng	It grows in stony mountain steppe and meadows at altitudes of 600–1,340 m. It flowers from April to June (Mathew 1996).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172259		population	eng	<p>This species is very rare in Crimea and represented by no more that 10 small, isolated subpopulations (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>
172259		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are tourism and recreation.</p>
172260		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Beta </span>(beet) is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for  Food and Agriculture and although the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Patellifolia </span>is not listed in the Treaty, it is part of the beet gene pool.<br/><br/>La Isleta (560 ha) is protected by the Canarian law of 'Espacios Protegidos' (Protected Landscapes) due to its interest as a 'desert landscape'. The area where the species occurs is under military control with restricted human access. Part of this territory could be suitable for population enhancement.<p>  </p><p>The species in not mentioned in the recent catalogue of protected species of the Canarian Government (2010), nor in the recent catalogue 'Listado de especies silvestres en Régimen de Protección Especial y del Catálogo Español de Especies Amenazadas' (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino 2011). </p>  EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana</span> which is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). One accession is also reported by USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According D. Draper (pers. comm. 2010) this accession was collected at El Confital, a locality in the Isleta area, so it probably belongs to the true <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana</span>.&#160;Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>DNA analysis is required in order to clarify the taxonomic status of the different reported occurrences of the taxon, as well as to clarify the taxonomic relationships within the genus. Sampling from all known subpopulations recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana</span>, as well as from the (sub)population on La Isleta is needed to carry out this research. Existing studies indicating that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana</span> is not a separate species have been based on inadequate sampling.
172260		distribution	eng	According to Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana </span>is endemic to the Canary Islands of Hierro, La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. However, A. Santos Guerra (pers. comm. 2010) considers the only occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana </span>to be the plants on La Isleta (Gran Canaria), a complex of small volcanoes close to Las Palmas city, and that occurrences cited from other islands should be treated as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. procumbens </span>(Hornem.) A.J. Scott, Ford-Lloyd & J.T. Williams. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this population is no more than 8 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is no more than 4 km².<span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
172260		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. webbiana </span>is a ruderal nitrophilous species. On La Isleta, it grows on disturbed ancient and recent lava flows where the annual rainfall is probably less than 200 mm and the vegetation mainly consists of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia </span>communities (<span style="font-style: italic;">E. balsamifera </span>/ <span style="font-style: italic;">E. canariensis</span>).<span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span>
172260		population	eng	It is locally frequent on La Isleta; however, the population is severely fragmented as there is a road that cuts through the main subpopulation and the area has been developed for military use, including the construction of houses.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172260		threats	eng	The population is affected by disturbance from military training activities on La Isleta and there is a road that crosses through the main known subpopulation.<br/><br/>Parts of La Isleta may in the future be developed by the local administration of Las Palmas city, but it is not known what type of development is planned.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172261		conservation	eng	The majority of subpopulations in Serbia and Montenegro are situated inside of national parks.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pancicii </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Serbia: it is estimated as LR cd (Stevanović in prep.).</li><li>Macedonia: it is very rare but its threat status has not been evaluated.</li><li>Montenegro: its threat status has not been evaluated but it is probably Least Concern.</li><li>Bosnia and Herzegovina: Vulnerable (VU<span style="background-color: white;">) (Šilić 1996)</span>.<br/></li><li>Bulgaria: it is evaluated by D. Dimitrova as CR B2c(i,ii,iv) (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).</li><li>Greece: it is known from a single locality on Mt. Tsoumerka. It is probably Vulnerable or Endangered, but additional information from Greek experts is needed. It is not mentioned in the 2010 Red Data &#160;Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<strong> </strong></li></ul>
172261		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pancicii</span> is endemic to the west and central part of the Balkan region, where it is distributed from central Bosnia through the east and southeast Dinaric Alps in east Bosnia, north Montenegro, west and southwest Serbia and north Albania, to north and west  Macedonia. Isolated sites are located in west  Bulgaria (Mt. Rila) and northwest Greece (south Pindhos, Mt. Tsoumerka) (Stevanović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172261		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits tall herbaceous vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostyletalia</span>) in wet places and along streams, mainly in gorges and canyons from 500 m reaching the lower alpine zone up to a maximum altitude of 2,100 m. It is also found on the edges of mixed deciduous and conifer forests in the lower alpine zone. It favours limestone rather than siliceous bedrock.</p>
172261		population	eng	<p>Subpopulations in Serbia are known at more than five localities on Mt. Tara, Mt. Prokletije, Mt. Šarplanina and Mt. Kopaonik. Plants are abundant in these subpopulations and they are stable. Plants are also abundant in subpopulations in north Montenegro (Mt. Durmitor and surrounding gorges and canyons).<strong> </strong></p>
172261		threats	eng	<p>No threats to this species have been observed in the field. </p>
172262		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas; however, it is probably not monitored and actively managed at these sites. Further studies are needed to investigate the population size and trends of this species.   <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scorzonerifolium</span> held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from Portugal and it is stored in the Portuguese Bank of Plant Germplasm, Portugal (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   Further germplasm collection and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required.
172262		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. scorzonerifolium</span> is native to west and central Spain to northwest Portugal, as well as to Morocco (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).
172262		habitat	eng	It is found in wet grasslands, in cork oak and pine forest, meadows, rocky areas and on ledges.
172262		population	eng	Information about the population of this species is not available.
172262		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172263		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 16 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops uniaristata </span>held in European genebanks, 12 of which    are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, three  originate   from within Europe; two from Greece and one from Italy (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). As these accessions do not adequately represent the distributional range of the species, additional material should be collected for<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ </span>conservation.  <br/><br/>In addition more surveys are needed on this species distribution, particularly to assess whether it occurs in protected areas and to adapt the management plan of  these protected areas to the requirements of this species.
172263		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">uniaristata </span>is native to parts of southeastern Europe and to western Asia (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009).
172263		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry grassland areas, bushy slopes, on hillsides, and in the edges of cultivated fields.
172263		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops uniaristata</span> is a stable and a common species in southeast Europe, particularly in Greece.
172263		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172264		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>As it is a fairly widespread species, some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.
172264		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscum</span> is native to southeastern Europe and western Asia (Turkey) (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005–2007) this species is also native to northern Africa (Algeria and Morocco).
172264		habitat	eng	It is found on dry and stony slopes, in forest clearings and margins, shrub habitats and sandy dunes. In Cyprus, it is also known to occur in orchards (e.g., amongst olive trees).
172264		population	eng	This species is stable in Europe and common throughout most of its range, except in Cyprus.
172264		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172265		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. chamaespathum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010); however, accessions are known to be stored in the Greek Genebank. More material does however need to be gathered. <br/><br/>It is considered to be threatened in southern Greece (G. Economou pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172265		distribution	eng	Native to Greece and Albania (Mathew 1996). In Greece it occurs on the mainland and in Corfu, Thasos and Crete.
172265		habitat	eng	According to Mathew (1996), it grows on rocky (calcareous) mountain slopes from sea level to 2,135 m and is also found on roadsides. It flowers from (July)August to October.
172265		population	eng	This species is widespread.
172265		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
172266		conservation	eng	According to Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">L. quercina</span> is evaluated in the Lower Risk (LR) category in Slovakia. In the Czech Republic this species is listed as Vulnerable<span style="background-color: white;"> (Holub and Procházka 2000).</span><br/><br/>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. quercina</span> held in European genebanks, six of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only two originate from within Europe (Hungary). These are stored in the gene banks of Plant Research International, Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands and Vegetable Section Olomouc, RICP Prague (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
172266		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. quercina</span> is native to Europe, as well as to western Asia, the Caucasus and the Indian Subcontinent (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:<br/>    <ul><li>Slovakia. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs mainly in lowland and hilly regions of the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992).<br/></li><li>Hungary: present in the Hungarian Mountains, Western Transdanubia and the Great Hungarian Plain.</li><li>Italy: found in four regions in northern Italy.</li><li>France: confined to the departments of   Puy-de-Dôme and   Haute-Loire in central France and Hautes-Alpes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in the southeast of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>
172266		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. quercina</span> is a lowland woodland plant of semi-dry, fertile soils, although it exists on calciferous soils in the northern-most part of its distribution (Feráková 1977). It is most often found in forest clearings and scrub habitats, and due to its ability to survive on nitrogen rich soils, can often be found around human habitations (Feráková 1977). <br/><br/>It is found most frequently between 0–700 m in central Europe; however, the highest altitudes are found in the Caucasus (1,800 m) (Lebeda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160;In Slovakia it occurs mainly in lowland and hilly regions (Dostál and Červenka 1992).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172266		population	eng	In Slovakia and Hungary this species occurs in small subpopulations of few individuals but the population trend is stable. It is also stable and relatively common in Romania. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172266		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is habitat destruction by deforestation (for timber and human expansion).
172267		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/></p><p>EURISCO reports 37 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. bogdanii</span> held by European genebanks; however, all of these accessions originated in Asia (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm should be collected from the European population and conserved in duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections.<br/></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">H. bogdanii</span> is included in the regional Red List of Saratovskaya district (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005). Research on the population size, trends and potential threats is needed.  <p>&#160;</p>
172267		distribution	eng	Native to the Russian Federation, western and middle Asia, Siberia, Mongolia, China and the Indian subcontinent (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In South European Russia it is only found in the lower Don basin with one isolated site in Krasnoarmeysk and a larger area in the lower Volga basin (Bobrov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1974).
172267		habitat	eng	It is a perennial species that grows in sandy and saline soils on riverbanks.
172267		population	eng	This species is relatively rare but the population trend is unknown.
172267		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172268		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 182 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops biuncialis</span> held in European genebanks, 150 of which  are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 81 originate  from within Europe, 70 of which are recorded as originating from Bulgaria (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is however a priority for this species to ensure that material is available for future potential use in crop improvement programs.
172268		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aegilops biuncialis</span> is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia, the Caucasus and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span style="background-color: white;">In France this species is confine</span>d to five departments in the southeast:   Alpes-Maritimes,   Var,   Bouches-du-Rhône,   Vaucluse and   Hérault (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172268		habitat	eng	It grows in generally dry, somewhat disturbed places; such as fallow, roadsides, field margins, olive groves, vineyards and various forest types (frequently with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>spp.). Also in grasslands, maquis and kafkalla vegetation, steppe, and dry, rocky mountain slopes, more rarely in river valleys and palm plantations. <span style="background-color: white;">The altitudinal range of this species is -200–1,750 m, and is found </span>on a variety of bedrock types; mainly limestone, but also schists, shales, basalt, granite and pillow lavas. Soil text<span style="background-color: white;">ures are mainly clay or sandy loam, or (rarely) pure sandy soils </span><span style="background-color: white;"> (van Slageren 1994)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>This species is found in areas with an annual rainfall of 225–800 mm indicating some drought tolerance, but the species also occurs in areas with up to 1,250 mm. Flowers and fruits from May to August (van Slageren 1994)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span>
172268		population	eng	The species is common throughout most of its range and extensive populations estimated at several hundred square metres have been observed (van Slageren 1994).
172268		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
172269		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Information about the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species is not available. <br/><br/>The majority of germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. brevis</span> available in genebanks are of landrace  material; however,   EURISCO reports 31 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, neither of these accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   <br/><br/>Further collection of wild origin material is required as well as  research to clarify the native range of the taxon.
172269		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">There is some dispute about the native range of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">A</span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> brevis</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in Europe, which is recorded by Baum (1977) as native to Austria, the Azores, Belgium, Canary Islands, former Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Madeira, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, former USSR and Yugoslavia; by Clayton </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. (2006 onwards) as native to northern, central and southwestern Europe, and Macaronesia; and by Valdés and Scholz, with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009) as native to Austria, the Azores, Belgium, Great Britain, Canary Islands, Czech Republic, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, Italy, Portgual, Madeira, Poland and Sweden. However, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010) records the taxon as naturalized in Europe and the Madeira Islands and the species is reported to have once been cultivated  in western Europe (Baum 1977). <br/><br/>National experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop convened in April 2010 believe the taxon to be introduced in Europe, while A. Katsiotis (pers. comm. 2010), an expert on the genus, believes it to be native. The native range of this species therefore requires clarification. The occurrences recorded in this assessment are as recorded by Valdés and Scholz, with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
172269		habitat	eng	It is a weed of cultivated fields in Portugal, the Azores and the Canary Islands and flowers from May to August (Baum 1977).
172269		population	eng	Information about the population of this species is not available as its native range is uncertain.
172269		threats	eng	Information about the threats to this species is not available.
172270		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Avena </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. volgensis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species needs to be determined.<br/><br/>Information on the population size, distribution and trend in the last ten years is needed.
172270		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Endemic to Central and Eastern European Russia (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly 2009).
172270		habitat	eng	It is found in agricultural land where it is a specialized weed of a local landrace of <span style="font-style: italic;">Triticum dicoccon</span>.
172270		population	eng	The population of this species is in severe decline. It has probably declined by 80% since 1950.
172270		threats	eng	It is threatened by the replacement of landraces with commercial crops.
172271		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bourgeaui</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>A population monitoring programme should be implemented.
172271		distribution	eng	Native to Greece and southwest Turkey (Mathew 1996, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. bourgeaui</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgeaui </span>is native to the East Aegean Islands, Rhodes, Karpathos, Kasos and to southwest Turkey where it is found at an altitudinal range of 50 to 800 m. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bourgeaui</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cycladium </span>is native to mainland Greece, east Peloponnese, Cyclades, Ikaria and southwest Turkey where it occurs at altitudes of up to 250 m. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bourgeaui</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">creticum </span>is endemic to Crete where it is found up to 250 m (Mathew 1996).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172271		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. bourgeaui</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">bourgeaui</span> grows on limestone cliffs and rocky hillsides at an altitudinal range of 50–800 m; ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cycladium</span> is found on rocky hillsides, in scrub and on cliffs at an altitudinal range 3–250 m; ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">creticum</span> grows on limestone cliffs up to 250 m (Mathew 1996). It also occurs in stabilized dunes and in sandy places.
172271		population	eng	This species is widespread on the island of Rhodes.
172271		threats	eng	Further research is needed in order to identify the major threats to this species. However, it is thought that over-collection of the bulbs, urbanization and development for tourism are adding pressure to the population. It is considered to be threatened in Crete (G. Economou pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172272		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. palentinum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas.
172272		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. palentinum</span> is endemic to northwest Spain (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007); specifically, northeast Leon.
172272		habitat	eng	It is found on mountain ledges on calcareous soils and in rock fissures.
172272		population	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.
172272		threats	eng	Climate change is a major threat to this species. Livestock grazing is an additional threat.
172273		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeum </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/>  <p>Knowledge of its national threat status in Europe is as follows:</p>  <ul><li>Croatia: classified as Vulnerable (VU) (Nikolić and Topić 2007).<br/></li><li>France: protected in the region of Basse-Normandie (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Hungary: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Least Concern   (Király 2007).</li><li>UK: classified as Vulnerable (VU) (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).</li></ul>EURISCO reports 163 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. marinum</span> held in European genebanks, 156 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 93 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  <span class="Apple-converted-space">
172273		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">marinum </span>is native to northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to temperate Asia, northern Africa, Macaronesia and the Indian Subcontinent, and is widely naturalized in other regions (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>France: present in coastal areas.<br/></li><li>Germany: possibly extinct.</li><li>Greece: the majority of records are old; there are only 10 recent records for this species; it mainly occurs on islands.<br/> </li><li>Hungary: adventive but naturalized; found near Izbég at Szentendre   (Soó 1966).</li><li>  Netherlands: occurs at a low frequency along the coast (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985).</li><li>UK: confined to the eastern coastline of England, particularly from the Wash in East Anglia southwards, the southern coast of England and localities either side of the Severn Estuary (Wales and England) (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is also recorded to occur at six localities in the east of Scotland but is not recorded as present in Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li></ul><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172273		habitat	eng	This species occurs in saline meadows, coastal marshes, riverbeds, wasteland, dry grasslands and as a weed in pasture. In the UK it grows as a lowland, coastal species, often found on trampled margins of dried-up pools and ditches in grazing marshes, on tracks and sea walls, and in salt marshes (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It can also grow along salt-treated roads further inland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Netherlands it is found in grasslands with a brackish humid soil (Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
172273		population	eng	<p>While this species is noted as being relatively common in Portugal, Spain and Italy, it is described as decreasing in Croatia, the Netherlands and the UK. In the Netherlands, Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1985) reported that before 1950 it occurred in 117 hour-squares and after 1950  in 42 hour-squares, while Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) reported  that the species occurs in 31–100 1x1 km grid squares. According to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), it has decreased  throughout Britain, especially along the southern coast and along the  east coast northwards from the Wash. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its European range.<br/></p>
172273		threats	eng	The cause of decline of this species is often due to habitat disturbance in coastal areas, such as the construction of concrete sea barriers in the UK. In the Netherlands the construction of embankments and the subsequent sweetening of the water is cited as one of the most important causes for the decline (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). In Madeira urbanization in coastal areas is threatening this species.
172274		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. albotunicatum</span> held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
172274		distribution	eng	This species is native to Turkey and Israel (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005–2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172274		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allium albotunicatum</span> only has a marginal distribution in Europe.
172274		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allium albotunicatum</span> only has a marginal distribution in Europe.
172274		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allium albotunicatum</span> only has a marginal distribution in Europe.
172275		conservation	eng	In Aragon and Catalonia, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pyrenaicum</span> is considered Vulnerable (D. Draper pers. comm. 2010). It is listed in the Lista Roja 2008 de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008) as Near Threatened (NT).<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas; however, grazing management is needed to protect this species and a monitoring program should be implemented.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pyrenaicum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172275		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pyrenaicum</span> is endemic to Spain, where is grows in the east Pyrenees in the provinces of <strong></strong>Gerona and Huesca (Mathew 1996). According to Aedo (in prep.) it also occurs in Navarra. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
172275		habitat	eng	It grows in forest margins, rocky areas, badlands and on roadsides from 690–1,290 m asl (Aedo in prep.). It flowers from June to July (Mathew 1996).
172275		population	eng	The population is scattered. In Catalonia there are 25,000 mature individuals (Oliver 2008), with an area of occupancy (AOO) of 33 km<sup>2</sup>. There seems to be three subpopulations in Aragon.
172275		threats	eng	Livestock grazing and forest enlargement are major threats to this species.
172276		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. prostrata</span> held in European genebanks, neither of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
172276		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. prostrata</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, it occurs in the mountains of the east, mainly in the Sierras Beticas, up to Sierra de Grazalema, including Sierra Nevada. In France, it is confined to the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
172276		habitat	eng	It grows on rocks, in crevices, stony areas and screes, preferring limestone. It can also be found in thickets of&#160; low creeping shrubs in mountainous areas. It can rarely be found at low (200 m) and high (3,000 m) altitudes—more commonly, it is found between 1,000–2,500 m.
172276		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172276		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.
172277		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">P. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">laurocerasus</span> <span style="background-color: white;">is listed as Critically  Endangered </span>(CR) in Serbia (Stevanović <span style="background-color: white;">1999)</span>. The species' habitat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lauroceraso–Fagetum</span> community and surrounding beech forests) on Mt. Ostrozub is protected as a Strict Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>It was not included in the 1984 Red Data Book of the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria (Velczev 1984) and is not included in the 2009 Red List of Bulgarian Vascular Plants (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). Detailed information on the species' protection status in Bulgaria (particular habitats and/or communities) is needed.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. laurocerasus</span> stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.   <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172277		distribution	eng	According to Kurtto (2009), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. laurocerasus</span> is native to Albania, Bulgaria, Former Yugoslavia, Serbia, Turkey-in-Europe, the Caucasus and Asiatic Turkey. However, V. Stevanović (pers. comm 2010) believes that its native status in Albania is doubtful as it is not mentioned in several key floristic references for the country. It is naturalized elsewhere in Europe, the British Isles, tropical Asia, western United  States, Australia and New Zealand (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and cultivated in Croatia, Switzerland, Sardinia and Sicily (Kurtto 2009).<br/><br/>In Serbia it occurs at a single locality on Mt. Ostrozub in the southeast of the country and occupies an area of&#160; less than 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>.
172277		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits wet beech forest (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lauroceraso–Fagetum</span>) which is regularly irrigated throughout the year by spring water. The forest is situated between 1,200 and 1,300 m asl on crystalline schist bedrock and diluvial loam and clay soil with a pH of 4–5 (Jovanović 1999). </p>
172277		population	eng	The overall population size is unknown but it is thought to be stable. The size of the subpopulation in Serbia is estimated to be a few hundred mature individuals, but only less than 5% of mature specimens regularly flower and fruit each year. The population trend in other Balkan countries (e.g., Bulgaria and Turkey-in-Europe) seems to be stable (Stevanović pers. comm. 2010).
172277		threats	eng	In Serbia, the main threat is the alteration of the water regime in the wet beech forest in which this species occurs. An increase in fire intensity and frequency, as well as agricultural development, are also negatively impacting this species.
172278		conservation	eng	<p>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. </p>  No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.
172278		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">alpina</span> is native to parts of northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Finland: occurs in the <span lang="EN-GB">central-northern part of the country.</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Italy: present in the north.</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">Spain: has a restricted range due to its habitat preference.</li><li><span lang="EN-GB">France: found in 20 departments in the east and the departments of   Pyrénées-Atlantiques,   Ariège, Aude and   Pyrénées Orientales in the south/southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000–<span lang="EN-GB">2010).</span></li><li><span lang="EN-GB">UK: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs at only five localities, four of which occur together in central/eastern Scotland and one of which is found in northern England (although this latter occurrence is recorded as alien) (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></li></ul>
172278		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">It is often found in shady grasslands, open woodlands in the mountains and along water courses, occurring in r<span lang="EN-GB">ich fens and alpine wetland in Finland. In the UK it prefers <span lang="EN-GB">moist, north-facing acidic rocks, where there is usually late snow-lie, growing between <span lang="EN-GB">700 m in Glen Doll to 1,090 m on Lochnagar <span lang="EN-GB"> (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). </span></span></p><span lang="EN-GB"></span>
172278		population	eng	This species is common in its preferred habitat.
172278		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
172279		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Secale </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>As <span style="font-style: italic;">S. cereale</span> is not considered to be native to Europe, no conservation actions are in place or immediately needed.
172279		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">S. cereale</span> is native to south European Russia, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, and Pakistan. It is also recorded as native to south European Russia by Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009).<br/><br/>However, according to experts present at a European vascular plant Red List workshop convened in Portugal in April 2010, there are no native populations in European Russia.
172279		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species has not been researched for this assessment as it is not native to Europe.
172279		population	eng	There are no native populations in Europe.
172279		threats	eng	There are no native populations in Europe; therefore, the threats to this species have not been researched.
172280		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hispida </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>Research is needed on the precise distribution, population size and trend of this species, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status.
172280		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hispida</span> is native to the countries surrounding the Black Sea in southeastern Europe and west Asia (Greuter 2006–2009).
172280		habitat	eng	It grows in forest clearings and margins.
172280		population	eng	This is a rare species in Romania. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172280		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species.
172281		conservation	eng	In France, this species is protected within the Languedoc-Roussillon region in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession which originates from Albania and is stored in the Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <span class="Apple-converted-space">
172281		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. commutatum</span> is native to the East Aegean Islands, Cyclades, western Crete, Ionian Islands, Peloponnese, Adriatic coastal islands of Former Yuogslavia, Sicily, Ischia, Corsica, Sardinia and the Baleraic Islands; it has also rarely been recorded in mainland Greece, western Turkey and coastal Former Yugoslavia (Mathew 1996).<br/><br/>In France, it occurs in three departments in the south and Corsica: Var,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Aude (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
172281		habitat	eng	It is usually found in open, rocky or stony places near the sea and flowers from May to June (Mathew 1996).
172281		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
172281		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
172282		conservation	eng	Found in Bunaken National Park, Indonesia. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
172282		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. pontohi</span> &#160;has been recorded at a number of areas in Indonesia (Bunaken, Cape Sri, Sorong, Wakatobi, Lembeh Straits; Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>
172282		habitat	eng	<p>Holotype and paratype specimens found at 16 m and 12 m depth respectively, but has been recorded between 11–25 m. Found among algae, bryozoans, hydroid crops (Lourie and Kuiter 2008) and specifically the coralline algae <span style="font-style: italic;">Halimeda</span> and hydroid <span style="font-style: italic;">Aglaephenia cupressina</span> (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>Extremely small size, height 14 mm, standard length 17 mm (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. pontohi </span>is commonly found in pairs and is relatively active. Two of the specimens collected were pregnant and each contained 11 embryos (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>
172282		population	eng	Unknown.
172282		threats	eng	Unknown.
172283		conservation	eng	None known. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
172283		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. severnsi </span>is known from Indonesia (Bunaken, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat Islands, Kawe Island), Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Papua New Guinea (Milne Bay, Madang), Solomon Islands (Mborokua) and Fiji (Lourie and Kuiter 2008) and Australia (Cairns) (see the species image and description on the <a href="http://australianmuseum.net.au/image/Severns-Seahorse-Hippocampus-severnsi">Australian Museum</a> web site).</p>
172283		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. severnsi </span>is found between depths of 8–20 m and is apparently more active in the morning and late afternoon when it is not in direct sunlight. In Indonesia, it has been found with <span style="font-style: italic;">Catenicella </span>sp. a yellow bryozoan species, as well as different kinds of hydrozoans including&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Lytocarpus phoenicea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Antennellopsis integerrima </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Halicordyle disticha</span>. It has been seen swimming over a fungiid coral and is recorded from fissures on current-swept walls where it will tend to occur on the side of the fissure that faces away from the current, but in all cases where there is some upward current (Lourie and Kuiter 2008). In Papua New Guinea it has been observed on a gorgonian coral of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Muricella </span>at 12 m depth (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>Extremely small size, height 13 mm, standard length 15 mm (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>
172283		population	eng	Unknown.
172283		threats	eng	None known.
172284		conservation	eng	None known. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.
172284		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus satomiae </span>is known from scattered localities in Indonesia, including Derawan (type locality), and Lembeh Strait (northern Sulawesi), as well as northern Borneo, Malaysia (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>
172284		habitat	eng	<p>During the day, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. satomiae </span>are difficult to find, even in areas where they are known to occur. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. satomiae</span> congregate at night, in groups of 3–5 individuals, on small sea fans and occur at depths between 15–20 m on the bottom below reef overhangs (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p><p>At birth, the young are jet-black, about 3mm in height and shaped similarly to the adults. They settle on the bottom close to their place of birth. The holotype, collected in October, was pregnant and carrying approximately eight young (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>Extremely small size, height 11 mm, standard length 14 mm (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>
172284		population	eng	Unknown.
172284		threats	eng	None known.
172310		conservation	eng	No specific conservation plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Neotropius khavalchor</span>. Menon (1999) has suggested that a portion of the river Panchaganga should be protected as a natural history reserve to ensure the continued existence of this fish. Research is required to understand population status, life history, ecology and threats to this species.
172310		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neotropius khavalchor</span> is endemic to Krishna river system of India (Jayaram 1999, Menon 1999). In Maharashtra, the species is known from Panchaganga river near Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Kulkarni 1952), Krishna river near Islampur (Kulkarni 1952), Koyna river near Patan (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), Indrayani river near Kamshet (Mandar Paingankar, Rupesh Raut, S.S. Kharat and N. Dahanukar, manuscript in preparation) and Krishna river near Sangli (Jayaram 1995). In Karnataka it is known from Krishna river at Jamkhandi (Jayaram 1995), Tunga-Badra river (Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009) and in Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh (Devi and Indra 2003).
172310		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neotropius khavalchor</span> is found in slow moving turbid streams (Menon 1999, 2004). It is a lepidophagous (scale eating) species (Kulkarni 1952) and it attains a total length of 15 cm (Menon 1999).
172310		population	eng	There is no information about the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Neotropius khavalchor</span>, however, the species is very rare (Jayaram 1995, Menon 1999, 2004, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
172310		threats	eng	The area where <span style="font-style: italic;">Neotropius khavalchor</span> is found is affected by several threats including urbanization, industrial developments, mining activities and introduced species. Menon (1999) has suggested that as any small change in the quality of  water in the upper reaches of the Krishna river system would have  adverse effects on the quality of the water downstream which may result  in the loss of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. khavalchor</span>.
172311		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need for documenting the life history, demography and ecology of the species to inform management decisions.
172311		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Horalabiosa joshuai </span>is endemic to the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of the Western Ghats (Silas 1953, Devi 1992, Johnson and Arunachalam 2010). It has been recorded from the upstream of Pachayar in Kalakkad and Tambaraparani (Pambar, Ullar and Chittar tributaries) in Mundanthurai (Johnson and Arunachalam 2010).<br/><br/>Reports of the species from the Kunthipuzha tributary of Bharatapuzha River inside the Silent Valley National Park (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), Pambar River inside the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999a), and Periyar River inside Eravikulam National Park (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999b) need to be verified (Arunachalam pers. comm).<br/><br/>The extension of the species'<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>range to the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Garo Hills, Meghalaya (Sen 2009) needs further verification (K. Rema Devi pers. comm.).
172311		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Horalabiosa joshuai </span>occurs in narrow high altitude streams with low depths, moderately high canopy cover and moderate flow. It prefers riffles, pools and run habitats (Johnson and Arunachalam 2010).
172311		population	eng	There is no information on the population, but one of the locations where this species was recorded from has become locally extinct (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172311		threats	eng	The species is threatened from habitat destruction and degradation due to tea plantations, tourism, water abstraction, run-off from plantations, encroachment, and possible effects of climate change. Future threats to the species are impacts of reduced rainfall, which could affect the perennial streams in which the species is distributed. In addition, alien invasive species of fish could be a potential threat if and when they reach the species' distribution (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172312		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Although the Government of Kerala has brought in legislation to regulate the fishery and trade of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis</span> has not been included in the plan (Mittal 2009). There is a need to understand the actual distribution range of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis </span>as on-going studies have recorded individuals (which were thought to be <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span>) from various locations in South Kerala, having exact morphological characters of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis</span> (A.Ali and R. Raghavan pers.obs.). Baseline information need to be generated on the life history and population of this endemic species.&#160; Experimental captive breeding have been attempted with some success (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).
172312		distribution	eng	Previously thought to be endemic to River Chalakudy (Menon <em>et al</em>. 1999),&#160;Puntius chalakkudiensis&#160;has recently been recorded from Periyar (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).&#160; The populations of (which were once called) <em>P</em><em>. denisonii</em> south of Palghat gap is now considered <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis</span> based on genetic analysis (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).&#160; Its distribution is restricted to the upper and middle reaches of Chalakkudy, Periyar, Pamba and Achankovil rivers.
172312		habitat	eng	Known from mid stream (and rarely in upstreams) reaches of rivers where they inhabit rocky pools with vegetation on its banks. Substrates vary from sand to bed rock (R.Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).
172312		population	eng	On-going studies of Conservation Research Group (CRG), St. Albert's College, Kochi indicate that the species is more abundant in remote habitats (often inside protected areas) in Periyar, Pampa and Achenkovil rivers compared to those outside it (R. Raghavan pers. comm.). In a study by NBFGR, Kochi, the populations of Periyar and Chalakkudy were found to be genetically homogeneous (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).<br/>In a study by Kurup and Radhakrishnan (2006), the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. denisonii</span> in the various rivers of Kerala declined by 55-70% in five years (2000-2005) based on catch per unit effort.&#160; The<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. denisonii</span> populations south of Palghat gap are currently known as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis</span>.&#160; Hence the decline rates in the populations are applicable to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chalakkudiensis</span>.&#160; In another study the species declined by 25% from 2004-2007 based on secondary data from fish collectors (Mercy 2010).
172312		threats	eng	Apart from the general threats to riverine habitats in Periyar, Chalakudy and Pampa like pollution from domestic sources and plantations, habitat alteration due to dams and barrages and destructive fishing practices (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kurup 2002, Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008),<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. chalakkudiensis</span> is also threatened by the un-managed collection for the international trade in aquarium fish.&#160; In addition, exotic invasive fishes like <em>O. mossambicus</em> &#160;pose a potential threat to the species in all rivers.&#160; The proposed Athirapally hydro-electric project in the type locality might also have an adverse impact on the species.
172313		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. muvattupuzhaensis</span>. There is a need for research on life history and demography of the species to form the basis for future conservation and management.
172313		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius muvattupuzhaensis&#160;</em>is so far reported from the middle and lower reaches of Muvattupuzha and Periyar rivers, Kerala, India (Beevi and Ramchandran 2005, 2009).&#160; The distribution of this species is not completely understood as yet.
172313		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius muvattupuzhaensis</span> prefers low land reaches of rivers with sand and gravel as major substrates.
172313		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. muvattupuzhaensis</span>. Recent reports however indicate that the species is rare (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009).
172313		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius muvattupuzhaensis</span> in Periyar River is threatened by habitat deterioration as a result of untreated domestic effluents and industrial wastes (KSCSTE 2009).
172314		conservation	eng	There is a need to gather baseline information on the population and life history traits of this species to inform future conservation action. It is not present in any protected areas.
172314		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic; ">Dayella malabarica</span>&#160;is endemic to southwestern India, where it is widely distributed and known from the upper reaches of Vembanad Lake in Kerala and many other rivers (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006), including Chalakudy (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008).</p>
172314		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">D. malabarica</span> inhabits both lowland rivers and the area where rivers reach the backwaters.<br/></p>
172314		population	eng	Although it is distributed in the lowland areas of many rivers of Kerala, it is relatively rare (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006).
172314		threats	eng	There is an on going decline in the area and quality of habitats frequented by <span style="font-style: italic;">D. malabarica</span> where they occur due to increased ecological transformation, sedimentation, pollution from point sources and destructive fishing practices.
172315		conservation	eng	Currently there are no specific conservation action plans directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus rueppelli</span>. Research is essential on the distribution, population status, life history, ecology and threats to this species. Some populations of this fish could be protected in Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary.
172315		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus rueppelli </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is mainly recorded from the Western Ghats of Maharashtra but it could be found in the northern Karnataka. Population in the southern Karnataka, mainly from the Tungabhadra river, is <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemachilichthys shimogensis</span>. Therefore, the records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus rueppelli</span> by Bhat (2004) and Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu (2009) should be verified as they could be <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemachilichthys shimogensis</span>. <br/><br/>In Maharashtra the species is known from Indrayani River (Mandar Paingankar, Rupesh Raut, S. S. Kharat and Neelesh Dahanukar, manuscript in preparation), Mula-Mutha River (Sykes 1841, Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003), Bhima river (Sykes 1841), Neera river (Neelesh Dahanukar, Mandar Paingankar, Rupesh Raut and S.S. Kharat, manuscript in review), Krishna river near Wai (S. S. Kharat, Mandar Paingankar and Neelesh Dahanukar, manuscript in preparation), Koyna river (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), Panchaganga river (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956) and Nirar river system (Arunachalam 2000).<br/>The expected extent of occurrence for this species is about 52,000km<sup>2</sup> and the number of locations are about 8 to 15.
172315		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus rueppelli</span> is found mostly in Ghats areas. It is found in streams, rivers and lakes below the ghats with pebbly bed and it attains a standard length of 7.4 cm (Menon 1999). Deforestation leading to siltation and pollution of the rivers can modify the habitat of this species. Such changes are ongoing in several locations where the species is distributed (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172315		population	eng	Exact population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus rueppelli </span>is not known but it is found in good numbers in most of the rivers in northern Western Ghats. The population of the fish in Mula-Muth rivers of Pune, the type locality of the species, however, has declined drastically (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.<em></em>), which could be attributed to increasing urbanization and pollution of these rivers (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003).
172315		threats	eng	No information is available on wide spread threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus rueppelli</span>. Nonetheless, the population of the fish in Mula-Muth rivers of Pune, the type locality of the fish, has  declined drastically (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.<em></em>), which could be attributed to increasing  urbanization and pollution of these rivers (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003).
172316		conservation	eng	There have been no measures taken for this species' conservation. The species is&#160;utilized&#160;for consumption and is cultured in many areas in India and Sri Lanka. But research on population size, life history and&#160;monitoring&#160;of trends is essential.
172316		distribution	eng	<em>Amblypharyngodon melettinus</em> is distributed along the coastal water bodies in the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in India and also in the coastal water bodies of Sri Lanka (Jayaram 1989, 2010).&#160; The Sri Lankan population may be a different species (Rahul Kumar pers. comm).
172316		habitat	eng	The species is known to inhabit ponds, slow flowing streams, canals, kole wetlands and paddy fields (C.P. Shaji pers. comm).
172316		population	eng	It is very common in lowland water bodies. The population trends for this species are unknown.
172316		threats	eng	No severe threats are known for this species, apart from domestic pollution in some parts of it's natural range.
172317		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to study the taxonomy (given its ambiguity with <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius/Hypselobarbus jerdoni</span>), life history and demography of this species.
172317		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus dobsoni&#160;</span>is endemic to the Western Ghats (Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2005). The known '<span style="font-style: italic;">H. dobsoni</span>' distribution in river basins of Krishna (Kalawar and Kelkar 1955, Menon 1992), Kali River (Arunachalam 2004), Tambraparini (Arunachalam 2000), Kabini (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000), Chalakkudy (V.S. Basheer pers. obs.) as well as the drainages in the Anamalai Hills and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2005) have to be re-examined as there is confusion in the species' identity.<br/><br/>The report of this species in Gadana (Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan 1999) has now been placed under the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Neolissochilus</span> (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172317		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in rocky pools. Adult fish mainly hide under boulders while juveniles prefer riffles and shallower waters. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dobsoni</span> is known to feed on allochthonous plant materials and detritus (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000).
172317		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dobsoni </span>from its native range. There is only one confirmed population in Chalakkudy as documented in an ongoing study by NBFGR (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.). The species is not very common in Chalakkudy.
172317		threats	eng	The species has disappeared from most of its range due to destructive fishing, overexploitation, sandmining, siltation and other anthropogenic effects. The species is not as threatened in Chalakkudy (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).
172318		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the population status, threats and life history details of this rare species.
172318		distribution	eng	Although the species is known to occur throughout the Western Ghats from Nagarcoil to Goa (Menon 1999, Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000), there are only very few actual collection reports of this species. In Kerala,<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. dadiburjori</span> has been collected from drainages in Thiruvananthapuram, (Silas 1958), Meenachil River (John 1988-1989), Bharatapuzha (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004; Bijukumar and Sushama 2001), Chalakkudy River (Shaji and Easa 2003). There are no reports of this species from anywhere in Maharashtra although the areas have been intensively surveyed (Chandrasekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000, Acharya and Iftekhar 2000).&#160; It has been recorded in Sita River in Karnataka (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.).
172318		habitat	eng	Known to inhabit clear freshwater ponds and small streams in the plains (Menon 1999).
172318		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. However several authors including Bijukumar and Sushama (2001) and Kurup <em>et al</em> (2004) have noted that the species is rare in Bharatapuzha river in Kerala.
172318		threats	eng	In River Bharatapuzha, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dadiburjori </span>is currently threatened by habitat alteration due to construction of check-dams, pollution, sand and clay mining, destruction of natural pools, exotic fish species and unscientific fishing methods (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).&#160; The threats to the species in its entire distribution is not known.
172319		conservation	eng	No conservation plans in place. There is a need to confirm the identity of the species and subsequently generate baseline information on its distribution, population and ecology.
172319		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Nemachilichthys shimogensis</span>&#160;is known from Tunga and Bhadra rivers at Shimoga.&#160; The species is present in Gajanur Dam, Kudremukh NP and Bhagavathi nature camp (Johnson 1999).
172319		habitat	eng	It prefers flowing streams with pebbles, gravels and sandy bottom.&#160; It feeds on detritus and algal matter (J.Johnson pers. comm.).
172319		population	eng	It is a rare species, but there is no information on the population status (J. Johnson pers. comm.).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172319		threats	eng	Fishing operations in streams adjoining Tunga dam is a threat to the species as it is a by-catch (J. Johnson pers. comm.).&#160; The habitat is affected by the dam downstream due to irregular water flow (V. Atkore pers. comm.).
172320		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to document life history and demography of this species to form the basis of future management plans. It is very difficult to breed in captivity (A. Mercy pers. comm.).
172320		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Travancoria elongata </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats in Kerala, India. It is known from the Chalakudy (Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 1994, Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a) and from Pooyankutty tributary of the Periyar River system (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2006, Arunjith pers. coll. maintained at MES College, Ponnani; C.P. Shaji pers. comm.). In Chalakkudy it is restricted to a stretch between Athirapally waterfall and Tumburmuzhi dam of approximately 17 km. In Pooyamkutty, the species is distributed in a stretch of about 5 km. It is not reported from any other river system (C.P. Shaji, A. Ali pers. comm.).
172320		habitat	eng	<p>Known to occur in torrential streams where they are restricted to riffles, runs, cascades and rapids (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species attaches itself to major substrates such as boulders, cobbles and bedrock using its broadened pectoral and pelvic fins (A. Ali pers. obs.). </p>
172320		population	eng	This species is known to be rare (Biju <em>et al</em>. 1999) with extremely low catch per hour figures in Pooyamkutty area of river Periyar (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006). Some researchers have not collected the species from Chalakkudy river in spite of detailed sampling (Ajithkumar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is very difficult to obtain the species.
172320		threats	eng	Local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. elongata</span> in Chalakudy river are under threat from dynamite fishing, palm plantation, exotic species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambicus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia affinis</span>), increasing tourism and a potential hydroelectric power plant (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a,b), while those in Periyar river are under threat from dynamiting (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. obs.).
172321		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis gymnocephalus</span>. Research is needed on the taxonomy, population status, harvest trends and threats to the species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
172321		conservation	eng	No information available.
172321		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis gymnocephalus</span> is distributed in I<span>ndo-West Pacific <span><span><span><span>(Day 1875, Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999)<span>:  Red Sea and South Africa (Whitfield and Paterson 2003<span>), Kenya to the Philippines, India (Bhimachar and Venkataraman 1952, Venkataraman 1960, Tilak 1972), Sri Lanka (Vinobaba 2007<span>) north to China (Randall and Lim 2000), Hong Kong (Nip and Wong 2010), Thiland (Shinnaka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007<span><span><span>),<span><span> Hainan (Nichols and Pope 1927),<span><span><span> Borneo (Inger 1955) and Taiwan (Hung and Chiu 1991), south to northern Australia (Russell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172321		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Enters lower courses of east flowing rivers along the coast (Maugé 1986). Ramisi and Umba Rivers. Coastal species, enters lower parts of rivers.
172321		habitat	eng	Fresh and brackish water (Maugé 1986). Found in shallow waters, common in estuaries, may enter lower reaches of rivers (Froese and Pauly 2003). Tolerant of freshwater only within a narrow temperature range (23-26°C) (Skelton 1993). Feeds mainly on crustraceans, but also takes small fishes.
172321		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis gymnocephalus</span> is primarily marine fish but it enters estuaries and freshwaters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It feeds on copepals (like <span style="font-style: italic;">Centropages</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodiuptomus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalanus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acartia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oithona</span>), polychaetes (chiefly <span style="font-style: italic;">Prionospio pinnara</span>), cladocerans, decapods, cirripede larva and diatoms and rarely on <span style="font-style: italic;">Sugitta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippa</span>, amphipods, larval bivalves, fish post-larva and fish scales (Venkataraman 1960). This species attains a total length of 10 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
172321		population	eng	No information available.
172321		population	eng	No information is available on the population trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis gymnocephalus</span>. However, the species is common in <span><span>India (Bhimachar and Venkataraman 1952, Venkataraman 1960) and Hong Kong <span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>(Nip and Wong 2010) <span><span><span><span><span>with 67.74 % of total abundance and 66.27% of percent biomass in Tolo Harbour. The species is rare in <span><span><span>South Africa (Whitfield and Paterson 2003<span>).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172321		threats	eng	No information available.
172321		threats	eng	Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis gymnocephalus</span> are poorly known, but currently there are believed to be no major threats to the species.
172323		conservation	eng	&#160;No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on the life history and population characters of the species as well as determine its micro-level distribution in the Western Ghats.&#160; Impacts of exotic species on <em>D. fraseri </em>needs urgent studies.
172323		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Devario fraseri</span>&#160;is endemic to northern Western Ghats in the state of Maharashtra (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004).&#160; The species is found in the upper reaches of Godavari and Yazdani and Singh (1993) have recorded the species from Raigad and Ratnagiri.&#160;Although this species (3 specimens) was recently reported from the River Periyar in Kerala (Beevi and Ramachandran 2003), this needs to be verified, as there are no other reports of this species anywhere through Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.
172323		habitat	eng	No information about its habitat except for the fact that they occur in rivers and streams (Talwar and Jhingaran 1991)
172323		population	eng	It is very rare and occasionally comes in as by-catch (S. Jadhav and N. Dahanukar pers. comm.). There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. fraseri</span>.
172323		threats	eng	In the Nirar river, Raigad, and Darna River, Maharashtra,<span style="font-style: italic;"> D. fraseri</span> is threatened by exotic fish species especially <span style="font-style: italic;">O. mossambicus </span>(Bleher 2010; S. Jadhav pers. obs.).&#160; Habitat loss is a major threat in the type locality because of human encroachment (Yadav 2003) and agricultural runoffs from surrounding areas (S. Jadhav pers. obs.).
172324		conservation	eng	Currently there is no conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus keletius</span>. Research is needed on taxonomy, population status, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
172324		distribution	eng	Cuvier and Valenciennes (1840) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus keletius</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>from Pondicherry, India and Java. Recently, Ng (2002) suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. keletius</span> from Java was a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nigriceps</span> and restricted <span style="font-style: italic;">M. keletius</span> to India. Record of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. keletius</span> from Sri Lanka (Jayaram 1999, Jayaram and Sanyal 2003,   Weliange and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Amarasinghe </st1:city><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>2007) was recently rejected by   Pethiyagoda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) who described the so called Sri Lankan <span style="font-style: italic;">M. keletius </span>as a new species   <em>M. ankutta</em>.<br/><br/>In India <span style="font-style: italic;">M. keletius</span> is known from Karnataka (Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Rao and Shachar 1927, Sreekantha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Kerala (Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and Tamil Nadu (Daniels and Rajagopal 2004, Raj 1916). Record of the fish from Punjab (Johal and Tandon 1979) may be a misidentification (Jayaram 1999).    <p></p>
172324		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus keletius</span> is found in rivers (Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), lakes/wetlands (Daniels and Rajagopal 2004, Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and reservoirs (Sreekantha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
172324		population	eng	Population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus keletius</span> is not precisely known but the species is considered as rare (Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Rao and Shachar 1927). Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000) estimated the relative abundance of the fish to be 0.93 to 1.41 % in Tamiraparani River, Tamil Nadu
172324		threats	eng	No information is available on specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus keletius</span>. General threats such as sand mining, habitat change, destructive fishing practices, pollution from sewage, effluents and solid waste may impact the species in certain areas.
172325		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to undertake more taxonomic work on <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius amphibius</span>.
172325		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to India. However, distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius amphibius </span>is difficult to map as there is ambiguity in taxonomy between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mahecola.<br/></span>
172325		habitat	eng	This is a hill stream fish.
172325		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There is currently no information available for this species. Populations are often listed as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Puntius amphibius</span> but it is unclear if this is a true identification as the ambiguity with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mahecola</span> is still unresolved.
172325		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
172326		conservation	eng	Owing to a lack of understanding of details of the species biology, exact distribution, habits and any threats to its survival, there is uncertainty in what kind of conservation measure this species might merit.
172326		distribution	eng	The species has been reported from Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand. In India, there are reports that records the species in Chennai and Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu (Takehana <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. D. Marcus Knight&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). It has also been reported 'from an estuary below Calcutta (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010). Jayaram (2010) does not mention the species as occurring in India, in his latest edition.
172326		habitat	eng	In Thailand, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzias dancena</span> is  known to be usually found near the mangrove area in the brackish habitats, but may  live in freshwater paddy fields in Ranong province, southern part of  Peninsular Thailand.&#160;The species is sexually dimorphic with the head and body being greyish brown in males and light brown in females. The dorsal margin of dorsal fin outlined with white while the anal fin is with a white distal margin and a thin, bright blue distal submargin, the blue being more intense in males. Also, the fins are higher in males than in females and males have some anal-fin rays extended as white-tipped filaments (Magtoon & Termvidchakorn 2009).
172326		population	eng	There is no published literature on the population for this species from the wild.
172326		threats	eng	There is no literature citing any threats to this species in particular, hence threats, if any is unknown.
172327		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is present in some protected areas including the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala. There is a need to generate baseline information on the life history and demography of this species.
172327		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus monilis</em>&#160;is endemic to the southern region of the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from Bhavani (Rajan 1955, Easa and Basha 1995), Moyar (Rajan 1963), Kabini (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004), Chinnar (Indra <em>et al</em>. 1998) Pambar Rivers (Thomas 2004, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004), and the Anamalai Hills (Devi <em>et al</em>. 2005).
172327		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. monilis</span> prefers run, glide and cascade habitats in streams with gravel, pebbles and cobbles as the major substrates (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000). In River Kabini the species has been collected from rapid habitats (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004).
172327		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. monili</span>s; although many researchers have treated it as a rare species (Menon 1999, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002).
172327		threats	eng	There are no known threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> N. monilis</span>.
172328		conservation	eng	Population monitoring is a need for this species as it is used at different scales in its range. In addition, the species is likely a species complex and requires taxonomic research.
172328		distribution	eng	Recorded from Pakistan through India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand to southern China, Laos and Vietnam; introduced elsewhere, including southern Florida.
172328		habitat	eng	Inhabits large lakes and rivers; prefers deep, clear stretches of water with sandy or rocky bottoms.
172328		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.
172328		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
172329		conservation	eng	Taxonomic updates for the species is crucial. It is not known from any protected areas.
172329		distribution	eng	<em>Pristolepis fasciata </em>is found in&#160;Cambodia (Ho 1999),&#160;Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Kottelat 1998). Records of this species also come from the Indonesian provinces of Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Duangsawasdi 1989) and from the South Indian state of Kerala (Kurup <em>et al. </em>2004).
172329		habitat	eng	<em>Pristolepis fasciata</em>&#160;is known to occur in large floodplain rivers to estuaries as well as&#160;lakes, ponds and swamps (Menon 1999). The species&#160;has been observed to be potamodromous,&#160;migrating from the Mekong River to the flood plains during the floods of the monsoon season and back to the river at the onset of the dry season (Sokheng <em>et al.</em> 1999).
172329		population	eng	There is no literature published on the population trends of this species.
172329		threats	eng	The species (<em>Pristolepis sp.</em>) is threatened in India by pesticide pollution, habitat alteration and loss, and over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.
172330		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus discophorus</span>. However, some part of the population is expected to be conserved in Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary. Further research and monitoring is essential to understand population status and threats to this species. Habitat and resource protection could help in conserving this endemic species.
172330		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus discophorus</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The species is found in both east and west flowing rivers of northern Western Ghats (Yadav 2003). It is found in the Koyna River east of Mahabaleshwar and further southwest in Vasisthi Valley in Ratnagiri district (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The estimated extent of occurrence for this fish is around 7,500 km² based on the area of the hydro-basins in which it is found.
172330		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus discophorus</span> is found in first, second and third order seasonal streams during monsoon season and it prefers rapid moving shallow clear water with the bottom made up of sand or pebbles (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). As the streams start drying, the species migrates downstream in the associated river; it shows altitudinal migration for breeding. It mainly feeds on diatoms and algae (Dahanukar <em>et al, </em>Unpublished). Deforestation leading to siltation and recreational activities on the mountains can destroy the habitat of this fish and such changes are common in the area where the fish is found.
172330		population	eng	Quantitative estimate of population trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus discophorus</span> are not available. However, the species is relatively common in the Koyana River and associated streams (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
172330		threats	eng	Deforestation and recreational activities on the mountain lead to siltation and degrade the habitat required by <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus discophorus</span> for reproduction. Such changes are common in the areas where the species is found (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.).
172331		conservation	eng	Research is essential on taxonomy, population trends, distribution and threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus</span>.
172331		distribution	eng	Unlike other <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus</span> species, which show relatively restricted distribution range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus</span> has been recorded from a wide geographical range from west flowing rivers in northern Maharashtra (Annandale 1919, Singh and Yazdani 1988, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Yadav 2003), Krishna river system (Fraser 1942, Silas 1953, Wagh and Ghate 2003) and Godavari river system (Hora 1938, Hora and Nair 1941, Menon 1951, Devi and Menon 1995, Yadav 2003). Report of this species from Narmada river (Vyas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) needs conformation. Thus, the species has been recorded from Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh.<br/>Since the species is reported from wide geographical range with isolated records from areas beyond Western Ghats, it is difficult to predict the EOO of the species and number of locations.
172331		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus</span> is found in primary, secondary and tertiary seasonal streams during monsoon season and it prefers rapid moving shallow clear water with the bottom made up of sand or pebbles (Menon 1999). As the streams start drying, the species migrates downstream in the associated river. Species show altitudinal migration for breeding and breeds between June and July when the monsoon is active (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). Deforestation leading to siltation and recreational activities on the mountains can destroy the habitat of this fish and such changes are common in the area where the fish is found (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). The species attains a total length of 4.5 cm (Menon 1999).
172331		population	eng	There is no information on the population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus</span>. However, the species is fairly common in the northern Western Ghats of India and in the monsoon season it is abundant in the first and second order streams (N. Dahanukar pers. comm.).&#160; It is very rare in Arakku Valley (K.R. Devi pers. comm.).
172331		threats	eng	The hill stream habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus</span> are affected by deforestation and recreational activities, especially on the mountain tops, in the northern Western Ghats (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs), and deforestation and tourism in the Eastern Ghats (K.R. Devi pers. comm.).
172332		conservation	eng	The Kerala Agricultural University has started captive breeding programs after studying natural populations and understanding certain aspects of the species' life history. But, the state of it's natural habitat and the wild stock of the species in general is in a threatened state due to the multiple threats like dynamite fishing and habitat loss (Padmakumar <em>et al</em>. 2010).
172332		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias dussumieri </em>is endemic to the Western India and has been reported from Goa, the Sharavati River (Sreekantha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) in Karnataka, Kerala (Gopalakrishnan and Ponniah 2000), and the Bavalipuzha in the Cauvery basin of Tamil Nadu (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009). There is also a record from Pondicherry (Jayaram 2010) which needs validation.
172332		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clarias dussumieri</span> is commonly found in ponds, lakes, streams, shallow derelict wetlands and any stagnant water body which it is particularly fond of. It has biological and physiological adaptations to low oxygen conditions. It is a slow foraging omnivore, with very small eyes and is a highly opportunistic feeder, feeding on small fishes and insects but also occasionally forages on detritus (Padmakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
172332		population	eng	It is known that this species was once prevalent in swampy waters, but now records a sharp decline (Gopalakrishnan & Ponniah 2000, Padmakumar <em>et al. </em>2010). It has shown an 80% reduction over the past twenty years in Kerala (B.M. Kurup 2010 and V.S. Basheer pers. comm. 2010), but in other areas there is little information available on the status of populations and a overall rate of decline is inferred to be less than 30% in the last 10 years.
172332		threats	eng	Many areas of <span style="font-style: italic;">Clarias dussumieri</span>'s natural habitat has been converted or degraded due to land reclamation and pollution due to the excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers (Padmakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The remaining threatened population is at risk due to threats like habitat loss and exploitative fishing like dynamite fishing and poisoning in many parts of it's range. In some places, it has to compete with introduced species like the African Catfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Clarias gariepinus</span> as well.
172333		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pookodensis</span>. There is a need to determine the distribution, population status, life history and ecology of the species to inform management decisions. Captive breeding techniques developed (Mercy <em>et al</em>. 2007). The records from Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala need to be confirmed.
172333		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius pookodensis&#160;</span>is endemic to the Western Ghats where it is thought be restricted to Pookode Lake (Mercy and Jacob 2007) in Kerala. It has recently been recorded from streams and pools inside the Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. comm.) but these need to be confirmed.
172333		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat and ecology of <em>P. pookodensis</em>.
172333		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pookodensis</span>.
172333		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pookodensis</span> is endemic to Wayanad District of Kerala, India where it occurs in the Pookode Lake, which is one of the most visited tourist destination in northern Kerala and anthropogenic impacts due to increased tourism including pollution are threats to this species (R. Raghavan and A.Ali pers.obs).
172334		conservation	eng	The species is not getting any conservation intervention, at the moment. But it is high time that this range restricted and threatened species is part of a conservation action plan.
172334		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thynnichthys sandkhol</span> is found in peninsular India in the Krishna (Chandrasekhariah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) & Tungabhadra of Karnataka, Pravara River (Shinde 2009) and Godavari (Hiware 2006; Heda 2009) of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river systems (Jayaram 2010, Mohanta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The species also occurs in reservoirs and tanks in Maharashtra like in the Harsool Savangi dam in Aurangabad (Hiware 2006).<br/>The report from Mahanadi needs verification (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.&#160;2010).
172334		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thynnichthys sandkhol</span> is a column-cum-surface feeder and is planktophagus. The fish attains sexual maturity in first year at 30cm in length and 500g in weight. It is a monsoon breeder and breeds only once a year (Mohanta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). They have also been introduced to various reservoirs in the region like  in the Harsool Savangi dam (Shinde 2009).
172334		population	eng	There is no information on population trends or status.&#160; It is believed to be almost extinct in the Krishna river of Karnataka (Chandrasekhariah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160; The population is declining in the Godavari River system (S. Jadhav pers. comm.&#160;2010).&#160; Talwar and Jhingran (1991) reported that release of exotic carps was a major threat to this species.&#160; It is inferred that there is more than 50% decline in this species.
172334		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the construction of numerous dams, anicuts and barrages, pollution and indiscriminate exploitation of rivers and lack of conservation and stocking introduced species such as carps from other rivers systems in India and China.
172335		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed on its taxonomy, distribution, population status, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.  Ferraris (2007) considers this species as 'species inquirenda' (species of doubtful identity requiring further investigation).
172335		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is known only from its type locality at Thirumurthi Dam, Anamalai Hills, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu (Rema Devi and Raghunathan 1999).
172335		habitat	eng	The species was described from a irrigation reservoir. No additional details are available on the habitat or ecology.
172335		population	eng	The species is only known from its type description. There is no information available on the population of this species. In spite of detailed sampling at the type locality for a period of one week, only <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteropneustes fossilis</span> was collected (A. Ali pers. comm.).
172335		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
172336		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the current population status of this species in the northern Western Ghats and also its life history traits and threats in the wild.
172336		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic; ">Osteobrama neilli</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Talwar and Jhingaran 1991, Menon 1999). Tunga and Bhadra (Johnson and Arunachalam 2010, Shahnawaz 2010); Mula-Mutha, Bhima-Sina-Man and the&#160;Ujni Wetland (Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandrasekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000, Chandanshive <em>et al</em>. 2007, Jadhav and Yadav 2009, Kharat <em>et al</em> 2003, Yazdani and Singh 1989), Krishna (Chandrasekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000) and the drainages in Eastern Ghats (Devi and Indra 2003).<br/></p>
172336		habitat	eng	Inhabits fast flowing clear streams (Menon 1999).
172336		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. neilli</span>. However, there are reports from Karnataka that the species is very rare (Chandrasekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000).&#160; The species is extinct in the type locality (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.) as repeated sampling from 1995 in Bhavani River has not yielded the species.
172336		threats	eng	The streams of the northern Western Ghats were <span style="font-style: italic;">O. neilli</span> are found is under threat from exotic and transplanted fish species, destructive fishing practices, pollution and damming.
172337		conservation	eng	There have been no attempts to bring about any conservation action for the protection of the species or it's habitat, so far. Research into the population dynamics of the species, life history are crucial in order to better understand how this species is faring in the face of the threats mentioned and draft to a reliable conservation plan. Captive breeding has been attempted by hobbyists.
172337		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudosphromenus cupanus</span> is distributed in Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh,  Western Myanmar down to Peninsular Malaysia and in Sumatra, Indonesia  (Biju 2005). In the Indian peninsula, the species has been recorded from  all the coastal river systems. It has been recorded from Kerala (Biju 2005) including Calicut, Varkala (Jayaram 2010) and Ernakulam (Jameela Beevi&#160; &  Ramachandran 2009), and also from Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu and most of the Coromandel coast. There are also records from the Mula and Mutha rivers in Pune, Maharashtra (Wagh & Ghate 2003).
172337		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudosphromenus cupanus</span> inhabits lowland streams, freshwater ponds and even ditches. It is a hardy species and is a very excitable bubblenester and jumps more often than other bubblenest building fishes (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000).
172337		population	eng	This is a very common species in India.
172337		threats	eng	Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudosphromenus cupanus</span> include the destruction and deterioration of its lowland habitat from solid and liquid waste pollution, sand mining and dynamite fishing and overcollection for the aquarium trade in some places.
172338		conservation	eng	No conservation plans are in place. As the quality of habitat in areas where the species is known to occur is subject to on-going degradation, there is an urgent need for habitat restoration.
172338		distribution	eng	<p>Homaloptera montana&#160;is endemic to the Anamalai landscapes in the <st1:place w:st="on">Western  Ghats</st1:place>. Known from streams passing through tea plantations in Valparai (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a; Kurup 2002), Chandanthodu, a small tributary of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chalakudy</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> near Malakkapara (Shaji and Easa 2005). Even after repeated surveys the species has not been caught from Silent Valley National Park indicating the current known presence only in the Anamalai Hills.<br/></p>
172338		habitat	eng	It inhabits torrential streams (Menon 1999) with high gradient riffles and cascades as microhabitat (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2005; Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a).
172338		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. montana</span>. This is a rare species (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs).
172338		threats	eng	In part of its range (Valparai and Malakkapara), <span style="font-style: italic;">H.montana</span> is under threat from the decline in the quality of its habitats which are under stress from run-off of pesticides and associated chemicals used in tea plantations, and also the proliferation of exotic species (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a, b).
172339		conservation	eng	Since the basic biology, complete distribution and threats to this species are still unknown,&#160; it is difficult to conserve the species effectively, if needed. So, it is urgently required to evaluate the species current status to afford it any suitable conservation action.
172339		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia horai</span> has been recorded from the headwaters of the Cauvery  river basin in Coorg, Karnataka (Jayaram 2010). The records from Adan  river of the Godavari river basin in Maharashtra (Heda 2009) and from Punjab (Dua & Prakash 2009).
172339		habitat	eng	There is no&#160;literature&#160;on details of the habitat of this species.
172339		population	eng	There are no published records on the population of the species.
172339		threats	eng	There is no information available or any published literature on any threats affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia horai</span>. &#160;However there are potential threats due to plantations and development activities impacting the species in its only known location.
172340		conservation	eng	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. More surveys are needed to better establish the range of this species.
172340		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidocephalus coromandelensis</em> is known from Araku Valley in the Godavari River drainage and  Baeputta and Vijayawada in the Krishna River drainage in Andhra Pradesh, India.
172340		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. But based on members of the same genus it may be found in hill streams with a gravel and pebble substrate.
172340		population	eng	It is known only from the type collection.
172340		threats	eng	Araku Valley is threatened by habitat degradation, due to bauxite mining, deforestation and soil erosion (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2010). No information is available on potential threats at Baeputta and Vijayawada.
172341		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on the life history and population characters of this species.
172341		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Batasio sharavatiensis </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats in the state of Karnataka, India. It is known to occur in the rivers Sharavati (Bhatt and Jayaram 2004) and Munsar Stream of Tunga inside the Kudremukh National Park (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2007).
172341		habitat	eng	Known from upper reaches of rivers, it occurs in pools (Bhatt and Jayaram 2004), with good canopy cover and mud as substrate (Arunachalam <em>et al. </em>2004).
172341		population	eng	There is no information on population of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. sharavatiensis</span>. It is very rare and highly restricted in its distribution, mostly to small streams with low flow (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2007).
172341		threats	eng	The Sharavati River, from where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. sharavatiensis </span>was first described, harbours exotic fish species, notably the Common Carp (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>) (Sreekantha and Ramachandra 2005). This is possible future threat to the species through competition for food and space. Its habitats in Kudremukh National Park were threatened by iron ore mining operations (Krishnaswamy <em>et al.</em> 2006), but these have now completely ceased. Due to the dam, the smaller streams below dry up, which is a threat to the species (M. Arunachalam pers. obs. 2003).
172342		conservation	eng	No speciefic conservaiton action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia belachi</span>. However, site/area protection could be helpful. Research is required on the population status, distribution, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
172342		distribution	eng	Currently <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia belachi </span>is known only from its original description  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> from Nelligudda reservoir, southern India (Jayaraj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The total area of this reservoir is hardly 1.5 km².<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172342		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia belachi</span> is found in a small man made reservoir and it attains a length of 110 mm and weight of 5.5 g (Jayaraj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).
172342		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia belachi</span>. No collections have been made after its first description.
172342		threats	eng	No information is available about threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia belachi</span>. However, fishing is common in the reservoir where the species is found and since the reservoir is very small any anthropogenic activities could affect the population of this species.
172343		conservation	eng	The species is present in a few protected areas, but a large proportion of the population is in unprotected lowland rivers. More research is needed to understand the population dynamics of the species in order to assign suitable conservation measures.
172343		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus malabaricus</span> is endemic  to India's Western Ghats, found in the west flowing rivers of Kerala (Wyanad and the Hills of Travancore; Jayaram 1981) (Kabani, Chaliyar, Chalakkudy, Karuvannurpuzha, Cheenkannipuzha, Achankoil, Periyar rivers; Kurup <em>et al.</em> 2005),  Karnataka (Mysore; Hora 1942) and Maharashtra (Mula-Mutha, Pavana rivers; Kharat <em>et al.</em> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <em>et al.</em> 2007) (Jayaram 1981, 2010; Shaji and Easa 2003).
172343		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus malabaricus</span> is primarily a nocturnal, omnivorous and benthic catfish. It occurs in streams and mid reaches of big rivers (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172343		population	eng	This species is more common than other <em>Mystus</em> species. There has been a decline in catch by 40% over the last six years in Kerala (Kurup and Kumar 2009). In southern Tamil Nadu, catfishes are becoming rare in the last five years (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.). No information in trends is available for Karnataka and Maharashtra.
172343		threats	eng	Threats&#160;include habitat loss due to sand mining, pollution and indirect mortality due to dynamite fishing in many parts of it's range. These combined with subsistence fishing and overfishing could lead to depletion of subpopulations of the species, but this species seems to be relatively stable compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus </span>spp<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> in the same areas (R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs. January 2010, B.M. Kurup pers. comm.).
172344		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora labiosa</span>, however, site protection is suggested for conservation of this threatened species. Research is needed to understand population trends, life history, ecology and threats to this species.
172344		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora labiosa</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is currently known only from Darna river in upper Godavari river basin,  Deolali, Nasik District, Maharashtra State, India (Hora and Mukerji  1935, Hora and Misra 1937, Jayaram 1999, Menon 1999). Extensive surveys in the other tributaries of upper Godavari river have not reveled this species indicating that the species is restricted to Darna river (S. Jadhav, pers. comm.). The species is also recorded from Baroda (now Vadodara) in Gujarat (Ranade 1953) and Mula-Mutha River of Krishna river system (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).&#160; It has been collected from Uyyampalli, Mysore, Vastara, Magadi tank in Karnataka (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, in press)
172344		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora labiosa</span> is recorded from rivers and hill streams and it has a maximum length of 8.5 cm total length (Menon 1999). The habitat of this fish, in its type locality, is threatened by organic pollution,  agricultural pollution and introduced fishes&#160; (N. Dahanukar, pers. obo.).
172344		population	eng	Exact population trends are not available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora labiosa</span>, however, the population seems to be declining and it is rarely found in its type locality (S. Jadhav, pers. comm.).
172344		threats	eng	The area from where <span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora labiosa</span> is recorded is threatened by organic pollution, agricultural pollution, introduced fishes and heavy harvesting (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172345		conservation	eng	There is a need to determine the taxonomic validity of the species as well as its distribution and population status.
172345		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius deccanensis </span>is endemic to the northern Western Ghats (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). However, there is no information on the distribution of this species other than from its type locality. Surveys in the type locality have not found the species (N. Dahanukar pers. comm.). Recent surveys conducted in areas around the type locality have also not recorded this species (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
172345		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
172345		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. deccanensis</span>.
172345		threats	eng	The upper lake is affected by domestic waste and detergents, and organic pollution. The lower lake is inside a snake park, but the run-off from the upper lake may have some impact on the lower lake.
172346		conservation	eng	It does not appear to be present in any protected areas. Research on taxonomy needed.
172346		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus pulchellus</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India where it is distributed in the Bhavani River in Tamil Nadu, and Periyar and Chalakudy Rivers in Kerala (Menon 1987, Shaji and Easa 2003). It is restricted to an extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km².
172346		habitat	eng	This species is associated with clear water streams running over boulders and bedrock.
172346		population	eng	This is an uncommon species throughout its known range.
172346		threats	eng	Several threats impact this species, including pollution from agriculture and plantations,&#160;destructive fishing practices and invasive alien species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia</span>.
172347		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is present in some protected areas. There is a need to study population and life history of the species, with reference to the threats in various river systems from where they have been recorded.
172347		distribution	eng	Nemacheilus anguilla&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004), known from the Mula-Mutha River, Maharahstra (Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <em>et al</em>. 2007); Sharavathi (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2007, 2008); Bhadra and Kali rivers in Karnataka and Pampa river in Kerala (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2009).<br/>It has also been recorded (as <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hoonensis</span>) from the   Anshi and Gangawali drainage in northern Karnataka (Banarescu and Nalbant 1968).
172347		habitat	eng	Occurs in streams with pebbles and sand as major substrate (Menon 1999).
172347		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. anguilla</span>. It can be a locally common species.
172347		threats	eng	Streams from where <span style="font-style: italic;">N. anguilla</span> have been recorded is being subjected to pollution from both domestic and industrial effluents (Chandanshive<em> et al</em>. 2007, Bhat 2004, Sreekantha and Ramachandra 2005, Shahnawaz <em>et al</em>. 2010), exotic species (Chandanshive <em>et al</em>. 2007) and sand mining (Padmalal <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Pamba River the species is threatened by organic pollution resulting from an influx of more than a million pilgrims over a three month time frame.
172348		conservation	eng	No direct conservation action is in place.   However, the Department of Forest and Wildlife, Government of Kerala is promoting the fishery of exotic species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> as a means to control their proliferation (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. obs.). However, this practice must be examined for its&#160;success&#160;as a conservation measure.
172348		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Crossocheilus periyarensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats in Kerala, India. Known only from the upper reaches of the Periyar River inside the Periyar Tiger Reserve (Euphrasia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Zacharias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).&#160; It is also found in upper reaches of Manimala (B.M. Kurup pers. obs.)
172348		habitat	eng	A rheophilic species preferring fast and deep waters of streams with boulders, cobbles, pebbles and sand as major substrates (Arun 1999). Also known to occur in stagnant portions of streams (Shaji and Easa 2001). Feeds on algae (Arun 1999).
172348		population	eng	No information on population. Catch per hour of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. periyarensis</span> in Thanikkudy is very low (Euphrasia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
172348		threats	eng	<p>Three exotic species - <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio var. communis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambicus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clarias gariepinus</span> occur in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Kurup<em> et al</em>. 2006, Periyar Foundation 2006) located below the regions where <em>C. periyarensis</em> is known to occur. Arun (1999) suggested that a high degree of dietary overlap (0.56) exist between <span style="font-style: italic;">O. mossambicus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. periyarensis</span>.&#160; <br/></p>
172349		conservation	eng	No conservation actions currently in place. It is present in Periyar Tiger Reserve. No information on biology, life history, demography are available and so the current status of the fish in wild is unknown. &#160;The impacts of exotics on the species needs to be urgently studied with measures taken to remove and halt introduction of exotics into Periyar Tiger Reserve and other streams this species is in.
172349		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus menoni</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats in the southern Indian state of Kerala, where it occurs in the upstream reaches of Periyar River (Zacharias and Minimol 1999). &#160;It has a highly restricted distribution occurring in an area of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and extent of 5000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Mullayar and Periyar tributaries within the Tiger Reserve (A. Ali and R. Raghavan and&#160;Shaji&#160;pers. obs.).
172349		habitat	eng	Occurs in fast flowing streams with cobbles, pebbles and sand as substrate (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
172349		population	eng	&#160;No information on population is available. It is common in the Periyar Tiger Reserve (C.P. Shaji pers.comm.).
172349		threats	eng	Alien invasive species such as&#160;<em>O. mossambicus</em>,&#160;<em>C. gariepinus</em>&#160;and&#160;<em>C. carpio </em>may be potential threats to the endemic fish.
172350		conservation	eng	As <span style="font-style: italic;">G. menoni</span> is poorly known, there is an urgent need to determine its population status, life history, threats and ecology.
172350		distribution	eng	<p><em>Garra menoni</em>&#160;is endemic to the Kerala part of Western Ghats (Remadevi and Indra 1981, Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from <st1:placename w:st="on">the Rivers Bharatapuzha</st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype> (inside Silent Valley National Park, Remadevi and Indra 1981, 1986) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pambar</st1:placename></st1:place> (inside Chinnar Wild Life Sanctuary) (Easa and Basha 1995, Easa and Shaji 1996). <br/></p>
172350		habitat	eng	<p>It prefers flowing waters with cobble, boulder and bed rock as substrates (Biju 2005). It occurs in high altitude areas with riparian vegetation (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).<br/></p>
172350		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. menoni</span>. Recent surveys conducted in the Silent Valley indicate that the species is rare (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).
172350		threats	eng	There are no current threats for this species as their habitats are located entirely inside protected areas. However, the potential threat from exotic species such as <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> in Chinnar has to be studied.
172351		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action in place. There is an immediate need to carry out research on population size, life history and ecology to inform management plans. The Department of Forest and Wildlife, Government of Kerala is promoting the fishery of exotic fish species in Periyar Lake as a means to control their proliferation (Anvar Ali pers.obs.)
172351		distribution	eng	<em>Hypselobarbus periyarensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats in Kerala, India, where it is known from the Periyar River-Lake system. The species has been collected from the waters inside the Periyar Tiger Reserve (Raj 1941, Chacko 1948, Silas 1951, Arun 1999, Shaji and Easa 2003, Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006).&#160;The record of this species from Pooyamkutty Reserve forest (Ajithkumar <em>et al</em>. 2001; Kurup 2005), and Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary (Thomas<em> et al</em>. 2000) needs verification (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.).
172351		habitat	eng	<p>Prefers deep water bodies especially streams flowing into large pools (Minimol 2000) as well as cascades with moderate water velocity (Euphrasia and Kurup 2002). Rock, boulders and cobbles are the favoured substrates (Euphrasia and Kurup 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. periyarensis</span> is known to be an omnivore feeding predominantly on leaves, fruits, algae and worms (Minimol 2000). <br/></p>
172351		population	eng	There are no reliable estimates of the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. periyarensis</span>.   However, the size of fish caught from Periyar Lake is known to have decreased compared to those caught from the upstream regions (Minimol 2000). Abundance index of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. periyarensis </span>in Periyar Lake is less compared to the upstream reaches (Arun 1999).
172351		threats	eng	Exotic species, pollution and presence of a dam are the major threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. periyarensis </span>in the Periyar Lake-River system. Three exotic species - <em>Cyprinus  carpio</em> var. <em>communis</em>, <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em>  and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> occur in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>  (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2006, Periyar Foundation 2006). The  township of <st1:placename w:st="on">Thekkady</st1:placename> on the  banks of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename>   <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> attracts  approximately 4.5 lakhs tourists annually. Around 6-7 diesel and 2-speed   boats ply for sight seeing in the lake on a daily basis, discharging  oil into the <st1:place w:st="on">lake</st1:place>. Also the sewage  waste from in and around  Kumily town is being decanted directly into  the Periyar lake. Levels of  nitrate and nitrite, phosphate, feacal coliforms,  hydrocarbon and lead in the <st1:place w:st="on">Lake</st1:place> are  higher than permissible limits  (Kurup 2004).
172352		conservation	eng	There have been no measures taken for the purpose of conserving the species.
172352		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristolepis marginata</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and has been recorded from Mananthavady,Wyanad (Jayaram 2010), Pooyankutty river (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), Valapatanam river and the Chalakudy river in Parambikulam Reserve Forest in Kerala (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999) (it is recorded from 14 rivers in Kerala (Kurup et al. 2004) and Vembanad Lake (Kurup and Samuel 1985), Tamil Nadu, Nethravathi river of Dakshin Kannada (Gururaja <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Biligiri Ranganswamy Wildlife Sanctuary in Chamrajnagar district of Karnataka (Rema Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), the headwaters of the Krishna river in Maharashtra (Yadav 1996) and further north upto Gujarat (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
172352		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristolepis marginata</span> inhabits clear, lentic and lotic streams, preferring moderately deep water and occurs in mid-stream channels. It is also found in the upper reaches of lakes. It is known to be a carnivore and a column feeder at that (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000).
172352		population	eng	This is a common species in Kerala (B. M. Kurup pers. comm.&#160;2010).
172352		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristolepis marginata</span> faces many threats. Most of the lowland habitat of this species is threatened by habitat destruction due to sand mining, solid and liquid waste pollution and pesticide, fertilizer and acid runoff from plantations along with dynamite fishing. It is hunted in many parts of its range as a foodfish as well. The species is also in demand for the aquarium trade, so is collected from the wild for that purpose, too.
172353		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. As the species is poorly studied, there is an urgent need to document its life history, population and ecology.
172353		distribution	eng	<em>Homaloptera santhamparaiensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats, known only from the Panniyar stream (Periyar River) and the Mathikettan Solai stream in the Santhamparai Hills, Idukki District, Kerala, India (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2002)
172353		habitat	eng	Known to occur in pool riffles in high altitude streams with boulders and bed rocks as major substrates (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2002; Arunachalam 2000).
172353		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <em>H. santhamparaiensis</em>.
172353		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>H. santhamparaiensis</em> in the Panniyar stream is threatened by pollution from tea and cardamom plantations (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2002).
172354		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action plan directed towards this species. Research is needed on the population trends, harvest trends and threats to the species.
172354		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius thomassi</span> is endemic to southern India in Kavery and southern tributaries of Krishna river system. It is known from Tamil Nadu (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), Kerala (Silas 1951, Ajithkumar 1999, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), Karnataka (David 1956, 1963, Sahanawaz and Venkatheshwarlu 2009, Sahanawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Andhra Pradesh (Jayaram 1995) and Maharashtra (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963). Record from Maharashtra by Tonapi and Mulherkar (1963) is likely to be wrong as other workers have not recoded this species from the same locality again (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).
172354		habitat	eng	The species prefers large hill streams and rivers. It attains a total length of 32 cm and is a fast growing speceis (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It is omnivorous and feeds on unicellular and filamentous algae, protozoans, copepods and mollusks (Menon and Chacko 1958).
172354		population	eng	Puntius thomassi is sugggested to be very common in Tungabhadrs river (Sahanawaz and Venkatheshwarlu 2009) and Krishna river above the Nagarjunasagar Dam (Jayaram 1995). However it is rare in Kerala (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
172354		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172355		conservation	eng	No particular conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Tor kulkarnii</span>, however, Menon (2004) has recommended that a sanctuary should be set up in one of the streams of the Darna river in Deolali to protect this rare species. Research on taxonomy, population status, life history, ecology, harvest trends and threats is required.
172355		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tor kulkarnii</span> is endemic to northern Western Ghats and currently it is known only from its type locality in Darna river, Deolali, Nashik District, Maharashtra (Menon 1992, 1999, 2004). The point locality map shown in Menon (2004, fig. 11) shows some locations in the upper Krishna River but this is a mistake as the author mentions in the text that the species is confined to its type locality.
172355		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tor kulkarnii</span> is recorded from clear fast flowing streams with rocky bed and it attains a standard length of 20.8 cm (Menon 1999).
172355		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tor kulkarnii</span> but it is rare (Menon 1999, 2004). The species has never been recorded after its first description based on four specimens (Menon 2004).
172355		threats	eng	The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tor kulkarnii</span> is threatened by organic pollution, heavy harvesting, urbanization and introduced fishes (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172356		conservation	eng	No specific conservation efforts are in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Eutropiichthys goongwaree</span>. Research is essential on population status, distribution, life history, ecology, harvest and threats to the species. Some population of the species is protected in Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Venkateshwarlu 2006).
172356		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eutropiichthys goongwaree </span>is known from Mula-Muth rivers of Pune (the upper tributaries of Krishna river system) (Sykes 1839, 1841). This species was also recorded from Urmodi tributary of Koyna River in Satara (S. Jadhav pers. comm. 2010). Recently this species was reported from Mylavaram Dam on Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh by Vankateshwarlu, Rema Devi and Indra (Manon 1999) and Nagarjunasagar on Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh (Venkateshwarlu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Report of the fish from Burma (now Myanmar) (Day 1869) and Bengal (Beavan 1877) are not valid (Menon 1999). The species is therefore restricted to Krishna River system and Pennar River system in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Menon 1999). Since the species is not recorded from its type locality after its original description, in spite of serious efforts (Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003), and currently the species is known only from three isolated localities, the AOO and EOO cannot be estimated and inferred range of the species cannot be predicted.
172356		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eutropiichthys goongwaree</span> is found in rivers, canals and reservoirs (Menon 1999, Venkateshwarlu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It attains a total length of 30 cm (Menon 1999).
172356		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eutropiichthys goongwaree</span>. The species has not been recorded from its type locality by subsequent workers (Fraser 1942, Suter 1944, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Tilak and Tiwari 1976, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003). The species is also not recorded from other tributaries of upper Krishna River (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.). In an extensive survey of Krishna River system, this species was not recorded by Jayaram (1995). The statement made by Talwar and Jhingran (1991) that the species is fairly common in this area is therefore wrong.
172356		threats	eng	No specific information is available on threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Eutropiichthys goongwaree</span>. However, the type locality of the fish is threatened by organic and inorganic pollution, urbanization, introduced fish and heavy harvesting of fishes (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003).
172357		conservation	eng	There is a need to generate baseline information on the distribution, population status and threats to this poorly known species. It is presumed to be present in some protected areas.
172357		distribution	eng	<p>Endemic to Peninsular <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and known from upper Godavary and upper Krishna drainages in Maharashtra, Arakku Valley (Andhra Pradesh) and Waynad, Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu/Kerala) (Menon 1999). <em></em></p>
172357		habitat	eng	Like other nemacheiline loaches, this species also inhabits fast flowing streams with sandy or pebbly substrates. Can be found in stands of aquatic vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocoryne</span> species). It breeds twice in a year, once during August-September and during February-March (Kharat <em>et al</em>. 2008).
172357		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. mooreh</span> from the Western Ghats. It is a fairly common species.
172357		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by pollution, including siltation of streams resulting from deforestation of surrounding areas.
172358		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the current population status and harvest trends in the two areas where they occur (Vettilapara and Pooyamkutty) to inform management plans. Milt cryopreservation studies have been conducted for this species and genetic characterization has been done using molecular markers at NBFGR, Kochi (V.S. Basheer pers. comm.).
172358		distribution	eng	This fish is endemic to Kerala State in Southern India. It is known from the Vettilapara region of&#160; the River Chalakudy (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Raghavan 2008a, Ali and Prasad 2007, Ali <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the Pooyamkutty region of the River Periyar (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006, A. Ali pers.obs.) in Kerala, India. The species is known from a river length of 17 km (300 m width) in the Chalakudy River and from 3 km length (300 m wide) in the Pooyankutty River. There is a dam restricting movement on Periyar River (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.).
172358		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Horabagrus nigricollaris</span> is a bottom inhabitant of the upper reaches of streams with rocky and sandy/gravelly bed, and are well adapted to the cold, free flowing waters&#160; (Ali and Prasad 2007). They are also known from pool riffles (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is a benthophagic omnivore, showing preference towards animal diet. Its breeding season coincides with the colder months of the year (Ali and Prasad 2007).</p>
172358		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nigricollaris</span>. Catch per hour of the species from Vettilapara (Chalakudy River) was recorded to be between 0 and 0.24 (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172358		threats	eng	In Chalakudy River, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nigricollaris </span>is threatened by the presence of exotic species, destructive fishing methods, increasing tourism and pollution (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a,b). There is a possible threat from a proposed hydroelectric power project. In Periyar River, the species is under threat from destructive fishing practices including dynamiting and poisoning (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. obs.).
172359		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis nalua</span>. Research is needed on the population trends and threats to the species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
172359		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis nalua </span>is distributed in Indo-West Pacific in bays, estuaries and tidal creeks from the west coast of India (Kerala State) to Andaman Islands, Malaya Archipelago, Javanese seas, Sea of Pinang, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Australia and New Guinea (Günther 1859; Day 1865, 1875; John 1936; Haywood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998; Randall and Lim 2000; Anderson and Heemstra 2003; Shinnaka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007; Hui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
172359		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis nalua</span> inhabits fresh and brackish waters (Day 1865). It feeds on Annelida, Brachyura, Crustacea, Mollusca, Penaeidae and Teleostei (Haywood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It attains a total length of five inches (2.5 cm) (Day 1865).
172359		population	eng	No information is available on the population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis nalua</span>.
172359		threats	eng	Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis </span><span style="font-style: italic;">nalua</span> are poorly known, but currently there are believed to be no major threats to the global population.
172360		conservation	eng	It has been collected from some wildlife sanctuaries.
172360		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidocephalus guntea</em> is present in Sri Lanka and throughout much of the Western Ghats of India.
172360		habitat	eng	Lowland rivers and wetlands with a sandy or gravelly substrate. It is also common in reservoirs.
172360		population	eng	It is a very common species.
172360		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread fish.
172362		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on the eco-biology and demography of the species.
172362		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Pangio goaensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Apart from its type locality in Goa,<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. goaensis</span> is known from the rivers Chaliyar (Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 1996, 2000) and Manimala (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1999, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004) in Kerala.&#160; It is also known from Kumaradhara and Sita rivers in Karnataka (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.).
172362		habitat	eng	Prefers shallow, slow flowing waters of low land areas with detritus, mud, sand and gravel as the dominant substrates. Known to be more abundant in the river banks, where they are seen as groups among the interstitial spaces of sand or mud (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000).&#160;<em> </em>
172362		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pangio goaensis</span>, but the species is known to be rare in Kerala (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002).&#160; Rare in collections due to small size and habits.
172362		threats	eng	The habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pangio goaensis </span>in Manimala River (Kerala) are threatened by pollution from rubber plantations and human settlements (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1999, R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).&#160; In Chalayar, it is threatened by siltation, fish poisoning and dynamite fishing (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.).
172364		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemibagrus maydelli</span>. However, resource and habitat protection and trade and harvest management could be helpful. Research is needed on understanding the population status, life history, ecology, harvest, trade and threats to the species. It is not known from any protected areas.
172364		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemibagrus maydelli </span>is found in the middle and upper reaches of Krishna river system in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It is recorded from Bhima river (Roessel 1964), Tungabhadra river (Ng and Ferraris 2000, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and Nagarjunasagar reservoir (Ramakrishniah 1988, Jayaram 1995).
172364		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemibagrus maydelli</span> is found in rivers and reservoirs and it can attain a total length of 1650 mm and a total weight of 58.5 kg (Jayaram 1995).
172364		population	eng	No detailed information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemibagrus maydelli</span>. However, it is considered as a common fish in the catches of Nagarjungasagar reservaoir (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1995).
172364		threats	eng	The areas from where <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemibagrus maydelli</span> is recorded is threatened by urbanization, industrialization and mining activities. Furthermore, overfishing could be a threat to the species.
172365		conservation	eng	Since this species has been misinterpreted in most of it's range, by classical and present day workers, a comprehensive picture of it's distribution or behaviour is not known. It is important that the species is better understood in all it's dimensions to facilitate suitable conservation action in the threatened rivers of Kerala.
172365		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius mahecola</span> is widely distributed in Kerala, and appears to be restricted to the coastal plain and also the foothills. It is not a common species. There are no records of this species from outside Kerala. Pethiyagoda describes the records he made of the distribution of the species, respectively; Mahe, Chalakudy River at Parambikulam, Veliyandi near Alleppey, Vembanad Lake at Kumarakom (near Kottayam), Thrissur on road to Peechi Dam, Koodel between Punalur and Pattanampuram, Kaidhapoil east of Calicut on road to Vyrthry, river 5 km south of Pathanamthitta, Minmutti, a waterfall on Kallar River, Periyar River at Ranni, Kallada River near Pattanampuram (Pethiyagoda & Kottelat 2005). The species has also been recorded in the Kallada and Itthikkara rivers in Kollam district and the Vamanpuram, Karamana and Neyyar rivers of Thiruvananthapuram district (R. K. Abraham&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2011).
172365		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius mahecola</span> has been recorded in the slow-flowing  sand-mud substrate parts of rivers, in water up to about 2 m deep (Pethiyagoda & Kottelat 2005). It is also found in shallow streamsides with a pebbly substrate (R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs.&#160;March 2010).
172365		population	eng	There is no literature on the population dynamics of the species.
172365		threats	eng	Many rivers from where <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius mahecola</span> has been recorded, is undergoing degradation due to pollution and habitat destruction. The species is also fished for consumption and is commercially traded in markets.
172366		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia untrahi</span>. Research is needed on the exact distribution, population status and threats to the species.
172366		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia untrahi</span> is known from Mahanadi in Orissa (Day 1869), Cauvery and Coleroon in Tamil Nadu (Day 1889), Eastern Ghats of India (Devi and Indra 2003), Chhattisgarh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007), Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh (Chandrasekhar 2004), Bhadra river in Karnataka (Kiran and Puttaiah 2005, Venkateshwarlu and Somashekar 2005) and Solapur in Maharashtra (Jadhav and Yadav 2009). Menon (1999) has suggested that the species is restricted to Mahanadi in Orissa but no rationale is provided.
172366		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia untrahi</span> is found in lower reaches of rivers (Menon 1999). It is also found in lakes (Venkateshwarlu and Somashekar 2005). The species attains a total length of 20 cm (Menon 1999). The life span of the fish is about 1-2 years (Kiran and Puttaiah 2005). No information is available on the habitat decline for this species.
172366		population	eng	No information is available on the population status and population trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia untrahi</span>. However, Chandrasekhar (2004) has stated that the species is uncommon in Hyderabad.
172366		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia untrahi</span>.
172367		conservation	eng	The species survives in many protected areas across its range. However, more research in taxonomy, distribution and threats is imperative in order to assign relevant conservation actions for the preservation of variant forms of the species. The taxonomic status for this species is as of now, very confusing. It is often interchanged with <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius melanampyx</span>. We have reason to believe that this is a species complex with wide variation across it's range and hence the rise of confusion.
172367		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fasciatus</span> is found in the west flowing rivers of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and up to Kanyakumari district in Tamil Nadu and also the east flowing streams of the Cauveri river basin in the foot of the Nallamala Hills (Jayaram 1981, 1991).
172367		habitat	eng	This is a small species that grows to a maximum of 5 - 6cm and mainly inhabits hilly and foothill areas. It is omnivorous in diet and also is eaten by larger fish and crustaceans (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000).
172367		population	eng	It is a very common species. There is no published literature on the population of this species.
172367		threats	eng	Several rivers in <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fasciatus</span>' range is undergoing degradation due to pollution and habitat destruction. The species is also threatened by introduced species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphophorus maculatus</span> in some areas of it's range (Krishnakumar <em>et al.</em> 2009).
172368		conservation	eng	&#160;Despite the species being in high demand, the wild populations of the species have not been given sufficient conservation attention. There have been attempts in the past to create 'no fishing zones' within some of the larger estuaries and the species did seek refuge in these protected zones. Such No-fishing zones should be extrapolated to other regions as well, to guarantee effective genetic preservation. This is declared as the state fish by the government of Kerala. Captive breeding has been undertaken by Padmakumar <em>et al.</em> (2004). An aquatic sanctuary was made in Vembanad Lake for this species. The Vembanad lake protection forums has started 'Matsyatavalam' (home of fishes) for the sustainable fisheries of this species. Cage culture of this species is being practiced in Vembanad Lake and Vypin Islands.
172368		distribution	eng	<em>Etroplus suratensis</em> is distributed in the coastal regions of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. In India, the wild populations&#160; have been recorded from the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. There are also populations in Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal (Jayaram 1981 & 2010, Biju 2005). These are likely introduced populations (V.S. Basheer pers. comm.). The species has now been introduced to dam reservoirs in the mountains and lakes and culture ponds (Rema Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
172368		habitat	eng	<em>Etroplus suratensis</em> is a&#160;euryhaline species that inhabits mainly brackish water and river mouths. It is an oval-shaped cichlid with a&#160;short&#160;snout,&#160;small&#160;mouth not extending past the front margin&#160;of the eye with a greyish-green colouration on the flanks,&#160;with 6 to 8 dark bars and a dark spot at base of the pectoral fin. Most scales on the sides are with a pearly spot (Costa 2007).&#160;Macrophytic fragments form the most important component of its diet along with&#160;molluscs, although detritus, diatoms, and animal matter are also ingested (De Silva <em>et al.</em> 1984). Many aspects of this species was studies in order to assess it's suitability for culture in ponds and tanks by Jayaprakash <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1990).Adults engage in altruistic multiple parental care where several adults care for a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults (Ward and Wyman 1977).
172368		population	eng	It is a common, but declining species.
172368		threats	eng	Wild populations of&#160;<em>Etroplus suratensis</em> are subject to various pressures brought on by people like habitat deterioration brought on by the disposal of solid and liquid wastes and the discharge of human fecal matter from adjacent habitations and an increasing number of tourism resorts and houseboats, which are going beyond the carrying capacity of the backwaters/estuaries.&#160; A major threat is from exotic species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambicus, Trichogaster trichopterus </span>(Kurup 2007; Krishnakumar <em>et al</em> 2009).There have also been reports in the past, of the Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) disease outbreak, which has been to have spread in South and south-east Asia since 1980 (Pathiratne & Rajapakshe 1998).
172369		conservation	eng	Part of the population is present within the&#160;Kalakkad Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary. But there are no conservation actions in place. There is a need to understand its micro-level distribution as the species has not been recorded from in and around its type locality after its initial description in 1993 despite several studies in the region. In addition, information should be generated on the population and life history of this species.
172369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra kalakadensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats. Known from the Pachyar stream inside the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Nambiar River in Tamil Nadu (Remadevi 1993, Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010). Since its initial description, this species has not been recorded from the Pachyar area despite several detailed studies (Arunachalam 2000; Johnson and Arunachalam 2009).
172369		habitat	eng	This is a hill stream species, adapted to torrential conditions.
172369		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. Seems to have disappeared from the type locality within a protected area as several surveys have revealed its absence (Arunachalam 2000; Johnson and Arunachalam 2009).
172369		threats	eng	Populations outside of protected areas are severely threatened due to destructive fishing methods (including dynamite and poison fishing) and agricultural pollution. Also, the only known population from within a protected area has disappeared completely and the reasons are not known.
172370		conservation	eng	It is present in many protected areas. There is a need to prevent illegal fishing (i.e. dynamiting) and to better regulate the aquarium trade in this species.
172370		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura denisoni&#160;</span>is found widely distributed throughout the Western Ghats and some rivers of Rajasthan in India (Menon 1987).
172370		habitat	eng	It is usually associated with rivers and streams with a cobble, pebble or boulder substrate.
172370		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
172370		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by pollution (siltation, domestic organic waste, pesiticides), dynamite and poison fishing and collection for the aquarium trade.
172372		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus</span>. Research is essential on the population status, distribution, life history, ecology, harvest trends and threats to the species.
172372		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus </span>is known only from the Krishna and Godavari river systems of Western Ghats (Menon 1999, 2004, Jayaram and Dhas 2000). Presence of this fish in Sri Lanka is due to synonymy of  <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus lankae</span> with <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus</span>. Since this synonymy is doubtful (Menon 1999) the presence of this species in Sri Lanka is also doubtful.<br/>In India the species is known from Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Hora and Misra 1937, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Jayaram and Dhas 2000, Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003) and Karnataka (David 1956, Jayaram and Dhas 2000, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is mainly confined to east flowing rivers but Bhat (2004) recorded it from a west flowing river in Karnataka, however, exact locality is not mentioned.<br/>Occurrence of this species in Badoda (now Vadodara) in Gujrat (Ranade 1953) and central India (Sarkar and Lakra 2007) is doubtful.
172372		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus</span> is found in rivers and large streams of moderate current and it attains a total length of 30 cm (Menon 2004). The habitat where the species is found is affected by domestic and industrial pollution (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
172372		population	eng	Exact population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus</span> is not known, but the species is relatively rare (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Discussions with the fisherman from Pune and Satara suggests that the population of this species is declining (Dahanukar, unpublished). Menon (2004) has suspected that the decline of the population could be attributed to introduction of Gangetic carps in the peninsular India.
172372		threats	eng	Population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo porcellus</span> is declining (Menon 2004, N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.) and it could attributed to introduced carps, pollution of the rivers and heavy harvesting of fish resources (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Menon 2004).
172373		conservation	eng	Currently there is no conservation action plan in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Rohtee ogilbii</span>. Research is essential for elucidating the population status, life history, ecology, harvest patterns and threats to the species.
172373		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rohtee ogilbii</span> is endemic to the northern Western Ghats of India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is found in several tributaries of the Krishna river system including Bhima river near Pairgaon (Sykes 1839), Mula-Mutha River (Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003), Pavana river (Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), Panchaganga river in Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956), Neera river (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>, manuscript in review), Krishna river near Wai (Arunachal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), Koyna river near Patan (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), Krishna river near Gadwal (Rahmullah 1946) and Tungabhadra river (Bhimachar and Rau 1941, David 1956, Arunachalam 2004, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It is also found in Godavari river (David 1963, Arunachalam 2004, Menon 2004).&#160; Thus the species is known from three states in India namely Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.<br/><em></em>
172373		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rohtee ogilbii </span>is found in hill streams, rivers and reservoirs (Rahmullah 1946, Menon 2004). It attains a total length of 15 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 2004).
172373		population	eng	There is no documentation on precise population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rohtee ogilbii</span>. However, it is suggested to be common (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Nevertheless, based on the observations of past ten years, the population seems to be declining rapidly in Mula-Mutha river of Pune (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). But no such observations are available for other localities from where the species is recorded. So the trend cannot be generalized.
172373		threats	eng	Menon (2004) considered <span style="font-style: italic;">Rohtee ogilbii</span> as a vulnerable species based on the reasoning that "any small habitat changes in the higher reaches of the river by man or erosion on overgrazed areas could very well affect the species and cause its extinction". Such changes are occurring in the upper reaches of Krishna and Godavary river systems. Habitats of the fish in upper Godavari, Bhima and Tungabhadra river system are severely threatened by urban and industrial pollution, increasing urbanization, severe deforestation leading to siltation and invasive fish like Tilapia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambica</span>, (David 1956, Kharat et al. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, N. Dahanukar, pers obs.)
172375		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Rita gogra</span>. Research is needed on the population status, livelihood value, harvest levels and threats to the species. It is present in the Nathsagar Reservoir protected area, Aurangabad (Yadav 2005).
172375		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita gogra</span> is endemic to India and is found in Krishna, Godavari and Narmada river basins of five states, namely Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. <br/>In Maharashtra it is known from Indrayani River (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>, Unpublished), Mula-Mutha River (Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003), Bhima river (Sykes 1841), Neera River (Ghate and Pawar 1992), Panchaganga River (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956) and Nanded (Jayaram 1966). In Karnataka it is known from Tungabahdra River (David 1956, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In Andhra Pradesh it is known from Kurnool (Day 1867), Krishna-Tungabhadra Sangam (Chacko and Kuriyan 1948) and Nizamsagar road Bridge (Jayaram 1966). The species is also known from Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Chandra and Sharma 2007, Dubey 2007, Sarkar and Lakra 2007, Vyas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), however, exact point localities are missing.<br/>Thus, the species is widespread in central India with an inferred extent of occurrence between 470000-490000 km<sup>2</sup>.
172375		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita gogra</span> is found in large rivers and attains a total length of 26 cm (Menon 1999). Gravid females of the fish are found during June and July indicating that the fish breeds during monsoon season (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>, Unpublished). The habitat of this fish is severely threatened by urbanization and organic and inorganic pollution in most of its range in northern Western Ghats (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003, N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172375		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita gogra</span> is suggested to be common in Krishna river system in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Jayaram 1995, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009). However, the species has experienced rapid decline in the Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.), probably because of the pollution of the rivers and heavy harvesting of the fish. The species is rare in Godavari river (S. Jadhav pers. comm.). Population trend for the fish form other areas is not known.
172375		threats	eng	It is possible that the habitat alterations caused by urbanization and increasing organic and inorganic pollution of the rivers could affect the species adversely. The species is perhaps also threatened by heavy harvesting.
172377		conservation	eng	Research is needed on exact distribution, population trends, ecology and threats to the species.
172377		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura dayi</span> is endemic to central India and is found in Jharkhand (Hora 1935, Motwani and David 1957, Menon 1987, Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991), Madhya Pradesh (Hora and Niar 1941, Hora 1949) and Chittisgarh (Karamkar and Dutta 1988). It is likely to be present in Orissa as well based on the fact that the species has been recorded from the Eastern Ghats without mentioning the exact locality (Devi and Indra 2003). The record of this species from Mula-Mutha river at Pune from Krishna river system (Hora and Misra 1942) is likely to be wrong as later workers (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Pawar and Ghate 2003) were not able to record it.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
172377		habitat	eng	The species prefers small, shallow, swift streams with sandy or pebbly bottom (Menon 1999). It attains a total length of 5 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
172377		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. dayi</span>.
172377		threats	eng	No information on threats to the species.
172378		conservation	eng	It has been found in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Periyar Tiger Reserve (Zacharias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
172378		distribution	eng	<em>Glyptothorax madraspatanus</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It has been recorded from Chalakudy (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999), Periyar Tiger Reserve (Zacharias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), Travancore (Silas 1951a), Anamalai (Silas 1951b), Wayanad (Shaji and Easa 1995), Mettupalayam, Chaliyar, Kabini, Periyar, Muvattupuzha, Bharatapuzha (Kurup <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Tambraparini Rivers (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009). It has also been recorded from the Krishna river between Wai and Bagalkot (Jayaram 1995), Badra river (Rao and Seshachar 1927) and Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Suter 1944, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Kharat <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, records from Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh and Kumaon Hills in Uttarakund need confirmation.
172378		habitat	eng	It is mostly found in cascade and rapids, and in pools with bedrock and boulders.
172378		population	eng	This is a rare species throughout its range (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
172378		threats	eng	The species is threatened by general habitat loss due to urbanization, deforestation leading to siltation, recreational activities on mountain tops, domestic and industrial pollution and introduced species.
172379		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.
172379		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius cauveriensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats. It has been recorded from the Kannige River at Bhagamandala, Cauvery River at Chunchanaktte, Chitturpuzha at Palaghat and Malampuzha (Jayaram 1999; Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2004).
172379		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in shallow pools with a pebble and gravel substrate. It can be common in pools below waterfalls.
172379		population	eng	This is a rare species with little information available on the population size or trends.
172379		threats	eng	It is threatened at the type locality by the impacts of a nearby coffee plantation (pesticides, sedimentation, conversion of forest to plantation use). The threats in other locations include expansion of plantations and pollution (organic and inorganic).
172380		conservation	eng	The species is not legally protected nor are there any conservation measures in place to protect the species.
172380		distribution	eng	<h2 style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 5px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; "><em>Puntius parrah</em> is endemic to southern India and is distributed in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and southern Maharashtra (Jayaram 1999, Johnson & Arunachalam 2009, Jameela Beevi & Ramachandran 2009).</h2>
172380		habitat	eng	This species occurs in slow-flowing&#160;rivers and clear-flowing streams. It is also found in the kole wetlands of Thrissur&#160;(C. P. Shaji&#160;pers. comm.&#160;2010).
172380		population	eng	It is a common species in the kole wetlands of Thrissur (C. P. Shaji pers. comm. 2010). Details on it's population is not known from other parts of it's range and there is no published literature on the population trends for this species.
172380		threats	eng	Threats in the form of pollution from rubber plantations, sand mining and dynamite fishing occur for this species in some parts of it's range&#160;(R. Abraham pers. obs. December 2009).
172381		conservation	eng	No specific action plan is in place for conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis</span>. Research is essential on the population status, life history, ecology, and threats to the species.&#160; Since the taxonomic identity of this species is not clear, further studies on taxonomy of this and all related taxa is urgently recommended.
172381		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis </span>is endemic to India. It was originally described from Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and Arcot in Tamil Nadu (Day 1869). The distribution of the species was further extended to Bengal and Orissa (Day 1873) and Assam (Day 1889). Menon (1999), however, restricted the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ambassis </span>to Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and considered Bengal, Orissa and Assam populations as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guganio</span>. David (1963) reported the species from Godavari river without actually mentioning the exact location. Report of the fish from Narmada river (Dubey 1984) needs conformation.<br/>No firm records of the species exist since its first description in 1869, partly because of its synonymy.
172381		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis </span>inhabits streams and ponds in the plains and attains a total length of 7.5 cm (Menon 1999).
172381		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis</span>. However, no recent records are available from the type locality of the species after its first description by Day (1869) and record of the fish from Godavari river by David (1963). Devi and Indra (2003) have mentioned the species in the list of fishes of Eastern Ghats but it is based on literature survey.
172381		threats	eng	The area from where <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis</span> was first reported is threatened by tourism, urbanization and mining activities.
172382		conservation	eng	The species is protected a few areas of its known habitat range, but the majority of it's preferred habitat is threatened.
172382		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius dorsalis</span> has been reported from the rivers of Central and Peninsular India. In India, it has been recorded from the west flowing rivers of Kerala and Karnataka, the Cauvery and Krishna river systems of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and also other rivers in Tamil Nadu, the Mahanadi in Orissa, Narmada in Madhya Pradesh and there is an unverified report from Rajasthan (Jayaram 2010, Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000).
172382		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, streams, ponds and lakes. It is usually found in flowing water, with sandy and gravel substrate and the preferred habitat are runs and slow flowing waters. It is predominantly feeds on detritus and algae (Silva & Davies 1986, Pethiyagoda 1991, Biju 2003).
172382		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species. Information is lacking regarding the population of the species.
172382		threats	eng	Many rivers in the species' range is undergoing degradation due to pollution and habitat destruction.
172383		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. There is a need to restore water flow and habitat for this species along with regulated fisheries and urgent conservation action for populations that are drastically effected.
172383		distribution	eng	This little known species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India where it has been recorded from the Krishna, Godavary and Cauvery rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000).
172383		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a reservoir and the adjoining river.
172383		population	eng	It was once abundant in the Cauvery River but since 2001 the species has severely declined. The species has become locally extinct from the type locality of the Mula-Mutha River in the northern Western Ghats (Kharat <em>et al.</em> 2003).
172383		threats	eng	This species is threatened by drought resulting from upstream dams not releasing water during dry periods. Over-exploitation was also previously a threat to the species, but the fishery appears to have collapsed. Pollution from chemical plants and organic sources are also a significant threat (Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010, Kharat <em>et al.</em> 2003).
172384		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Generating baseline data on demography, exploitation levels and life history is a major priority.
172384		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Hypselobarbus dubius</span>&#160;is endemic to the Cauvery River basin in southern Western Ghats (Dahanukar<em> et al.</em> 2004, Devi <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/>Known from the rivers Khal (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000a), Bhavani (Day 1867, Rajan 1955), Cauvery/Kaveri (Rajan 1955), Moyar (Rajan 1963), Tambraparini and Servalar (Johnsingh and Vikram 1988), Manimuthar (Johnson and Arunachalam, 2009), Kabini (Euphrasia and Kurup 2005, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000b, Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006), Achenkovil (Arunachalam 2000), and drainages inside the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Devi <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; Apart from the distribution records of the wild population in the Cauvery River basin, all the other records are most likely the result of introductions from Bhavani Sagar reservoir (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).<br/>The species recorded from Kali and upstream of Krishna River in Satara District, Maharashtra (Arunachalam et al. 2002) and Kali, Aghanashini, Bedthi and Sharavathi in Karnataka (Bhat 2000) is doubtful (M. Arunachalam and Johnson pers. comm.).
172384		habitat	eng	Known from both rivers and reservoirs. In rivers, it inhabits deep pools (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000a, Menon 1999) as well as pools and riffles (Euphrasia and Kurup 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dubius</span> is an allochthonous plant materials, seeds and terrestrial insects (Arunachalam <em>et a</em>l. 2000a).
172384		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dubius</span>. Known to be abundant in Bhavani and Tambraparini Rivers (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000b). There are reports that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dubius </span>which ranked first (55%) in the landings from Amaravathy reservoir (Tamil Nadu) during 1965-1966 dwindled to less than 2% a decade later and finally disappeared from the catches (Sreenivasan 1976, 1995).&#160; While the catch of this species was about 75% and Tilapia, <em>O. mossambicus</em> was 25% in the 1970s, the state fisheries department statistics of 2010 indicate that Tilapia catch is 75% and the rest is&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">H. dubius</span> (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).<br/>The catch per hour of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dubius</span> in Kabini river system is recorded to be low at Baveli, Noolpuzha and Vythiri (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172384		threats	eng	Apart from it being overfished, the rivers from where <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dubius</span> has been recorded are impacted by various stressors including pollution from domestic, agricultural and industrial sources, exotic species, destructive fishing and dams.
172385		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for protecting <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arenatus</span>.  However, some part of its range is protected under Kalakkad Mundanthurai  Tiger Reserve. Research is essential on the population status, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
172385		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arenatus</span> is endemic to southern Western Ghats. It is found in Madras (Day 1878), Tambaraparani River (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), Ramanadhi river (Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and Nambiyar river (Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu. Recently the species was also recorded from Achankovil river basin in Kerala (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009). <br/><br/>Record of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arenatus</span> from Pune (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963) seems to be erroneous as the species has not been recorded from Pune and adjoining areas despite thorough search for the last ten years (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). Subsequent reports of this species from Pune by Tilak and Tiwari (1976) and Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) and from northern Western Ghats (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) are based on the literature survey and thus could also be erroneous. Record of the species from Ahmedabad (Setna and Kulkarni 1946) needs confirmation.
172385		habitat	eng	No precise information is available on the habitat and ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arenatus</span>. However, based on the point localities it is possible that the fish prefers moderately flowing streams, canals and outlets of wetlands (J. A. Johnson pers. obs.). According to Talwar and Jhingran (1991) the species attains a standard length of 10 cm.
172385		population	eng	No information is available on the exact population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arenatus</span>. However, the species is suggested to be very rare (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
172385		threats	eng	The area in which <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arenatus</span> is found is threatened by organic and industrial pollution. However, some part of its range is protected under Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
172386		conservation	eng	There is a need to generate baseline information on this species including its population status, ecology and threats to inform conservation actions. It is found in some protected areas.
172386		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sicyopterus griseus</span> is known from southern India (Froese and Pauly 2009). Recorded from the rivers Neyyar, Pamba, Periyar, Chalakudy, Kuttiadi, Valapatnam, Chandragiri, Mahe, Kuppam, Cheenkannipuzha, Irutty  and Chaliyar (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000, Shaji and Easa 2003, Biju 2005) and Bharathapuzha (Bijukumar and Sushama 2000); Tungabhadra (Shaji and Easa 2003) and from South Canara, Madras, Sri Lanka (Jayaram 1999)&#160; and the Eastern Ghats (Rema Devi and Indra 2003). However its record from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region></st1:place> is uncertain (Pethiyagoda&#160; 1991).</p>
172386		habitat	eng	Common in streams where the flow is somewhat moderate. Streams typically have a substrate of boulders. Predominantly inhabits freshwater, migrating up to torrential streams. Probably breeds in freshwater (Menon 1999). Also known from estuaries and brackish waters (Talwar and Jhingaran 1991, Bijukumar and Sushama 2000).
172386		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. griseus</span>. It is quite common in Chaliyar, Chalakudy, and the Iritty rivers (India).<p><br/></p>
172386		threats	eng	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">S. griseus</span> is known to occur in low and midland areas of most rivers in Kerala, as well as some estuaries, which are undergoing decline in their habitats due to pollution, sand mining, destructive fishing and construction of barrages and check dams, there is ever reason to believe that this species may be affected.
172387		conservation	eng	Captive breeding and seed production technology of the species being perfected by the Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS) of the Kerala Agricultural University (Ali <em>et al.</em> 2007). As the species is known to be overexploited in two rivers of Kerala (Prasad 2008), there is an urgent need to devise management plans for regulating the harvests. Suitable sanctuaries need to be created in its most important habitats to protect spawning stock. Milt cryopreservation is done as part of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> gene banking of this species (NBFGR 2000).
172387		distribution	eng	<p>The distribution of<sup> </sup><em>H. brachysoma</em> is restricted to rivers (and occasionally lakes and backwaters) in the southern region of the Indian subcontinent. This species is known to occur in the Chalakudy, Periyar, Meenachil, Manimala, Pampa, Moovatupuzha and Achenkovil rivers, Vembanad Lake (Ali <em>et al</em>. 2000), Shasthamkotta Lake, Muriyad and Kole wetlands, Chaliyar and Karuvannur River (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. obs.), Kallada River (R. Abraham pers.obs.) in Kerala and the Nethravati River and estuary, Aghanashini and Kali rivers of Karnataka State (Ali <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species occurs commonly in freshwater canals of southern Kerala (V.S. Basheer pers. obs.).<br/></p>
172387		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. brachysoma </span>is a benthic form, primarily occupying lowland areas of rivers and backwaters with mud and sand as substrate, but has also been recorded from the deep pools in hill streams (Ali <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is an omnivorous and euryphagous feeder (Sreeraj <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/></p>
172387		population	eng	While Prasad (2008) reports that overfishing has resulted in population decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. brachysoma</span>&#160;in Periyar and Pampa Rivers in Kerala, other reports suggest that the species is actually increasing in population size in Vembanad Lake, Pamba and Achenkovil rivers, Shastankotta Lake (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kurup and Kumar 2009). However, the population data and trends in Karnataka are not known. <br/><br/>The <em>H. brachysoma</em> population has been artificially increased in two locations in Kerala (Vembanad Lake and Shastankota Lake) where ranching was practised in 2000-2003 and 2006 respectively (V.S. Basheer pers. comm.). The estimated area of increasing populations across its entire range is approximately 20%. While this is the case, the overall population has been undergoing a decline due to overexploitation and habitat loss.
172387		threats	eng	Fishing is the major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. brachysoma</span> throughout its range. The unmanaged fishery may lead to a collapse of stocks in several rivers where overfishing has already been demonstrated. In addition, lowland areas of all rivers where the species is known to occur are threatened by pollution, sand mining and reclamation (Ali <em>et al</em>. 2007; Prasad 2008; Sreeraj <em>et al</em>. 2007).
172388		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation actions are in place. There is however a need to carry out research into the population status and life history of the species.
172388		distribution	eng	Endemic to the tributaries of Bharatapuzha River inside the Silent Valley National Park, and Bhavani River Kerala, India (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004; Indra and Remadevi 1981; Easa and Basha 1995)
172388		habitat	eng	Inhabits high altitude torrential streams with high gradient riffles and cascades as microhabitat (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs).
172388		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. pillaii</span>. The species is rare as in spite of detailed sampling at its type localities, only 3 individuals could be recorded in one week (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers.obs.).
172388		threats	eng	There is no known current threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Homoloptera pillaii</span> in its native range. The species occurs within the Silent Valley National Park, which is a high priority protected area within the Western Ghats.
172389		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is not known to be in any protected areas. Since the species is poorly known to science, there is a need to generate baseline information on population, ecology and threats.
172389		distribution	eng	Pseudeutropius mitchelli&#160;is endemic to the rivers of Kerala part of Western Ghats (Menon 1999, Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the middle reaches of the   Chaliyar (Shaji and Easa 2003), Bharatapuzha (Kurup <em>et al.</em> 2004), Chalakudy (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008), Periyar (Shaji and Easa 2003, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000) and Achenkovil (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
172389		habitat	eng	Known from the middle reaches of the rivers with   detritus, mud, sand, cobbles and boulders as major substrates (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000).
172389		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mitchelli</span>.
172389		threats	eng	Middle reaches of all five rivers (Bharatapuzha, Chalakudy, Periyar, Chaliyar and Achenkovil) where the species is known to occur are threatened by a wide variety of anthropogenic factors such as sand mining, destructive fishing, pollution from domestic and industrial sources and exotic fish species invasion (Raghavan 2008a,b, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kurup 2002, Padmalal <em>et al</em>. 2007, Lal Mohan and Remadevi 2000).
172390		conservation	eng	Some of the species habitat fall into areas designated as Protected Areas, but increasing number of areas outside protected areas are under threat.
172390		distribution	eng	<em>Bhavania australis</em> is endemic to India's Western Ghats and has been reported from the states of Kerala (found in the rivers of Chalakudy, Periyar, Muvattapuzha, Achankovil, Pamba, Chandragiri, Bharathapuzha, Kallar, Uruttipuzha, upstream of Bhavani, Chinkannipuzha & Chaliyar) Tamil Nadu (rivers of Kaveri, Tamiraparani, Aliyar, Chittar and Kothayar) and Mysore, Karnataka (Kaveri drainage) (Menon 1987, Chhapgar <em>et al.</em> 2000, Mertin <em>et al.</em> 2000, Jayaram 2010)
172390		habitat	eng	<em>Bhavania australis</em> is adapted for living in fast flowing, high velocity streams at high altitudes having low water temperature with boulders and large pebble substrates (Chhapgar & Manakadan 2000). They graze on algae, by attaching themselves to rocks, usually using their pectoral fins to cra<strong>w</strong>l (R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs.&#160;March 2010). Observations on the food and feeding habits of <em>Bhavania australis</em> revealed that it is a benthic omnivore which mainly feeds on benthic insects, insect larvae, copepods, cladocerans and unicellular and filamentous algae (Biju 2005).
172390		population	eng	There is no literature suggesting details of the species' population. It can be common in intact stream headwaters (R. Abraham per. obs. January 2010)
172390		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the form of sand and gravel mining as well as pollution from tourism concerns and agricultural and plantation holdings are the biggest threats posed to this species. Also, regular introduction of exotics to dam reservoirs might be having an impact on the species even within protected areas (R.&#160;Abraham pers. obs. January 2010).
172391		conservation	eng	No particular conservation action plan is in place directed towards  <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius punctatus</span>. Research is essential on population status, life history, ecology, use and trade and threats to this species.
172391		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius punctatus </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It seems to be restricted to the west flowing rivers. It is found in Wyanad (Shaji and Easa 1995) and Ernakulam (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009) in Kerala and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2007) and also in the west flowing rivers in Kanyakumari district (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009) in Tamil Nadu, India. Since the species is present in Wayanad it is possible that it could also be recorded from west flowing rivers Netravathi and Kumaradhara of Karnataka (R. Kumar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A report of this species from Sri Lanka (Menon 1999) needs confirmation. In addition, reports of the species from Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963) may be erroneous.
172391		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius punctatus</span> is found in streams and ponds and attains a total length of 7.5 cm (Menon 1999).
172391		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius punctatus</span> is a common species throughout its range.
172391		threats	eng	No particular threats have been recorded for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius punctatus</span>, however, the area where the species is found is affected by urbanization, tourism, invasive fish species and agricultural pollution (Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
172392		conservation	eng	There is a need for habitat restoration, including restoring riparian vegetation. An inland fishes bill that covers all species has been passed in the state of Kerala.
172392		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. Since its first description from river Pampa in Kerala, several researchers including Kurup <em>et al.</em> (2004) reported the species from Pamba, Achenkoil, Periyar, Chalakudy, Manimala and Neyyar rivers. Silas (1951) reported this species from Anamalai Hills. Raghunathan collected this species from Coorg dist., Karnataka in 1989.
172392		habitat	eng	Found in the  clear head-water streams with boulders, preferring pools with cobble or a sandy substrate, and riffles (Kurup<em> et al</em>. 2005). It is mostly a nocturnal feeder.
172392		population	eng	<em>B. travancoria</em> is known to be fairly common in some locations whereas it is relatively rare in others (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. obs.).
172392		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by destructive fishing practices, habitat loss and fragmentation, including dynamiting, drought, and sedimentation.
172393		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis interrupta</span>. Research is needed on population status, harvest trends and threats to the species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
172393		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis interrupta</span> is found in Indo-West Pacific from lower freshwaters of large rivers to mangrove stands; west coast of India (Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) to Andaman Islands, Borneo, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia and Vanuatu (Günther 1859, Day 1875, Inger 1955, Tilak 1972, Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Randall and Lim 2000, Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Anderson and Heemstra 2003, Jaafar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Tan and Lim 2004, Baker and Sheaves 2005, Hui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
172393		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis interrupta</span> is found in shallow coastal waters and creeks (Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It feeds mainly on crustaceans followed by polychaeta and insects (Baker and Sheaves 2005).
172393		population	eng	No information is available on the global population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis interrupta</span>. The species forms 4.6% of the total abundance of fishes at Pasir Ris, in the eastern part of Singapore (Jaafar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
172393		threats	eng	Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis interrupta</span> are poorly known, but currently there are believed to be no major threats to the species.
172394		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. As <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sahyadriensis</span> is an important species in the international aquarium pet trade under the name 'Maharaja Barb' or 'Khavli Barb' there is a need for managing the harvest through quotas or catch limits (R. Raghavan pers.obs.). As the species continues to be poorly known, there is a need to generate baseline data on its life history and demography, which can aid in managing harvests. Attempts also need to be made to develop captive breeding and mass scale seed production technology to ease pressure on wild collection for the pet trade.
172394		distribution	eng	Puntius sahyadriensis&#160;is endemic to the northern and central Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the rivers Yenna (Silas 1953), Koyana, Krishna at Wai  (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2002, N. Dahanukar pers. comm.), from rivers Sharavati (Sreekantha<em> et al</em>. 2007), Thunga (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2008), Bhadra (Shahnawaz <em>et al</em>. 2010), Aghanashini and Bedti (Bhat 2004), Sita (R. Kumar pers. comm.). in Karnataka.
172394		habitat	eng	Known to occur in hill streams (Menon 1999) and rivers.&#160; Prefers shallow water pool or run.
172394		population	eng	There is no information on the current population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sahyadriensis</span>, but the species is generally considered to be rare (Menon 1999).&#160; It is very common in Satara and Tunga.
172394		threats	eng	Some river systems where <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sahyadriensis</span> are known to occur including Sharavati, Bhadra and Tunga have been impacted by pollution from both domestic and industrial sources (Shahnawaz <em>et al</em>. 2010, Bhat 2004) and in Krishna at Wai (N. Dahanukar pers. comm.). The collection of fingerlings and juveniles of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sahyadriensis</span> for the international aquarium pet trade could lead to future population declines if not regulated.&#160; In Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary introduced aliens <span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia affinis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilia reticulata</span> are major threats to this species.
172395		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to document the distribution of the species in the Western Ghats and confirm its taxonomic identity. Genetic characterization using molecular techniques has been undertaken. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Research on&#160;taxonomy, population, life history and threats is essential.
172395		distribution	eng	Known from the Indian subcontinent with records of its presence in India (Menon 1999), Sri Lanka (Arnold 1911) and Pakistan (Mirza 2003). In peninsular India, it has been recorded from southern Tamil Nadu (Indra 1993, Remadevi and Ilango 1993, Indra 1994, Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 1999), Valapatanam river in northern Kerala (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Goa (Tilak 1972).
172395		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5"> Found under the surface in still waters, mainly coastal and  often brackish, especially where there is surface vegetation or cover, such as  mangrove swamps and rice fields (Anon 2010).
172395		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. blockii </span>in the Western Ghats or peninsular India.
172395		threats	eng	Localized threats include sand mining, pollution, water abstraction, sedimentation and collection for the international pet trade.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172396		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius jerdoni</span> is present in some protected areas and has been introduced to reservoirs outside its native range within India (like in the Sutlej river in Punjab). These populations would serve as gene repositories, in case of critical threats in it's natural range. But, more is needed to be understood about the species to provide the necessary conservation measures.<br/>In the upstream of Netravathi and Tunga in Karnataka, this species is conserved along with mahseers in temple streams (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172396		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius jerdoni </span>is found in rivers, mostly restricted to the western part of peninsular India, in the states of southern Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Jayaram 1981, 1991). The southern most point that Jayaram (2010) finds <span style="font-style: italic;">P. jerdoni</span> is the Anamalai region. But there is a record of the species further south in the Kallada river, Kollam district, Kerala (R. K. Abraham <em>et al. </em>2011).&#160; It has also been collected from Chalakkudy (M. Arunachalam, A. Ali and C.P. Shaji pers. comm.&#160;2010).
172396		habitat	eng	The species live gregariously in hill streams and is a bottom feeder (R. Abraham pers. obs. January 2011).
172396		population	eng	It is a common species, but in the upstreams, the populations are declining (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.&#160;2010). There is no published information on the population or life history of the species.
172396		threats	eng	The species is fished for consumption in some parts of it's range and also the presence of exotic species could have impacts on the survival of the species in parts of its range. The presence of dams is also a likely threat to the species (R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs. January 2010).
172397		conservation	eng	It is in a number of protected areas.
172397		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus nilgiriensis</em> has been recorded from Wayanad in Kerala, from Karnataka and from Tamil Nadu.
172397		habitat	eng	This species is found in very slow flowing streams with a sandy and pebbly substrate. These areas need to be shaded by the canopy.
172397		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable habitat.
172397		threats	eng	The species is threatened by pollution from agriculture.
172398		conservation	eng	This species is known from Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Research is needed on population status, life history and threats to the species.
172398		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India and is known from Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of Tamil Nadu (Arunachalam and Johnson 2003, 2009).
172398		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius kannikattiensis</span> is known from hill streams.
172398		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
172398		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
172399		conservation	eng	Baseline information on the species including its distribution,  population and life history need to be determined to inform current and future conservation  action. It is not known from any protected areas.
172399		distribution	eng	No information on the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. eapeni </span>is available except for its type locality -Kottayam (Kerala-India) (Eapen 1963).
172399		habitat	eng	Inhabits subterranean waters and wells. This species is a true cavernicolous form living in subterranean waters. Evidently, they enter wells through subterranean springs (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
172399		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. eapeni</span>. It has not been collected from the type locality since 1979 (TVA pers. comm. 2010).
172399		threats	eng	It is not known whether there are any on-going or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. eapeni</span>.
172400		conservation	eng	No known conservation action is in place. There is a need to regulate the unmanaged collection of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. canarensis</span> for the international aquarium pet trade. Captive breeding and ranching efforts can also help in enhancing wild stock and maintaining stable population levels.
172400		distribution	eng	Barilius canarensis&#160;is endemic to Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Recorded from the rivers   Sharavathi (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>.<em>&#160;</em>2007, 2008); Bhadra (Shahnawaz <em>et al</em>. 2010); Tunga and Netravathi  (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2008).&#160; It is restricted to the Karnataka Western Ghats in the districts of Chikkamagalur and Shimoga.&#160;The reports of this species from Kerala, viz., Periyar (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004); Chalakudy, Muvattupuzha (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009); Bharatapuzha, Manimala (Thomas 2004), Kabini and Valapatanam (Shaji and Easa 2003), need to be verified.&#160; The species from Kerala is probably <em>B. bakeri</em> (K. Remadevi, M. Arunachalam and A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).
172400		habitat	eng	<p>Inhabits low to moderately gradient streams with boulders, cobbles and gravel as the major substrates (Thomas 2004).</p>
172400		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. canarensis</span>. Since 1996 the collections have declined in the upper reaches of Netravathi as the collections in 2006 revealed very few numbers (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).&#160; The population estimates based on underwater surveys carried out for a period of 10 years in River Netravathi reveal a reduction (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172400		threats	eng	Unmanaged collection for the international aquarium pet trade is a potential threat given the restricted distribution of the species (Raghavan 2010). Similar to other hill stream fishes, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. canarensis</span> could also be under threat from pollution.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172401		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this common and widespread species.
172401		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzias carnaticus</span> is distributed in Sri Lanka (Trincomalee, Akurala); India in Tamil Nadu (Bhavani River, Tambraparani River) and Karnataka (Tunga River) (Arunachalam 2004) to Orissa, the Andaman Islands (Parenti 2008);&#160;Bangladesh (Sundarbans);&#160;and Myanmar (Chaungtha, Pathein Division in the Ayeyarwaddy delta).
172401		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal  brackish and freshwater habitats (Parenti 2008). It is very common in paddy fields adjacent to riverine canals (Arunachalam 2004).
172401		population	eng	This is very common in the paddy fields and canals of Tamil Nadu (Arunachalalm 2004).
172401		threats	eng	There are no reported threats for this species.
172402		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to document life history and population characteristics of this very rare and endemic blind catfish.
172402		distribution	eng	Horaglanis alikunhii&#160;is endemic to the subterranean wells in the village of Parappukara, Thrissur District, Kerala, India (Babu and Nayar 2004).
172402		habitat	eng	Lives in subterranean channels (Babu and Nayar 2004).
172402		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. alikunhii</span>. It is known only from the holotype.
172402		threats	eng	Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. alikunhii </span>are not known.
172403		conservation	eng	No known direct conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine actual distribution (as we believe that most records have been erroneous based on poor taxonomic knowledge) as well as population status of the species.
172403		distribution	eng	Glyptothorax anamalaiensis&#160;is endemic to the southern Western Ghats in Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu. Known from rivers Kabini (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2006), Chaliyar (Easa and Basha 1995), Bharatapuzha (Biju 2005), Achenkovil (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.) and the drainages inside Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2005).
172403		habitat	eng	This species is found in cascade, rapids or riffle pools with boulders as the substrate (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2005).
172403		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. anamalaiensis</span>, but is generally considered to be very rare (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006).
172403		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat changes in the upstream reaches of River Chaliyar and Kabini as a result of destructive fishing practices including dynamiting and poisoning (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
172404		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plans are in place for this species.
172404		distribution	eng	<span>Pomadasys argenteus&#160;is distributed in Indo-West Pacific, from Red Sea to Gulf of Aden to India to Bangladesh to the Philippines, north to southern Japan, and south to northern Australia, New Caledonia, Oman and Kuwait <span>(Talwar and Jhingran 1991, al Sakaff and Esseen1999, Bijukumar and Sushama 2000, <span><span>Almatar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, <span class="sheader5">Rahman and Akhter 2009, Froese and Pauley 2011<span><span>).</span></span></span>
172404		habitat	eng	This species inhabits <span>freshwater, brackish and marine habitats. It breeds between mid May to early October and female spawns about six times in one season (Almatar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
172404		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys argenteus </span>is common throughout its range.
172404		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
172405		conservation	eng	Currently no specific conservation action plan is in&#160; place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius evezardi</span>. Research on taxonomy, population status, life history, ecology and threats to the species is essential.
172405		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius evezardi</span> was originally described from Pune (Day 1872). After the original description there are only four records of the fish. Kalawar and Kelkar (1956) reported the species from Panchaganga river in Kolhapur. David (1963) reported the fish from Vijaywada, Andhra Pradesh, on the Krishna river, but mentions that the specimen in collection had a minute pair of maxillary barbel which is not present in the original description of <span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius evezardi</span>. Jayaram (1995) reported this species from Rabkavi, Karnataka. Recent report of this species from Krishna river, Godavari river and west flowing rivers of northern Western Ghats (Yadav 2003) does not give taxonomic comments and the exact point localities are also not mentioned. The species has also not been recorded from Pune, the type locality of the fish, by subsequent studies (Fraser 1942, Suter 1944, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003). As a result the exact distribution of the species is not clear. Recently, Sarwade and Khillare (2010) reported this species from Ujani wetland on Bhima River, Maharahstra, but they do not give any taxonomic comments on this rare fish so the record needs to be confirmed.
172405		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius evezardi </span>prefers clear hill streams in the upper reaches of river and it attains a total length of 11 cm (Menon 1999).
172405		population	eng	No information is available on population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius evezardi</span>. The species has not been recorded from Pune, the  type locality of the fish, by subsequent studies (Fraser 1942, Suter  1944, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate  2003) even after an agitated search for last ten years (Neelesh Dahanukar, pers. obs.). According to Jayaram (1995) the species is uncommon. Sarwade and Khillare (2010) suggests that the species is less abundant in Ujani wetland, Maharashtra.
172405		threats	eng	Exact distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius evezardi</span> is not known. Thus threats to the species are difficult to predict. Yadav (2000, 2003) considered this species threatened but no rationale is provided.
172406		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is found inside the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. There is a need to study the life history, population and ecology of the species and the possibility of competition with invasive species (e.g. Tilapia, <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em>).
172406		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mesonoemacheilus pamabarensis</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats, known only from the Pambar river inside the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Remadevi and Indra 1994).
172406		habitat	eng	The species is seen in high gradient riffle habitats with cobbles and boulders as the major substrates (A. Ali &#160;pers.obs.).
172406		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. pambarensis</span>. It is an uncommon species.
172406		threats	eng	The species is possibly threatened by introduced exotic Tilapia, <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em>.
172407		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas.
172407		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Labeo kontius</em> is&#160;endemic to India. Jerdon described this species from river Cauvery and its tributaries. Rajan (1956) and Manimekalan (1998) reported this species from Bhavani and Moyar rivers and some of their tributaries. Jayaram (1982) and Jayaram and Dhas (2000) report this species from the Cauvery river.
172407		habitat	eng	Mostly it prefers fast flowing hill streams and rivers.
172407		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a common species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172407		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It parts of its range it may be locally threatened by overharvesting, and habitat loss.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172408		conservation	eng	Baseline information regarding the species taxonomy, ecology, distribution, population and threats are lacking for this species. It is imperative that baseline knowledge be collected urgently.
172408		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzias melastigma</span> has been reported from Wyanad in Kerala state, and mostly distributed along the east coast of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal in India and from Bangladesh (Jayaram 2010).
172408		habitat	eng	There is no published information either the habitats or ecology of the species.
172408		population	eng	There is no published literature on the population of this species.
172408		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172409		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boggut</span>. Research is essential on the population status, harvest trends and threats to this species.
172409		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boggut </span>is found in India except Kerala, Bangladesh and Pakistan (Jayaram and Dhas 2000). The species is perhaps absent in the extreme north India and north-east India as currently no records are available.<br/>In India it is known from Maharashtra (Hora and Misra 1937, Fraser 1942, Setna and Kulkarni 1946, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Yazdani and Singh 1990, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Hiware 2006, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Karnataka (Rao and Seshachar 1927, David 1956), Andhra Pradesh (Jayaram and Dhas 2000, Chandrasekhar 2004), Gujrat (Acharya 1939, Ranade 1953), Madhya Pradesh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007), Uttar Pradesh (Sarkar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is also suspected to be present in other states including Goa, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Rajastan, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Jharkhand and West Bangal. It is also known from Pakistan (Mirza and Alam 2002) and Bangladesh.
172409		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boggut</span> is found in rivers and reservoirs (Menon 1999, Yazdani and Singh 1990). It attains a total length of 29 cm (Menon 1999). In some areas of its distribution there is habitat degradation caused by organic and inorganic pollution (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
172409		population	eng	Exact population structure of <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boggut</span> is not available but in several parts of its distribution the species seems to be declining. In Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune and other rivers in the northern Western Ghats the population is decreasing mainly because of heavy harvesting and competition created by introduced commercially important carps (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). But such reports are not available from other areas. So the trends cannot be generalized.
172409		threats	eng	Specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boggut</span> are not known. However, heavy harvesting, organic and inorganic pollution of the rivers and&#160; competition created by introduced carps could be possible threats to the species.
172410		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on the population, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
172410		distribution	eng	<em>Hypselobarbus kolus </em>is endemic&#160;to Western Ghats (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has been recorded from the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. Known from   the rivers Chalakudy (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008, Kurup<em> et al</em>. 2004), Periyar, Muvattupuzha and Karamana (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000), &#160;Linganamakki Reservoir in Sharavathi River (Sreekantha and Ramachandra 2005); Krishna River (Chandrasekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000), Tambraparini (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009); Bhima-Sina-Man&#160; (Jadhav and Yadav 2009), &#160;Godavari (Heda 2009) and &#160;Bhadra (Shahnawaz <em>et al</em>.<em>&#160;</em>2010).
172410		habitat	eng	Known to inhabit fast flowing streams and reservoirs in the middle and upper stretches of rivers (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).   <span style="font-style: italic;">H. kolus</span> is known to breed after the monsoon when the adults are known to develop bright colours (Daniels 2002)
172410		population	eng	There is no published information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. kolus</span>.&#160; However, surveys since 1996 in all the river systems indicate a perceptible decline in population of the species of greater than 30% (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172410		threats	eng	Destructive fishing practices, sandmining, siltation, urbanization and deforestation are the major threats to the species in its range. Over fishing in some parts is also a threat.
172411		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place to save <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius setnai</span>. However, site protection could be helpful. Research is essential to understand the population status, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
172411		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius setnai</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and is found only in west flowing rivers (Yadav 2003). It is known from Sanguem and Phonda in Goa (Chhapgar and Sane 1992, Yadav 2008) and Hoshangadi in Karnataka (Yazdani and Ghate 1994) and southern Karnataka (M. Arunachalam, pers. comm.). Even though the potential range of this fish could be large, currently it is known only from two basins with area of occupancy of around 1,600-2,000 km².
172411		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius setnai</span> is found in shallow and clear hill streams (Yazdani and Ghate 1994, Menon 1999) with leaf litter. It attains a length of 57 mm total length (Menon 1999).
172411		population	eng	No information is known about the precise population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius setnai</span>. The species is reported to be common in Hoshangadi, Karnataka (Yazdani and Ghate 1994), however, Menon (1999) has considered this species to be rare. This species is also rare in southern Karnataka (M. Arunachalam , pers comm.).
172411		threats	eng	The area in which <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius setnai</span> is found is affected by tourism, urbanization and agricultural pollution.
172412		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax trewavasae</span>. However, site/area protection may be helpful. The species is found at least in one protected site in Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary. Research is essential on the population status, distribution, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
172412		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax trewavasae</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It is known from Maharashtra and Karnataka. In Maharashtra it is known from Koyna valley and Yenna (Venna) valley (Hora 1938) and Koyna river near Patan (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). In Karnataka it is known from Shimoga  (Hora 1938) and Kigga falls on Tunga river (Arunachalam 2000). This species is also expected to be present in the hill streams of areas between the known localities. The expected extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species will be around 40000 km<sup>2</sup>, however, as the species is restricted to hill streams with rapid water flow and is habitat specific, the area of occupancy of the fish may be hardly 2000 km<sup>2</sup> (5% of EOO). Currently the species is known only from 5 localities.
172412		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax trewavasae</span> is found in rapidly flowing hill streams (Menon 1999, Arunachalam 2000). Deforestation, siltation and organic pollution can change the specific habitat requirement of the species and act as major threats to the area where this species is found.
172412		population	eng	Precise population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax trewavasae</span> is not known, although there is some indication of its decline. The species is rare in Koyna river and is found only during pre-monsoon and monsoon period (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.). In an extensive survey of fish in Krishna river system, Jayaram (1995) could not collect this species. The species was also not collected by Yadav (2003).
172412		threats	eng	No specific information is available on the threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax trewavasae</span>. However, some areas where the species is suspected to be present are threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation and urbanization leading to organic pollution (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172413		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific conservation action plan in place for the species. Research is needed on population trends, ecology, harvest trends and threats.
172413		distribution	eng	<span>The species is recorded from India (Goa and Madras), Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, through the East Indies, New Guinea to Philippines, southern China, and Taiwan (Gunther 1861; Jordon and Richardson 1910; Nichols 1943<span>; Tilak 1972; Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Jayaram 1999).<span></span>
172413		habitat	eng	The species is found in <span class="sheader5">streams and rivers and enters estuaries (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Usually associated with streams having a gravel or sand substrates.  Feeds on filamentous algae, diptera, <span class="sheader5">small fishes and crustaceans (<span class="sheader5">Pethiyagoda 199; Rainboth 1996<span class="sheader5">)<span class="sheader5">.</span></span>
172413		population	eng	No information is available on the population trends of the species.
172413		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to the species although further research is needed.
172414		conservation	eng	There has been no conservation intervention on the species so far. It is present in the Indira Gandhi&#160;Wildlife Sanctuary and&#160;National Park,&#160;in the Anamalai Hills of Tamil Nadu. Taking into account its limited distribution and the threats affecting the species and its habitat, urgent measures have to be taken to ensure its long term survival.
172414		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax housei </span>is endemic to the southern Western Ghats, where it is restricted to a single location in the Anamalai Hills, south of the Palghat Gap. It has been reported from Puthutottam estate in Valparai, Tamil Nadu and could also be found in the Kerala part of the Anamalai hills (Jayaram 2010, Rema Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has been collected from the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu (Arunachalam pers. comm.<em> </em>2010). Jayaram (2010) mentions the presence of the species from the Mutha Mula river in Pune, Maharashtra, but Wagh and Ghate (2003), and Kharat <em>et al</em>. (2003) who surveyed these river systems do not make any reference to this species. So the Maharashtra record is doubtful and is not included in the assessment.
172414		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax housei</span> inhabits fast flowing, torrential mountain streams and are benthic in habit. They are seen attached to rocks and boulders at the bottom of the stream, by means of a thoracic adhesive apparatus, which acts as a suction disc (Jayaram 2010). This species grows to a maximum of 10 cm.
172414		population	eng	There is no published documentation of the population status of this species. This is an extremely rare species.
172414		threats	eng	There has been in recent years, the deterioration of the species habitat due to pollution from fertilizers and pesticides, and siltation from neighbouring tea plantations due to the loss of riparian forest and the recent trend of sand mining as well. The species is also a target species for the aquarium trade, but information regarding any collections from the wild is lacking.
172415		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific action plan directed towards<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ambassis dussumieri</span>. Research on the population status, ecology and threats to the species is essential.
172415		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis dussumieri </span>is found in <span>Indo-West Pacific from Algoa Bay, South Africa, north to the Red Sea, Zanzibar, Seychelles and eastward around India (in Kochi, Orissa and Andaman Islands) and Australasia to the Philippines and China in estuarine and coastal waters (<span>Günther 1859, <span>Day 1865a, 1869, 1871, <span>Playfair and Günther 1867,<span><span><span><span> Playfair 1868, <span><span><span><span><span> <span>Anderson and Heemstra 2003).<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
172415		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis dussumieri</span> inhabits seas and estuaries, but it is also found in rivers within tidal influence (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It attains a total length of around 4 inches (Day 1865b).
172415		population	eng	No information is available on the global population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambassis dussumieri</span>. But the species is common in Thukela Estuary of South Africa with catch per unit effort (average number of fish samples per seine haul) of 32 and 44 for February 1997 and February 1999 respectively (Whitfield and Harrison 2003).
172415		threats	eng	Threats are poorly known, but currently there are believed to be no major threats to the species.
172417		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on the population and life history of this poorly known hill stream loach.
172417		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mesonoemacheilus remadevii</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats, known only from the Kunthi tributary (Bharatapuzha River) inside Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India (Shaji 2002).
172417		habitat	eng	Known from torrential streams with cobbles and sand as the major substratum (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).
172417		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. remadevii</span>.
172417		threats	eng	There are no current threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. remadevii </span>in the Silent Valley National Park as it is highly protected and free from any anthropogenic disturbances.
172418		conservation	eng	No conservation efforts are in place. The demography and threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. carnaticus</span> at key habitats need to be determined to devise appropriate conservation plans. Milt cryopreservation and captive breeding protocol have been developed at NBFGR (V.S. Basheer pers. comm.).
172418		distribution	eng	Barbodes carnaticus&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from rivers in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka including Cauvery, Krishna (Jayaram 1999), Moyar (Rajan 1963, Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000), Kabini,  Bhavani, Bharathapuzha, Chalakudy, Periyar, Pambar, Muvattupuzha, Manimala, Pamba, Achenkovil, Karamana, Neyyar (Shaji and Easa 2003, Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004), Chaliyar (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).Ooty Lake (Jayaram 1999). Besides it has also been reported from the water bodies inside the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Manimekalan 1998), from the drainages in the Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu (Rema Devi and Raghunathan 1999) and from Kolli Hills of Eastern Ghats (Arunachalam and Johnson 1998).&#160;The record from Tambraparini (Johnsingh and Vickram 1987) is erroneous (Johnson and Arunachalam pers. comm.). The report from southern Kerala is also doubtful (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172418		habitat	eng	<p><em>Barbodes carnaticus&#160;</em>prefers large pools in rivers and streams (Daniels 2002), where the adults have a tendency to hide under bedrock, boulders and within caves although M. Arunachalam (pers. comm.) indicates the species to be a 'sporty' fish. They feed on the fruits and seeds that fall from the canopy above. The adults migrate upstream for spawning and breeds in the flood waters along rivers during the monsoons. The fry can be found in these waters during September to December (Daniels 2002). The young of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. carnaticus</span> are seen in groups along the banks of rivers and reservoirs, while the mature carps are rarely seen along the banks (Biju 2005). Longevity of the species which was estimated as 4-5 years (Manojkumar and Kurup 2010) is doubtful (M. Arunachalam, R. Kumar pers. comm.).<br/></p>
172418		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this endemic barb. Reports from southern Kerala (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002) consider <span style="font-style: italic;">B. carnaticus</span> to be a rare species.   There are also reports of past decline in the catches of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. carnaticus</span> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). A recent study from Chalakudy River (Manojkumar and Kurup 2010) indicated that the growth coefficient <span style="font-style: italic;">K</span> of this species is between 0.5-0.65.
172418		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. carnaticus</span> is threatened by a wide range of factors including decline in habitat quality due to destructive fishing practices such as poisoning and dynamiting, altered river flow due to construction of dams, competition with exotic and transplanted carps and pollution from point sources.
172420		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Rita kuturnee</span>. Research is needed on population trends, harvesting and threats to the species. It is present in the Nathsagar Reservoir, Aurangabad (Yadav 2005).
172420		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita kuturnee</span> is endemic to India and it is found in Krishna and Godavari river basin in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh states. <br/><br/>The species is recorded from Bhima river (Sykes 1841), Mula-Mutha River (Fraser 1942, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), Godavari river (Rahimullah 1943, Jayaram 1966), Panchaganga River (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956), Purna river (Rahimullah 1943), Nizamsagar (Jayaram 1966), Kurnool (Jayaram 1966), Gadwal (Rahimullah 1943), Krishna-Tungabhadra Sangam (Chacko and Kuriyan 1948), Alampur (Rahimullah 1943), Badra river (David 1956), Tunga river (Rao and Seshachar 1927), Bhima-Krishna Sangam (Rahimullah 1943) and Chhattisgarh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007).<br/>Record of the fish from Myanmar (Jayaram 1966) is erroneous (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Record of this species from Cauvery river drainage (Yadav 2003) is also doubtful.
172420		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita kuturnee </span>is found in large rivers and is restricted to freshwater (Menon 1999). It attains a total length of 30 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). No specific information is available on the habitat decline for this fish, however, the area in which the fish is found is severely affected by pollution, urbanization and heavy harvesting of fish (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2003).
172420		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita kuturnee</span> is considered to be a very common species by Jayaram (1995), while Yadav (2003) considers the fish as uncommon. Nevertheless, the population of this species has declined drastically in the Mula-Mutha and Bhima rivers and it is possible that the species is locally extinct in Mula-Mutha rivers of Pune (N. Dahnaukar, pers. obs.). Increasing urbanization and pollution of the rivers and heavy harvesting of fish resources, which are common in some of the areas where the fish is found (David 1956, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2003), could be the driving force towards the population declines. However, since no information is available on population trends from other areas, the population decline cannot be generalized.
172420		threats	eng	Specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Rita kuturnee</span> are not known. However, the species could be threatened by habitat alterations caused by urbanization and pollution of the rivers and heavy harvesting of the fish.
172421		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to regulate destructive fishing practices especially the use of dynamiting in the mid and low land reaches of the rivers in Kerala where <span style="font-style: italic;">O. bakeri </span>is known to occur. Research needs to address current population sizes.
172421		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Osteobrama bakeri</span>&#160;is endemic to the southern Western Ghats (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000; Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the rivers   Chaliyar (Easa and Basha 1995); Periyar (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006), Chalakudy (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008), Karuvannur, Muvattupuzha, Meenachil, Manimala, Chandragiri, Bharathapuzha (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000); Pamba, Kallada, Achenkovil (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004) in Kerala.<br/>The distribution of this species in east flowing river, Talipuzha in Wyanad (Johnson and Arunkumar 2009) and Aganashini&#160; in Karnataka (Bhat 2004) needs verification (J. Johnson pers. comm.).
172421		habitat	eng	Inhabits low land areas of major rivers with sand, mud and detritus as major substrates (Biju 2005, Thomas 2004). It   is an omnivore feeding mainly on microinvertebrates and algae (Biju 2005).
172421		population	eng	No information on population is available. The species is considered to be rare (  Menon, 1999; Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002). Catch per hour recorded from different rivers in Kerala is low (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006). Local fishers in many rivers of Kerala have reported that the species is very rarely seen (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).
172421		threats	eng	The habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. bakeri</span> in the major rivers of Kerala are threatened by sand mining, destructive fishing, alteration of river flow as a result of the construction of barrages and dams, exotic fish species invasion and pollution (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a, b, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kurup 2002, Padmalal <em>et al</em>. 2007, Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000).
172422		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is an urgent need to carry out research to generate baseline data on population, life history traits, ecology and exploitation. Captive breeding and milt cryopreservation techniques have developed at NBFGR (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).
172422		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Osteochilus longidorsalis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats in the state of Kerala, India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the Chalakudy (including Parambikulam Tiger Reserve) and Periyar Rivers (Ajithkumar <em>et al</em>. 1999, Biju <em>et al</em>. 1999, Devi <em>et al</em>. 2005, Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 1994, Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a).
172422		habitat	eng	Inhabits torrential streams with clear water and moderate canopy cover (Shaji and Easa 2003) with boulders, cobbles and bed rock as the major substrates (A. Ali and R. Raghavan per. obs.). Known to be a habitat specialist with affinity towards pool, riffles and cascades (Manojkumar and Kurup 2002). It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a herbivorous feeder subsisting on plants, seeds and algae (Thomas 2004).
172422		population	eng	No information on population is available. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. longidorsalis</span> is known to be&#160; rare (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999) or very rare (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) in Chalakudy River. Catch per hour at various sites in Chalakudy River is very low (Euphrasia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
172422		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>In Chalakudy River, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. longidorsalis</span> is threatened by the presence of exotic species, destructive fishing methods, increasing tourism and pollution (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008a, b). There is also a threat from a proposed hydroelectric power project. In Periyar River, the species is under threat from destructive fishing practices including dynamiting and poisoning (A. Ali and R.Raghavan pers. obs.). </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
172423		conservation	eng	Specific conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia balookee</span> is not currently available. Research is needed on the population trends, ecology, harvest trends and threats to the species. The species is known from one protected site at Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan 1999).
172423		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia balookee</span> is found only in the Peninsular India and its records from Myanmar (Day 1878) and Assam (Sen 1985) could be wrong (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 1999). This species is present in Narmada, Krishna, Godavari and other river systems of southern India.<br/><br/>The species is recorded from Madhya Pradesh (Reddiah 1980, Garg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Dubey 2007, Sarkar and Lakra 2007, Vyas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Chhattisgarh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007), Rajasthan (Sarkar and Lakra 2007, Sharma and Choudhary 2007), Gujrat (Acharya 1939, Ranade 1953), Maharashtra (Sykes 1841, Hora and Misra 1937, Fraser 1942, Setna and Kulkarni 1946, Kulkarni 1947, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Singh and Yazdani 1988, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), Andhra Pradesh (Chandrasekhar 2004), Karnataka (Rao and Seshachar 1927, David 1956), Tamil Nadu (Rajan 1955, Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan 1999, Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Daniels and Rajagopal 2004, Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009, Ramanujam and Anbarasan 2009) and Kerala (Silas 1951, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
172423		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia balookee</span> is found in upper drainage of large rivers (Menon 1999). It is also found in lakes and reservoirs (Kulkarni 1947, Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It attains a total length of 15 cm (Menon 1999).
172423		population	eng	Population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia balookee</span> is not known. However, the species has not been recorded from Mula-Mutha rivers after Fraser (1942) and Wagh and Ghate (2003) have suggested that the species is lost from these rivers. The species is rare in Kerala (Thaomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Hyderabad (Chandrasekhar 2004) and Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan 1999). The species is also rare in Koyna river (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011) but relatively common in Nira river in Maharashtra (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>, manuscript in review). However, a general trend in the population cannot be predicted for the entire range.
172423		threats	eng	Specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Salmophasia balookee </span>are not known but the species is a preferred food fish and heavy harvesting could be a threat to the species.
172424		conservation	eng	Milt cryopreservation protocol has been standardized at NBFGR, Kochi, India (A. Gopalakrishnan pers.comm.) and captive breeding and ranching has been undertaken in the rivers of Central Kerala (B.M. Kurup pers.comm.).
172424		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo dussumieri</em> is endemic to southern Kerala and Sri Lanka.&#160;In Kerala, it is known from four rivers, Pampa, Achenkovil, Manimala and Meenachil (Kurup 2000), the southern tip of Vembanad Lake (Narayanan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kurup 2000), and Periyar (Gopalakrishnan <em>et al</em>. 2009). In Sri Lanka they have been recorded from various rivers (Smith 1991) and reservoirs (Amarasinghe and Pitcher 1986, De Silva 1998).<br/><em>Labeo rajasthanicus </em>from Jaisamand Lake in Udaipur has been found to be the same as <em>L. dussumieri</em> and therefore needs to be synonymised (Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).&#160; The record from Alibagh, Maharastra by Jayram (2010) needs verification.&#160; The Sri Lankan population needs taxonomic verification as it may be a different species.<br/>The populations from different rivers in Kerala were found to be genetically homogeneous (Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.) but the morpho-meristics analysis of populations from different river systems, showed that the populations are different (Kurup and Kuriakose 1996).
172424		habitat	eng	Known to inhabit streams above the tidal reach (Kurup 2000), flood plain areas (Smith 1991), backwaters (Kurup 2000) and reservoirs (De Silva 1998).   On the basis of the feeding ecology and diurnal migrations <em>L. dussumieri</em> has been identified as litoral aufwuchs (periphyton) feeder (De Silva 1998). In Kerala, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dussumieri </span>migrates massively during the monsoon - a phenomenon known as the 'Thooliyilakkam' in vernacular (Shaji and Easa 2003). Spawning season extends from June to August with peak activity during June and July (Kurup 2000).
172424		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. dussumieri</span> has shown considerable decline in their population in southern Kerala (Kurup 2000), largely due to exploitation<span class="nw1"><span class="nw1"> <span class="nw1">(Kurup 1998). Similarly, Pethiyagoda (1994) recorded decline of this species in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span class="nw1">Sri Lanka</st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="nw1"> because of competition with the exotic tilapia. There is no recent estimate of the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dussumieri</span> but local knowledge of fishers in Kerala indicate that the species has shown a decline in the recent past.<br/>The species has now revived in Pampa with a total annual landing of 30 tonnes in 2009 compared to 3 tonnes in 1988-89 (B.M. Kurup pers. obs.).&#160; This is due to ranching in Pampa in 1988-90.&#160;<br/></span></span>
172424		threats	eng	In Kerala, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dussumieri </span>was under threat from indiscriminate fishing often with illegal gears and poor habitat quality as a result of pollution from point sources. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dussumieri</span> is known to be threatened by exotic species in Sri Lanka (Pethiyagoda 1994).
172425		conservation	eng	There is not enough understanding about the species to recommend any potential conservation actions. It is unlikely that this coastal species occurs in any protected areas.
172425		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzias setnai </span>is distributed along the west coast of India from Navlahai, southern Gujarat to Thiruvananthapuram, southern Kerala (Menon 1999). They are found in backwaters, creeks and tanks along the coast. Gopi <em>et al.</em> 2004 recorded this species from the estuarine waters of Kuppam river in northern Kerala. Gopi and Radhakrishnan (2007) reported it's occurrence in Ezhore Village, Kerala.
172425		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzias setnai</span> is most frequently found in puddles and stagnant brackish water pools, resulting from artificial enclosures set up by fishermen. They are gregarious and are found in swarms near the water surface, mostly in the midst of aquatic plants. They are known to feed on copepods and diatoms (Parenti 2008). An interesting feature of this species is that it reproduces using internal fertilization. The males of the species forms encapsulated, barbed sperm bundles / spermatophores that are passed from male to female (Grier 1984). Fertilized eggs are laid following internal fertilization.
172425		population	eng	There is no literature pertaining to population for this species.
172425		threats	eng	The threats are not known, however there may not be any threats to this adaptable species.
172426		conservation	eng	There is a need to generate baseline information on the distribution, life history and demography of this rare species.
172426		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius ophicephalus</em> is endemic to southern part of the Western Ghats Hotspot (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the rivers, Periyar (Zacharias <em>et al</em>. 1996, Arun 1999), Pampa (Raj 1941) and Meenachil (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2002) in Kerala.&#160; It's range also extends to Tamil Nadu in upstream of Vaigai river (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2004).
172426		habitat	eng	Known from torrential streams (Arun 1999) where they occur in rocky pools (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004). Bedrock, cobble and gravel are the major substrates (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ophicephalus</span> is known to be an omnivore (Arun 1999).
172426		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ophicephalus</span>. The species is however considered to be rare (Zacharias <em>et al</em>. 1996, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002).
172426		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. ophicephalus </span>is threatened by the presence of exotic fish species in Periyar Lake-Stream system inside the Periyar Tiger Reserve. The other areas are affected by development activities resulting in decline in the quality of habitat.
172428		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on distribution, population, life history and threats to this species.
172428		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus micropogon</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), where it is restricted to the headwaters of Cauvery River. It is known from the   <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">rivers Bhavani</st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> (Rajan 1955, Menon 1999) and Kabani (Arunachalam<em> et al</em>. 2000, Shaji and Easa 2003). There is a recent report of the species from Gugalthurai and Thalipuzha (tributaries of east flowing <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cauvery</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>) (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009).
172428		habitat	eng	Known to occur in fast flowing streams where they are seen in riffles and rocky pools (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000).
172428		population	eng	The species has been declining in its range for the last 10 years. Surveys between 1996 and 2010 within the range of the species have found decreasing abundance (M. Arunachalam and C.P. Shaji pers. comm.). Current surveys have found only a few specimens (one in Pilloor and four in Noolpuzha).
172428		threats	eng	Overexploitation, destructive fishing practices using dynamite and poisoning, and pollution are the major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. micropogon</span> in the Kabini river system (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is also reasonable to believe that the same threats exist for this species in the other river systems from where it has been recorded.
172429		conservation	eng	To date, there have been no measures to ensure the conservation of this endemic and threatened species. It is imperative that the basic biology, distribution and population of the species is understood at the earliest to draft a conservation proposal for the species.
172429		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbodes wynaadensis </span>is restricted to the Wyanad Plateau and neighbouring regions, in the southern Western Ghats, India. It has been reported from Kalindi and Noolpuzha rivers (east flowing), Kanthampara and Chooralmala (west flowing) of Wyanad, Kerala and also at Abbey Falls in Coorg (Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) in Karnataka, all of which are part of the headwaters of the Cauvery River (Jayaram 2010). It has also been recorded in streams in the Periya Reserve Forest, near Mananthavady, Wyanad (R. Abraham pers. obs. January 2010).<br/><br/>The record of this species in the Bhadra River (Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) is doubtful (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172429		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbodes wynaadensis </span>is a rare endemic barb, which is found in upland streams and rivers. It prefers rocky pools (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172429		population	eng	The population has declined drastically: by more than 80% in the last ten years. Several surveys in Wyanad (1999 to 2004 and in 2008) have not found this species. The last time this fish was recorded was in 1998 (M. Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010). In another instance, the last sighting was in 1996 (C.P. Shaji pers. comm. 2010). However, there is one collection by Dinesh of Kerala Fisheries College from Thirunelli Temple in Wyanad in 2008, and Anvar Ali and Rajeev Raghavan of Conservation Research Group (CRG), St. Albert's College, Kochi collected this species from Thirunelli Temple stream in 2003.
172429		threats	eng	River pollution caused by the discharge of fertilizers, pesticides and other chemical effluents from surrounding plantations and sand mining have been observed in this species' habitat (R. Abraham pers obs. January 2010). Being a large bodied fish, it is likely also to be in demand for its flesh considering the trends in other parts of the state, however, there is no literature available to substantiate this. This species prefers colder climates and the recent rise in the temperature could be a reason for its decline (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.). Habitat destruction from road construction and pollution are also major threats (Johnson pers. comm.).
172430		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the micro-level distribution patterns, population and life history of the species.
172430		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Western Ghats (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is known from the Cauvery River and its principal tributaries (Jerdon 1849): Bhavani (Day 1877, Rajan 1955); Moyar (Rajan 1963); Hemavathy (Jayaram 1977); Bharathapuzha, Chaliyar and Kabini (Biju 2005); and Karuvannur (Thomas 2004). This fish was also recorded from the Kalladaippu tank near Tuticorin (Ramanathan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985); Tungabhadra reservoir (Singit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987) and the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Manimekalan 1998). The Karuvannurpuzha distribution may be erroneous (B.M. Kurup pers. comm.), and the population from Tuticorin and Mudumalai may also be misidentified (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.). The identity of the species from Chaliyar and Bharathapuzha is also questionable as the species is found only in east flowing rivers (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.).<br/></p>
172430		habitat	eng	<p>This fish inhabits rapid rivers and streams (Menon 1999). The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is also known to occur in midland areas with slow to moderate flow, poor vegetation cover, and with mud, sand and gravel as the major substrates (Biju 2005). It prefers pristine, clear water streams and is affected by siltation (C.P. Shaji pers. comm<em>.</em>).</p>
172430		population	eng	In Wyanad, this species has declined drastically in the last 10 years (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.). It was last sighted in 1998 in Kabini River in Wyanad by C.P. Shaji. B.M. Kurup has been surveying the river since 2000 but has not recorded this species even once. It was last recorded in Tungabhadra in the 1980s (Singit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987) but the recent report of fishes of Bhadra River does not include this species in the checklist (Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is likely that the species has disappeared from Kabini and Bhadra. The third location, which is Moyar River in Mudumalai was last surveyed in 1990-1992 when the species was collected (Manimekalan 1998). Subsequent surveys in Mudumalai by M. Arunachalam (pers. comm.) did not yield any specimens from 1996 to 2000. The identity of the species from Bhadra and Mudumalai is questionable (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.). The population has declined close to 100% in the known locations since the late 1990s. Since it was last recorded in 1998, the species could be extinct.
172430		threats	eng	In Wyanad, the species is subjected to habitat degradation and loss due to siltation (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.). Since<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. punctatus</span> is known to occur in middle stretches of rivers, it is reasonable to anticipate that they are subjected to ongoing threats from pollution, sand mining and construction of barrages. In Kabini River seasonal fishing in drier seasons in small pools has a major impact on species populations (B.M. Kurup&#160;pers. comm.).
172431		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. Urgent surveys are needed to relocate this species.
172431		distribution	eng	<em>Barbodes bovanicus</em>&#160;has been recorded from the Bhavani river system and the Cauvery river system at the base of the Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu. Apparently only the population in the Mettur reservoir survives today (Menon 1999). However, surveys conducted over the last decade at Mettur reservoir have not yielded any specimens (M. Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010). The last individual collected was in 1998 from Mudumalai (Manimekalan 1998).
172431		habitat	eng	Collected from Mudumalai in a larger (fourth order) stream. The water was turbid with boulders and good riparian cover (A. Manimekalan pers. obs.)
172431		population	eng	The population status is unknown. The last individual collected was in 1998 (Manimekalan 1998).
172431		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
172432		conservation	eng	None required.
172432		distribution	eng	The species has a very wide southeast Asian distribution, from the lower Mekong (Lao PDR (including tributaries such as the Xe Bang Fai; Kottelat 1998), Thailand, Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap lake and river) and the Mekong delta in Viet Nam), the Chao Phraya and Maekhlong (Thailand) basins; the Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia (southeastern Sumatra, Kalimantan (e.g., the Kapuas river basin, southwestern Kalimantan; Roberts 1989, Rainboth 1996)), the Bangka and Belitung (Billiton) islands, northern Java (Day 1877,  Mohsin and Ambak 1983, Roberts 1989).<br/><br/>Material from India usually referred to as this species actually represents a distinct species (Kottelat 2001) and records from Myanmar (Salween River) are considered unlikely.<br/><br/>Introduced widely, including to the US (Courtenay and Williams 2004).
172432		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland rivers and swamps (Vidthayanon 2002) and usually associated with deep water bodies (Kottelat 1998). Also found in canals. Late juveniles of the species school and feed in packs (Lee and Ng 1991). Capable of overland migrations and reaches upto 1.5 m in length (P. Ng. pers. comm. 2002, in Courteney and Williams 2004).
172432		population	eng	A common species.
172432		threats	eng	Not considered to be threatened across its range, but likely to be impacted locally by habitat loss.
172434		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Some areas of the species'  habitat falls in protected areas</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">. Outside PAs, there are no  conservation measures of any kind and the threats are escalating.&#160; Captive breeding technology has been developed (Mercy <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/></span>
172434		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus triangularis</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats, widespread in southern Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu&#160; (Menon 1987, Devi <em>et al.</em> 1997, Shaji & Easa 2003, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009, Jayaram 2010).&#160; It is commonly found in almost all west flowing rivers and in some east flowing rivers in southern India (Tamil Nadu) (Remadevi pers. comm.).
172434		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemacheilus triangularis</span> is a benthic species that are found in both highland and midland areas, preferring oxygenated clear water streams with gravel, cobbles and  bedrock with a little amount of sand as the substrate. They are a territorial, omnivorous and forage fishes for larger species (Chhapgar & Manakadan 2000, Biju 2003).
172434		population	eng	It is a fairly common species, abundant in its range (R. Abraham pers. obs.). There is no literature on the population trends of this species.
172434		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The species is threatened by  widespread deterioration and transformation of its habitat for  agricultural expansion and developmental activities including recent  spurt in tourism development resulting in the damming of rivers,  submerging large areas of habitat as well as pollution from tourism and  agricultural sources. In recent years many streams in the species range  have been threatened by habitat alterations caused by sand mining, and  exploitative fishing by poisoning and explosives, despite not being the  targeted species&#160;(R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs. November 2009).<br/></span>
172435		conservation	eng	&#160;It is known from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. Habitat restoration, removal of exotic species from this habitat will help the conservation of this species.
172435		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario neigherriensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It has been reported from Ooty Lake and Pykara, Avalanche and Kaity streams in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu; and from Wayanad in Kerala. The report of this species from Madhya Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh needs further confirmation (Menon 1999).
172435		habitat	eng	This species prefers fast flowing clear headwater streams.
172435		population	eng	This species has a very restricted population.
172435		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, poisoning and dynamite fishing and drought are the major threats to this species. Introduced species also present a threat (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia</span>).
172436		conservation	eng	None required.
172436		distribution	eng	<span>The species has a wide distribution across the northern parts of South Asia, from Pakistan (North West Frontier Province (NWFP), Punjab, and Sindh; Mirza 2002)<span>, central and northern India (Menon 1999), Nepal (common in the Terai and hills from altitudes of 76-1,372 m (Shrestha 1994); found in the Bagmati, Kali Gandaki and Pokhara lakes)<span>, and <span>Bangladesh. Records from <span>Myanmar <span>(Salween basin (Oo 2002) <span>and presumably in western and central drainages), and from Thailand by Talwar and Jhingran (1991) are possible but probably refer to other species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span></span></span>
172436		habitat	eng	Found in flowing and clear standing waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1994).
172436		population	eng	A common species.
172436		threats	eng	Not threatened across its range.
172437		conservation	eng	The entire range of the species is well protected as it falls within the Silent Valley National Park. There is however a need to generate baseline information on the population status and life history of the species.
172437		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Homaloptera menoni</span>&#160;is&#160;endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the rivers Bhavani (Shaji and Easa 1995) and Kunthipuzha tributary of Bharatapuzha (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004).
172437		habitat	eng	It inhabits high altitude torrential streams with riffles and cascades as microhabitats (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
172437		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Homaloptera menoni. </span>It is known from only a few specimens.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172437		threats	eng	There are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. menoni</span> in its native range. The entire range of the species falls within a highly protected area in the Western Ghats - the Silent Valley National Park.
172438		conservation	eng	No conservation plans are in place. An urgent need exist to document the life history, ecology and demography of the species to inform management plans. Study on impacts of exotic fishes on the species is urgently required.
172438		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Travancoria jonesi</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et a</em>l. 2004) in the high ranges of Kerala. It is known from the rivers Chalakkudy (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Biju <em>et al</em>. 1999), Periyar (Arun <em>et al</em>. 1996, Zacharias <em>et al</em>. 1996, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009), Anamalai Hills (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000, Devi <em>et al</em>. 2005), Pamba and Achankovil (M. Arunachalam pers. comm. and&#160;C.P. Shaji pers. comm.).
172438		habitat	eng	It occurs in mountain streams, with cobbles, bed rock and boulders as the principal substrates (A. Ali and R. Raghavan. pers.obs.).
172438		population	eng	This fish is considered to be a very rare species (Zacharias <em>et al</em>. 1996, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002). Catch per hour from the Karappara tributary of Chalakudy River was recorded to be very low (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172438		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Travancoria jonesi </span>is possibly threatened by the presence and proliferation of the exotic species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambicus</span> in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and the presence of three exotic species, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. mossambicus, Clarias gariepinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span> in Periyar Lake, located downstream of Thanikkudy in the Periyar Tiger Reserve. In addition, there is a continuing decline in habitat quality as a result of pesticide pollution in Karappara tributary (Nelliampathi region) of Chalakudy River (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers.obs.).
172439		conservation	eng	Studies are required on population trends, life history, harvest trends and threats to the species.
172439		distribution	eng	<em>Rasbora caveri</em> is known from India and Sri Lanka (Menon 1999, Jayaram 2010). Presence of this species in Sri Lanka has been doubeted by Talwar and Jhingran (1991). In India it is known from Kaveri river system in&#160; Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Tambraparni river system in Tamil Nadu (Hora 1937, Cherian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009). It is alos known from freshwater lakes in Chennai and Mysore (Daniels and Rajagopal 2004, Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also known from Kovalam, Moyar and Kattappana rivers (R. Kumar pers. comm.).<br/>Records of this species from Krishna river system at Sholapur and Pune districts in Maharashtra by Jadhav and Yadav (2009) are likely to be based on wrong identification. This is because, in their rather vague species account authors mention that there are 32 scales along the lateral line, while <span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora caverii</span>, based on the more detailed re-description given by Hora (1937), has 36 to 37 scales.
172439		habitat	eng	It is a pelagic species found in a wide variety of habitats often in large shoals. It is found in lowland forest streams and ponds to mountain streams and it attains a total length of 7 cm (Menon 1999).
172439		population	eng	Data on population status of this species is not available, however the species is common throughout its range.
172439		threats	eng	Habitat alteration, pollution, agricultural runoff and unintentional fishing could pose threat to the species in some areas of its distribution. However a major widespread threat is not known.
172441		conservation	eng	Research on population trends, habitats and threats needed.
172441		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius narayani</em>&#160;is widely distributed in the northern and central Western Ghats of Karnataka.&#160; It has been recorded from Karnataka (Tunga, Netravathi, C.P. Shaji pers. comm.; Bhadra, Menon and Yazdani 1968, Sitanadi, Arunachalam 2004, Aghanashini and Bedti, Arunachalam 2000, Bhat 2004), Goa (Sanguem: Chhapgar and Sane 1980), Maharashtra (Raigad and Ratnagiri districts: S. Jadhav pers. comm., Dhom reservoir and Krishna River, Satara District: Jayaram 1991).
172441		habitat	eng	It is found in clear streams in shallow areas with a sandy bottom along with submerged leaf litter.
172441		population	eng	Population data is unknown.
172441		threats	eng	Deforestation, sandmining, sewage, pollution, agricultural runoff, water abstraction, exotics and ornamental fish trade in some areas are potential threats.
172442		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation actions are in place. It is present in some protected areas. There is a need to generate information on the population and ecology of this species.
172442		distribution	eng	<p>Nemacheilus semiarmatus&#160;is endemic to southern Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004) and widely distributed. <span style="font-style: italic;">N. semiarmatus</span> is known from the Cauvery, Chittar in Kothayar Wildlife Sanctuary (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009), Sharavati (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2007), Kabini, Bhavani (Biju 2005), Pambar (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000), Periyar (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009), Pamba, Kallada (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004) rivers in the states of Kerala and Karnataka.&#160;</p>
172442		habitat	eng	Inhabits high altitude streams with sand, gravel and cobble stones as the major substrates (Biju 2005).
172442		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. semiarmatus</span>. This is a very common species.
172442		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. semiarmatus</span> has no major threats. Some populations may be threatened by the anthropogenic impacts that affect the habitats where they frequent including pollution and destructive fishing practices like poisoning.
172443		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius fuscus</span>. It is not known if the species is present in any protected  areas.
172443		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius fuscus </span>is a widely distributed species in tropical seas, brackish water and freshwater. It is found in the Red Sea, Indo-West Pacific: East Africa, Madagascar and Mascarenes east  to Maldives, all costal states of India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka, Wake Atoll, Marquesas Islands and Gambier Islands, north to South  Korea and southern Japan, south to Western Australia, Queensland  (Australia), New Caledonia, Norfolk Island and Tonga (Tilak 1972, Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1981, Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, Eschmeyer and Fricke 2011).
172443		habitat	eng	This is primarily a marine species occasionally entering freshwaters. It is found mainly in the creeks (Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and it prefers habitats with sand and rubble, soft coral and open reefs (Depczynski and Bellwood 2004). It is a detritus feeder (Depczynski and Bellwood 2003).
172443		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius fuscus</span> is relatively common. In Australia the fish contributed to 1.63% of the total catch (Depczynski and Bellwood 2004).
172443		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
172444		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is not present in any protected areas. There is a need to generate population and biological information on this species.
172444		distribution	eng	Schistura kodaguensis&#160;is known to occur in a single stream in the Cauvery River basin in Coorg (Menon 1987, Sreekantha <em>et al</em> 2006). However, the species may be more widespread.
172444		habitat	eng	Known to occur in a shallow swift stream with a gravelly bottom (Menon 1999).
172444		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. kodaguensi</span>s.
172444		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. kodaguensis</span>.
172445		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to document information on population, ecology and life history of this species.
172445		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Puntius bimaculatus</span>&#160;is endemic to India and Sri Lanka. It is widely distributed in Sri Lanka and in India in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>In Tamil Nadu,<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. bimaculatus</span> has been recorded from the rivers Cauvery (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009), Tambraparini (Devi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Arunachalam 2000), Moyar (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000); In Karnataka from the Hemavathi, Ekatchi, Tunga (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000) as well as the Bedti River  (Bhat 2004)  ; In Maharashtra from the Phansad River (Arunachalam 2000); In Kerala from Chalakudy River (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/>The species has also been collected from water bodies inside the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Remadevi <em>et al</em>.2005).
172445		habitat	eng	It occurs in middle and upper stretches of rivers.
172445		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bimaculatus</span>.
172445		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. bimaculatus</span> may be threatened as a result of on-going decline in quality of habitat due to pollution from domestic sources as well as plantations, exotic fish species and destructive fishing practices.
172446		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action plan directed towards this species. Research is needed on the population trends, harvest trends and specific threats to the species.
172446		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus mussullah</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It has been described from Maharashtra (Sykes 1839, Annandale 1919, Hora 1943, Sutur 1944, Silas 1953, Jayaram 2005, Dahanukar pers. obs.), Karnataka (David 1963, Jayaram 2005, Sreekantha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007,&#160; Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009), Tamil Nadu (Chacko 1952, Manimekalan 1998) and Kerala (Shaji and Easa 2003, Jayaram 2005, R. Raghavan and M. Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>The record of this species from the northeastern Godawari River at low altitudes by Heda (2009) needs verification.<br/><br/>Even though this species is widely distributed the populations are severely fragmented and the AOO of the species is likely to be less then 500 km².
172446		habitat	eng	The species prefers deeper portions of clear fast flowing large jungle streams and rivers in the upland areas and it attains a total length of 100 cm (Menon 1999).
172446		population	eng	This is a very rare species throughout its range (Jayaram 1995, Menon 2004, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, N. Dahanukar pers. obs.). The population of this species seems to be declining.
172446		threats	eng	Overfishing (including dynamite fishing), habitat loss due to pollution and introduced exotic species are the major threats to the species.
172448		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is present in some protected areas. There is a need to generate baseline information on the life history and population status of this species.
172448		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus guentheri</em>&#160;is endemic to Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from almost all river systems of Kerala (Shaji and Easa 2003) including Chandragiri, Neeleswaram, Kuppam, Valapattanam, Mahe, Kuttiadi, Chaliyar, Kabini,&#160; Bhavani, Bharatapuzha (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000), Karuvannur (Thomas 2004), Chalakudy (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008), Periyar (Arun <em>et al</em>. 1996), Muvattupuzha, Manimala, Pamba, Achenkovil, Pambar, Kallada, Vamanapuram (Thomas 2004) and Cauvery river system in Nilgiris and Mysore (Menon 1999).
172448		habitat	eng	<p>It prefers hill streams with gravel, cobbles, bedrock and a little amount of sand as substrates. Also occurs in middle reaches with gravel and pebbles as the major substrates (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000). <span style="font-style: italic;">N. guentheri</span> feeds on benthic macroinvertebrates, algal and plant matters, larvae of aquatic insects, chironomid larvae and detritus (Thomas 2004).</p><p> </p>
172448		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. guentheri</span>. It is a fairly common species.
172448		threats	eng	Since the species is found in almost all river systems of Kerala, general threats to these river systems including pollution, sedimentation, exotic fish and destructive fishing may be applicable to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. guentheri</span> also. Collection for the international aquarium pet trade may be a possible future threat unless the harvests are managed through quotas and catch limits (Ragahavan 2010).
172449		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. Populations inside the lower Papanasam hydroelectric project and are not exploited. Some populations are protected in the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Nevertheless, research is required on the population trends, life history and specific threats to the species.
172449		distribution	eng	Puntius tambraparniei&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. All the current records of this species (Silas 1954, Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 2005, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009, Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) are from the upper and middle reaches of Tambraparniei river basin in Tirunelveli District, southern Tamil Nadu. &#160;The range of this species, based on the hydrobasin area, is between 4000-4500 km<sup>2</sup>, however the area is highly restricted to just 1-2% of the range, of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
172449		habitat	eng	Found in moderate flowing streams and rivers with bed rock and sandy bottom. Attains a total length of 9.2 cm (Menon 1999).
172449		population	eng	Populations of the species are known to be declining (M. Arunachalam per. comm).
172449		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to removal of riparian cover, sand mining and industrial and organic pollution are the major threats. Collection for the aquarium trade is also a potential future threat.
172450		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
172450		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bunaka gyrinoides </span>is an estuarine species known from the Indo-West Pacific (Talwar and Jhingaran 1991) including   India, Sri Lanka, New Guinea, Australia, Pacific Islands, Indonesia, South China Sea, East Timor, Taiwan and Philippines (Froese and Pauly 2009). In India it has been recorded from eastern coast (Andhra Pradesh-Orissa) (Krishnan and Mishra 1993) and in the backwaters of Kerala (Kurup and Samuel 1985). There is also a report of the fish from the Pampa River at a location 300 m above sea level and 120 km away from the bar mouth (John and John 2004).
172450		habitat	eng	Inhabits marine, brackish water and freshwater ecosystems (Froese and Pauly 2009).
172450		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gyrinoides</span>. It is a rare species in India.
172450		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gyrinoides.</span>
172451		conservation	eng	This species is known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the threats of this species.
172451		distribution	eng	Esomus barbatus is endemic to India, where it ranges in&#160; the Western Ghats of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It has also been recorded from the Eastern Ghats, Krishna and Godavari Rivers (Misra 1938, Menon 1951, Davids 1963, Devi and Indra 2003).
172451		habitat	eng	This species is common in wetlands, ponds, and canals.
172451		population	eng	It is a very common species in wetlands and small ponds and canals.
172451		threats	eng	Pollution from pesticides, inorganic and organic pollution, quarrying and mining the Eastern Ghats is a threat.
172452		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action plan directed towards this species. Research is required to understand the population trends, life history and threats to the species.
172452		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteochilichthys brevidorsalis</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and it is known from Bhavani River at the base of the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu (Day 1873) and Nulpuzha in Wyanad, Kerala (Shaji and Easa 1995).
172452		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteochilichthys brevidorsalis</span> inhabits large streams (Menon 1999).
172452		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. The species has been recorded rarely since its first description.
172452		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
172453		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the life history and demography of the species to inform management decisions.   Research is required to understand the population size, distributions, population trends, life history, ecology, harvest and threats to the species. Monitorying the population trends, harvest levels trends, trade trends and habitat trends could help in designing and implementing conservation strategies. A species level action and recovery plan can be helpful to save wild populations of the species.
172453		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>It is known from the rivers Tungabhadra (Bhimachar and Rao1941, David 1956, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <em>et al</em>. 2010), Sharavathi (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2007), Bedti (Bhat 2004), Bhavani and Moyar&#160; (Mukerji 1931, Rajan 1955, 1963), Chandragiri, Chaliyar, Kabini, Valapatnam (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000, Easa and Basha 1995, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Shaji and Easa 1995), Uruttipuzha and Cheenkannipuzha (Shaji <em>et al</em>. 1995),&#160; Pavana (Patil <em>et al</em>. 2007), Mula-Mutha (Kharat<em> et al</em>. 2003, Suter 1944, Wagh and Ghate 2003) and Koyana river (Jadhav <em>et al</em>. 2011).<br/><br/>Thomas <em>et al</em>. (2002) collected <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii</span> from River Periyar, the first (and only) record from south of the Palakkad gap. However, subsequent surveys in the same river and its tributaries, and also other rivers south of Palakkad gap by various researchers (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2006) did not result in the collection of this species. It is therefore reasonable to suspect that Thomas <em>et al</em>. (2002) record of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii </span>from Periyar was a misidentification.<br/><br/>David (1963) suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii </span>is present in Krishna river but not in Godavari river. Menon (1999) synonymized <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteocheilus godavarensis</span> (Rao 1977) with <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii</span> extending the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii</span> to Godavari river. However, these two species are remarkably different (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999, Neelesh Dahanukar pers. obs.). Thus, as the synonymy is doubtful, presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii </span>in Godavari river is also doubtful.
172453		habitat	eng	Known to occur&#160; in the upper and middle reaches of rivers. It prefers riffles and pools. Attains a total length of 18 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
172453		population	eng	The species is known to have declined in the rivers of Maharashtra as per fisher folk (N. Dahanukar pers. comm.).&#160; There is no information on population trends in other parts of its distribution.
172453		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nashii </span>are threatened by habitat alterations in the river systems as a result of pollution from domestic and agricultural sources (Wagh and Ghate 2003, Bhat 2004) and destructive fishing practices (Easa and Basha 1995).&#160; Mining and sedimentation in lower reaches of Bhadra, Kudremukh National Park is also a threat to the local populations.
172454		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species although conservation initiative are in place for all inland fishes in Kerala as per the Inland Fishery Bill, 2010.
172454		distribution	eng	<em>Mystus oculatus</em> is endemic to Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004).   Known to occur in almost all river systems of Kerala (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000) including backwaters (Menon <em>et al</em>. 2000) and wetlands (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2003).&#160;Also recorded from Bhavani River in Tamil Nadu (Arockiaraj <em>et al</em>. 2004). &#160;It has been reported from 18 rivers by Kurup <em>at al</em>. (2004).
172454		habitat	eng	<p>Inhabits rivers in plains, estuaries (Menon 1999) and wetlands (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2003). It occupies pool and riffle habitats with gravelly or sandy bottom (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/></p>
172454		population	eng	Since it is a small fish with no fishery importance, the trends are unknown. The species is found in low abundance.
172454		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats. However, since this species is known from low land rivers, estuaries and backwaters, it is reasonable to state that threats including sand mining, pollution from domestic and industrial waste, eutrophication, destructive fishing practices and reclamation of wetlands would have some effect on their survival (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. comm.).
172455		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the life history, population status and threats to this species in and around its type locality to inform management plans.
172455		distribution	eng	<em><span lang="EN-GB">Horalabiosa palaniensis</em>is&#160;is endemic to the southern Western Ghats in the state of Tamil Nadu where it is known from the type locality of the Palani hills (Menon 1999).
172455		habitat	eng	Prefers fast flowing stream with rapid and riffle habitats (A. Manimekalan pers.comm.).
172455		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. palaniensis</span>.
172455		threats	eng	Currently there is no information on the threats. However, given the state of development activities in the Palni hills and the promotion of tourism, these could be potential threats to the species.
172457		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to identify micro level distribution patterns and subsequently study aspects of life history and population of this species.&#160;Temple authorities and communities need to be made aware of the conservation needs in the river systems (V. Atkore pers. comm.).
172457		distribution	eng	Tor malabaricus is recorded from rivers Balamore, Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu and Kallada, Kerala (Silas et al. 2005); and Tambraparini river (as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree malabaricus</span>) (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000).&#160; Other records include Netravathi (Anekal and Tingale), Tunga (Ganapathykatte, Sringeri and Suliya) (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).&#160; In Chalakudy it coexists with <em>T. khudree</em> (A. Gopalakrishnan pers. comm.).
172457		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. malabaricus</span>. Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. (2000) recorded that <span style="font-style: italic;">T. khudree malabaricus</span> prefers deep pools in streams with rocky substrates, where they feed on allochthonous plant materials and debris.
172457		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. malabaricus</span>&#160;in Maharashtra.&#160; It's common only in temple sanctuaries in Karnataka.&#160; The species is rare in other stretches of the streams on either side of the temple sanctuaries.&#160; In general, the species is uncommon (M. Arunachalam and K.R. Devi pers. comm.).<br/>The species has declined rapidly from all three states seen in surveys conducted since 1996.&#160; In earlier years the number of specimens caught from each of the localities were around 10-15, but in recent years the numbers caught have reduced to almost nil.&#160; Most of the areas are devoid of this species and they have not been observed (M. Arunachalam pers.comm.).
172457		threats	eng	Habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. malabaricus</span> in Tambraparini river are known to be under threat from siltation, alteration in flow and resultant drying up of pools in summer and destructive fishing practices (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000). In most river systems where the species occurs it is subjected to severe continuing decline in habitats and habitat quality due to anthropogenic affects such as urbanization, pollution, siltation, deforestation, and other causative factors (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172458		conservation	eng	It is not present in any protected areas.&#160;Regulation of fisheriess Inland Fisheries Bill of Kerala.
172458		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporhamphus xanthopterus</span>&#160;is endemic to the lakes of southern Kerala, Western Ghats of India. Collette (1981) has suggested that the records of this species outside of Kerala are based on wrong identification. The species is known from Vambanad Lake (Kurup and Samuel 1980), Ashtamudi Lake (Nair <em>et al.</em> 1983) and Vellayani Lake (Nair <em>et al.</em> 1983) from southern India. Nair <em>et al</em>. (1983) have mentioned that the lakes on the coast of Kerala are seasonally flooded and joined to each other. Thus it is possible that the species is present in other lakes and estuaries of the Kerala coast as well.
172458		habitat	eng	Typically associated with brackish water habitats.
172458		population	eng	It is a common species.
172458		threats	eng	There are no major current threats. However land reclamation (for human habitation and possibly tourism) which is widespread in the region, siltation, pollution are major potential threats to the species. Invasive weeds and over fishing may be also pose a threat to this species.
172459		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas, but the majority of it's range is unprotected.
172459		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius filamentosus </span>is  widely distributed across peninsular India, in the east flowing Cauvery,  Krishna and Tamitaparani rivers of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil  Nadu and throughout the  west flowing coastal floodplain rivers of Kerala, Karnataka and Goa. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It occurs in lowland, upper and middle reaches of rivers and also in estuaries, reservoirs and  marshes (Pethiyagoda & Kottelat 2005, Jayaram 2010). Occurs in the west coast of Maharashtra (S. Jadhav pers. comm.&#160;2010).
172459		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius filamentosus</span> is a common fish found inhabiting a whole array of habitats, both in the hill streams and streams of the lowlands and wetlands. It exhibits sexual dimorphism during the breeding periods. In breeding males, the anterior 4 -5 branched rays of the dorsal fin are extended into filaments, the scales display a brighter colour and the snout becomes covered with tubercles. It is also often found very close to the sea (for e.g., the type locality, Alleppey) in brackish water, together with typically estuarine fishes (Jayaram 1991, Chhapgar & Manakadan 2000, Pethiyagoda & Kottelat 2005).
172459		population	eng	It is very common across its range. The population status for this species is unknown.
172459		threats	eng	Many rivers in the species' range is undergoing degradation due to  pollution and habitat destruction, but the species is still found in large numbers in many of these rivers and also in dam reservoirs.
172460		conservation	eng	The species does occur in protected areas and is now more common there than in non-protected habitats, because of the intensity of threats the fish is subject to, in most locations of its range. Milt cryopreservation and captive breeding have been undertaken (V.S. Basheer pers. comm. 2010).
172460		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok malabaricus</span> is endemic to the Indian peninsula with its distribution ranging in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka and Kerala (six river systems) along the Western Ghats mountain range (Jayaram 2010) with a wide extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. It has also been reported from Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh (Chandrasekhar 2004).
172460		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok malabaricus</span> is a nocturnal, predatory catfish that inhabits slow flowing runs and pools.
172460		population	eng	There is no published literature available for the species' population documentation. It is an uncommon species.
172460		threats	eng	Most areas of the species' habitat is under threat from pollution caused by solid waste disposal, discharge of acids from rubber estates, sewage disposal, sand mining and dynamite fishing. The species is also hunted as it is a local delicacy.
172461		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for this species. There is a need to generate baseline information on the population trends, ecology and threats to the species.
172461		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius crescentus</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and is found only in the west flowing river (Yadav 2003). Until recently this species was known only from its type locality in Kali River at Sunkeri, Karnataka, India (Yazdani and Singh 1994). Recently, however, this species was reported from Chalakkudy and Muvattupuzha rivers in Ernakulam District, Kerala, India (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009). This report is not backed up with any taxonomic or range extension note and thus it needs verification.
172461		habitat	eng	The species is recorded from perennial river (Yazdani and Singh 1994).<em></em> No information is available on the ecology of this species. Holotype of this species is 29 mm in length (Yazdani and Singh 1994).
172461		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius crescentus</span>. Nevertheless, recent study on the Kali Nadi, the type locality of the fish, has not reported this fish (Bhat 2004). Beevi and Ramachandran (2009) suggest this species as common in both Chalakkudy and Muvattupuzha rivers in Ernakulam District, Kerala. However, as the presence of this species in Kerala is doubtful its status in Kerala cannot be considered as valid.
172461		threats	eng	No specific information is available on the threats to this species but untreated industrial effluents released directly into the river are causing habitat alterations in the area from where the fish is reported (Bhat 2004).
172462		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation action is in place. There is also no information on life history, ecology and population status. The Department of Forest and Wildlife, Government of Kerala is promoting the fishery of exotic fish species in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> as a means to control their proliferation (A. Ali pers.obs.)</p>
172462		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus periyarensis </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats in the  southern Indian state of Kerala, where it occurs in the upstream reaches  of Periyar River (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2005). It has a highly  restricted distribution occurring in an area of less than 10 km²  in the Thanikkudy region of Periyar Tiger Reserve (A. Ali and R.  Raghavan pers. obs.).
172462		habitat	eng	Occurs in fast-flowing streams with cobbles, pebbles and sand as  substrate (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).
172462		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. periyarensis</span>.
172462		threats	eng	<p>Three exotic species (<em>Cyprinus carpio</em> var. <em>communis</em>, <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>) occur in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2006, Periyar Foundation 2006)<st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>, which is located downstream of Thanikkudy (the type locality of <em>N. periyarensis</em>). Hence, there is a potential future threat from the upstream migration of these exotic species, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gariepinus</span>. <br/></p>
172463		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fraseri</span>, however, site protection is suggested for conservation of this threatened species. Research is needed to understand population trends, life history, ecology and threats to this species.
172463		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fraseri</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It is found in Darna river, an upper tributary of the Godavari river system, in Deolali, Nashik (Hora and Misra 1939). Kalawar and Kelkar (1956) reported the species from Panchaganga river, an upper tributary of the Krishna river system, in Kolhapur. Even though, Kalawar and Kelkar (1956) have given detailed taxonomic comment in support of their report, presence of this species in Krishna river system is highly unlikely. An extensive survey of the Krishna river system by Jayaram (1995) could not report this species. Furthermore, the species has not been recorded by any other study in Krishna river system. A more detailed investigation is required to conform the presence of the species in the Krishna river system. Both Jayaram (1991) and Talwar and Jhingran (1991) have restricted the species only to the Darna river.<br/>Recently, a collection from Sholapur district done in 1978 by A.S. Mahabal, was identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fraseri</span> (S. Jadhav pers. comm.), however, this report needs confirmation.<br/>Report of the species from Pune by Menon (1999) is a result of synonymization of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius deccanensis </span>with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fraseri</span>. However, this synonymy is not considered valid.<br/>Therefore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fraseri</span> is restricted only to the Darna river in Nashik and the expected extent of occurrence of 2500-3000 km<sup>2</sup> and 5 number of locations.
172463		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fraseri</span> inhabits hill streams and it attains a total length of 4.6 cm (Menon 1999). The habitat of this fish is threatened by organic pollution, agricultural pollution and introduced fishes (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.), human settlements and agricultural pollution from vineyards (S. Jadhav pers. comm.).
172463		population	eng	Exact population trends are not available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fraseri</span>, however, the population seems to be declining and it is rarely found in its type locality (S. Jadhav, pers. comm.).&#160; There is no record of this species since it was last recorded in 1956.&#160; Several surveys in the river Darna and other areas close to the type locality have not yielded this species (S. Jadhav pers. comm.)
172463		threats	eng	<p>The area from where&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius fraseri</span><em> </em>is recorded is threatened by organic pollution, agricultural pollution, and introduced fishes (N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).</p>
172464		conservation	eng	Research is essential on the population status, harvest trends and threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus reba</span>. Since commercial aquaculture of this species is possible (Sarkar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), heavy harvesting of the wild populations could be controlled by commercial production.
172464		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus reba </span>is present throughout India (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999), Bangladesh (Hossain and Haque 2005), Nepal (Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) and Pakistan (Mirza and Alam 2002). Its presence in Myanmar, as suggested by Menon (1999), is not valid.
172464		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus reba</span> is found in large streams, rivers, tanks, lakes and reservoirs (Menon 1999, Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It attains a total length of 30 cm (Menon 1999). It breeds only once in flooded shallows during June to early September (Gupta 1975). The fish feeds on plankton and detritus matter (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). No information is available on habitat trends of this fish.
172464		population	eng	Exact population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus reba</span> are not known. However, the species is common in most of its range. Wild population of the species could be declining due to heavy harvest (Sarkar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
172464		threats	eng	Detailed studies on the treats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus reba</span> are not available. However, this is a preferred food fish and even though in some areas it is cultivated in ponds, the wild populations are still heavily harvested.
172465		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the life history and population status of the species to inform conservation plans.
172465		distribution	eng	Horalabiosa arunachalami&#160;is endemic to the southern Western Ghats, India. Known only from the Panniyar stream of Periyar River at Santhampara, Kerala (Johnson and Soranam 2001).
172465		habitat	eng	Occurs in fast flowing streams where the species is restricted to rapids and cascades (A. Manimekalan pers.comm.).
172465		population	eng	No information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. arunachalami </span>is available. This is a rare species. Recent studies have indicated the species to have decreased to the extent of near complete disappearance indicating an extremely high rate of decline of more than 80% in the last 10 years.
172465		threats	eng	The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. arunachalami</span> is dominated by cardamom and tea plantations. In a recent survey it was found that the species had almost disappared from the type locality. The riparian cover of the stream is known to be severely altered (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2002; Arunachalam 2000).
172466		conservation	eng	Currently there is no conservation action plan in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus fulungee</span>. Research on the population trends, harvest level and threats to the species could be helpful.
172466		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus fulungee</span> is widely distributed in the Deccan plateau. It is recorded from Krishna and Godavari river system from Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Record of this species from Cauvery river system (Menon 1999) is doubtful.&#160;In Maharashtra, the species is known from Mula-Mutha river of Pune (Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003), Pashan lake in Pune (Fraser 1942, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963), Pavana River near Pune (Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Ujni Wetland (Yazdani and Singh 1990), Neera river near Bhor (Neelesh Dahanukar, Mandar Paingankar, Rupesh Raut and S.S. Kharat, manuscript submitted), Krishna river near Wai (S.S. Kharat, Mandar Paingankar and Neelesh Dahanukar, manuscript in preparation), Koyna river at Patan (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), Panchaganga river in Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956), Solapur district (Jadhav and Yadav 2009), Kinwat near Nanded (Hiware 2006) and Adan river (Heda 2009). In Andhra Pradesh, the species is known from Nagarjunasagar (Venkateshwarlu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In Karnataka, the species is reported from Tungabhadra river (Chacko and Kuriyan 1948, David 1956, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Linganamakki Reservoir on Sharavati River (Shreekantha and Ramachandra&#160; 2005), Biligiri Ranganathswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and Jannapura pond (Venkateshwarlu and Somashekar 2005). The species is also reported from Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Chandra and Sharma 2007, Dubey 2009, Sarkar and Lakra 2007) but the exact localities are missing. however, it is possible that the species is reported from the tributaries of Godavari river system in these two states.&#160;This is a wide spread species with an inferred EOO of 520000 to 530000 km<sup>2</sup>.
172466		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus fulungee</span> is found in rivers, lakes and reservoirs (Menon 1999, Tonapi and Mulherkar  1963, Sreekantha and Ramachandra 2005). The species attains a total length of 30 cm (Menon 1999).
172466		population	eng	Exact population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus fulungee</span> is not known but it is common in most of its distribution (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Yadav 2003, Jayaram 1995, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
172466		threats	eng	Currently there are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus fulungee</span>. Sarkar and Lakra (2007) have considered the species vulnerable but no rationale is provided.
172467		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. imitator</span> is one of the least known freshwater fish of the Western Ghats. There is hence an urgent need to generate baseline information on its actual distribution, population status, life history and ecology. As the species is already in the international aquarium pet trade, captive breeding techniques need to be developed for minimizing pressure on wild collection.
172467		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. imitator</span> was described based on aquarium specimens of puffer fish that originated from India (Britz and Kottelat 1999). Information gathered from the importer (through the exporter) indicated that the species is found in the rivers of Cochin (probably Ernakulam and its neighbouring districts). It has since been collected from Kumaradhara and Addahole, Netravathi River Basin in Karnataka (J.A Johnson and M. Arunachalam pers. comm 2010).
172467		habitat	eng	Like the Malabar Puffer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carinotetraodon travancoricus), </span>it is also reasonable to believe that the Dwarf Malabar Puffer, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. imitator</span> may also be found in mid- and lowland reaches of rivers. It has been collected from a shallow, gravelly stream (J.A Johnson and M. Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010).
172467		population	eng	It appears to be a very rare species (J.A Johnson and M. Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010).
172467		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. imitator</span>. Large-scale collection for the aquarium pet trade may be a possible future threat if the species has a restricted distribution and low population sizes (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.). Such data is however not currently available.
172468		conservation	eng	It has not been recorded from any protected areas in India.
172468		distribution	eng	Known to   occur in the tropical (21°N - 8°S) Indo West Pacific from the west coast of India to Indonesia. Seen in the waters of Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand (Froese and Pauly 2009). In the Western Ghats of India it has been recorded from streams of Uttara Kannada region (Bhat 2004).
172468		habitat	eng	<p>Most frequently found in rivers, streams, estuaries (Talwar and Jhingran1991) as well as marine waters (Fishbase 2009).&#160;Known to feed on worms, crustaceans and small zooplankton (Rainboth 1996);</p>
172468		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species in the Western Ghats.
172468		threats	eng	There appear to be no known threats to this species.
172469		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippichthys penicillus</span>. Research is needed on distribution, population status, harvest trends and threats to this species.
172469		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippichthys penicillus</span> is distributed in <span>Indo-West Pacific from western Persian Gulf (Kuwait, Saudi Arabia),  north central Indian Ocean, and eastward to Japan and Queensland,  Australia (<span>Froese and Pauly 2010<span>). <br/>Records of this species from India are because of the synonymy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus argyrostictus</span> to&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippichthys penicillus</span>.<span> In India the species is recorded from Cochin (now Kochi) in&#160; Kerala (Day 1865) and Mysore in Karnataka (Hora 1925). There are no recent records of this fish from India. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) have doubted the presence of this species from India.<br/>Even though the presence of this species in India needs confirmation, the species is widely distributed.</span></span>
172469		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippichthys penicillus </span>is found in <span class="sheader5">lower reaches of streams and rivers, seagrass beds in estuaries and other shallow inshore habitats and it attains a standard length of 18 cm (<span><span>Froese and Pauly 2010<span><span class="sheader5">).  This species is monogamous, ovoviviparous and males exhibit parental care by incubating and guarding the eggs in their brood pouch (<span class="sheader5">Watanabe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997<span class="sheader5">).</span></span></span>
172469		population	eng	No information is available on the population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippichthys penicillus</span>.
172469		threats	eng	No specific threats are known for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippichthys penicillus</span>. However, their sparse distribution, low mobility,  small home ranges, low fecundity, lengthy parental care and mate  fidelity might render them vulnerable to overfishing or other disruptions such as habitat damage (Foster and Vincent 2004).
172470		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis thomassi</span> is known from at least five protected area at Chimmony and Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuaries (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000a), Idukki and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuaries (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000b) and Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010). Research is essential on population status, ecology and threats to the species.
172470		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis thomassi</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is recorded from Kerala (John 1936, Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Shaji and Easa 1996, Ajithkumar 1999, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000a, 2000b, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Beevi and Ramachandran 2009, Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010), Karnataka (Bhat 2004) and Goa (Tilak 1972).<br/>The species is found only in the western coast of southern India. It is record from the east flowing Tungabhadra river by Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu (2009) and Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) is doubtful.
172470		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis thomassi </span>inhabits streams and lakes (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It lives in coastal waters but enters inland even to elevated localities (Menon 1999). It attains a total length of 16.5 cm (Menon 1999).
172470		population	eng	Exact population structure of <span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis thomassi</span> is not known. Overall it is rare in Kerala (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). It is rare in Chalakkudy River, Muvattupuzha River and Periyar River (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009). Its population is moderate in Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010), while it is abundant in Bharathapuzha river (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001).
172470		threats	eng	There are no direct threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> Parambassis thomassi</span>. It parts of its range populations may be impacted by general habitat loss or pollution.
172471		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus prateri</span>, however, site protection is suggested for conservation of this threatened species. Research is needed to understand presence/absence, population trends, life history, ecology and threats to this species.
172471		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus prateri </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is currently known only from Darna River in upper Godavari River basin, Deolali, Nasik District, Maharashtra State, India (Hora and Misra 1937, 1940, Jayaram 1999, Menon 1999). The type locality and surrounding areas have been surveyed repeatedly since 2004, but the species has not been recorded (S. Jadhav and N. Dahanukar pers. comm.).
172471		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus prateri</span> is recorded from hill streams with rocky gradients and it attains a maximum length of 5.9 cm standard length (Menon 1999).
172471		population	eng	Exact population trends are not available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus prateri</span>, however, the species has never been found in the type locality or adjacent basins since its description even after recent extensive sampling in the areas (S. Jadhav and N. Dahanukar, pers. comm.).
172471		threats	eng	The habitat of this species (hill streams with clear water and pebbles as substrate) is highly degraded because of deforestation in the area leading to siltation. There is also organic and agricultural pollution, and introduced fishes, in particular <em>Oreochromis mossambicus </em>which has remarkably increased in population in the last few decades and has threatened populations of most of the species in this area (Neelesh Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172472		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to determine the population status of the species in its key habitats. There is a need to create additional sites of suitable habitat for this species.
172472		distribution	eng	<em>Pterocryptis wynaadensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats. Known from the Kabini, Kuttiyadi, Chandragiri, Tungabhadra, Bedti, Bhavani, Moyar, Tambaraparini and Neerar River Systems (Gopi and Radhakrishnan 2001, Kurup <em>et al</em> 2004, Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2007, Bhat 2004). Although Gopi and Radhakrishnan (2001) have reported this species from more than six rivers, while duly considering the habitat and peculiar behavioural pattern, this report needs to be re-validated (B.M. Kurup pers. comm.).
172472		habitat	eng	Inhabits fast flowing river, canals and streams (mostly hides in holes on rocks) where it feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is nocturnal and highly reclusive during the day hiding in pools (Gopi and Radhakrishnan 2001). During its spawning seasons (monsoon months), the fish often comes to shallow water in submerged cultivable fields amidst the riparian vegetation for spawning during night and returns to the stream habitats before dawn (Gopi and Radhakrishnan 2001).
172472		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. wynaadensis</span>. Studies have indicated that the species continues to exist in the range of distribution with surviving populations capable of perpetuating themselves in the future (Gopi and Radhakrishnan 2001). &#160;The species is estimated to have declined by more than 50% in the last 10 years due to a continuing decline in area and habitat quality as well as due to pollution. &#160;Since it is a very sensitive species to environmental changes compared to other conspecifics, the rate of decline is alarming.
172472		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. wynaadensis</span> is threatened by loss of habitat, siltation and destructive fishing (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000).
172473		conservation	eng	The species is not the focus of any conservation intervention. But it warrants immediate conservation action in order to prevent further deterioration of habitat and hence it's own population.&#160; Studies are recommended on population trends, distribution, impacts of exotics.
172473		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Horadandia atukorali </span>occurs in Kerala (Gopi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Gopi 2006), Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry in India and in Sri Lanka (Jayaram 2010).<br/>In Kerala it is found from Ernakulam to down south up to Thiruvananthapuram (Shaji 2003, R. Kumar pers. comm., A. Mercy pers. obs.). It is widely distributed in Tamil Nadu. It is a small species, which is easily overlooked. Hence it may not be documented in all of its range (R. Kumar pers. comm.).
172473		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It inhabits weedy freshwater ponds along coastal plains (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It is a euryhaline species.
172473		population	eng	It is found in large numbers wherever it occurs. There are no publications with information on the population trends of this species.
172473		threats	eng	The species habitats from freshwater (swamps, wetlands, ponds and lakes) to brackish water, have been reclaimed. Also most of the remnant habitats have become dumping grounds for all kinds of refuse and are extremely polluted. The additional threat of exotic invasive species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia</span> spp. is also present.
172475		conservation	eng	There are populations of the species inside protected areas, but these are transient, since they are potamodromous and need to go outside from within protected areas, once they mature into adults. Once outside they are subject to the threats elaborated. Hence, there is need for establishing riverine protected area networks throughout the river from source to the sea mouth, that serve as buffer areas for the survival of the species. According to the records from literature, there seems to be two broad populations of the species; a north peninsula population in the Krishna-Godavari systems and a South-western population. But, it may also be a case of poor sampling in the intermediate areas, that the species seems absent from there. Hence, more rigorous surveys are also a preliminary requirement.
172475		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus curmuca</span> is distributed in east flowing Tungabhadra, Cauvery and Vedavathi and west flowing&#160;Netravathi and Kuamaradhara&#160;in Karnataka, Tambaraparani in Tamil Nadu, and all the west flowing systems Pamba, Achenkovil, Manimala, Periyar, Chalakkudy, Bharathapuzha and Chaliyar in Kerala (Arunachalam 2004, Shaji and Easa 2003, Jayaram 2010, R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs. December 2010; C.P. Shaji and R. Kumar pers. comm. 2010).
172475		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus curmuca</span> is an omnivorous, gregarious species, that normally occupy deep waters in the rivers of the plains or in deep and cool pools in hilly regions (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000) and as adults migrate to smaller tributaries and streams for spawning. The species is seen mostly along the banks of rivers (Biju 2005). It attains a maximum length of 30 cm; is a bottom feeders, sand sifters and hence have a suitable downward facing mouth. Adult males develop tubercles on the snout. It is known to breed after the south-west monsoon months, from June to August (Daniels 2002).
172475		population	eng	There is no published literature documenting the population of the species. In reservoirs, especially Malampuzha, the species is very abundant (R. Raghavan pers. comm. 2010).&#160;The population all through the range has declined as observed in fishermen catches and market surveys. The population decline is estimated to be more than 50% due to overexploitation and destructive fishing in some parts of its range (M. Arunachalam pers. comm. 2010).
172475		threats	eng	Destructive exploitation of the species by dynamite fishing and poisoning, habitat destruction and fragmentation due to sand-mining and dams, and overall stream degradation due to pollution have greatly reduced the range and abundance of this fish species. Exotic, introduced species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo mrigala</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Catla catla</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis mossambica</span> too, have contributed to the decline of the species in Periyar (R. Abraham&#160;pers. obs. November 2010). Overfishing is a primary threat to the species.
172476		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. It is present in Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary (Rahul Kumar pers. obs). There is a need to generate baseline information on the distribution, life history and population status of this species from the two southern Indian states where they occur - Karnataka and Kerala.
172476		distribution	eng	<em>Balitora mysorensis</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Kerala it is known from   the rivers Kabini (Gopi 2000), Bhavani (Kurup <em>et a</em>l. 2004; Shaji and Easa 2003), Bharathapuzha (Kurup et al. 2004), Periyar (Menon 1987) and Achenkovil (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006) and in Karnataka from the Tungabhadra (Gopi 2000, Shahnawaz and Venkateswarlu 2009, Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2008) and Cauvery drainages (Gopi 2000). The record of <em>B. mysorensis</em> from the Kohlapur area of Maharashtra (Gopi 2000) needs to be confirmed. &#160;Although the extent is slightly wide (<25000 km<sup>2</sup>), the area of occupancy is restricted to less than 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
172476		habitat	eng	<p><em>B. mysorensi</em>s inhabits torrential streams (Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009) where they are observed attached to bedrock, cobbles and boulders (Shaji and Easa 2003). <br/>  </p>
172476		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. mysorensis</span>. It is generally a rare species. This species is known to be more common in Karnataka (Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009) compared to Kerala where it is very rare (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002, Gopi 2000).
172476		threats	eng	The habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. mysorensis </span>in many of the river systems where they occur are threatened by pollution from plantations, as well as destructive fishing practices including dynamiting and poisoning (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000, A. Ali pers. obs.).<em style="font-style: italic;"></em> Taking into account the restricted distribution, unmanaged collections for the aquarium pet trade may be a potential future threat to this species in the Western Ghats.
172477		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. This species has been recorded from some protected areas. There is a need to document the biology, demography and ecology of this species.
172477		distribution	eng	<em>Nemacheilus keralensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the southern part of the Western Ghats in the state of Kerala, India. <br/>Since its first description from Periyar drainage (Rita <em>et al</em>. 1978), the species has been subsequently recorded from Sabarigiri hills in Pampa drainage (Menon 1987), Eravikulam National Park (Thomas <em>et al</em>.1999), Kaitapara area of Kaliyar tributary in the Muvattupuzha river (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2001, Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2002), Santhamapara area of Periyar River (Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000, Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2002) and Vagamon area of River Meenachil (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004, Thomas 2004). It is also suspected that the reports of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. evezardi</span> by Zacharias <em>et al</em>. (1996) from Periyar Lake may actually be that of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. keralensis </span>(Remadevi <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/>However, the reports of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. keralanesis</span> in Phansad stream of River Nirar in Maharashtra by Arunachalam (2000) needs further verification. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172477		habitat	eng	It inhabits high altitude streams with bedrock, cobbles, gravel, as major substrates. It is mostly seen attached to the rocky bottom of the streams.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">N. keralensis </span>mainly feeds on algae followed by invertebrates, plants and detritus (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000).&#160;<em> </em>
172477		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. keralaensis</span>. It is an uncommon species.
172477		threats	eng	Local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. keralensis</span> inside Eravikulam National Park are threatened by exotic species (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1999) and those in Muvattupuzha and Meenachil rivers by pollution from domestic and agricultural wastes (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers.obs.). If the records of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. keralensis</span> inside Periyar National Park are confirmed, then the local populations may be under threat from exotic fish species that have already colonised Periyar Lake (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2006; Periyar Foundation 2006) and also pollution (Kurup 2004).
172478		conservation	eng	Baseline information on <span style="font-style: italic;">M. roseni</span> including its distribution,  population and life history need to be determined to inform conservation  action. It is not known from any protected areas.
172478		distribution	eng	No information on the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. roseni </span>is available except for its type locality Periyam Village (Kerala-India) (Bailey and Gans 1998).
172478		habitat	eng	The species is known only from its type locality: a subterranean well (Bailey and Gans 1998).
172478		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. eapeni</span>.
172478		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. roseni</span>.
172479		conservation	eng	It is known from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. No direct conservation measures are in place.
172479		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus armatus </span>is known from the Western Ghats of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Kurup <em>et al.</em> 2004; Jayaram 2010). Its report from Manipur and Myanmar (Jayaram and Sanyal 2003) needs conformation.
172479		habitat	eng	Pool-riffle habitats with a gravelly or sandy bottom (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2005).
172479		population	eng	This is a rare species.
172479		threats	eng	It is generally threatened by the drying of streams, siltation, organic and other pollution and introduced species.
172480		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. It is not present in any protected areas.
172480		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapsilorhynchus elongatus</span>&#160;is endemic to the northern Western Ghats in the state of Maharashtra (Yadav 2003). Its extent of occurrence is restricted to less than 5,000 km².
172480		habitat	eng	This species is found in first to third order seasonal streams during monsoon season and prefers rapid moving shallow clear water with a sandy and pebbly bottom (N. Dahanukar pers.obs). As the streams start drying, the species migrates downstream to the main river; this fish undergoes altitudinal migration for breeding. Deforestation leading to siltation and recreational activities on the  mountains can destroy the breeding habitat for this fish and such  changes are common in this area. This species is also threatened by  tourism in the Bhimasankar area (N. Dahanukar pers.obs.).
172480		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species. However it is commonly seen in the upper tributaries during the monsoon season (N. Dahanukar pers.obs.).
172480		threats	eng	Increasing tourism and other recreational activities as well as deforestation (resulting in siltation) has led to the decline in quality of critical habitats of this species, especially on the mountain tops where the first to third order streams originate (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.).
172481		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Etroplus maculatus</span> is an abundant species across it's range, despite the vast array of threats affecting itself and it's habitat. This could be attributed to it's successful breeding strategy, employing parental care. However, the species might hold on, upto a maximum disturbance threshold, before showing any significant declines in the face of these threats. Hence, more studies and action in the form of legislation and management need to be strengthened for the long term survival of the species.
172481		distribution	eng	<em>Etroplus maculatus</em> is widely distributed in the rivers and estuaries of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, along the southern part of the Indian peninsula and in Sri Lanka (Biju 2005, Jayaram 1981, 2010).
172481		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Etroplus maculatus</span> inhabits both fresh and brackish water systems. It occurs in the middle and lower reaches of the river system extending to the coastal streches. It is an omnivore (Biju 2005). The species is well known for its parenting behaviour. The species breeds twice per year (Samarakoon 1983).
172481		population	eng	It is a very common species.
172481		threats	eng	Pollution, habitat destruction, land reclamation and exploitation for food and commercial interests are threats to this species.
172482		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is an urgent need to generate information on the biology, population and threats to this species.
172482		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura sharavatienis</span>&#160;is endemic to central Western Ghats in Karnataka where it is known from a 100 m stretch of Kalkatte tributary, above Dabbe Falls of Sharavathi River (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172482		habitat	eng	The species is known to inhabit perennial torrential hill streams with good evergreen to semi-evergreen vegetation cover (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172482		population	eng	This is a recently described species; four specimens were collected from the type locality (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2006). No information is available on the population trends.
172482		threats	eng	Pesticide runoff from plantations is a potential threat to this highly restricted species; the plantations also contribute to siltation (Sreekantha and R. Kumar pers. obs.).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172483		conservation	eng	Extensive microgeographic surveys have to be undertaken in and around its type locality and throughout its once-known range to conclude whether the species has gone extinct. Also, there is a need for carrying out taxonomic studies by comparing types available at museums or in personal collections to ascertain the taxonomic identity, especially of the collection made by Arunachalam (2000).
172483		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus lithopidos </span>is endemic to the southern Western Ghats (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The distribution of this species is entirely based on reports made in the early half of the last century (1929-1941): drainages in Trivandrum District (Pillai 1929, John, 1936); Periyar National Park and Tiger Reserve as well as River Chaliyar at Nilambur (Raj 1941). It was not recorded throughout 1950-2010 from Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu parts of Western Ghats, although this area has been comprehensively explored (Easa and Basha 1995, Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000, Chandrashekhariah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Gopi 2000, Thomas 2004, Biju 2005, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).</p><p>The species is known only from the type collection and one specimen housed in the Madras Museum. Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) reported a collection of the species from Khal River, Maharashtra, which require verification.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
172483		habitat	eng	It was known to occur in   fast flowing streams in forested areas (Menon 1999).
172483		population	eng	This fish was previously recorded only before the 1950s and since then confirmed records have not been collected. The species may be extinct in its original range.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
172483		threats	eng	No information on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. lithopidos</span> is available. The areas from where the species was recorded prior to 1950s have been altered and currently there is no information on its occurrence.
172484		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rita chrysea.</span> Research is needed on the population status, harvest trends and threats to the species.
172484		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rita chrysea</span> is endemic to Mahanadi river system (Menon 1999) and is recorded from River Tel in Belgaon (Chauhan 1947), Kundal Dhal (Chauhan and Ramakrishna 1953), Hiracud reservoir (David 1953) and Anicut near Cuttack (Jayaram 1966). The species is definitely found in Orissa and it may be found in tributaries of Mahanadi in Chhattisgard and Madhya Pradesh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007).
172484		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rita chrysea</span> is found in large rivers and reservoirs and is restricted to freshwater ecosystem (David 1953, Menon 1999). It attains a total length of 30 cm and it spawns during monsoon (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 1999).<br/></p>
172484		population	eng	Population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rita chrysea</span> is not exactly known but during 1978 and 1979 the species was harvested with the intensity of 20.1 and 15.1 tonnes respectively from Hiracud reservoir (Nair <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1981). Thus the species could be abundant in the given area but it is also subject to heavy harvesting.
172484		threats	eng	Since this fish is harvested in large quantities (Nair <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1981, Talwar and Jhingran 1991) heavy harvesting could be a possible threat to the species.
172485		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Preliminary studies into the ecology and population are crucial for the future  management of the species and its habitat.
172485		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus kurali </span>is endemic to the southern Western Ghats, having been recorded from the west flowing rivers of Kumaradhara (Nethravathi River Basin) in southern Karnataka (M. Arunachalam pers.comm.&#160;2010), Periyar river in Puyankutty (Ajithkumar <em>et al.</em> 2001) and the Periyar Tiger Reserve, central Kerala and Achankovil and Kulathupuzha (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009) rivers in southern Kerala (Jayaram 2010). It is also recorded from the west flowing Chittar river in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu (Arunachalam 2004).
172485		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselobarbus kurali</span> is a bottom feeder and has a downward facing mouth, suitable for grazing on algae or probing for macroinvertebrates. In the breeding season, adult males sport well developed horny tubercles on the snout. The females show few small tubercles on the side of the snout (Biju 2003).
172485		population	eng	The species is abundant throughout its range (M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).&#160;Three genetically distinct populations (Chalakkudy, Chaliyar and Periyar) have been identified using microsatellite and allozyme markers at NBFGR (Musammilu 2008).
172485		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by sand mining and dynamite fishing is the most important threat affecting this species. The presence of introduced species by the fisheries department in reservoirs is also a cause for concern.
172486		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. Captive breeding has been developed since the last century. Habitat restoration should be given priority. Research is needed on exact distribution, population trends, harvest trends, ecology and specific threats to the species.
172486		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius vittatus</span> is known from India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan (Jayaram 1991). It is widely distributed in west and east flowing rivers of peninsular India and is known from Kerala (Beevi and Ramachandran 2009, Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010, Baby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Goa (Tilak 1972), Karnataka (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), Tamil Nadu (Daniels and Rajgopal 2004, Ramanujam and Anbarasan 2009), Maharashtra (Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Kutch (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), Bihar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), Rajasthan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) and Uttarkhand (Atkore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
172486		habitat	eng	Inhabits ponds, streams, lakes in the plains and is also found in the paddy fields (Menon 1999). Found in shallow waters, with moderate flow and submerged vegetation. They are generally seen at the edges of small pools. It attains a total length of 5 cm (Menon 1999)..
172486		population	eng	Rare in Uttarakhand (V. Atkore per. comm.) and Maharashtra (Jadhav per. comm.). It is however very abundant in almost all rivers of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (A. Ali and R. Kumar per. comm).
172486		threats	eng	In middle and low land reaches, sand and boulder mining and illegal fishing are the major threats to the species. Aquarium trade is also a potential future threat. It has been suggested that introduced alien fishes could be a threat to this species (Krishnakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
172488		conservation	eng	A large portion of this species' range falls within the protected areas of the Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kulathupuzha Reserve Forest. Some, but not all, areas of the protected area ensure the species' survival. Life histroy studies and impacts of fishing need to be studied. Before describing this species, captive breeding techniques were developed for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. filamentosus</span> from Kallada, which is currently recognized as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. exclamatio</span> (Mercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).
172488		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius exclamatio </span>occurs in the Kallada River, in southern Kerala, India, about 12 km upstream of the area where this river meets the coastal floodplain. The species is also found both upstream in the tributaries of Umayar and Kulathupuzhayar, and about 2km downstream of the Thenmala (Kallada Irrigation Project) dam on the Kallada River (Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 2005).
172488		habitat	eng	This species occurs in clear water, rock and pebble substrate areas of the upper reaches of the Kallada River.The fish's natural habitat includes both slow-flowing pools and relatively fast-flowing runs (Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 2005, R. Abraham pers. obs. January 2010).
172488		population	eng	It is common in its habitat (R. Abraham pers. obs. January 2010).
172488		threats	eng	Some of the potential threats affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius exclamatio </span>are illegal dynamite fishing in the species range, including inside protected areas and negative impact by the large invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>, which was introduced into the dam reservoir but has now spread into surrounding areas.
172489		conservation	eng	Baseline information on the species including its distribution, population and life history need to be determined to inform conservation action. It is not known from any protected areas.
172489		distribution	eng	No information on the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. digressus </span>is available except for its type locality - Kuthiravattom, Calicut (Kerala-India) (Gopi 2002).
172489		habitat	eng	Recorded from homestead wells (Gopi 2002).
172489		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. digressus</span>.
172489		threats	eng	As the wells from where <span style="font-style: italic;">M. digressus</span> was recorded were located within human habitation (Gopi 2002), it is reasonable to suspect that the habitats may be prone to anthropogenic impacts.
172490		conservation	eng	The species is present in some protected areas falling in its range. But, the populations occurring outside protected areas have had no conservation action taken to ensure future survival.
172490		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius gatensis</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats in India (Jayaram 2010). It has been recorded by various authors, from both west and east flowing rivers and streams of Kerala,&#160; Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Talwar and  Jhingaran 1991) It is found to inhabit the rivers of Sharavathi (Sreekantha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007, 2008) and&#160; Bhadra (Shahnawaz et al. 2010) in Karnataka; Chalakudy (Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), Periyar (Kurup <em>et al.</em> 2004, Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and Bharathapuzha (Shaji and Easa 2003, Rema Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) in Kerala and the Cauvery and Tamiraparani in Tamil Nadu (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009).&#160;Outside of southern India, the species report from central India by Lakra and Sarkar (2007) needs further study.
172490		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius gatensis</span> occurs in the highlands and midland reaches of the Western Ghats. They normally inhabit pools and slow flowing runs and need well oxygenated, running water for optimum survival (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009, 2010).
172490		population	eng	There is no published literature on the population of this species. The population is declining drastically since 1995 as it requires clear water and due to siltation and dam construction, the species is affected by decline in habitat quality in the Bhavani and Tunga rivers (M. Arunachalam pers.comm.). The populations in other rivers seem stable.
172490		threats	eng	The primary threats to this species are habitat destruction and pollution, along with competition from exotic, introduced species. Many areas that were formerly ideal habitat, have been modified by dams in the form of stagnant reservoirs. The species has disappeared from these modified areas.
172491		conservation	eng	Currently there is no conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis dayi</span>. Research is essential on the population status, ecology, harvest trends and threats to the species. The species is known from at least one protected site in Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010).
172491		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis dayi</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The species is found in the coastal region of southern Western Ghats and till recently the species was known only from Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Roberts 1994, Menon 1999). Recently, Bhat (2004) reported the species from Bedti river in southern Karnataka extending the range of this species considerably northwards. In Kerala the species is known from Kochi (Roberts 1994), Chalakudy river (Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999), Travancore (John 1936), Vembanad Lake (Kurup and Samuel 1985) and Periyar Tiger Reserve (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2010).&#160; <br/>The expected EOO of the species is 64000 to 65000 km<sup>2</sup> while the number of locations are more than 10.
172491		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis dayi</span> inhabits freshwaters and estuarine lakes (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) including upper reaches of rivers. It attains a total length of 17.5 cm (Menon 1999). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
172491		population	eng	Exact population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis dayi</span> is not known but the species is very common in Kerala (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
172491		threats	eng	There are not considered to be any significant threat to this species, however it can be threatened in parts of its range by the prevailing threats of habitat loss, pollution etc.
172492		conservation	eng	No particular conservation measure is in place directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok goae</span>. Research is needed on taxonomy, distribution, population status, life history, ecology and threats to this species is essential.
172492		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok goae</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Yadav 2000, 2003). Haig (1952) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok goae</span> from Goa and Trivandrum, however, exact point locality of the species is missing. Tilak's (1972) report of the species from Goa is only based on the previous literature and he himself never collected the species. Yadav (2003) mentions that the species is found in the West flowing rivers and in Krishna river basin but exact localities are not mentioned. As a result mapping of the species is difficult.
172492		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok goae </span>is reported from both the east flowing and west flowing rivers but exact locations are not given (Yadav 2003). No further information on the precise habitat and ecology of the species is available.
172492		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok goae</span>.
172492		threats	eng	Yadav (2000, 2003) has considered <span style="font-style: italic;">Ompok goae</span> as a threatened species but no rationale is given to support this claim. No other information is available on the threats to the species.
172493		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to study the life history, ecology and population of the species. Systematic survey of the area is required.
172493		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura nagodiensis&#160;</span>is endemic to the Western Ghats. It is known only from Nagodihole, a tributary of Sharavati River in Karnataka State, India (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172493		habitat	eng	Known to inhabit torrential hill streams with good vegetation cover (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2006).
172493		population	eng	It is a recently described species and 12 specimens were collected from the type locality (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2006). No information is available on the population trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. nagodiensis. </span>
172493		threats	eng	Pesticide run-off from plantations is a threat to this highly restricted species; the plantations also contribute to siltation (Rahul Kumar pers. obs.).
172494		conservation	eng	It has been recorded from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
172494		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from Vythiri, Noolpuzha and Tholpetty in Wayanad (Kerala), and has also been recorded from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (bordering this area).<br/><br/>Records of this species from Mula-Mutha River of Pune (Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963) is doubtful (Kharat <em>et al</em>. 2003). Similarly, report of this species from Nira river at Veer Dam (Ghate and Pawar 1992) may refer to a yet undescribed species (N. Dahanukar <em>et al</em>., manuscript in review).
172494		habitat	eng	This species prefers streams with a sandy or pebbly bottom where the current is very slow. It is only found in areas with more than 50% of canopy.
172494		population	eng	This is a rare species.
172494		threats	eng	It is threatened by&#160;pollution from sedimentation and pesticides. Loss of habitat due to the removal of tree canopy, and harvest for trade also pose threats for this species.
172496		conservation	eng	It is present in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. No species specific conservation measures are in place.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
172496		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mesonemacheilus herrei</span> is known from the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in the Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats (K.R. Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) where it is restricted to a very small area (5 km² area of occupancy (AOO) and 50 km² extent of occurrence (EOO)) amidst plantations.
172496		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mesonoemacheilus herrei</span> is a benthic species that prefers hilly areas with gravel, cobbles and bedrock with a little amount of sand as the substrate (Menon 1987).
172496		population	eng	There is no published literature on the population density of this species. It is a rare species.
172496		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pesticides run-off from plantations (cardamom, tea and coffee), as well as by the construction of check-dams.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
172497		conservation	eng	Kerala Inland Fisheries bill 2010 - regulation
172497		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Zenarchopterus dispar</em> has been collected from Sri Lanka (Pethiyagoda 1991) and (Vembanad Lake) India (Kurup 1980).
172497		habitat	eng	This is a brackish water species, in the&#160;upper reaches of lakes and&#160;ecotone between rivers and estuaries
172497		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
172497		threats	eng	Several threats in India include land reclamation, siltation, pollution (pesticide and organic), invasive weeds and fishing. &#160;No data for Sri Lanka.
172499		conservation	eng	No conservation action is in place. There is also no information on life history, ecology and population status. The Department of Forest and Wildlife, Government of Kerala is promoting the fishery of exotic fish species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> as a means to control their proliferation (A. Ali pers.obs.)
172499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra periyarensis</span>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats in the  southern Indian state of Kerala, where it occurs in the upstream reaches  of Periyar River (Gopi 2001). So far it is known only from Thanikkudy and Mlappara regions inside the Periyar National Park and Tiger Reserve (Euphrasia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Gopi 2001, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).&#160;It is seen only in one location with the stream length of 10 km and the width of about 100 m.
172499		habitat	eng	<p>Inhabits fast flowing streams with boulders, cobbles, pebbles and sand as substrate (R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.).</p>
172499		population	eng	No information is available on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra periyarensis</span>. Anecdotal data suggest that the fish is very rare (Kurup and Radhakrishnan 2006). Catch per hour of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. periyarensis</span> in its type locality was very low; the species was encountered only four times in as many as seventeen surveys conducted in and around its type locality (Euphrasia<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006).
172499		threats	eng	Although no current threats exist for this species, there is a potential future threat from three exotic species (<em>Cyprinus carpio</em> var. <em>communis</em>, <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>). These species occur in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Kurup  <em>et al</em>. 2006, Periyar Foundation 2006)<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>, which is located downstream of Thanikkudy (the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. periyarensis</span>).
172500		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas, but otherwise mostly occurs in unprotected streams and rivers.
172500		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arulius</span> is found only in the upper reaches of the Tungabhadhra river system in the upper reaches of&#160; Karnataka and the Cauvery river basin, in Wayanad of Kerala, the upper and middle reaches of&#160; Karnataka and the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu. There is also a record of the species from the west-flowing Sharavathi river in Central Karnataka (Sreekantha<em> et al. </em>2008). They have been found from Coorg (Kodagu), upstream of the type locality (Srirangapattana, in Karnataka State), just above which the river has been dammed in 1996, by Pethiyagoda & Kottelat (2005). However, no specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. arulius</span> were found in the Cauvery at Srirangapatam, despite an extensive search made by them in March 1996. Local fishermen failed to recognise photographs, of the fish or the local-name 'aruli' mentioned by Jerdon (1849: 317). Hence, the possibility that the species has become regionally extinct in those areas. Jayaram (2010) says that the species is found even in the west flowing drainages, as far south as Kottayam, Kerala.<br/><br/>The present species distribution is Coorg and Sharavathi River in Shimoga in Karnataka, Wyanad in Kerala, Nilgiris Cauvery drainage in Tamil Nadu (Cypriniformes evaluation working group, WGFWA evaluation 09 October 2010).
172500		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius arulius</span>' habitat is small and large streams and rivers, at temperatures between 19°C to 25°C (Ghosh 2001). The species has also been documented from higher elevation montane habitats.
172500		population	eng	There is no published literature available, pertaining to the species population.
172500		threats	eng	Habitat modification due to construction of dams (Sreekantha <em>et al.</em> 2008) and the emerging interest by the aquarium industry (Biju 2005) are potential threats.
172501		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to generate baseline information on the population, life history and ecology of the species to inform conservation action.&#160; Captive breeding technology has been developed (TVA Mercy pers. comm.).
172501		distribution	eng	<em>Laubuca fasciata</em> is endemic to Kerala, India. Known from the rivers   Bharathapuzha (Biju 2005, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004) Chalakudy, Muvattupuzha, Periyar (Shaji and Easa 2003, Beevi and Ramachandran 2009), Meenachil, Achenkovil and Chaliyar (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers.obs.), Manimala (Krishnakumar pers. comm.).
172501		habitat	eng	Occurs in the mid and lowland areas of rivers with bedrock, cobbles and gravel as the major substrates. It is a surface feeder and prefers areas close to the banks in low flow shallow area (alcove) (M. Arunachalam and C.P. Shaji pers. obs.).
172501		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. fasciata</span>. Catch per hour of the species from the Bharatapuzha<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold; "></span> river was low (Radhakrishnan and Kurup 2006).
172501		threats	eng	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">L. fasciata</span> occurs in habitats connected with mid and low land regions of major rivers, they are subjected to a wide range of threats including sand mining, pollution from domestic sources, exotic fish species and destructive fishing practices.
172502		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. It is known from Indira Gandhi Wildlife Reserve and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.
172502		distribution	eng	Known from Central and Peninsular India. Recorded from southern Karnataka - Coorg&#160; (Silas 1952) and River Sharavati (Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2007); Maharashtra - Rivers Darna, Indrayani and Mutha (Hora 1938, Hora and Mishra 1937, Menon 1954) as well as Godavari (Jayaram 2006); Orissa- Bailadila range and Sukel River (Menon 1954), Madhya Pradesh - Bastar area (Jayaram 2006) and Kerala - Rivers Chalakudy (Biju <em>et al</em>. 1998; Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006) and Kabini ( Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has been recorded from the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172502		habitat	eng	Occurs in small mountain stream cascades and riffles.
172502		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. lonah</span>. This species is known to be very rare in Kerala (Euphrasia <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is also considered to be rare in Maharashtra.
172502		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by sedimentation, dynamiting, poisoning, pollution (from agricultural run off) and organic pollution.
172503		conservation	eng	There is a need to determine the current distribution, population and life history traits of this poorly known species.
172503		distribution	eng	<p>Salmophasia novacula is known to occur in Krishna and Godavari drainages in Karnataka and Maharashtra (Jayaram 1999, Chandrashekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000, Heda 2009) the Mula and Mutha rivers (Wagh and Ghate 2003) and Pavana River in Maharashtra (Chandanshive <em>et al</em>. 2007) and in Tamil Nadu (Remadevi and Indra 2000). </p>
172503		habitat	eng	Inhabits upper drainages of rivers and reservoirs (Menon 1999).
172503		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. novacula</span>. This species is however known to have become rare in the Krishna and Godavari rivers in Karnataka (Chandrasekhariah <em>et al</em>. 2000).&#160; It is very common in the heavily polluted Mula-Mutha rivers in Pune (Kharat <em>et al</em>. 2000).
172503		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. novacula</span>.
172504		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bicornuta</span>. Research is essential to understand population status, distribution, life history, ecology, harvesting and threats to the species.
172504		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bicornuta </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is found in the Tunga River at Shimoga (Rao 1920), Korkanhalla River (a tributary of Thunga River inside the Khudremukh National Park), below Tunga dam (Arunachalam  and Muralidharan 2008, Johnson and Arunachalam 2009), the Bhadra River at Bhadravati (David 1956), Tungabhadra River sangam (Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Panchaganga River in Kolhapur (Kalawar and Kelkar 1956), and Koyna River at Patan (Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Jayaram (1995) has suggested that the species is also found in the Krishna River stretch between Wai and Bagalkot. This species is also recorded from Wadgaon on Bhima River by Suter (1944) and Nira River at Veer dam (Ghate and Pawar 1992) and Bhor (Dahanukar <em>et al</em>, submitted).<br/><br/>The record of this species from Cauvery River by Yadav (2003) may be erroneous.
172504		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bicornuta</span> is found in mountain streams and rivers (David 1956, Jayaram 1995, Menon 1999, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It attains a total length of 15 cm (Menon 1999, N. Dahanukar and R. Kumar pers. comm.).
172504		population	eng	The population structure of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bicornuta</span> is not known. However, the species is considered to be rare (Menon 1999, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009). In Koyna River the species was observed and collected only during May to July when the water levels are low (N. Dahanukar pers. obs.).
172504		threats	eng	Most of the areas where <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bicornuta</span> occur are threatened by deforestation, mining, urbanization and urban and industrial pollution (David 1956, N. Dahanukar, pers. obs.).
172505		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius sharmai</span>. However, site protection could be used to conserve natural populations of the species. Research in distribution and population status and ecology of the fish could be helpful for designing and implementing conservation plans.&#160; Further taxonomic studies are recommended.
172505		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius sharmai</span> is endemic to Tamil Nadu and currently it is known from two localities, namely Mogappair and Kunrathur, from its original description (Menon and Rema Devi 1993), Chengalpet, Chembarambakkam Lake and most of the water bodies in Chennai (K.R. Devi pers. comm.).
172505		habitat	eng	<em>Puntius sharmai</em> is found in freshwater ponds and its standard length is 2.7 cm (Menon 1999) and up to 4 cm (R. Kumar&#160; pers. comm.).&#160; It is found in wetlands (K.R. Devi pers. comm.).
172505		population	eng	No quantitative information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius sharmai</span> but Menon (1999) suggests it is rare.&#160; However, now it is common in its range (K.R. Devi pers. comm.).
172505		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius sharmai</span> has been recorded from freshwater ponds in urban areas so increasing urbanization leading to habitat degradation could be a threat to the species.
172506		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action plan directed towards this species. The species is known from Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. Research is essential on population trends, life history and specific threats to the species.
172506		distribution	eng	<em>Puntius mudumalaiensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats, where it is known from the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Menon and Devi 1992, Manimekalan 1998) and the freshwater bodies of Dharmapuri District (Devi and Raghunathan 1999) of Cauvery drainage.
172506		habitat	eng	It is likely to occur in the headwaters of rivers with clear, fast flowing water with a substrate of cobbles and gravel (R. Kumar and M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172506		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius mudumalaiensis </span>is a rare species (Manimekalan 1998).
172506		threats	eng	The habitat in Dharmapuri is under threat due to deforestation and agricultural runoff from pineapple cultivation (Rahul Kumar and M. Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172507		conservation	eng	No conservation action is in place. Species level management efforts have been largely hampered by absence of baseline data on life history and population.
172507		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Lepidopygopsis typus</span>&#160;is endemic to the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, India where it occurs at Mlappara, Thanikkudy, Mullayar and Thekkady in the Periyar lake-stream system (Arun 1999, Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Euphrasia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Raj 1941).
172507		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing torrential streams (Raj 1941, Arun 1999) with boulders, cobbles (Shaji and Easa 2001) and bed rock (Manojkumar and Kurup 2002) as substrates. Known to be a habitat specialist with affinity towards cascades and riffles (Manojkumar and Kurup 2002).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Also occurs in confluence zone of&#160; lakes and feeder streams (Arun 1999). <span style="font-style: italic;">L. typus </span>feeds mainly on aquatic insects and detritus (Arun 1999).
172507		population	eng	No estimates of population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. typus</span> are available, although the species is considered to be rare (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Zacharias <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). Catch per hour of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. typus</span> from Thanikkudy is very low (Euphrasia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
172507		threats	eng	Exotic species, pollution and presence of a dam are the major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. typus</span> in the Periyar lake-stream system. Three exotic species - <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> var. <em>communis</em>, <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> occur in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Periyar</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2006, Periyar Foundation 2006). High level of competition exist between <span style="font-style: italic;">L. typus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. mossambicus</span> (0.68) and between <span style="font-style: italic;">L. typus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. carpio</span> (0.49) (Arun 1999).
172508		conservation	eng	One of the two known populations is present in Kudremukh National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
172508		distribution	eng	<em>Psilorhynchus tenura </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats of India where it was collected in Karnataka from the Thunga River near Sringeri and also at Korkanhalla inside Kudremukh National Park (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2008). Intensive searches for four years in other localities have not revealed any further specimens and it is believed to be limited to the two known localities.
172508		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from streams and rivers with sandy, cobble and gravel bottoms.
172508		population	eng	It is a very rare species.
172508		threats	eng	The Tunga River is heavily littered by visiting tourists and domestic pollution. Sand mining is also a threat to this species' habitat (Arunachalam pers. comm.).
172509		conservation	eng	No conservation action is in place. The full range of this species is within a protected area. Since <span style="font-style: italic;">G. kudremukhensis</span> is a recently described species, research needs to be carried out to understand its actual distribution, life history, population and threats.
172509		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax kudremukensis </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats. The species is known only from a single location, in the headwaters of River Tunga inside the Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka (Gopi 2007).
172509		habitat	eng	Although the species was collected from a small water pool formed by stones (Anon. 2007), it is reasonable to predict that like all sisorid catfishes, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. kudremukhensis </span>may also occur in microhabitats connected with torrential streams.
172509		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. kudremukhensis</span>.
172509		threats	eng	<em>G. kudremukhensis</em> was possibly threatened by iron ore mining in Kudremukh National Park, although this has now stopped. The species is currently threatened by sedimentation of its habitat (Sandeep <em>et al</em>. 2010).
172510		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Captive breeding technology has been developed using artificial hormones (Thampy 2010) but have not been used for either ranching or for stock enhancement.
172510		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra surendranathanii</span> is known from four major river systems of Kerala. viz., Periyar (Shaji <em>et al</em>. 1996, Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004), Chalakudy (Shaji <em>et al</em>. 1996, Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008), Pamba (Shaji <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Achenkovil (A. Ali and R. Raghavan pers. obs.).
172510		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. surendranthanii</span> prefers fast flowing streams with pool riffles and cascades (Raghavan <em>et a</em>l. 2008) and with varying levels of substrates including sand, pebbles, boulders and bed rock (Shaji <em>et al</em>. 1996). Known to breed during October to December (Thampy 2010).
172510		population	eng	There is no precise information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. surendranathanii</span>. Recent studies have indicated that the species is exploited beyond its optimum levels in river Periyar (Thampy 2010).
172510		threats	eng	<em>G. surendranathanii </em>is threatened in the wild as a result of pollution from agricultural and domestic waste, dynamite fishing, poisoning, collection for the aquarium trade and a proposed hydroelectric power project (Raghavan <em>et al</em>. 2008; Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2004) and also from exotic species.
172511		conservation	eng	No particular conservation action plans are in place however site protection could be helpful to protect this species. Research on the population status of this species, ecology and threats can aid help in designing and implementing conservation strategies. There is a need to review the taxonomy of this species as it is remarkably similar to a common species <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama vigorsii</span> found in this area.
172511		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama bhimensis</span> is endemic to the northern Western Ghats of India (Ponniah and Gopalakrishnan 2000, Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Currently it is known only from its type locality in the Ujani wetland on Bhima River in northern Western Ghats of India (Singh and Yazdani 1992).
172511		habitat	eng	No information is available on the ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama bhimensis</span>. It was described from a reservoir. Maximum recorded standard length of the fish is 210 mm (Singh and Yazdani 1992).
172511		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama bhimensis</span>. Nagulu <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered this species as uncommon. This species was recently reported by Sarwade and Khillare (2010) from Ujani Wetland, the type locality of the species, and it is suggested that the species is rare.
172511		threats	eng	Ujani wetland, the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama bhimensis</span>, is subject to increasing urbanization and agricultural pollution. Further, several invasive exotic fishes have also been recorded from this area (Yazdani and Singh 1990).&#160; Water abstraction in the downstream is also a threat. Overexploitation of fish resources from the lake is a potential threat.
172512		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards this subspecies. Research on taxonomy is essential to establish correct taxonomic status of this species. Research is also needed on population trends, harvest trends and threats to the species.
172512		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama cotio peninsularis</span> is found in the Krishna and Godavari river basins. It is known from Pune (Silas 1952, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Washim (Heda 2009), Solapur (Jadhav and Yadav 2009) and Satara (Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) from Maharashtra. In Karnataka it is known from Tungabhadra river (Shshnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shshnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is also suggested to be occuring in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama cotio</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama cotio cunma</span> recorded from Krishna and Godavari river system by several authors are likely to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama cotio peninsularis</span> (David 1963).<br/>Record of this species from Kerala (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) needs conformation.<br/>It is difficult to exactly map the exact distribution or inferred range for this species as it is either recorded only up to the species level or misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. c. cunma</span>.
172512		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rivers and streams (Menon 1999).
172512		population	eng	This subspecies is very common in Pune and adjoining areas (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, N. Dahanukar pers. obs.) and in Karnataka (Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009). No information is available on its population from other areas.
172512		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
172513		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. Studies should be directed at gathering information on the current population size of this species in its major habitats. There is a need to strictly enforce local legislations to curb the illegal fishing practices including dynamiting and poisoning that are prevalent in the upper reaches of the rivers where this species occurs. In addition, the collection and export of this species for the international aquarium pet trade need to be regulated (Raghavan 2010). Captive breeding protocols have been developed (Mercy <em>et al</em>. 2007).
172513		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra stenorhynchus</span> has been recorded from Cauvery and Krishna drainages in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh (Coimbatore, Coorg and Kurnool) (Menon 1999), Bavalipuzha tributary of Cauvery and in Tunga River (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009); Chaliyar, Kabini, Pambar, Bhavani (Shaji and Easa 2003, Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000) rivers in Kerala; Moyar river and other water bodies inside the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu (Rajan 1963,Manimekalan 1998, Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000); and the rivers of Uttara Kannada including the Sharavati drainage in Karnataka&#160; (Bhat 2004, Sreekantha <em>et al</em>. 2007) and Gundia in Hassan District in Karnataka (Atkore 2009). It has also been recorded from the Myristica swamps of Karnataka (Ali <em>et al</em>. 2008).&#160;The report from Periyar (Zacharias <em>et al</em>. 1996)  needs verification (C.P. Shaji pers. comm.).&#160;</p>
172513		habitat	eng	Inhabits hill streams (Menon 1999) and is even reported from higher elevations of over 1000 m&#160; (Daniels 2002). The species has an affinity towards habitats with cobbles as the major substrate (M. Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>). It spawns in shallow water, moving upstream during summer. The eggs are heavy and adhere to the rocks (Daniels 2002).
172513		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gotyla stenorhynhcus</span>. However this species is known to be abundant in the east flowing rivers of Kerala - Bhavani, Kabini and Pambar (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000, R. Raghavan and A. Ali pers. obs.) and in the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary area (Manimekalan 1998).<br/></p>
172513		threats	eng	It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is mainly threatened by destructive fishing practices prevalent in the upstream areas of major rivers where they are found including poisoning and dynamiting. In addition, they may also be under the threat of pollution from plantations as well as presence and proliferation of exotic species.
172514		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place directed towards this species. THe speceis is known from several protected areas including Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Manimekalan 1998), Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999) and Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuaries (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Research is needed to establish the proper taxonomic status of the species.
172514		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius sarana subnasutus</span> occurs in Krishna river and all rivers south of Krishna (Menon 1963, 1999) and it is endemic to the Western Ghats (Dahanukar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It has been recorded from Kerala (Shaji and Easa 1995, Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Narayanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), Karnataka (Shahanawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahanawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Tamil Nadu (Manimekalan 1998, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), Goa (Tilak 1972) and Maharashtra (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2003, Arunachalam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Hiware 2006, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Jadhav and Yadav 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
172514		habitat	eng	The species is found in rivers with medium currents, tanks, ponds and reservoirs and it attains as total length of 25 cm (Menon 1999). It is an omnivore.
172514		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> 2000, Shahanawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Jadhav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
172514		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known, however, reclamation of wetlands, pollution from agricultural runoff and destructive  fishing practices could be threatening for the species.
172732		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor, which is one of Madagascar's new protected areas (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007). Research is needed to clarify the ecological requirements of this species and hence its susceptibility to threats, and to obtain additional information on its distribution and population status. As a precautionary measure, additional forest may require protection to ensure the persistence of this species.<br/></p>
172732		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two sites in the central highlands between 1,400 and 1,600 m asl., at Ambositra (Glaw and Vences 2007) and Anorana in the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007). It has a presumed extent of occurrence of approximately 1,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/></p>
172732		habitat	eng	The habitats and ecology of this species are poorly known but it has been recorded active at night in the leaf litter of humid forest    (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007).
172732		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this skink, but as an apparently leaf litter-dependent species it is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented due to forest clearance and the patchy distribution of remaining forest.<br/></p>
172732		threats	eng	The lack of information on this lizard's ecology and habitat make it difficult to identify threats, however, it does appear to be associated with humid forest at one protected site. It is therefore likely to be threatened by slash and burn agriculture and selective logging throughout its range. There is very little forest left at the Ambositra site.
172733		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species, particularly the status of humid forest subpopulations.
172733		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is distributed mainly in the arid southwest of  the island, but it also occurs as far inland as the high plateau (e.g., Antoetra, Andringitra, Ranomafana) (H. Rakotondravony and M. Vences pers. comms. January 2011), an area of nearly 205,000 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172733		habitat	eng	The habitats and ecology of this species are poorly described but it occurs mainly in arid habitats, although it has also been found in humid areas (Glaw and Vences 2007), including rainforest at Ranomafana. It is found in a wide range of natural and anthropogenic situations (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is  mainly terrestrial and feeds on small vertebrates like frogs, birds,  chameleons and skinks.
172733		population	eng	<p>This is a common snake.<br/></p>
172733		threats	eng	There seem to be no threats to this species, which occurs in a range of degraded and artificial settings (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
172734		conservation	eng	The forest habitats of this species are well represented within Madagascar's protected area system.
172734		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where occurs throughout the humid east of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172734		habitat	eng	This is an oviparous humid forest species that is tolerant of disturbance and can survive in degraded areas with some forest remnants. It feeds on frogs and other small vertebrates.
172734		population	eng	This is a common species. Due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest in eastern Madagascar, the population is probably both declining and severely fragmented, as it only persists in areas with some remaining forest vegetation.
172734		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and by the loss of humid forest to expanding agriculture.
172735		conservation	eng	This species is endemic to Bemaraha National Park where it is known from at least five localities (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Research is needed to clarify this species' distribution within and possibly beyond the Bemaraha plateau, and to improve understanding of its ecological requirements and exposure to threats.
172735		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to western Madagascar where it is known from a few localities on the Bemaraha plateau (Glaw and Vences 2007, Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999; Raselimanana 2008) between 57 and 150 m elevation (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). If it is widespread through Bemaraha National Park, its extent of occurrence will be at least 745 km².<br/></p>
172735		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in relatively open parts of dry deciduous forest in karstic areas (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).</p>
172735		population	eng	<p>This is a locally common species.<br/></p>
172735		threats	eng	Although there are no known threats to this species it appears to be closely associated with dry forest, and the loss and degradation of this vegetation type is a potential future threat even though its entire range is within a protected area. Possible threats include logging for charcoal production, increased cattle grazing, and increased frequency of fires and forest clearance for shifting agriculture. Cattle grazing is ongoing around the periphery of Bemaraha, and may represent a localized threat if the species occurs close to the edge of the reserve.
172736		conservation	eng	<p>This species<em>&#160;</em>is found inside or on the edge of Parc National d'Analamazaotra, Parc National de Ranomafana and two new protected areas, Anjozorobe-Angavo and Zahamena-Ankeninehy. It is listed as a protected species under Category I, Class II, which permits authorized collection from the wild. The distribution of this species requires clarification, and the taxonomic identity of several apparent records resolved. More research is needed to establish the ecological requirements of this species and to monitor population trends.<br/></p>
172736		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs in the north and central northeast of the island between 600 m and 1,300 m above sea-level (Brady and Griffiths 1999, Glaw and Vences 2007). Records previously assigned to <em>F. petteri</em> from Ambohijanahary represent this species (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011).&#160;Records from&#160;Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha may either be attributable to this taxon or to <em>F. petteri</em> or to an undescribed taxon.&#160;There is a single record from dry deciduous forest in western Madagascar (Parc National d'Ankarafantsika) but this needs to be verified (Glaw and Vences 2007). The species has a known extent of occurrence of at least 100,350 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172736		habitat	eng	<p>Very little is known about the habitat and ecology this species and the available information is based on a small number of observations. Although this chameleon has been found in open areas it is considered a species mostly restricted to mid-altitude humid forest (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It may roost higher in vegetation than other species (Parcher 1974, Glaw and Vences 2007), but evidence for this is equivocal (Brady and Griffiths 1999). In and around Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra and Parc National de Ranomafana <em>F. willsii</em> was found in degraded habitats at the forest edge (Brady and Griffiths 1999). There is also a single observation from within relatively intact forest (Raxworthy 1988). The abundance of this species may therefore be underestimated if it is more common in highly degraded forests or in tree canopies because these are rarely systematically surveyed.</p>
172736		population	eng	<p>In a rapid assessment survey at five sites in the Mantadia-Zahamena Corridor <em>F. willsii</em> was only located at one site (Iofa) and was considered a rare species overall (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It was also considered to be present at a low abundance in an area of the Anjozorobe-Angavo forest corridor, where it was found in only one of the seven forest areas surveyed (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007). In a survey of five forest areas in eastern Madagascar <em>F. willsii</em> was only found in Perinet (Analamazaotra) (Raxworthy 1988). Although it was once reported as abundant at Andasibe (Brygoo 1971) more recent surveys only found a few individuals despite considerable search effort (Brady and Griffiths 1999). It therefore appears that <em>F. willsii </em>is an uncommon member of the chameleon species assemblage throughout its range, and its population may be declining.</p>
172736		threats	eng	<p>Although this chameleon's habitat preferences are unclear, the majority of observations are from sites associated with native forest. The loss, degradation and fragmentation of these habitats through agricultural clearance and logging may therefore represent a threat to this species even though it appears not to require pristine forest. This was one of the most commonly exported species between 1989 and 1993 until CITES parties suspended all imports from Madagascar (Brady and Griffiths 1999). Brady and Griffiths (1999) reported that over-collection may have led to declines in local abundance of this species, although the lasting impacts are unknown.<br/></p>
172737		conservation	eng	This species is found in two strict protected areas,     Réserve Naturelle Intégrale  de Tsaratanana and   Réserve Spéciale  d'Anjanhajaribe-Sud. Research is needed to clarify its distribution between known sites, and to establish whether it is exposed to threats from human activities in this region.
172737		distribution	eng	<p>This is an endemic species to Madagascar and is only known from two massifs, Tsaratanana and Anjanhajaribe-Sud, at elevations between 1,700 and 2,580 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). It probably occurs at suitable elevations at sites in-between, suggesting the chameleon has an extent of occurrence of around 3,620 km²<sup></sup>.</p>
172737		habitat	eng	<p>This species is restricted to intact montane humid forest. It occurs in sympatry with <em>C. malthe </em>at Anjanhajaribe-Sud (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006).</p>
172737		population	eng	<p>This species is uncommon.</p>
172737		threats	eng	There are presently no threats to Peltier's Chameleon at the known localities at which it occurs, given the high elevations at which it is found. However, habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, cattle grazing, and logging (charcoal and construction materials) is known to be taking place at some sites between the confirmed records of the species, and extend to relatively high elevations.
172738		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Masoala National Park. More information is needed on its population status and distribution.
172738		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a single locality on the Masoala Peninsula at 780 m (Andreone and Greer 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172738		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low elevation, relatively intact humid forest (Andreone and  Greer 2002).
172738		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species.</p>
172738		threats	eng	This species inhabit lowland forest that is threatened by selective logging and shifting agriculture.
172739		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas in northern Madagascar, including Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Park and Montage d'Ambre National Park, where suitable forest habitat is well conserved. More research is needed into this species' ecological requirements, and to verify the taxonomic identity of some records.
172739		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from scattered localities throughout the north between 250 and 1,300 m elevation (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Glaw and Vences 2007). There is one reported occurrence much further to the south, at Ivohive (Raselimanana 1999). The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 36,189 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172739		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits the leaf litter of humid forest in both intact and lightly disturbed sites (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).</p>
172739		population	eng	<p>This tends to be a relatively rare species. Due to human pressure on remaining forest throughout this leaf litter skink's range, the population is likely to be declining.<br/></p>
172739		threats	eng	This species is threatened by expanding agriculture and selective logging, which lead to declines in the suitability and availability of humid forest.
172740		conservation	eng	<p>This chameleon's entire range falls within the limits of a new protected area (PK32 New Protected Area) that is currently being planned. This species is listed as a protected species under Category I, Class II, which permits authorized collection from the wild. A complete ban on collection from the wild is recommended, as the new reserve is not managed as a strict protected area (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). Survey work is underway to obtain accurate information on the distribution and abundance of this species, and research is needed to establish the viability of the wild population. The feasibility of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures is being explored. The validity of this species should be confirmed through further work.<br/></p>
172740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two localities near sea level (18-20 m), Belalanda and Sakabera, both near Toliara in the southwest (Brygoo 1978, CBSG 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007; C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). It is not thought to range much more widely, and its extent of occurrence may be as small as 4 km²<sup></sup>.
172740		habitat	eng	<p>The habitat is best described as very large mature trees on the banks of the Fiherenana River, and in the Belalanda and Sakabera villages. Its original habitat was likely to be&#160;gallery forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2000), but this habitat has all been lost, and the species now occurs in non-indigenous trees that have been planted in the area and in remnant native trees (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). It has been seen as high as 10-12 m in the canopy.</p>
172740		population	eng	<p>The population of this species is very small, and likely decreasing due to removal of individuals for export and the loss of large trees within its small range.<br/></p>
172740		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to this chameleon is the loss of the large mature trees for charcoal. There is also some limited illegal collection of the species taking place. A mining operation (Toliara Sands project) due to take place adjacent to PK32 poses a future threat to the area.</p>
172741		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas from which collection is illegal, and in which habitat loss occurs at a low or negligible rate. Population trends and this species' level of exposure to threatening processes should be monitored.
172741		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it occurs widely in the humid east, ranging from&#160;Midongy du Sud in the south (Bora&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) north to&#160;Ambolokaptrika (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Recorded localities include Ambodiriana (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Analamazaotra (Rakotondravony 2004), Andringitra (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996), Corridor forestier Fandriana-Vondrozo (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Ivohibe (Raselimanana 1999), Kalambatitra (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007), Marojejy (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), and Tampolo (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It has been recorded between 650 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996) and 1,250 m elevation (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). The chameleon's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 74,766 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
172741		habitat	eng	This species appears to be an obligate humid forest dweller but can survive in a wide range of habitats, even some that are quite degraded (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Like other leaf chameleons it is active in the day on the forest floor and roosts above ground at night on low vegetation (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172741		population	eng	In lowland humid forest Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) recorded densities of 7.0 ha<sup>-1</sup>. Higher densities were recorded in mid-elevation forest and ranged between 39 ha<sup>-1</sup> in the austral summer and 14 ha<sup>-1</sup> in the austral winter (Rabearivony 1999). It is considered a common species by Glaw and Vences (2007), although the population is likely to be declining since, despite being tolerant of habitat degradation, it is unlikely to persist in deforested sites.
172741		threats	eng	This species is found in low elevation forest, which is under heavy anthropogenic pressure from expanding agriculture, logging and mining throughout its range. It is relatively widespread and locally abundant so the current export quota of 200 per year is unlikely to threaten the survival of the species.
172742		conservation	eng	This snake occurs in Ankarana National Park, Marojejy National Park, Andranotsimaty-Daraina newly protected area, and Analamerana Special Reserve. More research is needed to establish the distributional extent of this possibly secretive snake, to identify population trends, and to clarify its ecological requirements and tolerance of threatening processes.
172742		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from several sites in the north, including Ankarana (Raselimanana 2008, Franzen <em>et al.</em> 2009), Nosy Be and Marojejy (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), Analamerana (Rakotondravony 2006), and Andranotsimaty-Daraina (Franzen <em>et al.</em> 2009). It has been recorded from sea level to 423 m in elevation. Its known extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known localities, is estimated to be 6,447 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. Recent records from a previously unsurveyed forest fragment known as Antsolipa (Labanowski and Lowin 2011) and from an unnamed fragment near the village of Tsarakibany (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011), which do not extend its known distributional range, suggest that it may be more widespread in suitable habitat within this region than is currently recognized, and it has been proposed that the snake may occur across much of northern Madagascar (Franzen <em>et al.</em> 2009, Labanowski and Lowin 2011).<br/></p>
172742		habitat	eng	This poorly-known terrestrial species inhabits dry forest and forest that is transitional between dry and humid. It can be found at forest edge and in degraded forest habitat; in the Andranotsimaty forest, within Daraina Conservation Site, the reported specimen was found beneath a log in habitat heavily impacted by cattle grazing and artisanal mining (Franzen <em>et al.</em> 2009), while the small fragment at Antsolipa was characterized as mainly secondary dry deciduous forest with a few large trees, and evidence of human use, including ongoing logging (R. Labanowski pers. comm. April 2011). Around Tsarakibany the sole specimen was found in the most degraded of the three forest fragments surveyed, an area with little intact canopy and evidence of past burning (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011). The snake is apparently intolerant of complete forest loss, and was not recorded in surveys of pastureland and fruit plantations around Antsolipa, only within the forest fragment itself (Labanowski and Lowin 2011; R. Labanowski pers. comm. April 2011).
172742		population	eng	<p>This is a very rare species; it is known from only a single specimen at each of six recorded sites (Franzen <em>et al.</em> 2009, Labanowski and Lowin 2011, Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011). At the remaining site, Antsolipa, three specimens were recorded, and this species was considered rare relative to other snakes in the forest fragment (Labanowski and Lowin 2011). Ongoing forest loss and degradation within its range suggest that the population is likely to be declining. While it occurs in areas with continuous tracts of suitable dry forest habitat, outside protected areas it has only been reported from small forest fragments isolated within agricultural land, from which it appears to be absent (Labanowksi and Lowin 2011). It is therefore not clear whether it occurs as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172742		threats	eng	Although this species occurs in protected areas, and exhibits some tolerance of disturbance resulting from mining and cattle grazing, it appears to require some degree of lowland forest cover and this vegetation type is threatened by logging and slash and burn agriculture. Large tracts of remaining forest are increasingly fragmented. Logging activities and agricultural encroachment were observed within and around the periphery of the Antsolipa fragment, and it is not clear how much of this small patch of forest still exists (R. Labanowski pers. comm. April 2011)
172743		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Bemaraha National Park and Ankarana Special Reserve. Surveys of other karst formations in western Madagascar are needed to establish the presence or absence of this species at these sites.
172743		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Ankarana in the north (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<em></em> 2008) and Bemaraha in the west (Raselimanana 2008, Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It may occur in other karst formations in western Madagascar, such as Namoroka, but no records are known from other sites. It occurs below 300 m asl, and has an extent of occurrence of 3,255 km².
172743		habitat	eng	<p>This gecko inhabits caves and dry forest areas on karst, but is apparently not dependent on intact forest.</p>
172743		population	eng	This species appears to be abundant and is commonly encountered at night. The population is thought to be stable.
172743		threats	eng	This species occurs within two protected areas and pressures on its dry forest habitat are therefore relatively low. Illegal mining within the boundaries of Ankarana may affect the gecko, but the cave habitats favoured by this lizard are largely unaffected by disturbance.
172744		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas, including Andohahela in the south. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species.
172744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a number of sites in the dry west and south of the island between elevations of 40 and 700 m (Raselimanana 2008). There are scattered records from eastern Madagascar, including Marojejy (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003), Andasibe, Nosy Mangabe and Mananara (Brygoo 1984), Tampolo (Raselimanana <em>et al.</em> 1998), and Andringitra (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011), increasing the species' extent of occurrence to over 210,000 km²<sup></sup>.
172744		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits arid spiny forest. It has been collected from riparian deciduous forest (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It can survive in secondary habitats (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).</p>
172744		population	eng	<p>This is a common species, however the population is likely to be declining as a result of forest clearance within its range (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).<br/></p>
172744		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species due to its wide distribution and tolerance of some degree of habitat modification. It is however likely to be affected by forest clearance within its range (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
172745		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of sites that are managed for conservation, but not in any proclaimed protected areas. There is a proposed protected area near Mikea. Research is needed to verify population trends and to establish the degree to which this species can withstand forest loss, and it may be necessary to manage areas of dry forest for the benefit of this species.
172745		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in a few localities in the southwest of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). Reported sites for this species include Itampolo, Tranomaro, Behara, Ifotaka, and Beheloka, between 15 and 225 m elevation (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and at Mikea between 50 to 70 m (Raselimanana 2008), as well as at Ankatrakatra Forest near Tampolo West (H. Rakotondravony pers. comm January 2011). The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 7,345 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172745		habitat	eng	<p>This ground-dwelling, diurnal lizard inhabits arid, sandy areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is sympatric with <em>Tracheloptychus madagascariensis </em>in part of its range. It has been recorded from dry forest, both pristine and degraded.<em> </em></p>
172745		population	eng	<p>This is a locally common species, although the population of this dry forest lizard may be declining as a result of land clearance for agriculture.<br/></p>
172745		threats	eng	The habitat is being cleared for agriculture (rice and maize), there is logging for charcoal production, and there is also ilmenite mining.
172746		conservation	eng	This species' known sites both fall within reserves, namely Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve and the Ambilandambo newly protected area. Research is needed to verify population trends in this species, and to establish the limits of its distribution and its ecological requirements.
172746		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Anjanaharibe Sud (Andreone and Greer 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007) and Ambilandambo in Daraina (Rakotondravony 2006), at elevations between 400 and 1,000 m asl.</p>
172746		habitat	eng	<p>This species is probably semi-fossorial and lives in the leaf litter of humid forests (Andreone and Greer 2002). It is probably nocturnal (Andreone and Greer 2002).</p>
172746		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, but is presumed to be fairly scarce. The population of this leaf litter skink may be declining as a result of forest clearance outside reserves, as well as some human encroachment into protected area boundaries.<br/></p>
172746		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of low- and mid-elevation humid forest due to logging and clearance for agriculture. These activities encroach into protected areas, however it is likely that this species is exposed to fairly low levels of habitat loss (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011) and is probably not significantly threatened at present.
172747		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three protected areas, at Andohahela, Analavelona and Kalambatritra, but concern remains about forest loss because of its reliance on lowland vegetation which is under heavy pressure. It is covered by CITES Appendix II, but control of illegal collecting may be required.
172747		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it has been recorded from scattered localities in the south of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). Confirmed sites include Ambatotsirongorongo (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Andohahela (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Andreone and Randrianirina 2007, Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Kalambatritra (Andreone and Randrianirina&#160; 2007) and Analavelona (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It occurs from near sea level up to around 1,000 m asl. Its extent of occurrence, based on the area of known sites, is 1,055 km².<em></em></p>
172747		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal lizard has been found resting under bark during the day. It appears to require relatively intact humid or transitional forest (Glaw and Vences 2007), and is intolerant of even low levels of disturbance.<br/></p>
172747		population	eng	<p>As a forest-dependent species, this gecko is probably declining although there is no quantitative population information. There is some evidence to suggest that this species occurs at low densities because experienced survey teams found <em>U. malahelo </em>at rates of one every 26 person-days (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Known localities are widely separated by areas of unsuitable habitat, and the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172747		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of low elevation forest through land clearance for slash and burn agriculture. As it is intolerant of any level of habitat modification, it is also likely to be at risk from logging. There may be a low level of illegal collection for the pet trade; although this species apparently occurs at low densities, it is not presently thought that this represents a threat.
172748		conservation	eng	This species is restricted to the Parc National de Marojejy, from where collection of chameleons is illegal. Research is needed into this species' distribution and population trends, its ecological requirements and the extent and impacts of habitat loss within Marojejy. Logging within the park needs to be controlled for the benefit of this and other species.
172748		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is has only been found on the Marojejy massif between 380 and 850 m elevation (Raselimanana<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2000). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 597 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172748		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits low and mid-elevation humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). <br/></p>
172748		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species. Like other leaf chameleons, this lizard is dependent on relatively intact forest, and as such it is likely to be declining in areas subject to rosewood extraction.
172748		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is logging for rosewood within Marojejy National Park (Patel 2007), which affects forest within this chameleon's known range in the reserve (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
172749		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded inside Parc National d'Andohahela, Parc National Zombitse-Vohibasia (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala, 2003) and Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2002). Taxonomic studies on morphology and genetics are urgently needed because there may be undescribed species within the taxon currently referred to as <em>F. verrocosus</em>, and these would by default have smaller geographical ranges and could be more dependent on native vegetation.<br/></p>
172749		distribution	eng	<p>This species<em>&#160;</em>is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs in the west and south of the island at sites lower than 120 m above sea level (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007). The chameleon's estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 211,300 km²<sup></sup>.<em></em></p>
172749		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>This species is abundant in degraded habitats and anthropogenic areas in dry regions of western Madagascar and is not dependent on the presence of large tracts of intact forest (Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007). Although it is frequently recorded in zoological surveys, these tend to only provide presence and absence data from multiple sites and information on the habitat and ecology of this widespread species is surprisingly scarce. Adult and subadult warty chameleons survive the harsh austral winter by aestivating in the soil. It is a perennial species (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).&#160;  <p></p>
172749		population	eng	<p>In a field assessment of three <em>Furcifer </em>chameleons near Toliara,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>the warty chameleon was the most common species and constituted 69% of the 146 individuals encountered during line transects at night. A density of 67.7 individuals per hectare was calculated (Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007). Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) also reported a high local population density of this species, at 97.7 per ha. <br/></p>
172749		threats	eng	Because this species is widely distributed in southwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region> and can survive in degraded habitats the loss of native forest vegetation probably does not pose a major threat. Similarly, the removal of individuals from the wild for export does not pose a threat because the current&#160; export quota is rather low, there is only a low commercial demand for the species and it has a relatively wide distribution in disturbed areas, where it can reach high densities (Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
172750		conservation	eng	This lizard is not known to occur in any protected areas. More information is needed on this skink's distribution, population trends and ecological requirements, and it may be necessary to preserve areas of shrubland to ensure the persistence of this species.
172750		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Ampombofofo in northern Madagascar between 10 and 100 m elevation (Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and from Baie de Sakalava and Ivovona within Forêt d'Orangea. Its extent of occurrence is uncertain, but is thought to be approximately 29 km².<br/></p>
172750		habitat	eng	This skink inhabits sandy soil in shrubland, preferring micro-habitats is in the shade under shrubs.
172750		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, but as there is human pressure on its shrubland habitat and it is not known from any protected areas it is assumed to be declining.</p>
172750		threats	eng	Logging for charcoal production and conversion of the habitat to agricultural lands to support the nearby town Antsiranana are impacting the shrubland where this skink is found, and are likely to directly remove the shade-providing vegetation that provides this lizard's microhabitat.
172751		conservation	eng	This species is found in Montagne des Français, which is being developed as a new protected area. Ampombofofo is not protected and protection of Montagne des Français has so far proven ineffective, with much of the degradation of this site occurring after it was granted protected status (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). More surveys are needed to locate additional specimens and so help clarify this species' distributional extent, population status and ecological requirements. As this species appears to rely on habitats that are at least partially forested, protection of remaining forest within its range and better enforcement within the existing reserve is recommended to ensure the snake's persistence.
172751		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two sites in the north: Montagne des Français (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and near the village of Ampombofofo in the Boboamby region of the far north (Megson <em>et al.</em> 2009). Its known extent of occurrence is 127 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. It is not expected to be much more widespread (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). Animals have been recorded from sea level to 200 m in elevation.
172751		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits dry deciduous forest. Montagne des Français is characterized by limestone karst, however, the snake's occurrence at Ampombofofo  indicates that it is not confined to karstic habitats (Megson <em>et al.</em> 2009). It can tolerate some degree of degradation, having been recorded in secondary forest and on a path in Boboamby (Megson <em>et al.</em> 2009), but does not occur outside of forests (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
172751		population	eng	<p>There are only four records of this species, represented by a specimen from each of the two known sites and two additional observations from Boboamby (Megson <em>et al.</em> 2009). Although there is no population data, available evidence suggests that this species is a forest specialist, and so its population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented as a result of ongoing forest loss and the patchy distribution of remaining habitat.<br/></p>
172751		threats	eng	This snake is threatened by sapphire mining, logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.
172752		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre and is classed as a protected species in Malagasy law.&#160;Further research is required to determine whether this species is conspecific with&#160;<em>B. ambreensis</em>, and also whether it occurs in surrounding areas, such as Forêt d'Ambre. Monitoring of the area is required to identify emerging threats and to evaluate their impact on the population. </p>
172752		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar and is only known to occur in Montagne d'Ambre in the north between altitudes of 650 and 1,200 m above sea level (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 287 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172752		habitat	eng	<p>This species is believed to be restricted to relatively intact, mainly lowland, humid forest. It is&#160;active on the forest floor during the day and roosts between 0.8 and 1.5 m high on leaves and branches at night (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). Clutch size is usually four eggs (Glaw and Vences 2007).&#160;</p>
172752		population	eng	<p>This species is common<em>.</em></p>
172752		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There are no major threats to this species, but Montagne d'Ambre is under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and L. Durkin pers. comms. January 2011).
172753		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to establish whether this species is more widespread than is presently known, to obtain information on its population status and ecological requirements, and to determine its exposure to and susceptibility to forest loss and degradation. Forest where this species is found may require protection.
172753		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a single locality at Tsararano, at 650 m asl. (Andreone and Greer 2002, Glaw&#160; and Vences 2007).</p>
172753		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits low elevation humid forest and is probably crepuscular or nocturnal (Andreone and Greer 2002).</p>
172753		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species.</p>
172753		threats	eng	The low elevation humid forest that this species has been found in is threatened by logging and slash and burn agriculture.
172754		conservation	eng	This skink is only known from Masoala National Park. Research is needed to establish population trends in this species and its responses to forest loss and degradation, and to clarify the limits of its distribution. Masoala National Park is in need of improved management to control illegal logging, mainly for rosewood, within the reserve boundaries that could threaten this and other species.
172754		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to northeastern Madagascar where it is known from the Masoala Peninsula at 780 m (Andreone and Greer 2002). The species is probably more widespread than is currently known (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
172754		habitat	eng	<p>This fossorial species inhabits intact low elevation humid forest (Andreone and Greer 2002).</p>
172754		population	eng	There is no available information on the population of this species.
172754		threats	eng	This forest species is presumably threatened by selective  logging and slash and burn agriculture that degrades or destroys its lowland forest habitat.
172755		conservation	eng	This widespread species occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
172755		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs in multiple localities in the south and west (Bora <em>et al.</em> 2010), and is also known from a few localities in the north and southeast (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is presumed to be widespread in lowland regions of the island's south and west, an area of approximately 135,000 km<span lang="FR-BE">²<sup></sup>. This gecko has been recorded between 20 and 225 m asl.
172755		habitat	eng	<p>This species uses tree trunks in relatively intact dry deciduous and spiny forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172755		population	eng	This gecko is common in good habitat, but is likely to be declining as a result of forest clearance and degradation in parts of its range.
172755		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range through logging, deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural use, fires and charcoal production.
172756		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in one and may be in as many as four protected areas. More research is needed into the taxonomy of this and related species, as well as population status and trends.
172756		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to northern and northeast Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Montagne d'Ambre and Marojejy in the north and south into the Masoala Peninsula. It is known from elevations between 750 and 900 m, and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 18,864 km²<sup></sup>.</p>
172756		habitat	eng	<p>This, the second largest living gecko species in the world, is known from lowland humid forest in a number of isolated forest fragments. It is not found in dry forest. It has been observed at night on tree trunks at between two and four metres off the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172756		population	eng	<p>This species is local but regularly encountered. It is likely to be declining in Marojejy, and due to the fragmentary distribution of surviving forest habitat in northern Madagascar indicates the population is considered to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172756		threats	eng	The loss and degradation of low elevation humid forest from logging for timber production and land clearance for agriculture is the main threat to this species.
172757		conservation	eng	This snake is present in Marojejy National Park. Further research is needed to establish the limits of this species' distribution, its exposure to and its sensitivity to land use change. The taxonomic identity of the southeastern records requires clarification.
172757		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is only known from two sites in the northeast, Marojejy and Maroantsetra, and on in the south east at Manantantely (Glaw and Vences 2007). The range of this species is very poorly known. It may range very widely in the east given the distribution of known sites, although the combined area of these is less than 2,100 km². Records have been taken from sea level to 850 m in elevation.<br/></p>
172757		habitat	eng	<p>This blindsnake has been recorded from low elevation tropical moist forest. It is not known if it occurs in severely degraded habitats.<br/></p>
172757		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species.</p>
172757		threats	eng	<p>The forests where this species occurs are under threat by conversion to agricultural use.<br/></p>
172758		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parc National Ankarafantsika. This site needs to be managed to limit the intrusion of damaging human activities. Research is needed to establish the extent of this species' distribution in the west of its range, from which modern records are lacking, and to clarify the degree to which this species is able to tolerate habitat degradation and modification.
172758		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it occurs in an area of the dry west (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is known from around Parc National Ankarafantsika in the north of its range to Soalala in the southwest. However, many of the records from the west of this range are old, and surveys are needed to confirm the persistence of the species in this area. The lizard has an estimated extent of occurrence of 13,771 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><em></em><p></p>
172758		habitat	eng	<p>This chameleon inhabits dry deciduous forest (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002). It is not clear to what degree this species can survive in degraded habitats.</p>
172758		population	eng	This species is uncommon. Due to heavy human pressures on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest within its range, the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172758		threats	eng	Threats in the region include bush fires, cattle grazing, and deforestation for charcoal collection.
172759		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three national parks. Further research is needed to clarify the distribution of and population densities in this species, and to establish whether threatening processes affect the habitats where this gecko occurs and its ability to tolerate disturbance.
172759		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to northern Madagascar, where it is known from Montagne d'Ambre (Andreone and Aprea 2006), Binara at Daraina (Rakotondravony 2006), Besariaka (Glaw and Vences 2007) and Marojejy (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003). It occurs between 650 and 950 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,485 km².</p>
172759		habitat	eng	This nocturnal lizard is found in mid-altitude humid forest; it is associated with patches of relatively dry  vegetation in Montagne d'Ambre (Glaw and  Vences 2007), but is known from the most humid forest in Daraina (Rakotondravony 2006). At least one specimen has been recorded from a banana plantation in Montagne d'Ambre, either outside the protected area or planted illegally within the reserve (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011), suggesting that the species exhibits some ability to persist in modified habitats.  It has been observed at heights of two to three metres above the ground.
172759		population	eng	<p>There is no quantitative information on the population of this species but it is regularly encountered in Montagne d'Ambre (Glaw and Vences 2007), where it appears to be localized in drier areas of the reserve. The known localities are widely separated, and the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.<em></em></p>
172759		threats	eng	Although this species occurs mostly within protected areas, it occurs close to degraded areas and within secondary forest, and it is likely to be affected by the loss and degradation of forest through cattle grazing, timber extraction and agriculture.
172760		conservation	eng	This species is found in one strictly protected area at     Réserve Naturelle Intégrale  de Tsaratanana. More information is needed on its distribution within the reserve and its ability to withstand loss or degradation of its heathland habitat due to fire, and the region should be managed to reduce the likelihood of further deliberate burning.
172760		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is only known from Tsaratanana, in the north of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). The altitudinal range of this species is between 2,500 m and 2,850 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Although Tsaratanana has an area of 492 km²<sup></sup>, this high-elevation may have a distributional extent as low as 6 km²<sup></sup>, and certainly less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172760		habitat	eng	This species occurs in high elevation heathland habitats (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). It is not dependent on vegetation and basks on rocks.
172760		population	eng	<p>This species is locally common.<br/></p>
172760		threats	eng	In 2009, a large section of the heathland habitat was burned deliberately. The effect of fire on this species is unknown, but repeated, anthropogenic burning in this area could be a potential risk to the species through fire mortality (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011) . As this species has is confined to the highest elevations in the Tsaratanana Massif, it may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change (Raxworthy <em>et al.</em> 2008; C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
172761		conservation	eng	This species is known from three protected areas. More information is needed on its occurrence in other massifs in northern Madagascar, and on population trends. The reserves in which this species is found should be managed to limit the encroachment of human activities into critical habitat for this lizard.
172761		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to Madagascar and has a distribution that is restricted to highland forests in the northeast of  the island, over an estimated area of 6,449 km²<sup></sup>. Confirmed collection localities include three massifs, at Anjanaharibe-Sud (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  1998), Marojejy (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and Tsaratanana (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  1998). This species has been recorded from elevations between 1,250 and 1,675 m in Marojejy (Rakotomalala  and&#160; Raselimanana 2003, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), and as high as 1,700 m in Tsaratanana (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has a presumed extent of occurrence of approximately 6,450 km²<sup></sup>.
172761		habitat	eng	<p>It is restricted to humid high-elevation forest habitat (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).</p>
172761		population	eng	This species is not thought to be rare, although the population may be declining at low elevations where its forest habitat is under pressure.
172761		threats	eng	This species' habitat is at risk from slash-and-burn agriculture and logging, but only at the lower limit of its elevational range. However, upslope encroachment of these activities into the chameleon's core habitat is likely to represent a future risk to this species (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).
172762		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ankarana Special Reserve. Additional research is needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.
172762		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>This snake species is endemic to Madagascar where it is only known from a single site, at Ankarana in the north (Raselimanana 2008). It is believed to be endemic to the Ankarana massif with a small range, probably within the region of 250 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup> and potentially closer to 100 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup> (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). It has been found between 50 and 80 m asl.  <p></p>
172762		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from caves in dry forest on karst outcrops (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172762		population	eng	This snake is known only from a few specimens, and so no population information is available.
172762		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known. However, sapphire mining by local people is ongoing and rapidly increasing in scale, and is presumed to be leading to rapid declines in the quality of the species' karst habitat.
172763		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in Madagascar.
172763		distribution	eng	This species is found on Madagascar and on Grand Comore in the Comoros Islands (Glaw and Vences 2007), where it is restricted to rocky shores in a very small area (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.).&#160; In Madagascar it is widely distributed in the west of the island where it occurs from the north to the south (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is most common in the northwest of Madagascar, with the distribution becoming more patchy in the south (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).
172763		habitat	eng	<p>This species is mostly arboreal. In dry forests it occurs on trees but is also active on the ground, whilst in more humid regions of the north it inhabits riparian forest and plantations. <em></em>Cuvier's Madagascar Swift is an ambush predator that waits for prey whilst remaining motionless on the tree trunks or branches (Mori and Randriamahazo 2002). Insect prey is captured&#160; with a swift lunge from the ambush point (Mori and Randriamahazo 2002). It occasionally eats flowers on the ground (Mori and Randriamahazo 2002). Eggs are heavily predated by snakes. Open areas of habitat inside or alongside deciduous forest are important in the rainy season because they provide access to direct sunlight which <em>O. cuvieri </em>needs for thermoregulation (Randriamahazo and Mori 2004). The number of dorsal black bands on <em>O. cuvieri </em>is affected by thermal conditions, they appear to be important in thermoregulation and lizards captured in forested areas had more bands than those from the open (Randriamahazo and Mora 2005).</p>
172763		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be more abundant in the northwest of its range in Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). This largely arboreal lizard can occur at very high densities in dry forest, and while it can persist in unforested areas it is rare in these habitats (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011); however as it still occurs at high densities and has a large range, the population is not thought to be undergoing significant decline.<br/></p>
172763		threats	eng	Land clearance for agriculture, logging and fire are all ongoing within this species' range, and impact habitats where the lizard occurs, but it is not thought that these activities strongly affect the overall population (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011) due to its abundance, large distribution and tolerance of habitat modification. The small and localized Comoran population is highly threatened due to hunting by villagers (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep). If the introduced Common Agama (<em>Agama agama</em>) extends its range, it will likely pose a serious threat to this population due to competition (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep).
172764		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of forest sites that are receiving, or soon will receive, protection, including Montage d'Ambre and Montagne des Français newly protected area. Research is needed to clarify this species' distribution between known sites, to identify population trends and to improve understanding of this lizard's ecological requirements.
172764		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few sites between sea level and 1,500 m in the north of the island, including Bemanevika, Montagne des Français and Mahanara (Glaw and Vences 2007),  Montage d'Ambre (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994) and Nosy Be (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has also been recorded recently from Ankify (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). The lizard has an extent of occurrence encompassing all known sites of approximately 25,000 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172764		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard has been found on dry sandy soil in degraded coastal dry forest (Glaw and Vences 2007) and also in humid forest. At Ankify the skink was found within a cacao plantation with good leaf litter layer and a closed canopy.</p>
172764		population	eng	<p>This skink is regularly encountered, so may be reasonably common. Additionally, the existence of a large series in the collection of the California Academy of Sciences suggests that it may be at least locally abundant (F. Glaw pers. comm. July 2011) As this species appears to require habitats with some degree of canopy and leaf litter cover, the population may be severely fragmented as a consequence of forest clearance, and is probably declining in areas subject to heavy pressure, such as Montagne des Français (F. Glaw pers. comm. July 2011).<br/></p>
172764		threats	eng	Conversion of the habitat to agricultural use (rice, vanilla and cacao plantations) may threaten this lizard. There is also selective logging within the region. As this skink is found in degraded forest the degree to which logging represents a threat is unclear; however it is likely to rely to some degree on leaf litter, and selective logging is commonly a precursor to total deforestation (F. Glaw pers. comm. July 2011)
172765		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the Manombo Special Reserve (Glaw and Vences 2007). Research is needed into this species' dependence on traveller's palms and consequently the threat posed by harvesting of these trees, as well as into its distribution and population trends. All species of <em>Phelsuma</em> are listed on CITES Appendix II.
172765		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from the village of Somisiky (Krüger 1996), from a few localities in the Manombo forest 50 km to the north of this site (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and from Nosy Omby (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) in the southeast of the island. It occurs from sea level to about 50 m asl. (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,985 km².</p>
172765		habitat	eng	<p>This species has been found in traveller's palm in grassland, savanna and around villages (Glaw and Vences 2007, Gehring<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010, C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). It has also been recorded from sisal in village plantations and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus</span> screw palms (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It may occur in forest, but this has not been verified.<br/></p>
172765		population	eng	Population densities in this species cannot presently be quantified, although it can be common in traveller's palms (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ravenala</span> <em>madagascariensis</em>).
172765		threats	eng	This lizard has been observed in degraded areas near villages and might therefore be able to withstand the decline of lowland forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is likely that this species is dependent on trees such as traveller's palm. More information is needed to determine whether the large-scale harvesting of this and other plants for construction materials is a threat. Future harvesting for the pet trade may pose some risk to this species, but is likely to be a low-level threat.
172767		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species and it is not clear if they are needed. It is not found in any protected areas. Surveys in the wider area around Lake Itasy are required to determine whether this species has a larger distribution than is currently known.
172767		distribution	eng	This dwarf gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it has  been found in a number of localities within 10 km of Itasy Lake in the central-west  highlands (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011), an estimated area of approximately 73 km²<sup></sup>. The lizard's area of occupancy has been estimated as 48 km²<sup></sup> (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011). The majority of records are from a 2009 survey of a relatively small area close to the type locality Ampefy, and it is possible that the species is considerably more widespread (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011). Known sites are between 950 and 1,350 m asl. Targeted surveys at higher elevations have failed to record this species, but further research is required to establish its full elevational range with certainty (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011).
172767		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this species is unknown. It has been observed active during the day on large trees in several villages (Glaw and Vences 2007, Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), as well as on rocky outcrops. It appears to be most common on fig trees, buildings and rocks close to wetlands (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011). Lizards are known from both native and introduced trees, but the species is apparently absent from eucalyptus plantations and from urban areas (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011). Eggshells and recently-hatched individuals were found in March and April, by which time egg-laying appeared to have ceased (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011). The lizard's apparently seasonal reproduction is unusual for the genus, and may reflect its preference for mid-altitude habitats (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011). This gecko is a sit-and-wait forager and the diet includes small flies (Randrianantoandro and Hobinjatovo 2011).
172767		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species within its small range, and the population appears to be stable.
172767		threats	eng	This species may be at some risk from fire, but this is unlikely to be a threat to its survival. It occurs in a heavily degraded area and appears to be highly tolerant of habitat disturbance.
172768		conservation	eng	This species is known with certainty from one protected area, Ankarana National Park. Tsaratanana is also a protected area. Research is needed to confirm the identity of the Tsaratanana population.
172768		distribution	eng	<p>This dwarf gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is only known from the limestone formations at Ankarana, near Ambilobe in the north. There is a doubtful record from Mangindrano, a high elevation site on the eastern slope of Tsaratanana, but this requires verification. Repeated surveys of this locality have not located this species, and differences in habitat between this area and Ankarana make it unlikely the species occurs in Tsaratanana (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). It has not been found in a survey of other limestone habitats to the north (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is thought to occur between 100-200 m asl. It has a presumed extent of occurrence within Ankarana of 253 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172768		habitat	eng	This long-legged,  long-tailed gecko is active in the day on large rocks with sparse vegetation cover in areas with dry deciduous forest (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al</span>. 2009).
172768		population	eng	This species is regularly found in Ankarana.
172768		threats	eng	The periphery of Ankarana National Park is threatened by encroachment by  illegal artisanal mining, logging, timber extraction for charcoal  production, and land clearance for agriculture. This species is likely  to be dependent on dry forest areas at risk from these activities.
172769		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some humid forests that are subject to conservation management, including a number of national parks.
172769		distribution	eng	This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it has been recorded from lowland and mid-altitude humid forest in the east, between Brickaville at its southern extent to Marojejy and Vohemar in the north, and into the Masoala Peninsula in the northeast (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Glaw and Vences 2007). It occurs between sea level and about 600 m asl. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 40,431 km²<sup></sup>.
172769		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal lizard spends the day head-down, adpressed to stems and trunk of small trees in lowland humid forest. It is reported to be associated with patches of bamboo within relatively intact forest (Glaw and Vences 2007), and has also been found in <em>Ravenala</em> palms and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>screw palms (C. Raxworthy and F. Ratsoavina pers. comms. January 2011).<em></em></p>
172769		population	eng	<p>This forest-dependent species is likely to be declining, but there is no quantitative population information. Over a thirteen-day survey at Betampona, 15 individuals were recorded over a one-hectare area with a high density of traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>) (F. Ratsoavina pers. comm. January 2011). The Antongil Bay area, within the core of this lizard's distribution, contains relatively large tracts of intact forest. However, the gecko is confined to areas of lowland humid forest that are under heavy human pressure, and subpopulations in Betampoana, Zahamena and Vohemar, and probably elsewhere, occur in small, isolated forest fragments (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011). The presence of both intact and heavily fragmented forest over large parts of this species' range makes it unclear whether the gecko occurs as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172769		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest degradation caused by logging, including hardwood extraction in Masoala and Betampona, and by slash-and-burn agriculture at low elevations in northeast Madagascar. Illegal collecting for the pet trade may occur in parts of this range, including Betampona, and this may represent a localized threat.
172770		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are required to locate additional specimens of this snake and to clarify its relationship with <em>X. grandidieri</em>, and more information is needed on its distribution, population status, ecological requirements, and its exposure to and sensitivity to threatening processes.
172770		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a single locality in the north, Ambodivahibe (Glaw and Vences 2007), at 40 m asl. Records from Baie de Sakalava reported by Glaw and Vences (2007) are here treated as representing <em>X. grandidieri</em>.<br/></p>
172770		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from dry bushland on sandy soils.
172770		population	eng	This snake is known only from a single specimen.
172770		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172771		conservation	eng	This species is known from Ranomafana, Marojejy and Mantadia National Parks.
172771		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the humid east of Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007), where it has been reported over an area of more than 62,150 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.
172771		habitat	eng	<p>This diurnal, terrestrial species is found in humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172771		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species; however due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest in eastern Madagascar, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.</p>
172771		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of humid&#160; forest for  farmland.
172772		conservation	eng	This species is found in three protected areas, in Marojejy National Park, Lokobe Special Reserve and Manongarivo Special Reserve. More information is needed on this species' distribution and population trends, and on its ability to withstand forest degradation.
172772		distribution	eng	This plated lizard is endemic to Madagascar where it is restricted to a couple of small areas on the mainland in the north and northwest, extending to a few offshore islands in the northwest (Glaw and Vences 2007). The eastern and western subpopulations may have been connected at one time, but all the intervening low-altitude forest between them has been cleared. This species has been recorded up to 600 m in elevation, and has an estimated extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known sites, of 2,463 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172772		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid forests at low elevations.
172772		population	eng	This is not a common species. The isolation of the known, widely-separated subpopulations, apparently as a result of land clearance, indicates that the population is severely fragmented. Due to ongoing land clearance in the remaining parts of this forest-dependent lizard's range the population is presumed to be declining.
172772		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the degradation of humid forest in areas where loggers are active and sites where slash and burn encroaches into intact forest.
172773		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of strict protected areas within its range, including Parc National d'Andohahela (Andreone and Randriamahazo 1997), Parc National de Ranomafana (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), and Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatitra (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007). These reserves should be managed to limit the impact of human encroachment on critical forest habitat for this species, and protection of additional sites within its range may be required. Research is recommended to investigate its life history and to monitor population trends. The taxonomic status of <em>B. n. pauliani</em> requires clarification.
172773		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has been recorded from a number of localities in the southeast, including Andohahela (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999),&#160;Sainte Luce (Ramanamanjato 2000),&#160;Mandena (Lehtinen&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003),&#160;Kalambatritra (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007),&#160;Ivohibe (Raselimanana 1999),&#160;Andringitra (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996), and Ranomafana (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). It has been found at elevations between 410 and 1,920 m (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The chameleon's extent of occurrence throughout this region is estimated to be 15,798 km².<br/></p>
172773		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits humid forest that spans a wide elevational range, encompassing low, mid and high altitude vegetation types (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). During the winter, adults are not frequently encountered, only juveniles, suggesting that it may have a life-history similar to Laborde's chameleon (<em>Furcifer labordi</em>) (Karsten <em>et al.</em> 2008; L. Brady pers. comm. January 2011).</p>
172773		population	eng	<p>This lizard reportedly occurs at a relatively high abundance in Andohahela (Andreone and Randriamahazo 1997), whilst in Ranomafana population densities of 28.6 animals per ha have been recorded (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). Due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest within its range, the population of this disturbance-sensitive chameleon is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172773		threats	eng	This chameleon species is only found in humid forest and it is therefore threatened by activities that lead to the loss, fragmentation or degradation of these habitats due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging for charcoal, and mining (particularly in the southeast in the littoral forest).
172774		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas, including Parc National Mantadia, Analamazoatra Special Reserve and Parc National Ranomafana. Near Andasibe, it occurs in the private reserve Parc Mitsinjo. The taxonomy of this species complex is in need of resolution, and research is ongoing to clarify this.
172774		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs at a range of sites in the east and southeast of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), ranging from around Andringitra in the south to Maevetanana in the north. The chameleon has an estimated extent of occurrence of 87,861 km²<sup></sup>.
172774		habitat	eng	<p>This chameleon inhabits both intact and highly disturbed humid forest. In Andranomay this species occurred in higher densities<em></em> in unburnt than burnt forest (Brady and Griffiths 1999). This species is also reported to be locally abundant alongside small rivers within humid forest (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).&#160; </p>
172774		population	eng	<p>Population estimates of the short-nosed chameleon<em> </em>from surveys in the austral summer include 23.7 ha<sup>-1</sup> at Andranomay (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and 10.5 ha<sup>-1</sup> at Mantadia (Brady and Griffiths 1999). While this species is tolerant of a high degree of habitat degradation, it appears unable to withstand deforestation and may occur at reduced densities in degraded forest, and so the population is likely to be declining due to the loss of humid forest within its range. It is not expected to occur as a fragmentary population (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).<br/></p>
172774		threats	eng	This species occurs in highly degraded humid forest and nearby plantations and is not currently severely threatened. Nevertheless, this arboreal lizard appears to always be associated with humid forest and the loss of this habitat to agriculture and logging will result in population declines.
172775		conservation	eng	All of this species' known sites are included within some form of protected area, including two special reserves (Ambohitantely and Analamazoatra) and a new protected area in the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor. Research is needed into the taxonomy of this species, and its ability to tolerate the ongoing conversion and degradation of its forest habitat.
172775		distribution	eng	<p>This dwarf gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known from the rainforests in the east, at Andasibe, Vohidrazana, Andriantantely, Didy, Sandranantitra (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). An apparently disjunct population is known from the central highlands at Ambohitantely (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It ranges from 500 to 1,500 m asl, and has an extent of occurrence of 6,097 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172775		habitat	eng	This species has been found one to three metres above the ground on trees in primary and secondary mid-altitude humid forest (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Its ability to persist in degraded habitats is unclear, but as it requires trees it will be unable to survive in deforested sites.
172775		population	eng	This is a regularly encountered species. Ongoing deforestation within its presumed range suggests that the population is likely to be declining outside protected areas, but it is not known whether this species occurs at sites currently subject to human pressure.
172775		threats	eng	This species inhabits mid-elevation humid forest and is therefore threatened from logging and shifting agriculture, which are leading to the destruction and degradation of this habitat type throughout eastern and central Madagascar; it is not known how extensive these threats are within the protected areas where this dwarf gecko is found. Nickel mining may also represent a localized threat to this species in the central part of its range.
172776		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the population status of this species and the extent of its range, as well as to clarify the impacts of slash-and-burn agriculture on this species, and whether it is subject to any ongoing wild collection for the international pet trade.
172776		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to the Sambirano region of northwest Madagascar, where it is known from at least three low elevation localities in the Ampasindava peninsula (Lerner 2004, van Heygen 2004). It is known to occur from at least 50 m to 400 m asl. Its known extent of occurrence is below 250 km², although it may occur more widely within the Sambirano in suitable habitats (Lerner 2004).<br/></p>
172776		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko inhabits patches of bamboo in either intact forest or degraded areas (Lerner 2004). It is apparently confined to medium-sized bamboo (around 5 cm in diameter) and has not been found in other vegetation; when disturbed, animals retreat into smaller, leafy bamboo branches where they are difficult to detect (van Heygen 2004). Eggs are glued to the inside of bamboo stems, and hatch in 25 days at a constant temperature of 27 ºC (van Heygen 2004).</p>
172776		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, and due to uncertainty about the effects of human activity on this species'  habitat, it is not known whether the species is likely to be declining.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172776		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly documented but it is largely  reliant on bamboo. It is therefore susceptible to threats that remove  bamboo, such as land clearance for agriculture and selective extraction  of bamboo, particularly of the mid-sized stems this species prefers. Van Heygen (2004), however, reports that bamboo forest rapidly  establishes itself in cleared land, and suggests that as a result this  bamboo-dependent species may benefit from the clearance of primary  forest, in which suitable habitat is confined to fragmented bamboo  'islands'. The extent to which this is the case is presently unclear and requires further research (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
172777		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Réserve Spéciale Analamazaotra and Parc National Mantadia. A large part of its known range, in the   Angavo-Anjozorobe Corridor, has a positive conservation status and is being managed as a protected area. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this and related species, to establish the limits of its distribution and to monitor population trends.
172777		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it has been confirmed from a few sites in the east at Andasibe and Mandraka (Glaw and Vences 2007), and the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007). Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. dentata </span>from various sites around Andasibe most probably refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. ramanantsoai, </span>and are treated as such here. It is not known from sites above 1,300 m (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). This chameleon has an estimated extent of occurrence of 679 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172777		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated with mid-elevation humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007) but there has also been one record from a <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> plantation (Brygoo 1978). Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) found the highest densities alongside relatively undisturbed forest rivers.<br/></p>
172777		population	eng	Based on recent evidence, the taxon referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">B. minima </span>by Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) was probably <span style="font-style: italic;">B. ramanantsoai</span>. Population densities between 4.5 ha  <sup>-1</sup> and 20.7 ha  <sup>-1</sup> were recorded in this study. Due to pressure on and the patchy distribution of the remaining  forests in eastern Madagascar, the population is presumed to be both  declining and severely fragmented.
172777		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture and logging (e.g., for construction materials and charcoal).
172778		conservation	eng	This chameleon occurs in the   Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Tsaratanana. Research is needed into the taxonomy of this and closely-related species in order to better-understand its area of occupancy, and Tsaratanana should be managed in a way that limits future threats to this species.
172778		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is only known from Tsaratanana in the northwest. It has been reported from 1,000 to 2,250 m asl. (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Glaw and Vences 2007, Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Tsaratanana covers an area of 1,300 km²<sup></sup>; however, as this species is confined to higher elevations the chameleon's true extent of occurrence is presumably somewhat lower. <br/></p>
172778		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in montane humid forest and sclerophyllous forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996).</p>
172778		population	eng	Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) recorded 22 individuals of this species over two surveys in 1993 and 2003. Based on the arbitrary measure used in that study (more than four individuals in each survey), the species was considered sufficiently common in both time periods to analyze changes in its elevational distribution, although it was less abundant overall than <em>C. malthe</em>, <em>C. peltierorum</em> and <em>C. tsaratananense</em>. The species' population was apparently stable between these two time periods based on the results of these surveys (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
172778		threats	eng	This species occurs at Tsaratanana, which is a relatively isolated site subject to few threats and pressures primarily from slash and burn agriculture, most of which is confined to lower elevations where this species is not found. Although upslope displacement of several reptile and amphibian species has been reported from the Tsaratanana Massif, presumably as a response to climate change, this is apparently not the case for <em>C. guibei</em> (Raxworthy <em>et al.</em> 2008).
172779		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Montagne d'Ambre National Park where the humid forest that it occupies is well protected. Research is needed to establish its distribution within the reserve and its exposure to any threats. The reserve should be managed to limit the encroachment of potentially damaging human activities into forest used by this legless lizard.
172779		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from the northern reserve Montagne d'Ambre, between 900 and 1,250 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, Glaw and Vences 2007). The area of rainforest habitat within Montagne d'Ambre is less than 100 km² (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172779		habitat	eng	<p>This skink has only been found in the leaf litter of humid forests (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172779		population	eng	While this lizard is very localized and secretive it is regularly encountered, and is readily captured in pitfall traps.
172779		threats	eng	This species is not threatened because it occurs in the well-protected Montagne d'Ambre National Park. There is, however, ongoing degradation of the habitat around the periphery of&#160; the park through logging and conversion of the land to agricultural use. It is not clear if this is impacting the species.
172780		conservation	eng	This species is found in Ankarana Special Reserve and conservation management is planned for Montagne des Français. The taxonomic status of the recently-discovered Nosy Hara subpopulation requires clarification, and further surveys are needed to establish the limits of this species' distribution, its reliance on forest habitats, and its ability to withstand the effects of logging.
172780		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two mainland localities in the extreme north of the island, Ankarana and Montagne des Français, at around 100 m elevation (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and from the small off-shore island Nosy Hara (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The lizard's estimated extent of occurrence is 5,459 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.<br/></p>
172780		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial plated lizard is found in lowland dry, deciduous forest associated with karst outcrops, and also occurs in karst outside the forest. It is diurnally active and strongly associated with rock faces and crevices (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), although juveniles occur in nearby leaf litter. On Nosy Hara islands its presence was significantly related to the availability of rocks and it was absent in sites with high ground vegetation cover (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Conversely, in a survey of Montagne des Français all records of this species were from relatively undisturbed forest (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011).<br/></p>
172780		population	eng	<p>This plated lizard is relatively common where it occurs.<br/></p>
172780		threats	eng	This species might be affected by the loss and degradation of low dry forest (through logging). While this is not thought to be a significant threat at present, it has been suggested that the lizard may be at high risk of local extinction in Montagne des Français, where it appears reliant on forest (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011).
172781		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a single protected area, Réserve Intégrale de Tsaratanana. Research is needed to to monitor population trends in this chameleon. Agricultural expansion within the protected area should be monitored to assess whether it represents a threat to this species, and if possible controlled.
172781		distribution	eng	This chameleon species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is only known from a single humid forest at Tsaratanana at elevations between 1,600 and 2,100 m&#160;(Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995, Glaw and Vences 2007, Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has a presumed extent of occurrence of 300 km²<sup></sup>, the estimated amount of suitable high-elevation habitat within Tsaratanana.
172781		habitat	eng	Specimens have been collected in montane forest and in bamboo-dominated primary forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995).
172781		population	eng	This species was found to be moderately common at the end of the rainy season.
172781		threats	eng	Although high elevation forest in Madagascar is generally subject to less disturbance and logging than mid and lower elevation sites, this species may still be at risk in the immediate future from encroaching habitat loss and degradation due to slash and burn agriculture.
172782		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas and conservation sites. Research is needed to clarify the effects of threatening processes on this species.
172782		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is widespread in the southwest and west of the island over an area greater than 203,000 km². It has been found between 15 and 225 m asl.<br/></p>
172782		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard inhabits arid habitats in or close to forests, and is associated with dead wood. Individuals sometimes bask on logs and the leaves of low bushes.</p>
172782		population	eng	<p>It can be common in suitable habitat. Due to ongoing human pressure on remaining forest throughout this lizard's range the population is probably declining; however as it ranges over a wide area and can tolerate some degree of forest disturbance, the rate of decline is likely to be low.<br/></p>
172782		threats	eng	This species is associated with dry forest but can probably withstand some disturbance. It is threatened through loss of forest resulting from logging, conversion of land to agricultural use and charcoal production.
172783		conservation	eng	Whilst this species occurs in sites that are subject to conservation management it is generally distributed outside of protected areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). Research is needed to determine the specific status of the highland populations.
172783		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from many localities in the south and southwest, and from a few sites in the central highlands (Glaw and Vences 2007). This widespread skink's extent of occurrence is thought to exceed 42,300 km². It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,600 m in elevation.
172783		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in the arid south and southwest of Madagascar where it has been observed active on sand and underneath stones or tree bark in open areas (Glaw and Vences 2007).&#160; In the highlands it is commonly found underneath stones in grassland. It is strongly associated with forest cover (spiny thorn thicket and deciduous dry forest) and rare or absent in cultivated areas (Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).A population from Ifaty in the southwest was found to be viviparous, while a clutch of six eggs which developed into hatchlings of this species have been found at Mount Ibity in the central highlands. This observation has been questioned (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).</p>
172783		population	eng	<p>This is a moderately common species in the south, but is less common on the high plateau. As this forest-associated lizard is absent from agricultural land, the population is presumed to be declining as a result of ongoing land conversion, particularly in southern and southwest Madagascar.<br/></p>
172783		threats	eng	This species is probably not threatened in the highlands because it inhabits open areas, but in the drier south it is more associated with forest which is being cleared for agriculture (including sisal plantations) and through logging - both selectively and generally for charcoal production.&#160; There is also increased frequency of fires.
172784		conservation	eng	This lizard has been recorded from the Tsitomgambarika new protected area. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species, and to establish its distributional extent and population status. Protection of additional sites may be necessary to limit the impacts of agricultural expansion and mining on this lizard.
172784		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it was thought to be known from a single locality at Tolagnaro in the southeast (Glaw and Vences 2007). However, records of a small skink from the Fort Dauphin have also been assigned to this species (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). It is certainly highly localized, with an extent of occurrence that may not exceed 1,400 km²<sup></sup>. It has been found from sea level to 150 m in elevation.<br/></p>
172784		habitat	eng	<p>The holotype was captured on littoral rocks. It has also been found in sandy areas in littoral forest and in low-elevation transitional humid forest (C. Raxworthy and J.-B. Ramanamanajato pers. comms. January 2011).<br/></p>
172784		population	eng	<p>This lizard seems to be locally common where it occurs.<br/></p>
172784		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture (rice and cassava), selective logging and ilmenite mining are the main threats.
172785		conservation	eng	This species is present within Andohahela National Park, but pressures from people are ongoing here and elsewhere in the Anosy Region. Surveys are needed to obtain baseline information on the distribution of this species and to establish the extent of threats from habitat loss.
172785		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from a few sites in Andohahela in the Anosy Region of southeast Madagascar, where it has been found between 810 and 1,940 m elevation (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). The gecko has an estimated extent of occurrence of 837 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172785		habitat	eng	<p>At the lower end of its elevational range, this species is restricted to relatively restricted to large boulders areas of relatively intact riparian forest (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). At higher elevations, which have more rocky outcrops and few trees, this species is less associated with water and has been found on ericoid shrubs (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Eggs are laid in large communal nests.<br/></p>
172785		population	eng	This species is locally abundant at high altitudes, where it occurs in large breeding aggregation (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172785		threats	eng	This species could be affected by the removal or degradation of humid forest from logging and cattle grazing, which extends to the altitudes where this species occurs. The degree to which the species relies on this habitat is however unclear. In future it may undergo up-slope range shifts in response to climatic change.
172786		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tsimanampetsotse National Park and a number of other sites subject to conservation management. Research is needed to clarify this lizard's distribution between known sites and to improve understanding of its ecological requirements.
172786		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from the arid south of the island from Mikea in the west to Petriky in the east (Glaw and Vences 2007). If, as presumed, it occurs throughout the intervening area, its distributional extent will be over 47,250 km²<sup></sup>. This lizard has been recorded between sea level and 320 m in elevation.
172786		habitat	eng	<p>This burrowing skink lives in sandy soil in dry spiny forest, and is also known to occur highly degraded areas. This species has been collected from under stones, tree trunks and humus.</p><p><br/></p>
172786		population	eng	<p>This species is probably locally common, and due to the absence of ongoing threats the population is presumed to be stable.</p>
172786		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats to this species; however, it occurs on the Petriky ilmenite deposit which has been proposed as the site of a future mining operation.
172787		conservation	eng	This species is found in Lokobe, Ankarana and Marojejy protected areas, an protection of additional forest may be required to benefit this species. Research is needed to verify population trends in this species, to improve understanding of its distribution, and to assess the impact of threats
172787		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few  localities in the north of the island, from Nosy Be in the west  to Marojejy in the east (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2000), including Ankarana (Raselimanana 2008) and the forest fragments at  Daraina (Yoder <em>et al.</em> 2005, Rakotondravony 2006). It is presumed to occur widely between the known sites, over an area of approximately 23,300 km²<sup></sup>. Elevation ranges from 10 m (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) to 1,175 m asl. (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003).  <p></p>
172787		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial plated lizard is found in lowland humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). <br/></p>
172787		population	eng	<p>This species is common and occurs at high densities in some areas, especially near streams (Glaw and Vences 2007). Due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, lowland rainforest throughout its range, the population of this forest-dependent lizard is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172787		threats	eng	This species is restricted to low elevation humid forest and is threatened by the conversion of this habitat type to farmland and by the extraction of timber. Even though it occurs in a few protected areas, it is known from only a small number of sites.
172788		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Isalo National Park. Research is needed to clarify its distribution between known sites, to establish whether it occurs more widely than is presently known, and to monitor population trends.
172788		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a single locality on the Isalo massif, somewhere between 700 and 750 m in elevation (Glaw and Vences 2007, Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998). There is an additional, recent record from Makay (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011), extending the lizard's known extent of occurrence to around 6,600 km².<br/></p>
172788		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard inhabits rocky areas with large boulders and cliff faces with evidence of recent burning (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998). Although suitable habitat occurs elsewhere in Isalo this species has only found in a single locality on the massif (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998), in a rocky area of a canyon surrounded by shrubland (F. Andreone pers. comm. July 2011).</p>
172788		population	eng	<p>This skink is locally common, but the population is declining slightly.<br/></p>
172788		threats	eng	As this skink is not dependent on habitats which are prone to logging or agricultural development, it is probably not subject to major threats (F. Andreone pers. comm. July 2011). There has been an increase in the frequency of repeated fires in recent years, but as this lizard has been observed using areas with evidence of recent burning, it is not clear whether this represents a threat or whether it may in fact be beneficial to this species (F. Andreone pers. comm. July 2011).
172789		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas, and protection of additional areas of forest may be required to maximize connectivity between existing subpopulations.
172789		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from many sites in the humid east of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), over an estimated area of about 79,200 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.
172789		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial snake inhabits humid forest.</p>
172789		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species. However, its range in the eastern rainforest belt encompasses the most threatened forest in Madagascar, as a result of which the population of this forest-dependent snake is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172789		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of humid forest for farmland.
172790		conservation	eng	The only site from which this species has been recorded is now included within a conservation area, the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor. Efforts are needed to relocate this species, and to identify the limits of its distribution, its ecological requirements and its exposure to threatening processes.
172790		distribution	eng	This chameleon is poorly known. It has been recorded from "Fito" in the east; it is, however, unclear whether this name refers to the town, a forest, or the administrative area (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011) and recent surveys in this general area have not found the species (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). No estimate of the extent of occurrence is possible, as only two individuals have ever been found and, without knowledge of the precise collecting locality, the extent of suitable habitat cannot be established.
172790		habitat	eng	The area in which this species has been recorded was moist lowland forest. Forest still exists in this region, however, without knowledge of the precise locality the extent of this habitat is unclear.
172790		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens that were collected prior to 1921 (Brygoo 1978).
172790		threats	eng	Threats operating in the area include slash and burn agriculture and logging for building materials.
172791		conservation	eng	This snake is present in the Sainte Luce and Itremo newly protected areas. Additional surveys are needed to supply information on its distribution, population status and habitat use, and on its sensitivity to threatening processes.
172791		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the central highlands and southeast of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), between sea level and 1,300 m in elevation. The species' estimated extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known sites, is 2,417 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172791		habitat	eng	<p>This arboreal snake inhabits humid tropical forest. It has not been recorded from degraded forest.<br/></p>
172791		population	eng	<p>This snake is known from only a few specimens. It is presumed to require relatively intact forest, and due to human pressures on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest within its range the population is therefore thought to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172791		threats	eng	This snake is threatened by transformation of forest to agricultural land, forest fires spreading from surrounding savanna, and small scale logging.
172792		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least five protected areas. Commercial export of live animals is limited and probably does not represent a major threat; however more information is needed on population trends at collection sites to ensure harvests do not pose a localized risk to individual subpopulations. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this complex, and into its distribution, population status and threats.
172792		distribution	eng	This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to lowland north Madagascar (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Greenbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and to the island of Nosy Be. Additional records from sites further south in Madagascar are doubtful, and most are probably attributable to additional species within the <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ebenaui</span> complex. The elevational range is from sea level to approximately 500 m asl., and the extent of occurrence is estimated to be 7,623 km².
172792		habitat	eng	<p>This is a nocturnal lizard that lives in relatively intact humid and transitional forest. It has been observed active on leaves at heights of between one and two metres. It lays two spherical eggs on the ground.<em></em></p>
172792		population	eng	<p>No quantitative information is available on this gecko's population; however, it is dependent on intact forest, which is fragmentary and under pressure throughout its range. The population is therefore presumed to be both severely fragmented and declining.<br/></p>
172792		threats	eng	This species requires relatively intact forest to survive, and so this species is threatened by the loss and degradation of this habitat through logging, land clearance for agriculture, and perhaps accidental burning. Collection for the pet trade potentially represents a localized threat, as there is little information on legal collecting localities and so harvest levels may be high in some areas. Additionally, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) reported illegal collection from the island of Nosy Be.
172793		conservation	eng	The habitats of this species are relatively well protected in Ankarafantsika National Park, Montage d'Ambre National Park and special reserves at Lokobe and Manongarivo; however additional sites within its range may require protection. Research is recommended to clarify the precise limits of this lizard's distribution.
172793		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from sites in the Sambirano region of the northwest: Loky-Manambato (Rakotondravony 2006), Andavokoera (Rakotondravony 2006), Manongarivo (Rakotomalala 2002), Nosy Sakatia (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) <span lang="FR-BE">and Montagne d'Ambre (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The gecko's estimated extent of occurrence is 20,270 km²<span lang="FR-BE">. This species has been recorded between 120 and 210 m above sea level (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).</p>
172793		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal gecko inhabits relatively intact low elevation deciduous and humid forest where it appears to be associated with riparian boulders and rocky outcrops (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172793		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species; however, due to continuing human pressure on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest within this gecko's range, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172793		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of low elevation forest, especially around streams, resulting from logging and land conversion to slash-and-burn agriculture.
172794		conservation	eng	The Ankaratra massif is not yet formally protected but efforts are underway to establish habitat conservation management at the site. Research is needed to establish the extent to which fire represents a threat to this species, and monitoring is needed to obtain information on population dynamics.
172794		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is only known from sites between 2,000 and 2,643 m asl on a few peaks in the Ankaratra massif, in the central highlands (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This lizard has a presumed extent of occurrence of 27 km².</p>
172794		habitat	eng	<p>The species lives in montane grassland with some ericoid bushes, where it is found on and around small rocks (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009; J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. May 2011). It appears to reproduce both in the dry and wet seasons: the small unglued eggs are laid into the substrate and can be found under stones. This species has a short generation time, with population turnover every one or two years.<br/></p>
172794		population	eng	This is a very local species, but can be very common in sunny spots. Due to its localized occurrence within its small range the population trend is unclear; however, a recent survey on Tsiafajavona, where the habitat is badly damaged by fire, recorded only a single individual (J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. May 2011).&#160; This survey followed particularly widespread fires at this site, which have increased in intensity since September 2010. Previous visits found the species to be more abundant at this locality (J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. May 2011)
172794		threats	eng	The species remains common in areas with a long history of annual burning, but the increasing intensity of fires within Ankaratra may represent a threat to this species. The effects on this rock-dwelling lizard are unclear, although the scarcity of this lizard in a recent survey of fire-damaged habitat on the massif (J.C. Randranantoandro pers. comm. May 2011) suggests it may be intolerant of this disturbance, particularly as its rocky habitat occurs as scattered patches within a large area of montane grassland (J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. May 2011). The short life cycle of this species may render it vulnerable to intense threats that, although they may act over short time periods, may limit or prevent reproduction in the year the threat occurs. Land clearance for growing potatoes may also threaten this species if climate change makes this area suitable for agriculture.
172795		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in two protected areas (Parc National de Masoala and Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe). It may also occur in Makira, which is in the process of being incorporated into the protected areas network. The taxonomy of this and other members of the <em>B. minima</em> group needs to be clarified, and more research is needed into this species' distribution, population status, ecology and sensitivity to forest degradation. The protected areas in which it occurs should be managed to limit the impacts of human activities that may threaten this species.
172795		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is believed to be restricted to the northeast of the island (Glaw<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). Confirmed localities include the type locality, Nosy Mangabe (Glaw<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>. </em>1999), and Masoala (Glaw and Vences 2007). There is a confirmed 2010 record from a locality west of Maroansetra close to Makira Reserve, making it likely that the lizard is also present in this forest block (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). It is very possible that it occurs in other lowland moist forests to the north, such as Marojejy (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). However, other records from Daraina (Rakotondravony 2006),&#160;Analamerana (Rakotondravony 2006), the&#160;Mantadia-Zahamena corridor (Rabibisoa&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) and lowland forests north of Toamasina (Brygoo 1978) must be verified, as these may reflect continuing taxonomic uncertainties within the <em>B. minima </em>group. Additionally, specimens from Betampona were found to represent a different species (F. Andreone pers. comm July 2011). Its extent of occurrence is tentatively considered to be 3,774 km²<sup><sub></sub></sup>; although it may occur more widely (although probably not more widely than 20,000 km²<sup><sub></sub></sup>), this conservative estimate is used here pending resolution of outstanding taxonomic issues.<br/></p>
172795		habitat	eng	<p>Confirmed records are all from lowland moist forest. The species' sensitivity to habitat degradation is unclear, but like other members of the <em>B. minima</em> group it is expected to be intolerant of habitat modification (e.g. Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/></p>
172795		population	eng	This chameleon has been recorded in high densities on Nosy Mangabe (Lutzman 2006). Due to heavy pressure on and the patchy distribution of the remaining forests of the Masoala Peninsula, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172795		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the loss, degradation and fragmentation of lowland forest, which result from rosewood extraction and mining for precious stones.
172796		conservation	eng	Bemanevika Lake&#160;is subject to ongoing conservation work and is in the process of being established as a protected area. More information is needed on this species' distribution and population trends, its exposure to and ability to tolerate disturbance, and all aspects of its natural history. Conservation management of the new protected area is required to minimize the impacts of human activities on this species, and to ensure the survival of critical forest habitat.
172796		distribution	eng	<p>The bizarre-nosed chameleon is endemic to Madagascar and was originally known from a single male collected in 2003 from forest at the Bemanevika Lakes in the northwest at 1,650 m altitude (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). A female specimen was collected at the same locality at 1,580 m and is probably this species (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). Additional specimens were taken in the same area from Matsaborimena, Matsaborimaitso, Andriakanala, Morapitsaka, and Matsaborimaiky at 1,600 to 1,750 m (Andriamazava pers. comm. January 2011).&#160;There is also a recent record from a forest fragment near the Tsaratanana massif at 1,717 m (F. Ratsoavina and M. Vences pers. comms. 2011). The combined area of the two areas is below 5 km²<sup></sup>. The area connecting them is around 90 km², however other surveys in the region have not recorded this species, and while it may occur in other sites it is not likely to range much more widely and may not be widespread between the known localities. The true extent of occurrence is presently unquantifiable, but is provisionally assumed to be below 100 km²<sup></sup>.</p>
172796		habitat	eng	All specimens have been collected from montane humid forest which was either intact or slightly disturbed (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006, Andriamazava 2008; F. Ratsoavina and M. Vences pers. comms. 2011).
172796		population	eng	This species seems to be uncommon. It was originally only known from a single confirmed male specimen collected in 2003, and from a female reported by Raxworthy and Nussbaum (2006). A handful of additional specimens were collected in December 2007, and subsequently confirmed to be this species (Andriamazava 2008). A specimen was also taken in 2010. Due to ongoing fragmentation and destruction of forests within this species' range, the population is presumed to be declining, and remaining patches are severely fragmented.
172796		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss and degradation of humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging for construction materials, fire, honey collecting, and cattle grazing.
172797		conservation	eng	This species is present in Marojejy National Park and Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve in the east.
172797		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a number of localities including Loky-Manambato (Rakotondravony 2006), Marojejy (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003), Nosy Boraha (Glaw and Vences 2007), Nosy Mangabe (Glaw and Vences 2007), Sandranantitra (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Tampolo (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998) <span lang="FR-BE">and Tsaranano (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It has an extent of occurrence of more than 33,600 km².<br/></p>
172797		habitat	eng	<p>This species uses tree trunks and rocks in relatively intact forest, where it shelters in rotting wood and fissures.Bauer <em>et al.</em> (2011) characterize its habitat as "lowland rainforest". It may be cathemeral.</p>
172797		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, although due to human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining forest within its range, it is likely be both declining and severely fragmented.
172797		threats	eng	This species inhabits lowland forest, mainly humid areas in the east, and is threatened by shifting agriculture and logging.
172798		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor, a new protected area consisting of a large continuous forest block. More information is needed on population trends in this species and its responses to habitat modification, and the new reserve should be managed to limit the impacts of agriculture and timber extraction on this lizard.
172798		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to Madagascar where is restricted to mid-elevation forest in the central east. There are numerous reported collecting localities in the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor (Andekaleka, Antsihanaka, Fito, Vohidrazana), where it ranges from around 600 to 865 m (Rakotondravony 2004); the species was not detected&#160;at&#160;another seven sites between 875 and 1,010 m elevation. It has been recorded from nearer sea-level at Toamasina (Glaw and Vences 2007). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 582 km²<sup></sup>. The male is readily distinguishable from other chameleon species, and so it is likely that the species would have been detected elsewhere if it occurred much more widely.
172798		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known to occur in low to mid-elevation humid forest and appears able to withstand a limited amount of forest disturbance. <br/></p>
172798		population	eng	<p>This species is locally common, although forest below 800 m is under pressure and now occurs only patchily within its range. The population is therefore considered to be both declining and severely fragmented. Population densities of 1.1 ha<sup>-1</sup> have been calculated for this species (Brady and Griffiths 1999).</p>
172798		threats	eng	The low elevation forests that this species requires are under severe pressure from expanding slash-and-burn agriculture, logging (charcoal and construction), and cattle grazing.
172800		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre, and although this forest is under pressure from humans it remains relatively well protected. Population trends in this species should be monitored to assess whether ongoing or future human activities around and within the reserve boundary pose a major threat to its survival, and the site should be managed to limit adverse impacts on this chameleon.
172800		distribution	eng	The Amber Mountain chameleon is endemic to Madagascar and only is known from Montagne d'Ambre in the north of the island, where it occurs between 900 and 1,300 m elevation (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). Its extent of occurrence is taken to be 385 km²<sup></sup>.
172800		habitat	eng	<p>      The Amber Mountain chameleon has been collected from and observed in mid-altitude humid forest     (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006).</p><p></p>
172800		population	eng	<p>This species is common.</p>
172800		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There are no major threats to this species at present, but Montagne d'Ambre is under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and L. Durkin pers. comms. January 2011).
172801		conservation	eng	This lizard occurs in Ankarafantsika National Park and Bora Special Reserve. Research is needed into population trends in this species and its sensitivity to threatening processes, and surveys should be conducted between known sites to establish its presence.
172801		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the west, at Ankarafantsika (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), Anjiamangirana (Raselimanana 2008)<span lang="FR-BE"> and Bora (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000) between 90 and 120 m elevation (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000, Raselimanana 2008). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,900 km²<span lang="FR-BE"><sup></sup>.<br/></span></p>
172801		habitat	eng	<p>This species is heavily reliant on intact dry deciduous forest (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), and is not found in disturbed habitats. It is active at night on trees and low vegetation and remains hidden in the day underneath bark (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000).</p>
172801		population	eng	This species can be quite common, although due to the pressure on and patchy distribution of remaining forest  habitat within this gecko's range, it is presumed to be declining and to  occur as a severely fragmented population.
172801		threats	eng	Within Ankarafantsika National Park this species is relatively well protected, but may be under pressure from fire and illegal logging. Forest within Bora Special Reserve has been heavily degraded by timber extraction for local construction. Populations elsewhere may be threatened by clearance of dry forest for agriculture and by accidental burning.
172802		conservation	eng	This species is known from Ankarana Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre National Park, and these reserves should be managed to limit human impacts on critical dry forest habitat for this species. Protection of additional dry forest sites may be required to ensure the persistence of this snake. Research is needed to better-understand the limits of this snake's distribution, and to monitor population trends in response to forest degradation. The taxonomic identity of this species requires clarification.
172802		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it seems to be restricted to several localities in the north and northwest (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Its extent of occurrence may be as low as 2,233 km².
172802		habitat	eng	This arboreal snake is found in dry forest where it is active on trees at night. It can be found in degraded forest, but not outside of forested areas.
172802		population	eng	<p>This snake appears to be a relatively rare species, but it may be just difficult to find. Due to human pressures on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining dry forest within its range, the population of this forest-dependent snake is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172802		threats	eng	Logging and expanding agriculture are damaging the dry forest where this species occurs.
172803		conservation	eng	Cap Est falls outside any protected area, and there is no evidence that conservation measures are in place that may benefit this species. Research is urgently needed as the highest priority to identify whether this species still exists at Cap Est, and whether it is found in Masoala National Park. In common with other species of <em>Phelsuma</em>, this gecko is listed on CITES Appendix II.
172803		distribution	eng	<p>This day gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a single locality in the northeast, Cap Est on the Masoala peninsula, 5 m above sea level (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994). Despite extensive searches of the type locality and areas around Cap Est, the lizard has not been found at other sites (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), and its extent of occurrence is presumed to be less than 100 km². One of the three known specimens was kept in captivity, where mating was observed with a male Abbott's Day Gecko (<em>P. abbotti</em>) (Glaw and Vences 2007, Hallmann <em>et al.</em> 2008)<br/></p>
172803		habitat	eng	This day gecko inhabits littoral humid forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994).
172803		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, and two museum specimens of unknown origin with no associated locality data. No population information is available. Several amateur expeditions have attempted to rediscover this species without success. No specimens are known with a collection date later than the 1990s.
172803		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is not well known enough to determine threats. However, it is noted as inhabiting littoral forest, which is heavily threatened throughout Madagascar (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011), and the Masoala Peninsula is under heavy pressure from rosewood extraction. Consequently, this species is potentially at high risk.
172804		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed or in place of this species, although it does occur in a number of protected areas.
172804		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the east. It is present in the central highlands (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), where it is known from sites including Ankaratra at around 2,000 m elevation (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Moramanga, Analamazoatra (Glaw and Vences 2007), Anjozorobe and Tsinjoarivo (A. Raselimanana and M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), and in lowlands where it is known from Manombo (Glaw and Vences 2007). The lizard's estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 24,100 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172804		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard is found in a variety of habitats and elevations. It has been recorded in montane grasslands and heathland as well as in humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007) and wetlands (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). It may prefer forest edges, and although it was not observed during a survey of Parc National d'Andringitra, it was found in degraded habitats around nearby villages (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996).</p>
172804		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species.</p>
172804		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. It occupies a range of elevations and habitats, including human-impacted areas.
172805		conservation	eng	Habitats for this species are protected in Kirindy, Berenty and Cap Sainte Marie. Research is needed to clarify this snake's distribution, population status and ability to tolerate forest degradation.
172805		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread over the western and southern parts of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), over an area of around 122,200 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172805		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits arid areas where it occurs in spiny and deciduous forest.<u></u></p>
172805		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species. Although logging and agriculture may exert localized pressure on populations, as this species has a large range it is unclear whether the population as a whole is likely to be declining.<br/></p>
172805		threats	eng	This forest snake is threatened by logging and slash  and burn practices.
172806		conservation	eng	The habitats of this species are relatively well conserved in three protected areas in western Madagascar. Research is needed into the taxonomy of this and closely-related species.
172806		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from Ankarana (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000) and Ampombofofo (Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) in the north, and from Namoroka (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000) and Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008) in the west. A record from Ankarafantsika (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) is regarded as uncertain (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). It is unlikely to occur more widely than its known sites due to its specialized habitat requirements; its extent of occurrence, excluding unsuitable habitats, is considered to be 503 km²<sup></sup>. A form reported from Montagne des Français (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) instead represents a different, undescribed species (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). It has been recorded between 150 and 180 m asl. (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000).</p>
172806		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal gecko inhabits dry forest areas on karst, where it has been observed both on rocks and in vegetation (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000). It is common in caves (Raselimanana 2008), and apparently does not depend on forest.<br/></p>
172806		population	eng	This is a common species. It is very abundant in caves at Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008), and the population is presumed to be stable.
172806		threats	eng	This species is largely restricted to cave habitats in protected areas, which are mostly intact. There are no known threats to this gecko or its habitat.
172807		conservation	eng	This species is known from two protected areas, at Anjanaharibe Sud and Tsaratanana. It may be present in the Makira protected area as well. Research is needed to clarify the distribution, population status and ecological requirements of this species.
172807		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to northern Madagascar where it is known from two localities, Anjanaharibe-Sud and Tsaratanana (Mercurio and Andreone 2005), with an estimated extent of occurrence between these sites of 3,584 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. It is probably also present in Makira forest, although this requires confirmation (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). It has been found from 300 to 1,100 m asl. Its distribution between or beyond the known sites is unclear.<br/></p>
172807		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits humid forest. It is a partly arboreal and nocturnal species. It has not been recorded from degraded forest.<br/></p>
172807		population	eng	<p>This snake is known only from a few specimens, and so its population status is unknown. However, as it occurs in one of the few areas of Madagascar with large tracts of continuous forest, the population is probably not fragmented.<br/></p>
172807		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of forest for  agriculture.
172808		conservation	eng	This species is protected under Malagasy law but collection from the wild is permitted with authorization. Collection from within Parc National d'Ankarafantsika is prohibited. The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified, and more information is needed on its distribution, ecological requirements and the impact of threatening processes. The reserve itself should be managed to limit the encroachment of damaging human activities.
172808		distribution	eng	This leaf chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known from Ankarafantsika in the west (Glaw and Vences 2007) at less than 200 m elevation. There is an old collecting locality from more than a hundred years ago (Maevatanana), however the site of this name is a town and the exact collecting locality has never been identified (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). There are no other records of this species from outside Ankarafantsika, despite surveys in western Madagascar (Raselimanana 2008). The species' extent of occurrence, including the area around Maevatanana, is presumed to be 2,700 km²; this will, however, be an overestimate if the lizard survives only in Ankarafantsika, a reserve with an area of 1,300 km²<sup></sup>.
172808		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry deciduous forest.
172808		population	eng	This species is not common and occurs at low density. Mori <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) recorded <em>B. decaryi</em> at the same site as abundant, but only recorded three individuals of this species. Likewise, survey work undertaken by&#160;Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa (2002) recorded <em>B. decaryi</em> but no individuals of <em>B. dentata</em>.
172808		threats	eng	The major threats to Ankarafantsika include bush fires, cattle grazing, and deforestation for charcoal collection (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002). Fire is widespread within the park boundary (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).
172809		conservation	eng	This species is not subject to conservation measures but it does occur in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. Its distribution between known sites requires clarification, and more information is needed on its ecological requirements.
172809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from scattered localities in the southwest between Mikea and Tsimanampetsotsa (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana 2008). Its extent of occurrence throughout this region is estimated to be 10,828 km²<sup></sup>. It has been recorded between 50 and 100 m asl.
172809		habitat	eng	<p>This burrowing skink lives in sandy soil in dry spiny forest.</p>
172809		population	eng	<p>This is probably a locally common lizard, and due to the absence of major threats is presumed to have a stable population.<br/></p>
172809		threats	eng	There do not appear to be any significant threats to this species. However, should there be an increase in sand mining for road building then this may threaten the skink's habitat.
172810		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place but the gecko<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs within the Andringitra National Park. More research is needed to establish the effect of fire on the population of this species, and whether observed changes in population density since the 1970s represent seasonal effects or a genuine decline.
172810		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it has been recorded from  eight localities, all of which lie above the tree-line on the Andringitra massif in the central highlands  (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is known with certainty from elevations of 2,000 to 2,600 m asl. Based on the area of this massif, it has a presumed extent of occurrence of 321 km²<sup></sup>.
172810		habitat	eng	This species occurs at high elevation in rocky heathlands (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It can be found basking on boulders.
172810		population	eng	This gecko is widespread around the summit of the Andringitra massif, but is not commonly encountered. Early collecting in the 1970s found 75 geckos over a six week period, but more recent surveys have recorded only small numbers of animals, or none.
172810		threats	eng	Climate change might adversely impact this species if its mountaintop habitat becomes unsuitable. Burning of heathland around the summit of the massif may affect this species and could be responsible for apparent declines (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011), but the impacts of this practice on the lizard's population require further investigation.
172811		conservation	eng	The species may occur in the northern part of Makira new protected area, as it has been found just outside the boundary. Research is needed to confirm its distribution within the reserve, to establish whether it occurs more widely, and to obtain information on its population status, ecological requirements, exposure to and sensitivity to threats.
172811		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where is known from Tsararano in the north at 710 m (Andreone and Greer 2002). The skink's extent of occurrence is unclear.<br/></p>
172811		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard has been found in humid forest, and is probably nocturnal (Andreone and Greer 2002).</p>
172811		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, as it is only known from a single collection.</p>
172811		threats	eng	There is logging and slash and burn agriculture around the periphery of the Makira reserve. It is unknown whether the site where this skink has been found is subject to these pressures.
172812		conservation	eng	This species is well represented in&#160; protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species and to verify its distributional extent and population status.
172812		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is apparently widespread in the central highlands and the east (Glaw and Vences 2007), over an estimated area of 78,641 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>.
172812		habitat	eng	This arboreal snake feeds<a class="x-tab-right" href="http://127.0.0.1:10000/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text  "></span></em></a> on frogs and small mammals in humid forest.
172812		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species; however, as forest is under continuing human pressure within this snake's range, the population is presumed to be declining.</p>
172812		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of forest for  agriculture.
172813		conservation	eng	This species is well represented in reserves, occurring in  Ankarafantsika National Park, Mandena, Tampolo, Lokobe and  Ambatotsirongorongo. Research is needed to verify population trends and to establish this species' sensitivity to forest degradation resulting from logging activities.
172813		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs at low elevations in much of the island, but is most widespread in the north (Glaw and Vences 2007). The snake's estimated extent of occurrence is 83,387 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172813		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits low elevation humid and dry forest and is often found active in trees at heights of about <st1:metricconverter productid="1.5 m" w:st="on">1.5 m</st1:metricconverter>.
172813		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species. However, due to ongoing human pressure on lowland forest throughout Madagascar, the population is presumed to be declining. As this species is most widespread in northern Madagascar, which still retains large tracts of intact forest, it is unclear whether the population is fragmented.<br/></p>
172813		threats	eng	Lowland forest is a threatened vegetation type in Madagascar because of  logging and slash and burn agriculture.
172814		conservation	eng	There is no available information on conservation measures in place or required for this species. However, it is presumably within the Bemaraha National Park, and surveys are needed to verify its occurrence in this area as well as to obtain data on population trends, ecological requirements and threats. Research is needed to establish whether this is a valid species, or whether it belongs within <em>Z. boettgeri</em>.
172814		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Antsalova region of western Madagascar (Raselimanana <em>et al.</em> 2006) The precise collecting locality is unknown (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), but as this lizard appears to be adapted to an arboreal lifestyle it is thought to be between 100 and 400 m in elevation, the altitudes at which tsingy forest occurs (R. Jenkins pers. comm. July 2011). Intensive surveys within this region at Tsingy de Bemaraha, where the largest remaining tracts of forest are found (R. Jenkins pers. comm. July 2011), have failed to record this species (Bora <em>et al.</em> 2010, Raselimanana 2008). It is not clear whether this is because the species does not occur at the site or because it is difficult to detect (R. Jenkins pers. comm. July 2011).<br/></p>
172814		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard was reportedly collected from a tree in semi-deciduous forest on karstic limestone (Raselimanana <em>et al.</em> 2006). It exhibits morphological adaptations to an arboreal lifestyle similar to that of <em>Z. boettgeri</em>. There is no other published information on this lizard's natural history (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172814		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, which is only known from a specimen captured by a local collector (Raselimanana <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/></p>
172814		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known because there is no information on the precise collecting locality. It is, however, likely to be a forest-dwelling species and could therefore be threatened by logging. It is unknown whether this is a significant threat.
172815		conservation	eng	This species is only known from a few conservation sites, most notably at Ankarafantsika National Park and Montagne des Français (D' Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Research is needed to clarify the extent of this species' distribution within its range, and to obtain more detailed information on its ecological requirements and sensitivity to threatening processes. The taxonomy of this species is in need of further investigation.
172815		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north and northwest Madagascar, where it has a scattered distribution in the island's north and west. Confirmed records in the far north include Ambilobe and Montagne des Français (Glaw and Vences, 2007) and Madirobe, close to Daraina (D. Halleux, unpub. obs., A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011). In the west and northwest it has been recorded from Ankarafantsika and Mikea (Glaw and Vences 2007), and from Beanka Forest (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011). The snake has been reported from between 100 and 300 m asl., and has an estimated extent of occurrence between the known sites of 47,715 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>, presuming that it occurs throughout this region.
172815		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits low elevation dry forest on karst. It has been recorded from slightly disturbed forest.<br/></p>
172815		population	eng	This is a very rare species. It is not clear that this species can persist in or migrate through heavily-degraded or deforested areas, and as remaining forests within its range are under pressure from human activities and are patchily-distributed, the population is thought to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172815		threats	eng	Lowland forest is a threatened vegetation type in Madagascar because of  logging, slash and burn agriculture, and charcoal production.
172816		conservation	eng	This widespread species is found in many of Madagascar's protected areas, where its habitats are relatively well conserved.
172816		distribution	eng	This skink is endemic to Madagascar where it is known throughout much of  the eastern tropical moist forest, an estimated area of nearly 102,400  km². It has been recorded between 575 and 1,600 m asl.
172816		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>This species inhabits leaf litter in humid forest. It is oviparous and diurnal (Andreone and Greer 2002). It has been found in degraded and secondary vegetation, including eucalypt forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/><p></p>
172816		population	eng	<p>This can be an abundant species. Although it has been found in degraded habitats, it is unlikely that this leaf litter skink can survive in deforested land, and due to ongoing human pressure on forests throughout eastern Madagascar the population is presumed to be declining.<br/></p>
172816		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging, conversion of forest to agricultural use, and charcoal production.
172817		conservation	eng	This species is found in a few protected areas including Berenty Private Reserve, Andohalela National Park, Tsimanampetsotse National Park, Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve and Ankodida new protected area (C. Raxworthy and J.-B. Ramanamanjato pers. comms. January 2011). Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species, and to investigate its ecological requirements.
172817		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few    localities in the extreme south of the island, east of the Onilahy River    (Yoder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), on the Mahafaly plateau at Tsimanampetsotsa (Raselimanana 2008, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) , Itampolo and Vohombe, with an elevational range of 20 to 120 m above sea level (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and at Vohondava at 225 m asl. (Raselimanana 2008). The lizard has an estimated extent of occurrence between these sites of nearly 13,000 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.<p></p>  <p></p>
172817		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial plated lizard is found in arid environments, where is has been collected in spiny forest and deciduous forest along rivers (Glaw and Vences 2007) as well as in open areas and near villages.</p>
172817		population	eng	<p>This species can be very common or abundant in places.<br/></p>
172817		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by the loss and degradation of spiny forest and gallery forest in the south of Madagascar due to logging for the production of charcoal and clearance for the expansion of shifting agriculture. However, given the wide range of this species and its apparent tolerance of some degree of habitat modification these are not considered to be significant threats.
172818		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout the island.
172818		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it occurs throughout the island except for the far south and parts of the west (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172818		habitat	eng	This species inhabits degraded areas outside of forest, where it feeds mainly on frogs.
172818		population	eng	This is a very common species.
172818		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species, which is strongly associated with human-modified habitats.
172819		conservation	eng	This species has been collected in an area of the Kirindy forest which is closely managed for conservation and sustainable logging. It is known from Andranomena Special Reserve (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011). The collection site in Ankarafantsika is within a national park. Further surveys are needed at and between the known sites to locate additional records of this species and to clarify its distribution, population status, exposure to and sensitivity to potential threatening processes.
172819		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from Kirindy forest and Andranomena Special Reserve in western Madagascar, but it is probably also present in Ankarafantsika (this locality requires further confirmation) further to the north (Franzen <span style="font-style: italic;">et&#160; al</span>. 2009; A. Raselimanana pers. comm. June 2011). It may be present in the area between these two locations, in which case its extent of occurrence would be at least 27,300 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. Its known distributional extent, based on the combined area of the known sites, is 3,674 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. The snake has been found in lowlands, ranging from sea level to 300 m in elevation.
172819		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from a sandy open area near to dry deciduous forest (Franzen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is not known from degraded areas; although only three specimens are known, it is expected to be at least partly dependent on forest (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011) and semi-fossorial (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. June 2011).
172819		population	eng	This snake is known only from three specimens. It may not be rare, but is very infrequently encountered due to its cryptic nature and burrowing habits (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. June 2011). As there is a high degree of deforestation in western Madagascar, it is thought likely the population is declining.
172819		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by forest fires, conversion of land to agricultural use and logging, but there is no data on either its exposure to these processes or its sensitivity to them.
172820		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some protected areas, including Analamazaotra, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Manongarivo and Montagne d'Ambre. It is widespread and there are no specific conservation measures except the monitoring and evaluation of the international trade in wild-caught individuals. More research is needed to establish the precise area of occupancy of this species, and to establish whether the assumed division between higher-elevation <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sikorae</span> and lowland <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sameiti</span> accurately reflects this species' distribution.
172820		distribution	eng	This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it has been recorded from humid forest in the east, and throughout humid forest in the northeast. It is widely distributed in suitable habitats and occurs throughout the length of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). An apparently isolated population occurs in Montagne d'Ambre and surrounding, unprotected areas. It has been reported from 700 m to at least 1,200 m asl. A record attributed to this species are also known from a forest fragment at lower elevations (379-435 m) close to Montagne d'Ambre, well outside the presumed range of the lower-elevation <em>U. sameiti</em> (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 77,103 km².
172820		habitat	eng	<p>This gecko inhabits humid mid-elevation forest and is active within the forest understorey, between heights of one and five metres. It is often syntopic with <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sameiti</span>, <em>U. fimbriatus </em>or <em>U. giganteus.</em> It is tolerant of some degree of habitat degradation, but cannot survive in deforested areas and may be absent from heavily-degraded forest.<em><br/></em></p>
172820		population	eng	<p>There is no quantitative information on the population of this species, but it is reportedly common in Montagne d'Ambre (Glaw and Vences 2007) and the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). As a forest-dependent species, the population is likely to be declining.<br/></p>
172820		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the different human activities that are  damaging Madagascar's eastern forests, including slash and burn  agriculture, bush fire, mining and selective logging for charcoal,  construction and hardwoods for export. This species is however tolerant of some degree of habitat degradation and is found at mid-elevations, where remaining forest cover is greater than in the lowlands.
172821		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas, but its low elevation forest is particularly vulnerable to conversion into farmland. Known sites should be managed to limit the loss of forest habitat within these reserves. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species, to determine the extent of its distribution between and around known localities, and to investigate population trends and responses to pressures from logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.
172821		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to northeast Madagascar, and has a distribution that is restricted to lowland forests between 475 and 625 m asl. Confirmed collection localities include four massifs at Anjanaharibe-Sud (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Marojejy (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Anandrivola (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), and Masoala (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It is likely to occur more widely in suitable habitat, as this area remains one of the few large areas of continuous intact forest left on the island, and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 9,500 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172821		habitat	eng	<p>This species is restricted to relatively intact low elevation forest (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It has a nocturnal roosting height of 50-150 cm. </p>
172821		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. Due to the loss of lowland forests in northeast Madagascar, the population is likely to be declining; however, sufficient continuous forest remains between known sites that the population is not thought to be fragmented.
172821		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of low elevation humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture and selective logging, especially for rosewood.
172822		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three protected areas, at both coastal and inland sites. More research is needed to establish this species' area of occupancy, population trends and ecology. Studies are needed to determine whether this species is tolerant of low or moderate degrees of habitat disturbance. Protection of other areas of forest where this species is known to occur is recommended to ensure its continued persistence.
172822		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from scattered localities throughout the south of the island, at Ambatotsirongorongo (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al</span>. 2002), Andohahela (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), Antafoky (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Cap Sainte Marie, Petriky (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Sarodrano, Sept Lacs (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Zombitse, and Tsivanoa. It has been found at elevations between 40 and 100 m (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2009)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. The gecko's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 17,970 km</span>²<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span>
172822		habitat	eng	<p>This species is active on the ground in intact dry forest and coastal areas, and also inhabits riparian areas (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), which occur as isolated fragments throughout its range. It has not been found in heavily disturbed forest, and its ability to tolerate any degree of habitat modification is unclear.<br/></p>
172822		population	eng	This is a rare species. Based on the patchy distribution of, and declines in the extent of, suitable dry forest habitat the population is thought to be both severely fragmented and declining.
172822		threats	eng	This species is confined to intact forests which are at risk from timber extraction for charcoal production, and land clearance for slash and burn agriculture, both of which are ongoing throughout the species' range.
172823		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two protected sites, at Tsaratanana and Montagne d'Ambre. Further survey work is needed between and within known sites to establish the distributional extent of this species and to clarify its ecological requirements, exposure to and sensitivity to threats. The taxonomy of this and related species requires clarification.
172823		distribution	eng	<p>This blindsnake is endemic to Madagascar where it is only known from sites below 600 m asl in the north. It has been recorded from Montagne d'Ambre (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008),<u> </u>Ampombofofo (Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and Montagne des Français (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). Its extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known sites, is estimated to be 987 km². It is not clear whether it is more widespread; however, it has not been recorded in surveys of other northern sites including Forêt d'Ambre, Ankarana and Tsarakibany (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011), and the degree of genetic differentiation between animals from known localities suggests this may have a genuinely restricted range within this region.<br/></p>
172823		habitat	eng	<p>This poorly-known burrowing snake is occasionally active on the leaf litter. It is found in humid and dry forest, including degraded forest. The extent to which it can persist in degraded habitats is unclear.<br/></p>
172823		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species.</p>
172823		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known due to uncertainty over the identities of specimens from different localities (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). The species is not significantly threatened in Montagne d'Ambre (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
172824		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one national park   at Tsimanampetsotsa. Research is needed into population trends, and to establish the sensitivity of this species to threatening processes.
172824		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it known from a few sites in the south, having been recorded from Toliara (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Anakao (Glaw and Vences 2007), Antabore and Tongaenoro (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Efoetse, Itampolo, Mikea, Tsimanampetsotsa and Vohombe (Raselimanana 2008). All known sites are between sea level and 120 m in elevation. The lizard has an extent of occurrence of 9,272 km².<br/></p>
172824		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko occurs in arid coastal scrub, often on <em>Euphorbia stenoclada</em>, but it also uses small trees and sisal (<em>Agave </em>spp.) plants (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species does not glue its eggs to a substrate (Glaw and Vences 2007). Its ability to tolerate habitat degradation is unclear, but it is known from at least lightly degraded sites. It is not found in unvegetated sites.<br/></p>
172824		population	eng	This species is infrequently encountered. There is no population information available for this species, but due to pressures on the arid scrub where it occurs and the patchy distribution of surviving remnant habitat, it is likely to be declining and to occur as a severely fragmented population.
172824		threats	eng	The spiny forest where this species occurs is under pressure from cattle grazing, charcoal production and land clearance for agriculture, but the extent to which these processes threaten this species is unknown. Populations near the coast may be threatened by development of villages and fishing communities.
172825		conservation	eng	The dry forest habitats of this species are conserved in a number of protected areas, including Bemaraha and Ankarafantsika National Parks. Research is needed to clarify this lizard's distribution within its known range, and the population may require monitoring to establish rates of decline. Little is known about the ecology of this partially-aquatic lizard, and more information is needed on its response to threats affecting freshwater habitats (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011). The taxonomic status of subpopulations within this morphologically variable species requires further investigation.
172825		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a number of localities in the northwest of the island between Bemaraha and Ankarana (Glaw and Vences 2007), an area of around 75,000 km²<sup></sup>, between sea level and 250 m elevation.
172825		habitat	eng	<p>This aquatic lizard is found in dry deciduous and transitional forests (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has also been observed in rice fields at the forest edge. It is active at night in small forest streams (Andreone and Greer 2002, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).</p>
172825		population	eng	This skink occurs at low densities. Due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, riparian forest habitats within its range, the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172825		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of dry forest to expanding agriculture (both shifting and large scale - sugar cane, cotton) and from large-scale selective logging. There is also increasing pollution of the rivers from urban and agricultural sources.
172826		conservation	eng	There are no site conservation measures for this species, although annual exports for commercial purposes are limited and the species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species and the significance of ecological differences between recognized subspecies. There are numerous records of this species from protected areas in eastern Madagascar, including Ankarafantsika, Anamalazoatra Special Reserve, and Mantadia and Ranomafana National Parks.
172826		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the east of the island, occurring continuously from Makira in the northeast to the southeast corner of the island, an area of over 152,750 km². The subspecies <em>P. l. bombetokensis</em> is known from Ankarafantsika in western Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). The gecko has been recorded from 750 to 1,350 m asl. This gecko has also been introduced to the Mascarene island of Réunion (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011).<br/></p>
172826		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found on banana palms, trees, buildings (Glaw and Vences 2007) and <em>Pandanus </em>screw palms (Lethinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It avoids the interior of littoral forest fragments (Lethinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). The nominate subspecies<em></em><em></em> occurs in humid forest in <em>Pandanus </em>(Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<em> P. m. bombetokensis</em> inhabits bushes and buildings in drier areas.&#160;<em></em><em>P. m. punctulata </em>glues its eggs to a substrate; the remaining subspecies do not.<br/></p>
172826		population	eng	This is a very common species.
172826		threats	eng	This species is not threatened but care must be take to verify the taxonomic status of the different subspecies, some of which may be threatened.
172827		conservation	eng	Conservation management is active or planned for most of the sites where this species is known to occur but there are no targeted measures in place, and forests between these sites are unprotected. It is known from Andohahela National Park and Manantantely private reserve, and the newly-protected areas Tsitongambarika and Ambatotsirongorongo. Research is needed into this species' distribution, population trends, habitat requirements and susceptibility to threatening processes.
172827		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a cluster of sites in the southeast, including Ambatotsirongorongo (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Andohahela (Andreone and Randriamahazo 1997), &#160;Manantantely (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994), Manongotry (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994) and Nahampoana (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994). This species occupies forests between 120 and 240 m above sea level (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994), and has an extent of occurrence of 1,269 km².</p>
172827		habitat	eng	<p>This is a nocturnal species that uses granitic boulders near streams in intact closed-canopy lowland evergreen forest (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994). It may occur at low densities at sites subject to some logging or agricultural disturbance, but is absent from degraded habitats. Gravid females contain two eggs that are deposited at traditional communal sites between October and December (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994).<em></em></p>
172827		population	eng	This is a rare, highly localized species that may be abundant at some sites but is becoming rarer. Due to its reliance on patchily-distributed closed-canopy forest and its inability to traverse degraded land, the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.
172827		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the conversion of low elevation forest into farmland, and from forest degradation resulting from logging.
172828		conservation	eng	All of the sites where this species has been recorded are within protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the distribution of this species outside reserves, to verify population trends, and to investigate its ability to tolerate forest degradation.
172828		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it is found over an area of nearly 55,400 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup> from north to south. Within this range, however, it is only known from a few scattered localities (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172828		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial, diurnal snake inhabits humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172828		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species; however due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution  of, remaining humid forest in eastern Madagascar, the population is  presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172828		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of humid&#160; forest for agriculture.
172829		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Resérve Naturele Intégrale Lokobe and Manongarivo Special Reserve. More research is needed into the identity of threats to this species, and its ability to tolerate habitat modification.
172829		distribution	eng	<p>This day gecko is endemic to northwestern Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the Sambirano region, including Lokobe (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Manongarivo (Rakotomalala 2002), the Ampasindava peninsula, Nosy Be and Nosy Komba (Van Heygen 2004). It is found up to 400 m asl at Manongarivo, and occurs at lower elevations in the rest of its range. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,713 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172829		habitat	eng	This day gecko inhabits patches of bamboo in both intact forest and degraded areas (Glaw and Vences 2007), and has been found near villages (van Heygen <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2004). As well as inhabiting bamboo itself, this gecko can be found in high numbers on the leaves of Traveller's Palm (<em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>) (van Heygen 2004).
172829		population	eng	This species is regularly encountered in bamboo forest, in both primary and secondary vegetation. Due to the patchy distribution of this habitat within its range, the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.
172829		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly documented, but it is largely reliant on bamboo. It is therefore susceptible to threats that remove bamboo, such as land clearance for agriculture and selective extraction of these plants, which are ongoing within its range.
172830		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Réserve Spéciale d'Ambohitantely and&#160;the Anjozorobe-Angavo Corridor. Research is needed to verify whether records from northern Madagascar are conspecific with this chameleon, and to investigate its distribution and population trends. The protected areas from which the species is known should be managed to preserve suitable forest habitat, and to limit the encroachment of human activities that may threaten the survival of this lizard. This chameleon is listed on CITES Appendix II. As records of this species in the international pet trade exist, export restrictions should be enforced and harvest levels monitored.
172830		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it appears to be restricted to a relatively small area in the central-east highlands. It has been recorded from Ambohitantely and the&#160;Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Brady & Griffiths 1999, Raselimanana and Andriamampionana 2007). Its elevational range is estimated to be 1,200 to 1,500 m, and it has a presumed extent of occurrence of 676 km² based on the area of the known sites.
172830		habitat	eng	<p>This species is only known from montane humid forest; it has been found to be locally abundant in disturbed patches and alongside streams within relatively intact areas of forest vegetation (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). </p>
172830		population	eng	<p>The population density of this species at a single site was calculated to range between 0.33 and 5.18 individuals per hectare (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). As the relatively intact montane forest this species requires is under pressure from human activities and occurs as isolated patches, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172830		threats	eng	Although it might be able to withstand low levels of disturbance (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2003), this forest chameleon is threatened by the loss of humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging for charcoal and construction materials, and cattle grazing, all of which impact this species despite its presence in protected areas. Fires set to clear land for agriculture also encroach into the reserves where this species has been recorded (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).
172831		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.
172831		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in the southwest, southeast and northwest (Glaw and Vences 2007), over an area of nearly 226,000 km²<sup></sup>. It is most common in the southwest (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), and has been recorded between 15 and 240 m asl.
172831		habitat	eng	<p>This species is mostly arboreal (Münchenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It lives in arid areas and buries its eggs in sand (Glaw and Vences 2007)<em>. </em>It inhabits dry deciduous and spiny forest vegetation (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and its abundance was correlated with the presence of termite mounds and fallen logs in one study (Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The same study found that the species was absent from cleared forest, possibly due to the shortage of logs and termite mounds in these areas (Scott <em>et al.</em> 2006)</p>
172831		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be most abundant in the southwest of its range (Glaw and Vences 2007). It may be experiencing localized declines as a result of forest clearance.<br/></p>
172831		threats	eng	Because this lizard is mainly arboreal, forest loss through conversion of land to agricultural use and charcoal production will impact some populations.
172832		conservation	eng	This species is not subject to any conservation measures, nor are any apparently needed. Research is needed to clarify the status of subpopulations from each of the Comoros islands, to determine whether they warrant recognition as distinct species or subspecies, and <em>T. maculabris casuarinae</em> should be formally synonymized within <em>T. comorensis</em>.
172832		distribution	eng	This skink occurs on the four main islands of the Comoros archipelago: Grand Comore, Anjouan, Moheli and the French overseas department of Mayotte (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2010). On Mayotte it has been recorded from both the main island and Petite Terre (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2010, Carretero <em>et al.</em> 2005). Subpopulations occur on Nosy Tanikely (off the northwest coast of Madagascar) and, under the name <em>T. maculabris casuarinae</em>, Ilha Casuarina (part of the Primeiras archipelago off the northern coast of Mozambique), both of which appear to be recent, probably human-mediated introductions from Moheli (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2010). No elevational information is available.
172832		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in all habitats on the island of Nosy Tanikely, including plantations and littoral rocks. It is predominantly terrestrial but occasionally climbs (Glaw and Vences 2007). In the Comoros, it is common in urban areas, degraded habitats and plantations, but is scarce in intact forest (Carretero <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/></p>
172832		population	eng	<p>    </p>This skink is very abundant on Nosy Tanikely (Glaw and Vences 2007). Carretero <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that it was the most abundant lizard found during a survey of the Comoros archipelago.<br/><p></p>
172832		threats	eng	Future sea level rise may reduce the available land area for this species; however, given its adaptability and preference for anthropogenic habitats it is not thought to be threatened.
172833		conservation	eng	This snake occurs in a number of protected areas in the east. Research is needed to clarify its distribution and population status.
172833		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is widespread in the east over an area of nearly 47,000 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>, but is only known from a few localities within this range (Glaw and Vences 2007). A record from Montagne d'Ambre in the island's far north appears to be isolated from the main part of the species' range.
172833		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial snake inhabits humid forest and marshland. </p>
172833		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species; however, as it appears to rely on habitats that are under continuing pressure from human activities the population is likely to be in decline.
172833		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of forest for agriculture.
172834		conservation	eng	This species occurs on the Sahamalaza Peninsula, which is a protected area. It is not known whether the area where <span style="font-style: italic;">P. menamainty </span>occurs is presently well conserved, and improved management of this reserve is required. Surveys are needed to relocate this species in Berara and surrounding areas, to establish the limits of its distribution, identify population trends, clarify its exposure to potential threats and establish whether it is in need of additional conservation management.
172834		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Berara in the west at 170 m elevation (Andreone and Greer 2002). In common with other fossorial humid forest skinks in Madagascar, its distribution is likely to be very restricted, potentially less than 100 km² (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172834		habitat	eng	<p>The known specimen was found in lowland transitional forest. This lizard is probably fossorial and may be active at night in leaf litter (Andreone and Greer 2002). Morphological features suggest that it may be adapted to a diet of earthworms (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172834		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species as it is only known from a single specimen.<br/></p>
172834		threats	eng	Logging for charcoal production and conversion of the habitat to agricultural lands are impacting forest at Berara, and there was evidence of extensive slash and burn agriculture around this lizard's type locality in 2001 (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). While protection of the Sahamalaza forests may have improved this situation, it is likely that forest loss and degradation continues even in the core of this reserve (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
172835		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in several protected areas, including&#160;Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and Isalo National Park (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011), but it also occurs widely outside protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the level of genetic differentiation within this species, and whether any change to the status of the proposed form <em>Furcifer lateralis major</em> is warranted.<br/></p>
172835		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to Madagascar and is widely distributed throughout the island, with the exception of the north, between 120 and 1,925 m above sea level (Raselimanana and Rakotomala 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007, Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 467,634 km².<br/></p>
172835		habitat	eng	<p>This is considered to be a forest edge species that is associated with herbaceous vegetation and shrubby savanna (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003) but has also been recorded inside forest (Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is also found in arid spiny forest, rocky areas and in the canopy of trees, and is present in well vegetated gardens within its range (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is often found in gardens in the&#160;capital city, Antananarivo.&#160;Clutch size in the wild is reported as eight to ten eggs (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003) and four to 23 eggs (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is thought to survive a single year only in the wild (Glaw and Vences, 2007).</p>
172835		population	eng	<p>This is a widespread species and generally common. </p>
172835		threats	eng	<p>As a species that uses the widespread savanna vegetation of the Malagasy highlands, as well as a variety of other degraded formations, there are not thought to be any threats from changes to its habitats as a result of natural or anthropogenic influences. Harvests based on the current annual quota of 2,000 animals do not constitute a threat to this species.</p>
172836		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Zahamena-Ankeniheny corridor (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Research is needed into the species' distribution within its known range, rates of population decline, the extent of its exposure to and the impact of threatening processes. Preservation of additional areas of suitable habitat within this lizard's range may be required, and existing protected areas where it occurs should be managed to limit the impact of threats on the population.
172836		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is found in a number of localities in the east. The northernmost record of this species is from Marojejy (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and the southernmost from Marolambo (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). At Marojejy it has been found at low elevations, between 440 and 720 m (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Other confirmed localities include Tsararano (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Anandrivola (Raxworthy 1988) and Masoala (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). It has been recorded over an area of 17,432 km² at suitable elevations, and it appears to occur as highly localized subpopulations (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
172836		habitat	eng	This species occurs in low and mid-elevation humid forest. It is not likely to occur in degraded habitats.
172836		population	eng	This species is uncommon. Due to its apparent intolerance of habitat degradation and the distribution of remaining intact forest in eastern Madagascar, as well as the apparently localized nature of subpopulations, the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172836		threats	eng	The loss and degradation of humid forest, resulting from slash-and-burn agriculture, logging for charcoal and construction, and cattle grazing, are the main threats to this species.
172837		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Analamazoatra Special Reserve, the new Makira protected area, and Marojejy National Park.
172837		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has been found in Marojejy in the north, and at Andasibe and Ambatovy (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011) in the east (Glaw and Vences 2007). In the northeast it has been found at Makira (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), and is likely to be widespread in humid forest between Marojejy and Andasibe. It occurs between 300 and approximately 1,000 m asl., and has an extent of occurrence of 17,767 km²<sup></sup>.
172837		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from low and mid-elevation humid forest. It appears to require habitat either within or close to intact primary forest, and is absent from heavily degraded areas.
172837		population	eng	This species is active during the day on trees where it can occur in  aggregations of up to 10 individuals. Its distribution within the sites  where it occurs is patchy and many trees appear to be unoccupied. Due to the availability of suitable habitat and this species' limited dispersal capability, the population is likely to be both severely fragmented and declining.
172837		threats	eng	As a forest-dependent lizard this gecko is threatened by the loss and degradation of humid forest in eastern Madagascar, driven by agricultural expansion, timber extraction and fire. Because of its presence in three protected areas, however, the actual threat level is probably rather low.
172838		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but a survey of potential sites would be helpful to develop a better understanding of its ecology and threats to survival.
172838		distribution	eng	This species of dwarf gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it has been collected in the south. There is very little information on the distribution of this species, although it is known from three different sites at Andrahamana, Angavo and Behara at around 400 m elevation (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The known extent of occurrence is 1,394 km². All records date from the 1930s and 1950s, and no further work has been conducted in the areas where this species was found.
172838		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is poorly known, but it has been collected from under tree bark in arid savanna (Angel 1930).
172838		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species.
172838		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
172839		conservation	eng	This species is not subject to any conservation measures. Taxonomic research is required to establish the validity of subspecies and resolve this gecko's taxonomic status.
172839		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs in the south at a number of localities, including Ambovombe (Rocha<em> et al.</em> 2009), Beraketa, Betioky, Ambatostsirongorongo, Manantantely, Mandena, Petriky and Sainte Luce (Ramanamanjato<em> et al. </em>2002), Morombe, Tolagnaro and Toliara (Glaw and Vences 2007). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be around 25,500 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172839		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko occurs in arid areas, where it is represened by the nominate subspecies and <em>P. m. leiogaster</em>. <em>P. m. isakae</em> is found in more humid areas. It is relatively common in villages and it is reportedly scarce inside forests (Glaw and Vences 2007), with the exception of small fragments of littoral vegetation where it is found in the interior and is an edge-avoider (Lethinen<em> et al.</em> 2003). This species is an egg gluer.</p>
172839		population	eng	This is a common species.
172839		threats	eng	This species lives in close proximity to people and no threats have been identified. However, additional surveys and research will be needed after the subspecies are subject to a taxonomic revision because it is likely that these are subject to population-specific threats.
172840		conservation	eng	This chameleon occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela. Research is needed to establish whether it occurs more widely within the Anosy range. The population should be monitored to evaluate the impacts of any future agricultural disturbance and logging, and the reserve managed to limit the risk these threats pose to this species.
172840		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is only known from a small area (approximately 78 km²<sup></sup>) of montane forest in Andohahela between 1,400 and 1,920 m elevation (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). Its occurrence in other sites within the Anosyennes mountain chain needs to be verified.<br/></p>
172840		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in montane humid forests (Glaw and Vences 2007, Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).</p>
172840		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, but from the absence of ongoing threats it is presumed to be stable.
172840		threats	eng	Forest loss and degradation due to slash-and-burn agriculture and cattle grazing constitutes a plausible future threat to this species. However, because it occurs at relatively high elevations there are not believed to be any threats operating at present within its range.
172841		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout northern Madagascar.
172841		distribution	eng	This is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread at low elevations in the north and east (Glaw and Vences 2007; F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011), over an area of nearly 392,750 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.
172841		habitat	eng	<p>A diurnal and terrestrial species found in humid and dry forest, grassland, wetlands and heavily disturbed habitats. Females lay eggs in ant nests. </p>
172841		population	eng	<p>This species is very abundant where it occurs (Glaw and Vences 2007). Due to the absence of threats, the population is presumed to be stable.<br/></p>
172841		threats	eng	There are no threats to this adaptable species.
172842		conservation	eng	Significant areas of humid forest are well conserved for this species in a number of protected areas in eastern Madagascar. Research is needed to establish whether this species occurs at Morondava or in other areas of western Madagascar.
172842		distribution	eng	This skink is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in scattered localities in the north and east of the island, as well as Morondava in the west (Glaw and Vences 2007; M. Vences pers. comm. June 2011). The estimated extent of occurrence is around 69,100 km².
172842		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in leaf litter in humid forest. One female laid a clutch of three eggs in captivity (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993)</p>
172842		population	eng	<p>This skink can be common. Due to ongoing human pressure on remaining humid forest in northern Madagascar the population of this leaf litter lizard is likely to be declining. As it is largely confined to northern Madagascar, where large tracts of continuous forest still exist, it is unlikely to occur as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172842		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of humid forest from expanding agriculture and logging.
172843		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area, Tsaratanana. Research is needed to establish its distributional extent and to monitor population trends.
172843		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Tsaratanana in the north between 2,050 and 2,870 m elevation (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). <br/></p>
172843		habitat	eng	<p>This is a species of montane humid forest and heathland (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>
172843		population	eng	<p>This lizard is quite common where it occurs.<br/></p>
172843		threats	eng	Apart from a possible future risk from climate change (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), no other threats have been identified for this high-montane species.
172844		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including&#160;Montagne d'Ambre National Park and Manongarivo Special Reserve. More information is needed on this species' distribution and population status, and on the extent and intensity of threatening processes within occupied parts of its range.
172844		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known from a few sites in the extreme north, including Ankarana (Raselimanana 2008), Montagne d'Ambre between 650 and 800 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994) and the adjacent Forêt d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Montagne des Français at 140 m (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Daraina (Rakotondravony 2006), Manongarivo (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995) and Nosy Be (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has been found from sea level to 800 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, 1995). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 14,321 km².<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
172844		habitat	eng	<p>This seemingly forest-dependent chameleon inhabits dry (Rakotondravony 2006) and humid lowland forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994).</p>
172844		population	eng	This species is locally common; however, due to the pressures on forests within its range and the patchy distribution of forest remnants, the population is presumed to be both severely fragmented and declining.
172844		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss and degradation due to, among other factors, agricultural clearance, charcoal production, timber extraction, small-scale quarrying, cattle grazing, and small-holder development.
172845		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known conservation measures in place for this species, and as no information is available on its ecological requirements or population status it is not clear what measures might be needed. Further surveys are needed to relocate this species and to establish its distributional extent, population status, ecological requirements and threats.<br/></p>
172845		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is only known from Iaraka in the northeast (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172845		habitat	eng	<p>The known specimen was collected in tropical moist forest. Nothing further is known about this species.<br/></p>
172845		population	eng	<p>This species is known from only a single specimen.<br/></p>
172845		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on possible threats to this species.</p>
172847		conservation	eng	This species is found in Ranomafana National Park and Anjozorobe new reserve. Research is needed to establish the full extent of this species' distribution between known sites, to monitor population trends, and to understand its ability to tolerate habitat modification.
172847		distribution	eng	<p>   This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from in and around the Ranomafana forest in the southeast (Glaw and Vences 2007), from the Anjozorobe new reserve and from Ambatovy. It is presumed to occur along the eastern side of the central highlands between these sites at elevations of 700-900 m asl., an estimated area of 17,434 km²<sup></sup>. <br/></p>
172847		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that inhabits humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has not been recorded from degraded habitat, but other members of this genus can withstand some habitat degradation.
172847		population	eng	<p>This appears to be a very rare species. Due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining forest within its range, the population of this forest-associated snake is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172847		threats	eng	This species is threatened by small scale cattle grazing, charcoal production, and logging.
172848		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Biological surveys in the area have so far failed to rediscover this species, and efforts are needed to conduct targeted surveys for this lizard.
172848		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to southeast Madagascar where it is known from a single locality, Fiadanana (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), at 600 m asl.This site has an area of&#160; 117 km², however the species' extent of occurrence is believed to be considerably less and may be as small as 10 km².<br/></p>
172848		habitat	eng	<p>This species was found in degraded humid forest, where it was collected from inside holes in <em>Weinmannia </em>sp. trees (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).</p>
172848		population	eng	This is a rare species that is known only from the type series, representing four individuals collected over a month of survey work. If a population still exists, it is very likely to be declining as a result of land clearance underway at the known locality. As this conspicuous and distinctive gecko has not been reported for over a decade despite additional surveys in the area, it may already be extinct.
172848		threats	eng	The trees on which this species is thought to rely are being cleared to make room for agriculture, and its absence from coffee plantations which also occur in the area suggests that it is unlikely to survive in this habitat.
172849		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed or in place for this species. The species is present in many protected areas. This species is in need of taxonomic revision.
172849		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the south and southwest (Glaw and Vences 2007). Most localities occur on or near the coast but there are a few inland as in the highlands (which require confirmation), with Bemaraha the northerly most record (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The lizard's estimated extent of occurrence is over 153,000 km²<sup></sup>.
172849		habitat	eng	<p>This species mainly inhabits sandy areas in primary dry forest, spiny forest and degraded areas (Blanc 1969, Glaw and Vences 2007)<em>.</em> It has been observed in urban settings (Glaw and Vences 2007). The snake <em>Mimophis mahafalensis </em>is an important predator.&#160;<em></em>This lizard's diet was composed mainly of ants, beetles and termites during studies in Vohibasia and Mailambandy (Peveling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).</p>
172849		population	eng	<p>This species is locally abundant and can occur in high population densities (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172849		threats	eng	This species is adapted to anthropogenic habitats and is not currently threatened.
172850		conservation	eng	This species is known from Parc National d'Andringitra and   Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatitra. It is presumed to occur in Parc National d'Andohahela, but the taxonomy of this subpopulation needs to be resolved (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Andreone and Randrianirana 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007). Research is needed into this species' distribution and population trends, and reserves should be managed to limit the encroachment of human impacts that may threaten this species.
172850		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is restricted to high elevation humid forest from 1,550 to 1,680 m elevation in the south (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). It is known from a number of localities around the Andringitra massif, as well as at Kalambatritra (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007), and may also be present at Andohahela. The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,220 km²<sup></sup> based on the area of the known localities, including Andohahela.<br/></p>
172850		habitat	eng	<p>This chameleon has been recorded from intact humid forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996).</p>
172850		population	eng	<p>This species is uncommon. Due to human pressures on and the distribution of remaining intact forest within its range the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.</p>
172850		threats	eng	<p>The major threats to this chameleon and its habitat are likely to be operating at Kalambatritra, and include fire, logging (for charcoal), cattle grazing, and slash-and-burn agriculture. Suitable habitat remains relatively stable at other sites (F. Glaw pers. comm. July 2011) given this species' preference for high elevations where threats are more limited. However, the extent to which this species is exposed to threats throughout its extent of occurrence remains unclear, and it could well be at risk over the majority of its range (F. Glaw pers. comm. July 2011).<br/></p>
172851		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, where it benefits from limited disturbance to its forest habitat.
172851		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it has  been found in a number of sites in the north and a few in the west. Localities where this  species has been recorded include Montage des Français (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Ankarana (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007,  Raselimanana 2008). Bemaraha (Raselimanana  2008, Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Berara (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), Lokobe (Andreone  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Ankarafansika (J.-B. Ramanamanajato pers. comm. January 2011), Ankara (N.A. Rakotondravony pers. comm. January 2011), Bendrao Forest (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Loky-Manambato (Rakotondravony  2006, 2007), Manongarivo, Marojejy (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003)  and Montage d'Ambre (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007,  D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The snake's estimated extent of occurrence is around 30,650 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
172851		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry and humid forest where it is active at night on the ground and in trees near streams.
172851		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species but it is locally common in some areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). Due to human pressure on forest in parts of the snake's range, it is likely to be declining.
172851		threats	eng	This species is restricted to forested areas and the loss and degradation of dry and humid forest because of logging and slash and burn agriculture threatens this species in much of its range.
172852		conservation	eng	This species is known from Bemaraha National Park and possibly Namoroka Special Reserve. Research is needed to confirm its occurrence at the latter site and between these localities, and to establish its exposure to and sensitivity to threats around reserve boundaries.
172852		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is only known from Bemaraha plateau in the west (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and a possible record from Namoroka Special Reserve. Its extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of these two sites, is taken to be 953 km²<sup></sup>. It has been recorded at 430 m asl.
172852		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in dry deciduous forest on a karst outcrop (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is not known if it occurs in degraded forest.
172852		population	eng	This snake is known from a few specimens, but these are insufficient to draw any conclusions about population trends.
172852		threats	eng	While this snake is known only from protected areas, there is ongoing   degradation of forest around the periphery of Bemaraha through fires set to refresh pastures for zebu. It is not clear if this is   impacting the species.
172853		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas. Research is needed to clarify its distribution, population status and habitat requirements.
172853		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the west, with unconfirmed records in the northeast and southeast. The snake's estimated extent of occurrence is 92,321 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.
172853		habitat	eng	<p>This arboreal snake inhabits forest in arid areas, including somewhat degraded gallery forest (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). It is ovoviviparous (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172853		population	eng	There is no population information on this elusive, poorly-known species.
172853		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation for logging, conversion of land to agricultural use and charcoal are likely to threaten this species, which can tolerate forest degradation but will be unable to persist in cleared land with no trees (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172854		conservation	eng	This snake has been recorded from several protected areas. Further surveys are required to clarify the true distribution of this rarely-encountered reptile, and to investigate population trends. The taxonomy of this species requires further investigation.
172854		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the west and southwest (Glaw and Vences 2007), between sea level and 200 m asl. Sites with confirmed records include Ambovombe, Andrahomana, Behara, Kirindy, Menabe and Tolagnero (Glaw and Vences 2007). A record from Amboasary Sud previously assigned to <em>L. pseudoallaudi</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007) is also considered to represent this species (A. Raselimanana and M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). It is presumed to be widespread throughout southern lowland Madagascar, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 66,957 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. Its area of occupancy is believed to be 2-3,000 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172854		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>  <p></p>This snake inhabits low elevation dry forest, and spiny bush. It is tolerant of some habitat degradation, but does not appear to occur in heavily modified areas.
172854		population	eng	<p>This is a very rare species, and population trends are unknown. The forest throughout its range is heavily fragmented as a result of human pressure, and as this species has not been recorded from deforested land it is presumed to be declining and to occur as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172854		threats	eng	Lowland forest is a threatened vegetation type in Madagascar because of  logging, slash and burn agriculture and forest fires.
172855		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Midongy Sud National Park, but most known sites are outside of protected areas.
172855		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the central highlands and south east of the island. Additionally, there are records from Toamasina on the east coast and, recently, from Mangindrano in the north (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). The snake has an estimated extent of occurrence of 56,335 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172855		habitat	eng	<p>This semi-aquatic, diurnal snake inhabits open areas near water (Glaw and Vences 2007), including degraded land. It can be found in rice fields. </p>
172855		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species, although the absence of obvious threats suggests the population is likely to be stable.</p>
172855		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It could be impacted in some areas by heavy use of pesticides.
172856		conservation	eng	Forests where this species has been found are protected in Tampolo and Manombo Special Reserve. Research is needed to clarify population trends and responses to disturbance in this species, and its relationship to <em>I. blanci</em> requires clarification.
172856		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a number of sites in the east from Antogil Bay in the north to Manombo in the south (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is expected to occur along much of the east coast between these sites, an estimated area of 23,756 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172856		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits low elevation littoral forest where it is active in trees, in scrubland, on the ground and in water.<em></em></p>
172856		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species, although it is not thought to occur as a severely fragmented population (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).</p>
172856		threats	eng	Lowland forest is a threatened vegetation type in Madagascar because of logging and slash and burn agriculture. This snake is tolerant of habitat degradation, but the extent of this tolerance is unknown (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
172857		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas; although habitat loss is a threat outside reserves, additional conservation measures are not needed<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species, and its distribution within its presumed range requires clarification.
172857		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from sites in the northeast, including Ambolokopatrika (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Andasibe, &#160;Andriantantely (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Anjanaharibe Sud (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), Marojejy (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Manongarivo (Raxworthy 1988), Masoala, Nosy Mangabe (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Sandranantitra (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) and Tampolo (Ratsirarson and Goodman 2005). There is an isolated subpopulation at Montagne d'Ambre (Jackman <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species has been recorded from 10 to 1,350 m above sea level. It is presumed to occur over an area of approximately 32,700 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172857		habitat	eng	<p>This gecko inhabits low and mid-elevation humid forest and occasionally plantations. It is active at night on vegetation and leaves up to one metre above the ground.</p>
172857		population	eng	This is a locally common species; however due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest throughout its range, the population is expected to be both declining and severely fragmented .
172857		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the conversion of lowland humid forest into farmland and by timber extraction.
172858		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of strict protected areas in the northeast, and is found at relatively high elevations where human pressures are typically lowest. Research is needed into population trends, and protection needs to be enforced in reserves threatened by rosewood exploitation.
172858		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to northern Madagascar, where it is known from Tsararano between 600 and 850 m asl. (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Masoala (Carpenter and Robson 2005), Makira (Razafindrasoa and Randrianantoandro 2003), Marojejy, and Anjanaharibe Sud between 1,200 and 2,130 m elevation (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It may occur at additional localities, but it is not likely to range much more widely than its estimated extent of occurrence of 14,335 km²<sup></sup>.</p>
172858		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits relatively intact low, mid and high elevation humid forest (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).</p>
172858		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this cryptic species. Due to heavy pressure on and the patchy distribution of the remaining  forests of northeastern Madagascar, the population is presumed to be both  declining and severely fragmented.
172858		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture. It may also be negatively impacted by selective logging, especially for rosewood.
172859		conservation	eng	Although this species is only known from a few sites it is present within at least four protected areas. Research is needed to verify population trends in this species and to establish the limits of its distribution, as well as to improve understanding of its ecological requirements, including the degree to which it depends on riparian habitats. Protection of additional areas of forest may be required.
172859		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from low elevations in four humid forest protected areas in the north; Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), Marojejy between 300 and 350 m (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Antsahabe, and Binara in Daraina between 350 and 1,170 m (Rakotondravony 2006) and Manongarivo (Raxworthy and &#160;Nussbaum 1993). It has also been recorded from Sahamalaza in the northwest (Raselimanana 2008). It is presumed to occur over an estimated area of 11,749 km².<br/></p>
172859		habitat	eng	<p>This skink has been collected in intact humid forest at 380 m altitude within 30 m of a stream (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993). Local people around Manongarivo report that this species is aquatic but it displays few of morphological adaptations to water exhibited by some members of the genus (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993). Specimens have been collected in deadwood far from water, indicating that this lizard may be less aquatic than these other species (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is found under leaves and logs during the day, and is probably crepuscular or nocturnal.</p>
172859		population	eng	<p>This is not a common species, occurring in low densities (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). Given ongoing pressure on its humid forest habitat and the lizard's apparent reliance on largely undisturbed forest, the population is likely to be declining. There is at least one recorded instance of a previously continuous forest occupied by this species being fragmented into small isolates, and due to the patchy nature of remaining forest within this lizard's range it is presumed to occur as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172859		threats	eng	<p>This skink is found in lowland humid forest and is therefore threatened by slash and burn agriculture. The forest at the type locality was largely destroyed in 1990, two years after the specimen had been collected, although an extant subpopulation still occurs in the remaining fragments at this site. Lowland forest is one of the most threatened vegetation types in Madagascar. There is also large scale selective logging in parts of the range, especially around Marojejy.<br/></p>
172860		conservation	eng	Dedicated searches have been undertaken to rediscover this species but have proved unsuccessful to date. If this species is relocated, it is likely that urgent conservation action will be required to preserve remaining forest habitat.
172860		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known a single locality in the central highlands at Ankafina (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, Glaw and Vences 2007), at 1,400 m asl.<br/></p>
172860		habitat	eng	This snake is found in mid-altitude tropical moist forest (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).
172860		population	eng	<p> This snake was collected 130 years ago. It has not been recorded in recent times despite dedicated searches for it.</p>
172860		threats	eng	The majority of the forest in the area has been cleared for slash and burn agriculture.
172861		conservation	eng	This is a very widespread species that is present in most protected areas in the east of Madagascar. The taxonomy of this and similar species is in urgent need of revision.
172861		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, and is distributed throughout a wide area (estimated at 201,439 km²<sup></sup>) in the humid eastern part of the country (Glaw and Vences 2007). It occurs between 320 and 1,350 m asl.
172861		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>This species is associated with humid forest, but has been recorded in a wide range of vegetation types. It has been found in a pine plantation in the north (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), and degraded roadside forest and regenerating farmland in the east (Brady and Griffiths 1999, Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Nevertheless, this species appears to require the presence of some native forest vegetation. Adults were more abundant in the austral summer in a lowland forest, whilst higher abundance was recorded in the austral winter at elevations of around 950 m (Brady and Griffiths 1999, Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Gravid females and hatchlings were found during the early austral summer (November-December) in Ranomafana, Andranomay and Mantadia (Brady and Griffiths 1999).  <p></p>
172861		population	eng	This species was reported in relatively low abundance in Andohahela, where it was thought to compete with <em>Brookesia  nasus</em> (Andreone and Randriamahazo 1997). Population density estimates for the nose-horned chameleon<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>vary between 6.2 and 33.4 animals per ha (Brady and  Griffiths 1999). Adult density was reported to be higher in disturbed than undisturbed forest  (Brady and Griffiths 1999), and from this and the loss and degradation of humid forest throughout its range it can be inferred that the population is declining.
172861		threats	eng	The loss and degradation of humid forest as a result of slash-and-burn agriculture impacts this species, and fire damage resulting from this activity may lead to localized reductions in population densities. However, because it appears to be rather tolerant of disturbance agriculture probably doesn't represent a major threat at this stage.
172862		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Marojejy and Ranomafana National Parks. Research is needed to clarify this species' distribution, and to establish its ability to withstand forest degradation.
172862		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the east, but is only known from a few localities (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is presumed to be present in much of the eastern tropical moist forests (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011), an area of around 72,900 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. It is a mid-elevation species (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011), although its precise altitudinal range is unclear.
172862		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits riparian areas in humid forests where it feeds on frogs (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172862		population	eng	<p>This species is locally common near small streams (Glaw and Vences 2007). Population trends are unknown, although as forests within the snake's range are being lost and degraded, it is likely to be declining.<br/></p>
172862		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of forest for  agriculture.
172863		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ankarana Special Reserve. Encroachment of illegal activities into the protected area needs to be controlled as a conservation measure. Additional surveys and research are needed to determine its habitat preferences and distribution in sites outside of the park.
172863		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>This dwarf gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is only known from the limestone formations at Ankarana, near Ambilobe. It was not found in a survey of other limestone habitats to the north and is presumed to be a site endemic (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has an extent of occurrence of 253 km². It has been recorded at a site from 126 m asl., and is thought to occur over an elevational range from 30 to 200 m asl.<br/>  <p></p>
172863		habitat	eng	This lizard has been recorded in the shelter of vegetation (Pasteur and Blanc 1967), and from trees up to one to two metres high, in rocky limestone areas (<em>tsingy</em>) during the day (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172863		population	eng	This species can be regularly found in Ankarana, but is not common.
172863		threats	eng	The periphery of Ankarana National Park is threatened by encroachment by illegal artisanal mining, logging, timber extraction for charcoal production, and land clearance for agriculture. This species is likely to be dependent on dry forest areas at risk from these activities.
172865		conservation	eng	Some of the sites where this species occurs are subject to conservation management, including sites that are being developed as new protected areas. Mandena and Manantantely are protected areas. Research is needed to verify population trends in this species, and to investigate the effects of human disturbance to its semi-aquatic habitat on this lizard.
172865		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from localities in the southeast including Mandena (Ramanamanjato 2000), Sainte Luce (Ramanamanjato 2000), Manantantely and Tolongoina (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been recorded up to 600 m asl., and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 12,562 km².<br/></p>
172865		habitat	eng	<p>This plated lizard is found in lowland humid forest where it is associated with rivers and streams, and it can also be found along rivers outside of forests). It flees into water when disturbed and is able to swim. It may dig dens for shelter.</p>
172865		population	eng	<p>This species can be common in places, but is generally scarce because of its specific microhabitat requirements. Due to the continuing loss of riparian habitats, and possibly also exploitation for the pet trade, the population is presumed to be declining. Due to a lack of connectivity between riparian areas, the population is considered to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172865		threats	eng	Conversion of riparian habitats by agricultural activities (mainly rice) is the main threat. Collection for the pet trade is also a threat, but most collection is historical and the extent of this activity as an ongoing threat is unknown. While the species would probably be sensitive to any water pollution, this is not an issue at present.
172866		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Oustalet's Chameleon<em> </em>is found in a number of protected areas, including Parc National d'Andohahela, Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, Parc National de Zombitse-Vohibasia and Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003). Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex and to investigate any ecological differentiation between forms presently contained within <em>F. oustaleti</em>.<br/></p>
172866		distribution	eng	<p>This species<em>&#160;</em>is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs throughout most of the island, across an elevational range from sea-level to 1,300 m altitude (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 426,789 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172866		habitat	eng	<p><em></em>This large chameleon (the world's longest) is usually associated with open and degraded forest formations. It is found in montane savanna, deciduous dry forest and humid forest but is usually associated with the edge of intact forest formations and is rarely found in the interior of forests (Lethinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007). In the Loky-Manambato complex near Daraina, <em></em>Oustalet's Chameleon was found in three of the six dry forests that were surveyed (Rakotondravony 2006). Populations are also known from urban settings and rural landscapes that have been heavily modified by people for agriculture (Glaw and Vences 2007). </p>
172866		population	eng	<p><em></em> Outstalet's Chameleon was relatively abundant during a survey of Montagne des Français in northern Madagascar (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and was the most abundant chameleon species recorded in and around Antsolipa, a forest fragment near Montagne d'Ambre (Labanowski and Lowin 2011). Its population is probably stable throughout its range.</p>
172866		threats	eng	<p>Based on current knowledge of this species' ecology and taxonomy, this species is not threatened by collection or habitat degradation because the annual export quota is low relative to the species' population size, and the species occurs in many different anthropogenic habitat types.</p>
172867		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas, and conservation measures are not necessary. The taxonomic status of this species requires clarification, and it is possible that conservation actions may be appropriate if this species is found to be substantially less widespread or adaptable than is presently recognized.
172867		distribution	eng	<p>  This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is extremely widespread (Glaw and Vences 2007), being absent only from the far north. </p>
172867		habitat	eng	This is a very common lizard that inhabits arid and humid habitats, including grasslands, forest, cultivated landscapes and rocky areas (Glaw and Vences 2007), spiny forest, riparian deciduous forest (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), coffee and ylang-ylang plantations (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003)
172867		population	eng	<p>This is a very common species.<br/></p>
172867		threats	eng	This widespread and adaptable species is not threatened.
172868		conservation	eng	This species is not currently actively conserved. It is not known if it is present in the Lokobe Reserve. Surveys are required to relocate this species in order to verify its persistence on Nosy Be and obtain information on its ecological requirements, population status, distribution and threats. Additional specimens are required in order to include this snake in a future taxonomic revision of Madagascan <em>Typhlops</em>.
172868		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is only known from Nosy Be (Glaw and Vences 2007), an offshore island with an area of 312 km². The elevation of the collection site is not known, but it was collected below 350 m asl.<br/></p>
172868		habitat	eng	<p>There is no information on the ecology of this species.</p>
172868		population	eng	<p>This blindsnake is known only from a historical specimen collected over 100 years ago. There is consequently no information on its population status.<br/></p>
172868		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on the threats to this species.</p>
172869		conservation	eng	<p>This species is found inside the Parc National de Tsingy de Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008). Management of this reserve is required to limit the encroachment of damaging human activities into this species' forest habitat, and this chameleon's exposure to and sensitivity to different threatening processes needs to be established. The taxonomy of this and related species requires clarification.<br/></p>
172869		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to a relatively small area of western Madagascar, having a localized distribution in the Melaky Region just north of the Manambolo River (Raselimanana 2008). It is only known from the Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008), although it is likely that it occurs further north (J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. June 2011). The national park has an area of 1,566 km²; however, it is not exclusively covered by suitable forest habitat (J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. June 2011) and so if the species is confined to this reserve, its true extent of occurrence will be somewhat less. There are elevational records from 57-571 m asl. (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).</p>
172869		habitat	eng	This species appears to be associated with relatively intact, dry deciduous forest (Jesu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
172869		population	eng	This species is uncommon. In a survey of the dry deciduous forest of Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha 22 <em>F. nicosiai </em>out of a total of 758 chameleons were found, at a density of 1.5 per ha (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
172869		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species are the loss, degradation and fragmentation of dry deciduous forest in the Parc National de Tsingy de Bemaraha, especially at the periphery where this lizard has been recorded, from expanding agriculture, fire and logging<em>&#160;</em>(Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008; J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. June 2011)<em>.</em></p>
172870		conservation	eng	This species is well represented in protected areas. Research is needed to clarify population trends and tolerance of habitat disturbance in this snake.
172870		distribution	eng	This widespread snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known mainly from the north and west of the island, an estimated area of 182,668 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172870		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits low elevation humid and dry forest, and scrubland. It can tolerate some habitat degradation, but the extent to which this is the case is unclear (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172870		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species.</p>
172870		threats	eng	Lowland forest is a threatened vegetation type in Madagascar because of  logging and slash and burn agriculture. Although non-venomous, this snake is feared by local people and persecution may represent a threat, although as killed individuals are rarely encountered (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011) this may not have a significant effect on the population.
172871		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic identities of records from mainland Madagascar, and to better-understand the ecological requirements of this snake, its population status, and any threats to which it may be exposed.
172871		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is mainly known from the north, but it has been recorded as far south as the Angavo-Anjozorobe Corridor (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007). A record from the dry southwest of the island require confirmation. Due to uncertainty about the taxonomic status of other subpopulations, the extent of occurrence is unclear; however the combined area of sites treated here as belonging to this species (including the southwestern record) is around 10,500 km²<sup></sup>. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,000 m asl.
172871		habitat	eng	<p>This poorly-known burrowing snake has been found in both humid forest and dry forest. It is not known if it occurs in degraded forest. Some specimens have been collected in an open area from a pitfall trap (Analamerana Special Reserve and the new Andarabaera protected area).<br/></p>
172871		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species. One individual was recorded in a survey in Lokobe in 1993; the species was not encountered in surveys in and around this reserve in 1999 and 2000 (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/></p>
172871		threats	eng	Threats to this species are poorly known due to taxonomic uncertainty surrounding most records. The snake is not thought to be at risk in Lokobe (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
172872		conservation	eng	This species is endemic to Ankarafantsika National Park. Research is need to verify population trends, to determine the extent of its reliance on forested habitat, and to assess its sensitivity to the impacts of fire. Ankarafantsika should be managed to control fire outbreaks and limit their impacts within the reserve.
172872		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Ankarafantsika at elevations between 50 and 300 m asl. (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002), an area of approximately 1,350 km².</p>
172872		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a burrower and lives in sandy soil (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002) in dry forest.</p>
172872		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, but is likely to be declining due to an increased incidence of fire within its range.<br/></p>
172872		threats	eng	The area is threatened by the increased frequency of fires (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm. January 2011). The impacts of fire on this lizard are unclear.
172873		conservation	eng	This snake is present in the Mikea forest where a new protected area is being developed. It has also been recorded from Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. More information is needed on the distribution and population status of this snake, and reserves should be managed to preserve the intact dry forest on which it relies.
172873		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from several sites in the southwest (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana 2008), the most recent record being from Tsimanampetsotsa (Nagy <em>et al.</em> 2010), between sea level and 200 m in elevation. Its extent of occurrence, presuming a near-coastal distribution throughout southwest Madagascar, is estimated to be 16,300 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172873		habitat	eng	<p>This is an arboreal dry forest species that depends on trees or dry spiny bushes. It has not been recorded from degraded habitats.<br/></p>
172873		population	eng	<p>This is a rare species which, due to its reliance on trees and bushes in an area subject to high levels of land conversion, is likely to be declining. The patchy distribution of remaining dry forest within this arboreal snake's range indicates that the population is severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172873		threats	eng	<p>    </p>Lowland dry forest is a threatened vegetation type in Madagascar as a result of  logging, slash and burn agriculture and forest fires.  <p></p>
172874		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed or in place for this species. It is present in some protected areas. This lizard's taxonomy requires clarification.
172874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs widely in the west and southwest, an area of nearly 152,200 km². It has been recorded from sites between elevations of 40 m and 800 m asl (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).
172874		habitat	eng	<p>This species is common in dry forest, spiny scrub and rocky outcrops as well as in villages (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172874		population	eng	This is a common species.
172874		threats	eng	No threats are known for this species.
172875		conservation	eng	There is no information available on whether this species occurs in areas subject to conservation management. Surveys are needed to try and rediscover this species and obtain information on its distribution, population status, ecological requirements and exposure to threats.
172875		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). The precise locality is unknown, but all other known species in the genus have been found in the north of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). The type collection was made over 120 years ago.<br/></p>
172875		habitat	eng	There is no information available. Other species of <em>Pseudoacontias</em> have been found in forest leaf litter; however, as no species in this genus is known from more than one specimen (Glaw and Vences 2007) it is difficult to draw conclusions about this lizard's ecological requirements on that basis alone.
172875		population	eng	There is no information available.
172875		threats	eng	There is no information available.
172876		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three protected areas, at Kalambatitra, Ivohibe and Andohahela. The species is listed on CITES Appendix II. More information is needed on this species' distribution between known sites, and population trends need to be quantified to confirm the apparent decline.
172876		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from a few sites in the southeast of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). It appears to be localized within this region. Reported localities include Andohahela (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1999), Ampamakiesiny (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1995), Kalambatritra (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007), Ranomafana-Sud (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1995), Ivorona and Farafara (Ramanamanajato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press), and Pic Ivohibe (Raselimanana 1999). This species has been recorded between 100 m (Ramanamanajato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press) and 1,700 m (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 12,899 km².<br/></p>
172876		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal lizard lives in intact mid-altitude and montane humid forest. It has been observed active on trees at heights of two metres (Glaw and Vences 2007). It lays two spherical eggs.<em></em></p>
172876		population	eng	<p>This gecko does not appear to be abundant, but there is no quantitative population information. The population is likely to be decreasing, and it is reported that specimens are harder to find now than in the past (J.-B. Ramanamanajato pers. comm. January 2011). The species appears to be highly localized, and the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172876		threats	eng	This species needs relatively intact forest for survival and is threatened by the clearance of this habitat for rice cultivation, especially at lower altitudes.
172877		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ankarana Special Reserve, and in and around Bemaraha National Park. Research is needed to identify the limits of this species' distribution, the extent of any exposure to and population responses to human activities. The known sites should be managed to limit the encroachment of human activities into areas where this snake is known to occur.
172877		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two sites in the west, at Ankarana and Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008, Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Its extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of the known sites, is taken to be 985 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. This may represent the full extent of its range, as suitable limestone karst habitat is rare between the known sites and restricted to small patches (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). This lowland species has been found between 30 and 300 m asl.
172877		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits dry deciduous forest on karst. It has not been recorded outside of primary habitat, and is probably a limestone specialist (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172877		population	eng	<p>This snake is known only from a few specimens, and has not been found in recent surveys of Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008, Bora <em>et al.</em> 2010).<br/></p>
172877		threats	eng	While both locations are in protected areas, there is ongoing  degradation of habitat in the peripheral areas through logging and  conversion of land to agricultural use. It is not clear if this is  impacting the species, although there may be limited loss and degradation of suitable habitat at Ankarana (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
172878		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed under Category I, Class II of national wildlife legislation which prohibits all but authorized collection&#160; from the wild. It is confined to the Parc National de Namoroka. Research is needed to monitor population trends in this species and to evaluate the impacts of threatening processes, and improved management of the reserve is required to limit damaging activities.<br/></p>
172878		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is restricted to Namoroka in the northwest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been recorded between 100 and 200 m asl. (Raselimanana 2008). Within Namoroka, it is apparently restricted to the more humid side of the small reserve (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011), a presumed extent of occurrence of less than 100 km²<sup></sup>. Intensive surveys in several sites in western Madagascar have not recorded this species (Raselimanana 2008).</p>
172878		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in dry deciduous forest on limestone substrata (Glaw and Vences 2007). There is little information on its ecology, but it probably forages on the ground and in low vegetation.&#160;</p>
172878		population	eng	<p>During survey work undertaken in 1996, this species was not rare (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. 2011). It was not observed during a 15 day survey of two forest sites in Namoroka towards the end of the 2002 dry season (Raselimanana 2008, A. Raselimanana pers. comm. May 2011), although sufficient forest remains in the reserve that it is thought the species still survives there (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. May 2011).</p><p><br/></p>
172878		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species include cattle grazing, slash and burn agriculture, cultivation of rice and maize, and collection of wood for charcoal and construction. These processes are taking place even within the boundaries of the national park, including areas where this chameleon is known to occur (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011). However, the limestone outcrop which forms the reserve presents a natural barrier to extensive human encroachment, and bush fires which may represent a threat are limited to the park boundary (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172879		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas, although it may occur in the Makira new protected area. Research is needed to clarify the distributional extent of this species and the identity of specimens from Makira, and information is needed on population trends. Areas where this species is known to occur should be placed under conservation management to ensure the survival of this disturbance-sensitive chameleon.
172879		distribution	eng	<p>This species has a restricted range in the northeast of Madagascar where it has been collected from three forests, Betaolana, Besariaka and Tsararano, to the northwest of the Andapa basin (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It has been recorded between 700 and 960 m elevation, but probably occurs between 600 and 1,000 m (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).&#160; It has not been recorded from Masoala (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). The chameleon's estimated extent of occurrence is 591 km².<br/></p>
172879		habitat	eng	<p>This species is believed to be restricted to intact lowland humid forest. It uses the understorey, 10-90 cm above the ground, for night roosts (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Its absence from degraded forest areas indicates that it is intolerant of habitat modification (Andreone&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001)</p>
172879		population	eng	<p>This chameleonis thought to be locally abundant, with one report of 10 individuals found per four hours of search effort (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Its intolerance of habitat degradation in an area of Madagascar where forests are subjected to heavy human use suggests the population is likely to be declining.<br/></p>
172879		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss and degradation due to slash-and-burn agriculture and logging (especially of rosewood) represent threats to this chameleon, which requires intact forest for its persistence.<br/></p>
172880		conservation	eng	This species occurs at the edge and maybe within the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor Forest Reserve. It occurs at the edges of the Lac Alaotra Ramsar Site. Research is needed to investigate this snake's sensitivity to agricultural pollution, to identify whether it is subject to other threats, and to monitor population trends.
172880		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to the Madagascar where it is only known from Lac Alaotra, Fiherenena, Andasibe (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007), Ambatovy (J.-B. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011) and possibly at Anjozorobe (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011). It has been recorded between 900 and 1,000 m asl. This species' extent of occurrence based on the combined area of known localities is around 1,360 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172880		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known from swampy habitats. It can persist in low intensity in rice paddies, but is absent from intensively-farmed sites, perhaps owing to pollution from pesticide spraying.<br/></p>
172880		population	eng	<p>This snake is encountered on a relatively regular basis.<br/></p>
172880		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are not confirmed, but intensification of agriculture may be considered a threat and needs more research.<br/></p>
172881		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas including Andringitra National Park, Ivohibe, Ranomafana National Park, Andohalela National Park and Tsitomgambarika Reserve. Further surveys are required to verify population trends in this species and to establish the limits of its distribution, and to assess its sensitivity to forest degradation from selective logging. It may be necessary to preserve additional areas of mid-elevation humid forest for the benefit of this lizard.
172881		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from scattered mid-elevations localities throughout the island's southeast, including Nahampoana (Glaw and Vences 2007), Andringitra between 1,240 and 1,300 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996), Ampamakiesiny at 820 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993) and Ivohibe at 1,750 m (Raselimanana 1999). The northernmost record is from Ranomafana (Glaw and Vences 2007). The skink's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 18,679 km², although it is possible that this cryptic lizard has a larger range (F. Glaw pers. comm. June 2011).<br/></p>
172881		habitat	eng	<p>This diurnal skink is found in the leaf litter of mid-elevation humid forest and in some sites appears restricted to patches of dense bamboo thicket (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993, Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172881		population	eng	This cryptic species appears to be locally common, but is probably under-recorded due to its fossorial habits. Due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest within this leaf litter skink's range, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172881		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of humid forest to agriculture. Selective logging is also a threat.
172882		conservation	eng	This lizard is known from Lokobe Reserve. Research is needed to relocate this species in Lokobe and in plantations on Nosy Be, and to identify population trends and its exposure to any threats.
172882		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from the island of Nosy Be off the northwest coast (Glaw and Vences 2007). Within this island it is known only from Lokobe Reserve, an area of little over 10 km². Due to deforestation across the rest of the island, the species may genuinely be confined to this protected area.<br/></p>
172882		habitat	eng	<p>This skink has only been found in the leaf litter of lowland humid forest.</p>
172882		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, but is likely to be very small, highly localized and decreasing.</p>
172882		threats	eng	The whole island of Nosy By is without primary forest except for the small Lokobe Reserve. Primary forest elsewhere has already been completely cleared for plantations, although there is some ongoing loss of secondary forest which would threaten any subpopulations that still occur outside Lokobe. It is not clear whether this species requires native forest or whether it can survive in plantations, although it is not thought likely to persist in plantations (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
172883		conservation	eng	This species is found within the new protected area at Zahamena-Ankeniheny and in Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Betampona, but there is little information on its distribution within these reserves. Trade in this species needs to be monitored, and protection of its habitat strictly enforced. More research is needed into population trends in this species.
172883		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from low elevation sites in the north of the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor  (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been found as recently as 2010 in Betampona (F. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> pers. comm. January 2011). It is unlikely to occur more widely than its presently known distribution at these sites. The extent of occurrence is 410 km², however, due to the scarcity of suitable habitat between the known sites its true distributional extent within this area is likely to be below 100 km². It occurs from 300 to 600 m asl.
172883		habitat	eng	<p>This is a species of low elevation humid primary forest, where it is active on vegetation and leaves one to four metres above the ground. It is unable to survive in agricultural land and may be lost from even lightly-degraded forest.<br/></p>
172883		population	eng	This is a rarely encountered species that is difficult to find. Due to the pressure on and patchy distribution of remaining forest habitat within this gecko's range, it is presumed to be declining and to occur as a severely fragmented population.
172883		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the conversion of low elevation humid forest into farmland and the extraction of timber, including rosewood. Extraction of honey and other biological resources may also degrade forests beyond this species' ability to persist. If uncontrolled, the international pet trade may represent a major threat to this species.
172884		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
172884		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007, Lehtinen <em>et al</em>. 2003).
172884		habitat	eng	This species is found on or near the ground (Lethinen 2002), is mainly nocturnal and inhabits a range of habitats including disturbed secondary forest and the areas surrounding villages (Glaw and Vences 2007, Lehtinen <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is most common around ponds in the rainy season (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172884		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
172884		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.
172885		conservation	eng	<p>This species is protected under Malagasy law but collection from the wild is permitted with authorization.&#160;Collection from within Parc National d'Ankarafantsika is prohibited. The species' distribution within Ankarafantsika is uncertain, and more information is needed to establish this species' extent of occurrence, area of occupancy and population status. The reserve itself should be managed to limit the encroachment of human activities that may threaten this chameleon.<br/></p>
172885		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of Madagascar where it is only known from Parc National d'Ankarafantsika in the northwest (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007) below 200 m. Surveys elsewhere in western Madagascar have failed to record the species (Raselimanana 2008;<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>J.C. Randrianantoandro<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>pers. comm. Jan 2011). As suitable dry forest occurs throughout Ankarafantsika (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011) the lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 1,300 km²<sup></sup>, the area of the national park. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172885		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in dry deciduous forest (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Clutch sizes of 2-5 eggs have been recorded. It is diurnal and roosts in low vegetation at night at a mean height of 0.17 m (Carpenter and Robson 2005). Most individuals roost on small plants but fallen logs, lianes and small trees are occasionally used (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Animals bask on the leaf litter (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>
172885		population	eng	<p>This species is locally abundant (Mori <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160;Abundance and presence of this species varies between sites within Ankarafantsika (Carpenter and Robson 2005), but it is unclear whether its distribution within the park is continuous or fragmentary.<br/></p>
172885		threats	eng	The major threats to the species include bush fires, cattle grazing, and deforestation for charcoal collection (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002). Fire is widespread within the park boundary (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).
172886		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Further information is needed on this species' ecological requirements, and the taxonomic identity of existing locality records need to be verified to clarify the true distribution of this species.
172886		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar and has a broad latitudinal distribution between the Anosy Mountains in the south and the Tsaratanana Massif in the north, where it is present in a number of localities in the central highlands (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006,  Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010). A subpopulation around Ambohitantely (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006) is presumably isolated, as there is no forest remaining between this area and the lizard's core distribution (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). Its elevational range is from 1,050 to 1,850 m. The chameleon's estimated extent of occurrence is 101,786 km²<sup></sup>; however, voucher collections need to be re-assessed to update its geographic range information because of historical confusion between this species and <em>C. brevicorne</em>.</p>
172886		habitat	eng	<p>This is a forest chameleon that occurs in mid-altitudes between 1,050 and 1,850 m elevation, where it appears to be more abundant in semi-open areas associated with trails, gaps and rivers (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).</p>
172886		population	eng	<p>Brady and Griffiths (1999) calculated population estimates for <em>C. crypticum </em>(as <em>C. brevicorne</em>) as varying between 1.9 animals ha<sup>-1 </sup>(0.04 - 13.0 95% confidence interval) and 7.7 animals ha<sup>-1 </sup>(1.2 - 34.1, 95% confidence interval) in the austral summer. Densities in the austral winter were 1.4 animals ha<sup>-1 </sup>(0.2 -4.9, 95% confidence interval). Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> (2010) calculated population estimates for C. crypticum as 39.7 animals ha<sup>-1</sup> (26.1 – 60.4, 95% confidence interval) in Itremo-Ambatofinandrahana. Due to human pressure on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest habitat within its range, the population is thought to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172886		threats	eng	This chameleon species is only found in humid forest and the loss or severe degradation of these habitats due to agricultural conversion and logging is a threat, especially outside of protected areas.
172887		conservation	eng	The Antimena Chameleon has been recorded from PK32 Ranobe New Protected Area and from Parc National Mikea. It also occurs in a private reserve (Arboretum Antsokay). This lizard is listed as a protected species under Category I, Class II, which permits authorized collection from the wild. Other areas within its extent of occurrence are currently been designated as new protected areas. Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) recommended that this chameleon be considered a conservation priority because of its restricted distribution, susceptibility to extirpation, low population densities, and lack of formal habitat protection. More information is need on this species' ecological requirements and susceptibility to threats from forest degradation and land clearance, and population trends should be monitored to establish whether reported declines are widespread and long-term in nature.
172887		distribution	eng	<p>This species<em>&#160;</em>is restricted to the southwest of Madagascar at elevations between 5 and 80 m above sea-level (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003, Raselimanana 2004). The most easterly known location is around Antsokay and the airstrip at Toliara (Brygoo 1971) and the most northerly at Ankotapiky, near Morombe (Raselimanana 2004). The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be around 6,310 km²; the Onilahy and Mangoky Rivers appear to form natural boundaries to this species' distribution (<em></em>Brygoo 1971), and so it is not thought to be more widespread than is currently known.&#160;</p>
172887		habitat	eng	<p>The Antimena chameleon is considered a forest species by Raselimanana and Rakotomalala (2003) and is known to occur in both relatively intact and degraded areas (Raselimanana 2004).</p>
172887		population	eng	<p>In a field assessment of three <em>Furcifer </em>chameleons near Toliara, <em>F. antimena </em>constituted 15% of the 146 individuals encountered during line transects at night, and a density of 18.7 individuals per hectare was calculated (Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007). Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) report a population density of 17.0 per ha. There is some reported evidence of local population declines in the last 15 years, but the reasons for this are unclear (Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007) and so it is not known whether this represents a long-term trend. In a survey of the Mikea forest <em>F. antimena </em>was observed in half of the six sites surveyed (Raselimanana 2004). Remaining forest habitat in this area of Madagascar has a very patchy distribution, and the species is presumed to occur as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172887		threats	eng	<p>The forests in southwest Madagascar are under high pressure from expanding rural and urban human populations, and underwent some of the largest declines in forest cover between 1990 and 2000 in the whole of Madagascar (Harper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The main threat<em>&#160;</em>is the conversion of native forest vegetation into charcoal and clearing forest for agriculture (Seddon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, CBSG 2002, Andriamandimbiarisoa 2007, Karsten <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Mining may become a threat in future (Cardiff and Andriamanalina 2007).</p>
172888		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place but habitat across its range is subject to some form of conservation management. It is known from in the Mikea protected area. The full distributional extent of this species needs to be clarified, more information is needed on its ecological requirements, and any commercial exploitation should be monitored to ensure that it doesn't pose a localized threat to subpopulations.
172888		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it has been found in a few localities in the southwest of the island near Toliara (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been reported from Fiherenana and Saint Augustin (Glaw and Vences 2007),    Mikea (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) and Andatabo (Münchenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The lizard's extent of occurrence is presumed to be 9,864 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172888		habitat	eng	This species inhabits limestone (karst) outcrops (Glaw and  Vences 2007)<em>.</em> It is known to occur close to villages and in disturbed areas.<em><br/></em>
172888		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be locally abundant on rock outcrops (Glaw and Vences 2007), and in known localities can be found at many areas in close proximity to one another (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).</p>
172888		threats	eng	There is the potential for limestone mining at Onilahyla River, which could impact part of this species' range. The effects of this activity on the lizard are unclear, but it is likely to represent only a localized threat.
172889		conservation	eng	This is a widespread species that is well represented in Madagascar's protected areas.
172889		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is widespread. It has not been found in most of the island's east, or in the far south.
172889		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial and diurnal snake inhabits humid and dry deciduous forest, scrubland and grassland.</p>
172889		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species. While it may be affected by forest clearance, its ability to survive in unforested habitats makes it unclear whether the population is declining or fragmented.<br/></p>
172889		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and clearance of humid and dry deciduous forest for  farmland. However, it is found in a variety of degraded habitats, including both arable and pastureland (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011), and so agricultural intensification is unlikely to be a major threat.
172890		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Andohahela National Park and Ivohibe Special Reserve. One peak in Andohahela where the species occurs is a local sacred site,  which is also likely to afford protection to this lizard. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species..
172890		distribution	eng	<p>This dwarf gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from three disjunct high-elevation areas in the southeast at&#160; Ivohibe (type locality), Andohahela, and the Anosy chain (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has been recorded from 1,500 to 1,900 m asl. The total extent of the three known sites is 597 km²<sup></sup>, and the gecko's overall extent of occurrence, encompassing the area between these localities, is 6,639 km².<br/></p>
172890		habitat	eng	This species is active on rocks and stones in montane grasslands, and sometimes in the vicinity of humid forest (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
172890		population	eng	This species is locally very common, and there is no evidence of population decline.
172890		threats	eng	This gecko is known only from high-elevation sites within national parks, which are difficult to access and where degradation is light. As a high-elevation specialist it may possibly be impacted by future climate change.
172891		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas, and protection of additional forest sites is recommended given this gecko's sensitivity to forest conversion. Research is needed to establish whether morphological differences across this species' range warrant revision of this lizard's taxonomic status.
172891		distribution	eng	This dwarf gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it occurs in humid forest from north to south in the east (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), an estimated area of 114,709 km²<sup></sup>.
172891		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid rainforest where it is active on trees and rocks (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It does not appear to occur in degraded habitats (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).
172891		population	eng	This is a common species in humid forest; however, due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining forest within this disturbance-sensitive gecko's range, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172891		threats	eng	This species inhabits humid forest and is therefore mainly threatened by the loss and degradation of this habitat due to slash and burn 'tavy' farming and logging.
172892		conservation	eng	This widespread species is present in a range of protected areas throughout Madagascar.
172892		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is widespread throughout the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). An introduced population of this species occupies a small area on Grande Comoro island (Meirte 2004), but this population is apparently not extensive and its continued persistence has not been confirmed recently.
172892		habitat	eng	<p>This large diurnal, terrestrial snake uses a wide range of habitats, including varied artificial settings as well as native humid and dry forest, shrubland and grassland. It preys on small birds, rodents, and reptile eggs. </p>
172892		population	eng	<p>This is a<a class="x-tab-right" href="http://127.0.0.1:10000/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text  "></span></em></a> rather common species in both native and anthropogenic habitats (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172892		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which appears highly tolerant of forest degradation.
172893		conservation	eng	This widespread species is found in many protected areas, where it uses disturbed open areas.
172893		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the north, west, centre and south of the island, from 15 to 850 m asl.
172893		habitat	eng	<p>This ubiquitous lizard inhabits arid and humid habitats, including grasslands, forest, cultivated landscapes and rocky areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). Near Andringitra it was observed around villages (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). At Daraina it inhabits dry forest, littoral forest and dry-humid transition forest (Rakotondravony 2006). In the lower Onilahy valley it has been collected in spiny forest (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is a ground-dwelling species that rarely climbs (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). Its diet has been reported to consist mainly of termites, but also includes beetles, spiders and ants (Peveling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).</p>
172893		population	eng	<p>This is a very common species.<br/></p>
172893		threats	eng	This species is common in degraded habitats and is not threatened.
172894		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of small protected areas in eastern Madagascar, and the protection of additional areas of forest is likely to benefit this lizard. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this lizard, and to investigate population trends.
172894		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the northeast, including Andriantantely (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Antalaha (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Besariaka, Betampona (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), Daraina, Marotandrano (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Nosy Mangabe (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999),&#160;   Sandranantitra (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and Tsararano (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). This species has been reported from elevations between 600 and 850 m asl. (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 30,793 km².<br/></p>
172894		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial plated lizard is found in lowland humid forest. In Tsararano it was most frequently trapped in sunny areas alongside streams (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). When it occurs in sympatry with <em>Z. madagascariensis </em>it is found in more shaded, humid microhabitats (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).</p>
172894		population	eng	There is no available information on the population of this species; however, due to continuing human pressure on lowland forest throughout its range, the population is probably declining.
172894		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss, degradation and fragmentation of lowland humid forest from expanding agriculture and selective logging.
172895		conservation	eng	This gecko has been recorded from protected areas. Exports of this species are controlled by a quota system. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex.
172895		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the island of Madagascar where it is widely distributed in mid elevation areas in the east, between 720 and 1,350 km² (Glaw and Vences 2007). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 81,484 km².
172895		habitat	eng	<p>The Peacock Day Gecko inhabits low and mid-altitude humid areas where it occurs in intact forest, degraded forest, gardens, plantations and houses It has been observed using <em>Pandanus </em>screw palms (Lethinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).</p>
172895		population	eng	This is a common species.
172895		threats	eng	This species is widespread and abundant in a range of habitats. This species is protected under CITES Appendix II and collection does not represent a threat.
172896		conservation	eng	<p>Parson's Chameleon is found in a number of strict protected areas, from where all wild animal collection in Malagasy national parks is illegal. This species is listed as Category I, Class II protected species in Malagasy law, which prohibits unauthorized collection. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES but imports from Madagascar were suspended in 1995. There are no formally established captive-breeding programmes for this species. It needs to be established whether illegal collection represents a threat to this species, and any harvest should be monitored. As this species is unlikely to persist in small forest fragments, efforts should be made to manage areas where it occurs to maximize connectivity between forest patches. Research is needed to clarify this species' life history in the wild, and to improve estimates of generation length.<br/></p>
172896		distribution	eng	This large chameleon species is found in the humid eastern part of Madagascar, from Ranomafana in the south to Anjanaharibe Sud in the north (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003) and the Masoala Peninsula (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). It has also been recorded from Manongarivo in the northwest (Raxworthy 2003). There is also a population on Nosy Boraha (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been reported from elevations between 45-230 m (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), from 1,100 m (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003, D. Rakotomalala pers. comm. January 2011) and from 1,195 m in Masoala (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> This widespread lizard has an estimated extent of occurrence of 39,800 km²<sup></sup>.</span>
172896		habitat	eng	Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) found Parson's chameleon<em> </em>in low  abundance in a lowland forest in the northeast. Glaw and Vences (2007) report that <em>Calumma p. cristifer</em> is regularly found on high branches.&#160; Glaw and Vences (2007) report that this  species is frequently seen along forest streams, although Brady and Griffiths  (1999) suggest that only hatchlings are associated with water. It is reportedly  difficult to find during the austral winter in northern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2000). In captivity, 20-30 eggs are buried and hatch after 400-520 days. This species, the world's largest chameleon by weight, might be very long lived for a chameleon, with ages of six years recorded and 10-12 expected. Captive specimens may live somewhat longer, with ages of at least 14 recorded (in one case, an animal of this age died prematurely due to an equipment failure), and a maximum longevity of 20 years has been suggested (R. Jenkins and C.V. Anderson, pers. comms. June 2011). Sexual maturity may be reached as early as 1.5 years (LeBerre 1995), but Brady and Griffiths (1999) noted reports from captive chameleons that three to five is more likely.<br/><br/>The extent to which this  species requires intact humid forest remains  unresolved; while evidence suggests  that it is more abundant in less  disturbed forest (Brady and  Griffiths 1999, Raxworthy 1988) it is also  found in disturbed sites (Brady and  Griffiths 1999, Glaw and Vences  2007), including high trees in villages (F. Rabemananjara pers. comm. June 2011).
172896		population	eng	<p>This large chameleon consistently occurs in lower population densities than other <em>Calumma </em>species (Brady and Griffiths (1999) although this might be because Parson's chameleon<em> </em>roosts  in elevated locations in the canopy out of reach of nocturnal surveys  by torch light. The species was notably scarce in low elevation forest  at Ambodiriana (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Brady and Griffiths (1999) reported densities of between 1.3  ha<sup>-1</sup> and 3.9&#160; ha<sup>-1</sup> in relatively intact forest at Parc National de Mantadia, with lower densities (0.1-0.4 ha<sup>-1</sup>) in more disturbed forest in the same area. It is rarely encountered even by workers spending weeks in suitable habitats, and adults appear to be especially scarce (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).<br/></p><p>Although no more recent figures are available, between 1990 and 2000 humid forest cover in Madagascar declined by 0.8% a year (Harper <em>et al.</em> 2007); however this figure may underestimate forest loss within the range of Parson's chameleon, as it does not distinguish the lowland forest preferred by this lizard, and which is under greatest pressure, from humid forest at higher elevations. As rates of forest loss in Madagascar are increasing (Harper <em>et al.</em> 2007), and remaining forest increasingly occurs as fragments which may be too small to sustain viable populations of this large lizard, this species may have experienced a population decline somewhat greater than implied by this figure over the previous three generations (15-18 years), especially when also accounting for the effects of over-collection. The population is presumably still declining due to its observed scarcity in disturbed habitats and the ongoing loss and degradation of forest throughout its range, although the ban on trade in this species might have resulted in local increases in abundance at former collecting localities (F. Rabemananjara pers. comm. June 2011). </p>
172896		threats	eng	The loss of humid forest, mainly through conversion from slash-and-burn agriculture but also due to logging, is a threat to this species. Much of the habitat of this species is extremely fragmented, and small forest fragments are unlikely to be viable to ensure persistence of this large chameleon that occurs at low densities. A resumption of trade could pose a threat to local populations if collection was not properly managed.
172897		conservation	eng	This species neither needs nor is subject to any conservation measures. It is presumably present in a number of protected areas.
172897		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it has been collected from a number of sites in the extreme southwest in arid areas (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is expected to occur widely through the island's arid south, over an area of around 66,000 km².
172897		habitat	eng	<p>According to Pasteur (1977), this  species occurs in dry forest, on houses, fences and trunks. Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009)  observed specimens of this gecko <em></em>on isolated trees and shrubs in semi-arid areas. This oviparous lizard exhibits only weak seasonality in its breeding; although reproduction peaks in the wet season, the species breeds all year round (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<em> </em>2004). </p>
172897		population	eng	This is a common species.
172897		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats to this species, and given its high tolerance of habitat modification it is not thought to be subject to major threats.
172898		conservation	eng	This only site where this species is found is subject to active conservation and is being developed as a new protected area. Improved protection and management of this site is necessary to ensure the persistence of this species, and information is needed on population trends.
172898		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to northern Madagascar, where it is known from Montagne des Français between elevations of 140 and 320 m&#160; asl. (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Searches at lower elevations, and in the only other patches of forest left in extreme northern Madagascar, have failed to locate this species, which is consequently thought to be genuinely endemic to this massif (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007). This reserve has an area of 50 km², treated here as the species' extent of occurrence, although its absence from lower elevations indicates that the true extent of occurrence is somewhat less than this.<br/></p>
172898		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits intact karstic dry forest and is active at night on boulders and branches up to two metres from the ground (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It can be found in undisturbed tsingy, but is absent from degraded forest.<br/></p>
172898		population	eng	This species still appears to be common in tsingy at Montagne des Français (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). Nevertheless, the intense human pressure affecting Montagne des Français, and this lizard's inability to tolerate forest loss and degradation, indicates that the population is very likely to be declining.
172898		threats	eng	This species is restricted to low elevations within a reserve that is heavily threatened by forest clearance and logging for timber and charcoal, the result of migrant communities moving into the area.
172899		conservation	eng	The habitats of this species are conserved in a number of protected areas, including Ankarafantsika and Bemaraha national parks. The taxonomy of this species requires further investigation.
172899		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the west of the island, occurring from Daraina in the northwest (Rakotondravony 2006) and along a latitudinal gradient in the west from Ambanja to Toliar. It has also been recorded in the south-east at Ambatotsirongorongo and Petriky (Ramanamanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 153,770 km². It is known from localities ranging in elevation from 20 m asl. at Vohombe (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) to 250 m asl. at Sahamalaza (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Raselimanana 2008).
172899		habitat	eng	<p>This lizard is found in native dry forest as well as degraded areas and plantations (Glaw and Vences 2007). Prey is captured with the jaws and the tongue is used to secure the food to the substratum before ingestion (Urbani and Bels 1995). </p>
172899		population	eng	<p>This species is locally common in the Sambirano region of western Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). There is no information on population trends.<br/></p>
172899		threats	eng	Although dry forest is threatened by conversion to farmland and logging, this species appears robust to disturbance and can also used modified habitats and so is probably not subject to major threats.
172900		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Ankarafantsika National Park and Kirindy protected forest. While it is presently widespread and unlikely to be seriously threatened, as it relies on areas with some degree of forest cover it may be necessary to protect additional areas for the benefit of this species and to maximize connectivity between subpopulations.
172900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from several localities in the south and west (Glaw and Vences 2007), but is presumed to be widespread throughout these parts of the island. The blindsnake's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 78,785 km²<sup></sup>. It is typically found in low elevation areas, but has been found at Itremo, a massif that goes up to 1,300 m asl.
172900		habitat	eng	<p>This poorly-known snake is a burrowing species that is occasionally active above ground. It has been recorded from dry forest, both intact and degraded, and does not appear to exist outside of forests.<br/></p>
172900		population	eng	<p>This snake is regularly found. As it appears not to survive in deforested areas and forest loss is ongoing within its range, the population is presumed to be declining.</p>
172900		threats	eng	<p>This snake is threatened by deforestation through logging, charcoal production, conversion of land to agricultural use, and by the increasing frequency of fires.<br/></p>
172901		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to clarify this gecko's distribution between known sites, and to investigate the impacts of habitat loss on population trends. It may be necessary to preserve additional sites to benefit this lizard.
172901		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a few localities in the north and west of the island    at elevations of between 40 and 199 m (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is expected to occur widely between the known sites, an area of approximately 59,000 km².
172901		habitat	eng	This gecko inhabits low elevation humid and deciduous forest, in both disturbed and intact sites. It has also been found in plantations.
172901		population	eng	This is a common species.
172901		threats	eng	The extent to which this species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation is poorly understood, because it can survive in both forested and anthropogenic habitats. Continued loss of low elevation forest will likely lead to declines in suitable habitat for some of the population.
172902		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some areas within Andringitra National Park and Kalambatitra Special Reserve, as well as other sites that are subject to conservation management. There is a need to clarify the taxonomy of this species.
172902		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a number of localities in the central highlands (Glaw and Vences 2007), including Betafo, Antananarivo, Ankaratra (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), Andringitra (Raxworthy and  Nussbaum 1996), Andasani Tovo in the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007) and Kalambatitra (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), encompassing an area not much less than 43,000 km². It has been recorded from 890 to 2,000 m asl.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
172902		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in the highlands where it is associated with grasslands, heathland and swamps (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172902		population	eng	<p>This skink is locally common, but may be experiencing localized population declines resulting from urbanization and the conversion of some areas of swampland for rice agriculture.<br/></p>
172902		threats	eng	This species uses open upland habitats. Some swampy areas are being converted to rice paddies. The highlands of Madagascar are intensively used for agriculture and cattle grazing. Urbanization would also have resulted in loss of the species range.
172903		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Tsaratanana Integrated Natural Reserve. More information is needed on its distribution both within and outside the reserve and exposure to human pressures, its population status and its ecological requirements.
172903		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from Tsaratanana in the northwest at an elevation of 1,000 m (Andreone and Greer 2002).</p>
172903		habitat	eng	The known specimens were found under rotting wood in mid-elevation humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172903		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species, as it is only known from two individuals.<br/></p>
172903		threats	eng	This species might be threatened by the destruction of humid forest by expanding agriculture and logging, but it is not clear if these threats are already affecting this lizard.
172904		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in two areas that are being developed as protected areas, Kirindy and Mikea forests. Research is needed to clarify the distribution, population status and ecology of this species.
172904		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from several sites between sea level and 50 m asl. in the south- and central-west, from Kirindy in the west to Mikea in the southwest (Raselimanana 2008). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence between these sites of 7,322 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172904		habitat	eng	This is a coastal dune species that can be found in degraded habitats.
172904		population	eng	<p>This snake can be locally common (e.g., Tsifota - J. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
172904		threats	eng	<p>There are no significant threats to this species.<br/></p>
172905		conservation	eng	This species is well conserved because it occurs in a number of protected areas and sites subject to conservation management. Research is needed to clarify the effects of moderate disturbance on this lizard.
172905		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in the northeast of the island. It has been recorded from a number of sites including Anjanaharibe-Sud (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), Loky-Manambato (Rakotondravony 2006), Marojejy (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), Nosy Boraha, Nosy Mangabe (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Sandrananitra (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Tampolo (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), Tsararano (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000) and Zahamena (Glaw and Vences 2007). The lizard's presumed extent of occurrence is close to 31,000 km²<sup></sup>. It has been recorded from sea level to 950 m in elevation.
172905		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko inhabits humid forest, where it can be found on traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala</em>) and <em>Pandanus </em>screw palms (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species does not glue its eggs.</p>
172905		population	eng	It is a common species in suitable habitat. Due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forests within its range and its inability to persist in deforested land, the population of this forest gecko is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172905		threats	eng	This species is associated with humid forest and does not occur in cultivated areas. Deforestation therefore poses a threat. Nevertheless, this gecko <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guttata </span>can probably withstand moderate levels of disturbance because it appears to use forest edges (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172906		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected areas in eastern Madagascar. It is included in CITES Appendix II. More research is needed into its taxonomy, the limits of its distribution, its population status, and harvest levels.
172906		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from many localities in the central-east of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). Confirmed localities include the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007), Iofa, Didy and Andriantantely (Rabibisoa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Mantadia, Zahamena, Betampona (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008),&#160; Fierenena, Ranomafana and Vohidrazana (Greenbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It occurs from 400 m asl., reaching as high as 1,300 m in Andringitra, and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 41,507 km².<em></em></p>
172906		habitat	eng	<p>This is a nocturnal lizard that lives in relatively intact humid forest. It can tolerate only very light levels of disturbance, and is unlikely to persist in forests subject to heavy logging. It has been observed at heights of between 0.5 and 2 m above ground. It lays two spherical eggs.<em></em></p>
172906		population	eng	<p>This species is locally abundant, although as a forest-dependent species it is likely that the population is declining.<br/></p>
172906		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of humid forest due to logging, agriculture and cattle grazing. More information is needed on the impact of collection for the pet trade, as it may be exploited locally at levels high enough to represent a threat.
172907		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not in place for this poorly known skink. It might occur in Midongy du Sud National Park and in Tsitomgambarika new protected area. Additional specimens are needed to facilitate taxonomic studies and to develop a better understanding of its ecology and distribution.
172907		distribution	eng	<p>This lizard is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Ankodabe and Fort Dauphin in the southeast (Glaw and Vences 2007), an area of around 3,000 km². It has been recorded from between sea level and 1,000 m in elevation.<br/></p>
172907		habitat	eng	This skink occurs in humid forests.
172907		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species.</p>
172907		threats	eng	Deforestation from selective logging and expanding agriculture may threaten this species; however the degree to which it depends on intact forest is unclear.
172908		conservation	eng	This species is present in Bemaraha National Park and Ambatotsirongorongo new protected area. Although there is some human encroachment around the periphery of the Bemaraha reserve, habitat disturbance is not thought to threaten the species at this site (J.C. Randrianantoandro pers. comm. July 2011). Research is needed into population trends, its distribution between known sites, and its ecological requirements, particularly the degree to which it relies on threatened forested habitats.
172908		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from scattered localities in the west (Bemaraha area) (Bora <em>et al.</em> 2010) and extreme southeast (Glaw and Vences 2007) between 100 and 300 m asl. Records from the southern central highlands (Glaw and Vences 2007) are considered to be doubtful (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). The lizard's presumed extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known localities, is around 8,500 km².
172908		habitat	eng	The habitats of this species are poorly known, but it is found under stones and granite rocks in Bemaraha (Glaw and Vences 2007). It occurs in limestone karst, in dry and transitional forest and in spiny bush. In forest, it is associated with leaf litter and deadwood (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011).
172908		population	eng	<p>This apparently rare lizard occurs at low densities. Due to the distance between known localities, the population is considered to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172908		threats	eng	Degradation of the forest habitat for permanent agriculture, overgrazing by zebu cattle, logging of trees for charcoal production, and increasing frequency of fires represent threats to forests where this species has been found. Given poor knowledge of this lizard's ecological requirements, the extent to which these processes threaten it is unclear. While there may be future interest in this lizard for the pet trade,  this is unlikely to represent a major threat (F. Glaw pers. comm. May  2011).
172909		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two protected areas: Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo and Réserve Naturel Intégrale Tsaratanana. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and susceptibility to threats from agricultural development. The taxonomy of this complex is in need of revision. The protected areas should be managed to limit the expansion of human activities within their borders.
172909		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has only been found in two sites in the northeast at Manongarivo, and also in Tsaratanana (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995, Glaw and Vences 2007). Recorded localities are between 1,100 and 1,200 m. The combined area of the known localities is 2,370 km²<sup></sup>.
172909		habitat	eng	There are few details on the habitats and ecology of this species. All records are from humid forests (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995, Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
172909		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and there have been few surveys within its range. It appears to be rare and surveys have only recorded a few specimens (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It may be more common than thought, but it is readily confused with <em>B. thieli</em> in Tsaratanana (Andreone <em>et al. </em>2009).
172909		threats	eng	<p>This species is at risk from slash and burn agriculture and from planting of coffee. Both threats are widespread at both known sites, and are ongoing within reserve boundaries (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).</p>
172910		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It occurs in some protected areas.
172910		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in the south of the island between 15 and 225 m asl. Additional localities in the high plateau (at around 1,000 m asl) need confirmation (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). The lizard's estimated extent of occurrence exceeds 57,500 km²<sup></sup>.
172910		habitat	eng	<p>This diurnal species is active on large smooth rocks (Glaw and Vences 2007)<em>.</em></p>
172910		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be locally common, but the distribution is more patchy than in other <span style="font-style: italic;">Oplurus</span>.</p>
172910		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
172911		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this little-known snake. It is probable that the species was collected in the Analamazaotra protected area, near Andasibe village. Research is needed into this species' distribution, population status and ecological requirements.
172911		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two localities, Andasibe and An'ala in the east (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is expected to have a small range, and its known extent of occurrence is around 61 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. It is unclear whether it is more widespread, however, despite its distinctive colouration it has not been detected in other surveys and so is probably does not range much more widely than is presently known (F. Glaw pers. comm. July 2011). It has been recorded from 800 and from 950 m asl.<br/></p>
172911		habitat	eng	This species was collected on the ground in humid forest. It is not known if the snake occurs in degraded habitat, but it is likely to be a forest dependent species.
172911		population	eng	<p>This snake is known from two specimens, and so no information on its population status is available. Due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest within this presumed forest-dependent snake's small range, it is expected to be declining and to occur as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172911		threats	eng	This species is threatened by clearance of forest for  agriculture.
172912		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been found in a number of protected areas: Parc National de Marojejy (Raselimanana<em> et al.</em> 2000), Réserve Spéciale d'Anjanaharibe Sud (Raxworthy<em> et al.</em> 1998), Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo (Rakotomalala 2002), and Tsaratanana (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). This species is protected in Madagascar, but can be collected with authorization from outside of protected areas. Research is needed into its distribution between known sites, and population trends.<br/></p>
172912		distribution	eng	<p><em></em>This species is endemic to Madgascar and is restricted to the north of the island in forest between 1,150 and 1,650 m altitude. It is known from Anjanaharibe Sud (Raxworthy <em>et al.</em> 1998), Manongarivo (Rakotomalala 2002), Marojejy (Raselimanana <em>et al.</em> 2000), Tsaratanana (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995), and is also found in other forests between these protected areas (Andreone <em>et al.</em>  2000, Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003). Its extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of forest blocks where it is known to occur, is estimated to be 11,090 km²<sup></sup>. This is likely an overestimate since he major forest blocs are  isolated from one another by degraded land, and this chameleon has  very specific altidudinal and microhabitat requirements and appears  intolerant of disturbance (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011).</p><p></p>
172912		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in&#160;montane humid forest, and all records to date seem to be from primary or mature secondary forest.&#160;It is active on the ground during the day and perches on low vegetation at night.&#160;</p>
172912		population	eng	<p>There is no reliable information on the population of this species, but it is apparently not common.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Due to the loss of lowland rainforest in northern Madagascar, the population is presumed to be declining; however, the population is not thought to be severely fragmented as, although the forest blocks where it is found are to some degree isolated from one another, each is presumably large enough to sustain viable populations of this small lizard.<em><br/></em></p>
172912		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the forests where this species occurs include slash and burn agriculture&#160;and timber extraction, although the higher elevation sites are less threatened due to the fact that they are less accessible.</p>
172913		conservation	eng	This species is present within a national park, and in two other sites that are subject to ongoing project to create protected areas. More information is needed to establish the population status of this lizard.
172913		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it known from a number of high elevation sites in the central highlands, at Andringitra (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996), Ankaratra (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002),&#160; Ibity (Glaw and Vences 2007) and Antoetra (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), where it has been recorded between 1,600 and 2,640 m asl. The lizard's extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known localities, is estimated to be 526 km².<br/></p>
172913		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko is mainly, and unusually for this genus, terrestrial (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It occurs in montane sites in rocky, savanna habitat (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). During rain it hides under stones (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Eggs are glued to the underside of flat stones in communal nests (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Breeding has been recorded during the winter (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</p>
172913		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
172913		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, as it inhabits rocky savannah that is unattractive for agricultural development (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
172914		conservation	eng	This species occurs in   Tsimanampetsotsa and Kirindy-Mitea National Parks as well as a number of other sites managed for conservation
172914		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the south of the island, occurring in dry habitats (Glaw and Vences 2007) over an area of around 35,300 km². It occurs between elevations of 50 and 225 m (Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Raselimanana 2008).
172914		habitat	eng	<p>This ground-dwelling diurnal lizard inhabits dry forest, scrub and dune areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). Scott <em>et al.</em> (2006) found that it was most common in forest patches with high tree, shrub and dead wood cover.</p>
172914		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species; however it has been found that it is significantly more abundant in forested areas than those without vegetation cover (Scott <em>et al.</em> 2006), and as forest within its range is subject to varied human pressures the population is presumed to be declining (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172914		threats	eng	This species occupies habitat across a wide disturbance gradient and is not thought to be threatened. Nevertheless, grazing, land clearance for agriculture and fire are all common within this lizard's range (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). While these processes are unlikely to result in the loss of the species from affected areas, they may have negative effects on population densities.
172915		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of strict protected areas where habitat loss is a relatively minor threat. These sites should be managed to ensure the species is not threatened by habitat loss in future, and forest outside protected land managed to preserve suitable habitat for this chameleon.&#160; More research is needed into distribution and population trends, and on the ecological requirements and life history of subpopulations outside Ranomafana National Park (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011), the only site where this species has been well-studied.
172915		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known from a number of localities in the central highlands and southeast between Tsinjoarivo (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011) and Antoetra in the north (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and Andohahela to the south (Glaw and Vences 2007). It was recorded at Andringitra between 1,240 and 1,300 m elevation (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). Other sites where it is known to occur include Kalambatritra (Andreone and Randrianirina 2007) and Ranomafana (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The chameleon's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 18,000 km².<br/></p>
172915		habitat	eng	<p>This species is dependent on relatively intact humid forest (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999) and densities are lower in selectively logged forest (Brady and Griffiths 1999). In an observational study at Ranomafana, adult <em>C. oshaughnessyi</em> were most active during late morning and early evening but spent most time stationary (Kauffmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). There was low fidelity to night roosts and areas used by males and females overlapped (Kauffmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).</p>
172915		population	eng	<p>This species was recorded as being common at Ranomofana. Brady and Griffiths (1999) estimated a national population size of between 6.3 million and 52.6 million, although this estimate included the Montagne d'Ambre subspecies now recognized as <em>C. ambreens</em><span style="font-style: italic;">e</span>. Due to the ongoing loss of suitable habitat throughout its range and the patchy distribution of remaining areas of intact forest, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172915		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging for construction and charcoal, and cattle grazing.
172916		conservation	eng	This chameleon is only known from Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre, and  although this forest is under pressure from humans it remains relatively  well protected. Population trends in this species should be monitored  to assess whether ongoing or future human activities around and within  the reserve boundary pose a major threat to its survival, and the site  should be managed to limit adverse impacts on this lizard. The taxonomy of this species needs to be studied to confirm its status as a full species, and to clarify the identity of the Tsaratanana record.
172916		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is restricted to Montagne d'Ambre between 900 and 1,250 m asl. (Glaw and Vences 2007, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). it has a presumed extent of occurrence of 385 km².<br/></p><p><br/></p>
172916		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid-altitude humid forest.
172916		population	eng	This species is common.
172916		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There are no major threats to this species, but Montagne d'Ambre is under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and L. Durkin pers. comms. 2011).</p>
172917		conservation	eng	This snake is present in several protected areas. The species occurs in the dry forest at Kirindy, which is subject to conservation management and is being developed as a new protected area. No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, and it is not clear that any are needed.
172917		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region> where it is known from a few widely separated sites in the south and west between Kirindy and Ambovombe (Glaw and Vences 2007). Its extent of occurrence between these sites is estimated to be 79,553 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.
172917		habitat	eng	<p>This diurnal and terrestrial snake inhabits secondary and edge habitat dry forest, savanna, pastureland and sandy areas. It has also been found in villages (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm. June 2011). It is syntopic with the Malagasy Giant Hognose Snake (<em>Leioheterodon madagascariensis</em>) and Blond Hognose Snake (<em>L. modestus</em>).</p>
172917		population	eng	<p>This snake is widespread, and moderately common. It is frequently encountered in pastureland (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm. June 2011).</p>
172917		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
172918		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species in Madagascar. In Mauritius it appears to be common and widespread. More research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, and studies are underway to investigate the effects of threatening processes, including invasive geckos, on this species. As an endemic on a small, densely populated island the population should be closely monitored in case future threats arise.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172918		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>This species is endemic to Mauritius, where it has been recorded from localities throughout the island (Harmon <em>et al.</em> 2007) and is also found on the southwest islet of Ile aux Benitiers (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). There is a historical record of this species from Ivoloina on the eastern coast of Madagascar where specimens were apparently released. There is an anecdotal report of this species from Ambanja on the northwest coast of Madagascar. It appears to have been recently introduced to Rodrigues, where it has been recorded from Port Mathurin (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). Unless its continued presence on Madagascar can be confirmed, this species should be considered as being extinct on this island (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). The species has an extent of occurrence of around 1,875 km².<br/><p></p>
172918		habitat	eng	This gecko is widespread in anthropogenic habitats and in traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala mdagascariensis</em>) on Mauritius, and is reported as being common in lowland dry forest containing a mix of native and exotic tree species (Harmon <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species exhibits a preference for palms and palm-like trees (such as <em>Ravenala</em>) with smooth fronds and water-filled crevices, which it probably uses for shelter and egg-laying as well as for foraging (Harmon <em>et al.</em> 2007). The diet includes insects and nectar (Harmon <em>et al.</em> 2007). In communities where other day geckos are present, this species is almost exclusively confined to palms, in which it appears to be competitively superior to congeners, and typically uses moderately broad perches at medium heights on its host trees (Harmon <em>et al.</em> 2007). There is no information on the habitats and ecology of this species in Madagascar.<br/><br/>The Bluetail Day Gecko is the sole pollinator and seed disperser for the endemic Mauritian plant <em>Roussea simplex</em> in the southern part of this plant's range (Hansen and Müller 2009a); the related <em>P. ornata</em> is presumed to act as the plant's pollinator in areas where <em>P. cepediana</em> is absent (Hansen and Müller 2009a). Experimental evidence indicates that lizards are strongly deterred by the presence of invasive ants on these now-rare plants, to the extent that gecko visits to ant-infested fruits and flowers virtually cease (Hansen and Müller 2009b). The same study showed a corresponding decline in infested plants' success at setting seed.
172918		population	eng	There is no evidence that any population of this species survives in Madagascar. It is widespread on Mauritius, where three different lineages occur, and can be found at high densities in even highly degraded habitats dominated by coconut palms and the invasive traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>) (N. Cole July 2011).
172918		threats	eng	Habitat modification is ongoing and widespread in mainland Mauritius, although this species exhibits a high degree of adaptability to degraded habitats, where it can persist in large numbers (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). It is not clear whether the three different lineages of this species differ in their sensitivity to threatening processes, and research is underway to investigate this (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). It is likely that the introduction of the larger Madagascan day gecko <em>P. grandis</em> has resulted in the displacement of native day geckos (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011), but it is unknown whether this represents a specific threat to <em>P. cepediana</em>. Levels of exploitation for the European pet trade are unknown, as this species breeds readily in captivity, but it is thought some collection of wild animals takes place. Trade is not presently thought to represent a threat to this species (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011).
172919		conservation	eng	This species is apparently restricted to the Anjanharibe-Sud Special Reserve and Makira newly protected area. Further surveys are needed to relocate this species and to establish its distributional extent, ecological requirements, population status and its exposure and susceptibility to threats.
172919		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two sites in the north, in Anjanaharibe-Sud (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Glaw and Vences 2007) and the adjacent Makira forest (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). As it is known from only one specimen at each site, its distribution within these reserves is unclear; on the assumption that it occurs throughout both, its extent of occurrence is taken to be 3,512 km². It has been recorded at 1,000 m asl.
172919		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits mid-elevation humid forest (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It has not been recorded from degraded forest. As it is only known from two specimens, both collected within protected areas, it is unclear whether this reflects its genuine habitat tolerances; however surveys on unforested areas around Makira have never recorded this species (M. Vences pers. comm. June 2011).<em></em></p>
172919		population	eng	<p>    </p>This snake is known only from two specimens. It is presumed to be at least somewhat dependent on forest, and if it occurs in unprotected areas (M. Vences pers. comm. June 2011) the population is likely to be declining as a result of forest loss and degradation.<br/><p></p>
172919		threats	eng	There is a low rate of humid forest loss in areas subject to logging and slash and burn agriculture. Overgrazing by zebu occurs inside the forest at Makira. It is unclear whether either process represents a threat to this snake, but it is expected to be intolerant of complete forest loss.
172920		conservation	eng	The widespread species is present in a number of protected areas and sites that are managed for conservation throughout eastern Madagascar. Protection of additional areas of riparian forest may benefit this species. Research is required to establish the species' distribution within its extent of occurrence, and to identify whether it occurs as a fragmented population.
172920		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a number of localities along the humid eastern side of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), from Marojejy&#160; in the north down to Sainte Luce in the south (Ramanamanjato 2000). The skink's estimated extent of occurrence is 127,156 km². It has been recorded between 70 and 850 m asl.<br/></p>
172920		habitat	eng	<p>This species is always found in close proximity to aquatic habitats, in both intact and degraded forest. It can swim and move under water and is active during the day (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).</p>
172920		population	eng	<p>This skink is found regularly in some places, but does not seem to be common. Due to ongoing pressure on its riparian forest habitat, the population is presumed to be declining.<br/></p>
172920		threats	eng	Although this species is widespread and can tolerate some forest degradation it requires riparian habitats, which are threatened by logging, mining and agriculture.
172921		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to clarify population trends and the impacts of human activities on this species.
172921		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from mid and low elevation localities in the eastern rainforest band. It ranges from Manangarivo in the northwest and Loky-Manambato in the northeast to Andohahela in the south (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), an area of nearly 116,000 km²<sup></sup>.
172921		habitat	eng	<p>This snake is found in humid forest and adjacent degraded areas, and occasionally around villages (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is mainly arboreal, although regularly found on the ground, and is known to feed on <em>Furcifer </em>chameleons (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172921		population	eng	<p>This snake is regularly encountered but difficult to find because of its arboreal habits. Although it has sometimes been found in degraded areas this arboreal snake requires areas with some remaining tree cover, and due to complete forest clearance in parts of its range the population is presumed to be declining (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172921		threats	eng	Logging and forest clearance for agriculture threaten this highly arboreal species, which is reliant on some degree of forest cover for its persistence (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
172922		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ranomafana, Andringitra, Andohahela and Midongy du Sud National Parks. Research is needed into this species' distribution between known sites, its population status and ecological requirements. The species may be tolerant of some degree of forest disturbance, and the extent of its susceptibility to threatening processes needs to be evaluated.
172922		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from the southeast. The known localities include Rianambo and Ranomafana (Glaw and Vences 2007), Andringitra, Marovony and Andohahela (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011), between 700 and 950 m asl. Its extent of occurrence between these sites is estimated to be 17,927 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172922		habitat	eng	This snake has been collected in humid forest, including littoral and lowland forests in the Fort Dauphin region (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011). Its habits are unclear; of two specimens for which ecological information is available, one was found at night two metres above the ground in riparian forest, the other in the morning on a trail in disturbed forest (Glaw and Vences, 2007).
172922		population	eng	<p>This rarely-encountered snake is known only from a few specimens and so no information on population trends is available. From the distance between the known localities and the patchy distribution of remaining forest within its inferred range, it is likely that the population is severely fragmented. This requires clarification, as the species may be able to tolerate some habitat degradation.<br/></p>
172922		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss through gold mining, slash and burn agriculture, and logging. Lowland and littoral forests within the Fort Dauphin region are declining (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011), reducing the area of available habitat for this snake.
172923		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of strict protected areas, but probably also occurs in sites that are without protection. Information is needed on its area of occupancy, population trends and susceptibility to threatening processes, and sites where this species occurs may benefit from management to protect suitable habitat.
172923		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it occurs widely from  the northwest to the northeast, and across eastern Madagascar south to Marolambo in the central east (H. Rakotondravony pers. comm. 2011). Known localities include Analamazaotra,  Anjanaharibe-Sud,   Mantadia, Marojejy, and Tsaratanana (Raxworthy   <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">  et al</span>. 2000, Glaw and Vences 2007, Brady and Griffiths 1999). There is an isolated population in Ambohijanahary (H. Rakotondravony pers. comm. 2011). The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 48,245 km²<sup></sup>. It  has been reported from elevations between 1,200 and 1,600 m from northern forests (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003).</p>
172923		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mid-elevation humid forest; the degree to which it can tolerate forest degradation is unknown (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).
172923		population	eng	This species is widespread and moderately common. It has been recorded at a population density of as high as 13.5 per ha in undisturbed habitats in Mantadia National Park (Brady and Griffiths 1999). Outside protected areas, the population is likely to be declining as a result of habitat loss.
172923		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of humid forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging and cattle grazing.
172924		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from within a number of protected areas in the north of Madagascar. Research is needed to clarify its distribution outside these areas, and the taxonomic status of <em>M. stumpfii</em> and any additional taxa contained within this species complex requires investigation.
172924		distribution	eng	This skink is endemic to Madagascar, where it occurs across a large area (estimated at over 24,300 km²<sup></sup>) and an elevational range of 0-800 m asl. Most localities for this species are recorded in the north with two known sites in central eastern Madagascar and two along the west coast (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172924		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in the leaf litter of dry and humid forests, as well as in plantations (Glaw and Vences 2007). Due to its leaf litter habitat requirement, the lizard requires areas with some canopy cover.<br/></p>
172924		population	eng	<p>This is a locally abundant species. Although the population is expected to be stable overall, there are presumably local population declines in areas where the forest is being destroyed.<br/></p>
172924		threats	eng	This species adapts well to disturbance and is not currently threatened in most of its range. There is clearance of forest for expanding agriculture and logging, however, and the species will not survive in completely deforested land (F. Glaw pers. comm. March 2012) due to its requirements for habitats with some leaf litter.
172925		conservation	eng	This species occurs in three strict protected areas: Parc National d'Andringitra, Réserve Spéciale du Pic d'Ivohibe and&#160;Réserve Spéciale Ambohijanahary. More information is needed on its distribution between the known sites, and the taxonomic identify of southern populations needs to be clarified. Suitable forest habitat for this chameleon needs to be preserved, and where it occurs in protected areas these need to be managed to limit the impacts of logging and to mitigate the encroachment of pines into montane forest.
172925		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it has been reported from Ankaratra (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Andringitra (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996), and Ivohibe (Raselimanana 1999). There is an isolated record from near Ambohijanahary (H. Rakotondravony pers. comm. 2011). It is known from between 1,550 and 2,550 m asl. (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). It has also been reported from sites in Ibity and Itremo, but these require verification (Birkinshaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Its extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known sites, is estimated to be 820 km²<sup></sup>.
172925		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found inside or at the edge of montane humid forest at Ankaratra (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) but is also reported to use secondary heathland habitats (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996). The forest at Ambohijanahary is transitional humid forest.&#160;Females collected between January and February contained up to ten large eggs (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</p>
172925		population	eng	The species has been recorded at a density of 19.7 individuals per hectare in humid forest (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Although this suggests the species is reasonably common, the continuing decline in its montane forest habitat suggests the population is likely to be declining. The species has a highly discontinuous distribution, indicating a severely fragmented population.
172925		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of montane humid forest due to timber extraction for building materials, and by the invasion of exotic pine species.
172926		conservation	eng	This species was collected from within Marojejy National Park. There is a need to establish the validity of the species and to research further the ecology and distribution.
172926		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known only from Marojejy at 300 m elevation (Glaw and Vences 2007). The extent of occurrence cannot be meaningfully estimated from the one known record, but as it has not been encountered during surveys in the surrounding areas this snake may have a genuinely restricted distribution.<br/></p>
172926		habitat	eng	This species is known from a single specimen only and habitat information is therefore lacking. The known specimen was collected in branches a metre off the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007) in a humid forest national park.
172926		population	eng	<p>This snake is known only from a single specimen.<br/></p>
172926		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on the threats to this species. The lowland primary forest in the type locality has almost completely gone, perhaps as a result of logging for rosewood, although it is unclear whether the species is dependent on this habitat.<br/></p>
172927		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Bemaraha and Ankarafantsika national parks. More information is needed on the population status of this gecko and the extent of its exposure to threats at known localities.
172927		distribution	eng	This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to  Madagascar, where it has been recorded from scattered localities in the west of the  island, at Ankarafantsika (Greenbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002, Raselimanana 2008), Andranomanintsy, Ambalimby/Masoarivo, Bemaraha and Kirindy (Raselimanana 2008), and Ankilogoa and Ranotsara&#160; (Bora <em>et al.</em> 2010).   It has been found at elevations between  30 and 120 m (Raselimanana 2008). The extent of occurrence, based on the area of known sites, is estimated to be 3,554 km².
172927		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal lizard lives in intact dry deciduous forest. It has been observed roosting and foraging on bushes and low trees at height of between one and six metres. It lays spherical eggs in leaf-litter.<em></em></p>
172927		population	eng	<p>This forest-dependent species is likely to be declining, but there is no quantitative population information. It occurs at low densities at known sites. Recorded localities are widely-separated, and dry deciduous forest occurs as isolated patches in western Madagascar, so the population is considered to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172927		threats	eng	The intact forest on which this species depends is threatened by fires, cattle grazing, selective logging and charcoal production, and forest clearance for agriculture.
172928		conservation	eng	This species is not recorded from any protected areas at present, although it is likely that its range extends into Masoala National Park. More survey work is necessary to locate additional specimens and localities, to investigate its exposure to threats within its range, and to identify its ecological requirements and ability to tolerate habitat modification due to fire and selective logging. Known sites should be included within conservation management plans to limit the chameleon's exposure to potential threats.
172928		distribution	eng	<p>This species has been collected from the Tsararano forest in northeast Madagascar at 665 m elevation (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), and from Ampukafo at 370 m on the Masoala Peninsula (Lutzman 2006, Lutzman <em>et al.</em> 2010), an estimated extent of occurrence of 425 km²<sup></sup>. It may well range more widely.</p>
172928		habitat	eng	<p>The type specimen was collected from a mosaic habitat consisting of lowland humid rainforest and small patches of ericoid heathland (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The second record was taken in lowland moist forest.</p>
172928		population	eng	This species is known only from one specimen and one photograph. There is otherwise no information on the population of the species.
172928		threats	eng	<p>Forest degradation due to selective logging (especially of rosewood) and fire are known threats within this chameleon's range.</p>
172929		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve (Andreone and Raxworthy 1998) and the new protected area at Zahamena-Ankeniheny. It is an elusive species that is rarely collected and probably has a wider distribution than is currently known. More information is needed on its taxonomy and all aspects of its biology, as well as its ability to tolerate habitat modification.
172929		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it has been found at two sites in the east, at Fierenana and Anjanaharibe-Sud (Glaw and Vences 2007), a combined area of 317 km²<sup></sup>. It is difficult to find, possibly due to its arboreal habits, but is believed to occur between the two known localities. Its extent of occurrence is currently unclear, but if the distance between the known localities represents the full extent of its range, it will have a distributional extent of approximately 7,000 km²<sup></sup>. It is, however, unknown whether the species is more widespread.<br/></p>
172929		habitat	eng	<p>This is an arboreal snake that feeds on frogs and small mammals and has been collected from humid forest. It has not been recorded from degraded forest, but as it is known from only two individuals the significance of this is unclear. One of the specimens was collected from a large fallen tree, and it may be that this is a canopy-dweller that relies on the larger trees only found in intact forest (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172929		population	eng	This snake is known only from two specimens, and so no information on population trends is available.
172929		threats	eng	Threats to this species are poorly understood because the species is not very well known. However, given that it occurs in humid eastern forest and is associated with large trees it is likely to be threatened by logging and the clearance of forest for  agriculture.
172930		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs in Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre. It is classed as a Category I, Class II species under Malagasy wildlife legislation. Further research is required to determine whether this species is conspecific with <em>B. antakarana</em>, and also whether it occurs in surrounding areas, such as Forêt d'Ambre. Monitoring of the area is required to identify emerging threats and to evaluate their impact on the population.<br/></p>
172930		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar and is only known from Montagne d'Ambre in the north of the island between 650 m and 1,150 m elevation (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). It has an extent of occurrence of 287 km².<br/></p>
172930		habitat	eng	<p>This diurnal species has only been found in intact, mainly lowland humid forest where it roosts on shrubs, tree trunks and leaves at night (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). There is no information on whether it occurs in degraded habitats.</p>
172930		population	eng	<p>This species is common during the rainy season.</p>
172930		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to this species, but Montagne d'Ambre is under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and L. Durkin pers. comms. January 2011).</p>
172931		conservation	eng	It is present in several protected areas. More research is needed to clarify this species' distribution between known sites, and reserves should be managed to preserve suitable intact forest for this snake.
172931		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a number of localities along the east coast, including Andasibe, Nosy Mangabe, Tampolo (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Glaw and Vences 2007), Ambatovy, Midongy du Sud and Sainte Luce (J.-B. Ramanamanajato and A. Raselimanana pers. comms. January 2011), and from Nosy Be in the northwest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It occurs from near sea level to at least 950 m in elevation. The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 59,237 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.<br/></p>
172931		habitat	eng	This species is known from low elevation humid forest where it as active in trees (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has not been recorded from degraded forest.
172931		population	eng	<p>This is a locally common species. Due to ongoing human pressure on its forest habitat, the population of this disturbance-sensitive snake is probably declining.<br/></p>
172931		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are open cast mining, conversion of land for agricultural use and logging.
172932		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place but this lizard occurs in a number of protected areas, including four national parks. Additional site protection is likely to benefit this species. Research is needed to clarify population trends in this species.
172932		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread, occurring in the central highlands and the eastern escarpment over an area of around 42,000 km². It is found across a wide elevational range, between 140 and 1,580 m asl. It is known from the southerly most humid forest in Madagascar, at Manantantely, as far north as the humid forest Parc National de Mantadia. It has been found in a number of localities along the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Raselimanana and Andriamampionona 2007). An isolated population is reported from Daraina in the extreme north (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). </p>
172932		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial species occurs in mid-elevation and lowland humid forest. Although it appears to tolerate some forest disturbance it is rarely found in localities without relatively intact forest vegetation. Open areas, or forest edges, that allow good sun exposure seem to be its preferred microhabitat (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). </p>
172932		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species; however, as it appears to be largely restricted to forests and there is continuing human pressure on these habitats in eastern Madagascar, the population may be declining.</p>
172932		threats	eng	This is a forest species and although it can tolerate some levels of disturbance, probably because it likes sunny patches, the fragmentation and loss of humid forest through slash and burn agriculture and logging is the main threat.
172933		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Bemaraha National Park and in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Reserve. All of the known subpopulations of this species therefore occur within protected areas. Research is needed into population trends in this species and the lizard's ecological requirements. Genetic research is required to clarify the relationship between this species and <em>Z. brygooi</em>.
172933		distribution	eng	<p>    </p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from the  Bemaraha limestone plateau in the west at about 100 m elevation (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Raselimanana 2008, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,598 km².<p></p>
172933		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial plated lizard is found in lowland dry, deciduous forest with abundant rocky karst outcrops. It is not distributed uniformly within the forests at Bemaraha and appears to be restricted to relatively intact areas in the north of the national park (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has also recorded from areas further north in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Reserve.<br/></p>
172933		population	eng	<p>This lizard is locally common where it occurs.<br/></p>
172933		threats	eng	This lizard requires relatively intact deciduous forest and any significant disturbance to this habitat will threaten the species. Actual disturbance levels are currently low within Bemaraha National Park. Although there is some grazing by zebu and an increasing incidence of fire in the northern parts of its range (Tsingy de Bemahara Reserve), these are not thought to be significant.
172934		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been found inside Parc National de Ranomafana (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003) and Parc National d'Andohahela (CBSG 2002). This species is listed as a protected species under Category I, Class II, which permits authorized collection from the wild.&#160; Specific conservation measures are difficult to form in the absence of relevant information on its distribution and ecology. <br/></p>
172934		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to southeast Madagascar. It occurs in the central south-east at around 1,050 m above sea level <a name="OLE_LINK5"></a>(Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007). There are also records from the far southeast at Manongotry at 800 m (J.-B. Ramanamanjato pers. comm. January 2011) and Tsitongambarika (C. Randrianantoandro and A. Andriamazava pers. comms. January 2011). Most other records are from sites below 800 m asl. (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011).&#160; Based on the combined area of known sites, the lizard's extent of occurrence is taken to be 1,971 km²; however, it is unknown whether it occurs continuously between these areas, whether it occurs as subpopulations elsewhere in eastern Madagascar, or indeed whether it is restricted to a smaller area within the known locations.<br/></p>
172934		habitat	eng	<p>This chameleon is found in and near low- and mid-altitude humid forest. The degree to which this species can adapt to degraded habitat is not well understood.  Records from the southeast are from intact forest, while at Ranomofana, most records are from degraded areas near forest and  forest edges (Glaw and Vences 2007; C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011;  R. Jenkins pers. comm. May 2011). Surveys of degraded habitats throughout a broad area of the southeast have failed to record this species, and consequently it is thought that it is unlikely to be widespread in degraded areas (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011). Its typical association with primary  forest, even in Ranomafana where most records are from outside the forest itself, suggests some degree of reliance on intact native vegetation (C.  Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011).</p>
172934		population	eng	<p>This is a rare species (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011). All records are of single individuals. Due to ongoing human pressures on remaining lowland forest in southern Madagascar, the population of this chameleon is presumed to be declining, although this is difficult to establish with certainty due to limited knowledge of the lizard's habitat requirements. The patchy distribution of remnant forest, and the failure of surveys in degraded areas of this species' range to record the chameleon, indicate that it occurs as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172934		threats	eng	<p>Ongoing activities within this lizard's range that affect the quality and extent of remaining forest include land conversion for agriculture and timber extraction, and it is thought that these are likely to threaten this species. The chameleon is highly desirable in the international pet trade, and although an export ban has been in place since 1994 and the species is CITES-listed, collection outside reserves is permitted and illegal export represents a potential threat (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172935		conservation	eng	This gecko occurs in two isolated national parks in western Madagascar, at Bemaraha and Namoraka. Research is needed into population densities and trends in this species, into its distribution between these sites, and into its ability to tolerate threatening processes.
172935		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs&#160; in a few rocky forested sites in the west at Namoroka (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000) and near Bemaraha (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000) between 100 and 300 m elevation. The combined area of these sites is 964 km², which is here taken as the extent of occurrence due to the specificity of this species' habitat requirements; although it may occur somewhat more widely, its extent of occurrence is unlikely to exceed 5,000 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172935		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in dry calcareous forest and rocky outcrops, and in caves. It is active at night on rocky outcrops and vegetation 0.5 to 2.5 m above the ground (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000). One individual was retrieved from inside a <em>Lycodras gaimardi </em>snake (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000). It is able to survive in forests with some degree of logging disturbance, but is absent from heavily degraded forest.<br/></p>
172935		population	eng	There is insufficient information on the population of this species across its range to estimate population trends, although it is abundant at Bemaraha (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172935		threats	eng	This species is relatively well protected within Bemaraha and Namoroka national parks, but any areas occupied outside of these sites are likely to be threatened by burning and hardwood extraction.
172936		conservation	eng	The forest habitats of this species are well represented within  Madagascar's protected area system.
172936		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where occurs in the humid east of the island. Northern localities require verification.
172936		habitat	eng	This humid forest species is tolerant of disturbance and can  survive in degraded forest; however, it is unable to persist in deforested land (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). It feeds on frogs and small chameleons.
172936		population	eng	This is a common species, but is likely to be declining due to ongoing deforestation across much of its range.
172936		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and the loss of humid forest to  expanding agriculture.
172937		conservation	eng	<p>This lizard has been found in Parc National de Zahamena, Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra, Parc National de Marojejy and Réserve Spéciale d'Ambatovaky (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003). It probably occurs in Parc National de Masoala as it has been recorded very close to the reserve (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). This chameleon is listed as a protected species under Category I, Class II, which permits authorized collection from the wild. Although reported from a wide area there is very little data on this species with which to make an informed assessment of its conservation status. Basic information on population, ecology, distribution and habitat use and therefore needed, and its level of exposure and sensitivity to threats evaluated. Surveys are urgently needed to establish whether it survives at historical collecting sites along the east coast.<br/></p>
172937		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar and is found in the east of the island north of the Mangoro River, as far north as Marojejy (Glaw and Vences 2007) and Daraina (Rakotondravony 2006) and east to Masoala (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). Its maximum elevation is recorded as around 700 m at Vohimana (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). The known sites encompass an area of 35,368 km²<sup></sup>; however, its extent of occurrence is presumed to be considerably lower as it is only found at lower elevations (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011). Low-altitude records along the east coast are from a century ago,  and the persistence of the species in this now-degraded area requires  confirmation. </p>
172937		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known from lowland humid forests. It has been recorded from both intact and degraded habitats.&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">In the Loky-Manambato complex near Daraina,<span class="apple-converted-space"> the lizard<em></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em> </em><span class="apple-style-span">was found in only one of the 12 forests surveyed, in transitional forest at Binara (Rakotondravony 2006).</span></span></p>
172937		population	eng	<p>This species is infrequently or rarely encountered. Due to heavy human pressures on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest throughout its range, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented, and it is unclear whether it survives in historical collecting localities along the east coast.<br/></p>
172937		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat loss from slash-and-burn agriculture and commercial logging. Although an export ban is in place and this is a CITES-listed species, collection and illegal export of this species may represent a threat (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172938		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two small protected areas at Berenty and Petriky, and is also known to occur in the Tsimanampetsotse National Park. Research is needed to clarify the extent of its distribution and to monitor population trends.
172938		distribution	eng	<p>  This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been found in many localities in the south of the island below 100 m elevation (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimana 2008). The lizard has an estimated extent of occurrence of 16,128 km².<br/></p>
172938		habitat	eng	<p>This is a burrowing skink (Glaw and Vences 2007) found in riparian deciduous forest (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), often in soil beneath tamarind trees (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is also known from open degraded forest and has been recorded from within the town of Fort Dauphin (C. Raxworthy and J.-B. Ramanamanjato pers. comms. January 2011). This is an egg-laying lizard; average clutch size is unknown, but a female was reported to contain three eggs in March (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172938		population	eng	<p>This species appears to be locally abundant (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172938		threats	eng	Clearance of the forest, for expanding agriculture and expanding urban areas, and mining for ilmenite and coal are the main threats. Their impact on this species is unclear due to its ability to survive within degraded forest and residential areas.
172939		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout eastern Madagascar. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this complex and its area of occupancy.
172939		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it has been recorded from lowland sites in the east, from Nosy Mangabe at the northern extent of its range to the south of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007).It is not clear whether the species ever occurred further south than Vondrozo as a report of this lizard from Eminiminy, outside Andohahela in the far south, is based on an unverified historical record (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). It has been found at elevations between sea level and 800 m (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994). This lizard's extent of occurrence is considered to be 88,391 km², although the extent of surviving forest habitat within this area is only around 7,500 km².<br/></p>
172939		habitat	eng	<p>During the day this nocturnal gecko rests, with its body flattened, on tree trunks in relatively intact humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It may be able to survive in lightly degraded forest affected by logging or grazing, but as an arboreal species it is unable to survive the complete removal of forest vegetation.<br/></p>
172939		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species, but it is reported to occur at high population densities on the small island of Nosy Mangabe (Glaw and Vences 2007). As this species is dependent on lowland forest, which is fragmentary and under heavy human pressure throughout its range, the population is presumed to be both severely fragmented and declining.<br/></p>
172939		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, resulting from fire and land clearance for agriculture, which is pronounced at low elevations in eastern Madagascar. Logging is also likely to pose a significant risk to this species, as while it is apparently tolerant of light or moderate disturbance, most logging within its range occurs at higher intensities (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). Commercial export is likely to be sustainable and probably does not represent a threat to this species.
172940		conservation	eng	This species is present in Ankarafantsika National Park. More information is needed on the distribution, population status and ecological requirements of this lizard, and the identity of Antsolipa specimens should be confirmed.
172940		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the west at Ankarafantsika, Antsirasira and Berara, below 400 m elevation (Andreone and Greer 2002). It is presumed to occur between these sites, over an area of approximately 11,200 km². Several specimens of a skink that agrees morphologically with the description of <em>Amphiglossus tanysoma</em> have been recorded from a forest fragment known as Antsolipa, close to Montagne d'Ambre and north of all previously known sites, but the identity of these records requires confirmation (Labanowski and Lowin 2011). If this latter record does represent <em>A. tanysoma</em>, then the species has an apparently localized distribution in this region as it has never been recorded in extensive surveys of the nearby protected areas Montagne d'Ambre and Ankarana (R. Labanowski pers. comm. April 2011).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p>
172940		habitat	eng	<p>This skink inhabits deciduous dry and transitional forest, and plantations, where it has been collected from under rotten wood and in leaf litter (Andreone and Greer 2002). The skink from Antsolipa tentatively assigned to this species appeared to be absent from deforested land, but was present in degraded secondary forest (Labanowski and Lowin 2011).<br/></p>
172940		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species.<br/></p>
172940		threats	eng	Plantations are sufficiently widespread within its known range to ensure this species' survival (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011), and therefore it may not be threatened. It is possible, however, that it occurs more widely outside protected areas than is currently known, where it might be at risk from the loss of forested areas to crop agriculture and pastureland (R. Labanowski pers. comm. April 2011).
172941		conservation	eng	The presence of species has yet to be confirmed in any protected areas, and it is not clear whether this lizard is in need of protection or, conversely, whether it still exists. Targeted surveys are needed to relocate this species, to confirm whether it is found in Marojejy or other mainland sites, and to obtain information on its population status, ecological requirements, exposure to and sensitivity to threats.
172941		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to northern Madagascar where it is known from the islands of Nosy Mitsio and Nosy Mamoko (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) off the northwest coast. Extensive surveys of Nosy Be, a larger island 70 km from Nosy Mistio, have never recorded this species. It may also occur in Marojejy in northeast Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). The skink's extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of these three sites, is 626 km².<br/></p>
172941		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is not known. It is probably a burrowing species and, based on the apparent habitat preferences of other <em>Paracontias</em> skinks, may have been found either in lowland humid forest or in more sandy areas.
172941		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population of this species. All collected specimens are historical and the species has not been recorded by any recent expedition (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), although neither of the small islands where this lizard has been recorded have been subject to recent, intensive surveys (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).<br/></p>
172941		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it may have been impacted by forest clearance for agriculture and through logging, but there is no information on its sensitivity to these processes.
172942		conservation	eng	This lizard is present in some protected areas. Research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this possible species complex, and to establish the identity of superficially similar populations elsewhere in Madagascar.
172942		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from a few localities in the central highlands and in the southeast of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007) between 720 and 1,600 m. It is thought to have an extent of occurrence of around 43,000 km², but the taxonomic status of similar populations as far north as Marojejy is in need of clarification. Depending on the resolution of this species' taxonomy, it may prove to be either more or less widespread than presently recognized.
172942		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits montane forest and savanna heathland (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been observed under rocks and wood in forest and above the tree line at Ankaratra (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). This skink is apparently viviparous, with one female from Ankaratra found to contain 5 relatively well-developed juveniles (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172942		population	eng	<p>This is a relatively common species.<br/></p>
172942		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species.
172943		conservation	eng	This gecko occurs in a new protected area&#160; in the Zamena-Ankeniheny Corridor eastern Madagascar. The lack of information on its distribution within this site prevents an evaluation of the effectiveness of current conservation in protecting this species and its habitats. Attempts should be made to reintroduce animals collected during forest clearance for mining operations to other sites. The range of this species needs to be clarified, in case this high canopy species has escaped previous attention. Export bans need to be enforced to better-protect this species.
172943		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf-tailed gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it has been reported from a small part of Fierenana - although the exact localities are uncertain (Böhle and Schönecker 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007) - and the adjacent sites of Ambatovy (J. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011) and Analamay (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), an area of humid rainforest in the east at 900-1,200 m elevation (J. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,264 km²; however, this is based on the area of the known sites and the true extent of occurrence between known sites may be considerably less. It is likely to be highly localized within this area.<br/></p>
172943		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal lizard lives high up in the canopy of intact humid rainforest (Böhle and Schönecker 2003). It lays clutches of two eggs (Böhle and Schönecker 2003).<em></em></p>
172943		population	eng	<p>This species is very occasionally observed due to its forest canopy habitat, but is thought to be genuinely very rare and to occur in low population densities. Five individuals have been found over the three-year period between 2007 and 2010 in Ambotavy, even where removal of large trees allows access to its canopy habitat. Due to extensive loss of forest cover at the known localities, the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172943		threats	eng	This species' habitat is under threat by logging, clearance for mining operations and slash-and-burn agriculture. Collection is likely to be an additional pressure on this species, but as it is difficult to find in the wild the impact of this activity on the population is unknown.
172944		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of forests that are strictly protected, and these should be managed to limit the encroachment of human activities that may threaten this lizard's forest habitat. Research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this species and its presumed synonym <em>B. antoetrae</em>.
172944		distribution	eng	This chameleon  is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known to occur in the east and north east (Glaw and  Vences 2007), ranging from Ranomafana in the south (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999) to&#160;Anjanaharibe Sud in the north (Rakotomalala and Raselimanana 2003). Known sites include Ambohitantely (Glaw and  Vences 2007), Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor (Jenkins<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2003, Raselimanana and Andrianampoinimerina 2007),  Analamazaotra, Mantadia, Vohidrazana (Rakotondravony  2004) and Marojejy (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Animals have been found between  875 m and 1,200 m elevation (Rakotomalala  and Raselimanana 2003), and the chameleon's extent of occurrence is estimated to be around 43,865 km²<sup></sup>.
172944		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits mid-elevation humid forest and has been found in high abundance alongside riparian vegetation and at lowest abundance in disturbed areas of forest (Jenkins<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<em> </em>2003). This species appears to have distinct micro-habitat preferences within the forest where it occurs and it was notably absent along forest trails, but present in the adjacent forest which was more humid and received less light (Jenkins<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<em> </em>2003).</p>
172944		population	eng	<p>    </p>The population density from a single site in the Angavo-Anjozorobe corridor was calculated to range from 51.7 to 88.5 per hectare (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2003). Animals occur at their lowest densities in disturbed forest, and are notably absent from cleared forest trails (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2003). As forests throughout this chameleon's range are under heavy human pressure and occur as isolated patches, it can be inferred that the population is severely fragmented and is likely to be declining.<br/><p></p>
172944		threats	eng	This chameleon is mostly restricted to humid forest and, because it probably occurs widely in sites that are not protected, it is currently threatened by loss and degradation of forests due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging for charcoal, and mining. Current collection levels are unlikely to present a threat, even to local populations.
172945		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout the drier portions of Madagascar.
172945		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is widespread throughout the western coastal part of the islands (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has also been recorded in the drier portions of the central highlands (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It occurs from sea level to at least 800 m asl through most of its range. It has been recorded at 1,600 m asl at Itremo in the central highlands. This gecko has an estimated extent of occurrence of 70,792 km².
172945		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forests where it is active in the day on tree trunks and roosts at night on branches 1-2 metres above ground (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The gecko can survive in degraded forest, but is absent from deforested areas.
172945		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, although it is locally extremely common at some sites, such as Ankarafantsika (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). As it is reliant on some degree of forest cover and deforestation is ongoing throughout its range, the population is thought to be declining.
172945		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to forest loss, which within its range results from charcoal production, land clearance for agriculture, and fire.
172947		conservation	eng	<p>Brygoo's leaf chameleon occurs in a number of protected areas: Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>. </em>2008), Parc National de Isalo (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003), Parc National de Zombitse-Vohibasia (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003) and Parc National d'Ankarafantsika (Glaw and Vences 2007). Its habitats in central Menabe are in the process of becoming included in a new protected area. This lizard is a protected species under Malagasy law but collection outside of strict protected areas is permitted with authorization. Sixty <em>B. brygooi </em>were exported from Madagascar in 2001 (Carpenter and Robson 2005). There is no current CITES export quota for international trade in this species.</p>
172947		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs in the western part of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). Its northerly limit appears to be around Parc National d'Ankarafantsika (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002) and it has been recorded as far south as Sept Lacs (D'Cruze<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2009). Other localities include Parc National Zombitse-Vohibasia (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003), Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Anavelona (Brygoo 1978, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995) and the Kirindy forests (Raselimanana 2008, Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010)<span class="msoIns">. This lizard has been recorded between 20 and 571 m asl. (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2010, Bora <em>et al.</em> 2010). <span class="msoIns">The chameleon's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 147,782 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></span></p>
172947		habitat	eng	<p>This species is adapted to arid conditions within dry deciduous forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). <em>B. brygooi </em>is able to tolerate moderate disturbance to forest vegetation and can survive in a wider range of abiotic and biotic conditions than sympatric species (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>.</em> 2008). At night animals usually perch with heads orientated towards the ground on leaves and stems (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Mean distance between successive nocturnal roost sites varies between 1.0 m and 2.2 m, and distances encompass a range of between 1.7 m² and 4.8 m² (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>..</em> 2007). <em>B. brygooi&#160; </em>mean perch height at night is around 0.5 m (Randrianantoandro<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span><em>. </em>2007). Clutch sizes of 2-5 eggs have been reported (Glaw and Vences 2007). </p>
172947		population	eng	<p>    </p>Although this species occurs in a number of forests in western Madagascar, published population information is only available from Bemaraha (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and Menabe (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). At Bemaraha, the population density was highest (78 ha<sup>-1</sup>) in a degraded forest just outside the park boundary and lowest in a site in the north of the park (28 ha<sup>-1</sup>), whilst the density at Menabe was 35 ha<sup>-1</sup>.  <p></p>
172947		threats	eng	<p>This species is only found in dry deciduous forest and it is therefore threatened by the deterioration of this habitat. Excessive timber extraction, fire and conversion of forest into agriculture pose the greatest threats. However, this species appears to be more tolerant of forest disturbance than other species of <em>Brookesia</em>, and is probably therefore only threatened by severe levels of disturbance (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, 2010).</p>
172948		conservation	eng	This species has not been found in any protected areas but may occur in Mananara-Nord. It is not subject to any conservation measures, but enforcement of national and international trade legislation is recommended. Species of <em>Phelsuma</em> are included on CITES Appendix II. More surveys are needed throughout this species' known range, especially at its northern extent, to establish its full extent of occurrence and its area of occupancy, as well as its exposure to threats.
172948		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities between Ivoloina and Fasandiana (C. Randrianantoanoro pers. comm. January 2011) and also further north at Manompana and Mananara (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), and at Antalaha (Ramilison, unpublished data cited in CBSG 2002). There is a single record from near Cap Est in the Masoala Peninsula (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1993). The species occurs in coastal lowlands up to around 75 m asl., and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 4,464 km²<sup></sup>.</p>
172948		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko is usually observed high-up on coconut palms (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>) along roads and beaches<em>.</em> It does not glue its eggs (Glaw and Vences 2007). <br/></p>
172948		population	eng	This is a common species on coconut trees. As these are patchily-distributed, the species is presumed to occur as a severely fragmented population. The population may be subject to at least localized declines as a result of illegal collection for the international pet trade.
172948		threats	eng	Threats to this species are poorly known. It occurs in agricultural areas and this habitat is not threatened, but it has a fragmented distribution and illegal collection appears to represent a localized threat.
172949		conservation	eng	This species is found in Ankarafantsika National Park. Research is needed to clarify the limits of this species' distribution, identify population trends, and to investigate its ecological requirements and sensitivity to threats. Protection of additional areas of forest within this lizard's range may be necessary to limit the impacts of human activities, and Ankarafantsika should be managed to control the incidence and spread of fires within the reserve.
172949		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is only known from two sites, Belambo and Ankarafantsika, in the west (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana 2008), between 50 and 300 m asl. Its extent of occurrence is thought to be below 4,500 km²<sup></sup>. </p>
172949		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in leaf litter in dry deciduous forest (Glaw and Vences 2007)<em>.</em></p>
172949		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, but as it is known from very few specimens it is probably scarce. If it is dependent on the leaf litter that develops within dry forest, the population is likely to be declining, as this habitat is being cleared to make way for agriculture.
172949		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly known but it may be threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and fuel. There is increasing frequency of fires in Ankarafantsika, but the effects on this burrowing lizard are unclear.
172950		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been found inside Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre and Réserve Spéciale d'Ankarana (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003). Research is needed to evaluate this species' ecological requirements and sensitivity to threats, and to identify population trends. The taxonomic status of the population at Bemaraha requires clarification.<br/></p>
172950		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to northern Madagascar, extending as far north as Montagne des Français (Glaw and Vences 2007) and possibly beyond. It is apparently widespread in this region, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 11,009 km²<sup></sup>, including records from Anstohihy (Brygoo 1978) and Bora (Glaw and Vences 2007) some way south of the main centre of distribution. It is thought to occur between elevations of 120 and 850 m above sea level (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003).</p>
172950		habitat	eng	<p>This species has been recorded from relatively intact humid forest, degraded forest and well vegetated gardens (Glaw and Vences 2007). It was encountered in trees and on the ground in Montagne des Français, where it was associated with forest habitats (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Raselimanana and Rakotomalala (2003) considered its main habitat to be dry humid forest. In the Loky-Manambato complex near Daraina, Petter's chameleon<em> </em>was found in nine of the 12 forests surveyed, in degraded and relatively intact dry forest vegetation (Rakotondravony 2006). In recent surveys of several forest fragments near Montagne d'Ambre, Petter's chameleon was common in secondary forest with evidence of ongoing logging and human use, but was not found in nearby pastureland or plantations (Labanowski and Lowin 2011), nor was it recorded from heavily degraded forest with little intact canopy and evidence of past burning (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011).<br/></p>
172950		population	eng	<p>Petter's chameleon can be locally abundant (Glaw and Vences 2007), but was found to be rare in a survey of Montagne des Français (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Due to heavy human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining forest throughout this arboreal lizard's range, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented, as although it is tolerant of habitat degradation it is probably rare or absent from deforested land.<em></em></p>
172950		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to the species are fire, logging for charcoal and rosewood, and mining.</p>
172951		conservation	eng	This species occurs within Parc National de Marojejy. More research is needed to establish its exposure to and sensitivity to threats, and to identify population trends. Higher elevations within Marojejy should be managed to limit the encroachment of threats from logging and fire.
172951		distribution	eng	<p>This chameleon is endemic to northeast Madagascar, where it is only known from approximately 20 km²<sup></sup> within the Marojejy massif. It is restricted to very high elevations, between 1,800 and 2,130 m asl., near the upper limit of the forest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006; N. Rakotondrazafy pers. comm. 2011).</p>
172951		habitat	eng	<p>This species is restricted to ericoid montane dominated heathland and transitional montane forest. The majority of records are from terrestrial situations, either on low grassland vegetation or rocks, and it may be the most terrestrial chameleon in Madagascar (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). The rocky habitat may provide an important source of heat during cooler spells and chameleons have been observed "sprawled" on these outcrops.</p>
172951		population	eng	<p>This species has been encountered during a number of surveys at high elevations in Marojejy, most recently in 2010 (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011). It is not abundant (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011), but in the absence of operational threats its population is presumed to be stable.<br/></p>
172951		threats	eng	<p>There are no operating threats to this species at the present.&#160; Its high elevation habitat is unattractive to loggers due to the lack of  commercial tree species (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011), and  therefore future threats may be limited. However, it is at potential risk in the future from habitat loss due to fires (both natural and human-caused), and its small range makes it potentially susceptible to stochastic events (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).<br/></p>
172952		conservation	eng	The cliffs where this species is found should be protected to ensure its continued persistence, and proposed mining operations relocated to less sensitive areas. The species should be explicitly considered in an ongoing environmental impact assessment of this region. Research is needed into its vulnerability to other threatening processes, such as fire and timber extraction, and the identity of the Tsingy de Bemaraha population needs to be clarified.
172952		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from the southwest near Lavenombato, at a site close to sea level (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994). It has an extent of occurrence of 127 km².
172952		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal species is confined to cliffs along the banks of the Onilahy River, where it is found in spiny thicket scrub.<em></em></p>
172952		population	eng	This is a common species where it occurs, and there is currently no evidence of population decline.
172952		threats	eng	The area where this gecko occurs may be at imminent risk from a proposed limestone mining operation by Sheritt. If this goes ahead as planned, it may result in the complete destruction of this species' habitat. It may be at risk from logging and fire, but the species' vulnerability to forest loss is unclear.
172953		conservation	eng	This species is present in Isalo and Zombitse National Parks. Research is needed to clarify this lizard's distribution and its ecological requirements.
172953		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a at least nine localities in the southwest, at both coastal and inland sites (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is thought to range widely, with an extent of occurrence probably exceeding 66,000 km². Animals have been recorded from sea level to 690 m in elevation.
172953		habitat	eng	The habitats and ecology of this species are poorly known, but it is likely to be a burrower in sandy soils like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Voeltzkowia</span> species, and is probably associated with dry spiny forest.
172953		population	eng	This species is regularly encountered so is presumably fairly common.
172953		threats	eng	Some parts of the range are likely to be impacted by deforestation due to clearance for charcoal production and shifting agriculture.
172954		conservation	eng	This species has been found within the old buffer zone of Cap St. Marie National Park, and may occur within the park itself where surveys have not been conducted. It has also been reported from the Mikea protected area. There are no conservation measures targeted at this species but is does occur in a few sites northwest of Toliara that are being developed as new protected areas. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, population status and susceptibility to threats.
172954		distribution	eng	<p>This gecko is endemic to coastal southwest Madagascar where it is known from Ambolisaka near Morombe (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), Tsivanoa near Belalanda (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), Ranobe (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), &#160;Mikea (Raselimanana 2008) and Tsimanampetsotsa (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It has also been reported from Cap St. Marie at the southern tip of the island (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. January 2011). It occurs from sea level to 100 m asl, and has an extent of occurrence of 16,833 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172954		habitat	eng	<p>This is a nocturnal species found in dry open spiny forest, where it occurs inside hollow dead tree branches (Nussbaum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It has only been recorded from intact habitats.<em></em></p>
172954		population	eng	This is a fairly rare species. Its apparent dependence on intact spiny scrub in an area of Madagascar under heavy anthropogenic pressure suggests the population&#160; is severely fragmented and probably declining.
172954		threats	eng	Burning and clearance for maize agriculture represent the major threats to this species. Trees used as refuges by this species are favoured for charcoal production.
172955		conservation	eng	<p><em></em>The panther chameleon has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo, Réserve Spéciale d'Ambatovaky, Parc National de Marojejy, Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe, Parc National de Zahamena (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003) and Parc National de Sahamalaza (Raselimanana 2008).</p>
172955		distribution	eng	<p>The Panther Chameleon is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> where it is widespread in lowland areas of the northeast and east. Raselimanana and Rakotomala (2003) give the elevation range for this species from 80 m to 950 m above sea-level, although it certainly occurs at lower elevations (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and may be less common above 700 m (Raxworthy 1988, Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The chameleon's extent of occurrence within its native range is estimated to be 91,090 km²<sup></sup>; populations have also been introduced to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). <br/></p>
172955		habitat	eng	<p>This species is abundant in lowland degraded scrub and forest habitats, where it uses trees of up to 10 m in height (Raxworthy 1988). Although it may also use the canopy in relatively intact forest (Raxworthy 1988), this is thought to be a relatively rare occurrence (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) found Panther Chameleons<em> </em>in sites associated with forest or in areas that have been highly disturbed by people. On the island of Nosy Be the highest abundance <em></em>was found along well-vegetation roadsides (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and in ylang-ylang and coffee plantations (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Surveys in closed forest at sites in eastern and northern Madagascar revealed a notably low abundance of chameleons<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>compared to roadsides in Nosy Be (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In the Loky-Manambato complex near Daraina the lizard<em> </em>was found in all 12 survey sites, including dry forest, littoral forest and transitional forest&#160; In a lowland forest in eastern Madagascar the chameleon <em></em>was not encountered inside the main vegetation block, but was found breeding in areas of abandoned agriculture adjacent to the forest (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Panther Chameleons may be associated with open areas in forests that are found alongside rivers (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). A preference for open areas might be related to the opportunities for basking or visual communication using colour (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Sexual maturity is reached within one year and females are thought to follow an annual life history, with males growing larger and living for longer (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Clutch size in the wild is reported as at least 23 eggs (Raselimanana and Rakotomalala 2003). This species has rapid growth, a relatively short life span and high fecundity and could probably withstand increased levels of exploitation as long as degraded forest cover does not diminish (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). </p>
172955		population	eng	<p>This chameleon is believed to be locally abundant in northeastern and eastern lowland areas. A minimum population estimate of 451,730 individuals (95% confidence interval: 21,664-941,860) was calculated for the island of Nosy Be in northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It was relatively abundant during a survey of Montagne des Français (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and also common in and around the forest fragment Antsolipa, near Montagne d'Ambre (Labanowski and Lowin 2011). The density<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>of panther chameleons<em> </em>was estimated as 2.0 per ha in a lowland forest in the east (Rabearivony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>
172955		threats	eng	<p>Habitat degradation is unlikely to represent a major threat to this species given its apparently adaptability to, and indeed preference for, degraded habitats. Although this is the most sought-after Malagasy chameleon in the  international pet trade, current levels of exploitation are not thought  to represent a threat.<br/> </p>
172956		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected forests, including Manongarivo and Lokobe. It may be necessary to protect additional areas to benefit this lizard. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the subspecies <em>L. m. petteri</em>, and to obtain information on this species' population status and distribution.
172956		distribution	eng	This forest dwelling dwarf gecko is restricted to the Sambirano Region of northwestern Madagascar, where it is known from five localities: Manongarivo, Ambolokpatrika, Nosy Be, Tsaratanana, and Montagne d'Ambre (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is presumed to occur between these sites, over an estimated area of 16,567 km²<sup></sup>.
172956		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low elevation humid forest where it might be associated with streams (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It can persist in disturbed habitats, but requires trees.
172956		population	eng	This can be a common species in good habitat; however, as it relies on trees for its persistence the population may be declining as a result of forest clearance. It is thought to occur as a severely fragmented population.
172956		threats	eng	Low-elevation humid forest is a highly threatened habitat type in Madagascar because of expanding agriculture and logging.
172957		conservation	eng	This species has been collected from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. Research is needed to clarify this species' taxonomic status and ecological requirements, to establish its distribution between the known sites, and to identify population trends. If this lizard relies on relatively intact forest, it may be necessary to protect additional areas of forest where it is found.
172957		distribution	eng	This skink is endemic to Madagascar where its distribution on the island is poorly known. It has only been recorded from two widely-separated sites in the east, Anjanaharibe-Sud in the northeast and Andrangoloaka  further south (Glaw and Vences 2007). C. Raxworthy (pers. comm. January 2011) suggests that the species is likely to occur more widely between these localities, in which case its distributional extent would exceed 20,300 km². It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,400 m asl.
172957		habitat	eng	The species occurs in mid-elevation humid forest.
172957		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species due to taxonomic uncertainty and uncertainty about its ecological requirements. If this is a forest-dependent species, the population is likely to be declining due to ongoing pressure on this habitat type throughout eastern Madagascar, and will probably be severely fragmented.
172957		threats	eng	Shifting cultivation and large-scale selective logging are the main threats to the habitat of this apparent forest skink, however its sensitivity to these threats and the degree to which the lizard relies on intact forest are unclear.
172958		conservation	eng	This species does not benefit from any conservation measures. It is not known from any protected areas. This snake's forested dune habitat should be preserved as a matter of urgency to limit the impacts of human activities. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this and <em>X. mocquardi</em>, to investigate population trends and to establish whether it occurs more widely than is presently known.
172958		distribution	eng	This species has been found at a single site, Baie de Sakalava, in the far north of Madagascar (Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), where it ranges from sea level to 50 m in elevation. It is likely to be endemic to a tiny area in the north of the island, around Antsiranana (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Its extent of occurrence may be as low as 28 km²<sup></sup>.
172958		habitat	eng	<p>This burrowing snake has been found in forested or shrubby dunes close to the coast, where it has been reported from sandy soil (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). It is likely that it occurs within the adjacent Forêt d'Orangea (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011), which is characterized by humid lowland forest.<br/></p>
172958		population	eng	<p>It is a common species. If the species occurs within forest in Forêt d'Orangea, the population may be declining as a result of loss and degradation of this habitat; however it is unclear what degree of disturbance this snake can tolerate.<br/></p>
172958		threats	eng	This snake is threatened by severe habitat loss resulting from deforestation of the dune habitat for charcoal production, as it is not believed to occur in unforested areas. It is potentially threatened by the development of mining (e.g. for sand) in the area.
172959		conservation	eng	The rocky outcrops and shrubland where this species is found should be protected from fire, grazing and collection of firewood. Surveys of the surrounding area are needed to establish the full extent of this species' range. Research is needed into its sensitivity to human activities affecting its scrubland habitat.
172959		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is known only from the vicinity of Mandritsara village in northeast Madagascar, where it was recorded in around 1994 (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). This is presumably also the original collecting locality described by Pasteur (1965) under a similar name. The only records of this species are from 1,000 m elevation (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species' known extent of occurrence is 25 km²; however, the known locality is in an unsurveyed area and it is likely to occur more extensively within this region, probably over an area greater than 100 km²<sup></sup> based on the availability of suitable habitat (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).
172959		habitat	eng	This species was found on rocks surrounding scrubland in a disturbed area near a village. All individuals were found in association with shrubs and small trees.
172959		population	eng	This species was common around the type locality in 1994, when the site was last visited. Remaining suitable habitat for this species is patchily-distributed in the surrounding area, and so this small gecko is likely to occur as a severely fragmented population.
172959		threats	eng	Repeated burning of the scrub around the type locality may threaten this species, and it may also be threatened by extraction of fuelwood and cattle grazing.
172960		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species but it does occur in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park and in the new Mikea National Park. Research is needed to establish the validity of this species, to clarify population trends, and to determine its ecological requirements and sensitivity to forest loss and degradation.
172960		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from three sites in the southwest at Andranovaho (Glaw and Vences 2007), Mikea and Tsimanampetsotsa between sea level and 100 m elevation (Raselimanana 2008). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 19,465 km² between these localities.<br/></p>
172960		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal lizard that inhabits dry deciduous forest and spiny scrub in arid regions (Raselimanana 2008). It has been found in degraded areas, but the degree of habitat modification it can tolerate is unknown.<br/></p>
172960		population	eng	<p>This is a common species, but nothing is known about population trends.<br/></p>
172960		threats	eng	This is a poorly known species for which threats have yet to be identified. There is habitat loss in the area due to shifting agriculture, but it is not certain if this impacts this species or not as it occurs in degraded areas.
172961		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed or in place for this species because it relies on rock outcrops, which are not considered to be threatened, and apparently does not rely on vegetation, such as forests, that are subject to human pressure. It appears not to occur in any protected areas. More information is needed to clarify this species' distribution and population trends, and to identify any threatening processes.
172961		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been found in a number of localities in the southern central highlands (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 12,041 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>.
172961		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits rocky outcrops both within and outside of humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996)<em>.</em></p>
172961		population	eng	<p>This is a rather localized species (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172961		threats	eng	This species could be impacted by increased frequency of fires, but as the species occurs in areas that have been heavily burned (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011), this is not likely to represent a major threat and no other risks are known.
172962		conservation	eng	This species is known from Parc National d'Ankarafantsika (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002), Parc National Baie de Baly (Carpenter 2003), Parc National de Namoroka (Raselimanana 2008) and Bongolava New Protected Area (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is listed as a protected species under Category I, Class II, of Malagasy law which permits authorized collection from the wild outside of strict protected areas (but imports from Madagascar are currently suspended by CITES). Like many <span style="font-style: italic;">Furcifer </span>species it uses dry areas of open forest vegetation, and research is needed to determine whether it is a forest specialist or whether it can survive in more heavily degraded areas of vegetation, as well as to identify population trends.
172962		distribution	eng	<p>This species<em>&#160;</em>is endemic to Madagascar where it is restricted to areas of dry forest in the northwest of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is known from four localities between Anjiamangirana in the north and Parc National de Namoroka to the south (Raselimanana 2008). It has also been recorded from Bongolava (Randrianantoandro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). There is a record from the coast (Antsanitia) and from Ambohibola further inland (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). The lizard has been recorded at elevations from 40 to 300 m, and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 31,506 km².</p>
172962		habitat	eng	<p>The species occurs in lowland dry deciduous forest. In Parc National d'Ankarafantsika A<em></em>ngel's chameleon was found in degraded deciduous forest (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002), along road roadsides and close to villages. Raselimanana (2008) reports that<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> this diurnal lizard lives in trees and has a close association with dry forest. This species is sexually dimorphic, with males being both longer and heavier than females (Carpenter 2003). This species is often found in the same areas of forest as Oustalet's Chameleon (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. oustaleti</span>) (Carpenter 2003).<br/></p>
172962		population	eng	This species is reported to be less common at the Ankarokaroka site within Parc National d'Ankarafantsika than in sites within the dry forest of Parc National Baie de Baly, near Soalala (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002). As the species is found in nonforested areas, and can survive close to villages, the population is presently thought to be stable.
172962		threats	eng	<p>The conversion and destruction of deciduous forest within its range poses the main threat to this chameleon<em></em>. These forests are under pressure from expanding human population. Illegal logging, wildfire, and slash and burn agriculture all contribute to a reduction in the quantity of the remaining deciduous forest. </p>
172963		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. More research is needed to clarify its distribution between known sites, and to assess its exposure to and the identity of possible threats.
172963		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region> where it is known from the arid southwest in an area between the Mikea forest and Tsimanampetsotsa Lake (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana 2008), and also from Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve in the far south (N. Rakotondrazafy pers. comm. January 2011) and dry parts of Andohahela National Parkin the southeast (J.-B. Ramanamanajato pers. comm. January 2011). It may therefore occur throughout southern Madagascar in near-coastal areas below 100 m asl., with an estimated distributional extent of 26,592 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.<br/></p>
172963		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits arid areas with spiny forest, shrubs and baobab trees (Glaw and Vences 2007). It can also be found in degraded areas, including villages (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
172963		population	eng	<p>It is a common species.<br/></p>
172963		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.
172964		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a few protected areas, including Lokobe, Manongarivo and Sahamalaza. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this and related species, and to confirm species identities at sites with uncertain records in order to clarify the distribution of this chameleon. More information is needed on this species' exposure to and sensitivity to threats. Protected areas where this species occurs should be managed to limit the impacts of human activities on this species.
172964		distribution	eng	<p>This leaf chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it occurs at a few sites in the northeast (Glaw and Vences 2007), including Nosy Be (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) and Manongarivo (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al</span>. 1999). Records prior to the publication of Glaw&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1999) included synonyms of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. mimina </span>that have since been returned to species status. Careful consideration is clearly needed of each locality record for this species group because of the difficulties associated with determining species identity in the field or from a small number of specimens. Confirmed localities for this species are therefore few, although it was recently found at Sahamalaza (Raselimanana 2008). Its presence in Tsaratanana requires confirmation. Individuals have been recorded from sea-level to 750 m. The lizard's extent of occurrence is taken to be 7,190 km²<sup></sup>, but the above-mentioned difficulties in confidently assigning records to this species make its true distributional extent unclear.<br/></p><br/><p><br/></p>
172964		habitat	eng	<p>This chameleon species inhabits low and mid elevation humid forest (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). It uses a freeze and roll anti-predator defence (Raxworthy 1991). Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brookesia </span>species it is active in leaf litter during the day and roosts on low vegetation at night.</p>
172964		population	eng	This species is not common, and due to pressure on its lowland forest habitat the population is probably declining. Remaining forest occurs as fragments throughout its range, and the population is therefore thought to be severely fragmented.
172964		threats	eng	This species occurs in native forest in the northwest of the island, where slash and burn agriculture and logging for charcoal production and construction materials are the major threats.
172966		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Zombitse and Tsimanampetsotsa National Parks. Research is needed to clarify population trends.
172966		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is apparently widespread in the south and southwest of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), over an estimated area of around 71,300 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a><sup></sup>.
172966		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits low elevation arid areas where it is found in forest, scrubland and grassland. Most records of this arboreal snake are from large tamarind trees (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is known to feed on Oustalet's Chameleon (<em>Furcifer oustaleti</em>).</p>
172966		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species.</p>
172966		threats	eng	<p>Although forest destruction is ongoing throughout Madagascar, and the tamarind trees favoured by this species are exploited for charcoal production, as this species has a large range it is not thought to be significantly threatened.<br/></p>
172967		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas throughout the east of Madagascar, although protection of additional areas of forest may benefit this species.
172967		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where is is widely distributed in the humid north and east of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), an area in excess of 164,600 km².
172967		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal species that may be associated with streams. It is usually found in relatively intact humid forest but is occasionally found in more disturbed areas, including cultivated land (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172967		population	eng	<p>This snake is rarely found because of its secretive habits. Due to human pressure on humid forest throughout its range and this snake's apparent scarcity in disturbed habitats, the population is presumed to be declining. Most of this species' range encompasses areas where the only remaining forest exists as small fragments; however large tracts of continuous forest still exist in the north of Madagascar, and it is not clear whether the population is severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172967		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and expanding agriculture, which is damaging and destroying lowland humid forests.
172968		conservation	eng	This species occurs in forest at Kirindy that has recently become a new protected area. It also occurs in Tsimanampetsotsa and Isalo National Parks. Research is needed into population densities and trends in this species, and its sensitivity to threatening processes.
172968		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is apparently widespread in the south and southwest of the island, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 42,726 km². The known localities include Kirindy (Raselimanana 2008), Mikea (Raselimanana 2008), Tsimanampetsotsa (Raselimanana 2008), Dabara near Manja (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), as well as Isalo in the central south (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). This species has been found between 30 and 800 m elevation (Raselimanana 2008).</p>
172968		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in largely intact dry deciduous forest (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000).</p>
172968		population	eng	This is a rarely encountered species, but there is no information on population densities or trends. The population is likely to be severely fragmented as a result of its reliance on largely intact dry forest.
172968		threats	eng	The low elevation dry forest that this species requires is heavily threatened by human activities, principally logging for charcoal, accidental burning and shifting agriculture. These activities represent a threat both outside and within reserves.
172969		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Further surveys are needed to establish the limits of this uncommonly-encountered lizard's range and to clarify its ability to survive in degraded habitats. Taxonomic research is required to clarify the relationship between this species and <em>Z. maramaintso</em>, and to determine the status of the Nosy Be subpopulation. Protection of additional areas of forest habitat may be necessary to maintain connectivity within subpopulations.
172969		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from five areas in the the north and northwest of the island: around Antsiranana and Sambirano region (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Rakotondravony 2006, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Montagne de Francais, Daraina and Vohemar (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011), Masoala Peninsula (Glaw and Vences 2007), Nosy Be and Ankifina (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011). Subpopulations are separated by very arid areas where the species appears not to occur; however, this arboreal lizard may also have been under-collected, and its distributional extent might be greater and less fragmentary than is currently recognized. Its estimated extent of occurrence, based on the combined areas encompassed by the known subpopulations, is 7,986 km². This lizard has been recorded from sea level to 500 m in elevation.
172969		habitat	eng	<p>This arboreal lizard occurs in transitional dry deciduous and humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172969		population	eng	<p>The species is rarely seen because of its arboreal habitats, so may be commoner than currently thought. Due to ongoing human pressure on forests within this arboreal lizard's range, the population is presumed to be declining.<br/></p>
172969		threats	eng	Forest loss and degradation is a threat to this species (Rakotondravony 2006). These processes are ongoing due to expansion of shifting agriculture and large scale selective logging of timber trees (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).
172970		conservation	eng	This species occurs in and and around human settlements, and there are no conservation actions in place to preserve it, although it occurs in the vicinity of protected areas as well as within Isalo National Park (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). More research is needed to establish the extent of this species' distribution, and whether suitable habitat occurs continuously between Kirindy and Isalo.
172970		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it known from a few sites in the centre and west of the island at Morondava, Isalo, Belo-sur-Mer and Kirindy (Glaw and Vences 2007), and Makay (N.A. Rakotondrazafy and C. Raxworthy pers. comms. January 2011). It occurs between sea level and 900 m asl.<br/></p>
172970		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>This day gecko is strongly associated with screw palms and, in sandy areas near Kirindy and Belo-sur-Mer, coastal palms in villages. In Isalo and Makay, it inhabits small screw palms in an urban setting (Glaw and Vences 2007) and along small streams. It is likely to use these plants both outside and within the remaining forest.  <p></p>
172970		population	eng	Local population densities are likely to be strongly dependent on the availability of the screw palms (<em>Pandanus</em>) on which this gecko depends, and it is reportedly rather common in these plants  in the small town of Ranohira near Isalo National Park (Glaw and Vences 2007). it appears to be uncommon at Makay, however, despite the abundance of screw palms (N.A. Rakotrondrazafy and C. Raxworthy pers. comms. January 2011). The population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented as a result of increased human pressure on its host plants.
172970		threats	eng	Human population densities in this species' range are increasing as a result of sapphire mining. This has resulted in increased pressure on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>screw palms, which are exploited for fibres and construction materials. As this gecko is dependent on these plants for its survival in parts of its range, this is likely to represent a major threat. Fire may be a threat in some areas.
172971		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Ankarafantsika National Park. More information on its presence in sandy soils in disturbed areas is needed, and on its distribution within its known range. Additional areas may require protection for the benefit of this species, and Ankarafantsika should be managed to limit the incidence and spread of fire within the reserve.
172971		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the west at Ankarafantsika, Betsako and Mahajunga (Ramanamanjato and Rabibisoa 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been found between sea level and 300 m asl., and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 4,374 km².<br/></p>
172971		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits areas with a sandy substratum, presumably in dry forest, and has been found in the rotten trunk of a palm (Glaw and Vences 2007). Gravid females have been found to contain 2-4 eggs (Glaw and Vences 2007).<br/></p>
172971		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, but is likely to be declining because it occurs in an area subject to high levels of forest degradation.
172971		threats	eng	Ankarafantsika is threatened by the increased frequency of fires (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm. January 2011) and the area towards the coast is heavily degraded by logging for charcoal and forest clearance for shifting agriculture. The lizard's ability to tolerate these processes is uncertain.
172972		conservation	eng	Habitat for this species is protected in Ankarana Special Reserve and Montagne des Français. It may occur at Réserve Spéciale d'Analamera. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, population status, ecological requirements and threats.
172972		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to Madagascar. It is thought to occur widely in the northeast, where it extends to the  coast and offshore islands, and as far south as the Sambirano region. An isolated subpopulation is known  further south. Named localities from which this species has been recorded include Ampombofofo (Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2009), Anjiamangirana  (Raselimanana  2008), Ankarana (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007), Belambo (Raselimanana  2008), Nosy Hara (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007), Nosy Anjombovola (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007), Nosy Andranzara (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Nosy Lakandava (Metcalf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Montagne des Français (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, D'Cruze and Kumar 2011), Tsarakibany (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011), Forêt d'Ambre (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2008) and Sahamalaza (Raselimanana 2008). This species has been recorded at sites ranging from sea level to 563 m asl. (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007, Megson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011), and it has an estimated extent of occurrence of 9,366 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>.
172972		habitat	eng	<p>This species uses tree trunks and rocks in relatively intact dry deciduous forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). While it is tolerant of some habitat disturbance (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), it is unlikely to be able to persist in severely-degraded forest. At Tsarakibany the gecko was found in remnant native forest used to grow banana, but with some remaining large trees, and also in secondary forest subject to past timber extraction (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011). It was reported to be infrequent in these habitats, and only one individual was recorded from the logged site (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011, L. Durkin pers. comm. May 2011). The same study reported that the lizard was absent from degraded forest where the canopy had largely been cleared and there was evidence of past burning (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011). Similarly, the gecko was absent from clearcuts in a survey of several habitat types in Montagne des Français (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011).<br/></p>
172972		population	eng	This species is frequently observed at known localities, although continuing degradation of its habitat and its need for relatively intact forest suggest the population is likely to be decreasing. It is thought to occur as a severely fragmented population, based on the distribution of suitable forest and its limited dispersal abilities. The lizard was reported to be less abundant in orchards at Montagne des Français (five individuals) than in native forest (12 individuals) during a 20-day survey, but this effect was found to be nonsignificant (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011).
172972		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of intact dry forest habitats as a result of fire, timber extraction for charcoal, land clearance for agriculture, and opening of the forest by zebu. Collection for the pet trade may represent a minor, localised threat. Stochastic events may also threaten subpopulations confined to small islands.
172973		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some areas that are under conservation management, and it may be necessary to protect sites where this lizard occurs from future mining activities. Research is needed to establish the limits of this lizard's distribution, identify population trends, and improve understanding of its ecological requirements.
172973		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to southwest Madagascar, where it is known from Anakao, Ifaty, Sarodrano, Mikea and Tulear (Glaw and Vences 2007, Raselimanana 2008). Its extent of occurrence within this region is estimated to be 9,243 km²<sup></sup>. All known records are from sites between 15-80 m asl.<br/></p>
172973		habitat	eng	<p>This burrowing lizard lives in sandy soil (Glaw and Vences 2007) in open areas, including highly degraded habitat, and dry spiny forest.</p>
172973		population	eng	<p>This skink is locally common.<br/></p>
172973		threats	eng	The species appears to be tolerant of disturbance as it is found in highly disturbed areas. However, should there be an increase in sand mining for road building then this could be a potential threat to this species.
172974		conservation	eng	This species is known from several national parks and reserves, including Marojejy and Montagne d'Ambre National Parks. More information is needed on its distributional extent, its ecological requirements and population trends in response to ongoing threats. As this snake appears tolerant of only light disturbance, suitable forest habitat should be preserved outside the existing protected area network to ensure its persistence.
172974		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few sites in the north and east: Andasibe (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), Manantenina, Marojejy (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), Loky-Manambato (Rakotondravony 2006), Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.&#160; 2008, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), Analamazaotra (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), Makira (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011) and Ambatovy (J. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011). It is expected to occur in suitable habitat throughout the intervening region, an extent of occurrence of 28,585 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. The snake has been recorded from 700-1,000 m asl.<br/></p>
172974		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits intact and slightly disturbed humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172974		population	eng	<p>This species is rare, but is regularly encountered in areas such as Andasibe. Due to continuing human pressure on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest within this snake's range, and given its apparently low tolerance of habitat degradation, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172974		threats	eng	This snake is a forest species that is threatened by logging and slash  and burn practices.
172975		conservation	eng	This species is present in Marojejy National Park, Analamerana and the Loky Manambato Special Reserve. More research is needed to clarify the full extent of this species' distribution and the degree to which it can tolerate forest degradation. Its relationships within <em>Lycodryas</em>, especially with the similar <em>L. carleti</em>, require clarification. Additional areas of forest may need to be protected to ensure the persistence of this species, and existing reserves managed to ensure that the quality of forest habitat is not degraded beyond this snake's ability to persist.
172975		distribution	eng	<p>  This species is presumed to be endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from the northeast (Glaw and Vences 2007) between 200 and 800 m asl. It is known only with certainty from Marojejy National Park and several reserves in the north, including Analamerana and the Loky Manambato Special Reserves. It has also been reported from several sites along the east coast, including Maroansetra, Toamasina and Tampolo (Gehring <em>et al.</em> 2010). The species may range widely in the east coast forests at least as far south as Sahafina (although this record is tentative - Gehring <em>et al.</em> 2010), and this requires further investigation. Early records from the Comoros (e.g. Boulenger, 1915) have never been confirmed and are considered doubtful (Wallach and Glaw 2009), although overseas dispersal in this genus is in need of additional study (Nagy <em>et al.</em> 2010). The snake's extent of occurrence in Madagascar is estimated to be 34,173 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.<br/></p>
172975		habitat	eng	<p>This arboreal snake is active at night in humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It can be encountered in degraded forest.<br/></p>
172975		population	eng	<p>This snake is difficult to find, but is not considered rare. Although this arboreal species can tolerate habitat degradation it is associated with forested areas, and ongoing land clearance within its range suggests the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172975		threats	eng	Logging and forest clearance for agriculture threaten this species.
172976		conservation	eng	This gecko is known from a number of protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of mainland African "<em>H. mabouia</em>" which may belong to this species.
172976		distribution	eng	As presently defined, this African gecko is found in Madagascar, the Comoros Islands, the Seychelles and the Gulf of Guinea islands São Tomé, Principe and Annobón (the latter a province of Equatorial Guinea) (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2010, Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2005, Jesús <em>et al.</em> 2005). This is the most widespread house gecko in Madagascar, occurring throughout the island (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004), and while it is now reasonably certain to be a native species throughout Madagascar (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004, Boumans <em>et al.</em> 2007) genetic evidence suggests human-mediated dispersal of native lineages between geographic regions of the island (Boumans <em>et al.</em> 2007). Due to continuing taxonomic uncertainty and inconsistent historical usage of the names <em>H. mabouia</em>, <em>H. mercatorius</em> and <em>H. platycephalus</em>, it is unclear whether populations of <em>H. maboiua-mercatorius</em> from mainland Africa do, in fact, represent the nominate species, which has a Madagascan type locality (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Comoros islands this gecko appears to be represented both by an endemic lineage and by introductions from western Madagascar to the islands of Mayotte and Grand Comore (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2005, Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is presumed to have been introduced to the Gulf of Guinea islands by humans (Jesus <em>et al.</em> 2005); however it remains possible that the species is widespread on the African mainland as part of the <em>H. mabouia</em> complex, and that it may have reached these islands naturally (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population on Mahé in the Seychelles may also have been introduced (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2010). Records of <em>H. mercatorius</em> from Mauritius (Broadley 1977), thought to represent <em>H. brooki</em> by Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2004), have since been assigned to <em>Hemidactylus parvimaculatus</em> (Rösler and Glaw 2010)<em><em>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></em></em>
172976		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in buildings, towns and also in degraded forest formations (Glaw and Vences 2007). It was found not to be sensitive to edge-effects in fragments of littoral forest (Lethinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).</p>
172976		population	eng	This is a common species throughout Madagascar, where it is described as being most common in anthropogenic habitats (Boumans <em>et al.</em> 2010). It is rarer on Mahé and in the Comoros, where only a few individuals were encountered during several weeks of fieldwork (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2010).
172976		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
172977		conservation	eng	There are no site conservation measures in place although the species occurs in various protected areas. The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.
172977		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar at low elevations, and can occur up to 1,000 m asl in forest. It has been found over an area of nearly 79,750 km².
172977		habitat	eng	<p>This day gecko is widely distributed and occurs in many different types of habitat. It inhabits primarily coastal and low-elevation areas where it is found in humid and dry forest as well as urban and agricultural (e.g. plantations) settings. It is tolerant of moderate habitat modification and is abundant in orchards (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). At higher elevations, above 800 m asl., it is found only in rainforest, typically on large, hollow dead trees. This species does not glue its eggs.<em></em> <br/></p>
172977		population	eng	This is a locally common species, especially in the northern part of its range. The population may be experiencing low rates of decline at higher elevations, where it is restricted to humid forest that is under pressure from human encroachment, and there may be localized declines elsewhere as a result of collection for the pet trade.
172977		threats	eng	Over-collecting for the pet trade can be a localized threat for some populations in the lowlands. The highland subpopulations are threatened by removal of the large trees they rely on.
172978		conservation	eng	This is a widespread species in southwestern Madagascar that is well represented in the region's protected areas. It is not listed under CITES and there is no export quota (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
172978		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread across the south and southwest of the island over an area of around 125,900 km², ranging from Soalala in the west to Tranomaro  in the southeast (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). It has been recorded between 70 and 240 m asl.
172978		habitat	eng	<p>This primarily terrestrial gecko occurs in spiny scrub vegetation, where it can be found in leaf litter or on sand.</p>
172978		population	eng	This is a common species. It is believed to have a stable population.
172978		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
172979		conservation	eng	This lizard is present within several protected areas. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic significance of body size variation within this species.
172979		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is restricted to the arid south and southwest of the island (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), an area of approximately 50,500 km²<sup></sup>.
172979		habitat	eng	This diurnal gecko is associated with trees in open forests and degraded areas, including isolated tamarind (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarindus indicus</span>) trees and logs (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
172979		population	eng	This is a common species.
172979		threats	eng	This species can persist in a range of degraded habitats as long as trees are present and is not currently threatened.
172980		conservation	eng	<p>This species is found in three strict protected areas, Réserve Spéciale Kalambatritra, Parc National d'Andohahela and Parc National&#160;Midongy. More information is needed on the distribution of this recently-described species, and research into population trends is required. Sites where it is known to occur should be managed to limit the encroachment of slash-and-burn agriculture.<br/></p>
172980		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species to Madagascar and was previously known only from two sites in the southeast, at Kalambatritra and Andohahela (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). There are two more recent records from Ivohibe and Midongy (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011). Recorded elevations range from 850 m to 1,300 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006, A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011). The lizard's extent of occurrence is thought to be 11,047 km².
172980		habitat	eng	<p>This species<em>&#160;</em>is found in relatively intact mid-altitude humid forest and appears dependent on this type of vegetation (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). It is a canopy species.</p>
172980		population	eng	<p>This species is common in Kalambatritra, but only a few specimens were recorded in Andohahela and Midongy. Due to the wide separation of known sites and their distribution in a landscape characterized by slash-and-burn agriculture, the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172980		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation due to slash-and-burn agriculture represents the main threat to the species.</p>
172981		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are in place in the Ampasindava peninsula where this species occurs, and Mandrozo Lake has been proposed as a new protected area (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is not clear whether existing measures are targeted to this lizard's requirements and additional surveys are needed to assess its local conservation status. Research is needed to clarify the impacts of slash-and-burn agriculture on this species, and whether it is subject to any ongoing wild collection for the international pet trade.
172981		distribution	eng	<p>This day gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it is known from the Ampasindava peninsula in the northwest (van Heygen 2004)&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>and from dry forest near Mandrozo Lake 600 km to the south (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Surveys between these sites, as well as on Nosy Be and other islands off the coast of Ampasindava, and at Analalava near Mandrozo (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), have failed to detect this highly conspicuous species, and so the two localities are likely to be genuinely isolated from one another. Its extent of occurrence based on the area of the known localities is presumed to be 955 km². It occurs near sea level; although precise elevational data is not available, van Heygen (2004) notes that it was recorded on mountain slopes at around 400 m asl. in Ampasindava.</p>
172981		habitat	eng	This day gecko inhabits patches of bamboo in either intact forest or degraded areas, and in villages in the northwest (van Heygen 2004). It uses cracks in the bamboo as hides and to lay eggs, and is only found on medium-sized or older, dead bamboo (van Heygen, 2004). It has been found both in humid forest and dry deciduous forest, but only where bamboo is present (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Animals are only active in the cooler parts of the day, having been found in the morning, late afternoon, and after rain (van Heygen, 2004). It has also been observed on trees.
172981		population	eng	This gecko is reportedly widespread in the Ampasindava Peninsula, although it is absent from at least one area of apparently suitable habitat in this region (van Heygen, 2004). Around Mandrozo Lake it is known from only two specimens (Razafimahatratra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Due to uncertainty about the effects of human activity on this species' habitat, it is not known whether the species is likely to be declining.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172981		threats	eng	This species is thought to be threatened by the loss of forest and bamboo habitats in the Ampasindava peninsula resulting from slash-and-burn agriculture. Van Heygen (2004), however, reports that bamboo forest rapidly establishes itself in cleared land, and suggests that as a result this bamboo-dependent species may benefit from the clearance of primary forest, in which suitable habitat is confined to fragmented bamboo 'islands'. The extent to which this is the case is presently unclear, and requires further study (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). The species might also be threatened by direct extraction of bamboo for human use. There is potentially high demand from the pet trade, although this species is presently protected under both CITES and national legislation and is widely bred in captivity.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
172982		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Montagne des Français, a site of national  importance for biodiversity conservation that has received newly protected  area status from the government of Madagascar. It also occurs in the Forêt d'Ambre Special Reserve. Research is needed to clarify population trends in this species and its exposure to threatening processes.
172982		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to northern Madagascar, where it occurs in Montage des Français and Foret d'Ambre (Glaw and Vences 2007, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) between sea level and 600 m in elevation. The species' estimated extent of occurrence is 425 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172982		habitat	eng	This species was collected from dry deciduous forest on a karst outcrop (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), and in transitional forest between humid and dry forest. It is present in degraded forest habitats.
172982		population	eng	This is a relatively rare species. Due to ongoing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining forest within its range, the population of this forest-dependent snake is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172982		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of low elevation forests through logging, production of charcoal and conversion of land to agricultural use.
172983		conservation	eng	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout Madagascar.
172983		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it occurs throughout much of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), mainly at lower altitudes (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). It is absent or localized in much of the island's east.
172983		habitat	eng	<p>A diurnal and terrestrial species found in dry forest, as well as scrubland, savanna and marshy areas.. </p>
172983		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species, although as no threats have been identified it is presumed to be stable.</p>
172983		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
172984		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Research is needed to clarify the taxonomy and the true distributional extent of this species.
172984		distribution	eng	<p>The short-horned chameleon is endemic to Madagascar and has a broad latitudinal distribution in eastern Madagascar, between the Anosy Mountains in the south and the Tsaratanana Massif in the north, and has also been confirmed from the&#160;Analavory Plateau in the northwest,&#160;within a narrow elevational band between 810 and 1,000 m (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). The occurrence of this species in Tsarafidy Forest in the southwest is considered unlikely, as the true collecting locality for the one specimen reported from this region is unclear and the short-horned chameleon was not recorded in a later survey of this site (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). Most records of this species need to be re-evaluated in line with division of this taxon into new species (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2006). Its geographic range information is therefore incomplete and voucher collections need to be re-assessed using the new species classification. It is therefore not possible to meaningfully estimate this chameleon's extent of occurrence; however the few verified records of this species are scattered over an area of at least 38,000 km²<sup></sup>.<br/></p>
172984		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs within mid-altitude humid forest, where it is more commonly found in open vegetation associated with edges and disturbed areas (Brady and Griffiths 1999). It is tolerant of some degree of habitat modification, and has been found in agricultural land where trees are present, in roadside vegetation, and in trees near buildings.It is likely that it occurs in plantations only when these are close to forest (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).<br/></p>
172984		population	eng	<p>Brady and Griffiths (1999) calculated population densities of 2.4 chameleons ha<sup>-1</sup> for this species in the forests around Parc National de Mantadia and Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra. The species is considered<em> </em>very common in Andasibe (Parcher 1974).</p><p></p>
172984		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this species include slash-and-burn agriculture, fire, and logging (for charcoal and construction).</p>
172985		conservation	eng	Ibity and Itremo are subject to conservation management as new protected areas, but there are no specific measures in place to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ibityensis</span>. No surveys have been conducted around or between Ibity and Itremo, and more research is needed to establish this species' extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, as well as any threats to which it may be exposed.
172985		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from two massifs, Ibity (Jackman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and Itremo, in the central highlands. It is known to occur from 1,600 m asl. and its range may extend to the tops of the massifs, above 2,000 m. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,997 km².<br/></p>
172985		habitat	eng	This is a montane, rock-dwelling species (Glaw and Vences 2007) that inhabits crevices in highland savannah.
172985		population	eng	This species is common on granite outcrops, and the population is presumed to be stable.
172985		threats	eng	No current threats have been identified for this species, but as a mountaintop endemic climate change may impact the population in the future (Raxworthy <em>et al.<em> </em></em>2008). Mining for granite may represent a future threat to the massifs, but there are no current plans to mine this area.<em><em></em></em>
172986		conservation	eng	This species is found in Montagne d'Ambre National Park. Research is needed to clarify its distribution within and beyond the reserve, its ecological requirements, and its exposure and sensitivity to forest loss and degradation. As a precautionary measure to protect this and other Montagne d'Ambre endemics, the site should be managed to limit encroachment of human activities into intact areas of forest.
172986		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar, where it is only known from Montagne d'Ambre at elevations between 800 and 1,000 m asl. (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has a presumed extent of occurrence, based on the area within the reserve at suitable altitude, of 227 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
172986		habitat	eng	This species was collected in primary humid forest. It has not been recorded from degraded forest, and is thought to be a rainforest specialist (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
172986		population	eng	<p>This snake is only known from four specimens, and so no population data is available. As a presumed Montagne d'Ambre endemic, it is however not thought to be exposed to immediate threats and so its population may be stable.<br/></p>
172986		threats	eng	While this snake is found in a protected area there is ongoing  degradation of forest habitat in the peripheral areas through logging and  conversion of land to agricultural use. Due to limited knowledge of this snake's distribution within Montagne d'Ambre and uncertainty about its degree of reliance on primary vegetation, it is not clear if this is  impacting the species.
172987		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least four formally protected areas at Lokobe, Montagne de Français, Bemaraha and Analamerana. The status of the eastern subspecies requires further taxonomic study. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species, and to establish whether land clearance and logging represent major threats. Trees should be preserved in degraded areas, as this species is only found where these are present.
172987		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. According to Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>it is known from northern Madagascar in at least the following localities: Nosy Be (type locality), Ankarana, Montagne des Français and Sambava. Further localities mentioned in the literature are Analamerana, Andavakoera (Rakotondravony 2006), Ampahana (the type locality of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">trilineigularis</span>), Antsiranana, Sahafary and Bemaraha (Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The species has an elevational range from sea level to 430 m asl, and an estimated extent of occurrence of 19,788 km²<sup></sup>.
172987		habitat	eng	The habitats of this species are poorly described but it has been observed using trees in both humid and dry forests (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), as well as orchards (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011). It has been recorded from heavily degraded coastal areas within the town of Sambava where large trees are present; however, it was not found in clearcuts in Montagne des Français, even where some trees remained (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011).
172987		population	eng	This is a locally very common species, although it can be difficult to detect. Animals were found to be less abundant in orchards at Montagne des Français (six individuals) than in native forest (11 individuals) during a 20 day survey, but this effect was found to be not significant (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011). As this species is only found where trees are present, and is reliant on native dry forest in parts of its range (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011), the population is likely to be declining.
172987		threats	eng	The threats to this species are poorly understood but as a tree-dweller it is likely to be negatively impacted by logging and shifting agriculture. Although it is able to persist in orchards (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011) and in urban areas in the humid north of the island, subpopulations in dry regions of western Madagascar are more reliant on native vegetation which is under heavy pressure from land clearance (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
172988		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. More research is needed into the distribution of this species and its ability to survive in forests subjected to timber extraction for charcoal production.
172988		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the southwest of the island: at Ampanihy (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), Itampolo (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), Tsimanampetsotsa (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), Vohombe (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) and Efoetse (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). All known sites are between 20 and 160 m elevation (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000). It has a known extent of occurrence of 7,564 km²<sup></sup>. Surveys of nearby forests in western Madagascar have so far failed to detect this species.<br/></p>
172988		habitat	eng	<p>This nocturnal species occurs on calcareous rock outcrops and boulders in dry deciduous forest and scrub (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000). It is dependent on spiny scrub, but can tolerate some degree of habitat degradation.<br/></p>
172988		population	eng	This species is locally abundant on outcrops of calcareous rock, and there is no known evidence that populations are declining. There is no information on whether the population of this species is fragmented.
172988		threats	eng	<p>Forest loss and degradation driven by the removal of timber for charcoal production is the only major threat identified for this species, but its ability to withstand this level of disturbance is unknown.<br/></p>
172989		conservation	eng	This species is present in a number of protected areas, including Ambatovaky, Nosy Mangabe and Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserves, and Marojejy and Ranomafana National Parks.
172989		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the east. It is known with certainty from a number of locations between Masoala in the north and Ranomafana in the central south (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has probably also been found in Andohahela in the far southeast (J.-B. Ramanamanajato pers. comm. January 2011) and is presumed to occur throughout the intervening region. Its extent of occurrence is close to 111,000 km²<sup></sup>.
172989		habitat	eng	<p>This snake shelters in the day and feeds at night in humid forest. It is known to feed on the endemic forest rodent<em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Nesomys rufus</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007).</p>
172989		population	eng	This is a secretive snake, but may be common. Due to human pressures on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining humid forest in eastern Madagascar, the population of this forest specialist is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172989		threats	eng	This species is threatened by logging and slash and burn agriculture, which is responsible for declines in and degradation of humid forest in eastern Madagascar.
172990		conservation	eng	The species is recorded from several protected areas.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
172990		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the east of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007), over an area of around 75,500 km².
172990		habitat	eng	<p>The nominate subspecies is found on banana plants, palm trees and buildings and occasionally in humid forest at low elevations. <em>P. p. hallmanni </em>inhabits the edge of mid-elevation humid forest, but it rarely uses buildings at these elevations. It does not glue its eggs.</p>
172990		population	eng	This is a common species, although the subspecies <em>P. p. hallmani</em> has been described as rare (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172990		threats	eng	There are no major threats facing this species as a whole, but the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. p. hallmanni </span>may be at risk because it appears to be restricted to forests (Glaw and Vences 2007), a threatened habitat in Madagascar.
172991		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any strict protected areas, but both Ibity and Itremo are subject to active habitat conservation measures as new protected areas. More surveys are needed to establish the presence or absence of this species at additional sites, and to identify any threats.
172991		distribution	eng	This dwarf gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is restricted to a few high elevation sites in the central highlands. Reported localities include Ambatomenaloha, Ibity and Itremo, at elevations between 1,700 and 2,100 m (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has a known extent of occurrence of 2,851 km²<sup></sup>. It may occur on other rocky outcrops at high elevations.
172991		habitat	eng	This species lays eggs in communal nests underneath flat rocks in open savanna habitats (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
172991		population	eng	This is an abundant species throughout its small range, and the population is expected to be stable.
172991		threats	eng	There are no major threats recorded for this species, which inhabits grassland above the tree line. Climate change may, however, pose a threat because this species has only been recorded in narrow elevational band (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
172992		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Bemaraha and Zombitse National Parks as well as other sites that are under conservation management. Research is needed to better-understand this species' distribution, to identify population trends, and to assess the extent and impact of threats.
172992		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the south of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007) between 100 and 225 m elevation (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and from several in the west Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008, Bora <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The lizard's extent of occurrence, based on the combined distributional extent of known subpopulations, is approximately 15,400 km².<br/></p>
172992		habitat	eng	<p>This terrestrial lizard inhabits arid habitats with rocky outcrops in spiny or deciduous forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). &#160;In the lower Onilahy valley it has been collected in riparian dry forest (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).</p>
172992		population	eng	<p>This is a comparatively rare species, and is probably undergoing decline as a result of human pressure on dry forest within its range. Due to the complete loss of forest across much of its range in western Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011), remaining subpopulations are presumed to be severely fragmented.<br/></p>
172992		threats	eng	The dry and spiny forests are under threat due to logging for charcoal production and conversion to agriculture. It is not clear what effect these activities have on this rock-dwelling lizard, but it has not been found outside forest and appears to prefer areas with dense ground cover (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172993		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two national parks, in Montagne d'Ambre and Bemaraha. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, population trends and ecology of this species, and to establish whether it is at risk from human activities operating around park boundaries.
172993		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from Montage d'Ambre in the north (Glaw and Vences 2007) and Bemaraha in the west (Raselimana 2008). It is not believed to be widely distributed, and its combined distributional extent at the known sites is thought to be around 527 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. This species has an elevational range of 150-1,000 m asl.
172993		habitat	eng	<p>This snake has been recorded from tropical moist forest. It is not known from degraded habitats.<br/></p>
172993		population	eng	<p>This snake is relatively common at Montage d'Ambre. It is not expected to be widely distributed between the known, widely-separated sites, and is therefore presumed to occur as a severely fragmented population.<br/></p>
172993		threats	eng	<p>  While both locations where this snake has been found are in protected areas, there is ongoing  degradation of habitat in the peripheral areas through logging and  conversion of land to agricultural use. It is not clear if this is  impacting the species.</p>
172994		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species and it is not known to occur within any protected area. More research is needed into this species' extent of occurrence, population status and susceptibility to threats.
172994		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it is known from a single site at 10 m above sea level, Lac Ampitambe. This lake lies<em> </em>65 km south of Toamasina in the east (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Schönecker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The extent of occurrence around this locality is uncertain.<br/></p>
172994		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits open, sun-exposed areas, including secondary vegetation (Schönecker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It mainly uses small trees during the day (Schönecker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).</p>
172994		population	eng	This species has been observed several times, but there is no information on its population.
172994		threats	eng	The area where this lizard has been found is likely to be at risk from slash and burn agriculture, charcoal production and cattle grazing, but the impacts of these processes on the species and their extent across its true range are unknown.
172995		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of this species is required prior to any further research or conservation measures being implemented.
172995		distribution	eng	This species is found in the west and northwestern lowlands of Madagascar.
172995		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, however, it is likely that it occurs in dry and succulent wooded and forested areas.
172995		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
172995		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. If its habitat preferences are indeed woodland and forested areas, it is likely to be impacted by loss of primary forest habitat.
172996		conservation	eng	Most of the forest where this species is known to occur is found within protected areas, most notably at Andohahela, Tsitongambarika and Sainte Luce. Careful consideration is needed however at these sites to ensure that the forest at low elevations is protected. The species has been included in a Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan by Rio Tinto (J.-B. Ramanamanjato pers. comm. January 2011). Research is needed to clarify whether this is a valid species distinct from <em>Z. laticaudatus</em>.
172996		distribution	eng	This plated lizard is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is only known from a few low elevation (0-850 m asl.) sites in the southeast of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 6,453 km²<sup></sup>.
172996		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low elevation humid forest (Glaw and Vences 2007), and does not occur in degraded forest.
172996		population	eng	This is not a common species, and occurs at low densities. Due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution, of remnant forest where this disturbance-sensitive lizard is found, the population is presumed to be both declining and severely fragmented.
172996		threats	eng	This species is threatened slash and burn agriculture (manihot, beans, etc.), clearance of forest for rice farming, and logging of trees for timber (house building, etc.). Mining represents a future risk to this species. The threats are ongoing within Midongy National Park (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. January 2011).
172997		conservation	eng	Suitable habitats for this species are conserved in a number of protected areas.
172997		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread across the west, central, southern and northern parts of the island, being absent only from the east (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172997		habitat	eng	This snake is found in a wide variety of habitats, including dry forest, spiny forest, savanna and many anthropogenic habitats (Glaw and Vences 2007). It feeds on lizards, snakes and frogs.
172997		population	eng	<p>This is a very common species.<br/></p>
172997		threats	eng	This widespread species is not threatened.
172998		conservation	eng	The Mikea forest where this species occurs is subject to conservation management. Because little is known about the natural history of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this skink, the success of this management in preserving this species cannot be determined, although it is not thought to be subject to ongoing threats. More information is needed on this lizard's distribution, population status, ecological requirements and exposure to threats. Protection of additional sites may be required.
172998		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities near sea level  north of Tulear (Glaw and Vences 2007), and in the Mikea forest. The lizard's estimated extent of occurrence is around 1,450 km²<sup></sup>.
172998		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>    </p>This burrowing skink has been collected from arid spiny forest.<br/>  <p></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
172998		population	eng	<p>This lizard appears to be less common that other species in the genus. Due to the absence of ongoing or past threats, the population is presumed to be stable.<br/></p>
172998		threats	eng	No threats are known at present, but if mining expands into this lizard's range it may be at risk.
172999		conservation	eng	This species has been found in a number of protected areas, including Ankarafantsika National Park, Zombitse National Park and the Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor (Glaw and Vences 2007). Research is recommended to clarify the population status and ecological requirements of this uncommonly-encountered snake, and its taxonomy is in need of revision.
172999		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where is is widely distributed in the south and west of the island, and patchily distributed in the north and central highlands. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 148,734 km²<sup></sup>.
172999		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a variety of forested habitats, including humid, deciduous and dry forest, as well as arid spiny forest in the far south, from coastal to mid-elevations (Glaw and Vences 2007).
172999		population	eng	<p>This snake is rarely found because of its secretive habits. Due to human pressure on remaining forests throughout its range, the population is presumed to be declining.<br/></p>
172999		threats	eng	Although this species can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions it appears to be closely associated with forests and is therefore threatened by slash and burn forest clearance and logging.
173000		conservation	eng	This species is apparently restricted to Montagne d'Ambre National Park and Tsaratanana National Park. Its distribution within and between these areas requires further investigation to establish whether it is exposed to major threats, and these reserves should be managed to limit the impacts of human encroachment on this snake's habitat.
173000		distribution	eng	<p>This snake is endemic to northern Madagascar where it is known from Montagne d'Ambre, and probably also from Tsaratanana (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), a combined area of 689 km². It is not thought to occur between or around these sites, as there is very little humid forest remaining in the intervening area (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). It has been found between 600 and 1,400 m asl.<br/></p>
173000		habitat	eng	<p>This snake inhabits mid-elevation humid forest where it is active on the ground at night and found in dead logs during the day. <em></em></p>
173000		population	eng	<p>This is a locally common species at Montagne d'Ambre. Forest habitat within both reserves may be sufficient to support separate subpopulations, and so although each reserve is relatively small and the known sites are widely-separated, it is unknown whether the population is fragmented. Due to human pressures on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest between the known sites, however, if this species does occur between Montagne d'Ambre and Tsaratanana it will probably occur as a severely fragmented population<br/></p>
173000		threats	eng	While both locations are in protected areas there is an ongoing   degradation of habitat at the periphery of the reserves through logging and   conversion of land to agricultural use. It is not clear if this is   impacting the species.
173001		distribution	eng	The Navassa&#160;Rhinoceros&#160;Iguana was known only from Navassa Island, West Indies, a 5.2 km² island owned by the United States. The iguana presumably occurred island-wide before its extinction.
173001		habitat	eng	Surrounded by cliffs, the portions of Navassa Island presumably capable of supporting iguanas prior to their extinction was characterized by Ekman (1929), Proctor (1959), and paraphrased in Powell (1999). The island is a relatively flat shelf of pot-holed, karstic dolomite covered by sparse, shrubby vegetation (largely the result of 19th century mining operations) with a second, higher plateau with apparently natural savannas as well as areas cleared during the mining operations, interspersed with dense but stunted woodland dominated by four tree species: Short Leaf Fig (<em>Ficus populnea </em>var. <em>brevifolia</em>)<em>, </em>False Mastic (<em>Sideroxylon foetidissimum</em>)<em>, </em>Pigeon Plum (<em>Coccoloba diversifolia</em>)<em>, </em>and Poisonwood (<em>Metopium brownei</em>). Although iguanas probably occurred island-wide prior to their extinction, preferred habitat almost certainly consisted of rocky areas and savannas instead of the densely forested portions of the island. Because Navassa lacks beaches, nesting presumably occurred in pockets of mineralized phosphate that accumulated in potholes. The phosphate (which was commercially extracted during the period when the iguanas presumably became extinct) might have been either of marine or terrestrial origin: precipitates of seawater during periods of submergence or from fish digested by birds and deposited as guano, respectively.<br/><br/>Among the five specimens&#160;known for this iguana, the maximum snout-vent length is 42 cm for the largest male and 37.8 cm snout-vent length for the largest female (Powell 2000). Based on the morphology of similar species, this is probably far less than the maximum for this iguana.
173001		population	eng	No individuals have been collected or observed since the middle of the 19th century. The last specimen collection date was July 1878.
173001		threats	eng	Like other rock iguanas, the Navassa Rhinoceros Iguana was probably threatened by non-native predators, hunting for human consumption, and non-native competitors which destroyed the vegetation. Schwartz and Carey (1977) suggested that the introduction of goats and/or cats by the lighthouse keepers might have been responsible for its extinction, but Powell (1999) indicated that exploitation by mine workers on the island during the latter half of the 19th century was a more probable explanation.
173002		conservation	eng	<p>Two of its four known localities are found within the Parque Nacional Sierra de Perijá, but all of them exhibit human disturbances, albeit the localities outside the park more so than the ones within it (F. Rojas Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). Enforcement of park boundaries and land is necessary, although this is a complex subject given that this area is often refuge to guerrillas, drug dealers and paramilitary groups (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.</p>
173002		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from four geographical localities (the upper basin of Río Socuy, Manastara, Kunana and waters above Kusare waterfalls) on the eastern flank of the Sierra de Perijá, Zulia state, Venezuela, between 500 and 1,200 m asl <a name="OLE_LINK1"> (</a><a name="OLE_LINK1">Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011)</a>. The greatest distance (in a straight line) in between the two farthermost localities is about 100 km (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). While rare, it is considered to be widely distributed through the northern half of the Sierra de Perijá (</a><a name="OLE_LINK1">Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007); with an estimated extent of occurrence of 444 km²<sup></sup>; however, even though it may occur more widely, it is believed to be endemic to the Sierra de Perijá (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011). The four known geographical localities are believed to cluster into three threat-defined locations (Manastara and Kunana are on the same basin, are separated by <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 3 km in a straight line and are exposed to similar human-induced disturbances, qualifying them to be treated as a single threat-defined location; </a><a name="OLE_LINK1">F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm.August 2011).</a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><br/></a>
173002		habitat	eng	This species can be found in seasonal semi-deciduous forests and submontane and montane evergreen forests (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), including forest patches, and also in coffee plantations (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
173002		population	eng	This appears to be a rare species given that there is only one specimen collected for each of the four known localities (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011), in spite of the fact that there have been several expeditions to these same localities (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Its population is not considered to be severely fragmented following IUCN definitions (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. August 2011).<br/></a>
173002		threats	eng	<p>All four geographical localities have localized, ongoing human-induced disturbances, and while there are still large swaths of undisturbed forest in between the three threat-defined locations, there are so far no records for this frog in these undisturbed areas (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. August 2011). The upper basin of Río Socuy and area above Kusare waterfalls are being impacted by intense deforestation due to coco yam plantations, whereas Manastara and Kunana are being affected by small-scale agriculture (corn, bananas and more recently tomatoes, F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. August 2011) and the recent introduction of goat farming to this area (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011; F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). Traditional coffee plantations also occur in this species' range, although given that it&#160; can be found within these plantations it is possibly tolerant to this  level of habitat alteration. <br/></p>
173003		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Measures are needed to address loss of forest habitat at the type locality, and to empower local communities to better use their resources (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p><p><br/></p>
173003		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from its type locality: Cueva del Agua, Mesa Turik, municipality of Rosario de Perijá, Sierra de Perijá, Zulia state, Venezuela. It occurs at 1,700 m asl (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Mesa Turik is a prominent rocky tableau of about 120 km<sup>2</sup> (see (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This frog may occur more widely within the realm of the Sierra de Perijá (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011).
173003		habitat	eng	There is no information on this species' habitats and ecology. It is presumed to occur in montane forests and to breed by direct development.
173003		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species. It is only known from a single specimen, the holotype.</p>
173003		threats	eng	<p>There is deforestation due to subsistence agriculture at its type locality (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011), but the most pressing problem in this region is the commercial exploitation of coco yam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthosoma sagittifolium</span>), which has caused the deforestation of large swaths of land in the lowlands and mid-elevation areas of Perijá, including within the National Park Sierra de Perijá (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). In addition, there has been a recent colonization of land by displaced farmers from Colombia, who bring in new crops, such as tomatoes, and the use of agrochemicals, both within and outside the national park (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011).  </p><p>  </p>
173004		conservation	eng	<p>Six of the eleven known localities are found within Sierra de Perijá National Park (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011).  Measures are needed to address loss of forest habitat, including within the national park, and to empower local communities to better use their resources  (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p>
173004		distribution	eng	This species is known from eleven localities in the eastern flanks of the Sierra de Perijá, Zulia state, Venezuela, between 500 and 1,600 m asl (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). The distance (in a straight line) in between the two farthermost localities is about 110 km (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species also appears to be on the western (Colombian) slope of the Sierra de Perijá  (see Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It may occur even more widely within the Sierra de Perijá (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. January 2011).
173004		habitat	eng	This species occurs in nearly pristine lowland and montane forests, including semideciduous dry forests, evergreen and cloud forests, and is also found in coffee plantations and forest patches surrounded by coco yam plantations (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007; F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). Males are often heard vocalizing from plants and shrubs at less that 1 m from the floor (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
173004		population	eng	This is considered to be the most abundant species in cloud forests at medium elevations, as well as in the northern half of the Sierra de Perijá (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Its relative abundance varies from scarce to very abundant, being considered abundant to very abundant at ten of its eleven known localities (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011).
173004		threats	eng	<p>Eight of the eleven known localities exhibit relatively intense human disturbances, including coco yam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthosoma sagittifolium</span>) and coffee plantations, goat and cattle farming, and the cultivation of new crops, such as tomatoes, maize, bananas and fruits (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). The most pressing problem in this region is the commercial  exploitation of coco yam,  which has caused the deforestation of large swaths of land in the  lowlands and mid-elevation areas of Perijá, including within the  National Park Sierra de Perijá (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January  2011). In addition, there has been a recent colonization of land by  displaced farmers from Colombia, who bring in new crops (e.g.,  tomatoes) and the use of agrochemicals, both within and outside the  national park (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. January 2011). However, in the case of this species, given its widespread distribution throughout the Sierra, including both pristine and disturbed localities, its relative abundance, and its apparent tolerance to a degree of disturbance (it is also abundant in coffee plantations), it is thought that the impact of these threats on this species would not be significant at this time.<br/></p>  <p>  </p>
173007		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daucus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks; however, none of these originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection from the European subpopulations and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  A population monitoring programme also needs  to be implemented.
173007		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. littoralis</span> is native to Greece (mainland and East Aegean Islands), as well as to parts of north Africa and west Asia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).
173007		habitat	eng	This species grows in coastal sands (Fragman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
173007		population	eng	This is an occasional species found in littoral regions in various parts of Greece.
173007		threats	eng	The main threat is development for tourism and recreational  activities.
173008		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bourgaeana</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It occurs in several protected areas.
173008		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. bourgaeana</span> is native to Spain, Portugal and Morocco (Kurtto 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
173008		habitat	eng	It is found in open woodlands, in oak forest and close to rivers.
173008		population	eng	It is a common species and its population is stable.
173008		threats	eng	Changes in land use<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>, livestock grazing and fires may pose threats to this species.
173009		conservation	eng	It has been assessed as Vulnerable (Raimondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>Some subpopulations are included in the Madonie Regional Nature  Park and in the Natura 2000 site, Parco delle Madonie.  <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. castribonensis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
173009		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. castribonensis</span> is endemic to Sicily (Kurtto 2009).
173009		habitat	eng	It is found near agricultural fields in clay soil, near woods of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span>, as well as cultivated stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span>. It is also found in the margins of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacio-Rhamnetalia alaterni</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercetalia ilicis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunetalia spinosae</span> vegetation.
173009		population	eng	It is a rare species known from seven localities—one of them with less than 10 individuals, five of them with 10 to 20 individuals and one with more than 20 (Raimondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
173009		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by human activities, changes in land use, fires and grazing pressure. </p>
173010		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pyraster</span> is listed as Near Threatened in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>EURISCO reports 7,943 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. communis</span> held in European genebanks; however, only one accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">caucasica </span>is reported (stored at the Research and Breeding Institute of Pomology, Holovousy Ltd., Czech Republic) and no accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pyraster</span> are reported. Of the <span style="font-style: italic;">P. communis</span> accessions, 11 are reported to be of wild or weedy origin and six of these originate from within Europe: one from Belgium, two from France, one from Germany, one from the Republic of Moldova and one from Ukraine. Five of these accessions are stored in Prydnistrovs'ka Experimental Station of Horticulture, Ukraine and one is stored in the Institute of Horticulture, also in Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for both wild subspecies.<br/><br/>The cultivated pear and wild pear may not be distinguished in field surveys (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002); therefore, there is a need for better guidance on identification of the wild forms.
173010		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pyraster</span> is native to and widely distributed throughout Europe and Turkey; <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">caucasica </span>is native to Asiatic Turkey, Crimea and the Caucasus.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pyraster</span> in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia:&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>distributed throughout the country (Peniašteková 1992).</li><li><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Hungary: widespread (Soó 1966, Simon 1992)&#160;</li><li>France: widespread in the western half of the country; absent in many eastern departments, particularly in the northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom: relatively widespread throughout England and Wales; however, its distribution is quite sparse in Scotland— particularly in the north—and it is only recorded as present in two eastern localities in Northern Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Netherlands: wild pear grows all over the Netherlands but in a low frequency (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></li></ul>
173010		habitat	eng	This species grows in mixed forests, in medium-dry, warm sites, as well as on dry hillsides, rocky slopes and in maquis. It prefers calcareous soils, clay loam and sandy soils. Specifically, in Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. communis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pyraster</span> grows in dry oak woodlands, karst scrub-forests, acidofrequent woodlands, pine forests, in ravines and rocky areas, and rarely in beech forests, pioneer sand steppes and salt meadows   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
173010		population	eng	In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">communis </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pyraster </span>is quite common but occurs as single, isolated trees. In the Netherlands, the taxon occurred in 45 hour-squares before 1950 and after 1950 in 135 hour-squares (Mennema <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). Tamis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) report that the species occurs in 301–1000 1x1 km grid squares.
173010		threats	eng	Hybridization with cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">P. communis</span> is a threat to wild pear.
173011		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. cordata</span> is known to occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 55 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. cordata</span> held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Only one of these accessions originates from within Europe (France) and is stored in Fruit Growing Research Station Cluj-Napoca, Romania (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
173011		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. cordata</span> is native to Algeria, France, Portugal, Spain and Morocco, and doubtfully native to Great Britain (Kurtto 2009).<br/><br/>In Portugal it is found in the north and central parts of the country, and in Spain, in the north only. In France it occurs along the western coast and in the central departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). In Great Britain it is recorded from only nine localities, two of which are at the Wales–England border near the Severn Estuary and the other seven in Devon and Cornwall (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
173011		habitat	eng	It grows along the fringes of birch, beech and oak thickets and on roadsides; it favours open places and can grow in all soil types. In Great Britain, it grows in hedgerows (Preston<em> et al</em>. 2002).
173011		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Portugal and according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), it has always been rare in Great Britain. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
173011		threats	eng	It is threatened by hybridization with cultivated pear<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Controlled and natural fires can be a threat to its habitat.
173012		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. elaeagrifolia</span> held in European genebanks, but it does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p>
173012		distribution	eng	Native to east and southeastern Europe, and Turkey (Kurtto 2009).
173012		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
173012		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
173012		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
173013		conservation	eng	Peniašteková (1992) listed <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nivalis</span> as as Critically Endangered in Slovakia; however, Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) evaluated it as Data Deficient.&#160; In Hungary, the species is classified as Endangered and is protected    (Király 2007).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nivalis </span>held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe (France) and is stored in Fruit Growing Research Station Cluj-Napoca, Romania (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
173013		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. nivalis</span> is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe (Kurtto 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), and to Asiatic Turkey (Kurtto 2009).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>it has been reported from seven localities in west and central parts of the country; however, most of these occurrences have not recently been found (Peniašteková 1992, Eliáš Jr. unpublished). Current subpopulations are usually small, comprising not more than 1–10 individuals (Eliáš Jr. unpublished).</li><li>Hungary: it occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Tokaj-Hegyalja, Gyöngyös) and Transdanubian Mountains (Visegrád-, Buda-mountains, Balatonfüred); ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">orientalis </span>only occurs in Terpó, near Szentendre (Macskalyuk-side, Pismány, Sztaravoda, Pap-island)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: confined to the eastern departments of Haut-Rhin, Haute-Savoie and Savoie (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>  <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
173013		habitat	eng	In Hungary, this species grows in Karst scrub forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cotino–Quercetum pubescentis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceraso</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">mahaleb</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;">–Quercetum pubescentis</span>) and prefers alkaline soils and warm, medium-dry soils, rich in nutrients and  alkaline minerals, but can also be found in neutral, humic, loam-, clay-, debris soils    (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
173013		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
173013		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
173014		conservation	eng	It has been assessed as Endangered (Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Some subpopulations are included in the Regional Nature Reserves, Monti di Palazzo Adriano and Valle del Sosio, Monte Carcaci.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sicanorum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
173014		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. sicanorum</span> is endemic to Sicily (Kurtto 2009).
173014		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>It grows in pre-wood formations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> woods on carbonate soils and is present as an element of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercion ilicis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pruno-Rubion ulmifolii</span> alliances.</p>  <p></p>
173014		population	eng	The species known from three localities in the central-west of the island (Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
173014		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by human activities, changes in land use, fires and grazing pressure. </p>
173015		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
173015		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. spinosa</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, and western Turkey (Kurtto 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Spain, this species is only found in the northeast, while in France it is confined to 14 southeastern departments and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
173015		habitat	eng	In Spain, it grows in hedges and in the fringes of oak forests from 0–1,100 m asl.
173015		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
173015		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
173016		conservation	eng	EURISCO reports 14 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. syriaca</span> held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, none of these originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
173016		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. syriaca</span> is native to western Asia (including Cyprus), and Armenia (Kurtto 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
173016		habitat	eng	This species is found on riverbanks, hillsides, and in field margins. It is commonly associated with large rocks.
173016		population	eng	This is a common species.
173016		threats	eng	Increased periods of drought are negatively impacting this species.
173017		conservation	eng	It has been suggested that it is Vulnerable (Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>The subpopulations are included in the Nebrodi Regional Nature  Park.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. vallis-demonis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
173017		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. vallis-demonis</span> is endemic to Sicily (Kurtto 2009).
173017		habitat	eng	It is found in mountainous areas in pre-wood formations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris</span> woods.
173017		population	eng	According to Marino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009), there are two localities in the Nebrodi Mountains.
173017		threats	eng	<p>There are currently no threats to this species.<br/></p>
173018		conservation	eng	It is found within the boundaries of Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary&#160;(about 20% of the sanctuary falls in the hill ranges of 'Chandra Drona Parvatha' where this species is presumed to occur more widely) (Dinesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008;&#160;K.P.&#160;Dinesh pers. comm. April 2011). Additional habitat protection is a priority for this species' conservation (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011).  More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and threats.
173018		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of Manikyadhara Falls, within the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, in Chickmagalur district, Karnataka state, India (Dinesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is found at an elevation between 1,000 and 1,515 m asl (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be approximately 30 km<sup>2 </sup>along the hill ranges historically known as 'Chandra Drona Parvatha' (Dinesh&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span>&#160;2008). &#160;Intensive surveys in suitable neighbouring areas&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">in the entire stretch of the Western Ghats parts of Karnataka&#160;over the last six years have not yielded the species beyond the type locality&#160;(K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011), considered as a single threat-defined location in this assessment.
173018		habitat	eng	It is found in montane shola forest and it is associated to a freshwater system in a high canopy area where there is no direct natural light penetration &#160;(Dinesh&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2008; K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. April 2011). Individuals have been found in the slow-moving perennial streams of Manikyadhara falls, typically below small boulders, and are more active at night (Dinesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011). During monsoon this frog can be seen crossing<strong> </strong>ditches&#160;filled with&#160;rain water<strong>,</strong>&#160;adjacent to road side within the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011).&#160;Breeding is presumed to take place by larval development in streams. It is considered to be a truly forest-dependent species, thought to withstand a degree of marginal habitat degradation since it was found near road sides (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011).
173018		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be locally common (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011).</p>
173018		threats	eng	Agricultural activities such as&#160;<span lang="EN-US">coffee, pepper, cardamom, ginger and<span lang="EN-US">&#160;other crop cultivations are extensive throughout Chickmagalur district, with coffee comprising the main crop of the region, and being present <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">adjacent <span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">to the type locality (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011). Residential and commercial development due to ecotourism activities and extensive illegal collection of medicinal plants are also considered major threats to this species' habitat, as together with agricultural activities, they clear the canopy and allow for<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> penetration<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> of natural light, creating unsuitable conditions for this species&#160;(K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011).<br/><p></p><p><br/> <span lang="EN-US"></p><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
173020		conservation	eng	No information available.
173020		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa, the Malagarasi River. It is found in the delta area, extremely limited distribution only a few specimens collected alive.
173020		habitat	eng	This species is known from "vegetation in calm bay" of Malagarasi River delta area, 30-40 cm depth (from Leloup 1953 in Brown 1994).
173020		population	eng	No information available.
173020		threats	eng	Sedimentation is a possible threat to the species.
173022		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species range and population. Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified and the impact of dams investigated.
173022		distribution	eng	It is known only from a single location on the left tributary of Trisuli river near Dhunche of Rasuwa district, Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)
173022		habitat	eng	It is found on rocks, stones, pebbles, sand covered debris and leaf litter in the cold water streams.
173022		population	eng	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>
173022		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known, though the impact of current and planned hydropower dams within the area needs further investigation.<br/></p>
173023		conservation	eng	Detailed distribution studies in the upland cold streams, life history studies, population trends and threats to the species are all important recommendations for this species.
173023		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium ellisi </span>is known only from medium elevation streams (1500 - 2100 m) of India (Sikkim) and Nepal (Banepa, Kavre District) (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
173023		habitat	eng	It is found in small natural cold streams in dense mixed and oak forests. The microhabitats are mud in very shallow pools where these pea clams are found on the mud sediment surface (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).
173023		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium ellisi </span>is usually found in association with large numbers of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. annandalei</span>. But the detail information of the population size of<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. ellisi</span> is not known.
173023		threats	eng	Since it has been found in unpolluted water, water pollution is the inferred threats to this species. This is also the best indicator of high water quality.
173025		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Data are not available and research is needed. A modern revision of <span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula </span>is required.
173025		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Tenasserim, in lower Myanmar, and from Thailand (the Songkhla Lagoon, Phawong Canal and Taphao Canal in southern Thailand, and from Ubolratana Reservoir (Khon Kaen Province; Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004). It has recently been reported from the Nam Kading (River) in central Lao PDR at Haad Sai Kam (Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is likely to be present in suitable habitats within this range.
173025		habitat	eng	It is found in the freshwater lagoons, rivers and canals, as well as reservoirs.
173025		population	eng	No&#160;information&#160;is available on the population status or trend of this species.
173025		threats	eng	Information on specific major threats to the species are unknown. It may be susceptible to pollution, but has been found in reservoirs.
173026		conservation	eng	Detailed taxonomic studies, surveys, life history studies and threats are recommended.
173026		distribution	eng	It is reported from Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh to Kahalgaon, Bihar in India. It is endemic to the lower Gangetic plains (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2007).
173026		habitat	eng	It is found in fine sandy bottom of the Ganga River (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).
173026		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173026		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, though sedimentation may impact the known habitat of the species.
173027		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats from harvest needs to be studied.</p>
173027		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula iravadica</span>&#160;is recorded from upper Myanmar, northern Thailand and Viet Nam (Subba Rao 1989).   Preston (1915: 216-217) reported the location as "Mandalay".
173027		habitat	eng	It is reported to be found in rivers and&#160;reservoirs.
173027		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173027		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. However, collection for human consumption could be a threat.
173028		conservation	eng	More research about the biology and distribution of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.
173028		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula noetlingi</span> is a widely distributed species in Northern and Southern Shan States of Myanmar and in Thailand (Subba Rao 1989).
173028		habitat	eng	It is found in small pools and lakes.
173028		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173028		threats	eng	Threats to this species are uncertain, but might be impacted by the loss of small pools through development, and by pollution.
173030		conservation	eng	It is found in high abundance in ponds and lakes but rare in rivers. Development of pond fishery in the Gangetic plain might contribute to its high abundance. Thus research into its life history, harvesting and threats is recommended.
173030		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens narainporensis</span> is endemic to upper and lower Gangetic plains in India and Nepal; it it not recorded from Bangladesh, but it's presence there is likely. In India it is found at Narainpur, Murshidabad in West Bengal, Kumhrar pond at Patna, Ganges river at Bhalgalpur, Bihar; Gomati river from Lucknow and Ganga river at Chunarghat in Uttar Pradesh. It is known only from a single location Kamdai Nadi near Gaur, Rautahat district in Nepal.
173030		habitat	eng	The species is found in rivers, ponds and lakes. It prefers stagnant water bodies and found only in lentic zones of rivers along clay and mud substrate. The animals like burrowing in hard clay banks between the roots of trees.
173030		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. narainporensis</span> is found in high abundance in ponds but rare in rivers.
173030		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
173035		conservation	eng	No information on conservation action is available.
173035		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from Tenasserim,   Ava (Innwa) and Pegu (Bago),  Barrack River, Sawaddy River and Maydong in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173035		habitat	eng	It has been reported from the rivers of Myanmar.
173035		population	eng	There is no information on the population trends of this species.
173035		threats	eng	There is information on threats to this species.
173036		conservation	eng	This is a very poorly studied species with no information since its description. Surveys, threats and life history studies are recommended.
173036		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be endemic to Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989), south of Lashio.
173036		habitat	eng	Information on habitat and ecology is unknown.
173036		population	eng	No information is available.
173036		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown.
173037		conservation	eng	A poorly known species, life history studies, surveys and threats to populations are recommended.
173037		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia choprae</span> is known only from the type locality: a bank of hill stream about 5 miles from Hopin toward Nama, Myitkyina District in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173037		habitat	eng	It has been reported from hill streams.
173037		population	eng	Population details are unknown.
173037		threats	eng	No information is available.
173038		conservation	eng	A poorly studied species, recommended research includes surveys, life history studies, threats and habitat characteristics.
173038		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia crispisulcata</span> has been reported only from Pengong River in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). However, the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Radiatula crispisulcata</span>, has been recorded from locations in Myanmar (Pegu (Bago), southern Irrawaddy Delta, near Yangon, and from near Risod, Maharasthtra, India (ANSP data, sourced from GBIF).
173038		habitat	eng	It has only been recorded from a river.
173038		population	eng	Population structure for this species is unknown.
173038		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
173039		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;More information is needed on the present distribution and population status of this species, as well as the specific threats it may face. More research is also needed on the 'host fish species' that is required for the species to complete its life cycle.
173039		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the northern Western Ghats, Maharashtra, India This species is known only from the type specimen and locality which is listed as the Yenna River, Upper Krishna watershed at Medha, Maharashtra. Other identifications of this species are doubtful.
173039		habitat	eng	<em>Parreysia</em> is usually found in perennial running water bodies such as rivers and large streams with silt and clay bottom.
173039		population	eng	There is no information on population status of this&#160;species. There are several studies which looked into&#160;biological&#160;and ecotoxicological aspects mainly from Maharastra Region, however the identification of these study specimens are doubtful.
173039		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
173040		conservation	eng	Conservation actions are not in place.
173040		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia feae</span> has been recorded from Meetan, Houngdaran River, and from one other unknown location&#160; in Myanmar.
173040		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers.
173040		population	eng	No information is available on population status of this species.
173040		threats	eng	Threat details are unknown.
173041		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation action for this species.
173041		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia feddeni</span> is reported from Pegu (Bago) and Yaylaymaw ("Upper Burma"), Myanmar.
173041		habitat	eng	It occurs in paddy fields.
173041		population	eng	Information&#160;on population structure of this species is unknown.
173041		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
173053		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - Apparently Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
173053		distribution	eng	This northern species has a range extending from Indiana and Michigan to southeastern Minnesota, Iowa, southeastern Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Arkansas and Kentucky, and has apparently been extirpated from Ohio. Van der Schalie and van der Schalie (1963) had expressed concern that it might be endangered in Michigan, but Hoeh (pers. comm. 2010) stated that his field experience suggested that it may be faring well. Out of 28 stations recently surveyed along the Tittabawassee River of Michigan, a tributary to the Saginaw, the species was present at 16 and abundant at eight stations (Hoeh pers. comm. 2010). Currently, the species is found at eleven sites in five southeastern Wisconsin river systems. It also occurs in the Fox River drainage in the southwestern part of the state. (Mathiak 1979, K. Cummings pers. obs. 2010). In Kansas, range is restricted to the Spring River in the southeastern corner of the state and the mussel is considered a peripheral species (Mathiak 1979, Busby pers. comm. 2010). In Missouri, the range formerly covered areas north of the Missouri River. Current range is the streams that flow north off the Salem and Springfield Plateaus (Oesch 1984, 1995). The first record from Minnesota was from the Cannon River in 1987 (Davis 1987). Within the Cannon River watershed, extant populations were discovered in the Straight River, Wolf Creek and the Cannon River proper. The largest population was found within the tailwaters of an old mill dam on the Straight River (Davis 1987) and although recent survey efforts did not discover this species there (Swift and Wagenbach 1999), Hove<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2005) found 2 live and 3 dead shells in June 2005. Although presently limited in distribution within the drainage, past distribution appears to have been much wider. Subsequent to the Cannon River survey, sites have been found in other river systems within the southeastern corner of the state, the Zumbro (Bright pers. comm. 2010) and tributaries to the Root (Ostlie pers. obs. 2010). Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) compiled data from 1800 sample sites across all of Minnesota (almost 500 from the St. Croix drainage and drainages in southeastern Minnesota) and found the species in 219 sites in five primary tributaries to the Mississippi River: the Cannon, Cedar, Root, Upper Iowa, and Zumbro River systems; with no relic shells in any other systems.  Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) also discounted other records from outside these areas including specimens from the St. Croix River proper (see Graf 1997).  In Iowa, range is the upper reaches of rivers in the northeastern third of Iowa (Frest pers. comm. 2010, Howell pers. comm. 2010). Although some records are available from large rivers (judging from recent records of this species from the Mississippi River at Davenport, Muscatine, Prairie du Chien and Keokuk, Frest, Pers. Comm. 2010) it is rarely found in large river habitats. There have been no records in the state of Ohio (Hoggarth pers. comm. 2010). Sterki (1907) recorded the species from the Ohio River, but that record did not come from the Ohio portion of the river (Hoggarth pers. comm. 2010). Although some records also exist in Lake Erie tributaries, none of these are from Ohio. The ellipse was historically found in the northern half of Illinois, particularly in the northeast. However, many streams in that part of Illinois have been negatively effected by urban development and agricultural impacts and many populations have been extirpated. The ellipse is now relatively uncommon in Illinois. A few apparently healthy populations can still be found in tributaries to the Kankakee, Fox, Mackinaw, and Vermilion (Illinois River drainage) rivers. This mussel is rare in Indiana occurring only at a few sites primarily in streams draining into Lake Michigan. A few historical records exist for glacial lakes in the headwaters of the Tippecanoe River (K. Cummings pers. obs. 2010).
173053		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river systems.
173053		population	eng	This species is reported to generally  be stable except for some edge of range declines to extirpation in  Minnesota, Illinois, and Ohio.
173053		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
173058		conservation	eng	Considering its restricted distribution and rarity, this species should be considered a species of highest conservation concern (Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008).Williams <em>et al</em>. (2010) lists this species as endangered according to the AFS assessment. The species has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of &#160;G1 - Critically Imperilled, and a State/Province Status Rank of S1 - Critically Imperilled for Alabama, the state to which it is endemic (NatureServe 2009).&#160;There are no species-specific conservation measures currently in place for this species. Further research regarding population trends, life history patterns and threats impacting this species is required. Monitoring of populations and implementation of protection, management and species recovery strategies are required to ensure this species' survival.
173058		distribution	eng	This species<em>&#160;</em>is known only from the Big Canoe Creek watershed, a western tributary of the Coosa River, northeast Alabama (Gangloff <em>et al</em>. 2006). Its extent of occurrence lies somewhere between 100 to 600 km<sup>2</sup>, the latter roughly being the size of the watershed.
173058		habitat	eng	This species&#160;is known only from the Big Canoe Creek watershed, a western tributary of the Coosa River, northeast Alabama (Gangloff <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;The species occurs in shoal habitat in a medium to large Coosa River tributary. Its preferred substrate is gravel. It&#160;is believed to be a short-term brooder, gravid in spring and summer. Its glochidial hosts are unknown, but some <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurobema</span> species utilise members of the Cyprinidae (Haag and Warren 2003, Williams <em>et al</em>. 2008).
173058		population	eng	This species<em>&#160;</em>appears to be restricted to one small population, which remains reproductively viable (Gangloff <em>et al</em>. 2006). This is a newly described species which is only known from 19 specimens, and only one-third of these are recent collections (Gangloff<em> et al</em>. 2006). Overall population trends are therefore unknown for this species, but have been suggested to be in decline. However, there is insufficient data available to verify this.
173058		threats	eng	From Gangloff <em>et al.</em> (2006), it appears that habitat loss/modification is the greatest threat:&#160;The Coosa River ecosystem has been reduced to a number of highly fragmented tributary refugia. Only five tributary sub-basins were found to have mollusc species richness levels that approach historic reports (Gangloff 2003). These watersheds, along with tributaries of the Black Warrior, Tombigbee, Cahaba and Conasauga drainages, represent most of what remains of a unique and species-rich aquatic ecosystem (Williams<em> et al.</em> 1992, Lydeard and Mayden 1995, McGregor <em>et al.</em> 2000). Protection of these few remaining fragments is critical to preserving populations of mussels and other aquatic species in the Mobile Basin (USFWS 1989, 2000). It is uncertain what the impact of these threats is on this species.
173066		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
173066		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Mississippi River drainage.  It inhabits the Gulf drainages from the Ochlockonee River system west to the Rio Grande and apparently extends into northeastern Mexico (Parmalee and Bogan 1998), but does not occur in Canada (Clarke 1981).  In the Apalachicola Basin (ACF basin = formed by Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint Rivers) of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, this species is historically known from 120 records from 51 sites, where it was once widespread including the mainstem and tributaries of the three rivers (Brim Box and Williams 2000) and recently in the lower Chipola River.
173066		habitat	eng	It inhabits the freshwater systems of the Gulf drainages.
173066		population	eng	There is no specific population data available although this species is reported to have a stable distribution throughout the Mississippi River drainage.
173066		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any significant threats impacting the global population of this species. Typical threats to freshwater systems in this region include abstraction of water and pollution from urban, domestic and agricultural sources.
173070		conservation	eng	Williams <em>et al.</em> (2010) lists this species as threatened according to the AFS assessment. It has also been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3 - Imperiled to Vulnerable, due to the large historical declines in the species' range (NatureServe 2009). Further survey work is recommended to ascertain the status of individual populations.
173070		distribution	eng	This species remains in isolated tributaries of the Pea River and headwaters of the Choctawhatchee River of Alabama and Florida in the United States of America (Williams and Butler 1994, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recent surveys now give this species' distribution as Crews Lake and Pine Log Creek, Sandy, Eightmile, Bruce Creek, and Wrights Creek, all in Florida; East Fork Choctawhatchee River, Judy Creek, Big, Pea, and Pauls Creeks, in Alabama (Blalock-Herald <em>et al.</em> 2005 in NatureServe 2009). Limestone Creek, East Pittman Creek, Choctawhatchee River and Holmes Creek, all in Florida and Flat Creek, Alabama, continue to support extant populations (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is no longer present in Hurricane Creek, Bear and Panther Creeks, Little Choctawhatchee River, Pea River, Choctawhatchee River, East Fork Choctawhatchee River and probably Big Creek, all in Alabama (Blalock-Herald <em>et al.</em> 2005 in NatureServe 2009). The range extent for the species is estimated at 250-1,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(NatureServe 2009), and the extent of occurrence does not exceed 12,100 km<sup>2</sup>. It is thought to occur at between 21 and 80 locations (NatureServe 2009).<em><br/></em>
173070		habitat	eng	This species is found in medium-sized creeks to large rivers (Williams and Butler 1994). It prefers a sand and gravel substrata, occasionally occurring in silty sands, in slow to moderate current (Williams and Butler 1994). It can occasionally be found in floodplain lakes. This is a small to medium sized mussel that attains a maximum length of 71 mm (Williams and Butler 1994).<br/><br/><em></em><em></em>Pilarczyk <em>et al. </em>(2006) studied the biology of this species in Eightmile Creek, Walton County, Florida. It is a short-term brooder, gravid from mid-March through May, possibly June. Its conglutinates are pinkish and cylindrical, tapered at both ends. The pinkish color is derived from undeveloped eggs incorporated into the conglutinate, even those which also contain mature glochidia (Pilarczyk pers. comm. 2010). Fecundity was measured in four females and ranged from 3,880 to 10,395 per year, with an average of 6,058 glochidia per individual. <em>Cyprinella venusta</em> (Blacktail Shiner, Cyprinidae) was found to serve as a glochidial host of the species in a preliminary host fish study (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
173070		population	eng	This species appears to be in decline, as it is no longer present in Flat Creek, Eightmile Creek, the Pea River, Pea Creek, and Big Creek, West Fork Choctawhatchee River and Judy Creek (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2005 in NatureServe 2009). In 2004, this species was only recorded from the West Fork Choctawhatchee River, Eightmile Creek, Pea Creek and Big Creek (Pilarczyk <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>In 35 of 45 historical sites, this species was found as live specimens and as dead shell material, with an average of 6.3 individuals per site (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2005 in NatureServe 2009). Any increase in the numbers of mature adults is speculated to be occurring at low levels, as this species has been extirpated from approximately 28% of its historic range (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2005 in NatureServe 2009) over the last 10-25 years (Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012).
173070		threats	eng	Significant threats impacting populations of this species include pollution from a variety of point sources (Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
173094		conservation	eng	More research is necessary to determine the extent of occurrence of this species in Lake Tanganyika. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
173094		distribution	eng	<em>Brazzaea anceyi</em> is endemic to the tributaries of Lake Tanganyika (on the DRC side of the lake). A single specimen in the BMNH records this species from Lake Victoria, but it is considered erroneous (Pain and Woodward 1968). The last live specimens were recorded prior to 1968.
173094		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences for this species. However, it has been recorded only from tributaries leading into Lake Tanganyika, at the point where these meet the lake.
173094		population	eng	The species occurs in localised, very low densities where it is found.
173094		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Brazzaea anceyi</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
173098		conservation	eng	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography and the relationships among the various morpho-types. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
173098		conservation	eng	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography and the relationships among the various morpho-types. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
173098		distribution	eng	<em>Grandidieria burtoni</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
173098		distribution	eng	<em>Grandidieria burtoni</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is described as common. Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project distributional data shows present at 16 sites around the lake.
173098		habitat	eng	<em>Grandidieria burtoni</em> has been shown to be a direct-developer, lacking the parasitic larval stage typical of other freshwater mussels (Kondo 1990). The species is common in the littoral zone around Lake Tanganyika.
173098		population	eng	No information is available.
173098		population	eng	This species is common and abundant.
173098		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Grandidieria burtoni</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
173098		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Grandidieria burtoni</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
173100		conservation	eng	Field sampling and host-fish studies of the mussel’s parasitic larvae are necessary to understand the status of this species. The taxonomy needs to re-evaluated in the context of other upper Congo coelatura-type species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.
173100		distribution	eng	<em>Mweruella mweruensis</em> is endemic to Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula. The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but it is declining. The species also extends approximately 80 km upstream. Extent of occurrence is estimated at 5,000-20,000 km² and the species occurs in fewer than ten locations (Lake Mweru is considered one location).
173100		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
173100		population	eng	No information available.
173100		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <em>Mweruella mweruensis</em> is restricted to a relatively small area and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
173102		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information on taxonomy, population size, distribution and ecology.
173102		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on taxonomy, population size, distribution and ecology.
173102		conservation	eng	No information available.
173102		conservation	eng	None known.
173102		distribution	eng	<em>Nitia teretiuscula</em> is widespread in the Nile and Chad Basin and part of West Africa. Its type locality is in the White Nile.
173102		distribution	eng	In West Africa this species is recorded from Lake Chad, the Chari River system and White Volta with tributaries, Mamoun River (Mandel-Barth 1988). It is suspected that the range is larger, probably spreading between these sites in western Africa. Elsewhere it is known also from the White Nile and the main Nile right to the delta.
173102		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Lake Nasser, Nile in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is wide spread in the Nile and Chad Basin and part of western Africa. The type locality is in the White Nile.
173102		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Nile Basin.
173102		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across sub-saharan Africa, from Chad to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed in Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Nile Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in the Nile and Chad Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Nasser, and the Nile in Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Lake Chad, the Chari River system and White Volta with tributaries, Mamoun River (Mandel-Barth 1988). It is suspected that the range is larger, probably spreading between these sites in western Africa.
173102		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers and lakes.
173102		habitat	eng	It lives in large rivers and lakes.
173102		habitat	eng	No information available.
173102		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and lakes.
173102		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and Lake Chad.
173102		population	eng	No data available.
173102		population	eng	No information available.
173102		threats	eng	No information available.
173102		threats	eng	None known.
173102		threats	eng	None major threats known to the species.
173102		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
173102		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
173104		conservation	eng	No information available.
173104		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire River.
173104		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
173104		population	eng	No information available.
173104		threats	eng	No information available.
173106		conservation	eng	Additionally field sampling and host-fish studies of the mussel’s parasitic larvae are necessary to understand the status of this species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.
173106		distribution	eng	<em>Prisodontopsis aviculaeformis</em> is endemic to Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula. The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but this is declining.
173106		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
173106		population	eng	No information available. The species may be rare in the lake.
173106		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <em>Prisodontopsis aviculaeformis</em> is restricted to a relatively small area and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
173125		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Japan (Kondo 2008). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
173125		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Japan-Sakhalin sub region (Graf 2007). It is endemic to Japan (western part of Honshu and Kyushu). There are no records from Shikoku, but it may be distributed there (Kondo 2008).
173125		habitat	eng	This species inhabits gravelly to sandy-muddy substrata in creeks and small streams. It rarely moves even when dry and sexually matures at two years old with a lifespan of ten years (Kondo 2008).
173125		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
173125		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
173135		conservation	eng	<p>Research into the species' current distribution and threats is required.<br/></p>
173135		distribution	eng	<span style=""><span style="">This species is known to be widespread from the Salween River in Myanmar, Thailand </span>(Huai Gong Dai, Ban Gong Dai, Bang La Mung District, Chon Buri Province; 'Riviere Strang, Siam')<span style=""><span style="">, </span><span style=""><span style="">Lao PDR, Cambodia and southern Viet Nam (MUSSELp; Graf and Cummings 2011).</span><br/><span style=""><span style=""><br/>Brandt  (1974) reported this species from the Salween River and many of its  tributaries. In Thailand it is known from the Salween River west of Mae  Sarieng and the Moei River. It is not found in the Yuam or Pai Rivers. In Myanmar it is known from the Salween, Pegu and Tenasserim Rivers. It is not reported from the Ayeyarwaddy River. As <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon i. callife</span>r (Martens 1860) it is known from north, central and west Thailand, from Cambodia and south Vietnam.<span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""> </span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>The subspecies <span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon i. harmandi</span>  Crosse &amp; Fischer, 1876 is known from Cambodia and southeast Thailand.  In Thailand it is found in small rivers and streams in provinces of Chonburi,  Rayong, Chantaburi, Nakhon Nayok and Prachinburi. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon i. cummingii</span>  (Lea, 1830) (also named as the synonym  <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodontopsis cumingii</span> Lea, 1850) <span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">is known from Malaysia -&#160;</span>Brandt (1974) lists this species from Perak, Malacca, Pahang, Kedah, and Kelantan) <span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">and Thailand (found in almost  all small rivers in peninsular Thailand south of Phetburi).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
173135		habitat	eng	<span style="">Brandt (1974) lists the species and its forms from small rivers and streams; </span><span style="">never found in lakes, ponds and ditches.</span>
173135		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173135		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. It is assumed that the usual aquatic threats would be pollution and habitat modification
173143		conservation	eng	Although known from a few localities in Myanmar, detailed information on distribution, life history and threats are not available.
173143		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia mandelayensis</span> is reported from Bhamo, Sheinmagah, Myadong and Pegu (Bago) in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) in the Irrawaddy and Sittaung river basins. Based on the locality records for this species it is inferred to be widely distributed from the northern parts of Myanmar (Bhamo) to the southern end (Bago).
173143		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers.
173143		population	eng	No information on population or trends in this species is known.
173143		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
173144		conservation	eng	<p>Research on distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
173144		distribution	eng	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia olivacea</span> type locality is Kamaing, Myitkyina in Myanmar.
173144		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology of this species; however, it is found in river systems.
173144		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173144		threats	eng	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.</p>
173145		conservation	eng	<p>Intensive surveys to understand distribution and research on biology of this species are needed.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
173145		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia perconvexa</span> is only known from the type locality in Nangyong Lake, Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173145		habitat	eng	It is only known from its type locality which is a lake.
173145		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173145		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species. &#160;The impact of potential threats remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>
173146		conservation	eng	<p>More research into the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats such as from harvest also need to be identified.</p>
173146		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia shurtleffiana</span> is recorded from the upper stretches of the Ganges basin in India and Nepal. In India, it is known from Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and in Nepal from Ghagara Khola, Rupandehi (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
173146		habitat	eng	It is found in mixed silt and sand substrate in rivers. It inhabits with other bivalves (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2005).
173146		population	eng	It is known as a running water species. &#160;Recently, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) reported the species to be common in Rupandehi, Nepal and at Varanasi and Chunar, India<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
173146		threats	eng	Intentional and unintentional collection in small or large scale could be a threat for this species in Nepal (P. Budha pers. comm. 2010). However, threats to the species in India is not known and utilization of the species is also not documented. Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.
173147		conservation	eng	<p>Research into distribution, population trends and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.<br/></p>
173147		distribution	eng	The species has been reported only from the type locality in Inlé Lake, Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173147		habitat	eng	This species is found to inhabit the muddy bottom of Inlé lake at a depth of 2 to 4 m.
173147		population	eng	No information is available on the population structure or trends for this species.
173147		threats	eng	Inlé Lake is threatened from several factors contributing to loss of water area and degradation in water quality due to floating cultivation, tourism, pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage disposal, gold and silver processing, and sedimentation due to aquaculture (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007). The effects of these habitat-related threats is inferred to have a major impact on the species. The lake has reduced from 69 km<sup>2</sup> to 46.7 km<sup>2</sup> in the last 75 years (Sidle <em>et al.</em> 2007). The water area of the lake is less than 50 km<sup>2</sup>.
173148		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and research on the biology, ecology and distribution trends of this species is needed. Research on threats are to be fully understood.
173148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium kuiperi</span> is known from India (Sikkim) (Dance 1967) and Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2007).
173148		habitat	eng	It is found in streams within acidophilic Juncaceae vegetation in most of the unpolluted localities.
173148		population	eng	It is abundant in mud of slow running stretches of streams.
173148		threats	eng	Water pollution is the main inferred threat to this species since its preferred habitat is unpolluted streams.
173149		conservation	eng	Distribution surveys, studies on biology, habitat use and threats are recommended areas of research.
173149		distribution	eng	It has been recorded only from Mandalay, Myanmar, c.1900 (Subba Rao 1989), on the Irrawaddy River.
173149		habitat	eng	The species was found in a river, but no further information is available on habitat and ecology of the species.
173149		population	eng	Information on population structure of this species is lacking.
173149		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
173150		conservation	eng	Distribution surveys, studies on biology, habitat use and threats are recommended areas of research.
173150		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon crebristriata </span>was described from Pegu (Bago), Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173150		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers. Details on the ecology and habitat are not known.
173150		population	eng	No information is available on population or trends of this species.
173150		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
173151		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed distribution information, biology and threats impacting the species are lacking.</p>
173151		distribution	eng	It was described from Pegu (Bago), Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) and does not appear to have been collected since.
173151		habitat	eng	The species was found in rivers, but no more information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species.
173151		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173151		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
173153		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.
173153		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium avanum</span> is reported from "near Ava" (Innwa) and Pegu (Bago) from Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173153		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known, but are presumed to be freshwater river or lake.
173153		population	eng	Population details of this species are not known.
173153		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
173154		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, and population trends of this species are needed.
173154		distribution	eng	The species is reported only from Tenasserim, Myanmar, the type locality.
173154		habitat	eng	This species was found in stagnant water bodies such as ponds and lakes.
173154		population	eng	Population details of this species are not known.
173154		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
173155		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species' distribution and taxonomic placement is required.
173155		distribution	eng	The species is only known from hill streams in Myanmar ('Pegu' (Bago), 'Akyab' (Sittwe, Rakhine State), and Poungday, Bago Region; Nevill 1884), primarily within the Ayeyarwaddy drainages.
173155		habitat	eng	This species is found in hillstreams.
173155		population	eng	No information available.
173155		threats	eng	No information available.
173156		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed as nothing is known about this species since its description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
173156		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iravadia princeps</span> is known only from the type locality in a canal near Chingrighatta, on the outskirts of Kolkata (Subba Rao 1989). There are no other reports since its description.
173156		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat and ecology of this species is available.
173156		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173156		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
173157		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>
173157		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neritina platyconcha</span> is known only from the type locality: Burdul, Kahaduk river, Khulna district, Bangladesh.
173157		habitat	eng	It is a brackish water species.
173157		population	eng	<p>The population details of this species are not known.</p>
173157		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
173160		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>
173160		distribution	eng	It was described from the type locality in the Shan States, Myanmar.   There is also a record from Budha Nullah, Ludhiana, Punjab, India (Punjab Environment Information Web Portal); given the separation of these two records, this record from the Punjab requires confirmation.
173160		habitat	eng	It is reported to be present in stagnant water bodies, lakes and ponds (Subba Rao 1989).
173160		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173160		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
173161		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>Research into distribution, biology and threats to this species is needed.</p>     <p></p>
173161		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radix brevicauda</span> is recorded  from India (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Haryana; (Raghavan 2007)), China and Nepal. It is known from Kashmir Valley  of India and uppermost Kali Gandaki Valley in Mustang in Nepal. Its type  locality is Kashmir (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
173161		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes and slow running streams.
173161		population	eng	There is no information on its population size and trends.
173161		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown, though sedimentation from deforestation, and changes in water flows from hydropower development are likely to impact the species.
173162		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research on distribution, biology, population trends and threats are needed.</p>
173162		distribution	eng	It is known from Sikkim and Tibet within an attitudinal range of 4,500 to 6,000 m (Subba Rao 1989). Recently reported from tributaries of Kali Gandaki River in Mustang, Nepal from 2,700 to 3,900 m asl (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This appears to be an Himalayan endemic, however there is a record from Lake Baikal, Russia (http://www.zoocollection.narod.ru/mollus/) which requires confirmation.It is likely that the species has been overlooked in surveys and may have a wider distribution.
173162		habitat	eng	It Nepal it is found in small to medium sized streams with macrophytes and detritus accumulation and cold spring-fed ponds with dense <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> sp. vegetation (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).
173162		population	eng	There is no information on population trends, however, it is very common in Mustang, Nepal.
173162		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
173168		conservation	eng	The specific identity of this taxon is under question and there is a need to confirm the taxonomic status of the species.
173168		distribution	eng	The taxon has been considered to be restricted to Inlé lake in Myanmar, however, there is a recent record from Chilika Lake, Orissa (Patnaik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), which requires confirmation.
173168		habitat	eng	It is reported from Inlé (Myanmar) and Chilika (Orissa, India) Lakes.
173168		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173168		threats	eng	Threats to the habitat at Inle Lake are very well understood (Sidle <em>et al. </em>2007), and include a reduction in surface area, and pollution and sedimentation from a number of sources. Chiliki Lake faces similar problems, including siltation due to littoral drift and sediments from the inland river systems, shrinkage of the water surface area, and a proliferation of fresh water invasive species.
173169		conservation	eng	Further information on the species' range, population, and potential threats is required.
173169		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from Inlé lake, He Ho Gorge and the Southern Shan states in Myanmar.
173169		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes and rivers.
173169		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173169		threats	eng	Threats to the habitat at Inlé Lake are very well understood (Sidle <em>et al. </em>2007), and include a reduction in surface area, and pollution and sedimentation from a number of sources.
173170		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population status and threats of this species are needed.&#160; </p>
173170		distribution	eng	It is known from India (Andamans) and Myanmar (Inlé lake and Yawnghwe, Southern Shan States) (Subba Rao 1989).
173170		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lakes and ponds.
173170		population	eng	<p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>
173170		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
173171		conservation	eng	This is a newly described species with very little information on distribution, biology, threats and population trends and hence requires extensive studies.
173171		distribution	eng	It is reported only from Dobra River at Sonaru, Patna District, Bihar in India (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
173171		habitat	eng	It lives on the surface of soft organic mud bottoms in stagnant waters (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).
173171		population	eng	Nesemann <em>et al.</em> (2007) report the species to occur in high densities.
173171		threats	eng	No specific threats have been documented so far.
173172		conservation	eng	Research into distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. The impact of known threats on the species need to be confirmed. Although there are no species-specific actions in place, the preservation and conservation of Lake Inle has become a priority for the Ministry of Forests in Myanmar, which should see a reduction of many of the threats on this species.
173172		distribution	eng	It has been reported only from Inlé Lake, Myanmar.
173172		habitat	eng	The habitat is reported to be a lake, but no information&#160;is available on the ecology of this species.
173172		population	eng	No information is available on the population structure or trends for this species.
173172		threats	eng	Inlé Lake is impacted by several factors contributing to loss of water area and degradation in habitat due to floating lake cultivation, tourism, pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage disposal, gold and silver-smithing, sedimentation due to aquaculture, etc. (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007). Although direct impacts are not known, the effects of these habitat related threats is inferred to have a major impact on the species. The open water area of the lake has reduced from 69.1 km² to 46.7 km² in the last 75 years (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).
173174		conservation	eng	Information on biology and threats is needed.
173174		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gabbia stenothyroides</span> is known from India: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (Pune) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris, South Arcot, Tiruchirapalli, Chennai); Sri Lanka (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007); and Nepal (far western Nepal in Karnali floodplain near Tikapur, Kailali) (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The identity of the Nepal population requires verification.
173174		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers.
173174		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends.
173174		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to the species.
173175		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further survey work is required to obtain fresh specimens for taxonomic work to confirm the status of the species. Future research regarding the population trends and threats impacting its populations is required.<br/></p>
173175		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>This species has not been recorded beyond the type locality: Tranquebar (Tharangambadi), Tamil Nadu, India. (Subba Rao 1989).
173175		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology are unknown for this species. Most likely fresh water.
173175		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
173175		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
173176		conservation	eng	Distribution, life history and threats need to be studied.
173176		distribution	eng	It is known from south and southeast Asia. It was reported from coastal areas of Thailand (Gulf of Thailand), Myanmar, Malaysia, southern Viet Nam, Indonesia (Java and Sumatra) (Brandt 1974) and also reported from India (Ganga River at Patna and Mokhama) (Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
173176		habitat	eng	It is a secondary freshwater snail occurring on the coastal zones in the brackish water.
173176		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
173176		threats	eng	There is no information on threats for this species.
173177		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Distribution and life history studies along with identification of threats are recommended for this newly described species.</p>
173177		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula godawariensis</span>&#160;is known only from Nepal. It is found in forest streams in Godawari, Lalitpur District and Roshi Khola, Kavre District, central Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)
173177		habitat	eng	It is found in the hill streams and rivers, preferably in the forest streams.
173177		population	eng	No information on population details are available.
173177		threats	eng	The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to    sedimentation within the hill stream habitat, and the loss of habitat   caused by urbanisation close to the  Kathmandu valley.
173179		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species, if any, should be identified. Confirmation of the taxonomic status of the species is needed.<br/></p>
173179		distribution	eng	The species is reported only from Heho Gorge (Kalaw Township, Taunggyi District, Shan State) in Myanmar (close to Inle Lake) (Subba Rao 1989). It has not been reported since its description in 1925.
173179		habitat	eng	The species was found in streams and rivers.
173179		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
173179		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, however there is a lack of data on the current status of the habitat, and Inle Lake is impacted by threats of habitat loss and habitat change.
173180		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">More research on life history and impacts of threats to the species is required. Habitat protection is recommended.</p>
173180		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula mahadevensis</span> has only been recorded from the mid-hill streams of central Nepal. Specimens were collected from Mahadev Khola (forest stream) in the upper reaches of Nagarkot, Bhaktapur District (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), within the Kathmandu valley, Nepal.
173180		habitat	eng	It is reported from unpolluted forest streams in the mid-hills (between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl) of central Nepal within the Kathmandu valley.
173180		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173180		threats	eng	It is found in unpolluted forest hill streams at Nagarkot, which is one of the main tourists destinations in Nepal, located close to Kathmandu. Human disturbance due to anthropogenic activities responsible for water pollution are inferred threats to this species.
173181		conservation	eng	This species is known from the type locality in Myanmar. Further research is required to understand its&#160;ecology, range and&#160;population, as well as its&#160;conservation&#160;status.
173181		distribution	eng	<em>Tricula martini</em>&#160;is known only from its type locality, "Kutkai", in a small channel flowing into the Nam Geng River, Muse District, northerastern Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) although this has since been disputed (Abbott 1948). It was described in 1928.
173181		habitat	eng	This species was described from a "small channel flowing into the Nam Teng river … choked with lilies, grass and other weeds" (Abbott 1948).
173181		population	eng	No information available about population and distribution of this species.
173181		threats	eng	Little is known of&#160; the species current habitat condition, however the type locality, Kutkai, has developed greatly since the species description in 1928, and this development has likely&#160; impacted upon the species habitat (water pollution and sedimentation). The impact of these and other threats needs to be studied.
173182		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species and threats are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. &#160; </p>
173182		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula taylori</span> is known only from the type locality, a small stream flowing into the reservoir in Laqshio, Northern Shan states, Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173182		habitat	eng	<p>The species was described from a small stream flowing into a reservoir.<br/></p>
173182		population	eng	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>
173182		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
173183		conservation	eng	<p>  More research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.<br/> <br/> </p>
173183		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides pyramis</span> is widely distributed and reported from Afghanistan, central (Maharashtra; Patil and Talmale 2005) northern and northeastern India, southern Iran, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan.
173183		habitat	eng	Information on habitat and ecology are not fully understood. However, according to Nesesmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) this species occurs in running waters and lakes of the Himalayan middle mountains.
173183		population	eng	It is very common in running waters in the mountains but sporadically found in the Gangetic plains of Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Actual population trend is not fully understood.
173183		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
173184		conservation	eng	Detailed survey on distribution and studies on the biology, population, ecology, habitat, trends and threats are needed, as there is insufficient information available.
173184		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus andersoniana</span> is only known from the type locality in upper Myanmar (Pegu River). According to the database of Florida Museum of Natural History, it was also collected from Agat Bay, Mariana Island in 2001, however this record requires confirmation.
173184		habitat	eng	Collected from "Pegu River", Myanmar.
173184		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173184		threats	eng	Threats are not known to this species.
173185		conservation	eng	Studies on distribution, biology, ecology, habitat, population and trends recommended for this species.
173185		distribution	eng	Originally described from "Yaylaymaw and Mandalay", Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173185		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology of this species are not known.
173185		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173185		threats	eng	No known threats are documented for this species.
173186		conservation	eng	More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
173186		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus dhuma</span> has only been reported from the type locality at the edge of a stream near "Thazi railway station", lower Myanmar.
173186		habitat	eng	It occurs in streams.
173186		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173186		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
173187		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population, trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. &#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
173187		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus nana</span> is only known from type locality in Pegu, Lower Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
173187		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.
173187		population	eng	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>
173187		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
173188		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys to establish its distribution range and research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended.</p>
173188		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from Myanmar and details on the exact location are not recorded.
173188		habitat	eng	No information is available on the ecology of this species, but it is inferred to be found in streams.
173188		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173188		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>
173189		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended:<br/>- To study its biology and to estimate the population size<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and of the existing sites&#160;&#160; <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)&#160;&#160; &#160;<br/>- Raising public awareness
173189		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salix atrocinerea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">jahandiezii</span> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it seems to be quite common. It occurs in the High Atlas (in-el-Ouidane), the Moyen Atlas (Azrou, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, up to El Ksiba), middle Atlantic Morocco (Ida-ou-Bouzia and Aït Zeltene, Arhzou-Bouagal river around Larbaâ, Biteljane to the north of Taroudant) and in the north of the country (Grou river between Moulay Bou-Azza and oued Zem, to the north of Moulay Bou-Azza). The extent of occurrence of this species is about 7,500 km² with an area of occupancy passing 2,500 km².
173189		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that is found at the streams of the low and middle mountains, under the semi-arid, sub-humid or humid Mediterranean bioclimate. It flowers from winter to the beginning of spring.<br/>Cases of hybridization have been observed in this taxon that sometimes presents the characters of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix canariensis</span>.
173189		population	eng	No data on the size or trends of the populations is available.
173189		threats	eng	Frequent droughts and increasing urbanization are the main threats to its habitat.
173192		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
173192		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara rudis </span>is reported from India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, (Sumatra, Java, Ambonia, Batjan, Halnahera) and the Philippines (Subba Rao 1989).<br/><br/>The exact locality for the species is not found in the available  literature. The  distribution range is very large. It can be inferred that the species is  present within the Eastern Himalayas assessment region.
173192		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in streams.</p>
173192		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
173192		threats	eng	<p>The species is likely to impacted locally by habitat loss, and potentially by pollution, but is unlikely to be threatened across its range.<br/></p>
173194		conservation	eng	This species is found within an 8,000 acre tea estate leased for 99 years to the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation Ltd. (BBTC) by the British Raj in 1929, when the primary forest was cleared. Since 1929, some cardamom was planted to replace forest understory, but much of this has now been cleared and represents unexploited, ‘recovering’ forest that also supports this species. The lease to BBTC expires in 2028, and the land will likely be returned to the local Tamil Nadu forest department and absorbed into the nearby Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. There is already an evergreen forest corridor near Kakachi and Nalumukku, joining the sanctuaries of Kalakad and Mundanthurai. It is believed that this area is unlikely to undergo immediate habitat destruction (Gower<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).    More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
173194		distribution	eng	This species is only known from near Upper Kodayar, at 1,265 m asl, in the environs of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, part of the Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu State, India (Gower <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).   It might occur more widely, but surveys in nearby areas have yet to be carried out. Members of this species group within the genus are poorly known, but have been reported only from higher altitudes in the Western Ghats and so <span style="font-style: italic;">U. gansi</span> might not occur at much lower elevations (D. Gower pers. comm. January 2010).
173194		habitat	eng	This fossorial species has been found in disturbed habitats, such as at the edges of a tea plantation or cleared, former cardamom plantations with only low herbaceous vegetation and original trees left. It may possibly also occur in forests. Individuals have been found within 20 cm of the surface in moist, loose, dark soil, and sometimes beneath rotting wood. Based on what we know of congeners, this species is presumed to be oviparous with a free-living larval stage (D. Gower pers. comm. September 2010).
173194		population	eng	This species has been encountered about three to four times over the last 20 years, especially so in the last two years, while surveying for uropeltid snakes (Gower <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, D. Gower pers. comm. September 2010). There are no data on abundance relative to search effort, so there are no indications of changes in the population (D. Gower pers. comm. September 2010).
173194		threats	eng	<p>There is an intensification of agricultural activities (agro-industry) where this species occurs. If the species does in fact have larval aquatic development as presumed, it could be impacted by agrochemical pollution of water bodies. More information is needed on the impact of these factors on this species.<br/></p>
173201		conservation	eng	As this species has a restricted global range and is very rare, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173201		distribution	eng	The La Palma Grayling occurs only on the Canary Island of La Palma, between 400-1,300 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173201		habitat	eng	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, La Palma. It can be found in rocky gullies surrounded by laurel or pine forest. It has one generation a year (Tolman & Lewington 2008).  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173201		population	eng	This is a very local and rare European endemic, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on La Palma, Canary Islands.  It is not known how large the population is, but numbers might well be under 10,000 adults.
173201		threats	eng	This species is restricted to few locations on one island. It is threatened by tourist activities and fires.
173202		conservation	eng	More research on the distribution and ecology of this species is urgently needed. Since this species has a very restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173202		distribution	eng	The Andalusian Anomalous Blue is restricted to two mountain ranges in the region of Andalusia, Spain (Sierra de Tejeda and Sierra de Almijara), between 1,500 - 1,600 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173202		habitat	eng	The Andalusian Anomalous Blue occurs in warm places in mountain ranges, where flower-rich areas can be found. The foodplant is Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis argentea</span>). The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small, and feed on the flowers and leaves of the foodplant. Often they are encountered together with ants of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis</span>. The habitat is a short Mediterranean scrub growing on calcareous substrate. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173202		population	eng	A local species, it is restricted to locations with good quality habitat in Andalusia (Spain).
173202		threats	eng	Reafforestation, overgrazing and fires are the major threats for the species. The habitat of the species is however within a Natural Park.
173203		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173203		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Alps from France via the south of Switzerland to the Salzburger Alps in Austria. Found at altitudes of 1,400-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
173203		habitat	eng	Mnestra’s Ringlet occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, especially dry grasslands on steep, sunny slopes. The butterflies are seldom seen on flowers, drinking nectar. The female lays its eggs close to the ground on dry stalks of grass. The plain green caterpillars have been found on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and also on Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>). They hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173203		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173203		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173204		conservation	eng	As almost nothing is known about the distribution and ecology of this species, basic research on distribution and ecology is needed. Only after that can important habitats be distinguished. These should be protected and well-managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173204		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in  northwest  Greece, between 500-1,500 m elevation. This Grayling used to be considered a subspecies of Brown's Grayling (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. mamurra</span>), which occurs in the Asian part of Turkey. This is a European endemic species.
173204		habitat	eng	These butterflies are mostly found in open, shrubby vegetation, but also in clearings and along paths in woods. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).
173204		population	eng	This is an extremely  local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173204		threats	eng	Almost nothing is known about this species. It is probably threatened by abandonment.
173205		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. More research to distribution and ecology is needed.
173205		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Corsica and Sardinia. Found at altitudes from 700-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173205		habitat	eng	This species replaces the Small Tortoiseshell (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. urticae</span>) on the Islands of Corsica and Sardinia. It may be found in nearly all habitats but only in mountainous area at altitudes higher than 700 m. The larval foodplant is  Stinging Nettle (<span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica</span>). It is double-generationed. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173205		population	eng	A local species, restricted to Corsica and Sardinia.
173205		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173206		conservation	eng	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173206		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the south of Italy. Its elevational range is 800-1,100 m. This is a European endemic species.
173206		habitat	eng	The Italian Grayling is is restricted to a small region on the South of Italy. It occurs on dry stony grasslands. This species is single-brooded (Lafranchis 2004).  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173206		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Italy.
173206		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173207		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173207		distribution	eng	Occurs only on Sardinia (Monti del Gennargentu). Found at altitudes from 800-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173207		habitat	eng	The Sardinian Blue occurs on dry, rocky, mountainous slopes and on flowery patches in open scrub. Various species of thyme (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus </span>spp.) are used as foodplant. The Sardinian Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: phrygana (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
173207		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173207		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173208		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173208		distribution	eng	Occurs only on Corsica and Sardinia and is the only Dappled White that can be found on these islands. On Corsica, it is quite rare, but more abundant on Sardinia, especially on the coast and at low altitudes. Its elevational range is 0-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species.
173208		habitat	eng	The Corsican Dappled White is a species of dry, grassy vegetation and of dry scrub. The Candytuft (<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis pinnata</span>), the Hoary Mustard (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hirschfeldia incana</span>) and mustards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis </span>spp.) are used as foodplants. It has two generations a year, in early spring and late spring, but as the second generation is only partial, only small numbers of butterflies can be seen in May and June. It hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%).
173208		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173208		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173209		conservation	eng	In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173209		distribution	eng	The Woodland Grayling occurs south of a line from the southern border of Belgium, central Germany and southern Poland eastwards. It is absent from north and west of France, as well as the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily and Lefkada. On the Iberian Peninsula it occurs only in Aragon and Catalonia. It occurs from sea level to 1,600 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173209		habitat	eng	The Woodland Grayling is a butterfly of open woods that occurs on grassy vegetation, along woodland rides and in woodland glades. The butterflies often settle on tree trunks where, with their wings tightly closed and the eye-spots hidden, they are very well camouflaged. The eggs are laid on the blades of grasses such as fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), false-bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium </span>spp.) and bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.). The caterpillars grow very slowly and hibernate half-grown in the litter layer. The caterpillar pupates in a little hollow in the ground, spinning a kind of cocoon. The Woodland Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), mixed woodland (10%), heath and scrub (7%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (7%).
173209		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It is reported extinct from Luxembourg. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Romania, Slovenia and Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173209		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and open woodlands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
173210		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173210		distribution	eng	Occurs in the southeastern Alps, from southern foothills of Monte Baldo and Dolomites in Italy, southern Austrian Alps, via the Julian Alps and Karavanke Mountains  to the west and southwest of Croatia. Found at altitudes between 300-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173210		habitat	eng	The Styrian Ringlet is found mostly on rocky limestone slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and on scree. The caterpillars feed on various grasses, such as Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>) and Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>). The Styrian Ringlet is single-brooded. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (40%), screes (20%).
173210		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173210		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173211		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173211		distribution	eng	Occurs in Central Europe. It is absent from Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, the Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces), the Mediterranean islands (except Corsica and Sardinia) and most of the south of Italy. Found at altitudes from 100-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173211		habitat	eng	The Chalkhill Blue occurs on calcareous soil in dry and flower-rich places with a short vegetation. They seem to prefer sheltered places. Sometimes, populations can be extremely large which is especially obvious in the late afternoon when the butterflies come together to roost. Hundreds of butterflies can be seen, their heads pointing downwards into the vegetation, wings upright, the light-coloured underwings gleaming in the evening sun. Horseshoe Vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>) is its only foodplant, the female laying her eggs on the leaves. The eggs hibernate. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lasius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tetramorium</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aphaenogaster </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tapinoma</span>. The Chalkhill Blue pupates in the litter layer. It usually only has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (35%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), mesophile grasslands (13%), heath and scrub (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).
173211		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Ukraine, United Kingdom. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Lithuania, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173211		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173212		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173212		distribution	eng	Restricted to the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, Giglio and Capraia. Its elevational range is 500-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species. Some authors regard <span style="font-style: italic;">H. senthes</span> a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. aristaeus</span>.
173212		habitat	eng	The Southern Grayling occurs on open, grassy slopes, on rocky slopes, in scrubby vegetation and in open woodland. The caterpillars feed on grasses, including Albardine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lygeum</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">spartum</span>). They continue feeding on warm winter days. In spring they pupate in the ground. The Southern Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), mixed woodland (20%), screes (20%).
173212		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173212		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173213		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173213		distribution	eng	Scattered occurrence on Sardinia. Most abundant in the Monti del Gennargentu, where it is found at elevations of 600-1,300 m; elsewhere at 400 m. This is a European endemic species.
173213		habitat	eng	The Sardinian Meadow Brown is mostly found on bushy vegetation with Cistus, on grassland with bushes, in woodland clearings and in open woodland and near streams. The butterflies often fly close to the ground. Compared to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. jurtina</span>, that occurs in the same habitats but also on higher altitudes, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nurag</span> is much smaller and much lighter and more orange-yellow on the upper-side of the wings. Females aestivate during the hottest period of summer waiting for first autumn rains for egg laying. After mating, the female stores the sperm and eggs get fertilized after the aestivation period when females lay their eggs (Grill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2006). The caterpillars live on grasses, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca morisiana</span>, an endemic fescue of Sardinia. The caterpillars are mainly active at night and continue feeding throughout the winter as long as it does not freeze. The Sardinian Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173213		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173213		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face immediate threats. According to Grill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) global warming could disrupt the aestivation, which might threaten the species in future.
173214		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173214		distribution	eng	Occurs on almost all Crete (between an altitude of 0-1,800 m). This is a European endemic species.
173214		habitat	eng	The Cretan Small Heath occurs on grassy vegetation and in open scrub. The butterflies fly quickly and close to the ground. When resting, they always keep their wings closed. It is uncertain how many generations this species has a year, either one generation with a long flight period, or two or more generations, each with a short flight-period. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
173214		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173214		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173215		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species and the interactions between <span style="font-style: italic;">P. xiphia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aegeria</span>. The trend of both species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173215		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.
173215		habitat	eng	The Madeiran Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. It can be found throughout the year in laurel and chestnut forests. The caterpillars' foodplants are grasses such as the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium sylvaticum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Holcus lanatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis gigantea</span>. This species produces several generations a year. In summer, the number of butterflies sometimes decreases for a while (Tolman & Lewington 2008). Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (100%).
173215		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173215		threats	eng	This is a European endemic with a restricted range. Although habitat is still abundant on Madeira, the Madeiran Speckled Wood is apparently gradually being replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pararge aegeria</span>, a widespread species in Europe. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pararge aegeria</span> colonized the island in the 1970s and is still expanding its range.
173216		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173216		distribution	eng	Occurs in widely scattered areas in the Pyrenees (very rare), the Alps (from the French Alps to the Julian, Kamnikean and Karavanke Mountains), the Balkans, southwest Bosnia, southwest Serbia and northwest Former Republic of Macedonia and in Northern Europe on border between Norway and Sweden and in Lapland. Recently also reported in the Romanian Carpathians. In Switzerland 1,000-2,700 m, in Spain 1,500-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173216		habitat	eng	The Alpine Grizzled Skipper occurs in damp, moist, grassy places, often near streams or bogs in the Alps and Pyrenees. In Scandinavia, they are seen on dwarf scrub vegetation and also in rocky places on steep slopes. The larval foodplants is White dryas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dryas octopetala</span>). The caterpillars live in a communal shelter of spun leaves. They hibernate, pupating in a similar shelter the following spring. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%).
173216		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173216		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173217		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173217		distribution	eng	Occurs over nearly all Portugal and Spain except the north coast and Pyrenees, southeastern France (Pyrenees, Provence, Alps) and adjacent part of Italian Alps, Apennines and Sicily. It has been recorded at altitudes from 0-1,700 m and is a European endemic species.
173217		habitat	eng	The Southern Marbled skipper occurs on dry, sparse vegetation, in dunes, in dry, grassy places, scrubland and on rocky slopes. Foodplants are various horehounds, including Horehound (<span style="font-style: italic;">Marrubium vulgare)</span>, Black Horehound (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ballota nigra foetida</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ballota </span>spp. The female lays its eggs one by one on the leaves and shoots of the small foodplant. The small caterpillars live hidden in a spun leaf. The older, larger caterpillars spin two neighbouring leaves together to make a safe shelter. When they are fully-grown, the caterpillars go down to the base of the foodplant and spin a few dried leaves together in which to pupate. The species was not seen in the Alps in the last 40 years where it probably had just one generation a year, while in Spain there are two or three generations a year. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), screes (33%).
173217		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173217		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173218		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173218		distribution	eng	This species, which was recently split from Spanish Brassy Ringlet (<span style="font-style: italic;">E.  hispania</span>), is known only from the Pyrenees, including Andorra, from altitudes of 1,650-2,300 m. This is a European endemic species.
173218		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky grassy slopes and alpine meadows. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).
173218		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173218		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173219		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173219		distribution	eng	Occurs only locally on Crete. Its elevational range is 0-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173219		habitat	eng	This Festoon is often seen in dry, open scrub, but also on agricultural land, in olive groves and vineyards and sometimes in damp places. The Birthwort <span style="font-style: italic;">Aristolochia cretica</span>, which only grows on Crete and perhaps also <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sempervirens</span>, are used as host plants. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
173219		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173219		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173220		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173220		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Island Gomera. 200-400 m. This is a European endemic species.
173220		habitat	eng	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, Gomera. There, it can be found on the steep and grassy cliffs and on rocky gullies and slopes, mostly where there is also some bushy vegetation or laurel forest at close range. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008).  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173220		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Gomera, Canary Islands.
173220		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173221		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173221		distribution	eng	Occurs on the islands Corsica, Sardinia and Capraia. Found from sea level-1,200 m, occasionally to 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173221		habitat	eng	The Corsican Heath is found in different sorts of habitats, flower-rich grasslands at lower altitudes, dry scrub of open or dense maquis, deciduous woodlands, especially in valleys and ravines and coniferous forests at high altitudes. It uses the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span> and other grasses as foodplants. This species has several, overlapping generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
173221		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173221		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173222		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored closely by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173222		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Islands. Generally found from 200 to 2,500 m, although it has been recorded near the summit of Mount Teide on Tenerife at 3500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173222		habitat	eng	The Canary Blue can be found amongst scrub on rocky places, that are mostly at low altitudes and also on waste ground near human settlements. The larvae feed on many plant species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartocytisus rubigenus</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lotus sessilifolius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hillebrandii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. glaucus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpus viscosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline stenopetala</span>. At low altitudes, this species produces many overlapping generations and can be seen throughout the year. It is not known how many generations are produced and what the diapause stage might be on sites at high altitudes, such as Mount Teide on Tenerife.<br/>Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173222		population	eng	A local species, restricted to the Canary Islands.
173222		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173223		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173223		distribution	eng	The Canary Brimstone occurs in the Canary Islands at elevations between 1,000-1,500 m, sometimes up to 2,000 m. In winter it also occurs at lower elevations. This is a European endemic species.
173223		habitat	eng	This butterfly can be seen in laurel forests on the north sides of the mountains, but also in other types of forests; they are very mobile and can be seen far away from their reproduction sites. The caterpillars feed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnus glandulosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. crenulata</span>. It is not known how many generations a year are on the wing. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173223		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Population declines have been estimated at 10%.
173223		threats	eng	This is a European endemic with a restricted range. The survival of the species is bound to its habitat, the laurel forest, which is still threatened although a part is legally protected. The main threats for laurel forests on the Canary Islands are tourist resorts and illegal building destroying part of the habitats, especially alongside roads or near settlements. Fires are another significant threat. Accidentally and intentionally set for livestock grazing, crop planting, timber and real estate speculation are also impacting the laurel forest.
173224		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but more research is required on the distribution and ecology of the species, especially field work to find new populations in suitable areas.
173224		distribution	eng	Restricted to Spain and Portugal, where it is found in several mountain ranges in central Spain and in the Portuguese Alentejo. Field work is needed to find new populations in suitable areas. This is a European endemic species.
173224		habitat	eng	The habitat consists of grassland clearings in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Q. pyrenaica </span>woodlands, but also in traditionally grazed grasslands and open areas in pine forests. The species has two generations and hibernates as a larva in the second generation. The larva feeds on several <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex </span>species. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173224		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173224		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173225		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173225		distribution	eng	Occurs in the south of FYR of Macedonia and scattered in Greece. Its elevational range is 1,000-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.
173225		habitat	eng	The Grecian Grayling occurs mainly on calcareous slopes with grassy vegetation and on rocky slopes. The butterflies fly close to the ground. When at rest on the ground with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. The caterpillars feed on various grasses. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (66%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).
173225		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173225		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173226		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173226		distribution	eng	Occurs in some mountainous areas in Europe: central Pyrenees including Andorra, the Alps (from French Alps to Austria), southwest Bulgaria and Romania and the south of the Carpathians.&#160; Found at altitudes of 1,000-2,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173226		habitat	eng	Damp grassland, at the edge of bogs or streams, is the habitat of the Dusky Grizzled Skipper, although they sometimes occur on dry grasslands and are most numerous near the tree-line. They are quite mobile butterflies and are therefore often seen outside their habitat. Males show marked territorial behaviour. Surveying its territory from a perch, a tall tree usually serving as a lookout, he drives away butterfly passing by. Any other male Dusky Grizzled Skipper is pursued for tens of metres before the chase is given up and the male returns home. The female lays its eggs on various species of cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.), such as Tormentil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. erecta</span>) and Alpine Cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. crantzii</span>) and also on Sibbaldia species. It prefers plants growing on drier places, such as on hummocks in damp habitats, or at a little distance from its habitat. The caterpillars live hidden between spun leaves and it is in this stage that the Dusky Grizzled Skipper hibernates. It has one generation a year. The development takes two years. Habitats include alpine and subalpine grasslands (72%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mixed woodland (9%).
173226		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173226		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173227		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173227		distribution	eng	Occurs only in the Alps from the French Alps to the Carnic Alps in the south of Austria. Its elevational range is 1,400-2,900 m. This is a European endemic species.
173227		habitat	eng	At altitudes of about 1,500 m, the Alpine Grayling occurs on dry, scrubby vegetation. Above the tree-line, they can be seen in dry, stony alpine grasslands and on dry, open sunny slopes. Most habitats have a stream in the vicinity. Perched on a stone, the males defend their territory, chasing away other butterflies, as well as other insects. The female lays its eggs one at a time on dry grass stalks close to the ground. The caterpillar hibernates in the first larval instar and having fed during the growing season, hibernates again in the last instar. Eventually, some time between April and June, it pupates. Its main foodplant is Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) but other fescues are also used. This butterfly is single-brooded. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (42%), water-fringe vegetation (14%), screes (14%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (14%).
173227		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173227		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173228		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173228		distribution	eng	Confined to the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Elba and Capraia. Its elevational range is 300-2,100 m. This is a European endemic species.
173228		habitat	eng	The Corsican Grayling is found on open slopes covered with grassy vegetation and scrub or dwarf scrub, sometimes with coniferous woodland nearby, although they also occur above the tree-line. Different grasses are used as foodplants, including the fescue <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca morisiana</span>. The caterpillars do not have a real diapause and continue feeding throughout the winter. It has one generation a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
173228		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173228		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173229		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173229		distribution	eng	Only occurs on West Sicily in the mountains south of Palermo (the very similar <span style="font-style: italic;">M. arge</span> occurs in northeast Sicily). Its elevational range is from 600-1,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173229		habitat	eng	The Sicilian Marbled White lives in rocky places with dry, grassy vegetation. Its foodplants are grasses and probably the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span> is one of them. After hatching, the tiny caterpillar first eats the shell of its egg and then becomes inactive in summer months, only beginning to feed in autumn. The next spring, when it is fully-grown, it spins a little tent from sand and plant remains in which to pupate. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173229		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173229		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173230		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173230		distribution	eng	Occurs in several mountainous areas: in the Alps from the Ligurian Alps and French Alps to Tirol (Brenner Pass) and the Dolomites, the Apuan Alps, north and mid-Apennines. Found at altitudes of 1,100-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173230		habitat	eng	The Marbled Ringlet is mainly found on warm, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation in flower-rich grasslands and occasionally in woods, for the most part on limestone. When the butterflies settle on stones or on the ground with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. However, they can be seen visiting flowers, which they do regularly. The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar and in spring begin feeding on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), or on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>). The caterpillars have been found on the larger tussocks growing in the shelter of rocks. They pupate in June or July. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), screes (25%).
173230		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173230		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173231		conservation	eng	Since this species has a very restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173231		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Ponza Islands in Italy. This is a European endemic species.
173231		habitat	eng	The Ponza Grayling is the only grayling on the island of Ponza. It occurs on dry grassland and scrub close to trees. This species is single-brooded (Lafranchis 2004). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173231		population	eng	The Ponza Grayling is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on the Ponza Islands in Italy.
173231		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range on a few isolated islands.
173232		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. More research to distribution and ecology is needed.
173232		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Islands Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Gomera and La Palma. Its elevational range is 200-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173232		habitat	eng	The Canary Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. It can be found throughout the year in laurel and chestnut forests. The caterpillars' foodplants are grasses that grow in woodland and damp grassland, such as false-bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium</span> spp.), cock’s-foot (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylus </span>spp.), <span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula forsteri</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzopsis miliacea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis tenuous</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex divulsa</span>. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173232		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on the Canary Islands.
173232		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173233		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173233		distribution	eng	Occurs in the south of Russia and The Balkans: in Serbia, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and the north of Greece. Its elevational range is 600-1,500 m, sometimes 2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173233		habitat	eng	Delattin’s Grayling is a butterfly of warm and dry places. It is found on rocky slopes, on dry grasslands and in open woodland. It has one generation a year. The adults butterflies are on the wing from June to July. Further details on the ecology of this species are unknown. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), mixed woodland (16%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%), phrygana (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).
173233		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
173233		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173234		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173234		distribution	eng	Occurs very locally in the mountains of southeast Europe: in Serbia, west of FYR of Macedonia, southeast and central Bulgaria and north of Greece. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
173234		habitat	eng	The Nicholl’s Ringlet is mainly found on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, where the butterflies fly close to the vegetation. They are sometimes seen near woods. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), coniferous woodland (40%), mesophile grasslands (20%).
173234		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173234		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173235		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. In Italy, not all populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.
173235		distribution	eng	Occurs in Italy from central Italy to the northeast of Sicily. Its elevational range is 350-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173235		habitat	eng	The Italian Marbled White occurs locally in small populations. It occurs in rocky, calcareous places on patches of dry, grassy vegetation among loose thickets of Prickly Juniper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus oxycedrus), Rosa sempervirens</span>, the bramble<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rubus ulmifolius </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus capitatus</span>, with a few scattered trees. The caterpillars feed on grasses such as Feather Grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pinnata</span>) and the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span>. The Italian Marbled White has one generation a year and only flies for three weeks per year in any one location. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173235		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173235		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173236		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173236		distribution	eng	Occurs in separate mountainous areas in Spain (Sierra de Bejar, S. de Gredos, S. de Guadarrama, S. de la Demanda, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees), France (Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura and Vosges), Switzerland, south of Germany, Liechtenstein, west of Austria, central Italy (Alps and Apennines). Absent from the Carpathians, Tatra and mountains of the Balkans. 600-2,300 m. This is a European endemic species.
173236		habitat	eng	The Piedmont Ringlet occurs on a variety of grassy places in and near woods. The female lays its eggs on many different grasses, including fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Wavy Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia flexuosa</span>), Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>) and several species of bent (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis </span>spp.). At very high altitudes, when the caterpillars are half-grown, they hibernate in the litter layer. They may hibernate twice before pupating deep down in the vegetation. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (54%), mesophile grasslands (18%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (9%), coniferous woodland (9%).
173236		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173236		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173237		conservation	eng	In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173237		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Alps from French Alps to Hohe Tauern and Dachstein Mts. in Austria and Julian Alps in Slovenia, also in central Italy. Found at altitudes of 1,800-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173237		habitat	eng	The Sooty Ringlet is a butterfly of mountainous areas with everlasting snows and glaciers. It occurs high up, on steep screes and moraines, breeding on patches with a mosaic of sparse vegetation and small stones. The female deposits the pale-coloured eggs on mostly light-coloured stones. Once the caterpillar has emerged from the egg, it sometimes has to travel some distance before finding one of the grasses it uses as a foodplant. Caterpillars have been found on the fescues<span style="font-style: italic;"> Festuca halleri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. quadriflora,</span> as well as on Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa annua</span>). The caterpillars take two or possibly three years to develop. Habitats: screes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (20%).
173237		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173237		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173238		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173238		distribution	eng	Restricted to Sao Miguel, in the Azores. Its elevational range is 600-1,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173238		habitat	eng	Le Cerf's Grayling can be found in on grassy vegetation in small valleys and sheltered hollows. The butterflies are often observed on flowers where they come for nectar. Probably, the only foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca jubata</span>. The species has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (33%), heath and scrub (33%).
173238		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173238		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173239		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173239		distribution	eng	Occurs locally in southeastern France (from Hérault and Cevennes to the Maritime Alps) and northwestern Italy in the Maritime Alps. Found at altitudes from 600-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173239		habitat	eng	The Furry Blue occurs on dry, flower-rich, grassy vegetation with scrub, on waste ground and in clearings in deciduous or coniferous woods. The female lays its eggs on Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis viciifola</span>) and possibly also on various medicks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago </span>spp.). The butterflies are attended by ants. Hibernation takes place when the caterpillars are still small. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (40%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%).
173239		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173239		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173240		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173240		distribution	eng	Occurs on the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Capraia and Montecristo. This is a European endemic species.
173240		habitat	eng	This butterfly species can be fairly common in maquis habitat. It used to be considered a sub-species of the Wall Brown (<span style="font-style: italic;">L. megera</span>). The life-cycle of these two species is very similar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).
173240		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173240		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173241		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173241		distribution	eng	This species was first discovered in 1982, in Spain near Baza (Granada). Later, the species was also found in Huesca and western Catalonia. It occurs between 150-1,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173241		habitat	eng	The Spanish Greenish Black-tip is found in semiarid grasslands or scrub (vegetation types <span style="font-style: italic;">Santolino-Gypsophiletum struthium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno-Cocciferetum pistacietosum</span>) on calcareous or gypsum substrate. The caterpillars feed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Eruca vesicaria </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Boleum asperum</span>, eating the leaves as well as the ripening seeds. The species has one generation a year, with a  partial second generation, and hibernates as a pupa.
173241		population	eng	The Spanish Greenish Black-tip is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Spain. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by  the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The population size is estimated to be smaller than 10,000 butterflies.
173241		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range in Europe and the population size is small. Regarding its limited distribution it might become threatened in the longer term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) there is no information on possible changes to its climate envelope.
173242		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173242		distribution	eng	Occurs locally only in the Alps: in Switzerland in the Northern Alps and Engadin, Italy in the Ortler Alps and Dolomites, Germany in the Allgäuer Alps and in Austria as far east as the Rax mountains. Found at altitudes between 1,200-2250 m. This is a European endemic species.
173242		habitat	eng	The Eriphyle Ringlet occurs locally in the Alps and is one of the smaller ringlets. It is a characteristic species of the north-facing slopes, occurring on rough, herbaceous vegetation in the alpine and sub-alpine zones, where there are plenty of alder (Alnus spp.) saplings. They are often found in places where the conspicuous plants <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostyles alliariae</span> and Masterwort (Peucedanum ostruthium) are growing. It uses Sweet-Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>) and Tufted Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia cespitosa</span>) as foodplants. Some of the caterpillars leave the egg before the winter, but most of them hibernate in the egg and emerge in spring, when they all start feeding on grasses. In autumn, they hibernate again and moult twice before pupating at the end of May. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173242		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173242		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173243		conservation	eng	In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173243		distribution	eng	Occurs locally in the Alps: from southwest Switzerland (east Wallis) and Ortler Alps in Italy to the mountainous areas of South Germany, Hohe Tauern in Austria and foothills of the Alps in Slovenia. Found at altitudes from 1,800-2750 m. This is a European endemic species.
173243		habitat	eng	Warren's Skipper occurs mostly on flower-rich alpine grasslands. The males fly where flowers are most abundant, along mountain streams, for example. From a perch on a bush or tall plant, they also defend their territory. The females meanwhile are often found on warm, dry patches near bushes, where they lay their eggs one by one on the rockroses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum</span> spp.), preferring the smaller plants. The small caterpillar lives hidden in a spun leaf, while caterpillars of later stages spin two leaves together and finally, make a larger shelter from several leaves. The Warren's Skipper has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173243		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173243		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173244		conservation	eng	More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173244		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Island of Gran Canaria. This is a European endemic species.
173244		habitat	eng	This species occurs on dry open grassland with some bushes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia </span>species. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173244		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173244		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173245		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173245		distribution	eng	Occurs from France to Slovenia: in the east of France, in the northern part of the Massif Central; in the Jura; in the Alps from the French Alps to the Karavanke Mountains. in Austria, and Julian Alps in Slovenia. Found at altitudes from 800-2,900 m although mostly between1,400-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
173245		habitat	eng	The Alpine Heath is mostly found on open, sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and on grasslands with scattered bushes and trees. It can occur in high numbers in some places. The female lays its eggs, mostly one by one, on grass stalks. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate at the beginning of the summer, the pupa hanging from a plant, usually close to the ground. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), mesophile grasslands (22%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%).
173245		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173245		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173246		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173246		distribution	eng	Occurs in several mountainous regions in South and Central Europe: the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, the Alps (French, central Swiss, East Italian, Bavarian, Austrian and Julian Alps) and in the Balkans from western Croatia to the north of Greece. Mostly found at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 m, sometimes 300-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
173246		habitat	eng	The Bright-eyed Ringlet is often found on damp to wet grasslands, sometimes with lots of sedges in the vegetation. However, it also occurs on dry grasslands, rocky slopes and in woodland clearings. The grass in some of these habitats may be quite tall. Several different foodplants are known, including sedges (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex </span>spp.), rushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus </span>spp.), Purple Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinea caerulea</span>), Quaking Grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Briza media</span>), Red Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca rubra</span>) and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.). The caterpillars take one or two years to develop, depending on the altitude of the breeding ground. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (62%), heath and scrub (18%), mesophile grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
173246		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173246		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173247		conservation	eng	The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be undertaken to safeguard the species. More research on distribution and ecology is needed.
173247		distribution	eng	Restricted to Portugal and Spain (south of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees), between 600–1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173247		habitat	eng	The Panoptes Blue resembles the Baton Blue very closely. It is also found in dry, scrubby and flower-rich places. The foodplants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus zygis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. vulgaris </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mastichina</span>. The species has one generation a year and the habitat can be described as low scrub with <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosmarinus </span>and open areas within sclerophyllous woodlands. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173247		population	eng	An abundant species throughout its range. Declines in distribution or population size of 6–30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173247		threats	eng	This species might be susceptible to climate change in the long term.
173248		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173248		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Swiss Alps, central Italian Alps, Allgäuer Alps in Germany and Alps of Austrian Tirol. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.
173248		habitat	eng	The Swiss Brassy Ringlet occurs in woodland clearings on grassy, rocky slopes and on screes. The caterpillars feed on different fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>). The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small. They develop further the following spring, pupating sometime between June and August. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (44%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), screes (11%).
173248		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173248		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173249		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173249		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands. This is a European endemic species.
173249		habitat	eng	The Indian Red Admiral is a butterfly species typical of laurel forests, but it is also found in man-made types of habitat, such as gardens and parks. The female deposits the eggs singly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica morifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Parietaria </span>sp. Plants growing in shaded conditions are preferred to those growing in the sun. The caterpillars stays in a shelter made by a rolled-up leaf of its foodplant, where it also pupates. The Indian Red Admiral can be seen throughout the year because it has no diapause and produces many generations a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (50%), scrub and grassland (50%).
173249		population	eng	A local species, restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands.
173249		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173250		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173250		distribution	eng	Occurs only in the Cantabrian Mountains (Picos de Europa), Sierra de la Demanda and the Pyrenees. Found between altitudes of 1,700-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173250		habitat	eng	The dark-coloured Lefèbvre’s Ringlet is mostly found on open, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation, often on calcareous soil. Various fescues and meadow-grasses are used as foodplant, such as Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">F. paniculata</span>, Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>) and Smooth Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span>). It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: screes (66%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%).
173250		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173250		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173251		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173251		distribution	eng	Occurs in the eastern part of the Alps: in Switzerland only in extreme east (Engadin), the eastern and central Italian Alps and in Austria as far as the Gurktaler Alps. Its elevational range is from 2,000-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173251		habitat	eng	This tiny, rather dark Fritillary, with its faded markings, always looks as though it has been worn by much flying. The Little Fritillary occurs above the tree-line on alpine meadows with a short vegetation. They have a rapid, zigzagging flight. The female lays its eggs in clusters on the leaves of Alpine Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago alpina</span>). Because the breeding grounds are at such high altitudes and the growing season is so short, the caterpillars take nearly two years to develop and are more numerous in some years than others. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173251		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173251		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173252		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173252		distribution	eng	Occurs commonly on the Greek islands Chios and Inousses. Its elevational range is from sea level to 800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173252		habitat	eng	This Meadow Brown can be seen on dry, grassy vegetation with scattered bushes and near agricultural land. The butterflies are inactive in summer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).
173252		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Where it occurs, it is rather common.
173252		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173253		conservation	eng	In Croatia, Poland and Slovakia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173253		distribution	eng	Occurs only in Europe, in several mountainous regions: Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Alps (from France to Austria and Slovenia), the Jura, Tatra, Fatra (Czech Republic), Carpathians and in the Balkans, the Dinarian Alps, Stara Planina (Romania), Rila Mountains (Bulgaria) and the mountains of FYR of Macedonia and Albania. 900-2,500m. This is a European endemic species.
173253		habitat	eng	The Water Ringlet is found especially on flower-rich grasslands, rocky, grassy slopes and near woodland. The female usually deposits her eggs close to the ground, on dry stalks of grass. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">F. quadriflora</span> and various meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar and pupate in June or July of the following year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (18%), heath and scrub (13%), screes (9%).
173253		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173253		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173254		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173254		distribution	eng	Occurs in almost all of Europe. However, in Scandinavia, Britain, Ireland and the Baltic States it is largely restricted to coastal areas. Absent from some parts of west France and large parts of Greece, Albania, FYR of Macedonia, south of Bulgaria and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Its elevational range is from sea level to 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173254		habitat	eng	The Grayling is found in dry, infertile habitats, occurring on poor, dry grasslands, dry heaths and in dunes along the coast. The males and females meet each other above a solitary tree in a wide open landscape, such as a pine on heathland or on bare patches of ground in dune areas. The female lays its eggs on various fine-leaved grasses, including fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), bents (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis </span>spp.) and bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.). Walking over the bare ground, it approaches a grass tussock and deposits an egg on a withered grass blade a few centimetres above the ground. The caterpillar grows very slowly, feeding mostly at night. It hibernates deep down in a grass tussock. When it is ready to pupate, it spins a kind of cocoon in a little hollow in the ground. The Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), coniferous woodland (10%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (10%), heath and scrub (10%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).
173254		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient and good quality of habitat. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Slovenia, the Netherlands, United Kingdom. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173254		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173255		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173255		distribution	eng	Occurs in the southeast of France (Lozère, Provence, Alps), north and northeast of Spain and Italy (Westwen Italian Alps and Apennines). Found at altitudes 500-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173255		habitat	eng	This grizzled skipper likes flower-rich, grassy vegetation. It occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands as well as on damp, sometimes rough, grassy vegetation. Various cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.) are used as foodplant, including Tormentil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. erecta</span>), Silverweed (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. anserina</span>), Spring Cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. tabernaemontani</span>) and Creeping Cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. reptans</span>). <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum </span>spp. have been recorded as foodplant in France. This butterfly hibernates in the larval stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%).
173255		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173255		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173256		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173256		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Alps and Pyrenees. Found at altitudes from 1,500-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.
173256		habitat	eng	In Central Europe, Glandon Blues are found up to the snow-line on grassy vegetation, where the foodplants grow on open patches, such as on scree slopes and beside streams. On calcareous soils, <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace chamaejasme </span>is used and on non-calcareous soils, the caterpillars feed on<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. obtusifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitaliana primuliflora</span>. The caterpillars feed on the leaves and sometimes the flowers of the foodplants. The Glandon Blue hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: Alpine and subalpine grasslands (61%), screes (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), heath and scrub (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).
173256		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173256		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173257		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.
173257		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution across Spain, particularly in the east: from the south  (vicinity of Granada and Murcia), via central Spain (area of Sierra de Guadarrama, surroundings of Cuenca and Teruel) to the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mts. It occurs between 200-2,100 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173257		habitat	eng	The Mother-of-pearl Blue occurs in flower-rich grasslands and on warm, dry chalk rocks with scattered patches of grassy vegetation and  occasional bushes. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of Kidney-vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis vulneraria</span>), seeming to prefer smaller plants. The small caterpillars go into hibernation and after feeding and growing further, they pupate at the end of the spring on the ground. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the species <span style="font-style: italic;">Tapinoma nigerrimum</span>. The Mother-of-pearl Blue has one generation a year. Habitats include dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), inland cliff sand exposed rocks (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%).
173257		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173257		threats	eng	Direct short-term threats come from large scale wood plantations (Eucalyptus). In the longer term this species might become threatened because of climate change.
173258		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173258		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the mountains of central Austria (in an area of approximately 4,000 km²) from Mallnitz to the Saualpe in Carinthia. It occurs mostly between 1,600-1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173258		habitat	eng	The White Speck Ringlet owes its name to the row of small white spots on the underside of the hind-wings of both the males and females. This <span style="font-style: italic;">Erebia </span>is mostly found near the tree-line on flower-rich grasslands with scattered trees, or along sunny edges of woods. Foodplants are various grasses, especially Tufted Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia cespitosa</span>). It  probably takes two years to develop from egg to butterfly. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173258		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173258		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by the abandonment of Alpine pastures. Furthermore, building activities related to ski tourism may harm the remaining populations.
173259		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173259		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally between 2,200-2,600 m elevation in a limited part of the Alps: in  southeastern Switzerland (Engadin and Ticino Alps) and in  neighbouring parts of the Italian and Austrian Alps.  This is a European endemic species.
173259		habitat	eng	Even before it settles, the Yellow-banded Ringlet can be recognized by the conspicuous yellowish band on the underside of the hind-wing. The butterflies occur above the tree-line on steep, sunny slopes. They can often be seen taking nectar in grasslands with rather tall, flower-rich vegetation. However, females lay their eggs in shorter, grassy area, settling low down in the vegetation and releasing eggs one by one onto the ground. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and go into hibernation twice. Habitats include alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173259		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173259		threats	eng	This species has a restricted global range. Although the species is reported to be declining in Switzerland, no direct threats are known.
173260		conservation	eng	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173260		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Eolian Islands of Italy: Volcano and Panarea. It occurs from sea level to 500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173260		habitat	eng	The Eolian Grayling replaces the Grayling (<span style="font-style: italic;">H. semele</span>) on the Eolian Islands in Italy, where it is a common and widespread species. Its ecology resembles that of the Grayling. It occurs in open places on rocky slopes and gullies, often close to scrub, but it may also be found in gardens and open woods. The eggs are deposited on many grass species. The Eolian Grayling is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173260		population	eng	The Eolian Grayling is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Italy.
173260		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range on a few small islands.
173261		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173261		distribution	eng	Occurs in the north of Portugal, in some mountainous areas in north and central Spain (including Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Gredos, Sierra de Guadarrama and Cantabrian Mountains), the Pyrenees, the Alps of France, south of Switzerland and Italy and of the Balkans in Croatia, south of Bosnia and Albania. Its elevational range is 400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173261		habitat	eng	In the Alps, de Prunner’s Ringlet is found on very dry grasslands with scattered rocks, whereas more to the south it occurs in clearings in woods growing on rocky ground, in Spain in clearings in pine forests on limestone. Its foodplants are Sheep’s-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), Smooth Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa pratensis</span>), Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpina</span>) and Feather-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pinnata</span>). It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), mesophile grasslands (22%), coniferous woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%).
173261		population	eng	This species is widespread in mountainous areas of Europe.
173261		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173262		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173262		distribution	eng	Occurs only in Europe. Found in Spain (eastern coast and southern foothills of the Pyrenees), France from the Eastern Pyrenees via the Provence as far as the Alps and northwards via Ardèche to the Jura and northwestern Italy in coastal areas as far as North Tuscany. Found at altitudes from 0-1,200 m. This is a European endemic species.
173262		habitat	eng	The Provence Chalkhill Blue occurs on dry, calcareous soils covered with a flower-rich grassy vegetation, often with scattered bushes. Eggs are laid on Horseshoe-vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>). The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span>. The Provence Chalkhill Blue has two generations a year and the butterflies can be seen as late as October. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%).
173262		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
173262		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173263		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173263		distribution	eng	The Mountain Clouded Yellow occurs in Europe in mountainous areas: Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees and Alps. It occurs between 900-2,500 m elevation in the Alps and 1,500-2,800 m in Spain. This is a European endemic species.
173263		habitat	eng	The Mountain Clouded Yellow has its breeding ground in flower-rich alpine meadows. Although they are quick, strong flyers, they do not migrate and do not leave their habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hyale</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. croceus</span> do. Various leguminous plants are used as larval foodplants, including Horseshoe Vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>), White Clover (<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium repens</span>), Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus corniculatus</span>) and vetches (<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>spp.). This butterfly species usually  has one generation a year, but in some years there is a partial second generation. The caterpillars hibernate after their second moult. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (87%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%).
173263		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173263		threats	eng	This species shows a decline in part of its European range, but direct threats are unknown. As it is a species from alpine meadows, it could become threatened by changes in agricultural practices or climate change.
173264		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173264		distribution	eng	Scattered occurrence in the Alps: central Switzerland (only near Grindelwald), northeast of Italy (in two widely separated areas, Val di Vizze and Monte Peralba in the Carnic Alps) and Austria (from the Brenner Pass to the Niedere Tauern. Found at altitudes between 2,100-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
173264		habitat	eng	De Lesse’s Brassy Ringlet occurs above the tree-line on sunny, rocky, steep open slopes with patches of grassy vegetation. The caterpillars are found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca quadriflora</span> and take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).
173264		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173264		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173265		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173265		distribution	eng	Occurs only in eastern Spain in the mountains near Teruel, Cuenca and Guadalajara (such as the Sierra de Albarracin). Its elevational range is 1,000-1,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
173265		habitat	eng	Zapater’s Ringlet is found in clearings in pinewood; these sometimes small clearings have grassy vegetation and shrubs. It usually occurs on limestone. The butterflies often visit thyme for nectar. Different fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) are used as foodplants. This butterfly is single-brooded and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: coniferous woodland (100%).
173265		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173265		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173266		conservation	eng	More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173266		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Island of Fuerteventura. This is a European endemic species.
173266		habitat	eng	The Canary Green-striped White occurs in places that have been abandoned after cultivation. The larval foodplant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium erysomoides</span>, must be available in sufficient quantity. It has two generations a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173266		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173266		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173267		conservation	eng	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Research is needed on its ecology.
173267		distribution	eng	Only occurs in central Spain in the vicinity of Teruel, Cuenca and Guadalajara, particularly in the Montes Universales. Found at altitudes from 900-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173267		habitat	eng	This Chalkhill Blue is always found on calcareous soil and occurs on short vegetation in sheltered hollows in clearings in coniferous forests. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of Horseshoe Vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>). This butterfly species is single-brooded. It hibernates as an egg or as a very young caterpillar of the first larval instar. Feeding starts only in spring after  hibernation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173267		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Central Spain.
173267		threats	eng	Although a rare endemic, this species is not believed to face major threats.
173268		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173268		distribution	eng	Occurs very locally in many mountainous areas in Spain (including the Sierra Nevada, S. de Guadarrama, S. de Gredos, Cantabrian Mts) and the Pyrenees (Ordesa) and possibly in France (Hautes Pyrénées). Found at altitudes from 800-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173268		habitat	eng	The Spanish Argus is found in alpine and sub-alpine grasslands, on rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and on scree slopes with scanty plant growth. In the Sierra Nevada, it occurs above 2,000 m on rocky plains of dark-coloured slate with a low-growing vegetation. The eggs are laid on different species of storksbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erodium </span>spp.). The caterpillars eat the leaves and hibernate when still small. They are attended by various ant species. The Spanish Argus has only one generation a year. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), screes (25%).
173268		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173268		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173269		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173269		distribution	eng	Occurs very locally in Southern Europe: Spain (Picos de Europa in Cantabrian Mountains.) and France (central Pyrenees, Gavarnie, Tourmalet and Cauterets). Found at altitudes from 1,500-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173269		habitat	eng	The Gavarine Blue occurs on open alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and on bare, rocky slopes where the foodplants grow on narrow ledges or in crevices. Often, the soil is calcareous and the rocks are limestone. The most important foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace villosa</span>, the caterpillars feeding on both its leaves and flowers. This butterfly passes the winter as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (36%), mesophile grasslands (27%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (18%), screes (18%).
173269		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173269		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173270		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173270		distribution	eng	Occurs in France in the Alps and foothills, in Switzerland in Wallis and Engadin, in Austria in Tirol and in Italy in the Alps and central Apennines. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,600 m, mostly higher than 1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173270		habitat	eng	The Grisons Fritillary is a small Fritillary that breeds on flower-rich sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and on sunny, grassy slopes. The adult butterflies visit mostly low plants for nectar and the males are also seen on damp patches, excrement and dead animals. The female lays its eggs in clusters on the foodplant. The caterpillars have been found on Alpine Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago alpina</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Achillea </span>species, but Spring Gentian (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana verna</span>) and Stemless Trumpet Gentian (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. acaulis</span>) are also named as foodplants. The caterpillars hibernate, pupating in June or July of the following year, the pupa usually hanging from a stone. However, at higher altitudes, development is slower, taking nearly two years and they hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).
173270		population	eng	This species is often abundant within its range. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173270		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173271		conservation	eng	More research is needed urgently on the distribution and  ecology of the species . This will make clear what management is needed for the last populations. First indications are that it is important to keep open dry clearings at montane-subalpine levels (Lafranchis et al., 2007). Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed and strictly protected. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Greece, the species only occurs in protected areas but these do not always seem to be effective at stopping habitat destruction.
173271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Rhodopi mountains. Most of its  range is in Bulgaria, but it is known from a single locality in Greece. Its area of occurrence (AOO) is estimated to be 16 km² (12 km² in Bulgaria, 4 km² in Greece). It occurs between 300-1,500 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173271		habitat	eng	The species occurs on dry, rocky, often steep places in calcareous areas. The hostplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis alba</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fabaceae</span>) (Lafranchis et al. 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173271		population	eng	A very local species, restricted to few locations with good quality habitat in the border area of Bulgaria and Greece. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Greece (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173271		threats	eng	This is a rare European endemic with a very restricted range. The remaining populations are threatened by abandonment, causing the open habitats to disappear and shrubs to invade. The Greek population has been almost destroyed by a quarry.
173272		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173272		distribution	eng	This species is reported from all Canary Islands, except Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (Wiemers 1995). This is a European endemic species.
173272		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymelicus christi&#160; </span>has two or three generations per year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173272		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173272		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173273		conservation	eng	On Mt. Falakró (northeastern Greece), the number of sheep has dramatically decreased since 2000 and been replaced with cattle. This has led to the expansion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis </span>spp. in the extensive sub-alpine grasslands, which could be favourable for this butterfly species. However, much more research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this butterfly. Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be closely monitored, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173273		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Mt. Falakró and its immediate surroundings in the northwest of Greece (Coutsis & De Prins, 2005). This is a European endemic species.
173273		habitat	eng	This species occurs in low-intensity grazed or recently abandoned clearings and bushy grasslands with sparse trees. The main host plants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis </span>spp., and probably <span style="font-style: italic;">O. ebenoides </span>(Lafranchis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2005). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173273		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173273		threats	eng	This species is a rare endemic, and not much is known about threats. The species is probably sensitive to overgrazing by sheep (Lafranchis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2005).
173274		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173274		distribution	eng	Occurs only in central and east Crete. Found at altitudes from 1,300-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173274		habitat	eng	The Cretan Argus occurs on rocky ground where there are bushes and a plentiful supply of milk-vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus </span>spp.), the caterpillars’ foodplant. Although it only occurs locally, sometimes large numbers can be seen flying around. The butterflies fly rapidly, often staying close to the foodplants. When they settle on the ground, with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. The Cretan Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).
173274		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173274		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173275		conservation	eng	In Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173275		distribution	eng	In Spain in the Picos de Europa, in the French and Spanish Pyrenees from Pto de Somport to the Col du Tourmalet, Pto de Benasque and Pic Carlit. Further in France, in the Massif Central on the Plomb du Cantal and Mont Dore, locally in the Maritime Alps and from NE Isère to Haute-Savoie and the Vosges. From the Central Alps to the Julian Alps, Tatra and Fatra (Slovakia), Carpathians (Romania) and on the Durmitor (Montenegro). It is also found in Bosnia, on Vlasic Pl., Vranica Pl. and Jahorina Pl. In the sub-alpine zone, preferably found at altitudes between 1,200-1,900 m, occasionally 2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
173275		habitat	eng	The Yellow-spotted Ringlet is a species of cool and cold conditions. Above the tree-line it occurs on open mountain meadows and below it inhabits damp, flower-rich grasslands and woodland glades. The female deposits her eggs one at a time on the blades of various grasses, such as fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and cat’s-tails (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phleum </span>spp.). It hibernates twice, the first time as an egg or a tiny caterpillar, without having fed at all. During the next summer, the caterpillar develops as far as the penultimate stage and then hibernates again. It pupates in the following summer. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (68%), heath and scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), coniferous woodland (6%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (6%).
173275		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania, Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173275		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173276		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173276		distribution	eng	Occurs in central Portugal, Spain (except the extreme Northeast), southeast of France (from Pyrenees to the Alps), adjacent part of Italian Alps and central Italy. Its elevational range is 0-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173276		habitat	eng	This butterfly inhabits warm, dry places with flower-rich, grassy vegetation and scattered bushes. Eggs are laid one by one on the flowerbuds of various crucifers, such as the buckler mustards <span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella laevigata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. auriculata</span>, London Rocket (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium irio</span>) and Hedge Mustard (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. officinale</span>). The caterpillars feed mainly on ovaries, but at times are also cannibalistic. This species hibernates as a pupa and has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), phrygana (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (8%), inland sand-dunes (8%).
173276		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173276		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173277		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173277		distribution	eng	Occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, in France, south and central Germany, Switzerland, Czech Republic, western Austria and Italy. Found at altitudes from 0-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173277		habitat	eng	The Baton Blue can be found on dry, grassy and flower-rich vegetation, especially on warm patches. They are often seen on flowers, drinking nectar. The females lay their eggs on the flowers and leaf stalks of various species of thyme (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus </span>spp.), savory (<span style="font-style: italic;">Satureja </span>spp.), lavender (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula </span>spp.) and mint (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha </span>spp.). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and developing seeds of the foodplant. They are attended by <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmica scabrinodis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lasius alienus</span> ants, but workers from other ant species may visit them, too. The Baton Blue passes the winter as a caterpillar or a pupa and has two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), dry siliceous grasslands (22%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), heath and scrub (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), phrygana (5%).
173277		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Poland. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173277		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173278		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level
173278		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Alps from French Alps to Hohe Tauern in Austria and Dolomites in Italy. It is only found in the southern part of the Alps in Switzerland, it is also present in central Italy and is very rarely in Bulgaria (Stara Mountains.) and Serbia. Found at altitudes between 900-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.
173278		habitat	eng	The Almond-eyed Ringlet is found on sub-alpine grasslands and on, sometimes damp, grasslands, in woodland clearings or in the shelter of woods. The butterflies can often be seen on flowers, drinking nectar. On warm days, the males congregate to drink on damp patches. In the Alps, the caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and Sweet Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>). They hibernate when half-grown and pupate at the end of the following spring. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%).
173278		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. It is reported extinct in FYR of Macedonia. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173278		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173279		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173279		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Cyprus. This is a European endemic species.
173279		habitat	eng	The Cyprus Grayling is a very common endemic butterfly species in Cyprus, emerging in April but dispersing to higher altitudes by early summer. Large numbers congregate in the mountains during the summer months, returning to coastal regions in autumn (John and Parker 2002). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173279		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Cyprus.
173279		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173280		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173280		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast France (from Languedoc to Provence and the French Alps) and Spain (in the foothills of the eastern Pyrenees and in mountainous areas in the centre, near Guadalajara, Cuenca and Teruel). In France, it occurs between 450-1,500 m elevation, in Spain 900-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173280		habitat	eng	The Spring Ringlet appears in the early spring in grassy, rocky clearings in open woodland. The Spanish populations in the Montes Universales occur in clearings or on level ground in light pinewoods on calcareous soil, on short, grassy vegetation with low shrubs and scattered rocks. The main foodplant is Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), but other fescues and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>species) have also been named as foodplants. The Spring Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
173280		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173280		threats	eng	Abandonment of semi-natural grasslands is a threat to this butterfly. Furthermore in the long term climate change might have a large impact on this species.
173281		conservation	eng	More research on distribution and ecology is needed. Important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173281		distribution	eng	The Balkan Heath is restricted to a small area of the Balkans, between 800-2,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173281		habitat	eng	This species is local in grassy woodland clearings. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173281		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173281		threats	eng	This species has a limited global range and only occurs in a few countries in the Balkan. The ecology and habitat requirements are largely unknown. This butterfly is probably threatened by abandonment.
173282		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173282		distribution	eng	Occurs in central Portugal (Serra da Estrela), almost all of Spain (except the northern coast and northwest part), in the southeast of France (from the Eastern Pyrenees to Auvergne and the Alps) and in the bordering part of the Italian Alps. Its elevational range is 100-2,500m. This is a European endemic species.
173282		habitat	eng	The Black Satyr can be found on grassy vegetation, rocky slopes and in scrub. The caterpillars feed on various grasses, such as fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.), false-bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium </span>spp.) and bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.). They hibernate and then pupate on the ground at the end of the spring in May to June. The Black Satyr is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), heath and scrub (14%).
173282		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
173282		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173283		conservation	eng	In Slovakia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173283		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Europe in mountainous areas in the Alps, the Tatra and the Carpathians. Found at altitudes between 1,000-2,500 m, mostly 1,400-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.
173283		habitat	eng	This Ringlet owes its rather odd name to the absence of eye-spots on both surfaces of the wings. The Blind Ringlet occurs both on dry and damp grasslands, especially where the vegetation is tall and in grassy places at the edge of woodland. Above the tree-line, they occur mainly on dry vegetation. They have various foodplants, depending on the habitat. In dry places, the caterpillars can be found on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca quadriflora </span>and Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. ovina</span>) and in damper places in the shade on Red Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span>), Glaucous Sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex flacca</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. ferruginea</span>. The caterpillar hibernates twice, pupating at the end of May between spun grass stalks. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (87%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%).
173283		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173283		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173284		conservation	eng	In Croatia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173284		distribution	eng	Occurs in several separate areas: in Spain (Cantabrian Mountains., Sierra de la Demanda, Sierra de Gistral (Lugo), Sierra de Cebollera), the Pyrenees, Andorra, France (Massif Central, Cévennes, Auvergne and Vosges), the whole alpine area from France to Slovenia, Czech Republic (Sudeten), Slovakia and Poland (Tatra), Romania (Carpathians, Retezat Mountains), Serbia, FYR of Macedonia (Sar Planina, Jakupica Planina, Pelister Massif), Albania, northwest Greece (Varnous Mountains), northwest England (Cumbrian Mountains), Scotland (Perthshire). In the Alps 1,200-2,400 m, in England and Scotland above 500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173284		habitat	eng	The Mountain Ringlet inhabits mountainous areas that are snow-covered in winter. It is found on damp grasslands and rough vegetation, often in the shelter of a slope or woodland edge. The female lays its eggs on various grasses and sedges, including fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>) and Heath-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Danthonia decumbens</span>). The caterpillar hibernates twice. It completes the first larval instar before hibernating the first time. By the end of the summer it reaches the fourth instar before hibernating again. The following year, it pupates in summer and the butterfly emerges. The Mountain Ringlet is a very variable butterfly with many local and regional sub-species and forms. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (64%), heath and scrub (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).
173284		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in the Republic of Ireland and Ukraine. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Serbia, United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173284		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173285		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Austria, none of the populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.
173285		distribution	eng	Occurs only in the Alps in the border region of Italy, Slovenia and Austria (Venetian Alps, Julian Alps and Karavanke Mountains.). Found at altitudes between  1,350-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173285		habitat	eng	The Lorkovic’s Brassy Ringlet inhabits southern exposed slopes with alpine grassland interspersed with rocks. These butterflies are only active when the sun is shining. They fly close to the ground, visiting flowers from time to time and spend much of their time on rocks, resting. The female deposits her eggs on dry grass stalks, just above the ground. The caterpillars feed on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>) and on different fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).
173285		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173285		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173286		conservation	eng	More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173286		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Island of Tenerife. Its elevational range is above 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173286		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> The species occurs in the Canades des Teide at altitudes of 2,000 m and higher. The larval foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Descurainia bourgeana</span>. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173286		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173286		threats	eng	Although a rare endemic, this species is not believed to face major threats.
173287		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173287		distribution	eng	Confined to Crete and found at elevations of up to 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173287		habitat	eng	The Cretan Grayling is found on dry, scrubby vegetation, often with sparse trees and also in olive groves. It has one generation a year. Habitats: phrygana (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
173287		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas, but common in Crete.
173287		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173288		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173288		distribution	eng	Occurs on Iberian Peninsula (but absent from the Spanish northern coast and most of the southwest) and in France (along the Mediterranean from the Pyrenees to Rhône Valley and as an isolated population in the vicinity of Montauban). Its elevational range is from sea level to 2,000 m, sometimes 2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173288		habitat	eng	The Iberian Marbled White occurs in flower-rich, dry to damp grasslands, near dry scrub and along woodland edges and hedgerows. Grasses such as Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa annua</span>), Meadow Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca pratensis</span>), Compact Brome (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus madritensis</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum </span>are used as foodplants. This species is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), scrub and grassland (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), screes (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (11%).
173288		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173288		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173289		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173289		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of Russia and the Crimea (Ukraine), maybe also in the east of Ukraine. This is a European endemic species.
173289		habitat	eng	This species can be found on steppes, dry grassy slopes, stony and rocky places, clearings and glades in mountain forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). On the Crimea hostplants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span> spp. and other <span style="font-style: italic;">Poaceae </span>(http://babochki-kryma.narod.ru/main.htm). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173289		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173289		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173290		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas.
173290		distribution	eng	The Blue Argus occurs in the southeast of Europe from the mountains on the coast of Croatia, via Serbia, to the mountains of southwest Bulgaria and scattered in Greece as far as the Peloponnesos. It occurs between 400–2,400 m elevation. It is also found in Turkey and Iran.
173290		habitat	eng	The Blue Argus is a species of flower-rich grasslands and rocky slopes with grassy vegetation. Sometimes, they are also seen on scrub or in woodland clearings. This butterfly is often found on calcareous soil. Various species of cranesbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">Geranium </span>spp.) are used as food plants, including <span style="font-style: italic;">G. asphodeloides</span>, Bloody Cranesbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. sanguineum</span>) and Rock Cranesbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. macrorrhizum</span>). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and are attended to by ants. Depending on the altitude, the Blue Argus has one to three generations a year. Habitats include dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mesophile grasslands (16%), screes (16%).
173290		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient  good quality habitat. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173290		threats	eng	The species has a restricted global range. Main threats come from agricultural activities, abandonment and fires causing habitat destruction.
173291		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. However, since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173291		distribution	eng	Occurs in all mountainous areas of Corsica and Sardinia. On Corsica, common in the central mountains and on the mountain l'Incudine, on Sardinia in Monti del Gennargentu. Found at altitudes from 800-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173291		habitat	eng	The Corsican Fritillary is a mountain butterfly, found on grassy vegetation in clearings in deciduous woods. The small caterpillars hatch out in spring and begin to feed on violets, preferring plants growing under juniper bushes. Among the foodplants mentioned in the literature are various <span style="font-style: italic;">Viola </span>species, such as Wild Pansy (<span style="font-style: italic;">V. tricolor</span>), Yellow Wood Violet (<span style="font-style: italic;">V. biflora</span>), Pale Wood Violet (<span style="font-style: italic;">V. reichenbachiana</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. corsica</span>. The Corsican Fritillary has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%).
173291		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173291		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173292		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Research is needed on its ecology and habitat requirements.
173292		distribution	eng	Occurs only on Cyprus. Its elevational range is from sea level to 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173292		habitat	eng	This Meadow Brown is often found in shady places, such as in woods, orchards and among scrubby vegetation and it is also occurs on more open sites. These butterflies have a rapid, linear flight. The caterpillars feed on grasses, although exactly which species is not known. There is one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173292		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173292		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173293		conservation	eng	In Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173293		distribution	eng	Occurs only in Bulgaria (in Stara Planina., Rila and Pirin Mountains) and Serbia. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.
173293		habitat	eng	This Erebia occurs in sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, often near woodland. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (75%), mixed woodland (25%).
173293		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173293		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173294		conservation	eng	In Spain, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173294		distribution	eng	Occurs in Spain in the Sierra Nevada (between altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m). This is a European endemic species.
173294		habitat	eng	The Spanish Brassy Ringlet inhabits alpine grasslands, grassy slopes with bushes, grassy rocky slopes and screes on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. This species only occurs locally, but sometimes in large numbers. Its foodplants are various fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.). The caterpillars hibernate, pupating the following spring. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).
173294		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173294		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173295		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.
173295		distribution	eng	The Higgins’s Anomalous Blue occurs locally in mountains in northern Greece and rarely in bordering mountainous area of southern Bulgaria. It occurs mostly between 1,500-2,000 m, sometimes at lower altitudes. This is a European endemic species.
173295		habitat	eng	The Higgins’s Anomalous Blue is a mountain butterfly, found above the tree-line on flower-rich, calcareous grasslands. The males tend to roam outside their usual habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis montana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scardica</span>, a sainfoin that only grows in the Balkans, is used as foodplant. The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small, the following spring feeding on the young leaves of the sainfoin (an Eurasian perennial herb). They are often found with ants. Higgins’s Anomalous Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), screes (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%).
173295		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173295		threats	eng	Probably threatened by intensified grazing, abandonment and wildfires, but much is still unknown.
173296		conservation	eng	The species occurs only in protected areas in Croatia. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173296		distribution	eng	Occurs in Italy very locally in the Apennines and Mount Baldo in the Alps. In southeast Europe, it is present in several mountainous areas (from the Croatian coastal mountains, Bosnia, south of Serbia and FYR of Macedonia to southeast of Bulgaria and north of Greece).&#160; Found at altitudes between 800-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173296		habitat	eng	The Eastern Large Heath occurs mainly on grasslands above the tree-line. It is sometimes found in clearings in damp woodland. The caterpillars feed on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>), cotton-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriophorum </span>spp.), White Beak-sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchospora alba</span>) and Beaked Sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex rostrata</span>). This species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (41%), mesophile grasslands (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).
173296		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173296		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173297		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173297		distribution	eng	Occurs in almost all of Portugal and Spain (except the northwest part) and in the southeast of France from the east of the Pyrenees to the French Alps. Found at altitudes from 100-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.
173297		habitat	eng	The Spanish Purple Hairstreak occurs in damp, deciduous woods, on rough vegetation beside streams and rivers and in parkland. The butterflies spend most of their time in the top of ash trees, the larval foodplant and are difficult to see. However, when they leave the tree in search of nectar, drinking from flowers growing at the edge of the woods or on broad verges, they are more noticeable. They are especially fond of the flowers of the umbellifer <span style="font-style: italic;">Thapsia</span>. The female lays its eggs on several species of Ash, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. ornus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. angustifolia</span>. The eggs remain on the tree for the rest of the summer, autumn and winter. The small caterpillars that emerge in spring, feed on the flowers and fresh leaves of the foodplants. Ants of different species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lasius </span>sometimes visit the caterpillars. They pupate in the leaf litter. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: alluvial and very wet forests and brush (33%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), water-fringe vegetation (16%).
173297		population	eng	A local species in Southwest Europe.
173297		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level in this part of its distribution.
173298		conservation	eng	More research to distribution and ecology is needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173298		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sardinia and Corsica, found from sea level to 1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
173298		habitat	eng	This beautiful blue butterfly only occurs on grassy vegetation close to shrubs and woodland edges on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The caterpillars probably feed on greenweed (<span style="font-style: italic;">Genista </span>spp.), but this needs further confirmation. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173298		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173298		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173299		conservation	eng	As this species has a restricted global range and is very rare, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173299		distribution	eng	Restricted to two locations on the Canary Island El Hierro, between 300-1,500 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173299		habitat	eng	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, El Hierro, where it can be found on the very steep and grassy cliffs and the vineyards at the base of the cliffs. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173299		population	eng	This is a very local and rare European endemic, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on El Hierro, Canary Islands. It is not known how large the population is, but numbers might well be under 10,000 adults.
173299		threats	eng	This species is restricted to two locations on one island. It is threatened by the conversion of steep areas to vineyards and intensivation of vineyard management, including the use of insecticides.
173300		conservation	eng	More research on distribution and ecology is needed. Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173300		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Crimea (Tuzov 2000, Gordunov 2001). This is a European endemic species.
173300		habitat	eng	This butterfly species is restricted to the Crimea where it can be found on rather large scree slopes. The butterflies are difficult to detect. The population density is low. In addition, they prefer to sit on the rock or stay perched on low growing plants rather than fly. They are very sedentary and always come back to particular micro-sites. These are often windy places. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedysarum spp</span>.  There is one generation a year (Butterflies of Crimea website 2009). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173300		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173300		threats	eng	A rare endemic, for which almost no information is available on the status and threats.
173301		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173301		distribution	eng	Occurs in the western Alps (in border region of France, Switzerland and Italy). In Spain restricted to the mountain areas in the North, but the exact distribution is poorly known. Its elevational range is above 450 m, mostly 1,200-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.
173301		habitat	eng	The Mountain Dappled White is locally common in flower-rich alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and on rocky slopes. The males fly quickly, whereas the females are rarely seen in flight. They lay their eggs singly on the flowerheads of various crucifers, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>spp., buckler mustards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella </span>spp.), candytufts (<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis </span>spp.) and rockets (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium </span>spp.). The caterpillars are solitary and usually eat the ovaries of the plants, but they can also be cannibalistic. They pupate on rocks or in low-growing vegetation and pass the winter in this stage, sometimes remaining a pupa for more than one winter. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%).
173301		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173301		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173302		conservation	eng	As little is known from this species, more research on the distribution and ecology is needed. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.
173302		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pirin Mountains, in the southwest of Bulgaria and the Phalakron, Menikion and Orvilos mountains in the north of Greece, between 800-1,800 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.
173302		habitat	eng	Dils’ Grayling occurs on slopes with shrubs and small trees and on steep, rocky slopes. The female lays its eggs on grasses, often those growing in the shade in rocky crevices. It has one generation a year. Habitats: screes (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%), phrygana (33%).
173302		population	eng	Dils’ Grayling is a very local species, restricted to few locations with good quality habitat.
173302		threats	eng	The main threat is probably abandonment of habitat, causing more trees and shrubs to invade. However, much is still unknown about this species.
173303		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173303		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Alps from the Maritime Alps to East Austria, at altitudes 800 - 2,400 m, but most populations occur at 1,600 – 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173303		habitat	eng	The Lesser Mountain Ringlet occurs in many different biotopes. It can be found on wet grasslands, pastures and meadows, on dry, nutrient-nutrient-poor grasslands in open woodland, on dry grasslands with bracken and above the tree-line on alpine grasslands. Because of the wide choice in biotope, this butterfly is common throughout the Alps. In the time up to hibernation, the caterpillars feed during the day. After hibernating, they are only active at night. They can be found on Wood Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa nemoralis</span>), Sweet Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>) and Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>). The development from egg to butterfly takes one year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%).
173303		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173303		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173304		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173304		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Canary Island Gran Canaria. Its elevational range is 400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173304		habitat	eng	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, Gran Canaria. It can be found rocky gullies surrounded by pine forest. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008).   Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173304		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands.
173304		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173305		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173305		distribution	eng	Occurs only on the Greek island of Karpathos. Its elevational range is 300-750 m. This is a European endemic species.
173305		habitat	eng	The Karpathos Grayling is found on rocky slopes covered with open scrub and in clearings in coniferous woods, where the butterflies often rest on the trunks of trees. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).
173305		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173305		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173306		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173306		distribution	eng	Only occurs in northern Spain (from the Cantabrian Mountains to Catalonia). Found at altitudes from 600-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.
173306		habitat	eng	This butterfly used to be considered a sub-species of the Furry Blue (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. dolus</span>), but there is a clear difference in the number of chromosomes of each species. However, the life cycles and choice of biotope are the same. Eggs are laid on Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis viciifolia</span>). The caterpillars are frequently attended by ants. This butterfly hibernates when the caterpillar is still small. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).
173306		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173306		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173307		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173307		distribution	eng	Occurs in western part of the Alps: French Alps (from the Drôme), northwest Italy and southwest and central Switzerland to Tessin Alps. Found at altitudes from 600-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.
173307		habitat	eng	The Carline Skipper prefers dry, south-facing slopes with quite short vegetation. However, they can also be seen on damp grasslands and in very open larch woods. Large numbers can sometimes occur locally. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of various cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.). The caterpillar remains in the egg during the winter, emerging in spring. It then spins a shelter by attaching a leaf of the foodplant to the ground, in which it lives, hidden. It pupates close to the ground and has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%).
173307		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173307		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173308		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173308		distribution	eng	Only present on Tenerife, Canary Islands. Its elevational range is 1,400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.
173308		habitat	eng	The Canary Grayling is a widespread but local species in the central mountains of Tenerife. It occurs on sparsely vegetatied rocky gullies in pine forests. The species has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173308		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Tenerife, Canary Islands.
173308		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173309		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173309		distribution	eng	Occurs in the southwest and south of Europe: from central France, south Switzerland and Austria down to Spain, Portugal and Italy. Found at altitudes from 0-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173309		habitat	eng	Only the genitalia, both of the males and females, distinguish this butterfly from the Grizzled Skipper (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. malvae</span>). It can be found in a variety of damp and dry habitats, such as acid or calcareous grasslands, heathlands, bogs, rocky slopes and open scrub. Sometimes small areas of just some tens of square metres can be used for breeding. The caterpillars feed on several species of cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.), agrimony (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrimonia </span>spp.) and strawberry (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria </span>spp.) and especially on tormentil (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla erecta</span>). When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they leave the larval foodplant and spin a cocoon at its base in which to pupate. This species has mostly two generations a year, but at higher altitudes it is only single-brooded. It passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), mesophile grasslands (13%), heath and scrub (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), phrygana (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
173309		population	eng	Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173309		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173310		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173310		distribution	eng	Occurs in central and southern Spain from the Sierra de Cazorla in the south to the Iberian System in the North, always on calcareous substrate. Found at altitudes from 750 -1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.
173310		habitat	eng	Oberthür’s Anomalous Blue occurs on dry, grassy slopes and in dry, often rocky places where short vegetation alternates with scrub. The female lays its eggs on the dry flower stalks of Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis viciifolia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. argentea</span>). The caterpillars are attended by ants. This butterfly has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
173310		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173310		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173311		conservation	eng	It is important to keep open dry clearings at montane-subalpine levels (Lafranchis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2007). In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
173311		distribution	eng	Occurs in the mountains of the north, west and south of Greece. It is also found in the south of Bulgaria (where it is rare). Found at altitudes from 400-2,000 m, mostly below 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173311		habitat	eng	The Grecian Anomalous Blue occurs on dry grassland, in dry scrub, on rocky slopes and also sometimes on woodland rides or in clearings in the woods. The female lays its eggs on the flowers of the sainfoin <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis arenaria</span>. The caterpillars feed on the flower heads and are attended by various ant species, amongst others <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus gestroi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster sordidula</span>. The Grecian Anomalous Blue has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (33%).
173311		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173311		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173312		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173312		distribution	eng	Occurs only on Cyprus.&#160; Found at altitudes from 300-1,200 m. This is a European endemic species.
173312		habitat	eng	At lower altitudes, this Blue is found in scrub, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista fasselata</span>, its probable foodplant, is growing. Above 1,000 m, these butterflies occur in clearings in pine woods. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
173312		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173312		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173313		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.
173313		distribution	eng	Scattered occurrence in the Balkans from Croatia to the southwest of Bulgaria and central Greece. Its elevational range is 0-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species.
173313		habitat	eng	The Balkan Green-veined White is very similar to the Green-veined White and the choice of biotope is almost the same. The butterflies are often found on vegetation along hedges and at the edges of woodland and also in woodland clearings. Eggs are laid on various crucifers. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (66%), coniferous woodland (16%), mixed woodland (16%).
173313		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173313		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173314		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173314		distribution	eng	Occurs in many southeastern European mountainous regions: in the south of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, southwest and east of Serbia, north of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Romania (including the Carpathians), southwest and central Bulgaria and in Greece. Found at altitudes between 900-2,800 m, usually over 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173314		habitat	eng	The Black Ringlet can be found on rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation, in dry and sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and sometimes in clearings in coniferous woods. The butterflies fly close to the ground, often resting with wings wide open. The caterpillars feed on Sheeps-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and possibly other grasses. The Black Ringlet has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (30%), coniferous woodland (30%), screes (20%), mesophile grasslands (10%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%).
173314		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173314		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173315		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173315		distribution	eng	This is a species of Southwestern Europe. It occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, except south of Portugal; France, except the northeast; the Swiss Jura and Schaffhausen; the Ligurian and Cottian Alps in northwestern Italy and locally in the south of Germany. 400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173315		habitat	eng	The Meadow Fritillary occurs in both dry and moderately damp habitats in many kinds of open, grassy, flower-rich places near woodland. Plantains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago </span>spp.) are the main foodplants, especially Ribwort Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. lanceolata</span>). The eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed and hibernate communally in a silken shelter, only separating in the last larval instar. They then look for a safe place to pupate, low down on the foodplant. The Meadow Fritillary usually has two generations a year, but only one in cooler breeding grounds. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), fens, transition mires and springs (8%).
173315		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland  (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173315		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173316		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173316		distribution	eng	Occurs in the eastern Alps: from Ticino (Monte Generoso) in Switzerland and the Dolomites (Italy) to the Julian Alps (Slovenia) and northwards to the Allgäuer Alps (Germany) and Karwendel Mountains (Austria). Found at altitudes between 600-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.
173316		habitat	eng	The Stygian Ringlet occurs on warm, steep, rocky slopes with grassy vegetation and sometimes scattered bushes, often on limestone. Its foodplant is Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>). In Switzerland, it takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. The tiny caterpillar goes into hibernation immediately after leaving the egg, only starting to feed the next spring. In autumn, they again hibernate, pupating in June or July of the following year. In other areas at lower altitudes, they can complete their life cycle in one year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).
173316		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
173316		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173317		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
173317		distribution	eng	Only occurs on Corsica and Sardinia. Found at altitudes from 0-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.
173317		habitat	eng	This butterfly is the smallest of the European skippers; the wingspan of the males is only two centimetres across, that of the females slightly more. They can be found on grassy, flower-rich patches among scrub and rocks. It has two generations a year. This skipper used to be considered a sub-species of the Red-underwing Skipper (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sertorius</span>) and resembles it closely in the way it lives. Habitats include sclerophyllous scrub (33%), phrygana (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%).
173317		population	eng	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
173317		threats	eng	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
173319		conservation	eng	More research is needed to evaluate this species where gaps in population trends occur within its range. More knowledge of its status and biology as an invasive species is required.<br/><br/>This species is found in the Marrawah Marine Biosphere Reserve (2007) in the UAE that is primarily set up to protect the Dugong.<br/><br/>It is protected in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.<br/><br/>In United Arab Emirates, the implementation of the beginning of an effective management program that would start with baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts.&#160; This species is protected under the UNEP Regional Seas Programme, GCC (Gulf Cooperative Council), GAOCMAO (Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation) and other agreements which relate to environmental management and pollution controls. It is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve, and integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).
173319		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila stipulacea</em> is found from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea, down the coast of east Africa to Mozambique.  It occurs around most of Madagascar and around the islands of the west Indian Ocean. It is also reported from east India.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>H. stipulacea</em> occurs from Egypt to southern Italy, and it may have been introduced through the Suez Canal.<br/><br/>In the Caribbean Sea, <em>H. stipulacea</em> has recently been collected in the West Indies on the islands of Grenada, Dominica, and St. Lucia and may have been introduced (Ruiz and Ballantine 2004, Willette and Ambrose 2009).
173319		habitat	eng	Beds of <em>Halophila stipulacea</em> occur in the shallows (Jacobs 1985), but this species also occurs in much deeper water and has been recorded to depths greater than 50 m (Lipkin 1977). <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> stipulacea</em>, although scarce below 50 m, was collected by dredge off Cyprus from 145 m (Lipkin <em>et al</em>. 2003) and is the deepest seagrass reported worldwide (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007). It grows in a wide range of environmental conditions, and in a variety of coastal substrates (Lipkin 1977, Jacobs 1985). This species has a much narrower ecological range in the eastern Mediterranean, being restricted to soft substrates only. These various characteristics contribute to its invasive potential in the Caribbean Sea (Ruiz and Ballantine 2004).<br/><br/>This species is a prolific seeder and is fast-growing, and therefore it can expand rapidly from small populations. It is ephemeral with rapid turn-over (Malm 2006) and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Halophila</span><em> stipulacea</em> copes well with hypersalinity (up to 60 psu) and is euryhaline in nature (Lipkin 1975). In the Arabian Gulf, it tolerates extreme conditions with salinity varying from 38-70 psu and temperatures of 10-39°C (inshore) and 19-33°C (offshore).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> stipulacae</em> is an important food source for dugongs in the Indian Ocean, and also for green turtles throughout its range.
173319		population	eng	<em>Halophila stipulacea</em> is common and can form dense stands. The overall population is thought to be stable or increasing.
173319		threats	eng	Threats to <em>Halophila stipulacea</em> include declines in water quality and it is sensitive to sedimentation and pollution. Seagrass beds in the northern Red Sea are threatened by the pollution caused by fish aquaculture. Locally, land reclamation is a threat, and large areas have been lost in the Arabian Gulf. Other local threats include coastal development, trawling activities, dredging and pollution.
173320		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. It is not clear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific (Green and Short 2003).
173320		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllospadix torreyi</em> occurs in the Pacific from northern Vancouver Island on the west coast of Canada to the tip of Baja California and Mexico.
173320		habitat	eng	<em>Phyllospadix torreyi</em> is a colonial marine angiosperm that lives on turbulent rocky shores. Surfgrass exhibits a strongly female-biased sex ratio in flowering shoots throughout its distribution (Williams 1995). In the Pacific coast of North America it grows at greater depths and is generally more abundant on the exposed parts of the coast and even in tidal pools with sandy bottoms. It is also found in the macrophyte detritus layers in submarine canyons in southern and central California (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>Surfgrasses (<em>Phyllospadix</em> spp.) are not found where sea surface temperatures exceed 21°C in winter or 27°C in the summer. Surfgrass has a low tolerance to higher temperatures which suggests that populations in Baja California Sur might be impacted by global climate change.&#160;<em>Phyllospadix</em><em> scouleri</em> is distributed higher in the lower intertidal and upper subtidal zones than <em>P. torreyi</em>.
173320		population	eng	The population status of this species is thought to be stable.
173320		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats include coastal development and modifications and over-water structures in the form of ferry terminals and commercial docks. Mechanical damage from boats and dredging is also a minor localized threat.&#160; <em>Phyllospadix</em><em> torreyi</em> is sensitive to desiccation (Ramirez-Garcia <em>et al</em>. 2002) as it lives in more shallow areas. It may also be more susceptible to climate change.
173321		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work is carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000).
173321		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia kirkmanii</em> is endemic to Western Australia, from Cape Leeuwin to the western edge of the Great Australian Bight.
173321		habitat	eng	The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found (Kuo and Cambridge 1984).<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, was not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.
173321		population	eng	<em>Posidonia kirkmanii</em> is locally dominant, but generally uncommon. There is no specific population trend information for <em>Posidonia kirkmanii</em>, but it is thought to be stable.
173321		threats	eng	Threats may include coastal development by industry, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Additional threats include pollution from eutrophication causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, aquaculture, farming and direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).
173322		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for <em>Zostera chilensis</em>.<br/><br/>More research into possible other disjunct populations and clarification of the genetics and taxonomy is recommended.
173322		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera chilensis</em> is endemic to Chile (Kuo 2005). It has been found only in Herradura Bay (Philippi 1864), Salado Bay (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1983) and Tongoy Bay (Gonzalez and Edding 1990).<em> Zostera chilensis</em> has a disjunct population and is now found only in one location in Chile. It has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².
173322		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera chilensis</em> is found in relatively protected shorelines on rocky sandy substrates (Kuo 2005). It grows between 1-7 m depth. There is little other information available on habitat and ecology for this species.
173322		population	eng	<em>Zostera chilensis</em> has two (possibly only one) extremely small populations. Recent efforts to find one of the two populations has been unsuccessful (F. Short pers. comm. 2007). The population trend is decreasing, with a decline of an estimated 50% and the population is severely fragmented.
173322		threats	eng	Any development in the coastal area of the distribution of <em>Zostera chilensis</em> is a major threat to this species. It lives in a relatively remote area, however any development could result in the very small area being destroyed.<br/><br/><em>Zostera</em><em> chilensis</em> has a disjunct distribution due to available habitat along the Chilean coastline.
173323		conservation	eng	This species is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts, National and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).
173323		distribution	eng	<em>Ruppia polycarpa</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs in southern Western Australia and eastern South Australia.
173323		habitat	eng	This species occurs in inland saline wetlands (T. Carruthers pers. comm. 2008). <em>Ruppia tuberosa</em> and <em>R. polycarpa</em> have rapid development of the plant, early maturity, and a large amount of energy allocated to producing large numbers of small propagules (Brock 1983).
173323		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. The overall population is thought to be stable.
173323		threats	eng	Localized reduction of this species can be caused by increased sediment loads in water. Coastal development, dredging and marine developments may also locally threaten this species.
173324		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a threatened species in the US Federal Register Volume 63 no. 177, 1998: 49035-4904.<br/><br/>Removal and destruction of seagrass in the Florida state parks is forbidden, and some areas limit boats with engines in order to decrease propeller scaring of the grass beds. There are also plans to decrease negative human impacts through educational efforts aimed at sports fishers and boaters.
173324		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila johnsonii</em> is endemic to Florida, USA. It is found from north of Sebastian Inlet to Biscayne Bay.
173324		habitat	eng	All members of the known population are female and ovules but no seeds have been found. An estuarine species, it is found in intertidal to shallow subtidal areas, mostly on sandy intertidal flats.  The distribution of this species is often discontinuous and patchy. This species is highly transient and plants are quick growing, reaching mature size in about two weeks with beds only persisting for a few months. (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Research shows high fragment viability suggesting high dependence on fragmentation as a means of dispersal. Data show that fragment viability is dependent on seasons with fragments being viable for up to four days during the spring months and up to eight days during the fall months. As only female plants have been observed, reproduction is most likely through fragmentation (Hall <em>et al</em>. 2006).
173324		population	eng	The population of <em>Halophila johnsonii</em> has been fluctuating in abundance from 1994-2007 in the portion of its range where surveys have been conducted. There has been a recent report of an 18.5 km extension north of its known geographic range (Virnstein and Hall 2009).
173324		threats	eng	<em>Halophila johnsonii</em> has a skewed sex ratio since all known individuals of the population are female and there is no known seed production. This species may be locally threatened by coastal development and pollution, and also by mechanical damage from recreational and commercial boats.
173325		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for <em>H. euphlebia</em>.<br/><br/>Research is need on this species on taxonomy, population trends and threats.
173325		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila euphlebia</em> is endemic to Japan. It occurs in the Ryukyu Islands and southeast Japan (Uchimura <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is a possibility that this species has been collected in the Philippines, and may be misidentified based on genetics as <em>H. ovalis</em> (Uchimura&#160; <em>et al</em>.  2006).
173325		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila euphlebia</em> is most frequently encountered in the subtidal part of relatively calm coasts where it forms extensive beds on sand or mud (Uchimura <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is found growing in both shallow and deep waters, up to depths of 20 m.<br/><br/>Plants from the different localities are very similar in habitat, but display slight size and colour variations which may be correlated with differences in some environmental factors such as depth, salinity, temperature or light. Fruits are abundant in plants collected in May, June and July from Nakagusuku Bay (Uchimura <em>et al</em>. 2006). Male and female flowers form singly in separate plants at the bases of leaf pairs.
173325		population	eng	There is little population information for <em>H. euphlebia</em> and the trends are unknown.
173325		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown for <em>Halophila euphlebia</em>. However in Japan, localized threats may include coastal development, land reclamation, water pollution and trawling (Green and Short 2003, Short <em>et al</em>. 2007).
173326		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for <em>H. sulawesii</em>. Research is recommended for the general biology, taxonomy and threats to this species, and additional field studies are needed to investigate its precise distribution and reproductive biology (Kuo 2007).
173326		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila sulawesii</em> is known only from several reef islands of the Spermonde Archipelago in southwestern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Kuo 2007).
173326		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila sulawesii</em> has a similar vegetative appearance as <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, and has been reported as "deep water <em>H. ovalis</em>" in the literature. However, <em>H. ovalis</em> is a dioecious plant while <em>H. sulawesii</em> is a monoecious one, a feature resembling <em>H. capricorni</em> Larkum, that is the presence of a single male or female flower in separate floral axils of the same rhizome (Kuo 2007).&#160; It is also a member of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila decipiens</span> complex.<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><em> sulawesii</em> is found on coral sand between 10 and 30 m and grows adjacent to corals <em>Seriatopora hystrix</em> and <em>Acropora</em> sp. and other seagrasses such as <em>Halophila decipiens</em> and <em>Halodule uninervis</em>.
173326		population	eng	There is no population information for <em>Halophila sulawesii</em>, and the trends are unknown.
173326		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>Halophila sulawesii</em> are unknown. Possible threats include the degradation of habitat due to sedimentation and siltation from coastal development.
173327		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. It is found in some marine protected areas throughout its range. Monitoring of the population status is recommended for this species.
173327		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule pinifolia</em> has a wide distribution in the Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans. In the Pacific, it is found in southern Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, throughout the Gulf of Thailand and along the coast of Vietnam and southern China. It occurs throughout insular Southeast Asia northeast to the Northern Mariana Islands and southeast to the Fiji Islands, as well as across northern Australia. In the Indian Ocean, it is found from mid-Western Australia to the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, to the Andaman Sea and extending around the Bay of Bengal to the Coromandel Coast of India.
173327		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> forms homogenous patches in intertidal places or occasionally intermixed with other seagrasses (Skelton and South 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> grows in sandy or muddy sand substrates from upper littoral to subtidal areas. It is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set, and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance. This species is can grow rapidly and is a fast coloniser. Often heavily epiphytised.
173327		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> is a common species and relatively widespread. The trends in population are variable and most likely  declining overall. Populations can be affected by heavy grazing by dugong in Australia.
173327		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> is affected by a number of threats throughout its range. Coastal development is the most prominent threat. This species is also susceptible to increasing temperatures due to climate change as it is a shallow-living species. Other localized threats are trawling, reduced water quality, siltation and sedimentation and aquaculture.
173328		conservation	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule uninervis</span> is included in various conservation and management plans and programs across its range.<br/><br/>In the United Arab Emirates, implementation of the beginning of an effective management program that would start with baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts. UNEP Regional Seas Programme, GCC (Gulf Cooperative Council), GAOCMAO (Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation), and other agreements which relate to environmental management and pollution controls (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Kenya, it is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve (Green and Short 2003).In Tanzania, it is within the implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives by IUCN including Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF), and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Australia, it cannot be damaged without permit in New South Whales and Queensland, Australia. The Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued. Protected in Australia by either Fisheries Act or National Park or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Southeast Asia is protected in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, largest seagrass beds in Thailand with the highest species diversity&#160; (Green and Short 2003).</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> The Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) prepared a draft Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management in Indonesia, and there are </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">SeagrassNet global monitoring locations in Puerto Galera, Philippines that are now protected (Green and Short 2003).</strong><br/><strong><br/></strong>In the western Pacific islands, recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas and the other concept of traditional or community management of these areas. NGOs focused on conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve (Green and Short 2003).<strong><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/></strong>
173328		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule uninervis</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found in southern Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, throughout the Gulf of Thailand and along the coast of Vietnam and southern China.  It occurs throughout insular Southeast Asia, northeast to the Northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia, and southeast to the Fiji Islands, as well as across northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Geographe Bay in Western Australia extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and to the Andaman Sea and extending around the Bay of Bengal and around India to the Malabar Coast. It ranges from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea, south to the east coast of South Africa to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.
173328		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule uninervis</span> is a sublittoral seagrass found from the mid-intertidal to a depth of 20 m.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Halodule uninervis</span> can grow in a range of different habitats. It is very common between 0-3 m in sublittoral lagoons and in front of reefs. It is very fast growing, colonizes rapidly and can flower prolifically. Some locations have very large seed banks.&#160; It can form dense meadows at some sites or is patchy and intermixed with other seagrass species (Skelton and South 2006), and is frequently observed on back reefs in association with larger algae (Jacobs and Dicks 1985). There is wide variability in leaf width, from 1.1-7 mm.<br/><br/>This species is&#160; euryhaline and can tolerate moderate disturbance (Birch and Birch 1984), and is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set (Green and Short 2003). It is considered a pioneer species, growing rapidly and surviving well in unstable and depositional environments in Eastern Australia (Green and Short 2003). It is also a pioneer species in Indonesia, usually forming monospecific beds on the inner reef flat or on steep sediment slopes in both the intertidal and subtidal zones and&#160; it has the highest density of all seagrass species in mixed (2,847 shoots/m²) as well in monospecific beds (14,762 shoots/m²) (Green and Short 2003). In Thailand, it grows in sandy or muddy sand substrates from the upper littoral to subtidal areas. This is the principal seagrass species in Kuwait, and extends along the coast of Saudi Arabia. In the Arabian Gulf, it tolerates extreme conditions with salinity varying from 38-70 ppt and temperatures of 10–39°C (inshore) and 19-33°C (offshore) (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>It is one of favoured foods of the Dugong and often heavily grazed.<br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
173328		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule uninervis</span> is a very common species and has a wide distribution. Studies report the species is increasing in India, decreasing in Bangledesh and stable in east Africa and the Middle East with major fluctuations in population in Australia (<em></em>T.J.B. Carruthers pers. comm. 2007, Waycott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Globally the overall population trend is most likely stable.
173328		threats	eng	This species is particularly susceptible to coastal development, but it comes back quickly if conditions improve. It can also be affected by siltation and sedimentation, including burial. Other threats include destruction caused from cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, and disease (Green and Short 2003). In some areas of its range, it is also threatened by over-exploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material), use of fertilizer, oil spills and oil pollution, mining, upland clearing, destruction of mangrove forests, dredging, marina developments, eutrophication, siltation, and pollution. Also threatened by unsustainable fishing methods, illegal fisheries and fishing practices. Given its shallow water habitat, this species may also be threatened by climate change and associated increase in storm activity, water temperature, and/or sea-level rise.
173329		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Research on the distribution, taxonomy and population status are recommended.
173329		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule beaudettei</em> is found in the Caribbean in Yucatan (Mexico), Belize and Barbados.&#160;<em>Halodule</em><em> beaudettei</em> is also reported in the Indian Ocean from the northeast coast of Madagascar (Eiseman 1980).
173329		habitat	eng	<em>Halodule beaudettei</em> is found on a wide variety of substrata, from silty mud to coarse sand with varying amounts of mud (Phillips 1960). <br/><em><br/></em>
173329		population	eng	The population status of <em>Halodule beaudettei</em> is unknown.
173329		threats	eng	Major threats to this species occur from coastal development.
173330		conservation	eng	This species is present in remote locations, and has not been extensively monitored. Therefore, more research is needed on its biology and population status.<br/><br/>Most of this species' range lies within the Great Barrier Reef National Marine Park and World Heritage Sites and associated State Marine Parks.<br/><strong></strong><br/>The Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued. It is protected in either Fisheries Act or in National Park or Marine Park Acts in New South Wales and Queensland (Green and Short 2003).
173330		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila tricostata</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs from the northeastern part of the Gulf of Carpentaria eastward to the southern extent of the Great Barrier Reef.
173330		habitat	eng	This species is present in the subtidal zone, generally deeper than four m. This species is seasonal and is fast growing, forming dense beds. This species may actually be spreading with trawling within some parts of its range.&#160; It has been found in shallow coastal habitats (near mangrove and estuaries) and deep waters of the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. It is found in areas with predominantly fine mud with some carbonate sand and shell grit. It occurs in small patches of monospecific meadows but is more commonly mixed with <em>H. decipens</em> and sometimes other species. This species is an annual that germinates, grows, flowers, and fruits within a few months. Fruits are borne on erect shoots and float, which results in wide dispersal (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila tricostata</span> has high seed production, with rates of 70,000 seeds/m²/year in the Great Barrier Reef region. This is an annual species in eastern Australia, only appearing in late September through to February and being sustained by a sizeable seed bank. It is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set, and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance.<br/><br/>This species was originally described from Lizard Island where it was collected offshore between 15-30 m. It was growing sparsely amongst dense mixed stands of <em>H. spinulosa</em> (dominant), <em>H. ovalis</em>, and <em>H. decipiens</em> on a surface substrate of coarse coral sand, shell fragments and foraminiferans. It is found in Queensland on the tropical coastline and Great Barrier Reef Complex, Lizard Island, and Magnetic Island (Greenway 1979).
173330		population	eng	This species may be common in deep waters of the Great Barrier Reef, however its density fluctuates more than 100% annually due to seasonal changes. This species is generally absent during the cooler months (April through October). Although this species population trend has not been extensively monitored, it is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>In December 1989, a density of 284 shoots/m² was recorded at Fitzroy Island, of which only 5-10% were male (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 1993).
173330		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sediment loads in water, coastal development, dredging and marine developments, and minor damage from boating and shipping activities. It also could be impacted by coastal runoff and to some extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).
173331		conservation	eng	This species is included in various conservation and management plans and programs.&#160; For example, in Japan this species is listed as Vulnerable on the national Red List.&#160; In India, all seagrasses are included in ecologically sensitive marine areas, CRZ-I, which have the highest level of protection (Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1993).&#160; In Malaysia, under the Marine Fisheries Act of 1985, seagrasses are protected in marine parks.<br/><strong></strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides</span> is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve. Implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives have occurred in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species occurs in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, largest seagrass beds with the highest species diversity for a single area in Thailand. In 1998, the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning in Thailand proposed policies for the management of seagrass resources (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific islands, it is recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas and the concept of traditional or community management of these areas. There are NGOs focused on its conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies, suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species is included in the Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) draft on Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management of the seagrass ecosystem in Indonesia.<br/><br/>It is particularly important to protect this species from physical disturbance. More data is needed on its potential to recover following disturbance. Little is known about this species' tolerance thresholds to environmental factors (such as salinity, temperature, light, etc).
173331		distribution	eng	<em>Enhalus acoroides</em> is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan to Taiwan to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia extending throughout the Gulf of Thailand and the coast of Vietnam to Hainan, China. It occurs across insular Southeast Asia to New Caledonia, northern Australia and across Micronesia to the Northern Mariana Islands.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Roebuck Bay, northern Australia, extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea and northern Myanmar. It occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, and the Lakshadweep Islands. It ranges from the Red Sea south to northern Mozambique, and in the Seychelles.
173331		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides </span>is found in the subtidal zone and is slow to produce new shoots but produces high biomass, being a very large seagrass. The siltier the water, the longer the leaves grow in order to capture more light.&#160; It is the only species that releases pollen to the surface of the water  in sexual reproduction, which restricts its distribution to intertidal  and shallow subtidal areas. It is a slow-growing, persistent species  with a poor resistance to perturbation (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is common in the major seagrass areas of Southeast Asia. In Thailand, it occurs in brackish water canals down to the lower intertidal and subtidal zones on mud, muddy sand and sandy coral substrates. In the Gulf of Thailand, it grows on coarse substrate ranging from medium and coarse sand to coral rubble at a depth of 0.5-1.0 m. In Indonesia, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. acoroides</span> grows in a variety of different sediment types, from silt to coarse sand, in subtidal areas or localities with heavy bioturbation. In the Philippines,&#160; it colonizes turbid, quiet, protected areas such as bays and estuaries (Green and Short 2003).&#160; In Peninsular Malaysia, it is common all around the coast on muddy shores and areas exposed at low tide.
173331		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides </span>is common and widespread, especially in embayments. Its population trend is declining in a number of locations within its range due to localized threats, and is most likely declining overall.
173331		threats	eng	Threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides</span> include coastal development, dredging and marine developments, minor damage from boating and shipping activities, coastal runoff and to some extent trawling activities.&#160; This species is found in embayments, it is especially threatened by the creation of fish pens/farming. The species is also threatened by shallow-net trawling and eutrophication. As this species is primarily found in estuaries, shallow lagoons, muddy bays and inside basins, it is often disturbed by vessels and anchorage.<br/><br/>This species is found in a narrow depth range. Therefore this species is especially sensitive to disturbances, including global climate change, such as sea-level rise.<br/><br/>In Kenyan and Tanzanian shores, overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material, oil spills, and oil pollution) can affect this species (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In India, the natural causes of destruction are cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Other threats include anthropogenic activities such as deforestation in the hinterland or mangrove destruction, construction of harbours or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction material as well as anchoring and moving of boats, ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, land filling and untreated sewage disposal (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, this species is threatened by a combination of illegal fisheries and fishing practices, land-based activities (especially mining), and reduced water quality resulting from upland clearing, development along rivers and destruction of mangrove forests (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific, coastal development, dredging, and marina developments, climate change and associated increase in storm activity, water temperature and/or sea-level rise are all possible threats.&#160; In Indonesia, it is threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove cutting and coral reef damage, and by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based resources. Overexploitation of living marine resources such as fish, molluscs and sea cucumbers is also an issue (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the Philippines, it is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Japan, threats include industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting in loss of vegetation, water pollution, disturbance of habitats caused by trawling, and changes in environmental conditions due to human activities (Green and Short 2003).
173332		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas throughout its range.
173332		distribution	eng	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan, Taiwan and Hainan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia extending to the south tip of Vietnam and across insular Southeast Asia to Fiji and Samoa, Micronesia and across northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Geographe Bay in Western Australia extending north across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea to Myanmar and along the Coromandel and Malabar Coasts in India, to Sri Lanka, and the Maldives Islands and Chagos Archipelago. It ranges from the Gulf of Oman to the Red Sea, south to Mozambique, and to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.
173332		habitat	eng	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> inhabits clear waters and prefers sandy substrates and is usually found in shallow waters in the lower inter- and subtidal areas up to 15 m depth. <br/><br/>In Fiji and Samoa, some populations are occasionally exposed during extreme low tide on the reef flats (Skelton and South 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringodium isoetifolium </span>does not cope well with disturbance (Birch and Birch 1984). In the Andaman Sea, this species occurs densely in subtidal areas on fine sediment. It occurs as a widespread and dominant seagrass species in Fiji. In the Western Pacific islands, it is found in dense meadows associated with reefs and on reef platforms.
173332		population	eng	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> is a common and widespread species. The population is thought to be overall stable. It is increasing locally in some places (Udy <em>et al</em>. 1999, Rasheed 2004).
173332		threats	eng	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> can be affected locally by coastal development, sedimentation and pollution.
173333		conservation	eng	An application has been submitted for <em>Posidonia australis</em> to be added to the threatened species list for New South Wales and is currently (May 2009) out for public comment. It is expected to be accepted. This will afford the species a level of legal protection in the Australian State (G. Kendrick pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia australis</em> is included in Shark Bay World Heritage Property which contains more than 4000 km² of seagrass beds of high density. Seagrass beds cannot be damaged without a permit in the state of New South Wales in Australia. It is also protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts or in National or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding conservation planning and population trends should be monitored.&#160; Conservation measures needed include site protection and management, increased educational awareness, and legislation and enforcement at the national and local levels.
173333		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia australis</em> is endemic to the southern half of Australia, including north and east Tasmania. It is found sporadically from north of Shark Bay in Western Australia southward and along the coast to Walis Lake in New South Wales.
173333		habitat	eng	The temperate seagrass species <em>Posidonia australis</em> can form large monospecific meadows through strong rhizomatous growth, and these meadows are found throughout southern Australia. <em>Posidonia</em><em> austrails</em> ecosystems are known to be highly productive and are apparently slow growing (West 1990). It grows in continuous meadows in 1-15 m water in sheltered bays (Cambridge and Kuo 1979).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia australis</em> exists in well developed meadows and typically has continuous cover (Cambridge and Kuo 1979). This species is common in the subtidal environments in Western Australia, to depths of about 12 m. It can exist in depths of up to 22 m in clear non-polluted water. It often grows in meadows mixed with <em>Zostera tasmanica</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em> in less-protected areas dominated by sandy sediments in southeast region of Australia, and occupies the gaps between meadows and areas close to water inputs. It is a slow growing species.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia australis</em> is the dominant seagrass species in a number of southeastern Australian estuaries. This species is important for primary productivity in these systems, supports a variety of detritus feeders and macrofauna, and is an important nursery area for fish (Meehan and West 2004).<br/><br/>Few seedlings of this species are seen in the field. Seedlings likely do not play a role in recovery of damaged meadows as they do not form rhizomes quickly and therefore spread slowly (Meehan and West 2004). The recruitment rate (and generation length) is estimated at five years.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em> meadows have a low number of loosely packed shoots with upright-standing leaf blades, and thinning-out of upright-standing leaf blades in the top half of the canopy creating an "open" canopy.&#160;<em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em> meadows are typically much smaller than those of <em>P. sinuosa</em>. Flowers of this species occur in the top of the canopy, within a zone of minimal leaf area. This may lead to fewer obstructions in the pollen dispersal path (Smith and Walker 2002).
173333		population	eng	<em>Posidonia australis</em> has experienced serious declines documented in 18 studies with an annual decline of 1.8% (Orth and Dennison 2007). Some areas are in recovery. It is common in seagrass communities in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>The <em>Posidonia</em> community in Jervis Bay, Australia has suffered large declines in the past (Meehan and West 2000). This community has taken over 25 years to recolonize a total area in this bay of 0.4 ha and is likely to take over a century to repair completely, assuming there is no further damage. This recolonization appears to be entirely by vegetative re-growth. This location has excellent water quality and conditions ideal for recovery (Meehan and West 2000).<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has led to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads. Between 1954 and 1978 the meadow in this region (containing <span style="font-style: italic;">P. australis</span>) was reduced from 4,200 to 900 ha. <em></em>(Cambridge and McComb 1984).<br/><br/>Seagrass loss (<em>Posidonia australis</em> and <em>P. sinuosa</em>) in Oyster Harbour between 1962 and 1988 was the culmination of diffuse nutrient and sediment influx from rural catchments but recovery is possible with time. At the rates of growth measured, transplants placed one m apart will grow together to form a meadow in less than five years (Cambridge <em>et al</em>. 2002).
173333		threats	eng	Major threats to <em>Posidonia australis</em> are human-induced activities causing increased epiphytism, blocking light and increased drift algal loads (Green and Short 2003). Coastal activities such as port and industrial development also cause direct physical damage. Mining and dredging, eutrophication and pollution from industry, aquaculture and farming, as well as direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities, and to some extent trawling activities also threaten this species (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em> is a slow growing species and does not form rhizomes quickly and therefore spreads slowly.
173334		conservation	eng	Research on this species taxonomy, distribution, ecology, biology and threats is recommended.
173334		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule ciliata</em> is endemic to Panama in the Pacific Ocean and the specific morphological type to which the species name was applied is known only from Taboga Island near Panama City.
173334		habitat	eng	There is no information known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
173334		population	eng	There is very little information about this species, which is known only from herbarium specimens. In 1970, the Panama population was considered to be a possible relict (den Hartog 1970). Field surveys looking for the population in 2009 found no seagrasses around Taboga Island in Panama (A. Prathep pers. comm. 2009). Additional thorough surveys and searches along the Pacific coast of Panama are needed to determine the current status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule ciliata</span>, as this species may be extinct.
173334		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are not known.
173335		conservation	eng	The distribution of <em>Zostera caulescens</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea ( Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas). This species is also protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.<br/><br/><em>Zostera</em><em> caulescens</em> is listed as Vulnerable (vulnerable stage) in the Red Data Book of threatened Japanese plant species (2000).<br/><br/>Further research on population and general biology of this species is recommended.
173335		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera caulescens</em> has a very limited distribution. It occurs in the northeast Pacific in northern China, South Korea and in central Japan (it may also be in North Korea). It has an extent of occurrence of near to 20,000 km², and is known from around 10 locations.
173335		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera caulescens</em> is found in both sheltered and semi-exposed bays on sandy or muddy bottoms in depths of 6-12 m along temperate sea coasts of northeastern Asia (Miki 1932, den Hartog 1970). It prefers deeper waters due to its tall growth. It is also found in Japan, in deeper habitats than <em>Zostera marina</em>, between 3-16 m (Aioi <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/><em>Zostera caulescens</em> is believed to be the world's longest seagrass and was collected in lengths of up to seven m, with a typical length of 4.8 m in a bay of northeastern Japan. The flowering shoots are produced on a proliferation of vegetative leaves at the top of a stem. Flowering shoots take one year to mature and develop spadices, over-wintering in the bed.
173335		population	eng	The population of <em>Zostera caulescens</em> is thought to be declining due to coastal pollution.
173335		threats	eng	<em>Zostera caulescens</em> is sensitive to pollution and reduced water quality is a particular threat. Habitat loss is also a major threat to this species, as is dredging.<br/><br/>Within its range in Japan there is industrial development in coastal regions, land reclamation, water pollution and disturbance of habitats by fish trawling. In South Korea there is a large amount of coastal eutrophication and some land reclamation.
173336		conservation	eng	Seagrasses cannot be damaged without a permit in the state of New South Whales in Australia. This species also is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts or in National or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).
173336		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia angustifolia</em> is endemic to southern Australia from Shark Bay in Western Australia along the coast to northern Tasmania.
173336		habitat	eng	This species tends to be present in deeper waters and thrives in low light and disturbed environments.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia angustifolia</em> is found on substrate combining fine sand with cobble-sized fractions. Depths range from 2-50 m in open near-shore waters. At shallower depths and in relatively sheltered situations, this species occurs sympatrically with <em>P. sinuosa</em> and <em>Amphibolis</em> spp. At depths of 35 m it has been observed with sparse <em>Heterozostera tasmanica</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em>. In well developed meadows this species usually has continuous cover (Cambridge and Kuo 1979).<br/><br/>In Tasmania, it is found mainly in estuary entrances, or in sheltered bays adjacent to Bass Strait Islands (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species is found sublittorally at depths of from 2-35 m on substrates of fine sand with larger sized fractions. <em>P. angustifolia</em> occurs most frequently in open inshore waters; while reported as a meadow-forming species (Kirkman and Kuo 1996), it is frequently found together with other seagrass species, particularly in its deeper range (Robertson 1984). Robertson also noted that some plants from the eastern limit of its range are of a broad-leaved form, and may be intermediate between <em>P. angustifolia</em> and <em>P. australis</em>.
173336		population	eng	This species occurs in extensive monospecific meadows in deep waters. The population globally is stable.
173336		threats	eng	In Western Australia, human activities such as direct physical damage caused by port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging, excessive loads of nutrients causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, land based activity associated with ports, industry, aquaculture, farming, direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities are threats to seagrasses (Green and Short 2003).
173337		conservation	eng	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> is found in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).<br/><br/>Research is recommended for its distribution and biology, particularly it resilience capability with regard to seedbanks.
173337		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> has a somewhat disjunct distribution in the western Atlantic. It is found sporadically throughout the Gulf of Mexico, along the east coast of Florida and in western Cuba, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is thought to be near to 2,000 km².
173337		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> generally occurs as an understory species, commonly associated with <em>Syringodium</em> and <em>Halodule</em>, and only occasionally with <em>Thalassia</em>. It is generally a shallow water species in turbid waters. A very small plant, <em>H. engelmanni</em> rarely exceeds 10 cm in height. Its habitat is generally in sandy and muddy substrates, but it can also be found in areas with gravel or rock bottom.<br/><br/>This species is known to have prolific flowering but nothing is known about seedbank recruitment. (Zieman 1982, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). Dispersal is low.<br/><br/>Its depth range in Florida is 1.4 to 18.3 m (Fourqurean <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Cuba, it is found at a depth of 14.4 m with biomass of 0.25 g/m² (Green and Short 2003).
173337		population	eng	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> has a disjunct distribution. It is very habitat-specific, thus it is not very abundant. It is found in disturbed areas but its persistence is unknown. The overall trend of the population is thought to be decreasing.<br/><br/>In the northern coast of Yucatan and in Florida there are wide fluctuations in presence and abundance (van Tussenbroek and Zieman pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><em> engelmanni</em> had an estimated mean dry density of 0.25 g/m² at depths of up to 14.4 m and accounted for 0.2% of total angiosperm biomass in the 2,000 km² range along the Cuban northwestern shelf between 1972 and 1973 (Buesa 1975).<br/><br/>Hale <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported a decline in occurrence of <em>H. engelmanni</em> along the Big Bend region of Florida (Anclote Key north to Apalachee Bay) when compared to data from 1974 -1980 reported in Iverson and Bittaker (1986). Data collected between 1974 and 1980 show a 12% occurrence for this species compared to the 8% occurrence recorded in 2000. Combining this research results in 30% total loss for this area. These losses occurred in the northern region of the study along the coastline and in the deepest portions of the southern region. This accounts for the loss of at least three m from the maximum depth of distribution (Hale <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>This species also was observed in the Johnson Key Basin, Florida Bay, in 1996. Abundance in the western part of Florida Bay appears to have increased as abundance of <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> decreased due to low light levels caused by high turbidity (Durako and Hall 2000).
173337		threats	eng	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> has a limited distribution and is thought to be negatively impacted by sedimentation and turbidity. It is also locally threatened by anthropogenic activities such as coastal development, trawling, eutrophication and pollution and tourism.
173338		conservation	eng	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is present in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands World Heritage Site.<br/><br/>More information is needed on recruitment rates and taxonomy of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. hawaiiana</span>.
173338		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, USA. It is not found on the island of Hawaii. Given its very shallow depth range and patchy occurrence, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.
173338		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is found in the shallow subtidal zone in sandy protected areas. This species flowers relatively quickly. More information is needed on recruitment rate. This species has a high turnover rate, and is fast growing. The average leaf density of this species is 30,650 leaves/m². Its turnover rate is 14.7 days with a productivity of 7.11 g dw/m²/d (Herbert 1986).
173338		population	eng	The overall population trend for <em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is declining due to competition with algal species, shoreline development and beach replenishment. There has been an estimated decline of at least 30% over at least the past 10 years (M. Waycott pers. comm. 2008). <em>Halophila</em><em> hawaiiana</em> can be locally common, and can occur in dense meadows.
173338		threats	eng	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> has a restricted distribution and is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, thus making it of a higher extinction risk. It also has a narrow depth range<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>&#160; The habitat of this species<em> </em>has been taken over by invasive algal species in some parts of its range, resulting in declines. It is also highly threatened by shoreline development and beach replenishment.
173339		conservation	eng	The distribution of <em>Zostera asiatica</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas). <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera asiatica</span> is protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.&#160; There are some site-based conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>It is unclear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific.<br/><br/><em>Zostera asiatica</em> is  ranked as Vulnerable (vulnerable stage) in the Red Data Book of threatened Japanese plant species (2000).<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding the population size and distribution of this species, and population trends should be monitored.
173339		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera asiatica</em> has a limited distribution; it occurs in the northwest Pacific from China and Korea to the Russian Federation and Japan. In the eastern Pacific, it occurs along the south coast of California, USA, where it may be an introduced species.
173339		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera asiatica</em> is found in broadly sheltered bays on sand in depths of 8-12 m in cool to temperate sea coasts of northeastern Asia (Miki 1932). In South Korea it is distributed in relatively deep water (9-15 m) in bays or along open shores, and forms small patches, usually observed in sandy sediments along the east coast.
173339		population	eng	The overall population of <em>Zostera asiatica</em> is thought to be declining due to coastal pollution.
173339		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera asiatica</span> is sensitive to pollution, and reduced water quality is a threat.<br/><br/>Within its range in Japan there is industrial development in coastal regions, water pollution and disturbance of habitats by fish trawling. In South Korea, there is a large amount of coastal eutrophication.<br/><br/>The recruitment rate of this species is estimated at five years, and therefore it is relatively slower to recolonize.
173340		conservation	eng	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is included in the Shark Bay World Heritage Property which contains more than 4,000 km² of seagrass beds of high density (Green and Short 2003). More research on <em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is needed on taxonomy and general biology including recruitment and reproduction.
173340		distribution	eng	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is endemic to tropical Western Australia. It is found from Collier Bay to Shark Bay.
173340		habitat	eng	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> grows on coarse sand, sand patches and fine grained sediment. It is often found growing together with other species (<em>Posidonia</em> spp. and <em>Amphibolis</em> spp.) (McMillan <em>et al</em>. 1983). This species was collected at about seven m depth in the Monte Bello Islands (McMillan <em>et al</em>. 1983).
173340		population	eng	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> has been rarely collected, primarily due to the fact that its distribution is in remote locations. The overall population trend is unknown.
173340		threats	eng	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is found in a remote part of Australia, and therefore it is removed from coastal anthropogenic threats. There are however current developments underway for mining activities within its distribution (M. Waycott pers. comm. 2008).
173341		conservation	eng	The distribution of <em>Phyllospadix japonicus</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas) and is protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.
173341		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllospadix japonicus</em> occurs in the northwestern Pacific from the northeast coast of China to South Korea and northwestern Honshu, Japan. Its distribution is very limited. However, in northern China this species has been eliminated from the region due to the establishment of extensive kelp (algal) aquaculture. Given its shallow depth range, patchy occurrence, and current distribution, this species has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
173341		habitat	eng	<em>Phyllospadix japonicus</em> inhabits the intertidal and subtidal rocky bottoms of temperate regions of Japan and China. In South Korea, it occurs mainly on rocky substrata along the east coast. This species has been observed in both sheltered and open shores, but usually grows in high-energy environments. This species lives at depths from 0-8 m.
173341		population	eng	The range size of <em>Phyllospandix japonicus</em> is declining in Korea (K.S. Lee pers. comm. 2008). In northern China this species was previously widespread over vast rocky shallow subtidal areas, but since the establishment of extensive kelp algal aquaculture virtually all the <em>P. japonicus</em> has been eliminated (approximately 90% decline) (F.T. Short pers. comm. 2008). The distribution in Japan is very limited. This species is naturally fragmented due to a lack of suitable substrate. Overall declines are estimated to be in the region of between 30 and 50 % over the three generation lengths (18 years).
173341		threats	eng	Major threats to <em>P. japonicus</em> include coastal development, shoreline hardening and kelp aquaculture.<br/><br/>The recruitment rate of this species is low as it inhabits a high energy environment, where conditions need to be right for seeds to be successful.
173342		conservation	eng	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> has no specific conservation measures. It is often protected when it is present in mangroves in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures are to control the impacts from coastal development, mangrove destruction, and building aquaculture farming (particularly shrimp ponds).
173342		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> has a disjunct and fragmented distribution in the Indo-Pacific. In the Pacific, it is found from southern China to Singapore, Sarawak (Malaysia), and the northwestern Philippines.&#160; In the Indian Ocean, it occurs from Malaysia, throughout the Bay of Bengal and along the west coast of India.
173342		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> is found in the upper intertidal zone and grows on mud or muddy sand substrates in estuarine and coastal areas. This species is fast-growing with large seed production. It is a colonizing species. This species flowers year round and has annual and perennial populations in Malaysia and Bangladesh. In India, it acts as a pioneer species in the succession process leading to mangrove formation.<br/><br/>This species has a narrow, restricted depth range right at the intertidal zone. It has a wide salinity tolerance (euryhaline) and can recover quickly from disturbance, such as increased sedimentation.<br/><br/>This species is one of two in the oldest lineage of seagrasses, and therefore has a high evolutionary value (i.e., living dinosaur).
173342		population	eng	Global population trends for <em>Halophila beccarii</em> are declining.<br/><br/><em>Halophila beccarii</em> is common in intertidal areas in Bangladesh and India. It is common in seaward mangroves and lagoons in Malaysia and Thailand and in mud flats and seaward mangrove areas in China. The population is thought to be stable in Thailand. It is also stable in India, and in some places is increasing. The population is decreasing in Malaysia due to competition with <em>Halodule pinifolia</em> and habitat loss from mangrove destruction and coastal development.
173342		threats	eng	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> is susceptible to a number of threats due to its very narrow restricted habitat in the intertidal zone.<br/><br/>Major threats to <em>Halophila beccarii</em> include destruction from cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes. Other threats include mangrove destruction, coastal development such as construction of harbours or jetties, ponds for shrimp farming, mining (Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia), sand dredging for landfills and anchoring and moving of boats, discharge of sediments, untreated sewage disposal, and aquaculture.<br/><br/>Areas where this species occurs are often rich in molluscs, thus this species can be threatened during mollusc harvesting, and other types of harvesting that use pull-nets.
173343		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species' phenology.&#160; <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila spinulosa</span> is included in various conservation and management plans.<strong></strong> For example, the Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued. It cannot be damaged without a permit in New South Whales and Queensland and is protected in either Fisheries Act or in National Park or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).
173343		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila spinulosa</em> occurs in the Indo-Pacific, in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and the northern half of Australia.
173343		habitat	eng	This species is found in subtidal sandy, muddy and rocky areas, and in patches between coral reefs. This species produces a lot of seeds, and can therefore recover quickly from disturbance. This species is grazed by dugongs and turtles. It is very important as habitat where it is found, due to its structure.<br/><br/>This species is very sensitive to reductions in light and therefore may be threatened by decreasing water quality (sedimentation, eutrophication, resuspension of particles and pollutants).
173343		population	eng	This species is common and is found in dense stands. The overall population trend is estimated to be stable but fluctuating. It is declining in Malaysia due to loss of habitat (coastal development).
173343		threats	eng	This species is threatened by trawling activities, unsustainable fishing methods, coastal development, dredging and marina developments and increased sediment loads that reduce light availability. <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila spinulos</span>a also is affected by damage from boating and shipping activities and could be impacted by coastal run-off (Green and Short 2003).&#160; In the Philippines, it is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).
173344		conservation	eng	The distribution of <em>Phyllopadix iwatensis</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas), and it is protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.
173344		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllospadix iwatensis</em> is found in the northwestern Pacific in China, Korea, Japan and the Russian Federation. However, its distribution is not well known and is believed to be limited. The extent of occurrence of <em>P. iwatensis</em> is less than 20,000 km² and it is known form less than 10 known locations.
173344		habitat	eng	<em>Phyllospadix iwatensis</em> inhabits the intertidal and subtidal rocky bottoms of temperate regions of Japan. In South Korea it occurs mainly on rocky substrata along the east coast. Although observed in both sheltered and open shores, this species usually grows in high-energy environments. The optimum period for growth of <em>P. iwatensis</em> is in March (Yabe <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>This species can grow in dense foliage with high shoot density of both intertidal and subtidal plants, which is likely to be an adaptation to heavy water movement. In choppy and swell sea, <em>P. iwatensis</em> did not seem to be adapted to growing in the subtidal zone, where there can be a shortage of light (Yabe <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Surfgrass recruitment has an obligate requirement for anchoring by turfy seaweeds in the surf zone. If the seaweed community changes to micro-algae, recruitment will most likely fail.<br/> <br/>This species is found to depths of 4.5 m.
173344		population	eng	<em>Phyllospandix iwatensis</em> is limited throughout most of its range, except in China where only remnant populations remain since the start of extensive kelp aquaculture. There is evidence that there have been declines in Korea (K-S. Lee pers. comm. 2008). This species is naturally fragmented due to a lack of suitable substrate.
173344		threats	eng	This species is threatened by industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation (shoreline hardening). Loss of vegetation also results from water pollution, coastal eutrophication, disturbance of habitats by fish trawling, clamming and aquaculture.<br/><br/>The recruitment rate of this species is low as it inhabits a high energy environment, where conditions need to be right for seeds to be successful.
173345		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. <br/><br/>Research on the biology, population status  and measures for conservation of this species are recommended.
173345		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera geojeensis</em> has an extremely limited distribution. It occurs in only two locations on the west coast and south coast of South Korea (Shin <em>et al</em>. 2002).  The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km².
173345		habitat	eng	This species has a depth range of between three and five m. It lives on sandy or muddy sand substrates in semi-enclosed bays (Shin <em>et al</em>. 2002). There is little known about the biology of this species.
173345		population	eng	<em>Zostera geojeensis</em> has a declining population (K.-S. Lee pers. comm. 2008).
173345		threats	eng	In Korea, <em>Zostera geojeensis</em> is threatened by the hardening of shorelines, dredging and land reclamation.
173346		conservation	eng	The range of <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> falls in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). In the Caribbean, <em>T. testudinum</em> is included in the 24 fully managed marine protected areas. This species is monitored by the CARICOMP network (Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity network), including coral reefs and mangroves (Green and Short 2003). Currently, a seagrass management plan is being developed in Bermuda (Sarkis pers. comm. 2007). This species is also listed as Vulnerable (A2a) under the Bermuda Protected Species Act (Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This is a major habitat-forming species in the Greater Caribbean and should be monitored (Van Tussenbroek <em>et al</em>. 2006).
173346		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassia testudinum</em> occurs in the western central Atlantic from Florida, USA to Venezuela, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. It is also found in Bermuda.
173346		habitat	eng	<em>Thalassia testudinum</em> is the most abundant seagrass in the Caribbean and forms dense rhizome mats below the sediment, creating extensive meadows on shallow sand or mud substrates from the lower intertidal to a maximum 10-12 m depth.&#160; It has also been reported below 20 m. In Cuba, this species was found to a depth of 14 m and accounted for 97.5% of total angiosperm biomass (190 g/m²). Optimum temperatures for this species range between 20-30°C (Phillips 1960).<br/><br/><em>Thalassia</em><em> testudinum</em> typically dominates seagrass vegetation in reef lagoons, where it often coexists with <em>Syringodium filiforme</em>, <em>Halodule wrightii</em> and calcareous rhizophytic green algae belonging to the order Caulerpales, amongst which <em>Halimeda</em> spp. are the most conspicuous members. This species plays an important role in production of sediments (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is typically found in low density in oligotrophic areas and replaced by other species when there are continuous high nutrient inputs (Fourqurean and Rutten 2004).<br/><br/><em>Thalassia testudium</em> is an important food for green sea turtles and manatees, as well as for a number of other fish and invertebrate species.<br/><br/>The dense beds in the Florida Bay are susceptible to primary die-off, which usually occurs during late summer to early winter. Primary die-off is usually followed by reduced water clarity and increase epiphytic growth, which can lead to secondary die-off among neighbouring local seagrass (Nuttle <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Seeds are viviparous and do not form seed banks. After major eradication, recolonization is dependent on import from seeds from other areas or from vegetative fragments (van Tuessenbroek <em>et al</em>. 2006). Seedling success can be variable, and the generation length of this species has been estimated as eight years (for recruitment).
173346		population	eng	<em>Thalassia testudinum</em> forms extensive dense seagrass beds throughout its range. This is the most important seagrass habitat-forming species in the Caribbean. There have been some declines in seagrass beds in developing areas, particularly in areas of nutrient enrichment and sedimentation. Generally, however, this species still very abundant throughout its range.<br/><br/>Out of 103 published studies on this species, 29 showed an increase in abundance (mix of biomass, aerial extent, or density), 17 decreased and 57 showed no change (Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, Carruthers pers. comm. 2007). The overall population trend is stable.<br/><br/>Caribbean regional biomass ranges from 3.2 g dw/m² (recorded at the latitude 17.8<sup>o</sup> in the Virgin Islands) to 820 g dw/m² (recorded along the 28.3<sup>o</sup> latitude on the Florida coast). These findings are summarized in Gacia (1999) and include data from publications ranging from 1959 until 1996.<br/><br/>The <em>T. testudinum</em> population in the Florida Bay covered 90% of mud bank and basins until a massive die off in 1987. Four thousand hectares were completely lost and 24,000 ha were affected due to primary die off caused by higher water temperatures, hypersalinity and increased biomass, leading to high respiration demands. This was followed by secondary die-off from increased turbidity due to increased phytoplankton beginning the fall of 1991. Between 1984 and 1994, mean short shoot density dropped by 22% throughout the Florida Bay and standing crop biomass dropped by 28%. While light attenuation may have been a factor, the patchy distribution of die-off suggests that primary die-off was the principle reason for the decrease in abundance (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1999). Between the spring of 1995 and spring of 1999, despite individual basins in the Florida Bay exhibiting changes in abundance by between 12-100%, the total abundance throughout the Bay exhibited little change due to declines in abundance in the western part of the Bay being offset by increases in abundance in the central and eastern basins (Durako and Hall 2000). Increases in seagrass coverage along with large occurrences of flowering plants were observed during the spring of 2000; however, primary die-off among high density stands was also observed north of Barneys Key with similar symptoms noted to the 1987 die-off (Nuttle <em>et al</em>.&#160; 2003).
173346		threats	eng	The biggest threats to <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> are coastal development, eutrophication, and sedimentation (T. Carruthers, F. Short, B. van Tussenbroek, J. Zieman pers. comm. 2007). Boat traffic, marina development, and sewage pollution from greatly expanded residential and hotel development is a particular problem in Florida. Trawling is also a threat in some parts of the range.
173347		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for <em>Halodule emarginata</em> are unknown. More research is needed on this species taxonomy, population status, and potential threats.
173347		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule emarginata</em> is endemic to Brazil where it ranges from Rio de Janiero to Baía de Todos os Santos.
173347		habitat	eng	<em>Halodule emarginata</em> is found in sheltered shores, in fine-sediment substrate and salinities around 35 ppt (de Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is a perennial species that produces flowers (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006).
173347		population	eng	There is little population information available for <em>Halodule emarginata</em>. One of the known sites for this species has disappeared from Rio de Janiero (F. Short pers. comm. 2008).
173347		threats	eng	Specific threats to <em>Halodule emarginata</em> are unknown. Localized coastal development is most likely a threat.
173348		conservation	eng	The distribution of <em>Zostera japonica</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas).<br/><br/>This species is protected in Washington state (USA).
173348		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera japonica</em> occurs in the western Pacific from the Russian Federation to southern Vietnam, including Japan and much of coastal China.<br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific, <em>Z. japonica</em> occurs from Vancouver Island south to San Francisco, California, USA, and is believed to be introduced.
173348		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera japonica</em> is found in broadly sheltered bays on sandy or muddy coasts from 1-3 m depth along cool to subtropical sea coasts of eastern Asia (Miki 1933).<br/><br/>This is a small seagrass. In Japan, it is always found in the uppermost parts of the bed, as its main habitat is intertidal flats. Biomass varies greatly with season: a maximum biomass of 270 g dry weight/m² was recorded in July and a minimum of 30 g dry weight/m² occurred from December to January. Mainly distributed in the intertidal zone around islands in South Korea. In the Pacific coast of North America, it commonly grows higher in the intertidal zone and has an open leaf sheath, characteristic of its subgenus <em>Zosterella</em>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera japonica</span> is restricted in its northerly extent where it is found primarily in the upper intertidal zones in muddy or silty substrates.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, <em>Zostera japonica</em> occurs intertidally. Local macroalgal blooms usually occur during the winter and coincide with sloughing of <em>Zostera</em> leaves. <em>Clithon</em> spp. are the most abundant gastropods in the local beds and are the dominant grazers on epiphytic algal growth on <em>Zostera</em> leaves. This grazing is important to the maintenance of the <em>Z. japonica</em> beds in Hong Kong (Fong <em>et al</em>. 2000).
173348		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species. Overall, the population for this species is increasing. There has been reported decline in Korea due to land reclamation<span style="font-weight: bold;">.</span><strong></strong><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span><em> japonica</em> is an introduced species on the west coast of North America that came in with shipments of oysters used to support the local shellfish industry (Phillips and Shaw 1976). First reported from Willapa Bay, Washington, it spread throughout coastal Washington and now occurs from the southern coast of British Columbia, Canada to Coos Bay, Oregon&#160; (Harrison and Bigley 1982, Posey 1988) and Humboldt Bay, California (F. Short pers. obs.).
173348		threats	eng	In some parts of its range, mostly in Korea, <em>Zostera japonica</em> is threatened by aquaculture and hardening of shorelines (land reclamation). It is also affected by resuspended sediments that affect water quality.
173349		conservation	eng	<em>Posidonia</em><em> sinussa</em> is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts, National and Marine Park Acts. There are no specific conservation measures for this species.
173349		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> is endemic to western and southern Australia. It is distributed from Kalbarri to Eyre in Western Australia and from the head of the Great Australian Bight to Encounter Bay, South Australia.
173349		habitat	eng	<em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> is widely distributed in marine embayments and near shore areas on the western and southern coasts of Australia from low water to 15 m depth in sandy substrates. It may form meadows with <em>Amphibolis</em> spp. and typically grows in linear rows up to 50 cm wide, parallel to prevailing direction of water movement (Cambridge and Kuo 1979). This species is slow growing and has a long recruitment time of 20 years.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> sinuosa</em> has inflorescences born on flattened, leafless peduncles, with reduced, hermaphroditic flowers and filiform pollen. Inflorescence of <em>P. sinuosa</em> are well hidden below the "umbrella-like" meadow canopy at ~10 cm above the sediment. Anthesis and fruiting occurs from August to January (Womersley 1984).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> sinuosa</em> meadows have a high number of tightly packed shoots with overhanging semi-permanently bent top portions. This species has high leaf density surrounding the flowers which may prevent the pollen from escaping out of the meadow into the overlying water column. This likely leads to greater neighbour to neighbour pollination in this species (Smith and Walker 2002).
173349		population	eng	There have been major areas of loss across the range of <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> due to human activities, which have caused significant population declines. Based on 11 studies during the period between 1990 and 2000, there was a 1.2 % annual decline in&#160; the area&#160; of this seagrass (Orth and Dennison 2007). Over the last 60 years (three generation lengths), the recorded declines in areas of this species suggests a population reduction greater than 30%.<br/><br/>In one area of <em>P. sinuosa</em>'s distribution, Cockburn Sound has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads. Between 1954 and 1978 the meadow in this region reduced from 4,200 to 900 ha (Cambridge and McComb 1984).<br/><br/>Seagrass loss (<em>Posidonia australis</em> and <em>P. sinuosa</em>) in Oyster Harbour between 1962 and 1988 was the culmination of diffuse nutrient and sediment influx from rural catchments (Cambridge <em>et al</em>. 2002).
173349		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are excessive nutrient inputs, eutrophication, sedimentation and pollution, and dredging and sand mining activities. Coastal developments such as port development are also threatening for this species.
173350		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work is carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000).
173350		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia denhartogii</em> is endemic to southwestern Australia, ranging from Perth to eastern South Australia.
173350		habitat	eng	The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found (Kuo and Cambridge 1984).<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, was not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.
173350		population	eng	There is no specific population information for <em>Posidonia denhartogii</em>. The overall population is thought to be stable.
173350		threats	eng	Threats may include coastal development by industry, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Additional threats include pollution from eutrophication causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, aquaculture, farming and direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).
173351		conservation	eng	This species is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts and National and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).
173351		distribution	eng	<em>Ruppia megacarpa</em> occurs in south Western Australia, eastern South Australia, and western Victoria, Australia. It also is recorded along the central coast of New South Wales, Australia and in New Zealand.
173351		habitat	eng	<em>Ruppia megacarpa</em> is a rhizomatous perennial species that occurs widely in Australia and New Zealand, found growing in permanent water bodies such as estuaries, coastal salt lakes and inland brackish to hypersaline lakes (Jacobs and Brock 1982, Womersley 1984).<br/><br/><em>Ruppia megacarpa</em> is slow to develop and shows late maturity. The small amount of energy allocated to producing a small number of large propagules appears suitable for interpretation as an example of K-selection (Brock 1983).
173351		population	eng	There is no population information on this species. The overall population is thought to be stable.
173351		threats	eng	Localized reduction of this species can be caused by increased sediment loads in water. Coastal development, dredging and marine developments may also locally impact this species.
173352		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for <em>H. decipiens</em>, party due to its habitat in deeper waters. It is found in some protected areas (e.g., Belize, GBR) but it is often outside Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) because of its depth range. Currently, a seagrass management plan is being developed in Bermuda (Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Research on the biology of this species is recommended because of its deep water habitat.
173352		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> occurs mostly in the tropics and is circumglobal.<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, this species occurs in the Gulf of Mexico, throughout the Caribbean Sea, Bermuda and eastern Brazil. It also occurs on the northwest coast of Africa and in the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>In the Pacific, <em>H. decipiens</em> is found from southern Japan and the coast of China throughout Southeast Asia and extending east across the Coral Sea to Fiji. It occurs from the Great Barrier Reef across northern Australia. It is also found in the Hawaiian Islands, Midway, and French Polynesia as well as in Mexico at the southern end of the Baja Peninsula (Santamaria-Gallegos <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, <em>H. decipiens</em> is found from southwestern Australia through the Timor Sea, along the coast of Indonesia, Thailand and southern Myanmar (Novak <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is also present in India, on the southeast and mid-west coasts. It is present in the Chagos Archipelago, in the northern Red Sea, and in Yemen.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila decipiens</span> also occurs also in the Seychelles and Kenya (McMahon and Waycott 2009) and Madagascar (F. Short pers. obs.).
173352		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> is typically found on coarse sediments, sand, and muddy bottoms. It is a deep water species but is also found in shallow water under docks and in turbid areas. <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> can grow in areas with high sedimentation. <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> is monoecious, with male and female flowers occurring on the same spathe. Female flowers produce approximately 30 seeds.<br/><br/>In the Caribbean it can be found to a depth of around 30 m, but in the Indo-Pacific may be found to 58 m (Lee Long <em>et al</em>. 1996). This species tends to be in monospecific seagrass beds (but in the Indo-Pacific it is found with <em>Halophila spinulosa</em>, and in the Caribbean occasionally with <em>H. baillonii</em>). It can be seasonal and has a large seed bank (Zieman 1982,  Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is a rapid re-colonizer when beds are disturbed by grazing or trawls.<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> can propagate through budding, but primarily relies on a buried seed bank for population re-establishment in seasonally fluctuating or high disturbance environments (Hammerstrom <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is a highly fecund, annual and opportunistic species (Kenworthy 1993) that may be favoured by disturbance (McMillan 1988), but unable to compete once the other species are established (Preen <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>In Thailand, this species was previously thought only to occur in waters 9-36 m in depth but has been found in the intertidal areas where it is exposed during low tide down to the depths of five m. In Malaysian Peninsula, depth limit ranged from 6-24 m in clear water of the east coast, while only about 1.5-3.1 m in the turbid water of the west coast. In the Philippines, it grows primarily at depths of 11-23 m. In Cuba, it was found at a depth of 24.3 m with a biomass of 0.14 g/m². In Veracruz, Mexico it was found in the deeper parts down to 10 m. In the Caribbean, it was found in deep water up to 30 m. In South America, this species is associated with deeper reefs, algal and marl beds, and deeper soft-bottomed vegetative areas.<br/><br/>The first specimen of <em>H. decipiens</em> found in  southwestern Australian <em></em>was collected from the Hardy Inlet near the mouth of Blackwood River in late December 1991 (Kuo and Kirkman 1995). <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> is frequently mixed with <em>H. ovalis</em> at a depth of 35 m, as well as in rock pools at the mid-tide level. Dense meadows of this species may cover the entire, gently sloping edge of the river channel. The mature plant produces flowers which fruit in the autumn. Seagrass meadows of this species disappear from the sites during winter (Kuo and Kirkman 1995).<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> decipiens</span> is found 3-15 m deep along the Midway Atoll and forms dense patches with an average of 24,000 blades per m<sup>2</sup>. At the O'ahu Island depth ranges from 1-2 m and along Hawai'i Island, this species is found at depths of 40 m and forms monospecific patches adjacent to, yet not interacting with, <em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> at Midway and O'ahu. <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> is the only seagrass to form pure stands in deep waters at the island of Hawai'i (McDermid <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Costa Baja population was found mainly in subtidal waters with high leaf-pair density and a low biomass with seasonal biomass levels. Highest biomass and plant development were observed during the summer months (Santamaria-Gallegos <em>et al</em>. 2006).
173352		population	eng	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> is widespread and locally abundant. It can have dense cover but low biomass. This species is often not collected or recorded, as the leaves can be obscured by sediments, and it is found in deeper water. Its global population trend is thought to be stable as it is increasing in some regions, although some localized declines have been observed in other regions due to localized threats.<br/><br/>The Midway Atoll (Hawaiian Islands) population forms dense patches with an average of 24,000 blades per square meter (McDermid <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Costa Baja population displayed a total biomass of 5.2 ± 1.6 g dry weight (dw)/m² with a leaf-pair density of 2964 ± 778 during the winter months, a total biomass of 8.5 ± 2.2 g dw/m² and a leaf-pair density of 4016 ± 599 during the summer months (Santamaria-Gallegos <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the west Florida shelf, this species covers an estimated 20,000 km² with an average coverage of 20%. During June of 1999, percent coverage was estimated at 45% in 10 m of water, 4% in 15 m, and 18% in 20 m. During the month of October, 1999, percent coverage was estimated at 74% in 10 m of water, 39% in 15 m, and 10% in 20 m. Biomass ranged from 0.02 to 2.64 g dry weight/m² . This species tends to follow typical sub-tropical seasonal cycles with lower biomass during the fall and winter months (Hammerstrom <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>During 1972 to 1973, this species was reported to have a mean dry biomass&#160; of 0.14 g/m² along the northwest Cuban shelf at depths of up to 24.3 m. It was reported to be the least abundant seagrass studied, and accounted for 0.1% of total angiosperm biomass in the 2,000 km² range along the Cuban northwestern shelf (Buesa 1975).<br/><br/>Iverson and Bittaker (1986) reported <em>H. decipiens</em> occurring in small monotypic stands and sometimes occurring among <em>H. wrightii</em> in the northern offshore areas along the Big Bend, Florida in water deeper than five m. Data collected in 2000 showed no occurrence of <em>H. decipiens</em> along the Big Bend, Florida (Hale <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Halophila decipiens</em> is not abundant or common in Bermuda: out of 55 sites sampled 3.6% had this species present; of these, 50% of sites sampled had less than six shoots per m<sup>2</sup> (Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>.
173352		threats	eng	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> has few major threats partly because it is found in deeper waters. Coastal development can locally affect seagrass beds in more shallow areas, as can reduced water quality. Trawls can disturb beds in deeper areas, but these are usually recolonized rapidly.<br/><br/>This species has numerous natural grazers such as turtles, dugongs and fish, and if in high numbers these can reduce biomass considerably.
173353		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions documented for the species, but more research is needed on population size and distribution, life history, ecology, and potential threats.
173353		distribution	eng	<em>Lepilaena australis</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs from Perth, Western Australia along the southern coast including coastal marine lagoons and some inland saline lakes to Mackay, Queensland.
173353		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepilaena australis</span> is often found growing with other seagrasses in estuarine environments, such as <em>Zostera muellerii</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em> and <em>Ruppia</em> spp.<br/><br/>This species occurs in muddy sandy substrates predominantly in estuaries and also in coastal marine lagoons and some inland saline lakes.
173353		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepilaena australis </span>can be locally common. No population trends are known.
173353		threats	eng	Threats to this species include urban development and general coastal infill such as land reclamation.
173354		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. They are protected in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within their distribution. There are some taxonomic issues with this species, and investigation is needed into the genetics and distribution. The population should be monitored.
173354		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera tasmanica</em> is endemic to Australia and is found from Portland to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria as well as along the east coast of Tasmania (Kuo 2005).
173354		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera tasmanica</span> is found in shallow creek mouths, shallow protected embayments and estuaries. It inhabits sandy and sandy mud substrates. <br/><br/>This species dominates seagrass communities in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>Much of the ecological information for this species will relate to that of the other more wide-ranging species. It is fast growing, colonizes quickly and grows together with other seagrasses within its habitat.
173354		population	eng	This is a common species. Its population trend is most likely overall stable, however there are localized declines due to losses around Sydney and Melbourne.
173354		threats	eng	This species is most impacted by coastal development due to large human populations overlapping with its range. Recent localized losses were due to sediment accretion and desiccation caused by exposure to high air temperatures and low humidity in South Australia.<br/><br/>In Eastern Australia, reductions have been caused by light reduction due to increased sediment loads in the water. Coastal development, dredging and marine developments affect all seagrasses in the tourist region of Australia' s east coast. This species also is threatened with minor damage from boating and shipping activities, could be impacted by coastal runoff and to some damage from extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).
173355		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Research into the taxonomy of this species is recommended.
173355		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera nigricaulis</em> is endemic to Australia and is found from Dongara, Western Australia around the coast of southern Australia to central New South Wales and the north and east coasts of Tasmania (Kuo 2005).
173355		habitat	eng	This species is found in rock pools and sheltered sandy substrates with considerable amounts of drift detritus. It is found at depths between 0 and 15 m (Kuo 2005). <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span><em> nigricaulis</em> flowers regularly and is fast growing.
173355		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range, and there are some localized declines due to coastal development. Overall the population is decreasing.
173355		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species, but it is affected by sedimentation which is causing some localized declines. Research into the taxonomy of this species is recommended.
173356		conservation	eng	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is protected in some Marine Protected Areas within Western Australia. It occurs in the Shark Bay World Heritage Area which contains more than 4,000 km² of seagrass beds of high density. It is also protected in the Australian Fisheries Act and Marine Park Act.
173356		distribution	eng	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is endemic to Australia and ranges from Shark Bay in mid-Western Australia to Bass Strait, including eastern Tasmania.
173356		habitat	eng	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is a seagrass that dominates (with <em>Posidonia australis</em>) the subtidal environment in western and southern Australia, in sandy lower-littoral pools and channels, to depths of about 12 m. In southeastern Australia, it forms patches of varying sizes at the mouth of some bays, and occurs in areas dominated by sandy siliceous sediments and exposed to ocean swells. It can be present to depths of 22 m in clear non-polluted water. It is a slow-growing seagrass.<br/><br/>The leaves of the shallow rock pool plants may float on the surface at low tide, becoming severely damaged or turning black, and then are cast off in the hot summer months (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977). Although usually described as occurring in areas of high water flow, Walker (1989) observed the species growing under "a wide range of current regimes". <em>Amphibolis</em><em> antarctica</em> has been shown to be very tolerant of high salinity levels. Walker (1989) collected seedlings from areas of salinities up to 50 ppt. Although percentage cover was much reduced at the higher salinities, <em>A. antarctica</em> was observed growing at salinities of greater than 60 ppt, with an optimal range of 40-50 ppt (Walker 1989).<br/><br/>In the sub-littoral zone, <em>A. antarctica</em> may form extensive beds on sandy floors, sand covered rocks, gravel bottoms and, less frequently, on banks of firm, compact clay in places where the water is kept continually in motion by currents or wave action. Plants of the genus <em>Amphibolis</em> are dioecious and viviparous (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977).
173356		population	eng	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is common in western and southern Australia. The population is thought to be overall stable.
173356		threats	eng	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> has no known major threats. There may be some localized threat from human activities such as port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging.<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound, an area in the range of <em>Amphibolis antarctica</em>, has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads in the surrounding waters. Between 1954 and 1978 the seagrass meadow in this region decreased from 4,200 to 900 ha and leaf detritus production was reduced from 23,000 to 4,000 t (dry weight)/year. Seagrasses in this region include <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em>, <em>P. australis</em>, <em>P. coriacea</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, <em>H. decipiens</em>, <em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em>, <em>Zostera tasmanica</em>, <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, and <em>A. antarctica</em> (Cambridge and McComb 1984).
173357		conservation	eng	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> is protected by The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act in Korea.
173357		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> has a very limited distribution. It is known from less than 10 locations in the northwest Pacific on the northern coast of China, the Korean Peninsula and in northern Japan. Given its very shallow depth range, patchy distribution, and recent declines in many parts of its range, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
173357		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> is usually found in depths between three and eight m (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In a survey in Jangmok Bay of Geoje Island, Korea, flowering shoots appeared in early March and developed into fruits in early May. By the end of May, all reproductive shoots bore mature fruits. The study indicated that the growth and flowering phenology of <em>Z. caespitosa</em> was strongly coupled to seasonal light conditions (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Wei Hai, northern China, mature seeds were found in July (F.T. Short pers. comm. 2008).
173357		population	eng	Populations of <em>Zostera caespitosa</em> are declining in Korea (K.-S. Lee pers. comm. 2008) and China (F.T. Short pers. obs. 2008). In northern China&#160; the establishment of extensive kelp (algal) aquaculture may be rapidly reducing the distribution of this species.
173357		threats	eng	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> is sensitive to pollution and reduced water quality is a particular threat. Habitat loss is also a major threat to this species.<br/><br/>Within its range in Japan and China there is industrial development in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting in loss of vegetation, water pollution and disturbance of habitats by fish trawling and other fishing activities. In South Korea, there is a large amount of coastal eutrophication and some land reclamation.
173358		conservation	eng	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> is protected in various marine parks and protected areas within its range. All seagrass species are protected in India since 1993.
173358		distribution	eng	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan, Taiwan and Hainan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia extending to the southern tip of Vietnam and the Gulf of Thailand and across insular Southeast Asia to New Caledonia, northern Australia and across Micronesia. <br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Chabjuwardoo Bay in mid-Western Australia extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea. In India, it is found from the Coromandel Coast to the Malabar Coast and in the Lakshadweep Islands. It ranges from the Red Sea south to the east coast of South Africa to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.
173358		habitat	eng	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> grows on muddy sand, fine sand or sand with coral rubble substrates in the intertidal zone. It is a mid-successional species, and can colonize very quickly once established. This species can quickly recover or return after a disturbance. This is a pioneer species in Mozambique in silted channels. In eastern Australia, it occurs in deeper sediments and has been linked to increased rates of sediment accretion. This species is a food for dugongs when other resources are low. It is also grazed on by fish and urchins.
173358		population	eng	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> is a fairly common and widespread species. The overall population is thought to be stable.
173358		threats	eng	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> is threatened by localized coastal development, pollution, dredging, siltation and destructive fishing methods. This species is believed to be sensitive to decreases in salinity (such as those caused by increasing freshwater run-off from hard surfaces).&#160; This species completely disappeared after a cyclone on Magnetic Island, but has completely recovered within 20 years (Birch and Birch 1994).<br/><br/>However, this species is more resilient to sedimentation compared to other coastal seagrass species and is very quick to recover from disturbance.
173359		conservation	eng	No documented conservation actions are known for this species, and more research is needed on population size and distribution, life history, ecology, and potential threats.
173359		distribution	eng	<em>Lepilaena marina</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs along the south coast of Australia and in Tasmania.
173359		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepilaena marina</span> often grows on sandy muddy tidal flats and in estuaries in sheltered locations. It is found with <em>Zostera muelleri</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em>.<br/><br/>This species is often overlooked as it is small and ephemeral.
173359		population	eng	No specific population information is available for this species, but it is common in southern Australia.
173359		threats	eng	Threats to this species include urban development and general coastal infill such as land reclamation.
173360		conservation	eng	<em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> is protected in some marine protected areas within Western Australia. It is protected in the Australian Fisheries Act and Marine Park Act.
173360		distribution	eng	<em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> is endemic to Australia, ranging from Geraldton in mid-Western Australia to Victor Harbour, South Australia.
173360		habitat	eng	In the sub-littoral zone, <em>Amphibolis </em><em>griffithii</em> may form extensive beds on sandy floors, sand covered rocks, gravel bottoms and, less frequently, on banks of firm, compact clay in places where the water is kept continually in motion by currents or wave action. Plants of the genus <em>Amphibolis</em> are dioecious and viviparous (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977). The considerably smaller range of this species compared to <em>A. antarctica</em> suggests a limited temperature tolerance (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977).
173360		population	eng	Based on two studies on <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> from the Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, there was an average of 0.8% decline per annum between 1990 and 2000. The population is thought to be overall stable.
173360		threats	eng	<em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> has no known major threats. There may be some localized threat from human activities such as port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Seagrass losses may be attributed to dredging of the Fremantle Port Authority shipping channel, shell-sand dredging, eutrophication, and movement of large sand sheets (Kendrick <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound, an area in the range of <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads in the surrounding waters. Between 1954 and 1978 the seagrass meadow in this region decreased from 4,200 to 900 ha and leaf detritus production was reduced from 23,000 to 4,000 t (dry weight)/year. Seagrasses in this region include <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em>,&#160;<em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em>,&#160;<em>Posidonia</em><em> coriacea</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em>, <em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em>, <em>Zostera tasmanica</em>, <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, and&#160;<em>Amphibolis</em><em> antarctica</em> (Cambridge and McComb 1984).
173361		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for <em>Zostera noltii</em>.<br/><br/>This species is Listed in the Rio Declaration as diverse habitats in need of protection and monitoring.<br/><br/>This species is found in two national nature reserves in Caspian Sea (Green and Short 2003), and may be found in other Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
173361		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera noltii</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic as well as the Baltic, Mediterranean, Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. <em>Zostera</em><em> noltii</em> also occurs in western Africa in Mauritania and in the Canary and Cape Verde Islands.
173361		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera noltii</em> is a small seagrass species occurring in intertidal and subtidal areas (den Hartog 1970). This species can occur in areas of low salinity and co-occurs with <em>Ruppia</em> spp. at the inner edges (0.5-1.5 m depth) of <em>Zostera marina</em> beds. It is found in coastal and estuarine areas with soft sedimentation to a maximum depth of 10 m. This species can also live under permanent subtidal conditions in small brackish streams and coastal lagoons with euryhaline conditions. It is never found below the low-tide mark. Highest salinity level tolerated is 25-51 psu (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>The critical level of burial or erosion tolerated by this species is extremely low (between 4 and 8 cm) due to the small size of the species and the lack of vertical rhizomes (Cabaco and Santos 2007).<br/><br/>This species forms single species meadows in the Mediterranean Bioregion (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the Black Sea, <em>Z. noltii</em> is found in pure and mixed stands from 0.2-10 m depth on sandy substrates. It has 62 species of macroalgae associated with it (Milchakova 1999).
173361		population	eng	This species is known to be declining in the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. There is little available information on the population status in other regions, but the overall status is most likely decreasing.
173361		threats	eng	There are no major threats to <em>Zostera noltii</em>. However there have been local declines in some regions due to loss of water clarity from sedimentation, coastal development and wasting disease. <em>Zostera noltii</em> is sensitive to eutrophication (Short and Burdick 1995) and is highly affected by shading (Van Lent <em>et al</em>. 1991). Nutrient loading from runoff has resulted in some local declines. Seagrass beds of <em>Z. noltii</em> can recover from the stress of eutrophication when measures are put in place to manage the system (Marques<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003). <em>Zostera noltii</em><em></em> is outcompeted by macroalgae in nutrient-enriched waters (Verdelhos <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The invasive species <em>Caulerpa racemosa</em> may interfere with the interaction between <em>C. nodosa</em> and <em>Z. noltii</em> when they occur in the same habitat (Ceccherelli <em>et al</em>. 2001).
173362		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Research on the taxonomy, distribution and threats are recommended for this species.
173362		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chile (Skottsberg 1916), Argentina and Peru (Blanca and Young 1996) and the Falkland Islands (Moore 1973, Broughton and McAdam 2005).
173362		habitat	eng	This species inhabits standing open water (brackish) and brackish creeks, and less commonly, freshwater (Moore 1973, Broughton and McAdam 2005). This species has branched filiform stems up to 40 cm in length and dark green leaves up to 20 cm in length (Moore 1973).
173362		population	eng	There is no population information available for <em>R. filifolia</em>. There are only a few records of this species.
173362		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
173363		conservation	eng	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> is present in some marine protected areas within its range. It does not have any specific conservation measures currently in place, though site and habitat protection and managements strategies are needed. More research is needed on this species on recruitment and reproduction, and taxonomy.
173363		distribution	eng	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan, extending to Hainan, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, the southern tip of Vietnam, and the Gulf of Thailand across insular Southeast Asia to New Caledonia, northern Australia and across Micronesia.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Roebuck Bay in northwest Australia extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea. In India, it is found from the Coromandel Coast to the Malabar Coast and in the Lakshadweep Islands; also in the Maldive Islands. It ranges from the Red Sea south to the east coast of South Africa to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.
173363		habitat	eng	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> often occurs in clear water, and often in the high intertidal zone. This species is resilient to marginal conditions. Like many intertidal species, this species' morphology can vary widely, and for this reason it can sometimes be confused with other species (i.e., with narrow leaf <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> or wide <em>Halodule uninervis</em>). This species does not like full exposure at low tide (dry conditions).<br/><br/>In the Andaman Sea, it occupies the lower littoral zone on muddy sand areas or sandy bottom mixed with dead coral fragments. <em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> can survive a moderate level of disturbance. It is a pioneer species in Indonesia (along with <em>Halophila ovalis</em> and <em>Halodule pinifolia</em>) which occurs in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zones, growing best in well-sheltered sandy (not muddy), stable and low-relief sediments (Green and Short 2003).
173363		population	eng	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> is common and widespread. The global population appears to be stable.
173363		threats	eng	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> often forms a fringing bed, and therefore is present in areas exposed to impacts from coastal development and high anthropogenic activity. There are no major threats and threats tend to be localized.
173364		conservation	eng	This species is <strong></strong>included in various conservation and management plans and programs and some MPAs.<br/><strong></strong><br/>It is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve. There also has been implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species cannot be damaged without a permit in New South Whales and Queensland. The Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued.&#160; In Australia, it is protected in either Fisheries Act or in National Park or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species also occurs in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, largest seagrass beds with the highest species diversity for a single area in Thailand. It is also managed in the 1998 proposed policies of the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific islands, it is recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas.&#160; There are NGOs focused on conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies, suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>The Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) prepared a draft Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management of this species in Indonesia (Green and Short 2003).
173364		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> has a broad Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found in southern Japan to Taiwan, extending to Hainan, China, the Philippines, and throughout Southeast Asia. It also occurs in northern Australia and in the western Pacific islands to New Caledonia and the Marshall Islands.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, <em>T. hemprichii</em> is found from mid-western Australia to the Timor Sea, along the southern coast of Indonesia through the Andaman Sea; also from the Coromandel Coast to the Malabar Coast in India including Lakshadweep and the Maldives Islands. It is found from Oman to the northern part of South Africa including the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden as well as Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.
173364		habitat	eng	In the Indo-Pacific region, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia hemprichii</span> is commonly the climax seagrass species. In  Micronesia, it is tolerant of 40°C temp and low salinity.<br/><br/>In the Red Sea, it occurs in coarser substrate, that is coarse sand mixed with coral and shell debris or even rather large pieces of coral from the surrounding fringing reefs or coral knolls at sites exposed to considerable water movement.<br/><br/>It is the most dominant subtidal seagrass (along with <em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em>) in Mozambique.<br/><br/>In Thailand, it grows on muddy sand or fragmented dead coral substrates in the upper littoral zone or coral sand substrate in subtidal areas.<br/><br/>This is a dominant seagrass in western Pacific, found throughout Micronesia and Melanesia, although absent from Polynesia and Fiji. It is often associated with coral reefs and is common on reef platforms where it may form dense meadows. Also, it is able to grow on hard coral substrates with little sediment cover, and can be found colonizing muddy substrates, particularly where water pools at low tide.<br/><br/>It is the most widespread seagrass species in Indonesia, where it occurs in monospecific beds over a large vertical range, from the intertidal zone down to the lower subtidal zone. Monospecific stands produced a higher net primary production rates, reaching 1.5 mg carbon/m²/day to 1.9 mg carbon/m²/day, equivalent to a maximum of 694 mg carbon/m²/year.<br/><br/>In the Philippines, it occurs as pure stands in the tide pools of the most northerly islands.<br/><br/>Seedling recruitment into disturbed areas is important for recolonization. Seeds are buoyant and disperse over long distances (Olsen <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The species is fast-growing and is grazed by turtles and Dugongs and is important for fish grazing.
173364		population	eng	<em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> is a very common and widespread species. New areas of <em>T. hemprichii</em> distribution have been found. There are local increases and decreases but overall the population appears to be stable.<br/><br/>Coastal populations are more likely to be decreasing due to development.
173364		threats	eng	Overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material), oil spills and oil pollution, mining, upland clearing, destruction of mangrove forests, dredging, marina developments, eutrophication, siltation, and pollution are all major threats to this species. It is also threatened by unsustainable fishing methods, trawling, illegal fisheries, climate change, sea-level rise and high sediment loads in water.&#160; <br/>Destruction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia hembrichii</span> beds also is caused from cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, and disease.&#160; <br/>Predation by sea urchins is a potential threat.<br/><strong></strong><br/>In Kenyan and Tanzanian shores, overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material) are of concern. Other localized threats include oil spills, oil pollution, declining water quality due to increasing populations in coastal towns and cities (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In India, the natural causes of destruction are cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Other threats include anthropogenic activities such as deforestation in the hinterland or mangrove destruction, construction of harbours or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction materials. Anchoring and moving of boats, ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, land filling and untreated sewage disposal also affect this species (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Eastern Australia, population reduction is caused by increased sediment loads in water, coastal development, dredging and marine developments and damage from boating and shipping activities.&#160; Coastal runoff and trawling activities also are of concern (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, this species is threatened by a combination of illegal fisheries and fishing practices, and land-based activities, especially mining. Reduced water quality resulting from upland clearing, development along rivers and destruction of mangrove forests are also threats (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific, coastal development, dredging, and marina developments, climate change and associated increases in storm activity, water temperature and/or sea-level rise are of concern (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Indonesia it is threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove cutting and coral reef damage, and by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based resources. Overexploitation of living marine resources such as fish, molluscs and sea cucumbers is also of concern (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the Philippines, this species is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Japan, it is threatened by industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting to loss of vegetation, water pollution, disturbance of habitats by fish trawling, and changes in environmental conditions due to human activities (Green and Short 2003).
173365		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for <em>Halophila capricorni</em>. It may be present in some parts of the Great Barrier Reef&#160; Marine Park.<strong></strong> More research is needed on taxonomy, distribution, general biology and threats of this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></em>
173365		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila capricorni</em> is found in the Pacific Ocean on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, north through the Torres Straits, and across the Coral Sea to New Caledonia.
173365		habitat	eng	<em>Halophila capricorni</em> lives in deeper waters from 21-54 m in sandy and muddy substrates. It readily sets seed.<em> </em><em>Halophila capricorni</em><em></em> has leaves that are similar to <em>H. decipiens</em>, except that hairs are only on one side of the leaf. Flowering also differs; in <em>H. capricorni</em> it is truly monoecious (male and female flowers on separate nodes on the same plant).
173365		population	eng	Records for <em>Halophila capricorni</em> are patchy and rare. Overall population trends are unknown.<br/><br/>This species has been collected commonly in the Great Barrier Reef in recent surveys in deeper water (Coles <em>et al</em>. 2000).
173365		threats	eng	Major threats to <em>Halophila capricorni</em> are unknown. Localized threats may be caused by increased sediment loads in water. Trawling activities may also create localized threats.
173366		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. It is not clear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific (Green and Short 2003).
173366		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllospadix serrulatus</em> occurs in the Pacific from the Alaska Peninsula to Oregon, USA.
173366		habitat	eng	Along the Pacific coast of North America, this species grows in the upper intertidal zone (+1.5 m to mean lower low water) (Green and Short 2003). <em>Phyllospadix</em> spp. grow on rocky substrates in regions with high wave exposure (Hemminga and Duarte 2000).
173366		population	eng	The population status of this species is thought to be stable.
173366		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats include coastal development and modifications and over-water structures in the form of ferry terminals, commercial docks. Mechanical damage from boats and dredging is also a minor localized threat.
173367		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. It is not clear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific (Green and Short 2003).
173367		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllospadix scouleri</em> occurs in the Pacific from Southeast Alaska to the tip of Baja California and Mexico.
173367		habitat	eng	Along the Pacific coast of North America, this species inhabits the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zone (Green and Short 2003). <em>Phyllospadix</em> spp. grow on rocky substrates in regions with high wave exposure (Hemminga and Duarte 2000).<br/><br/>Surfgrass (<em>Phyllospadix</em> spp.) are not found where sea surface temperatures exceed 21°C in winter or 27°C in the summer. Surfgrass has a low tolerance to higher temperatures which suggests that populations in Baja California Sur might be impacted by global climate change. <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllospadix</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><em> scouleri</em> is distributed higher in the lower intertidal and upper subtidal zones than <em>P. torreyi</em> (Ramirez-Garcia <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllospadix</span><em> scouleri</em> dominates space and persists through all seasons without serious damage by disturbances such as storm waves. This species is long-lived and persistent and may preempt space, preventing other species from invading. This species is slow to recover after removal (Turner 1985).
173367		population	eng	This is a common species in suitable substrate. The population status is thought to be stable.
173367		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats include coastal development and modifications and over-water structures in the form of ferry terminals, commercial docks. Mechanical damage from boats and dredging is also a minor localized threat.
173368		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species taxonomy, and a review of distribution is needed.
173368		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila ovata</em> is found in the Pacific in southern China, Indonesia, and in Papua New Guinea, northern Australia, Fiji and Samoa.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, <em>H. ovata</em> occurs from Shark Bay in Western Australia north through the Timor Sea and across southern Indonesia. This species also occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the east coast of India, and some of the west coast of India, the Lakshadweep Islands and the northern Red Sea.
173368		habitat	eng	This species is fast-growing and pioneering. It is found in a variety of habitats, including sand and sandy mud bottoms, and is often found in exposed areas. Reproduction is mainly vegetative (Jacobs and Dicks 1985). In the Red Sea, it occurs at 20 m depth.
173368		population	eng	This species is relatively common. Population trend is estimated to be stable.
173368		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development and changes in shoreline land-use. It is also affected by water quality from sedimentation, trawling and mechanical damage from boats. These are local threats and are not thought to be causing serious declines on a global scale although they may cause localized declines.
173369		conservation	eng	It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work be carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000).
173369		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia coriacea</em> is endemic to western and southern Australia, ranging from the tip of North West Cape, Western Australia, to Beachport, South Australia.
173369		habitat	eng	The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found ( Kuo and Cambridge 1984).<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, are not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.
173369		population	eng	There are local examples of declines due to human disturbance for <em>P. coriacea</em>, however the population overall is stable.
173369		threats	eng	The main area of disturbance is due to sand mining offshore from south of Perth. Other localized threats may include coastal development by industry, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Pollution from eutrophication causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, aquaculture, farming and direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).
173370		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures currently in place for <em>Zostera capensis</em>. It was considered for inclusion in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve. It is protected in coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme.<br/><br/>Recommended measures include transplanting for areas that have been affected by clam collection and sedimentation due to flooding, increased regulation and better management of clam collection, and better management of coastal areas for seagrass areas.
173370		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera capensis</em> occurs in the Indian Ocean from northern Kenya south around the tip of South Africa, and on the northwest coast of Madagascar. <em>Zostera</em><em> capensis</em> has a limited distribution, which is also patchy due to a lack of suitable habitat. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².
173370		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera capensis</em> occurs mostly in estuarine waters and lagoons in muddy substrates. It also lives in muddy flats. It is a fast growing species typical for the genus <em>Zostera</em>. In the tropics, plants are smaller and flower more rarely. This species has a patchy and fragmented distribution given that it occurs in generally small areas of&#160; available habitat.
173370		population	eng	<em>Zostera capensis</em> is common in the southern part of its range and is the only species of seagrass present in the southern region. It is a temperate species and only a small part of the range is found in the tropics, where it is rare. There have been declines documented in a number of sites throughout its range. Reports suggest that the population has been reduced by more than a third in Mozambique (Bandeira and Gell 2003). The population also has fluctuations. There is additional anecdotal information to suggest a decline in the more northerly tropical regions.<br/><br/>There have been a number of documented declines in the area of <em>Z. capensis</em> in Mozambique. In B. Pescadores the area of seagrass was 1,732 ha in 1991, and it had declined to 73 ha in 2003 (a loss of 95.8 %). This decline was due to sedimentation from flooding (Bandeira and Gell 2003). A decline was also documented in I. Inhaca from 871 ha in 1991 to 808 ha in 2003 (a loss of 7.2 %) (Bandeira and Gell 2003). There were also recorded declines in Mecufi from 3.88 ha in 1991 to 2 ha in 2003 (Bandeira and António 1996; Bandeira and Gell 2003).<br/><br/>In South Africa, <em>Z. capensis</em> occurs in 17 estuaries in southeast South Africa Coast. It consists of small individual beds, generally only a few hectares, and the total area covered by seagrass is 7.07 km² (Bandeira and Gell 2003). Some other localized declines have been reported in South Africa (J. Adams pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tanzania, the total area of <em>Z. capensis</em> is unknown, but it has been seen in Zanzibar in 2006 (Ochieng and Erftemeijer 2003, den Hartog, pers. comm. 2006). In Kenya the total area is also unknown but the species has been seen in Shimoni near the border of Tanzania in 2004 (Ochieng and Erftemeijer 2003). The distribution in Madagascar is also unknown (den Hartog 1970).<br/><br/>The total area of occupancy for this species in temperate regions is very small due to available habitat.
173370		threats	eng	<em>Zostera capensis</em> exists in small areas in coastal estuaries and lagoons and is therefore particularly susceptible to coastal development in these regions. Although it is fast growing it does not colonise quickly. Flooding of estuarine areas, sedimentation and pollution are major threats to this species. Shellfish harvesting for bivalves (hand-digging) in Mozambique is also a serious threat (S. Bandeira pers. comm. 2008).
173371		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila australis</span> is protected by the Fisheries Act, National Park, and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).
173371		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila australis</em> is endemic to Australia, occurring along the southern coast from Perth to Victoria and in northern Tasmania.
173371		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila australis</span> is a temperate species growing in the southern seas of Australia, with rapid growth, high turn-over and wide ecological range. It is considered a  pioneering species.
173371		population	eng	There is no specific population information for <em>H. australis</em>, but the population trend is thought to be stable. This species is difficult to distinguish from <em>H. ovalis</em> except when flowering.
173371		threats	eng	Localized threats in the region are coastal development from industry, pipelines, and communication cables, mining and dredging, eutrophication, aquaculture, farming, direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities, and to some extent trawling activities. Light reduction due to high sediment loads in water is also a threat to this species (Green and Short 2003).
173372		conservation	eng	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is protected in numerous marine protected areas throughout its range.
173372		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> has a disjunct global and predominantly tropical distribution. The main part of its range is in the Atlantic: the western tropical Atlantic from northern Florida (USA) to Venezuela including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; also in Bermuda and North Carolina (USA). In the southern Atlantic, it is present on the coast of Brazil.  In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from southern Morocco on the coast of Africa and the Canary Islands, to the northern part of Angola.<br/><br/><em>Halodule wrightii</em> is found in the eastern tropical Pacific from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Panama.  In the Indian Ocean it is found from the northern extent of the Bay of Bengal to along the Coromandel Coast as well as Oman. Also from southern Somalia to the north part of South Africa including the Mozambique Channel,&#160; Mauritius and Madagascar.
173372		habitat	eng	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is typically found on sandy to muddy bottoms and can be found in mixed seagrass species beds. It is highly tolerant to a range of environmental conditions including wide ranging salinity (hypersaline), high temperatures, turbidity, and eutrophication (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). Optimum temperatures for <em>H. wrightii</em> range between 20-30°C (Phillips 1960).<br/><br/>This species is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set and forming effective seedbanks, well adapted to high levels of disturbance. It is a pioneer species in Mozambique in exposed sandy areas close to the coastline. It is the dominant species in Texas (USA). It is established along both the eastern and western margins of the lagoon in Tamaulipas (Mexico). In Veracruz (Mexico), it is found in the shallower areas where it tolerates changes in temperature and salinity. In the Caribbean, it is found growing on sand and mud from the intertidal zone to five m. It is the most widely distributed seagrass in Brazil. In South America, it is associated with shallow habitats without much freshwater input, such as reefs, algal beds, coastal lagoons, rocky shores, sand beaches, and unvegetated soft-bottom areas and nearby mangroves&#160; (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>After a complete destruction of seabeds, a rapid recovery was observed with early recovery characterized by small patches suggesting recovery through fragments. Studies show that fragments stay viable for up to four weeks in the spring months and up to two weeks during the autumn months. High viability of fragments suggests a high dispersal distance (Hall <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This is usually an early colonizing species yet studies in Florida Bay shows that with increased nutrient levels, <em>Halodule</em><em> wrightii</em> becomes the dominant species as it is able to out-compete <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia</span><em> testudinum</em> for light resources, suggesting that areas in&#160; Florida Bay with high nutrient availability will be dominated by <em>Halodule </em><em>wrightii</em> while areas with low nutrients will be dominated by <em>T. testudinum</em> (Fourqurean <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/><em>Halodule </em><em>wrightii</em> can rapidly and densely recolonize denuded areas in warm months. Most bed maintenance and new shoot production probably occurs through rhizome elongation (Phillips 1960).
173372		population	eng	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is a widespread species which is locally abundant. It is the dominant species in Brazil and West Africa. In other areas it may be found in mixed beds with other seagrass species.  Its presence on the western side of Central America appears to be a migration through the Panama Canal and therefore its range appears to be expanding and there is potential for future range extension if it is introduced into other areas.<br/><br/>According to the Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, (Carruthers pers. comm. 2007) there are 64 published studies that monitored this species over time and of these 40 had no change, 15 decreased in coverage, and nine increased in coverage (all aerial extent, density, biomass, or cover). The overall population trend for this species is increasing (2% increase). Data from 2000 shows a 28% occurrence when sampling 188 stations at Big Bend, Florida. This is a 23% increase from the data reported by Iverson and Bittaker (1986). Despite the increase in occurrence, maximum depth range decreased from 10.6-8.3 m (Hale <em>et al</em>. 2004). Research by Hall <em>et al</em>. (1999) show a significant widespread decrease in the Florida Bay with a bay wide short shoot density off about 267.5 shoots/m² in 1984 to about 22.5 shoots/m² in 1994.  Decrease in abundance was most likely cause by increased light attenuation due to primary die-off off <em>Thalassia testudinum</em>.  Reduction can also be linked to a decrease in phosphorus availability caused by reduction in freshwater input (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1999). Global average maximum biomass is estimated to be 253.5 g dw/m² above ground (from 19 observations) and 193.3 g dw/m² below ground (from 12 observations) (Duarte and Chiscano 1999).
173372		threats	eng	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is a tolerant species to most disturbances. It replaces less tolerant species under conditions of habitat deterioration, eutrophication, and increased turbidity, and therefore general threats are not considerable except in localized situations. Localized threats include trawling activities, coastal development, habitat destruction and mechanical damage from anchoring and recreational and commercial boating.
173373		conservation	eng	The National Marine Fisheries Service, United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the California Department of Fish and Game have recognized eelgrass to be an important and significant habitat in California and have formulated a comprehensive mitigation policy for eelgrass transplantation (Anonymous 1991 in Coyer <em>et al</em>. 2008). Eelgrass on the Pacific coast of the USA receives substantial monitoring and protection, but the degree varies between states.<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding population size, distribution, life history, ecology and the potential threats acting on this species.&#160; In the future, population trends should be monitored.
173373		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera pacifica</em> occurs on the Pacific coast of the USA, from Puget Sound south to the Channel Islands in California.<br/><br/><em>Zostera pacifica</em><em></em> was recently re-recognized (Coyer <em>et al</em>. 2008) and more research is needed on its distribution vs. <em>Zostera marina</em>.
173373		habitat	eng	This species is found in protected bays and estuaries from the low intertidal to a depth of approximately 20 m.<br/><br/><em>Zostera pacifica</em> has wider leaves than <em>Z. marina</em> and was found to be genetically distinct (Coyer <em>et al</em>. 2008).
173373		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. The populations are thought to be stable, however there have been localized declines in the past. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species was established from collections in the 1890s (Watson 1891) and the area of this wide leafed eelgrass on the west coast is known to be extensive.
173373		threats	eng	Threats are localized, such as industrial coastal development, eutrophication and sedimentation. However, since this species has a limited range, localized threats can become quite serious.
173374		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures currently in place.&#160; A marine park was created in an area very close to the type location of <em>H. bermudensis</em>, however, probably because of the complex taxonomic history of this species, its presence in Walsingham Bay was not taken into account when the park boundaries were finalized and Walsingham Bay is not actually included in the marine park. A seagrass management plan is currently being  developed (S. Sarkis pers. comm. 2007, S. Manuel and K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding the taxonomy, distribution, life history and ecology of this species.&#160; Populations trends should be monitored.
173374		distribution	eng	<em>Halodule bermudensis</em> is endemic to Bermuda in the Atlantic Ocean. The species was originally collected from Walsingham Bay and Gibbet Island, Flatts, Bermuda. The only confirmed records of collections of this morphological form of the genus are from 1922 in Jespersen, Walsingham Bay and 1913 in Collins, Gibbet Island (den Hartog 1964). However, no plants fitting the original taxonomic description have been found recently in Bermuda (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).
173374		habitat	eng	<em>Halodule bermudensis</em> has only been identified from two very shallow subtidal locations, both where the seagrass is exposed at extreme low tides. It is not certain what the conditions in Walsingham Bay were in 1922, but it is now a shallow, very sheltered bay with mangroves and shoreline outflows from alkaline ponds. Also, as it is low energy, the sediments tend to be fine and soft. The second location, Gibbet Island, in much more exposed and the sediments are sandy - quite different from Walsingham Bay.<br/><br/>No reproductive plants from <em>Halodule</em><em> bermudensis</em> have ever been seen.
173374		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for <em>Halodule bermudensis</em>, and recent investigations suggest that the morphological type on which the description was based no longer is found in Bermuda (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<em>Halodule</em><em> bermudensis</em> was only ever recorded from two sites.<br/><br/>It may still exist in the southwest corner of Bermuda (S. Manuel and K. Coates unpublished data). The total population covers an area of less than 50 m², and if the grass at that site turns out not to be <em>H. bermudensis</em> (based on morphology), then the last known records of this species may be from 1922 collections (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).
173374		threats	eng	Pollution, boating and shoreline development are the threats present in the area (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009). Coastal development for moorings and docks are also potential threats (S. Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).
173375		conservation	eng	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is protected in some marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It has been considered in a recent management plan of the Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve. Implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF), and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003). It was also included in the Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) draft on Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management of the seagrass ecosystems in Indonesia (Green and Short 2003).
173375		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific it is found from the western Philippines to Borneo and Singapore, east across Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the western Caroline Islands, and then south to Vanuatu and the northeast coast of Australia.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Chabjuwardoo Bay in mid-Western Australia extending across the Timor Sea to southern Java. It occurs in southern India and the Maldives Islands and ranges from the Gulf of Oman to the Red Sea, south to South Africa, and to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.
173375		habitat	eng	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is found in shallow water to 17 m deep, and most commonly occurs from 0-15 m.&#160; However, it has been found at a depth of 33 m in the Seychelles. At the highest latitude parts of the distribution, plants are short and low density. It is the dominant species in deeper waters forming dense mono-specific meadows. A rich epiphytic community is characteristic of this species with an encrusting calcareous algae covering the woody stems. Successful colonization occurs in exposed areas on sandy or sloping carbonate sediments (Jacobs and Dicks 1985), and it is an important species for the stabilization of substrates and for protecting against coastal erosion. This is a fast growing plant, but it does not colonize quickly. <br/><br/>Throughout much of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassodendron ciliatum</span> has red leaves or red stripes on its leaves (Short and Novak 2010). Rapid vertical growth rates (42 internodes, i.e., 42 leaves/year), while its horizontal growth rates (16 cm/year) are slow. <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassodendron ciliatum</span> exhibits morphologically different types in exposed rocky environments vs. sandy quiet environments.<br/><br/>In the Red Sea, <em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> occurs in coarser substrate - coarse sand mixed with coral and shell debris or large pieces of coral from the surrounding fringing reefs or coral knolls at sites exposed to considerable water movement. This species is unique among Red Sea seagrass communities by extending right up to coral reefs, without the usual "halo" zone that typically separates reefs from seagrass beds in their proximity.<br/><br/>The most dominant subtidal seagrass (along with <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em>) in Mozambique. These two species have adapted to live in rocky habitat together with seaweeds in South Africa. It is also the most dominant species in Kenya and Tanzania, where it dominates high ground outflow areas as opposed to <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em>.
173375		population	eng	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is widely distributed and varies in abundance throughout its range. This species is rare in between Africa and the Western Pacific, and in western Indonesia and Malaysia. However it is very common in East Africa and is often dominant in inter-reef areas. It is common in eastern Indonesia and in the Torres Straits, but is uncommon in other parts of Australia. In the Philippines, the Seychelles and Mauritius the distribution is patchy.<br/><br/>The population appears to be stable in East Africa, where it is often the dominant species. It is not well studied outside of this region. The overall population trend is unknown.
173375		threats	eng	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is slow to colonize new areas and therefore finds it difficult to recover areas where it has been removed. It is particularly susceptible to grazing by outbreaks of urchins. In Zanzibar the removal of the seagrass beds for seaweed farming is a threat, as are beach seines in Madagascar. Drag net trawling is a threat in the Philippines. This species is threatened locally by coastal development and pollution. For example, SeagrassNet global monitoring locations in Puerto Galera (Philippines) show the impacts of eutrophication at the site adjacent to a coastal town (Green and Short 2003).
173376		conservation	eng	There are no species conservation measures for this species. Research  on the taxonomy of this species is recommended.
173376		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila minor</em> has an Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan to Taiwan and Hainan Island (China) as well as southern Viet Nam and throughout Southeast Asia and the Philippines, the Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands. It also occurs in the Torres Straits through the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, New Caledonia and Vanuatu. In the Indian Ocean, it occurs on the east coast of Africa from Kenya through northern Mozambique.
173376		habitat	eng	This species is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set, and it is well adapted to high levels of disturbance.<br/><br/>This species normally grows on coral sand or muddy sand together with <em>H. ovalis</em> or&#160;<em></em> with other tropical seagrasses in shallow water. It also extends into deeper water down to seven m where it forms sparse patches with other species such as<em></em> <em>Halodule pinifolia</em> (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 2006).
173376		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. The population status is unknown.
173376		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development and changes in shoreline land-use. It is also affected by water quality from sedimentation, trawling and mechanical damage from boats. These are local threats and are not thought to be causing serious declines on a global scale.
173377		conservation	eng	This species is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts and National and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).
173377		distribution	eng	<em>Ruppia tuberosa</em> occurs in southern Western Australia and eastern South Australia and New Zealand.
173377		habitat	eng	This species is common in areas of high freshwater input and  areas of inland saline wetlands (Green and Short 2003). <em>Ruppia tuberosa</em> and <em>R. polycarpa</em> have rapid development of the plant, early maturity, and a large amount of energy allocated to producing large numbers of small propagules (Brock 1983).
173377		population	eng	There is no population information of this species. The overall population is thought to be stable.
173377		threats	eng	Localized reduction of this species is caused by increased sediment loads in water, coastal development and dredging and marine developments. Another minor threat is damage from boating and shipping activities and to some extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).
173378		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas throughout its range. In the Caribbean for example,&#160; <em>Syringoium filiforme</em> is included in the 24 fully managed marine protected areas. Currently, a seagrass management plan is being developed in Bermuda (S. Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).
173378		distribution	eng	<em>Syringodium filiforme</em> occurs in the western tropical Atlantic from Florida (USA) to Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, as well as Bermuda.
173378		habitat	eng	<em>Syringodium filiforme</em> is typically found on sand to mud bottoms down to at least 20 m, but in transparent waters this species can occur at deeper depths (Kenworthy and Fonseca 1996).This is locally a major habitat forming species. It often grows intermixed with <em>Thalassia</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">testudinum</span> and/or <em>Halodule</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">wrightii</span>. For example, in Cuba, it is found at a maximum depth of 16.5 m with biomass of 3.5 g/m². In the Caribbean, it usually grows intermixed with <em>Thalassia testudinum</em>, but also grows in mono-specific areas, beds or patches from the upper sublittoral down to more that 20 m (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species does not grow in brackish areas (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006)<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>and it <em></em> is absent in areas of poor water quality (Virnstein 1995). A large portion of the biomass grows below ground and below ground biomass is estimated at 50–60% of total biomass (Zieman, van Tussenbroek, Short, pers comm. 2007). This species has a high seed set from seed banks. Little is known about seed and seedling survival (van Tussenbroek pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>Syringodium filiforme</em> is heavily grazed by parrotfish in back reef areas and is an important food source for manatees. Other species grazing on this seagrass species are surgeonfish, sea urchins and perhaps pinfish. Other grazers, e.g., the queen conch, eat the epiphytic algae on the seagrass leaves (Zieman 1982).
173378		population	eng	<em>Syringodium filiforme</em> is abundant and the population is thought to be stable throughout most of its range. Locally, this seagrass can be a major habitat forming species.<br/><br/>According to the Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, (T.J.B. Carruthers pers. comm. 2007) there are 13 published studies that monitored this species over time, and of these, 11 had no change and two showed increased coverage (all areal extent, biomass, or cover). Global average maximum biomass is estimated to be 368 g dw/m² above ground (from six observations) and 451 g dw/m² below ground (from four observations) (Duarte and Chiscano 1999). In Bermuda, out of 55 sites sampled 59% showed presence of this species. Of these, 22% had greater than 320 shoots/m² (Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2004). There were wide scale decreases in abundance throughout Florida Bay from about 83.3 shoots/m² in 1984 to about 5.6 shoots/m² in 1994 with an 88% reduction in average dry weight density. The reduced abundance at that time was most likely due to increased light attenuation due to die-off of&#160; <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1999).
173378		threats	eng	Threats affecting <em>Syringodium filiforme</em> are eutrophication and sedimentation. This species does not grow well in low quality water and needs good light.<br/><br/>In Florida, this species is locally affected by sewage pollution from expanded residential and hotel development, and marina and boat usage. It is also incidentally damaged from boat traffic. In the Yucatan Peninsula, this species can be affected locally by trawling, eutrophication, and port development. Coastal developments and pollution from land-based sources, eutrophication (sewage and agricultural fertilizers) are local threats in the Caribbean region.
173379		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it is protected in various Marine Protected Areas, in Fisheries Acts or in National or Marine Park Acts.<br/><br/>It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work is carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000). Research on the taxonomy, ecology and distribution of this species is recommended.
173379		distribution	eng	<em>Posidonia ostenfeldii</em> is endemic to Western Australia from Cape Leeuwin to the western edge of the Great Australian Bight.
173379		habitat	eng	This is a highly distinctive <em>Posidonia</em> species and is the only terete <em>Posidonia</em>, with both vegetative and reproductive differences from the other members of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex. It is currently being studied for genetic separation by Drs. Kathryn McMahon and Michelle Waycott (G. Kendrick pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This is an open ocean, deep water, high energy species. The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found (Kuo and Cambridge 1984). This species can withstand swell and sediment movement offshore from Esperance to west of Albany.<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, is not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.
173379		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span><em> ostenfeldii</em> is rare locally and regionally. There are few collections, and it has been rarely observed in the field. Although rare, this species has been recently found at King George Sound, Albany, Wyllie Bay, Esperance (G. Kendrick pers. comm. 2009).
173379		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although localized threats include coastal development, dredging, pollution from eutrophication, aquaculture, an direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).
173380		conservation	eng	There is ongoing management of sand mining to limit destruction.<br/><br/>More research into the population status of this species  and taxonomy is recommended.
173380		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera polychlamys</em> is endemic to Australia and is found from Dongara, Western Australia south to Investigator Strait, South Australia (Kuo 2005).
173380		habitat	eng	This species can be found up to depths of 48 m, but is usually found in 20 m or less. Its habitats are subtidal areas with sandy and sandy muddy substrates (Kuo 2005). There is rapid recruitment and common occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera polychlamys</span> in high energy environments (Carruthers <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is fast growing, sometimes relying totally on seed reproduction to recolonize disturbed areas (Kendrick <em>et al</em>. 2002).
173380		population	eng	This species is common and is often the dominant species in high energy environments. It can coexist with <em>Posidonia coriacea</em>. The population is locally variable, and overall the population status is most likely stable.
173380		threats	eng	Major threats are sand mining in Western Australia. This species is also affected locally by coastal development.
173381		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for <em>H. nipponica</em>. <br/><br/>Research is need on this species on taxonomy, population trends and threats.
173381		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila nipponica</em> is found in a few temperate locations in Japan and southern South Korea (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Given its very shallow depth range, and patchy occurrence, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be close to 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.
173381		habitat	eng	This is a temperate species that is found to depths of eight m (Uchimura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, 2008).
173381		population	eng	There is little population information available for this species. It is declining in the industrial and urban areas of its range and therefore the population is likely to be declining overall.
173381		threats	eng	Major threats for <em>Halophila nipponica</em> are unknown. However in Japan, localized threats may include coastal development, land reclamation, water pollution and trawling (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007). The population is declining overall due to coastal development in a number of areas within the distribution
173382		conservation	eng	This species is found in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Columbia and Belize.
173382		distribution	eng	<em>Halophila baillonii</em> has a severely fragmented distribution in the Caribbean Sea, with the record complicated by instances of species misidentification. It occurs in several sites in the Greater Antilles, Colombia and Venezuela, and extensively in Belize. In the Pacific, there is a confirmed record of <em>H. baillonii</em> in Costa Rica in the Guanacaste province in 1994, at a depth of two m with a herbarium sample in La Universidad de Costa Rica (J. Cortes pers. comm.).&#160;It was eradicated on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica in 1996 by a storm (Cortes 2001).&#160;Since 1994 this species has not been found on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (J. Vireal pers. comm. 2008).&#160;<br/><br/>This species is known from approximately seven locations and has a severely fragmented population.
173382		habitat	eng	In some places <em>H. baillonii</em> forms dense monospecific meadows, but can be sparse and rare in others. In southern Belize, <em>H. baillonii</em> forms dense monospecific meadows at depths of 1.4-2.5 m in fine sand (Green and Short  2003). In Placencia Lagoon, Belize, mono-species meadows are found extending into mangrove prop roots with depths ranging between 0.6 and 2.2 m on mud and fine sand. <em>Halophila baillonii</em> can sometimes be found intermixed with <em>Thalassia testudinum</em>, <em>H. decipiens</em>, <em>Halodule beaudettei</em>, and/or <em>Caulerpa</em> spp. It can be found at depths of between one and 15 m, but is most commonly found between one and three m depth (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Very little is known about the biology of this species. Little is known about flowering frequency and nothing is known about seedbank recruitment (Zieman 1982, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006, Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence shows <em>H. baillonii</em> to be a valuable food source for the West Indian Manatee. It also provides shelter for <em>Brachidontes exustus</em> and juvenile <em>Ginglymostoma cirratum</em>. <em>Eucinostomus melanopterus</em> and <em>Trachinotus falcatus</em> were observed to feed on the scorched mussels that live in these meadows, with gut analysis showing a mixture of <em>B. exustus</em> and <em>H. baillonii</em> remains (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In Belize, this species has a broad distribution in coastal lagoon systems at Placencia, and the exposed coastal region of Barranco, along the northwest coast of the Gulf of Honduras (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).
173382		population	eng	Very little is known about the relative abundance of <em>H. baillonii</em>, except that it is a rare species in much of its range. In the Placencia Lagoon in central Belize it is found in dense monospecific meadows and it is declining (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006). It was eradicated on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica in 1996 by a storm (Cortes 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> baillonii</em> is apparently rare or a waif distribution in the Dry Tortugas and Brazil since repeated surveys in these areas failed to record this species after the original record. Although often misidentified in Puerto Rico, there is at least one record from this area, but it is thought to be rare.<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>H. baillonii</em> generally appears to be limited in distribution and has disappeared in several sites (F. Short pers. comm. 2008).
173382		threats	eng	<em>Halophila baillonii</em> apparently does not do well in poor water quality conditions affected by development and watershed runoff (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006). It was eradicated by heavy storms on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica.<br/><br/>This species is vulnerable due to the fact that it appears to be naturally rare with a fragmented population.
173383		conservation	eng	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is protected in some marine protected areas within Western Australia. Given this species relatively small distribution and that is it poorly known as it is found in deeper waters, more research is needed on its population status and life history.
173383		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is endemic to Australia, ranging from Geraldton in Western Australia south to Albany and then from Esperance to the western extent of the Great Australian Bight.
173383		habitat	eng	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is found growing on bare or sand covered limestone reefs that run parallel to the coastline of Western Australia. It has been recorded from 2-35 m depth and is sometimes found as drift mats. It generally grows in patches. It may be found in surf break zones.<br/><br/>This species has an annual leaf fall with relatively high leaf biomass in the spring and early summer months. This species begins to lose its leaves in early summer and many are lost by autumn. Maximum growth occurs in the spring (Kirkman and Cook 1987).
173383		population	eng	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is found in deeper waters and so it is poorly collected. There is no species specific information for this species. The population status is unknown.
173383		threats	eng	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> has no known major threats. There may be some localized threat from human activities such as port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging.
173384		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. Given that there is some taxonomic uncertainty associated with this species, more comprehensive surveys and phylogenetic analyses maybe required to definitively confirm the existence of a single species (Turner and Swartz 2006).
173384		distribution	eng	<em>Zostera muelleri</em> occurs in Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea (McKenzie <em>et al</em>. 2006). In southern and eastern Australia, it has a broad but disjunct distribution.
173384		habitat	eng	<em>Zostera muelleri</em> is a fast growing species and readily colonizes. It rapidly takes over where soft sediments predominate in coastal habitats and is often the dominant species in estuaries and coastal lakes. It shows prolific seed production and there are some annual populations known in New Zealand and south Western Australia.<br/><br/>The leaf width morphology is variable and can sometimes be confused with thin <em>H. uninervus</em> when the leaves are very thin. It is an ecologically important habitat-producing species, providing food and shelter for numerous fish and invertebrate species.<br/><br/>This species may occur in small numbers in permanently open estuaries such as intertidal shoals (Carruthers <em>et al</em>. 2007).
173384		population	eng	This species is very common. It is primarily a temperate species that extends into the tropics up the east coast of Australia to Papua New Guinea.<br/><br/>There are many locations where there are declines due to coastal development in southern Australia, but there are also locations where it is increasing. Overall, the population is most likely stable or expanding.
173384		threats	eng	This species is affected by localized threats including coastal industrial development, eutrophication and sedimentation.<br/><br/>In the tropical parts of its range it will be increasingly susceptible to increasing temperatures, as it is less tolerant than tropical species. Climate change may be a threat, but the effects are unknown.<br/><br/><em>Zostera muelleri</em> was affected by a wasting disease in New Zealand in the 1960s.
173392		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place, except for some populations being found in protected areas.<br/>It is recommended to legally protect the species and its sites, to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites and to search for new ones. Raising public awareness and control the impacts of urbanisations on the species are also necessary.
173392		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Languedoc in France. It has also been mentioned in the Camargue and seen in Camargue Gardoise in the 1990s (Pavon 2005), but this sighting needs to be confirmed. It has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> and is found at approximately five locations.
173392		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry salt marshes.
173392		population	eng	This species is found in seven localities in Aude (Fleury, Gruissan, Lapalme, Leucate, Port-la-Nouvelle) and Hérault (Valras-Plage, Vendres). There are 13 populations present. The number of locations is probably five or below as all the localities are very close together. Overall, the populations are declining.
173392		threats	eng	The species is threatened by coastal urbanization, agriculture (rice fields) and filling-in.
173393		conservation	eng	There are no State or National parks within the range of the northeastern Brazil subpopulation of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus.</span>
173393		distribution	eng	This subpopulation of the Silky Anteater (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyclopes didactylus</span>) occurs in coastal northeastern Brazil, in the states of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas and Rio Grande do Norte (Miranda and Superina, submitted). It is isolated from the main Silky Anteater population by approximately 1,000 km.
173393		habitat	eng	The northeastern subpopulation of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> is restricted to tropical moist lowland forests. Nothing is known about the biology or ecology of this smallest of all anteaters.
173393		population	eng	No data are available on the population size or density of this isolated population of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus. </span>Ongoing deforestation is likely to further decimate the wild population   of this smallest of all anteaters.
173393		threats	eng	The northeastern population of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didactylus</span> is severely threatened by rapid deforestation of its suitable habitat (Atlantic Forest) due to the increase in sugar cane plantations, which, in addition to direct habitat loss, also leads to habitat fragmentation and degradation. Only five percent of the original extent of suitable habitat <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> remain intact (Galindo-Leal and De Gusmão  Câmara  2003). The current area of Atlantic Forest in the range states amounts  to approximately 3,000 km² (Campanili and Prochnow 2006). Furthermore, Silky Anteaters are captured for illegal trade (F. Miranda pers. comm. 2010).
173444		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas.
173444		distribution	eng	This species endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in dry forests between Poya and Pouembout, then it is totally absent from areas between there and its type locality, 125 km north in Pam (Ouégoa). Its total extent of occurrence is 790 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 28 km².
173444		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
173444		population	eng	The population size is unknown. When present, this species can be isolated, with scattered to rare individuals, or common but it is never abundant. Because it is sometimes difficult to differentiate from other sympatric <em>Diospyros</em> species, <em>D. cherrieri</em> may actually be more common than previously thought.
173444		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
174089		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the 1997 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, held in Coimbatore by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, where it was listed as Endangered (CAMP 1998).<br/><br/>The range of this species coincides with protected areas but further research should still be carried out to check threats and habitat quality. More effort should also be put towards preserving the natural areas in the Western Ghats region.
174089		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the high altitudes of the Western Ghats (Daniel 2002) including the Nilgiri and Palni Hills.   Ramakrishna (2007) provided Kudremukh hills, lying ca. 500 km further north, as one of the localities. But this must be considered dubious because his record was simply based on information from a website and field surveys in Kudremukh hill range (Vasudevan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006; Ganesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007) did not yield any sightings of this species. Likewise, an erroneous Sri Lankan locality “Nuwara Eliya” has also been reported for this Indian endemic species (see Somaweera & Somaweera, 2009). <br/><br/>Smith (1935) recorded this species up to 8,000 ft (2,438 m) above sea level, but its full elevational range is not known. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 26,979 km².
174089		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist montane forests, and is also known to be found on bushes, hedges and in gardens (Bhupathy and Kannan 1997, Daniel 2002, Sharma 2002). However, although species of this genus may be able to cope with habitat disturbance to a certain degree, they have never been recorded in plantations other than tea plantations, or in other disturbed habitats; this suggests that this species is affected by habitat alteration due to relatively narrow habitat requirements (S.R. Ganesh pers. comm.).
174089		population	eng	This species has been reported as very common (Bhupathy and Kannan 1997, Sharma 2002, Daniel 2002).
174089		threats	eng	This species is threatened by anthropogenic pressures from hill resort tourism, urbanization, and habitat degradation associated with plantations and agriculture (S.R. Ganesh pers. comm.).
174090		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur within the Bandai Hills Forest Reserve. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of the forest reserve, may be required if habitat loss and disturbance caused by activities such as gold mining continue to be a threat to this species. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
174090		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Bandai Hills in the Ashanti Region in southeastern Ghana (Gans 1987, 2005). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 941 km²<sup></sup>.
174090		habitat	eng	The habitat of the Bandai Hills is predominantly very dry forest.
174090		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174090		threats	eng	The Bandai Hills are threatened by habitat destruction from agriculture and gold mining. In 2006, the Ghana government proposed a large hydroelectric dam in the area which would severely alter all aspects of the Bandai Hills (Environmental Resources Management and SGS Environment 2006).
174091		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population numbers of this species is suggested as there is little data available. C. Nogueira (pers. comm. 2010) notes that areas in the Caatinga and&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Atlantic</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Forests</st1:placetype>&#160;of northeastern&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil, which is within this species range, show levels </st1:place></st1:country-region>of high fragmentation. It is suggested that the rate of forest fragmentation should be monitored as in the future this may affect the species.
174091		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Brazil, in the states of Rio Grande do Norte, Paraiba, and Pernambuco. Its estimated that the extent of occurrence is approximately 145,000 km².
174091		habitat	eng	This species is a semi-fossorial species found in Caatinga, agreste and Atlantic forest habitats. This species feeds on terrestrial arthropods.
174091		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174091		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
174092		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat and threats of this species is needed.
174092		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Colombia, from the Department of Tolima (Werner 1916) and from Pensilvania (Uetz 2006). It is not clear where is meant by 'Pensilvania', as there is a number of towns of this name in Colombia, however, it is assumed to be the administrative sub-division of the Department of Caldas, which lies directly north of Tolima. Tolima and Caldas have areas of 23,089 km² and&#160; 7,784 km² respectively.
174092		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species. There is very little habitat and ecology information available for this species, but it is likely to be a forest dweller.
174092		population	eng	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<em></em>.
174092		threats	eng	Very little of the natural forest habitat within the known range of this species remains, with deforestation for urbanized areas and cultivation of land a large cause of habitat loss and degradation. It is possible that this has had a detrimental effect on the species in the past, and this may be continuing. However, as this species is not well studied, there is no reported population decrease or any other data to suggest that the species is being impacted on.
174093		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species coincides with a number of protected areas. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174093		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil (in Amazonas), eastern Peru, and Colombia (da Silva and Sites 1995, Martins and Oliveira 1993). More specifically, the range extends along the Eastern slopes of the Andes in Departamento Vaupés, Colombia, into Departamento Amazonas, Peru, and east to Manaus, Estado Amazonas, Brazil (Schargel and Castoe 2003, Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Zaher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Prudente and Passos 2008).<br/><br/>The species has an elevational range between 50 and 650 m (P. Passos and M. Martins pers. comms.).
174093		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial and has been found in rotting logs and litter, and at forest edges (Dixon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1976, Dixon and Soini 1986). Two dead individuals were found in the soil of recently cleared primary forest (Martins and Oliveira 1993).<br/><br/>This species feeds on earthworms (M. Martins pers. comm.).
174093		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174093		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range,   since it mostly occurs in areas with very low disturbance. Furthermore, there are many protected areas throughout its distribution.
174095		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, it does occur in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park and the Zandvlei Estuary Nature Reserve (Combrink and Kyle 2006, Zandvlei Trust 2006).
174095		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is restricted to the St. Lucia area in northern Zululand, extending further northwards through Maputaland into the southeastern coastal areas of Mozambique (Branch 1998, Marais 1992).
174095		habitat	eng	This species is a secretive, slow-moving snake, and has been recorded from grassland, open and closed woodland, coastal dune forest, farmlands, domestic gardens (Marais 1992) and savanna (Branch 1998). It may be encountered both day and night, usually burrowing just below the surface in loose sand or decaying plant material.<br/><br/>This species is ovoviviparous, with litter sizes of 7-20 (Branch 1998).
174095		population	eng	This species is reported to be "fairly common" in Zandvlei Estuary Nature Reserve (Zandvlei Trust 2006). Combrink and Kyle (2006) classified the abundance of this species as "few individuals in many localities" in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park.
174095		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, because of its wide habitat preferences; however it should be noted that there has been an increase in habitat loss due to human development (B. Maritz pers. comm. 2010).
174096		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although this species is reportedly traded as a pet, it is not listed on CITES. Research into the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.
174096		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Highveld of Gauteng and the Free State, South Africa, extending into the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape (Branch 1998). It is also found at isolated localities along the South Cape and West Cape escarpment, and in Lesotho and Swaziland.
174096		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grassland, but may also be found in coastal bush and fynbos (Branch 1998). It reportedly favours damp locations (Marais 1992).
174096		population	eng	Marais (1992) reports that this species is "fairly rare", and Branch (1998) records that "unfortunately, this snake is not common". Patterson (1987) reported that a rapid depletion of their numbers had occurred.
174096		threats	eng	Patterson (1987) reported that this species is threatened by the pet trade and increasing urbanization in its range, which is leading to many individuals being killed on roads. Habitat destruction around Johannesburg has reportedly had an effect on local populations.<br/><br/>This species was included in an analysis of the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa, using climate envelope modelling, which predicted reptiles to experience the largest range shifts (Erasmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). In addition, an extension of this analysis (van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005) indicated that this species would be amongst the worst affected reptiles, with a predicted range shift of greater than 50%. &#160;The impact of climate change on this species is still speculative however.
174097		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution may coincide with a number of national parks. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.
174097		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coastal belt in South Africa, from the southwest Cape to East London, extending through the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands and Mpumalanga escarpment to Limpopo Province (Branch 1998). Its distribution includes all of Swaziland. <br/><br/>Griffin (2003) records that this species has been reported from Namibia (originally by Boulenger in 1893, though this record has subsequently been repeated by others), but this has not been confirmed. Indeed, the closest record to Namibia is the southern Cape, which makes the occurrence of the species in Namibia unlikely.
174097		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist coastal bushveld, fynbos and grassveld (Branch 1998). It is often found in rubble and debris, and may be encountered near human habitation (Marais 1992).
174097		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174097		threats	eng	There are currently no known threats to this species. An analysis on the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa suggests that reptiles are amongst those species groups predicted to experience the largest range shifts (Erasmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), with a separate analysis predicting a range change of greater than 50% for this species (van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, the effects of climate change on species' ranges are still highly speculative.
174098		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is likely, however, that this species is found in protected areas throughout its range.
174098		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Colombia, Venezuela (including Isla de Margarita), Grenada, and Trinidad and Tobago. <br/><br/>The only specimen found in Grenada was collected in 1880; since then, no more specimens have been found, so that Germano <em>et al.</em> (2003) question whether a correct identification was made.
174098		habitat	eng	This species has been found in secondary growth forest and agricultural areas. It is mainly terrestrial but has aquatic tendencies. Specimens of this species have also been found in leaf litter of a pre-montane rainforest, leaf litter in a cloud forest and from grassland, suggesting that this species is a habitat generalist (Dixon and Michaud 1992).
174098		population	eng	This species has been reported as abundant throughout its range.
174098		threats	eng	No major threats are thought to impact upon this species.
174099		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat and threats of this species is needed.
174099		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, San Juan (San Juan del Oro), Puno, Peru. The holotype was collected at a elevation of 1,520 m above sea level (Myers 1986).
174099		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is situated in yungas evergreen forest (WWF 2001).
174099		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174099		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Habitat loss is prevalent in the region, and the Peruvian yungas forests are reported to be in almost critical state due to migratory agriculture, coca, deforestation, selective logging and gradual urban development (WWF 2001). It is unknown, however, what effect this is having on the species, as it is only known from its type locality.
174100		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into whether habitat degradation is having a detrimental effect on the species is recommended.
174100		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Chile and coastal southern Peru (Uetz 2006). It is found between sea level and an altitude of 3,048 m above sea level.
174100		habitat	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is predominantly desert and dry grasslands.
174100		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174100		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, overgrazing by domestic livestock is causing habitat degradation within localized regions of the species' range.
174102		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species was assessed as Least Concern in the Red Book of Bolivia (Cortez 2009) and as Near Threatened by Embert (2007)   in a study on the status of Bolivian reptiles, because it was considered a rare species with uncertain taxonomic status. Further research is needed on the habitat preferences of this species.
174102		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Brazil (state of Rio Grande do Sul), southern Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (in Buenos Aires, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Rios, Misiones, &#160;and Santa Fe) (Cei 1993, Myers and Cadle 1994, Scrocchi and Giraudo 1997, Giraudo 2001, Carreira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
174102		habitat	eng	This species feeds on anurans, and has been collected from grassland, rocky, and sandy areas (Myers and Cadle 1994, Carreira<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2005, Carreira 2002).
174102		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174102		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
174103		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the habitat status and threats of this species is needed to assess the impact of current localized threat processes.
174103		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Mexico and has been found in the Sierra Madre Oriental of southern Tamaulipas, in eastern San Luis Potosi, northern Hidalgo and in southern central San Luis Potosi (Myer 1974). This species has been found at an elevation range of 200 to 2,683 m above sea level. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as 10,517 km².
174103		habitat	eng	This species may inhabit moist forest habitats, including pine-oak, cloud and tropical deciduous forests, often on mountain slopes. It appears to be most often found in pine-oak zones of montane forest, inhabiting diverse terrestrial habitats including roadsides, leaf litter and grassy clearings (Myers 1978).
174103		population	eng	This species has been referred to as common (Myers 1974), but no recent information is available.
174103		threats	eng	The forest habitat of this species may be suffering fragmentation and quality declines as a result of logging and infrastructure development. Mining may also be negatively impacting this species habitat, particularly in the San Luis Potosi region, where mining is an important industry.
174104		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. It was assessed as Least Concern in the Red Book of Bolivia (Cortez 2009) and by Embert (2007) in a study on the status of Bolivian reptiles.
174104		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and southern Brazil (the species has been reported from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul), Paraguay, and northern Argentina (in Misiones and possibly Corrientes) (Argolo 1999, da Silva 2001). Its estimated extent of occurrence is larger than 1,000,000 km²<sup></sup>.
174104		habitat	eng	This species<em></em> is a terrestrial, diurnal species which is active throughout the year (Marques <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The species is associated with forested areas and is usually found on the forest floor close to bodies of water (da Silva 2001). Individuals were found in coffee farms with remnants of deciduous and semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest (Argolo 1999). <br/><br/>This species feeds strictly on anurans and mainly on <em>Bufo</em> species (da Silva 2001).
174104		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174104		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
174105		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
174105		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the northern part of South America from eastern Colombia across northern and central Venezuela into southwestern Guyana, and southwards into the Roraima state of Brazil (Campbell and Lamar 1989, Roze 1996). This species has previously been erroneously cited as occurring in Peru. It is found between sea level and 1,400 m above sea level.
174105		habitat	eng	This species is found in a broad range of habitats, including tropical deciduous forest, savanna, gallery forest, and lower wetland forest (Campbell and Lamar 1989, Roze 1996). It is also known to inhabit altered habitats such as pasture and open/semi-open secondary growth forests.
174105		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range (Campbell and Lemar 2004).
174105		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
174106		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the taxonomy, population and distribution of this species.
174106		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific side of the Cordillera Occidental in Cauca, Colombia  (Roze 1996, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species is only known from a few localities including El Tambo and Quebrada Guangui (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,212 km² and it has an elevation range of 100 to 900 m above sea level (Roze 199, Campbell and Lamar 2004).
174106		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and moderate altitude rainforests (Roze 1996). Coral snakes are elusive and largely fossorial species which spend much of their time burrowing in the soil or leaf litter (Roze 1996).
174106		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174106		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss as most of the lowland forest in this species' distribution has been destroyed because of timber exploitation (WWF 2001).
174107		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174107		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern and central Brazil, from northern, eastern and southern Pará and western Maranhão to Rondônia. Two specimens have been located in Suriname (Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species has an elevation range from sea level to 400 m above sea level. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as more than 1,000,000 km²<sup></sup>.
174107		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical lowland forest (Roze 1996). It is known to occur in secondary forests.
174107		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174107		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is affecting this species. Although habitat loss may be occurring in areas of this species' distribution, this is a localized threat only.
174108		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. The species was assessed as Least Concern in the Red Book of Bolivia (Cortez 2009) and by Embert (2007) in a study on the status of Bolivian reptiles. No further conservation measures are required.
174108		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the central part of South America, from western Bolivia to Paraguay in the east (Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species is found at an elevation range of 100 to 500 m above sea level.
174108		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry tropical deciduous forest, grassland, savanna and semi-deciduous shrubland (Roze 1996).
174108		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174108		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
174109		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are over a dozen formally protected areas in the Maluti-Drakensberg Trans-frontier region which are managed by national and provincial conservation authorities (Zunckel 2003). These protected areas are primarily located at the higher altitudes in the region but cover most of this species' range.
174109		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho and South Africa in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Free State (Bates 1996, Branch 1998, Bourquin 2004). It may also occur in Lesotho. This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately 8,900 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/>It has been recorded at elevations up to 2,750 m.
174109		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane grassland, living in rock cracks and under loose boulders lying on bedrock (Branch 1998). It may be found well above the snow line.<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with two eggs laid in January-March (Branch 1998).
174109		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174109		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation. There are a variety of threats that impact the montane grasslands of the Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho and South Africa; however, this specie's occurrence in inaccessible habitat such as cliffs, outcrops and crevices, seldom&#160;interfered&#160;with, mean it is protected by threats in the region. &#160;Tourism is well-established in this region and is being encouraged to grow by the national governments (Zunckel 2003), which may begin to have detrimental impacts on the natural habitat in the near future.
174110		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but the species was included in the 1985 Red Book of Kyrgyzstan as a rare,  narrow-ranged endemic species (Ananjeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) report that special protection measures for this species are not necessary.
174110		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is found in the Fergana Range (Naryn Region) of the central part of the Tien-Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan (Bobrov 2005, Ananjeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species can be found at an elevation range of 1,800 to 2,500 m above sea level.
174110		habitat	eng	This species is found on the slopes of foothills and hills which either lack vegetation or are covered with occasional bushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salsola</span> sp.) (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It can generally be found under slabs of schist or in washed out depressions on slopes with a steepness of up to 45<sup>o</sup> (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It has also been found on loose cliffs of both seasonal and permanent streams as well as in ruined buildings (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
174110		population	eng	This species has been found in densities of up to two individuals in one hectare (Szczerbak 2003). Although they also refer to it as a "rare species with a narrow range", Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) note that it can often be the most common, or even only gecko found. In 1983-84, this species was reported as having a stable population (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
174110		threats	eng	This species has been reported to inhabit areas where human populations have no impact, since cultivation is not easy in these areas (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It is therefore unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats at present.
174111		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution and habitat of this species is recommended, primarily to establish whether the species is restricted to the fragmented coastal restinga habitat. This will provide a better understanding of threat processes affecting the species, in response to which further conservation action may be required.
174111		distribution	eng	Most records for this recently described species are known from a relatively restricted area, close to Parque Estadual das Dunas de Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil.  (~1,700 ha). The species was thought to be endemic to the patchy forests along the dunes in this region (Freire 1999). However, there are further new, and as of yet unpublished, records by herpetologists working in Natal that&#160;expand the known range beyond this single known site.
174111		habitat	eng	Unpublished ecological studies indicate that this species lives mostly on leaf-litter in dense restinga habitats (coastal sand dune vegetation), in micro-habitats with higher humidity, with lower temperatures, deeper leaf litter and lower elevations than randomly chosen points around the type locality (E.M.X. Freire unpublished data).
174111		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
174111		threats	eng	The species, although relatively abundant in favourable micro-habitats, depends on forested, shaded restinga habitats, which are naturally discontinuous and threatened by urban development. Only a small proportion of the coastal restinga forest remains, as much of this habitat is situated adjacent to large cities, and urban expansion is still resulting in loss of natural forests; remaining areas are highly fragmented (WWF 2001). However, as the distribution and ecology of this species is not well known it is not known whether the species is able to inhabit other habitat types.
174112		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Nearly all of Great Nicobar has been declared a biosphere reserve, which contains two national parks. The distribution of this species has been reported to coincide with the Galathea National Park (Das 1997). No further action is currently needed.
174112		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Nicobar Archipelago, where it is known only from Great Nicobar Island (Das 1997), which has an area of 955.7 km²<sup></sup>.
174112		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit undisturbed primary forest, forest edge, and roadsides, where it has been found in loose soil under logs and on saplings (Das 1997).
174112		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174112		threats	eng	The Nicobar and Andaman Islands have been and continue to be deforested, leading to extensive grasslands in certain areas (Khatri 1993). The main drivers are clearance for cash crops and monoculture forests. However, nearly all of Great Nicobar island has been declared a biosphere reserve (Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve), it is thinly populated and most of the island's rainforest remains.<br/><br/>Natural disasters may also affect the species but the impact of these is currently not known. The Andaman and Nicobar islands were hit by the Asian Tsunami of 2004. The effect of the influx of salt-water and wreckage into the interior of islands is yet to be assessed (BirdLife International 2006).
174113		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997 (CAMP 1998). At this workshop, the species was considered Data Deficient (CAMP 1998). Research into life history and distribution of this species was recommended. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat trends of this species are also needed.
174113		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India (Sharma 2002) where it is found at low altitudes of up to 350 m (Annandale 1913, Sharma 2002), and has also been reported from Sikkim (Chettri and Bhupathy 2007). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
174113		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical broadleaf and coniferous forests.
174113		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that the species is "very rare".
174113		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss may pose a major threat to this species. Total forest cover in the Eastern Himalayas of India has been estimated to decrease from 90.5% in 2000 to 70.4% in 2100 with the highest regional losses in Sikkim (Pandit <em>et al.</em> 2007). Causes of deforestation in the Indian Eastern Himalayas include agricultural expansion, primarily for monocrop plantations as well as timber, fuelwood and other forest product extraction (Bhuyan <em>et al.</em> 2003).
174114		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed on the habitat preferences of this species.
174114		distribution	eng	This speices is endemic to China and is known from the Xinjiang province. Collections have been made from the Tarim Basin and the Turpin Depression (Macey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
174114		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from areas including the Tarim Basin and the Turpan Depression (Macey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and as such probably inhabits dry areas with little vegetation.
174114		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174114		threats	eng	This species occurs in an area of low human population and is therefore not thought to be impacted by any major threats.
174115		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eublepharis hardwickii</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is known from the many protected areas in its range. Research recommendations include population surveys and life history studies. Further research is also needed on the distribution and threats of this species.
174115		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eublepharis hardwickii </span>is found from the low mountain region of Chota Nagpur (around 1,150 m above sea level) in Jharkhand, southern Bihar and West Bengal, and across Orissa to the coast of the Bay of Bengal (Smith 1935). It is also thought to inhabit areas of the adjacent states of West Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and around Madras in Tamil Nadu (Sharma 2002, Seufer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). However, Chandra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) noted its occurrence only in Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. &#160;In Madhya Pradesh, the species has been reported from the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Chandra and Gupta 2005), although the colour pattern may suggest the specimen to be <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macularius</span> instead (Mirza and Upadhye 2010). Similarly, earlier records from Madhya Pradesh (e.g. Bandhavgarh National Park; Khajuria 1986) are also thought to be erroneous and are likely to refer to another taxon (I. Das pers. comm. 2010), so that the occurrence of the species in this state is uncertain, if not unlikely. The great similarities between the two species can easily lead to mistaken identification (Mirza and Upadhye 2010), so that the real range of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. hardwickii</span> may be smaller than is currently suggested. It is found in elevations of 500 to 1,500 m asl.<br/><br/>Based on the uncertain distribution of this species, we estimate its extent of occurrence to be within the range of 400,000 km²<sup></sup> and 700,000 km².
174115		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal insectivorous<em> </em>species that inhabits moist and dry deciduous forests where it can be found under big boulders and in hollows at the base of trees. It is known to enter human settlements (Singh 1984).
174115		population	eng	Sharma (2002) lists the status of this species as rare. Chandra <em>et al.</em> (1997) report its occurrence in West Bengal after a lapse of 137 years, noting that this "signifies interesting zoogeographical implications in terms of its occurrence and rarity". Singh (1984), however, reports that this species is "not rare" in the vicinity of the village Tikerpada, on the banks of the river Mahanadi in Orissa. &#160;It has been recently observed in good numbers in several localities in Orissa (A. Roy pers. comm. March 2011).
174115		threats	eng	This species, as a member of the strikingly patterned leopard geckos, is likely to feature in the pet trade, although it is thought that the majority of individuals are bred in captivity. It is therefore unlikely that this is a threat which impacts significantly on wild populations. This species is not listed by CITES. &#160;Rampant forest fires for hunting and clearing for roads in the mountains are likely to affect the species in Orissa&#160;(P. Mohapatra pers. comm. March 2011). There are no specific major threats in Maharashtra.
174116		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, habitat status and threats of this species.
174116		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Hejin County, Shanxi Province, China (Zhao and Adler 1993). One specimen of this species was collected at 459 m above sea level.
174116		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
174116		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174116		threats	eng	This species may be negatively affected by regional deforestation due to expansion of agricultural land and a growing demand for timber and wood fuel (Rost 1999). However, as the habitat preferences for this species are unknown, so are the possible effects of the threats.
174117		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for  this species. This species does not occur in protected areas. Further  research into the taxonomy and distribution is needed.
174117		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus subtriedrus </span>inhabits southeastern peninsular India. Little is known about the distribution of this species (Javed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Smith (1935) writes that it is found in the Nellore and Ellore districts in the northern part of the Madras Presidency. Recent records from Bastar, Chhattisgarh (Sanyal and Dasgupta 1990), the Niyamgiri Hills, Orissa (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) and the Ananthagiri Hills in northern Andhra Pradesh (Javed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) need confirmation. Uncertain records exist from Maharastra and Uttar Pradesh, but both are doubtful (Javed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). One specimen in the Natural History Museum, London, has been collected from Kamarmat Sircar, west of Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh. It occurs at elevations between 0 to 50 m asl.
174117		habitat	eng	This is a rock-dwelling, nocturnal and insectivorous species (Sharma 2002), and is presumed to inhabit dry forests. According to Smith (1935), it rarely enters houses.
174117		population	eng	Sharma (2002) lists the status of this species as "rare, undeterminate". Nothing is known about the population status of this species.
174117		threats	eng	It is reported that the species is threatened by loss of habitat and human interference (CAMP 1998). Proposed mining activities, such as bauxite mining, could destroy valuable habitat (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
174118		conservation	eng	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Secure-SP (distribution)'. 'SP' indicates that the secure status may change if revisions to its known distribution occur. Currently, 25% of the range of this species is thought to occur in Namibia. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.
174118		distribution	eng	This species occurs along a narrow strip along the Okavango Basin, the Chobe River, into the Zambezi Valley, and onto the Zimbabwe Plateau and adjacent Zambia (Branch 1998). Its distribution runs along the northern borders of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and the southern borders of Angola and Zambia. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species has recently been extended further north and south with the discovery of several more populations. A recent survey of Niassa Game Reserve, in northern Mozambique, extends the known distribution of this species further north (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2005). A new locality of Matobo National Park, Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe, extends its southern limit by nearly 200 km (Broadly and Wilson 2005). However, this new locality is highly likely to be based on accidental introduction of the species from northwestern Zimbabwe by tourists. <br/><br/>In Namibia, this species had previously only been reported from the Caprivi strip. In 1989, individuals were accidentally translocated to the Waterberg Plateau Park and Windhoek (both in central Namibia), via building materials from the West Caprivi (Griffin 2003). However, the status of these potential populations is unknown.
174118		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist savanna. It is abundant on tree trunks and the walls of buildings, hence is  readily transported between National Parks in the luggage of visitors (D. Broadley pers. comm.). The species prefers to forage high in trees, and is common on acacia, baobab and mopane trees.
174118		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174118		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.
174119		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is needed.
174119		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the the Limpopo, North-West, Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. Its estimated range, in four distinct areas, is approximately 54,700 km², and its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately twice this area. <br/><br/>Subspecific distributional information includes:<br/><ul><li><em>L. nigropunctatus nigropunctatus</em> is found throughout the Limpopo, North-West, Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces, but not from Soutpansberg, Blouberg, and the Waterberg from 700 to 800 m above sea level (Jacobsen 1992). </li><li><em>L. nigropunctatus incognitus</em> is found in the Soutpansberg in the northern Limpopo Province from 1,400 to 1,600 m above sea level (Jacobsen 1992). </li><li><em>L. nigropunctatus montiscaeruli</em> inhabits the Blouberg and the low-lying plateau, Makgabeng from 950 to 1,300 m above sea level (Jacobsen 1992).</li></ul>
174119		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet and dry savanna and sub-tropical thicket habitat (Branch 1998) where it can be found on rocky outcrops and cliffs, foraging on boulders and taking refuge in crevices or under rocks (Jacobsen 1992).<br/><br/>It is oviparous, with a clutch size of two eggs (Jacobsen 1992).
174119		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174119		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by habitat degradation. According to the National Review of Land Degradation (NRLD) in South Africa, the northeast includes some of the most extensively degraded areas (Wessels 2004). Land uses in the region that may be contributing to habitat degradation include commercial and subsistence agriculture, exotic forestry plantations, commercial cattle ranching and communal grazing (Wessels 2004). In western South Africa, overgrazing was shown to have negative impacts on the vertebrate diversity (Joubert and Ryan 1999). However, these are likely to be localized threats only.
174120		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as 'Secure' in a national assessment of the conservation status of the herpetofauna of Namibia (Griffin 2003). Research is needed into the distribution of this species because of unverified reports of occurrence.
174120		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Namibia, occuring in the northwest of the country in northern Damaraland and adjacent Kaokoveld (Branch 1998). <br/><br/>Griffin (2003) reports this species from the districts of Khorixas, Omaruru and Karibib. Early records from Otjimbingwe, Walvis Bay and Kuibis have not been verified, but an isolated population may occur in the Karas Region (Griffin 2003). Live specimens collected at Sesfontein may also have been released in Windhoek in the past.
174120		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dwelling species that lives in small tunnels often dug beneath calcrete boulders in the sandy soils of arid Mopane and Acacia savanna (Branch 1998). Loveridge (1947) describes the habitat as "rock fissures of mountain slopes".
174120		population	eng	There is no population information available for<em> </em>this species. &#160;This species is said to be abundant and common in areas with no people and cattle (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).
174120		threats	eng	While long-term land degradation, due to overgrazing, increased human population densities, and increased pressure on agricultural land may threaten the arid habitat of Namibia (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2000); however, much of this species range is unaffected by these threats and they are not severe enough to cause significant declines in this species at this time (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).
174121		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed to ensure this species is not negatively affected by threats to its habitat.
174121		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Republic of South Africa. It occurs in the Western and Northern Cape from Little Namaqualand to Calvinia (Branch 1998), including Cederberg Wilderness Area.
174121		habitat	eng	This species can be found under stones in succulent karroid vegetation (Branch 1998).
174121		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174121		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats affecting this species in certain parts of its range. A recent study by Rouget <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated that 30% of the Cape Floristic Region is currently transformed by agriculture, urbanization and invasive plants. This is also likely to be the case further north into the Succulent Karoo habitat along the western coast. Furthermore, overgrazing, which is most severe on communally grazed lands (Seymour and Dean 1999), has been shown to negatively impact vertebrate diversity (Joubert and Ryan 1999).
174122		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174122		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Africa, on the inland escarpment from Sutherland down through the Western Cape and coastal regions of Knysna, and across to the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Swaziland and extreme southeast Mpumalanga (Branch 1998). One record also exists from adjacent southern Mozambique (Branch 1998). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be larger than 200,000 km².
174122		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of habitats, from fynbos and coastal bush, to arid karroid vegetation (Branch 1998). This species is terrestrial and occasionally enters rocky areas, but is normally found under debris, in rotting logs, old termitaria, or under loose bark on dead trees.<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, laying two to three clutches a year with two eggs per clutch (Branch 1998). It is commonly considered poisonous in South Africa (Loveridge 1947).
174122		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174122		threats	eng	Given its extremely large range it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
174123		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed. Establishing protected areas may also help to conserve this species and its natural habitat in the area.
174123		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Tsodilo Hills in northwest Botswana (Barts <em>et al.</em> 2001, Bauer <em>et al. </em>2006). This species has an area of distribution approximately equal to 7,000 km², occurring in less than ten locations (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).
174123		habitat	eng	This species inhabits island hills surrounded by a lush savanna (Bart <em>et al.</em> 2001). It can be found on quartzite and dolomitic limestone outcrops (Branch 1998). <br/><br/>It is oviparous and strictly nocturnal (Bart <em>et al.</em> 2001).
174123		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174123		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation in northern Botswana may pose a threat to this species. Removal of woodland vegetation is caused during agricultural clearance, fuel-wood collection and construction of human settlements (Ringrose <em>et al.</em> 1997). Overgrazing was shown to have negative impacts on vertebrate diversity in South Africa (Joubert and Ryan 1999), which may also affect this region. Lastly, tourism in the Okavango Delta area has begun to have negative impacts on the environment through noise pollution, poor waste management, and habitat destruction through driving outside of the prescribed trails (Mbaiwa 2003); however the threats relating to tourism in the Okavango is thought to be having little impact on these hills at present (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).
174124		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174124		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in South Africa, from northern KwaZulu-Natal and adjacent Free State, through Mpumalanga and eastern Limpopo Province, to southeast Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique (Branch 1998). &#160;Its southern extent reaches the northern border of Lesotho, including Swaziland (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010). &#160;The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be larger than 100,000 km²<sup></sup>.
174124		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mesic and arid savanna, often sheltering in tunnels beneath rocks or dead logs (Branch 1998). Highveld populations are totally rupicolous, living in rock cracks.
174124		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174124		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. &#160;This species may be vulnerable to collection with firewood as a result of its use of dead vegetation, such as Aloes, for habitat (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).
174125		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. The species was assessed as Lower Risk in the 1998 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan for Reptiles in India (CAMP 1998).
174125		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan, India (Sharma 2002). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as more than 660,000 km²<sup></sup>.
174125		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry deciduous forests and shrublands. It burrows into soft soil under dense bushes of <em>Acacia</em> and cactus (Sharma 2002).
174125		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174125		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.
174126		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Most of the distribution of this species is in good conservation status (D. Embert pers. comm.). Conservation of wetland areas, such as the   Natural Reserve “Lakes of Rogaguado” in Beni Department, has been proposed (Cortez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
174126		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northeastern states of Beni and Pando in Bolivia, but its distribution in adjacent Brazil is more than probable (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010).
174126		habitat	eng	This species is likely to inhabit wetlands and lowland moist forests.
174126		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
174126		threats	eng	This species is collected for its skin and its use as meat tan fat (Cortez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also occasionally killed because it feeds on small livestock such as chickens, as well as on dogs and cats (Cortez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). This species occurs in an area of South America which is sparsely populated and relatively untouched and underdeveloped, suggesting that no further threats are affecting this species.
174128		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology of the species.
174128		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type specimen, which was found in the Sudan, in the southern Nuba mountains (S. Spawls and D. Broadley pers. comms.).
174128		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species; however, it is reported to be one of the smallest skink species (Greer 2001, Uetz and Hallerman 2010).
174128		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174128		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being affected by any major threats.
174129		conservation	eng	Das (1999) states that the local protection given to this species precludes the collection of specimens. Further research on the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species is needed.
174129		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the east coast of peninsular India. It is known only from its type locality at Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (Das 1999), but it is likely that it occurs in suitable habitat away from the type locality.
174129		habitat	eng	The type locality of the species is scrub forest. This species is limbless (Greer 2001).
174129		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174129		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any threats are affecting the species.
174130		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and threats to the species is needed.
174130		distribution	eng	This species appears to be only known from the type locality at Pulu Miang, an island just off of the coast of East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Hallerman 1998).
174130		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland Dipterocarp rainforest.
174130		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174130		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threat. Its type locality is on an island off the east coast of Kalimantan, and it is unknown if deforestation, a prevalent threat on mainland Kalimantan, also impacts the island.
174132		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers and threats of this species is needed.
174132		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Middle Shebelli, Bay, Gedo, Middle Juba and Lower Juba regions of Somalia (Lanza 1988). Its estimated extent of occurrence is more than 150,000 km²<sup></sup>.
174132		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the low-lying grasslands, shrublands, and dry forests of southern Somalia (Lanza 1988).
174132		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174132		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats. Habitat degradation due to agriculture and over-grazing is occurring in areas of Somalia, however, this is a localized threat only, and unlikely to be causing significant declines.
174133		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the 1998 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) on Reptiles in India, in which it was listed as Vulnerable. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed. Measures to protect the natural habitat should also be carried out, such as via the establishment and effective management of protected areas.
174133		distribution	eng	This species is found in three localities, in the Anaimalai Hills, Palni Hills and Malabar at elevations up to 700 m above sea level (CAMP 1998; Sharma 2002). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,470 km².
174133		habitat	eng	This species lives in the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests (CAMP 1998, Sharma 2002). It is strictly arboreal as well as insectivorous and diurnal (Sharma 2002). This species is limbless.
174133		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174133		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation (CAMP 1998). Annual deforestation rates for the Western Ghats had previously been estimated at 0.57% for the period 1920-1990 (Menon and Bawa 1998). However, a recent analysis has found it to vary by district from -0.73% to 1.84% annually, with a perceived acceleration (Jha <em>et al.</em> 2000). As the data from the Agastyamalai region demonstrates a five-fold increase in forest loss from the 1920-1960 period to the 1960-1990 period, it is concluded that deforestation is increasing at least in certain districts of the Ghats (Jha <em>et al.</em> 2000). The causes of this forest loss are primarily agriculture and plantation development (Jha <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>A further threat is fire, which has increased 200% from the 1910-1920 period to the 1990-2000 period (Kodandapani <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is attributed to increased anthropogenic ignition sources, forest fragmentation, altered fire regimes, and possible synergisms (Kodandapani <em>et al.</em> 2004).
174134		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species occurs in Eravikulam National Park, Kerala. &#160;Further surveys to detect presence, distribution and  understand the ecology of  this  species is recommended.
174134		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kaestlea travancorica</span> is endemic to <span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>outhern Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It is distributed in Ashambu Hills and Vanjikadavu in Kerala, Srivilliputhur hills, Annamalai hills, Palni hills, Kodaikanal, Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Roux 1928, Das and Whitaker 1990, Ishwar <em>et al</em>. 2001, Noon <em>et al.</em> 2006), Eravikulam National Park, Vaguvarai Shola and Pambadam Shola (close to Munnar) in Kerala (A.D. Roy pers. comm. March 2011). It occurs at elevations between 1,000 and 1,700 m asl.
174134		habitat	eng	Terrestrial, mostly among leaf litter, under rocks as well as in forest edges. &#160;It lives in mid to high elevation evergreen forests and montane rainforests of the southern Western Ghats (Ganesh and Gowri Shankar 2009).
174134		population	eng	Nothing is known about the present day population status of this species. &#160;However it is seen to be one of the most locally abundant species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Kaestlea </span>among most of the high elevations in southern Western Ghats.<em><br/></em>
174134		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species. However given the fact that species belonging to this genus are habitat specific, and are found largely in mid to high elevations anthropogenic pressures are likely to impact this species.
174135		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is needed to ensure localized overgrazing does not become a widespread problem.
174135		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Kaokoveld in Namibia (Branch 1998). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 26,000 km².
174135		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky, arid savanna, where it forages among the leaf litter around rocky outcrops (Branch 1998).
174135		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174135		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats at present. The Namibian side of the Kaokoveld Desert is relatively intact because of its arid conditions and low population density. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by cattle may threaten localized areas of this habitat (WWF 2001), however, this is not thought to be acting as a major threat at present.
174136		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174136		distribution	eng	'This species is found on rock outcrops from the southern end of Lake Malawi,  south through the Tete District of Mozambique into northeastern Zimbabwe (Broadley 2004). There  are isolated populations in the Save River Valley in southeastern Zimbabwe and  along the length of Lake Kariba into Hwange District, with another isolated  population in the extreme southwest of Angola (Broadley 2004). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 76,000 km².
174136		habitat	eng	This species is rupicolous and is found on lowland rock outcrops of gneiss and sandstone (Broadley 2004).
174136		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174136		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats at present.
174137		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174137		distribution	eng	This species has a large distribution in southern Africa. It occurs from the northern part of the Eastern Cape Province, through Free State, adjacent parts of the Northern Cape, Lesotho, western KwaZulu-Natal and the northern provinces of South Africa, as well as in southern Botswana, with an isolated population&#160;in the eastern highlands of&#160;Zimbabwe and Zambia on the border with&#160;Malawi&#160;(Branch 1998, Broadley 2000).
174137		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, wet and dry, from grassland and savanna to shrubland, including rock outcrops (Branch 1998).
174137		population	eng	This species is common (Branch 1998).
174137		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat.
174138		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed because of its restricted distribution to Little Scrub Island.
174138		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Little Scrub Island (White <em>et al.</em> 2002) off the northeastern tip of Anguilla. The island has a total area of around 0.049 km², less than half of which is habitable (Hodge <em>et al. </em>2003).
174138		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry scrublands. It is quite common in the cactus-dominated vegetation and in the rocky area near the sand patch on the leeward side, but less common in other areas (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). The habitat is food-limited. The lizards are known to climb cacti to eat the fruits and to scavenge fish from seabirds nesting and roosting on the island and to prey on bird eggs (Censky and Powell 2001).
174138		population	eng	White <em>et al.</em> (2002) described the species as 'quite common' in certain areas of the island and as 'less common' in others.
174138		threats	eng	Little Scrub Island is not likely to be developed. The very small size of the habitable area on the island renders the population of these lizards vulnerable to stochastic events (e.g, hurricanes). Smith <em>et al.</em>&#160;(2005) have noted an increased frequency and intensity to tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Basin, especially since 1995 (2005: 2). Future climate change impacts of increased storm activity and sea level rise may pose further threats, but these are are not imminent threats, are highly uncertain and are unlikely to lead to very rapid population declines.
174139		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the species. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed, because of its restricted distribution.
174139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sombrero Island (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Lazell 1964) of the Lesser Antilles.<br/><br/>Sombrero cay, 32 miles northwest of Anguilla, forms the northern limit of land in the Lesser&#160;Antilles&#160;(Lazell 1964). It is 0.75 mile (1.21 km) long and 400 yards (0.37 km) wide at the widest section, oriented north-south. The area of the cay is approximately 0.366 km²<sup></sup>.
174139		habitat	eng	This species is xerophilic and diurnal. It is ground-dwelling, however, it will climb pit walls for bird eggs and for basking sites (Lazell 1964). <em></em>This species eats the eggs of ground-nesting birds (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).<br/><br/>Sombrero Island is presumed to be of volcanic origin, however, it is capped with oceanic limestone (Lazell 1964). Vegetation cover is extremely sparse and consists of a few clumps of cactus, ground-trailing herbaceous plants, and small weeds. The habitat is at least seasonally food-limited. No amphibians or mammals occur on the island; however, large colonies of nesting sea birds are present. The species occurs alongside two other known reptile species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anolis gingivinus</span> and an undescribed <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerodactylus</span> (Hodge <em>et al. </em>2003 in press).
174139		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant throughout the island (Layzell 1964), and as "quite common" around the lighthouse and in areas where vegetation occurs (Shew <em>et al.</em> 2002).
174139		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the species is being impacted by any direct major threats at present as there is no permanent human settlement on Sombrero. The British government had maintained a lighthouse there from about the 1860s, due to its position at the mouth of the Anegada Passage; however, it was swept away by a hurricane in 1960. A new lighthouse had been built (Lazell 1964), but this has now been decommissioned and human presence on the island is sporadic.<br/><br/>While this species has been able to withstand the island being briefly flooded by a hurricane, it is unlikely it would survive complete permanent inundation due to sea level rise. However, although sea level rise may pose a threat in the future, this is not an imminent threat.
174140		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species as very little information is currently known.
174140		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Valle de Lluta, Poconchile Tarapaca, in the Atacama Desert, Chile. It is not known whether this species is found beyond the region of the type locality.
174140		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, its type locality is in the Atacama Desert.
174140		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174140		threats	eng	Potential threats in the region of the type locality include overgrazing and mining (Padilla 2005). However, as the range of the species is not known, it is not possible to accurately assess if this is acting as a major threat.
174141		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss and decline that is occurring within its range. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is also required.
174141		distribution	eng	This species is known from one river drainage in the region of Huancabamba, Piura, Peru (Cadle 1991, Fritts 1972). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 947 km²<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><sup><em></em></sup>.
174141		habitat	eng	This species is known from moist montane forest (WWF 2001).
174141		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174141		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation as a result of burning and deforestation for urban and agricultural expansion as well as mining operations (WWF 2001).
174142		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, habitat and ecology is needed as little information is currently available.
174142		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, at high elevations on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in the department of Junin, central Peru (Fritts 1972; Cadle 1991). &#160;No specimens have been collected from the Rio Tarma-Rio Palca region which is relatively well known, and just 80 km north of the type locality; this species may therefore have a restricted range in the vicinity of the type locality, or may be distributed to the south of the type locality.
174142		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rocky areas (Fritts 1972) in a region where evergreen montane forest is the dominant habitat type.
174142		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174142		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture expansion is prevalent in the region, however, the effect that these threats are having on this species are unknown.
174143		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, habitat and ecology is needed, as little information is currently available.
174143		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is poorly known. The only distribution information available is that this species has been reported from central Peru (Etheridge 1996), including from the departments Cusco and Junin, and Carrillo and Icochea (1994) have recorded the species from the department of Lima.
174143		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
174143		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174143		threats	eng	Due to a lack of distribution and habitat information, it is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
174144		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species range. Additionally educational programmes are needed to provide information in order to prevent indiscriminate killing of individuals of this species (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010). Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is also needed.
174144		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is probably restricted to the Loja Province of southern Ecuador, which has an area of under 1,988 km². The species is mostly found in two fragmented locations, with most of the population occurring in the vicinity of Loja City, but also 40 km north near Saraguro. It may also be found in the neighbouring province of Zamore-Chinchipe. This species is found between 2,100 and 2,500 m above sea level.
174144		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane dry forest in arid temperate regions.
174144		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174144		threats	eng	A large population of this species is located near a state capital city and its habitat is therefore threatened by urban expansion and deforestation and uncontrolled expansion of the agricultural frontier. Furthermore, this species is extensively persecuted by the local people; sometimes for use in traditional medicine practices, but usually killings are a result of fear and misunderstanding of the species (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).
174145		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for Cook’s Swellshark. Biological parameters and capture in fisheries needs to be defined.</p>
174145		distribution	eng	<p>Cook’s Swellshark is restricted to a small area of the Arafura Sea off northern Australia and off Tanimbar Island in eastern Indonesia (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).<br/></p>
174145		habitat	eng	<p>Cook’s Swellshark, a deepwater benthic catshark, has been recorded from the upper continental slope at depths of 225–300 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum size of this small species is at least 30 cm total length (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Nothing else is known of the biology of the species.</p>
174145		population	eng	There is no information on the population of Cook’s Swellshark.
174145		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on threats to Cook’s Swellshark, including whether it is captured as bycatch in fisheries occurring off northern Australia and eastern Indonesia.</p>
174147		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
174147		distribution	eng	This species is found in Argentina, from Misiones in the northeast to Mendoza in the southwest (Lema 1978), and from Bolivia, Paraguay, and Parana State in Brazil (Lema <em>et al.</em> 2005).
174147		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid and arid Chaco habitat. However, it has also been collected at a study site highly degraded by deforestation and overgrazing (Leynaud and Bucher 2005).
174147		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174147		threats	eng	In parts of its range it is likely that this species is impacted by habitat loss and degradation. Much of the Chaco habitat of South America is in various stages of alteration due to grazing of goats and cattle and this threat is reported to be most extensive in Argentina (WWF 2001a). The humid Chaco habitat of South America is reported to be relatively untouched, however, it is beginning to feel the pressures of human development (WWF 2001b). At present these threats are localized threats only and are not likely to be causing the species to suffer significant population declines.
174148		conservation	eng	In Argentina, this species is considered vulnerable; however, this is mainly due to a lack of knowledge on the species' biology and ecology and the fact that it is considered an endemic species (Lavilla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out.
174148		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Cordoba, Argentina (Dixon 1985).
174148		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the dry grass and brush covered slopes of the eastern sierras of Cordoba.
174148		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
174148		threats	eng	No major threats are reported to currently affect the Cordoba montane savanna; however, it is thought to be vulnerable to habitat loss due to overgrazing (WWF 2001). The effect of habitat loss and degradation on this species and the extent of habitat degradation in the area is unknown. Other species of this genus are known to be habitat generalists, which suggests that this species may be able to adapt to habitat changes, both now and in the future.
174175		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174175		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Ukraine, western, central and eastern Kazakhstan to the Altai and Sayan Mountains. Up to 1,400 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174175		habitat	eng	<em>Neolycaena rhymnus</em> occurs on dry grassland on acid and calcareous soils. Often places with this butterfly species can be well described as steppes with occasional bushes or shrubs. The larval foodplant is<em> Caragana frutex</em>. The winter is passed in the egg stage. There is one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (50%), screes (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).
174175		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174175		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174176		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174176		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern European part of Russia, Crimea, south of Siberia, west of Mongolia. Sea level to 1,800 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174176		habitat	eng	This butterfly species occurs on stony steppes and limestone outcrops. Its larval foodplants are <em>Hedysarum</em> spp. The female lays the eggs on the leaves. Hibernation takles place in the second or third larval instar. Depending on geographical location of the site, one or two generations a year will be produced  (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).
174176		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174176		threats	eng	Not examined.
174177		conservation	eng	Further research on the distribution of this species is needed.
174177		distribution	eng	This species occurs in North Africa from the Sahara desert to the coast, and in the southern coast of Portugal and Spain (from Lisbon to Cadiz). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174177		habitat	eng	The False Mallow Skipper occurs on hot and dry places with flowers and patches of grass. It is also found in rocky gullies and on slopes. The larval hostplant is Common Mallow (<em>Malva sylvestris</em>). The species produces several generations a year and is on the wing from March to September. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available, but probably similar to <em>C. alceae</em>.
174177		population	eng	It replaces <em>C. alceae</em> in the Southern edge of the Iberian peninsula. It is probably more widespread than previously thought.
174177		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174178		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174178		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in Southeast Europe along the bigger rivers, particularly along the Danube and its tributaries Tisza, Drava and Sava. It is also present in the south of Hungary, the east of Croatia, the north of Bosnia, the northwest of Serbia and of Albania. It is scattered in Bulgaria, southeastern Romania and in the extreme northeast of Greece. 0-650 m. It is furthermore present through West Siberia to Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174178		habitat	eng	Freyer?s Purple Emperor is a butterfly of very warm, damp places. The butterflies can be found along wooded riverbanks, with its foodplant, White Willow (<em>Salix alba</em>). The males and females meet each other at the tops of tall trees and the females lay their eggs in small batches at the top of the tree, on leaves in the crown. The caterpillars grow quickly and pupate suspended under a leaf or on a twig. The caterpillars from the generation that follows, hibernate. The butterflies have a varied diet. The females visit flowers for nectar, aphids for honeydew and ripe fruit for the sugars. The males are often found on damp ground, on dung and on carrion. The butterflies are also attracted to sap oozing from wounded trees. This species has two generations a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (23%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (23%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), water-fringe vegetation (17%).
174178		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174178		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174179		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174179		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Russia, northeast Caucasus and Transcaucasia and northeast Turkey (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174179		habitat	eng	<em>Callophrys chalybeitincta </em>occurs in most of its range in the same habitat as the green hairstreak (<em>Callophrys rubi</em>), a widespread and common species at woodland edges and on scrubby fields in the lowland and at lower altitudes. The species is often misidentified as being <em>C. rubi</em>. Therefore details about its habitat, ecology and behaviour are unknown (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). In Suchumi (Kaschtak-Tchubuni) ovipositions have been observed on the flowerbuds of <em>Rhododendron flavum</em>, but there are no records for Turkey. In Russia, caterpillars have been found feeding on bramble (<em>Rubus</em> spp.). This species probably has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001), but it could also be bivoltine (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). It hibernates in the pupal stage. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174179		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174179		threats	eng	Not examined.
174180		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174180		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Eastern Europe: from Eastern Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia and further southwards to Northwest Greece. 250-1,000 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174180		habitat	eng	The Eastern Short-tailed Blue occurs in clearings in deciduous woodland and on flower-rich, grassy vegetation with scattered bushes. The caterpillars feed on the flowerheads of Black Medick (<em>Medicago lupulina</em>) and Lucerne (<em>M. sativa</em>). The Eastern Short-tailed Blue has three generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%).
174180		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia, Greece, Slovakia, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174180		threats	eng	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174181		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174181		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in south and central Portugal and Spain as far north as Castilia and northeast as far as the Pyrenees. In France, it is only present along the Mediterranean coast from the Rhône estuary to the Maritime Alps. 0-1,300 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174181		habitat	eng	The Provence Hairstreak can be found on abandoned agricultural land, especially on calcareous soils, in abandoned vineyards and bushy areas. Various leguminous plants are used as larval foodplant, mainly of the genera <em>Anthyllis</em>, <em>Dorycnium</em>, <em>Trifolium</em>, <em>Astragalus</em>, <em>Medicago</em>, <em>Ornithopus</em> and <em>Lotus</em>. The female deposits its eggs singly on the unopened leaves. The caterpillars are sometimes attended by ants, e.g. <em>Plagiolepis pygmaea</em>. This butterfly species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a pupa in the soil. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), fallow land, waste places (16%).
174181		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174181		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174182		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Denmark, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece and Luxembourg, it is not known if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174182		distribution	eng	This is a species of South and Central Europe. In Scandinavia to 62° N. It is absent from Italy (except the extreme north), south and central Greece, the Mediterranean islands and East Britain. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs throughout the temperate zone through Siberia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174182		habitat	eng	The Marsh Fritillary occurs in very different types of habitat, like moist, sheltered grasslands, along the edges of raised bogs and on dry, calcareous grasslands. The foodplants are Devil?s-bit Scabious (<em>Succisa pratense</em>), Small Scabious (<em>Scabiosa columbaria</em>), Field Scabious (<em>Knautia arvensis</em>) and teasels (<em>Dipsacus</em> spp.). The eggs are laid in large clumps under the leaves. The caterpillars spin a substantial nest between the leaves of the foodplants, feeding in it and also hibernating communally there. However, later they are solitary and look for places deep in the vegetation in which to pupate. The Marsh Fritillary has one generation a year. This is a very variable species with many sub-species. In Spain and Portugal, <em>E.a. beckeri</em> is larger and brighter than most sub-species, with bold, black markings. <em>E.a. debilis</em> is found above 1,800 m in the Alps and Pyrenees and is smaller, with a lot of black markings and hardly any orange. <em>E. a. provincialis </em>occurs in the south of France and is pale orange. <em>E. a. hibernica</em> occurs in Ireland and is very distinctive with prominent red and heavy black markings. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mesophile grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), heath and scrub (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).
174182		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174182		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174183		conservation	eng	More research to the exact distribution and ecology of this species is neede. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174183		distribution	eng	Its range is still unclear because of its recent splitting from <em>L. sinapis</em>, but is possibly within the range of <em>L. sinapis</em>. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174183		habitat	eng	Real´s Wood White has recently been separated from the Wood White (<em>L. sinapis</em>). However, in the field the species cannot be distinguished from each other. Their distribution is not yet entirely clear. Their life cycles are similar. However, <em>L. reali</em> is not known to have more than 2 generations, and is not present as far south as <em>L. sinapis</em> in Europe. In the southern part of its range it is limited to humid to wet meadows and clearings, but becomes more ubiquitous in middle Europe where <em>L. sinapis</em> seems to prefer dryer habitats (Verovnik & Glogovcan 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174183		population	eng	Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Republic of Ireland and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174183		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174184		conservation	eng	In Belgium, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174184		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Central and Southern Europe. It is absent from the south of Italy, the south of the Peloponnese, the Mediterranean islands except Majorca, Ireland, Scotland, the north of Germany, Scandinavia, Estonia and Latvia. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174184		habitat	eng	The Adonis Blue is found on calcareous soil on moderately to very sparsely vegetated grassland, that is often sheltered by neighbouring woods or shrub. Its foodplants are Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>) and Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>) and the eggs are laid on the leaves. It pupates in the litter layer. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Plagiolepis</em>, <em>Tetramorium</em>, <em>Formica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. The Adonis Blue usually has two generations a year and the caterpillars of the second generation hibernate. There are also some single-brooded populations in the south of Greece. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (37%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).
174184		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg and Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174184		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174185		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174185		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of  Europe up to 68° N in Scandinavia. It is absent from the southwest of Spain, the south of Portugal, large parts of Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, northwest of Germany, Denmark, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia and Crete. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Urals, Central Asia, and  Southwest Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174185		habitat	eng	The Large Wall Brown occurs in quite different habitats. It is mainly found in warm, dry places near rocks and nutrient-poor grassland, or on rough vegetation near woodland edges. However, it can also occur on damp grassland and rough vegetation near wood margins. The butterflies need a lot of nectar, often visiting purple or pink flowers of thistles and other nectar-rich plants. The female lays its eggs on the blades of grasses that include <em>Holcus</em> spp., bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.) and small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate when half-grown in a grass tussock and pupate later deep down in the vegetation. The Large Wall Brown has one generation a year in the north of its distribution range and two a year in the south. Habitats: mixed woodland (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), heath and scrub (7%), coniferous woodland (7%).
174185		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Romania, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174185		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174186		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174186		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the French Alps and adjacent part of the Italian Alps and in the Balkans from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southwest of Bulgaria and north and central Greece. 1,500-2,600 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174186		habitat	eng	The Balkan Fritillary can be found in the mountains on flower-rich grasslands, or on grassland with scattered bushes and in clearings in woods. These butterflies usually fly close to the ground. Various violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) are used as foodplant. The female lays its eggs either on the foodplant, or on a plant nearby. The Balkan Fritillary has one generation a year and hibernates as a small caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (44%), coniferous woodland (33%), mixed woodland (22%).
174186		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174186		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174187		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174187		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of the south of Europe: the eastern half and the north of Spain, the Pyrenees, the southeast and west of France (Poitou), south of Switzerland, Italy (the Alps, Liguria, Tuscany to Campania), Slovenia and the Balkans from southwest of Croatia, via the south of Herzegovina and the southwest of Serbia to the south of Greece and of Bulgaria. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents. The European colonies are particularly significant for the global survival of the species.
174187		habitat	eng	Escher’s Blue occurs on dry and flower-rich grassland, damp rough vegetation, in flower-rich rocky places, on scrub and at woodland edges and on agricultural land. The females lay their eggs singly on milk-vetches (<em>Astragalus</em> spp.), in particular <em>A. monspessulanus</em>. Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>) may also be a foodplant. When still small, the caterpillar goes into hibernation and in spring completes its growth, feeding on the leaves and flowerbuds of the foodplants. When fully grown, it leaves the foodplant and pupates under stones. Both caterpillars and pupae are attended by ants of various genera, including <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Formica</em>, <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Plagiolepis</em>. Escher’s Blue is single-brooded. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), phrygana (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), screes (5%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).
174187		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174187		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174188		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174188		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Norway to the north and east of Spain and from Ireland till far into Asia. 50-2,800 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174188		habitat	eng	This butterfly is well named. It is very small and its modest colours make it even seem smaller than it really is. The Small Blue can only be found on calcareous soils. An open, mostly rather short vegetation and a warm microclimate typify its habitat. The butterflies may occur in large numbers. They lay their small, white eggs on the underside of leaves and in flowerheads of Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>). A practised eye can detect them between the flowers and the sepals. The creamy-white caterpillars feed on the flowers and seeds and are seldom seen. However, workers of various ant species attend them regularly. When fully-grown, the caterpillars hibernate either between the withered petals of dead flowers, or in the litter layer and pupate on the ground. The Small Blue has one or two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), mesophile grasslands (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
174188		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1980s, though vagrants from Belgian populations are reported regularly. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Belgium, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174188		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174189		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.
174189		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Portugal and in a number of hilly and mountainous regions in Spain: southeast Spain (from the southern tip to Valencia), middle of Spain (Sierra de Cuenca and in Castile), North Spain (Pyrenees and foothills as far as Catalonia) and just in the French part of the eastern Pyrenees. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174189		habitat	eng	The Spanish Fritillary occurs on open, grassy places with stony soil and lots of shrubs. It uses various foodplants, such as <em>Cephalaria leucantha</em> and <em>C. syriaca</em>, the teasels <em>Dipsacus fullonum </em>and <em>D. comasus</em>, scabious (<em>Scabiosa</em> and <em>Knautia</em> spp.) and possibly knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in small batches on the underside of leaves. The caterpillars live in a communal spun nest, also hibernating there. There is one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), heath and scrub (25%).
174189		population	eng	This is a local species in part of Europe.
174189		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by climate change in the future.
174190		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174190		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the the south of the Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria and on Greek mainland. 0-1,800 m. Also present from Israel and Syria to the Middle East, Iran and Turkey to Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174190		habitat	eng	Gruner?s Orange-tip lives on dry, open grasslands, on rocky, often calcareous slopes, scrub and clearings in dry woodland. The eggs are laid on <em>Aethionema</em> species, including Burnt Candytuft (<em>A. saxatile</em>) and <em>A. orbiculatum</em>, the caterpillars eating both the leaves and ripening seeds. It has one generation a year and the pupa hibernates. Habitats: screes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).
174190		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174190		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174191		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174191		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in central Spain (Caceres region, Sierra de Gredos), France (from south coast to Ardèche and Maritime Alps), Italy (west coast as far as Naples, central Italy) and from Istria (Croatia), the southwest of Croatia, south of Bosnia and south of Serbia down to the north of Greece and Romania. Between 50-1,800 m. Its range extends to through Turkey to Iran and Afghanistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174191		habitat	eng	The yellow and white bands on the underside of its hindwing make the Yellow-banded Skipper unmistakable. These skippers can be found on flower-rich grasslands, flower-rich stony slopes in gullies and in open scrub. The butterflies fly slowly, close to the ground. Sulphur Cinquefoil (<em>Potentilla recta</em>), <em>Potentilla hirta</em> and perhaps also <em>Abutilon theophrasti </em>are used as larval foodplants. It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), mesophile grasslands (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), screes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), phrygana (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).
174191		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Serbia, Spain and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174191		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. In Spain, it is considered vulnerable due to its very limited distribution range.
174192		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in Croatia. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174192		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Balkans: from Croatia, Bosnia, southeast of Serbia and southeast of Romania to the north of Greece. This species occurs also on some Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends to Israel, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174192		habitat	eng	The Eastern Festoon occurs in warm, usually dry, places such as in dry grassland with scattered bushes, in scrub, near hedges, on agricultural land, vineyards and olive groves. It is also found in river valleys. Choosing plants growing near bushes or trees, the female lays its eggs mostly on Birthwort (<em>Aristolochia clematitis</em>), but also on other birthworts. The Eastern Festoon has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), mesophile grasslands (10%), mixed woodland (10%), phrygana (10%), heath and scrub (10%).
174192		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174192		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174193		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174193		distribution	eng	This species occurs from 58° N to the extreme north in large parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, although it is absent from Norwegian coastal zone. It is very local in Latvia and Estonia. In the northern part of its range, this species is more common than in the south. 200-1,000 m. It is furthermore found in almost the whole northern Palearctic, Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174193		habitat	eng	Frejya?s Fritillary occurs in damp, peatland habitats. The female lays its eggs singly on Bog Whortleberry (<em>Vaccinium uliginosum</em>) and possibly also on Cloudberry (<em>Rubus chamaemorus</em>), Bearberry (<em>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</em>), Alpine Bearberry (<em>A. alpinus</em>) and Crowberry (<em>Empetrum nigrum</em>). The butterflies can also be seen on drier, grassy vegetation, searching for nectar, visiting Moss Campion (<em>Silene acaulis</em>) frequently. Frejya?s Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: raised bogs (45%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (18%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), heath and scrub (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%).
174193		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Estonia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174193		threats	eng	This species is extinct in Estonia and strongly declining in Southern and Central Finland due to habitat (bog-) destruction and is starting to decline along its southern range in Sweden. There are no signals of decline in Norway yet.
174194		conservation	eng	This species requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but occurs only in protected areas in Portugal.
174194		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of central Europe, north and central Spain, north and central Italy, Sicily (the only Mediterranean island on which it occurs) and north and central Greece, south of England, southeast of Belgium, central and south Germany and central and south Poland. There is one population in Latvia and it is extinct in Lithuania and European Turkey. 50-1,600 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174194		habitat	eng	The Duke of Burgundy Fritillary occurs in woodland clearings, along the edges of paths in the woods and at woodland edges, and on tall/scrubby calcareous and damp grassland.  Although the populations are often very local, the numbers of butterflies can be considerable. These butterflies resemble small fritillaries, although taxonomically they are closely related to the blues (<em>Lycaenidae</em>). Eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of <em>Primula</em> species. The caterpillars feed at night, hiding during the day by lying along the main nerve of the <em>Primula</em> leaf. They leave the larval foodplants to hibernate in the litter layer. Mostly, it has only one generation a year, but in warm areas, there may be a second generation late in the year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (24%), mesophile grasslands (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (9%).
174194		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Lithuania. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Luxembourg, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174194		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174195		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174195		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Volga region, southern Urals, Siberia, southern Altai, Kazakhstan, Transbaikalia, northwestern China and Mongolia. Up to 3,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174195		habitat	eng	This blue butterfly can be found in places with semi-desert to steppe habitat with grassy vegetation in the mountains. Larval foodplants are <em>Limonium gmelinii</em>, <em>L. leptolobum</em>,<em> Goniolimon cuspidatum</em> and <em>G. speciosum</em>. The species has one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gorbunov, 2001). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).
174195		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174195		threats	eng	Not examined.
174196		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174196		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered occurrence in large parts of Southern Europe: north of Portugal, mountains in north and central Spain, in Italy locally from the Alps to the south of the Apennines and from Slovenia and Slovakia to the whole of Southeast Europe. 0-2,200 m. It is furthermore present through Asia Minor, West Siberia, Northwest China and Mongolia, the mountains of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northwest India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174196		habitat	eng	The Lesser Spotted Fritillary occurs on flower-rich, grassy vegetation, in both dry and damp places and on waste ground. Various mulleins (<em>Verbascum</em> spp.) are used as foodplants, including Aaron’s Rod (<em>Verbascum thapsus</em>),<em> V. densiflorum</em> and <em>V. longifolium</em>. The eggs are laid in batches on the underside of the leaves. The young caterpillars feed, gregariously in a communal web, where they also hibernate. After hibernation, they form smaller groups and are often seen on the upper surface of the leaves. This species has one or two generations a year, depending on the climatic zone of its flight area. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (13%).
174196		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174196		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.
174197		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174197		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in South Europe: from the southeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula to the western coast of Italy and from the southwest of Croatia, via the southwest of Serbia, to Bulgaria and Greece. This species occurs also on Sicily, Sardinia and Crete. Mostly at lower altitudes on coast, inland to 1,600 m. It is also found in North Africa and across Turkey and the Middle East to Afghanistan, Pakistan and North India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174197		habitat	eng	Like the Pigmy Skipper (<em>G. pumilio</em>), the Mediterranean Skipper can be found in rocky or stony places, such as dried-up riverbeds, on dry, grassy vegetation or in thickets and low scrub along the coast. The males defend their territory perched on a stone or on the ground, returning to the same spot if disturbed. These butterflies fly fast and close to the ground. The caterpillars feed on reed (<em>Phragmites australis</em>) and the grass <em>Saccharum ravennae</em>. It has one to three generations a year. There are far fewer butterflies in spring than in summer or autumn. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (37%), phrygana (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).
174197		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174197		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174198		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174198		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over Europe south of the Arctic Circle. 0-2,400 m. It is furthermore found in North Africa, temperate and subtropical Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174198		habitat	eng	The Small Copper is a very common, wide-ranging butterfly. It is found on all types of grasslands and heathlands, roadsides and along the banks of canals. The butterflies often visit flowers and the males, perched on a tall blade of grass, defend their territory fiercely, flying out towards conspecific males. Eggs are laid on different species of sorrel, mainly Common Sorrel (<em>Rumex acetosa</em>). In the absence of sorrel, Knotgrass (<em>Polygonum aviculare</em>) serves as a larval foodplant. This butterfly species overwinters as a caterpillar. In the north of its range, the Small Copper has two generations a year, whereas in the southern part, it may have three or four. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), heath and scrub (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).
174198		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174198		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174199		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174199		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over Spain and Portugal, in France (in eastern Pyrenees and the French Alps including foothills) and Italy (central Alps, Liguria and Northern Apennines). 0-2,000 m. It is also present in Northwest Africa, Libya and Egypt. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174199		habitat	eng	The Western Dappled White flies in dry flower-rich grassland, road verges, waste ground, abandoned agricultural land and at the edges of woodland and scrub with crucifers. The eggs are laid singly on the flowerbuds of crucifers, such as Charlock (<em>Sinapis arvensis</em>), Buckler Mustard (<em>Biscutella laevigata</em>), radishes (<em>Raphanus</em> spp.) and candytufts (<em>Iberis</em> spp.). The larvae feed on flowers and developing seeds. This butterfly has two generations and hibernates in the pupal stage. It may remain in diapause as a pupa for several years. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), fallow land, waste places (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).
174199		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174199		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174200		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174200		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of the south of Greece, the Peloponnese. 700-1,800 m. It is furthermore found in eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. It is also found in Asia Minor, Iran and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174200		habitat	eng	The Pontic Blue can be found in woodland clearings and sheltered places above the tree-line with flower-rich, grassy vegetation. The butterflies have also been seen in dense scrub. The caterpillars feed on Tufted-Vetch (<em>Vicia cracca</em>) and possibly other Vicia species. It has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (75%), mesophile grasslands (25%).
174200		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174200		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174201		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174201		distribution	eng	This species occurs very locally in the south of Europe: in South Portugal (up to just north of Lisbon), in Southwest Spain (and in isolated populations near Granada and Jaén) and in Northwest Sicily. In Spain and Portugal 0-800 m, on Sicily 800-1,100 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174201		habitat	eng	In Spain, the Aetherie Fritillary is found in clearings in disturbed Holm Oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) woodlands, where its foodplants, thistles (<em>Cirsium</em> spp.) and knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.), such as Star Thistle (<em>Centaurea calcitrapa</em>), Brown Knapweed (<em>C. jacea</em>) and <em>C. carratracensis</em> grow. In Sicily, it is found in open, warm, dry places whith Cardoon (<em>Cynara cardunculus</em>), which is probably the foodplant here. The female lays its eggs in batches on the foodplants. The Aetherie Fritillary has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. The sub-species that occurs on Sicily may have two generations a year. Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (100%).
174201		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174201		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174202		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174202		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Spain and Portugal (except the northwestern coastal area), in the southeast of France from the eastern Pyrenees to the French Alps and adjacent part of the Italian Alps. It is also found on the Balearic Islands and Northwest Africa. 0-1,300 m. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174202		habitat	eng	The False Ilex Hairstreak can be found in dry scrub, open, deciduous woodland, or in mixed woodland. The butterflies can often be seen drinking nectar on thyme. The females lay their eggs on various oak species, including the Holm Oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>), Common or Pedunculate Oak (<em>Q. robur</em>), Kermes or Holly Oak (<em>Q. coccifera</em>) and Pyrenean Oak (<em>Q. pyrenaica</em>). The small caterpillars only emerge from the egg the following spring, when they start eating the young oak leaves. The ant species <em>Camponotus cruentatus</em> has been found to attend the small caterpillars. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (20%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (20%), fallow land, waste places (10%), urban parks and large gardens (10%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%).
174202		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174202		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174203		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174203		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe up to 66° N. It is absent from Scotland, Ireland and the Mediterranean islands (except Sicily). 0-2,100 m. It is also found in the rest of the Palearctic, except for the extreme North and South. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174203		habitat	eng	The High Brown Fritillary occurs on woodland edges and in woodland clearings, where there is lush, rough vegetation with plenty of nectar plants. It is often seen together with the Silver-washed Fritillary (<em>A. paphia</em>) and the Dark Green Fritillary (<em>A. aglaja</em>). The eggs are laid on the leaves of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) and also on the bark of trees or dead leaves with violets growing near them. The tiny caterpillar remains within the egg during the winter and from about the beginning of March, hatches and starts feeding on violet leaves. It pupates on a twig or on a leaf close to the ground. The High Brown Fritillary has one generation a year. There is variation in colour, mainly of the underside of the hindwing. The different forms are common to rare in different parts of the range. <em>A. a. cleodoxa</em>, a form common in the Pyrenees, has a yellow hindwing with practically no pattern. To the south of the Pyrenees, <em>A. a. cleodippe</em> has clearly defined markings and hardly any green powdering. <em>A. a. clorodippe</em>, with the green underside of its hindwing and also with well-defined markings, is common in the south-east of its range and in mountainous areas. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%), mixed woodland (15%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).
174203		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174203		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174204		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174204		distribution	eng	This is an Eastern European species, occurring particularly in the Baltic States and scattered in the south of Finland, Poland, Hungary, the north of Romania and Slovakia. 0-500 m. It is also found in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174204		habitat	eng	The Pallas’s Fritillary can be easily recognized by the noticeable jagged, white line, running across the underside of the hindwing. It can be found on damp, flower-rich grassland in open, or deciduous forests or mixed woods. Both males and females are fond of sucking nectar from bramble blossom. The caterpillars live on Marsh Violet (<em>Viola palustris</em>) and Heath Dog Violet (<em>V. canina</em>). It has one generation a year and passes the winter in the egg stage. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%), mixed woodland (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (6%).
174204		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary and Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174204		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by changes in woodland management.
174205		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174205		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Alps (from France to Slovenia and Austria) and in the mountains of Norway and the bordering part of Sweden and the Urals. 1,000-2,700 m in the Alps, 800-1,200 m in Scandinavia. It is also found in the mountains of Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174205		habitat	eng	In the Alps, the Alpine Blue is mostly found on sunny, rocky slopes, scree slopes with patches of flower-rich vegetation and often on the rough vegetation growing beside streams. These butterflies usually fly to lower-lying areas in search of nectar. The foodplants are Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus alpinus</em>), Alpine Sainfoin (<em>Hedysarum hedysaroides</em>) and probably Mountain Beaked Milk-vetch (<em>Oxytropis jacquinii</em>). In Scandinavia, this blue occurs in the mountains on open, damp slate slopes where its foodplant Alpine Milk-vetch grows. The Alpine Blue hibernates in the pupal stage and has one generation a year.  Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (77%), screes (22%).
174205		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174205		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174206		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174206		distribution	eng	This species occurs from South Europe and Kazakhstan to Asia Minor, west of Tian Shan, Crimea, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan. Up to 1,400 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174206		habitat	eng	Being very conspicuous with its orange spots on the wings, this butterfly will be easily spotted on dry rocky places and on hills with a steppe-like vegetation or in deserts. The female deposits the eggs on <em>Astragalus vulpinus</em> or <em>A. leptostachys</em>. The tiny caterpillars first feed on the flowers, in the later instars they change to feeding on seeds. This beautiful butterfly has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001).  Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), screes (20%), mixed woodland (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).
174206		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174206		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174207		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174207		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Urals across north and central Siberia to East Yukatia, the Altai, the Sayan, the Amur and Ussuri regions and North Korea. Up to 2,200 m (Tuzov 2,000). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174207		habitat	eng	<em>Boloria angarensis</em> is a butterfly species typical for bogs, clearings and edges of moist coniferours forests. The main foodplants are <em>Vaccinium</em> species. It produces one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gorbunov, 2001). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (100%).
174207		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174207		threats	eng	Not examined.
174208		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174208		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of the Ural, west and south Altai, northeast Turkey, Kazakhstan, southwest and central Asia (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174208		habitat	eng	In Northeast Turkey, this species occurs on damp slopes at altitudes between 1,600 and more than 3,000 m. The vegetation at these sites consists of high herbs and shrubs, mainly <em>Prangos</em> species and other <em>Umbelliferae</em>. The soil is kept wet by melting snow (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). In Russia the habitat has been described as being steppe-clad slopes, also with shrubs and bushes at lower altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). In Russia, the foodplants of the caterpillars are different <em>Ferula</em> spp., but from the Turkish populations it is not known where the females lay their eggs. The species has one generation a year. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%).
174208		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174208		threats	eng	Not examined.
174209		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174209		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northeasternmost part of the European Russia and in the northern parts of Central and East Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174209		habitat	eng	This butterfly can be found on tundras, grassy scrubs, meadows and open coniferous forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174209		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174209		threats	eng	Not examined.
174210		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174210		distribution	eng	Scattered, local populations in the Pyrenees, Central Massif, the Alps, mountainous areas in Italy, Sicily, the Balkans and Greece, Germany (also in Harz Mts. and Rhön), Norway, Sweden, Finland and Baltic States. 0-2,300 m. Its range extends across the Caucasus to the Middle East and eastwards across Iran, Afghanistan and Middle Asia to West Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174210		habitat	eng	The Clouded Apollo occurs in mountainous regions on damp to moderately dry grassland, usually with woodland or scrub in the neighbourhood. The butterflies can often be seen visiting red or purple flowers for the nectar they need. The foodplant is <em>Corydalis</em>, that at the time of egg laying is not yet above ground. The eggs are laid on its dried stems, on grass blades, or on other plants not too far from the foodplants. The egg hibernates. In spring, as soon as it has hatched, the small caterpillar starts its search for a suitable foodplant. When fully-grown, it pupates in a closely spun cocoon of fine threads, situated above the ground in the leaves of the foodplant. The Clouded Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (19%), mesophile grasslands (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), mixed woodland (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%).
174210		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Latvia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174210		threats	eng	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and woodland. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174211		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174211		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Spain (Sierra Nevada, Cantabrian Mts., S. de la Demanda and Montes Universales and the Pyrenees), south of France, western Italy and further eastwards. It is also found from central Switzerland via East Germany to the south of Scandinavia. 100-2,000 m. It is furthermore found in Morocco and east to Turkey, West Asia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174211		habitat	eng	The German name for this butterfly, Prächtiger Blauling, Magnificent Blue, is well chosen, if only for the colour of the males. They are a bright sky-blue and they also attract attention by their territorial behaviour. The females’ modest brown has a greenish-blue sheen. Amanda's Blue occurs on flower-rich grassland with damp patches, that has some shelter from bushes or a nearby woodland edge. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of various leguminous plants. The caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer and are attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Formica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. They also pupate in the litter layer. Amanda's Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (24%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%).
174211		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174211		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174212		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.
174212		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lapland and in central Norway north of 62° N. 250-900 m. It is also found in the polar tundras of Europe and Asia, the montane tundras of Siberia and the Far East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174212		habitat	eng	The Norse Grayling occurs in both dry and wet biotopes, on marshes with a vegetation of mosses and grasses, at the edges of swampy habitats and streams, in low birch scrub, on sparse vegetation in clearings in birch woods and on sunny, rocky slopes with low shrubs. The butterflies spend much of the day resting on tree trunks or on the ground with their wings closed and are so hardly noticeable. They are quick flyers and difficult to approach. The female lays its eggs on various sedges and grasses. The egg takes two years to develop into a butterfly and the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: raised bogs (33%), heath and scrub (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).
174212		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174212		threats	eng	This species could be threatened  by climate change on the long run.
174213		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174213		distribution	eng	This species occurs in all Africa south of Sahara, and from the Canary Islands through Egypt to India and China. 0-500 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174213		habitat	eng	The African Migrant was first reported in 1965 from Tenerife where it established populations in the coastal areas and colonized the other islands. It can be seen on all kinds of places with a high abundance of flowers, also parks and gardens. The eggs are laid on the leaves of <em>Cassia didymobotrya</em>, which is an introduced ornamental plant from Africa, but also other introduced <em>Cassia</em> species are used. This butterfly has no diapause stage, therefore is produces eight to nine generations a year and is on the wing throughout the year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174213		population	eng	This is a migratory species from Africa, occurring only on a few Atlantic islands.
174213		threats	eng	This African migrant is not threatened in Europe.
174214		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174214		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe except mid and north of Scandinavia. Sea level 1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Caucasus and Asia Minor. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174214		habitat	eng	The Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. The woods may be deciduous, coniferous or mixed and the butterfly occurs along woodland rides, in clearings and at wood edges. In the north, it occurs mostly in quite extensive areas of woodland, but in the south a line of trees can be sufficient to support a population. Each male claims its territory on a sunny branch , projecting out of the crown of the tree or on a sunny patch on the ground and waits there for a female to fly along. The foodplants are grasses that grow in woodland and damp grassland, such as fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), cock's-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>) and <em>Holcus</em> spp. The female deposits its eggs singly on the blades of grass. Hibernation takes place as a caterpillar or pupa, deep down in a tussock of grass. The Speckled Wood has two to three generations a year. In the south of its range, the sub-species <em>P. a. aegeria</em> with orange blotches on the dark-brown wings is found and in the north the sub-species <em>P. a. tircis</em> with paler, creamy blotches. In between there is a range of intermediate forms. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (28%), mixed woodland (17%), coniferous woodland (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).
174214		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Moldova, Romania, Spain and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174214		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174215		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research on the distribution, ecology and population dynamics is needed.
174215		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in Eastern Europe: from east of Austria to the Balkans and further eastwards. It is also found in the south of Finland, the Baltic States and Poland, although probably only temporary populations. Outside Russia, it is difficult to ascertain whether this species has permanent populations, or is only present as a vagrant, reproducing but unable to survive the winter. It is furthermore present east to China, Korea and Japan, also North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174215		habitat	eng	The False Comma is somewhat similar to the Comma (<em>Polygonia Central album</em>), but although the wings are strongly toothed, the indentations are much less deep than those of the Comma. It also resembles the Large Tortoiseshell, but the white patches near the tips of the forewing and on the front edge of the hindwing distinguish it from both these butterfly species. It occurs in the lowlands of Eastern Europe, in deciduous or mixed woods. It prefers damp woods and is found in clearings or at the wood edge. It is a mobile butterfly and a strong migrant. Because of its migratory behaviour, it is difficult to ascertain whether populations are permanent or temporary. The female lays its eggs in spring, clustered around the twigs of the foodplants which may be birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.), or elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.). The False Comma has one generation a year and because it hibernates as a butterfly, can be seen for much of the year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (43%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (12%), mixed woodland (6%).
174215		population	eng	Although widespread in the eastern part of its range, this species is local and rare in the western part. It is reported extinct in Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbiadata provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174215		threats	eng	It is unclear what the causes for the declines in the western part of its European range are. They might be part of natural fluctuations, but little is known of the population dynamics of this species.
174216		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174216		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Sayan Mountains and the Polar Urals across Siberia to the Chukot Peninsula, Kamchatka. Up to 2,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174216		habitat	eng	This <em>Erebia</em> species occurs on lowland meadows and stony slopes with sparse vegetation. It can also be found on mountain tundra between 1,000 and 2,500 m might. The larval foodplants are probably different species of fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.). There is one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gordunov, 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174216		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174216		threats	eng	Not examined.
174217		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174217		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a continuous area from Galicia (Spain) via the south and the east of France, Italy and the Alps eastwards. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found through Turkey and the Middle East to the west of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174217		habitat	eng	The Southern White Admiral occurs in warm to very warm places in woodland and scrub, often situated near streams, springs or other damp places. The eggs are laid on nearly all species of honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves in the manner characteristic of this genus, nibbling at the soft tissues while leaving the main nerve untouched. For hibernation, a small cradle is made from the remains of the leaf, which is secured to a twig with silk. When they come out of hibernation, they begin feeding on the young honeysuckle leaves. The caterpillar pupates suspended from a twig of the foodplant. This species has one generation a year north of the Alps, but two in the Mediterranean region. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (38%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%).
174217		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range, which can colonize areas temporary. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174217		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174218		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174218		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 64° N in Scandinavia. In Spain, it is present only in the northern half and the Sierra Nevada. Sea level-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the whole temperate zone of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174218		habitat	eng	In temperate Europe, the Peacock is one of the best-known butterflies, because of its striking appearance and common occurrence. There is no other diurnal butterfly with such noticeable eye-spots on the upperside of its wings. In good years, the Peacock can be present in large numbers. It is often seen in gardens and parks on herbaceous borders and flowering shrubs, looking for nectar. Eggs are laid on Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>) in damp, shady places, sometimes at edges of woodland. Occasionally, Hop (<em>Humulus lupulus</em>) is also used. The caterpillar is black with branched black spines and many tiny white spots. It looks similar to the caterpillar of the Map (<em>Araschnia levana</em>), but has prominent spines or thorns on its head. The caterpillars live gregariously in flimsy webs. Sometimes, plants are completely covered with spun silk, which serves as a home for tens of caterpillars. They leave the web to pupate on the foodplant. The adult butterfly goes into hibernation, hiding in cold lofts and sheds. There can be as many as three generations a year, depending on the geographical position and the weather conditions. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mixed woodland (7%), mesophile grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%).
174218		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174218		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174219		conservation	eng	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174219		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southern and Eastern Europe: Portugal, Spain (very locally, more abundant in Catalonia), France (southeast and locally in western France and near Paris), south of Switzerland (locally), Italy (including Sicily), Austria, Slovakia and further south-eastwards in the Balkans. The species recently expanded into the south of Germany. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco and from Turkey to Syria. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174219		habitat	eng	The Southern Small White, which looks very like the Small White (<em>P. rapae</em>), occurs on both calcareous and non-calcareous dry, grassy vegetation, in open scrub and open woodland. The most important larval foodplants are the candytufts Evergreen Candytuft (<em>Iberis sempervirens</em>) and <em>I. saxatilis</em>, although other crucifers, such as <em>Alyssoides</em> <em>utriculata</em> and mustards (<em>Sinapis</em> spp.) are also used. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the uppersides of the leaves. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. It has two to three generations a year, pupating on plant stalks and stones. It overwinters as a pupa and the butterflies emerge in spring. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
174219		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174219		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174220		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific action is needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174220		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of France and just in the adjacent Alps of Northwestern Italy, extreme south of Italy (Aspromonte) and east of Sicily, the Balkans, Croatia (coastal area) , Albania and large parts of Greece including several Greek islands. Mostly between 300-1,500 m. Its range extends to Turkey and the Middle East, Middle Asia to Iran and Afghanistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174220		habitat	eng	The Southern Swallowtail is mostly found on warm, dry calcareous slopes with a flower-rich vegetation and low-growing bushes. They prefer slopes that are steep and rocky. They are especially active during the hottests hours of the day. Different foodplants are known, all of them umbellifers. <em>Ptychotis saxifraga</em> is the most important one in the western part of its range, but eggs are also laid on <em>Opopanax chironium</em>, <em>Seseli montanum</em> and <em>Trinia glauca</em>. In the Eastern part, the caterpillars feed mostly on various fennels (<em>Ferula</em> spp.) and also on <em>Opopanax hispidus</em>, Burnet saxifrage (<em>Pimpinella saxifraga</em>), <em>Scaligeria cretica</em> and Wild Parsnip (<em>Pastinaca sativa</em>). The caterpillars eat the flowers and ripening seeds. They seem to prefer plants growing in very sparse vegetation near bare patches. The Southern Swallowtail has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: phrygana (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), heath and scrub (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).
174220		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174220		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174221		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174221		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Eastern Europe: from the northeast of Italy and the south of Austria eastwards to Romania and locally in the south of the Balkans to the north of Greece. Up to 1,500 m. It is also found in the forest and forest-steppe zone Siberia and in Nepal, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174221		habitat	eng	The Common Glider inhabits damp, deciduous woodland, especially in river valleys. The butterflies often settle in the top of the trees to rest or bask in the sun, with their wings wide open, just like the Hungarian Glider (<em>N. rivularis</em>). This butterfly has a characteristic flight, elegantly gliding from perch to perch. The caterpillars feed on Spring Pea (<em>Lathyrus vernus</em>), Black Pea (<em>L. nige</em>r) and also on Black locust (<em>Pseudorobinia accacia</em>). The Common Glider has two generations a year and hibernates as a small caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%), mixed woodland (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (16%).
174221		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Poland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova, Romania and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174221		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174222		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174222		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southern Russia, Crimea (Ukraine), Azerbaijan, Asia Minor and Kazakhstan, further into Southwest Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174222		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky areas with a low vegetation, steppes, forests, mountain slopes, sometimes semi-deserts and bushy areas up to 1,800 m in the Caucasus (Tshikolovets, 2003). The larvae feed on several species of grasses. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mixed woodland (33%).
174222		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174222		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174223		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174223		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Balkans: from the south of Croatia, and of Bosnia to the south of Romania and Greece. This species occurs also on several Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1750 m. It is also found on Turkey, Israel, Syria, the north of Iraq and western Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174223		habitat	eng	The Lattice Brown inhabits open, dry woodland and dry scrub. In the hottest part of the day, the butterflies settle on tree trunks, hiding in the deep shade of bushes and thickets. They are sometimes seen on dry riverbeds. The female deposits its eggs in crevices in the bark of trees and bushes. The caterpillars feed on grasses, such as meadow-grass (<em>Poa</em> spp.), quaking grass (<em>Briza</em> spp.), brome (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) and foxtail (<em>Alopecurus</em> spp.). The Lattice Brown has one generation a year. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (57%), sclerophyllous scrub (28%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (14%).
174223		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174223		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174224		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174224		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the northeastern part of Spain, south of France, Italy, Southeast Europe and the south of Norway, of Sweden and of Finland. 0-2,000 m. It is also found through Turkey and central Asia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174224		habitat	eng	The Chequered Blue, a small but conspicuous butterfly, can be seen on warm and rocky slopes and narrow ledges, where there is little vegetation, apart from its foodplants White Stonecrop (<em>Sedum album</em>) and Orpine (<em>Sedum telephium</em>). The females lay their eggs on the leaves of the foodplant near the stem. The caterpillars are often found with ants. The pupa overwinters and is often hidden under stones or in small hollows in the ground near the foodplant. The Chequered Blue produces one or two generations a year, depending on its geographical position. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (23%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), screes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), phrygana (5%).
174224		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. This species has a large, but discontinuous distribution over Europe. It is declining in North and Central Europe, more or less stable in South Europe. Decrease in Central Europe might be over-estimated, since the species can survive for a long time on small and isolated patches. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Norway, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174224		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by abandonment of grasslands and shrub invasion on dry, rocky slopes.
174225		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174225		distribution	eng	This migrant species can be seen all over Europe. Numbers vary a lot from year to year, depending on the weather. Sea level to ca. 2,500 m. It is also found in Siberia, Asia Minor, Central Asia, North Africa, North America and New Zealand. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174225		habitat	eng	The Red Admiral is a wide-ranging, migratory butterfly that in temperate areas can only survive the winter where it is exceptionally mild, though the area with successfull overwintering seems to be moving north in the last decade. Each year, butterflies from southern Europe fly northwards and in good years Red Admirals can be seen practically everywhere. They are often seen in gardens and parks. The butterflies need a lot of nectar. They also feed on rotting fruit and at harvest time are often seen in orchards. They are also attracted to the resin oozing from trees. The Red Admiral is a distinctive and beautiful butterfly, the unusual, contrasting colours prevent it from being confused with any other species. It lays its eggs on Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>) in sunny, but not all too dry places. The caterpillars live alone or in small groups in small tent-like shelters made by spinning leaves together. The caterpillars of the Red Admiral are variable in appearance, ranging from yellow with black spots to plain dark-brown to black. They also pupate in a little tent of spun leaves. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
174225		population	eng	This is a migrant species that cannot survive winters in the northern half of Europe or in the mountains. Each spring and summer these areas have to be recolonized. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Malta, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174225		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174226		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174226		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Eastern and Southeastern Europe: from East Austria and Czech Republic south-eastwards to the north of Greece. However, because of its mobility, it is not clear where it is permanent or a temporary resident or vagrant. 0-1,900 m. It is found across the Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Turkey to West China and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174226		habitat	eng	The Eastern Pale Clouded Yellow is a very mobile species and can therefore be seen in all kinds of places. This, originally Asian species greatly extended its range during the 1970s and 1980s. Fifty years ago it was known in Europe only from the Black Sea coast. Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>) is its most important larval foodplant. The caterpillars can also be found on other leguminous plants. This species has several generations a year, three to five have been reported from Bulgaria and Romania. It passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), improved grasslands (10%), fallow land, waste places (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%).
174226		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range, but has large annual fluctuations. In recent decades the species has expanded in western and northern direction. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174226		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174227		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The existing populations should be protected.
174227		distribution	eng	This species has a very local occurrence in south and central Greece. 1,500-2,300 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174227		habitat	eng	In flight, with the rich orange-red of the upperside of their wings, Fiery Copper males do honour to their name. However, with their wings folded, they are difficult to see. It is a mountain butterfly, often seen near the tree-line, in rocky, calcareous areas with low-growing open vegetation. The foodplant Prickly Thrift (<em>Acantholimon androsaceum</em>) is a member of the <em>Plumbaginaceae</em>. The choice of a species of this family is remarkable, as all other copper butterflies have <em>Polygonaceae</em> species as larval foodplants. The foodplant is restricted to Greece in Europe, but more widespread in Turkey. The Fiery Copper is often seen with the Odd-spot Blue (<em>Turanana taygetica</em>), as both use Prickly Thrift as larval foodplant. Habitats: phrygana (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%).
174227		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174227		threats	eng	The species has a limited range and no dispersal potential, as its foodplant has a restricted range. Furthermore, the area gets destroyed by new roads and other building activities.
174228		conservation	eng	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174228		distribution	eng	This species occurs in moderately high and high mountains: Scotland and northwest England, France (Massif Central, Cévennes, east of France), southeast of Belgium (Famenne), via Germany and Poland to Latvia and via the north of Italy and the Balkans to the north of Greece. 400-2,000 m. Across central Russia to West Siberia and across the Caucasus to East Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174228		habitat	eng	The Scotch Argus can be found in a wide variety of habitats. It inhabits flower-rich grasslands and grassy woodland clearings and can also be found on heathland, bogs and marshy areas with very open woodland. Many different grasses can be used as a foodplant, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Cock’s-foot (<em>Dactylus glomerata</em>), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), cat’s-tails (<em>Phleum</em> spp.), Sweet Vernal-grass (<em>Anthoxanthum odoratum</em>) and Quaking Grass (<em>Briza media</em>) and also sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). The caterpillar hibernates in the second or third larval instar. It pupates in the litter layer and is single-brooded. Habitats: coniferous woodland (20%), mixed woodland (18%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mesophile grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%).
174228		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Lithuania and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174228		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174229		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174229		distribution	eng	In Europe, it occurs only on Cyprus at low altitudes. It is also found in Asia Minor, Levant, Transcaucasia, Iran, North India and the deserts of central Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174229		habitat	eng	One suitable habitat is on the old town walls of Nicosia on which one of its foodplants, <em>Prosopis farcta</em> (<em>Leguminosae</em>), grows. More to the east of the island, <em>Prosopis stephaniana</em> and <em>Acacia leucophloea</em> are used as foodplants. This butterfly is a good flyer that probably roams northwards each year. However, it can only occur as a resident in areas where it does not freeze in winter. On Cyprus, it probably has two generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174229		population	eng	In Europe this butterfly only occurs locally on Cyprus and in a suitable habitat it can be seen in large numbers. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174229		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range in Europe and is threatened by urbanisation of coastal habitats.
174230		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174230		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species only occurs on some Greek islands in the eastern Aegean. Here only at sea-level. In other parts of its range (North Africa, Turkey, North Iran and Afghanistan) up to 2,400 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174230		habitat	eng	This skipper can be seen an dry, rocky slopes with patches of a flower-rich vegetation, on low, bushy vegetation and even in villages. The butterfly flies close to the ground and usually rests with its wings wide open. It produces one to several generations a year depending on the locality of the site; on the Aegean Islands most observations were made in May and June. In Turkey the flight period covers the time from early June to late September. In the European part of its range, the caterpillars feed on Horehounds (<em>Marrubium</em> sp.). Habitats: cliffs and rocky shores (50%), phrygana (50%).
174230		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174230		threats	eng	Not examined.
174231		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174231		distribution	eng	As <em>M. telona</em> was recently split from this species, the range of <em>M. phoebe</em> might have to be re-examined, especially in Southeastern Europe. So far<em> M. phoebe</em> is a species of Southern and Central Europe: it occurs south of a line from Brittany via central Germany, northeast of Poland and southeast of Latvia. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands except Sicily, Chios and Lesbos (though <em>M. telona</em> might be present there instead). It is also found across Asia Minor to Transbaikalia, Mongolia and West China. Sea level-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174231		habitat	eng	The Knapweed Fritillary occurs in dry, open places with flower-rich vegetation. These grasslands are often in a sheltered situation at the edge of woodland, or of groups of shrubs. In the north of its range, the grasslands are mostly calcareous. The larval foodplants are knapweeds (Centaurea spp.). The female lays its eggs in large batches on the undersides of the leaves. The small caterpillars live gregariously in a silken nest, also hibernating together. Later, they become solitary and  choose somewhere close to the ground to pupate. The Knapweed Fritillary usually has two generations, but at higher altitudes and in the north of its range only one. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
174231		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174231		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174232		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174232		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in South and East Europe: in the south, central and north of Spain, southeast of France (from Ardèche to the Alps and Provence), northwest of Italy, south of Poland and the south of the Balkans (from Bosnia and Herzegovina to Greece). 1,000 -1,800 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, south of Siberia, Tian Shan and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174232		habitat	eng	Ripart’s Anomalous Blue is mostly found on dry, grassy places with bushes. Different sainfoins are used as foodplant, such as Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>), <em>O. arenaria</em>, Rock Sainfoin (<em>O. saxatilis</em>) and <em>O. alba</em>. The female lays its eggs on the flowers. The caterpillars hibernate when still small. They are often attended by ants, usually of the genera <em>Crematogaster</em>, <em>Camponotus</em> and <em>Lasius</em>. The Ripart’s Anomalous Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (56%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
174232		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174232		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.
174233		conservation	eng	In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174233		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species. It is absent from Scandinavia, the Netherlands, north and central Belgium, northwest and southwest of France, the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean islands, Italy (except in the north) and Greece (except in the north). 100-1,500 m. It is also found across the Caucasus and the north of Kazakhstan to West Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174233		habitat	eng	Nickerl’s Fritillary occurs on open, dry grasslands and heaths on calcareous slopes and is very heat-tolerant. The female deposits her eggs in clusters on the underside of the leaves of its foodplant Ribwort Plantain (<em>Plantago lanceolata</em>). The caterpillars feed and also hibernate in communal silken nests. They pupate low down in the vegetation. Nickerl’s Fritillary has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), mesophile grasslands (24%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).
174233		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Serbia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174233		threats	eng	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174234		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174234		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: in Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, western Bosnia, Serbia, Albania, western FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southern Romania and Greece. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174234		habitat	eng	The Anomalous Blue occurs in woodland clearings, open scrub, on sheltered slopes and in agricultural areas. All the places are warm and have a flower-rich grassy vegetation. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and Cockscomb Sainfoin (<em>O. caput-galli</em>). The caterpillars are attended by different species of ants, for example from the genera <em>Crematogaster</em>, <em>Camponotus</em> or <em>Tapinoma</em>. The Anomalous Blue has one generation a year and hibernation takes place on the ground, the small caterpillars hiding under stones. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (46%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (30%), mesophile grasslands (15%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%).
174234		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174234		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174235		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174235		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over Europe, except North Scandinavia, Scotland and large parts of Ireland. 0-1,900 m. It is also found in North Africa, Turkey, central Asia, Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174235		habitat	eng	The Holly Blue occurs widely, although the populations are always small. This small butterfly is very often seen in parks and gardens, as well as at woodland edges and in bushy places. The eggs are laid on the calyx or stem of the flowerbuds or on the ripe fruits of various plant species , including Holly (<em>Ilex aquifolium</em>), Ivy (<em>Hedera helix</em>), Spindle-tree (<em>Euonymus europaeus</em>), Alder Buckthorn (<em>Frangula alnus</em>), brambles (<em>Rubus</em> spp.) and heathers (<em>Calluna vulgaris</em> and <em>Erica</em> spp.). At first, the caterpillars feed on the buds and fruits of the foodplant, only later eating leaves. They are attended by ants. The Holly Blue has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (23%), mixed woodland (16%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), urban parks and large gardens (9%), heath and scrub (8%), towns, villages, industrial sites (5%).
174235		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174235		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174236		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174236		distribution	eng	This species is present from the Volga River and southern Urals across Siberia, the Altais, the Sayan and Transbaikalia to the Far East, the Amur and Ussuri regions and Mongolia. Up to 2,200 m (Tuzov 2,000). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174236		habitat	eng	This butterfly species can be found in moist to dry steppes and meadow-steppes. In the Western part of its range, it thrives in wet biotopes as well. The females deposits the eggs on many violet species (<em>Viola</em> spp.). It usually has two generations a year, but in the eastern part of its range, three generations a year are normal (Tuzov, 2,000). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mixed woodland (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).
174236		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174236		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174237		conservation	eng	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174237		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Scotland, North of England, Scandinavia up to 70° N, locally in the Baltic States, central Europe, the Alps, the Balkans and the southwest of Europe. At sea-level in Scandinavia, but at increasing altitudes to the south of up to 2,300 m. It is also found eastward to the Altai mountains. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174237		habitat	eng	It is difficult to distinguish the Northern Brown Argus from the Brown Argus (<em>A. agestis</em>). However, the location and type of habitat often helps. The Northern Brown Argus occurs in cooler places, at higher altitudes than the Brown Argus and its range extends much further north. It likes open grasslands or dry vegetation at the edges of woods. It is also more closely bound to calcareous soil than the Brown Argus. The eggs are laid on various rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.), as well as on various crane?s-bills (<em>Geranium</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves, often attended by <em>Lasius</em> ants. When the caterpillars are half-grown, they hibernate. Pupation takes place in the litter layer. There is always only one generation. This butterfly has different sub-species. Over most of its range, <em>A. a. allous</em> occurs, with no white spots on the upperside of the wings and distinct black spots underneath them. The sub-species <em>A. a. artaxerxes</em> that occurs in Scotland and northern England, does have white spots on the wing upperside, while the dark spots on the underside are either absent, or much less obvious. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), mixed woodland (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
174237		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174237		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174238		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174238		distribution	eng	It  occurs locally and in sparse populations in the Baltic States, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Germany, it is widespread and common in the Balkans, north and central Greece, European Turkey and in the mountainous areas of Italy, Switzerland, south and central France and north and central Spain and in the Sierra Nevada. 50-2,500 m. It is also found in Morocco  and through Turkey to the south of Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174238		habitat	eng	The Purple-shot Copper is found both in damp and dry places on many kinds of flower-rich grassland. Only the male has the beautiful purple sheen on the upperside of its wings. Eggs are laid on sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.), mainly Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>). This butterfly species hibernates as a fully-developed caterpillar in the egg, or in the first instar. The caterpillars feed at night and stay hidden during the day. They pupate in the litter layer. It has one generation a year.  Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), mesophile grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).
174238		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174238		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.
174239		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174239		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Greece on Mt. Chelmos and in Taijetos Mts. 1,500-2,300 m. It is also found in Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174239		habitat	eng	The Odd-spot Blue occurs in dry, calcareous places covered with low-growing shrubs. The butterflies are frequently seen drinking the nectar from flowers, especially thyme. The male butterflies sometimes leave their usual habitat in their search for damp patches of ground. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of <em>Acantholimon androsaceum</em> (<em>Plumbaginaceae</em>). The Odd-spot Blue often shares its habitat with Fiery Copper (<em>Lycaena thetis</em>), its caterpillars using the same species of foodplant. The Odd-spot Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).
174239		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174239		threats	eng	This species has a restricted European distribution. It is threatened by changes in the agricultural practices (mainly abandonment), quarrying and tourist activities. It is also a popular butterfly for collectors, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline. Due to its limited distribution, it might get threatened on the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <em>et al.</em>, 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.
174240		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174240		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Balkans from the south of Croatia down to Central Bulgaria (Stara Planina) and Southeast Romania and southwards to the south of Greece and various Greek islands. 0-1,700 m, sometimes to 2,100 m. Its range extends to Caucasus, Turkey and Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174240		habitat	eng	The Oriental Marbled Skipper is mostly found on grasslands, on rocky slopes with grassy vegetation and occasionally on bushy or on low, shrubby vegetation. The butterflies fly quickly, close to the ground. When they are at rest, they usually have their wings wide open. The caterpillars feed on woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.). After the hibernation caterpillars can be found in rolled-up leaves. It has two to three generations a year according to locality and altitude of the site and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (41%), mesophile grasslands (16%), phrygana (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).
174240		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bulgaria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174240		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174241		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174241		distribution	eng	This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It does not occur in Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, North Germany and the Mediterranean islands. In Portugal only in Minho, in Spain, it is restricted to the Cantabrian Mountains, Huesca, Catalonia and western Pyrenees. This species is not present in the south of Italy, and is found in Greece only in the northwestern part of the country. 300-1,500 m. It is also found in Northeast China, Japan and Korea, excluding Transcaucasia, Middle Asia and Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174241		habitat	eng	The Lesser Purple Emperor is found in clearings and along paths in damp, deciduous woodland that is often situated in river valleys or on the banks of rivers. The butterflies are often seen near puddles on the road and on dung from other animals. Especially the males are attracted to strongly smelling cheese. Its foodplants are poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.) and willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.). The female, choosing rather small, not so robust trees, deposits its eggs on the upperside of leaves that are half in the shade, or in the sun. The caterpillars usually lie along the nerve in the middle of the leaves, nibbling the rest of the leaf away more or less symmetrically. The half-grown caterpillar spins a little pad in the fork of a twig on which it hibernates. In spring, it returns to the fresh buds and leaves to feed. It pupates suspended from the underside of a leaf or branch. To the north of the Alps and at high altitudes, the Lesser Purple Emperor has one generation a year, but in warm valleys and south of the Alps, it can have two generations a year. There is a striking form, clythie, in which the white of the markings on the upperside of the wings is largely replaced by pale orange. It forms a proportion of most populations and is sometimes common. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (31%), mixed woodland (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (23%), water-fringe vegetation (5%).
174241		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Luxembourg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174241		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174242		conservation	eng	In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174242		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Sicily and in Southeast Europe from Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia and further southwards to Greece and many Greek islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also found throughout temperate Asia from Turkey across Central Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174242		habitat	eng	The Orbed Red-underwing Skipper occurs on dry, flower-rich grasslands, on roadside verges, at the edges of woods, on abandoned agricultural land, rocky slopes and along dried-up river beds. The butterflies have a rapid flight, close to the ground. The eggs are laid on the flowerheads of Salad Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba minor</em>) and, in Eastern Europe, possibly also on Great Burnet (<em>S. officinalis</em>). The round flowerheads of the foodplant are the caterpillars' first food, but as they grow larger, they hide between spun leaves. Hibernation takes place on the ground, in the litter layer. They also pupate in rolled-up leaves of the foodplant. This skipper has two generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (29%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (23%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), cliffs and rocky shores (5%), phrygana (5%).
174242		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Czech Republic. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174242		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174243		conservation	eng	More research to the distribution and ecology is needed after the species has been split. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174243		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the whole of Europe and eastwards across the Caucasus, Turkey, the Middle East, Middle Asia, Kazakhstan and South Siberia to the Baikal region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174243		habitat	eng	At present, the Wood White is divided into two species, the Wood White (<em>L. sinapis</em>) and Real´s Wood White (<em>L. reali</em>) which are indistinguishable in the field. Their distribution is not yet entirely clear. Their life cycles are similar. These fragile butterflies occur on damp, warm grassland near bushes and scrub. They lay their thin, spindle-shaped eggs on different species of <em>Lathyrus</em>, <em>Vicia</em> and birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Lotus</em> spp.). Cream turning to bright yellow as they mature, they are easy to find. The pupa is pale green and the winter is spent in this stage. In the northern part of its range, it has one generation a year, in the central part it has two generations a year and in the southern part sometimes three. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174243		population	eng	It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174243		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174244		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174244		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Norway, southern Sweden, eastern Latvia, the Balkans, northern Greece, parts of Italy, northwestern Switzerland, south of Germany, south of Belgium, Poland and France (limited to Dordogne, Charente, Vienne, Isère, Haute Savoie up to Paris). 200-1,500 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey and east through the temperate and subtropical parts of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174244		habitat	eng	Reverdin’s Blue can be found on nutrient-poor grassland in places ranging from dry to moist at the edges of woodland or scrub. Eggs are laid on Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>) and Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus glycyphyllos</em>). The female mostly chooses a woody part of the plant, where the egg hibernates. The small caterpillars feed on the young leaves. They are attended by <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Myrmica</em> as well as <em>Formica</em> and <em>Camponotus</em> ants and pupate deep down in the vegetation. Except in Scandinavia where it has one generation a year, the Reverdin's Blue has two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), mesophile grasslands (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
174244		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Norway and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174244		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174245		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174245		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of  Europe except mid and north of Scandinavia, Scotland, Finland and Estonia. Sea level-3,000 m. It is also found in North Africa and eastwards to the Caucasus, Asia Minor, the Middle East, also Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174245		habitat	eng	The Wall Brown inhabits many different types of grassland, natural grasslands, as well as not all too intensively farmed land. The butterflies are mostly very active, the males very alert. They fly up when disturbed from rocks or walls on which they often bask in the sun and are therefore conspicuous. The males have a broad scent-brand on their forewings. The female deposits her eggs on the blades of many different grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) and Crested Dog?s-tail (<em>Cynosurus aristatus</em>). When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in the litter layer, where it later, deep down, pupates. The Wall Brown has two to three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%).
174245		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range, although it shows strong declines in number in many parts. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Sweden, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174245		threats	eng	Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands
174246		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174246		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Cyprus and on the Greek islands of Samos and Rhodes. Its range extends through Turkey to Africa and Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174246		habitat	eng	The Millet Skipper can be seen on dry, grassy vegetation along the coast, in dried-up riverbeds, on rocky slopes and also where grain is grown. The butterflies have a very rapid flight, close to the ground and often colonize new areas. In North Africa, the caterpillars use Common Millet (<em>Paniceum miliaceum</em>) as foodplant, but the European foodplant is unknown. Millet skippers probably have two generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174246		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174246		threats	eng	Not examined.
174247		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174247		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Balkans from Southwest Serbia to Bulgaria and Greece. 0-2,200 m. Its range extends through Turkey to the north of Israel, the north of Iran and Transcaucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174247		habitat	eng	The Persian Skipper occurs on dry grasslands, on dry scrub, in rocky places and at woodland edges. On hot days males and females congregate on damp ground where they are easy to spot. Although the larval foodplant is not known for certain, probably various bindweeds (<em>Convolvulus</em> spp.) are used. Also, it is not clear how many generations it has a year, but it is probably two. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), phrygana (10%), screes (10%).
174247		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174247		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174248		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174248		distribution	eng	This species occurs in most mountains of northern Portugal, Spain, central France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, the Balkans, Greece, south and central Germany and Poland, up to 60°N in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Baltic States. 800-2,000 m. Its range extends to Northwest Africa, Turkey and the Caucasus, eastwards across Siberia and Central Asia to the Far East and East China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174248		habitat	eng	The Large Grizzled Skipper is usually found in mountainous areas on dry, poor, flower-rich grassland and rough vegetation. Quick-flying, it also likes basking on the ground and drinking from wet mud. It is a very variable butterfly with many different sub-species and forms, making identification difficult. Choosing the smaller leaves, the female lays it’s eggs singly on various cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and rock-roses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). At first, the caterpillar lives between spun leaves on plants, later on it spins a tent-like shelter on the ground. It passes the winter in this stage and builds a special tube-like structure in which to pupate. There are one or two generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), heath and scrub (8%).
174248		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Norway and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174248		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174249		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2. In Sweden, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. More research on the distribution and ecology is needed.
174249		distribution	eng	This nordic species is found in Norway from 66° N to the North Cape, in the north of Sweden, northwest of Finland and north of Russia. 50-900 m. It is also found in arctic Asia and America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174249		habitat	eng	In Scandinavia, the Glandon Blue occurs on slate and shale rocks with patches of grassy vegetation and Crowberry (<em>Empetrum nigrum</em>), especially in areas sheltered from the northwestern wind. The females deposit the eggs on Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (<em>Saxifraga aizoides</em>) and Purple Saxifrage (<em>S. oppositifolia</em>). The small caterpillars first feed on the flowerbuds and hibernate. Later, they also feed on the leaves. The Arctic Blue is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174249		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174249		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174250		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174250		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the southern European part of Russia to the Altai, Tian Shan, Northwest China, Mongolia. Up to 2,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174250		habitat	eng	The Eastern Zephyr Blue can be found on steppes or on slopes with a steppe-like vegetation. The larval foodplants are several <em>Astragalus</em> species, for example in Northwet Kazakhstan, females deposit the eggs on<em> Astragalus rupifragus</em>. The species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174250		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174250		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174251		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174251		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common to 66° N. Vagrants seen far northwards. 0-2,600 m. It is also present in North Africa, Turkey to Middle Asia, West and South Siberia, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions, Mongolia, China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174251		habitat	eng	The Large White almost can be found in almost all habitat types. It lays its eggs singly or in small clusters on the underside of the leaves of the hostplants, which are mainly broad-leaved crucifers, like <em>Brassica</em> spp., <em>Crambe</em> spp., <em>Lunaria</em> spp. and <em>Cakile</em> spp., including various cultivated brassicas, that offer enough food for the gregarious caterpillars. On such a nutritious diet, the caterpillar grows very quickly, reaching the pupal stage in three to six weeks. The white pupa is suspended in a silken girdle from the foodplant. The Large White has several generations a year, the number depending on the geographical location and latitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (9%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mesophile grasslands (7%), improved grasslands (6%).
174251		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Hungary, Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Serbia, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174251		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174252		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174252		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered over large parts of Europe: the Iberian Peninsula (not in the south-eastern part), locally in the south and centre of France, Italy (except the Po Valley), from the French Alps to Southern Poland, the Baltic States and most Balkan countries down to central Greece. Up to 2,000 m. Its range extends to Morocco, Turkey, Iran and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174252		habitat	eng	The Tufted Marbled Skipper can be found on flower-rich grasslands, with very different moisture levels, ranging from dry to wet. It also occurs at the edges of woodland and in bushy vegetation. The males usually perch on a tall plant and very actively defend their territory. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaves of various woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.). Betony (<em>S. officinalis</em>) is often used, but also Hedge Woundwort (<em>S. sylvatica</em>), Alpine Woundwort (<em>S. alpina</em>) and Marsh Woundwort (<em>S. palustris</em>). The young caterpillar lives in a curled-up leaf. When it is bigger, it spins two neighbouring leaves together to make a shelter where it remains during the day, coming out at night to feed on the leaves of the foodplant. It also pupates in such a shelter. This butterfly has one or two generations a year, depending on its location in the range. It overwinters either as a caterpillar or a pupa. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), mixed woodland (5%).
174252		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovakia and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174252		threats	eng	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174253		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174253		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Europe between the north of Spain and central Germany. This species is only resident in the south of its range and a migrant in the north. It is absent from Portugal, most of Spain and large parts of Italy and Greece. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174253		habitat	eng	Although the Short-tailed Blue looks rather like the Holly Blue (<em>Celastrina argiolus</em>), it has very fine, small tails and prominent eye-spots on the hindwings. The Short-tailed Blue occurs in local populations on damp grassland, heathland and flower-rich verges. It lays its eggs on Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>) and various clovers (<em>Trifolium</em> spp.), vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.), birdsfoot-trefoils (<em>Lotus</em> spp.) and melilots (<em>Melilotus</em> spp.). When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they leave the foodplant to hibernate and later pupate in the litter layer. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (19%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), improved grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).
174253		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174253		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174254		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174254		distribution	eng	This species occurs over almost all of South Europe; the northern edge of its range is the southwestern coast of France, the eastern Pyrenees and Drôme, the Italian Alps (although absent from large parts of the north of Italy), Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,600 m. It is furthermore present in North Africa and across Asia Minor and Central Asia to Pakistan and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174254		habitat	eng	The Cardinal is a woodland butterfly occurring at woodland edges and in glades with bushes and grassy, flower-rich vegetations. Like the Silver-washed Fritillary (<em>A. paphia</em>), these butterflies are often seen in places where plants rich in nectar, such as thistles, are plentiful. The Cardinal is a fast and powerful flyer, vagrants being sometimes observed outside the distribution range, in Switzerland, for example. The eggs are laid singly on the leaves of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). It hibernates as a small caterpillar and pupates in spring, suspended low down on the foodplant or on the nearby vegetation. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), mesophile grasslands (5%).
174254		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range, and can colonize areas temporarily. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174254		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174255		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174255		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Croatia in the coastal and inland coastal zone (0-700 m) and in the northwest of Greece (550-1250 m). It is present across the south of Russia to the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan and across the Caucasus and Asia Minor. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174255		habitat	eng	The Dalmatian Ringlet is an early spring species, and occurs on dry grasslands with open or semi closed scattered bushes and on rocky slopes. Butterflies can be observed in the low flight or resting on ground. The female lays its eggs on Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>) and <em>Bromus condensatus</em>, depositing them a few at a time on tussock. The Dalmatian Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: phrygana (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), mixed woodland (12%).
174255		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174255		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174256		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in: Slovakia, Bulgaria and Poland. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174256		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species occurs in a number of widely separated mountainous areas: in the Cantabrian Mts., the Pyrenees, the Alps, central Apennines, the Tatra, Carpathians, Rila and Pirin Mts. in southwest Bulgaria and the mountains of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is rare in the eastern part of its range. 1,200-3,000 m, mostly above 1,500 m. It is also found in the mountains of central Asia east to China and Tibet. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174256		habitat	eng	The Shepherd’s Fritillary is a characteristic species of flower-rich sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and can even be found on quite heavily grazed pastures. They can occur in high numbers. At the end of the day, they often roost communally in damp vegetation with tall plants. Long-spurred Pansy (<em>Viola calcarata</em>) is the major foodplant, but Alpine Plantain (<em>Plantago alpina</em>), Lady's Mantle (<em>Alchemilla</em> spp.) and valerians (<em>Valeriana</em>) are probably also used. Caterpillars are mostly found on plants growing in dry, rocky places. The Shepherd’s Fritillary has one generation a year and passes the winter in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (77%), heath and scrub (16%), blanket bogs (5%).
174256		population	eng	This is a characteristic species of subalpine and alpine meadows, that can be found in many mountain chains. In its habitat, it is often one of the most common fritillaries. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174256		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174257		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174257		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the most northeastern part of European Russia, through the northernmost parts of Asia to North America and in the mountains of central and East Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174257		habitat	eng	This butterfly can be found on swamps and grassy places with scrubs and small forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).
174257		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174257		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174258		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174258		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of Europe, Bulgaria, FYR of Macedonia and north of Greece and very locally in central Spain (Cuenca - Montes Universales). It is also found throug Ukraine and the south of Russia to the Urals. 400-1,900 m, in Spain between 900-1,600 m. Its range extends to Turkey and the south of Urals. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174258		habitat	eng	The Sandy Grizzled Skipper is usually found in dry, often rocky, flower-rich places, both on calcareous and non-calcareous soil. They can also be found along woodland rides, in open scrub and in dried-up riverbeds. In Spain, it occurs in clearings in pinewoods. The butterflies can often be seen congregating in groups on moist ground to obtain both water and dissolved minerals. In South-east Europe, the foodplant is Sulphur Cinquefoil (<em>Potentilla erecta</em>), but that of the Spanish populations is not known. This species has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), screes (12%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), cliffs and rocky shores (12%), heath and scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%).
174258		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174258		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level, but the population in Spain is considered vulnerable due to its very limited distribution range.
174259		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174259		distribution	eng	A southern species that occurs locally: north of Spain, south of France, Italy, the Alps, south of Germany, south of Poland and the Balkans. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 100-1,800 m. It is also found from the Middle Europe across Asia Minor to Central Asia and along the south of Siberia to central China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174259		habitat	eng	The Marbled Fritillary occurs at the edges of woods or in scrub where brambles are growing. It takes nectar from thistles growing in rough vegetation. Eggs are deposited singly on the leaves and sepals of brambles (<em>Rubus</em> spp.), where they pass the winter, protected by withered leaves. In spring, the small caterpillar feeds on the new, young leaves in the leaf buds, the later larval stages eating older leaves. The pupa is suspended from a leaf or branch of the foodplant. The Marbled Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), mixed woodland (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), heath and scrub (7%).
174259		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174259		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174260		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.
174260		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the the south of the Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria (Pirin Mts.) and Greece. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Lebanon, Syria and in the north of Iraq. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174260		habitat	eng	The Eastern Greenish Black-tip is mostly found on steep, rocky, limestone slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and in open, dry scrub. The butterflies often settle on the ground, or on rocks, with their wings half-open, but when it is very hot, they cool off in the shadow of rock crevices. Their flight is rapid, rather like that of skippers. The stock <em>Matthiola tessela</em> is its foodplant. It is not clear how many generations this species has a year, but it is probably two. Habitats: phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), screes (25%).
174260		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174260		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174261		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174261		distribution	eng	This is a southern species. This species occurs in central and North-East Spain, South of France and Central Massif, Italy, North-East Balkans and North Greece. 200-1,600 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia minor and Caucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174261		habitat	eng	The green sheen on the upperside of the wings and body of the Marbled Skipper distinguish it from other skippers in this genus. It lives in warm, flower-rich places. Populations are usually small and it is exceptional to see a large number of these butterflies gathered together. On very hot days, needing to drink, they look for damp ground. The eggs are laid singly on the sepals of various woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.), especially Perennial Yellow Woundwort (<em>S. recta</em>). The young caterpillars spin a loose shelter from leaves, under which they hide themselves while they feed, first eating the seeds and, later, the leaves of the plant. They hibernate in the third or fourth instar and pupate at the base of the foodplant. The Marbled Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (36%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).
174261		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovakia and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Hungary and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova, Romania, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174261		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174262		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174262		distribution	eng	This species occurs from north and central Spain via south and central France to the south of Sweden and Lithuania, in Eastern Europe as far as Greece and north and central Italy. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands. 100-2,200 m. It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174262		habitat	eng	The Turquoise Blue likes the warmth, occurring on dry, flower-rich slopes and calcareous grassland, often where there is shelter from a wood or from bushes. The butterflies are nearly always seen on calcareous ground. The populations are usually small in mountainous areas, where they often occur with other blues. The female lays its eggs on Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>), depositing them onto the underside of the leaves and also on the sepals. The newly-hatched caterpillars feed by scraping off the undermost layer of cells, so making little “windows” in the leaves. Later, they feed on the whole leaf. They are attended by various ant species, including those belonging to the genera <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Formica</em>. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer. The Turquoise Blue mostly has two generations, but at higher altitudes and in the north of its range, It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (18%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%).
174262		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium, Luxembourg and Latvia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania and Sweden. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Lithuania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174262		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174263		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174263		distribution	eng	This species is common and widespread in Central and South Europe. It is absent from Spain (except in the north), Ireland, Scotland, western Denmark, Scandinavia, Latvia, Estonia and the Balearic Islands. 0-1,700 m. It is present further east to the Middle East, Iran and Siberia up to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174263		habitat	eng	The Brown Argus occurs on warm grasslands, in heaths and in dunes. It can also be found on sandy, pioneer vegetation, as for example in sand-pits, or where houses are being built. It lays its eggs on small crane’s-bill (<em>Geranium</em> spp.) and rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). It may build up numerous, small populations. At first, the small caterpillars only scrape off the undermost layer of the leaves making little “windows” in the leaves. Later, the bigger caterpillars feed on the whole leaf. They are often attended by <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Myrmica</em> ants. The caterpillars can hibernate at any stage. Pupation takes place in the litter layer. The Brown Argus has two to three generations depending on the geographical location. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), dry siliceous grasslands (18%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%).
174263		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Romania and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174263		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174264		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174264		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of  Portugal and Spain, in the southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees, via the Cevennes and Provence to the Alps), the adjacent part of the Italian Maritime Alps and in north and central Apennines. 100-2,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174264		habitat	eng	The Dusky Heath is a butterfly of dry, grassy vegetation, such as found on rocky slopes in low scrub, thickets and in woodland clearings. Different grasses are used as foodplant, including bent (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.) and Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>). It has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), heath and scrub (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%).
174264		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174264		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174265		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174265		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in large parts of South and Central Europe: it is scattered, in north and central Spain, east France (from the Pyrenees to Burgundy and the Jura), southwest Switzerland (Wallis), northwest and central Italy, east Austria and most Balkan countries as far as Greece (and on Lemnos). 500-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey and central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174265		habitat	eng	The Osiris Blue lives on sunny, flower-rich grassland and road verges rich in sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis</em> spp.), which it uses for its nectar and as foodplant. The caterpillar feeds on various sainfoins (<em>Onobrychis</em> spp.), such as Sainfoin (<em>O. viciifolia</em>), Mountain Sainfoin (<em>O. montana</em>) and <em>O. arenaria</em>. In literature, other leguminous plants are also mentioned, including Bladder Senna (<em>Colutea arborescens</em>), Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>) and Bitter Vetch (<em>Lathyrus montanus</em>). The eggs are laid on the flowerheads. The caterpillars feed on both the flowers and developing seeds and are attended by workers of different ant species, one of them being <em>Lasius alienus</em>. The Osiris Blue has one or two generations a year, but the second may only be partial. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate between two leaves. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (24%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (17%), mesophile grasslands (13%), coniferous woodland (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
174265		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Germany. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174265		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174266		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174266		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe only on the south of the Iberian Peninsula. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174266		habitat	eng	Lorquin’s blue prefers open, flower-rich scrub. The female lays its eggs on the sepals of Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>) and when the caterpillar hatches out, it bores a hole in the calyx through which it feeds on the young fruits and ripening seeds. When the caterpillars are feeding or at rest, they position themselves lengthways on the red-flecked sepals of the foodplant, well camouflaged, their colours matching those of their surroundings. They are attended regularly by ants. Lorquin’s Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
174266		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174266		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174267		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174267		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower region of the Volga River, Kazakhstan, Turkmenisat, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, locally in West China. 300-1,200 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174267		habitat	eng	This butterfly species occurs in local populations in sandy deserts. The females lay the eggs singly on the shoots of <em>Calligonum</em> species. The caterpillars feed on both flowers and buds. This species produces one generation a year. The pupa hibernates (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). It was first found in Europe in 1998 (Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174267		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174267		threats	eng	Not examined.
174268		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174268		distribution	eng	This species is present in the southern Urals, Altai Mountains, West and East Siberia, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions, China, Mongolia and Korea. Sea level - 1,700 m (Tuzov, 2,000; Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174268		habitat	eng	This butterfly is a typical species of lowland and mountain meadows, tundra and steppe habitats. In the eastern part of its range it is also found in sparse larch forests and moorlands. In the mountains it often occurs in tundra and alpine meadows. The caterpillars feed and hibernate on the leaves of various <em>Poa</em> species. This butterfly has one generation a year has one generation a year(Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).
174268		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174268		threats	eng	Not examined.
174269		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174269		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: south of Bosnia, FYR of Macedonia, south and east of Bulgaria and in large parts of Greece (including many Greek islands). Sea level-1,500 m; mostly below 600 m. It is also found across Asia Minor to Transcaucasia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174269		habitat	eng	Freyer’s Grayling can be found in dense thickets, on rocky slopes, on dry, grassy vegetation, in open woodland and in olive groves and orchards. There are trees in most habitats. In appearance and choice of biotope, Freyer’s Grayling is very similar to the Tree Grayling (<em>H. statilinus</em>). The butterflies are fond of resting on the ground or on tree trunks and hardly ever visit flowers. It uses different grasses as foodplants and has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), coniferous woodland (14%), mixed woodland (14%), screes (14%), sclerophyllous scrub (14%).
174269		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174269		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174270		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174270		distribution	eng	This is a species of Central and Southern Europe. It does not occur in Scandinavia, north of Germany, north of Poland, the Baltic States, north of Ireland, Scotland, south of Italy and on the Mediterranean islands except Corsica and Sardinia. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found in Morocco and in the western part of Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174270		habitat	eng	The Gatekeeper occurs on many different types of grassland. Mostly, it chooses rather rough, dry to damp vegetation, situated beside woodland or scrub, or not far from them. The butterflies are fond of basking in the sun on scrub and are often seen visiting flowers. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaf-blades of nearly all soft grasses, such as Cock’s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.) and Rye-Grass (<em>Lolium</em> spp.). The caterpillar avoids bright sunlight and feeds mostly on grasses growing in the shade. When half-grown, it hibernates in a tussock of grass. It completes its growth the following year and pupates low down in the vegetation. The Gatekeeper has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), mesophile grasslands (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).
174270		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Serbia, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174270		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174271		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.
174271		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Norway and Sweden above the Arctic Circle up to the Northern Arctic Sea and in Finland in the border region with Norway. 300-700 m. It is also found in the polar and mountain tundra of Siberia to Mongolia and Caucasus in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174271		habitat	eng	At lower altitudes in Lapland, this lovely fritillary occurs on flower-rich swampy areas and wet slopes with scattered birches. Above 500 m, it is found in drier rocky places. Compared to the other fritillaries that occur in Lapland, the Lapland Fritillary is remarkably colourful. It is one of the first arctic species to be seen, appearing practically as soon as the snow has melted. It flies quickly, zigzagging low over the vegetation. The female lays its eggs in small groups on plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), Alpine Speedwell (<em>Veronica alpina</em>), Rock Speedwell (<em>V. fruticans</em>) and species of <em>Vaccinium</em>. The caterpillars live communally in small silken webs and hibernate there. They pupate in spring. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), raised bogs (16%), heath and scrub (16%).
174271		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174271		threats	eng	This species appears to be fluctuating extremely between years, which may be related to a variation in the length (2 to 4 years) of its lifecycle. This species could be endangered by climate change in the future.
174272		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174272		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Urals across the south of Siberia, China and Mongolia to Korea and Japan. Up to 1,700 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174272		habitat	eng	In the Western part of its range this butterfly occurs in open coniferous forests, but more tot the East it is also found in tundras in the mountains, flying over stony slopes and alpine meadows at the upper forest border. The females lay their eggs on a number of grass species, such as <em>Agrostis</em>, <em>Elytrigia</em> and <em>Calamagostis</em> species. Usually only one generation a year is produced but in favorable conditions a second generation might appear as well (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: mixed woodland (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%).
174272		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174272		threats	eng	Not examined.
174273		conservation	eng	More research on the distribution, ecology and population dynamics is needed. In Croatia, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174273		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in Eastern Europe: from the Baltic States in the north, via eastern Poland, eastern Slovakia, eastern Hungary and Croatia to northwestern Greece in the south and further eastwards. It is not clear where the populations of this species are permanent and where as a migrant it only has temporary populations. It is furthermore present in the entire Palearctic Region except for the extreme north. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174273		habitat	eng	The Yellow-legged Tortoiseshell occurs in lowland woodland in Eastern Europe, in damp, deciduous woods growing on flood plains, or on the wooded banks of streams and rivers. Different trees are used as foodplants, including willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.), elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.) and Nettle Tree (<em>Celtis australis</em>). Until nearly fully-grown, the caterpillars inhabit large communal nests, which they spin in branches that hang over the water. The Yellow-legged Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly hidden in hollow trees or wood piles. It has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (11%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).
174273		population	eng	Although widespread in the eastern part of its range, this species is local and rare in the western part. It is reported extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174273		threats	eng	It is unclear what the causes for the declines in the western part of its European range are. They might be part of natural fluctuations, but little is known of the population dynamics of this species.
174274		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174274		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Portugal, Spain (except the northwest), the Balearic Islands and Sicily (Italy). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174274		habitat	eng	This butterfly species can be found in flower-rich, waste places, in scrub or at woodland edges. The most important foodplants are stork?s-bills (<em>Erodium</em> spp.) and crane?s-bills (<em>Geranium</em> spp.), of which the caterpillars eat the leaves. Knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.), rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.) and Leguminous plants, such as clovers (<em>Trifolium</em> spp.) and brooms (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.) have also been mentioned. This species has two to three generations a year and is often found together with <em>Myrmica</em> or <em>Lasius</em> ants. Habitats: fallow land, waste places (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (16%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (16%), heath and scrub (16%).
174274		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174274		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174275		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174275		distribution	eng	This is a species of the south of Europe. This species occurs in Greece and the Balkans as far as northeast Italy, East Austria and Slovakia. It is also found on the Iberian Peninsula (except the south of Portugal and west of Galicia) and in France (Charente-Maritimes to Eure, Somme, Meurthe-et-Moselle and Haut-Rhin). Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco and the Caucasus, Asia Minor and the Middle East to Southwest Siberia and Tian-Shan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174275		habitat	eng	The False Grayling is an inconspicuous butterfly. It occurs on warm, nutrient-poor grasslands, often situated near the edges of woodland or scrub, on both calcareous and acid soils. The female drops her eggs at random into the vegetation, leaving the young caterpillars to choose what to eat. They feed on different grasses, including Upright Brome (<em>Bromus erectus</em>), Gray Hair-grass (<em>Corynephorus canescens</em>), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Crested Dog’s-tail (<em>Cynosurus cristatus</em>) and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar. They pupate in a grass tussock and have one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (36%), dry siliceous grasslands (26%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%), mesophile grasslands (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).
174275		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Germany. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174275		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174276		conservation	eng	More research is needed urgently on its distribution and ecology. Important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174276		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in the extreme north of Europe: in the north of Norway, of Finland and very rarely in the north of Sweden. 100-1,400 m. It is furthermore found in the polar tundra of the whole Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174276		habitat	eng	The habitat of the Polar Fritillary is open tundra, with a patchwork of short vegetation. Its foodplant is unknown. Just like other butterflies of the far north, the period in which they can be seen varies a lot from year to year, depending on the weather conditions preceding emergence. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: heath and scrub (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (25%), mesophile grasslands (25%).
174276		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174276		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range, occurs in low densities and has strong population fluctuations.       <span ;="">Climate change, and the related increased timberline and vegetation changes, might be a long term  due to its  limited distribution.
174277		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174277		distribution	eng	This species occurs in most coastal regions of the south of Europe: from Portugal, via the south and east of Spain (and locally in central Spain) and the southeast of France (to Ardèche) as far as Greece. It is absent from the western Adriatic coast between central Italy and Istria (Croatia), but found on most islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174277		habitat	eng	With the whimsical patterning on the undersides of its wings and elegant little tails, the Two-tailed Pasha is one of the most beautiful European butterflies. It breeds in warm, dry places with many shrubs and trees where its foodplant, the Strawberry Tree (<em>Arbutus unedo</em>) is abundant. The males defend their territory fanatically, attacking other insects. The butterflies can often be seen feeding on the juices of rotting fruit, such as figs and are also attracted to alcoholic drinks. They are strong flyers, often roaming into areas where their foodplant is absent. The Two-tailed Pasha has mostly two generations a year and in some places possibly three. It hibernates as a caterpillar and pupates suspended from the foodplants. On Gibraltar, Samos and Cyprus, it also uses other foodplants. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (35%), phrygana (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (7%).
174277		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174277		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174278		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174278		distribution	eng	In Europe, it occurs only on the Greek island Samos. 1,000-1,400 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Iran and Transcaucasus. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174278		habitat	eng	The Orange-banded Hairstreak occurs above 1,000 m on open, dry, calcareous slopes with short vegetation and in dry scrub. The eggs are laid on the woody stems of <em>Atraphaxis billardieri</em>, a member of the <em>Polygonaceae</em>. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of the foodplants. The Orange-banded Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).
174278		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174278		threats	eng	Not examined.
174279		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.
174279		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeastern Europe in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria and Greece (including several Greek islands). 0-2,000 m, mostly lower than 1,500 m. Across Turkey and Transcaucasia to the Pamirs- Alai and the Himalaya.  The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174279		habitat	eng	The Powdered Brimstone caterpillars feed on the prickly Christ?s Thorne (<em>Paliurus spina-christi</em>) and on various buckthorns, such as <em>Rhamnus alpinus</em>), <em>R. sibthorpianus</em> and <em>R. lycioides</em>. The butterflies are therefore often seen on bushy vegetation, namely in warm, dry places and on rocky slopes. However, in their search for nectar, they also fly in other places. It has one generation a year and, like other brimstones, hibernates as a butterfly. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%), screes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%).
174279		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Serbia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174279		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174280		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174280		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Portugal, large parts of Spain (except Southwest and orth), southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees via Ardèche and Provence to the French Alps) and in bordering part of the Italian Maritime Alps. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174280		habitat	eng	The Western Marbled White is mostly found in dry, rocky places with grassy vegetation and scattered rocks, although it is also seen in damper locations. Its foodplants are various grasses, such as Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Bermuda-grass (<em>Cynodon dactylon</em>), Cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus glomerata</em>) and several <em>Stipa</em> spp. This species has one generation a year. It spends the summer as young larva without feeding, but feeds during the winter. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (40%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), mesophile grasslands (20%).
174280		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portuga and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174280		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174281		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174281		distribution	eng	This species occurs in widely scattered locations, often isolated from each other: north of Spain (from Oviedo to San Sebastian), France (extreme western part of the  Pyrenees to Brittany and Somme). Belgium and the Netherlands (near Weert), south of Sweden, central and eastern Lithuania, through Poland, northeast Germany, east Czech Republic, east Austria until the north of the Balkans, north of Italy, southeast Bulgaria and European Turkey. 0-1,000 m. Its range extends to Mongolia, North China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174281		habitat	eng	The conspicuous pattern on the underside of the wings of the Large Chequered Skipper is unlike that of any other European butterfly. Furthermore, it has a characteristic, bouncing flight, low over the vegetation. It occurs in damp, rough, grassy places, such as grasslands, road verges, edges of streams, at the edges of raised bogs and in woodland clearings. The populations are often small. The eggs are laid singly or in small batches on the blades of grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>) or Purple Smallreed (<em>Calamagrostis canescens</em>). The caterpillar makes a tubular shelter from grass, at first using a folded blade and later using spun grass-blades. It leaves its shelter in search of food. The caterpillars pass the winter in the shelter, making it stronger before they pupate. Pupation takes place in spring. The caterpillars then attach themselves to their shelter by a silken girdle and a small pale-green pupa is formed. The Large Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mixed woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), heath and scrub (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), water-fringe vegetation (7%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%).
174281		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia, Romania and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Hungary, Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174281		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174282		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174282		distribution	eng	This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It does not occur in Ireland and the Mediterranean islands. In Portugal only in Minho, in Spain, it is restricted to the Cantabrian Mts., Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra de la Themanda and the Pyrenees. In Italy it is present only in the north, and in Greece, only in the northwest. In Great Britain and Sweden, it is restricted to the south. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174282		habitat	eng	The Purple Emperor inhabits damp, mature, deciduous woods with clearings in them. These woods often have different tree species, stream valleys and woodland rides. Male butterflies are often seen near puddles on the road and on the dung of other animals. They are also attracted to strongly smelling cheese. The males and females meet each other at the top of master oaks, or other old trees that are taller than the rest, situated at the margin of the woods. Various willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) are used as foodplants, the female depositing its eggs preferably at the top of the tree, on the upperside of shaded leaves. The caterpillars often lie along the main nerve of the leaves, nibbling off the rest of the leaf more or less symmetrically. The half-grown caterpillar spins a small cushion in the fork of a twig on which it hibernates. In spring, it resumes feeding on the buds and fresh young leaves. It pupates, suspended from the underside of a leaf and has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (35%), mixed woodland (26%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (15%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).
174282		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Luxembourg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174282		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174283		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is urgently needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Important habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In Hungary the species only occurs in protected areas.
174283		distribution	eng	This Eastern species occurs very locally in sparse populations. Lithuania, Poland, southeast of Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary and Romania. In the flood plain of the Danube. 0-500 m. Its range extends to West Siberia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174283		habitat	eng	The Danube Clouded Yellow occurs in dry, warm grassland where its foodplant, the broom <em>Chamaecytisus ratisbonensis</em> is always abundant. However, the amount of shelter from bushes can vary considerably. The female lays its eggs on the foodplant, the caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer. It has two to three generations a year. The species shows serious declines, especially at the western edge of its range. Within the last years it disappeared most probably from Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Serbia. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), mesophile grasslands (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), coniferous woodland (8%), mixed woodland (8%).
174283		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The species has declined strongly over most of its range. It is reported extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Croatia, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174283		threats	eng	This species is threatened both by intensification of use and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands, its main habitat. Furthermore, especially for the westernmost parts, climate change is considered as one of the most important reasons for its decline, even though it cannot fully explain the situation. It is certain that in some cases land-use changes even under AgriEnvironmental Schemes have led to drastic declines (see also Konvicka <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In general, loss of habitat and habitat connectivity, unfavarouble grassland management (wrong timing or intensity) and climate change (less continental climate) must be considered (Dolek, M. & Hager, A. 2008).  Abandonment is probably the largest threat to the populations in Eastern Europe.
174284		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. None of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Austria and the Czech Republic.
174284		distribution	eng	This is an Eastern European species: occurs in Czech Republic, Slovakia, east of Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Hungary and Romania. The occurence in Bulgaria needs verification. In most countries, it is rare or very rare. 250-1,400 m. It occurs across Siberia to the Magadan and Ussuri regions; Mongolia, Korea, the north of China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174284		habitat	eng	Apart from its greater size and slightly falcate forewings the species can be separated from the other Wood Whites (<em>Leptidea</em> spp) by the conspicuous gliding flight displayed by the males. Fenton's Wood White can be seen on damp, grassy vegetation at the sunny edges of woods, in grassy woodland clearings and on regenerating woodland on grassland. They occur almost exclusively in deciduous woods. This butterfly has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (40%), mesophile grasslands (15%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), mixed woodland (10%).
174284		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is very rare and local in the western part of its range, where the situation is unclear in many countries. It seems to be more common in Eastern Europe, but it is never abundant and is mostly declining.  It might be confused with other <em>Leptidea</em> species. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Serbia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Romania and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174284		threats	eng	The main threat is changes of woodland management.
174285		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174285		distribution	eng	This is mainly a species of Central and Eastern Europe. In Scandinavia, it is only found in the south. It is also found on Sicily and Corfu, but otherwise absent from the Mediterranean islands. Also absent from the Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces, Sierra de Guadarrama, Montes Universales and the north of Portugal), almost the whole Netherlands, Ireland and Britain, except the Isle of Wight. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs in most of the Palearctic, except for the polar tundra, north of Siberia and the Far East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174285		habitat	eng	The Glanville Fritillary is found on many different types of flower-rich grasslands, both on calcareous and acid soils. This butterfly can survive on meadows and pastures, as well as on road verges and forgotten patches of vegetation, sometimes small habitats supporting large populations. Various plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.) and knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.) are used as foodplants. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars live gregariously in a spun nest, also hibernating in a bigger nest when half-grown. In spring, a small proportion of the caterpillars develop quickly, going on to produce a partial, second generation. The remaining caterpillars develop more slowly. Thus, the Glanville Fritillary usually has one generation a year and in favourable locations a partial second generation. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).
174285		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Luxembourg, Sweden, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174285		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174286		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174286		distribution	eng	This species is common and widespread in Mediterranean Europe. Northwards it occurs only as migrant. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in North Africa, Middle East, Turkey, central Asia and India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174286		habitat	eng	The Lang’s Short-tailed Blue is a small, inconspicuous butterfly that occurs in flower-rich places and on rough vegetation. It is often seen near scrub and on fields of Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>). The eggs are laid on various leguminous plants, such as melilots (<em>Melilotus</em> spp.), Purple Loosestrife (<em>Lythrum salicaria</em>) and also species of <em>Rosaceae</em> and <em>Plumbaginaeceae</em>. The caterpillar feeds on the flowers and seeds of the foodplant and has been found in association with ants of the genus <em>Lasius</em>. The life cycle of the Lang’s Short-tailed Blue takes four to eight weeks, depending on the temperature. Because it is not certain whether this species can go into diapause, in this case in the egg or caterpillar stage, it is also unclear,  whether Lang’s Short-tailed Blue is a resident or migrant in southern Europe. It is also possible that the populations are dependent on annual recolonization from Africa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), phrygana (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).
174286		population	eng	In the southern part of its range, this species is widespread. In the northern part, it is local and the situation depends on migration from the south. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Romania, Spain, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174286		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174287		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174287		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and locally common in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the south of Portugal, parts of south and central Spain, Ireland, Scotland, the north of Scandinavia, Sardinia and Sicily. 0-2,000 m. It is furthermore present in Turkey and throught temperate Asia to the north of China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174287		habitat	eng	The Silver-studded Blue can be found in warm places on short vegetation, ranging from dry to quite damp, such as heath and nutrient-poor grassland. Especially impressive are the roosting places with enormous groups, sometimes of hundreds of butterflies, asleep in a very small area. The eggs are laid on Cross-leaved Heath (<em>Erica tetralix</em>) and on a wide range of leguminous plants. Usually, the eggs are deposited low down on the foodplant or on its woody parts. The egg hibernates. The caterpillars live on the leaves of the foodplants. They are often attended by <em>Lasius</em> ants that lick them and perhaps even defend them. Pupation often takes place in the outer passages of the ant nests. The ants also attend the pupa. Depending on the geographical position and altitude of occurrence, the Silver-studded Blue has one or two generations a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (13%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mesophile grasslands (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (5%), coniferous woodland (5%).
174287		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174287		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174288		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in: Hungary, Czech Republic. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174288		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe in mountainous areas: Jura, the Alps (as far as Provence), the Pyrenees, Tatra and Carpathian Mts. 800-2,700 m. It is also found in high-montane areas and tundras of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174288		habitat	eng	The eggs, caterpillars and pupae are also almost indistinguishable. In some places, such as in the Alps and the Jura Mountains, these species occur together. The Mountain Green-veined White is found in flower-rich grasslands along river banks and at woodland edges. Buckler Mustard (<em>Biscutella laevigata</em>), pennycresses (<em>Thlaspi</em> spp.) and bittercresses (<em>Cardamine</em> spp.) are used as foodplants. The female, heavily dusted on its upperside with yellow or grey, lays its eggs singly on the flowers or leaves of the larval foodplant. It shows a preference for smaller plants growing on poor ground. It has one or two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. In areas, where this species occurs together with the Green-veined White, like in the Southeast Alps, one may often find hybrids of both species. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), coniferous woodland (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), mixed woodland (8%), heath and scrub (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).
174288		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174288		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174289		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174289		distribution	eng	This is originally a South African species, not native in Europe. It is spreading rapidly in the Mediterranean. It occurs in Europe since 1989. It is now found on the Balearic Islands, Spain (eastern coast and some inland areas), south of France, north and central Italy, southwest of Slovenia and the Croatian coast. The species can be expected everywhere in the Mediterranean in the coming years. This butterfly is also seen further northwards up to the south of England and the Netherlands.
174289		habitat	eng	Originally a species from southern Africa, the Geranium Bronze became a plague in Majorca at the end of the 1980s. It had probably been imported on <em>Pelargonium</em> cultivars, the ordinary or garden geraniums. From there out, because of the large popularity of these plants, it was imported and colonized large parts of Spain and France, using the <em>Pelargonium</em> cultivars as foodplant. The caterpillars mostly eat the flowers and buds of <em>Pelargonium</em>, but also the rest of the plants, including the inside of the main stem, where they are safe from insecticides. Finally, the plants collapse. The expansion can be expected to continue. In South Africa, the Geranium Bronze uses wild <em>Geranium</em> species as foodplant, making it possible that this butterfly will establish itself in the wild in warm parts of Europe. However, in cooler areas, it cannot settle permanently, because it has no diapause and could not survive the winter. Numerous generations a year, depending on the temperature. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (50%), towns, villages, industrial sites (50%).
174289		population	eng	This species is widespread  in the Western Mediterranean after its introduction in 1989 to Mallorca. It is expanding east and north. The species can be expected to colonise the rest of the Mediterranean soon. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174289		threats	eng	Not examined.
174290		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174290		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Sweden and Norway north of 60° N, scattered over Finland and very rarely in Estonia and Latvia. 100-400 m. Across Middle and South Siberia to Kamchatka, North Mongolia and North Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174290		habitat	eng	The Lapland Ringlet inhabits bogs and marshes with sedges and grasses and scattered groups of willows and myrtle. The marshes are often situated in coniferous or birch woods. Its foodplants are probably sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.), Tufted Hair-grass (<em>Deschampsia cespitosa</em>) and Bog Hair-grass (<em>D. setacea</em>). These butterflies are difficult to find because they are shy and always occur in low numbers. Also, their habitat is very inaccessible. The development of the Lapland Ringlet from egg to butterfly takes two years. Habitats: raised bogs (42%), fens, transition mires and springs (14%), mixed woodland (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), coniferous woodland (14%).
174290		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174290		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174291		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No direct conservation actions are neededat a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174291		distribution	eng	In Europe, it occurs in Arctic Fennoscandia, polar Urals and Novaya Zemlya. It is also found in Taimyr, Yamal Peninsula, North America and Greenland (Tolman & Lewington 2008). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174291		habitat	eng	The Pale Arctic Clouded Yellow is found in Lapland in the mountains and in lowland areas. They occur in marshy habitats in the birch zone, marshes on mountain slopes and on dry to wet alpine grasslands. The butterflies appear early in the year, as soon as the birches burst into leaf. Its foodplants are Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus alpinus</em>), Yellow Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>A. frigidus</em>) and possibly also <em>Vaccinium</em> species. This species has one generation a year and mostly hibernates as a chrysalis, but sometimes as a caterpillar. Sometimes, it remains a pupa for a second winter. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174291		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Russia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174291		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale. Climate change could be a possible long term threat.
174292		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed.
174292		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeastern Europe: in the east of Albania, southwest of FYR of Macedonia and northwest of Greece. 1,400-1,700 m. It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174292		habitat	eng	The Grey Asian Grayling is found in the mountains on dry, often stony or rocky slopes with grassy vegetation. The butterflies fly low over the ground, but often settle on stones or bare ground. They frequently visit flowers. Different grasses are used as foodplants. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (66%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%).
174292		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174292		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174293		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174293		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common in nearly all Europe, except Sardinia, the Shetland Islands and the Atlantic islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also present through the entire Palearctic Region except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174293		habitat	eng	The Green-veined White occurs in many different habitats and landscapes with varying amounts of shelter. It can be found on all types of grasslands and heathlands in open or more closed landscapes. However, a too dry habitat is not favourable. This butterfly is very variable in appearance, having several forms and sub-species. The eggs are laid singly or in small numbers on many, mostly wild, crucifers. It pupates on a stalk and overwinters in this stage. The Green-veined White has several generations a year, the number depending on the geographical location and altitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (9%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), towns, villages, industrial sites (6%).
174293		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174293		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174294		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174294		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe except the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, England, Ireland, European lowlands and the north of Scandinavia. 0-1,500 m. It is also found in North Africa and central Asia to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174294		habitat	eng	The Green-underside Blue is a pretty sight on both dry and damp flower-rich grassy vegetation, such as meadows and woodland clearings. The females lay their eggs between the flowers of all species of leguminous plants, including brooms (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.), vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.), Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>), <em>Genista</em> spp. and melilots (<em>Melilotus</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and are frequently attended by the workers of various ants. The Green-underside Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), mesophile grasslands (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).
174294		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Estonia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Romania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174294		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174295		conservation	eng	This species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174295		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe up to 62° N, but IS absent from Northern Scotland and large parts of Ireland, Southern Portugal, South-West of Spain, Mediterranean islands except Corfu and Sicily. It is also found in parts of Western and Central Asia. 50–2,000 m. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174295		habitat	eng	The Dingy Skipper is a small, inconspicuous butterfly. In the north of its range it occurs on chalk grasslands, but further to the south it is also found on road verges and on grazed grasslands. It lays its eggs on the leaves of leguminous plants such as Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis communis</em>) and Common Birdsfoot trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>), usually choosing plants growing near bare patches. The caterpillar spins a small, tube-like shelter from leaves of the larval foodplant, living and feeding in it until fully grown. It then builds a sturdier shelter in which to pass the winter. In spring, without further feeding, it pupates, either in the shelter, or in the moss layer. The adult butterfly is often found on Bugle (<em>Ajuga</em> spp.) and, while visiting flowers, is easily observed. It rests, mothlike, with its wings closed over its back, but holds them open when alighting on a flower. It is the only skipper occurring in Ireland. The Dingy Skipper usually only has one generation a year, but in warm summers and in the southern part of its range, it sometimes has a second generation that may be only partial. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%), heath and scrub (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).
174295		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. It is reported extinct in Latvia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174295		threats	eng	Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands
174296		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174296		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, northeast of Turkey and northwest of Iran. 2,000-3200 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174296		habitat	eng	This butterfly species is mainly found on open stony places but it also occurs in glades of mountain forests. In Turkey, the hostplant is probably <em>Hippocrepis comosa</em> (Hesselbarth, van Oirschot & Wagener 1995, Baytas 2007), outside Turkey other species of the genus <em>Hippocrepis</em> might be used as well. The species has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174296		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174296		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174297		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174297		distribution	eng	This is a species of eastern Central Europe, with some isolated occurrences outside this region. Thus, it is local in southeastern Sweden, southeastern Germany, northern Italy (Aosta, Susa, Turin, Lago Maggiore, Lago di Garda, Venezia) and Bulgaria (Stara Pl.). It is more common in southern Lithuania, northeastern Poland, eastern Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and further eastwards. 300-1,000 m. It is also found across the north of Kazakhstan and the south of Siberia to Northeast China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174297		habitat	eng	Assmann’s Fritillary occurs on warm grasslands and heath that are often situated at the edges of woodland, or near groups of shrubs. Its foodplants are Ribwort Plantain (<em>Plantago lanceolata</em>), Yellow Rattle (<em>Rhinanthus minor</em>) and the Speedwell (<em>Veronica austriaca</em>). The female lays its eggs in batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed communally in a silken nest, where they also hibernate. They then separate, later pupating low-down in the vegetation. This fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), mixed woodland (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).
174297		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Sweden, Switzerland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174297		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.
174298		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174298		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in Lapland north of 67° N. 100-1,100 m. It is also found across subpolar tundras of Siberia to the Chukot Peninsula and Alaska. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174298		habitat	eng	The Arctic Grayling mostly occurs on almost bare mountain slopes and on dry, stony ground with a vegetation of low grasses, mosses and lichens. At high altitudes, the butterflies fly along slopes and narrow ledges that offer shelter from the westerly winds. Especially the females are also found on damper ground, looking for nectar plants. The eggs are laid on Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>), preferably on tussocks growing in the shelter of rocks or shrubs. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly and the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), screes (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (20%).
174298		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174298		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174299		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It is important to maintain suitable glades by grazing or clearing at regular intervals to prevent overshading of its habitat. To improve overgrown sites small clearings (10-30 m in diameter) should be created, wide enough to allow the sun to reach the ground (Bergman pers. comm.).
174299		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species, local and very rare. In Spain possibly only in Biscay, in France except Atlantic coast and south, Switzerland, north of Italy via Slovenia to the east, continuous from Southeast Germany to the south of Finland. 200-1,500 m. It is also found eastwards across northern Central Asia to Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174299		habitat	eng	The Woodland Brown is fond of warm, open places in damp, deciduous or mixed woods with well-developed shrub and herbaceous layers. These habitats may be flooded in winter. The butterflies rarely visit flowers, preferring to feed on honeydew, moisture on buds and sap runs from wounded trees. The males often settle on puddles on the ground, while the females tend to stay in the very top of the trees. Females and caterpillars are restricted to a narrow zone under the tree and bush canopy along the edges of clearings where the host plant must be present (Bergmann, 2001). Eggs are laid on all species of grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.) and false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.) and also on sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). The half-grown caterpillar hibernates in a grass tussock, where later in the year it also pupates. The Woodland Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (45%), mixed woodland (29%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), coniferous woodland (5%).
174299		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The Woodland Brown is declining in large parts of Europe. Present strongholds are mainly in East Europe. It is reported extinct in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Belgium, Bulgaria and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Hungary, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174299		threats	eng	Changes in woodland or woodland management are the main threats all over the continent. Nevertheless agricultural abandonment and land drainage are important threats in some countries, mainly because the habitat was maintained in a successional change by grazing.
174300		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174300		distribution	eng	This species occurs over most of Europe except the extreme south and north. It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, the south of France, Ireland, north of Britain and Fennoscandia north of 65° N. 0-1,900 m. Its range extends through Asia to Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174300		habitat	eng	The Grizzled Skipper occurs in many different habitats, mostly on dry, as well as moist, flower-rich grasslands and also on calcareous grasslands and heaths. The butterflies often bask in the sun on patches of bare ground. The eggs are laid one by one on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and strawberries (<em>Fragaria</em> spp.), including Wild Strawberry (<em>F. vesca</em>). The caterpillar builds a small shelter from a leaf, in which it stays hidden, feeding on the leaves of the foodplant. The sturdy cocoon in which it pupates is spun from plant remains. This species has one or two generations, depending on the location and altitude of the breeding ground. The taras form, with large, white patches on the upperside of the wings, is found more in the Grizzled Skipper than in other skippers, especially in males. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), heath and scrub (6%).
174300		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174300		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174301		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174301		distribution	eng	This is a species of Central Europe. It occurs in an area between the north of Germany and the north of Italy and further eastwards. In Western Europe, it is only present in the northern provinces of Spain, central western, southwestern and eastern France and eastern Belgium. It is also found in the south of Scandinavia, locally in Latvia and in the Balkans to Bulgaria. 100-2,000 m. It is furthermore present across the south of Siberia to Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174301		habitat	eng	The False Heath Fritillary is found in sheltered, marshy habitats and damp woodland clearings. At higher altitudes, it is also found on rough, calcareous grasslands. Different species of valerian (<em>Valeriana</em> spp.) are used as foodplants, the female depositing its eggs in large clusters on the underside of the leaves. The small caterpillars only feed for a short time before hibernating communally in a silken shelter. After hibernation, they separate, later pupating low down on the foodplant. The False Heath Fritillary usually has one generation a year, but at low altitudes in the Alps and in Spain, it sometimes has two. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (31%), fens, transition mires and springs (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).
174301		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bulgaria, Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, FYR of Macedonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Moldova, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174301		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use (especially drainage) and abandonment of grasslands, as well of the drainage of wet woodlands.
174302		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174302		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northwestern part of Kazakhstan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174302		habitat	eng	This butterfly species is mostly found in small and scattered populations in steppe and semi-desert habitat in calcareous outcrops. The female deposits the eggs on the flowers and newly formed bean pods of various Astragalus species. The caterpillars feed on the seeds. They are often attended by ants. This species has one generation a year. Hibernation takes place in the pupal stage (Tuzov, 2,000; Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174302		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174302		threats	eng	Not examined.
174303		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174303		distribution	eng	This species is found in South and Central Europe up to 50° N. It also occurs on most Mediterranean islands. 0-2,000 m. Its range extends to Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174303		habitat	eng	The Mallow Skipper is a butterfly of warm, grassy places, usually with rough vegetation, as, for example, rough patches on warm slopes. It is a mobile butterfly, that strays outside its usual habitat and that thus can be met in unexpected places. In warm summers, they migrate northwards and can be seen in warm, south-facing river valleys. The resident populations are usually small. The butterflies are often seen visiting flowers for nectar. They also spend a lot of their time basking in the sun, their wings wide open, showing to full advantage their beautiful purple to olive-green metallic sheen. Eggs are laid singly on the upperside of the leaves of mallows (<em>Malva</em> ssp.). The caterpillars thrive on this food, growing very quickly. This skipper has up to three or more generations in a year. As winter approaches, the fully-grown caterpillars make a cocoon in the litter layer. They pupate in spring. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), fallow land, waste places (13%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).
174303		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. In Switzerland the species is expanding, largely due to sowing of <em>Malvaceae</em> (in the seeds mix) by farmers in their field margins, as ecological compensation measures. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174303		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174304		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and the ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174304		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs on Mt. Chelmos and its surroundings in the south of Greece. Mostly 1,100-1,700 m but sometimes seen at lower altitudes (but not lower than 500 m). It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasus. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174304		habitat	eng	The Chelmos Blue is found in dry open, calcareous places with a short vegetation, sometimes also in open patches in scrub or in woodland clearings. The females seldom leave their breeding ground, but the males roam outside it, for example, searching for patches of moist ground. The sainfoin <em>Onobrychis alba</em> is used as foodplant. Overgrazing by goats can form a threat for this butterfly; the only foodplants that survive are those growing amongst thorny plants. The caterpillars are attended by ants. The Chelmos Blue has one generation a year and hibernates when still a small caterpillar, under a stone. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174304		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174304		threats	eng	The species has a restricted range, though it is more widespread outside Europe. The species is treatened by overgrazing as well as abandonment.
174305		conservation	eng	As this species is extinct in Europe, no actions can be taken for its persistence. Since it is still present in West Anatolia, a re-introduction can be considered. In such case, detailed research on the ecology of this species is necessary.
174305		distribution	eng	It occurred very locally in the southwest of Romania: South Banate, Poiana Ruscai Mts., Retezat Mts. and southwest of Transylvania (Székely, 2008). 600-1,200 m. It is also found in western Anatolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174305		habitat	eng	In Romania this species has been reported from limestone areas, limestone gorges, rock slopes and grasslands and meadows. The caterpillars fed on Bloody Crane?s-bill (<em>Geranium sanguineum</em>) and had a relationship with <em>Lasius</em>-ants. They hibernated in the larval stage (Székely, 2008). In Turkey reported from moist habitats (Hesselbarth <em>et al.</em>, 1995). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174305		population	eng	This  is a local species,  restricted in Europe to Southwest Romania. There have been no reports for almost 100 years. This species can be considered regionally extinct in Europe. It is still present in western Turkey (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174305		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown. The species has not been reported for almost 100 years.
174306		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174306		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species is only reported from scattered records in the southeast of Spain (from Cadiz to Alicante). It is furthermore present from North Africa and the Middle East across Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan to the south of Turkmenia, Uzbekistan and Pakistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174306		habitat	eng	The Desert Orange-tip occurs on fallow land, on dry flower-rich vegetation and on stony slopes. There are several overlapping generations each year, so that butterflies can be seen from spring to autumn. In summer and autumn they are more numerous and can sometimes be seen further inland. The caterpillars live on the leaves of Caper (<em>Capparis spinosa</em>). The Desert Orange-tip passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).
174306		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174306		threats	eng	Not examined.
174307		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174307		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of France (from Ardèche as far as the Alps and Provence) and in the Balkans from the southwest of Serbia as far as Bulgaria, the south of Greece and Crimea. 50-1,200 m, sometimes to 1,900 m. It is also found through Turkey to Transcaucasia and the Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174307		habitat	eng	The Eastern Wood White occurs on dry grassland, often whit scattered trees or bushes  and in open woods. It is found on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. The habitats of the Eastern Wood White are drier and warmer than those of the Wood White (<em>L. sinapis</em>) and Real´s Wood White (<em>L. reali</em>). The eggs are laid on the leaves of Meadow Vetchling (<em>Lathyrus pratensis</em>), Yellow Vetchling (<em>L. aphaca</em>) and birdsfoot-trefoils (<em>Lotus</em> spp.), mostly on plants growing in the shade. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of the foodplant. The Eastern Wood White has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (26%), cliffs and rocky shores (6%), heath and scrub (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), phrygana (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
174307		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174307		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174308		conservation	eng	In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. Special attention should be paid to a well balanced intensity and timing of grazing. More research on this is urgently needed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174308		distribution	eng	A southern species with a fragmented distribution area. This species occurs in the northeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula, south and central France, central Italy, Sicily, locally in south and east Germany, south of Poland and Switzerland. It is also found in the Balkans, including all of Greece. However, it is absent from Crete, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Middle Asia to Afghanistan, Northwest.China and Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174308		habitat	eng	The Hermit inhabits steppe-like grasslands in dry, warm places. In the northern part of its distribution range, it is restricted to dry chalk hills. Although it is a very large butterfly, when its wings are closed, it blends perfectly into its surroundings. Especially when resting on a rock, they are almost invisible. The female deposits her eggs one at a time on the withered blades of many different grasses, including false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar. They pupate in a sort of cocoon, in a little hollow in the ground, or sometimes low down on the foodplant. The Hermit has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (32%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).
174308		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In the southern part of its range, it is more widespread. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia, France, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174308		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Although intensification has a negative impact on this species, most populations in Central Europe are actually threatened by abandonment or even a small reduction of the grazing intensity.
174309		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174309		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of the south of Europe: almost all of Portugal and Spain (except the north coast), southeast of France (to the Massif Central), large parts of Italy (in north almost absent) and in Southeastern Europe  from the coastal line of Croatia through Albania to the west and south of Greece. This species occurs also on several islands in the Mediterranean Sea.  Sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in Africa and Northwest Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174309		habitat	eng	The Southern Gatekeeper can be found on dry grasslands, rocky slopes with grassy vegetation, in open scrub and now and then in woodland clearings. The foodplants are grasses, probably <em>Deschampsia</em> spp., although this is not exactly certain. This butterfly species has one or two generations a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), phrygana (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%).
174309		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174309		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174310		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174310		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe in two clearly separated areas: in Lapland, central Norway, western Sweden and Lithuania and in the Alps of Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Slovenia and Bavaria. In the north 300-1,000 m, in the Alps 800-1,800 m. It is furthermore found in the forest zone of the Palearctic Region, east to north China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174310		habitat	eng	In the Alps, Thor's Fritillary can be found in flower-rich places, in clearings, or in sheltered ?alcoves? at the edges of woods. It prefers damp, north-facing slopes and is often found beside streams or in ravines. In the Scandinavian part of its range, the butterflies can be seen in clearings in birch woods and coniferous forests and near mountain lakes, swampy places, in gullies and river beds. The Yellow Wood Violet (<em>Viola biflora</em>) is its major foodplant, but other violets are used as well. The female lays its eggs either on the foodplant, or on a neighbouring plant and the caterpillars take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (22%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), mixed woodland (11%), water-fringe vegetation (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), heath and scrub (5%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).
174310		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Norway and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174310		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174311		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174311		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Northeast Portugal, most parts of Spain except the southwest and the north, south and central France, Switzerland, parts of north and central Italy, the Balkans, north Greece (Phalakron and Menikion Mts.), south and east Germany, Poland, south Lithuania. 600-1,800 m. Its range extends to Turkey and Western Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174311		habitat	eng	The Safflower Skipper is the largest grizzled skipper in Central Europe. It prefers sheltered places, occurring on dry, often calcareous grasslands and rough vegetation in sheltered places . They often rest near bushes or at the edges of woods. They lay their eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.), the caterpillar later using leaves as food. However, the caterpillars are difficult to find, because they hide in plant cushions during the day, in order to survive the summer heat. The caterpillars hibernate in spun leaves in the litter layer, probably in the last larval instar. However, in breeding experiments, each stage was found to be capable of hibernating. Before they pupate, the caterpillars make a sturdy cocoon. The Safflower Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), screes (7%).
174311		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174311		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174312		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. In Sweden, none of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In Finland, all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.
174312		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs north of 68.5° N in a small area in the border region of Norway, Sweden and Finland. 600-950 m. It is also found in the polar tundra from through Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174312		habitat	eng	The Dusky-winged Fritillary, occurs in the extreme north of Europe on open, grassy expanses, often on gentle slopes, sheltered from the prevailing westerly wind. It can occur in large numbers, in some places with hundreds of butterflies at once. Before they mate, these butterflies behave in a characteristic way, with the male following the female, flying in short spurts and seeming to make grasshopper-like jumps. The eggs are laid on various plants, including Alpine Bistort (<em>Polygonium viviparum</em>), but it is not certain whether this is its foodplant. The egg takes two years to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%).
174312		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174312		threats	eng	The species occurs usually in low densities in a restricted range in Northern Europe. Furthermore it appears to fluctuate more than other Arctic butterflies. Climate change, and the related changes in vegetation and timberline, might be a long term threat  owing to its limited distribution.
174313		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174313		distribution	eng	This species is resident in the south of Europe, in some years also further north. It is migrant in the Baltic States, the south of Scandinavia, north of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Britain and Ireland. When resident 0-1,600 m; migrants up to 3200 m. It is also found in North Africa and across Turkey and the Middle East, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to W Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174313		habitat	eng	In warm summers, the Clouded Yellow can be seen practically over the whole of Europe, often on fields of clover or lucerne, or other flower-rich vegetations. It lays its eggs one by one, on the leaves of such leguminous plants as Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>), clovers (<em>Trifolium</em> spp.) and vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.). It pupates, suspended in a silken girdle on the foodplant. In the south, where it can survive the winter, the Clouded Yellow passes the winter as a caterpillar. In the north, because it cannot tolerate the cold, it only appears as a summer migrant, recolonizing from the south. This species has four to six generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), mesophile grasslands (8%), improved grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%), phrygana (5%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (5%), scrub and grassland (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).
174313		population	eng	This is a migrant species that cannot survive winters in the northern half of Europe or in the mountains. Because of the strong annual fluctuations, no trends can be detected.
174313		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174314		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174314		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Eastern Pyrenees, the Alps (France, northwest Italy, southwest and east Switzerland), south Finland and central Sweden. 0-300 in North Europe, 1,200-2,000 m in the Pyrenees and Alps. It is also  present in South and West Siberia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174314		habitat	eng	The Silvery Argus occurs on flower-rich grasslands with some bushes or trees, in grass along the hedges, at the edge of woodland and in sunny, grassy woodland clearings. The grassland on which the Silvery Argus occurs is usually damp and high, but it is also seen on dry grassland. The female lays its eggs on the flowers of Wood Crane?s-bill (<em>Geranium sylvaticum</em>) and Meadow Crane?s-bill (<em>G. pratense</em>). The caterpillars eat the leaves as well as the flowers. They are attended by ants. In Spain and Sweden, this butterfly probably hibernates in the egg stage and in the Alps as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), coniferous woodland (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), mesophile grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), mixed woodland (10%).
174314		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174314		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174315		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174315		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe, it is absent from the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the eastern part of Italy, north of Denmark, east of Ireland, the Netherlands and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Sea level-2,000 m. It is furthermore found in the temperate zone of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174315		habitat	eng	The Pearl-bordered Fritillary occurs at the edges of woods and in clearings, in meadows and on pastures near scrub. Its habitats are usually dry and moderately rich in nutrients. The butterflies are quite mobile, leaving the habitat in search of nectar, visiting vegetation that ranges from very dry to wet. Most species of violet (<em>Viola</em> spp.) can be used as a foodplant. The female lays its eggs singly, either on a foodplant or on a neighbouring plant. The caterpillars feed on the violet leaves, hibernating in a rolled-up, withered leaf, when half-grown. It pupates on the foodplant, close to the ground. It has one to two generations a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), coniferous woodland (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), raised bogs (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).
174315		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct from the Netherlands since the 1960s. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland, Republic of Ireland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174315		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174316		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. Management plans must be made for the remaining sites in the western part of the range. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174316		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the southeast of Czech Republic and east of Austria eastwards to Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. 300-1,000 m. It is furthermore present through Turkey, north of Iran, West Siberia and the Altai Mountains across the south of Siberia to Transbaikalia, Mongolia and Northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174316		habitat	eng	The Lesser Clouded Yellow is found on open, dry, steppe-like grassland and rocky slopes. Its main foodplant is the Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus austriacus</em>), but Milk-vetch (<em>A. glycyphyllos</em>) and vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.) are also used. This species has three to four generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (58%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), phrygana (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%).
174316		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Romania and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174316		threats	eng	The main threats are agricultural changes, afforestation and built development. In the western part of the European range, populations have got scattered and are now isolated. Furthermore, the species shows strong fluctuations.
174317		conservation	eng	In Portugal and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level , but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174317		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species. In Spain and Portugal only in the north, in France not on the provençal coast, in Italy only in the Alps and an isolated population in Calabria, not in Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In Scandinavia to 66 °N. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in the entire temperate part of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174317		habitat	eng	The Lesser Marbled Fritillary occurs on damp to wet, flower-rich, rough vegetation, growing in the shelter of woodland. This can be situated in a valley, or on the banks of a stream, in abandoned meadows and swampy habitats. Because of changes in agricultural practices, this butterfly has been able to expand into some abandoned wet meadows. After continuing succession, these meadows will get overgrown by scrub and become unsuitable for the Lesser Marbled Fritillary. Eggs are laid singly or in pairs on the leaves and flowerheads of Meadowsweet (<em>Filipendula ulmaria</em>), Goat's-beard (<em>Aruncus dioicus</em>), Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>) and brambles (<em>Rubus</em> spp.). It hibernates either as an egg or a caterpillar. The caterpillars feed at night and in bad weather, also during the day. They pupate on the foodplant. The Lesser Marbled Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (41%), water-fringe vegetation (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), mixed woodland (7%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).
174317		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct from the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174317		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174318		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174318		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Lower Volga, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and West China (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174318		habitat	eng	This butterfly species is mostly seen in deserts, semi-deserts and dry meadows on plains, in river valleys and at foothills. The larval foodplant is unknown. The species produces one generation a year and overwinters as a pupa (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).
174318		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174318		threats	eng	Not examined.
174319		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174319		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of  Portugal and Spain (except the northwest and the north coast), in the southeast of France from the Pyrenees to the Ardèche, Drôme and Var. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174319		habitat	eng	The markings on the Spanish Gatekeeper are brighter than those of the other gatekeepers. The butterflies are mostly found on dry, rather rough, grassy vegetation with trees or bushes in the neighbourhood. The caterpillars feed on grasses, especially false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), but also probably bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp) and meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.). The Spanish Gatekeeper is single-brooded and passes the winter in the caterpillar stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), scrub and grassland (16%).
174319		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174319		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174320		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174320		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Europe: the Iberian Peninsula (except the northwest), France (southern half), Italy (except central Apennines), Dalmatian coast and Greece. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,600 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa, Turkey and the Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174320		habitat	eng	The Cleopatra is found in open woodland, woodland edges and open bushy places and maquis. The males are easily recognized in flight by the orange patches on their forewings; the female looks very much like <em>G. rhamni</em>. They are strong flyers that sometimes roam outside their breeding area. The eggs are laid on the young leaves of various buckthorns, such as Buckthorn (<em>Rhamnus catharticus</em>), Mediterranean Buckthorn (<em>R. alaternus</em>) and Alpine Buckthorn (<em>R. alpinus</em>). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and pupate on the twigs of the foodplant. The Cleopatra hibernates as an adult butterfly and therefore can be seen flying for most of the year. It has probably only one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (13%), heath and scrub (9%), phrygana (9%).
174320		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Malta (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174320		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174321		conservation	eng	Research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174321		distribution	eng	This species occurs north of 66° N in Norway, Sweden and Finland. 0-900 m. It is furthermore present on the tundras of Eurasia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174321		habitat	eng	The Northern Clouded Yellow occurs in the mountains of Lapland above the birch zone, on open, grassy meadows and stony slopes. The butterflies fly very quickly and are difficult to approach. Eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the larval foodplants, or on neighbouring plants. Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus alpinus</em>) is the most important foodplant, but other milk-vetches (<em>Astragalus</em> spp.) may also be used. The caterpillars feed on the flowers, leaves and stems, sometimes taking two years to complete their life-cycle. Hibernation can take place as a caterpillar or a pupa. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (16%), heath and scrub (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).
174321		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174321		threats	eng	The main threat is overgrazing by reindeers, especially in Finland. <em>Astragalus</em> plants are eaten first by these herbivores. Due to its limited distribution, it might get threatened in the long term by climate change.
174322		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174322		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in Central Europe. In France, it is present only in the northeast and Brittany, in Germany and Belgium only in the south, in Southeast Norway, South and Central Sweden, south of Finland to the north of Greece. 100-1,500 m. It also occurs in the whole temperate forest zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174322		habitat	eng	An encounter with the Poplar Admiral is one of those things that one never forgets. It is an impressive butterfly and the woods it inhabits are areas of natural beauty. They are found in mixed woodlands with damp clearings, where its foodplants Aspen (<em>Populus tremula</em>) and Black Poplar (<em>Populus nigra</em>) grow. The female deposits its eggs one by one on leaves that are preferably situated in the sun, with more branches above them. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves, damaging them in a characteristic way. Starting at the point, they eat the softer tissue, leaving the middle nerve untouched. This nerve is supplied with a spun thread, which catches the caterpillar’s frass. When about two-thirds of the leaf is left, the caterpillar uses it to build a hibernaculum, which is fastened tightly onto a twig with spun thread. It hibernates in the second larval instar and in spring eats large numbers of leaves before finally pupating, suspended from a leaf. The Poplar Admiral has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), mixed woodland (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%).
174322		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, France, Germany and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Belgium, Hungary, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174322		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of the woodland management.
174323		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174323		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Portugal and Spain (except the extreme north), in the southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees via Ardèche to the French Alps) and adjacent part of the Italian Maritime Alps. Sea level-1,500 m, sometimes -2,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174323		habitat	eng	The Striped Grayling occurs mostly on dry, rocky slopes with bushes and grassy vegetation and in open woodland. The butterflies often rest on the ground or on tree trunks. Foodplants are various grasses, such as Bermuda-grass (<em>Cynodon dactylon</em>), Cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus glomerata</em>), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.) and false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.). This butterfly is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar or pupa, on or just in the ground. Habitats: heath and scrub (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (16%).
174323		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174323		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174324		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, Slovenia, Serbia and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174324		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of Europe or at higher altitudes further south: the Alps of southeast France, Switzerland, Austria and Italy, south and east Germany, Slovenia, Serbia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, via the Baltic States to Finland, Scandinavia and Denmark. In northern Europe from sea-level up to 1,400 m, in southern Europe 1,500-2,800 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174324		habitat	eng	The Cranberry Blue occurs on raised bogs, heath and also in woodland clearings, where dwarf shrubs are growing. Although populations are at times extremely small, they can also have considerable numbers of butterflies. Eggs are laid on Marsh Andromeda (<em>Andromeda palustris</em>), Heath (<em>Erica tetralix</em>) and a small number of Vaccinium species, including Cranberry (<em>V. oxycoccos</em>). The caterpillars eat both the flowers and leaves of the foodplants, moving from one plant to another. When they are half-grown, they move into the litter layer and hibernate. However, they pupate on the plant, spinning a silken girdle in which the pupa hangs. The Cranberry Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (30%), coniferous woodland (20%), heath and scrub (10%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), mixed woodland (5%), blanket bogs (5%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%).
174324		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Latvia, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174324		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. Along the southern edge of its range, it is threatened by drainage of the bogs it lives in.
174325		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174325		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeastern Europe: in Croatia, Bosnia, southwest of Bulgaria, Albania, FYR of Macedonia and scattered over Greece (including Crete and islands in the Eastern Aegean). It is also found in Turkey and the north of Iraq. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174325		habitat	eng	With the white bands on each wing and the dark narrow scent-brand, the males of the White-banded Grayling are unmistakable. The butterflies occur on dry, grassy vegetation in open scrub and on rocky slopes. Sometimes, they are seen in open woods. They often drink nectar from thistle-like plants. The males defend their territory, perching on a rock or other prominent features in the surroundings. This butterfly is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), screes (20%).
174325		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174325		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174326		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174326		distribution	eng	This species occurs very locally in Southeast Europe: in the east of Serbia and of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, northwest of Greece and of Bulgaria. It is also found in Ukraine. 700-1,600 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, the Caucasus and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174326		habitat	eng	The Lesser Lattice Brown is a butterfly of grassy woodland glades. It occurs both in deciduous and mixed woodland. The butterflies have a rapid flight. They often rest in trees, but sometimes on shorter vegetation. The caterpillars feed on grasses, such as Annual Meadow-grass (<em>Poa annua</em>), but also on larger, coarse-leaved species. The Lesser Lattice Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), mixed woodland (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%).
174326		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174326		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174327		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174327		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species. It does not occur on the Mediterranean islands, in Portugal, Spain except the Cantabrian Mountains to the eastern Pyrenees, almost all Italy, south and central Greece, north of Scotland, and in the north of Scandinavia. Sea level-1,600 m. Across temperate Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174327		habitat	eng	The Ringlet can be found in grassy places with bushes, woodland clearings and on grasslands bordering woods. The habitats vary from dry to rather wet, such as at the edge of a raised bog. The butterflies are avid visitors of such flowers as thistles, knapweed and other plants rich in nectar. The caterpillars feed on nutrient-rich grasses, such as cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and cat?s-tails (<em>Phleum</em> spp.). The female usually just releases her eggs, letting them fall into the vegetation, either while perched or in flight. The caterpillars hibernate, hidden in a grass tussock and when they resume feeding, only do so at night. They also pupate deep down in the vegetation. The Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).
174327		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Moldova and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174327		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174328		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174328		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Portugal and south and central Spain, in isolated populations as far as the northwest (Burgos, Galiza). 0-1,000 m, sometimes to 1350 m. It is also present in North Africa, Chad, Middle East, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174328		habitat	eng	The Green-striped White occurs in flower-rich places, between bushes, on waste ground and on abandoned agricultural land. It occurs locally, but can be numerous in its flight area. The butterfly flies quickly and close to the ground. The caterpillars eat the ripening seeds of different crucifers, such as <em>Diplotaxis</em>, <em>Erucastrum</em> and <em>Sisymbrium</em> ssp. The Green-striped White has two generations a year in spring and passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), fallow land, waste places (25%).
174328		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In Portugal, it is well distributed in the southern half of Portugal, with populations in the Douro basin (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174328		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174329		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174329		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Italy (Tuscany and south) and further eastwards: Dalmatia, Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southeast of Romania, Greece (including Crete and other Greek islands) and on Cyprus. 0-1,600 m. Further in North Africa, from Southern and Eastern Europe to West Siberia, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, across Asia Minor and the Middle East to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174329		habitat	eng	The Eastern Dappled White is a species of warm, dry places. It occurs on flower-rich grasslands and waste ground, along hedges and the edges of woods; it also visits parks and gardens. Various crucifers are used as larval foodplant, such as a Charlock (<em>Sisymbrium arvensis</em>), Woad (<em>Isatis tinctoria</em>), buckler mustards (<em>Biscutella</em> spp.), Evergreen Candytuft (<em>Iberis sempervirens</em>) and Crested Bunias (<em>Bunias erucago</em>). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds. This butterfly species has two generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. It may remain in diapause as a pupa for two or more years. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%).
174329		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174329		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174330		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species only occurs in protected areas.
174330		distribution	eng	The mountains of Bosnia, S Bulgaria and N Greece, and a few lowland populations in the north of Ukrain. 1,500-2,500 m. It is also found in Caucasus Major and Minor, Armenian Highlands, Asia Minor, and Iran. 1,500-3500 m (Tuzov, 2,000; Gordunov, 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174330		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs on mountain meadows on bare, rocky slopes on calcareous ground where the foodplants grow.  The most important foodplant is <em>Androsace villosa</em>, the caterpillars feeding on both its leaves and flowers. In Asia, it has been found feeding on <em>Androsace kosopoljanskii</em> (Tuzov, 2,000). This butterfly passes the winter as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174330		population	eng	This is a very local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Southeastern Europe. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is only known from two localities, in Bulgaria from three localities, two of them not confirmed in the last years, and in Greece from two sites on Mt. Orvilos. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174330		threats	eng	The species had a restricted and fragmented range in Europe and is sensible for overgrazing. Due to its limited distribution it might get threatened on the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <em>et al.</em>, 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.
174331		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174331		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe in several separate areas: France (Aude and from the Massif Central to the French Alps and the Jura), in the Alps (from France further to Austria), central Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and in Northeast Europe: in Latvia, Estonia and south of Finland. 300-2,000 m. Locally over the temperate zone of the Holarctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174331		habitat	eng	Titania?s Fritillary occurs in grassy, open places at the edges of woodland, or in woodland clearings, or on grassland with scattered trees, mostly on damp to swampy ground, where its foodplant Snake-root or Common Bistort (<em>Polyganum bistorta</em>) is growing among tall flower-rich vegetation. Various violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) are also used as a foodplant. The female deposits its rather large eggs singly on either the foodplant, or on a plant nearby. The caterpillars go into hibernation in an early stage and pupate at the end of the spring on a stalk, near to the ground. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mixed woodland (17%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), coniferous woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%).
174331		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong populations in Alps, but declining in lowland habitats in North and East Europe. It is reported extinct in Poland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174331		threats	eng	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly. Moreover Schweiger<em> <em>et al.</em></em> (2008) show that this butterfly species might be endangered in future by climate change by a mismatch between the future climate envelopes for the butterfly and its main foodplant.
174332		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174332		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common in all of Europe. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. 0-2,200 m. It is present in almost the whole Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174332		habitat	eng	The Dark Green Fritillary can be found on many different types of flower-rich grasslands. The grassland is often situated in or at the edge of woodland and may be dry, calcareous or dune grassland, or damp grasslands along the edges of bogs. The eggs are laid on the often already withered leaf-stems of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). Directly after hatching, the small caterpillar prepares for hibernation, hiding itself in the litter layer until the spring. It then begins to feed on the fresh, new growth of the violet plants, continuing into the summer, when it pupates either in the moss layer, or under a tussock of grass. The caterpillars are quite mobile and visit several plants when feeding. The Dark Green Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), mixed woodland (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).
174332		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174332		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174333		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174333		distribution	eng	In Europe, it occurs only in coastal areas of southeast Spain (between Granada and Murcia). 0-2,500 m. It is also found in north and central Africa and southwest Arabia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174333		habitat	eng	The markings on the underside of its wings make the Common Tiger Blue an eye-catching butterfly. It breeds in warm, dry, scrubby vegetation, spending much of its time on the foodplants Christ’s Thorn (<em>Paliurus spina-christi</em>) and Jujube (<em>Ziziphus jujuba</em>), that are usually plentiful where it lives. The caterpillars betray their presence by the translucent “windows” that they make by hollowing out grooves on the underside of the leaves. The Common Tiger Blue has several generations a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
174333		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174333		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174334		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174334		distribution	eng	This species occurs from South Scandinavia to the extreme north of Spain. It is also found in the south of Britain. It is absent from European Turkey and the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. 100-1,300 m. Further east to Kazakhstan and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174334		habitat	eng	The White-letter Hairstreak usually occurs where there is a group of elm (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.) trees, either growing in a wood, sometimes even in the centre of a large town. However, there are populations known that occupy a solitary tree. The eggs are laid on the wood at the base of the flower buds, the female favouring terminal buds situated at the top of the tree. The small caterpillar stays inside the egg during the winter months, emerging in spring, boring its way into a flowerbud. It feeds on flowerbuds and flowers, but not on leaves. A non-flowering tree is therefore not a suitable foodplant. The caterpillars are sometimes attended by ants of <em>Lasius</em> or <em>Formica</em> species. They pupate in the litter layer under the tree. The White-Letter Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (39%), mixed woodland (18%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).
174334		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Hungary, Latvia, Romania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174334		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174335		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174335		distribution	eng	Various sub-species occur: <em>L. hippothoe stiberi</em> in Scandinavia north of 62° N, <em>L. hippothoe eurydame</em> in the Alps of Switzerland, Austria, France and Italy and in the Apennines 1,500-2,500 m and <em>L. hippothoe hippothoe</em> in valleys and further in the north of Spain, Central Europe to the the south of the Balkans and Greece. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in Central and South Siberia and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174335		habitat	eng	The Purple-edged Copper occurs on wet to damp grasslands, where the male butterflies attract the attention, perched on a tall grass or other plant, watching over their territory. The populations are mostly very local, but in a meadow, the butterflies can often be very numerous. The eggs are laid on various sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.). At first the small caterpillar only scrapes off a few cell layers on the leaf surface, so making translucent “windows”, but later they feed on the whole leaf. The caterpillar hibernates when still small and completes its growth in spring, pupating in the litter layer. It has one generation a year in the northern part of its range. In the southern part of its range it produces two generation and can sometimes be found on dry grasslands as well. The Purple-edged Copper has a few sub-species. The lowland sub-species (<em>L. h. hippothoe</em>) has a largely orange forewing; the mountain sub-species, <em>L. h. eurydame</em>, that occurs between 1,500 and 2,500 m, has completely brown females; and the Scandinavian <em>L. h. striberi</em> has wholly orange forewings, resembling a Small Copper (<em>L. phlaeas</em>). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (30%), mesophile grasslands (24%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%).
174335		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Hungary and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174335		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and drainage of wet grasslands.
174336		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174336		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe from the coastal mountains of Croatia to the southeast of Romania and south of Greece (including several Greek islands) and on Cyprus. 0-1,300 m, sometimes 1,900 m. It is also found through Turkey to Syria and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174336		habitat	eng	The Eastern Rock Grayling looks very much like the Woodland Grayling (H. fagi) and they occur together in some places. This butterfly is a species of scrub and open woodland of all kinds, deciduous, coniferous and mixed. At the hottest part of the day, the butterflies hardly fly at all, resting with closed wings on the shadow side of the tree trunk, or on the ground where they blend into their surroundings. They hardly ever visit flowers. Their flight is quick and powerful. The caterpillars feed on grasses. Although single-brooded, they can be seen from May until September. The butterflies may be inactive during the hot, dry summer. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%), mixed woodland (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), coniferous woodland (12%).
174336		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174336		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174337		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174337		distribution	eng	In Spain, it is present in the Sierra de Gredos, S. de Guadarrama, Cantabrian Mts. and the Pyrenees. In France in Central Massif and the Alps. It is also found in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, south of Belgium, the Baltic States, Fennoscandia to Arctic Circle, the Balkans and further eastwards to Siberia. 0-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174337		habitat	eng	It would be difficult to miss the beautiful and conspicuous Scarce Copper. The white patches on the underside of the hindwing distinguish it from other coppers. It prefers sheltered, flower-rich grassland in or near woods. The female visits a wide range of composites, especially Golden-rod (<em>Solidago virgaureae</em>) from where it gets its species name. The female lays its eggs at the base of the flowering stems of all species of sorrel (<em>Rumex</em> spp.). The eggs do not hatch until the following spring when the small caterpillars make a good meal of the new, fresh vegetation. It has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (18%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%), mixed woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).
174337		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174337		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174338		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174338		distribution	eng	<em>P. edusa</em> occurs east of a line from Northwest Europe through West Switzerland and West Italy. The exact border to <em>P. daplidice</em> is not always clearly defined. Furthermore, both species are highly mobile. In the Netherlands, it looks like old records (before 1960) are mostly from P. daplidice, whereas more recent records seem to belong to P. edusa. Its range extends also further east to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174338		habitat	eng	The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (<em>P. daplidice</em>), which mainly occurs in the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Bath White (<em>P. edusa</em>), which is distributed over the rest of Europe. However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field. Their life cycles are also very similar. The adult butterflies are very variable in appearance, not only in their markings, but also in their size. They are very mobile, fast flying and migrate northwards and westwards in warm years. They occur in warm, stony places; often disturbed ground, such as road verges, abandoned agricultural land or quarries. The females lay their eggs on such crucifers as mustards (<em>Sinapis</em> spp.), <em>Alyssum</em> spp. and also on mignonettes (<em>Reseda</em> ssp.). The caterpillars feed mainly on the flowers and seeds. Pupation takes place on the stalk of the foodplant. The Eastern Bath White has two or more generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174338		population	eng	Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174338		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174339		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174339		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Italy, east of Sicily, FYR of Macedonia, on Greek mainland and Corfu. 350-1,300 m. It is also present from Turkey to the Middle East and the south of Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174339		habitat	eng	The Eastern Orange-tip is a butterfly of open, grassy scrub, such as very open maquis and is often found on steep, rocky, south-facing limestone slopes. In Sicily, the butterflies are mostly seen on ancient lava beds. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of woads (<em>Isatis</em> spp.), mainly on<em> I. tinctoria</em>. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds. Pupation takes place on withered stalks. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), heath and scrub (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%).
174339		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174339		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174340		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174340		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in mountainous areas in the Balkans: southwest of Serbia, central and south Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR of Macedonia, southeast of Bulgaria and north of Greece. 1,200-2150 m. It is furthermore found in the northwestern part of Turkey and the Caucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174340		habitat	eng	The Balkan Clouded Yellow is found above 1,700 m (but also reported from one spot of 1,100 m in Bosnia and Herzegovina) on open, rocky slopes with low vegetation. At lower altitudes, the butterflies can be seen in woodland clearings. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of Hairy Broom (<em>Chamaecytisus hirsutus</em>) and <em>C. eriocarpus</em>. There are often large numbers of larval foodplants in the habitats. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), heath and scrub (20%).
174340		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174340		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174341		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174341		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except Sardinia, Ireland, North of England and North of Scandinavia. 0-2,200 m. Its range extends from North Africa through the temperate zone to East Asia. It is introduced in North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174341		habitat	eng	The Essex Skipper occurs in many types of flower-rich places with tall grass, such as grasslands, road verges and on banks of streams. Sometimes, the populations can have thousands of individuals. It is often seen with the Small Skipper (<em>T. sylvestris</em>). Although very similar, these golden skippers can be distinguished by the colour of the underside of their antennal clubs. That of the Essex Skipper is black and that of the Small Skipper varies from brown to yellow. Because these butterflies need quite a lot of nectar, they can often be seen drinking on thistles, knapweeds and other purple or pink flowers rich in nectar. The female deposits its eggs in groups in the leaf-sheaths of coarse grasses and lays them when the foodplants are already withered. It is the eggs that hibernate. The development of the caterpillar takes place the following spring. At first, the caterpillar only feeds during the day, but later also at night. They pupate in the vegetation. The pupa may be suspended from a grass blade by a silken girdle, but also just by the tip. The Essex Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%).
174341		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174341		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174342		conservation	eng	Research on the distribution and ecology of the species is needed before a proper analysis of threats and conservation measures can be made.
174342		distribution	eng	This species has recently been split from<em> M. phoebe</em> (Russel <em>et al.</em>, 2007). Much of its range is still to be examined, but it seems to occur from the Middle East to Southeastern Europe and possibly Italy. The situation in North Africa is still unclear. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174342		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry, open places with flower-rich vegetation.  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174342		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174342		threats	eng	Information on threats are only reported from Hungary. Here most populations are small, fragmented and isolated. The habitats are threatened by the cessation of animal husbandry. Research to the distribution and ecology of the species is needed before a proper analysis of threats and conservation measures can be made.
174343		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174343		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: from coastal zone of Croatia, via south of Bosnia and of Serbia to the south of Greece and on some Greek islands. 0-1,500 m, sometimes -2,100 m. It is also found through Turkey to Transcaucasia and northwest of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174343		habitat	eng	The Balkan Marbled White occurs on dry grasslands, rocky slopes, in open scrub and in grassy clearings in woods. The caterpillars feed on different grasses. This butterfly is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (37%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%).
174343		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174343		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174344		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174344		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and scattered over the Greek mainland and some islands. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174344		habitat	eng	Inky Skippers are very dark little butterflies that fly rapidly, close to the ground. They are found on dry grasslands, in dried-up riverbeds, on rocky slopes and in woodland clearings. They can often be seen basking in the sun, wings wide open, on light-coloured stones. The males gather in groups of sometimes more than 20 individuals on higher places in the landscape, where the females can find them to mate. Especially the females can often be seen drinking nectar on thyme. The larvae feed on bushy rosaceans particularly on <em>Prunus spinosa</em> and <em>P. cocomilla. </em>The Inky Skipper has one or two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%).
174344		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174344		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174345		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174345		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Northeast Germany (Helmstedt to Schwerin See), in Northern Poland and the Baltic States, in Denmark (only on Lolland), in Norway (from Telemark and Akerhaus up to Troms). In Sweden, it is limited to Skane, Smaland, Gotland, Närke, Söderland, Uppland and Dalarna to the Arctic Circle, Finland. Level 0-200 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to Mongolia and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174345		habitat	eng	The Northern Chequered Skipper can be found flying on the damp, flower-rich grass of woodland rides. They can often be seen drinking nectar from various speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.). The eggs are laid on various coarse-leaved grasses. The caterpillar lives in a shelter spun from a blade of grass. In the last larval instar, the caterpillar makes a shelter from withered leaves in which it hibernates. The pale-yellow pupa is suspended in a silken girdle in the vegetation. It pupates in spring. The Northern Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (34%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (26%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (13%), coniferous woodland (8%).
174345		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Latvia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174345		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174346		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174346		distribution	eng	In Europe, it  only occurs on the Canary Islands. It is furthermore found in North and tropical Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174346		habitat	eng	Females of the Desert Babul Blue lay their eggs on different species of Acacia trees,  therefore the butterflies can only be found where these trees grow. They prefer those growing in hot and dry places. Sometimes an entire population is restricted to only one tree, even if there are others present nearby. The butterflies fly rapidly amongst the branches, the flowers of the Acacia trees are their main nectar source. They also take water from damp ground. The caterpillars are attended by ants from the genus <em>Camponotus</em>  and <em>Prenolepis</em>. It is not known how many generations are produced in a year, but it is probably more than one. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174346		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174346		threats	eng	Not examined.
174347		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174347		distribution	eng	This species is present from the Crimea in Ukraine through Southern Russia to northern and central Tian-Shan, West Siberia (south) and the Altai Mts. Up to 3,000 m, in Urals and Caucasus only up to 800 m (Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003). It occurs in the steppe zone from Eastern Europe to the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174347		habitat	eng	<em>Coenonympha phryne</em> may be found in virgin steppes, semi-desert and dry slopes on limestone.  While the sites where the butterflies are on the wing are usually small, the local density of individuals can be high. The males show a particular fast flight, chasing on females to mate with. The females try to get rid of the males by dropping out of the air and landing in dense grassy fescue vegetation, where they then hide for a while. The foodplants are probably several species of <em>Stipa</em> and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp). Hibernation takes place as caterpillar or as pupa. This species is single-brooded (http://babochki-kryma.narod.ru/main.htm).  Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).
174347		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174347		threats	eng	This butterfly and its habitats are threatened by agricultural improvements, fragmentation and recreational activities.
174348		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174348		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Eastern Europe: from the south of Finland and the Baltic States, via southeast Germany, East Austria and Northeast Italy and further eastwards in the Balkans as far as Greece, on many Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1,900 m. It is furthermore present through Turkey and central Asia to China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174348		habitat	eng	This blue is found on dry grassland on sandy or stony soils, south-facing slopes with grassy vegetation, on steep slopes, in rocky gullies, on railway embankments, on road verges and in scrub. Various species of thyme (<em>Thymus</em> spp.) and savory (<em>Satureja</em> spp.) are used as foodplant, the eggs being mostly laid on the flowerheads. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds and are often found with ants, amongst other <em>Myrmica sabuleti</em>. This butterfly species has two generations a year. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), coniferous woodland (8%), heath and scrub (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), phrygana (5%).
174348		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to areas with good habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Estonia, Romania, Slovenia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174348		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly, but abandonment is the most direct threat at the moment.
174349		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174349		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common all over Europe. It is absent from the Atlantic islands, Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland Islands. 0-2,300 m. It is also found in Siberia to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174349		habitat	eng	The Green Hairstreak can be found on nutrient-poor grassland, heathland and at the edges of bogs and marshes. The butterflies like resting in trees and shrubs, such as Alder Buckthorn (<em>Frangula alnus</em>), where they are well hidden by their green colour. However, a tap on a branch can bring tens of them out into the air. The Green Hairstreak is extremely polyphagous. The eggs are laid on a variety of plants, including Heather (<em>Erica</em> spp.), rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.) and Alder Buckthorn (<em>Frangula alnus</em>), leguminous plants and species of Rosaceae. The caterpillars feed on the buds, flowers and young leaves. They pupate in the litter layer and the pupa hibernates. The Green Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), mixed woodland (10%), coniferous woodland (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (6%), raised bogs (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%).
174349		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174349		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174350		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174350		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Portugal (very rare), Spain (southern half and locally in the north including surroundings of Burgos, Aragon), France (near Cahors, Provence and the Alps) and the northwest of Italy. 0- 1,200 m, sometimes to 2,400 m. It is also found in Morocco and Algeria. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174350		habitat	eng	This butterfly owes its specific name to the River Tagus in Portugal, along the banks of which it was first found. The Portuguese Dappled White is found on warm, dry rocky places with patches of flower-rich grassy vegetation, in dry scrub and on abandoned agricultural land. As foodplant several species of candytufts (<em>Iberis</em> spp.) are used. The caterpillars eat the ovaries and flowers. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), fallow land, waste places (12%), inland sand-dunes (12%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%).
174350		population	eng	This is a local species.
174350		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174351		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174351		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southeast of France (from Hérault and further eastwards, abundant in Camargue), Italy (including Sicily) and large parts of Southeastern Europe (from Austria to Greece and Romania). 0-1,700m, usually at lower altitudes than 900 m. Its range extends to Southern Urals and Northwest Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174351		habitat	eng	The caterpillars of the Southern Festoon live on various birthworts, such as<em> Aristolochia clematitis</em>, <em>A. rotunda</em>, <em>A. pallida</em> and <em>A. pistolochia</em>. Because their foodplants grow in different habitats and because the caterpillars also have different foodplants in different areas, this spring butterfly can be found in quite different habitats. In the western part of its range, it can be seen in open places along rivers with the foodplant <em>A. rotunda</em>. In the mountains, the butterflies can be seen in dry, sunny, rocky places, where <em>A. pallida</em> and <em>A. pistolochia</em> grow. In Austria, it is in vineyards on sunny slopes, where <em>A. clematitis</em> grows as a weed, that the Southern Festoon is seen. In Greece, the butterfly occurs in damp areas, as well as on dry slopes, according to the species of birthwort used as foodplant. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the underside of the leaves, where the caterpillars are usually also found. The caterpillars have a striking appearance. Mostly beige with black spots, it has some orange tubercles on each segment, each ending in a black, spiny tuft. The Southern Festoon has one generation a year and hibernates as pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%).
174351		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Germany and Switzerland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, France, Serbia, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174351		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174352		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed.
174352		distribution	eng	This species occurs very locally in Southeastern Europe: Albania, east and south of Bulgaria, northeast of Greece and on Cyprus. Low altitudes to 1,500 m. It is also present through Turkey, Middle Asia and Kazakhstan to South Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174352		habitat	eng	The Small Bath White is a rare butterfly. It is often found on stony places, such as gravelly riverbanks and dry riverbeds and similar sites with rounded stones. It also occurs on damp or dry grassy places and in open scrub. The butterflies are strong flyers, showing some migrant behaviour and can thus be found outside usual habitat. <em>Cleome ornithopodioides</em> is probably the most important larval foodplant, the caterpillars feeding on the leaves, flowers and ripening seeds. The fully-grown caterpillars make their way to the ground to pupate on stones. This species has two generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (27%), screes (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%).
174352		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in FYR of Macedonia (but rediscovered in 2007) and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174352		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174353		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174353		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common all over Europe. 0-3,000 m. It is also present in the entire Palearctic Region with the exception of the extreme North and South. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174353		habitat	eng	The Small White is found in any type of habitat where its larval foodplants grow, such as gardens, parks, grasslands, heathland and woodland. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of a wide variety of crucifers, including cultivated brassicas and also on <em>Reseda</em> species, such as Wild Mignonette (<em>R. lutea</em>). The caterpillars grow very rapidly, sometimes pupating after two weeks. The pupa hangs in a silken girdle, normally on vertical surfaces and hibernates in this stage. The Small White has several generations a year, depending on the geographical position and altitude of the flight area and the length of the summer.  Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (10%), towns, villages, industrial sites (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), improved grasslands (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).
174353		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Malta and Republic of Ireland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174353		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174354		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174354		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Portugal and scattered in Spain (including Catalonia, Basque Country, Extremadura and Andalusia) and in France on the Mediterranean coast from the Pyrenees to the Maritime Alps and in the Rhône Valley. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174354		habitat	eng	Chapman's Green Hairstreak is mostly found in woods and scrubs with Strawberry Tree (<em>Arbutus unedo</em>). The female chooses the young leaves of the older, larger trees on which to lay its eggs. <em>Coriaria myrtifolia</em> has also been named as foodplant. It pupates on the ground at the base of the foodplant. It has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (25%), heath and scrub (25%).
174354		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174354		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174355		conservation	eng	In United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174355		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe. It is absent from the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula (except Sierra Nevada), the Mediterranean islands, south of Greece, Ireland and Britain (except the South). The sub-species <em>M. a. celadussa</em> occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, also in the south of France and of Switzerland, Italy and Sicily. Sea level-2,700 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to the Amur region and Kamchatka Peninsula. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174355		habitat	eng	The Heath Fritillary is found in many different biotope types, ranging from dry to damp, grassy, flower-rich places, often situated near bushes or in woodland, or in clearings and along the edges of paths in woods. Its foodplants are plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), cow-wheats (<em>Melampyrum</em> spp.), speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.), foxgloves (<em>Digitalis</em> spp.) and toadflaxes (<em>Linara</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in clusters on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed communally in silken nests, also hibernating together when half-grown. They then disperse over the plant, either into small groups, or, mostly, become solitary. They pupate on the foodplant and usually have one generation a year, except in the south, where they have two. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (11%), heath and scrub (6%), coniferous woodland (5%).
174355		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174355		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174356		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174356		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in large parts of Europe. It is absent from Portugal and large parts of Spain except the north and Sierra Nevada and Montes Universales. It is also absent from Britain, south of Greece, south of Italy and the Mediterranean islands except Corsica and Sardinia. 200-2,100 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, Middle East, Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174356		habitat	eng	The Idas Blue can be found on nutrient-poor grassland and heath rich in herbaceous plants, both in open places and woodland. Eggs are laid on many different species of leguminous plants, such as Broom (<em>Cytisus scoparius</em>), Hairy Greenweed (<em>Genista pilosa</em>), Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), White Melilot (<em>Melilotus alba</em>) and the <em>Ericaceae</em>, Ling or Heather (<em>Calluna vulgaris</em>) and Bog Whortleberry (<em>Vaccinium uliginosum</em>) and the Yellow Rockrose (<em>Helianthemum oelandicum</em>). The female deposits the egg onto a woody part of the foodplant where the egg then hibernates. The caterpillars are attended a lot by ants, especially those of the genera <em>Formica</em> and <em>Lasius</em>. When fully grown, the caterpillar crawls into the passages of the ant nest to pupate. Depending on the geographical location and the altitude of their habitat, the Idas Blue produces one or two generations a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (14%), mesophile grasslands (12%), mixed woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).
174356		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174356		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174357		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Research is needed to understand the causes of its decline in several countries.
174357		distribution	eng	This species is common and widespread in almost all Europe. It is only in the south of Scandinavia and is absent from northern Scotland and northern Ireland. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in the Middle East, the south of Urals and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174357		habitat	eng	The Purple Hairstreak is only found in deciduous woodlands whit oaks, its only foodplant. It occurs in oakwoods or oak scrub and also on large, solitary oak trees. The butterflies do not visit flowers. Instead, they remain near the tree, looking for leaves with a layer of honeydew left behind by aphids. This sugary secretion is the butterflies. most important source of energy. The eggs are laid at the base of the buds. The small caterpillar has developed by the time winter comes, but it remains in the egg, emerging in spring to feed on the buds and also on the flowers of the oak. It does not eat the leaves. Sometimes it is attended by <em>Lasius</em> ants. When mature, the caterpillars leave the foodplant and pupate in the moss layer. The Purple Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (54%), mixed woodland (13%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%).
174357		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174357		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174358		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174358		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe only on Greek islands Kos, Patmos, Kalimnos, Tilos and Rhodes. 0-800 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174358		habitat	eng	Loew’s Blue occurs in dry, rocky places both with low bushes and grassy vegetation. In Greece, a leguminous plant is probably used as foodplant, although exactly which species is not known. In Saudi Arabia, the caterpillars have been found on various types of milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus</em> spp.). The Loew’s Blue is probably single-brooded in Europe, but it produces more generations further to the East. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).
174358		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174358		threats	eng	Not examined.
174359		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174359		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe, including all the south and east. It is rare in the south of England and the Netherlands. It is absent from Ireland and north and central Scandinavia. It is also found across Asia Minor to West Siberia and West China. Sea level-1,700 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174359		habitat	eng	The Large Tortoiseshell is found in warm, sunny places in deciduous woods and near groups of trees. Elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and sometimes fruit trees or Hawthorn (<em>Crataegus monogyna</em>) are used as foodplants. The female, usually choosing a twig from the previous year, deposits a large group of eggs in a band around it. The caterpillars live together in silken tents until the last larval instar when they become solitary. They are fond of sitting on the sunny side of the foodplant or on branches in the sun. The caterpillar is dull, dark-grey with rust-coloured stripes along its back and sides and long rust-brown spines. The pupa hangs from a twig in the foodplant, looking very like a withered leaf. The newly-emerged butterflies often roam. The Large Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly in cool, dark places such as in a hollow tree. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (21%), mixed woodland (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), urban parks and large gardens (11%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), coniferous woodland (5%).
174359		population	eng	This is a widespread species in Europe, but in areas with a maritime climate it can be very rare or even missing. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174359		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174360		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174360		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in Southwest Europe. It is local in the northeast of Spain (to Madrid), south of France, in Switzerland (Wallis), central Italy, Sicily and lower mountainous areas of Germany. It is more common in Southeast Europe, from the south of Poland to the Balkans and Greece. 200-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Transcaucasus and Southern Urals. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174360		habitat	eng	The Meleager's Blue is a local butterfly that occurs on poor, rough vegetation and nutrient-poor grassland often near woods. The populations are usually small. The scalloped edge of the hindwing of the female distinguishes this species from all other blues. The female lays its eggs on Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>) and Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), favouring plants that grow in the shade provided by rocks or woodland. The caterpillars are attended by ants, including species of <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Formica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. Either the egg or the small caterpillar hibernates and pupation takes place in the litter layer. The Meleager's Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mixed woodland (5%).
174360		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe and fairly common in Southeast Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient and good quality of habitat in the rest of the continent. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174360		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174361		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.
174361		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Bulgaria, north and central Greece, on several Greek islands and Cyprus. 0-1,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Egypt, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan and throughout Africa and Southeast Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174361		habitat	eng	The Grass Jewel is Europe's smallest butterfly. It flies rapidly keeping very close to the ground. This rapid flight and its small size make that it is rarely noticed. It occurs in warm, dry places such as open, stony ground with grassy vegetation and some bushes, or on waste places and abandoned agricultural land. The areas it occupies are sometimes very small. The caterpillar feeds on different <em>Heliotropum</em> species and on <em>Adrachne telephioides</em>. They are attended by ants. On Mount Parnassus, the caterpillars are attended by <em>Acantholepis</em> ants, outside of Europe also by <em>Pheidole</em>, <em>Prenolepis</em> and <em>Iridomyrmex</em> ant species. The Grass Jewel has two or three generations a year and passes the winter in the pupa stage. Habitats: phrygana (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).
174361		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to patches with good habitat.
174361		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174362		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174362		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Western Sicily, Malta, some Aegean Islands and Crete, Turkey, Cyprus, West Asia and North Africa.  Up to 800 m (Pamperis 1997, Lafranchis 2004). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174362		habitat	eng	This tiny butterfly occurs on hot meadows and clearings close to the sea. It flies low to the ground and is easily overlooked. The female lays the eggs on <em>Oxalis</em> spp. The species produces several generations a year (Pamperis, 1997). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174362		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174362		threats	eng	Not examined.
174363		conservation	eng	In Croatia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174363		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the moderately high mountains in the south of Europe (500-2,500 m) and in Scandinavia (100-1,200 m). It is furthermore found in temperate Asia (except for the extreme north) to Mongolia, the Amur region and Northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174363		habitat	eng	The Northern Wall Brown is found in woodland clearings and meadows in woodland, usually in relatively warm places with large rockmasses. The butterflies are fond of basking in the sun on warm rocks or on the ground. The eggs are laid on a number of grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.) and cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.). The Northern Wall Brown hibernates either in the last larval instar, or as a pupa and has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (28%), coniferous woodland (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).
174363		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174363		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174364		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174364		distribution	eng	This is a species of Southern Central Europe. This species occurs in France (except the northwest and the extreme south), north of Italy, Switzerland, south of Germany, Poland via Balkans to the north of Greece. In Spain, it is limited to the Cantabrian Mts. and the Pyrenees. 100- 1,700 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, West and Central temperate Asia, Mongolia and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174364		habitat	eng	The Dryad inhabits grassy, rather rough vegetation, often located at the edge of woodland or scrub and mostly quite damp. The foodplants are relatively broad-leaved, nutritious grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.) and bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.). The female drops its eggs in flight into the grass. The tiny caterpillars emerge and, without feeding, enter a period of inactivity during the summer months. In autumn, they begin to feed, hibernating in the first or second larval instar. The caterpillars make a little hollow in the ground in which to pupate, but do not spin a cocoon. The Dryad has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
174364		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, Moldova and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174364		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174365		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174365		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe in the Pyrenees and Alps. 1,500-3400m in the Alps, in the Spanish Pyrenees above 2,000 m. It is also found in tundras and mountains (up to the desert zone) throughout the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174365		habitat	eng	The Peak White is found high in the mountains in flower-rich grasslands. The eggs are laid singly on Alpine Bittercress (<em>Cardamine bellidifolia </em>ssp. <em>alpina</em>), <em>Hutchinsia alpina</em>, <em>Erysimum helveticum</em> and <em>Reseda glauca</em>, especially on those growing on open stony patches. The caterpillars mostly eat the lower leaves and hide under stones when the weather is bad. In the Alps, the Peak White usually has only one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. However, in warm summers or at lower altitudes, a partial second generation is sometimes produced that passes the winter as a caterpillar. In the Spanish Pyrenees, two generations a year are usual and it hibernates either as a pupa or a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (72%), screes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mixed woodland (9%).
174365		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174365		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174366		conservation	eng	In Slovakia, Bulgaria and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174366		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered occurrence in Europe: the eastern Pyrenees, the Alps, central Apennines, mountainous areas of the southwestern Balkans, the Carpathians and Tatra and in the north of Europe in Norway, west of Sweden and north of Finland. In central Europe 1,600-3100 m, in South Scandinavia 900-1,200 m and in Lapland from sea level. It is also found in the mountains of the south of Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174366		habitat	eng	Within its range the Dewy Ringlet is one of the more common Erebias. In Scandinavia, it is mostly found in damp places where grass and bushes are growing, often near small streams and in more mountainous areas on grassy slopes. In Central Europe, the butterflies occur on stony, alpine meadows with a vegetation of short grasses and dwarf shrubs. These butterflies have a characteristic, undulating flight. This gives the impression that they are not using their hindwings and are just about to fall to the ground. The female lays its eggs on different grasses, such as fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>), or Mat-grass (<em>Nardus stricta</em>). In most parts of its range, the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), heath and scrub (16%).
174366		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174366		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174367		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008).
174367		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central Italy and in the Southeast and East of Europe (from eastern Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia to Romania and Greece, on Greek islands (Thasos, Kos and Rhodes and Cyprus). 0-1,600 m. It is found further east through Turkey to Israel, Afghanistan, southern Urals and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174367		habitat	eng	The Lesser Fiery Copper is mostly found on dry, flower-rich grasslands, both on calcareous and acid soils. They are also seen on waste land, very open scrub and rocky slopes. The butterflies are often seen drinking from the flowers of Danewort (<em>Sambucus ebulus</em>). Its most important larval foodplant is Knotgrass (<em>Polygonum aviculare</em>), although other <em>Polygonaceae</em> species are probably also used. The caterpillars feed on both the flowers and the leaves. This butterfly species hibernates as a caterpillar and has several generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).
174367		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174367		threats	eng	The species is threatened by intensification and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands.
174368		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174368		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Greece (Taijetos Mts. 1,400-2,200 m) and on Samos (1,000-1450 m). It is furthermore found in Turkey, the Middle East, Iran and the south of Russia to Afghanistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174368		habitat	eng	The Eastern Brown Argus occurs in dry, rocky places with low-growing bushes. Usually, it flies above the tree-line, but it can also be seen on open patches near the tree-line. The caterpillars feed on <em>Astracantha rumelica</em>, partly boring themselves in the stem of the foodplant. They are attended by <em>Camponotus</em> ants. The Eastern Brown Argus has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).
174368		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174368		threats	eng	Not examined.
174369		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174369		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally mostly in North and East Europe: Finland, Sweden and Norway (except the coasts), the Baltic States. Further south, scattered populations are present  in Spain (Cantabrian Mts.), France (the Pyrenees, Vosges and Ardennes), Belgium (Ardennes), Luxembourg, Germany (South and East and the Eifel), north of Italy, south of Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Stara Planina in Bulgaria and Serbia, Poland. 0-1,800 m. Recently found in Turkey. It is furthermore found in the temperate forest zone of the Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174369		habitat	eng	The Bog Fritillary occurs on wet grasslands and marshy ground by streams, rivers, or lakes and at the edges of raised bogs. Sometimes, the area they occupy is very small. They can be seen beside streams, flying slowly back and forth between small patches where its foodplant Common Bistort (<em>Polygonum bistorta</em>) is growing. The small caterpillars live together in a loosely spun nest and hibernate when half-grown. However, the larger, later caterpillars are solitary and considerably more mobile, frequently leaving their foodplants in order to bask in the sun on another plant. The Bog Fritillary has one generation a year. There are two sub-species, the smaller, more brightly marked <em>B. e. eunomia </em>and <em>B. e. ossiana</em>, that occurs in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Baltic countries. The species' range in Central Europe is highly fragmented. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), raised bogs (26%), fens, transition mires and springs (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), blanket bogs (5%), water-fringe vegetation (5%).
174369		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174369		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174370		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174370		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over the Iberian Peninsula, except the north of Spain. Sea level-1,600m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174370		habitat	eng	The Spanish Marbled White is found in warm, dry places with low vegetation on rocky slopes, on flower-rich grassy vegetation and in scrub. Its foodplants are grasses of the genus <em>Stipa</em>. The caterpillars hibernate, pupating on the ground in the early spring. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174370		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174370		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174371		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174371		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of the Pyrenees, central and Northern France, Southern and Eastern Belgium, Southern and Eastern Netherlands, Germany except the North, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Baltic States southwards to the Balkans and Northern Greece. 200-1,600 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174371		habitat	eng	The Chequered Skipper usually occurs on damp grassland at woodland margins, or where there is woodland nearby, including road verges, also on the drier areas of raised bogs and at their edges. Breeding grounds are also known in somewhat drier locations at higher altitudinal levels. Populations are usually small in size, though numbers can be high. The female lays its eggs one by one on the blades of coarse-leaved grasses. The caterpillars spin folded grass leaves together into a little tube, in which they spend most of their life, leaving it only to feed. The traces of the caterpillar, small half-moons nibbled away from the edge of the grass-blade, are relatively easy to find. The caterpillars hibernate in a more substantial tube-like shelter. It pupates, its papery, pale-yellow pupa suspended from withered grass by a silken girdle. The Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (19%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%).
174371		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174371		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174372		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174372		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Balkans from Croatia to Bulgaria and in north and central Greece. 900-2,000 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174372		habitat	eng	The Balkan Copper can be found in damp grassland, sub-alpine and alpine meadows and in woodland clearings with a well-developed herb layer. Populations are usually very local, but in meadows, abundances can sometimes be very high. Different sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.), including Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>) are used as larval foodplants. It has one generation a year. This butterfly looks very like the Purple-edged Copper (<em>Lycaena hippothoe</em>) and used to be classified as a sub-species of it. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).
174372		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174372		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174373		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174373		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in most Central European countries. In Scandinavia, it is only present in the extreme South, in Spain and Portugal, it is local. It is absent from Britain, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete. 0-1,600 m. It is also found in Turkey, the Middle East, Urals and Northwest Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174373		habitat	eng	The Ilex Hairstreak occurs locally at woodland edges and in coppices with warm, dry oak scrub. The female lays its eggs on small oak trees. The tiny caterpillar hibernates in the egg, or in the first larval instar. It feeds on the young oak leaves, eventually pupating in the litter layer under the foodplant. Both <em>Camponotus</em> and <em>Crematogaster</em> ants occasionally visit the caterpillars. The adult butterflies need nectar, feeding on flowering Common Privet (<em>Ligustrum vulgare</em>) and on bramble blossom (<em>Rubus</em> spp.). It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (45%), heath and scrub (15%), mixed woodland (13%).
174373		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174373		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174374		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174374		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species only occurs very locally in Spain, where it is reported from Gibraltar and Ebro estuary. There are probably no stable populations. This vagrant species sometimes turns up in other places along the Mediterranean coast. Sea-level. Its range extends to Africa and Middle East. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174374		habitat	eng	The Zeller’s skipper is mostly seen near the coast where it lives in marsh areas with foodplants such as rice (<em>Oryza</em> ssp.), Maïs (<em>Zea</em> ssp.) or <em>Saccharum</em>. These butterflies are strong flyers, sometimes showing migratory behaviour. The caterpillars feed on various grasses. In North Africa, where they also occur, <em>Sorghum halepense</em> and <em>Leersia hexandra</em> are also used as foodplants. It is not clear how many generations a year the species has, but it is probably one. No detailed habitat descriptions available.
174374		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174374		threats	eng	Not examined.
174375		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. It is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Greece. Not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Romania. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174375		distribution	eng	This species occurs very locally in Southeast Europe: in the northwestern part of Romania, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia and northwest and south of Greece. It is also found on the Crimea and in Turkey, Caucasus and Northwest Africa. 600-1,100 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174375		habitat	eng	The Bavius Blue occurs on flower-rich, dry grassland, on dry, stony slopes and on open patches in shrub and in vineyards on calcareous soil. Various species of <em>Salvia</em> are used as foodplant, including Sage (<em>S. officinalis</em>), <em>S. nutans</em>, <em>S. verbenaca</em> and Whorled Clary (<em>S. verticillata</em>). The caterpillars feed mostly on the flowers, but sometimes also on the leaves. They are frequently found with ants. The Bavius Blue has one generation a year. The pupa hibernates. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), phrygana (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), screes (10%).
174375		population	eng	This species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania, Serbia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174375		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174376		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174376		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Europe as far as central Germany and central Poland, south and east of France, the eastern half of Spain and the south of Portugal. 0-1,700 m. It is also found in Turkey, the Middle East, Iran, Southern Urals and Tian Shan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174376		habitat	eng	Chapman's Blue looks very much like the Common Blue (<em>P. icarus</em>). It occurs in warm, dry places, such as calcareous and nutrient-poor grasslands, fields of sainfoin and abandoned agricultural land. Eggs are laid on Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>) and in Greece also on Cockscomb Sainfoin (<em>O. caput-galli</em>). The caterpillars feed on soft parts of the leaflets, leaving the veins. The small caterpillars go into hibernation and in those parts of the range with hot climates, the egg goes into aestivation. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Formica</em>, <em>Myrmica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em> and hide in the litter layer and pupate. Chapman's Blue usually has two generations a year, but in the south of the range also three. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), heath and scrub (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).
174376		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174376		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174377		conservation	eng	In Belgium, Portugal and Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174377		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Spain in mountainous areas, including Sierra Nevada, S. de Segura,, S. de la Demanda, S. de Guadarrama, Serrania de Cuenca, Montes Universales, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees. It is also found in the south and central France, south and central Germany, Poland, south Lithuania, Switzerland, Austria, north and central Italy (Apennines), the Balkans, Greece and European Turkey. 50-2,400 m. Its range extends through Turkey to Iran and Lebanon and across south Siberia to Mongolia and northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174377		habitat	eng	The Olive Skipper occurs in areas that do not become too hot in summer, on poor to rough, flower-rich grasslands, which are either open or surrounded by woodland. The Olive Skipper is quite mobile and may be seen in unexpected places. The eggs are deposited on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and master-worts (<em>Astrantia</em> spp.). The caterpillar lives in a small shelter, spun from a rolled-up leaf, feeding on the leaves of the foodplant. It passes the winter in a cocoon and pupates the following spring at the base of the foodplant. This skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%).
174377		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Luxembourg and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174377		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.
174378		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2 (under the name <em>Erebia medusa polaris</em>).
174378		distribution	eng	This species occurs at the edge of the Arctic Ocean in extreme north ofNorway and bordering part of Finland. Sea level -200 m, sometimes to 400 m. It is furthermore present sporadically to the southern Urals. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174378		habitat	eng	The Arctic Woodland Ringlet is often found on damp grasslands, but it also occurs on dry grasslands and in waste places, often where there is shelter from birches, or juniper bushes. Unlike the other ringlets in Lapland, the Arctic Ringlet (<em>E. disa</em>) and the Lapland Ringlet (<em>E. embla</em>), this species does not occur on peat bogs. It lays its eggs on Wood Millet (<em>Milium effusum</em>) and Swamp Meadow-grass (<em>Poa palustris</em>). The caterpillars take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (100%).
174378		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174378		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174379		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174379		distribution	eng	This migrant butterfly can be seen all over Europe. Numbers can vary greatly from year to year depending on the weather. Sea level-3,000 m. This butterfly has a global distribution. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174379		habitat	eng	The Painted Lady is a visitor from the south, that is difficult to confuse with other butterflies. The black triangle on the tip of the forewing distinguishes it from the proper fritillaries. It is a migrant and cannot survive the winter in temperate climates. Each year, Western Europe is recolonized by butterflies from the south of Spain and Africa. In good years, the Painted Lady can be seen nearly everywhere, but otherwise seems to be absent. It often basks in the sun on the ground or on vegetation with its wings wide open, taking off into a powerful, gliding flight when approached. It visits a variety of flowers for nectar. The Painted Lady lays its eggs on very different foodplants in Europe. It prefers various thistles (<em>Cirsium</em> spp., <em>Carduus</em> spp. and <em>Onopordum</em> spp.), but also uses mallows (<em>Malva</em> spp.) especially in the south and Viper?s Bugloss (<em>Echium vulgare</em>) and Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>). The eggs are laid singly on the upperside of the leaves, the caterpillars feeding in a shelter of loosely spun leaves. They pupate on the foodplant. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), urban parks and large gardens (5%), fallow land, waste places (5%), scrub and grassland (5%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (5%).
174379		population	eng	This is a migrant species from Africa colonizing Europe each year. The numbers in Europe largely depend on the magnitude of the migration.
174379		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174380		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174380		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the southeast of Russia and North Kazakhstan and in the Caucasus up to 3,000 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174380		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs on steppe and semi-desert habitats in mountains and at foothills, dry steppes in valleys and subalpine meadows (Tuzov, 1997). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).
174380		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174380		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174381		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174381		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Finland, Sweden (also on Öland and Gotland), in the mountains of Norway, east and south of Germany and further eastwards, in the Alps, sporadically in Italy and Sicily, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia and Bulgaria, north and central Greece, France (the Pyrenees and Central Massif), Spain (Pyrenees, Cantabrian Mts., Sierra de la Demanda, Cuenca, S. de Maria, S. de Tejeda). 700-2,500 m in central and south of Europe, below 1,000 m in Scandinavia. It is also found in Turkey and east to Mongolia, Tian Shan and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174381		habitat	eng	The Geranium Argus occurs locally, in meadows, stream valleys and at woodland edges. The female lays its eggs in the flowers of crane?s-bills (<em>Geranium</em> spp.), at the base of the ovary into which the small caterpillar bores its way on hatching out. It stays there for about a week. It then starts feeding on leaves, first gnawing on the stems, which causes them to wilt. When half-grown, the caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer, but pupate on the foodplant. They are sometimes attended by ants of the genera <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. The Geranium Argus has only one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), mesophile grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).
174381		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Latvia, Serbia, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174381		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174382		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the ecology, population size and trends, distribution and threats of this species. It is not known if conservation actions are needed for this species.
174382		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Crimea and the southern European part of Russia and the Don river basin to the the south of Urals in the east (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174382		habitat	eng	This blue butterfly occurs on stony steppes, gullies and limestone outcrops. Larval foodplants are <em>Hedysarum</em> spp,. The females deposit the eggs on dry plant parts. The hibernation takes place in the second larval instar. It has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).
174382		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174382		threats	eng	No information is available on threats for this species.
174383		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. In Belarus and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. None of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Austria. In spite of legal protection of important butterfly habitats special management of these habitats for <em>L. helle</em> is only conducted in few countries (e.g. in Belgium). It requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). Populations should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174383		distribution	eng	This species occurs in scattered populations from the north of Norway to the Pyrenees and from the east of Belgium to East Asia: France (Ariège to the Jura and western Vosges), western Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium (Ardennes) and Germany (in the upland area including the Eifel). 100-1,800 m. It is futhermore found through the temperate and partly arctic areas of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174383		habitat	eng	The Violet Copper is a rare butterfly that is often confined to very small sites, where it may be seen in large numbers. It is found in swampy, wet grassland and rough vegetation bordering streams and lakes. In Central Europe, eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of Bistort (<em>Polygonum bistorta</em>). In the north of its range Viviparous Bistort (<em>Polygonum vivipara</em>) is also used as larval foodplant. The young caterpillars eat the lower epidermis, thus making the characteristic ?windows?. It passes the winter as a pupa. It has one, sometimes two, generations a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (37%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), water-fringe vegetation (8%), fens, transition mires and springs (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%).
174383		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In Central Europe, it is restricted to isolated and scattered locations. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Latvia and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Germany, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Lithuania, Norway, Romania, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174383		threats	eng	Land drainage and agricultural improvements are the most important threats for this species. In some cases, because of agricultural abandonment, meadows get covered with rough vegetation and finally trees and shrubs. Central European populations are often small and isolated, making it hard for the species to recolonise former sites.
174384		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174384		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the extreme south of Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean islands (except Sicily), coastal areas of Italy, Britain, Ireland and north Scandinavia. 0- 2,400 m. It is furthermore present east to West Siberia and from Turkey across Iran and Afghanistan to the Tian-Shan and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174384		habitat	eng	The Niobe Fritillary occurs on poor, dry grassland, often with woodland or scrub nearby. The eggs are laid on the woody stock of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). The caterpillar develops quickly within the egg, but does not hatch until after hibernation. Staying hidden during the day, it feeds on the violet plants at night. It pupates low down in the vegetation. The Niobe Fritillary has one generation a year. The form eris, with no silver spots on the underside of its hind wings, occurs at very high altitudes. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), mesophile grasslands (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mixed woodland (10%), heath and scrub (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (6%).
174384		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174384		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands. In some Western European countries, nitrogen deposition leads to a change in the vegetation structure of heathlands and coastal dunes, leading to local extinctions.
174385		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174385		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Greek islands of Lesbos and Ikaria, and on the Crimea. Sea level-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey, the north of Iraq, the north of Iran and the Transcaucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174385		habitat	eng	The Eastern Grayling occurs in dry, bushy vegetation in open pinewoods and in rocky areas with grassy vegetation. The caterpillars feed on grasses, although on which species is not known. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), phrygana (20%), screes (10%), mixed woodland (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).
174385		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174385		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174386		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174386		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over Central and Southern Europe. It is absent from islands in the East of the Mediterranean, Ireland and Britain. Resident up to 63° N in Scandinavia, migrant to 66° N. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore present through the temperate part of Russia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174386		habitat	eng	The large, silver-white mirrors on the underside of the hindwings, distinguish the Queen of Spain Fritillary from other fritillaries. They are strong flyers and can be seen outside their breeding grounds.The butterflies of the first generation that emerge at the end of the spring are quite small, but those of summer generations are often bigger. They can be found on a wide range of dry, flower-rich grasslands, wasteland and fields. The female deposits its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) on which the caterpillars later feed. On this nutritious diet the caterpillars grow very quickly, pupating low down in the vegetation. The Queen of Spain Fritillary has two to four generations a year, depending on the altitude and geographical position of the habitat. Hibernation takes place in the larval stage in temperate areas, but probably it can overwinter in other stages as well. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (13%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), fallow land, waste places (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), improved grasslands (5%).
174386		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Norway, Spain, Spain - Canary Islands and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174386		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174387		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174387		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs in central and northern Europe: the Jura and Vosges, the Alps, Switzerland, south and east of Germany, Scandinavia except Denmark, the Baltic States and further to the east. 100-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the boreal and temperate zones of Eurasia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174387		habitat	eng	The Moorland Clouded Yellow occurs at the edges of raised bogs and also on blanket bogs. At high altitudes, it is found in drier habitats. Eggs are laid singly on Bog Whortleberry (<em>Vaccinium uliginosum</em>). At first, the caterpillars only eat the upper layers of the leaf, producing “windows”, but later, the whole leaf is eaten. The caterpillars hibernate among the dry leaves of the litter layer and the next spring feed and grow further, before finally pupating on a branch of the foodplant. It has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (35%), blanket bogs (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), coniferous woodland (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).
174387		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Poland and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Italy, Latvia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174387		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174388		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174388		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Ireland, North of Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland. 0-1,900 m. Its range extends to Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174388		habitat	eng	The Small Skipper occurs in all types of flower-rich places with tall grass, such as grasslands, road verges and edges of streams. They are often seen with the Essex Skipper (<em>T. lineola</em>) and can be distinguished from it by the colour of the underside of the antennal club, which ranges from brown to yellow, while that of the Essex Skipper is black. Furthermore, the scent brand on the forewing of the male is broader, longer and more conspicuous than that of the Essex Skipper. The butterflies visit thistles, knapweeds and other purple or pink flowers for their nectar. A female deposits eggs in batches of three to twenty in the leaf-sheaths of coarse-leaved grasses. Unlike the Essex Skipper, it only uses young, green leaves. After about three weeks, the eggs hatch and the small caterpillars begin spinning a shelter straightaway in which to hibernate. The next spring, they begin to feed. At first, they only feed during the day and later also at night. They pupate in a web of loosely spun white threads. The Small Skipper has one generation a year, but the butterflies emerge over a long period. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).
174388		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174388		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174389		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174389		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the utmost Eastern Europe to Mongolia and China. Up to 800 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174389		habitat	eng	This species occurs on semideserts, dry steppes and arid stony hills up to 800 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174389		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174389		threats	eng	Not examined.
174390		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174390		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South and Central Europe to about 54° N. It is absent from northwestern France, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, large parts of Italy and most Mediterranean islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174390		habitat	eng	The Blue-spot Hairstreak can be found in sunny, warm places, on groups of bushes, or on scrub at the edge of a wood, with some flowering vegetation as nectar source nearby. The female lays its eggs on various buckthorns (<em>Rhamnus</em> spp.), choosing branches located in the sun. The small caterpillar only emerges in spring, having passed the winter in the eggshell. It immediately starts to eat buds and young leaves. When fully-grown, it pupates on the foodplant, the pupa suspended by a silken girdle. The Blue-spot Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), heath and scrub (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (7%).
174390		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Moldova and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174390		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174391		conservation	eng	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Western and Central European countries where the species is in decline, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174391		distribution	eng	This species occurs in small, strongly isolated populations, in France (Allier, Nievre, Saone-et-Loire, Ain, Jura Mountains, Haut Rhin, Bas Rhin, Seine-et-Marne, Meuse and Moselle), northwest, northeast and central Switzerland, south and east Germany, Poland, the Baltic States, south of Finlan and of Sweden, Slovakia and north Austria. Sea level-750 m. This species is present across temperate Asia to China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174391		habitat	eng	The Scarce Heath occurs in damp to wet grassy meadows in or at the edges of woods. Sometimes, they occur away from woods in drier places or in flower-rich grassland. The butterflies are fond of settling in grass and do not fly far, nor very often. Among the grasses they use as food are Tufted Hair-grass (<em>Deschampsia cespitosa</em>) and Bearded Couch (<em>Elymus caninus</em>). When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in a grass tussock, later also pupating there. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mixed woodland (19%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mesophile grasslands (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%).
174391		population	eng	This is a widespread species in the eastern part of its European range, but in most of Western and Central Europe it is very rare and restricted to a few sites of good quality habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hero</span> is declining in Western  and Central Europe. Strongholds nowadays in Eastern Europe (Russia, Baltic states). It is reported extinct in Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174391		threats	eng	The main threats are from drainage, agricultural improvements and changing grassland and woodland management. This has caused strong declines and even local extinctions in many countries in Western and Central Europe.
174392		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174392		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Urals through the temperate part of central and East Asia to Sakhalin and North Korea (Tshikolovets, 2003). Up to 2,500 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174392		habitat	eng	This species occurs on forest edges and flowery slopes (Tuzov, 1997), open places in coniferous and mixed forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174392		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174392		threats	eng	Not examined.
174393		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174393		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Iberian Peninsula, on Corsica and Sardinia, in Italy, the Balkans, Greece and European Turkey, South and Central France, South and East Germany, Denmark (only on Seeland and Bornholm), in South Sweden, Poland and further eastwards. 0-1,700 m. Its range extends to Northwest Africa and through Turkey to Iran and Lebanon. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174393		habitat	eng	Oberthür's Grizzled Skipper is generally limited to unimproved grasslands, occurring on nutrient-poor grassland, both in the dunes and on dry, chalk slopes. In the north of its range, the populations are small, but large numbers of butterflies make up the southern populations. The butterflies can often be seen visiting flowers and seem to be especially fond of <em>Globularia</em>. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). The caterpillars of the first instar only eat the surface layer, leaving translucent “windows” in the leaf. The larger caterpillars eat the whole leaf and live in a tent-like shelter, spun from one or more leaves. It is the caterpillar that hibernates. It pupates in a cocoon on the ground. There is one generation a year in the northern range. In the southern range there are two or even three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (29%), mesophile grasslands (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), heath and scrub (5%).
174393		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Poland, Portugal and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174393		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174394		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174394		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in large parts of South and East Europe: in northeast Spain and central Pyrenees, the southern half of France, north and central Italy, Switzerland (Wallis and near Geneva), via Austria to the south of Poland and to the south, some areas in the Balkans and north of Greece. 0-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, South Siberia, the Urals and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174394		habitat	eng	The Provençal Short-tailed Blue occurs in woodland clearings, at the edges of woods, on grassy vegetation near bushes and along the banks of streams and edges of ditches. Goat’s-rue (<em>Galega officinalis</em>) and Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>) are its most important foodplants, but other leguminous plants, such as Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>), Common Vetch (<em>Vicia sativa</em>) and Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>) are also used. The caterpillars feed mostly on the flowers, but also on the leaves and are attended by ants. These ants mostly belong to the genus <em>Formica</em>. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (9%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%).
174394		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174394		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174395		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174395		distribution	eng	This species can be found from Northeast Europe through the northernmost parts of Asia to America (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174395		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland and mountain tundras (Tuzov, 1997). Habitats: mixed woodland (33%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%).
174395		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174395		threats	eng	Not examined.
174396		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174396		distribution	eng	This species occurs up to 49° N in France and up to 51° N in Germany and Poland. It is absent from the south of Italy, the Mediterranean islands, Portugal and Spain (except in the north and Montes Universales). 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174396		habitat	eng	The Sloe Hairstreak is found in dry scrub in woods, at wood margins, or in the open landscape. They are also seen in abandoned vineyards on calcareous soils. When looking for nectar, the butterflies seem to prefer white flowers. Blackthorn or Sloe (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) is practically the only foodplant of the Sloe Hairstreak and eggs are laid on branches that are in the sun. The small caterpillars stay in the egg until after the winter, emerging in spring and feeding on the young Blackthorn leaves. When fully-grown, they leave the foodplant to pupate on the ground in leaf litter. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (30%), heath and scrub (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (5%).
174396		population	eng	This is a local species. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Germany, Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174396		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174397		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174397		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs on the Greek island Lesbos. Sea level-900 m. Its main distribution is in Turkey. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174397		habitat	eng	This meadow brown prefers damp places with grassy vegetation and bushes. The butterflies have a long flight period and are inactive in summer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: water-fringe vegetation (50%), fens, transition mires and springs (50%).
174397		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174397		threats	eng	Not examined.
174398		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species occured only in protected areas in Romania. Protecting the remaing sites from further destruction should be a priority.
174398		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Romania, Moldova, the Ukraine and the Asian part of Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174398		habitat	eng	The Nogel’s Hairstreak inhabits very open, dry woodland, dry grasslands in woodland areas and steep slopes. Its main larval foodplant is the milk-vetch <em>Astragalus ponticus</em>. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (60%), phrygana (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).
174398		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The species occurs in small isolated colonies in Southeast Europe. The last records from Romania are dating from the 1980's, although there are rumours that it has been found again. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine. Situation in Moldova unclear (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174398		threats	eng	<em>Tomares nogelii </em>is a habitat specialist, extremely monophagous and has a highly fragmented distribution, of which little is known. Tourist activities and agricultural improvement have diminished many populations. The remaining populations are mainly threatened by changes in agricultural practices.
174399		conservation	eng	In Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174399		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southern and Central Europe, as far as the southeast  of Belgium and up to 54° N in Poland. It is a migrant in the south of Britain, north of Germany and the Netherlands. It is absent from Sardinia, the south of Greece, the east of Thrace and European Turkey. 0-2,100 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174399		habitat	eng	The Berger?s Clouded Yellow is a butterfly of dry, open grasslands on calcareous soils. In the northern part of its distribution range, it often occurs on the south-facing slopes of hills or mountains. The Berger?s Clouded Yellow is much more sensitive to cold than the Pale Clouded Yellow (<em>C. hyale</em>), the caterpillars growing less quickly and even undergoing periods of inactivity in bad weather. Eggs are mostly laid on Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>), also on Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>). Hibernation takes place on the foodplant, or on the ground in the litter layer. For pupation the caterpillar attaches itself to a foodplant, turning into a light-green pupa, suspended by a silken girdle. This species has two or three generations a year. The Berger?s Clouded Yellow and the Pale Clouded Yellow are so similar that it is not possible to identify them with certainty. Habitat helps a little, Berger?s Clouded Yellow being almost only seen on calcareous grasslands with Horseshoe Vetch, whereas the Pale Clouded Yellow prefers lucerne fields. However, during migration, <em>C. hyale</em> can turn up almost everywhere. These species are easy to distinguish as caterpillars. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), improved grasslands (10%), fallow land, waste places (8%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).
174399		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174399		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174400		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174400		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Canary Islands, from Morocco and Algeria through North Africa, Iraq, Iran to the north of India. Sea level to 2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174400		habitat	eng	The butterflies of the Greenish Black-tip are found on dry, grassy vegetation on calcareous soil and in rocky areas. On the Canary Island, the caterpillars feed on <em>Reseda  lancerotae</em> and <em>Carrichtera annua</em>, eating the leaves as well as the ripening seeds. The Greenish Black-tip has several generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).
174400		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174400		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174401		conservation	eng	In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level , but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174401		distribution	eng	This is a species of Southern and Central Europe. This species occurs south of a line from mid-France via mid-Germany, northeast of Poland and southeast of Latvia. It is absent from some of the Mediterranean islands. Sea level-2,400 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, Siberia up to Northwest China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174401		habitat	eng	The Spotted Fritillary can be found on nutrient-poor grasslands, steppe-like vegetation and dry, rough vegetation near rocks and on slopes. Further, it is also seen on fallow agricultural land, or at the edges of fields It uses a wide variety of plants as foodplant, plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), toadflaxes (<em>Linara</em> spp.), speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.), foxgloves (<em>Digitalis</em> spp.), woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.), valerians (<em>Valeriana</em> spp.) and mulleins (<em>Verbascum</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in clumps on the underside of the leaves, near to the ground. At first, the caterpillars feed communally in a loosely spun shelter, but they separate quite soon, either into smaller groups, or become solitary. The caterpillars hibernate alone, or in small groups, in a spun web. They pupate low down on the foodplant or in the vegetation. The Spotted Fritillary has one to three generations a year, depending on the geographical location and altitude of its breeding ground. The adult butterfly is extremely variable in its wing markings and wing colours. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), mesophile grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).
174401		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174401		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. Howwever, it shows a rapid decline in Poland and seems to occur only in eastern Poland now. In Portugal half of the populations is lost since the 1970s and now highly fragmented.
174402		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174402		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern Urals and the polar tundras of European Russia and in the arctic parts of Asia and North America and the mountains of Central and East Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174402		habitat	eng	This species can be found on tundras and swamps. Its hostplants are <em>Carex</em> spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).
174402		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174402		threats	eng	Not examined.
174403		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174403		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Central and Southern Europe: the Iberian Peninsula,  France, southeast Belgium, west Germany, west Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland and Italy. 0-1650 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174403		habitat	eng	The Red-underwing Skipper is a small butterfly that likes warm habitats. It occurs on calcareous and other dry grasslands and also in dry, rough vegetation, as long as its larval foodplant, Salad Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba minor</em>), is present. The eggs are laid between the buds on the flowerheads of this plant and the caterpillars feed on the young leaves. Hibernation takes place as a caterpillar, in warm areas when still small and further north when fully grown. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer, in a sturdy cocoon made from plant remains. Because of its rapid flight and inconspicuous behaviour, this small butterfly is often not even noticed. However, they are often present in large numbers over quite a small area. The butterflies like visiting flowers. It has one or two generations a year, depending on the position of the breeding ground within the range. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%).
174403		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174403		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174404		conservation	eng	In Hungary, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174404		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several mountainous regions: in Spain, generally rare but locally common in the north and east; south of France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, south and east of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Greece. 1,000-2,100 m. It is also found in Turkey, south and central Urals, Mongolia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174404		habitat	eng	The Damon Blue is found on calcareous soil, on grasslands, rough vegetation, such as small patches at the edge of scrub or woodland and also on abandoned Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>) fields. It lays its eggs on different species of <em>Onobrychis</em>, including Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>). The caterpillars seem to like being between the flowers and only start to feed late in the afternoon. They are often attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em> or <em>Formica</em>. They pupate in the litter layer. The Damon Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (34%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%).
174404		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Poland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Latvia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174404		threats	eng	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly. The (sub)-alpine populations are less threatened than the lowland populations.
174405		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174405		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Ireland, Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Estonia. 0-1,500 m. The subspecies <em>I. p. feisthameli </em>occurs in Spain and the south of France. It is sometimes considered as a separate species. Its range extends to North Africa and to Turkey and the Middle East across Kazakhstan to the Altai, Southwest. Siberia and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174405		habitat	eng	This large, conspicuous butterfly with its elegant gliding flight, is very impressive. It occurs in warm, dry places with scrub and rough vegetation. The males of the Scarce Swallowtail congregate on hilltops, dancing in the air and waiting for the females, a type of behaviour known as “hill-topping”. They visit thistles and other flowers rich in nectar. The eggs are laid on the leaves of small bushes or trees of Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) and other <em>Rosaceae</em>. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. When fully-grown, they pupate, suspended in a silken girdle in the foodplant. Depending on its position in the range and on the altitude, the Scarce Swallowtail has one to three generations a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (9%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (9%), urban parks and large gardens (6%).
174405		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxemburg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Romania, Serbia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174405		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174406		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174406		distribution	eng	This is a Central and Southern European species. This species occurs south of a line from central France, south of Germany and south of Poland eastwards. It is absent from the south of Portugal, northwest of Spain and north of Italy. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174406		habitat	eng	The Great Banded Grayling is immediately noticeable by its size and is one of the largest butterflies of Europe. It glides more than it flies and can be seen on dry grasslands at the edges of woodland and on poor and moderately nutrient-rich agricultural land. The butterflies need quite a lot of nectar and are easily observed on the purple flowers of thistles and other plants. The females release their eggs into the vegetation, sometimes while perched, often while in flight. The caterpillars can use most grasses as a foodplant. The tiny caterpillar first hibernates in a grass tussock, only in spring beginning to feed and grow. The caterpillars pupates in a cocoon in a little hollow in the ground. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), mixed woodland (11%), coniferous woodland (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).
174406		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174406		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174407		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174407		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered occurrence in Europe: northeast Portugal, north and central Spain (but not in the northern coastal zone and the western Pyrenees), southeast of France (eastern Pyrenees, south of the Massif Central to the Alps), south and central Italy, north of Sicily and in the Balkans in the western part of FYR of Macedonia, Albania and north of Greece. In Spain 400-1,500 m, in Italy 1,000-1,500 m and in the Balkans 1,000-2,100 m. It is also found from the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan to South Siberia and from Asia Minor and the Middle East across Iran to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174407		habitat	eng	Esper's Marbled White is a butterfly of grassy vegetation, occurring both on acid and calcareous soils. They are often found on dry, rocky slopes but also in grassy glades in woods. They are fond of visiting thistles and like plants for their nectar. Various meadow grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.) and false bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), Feather Grass (<em>Stipa pinnata</em>) and <em>Aegilops geniculata</em> are used as foodplants. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate on the ground in spring. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (15%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), phrygana (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), coniferous woodland (7%), mixed woodland (7%).
174407		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174407		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174408		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174408		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of the South of Europe: from the north of Portugal, east and central Spain, via the southeast of France, extreme southeast of Switzerland to the south of Slovakia and further southwards in Italy and all over the Balkans. It is also found on several islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,500 m. It is furthermore found in North Africa and across Asia Minor to Korea, China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174408		habitat	eng	The Nettle-tree Butterfly is one of the snout butterflies, so-called because of its long maxillary palps, which point forward seemingly forming a snout. They are often found in scrub or woods, whit the major foodplant, the Nettle Tree (<em>Celtis australis</em>). Species of <em>Prunus</em>, <em>Ulmus</em>, or other species of <em>Celtis</em> are possibly also used as foodplants. This butterfly is a good flyer that often roams some distance from its habitat and can be seen in all kinds of places. The eggs are laid singly on the leaf buds, early in the year because this butterfly hibernates in the adult stage, appearing again in March. The green caterpillars keep mostly to the underside of the leaves and also pupate there. The Nettle-tree Butterfly has one generation a year; the adult hibernates sometimes as soon as August, the brown underside of its wings providing a good camouflage in the dense undergrowth where it spends the winter looking very much like a dead leaf. Habitats: mixed woodland (17%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), urban parks and large gardens (13%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%).
174408		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174408		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174409		conservation	eng	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174409		distribution	eng	This species has a divided distribution range. The northern part consists of Scandinavia, Denmark and the Baltic States; the southern part comprises eastern France (Vosges to Alpes Maritimes, Massif Central), eastern Belgium, central Germany, south of Poland, the Balkans and the north of Greece (Rhodope Mts., Vermion Mts., Varnous Mts.). In Italy it only occurs in the Alps and Apennines. It is absent from the Pyrenees and Iberian Peninsula. In Central Europe above 500 m and in Scandinavia from sea level but in all places well below the tree-line. This species occurs in the forest zone of the entire Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174409		habitat	eng	The Arran Brown occurs in sheltered, grassy, flower-rich places in woodland. These places are usually rather damp and shady. The female deposits its eggs on the withered blades of various grasses, including cock's-foots (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), hair-grasses (<em>Deschampsia</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and Heath-grass (<em>Danthonia decumbens</em>). Sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.) are also used. The egg hibernates and the following year, the caterpillar feeds and grows and in the last larval instar hibernates again. In summer, the caterpillar pupates. The Arran Brown has one generation a year, but the life cycle takes two years to complete. Habitats: coniferous woodland (28%), mixed woodland (26%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (19%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%).
174409		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Latvia, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174409		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174410		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174410		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwest and southeast of Europe: central Portugal, Spain (except the northwestern and northeastern parts), central Pyrenees, Southeast France, locally in central and south Italy and in the north of Sicily, in Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary and in the Balkans from Croatia to the southeast of Romania and Greece (including some islands) and on Cyprus. 400-2,000 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, Middle Asia, Kazakhstan and South Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174410		habitat	eng	The Oriental Meadow Brown is a butterfly of warm, dry places. They can be found on dry grasslands with scattered bushes, or dry scrub vegetation and in open woodland. At rest, their wings are almost always closed. They have a rapid flight, often keeping to the shadow cast by trees or bushes. Grasses, such as meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.) and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) are used as foodplants. It has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), mixed woodland (7%), phrygana (7%).
174410		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174410		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174411		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174411		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the extreme south of Finland and the south of Sweden to the north of Italy and the Balkans, except the Mediterranean coastal regions. In France, it is present in the Southeast to the east of the  Pyrenees. In central England, there are local populations. 200-750 m. It is furthermore present east to Mongolia, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174411		habitat	eng	The Black Hairstreak can be found in habitats with Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) bushes. This may be in moderately dry woodland, or in a hedgerow, or on a woodbank, but it also occurs on solitary groups of Blackthorn bushes. Places with brambles are favourable, providing the nectar the butterflies need. The eggs are laid on Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>), but sometimes other <em>Prunus</em> species are used. The female chooses twigs that will flower the next spring. The small caterpillars that develop, pass the winter in the eggshell. When they emerge, they feed on the buds and flowers. When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they pupate. The black and white pupa, suspended in a silken girdle from a twig, looks very like a bird dropping, an attempt to avoid predation. The Black Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), mixed woodland (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), heath and scrub (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (5%).
174411		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174411		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174412		conservation	eng	In the southern half of its range (Mediterranean), the species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In Central Europe, where the species is restricted to local calcareous grasslands, it benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. In Belarus, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174412		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe up to 54° N. In England, it is only present on Dorset coast. It is absent from the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia, large parts of northern Italy, northern Germany and northeastern Poland. 0-1,600 m. Its range extends to North Africa and the Middle East. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174412		habitat	eng	The Lulworth Skipper can be found on warm, dry grassland, with bushes or scrub nearby, or at the edge of woodland. In the north of its range, it is mostly found on calcareous grassland. Populations of the Lulworth Skipper are sometimes very large. Eggs are laid on the withered leaves of many grasses. Directly after hatching, the small caterpillar spins a cocoon in which to hibernate. It does not begin to eat and grow until the following spring. It then builds a shelter by spinning blades of grass together, which it only leaves when looking for food. When fully grown, it pupates, changing into a green pupa suspended in the vegetation by a silken girdle. The Lulworth Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (31%), mesophile grasslands (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%).
174412		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the northern part of its range. In the south widespread. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1980s. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Portugal, Romania, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174412		threats	eng	This species is especially threatened by changes in agricultural activities. If the management of chalk grasslands (mostly low intensity) is stopped, <em>T. acteon</em> can become very abundant for a few years on the tall grasses. After the invasion of trees and shrubs, the species disappears. Heavy grazing is harmful as larvae live in a spun leaf shelter for a part of the year.
174413		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174413		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Europe: north of Spain (central Pyrenees), south of France (from the Dordogne southwards and eastwards), the southern Alps of Switzerland, Austria and Italy, also in the Apennines and Calabria and from Croatia to Bulgaria and Greece. 400-1,800m. It is also found in Morocco and from Kazakhstan and Central Asia to Transbaikalia and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174413		habitat	eng	In the mountains, the Great Sooty Satyr is mostly found in open, dry, rocky places with grassy vegetation. At lower altitudes, the butterflies occur in open clearings in woods, or at wood edges. They can often be seen drinking nectar on thistles and scabious (<em>Knautia</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs low down on dry grass stems. The caterpillars hibernate when still quite small and pupate in May or June. Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca</em> <em>ovina</em>) is the most important foodplant, but other fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.) and bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) are probably also used. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (12%), screes (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), phrygana (8%).
174413		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174413		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174414		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174414		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Europe from the southeast of France and further eastwards: France in Ardèche and Provence, almost all of Italy (very rare in the north of Italy), along the Dalmatian coast to Greece and Bulgaria. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,700 m. It is furthermore present across Asia Minor to Afghanistan and Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174414		habitat	eng	The Southern Comma is a species of dry grasslands and dry scrub. The major foodplant is Common Pellitory (<em>Parietaria officinalis</em>), a plant that often grows on old walls, so that these butterflies are often found near buildings. They can often be seen, wings wide open, basking in the sun on walls and rocks, or on the ground. The caterpillars probably also feed on Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.). The Southern Comma has two to three generations a year and just as the ordinary Comma (<em>P. Central album</em>), hibernates as an adult butterfly. It can therefore be seen early in spring. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (26%), phrygana (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).
174414		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Slovenia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174414		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174415		conservation	eng	Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174415		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the east of Spain in the vicinity of Huesca, Saragossa, Madrid, Cuenca, Teruel, Alicante, Murcia and Granada. 600-1,400 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174415		habitat	eng	The Southern Hermit inhabits open, dry areas such as limestone plateaus, dry steppe-like grasslands, grassy slopes with scrub and sometimes steep, wooded slopes. The butterflies occur very locally in low numbers. They are often seen with The Hermit (<em>C. briseus</em>). Various grasses are used as foodplants. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174415		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174415		threats	eng	Although this species shows a small decline, it is not believed to face major threats.
174416		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174416		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe from the coastal areas of Croatia down to Albania and northeast Bulgaria, FYR of Macedonia, north and central Greece, Corfu and Cyprus. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Middle East and central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174416		habitat	eng	The Little Tiger Blue is mostly found where its foodplant Christ's Thorn (<em>Paliurus spina-christi</em>) is growing, in open scrub and in agricultural areas where it is used as hedging plant. On Cyprus, it also occurs on another prickly plant, Jujube (<em>Ziziphus lotus</em>). The caterpillars eat from the underside of the leaves, making parallel grooves that look like translucent “windows” from above. Because of their quick flight and small size, these butterflies are not easy to observe. They have several generations a year and hibernate in the pupal stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (55%), phrygana (44%).
174416		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas where <em>Paliuris spina-christi</em> occurs. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174416		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174417		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174417		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe only in the Alps: from the French Alps to Austria and Slovenia. Mostly 1,700-2,200 m, but also seen at 1,000-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the Urals, south and west Siberia, Mongolia, Northeast China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174417		habitat	eng	The Asian Fritillary can be seen searching for nectar or foodplants on open scrub, rich in herbaceous plants, or in clearings in open woodland, in flower-rich grassland and on vegetation of dwarf shrubs above the tree-line. These butterflies only occur locally, although at times in large numbers. The female lays all her eggs at once, on the underside of a leaf of its foodplant, Blue Honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera caerulea</em>). The caterpillars live in communal webs and in autumn make a more substantial shelter of leaves, spun together with silk, in which to hibernate. They take two years to develop and have to hibernate twice. The fully-grown caterpillar leaves the nest after the second hibernation and pupates on the foodplant or adjacent rocks. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), coniferous woodland (11%), mixed woodland (11%), blanket bogs (5%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (5%), screes (5%), water-fringe vegetation (5%), raised bogs (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).
174417		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174417		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174418		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174418		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north of Portugal and the north of Spain (Cantabrian Mts., Pyrenees to Montes Universale). This species occurs from the south of Finland via the Baltic States, Poland, Central and East Germany and the south of Belgium to the northeast of France and from Switzerland via the north of Italy and central Apennines, the Balkans to the north of Greece. 200-2,000 m. It is also found from central and south Siberia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174418		habitat	eng	The Chestnut Heath inhabits dry to damp grasslands in woods, meadows, nutrient-poor grassland, calcareous grasslands and open marshy habitats. These grasslands are sometimes quite intensively grazed, as can happen on calcareous grassland. However, if grazing is absent, for a few years, change in the grassland does not seem to affect the butterflies. The butterflies do not fly very much and only cover limited distances. The eggs are laid one by one in short rows on the blades of grasses, such as fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), Upright Brome (<em>Bromus erectus</em>) and Crested Dog.s-tail (<em>Cynosurus cristatus</em>). Pupation takes place deep down in the vegetation. The Chestnut Heath has one to two generations a year, depending on the altitude and latitude of its breeding ground. In the field the Chestnut Heath is often confused with the Small Heath (<em>C. pamphilus</em>) and therefore not noticed. On the Iberian Peninsula, there is a sub-species <em>C. g. iphioides</em>, with brightly contrasting eyespots on the underside of the hindwing. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).
174418		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174418		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174419		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174419		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the polar Urals and arctic and temperate parts of Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174419		habitat	eng	This butterfly can be found on woodland clearings and glades, dry glades near forest swamps, sometimes on dry meadows. Main larval hostplants are <em>Carex</em> spp.  (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174419		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174419		threats	eng	Not examined.
174420		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174420		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally on Cyprus and in parts of Turkey. 0-1,600 m. This species occurs from central Sahara to Egypt, Middle East, Arabia, Western Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northwestern India. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174420		habitat	eng	This butterfly occurs in dry, hot places, on abandoned agricultural ground, scrub or steppe. Populations are small. Little is known about its life cycle, or on which plant the eggs are laid or whether the first instar caterpillars feed from it. However, it is probable that the females, like those of other silver-line butterflies, accept plants from various (<em>Leguminosae</em>, <em>Polygonaceae</em>, <em>Cistaceae</em>) genera on which to lay their eggs. It is known that the two last instars live in the nest of <em>Crematogaster</em> ants, where they feed on ant grubs and pupae, and, to a lesser extent, on food that the ants bring in. It is not improbable that, as soon as they hatch, the very young caterpillars find their way to the ants’ nest. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174420		population	eng	In Europe, this species is restricted to the island of Cyprus. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174420		threats	eng	Not examined.
174421		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174421		distribution	eng	This species occurs over almost all Portugal and Spain (except extreme north of Portugal and the northern and western coasts of Spain) and France (Mediterranean coastal areas and from eastern Pyrenees and Cevennes to the Alps). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174421		habitat	eng	The Spanish Festoon can be found on scrub and dry, grassy vegetation. The butterflies are often found in rocky areas, where they can be seen, wings wide open, basking on stones. The female lays its eggs singly or in small groups on birthworts (<em>Aristolochia</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on these poisonous plants, pupating for the winter. It can sometimes take two to three years before the butterfly emerges from the pupa. With the exception of a few sites in southern Spain, where it produces two generations, this species has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), mesophile grasslands (6%), inland sand-dunes (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%).
174421		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Andorra. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174421		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174422		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. However, since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174422		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the south of the Balkans, in FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southeast Romania, northwest Greece and on Greek island Simi. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends to Turkey and Iran and across the south of Russia and Kazakhstan to Mongolia and Yakutia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174422		habitat	eng	The Tessellated Skipper occurs on various types of open grassy vegetation, on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. The butterflies feed preferably on thymes (<em>Thymus</em> sp.), vetches (<em>Vicia</em> sp.) and yarrows (<em>Achillea millefolium</em>). The butterflies have a rapid flight, often quite close to the ground. The caterpillars feed on the labiates <em>Phlomis tuberosa</em> and <em>P. samia</em>, hiding in spun leaves. The Tessellated Skipper has one generation a year and passes the winter as a small caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), phrygana (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), water-fringe vegetation (6%), screes (6%).
174422		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174422		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174423		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174423		distribution	eng	This southwestern European species occurs in Portugal, large parts of Spain (southeast and central Spain, Sierra de Gredos and further eastwards, northeast Spain, the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mts.), in the southeast of France, in the Italian Alps and in Switzerland (very locally in Wallis). 150-1,600 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174423		habitat	eng	The Provençal Fritillary occurs in all types of flower-rich, grassy places; on flower-rich grasslands, both in damp and dry places and on calcareous as well as acid soil, on flower-rich, grassy vegetation on the banks of rivers and streams, in scrub and at woodland edges. In Switzerland, at the extreme north of its distribution range, it is only found in dry, warm, bushy places. Its foodplants are toadflax (<em>Linaria</em> spp.), snapdragons (<em>Antirrhinum</em> spp.) and sometimes also foxgloves (<em>Digitalis</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in small batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars hibernate in a spun shelter. In most locations, this species has two generations a year, however in the Alps, only one. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (28%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%).
174423		population	eng	This is a local species from (semi-) natural habitats in Southwest Europe.
174423		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174424		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174424		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs in the Alps and Northern Urals: in France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria (as far as in Steirmark). It is very rare in Liechtenstein and in the south of Germany. 1,200-2,800 m, most populations 1,800-2,200 m. It is also found in the Caucasus, the Altai and Siberia to the Far East and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174424		habitat	eng	The Small Apollo occurs in the mountains, especially in damp places, such as beside streams and where it gets flooded from time to time. Such spots are the habitat of Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (<em>Saxifraga aizoides</em>). However, the Small Apollo living in the Mercantour in the south-west of the Alps, use Roseroot (<em>Rhodiola roseum</em>) as foodplant. The eggs are either laid on or in the vicinity of the foodplant. The very small caterpillar sometimes passes the winter in the egg, sometimes outside it. The fully-grown caterpillars are black with a row of orange-red or yellow spots along each side. At the beginning of the summer, they spin a flimsy cocoon in which to pupate, either low down on the larval plant, or on the ground. The Small Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (37%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), water-fringe vegetation (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (12%).
174424		population	eng	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174424		threats	eng	The species is threatened by changes in the management of (sub)-alpine meadows. It might get threatened in future by climate change.
174425		conservation	eng	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174425		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe only on the Greek island Nisiros. Sea level-100 m. It is also found in the southwest of Turkey, but here the range is restricted as well. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174425		habitat	eng	This meadow brown is found on dry, open scrub and near agricultural land on the Greek island Nisiros. In the summer months, the butterflies are inactive. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174425		population	eng	This is a species with a very restricted distribution, both globally and in Europe.
174425		threats	eng	In Europe, the very small range of this species (the extent of occurrence - EOO - is less than 100 km²) in one location makes it vulnerable to environmental changes. Outside Europe the butterfly can be found only around Budrum in Southwest Turkey.
174426		conservation	eng	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed.
174426		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Europe: in the south of Portugal, Spain (except the northwestern part), France (southeastern coast and Drôme), central Italy (Gargano, Calabria and northern Sicily), Croatia, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia and Greece (including the islands Kithira, Karpathos and Simi). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa, Palestine and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174426		habitat	eng	The Sage Skipper occurs on dry, flower-rich grassland, in open scrub, on rocky ground with sparse vegetation. However, in its habitat, the larval foodplants should be abundant. Various species of <em>Phlomis</em> are used, such as Jerusalem Sage (<em>P. fructicosa</em>), <em>P. lychnitis</em>, <em>P. herba-venti</em> and perhaps also Horehound (<em>Marrubium</em> spp.). Although there is probably only one generation a year, the butterflies of the Sage Skipper can be seen from spring until autumn, due to prolonged emergence from the pupa. This skipper passes the winter as a caterpillar inside the egg. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (29%), phrygana (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), heath and scrub (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).
174426		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bulgaria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174426		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174427		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174427		distribution	eng	This species occurs in temperate zones all over the world. In Europe, it is a long term resident in the south of Europe only. In the north of its distribution range, it is a rare vagrant. 0-2,700 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174427		habitat	eng	The underside of the wings of the Long-tailed Blue have an attractive pattern of fine, wavy lines and two striking eye-spots near the tails on the hindwings. The habitats are typified by the presence of many species of leguminous plants that serve as foodplants and plenty of nectar-rich flowers for the butterflies. The habitats are warm, dry places, sometimes in agricultural areas. Bladder Senna (<em>Colutea arborescens</em>) is a well-known foodplant, but other leguminous species are also used. The caterpillars feed on the ripening seeds and on farms where peas and beans are grown, they can cause outbreaks. In natural situations, the caterpillars are attended by various ant species. The life cycle of the Long-tailed Blue takes four to six weeks. It does not go into hibernation and can therefore only occur as a resident where it is warm enough for all stages to survive and where there is a continuous supply of food for the caterpillars and adult butterflies. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (17%), phrygana (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), heath and scrub (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).
174427		population	eng	In the southern part of its range, this species is widespread. In the northern part, it is local and the situation depends on the migration from the south. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Romania, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174427		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174428		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174428		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Urals to the Ussuri region, Amur region, Mongolia, Alaska, West Canada. Up to 1,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174428		habitat	eng	This butterfly species occurs on rocky slopes with steppes and rocky habitat near crests. The females lays its eggs on <em>Saxifraga bronchialis</em>. The species produces one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174428		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174428		threats	eng	Not examined.
174429		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174429		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout most of Europe. It is absent from Scotland, north of Norway, Finland, Atlantic islands, the Balearic islands and Crete. 0-2,500 m. Also present from North Africa to the Caucasus, West and South Siberia to Transbaikalia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174429		habitat	eng	For many, the Brimstone is the first sign of spring. The butterflies hibernate in heaps of twigs or grass tussocks and on any warm day, even in January, the males appear. The females, that are paler in colour, are seen a little later. The eggs are laid one by one on the young branches and leaves of buckthorns (<em>Rhamnus</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the young leaves. They pupate, suspended from the underside of a twig or nerve of a leaf. In summer, when the butterflies emerge, they do not mate but instead may become inactive for quite long periods before they hibernate. Courtship and mating do not take place until next spring. The Brimstone has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mixed woodland (13%), heath and scrub (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), mesophile grasslands (5%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%).
174429		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174429		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174430		conservation	eng	As much is still unknow for this species, research on distribution and ecology is urgently needed. Important habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174430		distribution	eng	It only occurs very locally in Europe, in FYR of Macedonia (Skopje region), the border area of Bulgaria and Serbia and western Romania. 500-800 m. It is found further east in western and southern Siberia, the Altai, Sayan, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174430		habitat	eng	The Spinose Skipper is a butterfly that likes warm, dry places. It is especially fond of dry flower-rich grassland with scattered bushes. It uses various cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) as larval foodplant. It has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), phrygana (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (28%).
174430		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174430		threats	eng	Outside Russia, the species is occuring in very small habitat patches having also very small populations, up to tens of individuals per generation. These are threatened both by agricultural activities as well as abandonment.
174431		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174431		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 68° N in Scandinavia. It is absent from Ireland, Scotland, the Spanish Atlantic coast and south of Portugal. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs in the forest zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174431		habitat	eng	The Comma is a butterfly of wood edges and clearings in wood, except in very dry places. It is easily recognized by the deep indentations in the margins of its wings and the small white comma on the otherwise dusky underside of the hindwing. Eggs are laid on many different plant species, like Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>), bramble (<em>Rubus</em> spp.), elm (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.), willow (<em>Salix</em> spp.), Hazel (<em>Corylus avellana</em>) and Hop (<em>Humulus lupulus</em>). The caterpillar is solitary, brownish-black with long spines and a broad white stripe on its back towards the rear, making it look like a bird dropping. The pupa hangs from the foodplant on a small stalk. The butterflies hibernate in hollow trees, hedgerows and shrubs. In large parts of Europe it has two generations a year. However, in Scandinavia it only has one generation and in warm locations in Spain and Greece, it can have three. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mixed woodland (14%), urban parks and large gardens (13%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), towns, villages, industrial sites (6%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).
174431		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174431		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174432		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174432		distribution	eng	This is a Central European species. This species occurs from the Baltic States to the north of Greece and from the south of England to France (except in the south). It is absent from Scandinavia and only in the east of Denmark. In Spain, it is only in the Cantabrian Mts. And the Pyrenees. Its is also absent from the south and the east of Italy and the Croatian coast. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, Northwest Kazakhstan, Amur, Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174432		habitat	eng	The White Admiral is a true woodland butterfly and is found in clearings and woodland rides. The female lays its eggs on young honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera</em> spp.) leaves, preferring those half in the shade. The caterpillars feed on the leaves in a characteristic way. Starting at the tip and working towards the stalk, they leave the main nerve intact and use it to rest upon. The hibernation is in the second larval instar. To make the hibernaculum the remaining part of the leaf is spun into a little tube and the leaf stalk is spun tightly onto a twig. After hibernating, the caterpillar feeds on the newly-emerged leaves. It pupates upside down on a twig and has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (56%), mixed woodland (20%).
174432		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg and Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174432		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174433		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174433		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in the Balkans: in mountainous regions in FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and S Romania. 500-1,500 m. Recently also found at the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria. It is also found across Asia Minor to Central Asia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174433		habitat	eng	Freyer’s Fritillary is found on flower-rich grassy vegetation and in woodland clearings on both calcareous and acid soil and seems to prefer moist places. The female lays its eggs in large batches on the leaves of knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed and also hibernate communally in a nest of spun silk. When almost fully grown, they separate and pupate close to the ground, on the stems of plants. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mesophile grasslands (25%), mixed woodland (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%).
174433		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174433		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174434		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174434		distribution	eng	This is a southeastern European species: in Spain in the Sierra Nevada, Montes Universales and Catalonia, France from the eastern Pyrenees to Provence and Savoie, Switzerland (Rhone Valley), north and central Italy, Austria and further eastwards and southwards. 100-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, Turkey and Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174434		habitat	eng	The Iolas Blue is Europe?s largest blue. It occurs locally on calcareous soil, with shrubs of Bladder Senna (<em>Colutea arborescens</em>). In Greece, <em>C. cilicica</em> is also used. This plant is practically the most important source of nectar for the butterflies. At times, the males can be seen some distance away from their habitat, but the females stay near the foodplants. They lay their eggs, usually several at a time, on the inside of the calyx and inside the bladder-like fruits. The caterpillars feed on the seeds and are visited frequently by ants, for example workers of <em>Tapinoma erraticum</em> and <em>Camponotus cruentatus</em>. Usually, the caterpillar can easily be seen by holding a pod up to the light. When fully-grown, the caterpillars pupate at the base of the foodplant, passing the winter as a pupa. Although it occasionally has a partial second generation, the Iolas Blue usually has only one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (19%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), phrygana (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%).
174434		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174434		threats	eng	This species is mainly threatened by intensification of agriculture. Where it occurs in vineyards, removal of <em>Colotis</em>-shrubs as well as the use of herbicides and insecticides, forms a serious threat as well.
174435		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174435		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in central Greece and on islands Samos, Chios, Lesbos and Rhodes. On Greek mainland 600-800 m, on the islands from Sea-level up to 250 m. It is also found across Turkey to Iran and Israel. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174435		habitat	eng	The Levantine Skipper occurs mostly in warm, dry places with scrub, both inland and on the coast. They have also been seen in dry, stony places and on agricultural land, including olive groves and vineyards. They fly rapidly, close to the ground. This butterfly has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).
174435		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174435		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174436		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174436		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the steppes of Eastern Europe, West and Central Asia. It is also found in the Caucasus (Tshikolovets, 2003). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174436		habitat	eng	This species occurs on virgin steppes, sometimes with rocky and calcarous places; on steppes and subalpine meadows up to 2,000 m in the Caucasus. Main larval hostplants <em>Poa avena</em> and <em>Festuca ovina</em> (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174436		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174436		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174437		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174437		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, from 60° N to Lapland, except Norwegian coast. It is also found in Northern Russia. 0-950 m. Its range extends to the mountains of Siberia and the north of Mongolia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174437		habitat	eng	The Northern Grizzled Skipper prefers damp, moist and wet places. It is mostly found in open areas of bogs or swamps, in scrub near swamps and above the tree-line on stretches of wet ground with dwarf shrubs. With its inconspicuous colours and rapid flight, the butterflies of this grizzled skipper are difficult to follow. The female lays its eggs on Cloudberry (<em>Rubus chamaemorus</em>). Little is known about the way the caterpillars live. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (60%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), blanket bogs (20%).
174437		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174437		threats	eng	This species is declining on the southern edge of its range in Finland and to a lesser extent in Sweden. It is not threatened in northern Scandinavia (Van Swaay & Warren, 1999).
174438		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174438		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of the northwest of Greece. 850-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, Iran and Armenia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174438		habitat	eng	The Dark Grayling occurs on dry, rocky slopes with patches of low vegetation and scattered bushes and also in open coniferous woodland. The butterflies often settle on bare ground and can also be seen drinking nectar from large thistle-like plants. Grasses are used as foodplants, but it is not known which species. The Dark Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), coniferous woodland (50%).
174438		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174438		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174439		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174439		distribution	eng	This is a central European species: south of Sweden, south of Finland, the Baltic States, Denmark, southeast of Belgium, France, Pyrenees, Switzerland, Austria as far as the Northern Balkans, further in Spain (Granada and Palencia). It is absent from the south of Italy, the west and southwest of the Balkans, Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In the north of its distribution range, this species is a migrant. 0-1,800 m. It is furthermore present through Siberia to Mongolia and Northwest China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174439		habitat	eng	The Pale Clouded Yellow is mostly found on fields of clover or lucerne, but also on meadows that are grazed at low intensity where many leguminous plants are growing. It prefers open landscapes with few trees or bushes. Eggs are laid singly on many species of <em>Leguminosae</em>. The caterpillar feeds on young leaves and overwinters as half-grown caterpillar. It pupates, suspended in a girdle from a stalk on the foodplant. The Pale Clouded Yellow has two or three generations a year, depending on geographical location and altitude of the flight area. In the northern part of of its range, it is a migrant species, but in most of Central Europe it is a resident. The adult Pale Clouded Yellow is very hard to distinguish from Berger's Clouded Yellow (<em>Colias alfacariensis</em>), while the caterpillars are very different. The latter species is only found on calcareous grasslands with Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>). Although the Pale Clouded Yellow has a preference for clover and lucerne fields, when migrating, it can turn up almost anywhere. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (18%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), improved grasslands (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%).
174439		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range and can colonize areas temporaryly. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Italy (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174439		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174440		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174440		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common all over Europe. This species occurs locally on the Canary Islands. It is absent from Madeira and the Azores. 0-3,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Middle East and temperate Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174440		habitat	eng	The Common Blue is a very common butterfly. It looks rather like Chapman's Blue (<em>P. thersites</em>). It can be found on most types of grassy vegetation, ranging from quite dry, nutrient-poor grassland to moderately damp meadows. The female lays its eggs on a variety of leguminous plants, including Common Birdsfoot–trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>). The caterpillars feed on the leaves. They are attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Formica</em>, <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Tapinoma</em> and <em>Plagiolepis</em>. When half-grown, the caterpillars may hibernate in the litter layer. In hot climates, aestivation also takes place, in the egg or larval stage. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer. Depending on the geographical position and altitude of the breeding ground, the Common Blue has one to three (or occasionally even more) generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).
174440		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Spain, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174440		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174441		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174441		distribution	eng	This species is present from the Polar Urals to Kamchatka in the North to montane tundra and Tibet in the south. Up to 3,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174441		habitat	eng	This butterfly species occurs on tundras, swamps and moist meadows in forests and in the mountains. It produces one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003)). Habitats: coniferous woodland (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).
174441		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174441		threats	eng	Not examined.
174442		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174442		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the southern half of Spain, Scotland and the north of England, large parts of Denmark, north and central Norway, northern Sweden and northern Finland. 0-1,500 m. It is furthermore present across the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Tian-Shan, Siberia to the Amur; Turkey, Iran, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174442		habitat	eng	The Silver-washed Fritillary is a large, conspicuous butterfly that is often present in large numbers. Needing a lot of nectar, they are often found on thistles at the edge of woodland. They also occur on rough vegetation in woodland clearings. The males have black streaks of scent-scales on their forewings. Unlike other butterflies, the eggs are not laid on the foodplant. Instead, the female deposits them singly on the branches and trunks of trees growing at woodland edges. As soon as they emerge from the egg in the late summer, the tiny caterpillar looks for somewhere to hibernate. In spring it starts looking for violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.), on which it feeds at night, hiding under the leaves of the foodplant during the day. It pupates on a stalk of a violet plant, or in a crevice in the bark of a tree. The Silver-washed Fritillary has one generation a year. The females come in two colour variations, the more usual, orange form and the heavily dusted, dark form valezina. In some populations this form is quite common, but in others very rare. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).
174442		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174442		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174443		conservation	eng	In Lithuania, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174443		distribution	eng	A northern species that occurs in large parts of Finland, Norway and central and north of Sweden. It is also rare in the Eastern Baltic States. 100-450 m. It is furthermore found in the montane or lowland tundra and bogs of the Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174443		habitat	eng	Frigga’s Fritillary is mostly found on open bogs and in swampy areas with shrubs of Birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.) and willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) scrub, in swampy areas in birch woods and on bogs in coniferous forests. It is a rare fritillary that occurs locally and always in low to very low numbers. Despite its size, it is an inconspicuous butterfly. The eggs are laid singly on Cloudberry (<em>Rubus chamaemorus</em>). This species produces one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (60%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), mesophile grasslands (10%), fens, transition mires and springs (10%).
174443		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174443		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174444		conservation	eng	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174444		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Europe. It is absent from Ireland, Britain, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces and Cantabrian Mts.), south of Italy, the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and large parts of Greece. 500-1,600 m. It is furthermore present east to West and Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174444		habitat	eng	In the northern part of its range, the Weaver’s Fritillary can be found on warm slopes with open woodland, scrub and flower-rich grassland. More to the south, it is also found in damp, shady places. The eggs are laid singly on various violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate when half-grown in the litter layer. They pupate deep down in the vegetation. Weaver’s Fritillary has two to three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), mixed woodland (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).
174444		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174444		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174445		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174445		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe up to 64° N. It is absent from the south of Portugal, Ireland and Scotland. 0-1,800 m. Local populations are found in the south of Spain above 1,000 m. Its range extends eastwards across Turkey to Syria and Iran and across central Asia and Siberia to Mongolia, Korea and Sakhalin. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174445		habitat	eng	The Large Skipper is found on sunny, grassy vegetation in or near woods and scrub. It often visits flowers and the development of some rough vegetation close to the breeding ground is thus favourable. They are especially fond of bramble blossom for nectar. The female deposits its eggs onto the blades of coarse-leaved grasses one by one. The caterpillars make a shelter by spinning blades of grass together and pass the winter in the third larval instar. When fully grown, they also spin leaves and silk together, to form a tube-like shelter in which to pupate. The Large Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mixed woodland (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), dry calcareous grassland.
174445		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174445		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174446		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed.
174446		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the mountains of Spain. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174446		habitat	eng	The Southern Mountain Argus is often consisdered a subspecies of the Northern Brown Argus. It is found in the mountains south of where the Northern Brown Argus occurs. The Southern Mountain Argus thrives on warm and hot rocky places with an open grassy vegetation with flowers. The eggs are deposited on various rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves. The Southern Mountain Argus has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174446		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174446		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats.
174447		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174447		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered in Mediterranean coastal areas, Italy (locally on the western coast) and from Croatia down to Greece where it is scattered on the mainland. It also occurs on many islands in the Mediterranean (Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, Crete and other Greek islands). 0-400 m, inland Greece to 1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174447		habitat	eng	The Pigmy Skipper occurs in the same types of habitat as the Mediterranean Skipper (<em>Gegenes nostrodamus</em>). Dry gullies, rocky slopes, sandy or stony riverbanks with sparse vegetation, dry grassland and low scrub near the coast are all places where these butterflies can be seen, often basking in the sun on stones and bare soil. In spring, there are fewer butterflies than in summer and autumn. The caterpillars feed on the grasses Hyparrhenia hirta and Sorghum halepensis. The Pigmy Skipper has two to three generations a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (28%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), phrygana (28%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (14%).
174447		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in France. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174447		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174448		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174448		distribution	eng	This species occurs all over Europe to 58° N. It is absent from Scandinavia, Britain and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey and east to Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Altai Mountians. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174448		habitat	eng	The Sooty Copper is found in a variety of habitats, damp and dry grassland, heathland, bogs, but also scrub and clearings in woodland, mostly in small numbers. Eggs are laid on sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.), especially on Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>). The caterpillar hibernates at the base of the plant in any of the instars. They pupate in the litter layer. It has up to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), heath and scrub (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).
174448		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania, the Netherlands and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174448		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174449		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
174449		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Europe only on islands in the Eastern Aegean Sea. Sea level-1,300 m. It is also found in Turkey, Jordan, Israel, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174449		habitat	eng	This meadow brown is a butterfly of open woodland, found in oak woods, mixed woods and coniferous forests and also in open scrub. Further, it is seen in olive groves, vineyards and occasionally villages. The butterflies mostly fly in the shadow of trees and bushes, keeping close to the ground. In contrast to the Meadow Brown (<em>M. jurtina</em>), this butterfly is hardly ever found on open, flower-rich grasslands. Butterflies are present from the spring until the autumn, but during the hot, dry summer months, they are inactive, hiding in trees or bushes, or on tree trunks. Although the females mate soon after emergance, they do not lay their eggs in summer. The eggs mature during the period of inactivity in summer and are deposited during the following autumn on several species of grasses. This meadow brown has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174449		population	eng	This is a local species with a restricted European distribution.
174449		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174450		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174450		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: south of Serbia, FYR of Macedonia, Albania, Romania (south of the Carpatian Mountains), Bulgaria and in the north of Greece. 350-1,900 m, often at higher altitudes than 900 m. It is furthermore present in South Siberia and across Transcaucasia to Asia Minor and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174450		habitat	eng	The Russian Heath is found both on dry, as well as somewhat damp, grassy vegetation, at wood margins and in woodland clearings and on grasslands. The butterflies have a rather low flight. At rest, just like other heaths, the Russian Heath keeps its wings closed. Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>) and Slender False-brome (<em>Brachypodium sylvaticum</em>) are among the grasses used as foodplants. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mixed woodland (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).
174450		population	eng	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174450		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174451		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174451		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered on Cyprus and on the Greek islands Samos, Rhodes, Simi and Kastellorizo. Mostly at lower altitudes than 500 m. Main distribution in Turkey, the Middle East, India and Africa. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174451		habitat	eng	The African Ringlet occurs in short scrub, rocky areas with low vegetation and dry riverbeds. It uses grasses as foodplants. The main flight periods are in April and September/October. In Cyprus, it has two generations a year. On the Greek islands, it probably has several generations a year. Habitats: phrygana (100%).
174451		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174451		threats	eng	Not examined.
174452		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174452		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north and east of Europe down to and including the north of Spain. It is vagrant in the south of England, the north of Germany, the Netherlands and the north of Belgium. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands, Sicily included. Sea level-2,500 m. It is also found in the whole temperate  zone of the Holarctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174452		habitat	eng	The Camberwell Beauty is an imposing butterfly with its large, deep-brown wings, beautifully edged with wide, pale borders. They are strong butterflies and can fly large distances, although this only happens in some years. They occur near patches of woodland in stream valleys, gullies, along woodland edges and on scrub. Because they are fairly mobile, they can be seen in open countryside far away from their foodplants. The female lays its eggs in large clusters around the twigs of birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.). In some years, they show a tendency to migrate in summer and autumn. At first, the caterpillars live together in a communal web, becoming solitary when nearly fully-grown. The caterpillar is easily recognized, black and spiny with a double row of red spots on its back. They pupate on the bark of the foodplants. The adult butterflies hibernate in a hollow tree, wood pile or just hidden in the vegetation and wait for spring before mating. The Camberwell Beauty has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (26%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (10%), urban parks and large gardens (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).
174452		population	eng	This is a widespread species in Europe, but in areas with a maritime climate it can be very rare or even missing. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Romania and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Germany, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). This species shows migrating behaviour in some years.
174452		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174453		conservation	eng	In the Netherlands, Romania and the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Habitat conservation is the most important conservation measure, including prevention of drainage in surrounding agricultural areas. Restoration of bogs should only be undertaken with great care and after thorough research, as a quick rise of the watertable can also have a negative impact on the species.
174453		distribution	eng	This is a species of North, East and Central Europe: Scandinavia, except the northwestern coast, the Baltic States, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, north of England, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium (Ardennes), east and northeast of France, northwest of Switzerland, north of Austria, northern Balkans, north of Bosnia and Herzegovina, formerly also in the Jaice region in Bosnia. This species occurs from sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in the temperate zone of Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174453		habitat	eng	The Large Heath inhabits raised bogs, wet heaths, swampy habitat and wet grasslands, often occurring on quite rough vegetation. As a consequence of land drainage remaining habitat patches are often small which makes them difficult to detect. However, in a vast peatland, the Large Heath can be common and the butterfly can be seen flying back and forth between wet patches with the foodplants. There is some uncertainty about the identity of the foodplants. Probably, there are regional differences in their use. Cotton-grass (<em>Eriophorum vaginatum</em>) is certainly important, but other <em>Eriophorum</em> species, beak-sedges (<em>Rhynchospora</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>) and a few sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.) are also mentioned. The female deposits its eggs singly on, or in the neighbourhood of, the foodplant. The caterpillars hibernate in the third or fourth larval instar, hidden in tussocks of grass. They try to find a position in the vegetation that offers protection from predators above and from high winter water levels below. They also pupate in the tussocks of the foodplant. The Large Heath has one generation a year. There are many regional sub-species, that are distinguished by the degree of development of the eye-spots. Habitats: raised bogs (25%), blanket bogs (21%), fens, transition mires and springs (21%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%).
174453		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Germany, Romania and Switzerland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Slovakia, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174453		threats	eng	The most important threat to this species is land drainage, mostly because of agricultural improvements in the surrounding area.
174454		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, and occurs only in protected areas in the Netherlands. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. The subspecies <em>H. comma catena </em>is listed on Annex 2 of the Habitats directive. This subspecies is restricted to mountain areas of northern Norway, Sweden and Finland. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174454		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Europe except south of Portugal and Spain, Ireland, large parts of central Scandinavia and south of Italy. In Britain, it is present only in the extreme south. 0-2,300 m. Its  range extends from Northwest Africa across Europe and temperate Asia to Southwest China, the Amur and the Chukot Peninsula to North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174454		habitat	eng	The Silver-spotted Skipper occurs on open, nutrient-nutrient-poor grasslands, heathlands and on sparsely covered blown sand. The habitat varies from dry to moist, but is never rich in nutrients. However, in their search for nectar, the skippers do visit nutrient-rich areas with flowers close to their breeding ground. Eggs are laid on various fine-leaved grasses, passing the winter in this stage. In spring, the caterpillars emerge and spin a shelter from blades of grass in which they spend most of their time, usually coming out to feed at night. When fully-grown, the caterpillar spins a cocoon of silk and grass blades near the ground in which it pupates. The Silver-spotted Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), heath and scrub (7%).
174454		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174454		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174455		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174455		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south of Europe in coastal areas along the Mediterranean. It is probably resident from the southeast of France to the southwest of Italy, Serbia and west and southwest of Greece. It is also found on most of the large islands in the Mediterranean. There are temporary populations on the southern and eastern coasts of Spain; the difference between these and permanent populations is not clear. This is a strong migrant species, which is found on most continents. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174455		habitat	eng	The Plain Tiger occurs in coastal areas on warm, rocky places with scrub, on agricultural land and in gardens. The Plain Tiger can fly great distances and in this way can found new populations. The caterpillars feed on the milkweeds <em>Asclepias curassavica</em> and <em>Cynachum procera</em>, on Fuerteventura on <em>Caralluma burchardii</em>, a local native plant. It has several generations a year and does not hibernate. In areas with cold winters, populations can therefore only be temporary. It is difficult to establish whether  the species is present as a resident the whole year, or as a migrant, only breeding in the summer. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), improved grasslands (16%).
174455		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174455		threats	eng	Not examined.
174456		conservation	eng	More research on distribution and ecology is needed. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174456		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Europe from central Scandinavia to Italy and Greece. It is also found Spain, in the north and in some mountain ranges (Sierra de Alfacar, S. Nevada, S. de Segura, S. de Espuna, Montes Universales, S. de Guadarrama, S. de la Demanda). It is absent from Ireland, Britain, the Peloponnese and Mediterranean islands except Sicily. 0-2,200 m. It is furthermore present east to Turkey and the Middle East and through central Asia to North China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174456		habitat	eng	The Mazarine Blue usually occurs on quite damp vegetation in flower-rich meadows and pastures and at the edges of woodland. These butterflies are fond of basking together in groups and are then easy to find and to be observed. The female deposits its eggs on the flowerheads of Red Clover (<em>Trifolium pratense</em>), eating the unopened buds. The first instar caterpillar only feeds on buds and flowers, later stages also feed on leaves. The colours of the caterpillars are well adapted to their surroundings, with much pink in the first instar and the green in later stages. The caterpillars can hardly be seen while feeding on the foodplants. Ants of the genera Lasius and Camponotus attend the caterpillars. Depending on the altitude and position in the range, the Mazarine Blue has one to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (30%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).
174456		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1970s, but recently recolonised one site. Extinct in the United Kingdom. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174456		threats	eng	Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands
174457		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174457		distribution	eng	In Europe, it only occurs locally in the mountainous areas of southeastern Spain, including the Sierra Nevada, S. de los Filabres and S. de Maria. 1,400-2,700 m. It is also found from Southern Urals across Kazakhstan and North Tian-Shan to Mongolia and the north of Tibet. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174457		habitat	eng	The Nevada Grayling occurs in the mountains in open, dry places where grassy vegetation alternates with bare, sandy or pebbly ground and where sometimes scattered bushes are growing. They have also been seen on screes. The caterpillars feed on grasses, but the species are not certain. Possibly, Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>), Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>) and the false-brome <em>Brachypodium distachyon</em> are used. This species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: heath and scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), screes (25%).
174457		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174457		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174458		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174458		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally in Southeast Europe: from Hungary and west and southeast Romania southwards to the Peloponnesos in Greece. Sea level to 1,600 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174458		habitat	eng	The Zephyr Blue can be found on open, flower-rich grassland, on rocky slopes and sometimes on scrub or at the edges of woods. The butterflies fly close to the ground and only visit flowers occasionally. The males can be seen in large groups on damp ground. The females lay their eggs on different species of milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus</em>), such as<em> A. excapus</em>, <em>A. dasyanthus</em>, <em>A. parnassi</em>, <em>A. angustifolius</em> and <em>A. rumelica</em>. The caterpillars eat the leaves of the foodplant and are attended by ants, belonging to a broad number of species. Also, they often pupate at the entrance of an ant nest. The Zephyr Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter as a small caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (41%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mesophile grasslands (8%), phrygana (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).
174458		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174458		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174459		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.
174459		distribution	eng	This species occurs locally throughout Portugal and Spain, southeast of France (and in the Quercy), southwest of Switzerland, the Italian Alps, central and southern Italy. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174459		habitat	eng	The Rosy Grizzled Skipper has a characteristic anvil-shaped spot on the underside of its hindwing. These butterflies can be seen on different types of grassy vegetation and on rocky slopes. Different foodplants are used in different parts of its range. In Switzerland the eggs are laid on rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.) and cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.), in Spain, mallows (<em>Malva</em> spp.) are used. In most places, the Rosy Grizzled Skipper has two generations a year and in some places three. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), improved grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%).
174459		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Germany and Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174459		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174460		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174460		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the western part of Siberia across the mountains of South Siberia to the Ussuri region and East Siberia, Mongolia and North China (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174460		habitat	eng	This butterfly usually occurs on dry meadows and slopes but is sometimes also found on wet sites. The caterpillars feed on different species of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). This butterfly species is single-brooded (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174460		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174460		threats	eng	Not examined.
174461		conservation	eng	This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174461		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Europe, as far north as 69° N. It does not occur in the extreme north of Scandinavia and on some islands. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in the rest of the temperate Palearctic region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174461		habitat	eng	The Small Heath is a common species of nearly all types of grassland. It is mostly found on fairly open, poor meadows and pastures. The female deposits her eggs one by one, or in rows, on the blades of most grasses, including meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), Sweet Vernal-grass (<em>Anthoxanthum odoratum</em>), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.). The caterpillar grows very quickly on nutritious grasses, but can also use poor grasses, growing then more slowly. In the third or fourth larval instar, the caterpillar hibernates deep down in a tussock of grass, where it also later pupates. The number of generations a year is between one and three and depends on the geographical position of the habitat. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (10%), improved grasslands (6%), urban parks and large gardens (5%), fallow land, waste places (5%).
174461		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Finland, Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174461		threats	eng	Although this species is still common and widespread, it shows a population decline in the European grasslands. The main cause is the intensification of agriculture, although abandonment could also affect populations in Eastern Europe.
174462		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174462		distribution	eng	This species is present from Albania and the FYR of Macedonia to the south of Bulgaria and Greece, including some of the Aegian islands. There is a recent record from the northern Adriatic island Cres (Croatia). 50-1,600 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174462		habitat	eng	The Balkan Grayling replaces the Grayling (<em>H. semele</em>) in the Southern part of the Balkan peninsula. It may be found on dry grassland, scubs and open woodlands from sea level up to an altitude of 1,600 m. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.
174462		population	eng	This species is widespread in part of Europe.
174462		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174463		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174463		distribution	eng	This is a common butterfly all over Europe. It is absent from the Atlantic islands and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Sea level-3,000 m. It is also found in Asia Minor and Central Asia, Siberia to the Pacific Ocean, China, Mongolia and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174463		habitat	eng	The Small Tortoiseshell is a common and welcome guest in parks and gardens and is sometimes very abundant. It occurs in low numbers in nearly all habitats. Its only foodplant is Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>). The foodplants are often growing on nutrient-rich, disturbed ground in the sun, such as in rough vegetation at the edges of meadows treated with manure or fertilizer. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of the nettle leaves. The caterpillars are gregarious, living in flimsy webs until they go their separate ways in the last larval instar. The caterpillar of the Small Tortoiseshell is black with two shiny yellow lines along the side of its back and bristly with yellowy-green spines. It forms its pupa on the foodplants. The Small Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly and can often be found in the cold months hiding in houses or sheds. It is one of the first butterflies to be seen in spring. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (11%), towns, villages, industrial sites (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), fallow land, waste places (7%), mixed woodland (7%).
174463		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Spain and the Netherlands (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174463		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174464		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174464		distribution	eng	This species occurs scattered over the Iberian Peninsula, Spain (particularly on the south coast, locally on the east coast and inland (Castilian Plateau, Cantabrian Mts.)) and North and Central Portugal. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Australia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174464		habitat	eng	The African Grass Blue is a modest little blue, that flies close to the ground. It is a species of dry grassland, road verges, waste ground and gardens, but sometimes butterflies are found in damp, shady places. Various medicks are used as foodplant, such as Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>), Tree Medick (<em>M. arborea</em>), Small Medick (<em>M. minima</em>), Black Medick (<em>M. lupulina</em>) and possibly various <em>Oxalis</em> species. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genus <em>Pheidole</em>. The African Grass Blue has two or more generations a year, but passes the winter as a caterpillar. There are only a few butterflies in the first generation. Habitats: fallow land, waste places (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), urban parks and large gardens (25%).
174464		population	eng	This species is widespread in Southwest Europe.
174464		threats	eng	Not examined.
174465		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174465		distribution	eng	This species occurs in large parts of Spain. However, it is absent from the northwestern and western coasts and from areas bordering Portugal. 400-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174465		habitat	eng	The Spanish Chalkhill Blue can be seen in dry, calcareous rocky places with grassy vegetation and in dry, open scrub. The only foodplant recorded in Spain is <em>Hippocrepis commutata</em>. The female lays its eggs on the leaves. The caterpillars are often found accompanied by <em>Tapinoma</em> ants. This butterfly species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).
174465		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174465		threats	eng	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.
174466		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.
174466		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Greek islands of Lesbos and Samos. 150-1,100 m. Its main range is in Turkey. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.
174466		habitat	eng	This grayling can be found in very open, dry coniferous woodland with an undergrowth of scattered bushes and grasses. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (100%).
174466		population	eng	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.
174466		threats	eng	Not examined.
174467		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.
174467		distribution	eng	This species occurs in many mountainous regions in Europe: the Cantabrian Mts., Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Alps (from the French Alps to the Julian and Austrian Alps), central Italy, Bohemian Forest, Sudeten, Tatra, Carpathians, the north of Europe from Finland to the Ural Mts. and in Southeast Europe, the Dinarian Alps and mountains of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and the north of Greece. 750-2,500 m. It is also found on Asian side of the Ural Mts. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.
174467		habitat	eng	The Large Ringlet occurs in open woodland, in grassy clearings in woods and above the tree-line on grassland with rather tall vegetation. In the Jura Mountains, these butterflies can be found at the edge of raised bogs and at an altitude of 1,000 m, also in light, damp woods. The Greek populations also seem to prefer damp places. Both the males and females visit flowers for their nectar and the males can often be seen drinking on damp ground or on dung. Various grasses are used as foodplant, including Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>), Wood Meadow-grass (<em>Poa nemoralis</em>), Red Fescue (<em>Festuca rubra</em>), Sheep's-fescue (<em>F. ovina</em>), <em>Calamagrostis</em> <em>varia</em> and also sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). It takes two years for the development from egg to butterfly. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), coniferous woodland (21%), mixed woodland (18%), heath and scrub (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).
174467		population	eng	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174467		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174468		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme by counting the eggs in winter.
174468		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Central Europe, from Scandinavia to the north of Spain. It is absent from large parts of Italy and the Mediterranean islands. 50-1,500 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.
174468		habitat	eng	The Brown Hairstreak occurs in scrub, along hedges near deciduous woodland and in parks, but the butterfly is rarely seen. However, the eggs that are laid at the base of the buds of various <em>Prunus</em> species are easy to find. In winter the pearly-white eggs show up on the bare twigs of the shrubs or trees. The egg, thus, hibernates, hatching in spring. The small caterpillar bores its way into a bud, hollowing it out, later on also eating the leaves of the foodplant. Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) is often used, but also cultivated species of <em>Prunus</em>, such as plum and cherry trees. The caterpillars pupate in the shrub layer under the tree serving as foodplant. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (29%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (18%), mixed woodland (14%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), heath and scrub (6%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).
174468		population	eng	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Hungary, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Switzerland, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).
174468		threats	eng	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.
174469		conservation	eng	<p><br/></p>
174469		distribution	eng	<p><br/></p>
174469		population	eng	<p><br/></p>
174472		conservation	eng	<p>All species of Galápagos Land Iguanas (<em>Conolophus</em> spp.) are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The known geographic range of Galápagos Pink Land Iguana is within the Galápagos National Park, the legal authority governing and protecting biological diversity of the Galápagos Islands. The Land Iguanas are included in the Management of Native and Endemic Species Program, as part of the Management Plan of the Galápagos National Park.</p>    The Galápagos National Park undertakes major campaigns to control and eradicate invasive alien species in the Galápagos, including on Volcán Wolf. Such actions have so far successfully prevented habitat disturbance by feral goats in northern Isabela and promoted habitat restoration of southern Isabela. In the early 2000s, a three-year programme to eradicate feral cats from the island of Baltra (where <em>C. subcristatus</em> was repatriated from 1991 onwards) was effective by initially poisoning with sodium monofluoroacetate (compound 1080), then trapping or shooting the remaining cats (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the applicability of this protocol on Volcán Wolf is questionable due to the difficult terrain and is likely impossible for an island as large as Isla Isabela, an area of 4,588 km²<sup></sup> (Nogales <em>et al</em>. 2004).&#160; Further evaluation of the feral cat population on Volcán Wolf is needed for the purpose of implementing a programme for their control.<br/><br/>Based on successful programmes for the populations of <em>C. subcristatus</em> from Bahía Cartago (Isabela), Santa Cruz, and Baltra islands (Snell <em>et al</em>. 1984), the National Park is also considering a captive-breeding programme for <em>C. marthae</em>. The University Tor Vergata (Rome, Italy) is actively assisting the Park in this regard.  <br/><br/>The Galápagos Pink Land Iguana is not in contact with humans in Galápagos except for the purpose of scientific investigation and management. The Galápagos National Park does not envision a plan to include Volcán Wolf in the list of touristic sites nor other possible intrusions to the population. Nevertheless, as the species is endemic and has a very limited distribution, the National Park has added a specific educational module focused on this species in the courses aimed at training and updating nature guides. This training ensures proper information is conveyed to visiting tourists. <br/><br/>Information on the population biology and ecology of Pink Iguanas is very limited and research has begun. Research needs include monitoring of population and habitat trends, diet analysis, and in-depth study of the reproductive biology of this species. Clarifying the frequency of hybridization and level of genetic introgression between <em>C. marthae</em> and <em>C. subcristatus</em> is urgently needed. Additionally, the health status of the population should be monitored and the possible impact of a high parasite load on the fitness of the population should be investigated.<br/><br/>&#160;<span class="hps">Additionally, in the event <span class="hps">a <span class="hps">captive breeding <span class="hps">programme is started, the Galápagos National Park, in collaboration <span class="hps">with the University <span class="hps">Tor <span class="hps">Vergata, will <span class="hps">develop <span class="hps">an education programme for local people and tourists.  It is extremely difficult and expensive to access the study area. The need to transport equipment to and from the site limits the duration of research trips and consequently the extent of research that can be conducted on any one trip. The construction of a small low-impact, temporary field structure near the top of volcano would greatly help by allowing longer field trips and more effective research work and monitoring.&#160;</span></span></span></span>
174472		distribution	eng	The Galápagos Pink Land Iguana is a recently described species endemic to Volcán Wolf, a single location on Isla Isabela. Based on direct observations (G. Gentile pers. comm. 2011) and reports of the Galápagos National Park surveys, this iguana has never been observed outside an area larger than 25 km²<sup></sup>. The maximum area surrounding the geographic capture points of all individuals observed to date is 10.9 km², with more than 95% of observations clustering in a much smaller area (G. Gentile pers. comm. 2011). The iguana occurs along the northern slopes of the volcano, in an area ranging from 600-1,700 m asl. There may be a seasonal shift in altitude with Pink Iguanas concentrating at the crater rim at 1,700 m during the months of May-July and descending down to 600 m when vegetation starts drying out. This iguana has not been seen inside the caldera.
174472		habitat	eng	The Galápagos Pink Land Iguana (<em>Conolophus marthae</em>) is found coexisting with a subpopulation of Galápagos Land Iguana<em> </em>(<em>Conolophus subcristatus</em>) on Volcán Wolf. Altitudinal shifts along the slopes of the volcano imply different environmental conditions, which ultimately are reflected by different types of vegetation. The habitat includes tropical dry shrubland at the top of the volcano and tropical dry forest along the slopes. Vegetation at the highest altitudes may be impacted by droughts. The head nodding behaviour of <em>C. marthae</em> is very distinctive and completely different from <em>C. subcristatus</em> and may be a barrier to hybridization.<br/><br/>                  Basic reproductive biology of this iguana is unknown. In late spring 2010, a few <em>C. marthae</em> females were observed carrying 4-7 eggs in their follicles, investigated by a portable ultrasound machine (G. Gentile pers. comm. 2011). These data would indicate a much smaller clutch size than for the geographically closest population of <em>C. subcristatus</em> on Fernandina Island (7-23 eggs, Werner 1982). It is still unclear whether <em>C. marthae</em> and <em>C. subcristatus</em> have overlapping reproductive seasons and if the two species may compete for nesting sites on Volcán Wolf; the location of these nests is unknown.<br/><br/>               Average snout-to-vent length (SVL) of animals observed is 46.8 cm, males being significantly larger than females. The SVL of the smallest male Galápagos Pink Land Iguana captured was 37.3 cm, a size that broadly corresponds to the SVL in seven-year old Galápagos Land Iguana individuals (37.5 cm ± 6.0 SD) from Santa Cruz, and even older individuals from Plaza Sur.
174472		population	eng	<p>A single wild population of Galápagos Pink Land Iguana exists and it is not found <em>ex situ</em>. Recently, the effective population size (<em>N</em><sub>e</sub>) has been estimated as large as 41.21 individuals (95% CL = 30.71-67.97) by using microsatellite data (9 loci)  (Fulvo 2010). Mark-recapture data, by applying the Lincoln-Petersen method from two contiguous temporal samples in 2009 and 2010 (percentage of recapture = 53%), would indicate 192 adult individuals (95% CL = 155-260). Sex ratio estimated from samples collected in May 2009 was one male to 0.59 females and one male to 0.51 females in July 2010 (Gentile and Fulvo 2011).</p>    Past and future population trends are impossible to assess due to the lack of a sufficiently long series of estimates of population size. Monomorphism for a single mitochondrial DNA haplotype in a sample of 102 iguanas strongly suggests that the Galápagos Pink Land Iguana might have suffered severe demographic contractions in the past (G. Gentile pers. comm. 2011). From 2005 to 2011, 133 adult individuals were captured and permanently marked with brands and Passive Integrated Transponders, representing nearly all observed Pink Iguanas (G. Gentile pers. comm. 2011). During these surveys, no juveniles were observed, suggesting population recruitment appears to be non-effective.
174472		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">                      <p>The population of Galápagos Pink Land Iguana is extremely small and prone to both demographic and genetic stochasticity, as well as environmental stochasticity (volcanic eruptions, droughts).</p>    <p>Because of the overlapping range with Galápagos Land Iguana, hybridization may occur, generating introgression between <em>C. marthae</em> and <em>C. subcristatus</em> on Volcán Wolf. Although there is no evidence of living F1 hybrids at present, DNA evidence shows that rare events of hybridization have occurred, though the severity of subsequent introgression has not been fully evaluated yet (Gentile <em>et al</em>. 2009, Fulvo 2010).&#160; Because the population is so small, rare events of hybridization may have a significant effect on the species.</p>    <p>In addition to the Galápagos Hawk (<em>Buteo galapagoensis</em>), the only native predator of Galápagos Pink Land Iguanas on Volcán Wolf, <a name="OLE_LINK1">invasive alien </a>Black Rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) and feral cats (<em>Felis catus</em>) are potential predators of eggs and hatchlings. It is known that feral cats prey on Galápagos Land Iguanas up to three and four years old. Animals in this age class represent a size that has not been found among Pink Iguanas. Therefore, it is suspected that feral cats pose a significant threat to population recruitment in Galápagos Pink Land Iguanas.</p>    <p>Volcán Wolf is an active volcano, with several eruptions recorded in the last century, most recently in 1982. Most recent lava is found on the eastern and southern sides of the volcano and in the caldera (Geist <em>et al</em>. 2005). Eruptions may have caused local extinctions of populations of <em>C. subcristatus</em> in the past, for example, Volcán Chico (on the eastern side of Volcán Sierra Negra) in 1979 (Snell <em>et al</em>. 1984).</p>    <p>               Droughts may be severe on the top of Volcán Wolf. Although adults are expected to cope fairly well with drought since they obtain water from consumed plants, the resultant scarcity of food may potentially cause aborted reproduction for the year due to a combination of lack of egg laying, a higher number of infertile eggs laid, and poor juvenile survival.</p><p><br/></p><p>                  Ectoparasite load is high in both Galápagos Land Iguanas and Pink Iguanas on Volcán Wolf. In fact, the location is characterized by a massive occurrence of ticks, which are much more abundant in Volcán Wolf than elsewhere in the archipelago. Both <em>C. marthae</em> and the <em>C. subcristatus</em> populations from Volcán Wolf show an unbalanced leukocyte formula compared to other populations of land iguanas from the whole archipelago. This could be related to the presence of ticks, but could also indicate a possible endoparasitic infection affecting most individuals (Fulvo 2010). This issue and how it might effect the fitness of the two populations is under investigation.&#160;    </p>    <br/>There is no current or known historic human use or trade of this species.</span>
174477		conservation	eng	Mexican Law forbids national and international trade and lists this species with Special Protection under the name of <em>Ctenosaura hemilopha</em> (NOM-059-2010). However, there are no international regulations in place, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), to protect the Nolasco Spiny-tailed Iguana from international trade. San Pedro Nolasco Island is part of the Gulf of California Biosphere Reserve. Settlements cannot be constructed and the extraction of flora and fauna is not permitted in this area. The island can only be visited with special permits and research is regulated. Though proper laws to protect these iguanas exist, additional enforcement is needed in order to regulate the extraction of individuals for the pet trade. A national plan to regulate invasive alien rats is in place, however, action on this plan has not yet been initiated on this island.<br/><br/>                  Additional research is needed to characterize the life history, taxonomy, and population trends of this iguana.
174477		distribution	eng	Nolasco Spiny-tailed Iguana is found only on the island of San Pedro Nolasco, Sonora, Mexico (Smith 1972; Grismer 1999a,b). The island is approximately 3 km²<sup></sup> and the iguana occurs from sea level up to 328 m.
174477		habitat	eng	The Nolasco Spiny-tailed Iguana is most often found under rocks, within hollow trees, and on cacti within tropical dry shrubland and rocky shoreline between 0-50 m above sea level. The island of San Pedro Nolasco is completely undisturbed by human activities other than fishing and sport diving. This iguana is primarily herbivorous, specializing on cacti fruits of the Organ Pipe Cactus (<em>Stenocereus thurberi</em>) and the endemic Near Threatened Isla San Pedro Cactus (<em>Echinocereus websterianus</em>) after the flowering season. In very dry seasons, iguanas may eat the stems of Cholla (<em>Cylindropuntia </em>spp.).
174477		population	eng	<p>The population size is unknown but thought to be less than 2,500 animals due to its restriction on San Pedro Nolasco Island. However, the density on the island appears to be high. Approximately 40 individuals were observed during a single day of sampling on a 0.5 km transect, resulting in an estimate of 80 iguanas/km (V. Reynoso pers. comm. 2005).</p>  <p>No historic population size data are available. It is known that iguanas are being extracted for the pet trade, however, the threat is minimal and the population is thought to be currently stable.</p>
174477		threats	eng	The primary threats to the Nolasco Spiny-tailed Iguana are severe weather and climate change, causing habitat shifts, drought, extreme temperature, and hurricanes. High temperatures are particularly harmful to eggs and hatchlings. Invasive alien rats occur on the island, however, the degree to which they negatively affect the iguana population is unknown. Genetic data suggests that there may be some hybridization on the island with <em>Ctenosaura conspicuosa</em> (Davy <em>et al. </em>2010). Additional research is needed to quantify this occurrence and determine if this poses a future threat to the species.<br/><br/>Nolasco Spiny-tailed Iguanas occur within the pet trade on a limited scale. Historically this species may also have been hunted for food but this practice is believed to have ceased.
174479		conservation	eng	Honduras does not have specific legal protection for the Southern Honduran Spiny-tailed Iguana and it is not known to occur within any protected areas. Recommended research includes further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management, and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.
174479		distribution	eng	The Southern Honduran Spiny-tailed Iguana is a recently described species currently known only from the Pacific slope of southeastern Honduras, within the Departments of Francisco Morazán and Choluteca&#160;(Hasbún and Köhler 2009). The holotype animals were found in an area encompassing approximately 1,200 km²<sup></sup> and the full extent of their range is unknown.
174479		habitat	eng	The Southern Honduran Spiny-tailed Iguana can be found between 800 and 1,000 m above sea level in subtropical moist forest areas and in tropical dry forest areas at 95 m above sea level (<em>sensu</em> Holdridge 1967, Hasbún and Köhler <span lang="EN-GB">2009). This iguana can be found mostly in hollow trees and branches no more than 2 m above the ground. The primary habitat is shrub and tree vegetation. According to stomach content analysis, young leaves and insects make up most of its diet. The maximum snout-vent length of this iguana is 16.8 cm in males and 14.26 cm in females (Hasbún and Köhler <span lang="EN-GB">2009).</span>
174479		population	eng	The total population size and distribution of the Southern Honduran Spiny-tailed Iguana is completely unknown. There is evidence that the habitat in the area is fragmented and it is estimated that there has been a decrease in quality and area of habitat as a result of deforestation and regular burning, thus the population of iguanas is thought to also be fragmented (C. Hasbún pers. obs. 2009). Local people have related that the iguana has become rarer in the last two decades; further research is needed to quantify this potentially immediate concern.
174479		threats	eng	Similar to other spiny-tailed iguanas in the region, the Southern Honduran Spiny-tailed Iguana is probably threatened by habitat destruction&#160;and repeated forest burning that is occurring in the area to support livestock farming and ranching.<br/><br/>It&#160;is known that the Southern Honduran Spiny-tailed Iguana is occasionally hunted by the local people for food and traditional medicine, but the impact on the population of iguanas is unknown.<span> Further monitoring of this harvest is needed since other species of Spiny-tailed Iguana in Mesoamerica experience heavy hunting pressure.
174480		conservation	eng	<p>This species is found in several protected areas across its range. Further monitoring of this species is needed, especially to determine if harvest levels are increasing.</p>
174480		distribution	eng	This species can be found from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec southwards through Central America. It occurs on both the Caribbean and Pacific versants and on several offshore islands, including: Cozumel, Mujeres, and del Carmen, Mexico (de Queiroz 1995, Köhler and Streit 1996); Utila and Guanaja, Honduras; Maiz Grande and Maiz Pequeno, Nicaragua (S. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2008); El Rey, Panama; and Providencia and San Andres, Columbia (de Queiroz 1995). It has also been introduced to Florida, USA, and has now established a reproducing population (Enge 2006).&#160; A recent report also indicates that this species has been introduced into Venezuela, near Lecharias, along the road from Barcelona to La Cruz (Barrio-Amoros and Rivas-Fuenmayor 2008). This species has been found from sea level to 1,300 m above sea level.
174480		habitat	eng	This species is found in sunny, open locations within both dry and moist forest habitats. It also occurs in savanna, coastal lagoons and marshes, sandy beaches, agricultural land, disturbed open areas, pasture land, and can also be found near urban areas.
174480		population	eng	<p>This species has been reported as common in its habitat in Belize and Costa Rica (Stafford and Meyer 2000, Savage 2002). In Honduras, some subpopulations of this species are severely depleted (Puerto Lempira, Gracias a Dios), whereas it remains abundant along the entire Pacific versant in Valle and Choluteca (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2009).</p>
174480		threats	eng	<p>Harvesting for human consumption does occur, but this does not seem to be having a negative affect on the population size of this species. &#160;The iguana is locally captured and eaten and is sold in markets throughout Mexico and Central America, where it is believed to have medicinal value (Savage 2002).</p>
174482		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs on Angel de la Guarda Island which is uninhabited and is a biological reserve. The other islands on which this lizard<em> </em>can be found are also protected&#160;as part of the Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Islas del Gulfo de California. The region is part of the global network of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves. Further research into threats and ongoing monitoring is required.<br/></p>           <p></p>
174482		distribution	eng	<p>The Spiny Chuckwalla is found on the islands of the northwestern Gulf of California. It is found on Angel de la Guarda Island, Granito, Mejía, Pond, San Lorenzo Norte, San Lorenzo Sur, and numerous islands in Bahía de los Ángeles, including Cabeza de Caballo, La Ventana, Piojo, Flecha, Mitlàn, and Smith, Gulf of California, Mexico. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,200 km². The species occurs at or just above sea level.<br/></p>
174482		habitat	eng	<p>This species is diurnal, often returning to the same burrow or rock crevice each night. <span class="msoIns">Juveniles have a preference for rocky areas, while adults utilize hillside burrows (Grismer 2002). The islands inhabited by <em>S. hispidus</em> often receive little rain, and as noted above, population size often varies as a result of the fluctuating food supply. &#160;Daily activity is reduced during drier periods<span class="msoIns"> which likely reduces water requirements and water loss rates (Smits 1985a,b). <em>S. hispidus</em> shows one of the lowest water loss rates of any vertebrate (Smits 1985a). This species is the most arboreal species in the genus <em>Sauromalus</em> and is often found on tree branches where it climbs to eat the flowering stems. A variety of food items are eaten including, in order of frequency, shrubs, forbs, tree leaves and fruits, cactus flowers and fruits, and grasses (Sylber 1988).</span></p>
174482		population	eng	<p>The species undergoes population fluctuations according to rainfall; densities are low during and following drought years. This species is physiologically well adapted to arid environments and normal drought cycles do not appear to effect long-term population health. There is no current information on the total population size or its trends.</p>
174482		threats	eng	<p>Fluctuations in population numbers are caused by rainfall and the Spiny Chuckwalla&#160;suffers in periods of prolonged drought. This lizard is threatened by the international pet trade and from disease transmission, though it is uncertain if these threats have a negative effect on the population size.</p>
174489		conservation	eng	Taxonomic validity of this species is in question. Therefore, no conservation efforts are in place or could be suggested for this species.
174489		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo curchius</em> was originally described from freshwaters of <st1:place w:st="on">Bengal</st1:place> (<st1:city w:st="on">Hamilton</st1:city> 1822).   Day (1873b) suggested that this species is present throughout India except south of Madras and Burma. However, later workers synonimized this species with more widespread species <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo gonius</span> (  Day 1877; 1878;   Menon 1999; Jayaram and Dhas 2000). Fishbase (2010) consider this species as endemic to Salween basin based on Doi (1997). This is erroneous for two reasons. First, this species was originally described from Ganga river in Bangladesh and the name of the species is also based on its local name in this region. Second, Doi (1997) has just mentioned that the species is present in Salween and not endemic to Salween.
174489		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from freshwater ponds and rivers (Hamilton 1822; Day 1873b). It was also reported as a domesticated species in small lakes (Hamilton 1822; McClelland 1839).
174489		population	eng	This species is synonimized to widely distributed species <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo gonius</span>. As the taxonomic validity of this species is uncertain no population estimates can be given.
174489		threats	eng	Taxonomic validity of this species is in question. Therefore, threats cannot be predicted.
174490		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174490		distribution	eng	Found in the west coast streams of Myanmar.
174490		habitat	eng	Inhabits clear, fast flowing streams with boulders and bedrock.
174490		population	eng	There is no information on the population trends of this species.
174490		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
174492		conservation	eng	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174492		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage (Dibrugarh in Assam, and Dikrong in Arunachal Pradesh; Vishwanath <em>et al.</em> 2007) in India. &#160;The species is likely to be distributed in the upper Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
174492		habitat	eng	It is hill stream species favouring sandy and muddy bottom (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
174492		population	eng	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.
174492		threats	eng	There are threats identified for the habitats in which this species is found in: sand mining and deforestation; however, the impacts of these threats are localized and is not across the entire species range (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).
174494		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, although there is a need for further distributional data.
174494		distribution	eng	This species is known from Java, Sumatra, Borneo (Lieftinck 1954), the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005), and southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). On Borneo there are published records from Brunei, Sarawak (where it is widespread) and Sabah; no published records from Kalimantan (Clearly <em>et al.</em>&#160;2004) exist, but there are specimens from a number of locations across the state present in the collections of Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire, Leiden.
174494		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forest pools. It is most common in lowland forest but occurs to at least 1,400 m. It is capable of surviving in disturbed forest.
174494		population	eng	This is a fairly common species in southeast Asian forests.
174494		threats	eng	Deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are planned) are threats to individual populations of this species, but it does not appear to be globally threatened.
174495		conservation	eng	This species is found in a National Park. More research is needed on this species distribution, habitat preferences and ecology.
174495		distribution	eng	The species was found from Phu Kra Dung, Loei Province, Thailand.
174495		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a mountain forest area, with similar species, in pools; however the details of its habitat are not known. Elevation of the area is approximately&#160;1,000 m asl.
174495		population	eng	There is no information on this species population.
174495		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
174496		conservation	eng	More research is needed into the full distribution of this species. One location is near to Doi Inthanon National Park, so it may be found here also, but the park has not been surveyed.
174496		distribution	eng	This species was found in Pioac Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province, Viet Nam and Doi Inthanon National Park, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand.
174496		habitat	eng	They were found in stream margins in high mountain forests.
174496		population	eng	No information available.
174496		threats	eng	In Pioac Mountain, Cao Bang Province, the construction and road making are destroying the habitat of the species. The location in Doi Inthanon is not in in the National Park and streams are being degraded by agriculture and tourist activities.
174497		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distributions, population sizes and threats, but there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures at the present time. It is certainly present in a number of large national parks, for instance Gunung Mulu in Sarawak (Dow in lit.) and Endau Rompin in Peninsular Malaysia (Wilson and Gibert 2005). The survival of populations in areas being converted to plantation would be   guaranteed if adequate buffers of original forest are left around streams.
174497		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from Sumatra (including Bangka and Belitung), Borneo (Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (Tang <em>et al.</em> 2010), Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005) and southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
174497		habitat	eng	This species breeds in a variety of lowland forest streams. It has also been found in disturbed forest in Sarawak.
174497		population	eng	This species is probably not uncommon where it occurs; there are relatively few records but this is likely to be due to difficulty of capture.
174497		threats	eng	Individual populations are threatened by deforestation and plantation establishment, but this species is unlikely to be globally threatened at this time.
174498		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distribution data, but beyond that no conservation measures are needed.
174498		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devadatta argyoides</span> is known from Sumatra, the Lingga Islands between Sumatra and Singapore, Singapore<em></em>, Peninsular Malaysia and south and western Thailand<a name="OLE_LINK1"></a>.<br/>It is likely to occur in southern Myanmar as well.
174498		habitat	eng	A variety of small forest streams, including those in disturbed forest, and up to at least 1,600 m. The larvae can be found in streambeds, amongst leaf litter and under dead wood.
174498		population	eng	This species<em>&#160;</em>is typically common where it occurs over most of its range, becoming uncommon in southern Thailand.
174498		threats	eng	Although individual populations are threatened by deforestation, overall this species is not under any major threat at this time.
174499		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species population, ecology, distribution and potential threats.
174499		distribution	eng	Only know from the type locality, Dibru River, a tributary of Brahmaputra near Dibrugarh town, Assam, India.
174499		habitat	eng	Clear water streams with sandy bottom of Dibru River, Assam. The type locality is at c.300-400 m.
174499		population	eng	No information available. It is only known from from the holotype and 18 paratypes collected from its type locality by Geetakumari and Vishwanath (2010)
174499		threats	eng	There is some deforestation within the type locality area, but no pollution, and it is not considered a threat at present.
174500		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174500		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Jorai River (in the Brahmaputra River drainage) in northern West Bengal.
174500		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slow-flowing rivers with a muddy substrate.
174500		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
174500		threats	eng	While collection of live fishes for the ornamental fish trade may present a potential threat to the population, its effects are presently unknown because no information on the population and its trends for this species is known, as is the intensity of harvest for the trade. &#160;Other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
174501		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174501		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage at Shipra in Raidak I River, outside Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal, India.
174501		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams with a moderate current and a substrate composed of sand and gravel.
174501		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
174501		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
174502		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174502		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality in the Bhagirathi River at Kalna (a distributary of the Ganges River) in West Bengal, India.
174502		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand/mud.
174502		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
174502		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
174503		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species habitats and ecology, population and distribution.
174503		distribution	eng	It is distributed in the lower parts of Ayeyarwaddy (Irrawady), Sittang and Salween basins in Myanmar (Britz 2010).
174503		habitat	eng	It is a lowland species occurring in rice fields (Britz 2010).&#160; It does not require high oxygen content (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
174503		population	eng	There is no information on the species population or its trends.
174503		threats	eng	Threats are not known for this species in the wild.
174504		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the habitats, ecology, population, and distribution of this species.
174504		distribution	eng	It is found in the Rapti River basin in Nepal and Jorai River basin in West Bengal, India (Britz 2010).&#160; The species is probably more widely distributed occurring in drainages between the two known basins (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).
174504		habitat	eng	No information on its ecology or habitat is available.
174504		population	eng	It is only known from the type series. &#160;Information on population and trends is not available.
174504		threats	eng	No threats are known for this species.
174505		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measure for this spoecies. Further research is required on the species habitat, ecology and population.
174505		distribution	eng	The species only known from the specimens from the Hpa Lap Stream, northern Myanmar, near Myitkina.
174505		habitat	eng	Specimens are from a small stream.
174505		population	eng	No information is available for this species.
174505		threats	eng	No information for this species on threats.
174506		conservation	eng	The species is recently described, and further information is required on the species ecology, habitats, populations, and distribution.
174506		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Kyeintali Chaung (stream) in the Rakhine Yoma, Myanmar. It only known from the headwaters of the type locality stream, and is likely restricted to that basin.
174506		habitat	eng	Known from fast flowing cool water stream, with no aquatic vegetation, with sandy bottom with boulders.
174506		population	eng	There is no information available for this recently described species; likely and uncommon species, reported in low numbers by fishers.
174506		threats	eng	Currently no threats; an undeveloped area with low fishing pressure; some way from nearest habitation.
174508		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174508		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage, as well as the Bago River drainage in south central Myanmar. &#160;However, the species is likely to be under-sampled given the low level of survey effort in this part of Myanmar (Sven Kullander <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).
174508		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit large rivers, typically with a sandy substrate. It has also been found in large lakes (Indawgyi Lake).
174508		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
174508		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
174509		conservation	eng	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.
174509		distribution	eng	This species was described from near Nampandet (town) which is on the western slope of the Shan plateau, Myanmar and on the border between the Salween and Ayeyarwaddy catchments so it is unclear which catchment the types came from, however other specimens found came from the Salween catchment. The species is known from the southern half of the Shan Plateau.
174509		habitat	eng	Little is known regarding the species habitat needs apart from that it inhabits rivers (not small streams), in flowing waters.
174509		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
174509		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. In the Shan Plateau there are dams planned in the Salween system which may impact the species.
174510		conservation	eng	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
174510		distribution	eng	The only record of this species is of the type, from Pu Tat in Lao PDR (Fraser 1933).
174510		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only of the habitat recorded is “evergreen jungle” at 1,200 m, but it is almost certainly a species of streams.</p>
174510		population	eng	Nothing can be reported regarding populations of this species from the available information.
174510		threats	eng	Without more information on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.
174512		conservation	eng	Additional data on distribution and tolerance to disturbance are needed, but no specific conservation measures appear to be necessary at present.
174512		distribution	eng	The species is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), southern Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948), and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), where it occurs in the south and west, with records as far north as Tak Province.
174512		habitat	eng	Smaller rocky forest streams in hilly and mountainous country, occurring up to at least 1,300 m. It is certainly tolerant of at least some degree of disturbance.
174512		population	eng	The species is typically fairly common where it occurs.
174512		threats	eng	Although individual populations are threatened by deforestation, overall this species does not appear to be under any threat at this time.
174515		conservation	eng	More distribution information is needed; it is likely that this species extends into Myanmar.
174515		distribution	eng	This species is known from Doi Inthanon and Doi Pah Hom Pok mountains, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, near to the border with Myanmar. The species can be expected to be present in suitable habitat in adjacent parts of Thailand (e.g., Doi Chiang Dao), as well as in Myanmar, and further survey work is required to confirm the species distribution.
174515		habitat	eng	<p>A montane species, found at forested streams, with an exceptionally short flight season from February to early April (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).</p>
174515		population	eng	No information available.
174515		threats	eng	This species is recorded from two protected areas.
174516		conservation	eng	This species is found in a protected area. Research is needed on this species distribution and potential threats.
174516		distribution	eng	The species is only known in Hon Ba Nature Reserve, Khanh Hoa Province, Viet Nam.
174516		habitat	eng	It has been found in good forest streams with clean water, rich in oxygen on high mountains. The bottom of stream is sandy, narrow with a slow flow.
174516		population	eng	<p>No information is currently available on the population trend or numbers.</p>
174516		threats	eng	This area is protected, however there have been plans to develop a resort. It is not known what the latest status is for these developments.
174517		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
174517		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1965, Orr 2003), the Lingga Islands (St. Quentin 1968), Sumatra including Bangka Island (Lieftinck 1965), Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and southern Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
174517		habitat	eng	Occurs on a variety of lowland forest streams, including those in disturbed forest; in Sarawak it has been found on a stream in acacia plantation (R. Dow unpublished data). It has also been seen in rubber plantations in Peninsular Malaysia (Perak) (C.Y. Choong pers. comm. 2011).
174517		population	eng	This is a common species across most of its range.
174517		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be under any significant threats at this time.</p>
174518		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the extent of its distribution, particularly in Myanmar.
174518		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western and peninsular Thailand, south to Phang Nga province. It is also found in southern Myanmar (Hamalainen 1985; Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999).
174518		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest streams, including disturbed forest, and can be found all year round.
174518		population	eng	It is a common species with a stable population.
174518		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats to this species.
174520		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the distribution and potential threats to this species.
174520		distribution	eng	This species is known from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, and Yunnan, China.
174520		habitat	eng	This is a forested montane species, including disturbed forests.
174520		population	eng	It is a locally common species, although the trend is not known.
174520		threats	eng	Although some individual populations are threatened by development, there are no major widespread threats known to this species.
174521		conservation	eng	<p>Further data on habitat and distribution must be obtained before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.</p>
174521		distribution	eng	<p>Known only from the type series of three male specimens. The published information on the type locality in Asahina (1988) is not precise: “Haut Mekong, Laos’, 7.VII., Kingdom Ward coll.”. Haut–Mekong refers to the province, which presently covers Bokeo and Luang Nam Tha provinces. Judged from the collector’s&#160; itineraries, published by Kingdon-Ward (1931), the obvious type locality of the species is Muang Sing [21°11’N, 101°09’E; altitude c.650 m], where the specimen was collected at the beginning of June 1929.<br/></p>
174521		habitat	eng	<p>Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species. However, as with the other species in the genus,&#160; it is expected to occur on rather fast flowing, 10–30 m wide streams, running through forested or partly forested upland (altitude circa 500–700 m) regions.</p>
174521		population	eng	There are no data available on populations of this species.
174521		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Without further information on distribution it is difficult to assess any threats that this species might face. The main threat is likely to be habitat loss by converting forest areas to agricultural land. </p>
174522		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be necessary.
174522		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Sumatra including Belitung (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), with one old record from Mergui in southern Myanmar (Fraser 1934). Records from Thailand are mostly from the south but it occurs as far north as Kanchanaburi Province.
174522		habitat	eng	Lowland forest streams; Orr (2003) states that it is “common in slower lowland streams, typically with a sandy or silty bottom". It is capable of surviving in highly disturbed forest, and at most locations where it has been found it in Sarawak it favours an open canopy (R. Dow unpublished data).
174522		population	eng	Usually quite common where it occurs.
174522		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any serious threats at this time.
174523		conservation	eng	This species is found in several national parks. More research is needed on the full extent of its distribution.
174523		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeast Asia (Hamalainen 1997, &#160;Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999). It is widely found in northern Thailand (in the Phu Kradung mountains (National Park), Loei Province, and Pee Pan Nam mountain range (Jae Sawn National Park), Chiang Mai Province). Recently, Phan and Do (Phan, pers. comm. 2011) found it in Xuan Son National Park (Phu Tho Province) and Cuc Phuong National Park (Ninh Binh Province) in Viet Nam (new record to Viet Nam - unpublished).
174523		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in forested montane streams.</p>
174523		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
174523		threats	eng	This species is known from protected areas, with no major threats known.
174524		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas. There is a need for further data from across the known range of this species before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned; such conservation measures would have to be based on the protection of additional areas of suitable habitat.
174524		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is known from a few scattered locations in southeast Asia. In Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005), it is only known from the type locality in Perak (Laidlaw 1936), there is one record from southern Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948) and records from Krabi (Khao Phanom Bencha, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Ranong and Phangnga (M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010) in Thailand. The only recent records are from Thailand, where all of the known locations are in protected areas.
174524		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) states that this species is found at "small secluded streams in dense lowland forest" and that "little is known of the habits of this rare and elusive species". However, judging from the records from Thailand, it is likely that it is local in occurrence rather than genuinely rare.
174524		population	eng	There is insufficient information available to make concrete statements about population for this species, but at two of the known sites in Thailand it has been recorded regularly.
174524		threats	eng	This species appears to be local in occurrence, and therefore vulnerable to habitat loss. However all the known sites in Thailand are in protected areas, and thus relatively secure. Other populations may well be threatened by habitat loss from deforestation, but until more information on its distribution becomes available such threats must be considered as speculative.
174525		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed.
174525		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed, with records from Sumatra and Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Cambodia (Kosterin and Vikhrev 2006). There is also a record from Mizoram in northeast India (Prasad 1997) and from Viet Nam. It occurs all over Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia (though C.-Y. Choong (pers. comm. 2011) has seen it there) and Thailand, and is to be expected in Myanmar, Singapore and Lao PDR.
174525		habitat	eng	Breeds in open well vegetated ponds, including shallow ones, and from sea level to over 1,000 m.
174525		population	eng	This is a locally common species.
174525		threats	eng	This species, which breeds in open and disturbed habitats, does not appear to be threatened.
174526		conservation	eng	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species without further data. Survey work is required to confirm the continued presence of the species, and to obtain fresh material to confirm the taxonomic status of the species.
174526		distribution	eng	The single known specimen of the species was collected in “Annam”, the historical French colonial protectorate encompassing central Viet Nam (Selys 1877).
174526		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of the habitats of this species.
174526		population	eng	Nothing can be inferred about populations of this species from the available information.
174526		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without more data regarding its habitat requirements and distribution.
174527		conservation	eng	No specific measures are needed.
174527		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in mainland southeast Asia, with records from Myanmar (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Schmidt 1964), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Yunnan in China (Chao 1994), Lao PDR (Sasamoto and Honda 2003), Cambodia (Kosterin and Vikhrev 2006) and Viet Nam (Kosterin and Vikhrev 2009).
174527		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) states that it is found at “Small lowland streams and grassy marshes in open areas”; to which can shallow ponds can be added.
174527		population	eng	A locally common species, probably under-recorded because of its tiny size.
174527		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any threats at this time.
174528		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data in parts of the species range, and on its ability to survive in the long-term in plantation habitats, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
174528		distribution	eng	The species is known from Java, Sumatra and Borneo, and the smaller islands Engano, Bangka, Belitung, Karimondjawa and possibly Managlum and Anambas (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), from Palawan in the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997), and from Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005). There are also (unpublished data) records from Trang in southern Thailand (N. Makbun pers. comm. 2010) and from Viet Nam. It is likely to occur in southern Myanmar.
174528		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “Small streams in lowland forest swamps”; however in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo at least it is found in all kinds of swampy forest, not necessarily associated with streams, and it occurs even in heavily disturbed forest. In East Kalimantan it has been found on a stream in an oil palm plantation and in Sarawak on a stream in an acacia plantation (R. Dow, pers. comm 2011). It is most common in the lowlands but it has been found at over 1,000 m in the Tama Abu Range in northeast Sarawak (R. Dow, pers. comm 2011).
174528		population	eng	This species is locally common over much of its range, and very common in parts of Borneo. There are relatively few published records, but this is due at least in part, to the fact that prior to its description in 1949 it was misidentified as <em>A. melanocyana</em> (Selys, 1877).
174528		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be threatened over most of its range, as it is capable of surviving in disturbed habitats and even plantations (although we do not yet know if populations will survive in the long-term in plantation habitats).
174529		conservation	eng	No actions are currently needed regarding the conservation of this species, although detailed population numbers and trend would be useful.
174529		distribution	eng	This species is known from central and southern Thailand, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and the Lesser Sunda Islands), the Philippines and Peninsula Malaysia.Presence in Myanmar is possible but requires confirmation (Lieftinck 1934, 1951, 1954; &#160;Schmidt 1934; Needham and Gyger 1939; Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999; Asahina 1967).
174529		habitat	eng	It is found in grassy ponds and other disturbed standing water habitats.
174529		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding this species population numbers or trend.
174529		threats	eng	This species is currently not experiencing any threats.
174530		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
174530		distribution	eng	This species is known from one record in Chaiyaphum Province in Thailand, and two records from Saysomboune Province in Lao PDR (Fraser 1933, Garrison 1996, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
174530		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat of this species is not known.
174530		population	eng	No information is currently available regarding this species population numbers or trend.
174530		threats	eng	No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.
174533		conservation	eng	Further data on the distribution and habitat requirements of this species are urgently needed. If it really has a preference for coastal areas, then there may be a need for the protection of suitable sites across its range. Of the sites in Singapore, one is a nature park and the others are not threatened in the short term, but would probably benefit from some form of permanent protected status.
174533		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few scattered records: from locations in Peninsular Malaysia (Fraser 1942 and specimens in the collections of Naturalis, Leiden), Thailand (Kosterin pers. comm.), Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Ngiam pers. comm. 2010), southern Myanmar (Asahina 1965) and Belitung Island near Sumatra (Dow in preparation). Altogether 11 individual locations have been recorded for the species, but of these the only locations that can be considered as currently known are four sites in Singapore and one in Thailand, and one in Peninsular Malaysia.
174533		habitat	eng	In Singapore it occurs in mangrove, but it has been found in other types of coastal forest; it appears to be a specialist in coastal and island habitats.
174533		population	eng	Judging by the records of Asahina (1965), Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) and Kosterin (pers. comm. 2010), this species can be common where it occurs, but it appears to be very local in occurrence.
174533		threats	eng	It is difficult to assess the threats faced by this species without further data on distribution, but given that it appears to favour island and coastal locations, it may be facing a greater threat from development (e.g. development for tourism) than most Odonata, as well as the threat of deforestation. However, it appears capable of surviving in disturbed forest.
174534		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution, population sizes and habitat requirements, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
174534		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed, with published records from west Java and the Karimun Jawa Islands, Sumatra and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954), Borneo, with records from Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (e.g. Dow and Reels 2008) and East Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (e.g. Tang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Orr 2005), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948) and Chanthaburi in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Additionally, in the collections of Naturalis, Leiden, there are single specimens from Lao PDR and Sulawesi, Indonesia. Based on the known distribution it should be looked for in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
174534		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) states that this species can be found “at marshy edges of swamp forest in low country”. It is not known how tolerant of disturbance it is.
174534		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Most records of the species <span lang="EN-GB">are of one or a few individuals. However it is a small, cryptically coloured species, likely to be under-recorded.</span></p>
174534		threats	eng	Whilst individual populations of this species are likely to be under threat from plantation establishment and possibly infrastructure development, it does not appear to be under any threat over its entire range.
174535		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for further data on distribution (especially in Indonesia), habitat preferences and threats. The only conservation measure that is likely to be needed is the setting up of additional protected areas including suitable habitat. It is certainly present in at least one protected area – Kubah National Park in Sarawak (Dow and Reels 2010).
174535		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Java, Sumatra and Engano in Indonesia (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003, Dow and Reels 2010), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) (though it has not been recorded there by C.-Y. Choong (pers. comm. 2011), and Trang in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). A record from West Kalimantan (Ris 1911) may actually refer to <em>P. triangularis</em> Laidlaw, 1931 (see Lieftinck 1954), but given the distribution of <em>P. stictica</em> in Sarawak, with records from the vicinity of Kuching in the west, it is to be expected in northwest Kalimantan.
174535		habitat	eng	This is a forest species, said to breed in phytotelmata, possibly favouring water filled bamboo stumps (Orr 2005), although no bamboo was present at the sites in Sarawak where it has been collected (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011). It is certainly tolerant of some degree of disturbance, but is very unlikely to be able to survive in plantation habitats that are lacking in phytotelmata.
174535		population	eng	Typically only single individuals of this species are encountered, but this is typical of larger phytotelmata breeding species. There are not many recent records, but that is likely to be due to the fact that it is not typically found in the stream, swamp and pond habitats where Odonata are usually searched for as it is to genuine rarity.
174535		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak, where many such projects are currently planned) in parts of its range at least.
174536		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species' distribution, in particular confirmation of records over some parts of its range.
174536		distribution	eng	This species is known from Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, and Peninsular Malaysia (Fraser 1922, Asahina 1966, Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999). There are also records from Cambodia (e.g., Ang Trapaing Thmor; Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but these need to be confirmed.
174536		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in a variety of wetland types, including slow running streams and standing water, in or in the vicinity of forest.
174536		population	eng	It is moderately common where it is found.
174536		threats	eng	Some populations are potentially threatened by deforestation, but overall there is no major widespread threat to this species.
174537		conservation	eng	This species is known from protected areas. More information is needed on the distribution and potential threats to this species.
174537		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mountains in Chiang Mai, Phrae and border of Ranong - Surattani, Thailand, and also Peninsular Malaysia. It should be looked for in suitable habitat in Myanmar.
174537		habitat	eng	This species is known from forested streams in montane and hilly areas.
174537		population	eng	This species can be locally common where it is found.
174537		threats	eng	Some Peninsular Malaysian populations are threatened by agricultural expansion. No threats are known to the populations in Thailand.
174540		conservation	eng	More research is needed into the species distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
174540		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Thailand, central Lao PDR and Yunnan, China.
174540		habitat	eng	This species is found in small forested streams, including disturbed forest.
174540		population	eng	Current population size is unknown.
174540		threats	eng	The known site in Yunnan is being affected by local logging activities. There is no information on any other threats to this species.
174541		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data from Indonesia, and for further distributional behaviour from across its range. Further data on habitat is also needed; it appears that this species can occupy quite a broad range of habitats. However no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
174541		distribution	eng	The species is known from Java and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in Myanmar.
174541		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) states that this species breeds in “soaks and marshes in forest, and at forest edges”, however I have often found it on streams, and seen mating occur on the Sungai Penyilam in Sarawak’s Bintulu Division, a stream flowing slowly through low pH swamp forest. It occurs from the lowlands to at least 1,500 m where suitable habitat occurs, and can be found in quite highly disturbed forest.
174541		population	eng	This species appears to be quite local in occurrence, but can be quite common where it occurs, for instance it has been found it regularly on the Sungai Penyilam in Bintulu Division, Sarawak (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011).
174541		threats	eng	Deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are planned) are certainly threats to some populations.
174542		conservation	eng	The range of this species falls into protected areas. More research is needed on this species distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
174542		distribution	eng	This species is only known from western Thailand.
174542		habitat	eng	It is known from streams and semi-standing water in pristine forest.
174542		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
174542		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats to this species.
174543		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data, especially from Myanmar, but beyond this no specific measures appear to be necessary at this time. The species is present in protected areas in Thailand at least (e.g. Doi Suthep-Pui National Park).
174543		distribution	eng	The species is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2000). It is likely to be present in Yunnan, southern China and might occur in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
174543		habitat	eng	Little has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is found at forest streams in hilly and mountainous country.
174543		population	eng	This species appears to be fairly common in suitable terrain.
174543		threats	eng	Deforestation and possibly large-scale hydroelectric projects are threats to some populations of this species.
174544		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species distribution and potential threats. If increased development does occur in northern Viet Nam in the future, sites should be managed to mitigate damages.
174544		distribution	eng	This species is known from central, northern and northeast Thailand. It is also found in Ba Vi National Park, Hanoi, Viet Nam, and Phatang and the Bolaven Plateau in Lao PDR.
174544		habitat	eng	This species was found in streams in forests, including disturbed and secondary.
174544		population	eng	<p>Population numbers are not currently known for this species, but it is thought to have a stable global size though.&#160;</p>
174544		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats to this species currently known. In Viet Nam, potentially touristic expansion in the future may threaten its habitat.
174546		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time. It is present in National Parks and other protected areas in Sarawak at least, for instance Gunung Mulu National Park (R. Dow, unpublished data, 2011). Populations in areas being converted to plantation would probably be preserved by the provision of adequate buffer zones of original forest around streams.
174546		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo, with published records from Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1971), but it also occurs in Sarawak (R. Dow unpublished data) and probably throughout the island; Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005); Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen 2002) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 2003). It is likely to occur in Myanmar and Cambodia.
174546		habitat	eng	Records from Borneo and Malaysia are from the lowlands, but at least some records from further north are from higher altitudes e.g. Lak Sao in Lao (Yokoi 2003). In Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia the habitat is lowland forest streams, it undoubtedly breeds in forest streams over its entire range. It appears to be tolerant of some disturbance to its habitats, as it occurs in forest that has been logged in Sarawak.
174546		population	eng	Many records of this species are of the distinctive larva, and adults have not been seen in Sarawak (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011), but large numbers of larval exuviae were found on the Sungai Penyilam in Bintulu Division in January 2008, suggesting that the species is common there. It is likely to be rather local but common where it occurs.
174546		threats	eng	In Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia populations of this species are likely to be threatened by deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are planned). Further north deforestation and possibly large-scale hydroelectric projects are the main threats.
174547		conservation	eng	It is found in several protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
174547		distribution	eng	This species is&#160; known from northern and eastern Thailand and Lao PDR.
174547		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in sub-montane and montane forest streams.
174547		population	eng	The population of the species is not known.
174547		threats	eng	<p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p>
174548		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data on this species, especially from Java and Sumatra from where there are no recent records. Populations in areas being converted from original forest to plantation would probably be protected by the provision of adequate buffers of original forest around streams. The species is certainly present in protected areas in National Parks in Sarawak and Thailand, and searches for it in protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia should be made. No other specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.
174548		distribution	eng	<p>The species<em><span lang="EN-GB"> </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known from Indonesia (western Java, Sumatra including Bangka and Belitung (e.g., Lieftinck 1954)), Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), with records from Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak; Peninsular Malaysia (e.g., Orr 2005) and Thailand (e.g., Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in southern Myanmar.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;</p>
174548		habitat	eng	The species breeds in clear but usually slow flowing lowland forest streams, apparently avoiding streams with a mud bottom. The larvae are found in leaf packs. It does not require pristine habitats: it has been found in disturbed forest in Sarawak (R. Dow pers comm. 2011), and Hämäläinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1996) recorded it from “secondary forest, primarily bamboo”.
174548		population	eng	This species may be rather local in occurrence, but appears to be quite common where it occurs, but under-recorded due to difficulty of capture.
174548		threats	eng	Individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g., in Sarawak where many such projects are planned).
174551		conservation	eng	Protection and development of forested areas in Indo-China and southern China will help protect this species.
174551		distribution	eng	Known from two type specimens collected from 'Tonkin', northern Vietnam Martin (1907) comprising a male, which is a subjective synonym of <em>Macromia moorei&#160;</em>&#160;Selys, 1874&#160;and a female, which is a subjective synonym of <em>Macromia berlandi.<br/></em>
174551		habitat	eng	<em>Macromia moorei</em> prefers forested, swift-flowing montane streams, whereas<em> M. berlandi</em> prefers slow-flowing sections or small impoundments &#160;in small, moderately fast-flowing, forested, lowland streams.
174551		population	eng	Only known from two type&#160;specimens, which do not belong to the same species.
174551		threats	eng	It is pointless to speculate on threats faced by this species before the taxonomic issues are resolved.
174552		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the distribution and potential threats to this species, in particular in Java, and in Viet Nam. The known distribution of this species is extremely strange, and the whole genus is in critical need of revision.
174552		distribution	eng	This species was described from Indonesia (Java), but it is also recorded from Viet Nam, Thailand, Lao PDR and a doubtful record from eastern China.
174552		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forested sub-montane streams.
174552		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
174552		threats	eng	No current, specific information is available. Extensive habitat loss has occurred in Java since the 1930s when this species was last recorded there.
174554		conservation	eng	The status of <em>M. g. erractica</em> and <em>M. g. shanensis</em> should be re-examined. There is a need for much more data on distribution. This species is present in National Parks in Sarawak, Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand at least. Populations in areas being converted to plantation would probably be preserved by the provision of adequate buffer zones of original forest around streams.
174554		distribution	eng	A number of subspecies have been described. <em>Macromidia g. genialis</em> is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005). <em>M. g. erratica</em> is known from Java and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954) and Sarawak (Dow and Reels 2010). <em>M. g. shanensis</em> is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004), and is likely to occur in Yunnan.
174554		habitat	eng	The species breeds in small clean bottomed forest streams. Most records are from nearly pristine primary forest but several individuals have been collected from a stream in disturbed forest in Kapit Division in Sarawak (G.T. Reels and R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011), suggesting that it is tolerant of some degree of disturbance at least. It occurs from sea-level to at least 600 m.
174554		population	eng	There are few records of this species, but this is probably due to difficulty of capture. It does appear to be local in occurrence.
174554		threats	eng	Some populations of this species are certainly threatened by deforestation, plantation establishment and, in some areas, by large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are planned).
174591		conservation	eng	Although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in two forest reserves, these are  still subject to habitat degradation and loss because of human encroachment, so urgent reserve management and enforcement is required. Further survey work is needed to determine this species'  distribution, its population status and natural history traits.
174591		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve and the neighbouring Sui Forest Reserve, both in south-western Ghana (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010). The highest point within the first reserve is 594 m asl (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). While the area requires more surveys, a broad distribution (i.e., into Ivory Coast) is thought to be unlikely (R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
174591		habitat	eng	The larger Krokosua Hills area is part of the northwest subtype of moist semi-deciduous forest, but the slopes where this species is found are moist uphill evergreen forest, with a thick leaf litter on a granitic outcrop (R. Ernst pers. comm. July 2010). Trees in this type of forest are taller than in other Ghanaian forest types. No open bodies of water were recorded in direct vicinity of the type locality (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
174591		population	eng	It is believed that it could be a rare species (R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010).
174591		threats	eng	While the species occurs within the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve and the Sui Forest Reserve, there are a number of farms, old mine pits and villages within the first reserve (Ernst<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008), and the Sui Forest reserve is also affected by illegal farming and small-scale mining (R. Ernst pers. comm April 2010). While alluvial gold mining was a past threat, the current major threat to this species is illegal logging, which causes habitat degradation. <span lang="PL">In addition, a botanical survey in 1991 confirmed extreme patchiness with very damaged, logged areas on flatter land and unlogged areas with less damage on steep slopes. Between Sui and Krokosua there are large unforested areas and the entire region  is extremely patchy, with fragments of forest interspersed with deforested  agricultural&#160;land (R. Ernst pers. comm July 2010). <span lang="PL">This species occurs in a very small area which is now under human encroachment pressure (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> <span lang="PL">2008), consisting mostly of habitat loss due to illegal plantations, which is occurring at an alarming rate (R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010).</span>
174664		conservation	eng	Identification of impact of threats and their management is seen as a key area of research for the conservation of this species. An invasive alien plant clearing plan for the site is a priority and is being developed by CapeNature and private land owners. This and other members of the genus require more information on life history, dispersal and population size to be followed by monitoring.
174664		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a very small area (between 500 and 800 m asl) of the Klein Swartberg near Caledon, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Reduction of the very small AOO (0.9 km<sup>2</sup>) and EOO (2.3 km<sup>2</sup>) is ongoing.
174664		habitat	eng	This species occupies indigenous fynbos heathland vegetation and can be found in dense restios stands in close proximity to seepages. The area it occupies is under threat from alien vegetation and too frequent fires and has an ongoing decline in quality. It is a direct developing species laying around 10 eggs like other members of the genus.
174664		population	eng	<p>Extensive survey work has been conducted and the number of mature individuals is estimated to be around 1000.&#160;Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) and species as a whole is threatened due to the single location.</p>
174664		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are fires which cause extreme population fluctuations and have a synergistic effect on alien&#160;invasive&#160;plants which are degrading and drying seepages. Both threats are extensive and severe on the entire distribution of this species.<u><br/></u>
174703		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium </span><span style="font-style: italic;">pallidum</span> is     not   specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty  on    Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the   priority forage   legume gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>           seed samples are relatively rare in gene banks but   collections  are held by the Aegean     Agricultural Research   Institiute  (Menemen,  Turkey),    ICARDA  (Aleppo,    Syria) and   University of Aberystwyth  (Aberystwyth , UK) gene      banks. 35   accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction   Station   in     Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources   Program    2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 18 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Both of these wild accessions originate from within Europe: one from Bulgaria and one from Spain. These two accessions are stored in Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov', Bulgaria and Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain respectively (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>      the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many   existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its    conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be    subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as   climate  change.
174703		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. pallidum</span> is found across most of southern and central Europe, as well as Turkey and parts of northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Spain it is found in southern and northwest region and in France it is confined to the southeastern department of   Bouches-du-Rhône and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
174703		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">T. pallidum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is frequently found in semi-natural grasslands that exist after grazing has heavily deteriorated woodlands or forests (Lamont </span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2001), but generally grows on grasslands, rocks and boulders. It is an annual or biennial legume, and flowers between May and July (Zohary and Heller 1984).</span><br/> <br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Spain it grwos in loamy or clay substrates with high capacity of water retention.</span><br/> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span>
174703		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is common across southern   Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats and populations are  stable.<br/><br/>In Spain it is not very widespread within the country.
174703		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pallidum </span>(and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001),  but as the species is so widely distributed this is unlikely to threaten the species overall.
174704		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">uniflorum</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is           not specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International  Treaty    on     Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture  as  part   of  the    forage   legume gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in several gene banks but collections are rare, four accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. uniflorum</span> are held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>          the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many       existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as   its       conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored  it  may  be     subject  to     population     loss over time from  factors  such  as    climate  change.
174704		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. uniflorum</span> is native only to certain parts of southern Europe (namely France, Greece and Italy), as well as Turkey, and Libya (Zohary and Heller 1984, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
174704		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">T. uniflorum </span><span style="background-color: white;">is found in fields, maquis, mountain slopes and roadsides. It is a perennial legume and its flowering time is between March and May (Zohary and Heller 1984).</span><span style="background-color: red;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span>
174704		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is sporadically common in   southern Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats    and   populations are  stable.
174704		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. uniflorum </span>(and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001),  but as the species is reasonably widely distributed this is unlikely to threaten the species overall.
174705		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Lens </em>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty     on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the     lentil gene pool.<br/><br/>Currently, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. orientalis </span>is conserved primarily <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>, with the majority of stored germplasm belonging to the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), with 222 accessions duplicated in the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). Studies by Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998a and b) have shown that genetic variation within populations of wild <span style="font-style: italic;">Lens</span> species is low, whereas between population variation is high, thus <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation is the best method when trying to conserve genetic diversity. Passport data is frequently incomplete within the ICARDA collection, and conservation priority should be afforded to collecting missions to two main areas. Firstly, southern Syria, north and west Syria and the West Bank of the Palestinian Authority, and secondly, south Turkey and southeast Turkey. Also, wild types with resistance to pea leaf weevil and broomrape would be particularly beneficial commercially (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 29 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 12 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  Further European material should be gathered for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation. Survey of the distribution is required, as well as adaptation of the management plan of the protected areas where it is present.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to   be passively conserved in many  existing  protected areas throughout   its range but as its conservation  in these  sites is not actively   monitored it may be subject to population  loss  over time from factors   such as climate change.<br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/></span>
174705		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. orientalis</span> is found in parts of eastern and southeastern Europe, as well as throughout much of central and western Asia, and also in parts of the Indian subcontinent (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). It seems to also occur in Crete.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174705		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. orientalis </span>grows in partially shaded or open habitats on shallow, stony soils which originate from basalt, calcareous and metamorphic rocks.&#160;<p>It lives in primary undisturbed habitats, <em>Quercus</em> scrub, <em>Pinus</em> forest, disturbed steppe, vineyards and fallow fields. It flowers in April - May. It is commonly found growing with other annual legumes such as clover, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus</span>, medic and vetches (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). In Turkey, it is commonly found at the edges of pine groves and cedar groves (Ladizinsky 1993). It is found in dry stony slopes and hillsides.</p>
174705		population	eng	&#160;This species is locally common where it is found and its population appears to be stable.
174705		threats	eng	Increase in the intensity and frequency of fires are threatening the species. Tourist development and urbanisation are also impacting the species.
174706		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Lens </em>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty    on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the    lentil gene pool.<br/><br/>Currently, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. odemensis </span>is conserved primarily <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>, with the majority of stored germplasm belonging to the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), with 57 accessions duplicated in the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in New Delhi, India (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). Studies by Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998a, b) have shown that genetic variation within populations of wild <span style="font-style: italic;">Lens</span> species is low, whereas between population variation is high, thus <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation is the best method when trying to conserve genetic diversity. Passport data is frequently incomplete within the ICARDA collection, and conservation priority should be afforded to collecting missions to certain regions of north Africa, and the Levant. Also, wild types with resistance to pea leaf weevil and broomrape would be particularly beneficial commercially (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). A monitoring programme should be implemented.<span style="background-color: red;"><br/><br/></span>    <p>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="background-color: red;"></span>It occurs in protected areas. <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to  be passively conserved in many  existing  protected areas throughout  its range but as its conservation  in these  sites is not actively  monitored it may be subject to population  loss  over time from factors  such as climate change.<br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/><br/></span>
174706		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. odemensis</span> is only native to Greece (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
174706		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. odemensis</span> is commonly found in herbaceous habitats, growing with other annual legumes such as vetches, clovers and medics. In Israel and Syria it has been observed growing on shallow soil and granite originating from bedrock. In western Turkey however, it is found growing in partially shaded habitats, mostly in pine groves, on calcareous bedrock, and in southern Turkey it is found growing on the gravel of basalt and metamorphic rocks (Ladizinsky 1993).
174706		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lens odemensis </span>has a restricted distribution in Europe, however it is  found  in several  habitats     which are not  threatened. Its population appears to  be  stable.
174706		threats	eng	Urbanisation and increase in fires frequency and intensity are the main threats to this species.
174707		conservation	eng	A large amount of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. angustifolius</span> germplasm is conserved in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>, but many accessions have been duplicated due to seed exchange between various institutions (Cowling 2001).&#160; Further collection expeditions need to be conducted to increase the genetic base, specifically to find types of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. angustifolius</span> which are resistant to anthracnose and fusarium wilt disease (Cowling 2001).<br/><br/>Naturally occurs in protected areas.<br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the 'Centre' region of France (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 1,614 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 675 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 661 originate from within Europe: 512 of these originate from Spain, 70 from Greece, 67 from Portugal and three from Italy (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
174707		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. angustifolius</span> is found growing in meadows, among rock and amongst bushes, roadsides and sandy seashore, throughout most of southern Europe, as well as in northern Africa and western Asia, and is widely cultivated (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>It is present all over in Spain and Portugal. In Italy it only occurs in the south. In France it occurs in the central, western and southern departments and is largely absent from the departments to the north and east of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
174707		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. angustifolius</span> is a short annual, growing between 20 and 150 cm tall, and flowers between April and June (Duke 1981). It is generally found on light to medium textured non-calcareous (Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It grows at altitudes from sea level to 1,500 m, and is found on roadsides, degraded shrubland, abandoned fields and shrub steppe (de Hond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), as well as  in meadows, among rock and amongst bushes, roadsides and sandy  seashore and is widely cultivated in regions with a Mediterranean climate (Kulovich and  Stankevich 2002). It can tolerate temperatures as low as -6ºC, but grows best between 5.6  ºC and 26.2ºC. It can tolerate an average annual rainfall of 840 mm and an average soil pH between 4.9 and 8.2 (Duke 1981).
174707		population	eng	A study by van der Maarel and van der Maarel-Versluys (1996) showed that the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. angustifolius </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">reticulatus</span> in southwest Europe is declining, however, in general the species is so widespread it cannot be considered to be declining overall.
174707		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. angustifolius</span>, as well as all species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span> in the Mediterranean, are threatened by overgrazing and increasing human population pressure (Cowling 2001), however<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">angustifolius </span>is a common species and not specifically threatened.
174708		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/><br/>Numerous <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> accessions exist in gene banks worldwide, including the Banco de Germoplasma - Departamento de Recursos Genéticos e Melhoramento, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária (Lisbon, Portugal), Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben, Germany), Institute for Agrobotany (Tapioszele, Hungary), Greek Genebank, Agricultural Research Center of Macedonia and Thrace, National Agricultural Research Foundation (Thessalonica, Greece), Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation),   University of Reading (Reading, UK)  and  International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (182 accessions) (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 558 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 94 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 57 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in  many existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its  conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject  to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
174708		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cicera</span> is very widespread, being found in most of southern and eastern Europe, western and central Asia, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)  records it as being present in Albania,   Balearic Islands,   Bulgaria,   Corsica,   Crete, Former Yugoslavia,   France,   Greece,   Italy,   Malta,   Portugal,   Romania,   Sardinia,   Sicily,   Spain,   Switzerland,   Turkey in Europe and   Ukraine. In France it is widespread across the south of the country also found in several departments in the north (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
174708		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cicera </span>is found in pastures, fallows, forest clearings and on roadsides, and occurs up to altitudes of 1,000 m (FAO 2010). It grows on soils with pH between 6.5 and 8.5 (Bennett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is the most common <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus</span> species in highland and cold temperate sites (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
174708		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus cicera</span> is reasonably common throughout its range, where it is found in several habitats   which are not threatened; populations appears to be  stable. Throughout its distribution it is cultivated, primarily in marginal agricultural environments.<br/><br/>In Spain, there has been a decrease in the production of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cicera</span>  in recent years. Commonly grown in mountainous regions, samples are  now generally only found at the edges of fields, or in home gardens, and  there seems to be a very real threat that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cicera</span> will be lost if a comprehensive germplasm collection is not made (Campbell 1997). In such marginal areas it is being replaced by alternative grain and firage legume species.
174708		threats	eng	In<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the Mediterranean, changes in agricultural practice are threatening the diversity in <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus</span> species. Newly cleared cultivated land and the subsequent decline of permanent pastures has lead to the disappearance of habitats for wild climax community species. Furthermore, the increased use of high input farming and new, uniform varieties replacing traditional landraces is destroying diversity in wild types of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cicera</span> (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). This species is found in habitats prone to Mediterranean summer fire and  so with increasing fires the species is potentially threatened by fire  and overgrazing. In an assessment of the species by Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) it was found to be Critically Endangered (BGCI 2009), but this species is well known to the assessor and is not threatened throughout its range and is even cultivated in Syria and the Middle East.
174709		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. saxatilis</span>, as well as the majority of Mediterranean species of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Medicago</span>, has germplasm stored in numerous genebanks, notably the Australian <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> Genetic Resources Centre (AMGRC) in Adelaide, Australia, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in the USA, and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>However, no germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
174709		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. saxatilis </span>is endemic to Crimea (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). This species is a narrow localized endemic and very limited by its ecological preferences. It should be noted that <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Euro+Med Plantbase (2006) and Flora Europea regard <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago rhodopea</span> as a synonym of this species and that taxon is present in Bulgaria, but Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) regard them as separate distinct species. <br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 4,900 km<sup>2 </sup>and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 490 km<sup>2</sup>. The species is known from five locations.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span>
174709		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. saxatilis </span>grows on calcareous rocky sites in dry meadows in mid-mountain zones (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Calcareous places on mountain slopes only in the middle belt between approximately 300-500 m.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174709		population	eng	Population trend is suspected to be decreasing. The number of mature  individuals is thought to be less than 2,500 with less than 500 per subpopulation.
174709		threats	eng	The area where the species occurs is under threat from intense tourism development, urbanisation and recreational activities.
174710		conservation	eng	Despite <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> being relatively healthy, much of the germplasm is duplicated on account of seed exchanges between various institutions. Due to a decline in traditional agricultural practices, populations of<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. albus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">albus</span> are now in decline in certain areas (Cowling 2001). <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus </span>species have only been fully domesticated for around 60 years, and because of this many species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">albus</span>, are susceptable to diseases and environmental stresses. Therefore conservation priority needs to be given to studying and collecting <span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> specimens to discover any types that are better adapted to their environment than domesticated species. Specifically for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span>, types which are cold-tolerant and adapted to alkaline soils would be particularly beneficial to domesticated varieties (Cowling 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 2,715 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 41 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 40 originate from within Europe: 24 of these originate from Greece, five from Portugal, one from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and 10 from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  In Italy is on the Red List  as <span style="font-style: italic;">L. graecus</span> (species level) and it is considered in one region as Vulnerable, in one region as Low Risk, and in two region as Data Deficient.
174710		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> in its uncultivated form is found in southeastern Europe and western Asia (Turkey). It is widely cultivated everywhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">graecus</span> is naturally distributed in the southern Balkans, and possibly northeast Greece, southern Italy and western Turkey. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">albus</span> is naturally more widespread, being found across the northern Mediterranean basin, the Azores (introduced), the Canary Islands (introduced), northern Africa, the Nile Valley, Kenya, and Ethiopia (Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Italy a subspecies is recognised—<span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">graecus </span>(syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. graecus</span>).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
174710		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span> is a relatively short annual (up to 120 cm), flowering between May and June (Duke 1981). It is generally found in meadows, pastures, and grassy slopes on mildly acidic or neutral soils with a light to medium texture (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002). In certain instances it has been found to grow on alkaline soils, for example in Corsica, Egypt, Malta, Sicily, and the Verde Islands (Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It can grow at altitudes from sea level to 740 m (FAO 2010). On average it can tolerate annual precipitation of 840 mm, a mean temperature of 12.7ºC and a soil pH between 4.8 and 8.2 (Duke 1981). &#160;  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174710		population	eng	<p>The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002).</p>
174710		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. albus</span>, as well as all species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span> in the Mediterranean, are threatened by overgrazing and increasing human population pressure (Cowling 2001), however<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. albus</span> is a common species and not specifically threatened.
174711		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. repens</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is        specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty  on     Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part  of  the    forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific  conservation     attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest    collections being held by the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Margot Forde Forage Germplasm Centre in New Zealand (13,000 accessions), Vavilov  Research Institute of Plant Industry, Russia, the National  Plant  Germplasm System in Washington, USA,<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> ICARDA    (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of  Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) (553 accessions) gene        banks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 3,544 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 1,267 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 1,125 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p><span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many    existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its     conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be     subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as    climate  change.<br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).
174711		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. repens</span> is possible the most common legume species found throughout Europe (and the temperate regions of the world) to approximately 71°N, as well as in northwest Asia and north Africa (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In France it is widespread, occurs in all departments throughout the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in Ireland it is widespread across the whole of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174711		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. repens</span>, as well as other perennial <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span> species, generally occur in mountain meadows and areas with high rainfall. It is widely sown and naturalised in temperate regions across the world, but outside of its natural range it can be found in grasslands (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It grows primarily on damp and swampy soils, and flowers between March and September (Zohary and Heller 1984).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">T. repens</span> is a perennial legume, flowering between spring and autumn in northern areas, and often all year round in other regions. It grows in dry meadows and mud flats, and less commonly in saline meadows, wood margins, open woods, river banks, plains, semi-desert regions, roadsides, subalpine meadows and lower mountain areas. It favours moist clay and loam soils, and is tolerant to temperatures between 4.3ºC and 21.8ºC, annual precipitation between 310 mm and 1,910 mm, and soil pH from 4.5 to 8.2 (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>  In the UK this species is usually found below 400 m but has been recorded up to 880 m (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It avoids particularly wet and acidic soils and grows in grasslands, waste ground and in other ruderal habitats but it is less common in taller grassland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
174711		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is very common  throughout   Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats  and  populations are  stable.<br/><br/>In the UK, Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) note the species is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and that there has been no change in this species’ range in recorded floristic history.
174711		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. repens </span>(and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). An assessment by Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) found the species to be Vulnerable (BGCI 2009). However, the fact that the species is extremely common and found in many different habitats throughout Europe means it is not currently threatened at the species level. However, recent studies have shown wild forms of the species is prone to introgression and genetic pollution from cultivated forms (Hargreaves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
174712		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium </span><span style="font-style: italic;">argutum </span>is    not specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on  Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the priority forage   legume gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>        seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest  collections being held by the Aegean     Agricultural Research Institiute  (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA  (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth, UK) gene      banks. Eight accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station   in    Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program   2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports six germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the     species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing        protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in        these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>Accessions from Cyprus should be gathered. A monitoring programme should be implemented.
174712		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. argutum</span> is only native to Greece (Rhodes) and Cyprus (where it was found in nine sites), but it is also found widely in western Asia (Zohary and Hellier 1980, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 11,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
174712		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">T. argutum</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is frequently found in semi-natural grasslands that exist after grazing has heavily deteriorated woodlands or forests (Lamont </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2001). It also grows in fields, among scrub and on roadsides. It is an annual legume, and flowers between January and May (Zohary and Heller 1984).</span> In Cyprus, it is also found in old stabilised sand dunes, in rocky pastures, waste grounds, but never far from the coast.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174712		population	eng	This is a common species in the Near East with its western edge of distribution just getting into Europe, therefore it is much rarer in Europe. Where it is found it is often found with large population sizes. In Cyprus, the population size is estimated to be more than 2,500 individuals.
174712		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. argutum</span> (and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Cyprus, it occurs near tourist areas.
174713		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. pratense</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is       specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on     Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the    forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation     attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest    collections being held by the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry, Russia (2,913 accessions),  the European Central Crop Database (2,140 accessions), the National  Plant Germplasm System in Washington, USA (1,106 accessions),<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> ICARDA    (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of  Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth, UK) gene        banks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).&#160; <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 4,413 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 1,232 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 1,067 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>      the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many   existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its    conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be    subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as   climate  change.<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).
174713		distribution	eng	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. pratense</span> includes northern Africa, much of Asia and all of Europe (except for the extreme north and parts of the extreme south) (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In France, it is widespread, occurs in all departments throughout the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> and in Ireland it is widespread across the whole of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>
174713		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. pratense</span> is widely cultivated in Europe and around the world. In the wild it grows in a variety of habitats, including glades, grassy plots, meadows, roadsides, and areas near water (Zohary and Heller 1984), but is restricted to humid areas at high altitudes when it is found in warm, dry regions (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It grows best on well drained loam soils, although it will grow on wetter soils. It will tolerate annual precipitation of between 310 mm and 1,910 mm, annual mean temperatures between 4.9ºC and 20.3ºC, and soil pH from 4.5 to 8.2     (Duke 1981). It is a perennial legume, and its flowering time is between May and September (Zohary and Heller 1984).<br/><br/>  In the UK this species is known to occur from sea level up to 850 m in the Scottish Highlands (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is found in a wide range of grassland habitats and waste areas although absent from the most acidic soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
174713		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is very common throughout southern   Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats and  populations are  stable.<br/><br/>In the UK, according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species has shown no change in its distribution since the earlier Atlas (Perring and Walters 1962).
174713		threats	eng	There appears to be be no major threats. This species is very common and found in many different habitats so it is not currently threatened.
174714		conservation	eng	Only one accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. micranthus </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It occurs in protected areas.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 50 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 23 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of the wild accessions originate from within Europe. Seven of these wild accessions originate from Portugal and 16 from Spain. All of these wild accessions are stored in either Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (11) or Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria - Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Spain (12) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
174714		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. micranthus</span> is native to much of southern Europe, as well as western Asia and north Africa (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, this taxon (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus gussoneanus</span> J. Agardh) is found in Corsica and the five departments of   Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var in the south and southeast of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2010).&#160;   <p><br/></p>  <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
174714		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. micranthus </span>generally grows on sandy loams, but has also been found on coarse sands and heavier, calcareous soils (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002). It is mostly found on mildly acidic to alkaline soils (Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Also in scrublands, roadsides.
174714		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. micranthus</span> is common across much of southern Europe (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002), although it appears to be rare in Greece and only locally common in Cyprus. There are scattered subpopulations in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. In Italy the population is fragmented.
174714		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. micranthus</span>, as well as all species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span> in the Mediterranean, are threatened by overgrazing and increasing human population pressure (Cowling 2001), however it is a common species and not specifically threatened, it  appears able to withstand human disturbance as evident by its habitat  types where it is found (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002).
174715		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenderiensis</span>, as well as the majority of Mediterranean species of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Medicago</span>, has germplasm stored in numerous genebanks, notably the Australian <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> Genetic Resources Centre (AMGRC) in Adelaide, Australia, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in the USA, and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
174715		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenderiensis</span> is restricted to the Ukraine. Although as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">falcata </span>it is much more widespread and is also widely naturalised (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).&#160; <span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
174715		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenderiensis </span>is found on calcareous rocks, and is adapted to dry, boreal and steppe conditions (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
174715		population	eng	The exact population size and trend is unknown, but the species is considered rare within its range.
174715		threats	eng	Research by Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenderiensis</span> is not subject to any specific  threat.
174716		conservation	eng	A substantial amount of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. luteus </span>germplasm is conserved in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>, but seed exchanges between institutions has resulted in many accessions being duplicated (Cowling 2001).&#160; Further collection expeditions need to be conducted to find types of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. luteus </span>which are resistant to anthracnose and fusarium wilt disease (Cowling 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 2002 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 254 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 251 originate from within Europe: one from Greece, one from Netherlands, 124 from Portugal and 125 from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
174716		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. luteus</span> is native to France, Italy, Portugal and Spain, as well as northern Africa and western Asia. It is also cultivated in northern Europe and the Russian Federation (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002) and many countries worldwide (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France it is confined to the northern departments of Seine-Maritime, Sarthe and Bas-Rhin, the southern departments of Aveyron, Tarn and   Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
174716		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. luteus</span>, in its wild form, is a relatively small (25-80 cm) annual which flowers between March and July (Duke 1981). It commonly grows on sandy or volcanic, acidic soils (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002, Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), grows best in high rainfall areas and can tolerate temporary waterlogging. It is highly susceptible to iron and manganese deficiencies when growing on neutral of calcareous soils. It can tolerate a mean annual temperature of 13ºC, an average precipitation of 850 mm, and soil pH between 4.5 and 8.2 (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, it is found in degraded scrub lands, abandoned fields, road sides, on neutral or decarbonated and acidic soils, pH 5-7 and sandy loam soils. It occurs from sea level to 1,100 m.
174716		population	eng	This is a common species, particularly in Spain, Portugal and Sicily. Its population appears to be stable.
174716		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. luteus</span>, along with all species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span> in the Mediterranean, are threatened by overgrazing and increasing human population pressure (Cowling 2001), however it is a common species and not specifically threatened. It appears able to withstand human disturbance as evident by its habitat types where it is found (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002) .
174717		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Lens </em>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty   on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the   lentil gene pool.<br/><br/>Currently, <em>L. nigricans </em>is conserved primarily <em>ex situ</em>,   with the majority of stored germplasm belonging to the International   Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). However in   Europe accessions are only found in the Aegean Agricultural Research   Institute (Menemen, Turkey) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene   banks. There <u1:p style="background-color: white;"></u1:p>is a need to promote <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation for this species. Studies by Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998a and b) have shown that genetic variation within populations of wild <span style="font-style: italic;">Lens</span> species is low, whereas between population variation is high, thus <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation is the best method when trying to conserve genetic diversity.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 40 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 33 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 30 originate from within Europe, 28 from Spain, one from Italy and one from Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   It occurs in protected areas. <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in many  existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its conservation  in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population  loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
174717		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. nigricans</span> is a Mediterranean species, primarily occurring in southern Europe. Its range extends from La Palma in the Canary Islands to the Crimean Peninsula and Georgia (Ferguson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000). It also grows sporadically on the Italian and French Alps, and is also found in Algeria and Morocco. In Portugal it is found in the centre, east and northeast of the country with very few known populations and in France it occurs within 11 departments in the south and southeast, Corsica and the departments of Gironde to the west (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174717		habitat	eng	The species is found in partially shaded or open habitats, generally alongside other short stature annual legumes such as clovers and medics, on limestone, granite and basalt bedrock.&#160; It also grows in man-made habitats, commonly on abandoned plantations and terraces, and terraced vineyards. It flowers in May (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<br/><br/>It grows in shallow soils, rocky places, dense woods on limestone, slate or sands. It is an annual plant.
174717		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lens nigricans </span>has a scattered  distribution,  it is  found  in several  habitats     which are not threatened. Its  population appears to  be  stable.
174717		threats	eng	This is a relatively fragmented species found in several distinct  habitats,   that appears to be under no major threat within the region and its  populations   appear to be stable (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Grazing, urbanisation and changes in land use are threats to this species. In Portugal no threats are known.
174718		conservation	eng	There are 48 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hispanicus</span>  held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010). A large amount of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>germplasm is also conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in both the European and Australian seed banks. Furthermore, half of the known populations in Spain are conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> in the Natura Network of Sites of Community Interest (Iriondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005)<span style="font-weight: bold;">.</span> The species occurs in protected areas.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span>    <p>EURISCO reports 284 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 110 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of the wild accessions originate from within Europe: nine from Portugal and 101 from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
174718		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hispanicus </span>is endemic to Spain and Portugal (ILDIS World Database of Legumes 2010).
174718		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hispanicus</span> generally grows on silty to sandy soils between pH 5 and 6.5. It grows at altitudes between 600 m and 1,600 m (Iriondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It is found in arable land, vineyards, shrubs, and roadsides, highly acidic or sandy soils, on granite and shaly mountainsides (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
174718		population	eng	It is common in suitable habitat, moderately and highly acidic or sandy soils, on granite and shaly mountainsides (Kurlovich and Stankevich 2002).
174718		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hispanicus </span>are agricultural abandonment, as well as other changes in agricultural practices, and human intervention, such as increased urbanisation (Iriondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but overall the species is still common so it is not seriously threatened.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
174720		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium nigricans </span>is     not  specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty  on   Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the  priority forage   legume gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are relatively rare in gene banks but  collections  are held by the Aegean     Agricultural Research  Institiute  (Menemen,  Turkey),    ICARDA  (Aleppo,    Syria) and  University of Aberystwyth  (Aberystwyth , UK) gene      banks. 34  accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction  Station   in     Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources  Program    2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 35 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, eight of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe. One of these two wild accessions originates from France and the other from Portugal. These two accessions are stored in Genetic Resources Unit, Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, UK and Estação Nacional Melhoramento Plantas, Portugal respectively (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>     the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many  existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its   conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be   subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as  climate  change.
174720		distribution	eng	The distributional range of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. nigrescens</span> covers much of southern Europe, as well as western Asia, the Caucasus, and northern Africa (Zohary and Hellier 1984, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Spain it is present in Andalucia, Catalunya and the Balearic Islands. In Portugal it is found all over the country and in France it occurs in 13 departments to the south and southeast of the country, Corsica, the southwestern departments of   Hautes-Pyrénées, Landes and Gironde, the central department of   Nièvre and northern department of   Seine-et-Marne (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
174720		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">T. nigrescens</span><span style="background-color: white;"> grows on loam or clay soils with fair drainage, preferably with a pH of between 6.5 and 8.5 (Sheaffer and Evers 2007).</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> It is frequently found in semi-natural grasslands that exist after grazing has heavily deteriorated the woodlands or forests (Lamont </span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2001). It is an annual legume, and flowers between March and October (Zohary and Heller 1984). It can tolerate temperatures between 12.5ºC and 21.3ºC, and annual precipitation between 620 mm and 1,330 mm (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>In Portugal and Spain it is found in pastures in flooded depressions, sandy soils, frequently nitrophilous.</span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span></span></span>
174720		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is common across  Europe from the Britain to Turkey. It is found in a    variety of  habitats and populations are  stable.
174720		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. nigrescens </span>(and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), but as the species is so widely distributed this is unlikely to threaten the species overall.
174721		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. prostrata</span>&#160;  has few accessions available in gene banks. EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession originates from Czech Republic. This accession is stored in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
174721		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. prostrata</span> is found in central and southeastern Europe (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
174721		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. prostrata</span> grows on limestone rocks and scree, and is found on rocky hillsides, waste grounds and riversides (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is found on  hot sunny slopes, rocky places and similarly in Italy it is found on sunny slopes, secondary successions, calcareous soils.
174721		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago prostrata </span>is a moderately common medic species with a  fairly wide range  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010). In the Czech Republic it is only a few localities known in the south Moravia region, and in Italy it is not common, but where found populations appears to be stable.
174721		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats but cutting of the forests in this area is a  potential threat  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
174722		conservation	eng	There are 134 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ervoides</span> held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in New Delhi, India, and 51 accessions are held at the Western Regional Plant Introduction Station in the USA. Many of these accessions are duplicated at the International Centre for Agricultural Researcg in the Dry Areas in Syria (Ferguson and Erskine 2001).<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 12 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe, one from Italy (stored in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and one from Spain (stored in Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria - Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
174722		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lens ervoides</span> has a broad range, from Spain to Ukraine, and south to Jordan, but it is most common on the coast of Turkey and the Adriatic coast of Former Yugoslavia. The distribution throughout Spain is fairly restricted. It is also found in Ethiopia and Uganda (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France it occurs only in the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span>
174722		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ervoides</span> grows mainly on calcareous rock in shady or partially shady habitats, under a canopy of trees or amongst shrubs. It also occasionally grows in pine groves. However, in Ethiopia and Uganda it has been found to grow on basalt in open habitats amongst perennial grasses (Ferguson and Erskine 2001).
174722		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lens ervoides</span> has a scattered  distribution and it is localised, it is  found  in several  habitats     which are not threatened, populations appear to  be  stable.
174722		threats	eng	This is a relatively common species found in several distinct habitats,   that appears to be under no major threat within the region (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Overgrazing may be a problem in more exposed rocky location used for grazing.
174723		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium diffusum </span>is     not specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty  on  Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the priority forage   legume gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>         seed samples are relatively rare in gene banks but  collections are held by the Aegean     Agricultural Research  Institiute  (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA  (Aleppo,    Syria) and  University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) gene      banks. 33  accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station   in     Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program    2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 28 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 16 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe. One of these five wild accessions originates from Bulgaria (stored in   Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov', Bulgaria), two originate from Hungary (stored in Institute for Agrobotany, Hungary), one from Romania (stored in Genetic Resources Unit, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, UK) and one from Ukraine (stored in Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
174723		distribution	eng	The distributional range of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. diffusum</span> covers the majority of Europe from Britain to the Caucasus, as well as Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is confined to the southern and southeastern departments of   Pyrénées Orientales, Vaucluse and Var. Also recorded in Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
174723		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">T. diffusum</span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"> grows on sandy soils in forests, forest clearings and meadows (AgroAtlas 2010).</span><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> It is also often found in semi-natural grasslands that exist after grazing has heavily deteriorated woodlands or forests (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It is an annual legume, and flowers between June and August (Zohary and Heller 1984).&#160; <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span></span>
174723		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered   common across Europe from Britain to the Caucasus. It is found in a  variety of habitats and populations are  stable.
174723		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. diffusum </span>(and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), but as the species is so widely distributed this is unlikely to threaten the species overall.
174724		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. glandulosa</span>, as well as the majority of Mediterranean species of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Medicago</span>, has germplasm stored in numerous genebanks, notably the Australian <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> Genetic Resources Centre (AMGRC) in Adelaide, Australia, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in the USA, and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). As this species is in the primary gene of alfalfa further germplasm collection should be a priority.
174724		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. glandulosa</span> has a fairly small distributional range, occurring mostly in eastern and southeastern Europe, as well as Georgia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>The species is only found in southern Crimea and the Russian Caucasus. Occurrences in Ukraine mainland and European Russia are probably not native.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is smaller than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller than  2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The species occurs at less than 10 locations.<sup><br/></sup>
174724		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. glandulosa</span> is found on calcareous rocks, and is adapted to dry, boreal and steppe conditions (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/>It is found on open places in herb communities. Sometimes it occurs as a weedy plants in fields and sometimes found along roads (Fedorov 1974).<br/>The species prefers dry meadows and dry mountain slopes (Afonin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
174724		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species has a <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>fairly small distributional range, occurring only in the Crimea, where the habitats are known to be being eroded by tourism and overgrazing, so populations are predicted to be decreasing.
174724		threats	eng	The area where the species is found in Crimea is under intensive tourist development and is overgrazed, as a consequence this could indicate habitat decline.
174725		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span>, as well as the majority of Mediterranean species of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Medicago</span>, has germplasm stored in numerous genebanks, notably the Australian <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> Genetic Resources Centre (AMGRC) in Adelaide, Australia, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in the USA, and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> falcata</span> is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 4,084 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 250 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 194 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
174725		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> is rare in the wild, except in Caucasus, the Iberian Peninsula, and Turkey, but is widely naturalised via escapes from cultivation and is now cultivated throughout the world (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources 2010). <br/><br/>In France it is widespread, occurs in all departments except Aisne where it has not been recorded (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010). In  the UK <em>Medicago sativa</em> ssp. <em>falcata</em> is confined to East Anglia in England, however it also has a sparse and patchy distribution throughout the rest of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland but these occurrences are recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Ireland <em>Medicago sativa</em> ssp. <em>falcate</em> occurs in only two localities in the west of the country and both of these occurrences are recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Denmark: both <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">falcata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sativa</span> occur within this country however only <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">falcata</span> is native (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
174725		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa </span>is rare in the wild, but specimens are generally found in open habitats, such as roadsides and field borders. However, these are frequently plants which have escaped from agriculture. It requires a soil pH of at least 6.0, and can be found growing up to elevations of 2,400 m (FAO 2010). When growing in coastal areas, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> occurs on sandy and sandy-loam soil types, whereas in mountainous regions it tends to grow on clay and heavier clay-loam soil types. Generally <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> species grow best on alkaline soils which are well drained (Bennett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> grows on moderately fertile calcareous soils, commonly in open habitats. It is found in dry semi-desert to agricultural land, and less frequently in scrub and woodland (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa</span> is a perennial herb which flowers between May and July. It grows on many different soil types, but favours well-drained loamy soil and does not tolerate waterlogging or acid soils. It can tolerate an average annual rainfall of 1030 mm, temperatures between 4.3ºC and 28.5ºC, and soil pH between 4.3 and 8.7 (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>  In the UK <em>Medicago sativa</em> ssp. <em>falcata</em> is a lowland species with a preference for calcareous soils and sands; it grows on grassy heaths, sea-walls, roadsides and tracks (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
174725		population	eng	The exact population size of wild <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago sativa </span>is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are stable. However, in the UK according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), <em>Medicago sativa</em> ssp. <em>falcata</em> has declined in coastal areas due to habitat loss. It is also unable to cope with animal grazing and it can hybridise with<em> </em><em>M. sativa </em>ssp<em>. sativa</em> - these factors also play a role in its decline<em> </em>(Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
174725		threats	eng	There are no know specific threats to the wild forms of the species, apart from the unknown consequences of withspread hybridisation with the crop. Research by Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sativa </span>is not threatened.
174869		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in a number of protected areas across its wide range.
174869		distribution	eng	A widespread species known from Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica and Ecuador (information sourced from GBIF).
174869		habitat	eng	Widespread in tropical montane forest (Wolf 1994).
174869		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it appears to be fairly common given the number of records and the population appears to be stable at present.
174869		threats	eng	Logging of the forests and the increasing frequency of fires are minor threats to this species.
175071		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action documented for this species. Because it is known from a very restricted range, efforts should be made to protect the habitat. Also it requires a host fish species to complete its life cycle, therefore any potential conservation actions will need to incorporate the host species needs.
175071		distribution	eng	<p>This species is reported from Krishna River, below Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in Andhra Pradesh, Western Ghats, India (Janiki Ram and Radhakrishna 1984, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). Surveys in the surrounding area have shown that it is not present in nearby basins (Dey, pers. obvs.). Subba Rao (1989) could not examine this species so did not include it in his work and Nesemann did not mention the species in his papers. There is limited information on this species.</p>
175071		habitat	eng	This species occurs in algal encrusted rocky substratum in fast flowing river ecosystem&#160;(Janiki Ram and Radhakrishna 1984). It requires a host fish species to complete its life cycle.
175071		population	eng	No information is available on the population trend for this species.
175071		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to this species. However, the dam and land run-off (pollution from domestic sources) might be potential threat to this species.
175074		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed.
175074		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen where it was collected from backwaters of Mumbai.
175074		habitat	eng	This is a&#160;brackish&#160;water species (secondary freshwater species), rarely extending into freshwater.
175074		population	eng	There are no studies regarding population structure of this species.
175074		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known. However, the pollution from urban runoff and industries which is prevalent in the region where it has been reported could be potential threat to this species.
175075		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species in place. Monitoring the level of harvesting is recommended.
175075		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species to the Western Ghats of India reported from backwaters of Kerala, India.
175075		habitat	eng	<em>Villorita</em> are confined to&#160;backwaters and estuaries of west coast Kerala.&#160;This species cannot withstand high salinity and is usually found in farthest ends of the backwaters where the salinity is below 15 percent. This species burrows in the soil to to aviod unfavorable conditions during summer when salinity increases above 15 percent&#160;(Cherian 1968).<p></p>
175075		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, but where it occurs it is found in high abundance (Dey pers. comm.)
175075		threats	eng	This species one of the major shell fish of commercial importance.&#160;Extensive&#160;harvest from the wild could be potential threat to this species.
175076		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species in place. The species would benefit from harvest monitoring and management.
175076		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India, where it is reported from backwaters of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
175076		habitat	eng	This species is found in the backwaters of Kerala, mainly in Vembanad backwaters. This species occurs in salinity range of&#160;3 ppt in August&#160;to 16 ppt in May and the dissolved oxygen&#160;content ranged from a high of 6.5 ml/L&#160;during August-November to a low of 2.83&#160;ml/L in February (Laxmilatha <em>et al</em>., 2005).
175076		population	eng	There is no information on the&#160;population&#160;structure for this&#160;species. However, the population seems stable in last two years as&#160;shown&#160;by harvest data (Laxmilatha and Appukuttan 2002). In Pulicat Lake, it has been found at a density of 124 clams per m<sup>2.</sup>
175076		threats	eng	The species is harvested extensively from the wild population and this could be potential threat to this species. Other recorded threats are&#160;closure of the Thaneermukham Barrage near Vambanad Lake, frequent&#160;dredging, pollution from effluents from shrimp processing plants/factories, ecotourism&#160;and Water Hyacinth weed (Laxmilatha and Appukuttan 2002).
175077		conservation	eng	No conservation actions for this species are known. More research is needed.
175077		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from the type locality, Varkala, north-west of&#160;Thiruvananthapuram&#160;(Trivandrum), Kerala, India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). Apart from this nothing is known for this species.
175077		habitat	eng	Information on habitat and ecology is completely lacking.
175077		population	eng	No information is available on population structure of this species. It is known only from the type locality.
175077		threats	eng	Threats to this species is not known.
175078		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action for this species.
175078		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from the type&#160;locality, the River Krishna near Sangli, Pune,&#160;Maharashtra.
175078		habitat	eng	This species is reported from a river in northern Western Ghats.
175078		population	eng	Population structure for this species is not known.
175078		threats	eng	Threats to this species is not known.
175080		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
175080		distribution	eng	This species has wide distribution. It has been reported from&#160;Deccan region of Maharasthra, Madras, Tamil Nadu and Tungabhadra River, in Andra Pradesh. It has also been reported from Lahore, and northern Shan States, Pakistan (Akhtar 1978). The records from southern India are doubtful.
175080		habitat	eng	This species is found in river ecosystems.
175080		population	eng	This species seems to be distributed widely, but there is no information on population structure available.
175080		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
175081		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is required to confirm the taxonomic status of the species and its synonyms, as well as the distribution and threats.
175081		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. virens </span>was described from southern India. The synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">P. maura</span> has only been recorded from Assam, India (Preston 1915), the type locality<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. virens</span> and its synonym clearly needs further research. This is a common species found in southern states such as Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah, Khammam, Krishna, Prakasam, Srikakulaum, Visakhapatnam), Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
175081		habitat	eng	The physiology of this species, particularly with reference to aestivation, is well studied in India and the effect of alkaline phosphatase in the normal aestivating <span style="font-style: italic;">P. virens</span> was studied by Shylaja and Alexander (1975). &#160;This species is found in both lentic and lotic habitat such as streams, ponds, tanks, paddy fields etc. Its one of the very common species and occurs in large numbers when ever they are found. This species undergoes aestivation during summer when the stream dries up.
175081		population	eng	<p>This is reported to be common in its range area. &#160;However, there is no population level information available for this species.</p>
175081		threats	eng	Though apparently widely distributed (if the synonym of the nominate species are confirmed), no information is available on threats to this species.
175083		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action documented for this species. More research is needed on the species.
175083		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from a few streams (in three basins) near Khandala, Igatpuri and Mumbai in the Western Ghats of Maharastra State of India.
175083		habitat	eng	This species is found in hill streams in the northern Western Ghats. No other information on its ecology is available.
175083		population	eng	There are no studies reporting the population trends for this species. But it seems to be common in the region where it occurs.
175083		threats	eng	No information on threats to this species is available. General threats to freshwater molluscs in the area are changes in the land use, including for tourism, however it is not known to be directly affecting this species.
175084		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and distribution, ecology and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
175084		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sri Lanka (Tennant 1861).
175084		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
175084		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
175084		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
175085		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures for this species. This species needs more research with regard to its taxonomy, population status, ecology and threats. Monitoring programmes should aid early detection of population declines in the species or its habitat.
175085		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from the type locality Makdona, in Andra Pradesh, India. This species is collected from a canal of the Thunga Bhadra River.
175085		habitat	eng	This species is collected from a canal of the Thunga Bhadra River.
175085		population	eng	There are no studies on the population status of this species.
175085		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
175086		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine its distribution beyond western Maharashtra state, including details on range fragmentation, and whether any threats are impacting it.
175086		distribution	eng	This species is known from Khed, Gimvi and Ratnagiri north to Mumbai in Maharashtra state, India (Devi and Jauhari 2008). Studies in other parts of the state (e.g, Amaravati), and in other regions of India, have failed to find the species. It is also known from Nilgiris Hills.
175086		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be an intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma haematobium</em> in India (Brown 1967). It was recorded from rivers, streams, rice fields and ponds in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra (Devi and Jauhari 2008).
175086		population	eng	This species was collected in small numbers from Khed and Ratnagiri, Maharashtra state, India. It made up 18-23% of the mollusc population at these sites (Devi and Jauhari 2008).
175086		threats	eng	As a suspected host of <em>Schistosoma haematobium</em> in India, this species may be impacted by control programmes (Aditya and Raut 2004), however this is a localised threat.
175087		conservation	eng	No information available on the conservation action for this species, but none needed.
175087		distribution	eng	This species has wide distribution and has been reported from Kerala, Karnataka and Andra Pradesh, India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It has also been reported from Punjab, but its correct identification in the area is doubtful.
175087		habitat	eng	This species found mainly in lentic water bodies such as ponds, tanks, ditches and man made habitats such as paddy fields and marshes. They are seen attached to aquatic vegetation as well.
175087		population	eng	There is no information on population trends and structure for this species. But when they occur, they are found in large numbers up to 20 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (A. Madhyastha pers. obvs<em>.</em>).
175087		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats to this species. Its a very generalist species found in man made habitat also (Aravind Pers. Obvs.).
175089		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species was assessed under Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project (BCCP) India Endangered Species Project. It was advised that this species be given a Lr-nt status (Lower risk - not threatened), using version 2.3 (Daniel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>1998). This was not subsequently registered on the IUCN Red List.<br/><br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution and threats.
175089		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from several places in Karnataka (A. Madhyastha pers. obs.) and a few specimens collected in Madras, Tamil Nadu, southern India and Sri Lanka (Daniel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1998, Bambaridenya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
175089		habitat	eng	This species is has been collected from shallow pools, tanks, and seasonally flooded agricultural land (Bambaridenya<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). These are charaterised by having predominantly clay bottoms; groups of this species are found congregating at the sides of tanks exposed to sunlight, or foraging at the margins of the pool (Seshaiya 1930).<br/><br/>This species feeds entirley on diatoms and minute clay particles (Seshaiya 1930). Eggs of this species are laid in a single row attached to a hard substrate such as stones or the shells of other molluscs (Seshaiya 1930).
175089		population	eng	<p>During surveys in Karnataka, the species was found to be occurring in high abundance (>20 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>) and it was also found in man-made habitats such as paddy fields (A. Madhyastha pers. obs.).</p>
175089		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known. It can survive in man -habitats, and can be considered as a hardy and generalist species.
175091		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action for this species.
175091		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is endemic to the northern Western Ghats and reported only from Khandala and Mahabaleshwar from&#160;Maharashtra, India.
175091		habitat	eng	Generally found in stagnant water bodies (Dey, Pers. Comm.). No further habitat and ecology of this species is known.
175091		population	eng	There are no information on the population status of this species.
175091		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known. A plausible threat to the species is tourism in the area, resulting in land use change and human disturbance, but it is not known how this threat affects the species.
175092		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures exists for this&#160;species.
175092		distribution	eng	This species&#160;is&#160;distributed&#160;in&#160;Gujarat, Maharashtra and Orissa in India, as well as Sri Lanka.
175092		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes and ponds.
175092		population	eng	There is no information on population structure of this species.
175092		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
175093		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this&#160;species. More research is needed.
175093		distribution	eng	This species of <em>Iravadia</em> is reported from Ennur backwaters in Tamil Nadu and Cochin in Kerala.
175093		habitat	eng	This is a&#160;brackish&#160;water&#160;species and&#160;found in the muddy substratum in the estuary. It is often buried and very small, and easy to miss in surveys.
175093		population	eng	There is no information on population structure for this species.
175093		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known. Changes in land use may change the salinity of the backwaters which would affect this species, but this is not currently known.
175095		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. More research and surveys are needed.
175095		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen reported Cochin backwater, near Ernakulam, Kerala, India.
175095		habitat	eng	This is a&#160;brackish&#160;water&#160;species and&#160;found in the muddy substratum in the estuary.
175095		population	eng	There is no information on population structure for this species.
175095		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known. Changes in land use and increased urban run-off may be increasing the salinity of its habitat, but it is unknown how this may be affecting the species.
175097		conservation	eng	No conservation action for this species reported. More survey work is required, and monitoring of the species habitat. Catchment management to ensure there is enough flow in the rivers to sustain the species habitat is needed.
175097		distribution	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality Mahabaleshwar and its surrounding areas and from Tarna Hills, near Pune, both in Maharashtra, India. Further studies are required to assess the correct distribution of this species.
175097		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to spray zones of streams and waterfalls in the Western Ghats. They aestivate in crevices during summer.
175097		population	eng	No information is available on the population structure of this species.
175097		threats	eng	A major threat is water diversion, for agriculture and hydroelectric projects, which reduces flow in rivers and can dry out the waterfalls, leaving no habitat for this species. Most of these waterfalls are found along roadsides, and these are now threatened by plans to widen the highway.
175098		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research is needed, and possibly catchment management to ensure that there is adequate flow in the river to maintain the habitat.
175098		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Torna Hills, near Pune,&#160;Maharashtra, India. It is believed to occur in the surrounding&#160;areas of Torna.
175098		habitat	eng	This species is found in spray zones of streams and waterfalls in northern Western Ghats.
175098		population	eng	There is no information on the population structure for this species.
175098		threats	eng	A major threat could be water diversion, for agriculture and hydroelectric projects which reduces flow in rivers and can dry out the waterfalls, leaving no habitat for this species. Most of these waterfalls are found along roadsides, and these are now threatened by plans to widen the highway. However it is not known how this species will be affected by these threats.
175099		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research is needed on its ecological requirements, population status, and threats. Effective catchment management is also recommended to ensure adequate water flow in the rivers to maintain the habitat.
175099		distribution	eng	This species is reported from only a few localities in the northern Western Ghats in Maharashtra&#160;State, India. Recent surveys failed to collect any individuals from the type locality in Khandala.
175099		habitat	eng	<em>Cremnoconchus</em> is highly habitat specific genus, found in the spray zones of the water falls. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cremnochonchus syhadrensis</span> is also found only in the western slopes of the Ghats. They hibernate during summer in the crevices.
175099		population	eng	There are no estimates available for population size.
175099		threats	eng	Threats to this species are from pollution and habitat disturbance due to eco-tourism&#160;in the water falls.&#160;A major threat is water diversion, for agriculture and hydroelectric projects which reduces the flow in rivers and can dry out the waterfalls, leaving no habitat for this species. Most of these waterfalls are found along roadsides, and these are now threatened by plans to widen the highway.
175101		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action for this species till date. More survey work is required.
175101		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded recently,only from the type locality, near Mangalore, on the way to Madikeri. No other information is available for this species.
175101		habitat	eng	This species is found in the rapidly flowing stream ecosystems in the Western Ghats. This species prefers clear water, with rocky substratum.
175101		population	eng	There is no&#160;information&#160;available on the population status of this species.
175101		threats	eng	Threats to this species is not known.
175102		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action documented for this species. More survey work is required.
175102		distribution	eng	This species is known only from type locality near Madikeri, Karnataka, India.
175102		habitat	eng	This species is found in a clear, fast running, mountain&#160;streams. They are found attached to&#160;stones and boulders.
175102		population	eng	There is no information on population structure of this species.
175102		threats	eng	There are no reported threats to this species. Since this species is recorded from road side stream next to National Highway, the disturbance from the vehicle and humans are&#160;perceived&#160;threats.
175104		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175104		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the archipelagos and large islands of the Indo-West Pacific region. It has been recorded from Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and as far west as Sri Lanka (Houbrick 1991). Brandt (1974) has stated that this species occurs in northern Australia, and Benthem Jutting (1956) also records this species from Mauritius, however this needs confirmation.
175104		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in the mouths and lower reaches of freshwater rivers where there is a brackish influence, shallow river estuaries, freshwater ponds and ditches (Houbrick 1991). In Thailand this species has been recorded in fresh and brackish water creeks, streams and lagoons (Brandt 1974). In Java, this species occurs on mud flats, which run dry during low tide. In the Philippines this species has been collected at a depth of 1-1.5 metres in a clear brackish water lake, on sandy substrate, rocks and rocky shelves (Houbrick 1991).
175104		population	eng	In the Philippines this species has been recorded to have a large population numbering into the millions (Houbrick 1991).
175104		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any threat processes.
175105		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommoneded to clarify its abundance, distribution, threats, life history and ecology.
175105		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in Tenmalai, Western Ghats and Travancore, Kerala both in south-west India (Preston 1909, Preston 1915).
175105		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rocky mountain streams in south-west India (Preston 1909). Other species of this genus from India are known to occupy habitats under or on top of submerged rocks in cascades (Costa and Starmuhlner 1972).
175105		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
175105		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. As the distribution of this species is extremely limited, it may be vulnerable to any stochastic events which destroy suitable habitat or populations.
175106		conservation	eng	There no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, threats, life history and ecology.
175106		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from Kerala and Tamil Nadu in southern India. This species is also rare in eastern Sri Lanka (Starmulhner 1977, Subba Rao, 1989).
175106		habitat	eng	This species is found in slow-flowing streams with soft bottoms of mud or sand (Starmuhlner 1977). Furthermore, species of this genus from Sri Lanka are known to act as intermediate hosts to lung flukes of the genus <em>Paragonimus</em> (Iwagami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)
175106		population	eng	This population is known from a few spcecmens.
175106		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. As the distribution of this species is extemely limited, it may be vulnerable to any stochastic events which destroy suitable habitat or populations.
175107		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action exists for this species.
175107		distribution	eng	It is an endemic species to India. This species is reported from few localities from the&#160;Maharashtra&#160;region (Mumbai, Khandala, Ahmednagar, Ratnagiri and Melghat Tiger Reserve) of the Western Ghats.
175107		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountain stream ecosystems.
175107		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species. However, several studies have reported this species from&#160;Maharashtra&#160;State.
175107		threats	eng	There are no reported threats to this species till now. More studies are needed.
175108		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed.
175108		distribution	eng	This species is found in Western Ghats of Kerala, Annamali Hills, Balarangam Hills and Madurai Hills in Tamil Nadu (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).
175108		habitat	eng	This species is found in hill streams of the Western Ghats.
175108		population	eng	There is no information available on population status for this species.
175108		threats	eng	Threats to this species is unknown. More studies are needed.
175109		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed.
175109		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Ghats in India. This species is reported from Kottayam and Travancore in Kerala, and recently it has been reported from in&#160;Maharashtra&#160;State (Patil and Talmale 2005), but this identification is doubtful.
175109		habitat	eng	This species is confined to mountain streams.
175109		population	eng	There are no reports on population status for this species.
175109		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. More studies are neded.
175110		conservation	eng	This species is protected under&#160;Fauna and Flora Protection (Amendment) Act, No. 22 of 2009 of Sri Lanka.
175110		distribution	eng	<em>Paludomus sulcatus</em> is reported from Kerala, India and Sri Lanka (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Amarasinghe and Krishnarajah 2009).
175110		habitat	eng	This species can survive in lentic habitat and also it is used in aquarium trade.
175110		population	eng	No information on the population status of this species.
175110		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. It is part of the aquarium trade, but it is not known to what extent this trade may be having on wild populations.
175119		conservation	eng	No information available.
175119		conservation	eng	None.
175119		conservation	eng	None in place. Basic research into biology, ecology and threats is needed.
175119		conservation	eng	None known.
175119		distribution	eng	<em>Sphaerium hartmanni</em> is widely spread in Egypt, Ethiopia and northern Sudan. It is still common in Egypt (Ibrahim 1999). Its type locality is the Nubian Nile.
175119		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from Egypt to Ethiopia and northern Sudan, wide distribution in west Africa from Chad to Gambia and southwards to Zambia. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sphaerium hartmanni</em> is recorded from Zambia; as the endemic form <em>bangweolicum</em> from Lake Bangweulu. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Kenya, Uganda and northern Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is widely spread in Egypt (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in south Egypt (Lake Nasser), Ethiopia and northern Sudan. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed in west Africa from Chad to Gambia and southwards to lower DRC.
175119		distribution	eng	In central Africa, <em>Sphaerium hartmanni</em> is recorded from Zambia; the endemic form <em>bangweolicum</em> Haas was described from Lake Bangeulu. The species is also present in eastern Africa and southern Africa.
175119		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in west Africa from Chad to Gambia and southwards to lower DRC. Also in Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania and Lake Bengweulu, and Egypt to Ethiopia and northern Sudan.
175119		habitat	eng	Lake species, living within mud.
175119		habitat	eng	No information available.
175119		habitat	eng	This is a lake species, living within mud.
175119		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, lakes, channels. It lives in soft bottom sediment.
175119		population	eng	No information available.
175119		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
175119		threats	eng	No information available.
175119		threats	eng	No major threats known to the species.
175119		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance e.g.mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175120		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175120		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about habitat status and threats.
175120		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175120		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma freethi</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to Democratic Republic of Congo.
175120		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma freethi</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to DRC.
175120		distribution	eng	This species is found from Cote d'Ivoire to Congo.
175120		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers.
175120		habitat	eng	This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams within forest, often rapids. It has also been found in a reservoir in Nigeria (Ofoeziel, 1999). It expresses a variable morphology; many different shell shapes (overall shape) and sculptures are found. This genus may act as a host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus</span> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and Potadoma species.
175120		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers.
175120		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175120		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175120		population	eng	This species is often recorded and locally abundant.
175120		threats	eng	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat
175120		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
175120		threats	eng	Sedimentation is a major threat to this species.
175121		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175121		conservation	eng	No information available.
175121		conservation	eng	None known.
175121		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175121		distribution	eng	<em>Biomphalaria sudanica</em> is mainly a northeastern Africa species.
175121		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is widespread in northeast and East Africa. The western limit is Lake Chad. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is very widespread in eastern Africa. It is common in Lakes Edward and Victoria (Uganda), Naivasha and Jipe (Kenya). Also occurs in various parts of Tanzania and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Sudanese Nile northwards to Jebel Aulia (Sudan) and in Lakes Zwai, Awasha and Abaya (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Lake Chad is the western-most range of this species.
175121		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Sudanese Nile northwards to Jebel Aulia (Sudan) and in lakes Zwai, Awasha and Abaya (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in eastern Africa.
175121		distribution	eng	This species is found predominantly in northeastern Africa. However its range extends westwards to Lake Chad and its surrounding basins.
175121		distribution	eng	Very widespread in Eastern Africa. It is common in lakes Edward and Victoria (Uganda) and Naivasha and Jipe (Kenya). Also occurs in various parts of Tanzania and Burundi.
175121		habitat	eng	It can be found in swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers.
175121		habitat	eng	Swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers.
175121		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swamps, including papyrus, and other wetlands associated with lakes and rivers. It prefers vegetated habitat. It is likely to benefit from water hyacinth (Plummer 2005). It acts as a host for Schistosomiasis, therefore represents a major cost to humans.
175121		habitat	eng	Thrives in swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers, including areas with low oxygen. Dispersed by aquatic weeds like the water hyacinth and by birds. Considered as a pest (Schistosomiasis).
175121		habitat	eng	Thrives in swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers, including areas with low oxygen. Dispersed by aquatic weeds like the water hyacinth in L. Victoria.
175121		population	eng	No information available.
175121		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
175121		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175121		population	eng	This is a common species.
175121		threats	eng	No information available.
175121		threats	eng	This species is subject to snail control measures.
175122		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175122		conservation	eng	None in place. It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology.
175122		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
175122		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia eburnensis</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to DRC, as well as São Tomé Island.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in Cameroon and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Côte d'Ivoire and Lake Chad.
175122		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia eburnensis</em> ranges from the Côte d'Ivoire to São Tomé Island, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
175122		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cote d'Ivoire and Lake Chad. It might be more widely distributed.
175122		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams.
175122		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
175122		habitat	eng	This genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water.
175122		population	eng	No information available.
175122		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
175122		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175122		threats	eng	It is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation, as well as being susceptible to drought.
175122		threats	eng	No information available.
175122		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
175123		conservation	eng	Habitat, research and, policy-based conservation measure are needed.
175123		conservation	eng	No information available.
175123		conservation	eng	None.
175123		conservation	eng	None known.
175123		distribution	eng	<em>Bellamya unicolor</em> occurs in scattered localities in a very large range. It has been recorded in lower Egypt, Sudan and southwards into Kenya (and perhaps Tanzania); westwards through a narrow zone into Senegambia; Cameroon and Central African Republic.
175123		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Bellamya unicolor</em> occurs in scattered localities in a very large range. It has been recorded in lower Egypt, Sudan and southwards into Kenya (and perhaps Tanzania); westwards into Senegambia; <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded in Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread. It is recorded from Lake Kyoga (Uganda), Lake Jipe (Kenya), most parts of Lake Victoria and Bukoba (Tanzania). It is believed to occur in many of the eastern Africa wetlands particularly in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has a large range including throughout the Nile, but localities are widely scattered.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Sudan and Lake Nasser.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in Western Africa throughout the Sahel.
175123		distribution	eng	It has a large range from the Nile Delta to southwards to Kenya and westwards to Senegambia, with localities being widely scattered. It is present in the entire Nile. Its type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.
175123		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> it is widespread. It has been recorded from Lake Kyoga (Uganda), Lake Jipe (Kenya), most parts of Lake Victoria and Bukoba (Tanzania). It is believed to occur in many of the eastern Africa wetlands particularly in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> it is known from Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania and westwards through narrow zone to Senegal and Gambia.
175123		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Western Africa throughout the Sahel.
175123		habitat	eng	Found in lakes, rivers and perennial streams.
175123		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes, rivers and perennial streams.
175123		habitat	eng	No information available.
175123		habitat	eng	Recorded from lakes, rivers and perennial streams. In Lake Victoria it is known to occur from shore to depths of 64 m.
175123		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, rivers and perennial streams.
175123		population	eng	It is a common species.
175123		population	eng	No information available.
175123		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
175123		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175123		population	eng	This species is common.
175123		threats	eng	Future threats could include habitat human induced habitat degradation.
175123		threats	eng	No information available.
175123		threats	eng	No information available. The activities that threaten regional wetlands are the main threats to the species.
175123		threats	eng	No known major threats to this widespread species.
175123		threats	eng	No major threats to this widespread species.
175124		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology. Taxonomic uncertainties of western specimens also need to be resolved.
175124		conservation	eng	No information available.
175124		conservation	eng	None known.
175124		distribution	eng	<em>Aspatharia chaiziana</em> is widespread from western Africa to the Nile Basin, where it mainly occurs in the White Nile. In northern Africa, It is rare in the Lower Nile in Egypt.
175124		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from the White Nile (Sudan), possibly also in Lake Nasser (Egypt).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread, from western Africa to the Nile Basin. Rare in the Lower Nile.
175124		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from several localities in West Africa, from Senegal to Chad and northern DRC. Mandal-Barth (1984) is unsure about the ID of specimens found in the Western part of this range; the Chad specimens are more certain (Leveque 1974).
175124		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, it is known from West Africa to the Nile Basin<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs mainly in the White Nile. It is rare in the Lower Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is recorded from several localities in West Africa, it is known from Senegal to Chad and northern Zaire. Mandal-Barth (1984) is unsure about the ID of specimens found in the western part of this range; the Chad specimens are more certain (Leveque 1974).
175124		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers, floodplains.
175124		habitat	eng	It occurs in large rivers and floodplains.
175124		habitat	eng	It occurs in rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
175124		habitat	eng	This species occurs in large rivers and floodplains.
175124		population	eng	No information available.
175124		population	eng	This species is viewed as being widespread.
175124		threats	eng	No information available.
175124		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are water impoundment, increased sedimentation and pollution below human settlements. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
175124		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and polluction e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175125		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
175125		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower reaches of a few large rivers in western Africa including the Volta (Ghana), Cross and Itu (Nigeria) and Sanaga (Cameroon) (Etim and Brey 1994).
175125		habitat	eng	This is an estuarine, possibly salt-water/brackish species. It can also survive in entirely freshwater habitats, even in stagnant water in dams and creeks. Forms the basis of traditional fisheries, and is farmed for this, with young clams being transplanted to growing sites. Spawns once a year.
175125		population	eng	No information available.
175125		threats	eng	Dams and over harvesting threaten this species, as well as generalised mollusc threats such as drought and climate change.
175126		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.
175126		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various “subspecies.” More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela dubia</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
175126		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various “subspecies.” More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela dubia</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
175126		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela dubia</em> is widespread in Africa north of the equator, from Mali to Egypt and southwards to northern DRC and Lake Albert.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In the Congo Basin there are two isolated populations: <em>M. d. garambae</em> in the upper Ulele Basin and <em>M. d. dubia</em> in the Oubangi. The latter are presumably derived from a past connection with Lake Chad.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Nasser in Egypt, the Sudanese Nile basin, and Lower Omo (Ethiopia).<br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widespread from Mali and Guinea to Chad.
175126		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela dubia</em> is widespread in Africa north of the equator, occurring throughout West Africa and the Nile Basin, including the Great Lakes. In the Congo Basin there are two isolated populations: <em>M. d. garambae</em> in the upper Ulele Basin and <em>M. d. dubia</em> in the Oubangi. The latter are presumably derived from a past connection with Lake Chad.
175126		distribution	eng	Within western Africa it is found from Mali and Guinea to Chad.<br/>Elsewhere its range extends to Egypt and southwards to northern DRC and Lake Albert.
175126		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
175126		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
175126		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes. It is a prey item for the open-billed stalks in Lake Kariba (so probably in other areas too) (Eriksson and Kautsky 1992). Low water temperature inhibits growth (Adam, 1990); in the White Nile near Khartoum the period from February to July is the growth season, and is characterised by high water temperature and high transparency. In Lake Kariba, this species bred throughout the year (unlike other similar species); but there may be differences in regions (Kenmuir 1980). This species has a commensal mayfly (Gillies and Elouard 1989). Kenmuir (1981) found that in Lake Kariba they were capable of repetitive or successive spawning at intervals of 3 to 5 weeks.
175126		population	eng	No information available.
175126		population	eng	No information is available.
175126		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).
175126		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but freshwater habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
175126		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175127		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175127		conservation	eng	No information available.
175127		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information about population numbers, distribution, biology, ecology and habitat status. Also need to research if harvesting this species for food represents a threat.
175127		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175127		distribution	eng	<em>Pila wernei</em> has scattered localities over a wide area in Africa: Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Chad, northern Cameroon, Niger, Mali, Nigeria, western Democratic Republic of Congo.
175127		distribution	eng	<em>Pila wernei</em> is known from scattered localities over a wide area in Africa from Mali to Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is possibly found in the Nile in Egypt (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999), but there is uncertainty over ID of specimens as they are more likely to be <em>Pila ovata</em> (Van Damme, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Sudan and south Somalia, and possibly the adjacent part of Kenya. It is also found in the Omo Delta (Ethiopia) (Van Damme 1976).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Niger River in Mali and southwestern Nigeria, and in Chad.
175127		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan and south Somalia , possibly adjacent part of Kenya. Also in the Omo Delta (Ethiopia) (Van Damme 1976). The mention of this species from 'upper Egypt' hence possibly also Lake Nasser (Egypt) (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999) probably is erroneous (<em>Pila ovata</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mali, Lake Chad, Nigeria and Congo.
175127		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Niger River in Mali, in south western Nigeria and in Chad. It may be more widespread.<br/>Elsewhere it occurs in eastern Africa (e.g. Kenya), but this region represents the largest part of its distribution.
175127		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, swamps, ponds, lakes. Prefers clear slow-flowing water with vegetation (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999).
175127		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes.
175127		habitat	eng	This species is found in various standing waterbodies both permanent and seasonal.
175127		habitat	eng	Various standing waterbodies both permanent and seasonal.
175127		population	eng	No information available.
175127		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175127		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175127		threats	eng	Droughts and temperature extremes could threaten this species. Human induced habitat degradation due to pollution could be a likely threat in the future. It is harvested to be eaten in other parts of Africa, e.g. the Okavango River.
175127		threats	eng	No information available.
175128		conservation	eng	None in place. It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
175128		distribution	eng	It is probably limited to southwestern Mali but further studies are needed (Brown and Kristensen 1993). It may also be found in southwestern Nigeria (Ndifou and Ukoli 1989).
175128		habitat	eng	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
175128		population	eng	No information available.
175128		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
175129		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, ecology, population size, distribution, and usage.
175129		conservation	eng	No data available.
175129		conservation	eng	None known.
175129		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of Congolese populations. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela rostrata</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
175129		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela rostrata</em>, as currently recognized, is widespread from West Africa through the Nile Basin, including the Great Lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Congo Basin from Malebo Pool to the headwaters in Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is known from throughout the Nile basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Nasser, the Nile in Sudan, and the Lower Omo river in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in western Africa.
175129		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela rostrata</em>, as currently recognized, is widespread from West Africa through the Nile Basin, including the Great Lakes. It occurs in the Congo Basin from Malebo Pool to the headwaters in Zambia.
175129		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela rostrata</em> is widespread from west Africa to the Nile Basin, from the Great Lakes till the Nile Delta.
175129		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Lake Nasser in Egypt, Nile in Sudan, Lower Omo river in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread, from western Africa to the Nile Basin, the Congo and from the Great Lakes till the Nile Delta.
175129		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout western Africa. It is known from Egypt and most of tropical Africa.
175129		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
175129		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers.
175129		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
175129		habitat	eng	It occurs in large rivers.
175129		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, living in bottom sediment.
175129		population	eng	No information available.
175129		population	eng	No information is available.
175129		threats	eng	No major threats are known to the species.
175129		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).
175129		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
175129		threats	eng	Siltation is known to be a threat to the species.
175129		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175130		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175130		conservation	eng	None known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about population biology, habitat status and threats.
175130		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175130		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is known from Ghana in the west to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Biomphalaria camerunensis</em> occurs in Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, DRC and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Ghana eastwards to central African Republic.
175130		distribution	eng	In central Africa, <em>Biomphalaria camerunensis</em> occurs in Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.
175130		distribution	eng	Within western Africa it is found from Ghana eastwards to Central African Republic. Its range also extends southwards to lower Democratic Republic of Congo.
175130		habitat	eng	All types of permanent water bodies.
175130		habitat	eng	It can be found in all types of permanent water bodies.
175130		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers, streams, lakes, swamps, and sometimes temporary pools, but is most common in permanent waters.<br/>It acts as a host for Schistosomiasis, therefore represents a major cost to humans.
175130		population	eng	No information available.
175130		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175130		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but he species is widespread and common.
175130		threats	eng	No information available.
175130		threats	eng	This species is subject to snail control measures.
175131		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175131		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
175131		conservation	eng	No information available.
175131		conservation	eng	None in place. It would be useful to have more information on population sizes, distribution, habitat and threats.
175131		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175131		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra bulimoides</em> ranges from Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia; westwards to Senegambia; Uganda, and Kenya. Its southern limit in West Africa is about latitude 8°N (Brown 1994). In central Africa it has been recorded from Cameroon and Central African Republic.
175131		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> occurs in Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda. The exact area of occupancy in these areas is unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is broadly distributed in Africa according to Brown (1994). It was found in Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya.
175131		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in Africa according to Brown (1994). <em>Cleopatra bulimoides</em> ranges from Egypt to Kenya, and Somalia to Senegambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is found from the Nile Delta to Lake Nasser. It is not present in the Maghreb.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found throughout Lake Nasser and the Sudanese Nile Basin. The more elongated form recorded from the Lower Omo, the Lower Awash Valley and the Giuba and Shebele rivers in Somalia is here referred to as <em>C. bulimoides paul</em>i.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in West Africa, throughout the Sahel. Its southern limit in West Africa is about latitude 8°N (Brown 1994).
175131		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa, throughout the Sahel, and its distribution continues further south outside western Africa.
175131		distribution	eng	This widespread Afrotropical species, ranges from the Nile Delta in Egypt to Lake Nasser and the Great Lakes, Ethiopia, the Lake Chad Basin, Senegal and Gambia. It is not present in the Maghreb. Its type locality is Calidje Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.
175131		habitat	eng	It inhabits muddy or sandy substrata in rivers with vegetation, lakes and irrigation channels.
175131		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes, rivers, irrigation channels. It is found in muddy or sandy substratum usually with vegetation.
175131		habitat	eng	Lakes, rivers, irrigation channels. Muddy or sandy substratum usually with vegetation.
175131		habitat	eng	Occurs in rivers, lakes and even irrigation channels on muddy or sandy substrata usually with vegetation.
175131		habitat	eng	The species is present in large to small streams, standing water, large lakes, but not in ponds and ditches. It occurs in slow-flowing localities. Benthic species found in sandy and rocky habitats among vegetation. It is associated with certain plants and a type of bivalve.
175131		population	eng	Large populations known in the Nile but elsewhere populations tend to be smaller.
175131		population	eng	No information available.
175131		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175131		population	eng	This species is common.
175131		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation could pose a threat in the future. Climate change and its effects could pose a threat to this species.
175131		threats	eng	No known major threats to this widespread species.
175131		threats	eng	No major threats to the species.
175131		threats	eng	No major threats to this widespread species.
175131		threats	eng	The Tana river in Kenya is receiving high sediment loading due to soil erosion particularly at the river catchment area owing to vast forest destruction in the last few years e.g. In Mt. Kenya. The upper Tana river section comprises 7 hydro electric power generating dams which tremendously alter the stream water flow in the lower section during the dry season which has implication for stream biodiversity.  Lake Albert, where the species is also documented to occur, is experiencing significant anthropogenic influences whose impact on the species is unknown.<br/>The species appears to be very fragmented within its range in East Africa.
175132		conservation	eng	More research action is needed.
175132		conservation	eng	No information available.
175132		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information about population numbers and distribution, habitat status and threats.
175132		conservation	eng	None known.
175132		distribution	eng	According to Brown, the species is present in Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Niger, but not our region. However, Ibrahim (1999) has recently recorded it from Upper Egypt, where it is rare. This is a new location, but may not have been surveyed in the area for some time before. It is possibly spread by birds.
175132		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> Region of Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al. </em>1999). This is a new location and the identification needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> According to Brown (1994), the species is present in Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Niger, etc., but not in eastern Africa. However Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> (1999) record it recently from Lake Nasser (Egypt), where it is rare.
175132		distribution	eng	This species is rare in north Africa but widespread in west Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Ibrahim (1999) has record this specie from Upper Egypt recently, where it is rare. This is a new location, but may not have been surveyed there for some time before. It is possibly spread by birds.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in the region of Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999). This is a new location and the identification needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found throughout Ghana, Gambia, Senegal and also Niger.
175132		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout West Africa.
175132		habitat	eng	It inhabits irrigation channels, streams and pools.
175132		habitat	eng	It is possibly spread by birds. Fringing vegetation of slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps. May aestivate. This species thrives in ditches and pools flooded by rain. It is associated with certain aquatic plants (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea</span> spp.)(Brown 1994). It is common.
175132		habitat	eng	Possibly spread by birds. Fringing vegetation of the Nile. Slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps. May aestivate. Present in colonies. Thrive in ditches and pools flooded by rain. Associated with certain aquatic plants. Common.
175132		habitat	eng	The species is possibly spread by birds. It occurs in colonies, being present on fringing vegetation, slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps. It may aestivate. It thrives in ditches and pools flooded by rain. It is associated with certain aquatic plants.
175132		population	eng	No information available.
175132		population	eng	This is a common species.
175132		population	eng	This species is widespread in Ghana but scattered elsewhere (Brown 1994).
175132		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation, particularly due to pollution, is a likely threat.
175132		threats	eng	No information available.
175132		threats	eng	None known.
175132		threats	eng	The species is threatened by rapid water pollution.
175133		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175133		conservation	eng	No information available.
175133		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information on population sizes and distribution, biology, threats and ecology.
175133		conservation	eng	None in place, but would be valuable with more information on population sizes and distribution, biology, threats and ecology.
175133		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from Lake Albert and Victoria Nile and Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is know from Uganda, Sudan, Central Africa to Chad.
175133		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Egypt, eastern Africa, and central Africa to Chad.
175133		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Chad and Central African Republic.
175133		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon, Chad, Northern Nigeria (Yobi River) and the Central African Republic within the region, and also Sudan, Egypt and Uganda outside the region.
175133		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and rather common Afrotropical species ranging from the Lower Nile to Lake Victoria and westwards to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad and northern Nigeria (Yobi River).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Albert and the Victoria Nile, Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is very common all over Egypt (Ibrahim 1999), but absent from the Maghreb. .<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is also present in Sudan.
175133		distribution	eng	Widespread and rather common Afrotropical species ranging from the Lower Nile to Lake Victoria and westwards to the Central African Republic. Absent from the Maghreb. It is very common all over Egypt (Ibahim 1999). Its type locality is in Sennar, Sudan.
175133		habitat	eng	Found in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.
175133		habitat	eng	It inhabits lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.
175133		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels (Brown 1994).
175133		habitat	eng	It lives in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.
175133		habitat	eng	Lives in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.
175133		habitat	eng	Present in large rivers and lakes and their extensions.
175133		population	eng	No information available.
175133		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175133		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation could be a potential threat in the future.
175133		threats	eng	No information available.
175133		threats	eng	No specific threats known but human induced habitat degradation could be a potential threat in the future.
175133		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
175134		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable to conduct more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, habitat status and possible threats.
175134		conservation	eng	None known.
175134		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad and part of north west Africa.
175134		distribution	eng	This is a predominantly west African species, with its distribution ranging as far east as Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Sudan (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in western Africa, including Chad and part of northwest Africa.
175134		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in western Africa.
175134		habitat	eng	Found in seasonal pools in the Sahel region.
175134		habitat	eng	It is found in seasonal pools in the Sahel region.
175134		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs in seasonal marshes and rainpools. Also streams, irrigation channels. It can survive dry periods of 6-8 months. Where it occurs it can be very abundant. It is an intermediate host to <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma haematopium</span>.
175134		population	eng	No data available.
175134		population	eng	No information available.
175134		population	eng	This species is common.
175134		threats	eng	None known.
175134		threats	eng	This species is subject to use of molluscicides as snail control measures. It may also be threatened by human induced habitat degradation.
175135		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on taxonomy, population size, distribution and ecology.
175135		conservation	eng	None traced from literature. Further research on the species to identify species conservation priorities would be valuable.
175135		conservation	eng	None traced from literature though would call upon research on the species to identify species conservation priorities.
175135		distribution	eng	<em>C. rubens</em> is found in the Nile basin and Lake Victoria, and throughout western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Victoria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> The subspecies <em>C. rubens arcuta </em> occurs in the Nile basin in Lake Nasser (Egypt), in the White Nile in Sudan and Lake Tana (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in Senegal River, Niger River and Lake Chad.
175135		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It was found in the Nile basin and Lake Victoria. It is present outside the eastern Africa assessment region.
175135		distribution	eng	This species is known from throughout west Africa, as well as the River Nile system.
175135		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers and floodplains. It lives in the bottom sediment.
175135		habitat	eng	No details on species ecology were traced.
175135		habitat	eng	This species lives in bottom sediment of rivers..
175135		population	eng	No information available.
175135		population	eng	No population data was traced.
175135		population	eng	This is a common species.
175135		threats	eng	Sedimentation is the most likely threat in Tanzania.
175135		threats	eng	Sedimentation is the most likely threat in Tanzania. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175135		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175136		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175136		conservation	eng	None known. It would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
175136		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175136		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from coastal localities from Liberia to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the Zaire River between Malela and Banana.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known along the coast from Liberia to Cameroon.
175136		distribution	eng	The species is present in coastal localities from Liberia to Cameroon. The Zaire River between Malela and Banana.
175136		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Liberia to Cameroon. Its range extends further south at the mouth of the Congo river.
175136		habitat	eng	On the roots of mangrove trees.
175136		habitat	eng	This species is found on the roots of mangrove trees.
175136		habitat	eng	This species is recorded in coastal localities. It is found on roots of mangrove trees.
175136		population	eng	No information available.
175136		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
175136		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175136		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. Standard threats to mangroves will heavily impact this species, including habitat destruction, degradation, harvesting of mangroves, water quality changes, and prawn/shrimp farming (aquaculture).
175136		threats	eng	No known threats for this widespread taxon, although fisheries may be a potential problem in the future.
175136		threats	eng	No threats for this widespread taxon.
175137		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175137		conservation	eng	None in place, but it would be valuable to gather more information about ecology, habitat status, population sizes and distribution.
175137		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175137		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes libycus</em> is a West African coastal species, ranging from Côte d'Ivoire to Gabon.
175137		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes libycus</em> is a West African coastal species, ranging from the Cóte d'Ivoire to Gabon.
175137		distribution	eng	This species is found from Cote d'Ivoire to Gabon.
175137		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes, marshes and streams.
175137		habitat	eng	It is found in marshes, stream sources, shaded woodland streams, on muddy substrates. It is more abundant in periods of heavy rainfall. Vegetation has been identified as an important factor affecting abundance of species. It also provides habitat for a new species of water mite (Agbolade and Odaibo 2004).
175137		habitat	eng	Marshes and streams.
175137		population	eng	No information available.
175137		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175137		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.
175137		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. The species is harvested for eating - it is smoked to preserve them (Ezeama 2004)
175137		threats	eng	No known threats to this widespread species.
175137		threats	eng	No threats to this widespread species.
175138		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
175138		conservation	eng	None in place. It would be valuable to have more information about population sizes, distribution, biology, ecology and threats.
175138		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
175138		distribution	eng	<em>Assiminea hessei</em> was originally described from Democratic Republic of Congo at Banana, but it has not been relocated since the 1890s. The site may well be lost to urbanization or agricultural development. Brown (1994) has found populations ascribed to the species in Nigeria.
175138		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Assiminea hessei</em> was originally described it from DRC at Banana, but it has not been relocated since the 1890s. The site may well be lost to urbanization or agricultural development. Brown (1994) has found populations ascribed to the species in Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in Nigeria at Port Hartcourt. Also on the coast of Cameroon but outside of the West Africa region assessed (Bandel and Kowalke, 1999). Otherwise it is only found at the type locality in Zaire. <br/>It is probably a rare species rather than an under-recorded species.
175138		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nigeria at Port Hartcourt. It has also been recorded on the coast of Cameroon but outside of the West Africa region assessed (Bandel and Kowalke 1999). Otherwise it is only found at the type locality in DRC.
175138		habitat	eng	Recorded from swamps by the English Trade House; it is possible that the record might be an introduction.
175138		habitat	eng	This species is found in mangrove swamp.
175138		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from swamps by the English Trade House; it is possible that the record might be an introduction.
175138		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
175138		population	eng	This is probably a rare species rather than an under-recorded species.
175138		population	eng	This species is probably rare but no further information regarding population sizes.
175138		threats	eng	Development and pollution from the oil industry are the two major threats for this region.
175138		threats	eng	No information available.
175139		conservation	eng	None known.
175139		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Congo.
175139		habitat	eng	This is an estuarine species, found in the brackish water of mangrove swamps.
175139		population	eng	No information available.
175139		threats	eng	No information specific to this species available. Human degradation is a major threat to mangroves: cutting them down to make prawn/shrimp farms, and oil pollution.
175140		conservation	eng	None known. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.
175140		distribution	eng	This species is found from Côte d'Ivoire to Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Guinea (see Bandel and Kowalke 1999 and references therein).
175140		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters on the west African coast. It is adapted to low salinity.
175140		population	eng	No information available.
175140		threats	eng	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. Petroleum drilling could also represent a threat (Ekpo and Uzegbu 2004).
175141		conservation	eng	None known.
175141		distribution	eng	This species was introduced from the Australasian Region. In Africa it is found only in Nigeria.
175141		habitat	eng	In Nigeria it is found in man-made lakes in Ibadan. Not thought to be spreading (Pointier <em>et al.</em> 2005).
175141		population	eng	No information available.
175141		threats	eng	None known.
175142		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology.
175142		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution, ecology and threats.
175142		conservation	eng	No information available.
175142		conservation	eng	None needed.
175142		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from hydrographic basins of the Nile, Chad, Niger, Senegal and smaller river basins over most of western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Nasser (Egypt), the Nile in Sudan, and Lower Omo River (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread species in west Africa. Chari River and affluents (Chad), Lake Chad delta, Guinea, Senegal, Cote d'Ivoire (Mandel-Barth 1988). Also in Sierra Leone (Nagel 1991). It is present in the Niger river system.
175142		distribution	eng	It is present at hydrographical basins of the Nile, Chad, Niger, Senegal and smaller river basins over most of western Africa. Its type locality is in Bahr al Yussuf, Lower Egypt.
175142		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Lake Nasser (Egypt), Nile in Sudan and Lower Omo River (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from the Egyptian Nile, Great Lakes, Chad, Niger, Senegal and smaller river basins over most of western Africa (but see taxonomic remark). The type locality is Bahr al Yussuf, Lower Egypt.
175142		distribution	eng	Within western Africa this species occurs in the Chari River and affluents (Chad), Lake Chad delta, Guinea, Senegal and Cote d'Ivoire (Mandel-Barth, 1988), as well as in Sierra Leone (Nagel 1991). It is possibly also present in the Niger river system. It is a very widespread species elsewhere in Africa.
175142		habitat	eng	Found on different types of substrates in larger surface waters.
175142		habitat	eng	It occurs on different types of substrates in larger surface waters.
175142		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, lakes and deltas.
175142		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, Lake Chad and delta. This species occurs in different types of substrates in larger surface waters.
175142		population	eng	Large populations in e.g. the Nile, Lake Chad, Niger and Senegal.
175142		population	eng	Large populations in the Nile, Lake Chad, Niger and Senegal.
175142		population	eng	No information available.
175142		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. Habitat disturbance, water use and pollution may also threaten the species e.g. mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175142		threats	eng	Pollution and water use are major threats to the species.
175142		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.
175142		threats	eng	Threats include pollution and water use.
175150		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are in place. Attention should be paid to keep the premises of River Cauvery free of pollution.
175150		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It was reported only from Coorg , Karnataka State by Fraser (1934).
175150		habitat	eng	The species was found along the banks and tributaries of River Cauvery (Fraser 1934).
175150		population	eng	There is no information.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
175150		threats	eng	The banks and tributaries of the River Cauvery may be under threat of pollution.
175151		conservation	eng	This species requires conservation attention. Since the existing populations are very locally distributed, they need to be identified and stream catchments needs to be protected.
175151		distribution	eng	The species is known only from upper catchments of Cauvery river in Kodagu and western slopes of Wayanad.
175151		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hill streams with good forest cover.
175151		population	eng	No population information available for this species, however it is very rare wherever it occurs.
175151		threats	eng	This rare insect is threatened with expansion of coffee plantations in the catchment areas. Agrochemicals and sedimentation from plantation activities are degrading habitat quality of streams.
175152		conservation	eng	Adequate conservation measures are to be implemented after gathering more information on distribution, life history and population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Elattoneura souteri</span>.
175152		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It is known only from two localities, Sampaji, Coorg of&#160; Karnataka and Thamrassery, South Malabar area of&#160; Kerala (Fraser 1933).
175152		habitat	eng	<p>The species, was found on the banks of submontane streams, hiding in shaded areas beneath overhanging bamboo, cane or bushes (Fraser 1933).</p>
175152		population	eng	No species specific information is available on the population status.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
175152		threats	eng	The habitats, which<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are near to submontane streams and overhanging vegetation<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>are affected by pollution<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>which pose a threat to the existence of this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>
175153		conservation	eng	There are no recent reports of this species.
175153		distribution	eng	The species is historically known from Kodagu and Nilgiri districts in India. No recent data exists for the species.
175153		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hill streams and rivers.
175153		population	eng	There is no population level information available for this species.
175153		threats	eng	The habitat quality in known locations are deteriorating due to  sediment and agrochemical runoff from plantation activities in the  catchment areas but it is unknown how this may impact the species.
175154		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are adopted at present. <strong></strong></p>
175154		distribution	eng	The species is a small damselfly<em></em><em> </em>endemic to the Western Ghats, India. Described for the first time from Trivandrum, Kerala (Peters 1981) and subsequently recorded from Kidangoor (Emiliyamma 2007), Kumarkom (Kakkassery pers.obsv. 2006), Kottayam, Mattom (Kakkassery pers.obsv. 2004), Trichur, Kerala and recently from Goa (Rangnekar <em>et al</em>. 2010).
175154		habitat	eng	A very small damselfly, found on the grass bordering weedy ponds close to paddy fields and small streams along with closely related species <em>Agriocnemis pygmaea </em>(Peters 1981).
175154		population	eng	<p>There is no specific information on&#160;the population status and&#160;trend&#160;available, may&#160;be due&#160;to its&#160;small size and&#160;close similarity to <em>Agriocnemis pygmaea</em>. As&#160;both are&#160;frequently&#160;seen together&#160;in the same habitat <em>A. keralaensis </em>is often overlooked. The species were&#160;known to be&#160;common in Kerala than the other&#160;regions&#160;of&#160; India except Goa.<strong></strong></p>
175154		threats	eng	General threats like water pollution due to the use of pesticides in paddy fields and other kinds of habitat degradation may affect their existence in future.
175155		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species.
175155		distribution	eng	<p>&#160;The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It is known to occur from North Kanara (Kali river basin), South Kanara and Coorg, Karnataka to the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu and Wynaad, Kerala, found from 3,500 ft to 6,000 ft asl (Fraser 1934). Recent reports reveal the presence of the species from Udupi to Nilgiris. Closely related species&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. fraseri </span>dominate over<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. dispar</span>&#160; in the the Western Ghats to south of&#160; Palaghat Gap.</p>
175155		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found along the streams flowing through evergreen forests (Subramanian 2009). Usually the males are found perched on the twigs hanging some feet above the water, and often at a great height especially towards nightfall when they rise to the tops of neighbouring trees. Females are common&#160;and found&#160; in the neighbouring jungle or some short distance away flying near the streams. Some times they are very aggressive eating the newly-hatched specimens of their own species (Fraser1934).</p><p><br/></p>
175155		population	eng	There is no information on the present population status of the species. The species was 'more than moderately populated' as observed by Fraser in 1934. Females are more common compared to males.
175155		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known to this species. As its habitats are in rather protected areas, along streams flowing through evergreen forests, the species is not under threat.
175156		conservation	eng	As accurate data is not available on the present status of this species, adequate conservation measures are not implemented. It is necessary to reduce the usage of&#160; pesticides in plantation areas of Western Ghats to protect its population.
175156		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. The species is known to occur only from Western Ghats to the south of Palakkad Gap, including Anamalai Hills, Tinnevelly Hills, Munnar and south of Travancore (Fraser 1936). No further reports are available on this species.
175156		habitat	eng	Confined to montane forests of Western Ghats and seen soaring&#160; high above the canopy of forests, occasionally the female descends to the gullies to oviposit in the torrential mountain streams unaccompanied by the male (Fraser 1936).
175156		population	eng	A large population was recorded in Annamalai Hills and it was reported as common in Munnar and Travancore, but was sparsely seen in Tinnevelly Hills (Fraser 1936). At present, no data available on this species regarding its population status and trend.
175156		threats	eng	Since the report of Fraser (1936) on this species, the habitat must have degraded due to deforestation and change in land use&#160; for agricultural purposes, especially the expansion of tea plantations in Munnar, Kerala, leading to the excessive usage of pesticides which in turn affect the aquatic ecosystem of that region.
175157		conservation	eng	More surveys work is needed.
175157		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Uttara Kannada, Udupi districts (K.A. Subramanian unpublished observations) Nilgiri and Annamalai hills at about 1,000 m.
175157		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur in first order streams with good riparian forest cover.
175157		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
175157		threats	eng	The species is poorly known. However, plantation activities in the known localities of the species are affecting habitat quality of the streams.
175158		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. There is need to protect the habitats of this moderately populated species.
175158		distribution	eng	<p>The species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India. It has been recorded from the Mettupalayam and Kotagiri Ghats, Nilgiri Hills; Annaimallai Hills, Coimbatore District (Tamil Nadu); Coorg (Karnataka); and Travancore montane areas (Kerala) (Fraser 1934). Recently reported from Dudhsagar, Cotigao and Derode (Goa)   <span class="A8">(Rangnekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></p>
175158		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found on small mountain streams or occasionally restricted to tiny brooks or seepages on hillsides. It occurs in colonies, and, where found, is usually moderately common (Fraser 1934). </p>
175158		population	eng	&#160;The species was recorded as moderately common in the four states of India where it was found  (Fraser 1934).
175158		threats	eng	The species habitat of mountain streams and brooks are threatened by pollution<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>from agricultural and tourism activities<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>
175159		conservation	eng	No immediate species specific conservation measures required. However, status of habitats needs to be monitored.
175159		distribution	eng	The species is commonly found in the hill streams south of Palakkad, Western Ghats, India.
175159		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hill streams with good forest cover. Patrolling males and ovipositing females travel up and down the stream on hot sunny days. They are more common during April-June, just before the onset of monsoon.
175159		population	eng	The species is recorded as being common.
175159		threats	eng	No species specific threats recorded. However, expansion of plantations (tea, coffee and cardamom) and resultant agrochemical and sediment run-off is deteriorating habitat quality.
175160		conservation	eng	No immediate conservation action required for this species.
175160		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Kodagu, Nilgiri and Palakkad districts.
175160		habitat	eng	The species is restricted streams flowing through evergreen forests. Patrolling males and ovipositing females are highly territorial and come back to same locality even after repeated disturbance. They fly very fast and are difficult to follow.
175160		population	eng	No population information available for the species. However, where ever it occurs, it is rare.
175160		threats	eng	There is no species specific threats recorded. Existing populations are within protected areas and do not face any immediate threats.
175161		conservation	eng	There are no recent reports of the species, hence surveys to known locations is suggested to document habits, habitat and threats to the species.
175161		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Kodagu, Wayanad, Nilgiri and Idukki districts.
175161		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in mountain streams above 1,000 m.
175161		population	eng	No recent population data exists.
175161		threats	eng	There are very few reports of this rare insect. Known locations of the species do not face major threats. However, agricultural runoff from the catchments may be deteriorating the habitat quality.
175162		conservation	eng	This species does not require immediate conservation attention.
175162		distribution	eng	The species is very widely distributed in hill streams of Western Ghats from Goa to Aghastyamalai hills (Trivandrum, Kanyakumari and Thirunelveli districts) in the south. It&#160; is also known to occur in Uttarakannada, Udupi, Kodagu and Wayand   districts. There is an old record of this species from Salsette Island   (Sashti in Marathi, now Mumbai city), but currently it is not likely to   occur.
175162		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in first and second order streams with good riparian forest cover. Adults fly very low and rest in riparian vegetation.
175162		population	eng	The species is common in hill streams during the flight season (April-September). However no specific population trend information is available for this species.
175162		threats	eng	The species does not face any specific threats. However, agriculture in catchment areas may be deteriorating quality of stream habitats.
175163		conservation	eng	No information available on the conservation practices in place for the species. It is necessary to generate more information on distribution and population of this species.
175163		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats where it is known from Coorg (Kodugu) and South Kanara, Karanataka (Fraser 1936); Wayanad, Kerala and Nilgris, Tamil Nadu (Subramanian 2009).
175163		habitat	eng	The species is usually found flying over torrent streams and open forest patches on mountain tops. They fly in short circles close to ground during early mornings and late evenings. It has been found swarming at about 4,500 feet on the slopes of Kudremukh, South Kanara, in the middle of June. Most of the specimens were flying quite low over coffee bushes or along the borders of ferny banks (Fraser 1936). Breeds in streams, and the female lays egg between cobbles without an accompanying male. Four to five females lay eggs together on the same spot (Subramanian 2009).
175163		population	eng	A good number of specimens were found swarming at about 4,500 feet on the slopes of Kudremukh, South Kanara (Fraser 1936). Recent photographs of the species are available, but there is little information on the population and distribution.
175163		threats	eng	The riverine systems and forest patches where the species inhabits are impacted by pollution due to plantation practices including the use of pesticides.
175164		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are adopted. It is necessary to generate information on the distribution and population status of this species from Karnataka in order to form proper conservation strategies.
175164		distribution	eng	The specie is a rare insect and is restricted to Karnataka,  one of the southern states of India. It was reported for the first time from Perag, Coorg, Karnataka (Fraser 1933), and is found to be endemic to Western Ghats from the north of Palakkad gap to Dakshinkannada (South Kanara), Karnataka (Subramanian 2009).    <p><br/></p>
175164		habitat	eng	The species was found perching on overhanging vegetation over torrential forest streams (Fraser 1933).
175164		population	eng	It was reported as a rare species by Fraser (1933). No recent reports are available on the present population status and trends of&#160; the species.
175164		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known. However, as it is a restricted range species (to one state in India), it is susceptible to future threats causing environmental degradation.
175165		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are implemented.
175165		distribution	eng	The type of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>was reported from North India by Selys (1854) but the type locality was not mentioned. Later, Fraser (1934)   reported it from Katraj Lake, Poona, Deccan (Maharashtra State). The species is not reported from South India. The naiads (nymphs) were also found from Sindh province of Pakistan (Hussain and Riaz 2000), and exuviae (remains of exoskeleton) from Phewa Tal lake at Pokhara, Nepal (Butler 2007).
175165		habitat	eng	The species lives in lakes, where the males patrol the lake for long distances and combat with other males passing by (Fraser 1934).
175165		population	eng	There is no information on the present population status of the species. A good number of specimens were found on Katraj Lake, Poona, Deccan, Maharashtra State (Fraser 1934).
175165		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown, though the species depends on lakes and other freshwater bodies to complete its lifecycle. These are under threat of pollution from various anthropogenic activities.
175167		conservation	eng	No conservation practices are in place. The riverine habitats of the species may need to be protected. It is necessary to gather more information on the distribution and population status of the species.
175167		distribution	eng	<p>The species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India. The species was described from Kalar River at the foot of the Mettupalayam Ghat, Nilgris, Tamil Nadu State (Fraser 1934).<br/></p>
175167		habitat	eng	The species is a riverine one (Fraser 1934).
175167		population	eng	The species was described from only one specimen. No further information of the population is available.
175167		threats	eng	The threats are unknown, but pollution from agricultural sources is a potential threat to the species.
175168		conservation	eng	Habitat conservation of type locality is immediately needed.
175168		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Burliyar River, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu.
175168		habitat	eng	The species occur in torrential streams flowing though mid elevation evergreen forests.
175168		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175168		threats	eng	The species is known only from the type locality and the quality of its habitat has changed over the years due to agriculture expansion in the catchment areas. This has resulted in increased sedimentation, and agrochemical runoffs through the streams of type location.
175169		conservation	eng	No conservation strategies are known to be implemented. However, protection of the hill streams and jungles would benefit the species.
175169		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. The species is known to occur from North and South Kanara, Coorg, Karnataka; Wayanad , Kerala and the Nilgiris, Anamalai Hills, Tamil Nadu (Fraser 1934). Found on the rivers (along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euaphaea dispar</span>) at a lower elevation in Malabar and it occurs sparingly near sea-level. In Coorg and the Nilgiris and Malabar and Waynad it occurs up to 3,500 ft. Recently, it was also reported from Goa (Rangnekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and Pepara, Kerala (Kiran and Kakkassery pers. obs. 2007)
175169		habitat	eng	The species is common in hill streams from about 90 to 1,000 m. Males are very common and can be seen using the same perch for days together. Females are not uncommon in the neighbouring jungle, settled on twigs at about 8 to 12 ft from the ground (Fraser 1934). Males open wings and prominently display the iridescent copper markings of the upper hind wing. It&#160; breeds in hill streams and larvae can be collected throughout the year (Subramanian 2009).
175169		population	eng	The species is more than moderately populated in three states of India, Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
175169		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known. However, the habitats of the species (hill streams and jungles) are prone to pollution by various anthropogenic activities.
175170		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions are at present adopted. More research is need on the species current population, distribution and impact of potential threats.
175170		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India (Fraser 1933). In Kerala it is known to occur in Mudis Hills, Travancore and in Anaimalai Hills south of the Palghat Gap, Tamil Nadu (Fraser1933).
175170		habitat	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is usually found along&#160; hill streams at an elevation of 3,000 ft to 4,000 ft, and seen perched on riparian vegetation (Fraser 1933).
175170		population	eng	The species is a rare and localized one, known to occur in two South Indian states, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. There is no information on its present population status.
175170		threats	eng	As the species depends on hill streams and riparian vegetation to complete its life cycle, its habitat is threatened by pollution.
175171		conservation	eng	No known conservation activities are in place. More research is needed.
175171		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India where it is known only from two localities (within 100 km of each other),      Bababuddin Hills, Mysore and   Shiradi, Saklespur Ghat, South Kanara of Karnataka State, India (Fraser 1936).
175171		habitat	eng	The species, a small dragonfly, inhabits montane forests (Fraser 1936).
175171		population	eng	There is no information on the present population status of the species. Only a single pair of specimen was found in 1915 and 1922, and no recent reports are available regarding its occurrence in Karnataka or in any other parts of India.
175171		threats	eng	No species specific information is available. Anthropogenic activities may affect their habitats in montane forests.
175172		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are suggested. However, the conservation of streams in plantations is essential for long term conservation of populations.
175172		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in hill streams of the Western Ghats south of the Palghat Gap.
175172		habitat	eng	The species is found in first and second order streams with good riparian forest cover. They fly very close to the ground, and rest among riparian vegetation.
175172		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species. However, the species is locally very common during the flight season (May-June) in the southern Western Ghats.
175172		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats recorded. However expansion of agriculture in catchment areas is deteriorating the habitat quality of the streams.
175173		conservation	eng	The species does not require immediate conservation attention. But more research on the species is required.
175173		distribution	eng	The species is currently known from Kodagu, Karnataka.
175173		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to forested streams.
175173		population	eng	There is no population level information available for this species.
175173		threats	eng	The known locality do not face any immediate threat.
175174		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species current status.
175174		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu), Wayanad (Kerala) and Kodagu (Karnataka) districts.
175174		habitat	eng	The species is found in forested streams where it breeds. Adults are relatively rare.
175174		population	eng	No population level information is available for this species.
175174		threats	eng	Large tracts of natural vegetation exists in the range of the species. However, expansion of plantations and agrochemicals may be deteriorating the breeding habitats of the species.
175175		conservation	eng	The species is known only from Kodagu. More surveys are required to identify potential habitats for the species.
175175		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Kodagu, Karnataka.
175175		habitat	eng	This species is found in swamps at about 1,000 m.
175175		population	eng	No population level information for this species is available.
175175		threats	eng	No species specific threats recorded. However, plantation expansion in the catchment area and associated deposition and sediments and pollution from agrochemicals are deteriorating the habitat of the species.
175176		conservation	eng	No known conservation measures are in practice. It is necessary to generate more information on the distribution and population status of the species to implement proper conservation actions
175176		distribution	eng	The species is known from two locations in Tamil Nadu, India, on the southeastern side of Nilgiris and Mettupalayam Ghats at an altitude of 2,500 ft from where the type was described (Fraser 1933).
175176		habitat	eng	The species is found from mountain sides at an altitude of&#160; 2,500 ft (Fraser 1933).
175176		population	eng	No information on the present population status of the species is available. The species was known to be common in Tamil Nadu (Fraser 1933).
175176		threats	eng	As it is known to occur in high altitudes, there is few threats from environmental pollution. Still there is cause for concern as the two locations are under human population pressure.
175177		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation actions put into practice. Care should be taken to protect the habitats (grassy uplands and streams) from environmental pollution.
175177		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known only from high altitude peat bogs in Nilgiris and Talewadi, Karnataka. Other records in Orissa are taxonomic errors and collections from Eastern India belong to wide spread&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Caconeura ramburi</span>. Field surveys on known localities during 2000-2008 did not record the species (Subramanian pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
175177		habitat	eng	<p><em></em><em></em>The species has been observed in the grassy uplands of the Nilgiri Hills at an altitude of 7,000 to 7,500 ft. Gregarious in habits, large colonies being found clinging to ferns on the banks of the small moor-streams in which the insect breeds (Fraser 1933).</p>  <p></p>
175177		population	eng	A good number were historically known to occur&#160; in each location. Field surveys on known localities during 2000-2008 did not record the species (Subramanian pers. comm. 2011).
175177		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known.
175178		conservation	eng	The hill streams in the distribution range are protected and do not face any immediate threat.
175178		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in hill streams of Nilgiri, Wayanad, Kodagu and Anamalai hills, Western Ghats, India.
175178		habitat	eng	This species is partial to streams with good forest cover.
175178		population	eng	The species is common during flight season and occurs in good numbers.
175178		threats	eng	There are are no known threats to the species. However, agricultural expansion in catchments is deteriorating stream quality.
175179		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
175179		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats, India. It is known to occur in three south Indian states. The type species was described from Parambikulam, Cochin State, Kerala (Laidlaw 1915); Watecolle, at the head of the Makut Ghat, Coorg; Cowcolle, North&#160; Coorg (Karnataka); Tamaracherry (Kerala); Siruvani, Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu); and Kavalai, Cochin State, Kerala (Fraser 1936). It has also been reported from the Western Ghats south of Dakshinakannada (Subramanian 2009) Periyar by Phil Benstead in 2007 and from Kulathupuzha, Trivandrum by&#160; Kiran 2005 (www.asia-dragonfly.net).
175179		habitat	eng	Found closely associated with forested marshes, especially in Myristica swamps. They occur in small colonies. Breeds in forested marsh lands. Flight season: June-October (Fraser 1936).
175179		population	eng	The species is found in small colonies closely associated with forested marshes, especially in Myristica swamps. And they&#160; breed in bogs at the foot of hills (Fraser1936, Subramanian 2009).
175179		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known.
175180		conservation	eng	Since the species is known only from type locality, new surveys are required to locate existing populations and record habitat and ecology of the species.
175180		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Nadgani Ghat, Nilgiri-Wayanad boundary.
175180		habitat	eng	Montane evergreen forests dominate the type locality. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx </span>species of the Western Ghats, <span style="font-style: italic;">I.nadganiensis</span> is presumed to be using hill streams for breeding.
175180		population	eng	No population level information is available for this species.
175180		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are habitat degradation of montane evergreen forests which were largely converted to agricultural and forestry plantations in the recent past.
175181		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in practice. Attention should be paid to keep the habitats of the species free of pollution.
175181		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is known from two locations, one from north of Satara, Maharashtra and the other from West India (Laidlaw 1917, Fraser1933). Its presence is not reported from southern part of India.
175181		habitat	eng	The specimens were found hovering over the banks of streams and rivulets or settled on the grass stems on the riverside.
175181		population	eng	The species was historically moderately populated (Fraser 1933).
175181		threats	eng	The habitat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in many of the water bodies and nearby areas where the species occurs are threatened by<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>pollution<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>from<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>destructive agricultural practices<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>
175182		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are known to be implemented. There is need to collect more information on the scale of pollution affecting the habitats of the species.
175182		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It is sparsely recorded and known from Mettupalyam and Gudallur Ghats of Nilagris (Tamil Nadu). It was also reported from Sampaji River and Hatti river in Coorg (Karnataka), Mudi Hills in Coimbatore Kodaikanal, Palani Hills (Tamil Nadu) (Fraser 1934).
175182		habitat	eng	<p>Confined to montane forest streams of Western Ghats. Males rest on rocks in mid-stream and the females are rarely seen, only when they are ovipositing in some quiet shaded pool (Fraser 1934).</p>
175182		population	eng	No recent information is available. It was known to be found sparsely in different parts of the Western Ghats (Fraser 1934).
175182		threats	eng	No species specific information is available, however the habitat is impacted by pollution from agricultural practices.
175183		conservation	eng	No conservation strategies are known to be implemented. It is necessary to monitor the slow degradation of habitats of this species caused by agricultural practices adopted without proper planning.
175183		distribution	eng	The species is an endemic damselfly of Western Ghats, India. It was described from Thalewadi, North Kanara (Karnataka) by Laidlaw in 1917. It was also commonly found on most streams in Coorg of Karnataka, before the monsoon (Fraser 1933). Recently, the species was also reported from the eastern side of central Western Ghats, from Uttarakannada to Mysore of Karnataka (Subramanian 2009).
175183		habitat	eng	&#160;The species appeared to be a shy, found to occur in dark shady spots of submontane streams in heavy Jungle (Fraser1933, Subramanian 2009).
175183		population	eng	&#160;The species was known to be very common in different parts of Karnataka on the streams of Coorg (Fraser 1933) and on the eastern side of central Western Ghats, from Uttarakannada to Mysore (Subramanian 2009).
175183		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known, yet the habitats where they occur are impacted by destructive agricultural practices especially due to the heavy usage of fertilisers and pesticides from coffee plantations. This may lead to a decline in population.
175184		conservation	eng	More research is needed
175184		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur from Sampaji Ghat, Kushalnagar (Kodgau, Karnataka) and Tamaracherry Ghat (Wayanad, Kerala).
175184		habitat	eng	They are crepuscular in nature and rest in vegetation near forest streams during day.
175184		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175184		threats	eng	The species does not face any immediate threats and the localities are relatively undisturbed and still retain natural forest cover. However, the catchment areas are under stress due to expansion of coffee plantations.
175185		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation strategies are known to be implemented. More research on the species is needed.
175185		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It was known to occur near Kallar River and Gudallur, Niligiris, Tamilnadu and Wayanad, Kerala. It was also found in Coorg and South Kannara, Karnataka and Olovumpatti Forest, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu (Fraser 1934).&#160; <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
175185		habitat	eng	The species is found&#160; in between 2,000 ft to 3,500 ft, in high altitude regions of Western Ghats.
175185		population	eng	There is no&#160; information on the population status<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
175185		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known.
175187		conservation	eng	More information on the species current distribution, population and threats would be useful.
175187		distribution	eng	The species is reported from south Kanara (now Udupi and Mangalore districts), Kodagu, Nilgiri and Wayanad districts. There are no recent reports of this species.
175187		habitat	eng	The species prefers shallow montane streams.
175187		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175187		threats	eng	There are no specific threats reported and the habitats of the old records have remained unspoiled. However, agricultural expansion in the catchment areas is likely to be a potential threat and may degrade the quality of the species habitat due to sediment and agrochemical runoff.
175188		conservation	eng	The species has not been reported in recent surveys to known localities. However since larvae of gomphids are known to have long maturation period, absence of adults can not be taken as real absence. More survey work is required.
175188		distribution	eng	The species is known from Kodagu and western slopes of Wayanad district, India.
175188		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested streams and usually perches on bare twigs. Females lay eggs in parts of streams with good shade.
175188		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175188		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats. However, agrochemicals and sedimentation of streams due to plantation activities in the catchment areas are deteriorating the habitats.
175189		conservation	eng	The species may be still present in the type locality, however surveys are required to identify existing populations.
175189		distribution	eng	The species is known from <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>a single female recorded from Dhoni, Palakkad district, Kerala (Fraser 1936).
175189		habitat	eng	Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">I. rhinoceroides</span> may be partial to torrential streams of evergreen forests.
175189		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175189		threats	eng	There is no specific threats for the type locality as it comes under reserve forest.
175190		conservation	eng	There are no recent reports of this species. Surveys of known locations and adjoining areas are required.
175190		distribution	eng	Only three male specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia bellicosa </span>are known. All were collected by Fraser from three localities in Kodagu and south Kanara (now Udupi and Mangalore) districts. There are no recent reports of this species.
175190		habitat	eng	There is not much information on the habitat and ecology of the species. However, from the localities of its known occurrence, it can be inferred that the species frequents forested streams.
175190		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175190		threats	eng	No information available. However, the known locations are currently well protected.
175191		conservation	eng	The species is poorly known and more survey work is needed.
175191		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in south Kanara (now Udupi and Mangalore districts), Kodagu and Wayanad.
175191		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to forested streams.
175191		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175191		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to the species. However, plantation expansion in the catchment areas is deteriorating the stream habitat quality by sedimentation and agrochemical runoff.
175192		conservation	eng	The stream habitats of this rare insect need to be protected.
175192		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur only in three to four localities (catchments) in southern Kodagu, Wyanad, Nilgiri and Trivandrum districts, Western Ghats, India.
175192		habitat	eng	The species is found in first and second order streams with good forest cover during April-June.
175192		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, in all the known localities, the species is not common occurs in relatively small numbers.
175192		threats	eng	The species prefers unpolluted streams with good riparian forest cover, and due  to the expansion of agriculture in the catchment areas of these streams,  the species is being impacted sedimentation and agrochemical runoff.
175193		conservation	eng	The species is known only from a single female and type locality is described vaguely. More surveys are required to assess current status of the species.
175193		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single female collected by Fraser in 1933. The type locality of the species is very confusing. The locality described by Fraser as "Mannar, Travancore" is coastal (currently in Pathanamthitta district, Kerala) and does not support the habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx </span>sp. Fraser was doing a survey of odonates of around Annamalai, Kodaikanal and Munnar hills at that time and possibly he collected <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx periashola</span> somewhere around Munnar. Fraser describes "Mannar" as 3,500 ft high (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>1,100 m) and overlooks a valley called Periashola (Large forest in Tamil). This description may well fit into many valleys towards Tamil Nadu plains, and the species was probably collected from near Munnar or Kodaikanal.
175193		habitat	eng	The species was collected from mountain top. Probably this species like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx </span>sp. prefers torrential hill streams with good forest cover.
175193		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175193		threats	eng	Insufficient information available on the threats to this species.
175194		conservation	eng	Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distributional pattern,  population trends and threats to the species, until this has been done it  will not be possible to properly plan any conservation actions that  might be needed.
175194		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis</span> was considered endemic to the Western Ghats (Fraser,1934) and it was known to occur only in southern India (Prasad and Varshney  1995) until Mitra (2002) recorded it from Assam. The later record  strongly suggests that the distributional records for the species are  incomplete.
175194		habitat	eng	The species is found in hill streams south of the Palghat gap in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.They also occur in numerous sholas, frequenting montane streams of&#160; Palani, Anaimalai and Mudis Hills in Tamil Nadu and&#160; Travancore (Fraser 1934).They breed in hill streams and usually find perched on boulders and riparian vegetation of second order streams. The flight period is from April to October (Fraser 1934).
175194		population	eng	There is no information on the present population status of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis</span>. It is known to occur in large numbers in sholay streams and other hill streams(Fraser 1934).
175194		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis</span> depends on streams , rivers and forests to complete its life cycle. These habitats may be threatened by pollution from various anthropogenic activities.
175195		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known. More research is needed on the species current distribution and habitat status.
175195		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acrogomphus fraseri</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats. Reported only from Coorg (Sampaji stream) Karnataka State,&#160; Mudi Hills and montane forest area of Travancore region, Kerala State (Fraser 1934).
175195		habitat	eng	Found at high altitude montane areas, more than 3,000 ft and very rarely observed&#160; may be due to its habit of roosting at great heights, often as much as 100 ft or more above the ground (Fraser 1934).
175195		population	eng	Only few pairs of&#160; specimens were observed by Fraser (1934) in   Sampaji stream, Coorg at an altitude of&#160; 3,000 ft, at Mudi Hills and   montane areas of Travancore, Kerala, and no recent reports of&#160; this specimen are available.
175195		threats	eng	<p>There are no species specific threats. However, anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, land use change for agricultural purposes&#160; in the catchment areas may lead to declination of the quality of&#160; habitats.</p>
175196		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation practices adopted. More research is needed.
175196		distribution	eng	According to available studies the distribution of the species is restricted to one South Indian state, Tamil Nadu. It <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>was described by Fraser in 1922 as endemic to the Western Ghats, to the south of Palghat Gap including&#160; Palani Hills, Anamalai Hills and Mudi Hills (Fraser 1933).
175196		habitat	eng	The species, a montane one, was commonly found in colonies like those of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Caconeura gomphoides</span>&#160; in Palani Hills, but sparsely populated in the Anaimalai and Mudis Hills (Fraser 1933) where it is more or less replaced by the closely related <span style="font-style: italic;">Esme mudiensis.</span>
175196		population	eng	It appeared abundantly in Palani Hills and less common in Anamalai and Mudi Hills of Tamil Nadu (Fraser 1933). Since the extensive studies conducted by Fraser, no further documentation is carried out on the species population.
175196		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known. Since the time of Fraser, no studies were carried out on this species concerning its distribution and population status. The habitats where it was found may be deteriorating due to various anthropogeneic activities.
175197		conservation	eng	No known conservation practices are adopted. It is necessary to do more studies on the species' distribution and population status to implement proper conservation actions.
175197		distribution	eng	<p>The species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats, India. The species has only been recorded <em></em>from Hallery, near Mercara, Coorg (Karnataka State) on the borders of a rocky mountain stream, 3,800 ft asl (Fraser 1934).</p>
175197		habitat	eng	The species were found on the borders of a rocky mountain stream, 3,800 ft asl (Fraser 1934)
175197		population	eng	Only two males were found during the survey (Fraser 1934).
175197		threats	eng	No species specific threats are known. Pollution to the riverine system on which the species depends is a potential threat.
175198		conservation	eng	The type locality Naraikadu, is a well protected private reserve that  forms part of the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and is well  protected against deforestation.
175198		distribution	eng	The species is known only from type locality Naraikadu, Kalakkad, Tamil Nadu.
175198		habitat	eng	There is not much information on this species, probably like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Protoscticta</span> of the Western Ghats, this species also prefers streams with good riparian forest cover.
175198		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
175198		threats	eng	There is little species specific information available. However, the type locality is well protected and species may not face any immediate threats.
175199		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be&#160; implemented. More information regarding the present distribution and lifecycle of the species is needed.
175199		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. The distribution of the species is restricted to South Kannara, Karnataka, South Malabar, Kerala&#160; and the Niligris, Tamil Nadu (Fraser 1936). Recent reports on its distribution have also been made from Niligris and Coorg (Subramanian 2009).
175199		habitat	eng	The species is confined to high altitude forests (2,000 ft-4,000 ft), during the months of&#160; April and May (Fraser 1936). Usually soars above forest canopies, descending occasionally to forest clearings. It breeds in monatane torrential streams (Subramanian 2009).
175199		population	eng	No information is available on its present population status.
175199		threats	eng	As the species is known to occur in high altitude regions, there is less threat to its survival.
175200		conservation	eng	The species and its habitat require immediate conservation attention.
175200		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Kodagu (two locations) and one location in each of Trichur, Ernakulam and Trivandrum districts. These five subpopulations are widely separated.
175200		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat specialist, occurs in close association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Myristica </span>swamps, a rare swamp forest formation in the Western Ghats.
175200		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, where ever it occurs not more than two or three individuals were recorded in recent surveys (2000-2008) (K. Subramanian pers. comm. 2010).
175200		threats	eng	The species' subpopulations are highly fragmented and its habitat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Myristica </span>swamps) is impacted by various anthropogenic pressures including water extraction for agriculture.
175201		conservation	eng	The existing subpopulations are very localized and small, some need to be protected.
175201		distribution	eng	The species is reported from Uttrakannada, Udupi, Kodagu, Wayanad, Nilgiri and Palakkad districts, Western Ghats, India. The species is restricted to very few localities in these districts.
175201		habitat	eng	The species is closely associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Myristica </span>swamps and streams with good riparian forest cover.
175201		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, the species not common or widespread in its distribution range.
175201		threats	eng	The subpopulations found in protected areas are well protected. However, there are many subpopulations outside protected areas and due to plantation activities, streams of these catchments are degrading.
175202		conservation	eng	The species is poorly known and more surveys are required to document habitat, habit and ecology of the species.
175202		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Munnar, Idukki district and Kozhikode district of the Western Ghats in India.
175202		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hill streams with good riparian forest cover.
175202		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
175202		threats	eng	The species is poorly known and no species specific threats are known. However, plantation activities and associated agrochemical runoff is likely degrade the quality of the habitat.
175203		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are known to be implemented. Particular care should be taken to save the riverine ecosystems on which the species depend for its existence from pollution due to heavy inflow of tourists and harmful agricultural practices.
175203		distribution	eng	The species<em> </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats, India. It was described from the restricted area of&#160; Fraserpet, Coorg, Karnataka, on the upper reaches of the Cauvery River (Fraser 1933). It is also found to occur in Kuruva Island, Wayanad, Kerala, along the banks of River Kabani (Kakkassery pers. obs. 2007).<em style="font-style: italic;"> </em>
175203		habitat	eng	They are very shy damselflies always keeping to the shade of overhanging trees or settling on grasses lining the banks. Females keep solely to shrubs adjoining the river, except when ovipositing. Males sometimes hover over this area forming a black circle produced by the black bars on the rapidly whirring wings (Fraser 1933).
175203		population	eng	In Kuruva Island, Wayanad, Kerala, the species was<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found with a moderate population along the banks of Kabni River<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>
175203		threats	eng	At present, Kuruva Island in Wayanad, Kerala, one of the known locations is a popular tourist spot, and a heavy flow of tourists would definitely affect the quality of its habitat.
175205		conservation	eng	No major conservation measures have been taken for the plant. Few experimental cultivation trials have been made and they were successful. Although the plant is thriving well in secondary habitats, it is necessary to protect its primary habitat, temporary pools on ferricretes (rocky lateritic outcrops) which are severely affected by biotic pressures.
175205		distribution	eng	<em>Wiesneria triandra</em> is confined to the coastal plain of southwestern India, where it grows near to the sea and is not found in places more than 50 m above sea level. It is sporadic in occurrence. It was considered a local endemic from place of its description (Malvan Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra) and was not collected elsewhere for 129 years. In 1979 it was found about 600 km further south in the state of Kerala in Malappuram District between Tirurangadi and Parappanangadi by Cook (1980) and almost simultaneously another 323 km further south at Kottur in Trivandrum District. Since then populations have been reported in the entire region (coastal, Konkan-Malabar plains in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala states), but the plant may or may not be seen every year in the same location. At some places it disappeared in one year, only to colonize other similar habitats a few kilometers away.
175205		habitat	eng	The species has been observed and reported by many floristic workers in the region, in addition to the reference used. Primary habitat are temporary pools on laterite plateus especially ferricretes below 50 m ASL in the region. Secondary habitats are man-made wetlands like pools, ditches, rice fields, lotus ponds, etc.
175205		population	eng	The reference cited includes autecological studies of this species from around four sites. Population studies are not available from any of the other localities in Goa, Karnataka or Maharashtra.
175205		threats	eng	The main threat to the primary habitats viz temporary pools on lateritic plateuas is conversion of land for industrial/ residential or agriculture which is going on at rapid scale throughout the region. However, ability of this species to grow in secondary man-made waterlogged habitats reduces the chances of rapid decline. However, these are not considered as major threats.
175206		conservation	eng	Protecting the microhabitats of subpopulations in known localities is urgently required. Surveys to establish its distribution, impacts of threats are needed. The species' habitat and population need monitoring.
175206		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala floribunda</span> is endemic to Maharashtra and is known from Ratnagiri, Satara and Kolhapur districts. The sites in Ratnagiri and Satara districts are between 800-1,200 m elevation. Those reported in Kolhapur district are at much lower elevations of about 600 m. It has also been recorded as rare from Mandangad in Ratnagiri District, which is at approx. 275 m asl. The species does not appear to be very specific about its microhabitat and is abundant in Mahabaleshwar especially around Lingmala and Pratapgad areas (Satara District). At Gothane (Ratnagiri District) it was recorded only once, but the locality is remote and not many surveys have been conducted there due to its inaccessibility. At localities in Kolhapur district it was also reported as rare along lake sides in Kagal and Kalamba. The same is true for Mandangad (Gaikwad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
175206		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala floribunda</span> grows on steep sloping rocks and cliff faces on which water is trickling down in the Mahabaleshwar area which has the largest subpopulations. Secondarily, it also grows on vertical rocky areas especially road cuttings formed while road construction where water trickles down. At other localities, it is known to occur along lakes sides and tank edges and is rare.
175206		population	eng	The species is reported as locally common in Mahabaleshwar area (Satara) but it is not common in any other locality. No population study has been conducted so far, but decline in the population has never been reported. The subpopulations in Mahabaleshar area are the largest, where it is distributed on rocks, cascades and cliff walls.
175206		threats	eng	Tourism has been identified as a major threat in the area in the Western Ghats. It&#160;is frequent in Mahabaleshwar area which has the largest population.&#160;Changes in the microhabitat due to land-use change seems to be another possible threat to the species. The remaining subpopulations in other areas are probably affected by local grazing, trampling etc. (A. Watve pers. comm. 2010).
175210		conservation	eng	No&#160;specific&#160;conservation&#160;action is known for the species.
175210		distribution	eng	<em>Crotalaria quinquefolia</em> is cosmopolitan in distribution and has been recorded from tropical Asia-Pacific.  It is native to South and South East Asia and Australia and naturalized in Mauritius in the first part of the 1800s. The major distributions are from&#160;Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Java, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,&#160;Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Sulawesi, Sumatra, Thailand and Vietnam. The Indian distribution is mainly from&#160;Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal (Legumeweb 2011).&#160;In India it is occasionally seen in forest undergrowth on coast and in Western Ghats (Saldanha 1984). Distributed in Chandrapur and Ratnagiri districts of Maharashtra (Kothari 2000), Rajanandgaon of Madhya Pradesh (Singh&#160;1993), Chikmagalur, Hassan, Mysore, Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka (Sharma <em>et al</em>. 1984).
175210		habitat	eng	The species is an annual herb which grows 40-80 cm in height. It is found in cultivated fields (Kothari 2000).&#160;The plant mainly grows in wet rice fields and moist places, up to 900m.
175210		population	eng	No information is&#160;available&#160;for the population. &#160;Occasional in the Western Ghats (Saldanha 1984).
175210		threats	eng	No threats reported for the species.
175211		conservation	eng	In the type locality, Panhala (Kolhapur district) local people did some efforts to block the road to the type locality to stop traffic of tourists unaware of the plant (S. Milind pers. comm.). Beyond this no concentrated effort has been made for conservation at any other locality. Research on&#160;taxonomy, threats, life history, population size,&#160;monitoring&#160;of habitat and conservation action measures required.
175211		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocaulon tuberiferum</em> has been reported from Satara and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra State, on high altitude ferricretes (600 m-1,200 m) in the northern Western Ghats. At present it has been reported from Satara (Kas, Chalkewadi, Boposhi, Mhavashi) and Kolhapur (Panhala, Radhanagari, Amba, Barki, Borbet, Masai, Idarganj) (Mishra and Singh 2002, Yadav and Sardesai 2002, Watve 2007). Although it is observed in more than 10 locations, the total area of occupancy is extremely restricted to less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>.
175211		habitat	eng	It grows on edges of seasonal or temporary shallow pools of water on ferricretes at altitudes 600-1,200 m. Water depth around 20-30 cm is preferred. It cannot grow in permanent pools or deeper pools with steep edges.
175211		population	eng	In a survey of high altitude ferricretes, the plant populations were regularly measured at three locations and observed at three other locations for three years (2003-2006). No significant decline was observed in the number of individuals within three years. However, population data from other localities is not available and no studies report it. In its habitat, the species grows in good numbers depending upon the size of the pool, about 30-40 individuals in a pool of 0.5 m diameter. <br/><br/>Four of the localities are subject to trampling by tourists, and one by windmill farms, and all by cattle grazing. The pools are severely disturbed by soil filling, water course being diverted. The plant can colonise secondarily formed pools, but was not seen to be very successful, forming only patches along muddy banks of a large pool. Hence, there is estimated to be some decline in the population of this species in the future. But detailed data are not available and there is a need for critical study.
175211		threats	eng	Grazing by local cattle continues to affect the habitat slowly by causing soil compaction, increased nutrient loads in water, trampling. Development of windmill farms is the single biggest future threat. The ferricretes are rich source of aluminum and mining has been proposed several times although opposed on ecological grounds. Large scale development plans for tourism have been made, without considering the biodiversity values of the sites, although the have not been confirmed, the threat remains.
175213		conservation	eng	Although Nilgiris is a biosphere reserve, the amount of deforestation and recreational activities is continuously increasing in the region. <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span> conservation is need to rehabilitate the stressed plants. Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential. Understanding the impacts of threats on the species is paramount.
175213		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anaphalis beddomei </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It occurs in Kerala (Palaghat, Pathanamthitta), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris and Palani hills) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Chandrasekaran 1987, Rao <em>et al.</em> 2003, Sasidharan 2004, Nayar <em>et al.</em> 2006).
175213		habitat	eng	It grows along streams and grasslands at high altitude (Sasidharan 2004)&#160;from 1,300 to 2,200 m&#160;(Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986).
175213		population	eng	It is a very rare species in the Nilgiris (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986).
175213		threats	eng	Grasslands in the Nilgiris and Palani hills are under severe threat from tourism and development activities which are impacting on the quality and extent of areas of suitable habitat. Invasive species have also been identified as an important ongoing threat.
175214		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures have been taken so far for this species. Research on population and life history and conservation&#160;monitoring&#160;essential
175214		distribution	eng	It is so far reported only from the Western Ghats in Maharashtra state. It is very common from Mahabaleshwar in Satara district (Maharashtra) to Amboli (Sindhudurg district) Maharashtra, mainly on hill tops of Northern Western Ghats, at altitude more than 800m ASL (Watve, 2007). It could possibly be present in the adjacent Western Ghat hill ranges of Goa and Karnataka states also, but no report has been made so far. <br/>The record from Aurangabad in Maharashtra, which is a more dry area in the eastern rainshadow region appears incorrect, as it has not been reported from later more floristic works after the first report (Mishra and Singh, 2001).
175214		habitat	eng	The species is found on the hill tops of Northern Western Ghats between 15<sup>0</sup>-18<sup>0</sup>N. It is abundant in shallow soil, grass patches on ferricretes, or any lateritic soil plateau.
175214		population	eng	Quantitative study of the population of this species was made for three years 2003-2006 at 5 locations during the study of rock outcrop plant communities. It is one of the most abundant species during its growing season of July-August. More than&#160; 100 individuals can be found within 20X20cm area. It can readily colonize disturbed patches adjacent to its area, like mined or quarried zones.
175214		threats	eng	The areas where this plant occurrs are generally threatened with increased grazing, tourism, construction of roads, mining, etc.
175217		conservation	eng	There is no known conservation action for this species. Detailed surveys to establish distribution range, impacts of threats, population and habitat trend monitoring are essential for this endemic species.
175217		distribution	eng	<em>Torenia bicolor</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats, reported from Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
175217		habitat	eng	It grows in open moist places along the ghats and in coastal plains. The common habitats are waterlogged rocky plateaus, fallow rice fields, stream edges etc.
175217		population	eng	There is no detailed population data, but the species occurs at some locations and is locally abundant during monsoon.
175217		threats	eng	Loss and conversion of moist habitats across its range is the major threat. The habitats are converted to residential and industrial areas. Mining is another threat in some areas. Large scale habitat disturbance leads to increased invasive species leading to loss of the species.
175218		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. A part of the range of this species falls under the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, B.R. Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajiv Gandhi National Park.
175218		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocoryne consobrina</span> is an endemic aquatic plant, confined to the Western Ghats of Karnataka (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984), Kerala (Palakkad, Malappuram and Calicut districts) (Mohanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore and Nilgiris) (Ahmedulah and Nayar 1986, Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989). It is also reported from Cochin, Karapara River, Mysore,    Kerala Vallamthodu.<br/></p>
175218		habitat	eng	<p>Along streams, river banks, marshy areas in evergreen forests, and on margins of canals and dams, on clayey substratum (Sadasivan and Sunil 2009).<br/></p>
175218		population	eng	It is a rare and endangered species. There are no specific population studies available.
175218		threats	eng	This species is very rare due to destruction of habitats, constructions of dams and canals but it is not extinct as suspected by Cook (1980) since this species was recorded in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu in 1962 and also reported from Palakkad, Malappuram and Calicut districts in Kerala by Sivadasan (1983). Ahmedullah and Nayar (1986) treated it as a rare and threatened species.
175219		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
175219		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Smithia blanda</span> is widely spread in India, China, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand. It commonly occurs at an altitude of 1000-2200m. In India, it commonly seen in Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Salem), Kerala (Travancore, Cochin hills at 4000 to 6000ft), Karantaka (Mysore), Assam, Madhya Pradesh (Hoshangabad), Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Sikkim, and West Bengal (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984, Sasidharan and Sivarajan 1996, Mudgal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).
175219		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual and it can be seen in wet places, along ditches, around pools, in irrigated fields and waste places. It makes a good green manure and is used as fodder but it can become a troublesome weed in irrigated fields.</p>
175219		population	eng	<p>This is a locally abundant species throughout its range.<br/></p>
175219		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
175220		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
175220		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Smithia sensitiva</span> is </strong>a widely <strong style="font-weight: normal;">distributed species found in the temperate and tropical regions </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">of Asia and Australia.</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>In India it is found in all the states.<strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span></strong>
175220		habitat	eng	<p>It is frequent in moist places, road sides and in open forests. Also found in field margins, wetlands; near sea level to 1,000 m.</p>
175220		population	eng	<p>This is a common species throughout its range.<br/></p>
175220		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
175222		conservation	eng	Ex-situ conservation efforts have been done by individuals and institutions including Botanical Survey of India, however none have been successful as the habitat requirements are too specific. More concentrated efforts are needed for a long term for ex-situ conservation. At present conservation of habitats is the best measure (A. Watve pers. obs. 2010) as well as reducing impacts mentioned in the threats section.
175222		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Mhavashi (which is the type locality), Kas, Patan ferricretes in Satara district and Gothane ferricrete in the Western Ghats which falls under Ratnagiri district political boundary. The fifth locality is Chalkewadi plateau in Satara district, Maharashtra (A. Watve pers. obs. 2004-2006). It is also known to occur in Amboli area, Maharashtra (S.R. Yadav&#160;pers. comm. 2003).
175222		habitat	eng	Primary habitat of this species is monsoonal rock pools of about 20 cm depth formed on ferricretes at altitudes above 800 m in the northern Western Ghats. It secondary habitat may be in water filled ditches formed by soil removal where it grows well for about two years.
175222		population	eng	A population study of this species was made in two localities and other  which were rigorously surveyed for three years (Watve in litt.). The population size was&#160; estimated to be 1,500 mature individuals with the largest  subpopulation containing 500 individuals. A decline in mature  individuals was not observed from 2004-2006 although habitat  modifications were recorded in some of the localities. Population trend for the global population is not clear.
175222		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are habitat disturbance due to construction of windmills leading to major changes in surface drainage. Removal of soil and increased garbage also disturbs the species. In one site, increased tourist pressure leads to trampling of primary habitat. This species being a well known attraction to plant lovers and photographers is often targeted by the tourists leading to habitat disturbance. <br/><br/>According to an earlier flora, one locality is threatened by the construction of a dam. This is highly improbable now (A. Watve pers. obs 2010). The site is remote, at the top of the mountain, highly protected as it is core zone of a newly created Wildlife Sanctuary (Chandoli) and perhaps is the best protected location for this species.
175224		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
175224		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Sesabania bispinosa</span> is </strong>distributed in tropical Africa and Asia. It occurs throughout India.
175224		habitat	eng	<p>It is <strong style="font-weight: normal;">a small annual </strong>shrub with thick stems, coming profusely after rainfall in the months of July and August. It is found scattered in cultivated fields but cannot be considered as a troublesome weed. However, it is not confined to wetlands but often found in swamps, marshy wastelands, water-logged places, banks of ponds and rivers, rice fields and seasonally inundated areas. It is also tolerates saline and alkaline conditions (Cook 1996).</p><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
175224		population	eng	<p>It is a cosmopolitan species and distributed commonly almost all over its known distribution.<br/></p>
175224		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
175226		conservation	eng	In 2009, the species was introduced in 16 Ghat regions at 108 locations, covering a stretch of 677 km (air distance) from Jog Falls in the South to Malshej Ghat in the north, and over 5,000 individuals have been established so far in the Western Ghats. Continuous monitoring of the newly established populations is in progress. The newly established populations showed good growth and seed setting although it is not known if this has been constant in time. The number of individuals seems to be increasing in most of the places where it has been introduced. Conventional methods of seed propagation was found to be best suited for restoration of the species. This was done at places where the habitat type was similar but the species was not naturally known. The long term results remain to be seen and further studies are needed to confirm whether these new subpopulations are stable in the long term. Although this has been called a re-introduction program by the authors, it is unlikely that the species was already present in these sites in the past, even though they have the required habitat. Thus this is an introduction program, in suitable habitats and extends the ecological range of the species where it never existed in the past (A. Watve pers. comm. 2010).
175226		distribution	eng	Earlier&#160;<em>Hubbardia heptaneuron</em>&#160;was considered to be endemic to Karnataka state only. It was first collected by Sedgwick from Gersoppa falls in Karnataka in 1919 but described by Bor in 1950. It has not been collected from that locality in the past 80 years. In 2000, researchers collected it from a small patch in Tillari Ghat, Kolhapur district of Maharashtra state. It was presumed extinct from the type locality after intensive searching failed to find it, but it has been collected a few times more from the new locality and is observed regularly by taxonomists. Even there, it formed only a small patch about 1 m²<sup></sup> which was easy to observe. After intensive searching, it was found in more patches around the Tillari locality. Several attempts to find it from surrounding areas with similar habitat have failed.
175226		habitat	eng	The species is known to occur on cliffs, moist rocks, shady places in spray zones of waterfalls and/or cascades at an altitude of 400 to 500 m.
175226		population	eng	It was known from only one locality with a tiny patch, until  reintroduction efforts on large scale were taken up by researchers  across the Western Ghats escarpment in Maharashtra. It is a small grass and can have many individuals even within a small area. A few hundred individuals might be present at the Tillari locality (A. Watve pers. obs. 2010). Five thousand individuals have been planted along the Western Ghats in different localities (Yadav <em>et al</em>. 2009). However, whether these subpopulations are stable and able to self-perpetuate is not known. Further studies are needed to confirm if&#160; i) introduction has been completely successful and ii) whether these can be then considered as new wild populations.
175226		threats	eng	Forest fires, land slides, dam constructions and road broadening are the major threats recorded for this species. However, it is more likely that it might be lost due to more local pressures such as trampling, grazing, land use changes etc. The individuals on cliffs however, will remain unaffected unless any major landslides or such activity destroys them, which is unlikely.
175227		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>
175227		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Smithia hirsuta</span> is endemic to peninsular India and is found at an altitude of 1000-2200m. It occurs in Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore - Anamalai hills, Madurai, Nilgiri - Pulney hills and Salem), Karanataka (Belgaum, Chikmagalur, Mysore, N. Kanara, Shimoga), Maharashtra, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam) (Singh and Karthikeyan 2000, Gamble 1918). <br/></strong>
175227		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual, frequently found in the hilly forests and wetlands.</p>    <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
175227		population	eng	<p>The species is locally common but found only in high altitudes.<br/></p>
175227		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
175231		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. disticha</span> is listed as Near Threatened in Switzerland, but no other conservation measures are known or needed.
175231		distribution	eng	<em>C. disticha</em> occurs from Scandinavia south to North Africa and east through Siberia and the Caucasus to Mongolia. According to the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010)   it also occurs in China but this does not agree with the Flora of China (Dai Lunkai <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It has been recorded as an introduction at two sites in Canada (Ball and Rznecik 2002) and a single site in Victoria State in Australia. In Europe, it occurs throughout Scandinavia, the Baltic States and central Europe south to Spain, Greece and Turkey.
175231		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. disticha</span> typically occurs in marshes and wet meadows in river floodplains, as well as on the margins of rivers, streams, ditches and occasionally standing water bodies. It tends to occur in neutral or calcareous water.
175231		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. disticha</span> is widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
175231		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175232		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. ravennae</span> is classed  Critically Endangered in Croatia but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
175232		distribution	eng	<p><em>S. ravennae</em> occurs from the northern Mediterranean south to <span lang="EN-GB">North Africa and Somalia, east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Himalayas in India and Pakistan and Kazakhstan to China. In Europe, it is restricted to the Mediterranean countries. It has been introduced to North America.</p>
175232		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. ravennae</span> typically grows on river margins, in wet grassland, marshes and reed beds.
175232		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. ravennae</span> is classed Critically Endangered in Croatia but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout it European range.
175232		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175233		conservation	eng	<p>There is no available information on the conservation needs of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. volgense</span>. It is recommended to study the population size and trends, the ecological needs of the species as well as potential threats.<br/></p>
175233		distribution	eng	<em>L. volgense</em> appears to have a relatively restricted distribution, occurring from Bulgaria north to Belarus and east through European Russia to Georgia and Kazakhstan.
175233		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the ecology or habitat of <em>L. volgense</em>, however Taran (1995) describe associations within the nanocyprion of which <em>L. volgense</em> (as <em>Peplis alternifolia</em>) is a characteristic species. It may thus be interpreted as occurring in seasonally inundated depressions, river banks and bars and wet track-ways.
175233		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. volgense</span> appears to be an annual of ephemeral wetlands which shows massive variation in abundance and number of populations between years. However, there is no readily available information on its global or regional status except comments suggesting that it is rare.
175233		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species available.
175234		conservation	eng	There is no information available on existing conservation or the need for future conservation action. Information about population size and trend, habitat requirements, as well as potential threats should be collected.
175234		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limosella</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tenella </span>is apparently endemic to mainland Greece.
175234		habitat	eng	No information available.
175234		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tenella</span>.
175234		threats	eng	No information available.
175237		conservation	eng	This species is protected by regional legislation in two Spanish regions (Castilla y Leon and Castilla-La Mancha). It occurs in protected areas. More research on population size, trends and distribution, as well as on major threats is needed.
175237		distribution	eng	The native distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. jonquilla</span> is limited to the Iberian Peninsula although it may also be locally native in the south of France. However it has been introduced to   France, Italy, Turkey in Europe, Madeira, Azores and southeastern North America.
175237		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus jonquilla</span> grows in wet grassland, river floodplains and on winter-inundated rock outcrops along rivers.
175237		population	eng	There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of<span style="font-style: italic;"> N. jonquilla</span>.
175237		threats	eng	The main threats are unknown. Collecting might have an impact on the wild populations.
175238		conservation	eng	<p>It is classed as Vulnerable in Austria (Niklfeld and Schratt-Ehrendorfer 1999). There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175238		distribution	eng	<em>C. pannonicus</em> occurs from central Europe south and east through the Balkans, Turkey and the Ukraine to Mongolia and much of China. In Europe, it occurs from Austria and the Czech Republic east through Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania to the Ukraine and south to Albania and Greece.
175238		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pannonicus</span> occurs in marshland, in temporary pools and the drawdown zones of permanent water bodies, often on alkaline or saline soils.
175238		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pannonicus</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.
175238		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175240		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation actions taken or needed for this species. Information on the population size and trend, habitat requirements, and potential threats should be collected.
175240		distribution	eng	The global distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. oxylepis</span> appears to be restricted to a small area from the Ukraine and South European Russia to Kazakhstan.
175240		habitat	eng	There is no readily available information on the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. oxylepis</span>.
175240		population	eng	There is no information on the size or state of the populations available.
175240		threats	eng	It is not known whether there are any threats affecting this species.
175241		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175241		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. sabinei</span> has a circumpolar distribution, but in Europe occurs only in Arctic Norway and Russia.
175241		habitat	eng	<em>P. sabinei</em> usually grows as an emergent in wet meadows, marshes, around the margins of ponds, streams, lakes, tundra and temporary pools on acidic or sometimes calcareous soils.
175241		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. sabinei</span> appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
175241		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175244		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175244		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> baudotii</em> is endemic to Europe, occurring in Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Ireland, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Greece.</p>
175244		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus</span><em> baudotii</em> usually occurs in ditches, ponds, lagoons, machair lochs and dune slacks near the coast, it (or morphologically similar plants) occasionally grows inland in lakes and pools.
175244		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranunculus baudotii</span> is classed as Regionally Extinct in Switzerland, however given that this species has a predominantly coastal distribution, it is likely that records from Switzerland were misidentifications. Otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
175244		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175245		conservation	eng	<em>R. lingua</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Serbia and Spain  (B1ab(i,ii,iii)+B2ab(i,ii,iii)), Endangered in Croatia and Norway (A2abc; B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)), Vulnerable in Switzerland and Germany and Near Threatened in Hungary and it has national protection in France. The fact that it is enlisted in different national red lists demands conservation measures and research on threats as well as monitoring of the populations is recommended.
175245		distribution	eng	<em>R. lingua</em> occurs from Europe east to the Middle East, the Caucasus, Siberia and Kazakhstan. It occurs more or less throughout Europe, although in the Iberian Peninsula it occurs only in northeastern Spain.
175245		habitat	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">R. lingua</em><span lang="EN-GB"> typically grows in base-rich, often eutrophic marshes and fens and on the margins of lakes, ponds and artificial water bodies in still or standing water.</span></p>
175245		population	eng	<em>R. lingua</em> is classed as Critically Endangered in Spain and Serbia, Endangered in Croatia and Norway, Vulnerable in Switzerland and Germany and Near Threatened in Hungary and it has national protection in France. <br/>In Spain, it was believed to be extinct between 1949 and 2003 when 300 mature individuals where detected in Navarra in an area of 100 m<sup></sup>² (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; <br/>It appears to be widespread and abundant in most other countries in Europe.
175245		threats	eng	Overall, there is little knowledge about the threats to this species. The Spanish populations that occur at one small stream are threatened by agricultural activities and changes of the hydrological regime such as drainage that can lead to desiccation   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2006).
175246		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175246		distribution	eng	<p>This species has an almost global distribution and occurs throughout the northern Hemisphere, Australasia, North America, Central America and parts of South America but apparently absent from Africa   (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It is reported from all European countries except the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Portugal-Azores and Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway).</p>
175246		habitat	eng	<em>S.&#160;tabernaemontani</em> is a Hemicryptophyte or rhizome Geophyte and usually occurs as large, dense populations which flower and set abundant seed. It is a potentially long-lived perennial, it forms dense monospecific stands on the margins of waterbodies, often extending into open water. It is most frequent in coastal sites where it grows in brackish water in rivers, dykes, tidal channels, lagoons and dune-slacks; it also grows also in depressions in salt marshes and in wet pasture. Inland, it is common in inland saline or brackish water but may also occur by freshwater lakes, ponds, slow-flowing rivers, streams and canals, and in flooded quarries and pits.
175246		population	eng	<p><em>S.&#160;tabernaemontani</em> is apparently widespread and abundant throughout its European range. </p>
175246		threats	eng	<p>No past, ongoing, or future threats exist to this species.</p>
175247		conservation	eng	No information available. Research to define the taxonomic status and origin of the European populations is needed.
175247		distribution	eng	<em>T. lugdunensis</em> occurs in southern France and southwestern Germany, Switzerland, Austria and parts of the Middle East and China. However, it was probably introduced to Europe.
175247		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. lugdunensis</span> typically grows in the margins of marshes, ditches and streams.
175247		population	eng	There is no readily available information on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">T. lugdunensis</span>.
175247		threats	eng	No information available.
175248		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place and no evidence to suggests that such measures might be needed, however given the paucity of records in the region, either this species is overlooked or it must be extremely rare at a European level.</p>
175248		distribution	eng	<p><em>F. turkestanica</em> has been recorded from Spain, Crete, Egypt, the Caucasus, the Middle East, India and Pakistan. In Spain, it is found in the provinces Alicante and Valencia, near the towns of Polop, Favara and Tavernes (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/></p>
175248		habitat	eng	<p>&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">Described as occurring on damp ground by springs and irrigation channels etc. to 300 ft. (Meikle 1985). In the Iberian Peninsula, it occurs in rice fields and among <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus</span> spp. (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/></p>
175248		population	eng	There is no information available on the size of or trends on    populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. turkestanica</span>,    however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and    there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation   concern.
175248		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
175249		conservation	eng	There is no information on the conservation actions in place or needed for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution and population size are recommended.
175249		distribution	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span style="font-style: italic;">L. dubia</span> occurs in the Balkan peninsula, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Central European Russia and Afghanistan.
175249		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. dubia</span> is described as occurring in damp meadows and coastal gravel beds.
175249		population	eng	There is no readily available information on the status of European populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dubia</span>, however it has not been seen recently in the Crimean Peninsula.
175249		threats	eng	Potential threats are anything that could affect the water regime, such as drainage.
175250		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175250		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. confervoides </span>occurs in western Europe, the Caucasus, Mongolia, Greenland and parts of northern North America. In Europe, it occurs in the Alps, the Pyrenees and in Scandinavia.
175250		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. confervoides</span> typically occurs in gravel-bed lakes which are typically oligotrophic.
175250		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. confervoides</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Switzerland but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
175250		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175252		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ephemerum</span> is protected at a national level in France but otherwise   there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
175252		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ephemerum</span> occurs in a limited area of southern France, the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. In France it is restricted to the Pyrénées-Orientales and Aude departements (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010). In Spain, it is found in 33 provinces, mainly in the eastern half of the country. The sites in Portugal are restricted to the provinces Baixo Alentejo, Estremadura and Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).<br/><h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading"><br/></h1>
175252		habitat	eng	<span class="shorttext">Wet ground on the margins of calcareous springs, streams and rivers, or in reed beds and meadows, often associated with tufa deposits.
175252		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ephemerum</span> is apparently frequent in the eastern part of the centre of Spain and rare in Portugal, it is protected at a national level in France, where it has a very limited distribution. It is possible that it is naturalised in the Dordogne.
175252		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species, except those which affect all unprotected water bodies.</p>
175254		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place. Information on the population size and trend, habitat requirements, as well as potential threats should be collected.
175254		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. ambigua</span> occurs from eastern central Europe east through India and the Himalayas to China (Yunnan) and Japan and south into Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam). It is apparently naturalized in Australia, Europe, and North America (California) (Yang and Tucker 2007). In Europe, <em>E. ambigua</em> is restricted to a small area in Romania, the Czech Republic and western Ukraine<em> </em>(near Uzhgorod and Beregovo). A number of sources (e.g. Cook 1996) suggest that it is naturalised in Europe.
175254		habitat	eng	<em>E. ambigua</em> is found in seasonally inundated areas, along rivers, around tanks and in irrigation ditches. It prefers eutrophic conditions and is mostly found on fine mineral soils; it is frequent in rice fields (Cook 1996).
175254		population	eng	There is no evidence to suggest that European populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. ambigua</span> are declining.
175254		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175255		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175255		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. russeolum</em> occurs in northern parts of the northern hemisphere, from Scandinavia east through Altai and Mongolia to Sakhalin and China, as well as the Aleutian Islands and the northern and western United States. In Europe, it is confined to parts of Scandinavia and northern European Russia.</p>
175255		habitat	eng	It is found in damp lichen herb tundra, lichen-sedge bogs, wet places, on the marshy banks of water bodies (Fedorov 1999).
175255		population	eng	There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. russeolum</span>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.
175255		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175256		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175256		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. laticarpus</em> occurs from France north to the Netherlands and east to Estonia and from northern Italy, through the Balkans and the Ukraine. It has also been recorded in North Africa (Algeria). Its centre of distribution is southern Germany, Czech Republic and Slovakia. </p>
175256		habitat	eng	<p><em>B. laticarpus</em> typically occurs in river floodplains along riverbanks, oxbows, streams and ditches, it also forms extensive stands on the draw-down zones of reservoirs and in temporary wetlands and colonises seasonally inundated arable land.</p>
175256		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. laticarpus</span> appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout most of its European range. It seems to be the most abundant <span style="font-style: italic;">Bolboschoenus</span> sp. in inland habitats in Europe and is possibly invading wet arable land (Z. Hroudova pers. comm. 2010).
175256		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175257		conservation	eng	<em>B. cernua</em> is classed as Endangered in Switzerland and Vulnerable in Norway and Austria; no other conservation measures in place or needed.
175257		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. cernua</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and east through Siberia, Mongolia, the Caucasus and the Himalayas to eastern Siberia, China and Japan. It also occurs throughout much of North America except the extreme north and Arctic. In Europe, it occurs in southern Scandinavia, the Baltic States, throughout central Europe to southern France, northern Italy and the Balkans to European Turkey.</p>
175257		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cernua</span> grows in nutrient-rich mud on the margins of most water body types, from rivers and streams to lakes, ponds and wet hollows in grassland, as well as ditches and canals.
175257		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cernua</span> appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout most of its European range except in the extreme north, while it is listed as Endangered in Switzerland.
175257		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175258		conservation	eng	No information available. More research on the taxonomy, population size and trends, ecological requirements as well as potential threats is needed for this species.
175258		distribution	eng	<em>T. sibirica </em>occurs<em> </em>from Siberia east to the Russian Far East, China and Japan.
175258		habitat	eng	No information available.
175258		population	eng	No information available.
175258		threats	eng	No information available.
175259		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175259		distribution	eng	<p><em>R. omiophyllus</em> has a mainly European distribution, extending beyond the region only into northern Africa. In Europe, it occurs in Denmark, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy.</p>
175259		habitat	eng	<em>R. omiophyllus </em>typically occurs in seasonally or permanently shallow acidic, mesotrophic or eutrophic water bodies, particularly flushes, wet hollows in heathland, wet trackways and the margins of ponds, but it will also occasionally grow on the margins of rivers, particularly where inflows from seepages or flushes enter the channel.
175259		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>R. omiophyllus</em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.</p>
175259		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175260		conservation	eng	There is no information available on current conservation action or the need for conservation action. However, the size and trend of the populations, ecological requirements and potential threats should be studied.
175260		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes subinermis</span> occurs in France and Italy.
175260		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes</span><em> subinermis</em> occurs in very shallow temporary ponds (a few centimetres deep), which exist only in winter or late spring, with a flora mainly composed of Mediterranean therophytic and geophytic species belonging to the alliances <em>Isoëtion</em>, <em>Nanocyperion flavescentis</em>, <em>Preslion cervinae</em>, <em>Agrostion salmanticae</em>, <em>Heleochloion</em> and <em>Lythrion tribracteati</em>.
175260		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trends for this species.
175260		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
175261		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. eruciformis</span> is listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005).<br/><br/>Available information is inadequate to assign an informed conservation status. There is therefore a need to collect and compile information on the distribution and status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. eruciformis</span> in the region.
175261		distribution	eng	<em>B. eruciformis</em> occurs from central Europe east and south to Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus. In Europe it is mainly eastern, occurring from Poland south to Greece and throughout the east.
175261		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. eruciformis </span>appears to be mainly associated with naturally saline inland wet grassland.
175261		population	eng	There is little information readily available on the status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. eruciformis</span> populations. It is rare in Poland and has disappeared from some sites in Ukraine. It is not threatened in Hungary where it is common east of the River Tisza (Király 2007). It also seems to still be common in parts of Romania and the Ukraine. However, it seems equally possible that some populations are naturalised as this taxon has been<span style="background-color: white;"> reared as a</span> crop for a long time.
175261		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175265		conservation	eng	It is classed as Near  Threatened in Norway and Finland, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
175265		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. brachyantherum</em> occurs in northern regions of the Northern Hemisphere, from Scandinavia east through Western Siberia and Mongolia to Korea, as well as sub-Arctic Alaska and Canada. In Europe it occurs in Scandinavia and northern European Russia.</p>
175265		habitat	eng	<p>In clayey, weakly turfy areas of tundra on the banks of streams, sometimes in damp lichen tundras and marshy forests (Fedorov 1999).</p>
175265		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. brachyantherum</span> is classed as Near Threatened in Norway and Finland, it is of Least Concern in Sweden and there is no information on its status in European Russia. There is no evidence to suggest that it is declining outside Scandinavia.
175265		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species, although it would be useful to establish why it is classed as Near Threatened in Norway and Finland.</p>
175266		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. atherodes</span> is listed as Near Threatened in Finland and Critically Endangered in Sweden, it is apparently rare in Poland and in Germany. However, its status in European Russia is unknown.<span lang="EN-GB"><br/>Available information is inadequate to assign an informed conservation status. There is therefore a need to collect and compile&#160;information on the distribution and status of <em>C. atherodes</em> in the region.
175266		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>C. atherodes</em> has a circumboreal distribution, but only extending into the Arctic in Alaska, it occurs throughout much of Siberia and western European Russia (Fedorov 1999, Elven 2007) and into China (Dai Lunkai <em>et al</em>. in press.) It is widespread in northern and western North America (Ball and Reznicek 2002) with scattered populations in the Caucasus and Kazakhstan (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). In Europe, it occurs in Russia, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Latvia and Poland. </p>  <span lang="EN-GB"><p></p>
175266		habitat	eng	The species inhabits wet meadows and the margins of streams, ponds and lakes, and occasionally ditches.
175266		population	eng	There is very little information available on populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. atherodes</span>, but in most of Europe it appears to be rare.
175266		threats	eng	It is not known whether there are any threats to this species.
175268		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula</span><em> mundi</em> is classed as Vulnerable D2 in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and is regionally protected in parts of Spain.
175268		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula mundi</span> <span class="mediumtext">is endemic to Spain. It is found in Serranía de Cuenca (Cuenca y Guadalajara), sierras de Alcaraz y del Calar del Mundo (Albacete). The AOO is presumably smaller than 20 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span class="mediumtext"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
175268		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula mundi</span> occurs in seepages and springs in hollows in rocky areas.
175268		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mundi</span>.
175268		threats	eng	This species requires a specific habitat that is very rare and has isolated populations. It can easily be affected by climate change and modification of the hydrological regime of its habitat.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
175269		conservation	eng	Three subpopulations are located in state forest land (Troodos National Forest Park and Pafos Forest), which are proposed Natura 2000 sites. There is a need to monitor known populations to establish trends and thereby enable a response if there is a decline. It is listed as Vulnerable D2 on the Cyprus Red List (Tstintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
175269		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus cyprius</span> is endemic to Cyprus where it is confined to the wider Troodos mountain range at altitudes from 100-1,550 m. The species is found at seven locations: Spilia, Prodromos, Kryos Potamos, Pera Pedi, Roudias Valley, near Pachyammos and Armou village. Another location near Galata village where the plant was collected in 1880, has been searched repeatedly without results. The area of occupancy is suspected to be around 20 km².
175269		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus cyprius</span> is a perennial herb with a creeping rhizome, up to 50 cm high. It has been described as occurring at streams and irrigation channels on igneous mountainside.
175269		population	eng	The total population is approximately 5,000 plants. There is no information on the population trend of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cyprius</span>.
175269		threats	eng	The main threats are change in hydrological conditions such as groundwater extraction, dams, or drought as well as management of sites where it occurs. The habitat of the subpopulations at the higher altitudes upstream of the water reservoirs is apparently not threatened. At the river parts downstream of the reservoirs and also at the lower altitudes (close to cultivations and villages) the habitat of the species is degraded due to the threats described above.
175270		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. gracile</span> is classed as  Regionally Extinct in Croatia,   Endangered in Norway,  Denmark and Switzerland, Vulnerable in Estonia and Near  Threatened in the UK.<br/><br/>There are populations on protected sites throughout much of its range, however it appears that few active measures have been taken toward conservation of this species.
175270		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. gracile</em> occurs throughout much of the northern hemisphere, from Europe east through Siberia and Kazakhstan to the Amur and Primorskye regions of far eastern Russia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, China and Korea, as well as throughout much of northern North America. In Europe, it occurs mainly in the north in Scandinavia, south to Croatia and east to the Ukraine, reaching its southern limit along a line extending from the Pyrenees, through northern Italy to southern Bulgaria.<em></em></p>
175270		habitat	eng	<em>E. gracile</em> typically occurs in the wetter parts of wet,  calcareous or moderately acid peat-dominated habitats, such as bogs,  peat pools, transitional mires, often associated with <em>Sphagnum</em>  species. It is often found on floating mats of vegetation in bogs pools.  It has been shown that sexual reproduction is infrequent, with most  reproduction being vegetative and typically, through growth from  floating mats or the margins out into open water. It appears likely that  it is, in part, dependent upon the continued presence of open water for  expansion and may disappear as vegetation closes in through succession,  although it may persist where high water levels suppress dense growth  of more aggressive species.
175270		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;E. gracile</span> is classed as Regionally Extinct in Croatia,   Endangered in Norway, Denmark and Switzerland, Vulnerable in Estonia and Near Threatened in the UK.<br/><br/>It is clear that many populations are in decline, many significantly so and that this decline is partly due to the degradation of its habitat that is occurring to wetlands throughout the region. Recent intensive survey work in Ireland (Conaghan and Sheehy Skeffington 2009) has shown that this species is more abundant than would have been evident from casual records, but it also supported the conclusion that populations continue to be lost. In Sweden it is classed as Least Concern. Recent wetland inventories and flora projects have revealed that this species is rather common in the northern third of Sweden, and not declining. Further south it is rarer, and has declined in many areas.
175270		threats	eng	<p><em>E. gracile </em>appears to be susceptible to drainage and eutrophication, the former leading to loss of suitable habitat and the latter to aggressive succession which excludes this species.<br/></p>
175272		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and no information on the need for conservation action. There is clearly an urgent need to establish the size of populations and assess the need for conservation action.
175272		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes brochonii</span> is endemic to the Pyrenees - although it is not clear whether this refers to both French and Spanish Pyrenees.
175272		habitat	eng	There is no information on the ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. brochonii</span>.
175272		population	eng	There is no information on population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. brochonii</span>.
175272		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
175274		conservation	eng	Some of the populations in Bulgaria and in Greece are in Natura 2000 sites. Conservation measures needed are to prevent drainage of the habitat. Furthermore survey work is needed to collect further information on distribution and ecology. Monitoring of the population trends is needed.
175274		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. digitata</span> apparently occurs in Bulgaria, Greece an<span style="background-color: white;">d Turkey. In</span> Bulgaria, it occurs in the southeastern lowlands and along the Black Sea. In Greece, it is found in the central and northeastern part of the mainland and some of the islands, but very scattered.
175274		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in humid places, such as along river banks and lake margins as well as marshy areas. It occurs in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6420 "Mediterranean tall humid grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Holoschoenion</span>".
175274		population	eng	There is no information available on trends in populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. digitatus</span>.
175274		threats	eng	Drainage and other changes in hydrological regimes such as changes in water level are the main problem. Infrastructural development such as roads or construction of factories etc. impact on the populations. Man induced fires are a potential threat.
175275		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Carum verticillatum </span>is   protected in Ile de France and Alsace, but there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175275		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Carum</span><em> verticillatum</em> is endemic to western Europe, occurring from Spain and Portugal north through France and Belgium to Germany and the Netherlands. It is extinct in Germany    <a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">(Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</a>.<br/></p>
175275		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carum verticillatum</span> typically occurs on acid soils in pastures, wet heathland, marshes and the margins of streams.
175275		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carum verticillatum</span>   appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range.
175275		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175276		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. glomeratum </span>is listed as Endangered in Estonia and in Latvia. More information on the population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed.
175276		distribution	eng	According to Cook and Nicholls (1986) "<span style="font-style: italic;">S. glomeratum</span> has a disjunct distribution. It is common and abundant in lowland and southern regions of Norway, Sweden and Finland; eastwards it extends from White Russia to the Urals". It is absent from Siberia and central Asia occurs in China and from Kamchatka south to the mountains of Honshu. There is also a single confirmed record from Labrador, Canada.
175276		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. glomeratum i</span>s described by Cook and Nicholls (1986) as "a species of shallow water in pools, small ponds, streams and ditches which may dry out in summer". They also describe it as typical of mesotrophic waters avoiding acid oligotrophic water and calcium-rich water.
175276		population	eng	There is very little information available on the stability or status of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. glomeratum</span> populations. It is listed on two European Red List - as Endangered in Estonia where it is not otherwise considered to occur and in Latvia where it is very rare and grows as small groups in stagnant waters (V.   Rašomavičius pers. comm. 2010). Most populations are therefore understood to be stable. Cook and Nicholls (1986) described it as "widespread [..] but by no means common only occasionally is it locally abundant".
175276		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
175277		conservation	eng	<p><span class="tooltip">In France <em>A. plinii</em> is protected in two Departments: Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, although this appears to be more due to a naturally small population size than any evidence of a decline.   There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.  </p>
175277		distribution	eng	<em>A. plinii</em> occurs throughout much of the Mediterranean basin and into the Middle East. According to<span style="background-color: white;"> Clayton </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> (2006 onwards) it</span> also occurs in southwestern and southeastern Africa.
175277		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. plinii</span> apparently occurs primarily on clay soils, both along rivers and often on disturbed ground that is not necessarily associated with water.
175277		population	eng	There is little information available on the status of populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. plinii</span>, but the information that is available suggests that populations are stable.
175277		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175279		conservation	eng	<em>C. chordorrhiza</em> is protected throughout France and classed as Endangered in Denmark. No other   conservation measures appear to be in place or needed.
175279		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. chordorrhiza</em> has a circumboreal distribution from central and northern Europe east through Siberia and the Caucasus to Kamchatka and the eastern seaboard of Russia south to the Korean Peninsula. It is widespread in northern North America, although Oregon collections apparently are from commercial cranberry bogs and presumably introductions (Ball and Reznicek 2002). In Europe it occurs from France and the United Kingdom east throughout Scandinavia and the Baltic States, central Europe to the Ukraine.</p>
175279		habitat	eng	<em>C. chordorrhiza</em> usually occurs in very wet, base-poor habitats such as mires, bogs, floating mats on lakeshores and sedge marshes.
175279		population	eng	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chordorrhiza</span> appear to be stable throughout most of its European range.
175279		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species, although it is apparently susceptible to both drainage and prolonged submergence (Jermy <em>et al</em>. 2007).
175280		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. glomeratus</span> is scarce in the western countries of its range and is classed as Critically Endangered in Switzerland, it is classed as Vulnerable in Croatia but there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175280		distribution	eng	<em>C. glomeratus</em> occurs from central Europe south to the Mediterranean and east through the Middle East, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Kashmir to Primorskye and Amur Province of the eastern seaboard of Russia, the Korean Peninsula, Japan and throughout much of China. In Europe, it occurs in one province of Spain (Lérida/Lleida), a small part of south-eastern France, northern Italy and east through the Czech Republic and the Balkans to the Ukraine and Moldova.
175280		habitat	eng	<em>C. glomeratus</em> typically grows on the margins  of lakes and rivers, in seasonally inundated grassland and in rice fields.
175280		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. glomeratus</span> is scarce in the western countries of its European distribution but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout its European range except in Switzerland and Croatia.</p>
175280		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175281		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175281		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. scheuchzeri</em> occurs in the north and at high altitude in the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe east through Siberia, Pakistan and the western Himalayas to Kazakhstan and Mongolia, and in northern North America. In Europe, it occurs from the Pyrenees north to Svalbard and east to northern European Russia, the Ukraine and parts of the former Yugoslavia.</p>
175281		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. scheuchzeri</span> is described as occurring in high mountain peat-dominated wetlands, as well as   wet meadows, around the margins of calcareous ponds and lakes, marshes and streams<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><em></em>
175281		population	eng	There is no information available on the size of or trends on  populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. scheuchzeri</span>,  however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and  there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.
175281		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175282		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. radiata</span> is classed as     Vulnerable in Austria and Estonia and is protected in the Ile-de-France Department of France. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
175282		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. radiata</span> is native from Scandinavia south to central France and from the Altai and Irkutsk region eastward to Kamchatka, Sakhalin Island and China. In Europe, it occurs in Sweden and Finland, northward to the end of the Gulf of Bothnia south to France, Germany and Austria, east to the Ukraine. It is widely but locally naturalised outside its native range.
175282		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. radiata </span>typically grows on nutrient-rich mud on silt bars in rivers, wetlands in large river floodplains, as well as on the margins of lakes, ponds and ditches.
175282		population	eng	European populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. radiata</span> are apparently mainly stable, although there is very little information available.
175282		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175283		conservation	eng	<em>E. orthosperma</em> is classed as Vulnerable - Criteria B2ab(ii,iv,v) in Sweden; there are no other conservation measures in place or needed.
175283		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. orthosperma</em><strong> </strong>occurs in Scandinavia (except Denmark), Russia (the Republic of Karelia and St. Petersburg, Ladoga-Ilmen: Neva River and northern coast of the Gulf of Finland; Volga-Kam: Urals) and Germany (Schleswig-Holstein and Bavaria) (Uotila 2009, Tzvelev 2006). </p>
175283		habitat	eng	<em>E. orthosperma</em><strong> </strong>occurs mainly in shallow water (usually at less than 50 cm depth, rarely more than 1 m), sometimes on wet soil on the margins of water bodies, usually on silt, sand or gravel substrates. It is found in meso-eutrophic lakes and rivers; in brackish water only in the least saline coasts and river estuaries in the Bothnian Bay and Gulf of Finland.
175283		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. orthosperma</span> is apparently widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, but considered Vulnerable in Sweden. It is classed as extinct in Bavaria (Germany) where it has been last recorded in 1914 (Ahlmer 2010). There are a few historical records in the Czech Republic but no extant localities are known (Kaplan 2002).
175283		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175285		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175285		distribution	eng	<em>E. triste </em>occurs from Finland east to Siberia and in northern Canada and Alaska. Its only European location is Finland.
175285		habitat	eng	<em>E. triste</em> occurs in wet meadows and marshes, along streams, on wet, sometimes mossy slopes; aquatic or imperfectly drained sites or on seepage slopes, occasionally on calcareous rock, sand, clay or peat.
175285		population	eng	There is no information available on the size of or trends on   populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. triste</span>,   however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and   there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation  concern.
175285		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175287		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. vulgaris</span> is classed as  Critically Endangered in Croatia and in Belarus, is protected at a regional level in France in Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne,  Pays de la Loire, Franche-Comté, Picardie, Basse-Normandie, Centre and  Île-de-France. There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.
175287		distribution	eng	<em>P. vulgaris</em> has a more or less circumboreal distribution, from Europe east through the Caucasus and Siberia to Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island in the Russian Far East and Japan, it also occurs throughout much of northern North America. It occurs more or less throughout Europe except for the Balkans.
175287		habitat	eng	<em>P. vulgaris</em> typically occurs in damp, nutrient-poor habitats such as bogs, crevices of wet rocks, rock outcrops with flowing water, flushes, fens.
175287		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. vulgaris</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Belarus and Croatia and has declined in the United Kingdom, but otherwise appears to be widespread and abundant throughout its European range.
175287		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175288		conservation	eng	There is no information about existing conservation measures. Research on the population size and potential threats is needed.
175288		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex</span><em> balcanicus</em> is endemic to a small area on the borders of Albania, Greece, Montenegro and F.Y.R. Macedonia. It is found in one locality in Mountain Voras in Greece. The AOO in Greece is estimated to be less than 20 km².
175288		habitat	eng	<p>This perennial herb is found in marshy places along streams, on micaceous schist at an altitude of 1,800 to 2,200 m. Flowering takes place from June to August (Strid and Tan 2002).<br/></p>
175288		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>R. balcanicus</em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern, except that it occurs over a limited area.</p>
175288		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
175289		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place. Information on the population size and trend and the species ecological requirements are needed.<br/></p>
175289		distribution	eng	<em>S. sisarum</em> occurs from Europe east to the Middle East and Siberia. In Europe it is native to Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and European Russia and has been introduced to France.
175289		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
175289		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>S. sisarum</em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.</p>
175289		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175291		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. contorta</span> is classed as Endangered B1ab(iii,iv,v)c(iv)+2ab(iii,iv,v)c(iv)  in Spain (Moreno 2008) and as Vulnerable on the Red List of Andalucia   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005). Monitoring of the populations is recommended.
175291		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. contorta</span> is recorded from southeast Spain and North Africa.
175291		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. contorta</span> typically grows in permanent waters rich in carbonates, well oxygenated and running from craggy streams.
175291		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. contorta</span> is classed as Endangered in Spain (Moreno 2008).
175291		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to a loss of water quantity or quality. Drying out of water bodies and pollution caused by agriculture and livestock are described as the main threats in Andalusia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).
175292		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. glaber</span> is classed as Regionally Extinct in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175292		distribution	eng	<em>C. glaber</em> occurs from Austria south to Italy and east through the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Pakistan and the Middle East. In Europe, it occurs in a small part of the centre and Mediterranean, as well as the Ukraine and south of European Russia.
175292		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. glaber</span> is described as occurring in wet grassland.
175292		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. glaber</span>   appears to be widespread and abundant with stable populations throughout much of its European range, although it is listed as Extinct in Croatia.
175292		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175294		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for this species, it is important to investigate the taxonomic status of the population(s) found on Lesvos and if they can be assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">I. heldreichii</span>, to undertake a thorough conservation assessment.
175294		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes heldreichii</span> is endemic to the Pindos Mountains of Greece, however it is possible that a population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes </span>found on Lesvos could be this species (I. Bazos pers. comm. 2010).
175294		habitat	eng	There is no readily available information available on habitats of <em>I. heldreichii</em>. Data from specimen labels suggests that it was found in marshes or a lake.
175294		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes</span><em> heldreichii</em> is considered to be extinct unless the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes </span>found on Lesvos turns out to be this species.<br/></p>
175294		threats	eng	The causes that led to extinction of the species are not known.
175295		conservation	eng	<em>S. radicans</em> is classed as Endangered in Germany, Vulnerable (A1c, B1+2cd) in Finland, Hungary and Norway (D2), Near Threatened in Estonia and Sweden and Data Deficient in Croatia. Elsewhere there are no conservation measures in place or needed.
175295		distribution	eng	<em>S. radicans </em>occurs from Europe east through Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to Far Eastern Russia, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. It occurs mainly in northern Europe, from Scandinavia south to France and Italy and east to European Russia and the Ukraine.
175295		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. radicans</span> occurs on the margins of slow-flowing rivers, oxbows, lakes, pools and gravel pits in floodplains. It usually grows on gravel or mud and may form dense mono-specific stands, classed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Scirpetum radicantis</span> Hejný in Hejný et Husák. <span style="font-style: italic;">S. radicans</span> may play a major role in natural succession in oxbow lakes, particularly those with gently sloping margins.
175295		population	eng	<em>S. radicans</em> is classed as Endangered in Germany, Vulnerable in Finland, Hungary and Norway, Near Threatened in Estonia and Sweden and Data Deficient in Croatia (although it is not certain that it occurs in the last country). Elsewhere it appears to be widespread with stable populations.
175295		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. radicans</span> is considered to be of conservation concern in at least half of the countries from which it has been reported, however the reason for this is unclear.
175296		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed, however there is a need for research into the taxonomy of the subgenus to clarify its taxonomic status.</p>
175296		distribution	eng	<p><em>R. saniculifolius</em> is a Mediterranean endemic (although material from the United Kingdom could be assigned to this taxon depending on the taxonomy followed), occurring on the north coast of Africa, in Spain (Mediterranean area, Balearic Islands and Canary Islands), Portugal, France (southwest and Parisian basin), Italy (Sardinia, Sicily, northeast and southeast), Greece with Crete, the Aegean Islands and Turkey in Europe. </p>
175296		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. saniculifolius</span> typically occurs floating in temporary pools, as well as artificial water bodies and rivers, sometimes in brackish water.
175296		population	eng	<p>This species is abundant in Portugal, Spain, and Greece. There is no information available on the size of or trends on populations in France and Italy<em></em>, however it appears to not be represented on any national red lists and there are no other reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.</p>
175296		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats <span lang="EN-GB">to this species.</p>
175297		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place but there is a need for information on population trends. The species requires extensive management of its habitat to thrive. <br/></p>
175297		distribution	eng	<p><em>B. planiculmis</em> occurs from western Europe, east through Siberia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Iran and India to the eastern seaboard of Asia from Kamchatka and Sakhalin south to Japan, China, Taiwan, the Philippines and an apparently isolated occurrence in Papua New Guinea. In Europe, it is mainly found in the centre, from France in the west, through Austria, Germany and Switzerland to Bulgaria, Romania and European Russia.</p>
175297		habitat	eng	<em>B. planiculmis</em> most often occurs in seasonally inundated habitats, particularly on mineral-rich alkaline or saline soils (although it is less salt-tolerant than <em>B. maritimus</em>), such as wet grassland, hollows in steppe. In Europe the species occurs nearly exclusively in secondary habitats  (arable land, ditches, wet field depressions, shallow ponds and other  artificial reservoirs). When it occurs in association with permanent water it is less tolerant of extended inundation than other members of the genus and tends to form narrow bands around the margins. It can be a serious weed of seasonally inundated arable land, particularly because it can withstand a number of years without inundation.<br/>Overall, the species is a weak competitor and therefore habitat disturbances have positive effects on population development.
175297		population	eng	There is very little information on population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">B. planiculmis</span> and the overall population trend is unknown. In Central Europe its populations are dependent on agricultural and  landscape management. In intensively managed landscape, e.g. in  Germany, the populations are threatened. On the other hand, in the case  of abandoned or extensively managed arable land the populations may  spread as seen in Slovakia and Czech Republic. The occurrence of populations may also  fluctuate from year to year dependent on the weather.
175297		threats	eng	<p>The species declines if there is intensive landscape and agricultural management.<br/></p>
175298		conservation	eng	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">H. supinum</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in Croatia and Near Threatened on Cyprus and it is protected in the Languedoc-Roussillon Departement of France, otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175298		distribution	eng	<em>H. supinum</em> occurs from Macaronesia, through Europe east to the Middle East, India and Pakistan and throughout much of Africa. In Europe it occurs from the Iberian Peninsula through France and Italy to Hungary, Greece, Bulgaria and Romania.
175298		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. supinum</span> typically occurs on the dried out beds of ponds, pools, lake margins and in rice fields.
175298		population	eng	It is Critically Endangered in Croatia and Near Threatened on Cyprus   and it is protected in the Languedoc-Roussillon Departement of France. Otherwise there is no information available on the size of or trends on populations of <em>H. supinum</em>, however there are no reasons to expect that it is of conservation concern.
175298		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175299		conservation	eng	<em>E. ovata</em> is protected in the French Departments of Champagne-Ardenne, Rhône-Alpes, Picardie and Basse-Normandie, but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.<span class="tooltip">
175299		distribution	eng	<p><em>E. ovata</em> occurs from Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to the Primosrkye region of Far Eastern Russia, China and Japan. It also occurs throughout much of Canada and northern North America. It is widespread in central Europe, from France and Belgium south to Croatia, north to northern European Russia and east to Belarus and the Ukraine. </p>
175299		habitat	eng	<p><em>E. ovata</em> is a characteristic plant of the draw-down zones of large standing water bodies, such as lakes, reservoirs and fish ponds, as well as temporary ponds. It can also be found in artificial wetlands such as arable fields or pastureland, if it is wet enough, for example, inland inundations on plough lands.  </p>
175299		population	eng	<p><em>E. ovata</em> is rare throughout much of its European range, it is classed as Extinct in Estonia, Near Threatened in Hungary and very rare on Malta, however there is no consistent evidence for an overall decline beyond that which might simply be due to loss or degradation of ephemeral wetlands.<br/></p>
175299		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species for the major part of its range. However, in Hungary for example, the species is classed as Near Threatened on the national red list as it is impacted by the disappearance of pioneer wet stands, drainage, and intensive agricultural systems (Király 2007).  </p>
175300		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa </span>is listed      in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources   for    Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. valdes-bermejoi </span>is within the Parque Nacional de Doñana - a well protected area and its site is currently fenced off. The plant has been successfully cultivated from seeds in glasshouses but a reintroduction of plants in 2002 was not successful. No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. valdes-bermejoi </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.   It is furthermore recommended to continue the reintroduction efforts, to monitor the population, and to ensure maintenance of the water regime of the brook of Rocina.<br/><br/>It has been assessed as Critically Endangered A2acde, B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C1+2a(ii)b in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008) and on the Red List of Andalucia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).
175300		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. valdes-bermejoi </span>is endemic to the Parque Nacional de Doñana in southwest Spain (Huelva). Only one population is known that occupies an area of&#160; less than 100 m². It has disappeared from Almonte, the site it was originally described from.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
175300		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This plant grows in a shady grove in peat dust over limestone. The forest where the population occurs is very dense with deciduous trees and tall tussock helophytes with a fringe of cork oaks and vines. It is accompanied by the following taxa: <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus angustifolius, Frangula Alnus, Vitis vinifera, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span><span style="font-style: italic;">atrocinerea, Carex panicea, C. cuprina, C. paniculata </span>ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> lusitanica, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Thelypteris palustris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Samolus valerandi.</span>
175300		population	eng	The species was originally described from Almonte from where it has disappeared now due to degradation of its habitat which was related to the logging of eucalyptus trees and the subsequent silting of its habitat with sandy sediments. <br/><br/>A new population has been discovered in Palacio del Acebrón, in the brook of Rocina but its situation is critical. It has only four stands with 84 aerial stems of which less than 15% develop accessory fruit. There is not enough seed production to maintain the population by sexual reproduction but only by vegetative reproduction.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>
175300		threats	eng	<p><span class="longtext">The hope that the only known population maintains stable <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> is minimal due to the small number of individuals and the low sexually reproductive success. In addition, an alteration of the hydrological regime of the brook of Rocina together with competition with the natural vegetation, could quickly lead this species to extinction. Logging of eucalyptus trees and the subsequent silting of its habitat with sandy sediments led to the extinction of the other known population. </p>
175302		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C. canescens</span> is protected in the Picardie region of France, but otherwise it appears to be widespread and abundant and there are no other conservation measures needed. </p>
175302		distribution	eng	<p><em>C. canescens</em> occurs throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere, as well as Papua New Guinea, and New South Wales, Tasmania and Victoria in Australia, and Argentina, Chile and the Falkland Islands in South America. It is widespread in northern and western North America and occurs from the Azores and Europe east through Siberia, the Caucasus, Mongolia and the Western Himalaya to Kamchatka, Sakhalin and the eastern seaboard of Russia south to the Korean Peninsula, China and Japan. It occurs throughout most of Europe apart from the Mediterranean Basin and the Balkans.</p>
175302		habitat	eng	<em>C. canescens</em> typically occurs in base poor and acidic wetland habitats such as <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs, lowland basin mires, acid bogs and wet, acidic, occasionally sandy heaths.
175302		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. canescens </span>appears to be widespread and abundant in Europe and most populations appear to be stable.
175302		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
175319		conservation	eng	More research is needed.
175319		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single specimen collected by T.N. Hearsey in 1921 from Palghat (now Palakkad). The plains of Palakkad do not have required habitat for this species (fast flowing montane streams) and probably there is locality error. In all possibility, the species was collected from forests around Palakkad.
175319		habitat	eng	No information available on this species. Generally, <span style="font-style: italic;">Onychogomphus</span> sp.of the Western Ghats prefer montane streams.
175319		population	eng	No population level information available for this species.
175319		threats	eng	No information available.
175359		conservation	eng	Although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in two neighbouring forest reserves, it is still threatened by habitat degradation and loss. What is more, it is a cryptic species; thus, further survey work is needed to determine its distribution, population status and natural history.
175359		distribution	eng	This species is known from two forest reserves in the West Usambara Mountains, northeastern Tanzania, and is known to occur&#160;between 1,300–1,900 m asl (Blackburn 2009). Although it is possible that it may occur more widely, it  appears to be restricted to the West Usambara Mountains. These mountains have an estimated extent of less than 320 km² (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 in Blackburn 2009).<br/> <br/> <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
175359		habitat	eng	This species has been found in leaf litter in dense, montane forest (Blackburn 2009). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
175359		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>
175359		threats	eng	The major threat to this frog is continuous loss and degradation of its habitat due primarily to agriculture, grazing, logging and anthropogenic modification of the habitat, which has been taking place over the last 2,000 years. However, it appears that habitat degradation may have escalated in the last 110 years with the arrival of European colonizers (Conte 2004). Agricultural/pastoral and forestry uses of the landscape occur throughout these  mountains and at most elevations (D. Blackburn pers. comm. March 2010).
175360		conservation	eng	Although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in a forest reserve, it is  still threatened by habitat degradation and loss, which is occurring within the reserve. Enforcement of reserve boundaries is needed to deter encroaching agriculture and selective logging. Further survey work is needed to determine this species' distribution, population status, and  natural history.
175360		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from one locality, estimated to be much less than 100 km²<sup></sup>, at 830 m asl in the Nguru South Forest Reserve in the Nguru Mountains, Tanzania (Blackburn 2009). It is possible that the species may be found in other areas of the Eastern Arc Mountains in addition to Nguru; however, this requires verification. It is also possible that it may be circumscribed to the Nguru Mountains (D. Blackburn pers comm. March 2010; B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010). The Nguru Mountains have an estimated extent of 300 km² (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 in Blackburn 2009), although the presence of this species elsewhere in Nguru needs to be confirmed.
175360		habitat	eng	Specimens were found in leaf litter in forest (Blackburn 2009). This species is presumed to breed by direct development. It is not known whether this species is able to tolerate habitat alterations.
175360		population	eng	It is most likely a locally common species, but it is quite possible that it has a restricted range (B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010). Its current population trend is not known.
175360		threats	eng	The Nguru Mountains are threatened by forest loss and degradation in the form of extensive sugar plantation and smallholder sugar and rice cultivation at the base of the mountains. At higher altitudes,  bananas, yams, sweet potatoes, maize and coffee are cultivated. Many farmers also have plots within the Nguru South <st1:place>Forest</st1:place> Reserve, where they&#160; grow cardamom and yams. Cardamom cultivation is now widespread within <st1:place><st1:placename>Nguru</st1:placename> <st1:placename>South</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> Reserve. In addition, there is fire, selective logging and   the removal of the forest shrub and herb  layer for the cultivation of cardamom and yams (Menegon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008; B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
175361		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
175361		distribution	eng	This small species is known from the south-western tip of Mount Nimba in Liberia. The first known specimen was found at an elevation of 567 m asl (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is suspected to occur more widely (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), perhaps in Ivory Coast and Guinea.
175361		habitat	eng	The holotype was found in primary forest, within a nearly dry river bed. The canopy of the forest was almost closed (75% canopy cover) (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
175361		population	eng	This species is currently only known from the holotype and from old museum specimens. It has not been found during recent surveys of nearby forests (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010).
175361		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Logging and mining represent the major threats to the region's remaining forests. No data is available on the threats these activities pose to this species or on the scale of these activities at the frog's known locality (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
175371		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the Ankasa Conservation Area, comprised of the Ankasa Resource Reserve and the Nini-Suhien National Park (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Despite localized encroachment by surrounding communities, these reserves are mostly well-managed (C. Boateng pers. comm. December 2010). The limits to this cryptic frog's range are very poorly-known <span lang="EN-US">(M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010), and more research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and tolerance of&#160; threatening processes.
175371		distribution	eng	This frog is only known from two sites in the Ankasa Reserve in southwestern Ghana, separated by a straight-line distance of approximately 2 km (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, C. Boateng pers. comm. December 2010). It is likely that it occurs between these sites, and may be more widespread, but ongoing surveys of part of the intervening forest have not recorded this highly cryptic species (C. Boatening pers. comm. December 2010, M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). It is known from lowland sites, up to approximately 300 m asl (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010).
175371		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in swampy areas within primary rainforests (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is presumed to breed in water via larval development.
175371		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this cryptic species, which is known from few specimens and has not been recorded since its original description (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
175371		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species' habitat is under threat from forest degradation resulting from logging and the commercial exploitation of Raffia palm, and from agricultural development (<span lang="EN-US">C. Boateng pers. comm. December 2010, <span lang="EN-US">M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). <br/></span></p>
175535		conservation	eng	Site protection is an urgent requirement, and the establishment of a national park on Mount Oku has been recommended, given that the habitats there were identified as one of the most important areas for conservation in Cameroon (Stuart 1986 in Zimkus 2009). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.
175535		distribution	eng	This species is known only from near the summit of Mount Oku (2,800 m asl.), Northwestern Region, Cameroon. It is believed to be an endemic species (Zimkus 2009), given that the high elevation grasslands where it is found do not occur in other highland areas of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> Volcanic Line (B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010). While its current extent of occurrence is not known, it is thought to be less than 100 km² given that its preferred habitat occurs in an area of mixed habitat types.
175535		habitat	eng	This species occurs in highland grasslands near the summit of Mount Oku. It is likely to breed in streams and have larval development (B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010). It is not known whether this species is able to tolerate habitat alterations.
175535		population	eng	<p>  It is considered to be a rare species (B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010). Its current population trend in unknown.<br/></p>
175535		threats	eng	There is ongoing habitat loss near the summit of Mount Oku due to overgrazing by cattle, goats and horses owned by local people. Both natural and human-induced fires are also considered as a threat to the habitat of this species (Zimkus 2009; B. Zimkus pers. comm. March 2010).
175544		conservation	eng	The Itombwe Plateau now has a protected status at the federal level; however, it is not a national park and the status needs practical implementation (B. Evans pers. comm. March 2010). More research is needed on this species' population status and natural history.
175544		distribution	eng	This species is known only from high altitude portions of the Itombwe Plateau, Itombwe Massif, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, between 1,800 and 2,200 m asl (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, B. Evans and E. Greenbaum pers. comm. March 2010). This species does not occur in other parts of the Albertine Rift other  than the Itombwe plateau (B. Evans pers. comm. July 2010). It is estimated to occur in an area about 37.85 km².
175544		habitat	eng	This species was observed in standing water associated with mineral extraction in a region that was surrounded by mature forest and mixed use agricultural areas (Evans<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is thought that the species subsists in spite of the extraction, and not because if its disturbance (B. Evans pers. comm. July 2010). It is presumed to breed in standing water.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
175544		population	eng	<p>This species is locally abundant (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It was last surveyed and seen in 2008 (E. Greenbaum pers. comm. March 2010).<br/></p>
175544		threats	eng	Human activities such as mining, hunting, agriculture, logging and overgrazing by livestock have a major impact on the local biodiversity of the Itombwe Massif (Omari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999 in Evans<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).  Mining is widespread and has a major impact; agriculture (corn, beans, etc.) is also very common and  contributes to extensive habitat fragmentation, and goats are common on the plateau (B. Evans pers. comm. March 2010). A recent (2009) survey on the plateau revealed that the impacts of deforestation and mining activities are devastating (E. Greenbaum pers. comm. July 2010), and an increase in water turbidity due to mineral extraction was observed in a separate field trip (B. Evans pers. comm. July 2010). In addition, there are indications (i.e., snares) that there is bush meat hunting in the area (B. Evans pers. comm. March 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
175559		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175559		distribution	eng	<p><em>P. maculosa</em> is apparently a predominantly European taxon (Atlas Flora Europaea) and is reported from every European country except Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway), although Atlas Flora Europaea shows it as much less common in Scandinavia, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia and in the Mediterranean Basin. </p>
175559		habitat	eng	<p>This species is widespread and abundant, occurring wherever suitable habitat occurs. Some populations may be vast and seed-set considerable. <em>P.&#160;maculosa</em> is a characteristic species of damp muddy habitats, occurring from cattle drinking bays on rivers, through the drawdown zones of large lakes and reservoirs, through damp arable to building sites and damp areas in urban situations. <em>P.&#160;maculosa</em> is a characteristic species of the <em>Bidentalion</em>, a community most typically associated with silt deposits along large lowland rivers.</p>
175559		population	eng	<p><em>P.&#160;maculosa </em>is apparently widespread and abundant throughout its European range. It is extremely abundant in the UK, France, Germany, and the Netherlands.<br/></p>
175559		threats	eng	<p>      There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
175575		conservation	eng	<p><em>R. microphylla</em> is classed as Extinct in Czech Republic and  Endangered in Austria, Switzerland and Sweden but otherwise there are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
175575		distribution	eng	<em>R. microphylla</em> occurs from Europe south to North Africa, and east through the Middle East to the Himalayas. It has apparently been introduced to Yemen, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States.
175575		habitat	eng	<p><em>R. microphylla</em> will grow in a very wide variety of wetlands, including streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, canals, flushes and seasonally inundated hollows in pasture.</p>
175575		population	eng	<p><em>R. microphylla</em> is classed as Extinct in the Czech Republic and Endangered in Austria, Switzerland and Sweden but appears to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its European range.</p>
175575		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
175916		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis sitiaca</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open grassland from grazing.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                  <p>(Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lyrintzis and Papanastasis 1995).</p>
175916		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Orchis </em></a><em>sitiaca </em>is endemic to Crete where it appears in almost all the central and eastern mountains. It can be found up to 1,400 m altitude (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lyrintzis and Papanastasis 1995). Its extent of occurrence is 4,971 km² and the area of occupancy is 112 km².<br/></p>
175916		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Orchis sitiaca</em> grows in grassland, garrigue, meadows like phrygana, scrub and more rarely pine woods. It </a><em></em>prefers dry to moist, slightly acidic to alkaline soils. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from beginning of April until beginning of May (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lyrintzis and Papanastasis 1995).</p>
175916		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis sitiaca</em><span class="species"> is local and rather rare where it occurs with a small and restricted distribution area. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting was ever made and t<span class="species">he trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown. The species can establish considerable colonies but the populations are severely fragmented (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></p>
175916		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis sitiaca</em><span class="species"> has very limited habitat available and it is considered to be potentially threatened due to the difficulties to keep suitable habitats open by grazing. Digging and consumption by animals, tourism and plant collection are also contributing to the decline in numbers (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lyrintzis and Papanastasis 1995).</p>
175917		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnadenia runei</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnigritella runei</span>. All orchids are included under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed as Near Threatened in the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010).
175917		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to northern </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sweden where it is only found in </st1:place></st1:country-region>a few places around Åsele and  Lycksele in the county of Västerbotten. It occurs at five locations, with an EOO of 2,776 km² and an AOO of 48 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010). <br/> </p>
175917		habitat	eng	This orchid grows mainly in unmanaged mesic grassland   (Commission of the European Communities 2009) and on calcareous alpine meadows just above the tree line (ArtDatabanken 2010).
175917		population	eng	The species is rare and the number of mature individuals is estimated to be 4,000 (2,000-7,000). The population is severely fragmented but there is no evidence of significant population changes (ArtDatabanken 2010).
175917		threats	eng	Potential threats are changes of agricultural land use and collection of the plants   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
175918		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The plant is listed as Near Threatened in the national red list of France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias olbia</em>;   <ul><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).
175918		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Serapias olbia</em> occurs in Italy and France, in the coastal departments of Var and Alpes-Maritimes. There are reports from Corsica and Asturias but these probably refer to occasional hybrids or hybrid swarms.&#160;The species can be found up to 200 m asl (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>  <p></p>
175918		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias olbia</em> is found in damp dune slacks, meadows and coastal garrigue. It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em><em></em>prefers dry to damp, often siliceous or sandy and acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and it flowers from March to May (Bournérias<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Prat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>
175918		population	eng	<p><em>Serapias olbia</em> <span class="species">is very local and very rare where it occurs. Population size and trend are unknown (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009<span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175918		threats	eng	<p><em>Serapias olbia</em> <span class="species">is threatened by collection for salep production and for horticulture, infrastructure development, and tourism. <span class="species">The species is also threatened by the digging and consumption by animals.<span class="species"> (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175919		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Regionally Extinct in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Anacamptis collina </em> (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007):</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>        <p><br/></p>
175919		distribution	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis collina </em>is a Mediterranean species, found along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic  Islands as well as south to the coasts of northwestern Africa. In the eastern Mediterranean, the range includes Cyprus and the coasts of the Aegean Sea as well as southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia to the west. The most northern outpost was found in the south of France in Var but the species is now Extinct in France. This species is found from sea level to 1,300 m altitude.  (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175919		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6">Typical habitats of </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis collina</em> include short and poor grassland, open garrigue, edges and clearings in thermophilous woods, dry dune areas and dry meadows often near the coast.</a> It<em></em> prefers dry alkaline soil, often calcareous substrates in full sunlight. The flowering time of the species is from March to April.&#160; (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175919		population	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis collina</em> is rather widespread and appears mainly in very small populations or even as single plants. However, there are strong populations in Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus and Malta where it can be rather abundant. The overall population size is not known. Declines have been noted particularly in coastal populations but the overall population trend is unknown (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175919		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em></em>This species is suffering from reduction in habitat quality and extent, mainly in the coastal populations due to the steadily increasing tourism and many colonies have already been extinguished. However, the habitat is also been destroyed by <span style="background-color: white;">industrial development </span>and land uses (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175920		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Endangered in Croatia (Nikolić and Topi</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">ć</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> 2005), but as Least Concern on the French red list (UICN <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys lutea</em> are:</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175920		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys lutea </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place> and in western <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region> north to <st1:state><st1:place>Brittany</st1:place></st1:state>. This species is European; from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> as far south as <st1:state><st1:place>Sicily</st1:place></st1:state> and the Balkans. It is missing from Central and Atlantic Europe. This species is found from sea level to 1,800 m altitude (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175920		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"> Typical habitats of </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys lutea</em> include guarrigue, maquis, grassland, </a><a name="OLE_LINK6">roadside slopes, </a><a name="OLE_LINK6">light-open pine and oak woods, as well as pesticide-free olive-groves.</a> It <em></em>grows in dry to moist, preferably calcareous soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from January to May, with a peak in March-April. In some years, flowering individuals may be found by the coast as early as December (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). &#160;&#160;<em>&#160;</em></p>
175920		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys lutea </em>is widespread in <st1:place>Europe</st1:place> in disjunct areas. The species is rather local and often abundant where it occurs. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175920		threats	eng	<p><em></em>There are specific threats for the species and its habitats in the region such as urbanisation, construction work, residential building, and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
175921		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis pallens</em>:</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the former coppicing of woods on which the species depends. </li><li>Raise public awareness about deforestation and fire.</li><li>Protection of the population from wild animals such as badgers and wild boar; fencing off vulnerable sites.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                  <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175921		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis pallens</span> is a European-Caucasian species. It has a sub-Mediterranean to sub-oceanic distribution and reaches from the Pyrenees in northern Spain via the south of France to central Germany and further north to southern Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and the Balkans to southern Greece. It occurs in most of the regions of Italy, except Umbria and Apulia, and is very rare in the south of Italy. This plant is also found in the east to the Crimean Peninsula and the Caucasus. The species can be found up to 2,400 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175921		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis</span> <em>pallens</em> grows in mountain meadows, alpine pastures, scrub, woodland edges and open woodland, both deciduous and coniferous. It <em></em><em></em>prefers moist, calcareous to slightly acidic substrates and limestone in Central Europe. This species favours mid-shade and flowers from mid-April to the end of May (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175921		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis pallens </em>is rare and local. The species has a very scattered distribution area and there are many locally abundant populations but most do not exceed 100 specimens. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made <span class="species"><span class="species">but many sites have been declining rapidly especially in central Europe (Bournérias and Prat <span class="species"><span class="species">2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></p>
175921		threats	eng	<p>The populations and their habitats are declining especially in central Europe due to numerous anthropogenic threats including the ceasing of the former coppicing of woods and a decrease in the amount of light reaching the forest floor caused by the natural succession of the woodland. Further threats are posed by lack of rain, late frost, damage by wild animals such as badgers and wild boars, urbanisation and infrastructure expansion, tourism, deforestation, and plant collection (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175922		conservation	eng	<p>  </p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected at national level in Belgium, France and Luxembourg. It is included in the following national red lists: <br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Estonia (Lilleleht 2008), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis coriophora</span></li><li>Critically Endangered (level 1) in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)</li><li>Vulnerable in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and France (UICN <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007)</li></ul>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Anacamptis coriophora</span>;<br/><ul><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows      should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid      drying of the site in spring. </li><li>Protection of the living individuals through      legislation that bans the species from being picked      or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em>      conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations      and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.<br/></li></ul>  (Bournérias      <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)  <p></p>
175922		distribution	eng	<em>Anacamptis coriophora </em>is a central and southern European species, extending its range into western Asia (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It is Regionally Extinct in the Czech Republic, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.
175922		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis coriophora</em> typically occurs in grassy places derived from ‘molinaies’: &#160;boggy meadows and moorland, flushed slopes and woodland edges prone to flooding.</a> It prefers slightly acidic to slightly alkaline soil often clayey-calcareous substrates in full sunlight. This species is found from sea level to 2,500 m altitude. The flowering time is from April to July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175922		population	eng	<em>Anacamptis coriophora</em> is very local and often rare where it occurs<span class="species">. The overall population size is unknown but has a declining trend (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).<span class="species"></span>
175922		threats	eng	<p>  </p>Main threats to this species are posed by habitat conversion such as canalisation, flood prevention measures, building programmes and urban expansion. Further threats are extensive drainage, agricultural use of the habitat including the application of fertilisers, and plant collection (Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).  <p><span class="species"></p>
175923		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Epipactis palustris</em><span class="species"> is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)</li><li>Vulnerable in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and Hungary (Király 2007)</li><li>Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li></ul>  The species is protected in several countries at the national level such as Belgium and Luxembourg, and at the regional level in France. It is protected in Northern Ireland under Schedule 8 of the 1985 Wildlife Order (NI). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis palustris</em>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agricultural uses and extensive use of fertilisers. </li><li>Management of grazing to control the overgrowth of fens by other vigorous vegetation. </li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of fens should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying out of the site in spring. </li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>  Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175923		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis palustris </em>is found in </a>Europe and Asia in the sub-meridional and temperate zones. In Europe, it is found north to Denmark, southern Scandinavia and the Baltic  States and south to Portugal, northern Spain, southern Italy, central Greece, Bulgaria, and Ukraine, and also in Corsica and Sicily. The species is absent from lowlands. It extends its range to Turkey and northern Iran, and eastwards to Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia. The species can be found up to 2,100 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175923		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis palustris</em> is found in damp grassland, seepages, springs, dune slacks and spring-fed rich fens. It&#160;<em></em>prefers damp to wet sites with mostly neutral to alkaline groundwater and relatively short, open vegetation to thrive. This species grows in full sun and flowers from the beginning of June to August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175923		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis palustris</em><span class="species"> is rather widespread and often found in dense colonies which are largely clonal. The species is rare in the boreal and meridional zones (<span class="species">Scandinavia<span class="species">, southern <span class="species">Italy<span class="species">, Balkans<span class="species"><span class="species">). T<span class="species"><span class="species">he population has a decreasing trend. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></span></p>
175923		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis palustris</em><span class="species"> is declining due to drainage, water abstraction, destruction of fens and marshes and eutrophication. The enrichment of ground water by fertiliser has caused suitable fens to become overgrown with vigorous vegetation and the abandonment of grazing or mowing increases this invasion. In addition, the plant is affected by tourism. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175924		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</a> It is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Anacamptis urvilleana</span>. This species is a protected plant in some countries including Belgium, Luxembourg, and some regions in France, Czech Republic and Slovakia. </p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Anacamptis pyramidalis</em>:</p>  <ul><li>Moderate grazing.</li><li>Created man-made habitat such us road side verges.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals of the species through legislation and legal protection which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>            <p><span class="species">(Lang 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Harrap 2009).</span></p>
175924		distribution	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis pyramidalis</em> is native to Europe and the Mediterranean, extending its distribution into North Africa and the Middle  East. The species can be found from Denmark in the north, to southern Sweden and the Baltic States, east to Poland and the Ukraine and south to the Mediterranean, Crimea and Caucasus. It is also found in North  Africa in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, and in the Middle East in Israel, Turkey, northern Iraq and northwest Iran (Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>  <p></p>
175924		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis pyramidalis</em> typically occurs in short grassland, garrigue, phrygana, dense woodland or sporadically in oak and pine forests. It </a>grows in calcareous substrates, usually dry soils in full sun light. This species is found from sea level to 2,000 m altitude. The flowering time of the species takes place from early June to mid-August and sometimes from May. <span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species">Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Delforge 1995, <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Harrap 2009, <span class="species">Lang 2004<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span></p>
175924		population	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis pyramidalis</em> is widespread and sometimes abundant<span class="species">. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made; however, the total population is estimated to be of some thousand individuals.<br/></p>  <p>With respect to population dynamics, this species has a relatively widespread (but patchy) distribution in the Maltese Islands, and, with few exceptions, is usually present in very small numbers (sometimes a handful of individuals or clumps) where found. In Britain the species has been lost from 20% of the historical range and from 31% in Ireland (Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004, Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>
175924		threats	eng	<p><span class="species"><span class="species"><em style="background-color: white;">Anacamptis pyramidalis</em><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span class="species"><span style="background-color: white;">is widespread and sometimes abundant where it occurs. This species is suffering from reduction in habitat quality and extent, mainly due to its garrigue and steppe habitats being considered as ‘wasteland’. However, the habitat has been destroyed by infrastructure development, quarrying, and other land uses. The quality of the habitat is declining due to invasive species, particularly ruderals an</span>d aliens, and through inappropriate landscaping or deforestation for agriculture<span class="species"> (Lang 2004<span class="species">,&#160;<span class="species">Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995).</span></span></span></p>
175925		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is listed as Least Concern in the UK red list (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It is listed as Rare on the Irish national red list (Curtis&#160;and McGough 1988). It is protected in the UK and Ireland. Most of the Irish sites are included in protected areas.<br/> </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Spiranthes romanzoffiana</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Ensure adequate levels of grazing.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Maintenance of a suitable water regime: drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site in spring. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Environment & Heritage Service and National Parks & Wildlife Service 2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).
175925		distribution	eng	<em>Spiranthes romanzoffiana </em>is found in a few sites in Ireland, Northern Ireland and western Scotland but is more widespread in North America. It was known from one location in England where it has not been found for several years. The species can be found up to 240 m asl. (Delforge 1995, Environment & Heritage Service and National Parks & Wildlife Service 2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004). The area of occupancy is estimated at 150 km².
175925		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Spiranthes romanzoffiana</em> grows in open grassland, peat bogs, coastal marshes, bogs and damp meadows close to lakes and rivers. </a>It<em> </em>prefers damp to wet, acidic substrates. This species grows in full sun and it flowers between August and September (Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>
175925		population	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes romanzoffiana</em><span class="species"> is very local and extremely rare. In Britain the species is very scarce; i<span class="species">n Scotland the population is estimated to hold 1,100 individuals.<span class="species"> In Ireland most of the populations are small and scattered but some of the largest produce from 100 to 200 spikes. A continuing decline has been noted in the Irish populations. The species tends to vanish unpredictably and often very rapidly from known localities. On the other hand, new locations are still being found (Delforge 1995, Environment & Heritage Service and National Parks & Wildlife Service 2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</span></p>
175925		threats	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes romanzoffiana</em><span class="species"> is especially threatened by extensive grazing (sheep, cattle and rabbits often graze off the flower spikes) and slugs can be a problem. However, the lack of grazing also poses problems. Climate change is suspected to influence the species and to be responsible for the extinction of southern populations and newly found records in the north. In addition the plant can be affected by changes in management, such as drainage or use of fertilisers. (Delforge 1995, Environment & Heritage Service and National Parks & Wildlife Service 2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004). &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/></p>
175926		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is assessed as Least Concern on the French red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Himantoglossum robertianum</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the grassland from ploughing and other agricultural activities. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from collection.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175926		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Himantoglossum robertianum</em></a> is a Mediterranean species found from Portugal and Morocco to Anatolia, extending on the Atlantic coast to northern Spain.&#160; The species can be found up to 1,700 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175926		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats of <em>Himantoglossum robertianum</em> include short, poor grassland, garrigue, scrub, and open woodland. It <em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline and calcareous substrates and grows in full sunlight to mid-shade; the flowering time is from January to April (Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175926		population	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum robertianum</em><span class="species"> is rather widespread but rare. The population size and <span class="species">trend are unknown. <span class="species">The species is on the increase again in some areas, it expands for example<span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"> <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">north<span class="shorttext">wards <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">into<span class="shorttext"> <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">the<span class="shorttext"> <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">Rhone<span class="hps"> <span class="hps">Valley. <span class="species"><span class="species"> (Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175926		threats	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum robertianum</em><span class="species"> is subject to declines caused by infrastructure expansion, agricultural use of its habitat, climate change as the species is sensitive to extreme temperatures, collection for horticultural purpose, urbanisation and tourism (Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).<span class="species"></span></p>
175927		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<em> Dactylorhiza baumanniana</em> can be protected by:</p>  <ul><li>Protection of the species natural habitats by the supply of enough water and the habitat should be mowed in the autumn. </li><li>The habitat should be kept open and enlarged by clearing.</li><li>Ensure enough <span class="species"><span class="species">water supply to the wet meadows.</span></li><li>Set up nature reserves and establish a centre for nature preservation, to enable long-standing scientific research and population control.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
175927		distribution	eng	This orchid is endemic to the Balkans and is found in Bulgaria and Greece.<em> Dactylorhiza baumanniana</em> is has been recorded throughout the Pindus Mountains and from one site in the <st1:place>Peloponnese</st1:place>. It also occurs in southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Bulgaria and </st1:place></st1:country-region>probably grows in other mountain ranges of the Former Yugoslav Republic of <st1:country-region><st1:place>Macedonia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is found from 1,000 - 1,800 m altitude.   <span class="species"> (Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">). The area of occupancy is estimated at 55 km².</span>
175927		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza baumanniana</em> is typically found in marshy hollows, stream banks and seepages. It <em></em>grows in damp to cool, acid to neutral soils in full sun to semi-shade. The flowering time is from June to July   <span class="species">(Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).  </span></p>
175927		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza baumanniana </em>is quite local and somewhat abundant where it occurs. <span class="species">The <span class="species">population number and size is declining <span class="species">(Delforge 1995<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175927		threats	eng	<p><em><em></em></em><span class="species">The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza baumanniana</em><span class="species"> has been changed for the worst recently through soil drainage, tourist development, reservoir construction, intensive grazing and insufficient water supply to the wet meadows<span class="species"><span class="species"> as well as pollution<span class="species"><span class="species">. Within the genus <em>Dactylorhiza </em>the tendency of hybridization is enormous. Therefore, <em>Dactylorhiza baumanniana </em>is threatened by extensive hybridization with ot<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">her taxa of the genus   <span class="species">(Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">). <br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175928		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic  <a name="OLE_LINK8">(Holub and Procházka 2000) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Endangered on the Carpathian Red List (Witkowski<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003)<br/></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)<br/></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Least Concern in France</a> (UICN France<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Limodorum abortivum</em>;</a><p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from agricultural use and extensive use of fertilisers. </li><li>Appropriate forest management.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Management of cattle pasture.</li><li>Control and management of salep production.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.<br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em>&#160;</em><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175928		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Limodorum abortivum </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species, occurs east to </a>Iran and the Caucasus and reaching Belgium in the north. It grows also in Russia and the mountains of Crimea in Ukraine and can be found up to 2,300 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175928		habitat	eng	<p><em>Limodorum abortivum</em> is found in short grassland, banks, scrub, fringes and thermophilous woodland. It prefers cool and calcareous substrates (rarely siliceous). This species grows mostly in mid-shade and flowers from April to July. (Bournérias and Prat<em>&#160;</em><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175928		population	eng	<p><em>Limodorum abortivum</em><span class="species"> is sometimes rather abundant in the south, but very rare and very local in the north. The overall population size and trend are not known but it usually grows in small groups with low density (<span class="species"><span class="species">Bournérias <em></em>and Prat<em> </em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
175928		threats	eng	<p><em>Limodorum abortivum</em><span class="species"> is affected by land uses changes, intensification of agriculture, extensive use of fertilisers and inappropriate forest management. Additional threats are urbanisation, tourism and plant collection by garden lovers (Bournérias and Prat<em>&#160;</em><span class="species"><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175929		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza cordigera</em>:<br/></p>  <p></p><ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses and trampling.<br/></li><li>Type of habitat management that imitates the traditional agriculture or forestry of the locality of the species.   </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
175929		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza cordigera</em> is endemic to <st1:place>Europe</st1:place> where it is found in the Balkans, extending from northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>, to Bulgaria, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Bosnia</st1:place></st1:country-region>-Herzegovina and northwards to the Carpathians<st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is found from 900-2,400 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175929		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats of <em>Dactylorhiza cordigera</em> include marshy mountain meadows, stream banks, springs and seepages. It <em></em>grows in acid to alkaline soils in full sunlight and flowers in spring and early summer. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p><span class="species"><br/></p>
175929		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza cordigera </em>is quite widespread and somewhat abundant where it occurs. Some populations of the species are estimated to be of dozens of thousands of individuals but the distributional area of these populations is very limited. <span class="species">The trend of the population is decreasing due to many threats.(Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008)<span class="species"><span class="species">.</span></p>
175929		threats	eng	<p><em><em></em></em><span class="species">The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza cordigera</em><span class="species"> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, agricultural use of the swampy meadows, urbanization, trampling, and intensive grazing. The species is also collected for gardening purposes.</span></p>
175930		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </a><a name="OLE_LINK3">This orchid is listed as Vulnerable on the Croatian red list (Nikolić and Topi</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">ć</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> 2005). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys bombyliflora</em> are:</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175930		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys bombyliflora </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place> except for the very easternmost regions. The species occurs up to <st1:place>Rhodes</st1:place> in the east, in western <st1:place>Anatolia</st1:place>, westwards up to the <st1:place>Canary Islands</st1:place> in the <st1:place>Atlantic</st1:place> and is very rare on <st1:place>Lesbos</st1:place> and <st1:place>Samos. </st1:place>This species is found from sea level to 900 m altitude    (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).  </p>
175930		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys bombyliflora</em> can be found in garrigue, roadside slopes, grassland, open forest and woodland, pesticide-free olive groves and moist meadows. It </a><em></em>grows in alkaline dry to very wet, calcareous soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from February to May with a peak time in March-April (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175930		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys bombyliflora </em>is widespread, fairly common in the Mediterranean region and sometimes found in big populations. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175930		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys bombyliflora</em> is threatened by urbanisation, construction work, residential building and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
175931		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></a></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neottia cordata</em>;</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the lowland from ploughing and agricultural use. &#160;</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals and trampling.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175931		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Neottia cordata </em>extends south to the </a>Pyrenees, northern Italy, northern Greece, Crimea and the Caucasus and northern Turkey, and north to Greenland, Iceland and northernmost Scandinavia. The species can be found up to 2,300 m altitude and above 1,000 m in the south of its range (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175931		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neottia cordata</em> is typically found in wet moorland, peat bogs, short pastures, damp woodland, mossy ground under pine trees and often grows with <em>Sphagnum</em> mosses. It <em></em>prefers damp to wet, acidic soils and grows in full sunlight to shade. It flowers from May to July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175931		population	eng	<p><em>Neottia cordata</em><span class="species"> is widespread and common in the boreal zone, less frequent in the subarctic zone, rare and local in southern <span class="species">Europe<span class="species"> where it is only found in the mountains. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">The overall population size and trend are unknown, but local declines have been noted. I<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">n Britain, the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 44.5% and in Ireland, it was 50%.&#160;<span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></span></span></p>
175931		threats	eng	<p><em>Neottia cordata</em><span class="species"> is declining locally due to agricultural use of lowlands, deforestation, habitat loss due to urbanisation, tourism and related infrastructure development. Consumption by animals and trampling are further threats. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175932		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza saccifera</em>:</p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;<span class="species"></li></ul><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span>
175932		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza saccifera</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean and extends from Corsica and Tuscany in the west, eastwards into Turkey. This species can be found up to 2,000 m altitude <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175932		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"><em>Dactylorhiza saccifera</em> it found in cool to marshy and damp woods, spring sides, and marshy hollows. It </a><em></em>grows always on alkaline and rarely in acid soils, in full sunlight to shade. The flowering time is from May to June <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias<span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175932		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK4"><em>Dactylorhiza saccifera</em> is quite widespread and often rare where it occurs. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains unknown <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></span></a></p>
175932		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em></em>The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza saccifera</em> is very diverse but submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanization, tourism, deforestation and plant collection <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias<span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>  <p><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>
175933		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed on several national red lists:<br/><ul><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Endangered in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010)</a><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8">Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8">Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</a></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia </em><em>nigr</em><span style="font-style: italic;">a</span>:</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the meadows and prairies from ploughing, agriculture uses and conversion to arable land. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of appropriate levels of grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>  Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175933		distribution	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia nigra </em>is endemic to Scandinavia, Central and Southeast Europe, extending into the Levant. It has a disjunct distribution from northern Norway (Tromso), central Sweden (Jamtlan), the Alps, to the Pyrenees and the Balkan. The species can be found up to 1,300 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175933		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia nigra</em> is typically found in short grassland, <span class="hps">hayfields, <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">former <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">hay <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">meadows<span title="Click for alternate translations">, and alpine meadows. It prefers dry to moist calcareous and stony substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from June to August. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). </span></span></span></span></p>
175933		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnadenia nigra</span><span class="species"> is local and rather rare. As far as population size is concerned, the <span class="hps">number of mature <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">individuals is <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">estimated <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">at <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">1,750<span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hpsatn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"> in Sweden and no precise counting has ever been made in other locations. T<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing<span class="species">, the <span class="hps">distribution <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">area <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">is <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">heavily <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">fragmented <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">and <span title="Click for alternate translations">the decline appears to be ongoing on many sites due to numerous threats. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hpsatn"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175933		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>nigra</em><span class="species"> is l<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species">ocally declining on many sites due to numerous anthropogenic threats especially ploughing, agricultural uses, conversion of meadows to arable land, e<span class="hps">xcessive and <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">premature <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">grazing<span class="species">. Additional threats are urbanisation, building projects, tourism and plant collection by garden lovers. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).<span class="species"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175934		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect </a><em>Orchis pauciflora</em>; <br/></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, from ploughing, agricultural uses and infrastructure expansion. </li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175934		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis pauciflora</em> is a central and eastern Mediterranean species, found from Corsica in the northwest to Crete in the southeast. The species appears in all the regions of central and southern Italy, but not on the islands. It can be found up to 1,800 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175934		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Orchis pauciflora</em> inhabits short, poor grassland, garrigue, shrubland and open woodland. This plant </a><em></em>prefers dry, very rocky biotopes, often calcareous and stony substrates. It grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from the beginning of March to the beginning of April (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
175934		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis pauciflora</em><span class="species"> is rare and local. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting was ever made, but the<span class="species"> population has a declining trend<span class="species"> (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175934		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis pauciflora<em> </em></em>is rare and local where it occurs but does not face major threats. However, a number of factors lead to population and habitat declines such as the expansion of infrastructure including for tourism (hotels and their facilities), recreational activities, plant collection, and deforestation (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175935		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Corallorhiza trifida</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from changes in agriculture practices and trampling.</li><li>Control the overgrowth of trees and bushes in woodland. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the sites as the species very sensitive to drainage. </li><li>Raise public awareness especially about fires.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics </li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175935		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Corallorhiza trifida </em>has a circumpolar distribution and occurs widely in northern </a>Europe. The species is found north to Greenland, Iceland and northernmost Scandinavia and south to the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Alps, Apennines and Balkans, also Corsica, the Crimea and Caucasus. The species can be found up to 2,300 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175935		habitat	eng	<p><em>Corallorhiza trifida</em> grows in a diverse range of habitats including montane woodland, marshes, bogs, scrubby fens, tundra, wet dune slacks, leaf-litter of beech woods and conifer forests. It<em> </em>prefer damp, acidic, neutral or basic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to shade and the flowering time of the speciesis from May to July. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175935		population	eng	<p><em>Corallorhiza trifida</em><span class="species"> is widespread in boreal <span class="species">Europe<span class="species">, more local in the temperate and sub-Mediterranean zones. The total population size is unknown but the species can form numerous populations with small groups and the population density is often more than 3 individuals/m². &#160;&#160;&#160; <br/></span></p>  <p><span class="species">The trend of the population </span>remains<span class="species"> unknown but declines appear to be ongoing on many sites due to numerous threats. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 46%, for example. <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap <span class="species">2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
175935		threats	eng	<p>T<span class="species">he populations of the species and their habitats are locally declining on many sites due to numerous threats especially changes in agriculture practices, climate change, overgrowth with trees and bushes and wood-cutting. Further threats are drainage, trampling, forest fires, and plant collection. (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap <span class="species">2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175936		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed as Vulnerable on the French red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neotinea lactea</em>:</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses and extensive use of fertilisation; and from urbanisation. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).
175936		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Neotinea lactea</em> has a fragmented distribution from the central to the east Mediterranean region. It occurs in the </a>Pyrenees through to the south of France and Corsica to Italy including Sardinia and Sicily, through Croatia, Albania and Greece including the Aegean islands and Crete. The species can be found up to 1,800 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
175936		habitat	eng	<p> Typical habitats for <em>Neotinea lactea</em> are short, poor grassland, open garrigue, scrub, olive groves, phrygana and open woodland. It<em> </em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline and often calcareous soil. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from February to April (Bournérias and Prat<em></em><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175936		population	eng	<p><em>Neotinea lactea</em><span class="species"> is local with a scattered distribution. The overall population size and trend are <span class="species"><span class="species">unknown but locally declines have been noted (Bournérias and Prat<em></em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></span></span></p>
175936		threats	eng	<p><em>Neotinea lactea</em><span class="species"> is locally declining in particular in coastal regions due to urbanisation and tourism construction projects. Also contributing to habitat degradation are agricultural land use and fertilization. This orchid is also affected by collection by horticulturists and digging and consumption by animals (Bournérias and Prat<em></em><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></p>
175937		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Dactylorhiza viridis</em> is a protected plant in some countries including Belgium, Luxembourg, Britain and in some regions of France.&#160;<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Denmark (NERI 2007)<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Estonia (Lilleleht 2008)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Hungary (Király 2007), and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)<br/></li></ul>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza viridis</em>;<br/>    <ul><li>An appropriate level of grazing of favoured grassland.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows should be avoided.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation and legal protection which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004).
175937		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Dactylorhiza viridis </em>has a circumpolar distribution and is found in Europe, Asia and North America. This species is restricted to the temperate regions but extends north to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, northernmost Scandinavia and Alaska, it ranges furthest south to the mountains in Spain, Italy, Greece, Crimea and Caucasus. The Frog Orchid is widely distributed in Britain and Ireland. This species can be found up to 2,900 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004).</p>  <p></p>
175937		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza viridis</em> grows in well-drained short grassland, fens, mountain pastures, woodland fringes, slopes of ancient earthworks, abandoned quarries, lime pits, <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>rocky ledges, road verges, coastal grassland and open woodland. It is also found in damp or wet permanent pastures and meadows. It occurs on acidic or alkaline, dry to dump soils, in full sunlight to semi-shade. The flowering takes place from early June to early August (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004).</p>
175937		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza viridis</em> is not widespread and rather rare. <span class="species">The population size is declining&#160; (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004).</p>
175937		threats	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza viridis</em> <span class="species">has declined throughout its range especially where the ploughing-up of old pastures on neutral or chalky boulder-clay soils takes place and the development of scrub and rank vegetation on short grassland. The habitat of the species is also submitted to numerous threats including grazing, drainage, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanisation and plant collection (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004).</p>
175938		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em></em></a>This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Endangered in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and Lithuania (category 2; Rašomavičius 2007)</li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li></ul>The following actions are recommended to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">D.</span><em> traunsteineri</em>:<br/>  <ul><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans collection of the species.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005<span class="species">).</span>
175938		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza </em><em>traunsteineri</em> is found north in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and Ireland, west in the French Pyrenees, throughout the central and eastern Alps and extending to West Siberia in Russia. This species can be found from 250 m to 2,000 m altitude <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
175938		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"><em>Dactylorhiza </em><em>traunsteineri</em> is quite specialized on alkaline alpine peatbogs, wet meadows and marshy hollows. It </a><em></em><em></em>grows on marshy alkaline soils, in full sunlight to semi-shade. The flowering takes place from June to July <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
175938		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK4">  </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK4"><em>Dactylorhiza </em><em>traunsteineri</em> is very local and rare where it occurs due to habitat disappearance. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains unknown but is suspected to be declining <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></a></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK4"><span class="species"></span></a></p>
175938		threats	eng	<p>The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza traunsteineri</em> is declining due to drainage, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanisation, and tourism. Plant collection is also a threat. <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
175939		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<a name="OLE_LINK8"><br/><br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis </em><em>troodi</em></a>;   <ul><li>Protection of the woodland      habitat from destruction, road construction, clearance of old trees and      unsuitable woodland management. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to      protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control of grazing by wild      animals.</li><li>Establish nature reserves      for the most important habitats</li><li>Sympathetic management of      isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through      legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><em>Ex situ </em>conservation: artificial      propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance      of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size      and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
175939		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Epipactis troodi</em> is endemic to Crete, Cyprus and Turkey. In Cyprus it is found in the Troödos Mountains and in Asiatic Turkey in the Amanus Mountains. </a>The species can be found from 800 to 2,100 m asl. (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995). The area of occupancy is 17 km².<br/></p>
175939		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis troodi</em> grows mostly in pine woodland and occasionally in deciduous woods. It<em></em> prefers dry to moist, acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to shade and the flowering time is from June to July. (Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
175939		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis troodi</em> <span class="species">is rare and local with small and isolated populations over a scattered distribution in two locations in Cyprus and Crete. T<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing (Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></span></p>
175939		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>troodi</em> <span class="species">is threatened by habitat loss due to forest clearance, the removal of old trees and construction of forest roads. Unsuitable woodland management<span class="species"> and grazing also threaten the species. In addition, urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities could cause a decline (Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</span></p>
175940		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The plant is listed as Near Threatened in the national red list of France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias parviflora</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing and other agricultural uses. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Introduction of legislation to ban collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175940		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Serapias parviflora </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species found in Europe and North Africa. The species ranges east to </a>Cyprus and the Aegean Islands, north to France, west to the Iberian Peninsula and to the Canary Islands. It is also found on many of the Mediterranean islands, e.g. Crete, Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic  Islands. In the United Kingdom, the species is known from a single site in southeast Cornwall and is only dubiously native. (Bournérias and Prat<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175940		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias parviflora</em> is found in poor grassland, garrigue, scrub, damp coastal meadows, olive groves and open woodland.<em> </em>It prefers dry to damp, alkaline to slightly acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and it flowers from March to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175940		population	eng	<p><em>Serapias parviflora</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rather rare where it occurs. In the United Kingdom no more than ten plants have been counted and in France the population does not exceed 250 individuals. T<span class="species">he overall population trend <span class="species">is unknown but ongoing declines have been noted in many sites. (Bournérias and Prat <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>
175940		threats	eng	<p><em>Serapias parviflora</em><span class="species"> is locally declining due to collection for salep production or horticulture, digging and consumption by animals, overgrazing, ploughing and other agricultural uses of the habitat. It is also affected by urbanisation, tourism and associated infrastructure development (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175941		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on  International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  (CITES). It is listed as Least Concern on the UK national red list (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).<br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia</em><em> borealis</em>:</a><br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the meadows from  ploughing, agricultural uses and conversion to arable land. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).
175941		distribution	eng	<a style="font-style: italic;" name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnadenia borealis</span> is a European endemic orchid, found in the </a>United   Kingdom and Germany. The species can occur up to 2,800 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
175941		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia</em><em> borealis</em> grows in short grassland, fens, meadows, flushed slopes, dune slacks and scrub. It prefers dry to wet and calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from May to August. (Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>
175941		population	eng	<em>Gymnadenia</em><em> borealis</em><span class="species"> is rather rare and very local. The population size in the United Kingdom <span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>is about 12 relatively small populations of 50-100 flowering plants: one site found in Ashdown, three sites on the South Downs, one site in Shropshire and one site in Cumbria. The species is scattered through Scotland and Northern Ireland. No precise population numbers are available for Germany. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing rapidly due to numerous threats. <span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap <span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species">2009, Lang 2004)<br/><br/><br/><p><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="species"></span></span></span></span></span></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
175941		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia</em><em> borealis</em><span class="species"> is<span class="species"><span class="species"> poorly known and has only very recently been brought to the attention of botanists. However, it is known that the species and its habitats are declining due to the overgrazing of upland grassland. Ploughing, agricultural use, urbanisation and tourism are furthermore affecting this species. (Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">2009, Lang 2004).</span></span></span></p>
175942		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Dactylorhiza maculata</em> is a </a>protected plant in some countries such as Belgium and Luxembourg.</p><p>The following actions are recommended to protect Dactylorhiza maculata;<br/></p><ul><li>Mowing the site at least once a year to reduce the abundance of grasses and remove the old biomass before the next season.</li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site in spring.</li><li>Fencing the sites may help if the springs and peat bogs are damaged.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation and legal protection which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul><p>(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat 2005)<br/></p>  <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></span>
175942		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza maculata</em> is not well known due to confusion within the group. Eastern and Central European populations assigned to this species may be hybrids or introgressed forms with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. fuchsii</span>.</p><p> The species is found throughout temperate and boreal Eurosiberia. This species is found up to 2,300 m altitude <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">)</span></p>
175942		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza maculata</em> it grows in slightly improved grassland, margins and clearings, and peatbogs, always with <em>Molinea</em> grass and on marshes. It<em></em> grows on acid, cool to swampy soils in full sunlight to shade. The flowering time takes place from May to July <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175942		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK4"><em>Dactylorhiza maculata</em> is widespread and sometimes abundant where it occurs. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains unknown <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></span></a></p>
175942		threats	eng	<p><em></em> The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza maculata</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanization, tourism, trampling and plant collection <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175943		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on  International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  (CITES). <br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia </em><span style="font-style: italic;">lithopolitanica</span> (Delforge 1995):</a><br/><ul><li>Protection of the grassland from recreational activities and human traffic. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of grazing appropriate to the species. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>
175943		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Gymnadenia lithopolitanica</em> occurs in the </a>Alps from Kamnik-Savinja in northern Slovenia to Koralpe and Karawanken in Austria. The species can be found from 1,500 to 2,000 m altitude (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
175943		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>lithopolitanica</em> can be found only in short, calcareous alpine grassland. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from mid-June to mid-August (Delforge 1995).</p>
175943		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>lithopolitanica</em><span class="species"> is very rare and local, known from a few sites and forms few groups with low density. The population size is unknown and the trend of the population is decreasing due to numerous threats (Delforge 1995).</p>
175943		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia</em><em> lithopolitanica</em><span class="species"> <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">is affected by <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">recreational activities and l<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">ike all grassland orchids this species requires a specific level of grazing; too little and the species suffers from invasion by scrub and competition and too much and the diversity of the species is lost (Delforge 1995).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175944		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In the red list of the United Kingdom, the species is listed as Data Deficient (Cheffings and Farrell 2005). It occurs in the Natura 2000 site Morecambe Bay.<br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis dunensis</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland, from grazing, deforestation and human interference. &#160;</li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals especially rabbits.</li><li>Management of grazing to ensure it is neither too light nor too heavy.</li><li>Ensure sufficient sunlight to the forest floor.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections. <br/></li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).
175944		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Epipactis dunensis</em> is endemic to Britain, being found along the north coast of </a>England with sites in Lancashire and Cumbria, and occurrences in Wales and Scotland. The species can be found up to 100 m asl. (Delforge 1995,&#160; Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004). The area of occupancy is 37 km².</p><p><br/></p>
175944		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis dunensis</em> is found on coastal dune slacks, scrub and woodland and it prefers moist and alkaline substrates. The species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and it flowers from the beginning of June to mid-August. (Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004). This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 2190 "Humid dune slacks".<br/></p>
175944		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis dunensis</em><span class="species"> is very rare and local with declining populations. In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 8%. The populations are confined to a small number of sites but some are large, with over 1,000 flowering individuals. (Delforge 1995,&#160; Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>
175944		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis dunensis</em><span class="species"> is declining on many sites due to inadequate levels of grazing. If grazing is too intense the spikes are all nipped off and the plants fail to set seed. If the grazing is too light, scrub invades the habitat and may eventually shade out this orchid. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>In addition it is threatened by deforestation and tourism. (Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>
175945		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis </em><em>veratrifolia</em></a>; </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from      human activities. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to      protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Sympathetic management of      isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation      which bans collection of the species.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: artificial      propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance      of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and      study their dynamics. </li></ul>  <p>(Delforge 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ralf 2009, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175945		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis veratrifolia</em> is found in Cyprus but it extends into Asia (Russia, China, India), the Middle East and parts of Africa. </a>The species can be found from 200 to 2,500 m asl (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Delforge 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). The area of occupancy in Cyprus is 27 km² and the extent of occurrence is 1,003 km².<br/></p>
175945		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis veratrifolia</em> is found around seepages and springs on rocky cliffs and marshy depressions in the mountains. It <em></em>prefers wet sites often on calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from January to August (Delforge 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ralf 2009, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175945		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Epipactis veratrifolia </em>is very local<em> </em>and the populations are small; it is found in two locations in Cyprus. The population is decreasing. (Delforge 1995, Ralf 2009, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/></p>  <p></p>
175945		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>veratrifolia<em> </em></em>is<span class="species"> threatened by recreational activities such as trampling by tourists, and by consumption by wild animals. Intrinsic factors such as its restricted range are also not favourable for the conservation of this species. <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ralf 2009, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).&#160;</span></p>
175946		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included in several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Extinct in Hungary (Király 2007)<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Lithuania (level 2 - Rašomavičius 2007), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and Switzerland (Moser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002)</li><li>Rare in Estonia (Lilleleht 2008)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Malaxis monophyllos</em>:</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the damp meadows from agricultural use including fertilisaters. </li><li>Appropriate forest management.</li><li>Management of cattle pasture.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175946		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Malaxis monophyllos</em> is a boreal Holarctic species. It covers </a>Europe, a considerable part of Asia and northwest North America. In Europe, it occurs from Finland and Norway to northern  Italy and the Balkan Peninsula; it is absent from Britain and Ireland. The species can be found up to 1,900 m altitude (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175946		habitat	eng	<p><em>Malaxis monophyllos</em> is found in damp meadows, woodland margins, flushed slopes, bogs in conifer and deciduous forests, peat bogs and fens.<em> </em>It likes<em> </em>damp to wet, neutral or slightly alkaline soils and grows in mid-shade and more often in moderate humidity conditions. The flowering time of the species is from June to August (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175946		population	eng	<p><em>Malaxis monophyllos</em><span class="species"> is relatively widespread and rather rare. The species grows more often as single individuals or in small groups, and large aggregations are very rare. Most populations are estimated to host 200 individuals within 100 m²&#160;<sup></sup>as the species is a weak competitor. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing and may disappear very quickly. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175946		threats	eng	<p><em>Malaxis monophyllos</em><span class="species"> is locally declining on many sites due to land use changes, cattle pasture, intensification of agriculture, extensive use of fertilisers which increases the spread of competitive plants, and inappropriate forest management. Further threats are posed by urbanisation, tourism, in particular winter sport activities in the mountains, and plant collection by garden lovers (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175947		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Goodyera repens</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from clearance and inappropriate management. </li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175947		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Goodyera repens </em>has a circumpolar distribution and occurs throughout </a>Europe, northern Asia and northern North America. In Europe it is found north to Scandinavia and south to the Pyrenees, Alps, northern Apennines in Italy, northern Greece, Crimea and the Caucasus. The species can be found up to 2,000 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175947		habitat	eng	<p><em>Goodyera repens</em> is found in small shrub, understorey grasses, conifer forests, growing particularly well in the deep leaf-litter and moss under Scots Pine and more rarely broad-leaved woodland. It&#160;<em></em>prefers dry to damp, acidic to slightly alkaline substrates. This species grows in mid-shade to shade and flowers from June to mid-September (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175947		population	eng	<p><em>Goodyera repens</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rather rare. The population are normally represented by a small number of individuals and it may form significant aggregations to 300 shoots. The overall trend of the population remains unknown but the species is declining locally in many sites due to numerous threats.&#160;<span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap<span class="species"> 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). </span></span></span></p>
175947		threats	eng	<p>Local declines are caused by<span class="species"> forest clearance, drought, woodland management and especially an increase in the amount of light reaching the forest floor (this species needs shade). In addition, human intrusion due to urbanisation, infrastructure expansion, tourism and plant collection all contribute to a continuing decline (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap<span class="species"> 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175948		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis brancifortii</em>:</a><br/></p>  <ul><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                <p>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175948		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis brancifortii </em>is endemic to the eastern half of Sardinia and northern Sicily. The species is mainly limited to these Mediterranean islands but is also known from an isolated location in Calabria. It can be found from 200 to 1,300 m altitude (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175948		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis brancifortii</em> typically occurs in sparse grassland, maquis, open garrigue, scrub and open woodland. It<em></em> prefers dry, stony and mostly calcareous substrates. The species can be found in the highly eroded surfaces in karst and in open fissures where some humus has accumulated. This species favours full sunlight to mid-shade and the flowering time takes place from April to June (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175948		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis brancifortii </em>is local and very rare where it occurs. Populations with a large number of specimens (>100) are rare. At the moment, the populations seems to be stable and not endangered; this is due to the fact that locations close to the coasts which could be damaged by tourism are rare and its biotopes can only be affected by grazing goats (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175948		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis brancifortii </em>is local and very rare where it occurs but does not face any major threats. Its localities are largely inaccessible apart from goats but grazing is beneficial as it protects against overgrowth (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175949		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included in the national red list of Croatia as Near Threatened (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and classed as Least Concern on the French national red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neotinea maculata</em>;</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the pastures from improvement, trampling and overgrazing. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Moderate grazing.</li><li>Ensure enough supply of sun light to the forest floor.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175949		distribution	eng	<p><em>Neotinea maculata</em> is found in the Mediterranean basin from Portugal and Spain east to Cyprus, ranges north to southwest and southern France, former Yugoslavia, and Greece. It is present on most of the Mediterranean islands, the Canary Islands, Madeira, and extends into North Africa and the Levant. The species occurs up to 2,000 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175949		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neotinea maculata</em> is typically found in short, poor grassland, garrigue, scrub and often conifer woodland. It<em> </em>prefers dry to moist, slightly acidic to slightly alkaline, often calcareous and limestone soils. This species grows in full sunlight to shade and flowers from March to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175949		population	eng	<p><em>Neotinea maculata</em><span class="species"> is rather widespread and rather rare. <span class="species">T<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing and the declines appear to be ongoing on many sites<span class="species">. For example, in Ireland the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 46% of the historical range and it is extinct in Britain, previously being known only from the Isle of Man. <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></p>
175949		threats	eng	<p><em>Neotinea maculata</em><span class="species"> is locally declining on many sites and extinct already in some areas due to trampling, erosion, improvement of pastures and overgrazing, urbanisation, tourism and infrastructure expansion (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175950		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)</li><li>Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Hungary (Király 2007)</li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Germany&#160; (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Traunsteinera globosa</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the mountain edges and low altitude marshes, from ploughing, agriculture uses and intensive human traffic. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites.</li><li>Moderate grazing and mowing.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175950		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Traunsteinera globosa </em>has a European and Asian distribution. It occurs in the </a>Pyrenees, Massif Central, Vosges, Alps and Carpathians, north to southern Poland, south to the Apennines, possibly to Abruzzo in Italy, and east to Ukraine and Crimea. The species can be found between 1,000 and 2,700 m asl (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175950		habitat	eng	<p><em>Traunsteinera globosa</em> is found in short, poor grassland, mountain pastures, montane marshes, alpine and subalpine meadows.<em> </em>It<em> </em>prefers dry to damp, slightly acidic to alkaline, often calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and it flowers from May to August (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175950		population	eng	<p><em>Traunsteinera globosa</em><span class="species"> is a rare species. Size and<span class="species"> trend of the population remain<span class="species"> unknown (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175950		threats	eng	<p><em>Traunsteinera globosa</em><span class="species"> is threatened by overgrazing, ploughing of meadows, erosion<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>, urbanisation, and tourism (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175952		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included as Vulnerable in the national red lists of France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Spain (D2 - Moreno 2008).<br/></p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias nurrica</em>; </p>  <ul><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Introduction of legislation to ban collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                <p> (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175952		distribution	eng	<p><em>Serapias nurrica </em>is a central-west Mediterranean species. It occurs in Sardinia, southern Corsica, northwest Minorca and a few locations in Sicily and Calabria in Italy. The species can be found up to 200 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175952		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias nurrica </em>prefers dry acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from April to June. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175952		population	eng	<p><em>Serapias nurrica </em><span class="species">is rather local and very rare where it occurs. Population size and trend are unknown. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175952		threats	eng	<p><em>Serapias nurrica </em><span class="species">is <span class="species">threatened by the collection of the species for salep or horticulture, and digging and consumption by animals. Additional threats are posed by urbanisation, tourism, and associated infrastructure development. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175953		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis italica</em>;</a> <br/>    <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open grassland and woodland from infrastructure expansion and fires. </li><li>Monitor the grazing to stop the overtaking of small populations and to limit the competition with other species.</li><li>Fencing off vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                  <p>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Rossi 2002)</p>
175953		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis italica </em>is a Mediterranean species that extends in the north from Dalmatia, to central Italy, northern Portugal, into North Africa and Turkey. It is widespread throughout central and southern Italy and in Sicily; but is absent from Sardinia and from northern Italy with the exception of a few old and unconfirmed records from Lombardy. The species can be found up to 1,300 m altitude (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
175953		habitat	eng	<p><em></em></p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis italica </span>grows in short, poor grassland, open garrigue, scrub, woodland edges and open woodland. It prefers alkaline to acidic, dry to moist soils, mostly calcareous and stony substrates. This species favours full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from beginning of March to mid-May (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175953		population	eng	<p>  </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis italica</span> is rather local but sometimes abundant. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made; however, there are many strong and large populations. The trend of the population remains unknown but many sites have been declining everywhere (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).<br/><p><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>
175953		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Orchis italica </em>is declining due to numerous anthropogenic threats including urbanisation, building projects, expansion of infrastructure, overgrazing, deforestation, tourism and plant collection (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Rossi 2002).</p>  <p></p>
175954		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias vomeracea</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing and other agricultural uses. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175954		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Serapias vomeracea </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. The species is found north to Charente-Maritime in </a>France and the foothills of the Alps in Switzerland and east to Cyprus. It extends its range into North Africa and west Caucasus. The species occurs up to 1,200 m asl (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175954		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias vomeracea</em> is found in short, poor grassland, garrigue, scrub, damp meadows, olive groves and open woodland. It prefers dry to damp, alkaline to slightly acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and it flowers from March to June. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175954		population	eng	<p><em>Serapias vomeracea</em><span class="species"> is rather widespread and sometimes abundant where it occurs. T<span class="species">he trend and size of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175954		threats	eng	<p><em>Serapias vomeracea</em><span class="species"> is threatened by collection for salep production and horticulture, digging and consumption by animals, overgrazing, ploughing and other agricultural uses of the habitats. In addition it is affected by urbanisation, tourism and associated infrastructure development. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175955		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Vulnerable in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), but as Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). <br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Chamorchis alpina</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from <span class="hps">ski lifts, new<span class="shorttext"> <span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations">ski paths, recreational activities and <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations">mountain <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span title="Click for alternate translations">sports by fencing the vulnerable sites.</span></span></span></span></li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175955		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Chamorchis alpina</em> is a European orchid of the boreal-alpine zone</a>, endemic to subarctic and subalpine Europe, Carpathians and Scandinavian Alps, northwards reaching almost the Kola Peninsula. The species can be found from 2,000 to 2,700 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175955		habitat	eng	<p><em>Chamorchis alpina</em> is typically found in short exposed alpine grassland and alpine meadows. It<em> </em>prefers dry, calcareous substrates in full sun light. The flowering time of the species takes place from July to August. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175955		population	eng	<p><em>Chamorchis alpina</em><span class="species"> is very local but often abundant within its sites. Usually this species grows in small groups and forms aggregations having several hundred individuals. T<span class="species">he trend of the populations remains<span class="species"> unknown. (Bournérias&#160;<em></em>and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
175955		threats	eng	<p><em></em><span class="species">The populations and the biotopes of <em>Chamorchis alpina</em><span class="species"> <span class="species">are locally under numerous anthropogenic threats especially from tourism and the <span class="hps">establishment<span class="shorttext"> <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">of<span class="shorttext"> <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">ski lifts, new<span class="shorttext"> <span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">ski paths and&#160; recreational activities and <span class="species"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">mountain <span class="species"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps">sports. Plant collection poses a further threat. (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><span class="species"><span class="hps"><span class="shorttext"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="shorttext"><span title="Click for alternate translations"><span class="hps"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). &#160;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175956		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Recommended conservation measures for</a> this species are:</p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175956		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys tenthredinifera </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place>, where it is fairly common in the western and central parts and decreases towards the east. The species is very rare in several Aegean islands and in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cyprus it</st1:place></st1:country-region> is known from only one locality. This species is found from sea level to 1,800 m altitude. (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175956		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys tenthredinifera</em> can be found in guarrigue, grassland, open pine woods, as well as old olive-groves, and on </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"> roadside verges</a><a name="OLE_LINK6">.</a> It <em></em>grows in dry to cool, calcareous to slightly acid soils in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from February to May, with a distinct peak from mid-March to mid-April (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). &#160;&#160;<em>&#160;</em></p>
175956		population	eng	<p>    </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys tenthredinifera </span>is quite widespread in Europe and fairly rare towards the east. The trend of the population remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).  <p></p>
175956		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys tenthredinifera </em>suffers from habitat loss due to urbanisation, construction work, residential building, and from plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
175957		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </a><a name="OLE_LINK3">This orchid is listed as Critically Endangered on the Bulgarian red list (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Vulnerable on the Croatian red list (Nikolić and Topi</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">ć</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> 2005), but Least Concern on the French red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys insectifera</em> are:</a></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a></p><ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175957		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys insectifera </em>is a central European species, stretching from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the mountains of northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> east to <st1:place><st1:city>the Apennines</st1:city>, <st1:country-region>Romania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In the northeast there are outliers in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Norway</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the <st1:city><st1:place>Moscow</st1:place></st1:city> area. <em>Ophrys insectifera </em>is the most northern of the <em>Ophrys</em> species. It is found from sea level to 1,700 m altitude  (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175957		habitat	eng	<p><em>Ophrys insectifera</em> can typically be found in fens, grassland, verges, open pine woods and wooded meadows, rarely on peat-bogs. This orchid<em></em> grows in dry to wet, calcareous to neutral soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from May to July (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175957		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys insectifera </em>is widespread in the central European region but sometimes quite rare. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). It is locally declining, for example, in the United Kingdom.<br/></p>
175957		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys insectifera</em> <em></em>is affected by urbanisation, construction work and residential building (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
175958		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Anacamptis </em><a name="OLE_LINK8"><em>boryi</em></a> (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007):  <ul><li>Improve the management of the habitat</li><li>Moderate grazing and control of shrub encroachment</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics<br/></li></ul>
175958		distribution	eng	<em>Anacamptis boryi </em>is endemic to southern Greece. The species has a disjunct range in the mountains of Crete, Peloponnese, Phocide, Skiathos (Sporades), Eubee, and Cyclades. This species is found from sea level to 1,300 m altitude.  (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/>The extent of occurrence is 6,255 km² and the area of occupancy is 2,873 km².
175958		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis boryi</em> is typically found in short grassland, garrigue, maquis and open woodland.</a> <em>Anacamptis boryi</em> grows in moist to damp, calcareous or schistose soils in full sunlight to mid-shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from April to May (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175958		population	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis </em><span style="font-style: italic;">boryi</span> is local and rather rare where it occurs<span class="species">. The overall number of individuals is not known; however, the distribution area is potentially small which threatens the species (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175958		threats	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis boryi</em> <span class="species">is local and rather rare. The small populations occurring at outposts are extremely vulnerable as they are sensitive to numerous anthropogenic threats including decline of habitat quality especially <span class="species">through<span class="species"> human interference. The large populations are threatened by habitat changes, tourism, plant collection and by the tendency to give up pastoral activities which leads to vegetation succession on the existing meadows (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></p>
175959		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed as Near Threatened on the French national red list (UICN <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gennaria diphylla</em>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from inappropriate management.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias&#160;and Prat<em> </em><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175959		distribution	eng	<p><em>Gennaria diphylla</em> is a Mediterranean Atlantic species, native to Macaronesia and the western Mediterranean where it extends to western Italy. The species is recorded from Madeira and Porto Santo and the Canaries but absent from Fuerteventura, and Minorca in the Balearics. The species can be found up to 1,000 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002). The area of occupancy is suspected to be below 500 km².<br/></p>
175959		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats where <em>Gennaria diphylla</em> is found include rock fissures, garrigue, maquis, pine woods and laurel forests. <em>Gennaria diphylla</em><em> </em>prefers acidic to slightly alkaline substrates. This species grows in mid-shade and flowers from January to April. (Bournérias<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175959		population	eng	<p><em>Gennaria diphylla</em><span class="species"> is very local and rather rare in the centre and west of its range and extremely rare in <span class="species">Sardinia<span class="species"> and <span class="species">Corsica<span class="species">. As far as population size is concerned, no precise count was ever made. T<span class="species">he trend of the populations is decreasing due to numerous threats and the population are very fragmented. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175959		threats	eng	<p>T<span class="species">he populations and biotopes of this species are declining on many sites due to numerous anthropogenic threats especially the progressive property development along the coast, construction projects, new infrastructure, digging and consumption by animals and inappropriate woodland management. Further threats are tourism and coastal activities. (Bournérias and Prat<em>&#160;</em><span class="species"><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175960		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Serapias </em><span style="font-style: italic;">neglecta </span>is listed as Near Threatened on the national red list of France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias </em><em>neglecta</em>:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially wet meadows, from ploughing and other agricultural uses. </li><li>Moderate use of herbicides and pesticides.</li><li>Fence vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>The species tolerates extensive grazing.<br/></li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Introduction of legislation to ban collection of the species.<br/></li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                    <p><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175960		distribution	eng	<p><em>Serapias neglecta </em>is a Mediterranean species which is found in coastal zones of the Var in France to Elba in Italy. The species also occurs in Greece and is found in Croatia. The species can be found up to 600 m asl (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Flora Croatica Database 2004, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175960		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias neglecta</em> is found in dry to moderately wet grassland, damp meadows, garrigue, scrub, olive groves and open woodland.<em> </em>It<em> </em>prefers moist to damp, alkaline to slightly acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and it flowers from March to June <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175960		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Serapias </em></a><em>neglecta</em><span class="species"> is local and rather rare where it occurs with small populations. The trend of the populations is decreasing due to numerous treats.<span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175960		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Serapias </em><span style="font-style: italic;">neglecta</span><span class="species"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is locally declining due to the collection of the species for salep production or horticulture, digging and consumption by animals, ploughing and other agricultural uses of the habitats and extensive use of herbicides and pesticides. <span class="species">Additional threats are posed by urbanisation, tourism and infrastructure development.<span class="species"> <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>  <p><span class="species"></p>
175961		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected in <span class="species">Liguria. <br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis patens</em>;</a> <br/></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat and the few locations by fencing. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>            <p>(Conti <em>et al.</em> 1992, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002)</p>
175961		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis patens</span> has a very disjunct distribution consisting of two completely distant and isolated locations: one in the Atlas  Mountains in northern Africa (Algeria and Tunisia), and one in Liguria in Italy (Savona, Genoa, La Spezia). The species has never been reported between these two separated locations. It can be found up to 1,600 m altitude in the Atlas and up to 600 m in Liguria. The geographical range of Liguria is about 5,420 km² and therefore, the area of occupancy is assumed to be less than 5,000 km² (Conti <em>et al.</em> 1992, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175961		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis </span><em>patens</em> grows in short grassland, slopes, olive groves, woodland edges and open woodland with chestnut, oak or cedar trees. It <em></em><em></em>prefers dry to moist, slightly acidic or alkaline substrates and favours full sun to mid-shade. The flowering time is from end of April to mid-June (Conti <em>et al.</em> 1992, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175961		population	eng	<p>  </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis patens </span>is rare and local, found in three locations in Liguria. The species is found only in low numbers and the trend of the population remains unknown (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175961		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis patens </em>is strongly threatened due to its narrow range and fe<span style="background-color: white;">w locations. Further threats are posed by tourism activities and plant collection </span>(Conti <em>et al.</em> 1992, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175962		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Serapias </em><em>cordigera</em><span class="species"> is listed as Vulnerable on the French Red List (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p><p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias cordigera</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing and agricultural use. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160; <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).                    <p>&#160;</p>
175962		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Serapias cordigera </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. The species ranges east to </a>Crete and Anatolia, west to Portugal and north to Finistère in France.&#160; (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175962		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias cordigera</em> is typically found in grassland, damp meadows, scrub, terraces, maquis, olive groves, garrigue and open woodland.<em></em> It prefers dry to moderately wet, mostly acidic, siliceous or schistose and often calcareous soils. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from April to June. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175962		population	eng	<p><em>Serapias cordigera</em><span class="species"> is rather local and sometimes abundant in its sites and is found rather dispersed than grouped. Size <span class="species">of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown but a decline appears to be ongoing in many sites. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175962		threats	eng	<p><em>Serapias cordigera</em><span class="species"> is locally declining due to its collection for the production of salep or for horticultural use, digging and consumption by animals, overgrazing, ploughing and other agricultural use of the meadows. Urbanisation, tourism, and associated infrastructure expansion are additional threats. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175963		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </a>This orchid is listed as Endangered on the red list of Belarus (Ermakova 2005) and of Lithuania (level 1 - Rašomavičius 2007). The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neottianthe cucullata</em>:<br/>    <ul><li>Moderate woodland management.</li><li>Cease of heavy machinery use in forest operations.&#160; <br/></li><li>Creation of natural reserves or protection zones.<br/></li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Snowarski 2011, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008, ).
175963		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Neottianthe cucullata</em></a><em> </em>is a temperate Eurasian species from the Baltic to Japan. The species covers central and eastern Europe and has its western  limit in Poland. It can be found up to 2,000 m altitude (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2011, <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Snowarski 2011, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p>
175963		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neottianthe cucullata</em> grows in a narrow ecological range and is found particularly in conifer forest and more rarely mixed or oak woodland. It<em><em> </em></em>prefers damp, acidic to weakly alkaline soils and also sandy and clay-sandy substrates and grows in mid-shade to shade. It flowers from June to end of August (Delforge 1995, Snowarski 2011, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175963		population	eng	<p><em>Neottianthe cucullata</em> <span class="species">is rare and local. As far as population size is concerned, the species forms large aggregations of 2,000 individuals in some provinces in Russia and the maximum density of such populations may vary between 120 and 10-12 individuals per square meter. <span class="species">Sharp fluctuations in number of individuals and density were observed in the species localities studied in the territory of Russia (<span class="species">Delforge 1995, <span class="species">Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p><p><span class="species"><span class="species"> <span class="species">In Poland, there is <span class="species">a very small number of sites (up to a dozen) in three locations,<span class="species"> a large decrease in the number of sites is observed due to numerous threats (Snowarski 2011).</span></span></p>
175963		threats	eng	<p><em>Neottianthe cucullata</em> <span class="species">is declining and the population is undergoing extreme fluctuations due to numerous anthropogenic threats especially woodland management, causing an increase in the amount of light reaching the forest floor, <span class="species">the use of heavy machinery in forestry operation,<span class="species"> and weather conditions. Furthermore, this orchid is affected by urbanisation, trampling and tourism development (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175964		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Vulnerable in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Germany (level 3 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Hungary (Király 2007) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Platanthera chlorantha</em>;</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the <span class="species">pastures and hay meadows from ploughing, agricultural use and woodland from urbanisation. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Clearance of dense woodland canopy to ensure enough supply of light even after an interval of more than 50 years can ensure a dramatic reappearance of flower spikes.</li><li>Moderate management of grazing.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                      <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175964		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Platanthera chlorantha </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. It is almost confined to </a>Europe, occurring north in Scandinavia, southern Finland and the Baltic States. The species is found south to the Mediterranean, including Corsica, Sicily, the Aegean Islands, Cyprus and possibly Sardinia. It occurs eastwards to central European Russia, Crimea and the Caucasus.<em> Platanthera chlorantha </em>is also found in North  Africa in Tunisia and possibly Morocco and in Turkey, northeast Syria and northwest Iran. It occurs up to 2,300 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175964		habitat	eng	<p><em>Platanthera chlorantha<em> </em></em>is found in a variety of habitats such as short grassland, damp meadows, fens, deciduous woodland, woodland edges and open woodland. It&#160;<em><em></em></em>prefers dry to damp, often calcareous (chalk, limestone and bas-rich clays), alkaline soils. This species grows in shade to full sunlight and flowers from late May to late July. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175964		population	eng	<p><em>Platanthera chlorantha<em> </em></em><span class="species">is widespread but <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">populations are declining and many populations have been  lost and appear to have only a handful of individuals in each  population. T<span class="species">he species has declined greatly in <span class="species">United Kingdom<span class="species"> with a loss of 46% of the historical range and 53.5% in <span class="species">Ireland<span class="species">. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></span></span></p>
175964		threats	eng	<p><em>Platanthera chlorantha<em> </em></em><span class="species">is declining rapidly on many sites due<span style="background-color: white;"> to clearance or 'coniferization' of woodland and the destruction of grassla</span><span class="species">nd by agricultural improvement, urban and infrastructure development. The development of a dense woodland canopy suppresses flowering as the species needs light. Lack of grazing leads to increased competition, but overgrazing also has detrimental affects and the collection of the species for decorative uses has negative impacts. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175965		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/></p><ul><li>Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)</li><li>Vulnerable in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Luxembourg (Colling 2005)</li><li>Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)</li></ul><p></p><p>In Serbia the species is likely to be classified as Critically Endangered. The species is protected in several countries at the national level, such as <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Belgium</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Luxembourg,</st1:place></st1:country-region> and at the regional level in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis </em><em>purpurata</em>:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from destruction, coniferisation and unsuitable woodland management. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals, especially deer.</li><li>Control grazing by wild animals.</li><li>Ensure suitable woodland management to control the amount of light reaching to the forest floor.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                    <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Djordjević <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al</span> 2010, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Rossi 2002).</p>
175965		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis purpurata</em> is confined to western and central Europe where it occurs north to Denmark, Britain, and the Baltic States, west to France (to a line between Mont St. Michel and Grenoble), and south to the Alps, Balkans and Transylvania in Romania. </a>It has recently been recorded on Mt. Maljen in western Serbia . The species can be found up to 1,500 m asl (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Djordjević <span style="font-style: italic;">et</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">al </span>2010,&#160; GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>  <p></p>
175965		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis purpurata</em> is found in the shadier and barest parts of beech and hornbeam woods, sometimes in conifer forests. It is occasionally found in hedgerows that are woodland relicts and in wild gardens. <em>Epipactis purpurata</em> prefers deep, heavy, moist, acidic to neutral substrates, often clayey and calcareous bedrock. This species grows mostly in shady places and it flowers from the beginning of July to September. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Rossi 2002).</p>
175965		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis purpurata</em> is local but often abundant. In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 38.5%. In Italy the species is quite rare, reported only from Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany. In Serbia seven individuals were recorded in 2009 within an area of 120 m². No precise count has been made elsewhere. The distribution area is fragmented, the trend of the population is decreasing and the declines appear to be ongoing on many sites (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Djordjević <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al</span> 2010, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Rossi 2002).<span lang="FR"></p>
175965		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>purpurata</em><span class="species"> is<span class="species"> declining due to the loss of its woodland habitat through deforestation, planting of coniferous forests and grazing by wild animals, especially deer. In addition, urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities could threaten this species (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175966		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<em> Dactylorhiza lapponica</em> is a strictly protected plant in some countries such as <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is listed on the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Hungary (Király 2007)</li><li>Vulnerable in Finland (Rassi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010)</li><li>Near Threatened in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)</li><li>Rare in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010)</li><li>Data Deficient in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)</li></ul>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza lapponica</em>;<br/>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></li></ul>
175966		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza lapponica</em> is endemic to north and central Europe where it is found throughout the boreo-alpine region. Its range extends from Gotland in Sweden north to Tromso in Norway, to Scotland, southwards towards the Italian Dolomites, the <st1:place>Alps in </st1:place><st1:country-region><st1:place>Switzerland</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:state><st1:place>Bavaria in Germany</st1:place></st1:state>, Salzburg in Austria, <st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>and possibly <st1:state><st1:place>Bohemia</st1:place></st1:state> in the Czech Republic. This species is found up to 1,000 m altitude and found from 500 to 2,400 m in the Alps <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
175966		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza lapponica</em> grows in stream banks, moorland flushes, grassy areas, pastures and meadows, from the lowlands to the subalpine zone. It prefers <em></em>slightly acid to alkaline soils in full sunlight and flowers from June to August <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
175966		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza lapponica</em> is rather local and rare where it occurs. <span class="species">The population is suspected to be decreasing as its habitat is declining <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
175966		threats	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza lapponica</em> <span class="species">is local and rare where it occurs. The habitat quality and extent is declining due to <span class="species">forestry activities<span class="species">, drainage, agricultural use of swampy meadows, and urbanisation. Collection of the species is a threat.<br/></span></p>
175967		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Platanthera hyperborea </em> (Delforge 1995):</a> </p>  <ul><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals, trampling and recreational activities.</li><li>Create natural reserves.<br/></li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
175967		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Platanthera hyperborea</span> is found in North America in the subarctic to cold temperate zones, east to Greenland and Iceland, west to Japan and Kamchatka. In Europe the species is found only in Iceland but is not known to occur elsewhere. (Delforge 1995,  The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
175967		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Platanthera hyperborea</em> is typically found in short, poor grassland, grassy slopes, <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs, roadside ditches, fens in the taiga and tundra. </a>It<em> </em>prefers damp to wet acidic soils in full sunlight. Flowering time is from mid-June to the end of July (Delforge 1995).</p>
175967		population	eng	<p><em>Platanthera hyperborea </em>is rather widespread and abundant in Iceland. The population size and <span class="species">trend remain<span class="species"> unknown (Delforge 1995).</span></p>
175967		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Platanthera hyperborean </em><span class="species">is affected by tourism, recreational activities, and consumption by animals (Delforge 1995).</p>
175968		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8"><em></em></a>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is a protected plant in some countries including Belgium, Luxembourg, and some regions in France. </p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Anacamptis papilionacea</em>;</p>  <ul><li>Improve the management of grasslands, including moderate grazing activities.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>            <p>(Bournérias and Prat<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2005, Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Lang 2004).</p>
175968		distribution	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis papilionacea </em>is a Mediterranean and eastern species, found from North Africa to Turkey, extends northwards to the foothills of the Alps and eastwards to the Caspian  Sea. The range encloses southern Greece, the islands of the Aegean Sea, and parts of western and southern Turkey. The species has a blurred range limit with a wide transitional zone that begins to the north of the Peloponnese. It is found from sea level to 1,800 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175968		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis papilionacea</em> typically grows in short, poor grassland, stony meadows, garrigue, maquis and open woodland.</a> It <em></em>prefers dry to moist substrates, alkaline soil rich in lime and often calcareous soils. The species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade. The flowering time of the species is from end of March to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175968		population	eng	<p><em></em><em>Anacamptis papilionacea </em>is rather widespread and often abundant where it occurs. This  species becomes scarce only at the borders of its distribution area, and  very rare further in the east due to unfavourable climate influences as  the high mountains leave fewer lowland positions as possible locations.  As far as population size is concerned, no precise count has ever been made; however, the plants often grow in groups and the total population is in decline (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175968		threats	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis papilionacea </em>is the most frequent orchid species in its potential biotopes. This species is sensitive to grazing by animals, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanisation, fire and deforestation (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175969		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia conopsea</em>:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agricultural uses and conversion to arable land. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of grazing.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of downs and pastures should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying out of the site. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap  and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175969		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Gymnadenia </em></a><em>conopsea </em>is a boreal and temperate Eurasian species. In Europe the species is found from north to northernmost Scandinavia and south to the Mediterranean, Turkey and the Caucasus. The species avoids the Mediterranean lowlands and can be found up to 2,800 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175969		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia conopsea</em> typically occurs in short grassland, meadows, fens, flushed slopes, unimproved hill pastures, road verges, grassy moorland and scrub. It&#160;prefers dry to wet and calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from May to August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175969		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia conopsea</em><span class="species"> is widespread and sometimes abundant. <span class="species">Although the species is common or even abundant, t<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing on many sites due to numerous threats. I<span class="species">n Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 39.5% and in Ireland it was 30.5%. <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap  and Harrap <span class="species"><span class="species">2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
175969		threats	eng	<p>  </p>The main cause of the local declines are ploughing, agricultural uses, conversion of downs and pastures into arable land, drainage and land improvement. An abandonment of grazing activities will lead to the invasion of scrub and competition; overgrazing on the other hand will lead to a loss of species diversity. Additional threats are urbanisation, tourism and construction work. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><p></p>
175970		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected at national level in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Belgium</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Luxembourg and at regional level in <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is listed on the following national red lists: <br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005) and it is listed as not threatened on the Lithuanian (Rašomavičius 2007) red list</li></ul>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza incarnata</em>;</p><p>  </p><ul><li>Mowing the site at least once a year to reduce the abundance of grasses and remove the old biomass before the next season.&#160;</li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses and pasturage.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site in spring. <br/></li><li>Fencing the sites may help if the springs and peat bogs are damaged.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).<span class="species"><span class="species"></span>
175970		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza incarnata</em> is found throughout western, Central, eastern and southeastern <st1:place>Europe</st1:place>, s<st1:place>outhern Scandinavia</st1:place>, and w<st1:place>estern Siberia</st1:place>. It extends in the west from central <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:place>Scandinavia</st1:place>, in the south to northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>, northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> and northwestern <st1:place>Anatolia</st1:place>, in the east to the <st1:place>Caucasus</st1:place> up to <st1:place><st1:placetype>Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename>Baikal</st1:placename></st1:place> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is found up to 2,400 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175970		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza incarnata</em> grows in fens and meadows with high level of underground water, from lowlands to foothills and is also found in inland coastal marshes, marshy hollows, and stream banks. It<em></em> prefers alkaline to neutral soils and full light. The flowering takes place from May to June. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175970		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Dactylorhiza incarnata</em> is widespread and relatively common but becoming more uncommon and rare especially toward the south of its distribution. It can form large aggregations, with several dozens of individuals, with a relatively low density of 1-5 individuals/m² and the populations are usually very dynamic. However, the population is decreasing and the number of individuals decreased sharply in the last ten years. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>
175970		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><span class="species"><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em></em>The narrow ecological range of </a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><span class="species"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Dactylorhiza incarnata</em></a><span class="species"><a name="OLE_LINK2"> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including <span class="species">extensive drainage, grazing, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanisation, tourism, intensive recreation, and hybridization<span class="species">. </span></a></span><a name="OLE_LINK2">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</a><span class="species"><span class="species"><a name="OLE_LINK2"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></a></span></p>  <p><span class="species"><span class="species"><a name="OLE_LINK2"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em></em></a><a name="OLE_LINK2">  <span class="species"></span></a></span></p>  <span class="species"><p></p>
175971		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is classed as Extinct on the Czech red list (Holub and Procházka 2000) and listed as Critically Endangered (level 1) in the German red list (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996).<br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Dactylorhiza russowii</em>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the fens and meadows from land amelioration and soil cover disturbances. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the habitat from trampling.</li><li>Ensure appropriate water management of sites and avoid drainage. </li><li>The habitat should be kept open and enlarged by clearing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
175971		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylorhiza russowii </span>is found from Central Europe to Central Siberia. It occurs in Finland, Germany, Poland, the Baltic States and Russia and is extinct in the Czech Republic. <a name="OLE_LINK1">The species can be found up to 200 m altitude.</a> (Delforge 1995, Holub and Procházka 2000, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175971		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza russowii</em> is primarily found in coastal fens, bogs, low fens, waterlogged meadows and near streams. It prefers damp to wet, from weakly acidic to alkaline soils. This species grows in full sunlight but can survive a little shade and flowers from June to July. &#160;(Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175971		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza russowii</em> <span class="species">is rather local and not very abundant. Only two findings were known in the central Ural mountains, in Estonia it occurs relatively often and about 100 localities were noted. There is no information available for the other countries in its range. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175971		threats	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza russowii</em> <span class="species">is declining due to numerous anthropogenic threats especially trampling, disturbance of soil cover, land amelioration, drainage, abstraction of surface water for agriculture uses, and drying out which the species is very sensitive to. Further threats are urbanisation and tourism development. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175972		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Near Threatened in the national red list of Belarus (Ermakova 2005), but is classed as Least Concern on most other national red lists. <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neottia ovata</em>:</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the lowland from ploughing and agricultural use. &#160;</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175972		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Neottia ovata </em>is a European species but the range extends into </a>Asia. In Europe the species is found north to Iceland, northern Scandinavia and south to the Mediterranean including Italy, Greece, and eastwards to Crimea and the Caucasus. The species can be found up to 2,400 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175972		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neottia ovata</em> is found in a wide range of habitat including grassland, garrigue, shrubs, bogs, dune slacks, fens and woodland. It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>prefers dry to wet, slightly acidic soils and often calcareous soils and grows in full sunlight to shade. Flowering time is from May to July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175972		population	eng	<p><em>Neottia ovata</em><span class="species"> is very widespread and common in the temperate zone, but rare in Mediterranean Europe<span class="species">. The size and trend of the populations is unknown. In Britain, the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 27.5% and in Ireland, it was 29% of the area.&#160;<span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p>
175972		threats	eng	<p><em>Neottia ovata</em><span class="species"> is declining locally due to extreme temperatures, agricultural use of lowland and deforestation. Urbanisation, trampling and tourism are affecting this species (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175973		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Platanthera micrantha</em>:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agricultural use and infrastructure expansion. </li><li>Invasive species control and eradication.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Haggar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989, Schäfer 2005).<p>&#160;</p></span>
175973		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Platanthera micrantha</span> is endemic to the Azores. The species is absent from Gracioso. It can be found from 200 m to 1,400 m altitude and the extent of occurrence is about 2,346 km² (Delforge 1995, Haggar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989, Schäfer 2005, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</a>  <p></p>
175973		habitat	eng	<p><em>Platanthera micrantha</em> is found in specific habitats including volcanic craters, juniper rainforest and amongst <em>Sphagnum</em> in herbaceous maquis with the heather <em>Erica azorica</em>. It prefers damp and acidic substrates and grows in full sunlight to mid-shade. It flowers between May and June <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Haggar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989, Schäfer 2005).</span></p>
175973		population	eng	<p><em>Platanthera micrantha</em><span class="species"> is local and rather rare. The population is estimated between 50,000-70,000 individuals. T<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing<span class="species"> due to numerous threats <span class="species">and the populations are severely fragmented as the habitat is being lost in between species sites.<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> (Delforge 1995, Haggar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989, Schäfer 2005).</span></span></span></p>
175973		threats	eng	<p>T<span class="species">he habitats of <em>Platanthera micrantha </em><span class="species">have been drastically reduced in the past and the stands of temperate juniper rainforest are still being destroyed to create pastures and construct new roads in the central regions of the islands. The low altitude habitats on all of the islands are rapidly invaded by exotic plant species like the Himalayan <em>Hedychium gardneranum</em>, the Australian <em>Pittosporum undulatum</em>, and the American <em>Lantana camara</em>, an important threat to native flora and vegetation. Further threats are posed by deforestation, tourism and plant collection <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Haggar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989, Schäfer 2005).</span></span></p>
175974		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3"><em></em></a><p></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a></p><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK3">This orchid is listed as Vulnerable on the Croatian red list (Nikolić and Topi</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">ć</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> 2005). Recommended conservation measures for</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"><em> Ophrys fuciflora</em></a> are:</p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175974		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys fuciflora </em>is found<em> </em>throughout <st1:place>Central Europe</st1:place>, in the central and eastern <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place> and extends further east to <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region>. </p>  <p>The species is European, especially central European, from <st1:country-region><st1:place>the United Kingdom</st1:place></st1:country-region> through to <st1:country-region><st1:place>Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> and to the <st1:place><st1:placename>Italian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Peninsula</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Sicily and <st1:place>Sardinia</st1:place>, very rare in southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <em>Ophrys fuciflora</em> appears to be absent from <st1:place></st1:place>the <st1:place>Iberian Peninsula</st1:place> and the <st1:place>Balearic Islands</st1:place> as well as from the major part of the <st1:place>Balkan Peninsula</st1:place>. This species is found from sea level to 1,500 m altitude (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175974		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys fuciflora</em> is found in garrigue, roadside slopes, grassland, open pine and oak woods and old pesticide-free olive groves.</a> It <em></em>grows in dry to moist, calcareous soil in full sunlight to light shade. This species is found from sea level to 1,500 m altitude. The flowering time of the species takes place from March to June with a peak time from mid-April to late May (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175974		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"><em>Ophrys fuciflora</em></a><em> </em>is quite widespread, very common in <st1:place>Central  Europe</st1:place> and fairly rare in parts of the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175974		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Ophrys fuciflora </em>is threatened by urbanisation, construction work, residential building, and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>  <strong></strong><p></p>
175975		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007).  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis </em><em>tallosii</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland habitat from destruction, clearance and unsuitable management.</li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Appropriate woodland management to control the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Avoid drainage of the habitat. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>                  <p>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>
175975		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis tallosii</em> is a European endemic found in Italy, Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia. In Italy it is found in Zoppola in the province of Pordenone, and in Hungary between the Danube and Tisza rivers.</a> The species can be found up to 100 m asl. (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009). T<span class="species">he area of occupancy&#160;<em></em><span class="species">is below 500 km².</span></p>
175975		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis tallosii</em> is found in lowland <span class="hps">mixed wood<span class="shorttext">land (oak with <em>Quercus cerris</em> and <em>Q. robur</em>). It prefers moist, often acidic substrates. This species grows in shade and it flowers from July to August (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</span></p>
175975		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>tallosii</em> is very rare and local with small and isolated populations over a scattered distribution. The population has a decreasing trend (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>
175975		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>tallosii</em> <span class="species">is threatened by habitat loss caused by the destruction of forests, clearing of old trees, inappropriate woodland management, construction of forest roads, and drainage of high ground water. In addition, it is harmed by urbanisation,&#160; tourism, recreational activities, <span class="species">and digging and consumption by animals<span class="species"> (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</span></p>
175976		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis anatolica</em>:  <ul><li>Improve the management of the habitat.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>            <p>(Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)</p>
175976		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis anatolica </em>is an eastern  Mediterranean species found from the Cyclades and Crete in the west to Iran in the east. The species can be found from sea level to 2,000 m asl (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175976		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis anatolica</em> typically occurs in garrigue, pinewoods and open woodland. The species can also be found in areas of scrubland, wasteland and on seasonally wet soil which must be alkaline. It<em> </em>prefers stony dry to moist, calcareous to neutral substrates and substrates of dolomite. This species favours mid-shade. The flowering time is determined by the altitude of the plants location and takes place from the beginning of March until the end of May (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175976		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis anatolica</em> is local and rather rare where it occurs (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175976		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis anatolica </em>declined and became rare particularly in Turkey due to its extensive use and the ongoing practice of digging up tubers for the production of salep. On Cyprus and Crete the species is under threat and classified as not common due to hybridization with <em>Orchis quadripunctata</em>. In addition, this species is vulnerable to other threats such us tourism, land use changes, deforestation and expansion of villages and infrastructures (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175977		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)</li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Denmark (NERI 2007)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)</li><li>Rare in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Data Deficient in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis leptochila</em>:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland habitat from clearance and ‘coniferisation’. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals and grazing.</li><li>Ensure proper woodland management to provide enough shade for this species.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175977		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Epipactis leptochila </em>is found in temperate </a>Europe, although it was once thought to be endemic to Britain. However, the species has now been found north to Denmark, east to Slovakia, Hungary and the Balkans, and south to Italy and the Pyrenees. The species can be found up to 1,500 m asl. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175977		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Epipactis leptochila</em> is found in two distinct habitats: in dense woodland with heavy shade and under regenerating woodland. It&#160;<em></em>prefers heavy, moist and calcareous substrates. This species grows in shaded sites and flowers from the beginning of June until August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>  <p></p>
175977		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Epipactis leptochila</em><em> </em>is extremely local, often rare, scarce and declining<em>. </em>The populations are often very small, with about two or three mature individuals and extreme fluctuations. T<span class="species">he overall size of the population is unknown but it is decreasing. In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 50%. <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>  <p><span class="species"></p>
175977		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis leptochila</em> suffers<span class="species"> especially from the clearance or ‘coniferisation’ of woodland, the lack of woodland management, ground disturbance by machinery and horses and grazing by animals. It is furthermore affected by habitat loss due to tourism and urbanisation, and by recreational activities. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175978		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The species is protected at regional level in France and is listed as Data Deficient in the national red list (UICN France<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Limodorum </em><em>trabutianum</em>:</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from agricultural use and extensive use of fertilisater. </li><li>Appropriate forest management.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Management of cattle pasture.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175978		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Limodorum </em><em>trabutianum<em> </em></em>is<em> </em>a </a>west Mediterranean species reported from Italy, France, Portugal and Spain, and extending its range into North Africa. In Italy, it is rather common in Sardinia, but rare in  Tuscany, Umbria, Latium, and the island of Pantelleria. In France, it is found  in Charente, west Pyrenees and Alps. On the Iberian Peninsula, it occurs in at least 15 provinces in Spain and in at least three regions in Portugal. The species can be found up to 2,300 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
175978		habitat	eng	<p><em>Limodorum </em><em>trabutianum</em> is typically found in short grassland, banks, scrub, and open woodland. It<em><em> </em></em>prefers cool and calcareous substrates (rarely siliceous) and grows mostly in shade. Flowering takes place from April to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175978		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Limodorum </em><em>trabutianum</em><span class="species"> is very rare and localised. The overall population size is unknown but it usually grows in small groups of estimated less than 250 individuals<span class="species"><span class="species"> with low density<span class="species">.<span class="species"> <span class="species">The population is decreasing (Bournérias and Prat<em>&#160;</em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></span></span></span></p>  <p></p>
175978		threats	eng	<p><em>Limodorum </em><em>trabutianum</em><span class="species"> is threatened by land uses changes, intensification of agriculture and use of fertilisers, and inappropriate forest management. Furthermore, urbanisation, tourism, in particular winter sport in the mountains, are affecting this orchid. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175979		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is listed as Least Concern in the red lists of France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Germany (regional red list of Bavaria - Ahlmer 2010) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).<br/><a name="OLE_LINK8"><br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia rhellicani</em>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the alpine meadows from ploughing, agricultural use and conversion to arable land. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of appropriate levels of grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
175979		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Gymnadenia rhellicani</em> is a Central European alpine zone species, and occurs from the </a>Alps to the Carpathians. The species is found in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France and Italy. It can be found from 1,000 to 2,800 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175979		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia rhellicani</em> typically grows in short grassland and alpine meadows, and it&#160;<em></em>prefers dry to moist, often calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from mid-June to mid-August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175979		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia rhellicani</em><span class="species"> is rather local and often abundant where found. It sometimes occurs in large numbers in the Alps; but is very uncommon in the northern Apennines. There is no information on population size and trend but local declines have been noted. <span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>
175979		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia rhellicani</em><span class="species"> is <span class="species"><span class="species">locally declining due to agricultural use, conversion of meadows into arable land, and abandonment of grazing activites which causes competition with other plants as well as overgrazing. Furthermore, this orchid suffers from collection, urbanisation and tourism. (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>
175980		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected in several countries at the national level such us Belgium, Luxembourg and at the regional level in France. </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis simia</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open grassland and downland from ploughing, agriculture uses and extensive use of fertilisation; and the woodland. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Site management including moderate grazing by sheep and goats, and habitat clearance to allow enough supply of sunlight to the forest floor.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                    <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175980		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Orchis </em></a><em>simia </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. The species ranges from southern  Europe and the Mediterranean region, including the Balearic Islands, the Aegean Islands, Crete and Cyprus, north to Hungary, southern Germany, the Netherlands and England. In the <em></em>east it extends to Syria, Turkey, the Crimean Peninsula, Caucasus, Iran and Turkmenistan, and southwards into North Africa: Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The species can be found up to 1,550 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175980		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis simia</em> inhabits short, poor grasslands, garrigue, maquis, scrubland, woodland edges and open woodland. It <em></em>prefers dry to slightly moister conditions, neutral to calcareous soils. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from March to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175980		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis simia</em><span class="species"> is rather scattered and rare where it occurs with a large distribution area. <span class="species"><span class="species">Overall the population has a declining trend <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></p>
175980		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis simia</em><span class="species"> is directly affected by the collection of the tuber for the production of salep (especially in Turkey where the species is considered as endangered) or for horticulture, digging and consumption by animals (wild boar, rabbits, slugs and muntjac), and overgrazing by sheep and goats.</p><p><span class="species">Its habitat quality and extent is declining due to <span class="species">natural succession of the woodland <span class="species"> causing a decrease in the amount of light reaching the forest floor, re-forestation, ploughing, agricultural use including the intensive application of fertilisers. Urbanisation, building projects (e.g. the new organisation and consolidation of the wine-growing area in Kaiserstuhl/Germany), infrastructure development, and tourism all lead to habitat loss (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></p>
175981		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).&#160; <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Himantoglossum affine</em>:</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from inappropriate management.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals and from collection.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics</li></ul>(Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175981		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Himantoglossum affine </em>is an eastern Mediterranean species. The species occurs in southern </a>Anatolia and extends from the Peloponnese (Tayegete) to Iran. It also grows in the Crimean mountains in Ukraine. The species can be found up to 1,500 m altitude (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). The area of occupancy is less than 500 km².<br/></p>
175981		habitat	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum affine</em> is typically found in thickets, maquis, open woodland especially among oak and pine. It&#160;<em></em>prefers dry calcareous soils. This species grows in mid-shade and flowers from May to July (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175981		population	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum affine </em>populations are<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>very fragmented, very local and very rare. The species grows as solitary individuals in very small groups. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing due to numerous threats (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175981		threats	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum affine</em> suffers<span class="species"> from numerous anthropogenic threats especially collection of the tuber for salep production or the whole plant for horticultural purposes, inappropriate forestry management, consumption by animals, and tourism (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175982		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8"></a>This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Spain (Moreno 2008) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)</li><li>Endangered in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)</li><li>Vulnerable in Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)</li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis spitzelii</em>;</a><p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the mountain grassland from recreational activities. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                  <p>&#160;(Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175982		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Orchis spitzelii </em>is a sub-Mediterranean montane species with a very disjunct range. The species can be found from </a>Gotland (Sweden) in the north, eastwards to the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, the Levant, extending into south Algeria. There are further reports from Morocco and Mallorca. This orchid is extinct in Germany. It can be found between 1,000 and 2,100 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Ludwig and Schnittler 1996, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175982		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis spitzelii</span> is typically found in short mountain grassland, mountain meadows, scrubs, pine woods and open woodland. It <em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline, often calcareous soils, substrates well covered by snow. This species grows mostly in mid-shade and the flowering time is from mid-May to end of June (Bournérias and Prat <em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175982		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis spitzelii</em><span class="species"> is very rare and local. As far as population size is concerned, no precise counting has ever been made but the number of locations and the number of plants found at each site are very restricted and often less than 100 individuals. The populations with more than 100 individuals are very rare exceptions. T<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing (Bournérias&#160;<em></em>and Prat <span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002). <br/></span></span></p>
175982		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis spitzelii</em><span class="species"> is affected by annual winter sport activities and tourism. The species itself is threatened by collection for decorative purposes and <span class="species">collection of the tuber for the production of salep. <span class="species">Digging and consumption by animals furthermore disturbs this plant (Bournérias&#160;<em></em>and Prat <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>
175983		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Dactylorhiza sambucina</em> is a strictly protected plant in some countries, for example the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and is protected at regional level in <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza sambucina</em>;</p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses and trampling. </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;<span class="species"></li></ul><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span>
175983		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza sambucina</em> is endemic to <st1:place>Europe</st1:place>, occurs from central <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:place>Crimea</st1:place>, as far south as <st1:state><st1:place>Sicily</st1:place></st1:state>, as far north as central <st1:place>Scandinavia. It is found</st1:place> scattered from <st1:place>Scandinavia</st1:place> to the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place>, rarely in the west, in the south only in mountain areas, the eastern distribution border runs from the river Dnepr to <st1:place>the Caucasus</st1:place>. This species is found up to 2,600 m altitude   (<span class="species">Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005).</p>
175983		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza sambucina</em> it grows in mountain meadows, pastures, forest borders, open woodland, and poor grassland. It prefers <em></em>alkaline to slightly acid dry to damp soils in full sun light. The flowering takes place from May to June <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175983		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza sambucina</em> is rather local and often abundant where it occurs. <span class="species">The population is suspected to be decreasing because of habitat destruction <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></span></p>
175983		threats	eng	<p><em></em>The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza sambucina</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanization, tourism, trampling, deforestation and plant collection <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species"> and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK2">    </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK2"><span class="species"></a></p>  <span class="species"><p></p></span>
175984		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The following actions are recommended to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnadenia archiducis-joannis</span>:<br/><ul><li>Protection of the grassland from recreational activities and human traffic.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Delforge 1995)
175984		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p>This orchid is a European endemic that is only found in Austria, known from three locations: Dachstein, Salzkammergut, and Eisener Berg. The species can be found from 1,800 to 2,000 m altitude (Delforge 1995, <span class="species"><span class="species">The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). The area of occupancy is 28 km² and the extent of occurrence is 2,195 km².</span>
175984		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia archiducis-joannis</em> can be found only in short, calcareous alpine grassland. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from July to August (Delforge 1995<span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></p>
175984		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia archiducis-joannis</em><span class="species"> is very rare and extremely local, known from a few sites and forms few groups with low density. The precise population size is not known and t<span class="species">he population has a decreasing trend (Delforge 1995).</span></p>
175984		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia archiducis-joannis</em><span class="species"> <span class="species"><span class="species">is threatened by <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">plant<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> collection and <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">recreational activities. L<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">ike all grassland orchids this species requires a specific level of grazing; too little and the species suffers from competition with other plants, too much and the diversity of the species is lost (Delforge 1995<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
175985		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys umbilicata</em> are:</a></p>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175985		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys umbilicata </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the eastern <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place> and from the Aegean basin to southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is quite local and sometimes abundant, it occurs in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region> through <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece, Cyprus eat</st1:place></st1:country-region> to the <st1:place>Levant</st1:place> but is missing in <st1:place>Crete. </st1:place>This species is found from sea level to 1,200 m altitude (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175985		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats for <em>Ophrys umbilicata</em> include grassland, garrigue, roadside slopes,  light-open pine woods and cypress groves as well as pesticide-free olive groves. <em>Ophrys umbilicata</em> grows in dry to somewhat moist, often calcareous soils and rarely on sandstone in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from February to April with a peak time in late March and early April. (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175985		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys umbilicata</em> is quite local and no precise counting of the population size was ever made. The trend of the population is unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175985		threats	eng	<p>The natural vulnerability of <em>Ophrys umbilicata</em>, collection of the species and threats to its habitats such as urbanisation, construction work and residential buildings are affecting the species<em> </em>(Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
175986		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected in several countries at the national level such us Belgium, Luxembourg and at the regional level in France. <br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis purpurea</em>;</a> <br/></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open grassland from ploughing, agriculture uses and fertilisation; and the woodland from fire and deforestation. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.   </li></ul>                <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175986		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Orchis </em></a><em>purpurea </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species. In Europe, it occurs westwards and northwards to England and Denmark, eastwards to western and southern Poland and Ukraine and south to central Spain, Italy, northern Greece and Bulgaria. It is also found on Corsica and Sardinia, and in North Africa, in Algeria and Tunisia. The species can be found up to 1,800 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175986		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Orchis purpurea</em> inhabits short grassland, garrigue, slopes, scrub or coppice, clearings and woodland edges and open woodland of beech, ash or hazel, or occurs </a><a name="OLE_LINK11">along paths</a><a name="OLE_LINK11">. It </a><em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline to neutral soils, and is very rarely found in calcareous and limestone substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to shade and flowers from May to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175986		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis purpurea</em><span class="species"> is widespread and rather rare. As far as population size is concerned, in Britain it is nationally scarce and has been lost from 57% of the historic range, although it currently appears to be expanding its range. Overall, t<span class="species">he trend of the population is declining due to numerous threats (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
175986		threats	eng	<p><em></em><span class="species">The main threats to the species are the collection of the tuber for the production of salep, digging and consumption by animals (wild boar, rabbits, slugs and muntjac), ploughing, agricultural uses of the habitats and application of fertilisers. Additional threats are urbanisation, tourism, extension of the infrastructure, and deforestation. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175987		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/>The species is protected in several countries at the national level such us Belgium where it is also threatened (Van Landuyt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and Luxembourg. It is included in a few national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Endangered in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Himantoglossum hircinum</em>:</a><br/>    <p> </p>  <ul><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from collection.</li><li>Moderate grazing by cattle twice a year to keep competitive plants at bay.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured as the species very sensitive to droughts. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175987		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Himantoglossum hircinum</em> is an Atlantic-Mediterranean species found in southwest and southern Europe</a>. The species occurs north to the Netherlands, Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic, south to northern Spain (very scattered in central and southern Spain), Italy (absent from the centre) and Sicily, and east to the Balkans and to Greece. The species also occurs in North Africa and can be found up to 1,800 m altitude&#160; (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175987		habitat	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum hircinum</em> grows in short grassland, garrigue, banks, scrub, field margins, woodland edges and rarely dunes. It<em> </em>prefers dry calcareous substrates and grows in full sunlight; the flowering time of the species takes place from May to July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175987		population	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum hircinum</em><span class="species"> is rather rare and local. <span class="species">T<span class="species">he population has a decreasing trend. I<span class="species">n Britain, for example, the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 82.5% ; no figures are available for other parts of its range. <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p>
175987		threats	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum hircinum</em><span class="species"> is locally declining on many sites due to infrastructure expansion by opening new roads and widening of existing roads, urbanisation and tourism, climate change as the species is very sensitive to drought, collection of the plant for horticultural use, abandonment of grazing and subsequent encroachment of scrub and competition. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175989		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)</li><li>Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007)</li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis </em></a><em>pontica</em>; </p>  <ul><li>Protection of its woodland      habitat from destruction, clearance of old trees and unsuitable woodland      management. </li><li>Appropriate woodland      management to ensure a shady site and to control the amount of light      reaching the forest floor. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to      protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Establish nature reserves      for the most important habitats</li><li>Sympathetic management of      isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through      legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><em>Ex situ </em>conservation:      artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance      of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population      size and study their dynamics. </li></ul><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009)
175989		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis pontica</em> is poorly known and is considered to be endemic to the </a>Pontic Mountains in northern Anatolia in Turkey. However, the species has been reported in western Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. It can be found from 500 to 1,500 m asl. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010<em></em>). The area of occupancy is suspected to be smaller than 2,000 km².<br/></p>
175989		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis pontica</em> grows mostly in damp, old-growth deciduous forests. The species prefers deep moist, slightly acidic to neutral substrates. It grows in shady sites and flowers from June to August. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>
175989		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis pontica </em>is extremely rare and local. The populations are very small with few individuals, and they are isolated and fragmented. T<span class="species">he trend of the population is decreasing (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>
175989		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis pontica</em> <span class="species">is declining due to loss of its restricted habitat caused by forest clearance, the removal of old trees, unsuitable woodland management and grazing. In addition, urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities are negatively affecting the species (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009).</p>
175990		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:</p>  <ul><li>Endangered in Czech Republic      (Holub and Procházka 2000)</li><li>Vulnerable in Luxembourg      (Colling 2005)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary      (Király 2007)</li><li>Least Concern in France      (UICN France<em> et al.</em> 2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and      Switzerland (Moser <em>et al. </em>2002)</li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis muelleri</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland habitat from destruction, road construction, clearance of old trees and unsuitable woodland management. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control grazing by wild animals.</li><li>Establish nature reserves for the most important habitats</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation to ban collection of the species.<br/></li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                    <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175990		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Epipactis muelleri</em></a> is found in central and southern Europe, from the Netherlands to central Italy, and from Spain to Hungary. The species can be found up to 1,300 m asl. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175990		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis muelleri</em> is found in open woodland, woodland edges, glades, and scrub. It <em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline and often calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and the flowering time is from mid-June to the beginning of August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175990		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis muelleri</em> is local and often rare with very fragmented and declining populations. The overall number of species is unknown. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175990		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>muelleri</em> is threatened by loss of habitat caused by the destruction of forests, clearing of old trees, construction of forests roads, altered drainage and mining (especially in Germany). Additional causes for habitat loss are urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities. The species is also grazed by wild animals. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
175991		conservation	eng	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Ophrys reinholdii </em>is a species of high conservation value and the following conservation actions are recommended:</p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li></ul>
175991		distribution	eng	<p>The total range of <em>Ophrys reinholdii</em> extends from the Balkan Peninsula to <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>, southern and southwestern <st1:place><st1:city>Anatolia</st1:city>, <st1:country-region>Iran</st1:country-region></st1:place> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iraq</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It can be found <em></em>in the southwestern part of the <st1:place>Balkan Peninsula</st1:place>, on the <st1:place>Ionian Islands</st1:place> and on the <st1:place><st1:placename>Aegean</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place>.   It is common on <st1:place>Rhodes</st1:place> (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007). In 2003, a small population was discovered in southeastern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Bulgaria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Bergman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). </p><p>The species is found from sea level to 1,300 m altitude, in Bulgaria it is distributed between 260 and 390 m.</p>
175991		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats include garrigue, scrubland, old olive groves, graveyards, roadside slopes,  and open to rather dense pine and oak woods. <em>Ophrys reinholdii</em> grows in dry to moist, calcareous to slightly acid soil in full sunlight to partial shade. The flowering takes place from March to May with a peak in April in the <st1:place><st1:placename>Aegean</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995, Bergman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In <st1:country-region><st1:place>Bulgaria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the flowering time is from the first ten days of April to the second ten days of May (Bergman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). </p>
175991		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys reinholdii </em>is fairly widespread and rather rare in <st1:place>Europe</st1:place>. The trend of the populations is unknown but the species' habitat continues to decline (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>  <p>In <st1:country-region><st1:place>Bulgaria</st1:place></st1:country-region> the species was found with a limited population of two individuals in 2003. This population was found during 2004 in the far southeast of the nature park Strandzha with 53 individuals, distributed in small groups of two to seven individuals (Bergman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). </p>
175991		threats	eng	<p>The small size of the local populations, the natural vulnerability and threats for the habitats such as urbanisation, construction work and residential building are affecting the species. The increase in tourism activities, collection of the species and intensive traffic on forestry roads poses further threats to <em>Ophrys reinholdii</em> (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Bergman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</p>  <p></p>
175992		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/></p><ul><li>Least Concern in Czech Republic (Rare - Holub and Procházka 2000), Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Hungary (protected - Király 2007), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)</li><li>Regionally Extinct in Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)</li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis helleborine</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland, from clearance and plantation with conifers. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals and grazing.</li><li>Ensure adequate sunlight to the forest floor by woodland management.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Adopt legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175992		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis helleborine </em>is very widespread in </a>Europe and Asia and introduced in North America. In Europe the species occurs in Norway and southern Finland, and extends south to the Mediterranean, and east to Ukraine and Russia. The species is absent from the lowlands but found on the Balearic  Islands, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. It occurs up to 2,000 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175992		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis helleborine</em> grows in deciduous woodland, edges and clearings in open or dense woodland. It prefers moist, calcareous and deep substrates. This species grows in mid-shade to shade and flowers from June to September. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175992		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Epipactis helleborine</em><span class="species"> is widespread and sometimes abundant. The overall population size is unknown but the species is found in considerable numbers. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing in some localities. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>  <p><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>
175992		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis helleborine</em><span class="species"> is locally declining due to the clearance or ‘coniferisation’ of woodland, increase in dense shade due to lack of woodland management, ground disturbance by machinery and horses and grazing by animals. Further threats are posed by <span class="species">urbanisation, <span class="species">tourism and recreational activities. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175993		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is classed as Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007).  <br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis nordeniorum</em>; <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from destruction, road construction, clearance of old trees and unsuitable woodland management. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, and drainage should be avoided. </li><li>Establish nature reserves for the most important habitats.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
175993		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epipactis nordeniorum</span> is endemic to central Europe, where it occurs in Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, and Croatia. The species can be found up to 400 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, Flora Croatica Database 2004, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
175993		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis nordeniorum</em> is found in open woodland, mixed oak-hornbeam woods and oak-alder riverine. It prefers moist to damp substrates. This species grows in shaded sites and flowers from late July to September (Delforge 1995).</p>
175993		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>nordeniorum </em>is extremely rare and extremely local where it occurs. The distribution area of the species is very fragmented with few locations. The overall population is decreasing (Delforge 1995).</p>
175993		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>nordeniorum </em>is threatened by the ongoing exploitation of its habitats due to destruction of forests, deforestation, clearing of old trees, construction of forests roads, drainage, tourism, and mining. It is furthermore affected by grazing by wild animals and recreational activities. (Delforge 1995).</p>
175994		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is included as Critically Endangered (D1) in the national red list of Cyprus.  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis condensata</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open woodland from human activities. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans harvesting of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>              <p>(Delforge 1995,&#160; Efimov 2008, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175994		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis condensata</em> has been described from a few scattered sites in Anatolia (Turkey), Cyprus, Lebanon, as well as the Caucasus (Azerbaijan and Georgia). Its only European occurrence is in </a><a name="OLE_LINK1">Cyprus where it is found in the Troodos National Forest Park at three locations with an area of occupancy of 17 km² and an extent of occurrence of 73 km². </a>The species can be found from 600 to 2,000 m asl. (Delforge 1995, Efimov 2008, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175994		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis condensata </em>is found in open woodland and at woodland margins. The species prefers dry to moist, alkaline, often skeletal soils and grows in full sunlight to mid-shade. It flowers from mid June to August. (Delforge 1995,&#160; Efimov 2008, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175994		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis condensata </em>is very rare and very local. In Cyprus, the population is only about 30 plants and the population is very small and fragmented. T<span class="species">he population is decreasing due to many threats (Delforge 1995,&#160; Efimov 2008, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175994		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Epipactis condensata </em>is<span class="species"> threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and available habitats. Trampling due to recreational activities <span class="species">and consumption by wild animals <span class="species">are also a threat. As there are only very few individuals left, collection of the species is a very serious threat. (Delforge 1995,&#160; Efimov 2008, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
175995		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)</li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)</li><li>Rare in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)</li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)</li></ul>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis microphylla</em>; </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland habitat from ploughing, agricultural uses and extensive use of herbicides. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Appropriate woodland management to control the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Water regime must be maintained and drainage of habitat should be avoided. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
175995		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis microphylla</em> is distributed in Europe and the Caucasus and is found in the temperate and sub-meridional zones from Belgium to the Caspian Sea. </a>The species can be found up to 1,800 m asl. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175995		habitat	eng	<p>&#160;<em>Epipactis microphylla</em> is found in dense deciduous forests, rarely coniferous forest, scrub and woodland edges. It p<em></em>refers moist, calcareous soils. This species grows mostly in shade and it flowers from the beginning of May until August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175995		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><span style="font-style: italic;">microphylla </span>is local and often rare. In Cyprus the population is only about 40 individuals; in Italy the species is reported from all the Italian regions except Val d’Aosta. The plant is progressively less common moving northwards and is very rare in Luxembourg, Belgium and France. The populations are very small and very fragmented and are overall decreasing. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
175995		threats	eng	<p>The habitat of<em> Epipactis microphylla</em> is threatened by<span class="species"> agriculture, the abandonment of hazelnut crops and the use of herbicides. I<span class="species">nappropriate woodland management and deforestation lead to an <span class="species">increase in the amount of light reaching the forest floor. It is also threatened by digging and consumption by wild animals, urbanisation, forests roads, infrastructure development, tourism and recreational activities. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></p>
175996		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:</a></p><ul><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Near Threatened in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></a></li><li><a name="OLE_LINK8">Least Concern in Czech Republic (Rare - Holub and Procházka 2000), Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Hungary (protected but not rare - Király 2007), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)<br/></a></li></ul><p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neottia nidus-avis</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland from being converted into conifer plantations.</li><li>Cease of heavy machinery use in forest operations. &#160;</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175996		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Neottia nidus-avis</em> occurs in </a>Europe and western Siberia. In Europe the species is found in Scandinavia and Finland and south to the Mediterranean including Italy, Greece, Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia and the Balearic  Islands, and eastwards to Crimea and the Caucasus; it is mainly restricted to the mountains in the south of the range and absent from the Mediterranean lowland. The species can be found up to 2,000 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175996		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neottia nidus-avis</em> is found in dense beech woods, shady old hedges, mixed broad leaved woodland in hazel coppices and conifer forests. The species prefers chalk and limestone soils and also grows in clays and sands that have a chalky or limestone component. It grows in shade, even tolerates heavy shade and flowers from May to July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175996		population	eng	<p><em>Neottia nidus-avis</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rather rare. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">The populations are decreasing and the overall population size is unknown. <span class="species"> In Britain the total loss of individuals between 1500 and 1999 was 54% and in <span class="species">Ireland, it<span class="species"> was 45.5% of the area. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
175996		threats	eng	<p><em>Neottia nidus-avis</em><span class="species"> is declining locally due to the conversion of deciduous woodland into conifer plantations, the use of heavy machinery in forestry operation, and activities that increase the amount of light reaching the forest floor. In addition, this orchid is affected by urbanisation, tourism, and related infrastructure expansion, as well as plant collection. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175997		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed in several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Hungary (Király 2007)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and Germany (level 3- Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Sweden(Gärdenfors 2010)</li><li>Least Concern in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia </em><em>odoratissima</em></a>:<br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agricultural uses and conversion to arable land. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of appropriate levels of grazing.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of downs and pastures should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex </span>situ conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em></em><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
175997		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Gymnadenia odoratissima</em> is a European endemic orchid found from southern </a>Sweden to northern Spain, east to the Carpathians and in all the regions of northern Italy except Liguria. The species can be found up to 2,700 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175997		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>odoratissima</em> typically grows in grassland, meadows, marshes, flushed slopes, mountain pastures, road verges, grassy moorland and rarely xerophitic short grassland. It&#160;<em><em></em></em>prefers moist to damp, calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from May to August.(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em><em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
175997		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>odoratissima</em><span class="species"> is rather local and sometimes abundant within its sites. The number of individuals in each populations is fairly high with strong fluctuations in the number of mature individuals. The population is decreasing on many sites due to numerous threats. (Bournérias and Prat<em></em><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
175997		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>odoratissima</em><span class="species"> is <span class="species"><span class="species">locally declining on many sites due to numerous anthropogenic threats especially ploughing, agricultural use, conversion of grassland into arable land, drainage and land improvement. Abandonment of grazing causes scrub to invade and subsequently competition; overgrazing on the other hand leads to loss of species diversity. In addition, the species is affected by collection of the plant by garden lovers and of the tuber for the production of salep, by urbanisation and tourism. (Bournérias and Prat<em></em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
175998		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Dactylorhiza majalis</em> is a </a>protected plant in some countries including Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic, Slovakia and in some regions of France. </p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza majalis</em>;</p>  <ul><li>Mowing at least once a year, preferably in August/September, to reduce the abundance of grasses and to remove the old biomass before the next season. </li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses and trampling. </li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site in spring.</li><li>Fencing the sites may help if the springs and peat bogs are damaged by wild <span class="nbapihighlight2">pig grazing of tubers or roe <span class="nbapihighlight2">deer grazing of shoots.</span></li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;<span class="species"></li></ul><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias&#160;<em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span>
175998		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza majalis</em> is mainly found in Europe, from northern Spain to the extreme south of Scandinavia. It extends its range east into Siberia and the Caucasus. This species is not well known due to confusion with related taxa. It is found from lowlands to mountains up to 1,800 m altitude.  <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175998		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"><em>Dactylorhiza majalis</em> is found in damp grassland, unimproved marshland, fens and wet meadows. It </a><em></em>grows on damp to swampy, slightly alkaline to slightly acid soils in full sun light. The flowering time is from May to June <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species">and Prat <span class="species"><em></em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175998		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK4"><em>Dactylorhiza majalis</em> is quite widespread and often abundant where it occurs. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains unknown <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></span></a></p>
175998		threats	eng	<p><em></em>The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza majalis</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, amendment and destruction of wetlands, agricultural use of the habitat, urbanization, tourism, trampling and plant collection <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
175999		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </a><a name="OLE_LINK3">This orchid is listed as Vulnerable on the Croatian red list (Nikolić and Topi</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">ć</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> 2005). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys fusca</em> are:</a><br/></p><ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
175999		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys fusca </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place>. In Europe, it extends from Portugal to Crete and along the French Atlantic coast south of Brittany<st1:state><st1:place>. </st1:place></st1:state>This species is found from sea level to 1,500 m altitude <st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place>(Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175999		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys fusca</em> can typically be found in garrigue, maquis, grassland, light-open pine and oak woods, pesticide-free olive groves and </a><a name="OLE_LINK6">roadside verges</a><a name="OLE_LINK6">. It prefers </a><em></em>alkaline dry to moist soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from January to June with a peak time in March-April. Flowering individuals can even be encountered in December (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
175999		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys fusca </em>is fairly common and widespread in the Mediterranean region and sometimes local and abundant. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). Some authors recognize numerous segregate taxa.<br/></p>
175999		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys fusca</em> is threatened by urbanisation, construction work, residential building and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
176000		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed in several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Switzerland (Moser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Hungary (Király 2007)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neotinea tridentata</em>:</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the pastures from ploughing, agricultural uses and fertilisation. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Maintenance of specific biotopes by sheep grazing or mowing has led in some places to considerable increases of the populations.</li><li>Control of the tuber collection.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.<br/></li></ul>(Bournérias&#160; and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).
176000		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Neotinea tridentata </em>is a Central and South European species. It occurs north in </a>Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, and extends eastwards to Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, the Crimea Peninsula, the Caucasus and northeast to the Black Sea areas of Turkey with a separate area to the south of Lake Van. In the west it occurs in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic  islands. The species can be found up to 1,600 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat <em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
176000		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neotinea tridentata</em> is typically found in short, poor grassland, open garrigue, unimproved meadows, maquis, shrubland, woodland edges and open woodland. It prefers dry to moist, alkaline to weakly acid substrates and grows in full sunlight to mid-shade. Flowering time is from March to June-July (Bournérias&#160; and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176000		population	eng	<p><em>Neotinea tridentata</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rather rare. The population size is unknown, but the populations have a decreasing trend. <span class="species">The species appears locally to have weak and small populations where the number of mature individuals is estimated to be less than 250. (Bournérias <em></em> and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></p>
176000		threats	eng	<p><em>Neotinea tridentata</em><span class="species"> is locally declining on many sites due to numerous threats including the collection of the tuber or the whole plant, and digging and consumption by animals (sheep and rabbits in particular). The reduction of grazing leads to succession of forest species and competition. The latter is also an effect of intensive fertilisation. Agricultural intensification and ploughing furthermore destroys the species habitat. Other threats are urbanisation, tourism and expansion of infrastructure. (Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176001		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<em> Cephalanthera longifolia</em> can be protected by:</p>  <ul><li>Protection of the<em> </em>species<em> </em>natural habitats by a reduction in canopy to let more light in and keeping the glades relatively small as the species requires a degree of shade. </li><li>Control/removal of the ground vegetation to minimise competition between <em>Cephalanthera longifolia</em> and other species. This can be managed by strimming after the summer.   </li><li>Light grazing (preferably with cattle) over the winter can be useful to create areas of bare ground for germination. <br/></li><li>Management for bees is necessary to guarantee that as many flowers as possible are pollinated. Chances of pollination can be maximised by ensuring that flowering species that produce suitable sources of food for the bees and produce pollen at the same time as <em>C. longifolia</em> are present close to the orchid.   </li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <span class="species">(Lang 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995, Plantlife International 2006<span class="species">).</span></li></ul>                <p>In <st1:country-region><st1:place>the UK</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a number of countryside conservation schemes provide assistance to land managers conserving sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthera longifolia</span>. The most appropriate are: </p>  <ul><li>Environmental Stewardship: This is a new agri-environment scheme, which provides funding to farmers and other land managers in <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region> who deliver effective environmental management on their land. </li><li>Protected Road Verges: Many district councils run protected road verge schemes (Plantlife International 2010).<br/></li></ul>    <p></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
176001		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Cephalanthera longifolia </em>is found throughout temperate and Mediterranean <st1:place><st1:place>Eurasia</st1:place></st1:place>, from the <st1:place><st1:place>Atlantic</st1:place></st1:place> to the <st1:place><st1:place>Himalayas</st1:place></st1:place>. It is widespread and often abundant but becomes more local and rarer in the northwestern periphery of its range. In the <st1:country-region><st1:place>UK</st1:place></st1:country-region>, it occurs in s<st1:place>outhern  England</st1:place>, the <st1:place>Midlands</st1:place>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cumbria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:place>West Wales</st1:place> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Scotland</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  This species is found from sea level to 2,000 m altitude (Lang 2004, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995).</p>  <p></p>
176001		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6">Typical habitats of </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Cephalanthera longifolia</em> include grassy places, woodland edges, clearings and glades, sometimes open grassland and open woodlands. It </a><em></em>grows in calcareous or decalcified cool soils, prefers lime-rich soil and is always found in semi-shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from May to June <span class="species">(Lang<st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region> 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).</span></p>
176001		population	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera longifolia</em><em> </em>is widespread and often abundant<span class="species">. The trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown but many sites have been declining<span class="species"> (Lang 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
176001		threats	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera longifolia </em><span class="species">is threatened due to changes in woodland management; the neglect of woods leading to the disappearance of glades, the thickening of tree cover and the development of coarse woody habitat. Many populations have been lost through inappropriate woodland management which can cause the plants to dry up as a result of too much light, forest fires, deforestation for building and construction work purposes<span class="species"> as well as plant collection (Lang<st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region> 2004, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995).</span></p>
176002		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Endangered in the national red list of Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). The following actions are recommended to protect<em> <em>Dactylorhiza iberica</em></em>:</p>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the habitat from trampling and <span class="species">recreational activities.</li><li><span class="species">Fencing the <span class="species">vulnerable sites to protect the groundwater.<span class="species"> </span></span></li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul><span class="species"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, <span class="species"><span class="species">Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007,<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008<span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span>
176002		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza iberica</em> is a Mediterranean-Pontic species found in the northern <st1:place>Peloponnese</st1:place> and Greek Macedonia, extending to the <st1:place>Caucasus</st1:place> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region>, as far as <st1:place>Crimea</st1:place> to the north. The species is missing from the <st1:place>Aegean</st1:place> except from the <st1:place><st1:placetype>island</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename>Eubéa</st1:placename></st1:place> in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found from 600 to 2,600 m altitude. (Delforge 1995,&#160; Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/></p><span class="species">
176002		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats of <em>Dactylorhiza iberica</em> include marshy grassland, wet slopes and stream banks. It <em></em>grows in alkaline damp to swampy and calcareous soils in full sunlight to semi-shade. The flowering time is from May to August. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176002		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza iberica</em> is quite local and often found in small isolated populations where it occurs. It has a very fragmented distribution and <span class="species">the population is decreasing. The population in Cyprus consists of only 180 individuals. <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, <span class="species"><span class="species">Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007,<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008<span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span></p>
176002		threats	eng	<p><em></em>  </p><p><span class="species">The narrow ecological range of this species is submitted to numerous threats especially to changes in hydrology by groundwater extraction, competition from other species, hybridization and recreational activities. Additional threats are tourism development, urbanization, trampling, and plant collection. <span class="species"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, <span class="species"><span class="species">Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007,<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008<span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span></p>
176003		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <em>Epipactis atrorubens </em>is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Vulnerable in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Denmark (NERI 2007), Lithuania (Level 2 - Rašomavičius 2007), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007)</li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li></ul><p>The species is protected in several countries at the national level, such us Belgium and Luxembourg, and at the regional level in France. The species is also included in the Red Data Books of Latvia and Ukraine. T<a name="OLE_LINK8">he following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis atrorubens</em>:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the grassland and woodland, from quarrying, grazing, deforestation and recreational activities.. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Grazing management.<br/></li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Legislation to ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>                <p>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176003		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis atrorubens </em>is a European species which extends slightly into western </a>Asia. The species extends north to northernmost Norway and in Russia to the Arctic  Circle. It occurs southwards to southern Spain, southern Italy, southern Greece, Romania and has a few occurrences in the Caucasus. The species is absent from the Mediterranean lowland but found in western and northern Turkey, northern Iran and southern Siberia. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. atrorubens</span> can be found up to 2,400 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176003		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis atrorubens</em> is found in screes, short grassland, dunes, cliff ledges, slopes, old quarries, road verges, woodland edges and open woodland. It<em> </em>prefers dry to moist, often sandy calcareous and skeletal substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to partial shade and flowers from June to July. (Delforge 1995,&#160; GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176003		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis atrorubens</em><span class="species"> is relatively widespread and often abundant but rare in the Mediterranean zone. <span class="species">The population size is unknown, but t<span class="species">he <span class="species"><span class="species">populations are<span class="species"><span class="species"> decreasing. <span class="species">In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 30% and in Ireland was 38%. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Most of the populations are small with many non-flowering plants<span class="species"> and the decline appears to be ongoing on many sites. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
176003		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis atrorubens </em><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">is declining due to numerous anthropogenic threats, especially quarrying, grazing, deforestation and recreational activities. In addition, the plant is threatened by urbanisation, tourism and associated infrastructure development. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p>
176004		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as threatened in Belgium (Van Landuyt<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006) and the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) and is included in several national red lists with the following category:<br/><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Hungary (Király 2007)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), France (UICN France<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010), Germany (level 2 - Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and on the Carpathian Red List (Witkowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Lithuania (level 2 - Rašomavičius 2007)<br/></li><li>Rare in Estonia (Lilleleht 2008)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Denmark (NERI 2007) and Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Hammarbya paludosa</em>;</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the wet lowland, drainage of habitat should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying out of the sites. </li><li>Ensure appropriate levels of grazing.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap  and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
176004		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Hammarbya paludosa </em>is found in the circumpolar zone of </a>Eurasia and North  America, and extends from temperate and boreal Europe from Britain, Ireland and Scandinavia to the Mediterranean. The species occurs north to the Faeroe  Islands and Scandinavia, and south to the mountains of France, the Italian Alps, and the Balkans. The species can be found up to 1,100 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p></p>
176004		habitat	eng	<p><em>Hammarbya paludosa</em> typically occurs in bogs (associated with a good cover of <em>Sphagnum</em>), marshes, boggy banks, overgrown lakes and can be found among grasses and small shrubs. Occasionally, <em>Hammarbya paludosa</em> is<em> </em>found in running water on the edge of stony tracks. This orchid requires constant moisture in acidic water and cannot resist even a short drought. It grows in full sunlight and is very rarely found in slight shade. Flowering time is from late June to mid-September. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008)</p>
176004		population	eng	<p><em>Hammarbya paludosa</em><span class="species"> is widespread and rare, even very rare in southern <span class="species">Europe<span class="species">. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">The <span class="species">population is decreasing with extreme  fluctuations in the number of mature individuals. The overall population size is not known. I<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">n Britain, the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 61% and in Ireland it was 66%. It is now extinct in most of England. In Russia and adjacent countries the species usually forms small populations of up to 20-30 individuals and rarely more with low density of 0.2-0.3 individuals per m². <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
176004		threats	eng	<p><em>Hammarbya paludosa</em><span class="species"> is<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> declining due to eutrophication, drainage and drought. Inappropriate grazing such as either a lack of grazing to maintain the open sward or overgrazing may cause suitable habitat to vanish. Furthermore, the plant is affected by urbanisation, extension of infrastructure, tourism and plant collection. (Bournérias and Prat&#160;<em></em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap  and Harrap <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></span></p>
176005		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<em><br/></em><em>Cephalanthera damasonium</em> can be protected by;  <ul><li>Protection of the<em> </em>species natural habitats would be an effective conservation measure.</li><li>The fencing-of some areas with highest concentration of plants are temporary recommended and preferably away from places frequented by tourists. </li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
176005		distribution	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera damasonium </em>is found<em> </em>throughout temperate sub-Mediterranean <st1:place>Eurasia</st1:place>. The species is widespread but rarely abundant (Delforge 1995). It is relatively common in southeast <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region> on the North and <st1:place>South Downs</st1:place> and the Chilterns, west to Somerset, <st1:place>Devon</st1:place> and southeast <st1:country-region><st1:place>Wales</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Absent from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Scotland</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Lang 2004). This species is found from sea level to 1,800 m altitude. </p>
176005		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Cephalanthera damasonium</em> is typically found in beech woods where it can occur in considerable numbers, in woodland on chalk or</a> limestone with little ground cover, rarely present in grassland, pinewoods and occasionally found on open downland. It grows in calcareous and rarely slightly acid soils always in shade. It flowers from early May to end of June.   Most flowers of &#160;<em>Cephalanthera damasonium</em> are efficiently self-pollinated but pollination by the female solitary bee <span style="font-style: italic;">Andrena florea </span>has also been recorded <span class="species">(Lang 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).</span></p>  <p></p>
176005		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Cephalanthera damasonium </em>is widespread but rarely abundant<span class="species">. The trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown. It is locally frequent in beech woods in southern <st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="species">England</st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">. Many sites have been lost in recent years, but the species is capable of colonising recently planted beech woodlands <span class="species">(Lang 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></p>  <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><strong></strong><p></p></span></span>
176005		threats	eng	<p><em></em><span class="species">Although   <span class="species">the species is still plentiful in suitable habitats, many populations have been lost due to inappropriate woodland clearance, <span class="species">forest fires, grazing, deforestation for building and construction work purposes as well as plant collection <span class="species">(<st1:country-region><st1:place>Lang</st1:place></st1:country-region> 2004<span class="species">, Delforge 1995<span class="species">).</span></span></span></p>
176006		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <span class="species"><em>Serapias bergonii</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Taxonomic research<br/></li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing and agricultural use. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.&#160;<span class="species"></li></ul><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span>
176006		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">  </a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Serapias bergonii </em>is an </a>eastern Mediterranean species. The species is found east to Antioch in Turkey and west to Calabria in Italy and Sicily.&#160; The species can grow up to 1,500 m altitude (Delforge 1995,&#160; GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>  <p></p>
176006		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><span class="species"><em>Serapias bergonii</em> is found in short, poor grassland, damp meadows, coastal garrigue, scrub, field margins, olive groves and open woodland.</a> It<span class="species"><em> </em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline to slightly acidic, often calcareous and sandy soils. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from the beginning of March to May <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176006		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Serapias bergonii</em> is rather widespread and often abundant where it occurs. The population size and trend remain unknown because of the uncertainty of the taxonomic position of this orchid. In Italy, it can be stated that it has been reported so far only from a few locations in the Salento, in southern Apulia, and in Sicily. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p><br/><p><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>
176006		threats	eng	<p><span class="species"><em>Serapias bergonii</em> is under threat from extensive hybridisation with closely related taxa and agricultural use of meadows. Urbanisation and construction works are further threat as is the collection of this orchid <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176007		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010)</li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002)<br/></li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Pseudorchis albida</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agricultural use and overgrazing. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals of the species through legislation and legal protection which ban the species not to be picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                  <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176007		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Pseudorchis albida </em>has an ‘amphi-Atlantic’ range and is found in northeast </a>North America and Europe. In Europe, it is found in two separate areas. In the north the species occurs in Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, Denmark, Scandinavia (north to northernmost Norway) and northern Russia. In the south the species occurs in the Pyrenees, Massif  Central, Corsica, Alps, Apennines, Balkans, and east to Ukraine. However, between these two separate areas, there are some scattered records, e.g. in Bulgaria, Greece, and the United Kingdom. It is extinct in Belgium and the Netherlands. The species can be found up to 2,700 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176007		habitat	eng	<p><em>Pseudorchis albida</em> is found in poor, short grassland, montane fens, hill pastures, hay meadows, road verges, banks, streamsides, grassy ledges, partially shaded shrub and sometimes in open woodland. It prefers dry to damp, acidic to alkaline soils, full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from late May to mid-July depending on altitude and latitude (Bournérias  and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176007		population	eng	<p><em>Pseudorchis albida</em> is rather widespread and sometimes abundant in the mountains and rare elsewhere. <span class="species">The overall trend of the population is unknow<span class="species">n but local declines have been noted in many sites. For example, the species has vanished from 66% of its historical range in Britain and underwent a loss of 70% in Ireland. <span class="species"><span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"> 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>
176007		threats	eng	<p><em>Pseudorchis albida</em> is locally<span class="species"> declining due to habitat destruction from forestry, urbanisation, tourism, and associated infrastructure development, agricultural improvement and overgrazing (Bournérias  and Prat<span class="species"> 2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176008		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)</p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Spiranthes sinensis</em>;</a></p>  <ul><li><a name="OLE_LINK8"></a>Protection of the habitat from ploughing and other agricultural uses.</li><li>Ensure sufficient supply of sunlight.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Maintenance of a suitable water regime: drainage of meadows should be avoided, and provision of small dams may be necessary to avoid drying of the site in spring</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics</li></ul><p>(Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176008		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Spiranthes sinensis </em><em></em>is one of the most widespread species of orchids, occurring in Asia, Australia and Europe. It reaches Europe in East European Russia and extends to </a>Siberia and the far east of Russia, including Kamchatka, Sakhalin and the Kuril  Islands, Japan, China, Korea, countries of southeast Asia and Australia. The species can be found up to 2,500 m asl. (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176008		habitat	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes sinensis</em> grows in quite variable ecotopes. It occurs often in disturbed habitats and is found on flushed slopes, damp grassland, fens, river banks, around waterfalls, road sides and forest glades. It<em> </em>prefers wet, acidic to alkaline substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from July to August. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176008		population	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes sinensis</em><span class="species"> is local but often abundant. The population size is unknown but the species often forms large aggregations. The population is known to be<span class="species"> decreasing in the northern border of its area but not in the main part of it distribution. <span class="species">(Delforge 1995,&#160; Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
176008		threats	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes sinensis</em><span class="species"> is affected by numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, ploughing, urbanisation, weather conditions and plant collection (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176009		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is listed on various national red lists with varying degrees of threat:</p><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and UK (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Luxembourg (Colling 2005) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) <br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), Hungary (Király 2007) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></li></ul><p><em>Cephalanthera rubra</em> can be protected by;</p>  <ul><li>Management and protection of the species natural habitats by a reduction in canopy to let more light in and keeping the glades relatively small as the species required a degree of shade. </li><li>Carry out control of the ground flora, particularly where a dense layer of herbs has developed and strimming when the flowers have seeded. </li><li>Hand pollination as natural pollination remains very restricted.</li><li>Light grazing (preferably with cattle) over the winter can be useful to create areas of bare ground for germination. </li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Newman <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Harrap  and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).  </li></ul>
176009		distribution	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera rubra </em>is found throughout temperate <st1:place>Eurasia</st1:place> and in parts of the Mediterranean, extending from the <st1:place><st1:place><st1:place>Atlantic</st1:place></st1:place></st1:place> to the <st1:place><st1:place>Caspian Sea. It is widespread and often abundant but becomes very rare and local on the margins of its distribution. In Britain</st1:place></st1:place><st1:place><st1:place>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalanthera rubra</span> is now known only from single localities in the counties of Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire and Hampshire, southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region>. </st1:place></st1:place>This species is found from sea level to 2,000 m altitude.   (Newman <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Harrap  and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).  </p>
176009		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Cephalanthera rubra</em> is typically found in scrubby grassland, woodland margins, warmer calcareous beech and oak woods.</a> It <em></em>grows in calcareous to slightly acid soils in shade to semi-shade (Newman <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Harrap&#160; and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176009		population	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera rubra</em><em> </em>is widespread and often abundant<span class="species"> but becomes very rare and local in the margins of its distribution. The populations are severely fragmented. The trend of the population is suspectected to be declining and<span class="species"> many sites have been lost<span class="species"> <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Newman <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Harrap  and Harrap <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">2009, Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">). <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">In  addition, populations may be genetically depauperate as this species  can form clonal populations (Micheneau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
176009		threats	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera rubra&#160;</em><em></em><span class="species">is especially threatened due to habitat loss and lack of woodland management, neglect leading to problems of excessive shading or too much light, and poor seed-set caused presumably by a lack of suitable pollinating insects, but also perhaps due to the purported intrinsic partial fertility of the species. Further threats are posed by forest fires, deforestation for building and construction work purposes<span class="species"> as well as plant collection (Newman <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Harrap  and Harrap <span class="species"><span class="species">2009, Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">).  </span></span></span></span></p>
176010		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is classed as Data Deficient on the Red List of Andalucia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).</p>      <p>This species can be protected in two fundamental ways through specific protection of the living individuals of the species or through protection and management of the habitats of the species:</p><ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
176010		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys atlantica</span> is a <st1:place>western Mediterranean species and is</st1:place> almost limited to the northern parts of <st1:country-region><st1:place>Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Algeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> and possibly <st1:country-region><st1:place>Tunisia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In <st1:place>Andalusia</st1:place>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys atlantica</span> occurs very locally in the <st1:place><st1:placetype>province</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename>Malaga</st1:placename></st1:place>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species is found from sea level to 1,500 m (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007). The extent of occurrence has been calculated as 995 km² and the area of occupancy as 280 km².</p>  <p></p><p><br/></p><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;">  <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>&#160;&#160;&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span></span>
176010		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats include open deciduous woods and pine woods, garrigue and scrubby grasslands. It prefers alkaline dry to cool soil and grows in dry to somewhat moist ground. It is found in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering takes place from March to June - early in Spain and late in North Africa (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
176010		population	eng	This species is present in a small locality in southern Spain. The trend of the populations is unknown but the species' habitat continues to decline.
176010		threats	eng	<p>This species requires specific habitats and therefore it is assumed that the species is declining with the impoverishment of natural environments. One cause is the excessive agricultural use of the species habitats. Urbanisation, construction work and building in connection with tourism continue to expand in the region. Plant collection also poses a threat to this orchid.</p>    <p><br/></p><p>    </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
176011		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Vulnerable on the French red list (UICN <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a></p><p><a name="OLE_LINK3"><em>Ophrys speculum</em> can be protected in two fundamental ways through specific protection of the living individuals of the species or through protection and management of the habitats of the species:</a></p><ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Type of habitat management that imitates the traditional agriculture or forestry of the locality of the species. </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
176011		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys speculum </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place>. It seems absent from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> and is very rare in <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:place>Crete from where it</st1:place> has been recorded only a couple of times<st1:place></st1:place>. This species is found from sea level to 1,200 m altitude (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
176011		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys speculum</em> is typically found in guarrigue, poor grassland, roadside slopes, open pine woods, fallow fields, scrub and pesticide-free olive-groves.</a> It <em></em>grows in dry to moist, preferably calcareous soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species is from late February to early May, with a peak from mid-March to mid-April (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995). &#160;&#160;<em>&#160;</em></p>
176011		population	eng	<p>    </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys speculum</span> is fairly widespread, often found in colonies especially in coastal zones, rare in the centre of Europe and extremely rare in France. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).  <p></p>
176011		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys speculum </em>is faces specific threats such as urbanisation, construction work, residential buildings and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
176012		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000) and in Hungary (Király 2007)</li><li>Least Concern in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis albensis</em></a>; </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland      habitat from destruction, clearance, mining and unsuitable management.</li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to      protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Appropriate woodland      management to control the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor</li><li>Sympathetic management of      isolated populations.</li><li>Avoid drainage of the      habitat as the species required moist sites. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through      legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: artificial      propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance      of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size      and study their dynamics. </li></ul>  <p>(Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995).</p>
176012		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Epipactis albensis</em> is endemic to central Europe where it occurs in Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Poland and Slovakia. </a>The species can be found up to 500 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995).</p>
176012		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis albensis</em> is found in slopes and small valleys, especially in old-growth alluvial forests<span class="shorttext">. It prefers moist to damp, often acidic substrates. This species grows in shade to mid-shade sites and it flowers from late July to October. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995).</p>
176012		population	eng	<p><em>Epipactis albensis</em> is very local and sometimes rare where it occurs with small and isolated populations. The population is decreasing due to numerous threats. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995).</p>
176012		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis albensis</em> <span class="species">is threatened by habitat loss caused by the destruction of forests, clearing of old trees, inappropriate woodland management, construction of forest roads, mining (especially in Germany), drainage and consumption by animals. In addition, it is harmed by urbanisation,&#160;tourism, and recreational activities<span class="shorttext">. (Bournérias and Prat 2005, Delforge 1995).</span></p>
176013		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Legal protection that bans the species from being picked is already in place. The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza foliosa</em>;</p><ul><li>Protection of the habitat from trampling and <span class="species">recreational activities. <span class="species"></span></li><li>  Fencing <span class="species">the vulnerable sites and creation of natural reserves.    </li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
176013		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza foliosa</em> is endemic to <st1:place>Madeira</st1:place>. This species is found from 400-1,150 m altitude (Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994). The area of occupancy is approx. 159 km².<br/></p>
176013		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza foliosa</em> occurs mainly in open laurel woodlands, meadows near running water, and rock-crevices. It <em></em>grows in acid, cool to fairly dry soils in semi-shade to shade.   The flowering time of the species takes place from May to July/August (Delforge 199, Press and Short 1994).<span class="species"></p>
176013		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza foliosa</em> is very abundant in its distribution area. It <span class="species">is widespread along the island within the laurel forest. Fragmentation is not an issue. <span class="species">The population is increasing because the laurel forest area is increasing despite a fire in August 2010 that affected a very small area of its distribution.<br/></span></p>
176013		threats	eng	<p>  <em>Dactylorhiza foliosa</em><em> </em><span class="species">is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including<span class="species"> tourist development, drainage, construction work, trampling, <span class="species">climatic change and deforestation<span class="species"><span class="species">.   </span></span></p><p><br/></p>
176014		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This plant is listed as Endangered in the regional red list of Bavaria (Ahlmer 2010). The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia </em><em>widderi</em>: <br/><ul><li>Protection of the grassland from recreational activities and trampling. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Ensure appropriate levels of grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
176014		distribution	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia widderi</em> is a European endemic, currently known from a few sites in Styria in Austria, Bavaria in Germany and Abruzzo in Italy. The species can be found from 1,500 to 2,200 m altitude. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
176014		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>widderi</em> can be found in short, calcareous alpine grassland. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from June to August. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002).</p>
176014		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>widderi</em><span class="species"> is very local and extremely rare, known from a few sites in three areas and forming groups with low density. The population size is unknown and the population is decreasing due to numerous threats. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002). In Bavaria, it is found in only two sites in the Alps (Ahlmer 2010).<br/></p>
176014		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>widderi</em><span class="species"> is potentially threatened by<span class="species"><span class="species"> recreational activities and tourism. Like all grassland orchids this species requires a specific level of grazing; too little and the species suffers from invasion of more competitive plants; too much and the diversity of the species is lost. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176015		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed as Vulnerable on the Croatian red list (Nikolić and Topi</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">ć</a><a name="OLE_LINK3"> 2005). Recommended conservation actions for <em>Ophrys bertolonii</em> are:</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
176015		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys bertolonii </em>is found<em> </em>in the c<st1:place>entral Mediterranean and is</st1:place> mostly occurring in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>, from the river <st1:place>Po</st1:place> to <st1:state><st1:place>Sicily. </st1:place></st1:state>The species occurs from <st1:place>Istria</st1:place> in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region><st1:place>Montenegro</st1:place></st1:country-region> in the Balkans as well as the Ionian <st1:place><st1:placetype>island</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename>Corfu and</st1:placename></st1:place> is found from sea level to 1,450 m altitude    (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).  </p>
176015		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6">Typical habitats where </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys bertolonii</em> can be found are roadside verges, garrigue, grassland, olive groves and open places in forest and maquis.</a><br/></p>  <p><em>Ophrys bertolonii</em> grows in dry to moist, calcareous soil in full sunlight. The flowering time of the species is from March-April to June with a peak time in mid-April to mid-May (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
176015		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys bertolonii </em>is quite widespread and fairly common, usually spotted in several locations in the <st1:place>central  Mediterranean</st1:place> region. The trend of the populations remains unknown. Some authors recognize a range of segregate taxa. (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
176015		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys bertolonii</em> is threatened by urbanisation, construction work, residential building, and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
176016		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is threatened in Belgium (Van Landuyt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and the Netherlands (Meijden 2000) and listed in several national red lists under the following categories:<br/><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Hungary (Király 2007), and Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Lithuania (level 1 - Rašomavičius 2007), and Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Denmark (NERI 2007), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and on the Carpathian Red List (Witkowski<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003) <br/></li><li>Vulnerable in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010), United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></li><li>Data Deficient in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Hammarbya monorchis</em>;</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the grassland and lowland from ploughing up, agriculture uses and extensive use of fertilisation.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured and drainage of habitat should be avoided as the species is very sensitive to drought. </li><li>Maintain a moderate level of grazing to avoid scrub encroachment.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Ex situ conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
176016		distribution	eng	<p><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span style="font-style: italic;">Herminium monorchis</span><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em> </em>is an Eurasian species that occurs in Central and </a>West Europe, but is is absent from the extreme north and some regions of the Mediterranean. The species occurs north to Scandinavia, southern Finland and the Baltic  States, and it ranges south to southeast France, Italy and the Balkans, with isolated populations in northwest Turkey and the Caucasus. The species can be found up to 2,400 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
176016		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats for <em>Hammarbya monorchis</em> include short grassland, marshes, dune slacks, slopes and fens. It prefers dry to damp, chalk or limestone, calcareous to neutral substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from May to the beginning of August (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176016		population	eng	<em>Hammarbya monorchis</em><span class="species"> is locally abundant in temperate <span class="species">Europe<span class="species">, localised in the boreal zone. Often the subpopulations are aggregated and the number of the plants in a  habitat can range from several hundred to several thousand individuals.  The trend of t<span class="species">he population is decreasing and declining in many sites due to numerous threats. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">In Britain, for example, the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 69% and it is now extinct in many areas in England. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span>
176016		threats	eng	<p><em>Hammarbya monorchis</em><span class="species"> <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">is decreasing due to the ploughing of grassland, agricultural intensification, extensive use of fertilisers which leads to changes in vegetation dynamics and competition, overgrazing, afforestation, and drought. Further threats are urbanisation, expansion of infrastructure and tourism. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p>
176017		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected in several countries at the national level such us Belgium, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom, and at the regional level in France. <br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis anthropophora</em>;</a> <br/></p>  <ul><li>Improve the management of the habitat, especially road verges and open habitat from agricultural use.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Monitor grazing to stop overtaking of small populations and to limit the competition with other species.</li><li>Fence the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176017		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis anthropophora </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species, occurring in western and southern Europe, North Africa and the Levant. The species ranges north to the Netherlands, southern Germany and Switzerland, south to the Balkans and the Mediterranean with most of the islands from the Balearics to Cyprus. It can be found from sea level to 1,600 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176017		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis anthropophora</em> grows in xerophitic and well drained short grassland, garrigue, scrub, woodland edges, roadsides verges, churchyards, abandoned quarries and pits and rarely in open woodland. It<em> </em>prefers dry to moist calcareous soils, chalk or limestone substrates. This species favours full sunlight to mid shade and flowers from April to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176017		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis anthropophora</em> is widespread and rather common in the centre and west of the range, rare in the east and north. As far as population size is concerned, in Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 48% of the total number of 10 km². <span class="species">The trend of the populations remains<span class="species"> unknown in other places but many sites on the northeastern border of the distribution are declining. On the other hand, new sites have been found (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</span></p>
176017		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis anthropophora </em>is submitted to numerous threats such us competition with other species due to shrub encroachment, overgrazing, ploughing, building sites and tourism<span style="background-color: white;">. In addition to that, the clearing of road verges and the application of herbicides and pesticides affects this plant. On the othe</span>r hand, the quantity of new sites has grown a bit lately (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176018		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is listed on several national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Vulnerable in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Hungary (where it is also protected - Király 2007), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002)<br/></li></ul><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Platanthera bifolia</em>;</a><br/>  <p> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the heathland and moorland from ploughing, agricultural use and urbanisation. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Weak trampling, e.g. during mushroom collection could favour the population. &#160; <br/></li><li>Moderate management of grazing.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ </span>conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics&#160;</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
176018		distribution	eng	<p><em>Platanthera bifolia </em>is widespread in Europe and Asia and also found in North Africa. In Europe, the species can be found north to the Faeroe Islands and northern Scandinavia. South the species extends to Spain, Italy, northern Greece, and eastwards to Crimea and the Caucasus. It also occurs on the Balearic  Islands, Corsica, Sardinia,  Sicily and the Aegean islands. The species can be found up to 2,500 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176018		habitat	eng	<p><em>Platanthera bifolia</em><em> </em>is found in a wide ecological range including short grassland, moorland, heathland, margins of valley bogs, marshes and open woodland. It<em> </em>prefers dry to moist, often calcareous and open chalk, neutral or mildly acidic soils. This species grows in full sunlight to shade and flowers from May to July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176018		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Platanthera bifolia </em><span class="species">is widespread and sometimes quite common. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">The  population is declining&#160; and many populations have been  lost or appear to have only a handful of individuals in each  population. T<span class="species">he species has declined greatly in <span class="species">the United   Kingdom<span class="species"> with a loss of 64% of the historical range and 48.5% in <span class="species">Ireland<span class="species">. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></span></span></p>  <p><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></span></p>
176018		threats	eng	<p><em>Platanthera bifolia</em><em> </em><span class="species">is declining rapidly in some areas especially due to the outright destruction of heathland with urban and infrastructure development and agricultural use of the habitat<span style="background-color: white;">. The 'improvement' of pastures and hay meadows and the clearance or ‘coniferisation’ of woodland are also responsible for this rapid decline. The hab</span><span class="species">itat is furthermore degrading due to the lack of grazing which leads to the encroachment of shrubs and competition for this orchid. Overgrazing on the other hand, also poses a problem. Collection of the species for ornamental purposes leads to species loss. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176019		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia </em><em>stiriaca</em> (Delforge 1995): <br/><ul><li>Protection of the grassland from recreational activities and trampling. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Ensure appropriate levels of grazing.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
176019		distribution	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia stiriaca</em> is a European endemic that is only found in Austria, <span class="species">known from a few sites in three areas: Dachstein, Salzkammergut and Grazer Bergland. The species can be found from 1,800 to 2,000 m altitude (Delforge 1995, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). The extent of occurrence is 2,905 km² and the area of occupancy is below 500 km².<br/></p>
176019		habitat	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia</em><em> stiriaca</em> can be found in short, calcareous alpine grassland. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from mid-June to mid-August (Delforge 1995).</p>
176019		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>stiriaca</em><span class="species"> is extremely local and very rare, known from few sites and forms few groups with low density. The population size is not known, and the population is decreasing due to numerous threats (Delforge 1995).</p>
176019		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia </em><em>stiriaca</em><span class="species"> <span class="species"><span class="species">is threatened by recreational activities and like all grassland orchids, it requires a specific level of grazing; too little and the species suffers from invasion of more competitive plants; too much and the diversity of the species is lost (Delforge 1995).</span></p>
176020		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:<br/><ul><li>Vulnerable in Spain (Moreno 2008) and Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010)</li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)</li><li>Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)</li></ul>The species is protected at the regional level in France and nationally protected in Northern Ireland under Schedule 8 of the1985 Wildlife Order (NI). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis phyllanthes</em>:</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially from planting with conifers and unsuitable woodland management.</li><li>Ensure adequate sunlight to the forest floor as the species does not tolerate shaded habitats.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Water regime must be managed to avoid drying out of the sites. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li></ul>(ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).
176020		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis phyllanthes</em> is endemic to west and northwest Europe, from northern Spain through France and Belgium to Denmark. In the south, the species occurs in Galicia and Cantabria and extends to northern England. The species may occur more widely but the taxonomic confusion surrounding the species has clouded an understanding of its true range.&#160;</a><em></em>The species can be found up to 600 m altitude. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
176020		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis phyllanthes</em><em></em> grows in dunes, scrub, bare ground in beech, oak, sweet chestnut and conifer forests. It&#160;<em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline substrates, often calcareous sands. This species grows in full sunlight and very rarely in shade. It flowers from the beginning of June until September. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>
176020		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Epipactis phyllanthes </em>is often rare and very local. In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 36% and in Ireland was 55.5%. In Sweden, the number of mature individuals has been estimated at 5,000 and the number of local sites in the country is estimated to be 80. The population is decreasing and the declines appear to be ongoing. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>  <span class="species"><span class="hps"><span lang="EN"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="134"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="135"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="136"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="137"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="138"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="139"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="141"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="142"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="143"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="144"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="145"><span class="hps"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="146"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="147"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="148"><span title="Click for alternate translations" closure_uid_i2p48u="150"><span class="species"><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176020		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis phyllanthes </em><span class="species">is locally declining on many sites due to the grubbing-out or replanting of woodland with conifers and inappropriate woodland management. The habitat becomes unsuitable as the woodland matures and becomes more shaded. In addition, the plant is harmed by urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities. (ArtDatabanken 2010, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004).</p>
176021		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Denmark (NERI 2007), Hungary (Király 2007) and Spain (Moreno 2008)</li><li>Endangered in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996)</li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)</li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Sweden (Gärdenfors 2010) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)<br/></li><li>Rare in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipogium aphyllum</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland habitat, including from fire and disturbance of the soil cover. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites.</li><li>Ensure an adequate water regime: drainage of the habitats should be avoided.</li><li>Protections of stems from slug damage.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>                <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, &#160;Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176021		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipogium aphyllum </em>is found in central and northern </a>Europe, the Caucasus and through northern Asia to the Far East, with a few scattered locations in the Himalayas and China. In Europe the species occurs north to northern Scandinavia and south to the Alps, central Italy, northern Greece, and eastwards to Ukraine. <em></em>It is also found in Corsica but is absent west of the Alps and the Massif  Central. The species can be found up to 1,800 m asl. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176021		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Epipogium aphyllum</em> is found in dense beech and coniferous forests. It </a><em></em>prefers cool, deep, alkaline to slightly acidic substrates. This species grows in shady sites and it flowers from June to August (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176021		population	eng	<p><em>Epipogium aphyllum</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rare. In Britain the species was extinct but reappeared again recently after 23 years (Garner 2010). The overall population size is unknown with a declining trend<span class="species"> (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, &#160;Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
176021		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipogium aphyllum </em><span class="species">is <span class="species"><span class="species">threatened by drainage, felling of forests, fires, disturbance of soil cover, digging, removal and slug damage. In addition it is harmed by urbanisation, tourism and plant collection. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, &#160;Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
176022		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK8"><em></em></a>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/></p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Anacamptis sancta</em>:</p>  <ul><li>Improve the management of grasslands and allow moderate grazing activities.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>            <p>(Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>
176022		distribution	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis sancta </em>is an eastern  Mediterranean species that <em></em>settles in low lying areas of the southeast Mediterranean and in the dry areas close to the coasts of the east Mediterranean. To the west the species does not reach the Greek mainland but there are strong populations found on the southeast and central Aegean  Islands (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007). Its area of occupancy is suspected to be smaller than 2,000 km².<br/></p>
176022		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis sancta</em> typically occurs in short, poor grassland, garrigue, scrub and open woodland.</a> It<em></em> prefers dry to temporarily wet places, alkaline, stony soil with good drainage. These can be extensive meadows, often very dry at flowering time, meadow-like small patches in the phrygana or similarly situated places in bright pine forests. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and is found from sea level to 900 m altitude. The flowering time of the species takes place from the beginning of April to the end of June (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
176022		population	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK7"><em>Anacamptis sancta</em></a><em> </em>is very rare and local where it occurs<span class="species">. This species becomes rare on regions far from <span class="species">maritime  climate and it avoids locations higher than 800 m. This is why very  weak populations were found on the very mountainous isles of <span class="species">Crete<span class="species">  and Carpathos. This change is due to unfavourable climate influences as  the high mountains leave fewer lowland positions as possible locations. <em><br/></em><span class="species">The total number of individuals is unknown; however, the total population is in decline due to the human influences on the coasts (Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></span>
176022		threats	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK7"><em></em></a><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">This species is subject to threats such us grazing by animals, agricultural use of the habitat,<span style="background-color: white;"> infrastructure development and recreational activities at the coasts (Delfor</span>ge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).</span></span></p>
176023		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is listed as Critically Endangered in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and the Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000).<br/> </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis </em><em>greuteri</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the woodland habitat from destruction, road construction, clearance of old trees and unsuitable woodland management. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control grazing by wild animals.</li><li>Ensure suitable woodland management to control the amount of light reaching the forest floor.</li><li>Maintain a suitable water regime to avoid drying out of the sites. </li><li>Establish nature reserves for the most important habitats</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                        <p>(Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Rossi 2002, GIROS 2009).</p>
176023		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis greuteri </em>is endemic to central and southeast Europe and has a disjunct distribution. It is found in Greece at only a few locations in the central Pindos mountains and their southern branches, and the eastern Alps, from northern Italy south to Emilia-Romagna. It occurs in Croatia and in Bulgaria where it grows in the central Rhodopi Mountains along the road from Teshel to Mougla. </a>The species can be found up to 1,500 m asl. (Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Rossi 2002, Petrova, and Venkova 2008, GIROS 2009).</p>
176023		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis greuteri</em> is usually found in shaded sites in beech woods, sometimes in mixed woodland with beech and coniferous forest. It grows in natural woodland in the upper montane zones. <em>Epipactis greuteri</em> prefers deep and moist, often calcareous, substrates. This species grows mostly in shaded places with high humidity and mostly near rivulets. It flowers from June to September (Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Rossi 2002, Petrova and Venkova 2008, GIROS 2009).<span lang="FR"></p>
176023		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Epipactis greuteri</em> is very rare and local where it occurs. The distribution area of the species is very fragmented with few locations The observed population in Bulgaria was a small one: five plants were found in an area of about 0.05 ha. The population of the species is decreasing due to numerous threats (Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Rossi 2002, Petrova and Venkova 2008, GIROS 2009).  </p><span lang="FR"><span lang="FR"><p></p></span>
176023		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis </em><em>greuteri</em><span class="species"> is<span class="species"> declining due to numerous anthropogenic threats, especially loss of habitat from forest clearance, the removal of old trees, construction of forests roads and drainage. In addition, urbanisation, tourism and recreational activities are causing a decline.<span class="species"><span class="species"> The plant is also grazed by wild animals <span class="species"><span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Phitos <em>et al.</em> 1995, Rossi 2002, <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">GIROS 2009</span><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
176024		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </p>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Gymnadenia frivaldii</em>: </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the grassland from recreational activities and trampling. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Management of grazing to ensure the right level of impact. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>
176024		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Gymnadenia frivaldii</em> is present in the </a>Balkan Peninsula, from Montenegro to northern Greece and Bulgaria. The species extends to the south Carpathians. It can be found from 1,000 to 2,300 m altitude.  (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Delforge 1995).</p>
176024		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats of <em>Gymnadenia frivaldii</em> include short grassland, meadows, fens and sometimes open woodland. It&#160;<em></em>prefers damp, siliceous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and flowers from June to August (Delforge 1995).</p>
176024		population	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia frivaldii </em><span class="species">is very local but often abundant within its sites. The total population size is unknown and t<span class="species">he overall trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown but declines have been noted on many sites. (Delforge 1995).</span></p>
176024		threats	eng	<p><em>Gymnadenia frivaldii</em> suffers from numerous thr<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">eats including recreational activities, and like all grassland orchids this species requires a specific level of grazing; too little and competitive plants invade its habitat, too much and the diversity of the species is lost. Additional threats are tourism and trampling. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
176025		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>  <p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected in several countries at national level such us Belgium and Luxembourg and at regional level in France. <br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis mascula</em>;</a> <br/></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open grassland from ploughing and agriculture uses; and the woodland from “coniferisation” and fire and fencing of the vulnerable sites. </li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Monitor the grazing to stop overtaking the small populations and to limit the competition with other species<em></em>.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                    <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176025		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"><em>Orchis mascula </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species</a>. The species ranges from the Canary Islands and North Africa to north of the Arctic Circle and occurs north to the Faroe Islands, Norway, central Sweden and the Baltic States. The species is poorly known in the southern and eastern limits due to confusion with closely related species. However, eastwards the species extends to at least Italy and has recently also been observed in Bulgaria and Anatolia. This orchid is probably absent from Central Europe and it may be replaced by <em>Orchis ovalis</em>, sometimes treated as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. mascula</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">signifera</span>. The species can be found up to 3,000 m asl (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176025		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Orchis mascula</em> grows in short, poor grassland, garrigue, damp meadows, alpine pastures, rocky mountain ledges, roadsides verges, limestone pavements, deciduous woodland, woodland edges and open woodland. It </a><em></em>prefers dry to moist, acidic to calcareous soils, on chalk or limestone substrates. This species favours full sunlight to shade and flowers from April to June (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176025		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis mascula</em> is widespread and sometimes abundant in the west of its range. The Early-purple Orchid is the third most widespread species of orchid. However, as far as population size is concerned, the species has vanished from 28% of its historical range in Britain and 21% in Ireland. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown on other places but declines appear to be ongoing on many sites (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</span></p>
176025		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis mascula </em>is declining in population size and number of locations due to numerous anthropogenic threats such us destruction of woodland or conifer plantations, the loss of grassland habitats due to ploughing and agricultural use. The species is tolerant of light grazing but overgrazing poses a threat. Furthermore the use of fertilisers, production of salep from the tubers, building sites, forest fires and tourism activities, all affect this orchid (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176026		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Epipactis placentina </span>is listed as Critically Endangered on the Hungarian red list (Király 2007) and the Swiss red list (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and Near Threatened on the French red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Epipactis placentina</em>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open woodland from agricultural uses and destruction, clearance and unsuitable management.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Ensure enough supply of sunlight to the forest floor.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Water regime must be ensured, drainage of habitat should be avoided. </li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Toth 2000).
176026		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis placentina</em> is endemic to central and southern Europe where it extends from Switzerland to Sicily; it has its centre of distribution in northern Italy, with a few sites in Isere (France), in Switzerland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and on the slopes of Etna and Mount Faito in Sicily. </a>The species can be found from 600 to 1,400 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Toth 2000).</p>
176026		habitat	eng	<p><em>Epipactis placentina</em> is found in open mixed woodland, the edges of mixed forests, beech, ash and pine plantations. It prefers moist, slightly acidic to neutral substrates. This species grows in mid-shade to shade and flowers from the beginning of June to early August. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Toth 2000).</p>
176026		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Epipactis placentina</em> is very rare and local. The populations are small, occur often as isolated individuals and are very fragmented. The population size is unknown, but the population is decreasing</a>. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Toth 2000).<br/><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></p>
176026		threats	eng	<p><em>Epipactis placentina</em> <span class="species">is declining due to the loss of habitat caused by destruction of forests, clearing of old trees, construction of forest roads, drainage, <span class="species">urbanisation, tourism, <span class="species"><span class="species">and agricultural use. In addition, it is affected by <span class="species">digging and consumption by animals and <span class="species">recreational activities. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Toth 2000).</span></span></span></p>
176027		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected in several countries at the national level such as Belgium, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom, and at the regional level in France. <br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis militaris</span></a>:<br/></p>  <ul><li>Improve the management of the habitat, especially the open habitat, fencing of sites.</li><li>Restrict the use of fertilisers.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>              <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176027		distribution	eng	<p><em>Orchis militaris </em>is a Euro-Siberian species. In Europe, the species ranges in the north from England, northern Germany, southeast Sweden and Estonia to northern Spain, central Italy, the Balkans and European Turkey. In Russia, the species extends east to the Altai Mountains and Lake  Baikal. It can be found from sea level to 2,200 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176027		habitat	eng	<p><em>Orchis militaris</em> inhabits short, poor grassland, unimproved meadows, scrub, woodland glades, woodland edges, rough field and open woodland. It <strong></strong><em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline soils. This species favours full sunlight and flowers from April to June and sometimes to July at higher altitudes (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).<span class="species"></p>
176027		population	eng	<p><em>Orchis militaris</em> is local and rather rare where it occurs. As far as population size is concerned, in Greece the total number may be no more than 500 individuals. In Britain the total loss of the specie<span style="background-color: white;">s between 1500 and 1986 was 84%</span>. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown in other places but many sites have been declining everywhere (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</span></p>
176027		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis militaris </em>is declining in population size and number of locations as the species and the habitat are submitted to numerous threats such us an intensified use of fertilizers, overgrazing, drainage, ploughing of meadows, building sites, tourism and <span style="background-color: white;">damage by slugs. The abandonment of agricultural activities and grazing leads to natural vegetation succession and increased competition for this species</span> (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).<span class="species"></p>
176028		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<br/><br/>It occurs in several protected areas such as Paisaje Protegido de Pino Santo, Paisaje Protegido de Las Cumbres, Reserva Natural Integral de Barranco Oscuro and Reserva Natural Especial de Azuaje (Gran Canaria), Paisaje Protegido de Orone (La Gomera), Reserva Natural Integral de Tibataje (El Hierro) and Paisaje Protegido Costa Acentejo (Tenerife).<br/><br/>It was identified as a Near Threatened species by TPU-Consejo de Europa in 1983 and included in the "Orden de 20 de febrero de 1991, de la Consejería de Política Territorial, sobre protección de especies de la flora vascular silvestre de la Comunidad Autónoma de Canarias". However, it is not included in the catalogue of protected species of the Canary Islands of 2010 and neither in the former catalogue of threatened species.
176028		distribution	eng	This orchid is endemic to the Canary Islands (Spain) and is found on La Gomera, La Palma, El Hierro, Tenerife and Gran Canaria (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). A further subpopulation was found in Lanzarote in 1983 which was formed by only  six individuals. Its current presence in this island is uncertain. This plant is found between 400 and 1,000 m asl (Grupo Orquideófilo Canarias 2002).
176028		habitat	eng	This orchid occurs on moist crags within Laurisilva forests and also within scrublands in less humid environments. It has also become adapted to areas under human influence, such as edges of mountain roads. It flowers from November to April and remains underground during the summer (Grupo Orquideófilo Canarias 2002).
176028		population	eng	It is locally abundant throughout the majority of its distribution and is suspected to be the most common orchid on the Canary Islands. The total number of individuals has generally decreased due to the reduction of its habitat (Laurisilva forests) (Grupo Orquideófilo Canarias 2002). The current population trend is unknown.
176028		threats	eng	There is no information on direct threats to this species but its habitat, Laurisilva forests, has declined in the past (Grupo Orquideófilo Canarias 2002).
176029		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">  </a><p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Orchis quadripunctata</em>;</a> <br/></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the open grassland from ploughing, agricultural uses and fertilisers; and the woodland from fire and deforestation. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. <br/></li></ul>                <p>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176029		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Orchis quadripunctata </em>is a central and eastern Mediterranean species. The species occurs west from </a>Mount Gargano and Campania in Italy, to Cyprus in the east, and from Dalmatia in the north to Crete in the south. The species is absent from Sicily and Sardinia. It can be found up to 1,600 m altitude (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176029		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Orchis quadripunctata</em> typically grows in short grassland, garrigue, maquis and open woodland. It </a><em></em>prefers dry, mostly alkaline, calcareous and limestone substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from mid-March to end of May (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176029		population	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Orchis quadripunctata</em><span class="species"> is local but often occurs in groups. As far as population size is concerned the species is found in very considerable populations with many individuals. The trend of the population is unknown (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>  <p></p>
176029		threats	eng	<p><em>Orchis quadripunctata</em><span class="species"> is threatened by the collection of the tuber for the production of salep, digging and consumption by animals (wild boar, rabbits, slugs and muntjac), as well as ploughing and agricultural use of its habitat. Tourism furthermore impacts on this plant (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176030		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK8">All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </a>This species is a protected plant in some countries including Belgium, Luxembourg, and some regions in France, Czech Republic and Slovakia.<br/>It is included in several national red lists (often under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis morio</span>):<br/><ul><li>Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005), Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000), Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996), and Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in Croatia (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2010), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), United Kingdom (Cheffings 2005)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in Denmark (NERI 2007), France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and Hungary (Király 2007)<br/></li></ul>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Anacamptis morio</em>;<br/>  <ul><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Information on the overall population trend and rates of decline within ten years or three generations<br/></span></span></li><li><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Improve the management of flower-rich grasslands.</span></span></li><li>Reducing the use of fertilisers in grassland.</li><li>Moderate grazing activities by cattle.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.<br/></li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>              <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176030		distribution	eng	<em>Anacamptis morio</em> is mainly found in Europe and extends marginally into North  Africa and the Middle East. It is a Euro-Mediterranean species. It ranges from north to southern Norway, southern Sweden and Estonia, east to westernmost Russia and eastern Ukraine and south to the Mediterranean, including many of the Mediterranean islands, Crimea and the Caucasus, also reaching Lebanon, Israel, Turkey, northwest Iran and Morocco. This species is found from sea level to 2,000 m altitude.  (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Lang 2004, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).
176030		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Anacamptis morio</em> shows a broad ecological tolerance of habitats including short and poor grassland, unimproved meadows, alpine pastures, forest fringes and open woodland. It </a><em></em>prefers alkaline rich soil in full sun light and it can settle on poor ground, clay-free, of lime and low in nitrogen content. The flowering time of the species takes place from April to May-June (Bournérias&#160;and Prat<em> </em>2005, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</p>
176030		population	eng	<p><em>Anacamptis morio</em> is widespread and sometimes very abundant where it occurs<span class="species">. The population size is unknown. With respect to population dynamics this species had declined dramatically in the last 50 years. In Britain and Ireland the species has been lost from 49% and 60% of the historical range, respectively. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown but many sites have been declining everywhere (Bournérias and Prat <span class="species"><span class="species">2005, Harrap and Harrap<span class="species"><span class="species"> 2009, Delforge 1995, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004).</span></span></span></p>
176030		threats	eng	<em>Anacamptis morio</em> <span class="species">is suffering from reduction in habitat quality and extent, mainly due to agricultural changes where damp meadows and pastures are ploughed and converted into arable land. This is often associated with intensive use of fertilisers in those grasslands which is toxic to the species.<br/><br/>Further causes of habitat degradation are <span style="background-color: white;">industrial development, </span>grazing, drainage and inappropriate landscaping or deforestation (Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007).
176031		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<p><a name="OLE_LINK3"><em>Ophrys apifera</em> can be protected in two fundamental ways through specific protection of the living individuals of the species or through protection and management of the habitats of the species:</a></p>    <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics   (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).</li></ul>
176031		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophrys apifera </em>is found<em> </em>throughout the <st1:place>Mediterranean</st1:place>, including the <st1:place>Levant</st1:place>, and in Atlantic western Europe north to the United Kingdom<st1:place></st1:place>, Ireland, <st1:city><st1:place>the Netherlands</st1:place></st1:city> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Denmark. </st1:place></st1:country-region>This species is found from sea level to 1,800 m altitude (Delforge 1995, Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).<em> </em></p>  <p></p>
176031		habitat	eng	<p>Typical habitats of <em>Ophrys apifera</em> include edges of woods, open deciduous and pine forests, verges, garrigue, grassland, reed swamps and stabilised coastal dunes. The species is commonly found as a pioneer plant in abandoned quarries, railway embankments and roadside verges. <em>Ophrys apifera</em> grows in dry to wet calcareous and on alkaline dry to swampy soils in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time of the species is relatively late, from April to July and the peak time is from April-June (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>  &#160; <em></em><p></p>
176031		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys apifera </em>is widespread and present in several locations in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations remains unknown. </p>
176031		threats	eng	<p>Urbanisation, construction work and residential building are affecting this species. Plant collection is a threat to <em>Ophrys apifera</em><em></em> (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
176032		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is listed as Vulnerable on the French red list (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is classed as Data Deficient on the regional red list of Andalucia <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).</span></span></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Platanthera algeriensis</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Protection of the habitats from trampling. <br/></li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>                <p>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176032		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK2"><em>Platanthera algeriensis</em><span class="species"></a><em> </em>is a western Mediterranean species. It ranges from the Moroccan and Saharan Atlas, east to Algeria, and in Europe, it has been reported from southern Spain, Corsica and Sardinia. The species can be found between 700 and 2,000 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>  <p></p>
176032		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK11"><em>Platanthera algeriensis</em> is found in bogs, marshes, wet meadows surrounding springs and streams and boggy depressions in the mountains.</a><em> </em>It prefers damp or wet acidic substrates and grows in full sunlight. Flowering time is from the end of May to the end of July (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176032		population	eng	<p><em>Platanthera algeriensis</em><span class="species"> is very rare and local and the populations are severely fragmented. The overall population size is unknown <span class="species">but the populations have often less than 100 individuals in each location<span class="species"><span class="species">. In Spain, there is only one population with few individuals in the Sierras Beticas (Cabezudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The<span class="species"> trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown but declines have bee noted on many sites. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></span></span></p>
176032		threats	eng	<p><em>Platanthera algeriensis</em><span class="species"> is potentially threatened by collection by horticulturists. It furthermore suffers from habitat loss due to tourism, trampling and infrastructure expansion. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176033		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Recommended conservation measures for <em>Ophrys ferrum-equinum</em> are:</a></p>  <ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of the localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007)</li></ul>
176033		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ophrys ferrum-equinum</span> is found throughout the eastern Mediterranean from the Balkans to Anatolia, the majority of populations are situated in the southwest. This species is missing from Cephalonia and also possibly from Crete but the species occurs in Karpathos. This species is found from sea level to 1,100 m altitude. (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).  <p></p>
176033		habitat	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK6">Typical habitats of </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Ophrys ferrum-equinum</em> include roadside slopes, garrigue, stony grassland, open pine woods and pesticide-free olive groves.</a> It<em></em> grows in alkaline dry to moist, calcareous soil in full sunlight to light shade. The flowering time is from March to May with a peak time from mid-March to mid-April (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
176033		population	eng	<p><em>Ophrys ferrum-equinum </em>is fairly widespread in the eastern Mediterranean region and sometimes rare. The trend of the populations remains unknown (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007, Delforge 1995).</p>
176033		threats	eng	<p><em>Ophrys ferrum-equinum</em> is threatened by urbanisation, construction work, residential building and plant collection (Pederson and Faurholdt 2007).<strong></strong></p>
176034		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <span style="font-style: italic;">Serapias lingua</span><em> </em>is included in the national red list of France as Near Threatened (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/></p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Serapias lingua</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially wet meadows, from ploughing and agricultural use. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals.</li><li>Control and management of salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Legislation to ban collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).                  <p></p>
176034		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><em>Serapias lingua </em>is a Mediterranean species that occurs east to Greece, west to Portugal and north to France and the United Kingdom where it found at a single site on Guernsey and in Devon (UK). It extends its range into North Africa. The species can be found up to 1,200 m altitude. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).</p>
176034		habitat	eng	<p><em>Serapias lingua</em> is found in short, poor grassland, garrigue, scrub, dune slacks, olive groves, damp meadows, marshy meadows and open woodland. It&#160;<em></em>prefers moist to wet, alkaline to acidic substrates. This species grows in full sunlight to mid-shade and flowers from March to June. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p><p></p>
176034		population	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em>Serapias lingua</em></a><span class="species"> is rather widespread and often abundant where it occurs. The population size and <span class="species">trend remain<span class="species"> unknown. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</span></p>
176034		threats	eng	<p><em>Serapias lingua</em><span class="species"> is subject to various threats such as collection of the orchid for salep production or horticultural use, digging and consumption by animals, ploughing and other agricultural use of its habitats. It is furthermore impacted by urbanisation, tourism, and related infrastructure development. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002).</p>
176035		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Denmark (NERI 2007)<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Czech Republic (Holub and Procházka 2000)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009)<br/></li><li>Near Threatened in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Hungary (Király 2007), Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect this species:</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing and improvement by fertilisers. </li><li>Fencing vulnerable sites.</li><li>Moderate grazing and cease late mowing in summer.</li><li>Ensure enough supply of sunlight.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection through legislation which bans collection of the species.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ </span>conservation: artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate population size and study their dynamics</li></ul>&#160;(Bournérias <em>et al. </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).
176035		distribution	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes spiralis </em>is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species, almost confined to Europe with some outposts in North Africa. The species is found north to the United Kingdom and Germany, east to western Ukraine and south to the Mediterranean. (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176035		habitat	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes spiralis</em> is found in short grassland, close-cropped vegetation on grassland, abandoned cultivation, dunes, marshes, garrigue, road verges and open pinewoods. It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>prefers dry to damp, slightly acidic to alkaline, often calcareous substrates. This species grows in full sunlight and the flowering time is from August to October (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176035		population	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes spiralis</em><span class="species"> is widespread but rare throughout its range. <span class="species">T<span class="species">he trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown but the species is able to colonise new sites. <span class="species">In Britain the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 55% and in Ireland it was 71%. <span class="species"><span class="species"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></p>
176035		threats	eng	<p><em>Spiranthes spiralis</em><span class="species"> is under numerous threats including competition from taller and more vigorous herbs and grasses which is often caused by grassland improvement with fertilisers; ploughing of pastures, overgrazing (by sheep and especially by rabbits), mowing of pastures in late summer and shading. The species is also impacted by urbanisation, tourism and plant collection (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176036		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This orchid is included in the following national red lists:</p><ul><li>Regionally Extinct in Luxembourg (Colling 2005)<br/></li><li>Critically Endangered in Belarus (Ermakova 2005)<br/></li><li>Endangered in Germany (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996) and the United Kingdom (Cheffings and Farrell 2005)<br/></li><li>Vulnerable in Bulgaria (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009) and Denmark (NERI 2007)</li><li>Near Threatened in Hungary (Király 2007)<br/></li><li>Least Concern in France (UICN France <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<br/></li></ul>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Neotinea ustulata</em>;</a> </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat, especially the pastures from ploughing, <span class="species">intensive use of fertilisers and agricultural use. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals, trampling and collection.</li><li>Maintenance of specific biotopes by light spring grazing or mowing.</li><li>Control and management of species collection.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.</li></ul>(Bournérias and Prat2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, <span class="species"><span class="species">Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span>
176036		distribution	eng	<p><a style="font-style: italic;" name="OLE_LINK10"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1"><span style="font-style: italic;">Neotinea ustulata</span> is confined to </a>Europe and extends slightly into western Siberia. It occurs north to Denmark, southern Sweden, Estonia and the St Petersburg region of Russia and south to northern Spain, Italy, northern Greece, Bulgaria and the Ukraine. It is also found in the Caucasus. In the south of its range it is mostly found in the mountains and is absent from the Mediterranean lowland. The species can be found up to 2,400 m altitude (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176036		habitat	eng	<p><em>Neotinea ustulata</em> is found in short grassland, garrigue, marshland, dry shrubland, alluvial meadows, woodland edges and open woodland. It prefers dry to moist, alkaline to acidic and often calcareous soils and grows in full sunlight. Flowering time is from April to August (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, <span class="species"><span class="species">Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
176036		population	eng	<p><em>Neotinea ustulata<span class="species"> </em><span class="species">is widespread and sometimes abundant in the mountains, rare elsewhere, very rare in the Mediterranean zone. The population size is unknown but the populations are decreasin<span class="species"><span class="species">g rapidly and many sites have vanished. In<span class="species"> Britain, the total loss of the species between 1500 and 1999 was 79% and the total population is estimated to be about 1,000 flowering plants. <span class="species">(Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, <span class="species"><span class="species">Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></span></span></p>
176036		threats	eng	<p><em>Neotinea ustulata</em><span class="species"> is locally declining on many sites due to agricultural intensification, lack of traditional mowing cycles of meadows, changes of land management, intensive use of fertilisers which increases competition by other plants and climate change as the species is extremely sensitive to extreme temperatures. Collection of the tuber or the whole plant is a further threat as is <span class="species">consumption by animals (in particular by sheep and rabbits). Furthermore, the species is affected by <span class="species">urbanisation, tourism, and related infrastructure development (Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005, Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Harrap and Harrap 2009, <span class="species"><span class="species">Kretzschmar <em>et al.</em> 2007, Lang 2004, Pignatti 1982, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></span></p>
176037		conservation	eng	All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The species is protected at national level in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Belgium</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Luxembourg and at regional level in <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<br/><br/>The following actions are recommended to protect<em> Dactylorhiza fuchsii</em>;<br/><ul><li>Moderate grazing or forestry, mowing or recurrent burning; to prevent the vegetation to become dominated by more robust and competitive species. </li><li>Protection of the habitat from ploughing, agriculture uses.</li><li>Moderate grazing.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable site to protect the species from trampling.<br/></li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></span></li></ul>
176037		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza fuchsii</em> is found throughout <st1:place>Europe but is</st1:place> rare in the Mediterranean region. The species is very common in <st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region><st1:country-region><st1:place>Belgium</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Luxembourg</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and France, but absent in <st1:place>Corsica</st1:place>. There is some confusion concerning the boundaries between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">D. maculata</span>, particulary in Eastern and Central Europe. This species is found up to 2,300 m altitude <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias and Prat<em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></p>
176037		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza fuchsii</em> is typically found in open woodlands, forest margins, marshes, grasslands, meadows, and seepages. It<em></em> grows in alkaline, dry to marshy soils in semi-shade to full light. The flowering takes place from May to July.   The species has a very wide range of pollinators <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species">and Prat <span class="species"><em></em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></p>
176037		population	eng	<p>    </p><p><em>Dactylorhiza fuchsii</em> is widespread and often abundant. <span class="species">The trend of the population remains unknown and the species is not well known, due to confusion with <em>Dactylorhiza maculata</em> <span class="species">(Delforge 1995, Bournérias <em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).</span></span></span></p>  <span class="species"><span class="species"><p></p></span>
176037		threats	eng	<p><em><em></em></em><span class="species">The habitat of <em>Dactylorhiza fuchsii<em></em></em><span class="species"> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage, agriculture use of the swampy meadows, urbanization, grazing, plant collection, trampling and extensive hybridization with other species of the same genus   <span class="species">(Bournérias&#160;<em></em><span class="species">and Prat<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><em> </em>2005<span class="species">).  <span class="species"></span></span></span></span></p>
176038		conservation	eng	<p>All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Only the total protection of the<em> Cephalanthera epipactoides</em> natural habitats would be an effective conservation measure. The fencing-of some areas with highest concentration of plants are temporarily recommended and preferably away from places frequented by tourists. <br/></p>  <p>The species can be protected also through;</p><p>    </p><ul><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which ban the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li>Protection of these species localities through legal nature conservancy.</li><li>Introducing informal and inexpensive management contracts with the owners of species localities.</li><li><em>Ex situ</em> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics (<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995<span class="species">).</span></span></span></span></li></ul>
176038		distribution	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera epipactoides</em> <span class="species">grows in the oriental sub-Mediterranean and extends from <st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="species">Thrace</st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="species"> (<st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="species">Greece</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="species">) in the west as far as <st1:place><span class="species">Anatolia</st1:place><span class="species"> and Sinop in the east. The records from the Pontic coast and west of Sinop require confirmation. The species is endemic to <st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="species">Greece</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="species"> and <st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="species">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="species"> and is found from sea level to 1,200 m altitude <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995, Delforge 1995<span class="species">). This plant is found at five locations, has an extent of occurrence under 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy of 20 km².<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
176038		habitat	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK6">Typical habitats of </a><a name="OLE_LINK6"><em>Cephalanthera epipactoides</em> include guarrigue, scrubland, maquis and open coniferous forest especially pine woods. It</a><em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>grows in dry to cool calcareous alkaline soils always in semi-shade. The flowering time of the species takes place from April to June <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995, Delforge 1995<span class="species">)<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">.<em></em></span>  <span class="species"><em></em><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176038		population	eng	<em>Cephalanthera epipactoides<em> </em></em><span class="species">is rather local but sometimes abundant<span class="species"><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="species"></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="species">. The trend of the population remains<span class="species"> unknown. In Greece, the species grows at the western limit of its distribution range and appears in small isolated populations <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995, Delforge 1995<span class="species">)<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">.<strong></strong></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176038		threats	eng	<p><em>Cephalanthera epipactoides<em> </em></em><span class="species">is especially threatened by forest fires, grazing, deforestation for building and construction work purposes, insecticides which cause reductions of pollinators as well as plant collection <span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">(Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995<span class="species">).<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
176043		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is also listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<a name="OLE_LINK8"><em> Himantoglossum metlesicsianum </em>is listed as Endangered B2ab(iii,v) </a><a name="OLE_LINK8">in Spain </a><a name="OLE_LINK8"> <span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Mesa Coello<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em>et al.</em> 2004, Moreno 2008).&#160;</span></span></span></a>  <p>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Himantoglossum metlesicsianum</em>; </p>  <ul><li>Protection of the habitat.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals of the species through legislation that bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics.<br/></li></ul><span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Mesa Coello<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em>et al.</em> 2004, Campo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Delforge 1995)</span></span></span>
176043		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Tenerife, Canary  Islands, Spain, where it can be found from 800 to 1,300 m altitude<span class="species">. The extent of occurrence is 291 km² and the area of occupancy is 13 km². <span class="species">(Mesa Coello <em>et al.</em> 2004, Campo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Delforge 1995)</span></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
176043		habitat	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum </em><em>metlesicsianum</em> is typically found in open garrigue, old terraces, woodland edges and open woodland often with pine. It<em><em> </em></em>prefers slightly acidic lava rubble substrates and grows in full sun to mid-shade. Flowering time is from December to February <span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Mesa Coello<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em>et al.</em> 2004, Campo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Delforge 1995).</span></span></span></p>
176043		population	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum metlesicsianum</em> is very rare and is only known from three subpopulations. One subpopulations has more than 1,000 individuals, whereas the second hosts over 300 and the third one counts only 12 individuals. The<span class="species"> population has a decreasing trend (<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Mesa Coello<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em>et al.</em> 2004, Campo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Delforge 1995).</span></span></span></p>
176043		threats	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum metlesicsianum</em> is<span class="species"> threatened by the expansion of infrastructure by opening new roads and paths, ploughing, tourism and mostly the collection of this rare plant <span class="species">(<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species">Mesa Coello<span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"><span class="species"> <em>et al.</em> 2004, Campo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Delforge 1995).</span></span></span></span></span></p>
176044		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This species is also listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><br/><a name="OLE_LINK8">The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Himantoglossum comperianum</em>;</a><p> </p><ul><li>  Protection of the habitat, especially the woodland from inappropriate management.</li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the species from wild animals and collection.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Sympathetic management of isolated populations.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul><p>(Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176044		distribution	eng	<em>Himantoglossum comperianum</em> ranges from southern Anatolia, west to the Aegean Islands in Greece (Lesbos, Samos, Kos, Rhodes), north to Crimea (Ukraine), south to Lebanon and east to Iranian Kurdistan. The species can be found from 400 to 2,000 m altitude (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008, The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). The area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km².
176044		habitat	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum comperianum</em> is typically found in short, poor grassland, olive groves, woodland edges and open woodland often with pine. It<em> </em>prefers dry and calcareous soils and grows in mid-shade; the flowering time of the species takes place from May to July. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008). </p>
176044		population	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum comperianum</em><em> </em>is very local and very rare and grows as solitary individuals in very small groups. The populations are <span class="species">decreasing and the distribution area is severely fragmented. (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176044		threats	eng	<p><em>Himantoglossum comperianum</em><em> </em>is threatened by collection of the tuber for salep production or for horticultural use, afforestation, intensive grazing, abandonment of pastoral systems and subsequent competition, as well as tourism (Delforge 1995, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
176045		conservation	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK3">All orchid species are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). </a>This orchid is also listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/><a name="OLE_LINK8"><br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis mascula</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scopulorum</span>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat from trampling. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites.</li><li>Raise public awareness.  </li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation and legal protection which ban the taxon from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
176045		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">This plant is endemic to the central mountains of the island of </a><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madeira, Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The taxon can be found from 1,000 to 1,800 m altitude. Its extent of occurrence is 294 km²    (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).  </p>
176045		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orchis mascula</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scopulorum </span>grows in grasslands, rocky slopes, banks, cliff fissures and scree. It prefers damp acidic soils. This taxon grows in full sun to mid-shade and it flowers from May to June. It grows within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsio maderensis-Parafestucion albidae </span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009, Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994).
176045		population	eng	This taxon is very local but sometimes abundant in its sites. The populations were believed to be increasing (Commission of the European Communities 2009, Delforge 1995, Press and Short 1994). <br/><br/>The main range of this taxon is at high altitudes in the Central Mountain Massif which was subject to a major fire rage in summer 2010 which could have badly affected this taxon. Its current population trend is unknown. Before the fire, it was listed as Vulnerable D1 which indicates that there were less than 1,000 mature individuals (Jardim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
176045		threats	eng	The main threats to this taxon are invasive species and recreational activities <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>  (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There was a major fire in summer 2010 that potentially had severe affects on the population (F. Fernandes and J. Carvalho pers. comm. 2011).
176091		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>    seed samples are      available in the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Institute of Botany (Yerevan, Armenia), Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, United Kingdom), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (<strong style="font-weight: normal;">Radzików,</strong><strong> </strong>Poland),   Aegean      Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA   (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene    banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 36 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 13 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All 13 of the wild accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>        <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>        the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing        protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in        these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to     population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176091		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. sepium</span> is circum-polar in the Northern Hemisphere and is the most widely distributed <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia</span> species. <br/><br/>Within Europe it is native to Austria, Belarus, Belgium,  Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Former  Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Great  Britain, Greece, Hungary,  Iceland, Ireland, Italy,  Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway,  Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia in  Europe, Sardinia, Sicily, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine (Maxted 1995).<br/><br/> In France it is widespread, occurs in all departments throughout the country with the exception of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). In the UK it is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in Ireland it is widespread across the whole of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176091		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. sepium</span> is common in hedgerows and open woodland throughout its range. It flowers May to October (Maxted 1995).<br/><br/>  In the UK this species occurs on hedge banks, waysides, wood-borders and lightly grazed grasslands. It prefers neutral or basic soils and can also grow in upland areas such as open, ungrazed areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176091		population	eng	This species is possibly the second most widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>species, being common in headgrows and woodland through Eurasia (Maxted 1993, 1995).<br/><br/>  In the UK, according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species has shown no change in its distribution since the original British Plant Atlas (Perring and Walters 1962).
176091		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
176092		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Lens </em>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty  on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the  lentil gene pool.<br/><br/>Currently, <em>L. lamottei </em>is conserved primarily <em>ex situ</em>,  with the majority of stored germplasm belonging to the International  Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). However in  Europe accessions are only found in the Aegean Agricultural Research  Institute (Menemen, Turkey) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks. There <u1:p style="background-color: white;"></u1:p>is a need to promote <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation for this species. Studies by Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998a and b) have shown that genetic variation within populations of wild <span style="font-style: italic;">Lens</span> species is low, whereas between population variation is high, thus <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation is the best method when trying to conserve genetic diversity.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports five germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, all of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, four originate from within Europe. These four accessions all originate from Spain, three are stored in Junta de Castilla-La Mancha - Centro de Investigación Agraria de Albaladejito, Spain and one is stored in Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria - Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, also in Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>   It occurs in protected areas. <em>In situ</em> the species is likely to be passively conserved in many  existing protected areas throughout its range but as its conservation  in these sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population  loss over time from factors such as climate change.
176092		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. lamottei</span> is native to France, Spain and Morocco (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). It also occurs in Portugal and Italy.<br/><br/>In France it is confined to the two southeastern departments of   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176092		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. lamottei </span>is generally found in primary, ungrazed habitats away from competitors, as well as on abandoned terraces, plantations and ruin. It grows on shallow stony soils, originating from basalt, calcareous, or metamorphic rocks (Ferguson and Erskine 2001). Always in coastal areas up to 2,000 m.
176092		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lens lamottei </span>has a fragmented scattered  distribution and it is localised primarily along the coast, it is  found  in several  habitats     which are not threatened. Its population appears to  be  stable.
176092		threats	eng	This is a relatively fragmented species found in several distinct habitats,   that appears to be under no major threat within the region (Ferguson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). However in general grazing, urbanisation and changes in land use are threats to this species.
176093		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>    seed samples are       available in the Aegean      Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey),  ICARDA   (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University  of Reading (Reading, UK)  gene    banks.<br/>   <br/>   <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>         the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many  existing        protected areas in throughout its range but as  its   conservation in        these sites is not actively monitored it may be   subject  to     population    loss over time from factors such as  climate  change.
176093		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cyprus, Israel, Iraq, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey in Asia.
176093		habitat	eng	This species occurs in disturbed arable lands, rocky hillsides, limestones pavement.
176093		population	eng	This is a rather rare species.
176093		threats	eng	Overgrazing might have an impact on the species.
176094		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus belinensis</span> has seed conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in the Aegean Agricultural Research Institute, Menemen, Turkey and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dr Areas in Aleppo, Syria, but there is currently no active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation of the species.
176094		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus belinensis</span> was originally discovered in 1987 while searching near Cavus, Antalya province, Turkey for food, fodder and forage legume species by Ayse Kitiki (Aegean Agricultural Research Institute, Menemen, Turkey), Bob Allkin (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK) and Nigel Maxted (University of Birmingham, UK). The new <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>species was subsequently published as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus belinensis </span>by Maxted and Goyder (1988), which is a member of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>sect. <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>most closely related within the section to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. odoratus</span> L. The single population was growing alongside a new road that was just then being cut through fields between Kumluca and Tekirova in Antalya province, Turkey.&#160;It is found at one location with an area of occupancy of 2 km².
176094		habitat	eng	The species grows on a rocky limestone hillsides in shrubland and grassland. The species is also tolerant of some disturbance as it occurs on the margins of cultivated land and roadsides.
176094		population	eng	The single population was originally found growing near the village of Belin alongside a new road that had just been cut through fields between Kumluca and Tekirova. The bulk of the population was found growing in and around a graveyard, although other areas around the graveyard were being severely overgrazed. <br/><br/>The population has decreased in size from 5,000 individuals in 1995 to 1,000 in 2010. Nearly all of the original type location had either been bulldozed to build a new police station or planted with conifers under which the species could not grow. The remnant population exists now on the hillside and road banks, the hillside has been planted with conifers and the road may be expanded as it is the main south coast holiday route.
176094		threats	eng	The species was described from one location. Nearly all of the original type location had either been bulldozed to build a new police station or planted with conifers under which the species cannot grow.
176095		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>    seed samples are      available in the AGRITEC, Research, Breeding  and Services Ltd. (Sumperk, Czech Republic), Leibniz Institute of Plant  Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), Genetic Resources Institute  (Baku, Azerbaijan), Institute for Agrobotany (Tapioszele, Hungary), Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria),  Institute of Botany (Yerevan, Armenia), Instituto Nacional de  Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos  Fitogenéticos (Madrid, Spain), Israel Gene Bank for Agricultural Crops,  Agricultural Research Organisation (Volcani Center, Israel), Laboratory  of Plants Gene Pool and Breeding (Yerevan, Armenia), Junta de Castilla y  León, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León, Centro de  Investigación de Zamadueñas (Madrid, Spain), Millennium Seed Bank  (Haywards Heath, United Kingdom), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific  Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian  Federation), Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka,  Ukraine),  Aegean     Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen,  Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University  of Reading  (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 307 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 102 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 62 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>     <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation  in      these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change. In France this species is protected in the western region of Poitou-Charentes<span class="Apple-converted-space"> (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176095		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. narbonensis</span> is native in  Europe to Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Crete, Czech Republic,  Estonia, Former Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy,  Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sardinia, Sicily, Slovakia, Spain,  Switzerland, Turkey in Europe, UK and Ukraine, but is also found in  Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Asia: Afghanistan,  Armenia, Azerbaijan, Gruzia, India, Iran, Iraq, Kirgizstan, Pakistan,  Russia in Asia, Tadzhikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan; and in the Middle  East: Cyprus, East Aegean Islands (Greek), Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon,  Syria, Turkey in Asia. <br/><br/>In France it occurs mainly in southeastern, southern and western departments as well as the northern department of Aisne (Association Tela Botanica 2010)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176095		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia narbonensis</span> is found in   disturbed and agricultural land, more rarely open woodland. It flowers from March to July (Maxted 1995).
176095		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176095		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats.  It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region (Maxted     1995).
176097		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 3,922 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 237 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 158 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>        In situ        the  species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to      population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nigra</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">segetalis</span> are classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176097		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> is found in virtually every geographic region of Europe (Maxted 1995). <br/><br/>In France it is widespread and it occurs in all departments throughout the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>  In the UK it is widespread throughout England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland although its distribution becomes patchy in the northwest of Scotland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>In Ireland it is widespread in central and eastern areas however, its distribution becomes patchy in the west (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Denmark <span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nigra</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">segetalis</span> are both native, <span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sativa</span> is also recorded to occur in Denmark but it is introduced (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176097		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. sativa</span> is a   common  pan-temperate and semi-tropical weed of agricultural and disturbed land,  and is also found in the margins of woodland. It flowers from February  to November (Maxted 1995).<br/><br/>  In the UK this lowland species grows in grassy and wayside localities; it prefers dry and sandy areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176097		population	eng	This is a common species and its population trend is stable. In the UK according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), the distribution of this species has changed very little since the original British Plant Atlas (Perring and Walters 1962).
176097		threats	eng	This species is so widespread there appears to be no specific threats facing it.
176098		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>    seed samples are      available in the Leibniz Institute of Plant  Genetics and Crop Plant  Research (Germany), N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian  Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St.  Petersburg,  Russian Federation), Syrian  National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean      Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,      Syria) and  University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 76 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Neither of these wild accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>    <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation  in      these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176098		distribution	eng	<em>V. johannis </em>is native to   Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus,  Germany, France, Former Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, Poland, Romania,  Russian Federation, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey, as well as  Afghanistan, Iran, Libya, Pakistan and Syria.<br/><br/>In France it is confined to Corsica and the seven southeastern departments of   Hérault, Gard, Vaucluse,   Bouches-du-Rhône,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Var and Alpes-Maritimes (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176098		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. johannis</span> is found in   maquis, disturbed agricultural land and open woodland. It flowers from March to July (Maxted 1995).
176098		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176098		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of      habitats and appears to be stable throughout its range (Maxted  1995).
176099		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is   listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>    seed samples are   available in the genebanks of the Institute of Botany (Yerevan,  Armenia), N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of  Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Syrian National genebank (Douma, Damascus,  Syria), Aegean    Agricultural Research Institute (Menemen, Turkey),  ICARDA (Aleppo,    Syria) and the University of Reading (Reading, UK).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. ciliatula</span> held in European genebanks, only two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Neither of these wild accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>   the  species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing    protected areas throughout its range but as  its  conservation in    these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176099		distribution	eng	The native range of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. ciliatula</span> is unclear. According to ILDIS (2010) the species is not native to Europe; however, Federov (1987) records it as native to Crimea (where it is only found at a few localities near Sudak, Staryi Krym and Bakhchisaray), while Maxted (1995) records it as native to Ukraine (as well as to Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran).
176099		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. ciliatula</span> is found at the edges of woodland, in meadows and cultivated fields as a weed, primarily in shady and moist places. Found in secondary habitats and disturbed areas. It flowers from   May to July (Maxted 1995, Maxted and Douglas 1996).<br/><br/>In identification this species can be confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia melanops</span> (Fedorov 1987).
176099		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered to be common.
176099		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of habitats, including disturbed anthropogenic sites.
176101		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> seed samples are  available in the N.I Vavilov Instuitute of Plant Industry (St.  Petersberg, Russia), Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, UK), ICARDA  (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks, but none of the national gene banks within the species range appear to contain samples.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks and it is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in many existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its  conservation in these sites is not actively monitored it may be subject  to population loss over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>In France this species is protected on a national level (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176101		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. barbazitae</span> is native to   Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Fomer Yugoslavia and Turkey. In France it is confined to the department of Var to the southeast and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).  The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 11,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup></sup><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176101		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. barbazitae</span> is found in   woodland and the margins of cultivation. Flowers from   April to July (Maxted 1995).
176101		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered to be rare throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176101		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are unknown, but even though it is found in climax woodland habitats and these are relatively stable within the range, it is still considered under threat as it is so rare throughout its range.
176104		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/>There are numerous<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span>   seed samples available in national gene  banks from through out the species range.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 84 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 44 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 36 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>      <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas throughout its range but as  its  conservation  in      these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">V. lutea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cavanillesii </span>is listed as Vulnerable B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) in the 2008 Red List of the Spanish Flora (Moreno 2008).
176104		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. lutea</span> is native to Albania,  Balearic Islands,  Bulgaria, Crete, Czech Republic, Egypt, Estonia,  Former Yugoslavia, France,  Germany, Great Britain, Greece,  Hungary,  Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Latvia,  Malta, Morocco,  Moldova, Portugal, Romania,  Sardinia, Sicily, Slovakia, Spain,  Syria,  Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey in Europe and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments throughout the country. Not recorded in the north and northeastern departments of   Hauts-de-Seine, Paris,   Seine-Saint-Denis, Nord, Ardennes, Bas-Rhin,   Territoire de Belfort and Doubs (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176104		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. lutea</span> is found in   disturbed and agricultural land, and open woodland. It flowers from March to June (Maxted 1995).
176104		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176104		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of        habitats and appears to be stable throughout its range (Maxted    1995).
176106		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Ex situ</span>    seed samples are    available in the Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards  Heath, UK), Syrian National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean      Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,      Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, however, this accession is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>     the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing     protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in     these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to  population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176106		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. cuspidata</span> is native to Cyprus, Greece (East Aegean Islands) and Turkey in Europe,  Israel,  Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey in Asia.
176106		habitat	eng	This species occurs in disturbed and non disturbed areas and in woodlands, associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. coccifera</span>. It flowers from April to June. It is a very small herb, that is easily overlooked.
176106		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered  relatively common throughout its range. Note it is a relatively small  plant that is often found growing under shrubs and in rock   crevices so  may often be over-looked when collecting. There is no recent collection from Cyprus.
176106		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
176108		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are      available in the Aegean     Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA  (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene   banks.<br/>   <br/>   <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in       these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176108		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. oroboides</span> is native to   Austria, Hungary, Italy, Slovenia and Croatia.
176108		habitat	eng	It is found growing in   pasture and woodland on hill and mountainsides, and flowers from May to September (Maxted 1995).
176108		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively uncommon though stable throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176108		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species.
176109		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> seed samples are available in the Syrian National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean Agricultural Research Institute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks. Collection of material from the Cyprus population should be added to the genebank.<br/><br/>More research is needed on the distribution, outside the cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia sativia</span> fields. Monitoring scheme should be implemented.<br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia assyriaca</span> is found in Cyprus in Europe. Its distribution extends to Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey. Meikle (1977) suggested that this species might be introduced.
176109		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. assyriaca</span> is found in   pasture, agricultural and disturbed lands. It flowers from April to June.
176109		population	eng	This is a rare species. The species is often found in Cyprus as a weed of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia sativa</span> (the cultivated seed). As the crop culture is declining, the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. assyriaca</span> is also likely to decline.
176109		threats	eng	Overgrazing might have a negative impact.
176110		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are      available in the AGRITEC, Research, Breeding and Services Ltd. (Sumperk, Czech Republic), Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), Genetic Resources Institute (Baku, Azerbaijan), Genetic Resources Unit, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (Aberystwyth, United Kingdom), Institute for Agrobotany (Tapioszele, Hungary), Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Institute of Agriculture and Cattle-breeding of the Western Region (Lviv, Ukraine), Institute of Botany (Yerevan, Armenia), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos (Madrid, Spain),<strong> </strong>N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (<strong>Radzików,</strong><strong> </strong>Poland), Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka, Ukraine), State Regional Agricultural Experimental Station (Poltava, Ukraine),    Aegean     Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA  (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene   banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 198 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 52 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 39 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>        <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in       these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176110		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. pannonica</span> is native to Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,  Corsica, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Former  Yugoslavia, France, Germany,  Greece, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Malta,  Moldova, Netherlands, Romania, Russia in  Europe, Sicily, Slovakia, Spain,  Syria, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey in Europe and Ukraine. In France it occurs mainly in the eastern half of the country but is also recorded to occur in the western departments of   Maine-et-Loire,   Indre-et-Loire, Vienne, Dordogne, Gers and   Hautes-Pyrénées (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176110		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. pannonica</span> is often associated with disturbed and cultivated land. It flowers from April to July (Maxted 1995).
176110		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered  relatively uncommon though stable throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176110		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species (Maxted     1995).
176111		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is   listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>  seed samples are   available in the Departamento de Recursos  Genéticos e Melhoramento, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Instituto  Nacional de Investigação, Agrária, Portugal, Leibniz Institute of Plant  Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany, Institute for Plant Genetic  Resources 'K.Malkov', Plovdiv, Bulgaria, Instituto Nacional de  Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos  Fitogenéticos, Spain, Junta de Castilla y León, Instituto Tecnológico  Agrario de Castilla y León, Centro de Investigación de Zamadueñas,  Spain, Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, UK), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant  Industry Russian Federation,&#160; Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant  Production, Ukraine,    Syrian National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean   Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,   Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 28 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 16 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these wild accessions originate from within Europe. Three originate from Germany, two from Greece, eight from Italy, one from Spain and two from Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>  the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in  these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to population  loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176111		distribution	eng	In France it occurs in the south, southwest and west but is largely absent from the north, northeast and east of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it occurs mainly in the southwest of England and southeast of England at the Thames estuary (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Other occurrences, including one locality in Northern Ireland and eight localities in Scotland, are very sparse with the majority recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176111		habitat	eng	Found in disturbed habitats and grassland throughout its range.<br/><br/>  In the UK this lowland species occurs mainly on rough grassland, coastal undercliffs, and when found inland it usually grows in open hedges, scrubby grassland and on railway banks (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176111		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered common and widespread throughout southern Europe.<br/><br/>  In the UK according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species has declined in a number of coastal localities.
176111		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats.
176112		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/> <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are      available in the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Research Institute for Fodder Crops Ltd. (Troubsko, Czech Republic),  Aegean     Agricultural  Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports six germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession is recorded to have originated from Czechoslovakia and is currently stored in Research Institute for Fodder Crops Ltd., Czech Republic (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).      <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>In situ</span>      the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing      protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in      these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to   population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the southeastern region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176112		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. melanops</span> is native to   Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic France, Greece, Italy, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain and Turkey. In France it is present in the two southeastern departments of Var and Alpes-Maritimes and the following six central departments: Loiret, Indre,   Puy-de-Dôme,   Haute-Loire,   Ardèche and   Rhône (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176112		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. melanops</span> is often found in   woodland and more rarely as an agricultural weed.
176112		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively uncommon throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176112		threats	eng	This is not a common species but there appears to be no major threats. It is found primarily on the edge of woodland which is not a threatened habitat within its region, populations appears to be stable (Maxted    1995).
176113		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>    seed samples are      available in the Departamento de Recursos  Genéticos e Melhoramento, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Instituto  Nacional de Investigação, Agrária (Portugal), Leibniz Institute of Plant  Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), Institute for Plant Genetic  Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Laboratory of Plants Gene  Pool and Breeding (Yerevan, Armenia), Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards  Heath, United Kingdom), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research  Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Plant  Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (<strong style="font-weight: normal;">Radzików,</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>Poland),  Republican Unitary Enterprise 'Scientific Practical Centre of the  National Academy of Sciences of Belarus for Arable Farming (Zhodino,  Belarus), Research Institute of Agriculture (Baku, Azerbaijan), Syrian   National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean     Agricultural  Research   Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,     Syria) and  University   of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 30 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe. These five wild accessions originate from Bulgaria and are also stored in Bulgaria (Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov') (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>    <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>       the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation  in      these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176113		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia lathyroides</span> is native to  Albania, Austria, Belarus,  Belgium, Bulgaria, Corsica, Crete, Cyprus,  Czech  Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Former Yugoslavia,  France,  Germany, Great Britain,  Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel,&#160;  Italy, Jordan, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania,  Malta, Morocco, Moldova,  Netherlands<span style="text-decoration: underline;">,</span> Norway,   Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia in  Europe, Sardinia, Sicily,  Slovakia,  Spain, Syria, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey in  Europe and  Asia, and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Lithuania it is only found on the Baltic Sea coast.<br/><br/>In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments throughout the country. Not recorded in four departments to the southwest, four departments to the east and five departments to the north (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>  In the UK it occurs along the Welsh, English and Scottish coastlines although it is absent from the far northwest coast of Scotland, it also has a patchy and sparse distribution in central England (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Also present in 17 coastal localities within Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In Ireland it is confined to 10 localities on the eastern coast (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176113		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. lathyroides</span> is found growing  on lawns and grazed pasture as a weed, in open woodland and disturbed  land. It flowers from March to August (Maxted 1995).<br/><br/>In the UK this lowland species occurs on sand dunes and short, summer-parched grasslands with a preference for sandy, coastal soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, it can also grow further inland on disturbed ground, old wall and dry heathland on sands and gravels (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176113		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176113		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of       habitats and appears to be stable throughout its range (Maxted   1995).
176120		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are     available in the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), Genetic Resources Institute (Baku, Azerbaijan), Institute for Agrobotany (Tapioszele, Hungary), Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov'(Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Institute of Botany (Yerevan, Armenia), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (Radzikow, Poland),  Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, UK), Syrian  National (Douma, Damascus, Syria); Aegean     Agricultural Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,     Syria) and University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 102 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 69 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 59 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>     the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing     protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in     these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to  population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176120		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. grandiflora </span>is native to   Albania, Austria, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, Russia, Turkey and the Former Yugoslavia.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176120		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. grandiflora </span>is found    disturbed and agricultural land,  woodland, woodland margins and disturbed land. It flowers from March to August (Maxted 1995).
176120		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively rare throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176120		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of   habitats and appears to be stable throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176122		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are     available in the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany), Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Institute of Botany (Yerevan, Armenia), Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria. Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos (Madrid, Spain), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka, Ukraine),  Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, UK), Syrian  National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean     Agricultural Research  Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,     Syria) and University  of Reading (Reading, UK) gene  banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 21 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, eight of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, seven originate from within Europe: two from Czech Republic, one from France, one from Germany, one from Hungary and one from Spain. Six of these accessions are stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine and the remaining accession is stored in Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>   <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>     the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing     protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in     these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to  population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia hybrida</span> is found in   southern Europe and the Near East. In France it occurs in departments in the centre, to the southwest, south and southeast. Also recorded in the northern departments of Aisne and Marne (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176122		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. hybrida </span>is found     disturbed and agricultural land,  woodland, woodland margins and  disturbed land. It flowers from March to August (Maxted 1995).
176122		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176122		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of    habitats and appears to be stable throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
176124		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> seed samples are available in the N.I Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersberg, Russia), Armenian National (Yerevan, Armenia), ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) genebanks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span> the species is likely to be passively conserved in many existing protected areas in   Austria, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia but as its conservation in these sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population loss over time from factors such as climate change.
176124		distribution	eng	This species is native to Austria, Bulgaria, Commonwealth of Independent States (Russia, Romania, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Crimea, Ukraine, etc.), Iran, Romania, Turkey, Yugoslavia (Maxted 1995). It was reported as extinct in Bulgaria but this needs to be confirmed. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>
176124		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mountain forest: coniferous and deciduous forest and forest margins (Maxted 1995).
176124		population	eng	It is a rare species in Romania and now believed to be extinct in Bulgaria, but is widespread in other areas of its distribution (Maxted 1995). Its population trend is considered stable.
176124		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are not known, but it is found in climax woodland habitats that are stable within the range.
176130		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species at present.
176130		distribution	eng	This species is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. It is native to southern and southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago. This species also has a patchy distribution in the Pacific, but includes many regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. It also occurs in Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and also the Philippines. This species has been transported widely by humans and introduced populations exist in Australia, east Africa, islands of the Indian Ocean, Mexico, and the United States (Bauer and Henle 1994). Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) report that this species is found on the Lamu Island in Kenya. This species is found between sea level and 1,600 m above sea level.
176130		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found on boulders, beneath rocks or rotting logs, and on trees, however, it most commonly found on buildings. This species is found in both villages and large urban areas, it is usually found close to electric lights at dusk (Malkmus 2002). In addition, this species also occurs in a diverse range of habitats, including rain forests, savannas, and deserts (Henkel and Schmidt 1995). Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that this species was found on small palm trees in a coconut plantation.
176130		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range.
176130		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176131		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. This species is known to occur in a number of reserves including Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mont Panié and Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié, Réserve Naturelle Terrestre du Mont Do reserve. However, further measures should be carried out to ensure the protected  areas are effective. No conservation management is currently being undertaken. Research and monitoring into the population and possible threats should also be carried out because of the relatively small distribution of this species.
176131		distribution	eng	<em>T. boreus</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from numerous locations across northern and central Grande Terre (northernmost localities are Mt Mandjélia in the east and the Kaala massif in the west; southernmost localities are the Presqu'ile de Bogota, Mt Do and Haute Pouéo near Bourail). Recorded at elevations up to 1,100 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 7,000 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at <2,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176131		habitat	eng	<em>T. boreus</em> occurs in a wide range of habitats including coastal vegetation, maquis shrublands at mid- to high elevations, closed forests and montane forests. This species is diurnal, ground-dwelling and attracted to sunlight. It shelters beneath logs and rocks, and rock crevices; forages in the open or in sunlit patches on the forest floor.<br/><br/>    <p>Bauer and Sadlier (2000) identified females found in December as having two to three enlarged yolked ovarian follicles, and examination of samples collected since it was confirmed an egg-laying mode of reproduction (R. Sadlier pers. comm. 2010) was reported for its sister species, <em>T</em>. <em>variabilis</em> (Shea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).</p>
176131		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. boreus</span>. It is suspected to have undergone a substantial reduction in area of occupancy as a result of past clearance of forest and shrubland habitats for agriculture, logging and mining, and from wildfires. These impacts have resulted in fragmentation of the population and are on-going. This species remains locally common at many sites.
176131		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to <em>T. boreus</em> is from loss and fragmentation of forest throughout its range and also of maquis shrubland habitats on ultramafic surfaces. This could result from a variety of factors including clearance for agriculture and afforestation, mining and wildfires. On most ultramafic massifs, mining is a particular concern as it is now undergoing a rapid expansion that threatens montane forests and high-elevation maquis shrublands, to which this species is restricted. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is an ubiquitous threat. In low and mid-elevation forests the introduced ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctatus</em>, is a potentially serious issue as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001), and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is also of concern throughout.<br/> <br/> As <em>T. boreus</em> has a relatively wide distribution across Grande Terre and has been described as common, it is likely that these threats will not have adverse impacts on this species and not cause significant declines at this time, but in some areas they will have severe localized effect.</p>
176132		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and many reserves in Province Sud, including Pic Ningua, Forêt Cachée, Pic du Grand Kaori, Pic du Pin, Forêt Nord and Cap Ndoua (but not present in any reserves in Province Nord). No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176132		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is widespread in southern Grande Terre and present on massifs in the north-west as far north as Dôme de Tiébaghi. It appears to be restricted to ultramafic areas. Recorded up to 1,100 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 10,000 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at 2,000 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176132		habitat	eng	<em>R. auriculatus</em> is found on the southern ultramafic block of New Caledonia and northward along the west coast and central-east coast ultramafic massifs. It inhabits humid forests, montane forests, and open and closed maquis (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). All <em>Rhacodactylus</em> species are excluded from agricultural and urban environments. This species is essentially nocturnal, but is sometimes active by day; primarily arboreal.&#160; It sometimes stays in the open on branches by day but usually shelters beneath dense vegetation on the ground or in tree cavities. It forages at night on the stems of shrubs and small trees (occasionally to 15 m above ground) or less commonly on the ground.
176132		population	eng	<p>Bauer and Sadlier (1993) report that this species is common. There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is presumed to have suffered a past reduction in population size and extent through widespread simplification of maquis as a result of wildfires, and intensive but localized habitat loss associated with mining. The species is still relatively common at many localities, although the current and projected expansion of nickel mining will result in a further reduction of the area of occupied habitat throughout its range.</p>
176132		threats	eng	The close association of <span style="font-style: italic;">R.s auriculatus</span> to ultramafic substrates means that its habitat is vulnerable to the expanding nickel mining industry. This is a particular issue on the isolated massifs in the north-west of Grande Terre where almost every population is affected, and for large areas of the Grand Sud. The maquis habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. auriculatus</span> is also at risk to wildfires and, in the south of Grande Terre, to afforestation. Other threats include habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and predation by introduced mammals (rodents, feral cats and pigs). There is also a potential impact from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, at low-elevation sites (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Although the past illegal trade in this species has now largely abated due to the ease with which it can be bred in captivity, readily accessible populations are still at risk.
176133		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. No active conservation management is being undertaken.<br/><br/>Very little is known about this species and, despite considerable survey efforts in the area, it has not been recorded since the original collection.
176133		distribution	eng	<p><em>L. greeri</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. The species is known from a single collection of a single animal from an unknown location in the Koumac region. Digital images of what could represent the species (based on colour and pattern of the body) from the extreme south at Rivière Bleue and the Goro Plateau on the Plaine des Lacs suggest that the species could be more widespread, but confirmation of this in the way of voucher specimen is required.</p>
176133		habitat	eng	There is no information on ecology or behaviour for this species.   The only known wild caught specimen definitely assigned to this species (the type specimen) was collected from a freshly fallen tree in low to mid-elevation closed humid forest (Böhme 1979), which suggests that the species may be arboreal (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). It is assumed to be diurnal and attracted to sunlight from comparison to the sister taxon <span style="font-style: italic;">Lioscincus nigrofasciolatum</span>.<br/><br/>As the gravid holotype was taken into captivity, the species is known to be oviparous with two eggs per clutch, and requiring 44 days of incubation for the eggs to hatch (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).
176133		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. greeri</span>. The confirmed population in the north is expected to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past from the loss of forest habitat from clearance for agriculture, and logging, and from the effects of wildfires. The species can be considered restricted and rare (Bauer and Sadlier 2000) as herpetological surveys throughout New Caledonia have not found further individuals.
176133		threats	eng	Given that there is no specific data for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. greeri</span> in terms of location, habitat, ecology, or population, it is not possible to identify specific threats. Loss or  degradation of closed forest habitat through clearance for agriculture,  logging, afforestation and wildfires may have had an effect on this species.
176134		conservation	eng	<p>Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.<em><br/></em></p><p><em></em> Further species-based research into its population, habitat, and threat status is also needed to help reduce its extinction risk, as well as monitoring into this cryptic species.</p>
176134		distribution	eng	<em></em><em></em><em>G. haraldmeieri</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from two specimens from a single collection given as being collected in closed forest near Coula at 500 m elevation (Böhme 1976). &#160;The place name Coula in the dividing ranges west of Houaïlou in central Grande Terre has been investigated and is "now intensively cultivated and no forest remains" (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 100 km²&#160; and the area of occupancy at < 10 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176134		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>The two known specimens of <em>G. haraldmeieri</em> were found together in a fallen decaying tree trunk in a closed forest (Böhme 1976, Bauer and Sadlier 2000). This species is thought to be highly prone to desiccation, and the microhabitat used by the type specimen implies that this species might be semi-fossorial or cryptic (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).</p>  <p></p>
176134		population	eng	<em></em> Nothing is known about population size or trends for this species. It is presumed to have undergone a major reduction in area of occupancy as a result of forest clearance for agriculture and afforestation (the area around the known locality has been highly modified since the species was described in 1976 and very little forest remains).
176134		threats	eng	The apparent dependence of <em>G. haraldmeieri</em> on closed humid forest and a high-moisture environment indicates that the species would be particularly vulnerable to loss, fragmentation and degradation of closed-forest habitat resulting from clearance for agriculture, logging and afforestation or damage to forest margins from wildfires where it occurs. Other threats would be posed by&#160; introduced mammals—rodents, cats and pigs are potential predators; and high-density populations of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality by opening forest and lowering humidity, and particularly by damaging the litter layer and disrupting cover (such as rocks and logs). The presence of high-density populations of the introduced ant <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em> in low to mid-elevation forests across Grande Terre would also be expected to have a severe impact on the species (Jourdan <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2001).
176135		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in La Réserve Naturelle du Mont Mou and Réserve Naturelle Terrestre du Mont Humboldt. It is important that these protected areas are managed properly and that  others are established in the surrounding area, specifically on Mount  Ouin, to stop the threat of mining activity. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species. Taxonomic work is needed to determine if this is actually more than one species. Further research and monitoring into the population, habitat and threat status should be carried out.
176135		distribution	eng	<em>S. ruficauda</em> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known only from the summits of Mt Mou, Mt Ouin and Mt Humboldt in the southern part of Grande Terre (recorded from 1,100 to 1,350 m asl).&#160; These three locations are about 10 km apart from each other.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 50 km²&#160; and the area of occupancy at <5 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176135		habitat	eng	<p><em>S. ruficauda</em> is known to inhabit closed montane forests and, at one high elevation site, it has extended out into high-elevation maquis shrubland with a dense understorey of ferns. Individuals were collected from among and beneath rocks. As such, Sadlier and Bauer (1999) conclude that the habitat occupied by this species is limited not by vegetation type, but its distribution at the known sites is determined by other variables associated with habitat structure, such as the presence of sheltering sites and moisture levels. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic and terrestrial. It shelters beneath stones and in soil crevices.<br/> <br/> This species appears to be oviparous (Sadlier and Bauer 1999).</p>
176135		population	eng	The population of <em>S. ruficauda</em> is fragmented and relictual. There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It is presumed to have suffered a past reduction in the extent of montane forest habitat as a result of mining and from wildfires encroaching on forests from adjacent maquis shrubland. The quality of the maquis habitat may also have been degraded by wildfires. This species is uncommon at both locations where it has been found (only eight specimens have been collected).
176135		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. ruficauda</span> is habitat destruction leading to a reduction in the area of occupancy. Mineral exploration has occurred on Mt Ouin in the past and mining activity is currently intensifying in the nearby Tontouta Valley system. The montane forest is also at risk to peripheral damage and reduction in extent from wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrubland. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer.
176136		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken. Given its highly restricted area of occupancy, formal protection of existing habitat for this species is a high priority. <br/><br/>Further research on the population, habitat status, and threats to <em>M. montana</em> is recommended as the restricted range and posed threats suggests that this species could qualify for a higher threat category in the future.
176136		distribution	eng	<p><em>M. montana</em> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known only from two sites (one location) near the summit of Mount Ouin in the south of New Caledonia between 900 and 1,100 m asl (Sadlier and Bauer 2000). Herpetological surveys of suitable habitat and elevations in nearby ranges in southern New Caledonia (Mt Mou, Massif du Humbolt) have not recorded this species (Sadlier pers. comm. 2010), indicating <em>M. montana</em> is likely to have a very restricted range.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">M. montana</span> has a very restricted range. The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 2 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at <2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176136		habitat	eng	<em>M. montana</em> inhabits high-elevation closed forest. This skink is cryptic and shelters beneath rocks and piles of earth on the forest floor or in crevices in and around road cuts (Sadlier and Bauer 2000).<br/><br/>This species is viviparous (R. Sadlier pers. comm. 2010).
176136		population	eng	<p>There are no quantitative data on population size and trends. <em>M. montana</em> is uncommon at the only location it has been found and fewer than ten specimens have been seen. It is presumed to have suffered a reduction in population size and extent resulting from past destruction of its montane forest habitat from mining activities (clearing for access roads) and from wildfires encroaching from adjacent maquis shrubland. </p>
176136		threats	eng	The main threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. montana</span> is from habitat destruction leading to a reduction in the area of occupancy. Mineral exploration has occurred on Mt Ouin in the past and mining activity is currently intensifying in the nearby Tontouta Valley system. The montane forest is also at risk to peripheral damage and reduction in extent from wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrubland. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer.
176137		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended. The area in which this species is distributed needs to be protected and managed to help ensure its survival.
176137		distribution	eng	<em>N. hanchisteus</em> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from a small remnant of closed sclerophyll forest on the Pindaï Peninsula on the north west coast of Grande Terre (Bauer and Sadlier 2000, Sadlier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Further surveys in sclerophyll forest to the north and south of the known locality have not recorded this species (Whitaker <em>et al.</em> 2005). The extent of occurrence of this species is approximately 6 km² and the area of occupancy is about 6 km²<sup></sup>.&#160; The elevation range is from sea level up to 60 m asl.<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around the points), except for very widespread species where the  published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat remains.]
176137		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> is found in sclerophyll forests (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial, and chooses the moistest habitats within the rather mesic sclerophyll forests (Bauer and Sadler 2000). It shelters beneath stones and litter, and forages through leaf litter.
176137		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> but it appears to be localised and very uncommon. It is assumed to have undergone a dramatic reduction in area of occupancy as a result of the destruction of sclerophyll forest in the immediate area of Pindai and possibly elsewhere on the central west coast as a result of clearance and wildfire - the true extent of the population pre-human will never be known. Recurrent wildfires in the adjacent savanna and the presence of high-density populations of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at the only known site mean the population is expected to be declining in both extent and density.
176137		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> is the high vulnerability of the remaining sclerophyll forest habitat to wildfires. The high-density population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at the site is also a very serious threat as these exotic ants are known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are other significant concerns. Predation by rodents may be a risk.&#160; There is also a very high-density population of the African snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Achatina fulica</span> at the site and the long-term consequences of this on the vegetation composition and structure, and litter stability are not know. Even if <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> is found to occur in other sclerophyll remnants in the area, these are likely to be highly vulnerable to clearance for agriculture or degradation by livestock.
176138		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié but not recorded at any other protected location. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176138		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. trachyrhynchus</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to the southern half of Grande Terre. It is known from five or six widely scattered and isolated populations between Presqu'ile de Pindaï and Mt Aoupinié in the north and the Goro district in the south. This species also inhabits the Isle of Pines and the surrounding islets. Occurs from 5 up to 500 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 9,000 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at <150 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176138		habitat	eng	This species is a forest specialist. At most locations, this species inhabits humid forests but it is also known from a sclerophyll forest site. It shelters by day in crevices and holes in trees and forages at night  in the canopy. On a general note, <em>Rhacodactylus</em> are not found in disturbed environments (Bauer and Sadlier 2001).
176138		population	eng	This species is described as "not locally abundant" on Grande Terre by Bauer and Sadlier (2000). There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is assumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past through habitat loss associated with clearance of the west coast sclerophyll forests for agriculture, and clearance of low and mid-elevation humid forests for logging and agriculture.
176138		threats	eng	The main risk to <span style="font-style: italic;">R. trachyrhynchus</span> is further loss of habitat through clearance, logging or wildfires. Additional threats are habitat degradation caused by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats), and the detrimental effects of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Illegal collection and trafficking of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. trachyrhynchus</span> may be a problem at accessible locations. The ovoviviparous reproduction in this species (resulting in a lower annual reproductive output than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus </span>species) exacerbates the vulnerability of this taxon.
176139		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and at least three reserves (Forêt Cachée, Forêt Nord, and Pic Ningua). It is important that these protected areas do provide safeguards for  this species and so management of the areas needs to be carried out. No species-specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Surveys for this species, as well as monitoring of invasive fire ants and habitat decline should be carried out.
176139		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south of Grande Terre, New Caledonia (northernmost locality is Pic Ningua). It is known from at least seven widely scattered and isolated locations (Forêt Nord,   Forêt Cachée, Bois de Sud, Riviere Bleue, Mt. Koghis, Vulcain, and Pic Ningua). Occurs at altitudes ranging from 80 to 950 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 3,000 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy at 700 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around the points), except for very widespread species where the  published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat remains.]
176139		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. geitaina</span> inhabits closed humid forests at low to mid-elevation and montane forests; occasionally in adjacent maquis shrublands.&#160; It is nocturnal, arboreal, or terrestrial on rock faces. It prefers sites with a rocky forest floor. It shelters by day beneath stones or in rock crevices and forages at night in sub-canopy vegetation or on rock faces.
176139		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">B.  geitaina</span>. Bauer and Sadlier (2000) describe this species as common at Mt. Koghis.&#160; However, elsewhere throughout its range it is assumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation through clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation (Plaine des Lacs) and wildfires. The current development of a major nickel mine in the south is resulting in on-going habitat loss on the Plaine des Lacs and in the Baie de Prony area (although the species has not been recorded outside of existing reserves in this region).
176139		threats	eng	The major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. geitaina</span> is loss of further closed forest remnants as a result of the rapidly expanding nickel mining industry in the Grand Sud. Loss of habitat to mining activities is also a problem in the Tontouta Valley and in the vicinity of Pic Ningua and Mont Çidoa. Other threats to this species include the loss or degradation of habitat from wildfires and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). At low elevation the infestation of closed forest by the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is expected to have a detrimental impact as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). An additional threat in the south is the increasing area of indigenous vegetation being converted to exotic forestry.
176140		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species occurs in protected areas, including Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié and Mont Do, offering small safeguards against habitat loss and degradation. However, these areas need to be managed to provide effective conservation. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species. Research and monitoring of the population, habitat and threat status should be carried out.
176140		distribution	eng	<em>N. gracilis</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs in widely scattered locations throughout the island from Mount&#160; Mandjélia in the north to Forêt de la Thy and Nouméa in the south (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). Most localities are in the central part of the island between Poindimié and Mont Do. The upper elevation limit of this species is 1,000 m asl. The extent of occurrence of this species is approximately 10,000 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 1,000 km². The populations in the extreme north and south of the species' range are isolated by considerable distances (>60 km) from all other records and may represent distinct sub-populations. However, this may be an artefact of collecting effort.<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176140		habitat	eng	It is known to inhabit closed humid forest and montane forest,   and from sclerophyll <a style="">f</a>orest in the Noumea region. This species is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, stones and litter, and in cracks in the soil and forages through leaf litter. It is highly desiccation-prone.<br/><br/>It is oviparous with two to three eggs per clutch, and the females are gravid during the rainy season from December to January (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).
176140		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">N. gracilis</span>. It is assumed to have undergone substantial reduction in area of occupancy from the widespread loss of low to mid-elevation closed forests through clearance for agriculture and logging, and of mid- to high elevation forests for mining. The impact of wildfires from adjacent savanna and maquis will also have reduced the extent of forests through peripheral damage. It is considered locally common at some locations (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).
176140		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is the primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">N.  gracilis</span>. Further clearance for agriculture and afforestation will  jeopardise the already highly fragmented low to mid-elevation forests of  the central region, and the nickel mining industry threatens populations in montane forests on ultramafic substrata. The  periphery of all closed forests is at risk from wildfires in adjacent  savanna and maquis. All forests are also at risk to degradation by  introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and  from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover. There are high  infestations of the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at many of the  low to mid-elevation sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">N. gracilis</span> occurs and these  are expected to be a serious issue (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).  Predation by rodents may be a risk.
176141		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. This species is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south including Pic Ningua, Pic du Grand Kaori and Forêt Nord. It is important that the protected areas are properly managed. Surveys of this species, as well as monitoring of invasive fire ants and habitat decline should be carried out.
176141		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetricus</span> is restricted to the southern part of Grande Terre (northernmost confirmed location is Pic Ningua). It appears to be allopatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. occidentalis</span> but apparently sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. vieillardi</span>.<em> </em>Recorded from 20 to 1,050 m asl.<em><br/><br/></em>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 3,000 km²<sup></sup>   and the area of occupancy at < 1,000 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of   occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width   of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around   the points), except for very widespread species where the  published   areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of   that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat   remains.]
176141		habitat	eng	Occurs in a range of wooded habitats including tall maquis shrublands  (maquis arbustif and maquis paraforestier), and closed humid forest. It is arboreal; at least partly, possibly primarily diurnal. It appears to remain on twigs and foliage all the time rather than seeking cover during periods of inactivity.
176141		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends, but nowhere is <span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetricus</span> as abundant as the other <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes </span>species. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation, primarily through wildfires but also including localised clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation (Plaine des Lacs). The current development of a major nickel mine in the south is resulting in the continuing loss of substantial areas of habitat in the vicinity of Baie de Prony and the Plaine des Lacs.
176141		threats	eng	In the Grand Sud, the greatest single threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetricus</span> is the projected expansion of the nickel mining industry which could ultimately result in the loss of large areas of habitat. An additional threat in the south is the increasing area of indigenous vegetation being converted to exotic forestry. Other threats to this species include habitat loss or degradation from wildfires and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats), and the impacts of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is known to have a detrimental impact on lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The distinctive chameleon-like appearance of this species and its diurnal activity make it a potential target for illegal collection and trafficking.
176142		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat and threat status should also be carried out.
176142		distribution	eng	<em>N. slevini</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from five locations in a small area of the dividing ranges between Canala and La Foa in central Grande Terre. The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 250 km²<sup></sup> and the  area of occupancy at <100 km²<sup></sup>. Recorded at elevations between 400 and 900 m asl.<br/><br/>Bauer and Sadlier (2000) note a questionable record of the species from the Yahoué Valley near Nouméa, which is far to the south of all the other localities. As subsequent intensive searches there have not yielded results, this record is considered to be an error.<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176142		habitat	eng	It is known to inhabit mid-elevation closed humid forest and montane forest. This species is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and rocks on the forest floor (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). It is susceptible to heat stress and dehydration (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). It is oviparous.
176142		population	eng	<em></em> There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species, but it is presumed to have suffered a reduction in area of occupancy from the loss of closed forest habitat at mid-elevation through clearance for agriculture and afforestation, and at both mid and high elevation from wildfires.
176142		threats	eng	The likelihood of further habitat loss and fragmentation from clearance and wildfires in adjacent savannas are the greatest threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. slevini</span>. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are additional risks. The infestation of mid-elevation forests by <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is a potentially serious threat (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Predation by rodents may be an issue.
176143		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. <br/><br/>This species is not found in a protected area and does not have any other conservation measures in place for it. Actions are required to ensure the survival of this species, such as founding protected and managed areas on the Ile de Pins, and species-based research and monitoring.
176143		distribution	eng	<em>C. euryotis</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known only from two sites on Ile des Pins (Isle of Pines); at the town of Vao and at a remnant of a closed forest near Waa Mé Bay (Bauer and Sadlier 1994, Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006). The Isle of Pines has an area of 152 km², however, the area of suitable habitat is considerably less (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006). A survey of the islets surrounding the Isle of Pines did not find any individuals (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006). Recorded at elevations up to 200 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 150 km²    and the area of occupancy at <10 km². <br/><br/>[Extent  of   occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times  width   of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the   line around   the points), except for very widespread species where the   published   areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a   contraction of   that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on   where habitat   remains.]
176143		habitat	eng	<em></em><em>C. euryotis</em> inhabits coastal closed forest habitat. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is attracted to sunlight. It shelters beneath litter and stones, and basks and forages in light-gaps.<br/><br/><em>C. euryotis</em> is oviparous, with a clutch size of two to three eggs (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006).
176143		population	eng	<p>There are no data on population size and trends for <em>C. euryotis</em>. It is assumed that there has been a reduction in the area of occupation resulting from loss and fragmentation of forest habitats through clearance for occupation, agriculture and afforestation, and by infestation of areas by invasive species. At the single site from which it has been recorded in recent times, <em>C. euryotis</em> was considered to be locally common in good habitat &#160;(Bauer and Sadlier 1993).</p>
176143		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. euryotis </span>is most at risk to further loss and fragmentation of coastal forest habitats through clearance for agriculture and occupation, and from wildfires. In forested habitats there is also a significant threat from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is also likely to be a constant threat. <em></em>
176145		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176145		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It has been recorded only from the Kopéto–Paéoua massif on the central west coast of Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 500 and 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 48 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <25 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176145		habitat	eng	This species inhabits maquis shrubland, open forest, and the margins of closed forest. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath stones and logs; basks and forages on the ground.
176145		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It is presumed there has been a significant reduction population size and extent as a result of habitat loss associated with mining. It is also likely that maquis shrubland habitats have been degraded by wildfires although the impact of this have been compensated to some extent by these fires opening up montane closed forests. <span style="font-style: italic;">Lioscincus vivae</span> is locally common in good habitat.
176145		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is further loss of habitat resulting from the expansion of the nickel mines on the Kopéto–Paéoua massif. Wildfires are a lesser threat, as is habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). Predation by rodents and cats is also an issue.
176146		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in La réserve naturelle du Pic Ningua. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176146		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known only  from Pic Ningua and Mount Çidoa, south of Thio in the central ranges of  southern Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations above 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 36 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <10 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent  of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times  width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line  around the points), except for very widespread species where the  published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a  contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat remains.]</p>
176146		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed montane forest. It is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and stones and forages through leaf litter.
176146		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species but it appears to be locally common. It is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in area of occupancy from the loss of closed montane forest habitat that has occurred because of extensive mining and widespread wildfires on both peaks.
176146		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus garrulu</span>s is under particular threat from further habitat loss and fragmentation. At present this species is known only in forest remnants that are vulnerable to damage or destruction from the nickel mining that is occurring on the massif. Wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands are an added threat as damage forest margins, reducing the forest extent. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are other significant issues. Predation by rodents may be a risk.
176147		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is known to occur in many reserves across Grande Terre. No conservation management is being undertaken at present.
176147		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 16,000 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be >10,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176147		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of natural shrublands and forested habitats. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter, and basks and forages in sunlit-patches.
176147		population	eng	There is no detailed information on population size and trends for this species but subjective data shows populations are  sparse. Past loss of forest and shrubland habitats from clearance for agriculture and mining, and damage from wildfires, is expected to have reduced population size and extent and led to fragmentation.
176147		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is from further loss and fragmentation of forest and tall maquis habitats. This is potentially an issue throughout the species' range and could result from a variety of factors including clearance for agriculture and afforestation, mining and wildfires. Habitat degradation resulting from damage to the litter layer by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and livestock (some low-elevation sites) is a threat. In low and mid-elevation forests there is a potentially serious threat from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations, and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is also of concern throughout.
176148		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement  de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008)  and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud  (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Parc  Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the  south including Mont Mou, Mont Koghis, Pic du Pin and Forêt Nord. No  active conservation management is being undertaken.
176148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus mariei s.l.</span> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is widespread  across the southern part of Grande Terre (northernmost localities are  Mt Vulcain and the Rivière Ngoi). It occurs at elevations between 150 and 1,100 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,500 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <1,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent  of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times  width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line  around the points), except for very widespread species where the  published areas of the islands were taken.Area of occupancy is a  contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat remains.]</p>
176148		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed humid forest and closed montane forest. It  is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs,  stones and litter, and in soil crevices, and forages through the leaf  litter.
176148		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus mariei s.l</span>. It is expected to have undergone a substantial reduction in area of  occupancy as a result of the clearance of closed humid forests at low to  mid-elevation for agriculture, and of mid- to high elevation closed  forests by nickel mining. Wildfires from adjacent maquis shrublands will  have also contributed to habitat loss through damaging forest margins.  This species is still locally common at some sites.
176148		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is the loss of further habitat. Many  of the remaining population are restricted to closed forest remnants  and this fragmentation makes the skinks particularly vulnerable to  localized extinctions. Populations in the south and west are at highest  risk because of the rapidly expanding nickel mining industry in the  Grand Sud and in the vicinity of the Tontouta Valley. Other threats  include the loss or degradation of closed forest habitat from wildfires  in the adjacent savanna and maquis, and the effects of introduced  ungulates (deer and pigs) on habitat quality, particularly the effect of  pigs disrupting the litter layer and disturbing cover. At low to  mid-elevation sites the occurrence of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>,  in closed forest habitats may have a detrimental impact as it has been  shown to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). An  additional threat in the south is the increasing area of indigenous  vegetation being converted to exotic forestry. Predation by rodents is a  possibility.
176149		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176149		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from four sites on the summit of the isolated ultramafic Kopéto massif on the central west coast of Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 750 and 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 8 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176149		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed montane forest. It is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, stones and litter, and forages through leaf litter.
176149		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species but it appears to be localized and uncommon. It is assumed to have suffered a significant reduction in area of occupancy as a result of the removal of closed montane forest associated with the extensive nickel mining that has occurred at upper elevations on Kopéto. Wildfires from adjacent maquis shrublands may have contributed to habitat loss through damaging forest margins.
176149		threats	eng	There is a major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus manautei</span> from further habitat loss arising from the expansion of nickel mining on the Kopéto–Paéoua massif. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are other significant concerns. There may be a low level of risk from wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands damaging forest margins reducing the forest extent of small forest remnants. The invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> has also recently been recorded at high level on the massif but its potential impact is unknown as ant populations are unlikely to flourish at that elevation.
176150		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176150		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko thomaswhitei</span> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from the Ouazangou-Taom massif, north-western Grande Terre. Confirmed only from Mt Taom. It occurs at elevations between 300 and 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 4 km².&#160;<p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176150		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko thomaswhitei</span> inhabits rocky maquis shrublands at mid- to high elevation and low closed montane forest. It is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering beneath stones by day, and climbing into the vegetation at night.
176150		population	eng	There is no information on present population density or trends although  this species can be locally abundant in favourable habitat. It is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent with habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires and past mining activities.
176150		threats	eng	There is an active nickel mine within the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko thomaswhitei</span> and it is expected that its area of operation will be extended, threatening a significant part of the gecko habitat. Wildfires are a recurrent threat, particularly at lower elevations. There is also ongoing habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), again more pronounced at lower elevations. Rodents and feral cats are abundant on the Ouazangou-Taom massif and are expected to exert a predation pressure. The present status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> on Taom is unknown but it is expected that this ant species is present in or soon will occupy the low elevation forests with a consequent detrimental impact on the geckos (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176151		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is not present in any reserves and no active specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176151		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia crassicollis</span> is endemic  to Province des Iles, New Caledonia. The species is confined to Îles  Loyauté; confirmed only from Maré and Lifou. It appears to be widespread on Maré and Lifou, but its occurrence on Ouvéa, Tiga and other smaller islands is unknown. It occurs at elevations of up to 150 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,850 km²<sup></sup> (estimated from the area of the islands).
176151		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia crassicollis</span> inhabits supralittoral vegetation, and coastal and humid forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters during the day in tree holes, beneath loose bark and in dense vegetation, and forages at night on trunks and branches.
176151		population	eng	The global population size and trends are not known. However, it is presumed to have suffered past declines in population size and extent of occurrence through habitat loss from clearance for occupation and agriculture, and predation by introduced species.
176151		threats	eng	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia crassicollis</span> include loss and degradation of habitat arising from forest clearance for agriculture and wildfires, particularly when these result in habitat fragmentation. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats) is also an issue, and there are potentially serious impacts from the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, especially in humid forests (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176152		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken but this species may potentially benefit from proposed predator control in the La Guèn catchment on Mt Panié.
176152		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two widely disjunct groups of populations (>100 km apart) on Grande Terre, in the north the species occurs on the Panié massif and massif Koniambo, and in the south on several mountain tops from Mé Adéo near Bourail to Mt Çidoa near Thio. It occurs at elevations up to 1,600 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 4,500 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <300 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176152		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mid-elevation closed forest (>500 m), montane forest and high-elevation maquis. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath litter and stones, and basks and forages in sunlit-patches.
176152		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for for this species. It is presumed to have suffered a limited reduction in population size and extent in the past from habitat loss and degradation associated with mining on ultramafic massifs and wildfires in maquis shrublands. <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus orestes</span> is still locally abundant at some locations.
176152		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is from further habitat loss and degradation resulting from the expansion of the nickel mining industry on the ultramafic massifs in the south and northwest (the Panié massif is safe from mining). Wildfires damaging maquis shrublands and encroaching into forest margins are serious concern where habitat is restricted to isolated montane forest remnants. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) damaging litter layers and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats) are also of concern. Possibly at risk to infestations on the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at the lowest limits of its habitat.
176153		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in La réserve naturelle de la Forêt Nord. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken. Ka Yé Wagwé is a high priority for protection (perhaps through establishing a protected area or extending the adjacent Reserve de Madeleine).
176153		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known from only four localities in the Plaine des Lacs region of southern Grande Terre: Ka Yé Wagwé, Kwa Néie, Montagne des Source, and Riviere Blanche. It occurs at elevations between 250 and 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 24 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <2 km².<br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176153		habitat	eng	This species inhabits peridotite outcrops in maquis shrubland and on forest margins. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It lives in deep rock crevices, and basks and forages on rock faces.
176153		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species, but observations at both localities indicate it occurs at low population density. It is unclear whether the repeated wildfires that damage the surrounding maquis vegetation have any lasting effect on habitat or numbers.
176153		threats	eng	The population on the ridges of Foret Nord is in close proximity to a coal-fired smelter (<1 km away) which could pose a threat to long-term habitat viability. <span style="font-style: italic;">Lacertoides pardalis</span> is probably at risk to predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) and may be at risk to the infestation of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplolepis gracilipes</span> that occurs on Kwa Néie.
176154		conservation	eng	This species is in urgent need of conservation measures as it occurs in a very restricted and fragmented area and is affected by ongoing threats. Currently, it does not occur in any protected area.
176154		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord of New Caledonia. It is restricted to a very small area on the northern end of the Poum massif, northern Grande Terre. Searches elsewhere on the Poum massif and on adjacent mountains have failed to locate other populations. It occurs at elevations between 260 m and 320 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 0.05 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 0.02 km²<sup></sup>, consisting of two subpopulations approximately 200 m apart.<br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176154		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko inexpectatus</span> inhabits low, closed-forest remnants on rocky cuirasse surface, sheltering beneath stones by day and climbing the trees and shrubs at night. According to GIS data, maquis forests on ultramafic soils in the Poum region occur only above 100 m.
176154		population	eng	This species is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent from habitat loss and degradation resulting from wild fires and past mining activities. The two known populations are in the largest of the few remaining closed-forest remnants, each being <1 ha in extent. One of the populations has collapsed following the colonization of the forest patch by fire ants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>) around 2002 and the species has not been seen there since its discovery in 2001. The present population size is estimated at fewer than 200 individuals and is expected to be declining.
176154		threats	eng	The greatest single threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko inexpectatus</span> is the immediate plan to mine the entire plateau of the Poum massif for nickel during the coming decade, something that would result in the removal of the entire habitat of this species. The closed-forest remnants are also very vulnerable to the wildfires that frequently burn through the adjacent maquis shrublands, reducing the extent of the forest through damaging the periphery, and habitat degradation is also occurring from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). The relatively recent colonization of the forest remnants by the introduced ant<span style="font-style: italic;"> Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is also expected to have a severe and potentially unsustainable impact on the geckos as these ants are known to decimate lizard populations and lead to localized extinctions (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Rodents and feral cats are numerous on the massif and are expected to exert a predation pressure.
176156		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken. Given its highly limited area of occupancy, formal protection of existing habitat for this species is a high priority.
176156		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from a single location near the summit of the ultramafic massif Boulinda, on the central west coast of Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations from 900 to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 67 km²<sup></sup> (calculated from polygon map), but it is expected to occur more widely in the Boulinda massif. The area of occupancy is estimated to be 1 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176156		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed montane forests. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep leaf litter, and forages in cover.
176156		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Marmorosphax boulinda</span>, but destruction of its montane forest habitat by past mining activates and from recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands is assumed to have reduced the population size and extent.
176156		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is from further habitat destruction and fragmentation. Mineral exploration and mining has occurred on the Boulinda massif in the past and with the rapidly expanding mining industry it is expected this will recommence. Montane forest remnants and forest margins are also vulnerable to the recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrubland. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly through damaging the litter layer.
176158		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). A small part of the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko nehoueensis</span> at Rivière Nehoué is administered as a recreation reserve but it receives high human use. Two areas on the upper part of Dôme de Tiébaghi are unofficially set aside as botanical reserves, but to date this species has not been recorded within them. No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176158		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko nehoueensis</span> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from the Dôme de Tiébaghi massif and adjacent lowlands, northern Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations up to 580 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 40 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated at 12 km².<sup></sup><p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>
176158		habitat	eng	At Rivière Nehoué, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko nehoueensis</span> occupies gallery forest on the floodplain; on Dôme de Tiébaghi it is present in closed-forest and in maquis shrubland. This species is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering beneath stones and logs by day and climbing into the vegetation at night.
176158		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko nehoueensis</span>, but it is still locally common at some sites with good  habitat. However, the current expansion of the nickel mine on Dôme de  Tiébaghi is reducing the area of occupied habitat and populations are  noticeably declining in areas affected by pollution (dust) from the mine. This species is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent with habitat loss from forest clearance for agriculture at low elevations and past mining activities (mainly at higher elevations).
176158		threats	eng	The major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko nehoueensis</span> is the current expansion of the nickel mine on Dôme de Tiébaghi as this will reduce the extent of habitat. Wildfires are a recurrent threat on Dôme de Tiébaghi, particularly in maquis shrublands. There is widespread habitat degradation throughout the range of these geckos from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs, plus cattle at Rivière Nehoué). The invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is abundant at Rivière Nehoué and in some closed forest areas on the massif. This ant species is expected to have a severe and potentially unsustainable impact on the geckos (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Rodents and feral cats are numerous throughout the area and are expected to exert a predation pressure.
176160		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). One of the locations where <span style="font-style: italic;">Kanakysaurus viviparus</span> occurs (Rivière Nehoué) is administered as a recreation reserve but it receives high human use. Two areas on the upper part of Dôme de Tiébaghi are unofficially set aside as botanical reserves but to date this species has not been recorded within them. No conservation management is currently being undertaken. This species is in need of further conservation areas. Research is needed to establish population size and trends.
176160		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known from five locations: three in the far north of Grande Terre (the Poum and Dôme de Tiébaghi massifs, and Rivière Nehoué), and from the Iles Belep (both Ile Art and Ile Pott). It occurs at elevations of up to 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 300 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <50 km².<br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176160		habitat	eng	This species inhabits supralittoral vegetation, gallery forest, low elevation closed forest and maquis shrubland on rocky cuirasses surfaces. This species is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic, and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep within boulder beds and forages in cover or in the open at night.
176160		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species, but it is moderately abundant at some sites. It is expected to have undergone a substantial reduction in area of occupancy and total population size as a result of the past widespread clearance of closed forest habitat for agriculture and mining. Substantial areas of habitat have also been lost as a consequence of repeated wildfires. These impacts are ongoing.
176160		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is the loss of&#160;habitat as a consequence of the rapidly expanding mining industry on the Poum (plans to remove entire top of plateau) and Dôme de Tiébaghi (plans to remove most of the plateau) massifs. Mining may affect the Iles Belep populations in the future as they are also on ultramafic cuirasse surfaces. Continued loss of habitat to wildfires is also a high risk. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are potential predators. On Grande Terre the high-density populations of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs, and also livestock at Rivière Nehoué) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer and disrupting cover such as rocks and logs. <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is expected to have an adverse impact in low to mid-elevation forest as this invasive ant is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176161		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves (but the only known site is immediately adjacent to the Réserve spéciale de faune du Col d'Amieu et Table Unio). No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176161		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known from a single specimen collected at an elevation of 500 m in Col d'Amieu, on the main dividing range north of La Foa. The extent of occurrence is not known, but continuous habitat like that at the capture site extends for many kilometres east and west along the dividing range.
176161		habitat	eng	This species is found in mid-elevation closed humid forest. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter, and basks and forages in sunlit-patches.
176161		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species. It is expected that past forest clearance for agriculture and wildfires will have reduced the population size and extent. Habitat may also have been lost to logging.
176161		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species will be further loss and fragmentation of habitat resulting from clearance for agriculture and afforestation, and from wildfires. Additional threats include habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) which damage the litter layer, predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats), and the potentially serious effect of high-density populations of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>.
176162		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south including Mount Humboldt, Mount Mou, Mount Koghis and Forêt Cachée. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176162		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is widespread in the southern part of Grande Terre (northernmost localities are Mount Vulcain and Rivière Ngoi).&#160; It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,400 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <1,500 km². <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176162		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide range of habitats including coastal vegetation, maquis shrublands at all elevations, closed forests and montane forests. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath logs and rocks, and rock crevices; forages in the open or in sunlit patches on the forest floor.
176162		population	eng	Past loss and degradation of forest and maquis shrubland habitats by wildfires is expected to have reduced population size and extent and led to fragmentation. There have also been some habitat loss from clearance for mining and logging. However, although there are no detailed data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropidoscincus variabilis</span>, this species is able to occupy disturbed habitats and is still relatively abundant at some sites.
176162		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is the further loss or degradation of habitat, particularly from wildfires in maquis shrublands and their associated damage to forest margins, and to a lesser extent from mining (Grand Sud and Tontouta Valley) and afforestation (Grand Sud). Habitat quality is also threatened by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). In low to mid-elevation forests the invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is expected to have a severe impact as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001) and in the maquis in the Grand Sud another invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplolepis gracilipes</span>, may be just as damaging. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is an issue.
176163		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176163		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from two sites at the summit of Mount Aoupinié, in the central ranges west of Ponérihouen, Grande Terre, but it is expected to be more widespread as there is apparently suitable habitat. It occurs at elevations above 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 4 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 1 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176163		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed montane forest. It is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and stones, and forages through leaf litter.
176163		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. There may have been a localized loss of habitat associated with the construction of the road to the summit in the past, but this is not expected to have significantly affected the area of occupancy or population size.
176163		threats	eng	The only immediate threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus rankini</span> appear to be a low to moderate risk of habitat degradation by ungulates, particularly by pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover, and possibly predation by rodents.
176164		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176164		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from two locations on the Tnâno massif (near Hienghène) in the north-eastern ranges of Grande Terre.&#160; Locations are disjunct, about 10-20 km apart. It occurs at elevations between 100 and 800 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 100 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176164		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed humid forest. It is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and stones and forages through leaf litter.
176164		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends (only two specimens known). It is presumed to have suffered a reduction in area of occupancy from the loss of closed forest habitat at low-elevation through clearance and wildfires.
176164		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is from the high densities of the introduce ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> in low to mid-elevation closed forests as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). It is also under threat to further habitat loss at low-elevation from clearance of closed humid forest for agriculture and damage to forest margins from wildfires in the adjacent savanna. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are other significant issues. Predation by rodents may be a risk.
176165		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009).&#160; A small part of the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span> at Rivière Nehoué is administered as a recreation reserve but it receives high human use. Two areas on the upper part of Dôme de Tiébaghi are unofficially set aside as botanical reserves but to date <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span> has been recorded in only one of them. No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176165		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It occurs in Northern Grande Terre, from Tinip and Mt Taom on the west coast and the Panié massif on the east coast, northwards to the Poum massif. Also on the Iles Belep and Ile Yandé. It appears to be parapatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes vieillardi</span>. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,900 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated at < 1,000 km²<sup></sup>.&#160;&#160;<p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176165		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a very wide range of wooded habitats including maquis shrublands, sclerophyll forest, gallery forest, closed humid forest and montane forest. It is arboreal; at least partly, possibly primarily diurnal. It appears to remain on twigs and foliage all the time rather than seeking cover during periods of inactivity.
176165		population	eng	The combined effects of clearance for agriculture and wildfires have resulted in the loss of most lowland maquis, sclerophyll forest and closed forests across the entire range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span>, and at higher elevations past mining activities and wildfires have similarly reduced habitat extent. As a consequence the remaining populations are fragmented and patchy in occurrence. The current expansion of nickel mines on Poum, Dôme de Tiébaghi, Kaala and Taom is further reducing the area of occupied habitat. There are no quantitative data on population size or trends but at many localities <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span> is still abundant and the most common gecko species present.
176165		threats	eng	The major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span> is the current expansion of the nickel mines on Poum, Dôme de Tiébaghi, Kaala and Taom as these are removing the maquis habitat of the highest density populations. Wildfires are a recurrent threat in maquis and dry forest habitats the western part of this species' range and on the islands. Habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) occurs throughout, plus there are local impacts from livestock (e.g. cattle at Rivière Nehoué). Rodents and feral cats occur throughout the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span>—and are abundant at many sites—and they are expected to exert a predation pressure. The invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, occurs at most low-elevation sclerophyll and closed forest sites inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span> and is expanding into maquis habitats as well. The impact of these ants on <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes agricolae</span> is not known but it is expected to be detrimental (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The distinctive chameleon-like appearance of this species and its diurnal activity make it a potential target for illegal collection and trafficking.
176166		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié, Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié, Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and several other reserves including Nodela and Forêt Nord. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species.
176166		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of New Caledonia. It occurs in Grande Terre, and Ile des Pins and its satellite islands. It is known from widely scattered localities in the east and south of Grande Terre (northernmost site is Mt Mandjélia in the Panié massif); present on many islands and islets around Ile des Pins. It occurs at elevations between 500 m and 1,100 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 10,000 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be approximately 1,000 km². However, area of occupancy is likely to be greater than the number of records indicate as many sites are in relatively extensive areas of potential habitat.<br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176166		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal forests, closed humid forests and montane forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters by day in tree crevices and holes, and forages at night in the canopy.
176166		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for this species. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past through habitat loss associated with logging and the clearance of low and mid-elevation forests for agriculture. Relatively high density populations remain at some sites, particularly those on the islands and islets near Ile des Pins, but these represent an extremely small proportion of the species' overall distribution.
176166		threats	eng	The primary threats to this species are the further loss or degradation of habitat, predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats), and at lower elevation site the impact of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). At all locations on Grande Terre, habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is a problem. Illegal collection and trafficking of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus leachianus</span> is a particular threat at accessible locations, especially those on the small islands where the low stature of the vegetation makes them easier to capture. Because of its very large body size an unusual and localized risk factor for this species is electrocution from high-tension power lines passing through forested habitats.&#160; Potentially severe localized threat from development/agriculture at low elevations. Complex biology could impact survival. The island populations are particularly susceptible to stochastic events that could lead to localized extinctions.
176167		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bavayia robusta</span> is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and at least two reserves (Forêt Cachée and Forêt Nord). No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176167		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia robusta</span> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It occurs in Île des Pins and satellite islands. Its northernmost locality is Dumbea. It occurs at elevations of up to 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,150 km².<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176167		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia robusta</span> occurs in a wide range of wooded habitats including mangroves, coastal forest, sclerophyll forest and closed humid forest at low to mid-elevations. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters by day in tree holes and crevices and beneath loose bark and forages at night to canopy height.
176167		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia robusta</span> but it remains abundant at some localities and has been able to colonize some modified environments (e.g. acacia woodlands). Presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation, primarily through clearance for occupation and agriculture but also including wildfires and degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and livestock.<br/><br/>The rapid expansion of Nouméa and outlying suburbs is causing ongoing habitat loss across much of the species' range.
176167		threats	eng	The primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia robusta</span> is loss of habitat. This loss will be particularly acute in mangroves and other coastal habitats which are under threat from urbanization, and for the isolated closed forest remnants in the Grand Sud that are at risk due to the rapidly expanding nickel mining industry. Other threats to this species include further loss or degradation of habitat from wildfires and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is anticipated to have a detrimental impact on <span style="font-style: italic;">B. robusta</span> as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176168		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176168		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from six widespread locations on Grande Terre between Dôme de Tiébaghi and the Panié massif in the north and La Foa in the south. It likely occurs much more widely given presence in different habitat types. It can be found at elevations up to 400 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 7,500 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <200 km². <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176168		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from supralittoral vegetation, low and mid-elevation closed forest, sclerophyll forest and vinelands. It is diurnal and arboreal, spending the night sleeping on the outer twigs of trees and presumably foraging in the canopy by day.
176168		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species but is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past from the loss of lowland forest habitat from clearance for agriculture, mining and logging, and from the effects of wildfires.
176168		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Lioscincus novaecaledoniae</span> is further loss or degradation of its habitat through clearance for agriculture and mining. This is a particular problem on Dôme de Tiébaghi where expansion of the nickel mine will result in habitat removal; at Gouaro-Déva where habitat is at risk to changed farm management and tourist development; and possibly on Mt Aoupinié from logging. The habitat is also at risk from wildfires and damage from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is another potentially serious threat as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) may also be an issue.
176169		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176169		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known from two locations on the dividing ranges to the east of Koné, central Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 500 and 700 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 160 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <30 km². <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176169		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed humid forest. It is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and stones and forages through leaf litter.
176169		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species. It is known from two subpopulations of which the larger is presumed to have suffered a reduction in area of occupancy from the loss of closed forest habitat at low-elevation to mid-elevations through clearance for agriculture, logging and wildfires. This species is still common at the other subpopulation where it has been found (Forêt Plate). Both populations are at risk to invasive species.
176169		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus humectus</span> is at risk to further habitat loss arising from habitat clearance for agriculture (and perhaps logging), and damage to forest margins from wildfires in the adjacent savanna. It is also threatened by habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover. Infestations of the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> are also expected to be an issue as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Predation by rodents may be a risk.
176170		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in most reserves throughout New Caledonia. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176170		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre, and on Iles Belep, Ile des Pins, Iles Loyauté (Maré, Lifou, Ouvéa) and many smaller satellite islands. It can be found at elevations up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 18,500 km² (estimated from the area of the islands), and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <18,500 km². <br/>  <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176170		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a very wide range of open and wooded habitats, including coastal sites, mangroves, littoral vegetation, savanna, sclerophyll forest, closed forest, montane forest and maquis shrublands. Also present in modified landscapes (farmland and plantations) and well-vegetated urban areas. It is diurnal, arboreal/terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters in beneath stones, in crevices and holes in soil, rock and trees, and under loose bark. It forages from ground level to canopy height; typically basks on rocks and trees.
176170		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. However, any decreases associated with the widespread clearance of wooded habitats from low and mid-elevation areas in the past will have been partly offset by this species' ability to occupy modified habitats. It is still locally common at some sites.
176170		threats	eng	This species is threatened by further loss and fragmentation of wooded habitats through clearance for agriculture and afforestation, and to a lesser extent by mining and wildfires, particularly when these result in a highly simplified vegetation (e.g. exotic pasture). There is a potentially significant threat from <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span> at low to mid-elevations as this introduced ant is known to decimate lizard populations. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is an ever-present issue.
176171		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in most, if not all, humid forest reserves on Grande Terre. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species.
176171		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. <span style="font-style: italic;">Marmorosphax tricolor s.l.</span> is found throughout Grande Terre with the exception of the far northwest (northernmost location in the west is the Koniambo massif and in the east is Mount Mandjélia). It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 10,000 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 6,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176171		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed humid forests at low to mid-elevations, montane forest and high-elevation maquis shrublands. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep leaf litter, and in soil crevices. Usually, it forages in cover or in the open in low-light situations.
176171		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species but it can occur at very high population densities in favourable habitats. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in area of occupancy and hence total population size as a result of the past widespread clearance of closed forest habitat for settlement, agriculture, afforestation and mining. Substantial areas of habitat have also been lost as a consequence of repeated wildfires. These impacts are ongoing.
176171		threats	eng	The greatest threats to this species are further loss, fragmentation and degradation of closed forest habitat. The likely cause of this varies across the species' range and with elevation, but includes clearance for agriculture, mining, logging and afforestation, and damage from wildfires to forest margins. These impacts will be greatest on isolated forest remnants and can, in some cases, be expected to lead to local extirpation of skinks. The effect of fire on high elevation humid maquis shrublands is also a threat. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are potential predators; and high-density populations of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer and disrupting cover (such as rocks and logs).&#160; The introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is expected to have an adverse impact in low to mid-elevation forest but this likely to be lower than on other lizard species.
176172		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south, including Pic Ningua, Pic du Grand Kaori and Forêt Nord. No active species-specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176172		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes vieillardi</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is widespread on Grande Terre south of the Koniambo and Tchingou massifs. Also recorded from Ile des Pins. It occurs at elevations of up to 950 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 11,500 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated at 2,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176172		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a very wide range of wooded habitats including maquis shrublands, sclerophyll forest, gallery forest, closed humid forest, and montane forest. It is arboreal; at least partly, possibly primarily diurnal. It appears to remain on twigs and foliage all the time rather than seeking cover during periods of inactivity.
176172		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for this species, but it remains common at some locations with good  maquis habitat, generally those at higher elevation. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation through clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation, and from wildfires. This trend is ongoing with the expansion of most nickel mines within the species' range, and the continued impacts of clearance and wildfires.
176172		threats	eng	Threats to this species include the expansion of the nickel mining industry on most of the larger ultramafic massifs within its range; further loss of habitat to clearance for agriculture, afforestation projects and wildfires; habitat degradation caused by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs); and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, occurs in most of the lower-elevation forests and is expected to have a detrimental impact on <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes vieillardi</span> populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The distinctive chameleon-like appearance of this species and its diurnal activity make it a potential target for illegal collection and trafficking.
176173		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue but it is not known to occur in any other protected areas. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species.
176173		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It occurs in Grande Terre, and Ile des Pins. On Grande Terre there are only four known localities widely scattered across the southern half of the island (Canala to Rivière Bleue). It is possible that this species occurs in intervening forested areas. It occurs at elevations between 150 m and 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,600 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176173		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal forests, closed humid forests and montane forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters by day in tree crevices and holes or amongst dense foliage, and forages at night in the canopy.
176173		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past through habitat loss associated with logging, wildfires and the clearance of low and mid-elevation forests for agriculture.
176173		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are the further loss or degradation of habitat from wildfires and clearance for agriculture, predation by rodents, and, at lower elevation sites, the impact of the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Habitat loss and fragmentation are the main threats on Ile des Pins. At all Grande Terre locations habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is also a problem. Illegal collection and trafficking of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus ciliatus</span> is a risk at accessible locations.
176174		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009).&#160; This species is not presently in any reserves, but part of the Creek à Paul catchment is supposed to be so designated. No conservation species-specific management is currently being undertaken.
176174		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known from only one locality on the Dôme de Tiébaghi massif. It occurs at elevations between 10 and 100 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 20 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated at 9 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>
176174		habitat	eng	This species occurs in maquis shrublands and closed forest remnants. It is nocturnal and arboreal. During the day, it shelters beneath loose bark or in tree holes and crevices, and forages at night on twigs and foliage to canopy height.
176174		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for this species. There are  no known localities where the species is common. It is presumed to have suffered a reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation through clearance for agriculture and mining, and from wildfires.
176174		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the current expansion of the nickel mines on Dôme de Tiébaghi as these are reducing the extent of habitat on this massif. Wildfires are a recurrent threat in maquis shrublands and there is on-going habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). Rodents and feral cats are present at all known locations for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oedodera marmorata</span> and they are expected to exert a predation pressure. The highly invasive Asian gecko <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus frenatus</span> is currently spreading into the maquis habitat occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Oedodera marmorata</span> and may be competing with it (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oedodera marmorata</span> is noticeably less abundant where <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus frenatus</span> occurs than in adjacent areas without it). The invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is abundant in closed forest habitats occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Oedodera marmorata</span> and is spreading into maquis habitats as well. The impact of these ants is not known but is expected to be detrimental (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The unique phylogenetic position of this gecko and its distinctive appearance mean it is potentially a target for illegal collection and trafficking.
176175		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in most forested reserves throughout New Caledonia. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176175		distribution	eng	This species is indigenous to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre, and on Iles Belep, Ile des Pins, Iles Loyauté (Maré, Lifou, Ouvéa) and many smaller satellite islands. Also present extralimitally in southern Vanuatu. It occurs at elevations up to 1,000 m.
176175		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of forested habitats including supralittoral vegetation, coastal forest, sclerophyll forest, lowland closed forest, and montane forest. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter, and basks and forages in sunlit patches.
176175		population	eng	Unquestionably very large areas of habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus atropunctatus</span> have been lost in the past from a variety of causes including forest clearance for agriculture, mining and wildfires. Nonetheless, although there are no detailed data on population size and trends, the species remains very widespread and is generally abundant. It is also able to occupy highly modified habitats, including well-vegetated urban gardens.
176175		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is from further loss and fragmentation of forest habitats which is potentially a problem throughout the species' range&#160; and could result from a variety of factors including clearance for agriculture and afforestation, mining and wildfires. Introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and at some low-elevation sites, livestock are a threat through degradation of litter layers. In low and mid-elevation forests there is a potentially serious threat from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is also of concern throughout.
176176		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176176		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known from three locations on the central east coast of Grande Terre between Houaïlou and Poindimié. Although surveys in other areas have so far failed to find additional  populations, it is expected to occur more widely as extensive areas of  habitat remain. It occurs at elevations between 100 and 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 500 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 10 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176176		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed humid forest. It is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and stones and forages through leaf litter.
176176		population	eng	It is expected that this species has suffered a substantial reduction in area of occupancy and population size from the widespread loss of closed forest habitat at low to mid-elevation through clearance for agriculture and logging, and from the effects of wildfires. Although there are no quantitative data on population size and trends, the population of this skink on Mount Koyapwa, Poindimié, completely collapsed following the arrival of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at the site and may now be locally extinct (Sadlier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
176176		threats	eng	The greatest threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus greeri</span> appear to be further habitat loss and the effect of the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>. Closed humid forests at low to mid-elevation are increasingly fragmented on the central east coast and any further clearance for agriculture, afforestation or logging, or destruction by wildfires, will lead to further reductions in extent and population size, and possibly local extinction. <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is now widespread through the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannoscincus greeri</span> but is likely to be having a continuing effect. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are other significant issues, and predation by rodents may be a risk.
176177		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is not present in any protected areas, therefore conservation measures are needed.
176177		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko koniambo</span> is endemic  to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from the Koniambo  massif and adjacent lowlands, northwestern Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 600 and 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 60 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated at 20 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176177		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky maquis shrublands and sclerophyll forest on serpentine soils at low elevation near Vavouto, and maquis shrublands and closed montane forest at mid- to high elevations on the Koniambo massif. It is nocturnal, arboreal, sheltering beneath stones by day and climbing into the vegetation at night.
176177		population	eng	This species is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent with habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires, clearance for agriculture (low elevation) and past mining activities (mainly high elevation). <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko koniambo</span> is still locally abundant at some sites, but there are no quantitative data on population size or trends. However, the current construction of nickel processing facilities at Vavouto is drastically reducing the extent of the population at that location and the development of the associated mine is destroying large areas of habitat on the Koniambo massif.
176177		threats	eng	The primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko koniambo</span> is the development of a major nickel mine on the Koniambo massif and the associated processing facilities at Vavouto which will result in the loss of significant areas of habitat for this species. Wildfires are a constant threat, particularly in maquis shrublands, and there is widespread habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata,</span> is present in the maquis and sclerophyll forest habitat at Vavouto, and is expected to have a severe and potentially unsustainable impact on the geckos (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Rodents and feral cats are numerous throughout the range of these geckos and are expected to exert a predation pressure.
176178		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176178		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko poumensis</span> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from the Poum massif, northern Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 10 and 415 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 18 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated at 8 km².<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]  <p>&#160;</p>
176178		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko poumensis</span> inhabits rocky maquis shrublands and low, closed-forest remnants. It is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering beneath stones by day, and climbing into the vegetation at night.
176178		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko poumensis</span>. It is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent with habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires and past mining activities. However, this species is still locally abundant at some sites where good habitat remains.
176178		threats	eng	The current plan to mine the entire plateau of the Poum massif for nickel during the coming decade would result in the loss of approximately 25% of the current habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko poumensis</span> and some of the highest density populations. The mine development may also affect other parts of the massif. Wildfires are a major threat on the Poum massif and habitat degradation is also occurring from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). The invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is present in closed forest remnants and maquis shrublands on the plateau (but is absent or uncommon in maquis on the rocky slopes of the massif) and is expected to have a detrimental impact on the geckos as they are known to decimate lizard populations and lead to localized extinctions (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Rodents and feral cats are numerous on the Poum massif and are expected to exert a predation pressure.
176179		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176179		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from central Grande Terre at three locations along the main dividing range, Mt Aoupinié, Grottes de Adio and Col des Roussettes. It occurs at elevations between 200 and 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 800 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <100 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176179		habitat	eng	This species occurs in closed lowland and mid-elevation forests. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter, and basks and forages in sunlit-patches.
176179		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It has presumably undergone a reduction in population size and extent in the past from habitat loss and degradation resulting mostly from clearance for agriculture and logging, and from wildfires. These impacts are continuing. <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus renevieri</span> is still relatively abundant at sites where good habitat remains.
176179		threats	eng	This species is threatened by further habitat loss and fragmentation from forest clearance, logging and wildfires. Additional threats include habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) which damage the litter layer, predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats), and the potentially serious effect of high-density populations of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>.
176180		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not known to occur in any reserves but the Tao population may extend to the adjoining Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mont Panié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176180		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known from four localities representing two widely-separated sub-populations in the north of Grande Terre. Two of these localities are on the northeast coast north of Hienghène (Ouaïème and Tao) and two on the northwest coast north of Voh (Síba and Mt Taom). It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 650 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <100 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176180		habitat	eng	This species occurs in closed forests at low elevations and, at high elevations (Mt Taom), it has been found in montane forest and maquis shrubland. It is diurnal, terrestrial and active in sunlight. It shelters beneath litter and stones, and basks and forages in light-gaps.
176180		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. At low elevations it is assumed to have undergone a reduction in the area of occupation as a result of past habitat destruction through clearance for farming or associated with mining. Mining will also have destroyed significant areas of habitat on the summit of Taom. The species has not been recorded at either of the east coast sites since the original observations but is not uncommon at the high-elevation site on Mt Taom.
176180		threats	eng	The western populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Celatiscincus similis</span> are under threat of habitat loss as a result of the expanding nickel mine on the summit of Taom and the sporadic nickel mining that occurs at lower-elevations in the vicinity of Tinip. The populations in the east may be at risk to forest clearance for agriculture. Wildfires in adjacent savanna or maquis shrublands are a recurrent threat to forest margins, particularly at lower elevations. There is ongoing habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) leading to an opening of the forest structure, damage to the litter layer and lowered humidity regimes.&#160; The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is expected to have a detrimental impact on the skinks in low to mid-elevation forests (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Introduced mammals (rodents and cats) are expected to exert a predation pressure.
176181		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). One location at which<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rhacodactylus chahoua</span> occurs (Rivière Nehoué) is administered as a recreation reserve but it receives high human use and it is not known to occur in any other protected areas. No species-specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176181		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs in Grande Terre, Iles Belep (Ile Art only) and Ile des Pins. Very few widely scattered localities are known and at many of these the continued occurrence of this species is uncertain.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> It occurs at elevations of up to 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 16,600 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 1,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176181		habitat	eng	This species inhabits gallery and closed forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters by day in tree crevices and holes and forages at night in the canopy.
176181		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial past reduction in population size and extent through habitat loss, mainly associated with logging and the clearance of lowland forests for agriculture. This species remains relatively common at a few sites but at others there are clear indications that the populations are declining, e.g. on Dôme de Tiébaghi closed forest habitat occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus chahoua</span> is being lost to expansion of the nickel mine and degraded by mining activities.
176181		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is the continued loss or degradation of forest habitat. This is a particular risk near settlements and along river valleys where agricultural activities are intensifying, and on Ile des Pins where there is the additional effect of increased tourism. Mining is a much lesser risk to <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus chahoua</span> than other lizard species as only a very small proportion of its known occurrence (two locations: le Art and Dôme de Tiébaghi) is on the ultramafic surface where nickel occurs. Other threats to this species include habitat loss or degradation from wildfires (particularly Iles Belep) and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). Predation by introduced mammals is a constant threat, especially rats as they are abundant in lowland forest habitats and capable of foraging in the canopy. It is expected that the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, will be a substantial threat as it is known to have a detrimental impact on lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Illegal collection and trafficking of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus chahoua</span> is a risk at accessible locations.
176182		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is not present in any reserves. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken but the species may benefit from the removal of livestock and introduced ungulates from the sclerophyll forest at Forêt Tiéa.
176182		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is restricted to lowland sites on the northwest of Grande Terre between Rivière Nehoué and Pouembout. It occurs at elevations up to 300 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,600 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <100 km².<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]  <p>&#160;</p>
176182		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sclerophyll and lowland closed forest, sheltering in litter, and basking and foraging in sunlit patches. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is active in sunlight.
176182		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It is assumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent in the past from habitat loss and degradation resulting mostly from clearance of the west coast lowland forests for agriculture and grazing, and habitat loss from clearance and wildfires is continuing. <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus auratus</span> is still locally common at sites where good habitat remains.
176182		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is further habitat loss and fragmentation that is expected to come from forest clearance for agriculture and from wildfires. Additional threats include habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) which damage the litter layer, predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats), and the potentially serious effect of high-density populations of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>.
176183		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié and the recreation reserve at Rivière Nehoué. No conservation management is currently being undertaken, but this species may potentially benefit from proposed predator control in the La Guèn catchment on Mt Panié.
176183		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is widespread in the ranges north from the Rivière Tiwaka. The northernmost locality is Rivière Nehoué. It occurs at elevations up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,700 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <1,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176183		habitat	eng	This species occurs in closed forest and montane forest. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter and basks and forages in sunlit patches.
176183		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent in the past with habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires, clearance for agriculture and grazing, and from mining activities on the ultramafic massifs in the northwest. <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus aquilonius</span> is still locally abundant at sites where good habitat remains.
176183		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is further habitat loss and degradation for which the primary causes are expected to be wildfires encroaching into forest habitat from adjacent shrublands and savanna, and the expansion of the nickel mining industry on the ultramafic massifs in the northwest. Habitat degradation by livestock at low elevations and by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) throughout is also a risk. The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations, is present in low and mid-elevation forests and will be a serious threat. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats) is a further issue.
176184		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176184		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to&#160;New Caledonia. It is known from five widely scattered locations on Grande Terre (between Puébo in the north and Houaïlou and Moindou in the south), and from Ile des Pins. It occurs at elevations up to 300 m. There have been no records of this species on Grande Terre for over 30 years. The extent of occurrence is approximately 4,500 km² in Grande Terre and 152 km²<sup></sup> in Ile des Pins. The area of occupancy is estimated to be <300 km². <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176184		habitat	eng	This species occurs in supralittoral vegetation, and lowland woodlands and savanna. On Ile des Pins it has been observed in maquis shrubland. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath logs and rocks, and rock crevices; forages in stick litter or in sunlit patches on the forest floor.
176184		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropidoscincus aubrianus</span>. It has unquestionably undergone a reduction in the area of occupancy as a result of past clearance of lowland forest and shrubland habitats for agriculture and from widespread wildfires, and this may have resulted in fragmentation of the population.
176184		threats	eng	This species may be at risk to further loss or degradation of woodland habitat through clearance for agriculture and gardening, and damage from wildfires. Livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) are likely to degrade habitat quality. The species is also expected to be at particular risk to the invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is potentially an issue.
176185		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in most reserves throughout New Caledonia. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176185		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre, and on Recif d'Entrecasteux (Ile Surprise), Iles Belep, Ile des Pins, Iles Loyauté (Maré, Lifou, Ouvéa) and many smaller satellite islands. It can occur at elevations of 1,000 m but it is more numerous at lower elevations (500 m). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 18,500 km²<sup></sup>.
176185		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a very wide range of open and wooded habitats from the strand line to montane maquis shrublands, including coastal sites, grassland, savanna, maquis shrublands, sclerophyll forest and disturbed parts of closed forest. Absent from dense closed forest. It prefers much more open habitats than <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus austrocaledonicus</span>. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter, dense vegetation and beneath other cover (stones, logs, debris); forages in the open and in sunlit-patches.
176185		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species but because it has adapted so well to modified environments and is now often abundant in such habitats, any decrease in population size and extent resulting from losses and degradation of natural habitats in the past will, to some extent, have been off-set.
176185		threats	eng	Although this species will be at risk to further loss and fragmentation of natural forest and shrubland habitats through clearance and wildfires, and habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), the greatest threat is expected to be from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations in low and mid-elevation forested habitats. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is a relatively low risk.
176186		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research should be carried out to verify the identity of this species outside the species complex.
176186		distribution	eng	This species has a wide Oceanian distribution. It occurs on the islands of Erromango and Tanna in Vanuatu, eastward through Melanesia, and into Polynesia and Micronesia (G. Zug pers. comm.).
176186		habitat	eng	This nocturnal gecko is usually found hiding under ground debris during the day and, at night, foraging on the forest floor (Cogger 2000). It is found in both wet and dry forests and tropical woodlands.
176186		population	eng	This species has a wide Oceanian distribution. It occurs on the islands  of Erromango and Tanna in Vanuatu, eastward through Melanesia, and into  Polynesia and Micronesia (G. Zug pers. comm.).
176186		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be under any major threat.
176187		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species does not occur in any protected area, therefore   conservation measures should be implemented. Research and monitoring of the population status,   habitat and threats for this species should be carried out.
176187		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Province Nord of New Caledonia. It is  known only from the Kaala massif, north-western Grande Terre. It is presently known from just three locations on the massif but expected to be more widely distributed. It occurs at elevations between 80 and 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 28 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 9 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176187		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed humid forest at low and mid-elevations, closed montane forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> forests at high elevations, and rocky maquis shrublands at all elevations. It is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering beneath stones by day and climbing into the vegetation at night.
176187		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko kaalaensis</span> is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent with habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires and past mining activities. There is no information on present population density or trends.
176187		threats	eng	Two active nickel mines are present on the upper part of the massif where this species occurs, and there are plans to extend these, as well as re-open old mines on the western slopes. These actions will result in the loss of significant areas of habitat. Wildfires are a recurrent threat on the Kaala massif, particularly on the western slopes. There is also ongoing habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). Rodents and feral cats are abundant on the Kaala massif and are expected to exert a predation pressure on this species. The present status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> on Kaala is unknown, but it is expected that these ants are present in or soon will occupy the low and mid-elevation forests with a consequent detrimental impact on the geckos&#160; (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176189		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176189		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from two locations on the ultramafic massifs of Kopéto–Paéoua and Koniambo on the central west coast of Grand Terre (but see Taxonomic Notes above). It occurs at elevations from 100 to 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 400 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <50 km².<br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176189		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low to mid-elevation closed forest, mid-elevation <span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnostoma</span> forest, and mid- to high elevation maquis shrublands. Sites are invariably on bouldery surfaces (either laterite cuirasse or peridotite). It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic and terrestrial. It shelters beneath rocks and deep within boulder beds. It usually forages in cover or in the open at night.
176189		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Kanakysaurus zebratus</span> but at some locations it appears to be moderately common. It is assumed to have undergone a substantial reduction in area of occupancy and total population size as a result of the past widespread habitat removal by mining. Substantial areas of habitat have also been badly affected by repeated wildfires in maquis shrubland.
176189		threats	eng	This species is at high risk to further loss of habitat arising from the large-scale nickel mine developments underway on both Kopéto-Paéoua and Koniambo. Continued loss of habitat to wildfires is also a potential issue. The introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is expected to have a detrimental impact in low to mid-elevation forest sites as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are potential predators.
176190		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue, La réserve naturelle intégrale de la Montagnes des Sources, and a number of other reserves in the south including Mt Humboldt, Mt Mou, Forêt Cachée and Forêt Nord. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176190		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known from thirteen localities across the southern part of Grande Terre between the Tontouta Valley and Mt Humboldt in the north and Baie de Prony and Port Boise in the south. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,500 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <500 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176190		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open maquis, wetland maquis and grasslands. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath stones and in dense vegetation. It forages on the ground; usually basks low (<1 m above ground) in shrubs, grasses and sedges (occasionally on rocks).
176190		population	eng	No quantitative data are available on population size and trends for this species. Although recurrent wildfires are likely to have degraded maquis habitats (through simplification of the vegetation) and caused a reduction in skink population density, these fires have at the same time probably greatly increased the area of maquis shrubland habitat available through the destruction of closed forests. In the Grand Sud habitat has been lost to mining and afforestation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Lioscincus tillieri</span> is still relatively common at some sites.
176190		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lioscincus tillieri</span> is at constant risk to habitat degradation and loss arising from the frequent wildfires that burn maquis shrubland habitats. In the Grand Sud extensive areas of maquis habitat are under threat from the expanding mining industry and from afforestation, and mining also threatens habitat in the Tontouta Valley–Mt Vulcain area. In woody maquis, this species may be at risk to the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). It is also likely to be at risk to another invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplolepis gracilipes</span>, which has recently colonized the Grand Sud area. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is an ever-present threat.
176191		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Until the taxonomy of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii</span> species complex is resolved it is impossible to say which taxa occur in protected habitats, although across the country as a whole <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.l.</span> is well represented in reserves. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken for any populations.
176191		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present throughout Grande Terre, except the far north (northernmost localities are Mt Kaala in the west and Mt Ignambi in the east); Ile des Pins and its satellite islands; and Iles Loyauté (only Maré) (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.s.</span> occurs only in the southwest of Grande Terre between Mt Do and Mt Koghis/Yahoué Valley). An equal diversity of cryptic taxa is in Province Nord and Province Sud. It occurs at elevations of up to 900 m. The extent of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.l.</span> is approximately 15,500 km², whereas for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.s</span>. is approximately 1,500 km². The area of occupancy is estimated at < 10,000  km² for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.l.</span>  and < 800 km² for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii  s.s.</span><br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure  of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a  rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread  species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of  occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of  occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176191		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of wooded habitats including littoral vegetation, coastal forest, sclerophyll forest and closed humid forests at low to mid-elevation and montane forests; occasionally in adjacent maquis shrublands. It is nocturnal; arboreal or terrestrial. It prefers sites with a rocky forest floor, sheltering by day beneath stones or leaf litter and foraging at night in subcanopy vegetation.
176191		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.l</span>. However, it is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation through clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation, and from wildfires.
176191		threats	eng	The significance of the various threats facing <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia sauvagii s.l.</span> vary across its range and between habitats, but they include loss of forest habitat, degradation of habitat by wildfires and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), problems caused by habitat fragmentation, and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). The impact of habitat loss has been greater at low elevation, particularly on the west coast where most of the sclerophyll forest has been removed and converted to ranchland. Afforestation is likely to have a localised impact, mainly at mid-elevation sites, and a few populations along the axial ranges may be affected by logging. Mining is also expected to have localized impacts, particularly in the Grand Sud where isolated forest patches will be destroyed. The invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> presents a high level of threat in low to mid-elevation forests as it is known to have serious detrimental impacts on lizards (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176192		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009).&#160; This species is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken, but this species may potentially benefit from proposed predator control in the La Guen catchment on Mt Panié.
176192		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia madjo</span> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from the Panié massif in north-eastern Grande Terre. This species has been recorded at just two localities, Mt Ignambi and Mt Panié, but it is expected to be widely distributed along the massif between these two sites as the habitat is continuous and relatively undisturbed. It occurs at elevations above 850 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 225 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated at 2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176192		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed montane forest. It is nocturnal and presumed to be arboreal, sheltering by day beneath loose bark and in tree or rock crevices.
176192		population	eng	There is no information on present population density or trends for this species.
176192		threats	eng	Rodents and feral cats are common throughout the Panié massif and are expected to exert a predation pressure on <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia madjo</span>. Habitat degradation is also occurring from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), but otherwise the high elevation forests of the Panié massif are amongst the least modified and most secure in New Caledonia.
176193		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Graciliscincus shonae</span> is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south including Mont Koghis, Forêt Cachée, Pic du Pins, Pic du Grand Kaori and Forêt Nord. No active conservation management is being undertaken.
176193		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graciliscincus shonae</span> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known from approximately eight locations across southern Grande Terre (northernmost locality is Mt Dzumac). It occurs at elevations between 150 and 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,100 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <500 km².<br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176193		habitat	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits low to mid-elevation closed humid forests and montane forest. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic, and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep leaf litter, and in soil crevices. Usually forages in cover or in the open in low-light situations.
176193		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species. It is expected to have undergone a major reduction in area of occupancy and total population size as a consequence of the widespread clearance of closed forest habitat that has occurred for settlement, agriculture, logging and mining. Substantial areas of forest habitat have also been lost from recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands. These impacts are ongoing. This species is uncommon at all the localities it has been found.
176193		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is loss and fragmentation of habitat from clearance of closed forests (particularly by the rapidly expanding mining industry in the Grand Sud and Tontouta Valley area) and from wildfires in maquis shrublands damaging forest margins. Afforestation is a local threat in the Grand Sud.&#160; High-density populations of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer and disrupting cover (such as rocks and logs). In low to mid-elevation forests the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is expected to have an adverse impact. Introduced mammals (rodents and pigs) are potential predators. The combined impact of these threats will be greatest on isolated forest remnants and in some cases is expected to lead to local extirpation of skinks.
176194		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176194		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from two sites in one location on the summit of the ultramafic massif Kaala, on the northern west coast of Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 300 and 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 18 km² (calculated from polygon map) but expected to occur more widely on the Kaala massif. The area of occupancy is estimated to be <2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176194		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mid-elevation closed forest and montane forest. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep leaf litter, and forages in cover.
176194		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Marmorosphax kaala</span>. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction population size and extent resulting from past destruction of its montane forest habitat by mining activities and from recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands.
176194		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is from further habitat destruction leading to a reduction in the area of occupancy. Large areas of the Kaala massif have been affected by mining the industry there is expanding at both mid- and high elevation. The remaining forest areas are also at risk to peripheral damage and reduction in extent from the recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrubland. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and high-density populations of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly through damaging the litter layer.
176195		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue, three reserves (Forêt Nord, Pic du Pins, Pic du Grande Kaori) and one classified forest (Mont Koghis).&#160; No active conservation management is being undertaken.
176195		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known from six sites across southern Grande Terre, probably representing at least four locations (Rivière Bleue, Mt Koghis, Pic du Pins, Goro Plateau). It occurs at elevations between 150 and 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 840 km²<sup></sup> (calculated from range map).<br/><p>&#160;</p>
176195		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low to mid-elevation closed humid forests and maquis para- and pre-forest. Its activity period is unknown (possibly nocturnal), cryptozoic; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep leaf litter, and in soil crevices. It usually forages in cover or in the open in low-light situations.
176195		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. However, it is expected to have undergone a reduction in area of occupancy and total population size as a consequence of the widespread loss of closed forest and canopied maquis habitat that has resulted from the recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands. Some areas of habitat may also have been lost to mining and logging. These impacts are ongoing. This species is rare (or very elusive) at all the localities it has been found.
176195		threats	eng	The most serious threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Simiscincus aurantiacus</span> is the further loss and fragmentation of habitat through the clearance of closed forests and canopied maquis. This risk is greatest for the population on the Goro Plateau which is directly threatened by the construction of a very large opencast mine. However, the two populations in reserved forest remnants on the nearby Monts Néngoné Range are at risk of degradation from the proximity of the mine development, particularly that in the Forêt Nord reserve as it immediately adjoins the coal-fired nickel smelter. Wildfires in maquis shrublands are also a threat to forest margins. Elsewhere in the Grand Sud closed forest habitats are under threat from afforestation. Introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer and disrupting cover (such as rocks and logs) and through opening the forest and lowering humidity. The introduced ants <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplolepis gracilipes</span>, which are both present in the Grand Sud, are expected to have an adverse impact. Introduced mammals (rodents and pigs) are potential predators.
176196		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Dierogekko validiclavis</span> is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken, but this species may potentially benefit from proposed predator control in the La Guen catchment on Mt Panié.
176196		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko validiclavis</span> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from a single population (the Panié massif, north-eastern Grande Terre). Confirmed from just two sites—Mt Mandjélia and Mt Panié, 35 km apart— but the species is expected to be widely distributed along the massif between these two locations as the habitat is continuous and relatively undisturbed. It occurs at elevations between 300 and 500 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 225 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <100 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]  <p>&#160;</p>
176196		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko validiclavis</span> inhabits closed humid forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering by day beneath stones and logs and climbing into subcanopy trees and shrubs at night.
176196		population	eng	There is no information on present population density or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko validiclavis</span>. This species may have suffered some reduction in range and population size as a result of habitat loss on the lower slopes of the massif through wildfires and clearance for agriculture.
176196		threats	eng	Rodents and feral cats are common throughout the Panié massif and are expected to exert a predation pressure on <span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko validiclavis</span>. Wildfires are a constant threat on the lower slopes and may affect some habitat by damaging forest margins. Habitat degradation is also occurring in forest interiors from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). There may be limited habitat loss at low levels from clearance for agriculture, and on Mt Mandjélia timber harvest may be affecting mid-elevation forests. The introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is present in forests at lower elevations and is expected to have a severe and potentially unsustainable impact on the geckos (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176197		conservation	eng	Until the taxonomy of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura</span> species complex is resolved it is impossible to say which taxa occur in protected habitats, although across the country as a whole <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.l.</span> is well represented in reserves. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken for any populations.
176197		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.l.</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre and its satellite islands, and on Ile des Pins and neighbouring islets. It has also been reported from Ouvéa in the Îles Loyauté (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.s.</span> is confined to the central west coast of Grande Terre between Bourail and Tontouta). The greatest diversity of cryptic taxa is in Province Nord. It occurs at elevations of up to 900 m.
176197		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.l.</span> inhabits a very wide range of wooded habitats including mangroves, supralittoral vegetation, and coastal, sclerophyll, humid and montane forests. This species is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters during the day in tree holes, beneath loose bark and in dense vegetation, and forages at night on trunks and branches.
176197		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.l.</span> but it has clearly suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation through clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation, and from wildfires. This has been particularly acute on the west coast where most of the sclerophyll forests have been removed in the conversion to ranchland. Habitat loss and degradation is on-going with the further clearance, frequent wildfires and the damage caused by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). Nonetheless, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.l.</span> remains common at some locations with good habitat.
176197		threats	eng	The significance of the various threats facing <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia cyclura s.l</span>. vary across its range and between habitats but they include further loss of forested habitat, degradation of habitat by wildfires and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), issues arising from habitat fragmentation, and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). Afforestation is likely to have a localized impact, mainly at mid-elevation sites. Of particular concern is spread of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, especially in low to mid-elevation forests, as this invasive ant species is known to have serious detrimental impacts on lizards (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176198		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176198		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province des Isles, New Caledonia. It is known only from the Iles Loyauté; recorded only on Maré and Lifou. It occurs at elevations of up to 150 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,850 km² (based on the area of the islands), and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <1,850 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176198		habitat	eng	This species occurs in secondary scrub, coastal forest and closed forest, and has been recorded in plantations. It is diurnal, arboreal and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath loose bark and forages on trunks and branches.
176198		population	eng	There is no quantitative information on population size and trends for this species. Because of its dependence on forested habitats it is assumed to have undergone a substantial reduction in the area of occupancy as a result of forest clearance and wildfires. Nonetheless, it remains widespread, and is relatively common at some tall closed-forest sites and is able to cope with a level of disturbance.
176198		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is the further loss and fragmentation of habitat due to clearance for agriculture and afforestation, and from wildfires. Another very serious threat arises from the infestation of closed forests by <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, as these invasive ants are known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000. 2001). Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is another potential concern.
176199		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south including Pic Ningua, Mont Koghis, Forêt Cachée, Pic du Pin, Pic du Grand Kaori, Forêt Nord and Cap N'Dua. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176199		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is widespread in the southern part of Grande Terre. The northernmost record is from Mount Menazi, west of Kouaoua, but this is an outlying locality >40 km northwest of the nearest location at Haut Nakéty. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 3,500 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <1,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176199		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed forests at all elevations, tall woody maquis (maquis paraforestier) and maquis wetlands. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic; terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, rocks and deep leaf litter, and in soil crevices. It forages in cover or through leaf-litter.
176199		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species, but it can occur at very high population densities in favourable habitats. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in area of occupancy as a result of the past widespread clearance of closed forest habitat for settlement, agriculture, afforestation and mining. Substantial areas of habitat have also been lost as a consequence of repeated wildfires. These impacts are ongoing.
176199		threats	eng	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Sigaloseps deplanchei</span> is further loss, fragmentation and degradation of closed forest habitat. The likely cause of this varies across the species' range and with elevation but includes clearance for agriculture, mining, logging and afforestation, and damage from wildfires to forest margins. These impacts will be greatest on isolated forest remnants and are expected to lead to local extirpation at some sites. This is a particularly serious threat in the Grand Sud where the nickel mining industry is expanding rapidly and there is extensive afforestation. Habitat quality is threatened by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), particularly through damage and disruption to the litter layer and cover (such as rocks and logs). In low to mid-elevation forests the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is expected to have an adverse impact. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are potential predators.
176200		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species does not occur in any protected area, therefore  conservation measures should be implemented. Although it is common at some sites, it is highly restricted and there are several ongoing  threatening processes. Research and monitoring of the population status,  habitat and threats for this species should be carried out.
176200		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Province Nord of New Caledonia. It is present in Iles Belep and Ile Yandé, north-west of Grande Terre. There are three known subpopulations (Ile Art, Ile Pott, and Ile Yandé). It occurs at elevations up to 280 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 35 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated at 5 km².<br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176200		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko insularis</span> inhabits low, closed-forest remnants on rocky cuirasse surfaces (Ile Art and Ile Yandé), and rocky maquis shrublands (Ile Pott, Ile Art and Ile Yandé). It is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering beneath stones by day, and climbing into the vegetation at night.
176200		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dierogekko insularis</span> is still  locally abundant at some sites where good habitat remains, but there is  no information on present population trends. This species is presumed to have suffered a significant reduction in population size and extent due to habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires, clearance for agriculture and grazing, and past mining activities.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176200		threats	eng	The populations on the Iles Belep are under constant threat from wildfires that encroach on the remaining areas of habitat. There is also localized pressure on habitat from clearance for subsistence gardening and timber harvest. Habitat degradation is also occurring on Ile Yandé from introduced ungulates (goats and pigs) but fortuitously there are no wild ungulates on the Iles Belep. Predation by rodents and feral cats is an issue at all locations where<span style="font-style: italic;"> Dierogekko insularis</span> occurs. The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> in forest habitats on these islands is also expected to have a severe and potentially unsustainable impact on the geckos, as these ants are known to decimate lizard populations and lead to localized extinctions (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). All three islands where the species occurs have been subjected to nickel exploration and localized mining in the past, and the increasing pressure on remaining ore reserves means the habitat of this species is at high risk, particularly on the cuirasse plateaux on Ile Art.
176201		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. This species is not present in any reserves and no species-specific conservation management is currently being undertaken. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat status, and  threats to this species. As habitat degradation is impacting this  restricted species, protected areas should be considered to help reduce  the degree of threat. Monitoring is also necessary as if threats  continue, significant declines may occur increasing the extinction risk  of this species.
176201		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia goroensis</span> is endemic to Province Sud in New Caledonia. It is known only from the Goro Plateau - Plaine des Lacs region in the extreme southeast of Grande Terre. It is known from at least five sites. The species is likely found in appropriate habitat in intervening area. It occurs at elevations between 200 m and 300 m. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 57 km²<sup></sup> (estimated from range map).
176201		habitat	eng	This species occurs in maquis shrubland (including maquis arbustif and maquis paraforestier) and humid forest. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters by day in tree holes and beneath loose bark and forages at night in the canopy.
176201		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trends. It is presumed that the past wildfires and logging that have affected large parts of the Plaine des Lacs region have reduced the extent of habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia goroensis</span> and led to a reduction in and fragmentation of the population. Afforestation projects may also have removed habitat. The development of a large new nickel mine in the area is causing further habitat loss.
176201		threats	eng	The most serious threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia goroensis</span> is the rapidly expanding nickel industry in the south which will result in the loss of substantial areas of its habitat and isolation of any remaining populations. Wildfires are also a major threat in the maquis habitats. Other issues are habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). It is also expected that the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is now present in most forests in the area, will have detrimental impact as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). A further problem in the south is the conversion of maquis shrublands to exotic forestry plantations.
176202		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 Octber 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia septuiclavis</span> is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south, including Mont Koghis, Forêt Cachée, Pic du Pin, Pic du Grand Kaori and Forêt Nord. No active conservation management is being undertaken.
176202		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia septuiclavis</span> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It  occurs in the southern portion of Grande Terre (northernmost locality is  Mt Vulcain, Tontouta Valley). It occurs at elevations between 10 m and 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,200 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 1,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176202		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia septuiclavis</span> inhabits closed humid forests, tall canopied maquis (maquis paraforestier), and on the Plaine des Lacs adjacent areas of maquis shrublands, it also has been recorded from montane forests. This species is nocturnal and arboreal, sheltering by day beneath stones, logs and leaf litter and foraging at night in sub-canopy trees and shrubs.
176202		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia septuiclavis</span>. Within its known range there has been extensive loss of humid forest and modification to maquis habitats from a wide range of causes including wildfires and clearance for occupation, agriculture, afforestation, logging and mining. As a result, away from the main ranges, the remaining populations are fragmented and localised. The species is locally abundant at many sites.
176202		threats	eng	The loss of closed forest habitat is the greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia septuiclavis</span> and in the southern part of its range this will result from the rapidly expanding nickel mining industry in the Grand Sud. Loss of habitat to mining activities is also a problem in the Tontouta Valley. Other threats include the loss or degradation of habitat from wildfires and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). At low elevation sites the occurrence of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, in closed forest habitats is expected to have a detrimental impact as it has been shown to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). An additional threat in the south is the increasing area of indigenous vegetation being converted to exotic forestry.
176203		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in most reserves throughout New Caledonia. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176203		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre and is also present on the Iles Belep (Ile Art), Ile Yandé, Ile des Pins and nearby islands, and on the Iles Loyauté (Maré, Lifou, Ouvéa). It occurs at elevations up to at least 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 18,500 km²<sup></sup> (calculated from the area of all islands), and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <18,500 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176203		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a very wide range of open and wooded habitats, including supralittoral vegetation, savanna, sclerophyll forest, closed humid forest and montane forest margins, and maquis shrublands. Also present in modified landscapes such as farmland and gardens. It is diurnal, terrestrial and is active in sunlight. It shelters beneath stones and logs, and holes in the ground; secretive and generally forages within dense ground vegetation or stick litter.
176203		population	eng	This is an extremely elusive skink that is encountered only infrequently, meaning there is no information on population size and trends. It is presumed to have undergone a significant loss of natural habitat as a result of the past widespread clearance for agriculture and mining and as a consequence of wildfires, but the effect may have been partly offset by this species' ability to occupy modified habitats with dense ground vegetation (e.g. savanna woodlands, subsistence gardens).
176203		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoboscincus garnieri</span> is threatened by further loss and degradation of habitats through clearance for agriculture and afforestation, and to a lesser extent by mining and wildfires, particularly when these result in highly simplified vegetation (e.g. exotic pasture). There is a potentially significant threat from the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span> at low to mid-elevations as it is known to decimate lizard populations. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents, cats, dogs and pigs) is an ever-present risk.
176204		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is not present in any reserves and no species-specific conservation management is currently being undertaken. Conservation measures are urgently needed for this species. Research is also  needed regarding the population size and trends.
176204		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes occidentalis</span> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is distributed in the central west coast of Grande Terre between Poya and Bourail. This species is known from only two locations—an 8 ha forest remnant near Poya and a much larger remnant (approximately 240 ha) at Gouaro-Déva northwest of Bourail. It occurs at elevations of up to 20 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 260 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated at 2.5 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176204		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes occidentalis</span> occurs in sclerophyll forest and closed mesophyll forest. It is arboreal and least partly, possibly, primarily diurnal. This species appears to remain on twigs and foliage all the time rather than seeking cover during periods of inactivity.
176204		population	eng	Although there are no quantitative data on population size or trends,  ongoing habitat loss and degradation suggests that populations are declining. The lowlands of the central west coast of Grande Terre have been almost totally denuded by conversion to pastoral farmland and only tiny isolated remnants of sclerophyll forest remain. As a consequence the remaining populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes occidentalis</span> are highly fragmented and isolated.
176204		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is degradation, and ultimately the loss, of the remaining areas of habitat caused by livestock and wild ungulates (deer and pigs). Rodents and feral cats occur in all sclerophyll remnants on the west coast and are expected to exert a predation pressure. Likewise, the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is abundant in these forests and may have a detrimental impact on this species (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).&#160; Plans for tourist development at Gouara-Déva further threaten the habitat at that site. The distinctive chameleon-like appearance of this species and its diurnal activity make it a potential target for illegal collection and trafficking.
176205		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176205		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It occurs in Iles des Pins and its satellite islands. It occurs at elevations up to 260 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 150 km² (based on island area) and the area of occupancy is < 150 km²<sup></sup>.
176205		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a range of open and wooded habitats, including coastal sites, grassland, savanna, disturbed forest, and maquis shrublands. It is present in disturbed forests but absent from dense closed forest. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter and dense vegetation, and forages in the open and in sunlit patches.
176205		population	eng	There is no detailed information on population size and trends for this species but any potential decrease in the distribution and density of the population resulting from the past loss and fragmentation of natural habitats is likely to have been at least partly off-set by the fact that this species now occupies highly modified habitats, often in great abundance.
176205		threats	eng	This species is most at risk to further loss and fragmentation of natural forest and shrubland habitats through clearance for agriculture and occupation, and from wildfires, especially when these result in a highly simplified vegetation (e.g. exotic pasture). In forested habitats there is also a significant threat from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is a constant threat.
176206		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009) but not protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008). It is not present in any reserves and there is no specific conservation management for this species.
176206		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province des Iles, New Caledonia. It has been recorded only from Lifou and Maré islands. It is known from only three specimens. Only one of the three specimens has a named locality i.e. the village of  Netché, on Maré. Although this village is close (<500&#160;m) to the coast  and backed by slopes with closed littoral forest, it is the place where  Sarasin and Roux stayed during their expedition and there is no clear  indication that it is exactly where the specimen was collected (Roux  1913). It occurs at elevations of up to 150 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,848 km²<sup></sup> (estimated from the area of&#160; the islands), and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <1,848 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176206		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to be fossorial. Nothing is known of the species' habitat, biology or ecology.
176206		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or trends. May have suffered a population decline and/or reduction in extent through the removal of natural forest cover.
176206		threats	eng	There is no data on threats to this species. It is potentially at risk to forest clearance leading to removal of habitat or soil desiccation and to competition from the recently introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Ramphotyphlops braminus</span>.
176207		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176207		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known  only from five locations in north-eastern Grande Terre, three near the  north-east coast (Amoa, Tiwaka and two sites south of Hienghène) and two  on the central ranges (Forêt Plate and Tchingou). It occurs at elevations up to 900 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 800 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <150 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176207		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed forests; near Hienghène the sites are on forested lowland karst outcrops; at Tiwaka, Amoa and Forêt Plate they are closed humid forest on metamorphics; and at Tchingou it is montane forest on ultramafics. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter and beneath stones and logs; basks and forages in sunlit patches.
176207		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. There has presumably been a significant reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation as a consequence of wildfires and the clearance of low and mid-elevation closed forests for agriculture, and at higher levels on Tchingou for mining. The impacts of clearance and wildfires are ongoing. The subpopulations near Hienghène appear to have declined markedly in the past decade but that on Tchingou is locally common.
176207		threats	eng	The lowland <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus chazeaui</span> near Hienghène are at high risk to further habitat loss and degradation due to clearance for agriculture. These populations and that on Tchingou are also at risk to wildfires. All sites are vulnerable to habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is an ever-present threat. The low elevation populations are also at high risk to the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> which is known to decimate lizard populations and cause local extinctions.
176208		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in most reserves throughout New Caledonia. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken
176208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout Grande Terre, and on Iles Belep, Ile des Pins, Iles Loyauté (Maré, Lifou, Ouvéa) and many smaller satellite islands. It occurs at elevations up to 1,000 m. The extent occurrence is approximately 16,500 km².<sup></sup>
176208		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a very wide range of open and wooded habitats, including coastal sites, grassland, savanna, sclerophyll forest, and maquis shrublands. It is present in disturbed forests but generally absent from the interior of dense closed forest. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is active in sunlight. It shelters in litter and dense vegetation, and forages in the open and in sunlit patches.
176208		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. However, the fact that it can occur in modified environments, sometimes in reasonable abundance, will have compensated to some extent for the widespread losses and degradation of natural habitats in the past.
176208		threats	eng	This species is threatened by further loss and fragmentation of natural forest and shrubland habitats through clearance for agriculture and afforestation,and to a lesser extent by mining and wildfires, particularly when these result in a highly simplified vegetation (e.g. exotic pasture). In low and mid-elevation forested habitats there is a potentially significant threat from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations, and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is an ever-present issue.
176209		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in La réserve naturelle de l’île Leprédour and probably in any other reserves that include coastline (e.g. La réserve naturelle du Cap N’Dua and Réserve de Nature Sauvage de l’Ile de Pam). No conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176209		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Occurs on Grande Terre, Iles Belep (Ile Pott and Ile Art), Ile des Pins and Iles Loyauté (Maré, Lifou, Ouvéa), and almost all smaller islands. It occurs at elevations of up to 400 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 18,500 km² <sup></sup>and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <500 km².<br/>  <p>&#160;</p>
176209		habitat	eng	This species is almost invariably confined to a narrow supralittoral zone on rocky coastlines, raised coral and stony beaches; often on mangroves; rarely on sandy beaches. Four exceptional populations are known that are away from the coast (up to 5 km inland and up to 400 m elevation) on barren cuirasse maquis habitat (Ile Yandé, Sommet Poum, Port Boise and Plaine des Lacs). It is diurnal, terrestrial or arboreal and is active in sunlight. It shelters in crevices in rocks or driftwood, within boulder or gravel beaches, beneath stones, and in crevices or beneath loose bark on standing trees. It basks and forages on the ground, rock faces and on trunks and branches of standing maquis trees (to canopy height).
176209		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trends for this species. Although there must have been some very localised habitat modifications that have affected this species, it is quick to colonize new habitat and man-made structures (breakwaters, wharves) and is unlikely to have suffered any significant change in distribution or abundance. In good habitat, population densities are exceptionally high.
176209		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to coastal populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptoblepharus novocaledonicus; </span>nothing is likely to threaten their habitat on anything more than an extremely localized scale. Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is probably minimal, and it is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> would be an issue in such habitats. Two inland populations (Sommet Poum, Plaine des Lacs) are at very high risk of habitat loss from the expansion of mining where they occur and a third (Ile Yandé) is possibly at risk to future mining. The Port Boise population in woody maquis is at risk to wildfires, and all inland populations are expected to be at higher risk from predation by introduced mammals and the effects of invasive ants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> and, in the south, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplolepis gracilipes</span>).
176210		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected area, therefore conservation measures should be implemented. Although it is common where it occurs, it is highly restricted and there are several ongoing threatening processes. Research and monitoring of the population status, habitat and threats for this species should be carried out.
176210		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Province Nord of New Caledonia. Its distribution is limited to Mt Mandjélia in northeastern Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations from 500 to 760 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 40 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <10 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176210		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mid-elevation closed forest; sheltering beneath litter and basking and foraging in sunlit-patches. It is terrestrial, diurnal, and active in sunlight.
176210		population	eng	Although there is no detailed information on population size and trends for this species, it is assumed to have suffered a reduction in population size and extent in the past from habitat loss and degradation associated with clearance for agriculture, logging and wildfires. However, it is still relatively common at the sites where it occurs.
176210		threats	eng	With such a limited extent of occurrence the greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Caledoniscincus terma</span> is further habitat loss and degradation resulting from wildfires, logging and possibly afforestation with pine plantations. There is a high level of threat from the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) damaging litter layers and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats) are also of concern.
176211		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.
176211		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from the summit area of the ultramafic massif Mount Taom, on the northwestern coast of Grande Terre. It occurs at elevations between 900 and 1,100 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2 km²<sup></sup>, but it is expected to occur more widely on the Kaala massif. The area of occupancy is estimated to be 1 km²<sup></sup>. <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176211		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed montane forests and maquis fernlands. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic; terrestrial. It shelters beneath rocks and dense vegetation and forages in cover.
176211		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species. It is expected to have undergone a substantial reduction in population size and extent as a result of past destruction of its montane forest habitat by mining activities and from recurrent wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrublands, although the effect of this will have been offset to some extent by its occupation of dense maquis fernlands.
176211		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marmorosphax taom</span> is threatened by further habitat destruction from the expansion of the mining on the massif, resulting in a reduction in the area of occupancy. The part of the population in the maquis is under constant threat from wildfires, which also leads to peripheral damage and reduction in extent of montane forest remnants. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly the litter layer.
176212		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié and Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken but this species may potentially benefit from proposed predator control in the La Guèn catchment on Mt Panié.
176212		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known from just seven sites in three locations in the mountain ranges of central and northeastern Grande Terre: the Panié massif, Mt Aoupinié and Néoua. It occurs at elevations between 200 and 1,110 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 3,000 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be <500 km². <br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken. Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176212		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mid-elevation closed forest and is almost invariably associated with watercourses. It is diurnal, terrestrial and cryptozoic. It shelters beneath stream-side stones and in debris dams and leaf-packs. It is not known where and when it forages.
176212		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species. It is expected that there has been a reduction in population size and extent resulting from past destruction of mid-elevation forests from clearance for agriculture and logging. This species can be locally common in good habitat.
176212		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are from further destruction of closed forest habitat along streams from logging, and degradation of stream bed habitats by siltation arising from forest destruction within the catchment or&#160; forest degradation from high-density deer and pig populations. Pigs are also likely to lead to damage in stream beds from constantly turning cover (leaf debris and stones). Predation by introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) is a threat.
176213		conservation	eng	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south including Mt Koghis, Forêt Cachée, Pic du Pin, Pic du Grand Kaori and Forêt Nord. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species.
176213		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known only from a number of isolated populations across the far south of Grande Terre (south of Mt Koghis). Known populations are widely scattered and often in small, isolated closed forest remnants. It occurs at elevations between 20 m to 600 m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 900 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 100 km².<br/>  <p>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176213		habitat	eng	This species primarily occurs in closed humid forests but has been documented in adjoining tall maquis shrublands (maquis paraforestier) and coastal forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters by day in tree crevices and holes and forages at night on trunks and branches. Found in almost all forest patches with suitably sized trees. Probably highly dependent on hollows in trees.
176213		population	eng	This species is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and area of occupancy in the past due to the logging and wildfires that have decimated closed forests and left them severely fragmented. Although logging has now stopped, the expanding nickel industry in the south of Grande Terre is resulting in further habitat loss and fragmentation.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus sarasinorum</span> is still relatively common at some locations but there are no quantitative data on population size or trends.
176213		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is the further loss or degradation of habitat, particularly from mining in the southern part of its range, but also including peripheral damage to forest remnants from wildfires in maquis shrublands and damage from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). Other threats include predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) and the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is expected to have a detrimental impact (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus sarasinorum</span> is also vulnerable to illegal collection and trafficking at accessible locations.
176214		conservation	eng	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). This species is present in the Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mt Panié. No conservation management is currently being undertaken but this species may potentially benefit from proposed predator control in the La Guen catchment on Mt Panié.
176214		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia ornata</span> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from two massifs in the north of Grande Terre—Mt Panié and Tchingou. It occurs at elevations between 300 m and 1,000&#160; m. The extent of occurrence is approximately 500 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 150 km².<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176214		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia ornata</span> inhabits closed humid forests at mid-elevation and montane forests. It is nocturnal, arboreal or terrestrial on rock faces. It shelters by day beneath stones and logs and at night it climbs into subcanopy trees and shrubs or forages on rock faces.
176214		population	eng	There are no data on population density or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia ornata</span>. It is presumed to have suffered some reduction in range and population size as a result of habitat loss on the lower slopes of the Panié massif through wildfires and clearance for agriculture, and at higher elevation on Tchingou from wildfires and mining. However, this species remains common at some locations.
176214		threats	eng	Rodents and feral cats are common throughout the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia ornata</span> and are expected to exert a predation pressure. Wildfires are a recurrent threat on the lower slopes of the Panié massif and perhaps less of a risk on Tchingou, and these are likely to affect some habitat by damaging forest margins. Habitat degradation from introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is widespread. The introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is present in low-elevation forests on Mt Panié and is anticipated to have a severe impact as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).&#160; A potentially serious threat to Tchingou is that nickel mining may resume on the massif with consequent loss of habitat.
176215		conservation	eng	Until the taxonomy of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana</span> species complex is resolved it is impossible to say which taxa occur in protected habitats, although within Province Nord <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.l.</span> is at least present in Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mont Panié and Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken for any populations.
176215		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.l</span>. is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present along the main mountain ranges of Grande Terre from the Panié massif in the north-east (northernmost locality is Mt Mandjélia) to Mé Adéo, east of Bourail. Outlying populations are on the isolated ultramafic massifs of Koniambo and Taom in the northwest. A record from Mt Vulcain requires confirmation. (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.s.</span> is restricted to Mt Panié, Tchingou and Taom). The greatest diversity of cryptic taxa is in Province Nord. It occurs at elevations between 80 m and 900 m. The extent of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.l.</span> is approximately 8,000 km², whereas for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.s</span>. is approximately 400 km². The area of occupancy is estimated at < 1,000 km² for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.l.</span> and < 100 km² for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.s.</span><br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]
176215		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.l.</span> inhabits closed humid forest at low to mid-elevation and montane forest. It is nocturnal, arboreal and it shelters during the day in tree holes and crevices, beneath loose bark and crevice in rock banks and outcrops. It forages at night on trunks and branches.
176215		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana s.l.</span> but it is expected there have been reductions in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation resulting from clearance for agriculture, logging and afforestation (low to mid-elevation), mining (high elevation) and from wildfires. Habitat loss and degradation is on-going with the further clearance, frequent wildfires and the damage caused by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs). <span style="font-style: italic;">B. montana s.l.</span> is relatively common at some locations with good habitat.
176215		threats	eng	The greatest threat to taxa in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia montana</span> complex is habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of the nickel mining industry across most of the ultramafic massifs and from wildfires encroaching into forest habitat from adjacent maquis shrublands. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is a further threat, as is predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). The spread of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> through low to mid-elevation forests is a major concern and is expected to have a serious impact on populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).
176219		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the species' population status, and potential threats is suggested.
176219		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the uplands of southeastern Australia to the coastal areas of New South Wales (Cogger 2000). It is also recorded from Tasmania (Clayton<em> et al.</em> 2006).
176219		habitat	eng	This lizard primarily inhabits dry forests and heathlands where it is often encountered among rocks or low vegetation (Cogger 2000).
176219		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176219		threats	eng	While this species may be experiencing localized habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation due to grazing, other agricultural activities, and land clearing, this species is widely distributed and is unlikely to be impacted in all parts of its range or undergoing significant population declines.
176220		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
176220		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Kanyakumari in southern India to the foot of the Himalayas in Nepal, although it has not been reported east of the Ganga in eastern India (Daniel 2002). It also occurs in Sri Lanka. Schleich and Kästle (2002) do not include this species in their list of reptiles from Nepal, noting that it is "only known from India". R. Vyas (pers. comm.), however, suggests that the species occurs in Pakistan, although in Nepal its presence can at best be described as uncertain.
176220		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderately moist scrub, rocky and sandy coastal areas, and open areas in dry forests and dry scrublands (Sharma 2002, Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). In Sri Lanka, this species is restricted to warm lowland habitats and is most abundant in drier coastal areas. It is primarily a ground-dwelling species, but is sometimes found on trees. Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) state that this species is "capable of adapting to man-modified environments such as secondary forests, plantations, etc.".
176220		population	eng	Various sources have stated that this species is very common (Shanbhag <em>et al.</em> 2003).
176220		threats	eng	Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) considered this species not to be under threat. There are no apparent major threats to this species.
176221		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, habitat preferences, and major threats to this species.
176221		distribution	eng	The type for this species was collected in Maskat, Oman. This species is known to be widely distributed on the Arabian Peninsula.
176221		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, but it is likely to be found in desert habitat.
176221		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176221		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
176222		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the taxonomic status, distribution, ecology, habitat and population status of this species, as little is currently known. Research into threats will help to validate if this species is affected by habitat degradation.
176222		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout northern Australia from northeastern Western Australia, eastward into the northwestern parts of the Northern Territory (P. Horner pers. comm.). However, some uncertainty remains about the actual distribution of this species, as the taxonomic status of this taxon is poorly defined (P. Horner pers. comm.).
176222		habitat	eng	While there is little information on the habitat requirements of this species, lizards of this genus tend to be terrestrial and xerophilic.
176222		population	eng	This species appears to be known from only a few specimens (Storr 1964).
176222		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. However, it may be threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to land clearing for agricultural purposes and mining. As one of the few known specimens of this species was collected near the city of Darwin, it may face further threats from expanding human settlement and infrastructure development. However, at present it is not known if and to what extent these threat processes are affecting this species.
176223		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Egypt has banned the export of this species. There are protected areas within its range, including three protected areas in Egypt covering about 50% of the species' national range. Monitoring of harvest, trade and population status of this species is urgently needed to ensure that excessive collection for the pet trade does not cause serious population declines. Implementation of effective national legislation on the harvest and trade of this species is recommended.
176223		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Egypt and northern Sudan into Eritrea, Djibouti and northwestern Somalia. While its extent of occurrence is estimated as 473,600 km<sup>2</sup>, its area of occupancy is likely to be much smaller, since they do not occur uniformly across their range, but are often found in isolated pockets with the right conditions (S. Spawls pers. comm. 2011).
176223		habitat	eng	This diurnal rock-dwelling species is found in wadis in mountainous rocky desert with <em>Acacia</em> trees. It retreats to cracks and crevices between large boulders, and sometimes burrows into the beds of wadis. It is generally not present in cultivated areas.<br/><br/>The species mainly feeds on <em>Acacia</em> leaves and climbs these trees. It tends to live in colonies, often in holes.
176223		population	eng	In Egypt this species is fairly common but declining in some areas (Baha El Din 2001). Continuing declines are also suspected in other parts of its range. Assuming population densities comparable to those of other species of this genus, it is estimated to number at minimum several hundred thousand individuals (CITES 2006).
176223		threats	eng	This species is of interest to the international pet trade and collecting could present a real threat to this species, as particularly large individuals can fetch a good price (S. Spawls pers. comm. 2011). Between 2000 and 2009, approximately 22,250 live speciemns were reportedly exported from the Sudan (UNEP-WCMC 2010). The fact that the species tends to occur in colonies in distinct pockets of suitable habitat makes collection of a large number of individuals particularly easy for collectors (S. Spawls pers. comm. 2011). This also invariably increases the severity of this threat. However, export of this species has been banned in Egypt. Loss of habitat through quarrying and cutting of Acacia for charcoal amy also pose a threat to this species at a local scale.
176224		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
176224		distribution	eng	This species has a very large distribution, perhaps the widest distribution of any amphisbaenian (Colli and Zamboni 1999). It is found in most of South America, east of the Andes, but not the far south of the continent.
176224		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of natural habitats including savanna and rainforest, as well as in altered cultivated or forested areas.
176224		population	eng	In the Amazon region of Brazil it is a common reptile, but its burrowing habits and the fact that it is rarely encountered above ground gives a misleading impression of rarity (Lainson 2003). This species has been found above the surface.
176224		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range. Amphisbeanians may be less susceptible to the vagaries of climate than other squamates that live above ground, because the subterranean habitats may act as a buffer (Colli and Zamboni 1999).
176225		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the ecology, range, threats, trends and habitat status in order to make a more accurate assessment.
176225		distribution	eng	This species is probably only known from the Orinoco (Amacuro) Delta in eastern Venezuela. Specimens were found there in 1971, but before that the species was only known from the type specimen (collected at an unknown location). One of the four known specimens was collected at 210 km southwest of this location (Gorzula 1985).
176225		habitat	eng	The specific habitat preferences of this species are not described, but it is likely to inhabit forest habitats.
176225		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176225		threats	eng	It is unknown if any major threat is impacting this species.
176226		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a large part of its range falls within Jaragua National Park. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176226		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Barahona Peninsula on the southern coast of Hispaniola, and on Isla Beata (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,465 km²<sup></sup>.
176226		habitat	eng	This species occurs in xeric woodlands with abundant limestone, friable soil, and leaf litter (Thomas 1965a). Its presence in agriculturally modified habitats has been reported, but assessments of relative abundance in these habitats are impossible. <br/><br/>This species consumes a variety of invertebrate prey, with beetle larvae the most important prey item (Cusumano and Powell 1991, White <em>et al.</em> 1992). This species is also known to take vertebrates in captivity (Thomas 1965b), and may also do so in the wild (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
176226		population	eng	Thomas and Hedges (2006) state this species is found to be abundant in places, however, this abundance is apparently highly localized.
176226		threats	eng	This species occurs in an area in which damaging land-use practices such as tilling and fuel-wood extraction for charcoal production take place. However, due to the cryptic nature of this species, the full extent to which these threats affect the species are difficult to evaluate. Future declines in its habitat may be prevented because much of its range is too dry and rocky for easy exploitation, although clearing for charcoal production and associated drying of soils remains a threat.
176227		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, ecology, threats, distribution and monitoring of population and habitat trends are suggested.
176227		distribution	eng	This species has only recently been collected during the construction of a hydroelectric power plant near the River São Francisco in northeastern Brazil.
176227		habitat	eng	This species has only been found to occur on the banks of the river São Francisco.
176227		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176227		threats	eng	The area in which this species has been found has been artificially flooded. The extent to which this has affected the species is unknown.
176228		conservation	eng	The type locality of this species coincides with the National Park of   Chapada dos Guimarães, however, the park is bordered by a large reservoir built for a hydroelectric power plant (T. Mott pers. comm.). Research is needed into the ecology, distribution and threats, as well as population and and habitat trends, in order to make a more accurate assessment.
176228		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen collected over 50 years ago in the Brazilian Cerrado.
176228		habitat	eng	There is no ecological information available. Using the type locality as a guide, it is likely to occur in savanna.
176228		population	eng	An extensive four-year faunal survey in the area of the type locality and the reservoir could not locate the species (T. Mott pers. comm.).
176228		threats	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen despite attempts to find more individuals. The construction of a reservoir for a hydroelectric power plant may have affected the species. However, as this species is only known from the type specimen, the major threats to it are unknown.
176229		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is suggested that research into the ecology, distribution, habitat status, threats and population trends of this species is needed to carry out a more complete assessment.
176229		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type which was collected in Chanchamayo, Peru. This district, named after the river running through it, has an area just under 5,000 km²<sup></sup>.
176229		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.
176229		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176229		threats	eng	The Chanchamayo District has extensive agriculture and is renowned for its citrus and coffee production. However, it is unknown if these threats are significantly impacting this species.
176230		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the species' distribution, its population and habitat trends, and threats affecting it is required.
176230		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Brazil from Rio Grande do Norte to Bahia.   There is also a doubtful record for the species in state of Mato Grosso do Sul (da Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but no voucher specimen exists for this.
176230		habitat	eng	This species can be found in urban areas, including in gardens with compost organic matter (T. Mott pers. comm.).
176230		population	eng	This species is very common in Salvador City, Bahia State capital (T. Mott pers. comm.), and also in   Feira de Santana (Barros-Filho and Valverde 1996).
176230		threats	eng	Amphisbeanians may be less susceptible to the vagaries of climate than other squamates that live above ground, because the subterranean habitats may act as a buffer (Colli and Zamboni 1999). However, this species is not known well enough to understand the impacts of possible threats.
176231		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, 70% of the island network it occurs on is protected which will provide a degree of safety. Monitoring of the species trends and threats are needed.
176231		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the volcanic archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, 350 km off the northeastern coast of Brazil. The total area of the islands is 26 km<sup>²</sup>.
176231		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
176231		population	eng	This species is very abundant in the Fernando de Noronha archipelago (T. Mott pers. comm.).
176231		threats	eng	Habitat degradation has been a major threat to the species' range in the past . However, the archipelago now has 70% of its area under protection. There are no known current threats to this species.
176232		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be taken to reduce the rate of habitat changes occurring. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out.
176232		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Puerto Rico. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,088 km². This species is found up to 400 m above sea level.
176232		habitat	eng	This species is found in <em>Acacia</em> scrub, pastures, open woodlands, edges of coffee plantations, and lake-shores; its habitat ranges from very dry to moderately moist (Thomas 1966, Henderson and Powell 2009).
176232		population	eng	The population of this species was considered stable by Moreno in 1991. However, it may have been declining in recent years due to changes in land use.
176232		threats	eng	The northwest of Puerto Rico has undergone rapid land-use changes, especially due to urban development (Helmer 2004), which is a major problem in coastal areas. However, this species has been found in disturbed habitats, such as on the edges of coffee plantations, and may to some degree withstand agricultural change in inland parts of its range.
176233		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, threats, and population and habitat trends of this species is needed.
176233		distribution	eng	Gans (2005) stated that this species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality near Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. This is still reflected in museum specimens (T. Mott pers. comm., F. Waldez pers. comm. 2008).
176233		habitat	eng	A specimen was collected from an area of forest.
176233		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176233		threats	eng	It is not known if major threats are impacting this species.
176234		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring into distribution range, ecological preferences, habitat status, and threats is needed to increase the accuracy of the assessment.
176234		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type specimen (Gans 2005) which was found near Rio Trombetas in the municipality of Oriximina in the Brazilian state of Para.
176234		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.
176234		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176234		threats	eng	The largest bauxite mine situated in the municipality of Oriximina could potentially prove a threat to this species. However, the impact of potential threats on the species and its range are not well understood.
176235		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, ecology, distribution, and threats of this species is suggested to enable a more accurate assessment to be completed.
176235		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Caceres in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso.
176235		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.
176235		population	eng	This species was only described in 2001 and no further information is available.
176235		threats	eng	It is unknown if any major threats are acting upon this species.
176236		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of this species' distribution might coincide with protected areas. Monitoring of this species' population, and research into its habitat and threats, should be carried out because if deforestation rates increase in the future, the species may experience significant population declines.
176236		distribution	eng	This species was previously only known from its type locality until Branch <em>et al</em>. (2003) found five specimens in the Toucan/Rabi region of south western Gabon, extending its range 90 km south-east from type locality. This species is thought to occur in the whole Gamba-Conckouati lands which covers all the lowland coastal rainforest of southern Gabon and probably southwestern Congo-Brazzaville (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).
176236		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mature lowland forest.
176236		population	eng	The species is poorly represented in collections, but this is not due to its actual rarity but because of its strictly fossorial habits, very small size, and lack of herpetological research in its range (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).
176236		threats	eng	This species is certainly sensitive to logging industry, but forests of this region are still well preserved, and the two localities where the species was found are situated very close to national parks in which the species is   most probably present. Oil industry impact is negligible in comparison with logging impact. Therefore there are no major threats impacting this species at this time.
176237		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas. Further research into its biology, population and range, habitat status and threats is needed because this small fossorial species can be easily overlooked especially as the region in which it is found has been poorly inventoried. Its distribution may be wider than currently known (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).
176237		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the far west coast countries of Africa from Senegal south to Guinea-Bissau (Boulenger 1906, Gans 1985).
176237		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the soil just under the leaf litter in secondary forest and seems very tolerant to habitat disturbance (O. Pauwels pers. comm.). It has been found in small secondary forest patches in cultivated areas.
176237		population	eng	This species is common in western Gambia (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).
176237		threats	eng	It is unlikely that a major threat has or is currently impacting this species as it can survive in small fragmented secondary forest patches (O. Pauwels pers. comm.). However, a possible threat could arise if heavy landscape change clears all forest cover in parts of its range.
176238		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, population size and range, habitat preferences and threats should be carried out.
176238		distribution	eng	This species is only known from type collection from Yapoma in Cameroon (Gans 1987).
176238		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
176238		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176238		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
176239		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, Parc Niokolo-Koba is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Further research on the biology and ecology, population and range, habitat preferences, and potential threats should be carried out.
176239		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type location in Parc Niokolo-Koba, Senegal (Gans 2005).
176239		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this fossorial species.
176239		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176239		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
176240		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the effects of land change on this amphisbaenian is recommended as this will help in assessing the severity of this threat.
176240		distribution	eng	This species is found in the north and northeastern Brazilian states of Para, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, and Bahia.
176240		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforest.
176240		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. &#160;In some localities it is common for collecting (J. Duarte pers. comm. 2010).
176240		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened by agricultural expansion (J. Duarte pers. comm.). Amphisbaenians may be less susceptible to the vagaries of climate than other squamates that live above ground, because the subterranean habitats may act as a buffer (Colli and Zamboni 1999).
176241		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176241		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Brazilian State of Rio de Janeiro. There is only one known locality for this species - a littoral strip from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rio de  Janeiro</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> to Barra de São João City,  <em><em>ca</em></em> 50 km north, and includes some forested areas (J. Duarte pers. comm. 2010).
176241		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
176241		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176241		threats	eng	The natural habitat within the State of Rio de Janeiro is threatened by high rates of urban expansion, however, it is unknown what impact this threat is having on this species.
176242		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
176242		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeast Tanzania. Its range is considered large for an amphisbaenian (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176242		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits low altitude moist savanna.
176242		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176242		threats	eng	Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) state that this fossorial species does not seem to be threatened.
176243		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.
176243		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwest Africa. It is distributed from northern Namibia, through the Caprivi Strip, into adjacent Angola and Botswana.
176243		habitat	eng	This species is found predominantly in moist savanna, but has also been found in drier areas.
176243		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176243		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176244		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176244		distribution	eng	This species occurs at several sites in the Congo River Basin, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
176244		habitat	eng	This species is a small fossorial amphisbaenian. Very little is known about its biology or ecology.
176244		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176244		threats	eng	It is unknown, but unlikely, that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
176245		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, population and distribution, habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out.
176245		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Cameroon, and through mainland Equatorial Guinea into Gabon. This species may have a restricted range, however, the extent of its distribution within each of these countries is not known.
176245		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical and subtropical moist lowland forest.
176245		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176245		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
176247		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into its biology and ecology<em></em>, population size and range, and the impact that habitat change is having on this species.
176247		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few individuals from a few localities surrounding the Kafue flats in central Zambia. However, due to severe under-sampling, the full extent of the distribution of this species is yet to be determined (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008).
176247		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
176247		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176247		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to conversion for extensive agriculture is&#160;occurring&#160;in Zambia (WWF and Partners for Wetlands Zambia 2006), which may pose a threat to this species. However, it is not yet known what impact the habitat change is having on this species, as habitat transformed is not necessarily habitat destroyed for amphisbaenians (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008).
176248		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or required, for this species.
176248		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Angola, western Zambia and south into the Namibian Caprivi Strip. The southward distribution of this species is limited by the Sesheke-Chobe floodplains (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008)
176248		habitat	eng	This species is found in Miombo and Baikiaea woodland on sandy soils.
176248		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176248		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176249		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Portland Bight Protected Area within the Hellshire Hills. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176249		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Jamaica except in a narrow strip along the northeastern coast, and to an elevation of at least 1,200 m in the Blue Mountains.<p>&#160;<br/></p>
176249		habitat	eng	This species is largely mesophilic but also occurs on scrubby hillsides, often under surface debris (Garman 1888, Grant 1940, Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
176249		population	eng	This species is considered one of the more common lizards on Jamaica,&#160;occurring&#160;over a wide area (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).
176249		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation. Tole (2002) reports that the biodiversity within Jamaica's Hellshire Hills is under increasing threat from deforestation from subsistence-driven encroachment.
176250		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Effective protected area management is needed to ensure the survival of this and other forest-dwelling species on Hispaniola. Further research should be carried out into the ecology, habitat and threats of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.
176250		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Presqu'ile de Nord-Ouest and Plaine de Cul de Sac in Haiti, barely extending into the Valle de Neiba in the Dominican Republic (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is also found on the Barahona Peninsula, north to Barahona, and west to the Haiti-Dominican Republic border. It is found in the extreme southeastern Dominican Republic. It is also found on Ile de la Tortue, Ile de la Gonave, Isla Catalina, Isla Saona (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,297 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/>This species has been recorded at elevations between sea level and 550 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
176250		habitat	eng	This species is xerophilic and ground-dwelling. It has been found under rocks, logs, surface debris, in slat piles, and piles of dry palm fronds (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is ovoviviparous, with between two and five young born per brood (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
176250		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176250		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation may pose a threat to the species. Ibisch <em>et al.</em>(2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report. Meanwhile, the Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat because of logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuel-wood collection (Schubert 1993). It is unknown whether or to what degree this species can adapt to anthropogenic habitat change.
176251		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of deforestation currently occurring. Further research into the population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176251		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Honduras and is found in the northeastern and north-central highlands (Wilson and McCranie 2003b). It has been recorded between 1,550 and 1,590 m above sea level (Wilson and McCranie 2003b) but it is unknown whether this is its elevation range. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 26,208 km²<sup></sup>.
176251		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal (Wilson and McCranie 2003b) and inhabits montane coniferous and broadleaf forests.
176251		population	eng	There is no data on the population trend of this species, but Wilson and McCranie (2003b) state that this species is rare.
176251		threats	eng	In the north-central highlands region of Honduras, only 44.4% of the amphibian and reptile species have stable populations (Wilson and McCranie 2003c).<br/><br/>Recent declines in herpetofaunal populations in the cloud forests of Honduras have been observed and were found to be most prevalent at altitudes over 900 m above sea level, and in Honduras endemics (Wilson and McCranie 2003b). Habitat loss due to deforestation is the primary threat to reptiles in Honduras, with the current deforestation rate at 2.3% (Wilson and McCranie 2003a).
176252		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring should be carried out to assess to what extent the populations of this species are being impacted upon by threat processes.
176252		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Hispaniola, but is absent from large areas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), such as western parts of Grand Anse and parts of Sud-Est and Ouest. It is also found on Ile Grande Cayemite and on Ile de la Gonave. The species has been recorded from sea level to about 800 m, but may occur up 950 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
176252		habitat	eng	This species is mesophilic, although it is xerophilic on Grand Cayemite, where anthropogenic influences may have rendered previous mesic habitats xerophytic (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is known to inhabit broadleaf forests where it may be found under rocks, rotten logs, and other surface objects. It has also been observed in garbage piles behind the beach, under termitaria fragments, in piles of soggy cacao husks, and under wood chips in coffee plantations (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
176252		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176252		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation may pose a threat to this species. Ibisch <em>et al.</em>(2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report. Meanwhile, the Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat due to logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuel-wood collection (Schubert 1993). <br/><br/>However, it is possible that this species is adaptable and therefore may be able to survive modified environments. Further research is therefore required before it can be established to what extent this species is being impacted by habitat loss.
176253		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of protected areas in the Talamanca montane ecoregion. Monitoring of the population and research into potential threats of this species are needed.
176253		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the montane Talamancan region in Costa Rica and extreme western Panama. This species is found at an elevation range of 1,800 to 3,800 m.
176253		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in wet forests and can also commonly be found in more open areas such as shrubland and grassland. It has been found in altered environments and near human settlements.
176253		population	eng	This species is reported to be common to abundant.
176253		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The Talamancan montane moist forest of Costa Rica and Panama is one of Central America's most intact habitats and it is reported that almost 75% of its original forest cover still remains. However, illegal logging and clearing of land for cattle pasture is occurring in this region, causing forest areas to become fragmented (WWF 2001). At present this is not likely to be a major threat to this species.
176254		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution and habitat status of this species.
176254		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Mexico to Honduras and probably northern Nicaragua. In Honduras, it is widespread in the southeast, southwest, Ocote and northwest highlands (Wilson and McCranie 2003b).<br/><br/>It may be found at an elevation range of 1,450 to 2,530 m above sea level (Wilson and McCranie 2003b).
176254		habitat	eng	This species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak forest and cloud forest. Well-established populations of this species have also been found on places partly disturbed by clearings; preference of sunny patches for basking and better food availability may explain the higher densities of young found in those places (M. Veselý pers. comm.).
176254		population	eng	According to Wilson and McCranie (2003b), this species is common and has stable populations.
176254		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation. The pine-oak forests of Central America are being degraded due to human pressures from extensive logging and clearing for agricultural and urban expansion. This is likely to be a localized threat, however, as it has been reported that considerable amounts of this habitat are still intact in Honduras (WWF 2001) and already protected in El Salvador (M. Veselý pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Some populations in smaller and isolated highland forests could be locally endangered by habitat degradation (M. Veselý pers. comm.).
176255		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A dead individual was recently found in Yinggeling Nature Reserve. Further research into this species' distribution and ecology, and monitoring of its habitat should be carried out.
176255		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Hainan Island, China. It is known from two locations and it has been collected from 950 m and 1,000 m above sea level (Brygoo 1987, Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998, M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). The area of Hainan is 34,000 km²<sup></sup>, but the area in which this species is distributed is likely to be much smaller (M. Lau pers. comm. 2008).
176255		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist broadleaf forests. It is known to inhabit the submontane region, but it is unknown if it is also found in the montane forests on the island. It has only been collected from old growth forests (M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). Like other species of this genus, this species is secretive and difficult to find (M. Lau pers. comm.).
176255		population	eng	This species is only known from a handful of records (M. Lau pers. comm.).
176255		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The economic growth rate in Hainan averaged 20% annually from 1988 to 1995, the fastest of any province in China (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2000). The human population has also been growing dramatically, from five million in the mid-1980s to eight million by 2000. In 1995, it was estimated that 34,000 ha of tropical forest was loss annually in Hainan, at an annual mean rate of -2.02% (Guangyi 1995). Deforestation in Hainan has been attributed to logging, shifting cultivation, agricultural land encroachment, and residential and industrial expansion (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>An increase in forest cover over the past few decades is due to the growing importance of woodchip exports, which have led to the establishment of monoculture plantations of forest to supply the trade (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is highly unlikely that this limbless lizard is able to adapt to these plantation forests.
176256		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.
176256		distribution	eng	This species inhabits northern Viet Nam, southern China, and Taiwan. It has been collected from altitudes between 500 to 2,000 m above sea level (Lin <em>et al.</em> 2003).
176256		habitat	eng	This limbless species inhabits moist forests. In Taiwan it is known from dense and slightly disturbed natural forests (Lin <em>et al.</em> 2003).
176256		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176256		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.
176257		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
176257		distribution	eng	This species is a near endemic of Morocco known from&#160;the Moyen and Haut Atlas ranges of Morocco (Mateo&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1998) &#160;It is also&#160;known from a single record in the extreme northwest of Algeria (P. Geniez and P-A. Crochet pers. comm. 2010). It is known to occur up to a maximum altitude of 2,000 m above sea level.
176257		habitat	eng	This species requires vegetation cover and some soil moisture, such as the dry herbaceous growth near a brook. It has also been observed from agricultural regions and the bush zone in valleys.
176257		population	eng	This species has been found to have a population density of 20/ha in the Moyen Atlas (Schleich <em>et al.</em> 1996).
176257		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176258		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, range, threats and habitat status is needed.
176258		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, Gunung Sago (Gunung Malintang) at 1,600 m above sea level in west-central Sumatra (Mertens 1959).
176258		habitat	eng	This limbless species inhabits moist montane forests. It is unknown if it is also found in the lowland forests on the island.
176258		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176258		threats	eng	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 28-29% of the forest in Sumatra was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). This deforestation has been concentrated in the lowlands, which experienced a 61% loss of forest cover for the same period. While this species is known to inhabit montane regions, it is unknown if it also inhabits these heavily-altered lowlands. The main drivers of this habitat loss are logging and development of industrial timber and crop plantations.
176259		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and range of this species is recommended.
176259		distribution	eng	This species is found in the province of Cundinamarca, in Colombia. Cundinamarca has a total area of approximately 24,210 km²<sup></sup>.&#160;The location of the type locality, 'La Selva', is under dispute, however, it has been assigned to a La Selva in Cundinamarca because one of the species' paratypes was collected 16 km WSW of Bogota at 166 m above sea level.
176259		habitat	eng	Members of this genus are small fossorial species which feed on earthworms and insect larvae.
176259		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176259		threats	eng	Although great areas of natural habitat in Cundinamarca have been lost or degraded from conversion to agricultural land, the fossorial nature of this species means that these processes cannot be considered as a major threat.
176260		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, or needed, for this species.
176260		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil (Goiás, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Parana, and São Paulo), eastern Paraguay, and Argentina, in the state of Corrientes and possibly also Misiones. The type locality is in São Paulo, Brazil (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176260		habitat	eng	Members of this genus are small fossorial species that feed predominantly on earthworms and insect larvae. The habitat within the range of this species includes Cerrado savanna and evergreen and semi-deciduous forest.
176260		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
176260		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
176261		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.
176261		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, Cachoeira de Emas, Pirassununga, and from Sapucai, both in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil.
176261		habitat	eng	Members of this genus are small fossorial species. The natural habitats in the area around the collection localities of this species are evergreen and semi-deciduous forest.
176261		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176261		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process, however, very little of the native vegetation remains in this heavily populated part of Brazil.
176262		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176262		distribution	eng	This species is found in the wetlands of the Brazilian states of Pará   and Amapá and in French Guiana (Dirksen and Henderson 2002). It may also be found in bordering Suriname, but this has not yet been confirmed (Dirksen and Henderson 2002). This species is found between sea level and 300 m above sea level.
176262		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic species lives in swampy, often seasonally flooded areas of the Amazonian savanna.
176262		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176262		threats	eng	The Amazonian savanna is highly threatened due to agricultural expansion, however, the impact that this threat is having on this species is not known (Franca <em>et al.</em> 2006).
176265		conservation	eng	Despite the cave system being located inside a Nature Park the stone quarries are expanding. Numerous conservation initiatives were proposed by a local speleology association, but these have not been implemented or authorized by the national authorities:<br/><ol><li>To force the limestone quarries to obey the existing laws imposing the minimum distance that any quarry should be from protected areas or the ocean (500 m).</li><li>To close Gruta do Zambujal in order to restore the natural air flow and microclimate.</li><li>To protect the cliffs opened by the limestone quarries surrounding Gruta do Zambujal from erosion and to guarantee their geological stability.</li><li>To establish and enforce strict guidelines for the future touristic visits to the Frade cave system.</li></ol>
176265		distribution	eng	This spider is known from only four caves in the Frade cave system, Sesimbra, Portugal. Relatively intensive searches in and around the region have failed to find the spider; surveys have been carried out over the last 3–4 years, and surveys of over 100 caves in the 1940s by Barros Machado, a specialist in minute spiders, did not find this species (Cardoso and Scharff 2009). Its estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both extremely small (EOO <3 km², AOO = 1 km²).
176265		habitat	eng	This is one of the smallest spiders described to date (female size of 0.43 to 0.57 mm). It is a troglobiont (cave-dwelling) species, only found in calcareous formations in areas with very restricted microhabitat characteristics. Although it is a very small species, this spider can easily be seen in its web as it appears as a white spot dangling in mid-air; the web itself is invisible (Cardoso and Scharff 2009). Its tridimensional web, with a sheet-like structure, seems atypical for the family and for the genus.<br/><br/>No males have yet been found despite many collecting trips to the caves over more than three years. The species may reproduce asexually (through parthenogenesis), which probably implies a very low genetic variability. This spider is a K-strategist, with each female producing only 2–3 eggs per year, which, compared with other arthropods, is a very low reproductive capability.
176265		population	eng	This spider is rare. Population size is not known, but only four subpopulations are known (occurring in four caves), with only three of those subpopulations considered to be viable; in one of the occupied caves, only one individual has been found despite several collecting trips to the cave (Cardoso and Scharff 2009).
176265		threats	eng	The species occurs inside a Nature Park, but despite that it is not adequately protected. Limestone quarries prevail in the area and these expand mostly without reliable environmental impact assessment studies prior to exploitation inside the protected area. Approximately 20% of the cave system where the species is found has already been destroyed by nearby limestone quarries.<br/><br/>Within this cave system and the limestone quarries lies the Gruta do Zambujal, a cave protected by national laws since 1979 (Decreto-Lei no. 140/79). A single visit to this cave did not reveal any individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anapistula ataecina</span>, even though the geological structure of this cave seems suitable for the species. Unfortunately, the cave is now much degraded. Changes in the internal microclimate caused by the exposure of the cave during mining activities may have caused the species to go locally extinct.<br/><br/>In addition to quarrying activities, tourism may also have an impact on the species. The Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation has recently authorized tourist activities inside Gruta do Fumo, where most specimens of this spider were found. This authorization was granted in the absence of any previous environmental impact assessment studies.
176270		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, part of its range does fall within protected areas. Further research is required to assess the impact that afforestation is having on this species.
176270		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Africa, from Gauteng and Mpumalanga southwards through the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands to Durban. It is also found in Swaziland (Boycott 1992). It is found between an altitude of 400 and 1,500 m above sea level.
176270		habitat	eng	This species is found in humic soils in moist forest areas.
176270		population	eng	This burrowing snake is known to be rare and is seldom encountered, however, this may be an attribute of its fossorial lifestyle rather than an indication of a small population (Marais 1992, Branch 1998).
176270		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. Williamson and Theron (2002) stated that in Mpumalanga the species is threatened by habitat destruction due to afforestation, however, this is unlikely to be a threat across its entire range.
176271		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.
176271		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Africa, in the regions of Mpumalanga and northern KwaZulu-Natal . It is also found in southern Mozambique.
176271		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep alluvial soil or dry thornveld.
176271		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176271		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176272		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution and population numbers of this species, as well as habitat preferences and possible threats to it or its habitat. However, due to the continued conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is unlikely that any more specimens of this species will be collected in the foreseeable future (D. Broadley pers. comm.).
176272		distribution	eng	The only information known about the distribution of this species is that it is found in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
176272		habitat	eng	Snakes of this genus are burrowing snakes that are rarely seen.
176272		population	eng	This species<em></em> is known only from four specimens (D. Broadley, pers. comm.).
176272		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat process.
176273		conservation	eng	Protected areas are needed to prevent the destruction of the remaining forest on Mount Mbololo (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). Further research is required on the taxonomic status, population, habitat and distribution of this species. Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) comment that the Taita Hills is home to many endemic species and there are probably more undiscovered species distributed there, further suggesting that herpetological surveys of the area are needed.
176273		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one specimen taken more than 60 years ago at an elevation of 1,150 m. Its type locality is Mount Mbololo in the Taita Hills, Kenya, which has an area of 55 km²<sup></sup>.
176273		habitat	eng	This species has only been collected in tropical montane forest.
176273		population	eng	Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) comments that this species is rare.
176273		threats	eng	Pellikka <em>et al.</em> (2005) have detailed the land degradation on Taita Hills. Between 1987 and 2002, built up areas have increased by 50% and eroded areas have increased by 33%. More pertinent to this species is that only 2.2 km²<sup></sup> of original forest remains on Mount Mbololo because of the increasing human density and agricultural practices in the area.
176274		conservation	eng	This species is found within Namibian protected areas with a provisional assessment of Secure (Griffin 2003).<br/><br/>Systematic conservation planning may be required for South African populations of this species (V. Egan pers. comm.).
176274		distribution	eng	This species is a southern African species, found in Botswana, adjacent northern Namibia to western Zimbabwe and north to Zambia. Two specimens of this species have also been found near Vaalwater in the Waterberg district of Limpopo, South Africa (Egan 2006).
176274		habitat	eng	This species is not found in true desert but it inhabits sandy soil in moist regions of the Kalahari. It belongs to a genus of burrowing snakes that are rarely seen. The main prey species of this species are the small amphisbaenian <em>Zygaspis quadrifrons</em> and the limbless skink <em>Typhlacontias gracilis</em>, which are common in the Kalahari sands (D. Broadley pers. comm. 2010).
176274		population	eng	This species is widespread in the Kalahari sand regions of northeastern Namibia, northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe and western Zambia (Broadley 1971).
176274		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat process. The South African population(s) will be threatened to some degree by resort development in the Waterberg district. However, this is a localized threat only and is not likely to significantly impact the global population of this species (V. Egan pers. comm.).
176275		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into its distribution, habitats, and threats should be carried out.
176275		distribution	eng	This species is known to have a patchy distribution in west Africa. It has been found in Ghana, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Nigeria. However, due to the low sampling effort in this region, this species may also be found in other west African countries.
176275		habitat	eng	This species is a burrowing species. It has been found in gallery forest in northern Guinea savanna (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).
176275		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176275		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
176276		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Niassa Game Reserve in northern Mozambique, which may provide small safeguards for this species. No further conservation measures are required at present.
176276		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely large distribution ranging from eastern South Africa to Tanzania in the north, and from the eastern Mozambique coast to Nambia in the west. This species is found between sea level and 1,600 m above sea level.
176276		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats including highveld and montane grassland, moist savanna and coastal bush.
176276		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range (Marais 1992).
176276		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.
176277		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its distribution does coincide with various protected areas. This species is capable of adapting to a wide variety of habitats and therefore requires no conservation measures to be implemented at present.
176277		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely large distribution through east, central, and west Africa. From Eritrea in the north, it ranges south to Tanzania, southwesterly to Angola, and across to Guinea in the west. This species is found between 600 and 1,800 m above sea level.
176277		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, from moist savanna to lowland and elevated forests. Akani <em>et al.</em> (2001) found that this species is also able to inhabit altered environments.
176277		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176277		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range.
176278		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution may coincide with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, biology and ecology of this species should be carried out, as insufficient data is available on which to currently base a conservation assessment.
176278		distribution	eng	This species is thought to occur throughout central Africa, but records are very sparse. Hughes (1983) and Spawls and Branch (1995) report isolated records from Ghana and Nigeria.
176278		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this fossorial species, but it is considered a forest snake by Hughes (1983).
176278		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176278		threats	eng	It is unknown if any threats are affecting this species. Insufficient information exists to assess whether burrowing snakes survive forest destruction, although this may be possible.
176279		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is likely that in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species and research into the threats affecting it are needed to determine if agricultural activities will have a significant impact on its population in the future.
176279		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to East Africa and is only found in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. This species is found between sea level and 2,000 m above sea level.
176279		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal bush, dry and moist savanna, and high grassland.
176279		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176279		threats	eng	Many of the habitats that this species occupies are under pressure from agricultural expansion. However, due to its tolerance of a broad range of habitats, this is probably not severe enough to constitute a major threat at present.
176283		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, population, habitat preferences and threats should be carried out.
176283		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur from Guinea and Liberia eastwards through Côte d'Ivoire into Ghana (Hughes 2003).
176283		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is known to occur within moist forests.
176283		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176283		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
176284		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the distribution, population numbers, habitat requirements and threats of this species is needed. However, due to the continued conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is unlikely that any more specimens will be collected in the foreseeable future.
176284		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Katanga District in the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
176284		habitat	eng	This species is a burrowing species with unknown habitat preferences.
176284		population	eng	This species is known only from three specimens (D. Broadley pers. comm.).
176284		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, a high degree of mining is occurring in the Katanga region which may affect this species.
176285		conservation	eng	It is found in a proposed nature reserve, Mkingu Nature  Reserve, which comprises the previously named Nguru South and Mkindo  Forest Reserves (S. Loader pers. comm. April 2012). Currently, enforcement of this protection is limited (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). Monitoring efforts are recommended for this species, and for the endemic Nguru montane amphibian community as a whole (Poynton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008; M. Menegon pers. comm. November 2010).
176285		distribution	eng	This species seems to be limited to the Nguru Mountains, part of the Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania. Individuals were found in the Nguru South Forest Reserve, at elevations between 1,790 - 2,100 m asl.&#160; Its estimated extent of occurrence is equal to or less than 86 km<sup>2</sup>, while&#160; the estimated area of occupancy is about 41 km<sup>2</sup> (Poynton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It has never been found outside this area or at higher altitudes within the reserve, despite extensive surveys  within the Nguru and neighbouring mountains (M. Menegon pers.  comm. November 2010).
176285		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary montane forest, bamboo and secondary forest including areas bordering agriculture. Individuals can be found in the leaf litter (Poynton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development in common with other members of its genus, laying eggs in leaf litter (J. Poynton pers. comm. November 2010).
176285		population	eng	Currently the population density appears to be high (Poynton e<span style="font-style: italic;">t al.</span> 2008), and the species is widespread throughout its small range (M. Menegon pers. comm. November 2010).
176285		threats	eng	This species is confined to a single location, which is under threat from timber extraction, clearance and burning for agriculture, cultivation of yams, and understorey clearance for cardamom production. At present these activities are mostly restricted to low elevations within and around the reserve (M. Menegon pers. comm. November 2010), but may in future threaten pristine areas where this species occurs. This is a species of mountain summits, whose inability to migrate to higher altitudes may render it vulnerable to the effects of climate change (Poynton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176286		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.
176286		distribution	eng	This species is known from North Kinangop Plateau, Kenya, at 2,434 m asl. It has so far been found only near Murungaru village; however, it is a cryptic species, thus it may occur more widely e.g., the higher Aberdare Mountains (Channing and Schmitz 2008).
176286		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grassland or montane grassland (A. Channing pers. comm. March 2010). It can be found in shallow water in temporary pools and at the base of emergent vegetation (Channing and Schmitz 2008). It is thought to breed in water.
176286		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>
176286		threats	eng	<p>There appears to be no obvious threat to this species; the type specimen was found in a disused quarry (A. Channing pers. comm. March 2010).<em></em>  </p>
176290		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the CITES Appendix II. Further surveys are required to refine the area of occupancy estimate.<br/><br/>In 2008 this species was found in the Silaka Nature Reserve, the only protected area in which it has been found (K. Tolley and J. Measey pers. comms. 2010).
176290		distribution	eng	This species is only known to occur in the vicinity of Port St Johns, in South Africa (Tolley and Burger 2007). Tolley and Burger (2007) estimate this species' extent of occurrence as 1,950 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy as 45 km².
176290		habitat	eng	This species usually prefers low coastal forest (Branch 1998, Tolley and Burger 2007).
176290		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176290		threats	eng	Habitat degradation in the Eastern Cape has been attributed to overgrazing by domestic livestock, clearing of land for agriculture, fuel-wood collection, invasion by introduced plants, and urbanization, all of which are likely to be threatening this species' habitat (Driver <em>et al.</em> 2005).
176291		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is highly likely to occur in the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (a World Heritage and Ramsar site)&#160;(UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further research into threats and population monitoring are required to assess the impact that habitat degradation and loss is having on this species due to its restricted range.
176291		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central Drakensberg of KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Free State (Tolley and Burger 2007). It is primarily found between 1,500 and 2,500 m above sea level (Branch 1998). Its extent of occurrence has been estimated as 11,000 km², with an area of occupancy of 5,500 km² (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).
176291		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found on bushes in the grasslands of the Drakensberg alpine zone. It is also known to occur in remaining patches of forest in the area (Tolley and Burger 2007).
176291		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176291		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss due to overgrazing is occurring within the range of this species. Montane grasslands are being converted to exotic timber plantations, but currently this only comprises of 5% of the total land area. However, it is an attractive economic alternative for private landowners and may become a greater threat in the future (Zunckel 2003).
176292		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. A small part of this species' range coincides with a protected area - the Woodbush Forest Reserve. Further research is required into the taxonomy and threats that exist for this species.
176292		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Drakensberg escarpment in Mpumalanga (Wolksberg, Woodbush, Haenertsburg, Graskop, Mount Sheba, Barberton, The Downs, Pilgrams Rest, Mariepskop, and Sabie) and Limpopo (Soutpansberg and Blouberg) (Tolley and Burger 2007). &#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 42,000 km², with an area of occupancy of 5,000 km², taking in to account the large areas of unsuitable habitat within its range (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).
176292		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet forest of escarpment gorges (Branch 1998). Although it is mainly a forest species, it is also found in forest fringes and even well-wooded gardens.
176292		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176292		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Deforestation of indigenous forest is occurring within this species range, however, it is not known what impact this is having; however&#160;this species is locally abundant in forest patches, so at present no immediate major threats are suspected. Many forests are relatively intact and protected (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>
176293		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into extent of threats and the distribution of this species is recommended.
176293		distribution	eng	This species has the largest distribution of any southern African dwarf chameleon, it has a wide distribution over large parts of the Eastern Cape and Great Karoo. The western limit of this species range is Beaufort West, the northernmost locality being Zastron and easternmost locality is&#160;Mthatha&#160;(Tolley and Burger 2007).
176293		habitat	eng	This species is found in a broad range of habitats including mesic thicket, savanna and grassland mosaic, and temperate forest patches, however, it rarely enters fynbos (Branch 1998, Tolley and Burger 2007).
176293		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176293		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, the species may be locally threatened as a result of habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock, clearing for agriculture and invasion by introduced plants (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2004).
176294		conservation	eng	The single known specimen of this species was found within&#160;Manongarivo Special Reserve. Trade in all species of this genus<em></em>&#160;is controlled under CITES Appendix II.&#160;Further survey work is needed to establish the distribution of this species, and to obtain data on its ecology and biology as well as its susceptibility to threats. Its habitat should be managed to ensure the persistence of this chameleon.
176294		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen collected from Bekolosy in Manongarivo Special Reserve. It is possible that it is restricted to the Bekolosy Plateau (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. 2011), although it may occur more widely. This species is thought to occur at elevations of around 1,000 to 1,200 m.
176294		habitat	eng	The single specimen was collected from a thin tree branch at a height of one metre, in an area of primary high altitude rainforest with a canopy of between 5 to 10 m high and trees with heavy lichen growth (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995).
176294		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected in 1992 (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). There have been no further surveys in the area; however, forest degradation at low elevations within the Manongarivo reserve suggests the population is likely to be declining (C. Raxworthy and D. Rakotomalala pers. comm. Jan 2011).
176294		threats	eng	The main threats to this species, which is presumably dependent on forest in common with other <em>Brookesia</em> species, are slash-and-burn cultivation, conversion of habitat to coffee plantations, and logging for building materials.
176295		conservation	eng	This chameleon is known from Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha and from the Beanka new protected area. It probably occurs within Réserve Naturelle d'Intégrale Tsingy de Bemaraha. However, these sites face ongoing degradation from human and natural (e.g., cyclones) causes and the retention of relatively intact forest is probably key to the survival of this species. Therefore, the establishment and management of further protected areas is recommended. Research should be carried out to clarify the full distribution of this species. International trade in <em></em>species of this genus is controlled under CITES Appendix II.
176295		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is known from its type locality in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em>&#160;2008, Schimmenti and Jesu 1996). Within the National Park, it is known from forests at Andranopasazy, Ankily, Anjaha, Bendrao, Ranotsara and Ankilogoa (Randrianantoandro&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008, Bora&#160;<em>et al. </em>2010). It has also been reported from the new protected area Beanka, north of the Réserve Naturelle d'Intégrale Tsingy de Bemaraha (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). It is assumed to have a continuous distribution from the northern bank of the Manambolo River to at least the dry deciduous forest&#160;east of Maintirano (R. Randrianavelona pers. comm. Jan 2011). Additional surveys are required&#160;within&#160;the rarely visited Réserve Naturelle d'Intégrale Tsingy de Bemaraha and dry deciduous forest&#160;east of Maintirano to verify its total distribution, but it seems unlikely that the species will range much more widely than the Bemaraha Massif, suggesting that it has a total extent of occurrence around 1,991 km²<sup></sup>. This species is known to occur between 100 and 563 m above sea level.
176295		habitat	eng	This small species inhabits dry deciduous forest and sub-humid vegetation in areas dominated by limestone (karst) rock outcrops (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2008, Schimmenti and Jesu 1996). Although there is no information on wild individuals, like other <em>Brookesia</em> chameleons (Raxworthy 1991), it is believed to forage in the leaf litter during the day. This is supported by observations on captured individuals that were active on both the leaf litter and vegetation (Schimmenti and Jesu 1996). At night, it roosts above ground on small perches (1-3 mm diameter; Schimmenti and Jesu 1996) where it remains inactive until just before dawn. These perches are typically close to the ground (average = 0.13 m) and are lower than used by the two larger <em>Brookesia</em> species that are also found in the area (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2007). The distance moved between consecutive night perches is small (0.3-0.7 m) and this is reflected in a similarly small surface area (0.2 ha) between different perch sites (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species co-occurs with two other <em>Brookesia</em> species but appears to prefer areas of forest with relatively little understorey, high leaf litter cover and rocky outcrops (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has a clutch size of two large eggs (Schimmenti and Jesu 1996).
176295		population	eng	Population density varies between 3.8 and 60.1 animals per ha (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2007). Overall, it appears more common in the north of the park (18.7/ha) than the south (2.9/ha). The population may be both declining and severely fragmented, as unprotected forest to the north of the park is declining and occurs only as remnant patches.
176295		threats	eng	This species appears to be restricted to a forested karst outcrop in western Madagascar and although most of its known habitat is either already protected, or soon will be, it its likely that even small alterations to the vegetation structure may pose a threat (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2008). Activities that threaten the forest habitat in its range include fire, overgrazing, conversion to agriculture and selective logging (Randrianantoandro <em>et al.</em> 2008). All of these represent future threats to the national park, but are already ongoing around the periphery and in the remainder of its range, including the fragmented forests of the Réserve Naturelle where protection is not enforceable due to bandit activity (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011). This species is not thought to be threatened by the collection for international trade&#160;(Carpenter and Robson 2005, Randrianantoandro&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).
176296		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas within its range, including Masoala National Park; management of these sites and protection of additional remnant forest may be required. International trade of species in this genus <em></em>is managed under CITES Appendix II.
176296		distribution	eng	This species is distributed through an area of around 21,829 km²<sup></sup> in north-eastern Madagascar, from Masoala in the south to Daraina in the north (Andreone <em>et a</em>l 2000, Carpenter and Robson 2005). It occurs at a maximum elevation of 1,350 m above sea level.
176296		habitat	eng	This species is dependent on rainforest where it occurs mainly at lowland elevations; during the day it inhabits the leaf litter.
176296		population	eng	This species is reported to be common in low-altitude forests in northeast Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). Due to the patchy distribution of and heavy human pressure on remaining forest within this lizard's range, the population is thought to be both declining and severely fragmented.
176296		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation from logging and the effects of widespread slash-and-burn farming. Some areas are a patchwork of pristine and degraded areas.
176297		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within this lizard's range. International trade of the&#160;<em></em>species in this genus is managed under CITES Appendix II. Similarly, under EC regulation No. 709/2010, an amendment to EC regulation 338/37 (European Union Wildlife Trade Regulation), species of the genus are listed in Annex B. The harvest levels and population trends of this species need to be monitored.
176297		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwestern Madagascar and offshore islands including Nosy Be, Nosy Komba and Nosy Sakatia (Andreone <em>et al</em>. 2003, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species has an elevation limit of 150 m above sea level. The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 61,884 km²<sup></sup>.
176297		habitat	eng	This chameleon has been recorded from primary rainforest habitat, dry forests and disturbed forest areas ( Glaw and Vences 2007, Carpenter and Robson 2005; Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011).&#160;This species is terrestrial during the day, where it inhabits leaf litter, and at night it is found perched on branches approximately 30-80 cm above the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176297		population	eng	This species is reported to be common in primary rainforest, dry forests and secondary vegetation (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176297		threats	eng	Forests in this region are being lost as a result of land clearance and the effects of widespread slash-and-burn farming. However, due to this species' relatively large distribution and broad range of known habitat types, these should not be considered major threats at this time. Small numbers of this species are exported for the pet trade, though this is unlikely to be a major threat.
176298		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from Parc National Mantadia and Réserve Spéciale Analamazaotra. International trade in species of this genus is controlled, under CITES Appendix II. Further research should be carried out into the harvest levels and population trends of this species.
176298		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern and east-central Madagascar (Carpenter and Robson 2005, Foley 2002), in the areas of An'Ala, Andasibe, Anjanaharibe, Ankeniheny, Imerimandroso, and Mantadia (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 30,444 km², and is found between 900 and 1,500 m above sea level.
176298		habitat	eng	This species has been found in primary montane rainforest, where it occurs at ground level and roosts at an average height of 20 cm above the forest floor in low vegetation (Foley 2002).
176298		population	eng	This species has been recorded as relatively abundant in the southern part of its range. Due to the patchy distribution of and human pressure on remaining rainforests in eastern Madagascar, the population is thought to be both declining and severely fragmented.
176298		threats	eng	Rainforests in this region are being lost through land clearance and the effects of widespread slash-and-burn farming.&#160;This species is of interest to the international pet trade and the whole genus <em></em>has been added to CITES Appendix II. However, the reported trade in this species appears to remain low (Carpenter and Robson 2005) and this trade should not be considered a major threat.
176299		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parc National Montagne d'Ambre, and is included on&#160;CITES Appendix II. The reserve should be managed to limit the risks to this species of potential threats from human activities, and population trends should be monitored to ensure that these measures are effective.
176299		distribution	eng	This species is thought to occur only in Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar, at about 1,000 m elevation (Glaw <em>et al</em> 1999, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995). The park has an area of 385 km²<sup></sup>, although due to its apparently very narrow elevational range the lizard's true distributional extent is likely to be considerably smaller, and may be below 100 km²<sup></sup> (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
176299		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rainforest and during the day it is active in the leaf litter or on small branches a few centimetres above the ground. At night it can be found roosting on branches approximately 5 - 15 cm above the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176299		population	eng	During the rainy season this species is reported to be locally very common (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176299		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, but Montagne d'Ambre is under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and L. Durkin pers. comms. 2011).
176300		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix II of CITES. It occurs within Réserve Spéciale&#160;Manongarivo. However, despite protection human encroachment and land clearance still occurs (Kull 2004). Further research is needed into the distribution and threats of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.
176300		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and appears to only be known from two localities at Manongarivo, around 7 km apart, and from the Ramena River (Raxworthy 1991, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995; C. Raxworthy pers. comm. 2008). Its extent of occurrence is therefore difficult to estimate. It will be in the region of 2,589 km² if the distribution is continuous, but this cannot presently be confirmed.
176300		habitat	eng	Some specimens of this species were collected on the rainforest floor (Raxworthy 1991); however, most specimens were found during the rainy season, roosting at night on vegetation in primary rainforest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1995, Glaw and Vences 2007).
176300		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176300		threats	eng	Rainforests in this region are being lost through land clearance and the effects of widespread slash-and-burn farming. In the Manongarivo area forest clearance is occurring at a rate of 1.3% a year (Kull 2004). The species is of interest to the pet industry, though this may not be a major threat at present.
176301		conservation	eng	This species is recorded from Parc National Montagne d'Ambre and Réserve Spéciale Manongarivo. International trade of this species is regulated under CITES Appendix II. Forest habitat should be managed for the benefit of this species, and its ability to persist in secondary habitats needs to be clarified. Research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this species complex.
176301		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Madagascar, including on Nosy Be Island (Andreone<sup> </sup><span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It appears to be widely distributed in this region, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 25,996 km²<sup></sup>.
176301		habitat	eng	This species has been found in primary rainforest and secondary forest and is generally observed one to two metres above the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176301		population	eng	This lizard is reported to be common in secondary forests of Nosy Be, but is thought to be less abundant in the primary rainforest of Lokobe. It is reported to be common in the rainforest but rare in the secondary vegetation at Montagne d'Ambre (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176301		threats	eng	Rainforests in this region are being lost as a result of logging (charcoal), cattle grazing and widespread slash-and-burn agriculture. Trade volumes of this species are very low, and unlikely to pose a threat to the species.
176302		conservation	eng	International trade of this species is controlled under CITES Appendix II. More research is needed on this species, including its taxonomy, distribution and abundance, threats and harvest levels.
176302		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and is known from mid-altitude in the southeast (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1996, Glaw and Vences 2007) over an estimated area of 2,057 km²<sup></sup>. However, it is not clear whether this represents the true range of the species, although it is provisionally treated here as the extent of occurrence.
176302		habitat	eng	This species is known from mid-altitude forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is not known whether this species might occur in degraded habitats like the related nose-horned chameleon (<em>C. nasutum</em>).
176302		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176302		threats	eng	The region where this species occurs is experiencing habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, slash-and-burn farming and associated bush fires, clearing of land for cattle grazing and logging. However, the similar nose-horned chameleon is rather tolerant of disturbance, and so it is unclear to what extent these processes threaten this species. Species in this genus are of interest to the international pet trade industry.
176303		conservation	eng	There are several protected areas within this species' range, including Réserve Naturelle Intégrale&#160;Betampona and Parc National Zahamena. International trade of this species is controlled, under CITES Appendix II. The extent to which this species can survive in degraded habitats requires clarification, and its sensitivity to different threatening processes should be evaluated. Protected areas where this species is found should be managed to retain suitable forest habitat for this lizard.
176303		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Madagascar, in several areas including Ambavaniasy, Ampasimbe, Andekaleka, Betampona, Ile aux Prunes, Karianga, Lokomby, Mahanoro, Manombo, Vohidrazana and Zahamena. It has also been reported from Nosy Be, but this record is dubious (Glaw and Vences 2007). It occurs between sea level and 600 m (C. Raxworthy&#160; pers. comm. 2008). The chameleon's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 3,909 km²<sup></sup>.
176303		habitat	eng	This species has been found in low elevation rainforest and degraded mid-altitude forest (Glaw and Vences 2007; C. Raxworthy pers. comm. 2008).
176303		population	eng	This species was common in Betampona (F. Andreone pers. comm. January 2011). A density of 13 individuals/ha was recorded in the Mantadia region (Brady and Griffiths 1999). Forest within its range, both intact and degraded, exists as small patches (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011) and is under continuing pressure. The population is therefore considered to be both severely fragmented and declining.
176303		threats	eng	The low-elevation humid forests and littoral forests this species occupies are at risk from accidental burning, degradation from cattle grazing, timber extraction for fuel, construction and charcoal production.&#160;The species is of interest to the international pet trade, but this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176304		conservation	eng	International trade of this species is controlled under CITES (Appendix II). It is present in Ranomafana National Park. Several other recorded sites fall within the Ambositra-Vondrozo New Protected Area which is in the process of being established. As this species exhibits only a limited tolerance of habitat degradation, these protected areas should be managed to ensure that reasonably intact forest is preserved to ensure the lizard's persistence.
176304		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and known from Ambahaka forest, Andrambovato, Marotreho forest, Ranomafana, and Vinanitelo (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has been recorded at&#160;elevations between 1,030 and 1,200 m above sea level (Jenkins&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1999), but the true elevational limits are not known. The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 1,328 km²<sup></sup>.
176304		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary and disturbed mid-altitude rainforest (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176304		population	eng	This species is reasonably common where it occurs. Brady and Griffiths (1999) recorded densities of 6.6 to 11.5 per ha in Ranomafana National Park in relatively undisturbed habitat. Animals were found at significantly lower densities in disturbed forests (Brady and Griffiths, 1999). From this and ongoing forest loss and degradation within the chameleon's range it can be inferred that the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.
176304		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are loss and degradation of forest due to slash-and-burn agriculture and logging for charcoal.
176305		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Marojejy National Park.&#160;International trade of this species is controlled under CITES Appendix II. Further research and monitoring is needed to establish the population status and trends of this species.
176305		distribution	eng	This species is only known from specimens collected from Marojejy mountains in northeastern Madagascar (Brygoo 1978). Despite several surveys, it has not been recorded from other nearby mountain tops. It is therefore reported to be endemic to Marojejy National Park (Atkinson and Mathieu 2006) and is found between 1,900 and 2,000 m above sea level (Glaw and Vences 2007). As it is restricted to a very narrow elevational band on Marojejy, its extent of occurrence is thought to be around 10 km² (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011).
176305		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high altitude montane bush (Glaw and Vences 2007). Specimens have been found in shrubs on the sides of mountains in the Marojejy range.
176305		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176305		threats	eng	While this species may have occurred elsewhere, the high-altitude montane shrub habitat in Marojejy National Park is the only intact habitat of this type remaining in Madagascar, others having been altered by fire (Atkinson and Mathieu 2006). While the habitat is protected, a single outbreak of fire could result in the loss of large parts of this habitat, in turn leading to alteration of habitat and a corresponding severe decline in the population of the species.
176306		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, however, no export quotas have been listed for the species over the last years. There are no further species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
176306		distribution	eng	This chameleon is distributed in the south-western Arabian Peninsula, in an area stretching from the Asir Province in Saudi Arabia to the surroundings of Aden in Yemen (Nečas 1999). Because of the pet trade, this species is now reported to be established in Florida and a feral population is also present in Hawaii (Krysko <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kraus and Fern 2004). This species is found between 1,200 and 2,000 m above sea level, and its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 136,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
176306		habitat	eng	This arboreal species occurs in the most vegetated area of the Arabian Peninsula. It does not prefer any specific habitat, and can be found on acacia branches, on shrubs and even cultivated plants (Nečas 1999). It can also be found in tree alleys along busy road-ways and on trees in village gardens.
176306		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, in certain parts of its range, this species is found in high densities.
176306		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. This species has been collected for the pet trade, however, trade has declined in recent years, and any individuals traded have come from non-indigenous sources in North America and Europe.
176307		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at present, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the full distribution range of this species is recommended.
176307		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is thought to be distributed throughout Congo and Gabon to Equatorial Guinea (Watkins-Colwell and de Leon 2003). The extent of occurrence is estimated as exceeding 560,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176307		habitat	eng	From its range, this species is presumed to inhabit mid-altitudinal tropical rainforest. In Gabon, it was never found under 500m asl (Pauwels & Vande weghe, 2008).
176307		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176307		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, however, significant areas of habitat remain and this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176308		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix II of CITES (CITES 2007). There are no other species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at this time. There is uncertainty about the status of subspecies, so that research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of the species.
176308		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout southern and eastern Africa. It has been described as far west as Cameroon (Welch 1982) and possibly Nigeria, east to Kenya and Somalia and south through Tanzania into Botswana, Namibia, Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa (Patterson 1987). There are limited records of the species occurring in Rwanda and Burundi (Spawls <em> et al.</em> 2002), however, this could be attributed to low recorder effort rather than the absence of the species from the area. The species has recently been confirmed on Lolui island in Uganda (S. Spawls pers. comm. 2010).
176308		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal forest, both moist and dry savanna, woodland and bushy grasslands, it has also been found in urban areas (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Patterson 1987). The species is arboreal , however, it is not as exclusively arboeal as many of the other chameleon taxa (Bergmann <em>et al.</em> 2003).
176308		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant.
176308		threats	eng	This species is collected for the international pet trade with the greatest demand coming from the USA. Between 1977 and 2001, 49,836 individuals were traded (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 2004). To date, there are no known or observed effects of removal for the pet trade on natural populations. Regardless, because population sizes are not known, there are no estimates of survival or rates of population increase, and the taxonomy regarding the status of sub-species is uncertain, careful attention should be paid for any warning signs of declines.
176310		conservation	eng	Institution of fenced conservation areas (enclosures) around the island, where goats cannot enter and where vegetation can grow without disturbance, would realistically help the species to develop and reproduce without threats.
176310		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Socotra island, the largest island of Socotran archipelago, with an area of 3,625 km²<sup></sup> which is here treated as the lizard's extent of occurrence. It has an estimated area of occupancy of 132 km²<sup></sup>.
176310		habitat	eng	The species was found in palm groves, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix</span> bushland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> trees along wadis, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euclea</span> shrubland and low bushland, from the sea level up to 1,004 m, especially where the vegetation cover is particularly dense.
176310		population	eng	This species has a scattered distribution but is present on the whole island, especially where the vegetation cover is densest (Razetti <em>et al.</em> 2011). Size and trend of population are unknown, as usually only single individuals are found.
176310		threats	eng	The presence of widespread overgrazing could be a possible future impact on <span style="font-style: italic;">C. monachus</span> populations, as goats are destroying vegetation and the species was found especially where the vegetation cover was the best. It can be presumed that the chameleon's area of occupancy has already decreased due to vegetation loss caused by overgrazing, however, as the species is found (albeit less commonly) in less well-vegetated areas, it is probably resilient to the current level of threat. Future improvements in veterinary care may lead to an increase in goat numbers and the impact they will have on the vegetation will pose a risk to this species.
176311		conservation	eng	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Secure'. This assessment reportedly encompasses approximately 70% of its range.<br/><br/>This species is included in CITES Appendix II. CITES reports some recent trade in this species, but seemingly not at a significant level (<100 live individuals in 5 years; UNEP-WCMC 2001).
176311		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Karroo region of southern Africa, including the Namib Desert from southern Angola through to South Africa, and the Succulent Karoo biome of Namibia and South Africa (Leuteritz 2005). <br/><br/>Leuteritz (2005) also reports a new record from Tierberg, extending the distribution over the southern Karoo Plain. Before this, it was collected in the Calvinia District, as far south as Fraserburg, and also in the flats around the Karoo National Park, approximately 100 km to the north. The southern-most record of this species remains in the Breede Valley, 275 km to the southwest.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence for this species is estimated to be greater than 600,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176311		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy regions with scrub vegetation (Branch 1998). It may also be found in rocky deserts and coastline dunes (Nečas 1999). It is mainly ground-dwelling, but on very hot days it may climb into bushes or onto rocks to bask (Tolley and Burger 2007, Branch 1998).
176311		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176311		threats	eng	This species is traded internationally; however, as this is managed by CITES, it is not perceived to be a major threat.
176312		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. However, further research on its harvest levels and monitoring of population trends are needed.
176312		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa from Senegal and Mali to Cameroon, with an extent of occurrence in excess of 2 million km<sup>2</sup>.
176312		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist savanna. There are also reports of it from various forest habitats, including lowland semi-evergreen forest and rainforest borders (Leaché 2006, Gonwou 2002, Schmidt 1919), however, Rödel (pers. comm.) states that this is incorrect and most likely the individuals in these environments are <em>Chamaeleo gracilis</em>, not <em>C. senegalensis</em>.
176312		population	eng	This species was reported to be common on Mt. Cameroon (Gonwou 2002) and in the Western African humid savannas, especially in northern Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel pers. comm.).
176312		threats	eng	This species is of value to the pet trade industry (UNEP-WCMC 2010) and is also used as medicine and sold in alternative markets (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.). To date, there are no known or observed effects of removal on natural populations. Regardless, because population sizes are not known and there are no estimates of survival or rates of population increase, careful attention should be paid for any warning signs of declines.
176313		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and the distribution of this species falls within a number of protected areas. Further research is required to understand why this species is uncommon in the Cameroon and Nigerian portion of its range, and to assess harvest levels.
176313		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in west and central Africa from Nigeria eastwards into the Congo basin. This species is reported to be uncommon in at least the Cameroon and Nigerian portion of its range (Gonwou 2002, Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is found between an altitude of 10 and 900 m above sea level and its extent of occurrence is in excess of 1 million km<sup>2</sup>.
176313		habitat	eng	This species is found in farmland, forest, disturbed forest and secondary forest (M. LeBreton pers. comm.), and in the savanna-forest mosaics (Chirio and LeBreton 2007).
176313		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176313		threats	eng	This species is thought to be resilient to the effects of habitat loss and degradation unless these threats are both acute and extensive. Logging has been blamed for the possible disappearance of the species from one location in Nigeria (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, limited local forest disturbance, such as smallholder rotating slash and burn agriculture, may even benefit this species; this creates mosaic habitats in which the species is often found, such as open forest and farm bush (M. LeBreton pers. comm. 2008). Other agricultural methods, however, such as industrial monoculture farming (e.g., for banana or palm oil) would cause habitat loss. <br/><br/>Additionally, this species is collected for the international pet trade industry, and approximately 3,000 live individuals were exported from countries within the species' range between 2005 and 2008 (UNEP-WCMC 2010).
176314		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, but monitoring of its harvest levels should continue. Until recently, there were two protected areas on Bioko, covering 42% of the island; however, national legislation on protected areas is currently under revision (Zafra-Calvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010a). If current plans are approved, the two reserves would class as IUCN categories Ia and II respectively (Zafra-Calvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010b). <br/><br/>There is a general lack of information on this species, particularly with regard to its population biology and reproduction. Research is urgently needed to redress this; furthermore, research into the habitat status of this species and monitoring of harvesting levels should also be carried out.
176314		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Bioko and has been recorded from at least three localities within the Moka Valley (Klaver and Böhme 1992). The species has an elevation range between 1,300 and 1,600 m above sea level, giving it an inferred extent of occurrence of 908 km<sup>2</sup>.
176314		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the wet montane forest of Bioko (Klaver and Böhme 1992).
176314		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176314		threats	eng	While there are two protected areas on Bioko, road building has fragmented the forests. Commercial logging is banned, but small-scale logging may still occur and may negatively impact the habitat of this species.<br/><br/>This species is also of interest to the pet trade industry.
176315		conservation	eng	This species is included in CITES Appendix II (CITES 2005). There are no further species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Harvest levels should continually be monitored because of illegal collection for the pet trade.
176315		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa, where it ranges from Nairobi north and northwest through the high country and across the rift valley. It has been recorded on the top of the Aberdare Mountains and Mount Kenya, and westwards to the Mau. Its only recording outside of Kenya is on the western slopes of Mount Elgon in Uganda. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 43,000 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is found between an altitude of 1,500 and 4,000 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176315		habitat	eng	This species inhabits high savanna and grassland, and may be found in shrubs, bushes, small trees, thicket, reedbeds, sedge and in tall or tussock grass. It is rarely found more than three metres above ground level. It is also able to tolerate suburban environments and can be found in garden bushes. <br/><br/>This species gives birth to live young (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176315		population	eng	This species may be locally abundant in some areas, for example in the Limuru region, where population densities of over 300 animals per hectare have been recorded (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176315		threats	eng	This species is amongst three chameleon species known to be collected illegally in Kenya for the pet trade (CITES 2005). Between 2005 and 2008, 4,250 live specimens were reported to have been exported from Uganda and Kenya (UNEP-WCMC 2010).
176316		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and can be found within protected areas. There is an urgent need to research the taxonomic status of the two populations in Malawi and Tanzania, as an elevation to species status could change the conservation status of this species. Similarly, more surveys are needed to increase our knowlegde of the distribution and define the true extent of occurrence of this species. Additional research should also focus on the impact of threats on population density.
176316		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Tanzania, in the Ukinga and Poroto ranges and on Mt. Rungwe. It may also be present in the adjacent Ubena Mountains. It was originally thought to be a Tanzanian endemic, but is now also known from the Nyika Plateau in Malawi (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its extent of occurrence, excluding the discontinuity between the Tanzanian and Malawian populations, has been estimated as 7,678 km<sup>2</sup>.
176316		habitat	eng	This species is known to live in woodland habitat and plantation forests, on shrubs, small trees and in thicket. <br/><br/>This species gives birth to live young (Spawls <em>et al</em> 2002).
176316		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176316		threats	eng	This species occurs in a region that is threatened by high levels of habitat loss due to agricultural land change and fuel-wood collection. This species is also used in the pet trade, although at relatively low numbers (UNEP-WCMC 2010).
176317		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II (CITES 2007). It occurs in a habitat which is suffering from high rates of destruction, therefore conservation measures are required to prevent further habitat loss and fragmentation of the landscape, such as the establishment and management of protected areas. Improved surveys are necessary to obtain better estimates of both the species' abundance in areas where legal collections occur, and its area of occupancy, which may be much smaller than the estimated extent of occurrence due to conversion of forest to agricultural land.
176317		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Udzungwa region of the Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania. At present it is known only from the vicinity of Mufindi and Kigogo (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has an estimated distribution of 11,529 km<sup>2</sup>.
176317		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in forest and fairly dense woodland, and probably prefers thicket and understorey to big forest trees. It is not thought to be found in open savanna woodland.<br/><br/>This species gives birth to live young (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176317		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176317		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation. Newmark (1998) reports that the Udzungwa Mountains have lost 76% of their original forest cover principally to agricultural and plantation land, with only 1,960 km<sup>2</sup> of natural forest remaining. Of this remaining forest, just 389 km<sup>2</sup> is closed forest, as estimated from landsat imagery for the period 1994-96. Furthermore, it is a highly fragmented landscape, consisting of 26 fragments. <br/><br/>Along with other chamaeleon species in East Africa, this species is collected from the wild for the international pet trade (CITES 2005).
176318		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It does not occur in any protected areas and the identification and establishment of protected areas is required to prevent further habitat degradation and change. Further research is required to monitor population numbers, and it is important to identify if the observed localized declines are accelerating or occuring across the whole range. Despite its CITES listing, additional work is required to control harvest levels.
176318		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the highlands of Cameroon between 700 and 1,900 m above sea level (Hofer <em>et al.</em> 2003). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, its occurrence within that range is likely to be much smaller.
176318		habitat	eng	This species has a very specific habitat (forests and farmbushes) and elevation requirement (700 to 1,900 m). Since the majority of the highlands of Cameroon is comprised of extensive areas of savanna and grassland, this species is restricted to limited suitable habitats within this area. This species is also found to occur within small mixed farms, roadside hedges and gardens (Gonwou 2002, M. LeBreton pers. comm.).
176318		population	eng	This species is reported to have suffered from localized declines. Declines have been reported by collectors around Mt Cameroon (Gonwou 2002) possibly due to overcollecting for international pet trade. Elsewhere in the range, including Mt Nlonako, the species is reported to be abundant (Harbourt and Herrmann 2002).
176318		threats	eng	This species has a small range size and its very specific habitat and elevation requirements means it is vulnerable to habitat degradation, habitat change and climate change. Agricultural activities are expanding in the Cameroon highlands and may constitute a threat to this species. The species<em></em> is also of value to the international pet trade (UNEP-WCMC 2010).
176319		conservation	eng	International trade of this species is controlled, under CITES Appendix II. Harvest levels and population trends should, however, continually be monitored.
176319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Grand Comore which has an area of 1,146 km<sup>2</sup> and is in the Mozambique Channel (Nečas 1999).
176319		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the humid coastal regions of the island and inhabits disturbed secondary forest including in towns and is found on both native and introduced shrubs and small trees (UNEP-WCMC 2004, CITES 2004).
176319		population	eng	This species is reported to remain locally abundant (UNEP-WCMC 2004).
176319		threats	eng	This species is of interest to the international pet industry, but recently less individuals were traded than in the period between 2000 and 2004, when 8,583 live specimens were exported from Comoros (UNEP-WCMC 2010). It may also be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of agricultural and human settlements, however, due to its broad habitat preferences this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176320		conservation	eng	International trade of this species is controlled, under CITES Appendix II.&#160;The type locality is not in a protected area.&#160;Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, threats, and population trends of this species. Dry forest around the type locality and large trees along the Mangoky River should be prioritized for conservation attention, and given at least provisional protected status until the survival or extinction of this chameleon within the area can be verified. Records from the north that may represent this species require verification.
176320		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected in Andrenalamivola in southwestern Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is possible that it may be confined to large trees in gallery forest along the Mangoky River (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). Surveys in several nearby areas have not recorded this species, but there is a relatively large amount of suitable habitat in the area and the species may well occur. Records of this species from the far north of Madagascar (Belambo and Sahamalaza) require confirmation (Raselimanana 2008).
176320		habitat	eng	The region in which this species occurs is characterized by dry forest. <em>Furcifer</em> species in western Madagascar are typically arboreal and dependent on trees (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011), which is presumed to be true of this chameleon.
176320		population	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen collected in the 1960s. A two-day survey to the type locality (which still has suitable habitat) in the 1990s&#160;did not record the species (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011). Although this survey was not long enough to reliably locate the lizard, it indicates that it is not common in the area (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. June 2011). If this chameleon is a forest specialist, then due to human pressure on and the patchy distribution of remnant forest around the known locality it is likely that the population is both declining and, if it occurs widely in riparian forest in the region, severely fragmented.<em><br/></em>
176320		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to slash-and-burn agriculture and logging for charcoal.
176321		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas. Site protection is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring in the area. Further research into the habitat status, population size, and threats to this species are required.
176321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Arc and Southern Rift Hotspot (Conservation International 2006). This species occurs on the eastern border of Zimbabwe in the Chirinda Forest (Branch 1998). Chirinda Forest is in the Chipinge Highlands, the most southerly of the four mountain ranges of the Eastern Highlands region that straddles the Mozambique-Zimbabwe border. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,961 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found up to a maximum altitude of 1,800 m above sea level.
176321		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the undergrowth and leaf litter of the floor of montane evergreen wet forest (Branch 1998). Most taxa in this genus are restricted to isolated forest patches (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).
176321		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176321		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of its woodland habitat. Deforestation in Mozambique has been estimated at 4.5% per year, which may be driven by the significant role the forests play in rural livelihoods (Mlay <em>et al</em>. 2003). Specific processes that threaten these woodlands include overgrazing, collection of wood for fuel and construction, inadequate fallow systems, and the use of fire for clearing land (Nhantumbo <em>et al.</em> 2003). Similarly in Zimbabwe, degradation of the woodlands have been attributed to fuelwood and construction wood collection, agricultural development and urban expansion (Chipika and Kowero 2000).
176322		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research in threats and monitoring of its habitat is required to ensure that the localized population declines caused by habitat destruction are not occurring on a wider scale.
176322		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and central Africa, and is distributed from Nigeria, south to Gabon. It is also found on Bioko Island. The range of this species also possibly includes the Central African Republic and the Congo. It can be found from sea level up to an elevation of 1,900 m.
176322		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen wet forests (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species prefers to perch on small herbaceous plants and woody stems (Wild 1994). This species is known to have a clutch size of up to 18 eggs.
176322		population	eng	This species was found to be very common in parts of southern Nigeria and in montane areas of Cameroon, however, it is thought to be rarer in the lowlands (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176322		threats	eng	This species is thought to be affected by habitat loss and fragmentation of its environment. Logging has been blamed for its disappearance from one location in Nigeria (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001). Wild (1994) suggests that the low abundance of this species in degraded areas indicates that it is locally threatened by habitat destruction.
176323		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species was previously classified under the genus <em>Bradypodion</em> and it would have received protection under Appendix II of CITES, however, there are no species of its current genus on the CITES list. Trade management is therefore required. This species is found within forest reserves, however, it is reported as uncommon in these areas and therefore further research is required to understand the habitat requirements of this species. Monitoring is needed to assess the impact that the high rates of habitat loss are having on its population size<em></em>.
176323		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in the Usambara Mountains (western and eastern), between an altitude of 800 to 1,400 m above sea level (J. Mariaux pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,243 km²<sup></sup>.
176323		habitat	eng	This arboreal species inhabits montane primary forest and woodland. It is sensitive to habitat loss as it is unable to adapt to deforestation or cultivated landscapes (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous with clutch sizes of three to four eggs observed (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176323		population	eng	This species is reported to be uncommon by Mease and Dell (2003). In addition, it is reported to be locally uncommon in the Mtai Forest Reserve (Doggart <em>et al.</em> 1999) and Amani Forest Reserve (Tropical Biology Association 2007).
176323		threats	eng	This species is reported to be extremely vulnerable to habitat loss (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). Deforestation is a major threat to this species. By 1998 the Usambara Mountains had lost 71% of its original forest cover (Newmark 1998). Expanding cultivation, fire, livestock grazing, and illegal logging have all been cited as the causes of high rates of deforestation (The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2005). Mease and Dell (2003) note that an increasing number of tea plantations in the region are also responsible for habitat change. The region is becoming highly fragmented, with the remaining natural forest in the region split into 25 different fragments.<br/><br/>Many chameleon species in East Africa are collected for the pet trade and medicinal use (CITES 2005). The export quota for 2010 was eighteen individuals, all of which were recorded as captive-bred (CITES 2010). However, it is not known how severe this threat is to wild populations of this species.
176324		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species. It occurs in Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam, as well as in several protected areas in China.
176324		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Viet Nam (Tam Dao, Vinh Phuc Province) and the Chinese provinces of Guizhou and Guangxi (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This species has been found between 600 and 1,100 m above sea level in Tam Dao (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000), and from 500 to 1,800 m asl. across its range.
176324		habitat	eng	In Tam Dao, this fossorial species is known to occur in a region of evergreen forest (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000). Zhao (2006) reports it from hilly areas at 1,800 m. It is oviparous and feeds on invertebrates.
176324		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176324		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known, but it is widespread and not considered to be subject to major threats.
176325		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, population numbers, threats and habitat status of this species.
176325		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality on Mount Jinggang in the Jiangxi Province of China (Zhao and Adler 1993). The known specimens of this species were collected at 940 m above sea level (Zhao and Adler 1993).
176325		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat preferences of this species, though based on its type locality it may inhabit the subtropical evergreen forests in the region. Species from the <em>Achalinus</em> genus are small to moderate sized, secretive snakes (Ota and Toyama 1989).
176325		population	eng	This species is only known from the the original description (H. Ota pers. comm.).
176325		threats	eng	The region in which this species occurs is suffering from deforestation due to conversion of forest to agricultural land, but as the habitat preference of this species is not fully understood, it is unknown what impact this may have.
176326		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176326		distribution	eng	This species appears to be known from just five specimens, all taken in the arid lowlands of northern Somalia, though two were obtained very close to the border with Ethiopia (Largen and Spawls 2010).
176326		habitat	eng	One of the five known individuals was discovered at an elevation of about 700 m above sea level, in an area of sandy ground clothed with trees and bushes (M. Largen pers. comm. 2008).
176326		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176326		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
176328		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards from habitat degradation. No additional conservation measures are required for this species.
176328		distribution	eng	This species is known from a patchy distribution across western Africa, in Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea and Cameroon. It can be presumed that the species is present in other west African countries, however, low recorder effort means it has not yet been recorded in these areas.
176328		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic species occurs in or near streams and ponds in rainforest and swamp habitat (LeBreton 1999), in savanna-bush mosaic habitats, as well as plantations and agricultural ditches (Leplaideur 2005, Akani <em>et al.</em> 1999).
176328		population	eng	This species is reported to be one of the most abundant snake species in southern Nigeria (Akani <em>et al.</em> 1999, Luiselli <em>et al.</em> 1998), however, it is considered rare on Mount Cameroon (Gonwou 2002).
176328		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. In certain locations this species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to logging and agricultural expansion, however, due to its ability to utilize several different habitats, including anthropogenic environments, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
176329		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. This common and widespread snake is found in numerous protected areas within its range. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex, and to clarify the appropriate taxonomic status of recognized subspecies. The status of local subpopulations in Indochina should be monitored where possible.
176329		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Asia from India across southern China to Viet Nam, southward to the Philippines and as far east as Ternate, Indonesia (David and Vogel 1996). <br/><br/>Two of the subspecies are endemic to the Philippines: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">A. p. preocularis</span>  (Taylor 1922) from Panay, Luzon, Dinagat, Siargao, Basilan, Batan,  Bohol, Camiguin,  Cebu, Leyte, Mindanao, Negros, Polillo, (Leviton  1968), Sibuyan (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008), and probably many other   Philippine Islands, and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. p. suluensis</span>  Gaulke 1994 from Jolo, Siasi, Sangasanga, Tawitawi, Bongao and Sibutu  (Gaulke 1995). The nominate form occurs throughout most of the remainder  of the range, and <em>A. p. medioxima</em> Lazell 2002 is found only in China.
176329		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both primary lowland and montane moist forests, secondary forests, dry and open forests, scrublands, plantations, gardens (David and Vogel 1996), monsoon forest (McKay 2006), cultivated land, roadsides, and city gardens (R. Inger pers. comm.). Sharma (2003) states that species of this genus are arboreal, diurnal snakes, living on shrubs and bushes, but forage on the ground. In the Southeast Asian mainland and in the Philippines the snake occupies most of these habitats, and has been found in coconut plantations and areas given over to agroforestry.<br/><br/>It ranges from sea level to about 1,300 m elevation. In Sumatra, this species has been recorded at elevations ranging from  sea-level up to over 900 m above sea level in Kerinci Valley, 920 m  above sea level at Fort-de-Kock in the Padang Highlands, and around  1,300 m above sea level near Berastagi (David and Vogel 1996). <br/><span style=""></span>
176329		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is "fairly common" in India. David and Vogel (1996) report that in Sumatra this species is widespread and common and is one of the most frequently seen snakes. The snake is common and widespread in the Philippines. It is common in forested areas of Indochina, and near villages where there is forested habitat nearby (Q.T. Nguyen and T. Neang pers. comm. 2011).<span style=""></span>
176329		threats	eng	The Vietnamese population may be threatened by overharvesting for use in traditional medicine. Some subpopulations of this species may be undergoing localized declines due to extreme habitat degradation, as the species appears to be absent from severely degraded land in Cambodia (T. Neang pers. comm.) There are no apparent threats elsewhere in its range.
176330		conservation	eng	This species currently has no conservation measures in place for it. Further research into the threats, trends, habitat status and abundance is suggested. The establishment and management of new protected areas could provide a safeguard for this species from habitat loss.
176330		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Terre-de-Bas and Terre-de-Haut which make up the Îles de Saintes, part of Guadeloupe. Terre-de-Bas and Terre-de-Haut are very small islands with a total area of approximately 16 km²<sup></sup>.
176330		habitat	eng	This species occurs along mangrove edges, roadsides, gardens, wooded areas, preferentially in semi-deciduous forest with <em>Pimenta racemosa</em>, <em>Pisonia subcordata</em>, <em>Hymenea courbaril</em>, and <em>Bursera simaruba</em>. Although the species has been found in various habitats, it prefers areas less frequented by humans (Breuil 2002).
176330		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176330		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to urban development, particularly for the tourist industry. Its extremely small range and lack of migrational options means that the species is also susceptible to future climate change, specifically sea level rise, however the effects of climate change on species persistence are still very uncertain.
176332		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed at present.
176332		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the western Andes along the dry Pacific coast from Ecuador to Chile (Myers and Hoogmoed 1974). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 200,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176332		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal desert areas (Myers and Hoogmoed 1974). In a study of the herpetofauna of the equatorial dry forest ecoregion of Peru, the species was found to be restricted to savanna dry forest (Venegas 2005).
176332		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176332		threats	eng	In some parts of its range, this species is threatened by habitat degradation from agricultural expansion and urban expansion (Polk <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, these are localised effects only and are unlikely to be causing significant global population declines at present.
176333		conservation	eng	This species is known to occur in Kinabalu National Park (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), Crocker Range National Park (Das 2006). and Tawau Hills National Parks in Sabah (Inger pers. comm.). Gunung Gading National Park and Samunsam National Park in Sarawak and Temburong National Park in Brunei (Das pers. comm.). The species is present in Betung Kerihun national Park,  Bukit-Baka-Bukit Raya National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park and  many other conservation are in Kalimantan (Iskandar pers. com.). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its abundance, range and habitat status is requires and monitoring should be conducted.
176333		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo. Malkmus <em>et al.</em> (2002) list its range as Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak. It has been found up to 1,300 m. asl.on Mt. Kinabalu and was thought to prefer habitat above 500 m. above sea level (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, the species is widespread in localities well below 500 m. asl.(R. Inger pers. comm.). In Kalimantan it is also easy to encounter at low altitudes.
176333		habitat	eng	This species is found along small, clear, flowing waters in primary or tall secondary forests (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002, R. Inger pers. comm.). Indeed, the genus shows a more or less strict preference for moist habitats in various freshwater bodies.
176333		population	eng	The species is one of the commonest snake species along streams. and populations seem to be stable. There are no species-specific population data available for this species. It is commonly found close to or inside clear water bodies, particularly streams in primary and tall secondary lowland forests (R. Inger pers. comm.). In Kalimantan the species is one of the most common along rivers streams and marshy areas.
176333		threats	eng	Clearance of riverside forest is a potential threat to this species threatened by habitat loss and degradation across its range. While this species has a moderate distribution, its has only been found in clear streams in primary and mature secondary forests. R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes this species may be threatened by declines in water quality as a result of the ongoing deforestation, which causes siltation of streams. This causes a decline in tadpoles, a major component of this species' diet (R. Inger pers. comm.).
176334		conservation	eng	This species occurs within a protected area. There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
176334		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the Ranong and Chumphon provinces of Thailand (David and Das 2003, Cox 1991).
176334		habitat	eng	The area where this species has been found correspond to moist monsoon forest.
176334		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176334		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
176335		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into the abundance, threats, trends and habitat status are suggested as threats may increase in the future.
176335		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the Malaysian provinces of Perak and Pahang, in Lampung Province on the Indonesian island of Sumatra (Leong and Lim 2003, Mumpuni 2001). It is an upland species found at elevations between 1,000 and 1,500 m.
176335		habitat	eng	This species has been found in highlands and from its distribution, it is likely to inhabit montane wet forest. Snakes in this genus are known to prefer habitat near bodies of water including streams and ponds (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176335		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. It is an uncommon species.
176335		threats	eng	Habitat degradation in this species' range is minimal. There are currently no major threats affecting it.
176336		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' population status, and natural history.
176336		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern China including Hainan Island, west to  Yunnan and north to Guizhou (Zhao and Adler 1993). It has also been reported  from Viet Nam (Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2009). It has been recorded between 281 and 900 m asl.
176336		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of mountain and hill streams in forest. It can sometimes also be found in irrigated rice paddies. It is oviparous and feeds on frogs (Zhao 2006).
176336		population	eng	This is a common species.
176336		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
176337		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research into the distribution, biology and ecology, abundance, habitat status, trends and threats of this species is needed.
176337		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tung-gyi region of northern Myanmar, Nepal, and Ghora Gali, Alpine Punjab, Pakistan (Khan 2002). Schleich and Kästle (2002) make no reference to its presence in Nepal in their review. Nepal may have become associated with it by way of its synonymy with <em>A. platyceps</em>. By implication, this also calls into question the records for Myanmar and perhaps Bangladesh. Recent surveys by G. Zug (pers. comm.) have likewise failed to confirm its present occurrence in Myanmar.
176337		habitat	eng	This is a "highland snake" (Khan 2002).
176337		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176337		threats	eng	In some portions of its range, this species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion, however, it is not known if these are severe threats at this time.
176338		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. While there is some official protection to forests in this region, the protection is not enforced. Research into the habitat status, threats, trends and abundance is suggested.<br/><br/>If Bakongan is considered as the type locality, it is not in a conservation area, hence vulnerable from land conversion and less so from forest clearing as it is a swamp forest area.
176338		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality near Ujungpadang in the District of Aceh Selatan, Sumatra, Indonesia (Murphy 2007). It is only known from one specimen.<br/><br/>The type locality is stated as Pudang or Babongan. Both names do not exist in any gazeeter. The most plausible locality is Bakongan, South Aceh near the Border to North Sumatra or Padang, West Sumatra (Iskandar and Colijn 2002). Bakongan is shown in the accompanying distribution map.
176338		habitat	eng	This species is probably semi-aquatic occurring in freshwater habitats and in wet forests (David and Vogel 1996, Murphy 2007). The habitat around Ujungpadang consists primarily of lowland forest. The type collection was probably from the Kluet-Bakongan swamp forest (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009)
176338		population	eng	All available information on the species is based on a single specimen. No population data are available.The holotype is stated as lost. There is no verified locality for this species.
176338		threats	eng	The major specific threats to this species are unknown. However, despite official protection, the forests in Aceh Selatan remain at high risk of deforestation and are experiencing ongoing illegal exploitation, including large-scale clear-cutting, conversion of forest to palm oil plantations and increased human settlement, all of which are having "severe" ecological consequences (van Beukering <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
176340		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with 25 protected areas, including the Gran Humedal de Ciego de Avila Ramsar wetland, the Paisaje Natural Protegido Gran Piedra, Reserva Ecológica Pico Mogote and Reserva de la Biosfera Baconao. Also, environmental education programmes are currently being planned which will aid with the conservation of this snake.
176340		distribution	eng	This species is found on Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud as well as a number of offshore cays. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 11,344 km² and it has an elevational range of 0 to 1,100 m above sea level.
176340		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry scrub, coastal scrub, cultivated fields, urban areas and wooded areas.
176340		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176340		threats	eng	This species appears to be tolerant of human-mediated habitat alterations and is not under any major threats. However, as with many snakes in the West Indies, there is a minor threat of persecution.
176342		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population trends, its distribution within its wide extent of occurrence, and its sensitivity to threats is needed, as is population and habitat monitoring. Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, which is likely to provide a small safeguard from habitat loss, and it has been recorded from several protected areas in the Philippines including Mount Malindang.<span style=""></span>
176342		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia (including Penang as well as Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah), Brunei Darussalam, the Philippines and southern Thailand (David and Vogel 1996). In Indonesia, it is known from Bangka, Java, the Natuna Archipelago, Nias, and Sumatra and Kalimantan, as well as smaller islands inbetween. In the Philippines, it has been recorded from Mindanao, Polillo, Samar,  Bohol, Palawan and Balabac; possibly present on Basilan and Luzon. While it was reported from Myanmar by David and Vogel (1996), recent surveys have not been able to confirm its continued presence in this country (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011).
176342		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits lowland and montane moist forests up to 1,300 m elevation (David and Vogel 1996). The species is nocturnal and arboreal, and mostly found in low vegetation. ARCBC (2006) list primary forest, cultivated areas and plantations under 'preferred habitats'. However, R. Inger (pers. comm.) does not know of any records in tree plantations. All Philippine records are from within forests, and it has been reported  from gallery and secondary forests as well as forest edges. This oviparous snake lays between four and five eggs.
176342		population	eng	David and Vogel (1996) state that this species is "widespread but seems uncommon". While also noting that this species is not often seen, R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes it was observed at almost every survey site in Borneo, suggesting it is both abundant and widespread throughout this island. In the Philippines it is considered to be uncommon and difficult to find.
176342		threats	eng	This species is likely impacted by deforestation due to human activities, including agricultural expansion, logging, and the growth of human settlements and infrastructure. While significant areas of habitat remain, R. Inger (pers. comm.) suggests that the rate of deforestation may be sufficient to trigger a threat category in the near future.<span style=""></span>
176343		conservation	eng	Further research into this species' distribution, ecology, and the direct threats to the species is required. Population monitoring is also recommended.
176343		distribution	eng	This species is known from two specimens, but is thought to be distributed in the Cerrado habitat of the Brazilian states of Goias and Minas Gerais; so far, however, it has not been recorded elsewhere (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176343		habitat	eng	This species is a fossorial species which inhabits the savanna/shrubland Cerrado habitat of central Brazil.
176343		population	eng	This species is known from just two specimens.
176343		threats	eng	The area where the specimens of this species were collected is well populated, and between urban areas the land has often been converted to agriculture, causing degradation and loss of the natural Cerrado habitat. Such dramatic losses of natural habitat may have had an adverse effect on the species.
176344		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species has been evaluated as vulnerable in the latest issue of the Bolivian Red Book, based on a set of evaluation criteria called MEGA (Cortez 2009). Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
176344		distribution	eng	This species is considered to be endemic to Santa Cruz Department and is known from 17 specimens, found in just two localities in the Provincia Florida, Departmento Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The first is from the vicinity of Pampagrande and the second San Juan del Portrero. It is mainly distributed in the inter-Andean dry valleys, considered one of the most threatened habitats in Bolivia (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010). This species is found up to 1,800 m above sea level (Embert and Reichle 2003). Its extent of occurrence has recently been estimated as approximately 37,000 km² using habitat&#160;modelling&#160;(D. Embert pers. comm. 2010), which is considered to be severely fragmented habitat and lacking any coverage by protected areas.
176344		habitat	eng	This species occupies mainly inter-Andean dry forest where it is quite common; it is also known from Tucuman forest and Mountain Chaco (D. Embert pers. comm.). This species is semi-fossorial and nocturnal.
176344		population	eng	This species is known from only 17 specimens.
176344		threats	eng	Harvey (1999) and Embert (2007) state that much of the natural habitat around Pampagrande has been altered by agricultural practices, causing the severe fragmentation of the habitat. This inoffensive species may also suffer from localized persecution by humans, because it is thought of as dangerous due to its colour and behaviour (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010).
176345		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the type locality of this species is within the Parque Nacional 'Noel Kempff Mrecado' (IUCN Category II). Further research into the distribution and population of this species is required.
176345		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Estancia El Refugio, Provincia Velasco, Santa Cruz, in Bolivia.
176345		habitat	eng	The type locality of this fossorial species is tropical dry forest on the bank of the Paragua, where much of the low-lying surrounding area is seasonally inundated.
176345		population	eng	This species is only known from type locality.
176345		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, possibly due to its fossorial nature.
176346		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution, population status, and threats of this species is recommended, as is population and habitat monitoring.
176346		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Piaui, Brazil. It is suspected that collection localities do not cover a wide area, as the distribution was described as 'enclave at Piaui' by Lema (2003). A second locality was found in protected areas in the Jalapão region in Tocantins state (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176346		habitat	eng	This species is a fossorial species found in the Caatinga dry forest habitat. The species is also thought to be a typical Cerrado snake species (G. Costa and C. Nogueira pers. comms.). It is found in open, interfluvial savannas of the northern portion of the Cerrado (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176346		population	eng	There is no population information available.
176346		threats	eng	Much of the Caatinga has been affected by overgrazing, and more recently cotton cultivation, which in places has completely changed the native vegetation. The Cerrado is one of the most threatened ecosystems in Brazil, suffering particularly from the effects of expanded agricultural activities and human initiated fires. The impacts of habitat loss and degradation on the species are currently not known.
176347		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution coincides with a number of protected areas, however, enforcement of protected status is not always effective. Environmental education which is needed in Cuba will also help in conserving this species. Research into the threats to this species' habitat should be carried out as an increase in habitat loss could lead to declines in this species.
176347		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, and has an elevational range of 0 to 800 m above sea level. No specimen have been found from central Cuba. It has been suggested that it also occurs on the off-shore cays of the Gran Humedal del Norte de Ciego de Avilla Ramsar, but no specimens have been recorded from there as yet.
176347		habitat	eng	This species is ground-dwelling and fossorial. It occurs in dry open areas, including pastures, grassland, bare areas, under cover on and near beaches.
176347		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176347		threats	eng	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by habitat loss due to urbanization. However, at this time this cannot be considered a major threat.
176348		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. While there may be protected areas within the range of this species, the protection is not strictly enforced and parks are still subject to illegal logging and human settlement (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further research and monitoring into the effect that a decrease in the abundance of earthworms will have upon this species should be carried out. Surveying of all known localities to confirm the full extent of this species' range is also needed.<br/><br/>This species was listed as Data Deficient in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka'.
176348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka where it occurs in the southwestern portion of the country (de Silva 1990). It is known from a few locations in the Sabaragamuwa province and the central provinces of Dikoya, Pundaluoya, Balangoda and Dimbula (Somaweera 2006, Gans and Fetcho 1982).&#160;However recent island wide surveys have failed to come across this species (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010). &#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,809 km². This species is found between 1,200 and 1,500 m above sea level, although it has been found at lower altitudes.
176348		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal, fossorial species (de Silva 1990). Based upon its known distribution it may inhabit montane tropical forest, however, there is a report of it occuring in the drains of cultivated areas (Wall 1921). R. Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) states that it may inhabit lowland as well as montane tropical forests, and also anthropogenic habitats.
176348		population	eng	De Silva (1990) reports that this is an uncommon snake. It has been described as a relict species (Somaweera 2007) and as rare (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010). Furthermore recent island-wide surveys have failed to find this species (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).
176348		threats	eng	Deforestation leading to forest fragmentation, the wide use of pesticide in tea plantations, and the expansion of urban and agricultural land, impacts upon earthworms which comprise the main diet of this snake (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010). However, to what degree this affects the species is not known.
176349		conservation	eng	It is recommended that research on population trends and threats to the species is carried out to ascertain whether habitat loss is having a detrimental effect on this species.
176349		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, in the states of Rondonia, Para (in the eastern part of the state), Acre, Goias, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (Zaher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176349		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested areas, and is also known from Cerrado formation habitats in central Brazil. Species of this genus are fossorial and semifossorial.
176349		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
176349		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, as a result on conversion of land to agriculture and as a result of deforestation, is occurring within the range of this species. However, the extent to which this has a detrimental effect on the species, if any, is not known.
176350		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, ecology and habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176350		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, which is the town of Manizales, Departamento de Caldas, Colombia.
176350		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial. &#160;It is adapted to open areas (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).
176350		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176350		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
176351		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of population trends are required to confirm that localized threats within the species' range are not causing large population declines.
176351		distribution	eng	This species is found on the western slopes of the Andes, in northern Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. This species is found between 2,000 and 3,130 m above sea level.
176351		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid montane forest (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).
176351		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176351		threats	eng	It is unlikely that a major threat is having a significant impact on the population numbers of this species across its entire range. However, this species may be locally threatened in parts of its range as a result of land use change due to agricultural expansion.
176352		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species should be carried out to ensure that localized threats, such as habitat loss, do not become more widespread across its range.
176352		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Colombian highlands from 2,000 to 3,200 m above sea level in the regions of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Bogotá (Corporación Suna Hisca 2001). It has a distributional area of 34,156 km².
176352		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grassy areas with thickets, including pastures. It is found sheltering under stones and logs and seems to occur in somewhat disturbed areas, such as ploughed land (Corporación Suna Hisca 2001).
176352		population	eng	This snake is reportedly particularly common in the area around the capital district of Bogotá (Corporación Suna Hisca 2001).
176352		threats	eng	This species appears to tolerate human-affected environments and while it may be undergoing habitat loss and degradation, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176353		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population should be carried out because of its restricted range.
176353		distribution	eng	This species is found in Venezuela, in the region of Cerro Duida, in Territorio Federal Amazonas.
176353		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found in a mountainous area surrounding Cerro Duida. The habitat within this species' range is a patchwork of seasonal humid evergreen and deciduous forest, and high plains.
176353		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176353		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species or its environment as Cerro Duida is still well vegetated.
176354		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176354		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazonas region of Colombia.
176354		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial or semifossorial and is found in a region of humid tropical lowland forest.
176354		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176354		threats	eng	The impact of threats on this species are not well understood, however, there are not thought to be any plausible major threats to this snake.
176355		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.
176355		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Amazonian slopes of Colombia, in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua, in Venezuela, and in the Brazilian states of Amazonas, and Pará (Martins and Oliveira 1993). Pérez-Santos and Moreno (1991) also include Peru and Bolivia in the range of this species. This species is found between sea level and 3,000 m above sea level.
176355		habitat	eng	In Ecuador, this species lives primarily in humid and wet tropical lowland and mountain forest. It is also known to occur in semi-open areas including forest edges and stream-sides, and open areas including pastureland and cultivated areas, and spiny steppe.
176355		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176355		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176356		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the full range of this species. Further investigations should be carried out into the large number of <em></em>specimens of this genus that remain misidentified or unidentified in herpetological collections (Passos <em>et al.</em> 2007). Monitoring of this species' habitat is needed to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
176356		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> inhabits the Pacific versant of the Andes of Ecuador. This species has been recorded in the provinces of Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Azuay (Passos <em>et al.</em> 2007). One specimen has been collected from Plan de Milagro at Morona-Santiago Province, however, Passos <em>et al.</em> (2007) state that "additional specimens are required in order to confirm the occurrence of the species on the Atlantic versant of the Andes of Ecuador." This species has been found at altitudes between 2,400 and 2,560 m above sea level, however, it probably occurs at lower elevations (Cisneros-Heredia and Touzet 2005). &#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 20,000 km²<sup> </sup>(D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010), considered severely fragmented as a result of deforestation.
176356		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial and has been found to inhabit humid montane forest.
176356		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176356		threats	eng	In certain locations this species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to logging, mining and agricultural expansion. Furthermore, deforestation has fragmented this species distribution, and may create further fragmentation in the future (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).
176357		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, habitat, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended. Protected areas should also be established (J.C. Arredondo pers. comm.).
176357		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the northern region of the Cordillera Central and Occidental in Colombia, in the&#160;municipalities of San Pedro de los Milagros, Támesis, and Jericó&#160;(the type locality). Recent surveys have found two specimens from Jardin&#160;municipality (J.C. Arrendondo pers. comm. 2010). This species is found between 2,000 and 2,500 m above sea level and the area it is distributed in is approximately 6,320 km²<sup></sup>. &#160;This species distribution is considered to be severely fragmented by the presence of coffee plantations (J.C. Arrendondo pers. comm. 2010).
176357		habitat	eng	This fossorial or semi-fossorial species is found in an area where the habitat is predominantly moist montane forest.
176357		population	eng	This species is rare and until recently there were no records of this species having been documented since 1965 (J.C. Arredondo, pers. comm.2010). Recent surveys found two specimens in the Jardin municipality (J.C. Arrendondo pers. comm. 2010).
176357		threats	eng	This species occurs in a region where high rates of habitat loss are occurring. The expansion of coffee plantations and other agricultural activities have caused the remaining undisturbed forest habitat to become severely fragmented (J.C. Arredondo pers. comm. 2010).
176358		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Reserva Nacional de Junín. Further research is required into the population, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species.
176358		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the area of Baja Tambopata, in the department of Madre de Dios, Peru.
176358		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, apart from it being fossorial. The region of Madre de Dios is comprised predominantly of low-lying Amazonian rainforest.
176358		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176358		threats	eng	Potential threats in the region include habitat degradation due to logging and mining. However, it is not known what impact these threats are having on this species.
176359		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the distribution, ecology, habitat preferences, and threats to this species.
176359		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Carpapata, in the upper Chanchamayo Valley, within the Department of Junin, Peru.
176359		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, possibly due to it being a fossorial or semi-fossorial species.
176359		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176359		threats	eng	Large areas of Junin are threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation, mainly due to logging and conversion of land to agriculture. However, the impact that this is having on this species is currently unknown.
176360		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as establishing and managing protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat degradation occurring within this species' range. Monitoring of this species should take place.
176360		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ecuador. This species has a disjunct population and is known from the provinces of Bolivar and Chimborazo and probably in El Oro. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,667 km²<sup></sup> but its extent of occurrence is around 19,000 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 1,200 and 3,000 m above sea level.
176360		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry forest and steppe, and wetter forest habitats.
176360		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176360		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss as a result of deforestation has fragmented the species' habitat. Agricultural expansion and mining also occur in the region in which this species is found.
176361		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
176361		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, in eastern Amazonas, eastern Para, and in Amapa, Maranhao and Rondonia.
176361		habitat	eng	This species is a fossorial species, which is found in primary and secondary forest habitat. This species has also been found in disturbed agricultural environments (Bernarde 2004).
176361		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176361		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Although localized deforestation is occurring within its range, species of this genus live inside the soil and tend to persist even in disturbed habitats (M. Martins pers. comm.).
176362		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as LR/nt under the IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3. More specifically, it was considered to be relatively widespread and and occurring in many locations, and to have a stable population.<br/><br/>Recently, this species was included in CITES Appendix III. No further conservation measures are required at present.
176362		distribution	eng	This species is found in India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In India, this snake is found along the east coast to Uttaranchal (Sharma 2003). It is thought to be absent from most of northern India. De Silva (1990) states that this species is known from all the provinces of Sri Lanka, however, it was recently noted to be absent from the Knuckles Mountain Range (Project Knuckles 2005). In Nepal, a few records exist in the Midlands from east to west (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
176362		habitat	eng	This diurnal, aquatic snake is found among vegetation near freshwater and is found in proximity to saline pools and lagoons in the Jaffna Peninsula. This species is often found on land, and it has been observed in streams, ponds, wells, and paddy fields, and in close proximity to water sources. This species feeds on frogs and fish.
176362		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this is "a common snake", particularly around Bangalore, Tamil Nadu, and Kakinada (Cocanada), Andhra Pradesh. De Silva (1990) also reports that it is common in Sri Lanka.
176362		threats	eng	Until 1972, upon the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act in India, this species was one of many species that were commonly used in the snake skin trade. According to the CITES database, the skins of this species were traded for handbags, shoes, garments and various leather products from 1985-1996, however, trade seems to have stopped with the exception of 14 traded leather products in 2005 (CITES 2007).
176363		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is known to occur in protected areas within its range including Sinharaja Natural Heritage Wilderness Sanctuary (de Silva 1990). In 2007, the species was listed as Vulnerable under B1ab(i,ii)+2 ab(i,ii) on the Sri Lanka Red List (IUCN Sri Lanka and Ministry of Environmental and Natural Resources 2007).<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status and trends, and distribution of this species should be carried out.
176363		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwestern wet zone of Sri Lanka and is found in the lowland wet zone, mid-elevation forest and a few locations in the intermediate zone (R. Somaweera, pers. comm. 2010). Records exist from Kanneliya, Deniyaya, Yatiyanthota, Balangoda, Kuruwita, Kegalle, Labugama, Bandarawela, Lenok watta, Uwa pathana, Knuckles, Peak Wilderness,&#160;Sinharaja (Kudawa), and Udagama; with&#160;an old record from Peradeniya<strong>&#160;</strong>&#160;&#160;(A. de Silva, and R. Somaweera&#160;pers. comms. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,900 km². This species is found below 900 m above sea level.
176363		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hilly areas (Kashyap 1975) within forest and rainforest in the wet zone of Sri Lanka.
176363		population	eng	Due to its secretive nature, this species was considered a rare snake restricted to the rain forests. However, recent surveys indicate that it is widely distributed in relatively large numbers (A. de Silva, pers. comm. 2010).
176363		threats	eng	Severe deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements, leading to severe habitat fragmentation. In 2005 it was estimated that only 5% of the island's original wet zone forest, where the species occurs, remained (Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). While there have been some reforesting attempts, these have mainly consisted of monoculture, exotic species and do not support high numbers of native vertebrates (Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994).
176364		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><em>P. pratensis</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>This species is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections. EURISCO reports 4,990 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratense</span> held in European genebanks, 1,353 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 1,300 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176364		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratense</span> is native to and widely distributed in northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia, the Indian Subcontinent and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176364		habitat	eng	This perennial species is found most often in grass habitats such as meadows, pastures, rough grassland, field margins and waysides (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176364		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of its distribution in Europe. <br/><br/>It occurs in all departments in France&#160;(Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), and is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland, although the far north of Scotland does have a   slightly more patchy distribution (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In both Greece and Belarus the species is stable and common throughout.
176364		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176365		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. syvaschicum</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. It occurs in Syvach National Park and Dzarilgach Regional Landscape Park. Monitoring and conservation management of all subpopulations is needed.&#160; <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. syvaschicum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this taxon is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176365		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. syvaschicum</span> is endemic to southern Ukraine where it is distributed on the coasts of the Azov Sea (Syvach creek) and Black Sea (in Crimea—Chersonska and Zaporizska &#160;regions).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176365		habitat	eng	It is only grows in the coastal salt marshes of the Azov Sea (Syvas creek) and Black Sea in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salicornietea fruticosa</span>.<span class="msoIns">
176365		population	eng	<p>No more than 10 localized subpopulations are found in Churuk Islands, Tubek Peninsula, on the shore of Overjanivske Lake, Arabatska spit, Tup-Tarchan Peninsula and on the islands of Dzarilgach and Bechtjari. The subpopulations are very small and restricted in area, and while some have a high population density (20–30 individuals / m<sup>2</sup>), others have a low population density of only 3–5 individuals / 10 m<sup>2</sup>.</p>
176365		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by excessive overgrazing with cattle and flooding with fresh water from the north Crimean irrigation canal.</p>
176366		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. kerneri</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas in Bulgaria (Standja). It is recommended that a monitoring program is implemented at these sites.
176366		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to central Europe where it is found in Bulgaria, former Czechoslovakia, Former Yugoslavia, Hungary and Macedonia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). It is also native to Romania. In Bulgaria, it is found north of the Black Sea in the Standja and Trakian valleys. In Hungary it is found in the Duna region, Tiszántúl, Nyírség and Pécs (Soó 1968, Simon 1992).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176366		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in marshlands and orchards. In Hungary it is found in salt marshes.
176366		population	eng	This is a widespread and common species and the population is stable.
176366		threats	eng	Land drainage and agricultural intensification are impacting this species.
176367		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. odoratus </span>is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>genebank collections, with only 33 accessions held in Europe and 37 accessions being held worldwide, which is very surprising given the economic value of sweatpeas globally. The Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA, holds the largest collection with 23 accessions (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 33 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, seven of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only four originate from within Europe. These four accessions originate from Belgium (one), Ukraine (two) and UK (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  There is no active management of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. odoratus</span> in <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>  protected areas, however, it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>It is considered of low risk in three regions mainland Italy.<br/><br/>The species occurs on protected areas.
176367		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. odoratus</span> is native only to Italy, but is widely cultivated worldwide and naturalised in some areas (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is native to southwestern Italy and Sicily but not Sardinia. The extent of ocurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy  (AOO) is thought to be less than  2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176367		habitat	eng	Its habitat is forests and shrubs (is a vine so needs support).
176367		population	eng	This is a very restricted&#160; species in the wild but is very widely cultivated as sweetpeas throughout the world, but due to extensive commercial value of the species this is subject to wild collection threat. Its popultaion is decreasing.
176367		threats	eng	Due to  extensive cultivation of the species and its high commercial value, this is subject to wild  collection threat.
176369		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa </span>is   listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;">. <span style="font-style: italic;">R. islandica</span> is classified as Endangered (EN) in Norway (Kålås <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and Near Threatened (NT) in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).<br/>  <p>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur naturally in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. </p>  EURISCO reports 13 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. islandica</span> held in European genebanks, six of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
176369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. islandica</span> is native to most of Europe, as well as Greenland (North America) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Spain: occurs in a scattered distribution in the northern half of the country.</li><li>  UK: confined to south Wales, 20 localities in Scotland and with a sparse and patchy distribution within Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Ireland: patchy distribution with the majority of occurrences recorded in the western half of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Norway: the distribution of this species is limited.</li><li>Romania: widespread across the country.</li><li>France: occurs only in the six departments of Alpes-Maritimes,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence,   Hautes-Alpes,   Isère, Savoie and   Haute-Savoie in the southeast and the department of Vosges in the northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>
176369		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. islandica</span> is found in high mountain sites in the southern part of its distribution in Europe (1,300 m), along the shores of mountain streams and lakes (Tomšovic 1974). In northwestern Europe this species is found in the open sandy shores of lakes, streams, pools and ditches (Jonsell 1968). In Britain this species is usually found near to the sea in open sites, occurring in open muddy habitats, near small ponds, pools, ditch banks and in depressions in pastures, and very occasionally on rocks by rivers (Rich 1991, Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176369		population	eng	This species is thought to have a stable distribution in Europe. However, some sites in the UK have been lost leading to a decrease of this species, however it is unclear whether this is a continuing trend. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176369		threats	eng	Human alterations to sites, such as the canalisation of rivers and pond drainage has led to a loss of habitat in the UK. As this species is found on exposed sites in mountainous areas in Spain, global temperature increase will effect the habitat.
176370		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports 30 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 10 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, nine originate from within Europe. These nine wild accessions originate from Cyprus (one), Italy (two), Portugal (one) and Spain (five) and are all stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176370		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tornata</span> has a fairly narrow native distributional range; it is found in certain regions of southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. However, it is widely cultivated worldwide, and is naturalised in Australia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France this species is found in six departments along the western coast:   Finistère, Morbihan,   Vendée, Vienne,   Charente-Maritime and Landes (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176370		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tornata </span>grows<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>on sandy soils, frequently on the seashore (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176370		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively stable throughout its range.
176370		threats	eng	This is a relatively common species within its range and there appears to be no major threats. Although found in a limited number of habitats these are not threatened within its region.
176371		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>Only  one accession  of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cirrhosus</span> is held in Europe at the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben (Germany) and two accessions are currently held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The species occurs in protected areas, but it is likely to be passively conserved in   many existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its   conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject   to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanksand it is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin or to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176371		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cirrhosus</span> is found in certain parts of southern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is present in Sardinia, southern France and northeast of Spain.<br/><br/>In France it occurs in the southern departments of   Corrèze, Aveyron,   Lozère,   Ardèche,   Ariège,   Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault and   Bouches-du-Rhône (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176371		habitat	eng	It lives in the woods and hills sides of mountains. It is also found at the edge of agricultural fields on acidic soil and meadows.
176371		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus cirrhosus</span> is a restricted species but within its range it is found in several habitats  which are not threatened; populations appear to be  stable.
176371		threats	eng	No information available.
176372		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. subterraneum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is          specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty    on     Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as  part   of  the    forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific    conservation     attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest    collections being held by the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span> Genetic Resource  Centre in Perth, Australia (7,900 accessions), the European Central Crop  Database (3,077 accessions) and Aegean Agricultural Reseacrh Institute in  Izmir, Turkey (823 accessions), the Australia <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span>  Genetic Resource Centre in Adelaide, Australia, Margot   Forde Forage Germplasm Centre in New Zealand,  Vavilov  Research  Institute of Plant Industry, Russia, the National   Plant  Germplasm  System in Washington, USA,<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> ICARDA    (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of  Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth, UK) gene        banks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).&#160; <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 5,387 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 2,813 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 2,306 originate from within Europe. The majority of these accessions were collected from Spain (1,826) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>         the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many      existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its       conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it  may  be     subject  to     population     loss over time from factors  such  as    climate  change. <br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the central/eastern region of Bourgogne (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span class="Apple-converted-space">
176372		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. subterraneum</span> is distributed throughout much of southern Europe, as well as Great Britain, Ukraine, western Asia, the Caucasus, northern Africa, the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands (Zohary and Heller 1984). It is naturalised in the Azores, Australia, New Zealand and the USA (USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France it is widespread in all areas of the country with the exception of 17 departments to the east and northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it occurs mainly in the south of England, particularly along the coast, as well as along the Welsh coastline. There are a small number of occurrences in the north of England and along the England-Scotland border but these are recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in Ireland it occurs in only two localities on the eastern coast, one of which is recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176372		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. subterraneum </span>is a winter annual, flowering between April and May. It grows in low grass meadows and scrubland on well drained, light soils. It succeeds on acid soils, and can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.2, as well as annual rainfall between 380 mm and 1,630 mm, and temperatures from 5.9ºC to 21.3ºC (Duke 1981).<br/>  <br/>In the UK this lowland species prefers thin, free-draining sands, gravels and shingles which are neutral to acidic (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It grows in coastal areas in open grassland or heathland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). According to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), it grows on summer-parched grasslands on chalk and limestone when found inland.
176372		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is common    throughout   southern Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats   and   populations are  stable.<br/><br/>In the UK according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species was lost from a number of inland localities in the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, it has remained stable since 1930.
176372		threats	eng	This species is relatively common and found in many different habitats so it is not currently threatened. If anything this species often passes unrecognised because of  the geocarpic flowers and pods.
176373		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">I. littoralis</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. It occurs in Karadagh reserve.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. littoralis </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176373		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. littoralis</span> is an eastern European species native to Ukraine with Crimea, as well as to southwest Russian Federation (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). In Ukraine, it grows mainly on the Black Sea coast at the foot of the Crimean&#160; mountains. One locality was found near Odessa city in the 19th century. There are no distribution data available for Russia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176373		habitat	eng	It is found along the Black Sea coast and along riverbanks (Fedorov 2001) on rocky slopes in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thlaspietea rotundifolii</span>.
176373		population	eng	In Ukraine, the subpopulations are small and isolated. The subpopulation in the vicinity of Odessa is probably is extinct (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).
176373		threats	eng	In Ukraine, it is threatened by infrastructure and tourism development.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176374		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. minima </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001, Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Three Red List assessments have been made for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. minimia</span> by Colling (2005), Gärdenfors (2005), and Cheffings and Farrell (2006). The two assessments in 2005 found the species to be Endangered, but the 2006 assessment found it to be Vulnerable, indicating that populations were recovering (BGCI 2009).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 105 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 53 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 34 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176374		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. minima</span> is native to the majority of European countries, and is also found across temperate regions in Asia and northern Africa. It is widely naturalised throughout Russia, Australasia and North and South America (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments. Not recorded in the northern departments of Nord, Aube and   Territoire de Belfort (Association Tela Botanica 2010) and in the UK it is confined to East Anglia and the southeast coast (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Alien occurrences have been recorded within the rest of England, patchy in distribution (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176374		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. minima</span> prefers dry soils and grows in an array of different habitats, including moist grassy banks, woodland edges, rocky limestone slopes, steppe, sand dunes, cultivated land, maquis, open coniferous woodlands, pastures, and cliff tops. It is also tolerant of heavy grazing (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>  In the UK this lowland species grows in dry, open, sandy and gravelly areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176374		population	eng	The population size is large and widespread throughout its range (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010). Its population trend is considered stable.<br/><br/>In the UK according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species is becoming less prevalent in coastal areas due to habitat destruction.
176374		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this species.
176375		conservation	eng	There is no information about conservation actions available.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176375		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. kotovii </span>is endemic to the Ukraine. It is confined to the southeast of the Ukraine in the southern part of the Dnepr River basin and the territory close to the Black Sea. It is also reported in Moldova (Fedorov 1987). The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be smaller than 2,000 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span>
176375		habitat	eng	Found in steppe regions in open places on calcareous and sandy soils. Sometimes found along roads.
176375		population	eng	There are only a few populations of this species with isolated individuals. The population trend is unknown but given the level of threat in the region due to overgrazing it seems likely the population is decreasing. The number of mature individuals is probably less than 10,000 with less than 1,000 individuals per subpopulation.
176375		threats	eng	There is no information on the specific threats available but the species is rare and declining. The main threats in this region are overgrazing, urbanisation and tourism development.
176376		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bracteosa</span> held in European genebanks; however, only one originates from within Europe. This accession originates from Italy and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176376		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. bracteosa</span> is native to parts of southeast and southwest Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, this species occurs in three departments in the southeast: Savoie, Alps-de-Haute-Provence and Alpes-Maritimes (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176376		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
176376		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
176376		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176377		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national threat/protection status of this species in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Great Britain: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">prostratus </span>is listed as Endangered (EN C2a(i)); <span style="font-style: italic;">A. officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">officinalis</span> is listed as Least Concern (LC) (Cheffings and Farrell 2005).</li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Denmark: classified as Least Concern (LC) </span>(Den Danske Rødliste 2010<span style="background-color: white;">).</span></span></li><li><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Hungary: this species is not protected (Király 2007)<span style="background-color: white;">.</span></span></li></ul>EURISCO reports 92 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. officinalis</span> held in European genebanks, 33 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 26 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span>
176377		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. officinalis</span> is native to most of central and southern Europe and to north Africa. It has been introduced and become naturalized across northern Europe, Australasia and parts of north and south America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution is available for the following European countries:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: occurs in the west, southwest, south and southeast of the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992).&#160;</li><li>Norway: southeast coast.</li><li>Germany: widespread.</li><li>Hungary: widespread (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in all departments with the exceptions of Gers,   Hérault and Gard in the south and Paris to the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>United Kingdom: <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">prostratus</span> has a particularly narrow coastal range occurring in five localities in south Wales, nine in southwest England and seven in the Channel Islands (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">officinalis</span> has a much larger range—it has a patchy distribution in the west of the UK but is widespread in East Anglia and the southeast<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Preston<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002). It is present in only one locality in Northern Ireland and four localities in southern Scotland, near Edinburgh (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Ireland: <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">prostratus</span> has a particularly narrow coastal range, occurring in only seven localities in eastern Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">officinalis </span>also has a narrow range, occurring in only five localities on the east coast (Preston<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></li></ul>
176377		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In the  Mediterranean, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. officinalis</span> is found in many habitats, from hedgerows and  grassy habitats to scrub, wasteland and coastal areas (Blamey and  Grey-Wilson 2004). In central Europe, it also occurs in steppe in warm regions. In Hungary,  it grows in dry oak woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orno-Quercetum </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">pubescenti-cerris, Corno-Quercetum</span>) karst scrub-forests, shrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegetum danubiale</span>), steppe woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanolo-Stipetum tirsae</span>), sand steppes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brometum tectorum</span>) and salt steppes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Achilleo-Festucetum pseudovinae</span>)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> It occurs in a range of soil types, but prefers calcareous soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><br/>According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002),<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">prostratus</span> prefers lowland areas, occurring on free-draining sea-cliffs (where it grows through <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca rubra</span> in rocky soils) and sand dunes (commonly found alongside paths). Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1980) also noted that this taxon&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs on coastal sands and rocks.<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">officinalis</span> prefers free-draining sandy soils and lowlands (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176377		population	eng	Knowledge of the European population of this species is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Slovakia: the subpopulations are scattered but the population trend is stable.</li><li>Germany: widespread and common.</li><li>Central Europe: stable.</li><li>United Kingdom: <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus officinalis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">prostratus</span> is showing some evidence of decline in terms of both range and frequency; those populations that remain are small, scattered and single-sexed (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></li></ul>
176377		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">There are currently no known threats to this species.<br/></span>
176379		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>    <p>BGCI (2009) records that its Red List category is NT-A.<br/></p><p>EURISCO reports 307 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 58 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 45 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176379		distribution	eng	Native to southeastern Europe, and possibly native to middle and southwestern Europe, and Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The exact native distribution is uncertain. The occurrence in Turkey might relate to a different species.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176379		habitat	eng	It is found in dry sunny meadows, pastureland.
176379		population	eng	In its range it is common and frequent in dry sunny meadows. Population trend is stable.<br/>In Belarus its distribution is scattered.
176379		threats	eng	Transformation of grasslands might potentially threaten the species but this does not lead to population declines at the moment.
176380		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 15 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hirtum</span> held in European genebanks, all of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 10 originate from within Europe; two from Italy and eight from Spain. All 10 of these wild accessions are stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176380		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hirtum</span> is native to Greece, Italy, France and Spain (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006), as well as to parts of north Africa and temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176380		habitat	eng	This species occurs in scrubs and degraded <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> forests, as well as being found at the edge of fields and streams.
176380		population	eng	<p>According to experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop convened in Portugal, April 2010, it is widespread in Spain and the subpopulation is stable, but is less common in Italy. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176380		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. However, future climate change and the potential for increasing numbers of droughts is a threat to this species.
176381		conservation	eng	In Germany, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cicer</span> is categorized as Endangered (Category 3) in the German Red List ((Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010) but the species is not protected. <br/> <br/>Populations of this species should be monitored at national level throughout its range as a  decreasing trend has been reported in Germany and parts of central  Europe. <br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 51 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 26 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 18 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germaplsm collections should be made from throughout the ecogeographic range of the species to ensure adequate conservation of genetic diversity<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span>.<br/><br/>In Hungary, this species is not protected   (Király 2007). In France this species is protected in the region of Alsace to the northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span class="Apple-converted-space">
176381		distribution	eng	Native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, east Turkey, the Caucasus and Siberia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). This species is widespread in Europe but does not occur in the north. In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cicer</span> is relatively abundant in the southern part of the country and scattered in the west Carpathians (Chrtková 1988). Native for Germany, especially in the middle and southern part, not at the northern coast. In Hungary it is frequently found in the Hungarian Mountains and Transdanubia, and also occurs on the Great Hungarian Plain   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). In France it occurs in the majority of departments to the east of the country as well as the three departments of Gironde, Lot and   Pyrénées Orientales to the southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">According to Podlech (1999), this taxon is probably cultivated and there is no information on whether it has been naturalized.</span>
176381		habitat	eng	In Germany it is found in open forests in dry and medium-dry conditions, on grassland with trees, presumably on calcareous soils. It also occurs in ruderal habitats and in lower mountain and hill regions (Ahlmer 2010, Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).<br/><br/>In Hungary it grows in dry oak woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Quercetum roboris, Convallario-Quercetum roboris</span>), woodland margins, chestnut forests,&#160; loess steppe grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salvio </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">nutanti nemorosae</span>)<span style="font-style: italic;">-Festucetum rupicolae</span>), steppe woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanulo-Stipetum tirsae</span>) and meadows in (<span style="font-style: italic;">Arrhenatheretum elatioris</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;">Origanetalia</span> associations   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992). It is found in calcareous, warm, loose or adherent, variable wet, clay-, loam-,  detritus-, loeass-, and sandy soils, rich in alkaline minerals   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176381		population	eng	In central Europe and Germany, the population is decreasing. In Hungary this species is rare on the Great Hungarian Plain   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176381		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176382		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010), but it is likely to be passively conserved in existing protected areas.
176382		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. procumbens </span>is widely distributed,<span style="background-color: white;"> being found in almost all of Europe </span>and most of the temperate regions throughout Asia (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). However, it appears to  only be found in the western part of Ukraine near <span style="background-color: white;">Galicia </span>at the Carpathian mountains. <br/><sup></sup>
176382		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. procumbens </span>generally favours dry, boreal and steppe conditions, and grows primarily on calcareous rocks (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is found on meadows and forest clearings, and near villages.
176382		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago procumbens </span>is a rare  medic species, although population sizes are moderate and it  has a fairly narrow range  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010).
176382		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is found in a range of habitats which do not appear  to be threatened but cutting of the forests in this area is a potential threat  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176383		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Eruca </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>EURISCO reports 166 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. vesicaria</span> held in European genebanks, 133 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 101 originate from within Europe. These accessions originate from Spain (95), Croatia (one), Cyprus (one), Greece (three) and Italy (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176383		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. vesicaria</span> is native to central, southeastern and southwestern parts of Europe, as well as to tropical and temperate Asia and north Africa (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). However Rich (1991) notes that the native range of this species is not clear due to widespread cultivation.<br/><br/>In France this species occurs in the departments of   Côtes d'Armor,   Indre-et-Loire,    Charente-Maritime and Gironde to the west, Val-de-Marne in Région  Parisienne, Ain to the east,   Bouches-du-Rhône and    Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in the southeast and Corsica (Association Tela  Botanica 2000–2010).
176383		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. vesicaria</span> is widespread in cultivated and waste<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>land in Europe (Polunin 1969, Davies and Gibbons 1993), favouring disturbed land and coastal open habitats across the Mediterranean region (Fletcher 2007, Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009).&#160; <br/><br/>Across Europe this species is found in coastal, plateau, and montane areas up to 2,600 m. It can be found on beaches, steppes, dry pastures and grasslands, dry stream beds, rubble, as well as occurring as a weedy  species in roadsides and waste places, fields, crops and olive  groves (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>E. vesicaria</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sativa</span> is found in Britain and Ireland in corn fields, wastelands and chicken runs, as it is likely dispersed through foreign grain and bird seed, in addition to escapes from cultivation (Rich 1991).
176383		population	eng	This species is thought to be widespread throughout southern Europe and common where it occurs. In Romania it is known to be scattered in the southern part of the country.
176383		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176385		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is not protected (Király 2007)  .<br/><br/>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <em>L. cartilagineum&#160;</em><em></em>held in European genebanks; however, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176385		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cartilagineum</span> is native to central and eastern Europe, as well as to the Russian Federation, Turkey and the Middle East (Marhold 2011). Although it is recorded by Marhold (2011) as native to Germany, according to R. Vögel (pers. comm. 2010), the taxon does not occur there.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>In Hungary, it occurs on the Great Hungarian Plain (Little Alföld region, Danube-Tisza köze region, Danube region, Tiszántúl region: rare)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176385		habitat	eng	This species grows in saline areas (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964). In Hungary, it grows in Solontsak meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinellion peisonis</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia </span>salt steppes in calcareous, salt-enriched soils, loose, wet salt, and sandy soils (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176385		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176385		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176386		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. horridus </span>occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.      <p>EURISCO reports one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. horridus</span> held in European genebanks, which is not of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>storage is a priority for this species.</p>
176386		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. horridus</span> is native to  parts of southeast and southwest Europe, as well as north Africa and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176386		habitat	eng	It is found in sandy soils and on rocks in coastal areas and can also be found on the edges of deserts (Fragman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It has been found to tolerate high levels of metal contamination in soils (Oyarzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176386		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. horridus</span> is common in eastern Spain and Cyprus and relatively common in Italy. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176386		threats	eng	Threats to this species include the use of herbicides and other agricultural activities.
176387		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>As it is thought that this species not native to Europe, no conservation actions are in place or needed.
176387		distribution	eng	According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">I. arnoldiana</span> is native to Armenia and Romania. However, according to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species is not included in any published works on the flora of Romania.
176387		habitat	eng	According to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species does not occur in Romania; therefore, the habitat and ecology has not been researched.
176387		population	eng	According to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species does not occur in Romania.
176387		threats	eng	According to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species does not occur  in Romania; therefore, there are no threats to record.
176388		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. lippizensis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.   <br/><br/>Research is needed into the species' distribution and a monitoring programme should be implemented.
176388		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to south–central and southeastern parts of Europe—namely Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Turkey-in-Europe (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176388		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet grasslands and pastures. It prefers sub-montane habitats.
176388		population	eng	It is rare in Romania and Greece, but relatively common in Bulgaria. The overall population trend is stable.
176388		threats	eng	Overgrazing might impact this species.
176389		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. lusitanica</span> of wild origin stored in European genebanks; however, these accessions are not of European origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176389		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to Greece (including Crete and the East Aegean Islands), as well as to north Africa and temperate Asia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176389		habitat	eng	In Crete (north Karpathos) this species is cultivated and found in fallow terraces at around 300 m (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176389		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176389		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176390		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. incarnatum&#160;</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is      specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on    Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the    forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation    attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest    collections being held by the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Trifolium </span>Genetic Resource  Centre in Perth, Australia (81 accessions), and the National Plant  Germplasm System in Washington, USA (34 accessions) N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific    Research Institute of     Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Aegean       Agricultural Research Institiute  (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA    (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) gene        banks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 126 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 11 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, nine originate from within Europe. These nine wild accessions originate from Bulgaria (one), Italy (two), Macedonia FYR (two), Spain (3) and Ukraine (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p><span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>     the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many  existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its   conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be   subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as  climate  change.
176390		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. incarnatum</span> is native to much of southern Europe, as well as the UK and Turkey. It is naturalized and widely cultivated in many temperate regions (USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread, occurring in the majority of departments; however, it is not recorded in 12 departments in the northern half of the country or the department of Lot in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>In the UK <em>Trifolium incarnatum</em> ssp.<em> molinerii</em> is recorded as native in only three localities on the Lizard peninsula in west Cornwall and Jersey (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is also present in six more localities along the south coast of England and one locality in East Anglia but these are all recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In<span style="background-color: white;"> Spain, most of the locations are naturalized; the populations in Huesca are the only ones that are native (Muñoz Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<em></em>
176390		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. incarnatum </span>grows in fields, meadows, pastures and roadsides (Zohary and Heller 1984). It is an annual species, flowering between May and August. It favours sandy and clay soils, and is tolerant of an average annual precipitation of 920 mm, temperatures between 5.9ºC and 21.3ºC, and soil pH ranging from 4.8 to 8.2 (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>  In the UK <em>Trifolium incarnatum</em> ssp.<em> molinerii</em> is a lowland species which is strictly maritime as it only grows within 200 m of the sea (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It prefers open habitats such as cliff-slopes that are severely droughted in the summer (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176390		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is common across Europe from Britain to Turkey. It is found in a    variety of habitats and populations are  stable.
176390		threats	eng	<em></em>There appears to be no major threats and this species  is    found in several habitats which are not threatened  within its  range.
176391		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa&#160; </span>is listed     in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for     Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"></span>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. hispanica</span> held in European genebanks, all of which originate from Spain and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p><p>  </p>
176391		distribution	eng	Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1964) recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">R. hispanica</span> as native to Spain and the Pyrenees. The taxon occurs in France and Spain (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa stylosa</span> (DC.) Allan ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hispanica </span>(Boiss. & Reut.) Kerguélen (syn. R. hispanica) is found in the three southern departments of Pyrénées Orientales, Ariège and Haute-Garonne (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176391		habitat	eng	<p>There is no information available about the habitat of this taxon.</p>
176391		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species as it is considered in Spain to be a synonym of <em>R. pyrenaica </em>and population data for the subpopulation in France (where it is recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. stylosa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hispanica</span>) were not available for this assessment.</p>
176391		threats	eng	<p>There is no information available about the poteential threats to  this species as it is considered in Spain to be a synonym of <em>R. pyrenaica </em>and data for the subpopulation in France (where it is recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. stylosa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hispanica</span>) were not available for this assessment.</p>
176392		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture.<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. verticillatus</span> held in European genebanks, six of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, none of these accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
176392		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. verticillatus</span> is native to eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Romania, Ukraine) as well as parts of temperate Asia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176392		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. verticillatus</span> is found in plains, shrubby areas, forest clearings as well as in rocky places and stony areas.
176392		population	eng	This species is stable throughout its European range. It is known to be widespread in Greece and Bulgaria, but scattered in the southern part of Romania.
176392		threats	eng	Harvesting for food or for ornamental use might negatively impact this species in some parts of its range.
176393		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium ambiguum </span>is  specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant  Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the forage  legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>      seed samples are   available in the Institute of Botany (Yerevan,    Armenia), N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of    Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Syrian National (Douma, Damascus,    Syria), Aegean    Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene     banks.&#160; 115 accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in    Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 63 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only two originate from within Europe. These two accessions originate from Ukraine and are stored in Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland (one) and Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the   species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing      protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in      these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to  population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176393		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. ambiguum</span> is native to parts  of eastern Europe, western Asia but is primarily distributed in the Caucasus (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Zohary and Hellier 1980).
176393		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. ambiguum</span> grows on steep scree slopes, forest borders, eroded banks, stream sides and fields (Zohary and Heller 1984).&#160; It is a perennial legume, flowering between June and August, and is commonly found on non calcareous clays and clay loams. It is tolerant to average annual rainfall of 930 mm, mean temperatures between 8.4ºC and 12.5ºC, and soil pH between 4.5 and 7.3 (Duke 1981).
176393		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered to be sporadic but stable in eastern Europe and common and widespread in the Caucasus.
176393		threats	eng	<em>Trifolium ambiguum </em>is a relatively restricted species in eastern Europe  that is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its  range.
176394		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. cardamines</span> occurs in protected areas and SCIs. Conservation and maintenance of the salt marsh habitats in which it occurs will be critical for its continued survival.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cardamines</span> held which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176394		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. cardamines</span> is native to south and central Spain (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Spanish experts present at a European CWR Red List workshop held in April 2010, its presence in southern Spain is uncertain.
176394		habitat	eng	It grows in gypsum soils and inland salt marshes.
176394		population	eng	It is locally common in suitable habitat.
176394		threats	eng	There are currently no known major threats to this species.
176395		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium alpestre </span>is specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the forage legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>     seed samples are   available in the Institute of Botany (Yerevan,   Armenia), N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of   Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Syrian National (Douma, Damascus,   Syria), Aegean    Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey),   ICARDA (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene    banks.&#160; 60 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. alpestre</span>  are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in   Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 82 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 55 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 40 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>   the   species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing     protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in     these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176395		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. alpestre</span> is native to most  of central, eastern and southern Europe, as well as parts of western Asia (Zohary and Hellier 1980). In France it is relatively widespread in the eastern half of the country, also recorded in the southwestern departments of   Hautes-Pyrénées and   Pyrénées-Atlantiques (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176395		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. alpestre </span>is a perennial legume, and grows in pastures, meadows and forest clearings, flowering between June and August (Zohary and Heller 1984).
176395		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered to be common and widespread throughout eastern and southern Europe.
176395		threats	eng	<p><em></em>There appears to be no major threats. It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its range.<br/></p>  However, local assessments by Colling (2005) and Gärdenfors (2005) have both found <span style="font-style: italic;">T. alpestre</span> to be threatened, further Gärdenfors (2005) found the species to be Endangered, whereas Colling classified it as Critically Endangered (BGCI 2009). Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (P. Wind&#160; pers. comm. 2010).
176396		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex and this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is classified as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).<span style="background-color: white;"> <br/><br/></span>Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. erucoides</span> occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 38 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. erucoides</span> held in European genebanks, 30 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 13 originate from within Europe; three from Italy and 10 from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176396		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. erucoides</span> is native to southern Europe as well as to parts of temperate Asia and north Africa, and has become naturalised in other parts of Europe (Croatia, Hungary, Norway and Slovenia) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern departments of France and Corsica. Also occurs in the departments of Manche, Morbihan,   Loire-Atlantique,   Deux-Sèvres,   Charente-Maritime, Charente and Gironde to the west, in the departments of Somme and Val-de-Marne to the north and in the departments of   Côte d'Or and Haut-Rhin to the east (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
176396		habitat	eng	This annual species is found in non-arid to semi-arid plains, plateau and hill habitats (up to 2,900 m). It can be found in dry pastures,  dry stream beds and as a weedy species in roadsides and waste places, rough and cultivated land in Europe (Polunin 1969, Davies and Gibbons 1993, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176396		population	eng	This species is known to be widespread in Greece and common in Italy and Spain. However,  according to experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop, it is rare in Portugal.
176396		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. erucoides</span> is threatened by the use of herbicides in some areas. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
176397		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis</span> is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Albania (Vangjeli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995) and as Critically Endangered in one region in Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<br/><br/>A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species is required.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 13 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. pubescens</span> held in European genebanks, 11 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, six originate from Italy and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the rest of the European range of this species is needed.
176397		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. pubescens</span> is native to Albania, Italy and France in Europe and parts of northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is confined to the departments of Aude to the south and Alpes-Maritimes to the southeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
176397		habitat	eng	It is found in found in non-arid to semi-arid coastal, plateau, hill and montane habitats, often on chalky soil (up to 2,300 m). It can be found in rocky areas, on shaded grassy slopes, in gullies, rubble, scrub, open woodlands and brush, dry pastures, fields and meadows (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176397		population	eng	This species is common in Sicily. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176397		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. pubescens</span> is threatened by the use of herbicides where it is found in arable land. However this does not pose a major threat to this species at present.
176398		conservation	eng	<em>F. heterophylla</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and is described as Critically Endangered (CR) in Luxembourg (Colling 2005). <br/><br/>As it is a widespread species, some subpopulations occur naturally in protected areas, such as in the Czech Republic, Portugal and Greece. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 32 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. heterophylla</span> held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, eight originate from within Europe; three from Hungary, two from Germany, one from Czech Republic, one from Italy and one from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176398		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F. heterophylla</span> is native to central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as Turkey and the Caucasus; and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>found throughout the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992).</li><li>Greece: occurs in the northern part only and the island of Kerkira, rather rare.</li><li>Czech Republic: Moravia, extending to Pannonia (Hungary).</li><li>Bulgaria: known to occur in the south, but probably present in the rest of the country.</li><li>Hungary: frequent but more sporadic near the border with Slovakia.</li><li>UK: this species is introduced.</li><li>Germany: common, but scattered in north.</li><li>Portugal: found in Serra da Estrela.</li><li>France: widespread, occurs in all departments with the exceptions of   Finistère, Morbihan and   Ille-et-Vilaine to the west, Lot to the south and the departments of Paris and   Seine-Saint-Denis in the Région Parisienne (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>
176398		habitat	eng	This perennial species is found in open thermophilous forest, oak forest, shrub and pasture, particularly on sandy, or dry to medium dry soils.
176398		population	eng	This species is thought to be stable in Europe.
176398		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. However in Greece overgrazing by small livestock holders may pose a threat to the species locally.
176399		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>As <span style="font-style: italic;">I. maeotica</span> is introduced in Europe, no conservation actions are known to be in place and conservation action is not a priority.
176399		distribution	eng	According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">I. maeotica</span> is native to Slovakia. However, according to Goliašová <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) this record is an error. The species is introduced in Europe.<span id="result_box" class="short_text">
176399		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown and not researched as it is introduced to Europe.
176399		population	eng	Subpopulations of this species in Europe are introduced.
176399		threats	eng	As this species is introduced to Europe, there are no threats to record.
176400		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>    <p>EURISCO reports 29 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. tenuifolia</span> held in European genebanks, 23 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 12 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176400		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. tenuifolia</span> is native to most of central and southern Europe and temperate Asia. It has become naturalised in northern Europe, north Africa, Australasia and east Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176400		habitat	eng	This perennial species is found in coastal, plains and  montane habitats (up to 1,100 m), such as beaches, dunes, chalk hills,  rocky and chalky slopes and crevices in rocks. It can also  occur as a weedy species in roadsides and waste places, arable land and  crevices in walls. <br/><br/>This species can be found on sandy and chalky soils (Polunin 1969<span style="background-color: white;">, Warwick </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;">  2009). In the UK it occurs in docks and wastelands and stone walls in Britain (Rich 1991).</span>
176400		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. tenuifolia</span> is mostly common throughout Europe where it is found. For example this species is common in west and southwestern Slovakia, but scattered or rare in other areas, with a stable population trend through the country (Eliáš Sen. and Eliáš Jr. 2002). <br/><br/>In Spain it is known to be widespread but infrequent, and in the Czech Republic it has a scattered distribution. It is widespread in France, occurring in all departments with the exceptions of  Charente, Haute-Vienne, Creuse and Indre in central/western France,    Haute-Saône and   Territoire de Belfort in the northeast and Aveyron and    Ariège to the south (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
176400		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176401		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. rotundifolius</span> is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> genebank collections, with only two accessions being held by&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>Preserved in a few <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Ukrainian genebanks as well as in botanical gardens.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 29 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 13 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  There is no active management of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. rotundifolius </span>in <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>  protected areas, however, it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176401		distribution	eng	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. rotundifolius</span> is restricted to certain parts of western Asia and eastern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Europe, the species is confined to the mountains of south Crimea. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span></span></span>
176401		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mountain territories in broadleaved forests and between shrubs.
176401		population	eng	The populations are stable though scattered. It is only found in patches with a few individuals.
176401		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs is under tourism development and leads to habitat degradation of the mountains.
176402		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>It occurs in several protected areas and SCIs.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 33 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. harra</span> held in European genebanks, 30 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 14 originate from within Europe—two from Italy and 12 from Spain. All 14 of these accessions are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage would be beneficial.
176402		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. harra</span> is native to Sicily and southeastern Spain, as well as to parts of temperate and tropical Asia and Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176402		habitat	eng	This species is found in desert to semi-arid habitats, on hills, plateaus, coastal rocks and in montane habitats (up to 2,200 m). It can also be found on  rocks and cliffs, in damp crevices, rubble, dry stream beds and desert  wastelands, often on chalky soils and lava rock (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009a). It is also found in gypsum soil.
176402		population	eng	<p>There is no detailed information available about the population size or trend of this species. However, it is thought to be relatively widespread where found.<br/></p>
176402		threats	eng	It is threatened by fires. The extraction of gypsum is also a potential threat.
176403		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. multiflorum</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 1,313 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. multiflorum</span> held in European genebanks, 238 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 215 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Research is needed on the population size and trend, potential threats and <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species throughout its European range.
176403		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lolium multiflorum </span>is thought to be native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia and the Indian Subcontinent; however, the species is widely naturalized in temperate regions, as well as the Azores, and its exact native range is obscure (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176403		habitat	eng	It is found in agricultural land and grassland in Greece. Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species throughout the rest of its European range.
176403		population	eng	In Greece, this species is stable and common where it occurs. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its European range.
176403		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
176405		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa&#160; </span>is listed     in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for     Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"></span>  </p><p>In Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">R. brachycarpa</span> occurs in the Danube Biosphere Reserve, Dniprovsko-Orilskij, Kanivskij and Luganskij Strilcivskij Steppe, and Staniczno-Luganskij departments reserves.</p><p>Complementary <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation of the more isolated subpopulations in north Russia and Crimea is recommended.</p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. brachycarpa</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
176405		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. brachycarpa </span>is native to Ukraine (including Crimea), Moldova and the Russian Federation (Marhold 2011), including western Siberia and the Caucasus (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). In European Russia, this species is found in the northern districts of Karelia and Murmansk, and in the eastern part of Central Russia, namely the lower Don and lower Wolga river basins. It is present in the central and eastern &#160;part of Ukraine and in Crimea (Dorofeyev 2002). This species is native in all natural zones of Ukraine; from the zone of coniferous and deciduous forest in the north, to lesosteppe (forest steppe zone), to the steppe zone, including the lowland part of Crimea where it grows in Kerczenskij Peninsula. The Ukrainian localities are near the western limit of its range.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176405		habitat	eng	It is found on flood plains, inundated parts of rivers and lake shores. It also sometimes occurs along roadsides as a weed (Dorofeyev 2002). It is a component of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmiti</span>–<span style="font-style: italic;">Magnocaricetea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidentetea</span>–<span style="font-style: italic;">ripartiti</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Galio</span>–<span style="font-style: italic;">Urticeta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Puccinellictea </span>communities (Diduch 2007).
176405		population	eng	The species' range in European Russia is disjunct with a small area of occurrence in the North and a larger area in Central Russia. In Ukraine, isolated subpopulations are more frequent in the Siverskij Donez river basin in Charkivska and Luganska regions and the lower part of the Dnieper basin in Chersonska and Mykolajivska regions. In Polyska lowland and in Crimea, this species is very rare. In Crimea, there are very few subpopulations—here, it is only found in the lower part of Bijuk-Karusn River in the central area of Kerczenskij Peninsula (Rubzov 1972).
176405		threats	eng	In Ukraine, the main threat is drainage.
176406		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur within protected areas; however, these subpopulations are threatened by fires and overgrazing. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. plocamoides</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>There is a need for population genetic and reproductive biology studies and a study on the effects of fire on the population.
176406		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus plocamoides</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands of Tenerife, Gran Canaria and La Gomera. In Tenerife this species is mostly found in the south and west of the island. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km².
176406		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus plocamoides</span> can be found in dry pine woodland and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span>forest. The latter forest habitats are now quite rare on the islands.
176406		population	eng	The subpopulations are scattered and the plants are isolated.
176406		threats	eng	Forest fires (both natural and deliberate) are a major threat to this species, as well as overgrazing at some localities.
176407		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium hybridum </span>is     specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on   Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the   forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation   attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>         seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest   collections being held by the N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific   Research Institute of     Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Aegean      Agricultural Research Institiute  (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA   (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) gene       banks. 229 accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station    in    Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program    2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 613 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 135 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 111 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176407		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. hybridum </span>is native to much of central, southern, and eastern Europe, and is also found in parts of north Africa, western Asia and the Caucasus (Zohary and Hellier 1980). It is widely naturalised in temperate regions (USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France&#160; it is widespread, recorded in the majority of departments with the exceptions of Aude to the south,   Maine-et-Loire in the west and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176407		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. hybridum </span>is found in damp fields, meadows, pastures, roadsides and streams (Zohary and Heller 1984). It is a perennial legume, flowering between May and September. It favours cool, moist climates, and heavy silt, clay, and loamy soils. It can tolerate an average annual precipitation of 820 mm, temperatures between 4.9ºC and 19.7ºC, and soil pH between 4.8 and 7.5 (Duke 1981).
176407		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered    common across Europe from Spain to the Caucasus. It is found in a   variety of habitats and populations are  stable.
176407		threats	eng	<em></em>There appears to be no major threats and this species is found in several habitats which are not threatened  within its  range.
176408		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenoreana   </span>has few accessions available in gene banks.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, this accession is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176408		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenoreana </span>has a fairly narrow distribution, being found only in France, Italy, and the countries of the Former Yugoslavia (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is confined to the department of Var in the southeast (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176408		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenoreana</span> grows on dry, rocky hill slopes and sand dunes (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176408		population	eng	It is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176408		threats	eng	The International Legume Database and Information Service (2010) states that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tenoreana</span> is not threatened.
176409		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Raphanus </span>is   listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>EURISCO reports 224 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. raphanistrum</span> held in European genebanks, 208 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 175 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176409		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. raphanistrum</span> is native to much of Europe, as well as western Asia and the Caucasus, and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In the UK and Ireland<em> R. raphanistrum</em> ssp. <em>maritimus</em> is a strictly coastal species occurring along the south coast of England, along the Welsh coastline, the majority of Ireland’s coastline and along the southwestern coastline of Scotland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In addition, this subspecies has been recorded in 20 localities along the eastern coast of England and Scotland particularly occurring in East Anglia (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In contrast, <em>R. raphanistrum </em>ssp. <em>raphanistrum </em>is widespread throughout England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176409		habitat	eng	This species is found  in coastal, plains, hills, plateaus and montane habitats (up to 2,800 m) across Europe. It can be found on shingle, cliffs and dunes near the coast and grasslands and meadow  areas, as well as occurring as a weedy species in roadsides, wasteland and arable land (Polunin 1969, Rich 1991, Fletcher 2007). It can be found in sandy, chalky, saline, or rich nitrous  soil (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176409		population	eng	This species is widespread across its native range and is noted as common where it occurs in Romania, Poland and Slovakia.  <span style="font-style: italic;">R. raphanistrum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">maritimus</span> is common along the coast of northwest Europe (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004). The dynamic nature of this species can be seen in the fluctuations in numbers observed in some countries. In the UK, Rich (1991) notes that it has declined in number as it is now controlled by herbicides, although according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), <em>R. raphanistrum</em> ssp. <em>maritimus</em> has become more frequent over the last 100 years.
176409		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. However, where it occurs as a weedy species in arable land, the use of herbicides may lead to a decline in number (Rich 1991).
176410		conservation	eng	Taxonomic issues with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. polymorpha</span> need to be solved for Spain and Portugal.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 10 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, three originate from France and are stored in Réseau Plantes fourragères et à gazon, France (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176410		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. aculeata</span> is distributed throughout southern Europe, parts of western Asia and north Africa <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong> </strong>Found in the Middle East<strong>.<br/><br/></strong>In Portugal and Spain&#160; (as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. polymorpha</span>) it is widespread. In Italy it occurs in the southwest.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/>In France the taxon (recognised here as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago doliata</span>) is confined to Corsica and the south and southeastern departments of   Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176410		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. aculeata</span> grows on sandy and chalky soils in fields or in field margins (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2009).<br/><br/>It is found in nitrophilous grasslands, in all types of substrates.
176410		population	eng	This is a common species and its population appears to be stable.
176410		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
176411		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus</span> held in European genebanks, both of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Both of these accessions are reported to originate from Spain and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in Madeira and Desertas and in the Canary Islands.
176411		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus</span> is native to the Canary Islands and Madeira (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">umbellatus </span>is found in the Canary Islands of Tenerife, Gran Canaria, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. Bramwell and Bramwell (2001) recorded it from the following localities:<br/><ul><li>Tenerife: Sierra Anaga, Orotava valley, Güimar and Bandas del Sur.</li><li>Gran Canaria: Caldera de Bandama, Tarifa, Telde, Guia, Agaete.</li><li>La Palma: Los Tilos Barranco de las Angustias and La Galga.</li><li>La Gomera: the north coast, Agulo and Roque Cano de Vallehermoso.</li><li>El Hierro: Cuesta de Sabinosa.</li></ul>In Madeira <span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lowei</span> is found on the northeast coast<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Press and Short 1994) and in the Desertas Islands (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><a name="OLE_LINK16">The area of occupancy (AOO) of </a><a name="OLE_LINK16"><span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus umbellatus</span> </a><a name="OLE_LINK16">is probably less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup></a><a name="OLE_LINK16">.</a>
176411		habitat	eng	In the Canary Islands,<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. umbellatus</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> umbellatus</span> is found on cliffs and rocks in shrub habitats and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>and dry Laurisilva forest zones (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001).&#160; In Madeira, in addition to natural habitats, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lowei</span> is also cultivated in gardens (Press and Short 1994).
176411		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">umbellatus</span> is locally very common on Tenerife and common in Gran Canaria (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001). In Madeira, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. umbellatus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lowei</span> is very rare (Press and Short 1994). It is considered that overall the species is increasing.
176411		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
176412		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. grandiflora</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable and as Endangered in the regional Red List of Stavropolski, Russian Federation  (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005). It occurs in the Kazantip reserve in the Crimean Peninsula. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. grandiflora</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176412		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. grandiflora</span> is native to Ukraine and the European part of the Russian Federation. In Ukraine, it occurs in the Crimean Peninsula, mainly in Kerczenskij Peninsula. In the Russian Federation, it is found in the Taman Peninsula, the Kuban River estuary (Krasnodar), and Dagestan, but has now also spread south into Turkey and Iran (Prina 2009).
176412		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal areas, plains and foothills, in river valleys and grassy steppe (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) in communities of class <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Brometea</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176412		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations of this species are spatially small and comprise few individuals. </p>
176412		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by agricultural expansion in steppe ecosystems, as well as wild harvesting.</p>
176413		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. gomerae</span> was assessed as Vulnerable (VU, D2) in the 2008 Red List of the Vascular Flora of Spain (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>It occurs within the border of the Garajonay National Park and probably occurs within other protected areas. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions held in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). It is probably also cultivated in the botanic garden on Gran Canaria (A. Santos Guerra pers. comm. 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.    <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176413		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. gomerae</span> is endemic to La Gomera in the Canary Islands where it is mainly found in the central, east and south of the island.
176413		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. gomerae</span> is a perennial species found in open areas on the borders of laurisilva forest, and at lower elevations in open, steep, rocky areas.
176413		population	eng	It is scattered in several localities, each with few individuals. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
176413		threats	eng	Some localities are affected by grazing. It may also be affected by small, local landslides.
176414		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. medicaginoides </span>has five accessions held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176414		distribution	eng	In Europe <span style="font-style: italic;">M. medicaginoides</span> is native only to a few countries in the southeast, but it is also found widely in parts of western and central Asia, the Caucasus and Russia (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176414		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. medicaginoides</span> grows on various types of soil in a variety of habitats, including fallow and cultivated fields, pastures, steppe, stony slopes, gravel river terraces, and the ledges of limestone cliffs (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176414		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered        widespread and a common species throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). Its population trend is considered stable.
176414		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is    found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region.
176415		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 26 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. mutabilis</span> held by European genebanks. The majority of these accessions appear to have been collected from Asian parts of Russia, although three were collected in Sweden and three in Finland. Two accessions originated in China. Most of these accessions are maintained by the Nordic Genetic Resource Centre. (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is needed from the full European range of this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. mutabilis </span>is not listed in  the Russian Red Data Book or in the Red List for Norway. In Finland and Sweden it  is classed as Least Concern, except for the most southern part of its distribution range in Finland where it is regionally threatened.
176415		distribution	eng	Native to Finland, Norway, Sweden, and northern, central, eastern and south European Russia (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly  2009). It is also found in the Asian part of Russia and in Mongolia.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Europe it occurs in northern Finland, Sweden and Norway, the Arctic belt of European Russia, the northern belt in Karelia and Murmansk districts, the basins of north Dvina and Petshoralia, as well as in central Russia in the Wolga river basin. It extends from the central Wolga river to the Ural mountains in south-central Russia (Bobrov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1974). In Norway, it is found in the northernmost counties: Nordland, Troms and Finnmark.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
176415		habitat	eng	It grows in broad-leaved forests (in Norway, weedy rich <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>forest), on riverbanks, in meadows, and on south-facing cliffs and screes.
176415		population	eng	This species is common in Norway and has always been infrequent in Finland and Sweden. It is infrequent in Arctic, northern–central and eastern parts of Russia.  There is no evidence of a population decline.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
176415		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">The habitat of this species is not under threat in Finland and there are no recorded threats in Norway or Sweden.<br/></span>
176416		conservation	eng	Only one accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. incisum </span>is held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>at a genebank at the Regional Plant Introduction Station, Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and one at the Greek genebank. This species is annual and relatively easy to cultivate, thus an <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> approach to conserving <span style="font-style: italic;">C. incisum </span>would be recommended (Ahmad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176416		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. incisum</span> is native only to Greece in Europe, but is also distributed across western Asia and the Caucasus (van der Maesen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176416		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. incisum </span>grows on calcareous and igneous soils and rocks, among sub-alpine vegetation and rubble slopes. It is a perennial species, and its flowering time depends on its location, occurring between June and July in Greece (van der Maesen 1972).
176416		population	eng	According to the International Legume Database & Information Service  (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. incisum</span> is rare in the wild. Its population is considered stable.
176416		threats	eng	There is no major threats to this species. Herbicides could become a threat if their use become more widespread.
176417		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. coronata </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 17 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, four originate from within Europe: two of which originate from France (one stored in Genetic Resources Unit, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, UK and one in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain), one from Greece (stored in Greek Genebank, Agricultural Research Center of Macedonia and Thrace, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece) and one from Italy (also stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176417		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. coronata</span> is native to southern Europe, northern Africa, western Asia and parts of central Asia (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has been naturalised in Portugal (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In <strong></strong>Spain in the east and south it is native as it is in <strong style="font-weight: normal;">France. In France it is confined to eight departments in the south</strong>east:   Pyrénées Orientales,   Hérault, Gard,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Vaucluse, Hautes-Alpes,   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Var (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176417		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. coronata </span>is generally found on calcareous soils in a wide range of habitats. It commonly grows on   stony plains, hillsides, limestone, maquis, dry meadows, fallow fields, pastures, steppe, dunes and garrigue (evergreen shrubland hard leaves habitat) (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain it is found in grasslands, sandy soils and limestone.
176417		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and its population levels are considered stable (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176417		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in some regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), however it is common in diverse habitats so overall is not considered seriously threatened.
176418		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 75 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. caninus</span> held in European genebanks, 67 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 47 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). This species is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176418		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. caninus</span> is native to many parts of northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176418		habitat	eng	This species is found along waterways and forests in Europe, preferring shady and cold conditions. It occurs in lowland areas, mountains and small valleys, and can also be found on roadside margins on free-draining soils. In the UK it is mostly found on partially shaded woodland areas, however it can also be  found on river banks and roadside margins where it thrives on  free draining, base-rich, soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">E. caninus</span> is intolerant to grazing and sensitive to nitrogen.
176418		population	eng	This species is stable, and can be very common in forests and along water courses in Europe. For example, Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) note that the distribution of this species is stable in the UK.
176418		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176419		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rigidula </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago rigidula</span> is included in the Red list as Critically Endangered (CR) (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 97 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 52 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 41 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176419		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rigidula</span> is native to much of southern and eastern Europe, as well as areas in the Caucasus, central Asia and northern Africa. It is naturalised in several regions in central Europe   (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Slovakia it only reliably occurs in southwestern Slovakia on southern slopes of the Burda Mts. (especially in the Burdov Nature Reserve), but the population trend is stable. In France it is widespread, occuring in the majority of departments in the southern half of the country but largely absent from departments to the far north, northeast and northwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176419		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">M. rigidula </span>grows on sandy, clay, volcanic and calcareous soils in low mid-mountain zones, fields, rocky areas, woodlands, scrub, pasture, grassland, and steppe conditions (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). </p>
176419		population	eng	The exact population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago rigidula</span> is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are stable.
176419		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. However in Slovakia it is potentially endangered by afforestation (Maglocký and Svobodová 1999).
176420		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">EURISCO reports ten germplasm accessions held in the genebank of the Nordic Genetic Resource Centre, Sweden, all of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. Of these, seven accessions were collected from within Europe (Iceland: 3, Norway: 3, Sweden: 1) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required from the full ecogeographic range of populations of the four subspecies native to Europe.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. kronokensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scandicus</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. alaskanus</span> spp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scandicus</span>) <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">is classified as Near Threatened with local extinctions (<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). <br/><br/>This species is not protected <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> in Iceland, Sweden or Finland. Population monitoring is recommended.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176420		distribution	eng	According to Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009), this species is native to Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and North European Russia. It also occurs in middle Asia (Jungarsky Alatau), Jungaria and Mongolia (Tzvelev 1976).<br/><br/>In Finland, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. kronokensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scandicus </span>(syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. alaskanus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scandicus</span>) occurs in the north of the country. In Norway, ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scandicus </span>is found in mountain/highland areas in the north and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">subalpinus </span>is found in mountain/highland areas in the south. Both subspecies also occur in Sweden—the distribution of each is not well known but the species is relatively common overall. In Iceland, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. kronokensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">borealis </span>(syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. alaskanus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">borealis</span>) occurs in the eastern part of Húnavatnssýsla and the inner part of Skagafjarðarsýsla in north Iceland, as well as in Eyjafjarðarsýsla. In North European Russia, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. kronokensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">subalpinus </span>(syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. alaskanus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">subalpinus</span>) occurs in Bolshaja Zemlja, Polar Ural, Kolsky Peninsula—Cape Orlov, Karelia—lake Segozero, Usa River Basin, and in the Arctic part of west Siberia and in Altai, east Siberia and in the far east (Tzvelev 1976).
176420		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species may be found at high altitudes along rocky river shores and is known to favour limey soils. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Norway, it is found in dry areas above the tree line. However, in Iceland, </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">ssp. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">borealis </span><span style="background-color: white;"> grows mainly in the lowlands and has not been recorded above 400 m. Here, it grows in relatively dry, infertile, often gravelly or rocky soil, frequently on hillsides, on edges of river gorges, or in short grown, gravelly flatland. </span><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176420		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">In Iceland, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">borealis&#160;</span>is common in the eastern part of Húnavatnssýsla and  the inner part of Skagafjarðarsýsla, but rare in  Eyjafjarðarsýsla. The population in Iceland appears to be stable. In Finland, the populations are small and have a restricted distribution. In Norway, this species is sparsely distributed, although <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scandicus </span>is more common than <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">subalpinus</span>. In Sweden, it has a naturally (partly) fragmented distribution and <span style="background-color: white;">most populations are small, but no decline is reported.<br/></span>
176420		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There are no major threats to this species in Iceland and threats are not reported for the populations in Finland, Norway or Sweden.</span>
176421		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the nation threat/conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. perfoliatum</span> is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: evaluated as Vulnerable (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).</li><li>Cyprus: evaluated as Data Deficient (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</li><li>Hungary:&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>not protected   (Király 2007).</li><li>Switzerland: Endangered (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)</li></ul><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. perfoliatum </span>held in European genebanks, six of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe (Spain) and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176421		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. perfoliatum</span> is native to eastern and southeastern Europe, the Russian Federation, Caucasus and the Middle East (Marhold 2011), as well as to temperate and tropical Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: it is concentrated in the west and southwest; some occurrences are only temporary (Kmeťová 2002).&#160;</li><li>Cyprus: occurs in the Troodos area (Tsintides<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al,</span> 2007).</li><li>Hungary: found in the northeast (but absent in Sátor-mountain, Börzsöny-mountain, Gerecse mountain), Transdanubia (Sopron, Szombathely, Baranya, Tolna, Siofók) and on the Great Hungarian Plain (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li></ul>  <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
176421		habitat	eng	In the Mediterranean this annual species occurs in disturbed and cultivated land (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004). In Cyprus, it grows in cultivated and waste land and on roadsides from 500 to1400 m (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Hungary, it grows in halophytic vegetation in salt meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinellietum limosae</span>) and prefers calcareous, salt tolerant, nitrogen enriched soils (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176421		population	eng	The species is frequent to sporadic in Hungary and the subpopulation in Slovakia is stable. It is considered to be a rare species in Cyprus (Meikle 1977, Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176421		threats	eng	It nationally threatened in some countries but further research is needed to gather information about the threats that are affecting this species.  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176422		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ramburei </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>As this taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>, any information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">ramburei </span>related to its conservation status that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>.
176422		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ramburei </span>was recorded by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) as native to Spain.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>
176422		habitat	eng	<p>This taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>;  therefore, no habitat information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ramburei </span>is  recorded in this assessment. Any such information related to this   taxon that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the   assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>.</p>
176422		population	eng	<p>This taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>;  therefore, no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ramburei </span>is recorded in this assessment. Any such information related to this  taxon that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the  assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>.</p>
176422		threats	eng	<p>This taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>;  therefore, no threat information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ramburei </span>is   recorded in this assessment. Any such information related to this    taxon that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the    assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium</span>.</p>
176423		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium </span><span style="font-style: italic;">angustifolium </span>is   specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>       seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest collections being held by the N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of     Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Aegean    Agricultural Research Institiute  (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) gene     banks. 43 accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station  in    Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program  2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 122 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 60 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 41 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the    species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing       protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in       these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to   population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
176423		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. angustifolium</span> is native to many regions in central, eastern and southern Europe, as well as western Asia, the Caucasus, parts of north Africa, the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands. It has been naturalised in the Azores (Zohary and Hellier 1980, USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is relatively widespread in the southeastern, southern, southwestern and western departments. Also occurs in the northern departments of Somme, Oise and Aisne (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176423		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. angustifolium </span>grows in fallow fields, steppes, open plant communities and meadows. It is an annual legume, flowering between March and April (Zohary and Heller 1984).
176423		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered common across Europe from the Canary Islands to Iran. It is found in a variety of habitats and populations are stable.
176423		threats	eng	<em>Trifolium angustifolium </em>is a common species in Europe,  that is found in several habitats which are not threatened  within its  range.
176424		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. fallax</span> was listed as Endangered (EN) B2ab(iii,v) in the Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and in the Lista Roja 2008 de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Most subpopulations are found within protected areas; however, continued monitoring and management is needed at these sites.<br/><br/>Germplasm from most subpopulations is conserved at the genebank of the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
176424		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fallax</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands of La Gomera and Tenerife. It is found in the well-preserved laurisilva forests of Anaga (Tenerife) and Garajonay National Park (La Gomera). It is restricted to a total area of a little more than 10 km<sup>2 </sup>(Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
176424		habitat	eng	In Tenerife this species is found in well-preserved laurisilva forests in wet and shady areas, between 600 and 1,200 m. On La Gomera the species can be found in forests that have been somewhat degraded. Occasionally, it can be found in more open areas on the borders of forest roads. <br/><br/>It is a perennial hermaphrodite which is insect-pollinated and flowers mostly in the summer (Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
176424		population	eng	Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) reported that of 78 1x1 km grid squares visited, the species was found in 14. Ten known localities were confirmed, three new localities were found and six previously known localities were not found. The authors provide details of the species at four localities on La Gomera and for Anaga on Tenerife: at Anaga, 1,373 individuals were found at five localities and on La Gomera, 91 individuals were found at five localities. They reported that individuals found were mainly mature.
176424		threats	eng	The species is threatened by grazing and sometimes by human disturbance  from visitors to the sites. It could also be affected by small, local   landslides and competition from invasive species. Mesa Coello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004)  report that the main threat on La Gomera is deforestation in the area  close to Montaña del Cepo. The authors also highlight hybridization with  related species as an additional threat.
176425		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsi</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">anticarium </span>is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the 2008 Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span> which originate from Spain and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be undertaken. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span> is also needed.
176425		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">L. villarsii</span> is native to France and Spain. Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) records the taxon as native to France, Spain and Andorra; however, experts present at a European CWR Red List workshop convened in April 2010 did not record the species as occurring in Andorra but noted that it is present in Piamonte, Italy. <br/><br/>In France it occurs the three southeastern departments of   Drôme,   Hautes-Alpes and   Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176425		habitat	eng	It grows in rocky areas.
176425		population	eng	The subpopulation in Piemonte, Italy is very small and localized and the subpopulation in Spain is believed to be decreasing. There is no information available about the size and trend of the subpopulation in France.
176425		threats	eng	<p>As this species grows at a high altitude, it could be particularly affected by climate change.<br/></p>
176426		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 26 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. campestre</span> held in European genebanks, 19 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 16 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176426		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. campestre</span> is native to much of Europe and to parts of temperate Asia; also widely naturalized outside of its native distribution  (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
176426		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. campestre</span> is found on sandy, stony ground as well as roadsides, fields and along paths (Polunin 1969, Rich 1991). In the UK this lowland species prefers sandy or gravelly soils and is often found in open grassland and arable fields as well as on roadsides, walls, in gardens and waste areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176426		population	eng	This species is widespread in Europe and common where it occurs.
176426		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176428		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex. <span class="msoIns"><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. aspera </span>is included in the regional Red Lists of Astrachanskaya,   Volgogradskaya and Rostovskaya (Russian Federation) (Red Data Book   Laboratory 2005). The habitat of this species (calcareous soils) is   under special protection in these regions. It is included in Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. It occurs in the Ukrainian natural steppe reserve (in department Chomutovskij steppe) in Donecka region.  <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aspera</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
176428		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to Ukraine and southwest Russian Federation (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is found in the northeastern and central part of European Russian Federation, in the lower Don and lower <st1:place w:st="on">Volga</st1:place> basins.  There are two disjunct distributions: in the northeast it only occurs in the Dvina-Pechora region, while in Central European Russia, it is found in the regions Volgogradskaya, Voroneshkaya, Kalmykia, Rostovskaya, Saratovskaya and Astrachanskaya.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>In Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aspera</span> grows in the lesostepe (forest steppe) and steppe zone, including on the Crimean peninsula. It is found in Donecka, Dnipropetrovska, Charkivska, Chersonska, Odeska, Vinnicka regions and in Crimea.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176428		habitat	eng	It is confined to calcareous soils on slopes or outcrops of steppe and in river flats (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is a component of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Bromelea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo–Scleronthetea </span>communities. It flowers from May to June.  <p>&#160;</p>
176428		population	eng	This species is rare and the population trend is suspected to be decreasing. As the species is confined to special habitat types, it only occurs in isolated patches and can therefore be classed as severely fragmented.
176428		threats	eng	In the southern part of its range, it is threatened by anthropogenic pressures such as agricultural expansion and urbanization.
176429		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p>EURISCO reports 381 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pratensis</span> held in European genebanks, 178  of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild  accessions, 176 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176429		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pratensis</span> is native to and widely distributed in northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, many parts of temperate Asia; it is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176429		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pratensis</span> is a perennial species, occurring in floodplain meadows, moist pastures,  salt meadows, mire and swamp woodland and is a typical species of wet meadows everywhere in Europe. <br/><br/>In the UK, this species is known to occur in lowlands, including roadsides and woodland boundaries (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It prefers moist, cool, loam-, clay-, loess-, sandy-, poured-, and salt affected soils, high in nutrients, alkaline minerals and humus.
176429		population	eng	This is a generally widespread species throughout Europe. For example, it is known to be widespread in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), Slovakia (Eliáš Jr. unpublished), Ireland and the UK (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
176429		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176430		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. verna </span>held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe—one from Austria and the other from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176430		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. verna</span> is native to parts of central, southwest and southeast Europe (Marhold 2011). This species has been widely introduced to the rest of Europe where it has become naturalized (Rich 1991). The species is widespread in France, occurring in the majority of departments across the country with the exception of Lot-et-Garonne, Lot and Haute-Garonne to the south and 16 departments in the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176430		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species in its native range.</p>
176430		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176430		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176431		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The genus </span><em style="background-color: white;">Crambe</em><span style="background-color: white;"> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">It occurs in many protected areas</span><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites. <span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>EURISCO reports 39 germplasm accessions of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">C. maritima</span><span style="background-color: white;">  held in European genebanks, 23 of which are reported to be of wild or  weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 10 originate from within Europe  (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   </span>    <p>Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:</p>  <ul><li>Romania: classified as Endangered (EN) (Dihoru and Negrean 2009).</li><li>France: protected at a national level (Protection Nationale Française Annexe 1) (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Denmark: classified as Least Concern (LC) (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</li></ul><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><br/>    <p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176431		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. maritima</span> is native to Europe, western Asia and the Causcasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is found in coastal areas of Europe—although with a disjunct distribution—on the coasts of the northern and Baltic seas from France to Finland, extending towards eastern Europe as well as on the coasts of the Black Sea (Prina 2009).<br/><br/>Information on its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:  <br/><ul><li>Estonia: western islands and the coast of mainland.</li><li>Latvia: very rare, only sterile specimens found. </li><li>Lithuania: only found in the past.</li><li>UK: <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>occurring particularly on the southern coast of England, northern coast of Wales and the northwestern coast of England. It can also be found in 10 localities in Scotland but is limited to only three localities in Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).  </li><li>  Ireland: found predominantly along the southern coast but also found in four localities along the east coast and five localities on the west coast (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).  </li><li>France: confined to nine departments in the northwest:   Finistère,   Côtes d'Armor, Morbihan,   Ille-et-Vilaine, Manche, Calvados,   Seine-Maritime, Somme and   Pas-de-Calais (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>
176431		habitat	eng	It is found in maritime habitats in sands, dunes and shingle along the coasts of Europe, on the shores of the Atlantic, Baltic, Black and Azov Seas (Polunin 1969, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It can rarely be found on on sea cliffs, and as it is occasionally cultivated it can be found as a weedy escape (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).   In the UK this lowland species prefers shingle and boulder beaches  and can occasionally be found on dunes and cliffs (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176431		population	eng	This species is described as common on the south coast of Finland and "not rare" in Estonia, but it is reported to be very rare in Romania and Latvia. According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) it has declined in parts of its British range but has increased elsewhere, and has increased in occurrence in Ireland. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176431		threats	eng	The decline in parts of its range in the UK is probably due to sea defence works which have destroyed its shingle habitat; however, it has increased in numbers elsewhere in the UK. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout its European range.
176432		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. conferta</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in    Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red   List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not   Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to confirm the validity of this species. If it is considered a valid taxon, information is needed on its exact distribution and habitat type, the population size and trend, potential threats, and its <em>in situ</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status.
176432		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea conferta</span> is native to Greece where it is described from Mount Killini (Strid 1986, Strid and Tan 2002).
176432		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
176432		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176432		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176433		conservation	eng	There is no known active conservation action in Europe.
176433		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. phrygia </span>has a relatively small distribution, being found only in Turkey and a selection of countries surrounding it (Iran, Iraq, Syria) (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176433		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. phrygia</span> is found in a variety of habitats, including roadsides, pastures, steppe, igneous slopes, gravel banks near water, wadis and depressions, woodland and scrub, arable fields and fallow fields (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176433		population	eng	The population levels in Europe are unknown.
176433		threats	eng	The species occurs in Europe only in the East Aegean island, so is possible threatened by the rapid increase in tourism in these islands.
176434		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 420 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. elatius</span> held in European genebanks, 150 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 127 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176434		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. elatius </span>is native to and widespread in northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), the Caucasus, Siberia, Macaronesia (Canary Islands) and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) note that this species has an uncertain origin in the Canary Islands, but is likely to be a native species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176434		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. elatius</span> is a perennial, competitive species, often found in mesophilous grasslands, shrublands, rocky places and roadsides. <br/><br/>According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), this species is commonly found in a range of habitats (neutral to base-rich) in the UK of which grasslands, road verges, hedge banks and river banks are the most commonly recognised. It is known to colonise bare, muddy, calcareous cliffs and maritime shingle as well as stabilising limestone scree (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
176434		population	eng	This species is mostly widespread and common throughout its European range, with stable populations.
176434		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176436		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rotata </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks, mainly originating from Syria. As this species might have potential as a crop in its own rights, it would be important to have more material from Cyprus sub-populations.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176436		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rotata </span>is native to much of western Asia and is also found in Cyprus and Turkey. It is naturalised in Morocco (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176436		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rotata </span>grows on terra rosa soils and rocky ground, and in general is found as a field weed (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It also occurs in pastures.
176436		population	eng	The exact population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago rotata </span>is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are stable.
176436		threats	eng	The main threat is overgrazing, as it is very appreciated by the animals. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions  threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176437		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">D. cretacea</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable&#160;and is listed in the regional Red Lists of Belgorodskaya, Kurskaya and Rostovskaya (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in Ukrainian Steppe natural reserve (department Krejdjana flora), in Svjati Gory National Park, and in the State nature monument, Balka Girka. <br/>  <br/>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. cretacea </span>stored in the genebank of the  Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad  Politécnica de Madrid; however, none of these originate from within Europe and the collection location is not reported (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection  and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species. <br/><br/>Information is needed on the precise distribution, population size, structure and trend of this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176437		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. cretacea</span> is endemic to the eastern European (Russian) plain (Ukraine, Russia and Moldova). In European Russia it occurs in Belgorodskaya, Volgogradskaya, Voronezskaya, Kurskaya, Moskowskaya, Rostovskaya and Saratovskaya regions (Dorofeyev 2002). In Ukraine, it occurs in Siversky Donez river basin in Charkivska, Donezka and Luganska regions. In Moldova, it grows on limestone slopes of the left bank of Dnister (Gejdeman 1986).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176437		habitat	eng	It grows on dry calcareous slopes in compositions of <span style="font-style: italic;">ordo Thymo cretacei Hyssopetalia cretaceae </span>(class <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemo–</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Thymetea</span>). It can also be found along railway embankments.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176437		population	eng	The species is rare but stable.
176437		threats	eng	The main threats are overgrazing and silviculture. As this species occurs close to very big cities, urbanization may also pose a threat.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176438		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>The   Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, United Kingdom) has two accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. heterophyllus</span>, further accessions are held at the Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA  (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This one wild accession originates from France and is also stored in France (Réseau Plantes fourragères et à gazon) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in    many existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its    conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject    to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>In the Czeck Republic it is regarded as Critically Endangered on the national Red List. In Germany some regions in the south are listed as threatened.<br/><br/>Incorrect identification seems to be a problem in the field.<br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the eastern region of Franche-Comté (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176438		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. heterophyllus</span> is distributed throughout much of Europe, from Sweden to Portugal and Spain (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)  records it as being present in Austria,   Czech Republic, Slovakia,   France,   Germany,   Great Britain,   Italy,   Poland,   Portugal,   Sardinia,   Spain,   Sweden and   Switzerland. In France it occurs in 11 departments to the east of the country and is also recorded in the department of Gers to the southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176438		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is grasslands, forest edges and shrub lands.
176438		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus hterophyllus</span> is reasonably  common throughout its range, where it is found in several habitats    which are not threatened; populations appear to be  stable. <br/><br/>In Germany, some regional data considers it  threatened, but not everywhere; in the Czech Republic populations are rare and scattered, while in Poland it is very rare.
176438		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176439		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lolium temulentum</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>It is listed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia (Eliáš Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Great Britain (Cheffings and Farrell 2006) and Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/>It is Extinct in the Wild in Hungary and reintroduction trials are being carried out   (Király 2007).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 197 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. temulentum</span> held in European genebanks, 121 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 23 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176439		distribution	eng	The origin of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lolium temulentum</span> remains a matter of debate. Many authors assume the original occurrence of the species in the Mediterranean and southwest Asia from where it spread as a weed of cereals to all of Europe, central and southern Africa, eastern Asia, Australia, New Zealand and America (Eliáš Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><br/>According to Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009), this species is native to the Azores and the Canary Islands; however, it is recorded by Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) as introduced to the Azores and by Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) as of uncertain origin in the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is available for the following countries:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>100 localities have been recorded in the past throughout the country. Recently, the species was confirmed at five localities in the north and northeast near the Slovak-Poland border: 1) Rab?a, oat field; 2) Zubrohlava NNW, oat field; 3) Zubrohlava SE, oat field; (4) Lesnica, rye fields in the northern part of the village; 5) Lesnica, gap of Lesnica, eastern slope, rye field (Eliáš Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</li><li>Greece: widespread.</li><li>Belarus: present in the whole country.</li><li>Cyprus: widespread.</li><li>Hungary: Extinct in the Wild   (Király 2007).</li><li>France: widespread; occurs in the majority of departments throughout the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/></li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176439		habitat	eng	This annual weedy species is usually mentioned as a characteristic member of segetal vegetation, but it also occurs in other ruderal habitats, such as fallow fields, waste places and roadsides.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, it was regarded as a diagnostic taxon of class <span style="font-style: italic;">Stellarietea mediae</span>, subclass <span style="font-style: italic;">Violenea arvensis</span>, but the species was also found sporadically in ruderal vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atriplici-Chenopodietalia albi</span> (Eliáš Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>According to Meikle (1985), in Cyprus, as well as occurring in cultivated and fallow fields, this species can sometimes be found growing in pine forest at high altitudes. It can grow from sea level to 5,400 ft (Meikle 1985).
176439		population	eng	This species is frequent in Greece but not common in Belarus. However, in both countries, the population is reported to be stable. The species is rare in Lithuania.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176439		threats	eng	Until a few decades ago, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. temulentum</span> had a significant impact as a weed in Europe, but due to enhanced seed cleaning techniques and herbicide application the distribution area of the species has decreased significantly (Eliáš Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>In Greece, herbicides are a potential threat but they are not affecting the subpopulations yet. Herbicide tolerance has been measured in some biotypes.
176440		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Cyprus (Tsintides <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/>    <p>This species is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>collections. EURISCO reports 3,551 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span> held in European genebanks, 946 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 864 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176440		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span> is native to and widely distributed in northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, Macaronesia (Madeira and Canary Islands), temperate Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, Morocco and northern America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, the origin of this species in the Canary Islands is uncertain.
176440		habitat	eng	This perennial species is known to occur in a variety of habitat types in the UK within most soil conditions (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2002). It is able to grow in such areas as grasslands, sand dunes,  river banks, mountain slopes, roadsides, waste ground and arable land.
176440		population	eng	This species is known to be widespread in much of Europe, including Ireland, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010) and Greece. In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span> is one from the most common grass species in the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992) and is very common in Belarus with stable populations. According to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002), there has been no obvious change in the range since the 1962 Atlas (Perring and Walters 1962).
176440		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176441		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>It is listed as Vulnerable B2ac(iv);C2b in the Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and the Lista Roja 2008 de la Flora Vascular Española (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas but is probably not monitored or actively  managed. Population dynamics should be monitored and the sites should be  managed to ensure a good quality of habitat.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. platyloba</span> are reported by EURISCO to be stored in European   genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176441		distribution	eng	According to Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1964),<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. platyloba</span> is endemic to Miranda do Douro in northeast Portugal. However, its presence as a native species is also confirmed in Spain (<span style="background-color: white;">Euro+Med PlantBase 2006</span>, Marhold 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"> </span>Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176441		habitat	eng	It grows in herbaceous communities between acid or basaltic&#160;<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>rocks, and on sunny slopes.
176441		population	eng	There are five isolated subpopulations confirmed in Spain and one in Portugal. The population is limited by narrow ecological requirements. Subpopulations in Spain are isolated from one another.
176441		threats	eng	In Spain it is threatened  by occasional  trampling. In Portugal, the site where the species occurs is not accessible to humans.
176442		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. resupinatum</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is         specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty   on     Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part   of  the    forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific   conservation     attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest    collections being held by the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span> Genetic Resource Centre in Perth, Australia (695 accessions), the Australia <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> Genetic Resource Centre in Adelaide, Australia (246 accessions), Margot  Forde Forage Germplasm Centre in New Zealand,  Vavilov  Research Institute of Plant Industry, Russia, the National   Plant  Germplasm System in Washington, USA,<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> ICARDA    (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of  Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) gene        banks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).&#160; <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 162 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 22 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 16 originate from within Europe. These 16 wild accessions originate from France (one), Greece (two), Portugal (10) and Spain (three) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>        the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many     existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as  its      conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored it may  be     subject  to     population     loss over time from factors such  as    climate  change.<br/><br/>An assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. resupinatum</span> by Nikolic and Topic (2005) found it to be Vulnerable (BGCI 2009).
176442		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. resupinatum</span> is native to much of southern Europe and parts of central and eastern Europe, as well as north Africa, western Asia, the Caucasus, Pakistan, the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands (Zohary and Heller 1984). It is also widely naturalised (USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France it occurs in the  southeast, south, west and far north. Largely absent from central and northeastern departments. It is also present in Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>It is also present in Moldova (AgroAtlas 2010).<br/><br/>It is also native in mainland Portugal and Spain according to Muñoz Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2000). It is also native in Madeira according to Borges<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2008).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/><br/><br/></span>
176442		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. resupinatum </span>is an annual legume, flowering between March and May, and grows in fields, riverbanks, roadsides and wastelands, generally on heavy soils (Zohary and Heller 1984). It is most successful on medium to slightly acid soils, but can withstand pH between 4.8 and 8.2, as well as annual rainfall between 280 mm and 1,360 mm, and temperatures ranging from 6.3ºC to 20.3ºC (Duke 1981).
176442		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is common   throughout   southern Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats  and   populations are  stable.
176442		threats	eng	This species is very common and found in many different habitats so it is not currently threatened.
176443		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food    and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176443		distribution	eng	According to Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly   (2009), <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sibiricus</span> is native to central, eastern and northwest European Russia, as well as to temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). However, according to T. Smekalova (pers. comm. 2010), there are no native populations in the European part of Russia.
176443		habitat	eng	This species is not known in European Russia; therefore, there is no habitat information of relevance to record in this assessment.
176443		population	eng	This species is not known in European Russia; therefore, there is no population information of relevance to record in this assessment.
176443		threats	eng	This species is not known in European Russia; therefore, there is no threats information of relevance to record in this assessment.
176444		conservation	eng	<p>  </p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 851 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. alba </span>held in European genebanks, 85 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 57 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176444		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. alba</span> is native to parts of east, southeast and southwest Europe, as well as north Africa and parts of temperate and tropical Asia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006,  USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It has been introduced to northern Europe, the Americas, Australasia and eastern Asia (Rich 1991). However widespread cultivation has obscured its native distribution.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176444		habitat	eng	This species is found on coastal plains, hills and montane habitats in open woodlands, brush, and damp steep rock faces. It is also found as a weedy species in roadsides and waste places, fields, crops, vineyards and olive groves. It can be found on calcareous, nitrous soils (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it a weed of cultivated and disturbed ground (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004); for example, in Crete it is found in olive groves and other cultivated land, roadsides and maritime sands from 0–500 m (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176444		population	eng	This species is common throughout its native range in southern Europe.
176444		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176445		conservation	eng	This species is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 1,163 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 297 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 213 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176445		distribution	eng	Native to and widely distributed in northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, temperate Asia, the Indian subcontinent, northern Africa and northeast and east tropical Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread, occurring in all departments throughout the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), while in the UK it is widespread throughout all areas of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in Ireland it is widespread across all areas of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176445		habitat	eng	In the UK it occurs on grasslands, such as well-drained meadows, chalk and limestone downs, hill pastures, montane rock ledges and coastal cliff tops, shingle and sand dunes (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is only unable to grow on the most acidic and infertile soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176445		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its range and its population appears to be stable. In the UK, according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), this species’ distribution is stable.
176445		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is found several habitats which are not threatened within its region.
176446		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. fruticosa</span> which originates from&#160; Portugal and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>It was listed in the list of rare, threatened and endemic plants in    Europe (1982 edition) (Council of  Europe 1983) and the 1997 IUCN Red   List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998) as Rare (R) (not   Endangered or Vulnerable, but at risk).<br/><br/>Some subpopulations occur in protected areas.
176446		distribution	eng	According to Prina and Martínez-Laborde (2008), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. fruticosa </span>is endemic to Madeira and Porto Santo; however, Press and Short (1994), Francisco-Ortega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) and Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) suggest that it is also found on the nearby island of Desertas. In Madeira this species is found in the west, near the coast, and in Porto Santo it is found on the peaks of Ana Ferreira, Branco and Castelo.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/><br/></span>The area of occupancy (AOO) is  less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
176446		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. fruticosa</span> is found in dry, sunny lowland scrub, and coastal rocks and hills&#160; (Francisco-Ortega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Prina and Martínez-Laborde 2008, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Press and Short (1994) describe this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> from ravines and cliff habitats on Madeira.
176446		population	eng	It occurs at several sites, with several individuals at each site. The population is thought to comprise less than 10,000 individuals and is currently stable.
176446		threats	eng	There are no immediate major threats to this species, although urbanization and road construction are possible threats.
176447		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. tingitanus </span> is quite poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> germplasm collections, with only 18 accessions being held by the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 82 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 33 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 19 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>Although it occurs in protected areas, there is no active management, but it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176447		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tingitanus</span> is native to parts of southern Europe and northern Africa, and has been naturalized in the Azores (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)       records it as being present in the Azores,   Portugal,    Sardinia and   Spain; however, Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) confirm that it is introduced in the Azores. Its origin in the Canary Islands is uncertain (Izquierdo et al. 2004) and it is introduced in Madeira (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In France it is confined to the southern department of Var (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176447		habitat	eng	It lives in scrublands, forests, on slopes, roadsides, riverbanks.
176447		population	eng	It has a scattered distribution and it is rare and localised. It is  found in several  habitats    which are not threatened and populations appear to be  stable. <br/><br/>It is very common in the Canary Islands, but believed to be Extinct in Madeira.
176447		threats	eng	Grazing is a threat to this species in part of its range.
176448		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.</p><p>It occurs in protected areas and SCIs. No <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation measures are currently needed for the European population of this species. <br/></p>  <p>    </p><p>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. subulatum </span>held in European genebanks, seven of which are reported to originate from Spain. Five are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, one at the Instituto Andaluz de Investigación Agroalimentaria y Pesquera, Centro de Investigación y Formación Agroalimentaria Almería and one at the Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León, Centro de Investigación de Zamadueñas (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <p></p>
176448		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. subulatum</span> is native to Spain, as well as to Algeria and Morocco (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176448		habitat	eng	It grows in dry scrublands and in gypsum soils.
176448		population	eng	It is a widespread species in Spain.
176448		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176449		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. lyratum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176449		distribution	eng	According to Marhold (2011), this species is native to Crimea, north Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Armenia. However, according to V. Melnyk (pers. comm. 2010), the species is not found in Ukraine.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176449		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is thought that this species does not occur in Europe.</span>
176449		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is thought that this species does not occur in Europe.</span>
176449		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It is thought that this species does not occur in Europe.</span>
176450		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">I. vermia</span> has been assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).<br/><br/>The Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest (2006) reported that no conservation action has been implemented. No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. vermia</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species, as well as research on the population size, trend and potential threats, as well as its <em>in situ</em> conservation status. Its taxonomic status also requires clarification.
176450		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. vermia</span> is endemic to Mount Vermion in Greece (Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009).
176450		habitat	eng	This species is found in sub-alpine grassland, at around 1,600 m (Strid and Tan 2002, Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009). Strid (1986) noted that it was found between<span style="font-style: italic;"> c.</span> 900 and 1,600 m.
176450		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176450		threats	eng	This species is threatened due to its restricted range and limited dispersal ability (Museum  National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).
176451		conservation	eng	<em>F. ovina</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 285 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. ovina</span> held in European genebanks, 140 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 131 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176451		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F. ovina</span> is native to northern, central, east and southeastern Europe, as well as parts of temperate Asia; it is naturalized and cultivated elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176451		habitat	eng	This perennial species occurs on rocky slopes, in shallow soil, open forest and dry areas, and is a principal component of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-ovinae-Nardetum </span>vegetation types. In the UK it grows in unproductive and often well-drained grass habitats such as lowland calcareous grasslands, upland heaths, moors, mountain slopes, rock ledges, and sea cliffs (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is known to occur up to 2,000 m in mountainous regions in Bulgaria.
176451		population	eng	This species is widespread across its native range in Europe, with a stable population trend. It is known to be common in Slovakia (Dostál and Červenka 1992), the Czech Republic, Belarus, Germany, and is common where it occurs in the north Hungarian mountains and the Transdanubian mountains in western Transdanubia. According to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) this species is widespread, with a stable distribution in the UK and Ireland. In France it occurs in the majority of departments (Association Tela  Botanica  2000–2010).
176451		threats	eng	This species does not currently face any major threats.
176452		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International   Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of   the brassica complex.   <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. steveniana</span> is listed in the Red Data Book of the USSR as Rare and in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Vulnerable. It is also listed in the regional Red Lists of Stavropolski and Krasnodarski (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/>It occurs in Zakaznik Ak-Kaja in Crimea.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. steveniana </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  However, samples are conserved in Donezkij botanical garden (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176452		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to Ukraine, the southwest Russian Federation and in the Caucasus. In European Russia, it is found in Krasnodarkij and Stavropolskij regions. In Ukraine, it grows in the foothills of the Crimean Mountains.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176452		habitat	eng	It is found on coastal plains, foothills and grassy steppe habitats in the Caucasus (Prina 2009, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It prefers dry and sandy soils. In the Crimean mountains, it grows in steppe on chalk and marl rocks in <span style="font-style: italic;">ordo Alysso–</span><span style="font-style: italic;">Sedatialia </span>communities.
176452		population	eng	It is a rare species and the subpopulations are small.
176452		threats	eng	<p>It is threatened by agricultural expansion and overgrazing&#160; in steppe ecosystems.</p>
176453		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The genus </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Asparagus </span><span style="background-color: white;">is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> nesiotes</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">purpuriensis </span>is <span style="background-color: white;">listed as Endangered B2ab(ii,iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List of Vascular Plants (Moreno 2008).</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> <br/><br/>A. nesiotes</span><span style="background-color: white;"> ssp. </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">nesiotes </span><span style="background-color: white;">is reported to have been cultivated in Jardín Botánico Canario, Las Palmas in 1989 and is found in the national reserve of&#160; Selvagens (Museum  National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;">According to Faria <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nesiotes </span>is one of the top 100 priority management species in the Madeira archipelago (Selvagens).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">nesiotes</span> <span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;">are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: blue;"></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176453		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus nesiotes</span> is native to the Canary Islands (Fuerteventura with Lobos and Lanzarote with Graciosa) and Selvagens (Marrero and Ramos 1989, Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus nesiotes </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nesiotes</span> has been recorded in Selvagem Pequena in the rocky areas of Pico do Veado, and a second area has been found in the extreme south of the island (Museum  National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus nesiotes </span>ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">purpuriensis</span> is endemic to Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is estimated to be less than 500 km² and decreasing.<span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-color: white;"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span></span></span>
176453		habitat	eng	It is tolerant of dry conditions (Nogales <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and can be found in rocky areas near the coast (Press and Short 1994, Bramwell and Bramwell 2001).
176453		population	eng	This species is very rare both in the Canary Islands and Selvagens (a small island of only 0.30 km²) and the population size is decreasing. <span style="font-style: italic;">Aaparagus nesiotes</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nesiotes</span> has been described as very rare, with the initial population (Pitao do Veado) described as consisting of only 15 individuals; a second population was however found in the south of the island in 1983 (Museum  National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological  Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006).
176453		threats	eng	It is threatened by livestock grazing in the Canary Islands and natural erosion in Selvagens.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
176454		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national threat and/or conservation status is available as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Switzerland: Vulnerable (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Italy:<span style="background-color: blue;"></span> Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).</li><li>France: protected in the region of Champagne-Ardenne in the northeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul><br/>In Romania, it is found in many protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tenuifolius</span> which is is reported to originate from Bulgaria and is stored in the Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K. Malkov' in Bulgaria (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176454		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. tenuifolius</span> is native to central, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as to west Asia  (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, this species present in 13 departments in the southeast and is also present in the  departments of Aube,   Côte d'Or and Haut-Rhin to the northeast  (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). In Italy, it is found in 17 regions. It is widespread in Romania but has a narrower range in Bulgaria.
176454		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. tenuifolius</span> is a perennial, dioecious plant, tolerant of acidic soils (?tajner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). In Romania, it grows in forests and in Italy, it is found in mesophylous (fresh, medium moist) woods.
176454		population	eng	It is common in Romania and locally common in Bulgaria. In Italy, it is not common and its habitat is fragmented.
176454		threats	eng	It is threatened by over-collection in Bulgaria. Other threats are unknown.
176455		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. constricta</span>   has 38 accessions available in gene banks. It occurs in protected areas in Bulgaria and Cyprus.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 29 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 28 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, all 28 originate from within Europe; 26 of which originate from Cyprus and two of which originate from Greece. All 28 are stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176455		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. constricta </span>is native only to Bulgaria, Greece (Crete and mainland) and Cyprus in Europe (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but is also found in parts of western Asia and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/> </strong>
176455		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. constricta </span>grows on disturbed limestone and dry, sandy soils in a variety of habitats. These include arable fields, fallow fields, pastures, meadows, pine forests, and dry stony hillsides and banks (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176455		population	eng	This species is quite common in Cyprus and Greece, but is a rare in Bulgaria where it is at the extreme northwest of its range. Its population appears to be stable  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176455		threats	eng	Overgrazing is affecting the species in parts of its range.  It is  found several habitats which are not  threatened  within  its   distribution  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em>, 2009) although it is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions  threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176456		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is   listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/></span>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. viminea</span> held in European genebanks,  both of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild  accessions, only one originates from within Europe. This accession  originates from Spain and is stored in the Banco de Germoplasma, Madrid  (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>  storage is a priority for this species to ensure that material is  available for future potential use in crop improvement programs.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><br/>    <p></p>
176456		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. viminea</span> is native to east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as north Africa and parts of temperate Asia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176456		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. viminea</span> is found in coastal, plain  and hill habitats, such as dry plains and rubble. It can also  be found as a weedy species in roadsides and waste  places, arable land, gardens and vineyards. This species occurs on sandy, chalky, often  damp,  rich soil (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009).
176456		population	eng	This species is generally common and widespread throughout its native range in Europe, however it is known to be rare in Romania.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176456		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176457		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. I<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. filiformis</span> held in European genebanks, 10 of which originate from Spain. Seven are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, and three in the External Branch North of the Department Genebank, IPK, Oil Plants and Fodder Crops in Malchow, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176457		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. filiformis</span> is native to southern Spain and north Africa (Algeria and Morocco). It has been introduced to South Africa where it has become naturalized (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176457		habitat	eng	This species grows in semi-arid hills and montane habitats (up to 2,200 m). It can be found in high valleys, riparian areas, on rocks, in crevices, gullies, rubble, pastures, meadows, open woodlands and brush, fields and hedges. It occurs on calcareous rock (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176457		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.</p>
176457		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176458		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. lepuznica </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>In Serbia, the entire population is situated inside Vršačke Mountain Nature Park and in Romania the at least part of the population is known to occur inside protected areas (Retezat National Park); however, these populations not actively managed—a monitoring programme is needed.<br/><br/>It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR B2ab(iv+v); C2ai) in Romania (Dihoru and Negrean 2009) and in Serbia (CR B1+2c; C2b) (Diklić and Lakušić 1999).
176458		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. lepuznica</span> is endemic to Romania and Serbia. In Romania, it occurs on Retezat, Borascu and Piule  mountains in Hunedoara province, where the area of occupancy (AOO) is no more than 250 km<sup>2</sup>, while in Serbia there is a single disjunct population close to the Romanian border on Mt. Vršačke above the city of Vršac (Banat region, Vojvodina province),<span style="font-style: italic;"> c. </span>120 km west of the main area of the species' range in Romania.<br/><br/>The  extent of occurrence (EOO) is no more than 7,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176458		habitat	eng	In Romania this species is found in sub-alpine <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>forests (Chrysosplenio-Cardaminetum association) with high relative humidity, often beside fast flowing water. In Serbia it grows at the edge of sessile oak–silver lime forests (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus petraea</span>–<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia tomentosa</span>) and along roadside slopes that resemble siliceous scree (Diklić and Lakušić 1999).
176458		population	eng	The population in Romania is extremely small (comprising about 50 mature individuals), and decreasing. In Serbia, the population is estimated to comprise <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 100 mature individuals. The population is severely fragmented as it occurs as isolated subpopulations in different mountainous areas.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176458		threats	eng	<p>In Serbia it is under threat from nitrification, road construction and tourism (including trampling) (Diklić and Lakušić 1999). There is no information available about threats to the Romanian population; however, this species is restricted to a very narrow ecological niche.</p>
176459		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpina</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p>  EURISCO reports 67 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpina</span> held in European genebanks, 47 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 45 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176459		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpina</span> is native to and widely distributed in northern, central, east and southeastern Europe. It is also native to temperate Asia, the Indian Subcontinent and northern America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Slovakia: occurs scattered in sub-mountain and mountain regions throughout the country (Dostál and Červenka 1992).</li><li>Greece: found in central and northern Greece, usually in mountainous regions, most of which are under protection.</li><li>France: occurs in 30 departments to the south, southeast and east, and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>UK:   confined to the mountainous areas of central and Northern Scotland, four localities in northern Wales and four localities in northern England including the Lake District (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li><li>Ireland: present in just two localities; one to the northwest and one to the southwest of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li></ul>
176459		habitat	eng	This perennial.species is often found in mountainous grassland areas in Europe. <br/><br/>In the UK it is known to occur between the altitudes of 580 m and 1,190 m on damp mountain rock faces, open ledges and rocky slopes, preferring calcareous soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176459		population	eng	According to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpina</span> has declined in a number of sites in the UK due to collecting. In Greece this species is common with stable populations. <br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176459		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176460		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. hierosolymitanus </span>has germplasm stored <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in several genebanks worldwide, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben, Germany), Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, United Kingdom), Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka, Ukraine), Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks. In total, 144 accessions are stored in genebanks (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Research on distribution, and specifically to know if it occurs in protected areas, should be condicted.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe. This accession originates from Cyprus and is stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in     many existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its     conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject     to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176460		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hierosolymitanus</span> only occurs in Greece in Europe, but is also found in parts of western Asia and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176460		habitat	eng	It is often found in woodland margins, cultivated margins and roadsides.
176460		population	eng	This is a widespread species, common throughout its range, even though typically found as small groups of individuals (three to four individuals). Its population is considered stable.
176460		threats	eng	Use of herbicides and overgrazing are the main threats.
176462		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Fifteen germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks. Nine of these are recorded as of wild origin; however, none of these accessions were collected in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This species is considered by experts </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">not </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">to be native to Europe.</span></span>
176462		distribution	eng	According to Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly    (2009), this species is native to Iceland&#160;and central, eastern and south European Russia, and introduced in Norway and Ukraine. However, according to H. Kristinsson this is species is not present in Iceland.<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>  The records in Löve (1983), which is the reference cited by Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly    (2009), are based on a variety of <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus alopex</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">canina</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Roegneria doniana</span> (White) Meld. ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">stefanssonii </span>(Meld.) (Löve and Löve 1956). This opinion was confirmed by R. Elven (pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: white;"> </span>Further, according to experts present at a European crop wild relative Red List  workshop convened in April 2010, there are no native populations in  European Russia. The species occurs in other parts of the Russian Federation and North Americ<span style="background-color: white;">a</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.<br/></span>
176462		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This species is considered by experts </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">not </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">to be native to Europe.</span></span>
176462		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This species is considered by experts </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">not </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">to be native to Europe.</span></span>
176462		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This species is considered by experts </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">not </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">to be native to Europe.</span></span>
176463		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> does occur within protected areas but the Arrui have expanded and moved into these areas. According to national law, this exotic species should be eradicated; however, no  action has taken place apart from some level of control through culling.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176463		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> is endemic to La Palma in the Canary Islands where it is found in the north half of the island. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km².
176463		habitat	eng	This perennial species is mainly found on cliffs in pine forest or on cliffs and other open areas in laurisilva forest.
176463		population	eng	The population comprises few individuals scattered in many locations. It is found in isolated patches and the threat of grazing is causing further isolation through habitat degradation.
176463		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> is threatened by grazing by goats and the more recently introduced species, Arrui which has expanded significantly since being introduced in the 1970s. This exotic species is causing general degradation of the habitat as well as grazing on this species itself. These animals were originally introduced to the National Park for recreational hunting but they have naturalized and expanded into other areas, including the Natural Park.
176464		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. marina </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>In France the species is protected in the western region of Pays de la Loire (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 15 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe: one of which originates from Cyprus (stored in National (CYPARI) Genebank, Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus), two from France (stored in Genetic Resources Unit, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, UK) and two from Spain (stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176464		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. marina </span>is native to much of southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it occurs along the whole of the western and southern coastlines and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176464		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. marina </span>is only found on seashores, growing in loose sand, sandy meadows and cliffs (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176464		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered       widespread and a common species throughout its range, although it has   been infrequently collected (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176464		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is   found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176465		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. longirostris</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176465		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Kosovo and Macedonia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).
176465		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
176465		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176465		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
176466		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron </span>is listed   in     Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources   for   Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertorum</span> is listed as a grass forage.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 27 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertorum</span> held in European genebanks, 20 of which are recorded to be of wild origin. Of these, four are recorded as originating in Europe and are all from Ukraine   (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). It is not clear how many accessions have been collected in European Russia. Further targeted germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is required for wild populations of this taxon.<br/><br/>The isolated subpopulations in Crimea might hold important genetic diversity and should therefore be subject to <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation and management measures.
176466		distribution	eng	According to Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly    (2009), in Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertorum</span> is native to central and south European Russia, and Ukraine with Crimea. However, according to Malyshev (2008), it does not occur in central European Russia, while Fedorov (1974) recorded the species from eastern European Russia. The distribution data for this assessment is as recorded by Malyshev (2008).<br/><br/>In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on">Crimea</st1:place>, the species occurs in patches that are isolated from the Russian population. In the main part of Ukraine it is found in the southeast, while in Crimea it is present in separate patches in the eastern part of the peninsula. <br/><br/>It is also native to the Caucasus, Siberia, middle Asia, Mongolia and China (USDA, ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176466		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in steppe and on rocky and clay slopes, and is also present in solonetzic soils. It is codominant in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertorum</span> / <span style="font-style: italic;">Poa bulbosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertorum</span> / <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisia maritima</span> associations (Prokudin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1977).<span class="msoIns"><br/></p>
176466		population	eng	This species is widespread and common and the population trend is suspected to be stable.
176466		threats	eng	There currently are no major threats to this species.
176467		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. scutellata </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 47 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 15 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 12 originate from within Europe: eight of which originate from Cyprus (stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain), one from Germany (stored in Research Institute for Fodder Crops Ltd., Czech Republic) and three from Ukraine (stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176467		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. scultellata </span>is native to parts of southern and eastern Europe, as well as western Asia and northern Africa. It is naturalised in Austria, Australia and Uruguay (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it occurs in the eastern department of Ain, the south and southeastern departments of Aude,   Hérault, Gard,   Drôme, Vaucluse,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176467		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. scutellata </span>is a perennial herb, flowering between May and June. It is found primarily in meadows and wood margins (Duke 1981). However, it also grows in cultivated fields, plains, roadsides, dry hillsides and coastal regions (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It thrives on most soil types, particularly heavy and loamy soils. It tolerates mean annual precipitation of 800 mm, temperatures between 11.5ºC and 26.2ºC, and soil pH of between 5.5 and 7.5 (Duke 1981).
176467		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range and is found in several habitats.
176467		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region.
176468		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. cretacea </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks, and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001). <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span> conservation especially preservation of its special habitat is needed. More information on the sites in the Krasnodarsky region is needed.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe. This accession originates from Ukraine and is stored in Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176468		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. cretacea</span> is native to parts of Russia and the Ukraine (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>In the  Ukraine the species occurs at only one site in Crimea near Belogorsk (Fedorov 1974) and outside of the European region in Russia it is confined to the Krasnodarsky region with an <span style="background-color: white;">extent of occurrence (EOO) smaller than  5,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.</span>
176468		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. cretacea </span>grows on  chalk and lime deposits in lower mountain zones on dry calcareous soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species is very limited by the ecological conditions. It is only found on calcareous soils of the slopes.
176468		population	eng	This species is very rare and the precise population trend is unknown, but bearing in mind its very restricted distribution and limited habitat range and the known overgrazing of this habitat it is suspected that the population is decreasing. The number of mature individuals is suspected to be below 2,500, with less than 250 in each subpopulation.
176468		threats	eng	Tourism development near Belogorsk is the main threat to the species in Crimea. The Krasnodorsky region is under infrastructure development for the Olympic Games. Agricultural expansion is another threat in this region (agro-industry scale).
176469		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>Knowledge of the national threat/conservation status of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. stricta</span> is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Denmark: classified as Least Concern (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).</li><li>Hungary: not protected   (Király 2007).</li><li>Slovakia: listed as Lower Risk (Peniašteková 2002).<br/></li></ul>EURISCO reports 11 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. stricta </span>held in European genebanks; however, only two originate from within Europe (Norway) and are stored in the genebank of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Futhere germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176469		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. stricta</span> is native to much of Europe and western Asia, and has been introduced to North America and Australasia (Rich 1991).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national distribution in Europe is as follows:<br/><br/><ul><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>scattered throughout the country (Peniašteková 2002).</li><li>Hungary: occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Zemplén-mountain, Bükk-mountains: Eger), Trandanubia (Sopron, Somogy) and Great Hungarian Plain (Little Alföld region, Danube region, Tisza region)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>Norway: widely distributed throughout all parts of the country.<span id="result_box" class="short_text"></li></ul>
176469		habitat	eng	It grows in plain and hill regions, eutrophic meadows and grassland, and ruderal sites. In Hungary, it grows on floodplains, in marshes, and in riverine shrublands and favours calcareous, nitrogen-enriched clay–loam soils  (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176469		population	eng	In Germany, it is common and widespread, with a scattered distribution. It is also common in Norway. The population trend is stable in Slovakia.
176469		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176470		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. ochrus </span>is fairly well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> genebank collections, with germplasm being held at   the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (136 accessions) and the Australian Temperate Field Crop Collection in Australia (85 accessions). In total, 291 accessions are held in genebanks worldwide (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), but all the conserved accessions were sampled from outside of Europe.&#160; <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 185 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 45 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 28 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  There is no active management of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ochrus</span> in <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> protected areas, however, it is likely to be passively conserved in     many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its     conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject     to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>An assessment by Nikolic and Topic (2005) found <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ochrus</span> to be Critically Endangered (BGCI 2009).
176470		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ochrus </span>is native to much of southern and eastern Europe, as well as western Asia and northern Africa. It has been naturalised in the Azores (USDA, ARS, Plant Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)    records it as being present in Albania,   Balearic Islands,   Corsica,   Crete,   Former Yugoslavia,   France,   Greece,   Italy,   Malta,   Portugal,   Sardinia,   Sicily,   Spain,   Turkey in Europe, Cprus and the East Aegean Islands. Its present or historic cultivation may have extended its distribution. In France it is confined to eight south and southeastern departments (Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault, Gard, Vaucluse,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes) and Corsica. Also found in the western department of Gironde (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176470		habitat	eng	This species was histroically cultivated in Europe and remains associated with anthropogenic environments.
176470		population	eng	This distinctive species is locally abundant throughout its southern European range and population levels appear to be stable.
176470		threats	eng	The species population levels may have been bulstered by escapes from cultivation and as cultivation ceased in Europe the species may have declined. It is still associated with anthropogenic environments so is likely to be threatened by modern agricultural practices.
176471		conservation	eng	Five accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. fischeriana</span> are held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176471		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. fischeriana</span> is distributed in certain parts of eastern Europe, western Asia and the Caucasus (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/></strong><br/>In Europe, it is only found in Crimea in Kara Dag. It is possible that the species extends into Russia from the Caucasus but there are no confirmed records.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is smaller than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.<strong><br/><br/> </strong>
176471		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. fischeriana</span> is found in open mixed woodland, scrubland, agricultural fields and fallows, pastures, earthy scree, roadsides, valleys and on igneaous hill slopes (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Crimea it occurs on rocky slopes in lower part of mountainous belt, but where there is no forest cover as on the Kara Dag site, species needs open places.
176471		population	eng	This species has a scattered distribution with small populations and few individuals each. The number of mature individuals is probably below 2,500.<br/>Population trend is suspected to be decreasing.
176471		threats	eng	Kara Dag is under pressure from tourism development and tourist walks, horseriding and jeep excursions. The number of locations is one as this threat is affecting the whole area.
176472		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. lupulina </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern  in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 239 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 123 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 95 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176472		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. lupulina</span> is native to the majority of countries on Europe (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), as well as many temperate regions in Asia and northern Africa. It is naturalised in Africa, Asia, Australasia and North and South America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread, occurs in all departments throughout the country including Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it is widespread across the whole of England and Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Its distribution becomes patchier in Scotland and Northern Ireland, particularly to the north (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in Ireland it is widespread across the majority of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176472		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. lupulina</span> grows on clay and alluvium soils, as well as limestone, loam, volcanic basalt and calcareous substrates. It is found in open woodlands, pastures and meadows, roadsides, steppe habitats, grasslands, dry river beds, the banks of ditches and river banks (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/> It flowers between May and September and can tolerate annual precipitation of between 310 and 1,710 mm, annual mean temperature of between 5.7ºC and 22.5ºC, and soil pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>  In the UK, this lowland species grows on relatively infertile neutral or calcareous soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It prefers dry grassland, disturbed areas, sunny south facing pastures, roadside banks, waste places and walls (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176472		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered       widespread and a common species throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). In the UK, Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) record this species as having a stable distribution.
176472		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is   found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region.
176473		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. vermiculata</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>The species has been classified as Vulnerable(VU) in Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1997).<br/><br/>A review of its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status is required.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. vermiculata</span> held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All three of these wild accessions originate from Spain and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
176473		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. vermiculata</span> is native to France, Italy, Portugal and Spain, as well as to north Africa (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176473		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. vermiculata</span> is found in rocky, coastal habitats in the western Mediterranean (Haslam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1977, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004) and is a species of coastal saline conditions in the Canary Islands where it is frequently found in disturbed habitats (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001).
176473		population	eng	This species is stable, and locally common where it occurs.
176473		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176474		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. It is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>), Critically Endangered (CR) in Switzerland (<span lang="EN-US">Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Vulnerable (VU) in Luxembourg (Colling 2005).<br/><br/>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur naturally in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites, particularly in countries where it is known to be threatened.<br/>  <br/>   EURISCO reports 14 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. latifolium</span> held in European genebanks,  six of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild  accessions, four originate from Spain. Two of these wild accessions are  stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Banco de Germoplasma,  Spain and the remaining two are stored in Instituto Nacional de  Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos  Fitogenéticos, also in Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176474		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. latifolium</span> is native to large parts of Europe, as well as to tropical and temperate Asia and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>This species is known to be widespread in Portugal, Spain and France, but rare in Estonia. In Finland it is at the northern limit of the species distribution and is found in the southwestern part of the country. <br/><br/>Native occurrences in the UK are confined to East Anglia, the southeast and  along the southern half of the English border with Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>.  2002). It also has a patchy distribution throughout central and  northern England as well as Scotland and it occurs in one locality in  Northern Ireland, however these occurrences are recorded as alien  (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Ireland this species is only known in five localities across the country however all of these occurrences  are recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176474		habitat	eng	This perennial species occurs in salt marshes, ditches and wet sandy areas near the coast in the southern part of its distribution in Europe (Davies and Gibbons 1993, Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004). <br/><br/>In Britain this species occurs in similar habitats such as ditches, sea walls, open brackish grassland and the upper parts of estuarine salt marshes in coastal areas of southeast and northeast England; but is introduced elsewhere and occurs as a casual on waste ground dockland, railways, roadsides.and riverbanks (Rich 1991, Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).Where found in the Russian Federation it occurs on the banks of rivers, alluvial, ruderal and weedy areas.
176474		population	eng	The coastal distribution of this species is stable in the UK however the distribution appears to be increasing inland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is common and scattered in Spain, and widespread in the centre and south of Portugal but not frequently found. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range
176474		threats	eng	Although collected from the wild in Portugal, this is not considered a threat at present. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout its range.
176475		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. orbicularis </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001, Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the central/western region of Limousin<span class="Apple-converted-space"> (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 166 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 110 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 93 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176475		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. orbicularis </span>is native to southeastern Europe, as well as parts of southwest and eastern Europe. It is also found in many temperate regions in western and central Asia, as well as many parts of north Africa, and Ethiopia. It is naturalized in certain areas of Asia and Europe, and has been widely naturalized in Australia and North America (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread in the southern half of the country but less largely absent from the far northern, northwestern and northeastern departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176475		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">M. orbicularis </span>is an annual herb, flowering between April and July (Duke 1981). It grows in a variety of habitats, including hills, open forest, agricultural fields and edges, dense maquis, cliffs and steep rocky places, river banks, meadows, pastures, roadsides and dry river beds (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It grows as a weed in lawns, but changes its growth habit based on the dryness of the habitat. It is intolerant of extreme heat and cold, requiring a warm temperate climate with mild winters. It grows best on well drained, rich loam soils, but will grow on any soil with enough moisture. It tolerates a mean annual rainfall of 800 mm, an average temperature of 18.7ºC and pH between 6.5 and 8.0 (Duke 1981).  </p>
176475		population	eng	The population size is large and widespread throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010) and its popultaion trend is considered stable.
176475		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appears to be no major  threats. It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within  its region (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176477		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">I. costata</span> is listed in the regional Red List of Tatarstan   (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005). <br/><br/>It occurs in Luganski steppe reserve (department Provalskij steppe), and in the Ukrainian steppe reserve (department Kreidjana flora).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. costata </span>held in European genebanks, one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin and originates from Kyrgyzstan (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). One accession is stored in the Millennium Seed Bank, Royal Botanic  Gardens, Kew, Wakehurst Place and the other in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176477		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. costata</span> is native to European Russia, Ukraine with Crimea, as well as to parts of temperate Asia and to northeast Pakistan (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is found in around 20 regions in northern and central Russia (Dorofeyev 2002). In Ukraine, it is found in Donezka lesosteppe (forest steppe) in Donezka and Luganska regions, and one locality in the Crimean Mountains southeast of Simpheropol.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176477		habitat	eng	In Ukraine, including Crimea, it is found in steppe, dry areas, limestone and chalk slopes in the mountains and sandy, rocky places (Komarov 1970) in <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Brometea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetalia–valesiacae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sedo–Scleranthetea </span>communities (Diduch 2007).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176477		population	eng	The subpopulations are isolated and localized. The overall population trend is stable.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176477		threats	eng	It is threatened by silviculture on steppe slopes.
176478		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. carstiensis </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks, and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Neither of these wild accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176478		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. carstiensis</span> is native to central and southeastern Europe (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/><br/></strong><strong><br/> </strong>
176478		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. carstiensis</span> is common in rocky wooded habitats, and is unique in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago</span> because it thrives in the shade (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Found in karstic areas.
176478		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. carstiensis</span> is fairly rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), but it is also found over a relatievly large area so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened throughout its range. Its population is considered stable.
176478		threats	eng	Although<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. carstiensis</span> is fairly rare in the wild it is also found over a relatievly large area so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened throughout its range, but the major threat is overgrazing and urbanisation.
176480		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. praecox</span> has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 17 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 15 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 14 originate from within Europe: two of which are from Bulgaria, seven from Cyprus, three from France and two from Greece (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176480		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. praecox</span> is native to much of southern Europe, as well as certain regions of western Asia. It is naturalised in Australia and North America (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it occurs in seven southern departments (Pyrénées Orientales, Aude, Aveyron,   Hérault, Gard,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var) and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176480		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. praecox </span>grows in dry, sandy, rocky, infertile soils on hillsides, fields, and among rocks (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176480		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago praecox</span> is a common medic species, population size is large and its  has a wide range   (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010).
176480		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is found in a range of habitats which do not appear  to be threatened (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).  It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176481		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. fibrosus</span> held in European genebanks, seven of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, four originate from within Europe (Finland) and are stored in the Nordic Genetic Resource Centre, Sweden (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. fibrosus </span>is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) C1 in the 2006 Norwegian Red List. In Finland it is listed as Vulnerable (VU) A2ac (Kalliovirta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>There is no knowledge about the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species in Finland but it is not protected <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> in Norway. It is included in floristic lists of four protected areas in European Russia (Nukhimovskaja <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).  <br/><br/>Research on the population size and trend, as well as potential threats in European Russia is needed.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176481		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">Native to Finland and the Russian Federation (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), and to Norway (Valdés  and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly      2009). It extends from the European arctic territory to the tundra belt in northern and central Russia, but the main area of its range is eastern and western Siberia and the Scandinavian floristic region. Its range is disjunctive (Bobrov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1974). In Finland, it is found in the north and in Norway it is only found at two localities in Finnmark (near the Russian border in the northeast). In Norway, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is 1,600 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 24 km<sup>2</sup>. In northwest Russia it is an invasive species which has naturalized in ruderal locations near St. Petersburg (Tzvelev 2000).
176481		habitat	eng	It is found on sandy soils between shrubs, and in calcareous places. Also on riverbanks, meadow slopes and roadsides. In Finland it is found on lake shores and in meadows near the shores of rivers and lakes.
176481		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The species is infrequent in Finland and the population here has declined by at least 30% in the last 10 years. In Norway it is sparsely distributed on the shores of two rivers. There is no population information for Russia.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Overall, it is suspected that the European population trend is decreasing.</span>
176481		threats	eng	In Finland, this species is threatened by the construction of dams and power plants, dredging, which causes changes in the water level, hybridization, and competition due to overgrowth (closing) of possible habitats. In Norway, it is threatened by river floods and cultivation of fields adjacent to the riverbanks.
176482		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. thracica</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species. <br/><br/>Research into the species' distribution and population trend is needed and a monitoring program should be implemented.
176482		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to parts of southeastern Europe, as well as to Asian Turkey (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). Although Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) record it as native to Romania, experts present at a European CWR Red List workshop held in Portugal, April 2010 did not consider it to occur in Romania. It is found at altitudes of 500–1,500 m in Greece (Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009).
176482		habitat	eng	In Greece, this species is found in damp meadows and clearings in woods (Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009). In Bulgaria, it occurs in grasslands and pastures.
176482		population	eng	This species is relatively widespread and common and the population trend is stable.
176482		threats	eng	Development for winter tourism is impacting this species in some areas and overgrazing may pose a further threat. As a high altitude species, it is likely to be highly threatened by climate change.
176483		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. stenophyllus</span> is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> germplasm collections, with only two accessions being held by the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It is also present in the Greek genebank. No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>There is no active management of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. stenophyllus </span>in <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>  protected areas, however, it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change. A monitoring programme should be implemented. Field margins should be adequately managed, in order to avoid overgrazing and herbicides spraying.
176483		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. stenophyllus</span> is found only in Greece, Lebanon, Israel, Syria and Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to  Greuter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1989) in Europe it is only found in Crete; however, according to Davis (1970) it also occurs in the East Aegean Islands. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176483		habitat	eng	This species is found in road banks, vineyard, egdes of cultivations and forest, limestone mountain sides. It flowers from end of March to May (Davis 1970).
176483		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown but it is  found in several  habitats    which are not threatened, so it is believed that the population trend is considered  stable. <br/><br/>This species has been surveyed and collected  in the East Aegean islands and the habitats in which the species were found were  diverse and stable (N. Maxted pers. comm. 2011).
176483		threats	eng	Increase in fires frequency is a threat to this species. In some islands, overgrazing has also a negative impact. Urban sprawl, especially in Rhodes, is also threatening the species.&#160; However, the species is sufficiently common for it not to be threatened by these factors.
176485		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. hispanica</span> is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in one region of Italy, Vulnerable (VU) in Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997), and as Endangered (EN) (D1) in Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 24 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hispanica</span> held in European genebanks, eight of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, three originate from within Europe (Spain), two of which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain, and one of which is stored in External Branch North of the Department Genebank, IPK, Germany (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.</p><p>A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species is required.<br/></p>
176485		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. hispanica</span> is native to southeast and southwest Europe, as well as north Africa and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176485		habitat	eng	This species is found in non-arid to semi-arid coastal plains, rocky and hill habitats (up to 1,200 m), and tropical montane habitats (Abyssinian Highlands) to 2,000 m (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004, Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It can be found on beaches, shaded rocks and crevices, grassy steppes and slopes, rubble, arable land, olive groves and brush (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and is known in Portugal to occur in humid areas.
176485		population	eng	It is common in the western part of its range and rare in the east. For example in Spain it is relatively widespread, whereas it is scarce in Greece and only known from two localities in Cyprus.
176485		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat fragmentation and development for tourism.
176486		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa </span>is   listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. sylvestris</span> held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe. These two wild accessions originate from Spain and are stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Banco de Germoplasma, Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
176486		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. sylvestris</span> is native to most of Europe and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and is generally widespread throughout its distribution.
176486		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. sylvestris</span> is a self-incompatible perennial species (Bleeker 2007) that is found in damp areas including shingle and sandy shores of lakes and streams and pond margins (Jonsell 1968, Polunin 1969, Rich 1991). It is also found in brackish swamps and damp ground in more open sites (Rich 1991), with Polunin (1969) noting that it is often found in salt-rich areas. It can be occasionally found in gardens, roadsides, arable land and harbours (Jonsell 1968, Rich 1991). In the UK this lowland species grows on damp bare ground, margins of rivers, streams, canals and ditches, by lakes and ponds and in depressions in pastures (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176486		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, increasing in the number of sites and the number of individuals at some sites. It is known to have expansive/invasive properties in certain circumstances and has become more widespread in the UK since the 1950s.
176486		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176487		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>EURISCO reports 16 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. catholica</span> stored in European genebanks. Twelve of these originate in Spain and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (11 accessions) and Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (one accession). Four accessions originate in Morocco and no accessions are reported to have been collected in Portugal (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage from the full ecogeographic range of this species is required; particularly because it has been highlighted as a potential donor of traits for high photosynthetic rate and disease resistance.<br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas but is probably not monitored and actively managed.
176487		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">D. catholica</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is native to Portugal and Spain, as well as Morocco (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Its origin in the Canary Islands is uncertain (Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, <span style="background-color: white;">Euro+Med PlantBase 2006</span><span style="background-color: white;">). </span><span style="background-color: white;">Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) only record it from Gran Canaria.</span>
176487		habitat	eng	This species is found in non-arid to semi-arid coastal, plain and hilly habitats, as well as on beaches, sandy plains and  cliffs, dry pastures and brush, and on riverbanks. It can also be found as a weedy species on roadsides and in waste places and  fields (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176487		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species.
176487		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
176488		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>L. amphicarpos</span> is not very well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections, with only two accessions held by the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), no accessions of wild or weedy origin which originate from within Europe are held in European gene banks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) and there are no known examples of the species being actively conserved in protected areas. <em>In situ</em> the species is likely to be passively conserved in many existing protected areas in throughout its range but as its conservation in these sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population loss over time from factors such as climate change.
176488		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. amphicarpos </span>is native to much of southern Europe, the International Legume Database & Information Service (2010) records it as being present in the Balearic Islands,   Corsica,  Crete,  Greece,  Italy,  Portugal,  Sicily, Spain and the East Aegean Islands, as well as parts of northern Africa. In France it is only recorded as being present in Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010).<br/><br/>The precise area of occupancy (AOO) is thought to be less than  2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence (EOO) is below 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176488		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. amphicarpos</span> grows in grasslands, bushlands and thickets (International Legume Database & Information Service 2010).
176488		population	eng	<p><em>Lathyrus amphicarpos</em> is not a common species but it is found in several habitats that  are threatened within its range; populations appears to be slowly decreasing.</p>
176488		threats	eng	This species is found in habitats prone to Mediterranean summer fire and so with increasing fires the species is potentially threatened by fire and also overgrazing.
176489		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. truncatula </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 116 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 81 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 69 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176489		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. truncatula </span>is native to much of southern and eastern Europe, as well as northern Africa, western Asia and the Caucasus. It has become naturalised in Australia and parts of South America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it occurs in eight departments along the southern coast, the two departments of Corsica and the departments of Morbihan, Gironde and   Pyrénées-Atlantiques on the western coast (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176489		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. truncatula</span> is found in a wide variety of habitats, including the seashore, arid slopes, meadows, garrigue, fields, light scrub, and alluvial plains. It grows on calcareous, alluvial and terra rosa soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176489		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are thought to be stable.
176489		threats	eng	This is a common species across Europe and there appears  to be no major threats. It is found in a number of habitats  that are not threatened.
176490		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macrourus</span> held by the Nordic Genetic Resource Centre; however, these were not collected in Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>It is included in floristic list of the only natural protected area of European Russia—Pechoro-Illytchsky (Nukhimovskaja <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). <br/><br/>Monitoring is needed in order to ascertain the population trend and potential threats.
176490		distribution	eng	According to Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009), <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macrourus</span>&#160; is native to north European Russia and Sweden; it is also native to Siberia, the Russian far east, Canada and Alaska (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). However, the inclusion of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macrourus</span> in the Swedish Red List of 2000 was due to a misunderstanding of the taxon. Enzyme analysis concluded that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. caninus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">muticus </span>was identical to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macrorus</span>; however, after several other analyses were undertaken, it was confirmed that this was a mistake and that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. macrourus </span>does not occur in Sweden.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/><br/>E</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">macrourus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">macrourus</span> is found in Arctic Europe. In the Russian Federation, there is only one isolated population in the Arctic Belt in the basin of the Kara River. <span style="font-style: italic;">E.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">macrourus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">turuchanensis</span>  is found in the basin of three rivers: Usa, Kara and Korotaija. In European Russia, the species reaches the western limit of its range (Bobrov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1974).
176490		habitat	eng	It is grows in sandy soils on riverbanks and sometimes in meadows or near roads (Bobrov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1974).
176490		population	eng	It is very common in eastern Siberia but only occurs as disjunct patches in European Russia. The population trend is unknown.
176490		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown but the area in which the species occurs is not under high anthropogenic pressure.
176491		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. intertexta</span>   has few accessions available in gene banks.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 21 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, three originate from within Europe: two of which originate from Cyprus (stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain) and one of which originates from Ukraine (stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176491		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. intertexta</span> is native to parts of southern Europe and north Africa, but has been naturalised in certain areas of Asia, Australasia and South America (<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/></strong><br/>In France it is confined to the southeastern departments of   Hérault, Var and Alpes-Maritimes and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span>
176491		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. intertexta </span>grows on heavy, moist soils, but has also been recorded growing on sand. It is found in   arable land and field margins, and rocky outcrops (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176491		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered  widespread and a common species throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). Its population trend is considered stable.
176491		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is found several habitats which are not threatened within its region. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176492		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. strigosa</span> is found within protected areas; for example, Teno and Anaga Natural and Rural Parks, Tenerife, and Garajonay National Park, La Gomera; however, these locations are affected by a number of threats, particularly on Tenerife where the populations occur in protected areas with less strict protection measures. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. strigosa</span>, three of which are reported to be stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176492		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. strigosa</span> is endemic to the islands of Tenerife and La Gomera (Prina and Martínez-Laborde 2008). It is found mostly in the north and east of the island where it is associated with humid laurel forests (A. Santos Guerra pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe strigosa</span> is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is probably less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
176492		habitat	eng	This perennial plant grows on cliffs and banks in laurisilva forest, and occasionally in lowland areas (Prina and Martínez-Laborde 2008).
176492		population	eng	This species is locally frequent where found.
176492		threats	eng	Although the laurel forests are protected, the forest edges are affected by human disturbances, including grazing, agriculture, collection of wood for forage and fuel. Abandoned crops within the forests are also now sometimes being reinstated. The habitats have also been affected by landslides.
176493		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. vesiculosum </span>is          specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International  Treaty    on     Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture  as  part   of  the    forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific     conservation     attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>          seed samples are   available in several gene banks with the largest    collection of 21 accessions being held by the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span> Plant Genetic Resources Conservation Unit in Georgia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and further accessions held by the <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>  Genetic Resource  Centre in Perth, Australia, Aegean  Agricultural Reseacrh Institute in  Izmir, Turkey, Margot   Forde Forage Germplasm  Centre in New Zealand,  Vavilov  Research  Institute of Plant  Industry, Russia, ICARDA    (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of  Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth, UK) gene        banks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 24 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of the wild accessions originate from within Europe: two from Bulgaria (stored in Genetic Resources Unit, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, UK) and one from Spain (stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>          the      species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many       existing         protected areas in throughout its range but as   its       conservation in         these sites is not actively monitored  it  may  be     subject  to     population     loss over time from  factors  such  as    climate  change.
176493		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. vesiculosum </span>is native to southern Europe and parts of central and eastern Europe, as well as regions of Turkey and Russia (Zohary and Heller 1984, USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is confined to the southern department of   Pyrénées Orientales, the southeastern department of Var and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).&#160;<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176493		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. vesiculosum </span>is an annual legume and flowers between June and July. It grows on dry grassy slopes on silty loams and clay soils which are well drained (Zohary and Heller 1984).&#160; It can tolerate average annual precipitation of 1,040 mm, temperatures between 11.1ºC and 19.7ºC, and soil pH from 5.5 to 8.2 (Duke 1981).
176493		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is relatively  common in   southeast Europe. It is found in a    variety of   habitats     and   populations are  stable.
176493		threats	eng	The biggest threat in Europe to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. vesiculosum </span>(and all wild species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium</span>) is overgrazing, generally during the seed production months in the summer (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001),  but as the species is reasonably widely distributed this is unlikely to threaten the species overall.
176494		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. alopex</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species. It is not protected<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span>. </p><p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></p><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176494		distribution	eng	Endemic to Iceland (Clayton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006 onwards), where<span style="background-color: white;"> the main area of distribution is within the semi-continental, northeastern part of the country. It mainly occurs</span><span style="background-color: white;"> in Suður-Þingeyjarsýsla</span><span style="background-color: white;">, but is also found in Skagafjarðarsýsla and Eyjafjarðarsýsla. Some populations also occur in the inner part of Vopnafjörður, and in Fljótsdalur Valley in Fljótsdalshérað. Occurrences outside these areas are very fragmentary. It is most common in the forested valleys (native birch) of Suður-Þingeyjarsýsla.</span> <span style="background-color: white;"> </span>  It grows only in the lowland areas, up to 300 m.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> Its area of occupancy (AOO) probably approaches the threshold of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
176494		habitat	eng	<p>The main habitat is the native birch woodland where it occurs as undergrowth in the woods and in sheltered clearings. Outside the woods, it is also found scattered in heathland, usually dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula nana</span> intermixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix phylicifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix lanata</span>. </p>
176494		population	eng	<p>The plants are usually rather scattered and solitary, and rarely found in dense patches. Although fragmented, the overall population appears to be relatively stable at present. Increasing reforestation with birch is probably favourable. The populations that occur in heathland areas also seem to be stable.</p>
176494		threats	eng	<p>Severe deforestation in past centuries probably destroyed much of the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus alopex</span>, but it survived in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula nana</span> heathland which replaced the previous birch woodlands and currently does not face any major threats.<br/></p>
176495		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. lesinsii</span> has 10 accessions held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176495		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. lesinsii</span> is native to Greece, Sardinia and Spain in Europe, but is also found in parts of northern Africa and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176495		habitat	eng	Not much is known about the ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. lesinsii </span>due to infrequent collection expeditions, but it is known to grow in Mediterranean habitats (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176495		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered     widespread and a common species throughout its range, although it has been infrequently collected (Alatawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176495		threats	eng	There are no known threats particularly impacting this species.
176496		conservation	eng	In Hungary <span style="font-style: italic;">M. albus </span>is not protected although sometimes it is used as a green manure   (Király 2007). EURISCO reports 101 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 50 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 39 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176496		distribution	eng	Native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe (Euro+Med Plantbase 2010), temperate Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), northern Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Myanmar (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Cyprus, Meikle (1977) stated that the species is possibly an introduction or casual. It is recorded only in Troodos area (Botanical devision 2). In Germany it is considered an archeophyt, native, not endangered, not protected; common and widespread, as it is in Hungary   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992), while in France it is recorded in all departments with the exception of Tarn in the south (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176496		habitat	eng	Found in natural grassland, ruderal grassland, eutrophic, dry sites in Germany and in Hungary it appears to be indifferent to reaction of soils, preferably calcareous nitrogen-enriched clay, loam, loess, sandy soils. Grows in embankments (<span style="font-style: italic;">Meliloto-Echietum</span>) dry roadside vegetations (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hordeetum murini</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schlerochloo-Polygonetum avicularis</span>), arable lands, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodietes</span> species   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176496		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered   common throughout its range and populations are thought to be stable.
176496		threats	eng	There appears  to be no major   threats. It is found in a number of habitats  that are not threatened.
176497		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/>It occurs at least in one protected area. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of this site.  <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. hispanicus</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176497		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. hispanicus</span> is native to southern Spain, Algeria and Morocco (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). It has a very restricted distribution in southern Spain.
176497		habitat	eng	It is found in wet meadows in calcareous soils.
176497		population	eng	<p>There is no detailed information available about the population size or trend of this species in Spain; however, it is suspected that while of restricted range, the population is relatively large.<br/></p>
176497		threats	eng	Livestock grazing is a threat to this species.
176499		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. soleirolii </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks, and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the region of Corse (Corsica) (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176499		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. soleirolii </span>is native to Algeria and Tunisia, but is naturalised in France and Italy. However in the Ukraine <span style="font-style: italic;">M. soleirolii </span>grows adventively<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(introduced)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>In France it is confined to the departments of   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176499		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. soleirolii</span> grows on calcareous soils and sandy soils on grassy slopes, fields and scrubland (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176499		population	eng	The exact population size in Europe is unknown.
176499		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
176500		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 18 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. ruderale</span> held in European genebanks, 13 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, seven originate from within Europe; five from Germany (stored in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and two recorded from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176500		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. ruderale</span> is native to much of Europe and temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>  <p>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:</p>  <ul><li>Slovakia: distributed throughout the country (Kmeťová 2002).</li><li>Finland: concentrated in southern parts of the country, not present in the north.</li><li>Spain: found in the centre and north.</li><li>Romania: common throughout.</li><li>Portugal: found in the centre of the country.<br/></li><li>France: widespread throughout the country although not recorded in 22 departments and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>  UK and Ireland: relatively widespread across England with the exception of northern parts where the distribution is very patchy (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It also has a patchy distribution within Wales and Scotland and is only recorded in three localities in the east of Northern Ireland and in four localities in Ireland—one on the east coast and three in the southwest (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). </li></ul><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176500		habitat	eng	This annual species is tolerant of saline conditions (Rich 1991) and is an  indicator of primary saline habitats in central Europe. It is often found on banks and bare wastelands near the sea, as well as roadsides, rubbish tips, gardens, waste places and salted road verges.
176500		population	eng	This species consists of mostly large subpopulations with many individuals. <br/><br/>It is common in Romania and Slovakia and has increased in number in Poland. However, in the UK there has been a decrease in the last 60 years.
176500		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176501		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. hisutus</span> is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> genebanks in Europe with 134 accession spread across 14 genebanks sampled from throughout the species range, despite having accessions in a number of collections, including the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (17 accessions) and the Regional Plant Introduction Station in the USA (16 accessions).&#160; <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 129 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 94 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 23 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in     many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its     conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject     to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>In Slovakia,<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. hirsutus</span> is classified as Endangered (EN) (Eliáš P. jun  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/>Assessments by Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) and Colling (2005) found <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hirsutus </span>to be Critically Endangered (BGCI 2009).
176501		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hisutus</span> is native to most of Europe and temperate Asia, as well as certain areas of the Indian subcontinent and parts of north Africa. It has been naturalised in the Azores (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)   records it as being present in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Corsica, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia, Former Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia in Europe, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey in Europe and Ukraine. In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments. Not recorded in the northern departments of Manche,   Seine-Maritime, Ardennes, Paris,   Hauts-de-Seine,   Seine-Saint-Denis, the eastern department of Doubs and the southern department of   Lozère (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><p>  </p>
176501		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. hirsutus</span> is a winter annual species which flowers in early April. It grows best on well-drained soils, although it also grows well on soils too wet for other legumes (namely clover).&#160; It can grow on lime and acid soils, and in wet conditions, although it it most successful on light, sandy soils. It can tolerate an average rainfall of 820 mm, an average temperature of 13.6ºC, and an average pH of 6.6 (Duke 1981).
176501		population	eng	This is a widespread species, rather common throughout its range, it is  found in several  habitats    which are not threatened; its populations appear to be  stable.
176501		threats	eng	This species is likely to be grazed by wild and domesticated species in the pasture and agricultural margins.
176502		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron </span>is listed  in     Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources  for   Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dasyanthum</span> which are stored in the genebank  of the Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine  (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Protection of the sites where the species is present is recommended as well as complimentary <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation, especially for the unique variety near Krementchuge and Kachovka.
176502		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. dasyanthum</span> is endemic to Ukraine (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly   2009). It occurs in isolated sites from Krementchuge to the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> along the<span style="background-color: white;"> left bank (b</span>eaches) of the Dnieper and the River Molochna<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. There are also isolated localities on sandy soils of south Bug near the cities of <span class="msoDel">Mikolayiv and Melitopol (Fedorov 1974). Near Krementchuge, the variety <span style="font-style: italic;">glabrum</span> is found. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup></span><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><p><br/></p></span></span>
176502		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in sandy soils on beaches along permanent rivers, as well as coastal areas.</p>
176502		population	eng	<p>The population size and trend are unknown. The sites where the species occurs are severely fragmented.</p>
176502		threats	eng	<p>The two isolated sites near the cities <span class="msoDel">Mikolayiv and Melitopol are affected by development for tourism and other infrastructural development. There is no information available about threats to the Dnieper populations.</p>
176503		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports 31 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 10 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe. This accession originates from Spain and is also stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176503		distribution	eng	Native to southern Spain and northern Africa (United States Department of Agriculture, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) an<span style="background-color: white;">d Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) records it as native in France, Italy, Malta and Spain. In France it is confined to the department of   Bouches-du-Rhône in the southeast and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).</span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176503		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hedysarum coronarium </span>is found primarily as a ruderal weed and on banks and roadsides that are not too dry.
176503		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range and populations are thought to be stable.
176503		threats	eng	This is a common species within its range and there appears to be no major threats. It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region, populations appears to be stable.
176504		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span>No seed accessions are held in European gene banks and only one accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. grandiflorus </span>is held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at a genebank, the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Material should be gathered for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas, so monitoring and active management of the species are recommended. <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in   many existing  protected areas throughout its range but as its   conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject   to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176504		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. grandiflorus</span> is found throughout most of southeastern Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)  records it as being present in Albania,  Bulgaria, Former  Yugoslavia,  France,  Great  Britain,  Greece,  Italy and  Sicily, but it is&#160;  not recorded as present anywhere in France or Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010) and Stace (1997) says it is introduced and naturalized within the UK. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176504		habitat	eng	This species occurs in clearings in forests.
176504		population	eng	This is a rather rare species in Greece and Bulgaria, but it is much more common in Italy. It is found in several habitats  which are not threatened; populations appear to be  stable.
176504		threats	eng	There are no specific threats.
176505		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosus </span>is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> germplasm collections, with only four accessions being held by the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 38 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 23 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 14 originate from within Europe. These 14 accessions originate from Czech Republic (seven), France (four), Hungary (one), Spain (one) and Sweden (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  Although it occurs in protected areas, there is no active management,  but it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing   protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in  these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to  population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>Assessments by Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) and Gärdenfors (2005) have found <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosus</span> to be Vulnerable (BGCI 2009).
176505		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. tuberosus</span> is widely distributed across most of Europe and Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)      records it as being present in Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia, Former Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia in Europe, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In France this species is widespread and it occurs in the majority of departments. Not recorded in the western and southwestern departments of   Finistère, Morbihan,   Côtes d'Armor,   Ille-et-Vilaine, Manche, Charente, Haute-Vienne, Creuse, Gers and Tarn. Not recorded in Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176505		habitat	eng	This species is found in water meadows, grassy banks and fallow fields.
176505		population	eng	This is a widespread species, common throughout its range, it is  found in several  habitats    which are not threatened. Its population appears to be  stable.
176505		threats	eng	This is a relatively common species found in several grassy habitats,   that appears to be under no major threat within the region.
176506		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">I. praecox</span> is evaluated as Endangered (EN) (Goliašová <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. praecox</span> held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, neither of these originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176506		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. praecox</span> is native to east and southeast Europe, as well as to Morocco (Marhold 2011).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, this species is distributed in the south an southeast—20 localities are known in total (Goliašová <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). <br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176506		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
176506		population	eng	The species is rare in Slovakia but the population trend is stable.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176506		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176507		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Camelina </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. </p><p>EURISCO reports 20 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> held in European genebanks, 13 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 10 originate from within Europe; one from Italy (stored in Banco de Germoplasma, Spain), eight originating from Spain (stored in Banco de Germoplasma, Spain) and one originating from Ukraine (stored in the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Poland) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176507		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> is native to central, east, southeastern, southwestern and north Europe, temperate Asia and north Africa and is naturalised elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Slovakia this species is widespread with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">microcarpa</span> occurring particularly in the west and southwest of the country, and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">sylvestris</span> distributed throughout (Eliáš 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176507		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. microcarpa</span> prefers disturbed habitats including ruderal, dry rocky places, roadside ditches, weedy areas and meadows.
176507		population	eng	This species is widespread, with stable subpopulations throughout its European range.
176507		threats	eng	<p>There are currently no major threats to this species.</p>
176508		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture.<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports six germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutifolius</span> held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of the wild accessions originate from within Europe, four from Spain and one from Italy (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is however a priority for this species to ensure that material is available for future potential use in crop improvement programs.</p>
176508		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutifolius</span> is native to southwestern and southeastern Europe, as well as north Africa and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France this species is widespread in the south of the country, in contrast it is only present in one department (Yvelines) in the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
176508		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutifolius</span> is found in bushy and semi-dry areas, in sun or partial shade, mainly on limestone (Sica <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Italy, this species is found in southern areas in xerophytic conditions, particularly in the Mediterranean macchia ecosystem (Aceto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Conversa and Elia 2009). <br/><br/>This is a perennial dioecious species, mainly pollinated by bees, and while self-pollination is possible, it is rare (Sica <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutifolius</span> is resistant to the fungal diseases <span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinia asparagi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stemphylium vesicarium</span> (Alberti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176508		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its European range.
176508		threats	eng	While <span style="font-style: italic;">A. acutifolius </span>is known to be collected in the wild, it is unknown if collection is extensive. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
176509		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation measures available.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176509		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. meyeri</span> is native to the majority of European countries, and is also found across temperate regions in Asia and northern Africa. It is widely naturalised throughout Russia, Australasia and North and South America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The species originated from the middle Asian Caucasus, central Europe and the Mediterranean. It is found in the western part of South  European Russia, in Ukraine close to the Black Sea, lower Don, lower Wolga (Fedorov 1987).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176509		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. meyeri</span> prefers dry soils and grows in an array of different habitats, including   moist grassy banks, woodland edges, rocky limestone slopes, steppe, sand dunes, cultivated land, maquis, open coniferous woodlands, pastures, and cliff tops. It is also tolerant of heavy grazing (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Russia it grows in steppe and semi-deserts, on sandy soils. Can occur as a weedy plant in fields. It is an annual species that grows up to 20 cm.
176509		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered         widespread and a common species throughout its range. The population trend is unknown.
176509		threats	eng	There is no information on specific threats for this species.
176510		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. annuus</span> has germplasm stored <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in genebanks worldwide, in Europe accessions are held by   Banco de Germoplasma - Departamento de Recursos Genéticos e Melhoramento, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária (Lisbon, Portugal); Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben, Germany); Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov' (Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Laboratory of Plants Gene Pool and Breeding, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos (Madrid, Spain), University of Yerevan (Yerevan, Armenia), Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey); ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks. <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 30 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 114 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, eight originate from within Europe. These originate from Belgium (one), Germany (two) and Spain (five) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176510		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. annuus</span> has a large distributional range, occurring in much of southern Europe (including the Canary Islands and the Madeira Islands), western Asia and parts of central Asia, as well north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010) records it as being present in Albania, Azores, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, Corsica, Crete, Estonia, Former Yugoslavia, France, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain and Turkey in Europe.  Specifically it covers the majority of central and southern Italy, centre and south, possibly in the north west Portugal and in  centre west, south, east Spain.<span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>In France it occurs in 22 departments across the so</span>uth of the country. Also recorded to occur in the departments of   Maine-et-Loire in the west and Somme to the north (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176510		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. annuus </span>is commonly found on wastelands (Stace 2004). In Portugal it grows in cultivated land.
176510		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus annuus</span> is common throughout its range, where it is found in several habitats  which are not threatened; populations appears to be  stable.
176510		threats	eng	Although this species is relatively common and has a fairly wide distribuition the species is found in habitats prone to Mediterranean summer fire and  so with increasing fires the species is potentially threatened by fire  and overgrazing.
176511		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fragile </span>held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, none of these originate from within European Russia (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is required for the European population of this species.  <br/><br/>The <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation status of this species is unknown. Research is needed into the population trend and potential threats to this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. fragile</span> is included in the Red List of Russia and in the regional Red Data Book of Bashkortostan (category 3: Rare (d)—a taxon which has a large world area, but occupies the edge of the area in Russia) (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005).
176511		distribution	eng	Native to south European Russia (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly     2009), as well as the Caucasus, Siberia, middle Asia, Mongolia and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Europe, this species is only found south of the Wolga region close to the Russian Caucasus, where it has been reported from only one locality in Bashkortostan. This area is suspected to account for slightly more than 1% of its global population. It is common in Siberia and middle Asia.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176511		habitat	eng	It grows in sandy soils and on sandy riverbanks in steppe regions and semi-deserts (Bobrov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1974).
176511		population	eng	There is no information about the European population of this species, except that it only occurs at one locality and has quite specific ecological requirements.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176511		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species.
176512		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa </span>is   listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic   Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>This species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and Endangered (EN) in Slovakia (Tomšovic and Goliašová 2002).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. pyrenaica</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage should be carried out as necessary.
176512		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. pyrenaica</span> is native to central, southern, southwestern and southeastern parts of Europe (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).<br/><br/>In Slovakia <span style="font-style: italic;">R. pyrenaica</span> occurs only in the Nízke Poloniny Mountains and the ?ergov Mountains (northeastern Slovakia), with around 14 known localities&#160; (Tomšovic and Goliašová 2002).
176512		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. pyrenaica</span> can be found on river banks, in meadows, orchards and forest edges.
176512		population	eng	This species is known to be common in Romania and the north of Spain, but rare in Slovakia. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176512		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown, despite it being classified as threatened in national assessments.
176513		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. arborea </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 27 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 12 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe: from France (one), Greece (two), Italy (one) and Spain (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176513		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">M. arborea</span> is only native to southeastern Europe and Turkey in Asia (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but has been naturalised in Africa, Australasia, Europe and South America (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It seems likely that it would exist in Turkey in Europe but we have no records for its presence there.<strong><br/><br/><br/> </strong>
176513		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. arborea</span> grows on dry soils, genrally on rocky hillsides (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176513		population	eng	This species has a relatively restricted distribution. Its population appears to be stable (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176513		threats	eng	There  appears to be no major  threats. It is  found in several habitats which are not threatened within  its  distribution (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176514		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. italica </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks and this is not reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176514		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. italica</span> is native to southern Europe and parts of north Africa (<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but has been naturalised in Australia and is cultivated worldwide (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> is native to Madeira according to Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008).<br/><strong> </strong></span></span>
176514		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. italica</span> is often found growing on the seashore in sandy soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176514		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered   widespread and common species throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). Its population trend is considered stable.
176514		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is  found several habitats which are not threatened within its region. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176515		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. panormitanus</span> is listed asVulnerable in Romania (Dihoru and Negrean 2009).<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in Greece and Cyprus. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. panormitanus </span>held in European genebanks, three of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe (France) and is stored in the Genebank Department, Division of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Research Institute of Crop Production, Czech Republic (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176515		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. panormitanus</span> is native to parts of east and southeastern Europe, and western Asia (including Cyprus) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It is also found in southwestern Europe (France and Spain).<br/><br/>In Cyprus, it is recorded in the Troodos area (Botanical division 2) (Meikle 1985).<br/><br/>In Greece, the main area of distribution is in Peloponnese and Crete, where it is mainly observed in mountainous regions—there is only one record from the north (Damanakis and Economou 1986).<br/><br/>In France, the taxon (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">Roegneria canina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hispanica</span>) is only present in the department of   Ariège (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176515		habitat	eng	In Greece, this species is mainly found in forested areas in the mountains. In Cyprus, it is found on igneous mountainsides at high altitudes, in pine forest or in orchards and vineyards from 4,000–7,000 ft (Meikle 1977).
176515		population	eng	It is widespread, common and stable in Bulgaria, but rather rare in Greece.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176515		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by overgrazing in Greece—especially in Crete.
176516		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. littoralis</span> is not included in Red Data Book of Ukraine but is included in the Red Data Book of Crimea which is in preparation. <br/><br/>Protection and conservation management of all subpopulations is needed.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. littoralis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176516		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Endemic to Ukraine (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) where it occurs on the western and southern coast of Crimea. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176516		habitat	eng	It grows in coastal, rocky areas (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980) and beside saline lakes.
176516		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations are restricted in size, isolated, and comprise a small number of individuals (Golubev 1996).</p>
176516		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are tourism and recreation in the littoral zone of the southern slopes of the Crimean Mountains. </p>
176517		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span> is known to occur  in protected areas in Greece. It is recommended that population  monitoring is incorporated into the management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span> stored in European collections, only one of which is recorded to be of wild origin and which was collected in Adana, Turkey (stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage of germplasm from the European populations is needed.<br/><br/>Research is needed into the population size, distribution and trends,  life history and ecology, and potential threats.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176517		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Native to southeastern (Bulgaria and Greece, including Crete) and southwestern (Balearic Islands) Europe, as well as to parts of western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>In Bulgaria, it occurs on the Black Sea coast and in Greece it is found in Crete, the East Aegean Islands and on the mainland. In Crete, it is found from 0–500 m (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).<br/><br/>Hernández Bemejo and Clemente (1993) consider this species to be introduced in Spain. <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176517		habitat	eng	This species can be found in fallow fields and waste places, favouring damp ground in the Mediterranean (Blamey and Grey-Wilson 2004). In Crete, it grows in weed communities and on roadsides (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993). It is also found in coastal and inland rocky areas.
176517		population	eng	In Greece, the subpopulations are scattered but the species seems to be stable. The population size and trend is unknown in Bulgaria.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176517		threats	eng	Overgrazing and development for tourism are threats to this species.
176518		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. arabica </span>is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/>An assessment by Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) found <span style="font-style: italic;">M. arabica</span> to be Vulnerable (BGCI 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>There are  83 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 58 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 47 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176518		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. arabica</span> is native to much of Europe, western Asia and northern Africa<span style="background-color: white;"> (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has been widely naturalised in Africa, Australia, Europe, and the Americas <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France it is widespread, occurs in all departments with the exceptions of   Hauts-de-Seine to the north and   Territoire de Belfort in the east in which this species is not recorded (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<strong><br/><br/></strong>  In the UK it is widespread in the southern half of England with a patchy, coastal distribution within Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Alien occurrences have been recorded in northern England, Scotland and in one locality in Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176518		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. arabica</span> is a winter annual, flowering in the summer and the autumn (Duke 1981), and is found growing in a wide range of habitats, including grasslands and meadows, as well as on roadsides next to agricultural land, stream sides and the edges of woodlands (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It can grow in almost every type of soil, but grows best in loams. It can tolerate soil pH between 5.6 and 8.2, a mean annual temperature of 14.5ºC, and mean rainfall of 770 mm (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>  In the UK this lowland species occurs in grassy areas with a preference for sandy and gravelly soils, often found in coastal areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176518		population	eng	<p>This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its distribution, and its population appears to be stable (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>In the UK, according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species has shown an increase in its distribution since the previous ‘Atlas’ (Perring and Walters 1962) particularly in south England and the Midlands. It thrives particularly in inland areas although the reasons for this are as yet unknown (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176518		threats	eng	<p>This is a common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is found several habitats which are not threatened within its region (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>
176519		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>  It occurs in protected areas in Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia (Šarplanina National Park and Stara Planina Nature Park); however, it is not monitored or actively managed. Research is needed on the distribution and population trends of this species and a monitoring programme should be implemented.<br/><br/>In Serbia it is evaluated as Lower Risk LRcd.
176519		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">This species is recorded by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) as native to Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia and Macedonia. However, </span>    <span style="background-color: white;">V. Stevanović </span><span style="background-color: white;">(pers. comm. 2010) believes that its presence in Greece is doubtful. </span>It has a scattered distribution in high mountain areas of the central Balkans above 1,500 m. Its distribution is of a mountain insular type characterized by micro-disjunctions. <span style="background-color: white;">The main range of this species is in Bulgaria. </span><br/><br/>The following localities have been recorded<span style="background-color: white;"> (Stevanović </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2010):</span><br/><ul><li>Central Bosnia: Mt. Vranica. A single locality which is very distant from the closest ones which are in the bordering mountains between Montenegro and Albania (Mt. Prokletije—Bjesket e Nemuna).</li><li>Serbia: Kosovo and Metochia province (Mt. Prokletije, Mt. Šarplanina); east Serbia (Mt. Stara Planina).</li><li>Montenegro: Mt. Prokletije.</li><li>Albania: Mts Prokletije—Bjesket e Nemuna, Mj Jalica—Maje e Djalices, Mt. Korab.</li><li>FYR Macedonia: Mts. Šarplanina, Rudoka, Vraca and Korab.</li><li>Bulgaria: the west and central part of Mt. Stara Planina—Mt. Balkan, Mts. Rila and Pirin; west and central Rhodopes.</li><li>Greece: Mts. Triklario and Varnous. These records are cited in the literature but specimens have not been seen; therefore, this locality requires confirmation. The localities in Greece are distant from neighbouring ones in FYR Macedonia and Albania.</li></ul>
176519		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in wet meadows and peat bogs along mountain rivers, streams, creeks and pond banks above (1,300-)1,500 m up to 2,200 m. It prefers silicious (acid) substrates. </p>
176519		population	eng	In Serbia, the subpopulations at Mt. Prokletije and Mt. Šarplanina are stable, but the subpopulation on Mt. Stara Planina is under severe threat due to the planned construction of an artificial ski slope. The overall population trend is thought to be stable.
176519		threats	eng	In Serbia, one subpopulation on Mt. Stara Planina is under severe threa<span style="background-color: white;">t from planned construction work to create an artificial ski slope. However, there are no other immediate major threats reported to the rest of the subpopulations across its range. </span>As this species is restricted to high altitudes, it could be particularly threatened by climate  change.
176520		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>It is classified as Endangered (EN) in Hungary (Király 2007), Critically Endangered in Romania (Dihoru and Negrean 2009) and Vulnerable (VU) in Switzerland (<span lang="EN-US">Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002).       <p>EURISCO  reports six germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, all of  which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild  accessions, five originate from within Europe; one from France and four  from Spain. All five of these wild accessions are stored in the Banco de  Germoplasma, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.</p>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur naturally in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.
176520		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. graminifolium</span> is native to central, eastern, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as north Africa and western countries of temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></span></span>
176520		habitat	eng	This species is often found in ruderal sites, wastelands, roadsides, cultivated fields and vineyards (disturbed habitats). In Hungary it grows in trampled weed associations (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sclerochloo</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonetum avicularis</span>) and pastures (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cynodonto</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetum pseudovinae</span>)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176520		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is widespread within its native distribution but rare at the periphery of its range.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> For example, <span style="background-color: white;">in Romania extremely small populations exist at its northern limits.</span></span>
176520		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176521		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. doliata </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports 42 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 41 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 38 originate from within Europe: six of which originate from Portugal and 32 of which originate from Spain. All 38 of these wild accessions are stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176521		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. doliata</span> is found in southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/></strong><br/>In France it is confined to six southeastern departments (Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault,   Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes) and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<strong><br/><br/></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></strong>
176521		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. doliata </span>is found in fields or on field margins, growing on sandy and chalky soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176521		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered   common throughout its range and its population levels are considered stable (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176521		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), however it is common in diverse habitats so overall is not considered seriously threatened.
176522		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. prolifera</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
176522		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. prolifera</span> is native to parts of east and southeast Europe (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).<span style="background-color: yellow;"> </span>Its area of occupancy (AOO) is suspected to be relatively small—probably below 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176522		habitat	eng	This species occurs in grasslands, pastures, and along riversides.
176522		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. prolifera</span> is known to be rare in Europe. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.
176522		threats	eng	It is threatened in some areas by overgrazing.
176523		conservation	eng	No accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. hypogaea</span>  currently exist <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>in genebanks (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010). No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Material should be gathered for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation. More research is needed on the population trends and the distribution. A monitoring  programme should be implemented.
176523		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. hypogaea</span> is native to parts of north Africa and western Asia, including the northern part of Cyprus and Turkey (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</strong><br/><strong><br/><br/> </strong>
176523		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. hypogaea </span>is found in very dry Mediterranean scrub vegetation, dry trampled grasslands and rocky environments (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176523		population	eng	The population size is unknown. This species is probably much more frequent than the records suggest, as it is a rather small species, easily overlooked. The population trend is considered stable.
176523		threats	eng	This species is related to very dry habitats and suffers from drought; climate change is likely to accentuate this impact.
176524		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Camelina </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">C. rumelica</span><span style="background-color: white;"> held in European genebanks; however, none of these accessions originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</span> Germplasm was collected in Slovakia (from Kamenica nad Hronom) by P. Eliáš, Jr. in 2009 and is stored in the Millennium Seed Bank, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, United Kingdom and in the Slovak National Gene Bank in Piešťany.<span style="background-color: white;">  Germplasm collection and duplicated </span><em style="background-color: white;">ex situ</em><span style="background-color: white;"> storage from the rest of this species' range is a priority.  </span><br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rumelica</span> is classified as Critically Endangered (CR) (Eliáš <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and in Hungary, it<em> </em>is classified as Data Deficient (DD) (Király 2007).  <br/><br/>Research on the distribution and population trends is needed and a monitoring programme should be implemented.
176524		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. rumelica</span> is native to central, eastern and southeastern Europe, as well as parts of temperate and tropical Asia and north Africa. It has been introduced to other parts of Europe and North America where it has become naturalized (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rumelica</span> was known from around five native and five secondary sites, especially in the west and southwest. However, only two localities still exist: the first in Kamenica and Hronom (northern margin of the village) and the second in Bajtava, along the road to Salka<span style="background-color: white;"> (Eliáš 2002, Eliáš unpublished data).</span>
176524		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy soils in cultivated land and on roadsides.
176524		population	eng	This is a rare species in Hungary and Romania. In Slovakia, the number of localities has decreased over the last ten years, but the subpopulations at the two remaining sites are stable.
176524		threats	eng	In Slovakia, one locality at Vŕšok Nature Reserve near Nána village was lost due to succession of native grassland vegetation at the end of the 20th century (<span style="background-color: white;">Eliáš unpublished data</span>). The use of herbicides might impact this species in part of its range.
176525		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. tomentella</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
176525		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. tomentella</span> is native to Greece, Moldova and Ukraine with Crimea (Marhold 2011).
176525		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
176525		population	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.
176525		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176526		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. strasseri</span>   has few accessions available in gene banks. More research is needed on the distribution and population trends of this rare endemic. A monitoring programme should be set up.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of these wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe. This accession originates from Spain and is also stored in Spain (Comunidad de Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Banco de Germoplasma) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176526		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. strasseri</span> in endemic to Crete, Greece (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176526		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. strasseri </span>has only been found growing on vertical limestone cliff faces in Crete (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176526		population	eng	This is a rare species. Its population trend is unknown.
176526		threats	eng	Overgrazing might be a threat to this species.
176527		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. suffruticosa </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. EURISCO reports six germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, three originate from within Europe. The three wild accessions originate from Spain and are also stored in Spain (Comunidad de Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Banco de Germoplasma) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176527		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. suffruticosa</span> is native only to France and Spain in Europe, but is also found in the Atlas Mountains in Morocco (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It also occurs in Andorra. In France it is confined to seven departments in the south of the country:   Pyrénées-Atlantiques,   Hautes-Pyrénées, Haute-Garonne,   Ariège, Aude,   Pyrénées Orientales and   Hérault (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176527		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. suffruticosa</span> grows in mid-mountain zones on calcareous rocks (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is also found in meadows, wetlands and eroded areas.
176527		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species in Spain and the population levels appear stable.
176527		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), however it is found in several habitats.
176528		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. Some subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. albus</span> occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.      <p>EURISCO reports one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. albus</span> held in European genebanks, which is not of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
176528		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. albus</span> is native to parts of southeast and southwest Europe, as well as north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France, it is only found only in the department of   Isère in the east and on Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).
176528		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. albus</span> is a typical species of Mediterranean shrublands (maquis), and can also be found in abandoned land, ruderal places and coastal areas. It is resistant to the fungal diseases <span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinia asparagi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stemphylium  vesicarium</span> (Alberti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Its fruits are dispersed by birds (Tirado and Pugnaire 2003).
176528		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its range.
176528		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176529		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bosniaca</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>It is classified in Bosnia and Herzegovina as Rare (Šilić 1996); however, little is currently known about the threat status of this species—a survey is required to determine the current status of the remaining subpopulations.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176529		distribution	eng	Endemic to Bosnia-Herzegovina (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006) where it is only found at several localities in the surroundings of Travnik, Fojnica and Sarajevo (central Bosnia) (Stevanović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
176529		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species grows in wet meadows, on the edges of alluvial forests, along streams and rivers, in sunny or slightly shady sites between 650 and 1,300 m; it grows in wet and nutrient rich clay or sandy soils and flowers (April-) May–July (Šilić1984)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.</span>
176529		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>According to Beck (1903) this species was frequent around Sarajevo (Grbavica,  Kovačić, Mrković, Lukavica and Pale) in the first half of the 20th  century. However, it is now extinct from these localities. There is currently no information available about the remaining subpopulations.
176529		threats	eng	Extensive urbanization around Sarajevo is known to have caused the loss of some subpopulations in the past and probably continues to pose a serious threat to this species.
176530		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrophylla</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to confirm the validity of this species. If  it is considered a valid taxon, information is needed on its exact  distribution and habitat type, the population size and trend, potential  threats, and its <em>in situ</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status.
176530		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrophylla</span> is endemic to Greece (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). As the validity of this taxon is uncertain, the exact distribution is unknown.
176530		habitat	eng	Strid (1986) includes <span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrophylla</span> in the description of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> and describes it as growing on montane levels and occasionally in wet habitats on the timberline in northern Greece. If a valid taxon, further research is needed to gather information about its specific habitat.
176530		population	eng	If it is a valid taxon, further research is needed to gather information about its population size and trend.
176530		threats	eng	If a valid taxon, further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
176531		conservation	eng	<p><em>A. halimus</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.</p>  Some subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only eight germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. halimus</span> held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, four originate from within Europe (Spain) and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.
176531		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. halimus</span> is native to southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), northern and southern Africa, east and south tropical Africa, and the western Indian Ocean (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Spain, Portugal and Italy it is found in coastal regions. According to Association Tela Botanica (2000–2010) it is present in France within departments along the northern, western and southern borders and is absent from the central departments and those along the eastern border.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176531		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. halimus</span> occurs in sandy loam or saline, dry soils and marshes, always with some salinity. In Italy, Portugal and Spain it is found in dunes and coastal areas.
176531		population	eng	This species is known to be common and abundant in its preferred habitat.
176531		threats	eng	This species occurs in dune habitats that are susceptible to tourist activities; therefore the habitat may be unstable.
176532		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. carrerasii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>As this taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>, any information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. carrerasii</span> related to its conservation status that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>.
176532		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. carrerasii</span> was recorded by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) as native to the Balearic islands.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/><br/><br/></span>
176532		habitat	eng	This taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>;  therefore, no habitat information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. carrerasii</span> is recorded in this assessment. Any such information related to this taxon that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>.
176532		population	eng	<p>This taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>;  therefore, no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. carrerasii</span> is recorded in this assessment. Any such information related to this taxon that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>.</p>
176532		threats	eng	This taxon has recently been confirmed as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>;  therefore, no threats information for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. carrerasii</span> is recorded in this assessment. Any such information related to this taxon that is forthcoming in the  future will be relevant for the assessment of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. spinosum</span>.
176533		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>Some populations occur within existing protected areas; however, these populations are not monitored or managed and the problem of invasive species and overgrazing also occurs at these sites. There is a need for population genetic and reproductive biology studies.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. arborescens</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary. It is thought that material might be stored in the seed bank of the Jardin Botánico Viera y Clavijo and grown in the living collection.
176533		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. arborescens</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands. It occurs on all of the seven largest islands within the archipelago: Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro (Acebes Ginovés<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).  The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km².
176533		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland dry areas, often on rocky slopes in <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia </span>communities. For example, in Tenerife it can be found in the dry habitats of the south and west up to 100 m and in La Gomera in the dry rocky slopes above Puerto Vallehermoso (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001).
176533		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Nogales <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) report that this species exists in sparse and locally distributed populations in the north of Lanzarote. It is also rare in Fuerteventura, Hierro and La Palma.
176533		threats	eng	Populations outside protected areas are under threat from development for tourism and the construction of new roads. Overgrazing&#160; by goats and rabbits is an additional threat, especially in Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. Invasive species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Agave </span>spp. and expanding populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pennisetum setaceum</span> also threaten this species.
176534		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pseudoscaber</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.<br/><br/>It is listed as Critically Endangered in Serbia (Stevanović 1999).<span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>Research is needed on its precise distribution, habitat preference, population size and trend, as well as its <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>conservation status and potential threats.
176534		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pseudoscaber</span> is native to Romania, Former Yugoslavia and Ukraine (Govearts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006–2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176534		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>
176534		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176534		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176535		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron </span>is listed  in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tanaiticum</span> are reported by EURISCO (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) or SINGER. A review of the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>storage should be made a priority if necessary. <br/><br/>The species is included in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants as Rare (Walter and Gillett 1998) and is listed in the regional Red List of the Belgorodsk region (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005). <br/><br/>In Ukraine, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tanaiticum </span>occurs in in Siversko-Donezkiy National Park, Lugansk region (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). Monitoring and active management of the subpopulation is needed in this protected area.<br/><br/>Further protection and active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> management of this species are urgently required given its extremely narrow range and habitat specificity.<br/><br/>Research on the number of mature individuals,  the population and habitat trend and number of localities is needed in order to fully assess the  threat status of this species.
176535		distribution	eng	Native to central and South European Russia and Ukraine <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>(Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly      2009). In Ukraine, it occurs in Siverskij Donets River basin in Charkiv and Lugansk regions and one isolated locality is reported from near the town of Poltava (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). This species is a very narrow endemic to the Don River basin, where it is confined to the Tsymlayanskye and Don-Archedinskye sandy lands. It is limited in its distribution by the sandy soils and sandy terraces of beaches of two rivers: Severskij Donets and Don. <br/>Its area of occupancy (AOO) is well below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176535		habitat	eng	This species is limited to a very specific habitat which is hillocky, sandy upper stream terraces in the Siversky Donets River basin on poorly sodded soils (Malyshev 2003–2009) and sparse vegetation (Prokudin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1977). The soils are sandy but need to be very dense. It is a pioneer and dominant species of this habitat, where it typically occurs along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia seguieriana</span> (Prokudin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1977).
176535		population	eng	There are only a few isolated subpopulations of this species as it is limited to a very specific habitat. The population trend is unknown.
176535		threats	eng	Urbanization and silviculture are the main threats to this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176536		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">D. gomez-campoi</span> occurs in protected areas and military zones. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. gomez-campoi</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176536		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. gomez-campoi</span> is native to Spain (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). Its occurrence in Portugal is doubtful (Martínez Laborde 1996).
176536		habitat	eng	It behaves as a ruderal species in dry environments and favours gypsum soils.
176536		population	eng	It is a widespread species which is common in gypsum soils.
176536		threats	eng	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.
176537		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. hybrida </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. It occurs in several protected areas.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, only one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176537		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. hybrida </span>is endemic to the south of France (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and also occurs in Spain and Morocco (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><br/><br/>In France it is confined to the departments of Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Aude and Pyrénées Orientales in the south of the country (Association Tela Botanica 2010).</strong><strong><br/> </strong>
176537		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. hybrida </span>grows on grassy glades on limestone slopes, on open scrublands, dry rocky hillsides and pine forests (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176537		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered widespread and a common species in Spain (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). The population trend is considered stable.
176537		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, but it is common in diverse habitats so overall is not considered seriously threatened.
176538		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>It is currently classified as Endangered (EN) in Luxembourg (Colling 2005), but as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010). In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">I .tinctoria</span> L. ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">praecox</span> is protected according to the national list of protected and strictly protected plant  and animal species, and the Government decree on the Natura 2000 sites  for the restoration of natural habitats and the maintenance of viable  populations of protected species. It is classified in this country as Near Threatened (NT)   (Király 2007).<br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 88 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. tinctoria </span>held in European genebanks, 36 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 23 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176538		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. tinctoria</span> is native to large parts of Europe, as well as north Africa and temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Portugal: presence is uncertain, but if present it is only found in the northeast part of the country.</li><li>Hungary: <span style="font-style: italic;">I. tinctoria</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">praecox</span> occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Bükk-mountain: Szarvaskő, Buda-mountain: Csíki-mountains, Üllő), Hajdúszoboszló and Debrecen (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: widespread to the east, occurring in few departments to the west (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>UK: this species has a patchy distribution throughout England, occurring more often in the southern half of the country. In Wales it occurs in only one locality on the northern coast. In Scotland it occurs in only five localities on the eastern coast and in Northern Ireland it is only recorded to occur in one locality (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).</li></ul>
176538		habitat	eng	This species is widespread in disturbed habitats such as wasteland, embankments, roadsides and cliff tops (Polunin 1969, Davies and Gibbons 1993, Fletcher 2007). It can also be found in grassy meadows and dry rocky sites up to an altitude of 2,000 m in some areas of the Mediterranean (Fletcher 2007). <br/><br/>In this UK this is a lowland species, found only in ruderal habitats such as  quarries, bare cliffs, arable fields, docks and waste areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary <span style="font-style: italic;">I. tinctoria</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">praecox </span>prefers calcareous soils, dry, warm loam, loess and sandy soils, rich in nutrients. This subspecies is found in rocky grasslands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerio-Festucetum pallentis, Minuartio-Festucetum pseudodalmatiae</span>), slope steppes on stony ground,&#160; loess walls, karst scrub forests, and with <span style="font-style: italic;">Onopordetalia</span> species   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176538		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. tinctoria</span> is widespread throughout its native distribution in Europe, but rare at the periphery of its range. In Denmark the distribution of this species is recorded as increasing (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).
176538		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176540		conservation	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. perenne</span> <em></em>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and is classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/></p>This species is well represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections. EURISCO reports 8,714 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. perenne</span> held in European genebanks, 4,313 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 4,122 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176540		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. perenne</span> is native to northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western Asia (including Cyprus and Turkey), the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Subcontinent and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176540		habitat	eng	This perennial plant occurs in grasslands across much Europe. In the UK this species grows on a wide range of habitats including; improved  lowland pasture, leys, hay meadows, rush pasture, inundated  grasslands, amenity grassland, road verges and ruderal habitats (Preston  <em>et al</em>. 2002). It prefers fertile, heavy and neutral soils, but can also occur on mildly acidic or basic soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Greece and Belarus it is found in agricultural land, grassland, and in secondary habitats such orchards and pastures.
176540		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout much of its native range.
176540		threats	eng	In Greece and Belarus the transformation of grasslands into agricultural fields and the use of herbicides are noted as potential threats, however herbicide use does not pose a significant threat at present. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout the rest of its European range.
176541		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.    <p>EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. aphyllus</span> held in European genebanks, neither of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.</p>
176541		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aphyllus</span> is native to parts of southeast and southwest Europe, as well as north Africa and western Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop convened in Portugal, April 2010, in mainland Italy it is only found in one region and in Sicily it is only found in one degraded area.
176541		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. aphyllus</span> is adapted to dry conditions and can be found in hedges and scrub as well as rocky areas and crevices (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993) and is often found near wheat fields in Sicily. In Crete it has been found up to 2,000 m (Turland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).  This species is resistant to the fungal diseases <span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinia asparagi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stemphylium vesicarium</span> (Alberti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
176541		population	eng	In southern Spain and Portugal this species is widespread and abundant. In mainland Italy it occurs as scattered and isolated subpopulations. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176541		threats	eng	In Sicily this species is threatened by habitat degradation in the form of soil erosion. Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species throughout the rest of its European range.
176542		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. ciliaris </span>has a large amount of accessions conserved in gene banks, and is widespread in the wild (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176542		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. ciliaris </span>is found throughout southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/> In <strong style="font-weight: normal;">France it is confined to six departments in the south (Av</strong>eyron,   Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).</strong><span style="background-color: yellow;"><strong></strong></span><br/><strong><br/> </strong>
176542		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. ciliaris</span> is found on heavy moist soils in a wide variety of habitats, such as arable fields, uncultivated olive groves, the banks of ditches and bodies of water, and marshes close to the sea (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176542		population	eng	This is a common species with a broad range and populations appear to be stable  (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176542		threats	eng	There appears to  be no  major threats. It is  found in several habitats which are not  threatened  within  its  distribution  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176543		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. murex </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 35 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 22 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 21 originate from within Europe. These 21 wild accessions originate from the following European countries: Spain (four), France (four), Germany (one) Italy (nine) and Portugal (three) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176543		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. murex </span>is native to much of southern Europe, and is also found in certain regions of western Asia and northern Africa (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is confined to the southern department of Tarn, the southeastern departments of   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2000-2010).
176543		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. murex </span>grows on sandy, calcareous soils, in fields, light woodlands and marginal lands (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176543		population	eng	The population size is large and widespread throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010).
176543		threats	eng	This is a relatively common species and there appears to be no major threats. It is found in several habitats which are not threatened within its region (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176544		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. secundiflora </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. It is recommended to ensure representation of this species from all the countries. The species occurs in protected areas.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>In France this species is protected in the southern region of Languedoc-Roussillon (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span class="Apple-converted-space">
176544		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. secundiflora </span>is only native to France, Italy and Spain (including the Balearic Islands), but it is also found in parts of northern Africa (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The presence in Sicily is not confirmed. In France it occurs in the south, including the islands of Leucate, de Fitou et de lÓrteil and the southern departments of Aude and   Hérault (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176544		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. secundiflora </span>grows on calcareous slopes (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Also in sand and rocky shores in the Mediterranean.
176544		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown overall, but the species has a fragmented population structure and the species is considered scarce but is known to be stable in east and central Spain.
176544		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176545		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. </p><p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. villarsii </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176545		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">I. villarsii</span> is a central European species which is near the eastern limit of its range in Ukraine where it is occurs on the Black Sea coast in Odessa and Mykolaiv regions. The range of the taxon outside of Ukraine is not known but if considered as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. tinctoria</span>, it is widely distributed in Europe.
176545		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal areas, often on limestone rocks (Kotov 1979) in <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodiaea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisietea vulgaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Thlapsietea rotundifolii</span> communities.
176545		population	eng	<p>Small subpopulations are known from the vicinity of Odessa, Mykolaiv and Varvarivka village in Mykolaiv region.</p>
176545		threats	eng	In Ukraine, it is threatened by silvicultural, tourism and recreation.
176546		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. rigidum</span><em></em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/>It is classified as Vulnerable (VU) in Switzerland (<span lang="EN-US">Moser <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 120 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. rigidum</span> held in European genebanks, 81 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 48 originate from the following European countries: Spain (32), Italy (nine), Greece (three), Portugal (two), France (one) and Bulgaria (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176546		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lolium rigidum</span> in native to parts of central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia, the Caucasus, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Subcontinent and northern Africa; and is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176546		habitat	eng	It is found in agricultural land, grassland and pastures in Greece as a weedy species with confirmed tolerance to herbicides. Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176546		population	eng	In Greece this species is classed as weedy and as such is stable and very common. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176546		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
176547		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron </span>is listed  in     Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources  for   Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>It occurs in Kazantip reserve and in zakaznik Arabatska strelka. However, monitoring and active management are needed at these sites. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cimmericum</span> are report by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) and the species is not reported by SINGER. Germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is a priority for this species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176547		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. cimmericum</span> is endemic to Ukraine (Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly  2009) where it is found along the Asov Sea coast in the northern part of the Kerchinski Peninsula of Crimea, and at the Arbatski Spit. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>. There are only two sites in the Kerchinski Peninsula, near the villages Chegene and Kasantip (Fedorov 1974, Prokudin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1977).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176547		habitat	eng	This perennial rhizomatous grass grows in sand dunes and on beaches in very sandy soils. At some sites it grows together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca beckeri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa borystenica</span> (Prokudin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1977).
176547		population	eng	There are around ten subpopulations which are suspected to be slowly decreasing as the area is under high pressure from tourism development. The number of mature individuals is suspected to be less than 2,500, with less than 250 individuals in each subpopulation.
176547		threats	eng	The sites where the species is found are under high pressure from the tourist industry and infrastructure development is taking place. An associated threat is urbanization.
176548		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium arvense</span> is    specifically   listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on  Plant   Genetic   Resources for    Food and Agriculture as part of the  forage   legume gene pool so warrants specific conservation  attention.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>        seed samples are   available in numerous gene banks with the largest  collections being held by the N.I. Vavilov  All-Russian Scientific  Research Institute of     Plant  Industry Russian  Federation, Aegean     Agricultural Research Institiute  (Menemen, Turkey),    ICARDA  (Aleppo,    Syria) and University of Aberystwyth (Aberystwyth , UK) gene      banks. 53 accessions are being held currently at the Regional Plant Introduction Station   in    Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program   2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 176 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 90 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 64 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the     species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing        protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in        these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to    population     loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176548		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. arvense</span> has a wide distribution, being native to most of Europe, western and central Asia and northern and northeastern Africa. It has also been naturalised in Australasia, North America and the Azores (USDA, ARS, National  Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread, recorded in all departments except Lot to the south (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK it has a relatively widespread distribution throughout England and Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Its distribution within Scotland becomes patchier further north and is largely absent in the northwest (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Its distribution in Northern Ireland is also limited, occurring in only 23 localities (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in Ireland it is confined to coastal areas around the country, occurring in only 33 localities (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176548		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. arvense</span> grows in open, pioneer plant communities, as well as meadows, fields, roadsides and wastelands. It is an annual legume, and flowers between March and May (Zohary and Heller 1984).<br/><br/>  In the UK this lowland species is able to grow in open rocky or sandy habitats which include acidic heathlands, sea cliffs and sand dunes (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In addition, this species grows on railway ballast, inland waste ground, disturbed grassland and set-aside fields where it prefers light, sandy soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176548		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered  common across Europe from Britain to Iran and throuhout north Africa. It is found in a  variety of habitats and populations are stable.
176548		threats	eng	<em></em>There appears to be no major threats and this species is  found in several habitats which are not threatened  within its  range<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/><br/></span>In the UK, according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) there has been a widespread decline of this species in the southeast of England since 1950.
176549		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/>  <br/>EURISCO reports 12 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. heterophyllum</span> held in European genebanks, 10 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, six originate from within Europe; one from Greece (stored in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany) and five from Spain (stored in Comunidad de Madrid, Banco de Germoplasma, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176549		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. heterophyllum</span> is native to northern Europe (Ireland and the United Kingdom) and southwestern Europe (France, Portugal and Spain) (<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>USDA, ARS, National Germplasm Program 2010). According to <span style="background-color: white;">Atlas Florae Europaeae (Botanical Museum, Finnish Museum Natural History 1999), it is al</span>so native to Belgium, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands; however, other sources indicate that the species is introduced or probably introduced to these countries.
176549		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal areas, slopes, ditches, rocky places, grasslands and mountains, on mostly siliceous soils. In the UK this lowland species prefers acidic soils in dry, heathy and gravelly areas, and can also be found on shingle, railway ballast and embankment as well as arable fields (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176549		population	eng	This species is widespread in the western half  of France although not recorded in  the southwestern departments of  Lot-et-Garonne, Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne,  Tarn, Haute-Garonne and Gers., and is largely absent in the eastern half of the  country (Association Tela  Botanica 2000–2010). <br/><br/>It is also widespread throughout Wales, Scotland and the eastern half of Northern Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Its distribution is patchier throughout England although it is widespread in the southwest of the country (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). According to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), it is decreasing in the southeast of England.
176549		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176550		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa&#160; </span>is listed     in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for     Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"></span>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dogadovae</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p><p>It is not protected in Ukraine.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
176550		distribution	eng	Native to Ukraine and the Russian Federation, including western and eastern Siberia.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In European Russia it is found in the Volga River basin in the central-eastern part of the region. In Ukraine this species is at the western limit of its range. It occurs very rarely in the lesostep (forest steppe) zone and is known from one locality in the coniferous and deciduous forests of Poliska lowland<span style="background-color: yellow;">.<br/></span>
176550		habitat	eng	It is found on open, sandy shores of lakes and rivers, and beside streams, pools and ditches (Jonsell 1968, Diduch 2007) in Isaёto-Nanojuncetea communities (Diduch 2007).<span class="msoIns">
176550		population	eng	It is a relatively widespread species in European Russia and it is suspected that the population trend is stable. In Ukraine it is only found at a few localities and the populations are small; however, here it is at the westernmost part of its range.
176550		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
176551		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. blancheana</span> has 21 accessions available in gene banks. Further material should be collected for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>conservation. It occurs in protected areas.<br/><br/>    <p>There are 17 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these wild accessions originate from within Europe: eight from Cyprus (stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain) and one from Ukraine (stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176551		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. blancheana</span> is native to Cyprus (Troodos and Kyrenia areas) and the East Aegean Islands, as well as parts of western Asia (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but has been naturalised throughout parts of southern Europe<strong> </strong>(USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/> </strong>
176551		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. blancheana </span>grows in a wide range of habitats, being found on limestone rocks, dry meadows, pinewoods, grasslands, and cultivated and fallow fields, where it grows as a weed. It favours heavy red clay soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It flowers from March to May.
176551		population	eng	This is a common species and its population appears to be stable (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176551		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats within Europe. It is  found in several habitats which are not threatened within its  distribution (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
176552		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. disciformis </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 29 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 10 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these wild accessions originate from within Europe. These 10 wild accessions were collected in Bulgaria (one), Cyprus (one), France (three), Greece (four) and Spain (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176552		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. disciformis</span> is native to parts of southern Europe and western Asia (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/><br/></strong>In Spain it occurs in the east and south. In France it is confined to eight southeastern departments (Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault, Aveyron, Gard, Vaucluse,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var) and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<strong><br/><br/> </strong>
176552		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. discoformis </span>grows in a variety of habitats, including rocky hillsides, roadsides, meadows, woodland and coastal maquis (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain this species is found in grasslands, in sandy soils.
176552		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered  common throughout its range and its population levels are considered stable (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176552		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), however it is common in diverse habitats so overall is not considered seriously threatened.
176553		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rugosa</span>   has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 18 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176553		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rugosa</span> is only native to Greece, Italy and Malta in Europe, but is also found in parts of northern Africa and western Asia. It is naturalised in France, Portugal and Spain (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176553		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rugosa</span> is found in two types of habitat. The first is disturbed habitats and fallow fields, where it grows on heavy clay soils. The second is rocky fields and maquis, where it grows on limestone (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176553		population	eng	The exact population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago rugosa</span> is unknown, but the species is considered common throughout its range and populations are stable.
176553		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176554		conservation	eng	53 accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. globosa</span> are held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176554		distribution	eng	In Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. globosa</span> is native to Bulgaria and Greece, but also occurs in parts of western Asia and the Caucasus (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The species also occurs in Italy and Malta.
176554		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. globosa </span>grows in arable fields, fallow fields, pastures, meadows, dry, stony hillsides and banks, and pine forests. It is found in dry, sandy soils and disturbed limestone (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176554		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered    common throughout its range and suffering no specific threats, therefore    population levels are considered stable (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176554		threats	eng	It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), however it is common in diverse habitats so overall is not considered seriously threatened.
176555		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. alexandrinum </span>has germplasm stored <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>in several genebanks worldwide, most notably the <span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium </span>Genetic Resource Centre in Perth, Australia (186 accessions), and the National Plant Germplasm System in Washington, USA (118 accessions). In total, 462 accessions are stored <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>in genebanks (Lamont <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).
176555		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. alexandrinum</span> is widely cultivated globally (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), EURO+Med Plantbase (2006) record the species as widely cultivated in the warmer parts of Europe and locally naturalised.
176555		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. alexandrium </span>is an annual legume and flowers between April and May. Little information is available regarding wild varieties as it is extensively cultivated. It is known that it is tolerant to annual precipitation between 380 mm and 1,660 mm, annual mean temperatures between 7.0ºC and 26.7ºC, and soil pH ranging from 4.9 to 7.8 (Duke 1981).
176555		population	eng	Impossible to estimate as widely naturalised but not native.
176555		threats	eng	Impossible to estimate as widely naturalised but not native.
176556		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. </p><p>In Ukraine, it occurs in Chornomorskij Biosphere Reserve, in Syvach National Park and in Dzarilgach Regional Landscape Park.</p><p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. brachyphyllus</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p><p>Research is needed to clarify the native distribution of this species in Europe.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p>    </p>  <p></p>
176556		distribution	eng	According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. brachyphyllus</span> is native to Ukraine, Romania, and to temperate parts of Asia. Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006–2007) do not record it as being distributed in Europe but its presence in Ukraine is confirmed. In Ukraine, it grows on the Azov Sea coast, including Syvach creek land, near the Black Sea in Chersonska and Zaporizska regions, and in the lowland part of Crimea, including Tarchankutskij and Kerczenskij peninsulas (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010). Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) also record it as native to Bulgaria.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176556		habitat	eng	This dioecious species is found in calcareous and saline soils (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980). In Ukraine, it grows on sandy beaches and around saline lakes, in communities dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron desertorum</span>.
176556		population	eng	<p>In Ukraine, there are small isolated subpopulations in Biruchij, Churug and Dzarilgach Islands, Kutskij and Kerczenskij Peninsulas. There is no information available about the population size or trend for Romania and Bulgaria.<br/></p>
176556		threats	eng	In Ukraine, the main threats are tourism and recreation in the littoral zone of the Crimean Sea, excessive cattle grazing, and flooding with fresh irrigation water from north Crimea.
176557		conservation	eng	In Portugal it is preserved in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections, not in protected areas. EURISCO reports 118 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 64 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 47 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176557		distribution	eng	Native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus, Indian subcontinent, Siberia and China (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Portugal it is moderately common found primarily in the centre and north, while in Spain it is widespread, except for southwest. In France it is recorded in all departments with the exception of Mayenne to the northwest (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176557		habitat	eng	Throughout Europe it is found in disturbed cultivated ground, often on clay and saline soils, while in northern Europe it is less frequent or occurs as an alien. In Portugal it is a ruderal species found near roads on sandy soils which are frequently wet.
176557		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered    common throughout its range and populations are thought to be stable.
176557		threats	eng	There appears  to be no major    threats. It is found in a number of habitats  that are not  threatened.
176558		conservation	eng	<em>F. rubra</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on  Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and is classified as  Vulnerable (VU) in Norway (Kålås <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). However, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">juncea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">litoralis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> rubra</span> are all classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 2,167 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> held in European genebanks, 875 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 854 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176558		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> is native to northern, central, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as temperate Asia and north America; it is naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>This species is known to be widespread in much of its native European range, occurring in all departments in France (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010), and found throughout the whole of the country in Ireland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>juncea </em>occurs in 10 localities along the western coastline and seven localities along the eastern. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>litoralis</em> is recorded in only two localities (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) describe the distribution of this species in the UK as widespread, occurring in the majority of grid squares throughout England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp<em>. arctica</em>  has a sparse and patchy distribution throughout Scotland, also  occurring in seven localities in the Lake District in England. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>commutata</em> has a sparse and patchy distribution throughout England, Wales and the southern half of Scotland. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>juncea </em>occurs  along the southwestern and northwestern coastlines of England as well  as occurring patchily along the eastern coastline of England. It also occurs along the whole of the Welsh coastline and it very sparse along the Scottish coastline. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>litoralis</em> occurs in coastal areas in England, Wales and Scotland—particularly in the west. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>scotica</em> occurs in only 10 localities in the UK—two in northern England and the remaining eight within Scotland (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In Denmark <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">juncea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">litoralis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> rubra</span> are the only subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span> recorded as native (P. Wind pers. comm. 2010).
176558		habitat	eng	This perennial species occurs in a number of different habitats in Europe. <br/><br/>In Greece it is only found in the mountain habitats and at high altitudes, while in Portugal it is found in salt marshes, sea cliffs, sand dunes, hills, grassland and open forest. <br/><br/>In the UK it prefers grassy habitats such as lowland meadows, pastures, salt marshes, sea-cliffs, sand dunes, hill grasslands, mountain slopes and rock ledges (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>F. rubra</em> ssp<em>. arctica</em> is known to grow on wet mountain slopes and gullies, rock ledges and flushes and is also able to grow on serpentine at low altitudes. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>commutate</em> is a lowland species growing mainly in grassy habitats preferring well-drained soils. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>juncea </em>is a lowland species which grows on sea-cliffs, coastal rock outcrops and occasionally on rocky habitats further inland. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>litoralis</em> is a lowland species which grows in saltmarshes, brackish&#160; grazing marshes and other sandy or muddy saline areas. <em>F. rubra</em> ssp. <em>scotica</em> occurs in grassy, wet habitats, around rock outcrops and on cliff ledges (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176558		population	eng	This species is widespread across much of its native range in in Europe, with a stable population trend.
176558		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to the species.
176559		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. laciniata</span>   has few accessions available in gene banks. It occurs in protected areas.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>    <p>EURISCO reports 15 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, two of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, only one originates from within Europe. This accession originates from France and is stored in Research Institute for Fodder Crops Ltd., Czech Republic (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176559		distribution	eng	It occurs in the southeast of mainland Spain and in the Canary Islands. In Madeira it is probably Extinct. In Italy it is introduced. <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>It is native to much of northern and eastern Africa, as well as western Asia and the Indian Subcontinent. It is naturalised in South Africa, Australia&#160; (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176559		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. laciniata </span>is found in a wide range of habitats, such as grasslands, pastures, dry river and wadi beds, beaches, cultivated and fallow fields, rocky slopes and hills, valley bottoms, sand dunes, desert and semi-desert areas (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Spain it is only found in cultivated lands.
176559		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered    widespread and a common species throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is common in the Canary Islands and has a restricted distribution in southeast mainland Spain.
176559		threats	eng	Land use change is a threat to this species.  It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001), however it is common in diverse habitats so overall is not considered seriously threatened.
176560		conservation	eng	In France this species is protected in the central region of Auvergne, the western region of Poitou-Charentes and the northern region of Île-de-France (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span class="Apple-converted-space">
176560		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. monspeliaca </span>is native to most of southern Europe, as well as some central and eastern regions. It is also found in many parts of northern Africa and is distributed through many of the temperate regions in Asia (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is relatively widespread in the southern half of the country excluding the far southwestern departments. Also occurs in the northern departments of Loir-et-Cher, Loiret, Essonne, Yvelines, Aisne,   Val-d'Oise,   Val-de-Marne, Paris and   Hauts-de-Seine (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176560		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. monspeliaca </span>is most often found growing in fallow fields, cultivated fields and roadsides, but also grows among gravel, sand dunes, scrub, forests and rocky limestone slopes (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176560		population	eng	The population size is large and widespread throughout its range  (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010).
176560		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats.
176561		conservation	eng	No information available.
176561		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. komarovii </span>is naturalised throughout Europe and central Asia, as well as many other regions worldwide. It is thought to be native to Europe, but details of its exact native range are not well known (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), it is native to Kazakhstan in Europe.<br/><br/>The natural area of its distribution is north, west and middle Asia.<br/><br/>Only present at Ural River near Kaspian Sea plain in the lower Wolga floristic region. This area presents less than 1% of its global population.
176561		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. komarovii</span> is generally found growing in agricultural areas (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Found in steppes, open sandy and calcareous soils and sometimes along roads or on rocky soils. Occurs on river banks.
176561		population	eng	No information available.
176561		threats	eng	No information available.
176562		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><br/>In Hungary, <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">E.uralensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> viridiglumis</span> is not protected   (Király 2007)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">uralensis</span> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Germplasm collection and duplicated ex situ storage is a priority for this species.<br/></span></span></span></span>
176562		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">According to </span><span style="background-color: white;">Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly     (2009), </span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">E. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">uralensis</span> is <span style="background-color: white;">native to Austria, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Ukraine, central, eastern, northern and south European Russia, and the Caucasus.</span> <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/>In Hungary<span style="font-style: italic;">, E. uralensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">viridiglumis</span> (syn. <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron pectinatum</span> (M. Bieb.) P. Beauv., <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cristatum</span> (L.) Gaertn. ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> pectinatum</span> (Bieb.) Tzvelev) occurs in the North Hungarian Mountains (Sátor-mountain, Bükk-mountains, Gyöngyös, Gödöllő-hills,), Trandanubian Mountains (Buda-mountain, Gerecse-mountain, Velence-mountain, Bakony-mountain, Balaton region), South Transdanubia (Baranya, Tolna), Kisalföld Plain and Great Hungarian Plain (Danube-region, Danube-Tisza köze region and Tiszántúl region)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. <br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.<br/><br/></span></span>
176562		habitat	eng	In Hungary: <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Elymus uralensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;">viridiglumis</span>&#160; grows in open loess wall vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyro -Kochietum prostratae</span>), steppes on loess (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salvio-Festucetum rupicolae</span>), pastures (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cynodonto-Poetum angustifolii</span>), sandy steppes and in dry, weedy vegetation (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyro-Kochion</span>) (Soó 1966, Simon 1992)<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">It can grow in a range of soil types but prefers warm, dry loam, loess and sandy  soils, rich in nutrients and alkaline minerals.</span></span></span>
176562		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176562		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
176563		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Camelina </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/>C. alyssum</span> was recorded as Critically Endangered in Europe by the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on   Biological Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest (2006); however, no Red List criteria are provided for this assessment.   <br/><br/>EURISCO reports nine germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. alyssum</span> held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin; however, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   Collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage of germplasm from the remaining European subpopulations is an urgent priority for this species.  <br/><br/>In Hungary,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is listed as Extinct in the Wild (EW)   (Király 2007). In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. alyssum</span> is listed as Extinct (EX) (  Eliáš <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
176563		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. alyssum</span> is native to Europe (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), as well as to much of Russia (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010) records the species as "widespread"; however, the status of this species in the wild is uncertain and it is thought that it may only survive in cultivation in some localities, but that even in cultivation it is not common (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006). <br/><br/>Knowledge of the national distribution of this species in Europe is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Hungary: Great Hungarian Plain (Tiszántúl region: Mezőtúr)   (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).</li><li>France: sporadic distribution, occurring in the departments of Somme and Oise to the north, Aube and Bas-Rhin to the northeast, Haute-Savoie in the east,   Bouches-du-Rhône and   Pyrénées Orientales in the south,   Pyrénées-Atlantiques in the southwest,   the central departments of Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal and Aveyron and the western departments of   Côtes d'Armor,   Ille-et-Vilaine and   Loire-Atlantique (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/></li></ul>Both ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">alyssum</span> and ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">integerrima</span> are extinct in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Eliáš Jr. 2002). <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>The species is also extinct in Germany and Austria—probably since the 1950s (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).
176563		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This annual species is a specific weed of flax and linseed fields; therefore, it is dependent on the continued cultivation of these crops.
176563		population	eng	This species is&#160; very rare in Hungary (Soó 1966, Simon 1992), as well as in Belarus. It is not endangered in Bulgaria (K. Uzundzhalieva pers. comm. 2010). It is extinct in Albania, Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Moldova and Slovakia.
176563		threats	eng	It is threatened by changes in agricultural practices—new methods have almost eliminated the associated weed flora (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuscuta epilinum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lolium remotum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Silene linicola</span>) (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on  Biological Diversity and Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest 2006). The use of pesticides and herbicides and changes in land use has led to the extinctions in middle Europe. The seeds have a similar shape to flax seeds and the species was distributed with flax sowing, but changes in seed cleaning methods now stop <span style="font-style: italic;">C. alyssum</span> seeds from spreading.
176564		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/></p><p>No germplasm accessions of<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. arenaria</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</p>
176564		distribution	eng	Endemic to Turkey in Europe (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).
176564		habitat	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the habitat of this species.</p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176564		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176564		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176565		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Camelina </span>is listed in    Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. sativa</span> is listed as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and is extinct in Slovakia, Czech Republic and Hungary.<br/><br/>Conservation efforts should focus on the promotion of the cultivation of oil-producing crops to provide this species' preferred habitat.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 773 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sativa</span> held in European genebanks, 61 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 39 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176565		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. sativa</span> is native to most of Europe and temperate Asia, as well as being widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France, the species is present in 49 of the 100 departments in the country; it's distribution ranges from north/northeast, central and south/southeastern parts; it is absent in some central and far western departments (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It is Extinct in the Wild<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in Slovakia (Eliáš Jr. 2002), the Czech Republic (V. Holubec pers. comm. 2010) and Hungary (G. Vörösváry pers. comm. 2010).
176565		habitat	eng	In eastern Europe, this species is a specialized weed of oil-producing crops; especially flaxseed.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176565		population	eng	In eastern Europe, this species is close to disappearing. In Poland, there is a maximum of 100 fragmented subpopulations. The number of subpopulations and the subpopulation size in Poland and Ukraine is decreasing. In Romania and Serbia there are scattered subpopulations.
176565		threats	eng	The cessation of cultivation of oil-producing crops (especially flaxseed) in the late 20th   century has led to a rapid decline in the number and size of the   subpopulations. Pesticide application is an ongoing threat.
176566		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.</p><p>    </p><p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rupicola</span> held in European genebanks; however, it is not reported to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.</p>  <p>  </p><p>Further research is needed to determine the <em>in situ</em> conservation status of this species.</p>    <p></p>
176566		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea rupicola</span> is endemic to Corsica and Sardinia (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964, Euro+Med PlantBase 2006).
176566		habitat	eng	It is a montane species which grows on cliffs, rocks and boulders in humid sand and sandy soils and can also be found near mountain streams.
176566		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.
176566		threats	eng	There appear to be no current major threats to this species; however, it could potentially be threatened by pollution and habitat fragmentation in the future.
176567		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. sicula</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
176567		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. sicula</span> is native to Greece, mainland Italy, Sicily and Malta (Marhold 2011). It is confined to central and southern areas of Greece (Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009).
176567		habitat	eng	In Greece, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. sicula</span> is found in subalpine and montane habitats, in damp meadows and pastures. It can also be found on granite, silicate, serpentine or flysch outcrops, normally between 1,000–2,100 m asl, but it can also be found at lower altitudes (Strid and Tan 2002).
176567		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176567		threats	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.</p>
176568		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. sylvestris </span> is poorly represented in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> germplasm collections, with only one accession being held by the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 62 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 39 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 38 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  There is no active management in <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>  protected areas, however, it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<br/><br/>Classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).
176568		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. sylvestris</span> is native to the majority of European countries, as well as parts of Russia, the Caucasus, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)     records it as being present in Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Former Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia in Europe, Sicily, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments. Not recorded in the northern departments of Paris and   Seine-Saint-Denis, the western departments of Indre and Charente, the southern departments of   Drôme and Vaucluse and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010). <br/><br/>In the  UK it is widespread across the southern half of England and throughout the whole of Wales (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). To the north of England and in Scotland the distribution becomes sparse and patchy with a number of occurrences recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Northern Ireland this species is only recorded in one locality and this is classified as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).  <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176568		habitat	eng	In the UK this lowland species occurs in hedges, wood borders, scrub, on rough banks and sheltered sea cliffs (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). Alien occurrences often occur on roadsides and railway banks. Inland it is thought to prefer calcareous soils (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176568		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus sylvestris</span> is a widespread species, commont throughout its range. It is  found in several  habitats    which are not threatened and populations appear to be  stable.<br/><br/>  In the UK, according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002) the distribution of this species is stable.
176568		threats	eng	This is a relatively common species found in several distinct habitats,  that appears to be under no major threat within the region and populations  appear to be stable.
176569		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. intermedia</span> held in European genebanks, five of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, two originate from within Europe (Spain) and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176569		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. intermedia</span> is native to central, southwestern and southeastern Europe (Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, France, Portugal and Spain), as well as northern Africa and western Asia (Turkey) (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). This species has been introduced to other parts of Europe and Australasia where it has become naturalized (Rich 1991).<br/><br/>In Portugal, it occurs in the centre to northeast of the country. It is widespread in France, occurring in the majority of departments throughout the country (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176569		habitat	eng	In Iberia, this species grows along streamsides, in hilly areas, oak forests, pine forests and can survive in several substrates.
176569		population	eng	<p>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176569		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>
176570		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 179 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, nine of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, five originate from within Europe. These five wild accessions originate from Denmark (one; stored in Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov', Bulgaria), Germany (two; one stored in Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany and the other stored in Institute of Forages, Ukraine) and Portugal (two; stored in Estação Nacional Melhoramento Plantas, Portugal) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176570		distribution	eng	Native to southwest France, Portugal, Spain, and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France it occurs in 16 departments in western France, the departments of Somme and   Seine-et-Marne to the north and the department of Bas-Rhin to the east (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176570		habitat	eng	It is found in wet meadows, arable land.
176570		population	eng	It is a widespread and common species.
176570		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats to this spicies.
176571		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><br/>EURISCO reports 68 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. virgata</span> stored in European genebanks. Twenty-nine of these accessions originate from Spain and one from Portugal (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection from Portugal is recommended.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas but is probably not monitored or actively managed.
176571		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">D. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">virgata</span> is <span style="background-color: white;">native to southwestern Europe (Spain and Portugal) as well as to north Africa (</span><span style="background-color: white;">Martínez Laborde 1996, </span><span style="background-color: white;">Euro+Med PlantBase 2006) .</span>
176571		habitat	eng	It is found in arid to semi-arid coastal and desert plains and hill habitats; such as beaches, sandy  plains, dry pastures, rocks and rubble, and brush. It can also occur as a weedy species on roadsides, in waste places, and in cultivated fields. It occurs on loam, sandy, or gypsaceous soils (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009).
176571		population	eng	It is a common and widespread species in the Iberian Peninsula.
176571		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
176572		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis</span> is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 108 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. arvensis </span>held in European genebanks, 86 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 49 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176572		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. arvensis</span> is native to most of Europe, northern Africa and temperate and tropical Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). However, widespread naturalization may obscure the native distribution of this species. It has been introduced to the Americas, Australasia and South Africa (Rich 1991).<br/><span>
176572		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal plains and montane habitats up to 1,800 m. It can be found in cultivated or disturbed ground, such as dry stream beds, roadsides, railways, waste places and fields, often on calcareous soils (Polunin 1969, Blamey and Grey-Wilson  2004, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Seeds of this species can persist in the soil for over 50 years (Rich 1991).
176572		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. arvensis</span> has a generally stable population trend in Europe. However, while widespread in Poland, the number of sites is decreasing and number of individuals at each site is decreasing<span style="background-color: white;">.</span> It is a common arable weed in Slovakia in lowland and hilly areas, and is rare in mountainous areas (<span style="background-color: white;">Šípošová 2002). </span>
176572		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. However, it is less frequent in arable lands in the UK due to herbicide use.
176573		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. latifolius </span>has germplasm stored <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>in numerous genebanks worldwide, notably IBEAS at   Unviersitéde Pau et des Pays de l'Adour in France (326 accessions), plus Banco de Germoplasma - Departamento de Recursos Genéticos e Melhoramento, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária (Lisbon, Portugal), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Banco de Germoplasma (Madrid, Spain), Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben, Germany), Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Aberystwyth, UK), Institute for Agrobotany (Tapioszele, Hungary), Millennium Seed Bank (Haywards Heath, United Kingdom), N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Nordic Genetic Resource Center (Alnarp, Sweden), Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (Radikov, Poland), Réseau Plantes fourragères et à gazon (Versailles, France), <strong></strong>Scientific Center of Agrobiotechnology (Yerevan, Armenia), Romanian National Genebank (Suceava, Romania), Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka, Ukraine), Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks. In total, 351 accessions are held in genebanks (Sarker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 36 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 16 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 14 originate from within Europe. Of these 14 European and wild accessions, eight originate from France, one from Germany, one from Netherlands, one from Portugal, one from Romania, one from Spain and one from Ukraine (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in     many existing  protected areas in throughout its range but as its     conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject     to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176573		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. latifolius</span> is native to much of central, southern and eastern Europe, and parts of north Africa. The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010) records it as being present in Albania, Austria, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, Corsica, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Former Yugoslavia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine. In France it is widespread, occurs in the majority of departments. Not recorded in the departments of Loire-Atlantique, Indre-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, Hauts-de-Seine, Meuse, Vosges and Territoire de Belfort (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/>It is cultivated, and naturalised, in many temperate regions worldwide (USDA, ARS, Plant Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176573		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus latifolius</span> in the UK is widely naturalised and populations are commonly bulked by garden escapes. It is found in hedges, roadsides and railway embankments (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176573		population	eng	This is a widespread species, rather common throughout its range. It is  found in several  habitats    which are not threatened and populations appear to be  stable.
176573		threats	eng	This species is likely to be grazed by wild and domesticated species in the pasture and agricultural margins.
176574		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports seven germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. pinnatifida</span> held in European genebanks; however, none are reported to originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/></p>
176574		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The taxon is native to Spain, as well as to north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) where it is recorded from Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a).
176574		habitat	eng	This annual taxon is found in semi-arid to desert habitats in stony and sandy areas, in foothills and on plateaus (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009a).
176574		population	eng	<p>There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species as it is considered in Spain to be within the taxon, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. vesicaria</span>.<br/></p>
176574		threats	eng	<p>There is no information available about the potential threats to this species as it is considered in Spain to be within the taxon, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. vesicaria</span>.</p>
176577		conservation	eng	<p>    </p><p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. <br/></p><p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. kasakstanicus</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p><p>The taxon is included in the 2003 Red List of Rare and Endangered Species of Russia and is included in the Red Book of Chelyabinsk district (T. Smekalova pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p>    </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
176577		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This taxon is recorded as native to Crimea by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) and as </span><em>A.</em><em> inderiensis</em> Blume ex Ledeb. (syn. A. <span style="font-style: italic;">kasakstanicus</span>) as <span style="background-color: white;">occurring in Crimea to Central Asia (Govaerts </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2006–2007). Pavlov (1958) recorded it as being distributed in southeast European Russia and Crimea. However, it is not known from Ukraine (V. Melnyk pers. comm. 2010).</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> It is common in central Asia (Kazakhstan) and is found in southeast European Russia (Pavlov 1958) in the territory of south Ural and upper Volga, close to Ural mountains (close to the border with the Asian part of Russia) (T. Smekalova pers. comm. 2010).<br/></span>
176577		habitat	eng	It grows in calcareous soils (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980), as well as <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">in sandy and saline soils. It is found on coastal beaches and in river valleys (</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Pavlov 1958)</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></span>
176577		population	eng	It is reported to be rare in Astrakhan district, South European Russia.<span style="background-color: white;"> There is no other population information available. <br/></span>
176577		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There is no information about the threats to this species.</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
176578		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. steveniana</span>—this material originated in Iran (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). <br/><br/>Research is needed to clarify the distribution of this species.
176578		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), this species is native to Romania and Armenia; however, it is not included in the Flora of Romania (S. Strajeru pers. comm. 2010).
176578		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species. It is not included in the Flora of Romania.
176578		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is not included in the Flora of Romania.
176578		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species. It is not included in the Flora of Romania.
176579		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. scaberrima</span> occurs within some existing protected areas; however, these areas are under threat from grazing. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. scaberrima</span> which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior  de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176579		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. scaberrima</span> is endemic to Tenerife, where is it found in the west and south of the island. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Crambe scaberrima</span> is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176579		habitat	eng	This perennial species is found in lowland scrub habitats and on basalt cliffs. It is also associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span>and dry, pine forests, which are now infrequent on the island.
176579		population	eng	The population consists of scattered, isolated subpopulations but it is usually locally abundant.
176579		threats	eng	It is threatened by loss of suitable habitat through forest clearance for timber extraction and agriculture, and by overgrazing.
176580		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa&#160; </span>is listed     in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for     Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="background-color: white; font-style: italic;">R. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">austriaca</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"> is not protected   in Hungary (Király 2007).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. austriaca</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</span>
176580		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. austriaca</span> is native to central, eastern and southeastern Europe, as well as to temperate Asia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010, Marhold 2011).<br/><br/>The species is widely distributed in Slovakia (Tomšovic and Goliašová 2002), Hungary (Soó 1966, Simon 1992) and Germany (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176580		habitat	eng	This is a diploid perennial species, and is described as being invasive in parts of central Europe (Bleeker 2007). It is self-incompatible and rarely sets seed, with spread thought to occur through the dispersal of rhizome fragments (Rich 1991).<br/><br/>In Germany, it grows in eutrophic grassland and in ruderal sites. Soó (1966) and Simon (1992) note that in Hungary, this species grows in weedy vegetation along roadsides, in wet pastures (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippo–Agropyretum</span>), mesotrophic wet meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alopecuretum pratensis</span>), and in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidentetea-Plantaginetea</span> vegetation. It grows in a range of different soil types and is salt tolerant (Soó 1966, Simon 1992).
176580		population	eng	It is common in Slovakia, Hungary and Germany.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176580		threats	eng	Further research is needed to gather information about the potential threats to this species.
176581		conservation	eng	No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Material should be gathered for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>conservation. A monitoring programme should be implemented.
176581		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">M. bondevii</span> is endemic to  Bulgaria, and populations are known to exist in the Kresna gorge (Struma River), the  eastern Rhodopes, and the Thracian plain (Nikolov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).
176581		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. bondevii</span> grows in hot and dry areas, in oak forests, grasslands, and bushlands. It grows on eroded forest soils and chalky rock substrates (Nikolov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).
176581		population	eng	This species is fairly common within its restricted range. Its population is considered stable.
176581		threats	eng	Generally changes in the land-use (urbanisation, agriculture intensification, etc.) are affecting the Thracian plain.
176582		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyron </span>is listed in     Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food   and Agriculture as part of the wheat gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">EURISCO reports 181 <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cristatum</span> accessions  held in European genebanks, 87 of which    are reported to be of wild or  weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 27  originate   from within  Europe. These accessions originate from Ukraine (12), Spain (three), Hungary  (eight) and Bulgaria (four) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>Knowledge of its national threat status is as follows:<br/><ul><li>Croatia (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. cristatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pectinatum</span>):<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Critically Endangered (CR) A4ac;C1 (Nikolić and Topić 2005).</li><li>Switzerland: Vulnerable (VU) D1+2 (Moser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</li><li>Czech Republic: Critically Endangered (CR).<br/></li><li>Slovakia: Endangered (EN) (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).</li></ul>Further research on the distributional range of this species is recommended.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176582		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. cristatum</span> is native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as many parts of temperate Asia (USDA, ARS National Genetic Resources Program 2010). <br/><br/>Information on its national distribution is available for the following countries:<br/><ul><li>Czech Republic: only one location in south Moravia.</li><li>Belarus: although Valdés and Scholz; with contributions from  Raab-Straube and Parolly (2009) consider it to be native, according to experts present at a European vascular plants Red List workshop convened in Portugal, April 2010, it is possibly an alien species in this country.<br/></li><li>France: one department only (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li><li>Greece: only old records of this species exist.<br/></li><li>Hungary: North Hungarian Mountains (Zemplén-,Bükk-mountains, Gyöngyös, Gödöll? Hills), Transdanubian Mountains (Visegrád-, Buda-, Gerecse-, Velencei-, Bakony mountains, Balaton region), Transdanubia (Sopron, Baranya, Tolna,) Great Hungarian Plain (Kisalföld Plain, Danube region, Danube-Tisza köze region, Tiszántúl region frequent), adventive in Debrecen.</li><li>Slovakia: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cristatum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pectinatum </span>(M. Bieb.) Tzvelev occurs in the west and southwest of the country (Eliáš Jr. unpublished).</li></ul>
176582		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. cristatum </span>occurs in dry areas such as steppes and dry grassland. For example in Hungary it can be found in vegetation on loess cliffs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyro-Kochietum prostratae</span>), steep loess slopes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salvio-Festucetum rupicolae</span>), pastures (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cynodonto-Poetum angustifolli</span>), sand steppes and in dry weedy vegetation. It prefers warm, loose loam-, loess-, sandy, soils rich in alkaline minerals.
176582		population	eng	<p>This species is noted as common in parts of its range, such as Bulgaria and Germany, but is rare in others, such as Belarus and the Czech Republic. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species.</p>
176582		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Threats are mainly related to the species being at the limits of its northwestern range. However overall this species does not face major threats.<br/></span>
176583		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus maritimus</span> is assessed as Critically Endangered (CR B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)) in Spain (Moreno 2008). In France, the species is protected in the regions of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and Poitou-Charentes (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<span class="Apple-converted-space"><br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">maritimus</span> <span class="Apple-converted-space">are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010)<span class="Apple-converted-space">. A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.</span>
176583		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. maritimus </span>is native to parts of east, southeast and southwest Europe, and to north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In Spain, this species occurs in the east of the country. In France, it is present within seven departments in the south of the country:   Pyrénées Orientales, Aude,   Hérault, Gard,   Ardèche,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var—it is also present within the department of   Charente-Maritime to the west (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).   <p>Further research is needed to gather information about the precise distribution of this species throughout the rest of its range.</p>
176583		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. maritimus</span>&#160; is a dioecious perennial species found on sandy soils near the coast in the Mediterranean (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1980). It is a salt tolerant species (Štajner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002a,b) and is resistant to the fungus, <span style="font-style: italic;">Puccinia asparagi</span> (Alberti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
176583		population	eng	This species is rare and in decline in Spain. Further research is needed to gather information about the population size and trend of this species throughout the rest of its range.
176583		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, it could be threatened by coastal development.
176584		conservation	eng	No accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. carica </span>are held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>in genebanks (USDA, ARS,  National Genetic Resources Program 2010). No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Material should be gathered for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation. More research is needed on the population trends and the distribution. A monitoring programme should be implemented.
176584		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. carica</span> is endemic to Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and Greece.<strong><br/> </strong>
176584		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. carica </span>favours rocky slopes, scree, scrub and maquis shrublands (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176584		population	eng	This is a common species within its restricted range and its population characterisation is unknown (Al-Atawneh <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176584		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is  found in several habitats which are not threatened within  its  distribution. However increase in fires frequency and intensity is likely to have a negative impact on part of the range of this species.
176585		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">lepuznica </span>is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Serbia (Stevanović 1999).<br/><br/>As it is a widespread species it occurs in protected areas all over Europe.  It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 47 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> held in European genebanks, 32 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 21 originate from within Europe. The majority of European accessions originate from Germany (16) and the five other wild accessions originate from Austria (one), Belgium (one), Norway (one), Spain (one) and the UK (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176585		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> is native to much of Europe, as well as parts of temperate Asia and north Africa (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006). <br/><br/>This species is known to be widespread throughout Slovakia, Romania, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Serbia, France and the UK. According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arcuata </span>is present in Norway, but its status is unknown. However, Atlas Florae Europaeae (Botanical Museum, Finnish Museum of Natural History 1999) records <span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> as introduced to Norway. It is an archeophyte in Estonia, Latvia and  Lithuania (J. Labokas pers. comm. 2010).
176585		habitat	eng	This species occurs in many habitats in Europe, often in damp ground and lowland areas including riverbanks, meadows, shingle and ditches, to more disrupted habitats such as roadside verges, arable land, wasteland and docklands (Polunin 1969, Rich 1991, Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009). It is found in siliceous, calcareous, sandy, alluvial and clay soils, avoiding highly acidic sites.  It is known to require a degree of disturbance and therefore is&#160; found in roadsides, hedges, ditches and waste  places (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In the Caucasus this species can be is found up to 2,500 m (Shetekauri and Jacoby 2009) and in Greece to 2,000 m (Lafranchis and Sfikas 2009).
176585		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. vulgaris</span> is widespread and commonly found throughout its range. It is the most common species of the genus in Britain, and noted as locally abundant where it occurs (Rich 1991). This species has shown no particular change in its distribution in the UK since 1962 (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In Slovakia it is widespread and common (Peniašteková 2002), with a stable population trend.
176585		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176586		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Rorippa </span>is listed     in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for     Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/></span>There is some uncertainty about the status of this taxon as it is recorded as an accepted species by Euro+Med PlantBase (2006) but reported to be a hybrid between <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">R. amphibia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">R.  austriaca </span>by other sources. The taxonomy therefore requires clarification.</span>
176586		distribution	eng	According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">R. hungarica</span> is native to Hungary and Slovakia. In Slovakia, this taxon is recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. </span>x <span style="font-style: italic;">hungarica</span> and has only been found in the Podunajská ní?ina Lowland, Ipe?sko-rimavská brázda Region, Východoslovenská ní?ina Lowland and near Kysak (east Slovakia) (Tom?ovic and Goliašová 2002).
176586		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland areas in wet meadows.
176586		population	eng	This taxon is possibly widespread in Europe but it is not clearly distinguished.
176586		threats	eng	The threats to this taxon are unknown.
176587		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food   and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>As it is thought that this species not native to Europe, no conservation actions are in place or needed.
176587		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">I. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">sevangensis </span>is native to Armenia and Romania. However, according to S. Strajeru  (pers. comm. 2010), this species is not included in any published works  on the flora of Romania.
176587		habitat	eng	According to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species does not occur  in Romania; therefore, the habitat and ecology has not been researched.
176587		population	eng	According to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species does not occur in Romania.
176587		threats	eng	According to S. Strajeru (pers. comm. 2010), this species does not occur  in Romania; therefore, there are no threats to record.
176588		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. pastorianus</span> occurs within some existing protected areas; however, these populations are under threat from invasive species and overgrazing by goats and rabbits. There is a need for population monitoring and management as well as genetic and reproductive biology studies.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pastorianus</span> which is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176588		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. pastorianus</span> is native to the Canary Islands and Morocco (Govaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006–2007). It mainly occurs on Tenerife and Gran Canaria, where it is found particularly in the dry coastal areas of the south and north. Populations can also be found on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, and rarely in La Gomera.<br/><br/>Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
176588		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It</span> is found in dry, stony conditions, mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia </span>communities, from 0–600 m asl. It does not grow on steep land.
176588		population	eng	This species can be frequent but is restricted only to specific habitats.
176588		threats	eng	Populations outside protected areas are under threat from development for tourism and the construction of new roads. Overgrazing (goats and rabbits) is an additional threat, especially in Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. It is also threatened by invasive species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agave </span>spp. and expanding populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pennisetum setaceum</span>, as well as expanding agriculture.
176589		conservation	eng	There are seven accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. montbretii</span> held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> at the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Washington, USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).&#160; There is one accession in the Millennium seed bank and probably also in the Bulgarian genebank. Collections of all perennial <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicer </span>species are so limited due to difficulties in growing species away from their adapted climatic conditions. Thus an <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> approach to conserving <span style="font-style: italic;">C. montbretii </span>would be recommended (Ahmad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  According to the International Legume Database & Information Service   (2010), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. montbretii</span> is not a   threatened species. In Bulgaria it is on the list of the Protected Species. It occurs in protected areas.<br/><br/>A monitoring programme should be implemented.
176589		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. montbretii</span> is found across southeastern Europe (southern Albania, southeast and Black Sea coast in Bulgaria, northern Greece) and western Turkey (both European and Asian parts) (ILDIS 2010, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176589		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. montbretii </span>grows near water, on hill slopes, among pine and oak forests, and in rocky areas consisting of calcareous or sandstone rocks. It is a perennial species, and it flowers between March and June (van der Maesen 1972).
176589		population	eng	This species is very rare and its population is stable.
176589		threats	eng	Overgrazing is the main threat. As it is a mountainous plant, it is likely ot be impacted negatively in the future by climate change.
176590		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/></span>Four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ilorcitana</span> are reported by EURISCO—these were collected in Spain and are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is recommended.<br/><br/>It is known to occur in protected areas but is probably not monitored or  actively managed. <br/><br/>Its status in Portugal needs to be clarified.
176590		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. ilorcitana </span>is native to eastern Spain (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Its presence in Portugal and southern Spain is uncertain.<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
176590		habitat	eng	Found on coastal to inland hills, dry, sandy or stony fields, and pastures (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It grows in gypsum soils.
176590		population	eng	It is locally common but on particular soils (gypsum).
176590		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, there are some localized threats, such as tourism activities.
176592		conservation	eng	<p>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/></p><p>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. parvula</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).   Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status and distribution of this species. </p>
176592		distribution	eng	According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">D. parvula</span> is native to Romania; however, according to experts present at a European CWR Red List workshop held in Portugal, April 2010, it is not included in the Flora of Romania. It is not known whether the species is endemic to Europe.
176592		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species. It is not included in the Flora of Romania.
176592		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is not included in the Flora of Romania.
176592		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species. It is not included in the Flora of Romania.
176593		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis</span> is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>EURISCO reports four germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. flexuosa</span> which are stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species. In particular, material needs to be collected from the subpopulations on the Canary Islands.
176593		distribution	eng	According to<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010<span style="font-style: italic;">), S. flexuosa</span> is native to Spain and the Canary Islands, as well as Algeria and Morocco. However, according to Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) and Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), its origin in the Canary Islands is uncertain.
176593		habitat	eng	This species grows on non-arid to semi-arid coastal plains and montane habitats up to 1600 m (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It can be found on cliffs, in sandy areas, dry pastures, open woodlands and brush, often on chalky soil (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). According to Gómez Campo&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(1993), it is found in arable land, abandoned agricultural areas, temporary rivers, in calcareous soil from sea level up to 800 m.
176593		population	eng	This species is extremely localized in the Canary Islands (on la Gomera and Tenerife) but widespread in southeastern Spain.
176593		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176594		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/><br/></span>  EURISCO reports 25 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, eight of which originate from within Europe—three from Portugal and five from Spain. All of these accessions are stored in<span style="background-color: white;"> the genebank of the </span><span style="background-color: white;">Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos</span><span style="background-color: white;">, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid </span>(EURISCO Catalogue 2010).  <span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"> Further germplasm collection and storage of this species is recommended.<br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">It is found within existing  protected areas; however, it is not  monitored or actively managed. It  is recommended that it is incorporated  into the existing protected area  management plans</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. <span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
176594		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. siifolia</span> is native to Portugal and Spain, as well as Algeria and Morocco (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). It&#160; occurs in the south of Spain and southwest Portugal<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">(Martínez Laborde 1996). Its area of occupancy (AOO) is probably not much more than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span></span></span>
176594		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal habitats, such as sandy plains and dry stream beds, and occurs as a weedy species on roadsides and in waste  places, fields, vineyards, walls and roof crevices (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176594		population	eng	In Portugal this species is rare. In Spain, it has a restricted distribution but it is common in suitable habitat.
176594		threats	eng	It is threatened by urbanization, tourism and road improvement.
176595		conservation	eng	No accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. undulatus </span>are held <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in genebanks (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>There is no active <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> management,  but it is likely to be passively conserved in      many existing   protected areas in throughout its range but as its      conservation in  these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject      to  population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.
176595		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. undulatus</span> is endemic to European and Asiatic Turkey (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010) and Ukraine, where it is present in Crimea only at the south slope of Nikitski Yaila (between Yalta and Nikita) in alpine meadows. The extent of occurrence (EOO) in Ukraine is potentially smaller than 100 km<sup>2 </sup>and<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>in Turkey it is restricted to the Istanbul region<strong>.<br/></strong><strong><br/></strong>
176595		habitat	eng	The species is found in clearings in forests, hedges and roadsides (Davis 1970).
176595		population	eng	This is a very restricted species&#160; in Europe, it is  found in one main habitat which is not specifically threatened. Its population appears to be  decreasing.<br/><br/>In Ukraine, the population trend is unknown but it is believed to be decreasing and now populations are small with a few individuals only. In Ukraine, the number of mature individuals is suspected to be less than 250 and each subpopulation holds less than 50 individuals. The population trend in the Istanbul region of Turkey is unknown.
176595		threats	eng	This species is likely to be grazed by wild and domesticated species in the pasture and agricultural margins. Yalta is a centre of tourism development. Urbanisation is the other main threat.
176596		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Armoracia</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Brassica</span> complex. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 102 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. rusticana</span> held by European genebanks; however, only four of these are recorded as of wild or weedy origin. These wild accessions originate from Croatia (one), Denmark (two) and Ukraine (one) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> storage is needed to ensure that wild germplasm is available for use in plant breeding programmes.
176596		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. rusticana</span> occurs in Latvia; Lithuania; Estonia; Kaliningrad; east, north, northwest, south and central European Russia; Belarus; Moldova; and Ukraine (including Crimea) (Smekalova 2008).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176596		habitat	eng	It grows along riverbanks and in other damp places. Ruderal plants are mainly confined to secondary anthropogenic habitats; for example, near arable land, in urban areas and in rural gardens.
176596		population	eng	Common throughout its range with stable to increasing populations.
176596		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
176597		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. polymorpha </span>  is a widespread species, with a large number of accessions available in gene banks (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 485 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 396 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 356 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176597		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. polymorpha </span>is native to most of southern and central Europe, and is also found throughout much of temperate Asia and certain regions of north Africa. It has been naturalised worldwide (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is widespread, occurs in all but 13 departments across the whole country (Association Tela Botanica 2010) and in the UK it occurs along the East Anglian and southern coastline (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002). It also has a patchy distribution across the rest of England but these occurrences are recorded as alien (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176597		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. polymorpha</span> is a winter annual herb and flowers in the summer and autumn. It grows on many soil types, but favours moist, well-drained, slightly alkaline, loamy soils. It is found in shaded areas, next to streams, in pastures (often in areas where forests have been cleared), and as a weed in cultivated areas. It is intolerant of frost and soils heavily charged with salts, but tolerates mean annual rainfall of 860 mm, temperatures between 10.5ºC and 27.5ºC, and soil pH between 5.3 and 8.2 (Duke 1981).<br/><br/>  In the UK this lowland species prefers open sandy and gravelly habitats in coastal areas (Preston <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176597		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago polymorpha</span> is possibly the most common medic species. Population size is very large and its has a wide range (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010).<br/>In the UK according to Preston <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species has declined along the coast.
176597		threats	eng	There appears to be no major threats. It is found in a range of habitats which do not appear to be threatened (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>An assessment by Cheffings and Farrell (2006) found <span style="font-style: italic;">M. polymorpha</span> fell into the category Least Concern (BGCI 2009).
176599		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. littoralis </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 43 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 28 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 23 originate from within Europe. These wild accessions originate from the following European countries: Cyprus (ten), France (eight), Greece (one) and Spain (four) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176599		distribution	eng	It is a widespread species with a  southern European range through to southern European Russia. Information is needed regarding the distribution in eastern Europe, in particular in Macedonia, Serbia etc. In France it occurs in seven departments along the western coastline, nine departments along the southern coastline, the department of Pas-de-Calais to the north, the department of Allier in central France and Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><strong><br/></strong>
176599		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. littoralis </span>grows on sandy soils, occasionally inland, but generally on beaches and sand dunes (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In Portugal and Spain it is found in dunes, grasslands, and it prefers siliceous substrates, both coastal and inland.
176599		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered      widespread and a common species throughout its range, although it has  been infrequently collected  (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009). <br/>It is very abundant in the Balearic Islands and in the coastal regions of Spain and Portugal, however it is rare in the interior of Iberian Peninsula.
176599		threats	eng	There are no known threats particularly impacting this species. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176601		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus arenarius</span> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. No germplasm accessions <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>In Germany, this species is classed as Endangered (level 2) in the national Red List   (Ludwig and Schnittler 1996). A reintroduction project, under the <span style="background-color: white;">responsibility of a Bavarian landscape care service (a nature protection NGO) has made successful reintroduction efforts by propagating native material in botanical gardens and planting it out in suitable habitats; such as sandy, dry, calcarous soils of open landscapes <span style="background-color: white;">(Landschaftspflegeverband Nürnberg e.V. 2010).</span><br/><br/>In European Russia, it is under special protection in a few territories and is included in regional Red Data Books   (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009), Critically Endangered in the 2001 Red List of the Czech Republic (Procházka 2001) and as Endangered in the national Red List of Sweden (Gärdenfors <span style="background-color: white;">2005). It was previously listed as Vulnerable in the 1995 national Red List of Sweden (Aronsson 1995).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in Poliskij Rivnenskij reserves and Pripjate-Stochid national park, as well as in Nyzniovorsklanskij regional landscape park and Ostrivskij zakaznyk. Throughout its range, this species occurs in several protected areas—it  is recommended that it is included in the management plans for these  sites. A particular management requirement is control of wind erosion.</span>
176601		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus arenarius</span> is native to northern, middle and east Europe (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In northern Europe it occurs in northern Estonia (Laasimer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993–2003), the northern and coastal areas of Latvia, Lithuania (especially in the southeast), as well as   in the south (Kristianstats) and north (Vasternorrland and Norrbottens) of Sweden and Öland Island (Aronsson 1995).<br/><br/>In Germany, it is found in eastern Brandenburg and Saxonia, and in north and northeast Bavaria (Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2010), while in Poland it occurs in the regions of Nizina Południowopodlaska (mainly in the Bug River valley), Nizina Północnopodlaska, Kotlina Warszawska, Wysoczyzna Dobrzyńska, Nizina Sandomierska and Wielkopolska (Rutkowski 1998, Matuszkiewicz 2002,     Rutkowski and   Krasicka-Korczyńska 2003).<br/><br/>In northwest Russia it occurs in the in the districts of Leningrad (mainly Luzshsky region and around St. Petersburg), Pskov and Novgorod (Mstinsky and Mologsky regions) (Tsvelev 2000); in central Russia it is found in Brjansk, Vladimir, Kaluga, Mordovia, Moscow, Nizshnij, Novgorod, Rjazan, Smolensk, Tver' and Jaroslavl, and possibly also in Orel, Tula   and Uljanovsk (Majevsky 2006); while in northeast Russia it occurs in the north Dvina (Severnaja Dvina) basin (Vaga River, Jeletsk, Kholmogory), between the Keldy and Polta rivers, and along the Kuloj River (Tolmachev 1976).
176601		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal habitats (including sand dunes), dry grasslands (Meso-Brometum), and boreal heathland. It is also found in continental sandy inland grasslands with little or no humus and occasional patches of bare sand. The Natura 2000 habitat type is 6120 – Xeric and calcareous grasslands (Balevičienė <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).   In the Czech Republic it is also found in the margins and openings of light pine forests and in wind blown and river deposited sands. It is a diagnostic species for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Jurineo cyanoidis</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Koelerietum glaucae </span>Klika 1931 community (Chrtkova and Kubat 1995).   In Ukraine it occurs on sandy ground in <span style="font-style: italic;">Koelerio</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephoretea </span>communities and in light dry lichen or moss in pine forest, rarely with a herb layer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cladonio</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinetum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Renudano</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinetum </span>communities) (Diduch 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176601		population	eng	In northern Estonia and Latvia, this species is very rare, but is more   frequent in the coastal area of Latvia and in Lithuania, especially in   the southeast. The populations in the Czech  Republic are isolated with a small number of individuals, while in Poland it is relatively widespread, mainly in one region. Populations along the Baltic coast may be stable because they are located within protected areas; however, there is a decreasing population trend in Germany, Poland, Czech Republic and in the northern part of European Russia. Specifically, in Poland there has been an observed decrease in the number of sites or marked reduction in the numbers of individuals per site over the past ten years (Snowarski 2002–2010).   In Ukraine, the populations are small (1–8 individuals/m² in an area of no more than 40 m² per population).
176601		threats	eng	The main threat in European Russia where the species is found near St. Petersburg, is habitat degradation due to urbanization. In the Czech Republic, the main threat is habitat disturbance.   The main threats in Ukraine are silviculture in sandy areas, timber extraction, fire and pastoral succession, and recreation. Fixation of dunes was a threat in the past but now this kind of habitat  is under protection in various countries within its range. The species is particularly vulnerable due to its narrow ecological and coenotical tolerance.
176602		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">I. alpina</span> is a nationally protected species (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). It is listed as Vulnerable in the north of Italy and Low Risk in central Italy.<br/><br/>Part of the species' range lies within protected areas. Population monitoring and management at these sites is recommended.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. allionii</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
176602		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. allionii </span>is native to France and Italy (Euro+Med PlantBase 2006) where it occurs in&#160; the southwest Alps and north and central Appennini (Tutin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1964). In France, this taxon (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis alpina </span>Vill.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) is found only in the department of   Hautes-Alpes in the southeast (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010). In Italy it occurs in two regions in the northwest and four regions in the centre. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis allionii </span>in Italy has an area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
176602		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found on screes and in sandy soils. In Italy, there is a continuing decline in the quality of this habitat.
176602		population	eng	It is not a common species and is known only from small populations. Overall, the population seems to be stable; however, due to the very unstable nature of the habitat, the number of mature individuals can fluctuate significantly.
176602		threats	eng	Tourist activity (in particular, climbers) is a major threat to this species. The northern population is indirectly threatened by changes in the grazing regime causing succession and competition, and the natural movement of the soil substrate poses an additional threat to the species.
176603		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. squamatum </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/><br/>The native distribution of this taxon requires verification.
176603		distribution	eng	Hanelt and IPK Gatersleben (2001) note that this species (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">Coronopus squamatus</span>) is probably only found in its wild form in the  Mediterranean area and that it is widespread over Europe as a weed and  ruderal plant. According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">L. squamatum</span> is found in Croatia but it is recorded as 'distribution incomplete'. According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010), this species (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">L. coronopus</span> (L.) Al-Shehbaz) is distributed widely across Europe, and is also found in temperate Asia and Africa. In a recent review of the Brassicaceae family, Marhold (2011) included this species as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. squamatus</span>; therefore, the list of occurrences is recorded in this assessment according to the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. squamatus</span> recorded by Marhold (2011).
176603		habitat	eng	There is no information available about the habitat of this species.
176603		population	eng	There is no information available about the population size or trend of this species.
176603		threats	eng	There is no information available about the threats to this species.
176604		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. pritzelii</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU), C2a(i)) in the 2008 Red List of Vascular Plants of Spain (Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>Some subpopulations are found within protected areas, but these areas are affected by invasive species and there is no active management of the species. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pritzelii</span> which is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior  de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176604		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. pritzelii</span> is endemic to Gran Canaria, where it is found in the lowlands of the north and east. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
176604		habitat	eng	This perennial species is found in lowland scrub and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea </span>and laurisilva forests. It also grows outside the forests in steep, rocky areas.
176604		population	eng	The population comprises small isolated groups of individual plants scattered throughout its range. The impact of invasive species and expansion of human habitations is causing increased fragmentation of the population.
176604		threats	eng	It is threatened by invasive plant species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Agave</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelargonium</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pennisetum </span>spp., as well as human disturbance due to the close proximity of subpopulations to human habitations.
176605		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. pironae </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks, and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001). In the Italian Red List, the population is one of the regions of low risk. It occurs in a Site of Community Interst (SCI). This species has been cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span>.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, this accession is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, the wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176605		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. pironae</span> is only native to Italy and the countries making up the Former Yugoslavia (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Italy it occurs in two regions in the northeast of the country.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176605		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. pironae</span> grows on rocky hillsides in sub-mountain areas, often among low bushes (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Italy it is found on river banks. The species' habitat is fragile and very vulnerable.
176605		population	eng	This species is rare only found on the Italian/Slovenian border, and there is no population size data available but the fact that it is so restricted in terms of distribution mean the population size is likely to be limited.
176605		threats	eng	The species is threatened by agricultural activities, urbanization, tourism, and trekking.
176606		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession held in European genebanks, this accession is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. However, the wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176606		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. polyceratia </span>has a fairly narrow distribution, occurring only in France, Portugal and Spain in Europe, and Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia in Africa (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In France it is confined to the southern department of   Pyrénées Orientales, the southeastern departments of Vaucluse,   Bouches-du-Rhône and Alpes-Maritimes and the northeastern department of Bas-Rhin (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
176606		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. polyceratia </span>is found on mountains, hills, slopes, fields and fallow fields (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176606		population	eng	The population size is relatively large and within its range (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic  Resources Program 2010).
176606		threats	eng	This is a moderately common species and there appears to be no major  threats. It  is found in several habitats which are not threatened within  its region (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176607		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Isatis </span>is listed in  Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.&#160; <br/><br/>The species is listed as Endangered (A2ac; B1ab(iii)c(iv); C2b) in Slovakia (Feráková <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. campestris </span>held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). The sample  originated in Slovakia and was collected at   Dankov vrch Hill (P. Eliáš pers. comm. 2010). Further germplasm collection and duplicated <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>storage is a priority for this species.<br/><br/>There is no information about the in situ conservation status of this species.<br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176607		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. campestris</span> is native to central and south Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (Feráková 1999,   Goliašová <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In southwest Slovakia, this species was recently found growing on the Dankov vrch Hill and below the southern slopes of the Starý vrch Hill (Belianske kopce Hills). In the Russian Federation, it is found in Moscowskaya, Leningradskaya and Rostovskaya regions (Dorofeyev 2002). It is also found in the southern territory of Ukraine and in the south of the Crimean Peninsula. Its main distribution in Ukraine is in lesosteppe (forest-steppe) and steppe zones. In Crimea it is found only in one site in Tarchankutskij Peninsula.<span class="msoIns"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176607		habitat	eng	In the Caucasus, Russia and Ukraine, this species is found on sandy slopes and rocky outcrops (Fedorov 2001) in communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco–Brometea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Festucetalia valesiaca</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agropyretea repentis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Artemisieta vulgaris</span> (Diduch 2007).   In Slovakia, the species is found on loess soil in xerothermic vegetation of the <em>Festucion valesiaceae</em> alliance (Corine biotope No. 6250 – Pannonic loess steppic grasslands).
176607		population	eng	In Slovakia, two micro-populations are found: Dankov vrch Hill where <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 3,000 individuals were recorded in 2008 and <span style="font-style: italic;">c. </span>1,000 in 2010, and the foothills of the Starý vrch Hill where <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>150 individuals were recorded in 2009. The population trend is decreasing in Slovakia and Russia, and stable in Ukraine.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176607		threats	eng	Urbanization is a threat in Russia as there are three disjunct subpopulations near to large cities.   At both localities in Slovakia, the species is threatened by secondary succession of grasslands by both native (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus spinosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Swida sangiunea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ligustrum vulgare</span>) and alien (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ailanthus altissima</span>) tree and shrub species—some individuals have also been destroyed by vineyard management practices (herbicide application and hoe<span style="background-color: white;">in</span>g). In Ukraine, the main threat is recreation and tourism.
176608		conservation	eng	There are no accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. graecum</span> stored in genebanks (CIAT 2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010), and the species is considered to be rare by the International Legume Database & Information Service (2010).&#160; Collections of all perennial <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicer </span>species are so limited due to difficulties in growing species away from their adapted climatic conditions. Thus an <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> approach to conserving <span style="font-style: italic;">C. graecum</span> would be recommended (Ahmad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). A monitoring programme should be implemented.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176608		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. graecum</span> is endemic to Greece, specifically above Trikkala, Mount Kyllene (van der Maesen 1972). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>. <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>
176608		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. graecum </span>generally grows on calcareous soils in hedges, corn fields and bushes. It is perennial, and its flowering period occurs between May and July (van der Maesen 1972).
176608		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cicer graecum </span>is a very rare  species in Europe, only found above Trikkala on Mt. Kyllene, where only about 1,000 individuals  occur. It is believed that the population is decreasing.
176608		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is overgrazing. Local fires might also have a negative impact. It is relatively tolerant to droughts.
176609		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. cancellata </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports only three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, one of which is reported to be of wild or weedy origin. This wild accession does not originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  Included in Red Data Book of the Russian Federation as a rare species, classed as Vulnerable on the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants. Included in the regional Red Lists of Bashkortostan, Stavropolski, Volgogradskaya, and Orenburgskaya regions (Red Data Book Laboratory 2005).
176609		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. cancellata</span> is endemic to Russia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). There it is restricted to southeast Russia, present in the lower Don and lower Volga River basins near Stavropol. The locations in the European part are less than 10. The area of occupancy (AOO) is smaller than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<strong><br/> </strong>
176609		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. cancellata </span>grows in steppe and semi-desert environments on infertile soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is found on raised ground and occurs on open rocky slopes in association with sandy soils (Fedorov 1987).
176609		population	eng	This species is very rare and occurs in isolated patches. The populations are suspected to be slowly declining.
176609		threats	eng	Urbanisation and agricultural intensification are the main threats to this species.
176610		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. granadensis </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/>    <p>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, none of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
176610		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. granadensis </span>has a relatively limited distribution, occurring in parts of western Asia and northern Africa (namely Egypt). It has been introduced in France and Spain, but not fully naturalised (<span style="background-color: white;">Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<strong><br/> </strong>
176610		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. granadensis</span> grows on heavy soils in fallow fields and ditch sides (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176610		population	eng	No information available.
176610		threats	eng	No information available. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176611		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. heyniana</span> has few accessions available in gene banks, and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001). Further material should be gathered for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation. Reaserch on the distribution and population trends and size is required.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176611		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">M. heyniana</span> is native to Greece (mainland, Crete, East Aegean Islands) in Europe. It is also found in Jordan and parts of Turkey (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176611		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. heyniana</span> grows on dry, rocky hillsides (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176611		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered rare throughout its range (Al-Atawneh  <em>et al.</em> 2009).
176611		threats	eng	This species is threatened by tourist development and overgrazing. Increase in fire frequency and intensity is also a problem.
176612		conservation	eng	No information available.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176612		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. heterocarpa</span> is endemic to the French island of Corsica.<strong><br/><br/><br/> </strong>
176612		habitat	eng	No information available.
176612		population	eng	No information available.
176612		threats	eng	No information available.
176613		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. turbinata </span> has few accessions available in gene banks. <br/><br/>EURISCO reports 37 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 11 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. All of these wild accessions originate from within Europe: seven from Cyprus (stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain), one from Greece (stored in Greek Genebank, Agricultural Research Center of Macedonia and Thrace, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece) and three from Spain (stored in Junta de Extremadura, Servicio de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Finca la Orden, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176613		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. turbinata</span> is native to much of southern Europe, as well as parts of western Asia and northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). In Spain it is found in the Balearic Islands and coastal areas and in France it occurs in the northern departments of Eure, Aisne and Marne, the central departments of Vienne and Lot, the southwestern department of   Pyrénées-Atlantiques, the southern department of   Pyrénées Orientales, the southeastern departments of   Bouches-du-Rhône and Var and the two departments of Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
176613		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. turbinata </span>grows on mountains in field margins and rocky areas, on sandy and limestone soils (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain it is found in grasslands and cultivated fields.
176613		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered  common throughout its range and populations are thought to be stable.
176613		threats	eng	There appears  to be no major  threats. It is found in a number of habitats  that are not threatened. It is possibly threatened due to habitat erosion, and grows in regions threatened by climate change (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).
176614		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rupestris </span>  has few accessions available in gene banks, and is rare in the wild (Prosperi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176614		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rupestris</span> is native to Crimea and north Caucasus (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Europe it is found in the lower mountain belt in the southern part of Crimea in less than five locations. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 4,900 km<sup>2&#160; </sup>and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 490 km<sup>2</sup>.
176614		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. rupestris </span>grows in lower mountain zones on calcareous rocks (Al-Atawneh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
176614		population	eng	Population trend is suspected to be decreasing. The number of mature individuals is thought to be less than 2,500 with less than 250 per subpopulation.
176614		threats	eng	The area of this species is under intense tourist development, recreational activities and urbanisation, the habitat of this species is therefore declining.
176615		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus </span>is listed  in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food and Agriculture. The species occurs in several protected areas.<br/><br/>  EURISCO reports only one germplasm accession of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scoparius</span> which originates from Spain and is stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.
176615		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. scoparius</span> is native to Madeira, the Canary Islands and Cape Verde (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). Its presence on the island of Selvagens is uncertain (Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>In the Canary Islands this species is found on the islands of Tenerife, Gran Canaria, La Palma, Hierro and Gomera. In Tenerife it is found in the lowland areas, of Los Silos, Cuevas Negras, El Fraile, Garachico, Masca,Valle de Santiago del Teide and Chio. In Gran Canaria it is found in Barranco de Moya, Guiniguada, Atalaya and Santa Lucia de Tirajana. In La Palma it is found near Santa Cruz de la Palma, Barranco Carmen and Los Sauces (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001).<br/><a name="OLE_LINK16">The area of occupancy (AOO) of </a><a name="OLE_LINK16"><span style="font-style: italic;">Asparagus scoparius </span></a><a name="OLE_LINK16">is probably less than 2,000 k</a><a name="OLE_LINK16">m<sup>2</sup></a><a name="OLE_LINK16">.</a>
176615		habitat	eng	It is found in dry, rocky habitats (Press and Short 1994). In Gran Canaria it can be found up to 800 m asl (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001). It also grows in coastal areas and in dry forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistachia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix</span>.
176615		population	eng	This species is noted as being common in lowland areas on Tenerife (Bramwell and Bramwell 2001) and is also common in the rest of the islands, except for El Hierro.
176615		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species; however, local threats include urbanization and public works.
176616		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus </span>is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the grasspea gene pool.<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">L. gorgoni</span> has germplasm stored <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben (Germany); N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation); Experimental Station of Plant Production (Ustymivka, Ukraine); Aegean Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey); ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) gene banks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports eight germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, four of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, none originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <em>In situ</em>  the species is likely to be passively conserved in   many existing  protected areas  throughout its range but as its   conservation in these  sites is not actively monitored it may be subject   to population loss  over time from factors such as climate change.<strong></strong>
176616		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">. gorgoni</span> is found throught much of western Asia, as well as parts of southeast Europe and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). The International Legume Database & Information Service (2010)  records it as being present in Malta,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Turkey in  Europe, Cyprus and  East Aegean  Islands.
176616		habitat	eng	This species is spatially restricted in Europe but is often associated with disturbed anthropogenic habitats such as roadsides or field margins that are prone to summer fires and overgrazing.
176616		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathyrus gorgoni</span>  is a geographically restricted species but it is found in several habitats  which are not threatened; populations appear to be  stable.
176616		threats	eng	This species is spatially restricted in Europe but more common in the Middle East. In Europe, it is often associated  with disturbed anthropogenic habitats such as roadsides or field margins  that are prone to summer fires and overgrazing and as such is threatened.
176617		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplotaxis </span>is listed   in Annex I of the International  Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for   Food and Agriculture as part of  the brassica complex.<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><br/>As it is a widespread species some subpopulations occur naturally in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports 22 germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. muralis</span> held in European genebanks, 21 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, six originate from within Europe. One originates from France, two from Germany, two from Italy and one from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
176617		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. muralis</span> is native to central, eastern, southeastern and southwestern Europe, as well as parts of temperate Asia and north Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).
176617		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. muralis</span> occurs in non-arid to semi-arid low valleys and plateaus, and rarely in hills. It can be found in pastures,  open woodlands and brush, as well as occurring as a weedy species in ruderal sites, roadsides and waste places, fields,  crops, vineyards, gardens, oases, dunes and railway ballast, spreading along railway banks. This species grows on clay, sandy,  peaty and chalky soils (Warwick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
176617		population	eng	Information on the population size and trend of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. muralis</span> is available for the following countries:   <br/><ul><li>Portugal: rare, occurs only in one region.</li><li>Slovakia: common  in lowland areas and hills, and scattered in mountain regions of  the  country (Eliáš Sen. and Eliáš Jr. 2002), with a stable population trend.<br/></li><li>Spain: not frequent in the centre and north of the country.</li><li>Romania: common.</li><li>France:  widespread throughout the country, with the exceptions of    Hautes-Pyrénées and   Haute-Garonne to the southwest, Indre in central  France and nine departments to the north (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).</li></ul>
176617		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
176618		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium </span>is listed in   Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for  Food  and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex.<br/><br/>This species is not native to Europe; therefore, no conservation actions are in place or needed.
176618		distribution	eng	According to Euro+Med PlantBase (2006), <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cordatum</span> is native to Norway. However, according to experts present at a European vascular plant Red List workshop convened in Portugal in April 2010, this species is not native to Europe.
176618		habitat	eng	The habitat is not known and not researched as this species is not native to Europe.
176618		population	eng	There are no native populations in Europe.
176618		threats	eng	There are no native populations in Europe; therefore, the threats to this species have not been researched.
176619		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as Data Deficient, since no data on its range, populations status, or the current threat processes was available. Therefore further research into the distribution, taxonomy and threats affecting this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176619		distribution	eng	The species status and consequently the distribution of this species are currently under dispute, as there is a view that it might be a junior synonym of <em>B. ceylonensis</em> (Samarawickrama <em>et al.</em> 2005). In India, this species appears to be known from the Maharashtra region, while in Sri Lanka, it has been collected from Peradeniya. <br/><br/>In identifying a new species, <em>Boiga ranawanei</em>, from the central highlands of Sri Lanka, Samarawickrama <em>et al.</em> (2005) state that it is possible that specimens previously identified as <em>B. beddomei</em> in the highlands would actually be <em>B. ranawanei</em>. They do note, however, that <em>B. ranawanei</em> was only recorded in the Kandy District and therefore could not account for specimens of <em>B. beddomei</em> from the lowland wet and dry zones.
176619		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to inhabit moist montane forests in both India and Sri Lanka, as well as lowland moist and dry forests in Sri Lanka and India (A. Captain pers. comm.).
176619		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176619		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, fire practices, and rapidly growing human population and settlements may all be impacting this species but the extent of these threats are not known.
176620		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are protected areas within this species' suspected range, including Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Further research into the population trends, habitat, threats, distribution, and ecology of this species are needed. Surveys are needed in adjacent areas of Cambodia's Mondolkiri Province, including Virachey National Park, to establish whether this snake occurs in that country (T. Neang pers. comm. 2011). Protection of additional forest may be required, and efforts to limit further deforestation are recommended.
176620		distribution	eng	Until recently, specimen-based records of this species were only known from Quang Binh Province, central Viet Nam (Tillack <em>et al.</em> 2004). There are at least three additional records from Kom Tum Province to the south, from sites between 500 and 1,500 m asl. (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2010). This snake may occur throughout the area of intact karst limestone of central and north-central Viet Nam and adjacent Lao PDR (R. Bain pers. comm.), and may also extend into remaining forested areas of northeastern Cambodia (T. Neang pers. comm. 2011); however until this can be confirmed the extent of occurrence is here treated as the combined area of known localities, an area of approximately 3,385 km²<sup></sup>.
176620		habitat	eng	The type specimen of this species was found in the leaf-litter of primary evergreen forest in a rocky valley of the Annamite mountains at 550 m above sea level (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Snakes in this genus are primarily tree-dwellers that are nocturnally active, lay eggs and feed on small vertebrates. Specimens from Kom Tum were found at night in mixed secondary forest of trees and bamboo. So far, all specimens recorded were discovered at night time on the forest floor, on forest paths, or on rocks, but never in branches. All records have been taken near streams in rocky environments. The species can be found in forests associated with both granite and karst.
176620		population	eng	No information is available on population trends in this species. Surveys have been conducted at and between the known sites, however very few specimens of this snake are known (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2010).
176620		threats	eng	This species may be in decline due to the loss, fragmentation and degradation of its forest habitat as a result of logging and the expansion of agriculture. In Lao PDR land use change and deforestation have reduced the forest cover of the country by 30% between the 1940s and 1999 (Foppes and Ketphanh 2000), although in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam large areas of forest remain.
176621		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as LR/nt under the IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3, due its large range. However, habitat loss was identified as a localized threat, and future monitoring of this species was recommended.<br/><br/>This species is found in a number of protected areas, including the Anawilundawa Wetland Sanctuary (a Ramsar site) and Kalakad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. In Sri Lanka it is known from several Wildlife and Forest Conservation forests.
176621		distribution	eng	This species is found in India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In India, the species is found in the Dangs District of Gujarat, the Ganges valley, Orissa, West Bengal, and Rajasthan provinces, and the entire Western Ghats (Sharma 2003). It is found throughout Sri Lanka, however, was noted to be absent from a recent survey in the Knuckles Mountain Range (Project Knuckles 2005). In Nepal, this species is known from the eastern and western Terai (Schleich and Kästle 2002).<br/><br/>Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that the species is found up to 300 m above sea level.
176621		habitat	eng	This species is found in both dry and wet forests, open jungle, forest boarders, and cultivated areas (Schleich and Kästle 2002) where it lives in small to medium bushes, scrubby vegetation and also on tall trees with profuse branching (Sharma 2002). It is said to be a common predator of poultry and other common birds (e.g., pigeons), as well as bats. This species usually rests inside tree holes, especially in <em>Ficus bengalensis</em> and other large trees (A. de Silva pers. comm.).
176621		population	eng	This species has been described as fairly common by various authors (Sharma 2003, Daniel 2002, De Silva 1990).
176621		threats	eng	It has been reported that this species is often killed while forest is being cleared, due to the perception that it poses a threat to humans (De Silva 2006). However, due to the wide range of this species, localized events of persecution by humans should not be considered a major threat. Habitat loss has also been cited as a localized threat to this species (CAMP workshop 1997).
176622		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and habitat trends should be carried out.
176622		distribution	eng	This species is found in India, Nepal and Bhutan.<br/><br/>In India, this species is known from the Darjeeling District in the Eastern Himalayas and from Subathu, Mussooree, Naini Tal and Muktesar in the Western Himalayas (Sharma 2003). <br/><br/>Tillack <em>et al.</em> (2005) report an incidental find in west Nepal at 3,050 m, the highest record for any member of this genus, thus bridging a distribution gap between east Nepal and Uttaranchal.
176622		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested hilly areas above 1,525 m above sea level (Schleich and Kästle 2002, Sharma 2002).
176622		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare. For example, records from Nepal are few and vague (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
176622		threats	eng	The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan Workshop held in Coimbatore in 1997 identified habitat loss as a threat to this species (BCPP 1997). This is likely due to agricultural development.
176623		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the threats, range, ecology and habitat status is needed, and population and habitat monitoring is recommended. The establishment and management of protected areas could provide valuable refuge sites for this species.
176623		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. abstrusa</span> is endemic to Indonesia and is known from two sites: one in Pulau Nias, and "Padang" on west coast of Sumatra (Inger and Marx 1965); this latter record presumably refers to nearby forest rather than to the city itself. It is possible that Padang, a port, may in fact be a transit point rather than part of the snake's native range, however as several specimens are known with this locality, and the species is not of commercial interest, this is considered unlikely (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. March 2012).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is unclear; of the known localities Nias has an area little  greater than 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and most of this island has now been converted  to unsuitable habitat, as has forest near Padang. The precise area where the species has been found in mainland Sumatra is however unknown, and it is possible that this cryptic snake is considerably more widespread on the island than is presently known (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. March 2012).
176623		habitat	eng	This semi-fossorial species is thought to inhabit lowland rainforest habitat.
176623		population	eng	Only seven specimens are known for this species, five of which were recorded from unspecified sites (in Sumatra).&#160; One specimen was collected from Nias and another&#160; from Padang. Specific information on population is not available, but decline is inferred as habitat is declining.
176623		threats	eng	The forest cover of Nias has mainly been converted to rubber plantation since Dutch colonization, so that the original forest is practically gone. The second locality is "Padang", which might refer to the closest historically forested area to Padang in the past (Kayu Tanam), but that area has now been converted with only patches of original forest remaining. The area of remaining forest is estimated to have declined by 40% over the past 10 years based on field observations (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011).
176624		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat are suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
176624		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is only known from the type specimen, collected in 1919 from Pinapuan, near Luwuk and Biak, on the eastern peninsula of the island (province Sulawesi Tengah) (Inger and Marx 1965, de Lang and Vogel 2005). The elevation of the collection site appears unknown but the general area is mostly low elevation. The apparent rarity may be an artefact of little sampling in this part of Sulawesi. Furthermore, the semi-fossorial and leaf litter dwelling life style of snakes in this genus cause them to be easily overseen unless drift fences with pitfall traps are used (Lardner 2007). Large tracts of the east Sulawesi peninsula still has forest cover and since most <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>spp. tend to be associated with forest habitats, this species could potentially have a considerably wider distribution than the sole known locality might seem to suggest.<br/></p>
176624		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown; however the only known specimen was found living in soil (G. van Buurt pers. comm. 2010) in a forested area.
176624		population	eng	There are no population data for this species. This species has not been recovered despite relatively active, recent  collecting efforts in many parts of Sulawesi, which likely indicates low population  numbers (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010).
176624		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat process.
176625		conservation	eng	The species is present in four protected areas. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded in   three well-protected parks in <st1:place w:st="on">Sabah</st1:place> (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010) and one in Sarawak, in which it can be assumed that the species is able to maintain itself. Further research into its abundance and range, habitat requirements and threats is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
176625		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo where it is known from lowland to submontane areas, covering far more than 20,000 km². Collection localities include Tuaran, Tawau&#160; Hills Park, Crocker Range Park (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010) and Kinabalu National Park in Sabah and Samarinda on the eastern coast of Kalimantan. Das and Yaakob (2007) have noted that this species is also found in Kelabit Highlights in Sarawak.
176625		habitat	eng	This species is a little-known semi-burrowing, lowland to submontane forest-dwelling species (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Because of their semi-fossorial lifestyle (i.e., live in leaf litter in lowland forest floor), may occur at high densities and yet go undetected unless particular inventory methods, such as pitfall trapping, is employed (Lardner 2007). It is therefore likely that this species is widely spread despite being known from relatively few records (B. Lardner pers.comm. 2010).
176625		population	eng	The species is only known from four specimens comprising of two males   and two females, all collected on different occasions  (Inger &   Marx, 1965). Afterwards there was only one new finding for this species   in 2007 by Das & Jaakob.   Because of the difficulty of finding individuals of this species, evaluation of its population status is difficult (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010).
176625		threats	eng	Deforestation in Borneo presents a potential threat to the habitat of this species outside of protected areas.&#160; R. Inger (pers. comm. 2010) notes that the rapid and ongoing deforestation may trigger a threatened category in the near future.
176626		conservation	eng	While there are no direct conservation measures for this species in place at present, most of Tioman was declared a 'state wildlife reserve' in 1972 (Ng <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, the island is not part of the protected area system (I. Das pers. comm. 2011). Further research into the abundance, habitat requirements, threats and ecology of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.<br/>Twenty additional lizards and snakes are endemic to the same forest patch, making this a priority area for conservation in Malaysia (I. Das and G. Vogel pers. comm. 2011). Conservation measures should be undertaken, along with further research into trends in abundance and impact of altered habitat on this species. Due to the number of endemic species known to be present on the island, the distribution should be included within the national protected area system.
176626		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seribuat Archipelago in West Malaysia, where it is only known to occur on Tioman island (Grismer <em>et al</em>. 2006). The maximum extent of occurrence is the area of forest on the island, which is approximately 100 km².
176626		habitat	eng	This fossorial snake is found in leaf litter in lowland forest.
176626		population	eng	Two specimens were recorded at 98 m. asl. in one pitfall trap (I. Das pers. comm. 2011). There are no additional population data available for this species. Due to the current rate of forest loss, which may result in the removal of all forest on the island within the next ten years (and therefore also within the longer of ten years or three generations), this species is likely to become extinct without preventative action to preserve its habitat.
176626		threats	eng	The forests of Tioman are not protected and are currently subject to private management. The island is a well-known tourist destination and development for both residential and tourist areas is both ongoing and expanding, which is degrading and removing this species' forest habitat at a rate which may result in the complete loss of forest from the island within ten years.
176627		conservation	eng	This species is present within many protected areas. There is a need for further taxonomic study of this wide ranging species. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.
176627		distribution	eng	This widespread snake is found throughout much of Southeast Asia. It has been recorded from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (and the island of Pulau Tioman), Singapore, Indonesia, Borneo and the Philippines (occurring on Basilan, Mindanao, Camiguin Sur, Negros, possibly Panay, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Dinagat and Siargao) (Ross and Lazell Jr 1990, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998, Stuebing and Inger 1999, Malkmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Das 2007, A. Diesmos and A. Demegillo pers. comm.). It can be found from lowland areas to around 1,400m asl (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). In Indonesia it is known from the Mentawai and Nasuna Besar Archipelagos, and Nias (David  and Vogel 1996), Sumatra, Java (Inger and Voris 2001) and Sulawesi. The snake is known from fifteen localities on the island of Borneo (R. Inger pers. comm.), where it is found in all political territories.
176627		habitat	eng	This oviparous species mainly inhabits lowland and montane moist forests. It probably also occurs in plantations and in the vicinity of rice paddies (David and Vogel 1996). ARCBC (2006) also state that this species can tolerate "degraded, secondary forest and scrub" and R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes it is also found in thin wooded areas at the edge of cities. It is a ground-dwelling or semi-fossorial snake, mainly active at night and often found among litter or under stones, fallen trees and decaying vegetation.
176627		population	eng	David and Vogel (1996) caution that, although this species is apparently widespread, it is uncommon and seldom seen; however it is generally a common species in the Philippines.
176627		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range, as it is widespread and tolerant of habitat modification. As with many snakes, it is occasionally killed when encountered.
176628		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. modesta</span>. It is known to be present within protected areas. Further research into its abundance and range is needed as well as is monitoring of its habitat status.
176628		distribution	eng	This species inhabits highland areas of East Malaysia, Java, Sumatra, and Simeulue (David and Vogel 1996, Inger and Marx 1965). It is known from records in Borneo: in Mt. Kinabalu, at elevations between 1,370 and 1,430 m above the sea level, in southwestern Sabah at 750 m above the sea level, and one in Southeastern Sabah (Inger pers. comm.).
176628		habitat	eng	<p>The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland forest floor. It inhabits primary forests (ARCBC 2006) where it leads a fossorial lifestyle (Inger and Voris 2001). It is also found in secondary forest from lowland to submontane.</p>
176628		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176628		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat to this species when it occurs outside protected areas.
176629		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species in place at the present time. Further research into its biology, ecology and abundance is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
176629		distribution	eng	This species is reported to be endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia (de Lang and Vogel 2005). Much of this species' distribution appears to be centred around South Sulawesi, near Makassar. A couple of&#160;specimens&#160;were also collected from the more central region of Sulawesi around Wotu and north of Tenteno.
176629		habitat	eng	Species in this genus are small, leaf-litter dwelling snakes (Howard and Gillespie, 2007) and this particular species may inhabit the lowland or montane wet forests of Sulawesi. The habitat preferences of this species have been described as non-riparian (Inger and Voris 2001). This species has also been reported from open hilly areas. It has been suggested that they avoid high temperatures by seeking shelter during daytime (G. Vogel pers. comm.).
176629		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176629		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring on Sulawesi because of agriculture development and is likely to be causing localized declines in this species; however, several specimens have been found in agricultural areas (de Lang and Vogel 2005) which may indicate tolerance to deforestation (B. Lardner pers. comm. 2010).
176630		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Further research into the distribution, biology and ecology, abundance, and habitat of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
176630		distribution	eng	This species is reported to be endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia (de Lang and Vogel 2005). It is distributed east of Palu near the northern peninsula, in the southwest peninsula including a collection at the base of the peninsula and the peninsula, and in Pulau Buton off the southeast corner of Sulawesi..
176630		habitat	eng	Species in this genus are small, leaf-litter dwelling snakes (Howard and Gillespie 2007). This species may inhabit the lowland or montane wet forests of Sulawesi (de Lang and Vogel 2005). The habitat preferences of this species have been described as non-riparian (Inger and Voris 2001) and it is known from eight specimens (Howard and Gillespie 2007).
176630		population	eng	This species is reported to be common on Pulau Buton (B. Lardner pers. comm.).
176630		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring on Sulawesi at an estimated rate of 0.6 to 1.7 per cent loss per year (Erasmi <em>et al</em>. 2004), due factors including clear-felling, logging and the conversion of forest to plantation estates. Tropical lowland forest has been almost completely cleared from this island (Achmaliadi <em>et al</em>. 2002). Therefore habitat loss is a major threat to this species and likely to be causing localized declines in this species.
176631		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution within its wide extent of occurrence, and on its population status and natural history.
176631		distribution	eng	This snake is known from the Chinese provinces of Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Zhejiang, as well as from Hong Kong and North Viet Nam (Zhao 2006).
176631		habitat	eng	This oviparous (Zhao 2006), fossorial snake occurs in hills or low mountains, from 300 - 1,200 m asl., where it occurs in tropical and subtropical forest. It can be found in disturbed forest, and in Viet Nam also in open areas (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. October 2011) as well as at forest edges. It feeds on earthworms and insects.
176631		population	eng	This is a secretive and seemingly uncommon species in China. In Viet Nam this snake is common (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. October 2011).
176631		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
176666		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
176666		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nam Ngum River valley of Lao PDR, the Phy Phan Mountain region of Thailand, and in Cambodia in the Tu Beng and Sien Pang areas (Murphy 2007).
176666		habitat	eng	This species is reported from streams with gravel or bedrock substrata in bamboo and mixed evergreen forest (Murphy 2007).
176666		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is suspected to be quite common within its known range.
176666		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
176667		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but considerable research is required into all aspects of this species.
176667		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ayeyarwady River delta of southern Myanmar (Murphy 2007). Note that The Reptile Database incorrectly indicates that it has a wider distribution, recording it as occurring in Myanmar, Indonesia and SE China.
176667		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat or ecology (Murphy 2007).
176667		population	eng	Information for this species is from only two specimens, which would seem to indicate that it is a very scarce species.
176667		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176668		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in protected areas.
176668		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia and Malaysia (Murphy 2007).
176668		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species. Seven out of twelve females collected by Bergman (1960) were gravid and the clutch size ranged from 6-16. The morphology of this species suggests that it is a burrowing snake (Murphy 2007). <br/><br/>Very little is known about the habitats used by this species. Based on its morphology, this species is unlikely to be aquatic and more likely to be a burrower in muddy habitats (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009). It most likely lives near freshwater sources and near river banks or floodplains.
176668		population	eng	This species is considered rare (Murphy 2007) and no data are available on population abundance or trends.
176668		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown. Threats could include pollution and development within its habitat. Dredging could also be a threat.
176669		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Tonlé Sap UNESCO Biosphere Reserve which covers an area of 14,813 km². However, in this protected area mass harvesting of this species continues to takes place. Conservation measures are required to prevent the overexploitation of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. longicauda</span> and other watersnakes in the area. Further research and monitoring is needed on its population size and trends, and harvest levels.<br/><br/>There is minimal captive breeding of snake species in Cambodia and none for commercial purposes (S. Brooks pers. comm. 2009).
176669		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cambodia's Great Lake, Tonlé Sap and the immediate surroundings (Murphy 2007). During the dry season, Tonlé Sap Lake covers an area of approximately 2,700 km², though it is known for its wide floodplain. Including the lake floodplain, this species is distributed in an area of approximately 17,430 km².
176669		habitat	eng	This species lives in shallow freshwater lake habitat with muddy substrates. It may leave the water on rare occasions, but as Tonlé Sap undergoes seasonal changes in water level it is unclear if this snake moves with the water, or if it aestivates in the mud (Murphy 2007). This species feeds on fish (Murphy 2007).
176669		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common where found. This species comprised approximately 10% of snake harvests from Cambodia's Great Lake, Tonle Sap in 2004-2005 (Murphy 2007). Populations are thought to be declining due to over-harvesting (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).
176669		threats	eng	This species is heavily exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and the population is declining (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007). They are collected and primarily used as crocodile food at local farms, but are also eaten by people, as are other homalopsid snakes caught from the lake (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176670		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
176670		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in coastal areas from the vicinity of Mumbai (Bombay) in India eastwards to the Philippines (Murphy 2007). The distribution of this species may be discontinuous (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176670		habitat	eng	This species is most abundant in mangrove forests, but may stray into adjacent areas. It is restricted to coastal areas and may be found in rivers that empty into the ocean, on mud flats, and along rocky shorelines. It is nocturnal. This species specializes in feeding on recently moulted crabs and is known to tear apart larger crabs in order to ingest them. (Murphy 2007).
176670		population	eng	This species is considered common in the habitats where it is found.
176670		threats	eng	There are no known major threats specific to this species, but threats to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be detrimental to the species.
176671		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176671		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the lower Indus River of Pakistan (Murphy 2007).
176671		habitat	eng	This species is not known to move away from water. It is found in large shallow ponds, seepage pools, and ponds with emergent vegetation. It is reported as diurnal and very shy. This species buries itself in mud at the approach of cool weather and hibernates during the winter (Murphy 2007).
176671		population	eng	Due to the relatively large number of specimens, this species is expected to be fairly common within its range. However, there is no direct evidence of population abundance.
176671		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
176672		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.  In view of the species' wide range, it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas (e.g. in southern Thailand), although this requires confirmation.<br/><br/>This species is poorly known and difficult to make conservation recommendations, although further research is clearly needed on its range, population size, etc.
176672		distribution	eng	This Southeast Asian species has been recorded from the coastal waters of Myanmar in the west, along the west coasts of Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, and to Singapore in the east (Murphy 2007). Possibly also present on the east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra (Indonesia).
176672		habitat	eng	<em>B. hydroides</em> is found in the intertidal environment including mud flats, estuaries, and possibly mangroves. This species has been observed burrowing into the mud and uses a sidewinding locomotion on mud surfaces. It is probably more active at night. This species is piscivorous. The species of goby fishes that have been found in the stomaches of examined specimens suggesting that this species may forage more deeply than the depths it is typically found at (Jayne <em>et al</em>. 1995, Murphy 2007).
176672		population	eng	Information on this species is from approximately 140 specimens - 117 of which were collected over two to three nights in 1988 (Jayne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). However, occurrences are sporadic and fluctuating.
176672		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. A minor threat may be dredging of mangroves or mudflats. Pollution may also affect these species.
176673		conservation	eng	This species has been found in protected areas, including Temengor Forest Reserve, however, areas of the reserve have been recently opened to, or earmarked for, logging and development (Malaysian Nature Society 2007). More research and monitoring is needed on the habitat status of this species, and further management of the protected areas in which this species is found should be carried out.
176673		distribution	eng	This species occurs in West Malaysia, though its distribution is poorly known. According to Murphy (2007), specimens have been reported from a jungle stream in Klang, Selangor, from an area near Taiping, on the Malaysian Peninsula, and a potential, but questionable report from Singapore in the 1930s. More recently it has been found in the Sungai Singgor area of Temengor Forest Reserve, Hulu Perak on the Malay Peninsula (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).
176673		habitat	eng	The body type of this snake suggests a burrowing existence but habitat and ecology are otherwise unknown. Lim and Kamarudin (1975) collected a specimen in a jungle stream at Klang in Selangor, suggesting this is a freshwater species within forests.
176673		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is only known from five specimens (Murphy 2007).
176673		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. However, in one of its known localities, the Temengor Forest Reserve, logging is occurring in this protected area, but it is not known whether this is having any impact on this species.
176674		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176674		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China from south central China's East Hill and Plain, as well as coastal plain of Fujian-Guangdon and in Viet Nam. It also occurs on the continental islands of Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Hainan (Murphy 2007).  <br/><br/>This is a lowland, highly aquatic snake that typically occurs between sea level and 200 m but reaches 900-1,100 m in Viet Nam.
176674		habitat	eng	This species occurs in fish ponds, sluggish streams, canals, and rice paddies. It feeds primarily on fish, but also amphibians (Murphy 2007).
176674		population	eng	This species is considered common, it is thought to be utilizing the rice paddy ecosystem and may therefore have spread and increased in abundance from its original distribution (Murphy 2007).
176674		threats	eng	This species is occasionally used as food by people (Murphy 2007). In 1991-2001, 300 live snakes and 85,000 skins were exported to China (Zhou and Jiang 2004).
176675		conservation	eng	&#160;There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176675		distribution	eng	<em>E. chanardi</em> is endemic to the Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forest of the Indochina Bioregion (Murphy 2007). All specimens of this species come from metropolitan Bangkok or the surrounding area. But the species could be more widespread than is currently thought.
176675		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat and biology of this species. It is only known from Bangkok and likely much of its habitat has been altered or destroyed. It is possible that this species may continue to live in canals that run through the city, but its continued existence there is probably challenged (Murphy 2007).
176675		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon. There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Information for this species comes from nine specimens with very little location data (Murphy 2007).
176675		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is human development causing habitat loss (Murphy 2007). However, there has also been some habitat creation as this species can live in artificial water bodies such as rice paddies and drainage ditches.
176676		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176676		distribution	eng	This species is found on the coastal plains of northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea and the island Groote Eylandt, Northern Australia. This species has been found far inland in Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea. It&#160; is considered primarily a freshwater species with rare occurrences in coastal areas.
176676		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that uses backwaters, billabongs, lagoons, swamps, marshes, creeks, rivers, stream impoundments, and other wetland habitats (Murphy 2007). It rarely leaves the water. It is found on floating vegetation and mud at night and burrows when disturbed (Murphy 2007). <br/><br/>The species feeds on crustaceans, fish, frogs, and their larvae. It visually detects its prey (Murphy 2007).
176676		population	eng	This species is considered common based on the large number of museum specimens available.<br/><br/>Not commonly encountered in the Lynd River, Gulf of Carpentaria (M. Read pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Because of their muddy habitats, it is difficult to encounter this species unless deliberate efforts are made (e.g. trapping).
176676		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
176677		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the taxonomy of this species is required.
176677		distribution	eng	This species is found along coastal northern Australia, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to about Broome, Western Australia and this range is most likely disjunct. It also occurs along Papua New Guinea's south coast and in the Aru Islands, Indonesia (Murphy 2007).
176677		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangroves, on nearby mud flats, tidal rivers, and other associated habitats. It uses an intertidal burrow system and can burrow into liquid mud (Murphy 2007). <br/><br/>This species feeds on gobies and possibly crustaceans and nudibranchs (Murphy 2007).
176677		population	eng	This species is uncommon within its range.
176677		threats	eng	There are no known major threats specific to this species, but threats to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be a concern.<br/><br/>The species has been seen in crab pots within the freshwater/estuarine transition zone in the Gulf of Carpentaria (M. Read pers. comm. 2009).
176678		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but it may occur in protected areas (e.g. Pasar Ris Mangrove Park, Singapore). Further research is needed on the distribution and population numbers of this species.
176678		distribution	eng	This species has been widely recorded from the Andaman Islands (India) in the west, through Myanmar, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, to Singapore in the east (Murphy 2007).  It is probably also found in coastal Borneo and Sumatra (Indonesia) (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176678		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangrove forests and on mudflats and may also be found in nearby freshwater environments (Rao <em>et al</em>. 1994). It is active at night. It is typically found in an intertidal burrow system such as crab holes and mud lobster mounds. This species appears to feed exclusively upon <em>Alpheus</em> shrimp (Murphy 2007).
176678		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon. This was only collected three times out of the 270 (1.1%) snakes collected from Pasar Ris Mangrove Park in Singapore (Karns <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is considered fairly common in the Andaman Islands (Ghodke and Andrews 2002). Murphy (2007) comments that the different reports on abundance are likely due to the species' association with the intertidal burrow system, a microhabitat that is "seldom explored by herpetologists".
176678		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Minor threats include dredging of habitat and possibly pollution.
176679		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. But it may occur in protected areas such as the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve.
176679		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kapuas River drainage system in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Murphy 2007). Information for this species is from three known specimens.
176679		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species but it is likely to inhabit freshwater swampy areas and river drainage (Murphy 2007).
176679		population	eng	There is no information on the abundance of this species.
176679		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176680		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. In India, this species is protected under the Indian Wildlife Act (1972), due to its historic trade as skin.
176680		distribution	eng	This species as currently defined occurs in coastal South Asia, peninsular India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, the Andaman Islands, eastward to the coastal areas of the Indochinese and Malaysian Peninsulas, southwards into Indonesia and eastwards to Palau and Micronesia (Murphy 2007).
176680		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a variety of coastal habitats including mangrove forests, mudflats, tidal creeks, estuaries, rivers and sometimes coral reefs. It is most frequently found in salt and brackish waters but may venture into freshwater. It also appears to be tolerant of human activity. This species is nocturnal (Murphy 2007). The species feeds mostly on small fish and possibly crustaceans (Heatwole 1999). The South Asian populations feed on frogs (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176680		population	eng	This species is abundant in many localities across its range (Murphy 2007). It is particularly abundant in areas of human fishing and fish cleaning activities (Murphy 2007). Jayne <em>et al</em>. (1988) had an 80,000 m²<sup></sup> study site at Muar, Peninsular Malaysia, and estimated 374-1,396 individuals. The sub-adult population was estimated to be one to three snakes per linear metre of shoreline.
176680		threats	eng	This species has historically been collected for its skin in the Philippines (Gaulke 1998). But, it is no longer being collected for skins in the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). In 1993 it was reported that 775,000 skins were found in the leather trade in Indonesia (Lilley 1993). It is unclear if there is continued use of the species for leather in Indonesia.
176681		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. As this species is uncommon and inhabits a threatened and degraded habitat, more research is needed on its population size, range, habitat status, and trends.
176681		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sunda Shelf and Peninsular Malaysia and is found from Sumatra and the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia eastwards to eastern and southern Borneo (Murphy 2007). It is possible further surveys will find it in the extreme south of Thailand (Murphy 2007).
176681		habitat	eng	Available specimens were collected in blackwater streams and a peat swamp forest (Murphy 2007). The species may be an aquatic burrower based on its morphology (short tail) (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176681		population	eng	This species may be common. However, information on this species is only from ten specimens. There is no information on abundance for this species.
176681		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. The peat forest in this region has already been heavily degraded by logging, cleared for drainage and plantation forestry and is being further degraded by fire (Brown 1998) but it is unclear how these impact the species. Peat swamps may be mined in the future for their peat, resulting in more severe habitat destruction.
176682		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species, although it is known to occur in several protected areas including the U Mnh Thuong National Park. Further research is required to resolve the taxonomy of this group. In addition, further research into its abundance, trends and harvest levels is needed to ensure a threat status is not triggered in the future. This species can be bred in captivity (CITES 2001).
176682		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Bangladesh through Myanmar, Thailand, and the Indochinese-Malaysian Peninsula southwards into the Indonesian islands and eastwards to at least Sulawesi (Murphy 2007).
176682		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species that is found in a broad range of aquatic habitats including gravel streams, stream impoundments, drainage ditches, irrigated fields, ponds, swamps, and marshes (Murphy 2007). It appears to be tolerant of human disturbance as it has been reported from the banks of rivers, streams and ditches in suburban areas.<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and can be found in muddy bank holes or burrows during the day. It feeds primarily on fish but may also eat anurans and possibly crustaceans (Murphy 2007).
176682		population	eng	This species is described as common (Murphy 2007). The population was estimated to number 96,000 individuals in Indonesia (Lilley 1993).
176682		threats	eng	This species is heavily exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations appear to be declining in this particular area. This species makes up about 8% of the snake harvest from this area (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is heavily exploited in Cambodia for international export to  Thailand, Viet Nam and China (Stuart <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stuart 2004). This  species is traded internationally, to the Vietnamese and Chinese markets  as food and to Thai markets for their skins. It was estimated that, in 1999, upwards of 8,500 water snakes of various  species were harvested and sold per day during the peak season. Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) note that the harvesting of various  snakes in Cambodia likely represents the greatest exploitation of a  single snake assemblage anywhere in the world. <br/><br/>This species is also exploited elsewhere within its range (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009) as it is valued for human consumption, as feed for crocodile farms, and for the skin trade. <br/><br/>It is the third most abundant reptile in trade around U Mnh Thuong National Park (Stuart&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2004). It can commonly be found in trade shops and is often entangled and killed in large nets that block canals in the area. Zhou and Jiang (2004) have reported that, between 1991 and 2001 alone, 1,448,134 skins of this species were imported into China for the leather trade. It was the third most common reptile skin imported into the United States during 1984-1990, with a total import of 1,645,448 skins (Baker 2006).
176683		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in a protected area (e.g. Pak Hok Chau).
176683		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south coast of China from Hong Kong in the south and west to Hainan (Murphy 2007).
176683		habitat	eng	Information for this species is from a small number of specimens.This species inhabits saltwater marshes and estuaries. It may climb into shrubs on occasion. (Murphy 2007).
176683		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but is was reported as common in 1979 along tidal marshes near Pak Hok Chau (Murphy 2007).
176683		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. However, development of the coastal marsh areas would impact this species given its limited distribution range.
176684		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Research is recommended to determine the full distribution of this species.
176684		distribution	eng	This species is only known with certainty from the northern central plains (Bung Cho) of Thailand (Murphy 2007), where it exists in the vicinity of a small human modified water system. There are also a few records from markets in Bangkok suggesting that it is, or was present in the Chao Phrya delta. Stuart <em>et al</em>. (2004) report this species from Cambodia, but this needs confirmation.
176684		habitat	eng	This species is relatively unknown (Murphy 2007). This species occurs in flood plains and shallow wetland areas (marshes). It is also found in artificial wetlands and rice paddies.
176684		population	eng	There is only one known extant population in Bung Cho (Murphy 2007). This species is relatively abundant at this location, although restricted to a single human modified drainage system. Fishing in this system is regulated. This species has not been found in the surrounding area following relatively extensive surveying. This species sometimes turns up in snake markets in Bangkok. There are less than 15 specimens in museum collections.
176684		threats	eng	Current threats to this species are unknown. Drainage or pollution of the water system in which it lives appears to be the main threat. The draining of wetlands is relatively common in many parts of Thailand, especially as human development is increasing.
176685		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176685		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Borneo in Malaysia. It is unclear whether it is found in the Indonesian part or not (Murphy 2007).
176685		habitat	eng	This species is found in swampy habitats and muddy rivers below 500 m. It feeds primarily on fish (Murphy 2007).
176685		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Due to the large number of specimens this species may be common. Observed to be abundant in rice paddies and ponds (Murphy 2007).
176685		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
176686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. Additional research into the effects of the threats on the species are recommended, as well as on the distribution, and ecology of the species.
176686		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Maubin, Ayeyarwady Division, Myanmar. Information for this species is from nine specimens collected from this location. It is thought that this species is endemic to the Ayeyarwady river delta, which as total extent of occurrence of at least 20,000 km². However, this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 500 km².
176686		habitat	eng	The specimens were taken from a freshwater swamp forest habitat but little is known about the habitat and biology of this species (Murphy 2007).
176686		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species, but it is thought to be uncommon.
176686		threats	eng	This species currently inhabits a severely degraded habitat. The sedimentation rate of the Ayeyarwady River is extremely high due to continued deforestation occurring upstream (Murphy 2007). There is also pollution and dredging activities in the river. The Ayeyarwady River delta is very densely populated which has contributed to ongoing urban and coastal development and modification of river drainages.
176687		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research and monitoring is needed on its harvest levels and population trends, to ensure declines do not increase.
176687		distribution	eng	This widespread species ranges from Nepal, northeast peninsular India and an apparent isolated subpopulation in Sri Lanka, eastwards throughout Bangladesh and Myanmar, across the Indochinese Peninsula, and southwards into Indonesia from Sumatra to Sulawesi (Murphy 2007).
176687		habitat	eng	This species uses a variety of stagnant and slow moving aquatic habitats ranging from rice paddies, canals and ditches to lakes and rivers. It uses relatively shallow fresh water environments with muddy substrata and can be found in and around urban areas. It appears to thrive in disturbed habitats. This species is very intolerant of salt water. Neonates are found in the mud-root tangle near water (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>This species feeds almost exclusively on fish (Murphy 2007), but in lean periods it may also prey on lizards and frogs (Sharma 2003).<br/><br/>There are two breeding seasons per year, though it is not known if females will reproduce during both seasons (S. Brooks pers. comm.).
176687		population	eng	This species is very abundant in shallow open wetlands with submergent-emergent vegetation (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>Some localities have dense populations of this snake (Lake Songhkla, Thailand; Kabin Buri, Thailand; Tonlé Sap, Cambodia), these are lowland locations that have become freshwater habitats relatively recently. Lake Songhkla was an ocean bay 200 years ago and it undergoes salt water intrusions and is heavily fished. <br/><br/>In Lake Songkhla (1996-1999), pit tags were put in 235 snakes, with 144 recaptures. As a result it is estimated that the population size at this study site is 406-567 snakes. A linear estimate of one snake per two metres of shoreline (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>In the artificial lake behind Koshi Dam (Nepal) this species can be found in "great numbers" (Schleich and Kästle 2002). Daniel (2002) describes the snake as uncommon in India.
176687		threats	eng	Following a decline in fish stocks in Tonlé Sap Lake, Cambodia, intensive harvesting of various watersnakes began in 1997 (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). This species is heavily exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations are declining in this particular area (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).  They make up approximately 70% of the catch. They are used primarily for crocodile food but are also sold for human consumption. Its eggs are usually sold separately as an expensive delicacy.<br/><br/>Other localities where it occurs are disturbed habitats, heavily impacted by the fishing industry and other human activities. It appears that <em>E. enhydris</em> may be a disturbed habitat/early successional stage specialist. It is entirely possible that as aquatic ecosystems mature, these populations will undergo natural declines and stabilize at a much lower level (JCMnaturalhistory.com).
176688		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
176688		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality at Pionierbivak, Mamberano River, northwestern New Guinea (Murphy 2007).
176688		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species as it is only known from the type specimen. This specimen was taken from a river with a heavy sediment load (Murphy 2007).
176688		population	eng	There is no information on the abundance of this species.
176688		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown. A hydro-electric dam is planned for the Mamberamo River which is the only known location for this species (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176689		conservation	eng	In view of the species wide range, it is possible that it is present within some protected areas, although this requires confirmation. This species may not be a homalopsid and further taxonomic research is required (J. Murphy pers comm. 2009).
176689		distribution	eng	This species is most probably restricted to the islands of eastern Indonesia and Timor Leste. Bleeker (1856) reported it from Sumatra, however, David and Vogel (1996) suggest that this is not correct and that its range is restricted to eastern Indonesia (Ambon, Timor, Halmahera, Ternate, Irian Jaya, and other satellite islands) (Murphy 2007).
176689		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species (Murphy 2007). Remains of earthworms in stomach contents indicate that this species is not aquatic (J. Murphy, pers. comm. 2009). No specific information exists on the types of habitats the species occurs in.
176689		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is considered uncommon in museum collections and is therefore it is considered to be scarce in the wild.
176689		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176690		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is required.
176690		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Malaysian Peninsula, and is only known from the type specimen (Murphy 2007).
176690		habitat	eng	As this species is only known from one specimen, nothing is known about its habitat and biology (Murphy 2007).
176690		population	eng	There is no available information on population size or trends.
176690		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176691		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution and habitat status is required. Monitoring of this species and its habitat are required to ensure that any threats that occur in the future are noted and can be dealt with.
176691		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Guinea and is only known from a few localities in the Trans-Fly Region of New Guinea. It has been found on Sudarso Island in Irian Jaya. It is also found on the islands of Daru and Bobo, Prins Hendrik in Papua New Guinea, as well as at the mouth the Oriomo River on the mainland&#160; (Murphy 2007).
176691		habitat	eng	The species is reported to occur in mangroves and in Nipa palm habitats. It appears to be a southern Papua New Guinea mangrove endemic (Murphy 2007).
176691		population	eng	Information on this species is based on seven known specimens. In general, this species is considered rare.
176691		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176692		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in protected areas.
176692		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeast Asia including Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Viet Nam (Murphy 2007). This species has been reported in China, although it is expected that these are snakes that have escaped from live snakes imported to China from elsewhere in Southeast Asia (Murphy 2007).
176692		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swamps, shallow lakes, pools and other stagnant water habitats. It feeds mainly on fish, but may also consume young frogs (Murphy 2007)
176692		population	eng	This species was reported as rare in Bangkok but common in the rural areas surrounding it (Smith 1914).<br/><br/>This species is heavily exploited in Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations are declining (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007). Collected in Viet Nam with local population declines reported. Most likely not being collected elsewhere. <br/><br/>This species made up less than 2% of the total catch of snakes collected by fishermen in Cambodia (Murphy 2007).
176692		threats	eng	This species is heavily exploited for the skin trade in Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations are declining in this particular area (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).  It may be exported to China and used for its skins.<br/><br/>It is the second most exploited reptile in the U Minh National Park. They sell for around VND155,000/kg and many people in the area catch them at a small size and raise them in cages until they reach a weight of about two kg before selling them.  The population appears to be in decline because fishermen report that they are more difficult to find than they have been in the past. The species is heavily exploited in Cambodia for export to Thailand, Viet Nam and China (Stuart 2000, 2004).<br/><br/>From 1991-2001 16,000 live snakes were exported to China, representing 4% of the live snakes imported into China over this period (Zhou and Jiang 2004).
176693		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
176693		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Mekong River drainage, and inhabits Lao PDR, Thailand's Korat Plateau, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. It has colonized the Bung Boraphet area in central Thailand.
176693		habitat	eng	This species uses stream impoundments, paddies, ditches, klongs (canals), ponds and probably other aquatic micro-habitats. This species is probably strictly aquatic and diurnal and migrates through water as the water levels fluctuate (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>This species eats frogs and fish (Murphy 2007).
176693		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. In some places it is very common. There is no information on population abundance and trends.<br/><br/>On Thailand's Korat Plateau it can be as common as <em>Enhydris enhydris</em> (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176693		threats	eng	This species may be sold locally at reptile trade shops (for food), and it may be used for food for farmed crocodiles (Murphy 2007).
176694		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
176694		distribution	eng	This species is found from India's Nicobar Islands and along the mainland coast from Bangladesh and Myanmar eastwards throughout Southeast Asia to the Philippines, and southwards to Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia (Murphy 2007).
176694		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangrove forests and associated mud flats. It may enter surrounding monsoon forest or open ocean but is unlikely to remain in these habitats as it is fairly habitat specific. This relatively sedentary species utilizes intertidal burrow systems and eats small crustaceans (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>This species is usually found in 0-10 m of water (Cogger 2007).
176694		population	eng	This species is locally common over its range. It is mostly found late at night (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009), although smaller specimens may be found during the day (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).  Often found in large groups (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176694		threats	eng	No known major threats specific to this species are known, but threats to the associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be detrimental to the species.
176695		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in a number of protected areas (e.g. it is known to occur in Pula Simeulue Wildlife Reserve, Simeulue Island).
176695		distribution	eng	This species is a Sunda Shelf endemic. It is found on Sumatra, Indonesia and its satellite islands (Nias, Pulo, Simeulue, Sibigo, Sinabang) to the west (Murphy 2007).
176695		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species' habitat or diet. It may have a tolerance for saltwater, but this is unclear. One specimen contained three eggs and has a SVL of 520 mm (Murphy 2007). This species is probably restricted to freshwater (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).
176695		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species. Information for this species is from 18 specimens. Recently more specimens have been found (D. Ishkandar and J. Murphy pers. comms. 2009).
176695		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176696		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, but further research is required.
176696		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia and is known from the type locality, Lake Matana, Sulawesi, and near Raha on Muna Island (Murphy 2007).
176696		habitat	eng	This species is known from few specimens. A female was collected from a fish pond, about 100 m from the coast and about 200 m from the nearest river (Murphy 2007).
176696		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This snake is not commonly encountered or reported by people.
176696		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176697		conservation	eng	In Cambodia, there is non commercial "minimal captive breeding" of this species (S. Brooks pers. comm.), but there are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. In places, its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring of the population around the Tonlé Sap Lake should be carried out to check the levels of by-catch are not causing serious declines in this species.
176697		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Peninsular Southeast Asia occurring in Thailand, and southern Viet Nam (Murphy 2007).
176697		habitat	eng	This species inhabits stagnant or slow moving bodies of water with emergent-submergent vegetation. This species feeds exclusively on fish (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>Life history information is from captive bred animals. During the dry season it will, if necessary, bury itself under the mud until the rainy season returns.
176697		population	eng	This species is considered quite common within its range (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009). There have not been any specific abundance studies on this species.
176697		threats	eng	This species is exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and snake populations are declining in this particular area. However, they make up a small proportion of the overall snake harvest (2-3%) (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).
176698		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
176698		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northwest peninsular India, Bangladesh, Nepal and extreme western Myanmar (Murphy 2007).
176698		habitat	eng	Little is know about this species' habitat and ecology but it is thought to live in rivers and ponds (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Captive specimens feed on amphibians and fish (Murphy 2007).
176698		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species. It is thought to be quite common in the seven locations where it has been found (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009)
176698		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
176699		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176699		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species found from the Andaman Islands (India) and Myanmar eastwards across the Southeast Asian Peninsula and southern China southwards into Indonesia. It is present on most of the Indonesian islands and eastwards to Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Murphy 2007).
176699		habitat	eng	This species is associated with wet sites such as wallows, marshes, ditches, streams and pond banks where it is most frequently found in the tangle of roots and mud 10-20 cm below the surface debris. It is mostly sedentary (Murphy 2007). This species adapts well to human disturbance (e.g. it is commonly found in rice paddies).<br/><br/>This species feeds on fish and amphibians, including amphibian larvae and egg masses (Murphy 2007).
176699		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range. Twenty snakes were collected from a small area of Buffalo wallows in Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo) (Murphy 2007).
176699		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known.
176700		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species, although it does occur in the U Mnh Thuong National Park.<br/><br/>Further studies on population size, abundance and effects of threats of this species are recommended.
176700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the lower Mekong River drainage basin in southern Viet Nam and it probably extends up the Mekong valley to Cambodia (Murphy 2007).
176700		habitat	eng	This species uses artificial canals, flooded grasslands, and <em>Melaleuca</em> swamp forest (Murphy 2007). Can also live in roadside drains and rice paddies.
176700		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The number of museum specimens (less than 20 specimens) indicates that this species may be relatively common.
176700		threats	eng	This species is often captured in gill nets by fishermen in the U Mnh Thuong National Park. Since it is endemic to the area it is likely to end up as bycatch throughout most of its range (Stuart <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2004). This species is possibly under threat for deteriorating habitat from human development. This area is under threat through the construction of a dam. Although this species is relatively hardy and can live in disturbed areas, it is unknown what effect these threats have on the population.
176701		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific for this species. Considerable research on all aspects of this species is needed.
176701		distribution	eng	This species was reported to occur in Ansus, Yapen, Indonesia. However, the specimen from that region was destroyed during World War II, so no verification can be made. Two other specimens were reported to be from Ceram. However, it was not possible to distinguish these specimens from <em>B. albus</em> (Murphy 2007).
176701		habitat	eng	Nothing has been documented about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is probably terrestrial due to it being in the same genus as <em>B. albus</em>.
176701		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.
176701		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are unknown.
176702		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
176702		distribution	eng	This species is probably restricted to the drainage systems and rice paddies of the Western Ghats along the southwest coast of India (Murphy 2007).
176702		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from ponds and canals and once from a prawn farm (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>No males have been reported for this species (Murphy 2007).
176702		population	eng	This species is considered common in rice paddies (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). However, there is little information available on the abundance of this species.
176702		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
176703		conservation	eng	The export of sea snake products out of Australia is currently restricted by the Commonwealth EPBC (1999).
176703		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern coastal Australia and southern Papua New Guinea (Murphy 2007). A single specimen  identified as <em>C. australis</em> was reportedly found on Sumba Island, Indonesia.
176703		habitat	eng	This species occurs on mud flats and in mangrove forests as well as the streams that pass through these habitats (Murphy 2007). It may also be found in the sea or in estuaries (Kinghorn 1929). This species is nocturnal and may be found in small colonies (Gow 1989). It is known to feed on fish and crustaceans (Murphy 2007).
176703		population	eng	Based on the high number of museum specimens, this species is considered quite common. There is no indication of overall population size. Mark-recapture studies in Buffalo Creek (Australia) in 1990-1991 indicate that this species was common in this area on falling tides at night (M. Guinea pers. comm.).
176703		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. The species could potentially be affected by coastal development, but much of its distribution area is remote from human activities. The species would also probably adapt to small scale human development.
176704		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the  ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water  Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment  Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act (EPCB) of 1999. This requires that  all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly  or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by  their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The Australian Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid  captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.  <br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia is having the largest impact on protected sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act, and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>Since 2003, Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and Australia's Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew member observers in the identification, photographing and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Commercial  trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in the Northern Prawn  Fishery of Australia showed that two devices, Fisheye and Popeye  Fishbox BRDs, can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without  significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the maximum  legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to  these findings by moving their BDRs closer to the  codend (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176704		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> (including the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">A. l. pooleorum</span>) occurs throughout tropical northern Australia from Shark Bay, Western Australia to the southern Great Barrier Reef, east Australia (Cogger 2000). Its distribution extends east to the Coral Sea (Heatwole 1975) and Chesterfield Reefs (Minton and Dunson 1985) and New Caledonia (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997). It has also been reported from the southern New Guinea coastline (O'Shea 1996).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p><br/><br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><br/><br/>  <em></em>
176704		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily around coral reefs where it is found in many habitat types including the reef crest, slope, edge, and over sandy bottoms adjacent to outer shallow and deeper reefs, as well as in lagoonal areas. It also occurs in inter-reefal habitats, but is much more common in close proximity to reefs. It has been recorded to depths of up to 68 m (M. Cappo pers. comm. 2009, T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009), although it more typically occurs at depths ranging from 10 to 40 m (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Individuals occupy linear home ranges along the vertical edges of coral reefs which overlap extensively with those of other individuals (Limpus 1975, Burns and Heatwole 1998). The snakes shelter in or under coral, sitting quietly and swaying in the current. They do not seem to return to the same shelter sites (Burns and Heatwole 1998). Mark recapture, sonic tracking and visual mapping studies of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> from the Swain Reefs indicated that these snakes generally confine their movements to particular sections of reef (home ranges of about 0.18 ha for females and 0.15 ha for males) (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>This species feeds on crabs, prawns, fish eggs, and fish (Limpus 1975, Guinea 2007). It hunts in crevices at the junction of a coral or rock wall and in the sand substrate (Heatwole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978, Burns and Heatwole 1998).<br/><br/>Female Olive Sea Snakes are thought to reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years (Heatwole 1997) and may live to an estimated age of 15 years (Burns 1984). Larger older female sea snakes produce larger broods (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
176704		population	eng	This is the most commonly found sea snake species on coral reefs of Australia (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007a, Heatwole and Lukoschek 2008). Surveys of reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef indicate that there have been some local population extinctions (at the level of individual reefs) over the last 30 years (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a). There are also indications of larger-scale metapopulation dynamics for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> in this region, thus it is unclear whether local extinctions indicate an overall decline in abundance or represent temporal fluctuations in the population (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a). This species has also declined in abundance at Ashmore Reef in the Timor Sea, as have all other sea snake species at Ashmore Reef (Guinea 2006, 2007). Similarly, anecdotal information suggests that there has been a decline in abundance of sea snakes, including<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. laevis</span>, on some Coral Sea reefs over the past 20 years (H. Marsh pers. comm. 2009) however, dedicated surveys are needed to confirm this. The status of populations at other locations throughout this species’ range appears to be stable or is unknown. <br/><br/>Quantitative assessment of the impacts of trawling has shown that trawl mortality was not imposing a significant risk for this species at current levels of fishing effort in the Northern Prawn Fishery of Australia (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
176704		threats	eng	The main potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> are loss and/or degradation of  coral reef habitats and bycatch in trawling.<br/><br/>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>This species also is potentially at risk from their incidental capture in trawls in Australia. It is captured in trawl fisheries throughout its range (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Ward 2000) and has the lowest capacity to sustain fishing mortality of any sea snake species caught in Australian trawl fisheries (Milton 2001). It is has poor survival from trawling (~10% were landed dead and post-trawl deaths were ~20%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Many individuals are caught before they breed. This is partly due to the life history traits of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>: which does not reach sexual maturity until age 4-5 years (Burns 1985). In addition, this species has low reproductive output (2-6 offspring every second year) (Burns 1985) and catch data suggests that a large proportion of the fished populations are incidentally captured (Milton 2001). Therefore, this species is unlikely to sustain additional mortality from incidental capture in trawls (Milton 2001).
176706		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>Information about the status of population outside the Ryukyu Islands is needed (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).
176706		distribution	eng	This species is found on the coasts of China, Taiwan and Japan (Mao and Chen 1980). <br/><br/>This species has a highly aggregated distribution throughout its range. The status and locations of populations outside the Ryukyu Islands is poorly documented (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).
176706		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow coastal waters associated with coral and rocky reefs. It has a highly specialised diet, feeding exclusively on demersal fish eggs, primarily of reef fishes that lay eggs in nests. This species appears to be highly site-attached and probably does not often disperse between preferred sites (V. Lukoschek pers comm. 2009). It is found in shallow water habitats down to 40 m.<br/><br/>A mark and recapture study was carried out for three years on a population of the Ijima's Sea Snake in the coastal shallow water of Zamamijima Island, central Ryukyus, Japan. The relatively high recapture (47% of 167 marked snakes) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. ijimae</span> is a particularly philopatric, sedentary species among the sea snakes (Masunaga and Ota 2003). <br/><br/>The sex ratio (male: female), is approximately 1.6:1, significantly skewed from 1:1. Males and females were estimated to begin reproductive activity in the second or third summer and the third spring after birth, respectively. Frequency of female reproduction is guessed to vary from annual to biennial, or even less frequent (Masunaga and Ota 2003).
176706		population	eng	A mark-recapture study was carried out for three years on a population of the Ijima's Sea Snake in the coastal shallow water of Zamamijima Island, central Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The relatively high recapture (47% of 167 marked snakes) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. ijimae</span> has high site fidelity and may be a relatively sedentary species (Masunaga and Ota 2003).<br/><br/>This species is relatively common in the Ryukyu Islands (Masunaga and Ota 2003), however, anecdotal information from recreational divers suggests that populations are declining at Orchid Island, Taiwan (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009) and the locations and status of populations in other parts of Taiwan and China are not well documented.
176706		threats	eng	This species only occurs in shallow reef habitats, often adjacent to coastal areas of high population density, with potential negative effects of tourism, fishing and habitat degradation.<br/><br/>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. The species may be sensitive to loss of reef associated fish, as it has a  specialized diet, feeding exclusively on fish eggs. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>Animals have been shown to have a highly aggregated distribution, strongly site-fidelity and potentially has low dispersal rates between sites and/or populations (V. Lukoschek per. comm. 2009).
176707		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176707		distribution	eng	This species was obtained in September 2000 and August 2001 from Phan Thiet and Ham Tan fish markets (Viet Nam). According to fishermen, the snakes were caught mainly by sea-going trawlers operating in the South China Sea. One specimen has been collected from the "East Indian Archipelago", though it is unknown from which specific locality (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
176707		habitat	eng	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.
176707		population	eng	The holotype for this species was destroyed during World War II.  In 2001 and 2002, eight specimens were collected by trawl in the China Sea (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
176707		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is captured in trawls as bycatch and its skin is used.
176708		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the "Listed Marine Species" by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <br/><br/>The Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.
176708		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia east to China and the Australian - New Guinean continental shelf (Heatwole 1999). It has also been collected in south Viet Nam (Karin 1984) and the Sibuyan Sea, Philippines (Dunson and Minton 1978).<br/><br/>It has been recorded from the waters of Pakistan (Mertens 1969). No specimens have been collected from Indian waters, though the species likely occurs there&#160; (A. Lobo pers. comm.2009). <br/><br/>It has been reported that this species occurs in three main subpopulations that may be reproductively isolated (west of India, in the Natuna Sea, and in Australia).
176708		habitat	eng	This is a generalist species and lives in a number of habitat types. This species occurs around reefs and in harbours over mud and sand substrates from 3.8-25 m (McCosker 1975, Minton and Dunson 1985, Limpus 1975, Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978). It forages among corals (Heatwole 1975b) and eats fish (Voris 1972). It specializes on Gobiidae and similar fishes (Voris and Voris 1983) and juvenile stonefish (McCosker 1975).<br/><br/>This is the heaviest sea snake species reaching more than 2 kg (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). There is a record of one weighing 5.144 kg from the Gulf of Carpentaria (caught on the 8th November 2005 in the Gulf of Carpentaria) (M. White pers. comm. 2009).
176708		population	eng	One characteristic of this species is that individuals do not occur in large aggregations, but at low densities in the locations where they are found (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This is an uncommon species on the east coast of Australia and made up one per cent of the catch in the Queensland prawn fisheries (out of 4,000 individuals caught (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is relatively common in the northern prawn fishery in Australia.<br/><br/>This species represented 23 out of 83 sea snakes collected from fishermen as bycatch in Makassar, South Sulawesi (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).
176708		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch in trawl fisheries. They are captured in a range of trawl fisheries in Queensland due to their ability to live in varied habitat types (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009). This characteristic is atypical for Hydrophiine sea snakes and could potentially make it more difficult to detect population declines or local extinctions (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).
176709		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>There are no known conservation measures for this species.
176709		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Gulf of Thailand (Heatwole 1999).
176709		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species. It is found in a freshwater lake in Thailand. Also over soft substrates. Feeds mainly on eels (Voris and Voris 1983).
176709		population	eng	This species is common in the Songkla Lake, southern Thailand (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). There have been declines in the population in the Gulf of Thailand due to heavy coastal development (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>There is no quantitative population data available for this species.
176709		threats	eng	This species occurs in bycatch, though this is not considered a major threat. It is likely impacted by coastal development in the Gulf of Thailand.
176710		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.
176710		distribution	eng	Known only from three specimens found in the Sibau River, more that 1,000 km up-river from the coast in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
176710		habitat	eng	This species has only been identified in freshwater, swampy river habitats of Sibau River in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).
176710		population	eng	This species is known only from three specimens from a single isolated location (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
176710		threats	eng	There threats to this species are not known.
176711		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
176711		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Arabian Gulf to Pakistan, around India to Indonesia and southern China (Heatwole 1999). There is record of a single specimen being caught off Phuket Island from the west coast of peninsular Thailand (Rasmussen 1985).  The species appears to be very rare in that area. There are no records from the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009).
176711		habitat	eng	The maximum size is approximately 97 cm TL (captured in a trawl in Goa, India; A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Feeds on spiny flatheads in India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009) and on eels and gobies (Voris and Voris 1983). Found in muddy soft bottom habitats.<br/><br/>An average of 3-4 large young and high reproductive effort (Lemen and Voris 1981).<br/><br/>It generally occurs in slighter deeper waters (15 - 30m) ( A. Lobo pers. comm.).
176711		population	eng	Generally rare throughout its range.<br/><br/>This is quite a rare species caught in trawls in Goa, India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Also rare in trawls in the Andaman Sea and uncommon on the west coast of Thailand, but more common in Viet Nam (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Six specimens (out of 83) were collected from fishermen in Makassar, South Sulawesi in March and April 2010. Reportedly caught in nets (using lamps) near coral reefs around Pulau Baranglompo (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).
176711		threats	eng	It is caught as bycatch in trawl fishing operations (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176712		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as ‘Listed Marine Species’ under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including ‘Listed Marine Species’), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Management options for minimising sea snake catch through temporal or spatial closures are limited as sea snakes are widely distributed throughout the NPF managed area. The most effective option currently available would be to facilitate or legislate the adoption of effective BRD types (Fisheye BRD or Popeye Fishbox BRD at 70 meshes from drawstring) by the entire NPF fleet (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176712		distribution	eng	Has a relatively restricted range in the eastern Arafura Sea, east through the Australian-New Guinean continental shelf (Heatwole 1999).
176712		habitat	eng	This species can be found in soft sediments in estuaries and tidal rivers, deeper inter-reefal waters and continental shelf waters.  They eat fish (Cogger 2007). It is slow to reproduce and to mature. Generation length is estimated to be approximately eight years, based on a age of first maturity of at least two years and longevity of 12 years.
176712		population	eng	This species is relatively rare, and is known primarily from bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia. Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the NPF between 1976 and 2007 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. However,<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. pacificus</span> has a localized catch distribution in the NPF and showed evidence of recent declines in abundance on the fishing grounds.<br/><br/>There has been a major reduction in the size of the NPF fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.
176712		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fisheries (NPF). Given its less productive life history and restricted range, this species has been adversely impacted by commercial prawn trawling over the years (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) causing declines in abundance. Based on actual mean CPUE, the highest catches of sea snakes (one to two snakes/10 ha) were recorded from prawn trawls during the 1976-79 inshore research survey on the east coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria. While there were no commercial or research data available between this research survey and the early 1990s, mean catches were approximately 80%&#160; lower during the last 20 years in the NPF, around one snake per 50 ha (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) results confirmed that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. pacificus </span>is the most highly impacted species of sea snake in the region, and it is the species with the largest proportion of its population distributed within the trawl grounds. It is estimated that there has been at least 20% decline in this species population over the past 25 years based on catch rates within this species range, however, more research is needed to determine if declines may be higher for this species.<br/><br/>This species has been previously identified as being potentially vulnerable to trawling due to catch rate declines, restricted distribution ranges and less productive life history (Milton 2001). The reduction in the number of fishing licenses and contraction of fishing grounds in the NPF over the last few years may reduce the current threats (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176713		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176713		distribution	eng	Found along the coasts of Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, to the western Malay Peninsula (Heatwole 1999). There is an unconfirmed record from Iran taken in a trawl (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).
176713		habitat	eng	Inhabits shallow coastal waters (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) over soft bottom substrates.
176713		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. It is considered rare (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176713		threats	eng	No major threats to this species are known but it may sometimes be captured as bycatch in trawls.
176714		conservation	eng	Ashmore Reef has been a nature reserve since 1983 and has had various levels of monitoring against illegal fishing since that time.&#160; Management plans that focused on protection of marine life did not come into effect until 1990 (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 1989), with a second management plan coming into effect in 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2002), and since 1998 protection has actively been enforced. However, these management plans have not specifically addressed threat abatement or recovery of any sea snake species. Nonetheless, these management plans are designed to protect marine biodiversity and habitat quality; however, there are no data to indicate how, or to what extent, these measures are providing threat abatement to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>
176714		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species with a small range. This species is found on Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reef (Smith 1926, Minton and Heatwole 1975, Cogger 2000). It has never been seen from Scott Reef or other reefs in the Ashmore Reef region. This species also has very occasionally been recorded from other locations in northwest Australian waters (Shuntov 1972, Cogger 2000); however, these rare records from outside Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs are thought to be of vagrant individuals and not part of the range of breeding populations of this species (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). This species range has approximately 70 km of shoreline, and given its very shallow depth range of 10 m, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>    <p><br/></p><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
176714		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily on the reef flat or the in shallow waters  of the outer reef edge, usually no more than 10 m depth (Minton and Heatwole 1975) and is a  predator on small coral reef fishes (McCosker 1975), which it finds by  poking its head into crevices and hollows of coral reefs and then catches by strike  predation.  This species is usually solitary but sometimes found in groups at coral outcrops with other sea snakes (Guinea and Whiting 2005).<br/><br/>This species has  restricted dispersal  due to deep water barriers. Populations are severely fragmented, occurring in only two locations 50 km apart, separated by waters of 200 m depth. There is no dispersal between the two localities (M .Guinea pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Based on similar species, this species has a generation length of approximately five years, based on a longevity of approximately 8-10 years, and age of first maturity of two years.
176714		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>occurs as two subpopulations – Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reef. Current population sizes are unknown. It is likely that there is very little movement between these subpopulations. Genetic studies of a far more widely distributed congener, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus laevis</span>, indicates restricted gene flow between Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b, 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis </span>occurs in a much wider range of habitat types (including deeper water) than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, thus it is likely that dispersal is more restricted for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> than for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>.<br/><br/>There are no current or previous abundance estimates, however, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>comprised 16.87% of sea snakes seen on the reef flat at Ashmore Reefs in 1994 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The mean density of all sea snakes on the reef flat was 228 individuals km² giving a total abundance estimate of sea snake on the reef flat at Ashmore Reef of ~39,675 (95% CI 26,451 – 53,073) (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Given that 16.87% were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, this suggests that the abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> was 6694 individuals (95% CI 4462 – 8953). The total abundance estimate and percent contribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> was derived from boat transects of the reef flat at high tide. Seven transects were conducted and a total of 83 sea snakes were sighted, of which 14 were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The estimate is, therefore, provisional; nonetheless, it suggests that population size on Ashmore Reef in the 1990s was large, potentially in the vicinity of 4000 to 9000 individuals. Moreover, standardized catch rates of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> at the inner mooring of Ashmore Reef (near West Island) in 1994, 1996 and 1998 were five, three and 17 per hour respectively (Guinea 2006, 2007) and comprised between 4.5% and 29% of all snakes sighted at the inner mooring (Guinea and Whiting 2005). In addition, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>comprised ~50% of sea snakes seen on the reef flat at low tide in the 1990s (Guinea and Whiting 2005).<br/><br/>In 1926, Malcolm Smith obtained ~100 sea snakes from Ashmore Reef, which were collected for him by Malay fishers, presumably at random. Of these 100 sea snakes, 17 were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, suggesting that is made up ~17% of the population. These were the first records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, which had not been previously described (Smith 1926).<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. foliosquama</span> comprised 10% of 367 sea snakes (37 individuals) caught at Ashmore Reef and 9% of 11 sea snakes (one individual) caught at Hibernia Reef between Dec 31st 1972 and January 13th 1973 (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It was not seen or captured at Cartier or Scott Reef during these surveys (Minton and Heatwole 1975).<br/><br/>There have been serious declines in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> since surveys in 1998 (Guinea 2006, 2007). Indeed, no single individual of this species has been seen over the past nine years despite extensive surveys of Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs (Guinea 2006, 2007; V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). As such, there are no estimates of its current population size, however, there appears to have been a decline of at least 90% since 1998. The reasons for the local extinctions of these populations are unknown. This species has not been sighted at any other location. A possible threat could be unusually high water temperatures leading to severe coral bleaching and coral reef habitat degradation throughout the area (Francis 2006).
176714		threats	eng	There are no specific, clearly identified or quantified past, current or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> or any other reef-associated sea snake species, and it is unclear why populations at both Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs have declined. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> is not targeted by fisheries; there is no evidence that it is being illegally harvested; and is it not subject to incidental bycatch (some sea snake species are routinely captured as by-catch in trawls, but this is not the case for strongly reef-associated species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>; Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).<br/><br/>Nonetheless, something is clearly impacting this species and it is most likely that current and future threats relate to degradation or modification of shallow-water coral reef habitats from bleaching events due to increased sea surface temperatures. However, compared to other areas, the Ashmore Reef was not badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009), although it suffered severe bleaching in 2003 (Kaspartov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Thus, climate change may be a threat to some sea snake species (Francis 2006). In addition, increased water temperatures on the reef flat may exceed the upper lethal limit for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, which has been reported to be 36°C for the sea snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis platurus</span> (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation and modification may also result in possible reduction in prey species abundances (i.e. small coral reef fishes).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176715		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176715		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the coasts of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, east to northern Australia and the Gulf of Thailand (Heatwole 1999). It has been found in southern China, Viet Nam, and western Indonesia (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Four specimens are from Sulawesi (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). In Australia this species has only been recorded from one locality in southeast Gulf of Carpentaria (Wilson and Swan 2008).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><p>&#160; <br/></p>
176715		habitat	eng	It is typically found in shallow waters up to 10 m (A. Rasmussen pers. comm). Found in seagrass beds and muddy bottoms. Feeds on eels (Voris and Voris 1983). Two specimens were collected in the outer Mahakam Delta (East Kalimantan, Indonesia) from muddy bottom habitat reaching ~25 m depth (K. Sander and Mumpuni pers. obs. 2006).
176715		population	eng	This species was moderately abundant in trawl bycatch in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990).  It is abundant in the Gulf of Thailand and the northwest coast of Borneo (Tomascik 1997). It appears common in Madura Straits (East Java, Indonesia) with 43 out of 256 bycatch specimens being identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">H.caerulescens</span>.<br/><br/>It is a relatively rare species along both coasts of the Indian subcontinent (A. Lobo pers. comm.).
176715		threats	eng	This species is sometimes caught as bycatch by trawlers (Stuebing and Voris 1990).
176716		conservation	eng	This species is very poorly known, and it is unclear whether it occurs in marine protected areas.
176716		distribution	eng	Known only from a single specimen found in 1966 in Papua New Guinea, off the mouth of Sepik River (Kharin 1985).
176716		habitat	eng	There is very little information known about this species. It is likely to inhabit bays or gulfs.
176716		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176716		threats	eng	There threats to this species are not known.
176717		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176717		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf, east to Indonesia and the Philippines (Heatwole 1999). It has also been found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).
176717		habitat	eng	Little is known about the life history of this species.  It has been reported to occur in deeper water habitats (Smith 1926) down to 50 m (A Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Found over muddy sandy bottoms, and feeds on eels.<br/><br/>In Pakistan, it has been collected offshore. It was not  recorded from mangrove swamps (Minton 1966).<br/><br/>Records suggest that this species attain very large sizes of up to 2.75 m (Smith 1943). However, most specimens collected rarely ever even reach 2 m (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176717		population	eng	This species was rarely caught as bycatch by trawlers in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990).<br/><br/>This species is common along the east coast of India, predominantly a species of the south and the east coasts (Gulf of Mannar, Palk and the Coromandel coast) (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Common in the Andaman Sea (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Fishermen report that the population appears to have declined along the east coast of India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176717		threats	eng	This species is known to be caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries. It is not known how this might be affecting the population.
176718		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. This species is not listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In Thailand there is a prohibition to export any living snake. <br/><br/>An effective and successful method of captive breeding is not available for this species, although they are often kept successfully by zoos and private collectors. This may reduce capture in the wild.<br/><br/>This species is present in several protected areas in Thailand in Malaysia.
176718		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> is found in central (Riau and Jambi) and northern Sumatra and around the west coast of Malaysia, including the islands of Penang and Langkawi, and east Malaysia in Sarawak.  It also occurs in southern Thailand to Bangkok, and in Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java) and it may occur in Bali, but not east of the Wallace Line or in Viet Nam (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008). It is restricted to inland freshwater and brackish habitats. This species occurs between sea level and 150 m.
176718		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> is found in inland freshwater habitats and the brackish zone of rivers, streams, and estuaries. In Thaliand and Malaysia they occur in peat swamps and rices paddies.<br/><br/>Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995) found that larger female <span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> produce larger litters, and about two-thirds of the adult females sampled were reproductive that year. The Javan Wart Snake bears live young, about 20 to 30 offspring at one time. It has amniotic eggs, which are retained in the oviducts of the snake and are fertilized internally. The young snakes are semi-terrestrial, until their baggy skin is fully developed. Reproduction is seasonal in all three acrochordids, with ovulation around July and parturition five or six months later.<br/><br/>It feeds primarily on fish and other aquatic animals including frogs.
176718		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> is often locally abundant in degraded and agricultural as well as natural habitats. There is no indication that catch rates or individual size have declined in the past ten years  (Nijman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press 2010). It is likely that a fairly high level of harvest is sustainable. However, there are large rural human populations in much of the species' range, and harvest is intentional as well as opportunistic.
176718		threats	eng	This species is used for the commercial skin industry. The annual trade in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> (in five cities in East and South Kalimantan, and North Sumatra, Riau (central Sumatra) and South Sumatra, 2005-6) was estimated at around 300,000 individuals from Kalimantan and 30,000 from Sumatra, exceeding the national quota of  200,000 individuals per year (Nijman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/>The biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span>, and the ways in which this species is collected for the commercial skin industry, suggest that the current harvest is unlikely to seriously reduce wild populations (Shine<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1995). The relatively aseasonal precipitation regime in much of its range, the extensive (and largely inaccessible) habitat, the lack of specific and efficient techniques to capture snakes, and the high reproductive output of the snakes are some of the factors contributing to this continued sustainability (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).
176719		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
176719		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Arabian Gulf of Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka, east to Australia and Papua New Guinea and north to Viet Nam (Heatwole 1999).
176719		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow open sea, river mouths, estuaries, coastal lagoons, and mangrove forests (Limpus 1975, Lim and Sawai 1975, Murthy 1977, Murthy and Rama Rao 1988, Venkateswarlu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). It is found from 3.7-22.2 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978). It occurs over soft substrates such as mud and sand (Limpus 1975). It is also found in freshwater lakes in Cambodia and India, and can travel up rivers. It has been found at least 7 km upriver in Goa, India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Common in near shore shallow waters and estuaries, especially in the soft bottom marine environments, where its preffered prey, catfish, occur in high abundances (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Animals are active during the night and day and prefers water depth  from less than 5 m to a maximum of 30 m (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).<br/><br/>This species has displayed tightly synchronized annual reproductive  cycles.  It produces relatively large numbers of offspring with low  effort per embryo (2%) (Lemen and Voris 1981). Clutch size increases with the size of the female and can reach 30 or more. The snakes are born with a snout-vent length of 21-24 cm, and grow at a rate of 0.1 cm per  day for the first year. Females mature at around 18 months and produce a  first clutch at around 24 months (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Voris and Jayne  1979). Between 10-20% of the species survive the first year and about 6% of females survive to reproduce.  Snakes four years old or more make up a very small percentage of the population (Voris and Jayne 1979).
176719		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. It is very common along the coasts of the Malay Peninsula and less common in Australian waters. A mark-recapture study estimated between 600 and 2,000 juveniles of this species in the Muar River estuary in Malaysia in 1983. There were also estimates of 900-2,500 adults in the population of that area (Voris 1985).
176719		threats	eng	This species is commonly encountered as bycatch in trawler as well as  other fishing operations, for example along the Goa coast (Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It appears to have a low trawl-related mortality rate (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). It is captured in trawl fisheries in Australia in more shallow waters where  the trawl time is very short (15-20 minutes) and therefore the mortality  is low (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). There is evidence to  suggest that post-release mortality may be high (A. Rasmussen and M.  Guinea pers. comms. 2009). <br/><br/>Due to the nature of its habitat, this species is also likely to be  impacted by coastal pollution. <br/><br/>Collection is thought to occur in high numbers in Thailand for the venom industry (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009), but it is not known how this affects the population or if it is a major threat.<br/><br/>It is very abundant in shallow lagoons of Sri Lanka's west coast, where they are frequently caught as bycatch and are a major cause of snake bite mortality among fishermen; for this reason they are usually deliberately killed before being removed from nets (K. Sanders and de Silva pers. comms. 2010).
176720		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. Continued monitoring of the status of Ashmore Reef populations is needed and baseline data of population abundances throughout the rest of its range needs to be obtained (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176720		distribution	eng	This species, as currently described, is found in the waters of tropical Australia from the Timor Sea to the southwestern Pacific Ocean (Heatwole 1999).  It is also found in the Philippines (Alcala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Laboute 2002). It has a highly disjunct distribution throughout its range. For example, in Australia it is found in the Great Barrier Reef (East Coast) and on Timor Sea reefs (West Coast) but not in the Gulf of Carpentaria (North Coast).
176720		habitat	eng	This species occurs in association with coral and rocky areas and over sand (Minton and Heatwole 1975, Minton and Dunson 1985). It is generally found in shallow water less than 15 m deep (Minton and Dunson 1985) although it has been seen at a maximum of 40m in the Philippines (Alcala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and elsewhere (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Feeds exclusively on fish eggs and seems to prefer eggs that are laid in nests attached to corals and rocks by species such as damselfish, blennies and gobies (Voris 1966). This is accomplished by scraping the eggs from the substrate with the enlarged scale on each side of the upper lip (Guinea 1996). This species forages over open sand plains at the junction of sand and coral and is typically found close to the benthos and shelters on the bottom edge of corals (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Heatwole 1999). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">This species </span>has been noted to have complex social behaviour (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Studies in New Caledonia have found that individuals of this species appear to move about in distinct social groups. Moreover, the species appears to have extremely high site fidelity and estimates of genetic distance between east and west Australian populations (Lukoschek and Keogh 2006) suggest it has very low dispersal potential; thus, it is unlikely to be able to re-establish isolated populations following local extinctions.
176720		population	eng	This species has a highly aggregated distribution. It can occur&#160; in large numbers, however, it is only found in discrete locations and at a limited number of sites throughout its relatively large geographic range (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). It also appears to be relatively site attached at the discrete locations where it occurs. For example, this species is very abundant on some Australian reefs in the Timor Sea  (Guinea 2006, 2007) and several reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), as well as at certain locations in New Caledonia (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), the Loyalty Islands (Rasmussen 2001) and the Philippines (Alcala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<br/><br/>There have been large population declines of this species at Ashmore Reef over the past eight to ten years (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). Abundance estimates<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> in the vicinity of the inner mooring at Ashmore Reef in 1994, 1996 and 1998 from mark-recapture surveys were ~100 to 200 individuals (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Sighting rates during the same survey periods were 10 to >25 per hour (Guinea 2006, 2007). Although no subsequent mark-recapture abundance estimates are available, subsequent sighting rates (2001-2005) have dropped to 1-2 per hour for this species at the same location (Guinea 2006, 2007). This reduction in population size is also associated with major declines in abundance of other sea snake species at Ashmore Reef (Guinea 2006, 2007).
176720		threats	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is very occasionally captured in trawler bycatch but the rarity of this occurrence means that it is not a major threat. For example, no individual of this species has been taken as bycatch in the Queensland trawl fishery, most likely due to the close association of this species with coral reefs where trawlers do not fish (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>The main threat to this species is likely to be associated with loss or degradation of coral reef habitats, however there is no direct evidence about the nature or extent to which this is the case (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Nonetheless, the highly specialised diet and habitat preference of this species suggests that it will be threatened by all processes resulting in loss of fish species that lay eggs in nests (such as damselfish) as it forages exclusively on fish eggs and tends to prefer fish eggs in demersal nests. <br/><br/>In addition, it has been suggested that increased sea surface temperatures, coral bleaching, and resulting changes in habitat complexity may be linked to localized population declines of sea snakes on Ashmore Reef, northern Australia (Francis 2006) and suggests that climate change may impact sea snake populations (Francis 2006). However, there is little direct evidence about the nature and extent to which the effects of climate change will affect <span style="font-style: italic;">E. annulatus</span>.<br/><br/>There is limited gene flow between populations of this species on the east and west coasts of Australia (Lukoschek and Keogh 2006), suggesting that populations are unlikely to recover from local extinctions by dispersal.
176721		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas. In the Philippines there are two declared sea snake sanctuaries in Gato  Island, Cebu and Pulo Laum, Zamboanga (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). These  parks are dependent on tourism for their protection.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>It is important that the conservation of Laticaudids takes into account both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.
176721		distribution	eng	Known from the Philippines, Taiwan, China, and Japan (Heatwole 1999). There is also a record from of this species from Palu Api in Indonesia.
176721		habitat	eng	Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994). They inhabit shallow tropical seas and coral reefs.  They feed on fish (Yeng Su <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>Sub-adult and mature snakes of this species feed mainly on the fish families Emmelichthyidae, Acanthuridae and Pomacentridae (Yeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>There are accounts of communal egg laying in this species, specifically in a cave on Orchid Island, 64 km southeast of Taiwan (Yeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
176721		population	eng	This species has been considered common in Japan (Guinea 1994).  Very little is known about the population of this species. Numbers in the Philippines are low and it is uncommon due to past harvests for the skin and smoked sea snake trade. The population has not recovered from the collections in the 1970s and it collapsed in the 1980s (Dunson 1974, Bacolod 1983).
176721		threats	eng	Major threats to this species may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. <br/><br/>The skin and smoked sea snake trade in the Philippines was historically a very significant threat. The extensive harvest has now stopped since the crash in the population in the 1980s. In 1974 the number of snakes captured was 450,000, and by 1981 it had dropped to 1,454 individuals (Dunson 1975, Bacolod 1983). There is still a smaller harvest for smoked sea snake for the Japanese market (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). It is also harvested heavily in the Ryuku Islands (Dunson 1975).<br/><p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 m from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm 2009). If suitable habitat in&#160;the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to&#160;kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also&#160;directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>  <p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>
176722		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas.
176722		distribution	eng	Known from the Bay of Bengal and adjacent coasts (Smith 1943).
176722		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species. There is no information known about the habitat type (Smith 1926).
176722		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. There have been no records since 1943 (Smith 1943).
176722		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
176723		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.
176723		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Straits of Malacca, Gulf of Thailand and eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula (but not Singapore or the Natuna Sea). A single specimen has been recorded from Borneo (Smith 1926) which may have been a vagrant (Stuebing and Inger 1999). Smith (1926) identified several specimens labelled China and Canton as <span style="font-style: italic;">H. torquatus</span>, but noted that their locality might be incorrect.  It has also reportedly been collected from the Great Lake in Cambodia (Ineich 1996).
176723		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow coastal waters and estuaries, and is known to venture up rivers.
176723		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.  Large sample sizes (over 100) were collected from west Malaysia and southern Thailand (Field Museum). There is anecdotal information suggesting that populations in the Gulf of Thailand have declined over the last 40 years (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2010).
176723		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Habitat degradation may be a concern in the Gulf of Thailand, where it is thought that they have experienced declines.
176724		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176724		distribution	eng	This species is found on the coasts of Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka (Heatwole 1999).
176724		habitat	eng	Probably travels large distances in surface and tidal currents. Occurs over soft bottom habitat in mud and sand.
176724		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species.<br/><br/>It can be considered rare (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). It is known to occur along both coasts of the Indian subcontinent (Smith 1943). Only one specimen has been collected from Sri Lanka.
176724		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Bycatch is possibly a threat.
176725		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>It is important that conservation actions for members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> take into account  both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176725		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. saintgironsi</span> is known only from New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Cogger and Heatwole 2006). Its distribution extends from the large main island of New Caledonia (Grande Terre), the smaller island (the Isle of Pines) to the south, plus three small islands to the east of Grande Terre (The Loyalty Islands), called Mare, Ouvea and Lifou.<br/><br/>One specimen each from New Zealand, India and the Caroline Islands has been recorded (Heatwole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), but are considered to be vagrants.<br/><br/>    <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176725		habitat	eng	This species feeds on eels from shallow reef waters.  Individuals have been found up to 100 m inland at elevations reaching 100 m.  Aggregations of 30 or more individuals are common (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly.  Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994). No nest sites have actually been located (A. Lane pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species has been recorded to dive to depths greater than 80 m in the Lagoon of New Caledonia (Brischoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).  It is usually found at a depth of 0-10 m (Cogger 2007).<br/><br/>Animals are most commonly found under beach rocks or in the roots of trees when on land but they have also been found inhabiting the abandoned nests of Wedge-tailed Shearwaters (<span style="font-style: italic;">Puffinus pacificus</span>) (Lane and Shine in prep.).<br/><br/>There is a lack of genetic sub-division in this species, indicating it disperses freely through-out New Caledonia (Lane <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). This is in contrast to mark-recapture studies which show high site fidelity (Brischoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It may be that these animals disperse as juveniles and become site specific later in life.
176725		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. saintgironsi</span> is much less common on the Loyalty Islands than on the small islands offshore or the Isle of Pines (A. Lane pers. comm. 2009). The shores of the large main island of New Caledonia (Grande Terre) do not shelter large colonies of this species - the animals are more common on small coral and sand islets within the Noumea lagoon (Saint Girons 1964, A. Lane pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Population size estimates from one island in the Noumea lagoon (Signal Island, 2,000-3,000 m²<sup></sup>) approximated several thousand resident snakes in 1964 (Saint Girons 1964) and more recent estimates do not suggest any population reduction (Brischoux 2007). The population of the islet of Petit Taenia was 244 individuals in 1964, on an area of less than 50 m².
176725		threats	eng	Major threats may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. There are reports of animals being killed to make way for tourist  operations on islands within the Noumea lagoon under the assumption that  tourists will be scared by the snakes (A. Lane pers comm.).<br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. are typically too small to be commercially useful.<br/><br/>    <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach&#160;rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to&#160;kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also&#160;directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>  <p>    </p><p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176726		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176726		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf east to Indonesia, the Philippines, and China (Heatwole 1999). The range extends south to northern Australia and Papua New Guinea. This species is also possibly present in Japan (H. Voris pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>    <p><br/></p>   <p><br/></p>
176726		habitat	eng	This species can be found in shallow seas over muddy bottom (Stuebing and Voris 1989).  It feeds mostly on eels (Voris and Voris 1983, Das 2007), but also gobies and marine invertebtrates (Das 2007). <br/><br/>Ten specimens were collected from trawl nets in Pelabuhanratu Bay on the south coast of West Java ~5-10 km from shore at depths of 20-30 m in turbid water over sandy bottoms. All of the six adult females collected were gravid, with 1-10 embryos of ~35-43 cm total length (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. April 2009). In Pakistan specimens were collected in shallow, muddy, mangrove swamps during the monsoon season (Minton 1966).
176726		population	eng	This species was relatively common (as trawler bycatch) in Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1989). It also appears to be a common sea snake in Pakistan (Minton 1966). Along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Enhydrina schistosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lapemis curtus</span> it is probably the most common species in the waters of the Indian sub-continent. It is far more common on the east coast than the west coast of the sub-continent (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). On the Coromandel coast (east India), 975 individuals were captured between 2003-2004, and was considered the most common sea snake in the region (Karthikeyan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176726		threats	eng	This species is commonly caught as bycatch by trawlers in many parts of its range: Malaysian Borneo (Stuebing and Voris 1989, Das 2007); southern coast of Java (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. 2009); east coast of India (Karthikeyan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176727		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.
176727		distribution	eng	This species is found in the waters of northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea (Heatwole 1999).
176727		habitat	eng	Inhabits soft sandy inter-reefal habitats. Feeds on fish. Found at least to 74 m (M.Cappo pers. comm. 2009).
176727		population	eng	This is the most abundant species in trawls in the Arafura Sea, Timor Sea and shoal waters off the northwest coast of Australia (Smith 1926).
176727		threats	eng	Is part of bycatch from trawls, however, not very common. In the Queensland fishery trawls it accounts for only 2 % of the catch of sea snakes (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
176728		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.
176728		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Phuket Harbour, Thailand and Columbo, Sri Lanka. There are no records of this species from Indian waters (except for type specimen collected from Sri Lanka) (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176728		habitat	eng	Very little is known about this species. It most likely lives over sandy gravel bottoms.
176728		population	eng	This species is rare, known only from the holotype from 1872 until rediscovered in 1987 and 1989 (Rasmussen 1992).<br/><br/>There are only approximately 30 specimens in museum collections. All the samples are from trawl fishery bycatch.
176728		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is sometimes captured as bycatch in trawls.
176729		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176729		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coasts of southern Papua New Guinea, in the Arafura Sea and coastal waters (Heatwole 1999).  It has also be found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).
176729		habitat	eng	This species is found in gulfs and offshore continental coasts over soft substrata, generally mud, or mud and sand (Heatwole 1975, Limpus 1975). It has been found to depths of 22.2 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 1978). It may also be found in some tidal creeks (Minton 1975). This species feeds on fish (Voris 1972).<br/><br/>Although not common in the Queensland trawl fishery, it was captured across a wide area and variety of trawls and from 1.4 m depth in a river down to 106 m offshore (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
176729		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common as bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in the Gulf of Carpentaria, but uncommon in the Queensland fishery, at approximately&#160; 1 % of the sea snake bycatch (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
176729		threats	eng	This species is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries in Australia.
176730		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.
176730		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Arafura Sea off northern Australia and in the eastern Indian Ocean off northwestern Australia (Rasmussen and Smith 1997). There is a record of Bam Island on the north coast of Papua New Guinea (Smith 1986).
176730		habitat	eng	This species eats fish (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). It was found in trawls from deeper waters (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). Suspected to be found over soft substrates.
176730		population	eng	This species is rare and known only from six specimens (Kharin 2005).
176730		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It has been caught in trawls.
176731		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas.
176731		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Cambodia, Gulf of Thailand south to Indonesia (either Java or Sumatra), Penenisular Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Viet Nam (Laidlaw 1901). The type locality is from Thailand. The Brunei record is based on one washed up individual and may well be a vagrant (Das 1993).
176731		habitat	eng	This species is confined to shallow muddy coastal waters (Smith 1926). There is a record from freshwater in the Pattani region in Thailand (Boulenger 1912).
176731		population	eng	There is no quantitative information for the population of this species. It is not common in the Java Sea, and is only locally common (in Indonesia) in the mouth of the Mengala River (Smith 1926). <br/><br/>It is not common in trawls in VietNam (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). In surveys of trawl bycatch in 2000, 2001, and 2004, there were only three individuals caught in a total of approximately 1,000 sea snakes.
176731		threats	eng	Heavy trawling, pollution and coastal development within the range of the species is a major threat. The Gulf of Thailand is an area of particular concern.<br/><br/>There is anecdotal information that there used to be more individuals of this species, but now capture is very rare (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). However, there have never been a large number individuals of this species recorded. It may be naturally rare and patchily distributed as indicated by the few records and localities.
176732		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176732		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen. The locality listed from "Indian Ocean".<br/><br/>It is thought to be found along the coasts of the Philippines, south to the Arafura Sea and the Australian-New Guinean continental shelf (Heatwole 1999). It is thought that the records of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. inornatus</span> from Philippines might in fact be <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ornatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. lamberti</span> see (Rasmussen 1989). According to A. Rasmussen (pers. comm. 2008) the only known record of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. inornatus</span> is the type specimen, hence no countries or other geographic units are coded.
176732		habitat	eng	No information is available.
176732		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Only known from a single specimen.
176732		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176733		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176733		distribution	eng	Distributed around the east coast of India, Bangladesh (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009), Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Smith 1926).  It is known to occur in waters along the east coast of India in the Bay of Bengal sea (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>David and Ineich (1999) restricted the type locality to India.
176733		habitat	eng	Smith (1926) made record of this species existing in rivers in the Bago Division. Little is known of the habitat preference of this snake. It spends most of its time in near-shore areas but may venture up to 50 km in the open sea or into rivers. It feeds entirely on fish.<br/><br/>Recorded to occur over soft muddy bottoms in turbid waters (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Very little is known about the reproductive behaviour of this snake. It is known to be viviparous and the brood size is often under ten. The exact length of the neonates upon birth is not known. It is most likely to be around 350 mm. The maximum length is about 10 0cm.
176733		population	eng	There is very little population information for this species. In Chittagong, Bangladesh they were quite common: approximately 50 specimens were captured in two bag nets in 1991 (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). There are no records from other parts of the range since Smith (1943).
176733		threats	eng	There are unlikely to be any major threats in Bangledesh (A. Rasmussen. pers. comm. 2009). Bycatch is possibly a threat&#160; in some areas (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176734		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as "Listed Marine Species" under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including "Listed Marine Species", directly or indirectly demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPFs commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the start of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australias NPF. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australias trawl fisheries showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, E. Fletcher pers. comm. 2009).
176734		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is endemic to Australasian waters. Its distribution extends around northern Australia from New South Wales on the east coast of Australia (Cogger 1975, Limpus 1975) throughout the Great Barrier Reef, Gulf of Carpentaria and Arafura Sea to at least Broome on the west coast (Cogger 1975). It has also been recorded from around the coast of New Guinea (Cogger 1975, Heatwole 1999). This species' range extends further into Australia<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>'s temperate waters than the ranges of most other sea snake species.<br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p><br/></p>
176734		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is a generalist species that occurs in a variety of soft sediment habitat types throughout its range, including sand, muddy sand, and mud. It sometimes ascends rivers (Heatwole 1975), thus it also occurs in freshwater habitats. Individuals occasionally also occur on coral reefs and sometimes rest in seagrass beds (M. Guinea, pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is a generalist feeder and its diet includes squid and fish (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Limpus 1975). It is commonly found at depths between 3.7-26 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>1978), but may be found in water less than 2 m to about 80 m (Limpus 1975). There are records for depths of 110 m from the Queensland fishery (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and 90 m in Broome (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is by far the longest of all sea snake species. Reproductive output in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) is approximately 12-13 offspring per clutch every 2-3 years (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Ward 2001). The number of offspring per clutch is variable and increases with the length of the female, which can range from 110 to >200 cm (standard ventral length) at maturity (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).
176734		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range (Cogger 1975, Heatwole 1975, Limpus 1975, Rasmussen 2001), and trawl bycatch data suggest that it often comprises a large component of the sea snake fauna in soft sediment marine habitats throughout its range (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978; Ward 1996a,b, 2000; Wassenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994; Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2010; Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Trawl bycatch data also indicate that population abundances are spatially and temporally variable, as is the case with almost all Hydrophiine sea snake species.<br/><br/>Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the Northern Prawn Fishery between 1976 and 2007 (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans,</span> and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. There was a major reduction in the size of the fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.
176734		threats	eng	The preferred habitat of this species overlaps with trawl fisheries. As such, it is a significant component of trawler bycatch in northern and eastern Australia (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978; Ward 1996a,b, 2000; Wassenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994; Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and is commonly caught in all trawl fisheries in depths of 100 m or greater (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>In the Queensland trawl fisheries, it has been caught from every sector of the fishery and makes up 5% of the incidental capture. Mortality rate was estimated at 12.4% (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The post-trawl mortality was low.<br/><br/>According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010), the risk of overfishing of sea snakes in the Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure and population declines for appears low for all species. The risk of localized extinction on the east coast of Australia due to trawling also appears unlikely. However, an anti-conservative methodology was used to calculate the risk, and therefore should be considered preliminary and speculative assessments (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> was found to have the highest risk of over-fishing of all species (C/M=0.59). This is not thought to be due to the high proportion of its distribution that is trawled (29% was exposed to trawling), but rather that it had the lowest value of M (natural mortality). In general, species with low rates of M are more prone to overfishing than species with high rates (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This low value of M is possibly attributed to the large size that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> attains. Post-trawl mortality analysis indicated that larger snakes experience higher post-trawl mortality, and hence, may be more vulnerable. The higher risk figure for <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> indicates that the level of incidental fishing mortality is above that required for maximum sustainable yield, however Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) states that this does not imply a high or imminent risk of extinction from the Queensland east coast. In practice, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> was found to have negligible (< 0.001) post-trawl mortality; but this was based on a sample of only eight individuals.<br/><br/>Quantitative assessment of the impacts of trawling on the populations of sea snakes in the Northern Prawn Fishery has shown that trawl mortality was below reference points and no species appears to be at risk at current levels of fishing effort (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Due to the wide distribution across most of northern Australia, the impact of bycatch for this species is probably low (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176735		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176735		distribution	eng	This species is found from southeastern Asia east of Singapore to northern Australia (Rasmussen pers. comm. 2008).  Records from Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal should be referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. fasciatus </span>(Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
176735		habitat	eng	It has been collected to 30 m (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. April 2009) and feeds on eels (Van Denburgh and Thompson 1908).  Three specimens were collected from Pelabuhanratu Bay on the south coast of West Java; all were caught alive in trawl nets ~5-10 km from shore at depths of 20-30 m in turbid water on sandy bottoms. The single female contained six embryos of ~40 cm total length (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. April 2009). This species produces small numbers of medium sized young, and it puts out the highest relative effort per embryo of any marine snake, 11% (Lemen and Voris 1981).
176735		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is quite common in Viet Nam and Thailand (A. Rasmussen, pers. comm. 2009).
176735		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is rarely caught in bycatch in Australia.
176736		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. It is important that conservation actions for the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>take into account both  their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176736		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Vanuatu where it has been documented on the islands of Efate and Espiritu Santo (Cogger and Heatwole  2006), which has an extent of occurrence of less than 15,000 km²<sup></sup>. Two individuals have also been identified in the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) though there is no  evidence of a breeding population at this location and the individuals may have been migrants or vagrants (A. Lane pers. comm. 2009).
176736		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. frontalis</span> feeds exclusively on eels.  It is a smaller, sister species of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span>, and is less common with a smaller range. Sea snakes of the family <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).  No natural nest sites have been located for this species. They inhabit shallow tropical seas and coral reefs.<br/><br/>This species occurs in sympatry and syntopy with <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> and can be found inside small rock crevices and mangrove trees when on land.&#160; Females reach reproductive maturity at greater than 50 cm, males at greater than 40 cm (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
176736		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. It is less common and less terrestrial than <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span>.<br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. frontalis</span> display very limited genetic diversity (Lane<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2009).
176736		threats	eng	Major threats include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction, especially as this species lays it eggs on land.<br/>    <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat to Laticaudine sea kraits. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. are typically too small to be commercially useful.
176737		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176737		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf, east to Indonesia, China, and Taiwan (Heatwole 1999).  It has also be found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).
176737		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral reefs, turbid inshore waters, and estuaries (Heatwole 1999). It eats fish. <br/><br/>The general reproductive strategy for the species includes small clutches (commonly 2-5 individuals) of relatively large offspring (commonly 19-34 cm). There is evidence of synchronized annual reproduction (Rasmussen 1989).
176737		population	eng	This species was sometimes caught as bycatch by trawlers in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1989).  It is fairly common in the Java Sea (Tomascik 1997).
176737		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch by trawlers in Sabah (Stuebing and Voris 1989).
176738		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176738		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread in the tropical parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans between the 18-20º C isotherms (Dunson and Ehlert 1971, Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971). It is known from the coasts of eastern Africa, north to the Arabian Gulf, east along the Asian coast of the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, northward to Japan and eastward to the western coasts of the Americas (Heatwole 1999). <br/><br/>Currents occasionally carry the snakes into temperate waters, but these are almost certainly far from their breeding and feeding waters.
176738		habitat	eng	The species is the most pelagic of the sea snakes, occurring in the open ocean well away from coasts and reefs.  However, a small individual (total length = 230 mm) found in a mangrove swamp (Minton 1966) suggests that the species may occasionally occur in inter-tidal habitats. This species eats only fish (Klawe 1963) that mistakenly seek shelter beneath the motionless snake that resembles  drifting wood. Consequently they forage to a depth of only about 2 m  (Kropach 1975). This species is usually found in the 0-10 m range of the water column (Cogger 2007). This is the only marine snake not associated with the benthic community (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>In the open ocean, the snakes often occur in large numbers in association with long lines of debris.  These "slicks" form in calm seas and consist variously of debris, foam and scum brought together by converging water currents. In some areas, such as the Gulf of Panama in the eastern Pacific Ocean, the slicks can vary in width from 1 to 300 m and stretch for many kilometres. Several thousand snakes may be associated with a single slick. It is not clear whether the snakes actively swim to the slicks or whether they are carried into them passively (Kropach 1971, 1975). The only obvious activity that is performed by the snakes in the slicks is feeding and knotting. Other activities that might benefit from large aggregations, such as mating, have not been observed.  Females are significantly larger than males (Kropach 1975).<br/><br/>The minimum snout-vent length at birth is about 22 cm and sexual maturity is reached as a length of 50 cm and 62.5 cm for males and females respectively (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176738		population	eng	Although there is no specific population information about the species, it is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>This is a fairly common species throughout the waters of the Indian sub-continent, occasionally washed ashore during rough weather, which is probably due to its pelagic habits. For the same reason, it is also rarely encountered as bycatch in fishing operations (A. Lobo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Kropach (1975) marked 961 individuals of this species in the Bay of Panama over a one year period.  None were recaptured during the period.  About a year later, one was recaptured in the Bay of Panama and three were collected off the coast of Mexico.<br/><br/>Estimating population size for this species is difficult, as the range is very broad over several oceans. In addition, the distribution pattern of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis</span> is very clumped. Visual surveys from boats are probably the most suitable technique for estimating population size. The unique habits and colouration of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis</span> mean that it is unlikely to be confused with other species (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).
176738		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Minor threats may include bycatch in squid fisheries (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009), ghost fishing nets, and pollution, including oil spills.
176739		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176739		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from two areas along the southeastern coast of Papua New Guinea from Port Moresby Bay and Orangerie Bay, and has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².&#160; Although no collections have been made in between these two areas, it is assumed that the species occurs in suitable habitat between the known collection locations.
176739		habitat	eng	This species is found at 0-10 m depth, and preys on eels (Cogger 2007). Inhabits shallow tropical seas and coral reefs. Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).
176739		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
176739		threats	eng	Major threats include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction, especially as this species lays it eggs on land.&#160; In particular, the area surrounding Port Moresby is undergoing much development.<br/>      <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in&#160;the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>    <p>    </p><p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>
176740		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is important that conservation actions for members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>take into account  both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Niue, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 300 km².
176740		habitat	eng	Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).  They inhabit shallow tropical seas and coral reef. The average clutch size is three.
176740		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species but it is common on Niue.
176740		threats	eng	Major threats may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction, especially as this species needs to lay eggs on land.<br/><br/>Amphibious  Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and  LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm 2009). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007) or coastal development, this is expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances, egg  laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits  only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would  also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.<br/><br/>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>This species has a very restricted range and severe weather events such as cyclones can pose a significant threat. The region where this species occurs is still recovering from the last severe cyclone in 2004 (M. Guinea pers. comm.  2009).
176741		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas.
176741		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf east to India and Sri Lanka (Heatwole 1999). It is also found in West Pakistan (Minton 1962). Specimens have been collected from the west coast of peninsular Thailand, Melanesia and Singapore (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).
176741		habitat	eng	This is a little-known species, but it feeds on fish. One was collected off Pakistan at a depth of two fathoms (Minton 1966). Found at depths of 27-30 m, over a gravel substrate (Rasmussen 1993).
176741		population	eng	This species was a common bycatch in trawlers in Phuket harbour (Thailand) between 1985 and 1989 (Rasmussen 1993). In India, this species is rare, recorded from along the south and east coasts of India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176741		threats	eng	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch by trawlers.
176742		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
176742		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Thailand south to Indonesia (Smith 1926). Records from southwest Java have found the species in coral reef habitats (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2009). It is found in Viet Nam (Kharin 1984). There are two specimens from North Halmahera, Indonesia in Museums in Berlin and Hamburg (verified by A Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).
176742		habitat	eng	There is very little information on habitats and ecology for this species. It has been collected from coral reefs in southwest Java (Banten, Indonesia) (K Sanders pers. comm. 2009).
176742		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>In 1991, no specimens were found in the whole of the Gulf of Thailand (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Since 2000, several individuals from southwest Java have been collected (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2009).
176742		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Coastal development is a threat and may cause localized declines.<br/><br/>This species is also strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).
176743		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176743		distribution	eng	This species is known from South Sulawesi, Arafura Sea, Coral Sea, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia (Ineich and Borsa 2003, Ineich and Rasmussen 1997; K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).
176743		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral reefs and seagrass beds (Heatwole 1999). It is found from 0-45 m (McCosker 1975, Ineich and Borsa 2003). This species eats eels (McCosker 1975). A single observation of a gravid female found three embryos (Guinea 1982).
176743		population	eng	This species is abundant in Fjij, New Caledonia and Chesterfield Reefs (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). Some localized declines have occurred, for example at Ashmore Reef where it used to be abundant (H. Cogger pers. comm. 1994). From surveys conducted in 1998 and 2002, it is now completely absent from that region  (V. Lukoschek and M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). It is still present at Scott Reef (M. Guinea. pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>There are no records of this species from trawls in the Queensland fisheries (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is very rare in the Gulf of Carpentaria (M. White pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species comprised 28 out of 83 specimens collected from fishermen in Makassar, South Sulawesi. The animals were reportedly caught in nets (using lamps) near coral reefs around Pulau Baranglompo (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).
176743		threats	eng	This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).<br/><br/>Apart from coral bleaching there are no known major threats to this species. It is unclear whether declines at Ashmore Reef are associated with bleaching events.
176744		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176744		distribution	eng	This species is found along the east coast of India, the Gulf of Mannar and Myanmar (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009, Leviton 2003).  <span style="font-style: italic;">H. fasciatus</span> is extremely rare west of the Indian subcontinent and no records exist for Sri Lanka (Tomascik 1997).
176744		habitat	eng	This species is found over soft bottom coastal waters. It feeds exclusively on worm/snake eels (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).
176744		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. Records from the Indian region are rare and include the Gulf of Mannar and the Coromandel coast (A. Lobo pers comm. 2009).
176744		threats	eng	They are caught as bycatch by fishing trawlers. Also potentially impacted by habitat loss due to coastal development.
176745		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as "Listed Marine Species" under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including "Listed Marine Species"), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPFs commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia's NPF (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Management options for minimising sea snake catch through temporal or spatial closures are limited as sea snakes are widely distributed throughout the NPF managed area. The most effective option currently available would be to facilitate or legislate the adoption of effective BRD types (Fisheye BRD or Popeye Fishbox BRD at 70 meshes from drawstring) by the entire NPF fleet (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>This species would especially benefit from bycatch reduction devices in trawl fisheries due to high mortality rates (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009).
176745		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the north coast of Australia and the south-central coast of Papua New Guinea (O'Shea 1996, Greer 1997). It has also been found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160;&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160; </p>
176745		habitat	eng	It is found over flat open sand that is lightly covered with filamentous algae (Minton and Dunson 1985), in turbid estuaries, and in inshore waters (Heatwole 1999). It is found from 7-26 m (Minton and Dunson 1985, Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978). This species eats fish. Also found in inter-reefal habitat from Queensland trawl fisheries (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009). In Papua New Guinea, it usually occurs over sandy substrates near coral reefs (O'Shea 1996).
176745		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. macdowelli</span>  is uncommon and not as abundant as many other species. It is known from the bycatch in the Queensland Trawl Fisheries and makes up a small proportion of the catch (4%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This species is also captured as bycatch in the Northern Trawl Fishery, and makes up less than 1% of the catch.<br/><br/>Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the Northern Trawl Fishery between 1976 and 2007 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. There has been a major reduction in the size of the northern fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.<br/><br/>This species has a localized catch distribution and shows evidence of recent declines in abundance on the fishing grounds. However, these fishing grounds only accounted for an estimated 15% of their available habitat. Nevertheless, the catch rates of these species should be monitored in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria as part of the new project to assess the sustainability of the northern prawn fishery bycatch from annual monitoring data funded by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
176745		threats	eng	This species is found in bycatch of trawl fisheries. It is captured in the Queensland Trawl Fishery, but makes up a small proportion of the sea snake bycatch (4%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The within-trawl mortality in the Queensland Trawl Fishery was very high at 33.3%.&#160; The total incidental fishing mortality rate for this species, which is the within-trawl mortality combined with the post-trawl mortality rate is over 50% (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This species is also captured as bycatch in Australia's Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), and makes up less than 1% of the sea snake bycatch.<br/><br/>According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010), the risk of overfishing sea snakes in the Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure, resulting in populations experiencing significant decline, appears low for all species. The risk of localized extinction on the east coast of Australia due to trawling also appears unlikely. However, because there is relatively scant information available on the population dynamics of this species, and other sea snake species, on the Queensland east coast, this risk assessment should be considered as preliminary (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><br/>Quantitative assessment of the impacts of trawling from the NPF on populations of sea snakes has shown that trawl mortality was below reference points and no species appear to be at risk at current levels of fishing effort (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, this species had lower abundances and more restricted distributions that overlap with current high-effort trawling areas. This species may have been adversely impacted by commercial prawn trawling over the years (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The continual reduction in the number of fishing licenses and contraction of fishing grounds in the NPF over the last few years will most likely reduce the number of sea snakes captured in the fishery (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).The catch rates of these species should be monitored (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>There are no trawls in shallow waters in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, thus the species is likely protected from fishing in those areas.
176746		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF; ‘Design, trial and implementation of an integrated, long-term bycatch monitoring program, road tested in the Northern Prawn Fishery’ FRDC PN 2002/035 (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australia’s trawl fisheries showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (T. Courtney and Emma Fletcher pers. comms. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>There are no documented bycatch management strategies for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lapemis curtus</span> in other parts of its range, however, trawl fishing closures in India may prove effective for reducing the impacts of incidental capture for this and other sea snake species (Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), even though these closures were not specifically implemented for sea snake management. Similar fisheries closures in other countries where this species occurs may also reduce the impacts of incidental takes, however, considerable research is needed to quantify sea snake bycatch throughout Southeast Asia and evaluate the effects of any current management strategies on sea snake populations. <br/></p><p>Gravid females of this species appear to congregate in sheltered areas such as bays and  estuary mouths at particular times of the year. Some of the areas should  be identified as important zones for conservation especially during  breeding periods (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>
176746		distribution	eng	This species has one of the most extensive distributions of all sea snake species (Minton 1975). It occurs form the Persian Gulf to eastern Australia and includes the entire Indian coastlines, Myanmar, Thailand (Tu 1974), South China Sea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (Minton 1975). One individual of this species has been reported from an unknown location in New Caledonia (Rasmussen and Ineich 2000), however, it is not clear whether there are breeding populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> east of Australia.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>   <br/>  <p><br/></p><br/><p>&#160;</p>
176746		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> occurs in a wide range of tropical shallow-water habitats including gulfs, bays, and estuaries, over continental shelves and also over soft-sediments adjacent to coral reefs. It is associated with many soft-sediment types including sand, muddy sand, and mud (Heatwole 1975, Dunson 1975). It sometimes ascends river, thus also occurs in freshwater habitats (Heatwole 1975, Dunson 1975).<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. curtus</span> is a generalist feeder and its diet includes many species of benthic, demersal and pelagic fish, as well as squid and other crustaceans (Glodek and Voris 1982, Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species typically occurs in depth ranges from 4 to 40 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978) but has been seen as deep as 55 m (Dunson 1975). Gravid females appear to congregate in sheltered areas such as bays and estuary mouths at particular times of the year (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species has considerably capacity to disperse because of its great variety of optimal habitat types and prey items. Population genetic data indicates that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> has undergone recent range expansion throughout shallow water habitats around northern and eastern Australia, probably since the last glacial maximum 15,000 years ago (V. Lukoschek unpublished data). However, genetic data also indicate that deeper water appears to act as a barrier to dispersal for this species (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, 2008). For example, there is a strong genetic break between <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> populations in the west and east coasts of Thailand and between the Thailand populations and Australia (~1% mitochondrial sequence divergence, V. Lukoschek unpublished data).
176746		population	eng	This species is one of the most common inter-reefal species throughout its range. Although there are no abundance estimates from direct surveys of this species, considerable information exists from trawl by-catch data from Australia and some parts of Southeast Asia since the 1960s. These data suggest that, in many areas, this is the by far the most commonly captured sea snake species.<br/><br/>The most detailed spatial and temporal information is available for Australia. <span style="font-style: italic;">L.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">curtus</span> comprised 19% of bycatch in the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria in the late 1960s (Shuntov 1972) and 12% in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the early 1970s (Heatwole 1975). In the late 1970s <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus </span>comprised ~60% of sea snakes caught in the eastern Gulf of Carpentaria (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978). Other trawl bycatch studies in northern Australia have documented <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> as comprising between 13 – 80% of bycatch (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001); <13% of bycatch (Ward 1996a, b; Ward 2000); and ~30% (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species comprised ~25% of sea snake bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, however, its percent contribution varied between different sectors and fisheries (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>This species appears to be the most abundant sea snake species in the Gulf of Thailand. An extensive study in the Gulf of Thailand in the late 1960s indicated that it comprised over 80% of all sea snakes captured in trawls (4,305&#160; in a total of 5311 individuals) (Tu 1974), and this species was captured on every day of the surveys.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> is probably also the most common species in several parts of coastal India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). A total of 194 trawl pulls along the coast of Goa, India resulted in the capture of approximately 165 individuals in 2002 and 2003 (Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
176746		threats	eng	There are two major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span>: fisheries bycatch and directed harvests.<br/><br/>This species occurs primarily in shallow-water coastal soft-sediment habitats, which are targeted by prawn trawl fisheries  throughout its range. <span style="font-style: italic;">L.&#160; curtus</span> tends to be one of the most commonly caught species in these trawl fisheries. Indeed, this  species is often caught in huge numbers and can make up a large component of all  sea snake bycatch in many locations (see Population information). <a style="">There  is some anecdotal evidence from Asia of declines in the population. They are now caught much less frequently  in trawls than in the past. In 1989 in Phuket, Thailand 50-300 individuals  were captured in trawls, and in 2004 there were much fewer (A. Rasmussen  pers. comm. 2009)</a>. <br/><br/>In the Queensland trawl fishery (Australia), <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> made up a high proportion (24%) of the  incidental capture of sea snakes and the mortality rate was 5.8% (which  is comparatively low) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.  </span>2010). It is the most commonly caught sea snake in these  fisheries. According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> (2010), the risk of overfishing of sea snakes in the  Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure resulting  in populations experiencing significant decline, appears low. <br/> <br/> The generally high spatial and temporal variability in the abundance and  species composition of sea snakes in trawl bycatch in Australia, combined with  the changing fishing practices over the past 20 years, make it very  difficult to detect trends in catch rate that could be reliably inferred as  indicating that populations are stable or declining. As such, trawl bycatch data only  provide an indirect measure of the status of Australian populations. This is  probably also true for trawl bycatch data in other locations.<br/>   <br/> The other potential threat, directed harvest, is known to occur in some  parts of Southeast Asia. This species is one of the most frequently commercially used  sea snakes in Thailand (Rasmussen 2001). Large numbers of sea snake skins (>6,500 individuals), likely of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span>,&#160; have been seized in Malaysia near  the border of Thailand. Leather from this species can also be found marketed online by companies in Asia. Harvests of more than 100 <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> individuals were also observed in east Peninsular Malaysia in  2008 (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2009). The species was harvested in Indonesia  prior to the 1980s, however, there are no reports of harvests on a commercial  scale since then (G. Saputra pers. comm. 2009).
176747		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.
176747		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lake Taal in the Philippines (Lagda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Muita <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Guerrero 2002, Papa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Lake Taal, formerly known as Lake Bombon, is the third largest lake in the Philippine Archipelago. The average depth of the lake is 180 m and it drains through the Pansipit River into Balayan Bay in the southwest. The surface area of the lake is 24,356 ha (Guerrero 2002, Mutia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). This species therefore has an extent of occurrence of approximately 250 km².
176747		habitat	eng	This species is only known from a freshwater lake in the Philippines (Lake Taal). The lake has an opening of approximately 300 m  to  Pansipit River leading to the Batangas Bay.
176747		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species (Lagda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), but it is assumed to be declining due to the impacts of a number of threats.
176747		threats	eng	Major threats are fish pens for cultivation of tilapia which cause pollution and kill fish and other species due to excess nutrient loading of the system. This species is also threatened by habitat loss and decline in habitat quality from pollution, including agricultural pesticides and sewage, due to coastal development. This species is also caught as bycatch in gillnets. The fishermen usually kill them when they are captured (Diesmos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). <br/><br/>The lake is part of an active volcano, and an area of high seismic activity. Eruption could destroy the entire habitat of this species.
176748		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however, this snake is found in some MPAs. There are currently no sea snake species protected under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The Australian Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>  The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF; ‘Design, trial and implementation of an integrated, long-term bycatch monitoring program, road tested in the Northern Prawn Fishery’ FRDC PN 2002/035 (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons.<br/><br/>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australia’s trawl fisheries showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (T. Courtney and E. Fletcher pers. comms. 2009).
176748		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii </span>occurs throughout tropical northern Australia from Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia to the southern Great Barrier Reef, east Australia (Cogger 2000). Its distribution extends east to reefs in the Coral Sea (Heatwole 1975, Zimmerman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994), Chesterfield Reefs (Minton and Dunson 1985) and New Caledonia (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176748		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii</span> primarily occurs in shallow-water habitats adjacent to coral reefs (Heatwole  and Lukoschek 2008),  including sea grass beds, among gorgonians and broken corals, and over sand (Ineich  2007).  It typically occurs at depths ranging from 0.02-50 m, although there is a record of it being caught at 58 m in prawn trawls (Courtney<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010) and depths of 80 m have also been recorded (Ineich  and Laboute, 2002).  Its diet includes various reef fish species. This snake may be encrusted with algae, bryozoans, polychaetes and tubeworms (Zann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1975).<br/><br/>A specimen of 140 cm TL was captured South Groote Eylandt (12/11/07) sample housed in Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory (M. White pers. comm. 2009).
176748		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii&#160;</span>  has a patchy distribution and typically occurs at  low densities throughout its range (Guinea  and Whiting 2005; Guinea 2006, 2007).  Thus, it is often among the least abundant species of any recorded at a particular geographic location, as demonstrated by records and sighting rates in Australia’s Timor Sea  Reefs (Guinea  and Whiting 2005; Guinea 2006, 2007)  and the Great Barrier Reef (Lukoschek pers. ob.s 2009, Heatwole 1975). Since 1998, records of sea  snakes from Ashmore Reef, Australia have shown severe declines, however, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus  duboisii</span> was not previously recorded as very abundant on the Timor Sea Reefs (Guinea  and Whiting 2005; Guinea 2006, 2007)  so it is unclear to what extent populations of this species have been affected.<br/> <br/> This species is rarely captured by trawlers in Australia’s Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), which encompasses  all of Australia’s northern coastline from the tip of Cape York in the east to  Cape Londonderry, Western Australia&#160;(>700,000 square km): only 36 individuals of this species were recorded as being captured between 1976  to 2005 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii</span> is, however, it was the third most commonly caught species in  the Queensland Red-Spot King Prawn fishery, which fishes closely adjacent to  coral reefs in habitat that overlaps with this species’ preferred habitat type  (Courtney  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  It accounted for ~20% of all sea snakes caught in this fishery, and 12% of sea snakes caught throughout  Queensland east coast waters from all trawl fisheries combined (Courtney  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).  In the literature, past records of captures of this species in trawl fisheries may differ from more recent  records, possibly due to changing patterns in the areas fished (Courtney<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010).  <br/><br/>On a trip to the Marion Reef (Southern Coral Sea) in June 2008, on fifteen dives, sea snakes were encountered on almost every dive, but in small numbers, the most on one dive was a maximum of ten, most dives encountering two to six snakes. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. annulatus</span> was the most common (ca. 70%,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. laevis</span> was the next most common. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peronii</span> were seen in smaller numbers in shallow water (N. Marsh pers. comm. 2009).
176748		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by degradation of coral reef habitat from expanding oil and gas development in northwestern Australia. In northeastern Australia, a possible threat is trawling activity in the vicinity of reefs.<br/><br/>    <p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <br/>Increased sea surface temperatures, coral bleaching, and resulting changes in sediment structure may be linked to localized population declines of sea snakes on Ashmore Reef, northern Australia (Francis 2006). The reasons for the declines on Ashmore Reef are unknown.
176749		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176749		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cochin-China in southernViet Nam (Heatwole 1999). It is thought that this species has a very restricted range and it is endemic to this location. It has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>²</sup>, as it is only known from one location.
176749		habitat	eng	There is very little information on the habitat and ecology of this species. It feeds on eels (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009.).
176749		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known from approximately five specimens from the same location as the type locality (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).
176749		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species although it is caught as bycatch in fishing trawls.
176750		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, but it does occur in marine protected areas. In the Philippines there are two declared sea snake sanctuaries in Gato  Island, Cebu and Pulo Laum, Zamboanga (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> snakes should take into account both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.
176750		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> is one of the most widespread members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> (Heatwole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is found along the coasts of eastern India and Andaman Islands, east through Malaysia, Indonesia, and northward to Viet Nam and southern China, Taiwan, and the Ryuku Islands of Japan. Also found in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Philippines, Palau to the islands of the southwestern Pacific Ocean stretching to Fiji, Vanuatu and Niue. This species has been known to stray to Australia and New Zealand, though there is no evidence of breeding populations in these  locations (Heatwole 1999).<br/><br/>This species is common on several of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but it has rarely been spotted off islands near the Indian mainland (e.g. Grande Island in Goa) (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>There have been unconfirmed sightings of this species near the western coast of Central America.
176750		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> is found in a wide range of habitats, including coral islands, coral reefs, mangroves, and in the open ocean. It feeds on eels (Heatwole 1999), and is usually found in shallow waters from 0-10 m depth (Cogger 2007).<br/><br/>The animals feed on eels in shallow coastal waters and return to land to rest, slough their skin and digest their prey (Shetty and Shine 2002b). On land they shelter in vegetation, under beach rocks, in crevices and caves. This species is more terrestrial in its habits than its congener, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laticaudata</span>, and this is reflected in its heavier bodied morphology and superior terrestrial locomotor abilities (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994) though interestingly, these eggs are very rarely encountered in the wild, with possibly only two nests reported over the entire distribution of the species. Their reproductive habits can therefore be considered highly secretive.<br/><br/>Females are larger and heavier-bodied than males (up to three times as heavy in Fiji; Pernetta 1977) and this sexual dimorphism is reflected in different diets, with females feeding on larger conger eels, while males feed predominantly on smaller moray eels (Shetty and Shine 2002c).<br/><br/>        <p>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> in Fiji have displayed strong site fidelity, with animals on islands separated by less than six kilometres remaining essentially separate (Shetty and Shine 2002a). Similar site fidelity has been recorded in New Caledonia, though this has not  resulted in genetic differentiation between island sites separated by distances of up to 100 km (Lane 2009).</p>  <p>&#160; &#160;</p>
176750		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution and can be highly abundant in the locations where it is found.<br/><br/>  A population estimate from a small (0.5 km²) rocky island in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, found approximately 721 individuals, with males outnumbering females 4 to 1 (Lading <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991).<br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
176750		threats	eng	The major threats to this species may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. This includes loss of shore habitats required for laying eggs and  digesting prey. This species is attracted to light and may be affected by lighting from hotels  and beach shacks in developing areas (A. Lobo pers. comm.). There is anecdotal evidence that resort developments on some Fijian  islands may have reduced population sizes of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> (M. Guinea  pers. comm. cited by Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>Locals in the Andaman Islands suggest that this species was killed for food by Karen migrants from Myanmar, however, there is no confirmed evidence of this. Harvested as smoked sea snake in the Philippines and exported to Japan.  This threat is localised to Cebu and Leyte Province (J. Gatus pers.  comm. 2009). <br/><br/>  Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160; expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded &#160; only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances, egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.  <p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>
176751		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176751		distribution	eng	There are verified records of this species from Viet Nam, Thailand (McCarthy and Warrell 1991, Kharin 2005), New Guinea and the Java Sea (Kharin 2005). It is also recorded from Philippines (Gigante and Bohol Islands) in 9-15 m channels between reefs (Smith 1926, Dunson and Minton 1978,  Punay 1975).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160;</p><br/><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176751		habitat	eng	No information is available about this species' habitat. It is taken by trawlers and therefore likely to occur over soft bottoms.<br/><br/>This species eats fish (McCarthy and Warrell 1991).
176751		population	eng	This species is considered to be very rare (Kharin 2005). It is known from 20 specimens from Viet Nam  (A. Rasmussen pers. comm.) and 10-20 specimens from the Gulf of Thailand. Also known from one specimen collected by fishermen in South Sulawesi, Indonesia (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comm. 2010).
176751		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It may be taken as bycatch in trawls.
176752		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. Its range overlaps with some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176752		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. obscurus</span> is found along the coasts of eastern India and Myanmar. Also collected in Chittagong, Bangledesh in a river mouth (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In 2002, 25 specimens were collected from a river on the Andaman Sea coast of southern Thailand (L. Chanhome and M. Sumontha pers. comms. 2008).<br/><br/>This species has a restricted range, generally known from shallow brackish lagoons. Records post Smith (1943) suggest that this species is known from brackish lagoons such as Chilika lake in Orissa and the Hoogly river (east coast of India) (Murthy 1988). Validity of the distribution records from this area and other localities need reconfirmation.
176752		habitat	eng	This species has been reported to occur in brackish waters and around the mouths of rivers (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Smith 1926). <br/><br/>This species has a  restricted range, generally known from shallow brackish lagoons. Records post Smith (1943) suggest that this species is known from brackish lagoons such as Chilika lake in Orissa and the Hoogly river (east coast of India) (Murthy and Rama Rao 1988).
176752		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. <br/><br/>In Chittagong, Bangledesh, there is a patchy distibution, with potentially large quantities being collected at one time (50 individuals, A. Rasmusssen pers comm. 2009). Murthy and Rama Rao (1988) mentioned that it was the most common sea snake in Chilka Lake in Orissa, India, but he collected no specimens.<br/><br/>In 2002, 25 specimens were collected from a river on the Andaman Sea coast of southern Thailand (L. Chanhome and M. Sumontha, pers. comm. 2008).
176752		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.<br/><br/>This species is apparently caught as bycatch in artisanal fisheries operating within Lake Chilika (A. Lobo pers. comm.).
176753		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176753		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of Thailand south to Indonesia (Heatwole 1999). Smith (1926) describes two isolated subpopulations, separated east and west of the Malay Peninsula. The distribution of this species in Viet Nam&#160; is unconfirmed (Kharin 2004; A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2010). There is a record from Sabah, Borneo (Museum collection, Field Museum).
176753		habitat	eng	Currently there is no information on habitats or ecology for this species.
176753		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176753		threats	eng	This species is known from bycatch in trawls. It is also likely impacted by coastal development in areas such as the Gulf of Thailand.
176754		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176754		distribution	eng	This species is found in Singapore, the Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, and the Philippines (Rasmussen 2001). It is possibly more widespread than the current records suggest.
176754		habitat	eng	Sandy bottoms in coastal waters (Rasmussen 2001).
176754		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is commonly captured in trawls from Viet Nam (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). It is uncommon in the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009).
176754		threats	eng	This species is caught incidentally in trawling activities. It is also harvested for the smoked sea snake trade in the Philippines and exported to Japan (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). The animals are also harvested for their skin, at least in Viet Nam and Thailand, and potentially elsewhere (McCarthy and Worrell 1991).
176755		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>  <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the "Listed Marine Specie"' by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999.
176755		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the northwestern coast of western Australia from the Kimberley Region to Shark Bay (Storr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986).
176755		habitat	eng	It is found on shallow coastal flats (McDowell 1974), in mangroves and estuarine mudflats (Heatwole 1999). It forages on the landward limit of the high tide and out of the water on the salt flats at low tide, entering mudskipper (goby) burrows and feeding on either gobies or their eggs (H. Penrose and M. Guinea pers. comms. 2009). This species may be an important trophic link between the salt flats habitat and higher trophic levels in adjacent coastal waters (H. Penrose pers.comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It eats fish (McDowell 1974), most likely gobies (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). Forages in crab holes for gobies when flooded.
176755		population	eng	This species is not commonly encountered. It is found in a remote area and is not often surveyed for (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009). The population status is unknown.
176755		threats	eng	There are no known major threats specific to this species, but threats to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be a concern.<br/><br/>Increased industrial activity is likely to occur in this species' habitat the near future due to salt extraction, mining and infrastructure development for shipping (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).
176756		conservation	eng	<p>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).</p><p>Sea snakes are protected in Australia as ‘Listed Marine Species’ under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including ‘Listed Marine Species’), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.</p>    <p>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF; ‘Design, trial and implementation of an integrated, long-term bycatch monitoring program, road tested in the Northern Prawn Fishery’ FRDC PN 2002/035 (Brewer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. </p>  <p>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australia’s NPF showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (T. Courtney and E. Fletcher pers. comms. 2009).</p>
176756		distribution	eng	This species has a large geographic range extending from northern Australia to Taiwan, however, it has a disjunct distribution between the northern and southern hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere its distribution ranges from Taiwan south to Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (Tu 1974, Minton 1975, Heatwole 1999). In the southern hemisphere it is found along the northern coast of Australia, southern Papua New Guinea, southern Indonesia, in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997). It does not appear to occur in the Philippines or in the northern or central island of Indonesia (Tu 1974, Minton 1975, Heatwole 1999).
176756		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. peroni</span> occurs over soft sandy habitats adjacent to the edges of coral reefs (McCosker 1975) and occurs in both shallow  and deeper waters (40 - 50 m) (T .Courtney, M. Guinea, V. Lukoschek pers. comms. 2009). This species primarily feeds on gobies, which it takes from  within the goby burrows and has been observed to examine and enter holes in  sand and broken coral substrata searching for prey (Voris 1972, McCosker 1975).
176756		population	eng	There are no estimates of population size for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peroni</span> . Tu  (1974) recorded just a few specimens of this species from the Gulf of Thailand (<0.03% of all snakes caught), however, it was more  abundant in the Taiwan Strait, where it comprised ~3% of snakes captured (Tu and Stringer 1973). In Australia, most information on relative abundance  comes from trawler bycatch studies, which indicate that it is has a very  patchy spatial and temporal distribution throughout its Australian range: thus,  it has been relatively uncommonly caught at some times or in some locations but commonly caught at other times or locations (Shuntov 1972). For  example, it comprised just ~1% of all sea snakes caught in the Northern Prawn Trawl  Fishery in 2003-2005 (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and yet was the fourth most common  species caught in the Queensland prawn trawl fishery (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  In part these differences may reflect the type of trawlers used or areas trawled. For example, across northern Australia and over approximately the same  period <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peroni</span> comprised < 0.1% of all snakes caught by prawn trawlers (Ward 1996b) but ~10% of all snakes  caught by fish trawlers (Ward 1996a).<br/><br/>This species is relatively rare in the Gulf of Thailand, but is quite common in the Strait of Formosa (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>On a trip to the Marion Reef (Southern Coral Sea) in June 2008, on fifteen dives, sea snakes were encountered on almost every dive, but in small numbers. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. annulatus</span> was the most commonly seen (ca. 70%), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> was the next most common. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peronii </span>were seen in smaller numbers in shallow water (N. Marsh pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Three specimens were collected from fishermen in Makassar, South Sulawesi, in March-April 2010. Reportedly caught in nets (using lamps) near coral reefs around Pulau Baranglompo. Represented three out of 83 sea snake specimens collected from fishermen as by-catch (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms.).
176756		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. peronii</span> is captured in trawl fisheries throughout its range. It is mostly caught in the inter-reefal fisheries within the species preferred habitat. Its occurrence in trawler bycatch in Australia varies spatially and temporally and with the type of trawl fishery species (Shuntov 1972; Redfield<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1978; Ward 1996a,b; Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010; Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  <br/><br/>This species appears to be a specialized feeder on gobies (Voris 1972, Ineich and Laboute 2002, Borsa 2008). It is, therefore, potentially impacted by habitat disturbance from trawlers on soft bottom habitats, which could destroy goby burrows and reduce the abundance of the preferred prey of this species (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).  <p><br/></p>      <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>&#160; </p>
176757		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The Australian Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>A conservation recommendation is to reduce the number of individuals caught as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices within nets (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
176757		distribution	eng	This species distribution ranges from the northern coast of Australia to the South China Sea and includes the Gulf of Thailand (Tu 1974), Indonesia, western Malaysia, Viet Nam, and Papua New Guinea (Minton 1975).
176757		habitat	eng	This species is common in estuaries and shallow bays and is most commonly associated with mud substrata but may rarely be found over harder substrata (Limpus 1975). It may swim upstream in rivers (Limpus 1975). It occurs in turbid waters from 0-50 m. This species typically feeds on benthic fish eggs but has also been recorded taking an eel (Voris 1972). This is the smallest sea snake found in the prawn trawl fisheries on the northeastern coast of Australia (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009).
176757		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution. There has been a regional population decline in the Shoalwater Bay area (Australia) from foot surveys (C. Limpus pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species was seasonally abundant as trawler bycatch in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990). This is also the case in the Gulf of Carpentaria (D. Milton pers. comm. 2009). Also captured in the eastern prawn trawl fisheries in Australia (makes up 2 % of the sea snake catch) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In Madura Straits (East Java, Indonesia), this species comprised 14 out of 256 bycaught snakes collected over ten days in June 2010 (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms.).
176757		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch by trawlers (Stuebing and Voris 1990).
176758		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.  The location where it occurs is extremely remote.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176758		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Chesterfield Reef in New Caledonian waters (Rasmussen and Ineich 2000).
176758		habitat	eng	The habitat type is unknown  (Rasmussen and Ineich 2000). Captured at 62 m from a trawl.
176758		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Only known from three specimens. Probably naturally rare.
176758		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
176759		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176759		distribution	eng	This species is found along the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula and Brunei, and in Halmahera, Indonesia.
176759		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters and eats eels (Voris and Voris 1983). It has also been collected in rivers.
176759		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>There are approximately 200 specimens from southern peninsular Malaysia, one specimen from Halmahera, Indonesia, and two specimens from Brunei.
176759		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known.
176760		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species however, all sea snakes are protected in Australia as "Listed Marine Species" under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. The EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176760		distribution	eng	This species is thought to occur along the northwestern coast of Australia from Dampier to Broome (Storr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and the Arafura Sea (Shuntov 1972). However, most of the information about this species comes from four dead specimens (Kharin and Cheblyukov 2006) and trawler bycatch information from the early 1970s (Shuntov 1972). The true geographic range of this species is poorly known.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
176760		habitat	eng	Little is known of this species. It is thought to live over sandy bottoms, and occasionally in seagrass beds.
176760		population	eng	This species is only reliably known from three syntypes and one additional specimen (Kharin and Cheblyukov 2006) and is likely to be rare. There are, however, records of this species being caught by trawlers in the Arafura Sea between 1967 and 1970 and comprising 4% of the total number of individuals caught (Shuntov 1972). However, no specimens exist from these trawls to confirm species identification and subsequent extensive trawl bycatch studies conducted in this area have not recorded this species (Ward 1996a,b, 2000). These data suggest that some snakes might have been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tenuis</span> by Shuntov (1972).
176760		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known.
176761		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as ‘Listed Marine Species’ under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including ‘Listed Marine Species’), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF.&#160; In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Management options for minimising sea snake catch through temporal or spatial closures are limited as sea snakes are widely distributed throughout the NPF managed area. The most effective option currently available would be to facilitate or legislate the adoption of effective BRD types (Fisheye BRD or Popeye Fishbox BRD at 70 meshes from drawstring) by the entire NPF fleet (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
176761		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. kingii</span> is found around northern Australia from Broome on the west coast (Cogger 1975), Gulf of Carpentaria and Arafura Sea to New South Wales on the east coast of Australia (Cogger 1975, Limpus 1975), throughout the Great Barrier Reef and down to Rockhampton on the east coast. It has also been recorded from  the southern coast of New Guinea (Cogger 1975, Heatwole 1999).
176761		habitat	eng	This species is found from 0 - 22 m depth (Trembath 2003, Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978) over soft sandy and muddy substrates. It eats fish. It is also sometimes found in reefal habitats and have been caught from inter-reefal habitat in trawls on east coast of Australia (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
176761		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. kingii</span> is thought to be naturally rare. This species is known from bycatch in the Queensland&#160; and Northern Trawl Fisheries and makes up a very small proportion of the catch (1%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><br/>Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) between 1976 and 2007 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. There has been a major reduction in the size of the NPF fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. kingii</span> has a localized catch distribution in the NPF and shows evidence of recent declines in abundance on the fishing grounds. However, these fishing grounds only accounted for an estimated 15% of their available habitat within the NPF managed area. Nevertheless, the catch rates of these species should be monitored in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria as part of the new project to assess the sustainability of NPF bycatch from annual monitoring data funded by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008).
176761		threats	eng	This species occurs as bycatch in trawl fisheries. It is captured in the Queensland Trawl Fishery, but makes up a very small proportion of the sea snake bycatch (1%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The within-trawl mortality in the Queensland Fishery was 26.7%. Post-trawl mortality experiments suggest that an additional 20% of snakes that are alive when the nets are brought to the surface die in the following hours and days after capture (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010), the risk of overfishing of sea snakes in the Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure appears low for all species. The risk of localised extinction on the east coast of Australia due to trawling also appears unlikely. However, an anti-conservative methodology was used to calculate the risk, and therefore should be considered preliminary and speculative assessments (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><br/>Quantitative assessments of the impacts of trawling from the Norther Prawn Fishery on populations of sea snakes has shown that trawl mortality was below reference points and no species appear to be at risk at current levels of fishing effort (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. kingii</span> had lower abundances and more restricted distributions that overlap with current high-effort trawling areas. This species may have been adversely impacted by commercial prawn trawling over the years (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008).This species has been previously identified as being potentially vulnerable to trawling due to catch rate declines, restricted distribution ranges and less productive life histories (Milton 2001). The continual reduction in the number of fishing licenses and contraction of fishing grounds in the NPF over the last few years will most likely reduce the number of sea snakes captured in the fishery (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). The catch rates of these species should continue to be monitored (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
176762		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176762		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coasts of China, Taiwan, and the Ruyuku Islands, Japan and also in south Viet Nam (Smith 1926, Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The specimen for Viet Nam came from a trawl (A. Rasmussenpers. comm.). This species may be confined to the waters of northeast Asia. The type locality, however, is listed as "Indian Ocean".
176762		habitat	eng	There is very little information published on the habitat and ecology of this species.  It feeds mainly on eels (Voris and Voris 1983).
176762		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176762		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are not known, although it is known to be captured as bycatch in trawls.
176763		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and there are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species in Australia.<br/><br/>Ashmore Reef has been a nature reserve since 1983 and has had various levels of monitoring against illegal fishing since that time.&#160; Management plans that focused on protection of marine life did not come into effect until 1990 (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 1989), with a second management plan coming into effect in 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2002), and since 1998 protection has actively been enforced. However, these management plans have not specifically addressed threat abatement or recovery of any sea snake species. Nonetheless, these management plans are designed to protect marine biodiversity and habitat quality; however, there are no data to indicate how, or to what extent, these measures are providing threat abatement to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span>.
176763		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> is an endemic species with small geographic range. It is found on Ashmore, Cartier,&#160; Hibernia, Scott and Seringapatam Reefs in the Timor Sea between northwestern Australia and Timor (Heatwole 1999, Cogger 2000).  Given its shallow depth range, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km<sup>²</sup>.<br/><br/>The type specimen was collected from Sulawesi (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Tschudi 1837). However, this collection location is questionable. There are no subsequent records of this species from Sulawesi or any other locations apart from Australian reefs in the Timor Sea. There is also no direct evidence that the type specimen is conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> on the Australian reefs (Cogger 1975). The location of the type specimen is, therefore, not being taken into account for this assessment (V. Lukoschek and A. Rasmussen pers. comms. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
176763		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> occurs in a range of reef habitats and primarily in shallow waters, although it is found in water depths up to 25 or 30 m (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It feeds mostly on small reef fishes from the families Labridae (wrasses), and Gobidae (gobies) as well as eels and fish eggs (Voris 1972, McCosker 1975, Rasmussen 2001).<br/><br/>Maximum size is typically 78 cm (Smith 1926, Francis 2006), though a specimen of 89 cm TL (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009) and 96 cm SVL have been recorded (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Based on similar species, this species has a generation length of approximately five years, based on a longevity of approximately 10 years, and age of first maturity of 3-4 years.
176763		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> occurs as no more than five subpopulations – Ashmore, Hibernia, Cartier, Scott and Serangipatan Reefs. Current population sizes are unknown. It is likely that there is very little movement between these subpopulations. Genetic studies of a far more widely distributed congener and sister species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus laevis</span>, indicates restricted gene flow between Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs (Lukoschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007b, 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> occurs in a much wider range of habitat types (including deeper water) than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus,</span> thus it is likely that dispersal is more restricted for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> than for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>.<br/><br/>Since 1998, records of sea snakes from Ashmore Reef, Australia have shown rapid decline (Francis 2006).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscu</span>s comprised between 3-22 % of the population at Ashmore Reef in 1994 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). In 2002, 29 individuals of this species were recorded in over three weeks of intensive surveying at Ashmore Reef and three individuals were recorded on Scott Reef in one day (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). In 1972 it comprised 10% of records of sea snakes at Ashmore Reef and 13% of sea snakes recorded from Scott Reef (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It comprised ~ 20% of a sample of sea snakes collected from Ashmore Reef in the 1920s (Smith 1926).<br/><br/>Sighting rates of this species at Ashmore Reef have been variable over the years, however, there seems to have been an overall decline in sightings since 1998. Standardized sighting rates at the inner mooring at Ashmore Reef are as follows: 1994 - one individual per hour; 1996 - three per hour; 1998 - 14 per hour; 2000- 10 per hour; 2003 - seven per hour; 2004 - one per hour; 2005 - no individuals of this species seen at the inner mooring (Francis 2006; Guinea 2006, 2007).<br/><br/>In 2002, only 29 individuals were recorded over three weeks on Ashmore Reef and three were recorded on Scott Reef in one day (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). This species was the second most common sea snake recorded at Ashmore Reefs in 1998 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Catch rate of snakes per hour decreased from 14 snakes per hour in 1998 to one snake per hour in 2005. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> was still recorded in low numbers at other survey sites on Ashmore Reef and at Hibernia Reef in 2005 (Guinea 2006). It was not recorded from any reef in 2007 (Guinea 2007). As such, there are no estimates of its current population size, however, there appears to have been a decline of at least 70% since 1998. The reasons for the local extinctions of these populations are unknown. A possible threat could be unusually high water temperatures leading to severe coral bleaching and coral reef habitat degradation throughout the area (Francis 2006).The declines in abundance of this species on the Timor Sea reefs coincide with overall declines in all sea snakes species on these reefs (Francis 2006; Guinea 2006, 2007).
176763		threats	eng	There are no specific, clearly identified or quantified past, current or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> or any other reef-associated sea snake species, and it is unclear why populations at Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs have declined. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> is not targeted by fisheries; there is no evidence that it is being illegally harvested; and is it not subject to incidental bycatch (some sea snake species are routinely captured as by-catch in trawls, but this is not the case for strongly reef-associated species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span>; Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).<br/><br/>Nonetheless, something is clearly impacting this species and it is most likely that current and future threats relate to degradation or modification of shallow-water coral reef habitats from bleaching events due to increased sea surface temperatures. However, compared to other areas, the Ashmore Reef was not badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009), although it suffered severe bleaching in 2003 (Kaspartov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Thus, climate change may be a threat to some sea snake species (Francis 2006). In addition, increased water temperatures on the reef flat may exceed the upper lethal limit for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span>, which has been reported to be 36°C for the sea snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis platurus</span> (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation and modification may also result in possible reduction in prey species abundances (i.e. small coral reef fishes).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176764		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for in place for this species. The harvest should be monitored as over-collection could result in population declines. There is currently no quota or limits on numbers collected.
176764		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafura</span> is known from inland, freshwater habitats in southern Papua New Guinea, northern Australia and Indonesia (southernWest Papua Province; Cogger 1994).  Its presence is not confirmed from the east coast of Cape York (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008). In Indonesian New Guinea it is found as far west as Merauke (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comm.) and Mimika and Lorentz Rivers&#160; (O'Shea 1996). The geographic distributions expand in the wet season in Australia (Shine and Lambeck 1985).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/><a href="http://www.bio.usyd.edu.au/Shinelab/publications/reprintslegal/128popdem.pdf"></a></p>
176764		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafura</span> primarily eats fish.  It is known to inhabit billabongs of northern Australia and flooded grasslands in the wet season (Shine and Lambeck 1985).  It is found in inland freshwater habitats (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>A trade-off between energy allocation to growth vs. reproduction has been evident in both sexes of this species. Growth rates decrease after maturation in males, and female filesnakes grow more slowly during years when they reproduce (Houston and Shine, 1994). Females are generally larger than the males. In Australia, reproduction is seasonal, with ovulation around July and parturition five or six months later (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986a, 1986b).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafurae</span> seems poorly suited to commercial harvesting.  Although its habitats are fragmented and generally accessible to harvesting, and it is seasonally vulnerable to hand collecting in large numbers, and females reproduce relatively infrequently (Shine<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1986a, 1986b).
176764		population	eng	This appears to be a common species within its range. A study of the population dynamics of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafurae</span> in northern Australia surveyed over 3,400 snakes over a four-year period (Houston and Shine 1994). Using mark-recapture methods, snake densities were estimated to be greater than 400 individuals per hectare in the main study area, a higher density than usually found for most species of snakes.
176764		threats	eng	There are no major threats.<br/><br/>In Australia, this species is a traditional food source for aboriginal people who collect them by hand seasonally, sometimes in large numbers; females are most easily caught and are targeted because of their large size (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986a, 1986b).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafurae</span> seems poorly suited to commercial harvesting. Its habitats are fragmented and generally accessible to harvesting, it is seasonally vulnerable to hand collecting in large numbers and females reproduce relatively infrequently (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986a, 1986b).<br/><br/>Numerous attempts have been made both by zoos and private reptile collectors to keep this species in captivity, but in most cases, they have been reluctant to feed and are prone to skin infections.
176765		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176765		distribution	eng	Found in the Arabian and Oman Gulfs, east to Indonesia, the Gulf of Papua and China (Heatwole 1999). There are records from Saudia Arabia, Iran (Gasperetti 1988), Iraq (Khalaf 1959), Pakistan, India (Smith 1926), Bangladesh (Das 1994), Sri Lanka (de Silva 1996), Myanmar (Golay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993), west coast of Thailand (Bussarawit 1989), Viet Nam (Kharin 2006) and China (Zhao and Adler 1993). Its range includes Hong Kong and Australia in the east (Kharin 2004).
176765		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangrove swamps and around coastal reefs (Heatwole 1975b, Minton 1966). This species forages on sand and specializes on feeding on eels.<br/><br/>Two specimens (out of 256 bycatch sea snakes) were collected in Madura  Straits (East Java, Indonesia) in June 2010. Habitat was either sandy or muddy bottom, maximum 5 km from shore and 30 m deep (K. Sanders and Mumpun pers. comm. 2010).
176765		population	eng	This species is relatively common in coastal waters of Borneo and northern Java (Tomascik 1997). It appears to be rather uncommon near Karachi, Pakistan (Minton 1966). Common along the south and east coasts of India (Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and the Coromandel coast) (A. Lobo pers. comm.2009). This species is widespread by not common in museum collection, suggesting that it may occur naturally at low densities (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2010).
176765		threats	eng	Occurs as bycatch in trawl fisheries.
176766		conservation	eng	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the "Listed Marine Species" by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999.<br/><br/>Conservation of mangrove areas is important for protection of this species.
176766		distribution	eng	This species occurs across the northern part of Australia from Broome in the west to the northeast side of the Gulf of Carpentaria in the east, and in southern Papua Guinea.
176766		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangrove mudflats (Guinea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). It has been seen crawling on consolidated mud out of water into a nearby crab burrow to forage (Guinea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993). It is preyed on by sharks (Lyle and Timms 1987). Can live in coastal areas disturbed by human development.
176766		population	eng	This is quite a common species in Broome (Sweet 1989). There is no information on population trends (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).
176766		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, but development to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be a concern.
176767		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176767		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Bay of Bengal east through the Straits of Malacca to the Gulf of Thailand and Indonesia (Heatwole&#160; 1999). It is recorded from Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Taiwan (Mao and Chen 1980).
176767		habitat	eng	It feeds on synodontidae and anguilliform fishes (Rasmussen 2001). This species lives in gravel and sandy muddy bottoms. Caught between 20 and 30 m in the Andaman Sea (A. Rasmussen pers. comm.  2009).<br/><br/>There is one record of four young in a clutch (Whitaker and Captain 2004).
176767		population	eng	It is uncommon in the Andaman Sea, and more common in Viet Nam (A. Rasmussen, pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>There is little population information available for this species. There have been no recent records from the east coast of India since 1977 (Murthy 1977; A Lobo. pers. comm. 2009).
176767		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch in trawls. There has been some habitat destruction in Thailand and Viet Nam from coastal development. Direct harvest for skins does not appear to be a major threat.
176768		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
176768		distribution	eng	This species is known from two specimens from southern Papua New Guinea (Kharin 1984, O’Shea 1996).
176768		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology.
176768		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Only known from two specimen.
176768		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176769		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)<br/><br/>Numerous attempts have been made by both zoos and private reptile collectors to keep this species in captivity, but in all cases, they have been reluctant to feed and are&#160; prone to skin infections.
176769		distribution	eng	This species is known from peninsular India (northwest coast including Gujarat), Sri Lanka (Anslem de Silva pers. comm. 2009), Myanmar, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands (Chandi 2006, de Rooj 1917, Smith 1941), Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands (Ehmann 1992), and coastal northern Australia (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008).
176769		habitat	eng	This non-venomous species is found in coastal rivers, estuaries, mangrove water courses, and in the open sea (especially shallow seas over mud bottom), and coral reef.  It feeds on fish and seldom leaves the water and is typically found at depths from 0-10 meters (Guinea 2007). In the Straits of Malacca, the file snake shares the marine habitat and  fish resources with true sea snakes, where they can be found up to 20 m  deep (Voris and Glodek 1980).<br/><br/>Reproduction is seasonal in all three acrochordids, with ovulation around July and parturition five or six months later (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
176769		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, extremely common in some places (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010). It is frequently observed in the nearshore areas of the Indian sub-continent and it's backwaters (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). It was found to be relatively common in trawler bycatch in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990). The global population status is unknown but most likely to be stable.
176769		threats	eng	This species is caught incidentally by trawlers (Stuebing and Voris 1989) and a directed harvest also occurs for the pet trade. In India, the main threat is mortality due to fisheries bycatch. Due to the species' preference for shallow areas, (generally below 15 m) it is caught as bycatch in shallow water fishing operations including shore seines and gill nets, in addition to trawling. &#160;A recent study by de Silva&#160;<em>et al. </em>(2010) found as many as 15 snakes dead in one fishing net, with approximately 200 boats operating in the area.&#160; <br/><br/>High levels of pollution in India may also be a threat, however, it still appears to survive in the highly polluted backwaters of Mumbai (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). In Indonesia, this species is not known to have been harvested on a commercial scale since the 1980s (G. Saputra pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In the Philippines, it is collected for the pet trade (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009).
176770		conservation	eng	Ashmore Reef has been a nature reserve since 1983 and has had various levels of monitoring against illegal fishing since that time.&#160; Management plans that focused on protection of marine life did not come into effect until 1990 (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 1989), with a second management plan coming into effect in 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2002), and since 1998 protection has actively been enforced. However, these management plans have not specifically addressed threat abatement or recovery of any sea snake species. Nonetheless, these management plans are designed to protect marine biodiversity and habitat quality; however, there are no data to indicate how, or to what extent, these measures are providing threat abatement to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>.
176770		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species with a small range. This species is found on Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reefs in Australia (Smith 1926, Minton and Heatwole 1975, Cogger 2000). It has never been seen from Scott Reef or other reefs in the Ashmore Reef region. This species also has very occasionally been recorded from other locations in northwest Australian waters (Shuntov 1972, Cogger 2000); however, these rare records from outside Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs are thought to be of vagrant individuals and not part of the range of breeding populations of this species (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). This species range has approximately 70 km of shoreline, and given its very shallow depth range of 10 m, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
176770		habitat	eng	This species is found on the reef flat and the reef edge. It is usually found associated with coral reefs and prefers sandy substrata with sparse coral (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It is found during the daylight hours resting beneath small coral overhangs or coral heads in 1-2 m water (McCosker 1975). This species eats fish, especially eels (Smith 1926). <br/><br/>Dispersal for this species is very restricted by deep water barriers. Based on similar species, this species has a generation length of approximately five years, based on a longevity of approximately 8-10 years, and age of first maturity of 4-5 years.
176770		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> occurs as two subpopulations – Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reef. Current population sizes are unknown. It is likely that there is very little movement between these subpopulations. Genetic studies of a far more widely distributed congener, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus laevis</span>, indicates restricted gene flow between Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> occurs in a much wider range of habitat types (including deeper water) than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, thus it is likely that dispersal is more restricted for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontali</span>s than for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>.<br/><br/>There have been serious declines in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> since surveys in 1998.<br/><br/>There are no specific current or previous abundance estimates; however, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> comprised 6.02% of sea snakes seen on the reef flat high tide at Ashmore Reef in 1994 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The mean density of all sea snakes on the reef flat at high tide was 228 individuals km²<sup></sup> giving a total abundance estimate of sea snakes on the reef flat of ~39,675 (95% CI 26,451 – 53,073) (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Given that 6.02% were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, this suggests that this species abundance was 2,388 individuals (95% CI 1592 – 3195). The total abundance estimate and percent contribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> was derived from boat transects of the reef flat at high tide. Seven transects were conducted and a total of 83 sea snakes were sighted, of which five were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The estimate is, therefore, provisional; nonetheless, it suggests that population size on Ashmore Reef in the 1990s was substantial, potentially in the vicinity of 1,600 to 3,200 individuals. In addition, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> was the third most commonly seen sea snake on the reef flat at low tide in the 1990s and comprised ~14% of individuals (Guinea and Whiting 2005). <br/><br/>In 1926, Malcolm Smith obtained ~100 sea snakes from Ashmore Reef, which were collected for him by Malay fishers, presumably at random. Of these 100 sea snakes, seven were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, suggesting that this species comprised ~7% of the population. These were the first records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> (Smith 1926).<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. apraefrontalis</span> comprised 2% of 367 sea snakes (seven individuals) caught at Ashmore Reef between Dec 31st 1972 and January 13th 1973 but was not seen or captured at Hibernia, Cartier or Scott Reef during these surveys (Minton and Heatwole 1975).<br/><br/>Despite extensive surveys by Michael Guinea (Guinea 2006, 2007) and Vimoksalehi Lukoschek (pers. comm. 2009) no individual of this species has been recorded on either Ashmore or Hibernia reef since 2000. Therefore, there appears to have been a decline of at least 90% since 1998.&#160; <br/><br/>The reasons for the local extinctions of these populations are unknown. This species has not been sighted at any other location. A possible threat could be unusually high water temperatures leading to severe coral bleaching and coral reef habitat degradation throughout the area (Francis 2006).
176770		threats	eng	There are no specific, clearly identified or quantified past, current or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apreafrontalis</span> or any other reef-associated sea snake species, and it is unclear why populations at both Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs have declined so severely. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apreafrontalis</span> is not targeted by fisheries; there is no evidence that it is being illegally harvested; and is it not subject to incidental bycatch (some sea snake species are routinely captured as by-catch in trawls, but this is not the case for strongly reef-associated species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apreafrontalis</span>; Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).<br/><br/>Nonetheless, something is clearly impacting this species and it is most likely that current and future threats relate to degradation or modification of shallow-water coral reef habitats from bleaching events due to increased sea surface temperatures. However, compared to other areas, the Ashmore Reef was not badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009), although it suffered severe bleaching in 2003 (Kaspartov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Thus, climate change may be a threat to some sea snake species (Francis 2006). In addition, increased water temperatures on the reef flat may exceed the upper lethal limit for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, which has been reported to be 36°C for the sea snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis platurus</span> (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971).<br/><br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176771		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas, for example in the sea snake sanctuary at Gato  Island, Cebu and Pulo Laum, Zamboanga in the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). These  parks are dependent on tourism for their protection.<br/><br/>It is important that conservation actions for snakes in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> take into account  both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176771		distribution	eng	Found along the coast of northeastern India, east to Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the islands of the southwestern Pacific Ocean, northwards to China, Taiwan, and Japan (Heatwole 1999). It can also be found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).<br/><br/>In India it is only recorded from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but it is much less common as compared to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> (A. Lobo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>
176771		habitat	eng	This species is found on coral islands, coral reefs, mangroves and in open ocean. It feeds on eels (Heatwole 1999).  It is usually found at a depth of 0-15 m (Cogger 2007). It has been recorded to dive to depths greater than 80 m (Brischoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Beach rocks are thought to be an important habitat when on land.<br/><br/>Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).<br/><br/>This species is more aquatic in its habits than its congener <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> and this is reflected in its more slender bodied morphology and reduced capacity for terrestrial locomotion (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Accordingly, while <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> can travel quite far inland, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laticaudata</span> does not stray more than approximately five meters from the waters edge (Lane and Shine in prep).  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
176771		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution, but is found in high abundance in suitable habitat. <br/><br/>While mark-recapture work indicates that this species displays high site fidelity (Brichoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), genetic analyses show that it may actually disperse long distances and there is no genetic signature of natal homing. Dispersal distances are larger than for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">L. saintgironsi</span> and this may reflect a reduced reliance on terrestrial habitats in <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laticaudata</span> (Lane <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep).
176771		threats	eng	Major threats may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. Probably faced with similar threats as <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda colubrina</span> (A. Lobo pers. comm.). <br/><br/>        <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p><p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>
176772		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
176772		distribution	eng	This is a coastal mangrove or saltmarsh species found along the north coast of Australia and at Aru Island, and possibly also in coastal habitats of southern Papua New Guinea and Indonesia (West Papua) (Cogger 1975).
176772		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal and estuarine mangroves and mudflats (Heatwole 1999).
176772		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered as it lives in remote areas of Australia and Papua New Guinea. There is no information on population status.
176772		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Habitat degradation from coastal development may pose a localized threat.
176773		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
176773		distribution	eng	Known from a single specimen from an uncertain locality in the "north Indian Ocean", Malayan archipelago. The precise range is unknown (David and Ineich 1999). This species may be a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nigrocinctus</span> (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>
176773		habitat	eng	No information is available.
176773		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from one specimen.
176773		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176774		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas. Socha (2006) states that a rigorous ecological study would be required to determine if this species is threatened. Therefore, further research into its distribution, abundance and habitat requirements is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
176774		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Malay peninsula to the Greater Sundas (Inger and Voris 2001), including all territories on Borneo. In Indonesia, it is found in Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan, but not on Sulawesi (Inger and Voris 2001). In Thailand, this snake is only occasionally found in the provinces adjacent to the Malaysian border (Cox 1991). This species may also be found in southern Myanmar although this needs to be confirmed, as it has not been recorded in recent surveys (G. Wogan 2011 pers. comm. August 2011) The species has upper elevation limit of 600 m above sea level.
176774		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland moist forests and plantations (David and Vogel 1996), and was recorded recently in the outskirts of Kuala Lumpar (Ismail <em>et al.</em> 2010). This snake is diurnal and predominantly arboreal, however, it can also be found active among bushes, and on the ground in thick vegetation.
176774		population	eng	David and Vogel (1996) state that this species is rare throughout its range. In Singapore it is considered Vulnerable, and it is considered likely to move into the Endangered threat category if current threats continue (Ng and Lee 1994), as it is becoming increasingly difficult to find (L. Grismer pers. comm. October 2011). Cox (1991) records that it is the rarest member of the genus<em></em>. This is, however, a secretive species, and its arboreal lifestyle which could mean it is easily missed by surveys. For example, the first record for this species in Kalimantan was reported only in 2006 (Auliya 2006).
176774		threats	eng	While this species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, these are unlikely to constitute a major threat to this species at present. This very colourful species has been observed in the pet trade in Kuala Lumpur (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010), however it is not known whether the scale of exploitation is affecting the wild population.<br/>&#160;<p></p>
176775		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution and habitat status of this species.
176775		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Paraguay-Parana river drainages in Brazil (in the states of Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul), Paraguay and Argentina (in Santa Fe, Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Jujuy, Salta, and Misiones). The species is known to be absent from the Paraguai river headwaters in Brazil as well as the adjacent plateaus (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). N. Scott (pers. comm.) suggests that the Jujuy population is quite isolated from the main population. <br/><br/>Records from the Tucuman province of Argentina need to be confirmed, and those from Peru most likely refer to a different species (Scott <em>et al.</em> 2006).
176775		habitat	eng	This species is found in Chaco habitat and Pantanal habitats, both dry and subject to flooding, and the species' range is also known to extend into an area of transition between humid Chaco and Pantanal lowlands (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176775		population	eng	In a study in Ibera, Corrientes, the species was found to be rare (Parera 2004) and Pizzatto (2005) states that <em></em>species of this genus are 'apparently rare in nature'.
176775		threats	eng	This species is likely to be locally impacted by habitat degradation caused by forest clearing for charcoal production. Pantanal riverine systems may likely affect this species, caused by habitat loss and soil degradation in highly impacted elevated areas of Cerrado surrounding the Pantanal, which have been converted to cash crop agriculture (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
176776		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, distribution, threats, and habitat preferences are required. Monitoring of this species' population and habitat should be carried out, as it is thought that extensive homogeneous agricultural or pasture areas may be very harmful to this species (S.A.A. Morato pers. comm. 2010).
176776		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Araucarian forests from southern Brazil, in the states of Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina (Borges-Martins<em> et al.</em> 2005).
176776		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in a region where the natural vegetation is a mixture of subtropical Araucarian forests and grass savannas (S.A.A. Morato pers. comm. 2010). The region also contains small or medium patches of agriculture, alongside fragments of altered forests. Two of the collected specimens of this species were found in agricultural areas. The elevation limits of this species are between 800 and 1,100 m above sea level.
176776		population	eng	There are twelve known specimens of this species (S.A.A.Morato pers. comm. 2010). Seven are at the Instituto Butantan collection (São Paulo State), four at Museu de História Natural  Capão da Imbuia (Curitiba, Paraná State), and 1 at Museu de Ciências Naturais da  Fundação Zoobotância do Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul  State) (S.A.A. Morato pers. comm. 2010).
176776		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. This species is found within a region that is undergoing change due to agricultural expansion, however, two of the collected specimens of this species were found in agricultural areas. It appears that this species is able to adapt to moderately altered environments and therefore habitat change cannot be considered a major threat.
176777		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce habitat loss within the species' range. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat requirements, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176777		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern Ecuadorian part of the Tumbesian Endemic region. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,000 km². This species is found between sea level and 100 m above sea level.<br/><br/>Specimens also exist that are labelled as having been collected in Peru, however, the provenance of the Peru specimens are in doubt. Cadle (1989) researched the origin of the Peruvian specimens thoroughly, and found that they were part of the James Orton Collection and, if collected by Orton, would likely have been collected in the mid- to late-1800s. Recent collections in the areas where the species would most likely be found in Peru did not result in any specimens, so that it is likely that the species is only found in Ecuador.
176777		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal deciduous forests and mangroves (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).
176777		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176777		threats	eng	Guayas is the most populated province in Ecuador, and contains the largest city, Guyaquil. Deforestation due to urban expansion is a problem in the region, and areas outside the city are frequently cultivated for agriculture. Both of these factors are causing habitat loss for the species.
176779		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. This species is known to inhabit the protected areas of Abuko Nature Reserve in Gambia, Semliki National Park and Forest Reserve in Uganda, and Tai National Park in the Côte d'Ivoire (Bartnett <em>et al.</em> 2001, Rödel <em>et al.</em> 2000). No further conservation measures are required for this species.
176779		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout western and central Africa, from Gambia to western Uganda (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176779		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit lowland rainforests. This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes from five to nine (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176779		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176779		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species. However, this region is being impacted by forest loss which is likely to be impacting this forest-dependent species on some level.
176780		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, harvest levels, habitat requirements, and threats to this species should be carried out.
176780		distribution	eng	This species is reputed to extend from Egypt to South Africa, with isolated populations southwestern parts of the Arabian Peninsula. However, more work is needed in order to clarify the complex taxonomy and distribution patterns within the entire genus <em></em>and recent research has concluded that, contrary to previous belief, this species does not reach West Africa (Trape and Mané 2006). &#160;It is likely some of the occurrences attributed to this species are that of the newly described species <em>Dasypeltis sahelensis </em>(P. Geniez and P-A. Crochet pers. comms. 2010).
176780		habitat	eng	Although essentially a savanna species, this species is found in a wide variety of habitats from semi-desert to clearings in tropical forest. This species feeds on bird eggs. The female may lay two clutches of between six and 25 eggs per year.
176780		population	eng	There is no population information available. &#160;This species is considered extremely rare in Egypt.
176780		threats	eng	There appear to be no major widespread threats to this broad ranging species. However, in some areas, including Egypt, this species is threatened by collection for the international pet trade, general persecution, and habitat loss due to agricultural intensification.
176781		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research of the population, habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176781		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Sri Lanka and southern India (Sharma 2003, de Silva 1990) including the Western Ghats (Bawa <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is found up to 910 m above sea level.
176781		habitat	eng	This diurnal and arboreal species can be found in trees, shrubs and bushes in lowland areas (de Silva 1990). It is often encountered on low vegetation, however, may also descend to the ground in search of food. When moving on the ground, it has a peculiar habit of keeping its head and 1/8 of the forebody erect. <em>Dendrelaphis</em> is one of the quickest snakes to escape and hide.
176781		population	eng	This species is reported to be rare on the Indian mainland, however, it may be more common in Sri Lanka (Sharma 2003, de Silva 1990).
176781		threats	eng	It is likely that this species has experienced high levels of habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural expansion and logging within its range (Chattopadhyay 1985). However, due to the large distribution of this species, it is likely that this threat is not occurring throughout its range.
176782		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.
176782		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia and New Guinea. In Australia, it is found on the eastern side of the Cape York Peninsula (Cogger 2000) and on the islands of Torres Strait. It occurs throughout the New Guinea mainland, as well as on the islands to the west and south of Papua (Irian Jaya) and those off of the southwest tip of Papua New Guinea (O'Shea 1996). It is found from sea level up to an altitude of 1,150 m above sea level.
176782		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in rainforest, mangroves, dense secondary re-growth, and tropical woodlands with a dense shrub layer, especially along tracks, stream beds and around clearings (Cogger 2000). Like other members of the genus, it is primarily arboreal, spending most of its time in trees or shrubs. However, it may also be found foraging on the ground.<br/><br/>In the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea, it occurs in both forest and savanna habitats (Allison 2006). In the Lakekamu Basin of Papua New Guinea, it was found in both primary and secondary forest, including re-growth area (Mack 1998).
176782		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176782		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176783		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, though it may occur in protected areas within its range.
176783		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern India, the Andaman Islands, southern Myanmar and northern Thailand. Cox (1991) reports that this species occurs in Lao PDR and possibly Viet Nam. In India, it is known from the Darjeeling District of Bengal and from Assam northward to the Thandaung Hills (Sharma 2003). This species has been reported from the Nicobar Islands, but is not listed in Das' (1999) work on the biogeography of this area.
176783		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits primary and mature secondary lowland rainforest, up to an altitude of approximately 1,000 m above sea level. It is predominantly arboreal.
176783		population	eng	Sharma (2003) reports that this species has a continuous distribution throughout its range, but does not occur at high densities.
176783		threats	eng	While this species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, these are unlikely to be major threats throughout its range.
176784		conservation	eng	This species is thought to occur in Mouling National Park, based on confirmed records nearby (Pawar and Birand 2001). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its abundance and range is needed.
176784		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is found in the Eastern Himalayas, including the Darjeeling District, Assam north of Abor counry, and the Naga Hills (Sharma 2003). While being centred in India, its distribution also extends into China and Myanmar. Recent surveys have found it to be widespread in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008) and it is additionally reported from Viet Nam (ARCBC 2006).
176784		habitat	eng	This species appears to have broad habitat tolerances and it has been reported from undisturbed dry forests as well as heavily degraded scrub forest and agricultural land.
176784		population	eng	Sharma (2003) reports this species as rare, while G. Zug (pers. comm. 2008) notes that in Myanmar it is widespread, but at low densities.
176784		threats	eng	While deforestation and other threats are occurring in this region, this species appears to be tolerant of degraded habitat and is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat throughout its range.
176786		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Further research is required to determine the taxonomic status of the population from Huon Peninsula, to determine if it is a separate species.
176786		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea, it is known from the Western Province, at Balimo on the Aramia River, at Tabubil in the upper reaches of the Fly River, at Gusiko on the Huon Peninsula as well as from Morobe Province. In Papua (Irian Jaya), it is known from the Lorentz and Mimika Rivers (O'Shea 1996).<br/><br/>McDowell (1984) notes that the population on the Huon Peninsula is completely isolated, and physiologically differentiated from other populations and that it may represent a distinct species. This species is found between sea level and 610 m above sea level.
176786		habitat	eng	Species of this genus <em></em>are highly agile, diurnal, arboreal snakes. They are known to inhabit a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest, along trails and in clearings, to banana gardens and coconut plantations (O'Shea 1996). The exact habitat preferences of this species are unknown, although from its collection localities it seems to be riverine.
176786		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176786		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176787		conservation	eng	There are no known-species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to educate the public within Papua New Guinea to enable them to distinguish between this species and the Papuan Black Snake. Further research into the threat levels and habitat status of this species is required to ensure a threat category is not triggered, and population monitoring is also recommended.
176787		distribution	eng	This snake is distributed along the coast, and adjacent areas of northern and eastern Australia (Cogger 2000). It is also found throughout much of the Papua New Guinea mainland, as well as on the islands of Bobo, Daru, Kairiru, Ferguson, New Britain and New Island (O'Shea 1996).
176787		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including rainforest, mangroves, wet and dry sclerophyll forests, coastal heaths and riverine vegetation (Cogger 2000). Like other members of the genus, it is primarily tree-dwelling, but may also be found foraging on the ground.
176787		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176787		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Large specimens of the species are often killed in Papua New Guinea, especially all black Western Province specimens, as these can be confused with the highly venomous Papuan Black Snake (O'Shea 1996). However, this is not likely to be causing significant declines in the species and cannot be considered a major threat.
176788		conservation	eng	It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. More research is needed into the habitat status and threats to this species, and population monitoring should be carried out.
176788		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon basin, in Bolivia, the Peruvian Departments of Amazonas, Huanuco, Junin, La Libertad, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Piura, Puno, San Martin, Ucayali and Pasco, the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchípe, Colombia, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, and French Guiana. This species is found between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level.
176788		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and is found in humid tropical forest from lowlands to mountainous areas, including forest edges.
176788		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species; however it is said to be commonly seen in northeast Peru (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).
176788		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to the species, however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.
176789		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the range of this species coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring into the habitat status of this species should be carried out as localized threats may become more widespread.
176789		distribution	eng	Until recently this species was known only known from its type locality, Parjacti, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. The elevation at this point is 2,044 m. Recent investigation showed that specimens identified originally as <em>Dipsas boettgeri</em> belong to <em>D. chaparensis</em>. An extrapolation of distribution in Bolivia for this species (Embert 2007), based on the additional specimens, shows a distribution along the Andean cordillera including states Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz (Harvey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
176789		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in humid montane rainforest and cloud forest, and dried inter-montane valleys.
176789		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176789		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats to this species. However, in parts of its range there may be localized deforestation or fragmentation of habitat.
176790		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the habitat status and threats to this species, and monitoring of the population trends of this species is necessary.
176790		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper Río Chagres drainage, to the mouth of Río Pequení near the head of Madden Lake, in Panama. It is also known from the Darien highlands of extreme eastern Panama, about 250 km from the clustered localities in central Panama. These highlands spread into Colombia where this species may be present, although there have been no confirmed reports. It has also recently been recorded from Omar Torrijos National Park in western Panama (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species occurs between 60 and 855 above sea level.
176790		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland monsoon rainforest, cloud forest and in the rocky, forested portion of the Chagres River.
176790		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176790		threats	eng	The area in which this species was originally found (Chagres River) has undergone two major damming events which are likely to have altered the habitat significantly. This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, illegal logging and the expansion of plantations. However, these are unlikely to be impacting the species over its likely much larger range, but might be of significant local impact.
176791		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.
176791		distribution	eng	This species is found in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela, in the regions of Amazonas and Pará in Brazil, in Colombia, in Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz), in the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza, and in Peru. It is known to occur between sea level and an altitude of 1,200 m above sea level.
176791		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal and is found in humid tropical forests, from lowlands to mountainous regions. This species is also able to survive in disturbed habitats.
176791		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species; however it is rarely seen in the northeastern Peru region (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).
176791		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176793		conservation	eng	Further research into this species is required in order to determine the distribution, ecology, and threats of this species. This species does occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Perija.
176793		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plesiodipsas</span> is a monotypic genus currently known only from the Cordillera  Oriental in Colombia (Departamento&#160;de Santander) and Serranía de Perijá both in  Colombia (Departamento de César) as in Venezuela (Estado Zulia) (Harvey <em>et al. </em>2008).
176793		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest (Harvey <em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). However, there have been some specimens collected from areas cultivated for coffee in Colombia (Harvey&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).
176793		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176793		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss and degradation, due to conversion of forested areas to agriculture. However, as the range of this species is not well known, it is not known whether these factors pose a major threat to the species. The Venezuelan side of the species distribution is steeper than the Colombian one, and less disturbed by agricultural activities (E. La Marca pers. comm.).
176794		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is also recommended.
176794		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cordillera Occidental de Colombia, at altitudes greater than 1,000 m above sea level.
176794		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are thought to be primarily nocturnal. &#160;This species inhabits forested areas (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).
176794		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176794		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process; however in some areas where deforestation has&#160;occurred&#160;or is ongoing the species is still well observed (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010), and is therefore may not be suffering global declines.
176795		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Madden Forest Preserve (Cadle and Myers 2003), and Darien National Park. Further research is needed into the habitat status of this species and monitoring of population trends is necessary.
176795		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Chagres Basin, the lowlands and uplands of Darien, Panama, and Chocoan Colombia (Cadle 2005). Its true range is likely to much more expansive, however.
176795		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland monsoon rainforest.
176795		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
176795		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, expansions of plantations and illegal logging in parts of its range. In the past, mining concessions were granted in Darien National   Park, where this species occurs. These have since been revoked, so that the main future threat to this species stems from plans to bridge the 'Darien Gap' with the completion of the Pan-American  highway (UNEP-WCMC 2006). This road will bisect the park and introduce further development into the region. It is likely that this will lead to clearing of roadside land for settlements, and further future knock-on effects to more inaccessible regions due to increased demand for resources. However, these are unlikely to be impacting the species over its likely much larger range, but might be of significant local impact.
176796		conservation	eng	<p>This species likely occurs in any protected areas along the humid slopes of the Andes throughout its range. It requires no special conservation efforts.&#160;</p>
176796		distribution	eng	According to the latest revision (Harvey and Embert, 2009), this species occurs in humid forests along the eastern Andean slopes (probablybetween 500 and 3,000 m) and adjacent lowlands from Aricagua in the Mérida Andes of Venezuela to northern Bolivia.
176796		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of of this species. It appears to inhabit a relatively broad ecological range being found in rainforests of the piedmont (e.g., the Río Pastaza, 500 m) to relatively high elevations such as the ruins of Machu Pichu, 2400 m. Cadle (2005) suggested that this species may use terrestrial retreats during inactive periods. He encountered specimens under rocks during the day in Puno, Peru, and cited remarks on the field tag of LSUMZ 45499 indicating that the specimen was caught on the ground in late afternoon. USNM 210958 hatched from an egg found among moist wood particles in the hollow part of a fallen log in a meadow, 5,600 ft (=1,707 m) elevation.
176796		population	eng	<p>This species is relatively common and does not appear to be decreasing at any locality where the original habitat has not been disturbed.&#160;</p>
176796		threats	eng	Deforestation for agriculture is a threat to this species throughout its range.
176797		conservation	eng	There are three National Parks in the state of Falcón; Médanos de Coro, Sierra de San Luis, Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro. All are IUCN Category II protected areas. This species probably occurs in at least two of these areas. Monitoring of this species is necessary.
176797		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Falcón state of Venezuela, which has a total area of 28,777 km². Most specimens were found within 45 km² to the east and southeast of the city of Coro and this species is considered to be endemic to this area (P. Kornacker pers. comm.). However, it should be noted that no species of the genus were found in a collection from southeastern Falcón state (Wüster<em> et al</em> 2001).
176797		habitat	eng	They holotype was found where vegetation consists of semi-deciduous tropical forest, with a canopy height of approximately 5-10 m (Wüster<em> et al</em>. 2001). Closer to the coast the vegetation becomes less dense and more scrub-like. This species has been found in human disturbed areas.
176797		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
176797		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
176798		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is known to occur in Braulio Carrillo National Park in Costa Rica and in Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve. Effective management is needed for these areas. Further research into the species' habitat requirements and population monitoring should be carried out.
176798		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantic lowlands and pre-montane slopes of eastern Honduras, southwards through Nicaragua, to south-eastern Costa Rica. It is found between 60 and 1,030 m above sea level.
176798		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is found in undisturbed pre-montane and lowland moist forest.
176798		population	eng	This species has been described as rare by Guyer and Donnelly (2005), however, Savage (2002) reports that although this species is rare in collections, it is commonly found along the Atlantic slopes of the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Tilarán.
176798		threats	eng	This species is locally regarded as harmful and therefore may be killed on sight (Wilson and McCranie 2004). It is threatened by habitat loss due to illegal logging, the agricultural industry and increasing urbanization. The illegal logging prompted the Nature Conservancy to add the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, where this species is found, to its list of Latin American Parks in Peril.
176799		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.
176799		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Nicaragua, south through Central America and into South America where it is found in Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, and the Guianas, much of the upper Amazon basin in Brazil, southern Peru and northern Bolivia (Savage 2002). It is found between 13 and 1,200 m above sea level.
176799		habitat	eng	This species occurs in undisturbed lowland moist and wet forest and pre-montane wet forest and rainforest (Savage 2002).
176799		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species; however it is rarely seen throughout its range, and was only recently found again in Costa Rica, the first time since 1974 (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).
176799		threats	eng	While this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to logging, agricultural expansion and infrastructure development in localized areas of this species' range, this should not be considered a major threat at present.
176800		conservation	eng	<em></em>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is present on Coron Island, a well-managed protected area in the Philippines, and in places its distribution may coincide with other protected areas. Further research into its abundance, habitat status and threats is needed, and population monitoring is recommended, as well as surveys to establish its true distribution within the Philippine islands.
176800		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Thailand and throughout Sundaland (Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996, Cox<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1998). It has also been recorded from Coron Island, one of the Calamianes group of islands in the Philippines, and possibly from Caluit Island. The species may be more widespread in the Philippines archipelago (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).
176800		habitat	eng	This arboreal, diurnal snake inhabits primary and secondary lowland tropical wet forest where it can be found in thick vegetation (David and Vogel 1996). It has also been found in shrubs in gardens (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998, Stuebing and Inger 1999, J.C. pers. comm.). It has been recorded at up to an elevation of 980 m above sea level (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006). David and Vogel (1996) indicate that this species is ovoviviparous,  however Cox <em>et al.</em> (1998) report a clutch of two  eggs. <span style=""></span>
176800		population	eng	David and Vogel (1996) state that this species is uncommon. In Singapore, it is considered "Vulnerable" (Ng and Wee 1994). Cox (1991) reports that it is "extremely rare" throughout its limited range in Thailand, although it has since been described as common in southern Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). In the Philippines, this species is known only from a single record. It is common in Peninsular Malaysia (L. Grismer pers. comm. September 2011).
176800		threats	eng	No major threats have been described for this species.
176801		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of its population should be carried out.
176801		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Ethiopia in the north, and as far south as the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa (Kofron 1990, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is found between 1,000 and 2,600 m above sea level.
176801		habitat	eng	This snail and slug-eating species is predominantly found in high grassland and moist savanna. This species is commonly found on irrigated land, often as a result of high prey abundance; on an irrigated strawberry farm in Ethiopia, the species made up over 90% of the snake population, compared to 5% in the surrounding non-irrigated grassland (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176801		population	eng	This species is abundant in some localities.
176801		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176802		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species is recommended.
176802		distribution	eng	This species is known from south and southeast Brazil, in the states of Rio de Janeiro, southern Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina.
176802		habitat	eng	This species is cryptozoic, living within the leaf litter of the forest floor: It is found in both in inland and coastal rain forests (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
176802		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176802		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It is found in one of the most populated regions of Brazil, where large scale deforestation is occurring; however, it occurs in many protected areas, including the Serra do Mar State Park, with 325,000 ha (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>
176803		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, population size, biology and ecology, and threats of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
176803		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Turkmenistan and Iran (Khan 2006).
176803		habitat	eng	From its potential occurrence in Pakistan, it is inferred that this species inhabits arid regions of woodland, shrubland or desert.
176803		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176803		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, however, there are not thought to be any plausible threats to this species.
176805		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
176805		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Pacific and Atlantic versants of Costa Rica, southward to Colombia and Venezuela.
176805		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low- to mid-elevation moist forests.
176805		population	eng	This species is common in Colombia at altitudes below 200 m above sea level (F. Castro pers. comm.).
176805		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176806		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
176806		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Costa Rica to western Panama, though a relic population occurs 340 km removed in eastern Panama (Myers 2003). This species is also known to occur in Cordillera Occidental de Colombia (F. Castro pers. comm.). This species occurs between sea level and 2,115 m above sea level.
176806		habitat	eng	This species shelters under surface leaf litter, logs and rocks, in pastures and disturbed sites (Savage 2002). It also occurs in the forest proper, in areas supporting or formerly supporting lowland wet forest and pre-montane and lower montane moist and wet forest and rainforest. It lays clutches of two to four eggs and reproduction is not seasonal (Sasa 1993).
176806		population	eng	This species is reported to be a common highland snake (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007) and "very common" (Savage 2002).
176806		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, while the remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. In Costa Rica, 17% of the primary forest cover remained in 1983 (Sader and Joyce 1988), however, other research has found that 29% of the country remained forested in 1991 (Sánchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, because of the adaptable nature of this species, these are not thought to be major threats.
176807		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, population status, ecology, threats and habitat status of this species.
176807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nicaragua, and is known only from a locality in the Matagalpa highlands (Townsend 2006).
176807		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
176807		population	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen found in the stomach of the coral snake <em>Micrurus nigrocinctus</em> (Schmidt 1932).
176807		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
176808		conservation	eng	In a conservation assessment of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Geophis</span>, based on physiographic and vegetational distribution patterns, this species was classed as Intermediately Vulnerable, which was the middle category of three (Wilson and Townsend 2007). There are several protected areas located where this species may occur. Research into threats and population monitoring are necessary.
176808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Costa Rica (Wilson and Townsend 2007). It is reported to occur in the evergreen forests of the north-eastern Atlantic lowlands and the adjacent pre-montane slopes (Savage 1981). It is found between 85 and 1,360 m above sea level.
176808		habitat	eng	This species is found under surface debris or rocks in lowland Atlantic moist forest and pre-montane rainforest (Savage 2002, Wilson and Townsend 2007).
176808		population	eng	This is reportedly a rare snake (Savage 2002), and is only known from ten specimens (Savage and Watling 2008).
176808		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation due to the agricultural industry and increasing urbanization, but this is unlikely to be causing significant declines.
176809		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. Research is needed to determine whether the current threats are impacting the population of this species.
176809		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Myanmar ("Martaban" = Mottama) to southeastern Thailand (Nakhon Ratchasima Province) (Boulenger 1890, Taylor 1965, Cox 1991, Smith 1943, Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It occurs at elevations between 300 and 1,000 m.
176809		habitat	eng	Inger and Colwell (1977) sampled the species below the surface of the soil, under cover of leaves, rocks, and logs, or on the surface of soil and leaves in dry evergreen forest at approximately 200 m elevation in Thailand.
176809		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. It is  uncommon as evidenced by Inger and Colwell (1977), finding only 35  specimens in a 10 month period out of 4,400 specimens of amphibians and  reptiles.
176809		threats	eng	This species is likely to be undergoing habitat loss and degradation due to threats including agricultural expansion, logging and conversion of forests to plantation. Forests in Thailand are experiencing continued deforestation and between 1976 and 1989 forest cover declined by 28% (Cropper <em>et al.</em> 1999). Likewise, in Myanmar, the forests are under pressure and declined by 3% annually during the 1990s (Leimgruber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Infrastructure development may also impact and fragment this species' habitat.
176810		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. More research is needed on its population, biology and ecology, and population monitoring is recommended.
176810		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroon and the Central African Republic.
176810		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savanna habitat (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 1995).
176810		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176810		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, however, due to its large distribution this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176811		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into solving the problem of duckweed blooms in the Lake Maracaibo basin is currently occurring. Conservation measures, such as area management and site restoration, should be taken to reduce pollution of this species' habitat. Further research into the threats that this species faces along the Caribbean coast of Colombia should be carried out.
176811		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Lake Maracaibo basin, Zulia, in Venezuela. This species is also known from the Caribbean coast in the northern Chocó region of Colombia (F. Castro pers. comm.).
176811		habitat	eng	This species is an aquatic species, which reproduces by ovoviviparity. It is found in fresh and brackish waters.
176811		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176811		threats	eng	Lake Maracaibo is highly polluted due to oil spills, chemical discharges, and sewage from the surrounding five million inhabitants (Hoag 2000). This is likely to be causing a decline in the abundance of this species. <br/><br/>A duckweed bloom has been affecting the Lake Maracaibo basin since 2004, however, it is not known whether this is a natural increase in an endemic weed, or whether an alien species was introduced to the lake. It is thought that the bloom is a result of changing salinity, caused by the dredging of the canal where the lake meets the Caribbean Sea, and currents carrying pollutants from point sources around the lake. As yet the blooms have not caused areas of hypoxia, however, a large bloom could cause high levels of mortality to species inhabiting the lake, including fish on which this species feeds. <br/><br/>It is not known what threats are impacting this species along the Caribbean coast of Colombia.
176812		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out to assess the impact that threats from hydroelectric dams are having on this species, and to describe its distribution in more detail.
176812		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower portion of the Amazon and the Araguaia-Tocantins and Xingú river drainages (e.g. Frota 2005).
176812		habitat	eng	This species is an ovoviviparous and typically riparian species which feeds primarily on fish.
176812		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176812		threats	eng	The Tocantins river basin is seriously impacted by the operation of hydroelectric dams as well as proposals for further dam development, both in the Tocantins and Xingú basin. This is highly likely to have some, yet unknown, effect on this typically riparian species and its habitat; in fact, most of the known localities for this species along the Tocantins were recorded during dam rescue operations (C. Nogueira pers. comm. 2011).
176814		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.
176814		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Africa, from Sudan south to Burundi and Kenya, and east to Somalia (S. Spawls pers. comm.). Isolated records exist for the Central African Republic and Togo (Parker 1949, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species is most common between 0 and 1,200 m elevation; however, it can be found up to 1,600 m (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176814		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-desert, dry and moist savanna, and coastal thicket. It is semi-arboreal and can be found on rough bark looking for geckos and their eggs. This species is diurnal and oviparous, with clutch sizes between two and eight eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176814		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176814		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176815		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within the range of this species, and in the Ugandan portion of the Albertine Rift there is approximately 13,300 km<sup>2</sup> of gazetted forest (Plumptre 2002). However, where there are protected areas the enforcement of these protected areas may vary. <br/><br/>There is a general lack of information on this species, particularly with regard to its population biology and reproduction. Research is urgently needed to redress this; furthermore, research quantifying the possible future effects of continued habitat loss is needed to understand the effect this may have on the species.
176815		distribution	eng	This species occurs in East Africa, mainly in the Albertine Rift branch of the Great Rift Valley (Plumptre <em>et al</em>. 2003), an area extending from Lake Albert down to the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika. Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 96,680 km<sup>2</sup>.
176815		habitat	eng	This species is mainly arboreal and during the day it can be seen perching on low twig in bushes (Schmidt 1919). This species occurs in montane and lowland forests.
176815		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species, but it has been described as "uncommon to rare" (Vonesh 2001).
176815		threats	eng	Continued habitat loss may be a threat to this species in the future. While areas of the Albertine Rift are protected, the forest habitat remains threatened by human activities including agricultural encroachment, illegal logging, forest burning for charcoal production and mining. Maps of the forest cover also suggest the habitat is significantly fragmented (Plumptre 2002). It has been shown that outside protected areas, forest cover is rapidly being lost throughout the Albertine Rift (Plumptre 2003). However, these threats need better quantification in order to assess their impact on this species.
176817		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
176817		distribution	eng	This species is found in subtropical to temperate areas of the Parana and Plata River basins. It ranges from the Pantanal in Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, through Paraguay and the Parana River in Argentina.
176817		habitat	eng	This species is an aquatic freshwater species that feeds mainly on fish, hunting during the evening and night.
176817		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is locally common according to the authors of this species.
176817		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176818		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.
176818		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon River, from Colombia and eastern Peru to Maranhao, Brazil. It is relatively common in tributaries of Rio Amazonas, and has also been recorded from drainage areas of Rio Ucayali and Rio Marañon, Peru. Roze (1957) reported one specimen from Rio Cairary, near Jurupary waterfall, on the boundary between Colombia and Brazil.
176818		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are aquatic snakes, whose diet consists primarily of fish, which they hunt for in the evening and at night.
176818		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176818		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176820		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species, and its habitat, should be carried out to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread in the future.
176820		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-central Honduras through Panama to Ecuador (McCranie <em>et al.</em>&#160;2006, Savage 2002). This species occurs between sea level and 1,450 m above sea level.
176820		habitat	eng	This species prefers habitat near water and in swamps, though it also inhabits moist lowland evergreen forests, pre-montane and lower montane slopes (Adasme 2005, Guyer and Donnelly 2005, Savage 2002).
176820		population	eng	This snake is reported to be "moderately common" in Costa Rica (Savage 2002) and "widely distributed but uncommon" in Panama (Myers 1982).
176820		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of commercial agriculture, while the remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. However, significant areas of undisturbed habitat remain, and therefore this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
176821		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with the Darien National Park, which has been designated as a World Heritage Site in 1981. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring, such as the better management of conservation areas to prevent illegal logging. Due to its restricted range, further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, as the species is currently only known from two specimens.
176821		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Serrania de Pirre, Panama, and may be confined to the cool moist forests running along the crest of the ridge (Myers 1982). Myers (1982) reported that he searched unsuccessfully for this species in the surrounding mountain ranges of Serrania del Sapo, Cordillera de Jurade and Serrania del Darien. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 100 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is found between 1,030 and 1,100 m above sea level.
176821		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet montane forest (Myers 1982).
176821		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens collected from the same locality in 1966 (Myers 1982).
176821		threats	eng	In the past, mining concessions were granted in Darien National Park, where this species occurs. These have since been revoked, so that the main future threat to this species stems from plans to bridge the 'Darien Gap' with the completion of the Pan-American highway (UNEP-WCMC 2006). This road will bisect the park and introduce further development into the region. It is likely that this will lead to clearing of roadside land for settlements, and further future knock-on effects to more inaccessible regions due to increased demand for resources. This species is also found within a habitat that is threatened by climate change in the future.
176823		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176823		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and central Madagascar.
176823		habitat	eng	This species is mainly arboreal and inhabits humid forests where it is active during the day on branches approximately one to two metres above the ground. One specimen has been recorded preying upon a large <em>Calumma brevicorne</em>.
176823		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176823		threats	eng	While this species is likely to be experiencing local habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion, logging and urban development, due to its relatively wide distribution this should not be considered a major threat at present.
176824		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species at present.
176824		distribution	eng	Glaw and Vences (2007) report that this species is found throughout Madagascar.
176824		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forests and on the borders of forests, mainly in dry areas, but also in more humid zones. It is reported to occur in both natural and anthropogenic habitats and is sometimes active after dusk (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176824		population	eng	This species is reported to be very common (Wright 1995).
176824		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176825		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the majority of this species' range is within the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (IUCN category II). Additional research on the species distribution, habitat and threats is needed to inform future conservation assessments.
176825		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range in Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,997 km<sup>2</sup>. The holotype and paratype were collected at an altitude of 1,100 m above sea level.
176825		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest habitat which has a precipitation of about 3,500-4,500 mm/yr.
176825		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176825		threats	eng	Much of the habitat in this region has been impacted upon by humans, leaving about 15% of the original vegetation intact, mainly on the north-facing slopes (Stattersfield 1998). The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve and Tayrona National Park are thought to offer little formal protection as areas are continuing to be cleared for agriculture and cattle grazing (Stattersfield 1998),  especially in the lower areas of Tayrona National Park. Control is now exercised over these areas to prevent the extension of these activities, though the impact of these controls is unknown. The area covered by mountain forests in the region has declined over the last 50 years. Some estimates put the reduction in the original forest extent between 70% and 80% (Fundación ProSierra 1991).
176826		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is possible that it occurs within protected areas such as Royal Chitwan National Park. Further research is needed to fully determine its distribution, habitat status and threats.
176826		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Himalayas. In India, it is found in Simla in the West Himalayas and in the Darjeeling District in the East Himalayas (Sharma 2003). In his map, Sharma (2003) illustrates that this species is found throughout all of Nepal. Schleich and Kästle (2002), however, report that in Nepal this species is known only from a single record from Chitwan National Park. These authors also state that the locality of Simla is doubtful and perhaps an error as this species has not been found west of the 88th degree of longitude (approximately equivalent to the Nepalese eastern border) in over 50 years. However, if this is correct, then the record in Chitwan National Park in central Nepal is also questionable. <br/><br/>This species has been recorded at 340 m above sea level (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
176826		habitat	eng	This species occurs in hilly regions, in tropical and sub-tropical forests, cultivated fields and plantations (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
176826		population	eng	Like other members of the this genus, this snake is not thought to be common (A. Captain pers. comm.).
176826		threats	eng	The impact of potential threats to this species are not known.
176827		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the distribution and population size of this species. If it is found to still exist, then protected areas are needed to prevent habitat loss and ensure its survival.
176827		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen collected near Befandrina-sud in southwestern Madagascar (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2001, Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993).
176827		habitat	eng	This species was collected from an area of dry, deciduous forest (Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993).
176827		population	eng	This species has been highlighted as an example of a possible recent extinction (Glaw and Vences 2007, Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993). However, the possibility remains that it occurs in a wider area than currently thought (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2001).
176827		threats	eng	This species is known from a single specimen collected in a forest that has now been completely cleared with the exception of several isolated trees (Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993). Ongoing deforestation continues to occur in this region as a result of agricultural expansion and logging.
176828		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are three national protected areas within its range. The species is likely to be well-protected in at least one of these, Ankarana, but Montagne des Français is under heavy pressure, as are unprotected areas throughout the snake's range (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). While Ankarafantsika is largely free from forest loss and degradation, bush fires are frequent and there is some exploitation of forest products (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011). In Andriamangirana the forest is disturbed and fragmented as a result  of past human activities, but appears to be stable following the  establishment of a private Association to  preserve the remaining habitat (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011). Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176828		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from northern Madagascar, however, very few records for this species exist (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). It has been reported to occur in the Ankarana Reserve in northwestern Madagascar, and in the Ankarana massif region. There are additional records from Anjiamangirana, Sahamalaza and Ankarafantsika (Raselimanana 2008, A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011). Its extent of occurrence, based on the limited information available regarding its range within the known centres of distribution, is estimated to be 9,288 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
176828		habitat	eng	This species is known from only a few confirmed and suspected specimens, collected in dry deciduous forest and in an area described as transitional between rainforest and dry deciduous forest (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007). It is thought to inhabit moderately dry, karstic limestone habitats (Glaw and Vences 2007). Records from Anjiamangirana and Ankarafantsika are from semi-deciduous forest on sandy soils (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011).
176828		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. Due to heavy human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remaining forests within its range, the population is thought to be both declining and severely fragmented.
176828		threats	eng	This species may be a specialist in particular karst forest habitats in Madagascar that are under strong pressure from habitat loss resulting from logging and agricultural conversion (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Forests within the region are threatened by logging and widespread slash-and-burn agriculture. Bush fires are frequent in Ankarafantsika and forests in the reserve are also under some pressure from the extraction of non-timber forest products including palms, raffia and ferns (A. Raselimanana pers. comm. July 2011).
176829		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176829		distribution	eng	This species is known from the region of Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, Toliara Province in south Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007), but very few records for this species exist (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). It has also been found in Andranobe and Benonoka (Glaw and Vences 2007). It has an estimated extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known locations, of 4,122 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>.
176829		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit sandy, arid habitats in regions of the southwest (Glaw and Vences 2007), including both grassland and areas with little or no vegetation cover.
176829		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176829		threats	eng	This species may be specialized to particular habitats in Madagascar that are under strong pressure from habitat loss (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Agricultural expansion, including the conversion of land for grazing, is occurring within this species' range.
176830		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although the species as presently defined occurs in Ankarafantsika and Isalo National Parks. Further research into the population, distribution, and threats to this species should be carried out, and this snake's taxonomic status requires clarification.
176830		distribution	eng	This species is reported to have a patchy distribution in Madagascar, from the northwestern province of Mahajanga to the southern Androy region (Glaw and Vences 2007). Despite its apparently large distribution, with known distribution centres covering a combined area of nearly 53,000 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>, very few records for this species actually exist (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).
176830		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in dry deciduous forest in the west of Madagascar, to semi-arid thorn scrub, and very arid and rocky habitats on the Isalo Massif (Glaw and Vences 2007, Mercurio <em>et al.</em> 2006).
176830		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. While a number of possible threats are operating within this snake's range, it is unclear what effect these may have on the abundance of this species.
176830		threats	eng	This species may be specialized within dry forest and arid scrub habitats that are under strong pressure from agricultural expansion, including land conversion for cattle grazing (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"> The effects of these processes on this snake are unclear.</span>
176831		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions are currently known for this species. All native reptile species are protected by law on Mayotte, and several nature reserves exist which may benefit to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. mayottensis</span>. However, no data is available on the snake's occurrence in these sites.<br/><br/>Conservation actions which may benefit to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. mayottensis</span> are the creation of nature reserves and development of sustainable agri- and horticultural practices.<br/><br/>Reliable statements on the population development of this species can only be made if intensive monitoring is implemented. We do not know of any currently implemented monitoring programme on Mayotte.
176831		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mayotte (Meirte 1999, Meirte 2004, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  in prep.). For extent of occurrence, we use the entire terrestrial  area of Mayotte, which is 376.5 km²<sup></sup>. For area of occupancy, we use the area covered by  suitable habitat classes, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing  analysis (Hawlitschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span>  in prep.). The few known localities are in natural forests and in  plantations in the centre of Mayotte. No observations in or near urban  and agricultural areas exist. We therefore restrict the area of  occupancy to an area of forests, degraded forests and plantations in the  island centre, where the records were made. Future observations may  extend this area, however, the area of occupancy is presently considered to be 65.2 km²<sup></sup>. The snake has been recorded between 144 and 653 m asl.
176831		habitat	eng	This snake is diurnal, ground-dwelling and very secretive. It was observed in natural forests and plantations (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). Oviparous according to Meirte (2004).
176831		population	eng	The extreme scarcity of observations may be attributed to the cryptic habits of this snake, but also suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. mayottensis</span> is not common (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). Due to the fragmentary nature of suitable habitats on Mayotte, the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.
176831		threats	eng	This species has been recorded only in pristine forests and in forest-like habitats (plantations). On Mayotte, many forests are degraded, and the total forest area is severely fragmented (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). The latter is also true for many plantation areas. Although many forests are protected, areas in vicinity to the reserves are subject to deforestation or further degradation, leading to a continuing decline in habitat quality. A further threat likely comes from the introduced Small Indian Civet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Viverricula indica</span>), a carnivorous species which probably also includes <span style="font-style: italic;">L. mayottensis</span> in its diet. Probably, Mayotte has no native mammal predators on reptiles, which would mean that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. mayottensis</span> is not adapted to this pressure (Meirte 2004, Hawlitschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in prep.).
176832		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
176832		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in northern Argentina, from the states of Tucuman, Catamarca, Salta, and Jujuy. This species is also known from the state of Tarija to Santa Cruz, and Cochambamba in Bolivia.
176832		habitat	eng	The predominant habitat type within the range of this species is Chaco dry grassland. This species has been observed to stay underwater for quite a long time.
176832		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176832		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176833		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176833		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bolivia (in the states of Beni and Santa Cruz), Brazil (in the states of Rio Grande de Norte, through to Mato Grosso), Paraguay, and northern Argentina.
176833		habitat	eng	This species is a diurnal habitat generalist, which is known to inhabit Caatinga dry forest, grasslands, and tropical forest areas.
176833		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176833		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176834		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population of the species and its habitat status should be carried out because human disturbance may become a threat in the future.
176834		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra de la Ventana in the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
176834		habitat	eng	This species is found in the grassy and brush hills of the Sierra de la Ventana (J. Dixon pers. comm.).
176834		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176834		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The area in which this species is distributed is used for tourism, specifically outdoor activities, but this is not thought to be having a significant impact upon the species at present.
176835		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with several protected areas, including Aguarague. No further conservation measures are required.
176835		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern and southern Brazil (from the state of Rio Grande do Sul to Minas Gerais), Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz), and Argentina (in the states of Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Rios, Santa Fe, Buenos Aires). Its range possibly extends into the southern Brazil states of Rondonia and Mato Grosso, as well as into southeastern Peru, although no specimens have yet been recorded in these areas (A. Kwet pers. comm.). This species is found between sea level and 1,300 m above sea level.
176835		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats from grasslands and shrublands to more densely forested areas, however, it is primarily found in open grassland. This species is semi-aquatic and occurs near and in water bodies, such as ponds, small rivers and streamlets (A. Kwet pers. comm.).
176835		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176835		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176836		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. No further conservation measures are required at present.
176836		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes, between 6<sup>o</sup> and 10<sup>o</sup> south and 75<sup>o</sup> and 78<sup>o</sup> west. This species is found between an altitude of 854 and 2,700 m above sea level.
176836		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical forest habitats.
176836		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176836		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range due to its high elevation habitat preferences.
176837		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, range, population trends, habitat status and direct threats to this species is recommended.
176837		distribution	eng	This species from southwestern Amazonia is poorly known. Specimens have been observed in the states of Mato Grosso (Amaral 1925, Strussman and Carvalho 1998), Amazonas (Dixon 1989), and Rondônia (França <em>et al.</em> 2006) in Brazil.
176837		habitat	eng	This species is found in both forest and savanna habitats (F. França pers. comm. 2008).
176837		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176837		threats	eng	The impact of threats on this species is not well understood. Given the size of its range, it is thought unlikely that there are any plausible threats which might impact this species across its range.
176838		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
176838		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caatinga habitat of northeast Brazil.
176838		habitat	eng	This species is an anuran-eating snake, which is active throughout the year. The species is found in the Caatinga dry forests of Brazil and is reportedly a habitat generalist.
176838		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176838		threats	eng	Although there has been a great deal of habitat degradation of the natural Caatinga habitat as a result of expanding urbanization and agriculture, this species is reportedly a habitat generalist, and no reports of habitat loss or degradation as a direct threat to the species are known.
176839		conservation	eng	Part of this species' range lies within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, an IUCN grade II national park. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and monitoring of the population trends is required.
176839		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central part of the Cordillera de la Costa mountain range, Venezuela, from Rancho Grande, Aragua, to Cerro El Avila, Distrto Federal (Dixon 1983). The type specimen was found at 1,900 m above sea level and this species has a distributional area of approximately 2,016 km²<sup></sup>.
176839		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the leaf litter of cloud forests.
176839		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176839		threats	eng	The range of this species extends into the most populated part of Venezuela; this species has been recorded very close to Caracas (Dixon 1983). The lower and middle mountain slopes have been affected by deforestation due to cultivation, particularly in the eastern part of the range.<br/><br/>Given the species is only found in leaf litter of cloud forests, and that its current range is surrounded by much drier lowlands, the population may be fragmented and it is unlikely that the species would be able to respond to a threat to its current habitat by migrating into surrounding areas. <br/><br/>The cloud forest this species inhabits is threatened by climate change.
176840		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176840		distribution	eng	This species is found in Madagascar, however, reliable records of this species are extremely rare. The only recent recordings of this species have been made from the area of Ranomafana National Park and its surroundings. Recent efforts to locate this species by Vences were unsuccessful (M. Vences pers. comm.). This species has also been reported to inhabit the Tsinjoarivo region of the country which divides the central high plateau from its eastern lowlands (Irwin 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,932 km².
176840		habitat	eng	This species has been found in both high altitude rainforest and arid shrubland (Irwin 2006). One specimen of this species was found during the day in a mosaic of rocks, grass and scrub forest at an altitude of 1,375 m (Glaw and Vences 2007).
176840		population	eng	M. Vences (pers. comm.) states that this species is a very rare and localized snake, being even more difficult to find than the rare <em>Liopholidophis dolicocercus</em>.
176840		threats	eng	Rainforests in Madagascar are undergoing deforestation from logging and land-clearing for agricultural use. As a result, significant portions of the forest in Tsinjoarivo are fragmented, cleared or otherwise degraded (Irwin 2007). In other parts of this species' suspected range, it may be experiencing further habitat loss due to agricultural expansion.
176841		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Monitoring of population trends is needed for this species as well as further research into habitat preferences and possible threats.
176841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Madagascar, and is known only from the island of Nosy Be and a number of localities on the adjacent mainland. The distributional extent is estimated to be 14,550 km², although it is apparently localized within this area as many of the habitat types within its range are unsuitable for this snake (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011).
176841		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat preferences of this species (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Labanowski and Lowin (2011) report it as a terrestrial species apparently confined to forest at their Antsolipa study site. It can be inferred from its distribution that it is likely to be associated with lowland forest throughout its range, and this is further supported by observations on the offshore island of Nosy Be (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
176841		population	eng	This species does not seem to be particularly common (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Despite this observation, it was the most abundant snake recorded during a dry season survey of a forest fragment known as Antsopila, constituting 25% of snake records (Labanowski and Lowin 2011). If, as is presumed to be the case, this species is indeed restricted to forested habitats, the population is likely to be declining.
176841		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Forest within this species' range is threatened by agricultural expansion, development and logging. This species is apparently able to persist in forests undergoing some level of human exploitation, including logging (R. Labanowski pers. comm. April 2011), but its absence from plantations and from pastoral land suggests that it cannot survive in heavily-modified environments.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
176842		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It occurs in protected areas within its range.
176842		distribution	eng	This species inhabits peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo (Inger and Voris 2001) and southernmost Thailand (Lanza 1999). In Borneo, it is known from eastern and western Sabah, Brunei (with a recent record from Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre - J.M. Dehling unpubl. data), central Sarawak (R. Inger pers. comm.), Gunung Mulu National Park in eastern Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data) and Kalimantan ((Iskandar and Colijn 2001).&#160;This species has also been recorded from the island of Pinang in West Malaysia (Manthey and Grossmann 1997). This species has an upper elevational limit of 1,000 m above sea level (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010), and has been recorded as low as 70-80 m in Brunei and Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data).<p><span lang="EN-GB"> </p>
176842		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland tropical wet forest and dry forests, plantations and cultivated areas, and may also be found close to human settlements (David and Vogel 1996). It is a reclusive, nocturnal snake which is known to display both arboreal and ground-dwelling habits (R. Inger pers. comm., M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).
176842		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon throughout its range (David and Vogel 1996).
176842		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
176843		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
176843		distribution	eng	The Indian distribution of this species includes the Ganjam District of Orissa, West Begal, Assam and the Eastern Himalayas as far west as 85 degrees longitude (Sharma 2003). This species has been reliably recorded from Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand (previously Uttaranchal) (A. Captain pers. comm. 2010). In Nepal, this species has been recorded in the central and western Terai (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
176843		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in open landscapes, with bushes and sporadic trees, including cultivated areas (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
176843		population	eng	No population information is available.
176843		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats impacting this species.
176844		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is known to occur in protected areas within its range. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka. It is widely distributed across the island at all elevations except the highest, though it is more common in the coastal plains (Somaweera 2006). Specimens have been observed in Andigama, Chilaw, Colombo, Galle, Matara, and Tabbowa (A. de Silva pers. comm.). It is likely that the species is more widely distributed throughout Sri Lanka, but its taxonomic status is still uncertain (Somaweera 2006).
176844		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal species that feeds primarily on geckos. It is mainly terrestrial, but does show some arboreal habits, and occurs in both natural and anthropogenic environments (Somaweera 2006). In the Lunama-Kalametiya Wetland Sanctuary, this species is known to frequent grassland areas (Ekanayake <em>et al</em>. 2005).
176844		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176844		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as conversion of land for cultivation and grazing as well as pressures associated with an expanding human population and settlements. The heavy application of pesticides in Sri Lanka has reduced the population of geckos, the main prey of this species (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>This species is often mistaken for venomous krait snakes, which they closely resemble. As a result, considerable numbers of this species are killed by humans, a threat that R. Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) states is the most severe threat to this species at this time.
176845		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, the species is found in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park. Research into the population trends and natural history of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
176845		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from Thua Luu (Thua Thien-Hue Province) and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park (Quang Binh Province), both in central Vietnam (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species has an extent of occurrence of 9,219 km<sup>2</sup> between the known localities; however as it has only been reported from two sites, it is unclear how widespread it is within this area. It has been recorded from 300 and 500 m asl.
176845		habitat	eng	This secretive species is known from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, an area of tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is nocturnal and has been collected from the ground (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is presumed to be oviparous and to feed on small vertebrates.
176845		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, which is known from only three specimens (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2009, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2003).
176845		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing loss, degradation and fragmentation of its forest habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities. Illegal logging is likely to represent a threat within the boundaries of Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park.
176846		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Further research into this snake's distribution, population status and natural history is needed.
176846		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Assam in northeastern India, and in Sagaing Division and Rakhine State, northern Myanmar (Slowinski <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its distribution in Chin State is unconfirmed (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
176846		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lycodon zawi </span>is a nocturnal species that is active at night along streams in evergreen forest below 500 m elevation (Slowinski<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001). Although there are extensive tracts of bamboo within its range in Myanmar, the species was never observed in bamboo (Slowinski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). It feeds on skinks, notably <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphenomorphus maculatus</span>, a species which is abundant along streams (Slowinksi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
176846		population	eng	No information is available on its population. It is not a widespread species within its range, although it is recorded frequently.
176846		threats	eng	The species is threatened by loss of lowland evergreen forest to slash-and-burn cultivation (Slowinksi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2001). One of the type specimens was caught while fleeing a slash-and-burn plot near the boundary of Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary in Mizoram, northeastern India (Slowinksi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2001). However this is not considered a major threat at the moment, as this snake occurs over a wide area of northern Myanmar where its forest habitat is relatively undisturbed.
176848		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to reduce the quantity of pollution run-off flowing into Lake Tanganyika. The population of this species should be monitored and areas should be effectively managed to ensure the current localized problems of pollution and sedimentation do not become more widespread. Research into what effect the threats to its habitat are having on the species should also be carried out.
176848		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Behangana <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been suggested that it may also occur in Gombe Stream and Mahale Mountains National Parks, however, there are no confirmed records of this (Behangana <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed has been estimated as 32,821 km².
176848		habitat	eng	This snake is largely aquatic and nocturnal, resting under submerged rocks during the day and feeding on fish and amphibians during the night (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176848		population	eng	The population density of this species in suitable habitat has been estimated as 9,000 to 38,000 snakes per km<sup>² </sup>(Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176848		threats	eng	There are several threats to the biodiversity of Lake Tanganyika, however, the impacts of these on this species are unknown. These threats include sedimentation due to deforestation and poor farming practices, agricultural and industrial pollution, and overfishing (Allison <em>et al.</em> 2000). Pollution is currently a localized problem, focused at Kigoma Bay and Bujumbura Bay, however, it is anticipated that this may become more widespread as population growth continues. Increased sedimentation and pollution may affect this species through habitat degradation, while overfishing may pose a threat to the species by depleting food resources. As this species is abundant where distributed, it is unlikely that these threat processes are causing significant declines at present.
176849		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out.
176849		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Congo Basin and northern Angola.
176849		habitat	eng	From its apparent distribution, this species is presumed to inhabit lowland rainforest habitat.
176849		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176849		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities; however, large areas of habitat remain and this cannot be considered a major threat at present. Occasionally specimens of this species are found in the international reptile trade, but this is not regarded as a major threat.
176850		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution is likely to coincide with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research is required on the population and distribution of the species to understand if threats such as habitat fragmentation are having a significant effect on population size. Monitoring should also be carried out on this species and its habitat.
176850		distribution	eng	This species inhabits southern Tanzania and northern Malawi. The localities include Fort Hill in Malawi and Mt. Rungwe, Songea, the Udzungwa Mountains, Kaboga and Ifakara in Tanzania (Rasmussen 2004). It has also been confirmed as present in the Mahenge Mountains of Tanzania (Owen <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Previous accounts included a southern African distribution, however, Rasmussen (2004) has confirmed this to be a separate species (<em>L. obscuriventris</em>) and not a subspecies.
176850		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist savanna, usually on floodplains in the vicinity of swamps, rivers and lakes (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002) and can be found foraging in vegetation along small streams, pans and vleis (Marais 1992).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, but clutch sizes are unknown (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176850		population	eng	Branch (1998) states that snakes of this genus may be very common in a suitable habitat.
176850		threats	eng	The area in which this species is distributed is threatened by an increasingly fragmented landscape. Newmark (1998) reports that the Udzungwa Mountains have lost 76% of their original forest cover principally to agricultural and plantation land, with only 1,960 km² of natural forest remaining. However, this is not considered a major threat to this species as it does not inhabit forests.
176851		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The ability of this species to adapt to agricultural habitat means that it is less vulnerable to deforestation and habitat loss than may have previously been assumed. No conservation measures are therefore required for this species.
176851		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Mozambique, southern Malawi, and Liwale in Tanzania (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176851		habitat	eng	This species inhabits plantations and woodland at low altitudes, and is probably also able to adapt to agricultural land. Its diet is not known but it can be assumed that it is similar to other wolf snakes who predominantly consume smooth-bodied lizards (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176851		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176851		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176852		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine this species' distribution, population status, and to determine the level of impact of potential threats across its range.
176852		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and southwestern Angola, and it is also known from a single record in northern Namibia (Branch 1998, Marais 1992). Its distribution may also possibly include the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Broadley 1996). &#160;It is known from only five specimens (D. Broadley pers. comm. 2010).
176852		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky, arid savanna (Branch 1998).
176852		population	eng	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles, Griffin (2003) reported this species as insufficiently known and possibly rare. In Namibia, this species is known from only two specimens, since the majority of specimens previously assigned to this species are now referable to a new species, <em>L. namibianum</em>. There is no population information for this species in the rest of its range.
176852		threats	eng	Threats to the arid regions of Nambia include long-term land degradation due to overgrazing, increased population densities, and increased need for land to cultivate (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is likely that arid southern Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo experience these same pressures. However, the impact of these threats to this species is not known.
176853		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In Zimbabwe this species is found within the Chimanimani National Park, however, it is currently unprotected throughout the Mozambique portion of its range (BirdLife International 2006). However, a transfrontier conservation area has been proposed for this region as part of a Global Environment Facility initiative, supported by the World Bank (BirdLife International 2006). Efforts to reduce the extent of habitat degradation are required; this may be partly solved by the planned establishment of more protected areas, however, monitoring of the species is required to observe if these measures are having any effect.
176853		distribution	eng	This small species inhabits the Pungwe floodplain in central Mozambique and extends westwards through Miombo woodland to the border of Zimbabwe&#160;(Marais 1992), where it occurs at an altitude of 300 metres at the southern end of the Chimanimani National Park.&#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,365 km².
176853		habitat	eng	This is a cryptic snake; in Mozambique several specimens have been found in Miombo woodland, but the type series was collected from an oil pipe-line trench on the western edge of the Pungwe flood-plain&#160;(Broadley 1996). At the southern end of the Chimanimani National Park, one specimen was collected in the Haroni Forest and another in adjacent&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Uapaca&#160;</span>dry woodland&#160;(Marais 1992).
176853		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176853		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of its woodland habitat. Deforestation in Mozambique has been estimated at 4.5% per year due to overgrazing, collection of wood for fuel and construction, inadequate fallow systems, and the use of fire for clearing land (Nhantumbo <em>et al.</em> 2003). Similarly in Zimbabwe, degradation of the woodlands have been attributed to fuel-wood collection, agricultural development and urban expansion (Chipika and Kowero 2000).
176854		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, it is known to occur in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Kibale National Park (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vonesh 2001).
176854		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Kenya and Uganda, southwest through the Democratic Republic of the Congo to northern Angola, and is also found in the Imatong Mountains in southern Sudan. It is found from 700 to 2,700 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176854		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both forest and deforested areas, hiding in leaf litter, holes or rotting logs during the day (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is known to have a relatively specialized diet, feeding on small, smooth-bodied forest lizards. This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of two to six eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176854		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176854		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.
176855		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.
176855		distribution	eng	This species occurs in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroon. Its range also includes Mali and the Central African Republic.
176855		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savanna habitat (Chirio and Ineich 2006).
176855		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176855		threats	eng	The habitat of this species may be impacted by agricultural activities in some areas, however, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176856		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species. An in-depth study of the taxonomy of this species is also needed (S. Carreira pers. comm.).
176856		distribution	eng	This species is found between 15 and 34°S in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, the states of Misiones, Corrientes, and Chaco in Argentina, and in Paraguay, and northeastern Uruguay (south to Maldonado and Lavalleja Departamento) (S. Carreira pers. comm.). However, according to Giraudo and Scrocchi (2002) the valid reports from Argentina are from the states of Formosa and Misiones.<br/><br/>There has been unconfirmed reports of this species from the Amazon basin, which would extend the distribution of this species considerably.
176856		habitat	eng	This species lives near water and within this species' distribution the habitat ranges from grassland to shrubland to forest. It is unknown what this species feeds on; Schouten (1931) mention amphibians, Amaral (1977) suggest it has a similar diet to <em>L. dorbignyi</em> and Carreira and Lombardo (2007) found that it ate reptiles eggs.
176856		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176856		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176857		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Aguarague, Amboró, and Carrasco, in Bolivia. No further conservation measures are needed.
176857		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Chubut, Cordoba, Entre Rios, La Pampa, Mendoza, Neuquen, Rio Negro, San Luis, and Tucuman in Argentina, and from the western part of Bolivia (Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz and Tarija).
176857		habitat	eng	The predominant habitat type within the range of this species is grassland and shrubland. This species is known to be tolerant of degraded habitats. In Bolivian inter-Andean dry valleys this species is known to occur within degraded habitats, including plantations.
176857		population	eng	This species is relatively common (D. Embert pers. comm.).
176857		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176858		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species occurs in protected areas.
176858		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in West Malaysia in the states of Pahang, in the Cameron Highlands and Bukit Fraser, and Perak on Bukit Larut (David and Pauwels 2004). This species is found between 1,100 to 1,500 m above sea level.
176858		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical montane forest and is found under logs and in leaf litter. Other species in this genus are known to occur in deforested and agricultural areas (Vogel and David 1999), however, this has not been confirmed for this species.
176858		population	eng	This species has been recently redescribed and was formerly classified as <em>Macrocalamus lateralis</em>. Under that name it was observed to be common in the western Malaysian highlands during the 1930s and was thought to remain common (Vogel and David 1999). It is still common in Cameron Highlands and Bukit Larut (L. Grismer pers. comm. 2011).
176858		threats	eng	Although there are agricultural activities in one area where the species occurs, the effects on this species are negligible.
176859		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas. There are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species. Further research is needed to better determine the distribution, population size and trend of this species.
176859		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is endemic to southern Thailand. It occurs in low moist evergreen crown forest at elevations between 360 and 1,300 m.
176859		habitat	eng	This species is known from two specimens, one of which was collected in hill forest at 400 m above sea level near a human dwelling (David and Pauwels 2004). Species in this genus are found in montane forest, cleared forest, and agricultural land (Vogel and David 1999), however, this has not been confirmed for this species.
176859		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is rare throughout its range.
176859		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
176860		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into harvest practices and monitoring are required as this species is harvested for medicinal purposes.
176860		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Peru, from the Department of Piura in the north to the Department of Lima in the south, and the El Oro region of Ecuador. It is found between sea level and 2,620 m above sea level.
176860		habitat	eng	This species is found in pre-montane dry forest and the desert region.
176860		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
176860		threats	eng	This species is killed and stored in alcohol by locals, and this liquid is then used externally as medicine (Lehr 2000). However, this is not regarded as a major threat to this species.
176861		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Griffin (2003) conducted a study on the conservation status of Namibian reptiles, concluding that the nominate race was 'Secure' and is known or expected to be in a number of protected species. Further research is required to monitor population numbers and to understand if its uncommon appearance is a product of either its secretive nature or low population size.
176861		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Ethiopia and Somalia, west to Cameroon, south through East and Central Africa to eastern South Africa, and west to northern Namibia (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). In east Africa, this species is known to occur from sea-level up to a maximum altitude of 2,000 m. (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176861		habitat	eng	This species mainly inhabits savanna, but also enters coastal forest and arid regions (Branch 1998). It spends most of the day hiding in holes in the ground, in cavities in walls, in hollow logs or in deserted termite mounds, and emerges at night to hunt. In Uganda, it is known to frequently enter human habitation (Pitman 1974). This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of 5-13 (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176861		population	eng	Patterson (1987) reported that this species is rare, while Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) state that its secretive lifestyle may contribute to it appearing as uncommon.
176861		threats	eng	This snake is often found as a road casualty due to its slow movement (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002), however, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species.
176862		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. In places it is likely that its distribution coincides with protected areas.
176862		distribution	eng	This species is found on the east African coastal plain from southern Somalia, south through Tanzania, Mozambique and Zimbabwe to northern South Africa (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). The range may also extend through Botswana to central Namibia (Branch 1998). It can be found from sea level to a maximum altitude of 1,200 m (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176862		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savanna (Branch 1998), open woodland, grassland, coastal dune forest and gardens (Marais 1992). It feeds primarily on lygosomatine skinks, including many fossorial taxa (Shine <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of up to six eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176862		population	eng	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as insufficiently known and possibly rare. Griffin reports that there are so few records of its occurrence in Namibia and Botswana that it is not possible to ascertain whether the Namibian population is isolated. Little else is known of the population across the rest of its range.
176862		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176863		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population and distribution in Kenya is recommended to determine its complete range within the country.
176863		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Ethiopia (Ogaden), southern Somalia and north-east Kenya. In Kenya, it is definitely known only from Malka Murii, on the border with Ethiopia, but probably also occurs more widely, perhaps along the Kenya coastal plain north of Lamu Island (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176863		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal thicket, riverine woodland, dry savanna and semi-desert (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). The habits of this species are little known, but are probably similar to other members of its genus which are terrestrial, diurnal and secretive, often hiding in holes or dense vegetation. Specimens of this species from the Juba River were found in termitaria (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002).
176863		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176863		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
176865		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
176865		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and occurs from Guinea through Côte d'Ivoire to Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon and through the Congo basin.
176865		habitat	eng	This species is a semi-aquatic forest species. It often inhabits swamp forest, where it is most often found in leaf litter, in low shrubs and in river courses (Akani and Luiselli 1999-2000, Jackson 2007, Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2004).   The species feeds on tadpoles, froglets, and invertebrates (Luiselli 2003). Above-ground activity occurs all throughout the year, with no obvious differences between wet and dry seasons (Akani and Luiselli 1999-2000).
176865		population	eng	The sex-ratio is nearly equal in this species, although males are a little bit more abundant (but not at a statistically significant level) than females; females attain at least the same body size as males (Akani and Luiselli 1999-2000).
176865		threats	eng	This species may be locally experiencing the loss and degradation of its forest habitat; however, due to its very wide distribution this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
176866		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, which probably providing small safeguards. It is reported to occur within Arusha National Park (Razzetti and Msuya 2002), Amani Nature Reserve (Tropical Biology Association 2006), and Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel <em>et al</em>. 1995).
176866		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout western and southern Africa, from Sudan in the north, south to Mozambique and westward to Guinea and Senegal (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Branch 1998, Razzetti and Msuya 2002)<br/><br/>This species occurs from sea level to an altitude of over 2,200 m (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176866		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits wetlands, pans and other marshy, damp areas; it is also found in grasslands, savanna and forest. It seeks refuge under stones, logs and crevices in clay banks of streams, but never ventures too far from water. Frogs and small fish form the bulk of its diet (LeBreton 1999, Razzetti and Msuya 2002). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of between four and eleven (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176866		population	eng	This species is common in both Arusha National Park and Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains (Razzetti and Msuya 2002, Tropical Biology Association 2006). Rödel <em>et al</em>. (1995) report that it is rare in west African savannas.
176866		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. In Namibia, Griffin (2003) states that this species is threatened by the alteration of wetland habitats, however, this is presently not considered a threat across its entire range.
176867		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Cusuco National Park, Honduras. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas and the more effective management of existing ones, are required to ensure that the rate of habitat loss within this species' range are reduced. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
176867		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Honduras and has recently been found in Cusuco National Park in extreme northwestern Honduras. It is also found in Cerro El Pital in the extreme north of El Salvador. This species has also recently been reported to occur in Cerro Santa Barbara (Santa Barbara) and Cerro Zarciadero (Comayagua), and seems to occur in every cloud forest locality in western Honduras (J. McCranie pers. comm.). As such, it can be assumed that the species occurs in more than ten locations. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,600 km². This species occurs between 1,590 and 2,270 m above sea level.
176867		habitat	eng	This species is found in cloud forest. Most specimens were taken from beneath logs or within rotting tree stumps.
176867		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
176867		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, plantations, illegal logging and urbanization (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, cloud forests are also threatened by climate change (Bubb <em>et al.</em> 2004).
176869		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species, and its habitat, should be carried out to determine if localized threats become more widespread in the future.
176869		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Honduras south to Panama and into western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador (Savage 2002, Dunn and Dowling 1957, McCranie <em>et al.</em> 2002).
176869		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen rainforest at lowland and pre-montane elevations (Goldberg 2004). It may be a nocturnal species and is primarily found on the forest floor.
176869		population	eng	This species has been described as rare and uncommon (Savage 2002, Dunn and Dowling 1957).
176869		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities. The remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. However, significant areas of undisturbed habitat remain in this species' range, so that this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
176874		conservation	eng	A portion of the species population is in Mukurthi NP and Silent valley. Studies on population size and life history is essential.
176874		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> leucomelas </span>is endemic to southern parts of Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In Kerala it is known to occur in Thiruvananthapuram (Agasthiya Malai) and Idukki. In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Nilgri hills (Bangitappal to Sispara) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Cook 1996) at altitudes ranging from 1400 to 2200 m. And also reported from Tirunelveli and Dindugal (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989).
176874		habitat	eng	It is a high altitude species and frequently grows in marshy places and grass lands (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Sasidharan 2004).
176874		population	eng	No population information on this species.
176874		threats	eng	Alien invasive species are a major threat to the habitat of the species.
176875		conservation	eng	No information is available. Further research on true distribution in other suitable habitats is needed.
176875		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"> Eriocaulon richardianum</span> is endemic to Western Ghats of Karnataka and Kerala (Ansari and Balakrishnan, 2009). The extent of&#160;occurrence&#160;is high due to the distance between the only known localities. However, its habitat is restricted to a small area. Therefore, area of occupancy is estimated as 200 km<sup>2 </sup>considering the species will only colonise suitable habitat around the recorded areas.</p><p><strong></strong></p>
176875		habitat	eng	This&#160;perennial&#160;plant grows in open moist fields below 400 metres above sea level.
176875		population	eng	This is a rare species although no specific data on population are available. However, it is only known from two very distant localities which can be considered as distinct locations.
176875		threats	eng	The areas where the species has been recorded are affected by industrial&#160;development, tourism and agricultural pollution which are causing habitat degradation (threat maps from Coimbatore January 2010 Workshop).
176876		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further knowledge on population numbers and range is needed.
176876		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharasthtra
176876		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus nutans</span> is distributed in tropical Africa, Asia and Australia .In India it is found in Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2001, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984, Pulliah 1997).
176876		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in tropical Africa and Asia to Australia. In Africa it occurs in Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda, Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia and Eritrea.
176876		habitat	eng	In or near seasonal swamps, pools or streams.
176876		habitat	eng	It is found growing commonly in swamps, rice fields, near river bank, pools, streams and seasonally flooded areas. It is found growing from sea level to 2600 m (Cook 1996, Pulliah 1997).
176876		population	eng	It is a common species.
176876		population	eng	Rare in Africa.
176876		threats	eng	No major threats are known where the species were recorded.
176876		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread species.
176877		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known or needed for this plant.
176877		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia estaminodiosa </span>is an endemic species to southern India, distributed in Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
176877		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia estaminodiosa</span> is an annual herb. It is found growing in wet lowlands, cultivated fields and backwaters.
176877		population	eng	Population information is not available.
176877		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
176878		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not known, but this species is a weed.
176878		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaeranthus africanus</span> is distributed in&#160;Madagascar, and Asia through Malaysia to Australia. It is also reported from&#160;tropical Africa.
176878		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaeranthus africanus</span> is an annual. It is found in wet places, swamps, often in brackish water, sometimes temporarily submerged. It also grows in the rice field and considered as a weed.
176878		population	eng	It is considered as a weed in the rice fields.
176878		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
176879		conservation	eng	No conservation recommendations for this species.
176879		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis argentea</em> is distributed in South and South East Asia (Murthy and Yoganarasimhan 1990) including India, Malaysia, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/>The plant is distributed in Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu of India (Cook 1996). It is reported from Bastar, Madhya Pradesh (Saxena and Khotele 1976, Verma&#160;2001). It is reported &#160;from Gujarath and North Canara (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). The species is found in Bombay, Chandrapur, Nagpur, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg of Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is distributed in Bangalore, &#160;Hassan, Mysore, &#160;North Kanara (Sharma <em>et al. </em>1984) and &#160;from marshy places of Makut (Murthy and Yoganarasimhan 1990) of Karnataka. The species is reported from Indravati river in Indravati Tiger Reserve in Chhattisgarh (Kumar 2003). The collections are made in Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore (Nellimalai Reserve Forest at 400 m, Coimbatore; Aliyar submergible area at 350 m in Coimbatore; Kollegal at +760 m in Coimbatore; Noyil River at 466 m in Coimbatore); Ramanathapuram (Uchipulli at +4 m in Ramanathapuram, Thelisathanallur in Ramanathapuram); Chennai: (Saidapet in Chennai; in moist places of Chennai); Dindigul: (Pulney); Madurai (Near Kumily town at 850 m in Madurai, Nupuraganga &#160;at 167 m in Alagar Hills, Madurai, Kumbukere at 400 m in Madurai, Thidiyar at + 250 m Thirumangalam in Madurai); South Arcot: (Gingee Reserve Forest at 120 m in South Arcot); Kanyakumari: (Tambaraparani river side Kuzhithurai &#160;at sea level in Kanyakumari).In Andhra Pradesh the collections are made from &#160;Chittoor (foot of the Kambakam hills at 125 m in Chittoor, Near forest rest house in Nerabylu at 725 m in Chittoor, Near Komati Cheruvu at 400 m in Chittoor, Guvvalcheruvu in Caddapah at 995 m in Chittoor) and Krishna. In Kerala the species is collected from Kakadavu in Kasaragod at 250 m (<st1:city><st1:place><span class="apple-style-span">Madras</st1:place></st1:city><span class="apple-style-span"> Herbaria <st1:date year="2010" day="24" month="11"><span class="apple-style-span">24&#160;November&#160;2010</span></st1:date>).
176879		habitat	eng	It is an annual, grows up to 20 cm high &#160;(Verma 2001) and found in swampy places, at the drying edges of rice fields, often on sandy soil and in damp hollows by the sea shore. It is not exclusively a wetland plant and is found in grasslands and roadsides (Cook 1996). It is a common herb found in clayey soil near water bodies and dried up ponds (<st1:city><st1:place><span class="apple-style-span">Madras</st1:place></st1:city><span class="apple-style-span"> Herbaria <st1:date year="2010" day="24" month="11"><span class="apple-style-span">24&#160;November&#160;2010</span></st1:date>).
176879		population	eng	This is a very common species in marshy areas.
176879		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
176881		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. But detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential.&#160; Understanding the impacts of threats on the species is paramount.
176881		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon kanarense </span>is distributed in Karnataka (Karwar to Manglore national highway), North Kanara district (Punekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2004) and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
176881		habitat	eng	It is common, forming dense cover on lateritic plateau along coast in moist soil in associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammannia</span> sp, <span style="font-style: italic;">Drosera indica, Fimbristylis</span> sp, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trithuria konkanensis, Utricularia reticulata</span> (Punekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
176881		population	eng	Locally abundant species.
176881		threats	eng	Widening of the National Highway may be a threat for this species there fore survey is required in adjacent areas.
176882		conservation	eng	No specific conservation actions have been proposed for this species. More research is needed to confirm&#160;geographic&#160;distribution, population trends and threats.
176882		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon sedgwickii</span> is endemic to Maharashtra in western India. Cook (1996) has provided a wider distribution but recent studies have confirmed it is only present in&#160;Maharashtra (Ansari and&#160;Balakrishnan 2009).
176882		habitat	eng	It grows on rock outcrops in moist shallow soil, ephemeral flush vegetation.
176882		population	eng	It is locally abundant in suitable habitats. Population is decreasing due to habitat loss.
176882		threats	eng	Land conversion due to housing, windmills, tourism, mining are major threats. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
176883		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
176883		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis nutans </span>is distributed in warm and tropical Asia and Australia (Cook 1996). <br/><br/>In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar, Assam, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh (Sidhi), Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu), Andhra Pradesh ( Bhargavan 1989, Cook 1996, Verma 2001, BSI Coimbatore).
176883		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant growing in damp sandy places, moist hollows in forests, swamps, rice fields and also saline situations (Cook 1996).
176883		population	eng	It is a locally abundant species.
176883		threats	eng	No species specific threats have been recorded.
176886		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>
176886		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Murdannia esculenta </span>is distributed in the Western and Eastern Ghats of India and Sri Lanka. In Tamil Nadu it is known from Coimbatore, Kanniyakumari, Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Trichy, Tirunelveli (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989), Kolli hills (Chittibabu and Parthasarathy 2000) and from Mysore in Karnataka (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">al</span>. 1984).
176886		habitat	eng	<p>This species found in damp or moist places but not in wetlands (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
176886		population	eng	<p>Quantitative study has recorded only 12 individuals in 100x100m square plot at Kolli Hills of Eastern Ghat in Tamil Nadu, India (Chittibabu and Parthasarathy 2000) </p>
176886		threats	eng	<p>There is no information about threats to this species.</p>
176887		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.     <p>&#160;</p>
176887		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus paniceus</span> is distributed in Australia, Myanmar, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Thailand. In India it is reported from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Rajesthan, Sikkim, West Bengal (Cook 1996). In Uttar Pradesh (Endemic to Himalayas) (Mukarji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), In Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Madurai, North Arcot, Thiruchirapalli and Tirunelveli) (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1987). In Madhya Pradesh (Mandla) (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Kerala it found in Kottayam, Palaghat, Quilon, Thiruvananthapuram. In Andra Pradesh it ocuurs in Chittoor, East Godavari, and Karimnagar (BSI, Coimbatore).
176887		habitat	eng	It grows in seasonally flooded places, marshes and roadsides (Cook 1996) and also in open grasslands (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987).
176887		population	eng	No population information for the species.
176887		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176888		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported.
176888		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Homonoia riparia </span>is distributed in Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Viet Nam. In India it is reported from Madhya Pradesh.(Shukla 1997), Maharasthra&#160; (Yadav and Sardesai 2002, Londhe 2001), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa (Rao and Kumari 2008) and Tamil Nadu (Chandrabose 1987).
176888		habitat	eng	It is common along the bank of drains and on rocky river beds also grows in evergreens (Shukla 1997, Rao and Kumari 2008). And also grows in regularly flooded places (<span class="addmd">Hanum and Maesen, 1997).
176888		population	eng	It is a very common species found along all rivers and streams.
176888		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species. <br/></p>
176889		conservation	eng	<p>Conservation actions are not known or needed.</p>
176889		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bacopa hamiltoniana</span> is found in Africa and Asia. It has been reported from Nigeria, Madagascar, Mozambique, Zambia, Ghana and Guinea. In Asia it is found in Bangladesh, Nepal and India. In India it is found in Assam, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Manipur, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
176889		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bacopa hamiltoniana</span> is an annual found growing in wet places at an altitude of 100-800 m. &#160;It is reported as a common weed in the rice fields.
176889		population	eng	Population data is not available.
176889		threats	eng	There are no specific threats known to this species.
176890		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not known. As it is known from only one location, site protection is needed. Surveys and impacts of threats along with population and habitat monitoring are recommended.
176890		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Munnar of Idukki District, Kerala where it has been recorded in only one site.<br/></p>
176890		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual or sometimes a perennial in deep waters. It grows in fast flowing streams and rivers and on submerged rocks.</p>
176890		population	eng	Population data is not known.
176890		threats	eng	Threats to the species have not been reported. The lower reaches of the&#160;Periyar River&#160;are heavily polluted, and the stretch where the species occurs is polluted by pesticide runoff from tea plantations. This is degrading the habitat and may be impacting the species also.
176891		conservation	eng	<p>Studies on distribution, population status, ecology and threats to this species are essential.&#160; <br/></p>
176891		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum subcapitatum</span> occurrs in Sri Lanka, Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan,  Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand  and Vietnam.&#160;In India, it is recorded from Tamil Nadu (Palni Hills and Nilgiri) with an altitude of 600-2300 m.&#160;</p><p><br/></p>
176891		habitat	eng	<p>It is perennial herb, found in open wetlands on hills or wet places, thickets, damp ledges in mountain woods.</p>
176891		population	eng	<p>Records from India are based on collections made by Wight in 1830s as reported in Gamble (1931). No information is available on the global population status of this species.<br/></p>
176891		threats	eng	<p>Threats to the species are unknown.<br/></p>
176892		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research in habitat status, biology and ecology, population numbers, and range should be encouraged. Improved knowledge in habitat maintenance and/or conservation is also required.
176892		distribution	eng	This species is native to tropical and subtropical Africa. In north Africa, it only occurs in Egypt. It is found in the drier regions of Africa, from western to East, from Nigeria to Sudan and Kenya through Central African Republic and north Cameroon. In Tanzania it has been recorded in the Masai district; Ngorongoro crater, Lake Magadi, Handeni districta and Segera.
176892		habitat	eng	This is a minute floating herb with colorless portion of the thallus suspended from the surface of the water, generally present in pools and slowly running water such as ditches. In North African region the plant grows in canals, ditches, and pools along the Nile river.
176892		population	eng	In Central Africa it is present across a wide range, but there are relatively few known sites. It is considered rare in Egypt and in North Eastern Africa where it is only known from two locations in Sudan Bara in Kordofan and Jebel Murra, and one location S. Somalia.
176892		threats	eng	As free-floating plant, the major threat faced by this species is the  extreme homogeneity of the whole population. Any serious fluctuation in  the water condition is likely to eradicate all the individuals in a  short period of time. This fluctuation can be the invasion of the water  surface by alien species,&#160; water pollution by human activities or natural disasters such as drought followed by extreme temperature. In Northern  Africa, the threats to this species are unknown, but eutrophication  might be a threat. Currently, no major threats at a Pan Africa level.
176893		conservation	eng	Studies on the taxonomy, distribution, population status and ecology are essential.
176893		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis salbundia</span> is distributed in Bangladesh, China (Yunnan), Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Myanmar (Cook 1996). In India it is known to occur in Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari- Mahendrgiri slope and Dindigul) (BSI Coimbatore) and Kerala (Agasthiya mala peak) (Mohan and Srinivasan 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis salbundia</span> subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">pentaptera</span> is endemic to Sri Lanka and southern India, subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">salbundia</span> is only at Meghalaya.
176893		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb commonly grows in higher altitudes, wet open places, marshes, swamps and grasslands (Cook 1996).
176893		population	eng	Population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis salbundia</span> subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">pentaptera</span> is extremely rare and represented by only from three collections from Tamil Nadu and one collection from Kerala. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
176893		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
176894		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. &#160;Urgent surveys are recommended along with studies on life history, impacts of harvest and threats. &#160;Long term monitoring of populations and habitat along with site conservation recommended urgently.</p>
176894		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia cecilii </span>is endemic to Western Ghats and is known from Kulshekar, Mangalore (Karnataka State) and Beemanadi, Periya, Mullariya in Kasaragod District (Kerala State) (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).</p>
176894		habitat	eng	<p>It grows as a terrestrial plant in damp, shallow soils over laterite and wet or water logged places over laterite rocks; from sea-level to 700 m.</p>
176894		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species. Locally abundant in Kasargod, where it is seen in laterite rocks forming a violet carpet during the flowering season and can easily be recognised even from a moving bus (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).<br/></p>
176894		threats	eng	<p>Increasing urbanization and associated developmental activities is a threat to the habitats of this species within its range. Collection of flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. cecilli </span>can be a potential threat. <br/></p>
176897		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
176897		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella mucronata</span> is a freshwater species and known from Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (Pal <em>et al.</em> 1962). It is also recorded in Slovakia (Hrivnak <em>et al</em>. 2001), western Poland (Gabka <em>et al</em>. 2010), Guianas (Boggan <em>et al</em>. 1997), Oman, Saudi Arabia (Hussain and Victor 2003), Romania, Norway, UK, Portugal, Spain, Hungary and Korea.</p>
176897		habitat	eng	<p>It can be seen in natural or artificially ditched excavation with a shallow water level in the flood plain.</p>
176897		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176897		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
176898		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
176898		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kyllinga melanosperma</span> is distributed in Africa, tropical and temperate Asia and Australia. In India is found in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
176898		habitat	eng	<p>It is perennial plant found growing near the water, by streams, wet grass lands, in swamps and marshes. It grows as a mat to form floating vegetation. It also grows in seepage of tanks and canals. It is found growing from sea level up to 2000 m.</p>
176898		population	eng	This is a common plant, but no specific population data is known.
176898		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widespread and common plant.
176901		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.<br/></p>
176901		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lobelia alsinoides</span> is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> It is found in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Assam, Goa, Meghalaya, Manipur and West Bengal (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
176901		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual herb and often very abundant in wet rice fields, roadside ditches and in other wet or inundated places (Cook 1996).&#160; Also common in disturbed moist deciduous forests and plantations (Sasidharan and Sivarajan 1996).</p>
176901		population	eng	<p>It is very common.<br/></p>
176901		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176902		conservation	eng	It is considered important to conserve germplasm of this species as  ancestor of cultivated rice. In China, a program on in-situ conservation has been started.
176902		distribution	eng	<em>Oryza  rufipogon</em> is a widely distributed tropical plant.It has been recorded in Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia , Iran, Iraq, Korea, DPR, Republic of Korea, Laos , Malaysia, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines , Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam), Africa (Egypt Senegal Swaziland Tanzania), North America (USA), Central America, South America (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela, Oceania), Australia (Australia Queensland Papua New Guinea).
176902		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oryza rufipogon </span>grows in shallow water, irrigated fields, pools, ditches and sites with stagnant or slow, running water. It occurs at altitudes from 0 to 1000 m and is suited to sites that support populations of cultivated rice.
176902		population	eng	The species is widely distributed and has invasive tendencies.
176902		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the population of this species. It is being actively controlled in many areas as it competes with the cultivated rice.
176904		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
176904		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Africa (from Senegal to western Cameroon), from south and southeast Asia (China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangxi, Fujian (Fuqing Xian), Hainan); Indonesia (Java); <span id="lblTaxonDesc">India (Andaman, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu);<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> Lao PDR, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam) (Flora of China; eFloras 2011). It is also reported from Australia (northern Western Australia, Northern Territory <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"> and Queensland)<span id="lblTaxonDesc">. The species is likely to have a wider distribution (e.g., in Indonesia) than the available records show.<br/></span></span></span>
176904		habitat	eng	An annual species found mostly in wet places, in rice fields and often on wet sand around drying ponds.
176904		population	eng	It is reported as locally frequent and abundant.
176904		threats	eng	It is inferred that the habitat loss such as the conversion of wetlands, swamps into plantations and agricultural lands, may be a threat.
176905		conservation	eng	Since this species is closely related to <em>C. iria</em>, which is a common cosmopolitan species, conservation action is not needed for the species.
176905		distribution	eng	Cook (1996) reported the species as endemic to India, Nepal and Pakistan. He reported the distribution in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab and Rajasthan. &#160;It is common in all districts in Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). In Madhya Pradesh the species is reported from Balaghat, Damoh,&#160;Hoshangabad,&#160;Indore, Mandla, &#160;Ratlam, Satna, Sidhi, Tikamgarh and West Nimar in Madhya Pradesh. It is also seen in Bilaspur,&#160;Durg,&#160;Raipur and &#160;Surguja in&#160;Chhattisgarh (Verma 2001).<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
176905		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb growing around 30 cm in height (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is found in marshes, ditches and in rice fields. It is mostly found on hills and is not confined to wetlands.
176905		population	eng	It is a widespread species, but there is no recorded information on the population of the species. However, since it is very similar to <em>C. iria</em>, this species is presumed to be common (J. Augustine and M.K.V. Rao pers. comm.).
176905		threats	eng	There is no specific threats for this species.
176906		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known.
176906		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Queenslandiella hyalina</span> is  widespread in tropical coastal habitats from eastern Africa through  islands of  the Indian Ocean, South Asia, Malaysia and Australia. In India it is found in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
176906		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Queenslandiella hyalina</span> is  widespread in coastal habitats and swampy places.
176906		population	eng	This is a widespread species.
176906		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
176908		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures known.
176908		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus clarkei </span>is endemic to India, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam and Myanmar.&#160;In India it is found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.</p>
176908		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus clarkei</span> is a perennial plant growing in seasonally flooded places and on wet sand in river beds. It is seen in the plains up to an altitude of 1,500 m. </p>
176908		population	eng	Population data is not known for the species.
176908		threats	eng	There are no specific threats known.
176911		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not known for this plant, but it is easily&#160;propagated.
176911		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus diffusus</span> is native to tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;</span>In India it is found in Madhya Pradesh, Andra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
176911		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus diffusus</span> grows by by pools and ponds with roots submerged in water. It grows in moist to boggy soil. Its growth is better in full sun, but can tolerate some shade. It is also grown as a  houseplant.
176911		population	eng	Population data is not known.
176911		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
176912		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176912		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala serpyllifolia</span> is annual or perennial in permanent water. In India, it is widely spread in southern, central, eastern and northwestern India (Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and also seen in Bangladesh and Pakistan (Cook 1996; Pullaiah and Chennaiah 1997). <br/></p>
176912		habitat	eng	<p>It grows submerged in rivers, streams and lakes but is also found in standing water recedes. The shoots are often tightly packed and turf-forming (Cook 1996). It grows in seasonally inundated areas and flowers as the water recedes. The erect stems are often dense and cushion-forming (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176912		population	eng	<p>There is no information about global population of this species. In Andhra Pradesh the species is rarely found in Warangal, Hyderabad and Kurnool (Pullaiah and Chennaiah 1997; B. Sadasivaiah pers. comm.).</p>
176912		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
176913		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are in place for this species. &#160;Studies on distribution and threats are recommended.</p>
176913		distribution	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Parochetus communis</span> is occurs in the tropics from Africa, South and South East Asia and the Pacific Islands. In India it is known from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,  Himachal Pradesh,  Jammu and Kashmir,  Karnataka,  Manipur,  Meghalaya,  Punjab,  Sikkim,  Tamil Nadu,  Uttar Pradesh and  West Bengal. </p>
176913		habitat	eng	<p>It is mostly located in submontane or montane forest floor, and on stream and river banks in damp shady places (ILDIS).</p>
176913		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176913		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176914		conservation	eng	Urgent surveys are required to establish the distribution of the species in areas of suitable habitat and in the only known location as well as to understand current of potential threats.
176914		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena swamyii&#160;</span>is endemic to Tamil Nadu (Madurai District) in India (Cook 1996). The species is known only from the type locality and for the last two decades several surveys in the areas have not revealed its presence.
176914		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena swamyi </span>is a perennial plant,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>growing in marshy places in grasslands (Cook 1996).
176914		population	eng	No population information for this species.
176914		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known. &#160;However, species has not been recorded from the type locality as well as the surrounding areas in the last two decades. Future development activities in the known area of occurrence will potentially impact the species if its still present.
176918		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for the species. Detailed research for the taxonomy, ecology, life history, population status and threat, habitat and population monitoring for the species are recommended. Protection of the habitat (shola and grassland) is highly essential.
176918		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrocotyle conferta</em>&#160;is endemic to southern Western Ghats.&#160;The species is distributed in Nilgiri and Palni hills of Tamil Nadu, India (Gamble 1921, Nayar and Sastry 1988).&#160;<br/><em><br/></em>
176918		habitat	eng	This is a high altitude species that occurs above 2,000 m. A prostrate herb on sunny open hill slopes and along forest margins near to river margins (Nayar and Sastry 1988).
176918		population	eng	The species is rare and is inferred to have undergone a continuing decline as the habitat of the species has undergone heavy destruction in recent decades (Nayar and Sastry 1988).
176918		threats	eng	Alteration of habitat in the form of monoculture, forest fire, deforestation for tourism and urbanization, grazing are some of the major threats impacting this species (Nayar and Sastry 1988), degrading the known habitats and reducing the extent of suitable areas.
176919		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of the population and threats are essential.
176919		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon rouxianum </span>is endemic to Maharashtra (Bombay and Nasik) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Lakshminarasimhan and Sharma1991). It is probably extinct (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009). There was a recent collection of the species from Igatpuri in Nasik District of Maharashtra by T.K. Patel in 1982 but this location was overlooked by earlier researchers (Mishra and Singh 2001) and it has not been recorded again after that.
176919		habitat	eng	Known from marshy places (Mishra and Singh 2001).
176919		population	eng	<p>It is reported from only one location in Maharashtra.<br/></p>
176919		threats	eng	Increasing urbanization threatens the only known habitat of this species impacting the quality and extent of suitable areas for this species.
176921		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action known for the species.
176921		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis aphylla</em> is distributed from tropical Africa to Asia and China. The species is seen in Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in India (Cook 1996).
176921		habitat	eng	Perennial or perhaps also annual found in wet places and swamps (Cook 1996).
176921		population	eng	There is no information on population status of the species.
176921		threats	eng	There is no information on the threat to the species.
176923		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place or required.
176923		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis ovata </span>is distributed in the pantropics.<br/><br/>In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1996).
176923		habitat	eng	It is often found in marshes, seasonally inundated areas, at the edges of pools, lakesides, and ditches (Cook 1996).
176923		population	eng	It is a very common species.
176923		threats	eng	No species specific threats are reported.
176924		conservation	eng	No conservation actions need to be taken for the species. Research on&#160;taxonomy&#160;, population size and life history required in the aspect of conservation.
176924		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clinopodium capitellatum</span> is known to be distributed from Western Himalaya to southern India. Recorded from Maharashtra (Mumbai and Satara),<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris) (Srinivasan 1987) and Chattisgarh (Raipur, Bilaspur, Surguja) Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat) (Singh<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001).
176924		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clinopodium capitellatum </span>is a herb, growing on hill slopes and banks of streams (Srinivasan 1987).
176924		population	eng	It is a rare species.
176924		threats	eng	No specific threats to the species.
176925		conservation	eng	No conservation action is proposed or is necessary for this species.
176925		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis unioloides</span>&#160;is cosmopolitan in nature and has invasive tendencies. It is known from India and Sri Lanka. Grassbase (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2006) records it from Africa (west tropical, west-central tropical, and western Indian ocean). Asia-temperate (Arabia, China, and eastern Asia).  Asia-tropical (India, Indo-China, Malaysia, and Paupa New Guinea). Australasia (Australia).
176925		habitat	eng	The species grows in all types of dry and wet habitats and is tolerant to heavy disturbance and forms pure patches in such areas.
176925		population	eng	Although population studies in detail have not been carried out, it is abundant everywhere. Observations in Maharashtra (A. Watve pers. obs. 2007) showed that it forms dense patches on many disturbed areas sometimes with 300 individuals within 1 km<sup>2.</sup>
176925		threats	eng	The species grows in all types of dry and wet habitats and is tolerant to heavy disturbance and forms pure patches in such areas.
176927		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported or is needed.
176927		distribution	eng	It is distributed in old world tropics. It is reported from Australia, Cameroon, Mexico, New Zealand,&#160; Africa and south East Asia. It is considered as an invasive in USA.
176927		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glossostigma diandrum</span>&#160;is a small herb growing attached to rocks in seasonal or perennial streams and shallow waterlogged areas. It has mostly cleistogamous flowers but some may open leading to insect pollination. It grows along lakes, ponds, streams, rivers attached to rocky substrate. Forms large mats in muddy areas and flowers when water recedes.
176927		population	eng	Although population studies are not available, the species is reported to be widely distributed and locally common forming gregarious mats in waterbodies, rice fields etc.
176927		threats	eng	No threats are reported. It is included in invasive species and is spread in four continents. Although many of the waterbodies in India have pollution on higher levels, any threat to this species has not been reported so far.
176928		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and monitoring of population and habitat are recommended.
176928		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bolbitis subcrenata </span>is distributed in southern India and and Sri Lanka at the altitude of 600 to 900 m (Hennipman 1977). In 2002 Jagtap and Singh reported from Maharasthra (Pune, Satara, Kolhapur, Raigad, Ratnagiri). It occurs in the Western Ghats of Kerala (Kannur, Wayanad, Palakkad, Thrissur, Thiruvananthapuram, Cochin; Kozhikode, Idukki; K.P. Rajesh and C.N. Manju pers. comm.), and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris; Manickam and Irudayaraj 2003). It is also reported from Karnataka&#160; (Hennipman 1977).
176928		habitat	eng	It grows on rocks near streams and on slope under shade in moist forests (Hennipman 1997) and is also seen in hilly forests (Kothari and Moorthy 1993).
176928		population	eng	It is a common species in Kerala, but rare in Tamil Nadu.
176928		threats	eng	The threats to the species are not known.
176929		conservation	eng	<p> <span dir="ltr" id=":uu">No conservation actions are known or needed for the species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
176929		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia anagallis</span>&#160;is widely distributed in Australia, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Japan, Laos,  Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal  and Vietnam. In India,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it is known from the peninsular India at an altitude of 0-1500m. In India, it is confined to Kerala, Maharastra, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Sikkim, Manipur, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).<br/></p><p>  </p><p><br/></p>
176929		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in marshy places, banks of ponds, riversides and wet rice fields (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
176929		population	eng	<p>Gregarious and locally abundant (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
176929		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
176932		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
176932		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Justicia quinqueangularis </span>is distributed in Taiwan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Nepal. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Northern Circars (Cook 1996, Rao and Kumari 2008).
176932		habitat	eng	It is an perennial or annual plant, grows in wet, shady and marshy places, at the edges of ponds, streams and in rice fields. It is not confined to wetlands and is also found in fields and waste places (Cook 1996, Rao and Kumari 2008).
176932		population	eng	Common species found throughout India.
176932		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
176933		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
176933		distribution	eng	<p>It is endemic to peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009). The species is widespread in several states and has been recorded from at least eight localities which cover a&#160;extensive&#160;area across southern India.<strong></strong></p>
176933		habitat	eng	It frequently occurs in water-logged open lands of high altitudes.
176933		population	eng	This species is common in its suitable habitat although it does not disperse easily.
176933		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
176936		conservation	eng	Conservation activities have not been reported, nor are they required.
176936		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ischaemum molle</span>&#160;is distributed in temperate and tropical Asia. It is present in Arabia, Indo-China, Myanmar and Pakistan.&#160;In India it is distributed in Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.</p>
176936		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ischaemum molle</span> is a perennial plant growing in marshes, forming tufts. </p>
176936		population	eng	Population data has not been reported.
176936		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
176937		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
176937		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypleurum dichotomum</span> is endemic to India, found in Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.</p>
176937		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in fast flowing streams and rivers and on submerged rocks.</p>
176937		population	eng	It occurrence is reported as rare.
176937		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176938		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>
176938		distribution	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Zeylanidium barberi</span> is endemic to India. It occurs in Karnataka (Beltangadi, Dakshina Kannada), Chattisgarh (Bastar) and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore) (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
176938		habitat	eng	It is a submerged and closely attached to the rocks (Subramanyam 1962).
176938		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176938		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176939		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
176939		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia ciliata</span> is a common stiff erect herb and widely distributed in tropical Asia to Australia. In India it is found in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
176939		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual herb found along the banks of post-monsoon streams, in rice fields, moist ground, damp rocks, lateritic slopes and in wet grassland (Cook 1996). It is common in open grassy patches in moist deciduous forest (Sasidharan and Sivarajan 1996). It favours sunny, or lightly shaded, disturbed sites in light, sandy or gravelly, soils. It prefers moist sites and can tolerate several days of submergence (Singh et al. 1983). Habitats include rice fields, waste areas, fallow fields, roadsides and disturbed natural vegetation (Soerjani et al. 1987).</p>
176939		population	eng	<p>Often gregarious (Cook 1996). Enumerated studies recorded 0.9 individuals per square meter in upland paddy field of Mahendranagar in Nepal (Bhatt et al. 2009) and more than 10 individuals per square meter in southwestern Bengal (Mishra and Roy 2002).</p>
176939		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
176940		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
176940		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella oligospira</span> is widespread. Recorded from USA, Brazil, Viet Nam, New Caledonia and India (at Teyanampet in Chennai and Vandalur in Kanchipuram district of Tamil Nadu (Pal <em>et al. </em>1962)).</p>  <p> </p>
176940		habitat	eng	It can be seen in paddy fields or water logged areas on roadsides.
176940		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176940		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176942		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on the population and life history studies are recommended for this highly restricted and little studied species. Monitoring of the population and habitat is urgently required.<br/></p>
176942		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isachne meeboldii</span> is endemic to Western Ghats, India and reported from two locations. In Karnataka, it is reported from Shimoga, Kumsi (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Cook 1996). In Maharashtra, it is known to occur in Aurangabad (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
176942		habitat	eng	It is a perennial erect herb (Ahemdullah and Nayar 1987) growing in pastures of open grasslands (Lakshminarasimhan<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>1996).
176942		population	eng	There is no information on global population trends. However, it is known that the population is severely fragmented as there has been extensive habitat loss between the only two known sub-populations.
176942		threats	eng	Since its description in 1932, the grasslands where the species is found are under threat in the Western Ghats due to human impacts such as plantations and land conversion for urbanization.  The Aurangabad subpopulation could potentially be affected by urbanization too.
176943		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
176943		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India east to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula and south through Indochina and Peninsular Malaysia to Indonesia. Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) reported the species as extinct in Bangladesh, however Rahman (2006) records the species from Chittagong and Dhaka.<br/><p><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span></p>
176943		habitat	eng	<p>The species grows in marshy ground, wet low-lying areas, the margins of ponds and in rice fields. It forms mats of vegetation in seasonally inundated areas and marshy banks of streams and ponds. 500-1,400 m alt. </p>
176943		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176943		threats	eng	<p>No threats are known for this species. <br/></p>
176946		conservation	eng	Studies on distribution, population status, ecology and threats are essential as only one authentic report is available from Maharashtra for India.
176946		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis pubisquama </span>is  distributed in Australia, Indonesia, Viet Nam and Indochina (Myanmar and Sri  Lanka). In India it is reported from Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996) and  Maharasthtra (Sindhudurg) (Lakshminarasimhan1996). Report from Tamil Nadu is based on White and Roxburgh collection made in 1870s but the species is not included in Tamil Nadu analysis by Bhargavan (1989).
176946		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, grows at the edges of drying pools, rice fields, wet flushes, saline marshes, open grasslands and seashore (Cook 1996).
176946		population	eng	No information on the population status of the species.
176946		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
176948		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. &#160;Since this carnivorous plant occupies a specific niche, more studies to understand the distribution and impacts of threats are urgently required. &#160;Long term monitoring of habitats and populations would indicate its actual status in the wild.
176948		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the southern parts of Western Ghats (Kerala, southern Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) (Janarthanam and Henry 1992), occurring widely throughout its range.<em></em>
176948		habitat	eng	This perennial carnivore plant&#160;grows&#160;along marshy places at high altitudes above 1000 m.
176948		population	eng	No information available. It has been recorded in various locations.
176948		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been identified.
176949		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
176949		distribution	eng	This species&#160; is wide spread in south east Asia and also found in Australia.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>In India it is distributed in Maharashtra, Assam, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Cook 1996, Kantachot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
176949		habitat	eng	It is perennial often found along rivers, in marshes and in seasonally inundated places including rice fields (Cook 1996).
176949		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176949		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176950		conservation	eng	Conservation actions have not been reported or needed.
176950		distribution	eng	It is known from Africa and southern India, Iran to Indo-China and Viet Nam.
176950		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Murdannia semiteres </span>is annual common in wet areas, drying pools, wet rocks, stream edges.
176950		population	eng	Although population studies in detail have not been carried out, it is abundant in early monsoon and grows on wet rocks. Observations in Maharashtra (A. Watve pers. obs. 2007) showed that it forms dense patches on wet rocks sometimes with 250 individuals within 1 km<sup>2</sup>.
176950		threats	eng	The only major threat to this species is land use change.
176951		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
176951		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus mitis </span>is reported from China (Yunnan, Mengla, Zhenxiong), Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Madagascar. Australia and Bangladesh (www.efloras.org). In India it is reported from Goa, Maharasthra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Tamil Nadu at the altitude of 700 to 900 (Cook 1996).&#160;<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><p>  </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>                         <p>                         </p>                          <p>                           <span id="lblLowerTaxonList"></p></span>
176951		habitat	eng	It grows in margins of ditches.
176951		population	eng	It is a common species.
176951		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176953		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are necessary.
176953		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aniseia martinicensis</span> is widespread across Americas, Africa, Asia and Australasia and the Pacific.
176953		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb grows along the marshy ridges, in moist and swampy ground, often abundant in rice fields. Mostly near to the coast, sometimes along river banks in deciduous forests and also in grass lands (Cook 1996, Venkanna and Das 2001).
176953		population	eng	It is a rare species.
176953		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
176954		conservation	eng	The species whole population is located within a protected area: Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. There should be more research and monitoring on the current population and its habitat.
176954		distribution	eng	It is a steno-endemic species, known only from its type locality, Thulukkanparai, Tirukkurungudi, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Cook 1996). There is a recent collection from the same area (K. Ravikumar pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Specimen&#160;is stored in FRLHT, Bangalore.
176954		habitat	eng	Aquatic in habitat found in swamps.
176954		population	eng	No information is available.
176954		threats	eng	Conversion to plantations is a potential future threat to the species. However, it is not certain whether this is affecting or not the species.
176955		conservation	eng	No conservation action known for the species.&#160;Detailed research for ecology and population status for the species is recommended.
176955		distribution	eng	Globally distributed in tropical Asia and Oceania. In India, it has been collected from Chikmangalore, Hassan, Kodagu, Mysore, Shimoga and Uttara Kannada districts of Karnataka State (Saldhana 1996) and central Kerala (Sasidharan and Shivarajan 1996). Also reported from the erstwhile Bombay Presidency (Pradhan&#160;2001) and Tamil Nadu (Mathew 1991) .
176955		habitat	eng	It is an annual found in streams in the Western Ghats, closely attached to rocks (Cook 1996). Also frequents moist and shaded places in Shola floors, stream banks, rotting woods (Mathew 1991).
176955		population	eng	There is no population data for the species.
176955		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
176956		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
176956		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Merremia gangetica</span> is a pan tropical species found in Southeast Asia, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Australia and tropical Africa. In India, it is commonly found in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kerala and Madhya Pradesh (Cook 1996).
176956		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial herb, found in marshes, on the banks of canals and pools where it is frequently inundated (Cook 1996). It is also found&#160; in wastelands, waterlogged areas, roadsides, grasslands, on clay to sandy soils.</p>
176956		population	eng	<p>Although the population information is unknown throughout its range, some studies indicate an increase in density in Harni pond, Baroda (Dave and Krishnayya 2004) and Patharia hills in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh (Thakur and Khare 2010).</p>
176956		threats	eng	<p>This plant is threatened by human disturbance in Patharia hills of Sagar, Madhya Pradesh (Thakur and Khare 2010).</p>
176957		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
176957		distribution	eng	<p>It is a paleotropic species mainly occurring in Africa, South and Southeast Asia and extending to Australia and Japan. In India, it is commonly known in Andaman, Delhi, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
176957		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial reed and often very abundant, found in swamps, in shallow water at the margins of lakes, ponds, in and along streams, ditches and irrigation canals (Cook 1996). It is an emergent plant present on the sides and shallow area of the lake in District Bhimber Azad Kashmir, Pakistan (Khuhawar et al. 2009).</p>
176957		population	eng	Common and widespread species.
176957		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176958		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential. Understanding the impacts of threats on the species is paramount.
176958		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Farmeria indica </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu (Tamirabarani river in Tirunelveli) and Kerala (Idukki and Thiruvananthapuram) (Kumari 1987, Sasidharan 2004, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
176958		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Farmeria indica </span>is an aquatic herb (Sasidharan 2004) found in rivers and streams (Cook 1996).
176958		population	eng	It is inferred to be declining due to threats to its habitat.
176958		threats	eng	Increasing urbanization, agriculture and associated development pressures such as pollution and extensive habitat loss or threatens the habitats of this species in the three locations from where they are known.
176959		conservation	eng	Surveys to determine the distribution range, population size and trends and threats are required.
176959		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena tuwensis</span> is endemic to India: Gujarat (Guwa), Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Cook 1996, Ahmadullah and Nayar 1987). In Madhya Pradesh it is reported from Shivpuri (Verma 2001).
176959		habitat	eng	It grows in moist grounds and margins of ditches (Cook 1996).
176959		population	eng	No information about population of the species.
176959		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
176960		conservation	eng	Specific conservation measures are not known or needed for this widespread species.
176960		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ammannia octandra</em> is distributed in South and South East Asia (Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India). In India it is found in Andhra Pradesh,&#160;Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.</p>
176960		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual. It grows in low lying moist places, edge of tanks, marshes and rice fields. </p>
176960		population	eng	There is no population information available for this widespread species.
176960		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Developmental activities are a general threat which may impact its habitat.
176961		conservation	eng	No conservation actions needed for this species.
176961		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus pangorei </span>is recorded from the Indian subcontinent, Maurititus, Sulawesi,  Bangladesh, China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Hainan, Hunan, Sichuan), Myanmar, Malaysia, SriLanka, Nepal and Pakistan. In India it occurs in Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka (Mysore),  Meghayala, Maharashtra (Aurwad, Bastwad, Dattawad, Kurundwad, Kolhapur),  Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu (Almost all districts),  Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Yadev and Sardesai 2002). In  Madhya Pradesh it is known to occur in Balaghat, Bastra, Bilaspur, Dhar,  East Nimar,  Hoshangabad, Indore, Mandla, Panna, Rewa, Raigarh, Raipur, Rajnandgaon,  Sagar, Satna, Seoni, Sidhi, Tikamgarh, West Nimar (Singh <em>et al</em>. 2001).  In Kerala it is reported from Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kannur, Idukki,  Palaghat, Quilon, Trichur, Thiruvananthapuram. In Andhra  Pradesh it is reported from Cuddapah, Diguvametta, Karimnagar,  Khammam, Kurnool, Medak, Visakapatnam (BSI Coimbatore) at the altitude of 1800 m.
176961		habitat	eng	It is an perennial plant grows in wet places, marshes, river banks, stream beds, often found standing in water and in rice fields (Cook 1996).
176961		population	eng	No population information for the species.
176961		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
176962		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
176962		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pycreus sanguinolentus</span> is distributed in Old World tropics to subtropics: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Pakistan. In India, it is widely spread in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Megalaya, Kashmir, Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Orissa, Punjab, Rajastan, Goa, Gujarat and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Cook 1996).&#160;It is found at an altitude of 250 to 1650m in the Western Ghats. </p>
176962		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual or perennial in permanent water. However, common in wet open places, swamps, margins of pools, river banks and wet rice fields (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
176962		population	eng	<p>This is a locally abundant species. <br/></p>
176962		threats	eng	<p>No threat information for this species.</p>
176963		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
176963		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs throughout southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and India east to southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan, southern Yunnan), Taiwan (Province of China), and south through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
176963		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>The species grows on the margins of ponds, in marshes, wet low-lying areas, wet grassy habitats and in rice fields.<br/></p>
176963		population	eng	Often locally very abundant (Cook 1996).
176963		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176964		conservation	eng	No need for specific conservation action plan.
176964		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis dipsacea</span> is distributed from tropical Africa to Asia, Australia, and south America.<br/><br/>In India it is reported from Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
176964		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant growing on muddy or lake or pond shores, river banks, wet rice fields, in marshes and in seasonally wet places. Fresh waters and wet sandy grounds (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan1996).
176964		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range.
176964		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
176965		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
176965		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon fluviatile </span>is known from Sri Lanka and India. In India it is reported from Kerala (Vythiri, Wayanad) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994; 2009), Karnataka (Anmod Ghat) (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011), Maharashtra (near Kas Lake, Satara) (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011) and Madhya Pradesh (Cook 1996).
176965		habitat	eng	It is an aquatic herb, growing submerged in swiftly flowing streams, rooting on rocks and in mud. The heads only emerging above the water surface. Often grows in running waters in colonies (Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Cook 1996).
176965		population	eng	<p>It is a common species in Maharashtra (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).<br/></p>
176965		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.   <p>&#160;</p>
176968		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed.
176968		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis retroflexa </span>is distributed in tropics of the Old World (Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal). In India it is known to occur in Andaman and Nicobar, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur, Raigarh, Raipur), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg), Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Verma 2001).
176968		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb, grows in&#160; shallow water and along the marshy banks of pools, ditches and rice fields, sometimes found in open moist places and along streams in plains (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
176968		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
176968		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
176969		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and studies on ecology, threats, habitat, population and trends are urgently required.</p>
176969		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala malabarica </span>is a short-lived annual plant and is endemic to southern India confined to one location in Kannur District in Kerala (Cook 1996).</p>
176969		habitat	eng	<p>It is short-lived annual and found in seasonally pools in depressions on lateritic rocks containing rich deposits of humus. The plant grows together with <span style="font-style: italic;">R. malampuzhensis</span> in temporary pools in depressions on lateritic rocks containing rich deposits of humus.</p>
176969		population	eng	<p>Nothing is known about the population of this species. However, since there is laterite mining in the habitat of the species, it is inferred that the population is declining.</p>
176969		threats	eng	<p>The species and the habitat it was discovered in are threatened by lateritic mining. The species is also threatened from the use of herbicides in the adjoining cashew plantations.</p>
176970		conservation	eng	Conservation activities for the species are not needed.
176970		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Murdannia pauciflora</span> is known from southwestern India and Malaysia. In India is it found in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra a<a class="x-tab-right" href="https://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text  "></span></em></a>nd Tamil Nadu.</p>
176970		habitat	eng	<p>It grows either as annual or perennial. It is found on wet muddy soil in rice fields and marshes. It is also found floating on water.&#160; </p>
176970		population	eng	Data on population is not known.
176970		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
176972		conservation	eng	No conservation action reported for the species.
176972		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Commelinea erecta </span>is distributed world wide. In Americas, tropical Africa, West Indies, Australia and Asia. In India<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it is reported from Andhra Pradesh (Rao and Kumari 2008) Gujarat, Kerala, Maharasthra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Madhya Pradesh (Khanna and Ram Saran 2001), Rajasthan <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> and Tamil Nadu (Bhargavan 1989).
176972		habitat	eng	<p>   </p><p>Commonly grows in muddy soil, marshes and in between rocks (Khanna and Ram Saran 2001). However, Cook (1996) has excluded this species stating that it is not a wetland species. <br/></p>
176972		population	eng	It is a wide spread species.
176972		threats	eng	Their is no threat information for the species.
176973		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
176973		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria attenuata</span> is a small annual herb. In India, it is distributed in Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Madurai, North Arcot, Tirunelveli), Karnataka (Chikmagalur, Hassan, Mysore, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga) and Madhya Pradesh (Bastar).
176973		habitat	eng	The floating emergent vegetation <span style="font-style: italic;">P. attenuata</span>&#160;also forms extensive beds in some reaches. This species is present along the river banks, but is not inundated at the end of the dry season, water levels having receded from the plants. Therefore, it is not possible to sample this emergent habitat in the late dry season – but it will likely be present in the wet season.
176973		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176973		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
176975		conservation	eng	<p>The species has been recorded in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand. More research in species ecology and population status is recommended. &#160;The identity of the population occurring in southern India needs to be established taxonomically.<br/></p>
176975		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypleurum wallichii</span> is known from northeastern India, Myanmar,&#160;Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand. In India, it is distributed in Meghalaya and Assam. It has also been reported from Kannur, Kozhikode and Palghat of Kerala.</p>
176975		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual or sometimes a perennial in deep waters. It grows in fast flowing streams and rivers and on submerged rocks.</p>
176975		population	eng	<p>No information available.</p>
176975		threats	eng	Threats to the species have not been reported although the localities in Cambodia, Lao and Thailand are scenic areas and therefore may be impacted by tourism in the future.
176979		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
176979		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala verticillaris</span> is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka. In India, this species is confined to Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996), Karnataka (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984) and&#160;Maharashtra (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).</p>
176979		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual or perhaps also sometimes perennial. It is found in pools and along the marshy margins of ponds. It flowers as the water recedes (Cook 1996).</p>
176979		population	eng	<p>Cook (1979) has recorded that the most recent collection from southern India that he could see was of 1915, and that 'it has become very rare or even extinct. However, Joseph and Sivarajan (1989) could find collections as recent as 1978 in the Madras Herbarium. Matthew (1983) recently collected this species and reported that it is locally abundant in the marshy margins of ponds in Tamil Nadu Carnatic. It is a locally abundant species.</p>
176979		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176980		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Urgent studies on distribution, threats and impacts, and monitoring of population and habitat trends are recommended along with conserving the only location.
176980		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon sivarajanii </span>is endemic to Kerala (Kozhikode) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996; Sasidharan 2004; Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
176980		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, which grows in moist places and wet flushes on the coastal plains. It is rare but locally abundant (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996).
176980		population	eng	The population seems to be declining due to habitat loss.
176980		threats	eng	The area where the species is recorded from is under threat from urbanization and development projects which are degrading the known habitat.
176981		conservation	eng	Detailed study on taxonomy, ecology and population trend of the species is&#160;highly&#160;recommended. Actions for conservation of habitats recommended.
176981		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Nagpur in India (Mathew and Nayar 1992, Cook 1996, Diwakar&#160;2001).&#160; Surveys in rest of Maharashtra did not report the existence of this species (Diwakar&#160;2001).
176981		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb which grows in paddy fields, river banks and other moist places (Cook 1996, Diwakar 2001).
176981		population	eng	There is no information&#160;available&#160;on the population of the species.
176981		threats	eng	Urbanization, pollution and land conversion for agricultural purpose have been identified as important threats to this species.
176983		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
176983		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalidium punctatum</span> is a common species found in Western Ghats at an attitude of 0-400m and can be treated as common weed in rice fields. It is commonly distributed in East Africa and tropical Asia. In India, it is widely distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jammu and Kasmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal (Cook 1996). It is widely spread almost all the districts in Tamil Nadu.
176983		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial plant found in marshes, along the edges of ponds, canals, streams and other wet places. A common weed in rice fields and also a excellent fodder (Cook 1996).</p>
176983		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
176983		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176985		conservation	eng	Surveys and monitoring are needed to understand the distribution and population and habitat trends of this species.
176985		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elaphoglossum beddomei </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu - Nilgiri, Anamalai mountains (Nayar and Sastry 1988;&#160;Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003) and Tirunelveli Hills (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992) between 1000 to 2100 m. and Palakkad, Idukki, Thiruvananthapuram, Pattanamthitta districts in Kerala at 800-1900 m (Nayar and Geevarghese 1993, Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, Majeed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).
176985		habitat	eng	It is lithophyte along streams or epiphyte along stream banks under shade growing at altitudes of 1000 to 2100 m (Nayar and Sastry 1988).
176985		population	eng	It is very common with small or large colonies as lithophytes or epiphytes.
176985		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p><br/></p>
176986		conservation	eng	Several attempts were made to relocate the species but it has not been recorded again. If it were re-discovered, major actions would be needed to try to protect this species, and increase its population.
176986		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bonnayodes limnophiloides</span> was endemic to the Western Ghats in Bhushi Lake, Lonavala, Pune. It is now considered as extinct in the type locality. similar areas of suitable habitat have not been surveyed looking for this species.
176986		habitat	eng	It was found growing at the bottom of a dried lake.
176986		population	eng	The holotype collection was made in 1918. Later, the type locality was been surveyed several times but it could not be found again. Between 1996 and 1998, efforts were made re-discover it but surveys were unsuccessful (Mishra and Singh 2001). No further collections have been made and it is considered extinct.
176986		threats	eng	Although this species has not been found again, the exact cause for its extinction is not known.
176987		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
176987		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pycreus stramineus</span> it is found in Sri Lanka, Indo-China and Malay peninsula. In India, it is distributed in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Assam, Meghalaya, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Mizoram (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan&#160;1996).</p>
176987		habitat	eng	<p>It is a tufted annual commonly seen in waste places and along roadsides. Also common in places where better soil and moisture is available.</p>
176987		population	eng	<p>This is a common species throughout its range.<br/></p>
176987		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176988		conservation	eng	<p>There is no information about conservation of this species and no recommendations made.<br/></p>
176988		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ilysanthes rotundifolia</span> occurs in western and southern India - Tamil Nadu (Madurai, Pudukottai, Trichy), Maharashtra (Sindhudurg), Kerala (Vazhani in Thrissur) and Karnataka (S. Kanara). It is also distributed in Bangladesh, Mauritius, Madagascar, Sri Lanka (Cook 1996) and eastern and southeastern Africa (Fisher 1999).<br/></p>
176988		habitat	eng	It is found in rice fields, particularly after harvesting, along ditches and the edges of ponds and tanks (Cook 1996). This species is mostly distributed in areas below 1,000 m altitude and grow in open wet meadows, marshy areas or forests in Taiwan (Liang 2007).
176988		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176988		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to the species.</p>
176990		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
176990		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from south and southeast Asia, to Australasia.. Known from China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hunan (Xuefeng  Shan), Jiangxi, Sichuan (Yongchuan Xian), southeast Xizang (Mêdog Xian), southern and western Yunnan, southwest Zhejiang (Longquan Xian), India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam and Sri Lanka) to Australia. In India it is distributed throughout the country, excluding western India.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
176990		habitat	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a perennial or occasionally annual. It is mostly found in muddy soils along streams and in swamps, in shade, at the edge of forests. It also grows in open marshy places, ditches, drying pools and canal. It grows at an altitude from the plains to 1,800 m.
176990		population	eng	Population data is unknown.
176990		threats	eng	There are no major specific threats known to this widespread species.
176993		conservation	eng	It is found in Mukambika Wild Life&#160;Sanctuary&#160;in Karnataka. Research on population size, life history and threats essential.
176993		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon stellulatum </span>is endemic to peninsular India reported from Karnataka (Mukambika Wild Life Sanctuary, Udupi district;&#160; Bababudan Hills, Chikmagalur District; Shimoga, Castle Rock, Uttar Kannada), Kerala&#160; (Malabar) and Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Borbet, Chikkevadi, Gaganbawda in Kolhapur district, Pune, Lingmala, Mahabaleshwar in Satara district, Sindhudurg, Thane) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>1996, Yadav and Sardesai, 2002, S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011). It occurs in Odisha (Rajasekaran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2002).
176993		habitat	eng	It grows in wet rocky places, near ponds, streams and lakes from sea level to 1100 m (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996).
176993		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
176993		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
176994		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
176994		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon xeranthemum </span>is  distributed in tropical Africa, central Himalayas, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar,  Nepal and Thailand (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009). In India it is reported from Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa,  Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tamil Nadu, West  Bengal (Cook 1996).
176994		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant growing in marshy places, pools on laterite, rice fields and other seasonally inundated places and also found in the crevices between wet rocks, it is locally abundant (Cook 1996).
176994		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
176994		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
176997		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
176997		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum pubescens</span> is distributed in the Himalaya, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Bangladesh, extending up to east Asia. &#160;In India, it is distributed in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Chattisgarh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984, Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987, Mudgal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Rao and Kumari 2008).
176997		habitat	eng	<p>It is a slender annual herb, mostly seen in wet places in hill forests (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987). It also grows on sandy alluvial soil near streams, moist soils which are regularly flooded, also found along margins of ponds and irrigation ditches. Frequently found as a weed in fields and along paths. <br/></p>
176997		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
176997		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176998		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation action has been reported. Since it is known from only two locations, more studies are needed to establish its distribution, impacts of threats and monitoring of populations and habitat recommended.</p>
176998		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus zollingeri</span><span id="lblTaxonDesc">&#160;is reported from Kerala (Kollam, Idukki, Palghat) (Sasidharan 2004). It is also reported from Australia, Taiwan, Congo, Cote D'ivorie, Indonesia, Kenya,&#160;Madagascar, Mali,&#160;Philippines, Senegal and Tanzania.
176998		habitat	eng	It grows in damp or moist places and occasionally in dried ponds.
176998		population	eng	No population information for the species.
176998		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
176999		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys to establish distribution, ecological studies to understand populations and trends are needed.
176999		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isachne elegans</span> is endemic to Western Ghats of Maharashtra and Karnataka (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1987) and Tamil Nadu (Nair, 1989). &#160;In Maharashtra it is reported from Panhala, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Khandala, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara and Sindhundurg, Thane. In Karnataka it is known to occur in Chikmagalur, Coorg, Hassan and Mysore (Lakshminarasimhan, 1996; Ahmedullah and Nayar 1987). &#160;In Tamil Nadu it is recorded from Madurai and Nilgiris (Nair,1989).
176999		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant commonly growing along the margins of streams, damp places and rice fields (Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
176999		population	eng	The species is widely distributed in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is rare although occurring in many localities.
176999		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
177000		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. But detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential.
177000		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon hookerianum </span>is a Bornean species, distributed in Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Vietnam. In India it is reported from Karnataka (Hassan District) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994,2009).
177000		habitat	eng	It grows in marshy areas in plains (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009).
177000		population	eng	<p>In Hassan district it is reported to be rare (Gandhi 1976, Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Das Das and Singh 2001). More survey is needed in other parts of Western Ghats.&#160; <br/></p>
177000		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
177003		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to have been taken for this species. Conservation management recommendations are suggested.
177003		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum borii </span>is endemic to Western Ghats, India. It is distributed in Kerala (Idukki, Eravikulam National Park at 2,150 m, Umaiya malai, Devicolam at 2,100 m, Anamudi slopes at 2,500 m) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgris and Palani hills) (Sreekumar and Nair 1991, Kabeer and Nair 2009, BSI Coimbatore). Although area of occupancy seems to be above the threshold required for a threatened listing further studies are needed to determine more precisely areas of suitable habitat withing its known range.
177003		habitat	eng	It is an tall perennial herb, grows in clumps in low lying grounds, marshy meadows (Kabeer and Nair 2009), canals, streams, and also in high altitude grasslands (Sreekumar and Nair 1991).
177003		population	eng	Population details are not known.
177003		threats	eng	<p>Degradation of the grasslands because of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> and black wattle plantations, tourism and other recreational activities could be a threat to the species. This species could also be affected by invasive species such as Black Wattle (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia mearnsii)</span>.</p>
177006		conservation	eng	No conservation measures to be taken for the species.
177006		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis littoralis </span>is distributed in tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. <br/><br/>In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177006		habitat	eng	It is an annual or perennial herb growing in wet places, ponds, streams and at the edges of drying pools (Cook 1996) and also in moist fields (Rao and Kumari 2008).
177006		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range.
177006		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
177008		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and monitoring of population and habitat recommended.
177008		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bolbitis semicordata </span>is distributed in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu at an altitude of 400 to 1800 m (Hennipman 1977). It is endemic to southern India (Chandra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). &#160;It occurs almost throughout the Western Ghats of Kerala (K.P. Rajesh and C.N. Manju pers. comm.), in the Anamallais and Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003), and all through the Western Ghats of Karnataka (Rajagopal and Bhat 1998). &#160;It is reported from Gundia River basin of Hassan District of Karnataka.
177008		habitat	eng	It commonly grows on rocks, often near streams in moist deciduous, semievergreen and evergreen forests (Hennipman 1977).
177008		population	eng	It is a commonly occurring fern in Kerala Western Ghats, while it is relatively uncommon in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. There have been only two observations of this species in Tamil Nadu.
177008		threats	eng	There are no specific threats affecting the species.
177009		conservation	eng	<p>It is essential to study the distribution of this species in adjoining areas of Hassan District since it is known from only one locality in India. Information on population status, ecology and threats to the species is also required.<br/></p>
177009		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scleria foliosa</span> is distributed in Africa and Madagascar. It is reported from India only once from Karnataka (Hassan Dist.).
177009		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual or perennials with a short rootstock, and mostly occurred in seasonal wet areas, shady areas near water.<br/></p>
177009		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177009		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177013		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177013		distribution	eng	<em>Isachne pulchella </em>is distributed in Asia temperate; China and Eastern Asia, South and South East Asia. in India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Dindigul, Namakkal and Salem (Nair 1989, Cook 1996, Kabeer and Nair 2009). In Maharashtra it is known to occur in Bombay, Pune, Ratnagiri, Satara, Thane (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). In Madhya Pradesh it is reported from Hoshangabad, Raipur, Sidhi, and&#160;Bastar, Bilaspur in Chhattisgarh&#160;(Roy 2001).
177013		habitat	eng	It grows in marshy places of hilly areas (Kabeer and Nair 2009). Damp areas in forested areas, shallow water, gregarious and forming patches.
177013		population	eng	Widely distributed common species.
177013		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177016		conservation	eng	The species is found in Agasthyamala hills which is a protected area. The protection provides a gene pool area for the species. Monitoring of populations and habitats recommended.
177016		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moonia heterophylla</span> is known from peninsular India and Sri Lanka.
177016		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moonia heterophylla</span> is found growing in tropical forests only in shaded mountain streams (shola soils) and its proximity, on wayside ditches, stream banks at an altitude between 1,700 and 2,100 m.
177016		population	eng	It has been reported as locally abundant. Population data is not available.
177016		threats	eng	The threat to the species is habitat loss caused by short-cycled  shifting cultivation, reclamation of forest for agriculture and  plantations, removal of timber, urbanization and tourism.
177017		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177017		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenoplectiella lateriflora</span> is widely spread in Asian tropics and Australia.&#160;In India, it is commonly distributed in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Gujarat, Goa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and West Bengal (Cook 1996).</p>
177017		habitat	eng	<p>It is a tufted annual and common weed of paddy fields, flooded areas, ditches and in marshy places.</p>
177017		population	eng	<p>This is a common species throughout its range.<br/></p>
177017		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177019		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177019		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>This plant is known to occur in southwestern India (Goa, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra). It is also distributed in northern Australia (Cook 1996).</p>
177019		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in marshes and temporary wet places, such as the margins of pools and streams. Mostly found along the coast, sometimes in brackish water (Cook 1996).</p>
177019		population	eng	<p>May be common, but ignored due to its inconspicuous nature.</p>
177019		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177020		conservation	eng	Conservation actions have not been reported. More research about the species&#160;population&#160;trends should be encouraged.
177020		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This&#160; species is known from south China, Thailand, Malaysia, Australia (Queensland) and western India.&#160; <br/></p>
177020		habitat	eng	It is seen in paddy fields and wet grasslands, especially during rainy season.
177020		population	eng	The species is reported as common in India. But no specific information is available about the population.
177020		threats	eng	No threat has been reported. It is able to grow in primary as well as secondary habitats.
177021		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported.
177021		distribution	eng	<em>Isoetes udupiensis</em>&#160;is reported from Alevoor, Udupi district, Karnataka.
177021		habitat	eng	Shukla <em>et al</em>. (2005) report that it grows in small rocky ditches near Durga-parmeshwari temple Alevoor. Individuals are intermingled with <span style="font-style: italic;">Marsilea minuta</span> L. and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ceratopteris thalictroides</span>, in water of pH 5.6. It appears in mid -June, attains maturity late September to early October and disappears in later Novermber. <br/><br/>The locality shows that the plant grows in deep temporary rock pools on a monolithic rock outcrop which is like a gently sloping hill (A. Watve pers. obs.).
177021		population	eng	The population is reported to be of 70 individuals at the type locality. This number includes all plants recorded, not only mature individuals.
177021		threats	eng	No threats have been reported. Personal observations (A.Watve pers. obs.) show that the outcrop site is well protected being within a sacred temple area, and has minor pressure from local people visiting the place. Grazing, trampling have no direct effect on rock pools. Major land conversions will not affect this hillock, although surrounding area where this species might have grown, are heavily impacted by agriculture, quarrying etc.
177022		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken as this species is common but detailed distribution survey and threats are essential.<br/></p>
177022		distribution	eng	The species i<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>s distributed in south and southeast Asia: China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan, Hong Kong<span id="lblTaxonDesc">), Taiwan (Province of China), India (widely occurring in Assam, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Manipur, Megalaya, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh ,Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu), Myanmar, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Malaysia (Cook 1996, eFlora 2011).</span>
177022		habitat	eng	Often forming dense mats in perennially moist places and harvested rice fields (Cook 1996).
177022		population	eng	<p>Common and abundant (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177022		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177024		conservation	eng	The species was last observed in the early 1990s and has not been recorded since. &#160;Detailed survey and monitoring studies are recommended for this species.
177024		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elaphoglossum angulatum</span> is endemic to southern India (Western Ghats) and Sri Lanka (Chandra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In India it is only reported from Palni Hills and Anamalai Hills (Manickam 1986; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992). The Sri Lankan population occurs in Hakgala. It is also reported from Kerala and Karnataka but the presence is uncertain (Chandra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
177024		habitat	eng	It is a lithophyte, grows along shaded stream banks on high elevations between 2,000-2,400 metres above sea level (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
177024		population	eng	This species is found occasionally on Palni Hills and Anamalai Hills.
177024		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species as it occurs only in interior forests at high elevation. &#160;However, one of its locations in Palnis are under heavy tourist pressure and this could pose a potential threat. This however, needs to be further studied.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177025		conservation	eng	Conservation activities for this plant are not needed.
177025		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ludwigia perennis</span> is a paleo-tropical species.</p><p> In India it is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.</p>
177025		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual found in wet places, sandy river beds, along streams, and in rice fields. It is found growing at an altitude upto 1500 m.</p>
177025		population	eng	It is widespread and commonly found species.
177025		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
177026		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known for this species.
177026		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena uncinata</span> is known only from peninsular India and Sri Lanka.&#160;In India is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.</p>
177026		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual, which grows in tufts in open wet habitats and marshy lowlands. It is seen abundantly, grows as weed in the rice fields after the harvest. The plant is found in the plains and up to 600 m.</p>
177026		population	eng	It is seen abundantly,  grows as weed in the rice fields after the harvest.
177026		threats	eng	There are no specific threats known to this species.
177027		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation&#160;measures&#160;known or needed for the species.
177027		distribution	eng	Hygrophila balsamica is endemic to Sri Lanka and Southern part of India (Cook 1996). In India it is known to occur in Kerala, Karanataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Cook &#160;1996). Khanna <em>et al.</em>&#160;(1997)&#160;recorded the species from&#160; Bastar in Chattisgararh.&#160;The species is seen in almost all districts of Tamil Nadu (Kumari&#160;1987).&#160;But latest work shows that species is well&#160;represented&#160;in many parts of India like:&#160;Andhra Pradesh (West Godavari, Nalgonda), Karnataka (South Canara), Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram),&#160;Chhattisgarh&#160;(Bastar), Maharashtra (Chandrapur, Nagpur),&#160;Manipur (Imphal), Meghalaya (East Khasi Hills, Garo Hills),&#160;Orissa (Gandhamardan) and Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu,&#160;Chennai, Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Ramnad, Tanjavur, South Arcot),&#160;Tripura (uncertain), West Bengal (24-Parganas, Bardhaman, Jalpaiguri, Hooghly, Howrah, Midnapore, Purulia) (Albertson 2010 (unpublished).
177027		habitat	eng	The plant is annual or perennial. It is found in shallow water, in moist clayey ground by water courses, irrigation canals and in rice fields (Cook 1996). The plant is very aromatic and apparently poisonous to fish when grown in aquaria (Cook 1996).
177027		population	eng	There is no information on population of the species.
177027		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
177028		conservation	eng	No conservation measures has been taken for the species.
177028		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the pantropics and subtropics including Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong, southwest Guangxi (Longzhou Xian, Pingxiang Shi), southwest Guizhou  (Anlong Xian, Wangmo Xian), Hainan, southeast Xizang (Mêdog Xian), and southeast Yunnan), Sri Lanka, Nepal, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Korea, Taiwan, New Caledonia, Guyana and South Africa. Te species has been widely introduced and is considered a serious weed in agricultural crops.<br/><br/>In India, it<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found at an altitude of up to 1,400 m in the Western Ghats. Widely distributed in  Kerala (Thekkady, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Palghat), Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka (Udupi); Mizoram, Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Akola, Amaravadi, Bombay, Chandrapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nasik, Osmanabad, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara, Sholapur, Sindhudurg, Thane), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat,&#160; Damoh, Dhar, Hoshangabad, Katni, Mandla, Panna, Rajnandgaon, Surguja) and Chattisgarh (Bastar, Bilaspur, Raipur) (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Khanna and Ram Saran 2001).<span id="lblTaxonDesc">  <p><br/></p></span>
177028		habitat	eng	It is a common weed usually found in damp shady places near water but also found in open swamps and marshes and sometimes found floating in mats (Cook 1996). This species also occurs as a weed in cultivated fields (Khanna and Ram Saran 2001), f<span id="lblTaxonDesc">orests, thickets, streamsides, humid open places; from near sea level to  2,100 m. (eFloras 2011).
177028		population	eng	It is a common species (Cook 1996).
177028		threats	eng	No threats reported for this species.
177030		conservation	eng	The areas where this species occurs are scenic spots and in future some development of tourism, residential areas might occur there. Hence, provisions need to be made for protecting the primary habitats of this species in advance.
177030		distribution	eng	It has been reported from Karnataka (Shimoga dt.), Kerala, Tamilnadu and Maharashtra states (Mishra and Singh, 2001). However, recent checklist of angisoperms of Tamilnadu state (ENVIS database http://tnenvis.nic.in/database_bio_flo.htm) prepared by Dr. D. Narasimhan of Madras Christian College, Tamabaram does not include it. It is also not included in the Flora of Shimoga district (Ramaswamy <em>et al</em>. 2002).Therefore there is no recent supporting evidence to the whole distribution stated by Mishra and Singh (2001).<br/>In Maharashtra, it is restricted to the Western Ghats hills in  Ahmednagar, Nasik, Pune, Thane districts (all known localities above 18<sup>0</sup>N). Based on the observation of this species habitat and ecology, it appears to be a narrow endemic of the western Ghats section in Maharashtra only while the reports from other states are incorrect (A. Watve pers. comm.). In Kerala, it has been reported from Idukki (Sasidharan 2004).
177030		habitat	eng	The primary habitat is shallow to deep soil areas on rocky plateaus at altitudes above 600 m. Secondarily seen colonizing grazing areas with compacted soil, fallow fields, rice fields, bunds, roadsides which resemble its primary habitats in physical characters.
177030		population	eng	Population of this species was studied at two locations in Maharashtra from 2004-2006. It covers large rocky plateaus and fallow fields and waterlogged areas within its range and is dominant on suitable sites for a short period of time. More than 50 mature individuals can occur within 1X1m quadrat at the peak of the flowering season (September). Information from Karnataka and Kerala is not available. Thus, the results here are based on studies in Maharashtra.
177030		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species at present. Although its primary habitats are disturbed due to small activities like grazing, trampling, making of ponds on rocky areas at some locations, it is able to easily colonize adjacent areas and forms dominant vegetation at places.
177031		conservation	eng	No conservation actions have been reported for the species.
177031		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chionachne gigantea</span> is native to tropical Asia. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya  Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar  Pradesh, West Bengal and Punjab.&#160;It has also been recorded from&#160;Bangladesh,&#160;Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Vietnam,&#160;Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia and&#160;Pakistan.
177031		habitat	eng	It is reported as weed species of rice fields, growing in marshy areas, moist or dry locations, wet situations.
177031		population	eng	Population studies on <span style="font-style: italic;">Chionachne gigantea</span> are not available. However, it is widespread in wild and is/was cultivated in Northeast India (Khasi Hills, Meghalaya and Sikkim) in the past.
177031		threats	eng	No threat has been reported. It is widely distributed, cultivated in some areas in the past and has weedy tendencies.
177032		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177032		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon duthiei </span>is endemic to west and central regions of India and is known from Maharashtra, Chattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996). In Maharashtra it is reported from Kagal, Kolhapur, Satara (Yadav and Sardesai 2002; Lakshminarasimhan 1996<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>), In Madhya Pradesh it is known to occur in East Nimar and Bastar in Chattisgarh (Singh<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001).
177032		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant rarely grows in wet grasslands (Cook 1996).
177032		population	eng	No population information on this species.
177032		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species
177033		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measure for this species. Part of the species population falls under the Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka. Further systematic and field studies are recommended along with monitoring of populations and habitat.
177033		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It is reported from Karnataka (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996). In Karnataka the collections were made from Kali Nadi, Shimoga, Yedur, Hulical and Mysore (Das Das and Singh 2001).
177033		habitat	eng	It is a perennial or perhaps also annual herb found in flowing water which flowers emerge out of the water surface in the flowering season (Cook 1996). It is extremely rare in flowing streams and riverlets (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009).
177033		population	eng	There is no recorded information on the population of the species. Known to be extremely rare (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009).
177033		threats	eng	Dams across the river systems have submerged areas of suitable habitats which are therefore no longer suitable for this species.
177034		conservation	eng	It is present within Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. The Orissa populations would benefit from site protection. the species is currently considered as Endangered in Kerala by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in India (Ministry of Environment and Forests 2010).
177034		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypleurum filifolium</span> is endemic to peninsular India. It is distributed in southern&#160;Western&#160;Ghats of Palakkad and Thrissur districts of Kerala, and also in the Eastern Ghats, from Jeypore in Orissa. Although the area of occupancy has not been estimated it is very likely it is below 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> as it is only found in 4 locations and its a niche specific species.<br/></p>
177034		habitat	eng	<p>This annual aquatic plant grows attached to submerged rocks in rapids of streams and rivers.</p>
177034		population	eng	This species is rare. There is one known population in Jeypore in Orissa and four in Kerala state. In Kerala one population is in Thrissur district and the other three (Kaikatty forest, Ponthudy, Parambikulam) in Palakkad district.
177034		threats	eng	The threat&#160;to the species is the construction of dam in Jeypore (Orissa) and in Pothundy and Parambikulam (R. Shiny pers. comm. 2010). Dams construction have produced an alteration on flow&#160; regimes which are causing degradation of this species habitat. This may also be causing decline in number of mature individuals as the plant dies when is not completely submerged for a long time.&#160; More dams may be built in the future and will further affect the known populations.
177035		conservation	eng	There are no conservation&#160;measures known o9r needed for the&#160;species.
177035		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hygrophila quadrivalvis </span>is distributed from South and South East Asia like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Pakistan (Cook 1996). In India the species is distributed in Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). In Madhya Pradesh the species is recorded from Satna and Surguja (Khanna <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is seen in Kundalika river on way to Roha from Sanegaon in Raigad, Maharashtra (Kothari and Moorthy 1993). The species is reported from Coimbatore and Tiruchchirappalli in Tamil Nadu (Kumari 1987).
177035		habitat	eng	It is perennial and sometimes annual. Occurs in shallow water or in marshy habitats and along the banks of streams. It is often grows as gregarious and forms dense single species clumps (Cook 1996).
177035		population	eng	There is no information on population of the species.
177035		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
177036		conservation	eng	<p>Within India, the species is present in Silent Valley of Palakkad district in Kerala which is a protected site. <br/></p>
177036		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex maculata </span>is distributed in India and Sri Lanka through China to Japan. It is also found in New South Wales of Australia.&#160;In India it is found in Megalaya, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
177036		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex maculata</span> is a perennial herb. It is found growing on the margins of ponds, along streams and wet places in highland forest. It grows at an altitude of 600-2310 m.
177036		population	eng	Population data is not known for this species.
177036		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats know to this species. A potential threat to this species is habit loss from developmental activities.
177037		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. This species needs to be protected and re-introduction programmes need to be discussed. Urgent surveys are needed to confirm its current distribution.
177037		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tamil Nadu found along the foothills of Eastern Ghats section (K. Ravikumar pers. comm. 2010). The type specimen was collected from Nallakulam in Alagar Hills, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu during 1958. After the type collection the species was collected by&#160;Ravikumar in 1984; it has neither been reported nor collected from anywhere else.
177037		habitat	eng	This species has been found in marshy localities only in seasonal ponds.
177037		population	eng	The population is very small. Only collected from the type locality where only two specimens have been collected. The species has been recorded once in Pudukottai, adjacent to the type locality. Population was less than 50 individuals when collected. No other recent surveys have revealed the presence of this population.
177037		threats	eng	This species is&#160;threatened&#160;by habitat loss and degradation due to grazing, wetland shrinkage and urbanization which are causing a decline in quality and area of suitable habitat. It is also very sensitive to any&#160;disturbance&#160;as it has a very restricted population.
177038		conservation	eng	Since the taxonomy of this species is doubtful, more studies are required to establish the species, its distribution, population and assess the status.
177038		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis swamyii</span> is endemic to peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) (Cook 1996) from 0 to 600 m. In Andhra Pradesh it is reported from Kambakkam Hills in Chittoor District (Pullaiah 1997).
177038		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb (Cook 1996).
177038		population	eng	The species is common in Kambakkam Hills, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah 1997).
177038		threats	eng	<p>No threats known for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177039		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177039		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia viscosa</span> is widely distributed in tropical Asia (Cambodia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam). In India, it is found in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh Bihar, Goa, Meghalaya, Manipur, West Bengal (Cook 1996).
177039		habitat	eng	<p>It is mostly found in waysides, edges of forests, swamps and moist shady places. However, it is rarely found in wetlands (Cook 1996).</p>
177039		population	eng	<p>Recent studies recorded 3.3 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> in upland and 2.8 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> in lowland paddy field of Mahendranagar in Nepal (Bhat <em>et al</em>. 2009).</p>
177039		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177041		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177041		distribution	eng	<p>Distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchospora corymbosa</span> is pantropic.&#160;In India, it is commonly seen in Andaman, Assam, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
177041		habitat	eng	<p>It is perennial and common plant growing in and along streams, on the shores of lakes, pools and rivers, often found in shallow water in swamps and rice fields. It is tolerant of light shade (Cook 1996).&#160; In lowlands, often rooted in shallow water or on floating mats of vegetation of swamps, margins of creeks and rivers, shallow canals, drainage ditches, seasonally flooded savannas, margins of agricultural fields, pastures, rice fields, secondary forest, mangrove strand, secondary vegetation, and disturbed areas, 0-300 m (Strong 2006).</p>
177041		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>This is a widespread and common species. Recent studies enumerated 55 individuals in 900m<sup>2</sup> at three localities of mangrove communities in South-Western Nigeria (Adekanmbi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).</p>
177041		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177042		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
177042		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Commelina subulata</span> is widely distributed in Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina, Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic Congo, the Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Mali, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, United Republic of Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh (Cook 1996), Karnataka (Belgaum, Bangalore, Dharwar, Hassan, Tumkur) (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984, Manjunatha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), Maharashtra (Amba, Dajipur, Patgoan, Kolhapur, Pune) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Yadav and Sardesai 2002) and Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Dharmapuri, Salem) (Bhargavan 1989).<br/></p>
177042		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb, grows in open marshy soil and irregularly flooded places, by no means confined to wetlands (Cook 1996) Weed of rice fields and marshy soil (Yadav and Sardesai 2002, Manjunatha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
177042		population	eng	It is a widely distributed species.
177042		threats	eng	No threat information for the species.
177043		conservation	eng	There is a need to study the distribution, population status, ecology and threats to the species.
177043		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis crystallina </span>is endemic to India. It is known from Tamil Nadu (Theni District and Coimbatore) and Assam at an altitude of 1,000 to 1,800 m (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Bhargavan 1989, Cook 1996).
177043		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb growing in wet places, marshes and hills (Cook 1996).
177043		population	eng	This is a very rare species. There is no information available.
177043		threats	eng	In Tamil Nadu the habitat of the species is threatened because of tea plantations (S. Karuppusamy pers. comm. 2010).
177044		conservation	eng	No information is available. Research is needed to understand its distribution and estimate its area of suitable habitat and population trends.
177044		distribution	eng	<p><em>Murdannia lanceolata </em>is endemic to the low hills of Kerala and plains of Tamil Nadu (Ahmedulla and Nayar 1986).</p>
177044		habitat	eng	<p>In moist paddy fields and amidst grasses in moist localities.</p>
177044		population	eng	No information is available. It has only been recorded from four locations which are very far away from each other. Hence, four subpopulations are known.
177044		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is being heavily converted by industrial and housing&#160;development (D. Narasimhan pers. obs. 2010).
177045		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures known or needed for the species.
177045		distribution	eng	Globally<em>,&#160;Zeylanidium olivaceum&#160;</em>is restricted to southern India and Sri Lanka (Cook 1996, Mathew and Satheesh 1997).&#160;It is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in India (Cook 1996).  In Kerala, the species is reported from Idukki, Kottayam,  Pathanamthitta, Kollam, Thrissur and Palakkad (Sasidharan 2004). &#160;In Sri Lanka the specimens are collected from  &#160;on rocks in Mahaweli river, Hakkinda, Paigalla, Peradeniya,  Maskeliya, Adam's peak at 1200m, Ambagamuwa in Kandy district and  Ramboda, Pundalu Oya in Eliya district (Dasanayake and Clayton 1996).
177045		habitat	eng	It is an annual found in rivers and small streams usually in rapids with a strong current. Mostly present in shallow water (Cook 1996).
177045		population	eng	There is no information on population of the species.
177045		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
177046		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known, but it would benefit from habitat protection. More information is needed before specific conservation measures can be established.
177046		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis papilionacea</span> is endemic to peninsular India. It<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is distributed in Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
177046		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis papilionacea </span>is a highland annual usually found in wet places near the water courses, and also in grasslands. During rainy seasons it is found near wet rocks.
177046		population	eng	Population data has not been reported.
177046		threats	eng	<p>Threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>
177047		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures currently in place for the species. In India, studies on its distribution, population and ecology are essential.
177047		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in South Africa, Madagascar and tropical Asia.<br/><br/>In India, collections are made for this species from Agstyamala Peak (at 1600 m) in Thirunelveli in Tamil Nadu (<st1:city><st1:place><span class="apple-style-span">Madras</st1:place></st1:city><span class="apple-style-span"> Herbaria <st1:date year="2010" day="24" month="11"><span class="apple-style-span">24&#160;November&#160;2010</span></st1:date>). The species is also present in Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah and Karuppusamy 2008).
177047		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, found in wet grasslands, swamps, swinging bogs, swampy lake margins. &#160;It is often dominant and forms large clumps (Cook 1996). Also seen in wet grasslands at high altitudes. In Sri Lanka, it is locally abundant in wet "Patana" grasslands at altitudes between 1800 and 2500 m (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1985).
177047		population	eng	It is a very rare species in India. In Sri Lanka, it is locally abundant in wet "Patana" grasslands (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1985). No information is available on its remaining global distribution.
177047		threats	eng	There are no identified threats to the species.
177048		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology areknown, further research in population numbers and range is recommended.
177048		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177048		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycreus macrostachyos</span>&#160; is annual and pantropical species. In India, it is distributed in Kerala, Karanataka and Maharashtra.
177048		distribution	eng	This species has a Pantropical distribution. In Africa it is found in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leona, Togo, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Malawi, and Tanzania. In Malawi it occurs in Nkhotakota along Mbombe Dambo, and Mtunthama in Kasungu. Also present in Southern Africa in Botswana, South Afica, Namibia, Swaziland and Angola.
177048		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual and mostly found in seasonally flooded areas, in pools, streams and buffalo wallows; common in rice fields. In open places it tends to be rather short and robust and in closed communities it is tall and slender (Cook 1996).</p>
177048		habitat	eng	Wet depressions in woodland.
177048		population	eng	<p>No population information about this species.<br/></p>
177048		population	eng	this species is common in North-eastern Africa.
177048		threats	eng	No Major threats have been identified.
177048		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177051		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177051		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis japonica </span>is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa and Australia. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala&#160; (Sasidharan 2004), Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur, Damoh, Mandla, Raigarh, Sidhi) (Roy 2001), Maharashtra (Common in all districts) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Sikkim, Rajastan, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. In Tamil Nadu it occurs in almost all districts (Kabeer and Nair 2009). Although Cook (1996) excludes this from the aquatic species list, it is found in marshy areas (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177051		habitat	eng	It grows in damp places, along the banks of streams, moist places, rivers and wet places. It is a weed in cultivated lands (Sreekumar and Nair 1991, Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177051		population	eng	This is a widely distributed species, commonly occurring throughout.
177051		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats reported for this species.</p>
177052		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place for the species.
177052		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kyllinga tenuifolia&#160;</span>is distributed from Australia, India, China, Malaysia, tropical Africa and Sri Lanka (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001). In India it is repoted from Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Pondicherry, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In Gulf of Mannar it is frequently seen in Mainland coast (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177052		habitat	eng	It grows in damp and moist places (Agyakwa and Akobundu 1998) and it is also found in other wet localities and sandy places&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177052		population	eng	<p>This is a very common and widespread species.<br/></p>
177052		threats	eng	<p>There is no threat information for the species.<br/></p>
177055		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is in place for the species. However, research is essential on its distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
177055		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis dauciformis</span> is endemic to southern Western Ghats (Kerala) (Thrissur, Anakkayam, Sholayar, Poringalkuthu, Orukombam) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Cook 1994, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
177055		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant grows in marshes, usually on hills and grasslands (Cook 1996, Sasidharan 2004).
177055		population	eng	It is a rare and endemic species. Population is decreasing due to habitat degradation.
177055		threats	eng	In two of the localities, namely Anakkayam and Sholayar, dam construction is in progress. This may affect the species' habitat.
177056		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177056		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p> The species has a wide distribution in tropical and sub-tropical Africa and Asia. Recorded from Africa (Botswana, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, Sudan and Zimbabwe), and Asia (southern China (Yunnan), India (Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Megalaya,  Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar  Pradesh and West Bengal), Sri Lanka, Viet Nam, Thailand, Myanmar, and Lao PDR<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Cook 1996, Yasuyuki 2006<br/></p>
177056		habitat	eng	It is annual and mostly found in humid sandy places, rice fields, perennially moist areas and along river banks (Cook 1996).
177056		population	eng	<p>Gregarious and locally abundant (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177056		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177058		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177058		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis spiralis </span>is distributed in Australia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand. In India it is reported from Karnataka, Kerala (Periyar Tiger Reserve, Cannanore- Near Tellicherry at 75m, near paddy field- Kuthuporamba road Tellicherry. Kasaragod- Payyanur at 100m. Malabar-Chetwayi), Maharashtra (Bombay, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Thane), Madhya Pradesh (Raipur), Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Verma<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2001, BSI Coimbatore).
177058		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb, grows in shallow water, rice fields and along irrigation lands, brackish water and brackish marshes (Cook 1996, Verma<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2001).
177058		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range.
177058		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177059		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported.
177059		distribution	eng	<em>Coelachne perpusilla</em>&#160;is reported from India and (<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelachne pulchella </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">perpusilla) </span>is reported from Adam's peak in Sri Lanka. The species&#160; it is also present in Indo-china according to Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2008) although it is not clear whether the species is native to this area or not.
177059		habitat	eng	It is reported from open moist grasslands.
177059		population	eng	No data on population has been reported.
177059		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been reported.
177062		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for the species.
177062		distribution	eng	<em>Fimbristylis complanata</em> is has a pantropical distribution. <br/><br/>The species is seen in Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and &#160;West Bengal of India &#160;(Cook 1996). It is found in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh (Singh <em>et al. </em>2001). In Maharashtra the species is distributed in Ahmednagar, Amaravathi, Buldhana, Dhule, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nasik, Osmanabad, Pune, Thane and Yavatmal (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is recorded from Bangalore, Chikmagalur, Dharwar, Hassan, Mysore &#160;(Sharma <em>et al. </em>1984) and Kushalnagar (Murthy and Yoganarasimhan 1990) district of Karnataka. It is seen in Tamil Nadu in Chengalpattu, Coimbatore, Kanyakumari, Nilgiri, Salem, Tiruchirapalli and Thirunelveli (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177062		habitat	eng	Perennials growing upto 15-80 cm high (Verma 2001). It grows on muddy river banks, swampy grasslands, sea shore, wet rice fields but it is not confined to wetlands and is common on open grasslands and on cultivated or disturbed ground (Cook 1996). &#160;It is associated with <em>Bacopa monnieri</em>, <em>Eleocharis geniculata</em> and <em>Kyllinga monoceohala</em> (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).It is seen in wet open grasslands at low altitutes, and also in and around cultivated fields, especially margins of rice fields (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1985).
177062		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its distribution.
177062		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
177064		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177064		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Scleria terrestris</span> is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia from India  and Sri Lanka north eastwards to southwestern Japan, and eastward to Malaysia  and northern Australia.&#160;In India, it is distributed in&#160; Andaman Nicobar, Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Madurai, Nilgiri, Salem, Tirunelveli), Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh (Bastar, Bilaspur, Raigarh), Manipur, Orissa, Karnataka and Maharasthra (Sindhudurg) and Uttar Pradesh.</p>
177064		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial herb with short-creeping woody rhizome, growing in partial shady areas near streams in secondary forests or undergrowth of wet forests and scrubs in montane zone up to 7,000 ft.</p><p><br/></p>
177064		population	eng	<p>This is an occasionally found species throughout its range. <br/></p>
177064		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177065		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Information on population size and life history essential.
177065		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon minutum </span>is endemic to India (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Cook 1996). It is known to occur in Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Khandala, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Pahnala, Satara, Sindhudurg,&#160; Borbet, Blater, Rangana) Karnataka (Mysore) (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984), Tamil Nadu (Nilgris) and Rajasthan (Mount Abu) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177065		habitat	eng	It is common aquatic herb growing in swampy wetlands near the temporary water bodies, wet rice fields and on hill slopes (Yadav and Sardesai 2002; Lakshminarasimhan 1996) as well as along streams on lateritic plateaus (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177065		population	eng	Their is no population information for the species.
177065		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
177066		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions known for this species. Surveys to establish its distribution, studies on life history, threats, population and habitat trends are needed urgently.</p>
177066		distribution	eng	<em>Limnophila glandulifera</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats of Kerala, known only from the type locality (Cook 1996).
177066		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant (Cook 1996).
177066		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
177066		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177069		conservation	eng	No conservation action is in place for the species.
177069		distribution	eng	The species is known from old world tropics (Cook 1996).&#160;In India the major distribution of the species is from Andaman & Nicobar, Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996, Pullaiah 1997). It is reported from Raipur in Madhya Pradesh (Verma&#160;2001). It is found in Bombay, Pune and Sindhudurg of Maharashtra state (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is recorded from Hassan district of Karnataka (Sharma <em>et al.&#160;</em>1984).
177069		habitat	eng	It is a herbaceous annual grows in the range of 15-30 cm height. Found at the edges of pools but also in moist and shady places, in dry grassland and along roadsides.
177069		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its distribution.
177069		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
177072		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential for this species.<br/></p>
177072		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lipocarpha gracilis</span> is a pantropics species. <span dir="ltr" id=":xd"><span dir="ltr" id=":xd">In India, it is known from Tamil Nadu, Kerala,<span dir="ltr" id=":xd">  Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West  Bengal and Orissa (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996 and Pulliah 1997).</span></p>
177072		habitat	eng	<p>It is a small culms tufted, annual or perennial. It occurs in swamps, marshes, rice fields and damp places (Burkill 1985).<br/></p>
177072		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range.
177072		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177074		conservation	eng	There is no special conservation action in place or needed for the species.
177074		distribution	eng	<em>Echinochloa frumentacea</em>&#160;occurs in tropical warm Asia and Africa, naturalized in America and Ukraine. Also found in East Africa, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka through South East Asia to New Guinea and Australia.&#160;In India, the species is mainly reported from Bihar, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996) whereas Kabeer and Nair (2009) states that the species is widely present in almost all part of India. In Maharashtra it is recorded from Ahmednagar, Akola, Amaravathi, Chandraour, Dhule, Jalgaon, Nagpur, Nasik, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg and Thane (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). Deshpande <em>et al.</em> (1995) reported the species from Jadholi and Taldeo of Maharashtra district. In Madhya Pradesh the species is found in Balaghat and Indore (Roy 2001). In Tamil Nadu Chegalpattu, Coimbatore, Cuddalore, Dindigul, Erode, Kachipuram, Krishnagiri, Madurai, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, Salem, South Arcot, Thanjavur, Theni, Tiruchirappalli (RHT), Villupuram (Kabeer and Nair 2009). In Kerala the species is reported from Nedumudy and Pallathuruthy of Alleppey (Sreekumar and Nair 1991). In Andhra Pradesh it occurs in Vijaynagaram, Nellore, Kurnool and Anantapur (Pullaiah 1997).
177074		habitat	eng	It is herbaceous, tufted annual or perennial. &#160;Not confined to wetlands but often found along rivers and round ponds as the water recedes. A common weed in rice fields. It is often cultivated as a dry season crop, particularly in river beds (Cook 1996). It is abundant in aquatic or semi-aquatic systems like marshes and cultivated fields (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177074		population	eng	It is a widely distributed and common species.
177074		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
177075		conservation	eng	Research on ecology and population dynamics is essential.&#160;Moreover, medicinal use, harvest and livelihood&#160;dependence of the species is&#160;recommended.
177075		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanotis arcotensis </em>is endemic to India where it has been recorded from Pune in Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Bastar in Madhya Pradesh (Khanna and Saran&#160;2001),&#160;Tippukadu Reserve Forest in North Arcot District (Cooke 1958), Ramanathapuram (<span class="apple-style-span">Bhargavan&#160;1987), Chenglepet (Perungudimedu), Tanjore (Point Calimere at sea level) and Tirunelveli (Nallumvadi near Nazareth and Udankudi at 10m) in Tamil Nadu. From Kerala the species were collected from Palakkad (water tank Hillock, Malampuzha at 150m) and Thrissur (Thrissur to Kandasankadavu at 10m) (Madras Herbaria 22&#160;November 2010).
177075		habitat	eng	<em>Cyanotis arcotensis</em> &#160;is a tender annual which is found in limited areas of Peninsular India (Rao <em>et al.&#160;</em>1968, &#160;Lakshminarasimhan &#160;1996, Singh <em>et al. </em>&#160;2001). It is found in moist places as forest undergrowth (Khanna and Saran 2001).
177075		population	eng	There is no recorded information about the population of the species.
177075		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
177076		conservation	eng	No information is available.
177076		distribution	eng	<p>It is an endemic species, distributed in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Yadav and Sardesai (2002) considered it as a rare species of Kolhapur District in Maharashtra as they were able to collect it from only one place (Rangana, Chikkewadi). It is a widespread species,&#160;sometimes&#160;very abundant in rivers.</p>
177076		habitat	eng	<p>Annual or sometimes perennial in deep permanent water; it is usually found in the larger rivers (Cook 1996).</p>
177076		population	eng	This is an&#160;abundant&#160;species in suitable&#160;habitats.
177076		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
177077		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.&#160;</p>
177077		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lobelia heyneana</span> is widely distributed in East Africa, Indo-Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Cameroon, Ethiopia and Tanzania.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In India, it is commonly seen in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka , Kerala , Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim and Jammu and Kashmir (Cook 1996, Rao and Kumari 2002). <br/><p><br/></p>
177077		habitat	eng	<p>It occurrs in moist and swampy places, along streams, marshes and rice fields and tolerates considerable shade (Cook 1996).</p>
177077		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177077		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177079		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
177079		distribution	eng	Found in southern and northeastern India to southern China, Sri  Lanka, Malaysia and Polynesia (Namby and Madhusoodanan 1998). In India it is reported from Tamil Nadu: Palni Hills; Kerala: Agasthiyamalai (Dickason 1946, Namby and Madhusoodanan 1998) and Myanmar.
177079		habitat	eng	It grows in the middle elevation and high elevation forests (Swamy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), on rocks and base of shrubs and trees near shady streams (Namby and Madhusoodanan 1998).
177079		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
177079		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
177080		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177080		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella terrestris</span> is only confined to Kodambakkam (Chennai), Singaperumal koil (Thanjavur), Vandalur (Kanchipuram), Mahabalipuram (Kanchipuram) in Tamil Nadu, India (Pal <em>et al</em>. 1962).</p>
177080		habitat	eng	It grows on moist grounds, paddy fields and water logged areas.
177080		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177080		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177081		conservation	eng	The entire range of the species falls under the Anshi National Park. Research on population size and life history required.
177081		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon peninsulare </span>is endemic to Western Ghats and known only from the Anshi National Park, Karnataka (Punekar and Lakshminarasimhan 2004).
177081		habitat	eng	It grows along margins of pond on moist soil in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala macranda, Limnophila heterophylla, Lindernia</span> sp, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus</span> sp,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Eriocaulon balakrishnanii</span> (Punekar and Lakshminarasimhan 2004).
177081		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
177081		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177082		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177082		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena cuspidata </span>is endemic to India (Western peninsular India, central and north west India) (Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) (Cook 1996). It is also reported from Karnataka (Bangalore, Bijapur, Chickmagalur, Dharwad, Hassan and Mysore).
177082		habitat	eng	It grows on banks of streams, tanks, seasonally flooded areas and moist pasture land (Cook 1996). It also grows marshy areas near ponds.
177082		population	eng	Though the species is endemic to India it is represented in several states. It is locally abundant.
177082		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177083		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species falls under a protected area. Research on&#160;taxonomy, population size, distribution, life history and threats required.
177083		distribution	eng	The species is collected from the Tiger Tank at Anshi National Park, Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka (Punekar <em>et al. </em>2003).
177083		habitat	eng	The species occurs at an altitude of 600 m above sea level, in colonies along the margin of pond on moist soil. The associated species are <em>Rotala fimbriata</em>, <em>Limnophila heterophylla</em>, <em>Lindernia</em> sp., <em>Cyperus</em> sp., and other <em>Eriocaulon</em> sp. (Punekar <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177083		population	eng	Populations status of this species is unknown.
177083		threats	eng	No threat has been reported for this species.
177084		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177084		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptochloa neesii</span> is distributed in Australia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia. In India it is reported widely from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Kabeer and Nair 2009). In Gulf of Mannar it is occasionally seen in mainland coast (Daniel and Umamaheshwari 2001).
177084		habitat	eng	It grows in wet localities (Daniel and Umamaheshwari 2001, Kabeer and Nair 2009), streams and ditches (B. Sadasivaiah pers. comm.).
177084		population	eng	<p>It have a very wide distribution range. In southern India it is not a commonly found grass.</p>
177084		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species. <br/></p>
177085		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177085		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Murdannia vaginata</span> occurs throughout tropical and subtropical Asia and reported from China, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Myanmar, Singapore, Bangladesh, and northern Australia (Keng and Keng 1990). In India, it is distributed in Bihar, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Cook 1996). <br/>  <p><br/></p>
177085		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>It is common in rice fields and wet waste places, sometimes in water (Cook 1996).</p>
177085		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177085		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177086		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
177086		distribution	eng	<em>Dimeria ornithopoda</em>&#160;is endemic to South India.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">D. ornithopoda&#160;</span>var.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">megalantha&#160;</span>Bor is reported from Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra, and&#160;Tamil Nadu.
177086		habitat	eng	It is reported from rocky areas and grasslands on seasonally wet areas.
177086		population	eng	It is locally common in its habitat.
177086		threats	eng	No information is available.
177087		conservation	eng	There is no special conservation measures for this species.
177087		distribution	eng	Globally the species occurs in India, Sri Lanka and Philippines (Cook 1996). In India it has been reported fromTamil Nadu -Chengalpattu, Coimbatore, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, South Arcot, Thiruchirappalli and Tirunelveli (Henry and Chitra 1987), Maharashtra - Pune and Satara districts (Godbole and Prasad&#160;2001), Madhya Pradesh - Jhabua&#160; (Singh&#160;1997). &#160;In Kerala, the species is reported from Idukki, Thrissur and Palakad (Sasidharan 2004).
177087		habitat	eng	It is a slender, errect herb and annual which gows upto 25 cm in height. Locally abundant, in post-monsoon pools on clayey soil and in rice fields (Cook 1996). It &#160;grows among grasses in wet places, on rocky surfaces with <em>Eriocaulon</em> spp. and <em>Rotala densiflora</em> (Godbole and Prasad&#160;2001). It also grows in marshy habitats (Singh 1997).
177087		population	eng	There is no information&#160;available&#160;for population of the species, but is known to be locally abundant in central Tamil Nadu.
177087		threats	eng	The specific threats of the species are unknown.
177088		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed distribution surveys, and studies on ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>
177088		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia albocaerulea</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats and known from a few locations in the state of Maharashtra (Satara: Panchgani and Mahabaleshwar; Kolhapur; Sindhudurg) (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).<br/></p>
177088		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>It grows on the damp soil and on wet rocks, restricted to higher elevations. It is also found in moist places or gravelly laterite soil in open areas of hills (Janarthanam and Henry 1992, Cook 1996). <br/></p>
177088		population	eng	<p>There is no information about the population of this species.</p>
177088		threats	eng	<p>Increased tourism and associated development activities threaten the key habitats of this species in its range causing loss of suitable sites and degradation of known locations. <br/></p>
177089		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177089		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis congesta</span> is distributed in southeast Asia, Nepal, Indo-China, Bhutan, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, China and Japan. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh (Visakapatnam District- Galikonda at 1,200 m), Arunachala Pradesh, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala (Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kottayam-Peermade at 1,000 m, old Devicolamat 1,850 m, Quilon- sealevel of Oachira), Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur, Raigarh, Sidhi, Surguja) (Cool 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 2001, Rao and Kumari 2008), Manipur (Khongii Valley at 5,000 ft), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu (Madurai- Perumal malai at 1,650 m, Nilgris in a pond near long wood forest, Kotagiri at 2,000 m, Ketihills at 2,067 m, Pudukottai- Naythamalai at 120 m), Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, BSI Coimbatore).
177089		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb, sometimes a short-lived perennial, grows in shallow water or on marshy land. Sometimes found in rice fields (Cook 1996).
177089		population	eng	This species is widely distributed and it is very common throughout its range.
177089		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p><br/></p>
177090		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex myosurus</span> is present within Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve and Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary in the Himalayan region.
177090		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex myosurus </span>is a native species of tropical Southeast Asia, and Indonesia to the Philippines.&#160;In India it is distributed throughout the Western Ghats.
177090		habitat	eng	It is found in wet places, swamps and marshy places at an altitude of 1800-2800 m.
177090		population	eng	Population data is not assessed for this widespread species.
177090		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species. There are localised threats, including habit loss and conversion, and slash and burn agriculture.
177091		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are not needed for this species.
177091		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena umbellata </span>is distributed in the tropics and subtropics. In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar,   Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,   Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya,&#160;  Madhya Pradesh (Verma 2001) Manipur,   Maharasthra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Nagaland, Panjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Cook 1996) and Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah 1997).
177091		habitat	eng	It grows common on river banks, moist places, seasonally flooded places, wet and swampy localities. Mostly grows in marshes, edges of rice fields (Cook 1996).
177091		population	eng	This is a very common species throughout its range.
177091		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species. <br/></p>
177092		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
177092		distribution	eng	<p>It is widely distributed in India and also found in Bangladesh (Silhet), Myanmar and Nepal. Phillips (1997) has not recorded the occurrence of this species in Sri Lanka. But Ansari and Balakrishnan (2009) reported its distribution in Sri Lanka, which is uncertain as he neither cited a specimen nor literature. There are no&#160;specific&#160;locatities for Nepal and Myanmar.</p>
177092		habitat	eng	Usually it occurs in marshy and damp localities.
177092		population	eng	This species is common and widespread across its range.
177092		threats	eng	The threats of the species was unknown.
177093		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is recommended.
177093		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this widespread plant.
177093		distribution	eng	It is a species wich is widely spread in tropical Africa from Sénégal to Ethiopia throughouth central Africa. It is also known in South Africa, Mascarene Islands and in nearly all warm regions. Present in Sudan, Ethiopia (Ex Tigre v. Begemder, Abyssinia, Sanka Berr) and Somalia. In Eastern Africa it is found in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. In Malawi it is known from Zomba mountain, Chisasila Forest Reserve in Nkhata Bay, Nchalo Estate, Mzuzu along Mary Mount Dambo, Nyika Plateau, Lake Malombe, Machemba Hill, Karonga Boma, Mulanje mountain, Blantyre 2 km north of Limbe, Ndirande mountain, Lingadzi River, and Lake Chilwa. It is widespread and locally common in Kenya from sea level to 2,450 m above sea level. In Burundi, the species is also widely spread. It has been found in low and high altitude such as in the Rusizi plain at Bujumbura, Rusizi plain km 14, km 15, Gitanga peatland, Mahwa marshes and at Ngoma it the high mountain with tea plantations.
177093		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus distans</span> is pantropical and subtropical in distribution. In India it is found in Andamans, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Jammu Kashmir, Madhya Padesh, Maharasthra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Megalaya, Manipur, Punjab, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
177093		habitat	eng	In cultivated and waste ground and, generally damp, grassland.
177093		habitat	eng	It is found growing in wet places, edge of pools, ditches and streams, in rice fields and in wet grasslands. It is found growing in mats as floating vegetation in shallow waters. It grows as a weed on roadside and cultivated lands, from the plains to 2600 m.
177093		population	eng	It is reported as a common species.
177093		population	eng	The plant is a common weed of many crops, but rarely it becomes a serious problem.
177093		threats	eng	Shifting Agriculture and livestock of small-holder may threaten the species, but these are not major widespread threats.
177093		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
177094		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are required.<br/></p>
177094		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sacciolepis myosuroides</span> is widely distributed in tropical Asia and Australia. In India, it is commonly seen in Andaman, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Karanataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu (Dindigul and Nilgiris), Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).  <p><br/></p>
177094		habitat	eng	<p>It is not confined to wetlands, but often found in seasonally inundated places, marshes, along water courses and in rice fields (Cook 1996). It can be seen in aquatic or water logged areas like marshy places and paddy fields (Kabeer and Nair 2009).</p>
177094		population	eng	<p>Widespread species with abundant populations.</p>
177094		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177096		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177096		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lobelia zeylanica</span> is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia (China, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia). In India, it is distributed in Tamil Nadu, Assam, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Sikkim, and West Bengal (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177096		habitat	eng	It is seen in wet and waterlogged places, often in shade (Cook 1996). In Malaysia, it is ground layer epiphytes and can be seen in fallen logs in Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak (Kiew 1978). In Fiji, from near sea level to about 1,000 m, often abundantly naturalized along trails in dense forest and also in dry forest, wet clearings, cocoa plantations, pastures, marshes, and swamps, and along roadsides (Smith 1991).
177096		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177096		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177097		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures needed for the species.
177097		distribution	eng	It is endemic to southern India. It is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Cook &#160;1996, Mathew and Satheesh 1997). It has been collected from River Netravati at Killoor (Dakshin Kannada District, Karnataka, India) (Sehgal <em>et al. </em>&#160;2002). It is reported from Uttara Kannada and Dakshina Kannada, Hassan (Saldanha 1996) and Chikmangalore districts of Karnataka (Sharma <em>et al.</em> 1984) and from Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh (Subramanyam 1962).
177097		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb found in streams in the Western Ghats, closely attached to rocks (Cook 1996).
177097		population	eng	There is no information on population of the species.
177097		threats	eng	There is no identified threats for the species.
177100		conservation	eng	Conservation actions have not been proposed so far. This species needs to be propagated and conserved in botanic gardens and its habitat needs to be protected. More research in population status and habitat condition is recommended.
177100		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dimeria hohenackeri&#160;</span>is endemic to southwestern India occurring on the western coast and Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. The extent is wide, however the area of occupancy is extremely restricted due to its preference to small rocky plateaus and slopes.
177100		habitat	eng	Kulkarni (1988) reports it as scattered in open areas in grassy patches along slopes of ghats to plains. It is also reported from seasonally flooded wetlands in Kerala
177100		population	eng	It is locally abundant but in scattered patches in the region.
177100		threats	eng	The habitat of this plant, flooded areas, rocky plateaus are under serious biotic pressure due to land conversion in the region. Housing, industrialization, roads, mining, quarrying are leading to loss of primary habitat of this species.
177101		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177101		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nesaea brevipes</span> is perhaps endemic to the Indian subcontinent<span style="font-style: italic;"> - </span>Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and India<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>It is commonly seen at an altitude of 250 to 800m in the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Gujarat, Goa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Lakshadweep, Chattisgarh, Orissa and Karnataka (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177101		habitat	eng	<p>In swamps, seasonally flooded places, along river banks and on wet soil (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177101		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177101		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177104		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
177104		distribution	eng	<p><em>Eriocaulon talbotii</em> is an endemic species, distributed in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009). It is common and widespread throughout its range.</p>
177104		habitat	eng	It occurs in marshy river banks, wet grasslands and dripping rocks. Flowering and fruiting from August to March.<strong><br/></strong>
177104		population	eng	The species has only been recorded in three localities, two of them are adjacent river basins. However,<em>&#160;</em>this species occupies various habitats and is probably present in more areas although there are no specific records.
177104		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been identified.
177108		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat are essential.
177108		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon fysonii </span>is endemic to Western Ghats (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Cook 1996). It is known to occur in&#160; Kerala (Cook, 1996), Karnataka (Siddapur) and Maharashtra (Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177108		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, growing in wet and marshy as well as in moist places (Cook 1996; Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177108		population	eng	No population information on this species.
177108		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177109		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bothriochloa pseudischaemum </span>is native to India and Sri Lanka (Moulik 1997). In India it is reported from Andra Pradesh (Cuddapah- Guvvalcheruvu-along the streams at 985m. East Godavari- Chinthim at 650m.Kurnool-Chelama at 365m, Valamum at 550m, Bairani falls and Nallamalay at 400m), Madhya Pradesh (Raipur, Pachaida farm at 380m), Kerala (Mallapuram), Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Dharmapuri, Salem and Tirunelveli) (Sasidharan 2004, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.2006, Kabeer and Nair 2009, BSI Coimbatore).
177109		habitat	eng	It grows in clumps near water, usually in margins of cultivated fields and similar moist localities (Matthew 1991, Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177109		population	eng	It is a widespread species and common along streams.
177109		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177110		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.
177110		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide distribution. It is found in the Caribbean, in south and southeastern Asia, in Australasia, and in both East and West Africa.
177110		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. It is not restricted to mangrove systems and can grow in other areas in fresh water environments and in salt marshes. This is a species that is opportunistic and colonizes disturbed areas. It is fast growing, and very robust. It is a large herbaceous fern.
177110		population	eng	This species can be common in many parts of its range. This species may in fact be increasing as it is easily colonizes cleared areas. It is very difficult to eradicate in situations where it overtakes previous mangrove systems. It can colonize open areas.
177110		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species, and in fact, it is a threat to other mangrove species. In mangrove systems that are disturbed, this species can take over and is difficult to eradicate.
177111		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177111		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mariscus dubius </span>is distributed in old world tropics. In India it is reported from Karnataka (Mysore, Chitradurga, Jogimatti hill station), Kerala (Idukkai, Kottayam, Quilon, Thiruvananthapuram, Palaghat), Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur, Hoshangabad), Tamil Nadu (Madurai, Nilgiris, Ramanathapuram, Salem, Thanjavur, Tiruthuraipoondi, Trichy, Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari, Coimbatore) and Andhra Pradesh (throughout; B. Sadasivaiah pers. comm.) (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, BSI Coimabtore).
177111		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb growing in seasonally flooded areas and in pockets of soil in rocks. It is not confined to wetlands and is sometimes found as a weed in fields and near in sea on sandy beaches (Cook 1996) and also seen in open shady places (Bhargavan 1989).
177111		population	eng	It is a common and widely distributed species.
177111		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;</p>
177113		conservation	eng	The habitats of this species in the southern Western Ghats falls inside the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and protected areas like the Rajiv Gandhi National Park.
177113		distribution	eng	Eriocaulon conica&#160;is endemic to the hills of peninsular India (Cook 1996). In Eastern Ghats it is reported from Ganjam and Mahendragiri peak (Orissa), and in the Western Ghats from Mysore (Karnataka), Gudalur and Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986) and Gaganbawda in Kolhapur (Maharashtra) (Yadav and Sardesai 2002) at an altitude of 100-1000m ASL (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177113		habitat	eng	It occasionally grows in paddy fields and in open wetlands (Yadav and Sardesai 2002) and also on surface of moist rocks (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177113		population	eng	No population information on this species.
177113		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177114		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action has been taken for the species. &#160;Monitoring of populations is recommended for this southern Indian endemic.
177114		distribution	eng	Rotala fimbriata&#160;is endemic to southern India. It is widely distributed throughout its known range.
177114		habitat	eng	It grows in waterlogged areas especially rock outcrops with ephemeral pools, ditches etc.
177114		population	eng	It is locally abundant in some areas. But detailed population studies have not been conducted.
177114		threats	eng	Land conversion, due to housing, industrialisation, mining are the biggest threats to the habitat of this species. These are not considered as major threats at the moment.
177115		conservation	eng	No known conservation measures are in place or needed.
177115		distribution	eng	<em>Ischaemum muticum</em> is distributed from Asia to Australia, including the Pacific Islands. In India it is found in Kerala and Karnataka.
177115		habitat	eng	<p>It is a stoloniferous perennial. It is found growing in stagnant water around pools and in seasonally flooded and marshy places. It also inhabits backwaters, coastal sands,&#160;estuaries&#160;and salt marshes.</p>
177115		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
177115		threats	eng	There are no specific threats to this species.
177117		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
177117		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophila repens </span>is distributed in<span id="lblTaxonDesc">&#160;tropical Asia (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Bangladesh, India,&#160;<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Cambodia,  Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka,  Thailand, Vietnam) <span id="lblTaxonDesc">and Australia<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">. In India the species is seen in Assam, Chattisgarh,&#160; Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa, Sikkim, West Bengal (<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Cook 1996<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">), Madhya Pradesh (Singh 1997), Maharashtra (Godbole and Prasad 2001), Tamil Nadu (Henry and Chitra. 1987), Andhra Pradesh (Sadasivaiah pers. comm.).<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
177117		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant growing in marshy places, rice fields particularly in low lying areas (Cook 1996).&#160; It is a very variable aquatic herb growing in wet places (Henry<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Chitra 1987) and moist sandy soil (Singh 1997).
177117		population	eng	<p>Widespread in marshy areas and in rice fields particularly in low lying areas. It often develops quite large patches and maybe locally dominant (Cook 1996). <br/></p>  <p><br/>  </p><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177117		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
177118		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177118		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Murdannia spirata</span> is a Indo-malayan species with a distribution extending from Pacific Islands (Samoa) to India. In India, it is widely distributed in Andaman, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra , Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996).
177118		habitat	eng	It is annual or perhaps also perennial in permanently wet places.  However, mainly found in a wide variety of wet habitats: rice fields,  irrigation ditches, river beds and banks and in marshes. It is often  gregarious and forms distinct clumps or zones around drying pools (Cook  1996). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
177118		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177118		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177120		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177120		distribution	eng	<p><em>Rotala mexicana </em>is an annual and widespreaded cosmopolitan species. In India it is commonly seen in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996). It can be seen throughout the warmer parts of the world, northeast Africa, Arabia and Pacific Islands (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989).</p>
177120		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual and usually found in shallow water or on wet mud following rain. It is sometimes very short-lived and can complete its generative history in less than a month. It passes the dry period as seed (Cook 1996). A wide spread and variable species found usually in shallow water or wet or moist open grounds during monsoon. Sometimes looks like terrestrial algae, it is very short-lived and completes its life-cycle within a fortnight. In water of 10 cm or more deep, stem is erect and branched below and the submerged leaves ate linear, thin, usually in whorls (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177120		population	eng	<p>Commonly occurring widespread species.</p>
177120		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177121		conservation	eng	A portion of the range area is included in Anshi National Park, Karnataka.
177121		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon lanceolatum </span>is endemic to Western Ghats (Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996). In Kerala it is reported from Bekal. In Maharashtra it is reported from Pune, Khandala, Mumbai, Gaganbavda, Sindhudurg, (Lakshminarasimhan, 1996), Kolhapur (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011). In Karnataka it occurs in South and north Kanara (Anshi National park and Nigundi). The distribution of this species in Gujarat is doubtful (Cook, 1996).
177121		habitat	eng	It is an annual, aquatic herb, grows in marshes, rice fields, moist areas, wet rocks, plains and around drying pools. Frequently grows in margins of pools and ponds (Cook 1996; Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009).
177121		population	eng	No population information on this species
177121		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
177122		conservation	eng	Since the species is known from a single location in Sri Lanka, in one location in Kerala, India, and a subspecies from a location in Maharashtra, there is an urgent need for taxonomic studies and detailed surveys to establish its distribution.
177122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis lankana</span> is distributed in India and Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka it is reported from Colombo District from a single locality (Cook 1996). In India it is reported from Alleppey in Kerala (Sasidharan 2004), and a new subspecies <em>E.l.&#160;mohamadii</em> was described from Kagal in Kolhapur District, Maharashtra by Khan (1998).
177122		habitat	eng	The subspecies <em>mohamadii</em> grows in marshy places along lake side (Yadav and Sardesai 2002) and in fallow marshy fields in Kerala (Sasidharan 2004).
177122		population	eng	In Maharashtra, the subspecies is rare in marshy places along lake side (Yadav and Sardesai 2002). &#160;Population status in Kerala and Sri Lanka is not known.
177122		threats	eng	<p>No threats known for this species.</p>
177125		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures known for the species. Distribution and ecological studies and monitoring recommended.
177125		distribution	eng	Endemic to India and known from the states of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994; 2009; Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Cook 1996). In Maharashtra it is reported from Kolhapur and Satara (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). &#160;In Madhya Pradesh the species is found in Bastar, Raigarh and Surguja (Singh <em>et al. </em>2001). In Karnataka the species is reported from North Kanara (Anmod and Tinai Ghat) and Shimoga (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986; Nayar 1996; Das Das and Singh 2001).&#160;Lakshminarasimhan (1996) in flora of Maharashtra reported that&#160;<em>Eriocaulon breviscapum</em>&#160;from Satara and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra, however Gaikwad and Yadav (2002) could not re-locate the species.
177125		habitat	eng	It is a perennial or perhaps also annual. It is an aquatic herb growing submerged in flowing water in streams and rivers, often attached to rocks. Frequent, and sometimes abundant (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Cook 1996). It is rare in still water (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is seen along the streams at Anmod (at 1019 m) in Karnataka, and in Kolhapur in Maharashtra (Kulkarni and Desai 1972).
177125		population	eng	There is no data on population of this species. In Karnataka it is known to be common in flowing streams and rivers attached to the rocks (Das and Singh 2001) whereas it is rare in Maharashtra (Gaikwad and Yadav 2002).
177125		threats	eng	There is no identified threats for the species.
177126		conservation	eng	It is a widespread species, growing in diverse primary and secondary  habitats and any conservation action is not necessary.
177126		distribution	eng	Rotala densiflora&#160;is distributed from Pamirs to northern Pakistan and northern India to Assam. It is absent from the northern Indian plains but widespread in peninsular India extending to Sri Lanka, and northern Australia. It is naturalized in Italy.
177126		habitat	eng	It grows in shallow water at the edges of tanks, ditches in floating mats of vegetation, in marshes and in rice fields.
177126		population	eng	Although there is no specific study on population, it is widespread and locally abundant in many areas.
177126		threats	eng	It is not reported to have any threat. It is a widespread species, growing in diverse primary and secondary habitats.
177128		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken or is considered necessary for this species.
177128		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum plebeium</span>&#160;is widely distributed throughout the old world tropics and is also known from Australia and North America.
177128		habitat	eng	It is gregarious by rivers, canals, drying out pools and harvested rice fields, all areas which have clayey soil and have waterlogging at least some parts of the year. It&#160;forms dense mats on ground in moist soil or seasonally flooded areas.
177128		population	eng	It is common in many places within India. In suitable places like dried pond beds it can form dense stands with about 30 spreading individuals within 1m<sup>2</sup> (A. Watve pers. obs.)&#160; Although population data in other countries is not available, it is a species easily colonizing secondary habitats with moist or waterlogged soil.
177128		threats	eng	There is no threat to this species. It is widespread in three continents and is common.
177131		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures known for the species. &#160;Research on ecology, life history and population status of the species is highly essential.
177131		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Western Ghats (Taylor 1984, Cook 1996), India and found in Karnataka (South Kanara, Mangalore, North Kanara, and Udipi District, Kollur), North Kerala, Kasaragod, and Goa (Janarthanam and Henry 1992). Earlier known from its type locality and now recorded from Goa in north to Palghat District, Kerala in the south (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).
177131		habitat	eng	It is a small annual herb found in seasonally flooded places, wet soil over laterite and in wet grassland (Cook 1996). It sprouts up immediately after rains in wet or water-logging places over laterite rocks, grasslands and rarely on soil-covered black boulders (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).
177131		population	eng	There is no information on the population of the species.
177131		threats	eng	There is no information on the threat for the species.
177132		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species. Detailed distribution, ecology and threats are essential.</p>
177132		distribution	eng	<p>This is a tufted perennial. In India, it is widespread in almost all the districts of southern India and in almost all parts of India. It is also distributed in Myanmar, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan (Sind and Punjab).&#160;It is native to eastern Asia. It has been reported from chrome ore piles in Canton, Maryland (Reed 1964), but no voucher specimens have been seen (Freckmann and Lelong 2010)</p>
177132		habitat	eng	<p>It is tufted perennial plant, and not confined to wetlands but frequently found in marshes, along water courses and in seasonally inundated places (Cook 1996). The plant is common in cultivated fields in the summer, especially in the Punjab. <br/></p>
177132		population	eng	<p>A widespread species found commonly in almost all parts of its range.</p>
177132		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177133		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. However, detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177133		distribution	eng	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Najas malesiana</span> is widely distributed in tropical Asia (Malaysia) and Australia. In India, it is found in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka and Punjab (Cook 1996).</p>
177133		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual and often common and dominant in ditches and ponds .</p>
177133		population	eng	<p>It is often common and locally dominant (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177133		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177135		conservation	eng	<p>The species is restricted to four localities in southern India. &#160;Further surveys to establish its distribution and monitoring of habitat and populations are very unrgently recommended.</p>
177135		distribution	eng	<p><em>Rotala macrandra</em> is endemic to southern India and is known from the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996) and Maharashtra (Yadav and Sardesai 2002).</p>
177135		habitat	eng	<p>It is very also common weed in streams, temporary ponds and flooded paddy fields. In submerged condition the plant is very flexuous, leaves are very thin and more or less translucent, shape varies from lanceolate to orbicular and are pale green, pink or red. It usually set flowers and fruits when the surrounding water recedes (Cook 1996). It is seen usually associated with <em>Blyxa aubertii</em> and <em>Vallisneria spiralis</em> and resembles <em>R. rotundifolia</em> in general appearance but differs in having exserted stamens. It is usually restricted to the wet low lands in the coastal region (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989).</p>
177135		population	eng	<p>Frequently found along streams, lagoons, temporary ponds and flooded paddy fields.</p>
177135		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177139		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. More research is needed to inform about population status and trends and also threats.
177139		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to India. It is distributed in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu; probably endemic to Indian subcontinent (Cook 1996). There are also representative specimens from Kerala are available at Madras Herbarium. Its presence is Sri Lanka has been quoted, however it is not present in this country (Dinesh Albertson pers. comm. 2010)<br/></p>
177139		habitat	eng	<p>In shallow water, in swamps and rice fields and also reported from sugarcane fields (Cook 1996).</p>
177139		population	eng	No information available.
177139		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to wetland encroachment and habitat conversion.
177140		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex phacota</span> is present within Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary in the Himalyalan range, Silent Valley and Agasthyamala Hills, in southern India.
177140		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex phacota</span> is distributed in south and east Asia, Indo-China and Japan. In India it is found in Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
177140		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb found growing in swamps, marshes, and seasonally flooded places at high altitudes, from 1500-2200 m.
177140		population	eng	Population data is not known.
177140		threats	eng	No specific threats identified for this species.
177144		conservation	eng	No conservation action plan is in place.
177144		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis ferruginea </span>is distributed in Pantropics. <br/><br/>In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Lakshadweep, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Verma<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2001, Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177144		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb, grows in marshy places especially with sandy or clayish soil, shallow water and is sometimes found in brackish water near the sea and also grows in river beds and lake sides (Cook 1996, Daniel and Umamaheshwari 2001).
177144		population	eng	This is a very common and widely distributed species.
177144		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
177145		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177145		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus tenuiculmis</span> is distributed in old world tropics and subtropics. In India it is reported from Andra pradesh, Assam, Karnataka (Sivasamudram, Kollegal), Maharashtra (Pune), Nagaland, Sikkim, West Bengal (Cook 1996, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). It occurs in Kerala (Callicut, Idukki- Pooyamkutty 50m., Quilon dt- Pathanarothitta.125m, Valiyaparathode- Silent Valley Reserved forest., Thiruvananthapuram- Ponmudi 1000m) and Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari, Madurai, Nilgris, Chennai-Nungambakkam,Cuddalore District- Annamalai nagar., Chengalpattu, Pudukottai- Avudayarkovil., Coimbatore-Vellingiri hills) (BSI Coimbatore).
177145		habitat	eng	It is an perennial or annual plant grows in seasonally flooded areas, roadside ditches, swamps usually on sandy soil. It is not confined to wetlands (Cook 1996) and also grows in open grasslands (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).
177145		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177145		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177146		conservation	eng	No conservation&#160;measures&#160;are in place.
177146		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon odoratum</span> is endemic to peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka.
177146		habitat	eng	This annual plant grows in open marshy places and wet grasslands.
177146		population	eng	This is a common species across its range.
177146		threats	eng	The threat information was not known.
177147		conservation	eng	Micro propagation work has been done. Studies on distribution and harvest required.
177147		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaeranthus amaranthoides</span> is known only from Sri Lanka and southern India. In India it is distributed in Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
177147		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaeranthus amaranthoide</span>s is an annual. It is found growing in moist places and probably in brackish water near the coast.
177147		population	eng	Population data is not known, but it is a weed.
177147		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
177148		conservation	eng	No conservation actions needed for the species. Its distribution, life history, ecology and threats in India need to be studied.
177148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Commelina imberbis </span>is distributed tropical and southern Africa and Madagascar. Also recorded from Yemen and India where it is distributed in Madhya Pradesh (Samvatsar 1996), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Kancheepuram, Ramanathapuram, Thiruvallur and Tiruchchirappalli) (Bhargavan 1989).  and Kerala (Periyar Tiger Reserve) (Jommy Agastin. pers. com).
177148		habitat	eng	It grows in cultivated fields, and moist localities (Bhargavan 1989).
177148		population	eng	It is a common species.
177148		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
177149		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action known for this species. However, taxonomic studies along with ecological, distribution and monitoring studies are recommended.
177149		distribution	eng	The species is known from Ahmednagar (Harishchandragad, between Lavhali and Pachnai village) and Satara (Kate's point in Mahabaleshwar) districts of Maharashtra, India (Punekar <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177149		habitat	eng	It is a acaulescent herb. It grows at Harishchandragad at an altitude of 850 m in colonies along the fringed areas of ephemeral streams and in tufts of grasses in association with <em>Eriocaulon eurypeplon</em>, <em>E. cookei</em>, <em>E. heterolepis</em>, <em>Jansenella griffithiana</em> and S<em>wertia minor</em>. In Mahabaleshwar it is recorded from an altitude of 1350 m. on lateritic hill slopes in clumps of <em>Strobilanthes reticulatus</em> in association with <em>Hitchenia caulina</em>, <em>Fimbristylis</em> sp., <em>Panicum</em> sp., <em>Eriocaulon sahyadricum</em>, <em>E. sedgwickii </em>and <em>Exacum pumilum </em>(Punekar <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177149		population	eng	The population details of the species is unknown. It is common on wet, gravelly, lateritic plateaus and also along the slow moving streams (S.A.Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177149		threats	eng	No known threats are reported for this species.
177150		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported.
177150		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus tuberosus </span>is found from Africa, to India, Sri Lanka and China.&#160; In India it occurs in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu Kashmir, Keral, Karnataka, Megalaya, Maharasthra, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal at the altitude of 0 to 2400 m (Cook 1996).
177150		habitat	eng	It grows in dried up pools, river banks, ditches and rice fields (Cook 1996). Sometimes grows in marshy and sandy localites (Daniel and Umamaheshwari 2001), and also in open places (Bhargavan 1987).
177150		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177150		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177151		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions needed for this species worldwide. &#160;However, the Indian population requires further detailed taxonomic studies. The Nilgiris population may be very scarce.</p>
177151		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Scleria mikawana</span> is sporadically noted in the Old World tropics and subtropics from tropical Africa through southern and southeastern Asia north eastwards to central Japan and eastwards to New Guinea. In India, it is reported only from the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu (Fischer in Gamble 1931).</p>
177151		habitat	eng	<p>It is mostly found in wet grassy places and swamps (Henry <em>et al.</em> 1989).</p>
177151		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population structure of this species. Since it is reported only from the Nilgiris, it is apparently restricted in occurrence in India.</p>
177151		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
177153		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for the species are not in place. Surveys need to be undertaken in other areas.Research on&#160;taxonomy, population, life history and threats required.
177153		distribution	eng	This recently described plant is rare and has only been reported from its type locality which is Baramati Tahsil of Pune District of Maharashtra (Shimpale <em>et al.</em> 2009). Hence, actual distribution is not clear.
177153		habitat	eng	It is an erect, annual, acaulescent herb which grows in the range of 20-25 cm high. It grows in open areas on the rocky beds of streams, associated with <em>Dichanthium annulatum</em> (Forssk.) Stapf, <em>Hoppea dichotoma</em> Willd., <em>Lindernia oppositifolia</em> (L.) Mukerjee, <em>Flaveria trinervia</em> (Spreng.) C. Mohr, <em>Echinochloa colona </em>(L.) Link, <em>Dipcadi saxorum </em>Blatt., <em>Fimbristylis</em> and <em>Eleochari</em>s species (Shimpale <em>et al.</em> 2009).
177153		population	eng	There is no information about the population of the species.
177153		threats	eng	No known threats for this species.
177154		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Detailed studies on distribution, threats and impacts and monitoring recommended.
177154		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocaulon eurypeplon&#160;</em>is endemic to western India, Western Ghats and Konkan-Malabar plains.
177154		habitat	eng	It grows on lateritic plateaus and rock outcrops during the late phase of monsoon. It is a dominant species of ephemeral flush vegetation. It also grows along marshes, wet rice fields, rock crevices etc.
177154		population	eng	Population of this species was regularly observed on rock outcrops in Maharashtra for three years from 2003-2006 (Watve 2007). It is locally abundant on wet rocks in ephemeral flush vegetation of lateritic plateaus.
177154		threats	eng	There are several threats affecting this species including development activities, tourism and mining.
177155		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177155		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis schoenoides</span> is distributed in tropical Asia, South East Asia and Australia, introduced in north America (Cook 1996). In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Himachal Pradesh,&#160; Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh (Chaechai falls), Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Rao and Kumari 2002). In Tamil Nadu it occurs in Cuddalore, Kancheepuram, Puddukkottai, Salem, Thiruvallur, Tiruchchirappalli, Tirunelveli, Tiruvannamalai and Viluppuram (Bhargavan 1989). It is also reported from Ramanathapuram coastal area (Kurusadai Island) (Rao and Kumari 2002).
177155		habitat	eng	It is an annual growing in wet grassy places, marshes, seasonally inundated areas on the banks of ponds, streams and in roadside drains. Sometimes found in rice fields and roadside ditches (Cook 1996).
177155		population	eng	This is a very common and widely distributed species.
177155		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177156		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed.
177156		distribution	eng	<em>Centranthera indica</em> is distributed in Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal and Sri Lanka. In Bangladesh, this species is found in Dinajpur, Gazipur and Sylhet&#160;(Rahman 2006).&#160;In India, it &#160;is&#160; found in &#160;Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu &#160;and Kerala . In&#160;Madhya Pradesh the species is reported&#160;from Dhar and Jhabua districts (Singh&#160;1997), Koyna valley in Koyna; Mahabaleshwar, Shirshingi; Wada, below Mahabaleshwar (Deshpande<em> et al.</em>1993), Alibagh; Bhise-Khind, Roha; Matheran; Sarasgad, Pali in Raigad district of Maharashtra (Kothari and Moorthy 1993), Nilgiri of Tamil Nadu (Henry and Chitra&#160;1987). In Kerala, the species is reported from all districts (Sasidharan 2004).
177156		habitat	eng	It is an errect herb found in marshy places (Singh&#160;1997). It is a common annual among grasses in open lands (Deshpande <em>et al.</em>1993).
177156		population	eng	No information is available for the population status of the species. In Madhya Pradesh it is reported to be rare in marshy areas (<span class="apple-style-span">Singh&#160;1997).
177156		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
177157		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is needed.
177157		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>    <p><br/></p>
177157		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus rubicundus </span>is distributed in Australia, Africa, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritius, Malaysia, Somalia, Nambia, Madagascar, Tanzania and South East Asia. In India it occurs in Maharasthra (Ahmednagar, Nasik, Osmangabad, Pune) (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Coimbatore, Nilgiri) (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et a</span>l. 1987, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
177157		distribution	eng	This species  is found from Africa to north Australia. In north east Africa it occurs in Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea (Gheleb). Also present in Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Namibia, and Swaziland.
177157		habitat	eng	It grows in damp or moist places (Cook 1996).
177157		habitat	eng	It grows in moist and damp places.
177157		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177157		population	eng	This species is common.
177157		threats	eng	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.
177157		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177158		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Some subpopulations are protected inside protected areas.
177158		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon pectinatum</span> is endemic to southern Western Ghats (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986, Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). In Kerala it is reported from Idukki (Anaimudi, close to Hamilton bungalow) (Sasidharan 2004), Periyar Tiger Reserve (Periyar Foundation 2007). In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Nilgiri, Kodaikanal and Palani hills (Chandrabose 1987; Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009).
177158		habitat	eng	It grows in marshy grasslands (Sasidharan 2004) and damp grounds (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009) at an altitude above 1,800 metres.
177158		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species. It is known to be rare in Tamil Nadu (Chandrabose 1987).<br/></p>
177158		threats	eng	Habitats of this species are under threat from invasive species, habitat alteration due to fires, and construction of dams. These are causing a decline in habitat quality and extent of suitable areas that this species may colonise.
177159		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species, particularly on its distribution and potential threats.
177159		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus platyphyllus</span> is known from Sri Lanka and southern India. In India it is found in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
177159		habitat	eng	It is a perennial found growing in marshy places at low altitude.
177159		population	eng	This is a rare species, but no specific population information is known.
177159		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
177160		conservation	eng	<p>Surveys and ecological studies to understand distribution, population, threats and trends are needed. Existing habitats need conservation.</p>
177160		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><em>Rotala cookii</em> is restricted to Ernakulam and Mallapuram districts of Kerala, India. It is known only from its type locality. It grows in the flooded lowlands, along the coastal belt, the plant is an <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippuris</span> mimic (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989). It is endemic to southern India (Cook 1996).</p>
177160		habitat	eng	<p>The material was collected from the fresh water, low-land paddy fields at Parappanangadi, a coastal town in Malappuram district in Kerala during the rainy season. During this period the entire field gets flooded, and a number of hydrophytic annuals, submerged and emergent, appear.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala cookii </span>grows abundantly in this area but is always in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrilla verticillata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wiesneria triandra</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Limnopoa meeboldii</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphoides indica</span> (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989).</p>
177160		population	eng	<p>It is locally abundant growing with other hydrophytes (Cook 1996). However, the population is on decline due to habitat conversion.</p>
177160		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>The type locality and adjoining areas in Malappuram, and Ernakulam are threatened from urbanization, sand mining, landfilling and conversion to non-agricultural development projects (J. Augustine pers. comm. 2011).</p>
177162		conservation	eng	Three of the localities are in within wildlife sanctuaries, while two are known eco-sensitive areas. However, this does not prevent local grazing and trampling of the habitats.
177162		distribution	eng	<em>Isachne bicolor</em> is endemic to Maharashtra, found in Kolhapur (Amba), Satara, Ahmednagar and Aurangabad districts in less than eight fragmented locations.
177162		habitat	eng	It found in open grass dominated areas in shallow soil, especially on outcrops.
177162		population	eng	It is infrequent even in the known localities. A few individuals are seen clumped in shallow soil areas in grass dominated communities.
177162		threats	eng	The localities are under local grazing pressure. Influx of tourists at known localities is also leading to increased trampling, littering and disturbance. Not all the localities are being impacted. Four of the seven known sites are difficult to access for tourists and the local pressures should be negligible.
177163		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken. No specific action is required for such a widespread species with invasive tendencies.
177163		conservation	eng	None known.
177163		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hygrophila schulli</span> is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indo-China, Malaysia and in large parts of Africa.
177163		distribution	eng	This species is very common in Africa presenting a Guineo-congolian and sudano-zambezian distribution. It is widespread in Southern and Eastern Africa (including Zanzibar and Pemba). Distribution in central Africa is not well known. It is also found in Asia (India).
177163		habitat	eng	Common on marsy places near towns and villages, fields rice, humid ditches, pools and also seasonal wetlands, often brackish, littoral, estuarine.
177163		habitat	eng	It is a common species in most wetlands, freshwater as well as brackish. It has invasive tendencies and at times forms pure growth in polluted waterbodies such as drainage channels, open gutters etc.
177163		population	eng	Although no specific study has been carried out on this species, the populations are large, the plant is often reported as very common, with invasive tendencies based on observations within India. It has not been reported as threatened from any country.
177163		population	eng	Great planting on pools and shallow water.
177163		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known. It grows in any waterbody, even in polluted water.
177163		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.
177164		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
177164		distribution	eng	<em>Pycreus puncticulatus&#160;</em>is distributed in southern India and Sri Lanka. In India it is found in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
177164		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual found growing in wet and seasonally flooded places and grows abundantly in the rice fields.</p>
177164		population	eng	This is a common species.
177164		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
177166		conservation	eng	<p>It is present within Kanchenjunga Conservation Area and Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve in Nepal.</p>
177166		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex longipes </span>is distributed in the Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), Nilgiri Mountains, Palni hills in India. Elsewhere it is recorded in Nepal, Indo-China, central China and Indonesia.<p></p>
177166		habitat	eng	It grows in high altitude grassland ecosystems and by riversides.
177166		population	eng	<p>The population information is not available.</p>
177166		threats	eng	<p>No threat has been reported. In future, any developmental activities may cause a problem to this species.</p>
177167		conservation	eng	Conservation activities regarding the species has not be reported or is needed.
177167		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Commelina caroliniana</span> is an endemic species to the Indian subcontinent. It was introduced in South Carolina in the year 1696 and spread across to the southern east part of United States. It is also introduced in Philippines and Guam. In India is it found in Andaman, Delhi, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Maharastra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
177167		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Commelina caroliniana</span> is commonly found in fields, swamps, yards, waste places, along roadsides , rarely in the forests. It is also a weed in crops,  especially in heavy irrigation field such as rice.
177167		population	eng	It is commonly found in its habitat. Data regading its population had not been reported.
177167		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Commelina caroliniana</span> is distributed in the Indian Subcontinent. The major threat to the species is the habitat loss caused by conversion of forest areas into agricultural lands, urban expansion and tourist areas.
177168		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177168		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis atropurpurea</span> is  distributed in pantropics and subtropics, extending to Europe and USA.  In India it is reported from Assam, Delhi, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,  Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala (Cannanore - Muzhapplangod 50m),  Maharashtra (Kagal, Rui, Ahmednagar, Bombay, Chandrapur, Kolhapur,  Nagpur, Nasik, Osmangabad, Pune, Raigad, Sindhudurg, Thane) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur, Gwalior, Raigarh, Raipur,  Rajnandgaon, Rewa, Rachai falls at 450m, Satna, Shivpuri, Ujjain) (Verma 2001), Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu (Madurai- In a pond,  Poyakarai at 133m, Ramanathapuram- Paraiyankulam forest Sivagangai,  Salem, Tirunelveli- Courtallam), Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In Andhra  Pradesh it is known to occur in Chittoor Dt- Chrudrairi forest at 250m,  Near Komativairi Cheruru at 375m, Hill top of Chandragiri forest. Medak  district- way to madi kona Kutta Narsapur at 713m, Aduvicheru pond  Rusthempet. (Cook 1996, BSI Coimbatore).
177168		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb growing in marshes, drying margins of tanks and river beds. Frequently gregarious in shallow water and in seasonally flooded places, often grows in rice fields (Cook 1996; Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177168		population	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis atropurpurea</span> is a very common species throughout its range.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p>
177168		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177169		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177169		distribution	eng	<p>In India, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella pseudoflabellata</span> is recorded in Elliot's Beach in Chennai (Pal <em>et al</em>. 1962) and Sathamangalam in Virudhachalam Thaluk, Tamil Nadu (Subramanian 1985). It is also recorded in China, Japan and Thailand (Sakayama<em> et al</em>. 2005) and Australia.<br/></p>
177169		habitat	eng	It occurs in the tanks and sandy water ditches of paddy fields and river beds.
177169		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177169		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177172		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys are recommended. &#160;It is conserved in Kodaikanal Botanic Garden.
177172		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elaphoglossum stelligerum </span>occurs in India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Thailand. In India it occurs in Sikkim, Assam, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. &#160;In the Western Ghats it is recorded from Idukki District (Mannavan shola) in Kerala, and Shevroy Hills and Palni Hills in Tamil Nadu (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992; Kumar 1997, Kumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).
177172		habitat	eng	It is lithophytic along streams and epiphytic in shady moist forests between 1200 and 1800m.
177172		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population structure.
177172		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to the species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177173		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177173		conservation	eng	Taxonomy, biology and ecology are known. Further research on population numbers and range is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation and identification of new protected areas is also recommendable.
177173		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus procerus</span> is distributed in Australia, Burkina Faso, Bangladesh,&#160; Myanmar, Cameroon, China, Chinese Taipei, Guyana, Indonesia, Madagascar, Papua New Guinea, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Tanzania United Republic Of, Thailand. In India it occurs in Assam, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Bastar, Rajnandgaon), Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Pudukottai, South Arcot, Thanjavur, Thiruchirapalli), Kerala (Periyar Tiger Reserve) and West Bengal (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987, Cook 1996, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
177173		distribution	eng	Tropical and Subtropical global distribution. Widespread in western Africa and present in Kenya, southern Sudan (Grosse Seriba Ghattas, Lande der Djur), southern Ethiopia, southern Somalia, Namibia, and South Africa (Limpopo, possibly Gauteng).
177173		habitat	eng	It is an perennial plant grows in swamps, marshes, pools, wet rice fields, seasonally flodded places and open moist depressions (Cook 1996, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
177173		habitat	eng	Thus is a stoloniferous sedge to about 120 cm, high with elongated rhizomes, winged triangular stems, long acuminate bracts, and a smal umbel of flattenedspikelets with membranous-edged, brown glumes. Present in muddy depressions near rivers, pools and fallows, marshy grassland, seasonally flooded area (rice farms) and near open water.
177173		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177173		population	eng	This species is rare in Northern Africa but it has a high dense population in other areas throughout its range.
177173		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177173		threats	eng	The species is of high altitudes, where accidental natural drought is a likely threat to the species, in addition to the main threats by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. However, no major widespread threat have been identified for this species in Africa.
177174		conservation	eng	Conservation activities has not been reported or needed.
177174		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischaemum travancorense</span> is endemic to southern India in Kerala and Maharashtra.
177174		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial growing along the streams, canals and backwaters, rice fields and also in marshy places. </p>
177174		population	eng	<p>It is the most dominant and abundantly growing floating grass in the sudds of downstream deltaic  portions of Kuttnad. The development of <em>Ischaemum</em> and its rapid population expansion by  asexual reproduction in abandoned fields results in the formation of a thick  sudd comprising the roots which anchor producing stolons and persist over long  periods of time. Extensive areas of abandoned rice fields are now occupied by  dense stands of <em>Ischaemum</em> as the climax community impenetrable to any  other invader. </p>
177174		threats	eng	There are no specific threats known for this species.
177175		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.
177175		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus pilosus</span> is distributed in the Old World tropics. It is widely distributed across Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and Nepal.
177175		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus pilosus</span> is a perennial growing in seasonally flooded places, wet grasslands, rice fields and drains. It is found in the plains up to 1500 m.
177175		population	eng	It is reported as a common species.
177175		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread and hardy species.
177177		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported so far. Research for this species is needed.
177177		distribution	eng	It was reported from the type locality, Nerurpar which is about 9 km west of Kudal in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra state. Apart from type locality, it has also been collected from Sathose near Savantwadi in Sindhudurg district (Gaikwad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
177177		habitat	eng	It is known to grow among paddy fields along the banks of the Tarkarli river. Mishra and Singh (2001) report that it is a weed in paddy fields and quite abundant (5-60 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>). However, this probably is not its natural habitat. It probably grew in similar seasonally waterlogged conditions, like the rivulets, streams and temporary ponds on lateritic areas and rocky outcrops nearby (A.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Watve pers. comm. 2010). However, it is not known anywhere outside the known localities hence it is difficult to know more about its habitat requirements.
177177		population	eng	Mishra and Singh (2001) report that it is a weed in paddy fields and quite abundant (5-60 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>); however, Gaikwad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) report it as rare. It is difficult to count the number of mature individuals in the population in the absence of any population study. The habitat, paddy fields, actually do not occupy the entire area in the region. The two localities could be considered as one location and area of occupancy based on known suitable habitat is very small.
177177		threats	eng	Mishra and Singh (2001) remark that weeding operations in the paddy fields where this species grows are major threat to the species. However, more serious threat is from future changes in the landuse in the area where the species grows. In the area agriculture is changing to more intensive agriculture. Vast areas are getting affected due to land conversion for residential and industrial purposes. Twenty thermal power stations have been planned in the entire Konkan region along the coast and several infrastructure development projects are planned along with it. Although it has been opposed on environmental grounds, some conversions are likely to take place in the region where this species occurs.
177178		conservation	eng	<p>Studies on threats and their impacts on the wild population is urgently required.</p>
177178		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oryza officinalis</span>&#160; is a perrenial herb and commonly distributed at less than 1000m altitude in the Western Ghats. In India, it is commonly known to Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. And also wide spread in south east Asia (Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam).
177178		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>It is found at the edge of or in forests, evergreen or deciduous forests; or low, open vegetation; in abandoned or rarely on the edge of cultivated rice fields or fruit/plantain gardens, in Southeast Asia near the coast. However, it grows in seasonally wet areas, ditches, swampy/marsh places, near small water holes, and along lake sides, streams, or rivers. Whereas, it prefers alluvial silt soils or sandy soils on limestone. It is also found in full sun or partial shade. It occurs naturally in the disturbed area beside seasonally wet depression in Myanmar; edge of pond in Indonesia; and stream sides in Philippines (knowledgebank.irri.org).</p>
177178		population	eng	<p>It is a widely distributed species, but very rare in India.</p>
177178		threats	eng	<p>There are indications of population declines in the wild, however, the reasons for the decline are not known. The threats to the species are unknown.</p>
177180		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are are in place for this species.
177180		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fuirena trilobites </span>is endemic to peninsular India. It is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Sindhudurg) and Tamil Nadu (Salem) (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 1996, Bhargavan <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>1987).
177180		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, grows in waterlogged grassland, rice fields, pools, streams and rivers (Cook 1996).
177180		population	eng	This species is endemic to peninsular India and is encountered only occasionally.
177180		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177182		conservation	eng	No conservation action is reported or is necessary for the species.
177182		distribution	eng	It is distributed widely in the old world tropics. It is known from tropical Africa, India, central Himalaya to southern China and peninsular Malaysia, Nepal,&#160; Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam.
177182		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis cristata </span>is reported from wet rocky areas, moist soil, grasslands, ravines, stream edges.
177182		population	eng	It is reported as common in most of its range.
177182		threats	eng	Threats have not been reported for this species. It is widely distributed and common in its range.
177183		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177183		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia nummulariifolia</span> is widely spread in African mountains and Asia (Angola, China, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Vietnam, Zambia, Zimbabwe). In India, it is commonly distributed in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Nagaland, West Bengal, Chattisgarh, Tripura, Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996). <br/></p><p><br/></p>
177183		habitat	eng	<p>It is a annual or perhaps sometimes perennial and occurs in sandy and open ground in evergreen forests, along mountain sides but usually in wet places, particularly in rice fields (Cook 1996). It is also found in moist sandy alluvium on hill slopes in Chattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh (Mudgal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997), and common on laterite soil or on rocks in Andhra Pradesh (Rao and Kumari 2002).<br/></p>
177183		population	eng	<p>Particularly common during Monsoon (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
177183		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177190		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not known or needed for this weed.
177190		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from India (the Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,  Maharastra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and  West Bengal), Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, southern China (Yunnan), through Indochina (Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam, and is likely to be present in Cambodia) to Malaysia, and from Africa and Australia (Northern Territory and Queensland) (Cook 1996, eFloras 2011, GRIN 2011).
177190		habitat	eng	It is an annual found growing in wet areas, occasionally temporarily submerged. Common in and around irrigation ditches and rice fields and considered as a weed. Grows from the plains to 800 m.
177190		population	eng	It has been reported as common and is very widespread weed.
177190		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread weed.
177192		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
177192		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Urochloa panicoides</span> is a tufted, stoloniferous and annual grass. In India, it is widely distributed in Tamil Nadu (almost all districts), Maharashtra (common in all districts), Andhra Pradesh (Diguvametta), Kerala (Walayar in Palagat district), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Bhopal, Indore, Sidhi), Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It is a pantropical species and widely seen in Africa, Australia, Pakistan, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Fiji.</p>
177192		habitat	eng	<p>It commonly occurrs in wet sandy localities or along roadsides and rocky areas. Whereas, it is occasionally seen along the bunds of paddy fields and along wet sandy shores.</p>
177192		population	eng	<p>Very common and widespread species.</p>
177192		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177193		conservation	eng	Although specific conservation measures have not been taken for this species, it occurs in many protected areas within Western Ghats.
177193		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dalzellia zeylanica</span> is endemic to India (Western Ghats in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa) and Sri Lanka (Cook 1996).
177193		habitat	eng	This rheophyte (lives attached to hard surfaces) generally grows in upper reaches of streams. <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalzellia zeylanica</span>&#160;(Gardn.) Wight is a submerged hydrophyte, attached to rocks in fast flowing seasonal streams and rivers.
177193		population	eng	Population studies on this species have not been conducted. The present information is based on personal observations (A. Watve pers. obs. 2010) of this species in Pune district of Maharashtra and published paper from Kerala.
177193		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to habitat degradation. The hill streams and rivers in the region are impacted by land conversion and building of dams. Addition of sewage and other pollutants to the waterbodies&#160;by growing urbanisation and industrialisation&#160;also cause habitat degradation. Large scale alternation of hillscapes leads to changes in drainage pattern harming this species' habitats.
177194		conservation	eng	Impacts of threats and need for mitigation.
177194		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis kingii </span>is endemic to southern India. It is reported from Karnataka (Bangalore, Shimoga) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986), Maharasthra (Sindhudurg), Kerala (Kottayam-Annamudi slopes (2,575 m), Umaiya malai (2,200 m)), Tamil Nadu (Nilgris-Avalanche (2,025 m). Palani and Attapadi Valley, Pudukottai; Sittanavasal (120 m), Mukurti National Park at 2,050 m, Coimbatore: Thanakkamalai (2,335 m) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996, BSI Coimbatore). In Kerala it occurs along small streams in grassy hills in Idukki (above 1,500 m) and from Munnar (2,000 m) (Augustine 2000). The species is known only from 1,600 m and above.
177194		habitat	eng	It grows in water logged rice fields (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), along banks of small streams and grasslands in Kerala (Augustine 2000).
177194		population	eng	The species is rare in Kerala (Augustine 2000). There is no population information for other places.
177194		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> plantations and man made forest fires are major threats.
177195		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177195		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon heterolepis </span>is reported from Goa, Kerala (Calicut), and Rajasthan. (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996). In Maharashtra it is reported from Mumbai, Gaganbawda, Radhanagari (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). In Karnataka it is reported from Belgaum, Chikmagalur, Coorg, Dakshina Kannada, Kolar, Mysore, Raichur, Shimoga and Uttara Kannada districts (Das Das and Singh 2001) Yellapur (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009).
177195		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, grows in marshes and seasonally inundated places. It is locally abundant and seen in open paddy fields,&#160; open wetlands, marshy margin of permanent lakes (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996; Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177195		population	eng	This is locally abundant in its range.
177195		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.&#160;   <p>&#160;</p>
177197		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not known for this plant. This species would benefit from habitat protection. Populations and habitats need monitoring.
177197		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia minima</span> is endemic to Tamil Nadu, southern India. It has a disjunct distribution, found in Chengalpattu and in Tirunelveli on the east coast.
177197		habitat	eng	It is found in marshy localities near isolated hillocks, road sides, in gullies in and around hillocks and in temporary pools during the winter season.
177197		population	eng	The population is scattered and is believed to be decreasing due to loss of habitat. This is a rare niche specific plant.
177197		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat conversion due to urbanization and the development of Special Economic Zones (SEZ). The development activities under SEZ are causing negative impact to its habitat. Widening of roads, construction of Information Technology parks is causing loss of habitat. Climatic change can also be considered as a potential threat as erratic rainfall can dry up the marshy localities and temporary pools (Per.obser. Dason Aris and Dr. Narashiman, 2011).
177198		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this plant. More research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species in suitable habitats, and monitoring of habitats and subpopulations. In addition, conservation of the habitat is critical.
177198		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia manilaliana </span>is endemic to Kerala, in southern India.
177198		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia manilaliana</span> is an annual. It is found growing on moist grounds, swampy lowlands and rarely growing in wetlands.
177198		population	eng	It is reported as rare species. The population is decreasing due to urbanization and conversion of habitats for development purposes.
177198		threats	eng	The major threats to the species is urbanization, industrial and tourism activities are causing habitat degradation, which is inferred to be causing a decline in the population.
177199		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measures recommended for the species.
177199		distribution	eng	Globally the species is known to occur in Asia from South Iran to Indochina: Sri Lanka, India and Pakisthan (Cook 1996). The species is distributed in Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). It is reported from Bombay, Kolhapur, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Thane in Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is seen in Chengalpattu, Kanyakumari, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur and Tirunelveli in&#160;Tamil Nadu (<span class="apple-style-span">Bhargavan&#160;1989). In Kerala, the species is reported from Kasargod, Kannur, Malappuram, Kozhikode and Alleppey (Sasidharan 2004).&#160;The collections are made from Kudlu in S. Kanara, Ucchil in Mangalore in Karnataka. In Kerala the specimens were collected from Manjeswer in Cannanore (50m), Cannanore, Nattika beach in Trichur. Tamil Nadu species is recorded from Nazareth in Tirunelveli; Madras beach; Near Muttom coast, near Nagarkoil (2m); Kanniyakumari; Cape to Kovalam in Kanniyakumari; Vaithiappam in &#160;Pondy beach, Pondicherry; Sethukarai (50m) &#160;in Ramanathapuram; Krusadi Island, Uchipulli, Rameswaram (125m) in Ramanathapuram; Point Calimere in Tanjore; Thirumullaivayal, Kudiramoli Teri in Thirunelveli (30m). In Andhra Pradesh it is collected from Bapatla in Guntur (Madras Herbaria 24&#160;November&#160;2010).
177199		habitat	eng	It is perennial found in shallow waters, in sandy soil and on river banks. It is also found in dry sandy situtations, mostly near the sea.
177199		population	eng	It is a very common species.
177199		threats	eng	There are no reported threats to the species.
177201		conservation	eng	No conservation measures taken up or needed for the species.
177201		distribution	eng	<em>Echinochloa picta</em> is distributed in South and Southeast Asia to New Guinea and Australia, also in East Africa (Cook 1996).&#160;The species is seen in Assam and Tamil Nadu (distribution is very incomplete) in India (Cook 1996). Kabeer and Nair (2009) reported the species in almost every part of India. In Tamil Nadu the species is found in Chengalpattu, Chennai, Coimbatore, Cuddalore, Dindigul, Erode, Kanyakumari, Madurai, North Arcot, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, South Arcot, Tiruchirappalli, Tirunelveli, Tiruvallur, Villupuram and Virudhungar (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177201		habitat	eng	It is a tufted, rhizomatous annual or perennial. It is found in marshes or partly submerged areas, wet localities like rice fields. It is a floating species with soft spongy culms and narrow spikelets tapering towards an awn at the tip. It is a weed in cultivated fields (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177201		population	eng	It is widely distributed, but not a common species.
177201		threats	eng	There are no threats identified for the species.
177203		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action designed for the species.
177203		distribution	eng	<em>Mariscus compactu</em>s is&#160;known from tropical Asian countries: Bangladesh, Myanmar, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China and Malaysia (Cook 1996; Ellis 1990). &#160;It is introduced on&#160;Mauritius Islands.&#160;In India, the species occurs in Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Lakshadweep, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal (Cook 1996). It is found in Krishnanandi and Mahanandi in Nallamalais in Andhra Pradesh (Ellis 1990). &#160;In Maharastra it is distributed in Bombay, Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg and Thane (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). Gamble (1931) has given the distribution of the species as Rampa Hills, Mysore, Chingleput, Malabar and Travancore.
177203		habitat	eng	It is a perrnial herb about 1m tall growing in shallow waters in seasonally flooded places, swamps, wet rice fields, marshes, ditches, river banks, often gregarious and forming strands (Cook 1996).
177203		population	eng	It is very common and widespread.
177203		threats	eng	There is no large scale threats identified for the species.
177204		conservation	eng	Conservation activities for the species are not needed.
177204		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ludwigia hyssopifolia</span> is pantropical in distribution, likely native to America: it has probably been introduced to Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Sri Lanka, India and Nepal. It is also found in Colombia, Congo-Kinshasa, Benin, Egypt, Ghana, Honduras, Iraq, New Guinea,  Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Suriname, and West Polynesia.<br/></p><p>In India it is distributed in Andaman & Nicobar islands, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Manipur, Mizoram, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.&#160; </p>
177204		habitat	eng	<p>It is an erect annual herb. It is wide spread growing in wet places, marshes, temporary pools and shallow waters. It is found growing in the plains upto 500 m. </p>
177204		population	eng	The species is widespread and common. Population data and fluctuation has not been reported.
177204		threats	eng	The biggest threat to the species is habitat loss. It is caused by change in land use pattern forest and wetland areas are being converted to agricultural and plantation lands. Urbanization and road expansion works are an added factor to land use pattern change. However these threats are quite localised, and this is a very widespread and common species.
177205		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action known for the species.
177205		distribution	eng	The species is widespread on the hills of the Indian subcontinent. Also reported from Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka (Cook 1996) and China, Cambodia, Lao, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam and Indonesia. In India, this species is reported from Assam, Manipur and Meghalaya of North Eastern India and from Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996). &#160;It is reported from Satara in Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).The selected collections are from Myang Khong valley in Manipur; &#160;Sadoo, Khasia in Meghalaya; Uppupara, Idukki in Kerala; Pykara in Tamil Nadu (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994).It is reported from Chikmagalur and Hassan dsitricts in Karnataka (Das and Singh 2001). The species is collected from Pannimedu in Anamalai (at 925m), Naterikal to Sengalteri (at 1250 m), Sengaltheri (at 900 m), &#160;Gothu (at 1000m), Agastyamalai Peak (at 1900 m), Kakachi (at 1333 m) in Tirunelveli; Poonkulam in Trivandrum (at 1250m) (Madras Herbaria&#160;<st1:date year="2010" day="24" month="11"><span class="apple-style-span">24&#160;November&#160;2010</st1:date>).&#160; The species has also been collected from Adam's peak in Sri Lanka (Madras Herbaria&#160;<st1:date year="2010" day="24" month="11"><span class="apple-style-span">24&#160;November&#160;2010</span></st1:date>).
177205		habitat	eng	It is a tall, caulescent herb (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), found commonly in marshy lands at 900-2100 m altitude (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994; 2009). It is seen as scattered on marshy lands &#160;(Das Das and Singh 2001).
177205		population	eng	&#160;It is a common species.
177205		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
177206		conservation	eng	<p>Conservation actions are not known for this species.</p>
177206		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex lindleyana</span> is distributed in the Western Ghats of southern India, Khasi Hills and Sri&#160;Lanka. There are reports of this plant in China and Japan, but these are doubtful.
177206		habitat	eng	It grows in open grass land ecosystem at an altitude of 650-2500 m.
177206		population	eng	The species is reported as frequent in India. But no specific information is available about the population.
177206		threats	eng	There are no reported threats to this plant.
177207		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for the species, nor recommended.
177207		distribution	eng	Globally <em>Cyperus castaneu</em>s is distributed in tropical Asia and Australia, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and Nepal (Cook 1996).<br/>Indian distribution of the species is mainly from Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996). In Maharashtra it is reported from Bombay, Chandrapur, Kolhapur, Sindhudurg and Thane (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). In Madhya Pradesh, the species is found in Raipur (Verma&#160;2001). &#160;It is found on the way to Pathalaganga, Srisailam &#160;in Nallamalais in Andhra Pradesh (Ellis 1990). It is seen in Chengalpattu, North Arcot, Pudukkottai, Tiruchirappalli &#160;and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu (Bhargavan 1989). In Kerala, the&#160;species&#160;is reported from Kasargod, Pathanamthitta, Thiruvanathapuram, Malappuram, Kozhikode, Thrissur and Alleppy (Sasidharan 2004).
177207		habitat	eng	It is an annual small herb which grows around 5-8 cm tall (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is found in seasonally flooded places; flowering as the water recedes (Cook 1996). It occurs on boulders with little soil in dry localities (Ellis 1990). It grows in swamps and rice fields at low elevations (Gamble 1931).
177207		population	eng	Widely distributed and common species.
177207		threats	eng	There are no reported threats for the species.
177208		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are required to understand the species status.<br/></p>
177208		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lipocarpha kernii</span> is distributed from Senegal to southern Nigeria, and across Africa to Ethiopia, and into India (Adam 1966). In India, it is recorded from Andhra Pradesh (Ragan <em>et al</em>. 1998), Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Cook 1996) and Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).<br/></p>
177208		habitat	eng	<p>It is annual and mostly seen in damp ground or marshes. On sand at the edges of pools and tanks, flowering as the water recedes (Cook 1996).</p>
177208		population	eng	<p>This is a rare species throughout its known range. <br/></p>
177208		threats	eng	<p>The plant is mostly threatened by habitat destruction and grazed by cattle in Senegal (Adam 1966). However, threats at the global level are unknown.<br/></p>
177209		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177209		distribution	eng	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia tenuifolia</span> is distributed only in South and Southeast Asia. In India, it is locally abundant in Tamil Nadu (Pudukottai), Kerala, Maharastra (Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg) and Madhya Pradesh (Satna) (Cook 1996, Henry <em>et al</em>. 1987, Mudgal <em>et al.</em> 1997).</p>
177209		habitat	eng	<p>It is often gregarious in marshy ground, along backwaters and in rice fields after the harvest. Sometimes it is found close to the sea shore (Cook 1996).</p>
177209		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p><p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177209		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177210		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential.
177210		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon robustum </span>is endemic to southern Western Ghats. In Tamil Nadu it is distributed in Nilgiri Hills and Tirunelveli Hills (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986). In Kerala it is reported from southern and northern Kerala including the Attappadi Hills (Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006) at an altitude of 1800 to 2500 m.
177210		habitat	eng	It is a marshy herb (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994; 2009) with root stock (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1987) growing in high altitudes.
177210		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
177210		threats	eng	Nilgiri hills has been impacted by large scale developmental activities and habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon robustum</span> are under stress from conversion of forests into plantations,.
177211		conservation	eng	Surveys to understand distribution and the impacts of threats on populations are recommended.
177211		distribution	eng	It is an endemic species, confined to the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). It has a&#160;restricted&#160;range.
177211		habitat	eng	<p>Grow in tufts on rocks in running water. &#160;A very curious species with shoots resembling&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopodium</span><span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span><span style="font-style: italic;">selago</span><span style="font-style: italic;">,</span>&#160;shoots attached in tufts to the thallus on rocks (Gamble 1925).</p>
177211		population	eng	It has been reported from six localities. All except two are distant and not connected and therefore five locations are considered. Two locations are within national parks.&#160;Vajravelu (1988) categorised it as a rare species.
177211		threats	eng	Habitat loss is considered the major threat. Due to construction of dams there is reduction in the flow of water in rivers and streams that ultimately result in the reduction of its population. It has also been over-exploited due to its curious nature and collection for academic studies (Vajravelu 1988).
177212		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177212		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenoplectiella senegalensis</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is found in Africa and India.&#160;In India, it is recorded from Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Salem, Madurai, South Arcot), Karnataka (Bangalore, Hassan, Mysore), Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra (Nagpur) (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan&#160;1996).</p>
177212		habitat	eng	It is annual, found in seasonally flooded places or in shallow permanent water (Cook 1996).
177212		population	eng	<p>There is no information about global population of this species. However, it is common in Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah 1997) and Tamil Nadu (Matthew 1991).<br/></p>
177212		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177214		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.<br/></p>
177214		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia ruellioides</span> is distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia (Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Viet Nam). In India it is found in Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore), Kerala, Karnataka (Chikmagalur, Shimoga), Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Assam (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
177214		habitat	eng	Annual herb found mostly in rice fields, riversides, stream sides and swampy grasslands (Cook 1996).
177214		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177214		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177215		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177215		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elytrophorus spicatus</span> is distributed in old world tropics, wide spread in the tropics of Africa, Asia, Australia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra (Aurangabad, Amba, Bhandara, Bombay, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nanded, Nasik, Pune, Raigad, Gaganbawda, Radhanagari, Sindhudurg, Thane) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996), Madhya Pradesh (Bastar, Bilaspur, Dung, Gwalior, Raigarh, Raipur, Rewa, Surguja) (Roy 2001), Manipur, Meghalaya,&#160; Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996). In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Chengalpattu, Cuddalore, South Arcot and Thanjavur (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177215		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb grows in seasonally submerged, bottom rooted or floating at edges of pools, shades of trees, ditches and lakes (Cook 1996). Sometimes found in rice fields, ditches and wetlands (Yadav and Sardesai 2002) and also grows in paddy fields and the similar moist localities (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177215		population	eng	This is a widespread species but it is found only occasionally in India.
177215		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177216		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measures known for the species. Detailed study on the population status and ecology of the species is needed.
177216		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocaulon achiton</em>&#160;is reported from India, Bangladesh&#160;(Cook 1996) and Pakistan, Thailand and Viet Nam.&#160;In India it is reported from Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Meghalaya (Karthikeyan<em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;1989;&#160;Cook 1996; Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009). It is found in Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg and Thane of Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan &#160;1996, Gaikwad and Yadav 2002). Some of the collections are from Ambeachagol in Goa; Dukar Ghat, Panchnai in Maharashtra and Johra, Khasia in Meghalaya (Ansari and Balakrishnan &#160;1994, 2009). In Kolhapur the species is collected from Panhala (at 532m), Radhanagari (at 732m) and Amboli (at 909m) (Kulkarni and Desai 1972). In Karnataka, the species is seen in Belgaum, Chikmagalur and Uttara Kannada districts. Specimens were collected from Santavery and Bababudan hills in Karnataka (Das Das and Singh 2001).<br/><br/>The record of this species from Lakshadweep and Madhya Pradesh are based on incorrect identifications (Cook 1996).
177216		habitat	eng	It is a&#160;herbaceous&#160;annual which grows upto 6-10 cm in height (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). &#160;It is rare in open rocky areas along with short grasses at 750-1250m altitude (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Das Das and Singh 2001). It &#160;also grows on moist lateritic soils (Kulkarni and Desai 1972).
177216		population	eng	There is no recorded information on population of the species.
177216		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.
177218		conservation	eng	The habitats need to be conserved for this species. No action has been taken so far. Further research in&#160;population size and&#160;trends is required.
177218		distribution	eng	<em>Rotala malampuzhensis</em>&#160;is endemic to the Western Ghats occurring in all five states.
177218		habitat	eng	It grows in waterlogged areas especially in rock outcrops, around temporary pools, ditches, rice fields.
177218		population	eng	There is no detailed population study of this species. However, it is locally abundant.
177218		threats	eng	Conversion of land due to construction, roads, industrialization and mining are rampant throughout the range of this species. Disposal of waste on its habitat has also been observed. This may lead to slow decline in habitat quality.
177219		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>No known conservation measures are taken for this species. Monitoring of populations and habitat is essential. Understanding the impacts of threats and the uses on the species is paramount.<br/></p>
177219		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kyllinga nemoralis</span> is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical Old World. In India, it is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharasthra (Lakshminarasimhan 2006), Tamil Nadu, Kerala (Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006), Goa, Kashmir, Meghalaya, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Cook 1996).
177219		habitat	eng	Frequently grows in wet grasslands. It grows with <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeluropus lagopoides</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bacopa monnieri,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis geniculata</span> in wet places (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001). It is a major weed of improved pastures, but also occurs in crops, gardens, plantations and roadsides. It grows best in moist fertile soil that is seldom cultivated and in full sunshine. Cook (1996) does not consider this species to be aquatic. In South Kanara the species is found in plantations which have dry soil (K. G. Bhat, Pers. Comm.).
177219		population	eng	<p>It is a very common and widespread species.<br/></p>
177219		threats	eng	<p>No information on its major threats.</p>
177222		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known or needed.
177222		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from India to Indochina and southern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Yunnan). It is found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, India, Nepal and Pakistan.<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
177222		habitat	eng	It is an annual and occasionally perennial. It is found growing in water logged soils subjected to seasonal inundation and along waterways. It is found growing at an altitude of 800-1,800 m.
177222		population	eng	Its occurrence has been reported as common to occasional. It is considered a weed.
177222		threats	eng	This species is widespread and considered a weed. There are no known threats to this plant.
177224		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177224		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon truncatum </span>is distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Australia, China<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Guangdong, Hainan), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines<strong>, </strong>Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tanzania and Thailand. In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andra pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maghalaya, Maharashtra, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Sikkim and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Khanna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
177224		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon truncatum </span>is an annual herb grows in marshy places (Yadav and Sardesai 2002), inundated places, wet rocks, common in rice fields (Cook 1996), river banks, drains (Khanna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and also near ponds (Laksminarasimhan<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1996).
177224		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177224		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
177225		conservation	eng	Regeneration of <span style="font-style: italic;">Emilia zeylanica</span> was done through somatic embryogenesis using stem explant, rare medicinal plant species. It would also benefit from site protection. Part of the range of this species is currently protected in the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve and other protected areas.
177225		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Emilia zeylanica</span> is endemic to India and Sri Lanka. In India it is found in Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Tirunelveli and Madurai) (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987) Maharashtra (Hajra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), Deomali Peak in Orissa.
177225		habitat	eng	It grows at an altitude of 1,900-2,200 m along the river banks and marshes (Mathew 1999).
177225		population	eng	No information on population available.
177225		threats	eng	The threat to the species is habitat loss caused by short-cycled shifting cultivation in Orissa State. Forest clearance, conversion of wetlands into vegetable farms,&#160; and tourism may also pose a low level threat to this species. There are no threats reported from Sri Lanka.
177226		conservation	eng	No conservation action known or needed for the species.<p><span class="apple-style-span"><strong></strong></p>
177226		distribution	eng	This species is native to Mauritius (Pradhan<em>&#160;</em>2001).&#160;It is widely distributed in parts of China and Taiwan (Kao 2000) and has been introduced to America and Australia.&#160;It is also found in warm and tropical Asian countries like India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Pakistan&#160;(Cook 1996).<br/>In India it is distributed in&#160;Andhra Pradesh,&#160;Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim,Tripura, Uttar Pradesh &#160;and &#160;West Bengal (Cook 1996). In Karnataka it has been recorded from Dakshina and Uttara Kannada, &#160;Hassan and Mysore (Saldhana 1996). It is recorded from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra (Deshpande<em> et al</em>.1995). It is reported from Balaghat, Bilaspur, Hoshangabad, Rajnandgaon, Sidhi districts of Madhya Pradesh&#160;and&#160;Surguja of Chatthisgarh&#160;(Khanna&#160;1993). The species is also reported from montane swamps of Nilgiris (Mohandass 2008).
177226		habitat	eng	It is perennial and sometimes annual. It is stoloniferous, glabrous to sparsely hairy herbs (Saldhana 1996).&#160; Found in damp, sunny or shady localities, in river beds, sometimes floating when flooded (Cook &#160;1996).
177226		population	eng	There is no information on population of the species.
177226		threats	eng	There is no reported threats for the species.
177227		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this plant.
177227		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum conjugatum</span> is native to tropical America but now common throughout the South-East Asia and in many tropical countries of the  world.&#160;In India it is found in Assam, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.</p>
177227		habitat	eng	<p><em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> is widespread annual. It grows from near sea-level up to 1700 m altitude in open  to moderately shaded and moist places. It is adapted to humid climates. It is found  growing gregariously under plantation crops and also frequently found on the banks of water courses, back waters and roadsides and in disturbed areas, and polluted waters. It also grows in seasonally flooded places, in marshes, in ditches, in rice fields and draining plantations. </p>
177227		population	eng	Its occurrence has been reported as frequent.
177227		threats	eng	Threats to the species has not been reported.The species appears to be tolerant of disturbance and pollution, and is seen to grow and colonize secondary bare  habitats, provided that moisture is available.
177228		conservation	eng	Conservation activities regarding the species have not been reported.
177228		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis cucullata</span> is endemic to India. It is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The plant has been introduced in Antigua and Barbados.
177228		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis cucullata</span> is an annual or occasionally perennial plant. It is found in marshy areas, wet fields and along the banks of ponds and ditches. It is also found in irrigated fields. It is commonly found in inland districts.
177228		population	eng	It is reported as common in occurrence.
177228		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
177231		conservation	eng	Insufficient information regarding the conservation aspects.
177231		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chara hydropitys</span> is distributed in India (Tamil Nadu) Coimbatore, Vandalur, Adyar, Silngaperumal Koil, Tirukalikundram (Pal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1962), Albania (David <em>et al</em>. 2006), Cuba, Mexico and United States.
177231		habitat	eng	It grows in plains in ditches and rivers (Sharma 1986).
177231		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177231		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown.
177233		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species falls under two protected areas. Still studies addressing population status, ecology and threats are recommended for the species.&#160;Moreover site wise management plan along with awareness&#160;programme is highly essential for the species.
177233		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocaulon anshiense </em>is endemic to Western Ghats. It is known from Goa (Ondoford-Butpal; Usgao; Verlem; Bhuta Baicha Dongar; Waghai and Suctoli near Mollem National Park) and Karnataka (Anshi National Park) (Punekar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
177233		habitat	eng	It is an acaulescent, rosulate herb. It grows in dense colonies in the shallow depressions on rocky slopes along the streams surrounded by moist deciduous forests. This species is associated with <em>Coelachne perpusilla</em>, <em>Drosera burmanni</em>, <em>Eriocaulon achiton</em>, <em>E. lanceolatum</em>, <em>Fimbristylis aestivalis</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F</span><em>. dichotoma</em>, <em>Indopoa paupercula</em>, <em>Rotala malampuzhensis</em>, <em>Utricularia reticulata</em>, and <em>Xyris indica</em>. It is found at Mopai Ghat Waterfall at 600 m (Punekar <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is pollinated by stingless bees (<em>Trigona</em> sp.)&#160;(S.A. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177233		population	eng	There is no data on population of the species.
177233		threats	eng	The populations of Anshi National Park are being threatened by water&#160;diversion&#160;of the stream for agriculture. This results the drying up the shallow depressions in the stream beds where the species grows. In&#160;Suctoli (Near Molem National Park) ongoing mining activities in Sanguem taluk pose a potential threat to the population (S.A. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177234		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
177234		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lagenandra toxicaria</span> is an endemic species to the southwestern part of India. It is distributed from Goa, Maharastra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andra Pradesh (Cook 1996).
177234		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lagenandra toxicaria</span> is an aquatic herb, often abundant in marshes and streams usually submerged during the monsoon rains (Cook 1996).
177234		population	eng	Data regarding population is not available.
177234		threats	eng	<p>No specific threats to this species are known.<br/></p>
177235		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and studies on threats, impacts and monitoring of populations and habitats recommended for this endemic taxon.
177235		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Elaphoglossum nilgiricum </span>is endemic to southern India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) in Nilgiri Hill ranges in Tamil Nadu and Silent Valley National Park in Kerala (Nayar and Sastry 1987) between 1500 and 1800m. &#160;It is also found in Malappuram (New Amarambalam), Kozhikode (Vellarimala), Idukki (Munnar Hills, Eravikulam National Park), Kottayam (Anakampoyil), Pathanamthitta (Kakki, Pampa, Ranni, Sabarigiri), Thiruvananthapuram (Ponmudi Hills) (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003; Nair <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992; Majeed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). &#160;In Tamil Nadu it occurs in the Nilgiris (Pykara, Naduvattom) (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003).
177235		habitat	eng	It is lithophytic near streams, epiphytic on tree trunks at lower level or moist rocks and terrestrial on mud slopes in shady semievergreen and evergreen forests (Nayar and Sastry 1987).
177235		population	eng	It is a rare species occurring in a narrow band of high altitude forests.
177235		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats affecting this species.</p>   <p>&#160;<br/></p>
177236		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation action for the species.
177236		distribution	eng	Tropical Asia: Sri Lanka, India and Australia (Cook 1996). In India, the species is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and &#160;Tamil Nadu&#160;(Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Singh <em>et al.</em> &#160;2001).&#160;Apart from these the species is also known from &#160;Sindhudurg of Maharashtra state (Lakshminarasimhan 1996) and Balaghat of Madhya Pradesh (Verma 2001).&#160;Gamble (1928) reported the species from Kambakkam Hills in Chinglepet (now in Andhra Pradesh), Mysore and S.Kanara (now in Karnataka) and Malabar and Quilon districts (now in Kerala).
177236		habitat	eng	In marshes and wet open places (Cook 1996). It is rare in shady places (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177236		population	eng	This species is occasionally found throughout its distribution. In Maharashtra it is recorded as rare (Lakshminarasimhan&#160;1996).
177236		threats	eng	There is&#160;no information&#160;about the threats to the species.
177237		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177237		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemarthria compressa</span> is distributed in warm and tropical Asia, Australia and North Africa. In India it is known to occur in Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Roy 2001), Maharasthra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996) Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996, Naskar 1990) and Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah 1997, Reddy 2002).
177237		habitat	eng	It is a perennial erect grass normally floating at the edges of pools, lakes, rivers, also in damp places, ditches, banks and abandoned paddy fields (Cook 1996).
177237		population	eng	This is a widespread species but found rarely.
177237		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species. <br/></p>
177238		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177238		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus elatus </span>is distributed China to tropical Asia.&#160;In India it is reported from Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore-  Siruvani 900m), Kerala (Thekkumalai 653m), Uttar Pradesh and  Madhya Pradesh (Cook 1996, BSI Coimbatore).
177238		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb growing in swamps, seasonnaly flooded places, ditches, along rivers and wet rice fields (Cook 1996).
177238		population	eng	It is not a common species.
177238		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p><br/></p>
177240		conservation	eng	Conservation of the species has not been reported.
177240		distribution	eng	The species is a native species to tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa (Cook 1996, eFloras 2011), including Bhutan, India, Nepal, China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou,  Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong,  Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Pakistan. The plant has also been widely introduced beyond its range to the southern eastern United States, Hawaii, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Martinique and Barbados. In India it has been recorded from Andamans, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
177240		habitat	eng	The species is a perennial or sometimes annual. A widespread weed often found in ditches, wet fields and places that are subjected to flooding, although it is not confined to wetlands. It can be found from near sea level up to 2,300 m.
177240		population	eng	The species is common and locally abundant. Data regarding the population is not available.
177240		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats known to this species, and it grows abundantly in a wide range of habitats<br/></p>
177242		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177242		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polytrias indica </span>is native to old world tropics in South and Southeast Asia. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Damoh and Chhatarpur), Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Prdesh, Tripura and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan, 1996, Kabeer and Nair 2009). Also recorded from China, Cambodia, Laos, New Guinea, Myanmar, Thailand Vietnam, Indonesia and Malaysia.
177242		habitat	eng	It is a annual herb, not confined to wetlands but often grows in common places, rice fields, along ditches and canals (Cook 1996). &#160;It mostly grows in cultivated fields, moist places and on hill slopes. It is very common by the roadsides, in wastelands, margins of forests and open grasslands (Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177242		population	eng	It is a very commonly occurring and widely distributed species.
177242		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species although grazing could impact some populations.
177243		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not currently in place.
177243		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lipocarpia chinensis </span>is distributed in Africa, tropical and temperate Asia, and Australia.&#160;In India it is found in Assam, Andra Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.</p>
177243		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual and sometimes a perennial plant. It is a commonly seen plant growing abundantly in ditches, in open marshes places, in seasonally flooded plains, forest clearings and in the rice fields.<br/></p>
177243		population	eng	It is reported as a common and locally abundant species.
177243		threats	eng	There are no specific threats known to this widespread and common species.
177244		conservation	eng	It is present within Agasthyamala hills and Silent Valley in southern Western Ghats, and the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Khangchendzonga Biosphere, Mahananda-Neora Valley Reserve, on the Nepal side of KBR and BRS adjoining KCA, Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary, Senchal-Mahanand, Singhalila-Senchal in the Himalayan region.
177244		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex filicina</span> is a native species to south and Southeast Asia. In India it is distributed in Goa, Diu and Damam, Maharasthra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
177244		habitat	eng	It is found growing on swamps and marshes, in shady areas of moist forests. It grows in clumps.
177244		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
177244		threats	eng	This is a widespread species with no major threats known.
177246		conservation	eng	None has been reported. Research in habitat trends and threats to this species is required.
177246		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon cuspidatum&#160;</span>is annual endemic to lowland of southern India. It is reported from Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala.
177246		habitat	eng	It typically grows on flooded rocky areas, especially lateritic plateaus (ferricretes). Also found in marshy places and rice fields.
177246		population	eng	It is fairly common within its range and population reduction a not been reported. However, the available habitats in this region are under serious land use changes from mining, construction and this will reduce the primary habitat of the species substantially.
177246		threats	eng	The available habitats in this region are under serious land use changes from mining, construction and this will reduce the primary habitat of the species substantially.
177248		conservation	eng	Research&#160;on detailed harvesting use and pattern for the species is recommended.
177248		distribution	eng	<em>Alocasia fornicata </em>is naturally found in marshy lands of tropical countries like India, China,&#160;Bangladesh (Mandal&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010) and&#160;Sri Lanka (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1988). In India, the species is distributed in&#160;Andhra Pradesh,&#160;Assam,&#160;Bihar,&#160;Karnataka, Orissa,&#160;Tripura and&#160;West Bengal. It is seen in Sunkarimetta and Anantagiri to Borra in Visakhapatnam (Rao and Kumari 2002).
177248		habitat	eng	It is a robust herb seen commonly in&#160;marshy lands (Mandal&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010) and&#160;laterite soils (Rao and Kumari &#160;2002).&#160;It is also found in shady moist places at 600m and in dried up tanks (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1988).
177248		population	eng	There is no recorded information on the population of the species.
177248		threats	eng	There is no information about the threats for the species.
177249		conservation	eng	No conservation action is known for the species. More research is required to determine its true range, population trends and threats.
177249		distribution	eng	It is probably endemic to southern India. It is reported from Kerala. It was recorded from Chennai but is probably extinct now (D. Narasimhan pers. comm. 2010). It is probably present in&#160;Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamilnadu and West Bengal but these records need to be confirmed with more updated references.
177249		habitat	eng	It is reported from wetlands, flooded areas of brackish water.
177249		population	eng	There is scanty information about population of this species.
177249		threats	eng	No threats have been identified for this species.
177250		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are in place or needed. The southern Indian population has to be verified through genetic work. &#160;Further surveys are recommended to establish its distribution range.</p>
177250		distribution	eng	<p>This species is native to South East Asia. In India, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia molluginoides</span> is known only from Karnataka (Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary; Bhaskar and Razi 1976), Maharashtra (Nanded; Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and Andhra Pradesh (Nirmal in Adilabad; Indira and Venkataraju 1998). Also recorded from Myanmar and Thailand (Cook 1996). <br/></p>
177250		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in sandy ground on river beds or in open wet meadows, and along the streams (Cook 1996) and along gullies in hill forests (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/></p>  <p><br/></p>
177250		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177250		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177254		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are known. Further research on distribution and population trends of this species is required.
177254		distribution	eng	Gaikwad <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that it is restricted to a small area of 10 km<sup>2</sup> near Rangna fort in Kolhapur district, Maharashtra. However, it may occur in other areas.
177254		habitat	eng	The species grows along marshy margins of temporary streams. Detailed habitat information is not reported from any study.
177254		population	eng	The species is reportedly rare and sparsely distributed in the region of occurrence (Gaikwad <em>et al.</em> 2002). Detailed population and distribution data are unavailable.
177254		threats	eng	No current threats to this species have been reported so far. &#160;However, the area is under grazing and trampling pressures by local cattle which exist throughout the hill regions of Kolhapur district. It is also potentially impacted by tourist activities such as pollution and trampling.
177255		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are currently known. Urgent studies to understand distribution, threats, impacts, monitoring of population and habitat and protection of existing sites needed.</p>
177255		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Limnopoa meeboldii</span> is endemic to coastal southwestern India, where it is found in the coastal region of Karnataka and Kerala. Area of occupancy is very small as it has only been recorded in five location in coastal lagoons.<br/></p>
177255		habitat	eng	<p>It is an aquatic annual and sometimes a perennial. It grows bottom-rooted and floating in coastal lagoons that sometimes become brackish after the monsoon season.</p>
177255		population	eng	There is no information available.
177255		threats	eng	The habitats of this species are changing due to activities such as urbanization, construction,&#160;conversion of wetlands to agriculture lands and tourism.
177256		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177256		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella flexilis</span> is a freshwater species and found  from North and South America, Africa, Asia, Oceania (Hawaii) and Europe, not yet recorded  from Australia. In Europe it has been reported as common from England,  Scotland, Ireland, Hungary, Germany, Austria, Poland and France. In the  Czech Republic, it is common species, in more than 100 localities  (Caisova and Gabka 2009). In India the species has only been recorded in Sathamangalam (Virudhachalam taluk) in Tamil Nadu, India (Subramanian 2000).<br/></p>
177256		habitat	eng	<p>It is usually grows in streams and lakes near the inlet in deep water or in shaded and silted areas of lakes. It was found in a stream at one location in Wyoming and the possibility of shading is likely in the timbered recesses of the meadows of the Wind River Range in northwestern United States of America (Daily and Porter 1964).</p>
177256		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>The mean density of 109 dry mass/vol. (mg ml-1) in 0.12 meter square quadrat was recorded in Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area near Atlanta, Georgia, USA (Parker et al. 2007).</p>
177256		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177258		conservation	eng	Conservation of this species has not been reported.
177258		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lagenandra ovata </span>is restricted to the southwestern part of India and Sri Lanka. In India the species is distributed in Goa,&#160; Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
177258		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lagenandra ovata</span> is an perennial plant. It grows gregariously along seasonal and perennial streams and ditches in open and shady places, also at the edges of rice fields. It is usually seen submerged during the rains. It is mostly found in the coastal region.
177258		population	eng	Data regarding the population is not available.
177258		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is extensive loss of habitat across its distributional range caused by converting forest areas into paddy cultivation and arecanut plantations, and also for urban expansion.
177261		conservation	eng	No&#160;conservation&#160;action is known or needed for the species.
177261		distribution	eng	<em>Centranthera tranquebarica </em>is observed in&#160;Australia,&#160;China,&#160;India,&#160;Malaysia&#160;and Sri Lanka&#160;(Rao and Kumari 2002; Sasidharan 2004).&#160; The species is reported from Andhra Pradesh,&#160;Bihar,&#160;Chhattisgarh,&#160;Kerala, Karnataka,&#160;Madhya Pradesh,&#160;Tamil Nadu and &#160;West Bengal,&#160;(Henry&#160;and Chitra&#160;1987;&#160;Singh 1997;&#160;Rao and Kumari &#160;2002; Sasidharan &#160;2004). &#160;It is reported from Balaghat, Bastar, Hoshangabad, Raigarh and Raipur of Madhya Pradesh (Singh 1997).&#160; It is seen in Chengalpattu, Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Tiruchchirappalli in Tamil Nadu (Henry&#160;and Chitra&#160;1987). It is reported in South&#160;Kota,&#160;Visakhapatanam in Andhra Pradesh (Rao and Kumari 2002). The species is reported from Indravati Tiger Reserve in Chhattisgarh (Kumar 2003). In Kerala, the species is reported from Kollam, Malappuram and Kozhikode (Sasidharan 2004).
177261		habitat	eng	<em>Centranthera tranquebarica</em>&#160;is an errect herb which is often diffusely branched. It is found in wastelands and semiaquatic systems (Singh&#160;1997). It is also seen on wet laterite soils (Rao and Kumari &#160;2002).
177261		population	eng	No information on population is reported.
177261		threats	eng	No threat is known for the species.
177263		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.   <p><br/></p>
177263		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriochloa procera</span> is distributed in South and South East Asia; Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Australia and introduced into tropical America and Africa (Cook 1996). In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan1996), Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996, Kabeer and Nair 2009) and Kerala (Sreekumar and Nair 1991).
177263		habitat	eng	It is an annual semi aquatic grass found in wetlands, roadsides, paddy fields, plains near damp areas, rarely seen on old walls, ditches, rice fields and along the banks of back waters (Cook 1996, Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177263		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
177263		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species. <br/></p>
177264		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known for this species.
177264		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Homonoia retusa </span>is endemic to peninsular India (Kerala- Palghat, Kottayam , Kollam, Kannur) (Sasidharan 2004, Ramachandran and Nair 1988). Also reported from Karnataka (Bedti River-Uttara Kannada), Maharashtra (Chandrapur, Pune, Yavatmal) (Londhe 2001) and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Nilgiri and Salem) (Chandrabose 1987). It is also reported from Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah 2000).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>
177264		habitat	eng	It is a small shrub, grows near rocky areas and stream beds (Chandrabose 1987, Sasidharan 2004).
177264		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177264		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species. <br/></p>
177267		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177267		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella annamalaiensis</span> is a freshwater species, and only confined to Sathamangalam (Virudhachalam taluk) in Tamil Nadu, India (Subramanian 2000).</p>
177267		habitat	eng	It is usually found in streams and lakes near the inlet in deep water or in shaded and silted areas of lakes.
177267		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177267		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177270		conservation	eng	Conservation activities have not been reported. This species would benefit from habitat protection. Surveys are urgently required to establish its presence in other suitable areas.
177270		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ischaemum jayachandrani</span> is an endemic species to Kannur District of Kerala, India. Collected at only one site in Kannur District. It has not been collected in surrounding suitable habitats in the last three decades.</p>
177270		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial found growing in marshy places and in rice fields.</p>
177270		population	eng	Reported as locally common at the only site from which it is known (Sreekumar and Nair 1991).
177270		threats	eng	This species is known from an area planned for high development. It is at serious risk of&#160; habitat conversion and loss due to urbanization and economic development.
177271		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177271		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus tenuispica </span>is found in widespread in Africa and Asia. It has been recorded from Bhutan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In India it is  reported from Andra Pradesh (Chittoor, Godavari, Karimnagar, Kurnool,  Madak, Nalconda, Warangal), Arunachala pradesh, Assam (Khasia hills), Bihar, Goa,  Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala (Periyar Tiger  Reserve, Cannanore, Cochin, Idukki, Palaghat, Quilon, Trivancore,  Thiruvananthapuram, Trichur), Magalays, Maharasthra (Adur, Bakanangale,  Ahmednagar, Bhandara, Bombay, Chandrapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nasik, Pune,  Raigad, Satara, Sindhudurg, Thane), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Bastar,  Chhatarpur, Mandla, Raigarh, Raipur, Rajnandgaon, Sagar, satna,  Shivpuri, Sidhi), Nagaland, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal (Cook 1996, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). In  Tamil Nadu it is reported from almost all districts (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987, BSI Coimbatore).
177271		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant grows in wet habitats, swamps, marshy places, moist areas, streams, ditches, seasonally flooded areas and rice fields (Henry<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1987, Cook 1996).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
177271		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177271		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p><br/></p>
177272		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys to understand distribution, population and habitat trends, threats and ecology are required.</p>
177272		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala illecebroides</span> was only once recorded previously by Fisher from Annamalai Hills. It is also represented in Wight's collection, but without reference to any locality. The species was first recognized by Arnon on the basis of Wight's collection which was later validated by Koehne (Rajagopal and Ramayya 1968). It is only known in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh (Cook 1996) and&#160;Kerala in India&#160;(J. Augustine pers. comm.).</p>
177272		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual and terrestrial or amphibious, in marshes, on wet rocks, beside streams, in spring and wet flushes (Cook 1996). It is a very distinct species, usually seen in wet places and on dripping rocks in hilly areas (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989).</p>
177272		population	eng	<p>There is no information on population of this species.</p>
177272		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
177273		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species
177273		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon minimum </span>is distributed in south and south west Asia (Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka). In India it is reported from Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal at the altitude of 600m (Cook 1996).
177273		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant growing in wet rocks and marshy places (Cook 1996).
177273		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177273		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177274		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
177274		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophila connata</span> is distributed in tropical and warm Asia (India, Myanmar, Nepal, China, Bhutan, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam). In China it is distributed in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Yunnan. In India it is distributed in Assam, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tamil Nadu between 0 and 1800 m (Cook 1996, Singh 1997, Henry<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Chithra 1987). It is also reported from western Himalaya (Pennell 1943).
177274		habitat	eng	It is an annual, tall, robust herb growing in swampy grassland (Cook 1996). It is also grows in the streams and wetlands (Henry and Chithra 1987, Singh1997).
177274		population	eng	<p>The species is common locally.</p>
177274		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
177276		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177276		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mariscus cyperoides </span>is distributed in tropical old world, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Nepal, China, Japan, south to North Australia, Hawaii, tropical and subtropical Africa and Pakistan. Naturalized in the West Indies. In India it is known to occur in Andaman and Nicobar, Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Bhargavan 1987, BSI Coimbatore).
177276		habitat	eng	It is an annual herb growing in seasonally wet places, swamps, temporary pools and rice fields; not only found in wetlands but also in open or shady grassland, a common weed of fields and gardens (Cook 1996).
177276		population	eng	It is a very common and widespread species.
177276		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.<br/></p>
177277		conservation	eng	No conservation actions need to be taken for the species.
177277		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Commelina clavata</span> occurs in Sri Lanka, Indo-China to West Malaysia including Indonesia. In India Madhya Pradesh (Bastar), Maharasthra (Raigad) and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Kanniyakumari, Madurai, Nilgiri, Salem, Tiruchchirappalli, Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram and Tiruvannamalai). In the Gulf of Mannar the species occurs in Mainland coast (Mathew 1991, Cook 1996, Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177277		habitat	eng	It grows in damp or moist places but not wetland species (Cook 1996). It also grows in rice fields (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177277		population	eng	It is a common species.
177277		threats	eng	No species specific threats are reported. But over usage of the plants by the tribes in the region may be a major threat for the species.
177278		conservation	eng	This is a newly described species with very little information on its distribution and ecology. Hence urgent studies recommended.
177278		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis wadoodii</span> is endemic to Maharashtra, Kolhapur District, Panhala Tahsil, Masai Plateau (Yadav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
177278		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis wadoodii</span> grows in margins of big ponds in shallow waters (Yadav <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
177278		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177278		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
177279		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures known for the species. Further research on threats, population trends and threats is needed. Also, the ecology of this species needs to be better understood.
177279		distribution	eng	<em>Dicraeia dichotoma </em>is endemic to Western Ghats. It is reported from Thane of Maharashtra district (Jadhav&#160;2001), Nilgiris and hills of Malabar (Subramanyam 1962) as well as from Malappuram and Palakad districts of Kerala (Sasidharan 2004).
177279		habitat	eng	It is a submerged herb which is found on rocks in rapid water (Jadhav 2001). The thallus is narrow and usually zigzag (Subramanyam 1962).
177279		population	eng	There is no reported information on population of the species.
177279		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats besides several anthropogenic stress such as pollution and habitat alteration due to land conversion which is a common threat in the area. However, it is not whether these are actually affecting the species or its habitat actual threats to this species are still to be studied and understood.
177280		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>
177280		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pogonatherum paniceum</span> is a perennial and densely tufted grass. It occurrs in Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; SW Asia (Arabia), Australia (Queensland).&#160;In India, it is found in Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram, Sreekumar and Nair 1991), Andhra Pradesh (Gundlakamma, Gundla Brahmeswaram in Nallamalais; Ellis 1990) and Madhya Pradesh (Bastar, Bilaspur, Hoshangabad, Raipur, Shahdol, Sidhi; Singh <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is rare in Maharashtra but found only in Pune (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is cultivated in gardens through out the country.&#160;</p>
177280		habitat	eng	<p>It grows on sandy soils in rocky places. It has a higher root-shoot ratio, which helps in fixation on rock and endurance to desiccation on arid of rock substrate (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2005). It also occurs on mountain slopes, roadsides and streams (eflora.org).</p>
177280		population	eng	<p>It is a widely distributed species found commonly throughout its range.</p>
177280		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177281		conservation	eng	<p>There is a need to study the distribution, population status, ecology and threats to the species. <br/></p>
177281		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Scirpus naikianus</span> is endemic to Maharashtra (Bhokar Taluk in Nanded) in India (Khan 1998). <br/></p>
177281		habitat	eng	It is annual and it is seen in marshes along the margins of tank with dimorphic culms. Flowering and fruiting period is December to January (Khan 1998).
177281		population	eng	<p>Currently <span style="font-style: italic;">Scirpus naikianus</span> is known only from its type locality where it is rarely found (Khan 1998). &#160; <br/></p>
177281		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the species are not known.</p>
177282		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported. Detailed studies on distribution, ecology and monitoring of population and habitat trends recommended.
177282		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon dalzellii </span>is endemic to Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra in southern India. The area of suitable habitat is very small and it is naturally fragmented as the species occurs in a very specific habitat.
177282		habitat	eng	The species grows in wet parts of rocks in seasonal or perennial streams, natural drainage channels on rocky areas. Hence the area of occupancy is very small compared to the extent of occurrence.
177282		population	eng	The species has large population (about 500 individuals per subpopulation) when it occurs in a rivulet or stream. Although, population is&#160;naturally&#160;fragmented, human influence may make this fragmentation more severe in the future. Population size is not known.
177282		threats	eng	Any land use change, land conversion that interrupt or change waterflows affect the available habitat of the species. Mining, construction, and quarrying have had led to many changes in the area where this plant grows and it is very likely the species habitat has been degraded.
177283		conservation	eng	Insufficient information&#160;available&#160;about the conservation aspects of this species.
177283		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon cookei</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats in the state of Maharashtra. Known from Ahmednagar (Harischandragad, Ratangad), Thane (Kedarnath Hill), Pune (Junnar, Dhak plateau) and Satara (Panchgani plateau) districts (Punekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2003)<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
177283		habitat	eng	Grows along the ephemeral streams in grassy tufts in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. apetalum, E. eurypeplon, Swertia minor, Jansenella griffithiana</span> etc (Punekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
177283		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177283		threats	eng	No specific threats to the species.
177285		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
177285		distribution	eng	<p>It is endemic to southern India (Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009) and Sri Lanka (Districts of Badulla, Kandy, Nuwara Eliya and Monaragala) (Phillips, 1997).</p>
177285		habitat	eng	These&#160;annual&#160;plant&#160;grows&#160;in swampy localities.
177285		population	eng	The plant is known from many localities although it is rare in its habitat. However, population is expected to be high.
177285		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
177286		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177286		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus stoloniferus </span>is distributed in China, Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Madagascar, Malaysia, Taiwan, Australia, Chinese Taipei, Indonesia, Maldives, Vietnam, Thailand, Tonga and Pakistan (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001). In India it is reported from Madhya Pradesh- Jabalpur. (Tiwari and Maheshwari, 1964), Maharasthra (Kolhapur, Bombay, Ratnagiri) Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur), Karnataka (Mysore), Kerala (Quilon, Cannanore, Trivandrum), Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Coimbatore-Noyyal river, Dharmapuri, Ramanathapuram-Valantharavai, Pirappanvalasai, Villaku road, Near Pamban bridge, Pambam-Thoppukadu., Salem and Tanjavur) (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Yadev and Sardesai 2002).
177286		habitat	eng	It grows in damp or moist places (Cook 1996) and sandy soil and coastal sands (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177286		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177286		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177287		conservation	eng	Surveys in peninsular India is recommended for this species.
177287		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isachne albens </span>is distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar and Nepal. In India it is known to occur in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra (Sindhudurg), Manipur, Nagaland,&#160; Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan, 1996). &#160;It has been recently reported from Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam) (Reddy and Rao 2010).
177287		habitat	eng	<p>It is an perennial or perhaps sometimes annual it is not confined to wetlands but often found in wet places beside streams and in moist grassland and grows rarely in wet soils in open fields (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan, 1996).<br/></p>
177287		population	eng	It is widely distributed and occasional species.
177287		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats.</p>
177288		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are unknown for the species. Surveys, studies on threats and uses needed.
177288		distribution	eng	<em>Zeylanidium subulatum </em>is restricted to Sri Lanka&#160;and Western Ghats (Cook 1996). In India it is<em> </em>reported from Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Mathew and Satheesh 1997, Cook 1996, Subramanyam 1962).
177288		habitat	eng	It is a small, tufted, aquatic herb which is found on rocks in streams (Jadhav 2001).
177288		population	eng	There is no information on the population of the species.&#160; It is reported to be rare in Pune (Jadhav 2001).
177288		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats for the species.
177289		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177289		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella tenuissima</span> is a freshwater species, recorded from Ireland, UK, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Madagascar, Japan and India (only at Vandalur in Kanchipuram district of Tamil Nadu, India (Pal <em>et al</em>. 1962)).</p>
177289		habitat	eng	It can seen in perennial lakes, tanks, ponds and ditches.
177289		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177289		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177290		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or in need.
177290		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation action has been reported.&#160;</p>
177290		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus squarrosus </span>is distributed in the pantropics to warm temperate areas. In India it occurs in Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Maghalaya (Khasia), Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Simla) (Cook 1996, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1987).
177290		distribution	eng	This is a widespread Pantropical species. It occurs thoughout Subsaharan and north Eastern Africa, including Madagascar. It is widespreadfrom North America to Tropical and Subtropical regions.
177290		habitat	eng	It grows in seasonally flooded areas, edges of tanks, pools, streams, ditches and in rice fields and also grown sandy places (Cook 1996, Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).
177290		habitat	eng	Seasonally wet soil, often on silt near pools, rivers, streams, and road ditches. Also in Ggrasslands, roadside, and shallow sandy washes.
177290		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177290		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
177290		threats	eng	No major threats.
177290		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177292		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential.<br/></p>
177292		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pogostemon salicifolius</span> is endemic to southwestern India in Karnataka and Maharastra (Kumar and Murthy 2004).</p>
177292		habitat	eng	<p>It is frequently seen along streams in moist areas (Kumar and Murthy 2004).<br/></p>
177292		population	eng	There is no population information of status or trends for this species.
177292		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177295		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action has been proposed for this species, none is required as it is a widespread species, without any serious threats.
177295		distribution	eng	Geissaspis cristata&#160;is native to Asia. It is reported from Bangladesh,  Cambodia,  <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong (China),  India,   Malaysia,  Myanmar,  Nepal,  Sri Lanka,  Thailand,  Vietnam.
177295		habitat	eng	It grows in open grasslands, rocky areas, waterlogged areas, fallow fields and can tolerate moderate disturbance, also fires.
177295		population	eng	Populations of these species were observed (A. Watve pers. obs. 2010 ) at many places in the northern Western Ghats. Large populations are reported in open grasslands. But detailed population studies are not available. However, it is a very common species.
177295		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Although land conversions are reducing its habitat in many places, there has been no serious decline in the large populations of this species.
177297		conservation	eng	Conservation actions for this species are not known. However, the information on taxonomy, population and threats required.
177297		distribution	eng	It is so far reported only from Nive village in Mulshi tehsil in Pune district, Maharashtra.
177297		habitat	eng	Punekar <em>et al</em>. (2003) report that it grows in dried paddy fields in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocalaulon parviflorum</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ammania baccifera, Swertia minor </span>etc. This is probably its secondary habitat (A. Watve pers. comm. 2010). Its primary habitat could be open rocky or grass covered areas, waterlogged seasonally, as is the case with many <em>Eriocaulaceae</em> members.
177297		population	eng	No information about the population of this species has been reported. It is known only from the type locality.
177297		threats	eng	Detailed data on distribution, habitats, population have not been reported, so it is difficult to know whether this species is being impacted by any threats. It is known to occur in rice fields, which are regularly burnt as a cultivation practice (A. Watve pers. comm. 2010) and this might have some effect on the population in addition to local grazing and trampling pressures. It quite likely might be affected by  local pressures such as grazing, trampling, or the burning of rice fields which takes place every year.
177299		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
177299		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria strigosa</span> is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia,  Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Thailand, Viet Nam and Australia.<br/></p><p>In India it is found in the Himalaya (Cook 1996) and in Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris and Palnis) (Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987).<br/></p>
177299		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in aquatic or wetland habitats (Cook 1996).</p>
177299		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177299		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177300		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.&#160;</p>
177300		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia foveolata</span> is native to the Old World tropics, where it can be found in Africa (Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Madagascar, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia), Asia (China, India, the Philippines, Thailand), Australia, and on the eastern end of Indonesia.&#160;In India, it occurs in Bihar, Karnataka, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu (Janarthanam and Henry 1992, Cook 1996).</p>
177300		habitat	eng	<p>Probably annual, perhaps sometimes perennial. It grows in shallow water on wet soils in seasonally flooded habitats, in rice fields and in wet grasslands (Cook 1996). Along marshy places twining on other Utricularias and grasses (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).<br/></p>
177300		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177300		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177301		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation has been also suggested.
177301		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation action has been reported.</p>
177301		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus pulchellus </span>is distributed in Australia, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Kenya, Nigeria, Philippines, Senegal, Tanzania. In India it occurs in Andra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Sindhudurg, Thane), Madhya Pradesh (Bilaspur, Hoshangabad), Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Lakshminarasimhan&#160;&#160;1996).
177301		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed within Western Africa. Also present in Chad, Sudan, Ethopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi. It is possibly present in South Africa but this needs to be confimed.<br/><br/>Globally, it is found in south east Asia and Australia.
177301		habitat	eng	It grows in humid depressions and damp places. In Eastern Africa it has been found in bushland/grassland on wet soil and edge of ponds.
177301		habitat	eng	It is an perennial plant grows in seasonally wet places, temporary swamps and grasslands (Cook 1996). and also it grows along sea coast and river banks (Bhargavan 1989).
177301		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177301		population	eng	This species is common and widespread in Western Africa. It is rare in North Eastern Africa.
177301		threats	eng	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species althoughthese are not considered as widespread threats.
177301		threats	eng	<p>No specific threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177303		conservation	eng	Molecular taxonomic study is recommended for this taxon to ascertain whether the populations in India and Sri Lanka belong to the same species. Since it occupies a riverine niche habitat, surveys are needed to establish its distribution and also understand the area of occupancy. Studies to understand threats and their impacts are urgently required as the species is known to be decreasing in the wild. Population and habitat monitoring are recommended.
177303		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka (Dixit 1984). In southern India, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bolbitis aspleniifolia </span>is reported from Kerala (Sabarimala and Ponmudi), Tamil Nadu (Courtalam in Tirunelveli Hills and Muthukulivayal in Kanyakumari, and Ellamalai in the Nilgiris) (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003; Mahesh 2010). It occupies a highly restricted area although the extent seems to be widespread.
177303		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bolbitis aspleniifolia </span>occurs solitary, terrestrial or lithophytic on the forest floor 500-1,600 m (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
177303		population	eng	This is a very rare species occurring solitary in isolated patches. The population is declining in Tamil Nadu (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm. 2011). It was recorded in only one location in Muthukuzhivayal in Kanyakumari in an area of around 5 km<sup>2</sup>.
177303		threats	eng	The inferred threat to the species is from conversion of forests to plantations.
177304		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.&#160;</p>
177304		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nesaea prostrata</span> is found in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Karnataka, Rajasathan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka and Australia (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177304		habitat	eng	<p>Not confined to wetlands but sometimes found in wet low-lying areas, banks of ponds, along streams, fallow rice fields (Cook 1996) and coastal regions (Nair and Henry 1983). <br/></p>
177304		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177304		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177307		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported for this species.&#160;Further&#160;research is needed to clarify geographic range, threats to its habitat and global population trend.
177307		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon karnatakense</span> is reported from Kemmangundi about 54 km from Chikmagalur Town of Karnataka. <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a href="http://toolserver.org/%7Egeohack/geohack.php?pagename=Kemmangundi&amp;params=13.547_N_75.758_E_type:city_region:IN-KA" class="external text" rel="nofollow"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this  location"></span></a>It is considered to be restricted to the hills of Kemmangundi. However, it is likely to occur in other areas.
177307		habitat	eng	The species is reported to grow in rock crevices.
177307		population	eng	It is known only from a single site and is reported to be rare and sparsely distributed (Gaikwad <em>et al</em>. 2004). No population data is available.
177307		threats	eng	No threat has been reported for this species. However,&#160;Kemmangundi hills is an area where mining activities are taking place and the species habitat is very likely to be disturbed (K. Vasudeva pers. comm. 2010).
177308		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177308		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon parviflorum </span>is endemic to central and western India (Cook 1996). It is known to occur in Karnataka (Anshi NP in Uttara Kannada), Kerala (Periyar Tiger Reserve), Maharashtra (Pimpari Lake, Vaki river bank, Malshej Ghat, Gaganbavda, Rangana, Pune), Chattisgarh (Bastar) and Madhya Pradesh (Hoshangabad, Panna, Raipur, Raigarh, Shivpuri) (Cook 1996, Khanna<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001, Yadav and Sardesai 2002, S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177308		habitat	eng	It frequently grows in moist or muddy places, such as rice fields, ditches, along the crevices of moist rocks, from sea level to 1000m altitude (Cook 1996, Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009, Khanna <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001; S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177308		population	eng	<p>Population information on this species is not available. It is common in Maharashtra and Karnataka (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).<br/></p>
177308		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
177309		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action has been proposed. The plant is considered a weed in areas of occurrence. It is cultivated throughout the world as aquarium species and is in trade. Surveys are needed to know the population&#160;status&#160;in the wild.
177309		distribution	eng	Its native distribution is in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Borneo and peninsular Malaysia. It is a popular aquarium plant and is therefore grown in other parts of the world.
177309		habitat	eng	It grows in shallow waterbodies and flooded ricefields.
177309		population	eng	There is no specific data on the population of this plant. However, it is reported as common and as a weed in rice fields. It is widely cultivated and sold as aquarium species. Hence, the population is inferred to be large, above critical limits.
177309		threats	eng	No threat has been reported.
177310		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are required.<br/></p>
177310		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pogostemon wightii</span> is a small herb found at an attitude of 2,200 m and is endemic to the southern Western Ghats. It is only known from Tamil Nadu (Korakundah, Ooty, Pykara falls in Nilgiri dist.; Kodikanal in Madurai dist., Anamalai in Coimbatore dist.), Kerala (Kottayam, Trivandrum) and Karnataka (Chikmagalur).<br/></p>
177310		habitat	eng	<p>It is a seasonal herb mostly found on periodically flooded stream sides or marshy places.<br/></p>
177310		population	eng	<p>This species is found occasionally. <br/></p>
177310		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177311		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177311		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophila chinensis</span> is distributed in tropical Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,  Myanmar, Nepal,  <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Sri Lanka, India, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">Thailand and Vietnam)&#160;<span id="lblTaxonDesc">and Australia. In India it is reported from Andaman and Nicobar islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh (Singh 1997) Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">(Henry and Chithra 1987)<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"> and West Bengal at an altitude of 0 to 1800m (Cook 1996).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
177311		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual plant, growing in moist shady habitats, sometimes in water up to 20 cm deep (Cook 1996, Singh 1997).</p>
177311		population	eng	<p>It is a common species with a very wide distribution.<br/></p>
177311		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
177312		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research is recommenden on population numbers and range.
177312		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species.
177312		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus meeboldii</span> is distributed in India and East Africa (Somalia). In India it is found in Karnataka, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. It has been reported from Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh as a new record by Rajagopal (1973).
177312		distribution	eng	This species has a Paleotropical, Soudano-zambezian distribution. It is widespread in western Africa and present in Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, Chad, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
177312		habitat	eng	It is a perennial and sometimes annual. It is found growing in swamps, seasonally flooded areas and by pools.
177312		habitat	eng	Marshy, sandy soils, temporary humid. Seasonally damp sandy ground. Also in clayey soils at edge of temporary water.
177312		population	eng	It has been reported as occasional, but is found across a wide range.
177312		population	eng	Population in Western Africa is moderate to low. Common in North-eastern Africa.
177312		threats	eng	Main threats are agriculture and drought.
177312		threats	eng	There are no threats to the species.
177313		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. It is widely common.<br/></p>
177313		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lindernia oppositifolia</span> is widely distributed in South and South West Asia.&#160; In India, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>it occurs throughout Tamil Nadu, Puducherry (Padmavathy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Goa, Kerala, Maharashtra and Gujarat (Cook 1996).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span></p>
177313		habitat	eng	<p>It is seen in wet lowlands, scrub jungle and pasture land. Often found in rice fields after the harvest. It is easily seen as it has very lush green leaves (Cook 1996).</p>
177313		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>Often gregarious (Cook 1996). Recent study recorded 16.2 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> in upland and 4.6 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> in lowland paddy field of Mahendranagar in Nepal (Bhatt et al. 2009). Whereas, it was reported very common in 1957 and density reduction in 2000-2002 because of habitat alteration and vegetal cover variation.at Harni pond in Baroda, India (Dave and Krishnayya 2004).</p>  <p></p>
177313		threats	eng	No information of threats for this species.
177315		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys are required to re-discover the species in the type locality and other areas of suitable habitat. Impacts of threats on the habitat need to be studied and better understood.
177315		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis hirsutifolia </span>is endemic to India; from Malappuram District in Kerala&#160;and possibly Karnataka (Cook 1996, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species has not been recorded since its description two decades ago.
177315		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, growing in seasonally flooded places (Cook 1996).
177315		population	eng	It is a very rare and endemic species. It is known from only one location.
177315		threats	eng	The species is threatened due to laterite mining in marshy areas. The marshes in Mallapuram District are under severe threats from  quarrying and cashew plantations, which may have already had a drastic impact on  the species.
177317		conservation	eng	No conservation actions taken for the species.
177317		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chara setosa </span>is reported from India (Tamil nadu- Chennai) (Srinivasan 1965). Also recorded from Australia and New Zealand no specific localities have been provided.
177317		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
177317		population	eng	It is a rare species.
177317		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
177318		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
177318		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crinum lorifolium </span>is <span class="zoodio"><span class="toolTipElement">native to Myanmar (Pegu) and distributed in <span class="zoodio"><span class="toolTipElement">tropical  and warm regions worldwide, mostly in Africa. In India it is distributed in Maharashtra (Kolhapur district- Patgaon and Thane) (Lakshiminarasimhan 1996, Yadav and Sardesai 2002) and Karnataka (Belgaum) (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984). And also reported from Madhya Pradesh (Dixit and Srivastava 2001).<br/></span></span>
177318		habitat	eng	It grows occasionally in streams, riverbanks and open places (Dixit and Srivastava 2001) and rare on hill slopes (Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177318		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177318		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177319		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is an absolute urgent recommendation. In addition, surveys to determine distribution, monitoring of habitat and population and impacts of threats are important urgent requirements.
177319		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isachne veldkampii</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats drainage of Karnataka, in Manipal in Udupi District (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986) at an altitude of 250 m.
177319		habitat	eng	It is an annual erect herb (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986), very rare grass, that grows in marshy places (Bhat and Nagendran 2001).
177319		population	eng	Although restricted to one location, the species is common in its occurrence. The population is declining due to loss of habitat due to urban expansion.
177319		threats	eng	The area of occupancy is under severe threat from urbanization since  its description in 1983. It has undergone steady decline due to  construction and development activities. These are degrading the quality and reducing the area of suitable habitat for this species.
177320		conservation	eng	<p>The taxonomic identity of this species is to be ascertained. &#160;Further surveys are required to establish the claims of the author of the species' occurrence in varied habitats.</p>
177320		distribution	eng	It is only confined to Maharashtra state (Laheri Road in Gadchiroli District) in India.
177320		habitat	eng	It is stated that the species is occasionally found in wet open grasslands, rice fields, forest clearings on hill slopes, all in a single collection (Khan 1998).
177320		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177320		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>
177321		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measure are needed or in place.
177321		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures known or needed for the species.
177321		distribution	eng	<em>Cyperus amabilis </em>is<em> </em>found in tropical America, Africa and southern India (Cook 1996, Sasidharan 2004). In India it is known from&#160;Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Kerala (Cook 1996). In Madhya Pradesh the species is distributed in Chhatapur (Verma 2001). In Kerala, the&#160;species&#160;is reported from Malappuram (Sasidharan 2004).
177321		distribution	eng	This species has a pantropic and subtropic distribution. It is widespread in Africa and present in most countries including Madagascar.<br/><br/>In in Western Africa it is widespread. Also present in Sudan, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa.
177321		habitat	eng	In open savanna, cultivated on waste ground, often on sandy soils. It grows in seasonally wet habitats, often on sandy soil near roads, lakes and swamps, sandy hollows on rocky soil
177321		habitat	eng	It is a tufted annual which grows 5-20 cm in height. It is found in seasonally flooded places, swamps, edges of lakes, usually on sandy soil. It flowers as the water recedes (Cook 1996).
177321		population	eng	It is a common species.
177321		population	eng	It is very common along its range.
177321		threats	eng	Small-holder livestock and shifting agriculture are threating the species, but they are not major widespread threats.
177321		threats	eng	There is no reported threats for the species.
177322		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential.&#160; Understanding the impacts of threats is also important to know more about this species.
177322		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon sahyadricum </span>is endemic to northern Western Ghats in the states of Maharashtra (Harischandragad, Bhimashankar, Mahabaleshwar -Kate's Point, Amboli Plateau, Kedarnath and Pachnai plateau) Karnataka (Castle Rock, karodi, Balehalli, Barkara and Kavaledurga) and Goa (Surla, Waghai and Verem) (Punekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
177322		habitat	eng	Known from wet soils on highlands, lateritic plateaus and also the monsoon puddles in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. apetalum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sedgwicki</span>i, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sharmae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Exacum pumilum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Impatiens lawii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis</span> sp, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hitchenia caulina</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Panicum</span> sp, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dimeria</span> sp, etc. (Punekar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003)
177322		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
177322		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species.
177323		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177323		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptochloa obtusiflora </span>is distributed in central, southern and northen Africa (Angola, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda) (Skerman and Riveros 1990), India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala), Southwest Asia (Saudi Arabia and Yemen) and Eastern Asia (Fischer in Gamble 1934, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2006). In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Coimbatore and Nilgiri (Nair 1989).
177323		habitat	eng	It is a perennial plant usually found in loose sandy loams and alluvial soils (Bogdan and Pratt 1967, Skerman.and Riveros 1990).
177323		population	eng	<p>It is a widely distributed species globally, but in India it is restricted to three locations in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It may be introduced in India.</p>
177323		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species. <br/></p>
177326		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed studies on taxonomy, distribution and ecology are required for this species.</p>
177326		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lipocarpha reddyi</span> is annual and endemic to southern India. In India, it is only known in Andhra Pradesh (Annaram in Nalgonda and Warrangal), and in Orissa. It is closely related to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. microcephala</span> (R.Br.) Kunth, so far not recorded in India (Ragan <em>et al</em>. 1998) and <em>L. sphacelata</em> (Vahl) Kunth, (Cook 1996), both widespread species in Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Australia.<br/></p>
177326		habitat	eng	Ecology is unknown but probably occurs in wet places (Cook 1996).
177326		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177326		threats	eng	<p>Being a recently described species from restricted areas, the threats to this species are unknown.</p>
177327		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken so far. Detailed surveys for distribution and monitoring of population and habitat urgently required as well as protection of the site from threats.
177327		distribution	eng	The known location of this species is the coastal lateritic plateau near MIDC area, Airport road, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra.
177327		habitat	eng	This species is so far restricted to the coastal lateritic plateau near MIDC area, Airport road, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. It is reported as common on coastal lateritic plateau in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon parviflorum, Eriocaulon richardianum, Exacum pumilum, Fimbristylis sp., Pentanema indicum, Rhamphicarpa longiflora, Utricularia reticulata,</span> etc.
177327		population	eng	Punekar <em>et al</em>. (2004) report it as common at the type locality. There are no studies on current population numbers.
177327		threats	eng	The only known location is within industrial development area of Maharashtra state (MIDC is a zone reserved for industry and related infrastructure). The area is being converted for residential, industrial development and also has other pressures like grazing and trampling (A. Watve pers. obs. 2010).
177328		conservation	eng	Conservation actions have never been proposed.
177328		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"> Fimbristylis lawiana</span> is   endemic to peninsular India.
177328		habitat	eng	It is common in the early phases of monsoon in grasslands, rocky areas, moist soils in sunny habitats.
177328		population	eng	It is locally abundant within its range in suitable habitats in the beginning of monsoon. It can also grow in secondary habitats such as lawns and grazing lands.Detailed population data is lacking. But personal observations in the NW Ghats indicate that the species can have more than 100 individuals per sq. meter in grasslands in early monsoon period.
177328		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been reported.&#160;Only local grazing pressure can affect the species habitat, but it is very tolerant to disturbance, even fires, is widespread within the region.
177329		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measures known for the species.
177329		distribution	eng	The species have wide distribution in continents of Africa, Australia and Asia. In  Asia it is mainly distributed in India and Sri Lanka. In India it is observed in Maharashtra (Venkanna and Das Das&#160;2001), Mahanandi in Nallamalais in Andhra Pradesh (Ellis 1990), Chengalpattu, South Arcot &#160;(Chandrabose&#160;1987), Ramanathapuram and Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu (Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001).
177329		habitat	eng	It is a slender trailing herb (Chandrabose&#160;1987;&#160;Ellis 1990). It is found in wastelands and wet sandy localities along with <em>Amaranthus roxburghianus</em>, <em>Hedyotis pumila&#160;</em>(Daniel and Umamaheswari 2001) and in wet rice fields (Venkanna and Das Das 2001).
177329		population	eng	There is no recorded data on the population of the species. It is known to be locally abundant in Central Tamil Nadu (Mathew 1991)
177329		threats	eng	There is no reported threats for the species.
177330		conservation	eng	In vitro studies by Ram and Bhatt (1993) have successfully germinated the seeds of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polypleurum stylosum.</span>&#160;Further studies are needed to confirm if this plant is found in India outside of Kerala, as given by Cook (1996).
177330		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypleurum stylosum</span> is known from India and Sri Lanka. In India it is reported from Assam, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). But Mathew and Satheesh (1997), state it is&#160;restricted&#160;to Kerala and Sri Lanka. &#160;Thorough taxonomic studies to required to establish the distribution of this species and understand if the populations in different parts of its known range constitute different species.</p>
177330		habitat	eng	<p>It is an annual or sometimes a perennial in deep waters.&#160; It grows in fast flowing streams and rivers and on submerged rocks.</p>
177330		population	eng	Population information is not available.
177330		threats	eng	Cross Bell (1990) studied the effect of rubber effluent on the members of Podostemaceae in Kanyakumari district. He has observed the elimination of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polypleurum stylosum, Zeylanidium olivaceum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Indostrichita ramosissima</span> in the down stream due to acid pollution. However this is very localised, and no widespread threats are known.
177331		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.
177331		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mariscus maderaspatanus </span>is distributed in tropical east Africa to South East Asia, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Myanmar, Malaysia. In India it is reported from Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Tirunelveli, Chennai, Ramanathapuram, Sathankulam, Alagarkovil Reserved Forest, Tirunelveli; Sivagiri, Courtallam, Vasudevanallur (BSI Coimbatore, Bhargavan 1989), Karnataka, Maharasthra (Ahmednagar, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996) and Kerala (Tellicherry, Cannanore-Karimbam, Kottayam, Quilon, Thiruvananthapuram) (Cook 1996, Nayar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006, BSI, Coimbatore).
177331		habitat	eng	It is a annual herb occuring in seasonally wet habitats, shallow soil on rocks, damp places in forests and open wetlands (Cook 1996, Bhargavan 1989).
177331		population	eng	No population information for the species.
177331		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>   <p><br/></p>
177333		conservation	eng	There is no planned conservation action for this species. &#160;Since the habitat of this species is under threat from various developmental, tourism and mining activities, it is important to understand the long term impacts of this adaptable species. &#160;Continuous monitoring of habitats and populations are recommended.
177333		distribution	eng	It is endemic to India and Sri Lanka. It is widespread throughout its range.
177333		habitat	eng	This species grows in waterlogged areas in sunny conditions. Large populations are seen on lateritic and other rocky plateaus in its range. It also grows in secondary&#160; habitats like fallow fields, paddy fields .
177333		population	eng	The species populations within Maharashtra, Kerala, Goa and Karnataka were personally observed between 2001 to 2006. At places it can have upto 50 individuals in 1m<sup>2</sup>. Large populations are seen all along the coastal plains region in this area. Population might be decreasing due to habitat conversion.
177333		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is the most serious threat to the species. Although it grows in widespread areas and can colonize secondary habitats, large sized natural populations on primary habitats are decreasing due to development and recreation activities.
177334		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action known or needed for the species.
177334		distribution	eng	<em>Hygrophila difformis </em>is known from India, Mayanmar, Bangladesh and Nepal.&#160; In India it is reported from Kerala, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal&#160;(Cook 1996).
177334		habitat	eng	It is perennial or annual. Usually found in shallow water where it may be bottom-rooted or straggling over the surface (Cook 1996).
177334		population	eng	There is no information on population of the species.
177334		threats	eng	There is no major threat identified for the species.
177335		conservation	eng	No conservation action needed for the species.
177335		distribution	eng	Globally the species is known to occur in Senegal to Yemen; Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa (Transvaal); tropical Asia and Old world tropics (Kabeer and Nair 2009).&#160;The species is widely distributed in India (Kabeer and Nair &#160;2009). In Kerala the species is recorded from Pallana and R Block of Alleppey; Kutiyadi of Calicut; Cannanore, Cochin, Vettilachola of Palghat; Kodumon of Quilon, Kuthiran R. F and Vellanikkara of Trichur, Sreekariyam of Trivandrum (Sreekumar and Nair 1991). It is found in Gundlabrahmeswaram in Nallamalais in Andhra Pradesh (Ellis 1990). The species is seen in allmost all districts of Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). In Madhya Pradesh, the specie is reported from Balaghat, Damoh, Mandla, Rewa and Sidhi (Roy&#160;2001). The species occurs in Anakapalli, Krishnapuram, Sunkarimetta to Galikonda, Madugula to Paderu and Madugula to Kottur on the banks of streams (Rao and Kumari 2002).
177335		habitat	eng	It is a annual or perrenial herb. Culms grow into 15-100 cm in length. Often common and abundant, almost always in wet places such as rice fields, along ditches and canals and in marshes, It is rather variable with glabrous and hairy races (Cook 1996). It is common on roacky laterite soil or banks of streams (Rao and Kumari 2002).
177335		population	eng	It is a widely distributed common species throughout its range.
177335		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
177336		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
177336		distribution	eng	<p>Endemic to western peninsular India (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009). The species has also been recorded in Maharashtra according to Flora of Kolhapur (Yadav and Sardesai 2002). It covers a wide&#160;geographical&#160;range where it colonised suitable habitats.</p>
177336		habitat	eng	This annual (which can be sometimes perennial) occurs frequently in marshy places and forms dense mats.
177336		population	eng	No&#160;information&#160;available on population numbers and trends.
177336		threats	eng	No threats have been&#160;identified.
177338		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known. More surveys to establish its distribution in India and Sri Lanka are recommended. Population and habitat trends need to be studied as well as the existing locations protected.
177338		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Farmeria metzgerioides</span> is known from southern India and Sri Lanka. In India it is found only in Kerala. In Sri Lanka it is found in Kandy district, in Hakkinda, on rocks in Mahaweli river and in Central Province in Haragama.<br/></p>
177338		habitat	eng	It grows on smooth rocks and submerged rocks in streams in moist forest.
177338		population	eng	The population decline is inferred due to decline in quality of habitat.
177338		threats	eng	Urbanization is a major threat affecting this species as it is degrading  area an quality of suitable area and impacting the number of mature  individuals especially in India but also in Sri Lanka.
177339		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys to understand distribution and monitor populations is recommended.
177339		distribution	eng	Although <em>Bolbitis presiliana</em> is reported from the Philippines, it is considered a southern Indian endemic by Chandra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2008). It is common in the Western Ghats of Karnataka (Mysore, western side of Coorg Ghats, Jog falls, Sagar and Castle Rock at the elevation of 600 m) (Hennipman 1977) and Maharasthra (Sindhudurg, Pune and Raigad). &#160;It occurs in Wayanad, Kozhikode, Malappuram and Kannur districts of northern Kerala (K.P. Rajesh and C.N. Manju pers. comm. 2011).
177339		habitat	eng	It grows on rocks, river beds in evergreen and semievergreen forests (Hennipman 1977).
177339		population	eng	It is&#160;a rare species (Hennipman 1977) and occurs in very few patches (K.P. Rajesh and C.N. Manju pers. comm.).
177339		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species.
177340		conservation	eng	Protection of the only known locality has been suggested as a conservation action and conservation and&#160;monitoring plans should be established. Research on population size, full distribution and ongoing threats is required.
177340		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Dharmashala, Pavas - Ratnagiri road, 3 km from Ratnagiri, in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. The area of occupancy is very small as it is only known from the type locality. It might be present in other localities although this needs to be confirmed with further surveys.
177340		habitat	eng	It grows on lateritic plateaus around temporary ponds in wet grounds.
177340		population	eng	According to Yadav <em>et al</em>.(1998) it consists of 150 individuals in about five subpopulations. However, considering its habitat (which is common in the area) and the growth pattern, this species has probably larger number of individuals more widely distributed. Population is believed to be decreasing due to the loss of suitable habitat of between 20-50% according to a three year study which monitored the habitat where this species occurs (Mishra and Singh 2001).
177340		threats	eng	A reported habitat loss of 20-50% was recorded over three years (Mishra and Singh 2001). Authors have not described the cause of habitat loss. However, due to the activities&#160;occurring&#160;in the area, the major threat is land conversion for housing development, which is common in the region and still ongoing (A. Watve&#160; pers. obs. 2010).
177341		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio wightii</span> is present in Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve and Mukurthi National Park in India.
177341		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio wightii</span> is distributed in Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Khasi hills in India. Its presence has been reported in Myanmar and in the Hengduan mountains in south central China.
177341		habitat	eng	<em>Senecio wightii</em> is a&#160;p<span>erennial herb,&#160;found in swamps and <span>along a streams, in grasslands of high altitude.</span>
177341		population	eng	Population data is not known.
177341		threats	eng	The threat to the species is loss of habitat due to grassland manipulations by the forest department.
177342		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177342		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum longifolium</span> is tufted annual or rhizomatous perennial native to tropical Asia and northern Australia including Samoa islands. In India, it is distributed in Andaman, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and West Bengal. It is only confined to Nilgiris and Salem in Tamil Nadu (Kabeer and Nair 2009). <br/></p>
177342		habitat	eng	<p>It can be seen on mountain slopes, field margins, in moist and swampy places, but not very common.</p>
177342		population	eng	<p>Widely distributed, but rare in its occurrence.</p>
177342		threats	eng	<p>There are not threats known for this species.</p>
177343		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place. Detailed studies on habitats trends, population size, threats and life history of the species in the Western Ghats are recommended.
177343		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bolbitis appendiculata</span> is distributed in China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Viet Nam (www.zipcodezoo.com) Philippines and Hong Kong<span class="addmd">. <span class="addmd"><span class="addmd"><span class="addmd"><span class="addmd">In India it occurs in Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatanam, Sunkarimetta) Madhya Pradesh (Hoshangabad), Kerala (North Malabar-Kammadamkavu and Aravanchalkavu), Maharashtra (Amboli at the origin of the Hiranyakeshi River, Sahyadri hills, Raigad district- Matheran) Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli Hills, Anamalai Hills and Palani Hills) and southern Orrisa (Manickam 1986; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992;&#160;Kothari and Moorthy 1993; Verma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993; <span class="addmd">Pullaiah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003; <span class="addmd">BSI Coimbatore) at the altitude of 0 to 1500m (Hennipman 1977). &#160;Also reported in the Tamil Nadu Nilgiris (Gene pool forest, Nadugani and Gudalur-Ellamalai Road) by Manickam and Irudayaraj (2003), and Ponmudi and Sabarimala in Kerala (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992). It is also present in Karnataka (Rajagopal and Bhat 1998). The species occupies an altitudinal range of 1000 to 1500m in southern India (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm.).</span></span></span>
177343		habitat	eng	It is a lithophyte growing along fully or partially shaded streams and stream banks (<span class="addmd">Pullaiah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), and also grows in rock cervices under shade with usually permanent source of trickling water (Verma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). &#160;It is infrequent in hilly forests (Kothari and Moorthy 1993).
177343		population	eng	It is widespread, occurring occasionally in the Western Ghats restricted to some patches in riverine tracts usually as lithophyte.&#160;&#160;The population is stable in the Western Ghats at present, but there is a growing threat to the species from expanding plantation activities in the Western Ghats which will impact the populations in the near future. The species is very rare in the Nilgiris as it occurs only in two locations in the entire biosphere reserve (V. Irudayaraj and S. Jeeva pers. comm.). &#160;It is infrequent in hilly forests (Kothari and Moorthy 1993).
177343		threats	eng	The threats to the species worldwide are unknown, but in the Western Ghats threats include conversion of forests to plantations (rubber in Kanyakumari District; tea in Upper Kodayar, Tirunelveli District), tourism (Ponmudi in Kerala), and pilgrimage (Sabarimala in Kerala) pose major threats to the species. Since it is patchily distributed, such activities may impact the species in the near future (V. Irudayaraj and S. Jeeva pers. comm.). The species is very sensitive to changes in habitats as it requires permanent running water and shade in higher altitudes (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm.).
177345		conservation	eng	Conservation measures are not known or needed.
177345		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from south and southeast Asia: in Myanmar, southern China (Hainan), Viet Nam, Sri Lanka and India. In India it is found in Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Diu, Daman, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. It is also recorded from Indonesia) (Cook 1996, eFloras 2011).
177345		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant. Often very abundant, it is not confined to wetlands but often found in wet places, even in standing water in ditches, marshes and rice fields.
177345		population	eng	It is a common species.
177345		threats	eng	This is a widespread species, with no major threats known.
177346		conservation	eng	Although conservation action is not considered necessary at the moment, population and habitat trends need to be monitored.
177346		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the Western Ghats. The report from Madhya Pradesh is considered doubtful by Cook (1996).
177346		habitat	eng	It grows in many moist and marshy habitats in open sunny grass dominated areas.
177346		population	eng	It is very common within its range and grows in diverse moist primary and secondary habitats.
177346		threats	eng	It has no reported threats. The habitats of this species are changing due to activities such as urbanization, construction, mining, quarrying, windmill farms, agriculture, tourism etc. However, the species appears to be tolerant of such disturbances and seen to grow and colonize secondary bare habitats, provided that moisture is available. (Watve pers. obs. 2010)
177347		conservation	eng	Their is no conservation action plan in place for this species. There is a need to study the distribution of the species.
177347		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis microcarya </span>is distributed in India, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Taiwan. In India it is known to occur in Maharashtra (Ahmadnagar, Aurangabad, Bhandara, Chandrapur, Dhule, Nasik, Pune, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Wardha). The distribution is unclear in Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan1996).
177347		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant growing along lake margins and in water holes (Cook 1996).
177347		population	eng	It is a common species in Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996, Cook 1996).
177347		threats	eng	No threats have been identified for this species.
177349		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for the species. As the plant is highly variable in its life forms, research on taxonomy is suggested. Moreover, more research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
177349		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south and southeast Asia (Cook 1996). The Indian distribution of the species is mainly from&#160;Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Assam (Cook 1996).&#160;It is&#160;occasional&#160;in mountain streams in Western Ghats and Biligirirangan Hills (Dakhina Kannada, Kodagu and Mysore) (Sharma <em>et al.</em>1984, Saldanha 1996). It occurs in Assam, Western Ghats,Visakhapatanam, in hill streams near Jeypore in Orissa, streams of South Canara, Travancore and Anamalai Hills (Subramanyam 1962). The species is seen in Coimbatore and Tirunelveli of Tamil Nadu (Kumar 1987).The species is recorded from Pune and Satara districts of Maharashtra (Jadhav&#160;2001). In Kerala, the species is reported from Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Thiruvanathapuram, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Thrissur and Palakkad (Sasidharan 2004).&#160;In Sri Lanka the specimens are collected from Kehel Ganga and Dickoya in Nuwara Eliya (Dassanayake and Clayton 1996).&#160;It has also been recorded from two localities in northern Thailand (Kato and Koi 2009).
177349		habitat	eng	The plant is annual and it occurs on smooth rocks in rapid currents (Cook 1996). Thallus completely appressed to rocks (Deshpande <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is highly variable plant (Kumar 1987).
177349		population	eng	There is no information on its population trend.
177349		threats	eng	There are no identified threats for the species.<br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
177350		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
177350		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis subsecunda </span>is distributed in Sri Lanka, East China, South China, Bangladesh, Indo-China, Indonesia, Australia and Malaysia. In India it is reported from Assam, Kerala (Alleppey- Kumarakodi, Pallana. Quilon- Neendakara), Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli) (Sreekumar and Nair 1991, Kabeer and Nair 2009) and Andamans (M.K.V. Rao pers. obs.).
177350		habitat	eng	It grows along banks of streams, back waters and canals (Sreekumar and Nair 1991).
177350		population	eng	It is a widely distributed, but an occasional species. In Tamil Nadu it is considered rare (Kabeer and Nair 2009).
177350		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats to the species.</p>
177353		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed distribution and life history studies recommended.</p>
177353		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypogon nilgiricus</span> is a newly described species endemic to Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, India, described from Manjakombai (Kabeer and Nair 2007). &#160;It has also been recorded in Kothagiri, Upper Bhavani, Doddabetta, Ooty-Kothagiri main road and other places in the Nilgiris (A.A. Kabeer pers. comm. 25 Jan 2011).</p>
177353		habitat	eng	<p>It is found along banks of streams and in water logged marshy areas (Kabeer and Nair 2007).</p>
177353		population	eng	<p>It is rare in its locality (Kabeer and Nair 2007).</p>
177353		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
177354		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. The species is in need of urgent conservation attention as it is in a single location.
177354		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon santapaui </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats (Maharasthra- Khandala, Pune) and known only by its type collection 1942. During 1996-98 efforts to collect this species again in the same site failed (Mishra and Singh 2001).
177354		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, which grows along the streams at an altitude of 1,550 m (Cook 1996, Lakshminarashiman 1996).
177354		population	eng	<p>Scarce near streams (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009). <br/></p>
177354		threats	eng	Tourism is a major threat to the habitat and the species and it is impacting on the habitat in the only known location.
177355		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
177355		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chara nuda </span>is recorded from India (Sharma 1986). Tamil Nadu- Chennai- Singaperumal kovil (Pal <em>et al.</em> 1962) and also reported from Kolhapur in Maharashtra (Srinivasan 1965). There is also a record from Romania.
177355		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chara nuda</span> is a fresh water algae, which grows in mountain areas.
177355		population	eng	Population is very restricted in India.
177355		threats	eng	No species specific threats.
177356		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are essential. <br/></p>
177356		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neptunia plena</span> is known from the coastal regions of America and tropical Asia (Windler 1966).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It has also been recorded at Ritchie Road, Pallara and Lake Placid approx. 20 km from Cairns in Australia (Hannan-Jones and Csurhes 2008). It is naturalized in Asia (Cook 1996). In India, it is distributed in Goa, Karnataka, Rajasthan, West Bengal (Cook 1996) and Tamil Nadu (Nair and Henry 1983).<p><br/></p><p>  </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
177356		habitat	eng	It is not confined to wetlands but tolerates considerable flooding and even develops spongy tissue on the stems when in water (Cook 1996). However, it is an aquatic floating perennial herb that attaches to the bank at the waters edge and sends down a taproot. It emerges during the periodic wet seasons and produce ﬂowers and seeds. When the ponds disappear during the dry years, the plants become dormant and persist as seeds or perhaps underground propagules (Richardson and King 2008).
177356		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177356		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
177357		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known. Studies to understand distribution, ecology and impacts of uses on populations needed.
177357		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophila polystachya </span>is known from southern India and Sri Lanka. The presence in Sri Lanka is not confirmed. In India it is distributed in Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
177357		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophila polystachya</span> is an annual. It is found growing in wet places, in rice fields in plains and lower altitudes. It forms extensive clumps in still water.
177357		population	eng	It has been reported as rare and scarce (Gamble 2008).
177357		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known. General threats could include the loss of habitat due to urban expansion, however this is likely to only have a local impact.
177358		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177358		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schoenoplectiella roylei </span>is found from India to Africa (Cook 1996) and Afghanistan and Turkey (Singh and Srivastava 2007).&#160;In India, it is recorded from Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Mumbai, Dhule, Nagpur, Pune, Raigad and Sholapur), Madhya Pradesh (Morena and Satna), Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (Cook 1996).</p>
177358		habitat	eng	It is annual, found in moist places, ponds, flooded places and rice fields.
177358		population	eng	<p>This is a rare species in Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan&#160;1996) and Madhya Pradesh (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) but common in Uttar Pradesh (Singh and Srivastava 2007). There is no information about its global distribution.<br/></p>
177358		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177359		conservation	eng	Conservation action does not exist or is considered necessary for this species.
177359		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleusine indica</span> is common and widespread species. Reported from Europe, Asia and Africa.
177359		habitat	eng	It grows in moist as well as marshy areas, puddles, shallow ponds, fields, river and stream edges, ditches, canals etc. It is tolerant of heavy disturbance like trampling, organic pollution and can grow along sewage lines, gutters easily.
177359		population	eng	This is a very widespread species, common in many localities, tolerant of heavy disturbance.
177359		threats	eng	There is no threat to this species.
177362		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas of Sispara, Agasthyamala of Kerala and Mukurthi National Park in the Nilgiris.
177362		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anaphalis leptophylla</span> endemic to southern Western Ghats. It is distributed in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is found in Nilgiris, Thirunelveli, Madurai, Kanniyakumari, Palni hills of Tamil Nadu and Trivandrum, Palakkad, Agasthyamala, Sispara of Kerala.
177362		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anaphalis leptophylla</span> is found in damp places and in the marshes in high altitude grassland slopes.
177362		population	eng	The is no information available.
177362		threats	eng	This species is extremely restricted and localized. It is only found at high altitudes, and some areas of its distribution are under severe threat from tourism and development activities which are degrading its habitat and reducing areas the species may be able to colonize.
177363		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place.
177363		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis polytrichoides </span>is distributed in the tropics extending from Africa to Australia. In India it is reported from Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh (Cook 1996, Verma 2001, Lakshminarasimhan 1996, BSI Coimbatore).
177363		habitat	eng	It is a perennial, sometimes annual, found in marshes, wet hollows, ditches on saline mud or sandy soil near to the coast (Cook 1996).
177363		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its range.
177363		threats	eng	No species specific threats.
177365		conservation	eng	There is no need for conservation action plan for the species.
177365		distribution	eng	Globally the species is known from the Indomalayan region extending to the Philippines, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and India (Cook 1996). In India the species is reported from Andaman & Nicobar, Assam, Gujarat, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Sikkim and West Bengal &#160;(Cook 1996). It is found in Raigarh and Satna in Madhya Pradesh (Verma 2001). It is recorded from &#160;Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). In Karnataka the species is distributed mainly in Hassan, Mysore, North Kanara, Shimoga, South Kanara (Sharma <em>et al.</em> 1984) and marshy places of Mercara (Murthy and Yoganarasimhan 1990).
177365		habitat	eng	It is a perennial which grows in the range of 5-30 cm height with quadrangular stems (Verma 2001). It is found in open wet and muddy places, marshes, rice fields and river banks (Cook 1996 Lakshminarasimhan &#160;1996).
177365		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its known range.
177365		threats	eng	There are no reported threats to the species.
177366		conservation	eng	Conservation actions are not known or needed for this species.
177366		distribution	eng	The species is distributed throughout tropical Africa, Asia (China, Afghanistan, Japan; Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Malaysia, Viet Nam, and Singapore), Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Australia (New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia), New Zealand, and the Pacific islands, including Samoa, New Caledonia, and Fiji. In China, the species is known from southern and central provinces (Anhui, Chongqing, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Yunnan, Zhejiang, and Sichuan), and from Taiwan, Province of China (Sharma<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1984, Henry<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span> 1987, Verm <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span> 1993, Almeida 1996, Cook 1996, Pullaiah and Ali 1997, Mathew 1999, eFlora 2011).
177366		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant, seen in a wide range of habitats, including growing in wet places, marshy banks, sometimes found submerged in shallow water and rice fields. It can inhabit waste grounds and roadsides. The plant grows almost all types of soil, in any habitat.
177366		population	eng	The species is a commonly seen species, but specific population data is unknown.
177366		threats	eng	This species is wide spread and can be found growing in almost any habitat. There are no known threats.
177368		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action has been taken for the species. Research on the habitat and population trends species is recommended.
177368		distribution	eng	<em><span style="font-style: italic;">Geissaspis tenella</span></em>&#160;is endemic to southern India, found in the Western Ghats and the west coast.
177368		habitat	eng	It grows in moist soil and is found on rocky areas with moist shallow soil, rivers edges, pool edges, fallow fields.
177368		population	eng	Population of this species has been observed at many places in Maharashtra personally (A. Watve pers. obs. 2010) for more than 15 years and is locally abundant in many places. However, no formal study has been undertaken on the entire population. It is believed population is declining due to habitat&#160;conversion&#160;in areas where&#160;development&#160;is taking place.
177368		threats	eng	Land conversion is the most serious threat to this species. The wetlands and moist areas in the region are fast getting converted into housing, industrial areas or are subject to mining and quarrying. Many of the grasslands are put to fire every year and the species is not very tolerant of heavy disturbance.
177369		conservation	eng	Conservation measures have not been reported or needed.
177369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex hebecarpa</span> is distributed in the Himalayan uplands (Tibetean Plateau), Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and South East Australia. In India it is found in Assam, Khasi hills, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.<span><strong><br/></strong>
177369		habitat	eng	It grow at an attitude of 1500m-2200m&#160; in damp places in valleys of mountain regions, in forests, or at roadsides.
177369		population	eng	Population data has not been reported.
177369		threats	eng	Threat to the species has not been reported.
177370		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177370		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis ochrostachys </span>is distributed in China (Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan), Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,  Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and Pacific islands. And also it is known to occur in Australia, Fiji, Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Singapore. In India it is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram) and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996, Sasidharan 2004).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><p>  </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>                         <p>                         </p>                          <p>                           <span id="lblLowerTaxonList"></p></span>
177370		habitat	eng	It grows in shallow water, in marshes and along irrigation canals, sometimes found in floating islands and also on grasslands, paddy fields and pond margins (Cook 1996, Sasidharan 2004)
177370		population	eng	In India it is found only occasionally wherever it occurs (Cook 1996).
177370		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>  <p><br/></p>
177372		conservation	eng	Conservation actions for the species are not in place. Detailed studies on distribution, ecology and trends are recommended along with conserving the only known habitat.
177372		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocaulon bolei</em> is endemic to Maharashtra. It is reported from Satara (Mahabaleshwar) (Mishra and Singh 2001).
177372		habitat	eng	It is a herb which grows up to 10-20 cm in height and seen in running water (Mishra and Singh 2001).
177372		population	eng	No information on the population. There have been no records of this species since 1955.
177372		threats	eng	The area where this species has been recorded is a hotspot for tourism and future development. This is leading to a large scale habitat conversion and degradation of the only known locality.
177373		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been reported.
177373		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes divyadarshanii </span>was  reported by Shukla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) from Lonavala, Pune, Maharashtra.
177373		habitat	eng	Shukla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2005) report that it grows in&#160; open shallow rocky ditch in which water flows through a seasonal rainy drainage.
177373		population	eng	The population is reported to be of 80 individuals (number of mature individuals not reported) at the type locality.
177373		threats	eng	No threats have been reported. However, the known locality is famous tourist spot, facing major land conversions for residential areas and associated infrastructure. So some threats might be active along with local grazing and trampling pressures.
177374		conservation	eng	More research on population trends and possible threats.
177374		distribution	eng	<p><em>Eriocaulon elenorae</em> is an endemic species confined to the western Peninsular India (Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009). </p>
177374		habitat	eng	Marshy localities near lakes and ponds from sea level to 950 m altitude.
177374		population	eng	This species has been recorded from five distant locations and it is considered as rare (Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009). No more information is available.
177374		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
177375		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species. Detailed distribution surveys, ecology and threats are needed.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177375		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lipocarpha raynaleana</span> is endemic to southern India and is found only in Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Cook 1996).<br/></p>
177375		habitat	eng	<p>It is mostly seen on the edges of rice fields (Cook 1996).</p>
177375		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177375		threats	eng	<p>No information is available on threats to the species.<br/></p>
177376		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.</p>
177376		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Nitella myriotricha</span> is a monoecious species, and it has been collected from Gummidipoondi in Tamil Nadu (Sumramanian 1999) and Queensland in Australia. <br/></p>
177376		habitat	eng	It can be seen in the drains of paddy field.
177376		population	eng	<p>There is no information about population of this species.</p>
177376		threats	eng	<p>No threats has been reported for this species.</p>
177377		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Detailed surveys to establish species distribution, and monitoring of populations and habitat is essential. Understanding the impacts of threats on the species is paramount. The site needs urgent conservation efforts.
177377		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon sharmae </span>is endemic to Maharashtra (Amboli, Sindhudurg) (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996; Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Mishra and Singh 2001). Punekar collected this species from the same locality in 2005 (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011). No more sites are known although further surveys may indicate a wider distribution.
177377		habitat	eng	Occasional, near ephemeral ponds, puddles and along the margins of streams on highland lateritic plateau (S. Punekar in litt. 24 January 2011).
177377		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population status for this species. But it is reported from only one locality.<br/></p>
177377		threats	eng	Amboli, the type locality is a touristic place. Tourism is a major threat for the habitat of the species. There are many temples in and around Amboli, Sindhudurg District which is visited by many people from different parts of Maharashtra. Decline in the quality of the habitat due to garbage and pollution is in an increasing trend and is degrading and reducing the extent of suitable habitat.
177379		conservation	eng	This species is insufficiently documented. Detailed surveys to determine distribution and monitoring of population is critical. Also more habitat, distribution and threats information is needed.
177379		distribution	eng	It is known to occur only from Old Vasota Fort in Koyana Wildlife Sanctuary, Satara of  Maharashtra. It is likely to occur in other areas.
177379		habitat	eng	Punekar<em> et al</em>. (2003) report that it grows at 650 m asl, on lateritic plateau along fringed areas of monsoon puddles in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Dimeria </span>sp.<span style="font-style: italic;">, Swertia minor </span>etc.
177379		population	eng	Population information for this species has not been reported.
177379		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for this species. Although the species is known from an area in a wildlife sanctuary it could potentially be affected by local grazing, and trampling pressures due to nomadic grazing.
177381		conservation	eng	Surveys to determine distribution, population status, impacts of threats and monitoring of populations and habitat are urgently required.
177381		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Isachne swaminathanii</span> is endemic to Maharashtra (Western Ghats) (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986). In Maharashtra it is reported from Bombay, Pune, Ratnagiri, Satara and Thane (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177381		habitat	eng	It is a tall perennial herb (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986) that occurs in wet flooded grasslands and shrubby wetlands.
177381		population	eng	It is a rare patchily distributed species. Current population trend is unknown.
177381		threats	eng	Marshy grasslands are under threat in the Western Ghats due to human impacts and urbanization.
177383		conservation	eng	Conservation measures have not been proposed. More research on the species population and distribution is needed. Also some taxonomic studies are necessary to clarify the varietal and specific distinction.
177383		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Western Ghats. It&#160;is reported from Panchgani tablelands, Maharashtra and&#160;Kemmangundi hills in Karnataka. &#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes panchganiensis&#160;</span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;panchganiensis&#160;</span>is reported from Panchgani tablelands, Maharashtra and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes panchganiensis&#160;</span>var.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">kemmangundiensis</span>&#160;is reported from Kemmangundi hills in Karnataka.
177383		habitat	eng	It grows in temporary ponds and pools on high altitude rocky plateaus.
177383		population	eng	There has been no detailed study on the population of this species. However, it is considered localized, highly rare.
177383		threats	eng	Tourism on high altitude plateaus where the species is located is probably the biggest threat. Panchgani tableland is a scenic rocky plateau which attracts tourists all year. The tourist trample and litter the entire area and race horses and cars on the plateaus disturbing the entire ecosystem. This affects the temporary ponds. In the past, the tourism was only during dry weather as it was difficult to access the plateau during heavy rains. <em>Isoetes</em> spp. which grew during the rains thus had some protection from tourists. However, within last decade, the tourism goes on throughout the monsoon and is very destructive to all the habitats (A. Watve pers. comm. 2010)
177384		conservation	eng	No information
177384		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.<br/></p>
177384		distribution	eng	<p>The species occurs in tropical and warm regions of south and east Asia; India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Gujarat, Kerala,  Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajashtan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West  Bengal (Cook 1996)), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indochina, Sri  Lanka, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan) and Africa It has been recorded in South Africa (origin uncertain), and introduced widely in south and north America (Landolt 1986, 2001; Cook 1996, African Plants Database 2011, eFloras 2011).</p>
177384		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout Tropical and warm regions of easternAsia and Africa, and naturalized in North America. In South Africa it is present in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape.
177384		habitat	eng	<p>The species is common in rice fields, ponds, tanks and lakes.</p>
177384		habitat	eng	This perennial herb is often forming large populations on the water surface in pools and the sheltered parts of lakes, between 1-1500 m asl.
177384		population	eng	No information
177384		population	eng	<p>This is a common and widespread species with no apparent evidence of species declines.<br/></p>
177384		threats	eng	None known
177384		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.</p>
177386		conservation	eng	No conservation action has been taken or is considered needed for this species.
177386		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanotis fasciculata</em> is common across old world tropics recorded from Eastern Himalaya, southern India and Sri Lanka
177386		habitat	eng	It grows on moist soil in grasslands, fields, wet rocky areas. This species is not considered as a freshwater plant under the criteria of the evaluators.
177386		population	eng	The population of this species was studied at 6 sites in Maharashtra from 2003-2006 (Watve, 2007). There are no other studies from other parts of its range, but it reported as common from most areas.
177386		threats	eng	Threats have not been reported for the species.
177387		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177387		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon wightianum </span>is distributed in Thailand and Myanmar (Cook 1996, Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009). In India it is reported from Andaman Islands and Maharashtra (Bilashi, Kolhapur, Gaganbavda,&#160; Sindhudurg, Radhanagari) (Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177387		habitat	eng	It grows in grassy places (Lakshminarasimhan 1996).
177387		population	eng	<p>No population information on this species.</p>
177387		threats	eng	No threats has been reported for this species.
177389		conservation	eng	This is a widespread species of no current conservation concern.
177389		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex baccans</span> is a native species to temperate and tropical Asia. It is distributed from China to East Asia to Indian Subcontinent, Indo-China and Malaysia, Sikkim to Sri Lanka, to Indonesia, and the Philippines. In India it is found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
177389		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex baccans</span> is found growing in wet moist places and&#160; in swamps at an altitude of 1,500-2,500 m, in dense moist to semi-evergreen forest.
177389		population	eng	The occurrence of this widespread species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been reported as common, rare to occasional, depending on the habitat in which it is found.
177389		threats	eng	There are no threats known specific to this plant.
177390		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Urgent surveys to establish its distribution and studies to understand the impacts of threats to its niche habitats are critical. Population and habitat monitoring are recommended.
177390		distribution	eng	It is endemic to southern India, widely distributed in five states. &#160;However, it is a niche specific species.
177390		habitat	eng	It grows in seasonally wet flooded places, shallow wet soil especially over lateritic rocks and stream banks.
177390		population	eng	Specific population studies are not available. Personal observations were made on this species for three years 2004-2006 at four sites in Maharashtra. It is locally abundant in its specific habitat.
177390		threats	eng	Urbanization, quarrying, developmental works and tourism are the major threats to the habitats of this species causing habitat degradation and loss of suitable habitat that this species could colonize over time.
177392		conservation	eng	The species is found in protected areas of  Kerala and in the Nilgiris. Population and habitat monitoring is critical apart from understanding its distribution and impacts of threats.
177392		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anaphalis wightiana</span> is endemic to southern India. It is found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
177392		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anaphalis wightiana</span> is found growing in damp cool places and on the banks of streams, in high altitude grasslands. It grows at an altitude of 1,800-2,500 m.
177392		population	eng	No population data is available.
177392		threats	eng	This species is extremely restricted and localized to marshy grasslands in high altitudes, which are threatened by tourism and development projects and are leading to human induced fragmentation of the known subpopulations and decline of extent and quality of suitable habitat.
177394		conservation	eng	Most of the populations are found in protected areas in the Nilgiris. The population trend and status as well as possible threats need to be studied.
177394		distribution	eng	<p>It is an endemic species, restricted to Nilgiri and Kodaikanal hills of Tamil Nadu and Attapadi hills of Kerala (Janarthanam and Henry 1992).</p>
177394		habitat	eng	<p>It is restricted to the marshy areas of high elevation grasslands.</p>
177394		population	eng	No information is available.
177394		threats	eng	Most of the population lies in protected areas. Although no widespread threats have been identified for this species, many grasslands in the Western Ghats are under threat from afforestation programmes, which could impact this species and are degrading and fragmenting the known habitats. Fires are another cause for concern. Both threats are degrading the areas of suitable habitat for this species.
177395		conservation	eng	Conservation activities are not known. This species would benefit from habitat protection, population and habitat monitoring.
177395		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Notonia shevaroyensis</span> is endemic to the southern Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu.
177395		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Notonia shevaroyensis</span> grows in swamps at an altitude of 1,700 m.
177395		population	eng	Specific data is not available but its occurrence has been reported as rare.
177395		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, however habitat degradation due to agricultural clearance for coffee plantations is a general threat in the area, as well as tourism (including development of resorts). Mining for iron ore and aluminum also occurs in the area (K. Ravikumar pers. obs. 2010).
177396		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas, such as Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve, and Eravikulam and Indira Gandhi National Parks. &#160;Distribution and impacts of threats need special attention along with monitoring of subpopulations and habitat.
177396		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynura travancorica</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats. It is distributed in Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
177396		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gynura travancorica</span> is found  growing on rocky grounds or on sunny slopes on river banks in grasslands, at an altitude of 800-2,000 metres above sea level
177396		population	eng	The occurrence is not common. Specific population data is not known.
177396		threats	eng	Grassland habitat loss and degradation due to forest reclamation activities are impacting this species habitat. However, it is not clear whether this is affecting the species directly. More information is needed to confirm actual threats to the species.
177398		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action known for the species. A detailed ecological study addressing population trends, habitats and threats are highly essential for the species. As this species is found only in the river system of the Western Ghats, habitat protection is recommended for the species.
177398		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cladopus hookeriana</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats - Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala  (Ahmeduliah and Nayar 1986, Cook 1996). It is seen from Bombay to Kerala (Subramanyam 1962).
177398		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cladopus hookeriana</span><em> </em>is an annual, perhaps perennial herbs. The plant body of &#160;the species&#160;is highly polymorphic, it may be discoid, funnel-shaped or ribbon-like (Willis 1902, Nagendran 1975,  Vidyashankari and Ram 1987, Vidyashankari 1988, Sehgal <em>et al. </em>2007). Most of the times, these distinct morphs or forms regularly occur sympatrically on the same rock (Sehgal <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is found in deeper, swift flowing water in small rivers. Fairly common in swift streams at foot of Western Ghats (Saldanha 1996).
177398		population	eng	There is no information on population of this species.
177398		threats	eng	There are no recorded threats for the species.
177399		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are needed for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177399		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Sacciolepis curvata</span> is a uniform species with a wide distribution along the east coast of Africa from Kenya to Natal and extending through Madagascar to India. It differs markedly from the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sacciolepis</span> by its loosely contracted panicle and by the upper glume being much larger than the lower (Simon 1972).&#160;In India, it is seen in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Chengalpattu, Kanchipuram, Tirunelveli; Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987) and West Bengal (Kabeer and Nair 2009).</p>
177399		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in the borders of forests, grassy wastelands and marshy areas.</p>
177399		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species.</p>
177399		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177402		conservation	eng	No conservation measures have been taken specifically. But the species is grown ex-situ.
177402		distribution	eng	It is reported from tropical to warm regions of southern and southeast Asia (Moody 1989, Cook 1996), including India (e.g., Mumbai, Karnataka, Mysore, Chennai; Bhatti and Ingrouille 1997), Bangladesh, Lao PDR (Andersen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), Thailand, southern China (Francisco-Ortega <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, eFloras 2011), Taiwan, Province of China, to Papua New Guinea (Osborne undated) and Australia.
177402		habitat	eng	It grows in seasonally inundated or permanently inundated places and flowers when the water recedes. Commonly it is seen in ditches, pool edges, drying rice fields, stream edges etc.
177402		population	eng	It is common in wet places, including rice fields, and locally abundant forming pure patches in suitable habitats.
177402		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this widely distributed species.
177403		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known. Monitoring of the water quality and population trends should be carried out. Further taxonomic studies should be carried out to confirm the status of the species.
177403		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ischaemum vembanadense</span> is endemic to southwestern India. It is restricted to a single location at Vemband Kayal, Alappuzha District of Kerala.</p>
177403		habitat	eng	It is a perennial growing in and along banks of rivers, and in the backwaters, forming thickets. The species grows in association with <em>Dimeria copei</em>, <em>Eleocharis acutangula</em>, <em>E. geniculata</em>, <em>E. retroflexa</em>, <em>Fimbristylis dichotoma</em> ssp. <em>glauca</em> and <em>Fuirena umbellata.</em>
177403		population	eng	It is rare species. Population trends have not been studied although the loss and degradation of its habitat may be reducing the known population.
177403		threats	eng	In the Alleppey backwaters in Kerala, domestic sewage water runoff is polluting the water which ultimately affects the river bank quality. Also the heavy boat traffic from tourist activities are impacting the waterways causing disturbance and increasing pollution in all known sites. Also, throughout its whole range the species has been impacted by habitat loss caused by urbanization and tourist development.
177404		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177404		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon margareta</span>e is endemic to the hills of peninsular India. In Karnataka it is reported from Bidi, Belgaum, Mysore and Shimoga and in Maharashtra reported from Junnar, Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Nasik, Pune, Satara, Sindhudurg, Amba, Borbet, Chikevadi (Ansari and Balakrishan 1994, 2009; Cook 1996; Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177404		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon margaretae</span> is common in paddy fields, sandy beds of lakes, riversides and marshy land and also grows in wet places (Ansari and Balakrishnan 1994, 2009; Lakshminarasimhan 1996; Yadav and Sardesai 2002).
177404		population	eng	No population information on this species.
177404		threats	eng	No threat has been reported for this species.
177405		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known to be taken for this species.
177405		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fimbristylis tetragona </span>is distributed in tropical Asia and Australia. In India it occurs in Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal (Cook 1996, Lakshminarasimhan1996, Verma <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2001, Bhargavan 1989, BSI Coimbatore).
177405		habitat	eng	It is an annual or perennial. It is often found in shallow water but also grows in marshes, around pools, along streams, roadside drains, riverbeds, ditches and sometimes in rice fields (Cook 1996).
177405		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
177405		threats	eng	<p>No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
177406		conservation	eng	<p>This is a very poorly studied species and represented by very few specimens in herbaria. Surveys to determine current distribution, threats, habitat, population and trends are urgently recommended. <span style="font-style: italic;">Rotala ritchiei</span>&#160;is a rather vulnerable species, which has already been included in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry 1987).&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177406		distribution	eng	It is a very rare plant that was hitherto known to be strictly endemic to the northern Western Ghats as it was known only from two isolated collections from Belgaum and Pune. This particular specimen (Fischer 1419, CAL), collected from Devarakerai at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 1,575 m altitude in the Coimbatore hills of Tamil Nadu state, was earlier misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ammannia pentandra</span> Roxb. The correct identification of this specimen thus extends the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. ritchiei</span> to the southern Western Ghats as well (Mathew and Ahmedullah 1989). It is endemic to Southwest India, and it is confined to Idukki District in Kerala (Rajesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), Pune in Maharashtra and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu.
177406		habitat	eng	<p>It is an aquatic plant growing along the shallow margins of fresh water ponds with only tips of flowering branches emerging above water surface (Joseph and Sivarajan 1989). It also grows in seasonal ponds in grasslands at 1,000-1,200 m altitude in association with <em>Myriophyllum oliganthum</em>, <em>Nymphoides parvifolium</em>, <em>Rotala indica</em>, <em>R. macandra</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">R</span><em>. rosea</em>. Flowering period is November-December and sets fruits during January-March (Rajesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).</p>
177406		population	eng	<p>Though there is no quantitative information about the population of this species but the type locality from which it was collected (in Belgaum) is now completely disturbed owing to urbanisation and no populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. ritchie</span>i have been located since.&#160;</p>
177406		threats	eng	<p>The locality from which it was initially collected is now completely disturbed owing to urbanization and no populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. ritchiei</span> could be found there again. This species is already listed in the Indian Plant Red Data Book (Nayar and Sastry 1987). Wetland ecosystems are being  depleted in the areas where this species occurs and it is necessary to find new areas of distribution for this species (Mathew  and Ahmedullah 1989). Land conversion for housing, tourism and invasive species are degrading areas of suitable habitats.<br/></p>
177407		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures known for the species.
177407		distribution	eng	Globally, the species is found in north Australia, south and South East Asia including Sri  Lanka, India, Myanmar, Thailand, Sumatra, Philippines&#160; (Cook 1996, Dassanayake and Fosberg 1985). In India the specie is recorded from Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu &#160;(Cook 1996). It is reported from Bastar in Madhya Pradesh (Mooney 1942, Verma 2001) and Sindhudurgh district of Maharashtra (Lakshminarasimhan 1996). It is distributed in Hassan and &#160;South Kanara district of Karnataka (Sharma <em>et al.</em> 1984). It is also known from Andhra Pradesh (Gamble 1931).
177407		habitat	eng	It is a perennial which grows in the range of 20-80 cm height (Verma 2001). In swamps and marshy areas, but also on wet flats in savannah forests, locally abundant. It is also found in wet places in lower altitudes (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1985).
177407		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range.
177407		threats	eng	There are no identified threats to the species.
177408		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
177408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to India, and occurs in the Western Ghats south of the Goa Gap (Wynaad to Travancore), Arippa (near Thiruvananthapuram) and Valparai (Tamil Nadu).
177408		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and montane moist forests.
177408		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare.
177408		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to expanding agriculture, urbanization and mining is a problem in the Western Ghats and this is likely to be causing localized declines in this species.
177409		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of its range are likely to coincide with protected areas, which probably provide small safeguards. Further research into its taxonomy, population trends and threats is needed to check that localized threats do not become more widespread, causing significant declines.
177409		distribution	eng	This species is a wide ranging species that is found in mainland Southeast Asia from India across to Indo-China. Its northern and southern limits are Guizhou in China and western mainland Malaysia respectively. It can also be found on Hong Kong Island. It has been found up to an elevation of 1,330 m above sea level.
177409		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found to occur in forest, although it has also been encountered in areas of human settlement.
177409		population	eng	The abundance of this species varies throughout its range. It is generally reported to be common throughout India (Sharma 2003), but has been noted to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh (Athreya 2006). It is moderately widespread in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.), and uncommon in Hong Kong (Karsen <em>et al.</em> 1986).
177409		threats	eng	Localized habitat destruction is likely to be occurring in parts of this species' range; however, due to its broad distribution, this does not constitute a major threat.
177410		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research into this species' taxonomy is needed as it may represent a widespread species group.
177410		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern Southeast Asia and can be found from the Assam area of India, eastward through to Viet Nam and Cambodia, and north to the Chinese province of Yunnan.
177410		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest as well as agricultural areas.
177410		population	eng	This species is reported to be common in India (Sharma 2003) and elsewhere (Cox 1991).
177410		threats	eng	Deforestation has occurred in areas of this species' range; however, this is not considered a major threat since this species can tolerate human-altered habitats.
177411		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its population status, habitat status, and threats is needed for an accurate conservation assessment.
177411		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen collected from the Batak Mountains in northern Sumatra, Indonesia.
177411		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected at an elevation between 800 and 1,000 m above sea level. From the location of the type, this species inhabits montane tropical wet forest.
177411		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177411		threats	eng	Despite official protection for some forests on Sumatra, logging, both illegal and legal, continues to occur, as does the conversion of forest land to plantation and the expansion of human settlements. These activities may be negatively impacting the habitat of this species.
177412		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was assessed as Data Deficient under IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 2.3. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177412		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only two localities in India. It has been found at Namsang, Jaipur District, Assam (now eastern part of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh; A. Captain, pers. comm.) and also Chessa, Papum Pare District, Arunachal Pradesh (Sharma 2003, Captain 1997, Bhatt <em>et al.</em> 1998).
177412		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland moist forests.
177412		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177412		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
177413		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its distribution is recommended, since its range may be larger than is currently known.
177413		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Tanimbar Islands of Selaru and Yamdena (How and Kitchener 1997). It is possible that further surveys of nearby islands will expand its known range. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,590 km<sup>2</sup>.
177413		habitat	eng	On Tanimbar, most of the available habitat is made up of deciduous monsoon forest.
177413		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177413		threats	eng	Large areas on the Tanimbar Islands remain forested and the local communities have thus far denied access to logging companies (Pfund <em>et al</em>. 2006). At this time there are no major threats to this species.
177414		conservation	eng	Most known localities fall within protected areas, but no species-specific conservation measures are in place. Field surveys are needed to determine the distribution and natural history of this species, and clarify is exposure and sensitivity to threats.
177414		distribution	eng	This species occurs with certainty only in northern Thailand (Smith 1943, Wagner 1975, David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It has been reported from as far south in Thailand as Khao Yai (Nabhitabhata <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), however due to possible confusion between this species and <em>O. cinereus</em> the Khao Yai record is considered to require confirmation. A record exists for Laos, but there are no precise locality data (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It probably also occurs in adjacent Myanmar. It is known from between 300 and 600 m asl.
177414		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry deciduous forest in Kampeng Pet, and has also been recorded from humid forest in Chiang Mai, Lampang and Loei. It is terrestrial.
177414		population	eng	This species is known from only about 15 specimens (Wagner 1975; David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). No information is available on its population.
177414		threats	eng	Northern Thailand is experiencing extensive destruction of forest, particularly in highland areas where local hill tribes are removing forest vegetation (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Most known sites where this species is found occur in protected areas, and it is unknown whether this species is at risk.
177415		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and distribution of this species is needed.
177415		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Darjeeling District near Gopaldhara in West Bengal (Sharma 2003). Its range, as mapped by Sharma (2003), appears to extend into the mountains of Sikkim and western Bhutan, occurring in less than ten locations. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 14,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
177415		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane grassland and lowland and montane moist forests.
177415		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species rare.
177415		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss may pose a major threat to this species. Total forest cover in the Eastern Himalayas of India has been projected to decrease from 90.5% in 2000 to 70.4% in 2100 with the highest regional losses in Sikkim (Pandit <em>et al.</em> 2007). Causes of deforestation in the Indian Eastern Himalayas include agricultural expansion, primarily for monocrop plantations as well as timber, fuel-wood and other forest product extraction (Bhuyan <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177416		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, although it has been reported from protected areas. Research into its population status, distribution and natural history is needed, as well as on its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
177416		distribution	eng	This species is found in Yunnan and southern Sichuan Provinces, China, and in northern Vietnam. Specimens from Vietnam have been reported from Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province), in the Fan Si Pan Mountains (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Orlov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). The snake has been reported from 1,400 to 1,900 m asl. Its extent of occurrence in Vietnam is approximately 9,150 km<sup>2</sup>; based on the paucity of records in China its global extent of occurrence cannot meaningfully be estimated.
177416		habitat	eng	This species is found in high montane forest (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). No other ecological information is available. It is likely to be nocturnal and oviparous, in common with other species of <em>Oligodon</em>.
177416		population	eng	This is a very rare species, and only eight specimens have been recorded despite intensive surveys in Sa Pa over the past 50 years. It is known from only two specimens in China, one from Sichuan and one from Yunnan (Orlov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). As the three known localities are widely separated, it is expected to occur as a severely fragmented population.
177416		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its inferred range, as some deforestation is occurring in this region due to the expansion of agriculture for cardamom production, and logging for timber.
177417		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and neither of the known sites occurs within protected areas. Surveys are needed to rediscover this species, and more information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and threats.
177417		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Viet Nam, where it occurs in a restricted area between Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan Provinces. Based on the coastal location of the known localities, it is presumed to occur below 200 m asl (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
177417		habitat	eng	There is no information on the natural history of this species.
177417		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species, which is known only from historical records at two localities.
177417		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species, as no recent surveys have been conducted in this area.
177418		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to determine the distribution and ecology of this species. This species has been recorded from Shwe-Settaw Wildlife Sanctuary.
177418		distribution	eng	This species is known only from six specimens, all recorded in Myanmar. The type locality is Minhla (Boulenger 1890, Smith 1943), but there is a Minhla in both Bago and Magwe Divisions and it is not known to which of these the description refers. It has also been reported from Rangoon (= Yangon) and Tharrawaddy District (=Ayeyarwady Division) (Smith 1943), and from Magwe Division (Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
177418		habitat	eng	This species has been found in dry, tropical deciduous forest (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008).
177418		population	eng	The species is known only from six specimens (Smith 1943; Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). No information is available on its population but it is believed to be uncommon.
177418		threats	eng	Forests in this region are under increased pressure from commercial logging, agricultural expansion, and threats associated with a growing human population.
177419		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. There are protected areas within its range.
177419		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is found in the West, Central and Southern Province (IUCN 2002). This species is found up to 1,200 m above sea level.
177419		habitat	eng	This terrestrial and diurnal species is known to occur in the wet zone of Sri Lanka, a mainly wet tropical forest region. It is known to shelter among debris, under stones and in cracks in the earth and loose soil (de Silva 2008). It has also been recently reported from Bundala National Park, an area of dry, thorny scrubland and dry forest, and from home gardens (IUCN 2002). It is frequently found in environments modified by humans, including plantations and houses (R. Somaweera pers. comm.).
177419		population	eng	This species is reported to be common within its wider range (A. de Silva, pers. comm.), however, in Bundala National Park, it has been described as "uncommon" (IUCN 2002).
177419		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing the loss and fragmentation of its natural habitat. However, as this species is tolerant of environments affected by humans, these should not be considered major threats at this time. This species resembles venomous snakes of the region and is often killed when encountered by humans, so that persecution constitutes a major threat.
177421		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177421		distribution	eng	This species is known from India and Sri Lanka. Only old and vague records are available and no specific localities are known, either in the past or more recently.
177421		habitat	eng	As the distribution of this species is not known beyond country level, it is not possible to infer its habitat preferences.
177421		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177421		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
177422		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to clarify the distribution, population status and ecology of this species. It occurs within Minsontaung Wildlife  Sanctuary.
177422		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kachin State, Magwe Division, and Mandalay Division, Myanmar (Smith 1943, Hallermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, Wogan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It occurs over a wide geographic range in central and northern Myanmar.
177422		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forest (G. Zug pers. comm. 2009) in hilly countryside (Smith 1943).
177422		population	eng	Smith (1943) stated that the species was common at Myitkyina, Kachin State, Myanmar. It has not been recorded very often in recent surveys in the Myitkyina region (G. Wogan pers. comm. August 2011).
177422		threats	eng	Forests in this region are under increased pressure from logging as well as agricultural expansion. While areas of forest habitat remain, this species is likely to be experiencing local population declines.
177423		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the distribution range of this species is suggested as it is thought that it may occur on other islands surrounding its current range.
177423		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Tanimbar Islands of Selaru and Yamdena (How and Kitchener 1997). It is possible that further surveys of nearby islands will expand its known range.
177423		habitat	eng	On Tanimbar, most of the available habitat is made up of deciduous monsoon forest.
177423		population	eng	There are no population information data available for this species.
177423		threats	eng	Large areas on the Tanimbar Islands remain forested and the local communities have thus far denied access to logging companies (Pfund <em>et al.</em> 2006). At this time there are no major threats to this species.
177425		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it occurs in Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge. Further research into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177425		distribution	eng	This recently described species is only known from the holotype which was found within the limits of Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge, in the western portion of the Cordillera Nombre de Dios in northern Honduras. The Wildlife Refuge has a distributional area of 81 km². The holotype of this species was found at 1,690 m above sea level. It is likely that the species occurs at other cloud forest locations in the region, but it has not been found again despite a number of search trips to the vicinity of the type locality (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2010).
177425		habitat	eng	This species has been found in leaf litter in disturbed cloud forest. It was found in Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge where the predominant habitat type is deciduous forest (Cox 1998).
177425		population	eng	This snake is known only from one specimen, collected in 2003. Despite three days of searching and four collecting trips made to the area, no more specimens were found. It is therefore likely that this is a rare species (McCranie and Castañeda 2004).
177425		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (Cruz <em>et al.</em> 2004), and the habitat at the type locality is becoming increasingly degraded (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2010). Cloud forests are also threatened by climate change (Bubb <em>et al.</em> 2004).
177427		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring is recommended to make sure localized threats do not cause serious population declines in the future.
177427		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed and occurs in northern China, Korea and the Russian region of the Primorski Territory (Szczerbak 2003, Ji <em>et al.</em> 1997).
177427		habitat	eng	This species is an ovoviviparous semi-aquatic snake that inhabits human-affected environments including rice paddy fields (Xiang 1995, Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also found in grasslands, swamps, along the banks of rivers and stagnant pieces of water. It mainly feeds on frogs, fish, lizards, and, more rarely, on rodents (Szczerbak 2003).
177427		population	eng	This species has been described as common in rice paddy fields in Zhejiang, China (Xiang 1995).
177427		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by extensive agriculture, the disappearance of grassland and swamp areas, and the use of various pesticides. However, due to the wide distribution of this species, these cannot be considered major threats at present. The decline of amphibian populations may also be affecting this species (P. David pers. comm.).
177428		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. This species is likely found in some protected areas. Little is known about this species and more research is required on its biology and ecology, habitat status and potential threats. Additional field surveys are needed to locate populations of this elusive snake.
177428		distribution	eng	This species occurs in eastern and southern China and has been recorded from Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong and Guangxi (Stuart and Chuaynkern 2007, Zhao and Adler 1993). There is no information on the altitudinal distribution of this species (Zhao 2006).
177428		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in high-altitude streams and often found under stones (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998). It feeds on aquatic annelids. This is an oviparous species. <br/></p>
177428		population	eng	There are no population data for this species. Despite many surveys in Guangdong and Guangxi by Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden in the last ten years, this species was not found, but other <em>Opisthotropis </em>spp. have been recorded.
177428		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. Building dams and agriculture are not considered to be major threats, because they are mainly affecting lower altitudes than those inhabited by this species (M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). The causes behind the possible decline in this species are not clear.
177430		conservation	eng	In Thailand, this species is present in several protected areas and in one protected area in Lao PDR. There are no known direct conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to better determine the distribution of this species as well as its population size and trends.
177430		distribution	eng	This species is known from three specimens captured in Lao PDR and the northern province of Chaing Mai, Thailand (Cox 1991). It may also occur in the neighbouring regions of north Viet Nam and Myanmar. However, recent surveys have failed to confirm its occurrence in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.). The species is also present in Jingdong Co., Yunnan, China. The presence in China needs to be corroborated as it considerably augments the extent of occurrence of this species. It occurs at elevations between 475 and 1,400 m.<br/><br/>Murphy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2008) summarized that <span style="font-style: italic;">Paratapinophis praemaxillaris</span> is known from four localities: the type locality in Xieng-Khouang, Lao PDR (about 19º 52' N, 103º 20' E); Doi Saket, Chiang Mai province, Thailand (about 19º N, 99º 15' E); Jindong, Yunnan Province, China (about 24º 28 N, 100º 54' E); and the Nan River location in Nan Province,&#160; Chaloemprakait District, Huia Gon Subdistrict, at the Wang Pian Waterfalls, Thailand (about 19º 31' N, 101º 05' 11.8" E).
177430		habitat	eng	This species appears to inhabit montane forests, and occurs in or near streams (Cox 1991). It can also occur in rice fields that are moisture and rich in water. It is oviparous and feeds on aquatic annelids (Zhao 2006) .
177430		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species. However, it is reported to be very rare (Cox 1991).
177430		threats	eng	This species is likely to be suffering from habitat loss and degradation. Forests in Thailand are experiencing continued deforestation and fragmentation due to logging, road building and agricultural expansion. Between 1976 and 1989, forest cover declined by 28% (Cropper <em>et al.</em> 1999). Likewise, in Lao PDR, land use changes and deforestation has occurred and the forest cover of the country decreased by 30% between the 1940s and 1999 (Foppes and Ketphanh 2000). However, large areas of forest appear to remain.
177431		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177431		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Napo and Tungurahua provinces of Ecuador, in the Departments of Amazonas, Ayacucho, Huanuco, Loreto, Pasco Puno and Ucayali in Peru, and on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the headwaters of the Cauca and Magdalena river valleys, Colombia. It has also been recently found in Venezuala (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010). It is found between 1,200 and 2,750 m above sea level.
177431		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid montane forest habitat.
177431		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177431		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. In certain parts of its range, it may be threatened by habitat loss and degradation, however, due to its sizeable distribution this should not be considered a major threat to the species.
177432		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. &#160;Further research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species, with regard to the taxonomic revision, and description of <em>O. vandicus</em>.
177432		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru, Brazil, and Ecuador. <br/><br/>In Brazil, this species is found in the north west, in Amazonas and Acre.&#160;<br/>In Peru, this species was previously thought to be found in the Departments of Amazonas and Loreto in the north to Madre de Dios and Puno in the South (Carrillo and Icochea 1995); however, since the description of <em>O. vandicus</em>, and the fact that <em>O. vandicus</em> was misidentified as <em>O. melanogenys</em> (Lynch 2009)&#160;in the northern parts of Peru, <em>O. melanogenys</em> is now thought to in a small area near the mouth of the Rio Ucayali (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010), central Andes (Pasco), central and southern lowland (Ucayali and Madre de Dios) (M. Lundberg pers. comm. 2010).&#160; <br/><br/>It may also prove true that specimens of <em>O. melanogenys</em> recorded in Columbia, Ecuador and other areas of Brazil are that of <em>O. vandicus</em>, which may reduce this species extent of occurrence.&#160;This species is found between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level.
177432		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species which is found in wet and dry tropical forest. It has also been found in pastureland. This species has been known to prey on lizards, birds and small mammals.
177432		population	eng	This species was found to be one of the most common species collected in a study in Rondonia, Brazil.
177432		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177433		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it occurs in many protected areas throughout its distribution.
177433		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon basin in Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,&#160;and Brazil. It may also occur in Bolivia
177433		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical lowland forest. It is a nocturnal, semi-arboreal species which feeds on lizards (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).<p><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-size:10.0pt;  font-family:Arial;color:black"></p>
177433		population	eng	This species is thought to be common throughout its range (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
177433		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177434		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species at the present time. It is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this snake.
177434		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to China, where it is very widespread. It has been recorded from the provinces of Anhui, Chongqing, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou,  Fujian, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Zhejiang (Zhao 2006), as well as from Jingangtai Nature Reserve in Henan  (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and Yongshun Country in Hunan (Guo and Deng 2006). It occurs from 313 to 1,360 m asl. (Zhao 2006).<br/><p></p>
177434		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake occurs in montane forest or near cropland, and is known to forage in agricultural land at night. The diet includes snails and slugs. Females lay clutches of 5-7 eggs.
177434		population	eng	This is a rare species and is found only at low densities (F. Xie pers. comm.).
177434		threats	eng	In some portions of its range this species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion, infrastructure development and logging. However, significant areas of habitat remain and these should not be considered major threats at this time.
177435		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed.
177435		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil (in the state of Rio Grande do Sul), Argentina (in the states of Corrientes and Misiones), and in Uruguay.
177435		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist grassland and forest habitat.
177435		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177435		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177436		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Less than 1% of this species' range falls within protected areas (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species is needed and more protected areas need to be designated.
177436		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Mato Grosso do Sul, Sao Paulo, and Goias, Brazil. It is endemic to central Brazilian Cerrado savannas, around the upper Paraná basin (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). The species is restricted to areas dominated by open grassland formations (campo limpo and campo sujo), generally developing over gently rolling, elevated tabletops (locally Chapadas) (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). In some areas of Sao Paulo state, the species has not been recorded in the last twenty years (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
177436		habitat	eng	This species is typical of open grassland habitat, such as Campo Limpo and Campo Sujo, that tend to occur in isolated tabletops with flat or gently rolling terrain. In the southernmost part of its range in São Paulo state, the dominant habitat is mixed deciduous forest, however, most of the known collection localities are in or near 'islands' of Cerrado habitat in the state (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
177436		population	eng	This species is thought to be a rare species, confined to grassland habitats. The single recent records refer to a grassland area in Emas National Park, in Goiás. In this location, more than 500 snake specimens were sampled, with only three specimens of this species. Intensive sampling in a Cerrado reserve in São Paulo state, where historical records are available (pre-1980), failed to record this species (Sawaya <em>et al.</em> 2008). A population decline is inferred based on extensive habitat loss throughout the range of this species (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
177436		threats	eng	This species is endemic to the most heavily impacted and fragmented region of the Cerrado, the plateaus of the upper Paraná basin (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). It is likely to be impacted by habitat destruction in areas of its range. Throughout its range, typical grassland habitats are extremely fragmented due to ongoing habitat loss, caused by the irreversible conversion of Cerrado grasslands for agriculture, grazing and human development (WWF 2007, C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Based on satellite data from the Ministerio do Meio Ambiente, it has been estimated that in 1998, only 18% of the original Cerrado habitat was available; this has dwindled to only 16% in 2008 (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Projected losses suggest that only 8% of will remain in 2018, implying an average habitat loss rate of 44% per ten-year period (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Since this species is a grassland specialist, these losses are even more acute. Grasslands are generally the first habitats to be converted, due to the lack of formal protection and the suitability for agricultural development.
177437		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amboró, Carrasco, Madidi, Kaa-Iya and Noel Kempff Mercado (Embert 2007).
177437		distribution	eng	This species is found in west-central Brazil, eastern Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz, and Tarija), Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina (in the states of Rio Negro, Neuquen, Mendoza, San Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, Jujuy, Chaco, Formosa, Santiago del Estero, Cordoba, Santa Fe, San Luis, La Pampa, Corrientes).
177437		habitat	eng	The dominant habitat in the range of this species is grassland.
177437		population	eng	This species is very common in the inter-Andean dry valleys of Bolivia.
177437		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177438		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amboró, Carrasco, Kaa-Iya and Tunari, in Bolivia.
177438		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Tarija, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra), and Argentina (Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy).
177438		habitat	eng	The dominant habitat type within the range of this species is grassland.
177438		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177438		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon this species.
177439		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found in various protected areas, including the Korup National Park in Cameroon (Vonesh 1998) and Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 1995)
177439		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely in western and central Africa and specimens have been captured from the Gambia to Gabon and east to Tanzania.
177439		habitat	eng	This species inhabits bushes and trees a few feet above the ground and is often associated with damp or wet areas (Menzies 1966) such as savanna ponds (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.). It is also found in grassy thickets (Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000). It feeds on frogs (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).
177439		population	eng	This species is reported to be a "very common" garden species is Sierra Leone (Menzies 1966) and in West African humid savanna (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).
177439		threats	eng	This species is often associated with human dwellings and gardens and is unlikely to be severely impacted by habitat loss or degradation. It has no known major threats at this time.
177440		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, although its known Vietnamese localities fall within protected areas. Further surveys are needed to rediscover this species and clarify its distribution, population status, natural history and response to possible threats from deforestation.
177440		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Viet Nam (Sa Pa and Tam Dao) and from Xieng Khouang in Lao PDR (Smith 1930, Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). Records are highly disjunct, and the snake's extent of occurrence between these areas is unknown. It occurs from around 900 - 1,500 m asl.
177440		habitat	eng	This snake has been collected from bamboo forests along the banks of mountain streams (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000) and in the Fan-Si-Pan mountains (Smith 1930). Xieng Khouang consists of pine savannah with patches of evergreen hill forest, but there is no information on the specific habitat where this species was collected. Based on the habitat type known from the Vietnamese localities, it is presumed to occur in evergreen forest in Lao PDR (B. Stuart pers. comm. August 2011).
177440		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. There are no recent records from either Vietnam or Laos (B. Stuart and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), and recent surveys at historical localities have failed to rediscover this species (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
177440		threats	eng	Some deforestation is occurring in this region, due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agriculture. It is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range, but the distribution of this species is very incompletely known, and in Viet Nam it is only known from protected areas, so the extent to which this snake is exposed to threats is unclear. Deforestation is extensive throughout Xieng Khouang.
177441		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, although there are protected areas within its range in Thailand. Further research on its population trends, distribution and ecology is needed.
177441		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from northern Thailand, northern Viet Nam, Myanmar and the Chinese province Yunnan (Zhou and Adler 1993, Cox 1991). Recent surveys have been unable to confirm its occurrence in Myanmar, although the type locality, Toungyi, is in this country and the area has been surveyed recently (G. Zug pers. comm. 2009, G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Muong Te in Lai Chan Province, Sa Pa in Lao Cai Province, Tu Ly in Hoa Binh Province, and Ky Son in Nghe An Province (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
177441		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet montane forest between 200 and 1,000 m asl. It is presumably oviparous and nocturnal, and probably feeds on worms, in common with other species of <em>Plagiopholis</em>.
177441		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is rare species, and difficult to find.
177441		threats	eng	Forests in Thailand have experienced deforestation due to logging, both legal and illegal, and agricultural expansion. Between 1976 and 1989, forest cover declined by 28% (Cropper <em>et al.</em> 1999) in Thailand. Likewise, in Myanmar, the forests are under pressure and declined by 3% annually during the 1990s (Leimgruber 2005). The building of roads in this region may also contribute to the fragmentation of this species' habitat. However, it is not known whether this species is being impacted as it is naturally rare and difficult to collect.
177442		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are protected areas within its range. No further conservation measures are needed.
177442		distribution	eng	This species ranges from southeastern Gansu throughout southern China, including Hunan province. It is also found in Taiwan and northern Viet Nam (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000, Huang <em>et al</em>. 1999, Zhao and Adler 1993). In Viet Nam, records exist for Muong Te (Lai Chau Province), Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province), Tu Ly (Hoa Binh Province) and Ky Son (Nghe An Province) (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
177442		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in areas of montane and bamboo forest, where it inhabits caves (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000). It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,300 m asl.
177442		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
177442		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation, however, as this species has a wide range this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
177443		conservation	eng	While there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, it inhabits protected areas within its range. Further research into the population and harvest levels of this species may be needed.
177443		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Egypt southwards along the Nile Valley to Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, northwestern Somalia and central Kenya. It is believed to have additional and apparently very isolated populations in Cameroon and Nigeria. This species is found between sea level and 2,400 m above sea level.
177443		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in lowland dry savanna, but also occurs in both moist savanna and the lower levels of montane grassland. Animals have also been recorded from traditionally cultivated land, rural gardens and sometimes old buildings. The females are known to lay eggs.
177443		population	eng	In Egypt, this species was formerly fairly common, however, it now appears to be declining.
177443		threats	eng	This species is persecuted in some areas and it is collected for the pet trade in Egypt. It may also suffer from agricultural rodenticide poisoning in areas including Egypt. However, there is no indication that these are major threats throughout its range.
177444		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species, and its habitat, should be carried out to determine if localized threats become more widespread in the future.
177444		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Nicaragua south through Panama and into Colombia and Ecuador, though it appears to be absent from southwestern Costa Rica and southwestern Panama (Savage 2002). It occurs between sea level and 1,460 m above sea level.
177444		habitat	eng	This species is found on the forest floor of primary and secondary lowland and montane moist and wet forest. This species is often found within swampy habitat (Guyer and Donnelly 2005, Savage 2002).
177444		population	eng	Savage (2002) reports that this snake is uncommon; however, F. Castro (pers. comm.) states that this species is common in some localities.
177444		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities. The remaining habitat is often fragmented due to road building. However, significant areas of suitable habitat remain and therefore these cannot be considered as major threats at present.
177445		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in parts its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic uncertainty regarding this species.
177445		distribution	eng	There is some disagreement regarding the taxonomy and corresponding ranges of this species. Branch (1998) treats the southern race of this species as a separate species, <em>P. stuhlmanni</em>. He asserts that this species is restricted to Central Africa and Angola, while <em>P. stuhlmanni</em> occurs from northern Zululand to Mpumalanga, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, and elsewhere throughout East Africa and into southern Somalia. Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) consider <em>P. stuhlmanni</em> as a valid seperate species but state that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ambigua </span>is also found in the southern African countries of South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>Despite this uncertainty over the taxonomy and corresponding species range, it is clear that the distribution is larger than the 20,000 km²<sup></sup> threshold that is required for a species to be entered into a threatened category under criterion B.
177445		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist woodland and savanna-forest mosaic and is occasionally found in coastal dunes. It is found under stones and logs, in deserted termite mounds and decaying vegetable matter (Marais 1992). The habits of this species are poorly known, but they are probably similar to those of other members of the genus, who are generally nocturnal, fossorial and secretive. This species shows certain morphological traits (such as tail reduction) that suggest a burrowing lifestyle (Pitman 1974).
177445		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177445		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across all of its range.
177446		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.
177446		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in southern Angola, extending south into northern Namibia and Botswana, and east into western Zambia and northwestern Zimbabwe (D. Broadley pers. comm. 2010).
177446		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savanna. In northern Botswana, it has been found in deciduous dry tree savanna (Marais 1992).
177446		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177446		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177447		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177447		distribution	eng	This species is found from coastal northern KwaZulu-Natal northwards into Mozambique (Marais 1992). Broadley (1992) recorded this species from Bazaruto Archipelago off the Mozambique coast.
177447		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal burrower, inhabiting coastal dune forest, coastal forest, woodland or grassland areas (Marais 1992). It is known to feed on hard-shelled gecko (<em>Lygodactylus</em> and <em>Hemidactylus</em>) eggs (Broadley 1992).
177447		population	eng	This species is rarely found, except in spring when the males come to the surface to search for females (Branch 1998). Its secretive life history is therefore likely to make range and population surveys extremely difficult.
177447		threats	eng	Marais (1992) states that this snake may be threatened by the extensive use of off-road vehicles and by large-scale sand mining in areas such as St. Lucia. However, this species does not have a restricted distribution and therefore this localized disturbance cannot be considered a major threat.
177448		conservation	eng	Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) declare this species to be "critically endangered". Doggart <em>et al.</em> (2004) single this species out as being one of two species in the Ulugurus under the greatest threat. Therefore research and monitoring of population numbers and threats should be carried out, as well as measures to protect and manage its habitat.
177448		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tanzania and, more specifically, to a small area of moist tropical forest in the Uluguru Mountains (Spawls<em>et al.</em> 2002). It is known only from the type locality (Nyange) and its vicinity (another village, called Vituri). Both villages are located in the Kitundu Hills. In 2007, this species was rediscovered in the vicinity of one of the original type localities (M. Menegon pers. comm. 2010). This species has been found between 700 and 1,000 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 372 km².
177448		habitat	eng	Doggart <em>et al.</em> (2004) consider this species to be dependent on primary forest from low to mid altitudes. However, the two known collection specimen <em></em>are from cultivation areas near two villages at the edge of rainforest (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Almost nothing is known of the habits of this species, though it is presumed to be similar to other members of its genus, i.e. nocturnal and burrowing, and spending most of its time in holes or buried in soft soil or sand (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
177448		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177448		threats	eng	The Eastern Arc forests, and the Ulugurus within that, are areas under intense threat from habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation (e.g., see Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2000). Furthermore, forest loss in the Ulugurus has been, and still is, at its most severe in the Kitundu Hills, which is exactly where this particular species was last recorded (Burgess and Doggart 2004). This forest loss has been partly caused by a recent loss of authority by the traditional chief, but also because of a more recent expansion of plantations. The Kitundu Hills are also under threat from agricultural expansion and logging operations. <br/><br/>More specific information is also available concerning the forest patches where this species was recorded. Apparently no forest now exists at one of the original sites and it is not known to have been collected at either site since (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Doggart <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, it is only known from unreserved land, making future threats to its survival highly likely. In fact, Doggart <em>et al.</em> (2004) report a current threat, stating that its known range is "rapidly being turned into banana plantation". That it is a lower altitude species is not in its favour, since these areas are the most likely to be converted to agricultural and plantation land and the least likely to be protected (Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Burgess and Doggart's (2004) suggestion that it may yet be found in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve may not be cause for much optimism, since this forest reserve is also under threat from fuel and pole gathering, pit-sawing and farmland encroachment.
177449		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
177449		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in southern Angola and northern Namibia, and ranges east through Botswana to southern Zambia, Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, the northeastern provinces of South Africa and eastern Swaziland (Broadley 2002). This species is found between 100 and 1,500 m above sea level.
177449		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open dry savanna, thornveld and bushveld (Branch 1998), venturing into shrubs and low bushes in search of prey or a basking spot. It is frequently found near water. Broadley (2002) reports that this species is common on rock outcrops.
177449		population	eng	B. Maritz (pers. comm.) reports that this species is widespread and generally common throughout its range.
177449		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177454		conservation	eng	Research required into the species life history, threats and distribution.
177454		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erhaia banepaensis </span>is currently reported from three localities of Central Nepal in Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and Kavre districts from 1,400 to 2,085 m asl. The known localities are Cha Khola spring, Nagarkot; Malpi forest stream, Panauti and Sugure Khola, Godawari (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). All the known localities are within the Kathmandu valley.
177454		habitat	eng	It is found in hill streams and springs of the mid-hills of Central Nepal in undisturbed forest streams of xeno to oligosaprobic conditions (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
177454		population	eng	Population status and trends not known.
177454		threats	eng	The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to sedimentation, and the loss of habitat caused by urbanisation within the Kathmandu valley.
177455		conservation	eng	Research is urgently required into the species distribution, ecology, and threats.
177455		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erhaia chandeshwariensis</span> is known only from type locality Chandeswari Khola at Banepa, Kavre district, Central Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The known location is close to Kathmandu.
177455		habitat	eng	It is found in midhill streams of undisturbed condition (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
177455		population	eng	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>
177455		threats	eng	<p>The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to  sedimentation within the hill stream habitat, and the loss of habitat caused by urbanisation close to the  Kathmandu valley.</p>
177456		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
177456		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">, within the Kathamndu valley.Erhaia sugurensis</span> is known only from the type locality in upper reaches of Sugure Khola forest stream, Godawari, Lalitpur district Central Nepal (Nesemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).
177456		habitat	eng	It is found in forest streams together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erhaira banepaensis, Tricula montana, Pisidium atkinsonianum, Perionyx excavatus, Perionyx fluviatilis, Myxobdella annandalei, M. nepalica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dugesia</span> sp. (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.</span> 2007).
177456		population	eng	<p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>
177456		threats	eng	<p>The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to   sedimentation within the hill stream habitat, and the loss of habitat  caused by urbanisation close to the  Kathmandu valley.</p>
177460		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Further information on the species habitat, ecology, distribution, and threats is required.<br/></p>
177460		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens unioides</span> is reported from Mamu Bhanja Pokhra at Hajipur, Bihar and Hugli River, West Bengal, India. Its presence in intermediate areas is not known and further survey is required.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
177460		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers.
177460		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information is available on the population of this species.</p>
177460		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>  <p></p>
177461		conservation	eng	Further information on species population, habitat, ecology, and threats and threats are to be understood.
177461		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Musculium goshaitanensis</span> is a recently discovered species from Punyamata, Nepal (Nesemann and Sharma 2005).
177461		habitat	eng	This species is found in temporary water bodies.
177461		population	eng	No information on the population of this species is available.
177461		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
177463		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
177463		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar. While previously only known from the offshore island of Nosy Be, specimens have now been collected elsewhere in northern Madagascar (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is found between 60 and 140 m above sea level.
177463		habitat	eng	This semi-arboreal species is reported from rainforest, dry forest and anthropogenically disturbed habitats (D'Cruze 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is active at night in trees (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177463		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177463		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion is occurring within the range of this species, however, due to its tolerance of anthropogenically disturbed habitats this cannot be considered a major threat.
177470		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further research is needed regarding the population trends, life history and threats impacting this species. Continued monitoring of population trends would also be recommended in order to monitor the long-term status of the species.
177470		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Inle Lake and in the canal at Yawnghwe in Myanmar (Annandale 1918).
177470		habitat	eng	It inhabits the outer edge of the marginal zone (like the intermediate zone of the lake) and avoids water fouled with decaying organic matter. It conceals itself amongst dense vegetation. There were also some individuals found in a pool, in the swamp and in a canal.
177470		population	eng	No information is available on the population of this species.
177470		threats	eng	<p>Species specific threats are not known. &#160;However, Inle Lake is threatened from several factors contributing to loss of water cover area and degradation in habitat due to floating lake cultivation, tourism, pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage disposal, gold and silver smithing, sedimentation due to aqua culture, etc. are major factors&#160;(Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007). &#160;The effects of these habitat related threats is inferred to have a major impact on the species. &#160;The lake has reduced from 69.1 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;to 46.7 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;in the last 75 years (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).</p>
177471		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation of this species. Further research is required regarding the taxonomy, population trends, life history and threats impacting this species. Continued monitoring would also be recommended in order to survey the long-term status and viability of populations.
177471		distribution	eng	This species is reported only from Inle Lake, Myanmar (Annandale 1918).
177471		habitat	eng	It lives in the central region of the lake and crawls slowly on the bottom, on weeds and&#160; posts, but is very sluggish and remains for days without moving. It feeds on minute algae of a very soft consistency.
177471		population	eng	Population details are not known.
177471		threats	eng	<p>Species specific threats are not known. &#160;However, Inle Lake is threatened from several factors contributing to loss of water cover area and degradation in habitat due to floating lake cultivation, tourism, pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage disposal, gold and silver smithing, sedimentation due to aqua culture, etc. are major factors&#160;(Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007). &#160;The effects of these habitat related threats is inferred to have a major impact on the species. &#160;The lake has reduced from 69.1 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;to 46.7 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;in the last 75 years (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).</p>
177473		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information is available on the conservation of this species. Further research is required regarding the taxonomy, population trends, life history and threats impacting this species. Continued monitoring would also be recommended in order to survey the long-term status and viability of populations.<br/></p>
177473		distribution	eng	This species is known from Salween region of Myanmar and from the Inle Lake. Single record found from 'Upper Burma' (Shan States (22oN, 98oE; University of Florida Malacology database) (Annandale 1918).
177473		habitat	eng	This species is reported to occur in rivers. It lives in the marginal zone towards the shore where the formation of floating islands and of peat is proceeding with the greatest vigour. It feeds on algae (Rivulariaceae) which contains a considerable proportion of calcareous matter.
177473		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;No population information is available for this species.</p>
177473		threats	eng	<p>Species specific threats are not known. &#160;However, Inle Lake is threatened from several factors contributing to loss of water cover area and degradation in habitat due to floating lake cultivation, tourism, pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage disposal, gold and silver smithing, sedimentation due to aqua culture, etc. are major factors&#160;(Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007). &#160;The effects of these habitat related threats is inferred to have a major impact on the species. &#160;The lake has reduced from 69.1 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;to 46.7 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;in the last 75 years (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).</p>
177476		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It is known to occur in Arusha National Park and Amani Nature Reserve in Tanzania (Tropical Biology Association 2006, Razetti and Msuya 2002). No further conservation measures are required for this species.
177476		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Somalia (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002) through East Africa and south to northern South Africa and northern Namibia (Branch 1998).
177476		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savanna, coastal thicket and forest fringe (Branch 1998). It prefers low shrubs, bushes and dead trees upon which to rest (Marais 1992). The common name 'bird snake' is probably an inaccurate description of its feeding habits, as it appears to hunt both at ground level and in trees, and is therefore not restricted to only aboreal foraging (Shine <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is diurnal and oviparous, with clutch sizes of 4-13 eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
177476		population	eng	Marais (1992) reports that, although this snake is rarely seen, it is very common in some areas. It is also one of the snakes commonly seen in the Amani Nature Reserve (Tropical Biology Association 2006).
177476		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range.
177478		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the habitat preferences and possible threats to this species.
177478		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Halmahera, Ceram, Ambon, Salawati, and in western New Guinea, east to Argoeni Bay, and including Noemfor and Biak Islands. This species is found up to a maximum altitude of 500 m above sea level.
177478		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, it is known that species of this genus are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns (O'Shea 1996). They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em>.
177478		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177478		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats.
177481		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, including the establishment of protected areas, are required to reduce the level of habitat degradation and destruction occurring within the species range. Monitoring of the population should also take place.
177481		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Cape of South Africa, found in Algoa Basin, including St Croix Island. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,388 km<em>²</em>.
177481		habitat	eng	This species is found within mesic thicket.
177481		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177481		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and destruction because of over-grazing and tourism development. The Algoa Basin is also an important area for the oil and gas industry; exploration and mining of the area has occurred in the past and is likely to continue, causing further disturbance to the species (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2005).
177482		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution is likely to coincide with protected areas.
177482		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from northeastern Zimbabwe into western central Mozambique and southern Malawi.
177482		habitat	eng	This species is gregarious and found on flat outcrops, particularly along river courses in mesic savanna.
177482		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177482		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177483		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the range and taxonomy of the population in northern Australia is required.
177483		distribution	eng	This species is found on mainland Papua New Guinea and Papua (Irian Jaya) in Indonesia (Hoser 2002). This species also occurs in northern Australia, however, its range and taxonomic status has not yet been determined in this region (Allison 2006).
177483		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland grassland and savanna. This ground dwelling snake is commonly found in areas with an abundance of leaf litter, grass trash or similar ground cover.
177483		population	eng	This species is common in areas with suitable habitat (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2007).
177483		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threat is impacting this species. Feral cats and foxes are known to prey on reptiles, including <em>Acanthophis</em>, however, along with road kills and urbanization, these can not be regarded as major threats (Hoser 2002).
177484		conservation	eng	Protected areas coincide with this species' distribution. Further research into the ecology, habitat status and distribution of this species is needed with regard to recent taxonomic revisions.
177484		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Queensland and just into its surrounding states. It is also distributed on the islands off the mid-east coast of Queensland. &#160;However since the initial survey, this species has been involved in taxonomic revision having previously been conflated with several other species now known to be distinct; therefore revision of this species distribution is likely.
177484		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforests. It may also inhabit other environments on offshore islands.
177484		population	eng	This species is abundant on islands off the mid-east coast of Queensland.
177484		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
177485		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Effective area and site management is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring both in and outside of the protected areas.&#160;In the South Nguru area the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group are working with stakeholders to improve conservation planning in the region, including forest management (Menegon&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2008).&#160;Further research and monitoring of its population is needed due to its restricted range.
177485		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeast Tanzania. It is found in the Usambara, Uluguru, and North Pare Mountains. Recent surveys also found it in the South Nguru mountains (Menegon et al. 2008), extending its known distribution.&#160;Populations are isolated and the distribution is said to be severely fragmented, with suitable montane and submontane forest habitat separated by large areas of savannah (M. Menegon pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,500 km². This species is found between an altitude of 300 and 1,900 m above sea level.
177485		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist evergreen forest.
177485		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177485		threats	eng	This species is found in a habitat that is severely threatened by agricultural expansion and logging.&#160;In the south Nguru mountains people are reliant on agriculture and there are numerous plantations at lower altitudes (Menegon&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008), which may encroach further on the forest habitat.
177486		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out to establish the population of this species to determine if it is extinct. Urgent conservation measures, including the option of captive breeding, are required if it is found that this species is still present on Roatan Island.
177486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Roatan Island in the Islas de Bahia of Honduras. The size of Roatan Island is 91.3 km²<sup></sup>.
177486		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical moist forests.
177486		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177486		threats	eng	The natural habitat of Roatan Island has been severely degraded in the past due to urban and agricultural expansion. The recent increase in tourist activity on the island has contributed to further habitat loss. Roze (1996) has stated that this species is in danger of extinction, and may even already be extinct. However, this is not the case as a fatal bite  occurred in 2008 (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2010).
177487		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Its large geographic distribution is coincident with a number of protected areas. As part of the <em>Naja naja</em> complex (with <em>N. naja</em>, <em>N. atra</em> and <em>N. siamensis</em>), this species is protected in Vietnam (where members of the complex are listed as nationally Endangered - Dang <em>et al.</em> 2007) by government decree, limiting commercial exploitation. The China Species Red List lists this snake as nationally Vulnerable (Wang and Xie 2009). Due to its extensive use more research on how harvesting is impacting the population in major areas of its range is recommended.
177487		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northeastern India, Bangladesh and Bhutan across southern China, southward to northern Peninsular Malaysia (Wüster 1996). It is absent from the central dry zone of Myanmar. Its presence in northern Lao PDR has not been confirmed although it has been recorded from the southern part of the country. It is absent from North Viet Nam, where records attributed to this species likely reflect confusion with <em>N. atra</em> or <em>N. siamensis</em>.
177487		habitat	eng	This species can adapt to a range of habitats, including both natural and anthropogenically-modified environments. It prefers habitats associated with water, such as paddy fields, swamps, and mangroves, but can also be found in grasslands, shrublands, and forests. It also occurs in agricultural land and human settlements, including cities. It occurs up to 1,000 m elevation.
177487		population	eng	This species is common in most of its range. G. Zug (pers. comm.) states that it is widespread and common in Myanmar. It is also fairly common in Indochina. It is considered to have declined by over 30% over the preceding ten years in China as a result of overharvesting (Wang and Xie 2009), although China forms a small part of its range. It is explicitly included within the concept of <em>Naja naja</em> that the Viet Nam Red Data Book estimates has suffered a 50% population decline over the same period (Dang <em>et al.</em> 2007), but rates of decline specifically attributable to this species in Viet Nam are unknown. It is unclear whether this species is undergoing significant declines elsewhere within its range.
177487		threats	eng	The species is probably threatened in China, Myanmar and much of Indochina, as a result of heavy exploitation for use in traditional medicine, including snake wine in Viet Nam, and for skins and food. CITES data indicates, however, that it is unclear whether these pressures are sufficient to threaten the survival of subpopulations.
177488		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards from high levels of harvesting. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is needed, as is population monitoring. It is a protected species in Vietnam, where it is listed as Endangered in the national Red Data Book (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
177488		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide distribution throughout mainland southeast Asia, with an extent of occurrence of over 800,000 km<sup>2</sup> that encompasses Cambodia, southern Laos, central and all of southern Vietnam, northern Thailand and eastern Myanmar.
177488		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and upland forest and cultivated areas, including rice paddies. It is found in deciduous, disturbed and open forest, and is absent from closed-canopy evergreen forest (B. Stuart and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011). Generation length in this species is uncertain, but captive specimens have been reported to exhibit generation lengths of 4-5 years. Generation length in the wild is probably longer, and is here estimated at 5-6 years.
177488		population	eng	There is no detailed population information available for this species, but snake hunters in the region of U Minh Thuong National Park, Viet Nam, report that the species has become much rarer (Stuart 2004). This is the case throughout all of Vietnam (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011), with the species estimated to have declined by more than 50% over 10 years (Dang et al 2007). Similar declines are apparent throughout Indochina (T. Neang and B. Stuart pers. comm. 2011), although no formal estimates of rates of decline exist. The status of subpopulations in Thailand is unknown (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. 2011).
177488		threats	eng	Like other cobras, this species is heavily harvested in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Lao PDR where it is used for traditional Chinese medicine (B. Stuart pers. comm. 2011). This is the primary cause of observed population declines in this species, which is highly tolerant of habitat modification. This species is sometimes harvested for the skin trade, but this is only a minor threat as the skin quality is not high.
177489		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177489		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in central and north central parts of Australia.
177489		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a variety of habitats from desert to shrubland.
177489		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177489		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177490		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is suggested to investigate the effects that tourism development may have on the species.
177490		distribution	eng	This lowland species is distributed on the west coast of Australia from North West Cape southwards to Cervantes. It can also be found on many offshore islands.
177490		habitat	eng	This species inhabits closed or open heaths near the coast.
177490		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177490		threats	eng	The area in which this species occurs is under increased threat from development for tourism.
177491		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended. The identification and establishment of protected areas would benefit this and other species restricted to the Ryukyu Islands.
177491		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found on the Amami and Okinawa groups of the central Ryukyu Islands. The total land area of the Ryukyu Islands is 3,090 km², but the area in which this species<em></em> is distributed is estimated to be 2,631 km².
177491		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist forests and on limestone outcrops.
177491		population	eng	This species is found in small isolated populations.
177491		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring on Ryukyu Islands, leading to the fragmentation of forests. It is likely that this is causing declines in the habitat quality and therefore declines in the population numbers of this species.
177492		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. As little information is currently available, further research is recommended on the ecology of this species.
177492		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the southern half of Australia. It can be found in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.
177492		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats (S. Keogh pers. comm.)
177492		population	eng	This is one of the most common snakes in eastern Australia (S. Keogh pers. comm.).
177492		threats	eng	This species may suffer from habitat loss and degradation caused by urbanization; however, this is a localized threat only.
177494		conservation	eng	Research is required to understand the species' range, habitat requirements and potential threats.
177494		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the Shan States in Myanmar (near Taungoo and Inlé Lake), Thailand (Provinces of Chiang Mai, Mae Hong Son, Tak, Lamphun, Lampang, Chiang Rai and Sukhothai in northern Thailand (Brandt 1974, Ngern-klun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), and the Vientiane region in Lao PDR (Giboda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991). It was reported from the Mekong without an exact locality, but these specimens may have been washed downstream from the northern provinces.<br/><br/>Subba Rao (1989) commented that the species is distributed widely in Myanmar, Lao PDR, and Thailand.<span class="hl"><span class="hl"><span class="hl"><span class="hl"><br/></span></span>
177494		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers, lakes and ponds.
177494		population	eng	No information is available for this species.
177494		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known; research is required into the impact of known threats in the region (pollution from agriculture and industry, and habitat loss as a result of wetland conversion).
177495		conservation	eng	<p>More research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>
177495		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobioides turrita</span> is reported from Kyoukpong (= Kyaukpon,     Sagaing Division?), Irrawaddy River in Myanmar (Preston 1915).</p>
177495		habitat	eng	<p>This is species occurs in stagnant rivers.</p>
177495		population	eng	The population status of this species is not known.
177495		threats	eng	<p>No information is available on the threats to this species.</p>
177496		conservation	eng	<p>The condition of Inlé Lake needs research and protection. Expert survey is required to determine the current distribution of the species.<br/></p>
177496		distribution	eng	<p>This species is recorded only from the type locality 'Fort Stedman' (Maing Thauk), Inlé Lake, Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). The type specimens were collected from the edge of the lake and from a marsh in its environs.<br/></p>
177496		habitat	eng	<p>This is species has only been recorded from the edge of Inlé Lake, and from a small pool in the marsh at  the northern end of the lake.</p>
177496		population	eng	Population information is not known.
177496		threats	eng	<p>Species specific threats are not known. However, Inlé Lake is  threatened from several factors contributing to loss of water cover area  and degradation in habitat due to floating lake cultivation, tourism,  pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage disposal, gold and silver processing, sedimentation due to aquaculture, etc., which are major  factors&#160;(Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007). The effects of these habitat  related threats is inferred to have a major impact on the species. The  lake has reduced from 69.1 km<sup>2</sup> to 46.7 km<sup>2</sup> in the  last 75 years (Sidle&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).</p>
177498		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the habitat status of this species should be carried out to determine if localized threats become more widespread in the future.
177498		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Honduras through to Panama and into Colombia, Ecuador and northwestern Venezuela (Savage 2002). In Honduras it is known from only one specimen (McCranie<em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;2006, Wilson and Myers 1985). It occurs from sea level to 550 m above sea level.
177498		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in undisturbed lowland moist and wet forests of the Atlantic versant, apparently in the tree canopy (Savage 2002). Solorzano (2005) reports finding several individuals of this species crawling on the forest floor at night.
177498		population	eng	This species is reported as rare (Savage 2002, Taylor 1951), although this may be a result of sampling time and its arboreal habitat.
177498		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, while remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. However, as this species has a large distribution and significant areas of habitat remain, these should not be considered major threats at present.
177499		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
177499		distribution	eng	This species has a large neotropical distribution, from Costa Rica southward, spanning the north half of South America as far south as Bolivia and eastern Brazil (Espírito Santo State). It is also known from Trinidad. It occurs from sea level to 1,200 m above sea level (Barrio-Amorós <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
177499		habitat	eng	This is a primarily nocturnal colubrid that inhabits undisturbed lowland and premontane moist forest (e.g. Barrio-Amorós 2010). It is mainly arboreal and occassionally terrestrial. In Bolivia, it is an exclusively Amazonian species (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010). One specimen was found around 100 m deep inside a cave (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010).
177499		population	eng	This species is common in the forests of the Manaus region (Martins and Oliveira 1998) and in some areas south of the Orinoco river, Venezuela (Barrio-Amorós and Duellman 2009). However, it does not seem to be common in other parts of western Amazonia (Duellman 1978, Dixon and Soini 1986), Bolivia (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010) and Central America (Savage 2002).
177499		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by deforestation due to the agricultural industry, but this is not considered a major threat at this time.
177500		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
177500		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Thailand to the Philippines and Sulawesi, Indonesia (Taylor 1965, Stuebing and Inger 1999). A record from Viet Nam is probably a misidentification and needs to be confirmed (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,400 m asl.<br/><br/>Three subspecies are represented in the Philippines:&#160; <em>M. i. bilineata</em> recorded from Palawan, Busuanga and Calauit; <em>M. i. suluensi</em>s, present in the Sulu Archipelago (including Jolo Island); and <em>M. i. philippina</em>, recorded from Mindanao (including the localities of Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Hilong-Hilong, Mount Malindang, Mount Campilili, Lake Lanao, and the Zamboanga Peninsula) and Samar. The snake may also be present on the islands of Bohol (in the Sierra Bullones) and Camiguin.
177500		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, as well as from town gardens and agricultural fields (R. Inger pers. comm.). On Palawan and Calauit in the Philippines, it has been found in rural gardens and inside forest often close to watercourses. The species has been observed hunting frogs during daytime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008) and blind snakes (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011).
177500		population	eng	This species is fairly common, but rarely seen (Lim and Lim 1992). Its secretive habits may account for the lack of sightings (R. Inger pers. comm.). There is little information available on the abundance of this species in the Philippines. It is rare in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011).
177500		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by forest loss driven by agricultural land conversion, however as this widespread snake has been recorded from agricultural land, this is not considered a major threat and any impacts are likely to be localized.
177501		conservation	eng	This species has legislative protection for which additional protective measures have been imposed in Australian Capital Territory (Grigg <em>et al</em>. 1985). Research into the threats and habitat status of this species and population monitoring are recommended.
177501		distribution	eng	This species has a large distribution from northeastern Queensland, through the Torres Strait Islands, into Papua New Guinea and its surrounding islands, and to the eastern parts of the Indonesian archipelago. It may even be found in southern Philippine islands. This species has been collected up to an elevation of 1,600 m above sea level.
177501		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a variety of habitats both wet and dry, from scrub to closed forest. It also inhabits disturbed environments.
177501		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177501		threats	eng	This species is utilized in the pet trade, but this is not considered as a major threat at this time (M. Auyila pers. comm. 2010).
177502		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, one specimen was found within Ankarana Reserve and the specimens found in Montagne des Francais are within a region that is scheduled to become a protected zone soon (M. Vences pers. comm.). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
177502		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens collected in northern Madagascar, including the holotype found in Antsiranana province, specimens collected at the Montagne des Francais massifs (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007) and a specimen collected at Ankarana Reserve (M. Vences pers. comm.). This species occurs between 120 and 330 m above sea level. The area in which this species is known to be distributed is approximately 345 km²<sup></sup>.
177502		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal, nocturnal and is found in karstic dry forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177502		population	eng	Surveys of the massif Montagne des Francais found that this species was rare at that location (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007).
177502		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that has been cleared or degraded by human activities such as the expansion of agriculture, including rice and maze production, and the clearing of land for grazing and logging (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, all specimens were found in areas which are already protected or scheduled to become protected, so that the threats are unlikely to affect the species in these areas in the future.
177503		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within this snake's range, including several on Palawan in which this species has been recorded. Further research into harvest levels is needed to ensure this species is not undergoing significant declines at local scales. In the Philippines, this species is considered to be Near Threatened. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes to reduce persecution of this species by local people.
177503		distribution	eng	This species ranges from central Viet Nam through Thailand and Myanmar, southward through Indonesia to Borneo and Palawan in the Philippines (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996, Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Nguyen et al. 2009). Although wide-ranging, it occurs as localized subpopulations within this area. Records from Myanmar have not been confirmed in recent surveys. This species is possibly present in Singapore (Grandison 1978).
177503		habitat	eng	This diurnal snake inhabits lowland and hilly moist forests, open dry forests, montane forests, scrublands, plantations, forest edges, cultivated areas, and rice paddies (David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999; A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2009). It can also be found around human habitations and close to water. It has been recorded up to 1,500 m above sea level, the highest record being from Palawan (David and Vogel 1996). This snake is mainly ground-dwelling, although it may also climb or swim (David and Vogel 1996). It is oviparous, laying clutches of 10 eggs (Cox<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1998).
177503		population	eng	This species is common in Sumatra (David and Vogel 1996), but rare in Borneo (Stuebing and Inger 1999). Generally it is not a common species. There is only one record from Cambodia (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and only a few records from Palawan (A. Diesmos&#160; pers. comm. 2009). While it isn't clear that population declines are widespread, this species is heavily-persecuted in the Philippines and population declines over the past ten years may be close to 30%.<span style=""></span>
177503		threats	eng	This species is tolerant of habitat modification, but it seems to be localized and uncommon in most of its range. It is one of the largest snakes in the region (other than pythons and the king cobra), and as such is eaten and exploited by local people. While this may result in local population declines, it is not clear that this species is at serious risk from current levels of exploitation. Large snakes are commonly persecuted by humans, and this is the major threat to this snake in the Philippines.
177504		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Gaoligong Mountain National Nature Reserve which is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve of 4,055 km² (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is believed to occur in many additional protected areas throughout its wide range. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and population status is needed.<br/><p><br/></p>
177504		distribution	eng	This species is mainly found in the southern states of China (Gansu, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Hubei, Shaanxi, Xizang, Henan, and Yunnan), but also found in northern Viet Nam, where it has been reported from Cao Bang (Nguyen Binh), Lao Cai (Ngoi Tio, Sa Pa), Vinh Phuc (Tam Dao) (Nguyen et al., 2009), and northeastern Myanmar. However, recent surveys have not confirmed its current presence in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.). It is found at altitudes of 620 to 2,850 m (P. Guo pers. comm. 2010).
177504		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of montane forests. It is normally found on small roads, in grass clusters, and in rocks. It feeds mainly on earthworms and slugs (P. Guo pers. comm. 2010).
177504		population	eng	This species was thought to be rare in the Gaoligong Mountain National Nature Reserve (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 2003); however in western Sichuan, this species is very common and easy to be encountered (P. Guo pers. comm 2010). In general it is believed to be a common species.<br/><p></p>
177504		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this widespread species.
177505		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research into population trends, and threats to this species is recommended, as it may exhibit traits which make it more vulnerable to extinction.
177505		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Sao Paulo, Parana, Distrito Federal, Goias and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, and from Misiones, Argentina.
177505		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species whose diet is predominantly composed of bird's eggs. The dominant habitat within the range of this species is Cerrado savanna shrubland, however, the species may also be found in forested areas. This species is thought to have a low level of adaptability to altered habitats (Franca and Araujo 2006).
177505		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
177505		threats	eng	There has been a high level of habitat degradation within the range of this species as a result of deforestation and conversion of land to agriculture. The majority of this habitat loss/degradation occurred during the 1960s. In Distrito Federal, Brazil,  Franca and Araujo (2006) investigated ten factors of vulnerability to extinction in snake species. They found that this species had traits of a species that was more likely to be vulnerable to extinction, including highly specialized prey and a low level of adaptability to altered habitats.
177506		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.
177506		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Choco, Colombia.
177506		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species. The predominant habitat type in the Choco region of Colombia is lowland moist forest. Species of this genus are known to mainly inhabit sites with decomposing vegetation, in terrestrial habitats, including underground habitats (J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm.).
177506		population	eng	This species is only known from two specimens (J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm.).
177506		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species, however, as no detailed distribution or habitat information is known for this species it is not possible to assess to what extent this threat is having an impact on this species.
177507		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as Endangered in El Salvador by Greenbaum and Komar (2005) using the IUCN Categories and Criteria. This species has a large range and therefore probably occurs in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the distribution and population status of this species, as well as the  threats it may face, to inform future conservation assessments.
177507		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the pacific lowlands of Central America, from El Salvador, through Nicaragua, to north-western Costa Rica (Wilson 1999, Savage 2002). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as 58,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
177507		habitat	eng	This small snake can be found in the soil or under rotting logs and stones in lowland dry forest and adjacent moist forest habitats; it has also been found in pastureland (Van Devender and Cole 1977, Savage 2002).
177507		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. At certain times of the year, particularly during dry periods, the species is not readily seen, probably because it burrows deeper into the soil during these times (Van Devender and Cole 1977).
177507		threats	eng	In parts of its range, this species may be threatened by the impacts of expanding human populations and associated deforestation. For example, in the past, El Salvador has seen large-scale deforestation and increasing human population pressures; these was taken as the predominant threats on the country's herpetofauna (Greenbaum and Komar 2005). However, it is unknown whether this threat is ongoing into the present and how widespread it is throughout this species' range.
177508		conservation	eng	Approximately 10% of the forests on the Andaman Islands are protected. An assessment of Vulnerable was carried out by BCPP CAMP (1998). Further research into the threats, habitats and population numbers of this species is needed, as is population monitoring, in order to measure the rate of decline. The expansion and management of new protected areas is also suggested to provide a refuge for this species.
177508		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Andaman Islands, which have a total land area of approximately 6,400 km². In 1998, the species' range was assessed as <100 km² (CAMP 1997). It is found on South Andaman Island, and is very likely to occur on the Middle and North Andaman Islands. &#160;The type specimen was from Port Blair, and it has been observed in Mt. Harriet National Park (I. Das and M. Auliya pers. comms. 2010).
177508		habitat	eng	Key habitats of the species may either be semi-evergreen or evergreen tropical forests (M. Auliya pers. comm.).
177508		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177508		threats	eng	The forests of the Andaman Islands have been logged, a practice which is ongoing. Currently the islands are being developed for tourism. &#160;Additionally, the Andamans are mainly threatened by population growth mainly by immigrants and thus the impact on natural habitats and exploitation of wildlife has increased (Das 1999). It cannot be ruled out that the species is also purposely clubbed to death (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).
177509		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and threats of this species are required.
177509		distribution	eng	The only certain record for this species is from the Rio San Juan in Departmento del Choco, northern Colombia. A record exists from Medellin, Antioquia, on the western flanks of the Cordillera Central, bu this requires verification. The type locality for this species was originally given as 'Cuba', but probably came from Colombia.
177509		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found in humid forest habitats. This species principally feeds on small frogs, salamanders, and lizards.
177509		population	eng	This species is only known from four specimens.
177509		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. There are potential threats within the range of this species due to large-scale logging activities and agricultural expansion, however, it is not known what impact these threats are having on the species.
177510		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
177510		distribution	eng	This species is mainly known the from central Madagascar High Plateau, but it has also been found in one location in the far southeast of Madagascar. The areas in which this species is distributed are: Ananokely, Andohahela, Andrangoloaka, Ibity and Vohisokina (Glaw and Vences 2007). Individuals of this species have been found up to 2,200 m above sea level. The area in which this species is actually distributed is approximately 14,323 km². However, due to the disjunct distribution, the extent of occurrence is more than 20,000 km²
177510		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit primary montane forest (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2007). One specimen was found next to a small stream, in open grassland (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177510		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177510		threats	eng	This species has experienced significant habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of slash-and-burn farming and logging. The remaining native habitat is fragmented and only a few areas remain with substantial amounts of forest cover (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2007).
177511		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the impact of the threats on this species and its habitat is needed.
177511		distribution	eng	The species was described from West Java, Indonesia. It occurs on the Indonesian island of Java, but very few specimens have been collected, two of them from Cibodas, Mt. Gede Panggerango,&#160; at about 1,200 m. asl. (Iskandar pers obs.).
177511		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtropical wet montane or bamboo forests (David and Vogel 1996).
177511		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177511		threats	eng	Significant deforestation is occurring in this region, with logging, conversion of forests to plantation and the expansion of human settlements and agriculture are ongoing . However, the montane forest habitat of this species is not being impacted to the same extent as the lowland areas.
177512		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, this species is known to occur in several protected areas including Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, as well as two proposed protected areas (Rus Rus Biological Reserve and Río Warunta National Park).
177512		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from northeasten Honduras to northwestern Panama. On the Pacific versant it occurs from southwestern Costa Rica to southwestern Panama, with a disjunct population in west-central Panama. It may also occur marginally on the pre-montane Pacific slopes of the Cordilleras of northwestern Costa Rica. This species has been found at elevations between 70 and 1,600 m above sea level.
177512		habitat	eng	This species occurs in relatively undisturbed lowland and pre-montane moist and wet forests.
177512		population	eng	Savage (2002) reports that this small snake is "relatively uncommon".
177512		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by habitat loss in some parts of its range due to agricultural expansion, illegal logging, and urbanization.
177513		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177513		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northwest Amazon basin, in southern Venezuela, southern Colombia, north-west Brazil, eastern Ecuador, and north-east Peru. This species is found between 80 and 450 m above sea level.
177513		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical rainforest, semi-open secondary forest and forest openings.
177513		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177513		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177514		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177514		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern slopes of the Central Highlands region of Papua New Guinea. This species is found between 1,070 and 2,140 m above sea level.
177514		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest in highland river valleys. Species of this genus are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns. They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em> (O'Shea 1996).
177514		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177514		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177515		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Manuripi Heath National Park in Bolivia. No conservation measures are required for this species.
177515		distribution	eng	This species is found east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Ecuador (in the provinces of Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchípe), Brazil (in the province of Pará), Peru (in the region of Madre de Dios), and northern Bolivia (in the states of Beni, La Paz, Pando). This species is found between sea level and 1,200 m above sea level.
177515		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal and arboreal species found in humid tropical forests. It is known to feed primarily on small terrestrial and arboreal lizards and frogs (Martins 1998).
177515		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177515		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177516		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including La Amistad National Park which is a large trans-boundary World Heritage Site. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177516		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Costa Rican cordilleras and their extension into south-western Panama. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 27,321 km². This species is found between 1,200 and 1,825 m above sea level (Savage 2002).
177516		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits pre-montane wet and rainforest and lower montane rainforest (Savage 2002).
177516		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177516		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by habitat loss in certain parts of its range due to agricultural expansion, illegal logging, and urbanization.
177517		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
177517		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar between the south latitudes of 16 and 23°   (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994).
177517		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be a nocturnal, ground-dwelling species that inhabits primary lowland rainforest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), though a specimen has been reported from secondary shrub habitat (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177517		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177517		threats	eng	Large areas of forests in this region have been lost or degraded due to logging and land clearing for crops or livestock grazing. The 'tavy' system of cut-and-burn farming is widespread and despite some legal protection, farmers are increasingly encroaching into forested areas (Styger <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is estimated that at least two-thirds of the eastern forest have been lost due to these activities (Kull 2004).
177518		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the harvest levels of the species should be carried out.
177518		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across tropical Australia. It has also been reported from Papua New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago (O'Shea 1996).&#160;The species is known to occur in southern Papua (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>) as revealed by well established reptile pet traders on the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">island</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Java</st1:placename></st1:place> (M. Auliya, pers. comm. 2010).
177518		habitat	eng	This species is strongly associated with wetland habitats, including man-made reservoirs and dams (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010);&#160;however, according to Allison (2006), the species is known to occur in forest, savanna and freshwater habitats.
177518		population	eng	Torr (2000) described this species as abundant in the Northern Territory floodplains.
177518		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. This species is utilized in the pet trade, however, harvesting levels are not thought to be substantial enough to be considered a major threat.
177519		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
177519		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern China, including Hong Kong and Hainan and west to the province of Guizhou (Zhao and Adler 1993), through Viet Nam (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000) to the Annamite Mountains in central Lao PDR (Stuart 1999). In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Cao Bang (Nguyen Binh), Lao Cai (Van Ban), Vinh  Phuc (Tam Dao), Bac Giang (Luc Son), Ha Tinh (Rao An) (Vogel et al.,  2004;&#160; Nguyen et al., 2009) The elevation range of this species is 100 to 2,000 m above sea level (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998, M. Lau pers. comm. 2008).
177519		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and waterways in or near forests, including ditches bordering agricultural land (Bain and Truong 2004, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000, Stuart 1999). It is oviparous and is active both at day and at night.
177519		population	eng	It is a common species.
177519		threats	eng	Some deforestation is occurring in this region, due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agriculture. It is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range. However, due to its apparent tolerance, to a certain extent, of human-impacted environments and its large range, these should not be considered major threats at this time.
177520		conservation	eng	The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India (1997) assessed this species as Critically Endangered under criteria B1+2c, as habitat loss has apparently reduced its distribution in India to one location with an area of between 5,000-9,999 km². Further research is required into the taxonomic uncertainty that surrounds this species. Population monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
177520		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the Darjeeling and Sikkim region in India, and in Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan.
177520		habitat	eng	This semi-fossorial species is primarily found in deciduous forest with rocky slopes. It has also been found in disturbed environments such as crop fields and dung heaps.
177520		population	eng	In Darjeeling, this snake has been described as common (Sharma 2003).
177520		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.
177521		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177521		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely in Australia and is also found in New Guinea. It is distributed around the coast of northern Australia to the Clarence River in New South Wales. In New Guinea, it is found in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea and into southeastern Papua (Irian Jaya). This species is found at low elevations, between sea level and 20 m above sea level.
177521		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic species, and is almost always found in close proximity to streams, swamps and lagoons.
177521		population	eng	This is a common species.
177521		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177522		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. There are many protected areas within its distribution range, including the Serra do Mar State Park, with 325,000 ha.
177522		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul.
177522		habitat	eng	This species is nocturnal, semi-arboreal and is found in lowland tropical rainforests, including cocoa plantations in southern Bahia. It feeds on lizards and snakes.
177522		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177522		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It is found in a region that has experienced high rates of habitat loss due to urban and agricultural expansion. However, the climax of this habitat loss was during the 1960s and the remaining forest is relatively undisturbed and intact.
177523		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, although there are several protected areas within its distribution.
177523		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Brazil, from the south-eastern states of Minas Gerais through Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina. In the northeast this species is found in Rio Grande do Sul, Bahia, and Alagoas.
177523		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist lowland and montane forested habitats.&#160;It is a diurnal, terrestrial and cryptozoic species which feeds on frogs, lizards and amphisbaenians (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).<p><span lang="PT-BR" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:Arial;  color:black"></p>
177523		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177523		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.
177524		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further research should be carried out on the levels of off-take from the wild. Population monitoring of this species should be carried out to ensure that a higher threat category is triggered if required.
177524		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout mainland New Guinea, its offshore islands, and in eastern Indonesia (Aru Islands, Salawati, Missol, Cenderrawasih Bay Islands and Papua) (Iskandar and Colijn 2001).&#160;This species is also found in the northeast Cape York Peninsula of Australia. It is found between sea level and an altitude of 2,000 m above sea level.
177524		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to moist forests from lowland to mid-montane altitudes. This species has also been found in gardens in Papua New Guinea.
177524		population	eng	This species is common within its range (Kmitta 2001).
177524		threats	eng	This species is becoming increasingly popular in the pet trade. The natural colour morphs and need for fresh blood lines have resulted in the constant capture of wild specimens for the pet trade. This is one of the most common python species in the international pet trade, and has been utilized for decades (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010). Indigenous people in New Guinea also hunt this species for food.
177525		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution of this species should be carried out in order to define its range extent. Genetic studies should be planned to (i) analyse whether <em>P. nigra</em> is really distinct from <em>P. goldii</em>, and (ii) establish how these snakes can survive with such low population densities..
177525		distribution	eng	This West African species was previously thought to range from Sierra Leone eastward to Nigeria and possibly the Central African Republic. However, the occurrence of this species east of Benin has been questioned by Akani <em>et al.</em> (2005). Thus, the real distribution is much narrower than previously supposed.
177525		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist lowland forests.   No quantitative data are available on its ecology, but it is likely feeding on frogs, fish, birds and small mammals like its relative <em>P. goldii </em>(L. Luiselli pers. comm.).<em><br/></em>
177525		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.   However, the species is extremely closely related to <em>Pseudohaje goldii</em>, which may even be the same species. This latter species, and likely also <em>P. nigra</em>, is characterized by extremely low population densities at all sites (e.g., Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2005), but this is a typical biology aspect of tree cobras and does not imply that they are somewhat threatened.
177525		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion within its range, however, due to the large distribution of this species, this cannot be considered a major threat. In parts of its range, this species is occasionally eaten by local people.
177526		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
177526		distribution	eng	This species is comprised of many subspecies with quite discrete distributions. It has a large range within southern Africa, from Malawi in the north to South Africa in the south, and from Mozambique in the east, through Zimbabwe to Botswana in the west.
177526		habitat	eng	This species is known to utilize various rock types, including granite, sandstone, and quartzite, within mesic and arid savanna.
177526		population	eng	This species is known to be common and widely distributed (Branch 1998).
177526		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177527		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Given that the south and west coast of the Eyre Peninsula are areas of expansion in real estate development there may be the need to reassess this species in the future.Further research is needed into the threats, population numbers and habitat status of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.
177527		distribution	eng	This species has a wide but disjunct distribution across southern Australia from near Esperance, Western Australia to Big Desert area, Victoria.
177527		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-arid areas from coastal dunes to heath covered sand plains and mallee-spinifex associations. It is most abundant in semi-arid coastal and near-coastal scrub (M. Hutchinson pers. comm. 2010).
177527		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177527		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
177528		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
177528		distribution	eng	This species has three subspecies. <em>P. plicatilis plicatilis</em> is found in low areas of the Amazon and Paraguay river basins and their vicinity, in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando, and Santa Cruz), Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (in the states of Corrientes, Chaco, Formosa and Misiones). <em>P. plicatilis mimeticus</em> is known from Amazonian Bolivia. <em>P. plicatilis ecuadorensis</em> is found in the Napo region of Ecuador only, at elevations of below 300 m above sea level (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).
177528		habitat	eng	This species is an aquatic/semi-aquatic species which feeds on fish and amphibians and is found in humid tropical forest.
177528		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177528		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177529		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into its biology and ecology, abundance, threats and habitat status are suggested.
177529		distribution	eng	This species appears to be known from only two individuals collected from the Indonesian areas of Konorra, Halmahera and Leiden, Halmahera (Makbate and Underwood 1988).
177529		habitat	eng	While there is no information on the specific habitat preferences of this species, other species in this genus are often found near freshwater in rainforests, open or cultivated country and towns (O'Shea 1996). It is not known if this species shares these broad habitat requirements.
177529		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177529		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any threats impact upon this species.
177530		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, monitoring of this species should take place because of its restricted distribution.
177530		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Bougainville Island in the North Solomon Islands group, Papua New Guinea. This island has an area less than 10,000 km²<sup></sup>, but the species is distributed over the lowlands and into the mountains of east and south Bourgainville (F. Parker pers. comm). This species has an upper elevational limit of at least 650 m (Williams and Parker 1964).
177530		habitat	eng	This species is a small and very secretive semi-burrowing snake that inhabits wet forests.
177530		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177530		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat process is affecting this species or its habitat. There is still extensive primary and secondary forest throughout the area and mines that were causing river pollution have been out of production for over 20 years (F. Parker pers. comm.).
177531		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Expansion of the existing protected areas is required to prevent habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
177531		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the extreme southeast of Madagascar and at this time all specimens have been found in the Anosy and Vohimena Mountains (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994). The area in which this species is distributed is 9,893 km². This species is found between 75 and 800 m above sea level.
177531		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling, nocturnal species, that occurs in primary rainforest. During the day it has been found hidden under wood chips or inside rotten logs (Glaw and Vences 2007)
177531		population	eng	This snake has been described as rare (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1995).
177531		threats	eng	The area of coastal-montane rainforests in this area, including the Vohimena mountains, has declined significantly due to human activities including logging, expansion of slash-and-burn 'tavy' agriculture, the development of titanium mines and other pressures associated with rapid human population growth in the area (Emberton <em>et al.</em> 1999).
177532		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. The type specimen was recorded from Leuser National Park. Research into the population status, distribution, habitat preferences and threats is needed as information regarding this species is sparse.
177532		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bakongan (Aceh), Batak Mountains (North Sumatra),and Balinka and Bukit-Tinggi (West Sumatra) in Indonesia. All the localities recorded are between 800 and 1,200 m. asl. and all the records date from the beginning of the the 20th Century. While the extent of occurrence is unclear, the area between the three known localities is around 20,200 km<sup>2</sup>, and includes large areas of terrain at lower altitudes which is presumed to be unsuitable for this mountain snake. It is therefore provisionally considered to have an extent of occurrence below 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
177532		habitat	eng	The sub-district of Bakongan, where this species was collected, consists predominantly of lowland forest with a marshy area.  However, localities in the Batak Mountains and Balinka are at high elevations, and therefore montane.
177532		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177532		threats	eng	Despite official protection, the forests in Aceh Selatan remain at high risk of deforestation and are experiencing ongoing illegal exploitation, including large-scale clear-cutting, conversion of forest to palm oil plantations and increased human settlement, all of which are having "severe" ecological consequences (van Beukering <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177533		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, however, further research into its taxonomy, distribution and possible threats is needed.
177533		distribution	eng	This species was described from Alban Municipality in the Cundinamarca Department near Bogata, Colombia at an elevation of around 2,220 m. There are specimens from the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza in Ecuador, but these are questionable and may not be individuals from this taxon (J. Arredondo pers. comm.).
177533		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid forest habitats, where its major food is small lizards and frogs.
177533		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177533		threats	eng	It is not known what threats are impacting this species as its distribution remains largely unknown. However, the type locality for this species is near a large urban area and may therefore be suffering from habitat degradation.
177534		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Although local logging is technically prohibited, this is not well enforced and selective logging continues to occur (Bollen and Donati 2006). Effective management strategies are required to prevent illegal logging. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.
177534		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southeastern Madagascar in the Tolagnaro and Manakara regions (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 22,570 km²<sup></sup>.
177534		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forests. One specimen was found to be active at night, in rainforest on the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177534		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177534		threats	eng	Forests in southeastern Madagascar are being lost or degraded due to human activities, including logging, and the expansion of agricultural activities, such as slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming. Forests in the area of Tôlanaro are being cleared at an 'alarming rate', while out-of-control wildfires caused by tavy practices further threaten this species' forest habitat (Bollen and Donati 2006).
177535		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, abundance and distribution of, and threats to, this species<em></em> is needed. It needs to be clarified whether the Myanmar and Nicobar records are conspecific. It has been recorded from at least one protected area in Myanmar, Popa Mountain Park.
177535		distribution	eng	This species is known in Myanmar from Pegu (= Bago) and Prome (= Pyay), Bago Division (Boulenger 1890, Smith 1943) and Mandalay Division (Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It has also been recorded from the Nicobar Island Camorta in India (Sharma 2005).
177535		habitat	eng	This snake has been collected from tropical dry forests, but no more information is available.
177535		population	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens and its considered very rare.
177535		threats	eng	In mainland Myanmar, this snake may be impacted by habitat loss and degradation due to threats such as agricultural expansion and logging. The area from where it is historically known (Bago, central Myanmar) is a heavily degraded area. However, it has also been recorded from less disturbed areas such as Popa Mountain Park. As so little is known about this snake's habitat preferences, the extent to which it can withstand habitat degradation is unclear.
177536		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177536		distribution	eng	This species is found in the states of Bahia, Goias, and Minas Gerais, Brazil.
177536		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in the rainforests of southern Bahia. The locality in Goiás (Cana Brava) lies within an area of Cerrado in which the only forests available are gallery forests and dense Cerrado on mountain ranges.</p>
177536		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177536		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177537		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, as some parts of its range may have been converted to agricultural land.
177537		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the arid and semi arid parts of the eastern side of Australia.
177537		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid shrubland.
177537		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range (Hoser and Scanlon 1994).
177537		threats	eng	The natural habitat within this species' range has been cleared for crops and grazing.
177538		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
177538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Somalia in the area around Afgoi. The area in which this species is distributed is estimated to be less than 500 km².
177538		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy soil in dry open woodland.
177538		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177538		threats	eng	This species is found within an area that has become extremely degraded because of overgrazing by livestock.
177539		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is suggested.
177539		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern Angola and Namibia. It is distributed along 1,250 km of the Great Escarpment with most of its range falling within central Namibia. It is recorded from Etosha National Park, Namib-Naukluft Park, Von Bach Recreation Resort and the Daan Viljoen Game Park (Griffin 2003). Its distribution appears to be limited between 750-1,600 m above sea level (M. Auliya pers. comm.).
177539		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky outcrops on mountain terrain or brushy plains.
177539		population	eng	This species has been described as one of the rarest snake species in Africa (Patterson 1987).
177539		threats	eng	The remote habitat of this species is not affected by any threats, and the species itself is not used for meat or leather. However, this python is used in the international pet trade. It has a high value on the market because of its rareness, although the illegal trade of this species is thought to be in check (Cimatti 2001).
177540		conservation	eng	The species is listed in CITES Appendix II. This species has been regionally assessed in India, China and Vietnam. The Regional India preliminary assessment of Near Threatened was made by the BCPP CAMP, while in China it was assessed as Critically Endangered in the national Red Data Book, and as Endangered in the China Species Red List (Wang and Xie 2009). It is listed as Critically Endangered in the national Red Data Book for Viet Nam (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), where it is a protected species. There are protected areas within the range of this species which probably provide small safeguards from harvesting pressure. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat destruction occurring within its range and to manage the trade levels of this species. Further research into, and monitoring of the population status of, this species is required, as well as research into sustainable harvesting levels. Taxonomic research is also needed to determine if this species actually consists of a complex of species. Educational programmes may help to minimise the persecution of the species. In Royal Chitwan National Park the King Cobra is included in a new project focusing on ecological monitoring of and providing education about large reptiles, run by Nepal's National Trust for Nature Protection, the park authority, and the Zoological Society of London (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2012).
177540		distribution	eng	The King Cobra is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia, from Nepal (where it is found throughout the lowlands of the Therai region - Schleich and Kästle 2002) and India (from  Uttarakhand in Western Himalayas to Eastern Himalayas, down south along the  Eastern Ghats up to northern Andhra Pradesh, and in the Western Ghats south  of Maharashtra) across southern China (including Hainan Island), southward to the Philippines (where it is widespread) and Indonesia east as far as Sulawesi and Bali (where there are recent records from Negara [R.P.H. Lilley pers. obs. 2011]; Smith 1943, Zhao and Adler 1993, David and Vogel 1996, Whitaker and Captain 2004), as well as the Malaysian territories of Sarawak and Sabah, and Brunei (where a recent record exists from Kuala Belalong Field Centre - J.M. Dehling unpubl. data), on the island of Borneo. It occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but is absent from Little Andaman and from the Mentawai Islands off Sumatra. It has a maximum recorded elevation of 2,000 m asl. (Smith 1943).
177540		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, primarily in pristine forests, but it can also be found in degraded forest, mangrove swamps and even agricultural areas with remnants of woodland. It has also been found swimming in rivers in non-forested land and probably occurs in palm oil plantations (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010), however it is not yet clear whether oil palm plantations can support viable populations of this species (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2011). In India, this species has also been recorded from tea estates in the Western Ghats and Assam (Whitaker and Captain 2004). In Nepal this species is poorly-known, but has been reported primarily from undisturbed Sai forest and from dry high-altitude grasslands (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2012). Females build nests of dead leaves and stay with the eggs until they hatch, which takes 70 days at 28²<sup></sup>C (Whitaker and Captain 2004). Reproductive age in captivity has been estimated at 5-6 years, and this is here conservatively taken to be the generation length in the wild population, although true generation length is probably longer. One individual was reported to have a 6.3 km² home range (Bhaisare <em>et al.</em> 2010), indicating that the species is likely to occur in low population densities, although it is unknown whether this is natural or a result of the depletion of wild populations.
177540		population	eng	The snake remains common in good habitat in Thailand, where it is a  protected species, with no evidence of declines (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. 2011). However, this species is not frequently encountered anywhere else within its wide range.&#160;A population reduction of 30% over 75 years in India has been inferred from the numerous threats to this species, including habitat destruction and harvesting of mature individuals from the wild. A study in northwestern India showed that even though the species has been recorded in diverse habitat types, analysis of observations revealed that the abundance of king cobras is strongly linked to the availability of undisturbed forests (Das <em>et al.</em> 2008), indicating that the destruction of natural forests is likely to be causing significant declines in this species' population. In Nepal, a "very sharp decline" in larger individuals has been observed, which is likely to affect the population's reproductive fitness as large female reptiles typically produce the majority of offspring that survive to reproductive age (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2012). Local reports indicate that very large individuals can no longer be found in the Chitwan area of Nepal (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2012). In Viet Nam, the national Red Data Book estimates that this species has declined by more than 80% over 10 years as a result of habitat loss and overharvesting for the leather trade (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The surviving population of this snake in Viet Nam may be very small (Q.T. Nguyen pers comm. 2011), as it is encountered more rarely in forest surveys than in the past. The species is rarely seen in Cambodia; T. Neang (pers. comm. 2011) reports as few as three sightings in this country over ten years of surveys. Similarly, only three or four have been recorded in twelve years of recent surveys in Myanmar (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).&#160; It is very rare in Indonesia based on data from trade, where it is very much less frequently seen than species of <em>Naja</em> (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2011). The wild population in China was considered to be “very low” in the 1990s  (Zhou and Jiang 2004), which very probably reflects the impact of exploitation and trade of this snake in  China for medicinal purposes. The snake is considered to have declined by over 50% over ten years in this country as a result of exploitation for both subsistence and regional trade (Wang and Xie 2009). Population sizes in Peninsular Malaysia are reportedly small (L. Grismer pers. comm. 2011). Very little information is available on the status of the king cobra in Bali, where it was first reported by de Haas (1950). Presently, subpopulations appear to be small and fragmented, with the snake only known definitively from Negara in the island's west and from Bali Barat National Park. Due to hunting pressure and, particularly, deforestation for agricultural conversion, the snake is likely to be declining on this island (R.P.H. Lilley pers. comm. 2011).
177540		threats	eng	This species is threatened by destruction of habitat due to logging and agricultural expansion, as Southeast Asia is experiencing one of the highest rates of deforestation in the tropics (Sodhi <em>et al.</em> 2009) and this species appears to be most abundant in forested habitats. Snakes can however survive in a range of degraded habitats and so this is unlikely to be the primary threat to this species globally,. The extent to which degraded areas can maintain viable populations of this snake is unknown; in the Chitwan area of Nepal it has been observed that mostly young animals are encountered in agricultural lands, always close to forest, and these areas may simply be feeding grounds, or may be population sinks (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2012). Deforestation is however likely to exert strong pressure at local scales, particularly where snakes are also hunted, and is likely to lead to declines in many of the snakes on which this species feeds (R.P.H. Lilley pers. comm. 2011). In Nepal, the Therai lowlands have undergone a rapid increase in population since the eradication of malaria from this region, and most of this area is now under cultivation or exposed to pollution, with forests remaining only in protected areas (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2012). The king cobra is, however, particularly at risk from the harvesting of individuals for skin, food, pets, and especially traditional Chinese medicine. As the world's largest venomous snake, it is also suffers high levels of persecution by humans throughout its range. The possibility of this snake actually representing a complex of species makes all of these threats even more acute, as individual species within the complex will occur over a smaller area and as smaller populations than the currently recognized <em>Ophiophagus hannah</em>.
177541		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
177541		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from central Panama across northern Colombia, and into northern and eastern Venezuela. It has been found between sea level and 1,000 m above sea level, however, it is generally found at elevations of 500 m or less.
177541		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a broad range of habitats, ranging from dry tropical forest, coastal scrub, lower montane dry and humid forests, to savanna. This species is also frequently found in human settlements and is able to inhabit deforested areas.
177541		population	eng	This species is reported as common throughout its range.
177541		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177542		conservation	eng	This species inhabits the protected areas Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and in the part at Tsingy de Namoraka. There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at this time. Further research is needed into the habitat status and harvest levels of this species, and monitoring of population trends is necessary.
177542		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and occurs in the western area of the country. It has been found in Beroboka, Kirindy and Tsingy de Bemaraha (Glaw and Vences 2007). The area of distribution is approximately 6,899 km²<sup></sup>.
177542		habitat	eng	This is a viviparous species that prefers to inhabit shrubland in humid, sheltered valleys (DCSP 2004, Vences <em>et al</em>. 1998). Snakes in this genus are arboreal (Vences <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species also occurs in dry karstic forests. It is active at night and is often found on bushes 0.5-2 m above the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177542		population	eng	This species is reported to be 'rather common' in the karstic dry forest of Tsingy de Bemaraha (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177542		threats	eng	This species has probably experienced significant habitat loss and degradation due to human activities, including the conversion of forest to agricultural and grazing land, brushfires associated with slash-and-burn cultivation and logging. <br/><br/>It is now restricted to two protected areas, however, habitat degradation may still be occurring. Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve provides some protection, however, damage from cattle grazing and agricultural encroachment was still occurring at the time it was declared as a World Heritage Site (WCMC 1992).<br/><br/>This species is of interest to the international pet trade and although collections are not permitted, it is thought their highly specialized habitat makes them vulnerable to illegal collections (DCSP 2004).
177543		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix II of CITES. No further species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Despite its CITES status, trade management is required to reduce the level of harvesting from the wild. This species is assessed as Endangered in the Western Cape State Biodiversity Report (Baard and de Villiers 2000). Further research into the population and harvest levels of this species is necessary.
177543		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the southern Karoo in the Western Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa. It is known from two farms in the Prince Albert District. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,177 km²<sup></sup>.
177543		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit rocky karroid vegetation.
177543		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177543		threats	eng	This species is known to be collected from the wild to supply the national and international pet trade.
177544		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed into the natural history, distribution, population trends and threats of this species. Monitoring of this species and habitat trends is needed to accurately determine the impact of land conversion on the species. Research is needed on potential conservation measures, to try and prevent further negative impacts on its population<em></em>. Establishment of protected areas within this species range is also suggested, to reduce further declines in this species and its habitat.
177544		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Viet Nam and is only known from Daban (Lang Bian Plateau) and Nha Trang (Kanh Hoa Province) (Greer 1985, Darevsky 1992). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,081 km²<sup></sup>.
177544		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits primary montane forests.
177544		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This may be due to its cryptic habit<em></em>.
177544		threats	eng	The area this species inhabits is subject to habitat loss and fragmentation, due to land conversion for agriculture. This may be causing a decline in the population of this species, but to what extent this habitat conversion is affecting the species is unknown.
177545		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population trends of this species should be carried out.
177545		distribution	eng	This species occurs continuously at mid-level elevations from northeastern and eastern central Madagascar, including the east-coast offshore island of Nosy Mangabe (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004), to the far southeast of Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177545		habitat	eng	This species is mainly arboreal and is found in rainforest habitats (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004, Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2000) where it is active at night (Glaw and Vences 2007).
177545		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177545		threats	eng	Forests in some parts of this species' range are being lost or degraded due to logging and agricultural expansion, including slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming.
177546		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas.
177546		distribution	eng	This species is found in Pakistan in the area of the Indus Delta and lower Punjab, and ranges throughout northern India, Nepal and southeast Asia to Viet Nam and Indonesia (McKay 2006) although it does not appear to inhabit southern Thailand (Cox 1991). It is generally found below 2,000 m above sea level.
177546		habitat	eng	This species occurs in diverse habitats including moist grasslands, shrublands and woodlands, mangroves and agricultural land (Sharma 2003, McKay 2006, Schleich and Kästle 2002). It is reported to "adapt" to rural-agricultural modifications (G. Zug pers. comm.). It appears to be partially arboreal and can be found climbing trees and bushes. It is a diurnal species which shelters in the burrows of sand lizards (Khan 2006).
177546		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (Sharma 2003, Daniel 2002). G. Zug (pers. comm.) notes that in Myanmar specifically it is widespread and moderately abundant from the central region of the country to the Ayeyarwady delta.
177546		threats	eng	Though habitat degradation is occurring in portions of its range, this species is tolerant of human-affected environments and it is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats throughout its range.
177547		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the ecological preferences of this species.
177547		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in New Guinea. In Papua (Irian Jaya) it is known to occur on the Ok Sibil, eastward through the Central Massif, to the Huon Peninsula and southeastward through the tail of New Guinea (Malnate and Underwood 1988). It is also known from Wewak on the north coast and on Goodenough Island (O'Shea 1996). This species is found between 900 and 2,135 m above sea level.
177547		habitat	eng	Specific habitat information for this species is not available but species of this genus are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns. They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em> (O'Shea 1996).
177547		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177547		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177548		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It is known from the protected area of Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire  (Rödel<em> et al</em> 1995).
177548		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroon and the Central African Republic.
177548		habitat	eng	This species has been found in open savanna habitat (LeBreton 1999, Menzies 1966).
177548		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177548		threats	eng	The habitat of this species may be degraded by agricultural activity, however, considering its large range, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
177549		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded from some protected areas including Anamalai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu), Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala). Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177549		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliophis bibroni</span> is endemic to Western Ghats, India. Gowrishankar and Ganesh (2009) reported the range-extension of this species from Central Western Ghats. Recent new locality records from the Anamalai Hills and the Agastiyar Hills (also Agasthyamala hills) have considerably extended the previously known range of this species (Deepak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Its distribution has been described as severely fragmented (P. David pers. comm.&#160; 2010), but the species is likely to occur in more than ten locations due to its relatively wide geographical and elevational range. It is found between 1 and 1,220 m asl.
177549		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in wet forests and plantations, between 1 - 1,220 m above sea level (Deepak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). There are only eighteen specimens of this species (Deepak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It feeds on Uropeltid snakes (Gowri Shankar pers. comm. 2011).
177549		population	eng	A rare species. No information on its population exists.
177549		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation, agricultural and urban expansion.
177550		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is required into the impact that habitat loss is having on its population.
177550		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Suriname and French Guiana. This species is found between sea level and an altitude of 900 m above sea level.
177550		habitat	eng	This species is a terrestrial anuran-eating species, and is found in leaf litter in humid tropical forest.
177550		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177550		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It may be locally threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion, however, due to the wide distribution of this species this cannot be considered a major threat at present.
177551		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
177551		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. In India, this species is known from the Anaimalai and Cuddapah Hills and Berhampur (Berhampore), Orissa (Sharma 2003). De Silva (1990) only states Jaffna as the known distribution of this species in Sri Lanka. Lastly, this species is known from False Island, off the Arakan coast of Myanmar (Sharma 2003). However, only two specimens have been reported in the last 120 years, the distribution may therefore have changed significantly since the original distribution was recorded.
177551		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist and dry forests. In Sri Lanka, its known habitat has been described as "monsoon scrub jungle" (de Silva 1990).
177551		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare. De Silva (1982; in De Silva 1990) also reports it to be rare, since only two specimens have been reported since 1888.
177551		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation pose a threat to this species, as much of its habitat is threatened by agricultural and urban expansion. However, it is not known what impact these threats are having on the species, due to the lack of current records available for this species.
177552		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected area, including Isiboro Secure and Madidi in Bolivia. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
177552		distribution	eng	This species is found in lowland areas in the Amazon and upper Orinoco watersheds. The species is known from central Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Cochabamba and La Paz), through Brazil and Peru (including the Rio Ucayali) to eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (as far east as Cayenne), and to eastern Para, Brazil. This species is found between sea level and 450 m above sea level.
177552		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species which lives in damp lowland forest areas feeding on anurans and insect larvae. The species has also been reported from the Caatinga dry scrub habitat.
177552		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177552		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177553		conservation	eng	While there are protected areas in Indonesia, their protected status is not enforced. Further research into the distribution, habitat status, threats, and population numbers of this species is needed.
177553		distribution	eng	De Lang and Vogel (2006) believe this species is endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, but further details are not known. De Hass (1950) also lists this species from Halmahera.
177553		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat preference of this species, however, based on its distribution it is likely to inhabit lowland and submontane forest.
177553		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177553		threats	eng	The forests of Sulawesi have been almost entirely cleared due to a combination of pressures including unsustainable logging and the conversion of forests to plantation estates (Achmaliadi 2002). As this species' habitat preferences and exact distribution are uncertain<em></em>, it is unknown what impact this threat is having on the species.
177554		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is only known from its type locality. It is recommended that further surveys are carried out to investigate the distribution and population status of the species. Further research into any threats that may be impacting the species should be carried out.
177554		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality Pimampiro, San Nicolas, in the Imbabura province of Ecuador (Kofron 1990). Imbabura has an area of 4,752 km². This species was collected from altitudes between 1,500 and 2,000 m above sea level, but it is not known whether this is the complete elevation range.
177554		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species found in dry forest habitats, where annual precipitation levels are below 500 mm (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).
177554		population	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, where five specimens were collected in 1934 (Kofron 1990).
177554		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Urban and agricultural expansion is occurring within the Imbabura province, however, it is not known what impact this is having on the species.
177555		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, threats and habitat status to this species is required.
177555		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Amazonas in Venezuela. It is thought that the species is known only from its type locality, Tepuy Marahuaca Norte, at 2,500 m, in Estado Amazonas, Venezuela.
177555		habitat	eng	This species is known from montane forest habitat.
177555		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177555		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species in this very sparsely populated region of Venezuela.
177556		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into harvesting levels, population, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177556		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is found through most of eastern South Africa, including the separate countries in that area. It is also distributed along the southwest Cape. An isolated population is located in Inyanga, in Zimbabwe next to the Mozambique border. D. Broadley (pers. comm. to Ineich 1996) doubts that this species occurs in Mozambique. This species is found between sea level and 2,500 m above sea level.
177556		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found in grassland and moist savanna, however, it is also known to occur close to human settlements including large urban centres.
177556		population	eng	This species is very common throughout most of its range.
177556		threats	eng	This species is collected for the international pet trade, however, this is not considered a major threat.
177557		conservation	eng	The type locality of the species lies within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, an IUCN grade II National Park. Further research into the threats, ecology, range, and population trends of the species is recommended.
177557		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Aragua, Venezuela.
177557		habitat	eng	This species is cryptic and possibly nocturnal, and is found in litter and loose soil (D. Gower pers. comm.). The dominant habitat type in the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier is cloud forest.
177557		population	eng	This species is only known from its type locality.
177557		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Forest fires, both accidental and intentionally lit, encroachment of human population due to illegal settlements in the park, pollution from tourists, and poaching are all considered to be threats to the Henri Pittier National Park. However, it is not known how these factors affect the species. The cloud forest where this species occurs is threatened by future climate change.
177558		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177558		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Loma Linda, Departmento de Meta, Colombia.
177558		habitat	eng	This species is cryptic and possibly nocturnal. It is found in litter and loose soil.
177558		population	eng	This species is only known from type locality.
177558		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
177559		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring in the area such as the establishment of protected areas. Further research into the species' population, habitat requirements and threats is required to monitor the impact that the conversion of land to coffee plantations is having on the population and the species' range.
177559		distribution	eng	This species is known to be endemic to the Sidamo Province, in the extreme south of Ethiopia (Broadley and Branch 2002).
177559		habitat	eng	This species is found beneath roadside boulders in open <em>Acacia-Bouleya</em> woodland.
177559		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177559		threats	eng	This species is endemic to an area that is threatened by high rates of habitat change due to the expansion of coffee plantations across much of the region. However, it is unlikely that this is causing significant population declines in this species at this time.
177560		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss due to urban expansion, such as the establishment of protected areas. Further research is required into the population and habitat status of this species, as little is known about this species at present.
177560		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Misima Island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the southeast coast of Papua New Guinea. The island has an area of 260 km².
177560		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, it is probably found within forest.
177560		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177560		threats	eng	Misima Island is the most populated island in the Louisiade Archipelago and areas of remaining forest are threatened by urban expansion. The region has previously been mined, however, this is no longer a threat. The restricted range of this species may present a threat, as it is more vulnerable to stochastic events
177561		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within the Niassa Game Reserve. Despite this, the species<em></em> is still affected by high rates of human disturbance. Site management is therefore required to limit the resource extraction and incidences of human-induced fire occurring in the area. Due to its restricted range, the population of this species requires regular monitoring.
177561		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the summit and upper slopes of Serra Mecula in the Niassa Game Reserve, northern Mozambique (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is found between an altitude of 600 to 1,200 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 232 km²<sup></sup>.
177561		habitat	eng	This species inhabits crevices in granitic rock in bracken-dominated summit grasslands, and in similar rock cracks in dry Miombo woodland on the upper slopes of the mountain.
177561		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177561		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range and is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of human disturbance. Human settlements are not excluded from the Niassa Game Reserve and a district centre occurs on the eastern foothills of Serra Mecula. As a consequence the evergreen forest patches on the summit and surrounding river valleys suffer from high levels of resource extraction from the burgeoning human population. The incidence of human-induced fire in the reserve is also very high, much higher than natural fire regimes. In 2002, only 48% of the reserve was unaffected by fire (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2005).
177562		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is suggested. Improved captive breeding strategies may help in reducing the pressure from the pet trade.
177562		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution from Sudan and Uganda across central Africa and throughout west Africa to Senegal.
177562		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry areas, from grassland to open forests. It can also be found in agricultural land. This species is an important species for rodent pest control.
177562		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177562		threats	eng	Locally, this species is poached for meat and leather. However, their biggest threat is the international pet trade. In West Africa, many thousands are captured annually and exported. In 1998, Walls states in some areas of western Africa it is likely that repeated loss of clutches to the pet trade may be leading to local extirpation of the species (Walls 1998). Captive breeding activities were thought to provide a degree of protection for this species, however, it was found that captive breeding does not confer any significant conservation benefit on the species (Jenkins 1998).
177563		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population size, habitat preferences and potential threats to this species are required.
177563		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in the Helmeringhausen area of the northeastern Bethanie District in Namibia. It is only known from Lovedale, Barby, and Kunjas Farms. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,746 km²<sup></sup>.
177563		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky, arid savanna.
177563		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177563		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process (Branch 1998).
177564		conservation	eng	This species may occur in several protected areas throughout its distribution, including the Amistad National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution and threats of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.
177564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Costa Rica and is found in the upper part of the pre-montane and the lower montane zones of the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and northern Cordillera de Talamanca. It may also occur in neighbouring Panama, but this has yet to be confirmed. It has a distributional area of around 3,500 km² and is found between 1,200 and 2,200 m above sea level (Savage 2002).
177564		habitat	eng	This species can be found in pre-montane moist and wet forests and lower montane wet forests and rainforests, usually under moss on logs or under debris (Savage 2002).
177564		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177564		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation by the agricultural industry. However, the severity of these threats is unknown.
177565		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177565		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Britain off the coast of Papua New Guinea. New Britain has an area of 35,145 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 760 and 1,070 m above sea level.
177565		habitat	eng	Species of this genus.are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns (O'Shea 1996). They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em>.
177565		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177565		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural purposes is occurring at a rapid rate in New Britain, which potentially impacts all forest-dependent species in this region. For this species, large tracts of forest remain intact because of the steep karst topography. Deforestation can therefore not be considered a major threat to this species at present.
177566		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, there are many protected areas within its distribution range
177566		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Amazonas, Rondonia, Mato Grosso and Para in Brazil , in Departamento Pando in Bolivia and in Departamento Cuzco in Peru.
177566		habitat	eng	This species was captured both in rainforests and in pastures at Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia state, Brazil. It is nocturnal, semi-arboreal and feeds on lizards (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
177566		population	eng	<p>The species was relatively common at Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia state, Brazil (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).</p>
177566		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation and the impacts of mining.
177567		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177567		distribution	eng	This species is found in Chile, from Copiapo (Región de Atacama) south to Puerto Montt (on the mainland) and Chiloe Island (X region).
177567		habitat	eng	This species is a diurnal hunter which feeds on anurans and lizards. This species has been found in bunch-grass meadows, in open short-grass pastures, and on agricultural land.
177567		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177567		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177568		conservation	eng	The Department of Environment and Conservation, NSW, has identified eleven priority actions to help recover the species in New South Wales. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species are needed.
177568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is found in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. In New South Wales this species is found within an area bounded by Crookwell in the north, Bombala in the south, Tumbarumba to the west and Braidwood to the east.<br/><br/>The New South Wales and South Australian parts of this species' distribution are geographically disjunct from the much more extensive distribution in Victoria. In South Australia, apart from a small area near the Victorian border (continuous with the Victorian population), it is confined to Kangaroo Island and the Mt Lofty Ranges, near Adelaide (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
177568		habitat	eng	This species is found in various habitats from sclerophyll forest to grassland to coastal heath. Most specimens of this species have been found under rocks or logs lying on, or partially embedded in the soil (NSW Government 2005).
177568		population	eng	This species is reported to be common and easily located (Turner 1998), however, this only applies to the geographically widespread Victorian population. In New South Wales, this species is very difficult to find and has only been commonly found at a single locality (Bungendore) near the Australian Capital Territory, from where it has now apparently disappeared or declined (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
177568		threats	eng	In areas of its range, this species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation caused by the clearing of land for residential, agricultural and industrial developments. The removal of rocks and fallen timber is also having an impact on this species as well as changed fire regimes, feral animals and domestic dogs and cats which prey upon this species (NSW Government 2005). These threats are localized threats only and are not thought to be causing significant declines to the global population of this species.
177569		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measure in place for this species<em></em>. No further conservation measures are required at present.
177569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New South Wales and can be found on the coast and in the ranges from Newnes Plateaux south to Merimbula.
177569		habitat	eng	This species prefers dry sclerophyll forests, woodlands and heaths with tussock ground cover. However, it is also found within highly developed urban areas.
177569		population	eng	This species has been reported as very abundant (Hoser 1991).
177569		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this species.
177570		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, there are many protected areas within its distribution range (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
177570		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil (from the states of Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul) and from Misiones in Argentina.
177570		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, terrestrial species which feeds on mammals, snakes and lizards (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010). It has a clutch size of 4-7 eggs, and is found in subtropical rainforests, especially in mixed <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria </span>forests. In general, species of this genus are capable of maintaining viable populations in disturbed areas (M. Martins pers. comm.).
177570		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177570		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> forests have been highly exploited for resources and through logging. Although much of the deforestation ended in the 1970s, only 3.1% of the original forest area remains. However, habitat degradation cannot be considered a major threat to this species because it is capable of maintaining viable populations in disturbed areas.
177571		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are protected areas within this species' range, including the Phong Nha Nature Reserve in Viet Nam (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (G. Zug pers. comm.). Research on the habitat degradation in the area in which this species is distributed should be carried out in case the threat becomes more widespread, possibly causing significant population declines.
177571		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from India, Nepal and across Southeast Asia to Viet Nam, and is also reported from Taiwan and the Chinese province of Yunnan (Bain<em> et al.</em> 2007, Pope 1934). Although it had also been reported from Jeju Island, South Korea, tests showed that the specimens actually belonged to <em>S. chinensis</em> (Kim and Oh 2006).
177571		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mountain areas in evergreen forest and occasionally deciduous forest (Inger and Cowell 1977) and in rocky, uncultivated land (Schleich and Kästle 2002).
177571		population	eng	This species is reportedly fairly common (Sharma 2003).
177571		threats	eng	In some areas, this species is likely experiencing habitat loss or degradation, however, this should not be considered a major threat at this time because it is not widespread throughout its range.
177572		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in many places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
177572		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Brazil, from Rio Grande do Sul north to Bahia.
177572		habitat	eng	This species is a semi-arboreal, diurnal species which has been collected on the border of primary forest habitat. Species of the same genus have been collected in the Atlantic Forest.
177572		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177572		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177573		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177573		distribution	eng	This species has a small distribution and is comprised of two subspecies with discrete ranges. <em>P. pungweensis pungweensis</em> occurs in the eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. <em>P. p. blakeii</em> is found on South Manica Platform in central Mozambique.
177573		habitat	eng	This species is found on low rock outcrops and large hills in mesic savanna.
177573		population	eng	This species has been described as common by Branch (1998).
177573		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177574		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Rare in Queensland and Vulnerable in New South Wales. Part of its range coincides within protected areas but large, undisturbed areas of forest need to be established and managed if this large predator is to be conserved. Further research into the threats, and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
177574		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution from the central coast of New South Wales to southeastern Queensland in eastern Australia and has an (uncertain) estimated extent of occurrence of just over 30,000 km².
177574		habitat	eng	This species is only found in dense forests and requires large contiguous areas of habitat. Individuals depend on hollow trees (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 2005) and find it hard to migrate between isolated patches of forest (Keogh <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species feeds very rarely and has a low reproductive rate. It is therefore unlikely to recover well from disturbance (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 2004).
177574		population	eng	Keogh <em>et al</em>. (2003) stated that this species has undergone considerable declines over recent decades. Many local subpopulations have been extirpated and now only one northern population and three southern populations remain.
177574		threats	eng	Timber harvesting, clearance for agriculture and urban development are the reasons for severe declines in the coastal forests which this species inhabits. The remaining forests are highly fragmented because of this (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 2002), and they are also threatened by fire.
177575		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Secure'. No further conservation measures are needed.
177575		distribution	eng	This species is found from the southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo eastward to southern Tanzania, and southward through Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe to northern Namibia, Botswana and northeastern and central South Africa (Broadley 1977, Spawls <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).
177575		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits open grassland and savanna (Branch 1998, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). Marais (1992) also reports that it favours vleis (seasonal water bodies) and is commonly found under building rubble and other debris near towns. In grassland areas, it is found in moribund termitaria and under rocks (De Waal 1978).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of 5-18 eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
177575		population	eng	Marais (1992) reports that this species is common in suitable habitats.
177575		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats, but conversion of land for crop farming in parts of central South Africa may impact negatively upon this species.
177576		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and threats to this species is required.
177576		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Tepuy Corocoro, collected at 2,150 m, in Estado Bolivar, Venezuela.
177576		habitat	eng	The type locality is in a montane forest habitat.
177576		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177576		threats	eng	The type was collected in a remote and very sparsely populated area of Venezuela, therefore there are no threats acting on the habitat and no known threats directly impacting the species.
177577		conservation	eng	The species is known from the Península de Paria National Park, IUCN category II. Further research on the distribution of this species is required.
177577		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, from the trail between Las Melenas and Cerro Humo, at 800 m elevation, Peninsula de Paria, Estado Sucre, Venezuela. The area of cloud forest in which the species was found has an area of approximately 600 km². The surrounding area is dry scrubland habitat, and it is assumed that the species is restricted to the forest habitat.
177577		habitat	eng	This species is known from cloud forest habitat. The cloud forest in which the species is found is surrounded by humid scrubland, and it is assumed that the species is restricted to the forest habitat.
177577		population	eng	This species is known only from its holotype.
177577		threats	eng	Encroaching human population has resulted in degradation of the natural habitat, especially at lower elevations; conversion of land to agriculture, which is done in the traditional way, involving clearing and burning of the vegetation before cultivation, is one of the major factors causing degradation of the habitat in this region. The type locality itself, however, is in a protected area&#160;(Parque Nacional Panínsula de Paria). Cloud forests have also been highlighted as a habitat particularly vulnerable to climate change, though some studies are starting to question whether the impact of climate change might be positive in some cloud forest areas due to increased humidity (E. La Marca pers. comm. 2010).
177578		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, however it may occur in protected areas within its range. Research into the population of this species and its ability to withstand disturbance to its mangrove habitat should be undertaken, as this snake may be susceptible to significant population declines if pressures on its mangrove habitat increase in the future.
177578		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Myanmar and adjacent western Thailand (Smith 1943; Pauwels<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2001,&#160;2004). The record from Thailand, from Mae Hong Son Province (Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2001), is however doubtful as this tidal species has only definitively been recorded in tidal palm forests along the cost of Myanmar.
177578		habitat	eng	This species is a brackish water dweller that inhabits tidal forests (G. Zug and O. Pauwels pers. comm. 2010, Pauwels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
177578		population	eng	This species can be common in suitable habitat (G. Zug and O. Pauwels pers. comms. 2010).
177578		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation due to the encroachment of agriculture, illegal logging, and general over-exploitation of mangrove forest resources by a growing human population. People in this area rely heavily on mangrove resources and this may be reducing suitable habitat and therefore affecting the known populations.
177579		conservation	eng	This species was considered a Least Concern species for the 1998 China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals using the 1994 Categories and Criteria for a regional assessment (Zhao 1998). There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population trends, biology, ecology and range of this species are recommended.
177579		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the northen mountains, lowlands and offshore islands of Viet Nam. Zhao (1998) reports that it is known from Guangxi and Hunan in China.
177579		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits pristine, moist montane and lowland forests.
177579		population	eng	Zhao (1998) states this species is very rare.
177579		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
177580		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Due to taxonomic uncertainties research into the taxonomy of this species is suggested. Further research into the population numbers, range and habitat preferences of this species is suggested.
177580		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia (How and Kitchener 1997). It may only inhabit the island of Flores, but it has been suggested that it might also occur on Sumba and Semau (Natas 2005).
177580		habitat	eng	Based upon its distribution, it is likely to inhabit the monsoon forest of the Lesser Sunda Islands.
177580		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177580		threats	eng	This species is likely to be undergoing habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. Forests in this region are experiencing ongoing deforestation as a result of clear-cutting and selective logging as well as expanding agricultural activity, and on islands such as Sumba most forests are disturbed. However, as the exact distribution of this species is not known major threats remain unknown.
177581		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population status and threats are needed for this species.
177581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Guatemala and is known only from its type locality on the Chamelco trail which is 10 km from southern Cobán, Alta Verapaz. It is found up to 1,500 m above sea level.
177581		habitat	eng	This species occurs in pine forests along streams, or gallery forest.
177581		population	eng	Only one specimen, collected in 1940, is known for this species.
177581		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently not known.
177582		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177582		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few collection localities in the Serra do Espinhaço region, in the state of Minas Gerais, in Brazil. This species has been reported from two disjunct locations, separated by approximately 200 km. No new specimens have been collected since this species was first described. The two disjunct areas of distribution from which this species is known total 5,187 km², but the estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 15,300 km²<sup></sup>. It is possible that this species has a wider distribution in the higher altitudes of Minas Gerais than is currently known (S. Morato pers. comm.).
177582		habitat	eng	This species has been found in montane fields ('Campos Rupestres') and in Atlantic Forest habitats. The area around the type locality consists of Cerrado savanna on the lower slopes and montane fields at higher elevations.
177582		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177582		threats	eng	Habitat degradation as a result of forest clearance for expansion of cattle ranching, logging for timber and charcoal are resulting in a fragmented landscape which threatens the Atlantic Forests of this area. The Campos Rupestres habitat is relatively undisturbed, although agricultural and urban expansion are potential future threats to the region.
177583		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the borders of a national park in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, Further research into its biology, ecology, abundance and distribution is needed to clarify the impact of ongoing deforestation on this species.
177583		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Sarawak (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002) in Malaysia, Borneo. There is a recent observation from West-Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, at Bukit Baka-Bukit-Raya National Park (Iskandar, unpublished record) at 300 m. asl., and its distributional extent remains unclear.
177583		habitat	eng	Based on its known distribution, the habitat of this species is tropical lowland moist forest. This snake is fossorial (Inger and Voris 2001).
177583		population	eng	Although there is no specific population information available for this species, in West-Central Kalimantan it is often found in small numbers (D.T. Iskandar pers obs.).
177583		threats	eng	Deforestation due to shifting cultivation, commercial agriculture, and logging pose threats to the species, however due to uncertainty over its distributional extent it is not possible to establish the extent to which these processes threaten the snake or its habitat.
177584		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.
177584		distribution	eng	This species is regarded as common in sub-Saharan&#160;Africa, it has been found as far north as Senegal and as far south as northeast South Africa (Spawls<em> et al.</em> 2002). Trape (2005) reports this species as far west as Senegal and Guinea.
177584		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in well-wooded savanna or riverine forest, especially in areas with an abundance of rocky hills and big trees. It can also be found in coastal bush, moist and dry savanna and woodland. This species is predominantly found on the ground, however, it is also arboreal (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
177584		population	eng	This species is reported to be widespread in locations with suitable habitats. In areas with few records this can be attributed to undercollecting rather then low abundance (Spawls <em>et al.</em>2002)
177584		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. Black Mambas are shy animals and prefer to stay away from human contact. Human population expansion into its habitat could therefore constitute a potential threat to this species. However, the extent of its range throughout much of Africa means that this should not be considered a serious threat.
177585		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177585		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Paraguay, northeastern Argentina (in the states of Misiones, Formosa and Corrientes), Brazil (in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul), and Uruguay.
177585		habitat	eng	<p>The predominant habitat type in the species' range is savanna. This species occurs in grasslands, shrublands, savannas and forests (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> mixed forests) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010). It’s a terrestrial species which may be active both by day and at night. It feeds on slugs (mostly) and snails and its clutch size is three to seven eggs (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
177585		population	eng	Parera (2004) reports this species as rare in Corrientes, Argentina. On the other hand, it was one of the commonest snake species at two sites in Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil (Outeiral 2005, Wink <em>et al. </em>2007).
177585		threats	eng	<p>Although there are local threats resulting in habitat destruction, throughout its distribution, this species is able to persist in disturbed habitats. It is commonly found in perianthropic areas.</p>
177586		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177586		distribution	eng	This species is known from Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones, Formosa, Chaco, Entre Rios and Santa Fé) and south and southeast of Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo) (F. Franco pers. comm).
177586		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland areas near water in grasslands and on emergent and marginal vegetation. This species eats mainly frogs, but has also been recorded to consume rodents, fish and lizards.
177586		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177586		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
177587		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The species needs further research into its distribution and population.
177587		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Philippines, Maluku, Sulawesi, and New Guinea. Specimens of this species have been collected at 909 m above sea level.
177587		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found in forests that are minimally, as well as moderately, disturbed, as well as in wooded grassland and coconut groves.
177587		population	eng	Dibamids are not found very often because of their fossorial habit. However, Greer (1985) found an unusually large collection of this species at Mount Canlao on Negros Island in the Philippines.
177587		threats	eng	There are no direct threats to this species.
177588		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is harvested from the wild for the pet trade, but is not listed on CITES. Trade management is required to ensure that high harvesting levels do not continue to cause a decline in its population. Due to its restricted range, regular monitoring of the population is also required.
177588		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeast Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 11,547 km²<sup></sup>.
177588		habitat	eng	This species is found in mesic savanna.
177588		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177588		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over-collecting for the pet trade (Branch 1998). It is very difficult to breed this species in captivity, with the first successful hatchings having taken place at San Diego Zoo in 1999 (Gray-Lovich 2005).
177653		conservation	eng	This species is presumed to be Extinct and therefore no further survey work is necessary.
177653		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a river drift on the sea coast a few miles from Bourail in New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
177653		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a river-drift, but it is unknown what its original habitat preferences were (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
177653		population	eng	This species is known from material collected in 1928 from an area that was intensively surveyed in the 1990s. No further specimens have been found and the species is presumed extinct (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
177653		threats	eng	Land clearance for human development and purpose-lit fires have increased in the area, and this has accelerated the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). The reduction of native forest as<span style="font-style: italic;">  Melaleuca </span>(paper bark) has become the predominant species would also have negatively impacted this mollusc (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). For the first half of the 20th century, it was recorded that the creeks had a higher volume of water flow than they do now, with many of the creeks currently only running seasonally (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
177724		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of GX - Extinct (NatureServe 2009).
177724		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality at Fish Spring, Juab County, Utah (Oliver and Bosworth 1999). No live specimens of the species have been collected since 1968 (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012). Russell (1971) found shells in Fish Springs only, but he reported that some of the shells appeared to have been relatively fresh. Live individuals or fresh snails have not been found since then including a targeted survey by Clarke (1991) in 1990. Therefore, it is believed that the species is extinct and only known from the Utah type locality (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012).&#160;Clarke (1991) believes this species is extinct due to slash and burn activities in 1970 and the diversion and drainage of the spring.
177724		habitat	eng	This species was found in freshwater springs (NatureServe 2009).
177724		population	eng	NatureServe (2009) state that this species is extinct and that it was only known from the Utah type locality. (This is based on the assumption that <em>Stagnicola pilsbryi</em> is the same species as <em>Lymnaea pilsbryi).</em>
177724		threats	eng	This species is considered to be extinct due to slash and burn activities in the 1970s and spring diversion and drainage (Clarke 1991). This species was only known from one spring and is unlikely to be found in any others.
177739		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history and ecology and threats.
177739		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in Java, Indonesia (Arisandi 2003, Köhler and Glaubrecht 2005). It has been postulated that this genus is endemic to Java.
177739		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a benthic habitat (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2005).
177739		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
177739		threats	eng	Water quality in the streams and rivers of Java has been deteriorating for several years, exacerbated by point discharge from heavy industry. This includes heavy metals such as mercury from battery recycling plants (Arisandi 2003). A recent survey of the benthic macroinvertebrate species assemblage found the extirpation of this species from the Surabaya River of East Java following an effluent spill of 2002 (Arisandi 2003). This observed sensitivity to pollution suggests similar loss may be possible in other catchments of Java. <br/><br/>In addition, acid input from volcanic lakes (Sriwana <em>et al.</em> 1998), becoming more concentrated due to water abstraction and diversion, has created inhospitable enviroments in some west Javan rivers. Flow of the Ciwidey River "has been disturbed to a significant extent" (Sriwana <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Furthermore, sedimentation, eutrophication and pollution by organic matter and toxicants have all been cited as current threats to Javan water quality (Sudaryanti <em>et al. </em>2001).
177814		conservation	eng	There are currently no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the species' population status and ecology is recommended, as is population monitoring.
177814		distribution	eng	This species is mainly distributed in Cameroon, but its range also includes small areas of Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon (LeBreton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177814		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forests and is dependent on large, old trees (LeBreton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177814		population	eng	While the abundance of this species is not known, it is thought its specific habitat preferences may contribute to a patchy distribution (LeBreton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
177814		threats	eng	This species is likely experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to logging and agricultural expansion in Cameroon (Gartshore 1986). This habitat loss may be compounded by its habitat requirement for large, mature trees, few of which remain in exploited areas.
177816		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The establishment of protected areas may benefit this and other species, particularly since high human pressures are acting on Madagascar's natural environment.
177816		distribution	eng	This species occurs across southern and western Madagascar, in Mahajanga and Toliara (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
177816		habitat	eng	This species inhabits spiny thicket and deciduous forests (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is active by night and shelters under bark or rocks during the day (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
177816		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177816		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is affecting the range of this species, specifically through deforestation for agriculture and plantations and especially in coastal areas which are cleared and developed. In 2000, it was estimated that Madagascar retained less than 10% of its primary vegetation (Myers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). However, this species is not restricted to primary and undisturbed habitat that is becoming rare in  west and south-west Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm. 2010).
177817		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population should be undertaken.
177817		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern China, the main island of Taiwan, Lanyu Island, and southern Japan, including the Ryukyu Archipelago and all other island groups between Taiwan and the southernmost tip of Kyushu (Ota 1989). Chou (1999) also reports that this species is present on Lutao Island, in Taiwan. This species is found up to 1,300 m above sea level (H. Ota pers. comm.).
177817		habitat	eng	This species is a small, nocturnal, arboreal, insectivorous gecko. It is found in the marginal portions of subtropical and temperate forests, shrubs and other secondary vegetation, rocky outcrops, and uninhabited buildings (Ota 1989, Okada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, H. Ota pers. comm. 2010). Chou (1999) reports that a specimen was found on a rock in a dry stream in subtropical forest.
177817		population	eng	This species is common in most of its range (H. Ota pers. comm.).
177817		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177818		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.
177818		distribution	eng	This species must once have been common all along the west coast of New Caledonia. Historically, individuals have been collected from 10 locations between Noumea and Paita. Another collection has been made 63 km further north on "Ile Isié", a small island of La Foa region. The only other collection was made 108 km north from Nepoui in the Poya region. <em>Ancistrachne numaeensis</em> has also been mentioned from Ile des Pins. However, it is suspected that the species has now disappeared from most of these locations, especially those between Noumea and Paita, because of human activities. There may be no more than five living subpopulations remaining today.
177818		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.<br/><br/>Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of <em>A. numaeensis</em> are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have probably eradicated all potential habitats for this species.
177818		population	eng	When present, this species forms dense small bushes that can be common or scarce but are usually confined to small surfaces. This pattern can be due to poor long distance dispersal or to vegetative reproduction by suckers. Considering the distances between locations (respectively 63 and 108 km), there might not be much genetic exchange. Most collections date from the 1970s and 1980s; the last herbarium collection was made in 1993 from the subpopulation in Pindai. It is probable that some, if not most, of the subpopulations recorded in the 1980's have disappeared, especially those located around Noumea.
177818		threats	eng	This species probably used to be common around Noumea where intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced its potential available habitats. It is suspected that most of the historically recorded locations have now disappeared. Away from the city, the major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177819		conservation	eng	The presence of this wild rice has motivated the creation of a 32 ha reserve to protect the Tiéa subpopulation (Pouembout).
177819		distribution	eng	This species only occurs in the northern half of New Caledonia. It is known from one location in Pouembout in the fenced reserve of Tiea (with some individuals outside), and two in Poum in the banks of Nehoue river and in Ougne forest. The distance between the site of Pouembout and those of Poum is 110 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 785 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 6 km².
177819		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical dry forests which are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Inside its habitat, <em>Oryza neocaledonica</em> is usually found along river banks or valley. It regenerates well but it is always intensively grazed (J-M Veillon pers. comm.).
177819		population	eng	The population size is unknown. There are only four known subpopulations, even though surveys have been carried out for this species. When present, individuals form small bushes that can be common or scarce but are usually confined over small surfaces. This pattern can be due to poor long distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers. The Pouembout subpopulation is small with a few scattered individuals; the Nehoue subpopulation consists of many individuals distributed all along the stream. The last location is known only from the herbarium collection. Because of the distance between sites, there may not be much genetic exchange between subpopulations, especially if <em>Oryza neocaledonica</em> is autogamous, as is the cultivated rice.
177819		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177820		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas.
177820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in the Noumea and Paita region and is also recorded from Boulouparis, Koné and Koumac. Distances between the known sites are respectively, from south to north: 60, 147 and 80 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,092 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 36 km².
177820		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177820		population	eng	The population size is unknown. The species is known to occur in seven distinct locations where it always occurs as rare and scattered individuals. Each of the locations is known from a single herbarium collection. Distances between sites probably compromise genetic exchanges between some, if not most, subpopulations but no studies have been made to evaluate gene flow.
177820		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177822		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas.
177822		distribution	eng	This species must once have been present all along west coast of New Caledonia. Today it is recorded only from remnant dry forests of la Foa, Bourail, Poya, Pouembout and Koumac. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,131 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 40 km².
177822		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177822		population	eng	The population size is unknown. Depending on the site, this species has been found as single individuals or it can form small subpopulations made of scattered individuals. It is never abundant.
177822		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177823		conservation	eng	This species (under the synonym <em>Hemiphyllodactylus typus aurantiacus</em>) was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Research is needed into the distribution of this species.
177823		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Nilgiri and Anaimalai Hills of the Western Ghats and the Shevaroy (Shevarayan) and Kolli Hills of the Eastern Ghats where it occurs primarily at higher elevations (Bauer and Das 1999). It has also been reported from Bangalore, which Bauer and Das (1999) consider to be an introduced population, especially as this gecko is found around human habitation and could have been transported easily. However, R. Daniels (pers. comm.) does not believe that its occurrence in Bangalore is due to introduction; Bangalore is just a northward extension of some of the south Indian hills (e.g., Kolli Hills, Sheverayan Hills), so that it is likely that the species occurs naturally in Bangalore.<br/><br/>Bauer and Das (1999) consider this species likely to have a wider distribution than is currently recognized.<br/><br/>R. Daniels (pers. comm.) reports that he has only ever observed this species over 900 m above sea level.
177823		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both moist and dry montane forests, where it can be found among rocks or under stones by daytime. This species may also be found around human habitation, including on buildings (Bauer and Das 1999).
177823		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that this species is "undeterminate, rare". R. Daniels (pers. comm.) also suggests that this species is 'very rare'.
177823		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to fire, agricultural practices, infrastructure development and human disturbance may be locally affecting this species. However, as this species has a wide range in the Western and Eastern Ghats, and is known to inhabit anthropogenic structures, these threats are not thought to be causing significant declines to its global population numbers at present.<br/><br/>Hills above 900 m are very localized in southern India and therefore the population of this species may be highly fragmented and isolated (R. Daniels pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species may also be under competitive threats from the more widespread house geckos that may even prey on this species (R. Daniels pers. comm.).
177824		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A taxonomic revision of this species is required. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
177824		distribution	eng	This species is known from 'temperate climate elevations' on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, state of Cundinamarca, Colombia. The type was recorded at 1,600 m. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,651 km²<sup></sup>.
177824		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane dry forest habitat.
177824		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177824		threats	eng	Much of the original forest cover has gone from this heavily populated region, and what patches remain are highly fragmented. Feral goats, which were introduced in the 1500s, are further degrading the remaining patches of natural habitat in this area.
177826		conservation	eng	The threat status of this species, as listed by the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005), is 'Gradual Decline', with a 'Human Induced' qualifier.<br/><br/>It is listed by the Government of New Zealand on CITES Appendix III. At the 12th Conference of Parties (CITES 2002), it was proposed that all endemic New Zealand geckos be listed on Appendix II.<br/><br/>Better management of protected reserves is needed to stop poaching of this species. Further research into the habitat status, threats and harvest levels of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
177826		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast of the South Island of New Zealand. Two main populations of this species exist, on the Otago Peninsula and Banks Peninsula, but specimens may also be found in the region linking these two areas (New Zealand Herpetological Society 2006). The extent of occurrence is over 50,000 km²<sup></sup> but its distribution within this area is severely fragmented (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010, Jewell and McQueen 2007) giving a much smaller inferred area of occupancy.
177826		habitat	eng	Active during the day and on warm evenings in summer, this dryland gecko is found in a large variety of vegetation types, but usually prefers scrub-type bushes such as manuka, matagouri and mingi-mingi (New Zealand Herpetological Society 2006). The species has persisted in habitats which have rocky sites of refuge against fire (Jewell and McQueen 2007).
177826		population	eng	Declines in this species were noted from the subpopulation in a reserve on Otago Peninsula (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).&#160;The only strong holds are on the Otago and Canterbury peninsula's; the areas in between (on the mainland) have few existing populations at very low numbers (K. Hare pers. comm. 2010). The populations in beech forest near the Southern Alps, are considered safe from habitat destruction and poaching but not from the impacts of introduced mammalian predators, which have population&#160;irruptions in beechmast years&#160;(R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).
177826		threats	eng	Habitat degradation of dry shrubland due to grazing, browsing, burning and herbicides is a major threat to this species.<br/><br/>Although all geckos in New Zealand are protected by law under New Zealand's Wildlife Act of 1953, they continue to be threatened by introduced predators including rats, weasels, stoats, ferrets, cats and possums, as well as by habitat destruction (New Zealand Department of Conservation 2006). More than two thirds of the native forest has been cleared since colonisation of the islands, though over the last century most habitat loss and degradation has been limited to localized land development, or the clearance of secondary habitat. The effects of introduced predators are likely to have become the dominant threat in many areas. Certainly, the threat is more pervasive. <br/><br/>New Zealand's endemic geckos are reported to be "appearing on the international market at numbers far exceeding the breeding capacity of the captive population" (CITES 2002). It is thought that these specimens, of unknown provenance, are evidence of an expanding illegal trade of wild specimens. Some individuals are obtaining very high market values, of up to US$15,000 per individual. It is known that this has been responsible for at least one population decline in this species. This has occurred in an Otago Peninsula reserve, where a predator fence excludes cats, mustelids and rodents (except for mice), but poaching is frequent.<br/><br/>Mouse irruptions have been known to have had severe impacts on lizard populations in parts of New Zealand and specimens of this species have been seen injured. Pindone baits laid for rabbit control are also thought to cause mortality in species of this genus; however, these threats are localized to a reserve on Otago Peninsula (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010)
177827		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Stephens Island Wildlife Sanctuary. Stephens Island has an area of 1.5 km²<sup></sup>. More generally, approximately 30% of New Zealand's landmass is protected (CITES 2002). A 20 metre wide coastal reserve runs around the entire Marlborough Sounds coastline, providing a corridor for migration and the maintenance of metapopulation structure (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>The threat status of this species is currently listed as 'Sparse' by the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Hitchmough <em>et al</em>. 2005), though with 'Data Poor' and 'Human Induced' qualifiers. It is listed by the Government of New Zealand on CITES Appendix III. At the 12th Conference of Parties (CITES 2002), it was proposed that all endemic New Zealand geckos be listed on Appendix II.<br/><br/>The species is part of a relocation programme. Research into its distribution, population and harvest levels is recommended in order to establish whether this species qualifies for a category of Near Threatened or higher.
177827		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Marlborough area as well as on some of the Cook Strait and Marlborough Sounds Islands (New Zealand Herpetological Society, 2006). Very little is known of its distribution on the mainland; it may be present in many areas (K. Hare pers. comm. 2010). From current information, the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,329 km²<sup></sup> and there are far more than ten known localities within this range (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In 1998, fourteen individuals were translocated from Arapawa Island onto the predator-free island of Motuara as part of the island's restoration programme (Armstrong 2006). In 2003, 44 individuals (juveniles and adults) were translocated from Stephens Island to Wakaterepapanui Island (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2007).
177827		habitat	eng	This species is found in low compact shrubs such as manuka and kanuka, and also in the dense small-leaved shrubs such as <em>Coprosma</em> and <em>Muehlenbekia</em> (New Zealand Herpetological Society 2006). It is also found in forest (Gill <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>A detailed survey of the reptiles of Stephens Island revealed that this species resides only in the vineland and scrub habitat on the island, and not in the grass and climax shrub habitat (East <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>A further survey of the species from 1978-2005 reveals that it uses most (if not all) vegetation, and makes use of new vegetation as it becomes available. Although it does not specifically reside in grass, it does use it to cross areas to new vegetation (Hare <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is diurnal and active throughout the day, with limited movements (average 0.6 m/day) (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2007).
177827		population	eng	On Stephens Island, this species was estimated to represent just 3% of the reptilian fauna, based on the encounter frequency and the extent of its preferred habitat (East <em>et al.</em> 1995).  Population density on Stephens Island is estimated at 0.05 geckos per m²<sup></sup> (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>More widely, this species is thought to have a very fragmented range (CITES 2002).
177827		threats	eng	Although all geckos in New Zealand are protected by law under New Zealand's Wildlife Act of 1953, they continue to be threatened by introduced predators including rats, weasels, stoats, ferrets, cats and possums and by habitat destruction (New Zealand Department of Conservation 2006). The latter was likely the dominant process responsible for the currently fragmented distribution of this species, with more than two thirds of the native forest cleared since colonisation of the islands by Polynesians and, subsequently, Europeans; however, over the last century most habitat loss and degradation has been limited to localized land development, or the clearance of secondary habitat. The effects of introduced predators are likely to have become the dominant threat in many areas over the years, but as this species is distributed on various islands unaffected by invasive species it is unknown what impact this is having on the global population of the species.<br/><br/>It is also reported that suitable habitat is still extremely widespread and largely continuous in the Marlborough Sounds and further suitable habitat has become available through the abandonment of financially non-viable sheep farms which are now regenerating to shrubland. It is also questionable whether populations of this species are truly fragmented or the apparent fragmentation is due to very limited search effort (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>New Zealand's endemic geckos are reported to be "appearing on the international market at numbers far exceeding the breeding capacity of the captive population" (CITES 2002). It is thought that these specimens, of unknown provenance, are evidence of an expanding illegal trade of wild specimens. Some individuals are fetching very high market values, of up to US$15,000 per individual. It is known that this has been responsible for at least one population decline (of <em>N. gemmeus</em>), but it is not known what impact this is having on this species.
177829		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are a number of protected areas in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, but this network is still considered inadequate for the effective conservation of the endemics to the region (BirdLife International 2006). As a result, population monitoring is recommended.
177829		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Andaman and Nicobar islands which have a total land area of 8,120 km²<sup></sup>.
177829		habitat	eng	This species is able to inhabit highly modified environments. It has been recorded in gardens containing smooth palms and plantain trees, as well as in and around human habitation (Whitaker and Whitaker 1978, Sharma 2002, Daniel 2002). It has also been found in peepal, papaya, and occasionally exotic street trees (Whitaker and Whitaker 1978).
177829		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that the overall population status of this species is undetermined, but it is common in many localities.
177829		threats	eng	The Nicobar and Andaman Islands have been and continue to be deforested, leading to extensive grasslands in certain areas (Khatri 1993). The main drivers are clearance for cash crops and monoculture plantations. The Andaman and Nicobar islands were also hit by the Asian Tsunami of 2004. The effect of the influx of salt-water and wreckage into the interior of islands is yet to be assessed (BirdLife International 2006).
177830		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. There are no other species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177830		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Grand Comoro in the Republic of Comoros.
177830		habitat	eng	This species can be found in disturbed habitats, including around human dwellings in towns. It has also frequently been found in banana plantations.
177830		population	eng	It has been hypothesized that this species could reach densities of up to several thousand individuals per hectare (CITES 2007).
177830		threats	eng	This species is taken from the wild for use in the international pet trade. It is known to be harvested around the town of Maweni in the north of the island. However, since the annual export level for this species is relatively low (between 2000 and 2003, 7,802 individuals were exported out of Comoro Island), the pet trade cannot be considered a major threat.
177831		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it likely occurs in protected areas within its range. More research is needed to establish the full range of this species.
177831		distribution	eng	Historically this species was considered restricted to Myanmar and Thailand, however, recently specimens have been captured in the Mizoram, northern India and it is considered likely that surveys would also find it in regions in between (Pawar and Biswas 2001). This species has also been recorded in Viet Nam and Cambodia.
177831		habitat	eng	The two most recent reports of this species occurred in an area of unfragmented, mature evergreen forest, near a dirt track, and on a human dwelling in an area of mosaic bamboo patches, remnant forest and plantations (Parwar and Biswas 2001). It is inactive during the day, increasing in activity in the evening.
177831		population	eng	While there are reports that this species is rare (Sharma 2003), it is suggested that its tree-top habitat and nocturnal activity may make it simply rarely seen (Pawar and Biswas 2001).
177831		threats	eng	This species is likely undergoing habitat degradation and loss in parts of its range due to deforestation and agricultural expansion. However, due to its apparent flexible habitat requirements and wide distribution, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
177832		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Los Haitises National Park and the Del Este National Park. Research into the effect of threats on the population is recommended.
177832		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba, where it occurs from Villa Clara to Las Tunas, including the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Hedges and Garrido 1993).
177832		habitat	eng	This species is xerophilic and is known to occur in woods, scrub, dry pastures, and on limestone ridges and buildings.
177832		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177832		threats	eng	The eastern Dominican Republic is one of the most rapidly developing areas on Hispaniola; however, it is not known what impact these developments are having on the species<em></em>. This species has been known to inhabit buildings, and therefore may be able to tolerate a certain degree of urban expansion within its range. However, larger development programmes, such as the development of resort hotels, are likely to cause localized threats to this species.
177833		conservation	eng	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be implemented to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range.
177833		distribution	eng	This species is found in three localities, on the Isla de la Juventud and the Canarreos archipelago, Cuba. The area in which this species is distributed is less than 2,400 km².
177833		habitat	eng	This is a mesophilic species which is found in broadleaf forest under surface debris.
177833		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177833		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to the rapidly increasing tourism development in the Archipíelago de los Canarreos, especially on Cayo Largo, where a number of large-capacity hotels have been constructed in recent years. Further development is likely. Also, sea level rise and increased storm intensity due to climate change could affect the low-elevation range of this species in the future.<br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>
177837		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present. Surveys targeting this species are needed.
177837		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is known from a single collection made in Nakutakoin (Dumbea district) in a patch of 3 km² of degraded dry forest (total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 3 km²). This collection dates back to 1992 and the species hasn't been observed since.
177837		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to a single dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests were probably characteristic of Noumea and its suburbs a century ago; they are now represented by a few relict and highly disturbed patches. The site where <em>C. neocaledonica</em> was recorded only once is impacted by grazing and trampling of cattle, deer and pigs. The understorey is extremely clear because most regeneration is consumed. The patch of forest is relatively isolated and there are few possibilities that the species is found elsewhere.
177837		population	eng	In its only known locations, <em>C. neocaledonica</em> is known from a single individual collected in 1992. The species was searched for without success in 2007. It may already be extinct.
177837		threats	eng	The only known specimen was collected in a patch of dry forest used by cattle, deer and pigs in a suburban area. It is extremely vulnerable to human activities, especially fire and agriculture. <em>Callerya</em> was collected for the first and last time in 1992; it has never been recorded since in spite of several attempts to find it. It is not known whether the species still exists in the wild.
177838		conservation	eng	This species has been grown from seeds taken from herbarium specimens and from seeds found in the earth around one of the extinct adult plant. It is know to be grown from cuttings and is also being tested in a tree nursery growing plants for public sale.
177838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is known from a single patch of degraded dry forest in Nakutakoin (Dumbea district). Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 2.5 km².
177838		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to a single dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests used to be common in Noumea and Dumbea. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat around urbanized zones.
177838		population	eng	When this species was discovered in 1992, two individuals had been seen. A few years later, one of the plants had died and the other could not be found. The species was considered extinct until three specimens were found in the same forest in July 2007. The current known population is actually only three individuals.
177838		threats	eng	All known specimens come from a patch of dry forest used by cattle, deer and pigs. The whole understorey from 0–1.80 m has been cleared by grazing, the ground is bare and no regeneration has been observed except for some toxic plants that are not consumed by animals. Because it is close to Noumea, the site, which is currently used for agriculture, may one day be divided into plots and become a housing estate.
177839		conservation	eng	The cliffs at Gohapin are not easily accessible; it is culturally taboo for local tribes to go there and access is strictly limited for most of them. There is no other protection for this habitat.
177839		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from a single valley in Gohapin (Poya) where it grows exclusively on calcareous cliffs. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 8 km².
177839		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to calcareous dry forest of Gohapin valley. The dry forest of Gohapin valley represents a very uncommon habitat; it is an inland dry forest (while most dry forests are coastal) scattered with steep calcareous cliffs. Dry forests in general are extremely impacted by human activities, especially agriculture and fires. The cliffs of Gohapin are a little more preserved first because they are inaccessible but also because they are culturally taboo for local tribes thus access is strictly limited for most of them. However they are not free from fires.
177839		population	eng	This is an extremely localized species that grows exclusively on inaccessible cliffs. Two locations are known but there may be more on unsurveyed cliffs. When present, the species can form dense subpopulations but always over very small areas.
177839		threats	eng	The major threat is uncontrolled fire that sweeps across lowland New Caledonia each year during the dry season.
177840		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area.
177840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Some subpopulations occur between north of Poya and south of Pouembout and two more in Voh and Koumac, respectively 40 and 60 km further north. It mostly grows on calcareous substrates. Its total extent of occurrence is 626 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
177840		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <em>Eugenia calcarea</em> prefers calcareous substrate.
177840		population	eng	Population size is unknown. When present, this species mostly occurs as rare and scattered individuals.
177840		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177841		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas.
177841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia where it is known from two patches of dry forest 38 km apart: one site (in the Pouembout region) is 34 ha; the other (in Poya region) is 36 ha. Its total extent of occurrence is 52.3 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.7 km².
177841		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177841		population	eng	The total population size is unknown. When present, this species occurs as rare and scattered individuals.
177841		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177842		conservation	eng	Management plans are being studied in order to protect and restore Lepredour island.
177842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations: one on Lepredour Island (Paita) and the other on the Montagnes peninsula (Boulouparis). These sites are 14 km apart and are separated by the sea. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.8 km².
177842		habitat	eng	This species endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. The two sites occupied by <em>E. lepredourii</em> are highly degraded forests with nearly no understorey because of high rates of predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), and, on Lepredour island, by rabbits (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>).
177842		population	eng	Population size is unknown. However, at the two sites where the species is known from it occurs as very rare and scattered individuals; there are likely to be fewer than 250 mature plants.
177842		threats	eng	The major threat is probably the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. Their impact is very high on the two sites where <em>E. lepredourii</em> occurs. Moreover, Lepredour island is also infested by rabbits (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>). Another threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177843		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one protected area.
177843		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs in two patches of dry forest a4 km apart in the Poya region. The areas of each of these sites are 11.5 ha and 31 ha. Its total extent of occurrence is 1.39 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.42 km².
177843		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177843		population	eng	The population size is unknown. In the fenced forest of M. Metzdorf (in homage to whom the plant has been named), Poya, a vigorous subpopulation of this species grows, made up of several individuals. <em>E. metzdorfii</em> is more discreet at its other site of occurrence, probably because of predation from which it is protected within the Metzdorf reserve.
177843		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177844		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.
177844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from old herbarium collections around Noumea where it probably used to be common. A few other scattered collections were made from Boulouparis, Bourail and Pouembout, and two more are from the east coast: one from Thio and a doubtful specimen from Yaté. Distances between these sites (respectively and from south to north) 54, 39, 29, 76 and 78 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 6,384 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 31.2 km².
177844		habitat	eng	This species seems to be tolerant in terms of habitat. It has been collected mostly in dry forests but also in maquis. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Maquis are also extremely vulnerable habitats because of the richness of their soil and their mining value.
177844		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177844		threats	eng	<em>H. leratiorum</em> apparently used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced its habitat. The species may already have disappeared from Noumea and its suburbs.<br/><br/>Outside of Noumea, it is threatened by lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. For all subpopulations in maquis, mining activity is the major threat.
177845		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected area.
177845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is present in Dumbea, la Foa, Bourail, Poya on the main island (Grande Terre), and also in Lifou (Loyalty Islands). On Grande Terre, distances between known sites (respectively and from south to north) are 81, 37 and 54 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 6,015 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
177845		habitat	eng	This species is present in dry forests (including calcareous forests) and also mentioned from serpentine forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Although estimates of areas lost have not been made, lowland mesic forests have also suffered a lot from urbanization, deforestation and fires.
177845		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177845		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177846		conservation	eng	Present in two protected areas.
177846		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is mostly found in Noumea, but there are also some isolated collections in Prony, Bourail, Poya and Pouembout. Distances between known sites are (respectively and from south to north) 50, 127, 32 and 38 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,789 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 44 km².
177846		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of dry forest plant species are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat.
177846		population	eng	Population size is unknown. In suitable habitat the species can be common. It is recorded from several locations around Noumea. However, the most recent of those collections was in 1968 for Noumea and 1984 for Baie de Tina, a little away from the Noumea urban zone. Therefore it is suspected that the species has disappeared from most of the urban locations.
177846		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. <em>J. noumeense</em> used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced its potentially available habitats and it is suspected that many old locations, known from herbarium collections, have now disappeared.
177847		conservation	eng	None in place for the moment.
177847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It has been collected in four locations along the main island (Grande Terre): Noumea, la Foa, Sarramea (col d'Amieu) and Nepoui. It is also mentioned from Pine Island (the type locality) where it is abundant (J-M Veillon, pers. comm.). It is suspected that the species is now extirpated from one of the localities on Grande Terre because of urbanization (Nouville, Tereka). In Pindaï, the subpopulation was observed in 2007. Its total extent of occurrence is 5,972 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².
177847		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forests (including calcareous forests) but it is also mentioned from mesic forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Lowland mesic forests have also suffered from urbanization, deforestation and fires.
177847		population	eng	Population size is unknown. When present, this species can be locally abundant over small areas then absent in surrounding areas. This pattern may be due to poor long distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers.
177847		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177848		conservation	eng	This species is located on a private land. The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) is actively working on this site. The whole area is now fenced but herds of deer are still inside the reserve. Restoration of a fenced two-hectare plot is being worked on and many scientific studies are carried out on this site, especially on the impact of deer on the habitat. <em>O. inventorum</em> studied in this site have shown very high impact of Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) on the species.
177848		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs in a single patch of 58 ha of dry forest (total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.58 km²) located in a private land in Paita region.
177848		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to a single dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177848		population	eng	In its only known location, this species is common and the population of adult trees may be of more than a couple of hundred individuals. However, there is very little regeneration due to intense predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) and most of the population consists of adult trees. There is concern over the long term viability of the population.
177848		threats	eng	This species is restricted to a 58 ha degraded forest area located on a peninsula, in the middle of grassland. Dry forest must have once covered the whole peninsula but the introduction of deer and goats, and successive fires have devastated the area. Goats have been nearly eradicated from the area but predation by deer is still so strong that there is nearly no understorey remaining. The whole forest only consists of adult trees and few juveniles of species that are toxic to the deer. Studies have shown that <em>Ochrosia inventorum</em> suffers high predation by deer and regeneration of that species in the area is close to zero.
177850		conservation	eng	This species is present in two protected areas. More than 200 juveniles have been planted <em>ex situ</em> in three different sites.
177850		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. Today it is restricted to remnant patches of dry forests. Its southestern localities are in Noumea and Paita. It is also recorded as present in Pouembout, Koumac and Poum with distances between known sites (respectively and from south to north) 190, 93 and 63 km. The species is also mentioned from some islands off Grande Terre.
177850		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests where it can tolerates different types of substrates. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177850		population	eng	Population size is not known. When present, the species is never abundant and typically appears as scattered individuals.
177850		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177851		conservation	eng	Pindai forest is being provided with firewalls and freshwater tanks to prevent and fight fires.
177851		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to Pindai dry forest in the Nepoui region. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are is 0.55 km².
177851		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177851		population	eng	In its unique locality of occurrence, this species can be very locally common. The population size is unknown but probably does not exceed a couple of hundred individuals.
177851		threats	eng	A single dramatic event could eradicate the whole population of this species, especially fires, which are common in such dry habitats and can spread rapidly. Management of fires become extremely hard to control when there is no immediate source of freshwater. Moreover, dry forest remnants are highly impacted by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which grazes all vegetation that is reachable for them, resulting in understoreys being cleared of vegetation between 0–1,80 m high.
177852		conservation	eng	This species is not present in any protected area but the site of Pindai forest (Nepoui region) where it has couple of healthy subpopulations, and it is provided with fresh water tanks and firewalls to prevent fires.
177852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from three locations: Bourail, Nepoui (Poya) and Koumac with each locality separated respectively by distances of 65 and 113 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,008 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 16 km².
177852		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests where it can tolerate various substrates. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177852		population	eng	The population size is unknown. When present, the species can be locally abundant and forms dense subpopulations of hundreds of individuals over very small areas, then it can be totally absent from surrounding areas. This pattern may be due to poor long-distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers.
177852		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177853		conservation	eng	Present in a partly protected area (the area is fenced but there are deer inside). Studies are ongoing on regeneration on this site. This species is cultivated <em>ex situ</em>.
177853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. There are two small sites occupied by the species in the Paita region, and two older collections (1870 and 1977) with imprecise and doubtful localities: one in Dumbea and the other in Koh (south of Kouaoua). Distances between sites are 10 and 92 km (in straight line). Its total extent of occurrence is 480 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 16 km².
177853		habitat	eng	A population of <em>P. eugenioides</em> is known from the dry forest of Pointe Maa, another one is from the dry/mesic forest of Nakutakoin. The other locations are imprecise. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177853		population	eng	In the dry forest of Pointe Maa (Paita), the <em>P. eugenioides</em> subpopulation is significant, with several dozens of mature trees. In Nakutakoin, it also forms dense and healthy population of several hundreds individuals. The other sites are old collections and no observations have been made on those subpopulations. In Pointe Maa, the recruitment is very weak due to intense predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) and the subpopulation mostly consists of adult trees. In Nakutakoin it does regenerate well despite the presence of deer and pigs.
177853		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177854		conservation	eng	The species is not included neither in international laws nor in the local legislation. Some populations occur inside SCIs (IT9330184 Scogliera di Stalettì, IT9340091 Zona costiera tra Briatico e Nicotera) and ZPS (IT9350300 Costa Viola).<br/>It is one of the target species of the project GENMEDOC.
177854		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium calabrum</span> is an endemic species from southern Italy, administrative region of Calabria, where it grows in cliffs between 1 and 15 m asl (Uzunov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Its EOO is 96 km² and the AOO is 24 km².
177854		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium calabrum</span> is characteristic for sea cliffs where it grows with <span style="font-style: italic;">Inula crithmoides </span>L. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithmum maritimum </span>L. (Uzunov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
177854		population	eng	The species grows in four subpopulations near Catanzaro, Vibo Valentia and Reggio Calabria. They are very far from each other and the species can be considered severely fragmented. There is probably no genetic exchange between the extant subpopulations (Uzunov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
177854		threats	eng	There are two major threats affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">L. calabrum</span>: Firstly the building of tourist facilities (e.g., roads, hotels, etc.) very close to coastline. Secondly, the trampling by collectors of buds and fruits of <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis orientalis</span>.
177855		conservation	eng	Present in two protected areas.
177855		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. It has been recorded from Noumea, Paita, Boulouparis, Bourail, Poya, Pouembout and Koumac but the last herbarium collection dates back from 1992. It is suspected that the species has now been extirpated from many of its recorded localities because of habitat loss.
177855		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <em>P. incisum</em> is found in dry forest <em>sensu stricto</em> but it also grows on calcareous substrates.
177855		population	eng	Population size is unknown but when present, the species always occurs as rare and scattered individuals.
177855		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177856		conservation	eng	The species is not included neither in international or national legislation nor in protected areas. However, it is the target of an <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation programme of the Botanic Garden of Messina, where some plants are cultivated (Picone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).<br/><br/>The natural population is monitored <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>.
177856		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Sicily where a unique small population in the area of Messina is known, that corresponds to the <span style="font-style: italic;">locus classicus </span>(Crisafulli and Picone 2010). The EOO is 1 km² and the AOO is 4 km².
177856		habitat	eng	The species is termophilous and grows on cliffs (Crisafulli and Picone 2010).
177856		population	eng	It is known from only one population at Capo Alì, near Messina at the northeastern coast of Sicily.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium sibthorpianum</span> grows on the edge of the road S.S.114 "Orientale Sicula". This unique population counts five adult individuals and there is no <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>reproduction (Crisafulli and Picone 2010).
177856		threats	eng	The most impacting threat is represented by the road management (Crisafulli and Picone 2010).
177857		conservation	eng	The largest subpopulation is located on a private land. The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) is actively working on this site. It has already financed a fence, restoration of a two-hectare plot is being achieved and many scientific studies are done on this site. Still the impact of Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) is very high on the site and the restoration process is still in its initial stages.
177857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to two small patches of residual dry forest, 5 km apart, located on private lands in Paita region. One site is in Pointe Maa peninsula; the other is in Gadji Bay. Its total extent of occurrence is 7.4 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.86 km².
177857		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177857		population	eng	The total population size is unknown. In Pointe Maa, the species is locally common and the subpopulation of adult trees may form several tenths of adults in the global population. However, there is very little regeneration due to intense predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>). The Gadji subpopulation is not known; the species has been referred to only once from that site.
177857		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177858		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area.
177858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is known from six locations all in Poya region. Its total extent of occurrence is 322 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
177858		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical dry forests and is exceptionally met on ultramafic soils. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Because of the richness of their soil and their mining value, vegetation on ultramafic soils often are very impacted habitats.
177858		population	eng	The population size is unknown. When present, the species usually occurs as rare and scattered individuals but it can sometimes forms small groups of less than ten individuals. Little regeneration has been observed around adult trees.
177858		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. For all subpopulations in maquis, mining is the major threat.
177859		conservation	eng	Two populations of <em>T. inopinata</em> are now located in protected areas. Eighty one individuals have been grown from seeds and planted in two different protected areas. Because of its high agricultural potential due to its remarkable pink flowers, <em>Turbina</em> has been promoted for production by private nursery gardeners. Its commercialisation is beginning and <em>Turbina</em> are slowly colonizing private gardens.
177859		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two localities in Pouembout and one in Poya, and there is also one recent collection (2007) from Paita. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,110 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 28 km².
177859		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177859		population	eng	Until the beginning of 2007, this species was known only from a couple of individuals. In 2006, 21 new individuals where discovered in a dry forest patch in Pouembout, and in 2007 another one was discovered in Paita. The oldest collection of <em>T. inopinata</em> was a sample without date and without precise locality from Paita and the species has never been seen there until the 2007 record which reconfirms the species' presence there.
177859		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177860		conservation	eng	The four known populations are located in fenced areas.
177860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations between Noumea and Paita, and from one location 155 km north in Poya region. Its total extent of occurrence is 799 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 28 km².
177860		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177860		population	eng	The population size is unknown but when present, it is always a discreet species that occurs as rare and isolated individuals.
177860		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177861		conservation	eng	This species is present in four protected areas.
177861		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along the west coast. Today it is scattered between remnant patches of dry forest in Noumea, Paita, Moindou, Poya and Pouembout with distances between sites ranging between 12 and 70 km.
177861		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177861		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but where it is present, the species is never common is mostly appears as rare and scattered individuals.
177861		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177862		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Muscari gussonei</span> on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)</a>. <br/></p><p>Seeds from all the known populations have being collecting to ensure appropriate <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation of the species.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
177862		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is a narrow endemic to the Gulf of Gela in Sicily, Italy (Pignatti 1982, Brullo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It occurs at four locations and has an area of occupancy of 40 km².<br/></p>
177862		habitat	eng	It grows on sandy beaches and dunes partially protected from the action of the wind and with stabilized substrate (Brullo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">L. gussonei</span> characterizes the vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpio-Leopoldietum gussonei </span>(order <span style="font-style: italic;">Malcolmietalia</span>) (Brullo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  1974).<br/><br/>This plant is found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6220 "Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span>"   <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Commission of the European Communities 2009).
177862		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. gussonei</span> was more widespread in the past in the Province of Ragusa and Caltanissetta, but after a field survey in 2008 and 2009, only seven sites have been recorded: 1. Poggio Arena (Gela); 2. Santa Lucia (Gela); 3. Biviere di Gela; 4. C.da Mignechi (Gela); 5. Passo Marinaro (Vittoria); 6. Cava Randello (Vittoria); 7. Pineta di Vittoria (Cundari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Brullo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The biggest population counts 1,000 individuals.<br/><br/>Seeds have a high rate of germination, but a scarce dispersal ability (Brullo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
177862		threats	eng	The most important threats are posed by agriculture in greenhouses that affect the species through different ways: the habitat destruction due to greenhouse building and use of pesticides illegally discharged outside the greenhouses. Other threats are the coastline erosion that reach in some place 200 m, nomadic livestock grazing and infrastructure development for tourism (Brullo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
177863		conservation	eng	Present in four protected areas
177863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from Poya and Pouembout where it has been recorded from five locations. Its total extent of occurrence is 95 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
177863		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177863		population	eng	The population size is unknown but when present, this species always occurs as rare and scattered individuals.
177863		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177864		conservation	eng	The only known individuals are all within in a 38 ha fenced reserve.
177864		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is only known from two locations in Tina Bay (Nouméa). One site is a 38 ha, fenced and protected forest; the other is a small very degraded patch close to Tjibaou Cultural Center. These two sites are probably remnants of a past extended forest where <em>Tinadendron noumeanum</em> used to be common. However, intense urbanization around Noumea have considerably reduced natural habitat, leading many species like <em>Tinadendron noumeanum</em> to a critical conservation status.
177864		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the dry forests of Tina Bay (Noumea). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.<br/><br/>Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of dry forest’s plant species are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat.
177864		population	eng	Recent investigations have led to the census of 20 individuals scattered in a fenced reserve close to Noumea and one individual in another degraded patch of forest some kilometres away. Most of the population disappeared in 1999 due to the construction of a highway (Achille 2006). A 38 ha fenced reserve was created to protect the remaining population. A residual subpopulation recorded from a bicycle trail close to the "Centre Culturel Tjibaou" seems to have entirely disappeared due to illegal clear cutting for agricultural purpose (Suprin pers. comm.).
177864		threats	eng	<em>T. noumeanum</em> apparently used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced the potential available habitats for this species.
177865		conservation	eng	The growing site of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. moriasianus </span>is included in a SCI (site of community interest) "Is Compinxius-Campo dunale di Buggerru – Portixeddu” (ITB042247) and the species is the subject of a conservation project, PRIN, entitled "Conservazione ex situ e caratterizzazione tassonomica, ecofisiologica e genetica di specie minacciate della flora spontanea italiana".<br/><br/>Seeds of the species are stored in the Seed Bank of Sardinia (BG-SAR).
177865		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> morisianus</span> is endemic to southwest Sardinia, where it grows in a single population. It has an EOO and an AOO of 4 km².
177865		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus morisianus </span>grows on stabilized dunes, with high amount of organic matter, quite far from the coast (Fenu<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
177865		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dianthus morisianus</span> occurs in one population near Portixeddu, corresponding to the <span style="font-style: italic;">locus classicus,</span> in stabilized sandy dunes. The number of individuals is unknown.
177865		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are associated with the exploitation of the sites for recreational purposes and for agriculture. In particular a large plantation of conifers has modified part of the dunes. Moreover, trampling by tourists is affecting the species.<br/><br/>Other threats are the risk of fire and inbreeding depression due to the small size of the population (Fenu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
177866		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place and because the species has been recently described it is not included in any national or international legislation. It is not included in any protected area.
177866		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea corensis </span>is an endemic species from Sardinia (Italy), where it grows in a single small population in the province of Sassari in northwest Sardinia (Filigheddu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). The EOO is 0.019 km².<br/><br/>Due to its extreme rarity the precise locality is not revealed.
177866		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea corensis</span> grows on miocenic limestone with <span style="font-style: italic;">Limonium racemosum,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus capitatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anagallis monelli</span> (Filigheddu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press).
177866		population	eng	The only population of the species counts 5,000 mature individuals. The population trend is declining following the declining of the EOO of about 50% in the last 20 years and the decline of habitat quality (Filigheddu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).
177866		threats	eng	Some quarries and a crossroad are very close to the area where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. corensis</span> lives, but the most important threat is a restaurant built 20 years ago that destroyed 50% of the population and affects the remnant population as this one can not expand and suffers from impact posed by the visitors (Filigheddu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).
177867		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callianthemum kernerianum </span>does not require urgent conservation measures. Nevertheless, a monitoring program was started in 2010 with the aim of monitoring the population trend and studying the species biology.<br/><br/>Fences and a change of trekking paths should be taken into account to mitigate plant damage in those areas where trampling is more intense (Bonomi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Callianthemum kernerianum</span> is protected in Veneto and Trentino Alto-Adige by regional law (Anchisi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). It is listed as Vulnerable in the Italian Red List of Vascular Plants (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992) and as Lower Risk in the Regional Red List of the Italian Vascular Plants (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The species is cultivated at the Botanical Garden of Ferrara del Monte Baldo (Verona) and at the Botanical Garden of Viotte (Trento).
177867		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callianthemum kernerianum</span> occurs only at Mt. Baldo, Provinces of Trento and Verona, with 17 subpopulations (Prosser 2000). Other growing sites recorded in the past have not been confirmed.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO) are 20 km² as the species grows along a narrow mountain ridge.
177867		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callianthemum kernerianum</span> grows on limestone in subalpine pastures between 1,500 and 2,100 m asl. It suffers from competition with other herbs and can also grow in rocky areas adjacent to grassland (Bonomi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).
177867		population	eng	The species grows in about 17 subpopulations distributed on the top of the Mt. Baldo ridge. The whole population is very large and it is estimated to be larger than 3 million of individuals.<br/><br/>It is a self-compatible, diploid (2n = 32) species with 50% of autogamous reproduction and 50% of cross reproduction. It probably spreads vegetatively (G. Parolo pers. obs. 2010). The pollen viability is probably very reduced and the seed production is also low (about 30%).<br/><br/>The population trend seems to be stable, but a population reduction in the near future is possible, due to increased tourist impact (trekking and <span style="background-color: white;">skiing)</span> and to encroachment after the abandonment of the grasslands by livestock (cows). Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kernerianum</span> suffers from competition with some shrubs such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron</span> spp. (Bonomi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).
177867		threats	eng	The main threat is the decrease in habitat quality due to two main factors that affect only some subpopulations: Firstly, the human disturbance due to tourist trampling as some populations are crossed by paths with high tourist frequentation during the summer months. Secondly, soil removal in preparation for winter skiing activities (Bonomi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).
177868		conservation	eng	This species is present in three protected areas.
177868		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is found from Moindou to Pouembout. Its total extent of occurrence is 447 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².
177868		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177868		population	eng	The total population size is unknown but in Nekoro, it forms vigorous populations that can be locally dominant in certain areas then totally absent from the surrounding areas.
177868		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is very rare on the main island (Grande Terre) but it is common in the calcareous forests of the Loyalty islands. On Grande Terre, it has been collected in Bourail in the "Guaro Deva" area and in Koumac, 160 km further north. The species is common on two of the Loyalty Islands: Maré and Lifou.
177869		habitat	eng	This species inhabits calcareous dry forests. It is threatened on Grande Terre where dry forests in general are endangered and dry forests on calcareous forests are an uncommon habitat. However, populations in the Loyalty Islands are well preserved.
177869		population	eng	The subpopulation on Grande Terre must be very small, but the subpopulation occurring in the Loyalty islands is significant (J-M Veillon pers. comm.).
177869		threats	eng	For the subpopulation(s) on Grande Terre, The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. Another threat is the loss genetic diversity if the subpopulation on Grande Terre is lost. Currently the species is well preserved in the Loyalty Islands.
177870		conservation	eng	Present in one protected area.
177870		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations: one in Pouembout and one in Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 57.4 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 8 km².
177870		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177870		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177870		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177871		conservation	eng	This species is present in one protected area.
177871		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast but today it is restricted to remnant patches of dry forests. It is recorded from Prony, Noumea, Paita, Bourail, Poya, Koné, Voh and Poum with some gaps in the distribution as large as 104 and 95 km. Records from all but one locality date from before 1990. Considering the rate of extinction of dry forest patches, it is suspected that this species has been extirpated from many of these sites. Its total extent of occurrence is 8,836 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 53 km².
177871		habitat	eng	This species is mostly present in dry forests but it is exceptionally met in maquis. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177871		population	eng	The population size is unknown but when present, the species appears as rare and scattered individuals.
177871		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177872		conservation	eng	None.
177872		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It has been collected all along the main island (Grande Terre) as well as in Belep. However some varieties are extremely localized.
177872		habitat	eng	This species is found in maquis, shrubland, forests and on ultrabasic soils.
177872		population	eng	Where present, this species usually forms dense subpopulations.
177872		threats	eng	General threats to this species are urbanisation, fires, mining and introduced species.
177873		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in lowland dry habitats like dry shrubland and dry forests. The three varieties are highly localized, one in the Tontouta basin, the two others on coastal forests north west of Nouméa. Its total area of occupancy is 12 km².
177873		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in dry habitats, shrubland or forests.
177873		population	eng	When present, this species usually forms dense subpopulations.
177873		threats	eng	Major threats are agriculture, urbanization, fires and mining.
177874		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are needed at present.
177874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Mostly it is found in lowland areas, and more rarely it occurs at medium elevations, on the main island (Grande Terre) and on Lifou (Loyalty Islands).
177874		habitat	eng	This species grows in forests and shrublands, on calcareous or schistose-sandy substrates.
177874		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177874		threats	eng	There are no major threats that are causing serious concerns for this species at present.
177875		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.
177875		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Ceylon gardens, in Tanzania and maybe in Kenya. In New Caledonia one of the two subspecies is common on the north east and in the centre of the main island (Grande Terre). The other subspecies is restricted to Noumea and suburbs.
177875		habitat	eng	This species grows in wet forest, on riverbanks at 160–600 m altitude on schists, and in dry coastal forests at 5–50 m altitude on schists and calcareous soils.
177875		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
177875		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be causing serious concerns for this species at present.
177876		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.
177876		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs throughout the main island (Grande Terre), on Pine Island and in the Loyalty Islands.
177876		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from forests (including coastal forest, rain forest and sclerophyllous forest), thickets, maquis and open places; mainly on calcareous or ultramafic terrains, rarely on phtanites.
177876		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177876		threats	eng	There are no major threats causing serious concern for this species at present.
177877		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.
177877		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is widely distributed in the southern half of the country.
177877		habitat	eng	This species grows on wet forest (<em>I. oligantha</em> var. <em>oligantha</em>) and dry forest (<em>I. oligantha</em> var. <em>opuloides</em>).
177877		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177877		threats	eng	The subpopulations of dry forests are threatened by agriculture, urbanisation, fires and introduced species.
177879		conservation	eng	Site based actions are impending, but nothing has been done for the conservation of this species yet. Survey targeting this species are needed.
177879		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia where it is known from a single collection from a dry forest in Bourail region. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 4 km².
177879		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177879		population	eng	This species is known from a single herbarium specimen.
177879		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177880		conservation	eng	Not present in any protected area in the wild but is cultivated <em>ex situ</em> and studied for its commercial potential as an ornamental.
177880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is recorded from Noumea and Paita, then occurs 50 km north in Boulouparis. Its presence is also mentioned in Lifou and Pine island (Loyalty Islands). This fragmented distribution might be the illustration of a declining species that once was common on the west coast and surrounding islands. The species may have become extirpated at one location because of collection for its ornamental qualities. Its total extent of occurrence is 4,164 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².
177880		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177880		population	eng	Population size is unknown but this species has mostly been collected as single individuals. In Noumea it is sympatric with <em>Oxera pulchella</em> ssp. <em>grandiflora</em> from which it is difficult to distinguish by appearance.
177880		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177881		conservation	eng	The forest that holds this species is fenced. A deer eradication programme is ongoing.
177881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is restricted to two patches of forest in the Poya region. One is located in a protected area (Nekoro), the other in Avangui, close to Nekoro. Its total extent of occurrence is 10.7 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 2.51 km².
177881		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177881		population	eng	Population size is unknown; the species is known only from three herbarium specimens.
177881		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177894		conservation	eng	Unknown.
177894		distribution	eng	This New Caledonian subspecies is common in the northeast and in the centre of the main island. It is also present in Vanuatu after a past introduction of the plant there.
177894		habitat	eng	In secondary rainforest, on riverbanks between 160-600 m altitude, on schists.
177894		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177894		threats	eng	There are no major threats causing serious concerns for this species at present.
177896		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
177896		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the northern tip of Madagascar. Its range is a small montane locality at Joffreville which is in close proximity to the port Antsiranana.
177896		habitat	eng	This species is found within a habitat that includes dry forests and savannas. It is often seen in gardens and at the edges of fields (Henkel and Schmidt 2000).
177896		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177896		threats	eng	This species is found in an area that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to urban expansion.
177897		conservation	eng	This variety is present in two protected areas.
177897		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from four locations: one in Bourail; three in Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 56 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².
177897		habitat	eng	This variety is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177897		population	eng	The population size is unknown. The Nekoro site (Poya) probably holds the largest population. This variety has an aggregate distribution: it can be common over small areas than totally absent from surrounding areas.
177897		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177900		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.
177900		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout the main island (Grande Terre), on Pine Island and in the Loyalty Islands.
177900		habitat	eng	Recorded from forest (including coastal forest, rain forest and sclerophyllous forest), thickets, maquis and open places. Mainly on calcareous or ultramafic terrains, rarely on phtanites.
177900		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
177900		threats	eng	There are no major threats causing serious concerns for this species at present.
177901		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and habitat status should be carried out to ensure that habitat loss is not negatively affecting this species in the future.
177901		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes in the Napo and Pastaza provinces of Ecuador, as far south as Zamora-Chinchipe. This species is found up to an altitude of 2,100 m above sea level.
177901		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane tropical forest habitat.
177901		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177901		threats	eng	This species is threatened by burning and logging of the forest for timber and agricultural expansion, in particular for coffee plantations. This is causing ongoing habitat loss and degradation within the species' range. However, the peak of deforestation occurred in the first part of the 20th century, and is likely not to be causing severe declines in this species at present.
177902		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats, habitat status and population numbers of this species is suggested in order to assess how and to what extent localized mining may affect this species.
177902		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northwestern Australia. It is distributed in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, from the northwest coast east to Marble Bar and south to Hamersley Range, Mundiwindi and Paraburdoo.
177902		habitat	eng	Shrubland is the common habitat in which this species may be found, although it is not commonly found because of its subterranean habit. <em>V. annulata</em>, to which this used to be a subspecies, occurs in all habitats.
177902		population	eng	This species is poorly collected (Teale 2002).
177902		threats	eng	Mining activity occurs within parts of this species' range. This may be causing a population decline due to habitat degradation, though only on a local scale.
177903		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It does occur in the Parque Natural Topes de Collantes. More research is needed into the habitat preferences, population trends and threats of this species. The establishment and management of new protected areas is needed to provide a refuge for this species from habitat loss.
177903		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba and restricted to the Sierra de Trinidad which has an area of approximately 608 km<sup>2</sup>.
177903		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in broadleaf forest. Specimens have been found along trails and adjacent to roads.
177903		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177903		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to expanding agricultural industry and urbanization.
177904		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, for example it is likely to occur in the Sierra de Bahoruco National Park and Pic Macaya National Park. Further research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, population trends and habitats are suggested.
177904		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Haiti and the southwest Dominican Republic. Schwartz and Henderson (1991) report that this species occurs in the Massif de la Hotte, where it is known from a single locality. The area in which this species is distributed approximates 4,891 km<sup>2</sup>. The species is found between 760 and 2,440 m above sea level.
177904		habitat	eng	This species ocurrs in pine woods and forests, often in disturbed areas.
177904		population	eng	Population data are unavailable for this species; however, cybotoid anoles are typically common to abundant where present (G. Mayer pers. comm. 2010).
177904		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss throughout most of its range due to high levels of deforestation for agricultural land and urbanization.
177905		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, for example it occurs in the Gran Parque Nacional Sierra Maestra, Parque Nacional de Turquino, and may occur in Baconao Biosphere Reserve. More research is needed into the biology and ecology, habitat preferences, and threats to this species, and monitoring of its populataion and habitat status is also required.
177905		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in south east Cuba, from the Sierra Maestra and Sierra del Cobre, and occurs in three locations (K. de Queiroz pers. comm. 2010). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 1,043 km<sup>2</sup> and is found between elevations of 800 and 2,000 m above sea level (Rodirguez-Schettino <em>et al.</em> 1999).
177905		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane forest, and individuals are often found on ferns and grasses.
177905		population	eng	There is little population information available for this species; however&#160;Rodriguez-Schettino&#160;(1999:289) notes that "the population living at Pico Turquino is abundant from approximately 800 to 1,500 m above sea level; at higher altitudes, it becomes scarce."
177905		threats	eng	In the past, this species was threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation for agriculture, plantations and urbanization, and degradation by mining activity. However, these are no longer considered major threats as the species now occurs in a protected area which due to its elevation has not suffered severely from deforestation.
177906		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, for example La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve. Further research into the threats and their effects on the population, as well as the species' habitat preferences is required. Also research into the taxonomy of the species is needed to solve some of the uncertainty surrounding it.
177906		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chiapas, Mexico, to central Guatemala, along the Pacific versant below 1,500 m elevation (Köhler and Acevedo 2004, Köhler 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 13,100 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;<p><br/></p>
177906		habitat	eng	Based on the Pacific lowland distribution of this species (Köhler 2010), the habitat of this species is most likely mixed savanna and semi-deciduous forest (Stuart 1943), as well as evergreen forests.
177906		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177906		threats	eng	This species' likely habitat was and remains under threat from habitat conversion for development and agriculture. This has been particularly noted for the Pacific lowlands of Mexico and Central America (Duellmann 1999, Stuart 1943). However, it is unknown how this is affecting the species.
177907		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, habitat status and threats to this species. Monitoring of populations and habitat is also needed to ensure declines in population or area of occupancy lead to classification in a higher threat category. and that appropriate conservation measures are taken. The establishment and management of new protected areas is needed to provide safeguards for this species.
177907		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the island of Saint Martin (Lazell 1972), which has an area of approximately 87 km<sup>2</sup>. It does not occur uniformly across the island: "presently confined to ravines in the interior uplands of St. Martin" (Lazell 1972), so its area of occupancy is inferred to be less than 87 km<sup>2</sup>. It is also known to have occurred on Anguilla, where it is now apparently extinct; however, this is based on only a few specimens collected some years ago (K. de Queiroz pers. comm. 2010). It also may once have occurred on Saint Barthélémy (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
177907		habitat	eng	Lazell (1972) states this species is confined to ravines in upland areas, particularly in the interior of Saint Martin.
177907		population	eng	This species was described as "abundant (at least at some locations), likely to be encountered within a few minutes of searching in appropriate habitat" (Powell 2006). Schwartz and Henderson (1991) give density data of 440 to 5,680 per hectare.
177907		threats	eng	There is no information on the current threats of this species. Due to this species' small area of occupancy there is an inherent threat of decline if population numbers are also low, due to effects of inbreeding and demographic&#160;stochasticity. This species has already become extinct on at least one island and therefore more research into the current threats is needed. Possible reasons for the previous extinctions on Anguilla include the introduction of mammalian predators and habitat loss and degradation.
177908		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.
177908		distribution	eng	This species inhabits south and central Yemen. Specifically, it is known from Wadis below Mt. Manif, Aden, Hadramaur, Lahej, the Jimil Valley, Abian Hill Country, Bir Fukom, Shugra, Bal-Haf-Azzan, and Wadi Irma (Salvador 1982).
177908		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deserts, dry shrublands and savanna.
177908		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177908		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177911		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat preferences, population, and possible threats to the species should be carried out.
177911		distribution	eng	The full distribution of this African species is not known, however, it has been found in Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. It is also possibly found in Djibouti.
177911		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
177911		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177911		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threats.
177912		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this region, such as greater management of protected areas. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population and habitat monitoring is recommended.
177912		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil, from the states of Bahia, Ceará, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Paraiba, Pernambuco and Piauí.
177912		habitat	eng	This species is an arboreal to sub-arboreal species found in the Atlantic Forest and Caatinga dry forest habitat.
177912		population	eng	This species is rare (A. Lima pers. comm.).
177912		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to illegal extraction of timber, and urban and agricultural expansion. Only 6% of the original extent of Atlantic Forest remains and the habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented (A. Lima pers. comm.). However, much of the forest loss in the area happened several decades ago.
177920		conservation	eng	This variety is not present in any protected area.
177920		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to the main island (Grande Terre) where it is known from Paita, Boulouparis, Poya, Pouembout, and also one collection from the east coast in Thio. Distance between sites can be as far as 145 km. The unique collection from the east coast date back to 1871. This variety hasn't been collected since 1988. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,839 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².
177920		habitat	eng	This variety has always been found in dry forest (including calcareous forest) except for one specimen collected on ultramafic soil. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177920		population	eng	The population size is unknown. This variety is mostly known from individual collections.
177920		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177921		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to the main island (Grande Terre) where it is known only from the general vicinity of Poya. The last collection date back to 1982; it hasn't been recorded since. Its total extent of occurrence is 8.5 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 8 km².
177921		habitat	eng	This variety is recorded from coastal and ravine forest, on ultramafic terrain.
177921		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
177921		threats	eng	The major threat is mining. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880’s and has adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. These deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing their antlers against tree stems. Uncontrolled fires, which sweep across the lowland of New Caledonia each year during the dry season, have slowly transformed lowlands forests into niaouli savannnas and grasslands.
177928		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
177928		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern deserts of the regions of Antofagasta, Atacama and Coquimbo, Chile.
177928		habitat	eng	This species is known from hot desert with very little shrub cover (up to 10%).
177928		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177928		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
177929		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution, habitat status and threats to this little known species is required. Population monitoring is also recommended.
177929		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be known only from its type locality, Los Quenes, Cordillera de Curico, Maule, Chile. However, it may also occur in the surrounding suitable habitat.
177929		habitat	eng	This species was collected from an area where the habitat is Chilean shrubland.
177929		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177929		threats	eng	This species is known from a heavily populated area of Chile, where ongoing urban expansion and infrastructure developments are potential threats to the species.
177930		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. &#160;Part of this species' distribution is located in a National Park: Parque Nacional Perito Moreno, which will afford it protection from the majority of threats.
177930		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Argentina where it is found in Santa Cruz Province, around Lago Belgrano. This species is reported between 1,000 and 1,300 m above sea level.
177930		habitat	eng	This species inhabits basaltic plateaus with shrubs and grass clumps. It is viviparous and insectivorous (F. Cruz pers. comm.)
177930		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177930		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
177931		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
177931		distribution	eng	This species is found in the provinces of Chubut and Rio Negro, Argentina, in the Somuncura Plateau and the surrounding area, and south as far as Colhue Huapi Lake. The species is found between approximately 40 and 46 degrees latitude south and between 350 and 1,400 m above sea level.
177931		habitat	eng	This species is omnivorous and inhabits the Patagonian steppe.
177931		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177931		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
177932		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into habitat status, threats and range of this species is required.
177932		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two collection localities in the southern part of the Rio Negro Province of Argentina. The first is on the Somuncura Plateau, and the second approximately 30 km south of the town of Ingeniero Jacobacci. It is found between 1,200 and 1,600 m above sea level.
177932		habitat	eng	This species is found in Patagonian steppe habitat.
177932		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177932		threats	eng	There are potential threats to this species as overgrazing has degraded the natural habitat in many parts of the Patagonian steppe. However, as its range is not well known, it is not known whether this is a direct threat to the species.
177933		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the habitat and threats of this species.
177933		distribution	eng	This species is found in the province of Chubut, Argentina, in central coastal areas. It has a distributional area of 7,885 km².
177933		habitat	eng	This species is found in Patagonian steppe and shrubland.
177933		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
177933		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened in some places where overgrazing from domestic livestock has caused degradation of the natural vegetation. However, the extent to which this species may be impacted is unknown.
177937		conservation	eng	Surveys targeting this species are needed.
177937		distribution	eng	This plant is known from only a single collection dating from 1983 on the Koniambo mountain in Koné.
177937		habitat	eng	The only known specimen of this variety comes from low dense forest on ultrabasic soil.
177937		population	eng	Known from a single herbarium collection.
177937		threats	eng	The unique location is on the Koniambo mountain over which there is one of the biggest mining project of the country.
177941		conservation	eng	None for the moment.
177941		distribution	eng	This plant is only known from two peninsulas located 20 km apart in Poya region of New Caledonia. Its total extent of occurrence is 3.38 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.61 km².
177941		habitat	eng	This variety is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177941		population	eng	Population size is unknown. When present, this variety can be locally abundant with a patchy distribution. In Pindai it forms dense subpopulations over small surfaces then it is absent from adjacent areas.
177941		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177942		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place or are needed at present.
177942		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia where it is widely distributed on the main island (Grande Terre). It occurs from south to the extreme north, mainly on the east coast but some collections have been made from the west coast in the north half of the island.
177942		habitat	eng	This is a tolerant variety that can grow on many different substrates.
177942		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown but this variety is common.
177943		conservation	eng	This taxon is present in three protected areas.
177943		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is mostly found in Poya region but one isolated collection is recorded 110 km south in a peninsula of Paita (Montagnes peninsula) and another one 240 km north from Isle Pott in Belep Islands. Its total extent of occurrence is 5,740 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 25 km².
177943		habitat	eng	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.
177943		population	eng	The population size is unknown. When present, <em>Elaeodendron pininsulare</em> ssp. <em>poyaensis</em> is never abundant and usually appears as rare and scattered individuals.
177943		threats	eng	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.
177944		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
177944		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Andes in Peru and northern Chile, and probably also Bolivia.
177944		habitat	eng	This species is known from xeric habitats. It is a viviparous species.
177944		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
177944		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178027		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178027		distribution	eng	This species was originally only known from New Britain in the Bismarck archipelago (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994, Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Study of museum specimens shows it to also occur in the northeast quadrant of Papua New Guinea, New Ireland (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999) and possibly the northern tip of Queensland   (the latter is based on a single, very old museum specimen without detailed locality data; S. Sweet pers. comm., Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). A similar species often referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus finschi</span> occurs on the Kei Islands, southwest of New Guinea, but its assignment to this species is provisional (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178027		habitat	eng	This species is often confused with <em>V. indicus</em>, leading to limited habitat information available for<em> </em>this species  (Philipp<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, S. Sweet pers. comm.). It appears to occur in forests and forages principally on the ground, in mangroves, lowland forest and second-growth forest (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178027		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178027		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats. It is rarely used in the pet trade, mainly due to effective prohibition of exports from Papua New Guinea (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178028		conservation	eng	All Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.), and this species occurs within areas which are either conservation reserves or Aboriginal land. Research into the population status of this species should be carried out and habitat monitoring may be required to ensure that the threat of increased fire frequency does not become more widespread in <em>Allosyncarpia</em>-dominated monsoon forests. As with many monitor species, gene sequencing studies are needed to resolve the potential species complex (E. Pianka pers. comm.).
178028		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from western Kimberley in Western Australia, to the northwestern tip of the Northern Territory (Sweet 2004). An isolated population is located in the Arnhem Land Escarpment (Sweet 2004). The species has also been collected from the Bonaparte and Buccaneer archipelagos (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178028		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in rocky gorges or on escarpments, particularly in Kimberley (Sweet 2004). It can also be arboreal and occurs in monsoon forest or <em>Allosyncarpia</em> woodlands in northwestern Arnhem Land (Sweet 2004).
178028		population	eng	There are no accurate population data available for this species.
178028		threats	eng	Intensification of fire regimes in Arnhem Land threatens <em>Allosyncarpia</em>-dominated monsoon forests inhabited by this species. However, at present, this threat is not severe or widespread enough to be considered a major threat to the species. While all Australian Varanids are banned from export, the species is present in the international pet trade via smuggled captive-bred animals (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178029		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178029		distribution	eng	This lowland species is found throughout New Guinea and its offshore islands Yapen, Biak, Salawati, and Waigeo, as well as Batanta in Indonesia (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is unlikely to occur in the seasonal monsoon savannas of the southern Trans Fly (S. Sweet pers. comm.). This species is not reported from elevations above 900 m above sea level.
178029		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mixed forest areas of dense vegetation (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), but avoids mangroves.
178029		population	eng	There is no population information available for this speices.
178029		threats	eng	This species is reportedly trapped in snares for food and areas of its habitat are under threat from logging. There is also limited capture of this species for the pet trade. However, these are not considered major widespread threats at this time and are not causing significant population declines.
178030		conservation	eng	All Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.). There are no further conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178030		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution within its restricted range in the northwestern Northern Territory, Australia. It can be found from Darwin southwards to Katherine, and from Kakadu westwards to the Daly River Region (Husband 2001), although its distribution is limited within the Daly River district due to inappropriate habitat. The range extends eastwards across the South Alligator River (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178030		habitat	eng	This species can be found in tropical savanna woodland, with stony areas where it can hide in crevices and under rocks. It is chiefly a burrowing animal (Husband and Christian 2004). It is patchily distributed, and also inhabits highly-leached sandplains in open eucalypt forest. However, the overall ecological scope of this species is poorly understood (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178030		population	eng	This species is locally common in some parts of its range (Husband 2001).
178030		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Unlike many other Varanids, this species is not used in the international pet trade since all Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It has been bred in captivity, but is in fact rarely kept (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178031		conservation	eng	This species has a level of protection in Australia through legislation, since all Australian varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.). Further research into the localized threats and habitat status is suggested to ensure localized population declines do not increase. As with many Varanid species, gene sequencing studies are needed to resolve whether this species is in fact a complex of two or more species (E. Pianka pers. comm.). This is particularly important since habitat loss may particularly affect the distinct eastern populations.
178031		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southern parts of Australia, below 30 degrees south latitude. It is found in coastal areas of Western Australia, South Australia and the southwest of Victoria (King and King 2004). There is also a disjunct distribution around the Sydney area, and in the vicinity of Canberra (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
178031		habitat	eng	This species can live in a variety of habitats, but occurs mainly in open woodlands, sclerophyll forest, and heathlands (King and King 2004).
178031		population	eng	This species is common in the central part of its range and on Kangaroo Island. It is considered stable in Western Australia, but is possibly declining in eastern isolates because of land-clearing activities (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178031		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is likely to be locally affecting some of this species' range, particularly in eastern parts. While this is at present not considered a major threat, if eastern populations were found to be a separate species in the future, this may have a significant effect on their conservation status. It is unlikely that any other threat process is acting on this species, particularly since all Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178032		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is urgently needed to resolve the taxonomy of this species complex and hence the outcome of future conservation assessments if subspecies and morphs are raised to species level.
178032		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the north of Australia from northeastern Western Australia to the north of New South Wales, and is also found in the islands of the Torres Strait and in the Trans-Fly region of southwestern Papua New Guinea and adjoining Papua, Indonesia (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Where <span style="font-style: italic;">V. scalaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. similis</span> are discussed as two separate species, <span style="font-style: italic;">V. scalaris</span> is described from Northwestern Australia and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. similis</span> from Northern Australia and New Guinea (Böhme 2003).
178032		habitat	eng	This tree-dwelling species inhabits savanna woodlands. Its distribution in Northern Australia closely follows eucalypt forests and woodlands (Sweet 2007). The species is thought to be absent from monsoon forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Allosyncarpia</span> forest and woodlands dominated by paperbark and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
178032		population	eng	This species is considered common where it occurs, but may be patchily distributed. Sweet (2007) observed 68 individuals in a 50 ha site in Northern Australia. <span style="font-style: italic;">V. scalaris</span> densities were higher than those of the sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">V. tristis</span>, and were found to have significantly smaller home ranges (Sweet 2007).
178032		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. However, the increasingly frequent and intense fire regime across northern Australian  woodlands may be compromising essential habitat features and increasing dry  season physiological stresses on populations of this species (Sweet 2007).
178034		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places, its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is required into the possible threats to the species.
178034		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in south-eastern Peru, in the Cordillera de Carabaya and the departments of Apurimac,&#160;Cuzco,&#160;Huanuco, Junín, Pasco,&#160;and Puno. This species is also recorded from northern Bolivia.
178034		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet montane forest.
178034		population	eng	This species is rare in collections (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
178034		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, the habitat within its range is relatively undisturbed, which suggests that there are no major threats currently affecting this species.
178038		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the ecology of this species is suggested.
178038		distribution	eng	This species is distributed mostly throughout the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. The islands on which it is known are Adonora, Alor, Bali, Flores, Komodo, Lombok, Padar, Rinca, Romang, Roti, Sumba, Sumbawa, Timor, and Wetar. It has also been collected from Timor Leste and eastern Java.&#160;<br/>On Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores island the species was recorded between 900 and 1,200 m altitude above sea level (Mertens 1930).
178038		habitat	eng	There is are no ecological or habitat data available for this species, but it is likely to be found in dry monsoon forests (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).
178038		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178038		threats	eng	This species is occasionally found in the pet trade and according to villagers in western <st1:place w:st="on">Flores</st1:place> the species is clubbed to death (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010). However, there are no other known major threats to this species.
178043		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. <br/><br/>Research is required to determine the extend of the range of this species as it is has recently been shown to be a separate species from a Caribbean species. Also, more research is needed on its population status, and the impact of recreational fishing activities.
178043		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.
178043		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits estuaries, beaches, sand and gravel to depths of 10m. It is a carnivorous fish and its diet includes mobile benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods and bivalves, and bony fishes.This species could be very widely spread oceanically due to the dispersal larval stage (leptocephalus). There is no appropriate life history information available for this species as it has recently been found to be genetically different from A. vulpes in the Atlantic.
178043		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in many parts of its range.
178043		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. However, this species is caught in recreational fisheries (mostly catch and release).
178048		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178048		distribution	eng	This species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to Panama (Smith, 1994; van der Heiden and Plascencia-González, 2006).
178048		habitat	eng	This demersal species lives in estuarine muddy substrate, feeds on mobile invertebrates such as mobile benthic gastropods, bivalves, and benthic worms. This species can tolerate conditions of low salinity (van der Heiden and Plascencia-González, 2006).
178048		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178048		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
178051		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). However, research is needed to determine population trends and the effects of commercial fishing, shrimp fisheries, and bycatch on this species.
178051		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Magdalena Bay, throughout the Gulf of California to northern Peru (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).
178051		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate, as well as mangrove habitats. This species can grow to more than  two m long and weigh over 11 kg making it one of the largest species of the genus and family (Smith 1995).
178051		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178051		threats	eng	This species is a commercially harvested fish, and is a bycatch of shrimp trawling and a variety of other fishing gear types. The effect of commercial harvests and shrimp fisheries on this species is unknown, especially as little is known about current population status or trends. Additionally, fishermen typically remove the head making it difficult to identify this species for futher study (Franke and Acero 1996).
178054		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, the species' distribution falls into the Marine Protected Areas of Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).
178054		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast of Ecuador, the Galapagos Islands (Allen and Robertson 2006), and Cocos Island. Recent observations in a submersible have demonstrated that this is not a rare species. Further deep water research using submersibles and ROVs will likely uncover additional locations.
178054		habitat	eng	This demersal species lives in crevices of deep, submerged, steep rocky cliffs.
178054		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178054		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, as it is found primarily in deep water and inaccessible habitats.
178057		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given that it is a deep-water species, it is unlikely to occur in any Marine Protected Areas within its range.
178057		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from four specimens captured in the eastern central and southwestern Gulf of California and lower Baja California, Mexico.
178057		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in areas with rocky substrate as well as in the edge water column and over soft substrate in reef areas.
178057		population	eng	There no population information for this species.
178057		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
178060		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178060		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Cape San Lucas, Baja California and central Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands (Collette and Robertson 2001).
178060		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate, occasionally near shallow rocky reefs. As it is usually found in open sand, very little collecting effort is needed (Collette and Robertson 2001). There have been some collections from the stomach contents of tunas and jacks (Collette and Robertson 2001).
178060		population	eng	There is little known about the relative abundance of this species. When found, it typically occurs in large schools and therefore some large populations are observed (Collette and Robertson 2001).
178060		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
178062		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this specie's distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). If a fishing ban is to be created for the species, the months of October and November must be considered as these are the periods with the most reproductive activity for this species (Vega 2004).
178062		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.
178062		habitat	eng	This species is found in mangrove and estuarine areas, in both marine and brackish waters (Vega 2004). Its reproduction is continuous throughout the year, with high peaks during the months of July and November (Vega 2004). The average size of capture in El Golfo de Montijo, Panamá was approximately 31 cm and the weight was approximately 352 g (Vega 2004).
178062		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. The species is the most common snook in markets of Panama. This species is common in mangroves in the Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994) and it is one of the most abundant species of the centropomid family in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). However, it is not considered common in Ecuador, and it has not been observed in southern part of Gulf of California despite extensive collections.
178062		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega 2004).  Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development and mangrove extraction within its range.
178063		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). If fishing ban is to be created for the species, the months of October and November must be considered as these are the periods with the most reproductive activity for this species (Vega 2004).
178063		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southwestern coast of Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Colombia.
178063		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in bays, estuaries, mangroves and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams (De La Cruz Agüero 1997, Vega and Castillo 2002). It enters freshwaters in large rivers to feed on fish and crustaceans, and has been found to occur in streams at an altitude of at least 250 m elevation, and a distance of 20 km from the coast (Bussing 1998). This species occurs in coastal waters, but is more abundant in estuaries, which are thought to be important sites for nesting and not reproduction (Chicas 1995).
178063		population	eng	This species is considered abundant in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). However, it is considered uncommon in the Gulf of California. Approximately 50 individuals were collected in Golf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, where it was considered to be a transient species (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
178063		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega 2004). Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.
178064		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178064		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.
178064		habitat	eng	This euryhaline species is found in bays, estuaries, mangroves and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991; Cooke, 1992). Its diet consists of mobile crustaceans, such as shrimps and crabs, and bony fishes.
178064		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat throughout its range (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994; Cooke, 1992).
178064		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega, 2004).  Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.
178065		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178065		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.
178065		habitat	eng	This species is found in bays, estuaries, lagoons and the lower parts of freshwater streams (Cooke, 1992; Vega, 2004). It is also found offshore  (Vega, 2004).  It mainly eats fish, crustaceans and mollusks (Bussing, 1998).
178065		population	eng	This species is considered to be common throughout its range (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
178065		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega, 2004). It was included in the five most important commercial species in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). However, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.
178066		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178066		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Peru.
178066		habitat	eng	This species is found in bays, estuaries, mangrove areas and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams. Its diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes (Vega, 2004).
178066		population	eng	This species is considered common in at least part of its range. It is common in artisinal fisheries in Nicaragua. However, in some areas such as the Caté estuary in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004) only a few juvenlies were captured. Similarly, only a few individuals were captured in one of three estuaries at the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, and all of them were considered occasional visitors (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
178066		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in artisanal fisheries. Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.
178067		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178067		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
178067		habitat	eng	This species is found in bays, estuaries, mangrove areas and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams. Its diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes (Vega, 2004).
178067		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range. It is considered very common in the southeastern Gulf of California, and common in the bays, lagoons, and mangroves of the Galapagos. However, it has only limited occurrence in the Gulf of Fonseca, Nicaragua and Colombia.
178067		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega, 2004). Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.
178070		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178070		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the northern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including all the offshore Islands.
178070		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is a solitary, bottom-dwelling fish that lives in shallow waters (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). It lies very still on rock ledges and is well camouflaged against the rocks. It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes (De La Cruz Agüero 1997). In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species is generally found over deep rocky walls and exposed shallow reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
178070		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout much of its range.<br/><br/>According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species is frequent enough to have a resident population at Clipperton Atoll. This fish was studied in the Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean density of 1.77 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>In a survey conducted at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, it had a mean density < 0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.001 (±0.002) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.016% (Figueroa 2001). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>C. rivulatus</em> is a rare species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency below 10%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species had a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).
178070		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
178072		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178072		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and Malpelo.
178072		habitat	eng	This species is typically encountered in mid-water adjacent to reefs to 45m. It is reef-associated and is found in small schools, in inshore areas with sandy substrata or coral reefs. It may be found in big schools in oceanic rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). This species feeds on benthic invertebrates (De La Cruz Aguero 1997). It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Robertson and Allen 2006). In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio 1986), this species was frequently found in rocky areas and occasionally found in both sandy and coraline substrata. According to Cooke (1992), this fish is occasionally found in middle estuaries, mangroves, and bar-formed lagoons.
178072		population	eng	This is locally common in small aggregations.This fish was reported with an abundance of 0.01 (SD 0.08) in surveys in Gulf of Papagayo Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Gulf of Nicoya, this fish was found 45 times in one mangrove area, and is considered transient (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). Although this species was not encountered in surveys in the Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001; Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000), it has been captured 3 times within 12 field surveys (one each month), in Bahia de Navidad, Jalisco, Mexico (Rojo-Vazquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
178072		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
178074		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178074		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru (Robertson and Allen, 2006).
178074		habitat	eng	This species is demersal over coral reefs and rocky substrata of shallow waters, but is most frequently found over soft substrata. It is found to 20m. It feeds on invertebrates. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), this species was frequently seen over sandy substrata but only occasionally seen over rocky or coral substrata. According to Cooke (1992), this fish is occasionally seen in middle estuaries and mangroves.
178074		population	eng	This species is regularly caught in shrimp trawls as bycatch. There is no other information available for population.
178074		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is regularly caught in shrimp trawls and gillnets as bycatch. It is used as subsistence consumption.
178077		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178077		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to southern Peru.
178077		habitat	eng	This coastal pelagic species occurs in bays and brackish estuaries to depths of 50m, and can sometimes be found out farther off-shore around floating objects. Juveniles are sometimes found in floating Sargassum weed, and often use mangroves as nursery areas.
178077		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, this species is considered to be common in the central part of its range (Lea and Rosenblatt, 2000).
178077		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. The loss of mangroves throughout its range from coastal development may negatively impact the availability and quality of nursery areas for juveniles of this species.
178081		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178081		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
178081		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been found over soft substrate in shallow estuaries and mangrove swamps.
178081		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178081		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.
178082		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178082		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found only in the Bay of Panama.
178082		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been found over soft muddy substrate in estuaries and mangroves.
178082		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178082		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178084		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178084		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and Nayarit, Mexico, to Ecuador. It is also found in the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.
178084		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected in shallow rock and coral reef areas, and may also inhabit rocky, exposed tide pools.
178084		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178084		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.
178086		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178086		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southwestern and eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador.
178086		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from sandy and gravel habitats in estuaries (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
178086		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178086		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178087		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178087		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Panama, and in the Galapagos Islands.
178087		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from intertidal rockpools (Dawson 1968, Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
178087		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178087		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178088		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178088		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California to Panama.
178088		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from only muddy substrate in estuaries and mangroves, and has also been found in brackish waters (Dawson 1968, Galván-Magaña ,i.et al.</em> 2000).
178088		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178088		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.
178089		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178089		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from the Pacific coast of Panama.
178089		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is probably found in rocky shores and soft substrate near estuaries and mangroves.
178089		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from one specimen collected from Chame Point (Reid 1936).
178089		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.
178090		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178090		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Panama.
178090		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from rocky shores.
178090		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178090		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178091		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178091		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only along the coast of Colombia.
178091		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from mangroves.
178091		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from three specimens.
178091		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178092		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178092		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Bay of Panama.
178092		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is probably found in rocky shores and soft substrate near estuaries and mangroves.
178092		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178092		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.
178093		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178093		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has been found in the central western Gulf of California, and from Puerto Vallarta to Panama.
178093		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from intertidal rock pools and beachrock, and it may reach brackish waters.
178093		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178093		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178094		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
178094		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in a small part of the central western Gulf of California, and from  Puerto Vallarta to Panama.
178094		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from muddy mangrove streams (Gilbert 1966).
178094		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
178094		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
178097		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
178097		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Chile, and the Galapagos islands.
178097		habitat	eng	This is a oceanic benthopelagic species found to 500m.
178097		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178097		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
178100		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species is present in the Revillagigedos Marine Protected Area.
178100		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Hawaiian islands and much of the eastern Pacific.  In the tropical eastern Pacific region it is found in the Revillagigedos islands and Alijos rocks west of southern Baja.
178100		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs mostly at depths of 100 m or more and has been captured at night at relatively shallow depths (9-46 m). It is more common around islands; records from the continental coasts are rare (Starnes 1988, 1995). It inhabits rocky substrata, but many specimens have been trawled from relatively open waters in Hawaii.  Gonads of specimens collected in Hawaii in November appear to be near development for spawning.
178100		population	eng	This species is known from very few localities in the tropical eastern Pacific and is rare.
178100		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
178102		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br><br>This species is poorly known, and more research is needed on its population, habitat and ecology, and potential threats.
178102		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Oregon to Chile, including the central and southern Gulf of California, the Galapagos, Cocos and the Revillagigedos Islands.
178102		habitat	eng	This species is a shy, nocturnal fish that prefers deeper waters around islands, and can be found to depths of 200m.  It may be found with squirrelfishes and cardinalfishes, but it tends to range to depths greater than these species (Starnes, 1988).
178102		population	eng	This species is considered to be generally uncommon throughout its range. It is occationally captured as by-catch in trawling activities in the Eastern Pacific, and in general, only small individuals have been observed by SCUBA divers.
178102		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  It is occationally captured as by-catch in trawling activities in the Eastern Pacific.
178105		conservation	eng	In California there are some fisheries restriction on size limits which protect the species while in these waters and seem to have produced a population rebound (landings data). However, 1) ENSO driven population depression and movements to outside of California, 2) annual migrations south from California mean that there may be threats in the rest of its range in the region.
178105		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Alaska down to California to the tip of Baja California, the southwestern Gulf of California and the Revillagigedos islands.
178105		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is usually near shore or near the surface; often in small schools; young enter bays; feeds mainly on other fishes (Eschmeyer 1983). It is found to 38m. It migrates south from the California coast during autumn, but may remain in front of the Mexican coast throughout the year (Sommer 1995).
178105		population	eng	In California, from 1920 -2001, annual landings data has decreased dramatically (California Department of Fish and Game 2001). In the 1920's the commercial take was 8,000,000 lbs and in 1970's the landings data were down to almost zero. Since the 1970's commercial fisheries take has not increased beyond half a million lbs. Restrictions have been established for fishing gears, bag limits, seasonal and fish size limits on both commercial and sports fishing.  Sport fishing take in 1970 was approximately 25,000 fish (approximately 100,000lb). In the 1990's there was an increase of landings mostly from sports fishing to 446,000 fish (approximately 2,500,000 lbs). This increase was likely due to an introduction of restrictions in 1971 for both commercial and sports fisheries.
178105		threats	eng	There are possible threats from commercial and sports fishing although it is unknown how this impacts the population. There is an annual migration from California south to Baja California in the winter which takes them to areas in the tropical eastern Pacific without fishing restrictions.  ENSO events have been shown to expand the range and to depress the population (California Department of Fish and Game 2001).<br><br><br>There are intensive directed commercial and sports fisheries for barracudas in the tropical eastern Pacific. They are caught with hook and line and with purse seines.
178106		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
178106		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to northern Chile, and is seen rarely at Malpelo.
178106		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is fairly common (Sommer 1995); it is found in the continental shelf (CENAIM 1992). According to Cooke (1992), this species may occasionally be found in middle estuaries, mangroves and bar-formed lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific region.  It is usually found in schools. It is found to 25m.
178106		population	eng	This is a common species in artisanal fisheries in Panama (Sommer 1995). There is no other population information available for this species.
178106		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species.<br><br><br>This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is an important food fish in Mexico, the USA (Sommer 1995), and Colombia. Most of the Mexican production is frozen for export (Sommer 1995).
178107		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
178107		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific is found from Colombia to northern Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo islands. Scattered records in the Gulf of California clearly indicate that its range may be much larger.
178107		habitat	eng	This reef-associated pelagic species is found in tropical and temperate waters (Sommer 1995). It is seen in groups of three to 20 from the surface to about 24 m (Merlen 1988).
178107		population	eng	This is a common species in the southern part of its range. It may be more common than currently known in the Gulf of California. There is no other population information available for this species.
178107		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no specific use for this species.
178108		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research into the population size, genetics and fishing threat is recommended.
178108		distribution	eng	This eastern central Pacific species is found from central Baja California to western and northeastern Gulf of California.
178108		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic neritic species. It is found at depths to 25 m.
178108		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is largely unknown.
178108		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species. However, it has a restricted range, and is in an area that is heavily fished. This species is most likely taken in barracuda fisheries and eaten.
178111		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
178111		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Coco, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
178111		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over soft bottoms and hard bottoms, including estuaries to depths of 50 m. Adults occur at depths greater than 30 m, along continental and insular margins, over rocky substrates (De La Cruz Agüero 1997).
178111		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. It is considered abundant in southern Ecuador and Nicaragua.
178111		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is locally fished with purse seines in subsistence fisheries in Ecuador and is also caught incidentally in shrimp trawls. It is marketed fresh, salted or dried and smoked but more frequently processed into fishmeal (Fritzsche and Schneider 1995).
178168		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, however, research to determine the complete range of this species should be undertaken.
178168		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Digul River drainage system and Kepulauan Aru, Irian Jaya (Zug 2004). As the southern part of Irian Jaya has not been surveyed much, it is possible that this species has a wider distribution than what is currently known (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Its range stretches from sea level to at least 275 m above sea level.
178168		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland broadleaf rain forest. Species of this genus thrive in areas of disturbance and regrowth, and bask in sunny patches of forest.
178168		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178168		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation does occur in the part of Irian Jaya in which this species is distributed. However, this is unlikely to be causing declines in the species, since it is not confined to areas of undisturbed forest and can thrive in areas of disturbance and regrowth (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178170		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Louette <em>et al.</em> (2004) report that reptiles are partially protected in Comoros. Further research is needed on the population numbers and habitat status of this species, along with a better understanding of the impact that habitat change has on the species' population.
178170		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Grand Comore Island, in the Comoros (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,053 km²<sup></sup>.
178170		habitat	eng	The vegetation of the Comoro Islands is dominated by moist evergreen forest and giant heaths. Species of this genus are known to be partially arboreal or rock-dwelling (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2006).
178170		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178170		threats	eng	Deforestation in the Comoros between 1990-1995 has been estimated at 5.8%, the fourth highest rate globally (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as the increasing need for subsistence farmland and fuel-wood, which is exacerbated by an annual projected human population growth of 2.5% until 2015 (World Bank Group 2000 in Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, the impact that habitat change is having on this species is not yet known.
178171		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out to check levels of habitat degradation.
178171		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to New Guinea, along the northern lowlands, but including Port Moresby on the south side of the island, and the Aru Islands (Horner 2007).
178171		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland broadleaf rain forest.
178171		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178171		threats	eng	Deforestation in New Guinea may be impacting this species locally, but this is unlikely to be causing significant species level declines.
178172		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. The entire island of Komodo has been listed as a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve since 1977. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178172		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Bali, Sumba, Padar, Komodo, Kangean Islands, Pulau Longo, and possibly western Flores (McKay 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 22,549 km².
178172		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal, arboreal and inhabits savanna and moist lowland forest (McKay 2006). It is also known to be abundant on walls of buildings and in gardens.<br/><br/>This lizard is oviparous, with a clutch size of one to two eggs (Greer 1974).
178172		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178172		threats	eng	High rates of deforestation are occurring in Indonesia due to the expansion of agricultural areas and plantations. However, this cannot be interpreted as a major threat to this species as it is able to utilize anthropogenic habitats.
178173		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess the impact that habitat disturbance, due to tourism and population growth, is having on the species. Research into its distribution within the archipelago of Palau is also necessary, and population monitoring is recommended.
178173		distribution	eng	This species is found in Palau (Bauer and Watkins-Colwell 2001). Palau is an archipelago with a total area of 508 km². The exact distribution of this species within this chain of islands is unclear.
178173		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist broadleaf forests.
178173		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178173		threats	eng	This species is currently not impacted upon by any major threats. Future threats may arise if growth in the islands' human population as well as a growth in tourism begin to have negative impacts on the natural habitat.
178174		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178174		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwest Kimberley in Western Australia.
178174		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of sand and sandstone, but with spinifex (<em>Triodia</em>) cover (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178174		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178174		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any threat process is impacting this species.
178176		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Banco National Park, and possibly in other protected areas (Rödel&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010). The Banco population is at high risk of extinction, and improved management of this park is recommended to ensure the species' persistence. The Tanoé swamp forests are presently unprotected, but have recently been the subject of a biodiversity assessment whose results may encourage protection of this heavily threatened area (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010). More time is needed to conduct detailed impact assessments in this region (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010). This species may be able to survive in palm plantations so long as pesticides are not used (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010). Ongoing and planned amphibian surveys in the region, including those of sites east of the Comoé River, are likely to provide more information about this species' extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. More research is needed into its population status and threats, and also on the taxonomic status of populations from Azagny and Taï National Parks.
178176		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few sites within Banco National Park (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and from the Tanoé swampy forests east of the Comoé River (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010, N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010), both in Côte d'Ivoire. It is likely to occur within the Mabi and Yaya forests of the intervening Alépé region (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010). Individuals from Azagny National Park, 100 km west of Abidjan, and from southern Taï National Park, 350 km from the type locality, may be conspecific with this species (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). However, these records require verification. The species may be fairly widespread below 300 m asl in remaining forests of eastern Côte d'Ivoire (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,692 km<sup>2</sup>, including the population from Azagny.
178176		habitat	eng	This species occurs in and near lowland rainforest, and may be able to persist in forest edges and partially degraded areas (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). The Banco population was found in a water filled rill (with clear, slow-flowing  water and submerged vegetation) situated between swampy  rainforest and a clearing containing stagnant pools used to breed exotic <em>Tilapia</em> (Rödel&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009). Individuals sit at heights of 0.4-1.8 m on leaves of herbs and  shrubs in swampy areas close to creeks and rivers (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009). Eggs are attached to leaves or roots a few cm above water, from where tadpoles drop into the water below and complete their development. Clutch size ranges from 30-144 eggs (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009).
178176		population	eng	<p>This species is abundant where it occurs, but appears to be very patchily-distributed throughout its range (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). This patchiness indicates a severely fragmented population, as this is a conspicuous frog that would have been detected more widely if it it were widespread within this area (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
178176		threats	eng	This frog's habitat is threatened by both subsistence and industrial-scale logging activities over more than 50% of its range (Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). Due to the close proximity of Banco National Park to Abidjan and poor enforcement of its protected status, this population is at high risk from habitat loss, air and water pollution resulting from urban development (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). Coastal areas around Abidjan may be at risk from development to support oil and gas exploration, and these activities may lead to significant declines in this species if they result in deforestation (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010). The Tanoé swamp forests (covering 120 km<sup>2</sup> within this  species' range) have recently been targeted for conversion into palm  plantations. Although this project is temporarily on hold, deforestation of this region may already be underway and plantation agriculture is likely to threaten other forests over almost 50% of this species' range (N.G. Kouamé pers. comm. December 2010).
178178		conservation	eng	Further research on the population, distribution, habitats, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.
178178		distribution	eng	This species is known to inhabit the south slopes of the Idenburg Valley in Irian Jaya (or Papua) (Brown 1953). It may only be known from the type locality.
178178		habitat	eng	Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953). From the type locality, this species appears to inhabit the montane coniferous forests and grasslands of the high elevations of Irian Jaya.
178178		population	eng	No population information exists for this species.
178178		threats	eng	While deforestation does occur in Irian Jaya, it appears to be less problematic than in other regions of Indonesia. From the period 1985-1997, estimates of forest loss for the province are 5%, compared to the national average of 17-18% (FWI and GFW 2002).  It is unknown if the montane regions that this species inhabits are affected by deforestation.
178180		conservation	eng	This species is probably found within protected areas. It has been given Rare status in South Australia. Monitoring of population trends is necessary.
178180		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution. It is found in the Tanami Desert of the Northern Territory, the Bungle Bungle Range of northwestern Western Australia, and in the south central areas of South Australia.
178180		habitat	eng	This is a desert species found in areas of low shrubs and hummock grasses.
178180		population	eng	This species is reported as uncommon (Horner 1992).
178180		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
178183		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the entire island of Annobon is designated as a protected area for Equatorial Guinea (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1994). However, it is not known how effective this protection is, as threats are still thought to occur and the political situation in the area is unstable.Effective management of the protected area is needed to ensure the species' survival.<br/><br/>Due to its restricted range, the population of <em>P. annobonensis</em> requires monitoring to ensure that any population declines in the future are observed. The impact that deforestation and introduced species are having on <em>P. annobonensis</em> also require investigation.
178183		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Annobon Island, Equatorial Guinea (Fuhn 1972). Annobon Island is 17 km² and reaches a maximum elevation of 1,595 m above sea level.
178183		habitat	eng	Annobon Island contains both lowland and montane moist forests, however, it is unclear if the species is found in both of these habitats or only one. The land cover is described as "unique mountain and mossy forests, dry forest, [and] intertidal ecosystems" (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1994).
178183		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178183		threats	eng	This species is found within an area that is threatened by habitat loss due to shifting cultivation (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1994). Introduced species are presenting a threat through predation.
178184		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
178184		distribution	eng	This southern African species is distributed from Inhambane in Mozambique, through Swaziland, into South Africa where it occurs in southern Mpumalanga and ranges from Zululand southwards to Durban and the KwaZulu-Natal midlands.&#160;T<span lang="EN-ZW">here is a single old record from Angoche in northern Mozambique (Broadley 1994).
178184		habitat	eng	This species is usually found under logs or rocks, in sand or grassland loamy soils. It is thought to be unaffected by habitat change or land degradation.
178184		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178184		threats	eng	This species is able to adapt to altered environments,so that it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178188		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas. Further research into the distribution and population numbers of the species and its habitat requirements is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178188		distribution	eng	This species is known from the States of Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná, in Brazil. It is probable that this species also occurs in Santa Catarina. This species is known to occur around the cities of Vacaria, Bom Jesus and São Francisco de Paula in Rio Grande do Sul, and Candói in Paraná, although there are also unconfirmed reports around the city of Guarapuava (L. Stahnke pers. comm.).
178188		habitat	eng	This species was found to inhabit savanna areas in the central Parana State (S. Morato pers. comm.). In Rio Grande do Sul, it was<em></em> found in two types of habitats: forest with <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> and savanna. The majority of observations were made during the day in fields with stones (L. Stahnke pers. comm.).
178188		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178188		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion, the use of fire in the preparation of pastures, the planting of exotic species, and the overstocking of land with cattle can all be considered as potential threats to this species (L. Stahnke pers. comm.). However, as the distribution of this species it is not well known, it is not possible to assess the direct threats to this species.
178189		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In many places its distribution coincides with protected areas, which in the state of Roraima encompasses about 1.2 million hectares (excluding reserves in which there is sustainable use of natural resources) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178189		distribution	eng	This species is found in the state of Roraima, Brazil, and in the extreme southern state of Amazonas in Venezuela. Collection localities include Ilha de Maraca and an area in the Rio Catrimani and extreme south of Amazonas state in Venezuela.
178189		habitat	eng	This species is known from an area with a variety of habitats, such as seasonally flooded forest, 'terra firme' forest, and areas of savannah. It is extremely common in the areas surrounding the buildings at the Maracá Ecological Station (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178189		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178189		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of logging practices.
178190		conservation	eng	It is likely that this species occurs in at least one of the protected areas around Cuba.
178190		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Cuba, including Isla de la Juventud and the Archipiélago de Sabana-Camagüey, and on the Great Bahama Bank (Díaz and Hedges 2008; Henderson and Powell 2009).&#160;In the Bahamas, the species' range includes the islands of Andros, Northern Eleuthera Island, Great Exuma Island, Long Island, Racoon Bay and many smaller islands in between.
178190		habitat	eng	This species is found on cliffs, in caves, around coconut trees, and in house walls and rafters.
178190		population	eng	This species has been reported to be rare throughout its range (Schwartz 1968), but it is very abundant in suitable habitat (Buide 1966, Henderson and Powell 2009). Nevertheless, additional surveys are appropriate.
178190		threats	eng	This species is associated with caves which are often severely impacted by even minimal human disturbance (Buide 1966, Dodd 2003).
178191		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.
178191		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Darjeeling district of West Bengal Province, India. Further distributional information within Darjeeling is unknown. The type specimen was found at 2,285 m above sea level.
178191		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the temperate broadleaf forests of Darjeeling. The type locality is amongst the rugged foothills of the Himalayas and was originally forested with montane wet temperate forests, but it is now largely converted to fruit and rice plantations (Wallach 1999).
178191		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178191		threats	eng	Although this species inhabits montane regions, threats are still present. In West Bengal, the land above 2,000 m above sea level is used for livestock grazing in the summer, as well as fuel-wood and fodder collection. The region in which the type specimen was found has already been extensively converted to agriculture and plantations (Wallach 1999), which implies that the species, discovered in 1999, may be able to adapt to a certain level of habitat modification.
178192		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
178192		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mid-eastern Queensland, Australia and there are disjunct populations of this species distributed between the areas of Mount Ossa and Mount Charlton, north of Mackay in the Conway range, and Mount Dryander. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,606 km²<sup></sup>.
178192		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is rainforest dependent. Couper and Hoskin (2008) have noted that the <em>Phyllurus</em> spp<em>.</em> in Queensland display a strong rainforest/ rock connection. This species is most often encountered on rocks or tree trunks near rocks (Couper <em>et al.</em> 1993).
178192		population	eng	Couper <em>et al.</em> (1993) reported that this species is common within its range.
178192		threats	eng	The remaining rainforest is habitat is potentially at risk from invasive species.
178193		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is possible that it occurs in protected areas within Pakistan. Research into the population numbers, threats, and habitat is needed and population monitoring is recommended.
178193		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Pakistan. It is recorded from the northern areas of the Province of Sindh, south-eastern Pakistan (Khan 2003) and in western Pakistan, near Quetta, in the north of Balochistan Province (Khan 2006). It has an elevation range of 1,200 and 2,000 m above sea level.
178193		habitat	eng	Khan (2003) reports that this species inhabits rocky areas, but not anthropogenic environments. It inhabits crevices among rocks on hillsides with sparse vegetation (Khan 2006).
178193		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178193		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range. In desert habitat destruction due to logging and felling pose threat (M. Shariff Khan pers. comm. 2010).
178194		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within the Lokobe Reserve. Conservation measures, including the expansion of the existing protected area, are required to prevent the deforestation of the remaining forest on Nosy Be. Further research on the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178194		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nosy Be, an island off the north coast of Madagascar, which has an area of of 300 km². Within this island it is known only from Lokobe reserve, an area of little over 10 km². Due to deforestation across the rest of the island, the species may genuinely be confined to this protected area.
178194		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lowland rainforest.
178194		population	eng	This species appears to be rare, as only three specimens were found during intensive surveys (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998).
178194		threats	eng	If this species is restricted to utilizing primary rain forest, then it will have already disappeared from most of Nosy Be, where the only remaining forest outside the Lokobe Special Reserve consists of secondary vegetation and plantations. If any subpopulations existed on the largest nearby island, Nosy Komba, or on Madagascar's Ankify Peninsula, both of which have almost completely been stripped of forest (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998), they will likewise have been lost if this is a forest-dependent lizard. Too little information is, however, available on the ecology of this skink to conclude that it is susceptible to forest loss. Within Lokobe, the only confirmed site, remaining forest is well-protected although illegal logging may occur at low intensities. Additionally there is a potential future risk should plantations encroach into the reserve, and if any subpopulations survive in Nosy Be's remaining secondary forest fragments, they are likely to be at risk from ongoing land clearance.
178195		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution of this species.
178195		distribution	eng	This species is found in a small region of the Cuesta de Minas Capillitas, Catamarca, and probably into Tucumán&#160;province, Argentina, although this has not been confirmed. It has a distributional area of 948 km²<sup></sup>, and is found between 2,500 and 3,900 m above sea level.
178195		habitat	eng	This species is omnivorous and is found on steep rocky hillsides covered with bunchgrass, scattered low shrubs and small cacti. Within this habitat the species is restricted to rocky cliff faces and exposed road cuts. &#160;A large part of its diet consists of ants (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010).
178195		population	eng	There are no population data currently available for this species.
178195		threats	eng	Due to this species inhabiting hillside cliffs, there are no major threats to this species. Although there are livestock in the area, the locals tend to graze them along the roads or in the flatter areas near the top of the mountain where this species does not occur (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). &#160;There has been a mine in the area of the mountain top for over 100 years; however, this probably does not constitute an immediate threat to this species (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010).
178196		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
178196		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Uganda and Kenya in the north, to South Africa in the south. It is found throughout Zimbabwe and into eastern Botswana.
178196		habitat	eng	This species lives on rock outcrops in mesic and arid savanna.
178196		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178196		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its entire range.
178197		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Kennedy Range National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
178197		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the Kennedy Range in Western Australia.
178197		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sparsely vegetated red sand ridges with typical vegetation consisting of Acacia, Banksia and spinifex.
178197		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178197		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178198		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it does occur inside the Amani Nature Reserve and Mkomazi Game Reserve (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further research and monitoring is required to assess its population and habitat status<em></em>. This will enable any rapid population declines as a result of increasing levels of habitat fragmentation and degradation to be monitored.
178198		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tanzania and is found within the Usambara and South Pare Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 7,241 km².
178198		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the tropical moist forests of the Usambara and Pare Mountains. Unlike most dwarf geckos, this species appears to be ground-dwelling, having been found at the base of wild banana plants, and under logs and rocks (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species has been observed to lay eggs communally in forest soil (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178198		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178198		threats	eng	Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that this species is dependant on the few remaining areas of forest in which it is found. Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat to this species. The Usambara Mountains are suffering from habitat loss caused by expanding cultivation, livestock grazing and illegal logging (The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2005). The habitat of this species is becoming increasingly fragmented as a result of these threats.
178199		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178199		distribution	eng	Powell presumes this species to be endemic to Navassa Island (1997). However, McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) also list this species as occurring in southwestern Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. Specifically, this includes the Tiburon Peninsula, west to the Morne Dubois Peninsula east of Aquin, the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain, north to 10.1 km SE of Montouis, and the Barahona Peninsula. McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) also detail the species as inhabiting Isla Alto Velo, Ile de la Gonave, Ile Grande Cayemite, and Navassa Island. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,404 km²<sup></sup>.
178199		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is xerophilic and is found in shaded, moist <em>Acacia</em> woods, <em>Acacia</em> scrub, dry areas adjacent to <em>Cocos</em>, in organic waste at garbage dumps, in grassy areas under rocks and pieces of cement house foundations, along the roadside under rocks, in termite-ridden logs, under logs on sand, under a piece of concrete on "greensward" adjacent to the river, in dry palm logs, and on dry mud (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178199		population	eng	This species is presumed extinct on Navassa Island (Powell 1997). Efforts to collect Navassan specimens of the genus have been intense, but have yielded no results (Powell 1997).
178199		threats	eng	The presumed extinction of this species on Navassa Island is attributed to habitat alteration, human exploitation, and depredation by introduced predators. Habitat degradation accelerated from 1850-1900 when large areas were deforested due to intensive phosphate mining (Powell 1997).<br/><br/>Threats to the population on mainland Hispaniola include habitat degradation from overgrazing, logging, fuel-wood collection, tourism development, and clearing for agriculture. However, as this species is able to survive in highly altered environments, it is unlikely that any of these threat will severely impact the population.
178200		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range; for example, protected areas may provide safeguards for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and research into its eastern population is required to establish its taxonomic status.
178200		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Magdalena Valley in Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,968 km²<sup></sup>. Its range is fragmented, as it is restricted to certain elevations, occurring between 1,500 and 2,100 m above sea level only.
178200		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane humid tropical forest. Specimens have been found beneath stones and wood.
178200		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178200		threats	eng	This species occurs in a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to agricultural and urban expansion. This species occurs in the most heavily populated region of Colombia.
178201		conservation	eng	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Los Haitises National Park; however deforestation and degradation of habitats are ongoing within the park. A taxonomic review of the subspecies of this species should be carried out.
178201		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola, occurring in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. This species is found up to 600 m above sea level.
178201		habitat	eng	This species is found in mesophilic to xerophilic environments. It is found along coastal vegetation, along sand flats, garbage dumps, in <em>Cocos</em> debris in dry cactus desert, in active and abandoned cacao plantations, on undisturbed hilltops and mounds and in and around human habitation. Although this species is found in a wide variety of habitats, several of the subspecies may be less ecologically versatile.
178201		population	eng	These lizards can be locally abundant in both natural and severely altered habitats.
178201		threats	eng	No major threat appear to be affecting this species at this time, but some genetically unique populations might be impacted, reinforcing the recommendation that a taxonomic review of currently recognized subspecies should be implemented.
178202		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
178202		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southwest of Madagascar, north of the Onilahy River up to Ihosy and Antsirabe. This species is found from sea level up to 1,650 m above sea level.
178202		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open rocky areas. It has also been found in road cuts, and on overgrazed or regularly burned areas.
178202		population	eng	Nussbaum and Raxworthy (1994) report that this species is relatively common at suitable sites.
178202		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178203		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the impact that mining may have on this species.
178203		distribution	eng	This species is only found in South Africa. It is known to occur in the northern Mpumalanga Province and southeastern Limpopo Province between an altitude of 1,300 and 1,700 m (Broadley and Broadley 1999).
178203		habitat	eng	This fossorial species can be found under stones and in deserted termite mounds (Marais 2004).
178203		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178203		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. Mpumalanga Province is important to the mining industry, however, it is not known what, if any, effect this has on the species.
178204		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into population numbers, habitat and potential threats of this species is needed to assess range contractions.
178204		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique around Delagoa Bay, and ranges into adjacent Zululand, Northern Province of South Africa and Eastern Botswana (Branch 1998).
178204		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, including coastal bush and mesic and arid savanna, and it can be found sheltering in a range of habitats such as under tree bark, in tree holes, rock overhangs and empty bird nests (Branch 1998). This species is nocturnal, but is occasionally seen during the day, and its diet consists mainly of insects (Whiting <em>et al</em>. 2007).
178204		population	eng	This species is locally common (Whiting <em>et al</em>. 2007).
178204		threats	eng	This species was included in an analysis of the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa, using climate envelope modelling (Erasmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Reptiles were predicted to experience the largest range shifts, and this species was singled out particularly, because of especially dire predictions of a 98% range contraction.
178205		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing some safeguards. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out.
178205		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Montagne d'Ambre and a few localities in the northern Sambirano Region of northern Madagascar, as well as the island of Nosy Be (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011). The lizard's estimated extent of occurrence is 5,368 km².
178205		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs in moist tropical and subtropical forests, but it is unknown whether it is forest dependent (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. January 2011).
178205		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species; however if it is forest-dependent it is likely that the population is both declining and severely fragmented.
178205		threats	eng	This species may be suffering from the impacts of degradation and decline of forest systems in Madagascar resulting from logging and agricultural land clearance. The impact this is having on the species is unknown at this time.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
178206		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, its range does coincide with protected areas.
178206		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Republic of South Africa. It is distributed from the west and northern Cape, into Little and Great Namaqualand. This species is also found in southern Namibia.
178206		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas with sandy, arid soils.
178206		population	eng	This species is common (Branch 1998).
178206		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species across its range.
178207		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, an estimate of 10% of its range is found within protected areas (Armstrong 2001). Conservation efforts are required to prevent further restriction of its range due to urban development. Monitoring of the population and range of this species is necessary due to its declining range.
178207		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution in South Africa. It is only found from the mouth of the Umgeni River south to Amanzimtoti, a small area near Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 431 km².
178207		habitat	eng	This species is known to burrow in humus and sandy soils of coastal thicket, grassland, and dune forest.
178207		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178207		threats	eng	This species is endemic to a coastal area around one of the major cities of South Africa. This region is experiencing high levels of urban development and a resultant decline in the range of this species is expected.
178208		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the harvest levels and monitoring of the population numbers, habitat trends, harvest levels and trade of this species are needed, as well as measures to reduce exploitation levels (e.g., harvest and trade management).
178208		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern China south to Zhejiang (Zhao and Adler 1993), in the region of the Loess Plateau, Huabei and Huanghuai Plains and areas north of the Yangtze River (Li and Zhao 2007).
178208		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid and moist grasslands and plains (Li and Zhao 2007). Each female lays two eggs per year on average (Z. Feng pers. comm.).
178208		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species, but this species is experiencing declines.
178208		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such conversion of plains to agricultural land. It is also utilized in traditional medicine (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the quantity of this species harvested was more than any other lizard except for <em>Gekko gecko</em>. As a traditional medicine, the store quantity of dry <em>G. swinhonis</em> was about 500 kg in each market over the last few years and the price was about 250.00 to 300.00 Yuan (RMB) per kilogram (Z. Feng pers. comm.). If the quantity of this species harvested for traditional medicine increases in the future, and also if habitat loss and degradation become more serious it is likely that this species would become more threatened (Z. Feng pers. comm.).
178209		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species is needed.
178209		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the species' type locality, Chiclin, Libertad, in Peru.
178209		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, species of this genus are small fossorial species that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. The type locality of this species is in the Sechura coastal desert habitat.
178209		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178209		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178210		conservation	eng	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. Research is needed to determine the exact limits of the species' range and to investigate harvest levels.
178210		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Mauritania, Western Sahara and southern Morocco, east through northern Africa to southwestern Israel. It probably also occurs in Sudan but there are no records from this country yet. It is a lowland species ranging from sea level up to around 1,000 m above sea level.
178210		habitat	eng	This desert species is found in sand dunes with sparse vegetation, including sandy regions, with Mediterranean scrub, in coastal areas. It is ovoviviparous with three to five young.
178210		population	eng	This species is common and can be locally abundant.
178210		threats	eng	There appear to be no major or widespread threats to this species. Some populations are locally threatened by persecution and the pet trade. Large numbers are collected in Egypt for venom extraction, and these animals are generally not released.
178211		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat status is suggested. The establishment of protected areas could provide a safeguard for this species.
178211		distribution	eng	This species is known from three localities on peninsular Malaysia (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been found in the Cameroon Highlands, which range in elevation from 1,100 to 1,550 m above sea level (Smedley 1931), but is also known from submontane regions at elevations as low as 650 m above sea level (Grismer<em> et al.</em> 2003). The area in which this species is distributed is approximatly 7,000 km²<sup></sup>.
178211		habitat	eng	Like other species of this genus, this semi-fossorial species is only known from tropical montane forest (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, L. Grismer pers. comm. 2010).
178211		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, since it is rarely seen (L. Grismer pers. comm. 2010).
178211		threats	eng	There are currently no known major threats affecting the forests at the elevations in which this species occurs. If deforestation was to occur, this would likely affect the species, since removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as this species.
178212		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178212		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality on the Kenya-Ethiopia border, at Malka Murri, in the extreme northeast on the border with Ethiopia, having an altitude of about 800 m elevation (Largen and Spawls 2006).
178212		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry savanna woodland (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, M. Largen pers. comm.).
178212		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178212		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178213		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178213		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Namib Desert of northwestern Namibia, from Erongo to Kaokoland.
178213		habitat	eng	This species inhabits desert gravel plains.
178213		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178213		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species.
178214		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas; however, the species is reported as absent from Yala National Park in Sri Lanka, possibly caused by the high density of crocodiles in the park (Somaweera and Somaweera 2009). Because of the recent changes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus salvator</span> taxonomy based on morphological analyses, DNA sequencing work is urgently needed to validate the genetic differences between subspecies, which is likely to alter the taxonomy of this species and hence the outcome of future conservation assessments.
178214		distribution	eng	This species is extremely widespread throughout southern and Southeast Asia (Gaulke and Horn 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus salvator salvator</span> is endemic to Sri Lanka, while <span style="font-style: italic;">V. s. macromaculatus</span> occurs throughout southern Asia and Southeast Asia, and as far north as southern China (Koch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Somaweera and Somaweera 2009). It also occurs on Borneo and Sumatra. <span style="font-style: italic;">V. s. andamensis</span> is endemic to the Andaman Islands and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. s. bivittatus</span> occurs on Java and some of the Lesser Sunda islands (Gaulke and Horn 2004, Horn and Gaulke 2004, Koch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Recent work has shown that the species is absent from northeastern Myanmar, northern and northeastern Thailand, all but coastal Cambodia, and all of Laos except for the ranges on the Vietnam border (Cota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009); it is also absent from northwestern Vietnam, Yunnan,  and all but the immediate coastal strip of south China adjacent to Hainan, as well as Timor and Seram and from part of the Lesser Sunda chain  (M. Cota and S. Sweet pers. comm.). Although the species has an upper elevational limit of 1,800 m above sea level, it is typically a lowland species which is common only in areas up to 600 m and rare at higher altitudes, particularly above 1,000 m (M. Gaulke pers. comm.).
178214		habitat	eng	This species is semi-aquatic and opportunistic and inhabits a variety of natural habitats, such as primary forests and mangrove swamps (Gaulke and Horn 2004, Weijola 2010). The presence of man does not deter these monitors from areas with human disturbance (Gaulke <em>et al.</em> 1999), as they have been reported to thrive in agricultural areas (e.g., rice, oil palm) and even cities with canal systems (e.g. in Sri Lanka, where they are not or hardly disturbed, hunted and prosecuted by man; M. Gaulke pers. comm.) and second-growth forest (S. Sweet pers. comm.). Furthermore, their aquatic habits provide them with a measure of safety (E. Pianka pers. comm.), and their generalist diet may provide added ecological plasticity to this species (Somaweera and Somaweera 2009). In Borneo and Sulawesi, the species in this complex seem to be less tolerant of human activities and do not generally thrive in agricultural regions where there is extensive loss of natural vegetation (S. Sweet pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although the species may inhabit all the habitats listed above in at least parts of its range, they cannot all be considered equally as important. The habitats considered most important to this species are mangrove vegetation, swamp and wetlands at altitudes of below 1,000 m (Gaulke and Horn 2004).
178214		population	eng	This species<em></em> group is thought to be abundant in many places (Gaulke and Horn 2004), including some cities like Bangkok (E. Pianka pers. comm.), but no specific population data exists.
178214		threats	eng	The main threat to this species comes from hunting, as the skin of this species is used in the leather trade, its meat is eaten, and its fat is used in traditional medicine. Although in 1998 the annual allowable catch was set at 454,000 (Auliya <em>et al.</em> 1999) and the skin trade has decreased slightly since the 1990s, extensive hunting still occurs in many areas, with national and international protective legislation being ignored. As a result, some populations are likely to go locally extinct. However, in other areas, this species is still abundant (Herrmann 1999, E. Pianka pers. comm.). This resilience may be because of this species' ecological flexibility, high reproductive rates, or the fact that harvesting is mainly concentrated on males (Shine <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Apart from direct utilization of this species, destruction of habitats for oil palm plantations, farming, timber, and firewood have caused declines in population numbers in some areas, particularly in Borneo and Sulawesi, where the species in this complex seem to be less tolerant of human activities and do not generally thrive in agricultural regions (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is likely that habitat loss was the main reason for population declines in those areas where this species has disappeared (D. Bennett pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, the species is not  hunted for meat due to the belief that its meat is toxic, but the oil extracted  from it is used for traditional medicine and witchcraft. However,  this is a very trivial threat compared to the numbers lost from road traffic (R.  Somaweera pers. comm.). Since the species can tolerate very polluted habitats,  and thrive in areas with high anthropogenic activity, habitat degradation and  loss may not be major threats to this species in Sri Lanka (R. Somaweera pers.  comm.).
178215		conservation	eng	This species has been declared rare and given a protected status in Queensland. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. The Queensland government has made attempts to stop the clearing of habitat where this species occurs (the cause of habitat and population decline) but it is unknown how effective this is (P. Doughty pers. comm. 2010). Further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178215		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Darling Downs to the coastal regions of central and south-eastern Queensland, Australia (Cogger 2000), within the Brigalow Belt Bioregion.
178215		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal gecko, occurring in dry sclerophyll forests, and eucalyptus and cypress woodlands (Cogger 2000).
178215		population	eng	In 1973, Dale noted that this species was common within its range. However, more recently this species has been declared rare in Queensland (Nature Conservation Wildlife Regulation 2006). &#160;It has been reported that there has been an 87.5% reduction in area of suitable habitat and a 50% reduction in medium suitability habitat since European settlement due to clearing (P. Doughty pers. comm. 2010), from which we can infer a population decline, where the threats causing the decline have not been removed.
178215		threats	eng	This species is under major threat from habitat degradation and loss. It is almost entirely found inside the Brigalow Belt, which has lost 60% of the natural vegetation over the past 200 years due to agricultural expansion (Wilson 2003). &#160;This species may also be threatened by feral cats, and foxes as they are known to prey on geckos (Read and Bowen 2001), and by the introduced Cane Toad through competition for food and direct predation (Commonwealth Department of the Environment and Heritage 2005). &#160;Furthermore fire regimes as part of State Forest management could be impacting this species as it is known to occur in a number of state forests.
178216		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range.
178216		distribution	eng	This species occurs in wet rainforest between Cooktown and Townsville in Queensland, Australia (Williams 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,718 km²<sup></sup>. This species is known to occur between 100 and 1,300 m above sea level (Meynecke 2003).
178216		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rainforest habitat in the wet tropics of Australia (Schneider and Moritz 1999).
178216		population	eng	This species is reported to be common within its range (Williams 2006). H. Cogger (pers. comm.) states that this species is abundant and thriving even in small isolated (but protected) patches of its extensive habitat.
178216		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been fragmented by logging and land clearing for agriculture, with some protected areas now isolated by pastures (Tucker 2000). In addition, the wet rainforests in this region are thought to be severely threatened by climate change, with the native species facing increased range restrictions as a result (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). The habitat may also be negatively affected by invasive species.
178217		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss due to deforestation and to reduce the impact that introduced species are having on native species in the Pacific Islands. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers of this species should also be carried out.
178217		distribution	eng	This species is known from both of the islands of Western Samoa, as well as from four small islands northeast and northwest of the Samoa group. These four islands are Swains and Nukunono Islands of the Tokelau group (American Samoa), Pukapuka Island of the Danger group (Cook Islands), and Funafuti Island of Tuavalu (Gill 1993). This species is also known to occur in Wallis and Futuna (Adler <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,071 km². This has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands it inhabits. &#160;Its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (C. Austin pers. comm. 2010).
178217		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist broadleaf forests. Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).
178217		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon (Gill 1993).
178217		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to agricultural expansion, which is considered the principle threat to this species: In Samoa, 2,500 ha of forest was lost annually (out of 104,790 ha total forested area) between 1980 and 1995 (Rosillo-Calle and Woods 2003). High rates of deforestation are still occurring on many of the Pacific Islands in which the species is found. Introduced species, such as cats, rats, and pigs, also pose a threat to the native species of the Pacific islands, including this species.
178218		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178218		distribution	eng	This species is known from the humid southeast of Madagascar as well as the High Plateau central region (Krüger 1999, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species was found up to 950 m above sea level in the High Plateau region (Krüger 1999).
178218		habitat	eng	This species is known to populate trees, walls and gardens in the towns of Antsirabe and Ambositra. It has also been found on introduced agave plants and tree trunks of large eucalyptus trees in degraded or secondary forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178218		population	eng	This species is reported to be common in some areas in the central highlands (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178218		threats	eng	Habitat loss, due to the expansion of agricultural activities such as slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, is occurring within this species' range. However, this species is able to tolerate urban and altered environments, and therefore habitat loss cannot be considered a major threat at present.
178219		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178219		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Yule River and de Gray River catchments in the Pilbara region, Western Australia (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178219		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of shrublands with spinifex (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178219		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178219		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting this species.
178220		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and threats of this species.
178220		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces of China (Zhao <em>et al</em>. 1999).&#160;Specimens have been collected from areas at 830 to&#160;<defanghtml_st1:chmetcnv w:st="on" unitname="m" sourcevalue="1980" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0">1,980 m</defanghtml_st1:chmetcnv>&#160;above sea level (K. Zhou pers. comm. 2010).
178220		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal, arboreal, insectivorous gecko, can be found on the  outside of buildings such as walls and pig pens built with sun-dried bricks (K. Zhou  pers. comm. 2010). It occurs in very high densities, and is observed equally in  lighted and dark areas of walls (Zhou<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1982).
178220		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178220		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species are ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agricultural land, grazing, and logging and other pressures associated with the region's increasing human population. However, as the habitat preferences are not known, the severity of these threats cannot be determined.
178221		conservation	eng	Parts of this species distribution range coincides with protected areas, for example the Parque Nacional Jaragua. Its occurrence in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco is probably marginal at most. More research is needed into the population status, trends and threats to this species.
178221		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola, occurring in southeast Haiti in the Sud-Est Departement and southwest Dominican Republic in the provinces of Pedernales and Barahona. It has been reported from three biogeographical regions, Sierra de Baoruco, Barahona Peninsula and the Tiburon Peninsula. In Sierra de Bahoruco it occurs along the southern slopes, around the eastern edges and in the northern uplands. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 2,800 km<sup>2</sup> and occurs in more than ten locations (Hertz 1976).
178221		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilic species, which can be found in the undergrowth of dense grass and rocky areas of pine savanna, under rocks in hammock woodland, or along the margins of cleared fields in dead <em>Acacia</em>.
178221		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178221		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degredation due to urbanization and deforestation for agricultural land.
178222		conservation	eng	There are protected areas within this species range. No further research is needed into this species at this time.
178222		distribution	eng	This species is known from Colombia (north and east of the Andes, as far east as the Magdalena river) and from Panama. In Colombia, the species is very common north of the Magdalena and Cauca river valleys, in the Uraba and Caribe; it was found as far north and east as Becerril in the Cesar Departament, and Colosó in Sucre Departament, and on the Pacific coast in the Nuqui municipality in the Choco Departament, but with no more specimens having been found anywhere north of this locality (J. Arredondo pers. comm.). This species is found between sea level and 510 m above sea level.
178222		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter in lowland tropical forest habitat, including secondary forest. The species has also been collected from a garden in the heart of Panama City.
178222		population	eng	This species has been reported to be locally common in some areas, such as north of the Magdalena and Cauca river valleys (J. Arredondo pers. comm.)
178222		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species, which appears to be able to adapt to living in urbanized areas.
178223		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and habitat status and threats of this species is required.
178223		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Bahamas, including the Bimini Islands, Andros Island, New Providence, Elbow Cay (Cay Sal Bank), and the Ragged Islands. The estimated range of this species is approximately 5,870 km² and it is found in no more than eight localities (G. Mayer pers. comm. August 2010).
178223		habitat	eng	This species inhabits xeric and semi-xeric woods with sandy soil along the coast (Thomas 1968, Thomas and Thomas 1978). It has been found around the roots of <em>Tournefourtia</em> shrubs, at the base of gumbo-limbo in a log pile, in dry leaves and sandy humus at the border of coppice, under rocks, beneath stacked railway ties in transitional mangrove scrub, in abandoned mesic nursery under potted plants, in termite-inhabited stumps, in termitaria, and under cardboard in an ant nest (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This snake is nocturnal and is known to feed on termites (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178223		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178223		threats	eng	The native vegetation of the Bahama islands has been extensively converted due to logging, tourism development, and recreation. However, as this species is tolerant of artificial environments, such habitat degradation is not interpreted as a major threat. Introduced predators, such as rats, pigs, and cats are present on the Bahama Islands, and may be affecting the species, although to what extent is unknown due to its fossorial nature.
178224		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. The species occurs in the Cordillera Volcanica Central<br/>Biosphere Reserve (G.C. Mayer pers. comm. 2010).
178224		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southeastern Nicaragua through to Panama and into northern Colombia (Savage 2002, Villa 1971). It extends into the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in the Caldas Departament, and eastern records extend to the municpalities of Betulia, San Vicente de Chucuri and Cimitarra (J. Arredondo pers. comm.). This species is found from sea level to 1,360 m above sea level.
178224		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a diverse range of habitats including lowland moist and dry forest, premontane wet forest, and modified habitats such as cacao plantations (Savage 2002). It is reported to be most abundant in habitats with large, buttressed trees (Whitfield and Pearce 2005). This species is most often found in leaf litter, but is also encountered sheltering under stones and on the moist bark of tree trunks (Vitt <em>et al.</em> 2005, Villa 1971).
178224		population	eng	This species is reported to be very common in Costa Rica (Guyer and Donnelly 2005, Savage 2002) and is one of the most common lizards north of the Magdalena Valley in Colombia (J. Arredondo pers. comm.).
178224		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, however, due to its large distribution and generalist habitat preferences this should not be considered a major threat at present.
178225		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178225		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northeast of South America, in Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana, and the West Indies; including the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada (including Hog Island), Guadeloupe, St Vincent Island, the Grenadines (including Mustique Island), Saint Maarten Island of the Netherlands Antillies, Antigua and Barbuda, and St Thomas of the US Virgin Islands.
178225		habitat	eng	This species is found in open sunny places (sometimes within or adjacent to forested areas, although the species has never been found in forest) where it lives between leaf litter or grass. This species has been found in gardens and parks, and other areas modified by humans.
178225		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178225		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178226		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178226		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Patagonia, Argentina, and adjacent eastern Chile to the Straits of Magellan, Chile.
178226		habitat	eng	This species is found in Patagonian Steppe habitat.
178226		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178226		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
178227		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178227		distribution	eng	Although the exact distribution of this species is not known, it is widespread over central, eastern, and north-eastern rainforests in Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm.).
178227		habitat	eng	This secretive species is primarily found in rainforest.
178227		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178227		threats	eng	Due to the wide range of this species, it is unlikely that it is being significantly impacted by any major threat.
178228		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to inhabit the protected area of Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range. Further research into its biology and ecology, distribution and abundance, and threats is needed.
178228		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Myanmar and is currently known only from the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range, southern Rakhine State (Bauer 2003).
178228		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from an area of lowland forest.
178228		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the type and paratype specimens collected in 2001 (Bauer 2003).
178228		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it is experiencing habitat loss and degradation, but the impact of this potential threat is uncertain.
178229		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to estimate its population<em></em>&#160;size and to ensure that no threats are acting upon it or its habitat.
178229		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Namib Desert of Namibia, including the Caprivi Strip, and adjacent southwestern Angola.
178229		habitat	eng	This species is found in deserts on scrub-covered sand dunes.
178229		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178229		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threat processes.
178230		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, distribution, habitat preferences and threats is required.
178230		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. The island of Guadalcanal has an area of 5,336 km².
178230		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal. One specimen has been collected from secondary rainforest at 200 m above sea level (Brown and McCoy 1980).
178230		population	eng	This gecko is known only from a few specimens.
178230		threats	eng	It is unknown what threats may be impacting this species. The restricted range of this species suggests that it may be vulnerable to stochastic events.
178231		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of populations and habitat trends is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread across this species' range.
178231		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slopes of the Andes, from the state of Choco in Colombia south to northwestern Ecuador. This species is found up to 550 m above sea level.
178231		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland moist forest habitat.
178231		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178231		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by deforestation associated with an expanding human population.
178232		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. However, research and monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed, as localized threats may become more widespread.
178232		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout northern and eastern Australia, from east Kimberley in Western Australia to central New South Wales.
178232		habitat	eng	This is primarily an arboreal species inhabiting woodlands, as well as coastal and riverine forests. It is also reported near human dwellings and gardens (Cogger 2002).
178232		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178232		threats	eng	This species may be threatened locally by habitat loss and degradation but this is not likely to be causing significant declines across its range.
178233		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2001, Chandra and Gahbe 2003). No further conservation measures are required.
178233		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Western Ghats south of Goa Gap and the Nilgiri and Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu (Smith 1943). Chandra and Gahbe (2003) also found this species in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve, in Madhya Pradesh. This species is found between 600 and 1,000 m above sea level.
178233		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist soft soils of dense moist forests (Daniel 2002, Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2001). This snake burrows in loose earth and is found in the soil or under stones and logs in the forest. It eats almost exclusively earthworms (Daniel 2002). This species is ovoviviparous ( Rajendran 1985).
178233		population	eng	Sharma (2003) and Daniel (2002) state that this species is fairly common.
178233		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178234		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the population and distribution of this species, as it is only known from one specimen. Additional research into any threats that are affecting this species is also required.
178234		distribution	eng	This Indian endemic is only known from one specimen, its type locality is in the Cardamom Hills near Trivandrum in Kerala (Sharma 2003, McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178234		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, and is primarily found in moist montane forests.
178234		population	eng	Sharma (2003) described this species as rare.
178234		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. The species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it may be able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178235		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers, threats and habitat of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178235		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Afghanistan, and is known only from the area surrounding Kabul. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,100 km². This species is found between 1,800 to 2,300 m above sea level.
178235		habitat	eng	As this species is distributed in northeast Afghanistan, it is probably a montane species, inhabiting alpine vegetated areas. This species is known as a house gecko from villages around Kabul, where it is reported to be common on walls at night   (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
178235		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178235		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178236		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>L. picturatus</em>, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It is known to be located within Tana Primate National Reserve in Kenya and Gendeagenda Forest Reserve in Tanzania (Malonza <em>et al.</em> 2006, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). No further conservation measures are required.
178236		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kenya and Tanzania. It has been confirmed as far south as Gendeagenda forest reserve in northeast Tanzania, however, the distribution of this species is unclear and requires confirmation. Previous records are unreliable due to confusion surrounding the taxonomy of <em>Lygodactylus</em> (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178236		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal woodland and low-altitude savanna, from sea-level to a maximum altitude of around 500 m. It also tolerates, and even thrives, in suburban environments where it can be found on ornamental trees, and on walls and buildings (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><em>L. picturatus</em> is oviparous, with known clutch sizes of two. It is diurnal and arboreal (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178236		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species across its full range, however, it is reportedly common around Mombasa (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178236		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178237		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.
178237		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is known from the Rio Paute drainage in the northern Cordillera Oriental, in the provinces of Azuay and Morona-Santiago, Ecuador. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 19,793 km²<sup></sup>.
178237		habitat	eng	This species is known from moist montane tropical forest.
178237		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178237		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, as a result of urban and agricultural expansion, and logging pose a major threat to this species.
178238		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178238		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, from the Cordillera de la Costa Central, Venezuela.
178238		habitat	eng	This species is found in evergreen cloud forest habitat.
178238		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178238		threats	eng	The area in which this species is distributed is threatened by the conversion of forests due to agriculture, urban expansion, and illegal logging, and it is likely that these are causing population declines to some degree<em></em>. Cloud forests, where this species occurs, are also susceptible to climate change which will threatened this species in the future.
178239		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its known distribution falls entirely within the Kakadu National Park. The species is listed as 'Rare' or 'Insufficiently Known' in the Taxonomic List of Australia's Threatened Reptiles. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178239		distribution	eng	This species is known from the East Alligator River drainage near Jabiluka, in the western Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. However, its distribution within this range is poorly known (H. Cogger pers. comm.). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,791 km²<sup></sup>.
178239		habitat	eng	This species is found in ground litter within woodlands.
178239		population	eng	Horner (1992) recorded this species as uncommon.
178239		threats	eng	There are large amounts of uranium deposits in the area that have been mined since about the 1940s. Although the surrounding land is protected, there is ongoing controversy with regard to the expansion of the mining zone. The habitat within this species' range is also influenced by the nearly annual burning of grasslands (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178240		conservation	eng	This species currently has no conservation measures in place for it. It may be found in protected areas in parts of its range. More research is needed into its taxonomy, habitat status and threats.
178240		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Myanmar.
178240		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest and forested areas.
178240		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range (R. Stuebing pers. comm. 2008).
178240		threats	eng	It is unlikely that a major threat is causing significant declines in this species across its range.
178241		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including El Yunque National Forest. Further research into the habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out.
178241		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Puerto Rico and is found in upland areas across the island. Puerto Rico has an area of 9,100 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 50 and 1,220 m above sea level.
178241		habitat	eng	This species is found in upland areas under objects and debris in broadleaf forest.
178241		population	eng	This species occurs locally in densities as high as 10,000 ha (Thomas and Gaa Kessler 1996).
178241		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, since many upland habitats are protected in Puerto Rico and are not particularly vulnerable to alteration by humans. However, localized habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural and urbanization may be occurring.
178242		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but a considerable area of its habitat falls within protected areas. This is a rather widespread and common species and is not under serious threat, therefore no further conservation action is deemed necessary at this stage.
178242		distribution	eng	<em>T. kuehnei kuehnei</em> is distributed in southeastern China and Taiwan. The subspecies <em>T. k. vietnamensis</em> is only found in northern Viet Nam.
178242		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species, but it also climbs on vegetation. It occurs in forests, at forest edges and near creeks.
178242		population	eng	This is a common species (M. Lau pers. comm.).
178242		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat process is currently significantly impacting this species across its range. However, this species is associated with low to mid-altitude forests and may have been impacted by past widespread deforestation in the region.
178243		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for this species. However, it is likely to be found within protected areas.
178243		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Africa from the northeastern Limpopo province, extending through Mpumalanga to coastal northern KwaZulu-Natal. It is also found in Swaziland, southern Mozambique and there is an isolated relict population that occurs on the eastern escarpment of Zimbabwe.
178243		habitat	eng	This burrowing skink can be found in various habitat types from desert sand and coastal dunes, dry shrubland and savanna, to woodland humus and forest floors.
178243		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178243		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178244		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178244		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper valleys of the Rio Mantaro, eastern slopes of the Andes, in the departments of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, central Peru. It is found between 2,350 and 3,966 m above sea level.
178244		habitat	eng	This species was collected from xeric areas where <em>Agave</em> and species of cactus are the dominant vegetation.
178244		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178244		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The altitude at which this species is found has not been influenced significantly by human activity.
178245		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and population size, threats, habitat status, biology and ecology is needed, as not much is known about this species at present.
178245		distribution	eng	It is unclear at this time what the actual distribution of this species is. It is mostly distributed in India and is likely to be restricted to the southern part of the country. In the past, however, similar species have been misidentified as belonging to this species (Pope and Pope 1933), and while it has been reported from diverse areas such as southern China and Pakistan, these reports are likely to be erroneous. M.S. Khan (pers. comm.) specifically states that this species does not occur in Pakistan.
178245		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hilly forested areas.
178245		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178245		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178246		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring of the population, distribution, harvest levels, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178246		distribution	eng	This species occurs in isolated fragments in the eastern rainforest bordering the central highlands of Madagascar, in the Andramasina region (M. Vences pers. comm.). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 100 km²<sup></sup>. &#160;Recently further collections of this species have been made in northern localities,&#160;including the Anjozorobe reserve and the Ambatovy area.
178246		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is known from a few individuals collected from humid rainforest (Seipp 1994). This species appears to live mainly on dead trees within rainforest (M. Vences pers. comm.).
178246		population	eng	According to M. Vences (pers. comm.), commercial collectors report that this species has become very rare and that the population is in severe decline, as is the case with other herp species that are collected and endemic to the same area such as <em>Mantella aurantiaca</em>.
178246		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that has become extremely fragmented due to human activities including logging and the expansion of agricultural activities such as slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming and associated brushfires. This species is also harvested for the international pet trade.
178247		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, population size and distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178247		distribution	eng	This thread snake is endemic to Angola and known from only four localities in the west of the country, from the type locality of Humbe in the south, northwards to Luanda (Broadley and Broadley 1999). Specimens from Kibwezi in Kenya were referred to this species by McDiarmid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999), but in a subsequent detailed taxonomic revision by Broadley and Wallach (2007) the same specimens were identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptotyphlops scutifrons merkeri</span>. The species may possibly also occur in Namibia, but this has not yet been confirmed.
178247		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.
178247		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178247		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178248		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out because threats may cause significant declines in this species in the future.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Data Deficient in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka.'
178248		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lowland dry zone of the North, North Central, Uva and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka. Known locations include Ampara, Vavuniya, Mullativu, Trincomalee, Pollonnaruwa, Anuradhapura, Galoya, Moneragala, Buththala, Wilpattu, Rajanganaya (Somaweera 2006).
178248		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist dark brown soils. It is found in dry lowland forests, grasslands and anthropogenic habitats.
178248		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178248		threats	eng	The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm. 2010). However, R. Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) states that slash-and-burn cultivation and resulting fires, road kills, and predation by poultry, cats, and crows are common threats to members of this family.
178249		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is required to ensure that habitat loss and degradation is not having a greater impact on its population than previously thought.
178249		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slopes of the Andes in northern Peru. It is found between 1,200 and 2,600 m above sea level.
178249		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist montane forest and scrub habitat, where it is found in more open areas where breaks in the canopy allow light to reach the ground. This species has been found in secondary forest and disturbed habitats including agricultural plantations, banana and coffee groves and along roads.
178249		population	eng	Cadle (1991) states that this species is abundant in the vicinity of the type locality, and is common in secondary forest and agricultural plantations.
178249		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Loss and degradation of natural habitat is occurring within its range<em></em>, however, this species is able to adapt to secondary forest and plantations and therefore habitat loss cannot be considered a major threat.
178250		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. There are four National Parks in Gujarat, but the presence of this species has not been confirmed from any of them. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178250		distribution	eng	This species is believed to be endemic to the Indian state of Gujarat, in a small area of New Port, Porbandar City (R. Vyas pers. comm.).
178250		habitat	eng	This species has been found in dense xerophytic vegetation in marshy coastal areas.
178250		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178250		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
178251		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution and population size is recommended.
178251		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Pakistan. It is known from the type locality of Fort Munro, a small town in the district of Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab Province (Khan 1993), as well as nearby Khar village (Khan 2002). The type specimen was collected from an elevation of 1,800 m above sea level.
178251		habitat	eng	Khan (2003) lists 'sandstone' habitat for this species. Fort Munro is a mountainous town, situated on a hill, over-looking the Khar Plain (Khan 1993). Large blocks of tumbled rock cover the steep sides of the hill, with scattered growth of grasses and low thorny bushes. The species lives among these rocks, though the type specimen and paratypes were taken in a variety of anthropogenic environments, such as gardens and inside mosques, police stations, hospitals and hotels.
178251		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is said to be quite common around the type locality (M.S. Khan pers. comm.2010).
178251		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178252		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is likely to occur in protected areas within its range. Monitoring of both population and habitat trends of the species is needed.
178252		distribution	eng	According to Grossmann (1986), this species <em></em> inhabits the region south of 15º N in Southeast Asia. This includes southern Myanmar, peninsular Thailand, Cambodia, southern Viet Nam, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Borneo), the Andaman Islands, and the Nicobar Islands. However, Stuart and Emmett (2006) note that in Cambodia it is known from a single locality and is not distributed across the entire country (B. Stuart pers. comm.)
178252		habitat	eng	This species is a canopy-dwelling arboreal species (R. Inger pers. comm.), living almost exclusively in trees and only coming down to the ground to nest or move between trees (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been found in flatland trees as well as coastal areas (Rogner 1997). A study in 1986 found the species in primary rainforests, cultivated patches, in gardens and on individual isolated palm trees (Grossmann 1986). <br/><br/>The species is oviparous. The eggs undergo an incubation period of 69 days (Grossmann 1986). Clutch sizes may range up to 14 eggs and more than one clutch may be produced each year (Das 2002).
178252		population	eng	R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that this species has been found from scattered points around Borneo and that its known distribution suggests it to be abundant.
178252		threats	eng	Conversion of forest in southeast Asia into agriculture or mosaic, and degradation to savanna or woodlands results in habitat destruction for the native arboreal species. The annual deforestation rate in southeast Asia has been calculated at 0.91% from 1990-1997, with much higher rates in specific regions (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). Central Myanmar, Central Sumatra, and Southern Viet Nam, all regions where this species is present, have experienced annual deforestation rates of ~3.0%, 3.2-5.9% and 1.2-3.2%, respectively (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Inger (pers. comm.) states that though widespread in Borneo, the species is dependent on the continued existence of large areas of forest and that, as a forest-restricted species, the rate of deforestation puts it at risk.<br/><br/>The tourism industry in this region may also cause habitat destruction or degradation. The Seribuat Archipelago of Malaysia, for example, supports a growing tourism industry, but the effects of this on the species is not yet known (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Though this species is impacted by these threats in parts of its range, it remains widespread and these are not considered major threats at this time.
178253		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and distribution of this species should be carried out.
178253		distribution	eng	This species is known from south and east of the Orinoco River to Caatinga of northeastern Brazil (Presch 1980). It has also been collected in Curacao (Thomas 1965).
178253		habitat	eng	From its range, this species is presumed to inhabit both moist lowland and montane forests.
178253		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178253		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178254		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas (e.g., Corcovado National Park). Further monitoring of the population and habitat status should be undertaken to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.
178254		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowlands and lower pre-montane areas of southwest Costa Rica. It may also occur in adjacent Panama (Savage 2002). This species is found between 30 and 884 m above sea level and the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,472 km².
178254		habitat	eng	This species inhabits undisturbed moist forest, and is generally found along watercourses.
178254		population	eng	Savage (2002) states that this species is rare in certain localities.
178254		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any widespread threat is impacting this species. This species may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to urban and agricultural expansion, however, the system of protected areas is wide and effective in Costa Rica and so habitat loss and degradation cannot be considered a major threat.
178255		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Much of this species' range lies within Parque Nacional Jaragua provides some measure of protection (Powell and Incháustegui 2009).&#160;Management of protected areas should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population and habitat status, distribution, and effects of threats on this species should be carried out.
178255		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Barahona Peninsula of Hispaniola (Schwartz 1976; White <em>et al. </em>1992b) and is found in lowland areas (Thomas 1965; Henderson and Powell 2009). It was recently collected at Punta Lanza on Isla Beata (Hedges and Thomas 2001). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,570 km²<sup></sup>. A large proportion of this species range falls within the&#160;Parque Nacional Jaragua.
178255		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit xeric woodlands on limestone substratum (Hedges and Thomas 2001). These habitats are characterized by deciduous trees, thorny shrubs, and an undergrowth of cacti and succulents (White <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species is also thought to extend into more mesic habitats on the southern slopes of Sierra de Baoruco (White <em>et al.</em> 1992). The soils where the species has been found vary from dense clay to loose sands, all including scattered rocks. <br/><br/>This species is semi-fossorial to fossorial (White <em>et al.</em>1992).
178255		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178255		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are likely to pose a threat to this species. Meanwhile, the Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat due to logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuel-wood collection (Schubert 1993). It has been suggested that logging reduces both humus and leaf litter due to the removal of large trees by logging (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), which makes the environment less suitable for ground-dwelling species such as the members of this genus.
178256		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
178256		distribution	eng	This species is found on Cuba, the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas and has been introduced to southern Florida (Wilson and McCranie 2002). This species has also been introduced to the Isla del Cisne Grande in the Caribbean Sea (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2008).
178256		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky environments and in coastal locations. This species is also known to occur in anthropogenic environments.
178256		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178256		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178257		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring into the population, habitat and threat status of this species should be carried out.
178257		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Honduras. Originally described from seven specimens collected in the 1930s from El Portillo and Monta Mataderos in Yoro where the original forest no longer remains, it was rediscovered at two localities about 50 km apart in the Cordillera Nombre de Dios in northern Hemisphere, near Rio Texiquat (McCranie and Cruz 1992). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 706 km<sup>2</sup>.
178257		habitat	eng	This species has been found in an area of large boulders on a hillside, and within a recently cleared area of lowland moist forest.
178257		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178257		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to the developing tourist trade and agricultural expansion. Habitat decline was observed by McCranie and Cruz (1992), who reported complete disappearance of forest at two of the known localities for the species. Wilson and McCranie (2003) assigned this species to the most vulnerable class of their "Environmental Vulnerability Score", thus characterising the species as highly vulnerable.
178258		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, population, distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178258		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality in Somalia at northern Migiurtinia near Meledin. Migiurtinia is the region now known as Bari at the tip of the Horn of Africa.
178258		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178258		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178258		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
178259		conservation	eng	This species has been given Rare status in South Australia, but was assessed as Least Concern in the Northern Territory. It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas.
178259		distribution	eng	This species has a wide but scattered distribution from the Northern Territory to Western Australia and into northwestern South Australia.
178259		habitat	eng	This small skink is found in areas of low rainfall, on sandy soils in wooded or shrubby areas.
178259		population	eng	It has been stated that this species is uncommon (Horner 1992) and infrequently encountered (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178259		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species.
178260		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178260		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and from the lower reaches of the basin of the Madera river in Brazil.
178260		habitat	eng	This species is found in Amazonian savanna habitat, including the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia. This species feeds mainly on invertebrates.
178260		population	eng	This species is abundant in some localities (F. Castro pers. comm.).
178260		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178261		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the population trends and threats is needed to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future.
178261		distribution	eng	This species is found in Western Australia in the Murchison and Fortescue River districts (Cogger 2000).
178261		habitat	eng	This species is thought to prefer scrub-acacia habitats (Pianka 1972), though it is also reported from spinifex-covered rocky outcrops (Cogger 2000).
178261		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178261		threats	eng	This species' habitat has undergone some localized habitat degradation and loss due to mining activity and clearing for grazing and other agricultural purposes.
178262		conservation	eng	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but its distribution coincides in places with the Reserva de la Biosfera Baconao. Monitoring is recommended because of the small extent and disjunct nature of the species’ range.
178262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Cuba where it occurs in disjunct coastal locations in Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo districts (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The range of the species is around 720 km²<sup></sup>, taking account of its disjunct range, while the overall extent of occurrence is approaching 2,000 km².
178262		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid coastal forest under natural debris, and it has also been found in rubbish piles, stone walls and buildings in the city of Santiago.
178262		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178262		threats	eng	The natural habitat of this species is declining due to deforestation caused by agricultural and urban expansion. However, this species is able to adapt to anthropogenic environments, so habitat alterations do not appear to be major threats at this time.
178263		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into the abundance, habitat and threats this species is needed.
178263		distribution	eng	This species appears to only be known from the type locality in Gunong Lawit, northern Terengganu, Malaysia.
178263		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species were found sheltering under stones near streams (Dring 1979).
178263		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
178263		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to threats including expansion of agricultural land and logging, which are prevalent in the area.
178264		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Range Restricted with a Recovering population due to Human Impacts (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). The entire range of this species is contained within the Fiordland National Park. Population monitoring is recommended to ensure this species is in fact recovering, and measures to keep the island habitat free of invasive alien species need to be continued.
178264		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand, known from the Fiordland coastline, mostly on islands (Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010). &#160;It was reported on around 40 small islands off the   south-west Fiordland coast and one adjacent mainland site (Gill & Whitaker 2001), between Nancy Sound and Dusky Sound. It has been recorded in the western-most island of each of the Seal Islands and Gilbert Islands groups at the entrance to Breaksea Sound, Fiordland (Hardy 1977), and was reintroduced   to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hawea</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Breaksea Sound, Fiordland in 1988 (Thomas & Whitaker 1995). It is also known from Breaksea Island (Thomas and Whitaker 1995), which it naturally recolonized from a stack 100 m offshore following eradication of Norway rats in 1988 (Thomas pers. comm., Taylor and Thomas 1993, Towns 1994). Due to its occurrence mainly on islands, its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In 1977, Hardy stated that little intensive collecting had occurred on the west coast of the South Island and therefore the distribution would have been less restricted than known at the time. The current distribution, however, is considered to be relictual, since previously the species would have almost certainly occurred in high numbers throughout coastal Fiordland (Thomas and Whitaker 1995).
178264		habitat	eng	This coastal species inhabits exposed rocky shoreline platforms and boulder beaches, cracked and creviced foreshore rocks and boulder beaches on open coast (Thomas and Whitaker 1995). This species seeks cover in rocky cracks and crevices and may enter splash pools to escape danger (Gill and Whitaker 2001). Occasionally it ventures into the adjacent zone of supra-littoral vegetation. Individuals have been seen under coastal shrub only twice and both in places where this vegetation joined the shoreline rocks (D. Chapple, pers. comm). This species is diurnal, and an extremely avid sun-basker (Gill and Whitaker 2001). It is an adept swimmer and apparently has a high tolerance to salt water (Thomas 1985, Towns 1994).<br/><br/>This species feeds on a variety of invertebrates. It has been observed taking prey ranging in size from blackflies (<3 mm) to blowflies (12 mm). Chitinous invertebrate fragments from 20 droppings included small snails, amphipods, isopods, millipedes, spiders, harvestmen, weevils, flies, wasps and caterpillars (Thomas 1985).
178264		population	eng	This species is listed to have a Recovering population (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;It is considered abundant to extremely abundant in areas free from mammalian predators; conversely it is sparse, often to the point of extirpation in areas with mammalian predators (Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).
178264		threats	eng	This species had not been observed on islands colonized by Norway rats, however, it is known to have naturally recolonized Breaksea Island from nearby rocky outcrops once the rats had been exterminated (Thomas and Whittaker 1995).<br/><br/>The native skinks of New Zealand are threatened primarily by the impacts of introduced species. Goats, deer and possum are known to alter the vegetation structure (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002, Atkinson and Towns 2001), while a variety of birds and mammals are known to prey on skinks. Such predators include magpies, Australasian harriers, New Zealand falcons, feral cats, ferrets, stoats, weasels, ship rats, Norway rats, mice and European hedgehogs (Tocher 2006).
178265		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, a World Heritage Site. Efficient management is required to ensure that habitat loss does not occur within designated protected areas. Further research into the threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178265		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Bemaraha region of western Madagascar (Puente <em>et al.</em> 2005), over an area of approximately 945<sup> </sup>km².
178265		habitat	eng	Specimens of this gecko have been collected from tree trunks in dry semi-deciduous forest and were found to be active during the day (Puente <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is also known to inhabit disturbed dry forest.
178265		population	eng	This species appears to be quite common in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Reserve (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). It is not clear whether the population is declining as a result of human impacts on forest at the periphery of the reserve.
178265		threats	eng	While the species appears to be confined to a protected area which has been designated a World Heritage Site, there is ongoing   degradation of  habitat in the peripheral areas through fires set to refresh pastures  for zebu. It is not clear if this is   impacting the species. Dry forests outside the reserve are extremely fragmented (Ganzhorn 1999) and the remainder are threatened by the continuing expansion of slash-and-burn agriculture, grazing land, logging and encroachment by invasive plants (Sussman and Rakotozafy 1994). If this gecko occurs outside Bemaraha it may be at risk from these processes; however it appears able to tolerate some disturbance to its habitat.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
178266		conservation	eng	<p>Although the species is specialized in a habitat type which is not very common within its distribution area and there are threats impacting it, it has a wide distribution area and occurs in some reserves. Thus, at present there is no urgent need of species-specific conservation measures. However, in case the rate of destruction of its habitats does not decrease in the next decade, its conservation in the future will require species-specific measures (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).</p>
178266		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern Brazil from Minas Gerais in the north, to the border with Paraguay. It is found up to 1,500 m above sea level.
178266		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grassy and bushy areas, as well as open savanas occurring at relatively high elevation (1,500 m).<p></p>
178266		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178266		threats	eng	In many areas within its distribution, this species is suffering from habitat destruction, mainly the change of natural Cerrado grasslands into extensive areas of soya bean plantations and pasture.
178267		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is likely that parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Given the species desirability in the pet trade, further research on the distribution and populations status of the species are urgently needed, as is research into potential harvest levels.
178267		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Waigeo in West Irian Jaya, Indonesia, where it is thought to be mainly found on the eastern part of the island near the coast (Jacobs 2003). Although there is no knowledge of a verified specimen or photograph, it may also inhabit West Waigeo (S. Sweet pers. comm.). However, a recent survey of the herpetofauna of Waigeo did not report this species (Hamidy and Mulyadi 2007). The total area of Waigeo Island is approximately 3,140 km²<sup></sup>.
178267		habitat	eng	The island of Waigeo is dominated by moist lowland forest. Therefore this species is likely to be a forest specialist. Being an island isolate derived from <span style="font-style: italic;">V. prasinus</span>, it is likely to have a similar ecology, which would imply a largely arboreal lifestyle.
178267		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178267		threats	eng	This species is threatened by collection for the pet trade, with around 90% of the animals in the trade being taken from the wild (S. Sweet pers. comm.). However, there appears to have been little trade in the species in recent years, but this is unlikely to be caused by a reduction in demand.
178268		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protected area establishment and management is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring of this species should also occur.
178268		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is restricted to the central highlands (Greer 1991). However, it is absent from the Knuckles range (de Silva <em>et al</em>. 2005). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 674 km². This species has an elevational range of 600 to 1,700 m above sea level.
178268		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane rainforests (Greer 1991) amongst moist leaf litter and under stones and logs. This species feeds on insects and lays two eggs at a time.
178268		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178268		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural practices,&#160;especially&#160;land preparations, is a major threat to this species. The high levels of deforestation in Sri Lanka are also likely to be impacting this species&#160;(R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010).
178269		conservation	eng	Further research on the taxonomy, distribution and habitat of this species is recommended to determine its taxonomic status and assess whether it is threatened.
178269		distribution	eng	The exact location of the type of this species is unknown, but is presumed to be India (Khan 1999).
178269		habitat	eng	There is no information available on this species' habitat or ecology, as distributional information is unknown.
178269		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178269		threats	eng	It is not known if any threats are affecting this species.
178270		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas, for example the Sierra de Bahoruco National Park. Further research into the population status of this species is recommended as a decline in population numbers could trigger a threat category in the future.
178270		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Hispaniola, from Petit Goave to Bainet and east to Ravine Normande, Haiti, with the distribution possibly extending into the uplands of Savane Mouton near the Dominican Republic. A population is also found in the western part of La Selle-Baoruco massif. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,850 km².
178270		habitat	eng	This species is found in mesic shaded areas. It has been found in leaf litter, under rocks and rubbish piles, in coffee and banana plantations, and in&#160;<em>Artocarpus </em>and <em>Mangifera </em>litter.
178270		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178270		threats	eng	This species' natural habitat is threatened by agricultural and urban expansion. However, this species is able to utilize some agricultural habitats, such as plantations, so that the severity of these threats on the species are unknown.
178271		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place, or needed, for this species.
178271		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the north coast of Western Australia from Northwest Kimberley to Litchfield National Park, Northern Territory.
178271		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the sub-humid habitats of the Kimberley region (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999), including grasslands, shrublands and savannas. This species is fossorial, nocturnal and oviparous (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983).
178271		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178271		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats affecting this species.
178272		conservation	eng	This species' distribution range coincides with the Parque Nacional El Cusuco which was established in 1987. Further research into the threats and habitat preferences of this species is needed, as is population monitoring.
178272		distribution	eng	This species is reported to be endemic to Parque Nacional El Cusuco which is located in the Sierra de Omoa, north-west Honduras. Here, it has been recorded from two localities. The area in which this species occurs is approximately 314 km<sup>2</sup>. This species occurs between 1,300 to 1,935 m above sea level.
178272		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower montane and pre-montane wet forest.
178272		population	eng	This species is thought to have a stable population (Wilson and McCranie 2003, Townsend 2006).
178272		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to the conversion of forest land to agricultural land in the buffer zones of the National Park (Townsend 2006).
178273		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the range and population of this species is required.
178273		distribution	eng	This species is known to inhabit the montane regions of the central highlands of Papua New Guinea, but is absent from Indonesia. The type specimen was collected between 2,280 and 2,440 m above sea level on Mount Wilhelm, Bismarck Range, Madang Division (Loveridge 1945).
178273		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest (Allison and Kraus 2006). This species is ovoviviparous (Allison and Greer 1986).
178273		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178273		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Habitat loss due to deforestation occurs in the region, however, it not thought to pose a major threat to this species.
178274		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. There are protected areas within its range.
178274		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southernmost Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra and many islands of Indonesia (Simeulue, Nias, Mentawi, Bangka, and Belitung). In Peninsular Malaysia it occurs at elevations between 200 and 600 m, however in Malaysian Borneo it has been recorded at elevations of 700 m (Gunung Kinabalu, Sabah), 900 and 1,178 m (Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak), the latter the highest known elevation record for the species (J.M. Dehling, unpublished data). David and Vogel (1996) reported it from Singapore.
178274		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist lowland and upland primary forests, but in some portions of its range it can occur in plantations. It is nocturnal, arboreal and feeds on frogs, lizards and small mammals.
178274		population	eng	This species is reported to be "quite common" (David and Vogel 1996) and is known to inhabit natural  and altered environments throughout its wide distribution. However, in  Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, this species is rare and found only in  primary forests.
178274		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
178275		conservation	eng	This species is found in numerous protected areas within its range, for example the   Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the threats and habitat of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178275		distribution	eng	This species is found in Queensland, from Cooktown south to Townsville. It occurs from Big Tableland to the Bluewater Range. This species is found between sea level to 1,200 m above sea level (Covacevich and McDonald 1993).
178275		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the wet tropics, where it inhabits rainforest near water margins.
178275		population	eng	This species is reported as common (Schneider <em>et al</em> 1999).
178275		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any threat process.
178276		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its island habitat is protected by the Galápagos National Park and Marine Reserve. Research into the habitat preferences and threats of this species is needed. Population monitoring is recommended.
178276		distribution	eng	This species is only known from San Cristóbal Island in the Galápagos (Cope 1889). The island has an area of 546.6 km².<sup></sup>
178276		habitat	eng	San Cristóbal Island has a range of habitats from evergreen forest to grassy highlands. This species has been found in rocky areas and under bark on trees across the island  (Van Denburgh 1912).<br/><br/>This species lays eggs in October and November in rocky areas (Fitter <em>et al.</em> 2000).
178276		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178276		threats	eng	It is possible that this species is being impacted by habitat degradation. The natural vegetation of San Cristóbal Island is threatened by the grazing of livestock such as cattle and feral goats, and invasive plants including the guava <em>Psidium guajuva</em> are replacing evergreen forest and spreading into grassy zones (Schofield 1989). However, this threat is unlikely to be causing significant continuous declines at present. It is also possible that this species is predated upon by feral cats (T. Gamble pers. comm.).
178277		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is required into the biology and ecology, population, and potential threats that exist to this species.
178277		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Africa. Its presence has been confirmed in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi.
178277		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178277		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178277		threats	eng	Threat impacts on this species are not well understood, however, given its broad distribution, and life history, there are not thought to be any major threats impacting this species.
178278		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures currently in place for this species. More research is needed into the biology and ecology, distribution, threats, trends and habitat status of this species.
178278		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba, and is known only from its type locality of Finca Ceres (Los Montes), Matanzas Province. The estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 70 km²<sup></sup>.
178278		habitat	eng	This is a mesophilic species, and has been found in grasses, near watercourses (Garido and Estrada 1989, Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178278		population	eng	There are no current population data available for this species; however, according to Rodriguez-Schettinio (1999) "The only known population of this species was found to be abundant during the census taken in 1982; nowadays it is very scarce because of extensive modification of its habitat due to Hurricane Lili in 1996."
178278		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and development, exacerbated by natural disasters such as hurricanes.
178279		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found within the Parque Nacional da Serra das Confusoes, an IUCN category II National Park. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range, including community-based initiatives to ensure that deforestation by the local population is managed. Further research into the distribution, population, threats and conservation actions should be carried out. Population monitoring is recommended.
178279		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Toca da Cabocla, Piaui, Brazil. Surveys have been conducted at Lagoa do Jacu and Olho a'Agua da Santa, to the north and south of the type locality, but no further specimens have been found despite significant catch effort. It can therefore be assumed that the species is endemic to the local region of the type locality and the area in which this species is distributed is estimated as less than 5,000 km².
178279		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial and nocturnal and was found in a patch of sandy soils in an area dominated by Caatinga vegetation. Other species of the genus are restricted to sand dunes and areas with sandy soils.
178279		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens at its type locality. Since it was collected less frequently than its congeners, it is assumed to be relatively rare.
178279		threats	eng	A large proportion of the Caatinga habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of agricultural expansion. Timber extraction for firewood is also degrading the habitat. Although this species is found within a National Park, the local population continues these practices on a subsistence scale.
178280		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out into the population numbers of this species as it seems to be rare.
178280		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the arid interior of South Australia.
178280		habitat	eng	General habitats for this species are desert environments, generally in local sandy areas within regions dominated by heavier soils or stony deserts. The vegetation cover is typically very sparse (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).
178280		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).
178280		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats.
178281		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.
178281		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality at Buoenloy, Gilai-Contum province, Viet Nam, at 700 m above sea level (Darevsky and Orlov 1994).
178281		habitat	eng	The type specimens for this species were found on fallen tree trunks under the canopy of a primary tropical forest. From this habitat information, it is assumed that this skink is semi-arboreal to arboreal (Darevsky and Orlov 1994).
178281		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178281		threats	eng	Annual deforestation rates for south Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent and more widespread estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The extent of deforestation in the Gilai-Contum province is unknown, however, as this species is known to be arboreal and inhabit primary forests, it may be especially susceptible to the impacts of forest loss.
178282		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A large part of its range is contained within protected areas. Monitoring of populations and habitat is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.
178282		distribution	eng	This species is known from the higher altitudes and humid lowlands of the western slopes of the Andes, from Chocó in Colombia to the state of Cotopaxi in Ecuador.
178282		habitat	eng	This species is known from montane and lowland forest habitats.
178282		population	eng	This species is frequently seen in some localities (Castro pers. comm.).
178282		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. At certain altitudes, however, high levels of agricultural activity are likely to have an impact on the species<em></em>.
178283		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of deforestation expected to occur, including the expansion and management of current protected areas. Further research into the distribution and population status of this species is recommended.
178283		distribution	eng	This species is known from high altitudes of the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in the northwest of the department of Antioquia, Colombia (Rueda Almonacid 1989). The area in which this species is distributed is estimated at approximately 4,129 km<sup>2</sup> and it is found between 1,900 and 2,350 m above sea level. However, there is a distinct lack in information on this species, so that the number of locations at which this species occurs, as well as the true extent of occurrence, are currently unknown.
178283		habitat	eng	Specimens of this specie<em>s</em> were found on ferns at about 1.5-2.0 metres above ground level in areas of primary forest where the canopy was dense.
178283		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178283		threats	eng	Although higher elevations are not as threatened by logging, agricultural expansion, and an increasing human population as lowland areas, these regions are starting to come under increasing pressure from these factors. Furthermore, the natural habitat may become severely fragmented as a result of these anthropogenic factors. As this species is arboreal, habitat degradation and loss associated with deforestation is likely to have a large effect on the population.
178284		conservation	eng	The entire range of this species is within a protected area, since Navassa Island became part of the National Wildlife Refuge system in 1999. However, no personnel are on site and Navassa is “monitored” from the regional centre in Boqueron, Puerto Rico. Further research into potential threats, and monitoring of population and habitat trends is suggested as this species has a restricted range and is vulnerable to stochastic events.
178284		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Navassa Island which has an area of approximately five km².
178284		habitat	eng	This species is found in cactus scrub, <em>Ficus</em> trees, woodland and savanna areas. While this species was only absent in areas which were completely devoid of vegetation,&#160; habitats with only a sparse tree or shrub layer are thought to be sub-optimal (Powell 1999). Although the species will forage in open areas, it requires trees to maintain reasonable population densities.
178284		population	eng	This species is abundant in all but the most exposed habitats (Powell 1999).
178284		threats	eng	Navassa Island has not been inhabited since World War II. Although Navassa Island is fairly high (around 77 m above sea level) and steep-sided, so sea level rise due to future climate change is unlikely to have an immediate impact on the habitat of this species, these lizards must cope with habitat that was degraded historically by mining operations and more recently by frequent visits by Haitian fishermen and occasional groups of Haitian squatters in addition to uncontrolled populations of goats that destroy the vegetation on which these lizards depend and predation by introduced dogs and cats.
178285		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Ambatovaky Special Reserve and Ranomafana National Park. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out.
178285		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution within Madagascar. It has been found in Ambatovaky in the northeast, Ranomafana Park in the east, and the Tolanaro region in the southeast. This species is found between 50 and 1,050 m above sea level.
178285		habitat	eng	This species is found in valley bottom, slope, and ridge, forest.
178285		population	eng	This species has been described as common (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).
178285		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178286		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population numbers and threats to this species are needed due to its restricted range.
178286		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the hills of the Central and Uva provinces of Sri Lanka (Haldumulla, Nanunukula, and Uva Patnas). It has been found at 1,220 m above sea level (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species is distributed over approximately 7,590 km².
178286		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils. It is primarily found in montane forests, however, it has also been recorded in agricultural habitats.
178286		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178286		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, this species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, but the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178287		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species at present.
178287		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Western plateau, South Gulfs, Lake Eyre basin, Bulloo River basin, and Murray-Darling basin of New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983)
178287		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid sandy areas with spinifex (Wilson and Swan 2003). This species is associated with large sandy desert tracts, such as the Simpson Desert, Strzelecki Desert and Great Victoria Desert. Within the Mutawintji National Park, the species was only recorded on red soil grasslands and shrublands (Swan and Foster 2005). This species is fossorial, nocturnal, and oviparous (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983).
178287		population	eng	M. Hutchinson (pers. comm.) states that this species is very common in many localities.
178287		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, because a large proportion of the habitat within this species' range is arid, and therefore sparsely inhabited by humans and unsuitable for agriculture.
178288		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should also be carried out.
178288		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few localities within the states of Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura in Peru, and Zamora-Chinchipe state in Ecuador. It is known from only a few specimens, many of which are over a century old (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).
178288		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in lowland moist forest habitat.
178288		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178288		threats	eng	High rates of deforestation occurring within this species' range are causing its habitat to become increasingly fragmented (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.). Therefore habitat loss and degradation from logging and agriculture are a likely threat to this species.
178289		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known from the protected area Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (Bauer 2003). Further research into its biology, abundance and range, habitat status, threats is needed.
178289		distribution	eng	This species has only recently been described from its type locality at Gon Nyin Bin Camp, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, Monywa District, Sagaing Division, Myanmar. There is some disagreement over the potential distribution of this species. Bauer (2003) expects a range extension eastward through the dry zone to Shan Plateau, while G. Zug (pers. comm.) believes that as its known occurrence at Alaungdaw Kathapa is on the western edge of the central dry zone, and further collections will instead be likely along the eastern face of the Chin Hills.
178289		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is in the central dry zone of Myanmar, between the Rakhine Yoma (Arakan Yoma) of the Indo-Burman Range in the west and the extensive montane areas beyond the Sittaung (=Sittang) River in the east (Bauer 2003).
178289		population	eng	This species is only known from three specimens, all of which were collected from the same locality in 2000 (Bauer 2003).
178289		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it is experiencing habitat loss and degradation, but as its range is unknown, the extent and severity of this potential threat is uncertain.
178290		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, most, if not all, of its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Lamington National Park and Border Ranges National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
178290		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the MacPherson Ranges bordering New South Wales and Queensland. This species is found between 800 and 1,100 m above sea level.
178290		habitat	eng	This species is found in highland closed rainforest.
178290		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178290		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178291		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution may coincide with protected areas. Further research into its taxonomy, distribution range and ecological preferences should be carried out.
178291		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central America, but there is still a big question over its exact distribution, given the uncertainty about its taxonomic status. It was first collected from San Juancito in Honduras, and according to Fitch and Seigel (1984), the species occurs from El Salvador to central Nicaragua, with collections from Miramundo, El Salvador and Matagalpa in Nicaragua. Köhler (2003) omits the Nicaraguan records and restricts the species to a few localities in Honduras. As such, its extent of occurrence cannot be defined; it may range from around 23,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on ten known localities to a much more restricted range within Honduras. It is distributed at high elevations between 1,000 and 2,400 m above sea level.
178291		habitat	eng	The precise habitat preferences of this species are not known. However, collections have been made from roadside thicket in pine grove and in open grassland (Fitch and Seigel). Its range also coincides with montane forests.
178291		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178291		threats	eng	Because of the uncertainty about the species' range and the different taxonomies used by different authors, it is difficult to determine whether there are any threats impacting the species.
178292		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas, including the Gran Humedal del Norte de Ciego de Ávila. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species and its tolerance of degraded habitats.
178292		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba, where it occurs from Villa Clara to Las Tunas including the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Hedges and Garrido, 1993).
178292		habitat	eng	This species is mesophilic to semi-xeric in nature and has been found in dry forest under surface debris.
178292		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178292		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to agricultural and urban expansion is occurring in parts of this species' range. However, no evidence has been found to indicate that this is causing population declines in the species at this time.
178293		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution does coincide with protected areas. It is known to inhabit the Gunung Kinabalu National Park in Sabah, Malaysia, which has an area of 753 km²<sup></sup>. It is also known from Niah National Park, in Sarawak, Malaysia, which has an area of 35 km²<sup></sup>. Both of these protected areas are IUCN Category II. Further research is needed on the biology and ecology, threats, habitat status, and abundance of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.
178293		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded at 915 m above sea level on Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo (Greer 1970). In 1996, <em>L. vyneri</em>&#160;(recorded as <em>L. nieuwenhuisi</em>)&#160;was recorded in West Kalimantan (Auliya 2006).&#160;<em>L. nieuwenhuisi</em>&#160;has been described from Long Bloe (Blu or Bloeoe) on the upper reaches of Sungei Mahakam in Kalimantan, while&#160;<em>L. vyneri</em>&#160;was further described from isolated localities in northern Borneo, such as at Nanga Tekalit Camp on Sungei Mengiong, Kapit Division, at Pangkalan Lobang, Niah National Park, Miri Division, and at Kiau and Mahunbayon, Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Ranau District (Das 2004). In 2006 <em>L. vyneri</em> was recorded in the Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan (R. Bonke and M. Auliya pers. comms. 2010).<p><span lang="EN-GB"> </p>
178293		habitat	eng	It is thought that this species inhabits the canopy and rarely descends to the forest floor (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforest.
178293		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178293		threats	eng	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 21-25% of the forest across Kalimantan was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). More recent estimates are unavailable. This species may be especially vulnerable to the impacts of deforestation, as this species is arboreal.
178294		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Currently, there are 132 protected areas in Costa Rica, which make up 25.1% of the land area (Sanchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2003). Meanwhile, nearly all the forests outside of the parks have been cleared (Bulte <em>et al.</em> 2000). A high rate of deforestation in the areas surrounding some of the parks was found, which has resulted in their isolation from the national conservation system (Sanchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2003). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178294		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Pacific versant of Costa Rica from Tilaran, Guanacaste Province, to the Peninsula de Osa and San Vito de Java in Puntarenas Province (Bezy 1989). Its range may extend into neighbouring Panama (Savage 2002). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 15,640 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is found between 10 and 1,250 m above sea level (Savage 2002). Although the species is found in many more than ten localities, and therefore presumably also in more than ten locations, the habitat of this species is severely fragmented (G. Koehler pers. comm. 2011).
178294		habitat	eng	This species is a unisexual, all-female entity (Bezy 1989). It inhabits moist lowland and premontane forests (Savage 2002).
178294		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178294		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation. From the early 1970s to the early 1990s, the average annual deforestation rate for Costa Rica was 3.7%, however, by the end of the century it had decreased to less than 1.5% (Sanchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2003). While past deforestation had been due to low-input livestock raising, current forest clearing has been driven by cash crop plantations, such as banana, palm heart, and coffee (Bulte <em>et al.</em> 2000, Sanchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>While urban growth has been credited with drawing people away from the forest, and ecotourism credited for creating direct monetary returns for keeping the forest intact (Sanchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2003), it is unknown if these have a net positive impact on the forests.
178295		conservation	eng	Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is required, and monitoring of population trends is necessary.
178295		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be known only from type locality, 50 km south of El Manzano, Paso El Choique, Mendoza, Argentina. The species was found at 2,260 m. This species might occur more widely.<br/><br/>In the species' description the location of the type is incorrectly given as 36<sup>o</sup> 27'S, 60<sup>o</sup> 50'W, which corresponds to a site in Buenos Aires province.
178295		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric montane habitat, characterized by basaltic outcrops, rocky slopes and sandy soil. Vegetation in this area is clumpy, and consists of bunch-grass and cacti.
178295		population	eng	There is no population information availiable for this species.
178295		threats	eng	Habitat degradation as a result of overgrazing by domestic livestock is a potential threat to the species.
178296		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of forest loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the specific habitat preferences of this species should be carried out, as little is known about these at present.
178296		distribution	eng	This species has been collected a number of localities within the Antsiranana Province in northern Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). The province has an area of around 45,000 km²<sup></sup>; the lizard's extent of occurrence within this region is thought to be less than 20,000 km². <span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
178296		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in dry forest (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011), and requires relatively open habitats.
178296		population	eng	This species is known from quite a number of localities (M. Vences pers. comm. 2011).
178296		threats	eng	Ramanamanjato <em>et al</em>. (1999) considered that, although parts of this species' habitat may be affected by habitat loss, this does not seem to be a major threat at this time. However, habitat degradation through agricultural conversion and logging is common in northern Madagascar, including at sites where this species occurs such as Montagne des Français (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011), and much of this disturbance is recent. This species may therefore be at greater risk than previously supposed.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
178297		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of this species is required prior to any further conservation measures being implemented.
178297		distribution	eng	This species is reported to occur predominantly in northwestern Madagascar, but it is also known to occur in southwest Madagascar and Nosy Be Island (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178297		habitat	eng	Species in this genus are nocturnal and are known to inhabit primary or secondary forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). Although the specific habitat preferences of this species are unknown, based on its distribution, it may inhabit western Madagascan dry forest.
178297		population	eng	There are no population data availale for this species.
178297		threats	eng	The dry forests in this region are now extremely fragmented and the remaining habitat continues to be threatened by the expansion of slash and burn' tavy' farming, conversion of forest to grazing land, logging and the establishment of invasive plant species (Sussman and Rakotozafy 1994).
178298		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population numbers and threats of this species are needed in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.
178298		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu, between 1,200 and 1,500 m above sea level (Smith 1943). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,360 km²<sup></sup>.
178298		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species that inhabits moist soils, primarily in moist montane evergreen forests.
178298		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare.
178298		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178299		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178299		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from northern Madagascar (D'Cruze <em>et al,</em> 2007), the south-east (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002), the east and south-west as well as offshore islands including Nosy Boraha, Nosy Mangabe and Nosy Be (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is also known to occur in the Comoros archipelago (including the French territory of Mayotte - Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.), Mauritius, and has been introduced to Tanzania.
178299		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal species inhabits rainforests and has been reported from cleared areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is also reported from habitats in a transitional zone between humid, spiny and littoral forests (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is frequently found under bark, in cavities in dead trees or in the axils of <em>Pandanus</em> and <em>Ravenala</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178299		population	eng	D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> (2007) recorded that this species was rare in the massif Montagne des Francais.
178299		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, localized threats may exist in part of this species' range due to habitat loss.
178300		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178300		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Hispaniola (Sproston <em>et al.</em> 1999), including Isla Beata, Isla Saona, Isla Catalina, Cayos Siete Hermanos, Isla Cabras, Ile de la Gonave, Ile de la Tortue, Ile a Cabrit, and Grosse Caye. This species is found from 20 m below sea level to 520 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178300		habitat	eng	This species is found in the xeric lowlands between major mountain ranges and along the southern and eastern coasts (Gifford <em>et al.</em> 2004). It inhabits <em>Acacia</em> scrub and woods, xeric woodlands, mangrove borders, scrublands, and open beaches with some cover (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It may also occur in mesic areas around human habitation, where population density is approximately 140 lizards/ha (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Schell <em>et al.</em> 1993).&#160;<br/><br/>On the Barahona Peninsula, the species is almost always associated with soil substrate, whereas other concurrent species of this genus are associated with rocky outcrops or substrates (Gifford <em>et al.</em>&#160;2002).<br/><br/>This species creates two distinct types of burrows, one for shelter and one for egg laying. This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of five eggs (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The eggs are deposited in an accessory chamber of the main deposition burrow and covered with packed earth. These lizards may eat <em>Anolis</em> eggs (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178300		population	eng	This species has been described as ubiquitous in dry lowlands on the island (Gifford <em>et al.</em> 2004).
178300		threats	eng	Although much habitat destruction and degradation has taken place on Hispaniola, this species is highly adaptable and able to tolerate modified environments (Henderson and Powell 2009). Therefore such habitat loss is not interpreted as an imminent threat.
178301		conservation	eng	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species; however, portions of its distribution coincide with protected areas, including the Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge and the Guánica forest UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Populations of this species should be carefully monitored in the likely chance that the effects of coastal development will become more severe in the very near future.
178301		distribution	eng	This species is found along the southern, western and north-central coasts of Puerto Rico due to its xerophilic nature (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The dry climate of the southwest of the island allows the range to extend further inland. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,700 km².
178301		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a range of habitats including both xeric and coastal forests, open areas and beaches, plantations, semi-evergreen ravines, and grass and brush scrubland. Individuals of this species are known to occur in anthropogenic environments, such as gardens.
178301		population	eng	Rivero (1998) and Genet <em>et al.</em> (2001) describe this species as abundant in some localities.
178301		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion is occurring within this species' range, and tourism-related coastal development has the potential to affect populations more dramatically than it has until now. To date, however, threats have had only localized effects on populations. Due to many populations in coastal habitats, rising sea level as a consequence of ongoing climate changes are likely to have a substantive and negative impact on these lizards.
178302		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its range does coincide with the protected Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Park. Further research is recommended into the likelihood of potential future climate-induced threats impacting upon this species, and monitoring is necessary.
178302		distribution	eng	This species has a small distribution along the Drakensberg escarpment in the South African provinces of Free State, KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape (Branch 1998). It almost certainly also occurs in adjacent parts of Lesotho. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 3,180 km<sup>2</sup>.<defanghtml_span style="font-family: Arial; color: navy; font-size: 10pt;"></defanghtml_span>
178302		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane grassland and favours stony, heather and grass-covered mountain tops and upper slopes near the escarpment edge. It is known to take refuge among rocks (Bates 2005).
178302		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178302		threats	eng	The Drakensberg Mountains are threatened by overgrazing and damming (Birks and Birks 2002). While this species is found at high elevations in habitat unsuitable for agriculture, localized overgrazing is likely to impact upon the species' food supply. Global warming may be a future threat to this species which has limited options for migration (M. Cunningham pers. comm.).
178303		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats should be carried out.
178303		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Sri Lanka (Taylor 1950). No specific type locality was given although most of Taylor's collections were made around Trincomalee. It is also possible that a specimen has been collected from the northeast coast of the island (R. Somaweera pers. comm.).
178303		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. However, members of the genus tend to be cryptic and burrow in the leaf litter and soil (Greer 1977).
178303		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178303		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178304		conservation	eng	Further research into this species is required, particularly into the species' range, habitat and threats.
178304		distribution	eng	The range of this species is not well known; it has been recorded from the state of Coquimbo, Chile, but no further details of the distribution are known.
178304		habitat	eng	This species is found in high altitude areas, probably in Andean steppe habitat.
178304		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
178304		threats	eng	There are potential threats to this species in the region of Coquimbo, which has a relatively high human population density. However, as the species' distribution is not well known it is not possible to assess the direct threats to this species in detail<em>.</em>
178305		conservation	eng	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, and it does not occur within a protected area. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be implemented.
178305		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a small area in the foothills of the Sierra Maestra of eastern Cuba at elevations of 260–465 m above sea level. Its estimated distribution is less than 5,000 km²<sup></sup> with its area of occupancy considerably less due to a lack of suitable habitat. &#160;Furthermore, its distribution is severely fragmented due to the expansion of agriculture in the region.
178305		habitat	eng	This species often is associated with dead agaves in karst regions, sometimes on very steep slopes.
178305		population	eng	This species was among the rarest lizards within its range, with only eight specimens collected in the type series during three visits to the area (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).
178305		threats	eng	Caribbean islands in the past have suffered a very high level of deforestation, with only 10% of original habitat left on average on these islands (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). While most of Cuba had been originally forested, less than 20% of forest cover remained in 1993 (Hedges and Woods 1993), and habitat loss has remained prevalent. Because the species appears to prefer vegetated karst areas, the expansion of agriculture in its range often results in deforestation of even rocky areas and can be a major threat.
178306		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The establishment and management of protected areas are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and provide safeguards for this species. Monitoring of this species is recommended.
178306		distribution	eng	This species is known from the low inter-montane basins on both sides of the Andes in the provinces of Azuay, Canar, and Loja, southern Ecuador; this species is found in the upper valleys of the Rio Paute (Atlantic drainage) and Rio Jubones (Pacific drainage). This species is found between 2,300 and 3,200 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,847 km².
178306		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane forest habitat.
178306		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178306		threats	eng	This species is found in a region that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and logging. Mining is also prevalent in the region and may pose an additional threat to this species.
178307		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as protected area establishment and management, are required to reduce the rate of deforestation and habitat loss occurring in the area. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
178307		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> inhabits Bougainville, an island off Papua New Guinea, and Choiseul, Guadalcanal and Nggela of the Solomon Islands (McCoy 1980). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 19,329 km², which has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands.
178307		habitat	eng	This species lives in very moist conditions in river valleys and can be found under stones and in piles of dead leaves and other debris in wet stream beds (McCoy 1980). The lizard forages in and around debris at the side of streams in heavily shaded areas. On Bougainville, it is described as a montane lizard (McCoy 1980). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous with one egg per clutch (McCoy 1980).
178307		population	eng	In 1980, McCoy considered this species to be common on Nggela Island.
178307		threats	eng	The lowland forests of the Solomon Island have been exploited for centuries, primarily due to conversion of forest to agriculture (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Certain coastal regions have been depopulated since colonial rule began in 1893, and now have secondary forest. However, starting in the 1990s there has been an increase in commercial logging on the islands (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Pelling and Uitto (2001) comment that in the Solomon Islands, "a weak forestry department and civil society have little power to restrict the activity of foreign (mainly Japanese-based) forestry companies". Therefore habitat degradation and destruction is a threat to this species.
178308		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within national parks throughout its entire range. Despite these protected areas, anthropogenically influenced habitat change is still occurring, therefore management of these areas is required to prevent the continued restriction of this species' range.
178308		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to east Africa and is known from four mountains all with altitudes of at least 2,700 m above sea level and up to 4,500 m. These locations are Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon, Cherangani Hills, and the Aberare Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,226 km²<sup></sup>.
178308		habitat	eng	This montane species inhabits moorland above the tree line.
178308		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178308		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted habitat, however, all of its range is found within national parks. Despite the protected status, moorlands are still being burnt and the high local human population means that these habitats are still vulnerable to habitat disturbance and change.
178309		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The establishment and management of protected area is suggested to provide small safeguards for the species from habitat loss. Further research into the population status, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178309		distribution	eng	This Cuban endemic is restricted to the extreme southeastern coast. The area in which it is distributed is approximately 1,708 km²<sup></sup>.
178309		habitat	eng	This species is xerophilic and is found in dry forest, and often associated with Agave (Schwartz and Garrido 1985,&#160;Schwartz and Henderson 1991, S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).
178309		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178309		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural and urban development is occurring within this species' range.
178310		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178310		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Mendoza and northern Neuquen, Argentina, between 34 and 37 degrees latitude. This species has an elevation range of 900 to 2,310 m above sea level.
178310		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid rocky areas.
178310		population	eng	There are currently no population data available for this species.
178310		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species, although it may be locally threatened as a result of overgrazing by domestic livestock which causes habitat degradation.
178311		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found in the National Reserve of Paracas (Reserva Nacional de Paracas) (M. Lundberg pers. comm.). No further conservation measures are needed for this species.
178311		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from south-western coastal Ecuador south to southern  Peru. This species' elevation range normally stretches from sea-level to 200 m above sea level (Dixon and Wright 1975). The species is present and presumed to have be introduced on both Lobos de  Tierra and Lobos de Afuera, as well as other guano islands along the coast; it is also present, probably naturally, on Sangayan (Reserva Nacional de Paracas) and Isla Foca in  northern Peru (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. 2010).
178311		habitat	eng	This species is found throughout the coastal region of its distribution. It inhabits rocky areas, mud cliffs, salt crust beaches, and sand dunes and flats, with or without vegetation. It has been described as normally being found within 100 m of the water (Dixon and Wright 1975), but it is also found in other habitats inland, in the desert and river valleys (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).
178311		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178311		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats affecting this species.
178312		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, habitat status, and threats is required.
178312		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kuala Lumpur and Cameron Highlands in Pahang state, Malaysia. The original listing of Selangor by Boulenger is incorrect and the collection refers to Kuala Lumpur (L. Grismer pers. comm).
178312		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences for this species are not known, but it is likely to inhabit moist forest.
178312		population	eng	This species is very hard to find and is only reported from a few collections (L. Grismer pers. comm.).
178312		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, but habitat degradation is a possibility.
178313		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, for example the Sierra de Bahoruco National Park. Further research is needed into population status and trends, threats and habitat of this species. Population monitoring is recommended. The establishment and management of new protected areas is needed to provide a refuge for this species from habitat loss.
178313		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southwestern Dominican Republic. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 520 km<sup>2 </sup>and all individuals of the global population are found in fewer than five locations (four localities are known; Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It occurs between sea level and 900 m above sea level.
178313		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilic species, inhabiting crevices in cliff faces and foraging on nearby vegetation and has also been found along roads (Swhwartz and Henderson 1991).
178313		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
178313		threats	eng	There is ongoing deforestation and habitat conversion in the Dominican Republic to&#160;accommodate&#160;the expansion of agricultural industry, often carried out illegally, which is threatening this species with habitat loss and degradation.
178314		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178314		distribution	eng	This species is known from Madras and Ramnad in India, and from Mariccukatti in northern Sri Lanka (Sharma 2002). Only old and vague records are available and no specific localities are known, either in the past, or more recently.
178314		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forests.
178314		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that this species is "rare, undeterminate".
178314		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
178315		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into its ecology.
178315		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Atacama, Antofagasta and Tarapaca, in northern Chile.
178315		habitat	eng	The dominant habitat within the range of this species is hot desert.
178315		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178315		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178316		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178316		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Pilbara Plateau in Western Australia eastward to the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory (Cogger 2000).
178316		habitat	eng	This species has been found sheltering in termite mounds (Cogger 2000) and is also known from rocky and sandy habitat in wooded and partially wooded areas (How and Dell 2004).
178316		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178316		threats	eng	This species has no major threats at this time.
178317		conservation	eng	A reforestation programme was initiatied in 1959 to increase the forest cover in Cuba, which increased from 14% to 18.2% in 1992 as a result (Díaz-Briquets 1996). Although this programme is ongoing, non-native trees are often used, so the loss of natural forest is unlikely to be offset by this reforestation. Parts of this species' distribution are likely to coincide with protected areas. Further research into the population numbers, threats, trends and habitat of this species is required, as is population monitoring. The establishment and management of new protected areas is required to provide a refuge for this species from habitat loss.
178317		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western and central Cuba, with records from the provinces of Pinar del Río, Ciudad de La Habana, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, and Sancti Spíritus (Rodriguez-Schettino, 1999). The distribution of populations within these provinces may not be continuous (Rodriguez-Schettino, 1999).
178317		habitat	eng	This species is primarily forest- and ground-dwelling, and has been found foraging on the ground, amongst leaves and twigs, in low shrubs and bushes, low down in trees, and in grass (Rodriguez-Schettino 1999, Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species' distribution suggests that it is found in moist forest.
178317		population	eng	According to Rodriguez-Schettino (1999), populations appear to be low in numbers; however, it is possible that, as a result of its cryptic colouration, the species seems more scarce than it actually is.
178317		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss as it has been reported that the Cuban moist forest has declined in extent by 70% (Dinnerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995), mainly due to the forest conversion for coffee and cocoa plantations. Increasing urbanization may also be a threat.
178318		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of the species<em> </em> is required prior to any further conservation measures being implemented. Research into this lizard's distribution, habitat status, and threats should also be carried out.
178318		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Madagascar and the far north of the island, over an area of approximately 35,250 km². However, the range of this species may change once taxonomic uncertainties have been resolved.
178318		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid forests. Specimens have been found under wood and debris in dry sewage ditches (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178318		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178318		threats	eng	Forest within this species' range is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn 'tavy' agricultural practices, a technique widely used across Madagascar. However, it is unknown what impact this is having on the species.
178319		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed to determine the taxonomy of this species and to clarify apparent intraspecific differences in ecological requirements prior to any further conservation measures being implemented.
178319		distribution	eng	This species is reported to be widely distributed in Madagascar and is thought to occur from northern to southeastern Madagascar including the offshore island of Nosy Be (D'Cruze <em>et al</em>. 2007, Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species has been found between 40 and 320 m above sea level at most sites although it was recorded from sites ranging in elevation from 379 to 563 m close to the village of Tsarakibany, in northern Madagascar (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011). The species as currently defined is also found in the nearby Comoros Islands, where it has been found up to 632 m asl. on Anjouan (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.), although the taxonomy of the Comoran form is in need of revision (O. Hawlitschek pers. comm. May 2011).
178319		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from humid and littoral forest as well as from disturbed habitats (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007, Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species has been found to occur on traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>) and surrounding trees, in syntopy with <em>Geckolepis typica</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007). Conversely, D'Cruze & Kumar (2011) did not record this gecko from orchards or cleared land during a survey of Montagne des Français in northern Madagascar, concluding that it is a forest specialist which requires relatively undisturbed habitat.
178319		population	eng	D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that this species was common in the massif Montagne des Français. It was apparently rare around Tsarakibany (Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011).
178319		threats	eng	Forests in this region are being lost or degraded due to human activities such as the expansion of agricultural activities, including slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming. Although in some areas local logging is technically prohibited, this is not well enforced and selective logging continues. Habitat degradation is also caused by out-of-control wildfires due to tavy practices (Bollen and Donati 2006). Given conflicting evidence regarding this gecko's tolerance of habitat modification it is unclear whether these processes represent major threats.
178320		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178320		distribution	eng	This species is found in northwest Argentina, in the provinces of San Juan, La Rioja, Mendoza, and Catamarca.
178320		habitat	eng	This species is found in scrubland and forest habitat (R.E. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). &#160;This species is oviparous.
178320		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178320		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat process is acting on this species, however, it is possible that it is locally threatened as a result of the expanding human population and associated agricultural practices.
178321		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, for example Los Haitises National Park. Research into the threats, population trends, abundance and habitat is needed alongside population monitoring to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future.
178321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola where it occurs across the whole island, although there are some areas from which this species has not been collected (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is also found on the surrounding islands of Île de la Tortue, Île Grande Cayemite, Île à Cabrit and Isla Catalina (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is found between -20 to 1,700 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178321		habitat	eng	This species is primarily mesophilic, though with tendencies towards xerophily. This is a grass anole, but may also be found in ferns, shrubby and bushy areas, cornfields and mangroves. It is also found in pine forests (Henderson and Powell 2009).
178321		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178321		threats	eng	The area in which this species is distributed is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion which may be causing population declines, particularly in the Haitian part of its distribution.
178322		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution and habitat preferences of this species is needed.
178322		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen which was found in the Département de l'Artibonite, Haiti.
178322		habitat	eng	The only specimen known was taken from a coastal oasis surrounded by xeric desert.
178322		population	eng	S.B. Hedges (pers. comm. 2009) reports that two surveys were conducted at the type locality, the most recent being 1997, and that the species was not found. It is likely that less than 50 mature individuals remain.
178322		threats	eng	Many Haitian habitats have disappeared or are heavily degraded, so that only the most ecologically tolerant species are surviving in many locations (R. Powell pers. comm. 2010). S.B. Hedges (pers. comm. 2010) states that all the natural forest within this species' potential range is long gone, due to agricultural and urban expansion. &#160;Because no species of the genus is adapted to a completely denuded landscape (bare dirt), it doesn't really matter that we have a poor knowledge of the ecological habits of the species to determine that it is threatened (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>
178323		conservation	eng	There are currently no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is required.
178323		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Tiburon Peninsula, but is mainly restricted to the west and east of the peninsula, occurring in more than ten locations (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is found on Île-à-Vache, and on Montagne Noir and Morne de Cayette in Haiti. This species is reported to occur up to 1,650 m above sea level.
178323		habitat	eng	This is a mesophilic to semi-xerophilic species, found in open areas, including beaches, field margins, mangrove edges and the margins of broadleaf woods, and upland pine forest. It has also been found in cultivated shady areas (Franz and Cordier 1986, Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Henderson and Powell 2009).
178323		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178323		threats	eng	Haiti is heavily deforested, and less than 1% of its original forests remain (Hedges and Woods 1993). Tree-cutting continues in the national parks, and no evidence suggests that deforestation will end until all forests are removed. These extreme habitat alterations will continue to decrease population levels of this species.
178324		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. The frequency of fires should be monitored.
178324		distribution	eng	This species is comprised of two subspecies with discrete distributions.&#160;<em><em>T. a. africanus</em>&#160;</em>occurs in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal, from Pondoland to Maputaland, as well as in adjacent Swaziland.&#160;<em>T. africanus fitzsimonsi</em> is restricted to Algoa Bay in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. <br/><br/>A further isolated population of <em>T. a. africanus</em> may have existed at Witzieshoek in the Free State province of South Africa. A single specimen from this locality was first reported in 1915; the specimen has been examined and was confirmed as <em>T. a. africanus</em> by De Waal (1978) and Bates (1992). The species has never again been collected in the area so this record may represent an extinct subpopulation, or alternatively the specimen may have been mislabelled specimen (M. Bates pers. comm. 2010).
178324		habitat	eng	<em>T. a. africanus</em> occurs in coastal grassland and <em>T. a. fitzsimonsi</em> is found in coastal fynbos.
178324		population	eng	Branch (1998) reports this species to be very common.
178324		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species; however this species may be threatened by frequent and unregulated anthropogenic fires (M. Bates pers. comm. 2010).
178325		conservation	eng	The entire island of Komodo has been listed as a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve from 1977. The island has been a national park for Indonesia since 1980. Komodo National Park is offered protection under the World Heritage Convention, as it was designated a World Heritage Site in 1991. The park also includes coastal areas of western Flores. This is likely to provide a small safeguard for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, range, threats, and habitat status of this species is suggested.
178325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lesser Sunda Islands (How and Kitchener 1997). It inhabits Komodo and the north coast of Flores (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). The type was collected at Loho Lavi, Komodo, at 12 m above sea level. This species has an area of distribution of approximately 4,663 km<sup>2</sup>.
178325		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species. The habitat on Komodo and Flores is semi-evergreen dry forests.
178325		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178325		threats	eng	This species may be affected by habitat loss and degradation from deforestaton and fire. There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 17% of the forest across the islands was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). While the entire island of Komodo is protected, specific deforestation information for Flores is not available. However, other Flores endemics, such as the Flores Crow <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus florensis</span>, have been severely affected by the ongoing chronic deforestation on the island (BirdLife International 2009). It has been suggested that logging reduces both humus and leaf litter due to the removal of large trees by logging (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), which makes the environment less suitable for ground-dwelling species such as the members of this genus. During the dry season, fires are used to clear the undergrowth and stimulate new growth of fodder for livestock, and this could also disturb the leaf litter and top soil needed by fossorial species.
178326		conservation	eng	Monitoring of this species' population trends should be carried in out order to detect any population declines. Further research into the effects of threatening processes on this species is also recommended. The establishment of protected areas would help in safeguarding this species' habitat.
178326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Madagascar. It is found in the region around Toliara, from Lavenonbato to Firherenana. It has a distributional area of approximately 3,300 km² and is found in no more than ten locations; while the exact number is hard to define, it is not thought to occur at as few as five locations (F. Glaw pers. comm. June 2011). Its elevational range is uncertain, but it is known to occur close to sea level (F. Glaw pers. comm. June 2011).
178326		habitat	eng	This species has been found in various dry habitats from sand dunes to forests.
178326		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. Urban and agricultural development is fragmenting forest habitat within this lizard's range, but it is unknown whether the population is currently severely fragmented.
178326		threats	eng	This species avoids humans and urban areas (Rogner 1997). Destruction and degradation of habitat due to land conversion for urban areas and agriculture in southern Madagascar are the major threats to this species, and are likely to cause habitat fragmentation and loss.
178327		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Naila Reserve in Morocco and in other protected areas including the Massa National Park. No further conservation measures are needed for this species at this time.
178327		distribution	eng	This is an Atlantic coastal species that ranges from southwestern Morocco through Western Sahara and Mauritania into northern Senegal. It is a lowland species ranging up to 350 m above sea level. It is also present in the Massa National Park (J.M.&#160;Pleguezuelos pers. comm. 2010).
178327		habitat	eng	This species is generally restricted to coastal dunes and sand banks. It is a viviparous species.
178327		population	eng	This species is abundant in southwestern Morocco and Western Sahara.
178327		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
178328		conservation	eng	This species is a CITES Appendix II species. In many places its distribution coincides with protected areas (e.g. it certainly occurs in almost all large reserves in Brazilian Amazonia, which represent more that 200,000 km² of protected forests), probably providing safeguards to threats such as deforestation (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178328		distribution	eng	This species is found in Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Brazil (in the states of Amazonas, Para, Amapa, Mato Grosso, Roraima and&#160;Rondonia), Peru (Rio Orosa), and possibly in Guyana and Suriname. This species is confined to local and small populations in the western portion of its range (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).
178328		habitat	eng	This species is a semi-aquatic lizard known from the margins of rivers, lakes and from inundated forest. Martins (2006) states that the species is always associated with flooded forests, and has never been seen in streams through non-flooded forests. <br/><br/>This species feeds on terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates including amphibians, reptiles, fish, crabs and spiders. Vertebrates form about one third of its diet<em></em>.
178328		population	eng	This species is locally common in areas of seasonally flooded forests along all large rivers of Amazonia (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178328		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species; however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation and urban expansion.
178329		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of this species' distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the threats, population trends and habitat preferences of this species is needed.
178329		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba. It occurs across the island, from Guanahacabibes Peninsula to Cabo Maisí, but its distribution is sporadic and reportedly most continuous in the east of the island. It has not been recorded from the central provinces of Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Villa Clara and Sancti Spíritus. It occurs between sea level and 180 m above sea level.
178329		habitat	eng	This species is reported to be confined to heavily shaded broadleaf forests. It has also been found in mangroves, in deserted mine buildings, in the ruins of upland coffee plantation houses, and on rocks and fence posts along a well-shaded road (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is not found in urban areas (K. de Queiroz pers. comm. 2010).
178329		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178329		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by localized habitat loss due to the conversion of land to agricultural areas and increasing urbanization. However, as these are localized threats they are not considered a major threat at present.
178330		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution should be carried out in order to identify whether any threats are affecting this species in parts of its range.
178330		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is poorly known. It has only been found in the coastal areas of southwest Ecuador on the peninsula de Santa Elena, in Guayas province (Cisneros-Heredia 2008). &#160;It has also been recorded in&#160;Chiclin, La Libertad, in Peru. The extent of its distribution between these two regions is not known (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).
178330		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal desert areas, feeding predominantly on insect larvae.
178330		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178330		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178331		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.
178331		distribution	eng	This species appears to be only known from its type locality in the hills near Scout Camp, Sara Buri, Sara Buri, Thailand (Talyor 1963).
178331		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry deciduous forests.
178331		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178331		threats	eng	The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with forest area having declined from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).
178332		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species; it occurs in reserves (e. g., it is a very common species at Maracá Ecological Station, a 104,000 ha reserve in Roraima, Brazil) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178332		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Roraima in Brazil, from the Pacaraima foot hills in Guyana, in the state of Nickerie (between Avanavero and Amotopo) in Suriname, and from the states of Anzoategui, Delta Amacuro, and Monagas in Venezuela.
178332		habitat	eng	This species is a diurnal ground-dwelling gecko which feeds on invertebrates. This species is found in dry leaf litter on the floor of primary and old secondary forest, and also at swamp edges in forests. The only specimen from Suriname was found in a small patch of dry shrub savanna, surrounded by dry dakama forest and rainforest.
178332		population	eng	This species was considered common in one study site in Roraima, Brazil.
178332		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178333		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found within the reserves of Cerrado. Further research into the distribution of this species should be carried out to determine if it is found within Bolivia. Detailed assessments on genetic variation among isolated populations would aid in understanding the effects of habitat loss.
178333		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil (in the states of Sao Paulo, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Bahia, and Distrito Federal) and Paraguay (in the state of Amambay). This species is endemic to the central Brazilian Cerrado (Colli<em>&#160;et al</em>. 2002).&#160;It was thought that the species was probably also found in parts of Bolivia, but taxonomic studies suggest that Bolivian populations may well represent undescribed species, as allopatric speciation may be prevalent in this group of rare and habitat-restricted lizards (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007, Rodrigues <em>et al.</em>&#160;2008) .
178333		habitat	eng	This species is a fossorial species found in the Cerrado habitat. It is only found in interfluvial savannas (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). This species has been found in sandy soils, but it is not necessarily restricted to this kind of soil.
178333		population	eng	This has been considered a rare species, although Colli <em>et al.</em> (1998) note that this fossorial species is likely to be more abundant than collections might indicate, due to additional specimen collected in pitfall traps. However, pitfall trapping in ten Cerrado localities captured only 12 specimens compared to more than 2,900 lizard captures overall (Nogueira <em>et al.</em>2009). Habitat loss throughout the range of the species is probably causing important reductions in population size, and isolating remaining populations.
178333		threats	eng	The interfluvial savanna habitat of this species is being converted for agriculture at very high rates across its entire range: it has been estimated that this species' extent of occurrence has been reduced between 1998 and 2008 by 50.4% (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Habitat loss is particularly pronounced in the Southern Cerrado where this species occurs.
178334		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers and threats is suggested, as this species has a relatively restricted distribution.
178334		distribution	eng	This coastal species is distributed in northeastern Australia and is endemic to Queensland from the Cardwell Range north to Shipton's Flat.
178334		habitat	eng	This species has a narrow habitat niche. It is found in highland forests, often near creeks and streams, in the ground litter.
178334		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178334		threats	eng	There are no known threat processes acting upon this species.
178335		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Part of this species' range falls within the Santuario Historico Machu Picchu, where it is protected (M. Lundberg pers. comm.). Conservation measures are needed to reduce the rate of habitat loss and change, such as the extension of protected areas. Further research is required to monitor the population of this species.
178335		distribution	eng	This species is found in the state of Cusco, southeast Peru. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,975 km², and is found between 1,060 and 2,404 m above sea level
178335		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane forest habitat.
178335		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178335		threats	eng	Intensive agriculture, including coffee plantations and cattle ranches, and associated deforestation are taking place within the range of this species. Therefore it is likely that habitat destruction and degradation is a major threat.
178336		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the species should be carried out due to its extremely restricted range.
178336		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Redonda. The area of the island is approximately 2 km<sup>2</sup>, however, only a small area of the island is likely to be habitable and the area of occupancy is likely to be significantly smaller.
178336		habitat	eng	This species is found in the shadow of rocks and on small bushes and trees at the only site on the island with suitable vegetation (Lazell 1972; Gorman and Stamm 1975). Lizards might occasionally forage among the lava rocks and boulders near the shore.
178336		population	eng	Gorman and Stamm (1975) reported that this species is abundant, but Lazell (1972) had indicated that these lizards were “not abundant,” and Daltry (2007), in her review of the herpetology of Redonda, did not comment on the abundance of this species.
178336		threats	eng	The island of Redonda is uninhabited and difficult to access, so human activity is unlikely to pose any major threat at this time. However, an uncontrolled population of goats on the island continue to degrade the little vegetation on which these lizards depend. Redonda Island is high (around 300 m above sea level) and steep-sided, but sea level rise due to future climate change is likely to have a major impact on a substantial low-lying portion of the usable habitat exploited by this species. Nearby Montserrat's dormant volcano has recently become active again, but it is not known if similar activity could affect Redondo.
178337		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research on the population, distribution, and habitat status of this little-known species is needed.
178337		distribution	eng	According to Sharma (2002), this species is found in Myanmar in Bia-po, Karin Hills and is only known from two type specimens. It has also been listed as distributed in southeast Myanmar and western Thailand (Outboter 1986), and R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that though there are no recent records, this distribution is likely to be correct.
178337		habitat	eng	This species is insectivorous and diurnal. It lives in the submontane semi-evergreen rainforests of Myanmar.
178337		population	eng	No detailed population information is known. Sharma (2002) describes the species as rare.
178337		threats	eng	The average deforestation rate for Myanmar from 1990-2000 has been estimated at 0.3% per year based on a loss of 12,000 km²<sup></sup> of forest during this 10-year period (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, as 3,000 km² of forests regenerated during this period, the net average annual deforestation is 0.2% (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005). The main causes of deforestation, as identifiable by satellite imagery, include broad-scale conversion and degradation of the forests, shifting cultivation, and conversion to oil-palm plantations (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with forest area declining from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).
178338		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into its habitat preferences and threats is needed, and monitoring of the population numbers, along with conservation measures to protect this species' habitat, such as the establishment of protected areas, are also needed.
178338		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Trinidad (Rivas <em>et al.</em> 2005). The type was collected from the Aripo Mountain Range.
178338		habitat	eng	The majority of Trinidad is covered with moist forests, however, there are also dry forests, swamps and mangroves present. While it is unknown which of these habitats this species is found in, its presumed habitat is moist forests.
178338		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178338		threats	eng	It is unknown what threats are impacting this species at this time. However, habitat loss and degradation are a problem in Trinidad. A deforestation rate of 1.5% between 1990 and 1995 has been estimated. Great increases in the limestone and timber output reflect the magnitude of recent land cover change on the island. Quarrying has been deemed as a "major and increasing threat", which has grown by 124% from 1988 to 1997 (Day and Chenoweth 2004). Meanwhile, there has been a 92% increase in national timber production from 1993 to 2000 (Day and Chenoweth 2004). Lastly, residential, commercial, and tourism development has contributed to habitat loss, with hotels, guest houses, retail and recreational developments being built.
178339		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but parts of its range coincide with protected areas. Further research into its population size is recommended because the extinction risk of this species may increase in the future.
178339		distribution	eng	This species is found on Borneo in Sabah, Brunei, and Sarawak (Malkmus<em> et al.</em> 2002). This species is found up to 1,000 m above sea level.
178339		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal and semi-aquatic, as it lives along the banks of streams, but can also be found on large rocks or logs in the water. It tends to spend the night on rocky cliffs overgrown with moss. Juveniles are found exclusively in small streams, while adults prefer larger streams (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002).   There are many records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropidophorus beccari</span>, of which this species is thought to be a junior synonym, scattered across large areas of <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>, though all in primary or tall secondary forests at low elevations.<br/><br/>On Mount Kinabalu, it is the most common scincid species in mountain streams up to 1,000 m elevation (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>A female has been observed containing four fully developed embryos (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178339		population	eng	This species is noted to be common in at least one part of its range.
178339		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to conversion of forest to agricultural plantations is occurring in Borneo at high rates and is likely to affect this species.
178340		conservation	eng	Argentina and Paraguay monitor the harvest levels of this species and have implemented management plans (Mieres and Fitzgerald 2006). The management plans have been designed to achieve sustainable use of the species while benefiting local people (Fitzgerald 1994). Existing monitoring and management programs for lizards of this genus in Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia need to be supported and enhanced to ensure the programs become institutionalized (L. Fitzgerald pers. comm). This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research is needed into the population numbers of this species. Embert (2007) reports that this species occurs in several protected areas within Bolivia, including Kaa-Iya, Otuquis, and San Matias.
178340		distribution	eng	This species is found in the states of Amazonas, Para and Rio Grande do Sul, Maranhao, Pernambuco, Mato Grosso, and Goias in Brazil, and in northern and central Argentina, Paraguay, and eastern Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, and Tarija). It does not occur in dry chaco of western Paraguay, Argentina and southeastern Bolivia (L. Fitzgerald pers. comm.). This species has also been introduced to Fernando de Noronha Island.
178340		habitat	eng	It is a habitat and dietary generalist. Throughout its range it is found in primary forest clearings, secondary forest, disturbed habitats including edges of roads and agricultural areas. The species feeds on a wide range of animals and fruit and may play an important role in seed dispersal (de Castro and Galetti 2004).
178340		population	eng	This species is reported as common.
178340		threats	eng	This species is hunted for its skins and to a lesser degree to supply the commercial pet trade. During the 1980s on average 1.9 million <em>Tupinambis</em> lizard skins were traded annually (Mieres and Fitzgerald 2006). The trade in <em>Tupinambis</em> has decreased since that period, and in 1999 the export quotas from Argentina and Paraguay was 1,350,000 skins per year (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em> 1999). This and other species of this genus are also hunted for human consumption on a local level (L. Fitzgerald pers. comm).
178341		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. In places this species' distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.
178341		distribution	eng	This species is found along the western edge of southern Africa, from southern Angola, through Namibia, south to the Northern and Western Cape provinces of South Africa.
178341		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and stony areas with succulents and in karroid vegetation.
178341		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178341		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178342		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out in order to establish the effect invasive Crested Anoles have on this species.
178342		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Dominica. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 766 km<sup>2</sup>. The species is found between sea level and 914 m above sea level.
178342		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a range of habitats including dry scrub woodlands, lime groves, <em>Theobroma</em> and <em>Musa</em> plantations, rainforests, <em>Coccoloba</em> forest, rocky areas and anthropogenic areas such as walls, fence posts and buildings.
178342		population	eng	Extrapolation from biomass estimates suggests a breeding population of 200 million adults and, as females may produce an egg every two weeks, annual turnover may be on billion individuals (Thorpe <em>et al.</em> 2008b).
178342		threats	eng	The full extent of genetic variation in the species is not protected in established national parks and the area on the leeward side of the island where populations are being displaced by invasive Crested Anoles (Anolis cristatellus) affects nearly the entire range of the south Caribbean ecotype (Malhotra et al. 2007, Daniells et al. 2008, Eales <em>et al.</em> 2008).
178343		conservation	eng	The species exists in areas which are&#160;relict&#160;of humid forests; these areas are now being heavily deforested (La Marca 2009).There are three National Parks in the area in which this species is likely to be distributed (J. García-Pérez pers. comm.). Further research into the population and impact of habitat degradation and loss on this little known species is required.
178343		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, the Sierra de Portuguesa in the northeastern part of the Merida Andes, Venezuela. Most of the area in this region is below 2,000 m above sea level.
178343		habitat	eng	This species is a terrestrial lizard found in montane tropical dry forest habitat in humid leaf litter. Most specimens were collected in primary forest in leaf litter, although one specimen was found in a bromeliad near the forest floor (J. García-Pérez pers. comm.).
178343		population	eng	One author (Schargel) has visited the type locality several times in a three year period and did not find any further specimens (Doan and Schargel 2003). Schargel surveyed the area again after the 2003 paper was published and still did not find any specimens (T. Doan pers. comm.).
178343		threats	eng	The region inhabited by this species is covered mostly with coffee plantations at altitudes between 800 and 1,300 m above sea level. The remaining areas of primary forest are restricted to elevations greater than 1,300 m, although here small-scale cattle farming and selective logging are rapidly degrading the remaining forest. Expanding agriculture is a potential threat to this species, which has so far only been found in primary forest habitat.
178344		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out to ensure that the current threat levels do not become more widespread.
178344		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and is known from the central areas west of Anakara and the south of the country (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is found up to 2,050 m above sea level.
178344		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a range of habitats and has been reported from humid areas near rainforest and dry spiny forest and shrubland (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007). It is common on large rocks and can also be found on loamy slopes (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178344		population	eng	This species often lives in large populations (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178344		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation. Forests in this region have been degraded, lost and fragmented due to human activities including the expansion of the slash-and-burn 'tavy' cultivation practices, associated brushfires, and logging.
178345		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178345		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Great Sandy Desert of Western Australia. It is found from the McLarty Hills in the north, south to Well 26 of the Canning Stock Route, and from Telfer in the west to Well 39 of the Canning Stock Route in the east (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178345		habitat	eng	This species is found on sand dune crests in deserts with hummock grasses.
178345		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178345		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178346		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is likely that areas of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is suggested. The expansion and management of protected areas within this species range could provide a valuable refuge for this species from hunting. Community-based initiatives could help slow localized population declines of this species.
178346		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread Varanid, found in Sub-Saharan Africa north of the equator (Bennett 2004). It is known to occur from West Africa through to southwestern Ethiopia and northwestern Kenya, but there is no evidence of its occurrence further east (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is unlikely to be common at elevations above 800 m above sea level (D. Bennett pers.comm.)..
178346		habitat	eng	This species   is restricted to grasslands and agricultural areas within the savannah belt (D. Bennett pers. comm.). Within and around low-intensity agricultural areas, population densities can be quite high   (Bennett and Thakoordyal 2003).
178346		population	eng	This species is common in some habitats, particularly in sparsely inhabited areas and those that are protected.
178346		threats	eng	This species is threatened by various processes. It is hunted for food in some west African countries and is used in traditional medicine. This species is heavily exploited in both the skin and pet trade. It is the most common Varanid in the pet trade and more than 100,000 wild individuals are exported every year (Bennett 2001).   Based on extensive field study, Bennett and Thakoordyal (2003) conclude that even the present high level of collection for export is sustainable. It should be noted, however, that in certain locations, populations may be under threat and declining, but this is not a range-wide occurrence.
178347		conservation	eng	This species distribution coincides with several protected areas, including Cerro Hoya National Park, La Tronosa Forest Reserve, and Sarigua National Park (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC&#160;&#160;2010).&#160;More research is needed into the habitat preferences and threats to this species. Population monitoring is also recommended.
178347		distribution	eng	This species occurs south of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Panama as far east as the Canal Zone (Kohler 2003). Its elevation range is between 0 and 3,000 m above sea level.
178347		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic species which has been reported from moist forest and stream-sides.
178347		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178347		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by loss due to deforestation for agriculture and urbanization.
178348		conservation	eng	This species is listed as partially protected in the “Arrêté N° 01/31/MPE/CAB” of 14 May 2001, meaning that authorization is required to capture, keep in captivity, kill, transport, export, sell, and buy this species. Monitoring of the populations should be carried out.
178348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Comoros Islands and is found on all four of the islands, namely Grande Comore, Moheli, Anjouan, and Mayotte (Brygoo 1983). The area of these four islands is 2,021 km² in total. This species has been observed from sea level (D. Meirte pers. comm.); the highest reported elevation is 982 m asl. (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.)
178348		habitat	eng	This burrowing species is quite cryptic and is known to inhabit not too dry soil, both in forest and in agricultural areas.
178348		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178348		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.  Deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate in the Comoros Islands,  however, with its burrowing habits it may not be directly dependent on above-ground vegetation, and due to its tolerance of cultivated land this cannot be considered a major threat. Also due to its fossorial nature, it is likely to be at low risk from introduced predators.
178349		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is likely that its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
178349		distribution	eng	This species is comprised of three subspecies with discrete distributions. <em>A. percivali tasmani</em> is found in Eastern Cape of South Africa. <em>A. p. occidentalis</em> occurs in the Limpopo and North-West provinces of South Africa, in Zimbabwe, across Botswana, west to Namibia and in southern Angola. <em>A. p. percivali</em> is found in Kenya and Tanzania.
178349		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mesic coastal thicket and savanna by burrowing just below the surface of the soil.
178349		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178349		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178350		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. However, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the population trends, threats and habitat status are suggested to ensure any significant population declines in the future are noted.
178350		distribution	eng	This species can be found in South and Western Australia (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2006). It ranges from southeastern Western Australia in the Yilgarn region, to the Eyre Peninsula (Dunlop<em> et al.</em> 2004, Cogger 2000).
178350		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid scrub and heathland (Dunlop 2004, Cogger 2000).
178350		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178350		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing habitat loss and fragmentation at a local scale due to livestock grazing and clearing for crop production. However, these cannot be considered major threats at this time.
178351		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (IUCN Category II) and the Paragua Forest Reserve.
178351		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is found in the state of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, in the Serrania de Huanchaca, the Beni Department, and in the Bajo Paragua Forest Reserve. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,284 km²<sup></sup>.
178351		habitat	eng	This species is found in Cerrado dry forest habitat. The species was never observed away from rocky outcrops.
178351		population	eng	This species was reported to be common on rocks in sunny areas in the locations where this species was collected.
178351		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, probably due to its remoteness from large human populations.
178352		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to limit the impact that introduced species are having on both the species and its habitat. Further research is required to understand the habitat preferences and population size of this species.
178352		distribution	eng	This species occurs on Fogo and Santiago Islands, of the Cape Verde Islands (Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2001). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,445 km²<sup></sup>.
178352		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. The Cape Verde Islands are almost entirely a human-influenced agrarian environment, although remants of dry forests and scrub habitat still remain.
178352		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178352		threats	eng	Ever since it was colonized over 500 years ago, the natural habitat of the Cape Verde Islands has been extensively altered from its presumed original dry savanna and grasslands to current desert scrub, especially at low latitudes (Lindskog and Delaite 1996). Feral goats have also been a cause of environmental degradation (Lindskog and Delaite 1996), as well as introduced rats, sheep, and cattle. However, it is unclear if these can be classified as major threats, as the habitat preference and ecology of this species is not known.
178353		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in the Pampas Galeras National Reserve (IUCN Category VI). Further research is required into the threats and abundance of this species.
178353		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality which is at the Pampas Galeras National Reserve, near Lucanas, Depertmento Ayacucho, Peru. It has an elevation limit of 3,800 m above sea level.
178353		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in Andean grassland and shrubland habitat.
178353		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178353		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Habitat loss and degradation are known to be occurring in the region, but it is not known what effect this is having on the species.
178354		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population size, habitat status, and threats is required.
178354		distribution	eng	This species is known to inhabit Papua New Guinea. The type specimen was collected at 600 m above sea level, at Hombron's Bluff, Central Province. The distribution of this species is not well known.
178354		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial snake which inhabits moist broadleaf forests. The habitat at the type locality is lowland evergreen forest, but the species may also be found in montane evergreen forests.
178354		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178354		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Habitat loss due to deforestation is occurring in New Guinea, where primary forests are increasingly converted into agriculture and plantations (Estreguil and Lambin 1996). However, the impact that this land change is having on the species is unknown. It has been suggested that the removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus.
178355		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Ecological Reserve of Rio Jamari in Brazil and the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. No further conservation measures are required.
178355		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, Guyana, and in the Brazilian states of Amazonas, Pará, , and Rondônia. It may also occur in Suriname and the Brazilian state of&#160;Amapá (T.C.&#160;Avila Pires&#160;pers. comm. 2010).This species is found at altitudes between 10 and 1,600 m above sea level (Uzzell 1973).
178355		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical forest, including relatively disturbed forests. Individuals generally live in the vegetation (Vitt <em>et al.</em>&#160;2003).
178355		population	eng	This species is rarely found, however, this may be a product of its cryptic nature rather than true rarity (T.C. Avila-Pires pers. comm.).
178355		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.
178356		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Machalilla National Park. No further conservation measures are required.
178356		distribution	eng	This species is found between sea level and 2,000 m above sea level, in the Andes of Ecuador and Peru. It is known to occur as far north as the province of Manabi, south to Chanchamayo province in Peru. This species is also found in Isla de La Plata, part of the Machalilla National Park, and has been introduced to the Galápagos Islands.
178356		habitat	eng	The primary habitat of this species west of the Andes is arid tropical scrub, while it inhabits areas dominated by cacti in the northern inter-Andean basins of Peru (Dixon and Huey 1970, Goldberg 2007). This is a scansorial species which forages on rocks, trees and shrubs. This species is also common in human surroundings and buildings (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010). This species feeds primarily on beetles, moths and butterflies.This species is oviparous and the female produces multiple egg clutches in the same year (Goldberg 2007).
178356		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178356		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178357		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out.
178357		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil, in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina, and from the state of Misiones, Argentina.<br/><br/>Two specimens are said to have come from Montevide, Uruguay, however, Etheridge and Williams (1991) doubted this locality.
178357		habitat	eng	This species is known from Atlantic Forest habitats, Araucarian forest domains, and from 'cultural steppe' in the state of São Paulo. This species has also been reported from areas where forest has been recently cleared.
178357		population	eng	This species is very common in Atlantic rain forest and the <em>Araucaria</em> forests. In Parana, it is one of the most common lizards in the state (S. Morato pers. comm.).
178357		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178358		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. As this species is restricted to two relatively small islands, monitoring of the population is required to ensure that no significant population declines occur in the future.
178358		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to São Tomé and Principé in the Gulf of Guinea (Franzen and Wallach 2002). The combined area of these two islands is 964 km². The type locality is at Vista Alegre, São Tomé, between an altitude of 200 to 300 m above sea level (McDiarmid et al. 1999).
178358		habitat	eng	This burrowing snake inhabits primary and secondary moist rainforests, although it is also able to adapt to xeric environments (Wallach and Ineich 1996). It may also be found within or beneath rotting logs (Measey <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has also been found in agricultural areas of São Tomé, and there is data that suggests that this species thrives outside of forests in cultivated areas where agricultural practices stimulate an increase in soil fauna (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008).
178358		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178358		threats	eng	The forests of São Tomé and Principé have previously experienced deforestation due to agricultural expansion, recent land privatisation and the development of small-scale market gardening (Figueiredo and Gascoigne 2001). However, the current situation on São Tomé does not pose a major threat to forested areas. Furthermore, the impacts of deforestation on subterranean herpetofauna are mostly unknown, and there have been several instances where abundances are greater in agriculture than in forest (Measey 2006). As this species has been found in agricultural landscapes   (G. Measey and R. Drewes unpublished data) and appears relatively abundant in areas of secondary forest, this is unlikely to present a significant threat to this species.
178359		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is known to occur within the Gobi Biosphere Reservation. No further conservation measures are needed.
178359		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south of Mongolia (Anajeva <em>et al</em>. 1997) and in the Chinese provinces of Xinjiang and Gansu. It occurs in the low elevation regions of the Gobi Desert and in the Taklimakan, Hami Depression (Macey <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species is found up to 2,000 m above sea level.
178359		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal terrestrial species and inhabits areas of sparse vegetation including grassland and sandy desert. They are known to shelter in burrows during the day.
178359		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178359		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178360		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178360		distribution	eng	This species is known from Suriname and French Guiana (Hoogmoed 1977). In Suriname, it is known from the Nassau Moutains, Marowijne District and Brown's Mountain, Brokopondo District. In French Guiana, it has been collected from Montagne du Mahury, the area between Cayenne and Degrad des Cannes (Hoogmoed 1977), and from the Saut Parare right bank of the Arataye river (Gasc and Rodrigues 1980).<br/><br/>Hoogmoed (1977) writes that this species probably occurs in the regions between these known localities, but is likely to be restricted to the area south of the coastal savannas. <br/><br/>This species is found between sea level and 450 m above sea level (Hoogmoed 1977).
178360		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary rainforest and its surrounding areas (Hoogmoed 1977). Specifically, specimens have been caught on the ground along river banks, digging in the earth in a roadside quarry, and crossing a road.
178360		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178360		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178361		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in Victoria (Brown 2001). The Department of Sustainability and Development, Victoria, has developed a Forest Management Plan to protect threatened forest biodiversity, however, this species is one of five species that is not included in the Plan. This exclusion is due to insufficient knowledge of the biology or ecology of the species, uncertainty as to the persistence of the species within a Forest Management Area, consideration of the species as insensitive to forest management operations, or simply because no management plan could be developed (Department of Sustainability and Development, Victoria 2006). Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, habitat status, and abundance of this species are therefore needed.
178361		distribution	eng	This species ranges from mid-eastern Queensland to the eastern interior of New South Wales, and into northern Victoria. An isolated population may also be found in the Atherton Tablelands in northeast Queensland (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178361		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a variety of habitats including box-ironbark habitat, granitic hills herb-rich woodland, granitic hills woodlands, and low rises grassy woodland (MacNally and Brown 2001). It inhabits moist rain forests and subtropical savannas. This snake is fossorial, nocturnal (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983), and oviparous. It feeds solely on the eggs, larvae and pupae of Bulldog Ants, <em>Myrmecia</em> spp. (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178361		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178361		threats	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in Victoria, where there is a high human density and threats are more dominant. However, this only comprises a small portion of the species range. It is not considered to be under threat throughout the rest of its wide range in eastern and southeastern Australia.
178362		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into threats that this species may be facing.
178362		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Western Ghats, Travancore, Anaimalai, Nilgiri and Palni Hills of Tamil Nadu in India. The type locality was collected at 1,220 m above sea level (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 18,636 km².
178362		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species that inhabits moist soils and litter.
178362		population	eng	This species is described as fairly common (Sharma 2003).
178362		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. It is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is not known. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178363		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution coincides with protected areas, for example the Parque Nacional El Cusuco. Research into the threats, population trends and habitat preferences and trends are needed. The management of protected areas is needed to provide this species with a refuge from habitat loss.
178363		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sierra de Omoa, north-west Honduras. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 314 km<sup>2</sup>. This species occurs between 1,530 to 2,200 m above sea level.
178363		habitat	eng	This species is found in lower-montane moist forest and elfin forest areas.
178363		population	eng	This species was reported as abundant (Wilson and McCranie 2003, 2004) but has since been reported as scarce (Townsend <em>et al</em>. 2006). Townsend (2006) also reported a decline in abundance of this species.
178363		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to development and agriculture. It is reported that the only habitat left in good condition is at high altitudes (Townsend 2006).
178364		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Portland Bight Protected Area. However, enforcement of protected status is not very effective. Better management of the existing protected areas is needed to ensure that these areas act as safeguards against habitat loss and degradation. Further research into the population status, distribution, habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out, particularly in order to investigate whether the apparent severe fragmentation is real or an artefact of too little information.
178364		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Jamaica, where it is widespread throughout the eastern and western parts of the island; however, the distribution appears to be highly fragmented. This species is found up to 1,220 m above sea level.
178364		habitat	eng	This species is mesophilic, favouring shade and leaf litter of both wet and dry forest areas (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). The species has also been found in xeric coppice shrub, coastal shrub, <em>Cocos</em> plantations, coral rubble, rocks and <em>Cocos</em> debris.
178364		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178364		threats	eng	Only 6% of original forests remained in Jamaica in 1993 (Hedges and Woods 1993) and this trend has continued into the present. This species is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to logging for charcoal production. It is also threatened by increasing urbanization and limestone mining (Wilson and Vogel 2000). This loss of habitat is likely to result in a fragmented distribution of this species.
178365		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and habitat status should be carried out. Conservation measures should be employed, such as the establishment of protected areas, in order to mitigate negative effects from coastal development in parts of this species' range.
178365		distribution	eng	This Australian species has a disjunct distribution across the coast and islands of Great Australia Bight, from Eyre Peninsula westward to Point Culver. It is only found from a few localities and despite extensive fauna surveys along the coast in the last 15 years very few specimens have been found (M. Hutchinson pers. comm. 2010). Therefore it is unlikely that this species is uniformly distributed along the coast of the Great Australian Blight (M. Hutchinson pers. comm. 2010).
178365		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal dunes and shrublands. M. Hutchinson (pers. comm. 2008) states that this species is almost always confined to within one kilometre of the high tide mark along the coast, where it lives in leaf litter, tussock grass, and dense coastal shrubs as well as under dead seaweed above the tide line.
178365		population	eng	M. Hutchinson (pers. comm.) states that this species is not rare, but not common either.
178365		threats	eng	Coastal developments along the west coast of the Eyre Peninsula are likely to result in clearing of coastal vegetation and a corresponding negative impact on this species (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.). However,   much of the range of this species is in remote, semi-arid coastal dune-fields with limited access points and few people (H. Cogger pers. comm.).
178366		conservation	eng	This species may be found in the Parque Nacional Lauca which is found within the region of the type locality. Further research is required into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species.
178366		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Pampa Chucuyo, 10 km from Parinacota southeast of the Pallachata, Parinacota Province, Tarapaca Region, Chile. This species might occur more widely.
178366		habitat	eng	The habitat at the type locality is montane grassland.
178366		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178366		threats	eng	It is not known whether any threats are affecting this species.
178367		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is known from the protected area of Popa Mountain Park. Further research into its range and abundance, threats, and habitat status is needed.
178367		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from Popa Mountain Park, Kyauk Pan Tawn Township, Mandalay Division, Myanmar. Bauer (2002) suggests it is highly endemic to the region.
178367		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forest.
178367		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the holotype and two paratype specimens collected in 2000 (Bauer 2002).
178367		threats	eng	This species inhabits Popa Mountain Park, a protected area. However, despite this protection some habitat degradation may be occurring due to local exploitation of resources, but it is not known if this constitutes a major threat.
178368		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178368		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Bolivia; Argentine states of Mendoza, Salta, Jujuy, Santiago del Estero, Tucuman, Cordoba, La Rioja, San Juan, Catamarca, La Pampa, Neuquen and as far south as Patagonia. &#160;<br/>It was previously thought to occur in the states of Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, and Tarija in Bolivia, the state of Mato Grosso in Brazil, and Paraguay; however these occurrences are now thought to be those of the newly described species&#160;<em>Homonota horrida </em>(R. Espinoza and F. Cruz pers. comms. 2010).
178368		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical deciduous forest and desert scrub habitats. The species feeds on invertebrates.
178368		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178368		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178369		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although there are protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the abundance, threats and habitat status of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.
178369		distribution	eng	This species is confined to southern Western Australia (Bush <em>et al</em>. 2007)
178369		habitat	eng	This species mainly inhabits areas with large spinifex tussocks, and is considered a climax species (Pianka 1989). It is also reported from a broad range of habitats from wet, coastal forest to arid, stony inland areas (Cogger 2000).
178369		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178369		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation as a result of land clearing, however, at present this is not thought to be a major threat to this species.
178370		conservation	eng	In places this species' range distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the abundance, threats and habitat are suggested, as is population monitoring.
178370		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern gulf and north eastern coastal areas of Queensland, from White Mountains northwards to Mount Mulligan.
178370		habitat	eng	This burrowing species inhabits sclerophyll woodland and evergreen vine thickets.
178370		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178370		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species at present.
178371		conservation	eng	Patterson Gorge is located just south of the Wet Tropics UNESCO World Heritage site boundary, and only a small fraction of the suitable habitat for this species is protected by Mt. Cataract State Forest (Hoskin <em>et al</em>. 2003). The establishment of more protected areas within the species' range is needed. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178371		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Patterson Gorge in the southern Paluma Range of northeast Queensland (Hoskin <em>et al</em>. 2003). Two disjunct and isolated populations exist, one around Palm Tree Creek and the other by an unnamed tributary of the Black River. Hoskin <em>et al.</em> (2003) calculated the estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species as 23 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) as 14 km².
178371		habitat	eng	This species occupies steep rocky habitats inside the Patterson Gorge rainforest area. It has been collected from gullies near running water (Hoskin <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species appears to be completely forest dependent (H. Cogger pers. comm. 2010).
178371		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178371		threats	eng	This rainforest-dependent species is threatened by unmanaged burning and grazing that is severely fragmenting and destroying the remaining forest (Hoskin <em>et al.</em> 2003).
178372		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out to assess the severity of overgrazing as a threat to this species.
178372		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peru, from high altitudes on both the eastern and western slopes of the Andes. Its range extends from the department of Cajamarca to Ancash. It has also been recently recorded in the department of Lima (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 2003). It occurs between 2,700 and 3,300 m above sea level. <br/><br/>This species is known from only a few specimens and may be wider ranging than current collection localities suggest.
178372		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are small fossorial species that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. This species is found in montane grassland habitat.
178372		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178372		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of human disturbance. Humans have inhabited the area in which this species is found for nearly 10,000 years and hence the natural vegetation of this habitat has been extensively altered, in particular by overgrazing, burning, invasions of exotic species and mining. It is not known what impact these factors have on this species due to its fossorial habit, however, compaction of soil and erosion that result from overgrazing are likely to have a detrimental effect on this species in localized areas.
178373		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, distribution, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178373		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimens, which were collected in Dore, New Guinea (Manukwari, northwest Irian Jaya (Papua), Indonesia) (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178373		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in the lowland rainforests of northwest Irian Jaya.
178373		population	eng	There is no population information available for this speices.
178373		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a much younger phenomenon on New Guinea than on its neighbouring islands, and yet with increasing population pressure and logging activity, this poses a major threat to the biodiversity of the island (Estreguil and Lambin 1996). Primary forests are increasingly converted into agriculture and plantations.
178374		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Area protection and management are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and provide safeguards for the species. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, ecology and distribution of the species, as its taxonomic status is currently uncertain and it may be found in additional locations. Population monitoring is recommended.
178374		distribution	eng	This skink is endemic to Tanzania and has a very restricted range. It is only known from two coastal locations, Dar es Salaam and Kilwa. It is likely, however,  that this species occurs in a number of locations along the coast. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 7,309 km².
178374		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal mosaic vegetation. Very little else is known of this species (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178374		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178374		threats	eng	The two areas in which this species is found are under threat from habitat loss and degradation due to human population growth, urban expansion, and tourism.
178375		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for for this species. Further research into the taxonomic status of this species is needed due to uncertainty about its separate species status from <span style="font-style: italic;">Uropeltis smithi</span>. Additional research into population numbers and threats of this species is recommended in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.
178375		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Anaimalai, Palni, and Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, and the Tinnevelly Hills of Kerala (Smith 1943). This species is distributed over approximately 18,636 km². Rajendran (1985) states that this species occurs in the Palni Hills at altitudes greater than 1,860 m above sea level.
178375		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, primarily in moist montane evergreen forests. Rajendran (1985) reports that it is also found in gardens.
178375		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is common.
178375		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178376		conservation	eng	It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, threats, population status, ecology, and population trends of this species.
178376		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Madagascar. It is found in the  Ambilobe Region which has an area of less than 10,000 km². Within this region, the species is  estimated to occur over an area of around 7,900 km². Museum specimens  have also been collected on the volcanic island of Nosy Be (area of 300  km²). However, a survey carried out between 1991 and 2001 failed to find  this species on the island, and it may have been missed in recent surveys because it is difficult to sample and most survey work has focused on the Lokobe reserve, where it may not be present (C. Raxworthy pers. comm. July 2011).
178376		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
178376		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178376		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
178377		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. As this species has a restricted range, it should be monitored to ensure that population numbers do not decline in the future.
178377		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range in the Lesser Antilles, on the islands of St. Eustatius, St. Christopher, and Nevis (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 282 km<sup>2</sup> (total area of all three islands). It occurs between sea level and 335 m above sea level.
178377		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a range of habitats from natural shrubland such as xeric scrub and <em>Ficus</em> trees to anthropogenic environments such as urban areas and plantations.
178377		population	eng	The population density of this species, on St. Eustatius, was reported as 2,220-3,000 per hectare (Henderson and Powell 1999).
178377		threats	eng	This species currently has no major threats affecting it. The islands on which the species occurs are low lying and therefore not subject to hurricane overwash (G. Mayer pers. comm. 2010).
178378		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178378		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution over most of Australia, except the far west.
178378		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found in Mediterranean-type climates and open woodland habitat, but it is also known to occur in habitats ranging from desert to dense woodland.
178378		population	eng	Horner (1992) described this species as moderately common. In 1994, Hoser and Scanlon regarded it as very common.
178378		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178379		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amoró, Carrasco, Sama and Tariquia.
178379		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chimore, Cochabamba Department, Bolivia, in the north through the Santa Cruz and Tarija Departments to Cuesta Los Coloraditos, Salta Province, Argentina, in the south. This species is found between 1,000 m to 3,350 m above sea level.
178379		habitat	eng	This species is found on rock outcrops and other sunny areas in dry scrub and low forest habitat, or at the forest edge.
178379		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178379		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened in some parts of its range by habitat degradation associated with agriculture, however, due to its large distribution this is not considered a major threat.
178380		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring on the Banda Islands. The establishment and management of new protected areas is needed to provide this species with a refuge from habitat loss. Further research is required to monitor the population and habitat of this species to ensure that any rapid population declines are noted.
178380		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Banda Islands, Indonesia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 150 km²<sup></sup>.
178380		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical rainforest.
178380		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178380		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted distribution and is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and habitat destruction (I. Ineich pers. comm.).
178381		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat, and threats of this species is needed.
178381		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Cerro Illescas, Department of Piura, Peru. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 736 km². The species has only been collected from the northern side of the Cerro and it is unknown whether it occurs in other areas of this mountain (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).
178381		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species were found near Puerto Bayovar, which was once a small mining camp on the western edge of the Sechura Desert. In this area there is also a small fisherman town, fish-meal processing facilities and the PetroPeru oilduct terminal with oil tanks, seaport and oil shipping facilities (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). The other specimens of this species were found in the foothills of the Cerro Illescas.
178381		population	eng	This species is known from only four specimens and it is thought to be a rare species (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). Catenazzi and Donnelly (2007) sampled geckos around its type locality, and could not find any specimens. However, they did not sample as intensively as Huey did in 1968 (Huey 1979).
178381		threats	eng	Much of the area where this species has been collected has been developed and/or modified by human activities (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). In 2004, a mining company was granted a two-year permit by the Peruvian government to conduct a feasibility study to build a Bayovar phosphate depot, involving a phosphate mine and fertilizer plant. This phosphate mining project includes the construction of a new port a few kilometres north-east of the species' type locality (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). It is not known whether this project was taken forward, or the impact it would have on the species.
178382		conservation	eng	The known distribution of this species already falls within a protected area to which access is extremely limited (Kulla National Park). To access this park permission is required from the traditional owners of the land (Kulla Land Trust) and the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. Further research into its population, distribution, threats and habitat status is suggested and field surveys are required to determine if this species is more broadly distributed in the McIlwraith Range. The gecko site should be periodically monitored to determine that the population is still extant and that there are no signs of unauthorised human activity in the area. It is important to assess the effect potential future threats, such as climate change, may have on this small and restricted population.
178382		distribution	eng	This species is only known from north-eastern Queensland, Australia, from the Peach Creek area of the McIlwraith Range and the summit of McIlwraith (Couper 1993), and is thought to be endemic to the region. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 204 km²<sup></sup>, but its area of occupancy within this is thought to be less than 20 km².
178382		habitat	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens found at night in granite boulders within the rainforest (Couper <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Juveniles of the species are likely to be predated upon by the Ring-tailed Gecko <em><defanghtml_span style="font-style: italic;"><defanghtml_span style="font-style: italic;"><defanghtml_span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cyrtodactylus  tuberculatus</span></defanghtml_span></defanghtml_span></defanghtml_span></em>  which is abundant in the same habitat (P. Couper pers. comm.).
178382		population	eng	This species appears to be scarce within its habitat. Despite survey efforts specifically aimed at locating this species, it is still only known from a few specimens (Anthony 1998).
178382		threats	eng	<p>There is some degradation of the rainforest by feral pigs in areas adjacent to the gecko site. However, this may have little impact on the geckos which are well-buffered within their boulder habitat. &#160;The gecko site is within a national park and there is no development or land clearing. While Australian geckos are popular and widely sought after in the reptile trade, there is no evidence of illegal collecting of this species.  </p><p>It is possible that this species' rainforest habitat may be threatened by climate change in the future (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been predicted that a 1°C warming would decrease the abundance of highland rainforest by 50% (Hughes 2003). However, it is currently unknown what effect this may be having on the species.<br/></p>
178383		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The only two records with confirmed locality data both fall within protected areas. Further surveys are required to relocate this species in order to clarify its population status, distribution, exposure to threats, and habitat requirements. The taxonomic status of Vietnamese records assigned to <em>T. muelleri</em> is in need of resolution.
178383		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Thailand, South Viet Nam and Cambodia (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). The type was collected from an unknown location in Thailand (Taylor 1965), and in Thailand this snake is only known from two localities (V. Wallach pers. comm. 2010), the other being Khao Sebab National Park (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). More detailed distributional information is not available. It is reported to occur in Lao PDR (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009), but there appear to be no recent records from this country in published literature, and Lao PDR appears to have been included without basis (B. Stuart pers. comm. August 2011). It was recently rediscovered in Cat Tien National Park, South Viet Nam (Geissler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011); it was previously known in Viet Nam only from a single historical record. A historical record from Cambodia reported by Saint-Girons (1972) lacks precise locality data, and the species has never been rediscovered in this country.
178383		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown, although it is likely to be associated with forest leaf litter in moist lowland forest, based on the habitat found at the few known localities.
178383		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is described as quite rare (Wallach 2001), with very few specimens reported, and only a single record from recent literature (Geissler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
178383		threats	eng	It is unknown what threats may be affecting this species, as its specific distribution within Thailand and Cambodia is largely unknown and the one confirmed Thai site falls within a protected area, as does Cat Tien in Viet Nam. However, habitat degradation due to logging and clearing for agriculture are known to be present in this region.
178384		conservation	eng	This species may occur in Jamaican nature reserves. Currently, no conservation measures are needed for this species.
178384		distribution	eng	This species was historically endemic to Jamaica, but has now been introduced to Bermuda. On Jamaica, it is relatively widespread across the island. The distributional area of this species is 11,044 km²<sup></sup>.
178384		habitat	eng	This is a mesophilic species, often found in grazed pastures, well-watered shady gardens, xeric coastal growth, xeric forest, and on the walls of, and even inside buildings (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178384		population	eng	This is one of the most common and widespread anoles on Jamaica (Crombie 1999).
178384		threats	eng	This species is currently not affected by any major threats.
178385		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, distribution, habitat status and threats is required.
178385		distribution	eng	This species can only be found in northwest Yemen. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,770 km².
178385		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species, but no information about its habitat preferences is known.
178385		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178385		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178386		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring of populations and habitat is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
178386		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is found from the department of Putumayo in Colombia, to the state of Tungurahua in Ecuador (Williams and Duellman 1984, Ayala-Varela and Torres-Carvajal 2010). This species is found between 250 and 2,000 m above sea level.
178386		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest habitat.
178386		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178386		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and loss as a result of agricultural expansion and mining is occurring in localized regions of this species' range. &#160;Habitat alteration in the region is occurring at a fast rate as a result of oil exploration and cattle farming (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010), so this may need to be monitored to determine future impacts on this species.
178387		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, its distribution does coincide with protected areas. Within Namibia, Griffin (2003) rated this species as Secure.
178387		distribution	eng	This species is mostly distributed in the Kalahari from the northern Cape of South Africa through most of Botswana and bordering Namibia. Disjunct populations are also found in the west of Zambia and its Northern Province, and the Limpopo Province of South Africa.
178387		habitat	eng	This species is sand-dwelling.
178387		population	eng	This is a common species (Branch 1998).
178387		threats	eng	There are no major known threats impacting on this species.
178388		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is needed before a more accurate assessment can be carried out.
178388		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Rossel Island, southeast of Papua New Guinea.&#160; The island has an area of 262 km².
178388		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be an arboreal monitor inhabiting moist forests, but because of the uncertainty surrounding this species, its habitat requirements can best be considered as unknown.
178388		population	eng	There are no population data for this species.
178388		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178389		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat preferences, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
178389		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Madagascar. It is found around the Montagne d'Ambre and has an area of distribution approximately equal to 7,588 km²<sup></sup>.
178389		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in dry forests. Very little is known about its ecological requirements (M. Vences pers. comm.), but it is a forest dependent species (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).
178389		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178389		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to agricultural and urban expansion. As this species is dependent on forest habitat, this is a major threat to its survival.
178390		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the full extent of this species' range and to estimate its total population. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas.
178390		distribution	eng	This species inhabits northern, southwestern, and southeastern Sulawesi (Iskandar and Nio 1994).
178390		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit lowland moist forest. However, from its described distribution in Sulawesi, it is inferred to also inhabit montane forests.
178390		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178390		threats	eng	Southwest Sulawesi has lost vast areas of primary rainforest to horticultural plantations (Iskandar and Nio 1994). Estimates on forest clearence show an 89% loss of lowland forest (below 400 m above sea level) between 1990-1997 (FWI and GFW 2002). However, this species is also likely to inhabit higher altitudes which are not suffering from such threat processes.
178391		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. The Ruwenzori Mountains part of its range is designated a Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2003). Further research is required to establish the population of <em>L. meleagris</em> across its relatively small range, and to determine the extent that deforestation is having on this species. Population monitoring is recommended
178391		distribution	eng	This East African endemic is found at high altitudes in Mubuku Valley in the Ruwenzori Mountains and the Bugongo Ridge and Kalonge in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 13,387 km<sup>2</sup> and its restricted distribution above 2,000 m means that the species occurs in less than ten locations.
178391		habitat	eng	This species is found in high altitude wet forest.
178391		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178391		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that in the past has been threatened by deforestation and land degradation, although these areas are now designated national parks. The Ruwenzori Mountains are surrounded by a very high human population, and despite its designation as a protected area, the mountains are viewed as a major source of resources. <br/><br/>The area often experiences civil unrest and during these periods the management of the national parks is unable to occur. During the 1970s and 1980s high levels of conflict meant that the montane forest was violated by intensive hunting for bushmeat and other resources. Although the area is currently regarded as stable, there is a chance that future civil conflict may occur (UNEP-WCMC 2003).
178392		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178392		distribution	eng	This species is found in Somalia and eastern Ethiopia between 630 and 1,100 m above sea level.
178392		habitat	eng	There is no recent information available for this species. Loveridge (1947) reports that it is "arboreal, at altitudes from 1,900-3,300 feet".
178392		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178392		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178393		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.Its distribution coincides with at least one national park.
178393		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the provinces of Phetchaburi, Chonburi, Surat Thani, Prachuap Khiri Khan and Chumphon in Thailand (Taylor 1963, Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2003).
178393		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial and limbless (Greer 1973), and is usually found under piles of debris or rotting grass within moist lowland forest (Taylor 1963). It has also been found in open beach forest and on a golf course near the coast (Taylor 1963). It is not yet known, however, if this species is capable of adapting to altered environments. This species is ovoviviparous (Taylor 1963).
178393		population	eng	This species is reported as common in Pala-U in the province of Prachuap Khiri Khan, and Ban Krang in the province of Phetchaburi, Thailand.Both localities being situated in Kaeng Krachan National Park.
178393		threats	eng	The range of this species includes areas where high rates of deforestation are occurring. The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). However, this species is very tolerant to forest alteration.
178394		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species to determine if this species is part of a species complex.
178394		distribution	eng	This widely distributed Australian species is abundant in the Tanami, MacDonnell, Simpson and southern areas of the Barkly regions of the Northern Territory. It is also found in arid parts of Western Australia, northern South Australia and southwestern Queensland.
178394		habitat	eng	This species can be found in various habitats including woodland, grassland and desert areas. This species is found in semi-arid or arid climates.
178394		population	eng	This species is described as common (Horner 1992).
178394		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178395		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into threats and population monitoring should be carried out as localized threats may become more widespread in the future.
178395		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Altiplano Plateau in South America; the species is found in Antofagasta in Chile, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro and Potosi in Bolivia, Jujuy in Argentina, and in Peru.
178395		habitat	eng	This species is found in Andean grassland habitat. It is a viviparous species.
178395		population	eng	There are currently no population data available for this species.
178395		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation resulting from overgrazing by domestic livestock, but this does not constitute a major threat due to the wide range of this species.
178396		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the Islet Chancel in Martinique is protected by an 'arrêté de protection de biotope'. Further research of the impact that the spread of <em>Gymnophthalmus underwoodi</em> is having upon the population should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range.
178396		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and both of the Maria Islands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The Maria Islands are a short distance east of the southern end of St. Lucia (Thomas 1965).<br/><br/>Three subspecies exist, with distributional information as follows (Thomas 1965):<br/><ul><li><em>G. pleii pleii</em>: Martinique</li><li><em>G. p. luetkeni</em>: St. Lucia</li><li><em>G. p. nesydrion</em>: southern most of the Maria Islands</li></ul>The Dominica populations have not been assigned to subspecies.<br/><br/>The area of the five islands combined is 1,837 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between sea level and 400 m above sea level.
178396		habitat	eng	This species is mesophilic, living in xeric woodlands on the hot slopes adjacent to ruins in Martinique, in sand dunes covered with <em>Terminalia</em> leaves and <em>Coccoloba</em> in St. Lucia, in <em>Musa</em> and <em>Theobroma</em> groves, ravines and cultivated areas, and in the northern grasslands and central wooded area of Maria Major (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It has been found in leaf litter and under rocks (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species is most abundant in leaf litter in coastal areas but it is also found in sunny places in mesophilic situations. This species is also common in banana groves and on roadsides that cross dry forests (Breuil 2002).
178396		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178396		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the arrival of <em>Gymnophthalmus underwoodi</em> in Martinique which tends to eliminate this species. In Dominica, <em>G. underwoodi</em> is also present in the community which leads to competition and hybridization events occurring (Breuil 2009). <br/><br/>This species may also be threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The average annual change in forest cover for the period 1981-1990 has been estimated at -0.6% for Dominica, -0.3% for Guadeloupe, -0.4% for Martinique and -3.8% for St. Lucia (Tole 1998). The main causes of this are logging, tourism growth and recreation development.
178397		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population size, range, threats and habitat requirements of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178397		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Pakistan (Khan 1993). It is found in the northern Punjab (Khan 2003), in the central Potwar Plateau of the Salt Range (Khan 2002).
178397		habitat	eng	Khan (2003) lists a preference for both rocky and anthropogenic habitat for this species. The type and paratype specimens were collected among bricks under a road bridge (Khan 1993). Other specific collecting localities have included the crevices in plastered walls, under tree bark, under stones and rocks, and in stone walls. This species naturally inhabits dry woodlands and shrublands.
178397		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178397		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.
178398		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178398		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Hispaniola, including the Barahona Peninsula, Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest, the shore of Golfe de la Gonave, the Plaine de Cul de Sac and Mirebalais in Haiti, eastward across the Valle de Neiba and Llanos de Azua, the Valle de San Juan, and western Valle de Cibao in the Dominican Republic. The lizard also inhabits Isla Beata, Isla Cabras, Isla Catalina, Isla Cabritos, and Ile a Cabrit (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species is found from below sea level in the area of Etang Saumatre and Lago Enriquillo to an altitude of 535 m above sea level near Padre las Casas (Schwartz 1965). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,437 km².
178398		habitat	eng	This species is xerophilic, occurring in <em>Acacia</em>-cactus woods, in mesic areas under cultivation, and in xeric savanna. This species has been collected under rocks in savannas, under boulders, and under thatch at the edge of pasturelands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178398		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178398		threats	eng	This species has a close association with xeric inland environments and as these areas are mostly unsuitable for agriculture or human habitation, habitat destruction is not thought to be a major threat to this species. In these environments, the principal threat to the species is loss of vegetation due to fuel-wood and charcoal extraction (Powell and Inchaustegui 2009).<br/><br/>Where the species occurs along coastlines, isolated insular populations may be vulnerable to anthropogenic modification of habitats; for example, the recently discovered population in the extreme eastern Dominican Republic may face threats from the development of coastal areas for tourism (M.E. Gifford pers. comm.).
178399		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is probably found within Ranomafana protected area. Further research into the distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178399		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Madagascar. Its type locality is Ranomafana.
178399		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this burrowing species, probably due to its secretive lifestyle.
178399		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178399		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178400		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the species is found in a large number of Aboriginal Reserves and National Parks (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the population numbers, habitat, and threats of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178400		distribution	eng	This species is found in Western Australian, restricted to northern Kimberley from Mitchell Plateau east. It is also found in the Northern Territory, with most records from the western side of Arnhem Land.
178400		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open woodlands and forests. It lives in the leaf litter, usually along river margins.
178400		population	eng	This species has been reported as common.
178400		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any threat process is impacting this species.
178401		conservation	eng	This species' range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex. The range limits and harvest levels of this species also need to be determined.
178401		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north and eastern Africa and is distributed from Libya and Egypt south to Uganda and Kenya. It also possibly occurs on the Arabian Peninsula in Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Oman but this requires confirmation. It can occur from sea level up to 1,000 m above sea level.
178401		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky places and semi-arid areas with sparse vegetation. It can sometimes be found in dry grassland, cultivated land and rural gardens. It is often restricted to areas within oases. Animals in the north of the species' range tend to hibernate in groups which are susceptible to over-harvesting. This species is viviparous.
178401		population	eng	This is a common species south of the Sahara, though it is only known from isolated populations in the north of its range. It is uncommon and declining in Egypt.
178401		threats	eng	This species is highly venomous and is therefore persecuted throughout its range where it often occurs near human habitation. It is also collected for the pet trade, particularly in Egypt and Kenya. Large numbers are collected in Egypt for venom extraction, and these animals are generally not released back into the wild.
178402		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, ecology, threats, and habitat of this species is required.
178402		distribution	eng	This species has only been found   in the Cameron Highlands, on Fraser’s Hill and on Gunung Benom in Pahang State, Malaysia.
178402		habitat	eng	There is no direct habitat information available for this species. It is inferred from its distribution to inhabit forests.
178402		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178402		threats	eng	The area of Malaysia in which this species occurs is under threat from deforestation. It is not known, however, what effect this, or any other threat, is having on the species.
178403		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178403		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Chile, from Antofagasta to Valparaiso.
178403		habitat	eng	This species is an omnivorous species found in hot desert.
178403		population	eng	This species has been reported as one of the most abundant species at some sites (e.g., Morrillos).
178403		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats affecting this species.
178404		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178404		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Cuba and neighbouring islands, including the Archipelago de Sabana-Camaguey (Cayo Coco, Cayo Paredon Grande) and Isla de la Juventud (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Its primary distribution on the main island is in western Cuba, including Pinar del Rio and La Habana provinces. The species is known from relatively few localities elsewhere in Cuba, and is clearly not continuously distributed throughout the island.
178404		habitat	eng	Not much is known about this species' ecology, but it appears to be mesophilic and has been found in wooded areas, parks, river banks, and rain forest (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is nocturnal and ground-dwelling, being found during the day under rocks in cave hollows, in rock piles in recently cut woods and on rocky hills. It has also been found in grass stalking <em>Anolis</em> and amidst palm fronds on the ground (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). All species of the <em>Tropidophis</em> genus are viviparous (Hedges 2002).
178404		population	eng	In the past, this species has been found in moderate abundance in some localities, such as around the city of Havana. It is also one of the more frequently encountered Cuban species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropidophis</span>. However, its range is disjunct, even in western Cuba, and it is not among the most common snakes in Cuba (Henderson and Powell 2009).
178404		threats	eng	While most of Cuba had been originally forested, currently only a small proportion of the original vegetation remains. This has been attributed to the agricultural and industrial growth, along with the population explosion of the first half of the 20th Century (Portela and Aguirre 2000). Sugar cane, coffee and rice plantations now cover much of the lowlands. In Holguin province, a long history of logging, extraction of non-timber forest products, and agriculture have contributed to the land cover change (Fa <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, as this species has wide habitat tolerances, these are not perceived as major threats at present.<br/><br/>As is the case in many other regions worldwide, snakes are routinely persecuted in Cuba. The extent to which this may be affecting the population is unknown, but effects of persecution are likely to be highly localized.
178405		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Some of its forest habitat is protected, however enforcement of protection laws is usually weak and infrequent (Menegon <em>et al. </em>2008). Human disturbance is continuing to cause the loss of this habitat, putting increasing pressure on protected areas; it is therefore necessary that the area is managed to prevent habitat loss and the continuing contraction of this species' range. In the South Nguru area the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group are working with stakeholders to improve conservation planning in the region, including forest management (Menegon <em>et al. </em>2008). &#160;Population monitoring of this species is recommended.
178405		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania. This species was previously reported as present in both the Ukaguru and Uluguru mountains, however, these recordings have been found to be to a different species (Broadley and Van Wallach 2000). It is known to be found in the east and west Usambara mountain range, and recent surveys have found this species in the South Nguru mountains extending this species known range (Menegon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). &#160;Populations are isolated and the distribution is said to be severely fragmented, with suitable montane and submontane forest habitat separated by large areas of savannah (M. Menegon pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,200 km². This species is found up to a maximum altitude of 1,500 m above sea level.
178405		habitat	eng	This species is only found in Afromontane forest.
178405		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178405		threats	eng	Although some of the Eastern Arc Mountains are within protected areas, these are under increasing pressure from high human population densities in the surrounding regions. &#160;In the south Nguru mountains people are reliant on agriculture and there are numerous plantations at lower altitudes (Menegon <em>et al.</em> 2008), which may encroach further on the forest habitat. Only a small percentage of the original forest on these mountains remain due to high rates of deforestation (Mbilinyi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
178406		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within Tai National Park. Further research of the population, distribution, habitat, and threats to this species should be carried out, and monitoring of population and habitat is recommended.
178406		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tai National Park in the south west of the Côte d'Ivoire which covers an area of 3,300 km²<sup></sup>.
178406		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rainforest.
178406		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178406		threats	eng	Even though this species is found within a national park, it is not clear how effective the protection is to the environment. The habitat outside of the national park is fragmented and continually being degraded due to agricultural and human population expansion and this is likely to extend into the national park.
178407		conservation	eng	This species has rare status protection in South Australia, and parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178407		distribution	eng	In Western Australia, this species occurs from Gin Gin to Israelite Bay, and on Rottnest and Garden Island. In South Australia, this species can be found on Eyre Peninsula.
178407		habitat	eng	This species inhabits damp areas and wetland margins, often with thick vegetation.
178407		population	eng	In Western Australia, this species has been described as relatively common where distributed.
178407		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any threats are affecting this species.
178408		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species has been assessed as vulnerable in the latest edition of the Bolivian Red Book, using the MEGA evaluation criteria (Cortez 2009). There is an urgent need for the restoration of this species' habitat. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should also be used to prevent further habitat loss occurring within the species' range. Further research and monitoring of the population, distribution, biology and ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178408		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, at Parotani, Cochabamba, Bolivia, at an altitude of 2,500 m above sea level. Two searches have been carried out in and directly around the type locality in order to locate the species, but both searches were unsuccessful (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed may be less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.
178408		habitat	eng	The species' type locality is within an area of dry montane forest.
178408		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178408		threats	eng	The natural habitat of this species can be considered as mainly destroyed due to deforestation for firewood collection and building materials, and from agricultural expansion (D. Embert pers. comm.).
178409		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas.
178409		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across southern Asia, from India through Viet Nam, &#160;and is also found on Taiwan. This species is found at altitudes of up to 2,000 m above sea level.
178409		habitat	eng	This species has varied habitat preferences and occurs in grassland, shrublands, and forests. It is also found around human settlements and in agricultural land.
178409		population	eng	G. Zug (pers. comm.) notes that in Myanmar specifically, the few records suggest it is an uncommon species in that country.
178409		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.
178410		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation meaures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species is required to ensure that deforestation is not having a greater impact than previously thought.
178410		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru, both to the east and west of the continental divide in the Cordillera forming the boundary between the Departments of Piura and Cajamarca, and the upper Rio Zana valley. <br/><br/>A specimen collected from Chaclacayo, Lima Department, had been assigned to this species, but it is thought that this species was introduced to this area via garden plants (M. Lundberg pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 18,782 km²<sup></sup>. This species can be found between 1,400 and 2,250 m above sea level.
178410		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter in relatively pristine moist montane forest habitat. It has been seen in both secondary and disturbed forests, as well as open, brushy hill sides.
178410		population	eng	Cadle and Chuna (1994) state that this species is common at Bosque Monte Seco, in the Rio Zana valley.
178410		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Deforestation is prevalent in the area, due to agricultural expansion, however, this is not considered a major threat due to the adaptable nature of this species.
178411		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population numbers and threats of this species are needed in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.
178411		distribution	eng	This species inhabits hilly regions of the Anaimalais, Topslip, and Coimbatore district in India (Sharma 2003). It is found between 1,200 and 1,400 m above sea level. This species is distributed over approximately 3,359 km².
178411		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, and is primarily found in montane evergreen forests.
178411		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178411		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178412		conservation	eng	There are currently no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the population numbers and distribution of this species to determine if its distribution is in fact more widespread than previously thought.
178412		distribution	eng	This species has only been found near Luwuk, at the base of Mt. Tompotika, Sulawesi, Indonesia. However, it is possible that its distribution extends further than this one locality (R. Brown pers. comm).
178412		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary lowland rainforest. Like all other species of this genus, it is a tree canopy specialist that is seldom seen by biologists because it spends all its live high in trees (R. Brown pers. comm.).
178412		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype specimen, collected in 1998 (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2000). Members of this genus are rare and secretive.
178412		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any threats are impacting this species. Mt. Tompotika is still well forested (R. Brown pers. comm.), however, overall Sulawesi is experiencing high levels of habitat loss and degradation.
178413		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in the Bemaraha and Namoroka Reserves. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178413		distribution	eng	This species is known from two regions in western Madagascar. The northern population is found in Baly Baly and the southern population is located near Morondava.
178413		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in tsingy, limestone habitats. It is found on the ground and bases of tree trunks in dry deciduous forests, and also in savanna dominated by satrana palms. This species is less abundant in open grasslands.
178413		population	eng	Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> (1999) report this species to be relatively abundant where it occurs.
178413		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> (1999) state that this species does not appear to be in any immediate danger of extinction. The tsingy habitat is to some extent naturally protected from human-induced degradation by its extremely rugged aspect and inaccessibility.
178414		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. This species may represent two or more species, reflected by its disjunct distribution, so that further research into morphological differences between specimens is required.
178414		distribution	eng	This species is found east of the Andes in Ecuador (in the upper valleys of the Rio Pastaza and Rio Curaray), and in the Amazon basin of eastern Peru. This species appears to occur in two distinct regions, and has not been collected between these areas despite numerous surveys (see taxonomic notes). This species is found up to 1,200 m above sea level.
178414		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist lowland and pre-montane forest.
178414		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178414		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species (T. Doan pers. comm).
178415		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178415		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southern New Guinea and also the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia.
178415		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric habitats, and it is adapted to eucalytpus savannas.
178415		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178415		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178416		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the harvest levels and population status of this species is suggested to establish if current harvest levels are sustainable.
178416		distribution	eng	This species is found on the northern coast of Australia and all around Papua New Guinea and is generally confined to areas of intertidal influence (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is also found on islands in eastern Indonesia and western Oceania (Dryden and Ziegler 2004), and has been reported from the Bonin Islands (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It has been introduced to the Marshall Islands and various of the Mariana islands (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
178416		habitat	eng	This species is eurytopic, inhabiting open or closed vegetation areas. Its preferred habitats are those influenced by salt water, and it may also be associated with human settlements (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994, Dryden and Ziegler 2004). It is most commonly found along shorelines and in mangrove forests, but it has also adapted well to coconut and oil palm plantations. In closed forest environments and beyond tidal influence on larger islands, it is usually replaced by related species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">V. doreanus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. jobiensis</span>.&#160;<p><br/></p>
178416		population	eng	This species is thought to be common.
178416		threats	eng	This species is hunted for food, exploited for the skin trade, and threatened by habitat destruction. However, it is still common and even considered a pest in some areas (King and Green 1999).
178417		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution are likely to coincide with protected areas, for example the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco. More research is needed into the habitat preferences, and threats to this species. Monitoring of the population trends is also necessary.
178417		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola, including both Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and is widespread across the island's central regions, though in disjunct populations.
178417		habitat	eng	This species is found in <em>Acacia</em> and cactus desert, lowland scrub and montane pine woods. It occupies grassy habitas, and has been found in human environments (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994).
178417		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178417		threats	eng	Some of the habitats that this species inhabits are threatened by urbanization and agriculture, however it is not known to what extent this is affecting the global population.
178418		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Apolobamba, Cotapata, Biological Station Beni, Isiboró Sécure, Itenez, Madidi, Manuripi Heath, Pilon Lajas in Bolivia. No further conservation measures are needed.
178418		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Amazon basin, in Colombia (in the state of Amazonas), Brazil (in the states of Amapa, Para, Amazonas, Rondonia, Acre), French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru (in the states of Cusco, Huanuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco and Ucayali), and north Bolivia ( in the states of Pando, Beni and La Paz).
178418		habitat	eng	This species is found in leaf litter in lowland tropical rainforest. Individuals have been collected from areas near creeks.
178418		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178418		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species, but it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.
178419		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178419		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in high-altitude areas of southern mainland Asia. It occurs from northeastern India eastwards through Nepal and northern Myanmar to the Hoang Lien Mountains of Vietnam, and north to Henan Province, China. In China it is widespread, being known from southern Xizang (Tibet), western Sichuan and Yunnan, Guizhou, Henan, Hubei and Guangxi, Anhui, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinhai, Guangdong, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Jiangxi. In Vietnam it has been recorded from Lai Chau and Lao Cai Provinces (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
178419		habitat	eng	This nocturnal snake's main habitats are the stony banks of streams with cascades and waterfalls, characterized by remnant polydominant rain forests alternating with secondary bamboo forest. It can also be found in grass meadows in areas were forest has been totally destroyed. Adults feed primarily on rats, and juveniles eat frogs (mainly Ranidae and Rhacophoridae). Following cold nights in April and May, animals have been recorded basking at temperatures as low as 10ºC. This viviparous snake gives birth ro 5-8 young (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2001), and mating probably occurs in April.
178419		population	eng	This species may be uncommon in Myanmar.
178419		threats	eng	This species is not being impacted by major widespread threats.
178420		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and taxonomic status of the Sri Lankan form of this species is required.
178420		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Western Ghats, Palnai and Travancore Hills of southern India at altitudes between 1,200 and 1,800 m above sea level (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999); however much of its distribution is based on knowledge of a single specimen found in a collection of snakes sent by  Rev. P. Abraham of Galle reported to have been collected from both...India  and Galle...received by this department (Colombo museum) mixed in a single  container (de Silva 1980: 197).&#160;This species is also thought to occur in Sri Lanka, however, only one specimen has so far been reported and this was in a lowland region as opposed to the high altitude Indian localities (D. Gower pers. comm. 2009).
178420		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial and inhabits forests and gardens (Das 2002). It is ovoviviparous, producing four to five young in June and July (Das 2002).
178420		population	eng	This species is described as fairly common (Sharma 2003).
178420		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Deforestation and habitat loss are occurring in the region, however, due to the fossorial nature of this species and its tolerance of garden environments, this cannot be considered a major threat.
178421		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178421		distribution	eng	This species was recently discovered in 2005 and is only known to inhabit the Farak District of Irian Jaya (Papua), Indonesia. The type specimen was collected from Lake Wanagong, ca. 9 km north of Tembagapura town centre, Farak District, Irian Jaya, at an elevation of 3,920 m above sea level (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is known to occur at relatively high elevations of between 3,510 to 4,050 m above sea level (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005).
178421		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit <em>Deschampsia klossii</em> grassland in a forest-grassland mosaic. The type specimens were collected from a grassland on an east-facing scree slope along the side of a shallow canyon drained by a stream (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This lizard inhabits the spaces under rocks and earth cracks, and is also found in short burrows in peaty substrates between grass tussocks (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It is suggested that mating may be seasonal and take place during the wet season (December- April) (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females collected in February were found to contain 2-3 oviducal embryos.
178421		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178421		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
178422		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178422		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Caribbean coast of South America in Colombia and Venezuela, and in Pacific Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. <br/><br/>A naturalized population exists in Puerto Baquerizo Moreno and El Progreso on San Cristobal Island, in the Galápagos Islands. The presence of this species on the Galápagos Islands is thought to be a result of individuals transported with agricultural goods from Guyaquil, Ecuador, when the islands were first colonized around 1859.
178422		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not well known, but it appears to be found in both montane and lowland forest habitat.<br/><br/>The naturalized population on San Cristobal is restricted to areas where the habitat is modified by humans, including plantations of citrus, avocados, bananas, coffee and guava. In San Cristobal, the species is found in relatively wet localities.
178422		population	eng	In the 1930s, this species was reported to be a very common gecko in Colombia. F.Castro (pers. comm.) reports that in some localities this species is rare.
178422		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178423		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, are required to guard against the future threats of habitat loss due to mining and tourist activity. Further research on the population, distribution and ecology of this species should be carried out, and its sensitivity to threats needs to be clarified.
178423		distribution	eng	This species was recently rediscovered in two nearby localities in the coastal dune areas of northern Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Prior to this discovery the distribution of this lizard was unclear, but the name was tentatively assigned to a population from Baie de Sakalava, one of the sites included in this assessment (Glaw and Vences 2007). Both the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of the species are likely to be very small (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).
178423		habitat	eng	This species appears to be a sand dweller in coastal dunes in northern Madagascar. It has been found on sandy ground in degraded coastal dry forest in sympatry with <em>P. hildebrandti</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178423		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178423		threats	eng	This species is found within a dune habitat that may soon experience high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to mining, as this type of habitat does not receive any conservation attention (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Forest and shrubland in Forêt d'Orangea is under pressure due to charcoal production and agricultural conversion, as well as the harvesting of tubers. It is not clear whether the lizard is dependent on these habitats, however if so these activities probably represent the major threat to this species (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011). It is possible that the area may be suitable for future tourism development, but this is not thought to be a threat in the near future (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
178424		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research on the taxonomy of this species should be carried out as there is some indication of subspecies differentiation (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178424		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species occurs throughout Southeast Asia. The subspecies <em>T. sexlineatus sexlineatus</em> is found from India to Indonesia. <em>T. s. ocellatus</em> is found in central Asia, ranging from southern China to Viet Nam.
178424		habitat	eng	This species is a grassland specialist. Its typical habitat is high grasslands, however, it is also reported to inhabit areas of sparse vegetation in clearings, at the edge of forests, and in open plantation (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178424		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178424		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the pet trade, however, collection from the wild is minimal and not likely to be causing significant population declines.
178425		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a small part of its range falls within protected areas, including the Parque Nacional Isla Gorgona and the Parque Nacional Sanquianga. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range, such as the establishment or expansion of protected areas. Monitoring of its population should take place.
178425		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lowland Pacific area of northwest Esmereldas province in Ecuador, and Isla Gorgona in Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,500 km².
178425		habitat	eng	This species is found in a region where the dominant habitat type is lowland moist forest.
178425		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178425		threats	eng	This species inhabits one of the most endangered ecoregions (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.). There has been a relatively high level of deforestation in the area in which this species is found. An increasing human population, and associated infrastructure construction, is further contributing to the degradation of this species' natural habitat.
178426		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring the levels of deforestation and habitat change that is occurring is needed as these may prove to be a major threat to the species in the future.
178426		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the mountainous region around the borders of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
178426		habitat	eng	This species is only found in clearings within forests. It is not found in deforested areas or at the edges of forest.
178426		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178426		threats	eng	This species is not tolerant to either habitat change or forest edges and therefore deforestation and fragmentation of the landscape can be considered a threat. Although these threats are occurring within its range, the moderately large distributional area of this species means that deforestation and fragmentation of the habitat cannot be considered as major threats at this time.
178427		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, ecology, population size, habitat status and threats is needed.
178427		distribution	eng	This species is known to inhabit the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Welch 1982). More specific details of its distribution are unavailable.
178427		habitat	eng	Habitat types of the Democratic Republic of the Congo vary from moist lowland forest throughout much of the country, to dry savanna and grassland in the south. It is unknown which habitats <em>P. quattuordigitata</em> can be found in, as distributional information past the country level is not known.
178427		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178427		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat in certain regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, namely the Lower Congo, where forest is cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture (Iloweka 2004). It is unknown whether these threats are significantly impacting upon population numbers of this species, as its habitat preferences are unknown.
178428		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178428		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central and western Andes of Colombia, in the provinces of Antioquia and Caldas.
178428		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are relatively small fossorial species which feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. From its distribution, it is assumed that this species occurs in forest habitats.
178428		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178428		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Agricultural expansion is occurring within this species' range, however, it is thought that this fossorial species can tolerate such habitat change.
178429		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, habitat status, and threats should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178429		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality on the northern coast of eastern Cuba. The type locality is at Guarda la Vaca, Holguin Province (Hedges and Garrido 2002). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.
178429		habitat	eng	The region where this species was collected has a low-elevation karst topography (Hedges and Garrido 2002), presumably with dry broadleaf forests. Guarda la Vaca is located on the coast.
178429		population	eng	The type locality of this species is not obviously unique, ecologically or physiographically, and thus it is unclear whether the species is restricted to that location or occurs more widely.&#160; However, the fact that only one specimen is known, collected in 1945, suggests that it is rare and probably restricted in distribution, and recent searches by herpetologists have failed to locate the species (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).
178429		threats	eng	Caribbean islands in the past have suffered a very high level of deforestation, with only 10% of original habitat left on average on these islands (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). While most of Cuba had been originally forested, less than 20% of forest cover remained in 1993 (Hedges and Woods 1993), and habitat loss has remained prevalent. This has been attributed to the agricultural and industrial growth, along with the population explosion of the first half of the 20th century (Portela and Aguirre 2000). Sugar cane, coffee and rice plantations now cover much of the lowlands. In Holguin province, a long history of logging, extraction of non-timber forest products, and agriculture have contributed to the land cover change (Fa <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is likely that these threats are affecting the species' habitat, particularly since it is not contained within any protected areas.
178431		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be undertaken.
178431		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across subhumid and semiarid northern Australia, from Broome in Western Australia, to north-western Queensland. There is a single record from eastern Cape York, however, this may be erroneous. If the species does exist in this locality, then it is extremely isolated (Ingram and Raven 1991). This species is particularly abundant in Arnhem, Kimberley, Carpentaria and northern areas of Barkly regions of the Northern Territory.
178431		habitat	eng	This species inhabits various habitat types from grassland to forest. This species is also found on rocky outcrops and along river margins.
178431		population	eng	Horner (1992) states that this species is common.
178431		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178432		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178432		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pamir-Karakorum Highlands region of northern Pakistan and adjacent Kashmir, at elevations from 2,300 to 3,700 m above sea level (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004). Specifically, in Pakistan this includes various localities in the upper Indus River valley ranging from Leh, Kashmir to Skardu (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004). A record from western Kashgaria, China, also exists, but is likely to be erroneous (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Zhao and Adler 1993).
178432		habitat	eng	This species occurs in an area of sparse vegetation and cold, dry desert environments, characterized by stark and steep mountain sides, rock and boulder fields, and large areas of clay, caliche and sand (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species has been collected from desert habitat, dry environments in non-irrigated areas and has been found sheltering under stones in rocky areas (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004, Gruber 1981). It apparently avoids neighbourhoods of human settlements.
178432		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that this species is very common.
178432		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.
178433		conservation	eng	Field studies to determine the geographic range limits of this species with respect to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. insularis</span> are needed. This snake is found in many protected areas, and no species-specific conservation measures are in place.
178433		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Myanmar across southern China (including Hainan and Hong Kong) and southward to Java, Indonesia (Zhao and Adler 1993; David and Vogel 1996; Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is widespread throughout this area, and occurs from sea level to 1,200 m asl in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011).
178433		habitat	eng	This viviparous species can be found in a variety of habitats from montane forests to open lowland plains, shrubland, and cultivated areas near human settlements. It is known to remain abundant in highly degraded and altered habitats.
178433		population	eng	This species is common or very common throughout most of its range, but rare on Sumatra (David and Vogel 1996). It is seemingly the most abundant pitviper in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.).
178433		threats	eng	This venomous species is commonly persecuted by humans when encountered, and this is probably the major threat to the snake. This is probably not sufficient to cause population declines in this common viper at present (B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011). It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any other significant threats across its range, as it adapts readily to modified habitats. The snake is collected, particularly in Vietnam for use in food and traditional medicine (snake wine), and this may represent a localized threat (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011). Nevertheless, this snake is probably not subject to overexploitation (B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
178434		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring and further research into the population and threats to this species should take place.
178434		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the western foothills of the Andes (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010), from the state of Cotopaxi in Ecuador to the department of Narino in Colombia.
178434		habitat	eng	This species is known from cloud forest and the foothill areas of the Andes. &#160;There is evidence that this species is tolerant of disturbed habitat having been found along degraded roadsides, former agricultural land with regenerating forest, and in thickets adjacent to current agricultural areas D.F. (Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).
178434		population	eng	This species is considered to be common at the mid-elevations at which its occurs, and its cryptic nature may be why it is not found more frequently (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).
178434		threats	eng	Forest habitat within the range of this species has been severely fragmented due to urbanization and clearing for agriculture. The human population in this region is still growing, resulting in increased pressure on the remaining undisturbed forest patches.
178435		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Sparse (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been shown to respond positively to pest control, as it was discovered on Mana Island after the removal of mice, and was captured with increased frequency following the removal of weka from Te Kakaho Island (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is not listed on conservation priority lists of the Department of Conservation (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Population monitoring is recommended, because of its susceptibility to rodent and weka predation.
178435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand. It inhabits the southern third of the North Island, from Taranaki to Wellington, and the north of the South Island in Marlborough, Nelson and northern Westland (Towns and Elliot 1996, Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).
178435		habitat	eng	This species is found in habitats that are moist and shaded, preferably with tall vegetation cover (Towns and Elliot 1996). As a result, it inhabits a range of habitats including coastal scrub vegetation, rough farmland, overgrown gardens, derelict farm buildings and forests (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species has also been recorded in sub-alpine grasslands on Mount Taranaki (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em></em><br/><br/>This species is diurnal and insectivorous (Towns and Elliot 1996). It is a heliotherm which basks in open areas and on top of tangled vegetation (Towns and Elliot 1996). Three offspring are produced in January (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178435		population	eng	This species is listed as Sparse (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is known to live in densities of 1,477 skinks per ha (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). &#160;It is often abundant but is of localized occurrence, particularly in its distribution on the South Island (Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).
178435		threats	eng	These skinks appear to be highly sensitive to rodent and weka predation; however, they are able to use highly modified habitats, and consequently are considered to not be under threat (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178436		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178436		distribution	eng	This species is known to inhabit Loniu and central Manus of the Admiralty Islands (Mys 1988).
178436		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland rainforest, however, it has also been recorded in piles of decaying coconut husks in a coconut plantation (Mys 1988).
178436		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178436		threats	eng	Threats to the forests of the Admiralty Islands include habitat loss due to logging and clearing for agriculture. As this species is not a forest obligate, it is unlikely that continuing declines are taking place in this species, but likely that habitat degradation is impacting it to some extent.
178437		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.
178437		distribution	eng	This species is found in central Oman and northern and eastern Saudi Arabia, around Dhahran and Sakaka (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 1992).
178437		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deserts and dry shrublands. It is known to climb in low vegetation, which is considered unusual for the genus (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 1992).
178437		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178437		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178438		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Desembarco del Granma National Park which was designated in 1986. More research is needed into the ecology, distribution, and habitat status of this species. Population and habitat monitoring is also recommended.
178438		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Meseta de Cabo Cruz in southern Cuba and has an estimated area of distribution of 628 km<sup>2</sup>. This species can be found from sea level to 275 m above.
178438		habitat	eng	This species inhabits xeric coastal scrub and extends inland into dry evergreen forests (Estrada and Garrido 1991).
178438		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178438		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and illegal logging which it will be particularly vulnerable to due to its restricted range.
178439		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species coincides with at least one national park. Further research into this relatively unknown species is required, particularly on the habitat status, population and distribution.
178439		distribution	eng	This species is found in Venezuela, in the calcarean rocks-caves system of the Turimiquire massif. The type locality is Puertas del Guarapiche, in the Guarapiche river headwaters. This species occurs between 500 and 1,200 m above sea level and has an area of distribution of around 500 km²<sup></sup> (J.E. García-Pérez pers. comm.). However, there is still some uncertainty about its geographic distribution (E. la Marca pers. comm.).
178439		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling lizard. It is thought to be distributed at least 50 km inland, in the pre-montane and sub-montane cloud forest. The type locality of this species is a calcareous rock bed canyon, in the Guarapiche River near its headwaters. However, much remains unknown about the habitat requirements of this species.
178439		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178439		threats	eng	Alteration of the natural habitat in the region due to conversion of land to agriculture, in particular for coffee plantations, is a major threat to this species.
178440		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Effective management of the current protected areas should be carried out. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status and trends, and threats to this species are recommended.
178440		distribution	eng	This species is only distributed in the extreme western tip of the Tiburon Peninsula in Haiti. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The species' range extends from sea level to an elevation of 1,037 m.
178440		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry and moist forest. It is unknown whether the species is adaptable to modifications of its habitat (Henderson and Powell 2009).
178440		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178440		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is under threat from deforestation due to agricultural expansion and urbanization, which has lead to severe fragmentation of the species' habitat.
178441		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out into the population, distribution, and threats to this species.
178441		distribution	eng	This species appears to only be known from the species' type locality, Camp Soratama on the the upper Rio Apaporis, Caqueta, Colombia.
178441		habitat	eng	This species is a lowland species found in seasonally flooded forest habitat.
178441		population	eng	This species is thought to be rare (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).
178441		threats	eng	The region around the species' type locality is remote, with few settlements and a very low population density. This area is well known for large coca plantations, however, the impact that the resulting habitat transformation and fragmentation of the habitat would have on the species is unknown (R.M. Castañeda pers. comm. 2010).
178442		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment or expansion of existing protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population status, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178442		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on the coast and eastern interior of Queensland, from Townsville southwards to Injune.
178442		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist areas and can be found in forests and vine thicket habitats.
178442		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178442		threats	eng	The habitat within this species' range is threatened by habitat destruction due to urban and agricultural expansion.
178443		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species, although it is possible that it inhabits protected areas within its range. Little information is available on this species and further research on its biology, population, distribution, and threats is recommended to determine if it is threatened.
178443		distribution	eng	In the 19th century, this species was found in Pegu district, Myanmar (Theobald 1868), an area which now encompasses the current divisions of Ayeyarwady, Yangon, and Bago; however, there are no recent records of this species from these divisions (R. Inger pers. comm.).
178443		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforests of Myanmar.
178443		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178443		threats	eng	The main threats in this region include habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and logging. The average annual deforestation rate for Bago District, Myanmar from 1990-2000 is estimated at 0.1% annually (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005).
178444		conservation	eng	This species is protected under Malaysian law due to its extreme rarity. It is one of very few reptiles listed under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance of Sarawak as 'Totally Protected'. Therefore, killing, keeping, selling or eating this species carries a penalty of RM25,000 and three years imprisonment (Sarawak Forestry Corporation 1998). It occurs in the Niah National Park (31 km²) and Gunung Mulu National Park (529 km²<sup></sup>; UNEP-WCMC 2006). Research and monitoring of this species' population is recommended.
178444		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo and is only found in two locations in a small region of Sarawak. It has been recorded from the Niah cave system and a single record from a gorge in the Mulu cave system (Forestry Department Sarawak 2006). These systems are approximately 130 km apart. Other cave systems with swiftlet populations exist in Sarawak, but Niah and Mulu hold the largest aggregations of swiftlets, perhaps explaining why this species has only been found in these locations. Inger (pers. comm.) however, expects that it may be found in additional cave systems in Sarawak and Sabah. The total lengths and widths of these cave systems are not known, and therefore an accurate distributional area cannot be calculated although it is likely to be less than 20,000 km².
178444		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from caves, its only known habitat type. Harrison (1961) recorded that it was only ever found in full darkness and never near the cave entrances. Apparently, it also only frequents larger caves (>1,500 m²).<br/><br/>This species reportedly spends its entire life-cycle in the dark zone of caves, living on cave swiftlets (<em>Collocalia</em> spp. and <em>Aerodramus</em> spp.) guano, cave cockroaches, small flying insects and, occasionally, swiftlet hatchlings (Forest Department Sarawak 2006). <br/><br/>Niah National Park, the principal strong-hold of this species, is dominated by a large, almost vertical limestone massif (Gunung Subis), and most of the area was originally formed as a coral reef in the Lower Miocene which has since been uplifted and modified by faulting and erosion. There are, as a result, several hundred caves within the park, though the Niah Great Cave is the largest. Mulu National Park contains some of the world's largest caves, of which, to date, over 295 km have been mapped.
178444		population	eng	Harrison (1961), the collector of the type specimens, reported the total population in the Niah complex to be in the region of 2,000-7,000 individuals, all confined to 20 km² around Niah. However, more recently, O'Shea (1985) reports it to be an uncommon species in the caves. Indeed, the population of this species is "likely to have declined greatly" since its original description (Forest Department Sarawak 2006).
178444		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the major decline in swiftlet populations due to nest collecting for Chinese markets, which reduces food sources both indirectly (by reducing guano deposition) and directly (by reducing the number of available hatchlings).
178445		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178445		distribution	eng	This species is located in the eastern Himalayas, including Sikkim, Nagri Valley, and Darjeeling, up to 1,500 m above sea level (Sharma 2003).
178445		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits the montane evergreen forests and temperate broadleaf forests of the Eastern Himalayas.
178445		population	eng	This species is known from three specimens (Sharma 2003).
178445		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178446		conservation	eng	<em></em>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further monitoring of the population and research into the habitat status of this species should be carried out to establish habitat preferences of <span style="font-style: italic;">Placosoma cordylinum </span><em style="font-style: italic;">champsonotus </em>and ensure that <span style="font-style: italic;">Placosoma c. </span><em>cordylinum</em> is not threatened by localized threats to its restricted range.
178446		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil. <em>Placosoma cordylinum cordylinum</em> is found in the state of Rio de Janeiro and <em>P. c. champsonotus</em> is found in the states of Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, and Santa Catarina.
178446		habitat	eng	<em>P. cordylinum cordylinum</em> is found in a region where the dominant habitat is lowland coastal moist evergreen forest. The preferred habitat of <em>P. c. champsonotus</em> is not known, and cannot be inferred as there is a mosaic of Cerrado and forest habitat throughout the range of this subspecies.
178446		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178446		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, habitat loss due to urban and agricultural expansion is occurring in localized areas of this species' range. Due to its restricted range in one of the most densely populated regions of Brazil, <em>P. cordylinum cordylinum</em> is likely to be threatened by the current high rates of habitat loss.
178447		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. There are no other species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. The number of individuals harvested for the pet trade on an annual basis requires investigating.
178447		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western and southeastern Madagascar, in the areas of Ankarafantsika, Antsalova, Berenty, E Betioky, Ejeda, Fierin, Menabe, Morondava, Toliara, Tranomaro, Tranoroa, Vohibasia forest and Zombitse forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178447		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forest, thornbush and savanna habitats, and also hot and dry anthropogenic habitats. This species can occur on trees, bushes, fences, and buildings and is sometimes found in high densities in villages. It is mainly found in coastal areas, however, it has been recorded at elevation of up to 1,000 m (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178447		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178447		threats	eng	This species is collected for the pet trade, however, figures on the number of individuals traded annually are not available.
178448		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Uluru - Kata Tjuta National Park. No further conservation measures are required.
178448		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species is found through much of Australia's interior and along the coast in central Western Australia.
178448		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a variety of habitats including grassland and spinifex, desert, and woodlands, with substrate varying from stones or sand to heavy loam soils.
178448		population	eng	This species has been described as common (Horner 1992).
178448		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178449		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Further research is recommended into the type of additional threats this species may face, as it has a very restricted range and is therefore highly susceptible to new emerging threats.
178449		distribution	eng	This species has a narrow distribution in the Republic of South Africa, in the north and west Cape coastal areas, from Alexander Bay and Port Nolloth to near Cape Town.
178449		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sparsely vegetated coastal dunes.
178449		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178449		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats, but urbanization and human disturbance may affect the species in some locations.
178450		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178450		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern deserts from Atacama to Maule, Chile.
178450		habitat	eng	This species is omnivorous and inhabits bare desert areas, utilising open ground and, to a lesser extent, rocks. Any vegetation in the region is coastal succulent scrub.
178450		population	eng	This species has been reported as abundant by a number of authors.
178450		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178451		conservation	eng	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species; however, its distribution in places coincides with protected areas that include the Zapata Biosphere Reserve and the Zapata Swamp National Park. Further research into the effects of threats on this species should be implemented.
178451		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Cuba, on the Zapata Peninsula (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 2005) and along the length of the coastal forests between the bays of Cochinos and Cienfuegos (Estrada and Ruibal 1999). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,521 km²<sup></sup>.
178451		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit rocky coastlines, semi-deciduous forests, and semi-xeric scrub habitat, where it can be found among rocks, under thatch palm fronds, seagrape leaves, and limestone shelves (Hedges and Garrido 1993, Díaz and Abreu Guerra 2005).
178451		population	eng	This species is locally abundant (Díaz and Abreu Guerra 2005).
178451		threats	eng	This species is found in habitat threatened by dry-season burning and agricultural expansion (BirdLife International 2006). Díaz and Abreu Guerra (2005) reported hurricane and wild-fire damage, and a number of anthropogenic threats, including clear-cutting for charcoal and firewood. What effect these threats are having on this species are unknown at this time.
178452		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population should be carried out.
178452		distribution	eng	This species is known from Espiritu Santu, Efate and Anatom islands, which are part of Vanuatu in Melanesia. It is likely to occur on all main islands of the archipelago.
178452		habitat	eng	This species has been found in beach scrub as well as on buildings and in gardens.
178452		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178452		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178453		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out in order to fill the knowledge gap concerning species of this genus.
178453		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Haiti and is found from the Plaine de Cul de Sac west along the Tiburon Peninsula to Miragoane. &#160;It is also found on the south coast, east and southwest of Jacmel (Schwartz and Henderson 199; Thomas and Powell 1995). The type specimen was collected from Manneville at the northwest end of Lake Saumatre (Richmond 1964). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,773 km²<sup></sup>. This species has a severely fragmented range due to the ongoing destruction of habitat.
178453		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is xerophilic to mesophilic. It inhabits partial clearings to wooded areas, shaded ravines, and rocky hillsides. It is ground-dwelling, and has been recorded under limestone rocks, large rotten logs, and moist fallen thatch (Schwartz and Henderson 1991; Henderson and Powell 2009).
178453		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178453		threats	eng	The natural habitat in this species' range is highly degraded due to settlement development, fuel-wood collection, logging and conversion to agriculture. Ibisch <em>et al.</em> (2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report.
178454		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.
178454		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the interior of Australia from northwest New South Wales and western Queensland through South Australia and the Northern Territory and into Western Australia.
178454		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and occurs in arid and semi-arid habitats in shrubland (Swan and Foster 2005, Cogger 2000).
178454		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178454		threats	eng	The habitat of this species has been lost or degraded in some areas by land clearing and feral invasive species including goats (Swan and Foster 2005). However, due its wide distribution and large extent of habitat remaining, these should not be considered major threats at this time.
178455		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the Western Ghats (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2001, Johnsingh 2001). Further research is required into the taxonomic uncertainty that exists for this species.
178455		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Western Ghats south of Palagbat, from sea level at Alleppey to about 1,500 m above sea level at Tinnevelly Hills in the Travancore Hills (Smith 1943).
178455		habitat	eng	This is a burrowing species that inhabits moist soils. Ishwar <em>et al.</em> (2001) report that this species is found in tropical moist forests.
178455		population	eng	Sharma (2003) described this species as common.
178455		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. Its habitat may be threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is not known. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178456		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts, such as area protection and management, are required to prevent further habitat loss and fragmentation of the landscape and may also provide safeguards for this species. Due to its restricted range, monitoring of the species is required to gain comprehensive population and range data. Monitoring should take place to ensure population declines do not occur unnoticed.
178456		distribution	eng	This species is known from two locations in western Cameroon, Mount Bamboutos and Nyassoso (Mount Kupe) (Perret 1973). This species is found between 1,100 and 2,300 m above sea level and has an extent of occurrence close to 5,000 km²; however its area of occupancy is considerably less at approximately 1,317 km²<sup></sup> over the two mountains.
178456		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense humid grasslands and montane forest patches.
178456		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178456		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that contains very little remaining natural vegetation due to the clearing of land for agriculture and overgrazing by livestock.
178457		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in several places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178457		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal locations, offshore islands, and the hinterland of northwestern Kimberley, Western Australia, from Mitchell Plateau to the Sale River (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178457		habitat	eng	This species can be found around rock outcrops and stony hills in seasonally dry woodlands.
178457		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178457		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178458		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178458		distribution	eng	This species is found from Queensland and northern New South Wales, Australia.
178458		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats including acacia and eucalyptus woodlands, on the walls of houses and in urban areas.
178458		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178458		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178459		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the creation and management of protected areas, should be taken to reduce the rate of habitat loss and change occurring in the Cape Verde Islands. Further research is required into the habitat status and threats to this species.
178459		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the islands of Sao Nicolau, Fogo, and Santo Antao, of the Cape Verde Islands (Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2001). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,580 km<sup>2</sup>.
178459		habitat	eng	The Cape Verde Islands are almost entirely a human-influenced agrarian environment, although some remants of dry forests and scrub habitat remain. This species prefers dry, open habitats on the islands of Fogo and Santo Antao, however, it is also known to occur in more vegetated areas on Santo Antao (Schleich 1987).
178459		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178459		threats	eng	Especially at low latitudes, this species is found within a habitat that has been extensively altered from its presumed original state of dry savanna and grasslands into desert scrub (Lindskog and Delaite 1996). However, it is not known what impact this is having on this species. Feral goats have also been a cause of environmental degradation, as well as introduced rats, sheep, and cattle (Lindskog and Delaite 1996).
178460		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for this species.
178460		distribution	eng	This South African legless skink is found in two separate subpopulations. <em>A. gracilicauda gracilicauda</em> is distributed in the Eastern Cape and the highlands in Free State and adjoining the North West Province. <em>A. g. namaquensis</em> has a small distribution in Little Namaqualand. <em>Acontias g. namaquensis</em> has not been found again since its initial recording, despite extensive searching efforts by various researchers (N. Heideman pers. comm.)
178460		habitat	eng	This species can be found in various habitats from mesic thicket, through to grassland, and entering sandy regions.
178460		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178460		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this species across its entire range.
178461		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.
178461		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the plains and semi-hilly regions of Pakistan and India. It is also recorded from eastern Afghanistan.
178461		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial and diurnal species that inhabits rocky terrain (Das 2002) and dry open forests, where it is common in leaf litter, as well as other moist environments including shady places in gardens, forests, grasslands, and areas with dense ground cover (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of two to seven eggs laid between March and August, which hatch between July and November (Das 2002).
178461		population	eng	This species is widely distributed and is considered common in India (Daniel 2002).
178461		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.
178462		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, an IUCN grade II park, plus a further five national parks (J. García-Pérez pers. comm.). Further research into the habitat preferences and population trends of this species are required.
178462		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central range of the Cordillera de la Costa, in coastal northern Venezuela. Uetz (2006) lists the species as being found in north Colombia and south Panama, however, no reference to these populations can be found in the literature, so for this assessment the distribution has been taken as the Venezuelan locality only. The extent of occurrence of this species is 1,988 km².
178462		habitat	eng	This species is an arboreal species found in montane cloud forest habitat.
178462		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178462		threats	eng	The growing human population is encroaching on the remaining islands of forest in this region, with deforestation for timber and conversion of land for agriculture a major threat to this species. Although the original habitat has suffered severe contractions, the national parks in which this species is found are thought to warrant a large area of optimal habitat.
178463		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The site where the seven specimens were found is within an area that contains human tombs, and is therefore protected to some degree from human disturbance. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178463		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single locality, Lavenambato, near the mouth of the Onilahy River in southwest Madagascar. However, it may be found more widely such as on the Mahafaly Plateau (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).
178463		habitat	eng	The seven known specimens of this species were found near the mouth of the Onilahy River, on rocks which had abundant crevices.
178463		population	eng	This species is only known from seven specimens (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178463		threats	eng	The Onilahy River serves as a major goods shipping route and this has probably degraded the surrounding areas. However, it is not known what major threats, if any, are impacting this species.
178464		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Bundala National Park. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178464		distribution	eng	According to Wickramasinghe and Somaweera (2002), this species is widely distributed in Sri Lanka and has been recorded from several islands in the Trincomalee area. There is also a 1930s record from Makulum in the north. A possible extension in the distribution range has taken place recently mainly due to anthropogenic habitat expansion (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>
178464		habitat	eng	From point locality data, this species appears to inhabit all three of the climatic zones of Sri Lanka (Wickramasinge and Somaweera 2002) and is found in a variety of habitats from damp caves to arid shrublands (R. Somaweera pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It has been reported from arid evergreen forest in Bundala National Park, in southern Sri Lanka (IUCN 2002) and mangrove-dominated Maduganga estuary and islet wetland system in the south-west of Sri Lanka (Bambaradeniya 2002). Somaweera (2004) also notes that all<em></em> Sri Lanka species of this genus occur inside human dwellings. It can be considered a 'house gecko' and is normally found in pairs (R. Somaweera pers. comm.)
178464		population	eng	This species was considered to be rare in Bundala National Park (IUCN 2002), and also in the Maduganga estuary wetland system (Bambaradeniya 2002). A. de Silva (pers. comm.) describes this species as common at Mihintale sanctuary, in Knuckles Mountain Range, and in lowland forest.
178464		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range, however, due to its broad habitat preferences and wide distribution, this cannot be considered a major threat.
178465		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178465		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern coastal Queensland. It is found from Cape Flattery to the mouth of McIvor River, and also on Lizard Island. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 215 km².
178465		habitat	eng	This species is found in heaths and low woodlands on white sands.
178465		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178465		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range and is therefore vulnerable to stochastic events. Lizard Island has some resort development, but access to the island is restricted (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Similarly, the mainland population is found in an aboriginal reserve with very restricted access and no planned development (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). If future development would occur, this may put the population of this species at risk; however, no such development is being planned. The species is also found in an area where future climate change could have a serious impact on the environment and the species within it, however, the severity of this threat is unknown.
178466		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, distribution, habitat status and threats are required.
178466		distribution	eng	The type specimen of this species was collected at Garaina, in the Morobe District of Papua New Guinea, at 700 m above sea level (Greer 1973). This species appears to be only known from the type locality.
178466		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected from an undisturbed rain forest habitat (Greer 1973).
178466		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178466		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Habitat loss due to deforestation is occurring on New Guinea, where primary forests are increasingly being converted into agriculture and plantations (Estreguil and Lambin 1996). However, the impact that this land change is having on the species is unknown.
178467		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to limit the rate of habitat loss occurring in the species' range. Population monitoring, along with research into species' threats, is required to obtain population numbers and to assess the impact that increased habitat fragmentation is having on this species.
178467		distribution	eng	This species is known from five specimens collected on Mafia and four specimens collected on the Kisuju Islands (Broadley 1994). These islands are located off the coast of Tanzania. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 430 km².
178467		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical dry forests.
178467		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178467		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and the extraction of timber and non-timber forest products, however, the impact of these activities on the species is unknown. This species may also be threatened by intrinsic factors related to its restricted range.
178468		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Befotaka-Midongy National Park (Bora <em>et al.</em> 2007) . Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat preferences and status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178468		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the eastern rainforest of Madagascar, as far south as Analalava (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).
178468		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rainforest. Raxworthy and Nussbaum (1993) report that this species is found in forest not dominated by bamboo. Seven specimens from Vondrozo were collected within rainforest, under a fallen tree trunk and under stones near a brook; it has also been found inside a rotten tree trunk, at 1m above ground level (Glaw and Vences 1992).
178468		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178468		threats	eng	Due to its wide distribution, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178469		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess the ability of this species to tolerate an altered environment. Monitoring of its population numbers is needed due to the major threats that this species currently faces.
178469		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caroline and the Marshall Islands in eastern Micronesia (Adler <em>et al.</em> 1995). In the Carolines, it has been recorded on Pohnpei (Ponape) (Brown and Marshall 1953), on the Sapwuahfik Atoll (Buden 2000) and the Mortlock Islands (Buden 2007). In the Marshall Islands, this species has been recorded on Ine, Dodo and Autore Islands (Brown and Marshall 1953).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 522 km².<sup> </sup>This has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands this species is found on.
178469		habitat	eng	This species is a ground-dweller which lives among rocks. It is is primarily found in the open interor of the forest. It is also found around the bases of breadfruit trees, in houses, and in piles of coconut and thatch (Brown and Marshall 1953). <br/><br/>On the Mortlock Islands, this species was most abundant in shady forests with sparse ground cover, and was usually found on the ground or low on tree trunks (Buden 2007). It is also common along the forest edge adjacent to rocky beaches (Buden 2007). On the Caroline Islands, this species was most abundant on the forest floor in shady, sun-dappled areas (Buden 1999).<br/><br/>A study on Pohnpei found this species to mainly inhabit disturbed forest/secondary vegetation and agro-forest. Other habitat types the species was found in included atoll forest, rainforest, mangrove, and grassy areas near settlement (Buden 2000).
178469		population	eng	The only population information available on this species is limited to Oroluk Atoll and Ine Island. In 1953, Brown and Marshall (1953) estimated that the population of this species on Ine Island was between 53 and 7,600 individuals. A study by Buden (1999) on the Oroluk Atoll, eastern Caroline Islands, described this species as common.
178469		threats	eng	The species' three subpopulations in the Marshall Islands inhabit the islands with the highest human populations: Arno, Dodo and Ine (Brown and Marshall 1953). Habitat loss due to conversion of forest to agricultural land presents a threat on the Caroline Islands, where there is increasing commercial cultivation of sakau. Invasive species also present a threat to these oceanic islands, with avian extinctions already attributed to introduced rats. <br/><br/>Climate change impacts may threaten the habitat of these low-lying islands in the future, through sea level rise, increased storm frequency and intensity and saltwater intrusion.
178470		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or required, for this species.
178470		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the semi-arid mid-western coast to the arid western interior of Western Australia (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178470		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the arid and semi-arid regions of the western parts of Western Australia (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999), which are characterized by various habitats including mallee-spinifex associations, samphire flats and mulga woodlands and shrublands (Wilson and Swan 2003). This species is fossorial, nocturnal, and oviparous (Cogger<em> et al.</em> 1983).
178470		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178470		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species, as its preference of arid environments prevents large scale agriculture or human settlement.
178471		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers and distribution of this species is needed.
178471		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in Nyalam County, Tibet, and various localities all within 50 km from Kathmandu, Nepal.
178471		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a variety of habitats, from rocky areas to grass-covered slopes to montane forests. It is also known from areas which have been deforested and then reforested.
178471		population	eng	This species is probably very rare (Zhao 1998).
178471		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats.
178472		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out as it may become more threatened in the future.
178472		distribution	eng	This South African legless skink is found in two isolated populations in the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga escarpment. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 30,000 km²<sup></sup>.
178472		habitat	eng	This species<em></em> inhabits montane grasslands.
178472		population	eng	This species has been described as rare (Branch 1998).
178472		threats	eng	Branch (1998) has specifically stated that this species may be threatened by afforestation of pine plantations.
178473		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the population, distribution, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species.
178473		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single specimen with imprecise locality data. It is likely that this species has a limited distribution. This species is known to be found within Papua Province (formerly known as West Irian Jaya), Indonesia.
178473		habitat	eng	The presumed habitat of this species is tropical lowland rainforest. As with all members of this genus, it is likely to be highly arboreal.
178473		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178473		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178474		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the threats to this species and monitoring of population trends is necessary.
178474		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Jujuy Province, Argentina. In 2008 further localities were found in Bolivia extending its range into Bolivia (Ocampo<em>&#160;</em>and Aguilar&#160;2008). &#160;It is found between 3,400 and 3,750 m above sea level.
178474		habitat	eng	This species is known from Andean Puna habitat, which is a high-elevation montane grassland. This species is oviparous.
178474		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178474		threats	eng	Overgrazing by domestic animals and collection of woody material for firewood are both having a detrimental effect on the habitat of this species.
178475		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Kanangra-Boyd National Park. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178475		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range, from the New England Plateau in New South Wales to Goulburn River in Victoria. There is an isolated population in South Australia on the Fleurieu Peninsula.
178475		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist areas such as river and swamp margins within temperate forest and grasslands. At subtropical latitudes in eastern Australia, this species occurs at higher altitudes, in more temperate climatic condition (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).
178475		population	eng	There was an increase in the abundance of this species following logging in montane forests of southern New South Wales (Goldingay <em>et al.</em> 1996).
178475		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Penn <em>et al.</em> (2003) state that this species is unaffected by the burning which occurs within its' range.
178476		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at this time. More research is needed on this species distribution, population trends, threats, biology and ecology and habitat status.
178476		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Ambatomenaloha and Itremo areas of central Madagascar, and is known only from eight female specimens (Pasteur and Blac 1991).
178476		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species have been found inhabiting a range of habitats including sandy grass, shrubland, and rocky areas, where they were found sheltering under stones (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species has also been found in dry evergreen and sclerophyll forest, and rainforest
178476		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178476		threats	eng	It is not known whether this species is being impacted by any major threats but habitat degradation is occurring within its range. The dry forests in western Madagascar are extremely fragmented (Ganzhorn <em>et al</em>. 1999) and the remaining habitat continues to be threatened by the expansion of slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming and associated wildfires, conversion of forest to grazing land, logging and the establishment of invasive plant species (Sussman and Rakotozafy 1994).
178477		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.
178477		distribution	eng	This species ranges discontinuously from Colombia to Argentina in South America. It occurs in all mainland countries in South America except Ecuador and Chile. This species is found between sea level and an elevation of 2,000 m above sea level. The rearrangement of Campbell and Lamar (2004) based on morphology was corroborated by the molecular data of Wuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005). Thus, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. durissus</span> should be considered a species restricted to South America (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178477		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a broad range of habitats, ranging from dry sparsely vegetated stony areas or desert, to savanna and grasslands (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010). &#160;It may&#160;occasionally&#160;be found in forest, although this is not a preferred habitat. It feeds almost exclusively on mammals, eating lizards only rarely (less than 5% of the diet) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178477		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178477		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.
178478		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Muralla National Park. Large portions of this park are threatened by habitat loss and degradation. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology, threats, habitat status, trends and population numbers of this species. The management and expansion of Murella National Park could provide a valuable refuge for this species from habitat loss.
178478		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, the Parque Nacional La Muralla, Departamento de Olancho, Honduras. Within the park, more than one locality has been reported for this species, but these equate to less than five locations overall. Its altitudinal range is 1,440 to 1,740 m (  Köhler 2003).    <p><br/></p>
178478		habitat	eng	Little is known about the specific habitat preference for this species, but La Muralla National Park is comprised of tropical dry forests and woodlands.
178478		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178478		threats	eng	La Muralla National Park is threatened from large-scale deforestation for agricultural land which could be causing a significant decline in the population of this species. Wilson and McCranie (2003) assigned this species to the most vulnerable class of their "Environmental Vulnerability Score", thus characterizing the species as highly vulnerable.
178479		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178479		distribution	eng	This species is found on both sides of the Andes in Chile (in Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Santiago, O'Higgins and possibly Maule) and Argentina (in San Juan and Mendoza). This species occurs between 3,000 and 3,500 m above sea level.
178479		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the border of the snowline in Andean steppe habitat.
178479		population	eng	There are no population data currently available for this species.
178479		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178480		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the population numbers of this species and monitoring of population trends should occur.
178480		distribution	eng	This species is known from Coquimbo, Chile, and San Juan, Argentina.
178480		habitat	eng	This species is found in high altitude steppe habitat. &#160;It is a viviparous species.
178480		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178480		threats	eng	There are no threats affecting this species in this relatively undeveloped region.
178481		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, although it is found in protected areas in Viet Nam and Myanmar, and presumably throughout its range. In Thailand the species is protected by law. Research into population trends is needed to clarify that the level at which this species is harvested is sustainable.
178481		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely throughout Southeast Asia, from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Myanmar through southern China to the Philippines. In the Philippines, it has been recorded from the island of Palawan  (including the localities Iwahig and Puerto Princessa) and from  the Sulu Archipelago (including the islands of Tawi-Tawi, Sanga-Sanga  and Bongao). It occurs southwards to Malaysia and Indonesia, where it is found on Sulawesi and the other islands of the Greater Sundas, but not the Lesser Sundas. It occurs from sea level to 1,300 m above sea level. It has also been recorded from eastern China in Yunnan and Guangdong provinces.
178481		habitat	eng	This lowland snake inhabits forests, marshes and scrublands. The species can be found in both disturbed and undisturbed areas, including urban environments, rice paddy fields and other agricultural areas as well as rainforest. These snakes are most regularly encountered in disturbed areas, such as gardens adjacent to secondary forest. In Viet Nam the snake is cosmopolitan between 100 to 2,000 m asl., but appears to prefer forested mountain valleys, with rocky areas close to streams. Snakes spend most of their time underground and only emerges at night or during heavy rain in the wet season. It feeds primarily on amphibians, snakes, lizards, small mammals and ground dwelling birds (Orlov 2000).<span style=""></span>
178481		population	eng	It is generally a common species. It is described as very common in Viet Nam (Orlov 2000), and is also common in Myanmar.
178481		threats	eng	Stuart (2004) reported that this snake is traded in relatively large numbers. This species is harvested from the wild for both the pet and skin trade. However, this is not considered a major threat due to the large distribution of this species, the localised nature of exploitation and its abundance even in areas, such as Viet Nam, where it is heavily exploited. No other major threats appear to exist to this very adaptable species.
178482		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out.
178482		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in lowlands from the extreme southeast of Nicaragua through Costa Rica and into western Panama. This species is found between sea level and 1,050 m above sea level.
178482		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in disturbed and altered areas. It is known to occur in agricultural land, as well along the margins and clearings of open forests.
178482		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178482		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
178483		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population numbers and threats of this species are needed in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.
178483		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Anaimalai and Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu, India, between an altitude of 1,200 to 1,500 m above sea level (Smith 1943). This species is distributed over approximately 5,503 km²<sup></sup>.
178483		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils. It is primarily found in moist montane evergreen forests, however, it is also known to occur in plantations, cow dung pits, gutters, drains, and on roads (Rajendran 1985).
178483		population	eng	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare.
178483		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178484		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population and habitat preferences of this species is needed to assess the severity of the threats.
178484		distribution	eng	This species inhabits central, southeastern and eastern Sulawesi (Iskandar and Nio 1996). It has not yet been collected from Luwuk and the furthest reaches of the eastern peninsula, but it is likely to occur this far east since it has also been found on Peleng Island, off the eastern coast of Sulawesi (C. Linkem pers. comm. 2011). The type was collected at 366 m above sea level.
178484		habitat	eng	This species prefers riparian habitats and swamps, and is probably semi-aquatic (C. Linkem pers. comm. 2011). The species is rarely found away from these habitats, but not enough is known about its natural history to assess how much the species is reliant on water sources.
178484		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species; however, it can often be found in abundance in its preferred riparian habitat and swamps (C. Linkem pers. comm. 2011).
178484		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation for conversion to agriculture and plantations has occurred across the island. The lowland forests (below 400 m above sea level) of Sulawesi have been almost entirely deforested or degraded, with deforestation estimates for 1990-1997 around 89% (FWI and GFW 2002). Deforestation continues and may pose a threat to this species through habitat loss and degradation of riparian habitat and effects on water quality. However, not enough is known about the natural history of this species to assess how important water quality and access to water sources are to this species. The species has previously been found in logged habitat, as well as in clean and stagnant water (C. Linkem pers. comm. 2011), so that it is difficult to assess the severity of threats to this species.
178485		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178485		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the eastern interior of Queensland, from the south of Cape York Peninsula southwards to St George and Bollon.
178485		habitat	eng	This large skink is restricted to dry forests, open woodlands, and rock outcrops.
178485		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178485		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural expansion. In the past 200 years, over 60% of original vegetation has been cleared from the Southern Brigalow Belt (Wilson 2003). Inappropriate fire regimes and overgrazing have also been listed as threats to reptiles in the region, as they destroy vital vegetation and leaf litter (Wilson 2003).
178486		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178486		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the extreme north of Cape York Peninsula, the islands of Torres Strait (Ingram and Raven 1991), and the Fly River delta area of Papua New Guinea.
178486		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found in woodland and shrubland.
178486		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178486		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178487		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, distribution, habitat status and threats is required.
178487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western part of Yemen. It is found along the coast from Hais to Wadi Hajr. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 33,466 km²<sup></sup>.
178487		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178487		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178487		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178488		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out. Monitoring of this species population in response to the threats outlined.
178488		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Miyako Island Group of the southern Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan (Takeda and Ota 1996). It is known to occur on Miyakojima and Irabujima, and is assumed to also be present on the other islands in the group, namely Shimojijima, Ikemajima, Ohgamijima, and Kurimajima (Takeda and Ota 1996). <br/><br/>This species represents the Miyako Group population of <em>T. smaragdinus</em>, a grass lizard that is distributed throughout the Okinawa and Amami island groups, and on two southern islands of the Tokara island groups of the central Ryuku Archipelago. Due to differences in scutellation and coloration, Takeda and Ota (1996) determined the Miyako population to be a separate species. A subsequent molecular study revealed that <em>T. toyamai</em>&#160;is phylogenetically rather distant from <em>T.smaragdinus</em>&#160;in reality (Lin <em>et al. </em>2002, Ota <em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;2002).&#160;It is known that <em>T. smaragdinus</em> inhabits Shimojijima, Ikemajima, Ohgamijima, and Kurimajima, however, as Takeda and Ota (1996) were unable to get specimens from either the field or museums from these four islands for re-examination, they were not able to confirm these to be <em>T. toyamai</em>. However, due to the isolation of the Miyako Group from the other three island groups, it is likely that the individuals on these four islands are also <em>T. toyamai</em>.<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 190 km²<sup> </sup>and is described as severely fragmented (H. Ota pers.comm. 2010).
178488		habitat	eng	This species prefers grassland with patches of shrubs, however, it is also found in broadleaf forest.<br/><br/>It is oviparous, with a clutch size of two eggs (Takeda and Ota 1996).
178488		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178488		threats	eng	This species is supposedly being impacted upon by predation from introduced weasels across the full extent of its range. Also, recently established populations of exotic peacocks in the central forested area of Miyakojima seems to be putting a substantial predation pressure upon the lizard population in this region, most likely causing its decline (Ota and Takahashi 2009). Detailed intensive studies are strongly desired to clarify the current population status of&#160;<em></em>the species on both Miyakojima and Irabujima.
178489		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178489		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of its type locality in Lima, from Chiclia in La Libertad, and from the Sechura Desert in Peru.
178489		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are small fossorial species, found in the desert, that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae.
178489		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178489		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178490		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed on the range, population size and trends, and habitat status of this species.
178490		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower Indus Delta, including southern Punjab and Sind provinces in Pakistan and Jaulna, Hyderabad province, in southern India (Khan 2002, Khan 2003).
178490		habitat	eng	This ground-dwelling species inhabits desert and dry shrublands. It may also be found in anthropogenic environments (Khan 2003).
178490		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178490		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction (M. Khan pers. comm.). It is likely impacted by conversion of land for agricultural purposes and the pressures associated with a growing human population and settlements.
178491		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Talampaya National Park  and Ischiualasto Provincial Park . More research is needed into the threats and habitat status of this species, and monitoring of population trends is necessary.
178491		distribution	eng	This species is found in the province of San Juan, Argentina, in the extreme west of the neighbouring province La Rioja and in the northwest of Mendoza near the border with San Juan. It occurs between 900 and 1,600 m above sea level.
178491		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane habitat, which is dominated by thorn scrub.
178491		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178491		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species. However, it may be locally threatened from overgrazing by domestic livestock which causes habitat loss and degradation.
178492		conservation	eng	There is no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There is a protected area on Isla de Providencia, where this species may occur. The populations of this species<em></em> should be monitored as it has a very restricted range.
178492		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Isla de Providencia, and two smaller islands nearby, Santa Catalina and Crab Cay, Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 24 km<sup>2</sup>.
178492		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilic species, which is commonly found in thicket habitat (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species is a forest edge-living species.
178492		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it has been reported as common in thicket habitat (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178492		threats	eng	At present, the habitat of Isla de Providencia is not highly degraded, however, there are a few agricultural areas and the expanding human population and increasing tourist activity are major future threats to this species. <br/><br/>Although non-native species (including pigs and goats) were introduced to the island by mariners, there is no evidence that these species pose a threat to this species, either directly or via habitat degradation.
178493		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.
178493		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, in the states of Piaui, Bahia, western Pernambuco, eastern Goiás, northern Minas Gerais and Maranhão, including areas in Tocantins states (Campbell and Lamar, 2004). This species is found between sea level and 800 m above sea level.
178493		habitat	eng	This species is found in savanna and thornscrub.
178493		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178493		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178494		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in the Lokobe Reserve. Further research into the distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178494		distribution	eng	This species has been found on Nosy Be, a small volcanic island off the northern coast of Madagascar. The area of this island is approximately 300 km². However, C. Raxworthy (pers. comm.) states that this species probably also occurs in the Sambirano region of mainland Madagascar.
178494		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, probably due to the cryptic nature of the members of this genus; however, this species probably occurs in humid forests.
178494		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178494		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Tourism has grown rapidly on Nosy Be, however, it is not known what impact this is having on the abundance of this species.
178495		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178495		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across southern West Africa. Isolated populations occur in Cameroon and Nigeria. This species is known to occur up to 560 m above sea level.
178495		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary rainforest.
178495		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178495		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, localized habitat loss is likely to occur within its range due to agricultural expansion.
178496		conservation	eng	This species is known to inhabit Cuc Phuong National Park (IUCN Category II), which has been protected since 1962 and a designated national park since 1966. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it falls within a threatened category in the future.
178496		distribution	eng	This species is found in Viet Nam around the Red River delta (Bobrov 1993). It is known from Tam Dao and Cuc Phuong National Park. Cuc Phuong National Park has an area of 222 km²<sup></sup>, and Tam Dao (the type locality) is a hill station, however, it is interpreted that the species' distribution may be greater than this, with undiscovered populations. <br/><br/>The Red River delta region, as mapped by Bobrov (1993), encompasses 61,973 km²<sup></sup>, however, it is unclear how much of this area the species inhabits.
178496		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both upland and lowland rainforest.
178496		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178496		threats	eng	Annual deforestation rates for south Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent and more widespread estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). R. Bain (pers. comm 2010) highlights that this area has been converted into mostly urban an agricultural land.<br/><br/>There is almost no lowland rainforest left in northern Viet Nam, and almost the entire Red River delta where this species occurs is altered for agriculture.
178497		conservation	eng	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Research into the distribution of this species and taxonomic validity is needed.
178497		distribution	eng	This species is known from the state of Punjab, India. Specific collecting localities have included Beas River basin and Kulu Valley (Constable 1949).
178497		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry forest and shrubland.
178497		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178497		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is currently impacted by any major threats. However, habitat loss and human interference have been suggested as possible threats (CAMP 2007)
178498		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on this species to confirm its taxonomy,&#160; its range in Borneo, as well as its abundance and resilience to threats.
178498		distribution	eng	This recently described species is at present only known from two localities, Kinabalu and from Mendolong, Sipitang District, Sabah,&#160; Malaysia (Guenther and Manthey 1995, Wallach and Guenther 1998). The specimen from Mendolong (Sabah) was found at 600 m. asl. above sea level in secondary forest (Guenther and Manthey 1995).
178498		habitat	eng	This snake is fossorial (Inger and Voris 2001), remaining in the leaf litter and under moss within moist forests (Günther and Manthey 1995). It was collected from a selectively logged forest (Günther and Manthey 1995).
178498		population	eng	Inger pers comm. "made thorough searches of thousands of square meters of forest floor litter- with the help of very sharp-sighted local men" and found only one specimen, which implies that this species occurs in low densities (Günther and Manthey 1995). Further very extensive surveys have been conducted in Borneo and only one further specimen has been recovered, leading R. Inger (pers. comm.) to believe that the likelihood that this species is widespread in Borneo is "very remote".
178498		threats	eng	It is unknown what impact deforestation is having on the species, as it is only known from two localities and not much is known about its ecology.
178499		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178499		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the species' type locality, Mogotes, Santander, Colombia, where it was collected at an altitude of 1,746 m above sea level.
178499		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are small fossorial species that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. The region of the type locality of this species is predominantly montane forest habitat.
178499		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178499		threats	eng	There has been a relatively high level of habitat loss in the region of this species' type locality; however, it is not known what impact this may be having on the species.
178500		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Eritrea, and is known from only two&#160;localities: Saganeiti and Gheleb, in the arid central highlands.
178500		habitat	eng	This species occurs in arid highland habitat, but its precise habitat preferences are unknown.
178500		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178500		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178501		conservation	eng	The Government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) recently designated this species as a protected species by its Wildlife Law, which regulates the handling of this species (Shang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Research is needed on the potential threats that this species may be impacted by.
178501		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lanyu Island, also known as "Orchid Island"&#160;or “Botel Tobago”, which is located off the southeastern coast of Taiwan. It is restricted to the southeastern part of the island. Its area of occupancy is only 3 km²<sup></sup> and its extent of occurrence is only 7 km² and it has an elevation range between 5 and 50 m above sea level (H. Ota pers. comm.).
178501		habitat	eng	This species chiefly occurs on a larval cliff with many crevices close to the sea coast and flanked with shrubs and secondary forests in the southeastern part of the island. It can also be found beneath the bark or within crevices in trees of secondary forests in the same region (Ota 1987), but the population density around this type of habitat is much lower (H. Ota pers. comm.).
178501		population	eng	This species has high population densities (> 0.3 individuals per m²<sup></sup>) on those parts of the larval cliff which have many crevices close to the sea coast, but is much lower in other types of habitats, such as the secondary forest (H. Ota pers. comm.).
178501		threats	eng	There are threats to Lanyu Island such as habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and a developing tourist industry. However, it is unknown what impact this may have on the species at this time, because the larval cliffs it inhabits are not directly affected.
178502		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species is required due to its restricted range and vulnerability to stochastic events. Also research into population numbers should be carried out to find out how many individuals inhabit these small islands.
178502		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Glorioso Islands, off the coast of Madagascar (Mertens 1931). The Glorioso Islands consist of two small islands and three rock islets, with a total area of five km²<sup></sup>.
178502		habitat	eng	The habitat on these uninhabited islands consists of lush vegetation and coconut palms. Species of this genus <em></em>are known to be partially arboreal or rock-dwelling (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2006).
178502		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178502		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species at present. The restricted range of the species, however, can be considered a threat, as it makes the species more vulnerable to stochastic events. Furthermore, the island may be vulnerable to the consequences of sea level rise as the island reaches a maximum altitude of only 12 m above sea level. Sea level rise may cause inundation, groundwater salinization, and increased intensity and frequency of storm surges, resulting in habitat degradation or loss.
178503		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is known to occur in several reserves along the south coast, including the Cape Arid National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178503		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two isolated populations in Western Australia; one along the lower west coastal plain from Cataby south to Perth, the second along the south coast and adjacent interior, from Rocky Gully east to the beginning of the Great Australian Bight, and inland to Lake Magenta (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178503		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand plains with heaths. It is also found in Banksia or Mallee woodlands.
178503		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178503		threats	eng	Mallee habitat is being degraded in the area in which this species is found due to agricultural expansion. However, as this species can inhabit a variety of habitats and is found within several protected areas, this is not considered a major threat at present.
178504		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, this species was assessed as 'Secure' in a national assessment of the conservation status of the herpetofauna of Namibia (Griffin 2003). Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.
178504		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Namibia and is found in the central Namib Desert, from Walvis Bay south to at least Koichab Pan (Griffin 2003).
178504		habitat	eng	This species inhabits desert habitat, living in extensive, elaborate, but solitary, burrows, that the geckos dig in the fine sand of inter-dune spaces and the silt of dry riverbeds (Branch 1998). This species lives in finer sand than other species of this genus and it does frequent habitat along river margins (A. Russell pers. comm.).
178504		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178504		threats	eng	This species may be locally affected by habitat degradation due to overgrazing, increased human population densities and increased pressure on agricultural land threaten the arid regions of Namibia (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2000). However, this species is likely to be reasonably safe from most human-mediated disturbances as it occupies a hyper-arid area which is unlikely, in its current climatic state, to be subject to any major human development (A. Russell pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although the rivers where this species sometimes occurs are usually dry, floods, such as those reported at Gobabeb (Koch 1963) result in species mortality by drowning. Therefore, if climate change leads to a greater frequency of floods and/or permanent water in these normally dry water courses, this species may be significantly impacted (at least in those particular parts of its habitat) (A. Russell pers. comm.).
178505		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178505		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four specimens from its type locality, originally specified as 'an island in the southern Red Sea'. There is evidence to suggest (though not definitively prove) that this refers to Nokra Island in the Dahlak Archipelago of Eritrea (M. Largen pers. comm.) and maybe Dissei Island (Largen 1997).
178505		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.
178505		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178505		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
178506		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178506		distribution	eng	This species is found only on the southwest coast of Western Australia, from Bussleton eastward to the Thomas River and north to Ongerup. The area in which this species is distributed is over 50,000 km²<sup></sup>.
178506		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense shrubland or forest areas that are seasonally saturated. They are often found in disused stick-ant nests.
178506		population	eng	This species is reported to be rarely seen, but this does not necessarily suggest that this species is rare.
178506		threats	eng	The area that this species is found in has undergone land use change and continues to be developed for agricultural and human settlement. This does not seem to have caused significant declines in this species.
178507		conservation	eng	This species is found within protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species in Chad, its taxonomic status and harvest levels.
178507		distribution	eng	This is a north African species distributed from the southeastern Western Sahara through central and northern Mauritania, central and northern Mali, southern and eastern Algeria, and central and southern Tunisia eastwards to most of Libya and northwestern Egypt. It is not thought to occur in the Sudan, but is presumed to occur in northern Chad. However, there are no records yet from this area, probably because of the lack of surveying.
178507		habitat	eng	This species is found in crevices and fissures in rocky plateaus and gravel desert. It also occurs in semi-desert sandy areas and dunes with sparse grass cover. Animals are found under stones and rocks. It has been recorded from millet fields in Niger. The female lays up to six clutches of a single egg each year.
178507		population	eng	This species can occur in dense populations in suitable habitat, although the species is often uncommon (e.g., in Egypt).
178507		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats affect this widespread species. It is locally threatened through the impacts of overgrazing, quarrying and off-road vehicle use causing habitat degradation. It is subject to some collection for the international pet trade but this is not a substantial threat.
178508		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Gal Oya National Park. Further research into its distribution and habitat requirements should be undertaken, and population monitoring is recommended.
178508		distribution	eng	This species has been found throughout Sri Lanka and one location in southwestern India (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1984). However, there are claims that this species is endemic only to Sri Lanka (Goonewardene <em>et al.</em> 2003).&#160;In the last assessment of Sri Lankan&#160;<em>Cnemaspis </em>genus,&#160;22 species were recognized, which led to a revision of <em>C. tropidogaster</em> making it only applicable to the lectotype specimen, and no further populations of this species have been found in the wild&#160;(Manamendra-Aarachchi <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).<p><strong></strong></p><defanghtml_span style="font-size: 12pt;"></defanghtml_span>
178508		habitat	eng	This species mainly occurs in forested lowland areas (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1984, Taylor 1953). It has been found sheltering in rocky areas and caves (Goonewardene <em>et al.</em> 2003).
178508		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178508		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is threatened by human activities including logging and expanding agriculture. In Sri Lanka, the growing human population may increase pressure on this species' habitat.
178509		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Guanacaste National Park and may occur in several other protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. Further research into population numbers, threats and habitat, and population monitoring, is suggested.
178509		distribution	eng	This species is found in western Panama and in the Cordillera de Guanacaste and in the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica. It can be found between 1,370 to 2,500 m above sea level.
178509		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane forests. It is often found within moss-covered trees in primary or secondary forests.
178509		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species
178509		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation for agricultural land.
178510		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178510		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Arnhem region of the Northern Territory. It is also known to occur on the offshore island of Groote Eylandt. In the past, it was erroneously thought to occur in Queensland, however, it has now been confirmed that this is not the case (Greer <em>et al.</em> 1983, Ingram and Raven 1991, Horner 1992).
178510		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits coastal dunes, and shrublands and woodlands in sandy areas, often with rock outcrops.
178510		population	eng	Horner (1992) states that this species is uncommon, however, this may be due to its fossorial lifestyle rather then actual rarity.
178510		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178511		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
178511		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, where it is known from the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca. This species is found between 75 and 200 m above sea level.
178511		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforests that receive an abundance of rainfall (more than 5,000 mm per year) and extremely high humidity.
178511		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species
178511		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Cultivation has recently become a threat in the region, however, this is primarily restricted to floodplains and hillsides adjacent to larger streams. However, away from these areas, the rainforest is relatively undisturbed. The region is comprised of precipitous slopes and so further habitat loss due to cultivation is unlikely to occur (Campbell and Lamar 2004).
178512		conservation	eng	This species probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No conservation measures are needed.
178512		distribution	eng	This species is found in Chile between 35 and 42°  <sup></sup> south latitude.
178512		habitat	eng	This species is found in <em>Nothofagus</em> forests.
178512		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178512		threats	eng	Large tracts of the natural forest habitat in this region have been logged and replaced by eucalyptus plantations, however, no adverse effects of this on <em>P. torquatus</em> have been recorded. Increased urbanization, agriculture, and road-building may locally threaten the species, however, this has not been considered a major threat.
178513		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178513		distribution	eng	First described from Eritrea, this species is believed to extend southwards into Ethiopia, where it apparently meets the more widely-distributed species <em>A. lineolatus</em> (Jan, 1864). However, the two taxa seem very similar, with the presence of morphological intermediates making it very difficult to define either their distinguishing features or exact geographical ranges (M. Largen pers. comm. 2008). This species has been found between 980 and 2,450 m above sea level.
178513		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178513		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178513		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178514		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out because if the predicted future threats occur, significant population declines may result.
178514		distribution	eng	This species is an endemic species known from the Serra do Espinhaço, an elevated area in the Minas Gerais State of Brazil. This species is found at altitudes above 1,000 m above sea level and the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 8,691 km².
178514		habitat	eng	This species is found in campos rupestres rocky open shrubland habitat. This species is found on rocks, and feeds mainly on termites and ants.
178514		population	eng	S. Morato (pers. comm.) states that this species is easily found at altitudes from 1,000 m above sea level.
178514		threats	eng	The campos rupestres habitat is currently relatively undisturbed, although agricultural, and urban expansion are potential future threats to the region. Campos rupestres occurs in fragmented patches, which would be an additional pressure to this species if the expanding human population will cause degradation of this habitat.
178515		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.
178515		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northern Peru, and only from a few specimens, which were collected from the Cenepa River, and one of its tributaries, the Najem River. The area in which this species is known to occur is approximately 9,873 km²<sup></sup>.
178515		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species; however, all specimens were collected from an area of lowland moist forest near running water.<br/><br/>It is thought that all species of this genus are ground dwellers in the rain forest where they dig burrows in the forest floor. The burrows can reach a length of about three metres and a depth of 60 cm below the surface. They are typical sit-and-wait predators that feed on arthropods and they reproduce by laying eggs (G. Köhler pers. comm.).
178515		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
178515		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. The region in which this species was collected is threatened by logging and deforestation, but the impact that these threats are having on this species is not known.
178516		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is found within several National Parks, Natural Monuments, and a Biosphere Reserve. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
178516		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Guianan Shield. It is known from the highlands of Estado Bolivar and Territorio Federal Amazonas, Venezuela, as well as neighbouring Brazil. This species is known to occur between 400 and 1,400 m above sea level.
178516		habitat	eng	This species is semi-aquatic and is found in montane tropical forest habitat.
178516		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178516		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species, which is found in a relatively sparsely populated area of Venezuela.
178517		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Research into the population status of this species is recommended.
178517		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across the southern half of Western Australia (from Mt Jackson in the northwest to Ravensthorpe in the southwest), throughout Southern Australia, and eastward to the western slope of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria and New South Wales (Rabosky <em>et al.</em> 2004).
178517		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the semi-deserts and shrublands of southern Australia.
178517		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178517		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178518		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or are needed for this species.
178518		distribution	eng	This species is found east of the Andes in Patagonia, Argentina. This species is found between sea level and 1,100 m above sea level. &#160;The distribution of the species goes from northeast Chubut and runs along the coast of, and within central Chubut and south to&#160;<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Santa Cruz</st1:place></st1:city> provinces (F. Cruz pers. comm. 2010). For an accurate distribution map see Avila <em>et al. </em>(2006) and Abdala (2007).<p></p>
178518		habitat	eng	This species is found in Patagonian steppe.
178518		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178518		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178519		conservation	eng	More research is needed into the habitat, threats and population numbers of this species and population monitoring is recommended. Parts of this species distribution range coincide with protected areas, including Sierra de Bahoruco and Lagunade Cabral o Ricón&#160;National Parks in the Dominican Republic.
178519		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola, including south-central Haiti and southwestern Dominican Republic. This species occurs in south-central regions of the island in the Cul de Sac plain. The two subspecies occur in northwestern Haiti, in Nord-Ouest and Artibonite provinces respectively (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). However, evidence exists which may raise at least one of these subspecies to species status (Glor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003), so that the disjunct range of this species may be a taxonomic artefact. The taxonomic status of the population in northwestern Dominican Republic is uncertain, but it is currently assigned to this species (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which the nominal subspecies is distributed is approximately 5,464 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is found from sea level to 518 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178519		habitat	eng	This xerophillic species is found in <em>Acacia</em> woods, cactus stands, and open hot arid areas such as semidesert, as long as there is some vegetation present. The species is widespread in drier areas of Hispaniola and is also present in disturbed areas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178519		population	eng	Cybotoid anoles are usually common to abundant where present (Mayer pers. comm. 2010). However, this species has been recorded to have a fragmented range, which in places is sparsely populated (Powell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). &#160;The fragmentation witnessed may be a taxonomic artefact; Glor <em>et al.&#160;</em>(2003) report that the currently recognized subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">A. whitemani whitemani </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. whitemani breslini</span> may be different species.
178519		threats	eng	The habitat that this species occurs in is threatened by increased agricultural industry and urbanization. This species has been found in disturbed areas and thus may be able to tolerate a certain amount of habitat disturbance; therefore the extent to which threats from agriculture and development are impacting the species is unknown.
178520		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in Kosciuszko National Park (Donnellan <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178520		distribution	eng	This temperate species has a wide distribution in southeastern Australia, from the Granite Belt in southeastern Queensland, through New South Wales and Victoria, inland to the upper western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, and to the Eyre Peninsula and Spencer Gulf in southeastern South Australia. It is also found in north and east Tasmania, and on the Bass Strait Islands. This species is found between sea level and 1,600 m above sea level.
178520		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a variety of habitats, from rocky areas and tussock grasslands to eucalyptus and dry sclerophyll forests. It can also be found in sandy coastal regions.
178520		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178520		threats	eng	A study by Jellinek (2004) found that in urban bushland near Hobart, Tasmania, this species was the only lizard species significantly influenced by fragment size, and was only present in large fragments and continuous bush. However, as this was only a local study and large areas of intact habitat remain throughout the rest of this species' range, it is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178521		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
178521		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Panama and in the region of 'Colombian Guayana' which includes the Colombian departments of Guaviare, Meta, Vaupes, and Vichada, and much of Guainia (Heatwole and Sexton 1966, Hollowell and Reynolds 2005). This species has also been collected from across the Caribbean coast of Colombia, from the Uraba region to the northwest of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (J. Arredondo pers. comm.) and into Venezuela (Rivas <em>et al</em>. 2002).
178521		habitat	eng	This species has been found on forest floors (Heatwole and Sexton 1966). It can also be found near human settlements including large urban areas and commercial ports (J. Arredondo pers. comm.). Congeners can inhabit agricultural areas and so this species may also be able to tolerate modified habitats.
178521		population	eng	This species can be found in high densities (J. Arredondo pers. comm.).
178521		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, while the remaining habitat is occasionally fragmented by road building. However, as significant areas of undisturbed habitat remain and this species appears to have flexible habitat requirements, these should not be considered as major threats at present.
178522		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the population and distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species.
178522		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in Yemen.
178522		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. Members of this genus<em></em> tend to be fossorial in sandy soils.
178522		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178522		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178523		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population and habitat status and threats to the species is required.
178523		distribution	eng	This species has been found at 500 m elevation at Nzo on Mount Nimba, at the border of Guinea (Guibe 1952), Cote d'Ivoire and Liberia (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178523		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species due to its cryptic fossorial nature.
178523		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178523		threats	eng	The political instability in this region has resulted in high levels of deforestation as refugees put greater pressure on the forest resources.The past and planned mining of Mount Nimba for iron ore is likely to severely impact this montane endemic in the future.
178524		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the habitat status and threats to this species and monitoring of population abundance is necessary.
178524		distribution	eng	This species is found in central Chile, in the provinces of Santiago, O'Higgins, and Maule. This species has a distributional area of 33,184 km².
178524		habitat	eng	This species is found in Chilean shrub habitat.
178524		population	eng	There are currently no population data available for this species.
178524		threats	eng	This species is found in the most heavily populated area of Chile, where ongoing urban and agricultural expansion, and associated infrastructure development, are major threats to the species.
178525		conservation	eng	This species has been listed as Near Threatened in Victoria. Its distribution probably falls within protected areas.
178525		distribution	eng	This widely distributed species occurs throughout arid and semi-arid areas of Australia, from the central western coast to southern Northern Territory, and into southwestern Queensland, northwestern Victoria and western New South Wales.
178525		habitat	eng	This is a sandy desert species.
178525		population	eng	This species has been described as common (Horner 1992).
178525		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is impacted by any major threats throughout its range.
178526		conservation	eng	This species is present in the Gebel Elba protected area, Egypt. Further research is needed into the range of this species.
178526		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in some localities of the Gebel Elba area (southeastern Egypt) but it is mostly distributed along the southwestern Arabian Peninsula (southwestern Saudi Arabia and Western Yemen) (Sindaco and Jeremcenko, 2008). &#160;The extreme Arabian localities have about 750 km between them; the extent of&#160;occurrence&#160;in the Arabian range is estimated to be 26,700 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/>This species is known from a dozen places, but it may possibly occur in northeastern Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti . The species seems to have a restricted and fragmented habitat in a series of isolated populations<em>.&#160;</em>
178526		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal species found on well-vegetated, rocky mountain, on hardy soils near small streams of water or semi-perennial wadis (Schatti and Gasperetti 2004). It can be found climbing through vegetation and over rocks, though it is not thought to occur in modified habitats. It is found in areas with rainfall of over 200 mm and is an egg-laying species.
178526		population	eng	This is a secretive species, which is believed to be uncommon.
178526		threats	eng	This species is threatened in Egypt by habitat degradation due to overgrazing and collection of firewood, and these threats are likely to impact it in the Arabian range too.
178527		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178527		distribution	eng	This is a Madagascan skink that is distributed in central parts of the island. It can be found in Ambatolampy, Andohariana plateau, Andringitra, Ankaratra, Beanjombona, Farihimazava, Ibity, Soamazaka, Torotorofotsy, Tsiafajavona, and Vohisokina (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178527		habitat	eng	This species can inhabit various habitat types. In montane areas, it can be found in savanna, grassland, and heathland, often above the tree line. It can also inhabit open areas at lower elevations and has been found next to swamps (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178527		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178527		threats	eng	Habitat degradation may be affecting part of the range of this species. However, no population declines have been reported (M. Vences pers. comm.) and it is unlikely that any other major threat is impacting this species across its range.
178528		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat status of this species is required, and monitoring of population and habitat trends is recommended. Protected areas should also be set up to protect the natural habitat and species within it.
178528		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Islands of Niue, Samoa, Tonga (Adler <em>et al.</em> 1995) and American Samoa (Steadman and Pregill 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,992.7 km² which has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands.
178528		habitat	eng	Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953). The habitat on the islands on which this species occurs ranges from lowland to montane rainforest. As other species of this genus are known to inhabit lowland forest, it is inferred that this species can also be found in this habitat type.
178528		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178528		threats	eng	Deforestation is the major threat to forests in the Pacific Islands and this is likely impacting this species. Approximately 90% of American Samoa is deforested; however, between 1990 and 2000 there was no significant reported change in forest cover. Between 1990 and 2000 the natural forest area of Samoa has been reduced by approximately 23% and in Tonga it has been reduced by 8% (Earthtrends 2007). Predatory introduced species, such as rats and cats, are also a threat to this species.
178529		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitats, and threats of the species should be carried out.
178529		distribution	eng	There are conflicts between the documented distributions of this species. Sharma (2003) lists the species as inhabiting Assam and Hardwar in India, while McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) list the species as being found in Western Java, Indonesia, with the only exact locality known to be Bogor. <br/><br/>A much older description lists the species as inhabiting northern India and the Malay Peninsula (Boulenger 1893).
178529		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178529		population	eng	Sharma (2003) describes this species as rare in India.
178529		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178530		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its population, distribution, ecology, threats, and habitat are suggested.
178530		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of Labuan Badjan, Pulau Simeulue, Indonesia (Das 2005). It has an area of distribution of approximately 1,770 km²<sup></sup>.
178530		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species, but it is inferred to live in forests.
178530		population	eng	This species appears to be known only from a few specimens and there is no population data for this species.
178530		threats	eng	The potential threats to this species are unknown.
178531		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178531		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur within Angola and western Democratic Republic of the Congo.
178531		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178531		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178531		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
178532		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution and threats is recommended to determine if the species is threatened.
178532		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> inhabits southeast India (Sharma 2003). The type was collected in Madras (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). The area in which this species occurs has been estimated as approximately 28,330 km²<sup></sup>.
178532		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits the dry scrubland and evergreen forests of southeast India.
178532		population	eng	This species is known from many specimens (V. Wallach pers. comm.).
178532		threats	eng	The habitat in this region is threatened by overgrazing, fuel-wood collection, &#160;and the conversion of land to agriculture and pasture. The extent to which these threats are impacting the species is unclear at present.   For forest obligates, it has been suggested that the removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus. However, as this species is also found in dry scrubland, it may be tolerant of such changes, as more generalist species of this genus are thought to be capable of persisting in a variety of altered and artificial environments.
178533		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' range coincide with protected areas. Further research into population numbers and range size is needed along with monitoring of habitat to ensure a decline in this species triggers a higher threat category.
178533		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, an area of approximately 1,290 km<sup>2</sup>, where it is known from around twenty localities, which make up more than ten locations. It is found at altitudes between 400 and 1,400 m above sea level.
178533		habitat	eng	This species lives in and around rocks and has also been found in coffee plantations and forest areas.
178533		population	eng	This species currently has no population data available.
178533		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by conversion to agricultural land. This species has shown some capability of surviving in coffee plantations which demonstrates that it is adaptable to different habitats, however, due to the extent of habitat loss within the region, habitat loss for agriculture is considered a major threat.
178534		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. However, the threat of deforestation and habitat loss due to increased agricultural activity has resulted in a need for the establishment of protected areas in this species' distribution range. Further research into the population trend and threats to this species is recommended.
178534		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known from four localities in Viet Nam. Two localities are in the Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, at 10 km and 12 km south of Rao-An Town at 900 m and 200 m above sea level, respectively (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). The third locality is in Quang Nam Province, Tra My District on Ngoe Linh Mountain, 1,450 m above sea level (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). The fourth locality is from the Minh Hoa District, Quang Binh Province, 250 m above sea level, adjacent to Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park.<br/><br/>From these four points, it is inferred that the species inhabits the highlands along the border of Viet Nam and Lao PDR. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 38,823 km²<sup></sup>.
178534		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both lowland and montane subtropical forest (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). Specimens have been found on bush branches 1-1.5 m above ground (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). Also, Kizirian (2004) reports that this species is primarily a tree canopy inhabitant with preference for riparian forest.
178534		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178534		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation may pose a threat to this species. Deforestation rates for southern Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent and widespread estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Lao PDR, it is estimated that 98% of the primary forests have been exploited, with timber being the country's most important export commodity (Yamane and Chanthirath 2000). According to experts, 80% of the total degradation of Lao PDR forests is due to slash-and-burn agriculture and forest fires (Yamane and Chanthirath 2000).
178535		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in some places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required for this relative common species.
178535		distribution	eng	This species is found in west and central Africa, from Mali in the west to Chad in the east.
178535		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is reported to occur in savanna and forest.
178535		population	eng	This species is relatively common over its entire distribution (I. Ineich pers. comm.).
178535		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178536		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring of the population, biology and ecology, habitat preferences and trends, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178536		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Haiti along the south-eastern coast of the Tiburon Peninsula. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 345 km<sup>2</sup>.
178536		habitat	eng	This species has only been found in coastal <em>Coccoloba</em> trees (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178536		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178536		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by habitat loss due to urbanization and coastal development for tourism.
178537		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the threats and habitat requirements of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
178537		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the coast and adjacent areas of southwest Western Australia, from Gnaraloo southwards to Swan River. It also inhabits many of the offshore islands.
178537		habitat	eng	This species can be found in various types of grassland and shrubland, with differing soil types. It is particularly common in sand dunes and can be found in populated areas.
178537		population	eng	This species has been reported as common.
178537		threats	eng	There are no known threat processes acting upon this species.
178538		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, however, enforcement of protected status is not always effective. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hispaniola and some of its surrounding islands. Although the species is possibly quite widespread around the island of Hispanola, it almost certainly occurs in disjunct populations. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,723 km²<sup></sup>.
178538		habitat	eng	This species is found in wooded and limestone areas. This species readily invades human habitations in at least part of its range.
178538		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178538		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation for agriculture and urbanization. The distribution of this species is extremely localized, which may be indicative of fragmentation attributable to unknown causes.
178539		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Research into its population status is recommended, as there is currently no information available.
178539		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tsushima Island, Japan, and numerous localities throughout the Republic of Korea (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2001)
178539		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temperate forest in both coastal regions and the inland hills. It is cryptic and can be found under debris, logs, and rocks on the forest floor (Goris and Maeda 2004). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with one to nine eggs laid in early summer (Goris and Maeda 2004).
178539		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178539		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178540		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178540		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal regions of Western Australia, from Hutt River in the north to Cape Le Grande National Park in the south-east. It can also be found on the offshore islands of Western Australia.
178540		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky outcrops, coastal shrublands and river margins, and is found on granite, sand, or limestone substrates.
178540		population	eng	This species has been described as very common in various parts of its range.
178540		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178541		conservation	eng	This species was assessed as Endangered by the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group in 2003 (CBSG 2003). Parts of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas, for example Siberut National Park (IUCN Category II). Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed. More information may change the status of this species. Research to  determine the distribution of the species, especially to see if it is  present in Nias<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is needed. The establishment and management of new protected areas are suggested to provide a refuge site for this species.
178541		distribution	eng	This species has been found on Siberut and Simeulue, part of the Mentawei islands in Indonesia. It is likely also to occur on Nias Island, but this island has not been surveyed so far (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011).
178541		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary lowland forest.
178541		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178541		threats	eng	In Siberut, the forest is essentially in good condition. On Simelue, however, it is essentially gone. On Sumatra and adjoining islands, there is a relevant threat of habitat loss and degradation, particularly caused by forest fires, agriculture development, and both legal and illegal logging activities (CBSG 2003).
178542		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population status, habitat and threats of the species should be carried out and population monitoring is recommended.
178542		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,770 km<sup>2</sup> and it is found between 1,500 and 2,000 m above sea level.
178542		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest habitat. Specimens were found on the trunks of trees and leaves of ferns approximately 0.7-1.8 metres off the ground. This species was often found near courses of water where there was dense ground vegetation.
178542		population	eng	This species occurs at a small number of localities; at some locations this species is relatively common (M.&#160;Castaneda&#160;pers. comm<em>.</em>&#160;2010). It should be noted that during collections few specimens are collected which could reflect a low population densities (M.&#160;Castaneda&#160;pers. comm<em>.</em>&#160;2010).
178542		threats	eng	Agricultural and urban expansion resulting in deforestation is occurring in localized regions of this species' range, which are likely to be negatively impacting this species, causing a decline in extent and quality of habitat. Also, M.&#160;Castaneda (pers. comm. 2010) has highlighted the increase of mineral exploitation in the region which has led to an increase of deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
178543		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population size, distribution, habitat status and threats should be carried out.
178543		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality Igarape Camaip, an affluent of the upper Maraca river, Amapa, Brazil.
178543		habitat	eng	This species is known from lowland tropical rainforest, where it lives among the leaf litter.
178543		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178543		threats	eng	This species occurs in a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and mining activity, however, it not known what impact these activities are having on its population.
178544		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to ascertain the extent of its distribution in Peru and Ecuador.
178544		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Chile, north of Antofagasta, from the coast to the foothills of the Andes. This species has also been reported in widely scattered localities in northwestern Peru and appears to be restricted to the desert foothills bordering the Sechura Desert (Dixon and Huey 1970). It is probably also found in southwest Ecuador.
178544		habitat	eng	This species is found in several different habitats, from coastal desert to the grasslands and shrublands of the Andean foothills.<br/><br/>Goldberg (2008) reported an extended reproductive cycle in this species (late autumn and late spring) with multiple egg clutches of one to two eggs.
178544		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178544		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178545		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, but there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the population trends and threats of this species is suggested to check that localized threats are not becoming more widespread.
178545		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a band of arid and semi-arid environments from northern Western Australia, through to the west of the Northern Territory (Cogger 2000).
178545		habitat	eng	This species is reported from arid grassy habitat and shrubland (Cogger 2000, How and Dell 2004).
178545		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178545		threats	eng	The habitat of this species may have been negatively impacted by grazing, land clearing and mining activity in the region; however, these should not be considered major threats at this time as these are only localized threats.
178546		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.
178546		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, east Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (Bobrov 2005). It has been observed on eastern and western slopes, between an altitude of 1,200 and 1,500 m above sea level (Kolbintzev 1999), but can extend up to 2,000 m.
178546		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deserts (Bobrov 2005). At 2,000 m above sea level, it is known to live on dry-south exposed slopes with xerophytic steppe characterized by <em>Ferula</em>, <em>Rosa</em>, Honeysuckle, <em>Cotoneaster</em>, and <em>Spirea</em>. This species is diurnal and oviparous, with observed clutch sizes between 1-11 eggs (Kolbintzev 1999).
178546		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178546		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178547		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.
178547		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the eastern periphery of Puerto Rico. It is known from a location seven kilometres west of Palmas Altas and the Bosque de Cambalache, eastward around the coast to midway along the south coast. The species is primarily found in coastal localities, with the interiormost locations being Hato Tejas, Bayamon, Tio Piedras, and Trujillo Alto. It is possible that the range extends further westward along both coasts, but probably does not extend west of Arecibo on the north coast or Ponce on the south coast (Hedges and Thomas 1991). This species also occurs on the islands of Palominos, Pineros, and Vieques (Hedges and Thomas 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,459 km².
178547		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits the lowland moist evergreen forests of the eastern coasts of Puerto Rico.
178547		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178547		threats	eng	Puerto Rico experiences frequent severe hurricanes, which are known to affect the coastal forests (Foster <em>et al.</em> 1999). As the frequency and intensity of storms are expected to increase due to climate change, it is possible that this may have adverse impacts on the forest structure. As this species is fossorial, however, such damage to the canopy is unlikely to have negative impacts to the species. <br/><br/>There has been extensive habitat loss for conversion to agriculture in the past, with over 90% of Puerto Rico under cultivation at the beginning of the 20th Century. However, since the 1940s much of this agricultural land has been abandoned as the economy shifted to be more industry-based, and consequently there has been regeneration of the forest (Pascarella <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Therefore, at present there are no major threats to this species, however, habitat degradation due to climate change impacts may impose a threat in the future.
178548		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, though it likely occurs within protected areas within its range.
178548		distribution	eng	This species is found in India, Thailand, Myanmar, and the Sunda region, including Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. Within Thailand, the species was first recorded at Coffee Camp, Na Bon, Nakhon Si Thammarat; Bukit Bayu, Yala; Bukit Besar, at a waterfall near Na Pradoo, Pattani; and at Khao Chong, Trang (Taylor 1963).
178548		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit lowland deciduous Dipterocarp forests (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998).
178548		population	eng	A survey of the herpetofauna of Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary in north-central Myanmar found the species to be rare in that region (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998). No further population data are available.
178548		threats	eng	While in some areas this species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation from threats such as conversion of forest to agricultural land and logging, these are unlikely to be major threats throughout its range.
178549		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this region, such as greater management of protected areas. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population and habitat monitoring is recommended.
178549		distribution	eng	This species is found on the east coast of Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais (A.F. Barreto-Lima pers. comm. 2010), between the Rio Jequitinhonha and the Rio Doce.
178549		habitat	eng	This species is an semi-arboreal to arboreal species found in Atlantic Forest habitat.
178549		population	eng	This species is rare (A. Lima pers. comm.).
178549		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to illegal extraction of timber, and urban and agricultural expansion. Only 6% of the original extent of Atlantic Forest remains and the habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented (A. Lima pers. comm.). However, much of the forest loss in the area happened several decades ago.
178550		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>.
178550		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast of Orissa north of Puri, in southern Tamil Nadu and southern Kerala, and in northern Sri Lanka (Smith 1935).
178550		habitat	eng	This species is found primarily along the coast, although it is also found further inland. The species is fossorial and has been observed burrowing in low vegetation on sand dunes (Smith 1935). The distribution of this species suggests that it inhabits a range of habitats from semi-evergreen rainforest to dry scrub and dry evergreen forests, and coastal dunes.
178550		population	eng	This species is extremely rare in Sri Lanka, and there have been no recent collections since it was reported several decades ago (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).
178550		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
178551		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, distribution, population size, habitat status and potential threats are needed.
178551		distribution	eng	This species was originally known from two types with the exact locality in Thailand unknown (Taylor 1963). It has been recorded at Bang Saen, south of Ang Hin on the Gulf of Thailand (Taylor 1963). It is also known to occur in Chon Buri (I. Ineich pers. comm.).
178551		habitat	eng	This species is fossorial and limbless (Greer 1973). Individuals have been found in sandy soil in a coconut grove (Taylor 1963). From the described locality, it is inferred that this species inhabits lowland deciduous forests.
178551		population	eng	There is no recent population information available for this species. However, in 1963, Taylor described this species as "not uncommon".
178551		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation. The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with the forest area having declined from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).
178552		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the habitat status and threats to this species. Due to the restricted range of this species, protected areas should be established and managed.
178552		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chanchamayo Valley and adjacent areas, in the departments of Junin and Pasco, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, central Peru. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,247 km²<sup></sup>.
178552		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal species found in moist montane forest habitat.
178552		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178552		threats	eng	Uncontrolled deforestation, intensive agriculture, coffee plantations, cattle ranching and the associated increase in infrastructure development are major causes of habitat degradation and loss in the area.
178553		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the ecology, threats and habitat status of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
178553		distribution	eng	This species can be found in Western Australia (Clayton<em> et al.</em> 2006) from the mid-western coast and hinterland, to the Exmouth Gulf (Cogger 2000).
178553		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species, which is usually found under debris, logs and rocks in open woodlands and heathlands (Cogger 2000).
178553		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178553		threats	eng	Significant areas of suitable habitat in this region have been lost and fragmented due to land clearing for agricultural purposes, including crop production and livestock grazing (Abensperg-Traun <em>et al</em>. 2007). This is likely to have affected this species.
178554		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, population, habitat preferences and status, and threats of this species.
178554		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the Tây Ninh Province of southern Viet Nam. Recent work by Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) has led to an increase in the distribution range, due to the inclusion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gekko ulikovskii</span> as a synonym of this species, the type locality of which is in Kon Tum Province.
178554		habitat	eng	There is no direct habitat information available for this species, but from its distribution it is likely to inhabit lowland forests.
178554		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178554		threats	eng	There is no information available regarding the threats to this species.
178555		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In 2005, Palau joined the Micronesia challenge that aims to conserve 20% of forest land by 2020. Further research into the ecology, population size, habitat status and threats of this species is required.
178555		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Republic of Palau. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 508 km².
178555		habitat	eng	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for this species. It can be inferred from its distribution, however, that it occurs in tropical lowland rainforest.
178555		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178555		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178556		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
178556		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the island of Jamaica at elevations below 1,000 m above sea level. The total area of Jamaica is 10,911 km². G.C. Mayer and A. Haynes Sutton (pers. comms.) report that a specimen of <span style="font-style: italic;">Typhlops</span>, very similar to this species, was found on one of the Morant Cays, on the Morant Bank, south of Jamaica. If this specimen is confirmed as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. jamaicensis</span>, then it would significantly extend the range of this species.
178556		habitat	eng	This species can be found in various habitats in xerophilic to mesophilic environments. It occurs in wooded areas, clearings, pastures, cocoa plantations and along roads cut through forest.
178556		population	eng	This species is common throughout the whole of Jamaica. Low capture levels are thought to be associated with low levels of surface activity rather than low population density.
178556		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting on this species.
178557		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are needed in the foreseeable future.
178557		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern portion of South Australia, throughout central and southern New South Wales and in small areas over the border of the Northern Territory and Queensland (Cogger 2000).
178557		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of grassland and shrubland habitat types as long as it has areas of bare stony or sandy desert (Swan and Foster 2005, Cogger 2000, Pianka 1972).
178557		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178557		threats	eng	This species has no major threats at this time.
178558		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this recently described species is required. There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.
178558		distribution	eng	This species is known from just three collection localities east of the town of Zapala, Department of Zapala, Province of Neuquen, Argentina. This species is found between 500 and 650 m above sea level.
178558		habitat	eng	This species is known from thorn scrub and grassland habitat.
178558		population	eng	There is limited population information available for this species; however several surveys since its description have concluded that there has been no population decline in this species (F. Cruz pers. comm. 2010).
178558		threats	eng	There are potential threats to this species; in parts of this region domestic livestock grazing has caused degradation of the natural habitat, but the effect that this has had on this species is not known and livestock are now quite rare in the area (F. Cruz pers. comm. 2010).
178559		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it probably occurs in Jardine River National Park and Rokeby National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.
178559		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Cape York Peninsula, south to Princess Charlotte Bay, Queensland, Australia.
178559		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wet forests and woodlands, often with gullies and creeks.
178559		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178559		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178560		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread across this species range.
178560		distribution	eng	This species is found in Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea (Brown 1953). This species is known to inhabit the Huon Peninsula and the Finisterre Ranges, the area around Wau on the Papuan peninsula and in Toem on the north coast of Irian Jaya (Mys 1988). Mys suggests that the species has a patchy distribution in New Guinea, as collection efforts in the Adelbert block and the Torricelli/Prince Alexander/Bewani block have been unsuccessful (1988). <br/><br/>This species has been known to occur at 1,800 m above sea level (Allison 1982).
178560		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforests. Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of two (Greer 1968).
178560		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178560		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation. The montane forests in the Huon Peninsula are largely intact, although the lowlands are more susceptible to deforestation due to logging and conversion to agriculture. Deforestation in Irian Jaya is considered less of a problem than in many other regions of Indonesia and is unlikely to be having a significant effect on the species. Between 1985-1997, estimates of forest loss in Irian Jaya were 5%, compared to the national average of 17-18% (FWI and GFW 2002).
178561		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, habitat requirements and population number of this newly discovered species is needed.
178561		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from its type locality, in Rayong Province, Thailand.
178561		habitat	eng	This species inhabits caves and limestone outcrops.
178561		population	eng	There are currently no population data available for this species.
178561		threats	eng	There is currently no information available regarding the threats to this species.
178562		conservation	eng	In Egypt, this species has been recorded in the Wadi el Alaqi protected area. Further research is needed into the range, ecology and biology of this species.
178562		distribution	eng	This species is known from records in the southern Egyptian Nile Valley and from a record in Assalaya in Sudan. The species has been recently discovered and is believed to range along the Nile between the Egyptian and Sudanese localities. Collections of this species have been from around 150 to 200 m above sea level.
178562		habitat	eng	This species appears to be associated with fluvial habitats and is found in the area between the Nile River and the adjacent desert. It has been recorded in low, rocky hills, shallow sandy wadis and close to human habitation.
178562		population	eng	This species is abundant around Lake Nasser in Egypt.
178562		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by land reclamation and cultivation.
178563		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found within the Udzungwa Forest National Park and Mazumbai Forest Reserve. Efforts to reduce further habitat loss are required (i.e. protected areas). Population and habitat research and population monitoring are necessary to establish the effects that a fragmented, disturbed environment is having on the population size of the species.
178563		distribution	eng	This species is an Eastern Arc endemic found in the Usambara and Udzungwa Mountains. There are also reports that it is found in the Uluguru Mountains. This species is found between 700 and 2,000 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 15,161 km²<sup></sup>.
178563		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to montane rainforests. Emmrich (1997) reports that it is very difficult to breed this species in captivity.
178563		population	eng	This species is known to be rare.
178563		threats	eng	This species is found within a fragmented habitat that is threatened by high rates of degradation and deforestation, due to agriculture, logging and increasing human population.
178564		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species and any protection provided by a portion of its range being in a protected area (Parque Nacional Los Haitises) is ineffective. Further research into the threat processes affecting this species is strongly recommended.
178564		distribution	eng	This species is found on Hispaniola, in the eastern Dominican Republic, including the Peninsula de Samana. Its distribution is estimated to be around 2,000 km²<sup></sup>, and area of occupancy is considerably less due to lack of suitable habitat and severe fragmentation. The species occurs in around five to eight locations (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178564		habitat	eng	This species is often found in rubbish along beaches, in limestone cave crevices, under piles of rocks, shells, bones, cocoa husks, and under logs in broadleaf forest (Schwartz 1976).
178564		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178564		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat because of logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuelwood collection (Schubert 1993). To what degree this species is adaptable to anthropogenic habitat change is unknown, and its habitat on the Península de Samaná is threatened with urbanization and beach and coastal development for tourism. Also, deforestation continues within Haitises National Park, which encompasses a portion of the species’ range.
178565		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. There are protected areas within its range. Further research into the population numbers, threats and habitat status are suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
178565		distribution	eng	This species is reported from lowland areas in the Northern Territory Gulf of Carpentaria region to the northwestern coast of Queensland (Wilson and Swan 2003, Cogger 2000).
178565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits stony hills, ranges and rocky escarpments (Cogger 2000) and has also been reported from woodland and grassland areas (McArthur River Mining 2005).
178565		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178565		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation due to land clearing and mining activities. However, due to its wide distribution, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.
178566		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Further research is needed to confirm the current distribution, and population trend of this species. Conservation measures, such as establishing a protected area where this species is found, and legal protection should be considered.
178566		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from the type locality in the Anaikatti Hills in the Western Ghats, India (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys within the surrounding 10 km² area of dry deciduous forest only located seven specimens, with a subsequent survey failing to locate any individuals at the type locality (N. Matthews pers. comm. 2010).
178566		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry deciduous forests where it can be found in rocky stream beds (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is diurnal, and is most active at dawn and dusk.
178566		population	eng	Surveys of the area in which this species is found, carried out between 2002 and 2005, suggests that there are no more than 250 mature individuals of this species (N. Mathews pers. comm. 2010). In fact, only seven individuals were found in a recent survey, and none in a follow up survey six months later (N. Mathews pers. comm. 2010).
178566		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation is a major threat to the Western Ghats. &#160;This species' dry deciduous forest habitat is being lost due to logging and habitat conversion. Riparian areas, which provide important&#160;micro-habitats for this species, are being degraded, for example through local fire regimes (N. Matthews pers. comm. 2010).
178567		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and abundance, habitat requirements and threats is needed. Its range is uncertain, but may intersect with protected areas.
178567		distribution	eng	The range of this species is unknown. The type was collected from Puepoli, Karin Bia-po at around 1,100 m above sea level; its range may possibly include the Karin Hills in Myanmar and adjacent Thailand (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008). Sharma (2002) reports this species from India, although no other sources corroborate this and the report may be in error.
178567		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling insectivorous species (Sharma 2002). Based upon its distribution, it may inhabit evergreen forest in the region, but this is not certain.
178567		population	eng	Sharma (2002) states that this species is "very rare".
178567		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178568		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
178568		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Owen Stanley Range in southeast Papua New Guinea. Its type locality is Mount Victoria at the eastern extreme of its range. It has also been recorded in the Cloudy Mountains (Kraus and Allison 2004).
178568		habitat	eng	This species primarily inhabits montane rain forests. It has also been found around rural villages (Allison and Kraus 2006). This species is oviparous, with an average clutch size of 3.8 eggs (Greer and Shea 2004).
178568		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178568		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, this species may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.
178569		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species, however, it occurs in Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco and in several other protected areas. More research is needed to investigate this species' taxonomy.
178569		distribution	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution and is known from coastal Western Sahara, southwestern Morocco, where it is present in the Souss Valley and the Atlantic coastal area from Tamri to Boujdour, as well as the extreme western Algeria (only around Tindouf) (P. Geniez and P.-A. and Crochet pers. comms. 2010). It is occurs from sea level to 580 m above sea level.
178569		habitat	eng	This species is found in arid and semi-arid stony plains and is sometimes abundant in Macaronesian-type vegetation dominated by <em>Euphorbia</em> species or other shrubs. It is an egg-laying species.
178569		population	eng	This species can be common in good habitat.
178569		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not currently well-known; however coastal developments in Western Sahara puts the southernmost populations of this species at risk (P. Geniez and P.-A Crochet pers. comms. 2010).
178570		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.
178570		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the eastern Himalayas. It is known to occur in the Naga Hills (Samagutin), and Assam (Sharma 2003).
178570		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits semi-evergreen submontane rainforests.
178570		population	eng	This species is known from three specimens (Sharma 2003).
178570		threats	eng	Threats present in the submontane region include habitat loss due to shifting cultivation and logging, as well as habitat degradation due to fuel-wood collection and overgrazing. However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on this species, since little is known about its ecology.
178571		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species has a restricted range and therefore should be monitored as any threat impacting this species in the future will cause a threat category to be triggered.
178571		distribution	eng	This species is found only on the top of the Guaiquinima Tepui, in southern Venezuela, at approximately 780 m above sea level. It has a distributional area of 108 km²<sup></sup>.
178571		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky planes adjacent or close to rivers. This species was found to avoid nearby forests.
178571		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178571		threats	eng	The Guaiquinima Tepui is in a remote and uninhabited part of Venezuela and therefore there are no direct threats affecting this species.
178572		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in protected areas such as the Rakhine Yoma Wildlife reserve. Further research into its biology, abundance and range, habitat requirements and threats is needed.
178572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Myanmar and is known from Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range, Gwa Township in Rakhine State and from Myaung Mya Township in the Ayeyarwady Division (Bauer 2003). Its distributional area has been calculated as 24,510 km²<sup></sup>.
178572		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest (Bauer 2003).
178572		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178572		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it is experiencing habitat loss and degradation, but the impact of this potential threat is uncertain.
178573		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess if the impact of overgrazing on this species.
178573		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Ruwenzori Mountains in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (Welch 1982). Its type locality is Bugongo Ridge, Mount Ruwenzori, Uganda (Loveridge 1932). The type was collected at 2,895 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,446 km²<sup></sup>.
178573		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the montane grasslands and shrublands of the Ruwenzori Mountains.
178573		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178573		threats	eng	Although Uganda's natural habitat is threatened by agricultural expansion, burning to create pastureland, commercial logging, charcoal burning and fuel-wood collection (Kayanja and Byarugaba 2001), these threats are mainly affecting forest habitats and are unlikely to affect this savanna species at the high altitudes at which it occurs. Overgrazing by cattle is the most likely threat to the habitat of this species in the future, but this is not thought to be severe enough at present to cause a population decline.
178574		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, threats and habitat status is required. Population monitoring is also recommended.
178574		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be known only from its type locality, near Pehuenche Pass, Malargüe Department, Mendoza province, Argentina, at 2,500 m. This species might occur more widely.
178574		habitat	eng	The type of this species was collected from a rocky streamlet in an area where the dominant habitat is Patagonian steppe.
178574		population	eng	There are currently no population data available for this species.
178574		threats	eng	This species' habitat is threatened by degradation and loss due to the conversion of land for agriculture and human settlements.
178575		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, including the large Blue Mountain Reserve on the east of the island (419 km<sup>2</sup>), and Cockpit Country (223 km<sup>2</sup>), as well as many smaller reserves. Research into the threats, and population trends of this species is suggested, as is population monitoring.
178575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Jamaica. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 11,025 km<sup>2</sup> and it has an elevation range between 0 and 1,219 m above sea level.
178575		habitat	eng	This species inhabits xeric woodlands, secondary growth forest and has also been found in residential areas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), such as orchards in suburban areas (K. de Queiroz pers. comm. 2010).
178575		population	eng	This species has been reported as cryptic (Higham <em>et al</em>. 2001), but is not thought to be rare (G. Mayer pers. comm. 2010).
178575		threats	eng	It is unknown if any threat processes are acting upon this species.
178576		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species; however, its distribution in parts of the range coincides with protected areas.
178576		distribution	eng	This species is found on the islands of St Lucia, Dominica, Martinique and St Vincent. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,875 km².
178576		habitat	eng	This species is found under leaf litter, rocks, rotten logs and in bromeliads in degraded and natural environments (Steinberg <em>et al.</em> 2007).
178576		population	eng	The population status of this species varies from island to island. For example, this species is very common on St. Vincent, but very rare and highly localized on Dominica.
178576		threats	eng	This species' natural habitat is threatened from increasing agriculture and urbanisation. However, some populations are able to utilize a variety of shaded habitats including plantations and gardens, so that habitat loss cannot be regarded as a major uniform threat across the entire distribution of this species.
178577		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178577		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of Mount Ibity, Antananarivo Province, Madagascar. This species appears to be limited to the summit regions of Mount Ibity, and does not occur on the slopes below the summit. The area in which this species is distributed is less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.
178577		habitat	eng	This species was found in a very rocky area, and the summit region of Mount Ibity is largely treeless with some bushes.
178577		population	eng	This species was rediscovered in February 2008 at its type locality. Three unsuccessful searches had already taken place, indicting that this species is rare (M. Vences pers. comm.).
178577		threats	eng	At present there is no imminent threat to the summit region of Mount Ibity, however, quarrying and deforestation of the last dry forests on the mountain slopes is ongoing, and may pose a threat to the summit region in the future. Shifting climatic conditions due to climate change may also impact upon this species, especially considering its extremely restricted distribution.
178578		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution are likely to coincide with protected areas. Monitoring of population trends is necessary to ensure that the localized habitat loss does not cause significant declines in this species abundance.
178578		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Australia and is found west of the Great Dividing Range in arid sections of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is not found in Victoria or the Australian Capital Territory.
178578		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species occurs mainly in sandplain habitat and grasslands (Morton and James 1988, Pianka and Pianka 1976) and is known to shelter in burrows during the day (Cogger 2000).
178578		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178578		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing localized habitat declines due to threats including grazing and land clearing, but these should not be considered major threats due to this species' large distribution.
178579		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring due to urban development. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178579		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Great Inagua Island and Little Inagua Island of the Bahama Islands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,693 km²<sup></sup>.
178579		habitat	eng	This species is xerophilic, preferring sandy and loamy soils (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is common in the upper beach zone with sand, rock rubble, and sparse vegetation. Its burrows are shallow, usually within 1-1.5 ft of the surface. Occasionally, individuals will climb as high as six feet into trees to secure insect prey (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178579		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178579		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by human disturbance and natural disasters. Development of coastal locations, especially for the tourist trade, is likely to impact &#160;the species in the future. Further, this species may be threatened by hurricanes, increased storm intensity and sea level rise induced by climate change.
178580		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178580		distribution	eng	This Western Australian species has a small distribution near the coastal plain around Exmouth Gulf, from Onslow to Giralia and Barradale. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,873 km²<sup></sup>.
178580		habitat	eng	This species inhabits red sands and white coastal dunes, sometimes with low shrubs.
178580		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178580		threats	eng	There is a large salt mine proposed in the area by Straits Resources which could threaten the habitat of this species.
178581		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178581		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the northwest coast, southwest coast, and western plateau of Western Australia (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983).
178581		habitat	eng	This species is primarily associated with desert habitat. It is known to occur in mallee habitats, characteristic of lignotubers which can withstand low rainfall and poor soil, and arid shrublands characterized by spinifex grasses. It is also known to occur on coastal plains (Bush <em>et al.</em> 1995), on pale sand plains and heavy loam soils. <br/><br/>This species has been recorded in association with meat ants (<em>Irodomyrmex</em> spp.) on pale sand-plains and heavy loams (Wilson and Swan 2003). This species is fossorial, nocturnal, and oviparous (Cogger<em> et al.</em> 1983).
178581		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178581		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178582		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178582		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon basin, in southeast Colombia, in Venezuela (in the state of Tachira), eastern Ecuador and northeastern Peru. This species is possibly present in Brazil, however, this has yet to be confirmed.
178582		habitat	eng	This species is found in the forest leaf litter in lowland tropical forest habitat. This species is known from primary and secondary forest, forest edges and clearings.
178582		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species; however it is now difficult to find in the upper Amazon basin (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).
178582		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178583		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, habitat status and trends, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178583		distribution	eng	This species is known from Manaus and the surrounding area, and from a locality given as 'Teffe', Amazonas, Brazil.
178583		habitat	eng	This fossorial species has been found in a stream valley in forest and in areas where the habitat is a mixture of trees and herbaceous vegetation.
178583		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178583		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Although deforestation is a problem in the region, its impacts are likely to be localized. Much pristine habitat remains.
178584		conservation	eng	This species' distribution coincides with a protected area, the Fortuna Forest Reserve. More research is needed in order to clarify this species' distribution and assess the impact of threats within the reserve.
178584		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Fortuna Forest Reserve, Chiriquí State, Panama (Arosemena and Ibanez 1993). The area of the reserve in which this species is distributed is 195 km<sup>2</sup>.
178584		habitat	eng	The specific habitat preference of this species is not known, but its distribution suggests it inhabits cloud forest.
178584		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178584		threats	eng	It is unknown whether the reserve is impacted by habitat decline.
178585		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
178585		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the southwest, west, and central southern areas of Madagascar. Although the range of this species appears to be large, its actual distribution within this area may be restricted.
178585		habitat	eng	This species is found in dry forests, thorny scrub and grasslands.
178585		population	eng	Henkel and Schmidt (2000) state that this species is not common in any part of its range.
178585		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178586		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. Further taxonomic research should be carried out to clarify the status of its currently recognized subspecies.
178586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bahamas. It is found on Crooked Island, Fortune Island, Rum Cay, North Cay, Fish Cay, Acklin Island, Castle Island, San Salvador, Man Head Cay, Green Cay, Low Cay, East Plana Cay, West Plana Cay, Samana Cay (Schwartz and Thomas 1975), and possibly Conception Island. The total area of these islands is approximately 700 km²<sup></sup>.
178586		habitat	eng	This is a mesophilic to xerophilic species, which is found around coastal habitats including human settlements. It has also been found in <em>Cocos</em> and citrus-banana plantations, on beaches, under rocks on the roadside, and in caves.
178586		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178586		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution, but potential threats from development and agriculture have not yet had any major negative effects on populations of these lizards. Increased human activities on the islands where this species occurs and sea level rise due to climate change could dramatically affect this species in the future, and monitoring the status of populations is recommended.
178587		conservation	eng	This species has a rare status in Queensland. Parts of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas. Further research into the threats, population trends and habitats of this species is needed, as is population and habitat monitoring.
178587		distribution	eng	This Australian species is found scattered in the northern half of the Mackenzie-Dawson drainage basin of Queensland, from Finch Hatton in the north to Theodore in the south, and Clermont in the west.
178587		habitat	eng	This burrowing species can be found in various habitats from dry sclerophyll forest to permanently moist rainforest.
178587		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178587		threats	eng	The area in which this species is found has been extensively cleared (Wilson 2003).
178588		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out because this species could become more threatened in the future.
178588		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in three locations on the east side of Rio Sao Francisco:Santo Inacio, Gameleira do Assuruá and Lagoa de Itaparica (Bahia state,northeastern Brazil). Locations are about 550-560 m elevation.These sites are about 200 km apart.&#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 730 km².
178588		habitat	eng	This species is found in quaternary sand dunes with scattered clumps of vegetation, distinct from the dominant surrounding Caatinga habitat.
178588		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178588		threats	eng	The expanding human population in the region poses a risk to this species, as this is likely to lead to erosion of the sand dune habitat and therefore extensive habitat degradation and loss. However, the area in which the species is thought to be distributed is not heavily populated.
178589		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.
178589		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities on the plateau Tau Nguen in south Viet Nam (Darevsky and Orlova 1996).
178589		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist montane evergreen and conifer forests.
178589		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178589		threats	eng	Annual deforestation rates for south Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178590		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to investigate its range.
178590		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Pakistan. Khan (2002) reports only two mountain and submountain localities: Sakhisarwar and Rakhni Gorge, along Dera Ghazi Khan-Fort Munro road, in District Dera Ghazi Khan. It occurs between 1,000 and 1,800 m above sea level (M.S. Khan pers. comm.).
178590		habitat	eng	This oviparous species is found in sandy tracts with grasses and low bushes (Khan 1991). It is able to tolerate anthropogenic environments (Khan 2003). It is a strictly nocturnal species that naturally inhabits the crevices and holes in sandstone slabs around Fort Munro, though it readily invades buildings and feeds on photophilic insects (M.S. Khan pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs between April and June and eggs are laid in communal sites. In several such sites, which are often discovered under loose plastering on walls, several broken, fresh, and old eggshells have been discovered (Khan 2006).
178590		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178590		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178591		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' range coincide with protected areas, including the Monte Cristi National Park. Further research into the threat processes that may be impacting this species is needed.
178591		distribution	eng	This species is found from the base of the Tiburon Peninsula in Haiti, east through the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain to Azua province in the Dominican Republic. In Haiti, it is also found from Port-au-Prince to Gonaives, following the coastline of the Golfe de la Gonave. Specimens have also been found from Artibonite valley and Hinche. It is also found in the Presqu'ile de Nord Ouest which is likely to be continuous with the more southern Haiti population.<br/><br/>In the Dominican Republic it is found in the Valle de Cibao, Monte Cristi Province and the surrounding islands of Islas Ratus, Tororu, Muertos, and Tercero. It has also been introduced to Florida (Townsend <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178591		habitat	eng	This is a xerophilic species, which can be found in areas where the vegetation is characterized by cacti and thorn scrub. It has also been found in urban areas on lawns and rock piles, abandoned walls and concrete blocks and slabs.
178591		population	eng	Population density in a heavily disturbed area was 142.9 lizards/ha (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1993). In presumably optimal natural habitat, ~46 lizards/ha (Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2001). At least two populations in the Dominican Republic were essentially eliminated by sand mining and urban development.
178591		threats	eng	This species' natural habitat is threatened by the expanding agricultural, charcoal burning, and urbanization. However, this species' preferred habitat is less likely to be developed than more mesic areas. This species is also able to utilize urban areas and therefore habitat loss is unlikely to be causing major population declines.
178592		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although a portion of this species' range falls within the boundaries of a national park, enforcement of protective measures is marginal. Effective management of the current protected areas needs to be implemented. Further research into the population, habitat and threats, and monitoring of the population and habitat trends are recommended.
178592		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern slopes of the Massif de la Hotte on the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 441 km². The elevation limits for this species are between 240 and 750 m above sea level.
178592		habitat	eng	This species is found on grasses and in leaf litter in relatively moist environments; this is generally in openings or on the edges of forests and plantations (Rand 1961, Moermond 1979a, 1979b).
178592		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178592		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from coffee and crop plantations, livestock farming and charcoal production.
178593		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population of this species should be carried out.
178593		distribution	eng	This Western Australia endemic is confined to northwest Kimberley, from Kalumburu southwest to the Prince Regent River.
178593		habitat	eng	This species inhabits woodland, savanna, and shrubland.
178593		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178593		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178594		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its distribution may coincide with protected areas, including the Parque Estadual do Morro do Chapéu, which is found in the municipality of Morro do Chapéu, area of Chapada Diamantina, in Bahia State. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern portion of the Serra do Espinhaco, Bahia, Brazil. It has been found to occur in Santo Inácio and Morro do Chapéu (Rodrigues 1987). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 25,543 km²<sup></sup>.
178594		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas where the habitat is Cerrado shrub and dry forest. This is an omnivorous lizard, which feeds primarily on insects and flowers (Fontes <em>et al.</em> 2004).
178594		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178594		threats	eng	Urban expansion, conversion of land to agriculture, and cutting for firewood has caused the degradation and loss of a large proportion of the Caatinga and dry forest habitat in this region.
178595		conservation	eng	Ecology and captive breeding options are currently being investigated for this and other threatened species on Christmas Island and initial research is being implemented by the management of Christmas Island National Park, which covers approximately 60% of the island. Conservation measures, including recovery management, are required to limit the impact that <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> is having on the abundance of this species. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is strongly recommended.
178595		distribution	eng	This species is only from Christmas Island (Indian Ocean), which has a land area  of 135 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>; however, less than 100 km²<sup></sup> of forest remains on Christmas Island (C. Austin pers. comm. 2010). This distribution constitutes one location.
178595		habitat	eng	Cogger <em>et al.</em> (1983) state that this species is found in forest clearings, usually in leaf litter but occasionally on low vegetation or tree buttresses. It is reported to be locally abundant wherever sunlight penetrates the canopy, especially along tracks or roads with available sunlight (C. Austin pers. comm.).
178595		population	eng	There has been a severe decline in numbers of this species over the past decade, which has been estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 98% (H. Cogger pers. comm. 2010). It is unknown if the    remaining population is distributed sparsely across its island habitat or whether it occurs only in remnant populations over a small area (H. Cogger pers. comm. 2010).<span lang="EN-US">
178595		threats	eng	H. Cogger (pers. comm. 2010) reports that the rapid decline in population numbers is due to direct and indirect impacts (on the island's forest ecology) of supercolony development in the invasive Yellow Crazy Ant (<em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em>). However, the rapidity of the decline in both this species and other endemic lizards suggests that the threatening processes causing these declines are multiple and complex.
178596		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, population status, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species needs to be carried out.
178596		distribution	eng	The only information regarding this species' distribution is that it is found in western Ecuador, with the type locality given as the canton of Chimbo in the province of Bolivar, Ecuador. More precise locality information is not available.
178596		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
178596		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178596		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178597		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178597		distribution	eng	This montane species has a disjunct population across south eastern Africa from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the north to the southern coast of Africa. This species is known to occur between sea level and 3,000 m above sea level.
178597		habitat	eng	This species is found in mountainous areas and in a variety of habitats from fynbos to grassland on the summits of the Drakensberg and Chimanimani mountains.
178597		population	eng	This species is regarded as common.
178597		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178598		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess the impact that invasive species are having on the population abundance of this species. Also taxonomic research should be undertaken to fully understand the species complex.
178598		distribution	eng	This species has a broad distribution across New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. The asexual <em>N. pelagicus</em> occurs in southern Vanuatu and eastward to Fiji.
178598		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal terrestrial gecko found under logs, rocks, and coconut husk piles. It is found in primary, secondary, and highly disturbed forests and garden areas (C. Austin pers. comm., Austin 2006).
178598		population	eng	This species is often found in high densities (Austin 2006).
178598		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Invasive predator species may be having a negative impact on the species, but it is not known if this is causing a significant population decline.
178599		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178599		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bougainville, an island in the Solomon Islands. It is distributed widely over the lowlands of Bougainville which has an area of 10,619 km².
178599		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forests.
178599		population	eng	It is unlikely that this species has been collected since its original discovery (F. Parker pers. comm.) but this is due to the lack of surveying for it and not indicative of rarity.
178599		threats	eng	There is probably no significant threat affecting this species or its habitat (F. Parker pers. comm.).
178600		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178600		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across central Asia, from east of the Selemdzha River in eastern Siberia, to Korea. Zhao (2006) reported that this species was found from 200 to 1,200 m in elevation.
178600		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky mountain slopes and in forests.
178600		population	eng	Szczerbak (2003) reports that this species is common.
178600		threats	eng	For a long time in China, snakes were thought to have certain therapeutic significance. They are captured and killed in great numbers every year. Although this species is sometimes captured, killed and use as a drug, this is not popular. Therefore this is not likely to be acting as a major threat and will not lead to a significant population reduction (P. Guo pers. comm.).
178601		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178601		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bellona Island, in the Rennell Island group of the Solomon Islands. Bellona Island covers an area of 17 km².
178601		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist lowland rainforest. Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).
178601		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178601		threats	eng	The lowland forests of the Solomon Islands have been exploited for centuries, primarily due to conversion of forest to agriculture (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in commercial logging on the islands and both primary and secondary forests are now under threat (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Pelling and Uitto (2001) comment that in the Solomon Islands, "a weak forestry department and civil society have little power to restrict the activity of foreign (mainly Japanese based) forestry companies". The effect of deforestation on the species is uncertain; however it is known to be common in second growth forest. The restricted range of this species may also present a threat, as it is more vulnerable to stochastic events.
178602		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. However, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the threats, population, harvest levels and habitat status is needed to ensure that a threat category is not triggered. Population monitoring is also recommended.
178602		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southwestern interior of Western Australia (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).
178602		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species (Cogger 2000) and it is reported from a diverse range of habitats from low woodland to grassland, heath and shrubland (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may also occur in pasture and cropland.
178602		population	eng	This species is reported to be common and widespread (Duncan <em>et al</em>. 2006).
178602		threats	eng	While localized habitat degradation is occurring and this species is of interest to the pet trade industry, these are not considered as major threats to this common species at this time.
178603		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring should be carried out as this species is highly restricted.
178603		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the immediate vicinity of the type locality, Portezuelo Blanco, 26.5 km west of Famatina on road to Cueva de Perez, Sierra de Famatina, Departamento Famatina, La Rioja, Argentina and a site 8.4 km southeast of the type locality. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 596 km². It occurs between 2,600 and 2,800 m above sea level.
178603		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky areas of steep cliffs and hillsides in 'pre-puna' habitat, which is characterized by grasses and small shrubs.
178603		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178603		threats	eng	The type of this species was collected many kilometres away from human settlements. The road is largely inaccessible by vehicles and there is very little livestock grazing in the area. Even if there was, the micro-habitat preference of this species (large boulders) would preclude it from the threat of livestock (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). Therefore, it is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats.
178604		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring is recommended.
178604		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwest Colombia (from the state of Cauca) and northwest Ecuador (from the states of Pichincha and Esmeraldas). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 38,669 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is found up to 600 m above sea level.
178604		habitat	eng	This species is known from closed canopy lowland rainforest habitat; specimens were collected on low vegetation (usually within 1m of the ground) close to small streams.
178604		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178604		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by urban and agricultural expansion leading to degradation and loss of forest habitat.
178605		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Following an extrapolation of distribution for Bolivia (Embert 2007), the species may be present in several National Parks including Amboró, Carrasco, Estacion Biologica del Beni, Kaa-Iya, Madidi, Manuripi Heath and Noel Kempff Mercado. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178605		distribution	eng	This widespread snake is known from tropical South America east of the Andes, between 12º N and 14º S. This species is found in Colombia (with records from the Orinoquia&#160;and the Amazonia, and the mountain range of the Macarena), Venezuela (in the states of Falcon, Carabobo, Monagas, TF Amazonas, and Yaracuy), Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, Brazil, western Peru, and northern Bolivia (Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando, Santa Cruz, Tarija (Embert, 2007). The species has been collected in Ecuador (Esmeraldas; Dixon and Hendricks, 1979).
178605		habitat	eng	This genus consists of small fossorial species whose diet is mainly composed of earthworms and insect larvae. This species appears to be a habitat generalist, and is known to occur in habitats ranging from grassland, through shrublands, to forest.
178605		population	eng	This is a common species.
178605		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting on this species.
178606		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a large proportion of its range is confined within national parks. It is therefore important that these national parks are managed to prevent habitat degradation occuring. Further research is required to enable the total population to be estimated and to assess the habitat requirements of the subspecies <em>T. bayoni keniensis</em>.
178606		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a small number of locations in high central Kenya and northern Tanzania. The subspecies <em>T. bayonii keniensis</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola (Spawls <em>et al.</em>2002). This species is found from 2,000 to 3,200 m above sea level.
178606		habitat	eng	This species is found in high grassland and alpine moorland, from 2,000 to 3,200 m above sea level. It is a terrestrial and diurnal species and while commonly found sheltering within grass clumps, it has also been found under rocks and roadside debris (Spawls <em>et al.</em>2002). The habitat of the subspecies <em>T. bayoni keniensis</em> is high grassland and montane moorland.
178606		population	eng	Little is known about this species, however, based on its scarcity in museum collections it does not seem to be common in any part of its range. However, it might just be highly secretive (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178606		threats	eng	This species occurs in a very restricted habitat, however, much of this is confined within national parks. It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats.
178607		conservation	eng	Parts of this species distribution may coincide with protected areas, for example the Christoffel National Park in Curaçao. Buurt (2006) did not include it  among species of special conservation interest. Further research into the population numbers, threats and habitat preferences of this species is needed.
178607		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Curacao, and Aruba of the Netherland Antilles which have a combined area of 639 km²<sup></sup>. It has been introduced to Klein Curacao (Buurt 2006). It is found at all elevations; the highest peak in <st1:place w:st="on">Curacao</st1:place> is the Christoffelberg in Curaçao at 375 m above sea level (G. van Buurt pers. comm. 2010).
178607		habitat	eng	This species is a microhabitat generalist (Rand and Rand 1967), and it is likely to occur on dry tropical shrubland.
178607		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species, however, G. Mayer (pers. comm.) suggests anoles tend to be very common when there is only one species on an island.
178607		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by habitat loss due to development for the tourism industry and overgrazing. However, these are unlikely to be causing significant and continuing declines at the moment; this species&#160;lives in trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia tortuosa</span> which remain standing even in overgrazed areas and is thus commonly found in grazed or even overgrazed areas. &#160;This species may be threatened by future establishments of invasive snake species as competitors, or from other predators.
178608		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research on habitat preferences and population status, as well as monitoring of population and habitat trends, is recommended.
178608		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Choco and Antioquia in Colombia, on both western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and northern slopes of the Cordillera Central. However, as the species has been collected from only a few localities, its exact distribution is not well known. Its estimated area of distribution is 13,967 km<sup>2</sup> and it occurs up to 850 m above sea level.
178608		habitat	eng	This species is semiaquatic and is found on boulders near streams in gallery forest habitat in lowland areas. The species was found to be most common where there were 3-4 m diameter moss-covered boulders near waterfalls.<br/><br/>This species is often found in small groups of six to ten individuals (both males, females and sub-adults) on the same rock.
178608		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178608		threats	eng	Natural forest habitat is currently found only in fragmented patches in the region, as a result of the large human population in the region and associated urbanization, forest clearence and conversion of land to agriculture. Crops in the region include coffee, maize, bananas, sugar cane, cassava, citrus fruits, and avocados.
178609		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to its restricted range, monitoring of the population and its habitat status should be carried out.
178609		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is known from the middle section of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,778 km² and it is found at altitudes between 1,750 and 1,900 m above sea level.
178609		habitat	eng	This species is found in very humid pre-montane forests. &#160;It is well adapted to altered habitats, found in cryptozoic microhabitats (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).
178609		population	eng	Sheil and Grant (2001) stated that this species is common in their study area. F. Castro (pers. comm. 2010) reports that this species is common in certain localities.
178609		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion resulting in deforestation is occurring in localized regions of this species' range. This is likely to negatively impact this species, causing a decline in extent and quality of habitat.
178610		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat requirements and threats of this species should be carried out.
178610		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon and though its exact distribution is unknown, it is supposed to occur around Mount Kupe (Gonwouo 2002).
178610		habitat	eng	Based on its distribution, this species is likely to inhabit montane or pre-montane tropical forest.
178610		population	eng	No population data are available for this species.
178610		threats	eng	This species is likely experiencing habitat degradation and loss due to forest clearing for agriculture and logging. Logging on Mount Kupe had reached 1,200 m above sea level as of 2003 (Hofer <em>et al</em>. 2003).
178611		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat requirements and distribution of this species is recommended.&#160;<br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>
178611		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-central Hispaniola and surrounding islands. It occurs in the province of Pedernales, including Isla Beata, in the Dominican Republic, as well as adjacent Sud-Est Département in Haiti. The area in which this species is distributed is aproximately 2,611 km². R. Powell (pers. comm. 2010) notes that this species may be far more widespread than is currently known.
178611		habitat	eng	Schwartz and Henderson (1991) report this to be a xerophilic species, which has been found under rocks and on rocky ledges, in and around shallow caves and in dry vegetation.
178611		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178611		threats	eng	This species is under potential threat from habitat loss, even within protected areas. Agricultural expansion and charcoaling continues even in the driest parts of the Barahona Peninsula, and within Jaragua National Park (including Isla Beata) (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). Because this is a xerophilic species (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), deforestation is unlikely to be a threat to the species (G. Mayer pers. comm. 2010). <br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>
178612		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, ecology and potential threats are needed.
178612		distribution	eng	The only known distribution information for this species is that it is found in Angola. The species was described by Laurent (1964) based on four specimens from two localities (Alto Chiapa - terra typica, and Alto Cuilo) in the province Lunda Sul in 1954 (W. Mayer pers. comm.).
178612		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. Species of this genus<em></em> are restricted to mainly arid and mesic savanna on sandy soils (Branch 1998).
178612		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Species of this genus <em></em>are secretive, terrestrial lacertids that may be locally common but are rarely seen (Branch 1998).
178612		threats	eng	It is not known whether threats are impacting this species.
178613		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Research on the species' distribution, population status, habitat, ecology and threats is recommended.
178613		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the Khanh Hoa Province in southern Viet Nam.
178613		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
178613		population	eng	There is currently no population information available for this species.
178613		threats	eng	This species is kept as a pet. No reports on captive breeding exist and this species is exported in "partly large" numbers from Viet Nam (Kreuzer and Grossmann 2003). As information on this species in the wild is poor, it is not known if the threat of the pet trade is significantly impacting this species.
178614		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the threats, habitat status and population numbers of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178614		distribution	eng	This lowland species can be found in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales, specifically west of the Great Dividing Range.
178614		habitat	eng	This species is largely restricted to Cypress Pine (<em>Callitris</em>) woodland (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178614		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178614		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
178615		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Based on an extrapolation of distribution for Bolivia (Embert 2007), the species may be present in two National Parks in the country (Isiboro Sécure and Madidi). Monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threat of deforestation does not become more widespread or is having a greater impact on the species than previously thought.
178615		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern foothills of the Andes, from San Martin Department, eastern Peru, to northern La Paz and El Beni departments, with its southernmost distribution in northern Cochabamba department in Bolivia (although some Bolivian localities are uncomfirmed). <br/><br/>This species has been recorded up to 1,520 m above sea level, however, this is more than twice the altitude of the next highest record and therefore may possibly be an error.
178615		habitat	eng	This species is known from lowland to montane moist tropical forest habitat; the species has been collected from seasonally flooded forest. Some specimens were collected in clearings in forest, including areas where there had been human disturbance.
178615		population	eng	There is no population information available.
178615		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.
178616		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178616		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the lower west coast and offshore islands of Australia, from Leeman and Lancelin, and from Yanchep southwards to Busselton.
178616		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand dunes that support low heath, banksias, or eucalypts. This species is also found in a variety of sandy soils on the coastal plain.
178616		population	eng	This species is abundant, especially around the Perth Region.
178616		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178617		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation efforts are required to reduce the rate of deforestation and fragmentation occurring in the area, such as via the expansion and effective management of protected areas. Research into the habitat requirements and population status of this species is required to assess if the species is able to adapt to an agricultural environment.
178617		distribution	eng	This species has a highly restricted range and is only found in southern Tanzania in the Udzungwa and Ukinga Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 18,744 km². This species is found between 1,700 and 1,900 m above sea level.
178617		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist forests in the bush and bamboo undergrowth. An individual has recently been found living in an agricultural area (S. Spawls pers. comm.).
178617		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178617		threats	eng	The forests of the Eastern Arc mountains are highly threatened due to high rates of deforestation and agricultural expansion. Newmark (1998) estimated the maximum amount of natural forest left in the Eastern Arc Mountains as 5,000 km²<sup></sup>. It is encouraging that an individual of this species has been found in an agricultural habitat, as it is an indication that the species may be able to adapt to human-impacted environments. However, additional evidence of viable populations in agricultural environments is required before deforestation can be downgraded as a major threat.
178618		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178618		distribution	eng	This species is found on the islands of Pulau Tioman and Pulau Tulai, Malaysia.
178618		habitat	eng	This species is found on coastal vegetation and in lowland and hill forest. Its distribution is limited by the occurrence of large boulders.
178618		population	eng	This species is common and widespread (L. Grismer pers. comm.).
178618		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species (L. Grismer pers. comm.)
178619		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amboró, Carrasco, Madidi, Kaa-Iya and Noel Kempff Mercado. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178619		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Colombia, Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Tarija) and northern Argentina.
178619		habitat	eng	This species is found predominantly in Cerrado habitat, where it feeds on invertebrates and vegetation.
178619		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178619		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.
178620		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research to establish the distribution and population of this species should be carried out.
178620		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil along the Amazon valley and some of its tributaries (at least the lower Rio Xingu, middle Rio Madeira and Rio Purus, and upper Rio Negro and Rio Uaupes), in the states of Amazonas, Para and Amapa. The species has been collected close to the borders of Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru, so probably also occurs in these countries at least close to the border. Avila-Pires (1995) reports possible specimens from the Guianas.
178620		habitat	eng	This species is a diurnal forest dweller that is often found near large rivers. This species feeds on a variety of invertebrates as well as small vertebrates.
178620		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178620		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178621		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the specific habitat preferences of this species should be carried out. Population monitoring is also recommended.
178621		distribution	eng	This species inhabits all of India, including the northwest (R.Vyas pers. comm. 2010). It is also found in Nepal (R. Vyas pers. comm.), Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka (Shrestha 2001).
178621		habitat	eng	This species is ground-dwelling (Horton 1973), and is thought to inhabit shrubland and forests of the region. It is oviparous (Smith 1935).
178621		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178621		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178622		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Protected areas may provide safeguards for this species. Detailed&#160;taxonomical studies are required to assess whether other unpublished or future isolated records belong to the same species,  or - which is more likely - are new undescribed taxa (see Recoder and Nogueira 2007). Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should also be carried out.
178622		distribution	eng	This species is a restricted-range habitat specialist confined to sand dunes along the São  Francisco depressions, in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, Brazil. It is known from two isolated sand patches, although the second record by Delfim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) may refer to a yet undescribed species of the same genus. Other unpublished records are available, but&#160;indicate isolated populations,  always in sandy habitats, which probably comprise disjunct, isolated species (C. Nogueira pers. comm. 2011). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,421 km<sup>2</sup>, although the two disjunct areas are quite far apart. It is found up to 450 m above sea level.
178622		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species found in patches of sandy soil; the dominant habitat type in the region is Caatinga, however, the quaternary sand dunes are distinct from this shrubby habitat.
178622		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178622		threats	eng	The expanding human population in the region can be considered a major future threat to this species. Urban expansion is expected to contribute to the erosion of the sand dune habitat and to cause the range of this species to become severely fragmented. The São  Francisco river basin has been greatly impounded by hydroelectric dams. Although no proposed dams are currently known from the exact areas where the species has been recorded, we lack proper understanding of how these dams are affecting the riparian sand dune habitat of this species (C. Nogueira pers. comm. 2011).
178623		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The State Government legislation has listed this species as Rare in South Australia and Endangered in Tasmania. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species' range. Further monitoring of the population should be carried out, as population declines have been reported.
178623		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in southeast Australia and Tasmania. It has a disjunct distribution in five areas (Hutchinson and Donnellan 1992) from the highlands of New South Wales to the New England tableland, the lowland basalt plains of southern Victoria, eastern South Australia and central Tasmania.
178623		habitat	eng	This species is specific to tussock grassland where there are very few trees. Sullivan (1999) states that this species prefers good quality exotic grass rather than senescing Kangaroo grass.
178623		population	eng	Sullivan (1999) reports that this species is common in the Albion area. However, the population as a whole is in decline.
178623		threats	eng	Large areas of grassland throughout this species' range have been converted into agricultural land since European settlement, particularly in Tasmania (Hutchinson <em>et al.&#160;</em> 2001). Predation from introduced mammals can also be considered a major threat to this species.
178624		conservation	eng	This species is not listed on any conservation priority lists of the Department of Conservation (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is assumed to be expanding in range on at least ten islands following the eradication of the Pacific rat, and the skinks' reintroduction to Korapuki Island (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Additional predator removals are planned, such that there is potential for a substantial increase in distribution and abundance for the species (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Population monitoring is recommended.
178624		distribution	eng	This species is known to inhabit the coasts of Northland, near the Cavalli Islands (Towns and Daugherty 1994). This species has been recorded on 49 islands around northern New Zealand (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known to inhabit all ten of the Three Kings Islands, namely Great Island, North East Island, West Island, Stella Rock, Hinemoa Rock, Archway Rock, Tutanekai Rock, Arbutus Rock, Rosemary Rock and South West Island (Parrish and Gill 2003).<br/><br/>This species is listed as 'Range Restricted' due to human impacts (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).
178624		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the coastal broadleaf forest and associated shoreline (Towns and Daugherty 1994). It can be found on boulder beaches, rock talus above boulder beaches, under rocks on rock platforms, and in boulder areas covered by vines along or near the coast (Parrish and Gill 2003). Populations are often isolated by expanses of unoccupied coastline (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>On islands lacking predators, this species is found in the variety of coastal habitats described above, however, when predators are present, the skinks inhabit only boulder beaches, as the rock crevices provide refuges. These boulders may not permanently protect the skinks, though, as beach habitats are mobile and may temporarily fail as refugia (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal (Towns and Daugherty 1994) and oviparous, with clutch sizes between two and five eggs (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2002) which are laid in December and hatch in March or April (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178624		population	eng	The population of this species had been reduced to low densities due to introduced predators; however, after predator eradication campaigns in the early 1990s, the population was seen to be increasing (Towns and Daugherty 1994). This species is known to exist in densities of 1,483 - 130,000 individuals per ha (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002), known to be locally abundant but becoming sparse in the presence of mammalian predators (Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).
178624		threats	eng	This species is known to respond positively to extermination of kiore, the Pacific rat. Capture rates of the skink increased 3.5 times within three years of rat removal on Coppermine Island, Chicken Islands (Atkinson and Towns 2001).<br/><br/>Predation and habitat change due to invasive species may threaten this species, however, as it is distributed across many islands, these threats are unlikely to have a major impact on the population.   With eradication of invasive species already having led to an increase in range on at least ten islands (Towns et al. 2001),   additional eradications for predators on other islands, both planned and confirmed, may potentially lead to substantial increases in the range and abundance of the species within many of the island groups occupied (Towns et al. 2002).<strong></strong>
178625		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. There are no further species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178625		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Republic of Comoros and on the island of Mayotte. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,057 km²<sup></sup>.
178625		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest, scrubland, plantations and degraded forest and is also known to occur around human dwellings and in dense urban areas.
178625		population	eng	This species is reported to be widespread and locally abundant on the island of Grand Comoro (CITES 2007).
178625		threats	eng	This species is used in the international pet trade, and between 2000 and 2002 a total of 9,875 individuals were exported, primarily to the US. However, this level of exportation is not expected to have a significant impact on the wild population (CITES 2007).
178626		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   The species is present in numerous National Parks and Nature Reserves within its distribution (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Research into the population numbers, threats, and habitat of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178626		distribution	eng	This species has a fairly wide distribution in Southeast Australia. It is found from Benella in Victoria, along the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range to Darling Downs in southeast Queensland. It also extends to the coast along the Hunter River (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178626		habitat	eng	This species can be found in dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands, often where there is tussock ground cover. It is believed to be tolerant to moderate levels of disturbance (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 2003).
178626		population	eng	This species has been reported as common (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 2003).
178626		threats	eng	It is not known if any threat process is impacting this species.
178627		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, further research into harvest levels should be carried out.
178627		distribution	eng	This coastal species occurs in two populations from Rotkop in southern Namibia northward to southern Angola.
178627		habitat	eng	This species is found in deserts and requires loose sand.
178627		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range.
178627		threats	eng	This species is collected for the pet trade, however, this can only be considered a minor localized threat (Marais 1992).
178628		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Shark Bay World Heritage Site. Further research and monitoring of the distribution and population of this species should be carried out.
178628		distribution	eng	Cogger (2000) states that this species is only known from a single specimen at Carrarang Station, Edel land, Shark Bay, Western Australia. However, Storr <em>et al.</em> (1999) mapped a second locality from the Zuytdorp Cliffs, south of the type locality. Aplin and Adams (1998) consider the two specimens from the Zuytdorp Cliffs of only dubious identity with this species, but instead consider the species to be represented by numerous coastal localities in the southern Carnarvon Basin.
178628		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit low shrubland on coastal sands.
178628		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178628		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon this species.
178629		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found within the Niassa Game Reserve, northern Mozambique (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). Monitoring of this species should be carried out because of its relatively small and fragmented distribution.
178629		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution and is known from two localities in southern Tanzania, the Liwale and Lumesule Rivers (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). It also occurs in eastern Mozambique, south of the Zambezi Valley (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006).
178629		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Mopane woodland habitat. It can be found in wide, shaded rock cracks on isolated boulders, or around large exfoliating flakes on exposed bedrock or inselbergs (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may occasionally inhabit hollow baobab trunks. It is reportedly gregarious, and several specimens may be found side-by-side in a crack (Branch 1998).
178629		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178629		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178630		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Site protection is required to reduce the rate of habitat degradation occurring within this species' range and provide a safeguard for this species. Population monitoring of this species is recommended.
178630		distribution	eng	This species' type locality is within the Rio Puela Valley (Rio Pastaza Drainage) on the southern versant of Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador, at 2,750 m above sea level. Since the type locality was described this species has been found nearby, on the eastern slope of the Tungurahua volcano, San Antonio Mountains (Reyes-Puig<em> et al.</em> 2008). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 286 km²<sup></sup>.
178630		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane forest habitat.
178630		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178630		threats	eng	This species is found within a region that is threatened by high rates of habitat degradation as a result of agricultural expansion and mining operations. The restricted range of this species may present a threat, as it is more vulnerable to stochastic events. The volcanic activity of Tungurahua volcano can be considered a major future threat.
178631		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with the Área de Proteção das Dunas e Veredas do Baixo-Médio Rio São Francisco. Due to its restricted range, monitoring of this species' population and habitat status should be carried out.
178631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the sand dunes at Barra, middle São Francisco River, Bahia, in Brazil (Lima and Rocha 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,322 km²<sup></sup>.
178631		habitat	eng	This species is found in a sandy area very different from the surrounding Caatinga habitat. This species is found predominantly in shaded habitat and consumes mainly flowers and invertebrates. Flowers are an important part of its diet during the dry season, especially for larger individuals.
178631		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178631		threats	eng	Human activity in the village of Ibiraba poses a risk to this species, due to the removal of vegetation from the dunes for firewood (Rocha and Rodrigues 2005). &#160;It is not known if there are any other threat processes impacting this species.
178632		conservation	eng	This species was listed as Secure in Namibia Conservation Status Report (Griffin 1999) but further research is needed into the population numbers and possible threats of this species.
178632		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caprivi Strip and adjacent Botswana and northeast Namibia.
178632		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open woodland and mesic savanna.
178632		population	eng	This species is rare. Searches have been carried out for this species, but it has not been collected in recent years (Branch 1998).
178632		threats	eng	It is not known if threats are impacting this species.
178633		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the threats and population trends of this species is suggested to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future if habitat degradation becomes more severe.
178633		distribution	eng	This species occurs between the Watheroo National Park and Shark Bay in Western Australia (Wilson and Swan 2003).
178633		habitat	eng	This species has been found in tall open shrubland, Banksia woodland and spinifex and sedge heaths (Wilson and Swan 2003, Ninox Wildlife Consulting 2005).
178633		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178633		threats	eng	The habitat of this species may be negatively impacted by land clearing, agricultural activities and mining, but these threats are not at a level high enough to cause significant declines in this species.
178634		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required for this species.
178634		distribution	eng	This species is found on mountain ranges throughout eastern Africa. It is distributed from Kenya in the north to Zambia in the south and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west.
178634		habitat	eng	There is little habitat or ecology information available for this species. It is presumed to be diurnal and is found living within leaf litter (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178634		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species
178634		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) notes that this species is not threatened by human activities.
178635		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178635		distribution	eng	This species is found on Anatom Island, in southern Vanuatu. This island has an area of 159 km². Surveying of neighbouring islands&#160;Tanna, Aniwa, Erromango, and Futuna have confirmed it is not present.
178635		habitat	eng	This species is aboreal and not found around human habitations, and has not been collected in gardens or heavily modified forest. &#160;The type series of this species was collected in seral and climax forest (Medway and Marshall 1975). &#160;It has also been found in upland rainforest and dry coastal forests.<br/>This species lays eggs, and clutch size is four-five eggs (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2008; Medway & Marshall 1975) reported clutch sizes of four and five eggs in two gravid females.
178635		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178635		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging, agricultural expansion and sea level rise. The interior forests remain fairly intact since the terrain is too steep or rugged to make agriculture or logging viable; however, the lowland forests have been extensively cleared for agriculture, and logging is also taking place (Rosillo-Calle and Woods 2003). &#160;Furthermore increases in soil erosion due to logging may threatened this species habitat. Sea level rise may result in habitat degradation and loss due to inundation of low-lying areas, forest structural damage due to increasingly frequent and intense storm surges, and plant toxicity from groundwater salinization. &#160;The pet trade could become a problem, and smuggling of lizards out of the country has been reported by the Environment Unit.
178636		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance, and habitat status of this species is suggested.
178636		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the island of Lombok, Indonesia which has an area of 4,725 km².
178636		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species have been collected from abandoned human dwellings adjacent to an area of disturbed evergreen forest (Das 1993).
178636		population	eng	This gecko is currently known only from two specimens, collected in 1992 (Das 1993).
178636		threats	eng	It is unknown which threat processes may be acting upon this species.
178637		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It has been found in the Comoé National Park, Côte <st1:country-region w:st="on">d’Ivoire</st1:country-region> and the surroundings of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Kyabobo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Population monitoring and further research is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
178637		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout west Africa, from Guinea in the west to Uganda in the east, and possibly across central Africa (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).
178637		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from rainforest-like gallery forest in a zone of humid savanna in Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivore (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 1997).&#160;This species was also recorded from both savannah and farmbush habitats in the surroundings of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Kyabobo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
178637		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178637		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is having a significant impact on this species. However, it may be locally threatened in parts of its range as a result of habitat degradation or land use change.
178638		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.
178638		distribution	eng	This species is found in the region of Lake Buenos Aries in Aisen and Magallanes Province in Chile. It has also been found in Santa Cruz, Argentina.
178638		habitat	eng	This species is an omnivorous species which inhabits rocky formations, living in rock crevices.
178638		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178638		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats affecting this species in this relatively sparsely populated region.
178639		conservation	eng	This species is known to live in Kinabalu, which is a National Park in Malaysia under IUCN Category II. This park has an area of 753 km²<sup></sup> (UNEP-WCMC 2007). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of its habitat status and research into its abundance is needed.
178639		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Sumatra and Borneo, including Sabah, Brunei, and Sarawak (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Sabah, it is known from Maliau, Malutut, Mendolong, Poring, Purulon, and Tawau Hills (Inger <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Sumatra, the species is known from Bukit Lawang and Ketambe (Aceh). It has been recorded from 50 to 850 m above sea level, however, is most abundant between 250 and 650 m above sea level (Inger <em>et al.</em> 2001).
178639		habitat	eng	This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of around two eggs oviposited at ground level under dead leaves or between buttresses (R. Inger pers. comm.). It inhabits lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is mainly terrestrial, though it will climb three to five metres up trees to escape predators (R. Inger pers. comm.).
178639		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178639		threats	eng	The lowland rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo are highly threatened due to conversion to agricultural plantations. Fires are set to clear the land for plantation establishment, as well as small-scale slash and burn practices. It is estimated that between 1985 and 1997, 28-29% of the forest was lost in Sumatra, with lowland deforestation measured at 61% (FWI/GFW 2002). Deforestation poses a localized threat to the species, as the species is arboreal and is known to live on the buttresses of trees.
178640		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, threats and habitat of this species. Monitoring of population trends is also necessary.
178640		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the temperate zone of the Cordillera de Merida range of the Venezuelan Andes. It has a distributional area of 3,065 km² and is found between 2,000 and 3,300 m above sea level.
178640		habitat	eng	This species occupies moist micro-habitats in the temperate zone at high elevations. Grassland is the major habitat type. Specimens were collected from under rocks within and near a fast-moving stream, and one individual has been collected from inside a bromeliad in open forest.
178640		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178640		threats	eng	Conversion of the natural habitat to agriculture is causing habitat degradation in this region. Plantations of non-native conifers are also affecting the region; however it is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
178641		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out to clarify its position with the species complex.
178641		distribution	eng	This fossorial species is found in eastern and southern Africa, from Somalia in the north, through Kenya and Uganda southwest to Angola, and south to northern South Africa. This species is found throughout Namibia with the exception of the Namib Desert and the Bethanie and Karasburg districts. This species is found from sea level up to 2,000 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002, Griffin 2003).
178641		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide range of habitats. It is known to occur in coastal, dry, and moist savanna, semi-desert, and within coastal and medium to high altitude woodland. It is commonly found under rocks in loose soil and sand and under logs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, California Academy of Sciences 2007).
178641		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout Kenya and Tanzania (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).
178641		threats	eng	No threats are known to impact this species across its wide range.
178642		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat requirements of this species is suggested.
178642		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Morotai, Indonesia, in the Moluccas island group. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,283 km²<sup></sup>.
178642		habitat	eng	While the habitat preferences of this species are uncertain, based upon its distribution it may be inferred to inhabit lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest.
178642		population	eng	This species appears to be known from only a few specimens, therefore there are no population data for this species.
178642		threats	eng	It is not known if any threat processes are acting upon this species.
178643		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.
178643		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the north-east of Brazil, in the states of Alagoas, Bahia, Ceará, extreme eastern Maranhao, Minas Gerais, Paraiba, Pernambuco, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe.
178643		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric and semi-arid thorn forest, dry tropical deciduous forest and open rocky areas. This species is often found in elevated, sandy and rocky zones and also along river margins.
178643		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178643		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178644		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178644		distribution	eng	This species is found in the premontane and lower montane zones of the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica. This species is found between 1,220 and 2,000 m above sea level (Savage 2002).
178644		habitat	eng	This species is a gap specialist, which is often found in anthropogenically created gaps within premontane wet forest and lower montane rainforest composed predominantly of shrubby pasture with scattered trees (Pounds 1988).
178644		population	eng	This species is uncommon (Savage 2002).
178644		threats	eng	Although localized habitat degradation and loss due to illegal logging, urban development, and cattle grazing is occurring within this species' range, the majority of montane forests within the area are relatively intact.
178645		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species and more research into its habitat status is necessary. As this species has a restricted range in a populated area, new protected areas should be established to ensure the survival of the species.
178645		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Loja Valley, Ecuador. This species is known to occur up to 2,200 m above sea level and the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,214 km²<sup></sup>.
178645		habitat	eng	This species is known from dry forest.
178645		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178645		threats	eng	Ongoing deforestation, burning and cutting to convert land to agriculture are the major threats to this species in this relatively heavily populated region of Ecuador.
178646		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178646		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites in northeastern Madagascar. Its type locality is Marojejy and it has also been found at Ambolokopatrika, an area in between the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud massifs. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 954 km²<sup></sup>.
178646		habitat	eng	This subterranean and secretive species is found in primary rainforests.
178646		population	eng	Nussbaum and Raxworthy (1995) state that this species may be rare with a restricted distribution. &#160;It has been looked for at other sites but not found.
178646		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.
178647		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population surveys and research into threats should be carried out as declines may become more widespread in the future. Conservation actions should include communication and increasing awareness about monitor lizards in order to curb persecution.
178647		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southwest coast of the Arabian peninsula from Ta'izz and Al Khobar in Arabia in the south, and northward to the Asir Mountains in Saudi Arabia (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Böhme 2004). It has an elevational range from 300 to 1,800 m above sea level (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Böhme 1999), and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be around 71,000 km²<sup></sup>.
178647		habitat	eng	In the lowlands, this species inhabits thornbush savanna and degraded dry forest (Böhme 2004). At higher elevations, it lives on basaltic rocks, partially covered by dense vegetation (Böhme 2004). It has also been found in cultivated fields with surrounding dense vegetation and a preference for water margins has been reported, particularly for foraging (Schätti and Fortina 1987, Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989).<br/><br/>The species has been described as a relatively unspecialized monitor, based on its ecology and feeding habits (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989). <br/><p><br/></p>
178647		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. However, it was described as "relatively common in the foothills of the southwestern Arabian mountain range" (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989).    <p><br/></p>
178647		threats	eng	In parts of its range, the habitat of this species is under threat from conversion to agriculture, overgrazing, and deforestation. Pressure on thorn forest is likely to come from goat foraging and firewood collection. Due to a cultural aversion to monitor lizards, it is likely to be killed on sight.   It may also sometimes be eaten by local people or killed for its skin. Rates of exploitation of this monitor are likely to increase with the expansion of the human population of the Asir coast and Yemen. Alienation of scarce water sources for human use may also render large areas uninhabitable, if animals are denied access to water (S. Sweet pers. comm.).
178648		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178648		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Lao PDR and Thailand (Honda <em>et al.</em> 2005). The type locality for this species is Muang Liep, north of Pak Lai, on the upper Mekong in Lao PDR (Smith 1923). Specimens have also been collected from Nong Kai, Pak Maat, Pak Men and Hoi King, all of which are on the Mekong within a 80 km range of Pak Lai (Smith 1923). This species has been reported in Thailand from Nong Khai and Phu Kading Mount, where it was collected at an elevation of 1,150 m above sea level (Taylor 1963). It has also been found at Phu Luang, Loei, Thailand, at 850 m above sea level (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178648		habitat	eng	This species has been found near a cistern in a secondary rainforest (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species has also been found on rocks along small streams in primary and secondary forests (Harbig 2000). When disturbed, it will escape into the water (Harbig 2000).<br/><br/>It is uncertain if this species is diurnal or nocturnal, as it has been recorded both during the afternoon (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999) and at night (Taylor 1963). <br/><br/>This species has been observed mating in January/February, and is known to give birth after 95-130 days (Harbig 2000).
178648		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178648		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is having a significant impact on the population numbers of this species across its large distribution. However, this species may be locally threatened in parts of its range as a result of habitat degradation or land use change.
178649		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas, for example the Kakadu National Park. Research into the population numbers, threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178649		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Arnhem Land escarpment in the Northern Territory. It is found in the upper reaches of Magela and Nourlangie Creeks.Its entire range is within the confines of Kakadu National Park.
178649		habitat	eng	This lowland species inhabits woodlands.
178649		population	eng	This species has been reported as moderately common (Horner 1992).
178649		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting this species.
178650		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the threats that this species may be facing now or in the future.
178650		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal deserts of southern Peru and the provinces of Antofagasta and Tarapaca, Chile.
178650		habitat	eng	This species is found in hot desert habitat. It is a viviparous species.
178650		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178650		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178651		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, habitat status and threats is needed.
178651		distribution	eng	This species is found in Liberia and Sierra Leone (Welch 1982).
178651		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist lowland forests.
178651		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178651		threats	eng	The political instability in both Sierra Leone and Liberia throughout the 1990s may have led to increased deforestation for several reasons. Vanasselt (2003) describes that 'forest liquidation' in these two countries was driven by the governments' need for arms and supplies, and consequent use of high-value forest materials. Further, during periods of conflict, regional forestry officials were unpaid, which led to illegal mining, logging, and overall massive deforestation in the Sierra Leone forest reserves (Vanasselt 2003). It is unknown if this species has been adversely affected by these threats.
178652		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Its distribution probably coincides with protected areas.
178652		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Honduras and occurs at elevations up to 700 m (Köhler 2003).    <p><br/></p>  .
178652		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland moist forest and is found on the margins of lowland dry forest.
178652		population	eng	This species is reported to have a stable population trend in Honduras (Wilson and McCranie 2003).
178652		threats	eng	This species may be threatened locally by habitat loss and degradation due to expanding human populations and agriculture, but this does not seem to be a significant impact.
178653		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. There are protected areas within the range of this species, such as the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, which is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. However, improved management is required to reduce the rate of illegal harvesting within protected areas. Further research into the population, harvest levels, and threats to this species should be carried out, and further taxonomic study is required to assess whether this species is, in fact, a species complex.  Depending on the outcome of such study, the distribution area of this species may turn out to be much smaller than is currently assumed (M. Vences pers. comm.).
178653		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar and has a disjunct distribution. It is known from the northwestern Sambriano region and the offshore island of Nosy Be (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Ankarafantsika. It is also found in western Madagascar in Tsingy de Bemaraha.
178653		habitat	eng	This species is dependent on primary forest, including western deciduous  forest (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.). In the Sambirano region, this arboreal species inhabits primary low-altitude rainforest, and in the west it occurs in deciduous dry forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is also occasionally seen in bamboo forest (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004, Glaw and Vences 2007). It usually spends most of its day head downward on small trees (Glaw and Vences 2007).
178653		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178653		threats	eng	Forests in the Sambirano region are being lost or degraded due to human activities including logging, the expansion of agricultural activities, including slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, and associated brush fires. This is likely to have a significant effect on this species due to its dependence on primary forest habitat. The species is also collected for the pet trade. Despite occurring within protected areas, illegal collecting continues, however, there is no information on the number of individuals harvested or traded (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004).
178654		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat status is suggested.
178654		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality on Wetar Island, Indonesia, an island in the Barat Daya, south Moluccas island group. It has an area of distribution of 2,642 km².
178654		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from trees, so that it is inferred that the species is arboreal (Dunn 1927). While no other habitat information was recorded for this species, it is likely to inhabit the semi-evergreen and evergreen forest of the island.
178654		population	eng	There is no population data for this species and it appears to be known only from a few specimens.
178654		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any threats are affecting this species.
178655		conservation	eng	This species occurs within protected areas and further research into the taxonomy of this species is required.
178655		distribution	eng	This species is found in Colombia, Venezuela (in the states of Bolivar and Amazonas), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Tobago, and Brazil (in the states of Para, Amapa, Roraima, and Amazonas).
178655		habitat	eng	This species is a diurnal species which inhabits leaf litter on the forest floor. Individuals have been found in secondary vegetation, deforested areas and in gardens within cities.
178655		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178655		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178656		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, ecology, habitat status and threats to this species.
178656		distribution	eng	This species has been found in northwest Somalia.
178656		habitat	eng	There is no direct habitat information available for this dryland species, but from its distribution, it is likely to inhabit shrubland.
178656		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178656		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178657		conservation	eng	There are currently no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed; however this species distribution overlaps with a number of commonwealth forests of Puerto Rico (Toro Negro, Tres Picachos), and with the Caribbean National Forest. Further research into the threats, population and habitat trends are needed to ensure this species is not in decline.
178657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Puerto Rico, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,400 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is found between 65 and 1,326 m above sea level and is reported as widespread by Thomas (1999).
178657		habitat	eng	This species is found in the canopies of forest. It has also been found in bushes, ferns and bromelids which suggests it is not restricted to the canopy layer. This species has been found at the forest edge.
178657		population	eng	This species has been reported as relatively rare compared to other Puerto Rican anoles (Gorman 1980).
178657		threats	eng	In the past there had been much deforestation across Puerto Rico, but in recent decades reforestation has occurred and therefore land destruction and degradation are no longer a major threat to this species.
178658		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out.
178658		distribution	eng	This species<em></em> is known from the states of Morona-Santiago and Pastaza in Ecuador, and from Peru; although its presences in Peru is uncertain (T. Doan pers. comm. 2010).
178658		habitat	eng	This species is known from lowland tropical rainforest habitat.
178658		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178658		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, although it may be locally threatened by activities such as deforestation and agricultural expansion.
178659		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas, including Thailand's largest national park, Kaeng Krachan. Further research into the range and population status of this species is needed in order to provide a baseline against which to asses potential range contractions and population declines, although there are not currently any known threats to this snake.
178659		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Myanmar (Mon State, Tanintharyi Division) southwards through Peninsular Malaysia (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Records also exist for Pulau Langkawi, off Malaysia's west coast. In Peninsular Malaysia, it is thought to be restricted to highland areas (L. Grismer pers. comm. September 2011).
178659		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hilly rainforests in Myanmar and Malaysia, and has also been recorded from Thailand. It exhibits some ability to tolerate forest degradation. In Myanmar it has been collected near streams and waterfalls.
178659		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178659		threats	eng	No major threats have been described for this species. Due to limited commercial interest in this snake, levels of exploitation are low.
178660		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the majority of this species' range is within the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Natural Nature Park, IUCN category II, which also contains a UNESCO site. Further research on the species' habitat requirements and population status, and population monitoring should be carried out.
178660		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in north coastal Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,110 km²<sup></sup> and is found between 2,100 and 2,750 m above sea level.
178660		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested areas, and is found especially at forest edges. It does not, however, like open areas where solar radiation is strong (F. Castro pers. comm.).
178660		population	eng	This species is rare in some localities (F. Castro pers. comm.).
178660		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are occurring in the area in which this species is distributed. Deforestation and the use of very strong herbicides is likely impacting this species.
178661		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
178661		distribution	eng	This species is known from the central hills of Sri Lanka, where it has an altitudinal range of around 1,250 to 1,850 m above sea level (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It occurs in Sabaragamuva, Uva and Central provinces and has an estimated extent of occurrence of around 4,200 km².
178661		habitat	eng	This species is known from montane and sub-montane rain forests, both primary and secondary, and grasslands, but can also be found in tea plantations (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) and occasionally in home gardens or  Kandyan home gardens. The species is more active at night and hides under logs and rocks in the leaf litter during the day. It is also occasionally arboreal - in tea estates it is sometimes known as  coffee polonga (=viper) as semi-arboreal tendencies are not  uncommon.
178661		population	eng	This species is frequently seen throughout its range (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
178661		threats	eng	Although habitat destruction is occurring within this species' range, particularly for conversion to tea plantations, it appears not to be adversely affected by this habitat loss (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Individuals have been observed within tea plantations and the species is also able to inhabit secondary forest and forest edges. However, in tea  plantations they are killed on sight due to their bites.
178662		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population status and threats should be carried out because localized threats may become more widespread in the future. Population monitoring is also recommended.
178662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is widspread across the island. It has recently been discovered in many localities across Sri Lanka (Wickramasinghe 2000, Wickramasinge and Somaweera 2002, de Silva <em>et al.</em> 2005), including&#160;Buddhangala, Geelone, Malayadikanda, and&#160;Nilgala (Karunarathna <em>et al.</em> 2010). &#160;They are distributed up to 1,300 m above sea level (Karunarathna <em>et al.</em> 2010).
178662		habitat	eng	This species is considered&#160;arboreal.&#160; A. de Silva (pers. comm.) observed this species on tall trees at about 3 to 5 m above ground level. Members of this genus are usually found on rock faces, large trees, and occasionally under stones and logs (Somaweera 2006).&#160;Usually this species lives on trees such as: <em>Chloroxylon&#160;swietenia, Schleichera oleosa, Dimocarpus longan,&#160;Tamarindus indika, Careya arborea,</em> and <em>Ficus</em> sp. (Karunarathna&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010).
178662		population	eng	A recent "hotspot" was discovered, where 61 specimens were found (Hettiarachchi <em>et al. </em>in press).
178662		threats	eng	Deforestation and other anthropogenic activities may be locally threatening this species but is unlikely to be causing significant declines across its distribution range.
178663		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178663		distribution	eng	This species is found on the western slopes of the Andes from the states of Trujillo, Merida and Tachira in Venezuela to the department of Norte de Santander in Colombia, with an elevation range between 1,400 and 2,200 m above sea level.
178663		habitat	eng	This arboreal species is found in premontane humid forest. This species primarily inhabits the crown and its branches of a tree, although they are occasionaly also found on the trunk.
178663		population	eng	This species is thought to be relatively common.
178663		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178664		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the area by establishing protected areas. Further research is required to assess the impact that introduced species and habitat loss are having on the population numbers of this species.
178664		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the islands of Sâo Tomé, Principé, and Rolas in the Gulf of Guinea. Principé has an area of 140 km²<sup></sup> and&#160; Sâo Tome has an area of 860 km²<sup></sup>. The area of Rolas is unavailable, however, it is probably comparable to the two larger islands.
178664		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and middle elevational dense rain forests (Fuhn 1972, Perret 1973).
178664		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
178664		threats	eng	The forests of Sâo Tomé and Principé have been previously cleared for agriculture, namely cocoa and coffee plantations (Figueiredo and Gascoigne 2001). While production of these two crops decreased over the past 50 years, land that had previously been cultivated had reverted to secondary forest. However, this secondary forest habitat is now threatened by deforestation due to recent land privatisation and the development of small-scale market gardening (Figueiredo and Gascoigne 2001).<br/><br/>A further threat to this species may be the impact of introduced species. Introduced mammals on the islands include the Ship Rat, Norway Rat, House Mouse, Mona Monkey, African Civet, and Weasel (Dutton 1994).
178665		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in Eungella National Park, which is managed by the Department of Environment and Resource Management under the&#160;Nature Conservation Act 1992.<em style="border-width: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; outline-width: 0px; font-weight: inherit; font-style: italic; font-size: 14px; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"> </em>Further research into the distribution, population, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178665		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Eungella National Park, Queensland. The National Park covers an area of 517 km². This species has been found at an altitude of 900 m above sea level.
178665		habitat	eng	This species occurs in tropical rainforest.
178665		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178665		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Climate change and wildfires may affect the species within its range, but the extent of this is unknown. The species mainly occurs on protected land, so that land clearing is unlikely to threaten the species (H. Cogger pers. comm.). Similarly, the species is currently not threatened by invasive species.
178666		conservation	eng	Further research into the distribution, threats, and habitat status of this species is required. Monitoring of population trends is also recommended for this species.
178666		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, at Diego de Almagro, Atacama, northern Chile. This species might occur more widely.
178666		habitat	eng	This species is found in an area where the habitat type is like Mediterranean shrubland, with desert and rocky patches. The species was found to live on low vegetation, and was not seen on areas of bare ground between shrubs.
178666		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178666		threats	eng	There are potential threats to this species in this relatively heavily populated region of Chile, for example urban and agricultural expansion which cause habitat loss and degradation. However, it is not known whether these factors pose a direct threat to the species.
178667		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.
178667		distribution	eng	This species inhabits high elevations in the central ranges of New Guinea. It is also found on the Huon Peninsula (Mys 1988). It has been recorded at 1,400 m above sea level on the Huon Peninsula and at 2,000 m above sea level in the Finisterre Range (Mys 1988).
178667		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit lower montane rainforest, as well as secondary forest within the lower montane zone (Hyndman and Menzies 1990). Collection efforts in Teptep found the lizard relatively common near and in the village, primarily in shrubs and on trees (Mys 1988). This species is ovoviviparous (Allison and Greer 1986).
178667		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178667		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Increasing population pressure and logging activity is a threat to the biodiversity of New Guinea (Estreguil and Lambin 1996), however, this species has a fairly large distribution and is able to tolerate anthropogenic environments.
178668		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178668		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the southern Arabian Peninsula as far east as Dhofar, and is also found in northeastern coast of Africa, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. This species is found between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level.
178668		habitat	eng	This species has been found in various habitats from rocky desert areas to well vegetated habitats, including lowland deciduous forest and shrubland. It is also known to occur on buildings in settlements.
178668		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178668		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178669		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It is likely to occur in protected areas within its range.
178669		distribution	eng	This species is very wide ranging and occurs across southern Asia, from Nepal (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and northeastern India eastward into Myanmar and Thailand, south into Malaysia and north into China and Taiwan. A museum specimen also exists from Sumatra (Padang area), but the species' occurrence has not yet been confirmed (A. Malhotra pers. comm. August 2010). This is a montane species found between 600 and 2,600 m above sea level, which makes its presence in Cambodia and Singapore unlikely. In Bangladesh, the species is likely to be present along the border with Myanmar in the Chittagong Hills (A. Malhota pers. comm. August 2010).
178669		habitat	eng	This terrestrial and nocturnal species inhabits a variety of environments including forests, shrublands and grasslands, but it prefers mountainous rocky areas, in which can take refuge. It can also be found in agricultural land and even within human settlements. In Nepal, the species prefers moist conditions at moderate altitudes (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).<br/><br/>This is a large and broad-bodied species which exhibits sexual dimorphism. Rodents make up the bulk of its prey (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).
178669		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range, however, in Myanmar specifically it may be an uncommon species (G. Zug pers. comm.).
178669		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.
178670		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is required to ensure that the current localized threats do not become more widespread.
178670		distribution	eng	This species is found in the foothills of the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru, and also occurs in Departamentos Junín, Pasco and Puno (Torres-Caravajal 2007). This species has an elevation range of 1,000 to 1,800 m above sea level.
178670		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist montane tropical forest habitat.
178670		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178670		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.
178671		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas which probably provide small safeguards. No further research is currently needed.
178671		distribution	eng	This species has been found at various localities in the sandy regions of the Sindh and Las Bela regions of Pakistan and from Kathiwar, India (M.S. Khan pers. comm., Anderson and Leviton 1966).
178671		habitat	eng	This species is a burrowing species that inhabits sandy deserts (Das 2002), particularly sand-dune habitat with sparse vegetation of grasses (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). It is mainly diurnal and its diet consists of termites and other soft-bodied invertebrates (Minton 1966).
178671		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178671		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.
178672		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected sites, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. This may help to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring is also recommended.
178672		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ecuador in the Rio Intag valley, the Montanas de Nanegal, and the Rio Toachi Valley on the pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,722 km².
178672		habitat	eng	This species is found in wet montane forest habitat.
178672		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178672		threats	eng	The expansion of human settlements in the Cordillera Occidental has resulted in increased levels of logging and conversion of forest to agriculture.
178673		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be taken to prevent habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring is required into the taxonomy, population, and threats to this species.
178673		distribution	eng	This species occurs in western Japan and is distributed in the coastal regions of southwestern Honshu, Shikoku, northeastern Kyushu and the offshore islands adjacent to these areas (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is found between sea level and 500 m above sea level.
178673		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary vegetation on natural cliffs in coastal areas and low mountain ranges with natural woodland (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003, Okada and Okawa 1994). Though it prefers mainly undisturbed habitat, it is occasionally found in suburban areas (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003).
178673		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178673		threats	eng	This species is found within a region that has high rates of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and mining activities. It has been found that populations of the species are genetically fragmented into many small populations, a condition which is thought to have been caused by recent environmental alteration (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also, introgression from an artificially introduced congeneric and sympatric or parapatric species, <em>G. japonicus</em>, might be a threat to persistence of the pure strain of&#160;<em></em>the species (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2006).
178674		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat status of this species is suggested.
178674		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution along the mountains of western Sumatra, however, it is only known from three localities (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unclear whether this species is distributed throughout this range.
178674		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the montane rainforests of Sumatra. Species of this genus generally are semi-fossorial, nearly limbless, and live in sub-montane to montane habitats from 250 to 1,800 m above sea level (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2003).
178674		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178674		threats	eng	Deforestation for conversion to agriculture poses a major threat to Sumatran biodiversity. It is estimated that between 1985 and 1997, there was a 28-29% decrease in forest cover on the island (FWI/GFW 2002). As lowland deforestation estimates for this time period in Sumatra are at 61% (FWI/GWF 2002), it is evident that the montane rainforests that this species inhabits are less threatened than the lowland forests, however, they are still at risk of habitat loss. The removal of large trees reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species.
178675		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population status, biology and ecology, habitat requirements, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178675		distribution	eng	This species is known from the west and central region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also found in the Congo.
178675		habitat	eng	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for this species, but it is likely that this fossorial species inhabits wet forests.
178675		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178675		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178676		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures for this species in place or needed at the present time. It occurs in many protected areas including Shenzhen Wutongshan National Forest Park (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2002).
178676		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern China (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1999). While previously it was also thought to inhabit northern Viet Nam and Hainan, the individuals in these areas have been redescribed as <em>Gekko palmatus</em> and <em>G. similignum</em> respectively (Ota <em>et al</em>. 1995).
178676		habitat	eng	This species is at least semi-arboreal, and inhabits forests and forest edges. It is also reported to occur on the outside of buildings and in abandoned buildings (M. Lau pers. comm., Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2002, Romer 1950). It feeds mainly on insects and hunts by sight.
178676		population	eng	This species is reported to be very common in Hong Kong (Karsen <em>et al</em>. 1986, Romer 1950).
178676		threats	eng	This species is likely to be experiencing ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to threats including expansion of agricultural land, grazing, and logging. However, these may not be major threats as this species is relatively wide-ranging and significant areas of habitat remain.
178677		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Most of the range of this species coincides with the Cape Range National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Research into its abundance and threats are suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.
178677		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Northwest Cape of Western Australia. Its type locality is Yardie Creek Gorge.
178677		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from dissected limestone gorges and plateaus, preferring sparsely vegetated areas.
178677		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178677		threats	eng	There are no known threat processes impacting this species.
178678		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population of this species should be carried out.
178678		distribution	eng	This species is found in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela, southeast Colombia, and Brazil (in the states of Amapa, Para, Amazonas, Roraima, Rondonia and Mato Grosso). This species is found up to 250 m above sea level.
178678		habitat	eng	This species is a unisexual species found in leaf litter in swampy areas or close to other water, in lowland tropical forest habitat.
178678		population	eng	Caldwell and Vitt (1999) reported the species as common in Roraima, Brazil. This species is reported to be rare in certain localities (F. Castro pers. comm.).
178678		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178679		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population and its habitat status should be carried out.
178679		distribution	eng	This species is known from the high altitudes of the Pacific slopes of the western range of the Colombian Andes, including the basin of the River Murri, from the states of Valle de Cauca, Antioquia and Choco. It is found between 1,300 and 2,500 m above sea level and the area in which it is distributed is approximately equal to 22,601 km<sup>2</sup>.
178679		habitat	eng	This species is arboreal and is found in high altitude montane forest.
178679		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178679		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is being impacted by habitat destruction and loss in some areas of its range. The montane forests of the Cauca Valley are severely fragmented and it is reported that between elevations of 1,000 and 2,000 m above sea level, most of the forest has disappeared and only scattered remnants remain. Many of the forest fragments are protected, however, the higher elevation forests in some areas are still being exploited for timber and other forest resources (WWF 2001a).<br/><br/>The forests of Chocó are also suffering from habitat loss due to deforestation. Although these forests only represent one-sixth of Colombian forests, they supply more than half of the wood in the country. Other causes of habitat loss in the area include industrial development, mining and illegal growing of coca (WWF 2001b).
178680		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, threats, and habitat status of this species is required.
178680		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be known only from its type locality, 17 km north of Esquel, between Esquel and Leleque, Chubut, Argentina, at 1,400 m; however repeated visits to the locality and vicinity given have proven to lack suitable habitat (rocks) so it is unclear where the species was actually collected (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). This species might occur more widely.
178680		habitat	eng	This species was found in rocky areas at relatively high altitude.
178680		population	eng	There are no population data avilable for this species.
178680		threats	eng	There are potential threats to this species in the region of the type locality, as conversion of land to agriculture has affected much of Patagonia. However, the extent of which this species has been affected is not known.
178681		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;This species is restricted to one island it is extremely susceptible to extinction, therefore protection of this species habitat could help ensure the survival of this species.&#160;Further research is needed to better understand the impact of visitors to the island.
178681		distribution	eng	This species is found on East Plana Cay in the Bahama Islands (Schoener <em>et al.</em> 1982). East Plana Cay has an area of 4.65 km<sup>2 </sup>and is situated at sea level.
178681		habitat	eng	The vegetation on East Plana Cay consists primarily of thickets of woody shrubs about one metre high (Clough and Fulk 1971).&#160;This species is xerophilic, and is abundant in rocky and sandy areas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The actual habitat of the lizards is a small subset (shrub cover) of the total area of the island, and this subset is estimated at around 1 km<sup>2</sup>, as most of the island is sand.
178681		population	eng	This species was sporadically seen in 1993.
178681		threats	eng	The small island of East Plana Cay is presumed to never have been inhabited by humans (Clough and Fulk 1971) and therefore would not have been subject to the anthropogenic land-cover change imposed on other islands in the Bahamas. The habitat in which this species is found is often disturbed by fishermen and tourists who frequent the island. However, the impact that this disturbance is having on the species is not known. This species could be threatened in the future due to impacts of climate change such as increased frequency of hurricanes, and sea level rise.
178682		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178682		distribution	eng	Sharma (2003) reports that this species inhabits the Manantoddy district in southern India. McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) report that this species also inhabits Travancore, Anaimalai Hills, Telawadi, and the Goa Frontier. This species is found between 1,000 and 1,500 m above sea level (Smith 1943).
178682		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, primarily in moist montane forests. It is also known to occur in human-disturbed agricultural environments, including plantations and paddy fields (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178682		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178682		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by a major threat process. The species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178683		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178683		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the Amazon basin in eastern Ecuador, Peru, southern Colombia, and western Brazil.
178683		habitat	eng	This species is a fossorial species that is found in lowland tropical forest.
178683		population	eng	T. Doan (pers. comm.) reports that less than five individuals were caught during two years of sampling. However, pitfall sampling was not used which may have captured more specimens of this fossorial species.
178683		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.
178684		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its known locality is within a protected area. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is in decline.
178684		distribution	eng	This species has been recently described and is currently known only from its type locality at Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary in Nong Kai Province, Thailand (Hikida <em>et al.</em> 2002). The type specimen was collected at 200 m above sea level.
178684		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit crevices around large rocks and outcrops on the slope of flattened sandstone hills (Hikida <em>et al.</em> 2002). The rocks from which the type was collected were surrounded by dry open forest, however, the vegetation beneath the rocks was marshy and the rock crevices were partially wet (Hikida <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Hikida <em>et al.</em> (2002) stated that specimens were collected during the day from crevices, but that individuals were found to be active after sunset and this suggests that this species is nocturnal.
178684		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178684		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with forest area declining from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). However, the impact that deforestation and habitat loss has on this species is not yet known.
178685		conservation	eng	It is found in a protected area in China. No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, population status, natural history and threats.
178685		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Medog County, Xizang (= Tibet) Autonomous Region, China and northern Myanmar (Zhao 2006). It has been found between 1,015 and 1,066 m asl.
178685		habitat	eng	The type specimen from Myanmar was found at an elevation of 1,015 m above sea level. Leviton <em>et al</em>. (2003) state that the area in which the type specimen was collected was in the transition zone between temperate forest and alpine shrub and meadow. The Tibet specimens were found in open grassland at an elevation of 1,066 m above sea level (Rao and Zhao 2005). It is an oviparous species, laying 6-32 eggs. There is no information on diet (Zhao 2006).
178685		population	eng	This species is known only from a single record in Myanmar and several specimens from Xizang (= Tibet). It is either a rare species or surveys have not located its proper habitat in northern Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.). It has been described as rare (Leviton <em>et al</em>. 2003).
178685		threats	eng	The impact of threats to this species are not well understood, given the limited number of specimens from which this species is known.
178686		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution may coincide with protected areas. Further research into the population, distribution, taxonomy, and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178686		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Majunga Province in the northeast of Madagascar. Surveys in central eastern rainforest areas have yielded populations of tiny skinks which seem to differ from this species. The distribution of this species has not yet been fully determined but it may be an endemic of northern Madagascar, comparable to, for instance, <em>Paracontias angelorum</em>. From its current known distribution, the area in which this species can be found is approximately 15,683 km².
178686		habitat	eng	This species has been found in intact rainforest at mid-altitudes.
178686		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178686		threats	eng	This species is found within habitats that are threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to logging and slash and burn agriculture. As this species has only been found in intact forests, these threats are likely to be impacting its population.
178687		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species and no further measures are needed at this time.
178687		distribution	eng	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile (in the states of Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Santiago, O'Higgins, Maule, and Biobio) and Argentina (in the states of Mendoza, Neuquen, and probably San Juan). It is found between 2,800 and 3,200 m above sea level. <br/>&#160;<br/>The known distribution of this species is likely to change due to the description of two new species, which are part of the species complex, and currently under review: It is probable that populations in Neuquen state correspond to a new species under description, and the southern <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mendoza</st1:place></st1:city> populations correspond to <em>Phymaturus roigorum </em>(F. Cruz and R.E. Espinoza pers. comms. 2010).<p></p>
178687		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of crevices and geological fissures of basalts.
178687		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178687		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178688		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.
178688		distribution	eng	This species is found along the mid western coast and adjacent islands of Western Australia, from Gnaraloo and Mia Mia in the north, to the lower Murchison River in the south (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).
178688		habitat	eng	This species occurs in arid shrublands on sands and red loams.
178688		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178688		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178689		conservation	eng	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out. It is present in Vohimana Private Reserve (J. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011), and this site should be managed to ensure the persistence of suitable forest habitat for this gecko.
178689		distribution	eng	This species in only known from its type locality around Perinet (Andasibe) and nearby sites (e.g. Vohimana Private Reserve; J. Rafanomezantsoa pers. comm. January 2011) in the eastern region of Madagascar, an area of around 380 km²<sup></sup>. It has been observed high in the canopy of tall trees, and may have been under-recorded if it is specialized within this habitat (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
178689		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit mid-altitude primary rainforest habitat where it has been found mainly in traveller's palm (<em>Ravenala</em> sp.) and high palm trees (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is known to fasten its eggs to substrate, including under bark (Lerner 2004).
178689		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Due to continuing human pressure on, and the patchy distribution of, remnant forest around Andasibe, the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented.
178689		threats	eng	The region in which the type locality of this species was found is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural expansion. This species may also be of interest to the international pet trade, however, this is currently not considered a major threat.
178690		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Extensive surveys of the region surrounding the type locality are required to ascertain whether this species<em> </em> survives. Research is needed into the distribution and population numbers of this species.
178690		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, Balzapamba, Provincia Bolivar, Ecuador, at 750 m above sea level. The type locality is in the upper valley of the Rio Babahoyo, which drains into the Pacific.
178690		habitat	eng	The type locality of this species is in humid pre-montane forest.
178690		population	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, where it was last collected in 1901; Torres-Cavajal (2000) visited the type locality in 1997 but found no specimens. &#160;More intensive surveys are needed to confirm this species as Extinct, in its type locality and areas of suitable habitat.
178690		threats	eng	Torres-Carvajal (2000) visited the type locality in 1997 and found that most of the natural vegetation had been replaced by orange, banana and coffee plantations, which may have severely affected the population of this species.
178691		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. It is not known from any protected areas in Tunisia or Algeria. More research is needed on this species' population, distribution and harvest levels in order to establish if conservation measures may be required in the future.
178691		distribution	eng	This species has a highly fragmented distribution, but this might in part be due to its nocturnal nature which makes it hard to find in the field. At present, it is known to range from Mauritania through Mali, Algeria, Niger, Tunisia (where it is known from a single location only), Libya, and Chad to Sudan. It might be present in Morocco. This species is not present in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm. 2008).
178691		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal desert species which is found in areas of drifting sand with shrublands and possibly also in savanna habitat. It is a viviparous species and possibly feeds on vegetation.
178691		population	eng	This species is rarely recorded.
178691		threats	eng	The species is collected by snake charmers. It is also sometimes collected by local people as curios for tourists, and is likely to be threatened by commercial collection. Habitat degradation may also be impacting this species.
178692		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178692		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Ibiraba, Bahia, Brazil.
178692		habitat	eng	Species of this genus are fossorial. All of the specimens were collected in a sandy and flat area bordering a large sand dune, close to a river. The type locality lies within the Caatinga dry forest habitat. <br/><br/>Egg laying most likely occurs during the dry season which extends from November to March.
178692		population	eng	This species is only known from six specimens.
178692		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178693		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.
178693		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across central Africa from southeastern Nigeria in the west, through Cameroon and the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo to Uganda and southern Sudan in the east.
178693		habitat	eng	This burrowing skink has been found in riverine woodland, swampland, moist savanna, and pine plantations. It has also been found in recently deforested areas (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002).
178693		population	eng	This species is thought to be rare but this may be due to its secreative, burrowing, nature rather than its low population density.
178693		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178694		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research into the distribution, population, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
178694		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to lowland rainforest in east and northeast Madagascar.
178694		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in humid forest.
178694		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178694		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to deforestation and slash-and-burn agricultural practice.
178695		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.
178695		distribution	eng	This species was first described in 1990 from the type locality at Nikinki, Timor, Indonesia (Greer 1990). In 1993, it was recorded from a second locality on Timor (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 1993). G. Shea (pers. comm. 2008) reports that specimens from East Timor (held at the South Australian Museum) have been examined, and are morphologically and genetically very similar to <em></em>this species.
178695		habitat	eng	From the type locality, it is inferred that this species inhabits dry deciduous forests.
178695		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178695		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by deforestation due to the conversion of land to agriculture and plantations, however, it is not known what impact this may be having upon the species itself.
178696		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas.
178696		distribution	eng	This wide-ranging species is found around the foothills of the Himalayas, across northeastern India, throughout the mainland of South East Asia, down the Malay Peninsula and into Indonesia. This species has been recorded between 140 to 200 m above sea level, but these are unlikely to be its elevational limits.
178696		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and fossorial species found in a variety of lowland habitats from dense forests, both wet and dry, to rich grassy areas. It has also been found in agriculturally disturbed land.
178696		population	eng	This species is common in West Bengal and further east (Danie 2002). In Myanmar it is presumably widespread and abundant, although recent surveys have only uncovered three specimens in seven years (G. Zug pers. comm.)
178696		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.
178697		conservation	eng	There is still some confusion regarding the taxonomy of this species and more research is needed to clarify this. There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place, but its distribution is likely to coincide with protected areas.
178697		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Argentina in Tucuman, Jujuy and Salta provinces; in Uruguay; in Paraguay; and in the states of Goias, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, and Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil.
178697		habitat	eng	This species is found in areas where the dominant habitat type is grassland and shrubland. The species was found to utilize dried grass hoarded in the opening of armadillo burrows.
178697		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178697		threats	eng	There are no widespread threats to this species.
178698		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the severity of threats affecting the species is required. Due to its restricted range, monitoring is recommended to ensure that population declines are noted, and a threat category triggered if required.
178698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and mainly occurs in the southwest of the country (Wickramasinghe and Somaweera 2002). Specimens have also been located in central Sri Lanka, in the Knuckles mountain range. It is found in&#160;lowlands and midhills in the wet zone below ~700 m a.s.l., but also exists in relatively wet and shaded areas in the intermediate and dry zones,&#160;including Kokagala (in Monaragala), Nilgala, Anuradhapura, Wirawila, Padawiya, Ampara, Ritigala and Matara (de Silva <em>et al</em>. 2004, Somaweera & Somaweera, 2009). Based on the point data from Wickramashinghe and Somaweera (2002), the distributional area of this species has been calculated as approximately 14,876 km².
178698		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal terrestrial species that primarily inhabits moist rainforest. It is often found under rocks and decaying logs, inside decaying logs, and under rock and forest floor debris (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010). They are also found in plantations and gardens (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010), and are occasionally recorded in man-made structures, such as thatched huts, cowsheds and houses (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).
178698		population	eng	A. de Silva (pers. comm.) found this species to be common in the Knuckles mountain range.
178698		threats	eng	Severe deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. While this species appears to have some ability to adapt to anthropogenic environments, it is still largely forest-dependent.
178699		conservation	eng	Further research on the population, distribution, habitat status and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it should be assigned a threatened category in the future.
178699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (in den Bosch and Ineich 1994). It is only known from its type, collected in the Minahassa region, Northern Sulawesi (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178699		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species (Inger and Voris 2001). Its habitat requirements are unknown; the habitat in the Minhassa region of Northern Sulawesi is made up of moist broadleaf forest, but elevational variation and lack of knowledge about the exact location of the single known specimen mean that it is unknown if this species inhabits montane or lowland forests.
178699		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178699		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation for conversion to agriculture and plantations has occurred across the island. The lowland forests (below 400 m above sea level) of Sulawesi have been almost entirely deforested or degraded, with deforestation estimates for 1990-1997 of around 89% (FWI and GFW 2002). As the sub-montane and montane forests have been less altered, the deforestation estimate for the entire island of Sulawesi is 20- 29% for the period 1985- 1997 (FWI and GFW 2002). Deforestation may pose a threat to this species through habitat loss and degradation. The removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus.
178700		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat preferences and threats of this species should be carried out.
178700		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in western and central Africa, ranging from Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the southeast to Nigeria in the northwest.
178700		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat or ecology available for this species.
178700		population	eng	Rasmussen (1997) states that this species is rare.
178700		threats	eng	Given that little is known about the ecology of this snake, the potential impacts of threat processes on this species are not well understood. However, given its broad distribution, it is unlikely that threats are affecting this species across its full range.
178701		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. However, following an extrapolation of distribution for Bolivia (Embert 2007), this species may be present in several national parks in Bolivia including important ones such as Amboró, Carrasco, EBB, Kaa-Iya, Noel Kempff Mercado and San Matías.
178701		distribution	eng	This species is known from Paraguay, Argentinia (in the states of Chaco, Tucuman and Corrientes), Brazil (in the state of Mato Grosso), and Bolivia (Beni, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba) (Embert 2007).
178701		habitat	eng	This species is found in open habitats, often in moist conditions, occupying river beaches and flood plains. The species has been found on floating vegetation.
178701		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178701		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species.
178702		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and population monitoring should be carried out to establish the full range and abundance of this species.
178702		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern South America, in Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (in the states of Amapa, and eastern Para). Hoogmoed and Avila-Pirea (1992) report that one specimen of this species has been recorded in Rio Ampiyacu, Peru. This species is found up to 500 m above sea level.
178702		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland tropical rainforest. Gardner <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that the species is restricted to primary forest and was not found in secondary forest or plantations. Specimens have been collected in rather open, dry places, where sunlight could penetrate to the forest floor including near streams and on trails.
178702		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178702		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species, but the species may be locally threatened as a result of habitat degradation from deforestation.
178703		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.
178703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sumatra, Indonesia, and is known only from two syntypes (David and Vogel 1996).
178703		habitat	eng	&#160;Without knowledge of the locations of the syntypes, it is not possible to determine where the species inhabits.
178703		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178703		threats	eng	No information available.
178704		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring is required into the population and threats that might be impacting upon this species.
178704		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern Oman. Rastegar-Pouyani (2005) states this species is from Tanuf. Uetz (2006) also lists this species as occurring in Wadi Bani Kharus, Wadi Sahtan, Al-Hijir and Wadi Halfayn.
178704		habitat	eng	This species is distributed in an arid area. It is thought that this species inhabits dry river beds.
178704		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178704		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Vegetation within the range of this species is under severe pressure from over-grazing, however, it is not known if this is affecting the species.
178705		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178705		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern Haiti: from the Tiburon Peninsula and Île Grand Cayemite, and an isolated record from Île de la Gonâve.This species has been found from sea level to about 800 m above sea level (Thomas and Hedges 2007, Henderson and Powell 2009).&#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,522 km²<sup></sup>. This species has a severely fragmented&#160;range.
178705		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits pine forests as well as semi-deciduous and broadleaved evergreen rainforests. This species is xerophilic to mesophilic and has been found at the edge of cane fields, in wooded areas, shaded woods and ravines, semi-xeric scrub woods and open fields and yards (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species has also been found under rotten stumps, rocks, limestone and rotten logs (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
178705		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178705		threats	eng	The landscape of Haiti has been extensively altered, with little primary habitat remaining. Threats in this region include habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and illegal logging, as well as degradation from overgrazing and fuel-wood collection. Ibisch <em>et al.</em> (2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report.
178706		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places, this species occurs in protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178706		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western lowlands of Ecuador from the state of Esmeraldas to the state of El Oro.
178706		habitat	eng	This species is known from dry forest habitat.
178706		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178706		threats	eng	Logging and overgrazing are major threats to the habitat within this species' range. There is a large human population within the region, including Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city; urbanization may also cause the contraction of this species' range.
178707		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place at present. No recommendations for additional conservation measures are currently needed.
178707		distribution	eng	This species&#160; is found in many localities in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil and some marginal localities in the Cerrado, in the states of Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraiba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Piaui, and Bahia (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).
178707		habitat	eng	This species is a crevice specialist found in rocky areas within the Caatinga habitat; this species rarely leaves the rock surface.
178707		population	eng	There are no known population data for this species.
178707		threats	eng	There are no known widespread threats to this species. However, it may be locally threatened by agricultural expansion which is causing degradation of the Caatinga habitat.
178708		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is only known from protected areas. Villages exist around the boundary of Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and within the boundaries of Hin Nam No National Protected Area in Laos. Surveys are needed to identify the true distribution of this species, its population status, and to establish whether there is any harvest of this species for medicinal or other purposes.
178708		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Annamite Mountains of Lao PDR and Vietnam (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Hermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It has been found in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park (Vietnam) and the Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area (= National Protected Area) (Laos), which are part of the biggest continuous karst formation in Indochina. It has been recorded at 200 and 600 m asl.
178708		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to evergreen karst forests at low and possibly mid-elevations, in both primary and disturbed forest. Although wild individuals are almost unknown, laboratory studies have found that this snake is oviparous and eats rodents in captivity; captive clutches consist of 3–4 eggs (Shiryaev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
178708		population	eng	This snake is infrequently encountered in Vietnam, and only a single specimen is known from Laos despite repeated surveys in both areas, suggesting that it is either uncommon or rare (Q.T. Nguyen and B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
178708		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by habitat degradation and loss, as deforestation is occurring within the Annamites. Illegal logging for hardwoods and slash-and-burn agriculture are the major threats to this area, but occur at only small scales. They do, however, occur within the protected areas where this snake has been found, as villages within and around the borders of the reserves use the forest for subsistence. As this apparently rare snake may have a restricted range within the Annamites, these processes may represent major threats and are resulting in declines in the extent and quality of the forest habitat.
178709		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out to establish the distribution of this species within Sri Lanka.
178709		distribution	eng	This species is found in India in the Western Ghats from Kanara to Trivandrum (Sharma 2002). A single specimen has also been recorded in Sri Lanka, although most current herpetologists also doubt this record as there are no subsequent records of it in the country and the lack of surviving voucher material further precludes verification of this record, and Austin <em>et al. </em>(2004) considered this single record to be in error.
178709		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species that inhabits both closed and open evergreen moist deciduous and plantation forests (Das 2002). This species is insectivorous, diurnal and oviparous (Sharma 2002).
178709		population	eng	The species is stated as being very common (Sharma 2002).
178709		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range.
178710		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are protected areas within this species' range, including the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Conservation measures, such as protected area establishment and management, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within the region. Further research and monitoring of the population and distribution of this species should be undertaken.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Data Deficient in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka.'
178710		distribution	eng	This species is considered endemic to Sri Lanka and occurs in the central province at altitudes of 400 to 700 m above sea level. Specimens have mainly been found in the Kandy district. Based upon its known occurrence in the central province, the current known area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,000 km²<sup></sup>.
178710		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rock caves, large trees with loose bark and also occurs in human dwellings.
178710		population	eng	This species is common in houses in the Kandy region with large gardens (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).
178710		threats	eng	Deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. This species is also predated by domestic cats and poultry; however, this is not thought to be a significant threat.
178711		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.
178711		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea (Brown 1953).
178711		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit lower montane rainforests (Hyndman and Menzies 1990). Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with an average clutch size of two eggs (Greer 1968).
178711		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178711		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation. As this species appears to be affiliated with riverine areas, the construction of dams in the habitat may have a deleterious impact on local populations.
178712		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, habitat status and threats is required.
178712		distribution	eng	This species is found on the islands of Banda, Tanimbar and Damar, in Indonesia. The total area of these islands are less than 5,000 km²<sup></sup>.
178712		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown, but it is known to be arboreal and insectivorous.
178712		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178712		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.
178713		conservation	eng	Further research into this relatively unknown species is recommended. Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.
178713		distribution	eng	This species is known from the highlands on Cerro de la Neblina and Pico Tamacuari in the borderland between Venezuela and Brazil. This species is found between 1,200 and 1,450 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,678 km²<sup></sup>.
178713		habitat	eng	This species is found on tepuis, isolated granite mountains emerging from tropical forest.
178713		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178713		threats	eng	The tepui are relatively isolated from human disturbance so there are no major threats affecting this species. The impact of illegal mining operations and human-started fires could be important at low elevations in the future, but are not thought to constitute major threats to the species at present.
178714		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas, such as Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Further research into the potential threats to this species is required.
178714		distribution	eng	This lowland species is found as far north as Michoacán, Mexico, and southward to Nicaragua on the Atlantic slope, and to central Costa Rica on the Pacific slope. It is found between 0 to 530 m above sea level.
178714		habitat	eng	This species favours open locations in a variety of habitats from sandy flats to dry forests.
178714		population	eng	This species has been reported as common (Lee 2000). In Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, it is common in sandy areas (G.C. Mayer pers. comm.).
178714		threats	eng	It is not known if any threat is impacting this species.
178715		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population size and habitat preferences is required.
178715		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chitral District, a region of rugged mountains between 1,500 and 1,850 m above sea level. Khan (2003) includes the west of the North-West Frontier Province (Chitral District), Pakistan, in the distribution of this species. This species, as Das (1994) notes, also occurs in a politically disputed region, presumably the Jammu and Kashmir area.
178715		habitat	eng	Khan (2003) reports that this species inhabits rocky and anthropogenic habitats in Pakistan. Specimens have been collected from the walls of a roadside thatched house (Khan 1992).
178715		population	eng	There are apparently only five specimens known of this species, all from Chitral District: the holotype from Drosh Fort, two specimens from Karakal, Bumhoet Valley, and two specimens from the village of Ghariet (Khan 1992).
178715		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178716		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population, and research into the biology, ecology and threats to this species should be carried out.
178716		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Xinjiang, China and into the Hami area of the Gobi Desert (Zhoa and Adler 1993, Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This species is found between 700 and 1,400 m above sea level.
178716		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown, however, it has been observed in abandoned buildings (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).
178716		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178716		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178717		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. In Bolivia, this species is known to occur in the National Parks of Iñao, Manuripi Heath, Noel Kempff Mercado and Pilon Lajas (Embert 2007). No further conservation measures are required.
178717		distribution	eng	This species is found primarily east of the Rio Tapajos and south of the Rio Amazonas; this species is known to occur in the states of Beni, La Paz, and Pando in northern Bolivia, in eastern Peru, and in Amazonian Brazil, in the states of Amazonas, Acre, Rondonia, and Mato Grosso, with an apparently isolated population on the Rio Xingu, east of Altamira, in the state of Para.
178717		habitat	eng	This species is diurnal and is found on low perches (such as fallen logs) in mixed primary forest and river forest, from dense forest to open areas. Specimens have also been recorded from heavily disturbed forest and in yards of houses.
178717		population	eng	This species has been reported as relatively common.
178717		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178718		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species is needed.
178718		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
178718		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, but it is presumed to be a forest dweller.
178718		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178718		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178719		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat requirements is suggested.
178719		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Peninsular Malaysia.
178719		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lowland rainforest adjacent to freshwater swamp forest, and specimens were often collected near small streams (Grismer and Leong 2007).
178719		population	eng	This species has only recently been collected (R. Stuebing pers. comm. 2008).
178719		threats	eng	The lowland rainforest in this region is rapidly being converted to palm oil plantation (Grismer and Leong 2007), which is likely to be negatively affecting this species.
178720		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.
178720		distribution	eng	This central South American species is found in Brazil, Paraguay, southern Bolivia and north-east Argentina.
178720		habitat	eng	This species is found in moist forests (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178720		population	eng	It is a common species throughout its distribution area (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178720		threats	eng	Localized habitat change or destruction occur throughout its distribution (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).
178721		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species' habitat is required to ensure that the localized threats of deforestation and fire do not become more widespread across its entire range.
178721		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Wetar, Flores (Dunn 1927) and Damma Island (Boulenger 1894) in Indonesia. According to Uetz (2006), the species may also be found on Besar, Ende, Lomblen, Alor, Timor, Great Bastard Island, and possibly Samona, however, the primary reference for these locations cannot be found.
178721		habitat	eng	This species may be arboreal, as it has been found climbing in trees as well as on the ground (Dunn 1927). The habitat on the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands is dry deciduous and semi-evergreen forest.
178721		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178721		threats	eng	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 17% of the forest across the islands was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). Specific deforestation information for the Lesser Sunda Islands is not available. A further means of habitat degradation is fire. During the dry season, fires are set to clear the undergrowth and stimulate new growth of fodder for livestock. <br/><br/>Deforestation and fires pose a threat to this species through habitat loss and degradation, especially as this species may be arboreal. However, as this species has a sizeable distribution, such habitat loss is not interpreted as a major threat.
178722		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it has been recorded from protected areas. Research is needed to relocate this snake and obtain data on its population status, natural history and threats.
178722		distribution	eng	This species inhabits Taiwan (Wallach and Pauwels 2004), where it is known from Kuraru (Kueitzuchiano), Hengchun (Koshun), Twannaryo, and Pingtung (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).
178722		habitat	eng	This fossorial snake is presumed to feed on the eggs and young of insects and other small invertebrates (Zhao 2006). Due to the absence of recent records, nothing is known of its habitat requirements.
178722		population	eng	Zhao (2006) mentioned that experts in Taiwan have never found this species in the wild, and the only historical records date from the 1930s. There is therefore no available population information.
178722		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
178723		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution and population of this species should be carried out to validate its range extents, and monitoring of habitat trends may help in establishing inferences of population decline in the future. Increasing the coverage of protected areas would buffer this and other species from extensive habitat loss.
178723		distribution	eng	This species has been reported to occur in Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, and on Borneo (western Sabah and central Sarawak, Brunei Darussalam, and Kalimantan), Sumatra and Java (Brown 1999). However, Brown (pers. comm.) notes that specimens found outside of Borneo have not all been verified. Furthermore, in Borneo it is known from only a few localities (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010). This species is found up to 300 m above sea level.
178723		habitat	eng	This is a forest-dwelling species that occurs in primary or secondary wet forest at elevations lower than 300 m above sea level. It is adapted for an arboreal existence, possessing lateral skin fringes and distally dilated fingers and toes with large webbing, for short parachuting (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is often found around human habitations beneath the overhang of roofs and on other wooden structures that offer both cover and insects.<br/>Oviposition occurs on the ground and eggs and hatchlings have been found under logs.
178723		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178723		threats	eng	The tall, lowland, primary and secondary forest this species inhabits is under serious threat (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010). This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation across much of its range from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging. In Southeast Asia and particularly in Indonesia, the oil palm industry has destroyed a high proportion of lowland forests.
178724		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.
178724		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two collection localities, Brejo da Lapa on the northwest flank of the Itatiaia massif on the Rio de Janeiro / Minas Gerais border and from the Parque Estadual Campos do Jordao, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
178724		habitat	eng	The type series of this species was collected from a bog just below the tree line at the Itatiaia massif, a large rock pinnacle rising from thin forest. The habitat at the only other collection locality is montane forest.
178724		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
178724		threats	eng	The area in which this species occurs is one of the most heavily populated in Brazil, and as a result very little of the natural Atlantic Forest cover remains. The driver of deforestation in the area has been a combination of urban expansion, logging and conversion of land for agricultural practices. However, it is not known what, if any, impact the habitat loss has had on the species because it is unknown how dependent on forest habitat this species is.
178725		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas. Further research into the threats and habitat preferences, and monitoring of population trends of this species is needed.
178725		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Caribbean slopes, from Nicaragua to Panama (Savage 2002, Köhler 2003, Guyer and Donnelly 2005). The elevational range is 4 to 1,100 m (Savage 2002).
178725		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary forest, moss covered rocks along riverbanks, and <em>Theobrama cacao</em> plantations with <em>Bactris gasipaes</em> and <em>Cordia alliodora</em>. Savage (2002) states that the species occurs only in relatively undisturbed lowland rainforest; however, it has been found in disturbed but forested areas, yet is relatively uncommon in these (G. Mayer pers. comm. 2010).
178725		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178725		threats	eng	Primary forest in this region is being deforested to make way for agricultural and urban areas, however, this species has been recorded from plantations and therefore deforestation should not be a major threat to this species.
178726		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178726		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, in central Tanzania, and the extreme north of Zambia (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>In Tanzania, it is known from Tanga across to Mwanza, and around Lake Rukwa, extending to the southern shores of Lake Tanganyika (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Zambia, the species is known from Nchelenge town in Luapula Province and from Mbala, Nyamkolo, and Chiengi, all in Northern Province (Haagner <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>It is found from sea level up to 1,700 m above sea level.
178726		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open and wooded savanna, and can be found on trees, buildings, and possibly on rocks (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is oviparous, with observed clutch sizes of two (Haagner <em>et al.</em> 2000).
178726		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178726		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178727		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Research is required to ascertain whether the species ranges beyond the region of Pichincha, Ecuador, and as this species has a restricted range new protected areas should be established. Research and monitoring is necessary to establish the population trend of the species.
178727		distribution	eng	This species is known from mid-altitudes of western slopes of the Andes in Pichincha, Ecuador, from four localities around the town of Mindo, Pichincha province (S. Poe pers. comm. 2010, J.B. Losos pers. comm. 2010, Yánez-Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The furthest localities are only 13 km away from each other. Searches for the species in other areas around Mindo, including areas of better forest habitat, have not yet found any new localities (S. Poe pers. comm. 2010). However, the theoretically probable range of this species may be much larger, but confirmation of this depends on individuals being found in new localities. For example, it may also occur further north in the province of Imbabura and further south in the provinces of Cotopaxi and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas (Yánez-Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Its currently known area of occupancy was estimated as 33 km<sup>2</sup> (Yánez-Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and the estimated extent of occurrence is no more than 200 km<sup>2</sup> (based on a maximum distance of 13 km between the furthest localities). All known individuals of this species are found in fewer than five locations. It has been found from altitudes ranging between 1,200 and 1,650 m above sea level (S. Poe pers. comm. 2010, Yánez-Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
178727		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest habitat. The areas around Mindo, where this species has been collected, are made up of&#160;pasture land&#160;and secondary forest; however this species has been predominantly found in vegetation along a road (S. Poe pers. comm. 2010). It is a slow-moving, cryptically coloured species that occurs high in trees (J.B. Losos pers. comm. 2010). This species is named for its proboscis, an appendage extending from its snout, which is used in courtship.
178727		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. However, the species was found to be relatively abundant at some localities (J.B. Losos pers. comm. 2010).
178727		threats	eng	The area in which this species is distributed has experienced major habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, agriculture, and grazing. This is likely to cause declines in this species, as due to its small range, it is more vulnerable to habitat alteration (J.B. Losos pers. comm. 2010).
178728		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protected area establishment and management is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring of this species should also occur.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Near Threatened in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka'.
178728		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is restricted to the central highlands (Greer 1991). A widely distributed species in the wet zone, having being recorded from locations in the first peneplain to the third. Known areas of distribution include Nuwara Eliya, Peradeniya, Gammaduwa, Bambaraella, Horton Plains, Agarapatana, Hakgala, Badulla, Loolcondera Estate, Agra-Bopaththalawa, Dikoya, Pattipola and Namunukula, among others&#160;(Somaweera and Somaweera 2009).&#160;This species is found from 600 to 2,300 m above sea level: It is the only skink to be found above 2,300 m (Somaweera and Somaweera 2009).
178728		habitat	eng	This species has been observed in open rocky habitats, under decaying logs, and at the base of grass (de Silva 1997). This species is found in montane and riverine tropical mixed evergreen forests. Its diet consists of insects and it lays two eggs at a time.
178728		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178728		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural practices, especially hill country vegetable plantations, is a major threat to this species. The high level of deforestation in Sri Lanka is also likely to be impacting this species.
178729		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the threats that this species faces and whether these have a negative effect on the species.
178729		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Palni Hills in Tamil Nadu, and hilly regions near Trivandrum in Kerala, India, between 1,500 and 2,100 m above sea level (Smith 1943). This species is distributed over approximately 14,185 km²<sup></sup>.
178729		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species that inhabits moist soils and is primarily found in moist montane evergreen forests. It is often encountered on the road sides, in gardens, and under rocks during wet weather (Sharma 2003).
178729		population	eng	Sharma (2003) reports that this species is common throughout its range, especially at higher altitudes.
178729		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. Its fossorial nature means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).
178730		conservation	eng	The following protected areas overlap, in part, the species' distribution range: Parque Nacional de Baconao, Parque Nacional de Turquino, Gran Parque Nacional Sierra Maestra, Parque Nacional Desembarco del Granma, as well as numerous nationally recognised protected areas (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC&#160;2010). More research and monitoring is needed into the population numbers of this species.
178730		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cuba. It is found from northeastern Camaguey Province to western Holguin Province, also in the Rio Cauto basin (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is also found on the south eastern coast from Santiago de Cuba to Imias and Cajobabo, also Sierra Maestra and Sierra del Cobre, with its range extending all the way to Cabo Cruz (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Rodriguez-Schettino 1999).
178730		habitat	eng	This is a xerophillic species which occurs in shrubby areas, on trees and fences.
178730		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178730		threats	eng	In parts of its range, this species' habitat is threatened by urbanization and agriculture. However, this is unlikely to pose a major threat to the species at present.
178731		conservation	eng	The large distribution of this species probably coincides within protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.
178731		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the western half of the Australian mainland interior, and becomes more common in the northern half of the Australian desert regions (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).
178731		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat for this species is arid sand plains and inter-dunes with spinifex.
178731		population	eng	This species is described as moderately common (Horner 1992).
178731		threats	eng	Due to this species' large distribution, it is unlikely that it is affected by any major threats.
178732		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although there are protected areas within its distribution.&#160;The      species has been recorded in Barail      Wildlife Sanctuary, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>,      north-eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Das      <em>et al.</em> 2009). <br/><br/>Further research into the habitat status and threats of this species is needed to ensure that no threatened status is triggered in the future.
178732		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bangladesh, and extends throughout northeastern India up to the eastern Himalayas and southwestwards to Myanmar, having been&#160;recorded in Mizarom-Manipur-Kachin (coastal Myanmar) and at elevations below 200 m (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
178732		habitat	eng	This species inhabits flat and sloped moist forests.
178732		population	eng	This species is very common in part of its range. It is reported to be "modestly abundant" in south-central Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.).
178732		threats	eng	This species is restricted to forests in a part of the world that is experiencing major deforestation, mainly due to agricultural expansion and logging, particularly in Bangladesh (Sirajul Islam <em>et al.</em> 2006). The impact the pet trade has on the species and its allies&#160;(Vogel et al. 2004)&#160;remains uncertain. However, significant areas of habitat remain, so that these are not considered major threats at this time.
178733		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.
178733		distribution	eng	This species is found in East Africa, from western Uganda through Rwanda, Burundi and into the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Broadley and Wallach 2007).
178733		habitat	eng	The habitat preference of this secretive, fossorial species is wet miombo woodland, however, it has also been found in plantations and rice paddies (Broadley and Wallach 2007).
178733		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178733		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178734		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.
178734		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in southeast Australia, and is known to occur in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, central and north Great Dividing Range, and on Kangaroo Island.
178734		habitat	eng	This fossorial species inhabits woodlands, wet and dry sclerophyll forest. It seems to prefer more open woodlands with grassy under-storey (Armstrong 1998). In the Adelaide region, this species is also known to frequently occur in anthropogenic habitats, including suburban gardens and vacant lots (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).
178734		population	eng	Armstrong (1998) reports that this species is abundant in at least part of its range.
178734		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178735		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178735		distribution	eng	This species is found across northern South America from Colombia across to Brazil, and on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago.
178735		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, including urban settlements, rocky cliffs, savannas, dry evergreen forest, and forest edges.
178735		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178735		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178736		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is known from the protected area of Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary (Bauer 2003). Further research into its biology, abundance and range and habitat requirements is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.
178736		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality described by Bauer (2003) at Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary, Ywa Ngan Township, Shan State from an elevation 319 m above sea level. This locality lies along the western edge of the Shan Plateau, hence this species is potentially more widely distributed in this hill region of east-central Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008).
178736		habitat	eng	This species is known from lowland forest.
178736		population	eng	This species is currently known only from the holotype, collected in 2002 (Bauer 2003).
178736		threats	eng	This species is known only from the protected areas of Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary. Despite its protected status, human activities continue to impact the park and its wildlife. Timber extraction and bamboo collection occur, and there are temporary human settlements and roads within the park; local cattle may also degrade the park's habitat (Lynam 2003).
178737		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats of this species.
178737		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Mauritania, but further distribution information is not available.
178737		habitat	eng	This species<em></em> inhabits the Sahelian <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>savanna of northwest Africa. This species is a burrower and needs at least damp or moist sand or soil to live in (V. Wallach pers. comm.).
178737		population	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen (V. Wallach pers. comm.).
178737		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.
178738		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. It was not listed as threatened on the national Red List for Peru.
178738		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Cajamarca, Chinchipe, Maranon, and Utcubamba river valleys in northern Peru.
178738		habitat	eng	This species is known from river valleys where the major habitat type is dry deciduous forest.
178738		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178738		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178739		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the population status and threats of this species in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population<em></em>.
178739		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Socotran archipelago, which includes the islands: Socotra, Samha, Darsa, and Abd al Kuri, Yemen. Socotra is the largest of the three islands, with an area of 3,579 km². Abd al Kuri, Sahma, and Darsa have areas of 133 km² , 40 km² and 16 km², respectively. The area in which this species is distributed can therefore be estimated to be approximately 3,768 km².
178739		habitat	eng	This species can be found in most of the habitats of the islands (including many gardens inside the capital city), mostly in well vegetated areas; it seems to avoid only the open area that do not offer enough shelters (E. Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (in prep.).
178739		population	eng	This species is described as common throughout the islands, however its&#160;population&#160;size and trend are unknown. It is the second most widespread diurnal species on Socotra (Sindaco<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).
178739		threats	eng	Threats to Socotra include overgrazing and habitat loss due to the development of roads and towns (Kral and Pavlis 2006). Darsa Island is uninhabited by humans, but infested by rats, and comprises only a small portion of the species' distribution. While the extent to which these threats are impacting this species is not well understood, they are not likely to result in a global decline in habitat quality and extent in its range.
178740		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with Black Mountain National Park which has an area of less than 10 km². Further monitoring of the population should be carried out due to its restricted range.
178740		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Black Mountain, south of Cooktown in Queensland. The area in which this species is distributed does not exceed 10 km² (Goodman 2004).
178740		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to the piled black granite boulders on Black Mountain.
178740		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178740		threats	eng	This species is found within a habitat that is virtually inaccessible to humans and their impacts, and therefore it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species at this point in time. However, due to the extremely small range of this species, a stochastic event has the potential to cause severe declines in this species within a short time frame. Some projections suggest that climate change will impact the surrounding areas in Queensland, by reducing species richness. However, it is unlikely that climate change is going to have a severe impact on a rock-dwelling species.
178741		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
178741		distribution	eng	This species is predominantly found in the Central Karoo of the Republic of South Africa. It is also distributed within the central and northwestern Cape Province, and ranges a little into southern Namibia as well.
178741		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Nama and Succulent Karoo shrublands.
178741		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178741		threats	eng	There are no major widespread threats to this species.
178742		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, and potential threats to this species should be carried out.
178742		distribution	eng	This species is known from central Somalia, between Obbia and Berbera, from the central Indian Ocean coast to the Gulf of Aden. Specimens have been collected between Obbia and Sissib and between Obbia and Magangib (Arillo <em>et al.</em> 1967).
178742		habitat	eng	The Obbia region is arid and sandy with little vegetation cover, including an escarpment of 50-100 m. The escarpment extends to a low lying region of dense, rich, vegetation (Arillo <em>et al.</em> 1967).
178742		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178742		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178743		conservation	eng	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Secure-SP (taxonomy)'. This assessment indicates that revisions to the taxonomy of this species could alter its conservation status. Approximately 40% of the nominate taxon's range was reported to be in Namibia, and all of <em>C. a. namibensis</em>. Further research on the taxonomy of this species is needed.
178743		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Namib desert and karroid regions of the Cape (Branch 1998). This includes the western coast of Namibia, through southern Namibia and much of western South Africa. <br/><br/><em>C. a. angulifer</em> occurs in the karroid areas of the Cape and southern Namibia, whilst <em>C. a. namibensis</em> ranges north and west of this in the Namib desert, from Lüderitz Bay to western Kaokoveld (Branch 1998).
178743		habitat	eng	This species inhabits gravel plains, inter-dune spaces and sandy flats (Branch 1998). In the Cape, it inhabits karroid vegetation, which typically has a very sparse covering of grasses and shrubs. This species may particularly be found in dry ravines, and even in old human habitation. It is reported that this species occupies a burrow by night, and forages by day (Loveridge 1947).
178743		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178743		threats	eng	This species was included in an analysis of the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa, using climate envelope modelling (Erasmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Reptiles were predicted to experience the largest range shifts, and the dry, western portion of the country, where this species occurs, was predicted to become wetter and suffer the most local extinctions across the country. An extension of this analysis (Van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005) indicated that this species would be amongst the worst affected reptiles, with a predicted range change of greater than 50%.<br/><br/>This species is also becoming a popular pet, however, it is bred in captivity (S. Goldberg pers. comm.).
178744		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Since this species has a restricted area, protected areas need to be established and managed. Monitoring of the status of this species is needed.
178744		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Patos Lagoon, from the town of Itapua to Sao Lourenco do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This species has a distributional area of 993 km². &#160;It is known from five or less locations within this range, and its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010).
178744		habitat	eng	This species is an omnivorous species known from the restinga habitat, sandy coastal dunes to forest, on the margin of the Patos Lagoon. <br/><br/>In the margins of the lake, where the species occurs, there is almost no vegetation in the first five metres. Between five and ten metres from the shore there is about 35% herbaceous cover, and further from the lake the number of shrubs, and eventually trees, increases until a low forest community is reached.
178744		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178744		threats	eng	A large percentage of restinga habitat has been cleared by logging and firewood collection, and for both industrial and urban development in this heavily populated region of Brazil. The remaining areas of this habitat are severely fragmented, and habitat degradation and loss continues.
178745		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the threats to this species and monitoring of the population is necessary to detect any population declines at an early stage.
178745		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western slopes of the Andes, from the department of Risaralda in Colombia to the state of Esmeraldas in Ecuador. This species is found between 1,300 and 2,400 m above sea level.
178745		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane forest and secondary forest, close to the edges of small rivers, and in bushes and herbaceous plants.
178745		population	eng	This species is common in some localities (Castro pers. comm.).
178745		threats	eng	The habitat of this species overlaps with the elevation range of coffee plantations, thus fragmentation and landscape transformation could have a detrimental effect on this species at these altitudes.
178746		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected sites, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. This may help to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring of this species is also recommended because if threat levels increase, significant population declines may occur.
178746		distribution	eng	This species is known from just two collection localities in the Cordillera Zapote Naida of the Andean Cordillera Oriental, in Morona-Santiago, southern Ecuador. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,325 km<sup>2</sup>. Several surveys have been conducted beyond its current distributional range, however, this species has never been located (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).
178746		habitat	eng	This species is known from wet tropical forest habitat.
178746		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
178746		threats	eng	This species is found within a region that is threatened by high rates of habitat degradation as a result of deforestation for timber and agricultural expansion.
178747		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. No further conservation measures or research is required.
178747		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the northern coast of the Northern Territory and Western Australia.
178747		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sedgeland, forest and woodland.
178747		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
178747		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
178796		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In the northern Viet Nam, this species planted in plantations for wind breaks and coastal protection.
178796		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and can be found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Hainan Island), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and the Maldives.
178796		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum salinity of 35 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is found in lower saline areas on deep muddy soil along tidal creeks with slow moving freshwater. This is a pioneering species that colonizes newly formed mudflats (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997), and can expand rapidly in number, especially in optimum conditions of low salinity. It is fast growing with low seed viabililty (sets fruit only three months of the year). It grows to 30-40 m and is associated with the firefly insect (<em>Ptyeroyx</em> spp.).
178796		population	eng	This species is considered common in much of its range.
178796		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178797		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178797		distribution	eng	In South Asia, this species is present in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India (sparse distribution along western coastline), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia, it is found in northwest Australia, mnortheast Australia, southeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
178797		habitat	eng	This species is a small bushy shrub from 1-2 m tall. It is found in a range of substrates from sandy to compact mud, often near river banks. It may also occur inland on the same soil type in China (Peng and Xin-men 1983). This is a robust species and able to tolorate cooler temperatures. This species is gregarious.
178797		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178797		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178798		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. More research is needed on the effects of ongoing sea level rise on <em>Laguncularia</em>, given its low salinity tolerance. Likewise, the impacts of invasive species (and consequences of their removal) on <em>Laguncularia</em> need to be quantified.<br><br>The effectiveness of habitat restoration and success of replantings with Laguncularia needs to be assessed. New Landsat and IKONOS technology should be used to do species-based, landscape-level monitoring of deforestation (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2005). More research needed is on <em>Laguncularia</em> influences on water quality, erosion control, and pollution buffering.<br><br>Restoration of <em>Laguncularia</em> is being pursued in Florida (Milano 1999, McKee and Faulkner 2000), Costa Rica (Lewis and Marshall 1998) and Colombia (Elster and Perdomo 1999, Elster 2000). See valuable general review by Lewis (2005). More information and forestry trials are needed to optimize silvicultural techniques and management.
178798		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is restricted to the neotropics and West Africa (Tomlinson, 1986). It has been reported from the eastern tropical coasts of North and South America (ranging from Florida, U.S., 28°50', to Laguna, Brazil, 28°30') and all Caribbean Islands except Bermuda, Dominca and Netherlands Antilles; status on Anguilla is unknown (Wilkie and Fortuna 2003). It has been noted on the Pacific coast of South America from Estera Sargento, Mexico (29°17') south to Piura River, Peru (5°32') (de Lacerda, 2002). It is also noted from West Africa (Angola, Benin and Togo, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guniea, Guinea-Bisau, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is absent in the Galapagos Islands, Cocos, and Malpelo, and Canary Islands.<br/><br/>The south mid-Atlantic Island distributions should be confirmed.
178798		habitat	eng	This species tends to be found at the upper margins of the mangrove-upland interface, or high intertidal region, and not at the seaward margin (Tomlinson 1994, Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Seedlings are less tolerant of salinity and changing hydroperiod than <em>R. mangle</em> (Cardona-Alarte <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although it is a pioneer and can establish in relatively open sites with low salinity and abundant nutrients, mortality of seedlings is nearly 100% (Tomlinson 1995).<br/><br/>However, more important is the role of mangroves as nurseries for juvenile phases of economically-important fish and crustaceans. <em>Laguncularia</em>, being a landward mangrove, contributes to this indirectly by buffering upland pollutants.
178798		population	eng	Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.<br/><br/>Individual population sizes are highly variable through time, as mortality of seedlings can be quite high due to competition with other mangroves (Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ross <em>et al</em>. 2006). Seedlings recruit in thousands following a disturbance (Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Saplings and trees can number in thousands in a few areas, but <em>Laguncularia</em> tends to be less populous in a given mangal than the other Afrotropical species, with low importance values and basal area (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Eastern and western Atlantic provenances of <em>Laguncularia</em> show significant genetic differentiation, as indicated by leaf chemistry (Dodd <em>et al</em>. 1998). There have been no other genetic studies to date.
178798		threats	eng	<em>Laguncularia</em> is likely to be susceptible to increasing tidal height or salt intrusion, especially under conditions of sea-level rise (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2000). The invasive alien species, <em>Schinus terebrinthifolius</em>, is directly impacting populations in Florida (Schmalzer 1995, Herwitz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Gordon 1998, Ewe and Sternberg 2005). The species tends to be outcompeted by <em>Rhizophora mangle</em>; the native fern, <em>Acrostichum aureum</em>, may also affect seedling establishment. In addition, altough marine aquaculture is not documented specifically from the Caribbean, on the Pacific coast it is negatively impacting <em>Laguncularia</em> (Kovacs 1999). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/><em>Laguncularia</em> has a higher requirement for freshwater inputs than other mangrove species, so may be vulnerable to drought. Storms/floods/hurricanes have extensively damaged <em>Laguncularia</em> stands (Roth 1992, McCoy <em>et al</em>. 1996, Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001, Piou <em>et al</em>. 2006, Ross <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Laguncularia</em> experiences high mortality and leaf loss during freeze events at the northern edge of its range in Florida (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Selective logging is also a possible threat as this species is regarded as suitable for polewood construction on Pacific coast of Mexico (Kovacs 1999). Clear-cutting is occurring in certain areas (Suman 1994); loss rates are estimated at 1.4%/year for <em>Laguncularia/Avicennia</em>-dominated mangal in western Mexico (Ramirez-Garcia <em>et al</em>. 1998). Clearing of mangal for settlement and agriculture cited as major cause of decline in Latin America (Lacerda 1993) without a compensating economic return from agriculture or fast mangrove recovery (Tovilla-Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 2001). Subsistence use of Laguncularia for fuelwood occurs (Kovacs 1999).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178799		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Recovery management is needed for this species.
178799		distribution	eng	This species is present, but very patchily distributed, in India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, the Andaman Islands, northwest Sumatra, and southeast Bangladesh (Chittagong) (Giesen 2007 FAO).
178799		habitat	eng	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It can be a fast-growing and colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in southeastern Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997).
178799		population	eng	This species is locally extinct in a number of areas throughout its range. Less than 500 mature individuals of this species are left in India (K. Kathiresan pers comm), and it is considered very rare in West Malaysia. Over 20 year period (1980 - 2000), there has been a 26 % loss (950 km² per year) of mangrove area within this species range (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007, Wilke and Fortuna 2003). However, case studies within the region have recorded higher declines since the 1950s (Ong 2003).
178799		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive coastal development and extraction within its restricted range. In the 1950s much of the mangrove area in this region was converted to rice plantations or shrimp farms (Ong 2003). Data suggests that mangrove area has experienced more than 1.3 % annual decline over a 20 year period (1980-2000) in this region (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007). At this rate, the total decline since 1980 would be approximately 40%. Reports suggest that these declines go as far back as the 1950s at rates similar to those reported between 1980-2000 (Ong 2003). Given that this species is very rare, and locally extinct in some places, it is estimated that overall population decline of this species has been at least 80% since the 1950s. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178800		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178800		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Sri Lanka and the Ganges Delta through to the west Pacific. In South and South-East Asia it is found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Hainan Island), India, Indonesia, Japan (the most northern distribution is Iriomote Island), Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka (where it also has a range extention due to planting), Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Australasia, it is found in northwest and northeast Australia, the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands.<br/><br/>The species has been introduced to Cameroon and Nigeria in West Africa and to Panama in Central America and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean. In much of its native range it has been planted and exists in large or small-scale plantations. It is unknown if inclusion of plantations would be representative of the natural range.
178800		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in low, mid, and high intertidal regions (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It forms extensive belts along brackish to tidal freshwater creeks and rivers. It is very fast growing, especially in fresh water, and is a competitive species.<br/><br/>In Papua New Guinea, <em>Nypa fruticans</em> dominates vast areas of the upper Fly River and other south coast estuaries with high tide river water salinities of 1-10 o/oo (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1991). The species occurs at similar positions in the Sunderbans Delta of India, which has a relatively high rate of sea-level rise, but this species is blocked from inland migration owing to coastal development, and its area and occurrence has been declining (K. Kathiresan pers. comm.)
178800		population	eng	This species has a very dynamic population. It has experienced general declines due to localized threats throughout its range. This species has almost disappeared in the Indian Sundarbans due to reduced fresh water flow (Kathiresan pers. comm.). However, in some areas it is also increasing due to planting. In the Phillippines for example, other mangrove species have been cleared to plant this species, which may pose a threat to mangrove biodiversity (J. Primavera pers. comm.). In some parts of Africa where it has been introduced, it has become invasive and is considered a pest.
178800		threats	eng	As this species prefers more freshwater environments, hyper-saline conditions and strong wave action (including that caused by passing ships) can threaten this species. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. In the Sunderbans Delta of India, for example, which has a relatively high rate of sea-level rise, provides insight to what may be common elsewhere as global sea levels rise (Mukherjee 1984). There, <em>Nypa fruticans</em> is blocked from inland migration owing to coastal development, and its area and occurrence has been declining (K. Kathiresan pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178801		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. More species-level monitoring and increased protection for mangrove areas are needed, including the creation of new or expanded marine protected areas and national legislation.
178801		distribution	eng	This species is only found on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia.
178801		habitat	eng	This species is found upstream in esturies and low-mid intertidal areas in general riverine sediments. This species has a narrow range within mangrove areas. It is a cryptic species which makes it difficult to spot. This species grows to about one metre tall as a shrub in the under canopy.
178801		population	eng	This is a rare species with a limited distribution. The population is decreasing as mangrove area in this region is rapidly declining.
178801		threats	eng	This species has suffered a great deal of localized exploitation, habitat loss, and removal for construction within its very narrow habitat and distributional range. From 1980 to 2005, there has been a 33% reduction in mangrove habitat within the distribution of this species, mostly due to coastal development (FAO 2007), and this percentage is likely to be greater prior to 1980, although not reliable data exists. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178802		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178802		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, northwest Australia, northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.
178802		habitat	eng	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal region. It is a small shrub that lives in clumps. It is shade intolerant.
178802		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178802		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178803		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is grown in plantations in India, and perhaps in other parts of its range.
178803		distribution	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Bangladesh. In Australasia it is found in American Samoa, Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu, and Western Samoa. In East Africa and the Middle East, it is found in Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Reunion, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania. This species is extinct in Yemen.
178803		habitat	eng	This species is found in downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the mid to high intertidal region. It is shade tolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 50 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-34ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species has minor coppicing, and is relatively slow-growing with low regeneration rates. It cannot tolerate high salinity, and requires the shade and protection of surrounding trees to survive.<br><br>It is a small to large buttressed tree that can grow to 25 m but more commonly is found up to 10 m. The trunk is characterised by lenticels. It is found on deep muddy shore, in association wth <em>Kandelia candel</em> in a the parts of its range where <em>K. candel</em> is found. It is often scattered along the shore inland of the river mouth (Peng and Xin-men 1983).
178803		population	eng	This species is the one of the most widely distributed mangrove species, and is considered common throughout its range. For example, in India, this species was found in 50% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). Its numbers are increasing in Japan where it competes with <em>R. stylosa</em>. However, this species has been considered locally extinct in Taiwan for at least the past 10 years.There are two color forms: red calyces (which is the predominant form), and white and green calyces.
178803		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178804		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is planted in mangrove restoration projects in India and Philippines.
178804		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and is found in East Africa, Seychelles and Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka and throughout South East Asia to tropical Australia, New Caledonia, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Kirabati, and China (Hainan Island).
178804		habitat	eng	This species is found in the low-intertidal zone. It is intolerant of long periods of freshwater, and prefers high salinity. It is a pioneering species, that is fast growing, but has low seed-viability. In the low intertidal zone, it can be the dominant species along with <em>A. marina</em>, forming a tree line along the seaward margin of its range. It prefers soils of consolidated mud and sand. This species can grow to 30 m in height.
178804		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, although like many mangrove species is less common at the extremities of its range. In India, this species was found in 40% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). It can be susceptible to storm damage, for example, this species was almost completely destroyed in Iriomote Island, Japan after a strong typhoon in 2006-2007.
178804		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ ast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178805		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178805		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.
178805		habitat	eng	This species lives slightly more inland than <em>X. granatum</em> which occurs closer to riverbanks. This is a completely deciduous species. This species has peg or cone-shaped pneumatophores, and differs from <em>X. granatum</em> which has snake-like butress roots. This is a large tree and it usually grows individually rather than in stands.
178805		population	eng	This is a common species, but not as common as <em>X. granatum</em>. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178805		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178806		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Relative to the other mangrove species within the wider Caribbean, the conservation status of this species appears to be stable. <br><br>Recommended conservation measures for this species include more research on population sizes. Conocarpus erectus's range is well established but updates to population sizes, fluctuations or losses need to be continued. It is recommended to expand GIS mapping and remote sensing projects (e.g. Cohen and Lara 2003) and regional scale habitat mapping (e.g. Layman <em>et al</em>. 2006). Demographic modeling could be useful: research is needed to establish a minimum viable population size for the taxon, as past and present exploitative uses threaten to exert continued impacts throughout its range. Continued studies of post-hurricane recovery, restoration performance, in particular restoration of multispecies complexes and mangrove associates, are needed. The value of this mangrove upper boundary species to the protection/buffering of intertidal mangroves from land-based impacts should be better articulated in the literature.
178806		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in coastal communities in tropical America and West Africa (Tomlinson 1986). It can be found throughout Florida and to the Bahamas and West Indies south to Brazil. In the Eastern Pacific, it is present in Mexico through Central America to Ecuador and the Galapagos. It is also found in West Africa (Howard 1989). It was introduced in Hawaii, where it may possibly be invasive (Allen 1998, Chimner <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br><br>The distribution of this species throughout the south mid-Atlantic Islands should be confirmed.
178806		habitat	eng	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002) restricted in areas where the salinity does not exceed 10 g/kg (Chen and Twilley 1999). This species is considered a shrub or tree, growing to 1.5 - 10 m. Growth habit is prostrate in rocky or sandy habitats and erect elsewhere (Howard 1989). This species may demonstrate plasticity in leaf size/shape in response to wind sheer, having most 'streamlined' leaf when compared to the common western mangroves (red, black, and white) making it resilient to high winds (Barrera and Walter 2006).<br><br>This species includes ever-growing shrubs to small trees with no protected terminal buds, thus requiring dormancy in winter (e.g. south Florida populations) (Tomlinson 1986). Flowering and fruiting are continuous throughout the year (Hernandez and Espino 1999). <em>C. erectus</em> has non-viviparous seeds which float and can be dispersed by water. Seed production is high but many are aborted or do not germinate (Tomlinson 1986). Seed viability is shown to be <12% (Hernandez and Espino 1999). The stems can sprout vegetatively (post hurricane) but experimental rooting success of cuttings was shown to be limited (Benitez-Pardo <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br><br>This species provides habitat for a number of species including crabs and also bald eagles (Curnutt and Robertson 1994). As an integral component of most western mangrove assemblages, <em>C. erectus</em> helps buffer the upper edge of highly valuable intertidal mangrove habitats, thus helping to maintain critical habitat.
178806		population	eng	Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development. However, this species is considered somewhat weedy in southern Florida (Tomlinson 1986).
178806		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO, 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178807		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Borneo (West Kalimantan, Indonesia). It has a very limited and patchy distribution within its restricted range as it is only found in freshwater-dominated riverine areas.
178807		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It prefers freshwater and is only found in riverine areas. This species can grow to more than 25 m, but is a slow growing species that is found in single stands up to 70 km from the sea.
178807		population	eng	This species is very rare.
178807		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive habitat loss from logging activities to create timber and palm oil plantations. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178808		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. Protected areas that include this species should be established, and re-introduction programmes initiated.
178808		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in Indonesia (Borneo and Sulawesi), and the Philippines, including Murcielagos Bay in Zamboanga.
178808		habitat	eng	This species is found in the low intertidal region along tidal inlet channels. It stands along tidal creeks in muddy and sandy subtrates. It is sympatric with <em>Camptostemon schultzii</em> on Halmahera, Indonesia.
178808		population	eng	This is a rare species with very restricted distribution. There are very few individuals, even in areas where it is found. In the Philippines, it is estimated that there are less than 1,000 mature individuals. In the Indonesian part of the range it has been estimated that there are less than 200 mature individuals.
178808		threats	eng	This species is highly threatened by removal of mangrove areas to create fish and shrimp ponds in the Philippines, and thorughout its restricted range. It is also subject to localized cutting. It is estimated that at 30% of mangrove area has been lost in countries within this species range over a 25 year period (1980-2005) (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178809		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178809		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range, and is found in Natuna Island, the Halmahera Islands and Irian Jaya, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea.
178809		habitat	eng	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a fast-growing species, that can grow up to 20 m but often only to 5 or 10 m. It is a colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997), and has a high tolerance of hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).
178809		population	eng	This species is widespread but uncommon in the Philippines. In Natuna Island and Halmahera Islands, Indonesia this is a rare species that is patchily distributed.
178809		threats	eng	This species is found in the high intertidal region which is often the first part of mangrove habitat to be removed or affected by human activity, including clearing of land for aquaculture, agriculture and coastal development. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 30% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178810		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. More research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats, as it is not-well known and is often confused with <em>A. aureum</em>.
178810		distribution	eng	This species is found in tropical America along both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts and in western Africa. However, the limits of its distribution are not well known. In the Caribbean, it is found from southern Florida to Rio de Janiero. In the eastern Pacific, it is found from southern Mexico to northern Ecuador. Along the western African coast, it is found from Guinea to Angola.
178810		habitat	eng	This species is a fern and grows in the under canopy. It is found in intermediate upstream and high intertidal areas (Tomlinson 1986).
178810		population	eng	The population status of this species is not well known as it is often confused with <em>A. aureum</em>.
178810		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is often confused with <em>A. aureum</em> which is a threat to other mangrove systems, and in disturbed mangrove systems this species can take over and is difficult to eradicate.
178811		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. <br><br>For Avicenna germinans, mangrove tree planting and silviculture can be used to restore previously stripped areas or to help timber production and to create and protect reserves (Saenger 2002). Restoration of <em>Avicennia</em> is being pursued in Louisiana (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005), Florida (Milano 1999, McKee and Faulkner 2000, Milbrandt and Tinsley 2006), Mexico (Toledo <em>et al</em>. 2001), Costa Rica (Lewis and Marshall 1998) and Colombia (Elster 2000). See the general review by Lewis (2005) for further information. Effectiveness of habitat restoration and success of replantings with <em>A. germinans</em> needs to be assessed; it may be the most promising species for afforesting hypersaline areas.Most seedlings die during natural recruitment events and restoration is challenging.<br><br>Demographic modeling could also be useful to establish a minimum viable population size for <em>A. germinans</em>. Evidence from Florida suggests that invasive species negatively impacts <em>A. germinans</em>, more research is recomended. The studies of the uses and cost/benefit analysis are needed for more areas along Atlantic and Caribbean shores and impacts of harvesting on populations. Expand GIS mapping and remote sensing projects and utilize new Landsat and IKONOS technology to do species-based, landscape-level monitoring of deforestation (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2005).
178811		distribution	eng	This species is probably the most widespread neotropical mangrove. It is reported from the eastern tropical coasts of North and South America ranging from southern Florida and Bermuda, 32°20' to Atafona, Brazil, 21°37' and all Caribbean Islands (status on Anguilla is unknown). <br><br>It has been noted in a discontinuous distribution on the Pacific coast of South America from Puerto Lobos, Mexico (30°15') south to Piura River, Peru (5°32') (de Lacerda 2002) including the Galapagos Islands, Cocos and Malpelo Islands. <br><br>It is also noted from West Africa (Angola, Benin and Togo, Cameroon, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bisau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Sao Tomé and Principe, Senegal, and Sierra Leone.<br><br>The distribution of this species in Brazil is somewhat in question as the species may be mis-identified as <em>A. germinans</em> when in fact it is <em>A. schaueriana</em> (Tomlinson 1995).
178811		habitat	eng	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002) and dominates the zone proximal to open water (McKee 1995). It tends to be found in the mid to high intertidal region, and is infrequently found at the seaward margin (Ellison and Farnsworth 1993, Tomlinson 1994, Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Seedlings are quite tolerant of salinity (up to 900 mol/m3; Suarez and Medina 2005), expecially compared to other neotropical mangroves, and can occupy hypersaline areas (Cardona-Alarte <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, mortality increases and relative growth rate decreases at high salinity values (Suarez and Medina 2005).<br><br>Where it occurs, <em>Avicennia</em> often achieves the highest importance values and basal area (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003), becoming the dominant species in the stand. <em>Avicennia</em> has the broadest temperature tolerance of all neotropical mangroves; however, freezing events have damaged extensive stands (Everitt <em>et al</em>. 1996); some recovery is possible. <em>Avicennia</em> responds negatively to drought (Sobrado 1999). Growth and survival of <em>Avicennia germinans</em> is also reduced when it competes with <em>Spartina alterniflora</em> (the dominant grass at the mangrove-salt marsh interface at the northern edge of the mangrove's range; Patterson <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br><br><em>Avicennia germinans</em> provides critical habitat for several organisms, including crabs (<em>Uca rapax, Sesarma curacoaoense, Aratus pisonii</em>; Warner 1969). 104 species of birds are associated with <em>Avicennia</em> stands in Panama, with significant divergence among stands (Lefebvre and Poulin 1997); nesting habitat for Florida Prairie Warblers and Cuban Yellow Warblers (Prather and Cruz 1995).<br><br><em>Avicennia</em> is important for pollinators; regarded as a source of honey for local <em>Apis mellifera</em> populations (Little and Wadsworth 1964).
178811		population	eng	Genetic studies of <em>Avicennia</em> are numerous as microsatellite loci, RAPDs, and AFLPs have been developed for this species (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2006). Eastern and western Atlantic provenances of <em>Avicennia</em> show significant genetic differentiation, as indicated by leaf chemistry (Dodd and Bousquet-Melou 2000). Studies to date show well-defined genetic structure differentiating western Atlantic from Pacific populations across the isthmus of Panama (Dodd <em>et al</em>. 2002) and among populations sharing a coastline (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br><br>Population information for this species in a number of areas:<br><br>Mouth of Lostman?s River in Everglades National Park, Florida, U.S. 209 individuals counted over 6 transects totaling 0.26 ha (McCoy <em>et al</em>. 1996). Cockroach Bay (part of Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.) contains 537 hectares of mangroves and 120 trees per ha (Dawes <em>et al</em>. 1999) of this species were recorded. In Laguna de Celestun, Yucatan, Mexico, combined data for <em>A. germinans</em>, <em>R. mangle</em> and <em>L. racemosa</em> basal area ranges from 21 square meters/ha to 36 square meters/ha (Herrera-Silveira and Ramirez-Ramirez 1998). In Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles: 0.50 tree/square meter (De Meyer, 1998). Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Venezuela: 68% <em>R. mangle</em>, 29% <em>L. racemosa</em>, 8% <em>A. germinans</em>, 1% unidentified total tree density 348 trees/0.1 ha (Bone <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br><br>In Cartagena and Barbacoas Bays (Calderón-Sáenz 1984) and Port Royal mangal, this species grows in a mixed zone of <em>R. mangle</em>, <em>A. germinans</em> and <em>L. racemosa</em> that is bordered by a dense monospecific stand of <em>R. mangle</em> and a monospecific stand of <em>C. erectus</em>. (Alleng 1998). In Bahía Las Minas on the Caribbean coast of Panama, there are 1,200 ha of mangroves, which is about 0.3% of the total mangroves in Panama (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species can dominate sites further inland in Belize where the soil salinity increased through evaporation (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003).
178811		threats	eng	Black mangroves are threatened by habitat conversion, pollution, hurricanes and other threats, which have resulted in declines throughout the wider Caribbean region. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178812		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178812		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, southern Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (Sheue <em>et al</em>. 2009).
178812		habitat	eng	The northern population of <em>C. zippeliana</em> is found in the mid to high intertidal zone in intermediate regions of estuaries. This species generally grows to 3 m or more, and is considered to be a slow-growing species. Individuals of this population grow as single stemmed small tree that can grow under larger trees (Primavera <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The southern population of <em>C. zippeliana</em> is found in the mid to high intertidal zone in intermediate regions of estuaries. This species generally grows to 3 m or more, and is considered to be a slow-growing species. Individuals of this population grow as an undercanopy species and is a multistemmed shruby tree (Duke 2006).
178812		population	eng	<em>C. zippeliana</em> is considered common throughout its range.
178812		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178813		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.
178813		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Brunei Darussalam, Hainan Is, China (Duke 2006), Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, south Viet Nam, and India (including Andaman and Nicobar Is). This species is also found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
178813		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. This species is more tolerant of saline inundation than <em>A. aureum</em>. It is opportunistic and colonizes disturbed areas. It is fast growing, and very robust. It is a medium sized herbaceous fern.
178813		population	eng	This species is common in much of its range. This species may in fact be increasing as it is easily colonizes cleared areas. It is very difficult to eradicate in situations where it overtakes previous mangrove systems. It can take over open areas.
178813		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species, and in fact is a threat to other mangrove systems. In disturbed mangrove systems this species can take over and is difficult to eradicate.
178814		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. It is planted in some villages in Malaysia and Indonesia as a food source.
178814		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brunei Darussalam, China (Hainan Island), Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, Visayan Islands and northern Mindinao Philippines, Palau, and southern Papua New Guinea.
178814		habitat	eng	It is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a fast-growing and pioneering species that colonizes newly formed mudflats (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997). It can grow up to 20 m, and is found on primarily on firm mud on <em>terra firma</em>, which is the farthest distance from shore.
178814		population	eng	This is species can be locally common, but is some regions it can also be rare. As with most mangrove species, this species becomes increasingly more rare at the extremities of its ranges.
178814		threats	eng	This species is found primarily on the landward margin, and therefore it is more threatened by human activities and coastal development than other more seaward mangrove species. It is especially threatened by fish and shrimp pond development in the Philippines, and throughout its range. There has been an estimated 28% decline of mangrove area within its range over the past 25 years (1980-2005) (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178815		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. For examples, this species is found in several protected areas within its range including the Sundarbans. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178815		distribution	eng	This species is found the Sundarbans (Beautiful Forest) in India, Bangladesh, (Irrawaddy) Myanmar, Thailand, and northern Malaysia which is its southernmost limit.
178815		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. It prefers freshwater, and is fast-growing in low-saline environments. It occurs in stands and grows up to 25 m. It is the only <em>Heritiera</em> species that produces pneumatophores.
178815		population	eng	This species can be locally common and abundant in some parts of its range such as the Sundarbans and in Bangladesh, but has a limited overall distribution. In Bangladesh and India, this species is rapidly declining. For example, in India, this species was found in only 6% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).
178815		threats	eng	This species is quickly disappearing in many parts of its range due to coastal development (creation of ponds), disease, typhoons, and in areas where there has been a reduction in freshwater flow (creation of dams). Wide areas of Thailand?s mangroves have been selectively cut for charcoal and export. Shrimp farming has also increased since the 1970s and has led to the clearance of large areas that include this species. Coastal development (urban, industrial, agriculture) is another leading cause of mangrove removal in Thailand, and salt ponds and mining have led to mangrove loss (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).There has been an estimated population decline of 50% to 80% based on decline of mangrove area in the western coast of penninsular Malaysia due to coastal development and extraction since the 1950s, primarily due to the clearing of mangroves for rice farming, shrimp aquaculture and coastal development in uptream areas where this species can be found (Ong 1995, 2003).<br/><br/>Another major threat to this species is "top-dying disease," and the cause is unknown. It is also being replaced by palm oil plantations in Malaysia, especially as it is found at the landward margin where mangrove species are most vulnerable to coastal development and human activities.<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178816		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178816		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India, including the Andaman and Nicobar islands, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra), Thailand, and Viet Nam. It possibly occurs in Myanmar. However, it is very patchily distributed and uncommon throughout its range, with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
178816		habitat	eng	This is a back mangroves species. Individuals often occur in scattered stands of other mangrove species. This species can also form stands of its own in some areas.
178816		population	eng	This is an uncommon species in much of its range and has a very patchy distribution. It is considered common in Viet Nam. This species is experiencing population declines throughout its range due to extensive coastal development.
178816		threats	eng	This species is patchily distributed within its relatively restricted range. Intensive coastal development and extraction of mangroves resources is occuring throughout its range. It is a back mangrove species, and is therefore particularly vulnerable to coastal development and sea-level rise. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178817		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178817		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brunei Darussalam, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, India (including the Sunderbands, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. In Australasia it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
178817		habitat	eng	This species is found on banks of tidal waterways, creeks and rivers, and in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. This species is a small tree up to 10 metres.
178817		population	eng	This species appears in small numbers in most areas of its range. It is considered rare in India and Sri Lanka.
178817		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178818		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In Indonesia, a number of protected areas and mangrove greenbelts have been designated. Detailed guidelines for sustainable forestry have been made, and there have been small reafforestation schemes in some areas (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).
178818		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, including Halmahera, Molluccas, Irian Jaya and Aru Island. It is also found in Australasia, including Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.
178818		habitat	eng	This species grows at the mid to low intertidal areas and along seashores. It is found in the intermediate to downstream estuarine zone in the low to mid-intertidal region. It is shade tolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 75 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It grows into large trees in the Gulf of Papua. In Australia it thrives along dry shorelines (Duke 2006.)
178818		population	eng	This species is locally common in northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea. For example, the species is common from Cape Bossut to Grove in the Northern Territory, Australia and is uncommon in the Joseph Onaparte Gulf region and the north coast of Melville Island (Wells 1983).
178818		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178819		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Research on neotropical populations of R. racemosa are nearly nonexistent, and the majority of studies from Africa are floristic, not ecological. Too often, the species is conflated with accounts of its congener, <em>Rhizophora mangle</em> (Duke and Allen 2006). Species-specific, targeted studies are sorely needed.<br><br>Restoration and replanting to date have been a focus only in west Africa (FAO Forestry Paper 117). Much more research needs to be done on this species.
178819		distribution	eng	This species range is restricted and patchy along the Pacific coast of Central America, the northern coast of South America, and western Africa. <br><br>In the Americas, it is reported from Brazil (Couto <em>et al</em>. 2003), Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). In the Eastern Pacific, it is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including Cocos Island. In West Africa, this species is much more widespread than in the Americas and is found from southern Mauritania to Angola.
178819		habitat	eng	<em>R. racemosa</em> typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002). It is reported from intermediate tidal and riverine locations (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). Drought and high soil salinities inhibit landward establishment (Jimenez and Sauter 1991). It is prodigous where competition with <em>Avicennia</em> species is minimized (Jimenez and Sauter 1991).<br><br><em>R. racemosa</em> may provide critical habitat for the Prothonotary Warbler (<em>Protonotaria citrea</em>, listed as LC) (Woodcock 2006).
178819		population	eng	This species can reach population sizes in the thousands on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Jimenez 1988, Jimenez and Sauter 1991) and in French Guiana (Fromard <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are also extensive stands in west Africa, but these stands are harvested for timber and are threatened by the newly-introduced species, <em>Nypa fruticans</em>. <br><br>There is limited information on the genetics of this species. One study of foliar alkanes suggested that high intra-populational variability exists (Afzal-Rafii <em>et al</em>. 1999).
178819		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 15% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Specific threats have been documented to certain populations in the Caribbean region, including sedimentation and limited cutting. In western Africa, the species is threatened by invasive species and overharvesting. In addition, erosion and water pollution from agricultural runoff are cited by Paez (1994) as a threat to <em>R. racemosa</em> in Colombia. The species is likely to be vulnerable to drought and increasing salinity (Jimenez and Sauter 1991), and invasive <em>Nypa fruticans</em> in West Africa threatens <em>R. racemosa</em> directly.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178820		conservation	eng	Conservation measures include planting, legal protection, protected areas, and sustainable use management. In Bangladesh and India this species is grown in plantations. This species range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178820		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and southern Papua New Guinea.
178820		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 63 ppt (Robertson and Alongi, 1992). This species grows on soft, recently consolidated mudbanks. This species is a tree or shrub that grows to 25 m, but is more often seen at 5-10 m. This species is a fast-growing species. It is a colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia. (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997) and has a high tolerance of hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).
178820		population	eng	This species is common within its range. In India, this species was found in 45% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).<br><br>This species can have different leaf morphologies that may be influenced by environmental factors. The different varieties have been indicated by preliminary genetic studies (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998).
178820		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by consumption by domestic livestock (goats, buffalo, cattle). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178821		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178821		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia south to King Sound, Northeast Australia south to Pioneer River (Duke 2006), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.
178821		habitat	eng	This species is found in downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the mid-intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 66 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-34 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a slow-growing species that grows to 25 m height.
178821		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range. However in India, this species was found in only 10% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). At the extremities of its range such as in India it is considered rare.
178821		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178822		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. It is grown in plantations in India, Viet Nam, and in the Philippines.
178822		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, India (including Nicobar and Andaman Islands), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines (in Luzon it is absent in La Union province), Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia it can be found in southwest Australia, northwest Australia, northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. In East Africa and the Middle East the species is found in Tanzania, Mozambique, Somalia, Madagascar, Seychelles, Kenya, Maldives, South Africa.
178822		habitat	eng	This species is found from downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the mid to high intertidal regions. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 45 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 0-15 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is slow-growing but is a hardy species and is very prolific.
178822		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range. In India, this species was found in 30% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). However, populations in Taiwan and throughout China (except for Hainan province) have been extirpated over at least the past 10 years.
178822		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 18% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178823		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.<br><br>Research is needed to establish a minimum viable population size for the taxon. Demographic modeling could also be useful. Research on exploitation and impacts of harvesting on populations is needed. More cost/benefit analyses of mangrove conversion, particularly in Brazil, are critical because the mangrove crab (<em>Ucides cordatus</em>) is extensively harvested from intact mangroves for subsistence and regional markets. <br><br>New Landsat and IKONOS technology can and should be used to conduct species-based, landscape-level monitoring of deforestation (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2005). More research is needed to document <em>Avicennia</em>'s influences on water quality, erosion control and pollution buffering. All conservation of <em>Avicennia</em> (indeed, any mangrove species) needs to be undertaken at the habitat level.
178823		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution as it is found from the lower Lesser Antilles and the Atlantic coast of northern South America from Guyana south to Suriname. It is absent from French Guiana (Dodd and Rafii 2002). However, Brazil contains over 90% of the estimated areal extent of this species (Wilkie and Fortuna 2003).
178823		habitat	eng	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002). It is a small tree, 15-20 m in size. There are no data on age and size of maturity. This species is very tolerant of high salinity and of cold (Tomlinson 1995).<br><br>In Northern Brazil, mangrove swamps dominated by <em>A. schaueriana</em> provide critical habitat for the mangrove crab <em>Ucides cordatus</em>. This crab is collected both for subsistence use and for regional/national markets. In some areas of northern Brazil, community-based initiatives are effectively managing the crab harvest and the mangrove forests. However, in other areas, the crabs are overharvested and the mangroves are being cut relatively rapidly, further reducing habitat for the crabs (Diele <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glaser and Diele 2004).
178823		population	eng	Although there is no species specific population information, there are areas of significant population decline throughout its range.<br><br>Genetic studies of <em>Avicennia</em> are numerous as microsatellite loci, RAPDs, and AFLPs have been developed for this species (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2006). Eastern and western Atlantic provenances of Avicennia show significant genetic differentiation, as indicated by leaf chemistry (Dodd and Bousquet-Melou 2000). Studies to date show well-defined genetic structure differentiating western Atlantic from Pacific populations across the isthmus of Panama (Dodd <em>et al</em>. 2002) and among populations sharing a coastline (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2005).
178823		threats	eng	In Brazil this species is threatened by aquaculture development, human settlement and water pollution (Barth <em>et al</em>. 2006; Pagliosa 2004. But Brazil has only lost an estimated 5% of its mangrove area since 1980 (FAO 2007). <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ ast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178824		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178824		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the tropical areas of northwest Australia, northeast Australia, southern Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia (southern Papua only).
178824		habitat	eng	This species is found in downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in mid to high intertidal region. It can tolerate a maximum salinity of 80 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 15-30 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is a slow-growing species, but is hardy in extreme conditions at the edge of salt pans (arid, high salinity). This species is a tree or shrub that grows to 10 m.
178824		population	eng	This species is common within its range, however many identifications may have been confused with <em>C. tagal</em>.
178824		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178825		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is the most preferred species for mangrove restoration.
178825		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread. The South Asian range includes Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Taiwan, Japan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and southern Viet Nam. The Australasian range includes Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. In East Africa and the Middle East it is present in Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Yemen, Oman, and United Arab Emirates. There are historical records from the Arabian Sea, although it has long been extirpated.
178825		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate to upstream estuarine zone in the lower to mid-intertidal region, and more to the seaward side. This species tolerates a maximum salinity of 40 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-33 ppt. (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a hardy species that is easily propagated and is fast-growing. It can grow up to 35 m, and can grow to 6 m high within seven years on plantations (Sukardjo and Yamada 1992). <br><br>In the eastern portion of its range, this species tends to grow closer to freshwater influences while in the western portion of its range it tends to grow closer to the seaward side. More genetic work is needed to determine if this may represent different species.
178825		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, in India, this species was found in 45% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). This species is similar in morphology and genetics to <em>R. stylosa</em>, and only differs by the length of the style.
178825		threats	eng	In South Andaman, 30-80% of Rhizophora spp. died due to continuous inundation after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004 (Roy and Krishnan 2005). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178826		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In Indonesia, a number of protected areas and mangrove greenbelts have been designated, detailed guidelines for sustainable forestry have been made, and there have been small reafforestation schemes in some areas (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).
178826		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (including Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Irian Jaya, Sulewesi, and Kalimantan), northwest Australia, northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.
178826		habitat	eng	This species is found in intermediate to upstream estuarine zones in the high intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 72 ppt, and a salinity of optimal growth of 8 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species grows from 3 to 10 m tall.
178826		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. For example, this species is reasonably well represented amongst the fringing vegetation along tidal waterways throughout northern Australia except along the west Australian coastline where it is infrequently observed (Wells 1983).
178826		threats	eng	This species occurs in the high intertidal region, which is usually the first to impacted by human activities and coastal development. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178827		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178827		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (Bali, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Halmahira, Irian Jaya, Tanimbar Aru, Molluccas) and in northwest Australia, northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.
178827		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a fast-growing and pioneering species (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species can grow up to 30 m in the center of its range. On the extremities of its range, it grows only to less than 10 m.
178827		population	eng	This species is common in the center of its range (Molluccas, Halmahira, and Irian Jaya - which is thought to be the center of the population), and rare on the extremeties such as in Bali. It is also rare in North Queensland where it is only known from two locations, but is more common in northwestern Australia.
178827		threats	eng	This is threatened by coastal development throughout its range. In Austrailia, this species is especially threatened by urban development around Cairns and Darwin, as it is located on the landward margin of mangrove habitat. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178828		conservation	eng	This species range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Conservation measures for this species include planting, management for sustainable use, and legal protection in some areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178828		distribution	eng	In South Asia this species is found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Australasia it is found in Southwest Australia, Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu. The species also occurs in Guam and Micronesia.<br><br>It can be found in East Africa and the Middle East including Bahrain, Djbouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mozambique, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.
178828		habitat	eng	Avicennia marina is a shrub to medium sized tree, 2-5 m tall (Peng and Xin-men 1983). This species is found from downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in all intertidal regions (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is found at the mouth of rivers or in lower tidal areas (Peng and Xin-men 1983). It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 85 ppt. Optimal growth occurs at a salinity of 0-30 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). <br><br>This is a pioneer species on newly formed habitats of mud with a high proportion of sand, but does not seem to grow on pure mud (Peng and Xin-men 1983). It is a hardy species in natural conditions and regenerates quickly from coppices, both as individuals and as a species. It is a colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997), and has a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions.
178828		population	eng	This is a very common, widespread species. <br><br>A species specific dieback was observed in Queensland affecting 30 km² of mangrove in five separate estuaries. The dieback began in 1998 and was observed by Duke <em>et al</em>. (2005) during surveys taken between 2000 and 2002. Apparent causes include high concentrations of the herbicide diuron and excessive nutrients, which may have facilitated the uptake of toxic compounds (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2005). Between 1980 and 2000 there was a 16% loss in the region (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007). Overall, there is an average of 0.8% habitat decline per year within the distribution of this species (Duke e<em>t al</em>. 2007).
178828		threats	eng	This species is highly sensitive to herbicides (N. Duke pers. comm.). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178829		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. <br><br>This species needs clarification of its distribution, taxonomy, and morphological characteristics.
178829		distribution	eng	This species has a discontinuous distribution. It is found in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar,Thailand, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, eastern Indonesia (West Irian, Halmahera, Moluccas, Seram, Ambon, Aru, Tanimbar Islands) and the Philippines from Panay Island to Mindanao. However, the distribution of this species may be wider than recorded at present.<br><br>The recorded species in Thailand may represent another species (J. Yong pers. comm.)
178829		habitat	eng	This species is a small tree or a shrub up to 15 m and is found in the high intertidal region and intermediate upstream esturine position. This is a slow growing species.
178829		population	eng	This species can be locally common, but is considered an uncommon species in the eastern part of its range. In India, it is common in Orissa and Sundarbands, and is rare in Maharashtra and the Andamans.<br><br>Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178829		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178830		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. This species may be planted in some areas within its range. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178830		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Asia, including Darussalam, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and the southcentral coast of Viet Nam. In Australasia, it is found in the Yap Islands (Federated States of Micronesia), Palau, northern Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
178830		habitat	eng	This species is found along tidal riverbanks in the downstream estuarine zone, and in the lower and middle intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It occurs as a tree or shrub that grows to 25 m, often around 10 m. It is fast-growing and sprouts easily from coppicing. Both <em>Avicennia</em> and <em>Sonneratia</em> species are the colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997).
178830		population	eng	This species can be locally common throughout its range. In India, this species was present in 65 of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).<br><br>There are several varieties of this species that may be reflected in leaf morphology and is reflected in preliminary genetic studies (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known that leaf morphlogy is influenced by environmental factors, including salinity, insect damage (Kathiresan 2008), nutrients, and sun exposure. Avicennia is a pantropical genus of about 8 species occupying diverse mangrove habitats. They can occur within the normal tide range or in back mangrove areas. They have a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).
178830		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is conversion of tidal wetlands to fish ponds and other land uses within its range.This species is locally threatened due to destruction of mangrove habitat within its range, particularly at the extremities of its range. Mangrove habitat within this species range has declined at least 24% (FAO 2007) over a twenty-five year period (1980-2005).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178831		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.<br><br>In the Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga, legislation exists to control the use of mangroves but is not always exercised. Fiji has a long history of mangroves being considered as part of the national forest reserve, but in 1975 they were placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of Lands and Survey and now significant areas have been degraded.
178831		distribution	eng	In the eastern Pacific, this species is found from central Mexico to northern Peru. In Australasia, is it found in Fiji, New Caledonia, Tonga, Samoa, and American Samoa.
178831		habitat	eng	This species is found from downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the lower to mid-intertidal region. This species easily propagates, and is very adaptable to different environments. This species occurs on the seaward side of lagoons, which is a very narrow margin in Samoa and Tonga. In Samoa this species has poor regeneration (Gilliman and Ellison 2007). <br/><br/>In the Darien (Panama) and in Ecuador, this species can grow to 60 m. In Polynesia, this species generally grows to only 10 m, but larger species can be found in New Caledonia.
178831		population	eng	Along the western coast of the Americas this species is considered common. In the Southern Pacific, this species is common in New Caledonia, less common in Fiji, and can be rare in Samoa.
178831		threats	eng	This species is heavily utilized throughout its range. Along the western coast of the Americas, this species is harvested for fuelwood and is commercially exploited for construction purposes. In the South Pacific this species is heavily utilized for fuelwood, construction of fish traps and fishing gear. Infilling for agriculture and commercial land development has lead to significant loss of mangrove area in New Zealand (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178832		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178832		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, China, South Taiwan, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Indonesia. In Australasia it is found in northeast Australia, northwest Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.
178832		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal regions (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is often sympatric with <em>Acanthus ilicifolius</em>. This species naturally reproduces vegetatively and also by seeds, therefore generation length is difficult to determine.
178832		population	eng	This is a very common and widespread species. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178832		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 22% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178833		conservation	eng	<em>Pelliciera</em> was listed as Vulnerable in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants, but it was not evaluated for inclusion in the 1998 IUCN Red List of Threatened Trees. The majority of <em>Pelliciera</em> populations are not found in protected areas, one exception is the presence of this species on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica inside Tamarindo and Puntarenas National Parks.<br><br>Recommended research for this species would be to search for additional populations on both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Central America. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178833		distribution	eng	This species has a limited and patchy distribution. It is found in only five small populations on the Caribbean coast of Central and South America, including Nicaragua (Bluefields), Panama (Bocas del Toro, Bahia las Minas) and Colombia (Bahias det Cartagena y Barbacoa). There are also some small patches of this species on the Pacific coasts of Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (reviews in Jimenez 1984, Fuchs 1970), and southwestern Nicaragua.<br><br>The area of occupancy for this species is estimated to be between 500 km and 2,000 km².
178833		habitat	eng	The population biology of this species has not been studied in great detail. Populations are generally small and restricted to a narrow band of salinity. It is small tree (5-10 m) that grows in muddy substrates with variable amounts of sand and mangrove peat, occasionally with coral fragments. It typically grows in dense groups mainly in protected areas where <em>R. mangle</em> dominates, or in pure stands. Its presence is linked with a supply of fresh water. It is a minor constituent of undisturbed areas but becomes a dense stand in areas where trees were removed if fresh water is available. (Calderón-Sáenz 1984). <em>Pelliciera</em> may be more sensitive to high soil salinities than other Neotropical mangroves. It grows best on wet soils, shallowly inundated at high tides, and on firm, sandy, slightly elevated soils that are located in the interchannel areas. This species is not found in soil salinities higher than 37 ppt (Winograd 1983, Jimenez 1984).<br><br><em>Pelliciera</em> provides the primary habitat for the mangrove hummingbird (<em>Amazonina boucardi</em>), which is listed as Endangered (EN) on the Red List of Threatened Species.
178833		population	eng	This species has a restricted, probably shrinking distribution. On the Caribbean coast of Central and South America, there are only five small relict populations. In a study in the early 1990s in Nicaragua, only a few individuals of <em>P. rhizophorae</em> were recorded in Bluefields (Roth 1991). Reports included ten seedlings, and one sapling in 0.15 ha, but no adults in Bluefields. In Colombia, <em>P. rhizophorae</em> is found in Cartagena Bay on the south side near the river and Barbacoas Bay (10°20'N, 75°30'W and 10°10'N, 75°35'W respectively) (Calderón-Sáenz 1984). In Panama, <em>P. rhizophora</em> is found only in Bahía Las Minas (9º25'N, 79º50'W), where it occurs as isolated individuals within an approximately 1,200 ha stand of mangroves (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br><br>There are also less than ten patchy, relict populations remaining on the Pacific coasts of Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (reviews in Jimenez 1984, Fuchs 1970). On the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, this species is only found at Tamarindo and Puntarenas, within an estimated distribution of two hectares (Ellison and Farnsworth pers. comm.).<br><br>Recent genetic work suggests that populations of Pelliciera are highly differentiated (high variation among populations): Castillo-Cardenas <em>et al</em>. (2005). N. Duke (unpublished, cited in Duke and Watkinson 2002) has reported albino propagules of <em>P. rhizophorae</em>, a phenomenon often associated with pollution and leading to low viability.
178833		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 27% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007). Due to the fragmented nature of the distribution and small population size, <em>Pelliciera</em> is at particular risk from stochastic events. For example, the Nicaraguan population was impacted by a severe hurricane in the late 1980s (Roth 1992).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178834		conservation	eng	This species is currently being studied for propagation techniques. It is recommended that protected areas be made for its habitat and active planning for its conservation take place. More research is needed to determine this species population status in other countries within its presumed range.
178834		distribution	eng	This species has a very limited patchy distribution. It has been known to be previously present in South Asia in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Singapore. However, current estimates of known individuals are only from Singapore, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea. In Australasia it is found in Papua New Guinea (Frodin <em>et al</em>. 1982, Percival and Womersley 1975), and there are reports that it is also found in Timika and Bintuni Bay, Irian Jaya (S.Sukardjo pers. comm.).
178834		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It has very low rates of propagation and low rates of germination. It takes 18 months to go through maturation cycle. It can grow up to 30 m tall.
178834		population	eng	This species has a very small population and is naturally rare. It has a total known population of approximately 200 trees including: <br><br>80 trees in Malaysia (S. Tan, pers. comm.)<br>3 trees in Singapore<br>120 trees west Papua, Papua New Guinea.
178834		threats	eng	This species has very low rates of propagation and low rates of germination. It is threatened by extensive coastal development within its range, especially as it occurs primarily in back mangrove areas. There has been at least a 27% loss of mangrove area in countries within this species range between 1980 and 2005 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178835		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178835		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range. It is found along the eastern coast of India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia (Molluccas, Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, Natuna Island), Singapore, Philippines, and Brunei.
178835		habitat	eng	This species is found along tidal creeks, canals, and shallow channels. This is a brackish water species that grows to two metres, and rarely to five metres. It is fast growing and found in pure stands.
178835		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range, but is considered very rare in the far western portion of its range. In India for example, there are only approximately 2,500 mature individuals which are restricted to the eastern coast of India and the Andaman Islands.
178835		threats	eng	This species is found primarily on the landward marigin, and therefore it is more threatened by human activities and coastal development than other more seaward mangrove species. It is especially threatened by coastal development, including fish and shrimp pond development throughout its range. In India, it is primarily threatened by loss of habitat from erosion and anthropogenic development. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 26% decline in mangrove areas in countries within the primary part (Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia) of this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178836		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.<br><br>More research is needed on this species distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology, and major threats.
178836		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is not well known. It is found in India, the Sundamans, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar. In Australasia the species is found in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
178836		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It occurs in back stands, but there is little information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.
178836		population	eng	Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178836		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ ast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178837		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178837		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Papua New Guinea.
178837		habitat	eng	It is often sympatric with other <em>Acanthus</em> species, and is found more landward among the <em>Acanthus</em> species. It tends to have very few thorns and is a climbing species.
178837		population	eng	This is an uncommon <em>Acanthus</em> species compaired to <em>A. ilicifolius</em> and <em>A. ebracteatus</em>. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178837		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178838		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Recommended conservation measures include establishing a system to control the ornamental plant industry and regulating the removal of wild individuals.
178838		distribution	eng	In South Asia, this species is found in Indonesia, Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam, and Thailand. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, Sololmon Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, and Palau. It is also found in the Pacific Islands, from the Marshall Islands to at least as far as Tonga in the east Pacific. In East Africa, this species is found in British Indian Ocean Territory, Maldives, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zanzibar, and Seychelles.
178838		habitat	eng	This species lives in calcarious rocky and sandy beaches high in the intertidal zone, and often above the high tide line. This species is beneficial for shoreline protection against high wind. It is a very sturdy and resilient plant, however, it will not grow anywhere other than the appropriate habitat type.
178838		population	eng	This is a common species in certain areas, and it is widespread. In the Pacific Islands, the population is considered stable. However, this species has experienced population declines in some regions due to habitat loss and the collection for use in the bonsai trade.
178838		threats	eng	Collection for trade as bonsai ornaments is a local threat to this species. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178839		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178839		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted and patchy range in Bangladesh, India (mainly found in the Sundarbans where they are common, and Andra Pradesh, Andamans and Nicolbar where they are rare), Myanmar, Thailand, and a in a single location in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It is estimated that its total area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
178839		habitat	eng	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal region. This is a small shrub less of than two metres.
178839		population	eng	This species ranges from common to rare, and has a very patchy distribution. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178839		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178840		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178840		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Maldives.
178840		habitat	eng	This species is found in downstream and intermediate estuarine zones in the mid-intertidal region. It is shade tolerant (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species has a high regeneration potential, although it has a slow-growth rate. When mangroves are cut, this is one of the first species to return after <em>Acrostichium</em> species. Occationally this species can be found in pure stands.
178840		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178840		threats	eng	This species is often targeted for timber, as it grows straight and is considered good for construction and charcoal production. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178841		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.This species is planted for mangrove restoration in India and Bangladesh.
178841		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bangladesh, Myanmar, and India, including the Andaman and Nicobar islands. It has been introduced into Fujian and Guangdong provinces China.
178841		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the low to mid-intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is fast-growing species and hardy, but the seed viability is low (less than three months). It can form monotypic stands, and is a pioneering species that colonizes on newly formed mudflats (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997). It grows up to 20 m, but more commonly grows to between 12 and 15 m.
178841		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its restricted range. In India, this species was found in 40% in 100 sampling sites (Katherisan 2008), but is considered rare in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In some parts of south India, this species has become locally extinct.
178841		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 7% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178842		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178842		distribution	eng	In South Asia this species is found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam. The species also occurs in the Maldives.<br/><br/>In Australasia it can be found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu.
178842		habitat	eng	This is a back mangrove species and often exploits open areas and is tolerant of distrurbed areas. It is a small to medium sized tree with extensive cable roots. It has multiple stems. It can be decidiuous in cooler/drier areas. It produces a latex (milky sap) that causes temporary blindness. <em>Hibiscus tiliaceus</em> is its main associate in China (Peng and Xin-men 1983).
178842		population	eng	This species is reasonably abundant throughout its range and is a very widespread species. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178842		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Howevever, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178843		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In Fujan province, China this species has been introduced and is grown in plantations to protect coastal regions.
178843		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and found in India, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. In China, this species is restricted to Hainan Island, where it is uncommon. It was introduced into Hawaii in 1922.
178843		habitat	eng	This species is found in intermediate to upstream estuarine zones in middle intertidal regions. It is restricted to larger riverine estuaries and tidal swamps, and prefers a maximum porewater salinity of 33 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a slow-growing species that can grow to 30 m. It is often associated with <em>Sonneratia caseolaris</em>.
178843		population	eng	This species is uncommon in many parts of its range. In India, this species was found in 30% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). It is common in Sundabands and Orissa, and rare in Andaman Islands and in Kerala. This species occurs in densities of approximately 6 trees/ha in Pagbilao, Philiippines.
178843		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178844		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178844		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range, and is endemic to northern Australia. It is found in only 15 locations (riverine-estuaries), and has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².
178844		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the low intertidal region. It is only found in low intertidal zone and in the mid-upstream position of larger catchments or riverine-affected estuaries. It grows on soft-intertidal mud banks of convex meandering riverbanks (accreting zone). This species is a tree or shrub, 2-7 m tall. This species has a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).
178844		population	eng	It is estimated that there are only a few hundred individuals in each of the 15 locations where it is found. The global population is therefore estimated to be between 3,000 and 5,000 mature individuals.
178844		threats	eng	This species is found in a remote area of northern Australia where the climate appears to be getting increasingly wet as the local climate changes. This may be potentially favorable for the persistance of the species. However, this species is threatened by continued loss of habitat and area of occupancy due to urban development in the western part of its range (near Darwin).<br/><br/>Direct use of mangroves in is not common in Australia, and vast areas of mangrove remain in a pristine state. In the past, European colonists cleared areas of mangroves for community development. Currently, mangroves are being cleared for urban development, ports, airports, and tourist resorts, but the overall impact on Australian mangroves is low (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178845		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178845		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China (Hainan Island), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. The Australasian range includes Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. It is also found in East Africa, including Somalia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Seychelles, and Tanzania.
178845		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal regions along banks of tidal creeks. <br>This species grows to as a large tree, and is slow growing. The species is mostly scattered, but sometimes grows in stands.
178845		population	eng	This is a very common species and is widespread, although it is considered less common in East Africa. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178845		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178846		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. This species is used for a number of services and is sometimes planted along dykes of ponds.
178846		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Asia in Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea. In East Africa and the Middle East, this species is found in British Indian Ocean Territory, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania.
178846		habitat	eng	This back mangrove species is found most often in the upstream zones in the mid to high intertidal region. It can also be found along sandy beaches. It is a colonising species and grows relatively quickly, and is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 78 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992).
178846		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178846		threats	eng	This species is particularly sensitive to siltation from upstream, land use changes, and erosion. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 19% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Species that occur at the landward edge, or upstream in tidal estuaries include <em>Nypa fruticans, Heritiera littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum, Lumnitzera racemosa, Lumnitzera littorea, Sonneratia caseolaris, Sonneratia lanceolata</em>, and<em> Bruguiera sexangula</em>. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178847		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178847		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Tropical Pacific from Mexico to Colombia.
178847		habitat	eng	This species is a canopy tree at 15 m height, and occurs in relatively dry, flat areas compared to other mangroves. It is found in the down-stream high intertidal region where river mouths meet the sea. This species has a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions.
178847		population	eng	This species has experienced population declines of aproximately 31% over the past 30 years based on total loss of mangrove habitat throughout its range (FAO 2007).
178847		threats	eng	This species has a limited range in the Eastern Pacific. Throughout its distribution, it occurs in areas that are commonly cleared for cattle grazing and other types of farming. Cattle that feed under mangroves reduce regeneration capacity and damage the root structure and leaves of the mature trees. In addition, its habitat (dry mud flats) is commonly developed by people, resulting in extensive removal of mangroves in these areas. Similarly, it is a species that lives in a high risk area for urban and aquaculture deveopment. Over the last 30 years (1980 to 2005) there has been an estimated reduction of at least 31% (FAO 2007), but as high as 42% based on a yearly reduction of 1.4% between 1980 and 2000 (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007) in mangrove area within its range.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178848		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. More research is need on this species distribution, population, basic botany, habitat requirements, and threats.
178848		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is not well known. It is likely present in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and most of Indonesia (except Java, Sumatra and the lesser Sunda Islands) (Giesen, 2007). There are records from Medan, Sumatra from the 1990s where this species was considered locally common. This species is thought to have been previously present in Singapore.
178848		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It grows on the landward margin of mangrove habitat, in riverine areas. It grows to approximately 10 m.
178848		population	eng	This species used to be common, but the population has not been well studied. The population trend of this species is unknown. It is likely extinct in Singapore.
178848		threats	eng	This species is found primarily on <em>terra firma</em>, on the landward margin, and therefore it is more threatened by human activities and coastal development than other more seaward mangrove species. Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 26% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178849		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178849		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution and is found in eastern Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Palau It is also in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea.
178849		habitat	eng	It is also found in sandy soils at river mouths and mid-high intertidal. It lives in high shore areas and on rocky shores, and is not tolerant of fresh water. This species has multiple stems and is a hardy species, but is slow growing. This species exists in stands of shrubs and small trees up to five metres.
178849		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution and is uncommon. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178849		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178850		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. <br><br>In the Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga, legislation exists to control the use of mangroves but is not always exercised. Fiji has a long history of mangroves being considered as part of the national forest reserve, but in 1975 they were placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of Lands and Survey and now significant areas have been degraded. In the Philippines, this species is replanted for mangrove restoration.
178850		distribution	eng	This species is found South Asia, including India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Orissa State), China (from Hainan Island to Taiwan), Indonesia (not found in Kalimantan), Japan, Philippines, Singapore, northern Viet Nam, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, and Thailand. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Northern Marianas, the Marshall Islands, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Kirabati, Nauru, and Vanuatu. This species may have been introduced into French Polynesia, as it was cited there in the 1960s (Taylor 1981).
178850		habitat	eng	This species is always found at the mouth of estuaries. It is commonly found in open seawater on fairly exposed shores, including on live reef and sandy shores. This species can grow to 30 m, but is more common at 5-10 m. This species is hardy, but if the mature plants are disturbed it can be difficult for them to re-establish, especially in active surf zones.
178850		population	eng	This species is common in most of its range in the Southwest Pacific and Australia, but is considered uncommon in India.
178850		threats	eng	As this species is found in open seawater or at the seaward edge of estuaries, it is one of the most vulnerable mangrove species to climate change and rising sea-level. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178851		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178851		distribution	eng	This species is native along the Atlantic coast from Florida to Southern Brazil, and from western Africa from Senegal to Angola (Howard 1989). Freezing sets the northern limit of mangrove forests (Stuart <em>et al</em>. 2007), which was recently defined for <em>R. mangle</em> at 29°42'94"N, 81°14'35"W in the continental United States (Zomlefer <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, Bermuda is the most northerly extent of its range (Thomas 1993, Smith 1998).<br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>Presences in the middle Atlantic Islands has been recorded for this species (Trinidade e Martim Vaz, St. Helenia, Ascension-), but this is not confirmed.
178851		habitat	eng	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002). It typically dominates the zone proximal to open water (McKee 1995). It grows as a shrub to small tree from 1-8 m in the Caribbean (Howard 1989) and can be reproductively mature at <1 m (Tomlinson 1986). This species is typically found from 20-35 psu. However, it can occur in brackish estuarine systems as well as in hypersaline conditions (50+ psu) where the growth form is commonly dwarf (1-2 m). <br><br>In Port Royal (17°56'N, 76°79'W), <em>R. mangle</em> grows in a dense monospecific stands, bordering all wetland water bodies. It is also present in a mixed zone between the <em>R. mangle</em> monospecific stands and monospecific stands of <em>C. erectus</em>, which is the border between the wetland and terrestrial zones (Alleng 1998). <br><br>Flowering occurs annually in mid-winter and spring within the wider Caribbean. Propagule size can be variable, shown to be larger in areas of higher rainfall (Tyagi 2003). Production of viviparous propagules is abundant and maintained on the parent tree for 3-6 months. Once dropped, propagules can subsist for extended periods afloat prior to rooting. Successful growth requires a canopy break or transport to open area to grow to maturity. <br><br>Fringing <em>R. mangle</em> (in association with seagrass beds) provide critical for Caribbean parotfish (<em>Scarus guacamaia</em>), a species listed as vulnerable on the Red Data List. This species is also associated with stabilization of sandy beaches critical for sea turtle nesting habitat, among countless other critical habitat functions.
178851		population	eng	This species can be common in at least some parts of its range. In Belize for example, it is the most common species, particularly in basin environments along river banks and the coast (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is expanding its range in northern Florida and is characterized as invasive on two Pacific islands.<br><br>Specific population information exists for this species in the following areas:<br><br>At the mouthouth of Lostman's River in Everglades National Park, FL, U.S., 611 individuals were counted over six transects totaling 0.26 ha (McCoy <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br><br>In Laguna de Celestun, Yucatan, Mexico, combined data for <em>A. germinans, R. mangle</em> and <em>L. racemosa</em> show basal area ranges from 21 square meters/ha to 36 square meters/ha (Herrera-Silveira and Ramirez-Ramirez 1998).<br><br>In Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Venezuela, data show 68% <em>R. mangle</em>, 29% <em>L. racemosa</em>, 8% <em>A. germinans</em>, 1% unidentified total tree density, and 348 trees/0.1 ha (Bone <em>et al</em>. 1998).
178851		threats	eng	Disease and herbivory can impact <em>R. mangle</em> (Farnsworth and Ellison 1991, Brooks and Bell 2002, Sousa <em>et al</em>. 2003) but are not likely to pose a serious conservation threat at this time. Also decreases in <em>R. mangle</em> have been documented due to land reclamation and clear cutting for marina development (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996, Farnsworth and Ellison 1997, Moore 2006). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178852		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178852		distribution	eng	In south and southeast Asia, this species is found in Brunei Darussalam, southern China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. However, it is extinct in Bangladesh. In Australasia, it is found in Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. It occurs in East Africa, including Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Tanzania.
178852		habitat	eng	This is a large tree that is found in mid and landward mangroves. It can tolerate brackish conditions but avoids hypersaline environments. This species can form very impressive butress roots, and exist in groves but can also occur individually.
178852		population	eng	This is a very widespread and common species. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178852		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178853		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178853		distribution	eng	Recent research has shown that the range of <em>C. decandra</em> is restricted to the east coast of India and Bangladesh, southwestern Thailand and western part of the Malay Peninsula. The middle and southern part of its range is now considered to be <em>C. zippeliana</em> (Sheue <em>et al</em>. 2009).
178853		habitat	eng	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in mid to high intertidal regions. It has a maximum tolerance of salinity at 67 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth at 15 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a slow-growing species, and can be tolerant of extreme environmental conditions.
178853		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare in much of its range. In India, this species has been found in 20% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).
178853		threats	eng	This species is highly threatened by removal of mangrove areas for coastal development throughout its range. It is estimated that at between 12% (FAO 2007) and 26% of mangrove area has been lost within this species range over a 20 year period (1980-2000) (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178854		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.This species is used for a number of services and is sometimes planted along dykes of ponds.
178854		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam (three locations; Dao Pho Quoc Island, Can Dao Island and Can Gio Biosphere Reserve). It is also widely distributed throughout the Pacific islands, including Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and Micronesia. The mid-Pacific limit is Tuvaru and Kiribati and the south limit is Tonga.
178854		habitat	eng	This species grows at the back and sides of mangrove stands, and is gregarious.This species is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 35 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species only occurs as a shrub to small tree (<6 m) in marginal areas and in favorable sites can attain heights up to 25 m. This species has very beautiful bright red flowers and is planted for ornamental purposes in Thailand and Singapore.
178854		population	eng	This species is widespread and common throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178854		threats	eng	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 22% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178855		conservation	eng	This species range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. This is a protected species in Taiwan. In Japan, this species has been planted for at least the past 100 years. In Viet Nam, this species is planted as protection from coastal erosion and storms.<br><br>Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178855		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Viet Nam, China, Taiwan, Japan, and only on Natuna Islands in Indonesia. Its range may also extend to the extreme north of Philippines, although this needs to be confirmed. This species distribution is increasing to the north in Japan (at least present now to 35 degrees N).
178855		habitat	eng	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is easily propagated, and coppices. It is considered a hardy species, although is relatively slow-growing (5 years to grow 1.5 m). This species generally grows up to about 3 meters.
178855		population	eng	This species is common within its range.
178855		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas across China, Japan countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178856		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178856		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is limited to high salinity areas in the Philippines, Indonesia, Sabah (east Malaysia), and south Viet Nam.
178856		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky and sandy substrates, and along beaches. It lives in high salinity areas and has a very narrow habitat range. It is a small tree and can be gregarious.
178856		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.
178856		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178857		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. In India, this species is planted. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178857		distribution	eng	This species is very widespread and is found in India (western coast, Andaman Islands, Orissa and Sundarband), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, south Viet Nam, and in Indonesia (northern Sumatra, Sarawak, Halamahira, Molluccas).
178857		habitat	eng	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is found on soft mud along in inland river banks associated with <em>Aegiceras corniculatum</em>, and as gregarious undergrowth on the same habitat (Peng and Xin-men 1983).This species has a lower capacity for regeneration, but coppices and is considered a hardy species. <em>Kandelia candel</em> is a small stilt-rooted or buttressed tree to 4-8 m tall with its base fluted or swollen.
178857		population	eng	This species is common within its range, but becomes more rare at the extremities of its range. In Sumatra for example, it is considered rare. In India, this species was found in 36% of 100 sampling sites, and is considered to be rare in the Nicobar and Andaman Islands (Kathiresan 2008). This species is common along the western coast and in Orissa and Sundaband off the eastern coast.
178857		threats	eng	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007). <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178858		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.
178858		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Eastern Pacific along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and northern Ecuador.
178858		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. These are large trees with large butresses and generally grow in monotypic stands.
178858		population	eng	This is a very uncommon species as it is only found in large estuaries in the upstream area (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). This species is only present in four estuaries in Panama (approximately 100 trees in each). It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 mature individuals within its global range.
178858		threats	eng	This species lives in areas that are subject to extensive land use change, especially due to catchment clearing for intensive agriculture. There has been at least a 26% decline in mangrove area in countries within this species range over the past 25 years (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. Howevever, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.
178859		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178859		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cuba, where it is found in the Santiago de Cuba province near the town of  Santa María de Loreto.
178859		habitat	eng	This species grows in dry forests.
178859		population	eng	Unknown.
178859		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
178860		conservation	eng	Listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178860		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantida province of Honduras. Plants are found  southeast of La Ceiba. Approximately 15 km SE of Las Mangas along the Rio Cangrejal in the Gauruma area.
178860		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid tropical forest.
178860		population	eng	This species is estimated to have 70,000 individuals in the wild at a density of approximately 91 plants per km<sup>2</sup>.
178860		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
178861		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
178861		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north western section of Chiapas state, Mexico.
178861		habitat	eng	Plants occur in the understorey of evergreen tropical rainforest and on cliffs or limestone outcrops on steep slopes.
178861		population	eng	The one population visited in 2001 had 300 plants. This was until recently one large contiguous population but is now fragmented.
178861		threats	eng	The population is affected by habitat destruction due to agricultural expansion (cattle pastures and coffee plantations). There may also be some decline due to collecting.
178862		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178862		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few high sandstone massifs or mesas in Chaiyaphum, Nong Bua Raheo region of Thailand.
178862		habitat	eng	<em>C. elephantipes</em> occurs in seasonally dry and deciduous open to closed woodland with predominantly grassy understorey around the summit of a broad, high sandstone massif (mesa), mainly near the tops of steep slopes or breakaway cliffs.
178862		population	eng	This species is locally abundant within its distribution range.
178862		threats	eng	The population of this species has been substantially reduced by removal of plants from the wild and then sold. Should this practise continue, it would be a significant threat to the continued survival of the species.
178863		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The Le Sepultura Biosphere Reserve overlaps the distribution range of this species.
178863		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Chiapas state of Mexico, where populations are found on the slopes of the Sierra de Chiapas and Sierra de Niltepec, near La Tigria (La Tigrilla).  Populations have also been reported from neighbouring Oaxaca state.
178863		habitat	eng	Plants are found on steep slopes in pine-oak woodland.
178863		population	eng	In a demographic study, Perez-Farrera <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated that there were four subpopulations comprising a total of 1000-1,500 plants. The population near La Tigrllia visited in 2001 had 500 plants.
178864		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Most of the range of <em>C. saxatilis</em> is included in the Saint Pauls Bay National Park.
178864		distribution	eng	This species is known only from limestone outcrops of the St Pauls Mountain massif on Palawan.
178864		habitat	eng	This species grows in crevices on vertical limestone cliffs with no soil.
178864		population	eng	Although it is known from a single locality, this mountain area is quite extensive, and plants are abundant in large, undisturbed populations occur in the most inaccessible sites.
178864		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats. However, the <em>Aulacaspis</em> cycad scale has been introduced to various islands in the Pacific and <em>Cycas</em> species are particularly vulnerable. Occurrence at a single locality means that <em>C. saxatilis</em> would be vulnerable to extinction if the scale ever reached Palawan.
178865		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178865		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ya Xian province, Hainan Island, China. Plants are found in the vicinity of Baolong shan (Baolongdong?) near Shanya City. Recorded from 700 to 800 m asl.
178865		habitat	eng	This species grows in subtropical evergreen forest or mountain mixed forest.
178865		population	eng	The population size and trend is unknown.
178865		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
178866		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Ocote Biosphere Reserve.
178866		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Chiapas and Tabasco states of Mexico.
178866		habitat	eng	This species grows in rainforests and broad-leaved evergreen forests. This plant is deciduous and difficult to assess.
178866		population	eng	The population at Malpaso in Chiapas state is know extinct.
178867		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Most of the subpopulations occur in State Forests.
178867		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia, where it is found near Inglewood in the Darling Downs area. Occurs from 320 to 460 m asl.
178867		habitat	eng	This species is found growing on flat areas in deep sandy soils covered with mixed forest. One of the subpopulations grows on a ridge in red lateritic loam.
178867		population	eng	Specimens are found in eight subpopulations which range from small to relatively large in size.
178867		threats	eng	This species may be subject to poaching.
178868		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178868		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northern parts of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range in Tamaulipas and Nuevo León states of Mexico. Plants are centered in two areas: The Sierra Madre Oriental and in the Sierra de san Carlos, Sierra Tamaulipas and low hills in the vicinity of Soto la marina, Tamaulipas.
178868		habitat	eng	The plants occur among rocks and on slopes in drier types of deciduous forest. They are also found in matorral (shrubland).
178868		population	eng	Most of the plants are concentrated in two subpopulations with in excess of 10,000 plants in each.
178868		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
178869		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178869		distribution	eng	This species is found as two subpopulations in Zambales Province, Luzon Island, Philippines. One subpopulation is found near San Juan in the Botolan district and the other is near  Pundaquit  in the San Antonio district and Cawag in the the Subic district.
178869		habitat	eng	This species is confined to open seasonally dry grassland areas on ultrabasic soils, at very low altitudes.
178869		population	eng	The species is found as two fragmented subpopulations where the plants are scattered wide apart.
178869		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>C. zambalenisi</em> is subjected to almost annual fires to promote new growth of grass for grazing. These areas are not protected and are exposed to human disturbance, i.e. expansion of settlement areas.  The leaves of the species are collected and used in an annual religious ritual.  Seedlings are massively collected by the indigenous people for sale in the local market. In one of its localities, the grasslands are converted to an exclusive resort-residential area.
178870		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Much of the population is conserved in the Mount Spec, Paluma Range National Park.
178870		distribution	eng	This species is known from three locations in the Rollingstone district north of Townsville and a few kilometers north and south of there in Queensland, Australia.
178870		habitat	eng	This species is locally abundant in grassy woodland or grassland with scattered trees on skeletal gritty sandy soils on steep boulder slopes over granite.
178870		population	eng	The population is estimated to be about 5,000 plants and in decline.
178870		threats	eng	This species occurs within a limited range and its habitat may be impacted by an increased frequency of wildfires.
178871		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are well conserved in the Brisbane Forest Park where it is present in both National parks and State Forests. The northern subpopulations are well represented in State Forests.
178871		distribution	eng	This species is disjunctly distributed from Mount Colosseum near Miriam Vale in the Port Curtis District, south to the Brisbane region in the Moreton District of Queensland, Australia. Recorded to occur at elevations between 100 and 500 m asl.
178871		habitat	eng	Plants grow in the under-storey of Araucarian microphyll vineforest or in open forest that is often dominated by eucalypts.
178871		population	eng	This species is abundant in numerous localities.
178871		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not known.
178872		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178872		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Port Curtis district of eastern Queensland, Australia. Plants are found between Marlborough and Glen Geddes.
178872		habitat	eng	This species grows in sparse woodland and open forest with a mixed grassy and shrubby understorey in red clay loams over serpentines.
178872		population	eng	Unknown
178872		threats	eng	No threats are known.
178873		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178873		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the province of Loei, Thailand. It is known only from a single line of limestone mountains flanking the Phu Kra Dung massif to the east.
178873		habitat	eng	This species grows in open scrub with <em>Dracaena</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>, bamboos and numerous climbers on steep to precipitous limestone outcrops with no soil cover.
178873		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
178873		threats	eng	Although localized, this is an abundant species, mostly occurring in relatively inaccessible sites. The present range and population size is substantially untouched, and there is little threat to the survival of the species.
178874		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178874		distribution	eng	This species occurs only on East Timor and on the Sumba and Timor Islands of the Nusa Tenggara Timur province of Indonesia.
178874		habitat	eng	This species occurs in near-coastal forests. They inhabit both higher altitude as well as lowland forest.
178874		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population size or trend.
178874		threats	eng	The Asian Cycad Scale has been found on Timor Island, but it is not sure whether this has spread to wild populations.
178875		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
178875		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Huasteca area in northern Veracruz state, Mexico.
178875		habitat	eng	This species occurs on an isolated meseta or tepui-like mountain. Plants are found under partial shade in inaccessible sites along the mountain crest, on basalt rocky substrates in cloud forest. They occur on a stony, medium texture lithosol and luvisol substrate rich in humus.
178875		threats	eng	The threats are presumed to be the same as for other Mexican cycad species i.e. loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and loss of plants due to collection by people for ornamental purposes.
178876		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178876		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Panama, where it is found in north eastern Colon province.
178876		habitat	eng	<em>Z. elegantissima</em> grows in primary lowland rainforest and in disturbed secondary forests.
178876		population	eng	It has been reported to occur in scattered colonies of low density (<25/km2) over the entire distribution range. Overall population size is unknown. One of the populations in the Lago Chagres Reserve  has been transferred to a new species, known for now as elegantissima 'blanco'
178876		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat destruction due to clearing for agriculture.
178877		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The plants occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.
178877		distribution	eng	This species is found in a small geographical area in the Sierra Madre of Chiapas. The plants occur in the Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. Recorded from 1,000 to 1,700 m asl.
178877		habitat	eng	Plants occur in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forest. Soils are acid grey-brown-reddish humic cambisols. This species can also be found in cloud forest (Bosque Mesofilo de Montana) and in tropical rain forest (Bosque Tropical Perennifolio).
178877		population	eng	Specimens have been found in only four populations. The approximate numbers of plants in the wild are not known.
178877		threats	eng	The populations have been subjected to uncontrolled annual forest fires and transformation of habitat for corn and coffee plantations.
178878		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.
178878		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Didinga Hills of southern Sudan. Occurs at 1,800 to 2,000 m asl.
178878		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seasonally dry open woodland on stony country.
178878		population	eng	The populations are poorly known. Heibloem (1999) states that the population in the Didinga hills is quite large but gives no numbers.
178878		threats	eng	There are reports of large numbers of plants being removed from the wild by collectors (allegedly "truck-loads").
178880		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It is also protected by local communities.
178880		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca, Mexico. Recorded from 1,100 to 1,600 m asl.
178880		habitat	eng	Occurs on steep limestone slopes in the transition zone between oak/pine forest and tropical deciduous forest. Occasionally found on alluvial deposits along streams and rivers in tropical deciduous forest.
178880		population	eng	It is estimated that there is a total of at least 3,000 plants. These are found in primarily three subpopulations (1,500, 500 and 200 plants). Another big subpopulation has been reported, but no details are available.
178880		threats	eng	Has a restricted range and is threatened by habitat destruction.
178881		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178881		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single, quite extensive population in the Terrace Range south of Charters Towers, South Kennedy District, Queensland, Australia.
178881		habitat	eng	Plants are found widely scattered in open woodland on low sandstone hills. The cycads are widely distributed in this habitat, being most abundant on the low hills.
178881		population	eng	Plants are abundant at the type locality and are widely distributed throughout the Terrace range.
178881		threats	eng	There are no immediate threats from land clearing or agriculture. Although <em>C. cupida</em> is scattered over a considerable area, all the known plants comprise a single population which is on unsecured land. This is a blue-leaved cycad and this could lead to intense interest from cycad collectors.
178882		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178882		distribution	eng	This species is found in Colombia where it occurs in the Risaralda province. For this species, extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km².  EOO could be much less that this figure, but field research is required to evaluate it. Values for area of occupancy are not available.
178882		habitat	eng	Grows in sub-Andean (lower tropical) montane forests.
178882		population	eng	Unknown
178882		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
178883		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178883		distribution	eng	This species is known from a single population growing on the Annaikal Hills (at 940 m) near Palaghat, Kerala State, southwestern India.
178883		habitat	eng	Plants grow as an understorey element on steep slopes with coarse black humus soils. They are present under the thick canopy of tropical flowering trees.
178883		population	eng	The <em>C. annaikalensis</em> population consists of less than 100 plants. There may be more plants in adjacent Reserve Forest areas.
178883		threats	eng	The threats are not known, but it is likely that this species is being impacted by collectors and given the small size of the population is likley to be experiencing recruitment problems.
178884		conservation	eng	This species is included on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>Z. oreillyi</em> occur in the buffer zone of the Pico Bonito National Park.
178884		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Atlantida Province of Honduras (Caribbean coast), near Hacienda Agua Caliente, about 2 km SW of Jutiapa, 32 km E of La Ceiba.
178884		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid tropical forest.
178884		population	eng	An estimated population of 2,300 individuals occurs in the wild (29 individuals per km²).
178884		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
178885		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species has recently been nominated as the keynote species for the Perlis State Park in Malaysia.
178885		distribution	eng	This species occurs on limestone outcrops throughout southern Thailand. This species is best seen on some of the small island outcrops, e. g. near Phang Nga  or Pak Meng , but also occurs on inland limestone mountains. It is also common on Langkawi and in Perlis state in Malaysia.
178885		habitat	eng	This species occurs on limestone outcrops. Plants are most often rooted in clefts and crevices in near-vertical cliffs, in full sun and often with no soil at the roots.
178885		population	eng	Abundant and widespread in generally inaccessible sites.
178886		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.
178886		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in Rayong province, northeast of Klaeng and in Prachin Buri province  near Aranyaprathet, Thailand.  In Cambodia plants are found  between Batdambang and Sisophon. The Viet Namese populations are in An Giang province and near Hat Tien in Kien Giang province.
178886		habitat	eng	A common subspecies on limestone outcrops in this region, where plants are most often rooted in clefts and crevices in near vertical cliffs, in full sun and often with no soil at the roots.
178886		population	eng	This species is a relatively frequent taxon. At the time of the 2003 assessment, K.D. Hill estimated that there were more than 10,000 mature individuals. It can thus be regarded as an abundant and widespread subspecies that is found in generally inaccessible sites.
178886		threats	eng	Although under severe pressure from plant collectors in some areas, this subspecies is still numerous in some extremely inaccessible sites.
178887		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is protected in the Ruiyunshan Nature Reserve, Meilie Region, Sanming City, Fujian Province.
178887		distribution	eng	This species is known only from eastern Fujian province, China.
178887		habitat	eng	This species grows in moist closed forests or woodlands.
178887		population	eng	Only a few wild individuals survive in remote mountain forests.
178887		threats	eng	The known populations of this species are severely degraded, and the overall reduction in recent years has been significant.
178888		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Although this species has been rediscovered in the wild, known populations are severely degraded, and the overall reduction in recent years indicates that this species should be regarded as threatened.
178888		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from eastern Guangdong province, China. Recorded from 50 to 308 m asl.
178888		habitat	eng	This subspecies grows in moist closed forests.
178888		population	eng	Known only from scattered plants in two subpopulations.
178888		threats	eng	The habitat of the known subpopulations of this subspecies is severely degraded. Plants are also removed from the wild for the ornamental trade.
179234		conservation	eng	There are no conservation areas or programs on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Siau</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>. There is virtually no tourism industry on the island, either. There are proposals by local conservation NGOs, in conjunction with local government and International NGOs to remedy these shortcomings.
179234		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is found only on Siau Island (Indonesia), although it is conceivable that they are also present on some very small islands that are in close proximity to Siau and separated only by shallow ocean.</p>
179234		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Tarsius tumpara</span> has not been the subject of systematic study, but it has been surveyed in the wild by a team led by M. Shekelle (Shekelle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and Siau Island was surveyed by Riley (2002). By analogy with other wild Tarsier populations it is expected that this taxon is found in primary (although no tracts of primary forest have been found on Siau Island), secondary and mangrove forests, forest gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover. Shekelle and Salim (2009b) reported that their surveys found evidence of <em>T. tumpara</em> in only two places; on the shores of a small freshwater pond at the extreme southern end of the of the island, and on a steep cliff face along the east coast road where it runs next to the ocean. Numerous other sites that appeared promising turned up no evidence of the presence of tarsiers. There are reports that they can still be found high on the flanks of Mt Karengetang, near the caldera.</p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Tarsius tumpara</span> is phylogenetically linked to other Eastern Tarsiers, from the Sulawesi biogeographic region. All of the species in this clade live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-6. Anecdotal observations of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. tumpara</span>, and those of its likely sister-taxon, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. sangirensis</span>, indicate that these species might sleep in dispersed social groups, particularly in disturbed habitat, and that this might be a response to predation, particularly by humans and human commensals, such as feral cats and dogs. Merker (2006) studied home range size in <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dentatus</span> and found it to vary, depending on the degree of human disturbance, with home range size increasing with the degree of disturbance. <br/></p><p>Its diet is mostly large-bodied arthropods, with some small vertebrates.</p>
179234		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Shekelle and Salim (2009a) used remote sensing of remaining habitat and population density estimates from studies of other tarsier taxa to estimate the remaining population as being 1,358–12,470 individuals. The large range is a result of a large number of unknown pixels (obscured by clouds) in the GIS data set. Field surveys indicate no remaining primary habitat, however. Local people reported considerable declines of numbers since the late 1990s (Shekelle and Salim 2009b).</p>
179234		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>    </p>  <p>The primary threat to this taxon is that its range is restricted to one small, volcanic island. The volcano, Mt.  Karengentang, is active and dominates more than 50% of its geographical range. This threat is exacerbated by a relatively large human population (311 people/km²) that has converted virtually all of the primary habitat to some form of human use (Shekelle and Salim 2009a, 2009b). In these ways, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tarsius tumpara</span> faces a set of threats similar to those faced by <span style="font-style: italic;">T. sangirensis</span>, but the threats are more acute for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. tumpara</span>: a smaller island, a more active volcano, and higher human population density. Most troubling, however, are numerous credible reports that the local human population regularly eats tarsiers, up to 5-10 animals at a sitting, and that tarsiers have been extirpated from areas where they were common as recently as 10 years ago. </p>  <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Tarsius tumpara</span> is considered to be one the world’s 25 most endangered primates by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group (Shekelle and Salim 2007, 2009b).</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>
179310		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is needed.
179310		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kenya,Tanzania, Ethiopia (Borana, Neghelli), and Somalia (Bacino del Nogal: Prato di Bei Dagòi, Fra Baidoa e Bur Acaba).
179310		habitat	eng	This species grows in seasonally wet habitats, wooded grassland and grasslands, often on red loamy soil.
179310		population	eng	Its is quite common throughout its range.
179310		threats	eng	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.
179392		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation measures. Some species are found in a protected area (Shimba Hills) and forest conservation areas along the Kenyan Coast.
179392		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded along the East African region from sea level to 400 m. It is endemic to Kenya and Tanzania. Also recorded from Madagascar.
179392		habitat	eng	Swamps, in stagnant or moving water.
179392		population	eng	No data.
179392		threats	eng	No threat has been identified but human activities such agricultural, road constructions and settlements could encroaching on their habitats.
179436		distribution	eng	Known only from subpopulations in Arabuko-Sokoke and Mangea.
179436		habitat	eng	This shrub or small tree is confined to areas of  <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland.
179466		conservation	eng	The species is known from fairly well protected Natural Reserves, for example, Shimba Hill National Reserve. Urgent surveys are required to confirm whether the species still exists.
179466		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kenya. It has only been recorded in Longo Mwagandi, Shimba Hills, Kenya at an alltitude of 380 m above sea level.  Its area of occupancy is below 10 km<sup>2</sup> .
179466		habitat	eng	The species is found in a swampy area.
179466		population	eng	The species' population is small or non existent as if has not been re-collected by Luke during Shimba survey (W.R.Q. Luke pers. comm. 2010).
179466		threats	eng	Wildlife grazing and planned burning have been identified as main threats.
179861		distribution	eng	Restricted to eastern Tanzania, this species is found at Mangalisa, Mpwapwa and Sao Hill.
179861		habitat	eng	Montane dry forest.
180098		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> seed samples are   available in the Departamento de Recursos Genéticos e Melhoramento, Estação Agronómica Nacional, Instituto Nacional de Investigação, Agrária, Portugal, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany, Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov', Plovdiv, Bulgaria; Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Spain, Junta de Castilla y León, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León, Centro de Investigación de Zamadueñas, Spain, N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry Russian Federation, Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine,    Syrian National (Douma, Damascus, Syria), Aegean  Agricultural Research Institiute (Menemen, Turkey), ICARDA (Aleppo,  Syria) and University of Reading (Reading, UK) genebanks.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 146 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 11 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, eight originate from within Europe. Two originate from Bulgaria (stored in Institute for Plant Genetic Resources 'K.Malkov', Bulgaria), one from Hungary (stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine), one from Portugal (stored in Ustymivka Experimental Station of Plant Production, Ukraine) and four from Spain (stored in Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Spain) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span> the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to population loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
180098		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. articulata</span> is native to Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Former Yugoslavia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain and Ukraine (Davis and Plitmann 1970). In France it occurs in 15 central and southern departments. Also recorded in Corsica, the southeastern departments of Var and Alpes-Maritimes, the southwestern department of   Hautes-Pyrénées, the western department of   Loire-Atlantique and the northern department of Oise (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
180098		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">V. articulata</span> is found in woodland, rocky slopes, meadows and macchie in the Mediterranean region (Davis and Plitmann 1970).
180098		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered to be medium population sizes and they are stable.
180098		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are not known, but it is found in climax woodland habitats that are stable within the range.
180099		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are    available in the numerous national gene  banks throughout the species range.<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 567 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 14 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, nine originate from within Europe. One from Belgium, five from Bulgaria, one from Czech Republic, one from Macedonia FYR and one from Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>    <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>    the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing    protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in    these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to population    loss over time from factors such as climate  change.
180099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia ervilia</span> is widespread in the Mediterranean region and southwest Asia. Both cultivated and spontaneous forms occur. It occurs in 30 departments in&#160; central and southeastern France but is largely absent from the northwest to northeast and the southwest (Association Tela Botanica 2000–2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
180099		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;V. ervilia</span> is found in scrubland, stoney slopes, screes, field and vineyard margins, roadsides and disturbed areas. It flowers from March to July (Maxted 1995).
180099		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
180099		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in a variety of   habitats and appears to be stable throughout its range (Maxted 1995).
180100		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, but no conservation actions are likely to be needed.
180100		distribution	eng	Lestes nodalis is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1933), Myanmar (e.g. Selys 1891), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and Hong Kong and southern China (e.g. Wilson 2004).
180100		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes nodalis</span> breeds in shallow marshes and possibly well vegetated ponds. In Hong Kong it over winters in the adult stage, not a common habit in Odonata, but known for other members of the Lestidae.
180100		population	eng	This species can be localy common.
180100		threats	eng	Some populations of this species will be theatened from various sources, but there is no evidence of threats accross its entire range.
180101		conservation	eng	Further information on the species range and distribution is required, especially in higher altitude streams within the currently known range, and there is no potential threats to the species.
180101		distribution	eng	Described  from Dayame Chaung on the eastern side of the Bago Yoma  mountain range in Myanmar (Roberts 1986). Subsequently also found in  additional  streams on the southeastern and southern end of Bago Yoma (R. Britz  <em>pers.  comm</em>.). Known from around six localities.
180101		habitat	eng	Wide lowland streams at the foot of the  mountain range with  a constant flow, a sandy to muddy bottom and usually turbid water. They  stay in  the cooler areas of the stream, that is, closer to the banks or in  deeper cooler  water layers. This is the smallest freshwater fish in the  region, maturing at 10-11 mm SL.
180101		population	eng	Where  they occur they are abundant, with several hundreds easily  caught with a dip net within an hour (R. britz&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).
180101		threats	eng	No threats are known at present, but the potential impact of dams within the region need to be studied.
180103		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure. May occur in marine protected areas.
180103		distribution	eng	This species is found off the northwest coast of Australia. The species ranges from just south of the Rowley Shoals, northwest of Port Hedland, Western Australia to the Aragura Sea, Northern Territory. Specimens were collected between 97 and 173 m depth (Kuiter 2004).
180103		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs.
180103		population	eng	There are no population data available.
180103		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
180105		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180105		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygadus sulcatus</span> is known only in the Philippines from Sulu Sea, off Cagayan Island.
180105		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygadus sulcatus</span> is bathydemersal/bentho-pelagic (Herre 1953, Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1990). The substrate of the type locality is described as grey mud and coral sand. Maximum size from collected specimens is 4.4 cm (TL) (Radcliffe 1913).
180105		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygadus sulcatus</span> is known only from the 1908 collections off Cagayan Island, Sulu Sea.&#160;Nominal record is also found in Point Pinos Lighthouse, Monterey Bay, California in 1987 (Anonymous 1999),&#160; however, this needs to be verified. There is no additional population information available for this species.
180105		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Many species under this family are taken by commercial bottom&#160;trawlers as bycatch and used either fresh or processed, for fish meal and&#160;fish paste (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).
180106		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species.
180106		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus dorsalis</span> is known only from northern Luzon (in Font Island and Hermanos Island), Philippines.
180106		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus dorsalis</span> is benthopelagic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 20 cm (TL) (Gilbert and Hubbs  1920).
180106		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus dorsalis</span> is known only from the 1908 collections (Anonymous 2001). There is no population trend information available for this species. It is the only <span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus</span> species known from northern Luzon that was not collected&#160;off southern Luzon during the Albatross expedition (where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. velifer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. macrolepis</span> were reportedly dredged in abundance) (Gilbert and Hubbs 1920).
180106		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species except possibly from fisheries.&#160;Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters of the&#160;continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making them susceptible&#160;to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). Several species are taken&#160;as bycatch of trawls and utilized for fish meal or fish paste.
180107		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180107		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus macrolepis</span> is known only from the Verde Island Passage (i.e., Sombrero Island, Cape Santiago Light, and Malavatuan Island), Philippines.
180107		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus macrolepis</span> is benthopelagic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 14.3 cm (TL) (Gilbert &  Hubbs 1928).
180107		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus macrolepis</span> is known only from type species collected in 1908-1909 (Anonymous 2001, Eschmeyer 2008). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180107		threats	eng	Threats are possibly from fisheries as most members of this genus are&#160;found in relatively shallow waters of the continental slope (in depths&#160;between 150–800 m) making them susceptible to capture by commercial&#160;trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). Several species are taken as bycatch of trawls&#160;and utilized for fish meal or fish paste. Also a possible threat is habitat&#160;degradation caused by pollution from domestic, industrial and shipping&#160;sources.
180108		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180108		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus notatus</span> is known only from the Alice Channel, Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines.
180108		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus notatus</span> is benthopelagic (Cohen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1990). The substrate of the type locality is described as coarse sand and broken shells. Maximum size from collected specimens is 27 cm (TL) (Radcliffe 1912).
180108		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus notatus</span> is known only from the type specimen collected in 1908. It is apparently a&#160;rare species, being the only representative of the species in the collection (Gilbert and Hubbs 1920). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180108		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters&#160;of the continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making them&#160;susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). Several <span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus</span> species are taken as bycatch of trawls and utilized for fish meal or fish&#160;paste. Type specimen was collected using a beam trawl (Radcliffe 1912).
180109		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180109		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus quincunciatus</span> is known from the Verde Island Passage (off Malabrigo Light, east coast Mindoro; Escarceo Light near South China Sea; east of Barrio Masaging, north of Culibra Island, and southeast/east of Talaga in Batangas), Samar-Masbate (off Panalangan Point, Talajit Island and Tubig Point), Cebu Strait, and Marinduque (north of Silangan Point), Philippines.
180109		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus quincunciatus</span> is benthopelagic (Herre 1953, Cohen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 24 cm (TL) (Iwamoto 1994).
180109		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species. It is known from at least ten sites. Earliest&#160;records were from four sites in 1908–1909: in the east coast of Mindoro, Verde&#160;Island Passage (southern Luzon), Masbate, Cebu Strait and Samar-Masbate.&#160;By 1966, the species had been recollected in at least five new localities in the&#160;Verde Island Passage and one in Marinduque (Anonymous 2001).
180109		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from fisheries.&#160;Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters of the&#160;continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making them susceptible&#160;to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). Several species are taken&#160;as bycatch from trawls and utilized for fish meal or fish paste.
180110		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180110		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus sexradiatus</span> is known only from Jolo and Tawi-tawi, southwestern Mindanao (off Jolo Light and Dammi Island) in the Philippines.
180110		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus sexradiatus</span> is benthopelagic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 20.5 cm (TL) (Gilbert and Hubbs 1928).
180110		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus sexradiatus</span> is known only from type specimens collected in 1908 (Anonymous 2001). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180110		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow&#160;waters of the continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making&#160;them susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).&#160;Several species are taken as bycatch from trawls and utilized for fish meal or&#160;fish paste.
180111		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180111		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus thompsoni</span> is known only from the Philippines. It is found from San Bernardino Strait to San Miguel Bay (Legaspi Light), Verde Island Passage (off Sombrero Island, northwest of Maricaban Island; Balayan Bay: south of Cape Santiago, southeast of Pagapas Bay, south of Calaca town, and southeast of San Pedrino Point; and Batangas Bay: east Talaga Cove, north of Gamao Point, north of Culibra Island), Marinduque, and northern Mindanao (Tagolo Light).
180111		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus thompsoni</span> is bathydemersal (Herre 1953) or benthopelagic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 19 cm (TL) (Gilbert and Hubbs  1920).
180111		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species. It is known from at least 11 localities. Earliest records were from four sites in 1908–1909: in San Bernardino Strait, Verde Island Passage, and northern Mindanao. <span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus thompsoni </span>was recollected in 1966 off in seven other new sites within the Verde Island Passage and also in Marinduque (Anonymous 2001, Eschmeyer 2008).
180111		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from fisheries. Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters of the continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making them susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).&#160;Several species are taken as bycatch of trawls and utilized for fish meal or fish paste.
180112		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180112		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus triocellatus</span> is known only from Tawi-tawi, southwestern Mindanao, Philippines.
180112		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus triocellatus</span> is benthopelagic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 19 cm (TL) (Gilbert and  Hubbs&#160;1920).
180112		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus triocellatus</span> is known only from the 1908 specimens collected off Tawi-tawi,&#160;Mindanao (Anonymous 2001). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180112		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from fisheries.&#160;Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters of&#160;the continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making them&#160;susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990). Several&#160;species are taken as bycatch from trawls and utilized as fish meal or fish&#160;paste.
180114		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180114		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus weberi </span>is known only from Hermanos Island, off northern Luzon, Philippines.
180114		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus weberi</span> is benthopelagic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). Maximum size from collected specimens is 31.5 cm (TL) (Gilbert and Hubbs&#160;1920).
180114		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelorinchus weberi</span> is known only from a specimen collected off Hermanos Island,&#160;northern Luzon in 1908. There is no population trend information available for this species.
180114		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow&#160;waters of the continental slope (e.g., in depths between 150–800 m) making&#160;them susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).&#160;Several species are taken as bycatch from trawls and utilized for fish meal or&#160;fish paste.
180115		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180115		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaenoides camurus</span> is known only from western Sulu Sea (off eastern Palawan&#160;Island).
180115		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaenoides camurus</span> is bathypelagic. The substrate of the type locality is described&#160;as composed of gray mud (Radcliffe 1912). Maximum size from collected specimens is 10.2 cm (TL) (Radcliffe  1912, Gilbert and Hubbs 1920).
180115		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaenoides camurus</span> is known only from the type specimen collected&#160;off eastern Palawan Island in 1909. There is no population trend information available for this species.
180115		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Many species under this family are taken by commercial bottom&#160;trawlers as bycatch and used either fresh or processed, for fish meal and&#160;fish paste (Cohen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1990).
180116		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180116		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaenoides dubius</span> is known only from Iligan Bay, off Camp Overton Light.
180116		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaenoides dubius</span> is bathypelagic. The substrate of the type locality is described&#160;as gray mud and fine sand (Radcliffe 1912). Maximum size from collected specimen is 42.5 cm (TL) (Radcliffe  1912, Gilbert and Hubbs 1920).
180116		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaenoides dubius</span> is known only from the type specimen collected from Iligan Bay in 1909. There is no population information trend available for this species.
180116		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Many species under this family are taken by commercial bottom&#160;trawlers as bycatch and used either fresh or processed, for fish meal and&#160;fish paste (Cohen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1990).
180118		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180118		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gadomus magnifilis</span> is known only from Sogod Bay (off Limasawa Island, southern&#160;Leyte), Sulu Sea (off Cagayan Island, and Jolo Island) and off northern&#160;Mindanao.
180118		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gadomus magnifilis</span> is recorded as bathydemersal (Herre 1953) or benthopelagic (Cohen&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). Maximum size reported is at 10.3 cm (SL) and 33.7 (TL) (Gilbert and Hubbs 1920).
180118		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gadomus magnifilis</span> is known only from type specimens collected in 1908-1909 (Anonymous 2001, Gilbert and Hubbs 1920). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180118		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Many species under this family are taken by commercial bottom&#160;trawlers as bycatch and used either fresh or processed, for fish meal and&#160;fish paste (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).
180120		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.
180120		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trachonurus robinsi</span>&#160; is known from various localities in the Sibuyan Sea (off Origon&#160;Point, east Mindoro), Camotes Sea (off Dupon Bay, Ponson Island, Leyte),&#160;Bohol Sea (off Diwata Point, between Leyte and Mindanao; off Camp&#160;Overton Light, northern Mindanao; and off Balicasag Island, between&#160;Bohol and Siquijor), and Sulu Sea (off Cagayan Island).
180120		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trachonurus robinsi</span> is bathydemersal (Iwamoto 1997). Maximum size from collected specimens is 25 cm (TL).
180120		population	eng	There is no population information trend available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachonurus robinsi</span> is known only&#160;from type specimens collected in 1908–1909 from various localities&#160;characterized as semi-enclosed basins such as the Sibuyan, Camotes,&#160;Bohol and Sulu seas (Iwamoto 1997).
180120		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
180121		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;The Batanes group of islands in the Philippines is a designated Protected Landscape/Seascape under Philippine National Integrated Protected Areas&#160;System Act of 1992 (Wood 2007).
180121		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Batanes Province, off Batan Island (Balugan Bay) in the Philippines.
180121		habitat	eng	This species is known only from three type specimens collected in the surge zone among large boulders at Batan Island, Philippines. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirripectes </span>are small agile herbivores, commonly observed in shallow surge-zone habitats (Carlson 1980). Maximum size from collected specimens is 11.5 cm (SL) (Williams 1988).
180121		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirripectes viriosus</span> is known only from three type specimens found in the Batan&#160;islands off the Philippines. There is no population trend information available for this species.
180121		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
180122		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its&#160;distribution overlaps several Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.
180122		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius dilemma</span> is known only from the Verde Island Passage (off Caban Island&#160;and Sombrero Island in Batangas), and the southern part of Tañon Strait&#160;(off Pescador Island, Liloan Point, and Sumilon between southern Cebu and&#160;Negros Oriental). This species is also known from the Spratly Islands, South&#160;China Sea, based on a coloured photograph (Springer and Allen 2004).
180122		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius dilemma</span> is found on coral reefs at depths between 1–34 m. (G. Allen&#160;pers. comm. 2009,&#160; Springer 1988, Anonymous 2001). <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius</span>&#160;juveniles and adults are almost entirely restricted to subtidal habitats with&#160;living coral. Little information is available on the reproductive habits and&#160;the early life history of species of this genus (Springer 1988). Maximum size from the collection is 3.1 cm (SL) (Springer 1988); 4.6  cm&#160;(TL) reported from photos (Randall 1997).
180122		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius dilemma</span> was discovered in&#160;1979 in at least two localities in southern Tañon Strait. It is uncommon&#160;(B. Stockwell, pers. comm.) but apparently widespread and abundant.
180122		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although most species&#160;of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius</span> are likely to be collected for the aquarium trade.
180123		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180123		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius kurti </span>is known only from the northern Sulu Sea (off Bararin Island,&#160;western side of Cuyo Island, and Tagauayan Island), Philippines.
180123		habitat	eng	Most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius</span> are found on coastal fringing reefs and lagoons&#160;to 10 m; solitary or in small groups on coral outcroppings. For most&#160;species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius</span>, juveniles and adults are almost entirely restricted&#160;to subtidal habitats with living coral. Little information is available on&#160;the reproductive habits and the early life history of species of this genus. Maximum size from collected specimens is 3.5 cm (SL) (Springer 1988).
180123		population	eng	Discovered in 1978, this species was only described in 1988. Although it&#160;is known only from two adjacent localities in Cuyo Islands (Anonymous 2001), it&#160;is locally common and abundant (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
180123		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius kurti</span> is found in shallow waters and has a very restricted distribution, occurring in only two locations. There is a potential threat of overfishing from aquarium trade collections.
180125		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its&#160;distribution overlaps with a number Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.
180125		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istiblennius colei </span>is known from the Sulu Sea (i.e., Culion Island, and Buluang&#160;Bay and Busuanga Island in the Calamianes Island Group) and the&#160;Guimaras and Panay islands (i.e., off Estancia). It is considered to have&#160;the most restricted range of all the species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Istiblennius</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Blenniella</span>. A nominal species recorded from Koh Samit, Thailand in 1900 (Anonymous 2001b), needs to be verified.
180125		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istiblennius colei</span> is common in rocky shore habitats around Calamianes islands&#160;(J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009). Maximum size from collected specimens is 11.8 cm (SL) (Springer and Williams&#160;1994).
180125		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istiblennius colei </span>was previously known only from the type series of&#160;its two nominal synonyms, collected more than 50 years ago. Although&#160;Springer and Williams (1994) speculated that this species might be extinct,&#160;it was subsequently collected from Guimaras and Calamianes group of&#160;islands (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).
180125		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
180126		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its&#160;distribution overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.
180126		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiotremus isodon</span> is known only from one locality in southern Sulu Sea (Jolo&#160;Island: Tutu Bay), Philippines; this is almost certainly due to a  collection artifact. It may be&#160;more widely distributed beyond the known  locality.
180126		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiotremus isodon</span> is found in depths from 3–9 m (Smith-Vaniz 1976). It is&#160;reef-associated, and often hovers above the reef waiting for unwary prey.&#160;It attacks other fishes to remove scales and skin tissue (stomach contents&#160;typically contain only mucous and a few fish scales). Maximum size from the collection is 4 cm (SL) (Smith-Vaniz 1976).
180126		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiotremus isodon</span> is known only from two specimens found in 1909. There is no population trend information available for this species.
180126		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
180127		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution may overlap with Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.
180127		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Congrogadus hierichthys</span> is known from the Sulu Sea (off Cuyo Island in Palawan,&#160;Sibutu and Jolo islands in northwestern Mindanao) and southern Tañon&#160;Strait (off Dumaguete, central Visayas).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180127		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Congrogadus hierichthys</span> is probably demersal. Other members of this family are reported&#160;to remain near crevices or among rubble and feed on small invertebrates&#160;and fishes (Nelson 1994). Maximum size from collected specimen is 16.0 cm (SL)  (Winterbottom&#160;1986).
180127		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species. The earliest records of the species are from the type specimens collected&#160;in 1908 off Cuyo Island, Palawan (Jordan and Richardson 1908). It was&#160;collected in new sites in 1931 and 1937 off Dumaguete and Jolo-Sibutu&#160;Island group, recollected in 1977–1978 off Cuyo Island and in new localities off Cocoro Island (Herre 1933, 1934, 1953; Anonymous 2001).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180127		threats	eng	Threats are possibly from habitat degradation or destruction caused by&#160;coastal development and pollution.
180129		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180129		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Equulites laterofenestra</span> is known only from the Samar Sea, north of Carigara Bay,&#160;Leyte.
180129		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Equulites laterofenestra</span> is pelagic-neritic. Maximum size from collected specimens is 12.8 cm (SL) (Sparks  &&#160;Chakrabarty 2007). The family Leiognathidae is distributed in coastal and estuarine waters  of the Indo-West Pacific (Nelson 2006). Members of the family are found on shallow coastal waters and tidal creeks where they feed on benthic invertebrates (Nelson 1994).
180129		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Equulites laterofenestra</span> is known only from specimens collected off Carigara Bay, Leyte. Members of the family are common in shallow&#160;coastal waters and tidal creeks (Nelson 1994). Leiognathidae are commercially important in Asian wild fisheries and  aquaculture as a fresh or processed product, with wild catch rates in  the west central Pacific of 120,268 tons per annum in the mid 1990s  (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
180129		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from&#160;fisheries. Most members of the family are easily caught by trawls or beach&#160;seines. It is an important artisanal food fish (Nelson 1994). Locally,&#160;members of the family are subjected to artisanal and/or commercial&#160;fisheries, marketed fresh or dried, for human consumption. Most members&#160;show signs of being overfished.
180131		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180131		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypoatherina crenolepis</span> is known only from Mindoro Strait (off Tara Island, northern&#160;Palawan) and southern Sulu Sea (off Papatog islands in Tawi-tawi).
180131		habitat	eng	Crenulated Silversides are pelagic-neritic, inhabiting close inshore waters&#160;around islands (Ivantsoff and Crowley 1999). They may be taken as forage&#160;fish by larger commercial species (Froese and Pauly 2008). Maximum size from collected specimens is 5.7 cm (TL) (Ivantsoff and  Crowley&#160;1999).
180131		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypoatherina crenolepis</span> is known only from the type specimens collected in&#160;1908 off Tara and Papatog islands in Tawi-tawi, southwestern Mindanao&#160;(Schultz 1953). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180131		threats	eng	Major threats to this species may come from habitat degradation or&#160;destruction. It is not targeted and is not of any commercial importance.
180133		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.
180133		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paradiancistrus cuyoensis</span> is known only from the Sulu Sea (off Cocoro Island in the Cuyo&#160;Island Group, Palawan) and Bohol Sea (off Pamilacan Island, southern&#160;Bohol).
180133		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paradiancistrus cuyoensis</span> is reef-associated. Maximum size ranges are 3.6 cm and 5.7 cm (SL) (Schwarzhans <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span>&#160;2005).
180133		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paradiancistrus cuyoensis</span> is a relatively new species discovered in 1978 from two localities.  There is no population trend information available for this species.
180133		threats	eng	Threats are from habitat destruction or degradation. Coral reef habitats&#160;are already vulnerable to threats from climate change and various&#160;anthropogenic disturbances (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Wilkinson 2004, Hodgson 1999). Coral loss and degradation may alter the structure&#160;and dynamics of coral-reef habitats, negatively impacting highly diverse&#160;assemblages of species that associate with coral reefs (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
180135		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180135		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastapistes taeniophrys</span> is known from two specimens collected in 1909 off Cammahala&#160;Bay, Luzon.
180135		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastapistes taeniophrys</span> is demersal. Specimens were collected by a beach seine&#160;(Fowler 1943) indicating that the species inhabits shallow sandy bottoms.&#160;However, all other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastapistes</span> are known to live in rocky or&#160;coral reefs (Motomura 2009). Maximum size from collected specimens is 1.93 cm (SL) (Fowler  1943),&#160;making it the smallest member of this genus (Poss 1999).
180135		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastapistes taeniophrys</span> is  known from two specimens collected in 1909 off Cammahala&#160;Bay, Luzon during the Albatross Philippine Expedition (Fowler 1943, Herre&#160;1951, Motomura 2009). It was originally thought of as a juvenile specimen (Herre1951), it is  now considered as a valid species (Motomura 2009). There is no population trend information available for this species.
180135		threats	eng	Threats are possibly from degradation of its shallow-water habitat due to&#160;coastal development.
180136		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sillago argentifasciata</span> is known only from the Balabac Strait (off Lumbucan Island, southern Palawan).
180136		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the biology or life history of this species. Like <span style="font-style: italic;">S. ingenuaa</span>, it is possibly a demersal species, occurring in inshore coastal waters (Hoese <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Silliganids  feed mainly&#160;on benthic or epibenthic organisms (Mackay 1992).
180136		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sillago argentifasciata </span>is only known from the type specimens collected in 1927 from&#160;Lumbucan Island. The specimens however, were destroyed during the World&#160;War II. This species is similar to, and may prove to be a senior&#160;synonym of the Bay Sillago, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. ingenuua </span>(Mackay 1985), a more widespread&#160;species with a maximum size of 20.0 cm (SL) and a depth range of 20-50 m&#160;occurring from India to Western Australia (Mackay 1992).
180136		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, except possibly from fisheries.&#160;Similar species are subjected to artisanal and/or commercial fisheries,&#160;marketed fresh or processed (i.e., dried or fermented). It is worth noting that the type locality has also&#160;been subjected to blast fishing in the past years and may have affected the&#160;species and its habitat.
180139		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180139		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solivomer arenidens</span> is known from Sogod Bay (off Limasawa Island, southern&#160;Leyte), Bohol Sea (off San Ricardo, Panaon Island; Diwata Point between&#160;Leyte and Mindanao; off Camp Overton Light, northern Mindanao; and off&#160;Balicasag Island, between Bohol and Siquijor), and western Sulu Sea (off&#160;eastern Palawan).
180139		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solivomer arenidens</span> is benthopelagic (Eschmeyer 1998). Maximum size from collected specimens is 28.2 cm (SL) (Miller 1997).
180139		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solivomer arenidens</span> is&#160;only known from type specimens collected between 1908–1909, generally&#160;within the Bohol Sea and vicinity and also in the western Sulu Sea&#160;(Anonymous 2001a). Nominal record of the species is found for northern&#160;Mindanao (site not specified) collected in 1951 (Anonymous 2001b).
180139		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
180141		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
180141		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solephorus ronquilloi</span> is known only from specimens collected in Binmaley, Manat River&#160;and off Manila Bay, Cavite, Philippines.
180141		habitat	eng	Presence in a river system suggests the species lives in both coastal marine&#160;and brackish environments. Maximum size from collected specimens is 5.3 cm (SL) (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  1988).
180141		population	eng	There is no population information trend available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Solephorus ronquilloi </span>was first collected in the Manat River in 1949, then in Manila Bay&#160;in 1966. Nominal records of this species also occur in Mindanao but need&#160;validation. Other members of this family are schooling (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1988), but this species is apparently not common in the collection and, therefore,&#160;may not be abundant.
180141		threats	eng	Threats are from coastal development, water pollution, and possibly from&#160;fisheries.
180142		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its known distribution, the Hundred Islands, is a designated National Park (Wood 2007).
180142		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zebrias lucapensis</span> is known only from the Hundred Islands, Lingayen Gulf,&#160;northeastearn Luzon.
180142		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zebrias lucapensis</span> is demersal, possibly in shallow waters. Maximum size from collected specimens is 8.4 cm (TL) (Seigel and Adamson&#160;1985).
180142		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zebrias lucapensis</span> is known only from the type specimen&#160;collected in 1978 in one locality off the Hundred Islands, Lingayen Gulf. It&#160;was described only in 1985 and is the only record of the genus Zebrias in&#160;the country. There is no population trend information available for this species.
180142		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zebrias lucapensis </span>faces threats from fisheries and habitat destruction, possibly&#160;from blast fishing. Specimen from Lingayen was caught by trawl (Seigel and Adamson 1985).
180550		conservation	eng	Germplasm for exists within local botanic gardens, and 30% of the population is within protected areas.&#160; Three localities where the species occurs are within Natura 2000 national parks. The population trends requires monitoring.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. maderensis</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
180550		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira where it occurs on the islands of Porto Santo, Ilheu Chao and Deserta Grande.
180550		habitat	eng	It grows in dry, exposed coastal areas, on cliffs and rocky substrate. Studies conducted by Brito <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) and Hess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) suggest that there are high levels of genetic diversity between subpopulations.
180550		population	eng	At least 10 subpopulations of this species are known.
180550		threats	eng	The main threat is increasing urbanization; particularly on the south coast of Madeira.
180551		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/> <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>  seed samples are   unavailable for this species. No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>In situ</span>  the species  is likely  to be  passively conserved in many existing  protected areas in  throughout its range but as  its  conservation in  these sites is not  actively monitored it may be  subject  to population  loss over time  from factors such as climate  change.
180551		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Madeiran group of islands, occurring in Seixal and in the mountains between Serra de Agua and Ribeiro Frio on Madeira, on the islands of Porto Santo and on Ilheu Chao and Deserta Grande (Goyder 1994). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
180551		habitat	eng	The species is found in pastures, cliffs,ravines and on forest borders (Goyder 1994).
180551		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered to be rare and decreasing by greater than 50% in the last 10 years.
180551		threats	eng	An increase in alien species is threatening this species, as well as human pressures.
180552		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/> <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span>   seed samples are   available in the&#160; Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Germany) gene  bank.<br/> <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">In situ</span>   the species  is likely to be  passively conserved in many existing   protected areas in throughout its range but as  its  conservation in   these sites is not actively monitored it may be  subject  to population   loss over time from factors such as climate  change.<br/><br/>Less than 50% of subpopulations of this species occur within protected areas, and germplasm exists within the local gene bank and botanic garden. The population requires monitoring.<br/><br/>A previous assessment of the top 100 threatened species of Madeira found this species to be Critically Endangered (Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
180552		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madeira, specifically the island of Porto Santo, where it can be found in around 5% of areas. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is  50 km<sup>2</sup>  and the  area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
180552		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal zones, in sandy areas and on cliffs.
180552		population	eng	There are less than 1,000 mature individuals in Porto Santo.
180552		threats	eng	Tourist activities threaten this species as it occurs in coastal areas.
180553		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>is  listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic  Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the faba bean gene pool.<br/> <br/> The species does not occur in any protected area, but germplasm is stored in the local botanic garden. A project is currently in progress for reforestation of the area, which will provide shade and aid the growth of the species.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).
180553		distribution	eng	This species in endemic to Madeira, specifically the island of Porto Santo. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 100 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km².
180553		habitat	eng	This species is found in pastures and agricultural fields in the shade (Goyder 1994).
180553		population	eng	There are only two known populations, one in Ana Ferreira and one in Pico de Castelo, both on Porto Santo island. Only 50 mature individuals have been recorded.
180553		threats	eng	The species is under threat from increasing urbanization.
180554		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in a protected area. A survey is needed to assess the current status of the population. Ongoing monitoring should be undertaken to ascertain the affect of the various threats to the population.<br/><br/>EURISCO reports three germplasm accessions of<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. angustifolium</span> held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm is also stored in the genebank of the Madeira Botanical Garden and University.
180554		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. angustifolium</span> is endemic to Madeira where it occurs on the south coast of the island from Madalena do Mar to Praia Formosa. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is  less 100 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is suspected to be 10 km<sup>2</sup> or less.
180554		habitat	eng	It grows on sea cliffs and in rocky sites.
180554		population	eng	The population is distributed between Madalena do Mar and Praia Formosa.
180554		threats	eng	The species is threatened by road construction, urbanization and development for tourism. It is also affected by alien invasive species and occasionally by landslides.
180555		conservation	eng	More than 50% of the <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">frutescens </span>population is inside the boundaries of a protected area (Natural Park). However, the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">succulentum </span>is not in a protected area. <br/><br/>  EURISCO reports two germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span> stored in the genebank of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm is also stored in the Madeira Botanical Garden.
180555		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens </span>is endemic to Madeira. The two subspecies are geographically separated on Madeira island<span style="font-style: italic;">—S. frutescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">frutescens </span>is frequent in the mountains of the central part of the island, while <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">succulentum</span> occurs on the north coast. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of both subpopulations is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
180555		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">frutescens </span>grows in the ravines and on the peaks of the central mountains of Madeira in shady areas, while the <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span>  ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">succulentum </span>grows on sea cliffs on the north coast.
180555		population	eng	The exact size and precise distribution of the subpopulations is not known. However, it is suspected that there are less 1,000 mature individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">frutescens </span>and less 50 mature individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frutescens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">succulentum</span>.
180555		threats	eng	It is threatened by road construction, invasive alien species and landslides.
180556		conservation	eng	Some subpopulations occur in Madeira Natural Park. <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. gymnocalyx</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). However, germplasm is stored in the genebanks of the Botanical Garden and Madeira University.
180556		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. gymnocalyx</span> is endemic to Madeira where it is widely distributed on the north coast of island from Ribeira do Tristão to Ponta de São Jorge, from sea level to 100 m, although in some places the altitude can reach 200 m or more (e.g., at Montado do Pessegueiro). The extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500  km².
180556		habitat	eng	The main habitats are sea cliffs and rocky places. However, it can sometimes also be found on forest edges and in agricultural land.
180556		population	eng	This species is widely dispersed on the north coast, but each subpopulation is small, comprising only 2–20 mature individuals each.
180556		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are road improvements, human intrusion and disturbance and habitat degradation due to invasive alien species.
180557		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. feuillei </span>occurs within a protected area; however, it is not actively monitored or managed. <br/><br/>The<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span> conservation status of this species requires clarification. No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010); however, collections could have been made and recorded under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">C. strigosa</span> (A. Santos Guerra pers. comm. 2010).
180557		distribution	eng	Endemic to Hierro (the Canary Islands) where it is only found in the north of the island at two localities. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
180557		habitat	eng	It is a perennial species which grows on cliffs in laurisilva forest.
180557		population	eng	The population is only found at two localities, isolated by a distance of at least 5 km and each with few individuals.
180557		threats	eng	One of the two subpopulations is threatened by maintenance of the road verges (cutting). The species is also threatened by possible landslides.
180558		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. wildpretii</span> occurs within the Monumento Natural Lomo del Carretón (Naranjo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010) and it is not known whether the species has been collected and conserved <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> in the Canary Islands (A. Santo Guerra pers. comm. 2010). A review of its <em>ex situ</em> conservation status is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
180558		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. wildpretii</span> is endemic to La Gomera where it is found in the northwest of the island. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>.
180558		habitat	eng	This perennial species grows on basaltic cliffs associated with the <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica </span>forest and dry scrubland.
180558		population	eng	There are two subpopulations comprising 34 individuals (24 in one and 10 in the other) which are found within two 1x1 km grid squares (Naranjo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
180558		threats	eng	It is threatened by grazing, local landslides, invasive species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Agave </span>spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> spp., and in the past it has been affected by reafforestation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus radiata</span>.
180559		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. tamadabensis</span> occurs within the Natural Park of Tamadaba and the Monumento Natural de Amagro. <br/><br/>Seed samples have been collected and conserved in the seedbank of the Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo (A. Santos Guerra pers. comm. 2010).
180559		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. tamadabensis</span> is endemic to Gran Canaria where it is found in the northwest of the island. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup></sup><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
180559		habitat	eng	This perennial species is only found on cliffs.
180559		population	eng	The population consists of three subpopulations separated by a distance of 3–5 km. In the 2008 national Red List assessment <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>(Marrero and Navarro 2008), it was reported that there were 4,226, 880 and 643 individuals counted in each of the three subpopulations. These subpopulations are found within four 1x1 km grid squares. The authors reported that the population is more or less stable, largely because the plants occur in the refuge of cliff faces.
180559		threats	eng	It may be affected by overgrazing and occasional small landslides. Invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pennisetum setaceum</span> has caused habitat degradation over a period of 50–60 years.
180560		conservation	eng	It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) D1+2 in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>All subpopulations occur in protected areas. It is recommended that the monitoring and management of this species is incorporated into the existing management plans of these sites.  <br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. exaltatum</span> are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). Germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage is a priority for this species.  <br/><br/>Further research is required on its distribution, to try to find additional sites.
180560		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. exaltatum</span> is endemic to Cyprus, where it is found at six localities in the Troodos area. The estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
180560		habitat	eng	&#160;This species occurs in rocky mountains sites, crevasses, screes and open pine forests. It flowers in July and August.
180560		population	eng	The population comprises 500 individuals with 30–100 plants in each subpopulation.
180560		threats	eng	The main threats are road improvement and recreational activities.
180561		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Crambe</em> is listed in Annex I of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as part of the brassica complex. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. santosii</span> is listed as Vulnerable (VU D2) in the 2008 Red List of the Vascular Flora of Spain (Moreno 2008). The taxon occurs within the Natural Parks on La Palma.<br/><br/>No germplasm accessions of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. santosii </span>are reported by EURISCO to be held in European genebanks (EURISCO Catalogue 2010). A review of the <em>ex situ</em> conservation status of this species is required and germplasm collection and duplicated <em>ex situ</em> storage should be carried out as necessary.
180561		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. santosii </span>occurs on La Palma where it is found in the north and northeast of the island in the region dominated by laurisilva forest. Reported findings in La Gomera could be confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. strigosa</span>. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
180561		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. santosii </span>is a perennial species which occurs in damp and shaded habitats in laurisilva forests (Prina and Martínez-Laborde 2008). It is more common in open areas within the forest where the germination rate is higher. There is an endemic butterfly species which is dependent on the species as a food source.
180561		population	eng	There are scattered subpopulations throughout its range and it tends to occur in small groups of individual plants.
180561		threats	eng	The species was threatened in the past through forest clearance; however, this practice was discontinued. It may be affected by storm damage to trees which creates discontinuities in the forest; however, this is not considered to be a significant threat.
180563		conservation	eng	No information available.
180563		distribution	eng	It has been recorded at Mount Ntchisi (central Malawi).
180563		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
180563		population	eng	No information available.
180563		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are forest destruction and agriculture.
180565		conservation	eng	Further information on the species population and distribution is required, as well as information on possible threats.
180565		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Balitora eddsi </span>was described in  2010 (Conway and Mayden 2010). Known only from the type locality, a 25  km stretch of the Gerwa River, Karnali River Basin, between the towns of  Chisapani and Kothiaghat, south-western Nepal. (28<sup>o</sup> 34"  0·012", N; 81<sup>o</sup> 13" 59·88" E, to 28<sup>o</sup> 23" 60·00", N;  81<sup>o</sup> 11" 59·99" E, collected by D. Edds, 2 March 1996.
180565		habitat	eng	Like other hillstream loaches, this species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Balitora </span>is inferred&#160;to inhabit the rocky cold water, fast-flowing streams.
180565		population	eng	Only collected from the type locality and there is no information on the species population.
180565		threats	eng	The Gerwa River area is well protected (the river flows along the border of the Bardya National Park) and the area is not heavily  populated (K. Conway, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).<br/>No information is available on dams on the Gerwa River, however, a dam is planned on the Karnali River, which the Gerwa is a tributary of. It is not known if this would impact this species.
180567		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need to understand the micro level distribution and threats to this species, in addition to generating baseline information on its population. &#160;Taxonomic validation of the species from southern India is recommended.
180567		distribution	eng	<p>Since its first description from<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region></st1:place>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. thermoicos</span> was subsequently recorded from the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.&#160;The first record from India was from inside the Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Rema Devi 1992). The species was later collected from Bharathapuzha (Thomas et al 1999) and Pambar (Kurup et al. 2004) rivers in Kerala. There are also reports of the species from <st1:place w:st="on">Eastern Ghats</st1:place> (without specifying the water bodies where it inhabits in Javadi Hills) by Rema Devi and Indra (2005), Bhavani (Kurup<em> et al</em>. 2004) and from the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in the Anamalai hill ranges (Rema Devi<em> et al</em> 2005). The species is known from Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctaury (Johnson and Arunachalam 2009) and in Chembarampakkam Lake and a few channels downstream, Chennai (V. Atkore pers. comm.).</p>
180567		habitat	eng	The species was originally described from hot springs (Valenciennes 1842). Previous records of its collection from Kerala were from ponds connected to the main river through channels (Thomas <em>et al</em>.1999). It is a pelagic insectivore (Rahul Kumar pers.obs.) found in mid and low stream, canals and wetlands.
180567		population	eng	There is no information on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. thermoicos</span>.
180567		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. thermoicos</span> is threatened by habitat alteration at key areas as a result of pollution, flow alteration due to construction of dams and barrages and exotic species invasion (Chhapgar and Mankadan 2000).
180643		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas.</p>
180643		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from the eastern slopes of the Gulf of Thailand (from the upper Bang Pakong basin) to eastern Thailand and western Cambodian coastal drainages. Also known from the lower and upper Xe Kong drainage in Lao PDR (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), and with records from Viet Nam (River Duc My, in the foothills of central Viet Nam (Herder and Freyhof 2006) and from the Thua Thien Hue Province (Vo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
180643		habitat	eng	Inhabits submintane to hill streams and waterfalls.
180643		population	eng	Locally common in all suitable habitats, many of its habitats are in protected areas.
180643		threats	eng	Deforestation and stream degradation are the main threats to this fish, but not considered significant at present.
180644		conservation	eng	None required.
180644		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout coastal South and Southeast Asia<span>; from India (Maharashtra and Karnataka State; Larson 2001) <span>and Bangladesh (Dakatia and Meghna rivers)<span>, to Thailand, Cambodia (coastal areas), Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan). Apparently extirpated from Singapore (Larson 2008).</span>
180644		habitat	eng	Inhabits estuaries and lower reaches of rivers, including adjacent streams.
180644		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
180644		threats	eng	There may be local habitat threats, however the species is not threatened across its range.
180645		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180645		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the lower Bang Pakong River drainage in south-central Thailand  (Ng 1999). Its presence in Lao PDR is uncertain; a specimen was seen on a market in Savannakhet, but it was not preserved (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180645		habitat	eng	This species is known from the lower parts of rivers, where the water is turbid and the substrate consists of mud.
180645		population	eng	This species is now very rare in the lower Bang Pakong River drainage. Only a few individuals have been caught in the Bang Pakong River in the past ten years (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011). The actual population decline rate is unknown, however major pollution  has occurred since 2005 and based on this species' sensitivity and current  very low population levels it is suspected that it has  declined by more than 80% over the past 10 years.
180645		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to pollution from industrial, domestic and agricultural sources, which is occurring in the lower Bang Pakong River drainage. The levels of pollution have increased significantly since around 2005.
180646		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Surveys are needed to determine the actual distribution.
180646		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Theun, Nam Lik, and upper Nam Ngum and Nam Ngiap at the edge of the Plain of Jars in Lao PDR. It seems to have a very fragmented and localised distribution but this may actually reflect the difficulty to sample its habitat and that some areas are still unexplored. It has not been reported from the Nam Gnouang (which joins the Nam Theun) but the upper part of the river is still unexplored. It is expected to be present in head waters in the drainages between the Nam Theun and Nam Ngiap.
180646		habitat	eng	This species was collected in rivers, in strong rapids or at the edge of waterfalls, on rocks.
180646		population	eng	This species is apparently very localised.
180646		threats	eng	In the Nam Theun drainage, this species has only been recorded from a tributary of the Nam Phao and in the Nam Theun proper below the Nam Theun 2 dam. It might be present upstream of the reservoir but this should be confirmed. In the Nam Ngiap and Nam Ngum it was collected at the edge of the Plain of Jars and these rivers are inacessible downstream of the plain. The precise location of the samples from the Nam Lik is not known. Rafting is now a popular tourist and recreational activity on the Nam Leuk and it might be a source of disturbance in case of very low water level.
180647		conservation	eng	Research into harvest and population trends is needed.
180647		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Inlé, Shan State, Myanmar. The Extent of Occurrence is 116 km<sup>2</sup>.<strong><br/></strong>
180647		habitat	eng	Inhabits midwater and margins of the lake, and associated with submerged vegetation. Aggregates in small schools.
180647		population	eng	The species population has declined greatly within the lake.
180647		threats	eng	Regularly harvested for aquarium trade, which may have impact its population. The introduction of non-native (to the lake) fish species, including farmed species (e.g., the larger <em>Parambassis </em>spp.) and tilapine fish are the major threats, both as as predator and competitor. Some of the introduced native fishes access the lake as a result of raised water levels from the downstream dam.<br/><br/>Pollution from a range of sources impacts the lake; sedimentation and agricultural pollution from the surrounding drainage, as well as direct pollution inputs form the growing human settlements around the lake.<br/><br/>The area of open water in the lake has declined in recent years (Sidle et al. 2007), a situation that has been exacerbated by recent droughts (Htwe 2010).
180648		conservation	eng	Research into threats is needed.
180648		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya, Mae Khlong, Salween, Peninsular  and southeast Thailand river systems (Vidthayanon 1997), the Malay Peninsula (Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and possibly adjacent basins in Myanmar), and from Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan (Kapuas River) and Java; Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005). Presence in Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia is not reported, but is probable.<br/><br/>    In the Mekong basin, it has been recorded from the mainstream and from tributaries (e.g., the lower and  middle Xe Bangfai; Kottelat 1998).
180648		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, both mainstream and tributaries. Known  to migrate into tributaries, small streams  and canals and  migration  commences at the onset of the rainy season or  when the water  starts  rising; undertakes upstream migration from  October to March and downstream migration from March to August (Sokheng 1999, Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Also reported to migrate  upstream during the dry  season in December/March in southern Lao PDR (Singhanouvong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997). Has an important spawning ground in Bung Borapet swamp in the Chao  Phraya catchment (Sokheng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).
180648		population	eng	No information available.
180648		threats	eng	The species is possibly impacted locally by over-fishing. Research is needed into the impacts of dams on species migrations, however the species undertakes local, short-distance migrations, and impacts are not thought to be great.
180649		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180649		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Lo River (Sông Lô) drainage in northeastern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2001).
180649		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
180649		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180649		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180652		conservation	eng	None required.
180652		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from <span>Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan; Kottelat<em> et al. </em>1993)<span>, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia (e.g., the Endau drainage; Ng and Tan 1999<span>), Sabah and Sarawak (Rajang basin; Parenti and Lim 2005)<span>, Brunei Darussalam, and Thailand (Chao Phraya, Maeklong, Peninsular <span><span><span><span>(e.g., Songkhla) <span><span><span><span>and southeast  Thailand river systems (<span><span><span><span>Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, <span><span><span><span>Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1997; e.g., <span><span><span><span>Chanthaburi<span><span><span><span>).<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
180652		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams.
180652		population	eng	No information available.
180652		threats	eng	No information available.
180653		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in the Southeast Asia region from the lower Mekong drainage (Cambodia (the Tonle Sap and tributaries of the Mekong, including the Sre Pok), Lao PDR (from the Khone falls southwards), Thailand and Viet Nam) to the Salween, Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya drainages in Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), to Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak and peninsular Malaysia) and Brunei Darussalam.
180653		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland freshwater wetlands, as well as canals and artificial habitats; moves into flooded forests, grasslands and fields.
180653		population	eng	Locally common in all suitable habitats all of its range.
180653		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat to this species.
180655		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
180655		distribution	eng	The species is known from Ky-Phú creek in northern Viet Nam only (Mai 1978).
180655		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater stream. There is no information available on the species ecology.
180655		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180655		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180656		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180656		distribution	eng	The species is known from river drainages in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, from the Perak River drainage northwards to the Isthmus of Kra. It may possibly be found in the river drainages draining the western face of the Bilauktaung (Tenasserim) Range in southern Myanmar.
180656		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hillstreams with a swift current and a substrate of rocks and sand. It is found sympatrically with <em>G. callopterus </em>throughout much of its range, but typically occupies streams at higher elevations and with a stronger current.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
180656		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180656		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180657		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Research is required.
180657		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong basin in Cambodia and Viet Nam, Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005, Roberts 1989).
180657		habitat	eng	This species occurs in large rivers and floodplain lakes (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180657		population	eng	This species was last reported in Borneo in 1976; in Sumatra in 1963 and in Cambodia in the 1950s (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180657		threats	eng	Although this species has not been seen for a long time and is potentially extinct, there is no information on what could be the cause (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005).
180659		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of its range is in protected areas.
180659		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nam Ma and Nam Xam drainages in Lao PDR. Both rivers flow to the Gulf of Tonkin through Viet Nam where the species is expected to occur there too.
180659		habitat	eng	The species was found in small streams with fast water on a stone bottom.
180659		population	eng	No information available.
180659		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180660		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180660		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known only from the Mae Nam Noi drainage, a tributary of the Salween (<span lang="EN-GB">Kottelat 1990, </span><span lang="EN-GB">Monkolprasit<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1997). The Mae Nam Noi makes the border between Thailand and Myanmar. Although the species has been observed only in Thailand for lack of surveys in Myanmar, there is no reason to doubt that it also occurs in Myanmar.</p>
180660		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone. Also observed in small creek in forest, even in very shallow water.</p>
180660		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180660		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180661		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Research is required, especially into its distribution.
180661		distribution	eng	Known from a single specimen collected in the Mekong at the Khone Falls (a large succession of islands, channels and waterfalls spanning about 10 km wide) Laos, near to the border with Cambodia (Kottelat 2000).
180661		habitat	eng	Known from a single specimen collected at Khone Falls, a  large succession of islands, channels and waterfalls spanning about  10 km wide (Kottelat 2000).
180661		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species as it is currently only known from one specimen (Kottelat 2000).
180661		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected. If restricted to the Khone Falls area, it would be liable to impacts from the proposed dam at the site.
180662		conservation	eng	Surveys on the abundance, distribution, and migratory behaviour of this fish are urgently needed. Once the ecology of the species is understood, the protection of spawning sites, rearing areas, and migratory pathways is a priority. In Cambodia, these areas likely include sections of the Tonle Sap Lake, the Tonle Sap River, and the mainstream Mekong River. Small no-fishing zones in these habitats would better protect Giant Carp and many other Mekong River species.  Research is especially needed into the migratory patterns of the species.<br/><br/>It is protected in all the Mekong states. The species has been named the national fish and is protected by law in Cambodia. The use of large mesh gill nets is not allowed in some stretches of river in Cambodia.
180662		distribution	eng	<span>The Giant Carp is recorded from larger rivers and floodplain areas in the Maeklong, Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. Wild populations of the species no longer occur in the Chao Phraya River (Humphrey and Bain 1990, Roberts and Warren 1994).
180662		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits floodplain and main river  habitats where it feeds on algae, phytoplankton, plant matter, and  small fish. Young fish are common in floodplain habitats while adults  seem to prefer deep pools of the main river, especially during the dry  season. In Cambodia, adult fish migrate out of the Tonle Sap Lake and  into the Mekong River at the end of the dry season (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001,  Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<span class="sheader5"><br/><br/><span class="sheader5">Very little is known about the natural spawning behaviour of this species. Spawning reportedly occurs in July and  August, possibly in areas adjacent to deep pools in the main river. Fecundity depends on the size of the fish; a 61 kg female can produce  over 10 million eggs. In captivity, fish mature after seven years at a  weight of about 9 kg (Mattson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). <span class="sheader5">The species can reach up to 300 kg (300 cm) in size, but few large individuals are now caught.<span class="sheader5"> Feeds on algae, phytoplankton and fruits of inundated terrestrial plants and detritus.</span></span>
180662		population	eng	Over the past 20 years, the abundance of this species has fallen sharply. Wild populations no longer occur in the Chao Phraya  River (Humphrey and Bain 1990, Roberts and Warren 1994), and the species  is very rare in the Thai and Lao Mekong and associated tributaries.  Roberts and Warren (1994) report only six fish from over 1,500 hours of  visits to Thai fish markets. Its spawning areas are not known. It is harvested before it reaches maturity, and recruitment has declined.<br/><br/>In Cambodia, interviews with fishers report that no fish larger than 150 kg have been harvested since 1994 (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpub. data); five fishers reported catching fish of that size between 1970 and 1994 (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  unpub. data), and average size of fish has decreased by 89%, and  total catch per fisherman by over 95%. Fishermen estimate a 78% decline  in total harvest since 1980 (Hogan  unpub. data). In the Tonle Sap River bagnet fishery, catches of  adult fish have dropped from 4–5 per net per year in the 2001 and 2002  seasons, to 2–3 fish in 2003, one fish in 2004, and no fish in 2005.  Other estimates (Mattson <span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002)  put the total Cambodian catch at 200 tonnes in 1964, 50 fish in 1980,  and ten fish in 2000. These data indicate a significant decline in  populations of adult fish. Below the Khone falls, only one (smaller) specimen was recorded in seven years of surveying (1993–1999; Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005.), where previously it had been an important fish in local catches. Based on catch data, the species is inferred to have declined by between 80-95% over the past 30 years.<span class="sheader5"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><br/><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
180662		threats	eng	Many rivers in the species range are impacted by urbanisation, dams and pollution (agricultural, urban and industrial) leading to habitat loss and degradation. The species is also highly valued in fisheries and is over-harvested, and this represents the greatest threat to the species, especially the gill net fishery. Populations expanded during the Khmer Rouge period due to the removal of fishery pressures, and declined rapidly from the 1980s onwards.<br/><br/>Primary threats to giant barb include over-harvest and habitat  fragmentation. Over-harvest is of particular concern because the Giant Carp is commercially valuable, slow growing, large-bodied and often a  component of mixed stock fisheries in areas of heavy fishing pressure.<br/><br/>It is expected that the development of mainstream dams on the Mekong will lead to further declines in the remaining populations through disruption of the species short-distance migrations and further loss of recruitment, however further research is needed on the migratory patterns of the species.
180663		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180663		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and rivers in mountainous areas and low hills in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005). It is not known if the original description mentions a locality.
180663		habitat	eng	Described from fast-flowing hill streams.
180663		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180663		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180664		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range occurs within Protected Areas.
180664		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the lower Mekong drainage and coastal streams of Cambodia and southeastern Thailand (Kottelat 2000, 2001).
180664		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180664		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180664		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180665		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Population and distribution research are needed to confirm its presence in Lao PDR and Cambodia, and its status in Thailand.
180665		distribution	eng	Authentic and type specimens are known only from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand. The species has been reported from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Cambodia, but no authentic specimens are known from these countries. This fish is considered endemic to Thailand, where it is now possibly extinct. Surveys throughout the whole of its range have been carried out for the past 15 years and have failed to find the species again (Ng and Kottelat 2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
180665		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland riverine and marshland floodplains. Its life history is poorly known although it is believed that one generation length is around 10 years.
180665		population	eng	This species has not been seen alive either in the wild or in captivity, for over three decades; the last specimen was found in 1974. Repeated surveys over the past 15 years have failed to find the species. Population reduction is therefore estimated to be greater than 90% (Ng and Kottelat 2007).
180665		threats	eng	Overfishing for the international aquarium trade severely depleted the populations of this species up until the 1980s, when it possibly became extinct in Thailand. Habitat degradation and loss of floodplains and mainstreams of the Chao  Phraya and Mae Khlong basins due to changing infrastructure (dams, weirs and locks) are also significant threats to this species.  This fish is suspected to be sensitive to deterioration in water  quality, particularly from pollution caused by agro-chemicals, which  are heavily used in Thailand.
180666		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is required into the species full distribution, threats and population trends.<br/></p>
180666		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from four sampling areas in the Nam Ngum catchment, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180666		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Collected in riffles among stones (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
180666		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from two sampling trips carried out in 1997 and 2009. Has not been observed again as no additional research has been carried out in the area (Kottelat 2000; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The population is suspected to be declining as a result of mining activities and dam construction and operation observed in the drainage in 2012 (M. Kottelat pers. comm.).<br/></p>
180666		threats	eng	<p>The Nam Ngum 1 dam was completed in 1971. Further dams and flow   control developments are proposed within the Nam Ngum basin (the "Nam   Ngum hydropower cascade"); the Nam Ngum 2, north of the Nam Ngum 1 dam, is now  in operation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and there are at least six  further proposed   projects: Nam Ngum 3 (construction to start in 2012;  M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Ngum 5 (under construction; M.  Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Lik 1 and 2 and Nam Bak 1 and 2   (International Rivers 2011, Vattenfall 2011). The scale and nature of   the impacts arising from these subsequent dams is not clear and further   information on the distribution of the species is required before the   nature of the threat from dams can be determined.<br/><br/>The surrounding  habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in the area.  Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural  pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat  pers. comm. 2011). Additional survey in the area in 2012 found extensive  small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and a there is a large-scale  Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is possible that  iron ore extraction may occur.</p>
180667		conservation	eng	None in place. Research is needed into the species current distribution and population trends.
180667		distribution	eng	The species is known from Xishuangbanna on the Mekong River in Yunnan, southern China, and also occurs in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001), where it has been recorded from the Nam Youan basin (a tributary of the Mekong). In Yunnan, it has been recorded from the Xiaohei River basin (including Xiaohei, Dazhai and Mangpa rivers), the Buyuan basin and the Nanla basin (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
180667		habitat	eng	Mainstreams to submontane tributary rivers. It is not known if the species is migratory.
180667		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its range, its populations trend is unknown.
180667		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitats degradation are potential threats for this fish. The lower reaches of the Upper Mekong are seriously threatened by the construction of cascade dams (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), however the impact of these on the species are not known.
180668		conservation	eng	Monitoring of populations is needed, as well as further information on ecology, distribution, and the impact of overfishing.
180668		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mekong River drainage from the delta in Viet Nam up to southern Cambodia, and the Bangpakong and Chao Phraya rivers in Thailand (Ng 2003).
180668		habitat	eng	Found in turbid lowland rivers and swamps.<br/>Migrates to Khone falls at start of rainy season (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
180668		population	eng	An uncommon species; not found in recent collections from the Tonle Sap Lake (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).
180668		threats	eng	In the Chao Phraya and Bangpakong rivers in Thailand the species has declined due to pollution and habitat degradation (C. Vidthayanon pers comm. 2011). Possibly overfished in some parts of its range.
180669		conservation	eng	No information available.
180669		distribution	eng	Known from continental southeast Asia, from the Chao Phraya to the lower Mekong basin (southern Lao PDR, Thailand, and Cambodia, including the Tonle Sap), and upper peninsular Thailand, from <span class="st">Phetchaburi Province, including the Mae Khlong (Kottelat 2001).
180669		habitat	eng	Inhabits intact or nearly intact marshlands and floodplains, with dense submerged vegetation.        <p>        <p><span class="s1">Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p></p>
180669		population	eng	More common in the Mekong basin than in other parts of its range.
180669		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from wetland reclamation and pollution are threats to this species.
180670		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.&#160;Catch data is also badly needed to ascertain the effects of fisheries on the population of this species.
180670		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle and lower Mekong River drainage in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam.
180670		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits larger rivers with a substrate of sand or mud.<br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005).
180670		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size and trends for this species. Survey data indicates that it is uncommon, but it is unclear if anthropogenic disturbance may have contributed to its scarcity.
180670		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Its status as a food fish may render it vulnerable to overexploitation, but this awaits verification.
180671		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the extent of impacts on the species from current and future threats.
180671		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in mainland southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong and <span>Chao Phrya in Thailand to the Mekong basin and peninsular Thailand. Described from the Maetang River, north of Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. In Viet Nam there are records from the Vu Gia – Thu Bon basin (Sheaves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) and Thua Thien Hue Province (Ho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) in central Viet Nam, and from Cat Tien National Park in southern Viet Nam.<br/><span><span class="sheader5"></span>
180671		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky rapid zones of the rivers, hillstreams and waterfalls. <span class="sheader5">Occurs in swiftly flowing water over rocky  bottoms.  Feeds on periphyton, phytoplankton and insects (Rainboth 1996).
180671		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon in its suitable habitats.
180671		threats	eng	Overfishing impacts the species, but the key future threat is the construction of large dams on the mainstream and major tributaries.
180673		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species are also needed.
180673		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong, Mae Klong and Chao Phraya river drainages in Indochina, and from the Mekong River drainage in southern China.
180673		habitat	eng	The species typically inhabits the main channels of rivers and large streams and has been known to take refuge in pools in the Mekong mainstream during the dry season (Poulsen 2002). Thought to be migratory (Rainboth 1996),&#160;carrying out short migrations from dry season pools to nearby tributaries to spawn during the wet season, and then returning to the mainstream Mekong during the dry season.
180673		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Current evidence indicates that it is still relatively widespread and abundant.
180673		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although it is expected that dam construction may affect the spawning migrations of this species, but this awaits further study and verification. Harvesting of this species for artisanal fisheries is not expected to significantly impact the long-term survival of this species.
180674		conservation	eng	Research into threats is required.
180674		distribution	eng	Known from Mekong basin from northern Lao PDR to Phnom Penh and the Tonle Sap Lake (Rainboth 1996). Found in both the mainstream and major tributaries (e.g., the lower Songkhram River<span> (Blake and Pitakthepsombut 2006), and the Tonle Touch, southeast Cambodia. The species is thought to be restricted to the Mekong drainage; records from the Chao Phraya River (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997) are erroneous.
180674		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland marshlands, rivers and lakes; <span class="sheader5">medium to large-sized rivers with fast current and relatively clear water (Rainboth 1996). The species spawns in streams and occasionally in lakes (e.g., the Tonle Sap Lake), and nurses young in flooded floodplains. Undertakes local seasonal movements.
180674		population	eng	Locally and seasonally common.
180674		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and overfishing are potential threats.
180675		conservation	eng	research is needed into the species taxonomy, and its distribution.
180675		distribution	eng	<p>It is recorded from the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya basins, to the Mekong basin, through the Malay Peninsula, to Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1993).</p>
180675		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits lowland river mainstreams and tributaries with rocky and sunken wood bottoms, and forest covered streams. Adaptive in impounded waters in some reservoirs of Thailand and Malaysia.</p><p><span class="sheader5">Feeds on fishes, probably has a crepuscular or nocturnal activity pattern (Rainboth 1996<a href="http://www.fishbase.org/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=12693"></a>).<span class="sheader5">  Other food of this species includes insects and small vertebrates (Vidthayanon<a href="http://www.fishbase.org/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=58784"></a> 2005).      </span></p>
180675		population	eng	<p>This species is uncommon throughout its range.</p>
180675		threats	eng	<p>Overfishing and habitat degradation are the main threats to the species.</p>
180676		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data is also badly needed to ascertain the effects of fisheries on the population of this species.
180676		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong River drainage in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
180676		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">This species inhabits large, turbid rivers, where it feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. In the  Cambodian Mekong, the fish migrates into the flooded forest during high  water periods and returns to the rivers in November where they remain  until March.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
180676		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size and trends for this species. Survey data indicates that it is uncommon, but it is unclear if anthropogenic disturbance may have contributed to its scarcity.
180676		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Its status as a food fish may render it vulnerable to overexploitation, but this awaits verification.
180677		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species' threats, distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology.
180677		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Bassac River on the Vietnamese border at Kandal, Cambodia. Originally considered to be restricted to the lower Mekong drainage in Cambodia (Ng and Rainboth 1999), records of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nemurus</span> are now considered to pertain to <em>H. spilopterus</em>, and the species is known from the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Mae Khlong drainages (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2011).
180677		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Recorded from rivers. Feeds on exogenous insects, aquatic insect   larvae, shrimps and other crustaceans, as well as fishes.  In the  Cambodian  Mekong, it moves into flooded forest to spawn and the young  are first  observed in August, with the adults returning to rivers in  November and  December (Ng and Rainboth 1999).
180677		population	eng	<span class="sheader5">No information available.
180677		threats	eng	No threats are known, further research is needed. It may be impacted by widespread forest clearance within the region.
180678		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution, threats, and conservation status of the species.
180678		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from small forest streams in the Nan Xam basin in Houaphan  Province, northeastern Lao P.D.R. (Kottelat 2001, Chen and Kottelat 2003). Its presence is expected in the same basin in Viet Nam (Chen and Kottelat 2003).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180678		habitat	eng	Found in small forest creeks with stony substrat and rapid current (Kottelat 2001, Chen and Kottelat 2003).<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran et al. 2005).&#160;</p>
180678		population	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180678		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a forest species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180679		conservation	eng	No information available.
180679		distribution	eng	Found in middle to lower Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.
180679		habitat	eng	A carnivorous species that is found in the mainstreams and large tributaries.
180679		population	eng	There is little data on the species population, but based on surveys across the species range it is clearly decling (e.g. Khone Falls, southern Laos (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Now uncommon in markets, and it is inferred that across the species entire range, the species has  declined by more than 30% (but less than 50%) in the past 15-20 years.
180679		threats	eng	The species is an important food and aquarium trade species and has been over harvested, particularly in Thailand, and possibly also in Lao PDR and Cambodia.
180681		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population size and trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomy of the different populations in Sundaic Southeast Asia identified as this species also require study to ascertain if they are all conspecific.
180681		distribution	eng	The species is known throughout river drainages in Java, Sumatra, Borneo (except in the east and northeast), the Malay Peninsula (northwards to the Isthmus of Kra) and the&#160;short, coastal rivers that drain the southwestern face of the Kravanh (Cardamom) Mountains in southeastern Thailand.
180681		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested streams and smaller rivers, typically with a moderate flow and a sandy substrate.
180681		population	eng	There is limited information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
180681		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180682		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
180682		distribution	eng	The species has a western Central Pacific distribution, although it is known from few record and the known range is probably incomplete. It is known from Singapore, southern peninsular Thailand (Narathiwat Province), Indonesia (Sumatra; Larson 2001), and Papua New Guinea (Kikori River; Larson 2009).
180682		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish and marine waters in mangrove and estuarine sites, in sandy.muddy substrates.
180682		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180682		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to the species.
180684		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place<span style="font-weight: bold;">.</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
180684		distribution	eng	The species has a northwest Pacific distribution. It is known from the Yellow Sea coast of the Korean Peninsula and China´s mainland (Kim 1997). Probably occurs also in the coastal region of the Gulf of Tonkin in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
180684		habitat	eng	Mature individuals migrate from the sea into river estuaries to spawn. Larvae hatch after 20 days of embryonic development. As juveniles, they migrate back to the sea. Adults feed mainly on zooplankton (Shouzeng and Dagang 1994).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/><br/><br/></span>
180684		population	eng	Annual catches of icefishes in Taihu Lake have been over 750 tonnes since the mid 1960s with a peak of 1200 tonnes in 1981 (Zhang Kaixiang 1985). The fishery in Dianchi Lake has been developed prosperously since the successful transplantation of icefishes from Taihu Lake in 1981 with an annual catch over 1000 tons. Icefish resources in the Yellow River estuary are small compared with those in fresh waters. The annual catch of icefishes in this region has only exceeded 20 tons since the 1970s and reached a peak of 40 tons in 1986. It gradually decreased since 1987 with the lowest being less than 1 ton in 1990.
180684		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing, water pollution of their spawning grounds and dam constructions which prevent spawning migrations.
180685		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180685		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Lo River (Sông Lô) drainage and from the Nui Coc reservoir and its feeding streams in the mountainous midland region of northeastern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005).
180685		habitat	eng	Found in streams in hill areas. It has also been found in a reservoir.<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran et al. 2005).&#160;</p>
180685		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180685		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation), although the species has also been found in a reser4voir and is thus resilient to impoundment.
180686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place. Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas.
180686		distribution	eng	This species is native to western Malaysia, peninsular Thailand and coastal streams in southeastern Thailand. Records from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong drainages in fact are <span style="font-style: italic;">N. pallidus</span>.
180686		habitat	eng	This species inhabits river and streams with moderate current and sandy to bottom. It prefers shallow, clear waters.
180686		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180686		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180688		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180688		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality in the Song Chay (Claire) drainage, which forms part of the middle Red River (Song Hong) drainage in northern Viet Nam. Described from&#160;Mo Tôm, Tuyen Quang province in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Vo in Nguyen 2005).
180688		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species in the original description, but based on our knowledge of confamilials, this species most likely inhabits relatively swift rivers with a substrate of sand/gravel/rock and most likely feeds on invertebrates.
180688		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species,&#160;as it is known only from the six specimens that constitute the type series.
180688		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180689		conservation	eng	The species has been bred in captivity and this may reduce pressure on stocks of wild fish. Some measures have been put in place in Cambodia to limit the harvest of fry. Semi-captive populations exists in small no fishing zones adjacent to temples in Thailand.
180689		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Chao Phraya and middle-lower Mekong basins (Rainboth 1996), and is also reported from the Mae Khlong in Thailand. It is a very common aquaculture species, especially in Viet Nam and Thailand. It has been introduced widely outside of its native range, and has established populations in, for example, Myanmar (Ayeyarwaddy River) and Indonesia.
180689		habitat	eng	The species is a large, fecund, relatively slow growing catfish. It is an omnivore, feeding primarily on algae, plants, zooplankton, insects, fruits, crustaceans, and fish. It inhabits main channels and floodplains of large rivers and seasonally moves up to floodplains and marshland for feeding and nursing.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Life history</span><br/>This fish grows approximately one kilogram per year (Khanh 1996, Lenormand 1996). Van Zalinge (2002) suggests size at first reproduction to be approximately at 3.5 kg or 60 cm. Khanh (1996) and Xuan (1994) published similar estimates of approximately 112,000 to 138,000 eggs per kilogram body weight after age four. River catfish reach full maturity after age ten. Absolute maximum fecundity is 2,000,000 (Khanh 1996). Mortality rates are difficult to estimate, because of the complicated life history of the river catfish. Many factors, including reproductive ecology, small egg size, and high fecundity suggest that the species is adapted to high mortality of early life stages. Maximum life span is estimated at approximately 20 years (pangasiids at the Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco, U.S.A. are 20 years old). The fish reaches full maturity between two and four years. The best estimate of generation length is between 10 and 15 years (Z. Hogan, pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Movement Patterns</span><br/>In the Mekong River basin, the species is thought to move out of the Tonle Sap Lake, up the Mekong River, and into deep pool areas to spawn in northeastern Cambodia at the beginning of the rainy season (between May and July). In 2002, ultrasonic and conventional tagging provided clear evidence of long distance migration in the Mekong River basin (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). A catfish (first tagged and released in the Tonle Sap River on November 30, 2001) was recaptured in the Mekong River 320 km upstream of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The movement indicates that the species is capable of migrations in excess of 300 km. Given reports that this and many other Mekong species spawn in northern Cambodia, this movement was likely a spawning migration. These data, when assessed together with data on the migrations of a closely related species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pangasius krempfi,</span> which migrates over 700 km, (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), provide strong evidence that pangasiid catfish are capable of long distance movements. The movement of fish from the Tonle Sap River floodplain to deep-water pools in the upper Cambodian Mekong may represent a critical step in the life history of this and several other species. Deep-water areas are recognized as important dry season refuges for many fishes in the Mekong River basin. In the Cambodian Mekong, the species spawns between May and July. The young fish drift downstream to the lower reaches of the Cambodian Mekong and into the Tonle Sap Lake.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Breeding Strategy</span><br/>Spawning adults migrate upstream each year in at the beginning of the flood season. Eggs are sticky and apparently deposited on submerged vegetation (Van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) Emerging fry disperse downstream with the rising flood waters (Singhanouvong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996).
180689		population	eng	<p>Wild populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were once an important food source in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam. Roberts (1993) noted the disappearance of wild adults from Thailand during the 1980’s and early 1990’s. By the early 1990’s, this species remained abundant only in Cambodia (MRC 1992). There are indications that Cambodian populations have dropped dramatically in 2006. Cambodian fishermen (age 40+, n=43) estimate that overall catch of this fish has declined by 68% since the 1980’s (Z. Hogan, unpublished data). Individually, older fishers report that catch per fisher has declined by as much as 99% since 1980 from several tons per season to 10-100 kg per season. In the largest fishing lots of the Tonle Sap Lake, catches of the species have dropped by over 90% – from about 100 tons 20 years ago to just five or even one ton today. While adult fish are still present in the fishery, fishers have not caught the largest class of fish (35-80 kg) since 1972. Fishers in the Tonle Sap River bagnet reported 97 adult fish in 2004, 222 in 2005, and three in 2006. Once common in breeding sites in Chao Phraya basin, it is now rare and only escapee or semi-captive populations are common.</p><p>Despite declining wild populations, the species remains a common and popular aquaculture species in Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam with thousands of tons produced annually.</p>
180689		threats	eng	Overexploitation, habitat degradation, and changes in water quality and  flow are the major threats to the species. Though once a staple  food throughout its range, it has been heavily exploited  and exploitation, combined with other factors, has led to the near  extinction in the Chao Phraya River in Thailand and the Thai Mekong. In  Cambodia, mature fish populations are in decline. Future plans to dam  the Mekong could disrupt the species life cycle because the  species is migratory and appears to rely on flow or water quality to  facilitate migrations, cue spawning, and aid in the dispersal of young  fish.
180690		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
180690		distribution	eng	<span>Known from rivers, lakes and estuaries in Indonesia (<span>Kalimantan<span>: Banjermasin, Pontianak,  Sinkawang rivers, middle part of Kapuas River; <span>Sumatra<span>: Banjuasin,  Palembang, Djambi), Malaysia (Baram River and Long Teru, Sarawak), Thailand (Chao Praya River as far up as Lake  Bueng-borapet or 210 km from the sea), Lao PDR (Mekong, below Khone Falls), Viet Nam (Vung Tao, at the mouth of the Mekong), and Cambodia (<span>Tonle Sap Lake and River, and most likely also the Mekong) (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1988).<br/></span></span></span>
180690		habitat	eng	A riverine and lacustrine species, but perhaps passing from estuaries into the sea. Occurs in medium to large-sized rivers of the lower Mekong. Reported to undertake migrations in the Mekong mainstream. From the Khone Falls to the Mekong delta, it migrates upstream during the dry season from October to March and downstream at the onset of the monsoon season from May to July. These migrations are reported to be triggered by the receding or rising of the water levels. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and small fishes.
180690		population	eng	No information available.
180690		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by threats, but these are thought to not be across its range. Further information is required.
180691		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in protected areas (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
180691		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the middle and upper part of the Nam Gnouang drainage southwards to the Xe Bang Hiang in Lao PDR and Viet Nam. The species may be present in the Se Kong River in Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998, 2001, Freyhof and Serov 2001).
180691		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles and rapids, over gravel to stone substrate.
180691		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180691		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011)<span lang="EN-GB">.</span></p>
180692		conservation	eng	Habitat management and awareness raising on captive releasing are recommended.
180692		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong basin in northeastern Thailand, lowland Lao PDR (Khorat Plateau), Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap) and southern Viet Nam.
180692		habitat	eng	This species inhabits marshland and floodplains, small seasonal swamp and waterbodies with dense vegetation, grasses and waterplants.
180692		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon throughout its range.
180692		threats	eng	Wetland degradation from diversion, draining, infrastructure and agriculture may threats to this species.
180695		conservation	eng	The conspecificity with&#160;<em>H. guttatus</em>&#160;needs to be investigated, and more information on the population and its trends is needed.
180695		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ky Cung River in Viet Nam, which drains into the Zuojiang, part of the Zhujiang (Pearl River) drainage in Guangxi, China (Nguyen 2005).
180695		habitat	eng	There is no information on the biology and the population trends of this species, but based on biology of closely-related congeners, it probably inhabits upland rivers with a moderate current and a predominantly sandy substrate.
180695		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180695		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
180696		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution, population trends, and threats
180696		distribution	eng	The species is considered restricted to the upper Chao Phraya basin (the Mae Ping subdrainage), known from Maetaeng River (Nam Mae Taeng) and tributary streams.
180696		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane to highland streams, with clear and moderate flowing waters.
180696		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon in its range.
180696		threats	eng	The species is likely to be susceptible to habitat degradation resulting from, for example, sedimentation, but no information is available.
180697		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place
180697		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the River Ba (Da Rang) which drains to the Vietnamese coast and enters the sea at Tuy Hoa, in central Viet Nam (Gai Lai and Phu Yen provinces) (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
180697		habitat	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits fast flowing water with open sand substratum (Freyhof and Serov 2001). In case of danger, the species was observed to dive into the sand. In most cases, several specimens were caught together in one place, which suggests some kind of gregarious behaviour (Freyhof and Serov 2001).
180697		population	eng	In the last 10 years (2000-2009), there has been no cahnge in the abundance of the species (J. Freyhof, unpublished data).
180697		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180698		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
180698		distribution	eng	The species has an eastern Asia distribution: from the Amur River to the Yangtze River drainages. In Mongolia, it is known from the Lake Buir, Onon and Kherlen river drainages (Berg 1964; Kottelat 2006). There are records from the Red River in Viet Nam which probably refer to this species (Kottelat 2001).
180698		habitat	eng	Recorded from freshwater river and lakes. A large river species; it is thought that the species spawning depends on flowing waters.
180698		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180698		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing and river modifications (e.g. dam construction). Flow regulation by dams may impact upon reproductive success.
180699		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180699		distribution	eng	The species is known from Red River basin in northern Viet Nam and southern China (Chu and Chen 1989, Nguyen and Ngo 2001) and the Huong, Quang Tri, Giang and Lam river basins in Central Viet Nam (J. Freyhof pers. com. 2010).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span>
180699		habitat	eng	Recorded from freshwater rivers.
180699		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180699		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing, river modifications (e.g. dam construction) and water pollution.
180700		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of the range is in protected areas.
180700		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Xe Dong and Xe Kong drainages in Lao PDR. It might be present in Cambodia.
180700		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in moderate to fast water, most frequently in small streams and forest creeks, in clear water with stone bottom. It is rarely observed in the floodplain.
180700		population	eng	No information available.
180700		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation, and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). <span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known geographic range of this species is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dams.</span></p>
180701		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also badly needed. The conspecificity of the Sundaic and mainland Southeast Asian populations also requires verification.
180701		distribution	eng	The species is known throughout river drainages in Borneo (except in the northeast), Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, as well as mainland Southeast Asia (Mekong and Chao Phraya river drainages).
180701		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits larger rivers with turbid waters, where it feeds largely on pelagic fishes. It spawns just prior to the rise in water levels and moves into the flooded riparian forests and probably out into the floodplains during high water levels.
180701		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
180701		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished as a food species throughout much of its range, and it is expected that overfishing may pose a considerable threat to its population. However, this awaits verification from empirical data.
180702		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Ecological research is needed on the bivalve mollusc which is this species' reproductive host. Taxonomic research is also needed.
180702		distribution	eng	Recorded from Thuong River (part of the Pearl River drainage) in northern Viet Nam (Lang Son Province) only (Kottelat 2001).
180702		habitat	eng	A freshwater species recorded from river habitat.
180702		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180702		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180703		conservation	eng	Bagnet fisheries at the mouths of streams is illegal in Cambodia, but still continues (Baird and Flaherty 2004). More research is needed on its distribution in the upper parts of its range.
180703		distribution	eng	This species is a Mekong endemic. It is found in the mainstream Mekong from Kratie (Cambodia) north to Lao PDR and Thailand (Chiang Rai). Also found in the Sesan, Srepok and Sekong (the 3S rivers), including the Srepok in Viet Nam.
180703		habitat	eng	It migrates upstream, out of the 3S basin in November-December, down to the border between Kratie and Stung Treng and then turns upstream into the Mekong River, up to southern Lao PDR and Thailand. It returns in June-July up into streams to spawn (Baird and Flaherty 2004).
180703		population	eng	This is a very abundant species in the lower parts of its range (Baird and Flaherty 2004), and less common in the upper areas. However this is a migratory species and the planned Sekong 4 and Sekong 5 dams (Baird and Shoemaker 2008) and Lower Sesan 2 dam (Baird 2009) due to start construction 2011-2012 are expected to have a significant negative impact on this species. As a conservative estimate it is projected that this species will have a population decline of 30-50% over the next ten years.
180703		threats	eng	Threats to this species include overfishing and dam construction in the 3S basins and on the mainstream Mekong (Baird and Flaherty 2004, Baird 2009a, 2009b). The Sekong 4 and Sekong 5 dams (Baird and Shoemaker 2008) and Lower  Sesan 2 dam (Baird 2009) are due to start construction 2011-2012.
180704		conservation	eng	No information is&#160;available&#160;on the conservation status of the species.
180704		distribution	eng	The species is known from East River (Dongjiang) drainage, a tributary of the Pearl River (Zhujiang) in southeastern China (Guangdong Province) only (Zheng 1991).
180704		habitat	eng	Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
180704		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180704		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180705		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Parts of the range is in protected areas.
180705		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, from the Nam Mang southwards to the Xe Kong drainages, including the Xe Bangfai, and the Xe Kong in Cambodia and Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998, 2001, 2011). Presence in northeastern Thailand expected.
180705		habitat	eng	The species inhabits streams with clear water, current moderate to fast water, and sandy to gravel substrate.
180705		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180705		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). Several dams exist or are planned or proposed within the EOO.<br/></span></p>
180706		conservation	eng	None required.
180706		distribution	eng	<span>The species is known from coastal areas of the western Pacific region: Japan (Ryukyu Islands), China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Thailand.  Reported from Indonesia (Sumatra) (Kottelat and Whitten 1996).
180706		habitat	eng	Occur in brackish waters along coastlines, estuaries and tidal reaches of rivers, and feeds on small crustaceans, aquatic insects and insect larvae (Rainboth 1996).
180706		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon in suitable habitats.
180706		threats	eng	No threat information available.
180707		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
180707		distribution	eng	The species has a West-Pacific distribution. It is known from the coastal waters of Cambodia (Rainboth 1996), Thailand (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), Viet Nam (Khoa and Huong 1993), Malaysia and Indonesia (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993). It was also reported to occur at Ban Hang Khone, a village on an island in the middle of the  mainstream Mekong River just below the Khone Falls in Champasak Province, Lao PDR. (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
180707		habitat	eng	This is an euryhaline species (Kottelat 1989) which occurs along the bottom in estuaries and in the lower courses of rivers (Rainboth 1996). It feeds on benthic invertebrates (Rainboth 1996).
180707		population	eng	No information available.
180707		threats	eng	There is no information available on the threats to this species.
180709		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180709		distribution	eng	The species is known throughout river drainages in central Sumatra (Musi, Batang Hari, and Indragiri), Borneo (Baram, Belait, Kapuas, Rejang, Sadong) and the Malay Peninsula (Bernam, Endau, Johor, Pahang, Perak, Pattani, Sungai Kolok, Trang), as well as the short, coastal rivers that drain the southwestern face of the Kravanh (Cardamom) Mountains in southeastern Thailand (Ng 2002).
180709		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested streams and smaller rivers, typically with turbid water and substrate with leaf litter.
180709		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
180709		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Likely to be susceptible to habitat loss and degradation arising from lowland forest clearance.
180710		conservation	eng	None known to be in place.
180710		distribution	eng	<span style="">The species is known from the lower </span>Ayeyarwady River t<span style="">o lower Salween basins in Myanmar, and the Kraburi estuary in Ranong Province, Thailand.</span>
180710		habitat	eng	It occurs in the lower reaches of tidal rivers and in estuarine areas in muddy and sandy mud bottoms.
180710		population	eng	It is locally common to uncommon throughout its range.
180710		threats	eng	Overfishing may threaten this species, especially by bottom trawl nets.
180711		conservation	eng	None required.
180711		distribution	eng	The species is known from peninsular Thailand (the Tapi River, and the provinces of Trang, Pattani and Surat Thani;          Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997) to Malaysia (Peninsula (e.g., the Endau drainage; Ng and Tan 1999) and Sarawak (e.g., the Rajang (Parenti and Lim 2005) and the Baram rivers), Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan; Rainboth 1996), Brunei Darussalam (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993).<br/><br/>The species has also been recorded from northern Cambodia (Roberts and Warren 1994) and Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999), however these are most likely misidentifications, and it is not thought that the species is present in the Mekong drainage (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).
180711		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane streams and rivers to hill streams. <span class="sheader5">  Probably migrates into seasonally flooded forests (Rainboth 1996).
180711		population	eng	Locally rare in Thailand and uncommon elsewhere.
180711		threats	eng	No major threats known, deforestation is a potential threat.
180712		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is needed into the species distribution, population trends, and threats.
180712		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Ngum and Nam Khan rivers in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, 2001).
180712		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180712		population	eng	This species is only known from one survey carried out in 1999 and no further information is available (Kottelat 2000, 2001). Populations within the Nam Ngum drainage are inferred to be declining as a result of dam and mining operations.
180712		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p><p>The Nam Ngum 1 dam was completed in 1971 and the species is only known   from above above the reservoir of this dam. Further dams and flow   control developments are proposed within the Nam Ngum basin (the "Nam   Ngum hydropower cascade"); the Nam Ngum 2, north of the Nam Ngum 1 dam, is now  in operation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and there are at least six  further proposed   projects: Nam Ngum 3 (construction to start in 2012;  M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Ngum 5 (under construction; M.  Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Lik 1 and 2 and Nam Bak 1 and 2   (International Rivers 2011, Vattenfall 2011). The scale and nature of   the impacts arising from these subsequent dams is not clear and further   information on the distribution of the species is required before the   nature of the threat from dams can be determined.<br/></p><p>Additional survey in the Nam Ngum drainage in 2012 found extensive  small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and a there is a large-scale  Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is possible that  iron ore extraction may occur.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p>
180713		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
180713		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is throughout southeastern Asia. It is known from the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam and the coastal drainages in central Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The southern border of its distribution range is the Thu Bon River (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
180713		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and large streams, always over boulders in riffles or rapids with very high current velocities (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
180713		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180713		threats	eng	Dam construction, overfishing, and water pollution are major threats to this species
180714		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. More research on population trends, ecology and current threats to this species is needed.
180714		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Tapi River basin in Thailand.
180714		habitat	eng	The species was collected from small streams, in riffles, with clear water and&#160; over a small pebble substrate.
180714		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180714		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180716		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
180716		distribution	eng	The species has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from southern China and from northern Viet Nam. Probably also present in Lao P.D.R. and Cambodia.
180716		habitat	eng	There are no information available on species ecology. <br/><br/>Lives in highland streams to lowland wetlands (Vidthayanon 2002). Usually found in streams and rivers with sand, pebble, or boulder substrate. Seldom leaves the bottom except when disturbed. Also occurs in still waters, both in coastal marshes and dry zone tanks. Sometimes stays partially buried in fine substrate. Enters flooded forest (Roberts 1993). Reported to occur in areas with rocky bottoms in the Mekong mainstream during the dry season, but enter canals, lakes and other floodplain areas during the flood season (Sokheng<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1999). Forages at night on benthic insect larvae, worms and some submerged plant material (Rainboth 1996).
180716		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180716		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180717		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The species was described from Cuc Phuong National Park.
180717		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Song Iuong drainage, Cuc Phuong, Thanh Hoa Province, in northeastern Viet Nam (Ng and Freyhof 2001).
180717		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams with a moderate to swift current and a substrate of sand/rocks.
180717		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
180717		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180718		conservation	eng	Research into the impacts of dams on the species is required.
180718		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the lower Mekong basin in Cambodia, Lao PDR (including the Nam Theun and throughout the Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998) and the Sekong (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), Thailand (Rainboth 1996,          Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, MRC 2003), and Viet Nam. Possibly present in Mekong drainages in Myanmar.
180718		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky rapids and rocky zones of the mainstreams and tributaries rivers.
180718		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
180718		threats	eng	No threats known at present, mainstream dams are a potential threat.
180719		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
180719		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Xe Bang Hiang and Xe Kong drainages, in Mekong basin in Lao PDR and is assumed to be present in between. The Xe Bang Hiang record is from the Xe Pon almost at the border with Viet Nam and the species is assumed to also be present in Viet Nam, and it has been found in the Xe Kong in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2011).
180719		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in rapids and stretches of the main river with gravel to stone bottom.</p><p>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</span></p></p>
180719		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Population size and trends are unknown.</p>
180719		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation  and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the  aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural  pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). A number of dams exist, are under construction or proposed within the EOO of this species.<br/></span></p>
180720		conservation	eng	None required, however populations and habitats should be monitored.
180720		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from the lower Mekong basin (Cambodia and Viet Nam) to the Mae Khlong in Thailand, and the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan (e.g., the Kapuas River; Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005). The species has <span>been widely introduced to several  countries for aquaculture purposes.  Apparently absent in Sarawak and  presence in Sabah may be due to relatively late introductions.
180720		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland rivers, marshlands to submontane streams. Well adaptive to impounded waters.
180720		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats all of its range.
180720		threats	eng	Wetland degradation and pollution are possible threats to this fish, but it is not considered threatened across its range.
180721		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species current distribution and population trends, including the scale of impact from known threats.
180721		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Malay Peninsular; Peninsular Thailand and Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), and should be looked for in northern Peninsular Malaysia. Described from a mountain stream at Kao Luang, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand (Smith 1945).
180721		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">Inhabits clear swift-flowing forested streams and rivers. Disappears when human activities degrade aquatic habitats, as seen in other members of the genus.
180721		population	eng	This species is common in its range.
180721		threats	eng	Some of its populations are prone to overfishing. It may be affected by habitat destruction due to human disturbance.
180722		conservation	eng	Further research is required for this species.
180722		distribution	eng	<span> The species is known from streams in the Tanintharyi (<span>Tenasserim) <span>and Kayin (<span>Mitan Chaung) <span>divisions of southern Myanmar (Britz and Maclaine 2007).</span></span>
180722		habitat	eng	Found in hill streams, in<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"> <span class="hps">plant detritus.<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""></span></span></span>
180722		population	eng	No information available.
180722		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
180723		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180723		distribution	eng	The species is known from the middle Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Thailand, from the Nam Heung to the Xe Don drainages (Rainboth 1996, Kottelat 1990, 2001). Probably present in other localities in the middle Mekong, including the upland stretch in eastern Cambodia.
180723		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams and rivers (including Mekong mainstream), with moderate to fast water, over a variety of substrate, from mud to stone.
180723		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180723		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180724		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180724		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin and the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia and possibly present in associated drainages in southeastern Myanmar). <br/><br/><span class="slabel1"><span><span class="slabel1">In Thailand, records are from the Mae Khlong, Mekong, Chao  Phraya  and southeastern river systems (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997); provinces where it is found include: <span class="slabel1"><span><span class="slabel1">Phrae, Phitsanulok, Kemarat (Ubon Ratchathani), Trang,  Chanthaburi, Chiang Mai, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Kanchanaburi, Nakhon  Sawan, Yala, Chiang Rai and Surat.</span></span></span>
180724		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky rapid zones in submontane to hill streams, larger rivers, and occasionally lowland rivers. It moves to floodplains or paddy fields for breeding at the start of the first rains of the year, nursing until juveniles, then moves down to streams.
180724		population	eng	This species is locally common in its suitable habitats.
180724		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and overfishing are potential threats to this fish, but have not been significant recently.
180726		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180726		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong (from the mouth upriver to Vientiane, Lao PDR), Mae Khlong (the mouth to at least Kanchanaburi), Bang Pakong (from the mouth to at least Prachinburi) and Chao Phraya (the mouth upriver to at least Ayutthaya) river drainages in mainland Southeast Asia (Ng 2003).
180726		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits large rivers with a substrate of sand or mud.<br/><br/>Dominany presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
180726		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size and trends for this species, but survey data indicates that it is still abundant throughout much of its range.
180726		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
180727		conservation	eng	No information available.
180727		distribution	eng	The species has an uncertain distribution, with records from the lower Mekong (Cambodia and southern Viet Nam) and Borneo (Kuching (Sarawak) and Kalimantan). In the Mekong, records are from central Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap lake and river, as the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Polynemus melanochir dulcis </span>Motomura &amp; Sabaj, 2002) (Motomura 2004). Presence in Thailand is unlikely (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012).
180727		habitat	eng	Inhabits estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers, as well as inland lakes connected to them.
180727		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats, but very rare in Thailand.
180727		threats	eng	Overfishing and mainstream dams are potential threats to this fish.
180729		conservation	eng	Monitoring of harvest and habitats is required.
180729		distribution	eng	The species was described from a hill stream, Koh Yao Yai (island), Phuket, Thailand. The species is known from similar habitat in the Malay Peninsula from southern Thailand (Krabi and Ranong provinces) to Malaysia. The species has been recorded from other islands in the area including Phuket, Ko Lanta and Langkawi.
180729		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane streams to hillstreams in forest areas  and small rivers typified by very clear water with substrates of rocks,  boulders and gravel.
180729		population	eng	Locally common.
180729		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
180731		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180731		distribution	eng	Described from Lahat, Palembang Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. This species is reported from Thailand in the lower Chao Phraya basin (e.g., at Ayutthaya), along the eastern slope of the Malay Peninsula, and in Indonesia in Sumatra (southern Sumatra at Lahat, upper reaches of eastward  flowing Musi system and possibly Kalimantan (probably present in several rivers, however the Kapuas River record may re<span>fer to another species<span>). The species has been recorded from Lao PDR (Nam Ngum reservoir; Schouten 1998) and from Cambodia (Kottelat 1985). The origin of these latter records is uncertain and it is possible that they have been introduced.</span>
180731		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lower reaches of rivers and estuaries, and also occurs in floodplains and lakes in flooding season. It has also been recorded from reservoirs.<br/><br/>Found in large lakes and rivers. 'White' style river useage. (Rainboth 1996).
180731		population	eng	It is locally common in parts of its range.
180731		threats	eng	Pollution and large scale overfishing are future threats to this species.
180732		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in protected areas (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">).</p>
180732		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mengla River, Xishuang Banna, southern China, and in the Nam Theun, Nam Gnouang, Nam Ou, Xe Bang Hiang and upper Xe Don rivers, Loa PDR (M. Kottelat 1998, 2001).
180732		habitat	eng	This species is found in upper reaches of large streams with moderately swift current (Kottelat 2001).
180732		population	eng	This species is widespread but neither common nor abundant (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180732		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Reservoirs created by dams may pose a threat to this species by altering preferred habitat. A number of reservoirs are constructed or planned within its EOO. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180733		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180733		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from streams and rivers of the low and high mountain ranges in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005).
180733		habitat	eng	The species is known from hillstreams.
180733		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180733		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180734		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species taxonomic identity.
180734		distribution	eng	The species s presently known from Pacific coastal drainages in central Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
180734		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
180734		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180734		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180735		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180735		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong to the Mekong basins (Cambodia, Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam), and from Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).
180735		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstream rivers and inner estuaries.
180735		population	eng	Locally common in its range. In the Mekong it is especially common in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
180735		threats	eng	Overfishing and pollution are potential threats.
180736		conservation	eng	More information on the population trends, life history and distribution is needed.
180736		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mekong basin, and may be restricted to northeastern Thailand. The species has been reported from Lao PDR (Savannakhet (C. Krudpan pers. comm. 2011) and lower Nam Leuk), and from Cambodia (Ratanakhiri (So Nam pers. comm.. 2011)) records which need confirmation. In northeastern Thailand it has been collected in the provinces of Nongkhai, Buengkan, Udonthani and Sakon Nakhon.
180736		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits swamps and ponds with clear, relatively deep water (Kottelat 2001) and shallow zones with dense submerge vegetations, as well as flooded fields and floodplain lakes.
180736		population	eng	Locally uncommon in two wetlands of northeastern Thailand in Buengkan Province (Kut Ting and Bueng Khong Long), rare elsewhere.
180736		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by habitat alteration caused by agricultural chemicals and land conversion.
180737		conservation	eng	Population trends should be monitored.
180737		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Viet Nam (Kottelat 1989), Lao PDR (including the lower Nam Theun basin<span>), Thailand and Cambodia, and from Malaysia (Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak), and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan).</span>
180737		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers with turbid waters but reportedly prefers fast flowing water, but also enters flooded fields (Kottelat 1998). A diurnal, active pelagic species.
180737		population	eng	No information available.
180737		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing.
180738		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The conspecificity of what is currently identified as this species throughout the Mekong River drainage requires further investigation.
180738		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River drainage in Thailand, Cambodia and Lao PDR. It has principally been recorded from two major tributaries of the Mekong River: the lower and middle Xe Bangfai (Khammouan Province, Lao PDR), and the Mun River Ubon Ratchathani and Nakhon  Ratchasima provinces).
180738		habitat	eng	Recorded from rivers.
180738		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180738		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180740		conservation	eng	Research, especially into the impact of threats is required.
180740		distribution	eng	Known from Mekong (Nam Mae Fang and Nam Mae  Lamao, two tributaries of the Nam Mae Khok, itself a tributary of the  Mekong) and the upper Chao Phraya (Mae Nam Ping basin (Kottelat 1991) basins in Thailand.
180740		habitat	eng	Inhabits hillstreams and river rapids, in clear water.
180740		population	eng	Locally uncommon in suitable habitats.
180740		threats	eng	Deforestation may potential impact the species through sedimentation.
180742		conservation	eng	No information available. Taxonomic research is required to determine if this is more than one species.
180742		distribution	eng	This species occurs the Mekong basin in Cambodia, Lao PDR and northern Thailand (Kottelat, M., 2001). It is expected to occur in the Mekong basin in Vietnam (Kottelat, M., pers. comm., 2011).
180742		habitat	eng	This species is found in rapids and stretches of rivers with fast flowing water (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180742		population	eng	Locally abundant in suitable habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180742		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180743		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm its distribution and population trends.
180743		distribution	eng	The species is known from small creeks of the Nam Mat and Nam Mo River basins in northeastern Lao P.D.R. (Kottelat 2001, Chen and Kottelat 2003). Its distribution is expected to extend into Viet Nam and possibly to other basins draining to the Gulf of Tonkin. (Chen and Kottelat 2003).
180743		habitat	eng	Inhabits small forest creeks (Kottelat 2001).<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran et al. 2005).&#160;</p>
180743		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180743		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180744		conservation	eng	Management of wetland habitat by local participation has been practised at two localities in Thailand, which supported healthy populations of this fish.
180744		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be endemic to the Lower Mekong basin in Thailand, Cambodia, and Lao PDR (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), where it is found in mainstream rivers and tributaries.
180744		habitat	eng	This species inhabits intact marshland, swamps and oxbow lakes with dense submerged vegetation.
180744		population	eng	This species is locally common to uncommon in suitable habitats.
180744		threats	eng	Wetland degradation is a potential threat for this species in the future.
180745		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180745		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Salween River drainage in western Thailand, although it is likely to be also found in the portion of the same river drainage that flows through eastern Myanmar.
180745		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species in the original description, but based on our knowledge of congeners, this species most likely inhabits relatively swift rivers with a substrate of sand/gravel/rock and most likely feeds on invertebrates.
180745		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180745		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180746		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species are also needed. The identity of the material from the Malay Peninsula identified as this species awaits further verification.
180746		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the Mekong River drainage from southern China (Yunnan) to Viet Nam. It has also been recorded from the Malay Peninsula (Pahang River; Zakaria-Ismail 1992).
180746		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slower-flowing stretches of the main channels of rivers and larger streams. The species is migratory, and is considered highly vulnerable to impacts from mainstream dams (ICEM 2010).
180746		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. However, limited data for capture fisheries in the Mekong River drainage (e.g. Sjorslev 2000) indicates that this species is locally abundant in some areas within the Mekong River drainage, although it is not as abundant as the similar-looking <em>Laides longibarbis</em> (see Rainboth 1996).
180746		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not certain, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. However, the species migratory habits make it sensitive to disturbance from mainstream dams on the Mekong (in Yunnan, China), both already constructed, and proposed in the lower Mekong.
180747		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also badly needed, as is a study of the impact of hydropower dam development.
180747		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya river drainages in mainland Southeast Asia (Rainboth 1996).
180747		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits larger rivers with turbid waters, where it feeds largely on pelagic fishes. This is a migratory species that undertakes lateral migrations from the Mekong River into smaller tributaries and into the floodplains at the start of the flood season, returning back to the main river channel when the water begins to recede at the onset of the dry season. These migrations are triggered by the first rainfall at the end of the dry season, as well as water level changes and the lunar cycle. The fish return to the river from the floodplain and tributaries on, or immediately before, the full moon.
180747		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
180747		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished as a food species throughout much of its range, and it is expected that overfishing may pose a considerable threat to its population, as may hydropower dam development. However, this awaits verification from empirical data.
180748		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is required into threats to the species.
180748		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from small tributaries of the Nam Ma and Nam Sam River in northeastern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000a, 2000b, 2001). Probably occurs in the same river basins in central Viet Nam.
180748		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180748		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180748		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180749		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180749		distribution	eng	The species is known&#160;from the Song Ba and the&#160;small drainages around it, which drains the&#160;eastward slope of the Annam Cordillera into&#160;the South China Sea in central Viet Nam (Ng and Freyhof 2005).
180749		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small rivers and streams, typically with a substrate of sand.
180749		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
180749		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180750		conservation	eng	Monitoring of species populations and habitats is required.
180750		distribution	eng	The species is very widely distributed in Southeast Asia, from the Ayeyarwaddy, Salween and Sittaung rivers in lower Myanmar, to the Mekong basin as far upstream as Yunnan in China (Huang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987), the Malay Peninsula, and Java, Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan and Sarawak (e.g., the Rajang basin; Parenti and Lim 2005)). It occurs throughout the Salween, Mekong  and Chao Phraya drainages as well as many smaller river basins,  lakes and reservoirs.<br/><br/>Records from elsewhere in southern China (the Zhujiang (Pearl),  Minjiang, Jiulongjiang, and the Red rivers, and Hainan Island; Huang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987) are erroneous, referring to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. salsburyi</span> (Yue 2000); present in Hong Kong but probably introduced (Man and Hodgkiss 1981),
180750		habitat	eng	Inhabits wide range of habitats from lowland marshlands, peat swamps, rivers and tributaries to hill streams. The fish seasonally moves to floodplains, and is well adaptive to impounded waters.
180750		population	eng	Common throughout its range.
180750		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat degradation are potential threats.
180752		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species are also needed.
180752		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong and Chao Phraya river drainages in Indochina (Ng 2002, Vidthayanon 2008).
180752		habitat	eng	The species inhabits larger streams and rivers, typically with turbid water and a sandy/muddy substrate. It feeds on crustaceans and other small benthic animals (Taki 1978) and spawns at the beginning of the rainy season in flooded riparian forests, with juveniles beginning to appear in August (Rainboth 1996).<br/><br/>Clear preference for deep water pools in dry season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
180752		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but it is uncommonly encountered in the Mekong River drainage in Cambodia and Lao PDR (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).
180752		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180753		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species taxonomic identity, as well as its current population trends and full distribution.
180753		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is presently known from Ma River (Sông Mã) drainage in northwestern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
180753		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
180753		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180753		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180755		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its threats, distribution and population trends.
180755		distribution	eng	The species is known from Gâm River system (Thác Mo, Na Hang district, Tuyên Quang Province) in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
180755		habitat	eng	Found in rapids in a freshwater river.
180755		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180755		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180757		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180757		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is widely distributed in Nam Ou basin in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.</p>
180757		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
180757		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180757		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180759		conservation	eng	None required.
180759		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia. It is found in the Mekong drainage from Yunnan (southern China; Mengla, Jinghong, Jinggu, and Buyuanjiang river drainage, and Menghai (Shan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), throughout the region to the Malay Peninsular and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan (Kottelat 1998); reported to occur in the upper part of the Kapuas Lakes area in western Borneo; Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005). It occurs throughout the Lower Mekong and Chao Phraya drainages as well as smaller  river basins, lakes and reservoirs.
180759		habitat	eng	Found in a wide range of habitats, from lowland rivers and marshlands to montane streams, well adaptive in impounded rivers. This species can be an indicator of degraded streams if it becomes dominant.<br/>Thought to breed when water levels rise (Rainboth 1996).
180759		population	eng	A very common species in all suitable habitats in its range. Population status in Java is unknown, where rivers are impacted by high levels of pollution.
180759		threats	eng	The species is not thought to have any major threats at present, well adaptive to impound waters.
180760		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat and population trends is required, especially in  relation to impacts of large mainstream dams. The species benefits from  community conservation of deep pool habitats in the Mekong (Baird 2006;  Baird and Flaherty 2005).
180760		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Chao Phraya in Thailand and the lower Mekong basin from northern Lao PDR to the Mekong delta in Viet Nam (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
180760		habitat	eng	Found in mainstreams and larger tributaries, migrating up river in the Mekong between May and July, though it may not be a long distance migrator (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). This species feeds on fish, crustaceans, insects and, in the rainy season, is an important consumer of flooded forest fruits and leaves in the Mekong (Baird 2007).<br/><br/>In the dry season, inhabits deep water pools in large rivers.<br/><br/>Spawns and young feed in floodplains; takes refuge in mainstream. Then head upstream when sexually mature. (Poulsen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).
180760		population	eng	This species is abundant within its range; this species is the eighth common fish caught in the wet season wing trap fishery in the Khone falls in southern Lao PDR, comprising 2.7% of the catch by weight (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). The population is deceasing due to fishery pressures.
180760		threats	eng	Overfishing and dams in mainstream rivers are the threats to this species. The species is also impacted by the loss of flooded forest habitat in the Tonle Sap Lake and along the Mekong.
180761		conservation	eng	None required.
180761		distribution	eng	The species is known from mainland southeast Asia from the Mae Khlong to the lower Mekong basins. In Cambodia, it is found in the Mekong basin (Rainboth 1996), Stung Treng, Srepok, Tonlé Sap and Battambang (Kottelat 1985), as well as the Sesan River (Baird and Meach 2005). In Lao PDR, it has been collected from the Nam Ngum dam site, Tha Ngon,  Tha Bo, Sai Fong, Sithan Tay, Pakse and Hatsalao in the Mekong basin  (Taki 1974) and Ban Hang Khone, a village on an island in the middle of  the mainstream Mekong River just below the Khone falls in  Khong District, Champasak Province.<br/><br/>In Thailand it is known from the Maeklong drainage (Kottelat 1989), Chao Phraya  and Mekong basins  (Rainboth 1996), including the Mun River.
180761		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries, moves to marshlands and floodplains in the rainy season. Found mainly in rivers (Taki 1978). Inhabits flooded forests and moves into permanent water in November and December as flood waters rapidly recede (Rainboth 1996). Feeds mostly on exogenous insects as well as some small crustaceans and fish.
180761		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
180761		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat degradation are potential threat.
180762		conservation	eng	None required.
180762		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from the upper Maeklong (Beamish <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and Chao Phraya basins (Thailand) and throughout the lower Mekong basin (Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand; Rainboth 1996), including tributaries such as the Mun River (Thailand) and the Xe Bangfai (Lao PDR). Kang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2009) report the species from the upper Mekong in southern China (Nanla River, Yunnan). Also present in the Mekong delta in Viet Nam and at Cat Tien National Park.
180762		habitat	eng	Lowland to hill streams, with clear water and sandy-rocky bottoms. (Rainboth 1996).
180762		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
180762		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
180763		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place. Research is needed to confirm the species distribution.
180763		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from headwater streams within the catchment of the River Lam in central Viet Nam (Ha Tinh province; Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
180763		habitat	eng	The species inhabits small and very steep forest stream with rocks and waterfalls and (Freyhof and Serov 2001). According to Freyhof and Serov (2001), the species is associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura hingi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreoglanis</span> sp. (Sisoridae). In contrast to these species,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the species was restricted to microhabitats with moderate flowing water and never found in riffles and waterfalls. A dissected female had ovaries with yellowish eggs of very different size, the largest ones 3.4 mm diameter. These are the largest eggs observed in an Indochinese Nemacheiline (Freyhof and Serov 2001) .
180763		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180763		threats	eng	Major threats to this species might be the ongoing deforestation and associated soil erosion in the catchment of River Lam.
180764		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180764		distribution	eng	A wide distribution in Asia. <span>Recorded from the Maeklong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand, the Mekong basin (Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam), and from northern Peninsula Malaysia. Found in slow-flowing, lowland parts of basins.
180764		habitat	eng	Inhabits large, slow flowing rivers, as well as in standing and slowly moving water of streams, canals, ditches and reservoirs. Moves into flooded forests and marshes during high water periods. Usually occurs around submerged aquatic or inundated terrestrial vegetation where it consumes some algae but mostly insects and zooplankton (Froese and Pauly 2010).
180764		population	eng	No information available.
180764		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by dam construction and overfishing; the scale and nature of impacts or not certain and further research is needed.
180765		conservation	eng	No information available.
180765		distribution	eng	The species is distributed from the lower reaches of the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Bangpakong rivers in Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. In the Mekong, occurs from the Mekong delta<br/>in Viet Nam to Xayaboury in the Lao PDR, however it is extremely rare in the middle Mekong (i.e. from the Khone Falls and upstream)  (Poulsen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). Normally found in the lower courses of major and deep rivers (Rainboth 1996).
180765		habitat	eng	It occurs in lower reaches of the mainstream river to estuaries. Strongly migratory; in e the Mekong, after spawning in the mainstream, the hatched larvae drift with the water-flow downstream to nursery feeding areas, often associated with flooded vegetation during the flood season. When water recedes at the end of the flood season, the young fish start upstream migrations to dry season refuge habitats. When they reach sexual maturity, the arrival of the monsoon season triggers the fish to migrate upstream to their spawning habitats, where they subsequently spawn, thereby initiating a new cycle   (Poulsen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).
180765		population	eng	This species is common in the lower Mekong and locally uncommon in Thailand.
180765		threats	eng	Overfishing and mainstream dams are future threats, and in Thailand, pollution threatens some populations.
180767		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range in Thailand is in protected areas.
180767		distribution	eng	The species occurs on the western slope of the Malay Peninsula from the Tenasserim province, Myanmar to Trang province, Thailand (Kottelat 1990), and from Langkawi island, Malaysia (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180767		habitat	eng	Occurs in streams and hill creeks in stretches with gravel and small stone substrate (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180767		population	eng	The population of this species is observed to be decreasing in Thailand, but no population information is available from other parts of the range (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180767		threats	eng	Large scale human development (including tourism, agriculture, livestock farming, residential and commercial) is severely impacting the natural habitat in parts of its range (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180768		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
180768		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known only from rivers in Thanh-Hoa Province, northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
180768		habitat	eng	The species was described from hillstreams.
180768		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180768		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180770		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
180770		distribution	eng	The species has a southeast Asian distribution. It is known from Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia (Kalimantan; Kapuas River basin) (Larson 2001). A record from Cambodia requires confirmation.
180770		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species' ecology.
180770		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
180770		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to the species.
180772		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180772		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the Mae Nam Moei drainage (a Salween tributary) in Thailand and Lao PDR. "Records" from Arunachal Pradesh (India) (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) are the result&#160; un-understandable taxonomic decisions. Records from further upriver in Salween drainage (Z. Lunn pers comm. 2011) require confirmation. This species is more expected in the lowland and in drainages further south of the Mae Nam Moei (Ataran, Tenasserim, etc,) than in the uplands of the Salween drainage.
180772		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate current, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180772		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180772		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment. If its range includes the Salween proper, dams (e.g., the Kunlon dam; Z. Lunn pers. comm 2011) may impact the species and its habitat.</p><p><br/></p>
180773		conservation	eng	In Attapeu and Sekong Provinces, southern Laos, attempts have been made  to ban fishing during the spawning season. Village level protected areas  throughout its range have benefited the species in the dry season. More  research is needed for this species, and it would benefit from  increased conservation planning throughout its range. The need is urgent to gain further information on the ecology of the species, in particular to understand the impact of proposed mainstream dams on the long distance migration of the species within the Mekong.
180773		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong basin. It is recorded in Cambodia north of Kratie, in Thailand (including, as its synonym, <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteochilus tatumi </span>Fowler, 1937, from the Chao Phraya River in Thailand at least as far north as Chiang Mai), Lao PDR, Viet Nam (in Srepok) and Yunnan province, China.
180773		habitat	eng	This species is found in large rivers and streams. In the Mekong basin, the juveniles migrate out of the Sesan, Srepok and Srepok (the 3S) rivers into the mainstream Mekong, turn downstream to the border of Kratie and Stung Treng Province, and then turn upstream to southern Laos PDR and northeastern Thailand for feeding purposes. They graze on algae on rocks (Baird and Flaherty 2004). The species spawns in the middle of the Sekong River in July and August. The maximum size recorded is 60 cm (Sokheng 1999).
180773		population	eng	This is an abundant species throughout its range. However a population decline of approximately  30-50% is inferred due to heavy fishing  pressure. It is expected to continue decline in the future at this rate or higher, as proposed dam constructions within its range will have a significant and immediate impact  on migrations (Baird and Flaherty 2004; Baird 2009a, 2009b).
180773		threats	eng	The species is targeted during the spawning season with gillnets. Heavy gillnetting during the feeding migrations is also a threat. Dams proposed on the Mekong and 3S rivers could have a major negative effect on the species during its migration (Baird 2009a, 2009b).
180774		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The conspecificity of what is currently identified as this species throughout Indochina requires further investigation.
180774		distribution	eng	The species is known from the rivers draining the&#160;western slope of the Cardamom Mountains in southwest Cambodia and the lower Mekong River drainage in Viet Nam (Mekong delta only) and Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap Lake) (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). Earlier records from the Xe Kong in Lao PDR in fact are <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bilustris</span>.
180774		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing streams with a substrate of sand and gravel. It can also be found in the shallower regions of larger rivers, and the Tonle Sap Lake.
180774		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2008) records it as uncommon, but its apparent rarity is more likely an artefact of poor sampling.
180774		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180775		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Parts of its range are in protected areas.
180775		distribution	eng	This freshwater fish is known from the Mekong basin; the Nam Ngiap, Nam Khan, Nam Xuang, Nam Ou and Nam Tha drainages in northern Lao PDR, and the Luosuojiang drainage in Xishuangbanna, China (Kottelat 2000, 2001; Endruweit 2011).
180775		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in main river and streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
180775		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, but species is common at places with suitable habitat.
180775		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180777		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180777		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the short coastal drainages draining the western face of the Krâvanh (Cardamom) Mountains and Dâmrei (Elephant) Mountains in southwest Cambodia.
180777		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the biology of this species, but like congeners, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a swift current, clear water and a substrate of rocks/sand.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
180777		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180777		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180778		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range in Thailand occurs within protected areas (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180778		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the western slope of peninsula Thailand and in the Ataran drainage in Myanmar, and it is expected to occur in the intermediate areas between these two locations. Accidentally introduced to the uppermost part of the Mae Nam Kwae Noi River in Thailand (M. Kottelat, pers. comm. 2011).
180778		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams with moderate flow and submerged vegetation, which is used for spawning&#160; (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180778		population	eng	The native population in Thailand is declining due to habitat modification. There is no information on the population in Myanmar. The introduced population in Thailand is derived from Ataran fishes released by an aquarium fish collector in around 2003. This population is increasing and its range is expanding very quickly (M. Kottelat,pers. comm. 2011).
180778		threats	eng	This species' habitat in Thailand is impacted by conversion into rubber and palm oil plantations and water extraction for irrigation. It is regularly collected for the international aquarium fish trade; the harvest in Thailand presently seems sustainable and less than it was in the 1990's. There is no information for Myanmar or for the introduced population in Thailand (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180779		conservation	eng	No conservation actions for this species.
180779		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Laos PDR, where it occurs in the upper parts of the Nam Kading basin. Its range includes the middle and lower Nam Theun River (W. Rainboth pers. comm.) and the Nam Gnouang River (where the whole range is impacted by three reservoirs) (Kottelat 1998, 2001). It appears to be restricted to these rivers, and perhaps minor connected streams. This species is not able to exist in reservoirs which cover much of the  upper parts of both the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang rivers. It is not thought to be present above the Nam Theun II reservoirs, and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 100 km² based on an estimated river length of 100 km.
180779		habitat	eng	The distribution of this fishis very patchy throughout its range. It occurs in deep pools with steep rocky shores and spawns on sand banks immediately adjacent to the pools. The former known AOO of this species has reduced significantly over the past ten years, since the construction of a number of dams occurred throughout its entire range. It is estimated that the area and quality of suitable habitat and possibly spawning sites has been and will continue to be reduced  (M. Kottelat pers. comm.).<br/><br/>.
180779		population	eng	The population of this species has decreased dramatically over the past five to ten years since the beginning of the construction of a number of dams, impacting its entire range. This has resulted in a sharp reduction of its area of occupancy (AOO). No exact population estimates are available, however this species is now rarely seen by local people throughout its range. The population is expected to have declined by at least 80% over the past ten years, with no improvements to the situation expected in the future. Further population declines are expected because of very low recruitment rates and possible reduction in the number of spawning sites (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180779		threats	eng	The construction of the Theun Hinboun, Nam Theun 2 and Nam Gnouang dams over the past ten years have resulted in a significant range reduction of this specie<span lang="EN-GB">s range and flooding a significant part of its AOO. Reduced flow downstream of the dams impacts the remaining AOO. Siltation in the Nam Phao also filled the riverbed. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180780		conservation	eng	The part of this species' range upstream of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir is in a protected area where laws are expected to be enforced (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180780		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang catchments in the Mekong drainage, Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998, 2000; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The species' Extent of Occurrence is a maximum of 8,511 km<sup>2</sup> (based on the area of sub-catchments of the two rivers where it is known from; this figure includes large areas of unsuitable habitat (e.g., reservoirs)).
180780		habitat	eng	The species has been observed in most water bodies with slow flowing water, from forest creeks to the main river. Juveniles are common along shores and adults prefer deeper waters. It spawns in mussels which are an obligate part of the life-cycle of this fish. The eggs hatch in the mussel and larvae remain in the mussel for a still unknown length of time, which might be up to several weeks. Therefore the presence of a healthy mussel population is necessary for the survival of the species. The identity of the mussel species in which the eggs are deposited is not yet known; a species tentatively identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon vondembushianus</span> has been collected in the same area (Kottelat 1998, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180780		population	eng	The species was previously common throughout its geographic range but it is decreasing as a consequence of the construction of numerous dams between 1999 and 2009, which now impact most of its range (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180780		threats	eng	The construction of numerous dams occurred from 1999-2009 and a great part of this species' known distribution is now flooded. Although the dams possibly do not directly impact the species, the mussels on which they depend for spawning (and therefore their survival) are not expected to survive sand and sediment deposition that occurs in reservoirs. Downstream of some of the dams, sand and sediment accumulate (due to reduced flow) and cover the habitat of the mussels. One stream in the species' range (Nam Phao), is further affected by large accumulations of sand resulting from the construction of the road and the dam upstream of Laksao, sewage and pollution from Laksao, and gold mining (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180781		conservation	eng	A large part of the original EOO of the species is now flooded by Nam Theun 2 reservoir but the drainage upstream of the reservoir is in a protected area.
180781		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Nam Theun drainage (part of the Mekong River drainage) in Lao PDR.<br/><br/>The Area of Occupancy is estimated at 250-300 km<sup>2</sup> (based on the inferred remaining extent of tributaries above the Nam Theun 2 reservoir) and the Extent of Occurrence at 3,983 km<sup>2</sup> (this is the area of the Nam Theun drainage above the dam, however the true EOO is much less than this as the species is not expected to be present within the reservoir, and is not found in the very upper parts of the tributaries above the dam). It is estimated that upto 90% (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011) of the original AOO of the species has been lost as result of the dam, which was commissioned in 2009, with impoundment commencing in 2008.
180781		habitat	eng	This species has been observed in a variety of habitats from small forest creeks to the main river. It is usually found in areas with boulders and rocks.
180781		population	eng	The population has decreased since the flooding of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir in 2008.
180781		threats	eng	What is left of the original EOO is located in a protected area where human impact should be reasonably under control. However, as the reservoir has only been recently flooded, the evolution is not totally predictable.
180782		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180782		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Malay Peninsula to Borneo and Sumatra; rivers of southeastern Sumatra and western Kalimantan,  particularly the Kapuas basin (southern Borneo); Bangka and Belitung  (Billiton) islands; Palawan Archipelago, Philippines (Inger and Kong 1962; Roberts 1989; Ng and Lim 1990). <br/><br/>The species has been reported from Java, however Weber and  de Beaufort (1922) rejected presence there, and there is no evidence that it occurs there (Ng  and Lim 1990). Smith (1945) reported this species as rare in Thailand,  and Lee and Ng (1994) stated that because of its preference for acidic  waters, the species is more common toward the southern part of the Malay  Peninsula. It is present but apparently rare in the North Selangor peat swamp forest of the Malaysia Peninsula, but has been reported from the  Golok area of southern Thailand (P. Ng pers. comm. 2003, in Courtenay and Williams 2004). Records of this species from northern  Borneo (Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah) are misidentifications of the  endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Channa baramensis </span>(Courtenay and Williams 2004).<br/><br/> Presence of this species on Palawan (Roberts 1989) may have resulted from an introduction. The same may be true in the Chao Phraya River, Thailand, and Mekong River, Cambodia, unless misidentified.
180782		habitat	eng	Lowland streams, slow-flowing larger rivers, and peat swamps.
180782		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its range and suitable habitats.
180782		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, especially peatswamp deforestation is main threats to this fish, but no significant declines have yet been seen.
180783		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
180783		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River basin in southern China and northern Viet Nam and the Nam Xam basin in Lao P.D.R. (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Kottelat 2001a, 2001b, Nguyen 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180783		habitat	eng	Described from a hill stream, and found in freshwater rivers.<br/>        <p>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p></p>
180783		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180783		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180784		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180784		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower Ayeyarwady, lower Sittaung, and lower Salween river drainages in southern Myanmar.
180784		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slower-flowing streams with a substrate of sand/mud.
180784		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180784		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information  on the biology of this species and the impact of potential threats  (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The  current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution  have also not been adequately identified. Dams on the Salween will  impact upon the species population there, but the majority of the  population will not be impacted by dams.
180785		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180785		distribution	eng	<span>Described from the<span> Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Thailand. Presence in Cambodia is not confirmed, and it is considered endemic to the Khorat Plateau. Present in the Songkram River in Thailand, and from a number of smaller rivers in Lao PDR (e.g., Nam Mang and Nam Kou rivers).</span>
180785		habitat	eng	Moderate flowing rivers and tributaries.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005).
180785		population	eng	Locally and seasonally common in its suitable habitats.
180785		threats	eng	The species is not thought to have any major threats at present, and is not thought likely to be impacted by dams.
180787		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the species full range, current distribution, and threats.
180787		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong basin, with specimens reported from Viet Nam (the crater Lake Kontum, in the central highlands in Viet Nam (type locality), the Vu Gia-Thu Bon river system (Sheaves<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008), and from Nay Lake, Phu Vang district, Thua Thien Hue Province), and from Chaiyaphum Province, upper northeastern Thailand (Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, at the top of a sandstone mountain; C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011) and Lao PDR (Loei Province, Mekong drainage; C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).<span><br/><br/>The species was expected to occur in the branches of the Mekong that enter Cambodia from the Vietnamese highlands (the Sre Pok and Se San rivers; <span>Rainboth 1996), however it has not been found in these drainages in Cambodia yet (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).</span>
180787		habitat	eng	Apparently prefers hill streams and highland lakes.
180787		population	eng	Rare in its range, its population trend is unknown.
180787		threats	eng	Threats are unknown for this species.
180788		conservation	eng	Despite being an abundant species, more information on&#160;on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species is needed.
180788		distribution	eng	The species is known throughout freshwater habitats in Sundaic Southeast Asia: Sumatra, Java, Borneo except in the northeast, the Malay Peninsula northwards to the Isthmus of Kra, and the short coastal drainages in southeastern Thailand and southwestern Cambodia.
180788		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of slow-flowing and lentic freshwater habitats, including streams, rivers, swamps, lakes and ponds. It is a carnivorous species that feeds primarily on small fishes and larger aquatic invertebrates.
180788		population	eng	There is no detailed information available on the population and its trends for this species, but data from field surveys indicate that it is an abundant species.
180788		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.&#160;The effects of harvesting for the ornamental fish trade are thought to have a negligible effect on the population of this species.
180789		conservation	eng	No information on conservation actions.
180789		distribution	eng	The species is currently only known from the type locality in the <span>Doi Bhuka National Park, Nan Province, the u<span>pper reaches of the Nan River drainage, a tributary of the Chao Phraya River in northern Thailand.</span>
180789		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky streams, including waterfalls, especially in rapid zones, above 600 m asl, in clear water under forest covering and with moderately low temperatures.
180789		population	eng	Locally uncommon, it occurs in at least two streams in the Doi Bhuka National Park.
180789		threats	eng	Habitat degradation (siltation) by small dams is the main threat to this species. Local fishing is a secondary threat in some streams.
180792		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. Confirmation of the species identity is required.
180792		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Gam River in northern Viet Nam (Na Hang District, Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen 2005).
180792		habitat	eng	There is no information on the species´ ecology. Found in freshwater rivers.
180792		population	eng	There is no information available on the species´ population.
180792		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180795		conservation	eng	None required.
180795		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout mainland Southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong&#160; in Thailand to the Mekong basin. In Thailand, it is found in the Chao Phraya, Mae Klong and Mekong basins (including tributaries such as the Mun River)  (Kottelat 1998), and from southeastern Thailand  river systems (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. 1</span>997).  In Lao PDR, recorded from lower Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998). In Cambodia, known from the Mekong and tributaries, including Lake Tonle Sap near Siem Reap.
180795		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and vegetated water bodies, localized movement between still to flowing waters.
180795		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
180795		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland conversion are major threats to this fish in general, but level is not significant to species survival.
180797		conservation	eng	Research into threats and population trends is needed.
180797		distribution	eng	<span> Recorded from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, China (Yunnan), Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand, from the Salween and Chao Phraya basins; also from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Kottelat 2001).
180797		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers; enters flooded fields and riverine forest<span class="sheader5"> during early wet season to spawn<span class="sheader5">, returns to rivers during dry season<span class="sheader5"> ('White' type river migration pattern). <span class="sheader5">Feeds on phytoplankton, periphyton, benthic algae, zooplankton etc. (Rainboth 1996).<br/><br/>In the Mekong it migrates up the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia up to northeastern Thailand between November and February, and returns in June-July (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).</span></span>
180797		population	eng	A very common species in the Mekong basin; at the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR, it is the forth most common species in the fence filter trap fishery&#160; in the dry season, making up 4.8% of the catch (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003).
180797		threats	eng	The migration fishery is known to be a threat in the Mekong, as well as loss of flooded forest habitat in the Tonle Sap Lake, and impacts from mainstream dams in the Mekong system and elsewhere.
180798		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas.</p>
180798		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from Lao PDR from the Nam Kading drainage northwards into Xishauangbanna, southern China; in Chiang Rai, northern Thailand and is likely to be in the Mekong drainage in Myanmar (Kottelat 1998, 2001). Found in the mainstream and in tributaries (e.g., throughout the Nam Theun in Lao PDR). Kang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2009) recorded the species in the Upper Mekong as far upstream as the Luoza River.<br/></p>
180798		habitat	eng	Found in indiscriminate habitats in large rivers and streams (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
180798		population	eng	This is a widespread species. In the upper Nam Kading it is ubiquitous in rivers and large streams. Less frequently seen in the rest of its range, but this may reflect bias in sampling sites and fewer surveys (Kottelat 1998, 2001, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180798		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180799		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
180799		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Song Thuy Loan River drainage that               that drains the eastern face of the Annam Cordillera, Da Nang Province, central Viet Nam (Ng and Tan 2007).
180799		habitat	eng	<p>The species was found in the riffle zone of a small swift-flowing hill stream (ca 2–4 m wide, ca 10–30 cm deep). The bottom consisted of fine gravel and granitic rocks  (Ng and Tan 2007).</p>
180799		population	eng	Only a single specimen was collected at the type locality, despite intensive survey  (Ng and Tan 2007).
180799		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species, however its habitat would be impacted by deforestation and sedimentation.
180800		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180800		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Upper Black River (Sông Đà) in the Lai Châu Province, northern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005).<br/><em><br/></em>
180800		habitat	eng	Described from hill streams. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
180800		population	eng	There   is no information available on the species population.
180800		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180801		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required.
180801		distribution	eng	<span>The species is known from Cambodia (the Tonle Sap River and Lake; Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, and from the Mekong) and Viet Nam (Rainboth 1996) <span>to Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia (e.g., the Endau drainage (Ng and Tan 1999) and Baram River, Sarawak), <span>Indonesia (the Kapuas Lakes area in Kalimantan (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005), Java and Sumatra), and <span>Brunei (Temburong River drainage (Ng and Tan 1994) and the Belait River (Parenti and Meisner 2003). It is known from Southern Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999), Singapore, Natuna Island (Tan and Lim 2004), and Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002).</span></span>
180801		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams in lowland and upland areas (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005) and peat swamps (Vidthayanon 2002); found in shaded forest streams with acidic water and dense growth of submerged vegetation and leaf litter beds. Often occurs in clear water over rocky bottom in flowing streams. Feeds on bottom-dwelling insect larvae, worms (Rainboth 1996) and crustaceans.
180801		population	eng	No information available.
180801		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by habitat clearance and degradation in parts of its range.
180802		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place
180802		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal drainages (from the River Ve to the River Qang Tri)  and the River Xe Kong in central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is expected to occur in the Xe Kong River basin in Lao PDR, although Kottelat (2011) did not report the species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180802		habitat	eng	The species inhabits medium-sized rivers and streams with strong current and rocks and gravel substrate (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). A dissected female had ovaries with eggs 1.6 mm diameter (Freyhof and Serov 2001).
180802		population	eng	In the last 10 years, no marked change in the abundance of the species was observed (J. Freyhof, unpublished data, 2010).
180802		threats	eng	Major threats to the species might be dam construction and pollution.
180803		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180803		distribution	eng	<span> This is a widespread species, recorded from Southeast Asia (lower parts of the Mekong basin) to Malaysia (Peninsula, and probably Sarawak and Sabah) and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan).
180803		habitat	eng	The species is found in large river habitats. It is primarily herbivorous, feeding on aquatic macrophytes, inundated terrestrial vegetation and filamentous algae along with some insects (Rainboth 1996). Undertakes longitudinal migrations along rivers.
180803		population	eng	The species was found to contribute very small quantities to the overall annual catch in the lower Mekong basin (ICEM 2010).
180803		threats	eng	The species' habitats are potentially impacted by herbicide pollution from agriculture, which may impact aquatic vegetation. MRC (2009) consider it to be at risk from mainstream dam development.
180804		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180804		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal rivers of central and southern Viet Nam between the Phra River (Ninh Thuan Province) and Vinh Thanh River (Binh Dinh Province), as well as tributaries of the Mekong in Dac Lac Province (Xre Poc River), Kon Tum Province (Se San River) and the Dong Nai River basin (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It probably occurs in the same rivers in Lao P.D.R.
180804		habitat	eng	Usually found in the rapids and riffle of medium-size rivers and streams, also occurs in sections with slow current and sandy bottom (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
180804		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180804		threats	eng	The species is very resistant to organic pollution and occurs in streams  that flow through villages and towns, being often one of the last fish  species surviving (Kottelat and Serov 2001).
180805		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species is also needed.
180805		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the middle and lower Mekong River drainage. Described from the Mekong River drainage in Cambodia (Fang and Chaux in Chaux and Fang 1949).
180805		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of lentic and lotic habitats, although it is more frequently encountered in larger rivers with a substrate of sand or mud. This species feeds mainly on fishes, crustaceans, aquatic insect larvae and plant fragments. &#160;It migrates into smaller tributaries and out into flooded areas occurs with the rising water level, with spawning taking place during the months of June-July. When water levels start to recede at the end of the flood season the fish return to the main river channel where they remain in deep pools during the dry season. At several places throughout the basin, migrations are guided by the lunar phase: in the Mekong in Cambodia, the early dry-season upstream migrations occur just before, and during, the full moon.
180805		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;Although recent survey data indicates that it is a common species (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), this may be confounded by the misidentification of the very similar <em>H. nemurus</em> as this species.
180805		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
180806		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology, as well as the impact of hydropower development on fish migrations.
180806		distribution	eng	Described from Huey Mak, Khong Chiam, Ubon Ratchathani Province, Thailand. <span>It is endemic to the Mekong basin, from the middle Mekong in northern Thailand to the delta, central Viet Nam. According to Mahasarakarm (2007) it has not been recorded in Mekong tributaries in Thailand, however it has been recorded from the Mun River in the Khorat Plateau (ICEM 2010). It migrates to the Mun River, through Sambor and the Khone Falls; it is not known if it migrates to or beyond Vientiane or into the 3S rivers, though (Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) reported it in the Srepok River.
180806		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers and migrates into flooded riparian forests and smaller streams during the rainy season. It rarely occurs in impoundments. Little is known about the biology of this species.
180806		population	eng	There is little population information available. It is locally and seasonally common. ICEM (2010) reported that the species accounts for only 0.25% of the total fish catch in the Lower Mekong.
180806		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted in parts of its range by dams, overfishing and pollution. Potential mainstream dams on the Mekong have been identified as a threat to the species (ICEM 2010), and numerous dams on tributary rivers are also likely to impact on the species migrations.
180807		conservation	eng	Research required into the species distribution and threats.
180807		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be endemic to the Salween basin in eastern Myanmar and northwestern Thailand, and is possibly present in the same drainage in southern China (Yunnan). It was described from the Mai Pai River, Mae Hong Song Province, in the Salween drainage in Thailand (Doi and Taki 1994). It has  also been recorded from the Nam Pang River, another tributary of the  Salween located much further north in Shan State, Myanmar. Further research is needed to confirm the species current distribution.
180807		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and tributaries, including submontane streams. It is predominantly a riverine fish preferring clear, well-oxygenated,  running water with substrates of sand, gravel, rock or mud although it  is clearly adaptable as it can be found in both upland and lowland  waters.
180807		population	eng	Unknown population trends.
180807		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from deforestation and dams are potential threats to this species.
180808		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
180808		distribution	eng	The species is known from Chay River (Dâp Thác Bà) in northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978).
180808		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
180808		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180808		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180809		conservation	eng	Monitoring of the species population and utilisation rends are needed, as well as conservation of suitable habitat.
180809		distribution	eng	Recorded from lower parts of the Mekong and Chao Phraya, as well as Peninsular Thailand basins. Present in Cambodia, Thailand (Bangkok and adjacent areas, and down the peninsular), and in lower Viet Nam. Present in Peninsular Malaysia to Johor.
180809		habitat	eng	Found in the lower parts of basins. Lives in marshland, peat and bog wetlands (Vidthayanon 2002). Occurs in marshes, swamps and ponds with dense growth of fine-leaved aquatic macrophytes. Does not seem to require large open areas. Probably browses on zooplankton in the vegetation.<br/><br/>Habitats have been lost through development of wetlands and clearance for agriculture and logging across the species range.
180809		population	eng	No information available.
180809		threats	eng	The species populations are impacted by habitat loss and harvesting for food fish in aquaculture. Habitats have been lost through development of wetlands and clearance for agriculture and logging across the species range. The type of threat variues across its range.
180810		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from the Chao Phraya in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin, from northwestern Thailand to Cambodia. In the Mekong it has been recorded from major tributaries such as the Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998) and the Xe Kong in southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2011).
180810		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and floodplains, swamps and small tributaries with slow flowing.
180810		population	eng	Locally and seasonally common.
180810		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
180811		conservation	eng	None required.
180811		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Thailand (Ko Samui (Surathani), Nakhon Si Thammarat, Trang, Phuket, Kanchanaburi, and Mae Hong Son; Suvatti 1981). The species is present in basins from the Mae Khlong (western Thailand) to the Malay Peninsula; it has been recorded from the Kerian River and its tributaries, Perak State, and from rivers around the Gunung Jerai mountain in Kedah State (Shah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), northern peninsular Malaysia (Isa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and Pulau Langkawi, and island off the coast of western peninsular Malaysia (Azmir and Samat 2010).<br/><br/>Records from India (Assam) and Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) perhaps pertain to another species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio assamensis</span> Barman, 1984), though the species could be expected to be present in eastern Malaysia adjacent to Thailand. A record from Lao PDR (Mekong basin at Houei Nhang River near Pakse; Taki 1974) requires confirmation.
180811		habitat	eng	Submontane to hill streams with forest cover, sandy or gravel bottoms.
180811		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
180811		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat to this fish.
180812		conservation	eng	The species is protected under Thai law and the only known location is within the Thung Salaeng Luang National Park. Further research is needed into its full distribution.
180812		distribution	eng	This species is known only from subterranean streams in Tham Phra Wangdaeng cave of Nernmaprang karst formation in Thung Salaeng Luang National Park, Pitsanulok Province, Thailand, within the Chao Phraya basin.
180812		habitat	eng	This species occurs in subterranean streams. It is dependent on cave micro-organisms and organic matter, and is very sensitive to disturbance, water quality and hydrographic change.
180812		population	eng	It is found in low numbers at its only known locality.
180812		threats	eng	Human disturbance from tourist activity may threaten the species. Agriculture and deforestation in the watershed upstream are future major threats.
180813		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.<span lang="EN-GB"> Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas. Research is needed into the species threats, distribution, and population trends.
180813		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore. In Indonesia it has been recorded from Sumatra, Bangka and Belitung islands. In the Malay Peninsula it extends northwards to Trang and Songkhla in Thailand. A single record from Sabah, but identification needs confirmation, and is likely a misidentification.
180813		habitat	eng	It inhabits moderates to fast flowing forest streams, with clear water and sand-gravel substrate.
180813		population	eng	This species is widespread although population trends have not been studied.
180813		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology  impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow.  Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with  associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180816		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180816		distribution	eng	The species is known from Nâm Dê creek (Black River drainage) in northwestern Viet Nam (Lai Châu province; Nguyen 2005).
180816		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
180816		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180816		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180817		conservation	eng	No conservation actions known. Research is required to confirm the species distribution.
180817		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from the Nam Nua catchment, a tributary of the Nam Ou, which flows from Viet Nam to Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000). It is expected in the Vietnam stretch of the river.<br/></p>
180817		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Collected in riffles among stones (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
180817		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in two separate sampling trips, carried out in 1997 and 2009 (Kottelat 2000 and M. Kottelat pers comm. 2011).<br/></p>
180817		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threats are known to this species. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected.</span></span></p>
180818		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
180818		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the middle Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia. It has been collected from the Mekong mainstream and the lower part of main tributaries from Chiang Rai until Cambodia. In Cambodia it is also known from the Tonle Sap basin.
180818		habitat	eng	The species is observed mostly in large stream and main river, over sandy to gravelly bottom.
180818		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180818		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been reported.
180819		conservation	eng	Research into pollution trends and impact of known threats needed.
180819		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Lake Inlé, Shan State, Myanmar. Presence in the surrounding basin in not known. The area of the lake is 116 km².
180819		habitat	eng	Recorded from the freshwater lake; benthic.
180819		population	eng	The population was stable and good in 1994 (S. Kullander, pers. comm.).
180819		threats	eng	There are some impacts to the known habitat from pollution for example, but the species is not thought to be highly susceptible to impacts.
180820		conservation	eng	Habitat management based on local participation is recommended.
180820		distribution	eng	The species is currently only known from its type locality, the Huay Mae Pern stream, Doi Tung, Chiang Rai Province, in northern Thailand, in the Mekong River drainage.
180820		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky streams under forest covering, including waterfalls, above 600 m asl.
180820		population	eng	Locally uncommon, at present only known from two streams in the Doi Tung area.
180820		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by small dams is the main threat to this species, siltation caused by deforestation and dams degrades or converses its habitats. Local fishing is a secondary threat in some streams.
180822		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
180822		distribution	eng	Endemic to Inlé Lake in Myanmar. The total area of the lake is c.116 km<sup>2</sup>, however the open water area of the lake has declined by 32.4% to 46.7 km<sup>2</sup> in recent years (Sidle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), and may have declined further as a result of drought in recent years (Htwe 2010).
180822		habitat	eng	Inhabits midwater and the margin of the lake, and is associated with submerged vegetation. Aggregates in large schools.
180822		population	eng	The species has greatly declined in numbers in the past fifteen years, however data are not available.
180822		threats	eng	Regularly harvested for the aquarium trade and this may slightly impact its population. The introduction of non-native (to the lake) fish species, including farmed species (e.g., the larger <span style="font-style: italic;">Parambassis </span>spp.) and tilapine fish are major threats, both as as predator and competitor. Some of the introduced native fishes access the lake as a result of raised water levels from the downstream dam. Pollution (urban, agro-chemical and sediment) and human population growth around the lake impacts the species habitat.
180823		conservation	eng	Habitat, trade and population trends should be monitored.
180823		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to central parts of Myanmar, in the&#160; Yangon and Bago  divisions as well as Mon State. It has been recorded from the Ayeyarwaddy River  drainage and the Sittaung and Bago rivers so occurs on both sides of the  Pegu/Bago Yoma (mountain) range. The type series was apparently collected at two  localities; close to Mawlamyaing (formerly Moulmein) city in Mon and near Bago  (formerly Pegu city) in Bago Division (Seriously Fish 2011).
180823		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams, minor rivers and still bodies of water including ponds,  ditches and rice paddies. Many if not all habitats are likely to be seasonal in  nature as Myanmar is heavily affected by seasonal monsoons and thus experiences  a relatively cool, dry period between November and April and a very hot, wet  season from May until September/October. As a result many streams and rivers  become partially dried out for part of the year but flow strongly during the  monsoon (Seriously Fish 2011).
180823		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
180823		threats	eng	Overfishing for trade and habitat degradation are potential threats.
180824		conservation	eng	None required.
180824		distribution	eng	Widespread in mainland southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin: Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap Lake), Lao PDR (including major tributaries such as the lower Xe Bangfai River (Kottelat 1998), Thailand and Viet Nam. Also recorded from the Tapi River, southern Thailand (Lheknim 2004).
180824		habitat	eng	Found in lowland marshlands, peat swamps and rivers. Moves into flooded forest at high water and back to main river with decline ('white' type river migration pattern; Rainboth 1996).
180824		population	eng	Locally common.
180824		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is potential threat.
180825		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180825		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Gâm River, Hà Giang Province, in central Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
180825		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
180825		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180825		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180826		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
180826		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southeastern Thailand and Cambodia. In Thailand it has been observed in  coastal streams from Chonburi to Trat provinces, Koh Chang island, and from tributaries to the Mekong and Chao Phraya in Chantaburi Province (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). In Cambodia it has been found in streams along the northern end of the Cardamon mountain range (Rainboth 1996) and is expected in the Mekong basin at least adjacent to Chantaburi province of Thailand..
180826		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.
180826		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180826		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow and causing sedimentation. Most of its range in Thailand is in intensely cultivated areas and this results in pollution, eutrophication, water abstraction, interruption of the flow in stream, channelisation. The combined impact of these activities on small streams is not quantified but is visible. Tourism and recreation activity, especially near waterfalls, including in protecting area is a potential concern especially on Koh Chang Island.</p>
180827		conservation	eng	Habitat management and awareness raising on captive releasing are recommended.
180827		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Khorat Plateau  in northeastern Thailand and lowland Lao PDR and northern Cambodia in the Mekong and basin. Its natural range stretches  southwards from the Thai/Lao PDR border through the provinces of Nong Khai,  Udon Thani, Khon Khaen, Ubon Ratchathani and others. Possibly reported from southern Viet Nam.
180827		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow marshland and floodplains, small seasonal swamp and waterbodies with dense vegetation, grasses and small waterplants.
180827		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon throughout its range. The species is now becoming scarce in many areas across its  range due to pollution and habitat degradation.
180827		threats	eng	Wetland degradation from diversion, infrastructure and agriculture may threats to this species. Hybridization from release of captive-bred specimens.
180828		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180828		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed from the Salween, Mae Klong, Chao Phraya and Mekong basins to northern Peninsular Malaysia. It  has also been introduced to the islands of Singapore and Borneo, and to the Philippines.
180828		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland rivers, streams, swamps to marshlands and lakes usually in shallow, slow flowing or still waters, well adaptive to urban areas, impounded and man-made waters. Abundant in flooded rice-paddies, canals and ditches; avoids large rivers. Moves into seasonally inundated areas as soon as they are flooded (Rainboth 1996). Feeds on zooplankton, terrestrial insects and aquatic insect larvae.
180828		population	eng	It is abundant across the  majority of its range.
180828		threats	eng	Pollution and habitat degradation are potential threats.
180829		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180829		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Chao Phraya River drainage in northern Thailand (described from Chiang Mai Province) and from the short river drainages debouching into the Andaman Sea in the Isthmus of Kra (Ng and Kottelat 1998). The species has also been reported from the Mekong drainage in southern Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).
180829		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers with a fast current and a substrate of gravel or rock.
180829		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Vidthayanon (2005) lists this species as Vulnerable, but no justification is given.
180829		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180831		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology.
180831		distribution	eng	A southeast Asian species, recorded from Indonesia (southeastern western Sumatra, Java, the Mahakam and Kayan basins of eastern Kalimantan, and the Kapuas basin of western Kalimantan (Roberts 1989), Malaysia (Sarawak, Sabah, as well as Peninsular Malaysia), Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Thailand, and from southern China (Kottelat, 1985).
180831		habitat	eng	Inhabits slow moving streams and rivers, as well as lakes, ponds and swamps.  A common species in forest streams.   Often found in areas with plenty of aquatic vegetation, as well as  submerged woody plants.  Feeds on fishes, prawns, and crabs and slightly  less on shrimps (Rainboth 1996).<br/><br/>A nest builder like other channids, with both parents guarding developing eggs and larvae.
180831		population	eng	No information available.
180831		threats	eng	Many rivers in the species range are impacted by pollution (agricultural, urban and industrial), as well as habitat degradation arising from urban development and sedimentation. Specific impacts to the species are not known, and further information is needed on the impact of fisheries on species populations.
180833		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place, but parts of range is in protected areas.
180833		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in the Nam Leuk, Nam Theun and Xe Kong drainages in Lao PDR. It is expected to be present in intermediate areas. It is found only in the upper parts of the drainages and is restricted to areas with strong current.
180833		habitat	eng	This species has been observed in fast flowing waters, in rapids and near waterfalls. It is unlikely to be able to survive in reservoirs. It feeds by grazing algae (and invertebrates in the algae) at the surface of rocks and stones and would not survive on a silted bottom.
180833		population	eng	No information available.
180833		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Among the three locations where this species has been observed, the one in the Nam Leuk River is located downstream of a hydropower dam reservoir and there is no information on the impact of the dam. In the Nam Theun it had been observed both downstream of the dam (where it is impacted by reduced flow most of the year) and upstream of the reservoir (which is in a protected area). In the Xe Kong it was observed in Xe Sou, which is impacted by gold mining. Logging and deforestation occur in the area, with associated impacts on aquatic environment through soil erosion and sedimentation. The growth of the algae on which it feeds is not possible if the rocks and stones are covered by sediments. <br/></p>
180834		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known. More research is needed for this species.
180834		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in mainland Southeast Asia in medium and large rivers (Rainboth 1996). Known from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya in Thailand to the Mekong, the northern Malay Peninsular, and possibly the Dong Nai basin in Viet Nam (Doi 1997). A specimen probably referring to this species is reported from the Song Lagna in southern Viet Nam (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011). In the Mekong, it is found as far upstream as the Buyuan River in the Upper Mekong (Yunnan, southern China), which is an important feeding and spawning site (Kang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Recorded from numerous tributaries of the Mekong (e.g., the Xe Bang Fai and Nam Theun in Lao PDR; Nam Theun 2 Power Company 2005).
180834		habitat	eng	It is found in large rivers especially in areas with considerable vegetation along the edge of the river. It does not inhabit standing waters. It eats shrimp and snails, and a number of flooded forest vegetation (flowers and fruit) (Rainboth 1996). Migrates upstream in large breeding aggregations to headwaters with sandy gravel bottoms and riparian vegetation. The exact migration strategy of the species is not known; whether it migrates between tributaries and short sections of the Mekong, or whether it undertakes long distance migrations up the mainstream of the Mekong. Spawns at the end of the wet season/early dry season when water levels fall.
180834		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range that have significant vegetation in the river.
180834		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over-harvesting, and habitat degradation from the removal of vegetation. It is likely to be impacted by dams developed or proposed along the Mekong River. Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) suggest that the the species is likely to qualify for Endangered classification based on habitat loss, including impacts from dams.
180835		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180835		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality in the Kampot River drainage in southern Cambodia. It is presumably found in other neighbouring drainages, but this requires verification.
180835		habitat	eng	There is little published information on the biology of this species, but from its type locality and what is known of congeners in the region, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a moderate to swift current and a substrate of sand/rocks.
180835		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
180835		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180836		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Although it is an abundant species, catch data is also needed to assess the effects of fishery on its populations. The conspecificity of populations from Sundaic and mainland Southeast Asia also require verification.
180836		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout river drainages in Sundaic (Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Malay Peninsula) and mainland Southeast Asia (in the Mae Klong, Chao Phraya and Mekong river drainages).
180836		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide variety of lentic and lotic freshwater habitats, although it is more frequently encountered in larger, slower-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand or mud. Adults feed on insect larvae, zooplankton and small fishes. This species moves into the flooded riparian forests during periods of high water and returns to rivers during the dry season. Known to suffer stress due to high current velocity (Rainboth 1996).
180836		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
180836		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180837		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is needed into the species distribution, population trends, and threats.<br/></p>
180837		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from the lower and upper Nam San catchment, a tributary of the Nam Ngum, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180837		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180837		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a survey carried out in 1997 and has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Due to mining operations observed in 2012 within the Nam Ngum watershed (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), the population of the species is inferred to be declining.<br/></p>
180837		threats	eng	<p>The surrounding habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in  the area. Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and  agricultural pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Additional survey in the area in 2012  found extensive small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that  impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and a there is a  large-scale Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is  possible that iron ore extraction may occur.</p><p>Currently operating and known planned dams are all downstream of the species currently known location, however these will impact the species if it has a wider distribution than currently known.<br/></p>
180838		conservation	eng	Fishery regulation and management including habitats conservation based on local participatory are recommended. Research into the impact of threats is required.
180838		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the Chao Phraya in Thailand, and the middle and lower Mekong in Thailand  (Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam; Kottelat and Ng 2000) including tributaries (e.g., the Xe Bang Fai (Kottelat 2001), and the Mun River in eastern Thailand).
180838		habitat	eng	Found in permanent mainstream rivers and larger tributaries, and does not move into flooded forests or wetlands; it migrates upstream at the start of the rains, and returns downstream as waters recede (Rainboth 1996). The species feeds on molluscs. Reported to use deep pool habitats within the Mekong mainstream (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It is considered to be a short to moderately-long distance migrant.
180838		population	eng	Common seasonally in the Mekong, one of the dominant species of catfish in fishery landings. Uncommon in Yunnan, China (in the lower Lancang), but common in the Chao Phraya, where populations have shown no sign of significant decline in recent years (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
180838		threats	eng	Dams on mainstreams and larger tributaries may degrade or convert its habitats, especially if multiple dams are constructed. It is considered to be a short to moderately-long distance migrant, and  as such, is considered less vulnerable than some species to impacts from  mainstream dams, however further research is required to understand the  impact of changes in annual flow regimes on deep pools and other  important habitats. The species is considered to be vulnerable to pollution (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
180839		conservation	eng	None required.
180839		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the lower Mekong basin in Lao PDR (at least as far upstream as Vientiane Province; confluence of the Nam Leuk and Nam Ngang), Thailand and Cambodia (Kottelat 2000, 2001).
180839		habitat	eng	Usually found in river stretches with slow current, among grasses, roots or shore vegetation (Kottelat 2001).
180839		population	eng	No information available.
180839		threats	eng	No information available.
180840		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180840		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mengla drainage in Yunnan (China) and its tributary Nam Youan in Luang Namtha province in Lao PDR.
180840		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180840		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180840		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180841		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution, population trends, and threats, as well as the level of exploitation for the aquarium trade.
180841		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from fresh and brackish waters in Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah) and Thailand (Larson 2001).<br/></p>
180841		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
180841		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180841		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180842		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The effect of collection for the ornamental fish trade on the populations requires further study, although the collections are sporadic and only relatively small quantities are collected.
180842		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Ataran River drainage in Myanmar, and has not been reported from other areas of the Salween River drainage.
180842		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description, but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing hillstreams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate.
180842		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Collection for the ornamental fish trade is expected to have little significant impact on the population, as these collections are sporadic and relatively small numbers are taken.
180842		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although this species is collected for the ornamental fish trade, collection levels are unlikely to have a significant effect on the population.
180843		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180843		distribution	eng	Described from the Meping River at Raheng, in central Thailand (Smith 1945). Known from the <span>Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins and central (peninsular) Malaysia. (Doi 1997). There do not appear to be records from Peninsular Thailand.
180843		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in midwater to bottom depths in large and  medium-sized rivers.  Found in large rivers in the dry season and moves  to medium-sized rivers in the wet season.  Usually found over coarse  substrate (Rainboth 1996). <span>Usually absent from the lowland parts of the Mekong, although it can be found in rapidly flowing tributaries to the lower Mekong (Rainboth 1996). In the Mekong at least it is a highly migratory species (Baird and Flaherty 2004).<br/><br/><span class="sheader5"></span>
180843		population	eng	There is little information available. Catches in the <span class="sheader5">4-9 cm meshed mono-filament gill net fishery at the Khone Falls over the period 1993-1997 appear to be relatively stable (<span class="sheader5">Baird and Flaherty 2004) <span class="sheader5">.</span>
180843		threats	eng	There is little information on threats to the species. In the Mekong it is a significant fish in artisanal fisheries, but it is not clear if this represents a threat. Proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong would disrupt the long distance migrations of the species through the basin.
180844		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180844		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Tenasserim River, the Salween and the upper Chao Phraya basins in Myanmar, Thailand, and Yunnan (southern China). There are also records (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Danio pulcher</span>) from the eastern slopes of the Gulf of Thailand drainages and from Pliew, Chantaburi, Chantabun Province, southeastern Thailand and into western Cambodia.
180844		habitat	eng	Found in submontane streams to hillstreams with leaf litter and dense riparian vegetations, living in large schools.
180844		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
180845		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180845		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ayeyawaddy, Sittaung, and Salween River drainages.
180845		habitat	eng	There is little information on the biology of this species, but it likely inhabits slower-flowing to still bodies of water (similar to <em>C. chaca</em>).
180845		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
180845		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
180846		conservation	eng	Small parts of this species range occur within Protected Areas.
180846		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lower Salween and Ataran drainages in Myanmar and Thailand. Only a small part of the species range  is in Thailand (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180846		habitat	eng	This species occurs in riffles (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180846		population	eng	No information is available.
180846		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180847		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180847		distribution	eng	Recorded from both Sundaic (Borneo and Sumatra) and mainland southeast Asia (Thailand: Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong rivers) and the Mekong drainage in Thailand; from Viet Nam all the way to the Great Lake in Cambodia. It is possible that the two populations (the Sundaic and mainland southeast Asian) are not the same.
180847		habitat	eng	Known from rivers; probably restricted to larger, turbid rivers, with sandy or muddy substrata. Possibly spawns in flooded forests.
180847		population	eng	No information available.
180847		threats	eng	No information available, however anecdotal information suggests that it may be declining in some areas as a result of forest loss.
180848		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat and population trends is needed. The species benefits from conservation of deep pool dry season habitats in the Mekong.
180848		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Chao Phraya River and the Mekong basin (from Yunnan in southern China to Viet Nam).
180848		habitat	eng	Found in mainstreams and larger tributaries, seasonally moving up to flooded areas for feeding during its subadult and juvenile stages. The species migrates upstream in the Mekong in May and June, triggered by hydrological changes, which mainstream dams would impact (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004; Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The species feeds heavily on flooded forest fruits and leaves in the wet season (Baird 2007). Spawning occurs upstream with juveniles and young adults nursing in floodplains ('white' type river migration pattern) (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
180848		population	eng	This species is common. It is the sixth most common species in the wet season wing trap fishery at the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR, making up 3.8% of the catch (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), however catches at the Khone Falls have declined.
180848		threats	eng	Overfishing and genetic contamination by hybrids are threats to this species, and impacts of dams throughout its range. Loss of habitat, particularly its flooded forest habitat.
180850		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the impact of threats and the species distribution.
180850		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be endemic to lower Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia. The species is found both in the mainstream Mekong and in tributaries (e.g., the Songkhram River (Blake and Pitakthepsombut 2006) and the Mun River (Jutagate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003) in Thailand, and the Nam Theun  (Warren 1999) and the lower Xe Bang Fai (Kottelat 1998) in Lao PDR<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from the Yom River in the Chao Phraya basin in northern Thailand (Pila <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), the Khwae Yai River (Kulabtong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), and the Mae Khlong River at Ratchaburi (EGAT 1996) in western Thailand. All reports from outside the Mekong are misidentification, perhaps confuses with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Discherodontus </span>spp. or with the widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">M. marginatus</span> (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
180850		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland rivers and submontane streams and tributaries rivers. A migratory species.<br/><br/>Found in mainstream and fast flowing forest rivers, on gravel. (Rainboth 1996).
180850		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats.
180850		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from deforestation and dams are potential threats.
180851		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180851		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the Mekong basin (Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam), Malaysia (Peninsular and Sarawak), Singapore, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Brunei.
180851		habitat	eng	Lowland and coastal streams and inner estuaries.
180851		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon in its suitable habitats.
180851		threats	eng	No threats are known.
180852		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180852		distribution	eng	This species is known from the river drainages that drain the western face of the Bilauktaung Range in southern Myanmar. Described from the Tenasserim River in southern Myanmar (Ng and Ferraris 2000).
180852		habitat	eng	This species inhabits upland rivers with a moderate current and a substrate of sand and rocks.
180852		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180852		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180854		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. Further research into the species current population trends and the impact of threats is required.
180854		distribution	eng	The species is known from Red River basin in northern Viet Nam. The distribution may reach into associated parts of the drainage in southern China, but research is required to confirm this.
180854		habitat	eng	Found in flowing freshwater rivers and streams; lotic.<br/><br/>As with all species of the subfamily Acheilognathinae (Cyprinidae), this species uses freshwater mussels for oviposition. The female deposits her eggs inside freshwater mussel. The male sheds his sperm into the inhalent current of the respiring mussel and thereby fertilizes the eggs. The young hatch and remain protected within the mussel, leaving the mussel as actively swimming larvae.
180854		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
180854		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams and pollution, however these is no information on impacts to this species. Host mussels are more susceptible to pollution and this may impact&#160; upon reproductive success.
180856		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Surveys are needed to ascertain the species' exact distribution.
180856		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a short section (c.2 km long) of a small tributary of the upper Nam Phao, a tributary of the Nam Theun, in the Mekong drainage in Lao PDR (Bolikamsai Province), almost on the border with Viet Nam. It might be present elsewhere in adjacent streams, but survey has not yet been possible.
180856		habitat	eng	Inhabits a stretch of the stream with waterfalls and large rock bottom. Grazes algae on rocks.
180856		population	eng	No information available.
180856		threats	eng	The species is presently known only from a very short stretch of a branch of the upper Nam Phao, about 2 km long. This stretch is along the road leading to the border, which is now crowded by shops and other businesses, and domestic waste enters into the stream. Adjacent streams could not yet be surveyed. Below this point, the stream joins with the Nam Phao which is totally filled with sediments resulting from the construction of a small hydropower reservoir. The recent maintenance of the road going to Vietnam, along the river, also resulted in huge quantities of material being pushed into the river. The river is filled with sediment almost until its confluence with the Nam Theun. In addition the lower Nam Phao receives wastes from Laksao and pollution from a gold mine on one of its tributaries. As the species grazes algae on the rocks, once the rocks are covered by sediment the food disappears.
180857		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration in dammed streams is urgently needed.
180857		distribution	eng	The species is currently known only from its type locality, the Mae Ping Noi (<span>Chao Phraya drainage), Maela Noi District, Mae Hong Son Province, in northern Thailand.<span></span>
180857		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky streams, under forest covering, including waterfalls, especially in rapid zones, above 600 m asl.
180857		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its type locality.
180857		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by small dams is the main threat to this species, while siltation caused by deforestation, infrastructures and dams, degrades or converses its habitats. Local fishing is a secondary threat.
180858		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded from Gulongshan Nature Reserve, Guanxi, China, and is likely present in others.
180858		distribution	eng	The species has a southeast and east Asian distribution. It is known from Pearl River basin in south and southeastern China, on Hainan Island, the Red River basin in Viet Nam and southern China and the Ma River basin in Lao PDR (Chu and Chen 1990, Zheng 1991, Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Kottelat 2001a,b).
180858		habitat	eng	Inhabits tributaries of streams with swift current over gravel substrate<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.
180858		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180858		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180859		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180859		distribution	eng	The species is known from streams of moderate elevation (e.g. foothills) throughout the Malay Peninsula as far north as the Isthmus of Kra. It was recorded from Singapore, but is now believed to be extinct there (K. Lim pers. comm. 2011).
180859		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested, lower-elevation hilstreams, typically with clear water and a substrate of sand and gravel/rocks.<br/>The species' dominant presence at the Khone falls is during the dry season, it exhibits a small peak at the beginning of the rainy season (Baran<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>et al.</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;2005).</span>
180859		population	eng	There is no information available on the populations and its trends for this species, although recent survey data indicate that it is still relatively abundant.
180859		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180860		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180860		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the&#160;Mae Nam Khwae Noi (Kwae River)  drainage (part of the Mae Klong River drainage) in Kanchanaburi Prvince,  western Thailand (Ng and Kottelat 2000).
180860		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow, swift-flowing streams with a substrate of gravel/rock and most likely feeds on invertebrates.
180860		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Vidthayanon (2005) lists this species as Vulnerable, but no justification is given.
180860		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180861		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180861		distribution	eng	Widespread from the Mae Khlong to Mekong basins (Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and adjacent basins in Myanmar), Malaysia (Peninsula and Sarawak), Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan).
180861		habitat	eng	Found in main rivers and tributaries up to submontane streams and lowland swamps, lateral movement to marshlands in flooding time ('black' movement strategy; Rainboth 1996).
180861		population	eng	Locally and seasonally common in its range.
180861		threats	eng	Overfishing and wetland degradation are the general main threats to this fish. Rachmatika <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2005) found a decline in populations in Kalimantan pre- and post- logging.
180862		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species current distribution and population trends.
180862		distribution	eng	The species is currently known from a restricted part of the Mekong drainage in Cambodia, in the Srepok catchment (Tan and Ng 2005), however it may be expected to also occur in the lower Xe Kong in Lao PDR and Cambodia.
180862		habitat	eng	Known from a small swampy stream, a tributary of the Srepok River.
180862		population	eng	No information available.
180862		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation, however the extent of impacts is not known.
180863		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
180863		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Black River (Song Da) drainage in northern Viet Nam (Muong Te District, Lai Chau Province; Nguyen 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180863		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
180863		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180863		threats	eng	There is no information on the threats to the species.
180864		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180864		distribution	eng	<span>This species is endemic to the Mekong basin in Southeast Asia; Thailand, Lao PDR <span>(including the lower Nam Theun and all parts of the Xe Bang Fai basins)<span>, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Highly migratory from Tonle Sap to southern Lao PDR and Thailand.</span>
180864		habitat	eng	Fishermen report that the species has a preference for deep pools in the Mekong. It was also mentioned that the fish migrate to streams, canals and lakes during the flood season. <br/><br/>A schooling species that migrates in large schools. It migrates from Tonle Sap to southern Lao PDR and Thailand, including into tributaries (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Lunar cycles and water level appears to be a very important factor, since migration activities of this species intensify when the level rises or falls (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
180864		population	eng	A common species in the Mekong mainstream from Chiang Rai province  in northern Thailand to the Mekong delta in Viet Nam (MRC 2011).
180864		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted by large dams on the mainstream and tributaries of the Mekong.
180865		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. <span lang="EN-GB">An analysis of the impact of the utilization for the aquarium-fish trade would be justified.
180865		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeastern Thailand, in coastal drainages from Chonburi to Trat provinces, and has been recorded from the Xe Kong drainage (Mekong tributary) in Lao PDR and the Mekong delta in Viet Nam (Kottelat and Lim 1993, Baird 1999, Kottelat 2001). It is therefore assumed to also be present in Cambodia.
180865		habitat	eng	It inhabits <span lang="EN-GB">streams with moderate flow, preferable  under forest cover, or in swampy areas. It lives on the bottom, among  plant roots or in leaf litter.
180865		population	eng	Where present, it is often observed in large numbers.
180865		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow and causing sedimentation. Most of its range in Thailand is in intensely cultivated areas and this results in pollution, eutrophication, water abstraction, interruption of the flow in stream, channelisation. The combined impact of these activities on small streams is not quantified but is visible. The impact of the captures for the aquarium fish trade has not been investigated.<br/></p>
180867		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180867		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in the Nam Ou drainage, Mekong basin, Lao PDR.
180867		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in most habitats from streams with moderate to fast water, to forest creeks and waterfalls.
180867		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, but the species is very common in suitable habitats.
180867		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Several dams have been proposed on the Nam Ou.<br/></p>
180868		conservation	eng	Further research into the species habitat and population trends is needed.
180868		distribution	eng	The species appears to be endemic to the Khwae Noi River basin in western Thailand,  close to the border with Myanmar, where it has been recorded from small streams  feeding the main river. The localities  furthest upriver lie close to the headwaters of the Ataran River which  flows to the west through Myanmar, and the species should be looked for in Myanmar.
180868		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">The type locality was a small shallow creek with a sandy bottom with some aquatic vegetation in a  cultivated area; located in a deep groove, covered by trees.  Also  collected from a relatively large stream and from a spring-fed  reservoir, up to 2 m deep. Most specimens have been collected from slow to moderate flowing streams with turbid or clear water (Kullander and Britz 2002).
180868		population	eng	No information available.
180868		threats	eng	None known at present. The known habitat has been dammed, but the species has been found in a reservoir.
180869		conservation	eng	None required.
180869		distribution	eng	Widely distributed throughout mainland Southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya drainages in Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) to the Mekong basin and Peninsular Thailand (Kottelat 2001). In Cambodia, distribution includes the Tonle Sap Lake and River (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).     In Lao PDR, recorded from the Mekong basin and the middle Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 2001) and presumably other tributaries.
180869		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and vegetated water bodies, localized movement from still to flowing waters.
180869		population	eng	Common throughout its range.
180869		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland conversion are threats to this fish in general, but level is not significant to species survival.
180870		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species. More information is needed on the life history and ecology of this species as well as an increased understanding of the impacts of habitat degradation on the population. Habitat management and small-scale fishery regulation are recommended actions for the future.
180870		distribution	eng	Known only from its type locality in the upper Mae Klong basin, and from the upper Chao Phraya basin (in three separate rivers, the Nam Ping and Nam Yom and Nam Nan).
180870		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species which inhabits lowland and hillstreams with sandy gravel substrate. Short distance longitudinal movement is possible.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
180870		population	eng	Moderately common in areas of suitable habitat.
180870		threats	eng	Rapid habitat modification and degradation caused by development throughout the known range is the major threat to this species. Impacts on the habitat include dam construction, erosion and siltation. Not found in still water such as reservoirs.
180873		conservation	eng	Further research into the species current population trends and the impact of threats is required.
180873		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Nam Xam in northern Laos PDR. Described from two specimens (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.).
180873		habitat	eng	Freshwater river; described from a rocky gorge, fast water, in a small tributary of the Nam Xam.
180873		population	eng	No information available.
180873		threats	eng	Some localised fisheries (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.). A remote area with few apparent impacts.
180874		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180874		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Salween River drainage in western Thailand, although it is likely to be also found in the portion of the same river drainage that flows through eastern Myanmar.
180874		habitat	eng	This species inhabits relatively swift rivers with rapids and a substrate of boulders, and most likely feeds on invertebrates.
180874		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180874		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180875		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
180875		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is presently known from the Black River (Song Dà) system in northern Viet Nam (Hoà Bình Province) (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
180875		habitat	eng	Recorded from freshwater rivers.
180875		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180875		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180876		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Parts of the range is in protected areas.
180876		distribution	eng	The species is found in Thailand in the Mae Nam Ping and Mae Khlong drainages, and Ratchaburi Province. It is assumed to be present in intermediate drainages, in the foothills along the western margin of the central plain of Thailand. Records from the Malay Peninsula are probably misidentifications.
180876		habitat	eng	This species has been collected in streams with moderate current and gravel to stone substrate.
180876		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180876		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
180877		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More research is needed to determine whether this is a valid species.
180877		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemimyzon songamensis</span> is known from the Gâm River in northern Viet Nam (Na Hang district, Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen 2005).
180877		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology; described from a river.
180877		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180877		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
180878		conservation	eng	No specific action in place. Parts of its distribution are in protected areas.
180878		distribution	eng	The species inhabits the lower Mekong basin in Cambodia, Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and the Chao Phraya and Mae Klong basins in Thailand.
180878		habitat	eng	This small fish inhabits rivers and small streams with muddy to sandy bottoms. It prefers shallow depths and slow currents.
180878		population	eng	This species is widespread although the population trend is unknown.
180878		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
180879		conservation	eng	Research is required for this species to confirm its range, population trends, and threats.
180879		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be restricted to tributaries of the lower Salween basin in western Thailand and eastern Myanmar.
180879		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers with sandy and rocky bottoms.
180879		population	eng	Uncommon to rare.
180879		threats	eng	Its habitats is in remote areas. Threats are unknown, however future dam projects may impact the species
180880		conservation	eng	No conservation concerns. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) considered it rare but this information is unclear and needs to be verified.
180880		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type specimen, from the Tenasserim mountain range (southern border of Myanmar with Thailand), and referred specimens from Ye, Myanmar (Swedish Museum of Natural History collection; probably refers to Mon State in the Tenasserim, but may refer to Ye, Ayeyarwaddy Division).<br/><br/>The species is also reported from the Salween River upstream of the confluence with the Nam-tit tributary (Z. Lunn pers. comm. 2011).
180880		habitat	eng	The species is found in lotic systems in permanent rivers and streams.
180880		population	eng	<p>There is no information on global population trends.</p>
180880		threats	eng	No ongoing threats have been recorded. The construction of dams on the Salween could threaten the species in the future.
180882		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
180882		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chao Phraya drainage in Thailand and from the Mekong drainage in Lao PDR (from about Vientiane downwards), Thailand and Cambodia.
180882		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams with clear, fast waters, with stone and boulder bottoms.
180882		population	eng	No information available.
180882		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). It will be affected by constructions of dams which will reduce flow and increase sedimentation.<br/></p>
180883		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on distribution, population trends, ecology and current threats to this species is needed.
180883		distribution	eng	This small fish has only been collected from the Nam Mae Yuam basin, a tributary of the Salween River in Mae Hong Son Province, northwest Thailand (Kottelat 1990). There is a report of the species also being found in the Salween close to where the Nam Mae Yuam enters.
180883		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected from small streams over pebbles.</p>
180883		population	eng	The population size and trends are unknown.
180883		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180884		conservation	eng	Research on the species is needed.
180884		distribution	eng	Only known from its type locality, upper Mae Taeng River in the Chao Phraya basin, Thailand.
180884		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sub-montane streams with rocky and sandy bottom.
180884		population	eng	This uncommon species is rarely seen in fishing activity, and has mostly been found in fishery surveys.
180884		threats	eng	Habitat degradation in its range are highly possible, from siltation, erosion and contamination of agrochemical from intensive farming, but this needs confirming.
180885		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place. More research is needed.
180885		distribution	eng	The species is known from the rivers Cam Lo and Ben Hai in Quang Tri Province, central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
180885		habitat	eng	Found usually&#160;in riffles with fast current over gravel bottom&#160;in medium-size mountain rivers and streams (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Feeds on aquatic invertebrates (Freyhof and Serov 2001). Associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Annamia normani</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura huongensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacembelus armatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinogobius ocellatus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anguilla marmorata</span> (Freyhof and Serov 2001).
180885		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180885		threats	eng	The species is known from a small area only and several dams are under construction or are planned within its distribution range. As this species inhabits primarily small tributaries, the impact of these&#160;are likely&#160;not&#160;to be severe. The area where the species is known is also impacted by deforestation and sedimentation from agricultural activities.
180886		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in a protected area (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). More information about its life cycle (and in particularly its migratory pattern) is needed.<br/></span></p>
180886		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs in the Se Kong basin, southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000) and the mainstream Mekong River in northeastern Cambodia and southern Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2003).<br/></p>
180886		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in rapids, stretches of the main river with stone bottom and main tributaries (Kottelat 2000). It is known to migrate past the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR in January-February each year (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It is the only species of the genus known to be highly migratory.<br/></p>
180886		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is fairly abundant both in the Sekong and Mekong Rivers (Kottelat 2000, Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). For the Mekong, it is one of the important species caught in the fence filter trap fishery at the Khone Falls (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/></p>
180886		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of its range is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dam (Kottelat 2004). Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). This species would be impacted by mainstream Mekong dams in northeastern Cambodia and southern Lao PDR and dams planned in the Sekong River basin (Baird and Shoemaker 2008, Baird 2009).<br/></span></p>
180888		conservation	eng	Monitoring of population and habitat trends is required.
180888		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Mae Khlong to the eastern slopes of the Cardamom Mountains, the Mekong delta, and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo and Sumatra.
180888		habitat	eng	This species is found in the lower reaches of rivers and inner estuaries with turbid water and a substrate of mud.
180888		population	eng	Populations in Thailand and the lower Mekong have declined. It is still locally common in Malaysia and Indonesia.
180888		threats	eng	The species has been overfished in Thailand for the aquarium trade throughout its range. It has also been overfished as part of mixed catches.
180889		conservation	eng	Captive breeding from wild populations is strongly recommended. Management of known habitats is also needed.
180889		distribution	eng	Endemic to Thailand, from the Mae Khlong to Chao Phraya basins, the eastern slope of the Cardamom mountains, and from the Isthmus of Kra.
180889		habitat	eng	Inhabits intact marshlands in shallow zones, adaptive to paddyfields.
180889		population	eng	Locally uncommon throughout its range, suffered much decline due to habitat degradation and pollution.
180889		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is the main threat to the species, and most of its suitable lowland habitat has been converted into intensive farmland and urban areas, or polluted, especially in central Thailand. Genetic erosion is a secondary threat from escaped farmed stock into wild habitats.
180891		conservation	eng	Part of this species range occurs within Protected Areas. Research is required to confirm the species full distribution.
180891		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam and probably Cambodia (Kottelat 1998, 2001; Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.</span> 2000).
180891		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
180891		population	eng	Found in low population densities only in suitable habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180891		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180892		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration in dammed streams is needed, as well as management of the stream catchments. Whilst the species is known from a wildlife sanctuary, the protected area is known to be impacted by over-grazing, frequent intenional fires, logging and degradation of forest resources, causing changes to stream flows and pollution (D. Allen pers. comm. 2011).
180892		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality <span> in the Ping River drainage, tributary of the Chao Phraya River, in Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
180892		habitat	eng	This fish occurs in streams with rocky bottom, under forest covering, including waterfalls, especially in rapid zones, above 600 m asl, with moderately low temperature.
180892		population	eng	Locally uncommon<span style="">, although known in</span> at least ten streams in the Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary.
180892		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by small dams is the main threat to this species, and siltation caused by deforestation and dams degrades or converts the species habitats. Local fishing is a secondary threat in some streams.
180893		conservation	eng	There is no information available.
180893		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern slope of Malay Peninsula, in southern Thailand at Toh Daeng Peat swamp forest, Narathiwat Province and in north western Malaysia (Kelantan).
180893		habitat	eng	This species inhabits stenotopic to peat swamp forest edges, in slow flowing or still streams.
180893		population	eng	<p>This species is locally uncommon throughout its range.</p>
180893		threats	eng	Peatland habitat degradation from deforestation, encroachment and droughts are the main threats to this species. Overfishing for aquarium trade is a secondary threat.
180894		conservation	eng	Habitat management and research into life history and population trends are recommended. Catchment management is needed for the rivers the species is found in.
180894		distribution	eng	Known only from the Tapi and Saiburi basins in Surat Thani and Pattani  Provinces, Peninsula Thailand.
180894		habitat	eng	Lowland rivers and tributaries with sand or mud/sand substrate with moderate flow.
180894		population	eng	This species is locally uncommon throughout its range and has disappeared from some previously known localities within the Tapi River.
180894		threats	eng	Siltation from deforestation due to intensive palm oil plantations impact the species habitat. Agro-chemical runoff is the main threat to lowland and submontaine fishes in this area. Dams of various scales also impact this species habitat.
180895		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Parts of the range of this species occurs in protected areas (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
180895		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Lao PDR in the Nam Kading drainage northwards, including throughout the Nam Theun River, in Xishauang Banna, southern China; in Chiang Rai, northern Thailand and is likely to be in the Mekong drainage in Myanmar (Kottelat 1998; 2001). There is a recent record of the species from central Viet Nam (Thừa Thiên-Huế Province; unreported location, possibly in the Xe Kaman, a tributary of the Se Kong; Vo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) that requires confirmation.
180895		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing stretches of streams with large stones and rocks and rapids (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
180895		population	eng	This species is considered to be fairly common in suitable habitat throughout its range (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
180895		threats	eng	Siltation (from road construction, deforestation, agriculture etc) which covers rocks and stones is a particular threat to this species, as it covers the algae growing on the stones. This species feeds on the algae and/or animals living in the algae (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
180896		conservation	eng	Inlé Lake needs to have invasive species control, and some kind of integrated catchment management to reduce the levels of nutrients entering the lake. A designation under an international convention would also benefit the area.
180896		distribution	eng	The species is described from Inlé Lake, Myanmar. The area of the lake is <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 116 km², however the open water area of the lake has declined by 32.4% in recent decades to 46.7 km² (Sidle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), and may have declined further as a result of recent drought (Htwe 2010).
180896		habitat	eng	Found in the shallow zone of the lake, in areas with dense submerged vegetation and muddy, high organic bottom.
180896		population	eng	This fish is locally common in Inlé Lake, however there are indications of a decline.
180896		threats	eng	There used to be a traditional fishery in the lake, but around 15 years  ago, gill nets were introduced and many species have been over harvested  including this species. There are also introduced species in the lake, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus spp. </span>which may compete and hybridise with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. intha,</span> and <em>Ctenopharyngodon idella </em>which was recorded in the lake in 1994 and will significantly alter the lakes habitat. The introduced Water Hyacinth is also widespread in the lake. There is agricultural expansion around the margins of the lake that is causing sedimentation and eutrophication. The water in the lake can no longer be used for human consumption.
180897		conservation	eng	The species is in need of research to understand the impact of known threats, especially from dams.
180897		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be restricted to the Mekong basin (Kottelat 1998) in Thailand<span><span>, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and southern Viet Nam (e.g., the Hau River; Electricity Viet Nam 2011).<span><span><span><span><span><span> In Cambodia the species migrates from the Tonle Sap River up the Mekong (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), and it is found in tributary rivers (e.g., the Nam Theun in Lao PDR (Roberts 2004), although current presence requires confirmation following the construction of the dams on the river).</span></span></span></span>
180897		habitat	eng	A highly migratory species that moves from the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia up to southern Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). Found in mainstream and other major tributaries, in sand or gravel, rocky bottoms, usually in rapids.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
180897		population	eng	It was the eleventh most common species in the fence filter fishery at the Khone Falls in Lao PDR, making up 0.39% of the catch by weight (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
180897		threats	eng	Overfishing impacts the species, but the key future threat is the construction of large dams on the mainstream and major tributaries in the Mekong. Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011) identify the species&#160; population in the Mekong as being vulnerable to mainstream dams.
180898		conservation	eng	Further research is needed for this species, especially distribution.
180898		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, coastal streams of southern Thailand (e.g., the Tapi River; Lheknim 2004) and Cambodia, and Indonesia (Sumatra) and Malaysia (Sarawak);          Kottelat and Whitten 1996,          Parenti and&#160; Lim 2005, L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011). The species has also been reported from Phu Quoc, a Vietnamese island off the coast of Cambodia. The species is in need of further research to confirm its full distribution.
180898		habitat	eng	This species lives in fresh and brackish water habitats in marshes, swamps and small coastal streams (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
180898		population	eng	This species occurs in relatively high population densities (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
180898		threats	eng	Human infrastructure and development in coastal areas which cause habitat degradation (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
180899		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
180899		distribution	eng	This species is presently known from the Xe Bangfai and Nam Mang drainages. It is expected in the lower-middle stretches of main Mekong tributaries in intermediate areas in Lao PDR. Its presence in Thailand is not excluded.
180899		habitat	eng	This species has been observed in Mekong tributaries, in stretches in foothill areas, with moderate flow on a stony bottom.
180899		population	eng	No information available.
180899		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. In the Xe Bangfai, the known habitat is upstream of the impact of the Nam Theun 2 power plant impact; in the Nam Mang it is impacted by the Nam Leuk and Nam Mang dams and the proposed Nam Mang 1 dam. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180900		conservation	eng	Research into the impacts of known threats, and further information on the species distribution is needed.
180900		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Nam Leuk, part of the Nam Mang drainage, which is in turn part of the Mekong River drainage in northern Lao PDR. It is possible that the species has a wider distribution.
180900		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested streams with clear water and a substrate of large boulders. The fish were found in habitats within the streams ranging from isolated deep pools to fast-flowing stretches.
180900		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180900		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. The effects of the Nam Leuk Dam, which diverted much of the Nam Leuk's water flow to the nearby Nam Xan, on the populations of this species remains to be studied.
180901		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180901		distribution	eng	Recorded from <span>the Chao Phraya, Bang Pakong<strong> </strong><span>and Mekong basins in Thailand, Lao PDR (Xe Bang Fai and Nam Theun basins; Kottelat 1989), <span><span>southern Viet Nam and Cambodia (Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong at Stung Treng). There is an unconfirmed record from Chenderoh Dam in Perak State, northern peninsular Malaysia.</span></span>
180901		habitat	eng	Occurs in midwater to bottom levels of rivers and streams. Migrates out into flooded forests during high water periods where it feeds on phytoplankton, periphyton, benthic algae and some zooplankton (Rainboth 1996).
180901		population	eng	No information available.
180901		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams and pollution.
180902		conservation	eng	Monitoring of populations and threats is required, and research into the species distribution and population status.
180902		distribution	eng	This species was described from specimens collected from a cave in Phu Tham Nam (Kham Muan Karst, Kham Muan Province, Lao PDR).
180902		habitat	eng	A troglobitic fish, this species is restricted to subterranean streams some distance from the entrance (over 100 m). Its diet is possibly organic detritus from bat guano and microorganism. Its growth rate and life cycle still unknown.
180902		population	eng	It is considered to have a low population density within the cave.
180902		threats	eng	Declining water flows as a result of deforestation may threaten the hydrographic system in the subterranean stream, as well as contamination by agrochemical use within the watershed. Most troglobitic fish are very sensitive to water quality and hydrographic conditions.<br/><br/>Overfishing may threaten this species, if not controlled or managed.
180904		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, harvest and population trends, habitat and ecology. Specific information is needed on the impact of the disruption of mainstream dams on migration routes.
180904		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. The Chao Phraya population has been extirpated over the last 25 years as a result of pollution, dams and overfishing (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011)
180904		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits large rivers and lowland floodplains (Rainboth 1996), occurring in riffles and deep slow reaches.  Moves out into the flooded forest where it feeds on leafy plant matter, phytoplankton and insects. Highly migratory.<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"> The species probably enters flooded floodplain forest in Cambodia.<br/><br/><span class="sheader5">Migration pattern is markedly different above and below the Khone  Falls in the Mekong basin.  Below the falls, it makes an upstream  migration from Phnom Penh to the Khone Falls between November and  February, consisting mainly of sub-adults of sizes 10 to 50 cm <span class="sheader5">(Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005)<span class="sheader5">.  From  April to July, it migrates in the opposite direction, from Khone Falls  and downstream, constituting mainly of sub-adults up to about 50 cm  (Sokheng 1999).<span class="sheader5">   Above the Khone Falls, from Klong Kaem District, Ubolratchatani in  Thailand, fish migrates upstream in February; at Khemmaratch further  upstream in Ubolratchatani, it moves upstream in March-April; and at  Mukdahan, it goes upstream in May.  However, it migrates downstream at  Klong Kaem in June-July.   Only downstream migrations are reported in the Mekong Delta in Viet  Nam, constituting mainly of juveniles (2-20 cm), with the smallest fish  mainly in June-July and fish between 10 and 20 mainly from September to  November.   From Xayabouri in Laos to Chiang Saen in Thailand, upstream migrations  take place from March to August.  This appears to be two distinct  migrations:  one of sub-adults measuring 15-50 cm during March-April and  another one of larger fishes of sizes 40 to 90 cm during June-July (Sokheng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5">).<br/><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
180904		population	eng	<span style="background-color: green;"></span>In the Mekong River, populations increased considerably when fisheries were stopped during the Khmer Rouge period in Cambodia. The population has declined since the late 1970s. <span>Populations in the Mekong have declined in recent years as a result of fishery pressures by up to 50% (I. Baird, pers. com<span style="background-color: white;">m.; </span><span style="background-color: white;">Roberts 1993; </span><span style="background-color: white;">Baird </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al. </span><span style="background-color: white;">1999; </span><span style="background-color: white;">Baird </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al. </span><span style="background-color: white;">2003; </span><span style="background-color: white;">Baran </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2005; Baird 2011.</span><span> The Chao Phraya population has been extirpated over the last 25   years as a result of pollution, dams and overfishing (C. Vidthayanon   pers. comm. 2011).</span>
180904		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted by pollution and overfishing, as well as the loss of suitable habitat (riverine and floodplain forest) and obstruction of migration routes from the construction of mainstream dams, factors which have already led to the extirpation of the Chao Phraya population.
180905		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
180905		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout southeast Asia from the Chao Phraya and Maekhlong basins in Thailand, to the eastern slope of the Malay Peninsula (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), from the lower Mekong basin (Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand, and including southern China (Yunnan); Kottelat 1998). Found in both mainstream rivers and tributaries (e.g., the Mun River in eastern Thailand; Jutagate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
180905		habitat	eng	Found in large upland rivers; common in areas with rocky bottoms and irregular depths (Rainboth 1996). Apparently does not undertake longitudinal migration, but reproduces locally and enters the flooded forest during high water in July-October (Ng and Rainboth 1999). Feeds on insects, prawns, fish and crabs.
180905		population	eng	This species is common throughout in suitable habitats of its range, but uncommon in Peninsular Thailand.
180905		threats	eng	No major threats have been recorded, but overfishing is a possible threat.
180907		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies on threats affecting the population of this species are recommended.
180907		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle Mekong drainage in central Lao PDR (e.g., the Nam Theun) and northern Cambodia, including the Sesan and lower Sekong (Ou<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011) and must be present in intermediate areas as well as in eastern Thailand (Rainboth 1996, Kottelat 1998).
180907		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow water in rivers with moderate current and sand or gravel bottoms.
180907		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180907		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180908		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, population and harvest trends, habitat and ecology. The impact of threats from mainstream dams needs to be better understood.
180908		distribution	eng	<span> Described from Stung Treng, Mekong basin, Cambodia. Distributed in the <span>Lower Mekong basins in Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam and Lao PDR. Also present in the Chao Phraya in Thailand. Mainly a mainstream species, but also found in the Great Lake.</span>
180908		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits midwater to bottom depths of rivers,  occurring in the main stream and on the floodplains, including freshwater  areas that undergo tidal fluctuation (Rainboth 1996).  Feeds on algae, detritus and  occasionally benthic invertebrates. Highly migratory, probably migrates long distance e.g., from the Great Lake to the Khone falls (I. Baird, pers. comm)., from main river channels probably to flooded areas during the wet season.
180908		population	eng	Widespread but present in low numbers, probably historically.
180908		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams, pollution (from sediments) and overfishing. The proposed mainstream dams present the main future threat to this species. They will disrupt and block migrations as well as feeding through increased sedimentation.
180909		conservation	eng	Review of the taxonomic identity of records of the species requires confirmation.
180909		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong basin in Thailand and Lao PDR to Viet Nam, where it is recorded from numerous major tributaries, e.g., throughout the Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998) and the Xe Kong (Kottelat 2011) in Lao PDR. The species is likely to be quite widely distributed, but under-recorded or misidentified in surveys (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012).<br/><br/>The species is recorded from Myanmar (Roberts 1998), presumably in the Mekong drainage. Records from Viet Nam require confirmation; e.g., Thua Thien Hue Province in central Viet Nam (Vo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), which possibly refers to streams draining to the Mekong system from the eastern slopes of the Annam mountains, and the Dong Nai River in southern Viet Nam (Freyhof<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000). Records from the Yom River (part of the Chao Phraya drainage; Pila <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) also require confirmation.
180909		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries to montane streams. Tends to be found in faster flowing waters (Kottelat 2011).
180909		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range and probably under-recorded in surveys.
180909		threats	eng	Deforestation and stream degradation are main threats to this fish.
180911		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in a protected area, but it is unknown whether this will have any impact for aquatic species (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). <span lang="EN-GB"> Further research is required to confirm the species full distribution.<br/></span></span></p>
180911		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs in the Se Kong basin, southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
180911		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in rapids, stretches of rivers with stone bottom (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180911		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is currently known from several sites from two separate surveys carried out in 1999 and 2009, where it was frequently found <span lang="EN-GB">(Kottelat 2000)<span lang="EN-GB">.<br/></span></p>
180911		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the EOO is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dam (Kottelat 2004). Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
180912		conservation	eng	Research into population size and trends, species threats, trade and use is required.
180912		distribution	eng	<span>The species is recorded from the Chao Phraya and Bangpakong basins in Thailand and Mekong basin in Thailand, Cambodia, and Viet Nam (Can Tho market in the Mekong delta). Described from a specimen collected from Prachinburi market, Bangpakong basin, Thailand. In Cambodia, there are records from the Tonle Sap lake and river; in Thailand, records include Prachinburi, Ayutthaya, and Uthai Thani markets.
180912		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in flowing and standing waters, especially  around submerged woody vegetation.  Adults feed on insect larvae,  including chironomids as well as zooplankton and fishes.  Spawn just  prior to or at the onset of the rainy season and its young are first  caught in July and August (Breder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1966).
180912		population	eng	No information available.
180912		threats	eng	This species is still encountered with sufficient frequency that the populations are still deemed to be not threatened.&#160; However, further studied on the effects of anthropogenic disturbances on this species are required to verify this.
180913		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution and population trends, as well as its threats.
180913		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nam Youan catchment, Lao PDR and the Nala River in Xishuangbanna, southern China (Kottelat 2000).
180913		habitat	eng	<p><span class="s1">Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p>
180913		population	eng	Only known from a few specimens collected during one survey in Lao PDR in 1999 and one survey in China (Kottelat 2000).
180913		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The known distribution of this species occurs in the lowlands which is particularly impacted by agriculture and residential populations. Logging and deforestation has occurred in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation, agricultural and urban pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
180914		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species distribution and threats is required.
180914		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong (Thailand), from where it was described. Records from elsewhere, including the Dong Nai (Viet Nam), southeastern Thailand (coastal Gulf of Thailand drainages; Doi 1997) and coastal rivers of the Cardamom mountains (Rainboth 1996), are uncertain and require confirmation, but may be remnants of a once continuous population pre-dating the last glacial period (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011). The species possibly occurs in the Mekong but has not yet been recorded there (Rainboth 1996), but see Taxonomic Notes.
180914		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in medium to large upland rivers and probably migrates into smaller streams during rainy season (Rainboth 1996).
180914		population	eng	This species is an uncommon fish in its range.
180914		threats	eng	Dams and habitat degradation are potential threats to this species.
180916		conservation	eng	Research is required for this species to confirm its range, population trends, and threats.
180916		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to smaller tributaries of the lower Salween basin in Thailand and Myanmar.
180916		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers with sandy and rocky bottoms.
180916		population	eng	Uncommon to rare.
180916		threats	eng	Its habitats is in remote areas. Threats are unknown, however future dam projects may impact the species
180918		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180918		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Mae Nam Noi drainage, a tributary of the Salween. The Mae Nam Noi makes the border between Thailand and Myanmar. Although the species has been observed only in Thailand for lack of surveys in Myanmar, there is no reason to doubt that it also occurs in Myanmar.
180918		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
180918		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180918		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
180919		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is needed to define its range, habitat and threats.
180919		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Thailand in the Mekong basin in Chiang Rai and Loei provinces. It is expected to be present in Bokeo province in Lao PDR adjacent to Chiang Rai province of Thailand. One record from Nan drainage (Chao Phraya basin) is ambiguous. Records from Xishuangbanna (Yunnan, China) are most likely misidentifications.
180919		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">No information. Most other species of the genus live in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
180919		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. The species is apparently very rarely observed.
180919		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown since its habitat is unknown. But it is expected that, as with other species of the genus, a<span lang="EN-GB">nthropogenic modification of river morphology, logging, deforestation and agriculture occur, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.
180921		conservation	eng	Habitat management and awareness raising on sustainable fishery are recommended.
180921		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout the lower Mekong river basin, from Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia to Viet Nam.
180921		habitat	eng	Found in deeper zone of marshlands, swamps and floodplains, marginal occurred in rivers and larger tributaries. Well adapted to impounded waters; man-made reservoirs, ditches, irrigation canals, and undertakes 'White' pattern river use, moving seasonally from river channels to seasonally flooded areas (Rainboth 1996).
180921		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats, especially in impounded water bodies.
180921		threats	eng	Dams and impounded water may not threaten this fish, due to its good adaptivity. Run-off, nutrient loads may threats in some areas as well as uncontrolled fisheries.
180922		conservation	eng	Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas. No conservation actions are in place.
180922		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Borneo, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula northwards to the Tapi drainage in Thailand.
180922		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">This species inhabits streams under forest cover, near the bottom, wood or submerged vegetation.
180922		population	eng	No information available.
180922		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180923		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Southeast Asia from the lower Mekong and tributaries (e.g., the Se San River (Baird and Meach 2005) and the Xe Bang Fai) to the Chao Phraya and Maekhlong drainages in Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1997), the <span>Malay Peninsula (e.g., the Tapi River; Lheknim 2004), and Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra), Brunei Darussalam (Belait River; Parenti and Meisner 2003) and Sarawak (Malaysia).<span></span>
180923		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane streams to highland waterfalls. Migratory in larger river systems.
180923		population	eng	Locally common in all suitable habitats all of its range.
180923		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat to the species.
180924		conservation	eng	None required.
180924		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam and Cambodia;<span>  estuarine zone of the Mekong, including the high  estuarine tidal zone considerably upstream from the coastal province of  Bac Lieu, Viet Nam, and associated marine areas of the <span>South China Sea (Western Pacific).</span>
180924		habitat	eng	Inhabits estuaries and lower reaches rivers.
180924		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its range.
180924		threats	eng	No threats recognized for this fish.
180927		conservation	eng	Parts of the range of this species is in Protected Areas. However, if several species are recognised, it is likely that some may not have part of their range in Protected Areas. Field-based research is needed to clarify the taxonomy of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Annamia</span> and the distribution of the included species.
180927		distribution	eng	This species occurs in headwaters of the tributaries of the Mekong, from the upper Xe San northwards to the upper Xe Bangfai River (Kottelat 2000).
180927		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing waters in rapids and waterfalls (Kottelat 2000).
180927		population	eng	This species is locally common in suitable habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180927		threats	eng	Locally threatened by hydro-power development, which permanently floods rapids and reduces water flow rates. Mining for gold in the upper Xe Bang Hiang basin occurs, but the impact is unknown. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180928		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species distribution and threats.
180928		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Salween and Mae Khlong basins in Thailand and Myanmar, to upper the Malay Peninsula. The species was described recently (Britz 2007) from streams in the the Mon and Kayin States of southern Myanmar.
180928		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland and montane streams.
180928		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats.
180928		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
180930		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">A significant part of the remaining EOO of this species is located in protected areas upstream of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir and their management is expected to be effective (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
180930		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang rivers, Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998, 2001).</p>
180930		habitat	eng	This species is found in rapids (Kottelat 1998).
180930		population	eng	This species is commonly found throughout its known range (Kottelat 1998). Part of the population is likely to be decreasing due the impact of the construction of three dams on rivers within its range.
180930		threats	eng	Construction of dams destroys rapid habitats by flooding them upstream and by reducing the water released below the dam, also eliminating suitable rapid habitat. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180931		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research is needed into the species' distribution and ecology, and the impacts of threats including dams.<br/></p>
180931		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from the lower and upper Nam San catchment, a tributary of the Nam Ngum, northern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000). The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at less than 898 km<sup>2</sup> and the Area of Occupancy at 98 km<sup>2</sup>, both based on the extent of the Nam San above the Nam Ngum 1 reservoir.</p>
180931		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180931		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single sampling effort in 1997 and has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out (Kottelat 2000). Populations are inferred to be declining as a result of mining activities reported within the watershed in 2012 (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012).<br/></p>
180931		threats	eng	<p>The surrounding habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in  the area. Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and  agricultural pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Additional survey in the area in 2012  found extensive small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that  impact several kilometres of stream downstream, there is also a  large-scale Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.) operating there, and it is  possible that iron ore extraction may occur in the future.<br/></p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">The impact of dams within the Nam Ngum drainage on the species is uncertain as current and proposed dams are below the Nam Ngum 1 reservoir or are on other rivers.<br/></span></span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p>
180932		conservation	eng	Habitat management based on local participation is recommended.
180932		distribution	eng	The species is only known from its type locality in the <span>Mae Sa Nga drainage, a tributary of the Salween River in western Thailand.<span><br/></span>
180932		habitat	eng	Occurs in rocky clear streams, under forest covering, including waterfalls, especially in rapid zones, above 600 m asl.
180932		population	eng	Locally very rare, it has only been found in two streams at the type locality. Its population is considered to have declined, based on confirmed records from field survey.
180932		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by small dams is the main threat to this species, while siltation caused by deforestation, infrastructures and dams, degrades or converses its habitats. Local fishing is a secondary threat.
180933		conservation	eng	Despite being an abundant species, more information on&#160;on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species is needed.
180933		distribution	eng	The species is known throughout the middle and lower Mekong River drainage, the Chao Phraya and the Mae Klong river drainages in Indochina (Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996).
180933		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slower-flowing streams and rivers, as well as lentic habitats such as lakes, reservoirs and ponds. It is a carnivorous species that feeds primarily on small fishes and larger aquatic invertebrates.
180933		population	eng	There is no detailed information available on the population and its trends for this species, but data from field surveys indicate that it is an abundant species.
180933		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180935		conservation	eng	Research into threats and current distributions and population trends is required.
180935		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ayayarwaddy and Sittaung drainages to the lower Salween basins, Myanmar. Doi (1997) suggests that the species may be present in associated drainages in the Malay Peninsular (western Thailand and northern Malaysia)<span>.
180935		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and floodplains, mainstream and tributary rivers.
180935		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
180935		threats	eng	No threats known.
180937		conservation	eng	More information on the distribution, biology, population size and trends, and the current and potential threats to this species is needed.
180937		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Klong River drainage in western Thailand and the Pahang River drainage in the central part of the Malay Peninsula; it may also be found in the Bernam River drainage in the western part of the Malay Peninsula (Ng and Ng 2001). It has not been recorded from river systems between the Pahang/Bernam river drainages and the upper Mae Klong River drainage; this is either due to the lack of suitable habitats or to sampling inadequacy.
180937		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description, but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing rivers and a sandy/rocky/muddy substrate (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2010).
180937		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180937		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180938		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Research is needed regarding its life cycle and the impact of different threats.
180938		distribution	eng	This is an upland species found only on the Bolovens Plateau, Paksong District, Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR.
180938		habitat	eng	It is found in clear rocky streams approximately 800–1,200 m asl.&#160;It feeds mainly on insects and does not do well in reservoirs.&#160;The species migrates short distances - probably not truly migratory, but undertakes local or short distance movements (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180938		population	eng	This was a relatively dominant species in many streams on the Bolovens Plateau, but its numbers have been seriously depleted due to overfishing.
180938		threats	eng	This fish is threatened by overfishing, dam construction, habitat degradation from commercial agriculture and bauxite mining on the plateau.
180940		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population size and trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180940		distribution	eng	This species is known from river drainages in central Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula (as far north as the Mae Nam Sungai Kolok drainage in southern Thailand).
180940		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forested streams, typically with a thick layer of leaf litter and moderate current.
180940		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
180940		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180941		conservation	eng	Research is required.
180941		distribution	eng	Known from the Mae Khlong basin in Thailand and the lower Salween basin in Myanmar. Described from the Kwae Noi River, Khao Lam Dam area, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand (Roberts 1986).
180941		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane streams and river tributaries.
180941		population	eng	Locally uncommon in Thailand, more common in Myanmar.
180941		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
180942		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the distribution, population trends, and threats to this recently described species.
180942		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Malay Peninsula, from rivulets in the northeast of Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia, south of Kota Bharu, and from the extreme south of peninsula Thailand in the vicinity of Sungkai Golok (Schindler and Schmidt 2008).
180942		habitat	eng	Found in submontane streams. The type locality is a stream strongly shaded by forest, with clear, colourless water. Found in shallow water between water plants and leaf&#160; litter (Schindler and Schmidt 2008).
180942		population	eng	No information available.
180942		threats	eng	Although the species habitat maybe vulnerable to degradation, there is no information available.
180943		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
180943		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ma River basin in Lao P.D.R. only, but is also expected to occur in the lower part of the Ca River basin and possibly in adjacent coastal basins of Viet Nam (Chen and Kottelat 2003).
180943		habitat	eng	Found in streams and creeks with stone to boulder substrate, in clear, relatively shallow (up to 0.5 m deep in the dry season) and relatively swift water (Chen and Kottelat 2003).
180943		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180943		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180944		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
180944		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nan River drainage, a branch of the Chao Phraya, in Thailand.<span><span><span></span>
180944		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
180944		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180944		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology  impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow.  Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with  associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers.  comm. 2011). Sirikit reservoir occupies part of the EOO.</p>
180947		conservation	eng	None required.
180947		distribution	eng	The species is very widely distributed in mainland southeastern Asia, from the lower Mekong basin to the Mae Khlong basin in Thailand and the Malay Peninsula to Singapore. It has been recorded from Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Peninsular  Malaysia and China (presence unconfirmed and origin uncertain). Its distribution extends to the  Philippines and Sunda Islands including parts of Malaysia, Indonesia,  Brunei Darussalam and Singapore (introduced).
180947		habitat	eng	This species inhabits marshlands and shallow standing water bodies (<span class="sheader5">including ponds, ditches, canals and reservoir margins) <span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><span class="s1">(Rainboth 1996)<span class="sheader5">. It moves into rivers during times of flood to use them as passage ways.<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5"><br/></span></span></span></span>
180947		population	eng	This species is common in all suitable habitats in its range.
180947		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland degradation are main threats, but any decline is not significant.
180949		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in a protected area (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
180949		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs in the Xe Kong basin, southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180949		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected over stones and large gravel in stretches of the main river and tributaries (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180949		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is currently known from several sites, observed in two separate surveys carried out in 1999 and 2009 (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180949		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the EOO is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dam (Kottelat 2004). Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm.. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
180950		conservation	eng	Research into species population trends and the impact of known threats is needed.
180950		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Sekong, Sesan, and the Srepok rivers in Cambodia and Lao PDR, and the Mekong delta in Viet Nam. Possibly present in Thailand in the Korat Plateau, but uncertain.
180950		habitat	eng	Found in the mainstream and major tributaries of the Mekong; likes deep water pools; undertakes short range migrations at the start of the rainy season (upriver); spawns July-August in smaller streams, and returns to the deep water pools in the mainstream in the dry season.
180950		population	eng	No information available.
180950		threats	eng	Mainstream dams on the Mekong are thought likely to impact the species, disrupting its movements within and from the mainstream, as well as its dry season deep pool habitat. Fishing pressures are also likely to impact the population.
180951		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for the species in place. The distribution range includes the Bach Ma National Park in central Viet Nam.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180951		distribution	eng	The species is presently only known from the Suoi Voi stream (55 km south  of Hue, 16°14.58'N, 107°59.39'E, Thua Thien Province) in the small drainage, from where it was described, of the Thua Luu River drainage in Central Viet Nam (Thua Thuen Hue province) (Freyhof and Serov 2001; Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
180951		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams with fast running water and boulders (Feyhof and Serov 2001; Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Some genera within the family are short-distance migrants.
180951		population	eng	Apparently very rare (Freyhof and Serov 2001).
180951		threats	eng	Outside of the Bach Ma National Park, major threats to the species are urban development and water pollution in the catchment of the Thua Luu River in the vicinity of Hue. Both within and outside the National Park, degradation of watersheds through loss of lowland forest is occurring.
180953		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Surveys are needed to determine the actual distribution.
180953		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Gnouang and Nam Theun drainages in the Mekong basin, Lao PDR. In the Nam Theun it has been observed from the confluence with the Nam Phao downwards. In the Nam Gnouang it has been observed from the confluence until Ban Sopkon; the Nam Gnouang has apparently never been surveyed further upstream. It might be present in small tributaries of the Nam Kading below the confluence of the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang.<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence (based on the area of the two drainages where the species is recorded) is 4,500 km<sup>2</sup>,  however this includes significant areas of unsuitable habitat (e.g.,  reservoirs), and the Area of Occupancy (AOO) at 250-500 km<sup>2</sup>.
180953		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters, especially near rapids in  quieter stretches with gravel substrate (M. Kottelat pers. comm.  2011).<br/><p></p>
180953		population	eng	It is too early to evaluate the impact of Nam Theun 2 dam, however populations can be inferred to have been impacted. There is no publicly available information on the impact of Theun Hinboun.
180953		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by  reducing or interrupting fast water flow and flooding its obligate  habitat. An important part of the known AOO of this species is impacted by the Nam Theun 2, Theun Hinboun and Theun-Hinboun&#160;Extension&#160;dams and reservoirs, but large parts of the EOO occurs upstream of the reservoirs in the Nam Gnouang. In the Nam Theun it might be present above the reservoir in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA.
180954		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is required.
180954		distribution	eng	<span><span>The species, as now understood (see Taxonomic Notes), is restricted to Java in Indonesia, whilst other records of '<span style="font-style: italic;">nemurus</span>' within the Sundaic region (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo) refer to a different species (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2011).<span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span>
180954		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wide range of habitats, including rivers and streams, lakes, marshlands, and peat swamps. Well adaptive to impounded waters and man-made wetlands.<br/><br/>Dominant exclusive peak at beginning of rainy season. Some move downstream at start of rainy season. Spawns in floodplains/flooded forests. (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005).
180954		population	eng	Common throughout in suitable habitats, and even found in polluted waters.
180954		threats	eng	Pollution, habitat loss, and overfishing may threaten the species in some areas.
180955		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180955		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern part of the Malay Peninsula (the upper reaches of the Perak River) northwards to the coastal rivers that drain the western face of the Bilauktaung Range in southern Myanmar. Described from the Anin Chaung near Wewun (Day 1888), a  small stream in southern Myanmar entering the Andaman Sea at 15°36'N  97°44'E (Ng and Kottelat 2001).
180955		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams with a moderate to swift current and a predominantly rocky bottom, although it is sometimes encountered in slower-flowing streams with a muddy bottom (particularly very young fish).
180955		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. However, data from field surveys indicates that it is still reasonably abundant in hillstreams that have not been too severely impacted by human disturbance throughout its range.
180955		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation) and dams.
180956		conservation	eng	Research into the impact of threats is required.
180956		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from the Mae Khlong to Mekong (from southern Lao PDR below the Khone Falls to the delta in Viet Nam) basins, including the Chao Praya basin, and the Tonle Sap river and lake in Cambodia (Motomura 2004)
180956		habitat	eng	Inhabits the lower reaches of rivers and tributaries to estuaries.
180956		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats of the lower Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.
180956		threats	eng	Pollution and overfishing are potential threats to this fish. the impact of future dams is not understood.
180958		conservation	eng	Little is known of the species.
180958		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Cai River (Khanh Hoa Province) and the Da Rang River (Phu Yen Province) in central Viet Nam&#160;  (Serov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et. al</span> 2006).
180958		habitat	eng	Inhabits medium size rivers, usually found in shallow water over sandy bottom (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
180958		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180958		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected.
180959		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180959		distribution	eng	Recorded from the <span>Mekong (Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia) and Chao Phraya basins (Thailand upstream to Chiang Mai), Malaysia (Peninsula) and Indonesia (Java).
180959		habitat	eng	Usually found in slow moving or standing water (Kottelat 1998). Occurs in floodplains, canals, ditches and small sluggish streams. Proliferates in impoundments, and lives in areas with abundant aquatic vegetation. Feeds on crustaceans, tubificid worms, algae and zooplankton. Moves onto newly inundated land during flood season (Rainboth 1996) where it spawns.
180959		population	eng	No information available.
180959		threats	eng	No information available.
180960		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Parts of its range are in protected areas.
180960		distribution	eng	The species is known in the Mekong basin, from Xishuangabanna (China) to the Nam Beng drainage in Lao PDR and the Nam Heung in Thailand. The species is probably present in adjacent parts of the drainage in Myanmar, however records from northeastern Thailand (Kottelat 1990) seem erroneous.
180960		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180960		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
180960		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180962		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species throughout its entire range are also needed.
180962		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the middle Mekong River drainage, from Menghan in Yunnan, China downstream to Hatsalao, Lao PDR. Described from the Mun River (a tributary of the Mekong  River) at Ban Dan, Thailand (Bornbusch and Lundberg 1989).
180962		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the main channels of large rivers with turbid water and a substrate of sand or mud. Migrates upriver to the Khone falls at the start of the rainy season (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).
180962		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Current evidence indicates that it is still relatively widespread and abundant in the middle Mekong River drainage, although it is intensively fished, and the effects of of fisheries on the populations of this species should be studied closely.
180962		threats	eng	This species is a highly sought food fish, and fishing pressure is a real threat. It is also likely to be significantly impacted by the development of dams in the Mekong River.
180963		conservation	eng	Research into the impacts of known threats is required.
180963		distribution	eng	<span>The species has a wide distribution in southeast Asia; throughout the lower Mekong in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam to Indonesia (e.g, the Kalimas River, Surabaya, Java, Kalimantan, and from Sumatra)<span> and Malaysia. <br/><br/>Records in Thailand are from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong drainages to Prachuap Khiri Khan, north of the Isthmus of Kra. <span><span>In Peninsular Malaysia, the species is known from the Tapi and Pahang rivers (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011) and could be<span><span><span><span> expected from other larger rivers in Peninsular Malaysia, and can be expected to have a wider distribution in Borneo (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/></span></span></span></span>
180963		habitat	eng	This is a highly migratory species ('White' migratory strategy; Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In the Lower Mekong system it moves seasonally from the Tonle Sap Lake up to northeasten Thailand upstream between November and February, and then returns in June-July. It spawns in July-August (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).<br/><span class="sheader5">
180963		population	eng	Still an abundant species in the Mekong mainstream, but populations have been reduced in numbers in recent years as a result of overfishing. It reaches up to 17 kg in weight.
180963		threats	eng	It would be impacted by mainstream dams in the Mekong mainstream and major tributaries as a result of distribution of migrations.
180964		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the impact of threats, especially mainstream dams, on the species.
180964		distribution	eng	A Mekong basin endemic, known from the lower basin in the delta in southern Cambodia and Viet Nam (Roberts 2008) to northern Cambodia (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
180964		habitat	eng	Inhabits lower reaches river and inner estuaries, moves upstream in flooding season.
180964		population	eng	Uncommon in Cambodia, locally common in the inner delta areas.
180964		threats	eng	Mainstream dams are a future threat to this fish, as well as pollution form diverse sources.
180965		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species current distribution, population trends and threats. The known location of the species is a protected area (Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary).
180965		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chan River headwaters on Khao Soi Dao mountain, Chanthaburi Province, Thailand. No species of this genus has been collected in that area since. It  cannot be excluded that the suitable habitat is no longer present or  that the specimens came from another locality.
180965		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is not known. All other species of the genus inhabit rapids and hillstreams with fast flowing water (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011) and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. meridionalis</span> is expected to have a similar habitat.
180965		population	eng	Only known from a single sample obtained from aquarium fish collectors in 1978, with locality information possibly erroneous (Kottelat 1998; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180965		threats	eng	There is no information available.
180966		conservation	eng	None required.
180966		distribution	eng	Recorded from southeast Asia; present in the Mekong drainage to the Khone falls (Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap), Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand) to Malaysia to Indonesia. Described from Bandjarmasin, Kalimantan. Also found in marine areas; Pacific Ocean and the  South China Sea.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, known from Sumatra and Borneo (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993); found in the Kapuas Lakes  area in Kalimantan Barat, Borneo, where fishermen report that the fish moves from the Kapuas to lakes during the dry season (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005).
180966		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstream of lower reach rivers, brackish areas, and marine.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
180966		population	eng	Locally common in its range.
180966		threats	eng	No threat information known.
180968		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Confirmation of the species identity and distribution is needed.
180968		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality, the Lam River in central Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
180968		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
180968		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180968		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
180969		conservation	eng	Artificial breeding has been attempted in Thailand since the 1990s, but without success. The species is now protected in Thailand making it illegal to catch or posses it. However, the name of the species mentioned in this law is its previous scientific name (<span style="font-style: italic;">Coius pulcher</span>) and this creates issues when implementing the law.
180969		distribution	eng	This species used to be widespread in Indochina, from the Maekhlong and Chao Phraya basins to the middle and lower Mekong. It is now extirpated from Thailand. It is rarely reported from Se Bangfai, Champasak, Lao PDR.
180969		habitat	eng	IThe species ihabits mainstreams and tributaries, including larger lakes connected to rivers. It prefers habitats with submerged woods and rocky crevices. Its generation length is estimated at 10 years (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
180969		population	eng	The Siamese Tiger Perch was extirpated from Thailand in the 1990s. It is very rare in Cambodia, Viet Nam and Lao PDR. Export records for the international aquarium trade from Cambodia and Viet Nam have fluctuated over the past 20 years and are now very much reduced (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2010). The global population of this fish is suspected to have declined by >90% over the past 20 years.
180969		threats	eng	Overfishing for the international aquarium trade is a major threat to this species. It is now rarely seen but it is fished for this purpose when found. Other major threats are habitat alteration from large dams; infrastructures in tributaries (small dams, weirs, locks) block lateral movements between main river and tributaries.
180970		conservation	eng	Popualtions and habitats require monitoring, and the taxonomic status of records from the Mekong requires confirmation.
180970		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Malay Peninsula from southernmost Thailand (Phattalung) and Peninsular Malaysia (e.g., the Endau drainage; Ng and Tan 1999). Records include Singapore, and the Peninsular Malaysia states of Johor, Pahang, Selangor, Kelantan, and Terengganu (Siebert 1997). Reports from the Mekong drainage (e.g., Rainboth 1996) probably refer to a different species (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011)
180970		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland to submontane forested streams, with clear water, sandy gravel bottoms. (Rainboth 1996).
180970		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats, rare in Thailand.
180970		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat.
180972		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat, population, and exploitation trends is needed.
180972		distribution	eng	Known from the Ataran River basin in the Lower Salween basin; eastern Myanmar and western Thailand (border area). Appears to be endemic to headwaters of the Salween River basin around  the border between Myanmar and Thailand. The type specimens were  collected from the Megathat Chaung (Megathat stream) in the upper Ataran  (known as the Kasat in Thai) River basin, Kayin/Karen State, Myanmar  and another population was later discovered in the Hanthayaw River  (Suriya in Thai), Tak Province, Thailand (Seriously Fish 2011).
180972		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and tributary rivers with sandy and gravel, rocky bottoms. Lives in small schools.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
180972		population	eng	No information available.
180972		threats	eng	The species was popular in the aquarium trade over the last ten years and heavily harvested from its habitats. Recently its popularity has decreased and it is only occasionally found in trade. Protection of its habitats (watershed forests, streams, and waterfalls) is uncertain. Habitat and population trends need to be monitored.
180973		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species are also needed.
180973		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout mainland southeast Asia. It is found in the lower Mekong, Mae Klong, and Chao Phraya basins (Kottelat 1998), and river systems on both slopes of the Malay Peninsula, and in coastal drainages in southeastern Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).<em></em><br/><br/>In the Mekong, it is found in major tributaries (e.g., the Xe Kong; Kottelat 2011).
180973		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range of habitats including rivers and streams, marshlands, and peat swamps. It is slightly adaptive to impounded waters and man-made wetlands. Migratory movements are uncertain, but seems to undertake seasonal movements (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
180973		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species, particularly in the Mekong River drainage.
180973		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is limited information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
180974		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180974		distribution	eng	The species has a large natural distribution extending eastwards from  Myanmar via Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia as far as Viet Nam and to the south  through Peninsular Malaysia to Indonesia (Kalimantan  and Sumatra). It thus occurs in the Mekong, Mae Klong and Chao Phraya  drainages as well as a host of other river basins, lakes and reservoirs  including the great Tonlé Sap river and lake system in Cambodia.
180974		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, floodplains to rivers including peat-adjacent waters. Moves seasonally to floodplains in the wet season ('White' movement strategy; Rainboth 1996).
180974		population	eng	Despite the wide distribution it is not considered a common fish in nature  with most of the existing records pertaining to Peninsular Malaysia. Locally common in some suitable habitats of Mae Khlong, Mekong and eastern Peninsular Malaysia basins.
180974		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland alteration are the main potential threats to this fish.
180975		conservation	eng	Research into threats is required, especially the impacts of proposed large dams on mainstream rivers within the species range.
180975		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Sittaung and Salween basins in Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), and tributaries of the Salween in western Thailand (Roberts 1986). It possibly occurs in the Ayeyarwaddy basin, and it has also been reported from Manipur in northeastern India (Ministry of Environment and Forests 2006).
180975		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers and tributaries to submontane streams.
180975		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon in its range.
180975		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from deforestation, dams and local overfishing are potential threats to this fish.
180977		conservation	eng	No information available.
180977		distribution	eng	The species has a very wide distribution in southeast Asia. It is recorded in numerous river drainages from the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Thailand river systems; presence in the Maeklong is uncertain (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011)) to Indonesia (Java, Sumatra (Batavia, Buitenzorg, Tjampea, Sadingwetan, Tjipanas; Roberts 1989) and Kalimantan (Kapuas River)) and Sarawak.<br/><br/>The species is recorded from the Mekong drainage in Thailand (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1997), however this requires confirmation.
180977		habitat	eng	This species is found in forested submontane to hill streams and waterfalls with clear water, sandy gravel or rocky boulder bottoms (Roberts 1989).
180977		population	eng	This species is locally common. The status of the population in Java is unknown.
180977		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a threat in parts of the species' range.
180978		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
180978		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the western part of the Chao Phraya River drainage. Given that there is no exact collection locality for the type series, the possibility that the species might be found in the Salween River drainage instead cannot be discounted.
180978		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description (due to the absence of an exact collection locality for the type series), but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing hillstreams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate.
180978		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
180978		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although this species is sporadically collected for the ornamental fish trade, collection levels are unlikely to have a significant effect on the population.
180979		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is required into the impact of threats.<br/></p>
180979		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from two sampling areas in the upper Nam Khan, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180979		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
180979		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from two locations sampled in 1999. Has not been observed again, as no further research has been carried out in the area (Kottelat 2000).</p>
180979		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The Nam Khan 2 hydropower project is planned on middle-downstream section of the Nam Khan  River, and the dam site is approximately 30 km southeast of  Luangprabang. The installed capacity of the project  is 126.2 MW, and the financial agreements of the dam were signed in March 2011, and completion planned for 2014. The impact of the dam on the species is not known.<br/></p>
180980		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species threats, distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology.
180980		distribution	eng	Described from the Mussi River, Palembang (Sumatra), Indonesia. Recorded from <span>rivers of Viet Nam, Thailand, Cambodia (Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) and southeastern Sumatra, perhaps also Malaysia and western Kalimantan (Indonesia).
180980		habitat	eng	Found in estuaries and tidal reaches of rivers. There is insufficient data to show if this species occurs along coasts or whether it is estuarine and not freshwater (Munroe and Nizinski 1999).
180980		population	eng	No information available.
180980		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing.
180982		conservation	eng	Further information is required for this species.
180982		distribution	eng	<span>The species is found in the Western Central Pacific region (<span><span><span><span><span>Randall and Lim 2000)<span>, with scattered records from Indonesia (Sumatra (<span>Musi River, Palembang; <span><span><span><span><span>Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993<span><span>)<span> and Kalimantan (unknown source record), Malaysia (<span>Niah, northeastern <span>Sarawak; <span><span><span><span><span>Smith-Vaniz 1975<span><span><span><span><span>), and Cambodia (unknown location; Springer and Smith-Vaniz 1972). Further research is required to confirm the species distribution. It is very possible that the specimen listed as coming from Cambodia may have been mislabelled (i.e. the species may not actually be present in Cambodia, which may explain why it has not been collected there since; H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2011). <span><span><span><span><span>Smith-Vaniz (1975<span><span><span><span><span>) also lists Madagascar as a possible location where this species is found, but the specimen on which this record is based is lost.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
180982		habitat	eng	<span>The species is found in coastal, brackish, and freshwater areas, but without details.
180982		population	eng	No information available.
180982		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
180983		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
180983		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Sekong and Sesan drainages (Mekong tributaries) in Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Freyhof and Herder 2002; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180983		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters in rapids and waterfalls (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180983		population	eng	Only known from one survey in Viet Nam and one in Lao PDR (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180983		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
180984		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place. Research is needed into the  species taxonomy, distribution, population trends, habitat  requirements, and threats. The type locality is <span class="st">a national park and an UNESCO World Heritage Site.
180984		distribution	eng	The species is presently known only from the Phong Nha-Ke Bang area in the north-central coast of Viet Nam.
180984		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
180984		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180984		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180985		conservation	eng	None required at present.
180985		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in continental southeast Asia from the Maeklong in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin (from Lao PDR to Viet Nam, including the Tonle Sap in Cambodia), the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia (Sumatra (Palambang, Indragiri, Danau Sialong, Djambi) and Kalimantan (Kapuas, Kahajan, and Barito rivers; Weber and de Beaufort 1916)) and Sarawak (Malaysia).
180985		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, swamps, and marshlands, adaptive to impounded waters. Moves into seasonally flooded habitats.
180985		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
180985		threats	eng	Overfishing in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basin is ongoing threat, but in common level with other common fishes. Habitat degradation by infrastructure is future threat to this species.
180986		conservation	eng	None required.
180986		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya drainages (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997). Present throughout the lower Mekong from Yunnan in southern China (Chu and Mo 1999) to Viet Nam (Dong Nai River drainage; Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Found in the middle and upper Xe Bangfai in Cambodia (Kottelat 1998, 2001) and in the Xe Kong drainage in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2011).
180986		habitat	eng	Found in small and medium sized rivers and tributaries.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005)
180986		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, although recent survey data suggests that it is still abundant throughout much of its range.
180986		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information  on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential  threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
180988		conservation	eng	Research required into the species threats and distribution.
180988		distribution	eng	The species is known from the mainstream Mekong along the Laos-Thai border, including the Korat Plateau in Thailand, from where it was described. It has not been seen in Cambodia (W. Rainboth, pers. comm. 2011). It has been recorded in very small numbers from the Khone Falls region, but probably does not occur bellow the falls. ICEM (2010) suggests that the species may possibly present in Yunnan.
180988		habitat	eng	Found in the mainstream, and major tributaries. Migratory habits, if any, are unknown.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
180988		population	eng	No information available.
180988		threats	eng	Whilst there are at least two potential dams in the lower parts of the species known range. Whilst they are not at present considered a major threat, Amornsakchai<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2000) found that the species has not been seen in the vicinity of the Pak Mun dam on the Mun River in Thailand since the dam was completed, and further research is required.
180989		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
180989		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Na River, a tributary of the Black River (Song Da), in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Tho Distrikt, Lai Chau Provinz) only (Nguyen 2005).
180989		habitat	eng	The species was described from a freshwater river.
180989		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180989		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
180990		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known. Research is needed into threats.
180990		distribution	eng	The species is known from tributaries and the mainstream of the Salween River in southern China (Yunnan), Myanmar, and tributaries in Thailand (Mae Hong Song Province).
180990		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams, submontane streams and larger tributaries.
180990		population	eng	Seasonally/locally common in the lowland, mainstream Salween River.
180990		threats	eng	This species is threatened by over-harvesting, and habitat degradation from the removal of vegetation. Some populations are likely to be impacted by dams proposed along the mainstream of the Salween.
180991		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
180991		distribution	eng	<span>This species was described from a specimen collected from Pitsanulok, Thailand. It is recorded from the <span>Mekong, Chao Phraya and Meklong basins.</span>
180991		habitat	eng	Adults inhabit rivers, streams and reservoirs. the species moves into floodplains during periods of high water and is often found in places with submerged woody vegetation (Rainboth 1996). It feeds mainly on crustaceans and zooplankton along with small bits of algae and fish scales, and it may forage in schools like the other small striped species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus</span>. The species is usually marketed fresh and may also be sold smoked (Froese and Pauly 2010).
180991		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
180991		threats	eng	It is likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing. More species-specific information is needed.
180992		conservation	eng	None required.
180992		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in southeast Asia from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin.
180992		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and streams, marshlands, swamps and floodplains with dense submerged vegetation.
180992		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
180992		threats	eng	Wetland degradation in its range is a potential threat.
180993		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
180993		distribution	eng	Originally found in the Lo River drainage, the species is known from all river basins in northwestern Viet Nam.
180993		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater rivers.
180993		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
180993		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
180994		conservation	eng	None required.
180994		distribution	eng	The species has an enormous range, from Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab, Sinh and Azad Kashmir; Mirza 2002), the Nepalese terai, India (most of India, including the Ganges drainage, the Western Ghats rivers, and Chilka Lake in Orissa; (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) to the Ayeyarwaddy and Sittaung drainages in Myanmar. Records of the species from the Salween basin in Myanmar and Thailand (where it has also been recorded from the Pai River, Mai Hong Song Province, and Songkhla in peninsular Thailand) probably refer to other species (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012). Introduced elsewhere (e.g., Japan).
180994		habitat	eng	Inhabit lowland rivers and tributaries to inner estuaries.
180994		population	eng	Common in suitable habitats throughout its range, less common in middle reaches and tributaries of the Salween in Thailand.
180994		threats	eng	No information available.
180995		conservation	eng	More information on the species threats and distribution is required.
180995		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Chao Phraya and Mekong basins (Cambodia and the Mekong delta in Viet Nam; Khoa and Huong 1993).
180995		habitat	eng	Inhabits lower reaches of the rivers.
180995		population	eng	Rare in Thailand, uncommon in the Mekong Delta.
180995		threats	eng	No information available.
180996		conservation	eng	None needed, as this species is considered extinct.
180996		distribution	eng	This species was known from the Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong river drainages in Thailand (Smith 1945). Although there have been numerous general fish surveys in the drainages where the species had been recorded, this species has not been encountered since 1975–1977.
180996		habitat	eng	This species was previously found in the main channels of rivers and larger streams. It might have also been found in large swamps and marshes, although all known museum records of this species come from material collected in fluviatile systems.
180996		population	eng	This species was still abundant in the Chao Phraya (and possibly Bang Pakong) River drainage in the 1920s (Smith 1945), but is now considered extinct, as no individuals have been encountered since 1975–1977 (from specimens seen from Ayutthaya; specimens at Thai Department of Fisheries (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011)) in spite of numerous surveys within the Chao Phraya River drainage and areas where this species has been historically reported. The Bang Pakong has also been extensively surveyed over the period 1990–2000 (C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm. 2011), and the species has not been recorded, nor do fishers report the species.
180996		threats	eng	This species is believed to have gone extinct as a result of damming and canalization of the Chao Phraya River (Harrison and Stiassny 1999), as well as extensive reclamation of wetlands around Bangkok and the known range of the species. In addition, the lower parts of both rivers are very highly polluted.
180997		conservation	eng	<span><span>More information on the species ecology, threats and distribution is required. Listed as a protected animal in Yunnan  Province in 1989 and considered Endangered (Wang 1998), and considered rare in Viet Nam       (Huynh 1998).</span>
180997		distribution	eng	The species is known from <span>the  middle/lower Mekong (Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam (e.g., the Mekong delta (Electricity Viet Nam 2010) and the <span><span>Srepok and Se San tributaries)<span>, and southern China (Yunnan; Kottelat 1998; however, identification of these records requires confirmation (see Taxonomic Notes), Chao Phraya and Mae Klong basins, from the Dong Nai basin in Viet Nam, <span>and from the northern Malay Peninsula (southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and probably associated parts of the Mekong drainage in Myanmar (Mekong Myanmar (the Mae Kok, Mae Sai, and Kengtung)).<span><span><span><span><span><br/></span></span></span></span></span>
180997		habitat	eng	Inhabits flowing streams and tributaries with substrates of boulders,  pebbles, gravel and sand, often in areas with submerged driftwood or  tree roots (Rainboth 1996). It is thought to undergo  seasonal migrations during which it can be found in deeper, more turbid  water and is known to enter temporarily-inundated zones.<span class="sheader5"> Occurs in medium to large-sized rivers and enters flooded fields (Taki 1978). It is a good indicator of stream/river quality (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
180997		population	eng	<span><span>It is naturally rare/uncommon in China and southern Viet Nam (Mekong delta areas), but is locally common in Viet Nam's Mekong tributaries (the Se San and Sre Pok) and the Chao Phraya-Mae Khlong basin and the Tonle  Sap basin. Populations in Thailand have declined; it was an important component of fish sauce (<span style="font-style: italic;">nam pla</span>) in Thailand, but stocks are now insufficient for that purpose.</span>
180997		threats	eng	Although the species may be impacted by dams, not enough is known about its migratory habits to predict the scale of impacts. Populations have declined locally, especially in Thailand, as a result of a range if factors, including over-exploitation.
181000		conservation	eng	No information available.
181000		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures in place.
181000		distribution	eng	The species has an Indo-Pacific distribution. It is known from coastal waters of South Africa, Mozambique, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Palau, Australia (Northern Territories), New Caledonia (e.g. Kottelat and Whitten 1996, Keith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species is probably present elsewhere (e.g., India, Myanmar, Indonesia), and further research is required.
181000		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Indian Ocean regions, east to the Philippine  Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Within Africa it is known from Durban  Bay to the Zambezi delta.
181000		habitat	eng	Mainly recorded from mangroves and estuaries, but also found in coastal freshwater streams (Larson 2001).
181000		habitat	eng	This species ranges from mangroves through to freshwater pools on lower floodplains to freshwater lakes. It typically occurs in muddy substrate environments.
181000		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on the species population.<br/></p>
181000		population	eng	Where encountered often abundant.
181000		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181000		threats	eng	Reduced inflows into lower rivers and estuaries, and coastal developments may threaten this species.
181002		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181002		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Song Giang drainage in central Viet Nam, although it may also be present in adjacent drainages that drain the eastern face of the Annam Cordillera.
181002		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the biology of this species, but like congeners, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a swift current, clear water and a substrate of rocks/sand.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005)
181002		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181002		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181003		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is required into the species distribution, threats, and population trends.<br/></p>
181003		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single locality in the upper Nam Tha watershed, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181003		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Found under stones in fast flowing hillstreams (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181003		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single sampling in 1999 and has not been observed again as no additional research has been carried out in the area since (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181003		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threats are known to this species. Logging and deforestation occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion and sedimentation.</p>
181004		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research is required into the species distribution and the impact of threats.<br/></p>
181004		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single locality in the upper Nam Ngum (near to Ban Latbouak, Xiangkhouang Province), <span lang="EN-GB">Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</span></p>
181004		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181004		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single survey in 1999 and has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out (Kottelat 2000). Populations are suspected to be declining as a result of impacts from dam operation and construction, and mining activities.<br/></p>
181004		threats	eng	<p>The Nam Ngum 1 dam was completed in 1971. Further dams and flow   control developments are proposed within the Nam Ngum basin (the "Nam   Ngum hydropower cascade"); the Nam Ngum 2, north of the Nam Ngum 1 dam, is now  in operation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and there are at least six  further proposed   projects: Nam Ngum 3 (construction to start in 2012;  M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Ngum 5 (under construction; M.  Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Lik 1 and 2 and Nam Bak 1 and 2   (International Rivers 2011, Vattenfall 2011). The scale and nature of   the impacts arising from these subsequent dams is not clear and further   information on the distribution of the species is required before the   nature of the threat from dams can be determined.<br/><br/>The surrounding  habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in the area.  Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural  pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat  pers. comm. 2011). Additional survey in the area in 2012 found extensive  small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and a there is a large-scale  Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is possible that  iron ore extraction may occur.<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></p>
181006		conservation	eng	Part of the range is in a protected area upstream of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir.
181006		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang drainages in the Mekong basin, Lao PDR. The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at 9,300 km<sup>2</sup>, base on the area of the basins where it is known to be present.
181006		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly in parts of stream with a fast current, in deep water, among rocks.
181006		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown, but are inferred to have declined as a result of hydropower dam development within the watershed.
181006		threats	eng	<p>Part of the range of the species is impacted by the Theun Hinboun, Nam Gnouang and Nam Theun 2 reservoirs.<span lang="EN-GB"> It is not expected to have survived in the inundated areas and is expected to have reduced populations downstream of the dams; most of the remaining AOO is now upstream of Nam Theun 2 reservoir, in a protected area. Logging, deforestation, agriculture and gold mining occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
181007		conservation	eng	Research is needed into potential for impacts from dams and fishing activities.
181007		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin (Cambodia, Lao PDR,Thailand, and Viet Nam), and from Indonesia (Borneo and Sumatra; Kottelat<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1993) and Malaysia (Sarawak; Menon 1977).
181007		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstream rivers and larger estuaries in freshwater only. Migratory (Riede 2004).<strong><br/>Known range confined to flooded forest and rivers in lower Mekong. (Rainboth 1996). <br/><br/></strong>
181007		population	eng	Locally common in its range.
181007		threats	eng	A migratory species, it is potentially vulnerable to impacts from mainstream dams. Further information is required.
181008		conservation	eng	No known conservation actions in place.
181008		distribution	eng	Described in 2007 from specimens collected from a stream (Chon Son) between Kyondaw and Phadaw, about 20 km  northwest of Payathouzu (on the border with Thailand), Karen State,  Myanmar. Headwaters of Ataran basin, Myanmar.
181008		habitat	eng	No information, but expected to be in streams with swift current and stony bottom.
181008		population	eng	No information available.
181008		threats	eng	No information available.
181009		conservation	eng	Further research into the species current population trends and the impact of threats is required.
181009		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap River and Lake, Stung Sen River), Malaysia (Peninsula, Sarawak, and Sabah), Philippines and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan). Record from Fiji needs confirmation. Also recorded from China (Hong Hong, but thought to be from a market), Taiwan, Province of China, and from Singapore.
181009		habitat	eng	Occurs in various wetlands, including rivers, ponds, reservoirs, canals, swamps and flooded  forests. It generally prefers areas of little or no water movement.  Mainly found in freshwater but is also found in brackish environments.<br/><br/>Enters flooded forest (Roberts 1993). Feeds on small fishes, shrimps, aquatic insects, molluscs and crabs.
181009		population	eng	Little information is available.
181009		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing.
181010		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on population  trends, ecology and  current threats to this species is needed.
181010		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Mekong drainage (Xe Bangfai and Nam Leuk rivers in central Lao PDR, Xe Kong in southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998, 2001, 2011), close to the border with Cambodia, where it is expected to be present). It probably also inhabit tributaries of the Mekong in northeastern Thailand.
181010		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over sand and gravel substrates.</p>  <span class="sheader5"></span>
181010		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181010		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Since 2010, part of this species range has been impacted by the discharge of the Nam Theun II power plant, which significantly increases the dry season flow and water level, which completely changes the natural habitat. It is still too early to determine the impact of this (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). In the Nam Leuk, its habitat has been modified by the Nam Leuk dam, but the effects are not known. Part of its range in the Xe Kong is affected by the Xe Kaman dam construction. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M Kottelat pers. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">).</p>
181012		conservation	eng	Monitoring of population and habitat trends is recommended.
181012		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins to the Lower Mekong basin, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia (Sumatra), and Sarawak (Rajang basin; Parenti and Lim 2005).<span>
181012		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland to montane streams and swamps.
181012		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
181012		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland conversion are major threats to this fish in general, but level is not significant to species survival.
181013		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to confirm the taxonomic status of the species. Research is also required on the species distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology.
181013		distribution	eng	The type locality is the Huong River, South China Sea slope, Viet Nam. The river enters the sea at Hue. Other records pertain to other species (Rainboth 1996).
181013		habitat	eng	Recorded from a river.
181013		population	eng	No information available.
181013		threats	eng	There is no information available. The type locality was heavily impacted during the 1970s by deforestation.
181015		conservation	eng	Research into the species population and habitat trends is needed.
181015		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the upper Chao Phraya basin, in streams in the Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The holotype specimen was collected from the Nam Muen stream, a tributary of the Mae Taeng river. The species Extent of Occurrence is estimated, based on the area of the protected area, at c.500 km<sup>2</sup>.
181015		habitat	eng	Inhabits torrent streams, with rocky gravel and pebble substrates. Sinusoid habit, usually hides under substrate.
181015		population	eng	Uncommon locally; recorded from six locations within its known distribution.
181015		threats	eng	Stream degradation due to deforestation and erosion is a major threat. Harvest for the aquarium trade potentially impacts the population.
181016		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181016		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is presently known from the Suoi Nan Ta Khoa stream (Son La Province) in northern Viet Nam (Roberts and Catania 2007).
181016		habitat	eng	Found in the middle section of smaller rivers.
181016		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181016		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181017		conservation	eng	Further research into the species distribution and threats is required.
181017		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong, Chao Phraya (including the Yom River; Pila 2011) and southeastern basins in Thailand, and from the lower Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Cambodia (Doi 2000), and the westward flowing drainages in the Cardamom mountains (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011). Described from Khao Yoi, Phetchaburi Province, northern Peninsular Thailand, in the Mae Khlong drainage.
181017		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland to submontane streams and adjacent marshlands.
181017		population	eng	Locally uncommon throughout its range.
181017		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and clearance are potential threats.
181019		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
181019		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Xam and Nam Ma basins in Lao PDR, the Red River basin in Viet Nam and China (Yunnan Province), and most coastal drainages of northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
181019		habitat	eng	Found in rivers.
181019		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181019		threats	eng	No information available.
181020		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Research is required for this species.
181020		distribution	eng	The species is only known from tributaries of the Xe Kong River on the eastern half of the Bolaven Plateau, Lao PDR.
181020		habitat	eng	Streams with clear, cool and fast water, over stones, rocks, rapids and waterfalls.
181020		population	eng	Populations are inferred to be declining as a result of fishing  pressure, and are expected to decline as a result of hydropower dam development.
181020		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing, dam construction, habitat   degradation from agriculture and bauxite mining on the  plateau.
181021		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Indirect protect from local participatory wetland programme and reserve zone in some of its habitats.
181021		distribution	eng	This&#160;species is widely distributed throughout the lower Mekong basin in northeastern Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia (Kottelat 2001).
181021		habitat	eng	This species lives in clear water swamps (Kottelat 2001). It may be&#160;associated&#160;with acidic waters (Roberts 1998). According to Rainboth  (1996) it occurs in canals, ditches and ponds, especially those in which  fine-leaved aquatic plants grow densely.
181021		population	eng	Little is known about the populations of this species, although it is frequently encountered in surveys (Magtoon 2010).
181021		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and&#160;degradation&#160;caused primarily by urban development and also agriculture.
181022		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181022		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong (Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Lao PDR), Chao Phraya (Thailand) and small coastal drainages of the Gulf of Thailand, including the eastern part of the Thai peninsular. Occurs in the Middle and Lower Mekong (Rainboth 1996). Recorded from the Sekong, Xe Bangfai and Nam Theun basins in Laos (Kottelat 1998).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam it is recorded from Thủ Dầu Một, the capital town of Bình Dương Province in the south. In Cambodia it is recorded from the Tonle Sap, Lomphat and from the Mekong and tributaries, including the Sesan, Srepok, and Sekong rivers.
181022		habitat	eng	Found in small flowing streams, canals, ditches and occasionally impoundments (Rainboth 1996). Found in medium to large rivers, stagnant water bodies including sluggish flowing canals and brooks of the middle Mekong. Occurs in running waters of the lower Mekong (Froese and Pauly 2010). Feeds mainly on zooplankton and insect larvae. Breeds during the rainy season.
181022		population	eng	No information available.
181022		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution.
181023		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation status of the species.
181023		distribution	eng	The species has a western Pacific distribution, although its full range is not well known. Records are from Indonesia (northeastern Kalimantan; Larson 2009), Malaysia (Sabah; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1993), Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka (Larson 2001) and Peninsular Thailand (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
181023		habitat	eng	This is a<span class="sheader5"> euryhaline species (Kottelat 1989), which means it can adapt to different levels of salinity. It occurs in estuaries, primarily in slow flowing canals and smaller bodies of water (Larson 2001).
181023		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181023		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
181024		conservation	eng	No information available.
181024		distribution	eng	The species is very widespread in mainland Southeast Asia in <span>the lower Mekong (from Lao PDR to the delta in Viet Nam, and in the Dong Nai River, southern Viet Nam; Freyhof<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000), and in tributaries (e.g., the Mun River; Jutagate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), the Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins  (Thailand), the Malay Peninsula (e.g., the Endau drainage; Ng and Tan 1999), and coastal streams of southeast  Thailand and Cambodia. Introduced to the Philippines. It is also recorded from the Tonle Sap River and lake (Chea and Hortle 2005).
181024		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland vegetated streams, marshlands and floodplains; it occurs in large rivers as passage routes. It is also found in reservoirs.
181024		population	eng	Common throughout its range in suitable habitats.
181024		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation.
181025		conservation	eng	A scientific survey is needed to confirm if the species still survives in the lake.
181025		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Inlé Lake (ca. 116 km²), Myanmar. It is an open-water species, and the area of suitable habitat has decreased greatly as a result of falling water levels, sedimentation, and growth of vegetation; from 1935–2000, the open water area of the lake has decreased from 69 km² to 47 km², a loss of more than 32% (Sidle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
181025		habitat	eng	The species uses open water in the lake. Probably it is a solitary predator.
181025		population	eng	This species is thought to be now extinct or nearly extinct based on evidence from local fishermen (S. Kullander pers. comm. 2011).
181025		threats	eng	Over harvesting is thought to be the cause of the decline in this species. Inlé Lake is impacted as a consequence of human population growth within the watershed, and the development of agriculture and urban areas around the lake. Water hyacinth has reduced the open water areas of the lake, as has water abstraction and sedimentation.<br/><br/>The introduction of non-native (to the lake) fish species, including farmed species (e.g., the larger <em>Parambassis </em>spp.)  and tilapine fish are major threats, both as a predator and  competitor. Some of the introduced native fishes access the lake as a  result of raised water levels from the downstream dam.
181027		conservation	eng	None required.
181027		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Chao Phraya, Mae Khlong and the lower Mekong basins, as well as the Dong Nai River in southern Viet Nam (Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Records include from the Xe Bang Fai (Kottelat 1998). Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1993) also record the species from Peninsular Malaysia.
181027		habitat	eng	Inhabits fast flowing rivers and streams with shady gravel to rocky bottoms. Found at bottom depths in large and medium-sized streams (Rainboth  1996). Usually inhabits streams with relatively swift current, rapids  (Kottelat 2001). Enters flooded fields (Taki 1978). Feeds on periphyton  and phytoplankton. Probably spawns at the onset of the rainy season.
181027		population	eng	Uncommon throughout its range.
181027		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
181028		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in a protected area (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Research into the species of mollusc in which <span style="font-style: italic;">Acheilognathus deignani</span> spawns is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>needed<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>since survival of this fish species is dependant on the survival of the mussel host.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>
181028		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nam Tha, Nam Beng, Nam Ou, and the Nam Khan plus small tributaries in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001). The type locality is from a small tributary on the southern side of the Mekong in Lao PDR.
181028		habitat	eng	Collected from the main river and smaller tributaries. Spawns in mussels (Kottelat 2001); a large bivalve was collected from one of the locations and has been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Margaritanopsis laosensis</span> (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.).
181028		population	eng	This species was collected at several sites during two separate surveys carried out in 1997 and 2009 (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). No other population information is available.
181028		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Proposed reservoirs on most large rivers will likely have a very high impact on the mussels in which this species spawns its eggs and in which the eggs and larvae remain for several weeks. Without the mussels the species will not be able to reproduce and therefore will not survive. <span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</span></p>
181029		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181029		distribution	eng	The species has a western Central Pacific distribution, although it is known from few records and its full range is not understood. It is known from Thailand (Phuket; Larson 2001), the Philippines, Indonesia (Irian Jaya; Larson 2009), northern Australia (Queensland), and Fiji (Larson 2001).
181029		habitat	eng	The species inhabits brackish and marine waters; found in coastal creeks entering estuaries, and in brackish mangrove creeks (Larson 2009).
181029		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181029		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181030		conservation	eng	Population and habitat trends should be monitored.
181030		distribution	eng	Known from the lower Mekong basin (Lao PDR, Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap), Viet Nam and Thailand), and rarely seen in the Chao Phraya basin (Bueng Borapet Swamp) in Thailand.
181030		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and swamps, moves into streams and river as passage routes, and into flooded forest and fields (Rainboth 1996). In Viet Nam the species is found in coastal drainages to at least the Duc My River (Ninh Hoa Province; Herder and Freyhof 2006) in central Viet Nam.
181030		population	eng	Locally common in the Mekong basin.
181030		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat degradation are common threats to this fish.
181031		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181031		distribution	eng	The species is present throughout the upper Chao Phraya and lower Mekong basins in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia.
181031		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland to submontane streams, in rocky and sandy bottoms. Moves seasonally to flooded forests/streams in rainy season ('white' movement strategy; Rainboth 1996).
181031		population	eng	Locally uncommon to common in its suitable habitats.
181031		threats	eng	Deforestation in its habitats and overfishing by illegal methods are potential main threats to this fish.
181032		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed, in particular the effects of the dams to this species.
181032		distribution	eng	Known from Thailand (Chao Phraya, Tapi, Mekong and Mae Khlong basins). In the lower Mekong, also recorded from Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (Song Lagna River and the Mekong delta).
181032		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow depths of large rivers (Rainboth 1996); forms schools; often harvested in large numbers throughout its range. Enters flooded forests when water levels are high and returns to the mainstream as levels decline. Spawning occurs at the onset of the flood season (May to July) and the eggs and larvae are swept downstream and out onto the flooded areas (Sokheng 1999).&#160; It is a very long distance migrator, and migrates out of the Tonle Sap and up the Mekong River between November-February. Feeds on zooplankton and occasionally on insects.
181032		population	eng	In the lower and middle Mekong basin it is one of the most abundant species (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
181032		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are potential dams and the destruction of the flooded forest around Tonle Sap. This a long distance migratory species and the dams will have a significant impact on this species once developed. The flooded forests are an important habitat for this fish, and increasing agriculture around Tonle Sap is significantly reducing the area of suitable flooded forest. Further threats may include overfishing and water pollution.
181034		conservation	eng	The conspecificity of the epigean and hypogean populations require verification. There is also insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181034		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mae Khlong River drainage, Kanchanaburi Province, in western Thailand.
181034		habitat	eng	The species has been found in surface streams and in karst caves. The epigean population of this species inhabits&#160;hillstreams with a moderate to swift current and a substrate of sand/rocks, while the hypogean population is found in pools within limestone caverns.
181034		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
181034		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation). This may also be true for the hypogean population.
181035		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known. More research is needed for this species.
181035		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single location in the Nam Ngum drainage, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000) and has not been recorded elsewhere.
181035		habitat	eng	Found under stones in fast flowing hillstreams (Kottelat 2000) and rivers.
181035		population	eng	The species is only known from two surveys, conducted in 1998 and 1999 (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011 and Kottelat 2000, respectively). It has not been observed again as no additional research has been carried out in the area (Kottelat 2000). Populations are inferred to be declining due to mining operations and dams (both under construction and in operation) in the Nam Ngum drainage in 2012 (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181035		threats	eng	The surrounding  habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in  the area.  Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and  agricultural  pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat  pers. comm. 2011). Additional survey work in the area in 2012  found extensive  small-scale gold mining excavations in the area, which impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and a there is a  large-scale  Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is  possible that  iron ore extraction may occur.<br/><br/>The Nam Ngum 1 dam was completed in 1971. Further dams and flow   control developments are proposed within the Nam Ngum basin (the "Nam   Ngum hydropower cascade"), ; the Nam Ngum 2, north of the Nam Ngum 1 dam, is now  in operation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and there are at least six  further proposed   projects: Nam Ngum 3 (construction to start in 2012;  M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Ngum 5 (under construction; M.  Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Lik 1 and 2 and Nam Bak 1 and 2   (International Rivers 2011, Vattenfall 2011). The scale and nature of   the impacts arising from these subsequent dams is not clear and further   information on the distribution of the species is required before the   nature of the threat from dams can be determined.
181036		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in a protected area (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Further research is required for this species.<br/></p>
181036		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from the Se Kong basin, southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181036		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in Xe Kong main river, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181036		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is currently only known from two separate surveys carried out in 1999 and 2009 (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181036		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the EOO is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dam (Kottelat 2004), and further dams are built, under construction, or proposed within the <span lang="EN-GB">Se Kong <span lang="EN-GB">drainage. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</span></p>
181037		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions known. Research is needed.
181037		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Cambodia, Lao PDR (Baird 1999), Thailand and Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001). In the Mekong, the species is found as far upstream as the Mun River (Thailand) and the Champon and Banghiang tributaries in Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).<br/><br/>The species is also reported (MRC 2003) from Malaysia (Mohsin and Ambak 1983) and Indonesia (Rainboth 1996, Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993), however these records require confirmation, and perhaps refer to another <span style="font-style: italic;">Dermogenys </span>species.
181037		habitat	eng	This is a live-bearing species which lives in shallow, slow moving streams and standing water (Kottelat 2001). A small carnivorous species, found at the surface of small water bodies with vegetation.
181037		population	eng	There is no population information available.
181037		threats	eng	Habitat degradation caused by a variety of anthropogenic infrastructure activities (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
181038		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions are known. The impact of threats requires research.<br/></p>
181038		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single locality in the upper Nam Tha watershed, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181038		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in a small creek, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181038		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Only known from a survey carried out in 1999 and it has not been observed again, as no further research has taken place (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181038		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment&#160; expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). A hydropower dam is proposed on the lower Nam Tha, however impacts are uncertain.<br/></p>
181040		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181040		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Salween River drainage in western Thailand; it may be found in the adjacent portion of the Salween River drainage in eastern Myanmar. Described from the Mae Nam Moei (Ng and Ferraris  2000), which forms part of the Salween River drainage in western  Thailand.
181040		habitat	eng	This species inhabits upland rivers with a moderate current and a substrate of sand and rocks.
181040		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181040		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181041		conservation	eng	Further research into population sizes and trends, as well as the effects of fisheries on it, is needed.
181041		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout much of southeast Asia (Ng 2003), from the <span>Malay Peninsula, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra (Palembang, Djambi, and Banjuasin)<span> and Kalimantan (Baram,  Sambas, Kapuas, and Bandjermasin);<span> Roberts 1989), and Sarawak (Rajang Basin; <span>Parenti and Lim 2005).</span></span>
181041		habitat	eng	This species is found in flowing streams and rivers, typically murky waters containing a lot of sediment. They are seasonal spawners which lay their eggs at the beginning of the  rainy season, then the fry then migrate to flooded areas to feed and grow.<br/><br/>The species' dominant presence at the Khone falls is during dry season, it exhibits a small peak in the beginning of the rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
181041		population	eng	No information available.
181041		threats	eng	No information is available on threats.  Its status as a food fish may render it vulnerable to overexploitation,  but this awaits verification.
181042		conservation	eng	More information on the potential impacts of mainstream dams is required for this species.
181042		distribution	eng	<span>This species is recorded from the <span>Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya rivers to<span> the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia, and from the <span>Peninsular Thailand. It has also been reported from the South China Sea (Munroe 2000; Randall and Lim 2000).</span></span>
181042		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries to submontane streams.
181042		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
181042		threats	eng	Mainstream dams are a potential threat.
181043		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution and current population trends.
181043		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from northern Viet Nam (Na Hang district, Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen 2001). Described from the Gâm River system.
181043		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
181043		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181043		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected.
181044		conservation	eng	Research into the species distribution, population trends, and threats is needed. The species is assessed as Endangered in Thailand.
181044		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout the Indochina region, from the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand to the Lower Mekong basin.
181044		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mainstreams and larger tributaries and seasonally moves into lakes and floodplain, including flooded fields, in the rainy season. This fish may more sensitive to ecosystem degradation than others in the same species group (<span style="font-style: italic;">M. mysticaetus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">multiradiatus </span>etc.).
181044		population	eng	The species is very locally uncommon, although it is occasionally encountered in abundant numbers. It is usually rare, perhaps naturally. In Thailand the species is disappearing (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
181044		threats	eng	Pollution and habitat degradation may threat this species; fishing may be a possible threat as well. As this species is naturally uncommon, it may be vulnerable to decline.
181046		conservation	eng	Further research is required.
181046		distribution	eng	The species is known from Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Kullander<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2009) report the species from the Yu River drainage in western Myanmar, part of the Chindwin drainage. It is also reported from the Indawgyi Lake basin (Prashad and Mukerji 1929, Miao 2010), within the Ayeyawaddy drainage. The species was described from Tenasserim (the Tanintharyi Region) in southeastern Myanmar. There are also records from Thaton and Mawlamyine, Mon Stae, in eastern Myanmar, and from Mawlamyine in the Ayeyawaddy drainage, from the Sittaung drainage (Taungoo, Bago and Thanlyin, Bago Division) (NMNH Vertebrate Zoology Fishes Collections). There is a single record from Thailand (unspecified location; MCZ Ichthyology Collection), and it is present in tributaries of the Salween drainage in Thailand.
181046		habitat	eng	Found in a rivers, swamps and marshlands.
181046		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon.
181046		threats	eng	No information available. Potentially impacted by dams and by habitat degradation (especially sedimentation).
181047		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Further research is required for this species.
181047		distribution	eng	Known at present only from tributaries of the Xe Kong River on the eastern half of the Bolaven Plateau, Lao PDR. The species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of&#160; approximately 2,500   km².
181047		habitat	eng	Streams with clear, cool and fast water, over stones, rocks, rapids and waterfalls.
181047		population	eng	Populations are inferred to be declining as a result of fishing  pressure, and are expected to decline as a result of hydropower dams.
181047		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing, dam construction, habitat   degradation from agriculture and bauxite mining on the  plateau.
181048		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181048		distribution	eng	<p>The species has an Indo-West Pacific distribution. It is known from  Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Bintan Island, Sumatra), and Papua New Guinea (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, Larson 2001).</p>
181048		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater or very low salinity of inner estuaries, and also in Nypa zones. Moves upstream in rainy season.
181048		population	eng	Locally common in some suitable habitats, extirpated from Bangkok, its type locality.
181048		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181049		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181049		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species has been recorded in the Mekong basin, in the Nam Ou and Nam Tha drainages and northern Xaignabouli Province in Lao PDR, and in adjacent drainages in northern Thailand. A record from Yunnan, China (Zhu 1995) is based on misidentifications (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The species has been recorded in Thailand from the Mekong River; the record from Phrae (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) requires confirmation and is not included here.</p>
181049		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams and forest creeks with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181049		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown. May be locally abundant.
181049		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">).</p>
181050		conservation	eng	Population trends should be monitored in relation to forest loss and future impacts from dams.
181050		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mae Khlong, Chao Phraya to Mekong basins in Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia (Rainboth 1996).
181050		habitat	eng	Found in the mainstream of large rivers and tributaries. The species is highly migratory, moving from the Tonle Sap in Cambodia up to southern Lao PDR between November-February (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003), and returns in June-July (Baird 1999). Feeds on aquatic plants.
181050		population	eng	A very abundant species in the Mekong basin, uncommon in the Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins.
181050		threats	eng	The species is overfished and will be impacted by mainstream dams on the Mekong and large tributaries. Loss and degradation of the flooded forest in the Tonle Sap Lake will impact the species.
181051		conservation	eng	Local fish conservation areas have been developed that help this species (protection of deep water pools).
181051		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya in Thailand, to the Mekong basin in Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar and China.
181051		habitat	eng	Mostly found in mainstream and larger tributary rivers with sandy bottoms, though migrates (not strictly a breeding migration, migrated to exploit seasonally flooded habitat) into small tributaries and flood plains during rainy season. Clear preference for deep water pools in dry season (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
181051		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range, though in slow decline.
181051		threats	eng	Due to the habitat required by the species and migrations dams have caused the species to decline in certain areas, the species does not survive in reservoirs. Over-harvesting is also a local threat to the species.
181052		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181052		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River drainage in southern China and northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978, Chen and Chu 1990, Kottelat 2001), and from the Nam Mat, Nam Xam and Nam Ma river drainages in Lao P.D.R. (Kottelat 2001).
181052		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181052		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population
181052		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology locally impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">).
181054		conservation	eng	Conformation of the taxonomic identity of the species is required.
181054		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal river drainages in central Viet Nam with the Lam River (Ha Tiinh and Nghe An provinces) as the northern extent of its distribution range and the Thu Bhon River (Quang Nam province) the southern border of its distribution range (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
181054		habitat	eng	This species is found in both large and small rivers and streams, usually associated with slowly running or stagnant water (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
181054		population	eng	This species is abundant and widespread.
181054		threats	eng	Locally threatened by water pollution, weed clearing, and stocking of predatory fish.
181055		conservation	eng	More information on its population and the effects of collection for the aquarium trade and habitat loss are needed for this species. &#160;The taxonomy of some populations also require study to ascertain if they may belong to distinct species.
181055		distribution	eng	This species is known from river drainages in Indonesia; Sumatra (eastern drainages) and Kalimantan (except the northeast), western Sarawak, and the Malay Peninsula northwards to the Isthmus of Kra.
181055		habitat	eng	This species inhabits blackwater habitats (swamps, streams, rivers) associated with peat swamp forests. The water in such habitats is very soft, highly acidic (pH ~3-4), and heavily stained with tannins.
181055		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
181055		threats	eng	Although the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified, the greatest threat to this species are the loss of blackwater peat swamps to logging and plantation agriculture (since this is an obligatory peat swamp species).
181056		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the impacts of harvesting.
181056		distribution	eng	The species occurs from the Mae Klong in Thailand eastward to the Mekong basin (Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia). It has been introduced to Myanmar and the Philippines for aquaculture.
181056		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland river mainstreams and tributaries including floodplains, marshland and larger waterbodies. It is well-adaptive to impounded waters. Feeds in mainstream and the Sesan tributary system, lives in deep pools of mainstreams. 'Black' seasonal movement, moving from river channels into seasonally flooded areas (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
181056		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
181056		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat degradation are potential threats to the species.
181057		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181057		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the type locality, Lake Nui Coc in northern Viet Nam (Tai Tu district, Thai Nguyen province; Nguyen 2005). As the type locality is an artificial lake, the species most likely originated from a freshwater lake or river.
181057		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater lake. As the type locality is an artificial lake, the species most likely originated from a freshwater lake or river.
181057		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181057		threats	eng	The only known location is a reservoir that is impacted by tourist activities and pollution.
181058		conservation	eng	Research into the impact of threats on the species habitat and populations is needed.
181058		distribution	eng	this species is endemic to Inlé Lake in Shan State, Myanmar. The species has an extent of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 116 km², based on the area of the lake, although the current area of open water in the lake has declined greatly in recent decades (Sidle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and is now 46.7 km².
181058		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits the midwater and margins of the lake, and is associated with submerged vegetation. It aggregates in large schools.
181058		population	eng	The species population has declined in the lake.
181058		threats	eng	The species is regularly harvested for aquarium trade, which may slightly impact its population. The introduction of non-native (to the lake) fish species, including farmed species (e.g., the larger <em>Parambassis </em>spp.) and tilapine fish are major threats, both as as predator and competitor. Some of the introduced native fishes access the lake as a result of raised water levels from the downstream dam.<br/><br/>Pollution from a range of sources impacts the lake; sedimentation and agricultural pollution from the surrounding drainage, as well as direct pollution inputs form the growing human settlements around the lake. Water hyacinth has reduced the open water areas of the lake, as has water abstraction and sedimentation.
181060		conservation	eng	The species is in need of research to confirm its taxonomic identity, distribution, threats and ecology.
181060		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Viet Nam in the Red River basin (Kottelat 2001)<span class="slabel1"><span><span class="slabel1"></span>
181060		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and larger tributaries.
181060		population	eng	Uncommon species in its range.
181060		threats	eng	No information on threats, however the species could be impacted by hydropower dams and pollution within its known distribution.
181061		conservation	eng	Research is needed for this species, especially taxonomic comparison of further specimens. The type locality is a national park and UNESCO world heritage site.
181061		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is presently known only from the type locality, Phong Nha River (Limestone mountain area, Kebang district, Quang Bình Province) in central Viet Nam.
181061		habitat	eng	The species was collected from streams in a limestone mountain area.
181061		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181061		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181063		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181063		distribution	eng	The species is known from running and standing waters in Thailand (e.g., Toh Daeng peatswamp; Kottelat<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1993), Malaysia (Peninsular and Sarawak (e.g., the Rajang basin; Parenti and Lim 2005), Indonesia (Kalimantan (in the Kapuas River, to at least the Kapuas lakes; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993), Sumatra, Java), and Brunei Darussalam. Possibly also present in Sabah.
181063		habitat	eng	Common and abundant in creeks and small water bodies in the forest (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005). Also found in peatswamp forest.
181063		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population. In Danau Sentarum National Park in Indonesia, the species is common and abundant in creeks and small water bodies in the forest (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005).
181063		threats	eng	Lowland peatswamp forest clearance will impact the species.
181064		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181064		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Tenasserim region in Myanmar (Günther 1883).
181064		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description (due to the absence of an exact collection locality for the type series), but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing hillstreams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate.
181064		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181064		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181065		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181065		distribution	eng	This species is known from the&#160;Ataran, Salween and Sittaung River drainages in Myanmar and western Thailand (Ng and Kottelat 2008).
181065		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the biology of this species, but like congeners, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a swift current, clear water and a substrate of rocks/sand.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
181065		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181065		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181066		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Research needed into the species distribution and population trends.
181066		distribution	eng	<p>Currently only known from the Nam Leuk River, Lao PDR. Suspected to have a wider range in central Lao PDR and northeastern Thailand (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Because of its habitat and way of life, fishes of the family Chaudhuriidae are typically overlooked in surveys conducted by inexperienced researchers.<br/></p>
181066		habitat	eng	<p>Specimens were collected from shallow waters along the shore in the mainstream , where they were found amongst tree roots or among leave litter (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
181066		population	eng	<p>Currently only known from a single survey carried out in 1997 (Kottelat 2000).&#160; <br/></p>
181066		threats	eng	No specific threats are known to this species. The single location at which the species has been collected is located a few kilometres downstream of the Nam Leuk dam and its impact on the species is not known, but is not expected to be positive. Logging deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181067		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research is required to confirm the species distribution and threats.<br/></p>
181067		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from the Nam Xi (below the Kuang Xi waterfall)<span lang="EN-GB">, a small stream near <span class="st">Luang Prabang<span lang="EN-GB">, upstream of Bank Thapen<span lang="EN-GB">, <span lang="EN-GB">Lao PDR <span lang="EN-GB">(Kottelat 2000).</span></span></span></p>
181067		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Found <span lang="EN-GB">between tree roots and leaf litter within the creek<span lang="EN-GB"> (Kottelat 2000).<br/></span></p>
181067		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single sampling in 1997 and has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
181067		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threats are known to this species. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
181069		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181069		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Xe Bang Hiang and Xe Kong (Kottelat 2011) drainages (both tributaries of the Mekong River) in southern Lao PDR.
181069		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of habitats from swift creeks to riffles in streams and rapids in large rivers. All of the habitats had a stony substrate and swift current; most of them had clear water (during the dry season).
181069		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181069		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Numerous hydropower dams are being developed or proposed within the Xe Kong drainage, however the impact of these on the species is not understood.
181070		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at  habitat or species level. Further survey and research is required for  this species.
181070		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Nam San, a tributary of the Nam Ngum  in the Mekong drainage, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, 2001). The Nam San stream now  enters into the Nam Ngum 1 dam reservoir (completed in 1971). Presence  within other tributaries within the Nam Ngum drainage is not currently known.<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at less than 898 km<sup>2</sup> and the Area of Occupancy at 98 km<sup>2</sup>, both based on the extent of the Nam San above the reservoir.
181070		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span>
181070		population	eng	The population of the species can be inferred to have declined as a result of the filling of the Nam Ngum dam in 1971, as well as more recent dam and mining operations.
181070		threats	eng	The Nam Ngum 1 dam was completed in 1971 and the species is only known  from above the reservoir of this dam. Whilst further dams and flow  control developments are proposed within the Nam Ngum basin (the "Nam  Ngum hydropower cascade"), it is not thought that these will directly  impact the Nam San; the Nam Ngum 2, north of the Nam Ngum 1 dam, is now in operation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and there are at least six further proposed   projects: Nam Ngum 3 (construction to start in 2012; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Ngum 5 (under construction; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), Nam Lik 1 and 2 and Nam Bak 1 and 2  (International Rivers 2011, Vattenfall 2011). The scale and nature of  the impacts arising from these subsequent dams is not clear and further  information on the distribution of the species is required before the  nature of the threat from dams can be determined.<br/><br/>The surrounding habitat has been deforested and agriculture occurs in the area. Associated impacts such as soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution are expected to impact the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Additional surveys in the area in 2012 found extensive small-scale gold mining excavations in the area that impact several kilometres of stream downstream, and there is a large-scale Australian-owned company (Phu Bia Mining Ltd.), and it is possible that iron ore extraction may occur.
181071		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population size and trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181071		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong (lower), Chao Phraya and Bangpakong river drainages.
181071		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers with a sandy/muddy substrate, and often occurs in mixed schools with <em>M. mysticetus</em>&#160;that congregate around tree limbs and other solid objects, browsing the hard surfaces for zooplankton, crustaceans, aquatic insects and some plant debris. It moves into the flooded forest during the flood season.<br/><br/>The species' dominant presence at the Khone falls is during the dry season, it exhibits a small peak at the beginning of the rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181071		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
181071		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181072		conservation	eng	Research into pollution trends and impact of known threats needed. Site-based conservation actions are required.
181072		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Inlé Lake, Shan State, Myanmar. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 116 km², although the net open area of the lake has declined in recent decades from 69.1 km² to 46.7 km² (Sidle&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), and the area of occupancy is therefore estimated to be 46.7 km².<strong><br/></strong>
181072		habitat	eng	Inhabits midwater and margins of the lake, and associated with submerged vegetation. Aggregates in small schools.
181072		population	eng	The species is the least common in catches of small fishes. The population is inferred to be decreasing.
181072		threats	eng	This fish is regularly harvested for aquarium trade, which may have an impact on its  population. The introduction of non-native (to the lake) fish species,  including farmed species (e.g., the larger <em>Parambassis </em>spp.)  and tilapine fish are the major threats, both as as predator and  competitor. Some of the introduced native fishes access the lake as a  result of raised water levels from the downstream dam.<br/><br/>Pollution  from a range of sources impacts the lake; sedimentation and agricultural  pollution from the surrounding drainage, as well as direct pollution  inputs from the growing human settlements around the lake. It is possible that the agro-chemical pollution may impact the submerged vegetation habitat of the species, but this requires confirmation.
181073		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Research is needed into the species threats and population trends.
181073		distribution	eng	This species has a disjointed distribution in Southeast Asia, from the Chao Phraya basin (where there are no recent records) to the lower Mekong basin (from Yunnan in China to the delta in Viet Nam), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak (lower Segama and the Danum Valley and the Rajang basin; Parenti and Lim 2005)), and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan (<span>Kapuas, Mahakam, Rajang and Kinabatangan drainages)).
181073		habitat	eng	It occurs in mainstreams and larger tributaries. Its life cycle is still poorly known, and it may be migratory (Martin-Smith and Tan 1998).
181073		population	eng	Rare throughout its mainland range, locally common in Malaysia (Sarawak) and Sumatra.&#160;It is&#160;seasonally common in the Malay Peninsula as far north as Kolok River in Narathiwat Province, Thailand.&#160;There have been no recent records from the Chao Phraya or from the Mekong in Thailand, and it has declined in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
181073		threats	eng	This uncommon species is threatened by overfishing; it is caught with other economic catfishes in its range. Pollution and agrochemical run-off have depleted numbers of this fish in the Chao Phraya basin.
181075		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions are known.</p>
181075		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a single locality in the Xe Banghiang River, Mekong basin, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).
181075		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with fast current, in riffles or rapids, over stone substrate.</p>
181075		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single sampling effort carried out in 1997. Has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out in the area (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181075		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threats are known to this species but gold mining, logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
181076		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181076		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Ma basin in Houaphan Province, northeastern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001, Chen and Kottelat 2003). Its presence is expected in the same river basin in Viet Nam (Chen and Kottelat 2003).
181076		habitat	eng	Inhabitants small forest creeks and the main river with stony substrate and moderate current (Kottelat 2001).<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran<em> et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p>
181076		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181076		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181077		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181077		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the catchment of Huong River River and Cam Lo River in central Viet Nam (Thua Thuen Hue and Quang Tri Provinces) (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
181077		habitat	eng	Found usually in medium-size mountain rivers and streams with rapid currents where prefers sections with low water velocities upstream of riffles (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
181077		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181077		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181078		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Research is urgently required into the impact of threats.
181078		distribution	eng	The species is found from the peninsular Thailand (Tapi basin), the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya basins, to the lower and Mekong basin (Rainboth 1996). In the Mekong, it is found in both the mainstream and in major tributaries (e.g., the Xe Kong (Kottelat 2011), Se San, and Sre Pok tributaries), from northern Lao PDR (from at least the Chiang Saen to Vientiane area; Ziv<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2012) to Viet Nam.
181078		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mainstreams and larger tributaries. Subadults and juveniles seasonally move up to flooded lakes for feeding. Possibly also utilises flooded forests, and seems to require clearer water than some species (Rainboth 1996).
181078		population	eng	Common or locally common through most of its range, but uncommon in the Tapi basin.
181078		threats	eng	Overfishing and mainstream dams in mainstreams are key threats. The impact of both threats are not well understood.
181079		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181079		distribution	eng	The species is was described from northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978, Kottelat 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> No locality is apparently given in the original description, however the name suggests that it may be from the Lo River drainage.
181079		habitat	eng	Inhabits high gradient streams (Mai 1978).
181079		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181079		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181081		conservation	eng	Further information on the species' distribution, ecology and threats is required. Habitat management based on local participation is recommended.
181081		distribution	eng	The species is presently known only in its type locality, restricted to the upper tributaries of the Yuam Luang River basin (Salween drainage), Mae Hong Son Province, in northern Thailand (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
181081		habitat	eng	The species is found in torrent streams with rocky bottoms and clear water, under forest covering, including waterfalls, especially in rapid  low temperature zones, above 600 m asl.
181081		population	eng	The species is uncommon at the type locality, perhaps rare, and this type of fish is frequently found in low abundance with very restricted distributions (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Recent field survey work found that the population had declined since the species was collected (in 2001).
181081		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by small dams, siltation caused by deforestation, and infrastructure development degrade the species' habitat. The species may be impacted by subsistence fisheries.
181082		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
181082		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from creeks of the Hai Van Pass (Pass of Clouds) in central Viet Nam only (Kottelat 2001).
181082		habitat	eng	Described from mountain streams.
181082		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181082		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181084		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology.
181084		distribution	eng	Distributed in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand (Mun River), Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Lao PDR.  Also recorded from the Maeklong, peninsular and southeast Thailand river systems (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997 ).
181084		habitat	eng	Found in large waterways and rivers, and will enter flood plains and flooded fields. This species migrates from the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia to southern Lao PDR up the Mekong between November - February (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/><span class="sheader5">Occurs at midwater depths in large and  medium-sized rivers and floodplains.  Feeds on various plant and animal  matter.  Colonizes inundated forests and adults migrate back to the river in  October.  Young of the year follow thereafter when the water levels  recede (Froese and Pauly 2010).
181084		population	eng	A common species. It is the twelfth most common species at the Khone Falls in the dry season migrations, representing 0.29% of the catch (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003)
181084		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing.
181085		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181085		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Metzia lineata</span> has an East Asia distribution. In China, it is known from the Pearl River drainage in Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Guangdong Provinces, the Jiulong-Jiang River and Jin-Jiang River drainages in Fujian Province, the Red River drainage in Yunnan Province, Hainan Island and Taiwan (Wu 1984, Chu and Chen 1989, Luo and Chen 1998). In Viet Nam, it is distributed from An Lao River (Binh Dinh Province) to the Red River basin (Kottelat 2001, Nguyen and Ngo 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Introduced in other river basins in China and spread to northern Laos (Kottelat 2001).
181085		habitat	eng	Found in the medium-size and small rivers, usually associated with slow moving water, sometimes in rice field ditches (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
181085		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181085		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181086		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species distribution and impact of threats.
181086		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Salween and Tenasserim river drainages in southeastern Myanmar and from Peninsula Thailand (Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ranong and Chumphon provinces).
181086		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane to hill streams, mostly forested.
181086		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
181086		threats	eng	Deforestation and stream degradation are main threats to this fish, but not considered significant at present.
181087		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
181087		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The species has been recorded from the Mekong  drainage. It is known from the Nam Tha, Nam Ou, Nam Khan, Nam Lik,  Nam Ngum and Nam Mang in Lao PDR, the Nam Noeua (a tributary of Nam Ou) in  Viet Nam, and the Mae Nam Kok in Thailand.
181087		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected streams and creeks, in riffles.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran<em> et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</span></p></p>
181087		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Population size and trends are unknown.</p>
181087		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">).</p>
181088		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Research is needed to confirm the species distribution and population trends, and the impact of threats.
181088		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in the lower Mekong basin lowlands in eastern Thailand, central and southern Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.
181088		habitat	eng	It inhabits moderate to rapid flowing stretches of rivers in the lowland and foothills,&#160; over gravel substrates.
181088		population	eng	It is an infrequent species but population size and trends are unknown.
181088		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181089		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed, in particular the effects of the dams to this species.
181089		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Maekhlong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand (Vidthayanon 1997), and from the lower Mekong basin (Rainboth 1996); Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap Lake and River), Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam in the delta (Thuok and Sina 1997). Also recorded from the <span class="Apple-converted-space">Malay Peninsula.<br/><br/>.
181089		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in shallow and medium depths of large  rivers, and feeds mostly on zooplankton and  occasionally insects (Rainboth 1996), undertakes short distance upstream migrations. Usually occurs as scattered representatives in schools of the other species in this genus (Rainboth 1996).<span class="sheader5"></span>
181089		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
181089		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are potential dams and the destruction of the flooded forest around Tonle Sap. This a long distance migratory species and the dams will have a significant impact on this species once developed. The flooded forests are an important habitat for this fish, and increasing agriculture around Tonle Sap is significantly reducing the area of suitable flooded forest. Further threats may include overfishing and water pollution.
181090		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in place at habitat or species level.
181090		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins in southern China (Yunnan), Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia (Rainboth 1996, Kottelat 1998, Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1999, Kottelat 2001).
181090		habitat	eng	Submontane to hill streams, with clear water and sandy-rocky bottoms; also found in rapidly flowing stretches of large rivers; f<span class="sheader5">eeds on  insect larvae (Rainboth 1996).
181090		population	eng	Locally common and abundant (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181090		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is the main potential threat to the species across its range. Agricultural pollution and sedimentation arising from forest clearance and degradation are likely to be the main pollutants impacting this species in its middle-to-upper watershed habitat.<br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to the species in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen.  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.
181092		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Part of the range is in a protected area upstream of Nam Theun 2 reservoir. Surveys are needed to identify its exact range.
181092		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang drainages in the Mekong basin, Lao PDR. It possibly occurs further downstream in the Nam Kading (the river resulting from the confluence of the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang rivers), which has not yet been surveyed. In the Nam Gnouang drainage, it has been observed upstream until Ban Sopkhom, but the river has not been surveyed beyond that point. In the Nam Theun drainage it has been observed only in the Nam Phao and in small streams entering its tributary Nam Xot. It has never been observed in the Nam Theun before construction of the dam and inundation. A record from the Xe Banghiang (Kottelat 2001) is erroneous.<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence (based on the area of the two drainages where the species is recorded) is 4,500 km<sup>2</sup>, however this includes significant areas of unsuitable habitat (e.g., reservoirs), and the Area of Occupancy (AOO) at 250-500 km<sup>2</sup>.
181092		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
181092		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181092		threats	eng	Part of the range of the species is impacted by the Theun Hinboun and Theun Hinboun Extension dams and reservoirs.<span lang="EN-GB">  It is not expected to have survived in the inundated areas and is  expected to have reduced populations downstream of the dams. Most of the  subsisting AOO is now upstream of Nam Theun 2 reservoir, in Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA and in the Nam Phao. It is expected to also occur in the Nam Gnouang upstream of the reservoir but this area is unsurveyed, as well as the Nam Kading downstream of Theun Hinboun dam. Logging, deforestation, agriculture and gold mining occur in the  area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181093		conservation	eng	Research is needed into population and habitat trends.
181093		distribution	eng	Found in the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins (Thailand) to Mekong basins in southeast Asia. In Thailand it has been recorded from the Mae Klong,  Chao Phraya and Mekong river basins in Thailand (records from Chiang Mai, Phrae, Phitsanulok, Nakhon Sawan, Chainat, Kanchanaburi,  Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya, Nakhon Ratchasima and Ubon Ratchathani provinces), Lao PDR (Mekong drainage above and below  the Khone Falls, including the lower Xe Bangfai (Nam Theun 2 Power Company 2005), and Cambodia (the lower Mekong at least as far  downstream as the capital Phnom Penh and has also been collected from  the Tonlé Sap river and lake). It has also been reported from Viet Nam.<br/> <br/>Further information is needed on the current distribution of the species, as it is suspected to have undergone a decline in some parts of its range.
181093		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries, seasonally moves to marshlands, flooded forest, and floodplains.
181093		population	eng	Locally and seasonally abundant in suitable habitats. Whilst it is suspected that populations have been lost in some parts of its range, it is thought that some reports population losses (e.g., upper Mae Klong in Thailand) probably refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. bicolor</span>.
181093		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and pollution are the main threats to the species. Overfishing for the aquatic trade has been widely  blamed for localised declines, however habitat degradation is a more significant cause. Large scale environmental change such as the  damming of   major rivers, drainage of swampland, and clearance if riverine forests have impacted the species.
181094		conservation	eng	None required.
181094		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout mainland Southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand to the Mekong basin, and Peninsular Thailand.<br/><br/>    In Thailand, the species is known from the Mekong, Chao Phraya, Mae Khlong and  Peninsular Thailand river systems (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997); records include Nonthaburi Province, the inner part of Songkhla Lake (Songkhla and Phatthalung provinces), Chiang Mai, Bua Yai (Nakhon  Ratchasima), Phrae and Klong Maela (Sing Buri) (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). In Peninsular Malaysia, records include the Endau drainage (Ng and Tan 1999).
181094		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, marshlands and vegetated water bodies, localized movement between still to flowing waters.
181094		population	eng	Common in suitable habitats throughout its range.
181094		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland conversion are threats to this fish in general, but level is not significant to species survival.
181095		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. Research is required to confirm the species taxonomic placement and distribution.
181095		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Thu Bon River Basin (Quang Nam province) and the Houng River basin (Thua Thuen Hue Province) in central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Herder 2002).
181095		habitat	eng	Found in all kinds of hill stream habitats and along diverse structured margin or backwaters of large rivers, as well as in small stream and irrigation channels on farmland (Freyhof and Herder 2002).
181095		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181095		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181096		conservation	eng	Around half the island is within the Cát Bà National Park, which is primarily designated for its marine and terrestrial interest. The island is part of the&#160;Cát Bà&#160;Archipelago Biosphere Reserve, adjacent to the Ha Long Bay World Heritage Site.
181096		distribution	eng	The species is presently only known from Cát Bà Island in northeastern Viet Nam (Ng and Freyhof 2001) from where it was described, and it has been recorded from at least two other locations on the island (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The area of the island is c.285 km<sup>2</sup>, however the extent of occurrence (EOO) can be assumed to be very much less than this.
181096		habitat	eng	The species was collected in streams with a muddy bottom. Cát Bà is part of a large karstic area. This species has also been observed near cave entrances, however it is not known if the species makes use of caves.
181096		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
181096		threats	eng	The island is subject to a high level of tourist pressure and associated developments.
181097		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
181097		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nanla drainage in Xishuangbanna (Yunnan, China), and from its tributary Nam Youan in Lao PDR, Mekong basin.
181097		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.<span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span><span lang="EN-GB">        <p>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p></p></span>
181097		population	eng	No information available.
181097		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology  impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow.  Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with  associated impacts on the aquatic environment (siltation, water  diversion) (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">).</span></span>
181098		conservation	eng	The species is considered Endangered in Cambodia (MRC 2009), and its extirpation from the Mekong in Cambodia requires confirmation. Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181098		distribution	eng	<span>The species has a widespread distribution in southeast Asia; Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Peninsular (e.g., Kelantan River, Perak River and River Tahan), Sarawak (e.g., Baram River), <span>Brunei, and peninsular Thailand. It was formerly known from the Mekong in Cambodia, but is now thought to be extirpated.</span>
181098		habitat	eng	It is a midwater to benthic species, found in large lowland rivers and lakes, including coastal rivers and streams. It is a short distance migrant; moves into flooded forests and floodplains when water levels are high, feeding mainly on submerged plants as well as on some filamentous algae and benthic micro-organisms.
181098		population	eng	Formerly common, but has become locally rare in some parts of its range (Rainboth 1996). It has been extirpated from its distribution within the Mekong, but it is still common in Malay Peninsula and Indonesia.
181098		threats	eng	The species is at risk from fishing pressure, and is susceptible to deforestation. It has disappeared from the Mekong due to the loss of its flooded forest habitat.
181099		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its life cycle and the impacts of potential threats.
181099		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong (Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand), Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong drainages.
181099		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers and streams. It does not adapt well to impoundments. It migrates upstream the Mekong in January-February, and returns in May-June. This fish feeds on insects and various fruits, including poisonous ones, potentially making it poisonous to humans (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1999).
181099		population	eng	This is a common, but not abundant, species, seen regularly but not in great numbers.
181099		threats	eng	Threats to this species include overfishing, the impacts of dams, and habitat destruction from the removal of flooded forests.
181100		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place.
181100		distribution	eng	The species has an Indo-West Pacific distribution. It is known from the east coast of India (Kapoor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), the coastal waters of Bangladesh (Rahman 1989), Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991), Thailand (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), southeastern China (Li and Wang 1995) and the Malay Archipelago.<span> It should be looked for in suitable habitat in Cambodia and Viet Nam. It has also been recorded from the South China Sea (Randall and Lim 2000).
181100		habitat	eng	The species occurs in estuaries and tidal rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) and upstream in the mainstreams of freshwater rivers (Rahman 1989). Short distance lateral migration is possible but requires confirmation.
181100		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181100		threats	eng	Although estuaries of most rivers in the region are subject to many kinds of human disturbance (e.g. water pollution), it is not known whether these human disturbance affect the species.
181105		conservation	eng	Confirmation of taxonomic status of populations.
181105		distribution	eng	The species has a relatively wide distribution in southeast Asia. Present in the lower Mekong basin; Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap Lake), Thailand (north to the Mun River), Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (also in the Dong Nai drainage; Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), in Thailand in the Chao Phraya basin (Kottelat 2001), and in southeastern drainages(e.g., Nakhon Nayok and Chanthaburi; Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak (the Kuching River; Atack 2006), and Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan (e.g., the Kapuas basin), and Java; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993).
181105		habitat	eng	Found in streams and rivers.
181105		population	eng	No information.
181105		threats	eng	No information. Potentially impacted by pollution and habitat conversion in the lower parts of drainages.
181106		conservation	eng	In Attapeu and Sekong Provinces, southern Lao PDR, attempts have been made to ban fishing during the spawning season. Village level protected areas throughout its range have benefited the species in the dry season. More research is needed for this species, and it would benefit from increased conservation planning throughout its range.
181106		distribution	eng	This species is known from  Sekong, Sesan and Srepok rivers (the 3S rivers) in northeastern Cambodia, in the mainstream Mekong in southern Lao PDR and northeastern Cambodia north of Kratie, in north and northeast Thailand, and the Dong Nai River of Viet Nam.
181106		habitat	eng	This species is found in large rivers and streams. The juveniles migrate out of the 3S rivers into the mainstream Mekong, turn downstream to the border of Kratie and Stung Treng Province, and then turn upstream to southern Lao PDR and northeastern Thailand for feeding purposes. They graze on algae on rocks (Baird and Flaherty 2004). The species spawns in the middle of the Sekong River in July and August.
181106		population	eng	This is an abundant species throughout its range. However heavy fishing pressure has caused an inferred population decline of approximately 30-50%. It is expected to continue declining in the future at this rate if not more, as proposed dams will have a significant and immediate impact on migrations (Baird and Flaherty 2004; Baird 2009a, 2009b).
181106		threats	eng	The species is targeted during the spawning season with gillnets. Heavy gillnetting during the feeding migrations is also a threat. Dams proposed on the Mekong and 3S rivers could have a major negative effect on the species (Baird 2009a, 2009b).
181107		conservation	eng	None required.
181107		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong basin in Viet Nam (the lower Delta), in eastern Thailand to the Cardamom drainages in Cambodia, and from the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan), where its main population centres seem to be. In Peninsular Malaysia it's  widely-distributed and has been collected in Perak,  Terengganu, Pahang and Johor states. Records from Singapore and Sumatra are limited. On Borneo the majority of collections have occurred from the Kapuas  River basin (Kalimantan), with records from Sarawak  and Brunei Darussalam (the Belait and Ingei Rivers).
181107		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland forested streams, peatswamps, with clear organic water and thick leaf litter.<span class="s1"> Prefers soft, acidic, tannin-stained water. Found in marshes and swamps, under forest canopies.
181107		population	eng	Locally common, uncommon in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
181107		threats	eng	Across much of Southeast Asia the species lowland habitats are  under threat from rubber/palm oil plantations, building developments and  other human activities.
181109		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181109		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Salween basin in Mae Hong Son Province (Thailand). In this area, the Salween makes the border with Myanmar and therefore the species also occurs in Myanmar (Kottelat 1990). There is however no information on the size of its range in Myanmar.
181109		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
181109		population	eng	No information available.
181109		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Dams are proposed or in construction on the Salween.<br/></p>
181111		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the taxonomic position of sub-populations is required.
181111		distribution	eng	The species is native to the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya river basins in Thailand (Rainboth 1989). It is also recorded from the Chiang Saen - Vientianne section of the Mekong (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) in Lao PDR.
181111		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane to hillstreams, sandy gravel or rocky bottoms with clear water. In the paper describing the genus Rainboth (1989) describes how he  collected a large group of young specimens from a shaded, near stagnant  side pool containing a deep layer of rotting vegetation next to a  fast-flowing section of the Ping River. The species has also been reported from the mainstream of the Mekong River.
181111		population	eng	Locally uncommon in suitable habitats.
181111		threats	eng	Deforestation and habitats degradation are potential threats for this fish. The species is potentially impacted by impoundments from large dams (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
181112		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181112		distribution	eng	Described from a specimen obtained from Nakhon Phanom market, Thailand. The species is distributed in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, and from the Maeklong River (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997); Cambodia (Mekong; Tonle Sap Lake); Lao PDR (below Khone Falls and the Xe Bang Fai), Thailand, and Viet Nam.
181112		habitat	eng	The species is found in rivers and lakes. It moves into flooded forests during the rainy season and returns to rivers in November and December in the lower Mekong. Often it is found in mixed schools with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. multiradiatus</span> which congregate around tree limbs and other solid objects, browsing the hard surfaces for zooplankton, aquatic insects, crustaceans and rotifers. <br/><br/>This species is unlikely to undertake long distance migrations; rather, short migrations into seasonally flooded areas. It is not known to use deep pools in the Mekong during the dry season.
181112		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
181112		threats	eng	It is likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams, pollution and overfishing. Impacts from dams are uncertain, as the species is thought to be a short-distance migrant. It may be impacted by changes to the water flow regime, including higher velocity water flows.
181113		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
181113		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the Mekong basin, from the Xe Bangfai (Lao PDR) southwards to the Srepok and the Xekong (Sesan drainage; Kottelat 2011) rivers, including the Mekong main river.
181113		habitat	eng	In clear water, swift flowing streams and rivers, rapids.
181113		population	eng	No information available.
181113		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. A number of dams and mines exist or are proposed within its EOO. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181114		conservation	eng	Research into the impact of threats is required, and conformation of the species distribution.
181114		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Upper Salween basin in Yunnan, southern China (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Described from the Nanpenghe River, Nujiang River drainage. Possibly present in other tributaries of the Salween in northern Myanmar and in the Lower Salween.
181114		habitat	eng	Inhabits shallow areas of river along the bank of the main course and tributaries, in torrent streams with large boulders, cobbles, gravel and sandy bottoms.<span class="Apple-converted-space">
181114		population	eng	Locally uncommon, its population trend is unknown.
181114		threats	eng	Mainstream dams are a key future threat, and impacts from fishery practices (e.g., electro-fishing) by locals is a potential threat.
181115		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181115		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Tengtiao Jiang River drainage in southern China (Yunnan Province) only (Chu and Chen 1990). It probably occurs in the same river drainage in northern Viet Nam.
181115		habitat	eng	The species was described from a freshwater river.
181115		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181115		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181117		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181117		distribution	eng	This species was described from Sungei Brang, a tributary of the  Terengganu River in northeastern Peninsular Malaysia (Ng and Kottelat  2000). It is recorded &#160;from the Perak River in the Malay Peninsula northwards to the Isthmus of Kra, the short coastal drainages in southeastern Thailand, and similar drainages in southwestern Cambodia. The species has often been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. mangois</span>—a species restricted to the Indian subcontinent—in earlier accounts.
181117		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and streams with a moderate to swift current and a substrate of sand and rocks, and feeds on aquatic invertebrates.
181117		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. However, data from surveys in its known distribution indicate that it is a moderately abundant species in the hillstreams of the area.
181117		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181118		conservation	eng	Further research into the taxonomy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cobitis </span>in northern Vietnam and general conservation of freshwater habitats in Viet Nam is required.
181118		distribution	eng	<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>The species has been reported from a wide area of central coastal and northern Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2000, Bohlen and Harant 2010, Petrtýl<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). It has been described on the base of a single specimen ‘from Laos’ without exact locality data; but has not since been recorded from Lao PDR or the Mekong system; it is possible that the type specimen had erroneous locality data (Kottelat 2001). Petrtýl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) report the species from Pearl River basin in northern Viet Nam (Ky Cung River, Lang Son Province. The records obtained by Petrtýl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>suggest that the species should also be looked for in adjacent parts of China.<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
181118		habitat	eng	The species may be found on the sandy bottom of slow flowing waters (Freyhof and Serov 2000). Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cobitis </span>it is buried during the daytime in the sand and comes out at night to feed. Feeds on small organic material and small invertebrates.
181118		population	eng	<span><span><span><span><span><span>Frequent and common in most of distribution area. There are no historical data on frequency, but there is no evidence for any decline of the species throughout its range (M. <span><span>Petrtýl pers comm. 2011).<br/></span></span></span></span>
181118		threats	eng	In general: increasing anthropogenic pressure on natural resources in Viet Nam; habitat alteration/destruction, e.g. logging, extraction of river gravel with subsequent sedimentation; water pollution, increasing number of rice fields, etc. Non-selective fishing by local population. See Petrtýl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(in press) for details.
181119		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place.
181119		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from headwaters of the River Ba, which drains to the Vietnamese coast and enters the sea in Tuy Hoa, and River Sesan, a tributary of the Sekong, itself a tributary of the Mekong, in central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2001). It probably occurs also in the headwaters of the River Sekong in Lao P.D.R.
181119		habitat	eng	Usually found in small rivers and streams, prefers riffles with fast water and gravel and boulder bottom. Juveniles were also recorded from sandy substratum in moderate current.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
181119		population	eng	In the last ten years (2000 to 2009), a strong decline in the abundance of the species of at least 30% was observed (J. Freyhof&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm</span> 2010) within its distribution range.
181119		threats	eng	Local subsistence fishing is potentially a threat to this species. Dams, pollution and infrastructure construction in the area also impact the species habitat.
181121		conservation	eng	Research is required.
181121		distribution	eng	The species is known from the middle <span>Mekong in  Yunnan, southern China and northern Lao PDR. In Lao PDR it is recorded only from the Nam Youan watershed of the Mekong in Luang Namtha  Province (the Nam Youan River drains from Laos to China  where it enters the Nan La He River) (Fang and Kottelat 1999, Kottelat 2001, Dubeau 2004). <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; text-decoration: underline;"></span>In Yunnan, records include from Xishuangbanna, Manzhuo  and Jinghong in the upper Mekong basin in southern Yunnan (Hwang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1988), and the Buyuan River (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span>
181121		habitat	eng	Likely to be restricted to hill streams and small river.
181121		population	eng	No information available.
181121		threats	eng	No information available but anthropogenic habitat modification is very likely (agricultural pollution, modification of stream morphology, overfishing with electricity, etc. (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
181122		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action in place but all known locations are in protected area Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA.
181122		distribution	eng	This species is only known from tributaries of the Nam Theun upstream of Nam Theun 2 reservoir, Mekong basin, Lao PDR.
181122		habitat	eng	It inhabits in stream stretches with fast water, rapids and waterfall. It feeds in grazing algae and small invertebrates from the surface of stones and rocks.
181122		population	eng	No observations.
181122		threats	eng	The range of the species is in a protected area, however some subsistence fishery takes place. Illegal logging and poaching is observed but no impact has been noted on aquatic habitats.
181123		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
181123		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Xe Bang Hiang, Nam Theun watershed (Mekong basin) and Nam Ma drainage, Lao PDR, and Quang Ninh Province, Viet Nam (Parenti 2008; Kottelat 2001).
181123		habitat	eng	This species lives in rice paddies, swamps and sheltered areas of slow flowing rivers (Parenti 2008), as well as in canals, ponds and ditches (Rainboth 1996).
181123		population	eng	Only a small number of specimens are known from a few surveys carried out since collection of the type material collected in 1995 (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
181123		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and&#160;degradation&#160;caused primarily by urban development.
181124		conservation	eng	Some of its population are in protected or managed areas.
181124		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Chao Phraya basin in northern Thailand. Records outside the Chao Phraya basin (the lower Mekong in eastern Thailand; Doi 1997) are uncertain; they may be based on misidentification, or may pertain to introduced populations, as the species has been introduced into reservoir fisheries (e.g., in Surin Province; Jutagate 2009).
181124		habitat	eng	Found in submontane to hill streams and larger river tributaries.
181124		population	eng	Locally common.
181124		threats	eng	Deforestation and stream degradation, local overfishing are the main threats to this fish.
181125		conservation	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181125		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the lower Kyanchaung River in southern Myanmar. &#160;It is expected to be found in the adjacent river drainages draining the western face of the Bilauktaung (Tenasserim) Range in southern Myanmar, but this awaits verification. Described from the lower Kyenchaung River in Mergui  District, southern Myanmar (Mukerji 1932), and has not been encountered  since its description.
181125		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the biology of this species, but like congeners, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a swift current, clear water and a substrate of rocks/sand.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005).
181125		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, as it is known only from the holotype.
181125		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181126		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. Research is required into the species distribution and population trends, and to confirm the taxonomic position of the species.
181126		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from fast-running creeks of the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam only (Mai 1978, Kottelat 2001).
181126		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181126		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181126		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181127		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181127		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the lower Mekong basin, in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999, Kottelat 2001)
181127		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and floodplains with submerged vegetation. (Rainboth 1996).
181127		population	eng	This species is locally common throughout its range.
181127		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from wetland reclamation and pollution are potential threats to this species.
181128		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The part of the known range of this species upstream of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir is a protected area (Nakai NBCA). Information on population trends and the impacts of dam construction is needed <span lang="EN-GB">(M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">).</span></span></p>
181128		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from the<span lang="EN-GB"> Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang rivers, Laos <span lang="EN-GB">(Kottelat 1998, 2001).</span></p>
181128		habitat	eng	This species occurs stretches of the river with sand and small gravel (Kottelat 1998, 2001, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181128		population	eng	This a widespread species within its range. The population is stable and is locally increasing in stretches of rivers where sand accumulated after dam construction, however this increase in population might be temporary (Kottelat 1998, 2001, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181128		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Most of the stretches of river with slow current and covered with sand (the species preferred habitat) are now flooded by the <span lang="EN-GB">Theun-Hinboun, Nam Gnouang and Nam Theun 2 <span lang="EN-GB">reservoirs and are no longer suitable habitats for this species (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">).<br/></span></span></span></p>
181129		conservation	eng	Research into threats is required.
181129		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in mainland southeast Asia from the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin (Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap Lake; Motomura<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002), Lao PDR (the lower and middle Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998), and the Mekong to Luang Prabang), Thailand and Viet Nam), the Malay Peninsula (Tapi and Pattani rivers; Roberts 1995). Records from Indonesia (Java; Roberts 1995) and <span>Singapore (Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993) apparently refer to introductions.
181129		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands and still water bodies, and moves to flowing waters in flooding season. Lives in large schools at benthopelagic layer. Well adaptive to impounded waters. Undertakes short lateral migrations to floodplains to spawn (Kottelat 1996).
181129		population	eng	Very common in all suitable habitats throughout its range.
181129		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by dams on tributaries and mainstream rivers.
181130		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in a protected area (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
181130		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species has only been recorded from the Se Kong basin, southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181130		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in rapids and stretches of the main river with stone bottom (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181130		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is currently known from two separate surveys carried out in 1999 and 2009 (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181130		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the EOO is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dam (Kottelat 2004). Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181131		conservation	eng	There are no conservation concerns. More research in distribution, population trends and threats is needed to determine its taxonomic position and conservation status. The species is not listed in the Red Data Book for China (Yue and Chen 1998).
181131		distribution	eng	The species has only been reported from the Nujiang (Salween) and Longchuanjiang (Ayeyarwaddy) drainages in Yunnan, southern China (Shan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000), and might be present in lower parts of these basins.
181131		habitat	eng	Found in lotic systems in rivers and streams.
181131		population	eng	There is no information available.
181131		threats	eng	No threats have been recorded recently. The construction of dams could threaten this species in the future.
181132		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range occurs within protected areas (especially the Nakai National Biodiversity Conservation Area, which are likely to be effectively managed). As the species travels only short distances to spawning grounds, it is able to complete its life cycle upstream of the areas affected by the dams and reservoirs (M. Kottelat, pers. comm., 2011).<br/><br/>Research into population and habitat trends is required.
181132		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Nam Kading basin, Lao PDR. It may also be present in Nam Ngum basin (Lao PDR), but only juveniles are known from here, which are not suitable for accurate identification (Kottelat 2001). There are specimens from Loei in northeastern Thailand which may or may not be this species.
181132		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters and rapids. Small juveniles may be found in quieter stretches with gravel substrate (M. Kottelat, pers. comm., 2011).
181132		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181132		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow and flooding its obligate habitat. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected. Chemical pollution from mining also affects water in this species range. A significant part of this species' area of occupancy has been impacted by hydro-power development but pristine habitat remains in Protected Areas (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181135		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population size and trends, biology and potential threats for this species.
181135		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya river drainages in mainland Southeast Asia.
181135		habitat	eng	Although this species primarily inhabits larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom, it can also be found in smaller streams.<br/><br/>Migrates to Khone falls at start of rainy season (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
181135		population	eng	Although no detailed information about its population and trends are available, recent survey data suggests that this is still a relatively abundant species.
181135		threats	eng	This species may possibly be overfished in some parts of its range, but this awaits verification.&#160;The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown
181136		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution and ecology is required. Known localities of the species require protection; preventing pollution, conversion, and use for aquaculture.
181136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Described from specimens from Lake Thua Luu, 50 km south of Da Nang, Viet Nam. Presently reported from the drainages of the Thua Luu, Ben Hai, Giang and Huong rivers in the provinces of Thua Thien Hue, Quang Tri and Quang Binh in central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2000, Bohlen and Harant 2010, J. Bohlen pers. comm. 2011). Up to now reported only from four localities over more than 170 km apart.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cobitis nuicocensis</span>, a possible synonym, is known from northern Viet Nam (Công River, Thái Nguyên Province).
181136		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow ponds, small lakes, and creeks in lowland areas in central Viet Nam. Two known locations are 20 m diameter ponds, no more than 0.5 m deep (J. Bohlen pers. comm. 2011).
181136		population	eng	No information available.
181136		threats	eng	The species occurs in shallow ponds and creeks in lowland areas in central Viet Nam. These habitats are within intensively used agriculturally land, mainly rice fields. The very scattered points of records, the small size of the inhabited water bodies and the intense impact of agriculture on the surrounding areas lead to the general conclusion that water bodies with the species might be eliminated by human activity. The small size of the species makes it also vulnerable to stocking of the habitats with bigger fish species, a common habit in the area. None of the reported points of occurrence is located in an area with any kind of official protection.
181137		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181137		distribution	eng	The species has a northwest Pacific distribution. It is known from coastal waters of Siberia (Reshetnikov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997), the Korean Peninsula (Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), Japan (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984), China´s mainland (Eschmeyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983) and northern Viet Nam (Kuronuma 1961). Introduced in Australia, Mexico and USA (Welcomme 1988, Lever 1996).
181137		habitat	eng	Inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms along the shore of bays and estuaries, sometimes ascends rivers. Oviparous, spawns in winter to early spring (Breder and Rosen 1966). Eggs are deposited in Y-shaped nests (Breder and Rosen 1966). Larvae and juveniles (0.9-1.3 cm SL) took mainly small planktonic animals, while newly settled and benthic juveniles (1.4-2.0 cm SL) consumed predominantly small benthic or epiphytic crustaceans, along with polychaetes. The contribution of polychaetes to the diets increased in larger individuals (2.1-5.3 and 5.4-11.4 cm SL) (Kanou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
181137		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181137		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181139		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181139		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River drainage in central and southern Lao PDR, and northern Cambodia (Ng and Kottelat 2000).
181139		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing habitats, which can be in the form of rivers with rapids and large boulders, or smaller fluviatile systems with a gravel bottom. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates.
181139		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181139		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181140		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181140		distribution	eng	The species is known from river drainages in the Xieng Khouang region, northeastern Lao PDR (Ng 2004).
181140		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
181140		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181140		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181141		conservation	eng	Monitoring of population trends and the impact of dams on species populations is needed.
181141		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mekong; found from Kratie in the south up to Chiang Rai in the north. Found in Viet Nam in the Central Highlands (Sesan and Srepok basins).
181141		habitat	eng	Found in flowing water, mainly in rocky areas. The adults stay in the upper parts of the basins, whilst the juveniles move down into the mainstream; they then migrate up and down the mainstream of the Mekong in very large numbers, where they are caught.
181141		population	eng	Generally the species is decreasing due to dams and overfishing. In the 3S rivers the populations have been heavily impacted by the Yali Falls and the upper Srepok dam in Viet Nam. The Lower Sesan II dam, due to be constructed in 2011-12 will completely block the migration of juveniles from the Srepok and the Sesan rivers. Dams (three) are also planned in the Sekong which will impact this river's populations.
181141		threats	eng	Populations have declined in some parts of its range as a result of overfishing. Populations in the Sesan, Srepok, and Sekong rivers in Cambodia, Viet Nam and Laos have declined or are projected to decline as a result of dam construction (e.g., the Yali Falls and the Upper Sekong dams already built). The populations in the above three rivers likely represent a very high proportion of the total population (I. Baird, pers. comm.).
181143		conservation	eng	Research is needed for taxonomy, distribution, and population trends.
181143		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Lai Châu Province, northern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005).
181143		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
181143		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); ">.</span>
181143		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181144		conservation	eng	More information on the distribution, biology, population size and trends, and the current and potential threats to this species is needed.
181144		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Yom River in the upper Chao Phraya River drainage.
181144		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing rivers with a sandy/muddy substrate (Vidthayanon and Ng 2003).
181144		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181144		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected.
181145		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181145		distribution	eng	This species was described from “Tenassserim Provinces” in southern  Myanmar. At the time it was described, this term did not  refer to the modern administrative unit of Tanintharyi in southeastern  Myanmar, but referred to all of Myanmar south and east of the Ayeyarwady delta and included the present-day states of Kayah, Kayin, Mon, Bago,  and possibly also the Tanintharyi Region as well.<br/><br/>Recorded from the Ayeyarwady, Sittaung, and the lower Salween. Absent from the Shan Plateau. Records from India are erroneous.
181145		habitat	eng	Lowland rivers and deltas; some records are from the middle sections of the Ayeyawaddy River.
181145		population	eng	No information available.
181145		threats	eng	There are dams planned and in place on the mainstream of the Salween, and planned on the other rivers. The impact of dams is not known, and the species may thrive in reservoirs (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011). Other threats are unknown.
181147		conservation	eng	No information available.
181147		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in mainland Southeast Asia, from the upper Malay Peninsular (from              Langkawi northwards), Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya in Thailand, to the lower Mekong basin (including the Tonle Sap,&#160;middle Xe Bangfai, middle Nam Theun, and Xe Kong; Kotttelat 1998, 2011).
181147		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams, marshlands, peat swamps, floodplains and rivers (Rainboth 1996, Kottelat 1998).<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Its dominant presence at Khone falls is during the dry season, it exhibits a small peak in the beginning of the rainy season. (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p>
181147		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range in suitable habitats.
181147		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from deforestation, wetland reclamation and pollution are potential threats to this species.
181148		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181148		distribution	eng	This species&#160;is known from the Ayeyawaddy, Sittaung and Ataran river drainages. Its presence in the Salween is expected, but not yet verified.<br/><br/>This species was described from “Tenasserim Provinces” in southern  Myanmar (Blyth 1860). At the time it was described, this term did not  refer to the modern administrative unit of Tanintharyi in southeastern  Myanmar, but referred to all of Myanmar south and east of the  Ayeyarwaddy delta and included the present-day states of Kayah, Kayin,  Mon, Bago, and possibly also the Tanintharyi Region as well (Fang and  Kottelat 1999).
181148		habitat	eng	There is little published information on the biology of this species, but from what is known of congeners in the region, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a moderate to swift current and a substrate of sand/rocks.
181148		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181148		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation) and dams.
181149		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">A significant part of the range of this species occurs in protected areas, upstream of the Nam Theun 2 reservoir (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
181149		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang rivers in Lao PDR.
181149		habitat	eng	Usually associated with fast or very fast flowing water over pebble or stone substrate, in the upper part of the drainage (Kottelat 1998, 2000).
181149		population	eng	This species is frequently found throughout its range (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181149		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the EOO is flooded by reservoirs created by dams and part is located downstream of the reservoirs. Gold mining, logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
181150		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is need to confirm the status of the species.
181150		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Gam River in northern Viet Nam (Na Hang district, Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen 2005), from where it was described.
181150		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181150		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181150		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181151		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution, threats and population trends.
181151		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Malay Peninsula (Malaysia and southern Thailand) to Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo, and perhaps Java). The type specimens were collected  near Bandjarmasin,  Kalimantan, and other localities where it  has been recorded in Kalimantan include the Kahajan and Barito basins and the Kapuas drainage in West Kalimantan (Kalimantan  Barat). On Sumatra it has been collected from the Indragiri, Batang  Hari and Palembang/Musi rivers and in Thailand from the southern  provinces of Surat Thani and Yala (Seriously Fish 2011).<br/> <br/>The species current extent of occurrence is uncertain as populations have declined.
181151		habitat	eng	Rivers and hill streams. Has most often been observed grazing sandy or rocky substrates in  streams and rivers and is known to move into seasonally inundated  floodplains or forested areas during the wet season. It is these  migratory patterns that are thought to have been disrupted by human  development (Seriously Fish 2011).
181151		population	eng	Locally uncommon, trend unknown. Many populations have dwindled in numbers or even vanished completely  over the last few decades; wild fish are almost certainly unavailable in  the aquarium trade with all specimens seen on sale likely to originate  from commercial farms in Thailand and other countries (Seriously Fish 2011).
181151		threats	eng	Unknown threats; deforestation and mining are potential threats, as well as disruption of migrations, and over exploitation.
181152		conservation	eng	None required.
181152		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Malay Peninsula, from southernmost Thailand and west&#160;Peninsular&#160;Malaysia (Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
181152		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland to montane streams with muddy-sand to sandy-gravel bottoms, mostly forest covered. It is adaptive to still water bodies.<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p>
181152		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
181152		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
181153		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known range of this species occurs in protected areas (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
181153		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Nam Kading drainage, Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
181153		habitat	eng	This species is found in numerous habitats including rapids and fast flowing stretches of forest streams (Kottelat 1998, 2001).
181153		population	eng	Widespread and locally common except in habitats impacted by dams. Where there are no dams, populations are expected to be stable.
181153		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The Nam Theun 2, Theun-Hinboun and Nam Gnouang dams and reservoirs are located in its EOO. <br/></p>
181155		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research is required into the species ecology and distribution, and the impacts of hydropower development and other threats.<br/></p>
181155		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from two localities in the upper Nam Tha watershed, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181155		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181155		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single survey carried out in 1999, and it has not been observed again as no further research has been undertaken (Kottelat 2000).</p>
181155		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). The impact of the Nam Tha 1 hydropower dam on the species and its habitats is uncertain.<br/></span></p>
181156		conservation	eng	None needed at present.
181156		distribution	eng	The species has a wide natural distribution. It has been recorded from India (Ganges delta and Chilka Lake),  Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, the Mekong delta in Viet Nam, Malaysia (Peninsular and Sarawak), Singapore,  Indonesia (Java and Kalimantan) and New Guinea. The species is likely to have a wider distribution, for example through Indonesia.
181156		habitat	eng	Occasionally found in land-locked fresh waters, but mainly recorded from coastal and brackish habitats,and the lower reach rivers, including estuaries, lagoons and  mangrove swamps.
181156		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats throughout its range.
181156		threats	eng	Overfishing is a potential threat to this fish.
181157		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species are also needed.
181157		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Salween River in western Thailand, although it is expected to be more broadly distributed through the basin in eastern Myanmar as well (Ferraris and Vari 2007).
181157		habitat	eng	This species presumably inhabits the main channels of rivers and larger streams with a moderate current, like other congeners.
181157		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181157		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181158		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181158		distribution	eng	The species has a northwest Pacific distribution. It is distributed from the Yellow Sea coast of Korean Peninsula southwards to the Gulf of Tonkin (Kottelat 2001), northern Viet Nam.
181158		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181158		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181158		threats	eng	No information available on the direct threats to the species; an anadromous fish, overfishing and dam  constructions are threats to the species.
181159		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181159		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Malay Peninsula from the Kolok to Perak Rivers, and from Indonesia (Riau, Sumatra; Kottelat and Whitten 1996)<a href="http://www.fishbase.org/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=13275"></a>. The species has been recorded from the Tapi River, Surathani Province in southern Thailand (Lheknim 2004).
181159		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower reaches of rivers and estuaries. It occurs in floodplains and lakes in the flooding season.
181159		population	eng	The species is locally common in parts of its range.
181159		threats	eng	Pollution is likely a future threat to this species.
181160		conservation	eng	None required.
181160		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from Asia; the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand; from the <span>Mekong basin in Thailand,&#160;<span>Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam;&#160;<span><span><span>Malaysia (Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak); Brunei; and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan).<br/><br/><span><span><span>Introduced in Singapore, USA (Florida), Portugal, Spain and possibly elsewhere.</span></span></span></span>
181160		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">This species is found in rivers, streams, canals and ditches (Rainboth 1996); it occurs in medium-sized rivers, especially tributaries, and enters flooded fields (Taki 1978)<span class="sheader5">. It is largely herbivorous, consuming aquatic macrophytes and submerged land  plants, as well as filamentous algae  and occasionally insects (<span class="sheader5">Rainboth 1996<span class="sheader5">).  It also feeds on small fishes, worms and crustaceans.<br/><br/>It requires flowing water and would not be expected in reservoirs, but is found in still water in Singapore where it has been introduced.<br/></span></span>
181160		population	eng	There is no information available. In the Sesan basin, it is impacted by dams.
181160		threats	eng	This species is not thought to have threats across its range. Populations have declined as a result of dams in parts of its range.
181161		conservation	eng	General research into the species trends is required.
181161		distribution	eng	<span>  The species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1997) basins and from southeastern Thailand in southeast Asia.<br/><br/>In the Mekong River, the species is recorded in the mainstream and major tributaries, from Xishuangbanna Prefecture (Chu and Mo 1999) in southern Yunnan, China, to Cambodia (including the Tonlé Sap, Battembang and Stung Santrea; Kottelat 1985, Rainboth 1996). In Lao PDR is is known from the middle and upper Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 2001), the Nam Ou (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), and the Sekong drainage (Kottelat 2011). The species has also been reported from the Cat Tien National Park in southern Viet Nam (Dong Nai River, Lam Dong Province;<span class="st"><em> </em>www.namcattien.org). In Thailand, records from the Mekong drainage include the Mun River (<span class="f">Jutagate <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). The species has been recorded at the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR and at Stung Treng Ramsar site in Cambodia.
181161		habitat	eng	Usually found in foot-hill streams, and occurs over coarse substrates in medium-sized upland rivers; found in running waters of the lower Mekong (Rainboth 1996).<br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
181161		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, but recent survey data suggests that it is relatively abundant throughout much of its range.
181161		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
181162		conservation	eng	None required.
181162		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from the Malay Peninsula to Java, Sumatra and Borneo.
181162		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland to hill streams in rocky rapid zones.
181162		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
181162		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is potential threat to this fish, especially in Java where most of major rivers are polluted.
181164		conservation	eng	Further research is required on threats and distribution.
181164		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR (<span>Nam Youan, Nam Tha, Nam Ou rivers) and China (Mengla River, in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan).
181164		habitat	eng	Was observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over pebbles or stones..
181164		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181164		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181166		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181166		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from creeks and rivers in mountainous areas in northern Viet Nam (Ha Giang and Lai Chau  provinces; Nguyen 2005).
181166		habitat	eng	Found in mountain streams and rivers.<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p>
181166		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181166		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181168		conservation	eng	Research is needed into this species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology and threats.
181168		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Ataran River and its tributaries in southeastern Myanmar and western Thailand (Kottelat 2003).
181168		habitat	eng	It inhabits large freshwater hill streams, typified by fast flowing,  well-oxygenated, clear water.
181168		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon.
181168		threats	eng	Overfishing for the ornamental fish trade is a potential threat to this species, but there is no information on the species population trend. Sedimentation and flow changes will also impact the species.
181169		conservation	eng	Research is required.
181169		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Salween basin in Shan State Myanmar, and may possibly occur within Salween tributaries in Thailand.
181169		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and tributaries, including streams.
181169		population	eng	The population trend is unknown.
181169		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat, however further information is required.
181170		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181170		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Xe Kong drainage (Kottelat 2000, 2001, 2011), a Mekong tributary in Lao PDR. It might also be present in the Xe Kong further downriver in Cambodia.
181170		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
181170		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181170		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known geographic range of this species is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dams. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected.<br/></p>
181171		conservation	eng	None required.
181171		distribution	eng	Distribution is mainland southeast  Asia: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam (from the delta), and Thailand. Recorded from the  Mekong, Chao Phraya, Mae Khlong and Tapi drainages. Type locality is 22 km upstream of Phnom Penh, Tonle Sap River, Kandal  Province, Cambodia (and from Phnom Penh markets).
181171		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Found in rivers, with juveniles occasionally entering swamps and flooded fields (Ng and Kottelat, 2004). Feeds mainly on periphyton.
181171		population	eng	No information available.
181171		threats	eng	A widespread species, it is not thought to have threats across its range.
181174		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat and population trends is required, especially in relation to the impacts of large mainstream dams.
181174		distribution	eng	The species has a discontinuous distribution, and is apparently absent from Peninsular Malaysia (Roberts 1994). The species is found from the lower Mekong basin (southern Lao PDR (from Ban Hang Khone, just below Khone falls; Roberts 1993, Kottelat 2001) to Viet Nam (the Mekong delta, as the Gulf of Tonkin drainages; Kottelat 2001), Thailand (the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya drainages), Malaysia (the Rajang basin in Sarawak), and Indonesia (Kalimantan (Kapuas, Mentaya, barito, and Kahajan rivers) and Sumatra; Roberts 1995, Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, the species is known from the Mekong basin, including the Tonle Sap river and lake.
181174		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers and tributaries. Migrates up the mainstream Mekong from the Tonle Sap Lake to at least the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181174		population	eng	Locally common in the lower reaches of rivers in its range.
181174		threats	eng	Overfishing and dams in mainstream rivers are the threats to this species.
181175		conservation	eng	No information available.
181175		distribution	eng	Sporadic distribution in Southeast Asia, from the lower Mekong basin (from southern Lao PDR,from below the Lee Pee waterfalls to central Cambodia, including the Tonle Sap lake and river), Sumatra and Borneo, the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya in Thailand, Malaysia (the Pahang drainage in Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak), and Indonesia (Kalimantan) (Roberts 1999).
181175		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries, occurs in large marshlands and floodplains as marginal habitats.
181175		population	eng	Locally uncommon to common in suitable habitats throughout its range.
181175		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland degradation are potential threats, but not yet significant.
181176		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
181176		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microphysogobio yunnanensis </span>is  known from the upper Mekong River basin in southern China (Yunnan  Province) and the Búa River in northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978, Chu & Chen 1989).
181176		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181176		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181176		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181177		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
181177		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bolaven plateau, Xe Kong drainage, in Mekong basin, Lao PDR.
181177		habitat	eng	Streams under forest cover, with clear, moderate to fast flowing water.
181177		population	eng	No information available.
181177		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">). A large part of the range of the species will be covered by the planned Xe Nam Noy - Xe Pian reservoir. The species is unlikely to survive in standing water. <br/></p>
181178		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181178		distribution	eng	This species is known from hillstreams in the Mae Klong River drainage in western Thailand. Described from the Khwae Noi drainage, one of the main  tributaries of the Mae Klong River in western Thailand (Ng and Kottelat  2001).
181178		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hillstreams with a predominantly sandy/rocky substrate.
181178		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181178		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation, and dams).
181179		conservation	eng	Research into the impact of threats is required.
181179		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Malay Peninsula (southern peninsular Thailand and Malaysia), Borneo (Kalimantan, Sarawak, Brunei Darussalam), and from Sumatra (Palembang, Kampar River, and Indragiri).<br/><br/>Records from Kalimantan include Lake Tundai (Doi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000), the Kapuas Lakes area and the Kapuas River (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005), southeastern Kalimantan (Meratus Range), and the Rungan River (Sulistiyarto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
181179		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland streams and marshlands, peat swamps and rivers.
181179		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
181179		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat; wetland clearance and conversion for agriculture, plantations, and urban development.
181180		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181180		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Salween and Ayeyarwaddy river drainages in Myanmar. This species was described from the Mitan Chaung in southern Myanmar (Vinciguerra 1890).
181180		habitat	eng	There is little published information on the biology of this species, but from its type locality and what is known of congeners in the region, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a moderate to swift current and a substrate of sand/rocks.
181180		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181180		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation) and dams.
181183		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place, but parts of its range are in protected areas.
181183		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong basin in Yunnan, China (upstream until Yangbi) and Lao PDR. Presence in Myanmar seems certain and in Thailand very likely. There is a single record from the Salween basin in China.
181183		habitat	eng	Found in streams and rivers with fast current and rapids.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181183		population	eng	No information available.
181183		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Several dams exist, are under construction or planned in its EOO. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
181184		conservation	eng	Research into threats required.
181184		distribution	eng	The species is known from the eastern Gulf of Thailand drainages from western Cambodia to Rayong Province and the eastern coast of upper peninsular Thailand and Malaysia (Beamish <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
181184		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane to lowland forested streams with sandy and rocky bottoms; found in <span class="sheader5">pools in clear forested streams and rivers. Disappears with human activity degrading aquatic habitat. (Rainboth 1996).
181184		population	eng	Locally common in its range.
181184		threats	eng	Deforestation and the use of illegal fishing methods by locals are main threats to this species, but level unknown, some population in protected areas are abundant.
181185		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181185		distribution	eng	The species has been collected from the Salween basin in Mae Hong Son  and Tak Provinces, northwest Thailand (Kottelat 1990). There, the Salween marks the  border between Thailand and Myanmar. The species is thus also present in  Myanmar but its exact range is not known. It or similar species has been mentioned for the Mae Khlong drainage, Kanchanaburi Province in Thailand and from the Ataran drainage in Myanmar. Awaiting confirmation of their identity, they are not included in the EOO.
181185		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
181185		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181185		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181186		conservation	eng	None in place at present.
181186		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in medium to large lowland rivers from mainland southeast Asia (Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam) to Malaysia (Peninsular and Sabah) and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan). Found in major rivers such as the Mekong.
181186		habitat	eng	Inhabits the middle to lower reaches river and estuaries. Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects, shrimps, seeds, and to a lesser extent on whole fish, fin rays or scales (Roberts 1989).
181186		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
181186		threats	eng	Pollution in estuarine areas in Thailand, Indonesia and possibly Viet Nam are potentially threats to this species, but impacts are still unknown.
181187		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181187		distribution	eng	The specie<em></em>s is known from fast-running streams of the Red River drainage in southern China (Yunnan Province) and northern Viet Nam (Mai 1978, Chu and Chen 1990, Kottelat 2001).
181187		habitat	eng	Inhabits fast-running hill streams (Mai 1978).<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181187		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181187		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181188		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181188		distribution	eng	The species is known from the  Thác Bà Lake in northeastern Viet Nam (Yên Bái Province; Nguyen 2005).
181188		habitat	eng	Found in lowland habitats including irrigation ditches, rice  paddies, streams, pools, marshes, slower-moving sections of foothill  streams and backwaters of larger rivers.
181188		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181188		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181190		conservation	eng	No information on conservation measures in place or needed is available. More research is needed for this species, especially the scale and nature of impacts from dam development.
181190		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mainstream Mekong River at the Khone Falls, southern Lao PDR, and Kaoh Han Island, Stung Treng, Cambodia. It can be inferred, based on habitat, to go as far as Kratie (I. Baird, pers. comm.). The Extent of Occurrence, based on the length of the mainstream where the species is known or inferred to be present, is estimated at 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
181190		habitat	eng	It is found in large rivers on rocky or sandy substrate.
181190		population	eng	There are no data available for this species, but it is known to be uncommon.
181190		threats	eng	This species would be threatened by large dams and impoundments within its habitat, including the Don Sahong dam in Lao PDR (Baird 2009) and the Lower Sesan 2 dam (Baird 2009) and the Sambor and Stung Treng dams in Cambodia. The dams would change the flow regime of the river leading to sedimentation and other impacts.
181192		conservation	eng	Research is needed into impacts of current and future threats on the species.
181192		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the lower Salween and Tenasserim (Tanintharyi River) basin in Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1990), southern China (Yunnan) and associated tributaries in western Thailand (Department of Agriculture 2009). Records from the Western Ghats in India (Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) are considered doubtful. BANCA (2009) report the species from the Ayeyarwaddy basin above Myitkyina, a record which requires confirmation.
181192		habitat	eng	Inhabit rocky rapid zones of the rivers, hillstreams and waterfalls.
181192		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats.
181192		threats	eng	Overfishing impacts the species, but the key future threat is the construction of large dams on the mainstream of the Salween and major tributaries.
181194		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
181194		distribution	eng	Distributed throughout southern China, including Hainan Island, Hong Kong and Guangdong and Quang Ninh Province, northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001), where it was been collected during surveys carried out at specific sites. The full extent of the geographic range of this species is not known&#160;(Parenti 2008)
181194		habitat	eng	This species occurs in still waters in coastal brackish to freshwater habitats (Uwa and Parenti 1988, Parenti 2008).
181194		population	eng	This species was once very abundant in its known range, but the population has been slowly decreasing over the past 20 years,&#160;especially&#160;in China (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
181194		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and&#160;degradation&#160;caused primarily by urban development and also agriculture.
181195		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. Research is required into the species taxonomic placement, distribution, and threats.
181195		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Salween River (Nujiang) and upper Mekong River (Lancangjiang) basins in southern China (Chu and Chen 1989, Yue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000) and the Red River basin in Lau Cai, northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
181195		habitat	eng	The species is known from freshwater rivers.
181195		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181195		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species, although it is likely to be impacted across much of its range by anthropogenic pollution and river modifications.
181196		conservation	eng	None required.
181196		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in estuaries and slow-moving parts of streams and rivers, and standing ponds of Southeast Asia.
181196		habitat	eng	Lower reaches of streams, rivers and in estuaries.
181196		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
181196		threats	eng	Pollution and habitat degradation are potential threats.
181197		conservation	eng	Further research into the species distribution and threats is required.
181197		distribution	eng	The species is known from the east coast of peninsular Thailand; described from Narathiwat Province, Thailand (Schindler and Schmidt 2004), and with records from Ko Samui island (Surat Thani Province), in the north to Sungai Kolok in the south. The species maybe present in other coastal drainages, including adjacent parts of peninsular Malaysia.
181197		habitat	eng	A mouthbrooding species. <span class="sheader5">Specimens were collected from a  slowly flowing creek which was only 20 to 50 cm deep; the water was  clear and slightly tanned, bed covered with dense leaf litter (Schindler and Schmidt 2006).
181197		population	eng	No information available.
181197		threats	eng	The species is not likely to be impacted by collection, however habitat degradation is a likely threat.
181198		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Research is needed regarding its life cycle and impact of different threats.
181198		distribution	eng	This is an upland species found only on the Bolovens Plateau, Paksong District, Champasak Province, southern Laos PDR.
181198		habitat	eng	This species is found in clear rocky streams approximately 800–1,200 m asl. It feeds on insects.
181198		population	eng	This species is common on the plateau in the Xenamnoy sub-basin.
181198		threats	eng	This species is threatened by planned dam construction, and habitat degradation from proposed bauxite mining on the plateau.
181199		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The entire Nam Leuk catchment is within the Phou Khao  Khouy National Biodiversity Conservation Area, however no attention has  been given to aquatic organisms. Research is urgently needed to  determine whether the species still survives since the construction of the dam and if it  is present elsewhere within the catchment (Kottelat 2000).
181199		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This fish is known from one location in Nam Leuk River, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000) from the Nam Leuk dam site and from nearby. Other rivers in the area have not been surveyed. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 10 km², based on previous surveys, before construction of the dam.<br/></p>
181199		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected in the Nam Leuk stream (Kottelat 2000).
181199		population	eng	This species is currently only known from two survey carried out in 1997 and 1998 (W. Rainboth, pers. comm.). No other information is available on population as no further research has been carried out in the area since (Kottelat 2000). The species was described from a type series of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 200 specimens, so appears to have been present in good numbers.
181199		threats	eng	<p>Construction of the Nam Leuk dam began in 1997 and  was completed in 1999. This species was only collected between the dam site and downstream, where the river entered the Mekong floodplain. It is unclear as to how much water (i.e., suitable habitat) is now available downstream of the dam (Kottelat 2000). <span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181200		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
181200		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded  from the Mae Nam Kok drainage, a tributary of the Mekong in Thailand.  It was collected immediately downstream of where the river enters  Thailand from Myanmar and therefore its range is considered to extend  into Myanmar. Recorded from Xishuangbanna (China) (Kottelat 1990) but this need confirmation since the species has never been collected in intermediate areas in Lao PDR.<span style=""><br/></span><span style="font-weight: bold; "></span>
181200		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181200		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181200		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not well understood, however dams on the Mekong may pose a future threat.
181201		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181201		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Sittang River drainage in south-central Myanmar.
181201		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slow-flowing rivers and streams with a sandy/muddy substrate.
181201		population	eng	There is no detailed information available on the population and its trends for this species, but data from ornamental fish exports and field surveys indicate that it is an abundant species.
181201		threats	eng	Harvesting for the ornamental fish trade is believed to have a negligible effect of the population of this species (given that harvest levels are relatively low because the fish is not in great demand), and other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181202		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181202		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Suoi Rut stream in the Black River (Sông Đà) drainage in northern Viet Nam (Hoa Binh Province).
181202		habitat	eng	Described from a small tributary.
181202		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181202		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181205		conservation	eng	Research into the species threats is required.
181205		distribution	eng	The species is found from Indonesia (Kalimantan (e.g, the Kapuas river and lakes), Java, and Sumatra) and Sarawak (Rajang drainage; Malaysia; Parenti and Lim 2005) to the Malay Peninsula (e.g., the Endau drainage; Ng and Tan 1999), and southeastern Thailand (eastern Slopes of Gulf of Thailand) to western Cambodia, and the lower Mekong basin (Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia).
181205		habitat	eng	Found in lowland marshlands, peat swamps and rivers.<br/>Found at surface of mountain rivers with near complete/complete canopy cover (Rainboth 1996).
181205		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
181205		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat, but no information available.
181209		conservation	eng	Habitat quality and population trends should be monitored.
181209		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in mainland southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong.
181209		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland marshlands and floodplains, river tributaries.
181209		population	eng	Locally and seasonally uncommon in suitable habitats.
181209		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
181210		conservation	eng	Part of this species range occurs within Protected Areas.
181210		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Nan River (Chao Phraya drainage) in Thailand (Doi and Kottelat 1998).
181210		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing waters of the mainstream (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181210		population	eng	There is no information on population available.
181210		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Sand and gravel extraction occurs for development. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181212		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further research for this species is required.<br/></p>
181212		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from one sample in a very small stream entering the Nam Ou River, downstream of the Muang Khoa River, northern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000). It is expected to occur elsewhere in the Nam Ou drainage.<br/></p>
181212		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181212		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single sampling effort in 1997 and has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
181212		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">). A financing agreement for the dam was signed in April 2011 for a cascade of seven hydropower plants to be built on the Nam Ou River in Phongsaly and Luang Prabang provinces, with the first phase (three dams in Luang Prabang Province) due for completion in 2016.<br/></span></p>
181214		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
181214		distribution	eng	This species was described from specimens collected from Huay Hin Taek near the mouth of the Mun River, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand. <span>It is also recorded from the Mekong in Kompong Cham and from the Srepok, Sesan and Sekong (3S) rive<span>rs in eastern Cambodia. It is also known from various locations in Laos PDR (MNHN, Paris, collected 2004, and reported from markets in Vientiane<span>) including the Khone Falls (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).<span> The species is endemic to the middle Mekong basin.</span></span>
181214		habitat	eng	Occurs in large rivers in the dry season and moves to medium-sized rivers in the wet season. Found at midwater to bottom depths in clear water. May move into flooded forest habitats immediately adjacent to rivers, but does not occur over fine-grained sediments, preferring rocks instead. Not known to thrive in impoundments. Feeds on zooplankton, worms and algae. It migrates up the Mekong River in January-February, then moves back downstream into the 3S basins in June-July (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
181214		population	eng	It is common in the Khone Falls in southern Laos PDR (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is currently heavily fished which is likely to be causing a slow population decline. However it is projected that the development of dams on the Mekong and the 3S rivers over the next few years will have significant and immediate negative impacts on the population (Baird 2009a, 2009b). There is a projected 30–50% decline in the next 15 years as a result of these dams, however this is a conservative estimate and it could be much more severe.
181214		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing, and planned dams in the Mekong and the 3S Rivers (Baird 2009a, 2009b).
181215		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the impacts of fisheries on the species.
181215		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Myanmar coasts, lakes, estuaries and lower parts of rivers (Ayeyarwaddy-Sittaung to Salween-Tennasserrim) to Ranong in Thailand. In Myanmar, it has been reported from the <span class="st">Pathein (Bassein) river, and as far upstream as  Indawgyi Lake in the Ayeyarwaddy basin, and to <span> Moulmein on the Salween, as well as the <span class="st">Tanintharyi (<span>Tenasserim) River (Whitehead <span>1985).</span></span>
181215		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower reaches of rivers, lakes and pools, and in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Whitehead 1985).
181215		population	eng	This species is locally common in Myanmar but less common in Thailand.
181215		threats	eng	Overfishing may be a future threat to this species.
181216		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Further research is required for this species.
181216		distribution	eng	Only known at present from tributaries of the Xe Kong river on the eastern half of Bolaven Plateau, Lao PDR.
181216		habitat	eng	Streams with clear, cool and fast water, over stones, rocks, rapids and waterfalls.
181216		population	eng	Populations are inferred to be declining as a result of fishing pressure, and are expected to decline as a result of hydropower dams.
181216		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing, dam construction, habitat  degradation from agriculture, and bauxite mining on the  plateau.
181217		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is required.
181217		distribution	eng	The species is known from southeast Asia; the Malay Peninsula (e.g., the Tale Sap at Lampam (Phatthalung) (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) and the Endau drainage (Ng and Tan 1999), Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan; Kottelat<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1993), Malaysia (Sarawak), and Brunei Darussalam. Dawson (1981) considered the species to be restricted to the Malay Peninsular, Sumatra, and Borneo. A record from the Philippines (Zambales; Pagulayan 2011) requires confirmation.
181217		habitat	eng	Usually associated with river stretches with slow current, among grasses, roots or shore vegetation (Kottelat 1998).
181217		population	eng	No information available.
181217		threats	eng	No information available.
181218		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat and population trends is required, especially in relation to impacts of large mainstream dams. The species benefits from community conservation of deep pool habitats in the Mekong (Baird and Flaherty 2005, Baird 2006).
181218		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Bangpakong and Chao Phraya rivers (Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991) in Thailand, and from the lower Mekong basin (from Yunnan in southern China to Viet Nam). Chhea (2002) records the species presence in Myanmar, which requires confirmation, and the species has been introduced to Malaysia.
181218		habitat	eng	Found in mainstreams and larger tributaries, migrating up river in the Mekong between May and July, though it may not be a long distance migrator. Migrates in large schools (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). This species feeds on fish, crustaceans, insects and, in the rainy season, is an important consumer of flooded forest fruits and leaves in the Mekong (Baird 2007).<br/><br/>In the dry season, inhabits deep water pools in large rivers.<br/><br/>Spawns in mainstream during flood season, larvae swept into floodplains. (Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
181218		population	eng	This species is common; this species is the most common fish caught in the wet season wing trap fishery in the Khone falls in southern Lao PDR, comprising 41% of the catch by weight (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).
181218		threats	eng	Overfishing and dams in mainstream rivers are the threats to this species. The species is also impacted by the loss of flooded forest habitat in the Tonle Sap Lake and along the Mekong.
181219		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181219		distribution	eng	The species is very widespread in mainland Southeast Asia in <span>the lower Mekong (from Lao PDR to the delta in Viet Nam, and in the Dong Nai River, southern Viet Nam; Freyhof<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000), and in tributaries (e.g., the Xe Kong and the Xe Bang Fai in Lao PDR; Kottelat 1998, 2011), the Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins  (Thailand), and the Malay  Peninsula <span>north of isthmus of Kra. The species has also been recorded from south-central Viet Nam in the Duc My River, Khanh Hoa province (Herder and Freyhof 2006).</span>
181219		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and marshlands from lowland to submontane areas.
181219		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitats.
181219		threats	eng	No information available.
181220		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species are also needed.
181220		distribution	eng	The species is known from the&#160;Chao Phraya, Bang Pakong and Mekong drainages in Indochina. Occurs at Ubon Ratchathani, and in the Mekong just below Khone Falls, and in the Basaac River adjacent to Dong Phu in Phong Dinh Province (Ng 1999).
181220		habitat	eng	Found in larger tributaries of the Mekong. Reports of seasonal variation in populations suggest that the species is migratory. Spawns at the beginning of the rainy season and utilizes the flooded forests along the river edge (Rainboth 1996). Feeds on small fishes, benthic invertebrates (Rainboth 1996), and large amounts of plant detritus (Rainboth 1996, Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999).<br/><br/>Clear preference for deep water pools in dry season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
181220		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but it is seasonably encountered in the Mekong River drainage (Vidthayanon 2008).
181220		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181221		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
181221		distribution	eng	Mekong basin in Thailand (Chiang Rai and Loei Provinces) and Lao PDR (from Bokeo Province to Nam Mang).
181221		habitat	eng	Streams under forest cover, with clear, moderately flowing water.
181221		population	eng	No information available.
181221		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181223		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181223		distribution	eng	The species was described from creeks and rivers in a low mountainous area of northern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005). The original description does not mention the locality, but the scientific name suggests that the locality is the Bua River, a tributary of the Hong River in Son La and Phu Tho provinces (Kottelat 2001).
181223		habitat	eng	The species is known from swift-flowing hill streams.
181223		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181223		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181224		conservation	eng	Additional survey in suitable habitat within the species known range should be undertaken to confirm the species continued presence.
181224		distribution	eng	The species was described from the upper parts of the Rivers Ko and Tan in Viet Nam. It has not been recollected in either river or elsewhere since the collection of the types in 1936. Freyhof (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.) surveyed the area in 2000 and 2002, including the type locality and the species was not recorded.<br/><br/>The drainages<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> where it was recorded from are small, estimated at somewhat over 100 km², but the species is thought likely to be restricted to the upper parts of the drainages. Further survey is required.
181224		habitat	eng	Described from upland streams in the Central Highlands in Viet Nam.
181224		population	eng	The species has not been seen since it was described, despite surveys in 2000 and 2002, and the known populations are considered to be possibly extinct (<50 individuals).
181224		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species, although the upper parts of watersheds in the region are impacted by current deforestation, as well as large-scale deforestation and degradation during the 1970s.
181225		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action in place. More research on distribution, population trends, ecology and current threats are needed.
181225		distribution	eng	The species is only known from a single specimen obtained in the Nam Ngiap basin in Lao PDR in 1999 (Kottelat 2000, 2001). The exact locality on the Nam Ngiap is not known.
181225		habitat	eng	No data available. Like other species of the genus it probably lives<span lang="EN-GB"> in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.
181225		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181225		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Several dams are proposed on the Nam Ngiap.<br/></p>
181226		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181226		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from the Nam Ou basin in Lao PDR and from a stretch of its tributary, the Nam Noua in Viet Nam (Kottelat 2010).
181226		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in rapids and stretches of the main river with stone bottom (Kottelat 2000).
181226		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181226		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181227		conservation	eng	Research into the species' taxonomy is needed, as well as monitoring of population trends, and confirmation of the species' current distribution.
181227		distribution	eng	Described from a stream east-southeast of Muang Sing (21°10'47"N, 101°10'50"E), Nam Youan watershed, Mekong basin, Lao PDR.<br/><br/>It may be present downstream in the same river in China (Yunnan Province), as the known location is only 15 km from the border at this point.
181227		habitat	eng	Observed from a roadside stream; a small stream with running water. Introduced species were observed in the steam (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181227		population	eng	No information available.
181227		threats	eng	Introduced fish species were observed in a stream at the only documented locality. This population is located in an agricultural area and is likely to be impacted by habitat modification, and use of fertilisers and pesticides.
181228		conservation	eng	None in place. Research needed into the impact of dams and population trends, as well as ecology, especially migratory habits.
181228		distribution	eng	The species is known from throughout the middle-lower Salween basin and Sittaung rivers in Myanmar and Thailand, but not found in China.
181228		habitat	eng	Found in rivers with sandy bottoms in fast flowing stretches; upland streams especially, not stagnant or slow flowing waters.
181228		population	eng	The species is locally uncommon, more common in some places. It has decreased in Thailand, but the situation in Myanmar is not known.
181228		threats	eng	The species will be impacted by dams on the mainstream of the Salween and elsewhere which will degrade its habitat. It is also likely to be effected by pollution.
181229		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species distribution, population trends and threats is required.
181229		distribution	eng	Currently only known from Nam Leuk River, Lao PDR, where it was collected from a single sampling survey carried out in 1997 (Kottelat 2000). Suspected to have a wider range in central Lao PDR and northeastern Thailand (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181229		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from shallow waters along the shore in the mainstream, where they were found amoungst tree roots and over-hanging rocks and vegetation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181229		population	eng	Currently only known from three specimens collected during a single survey (Kottelat 2000).
181229		threats	eng	The current known range of this species is located just a few kilometres downstream of the Nam Leuk dam, however any associated impacts of habitat alteration are unknown. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181231		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species current distribution and population trends.
181231		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Lower Mekong basin, to the Malay Peninsula (southern Thailand, Malaysia; Perak, Pahang, Malacca, and Negri Sembilan  (Roberts 1989), and possibly in associated drainages in eastern Myanmar), and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak (Rajang Basin; Parenti and Lim 2005).
181231		habitat	eng	Inhabits larger tributaries and mainstream rivers, in low gradient with logs and leaf litter on the bottom (Roberts 1989). Found at surface of flowing waters. Inhabits flooded areas, moves to permanent water with receding levels (Rainboth 1996). <span class="sheader5">
181231		population	eng	Rare in the Mekong basin, locally uncommon in Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia. Its population trend is unknown.
181231		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and overfishing are potential threats to this fish.
181232		conservation	eng	The species has benefited greatly from community conservation efforts in southern Lao PDR, targeting the dry season deep water pool habitats (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001; Baird and Flaherty 2005; Baird 2006). Research on population and habitat trends is needed.<br/><br/>The species has been listed for conservation concern in Lao PDR (Schedule 2 species; can not be traded); a possible candidate for Appendix II for CITES based on trade.
181232		distribution	eng	Found in the Mekong basin; in Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand, and in the Chao Phraya, Nan and Mae Khlong, Tachin and Bangpakong rivers in Thailand. It is also recorded from Indonesia and Malaysia.
181232		habitat	eng	Large mainstream rivers. The species reaches up to 18 kg in weight, and spawns at the height of the dry season in deep water pools, and makes a very audible croaking sound when in spawning condition. Eats mainly fish and shrimps.
181232		population	eng	This species is still common throughout much of its range (C. Vidthayanon and I. Baird, pers. comm. 2011) but has locally been extirpated from some locations in the Mekong River in Lao PDR and has been heavily reduced in other areas (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), including the Chao Phraya (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011). Cambodian fishery stocks had greatly declined in 2006 (I. Baird pers. comm. 2011).
181232		threats	eng	Overfishing has led to local reductions and extirpations. Vulnerable to the loss and degradation of the deep pool dry season habitat through sedimentation (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001).
181233		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution, population trends, and threats is required.
181233		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Mae Khlong basin and adjacent areas in western Thailand.
181233		habitat	eng	Found in submontane streams to larger tributaries and rivers.
181233		population	eng	It is not a common species.
181233		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is potentially the main threat to this fish.
181234		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place.
181234		distribution	eng	This species is known from a small part of the lower Mekong basin: the Nam Youan to Nam Xuang drainages in Lao PDR, and Chiang Rai Province in Thailand.
181234		habitat	eng	Inhabits small forest streams, with clear water and moderate current.
181234		population	eng	No information available.
181234		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011).</span></p>
181235		conservation	eng	Further research is needed for this species.
181235		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River basin in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
181235		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181235		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181235		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181236		conservation	eng	More information on its population and the effects of artisanal fisheries on it are needed for this species. Assessed as Critically Endangered in Singapore (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
181236		distribution	eng	This species is known from blackwater habitats throughout Sundaic and mainland Southeast Asia. Recorded from Cambodia (Tonlé Sap, Phnom Penh, Ream and Bokor; Rainboth 1996), Thailand (Krat River (Trat), Chumphon, Patthalung and Songkhla (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997); restricted to peats and lowland forest streams), southern Viet Nam (e.g., Phu Quoc Island, southwest coast, <span class="mw-redirect">Kiên Giang Province) and the Mekong delta (Vidthayanon 2008), Malaysia (Peninsular (e.g., north Selangor; Beamish <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003) and Sarawak), Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan and Sumatra; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993), Singapore (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), and Mindanao and Luzon in the southern Philippines (Herre 1953).
181236		habitat	eng	This species inhabits blackwater habitats (swamps, streams, rivers) associated with peat swamp forests. The water in such habitats is very soft, highly acidic (pH ~3-4), and heavily stained with tannins.
181236		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, although recent survey data indicates that it is still a relatively common species. However, its primary habitat (peat swamp forests) have undergone massive anthropogenic destruction and degradation and such effects on the population need to be further studied.
181236		threats	eng	Although the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified, the greatest threat to this species are the loss of blackwater peat swamps to logging and plantation agriculture (since this is an obligatory peat swamp species).
181238		conservation	eng	Research and monitoring of habitat and harvest trends is suggested.
181238		distribution	eng	Recorded from rivers in Indonesia (southeastern Sumatra (Musi, Hari, Indragiri, and other rivers), western and eastern (Samarinda) Kalimantan (Kapuas basin) (Roberts 1989); Bangka (Banka) and Belitung (Billiton), near Sumatra (Roberts 1989), Peninsular Malaysia (occurring mostly toward the centre of the peninsula in Pahang). <br/><br/>Also recorded from southern Thailand (Malay Peninsula) by Herre and Myers (1937) and reported as the only record from that country (Smith 1945). Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1993) did not list Thailand within its native range, although it is possible that its range extends northward into extreme southern Thailand. Ismail (1989) included Thailand within native range but added that the species was “quite rare” in peninsular Malaysia (Courtenay and Williams 2004).
181238		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">A riverine species, also found in lakes, appearing to be an inland species. Inhabits swamp forest. Likely a nest builder with adults guarding fertilized eggs and larvae.
181238		population	eng	No information available.
181238		threats	eng	No information is available.
181239		conservation	eng	Research into the impacts of threats is needed, as well as current information on species distributions and population trends.
181239		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across southern Myanmar in the Salween-Tenasserim (Tanin<span class="st">tharyi) estuaries to Ranong Province, Thailand (Whitehead 1985).
181239		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower reaches of rivers, in estuaries and coastal lagoons.
181239		population	eng	This species is locally common in Myanmar, but uncommon in Thailand.
181239		threats	eng	Overfishing may be a future threat to this species. A number of dams are proposed on both the Salween and the Tanin<span class="st">tharyi rivers, including the lower parts of the Salween. The impact of these on the species is not known, and further research is required.
181241		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the impact of mainstream dams.
181241		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Salween basin, where it is present throughout the basin; Myanmar, Yunnan in China, and Thailand (Kottelat 2000) (including the Nam Mae Surin and Mae Nam Moei tributaries; Department of Agriculture 2009).
181241		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky rapids and streams. Some members of the genus are migratory, however there is no information available for this species.
181241		population	eng	Locally common in its range.
181241		threats	eng	Mainstream dams on the Salween are a future threat to the species and its habitat.
181243		conservation	eng	Habitat management based on local participation is in place.
181243		distribution	eng	Found only in its type locality, the Silaphet Waterfall, Nan Province, in the upper reaches of the Nan River drainage (Chao Phraya drainage) in northern Thailand, in northern Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
181243		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky streams under forest covering, including waterfalls, especially in rapid zones, above 600 m asl.
181243		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its type locality.
181243		threats	eng	Siltation, which is caused by deforestation, may degrade or converse its habitats. Local fishing may be a secondary threat in some streams.
181246		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181246		distribution	eng	The species is known from river drainages in the north-central coastal region of Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
181246		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
181246		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181246		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181247		conservation	eng	None required.
181247		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the short coastal rivers draining the southern face of the Cardamom Mountains in southeastern Thailand and (possibly) southwestern Cambodia.<br/><br/>Records of the species from other regions (e.g., the Mekong River drainage by Rainboth, 1996) are due to misidentification of the species.
181247		habitat	eng	The species inhabits swift. forested lowland streams (similar habitats occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">G. callopterus</span>).<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak at beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181247		population	eng	No information available.
181247		threats	eng	No information available.
181248		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but parts of the range are in protected areas.
181248		distribution	eng	The fish is known from the Salween, Chao Phraya and Mekong basins in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR and China (Xishuangbanna). It is possible that several species are confused under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">S. poculi</span>; if confirmed, then this name will possibly be restricted to a species occurring in the Chao Phraya drainage.
181248		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.<span class="sheader5"></span>
181248		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Common and abundant in suitable habitat.<br/></p>
181248		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181249		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181249		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal river drainages in Central Viet Nam: between the Thu Bon River (Quang Nam Province) and the Quang Tri River (Quang Tri Province) (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Records from Cambodia (Rainboth 1996), China, Laos (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), Malaysia (Ng and Tan 1999; Shah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and Thailand are due to misidentification (Kottelat 2000).
181249		habitat	eng	Occurs in medium size and small rivers and streams, usually found in clear water with rapid current (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It does not persist in impoundments and it feeds mainly on fine debris, algae, diatoms, and aquatic insects (Rainboth 1996).
181249		population	eng	Between 2000 and 2009, a marked decline in the abundance of the species in central Viet Nam was observed by Freyhof (unpublished data). It is thought (J. Freyhof, pers. comm), that the decline might be as high as 80%, mainly due to overfishing.
181249		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing (where it is captured using seines, cast-nets, and traps), and habitat degradation caused by human infrastructure including dam construction and water pollution.
181250		conservation	eng	More information on its population and the effects of artisanal fisheries on it are needed for this species. The conspecificity of populations from the northern part of the Malay Peninsula with those from Sumatra and Borneo also require further investigation.
181250		distribution	eng	This species is known from blackwater habitats throughout the Greater Sunda Islands (Borneo, Java and Sumatra), as well as the Malay Peninsula northwards to the Isthmus of Kra.
181250		habitat	eng	This species inhabits blackwater habitats (swamps, streams, rivers) associated with peat swamp forests. The water in such habitats is very soft, highly acidic (pH ~3-4), and heavily stained with tannins.
181250		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. However, its habitat (peat swamp forests) have undergone massive anthropogenic destruction and degradation and such effects on the population need to be further studied.
181250		threats	eng	Although the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified, the greatest threat to this species are the loss of blackwater peat swamps to logging and plantation agriculture (since this is an obligatory peat swamp species).
181251		conservation	eng	Considered Vulnerable in Thailand (Vidthayanon 2005). Occurs in numerous protected areas (e.g., in Thailand, and in the Stung Treng Ramsar Site in Cambodia).
181251		distribution	eng	<span>The species is widely known from southeastern Thailand (Schindler and Schmidt 2006), coastal drainages in Cambodia (e.g., <span><span><span><span> Kirikum and Kampong Som)<span>, and from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Cambodia south of the Khone Falls (Kottelat 2001). The species is probably present in southern Viet Nam (<span>there are also specimens which are identified as conspecific with the species (<span>Schindler and Schmidt 2006<span>), and th<span>e species has recently been recorded from Phu Quoc Island in the Gulf of Thailand, off the coast of Cambodia (WAR 2010).<br/><br/>In Thailand, the species has been recorded from several protected areas in southeastern Thailand (Chanthaburi, Rayong, Chonburi, Chachoengsao a<span><span><span><span><span>nd Sakaew provinces); Khao Kitchakut and Khao Chamao–Khao Wong national parks, and from Khao Soidao and Khao Aang Rue Nai wildlife sanctuaries (Sontirat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
181251		habitat	eng	The species is found in sluggish streams that often contain clear water with submerge plants and leaf litters. Mouth brooders.
181251		population	eng	No information available.
181251		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted locally by habitat degradation.
181252		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181252		distribution	eng	The exact distribution of this species is unclear, but specimens from the ornamental fish trade have been collected in the vicinity of Dawei, Tanintharyi Region in southeastern Myanmar. It presumably occurs in the river drainages of southeastern Myanmar that drain the western face of the Bilauktaung Range, and the Lower Salween.
181252		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description (due to the absence of an exact collection locality), but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing streams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate. Likely to be found in upland parts of tributaries.
181252		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181252		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Dams on the Salween will impact upon the species population there, but the majority of the population will not be impacted by dams.
181253		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also badly needed.&#160;Its distinctiveness from <em>P. apogon</em> also needs to be elucidated.
181253		distribution	eng	The species has a broad distribution in southeastern Asia, from the Malay Peninsular to Indonesia, and lower Mekong and Chao Phraya basins.
181253		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits larger rivers with turbid waters, where it feeds largely on pelagic fishes. It spawns just prior to the rise in water levels and moves into the flooded riparian forests and probably out into the floodplains during high water levels.
181253		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, recent survey data indicates that it is still relatively abundant throughout much of its range (although this data may be confounded by misidentification of <em>P. apogon</em> as this species).
181253		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished as a food species throughout much of its range, and it is expected that overfishing may pose a considerable threat to its population. However, this awaits verification from empirical data.
181254		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place.
181254		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Xe Bangfai drainage, Lao PDR. It has not been observed upstream of the underground course of the Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998, 2001, pers. comm. 2011).
181254		habitat	eng	Found in clear standing to relatively fast flowing water on gravel substrate (Kottelat 2001).
181254		population	eng	There is no information available.
181254		threats	eng	Since 2010, part of this species range has been impacted by the discharge of the Nam Theun 2 power plant, which significantly increases the dry season flow and water level, which completely changes the natural habitat. It is still too early to determine the impact of this (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181255		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
181255		distribution	eng	Known from the <span> Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, Brunei, Malaysia (Peninsular, Sarawak and Sabah) and Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java).
181255		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in clear rivers or streams with running water and sandy to muddy bottoms; found in most water bodies except small creeks, torrents, and shallow swamps (Vidthayanon 2002). A migratory species (Hill and Hill 1994). Enters flooded forest.
181255		population	eng	<span>Little information but apparently abundant in the Mekong and in the Nam Ngum Reservoir.
181255		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing.
181256		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas.</p>
181256		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Malay Peninsula in Terengganu, Perak, Tahan, Muar, Jelai, Endau, Mersing and Sedili river basins. In southern Thailand, it has been collected from the Sai Buri, Bang Nara and Kolok river systems.
181256		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams in forests, with clear water and current, and is usually associated with submerged trees, wood debris and large leave vegetation.
181256		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181256		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Parts of the species distribution is in protected areas.<br/></p>
181257		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is needed to confirm the status of the species.
181257		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is only known from the Lo River (Sông Lô), a tributary of the Red River (Song Cai) in the Hà Giang Province, northern Viet Nam (Ngyuen 2005).
181257		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181257		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181257		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181258		conservation	eng	Research is needed for taxonomy, distribution, and population trends.
181258		distribution	eng	The species is known from Hongshuihe River in southeastern China (Guangxi Province) only (Zhang&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2000).
181258		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181258		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181258		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181259		conservation	eng	The conspecificity with&#160;<em>H. vietnamicus</em>&#160;needs to be investigated, and more information on population and its trends is needed.
181259		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Song Ma drainage in northern Viet Nam.
181259		habitat	eng	There is no information on the biology of this species, but based on that of closely-related congeners, it likely inhabits moderate to large rivers with a sandy or muddy substrate.
181259		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181259		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181260		conservation	eng	No conservation actions have been reported.
181260		distribution	eng	The species is found in the lower Mekong basin from northern Lao PDR to the Mekong delta in Viet Nam. Records of the species from elsewhere (see Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) refer to other species (e.g., Indonesia and Malaysia; <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kunyit</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. djambol</span>). The species is also found in tributaries such as the Sre Pok (Ziv<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2012)
181260		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mainstreams and larger tributaries.<br/><br/>Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) suggest that there are several distinct populations of the species; one population is distributed within the area between Loei and Chiang Khong, and there may be one or two distinct populations in the remainder of the Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. Each population focuses around a major tributary, e.g. the Mun River. If there is more than one population along this stretch, a substantial degree of overlap may be expected. Finally, there may be a distinct population south of the Khone Falls that spawns in the Se San tributary system. Adults and juveniles (including larvae) migrate downstream to areas with more extensive floodplains below Kratie. The following habitat information is taken from Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004);<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Critical habitats</span><br/>Spawning habitats: spawning occurs in the Mekong mainstream. No information is available on exact spawning location and behaviour. Larvae of the species can be caught in the drift in the Mekong and Bassac rivers in Viet Nam. These larvae are believed to originate from spawning grounds far upstream, i.e. beyond the Khone Falls.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Feeding habitats</span><br/>Juveniles and sub-adults use flooded areas as nursery and feeding habitats and mainly feed on plant material. The juveniles are mainly seen in the lower reaches of the river, in the tidal zone of the Mekong delta. Large individuals stay in the main river channels, where they feed on a range of food items.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Refuge habitats</span><br/>The species spends the dry season in deep pool refuges in the Mekong mainstream.
181260		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon; Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) consider the species relatively rare.
181260		threats	eng	This is a large and probably slow-growing species and could be vulnerable to direct or by-catch fishery pressure, habitat loss (seasonally flooded forests), as well as impacts from dams which may block migratory routes and reduce flooded areas used as nursery grounds.
181261		conservation	eng	No information is&#160;available&#160;on the conservation status of the species. More research is needed.
181261		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Nâm Na River in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Thô district, Lai Châu Province; Nguyen 2005).
181261		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river in a hilly area. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
181261		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181261		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to the species.
181262		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181262		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Indonesia (Kalimantan), Thailand (lower Chao Phraya system; Ayutthaya and Nakornsawan, 100 to 260 km up river), and the lower Mekong basin (Lao PDR, Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap river and lake) and southern Viet Nam).<span>
181262		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower and middle reaches of rivers and estuaries. It occurs in floodplains and lakes in the flooding season. Found in tidal zone of large rivers, moves short distances from main channels during flooding (Rainboth 1996).
181262		population	eng	This species is locally common in parts of its range.
181262		threats	eng	Large scale overfishing and pollution are future threats to this species.
181263		conservation	eng	The taxonomic placement and distribution of the species requires confirmation.
181263		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Na-Ri River, a tributary of the Pearl River basin in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
181263		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
181263		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181263		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181264		conservation	eng	More information on its population and the effects of habitat loss and collection for the ornamental fish trade on populations are needed for this species. &#160;The conspecificity of the striped and mottled forms also require confirmation.
181264		distribution	eng	This species is known from river drainages in the Malay Peninsula northwards to the Isthmus of Kra, central and southern Sumatra, and Borneo (except in the northeast).
181264		habitat	eng	This species inhabits blackwater habitats (swamps, streams, rivers) associated with peat swamp forests. The water in such habitats is very soft, highly acidic (pH ~3-4), and heavily stained with tannins.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181264		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, although recent survey data indicates that it is still a relatively common species. &#160;However, its primary habitat (peat swamp forests) have undergone massive anthropogenic destruction and degradation and such effects on the population need to be further studied.
181264		threats	eng	Although the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified, the greatest threat to this species are the loss of blackwater peat swamps to logging and plantation agriculture (since this is an obligatory peat swamp species).
181265		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181265		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Mekong River (Lancangjiang) basin and the Red River (Yuangjiang) basin in the Yunnan Province, southern China (Chu and Chen 1989). This species possibly occurs in the same river basins in northern Lao P.D.R. and northwestern Viet Nam, respectively.
181265		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181265		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181265		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181267		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181267		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The species is only known from the Mengla drainage, a  Mekong tributary in China (Xishuangbanna) and its tributary Nam Youan in northern Lao PDR.
181267		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
181267		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181267		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011</span><span lang="EN-GB">).</p>
181268		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181268		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Song Lo drainage, a part of the Red River drainage, Ha Giang Province, northern Viet Nam (Ng 2004).
181268		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
181268		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181268		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181269		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181269		distribution	eng	The species has an Northwest Pacific distribution. This species is known to occur from the Kanto district (middle part of Honshu) southward to the Ryukyu Islands in Japan and southern part of China including Taiwan and Hainan Island and the northern part of Viet Nam. Its northern range seems to extend to Miyago Prefecture, northern Honshu, Japan.
181269		habitat	eng	A very common goby, which not only inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms in estuarine waters, but also occasionally enters freshwaters (Larson 2001). Spawning occur from April to August (Kanabashira<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1980).<br/><br/>Spawning behaviour, egg and larval development of the species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is described by Kanabashira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. (</span>1980).
181269		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181269		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181271		conservation	eng	Amornsakchai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2000) showed that the species had declined as a  result of the construction of the Pak Mun dam on the Mun River in  Thailand, and it is assessed as 'Endangered' in Cambodia.&#160; However, further research into the populations in the rest of its range and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on it is needed.
181271		distribution	eng	The species is found in the middle and upper parts of the Chao Phraya and Mekong drainages in Thailand, Cambodia, and Lao PDR. Recorded from the Srepok River in Lao PDR; likely to be found in the upper parts of the Mekong tributaries in Viet Nam. Recorded from the Mun, Nam Songkhram and Nam Oon rivers in Thailand.
181271		habitat	eng	Found in rivers; the species requires cold, fast flowing water, and spawns in rapids. The species migrates in the Mekong through the Khone Falls (southern Lao PDR) and Sambor (<span class="st">Kratie Province, Cambodia).
181271		population	eng	No information is available across the species' range, however one study (Amornsakchai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) showed that the species, based on fisher surveys, had declined as a result of the construction of the Pak Mun dam on the Mun River in Thailand.
181271		threats	eng	Amornsakchai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  (2000) showed that the species had declined as a  result of the construction of the Pak Mun dam on the Mun River in  Thailand, and considered it likely to be impacted by the construction of&#160; dams on the Mekong (MRC 2010). Assessed as 'Endangered' in Cambodia.
181272		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
181272		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Lao PDR, from the Nam Ou to Nam Youan drainages, in the Mekong basin.
181272		habitat	eng	Observed mainly in small streams, in forest, in shallow water.
181272		population	eng	No information available.
181272		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
181273		conservation	eng	Habitat management based on local participation is needed.
181273		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality in the Nan<span> River drainage (Chao Phraya drainage; Thung Chang and Chalerm Phra Kiat Districts), Nan Province in northern Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/><span></span>
181273		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky streams, under forest covering, including waterfalls, especially in rapid zones. Found above 600 m asl, in moderately low temperature.
181273		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its type locality.
181273		threats	eng	Habitat degradation by small dams is the main threat to this species, while siltation caused by deforestation, infrastructures and dams, degrades or converses its habitats. Local fishing is a secondary threat.
181276		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181276		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the Nam Tha and Nam Youan drainages in northern Lao PDR. The Nam Youam flows to Xishuangbanna (Yunnan, China) and the species has been collected almost at the border and it is therefore considered as occurring in China.
181276		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected from streams with pebbles and stone bottom, with moderate flow.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><br/></span></p>
181276		population	eng	There is no information available.
181276		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181277		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181277		distribution	eng	The species has a southeastern Asia distribution. It is known from the the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam and the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand (Kottelat 2001), the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and Java (Doi 1997).
181277		habitat	eng	Inhabits medium to large-sized rivers (Taki 1978). Occurs in large rivers during dry season and in floodplain streams and canals during wet season. Feeds on algae (Taki 1978), phytoplankton (Rainboth 1996), fish and crustaceans (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005).&#160;Does not persist in impoundments (Rainboth 1996).
181277		population	eng	The species is not common in Cambodia (W. Rainboth, pers. comm.), though it is found regularly in the Great Lake and the Tonle Sap. It is common in the Chao Phraya (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm.), and seasonally common in northeastern Thailand, and common in the south of Thailand in Songkla lake. <br/><br/>A marked stock decline was observed in some parts of the region in previous years; e.g., the Tonlé Sap (Rainboth 1996), for instance.<br/><br/>There is some evidence (from the Chinese population) of&#160; cycles of decline and increase in population size; it was also thought to be de clinging in Indochina, but the population seems to have recently increased again. The cause is not known, but could be linked to rainfall patterns.<br/>.
181277		threats	eng	The most serious threats to this species are overfishing and river modification (e.g. dam construction, reclamation of flooplains etc.)
181278		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181278		distribution	eng	Described by Zhang 2005 from the Lian Jiang (a tributary of Bei Jiang in Zhu Jiang basin), Yangshan Guangdong, China. <br/><br/>Known from the Red River (Yuan Jiang) basin in southern China (Yunnan province) and the Pearl River basin in Guangdong, Guangxi (including coastal drainages) and Guizhou Provinces, southeastern China (Zhang 2005). Presence is likely but unconfirmed in associated parts of the Red River drainage in Viet Nam.
181278		habitat	eng	Recorded from freshwater rivers.
181278		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181278		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and dams, but there is no specific information available.
181280		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
181280		distribution	eng	This species was thought to be restricted to the Mekong delta, southern Viet Nam (Roberts 1998, Parenti 2008). Recorded from the Dong Nai River (Freyhof <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), and there is a recent record from southeastern Thailand (Bangkaja Sub-district, Mueang, Trat Province; Magtoon 2011). The species should be looked for in Cambodia.
181280		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal tidal habitats (Parenti 2008); Magtoon (2011) found a specimen in brackish water in coastal mangroves.
181280		population	eng	No information on population is available.
181280		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and&#160;degradation&#160;caused primarily by urban development and also agriculture.
181281		conservation	eng	Parts of the range of the species are in protected areas. However, since severals pecies seem to be confused under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">B. diabolica</span>, after clarification of the taxonomy, the range of some species may longer be in protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy is needed.
181281		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo (from Sarawak to the Mahakam drainages; M. Kottelat, pers. comm., 2011), from Sumatra (Batang Hari and most likely other drainages such as Musi), Malay Peninsula northwards to Sungaikolok (Thailand), southeastern Thailand (Khao Wong National Park in  Khao Chamao, Rayong Province; Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary in Chanthaburi Province; Sontirat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), Cambodia (western Tonle Sap basin) and Viet Nam (Phu Quoc Island; WAR 2010).
181281		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">The species is present in slow flowing streams, lakes, in areas covered by forests, especially swamp forests and peat swamp forests. It is found mostly among leave litter.
181281		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown globally, but some populations seem to be decreasing sharply, especially in Thailand..
181281		threats	eng	Destruction of the forest cover and modification of stream morphology (including bottom) result in local extirpation.
181284		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181284		distribution	eng	The species is widespread from the Mae Khlong to Mekong basins, including the Chao Phraya and smaller rivers, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; the range extends eastwards from  Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia as far as Viet Nam and to the south  through Malaysia (Peninsular and Sarawak (<span class="st">Rajang River basin)) to Indonesia (Kalimantan  and Sumatra).
181284		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine and tributaries up to submontane streams and lowland swamps, lateral movement to marshlands in flooding time. Also found in lakes and reservoirs.<br/><br/>Occurs in ditches, canals, and slow moving/standing water. Moves into flooded forest and non-forested floodplains ('Black' latitudinal movement) (Rainboth 1996).
181284		population	eng	Locally and seasonally common in its range. Local populations may have declined.
181284		threats	eng	Overfishing and wetland degradation are general main threats to this fish.
181285		conservation	eng	Part of the known range of this species occurs in protected areas (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181285		distribution	eng	This species is originally described from the Nam Leuk stream and the Nam San (a small tributary to Ngum reservoir), Lao PDR. Other populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laocypris </span>are known from the middle of the Xe Bangfai and middle Se Kong, but they apparently represent additional species (Kottelat 2000; pers. comm. 2011).
181285		habitat	eng	This species was found in riffles in clear water (Kottelat 2000).
181285		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens (Kottelat 2000).
181285		threats	eng	Construction of the Nam Leuk dam began in 1997 and  was completed in  1999. One of the two confirmed localities for this species occurs downstream of this dam. It is unclear  as to how much water (i.e. suitable habitat) is now available  downstream of the dam (Kottelat 2000). <span lang="EN-GB">Logging,  deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated  impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation  and agricultural pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).<br/><br/>There is also extensive dam development within the Nam Ngum basin, however it is not known if this will impact the species as all are below the known location of the species in the Nam San. There are also extensive mining activities within the Nam Ngum drainage (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011); the impact of these on the species is also uncertain.<br/></span>
181286		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution, population trends and threats
181286		distribution	eng	Described from Mae Poon <span class="st"><em></em> River, Chiang Mai, Thailand, and is restricted to the upper Chao Phraya basin in northern Thailand.
181286		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and river tributaries, occasionally in mainstreams.
181286		population	eng	An uncommon species.
181286		threats	eng	Its suitable habitats are in submontane and lowlands of northern Thailand. These areas are heavily deforested, and its population trend is poorly known.
181287		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is needed to determine the exact range of the species and confirm that the Tapi population is conspecific with the northern Thailand ones.
181287		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Thailand where it has been collected in the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya basin (upper Mae Nam Ping and Mae Nam Yom) and in the Tapi basin (peninsular Thailand). The disjunct range suggests that either it is present in intermediate drainages or that the identity of the population in the Tapi should be re-examined.
181287		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate current, over sand to gravel substrate.</p>
181287		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181287		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting the flow and increasing sedimentation. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
181288		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. Further research is required for this species to confirm its taxonomic position.
181288		distribution	eng	The species is known from West River (Xi Jiang) drainages in southeastern China (Huang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987) and northern Viet Nam (Huyn 1998).
181288		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181288		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181288		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181290		conservation	eng	Further information on the species distribution and threats is needed.
181290		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Peninsular Thailand where it has only been collected from  river systems draining the western coastline in the provinces of Ranong,  Phang Nga, Phuket, Krabi, Trang and Satun (Kullander and Britz 2002; Seriously Fish 2011), including Phuket Island (Ruber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Presence can be expected in adjacent parts of coastal drainages in Myanmar.
181290		habitat	eng	Habitat requirements are not confirmed but expected to occupy typical <em>Badis</em> habitats i.e. shallow, slow-moving streams and pools with dense marginal and/or submerged vegetation, and feed on small aquatic crustaceans, worms, insect larvae and other zooplankton (Seriously Fish 2011).
181290		population	eng	No information available.
181290		threats	eng	No information available. Lowland streams are likely to be impacted by agricultural and urban development, and by water abstraction, especially in limestone areas.
181291		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species distribution.
181291		distribution	eng	The species is known from tributaries of the lower Salween basin in eastern Myanmar (Salween tributaries and the upper Houngarao (Haungtharoaw)) and western Thailand (Nam Mae Sa Nga, Huay Khong, Menam Pai, and Menam Moei; <span>Roberts 1995).
181291		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries to submontane streams.
181291		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats.
181291		threats	eng	Mainstream dams may be a future threat. Current populations are likely to be impacted by sedimentation for forest clearance and agriculture.
181292		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
181292		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and rivers of the mountainous region in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, Ngyuen 2005).
181292		habitat	eng	Known from creeks and rivers.
181292		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181292		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181293		conservation	eng	No conservation actions have been recorded.
181293		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout southeast Asia, from the Mae Klong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand, the Mekong basin, to both slopes of the Malay Peninsula and to Indonesia (Java (Citarum <span class="st">(Tjitarum) River, Parongkalong, Preanger Province),  central Sumatra (Tan and Ng 2000) and Kalimantan, western Borneo (Roberts 1989). Range extends in Indochina to the Mekong delta in Viet Nam (Khoa and Huong 1993).
181293		habitat	eng	Found in larger rivers with fast flowing water over muddy substrate (Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005).  Appears to be restricted in the middle reaches of rivers (Tan and Ng 2000).  Feeds on insects, prawns and fishes. Occasionally found in lakes.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. 'White; type river movements. (Baran et al. 2005).
181293		population	eng	Common throughout its range in suitable habitats of its range, but less common in Peninsular Thailand.
181293		threats	eng	Pollution and overfishing may be threats to this species in some areas.
181294		conservation	eng	None required.
181294		distribution	eng	The species is known from the southern Malay Peninsula (Trang in southern Thailand (Monkolprasit 1997), Peninsular Malaysia, and perhaps connected drainages in Myanmar) to Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan (Kapuas Lakes area in Kalimantan;&#160;      Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak).
181294		habitat	eng	Inhabits peat swamps, lowland to montane streams and rivers.
181294		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
181294		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland conversion are threats to this fish in general, but level is not considered significant.
181295		conservation	eng	Research into the distribution, as well as its ecology, population and habitat trends is required for this species. One location (Kao Sabap, Chantaburi Province) is a National Park.
181295		distribution	eng	The species has only been collected rarely and has a disjunct distribution, however this may be a sampling artefact. Records are from Mekong tributaries in Lao PDR (the middle Xe Bangfai, a tributary of the Mekong; Kottelat 1998, 2001), the eastern slopes of the Gulf of southeastern Thailand (e.g., Ban Ang on Kao Sabap, Chantaburi Province), and in the northern Malay Peninsula (peninsular Thailand (e.g., Phatthalung Province) and northern peninsular Malaysia). Reported from peatswamp canals in Toh Daeng Peat, Narathiwat Province (Vidthayanon 2002, Vilasri 2002).
181295		habitat	eng	The species has uncertain habitat requirements. Generally been found in hill streams with clear water as well as in areas connected with springs or deep pools with abrupt slopes and boulders, but it has also been collected from shallow and slow-flowing muddy streams and from close to the sea in a deep sinkhole in a karstic area (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), and from lowland streams with slow flowing, dense vegetations and peatswamps, in shallow water, brownish and acidic&#160;(Vilasri 2002, C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
181295		population	eng	Locally uncommon throughout its range.
181295		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
181297		conservation	eng	Further research and monitoring is urgently needed into the species population trends and the impacts of proposed hydropower dams.
181297		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mekong River. It is recorded from Cambodia (including the Mekong, Srepok and Sesan Rivers), Lao PDR (from below and above the Khone falls), Viet Nam (Srepok River) and eastern and northeastern Thailand.
181297		habitat	eng	Found in flowing waters (Rainboth 1996) over rocky habitat; occurs in riffles and rapids during the dry season. Feeds on aquatic chlorophytes. Migrates seasonally up the Mekong mainstream (e.g., from the Tonle Sap River through the Khone Falls; Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
181297		population	eng	The species contributed 1,979 tonnes to annual fishery catches in the Lower Mekong (ICEM 2010), 1.6% of total catches. Considered to be one of the most common species in catches in northeastern Cambodia and southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009).
181297		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by dams and overfishing. It is considered vulnerable to disruption of its spawning migration from development of the proposed mainstream Mekong dams (e.g., ICEM 2010), which predicts                    "relatively low" (2% to15% for each dam passed) downstream mortality rates, dependent upon the nature of mitigation measure, if any, the proportion of the population that passes successfully through dam turbines, and the number of dams constructed along the migratory route.
181298		conservation	eng	Some of its population are in protected or managed areas.
181298		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Chao Phraya basin in northern Thailand (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
181298		habitat	eng	Found in submontane to hill streams and larger river tributaries.
181298		population	eng	Uncommon.
181298		threats	eng	Deforestation and stream degradation, and local overfishing are the main threats to this fish, but impacts are poorly known.
181299		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
181299		distribution	eng	Recorded from the <span>Chao Phraya (Thailand) and Mekong basins (Cambodia: Tonle Sap river and lake; Mekong mainstream; Srepok and probably other tributaries), Lao PDR, and Viet Nam.
181299		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Usually found as scattered individuals in shallow  and medium depths of large rivers.  Feeds on zooplankton and insects of  larger size than seen in other members of the genus (Froese and Pauly 2010). Moving seasonally to floodplains for feeding and possibly breeding, and also do short distant upstream migration in the rivers.
181299		population	eng	No information available.
181299		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams, overfishing and pollution.
181300		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species distribution, population trends, threats, and habitat and ecology.
181300		distribution	eng	Described from the Mun River at Udon, Thailand. Endemic to the Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia (Mekong, tributaries and the Tonle Sap lake).
181300		habitat	eng	Predominantly a riverine fish, preferring clear, well-oxygenated,  running water with substrates of sand, gravel, rock or mud. An adaptable species, it can also be found in both upland and lowland  waters. During the rainy season it migrates into areas of  inundated forest to feed and spawn. <span class="sheader5">Encountered also in rapid-running mountain streams of the middle Mekong (<span class="sheader5">Taki 1978; <span class="sheader5">Rainboth 1996), and in swamps, marshes and slow-flowing waters (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011)<br/><br/>It is now also found inhabiting many  stiller and/or permanent bodies of water as a result of human activity  including agriculture and damming of river channels. Anecdotal accounts from aquarists suggest that it feed  chiefly on crabs, shrimp and insects but also smaller fishes.</span>
181300		population	eng	Likely to be locally common.
181300		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by overfishing and perhaps habitat degradation.
181301		conservation	eng	Research required into species threats and distribution.
181301		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Salween basin in eastern Myanmar and associated tributaries in Mae Hong Son Province, western Thailand (Kottelat 1989).
181301		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader51">Inhabits <span class="sheader51">swift flowing <span class="sheader51">clear forested streams and rivers. Disappears when human activities degrade aquatic habitats, as seen in other members of the genus.</span>
181301		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon in suitable habitats.
181301		threats	eng	Some populations are impacted by overfishing. It may also be affected by habitat destruction due to human disturbance.
181302		conservation	eng	Harvest trends and its biology, population trend should be monitored, along with other species in its range.
181302		distribution	eng	The species was described from streams near Mongyai township, Lashio District, northern Shan State, Myanmar, a locality  which appears to fall within the Salween basin.
181302		habitat	eng	Small streams and marshlands with submerge vegetation.
181302		population	eng	Unknown.
181302		threats	eng	Overfishing for the aquarium trade and habitat degradation are potential threats.
181303		conservation	eng	None required.
181303		distribution	eng	The species is known from central, eastern to southern Thailand to Cambodia and Viet Nam (Mekong drainages and presumably the Pearl River drainages in northern Viet Nam), and from Malaysia (Peninsular and Sarawak (Rajang basin; Parenti and Lim 2005)) to Indonesia (Sumatra<span class="sheader5"> and Kalimantan (Kapuas River; Roberts 1989)) and Brunei (Larson 2009). It has also been recorded from Natuna Island (South China Sea; Tan and Lim 2004), Myanmar (Kullander and Fang 2009) and, as the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudogobiopsis wuhanlini&#160;</span> Zhong &amp; Chen, 1997, from southern China (<span>Guangdong and Fujian provinces (Pearl and Min rivers), and from Hong Kong; Larson 2009). The species has been extirpated from the type locality (canals and streams around Bangkok, Thailand).</span>
181303		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and lower reach rivers and estuaries.
181303		population	eng	Common to locally uncommon in its range. Was common around Bangkok in Thailand but disappeared recently, but common elsewhere.
181303		threats	eng	<span class="sheader5"><span>The species has been extirpated from the type locality (canals and streams around Bangkok, Thailand) as a result of urban development. Other threats are not known.</span>
181304		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181304		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the upper Chao Phraya River drainage in northern Thailand.
181304		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing, generally clear streams with a substrate of sand and gravel/rocks.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
181304		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181304		threats	eng	The threats to this species are well known, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181305		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
181305		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pahang (Malaysia) to the Tapi (Thailand) drainages and Ranong Province in Thailand.
181305		habitat	eng	The species has been observed in stretches of river with moderate flow, on sand or gravel bottoms covered with leave litter or amongst vegetation. It lives in leaf litter and vegetation and because of its secretive habits is usually overlooked. This is possibly not its preferred habitat, but the one it is most easily observed in.
181305		population	eng	No information available.
181305		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Because of its habitat, the species is easily overlooked by most surveys and in such cases threats and population decreases remain unnoticed.<br/></p>
181307		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat, population, and exploitation trends is needed.
181307		distribution	eng	Known only from the Tanintharyi River drainage in Tanintharyi  (previously Tenasserim) Division, southern Myanmar.
181307		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams and larger tributaries with muddy sand, and gravel bottoms.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005)
181307		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its range.
181307		threats	eng	The species was found in the aquarium trade over the last ten years  and was heavily harvested. Recently its availability has  decreased probably due to political instability within this area of Myanmar, and it is only occasionally found in trade. Protection of its  habitats (watershed forests, streams, and waterfalls) is uncertain.  Habitat and population trends need to be monitored.
181309		conservation	eng	There is no information available on the species conservation status.
181309		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from most river drainages in central Viet Nam e.g. the Song Ko River, Song Tan River and the confluent of the Song Tan River and Do River (Pellegrin 1936, Kottelat 1989). The species is also reported (Wu and Wu 2002) from China (rivers of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau), a record that requires confirmation.
181309		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
181309		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181309		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181310		conservation	eng	Research is required into the levels of harvest and other threats.
181310		distribution	eng	Known from the Maeklong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997) basin in Thailand, and from the Mekong basin (Kottelat 1998) from southern China (Yunnan) southwards (Chu and Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989).
181310		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams and larger river tributaries, moves to marshlands in the flooding season. (Rainboth 1996).
181310		population	eng	Seasonally and locally uncommon.
181310		threats	eng	Overfishing and habitat degradation are potential threats.
181311		conservation	eng	Research required into the species threats.
181311		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in mainland southeast Asia; from the <span>Maeklong <span>and Chao Phraya basins in <span>Thailand (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2005), the <span>lower Mekong drainage (Cambodia (the Mekong the Tonle Sap Lake and tributaries; Rainboth 1996), Lao PDR (Mekong to Vientiane), Thailand (including tributaries e.g., the Mun River), and Viet Nam), the Malay Peninsula (e.g., the <span class="st">Endau system in Peninsular Malaysia; Ng and Tan 1999)<span>, Indonesia (<span>Sumatra (Kottelat and Whitten 1996) and Kalimantan), and Sarawak (Malaysia).</span></span></span>
181311		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland marshlands, peat swamps and rivers.<br/>Occurs in small rivers with nearby areas of floodplain forest. (Rainboth 1996).
181311		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
181311		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
181312		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known.
181312		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed&#160;throughout southeast and east Asia; in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Thailand and China (Yunnan), and in the Ayeyarwaddy, Salween, Yuan Jiang and Nanpang Jiang basins, southwestern China,&#160;Taiwan&#160;and western Korea. There is one collection recorded from Kazakhstan, although presence here needs confirmation (Parenti 2008).
181312		habitat	eng	This species lives in clear water swamps (Parenti 2008) and lakes (Yang 1991).
181312		population	eng	The population trend is&#160;unknown,&#160;although this species is generally understood to be widespread,&#160;relatively&#160;abundant and represented by many populations throughout its range (Parenti 2008, Magtoon 2010).
181312		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and&#160;degradation&#160;caused by numerous anthropogenic&#160;activities occur throughout much of this species' range, however the impacts are currently unknown.
181313		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
181313		distribution	eng	The species is known from the headwater streams of the Nam Mo River  basin in central Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, 2001a, 2001b).
181313		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
181313		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181313		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
181314		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed including confirmation of the species identity.
181314		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and rivers in mountainous regions of northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
181314		habitat	eng	Creeks and rivers in mountainous regions.
181314		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181314		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181315		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181315		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Salween (Nujiang) drainage, Myanmar (Oo 2009) and China (Yunnan; Walker and Yang 1999), and is also reported from the Lancangjiang (Mekong; Walker and Yang 1999), although these records probably refer to another species.
181315		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">This species is found in swift-flowing, often torrential streams and rivers found at higher elevations.
181315		population	eng	No information on population size and its trends are available.
181315		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information  on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential  threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.  The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known  distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181316		conservation	eng	No specific measures in place. This species would benefit from protecting its feeding habitat. More research is needed on its life cycle.
181316		distribution	eng	The species is a Mekong endemic. It is found north of Kratie (Cambodia) up to northeastern Thailand, and Lao PDR.
181316		habitat	eng	The species is not believed to be a long distance migrator, however it enters streams and wetland areas during the rainy season. It spawns in February and March. It does not adapt well to reservoirs. It feeds on algae, shrimp and insects<span class="s1">. Leaves mainstream for flooded forest at rainy season (Rainboth 1996).
181316		population	eng	This is a locally common, but not abundant species throughout its range.
181316		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing, and habitat change from dams.
181317		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181317		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Salween basin in Mae Hong Son and Tak Provinces, northwest Thailand (Kottelat 1990), and can be expected in Myanmar in the Salween, however records from there require confirmation.
181317		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
181317		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181317		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181318		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species throughout its entire range are also needed. This species can highly benefit from deep water conservation areas (Baird and Flaherty 2005, Baird 2006).
181318		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong (Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand) and Chao Phraya (Thailand) basins.
181318		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers with some flow and deep water pools. It enters large streams to spawn in July and August, and then returns to the large rivers in November-December. It stays in deep water pools during the dry season. Feeds on insects, shrimp, crabs, snails and especially fish.<br/><br/><span class="sheader5">Migrates upstream through the Khone Falls in  June-July with other silurids and enters the flooded forest in  July-October, where it feeds heavily on cyprinids of the genus <em>Henicorhynchus</em> (Kottelat and Ng 1999).
181318		population	eng	Current evidence indicates that it is still relatively widespread and abundant. It is quite a common species in southern Lao PDR and northern Cambodia.
181318		threats	eng	This species is a highly sought food fish, and fishing pressure is a real threat. It is also likely to be significantly impacted by the development of dams in the Mekong, and has been impacted (in the Sesan River) by the loss or degradation of deep water pools (Baird and Meach 2005).
181319		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181319		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the tidal zone in the Mekong delta and the lower parts of Mekong River basin in Viet Nam and Cambodia (Akihito and Meguro1975, Rainboth 1996, Chea and Hortle 2005).
181319		habitat	eng	Occurs in medium to large-sized rivers of the lower Mekong River basin (Rainboth 1996). Feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Rainboth 1996).
181319		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181319		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181320		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
181320		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from rivers in southern China (Hainan Island), northern Viet Nam (the Hong River) and the Nam Ma River basin in Lao P.D.R. (Mai 1985, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Kottelat 2001a, b).
181320		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
181320		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181320		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
181321		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181321		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the upper Irrawaddy and Salween river drainages in southwestern China.
181321		habitat	eng	This species is found in swift-flowing rivers with a substrate at least partially consisting of large rocks.&#160; It is typically found only in elevated areas.
181321		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181321		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information  on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential  threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.  The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known  distribution have also not been adequately identified; the potential impact of hydropower dam development on the species requires research.
181322		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181322		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Song Cai and Song Duc My drainages in central Viet Nam that drain the eastern face of the Annamite Cordillera enter the sea in Nha Trang and Ninh Hoa respectively, although it is likely that it may also be found in neighbouring drainages that also drain the eastern slope of the range (Ng and Freyhof 2003). Described from the&#160;Song Duc My in Khanh Hoa province, central Vietnam (Ng and Freyhof 2003).
181322		habitat	eng	The species inhabits hilly streams and smaller rivers with riffles, where the fish was found hiding amongst coarse gravel and stones (Ng and Freyhof 2003).
181322		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181322		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
181323		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
181323		distribution	eng	Recorded only  from the Mae Nam Kok drainage, a tributary of the Mekong. It was collected immediately downstream of where the river enters Thailand from Myanmar and therefore its range is considered to extend into Myanmar, however it is only known from the type locality at present.
181323		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Found in slow to moderately flowing water, on gravel to stone bottom.</p>
181323		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181323		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. A proposed dam in Myanmar will impact the population in the main river downstream. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181325		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
181325		distribution	eng	<span>This species is <span>known from the Mekong (from Yunnan to Viet Nam), Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins (Doi 1997), as well as distributions elsewhere in Viet Nam, in Malay Peninsula<span> and Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).</span>
181325		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers and lakes at medium to shallow depths. Moves into flooded forest and returns to the river as water levels subside. Widely distributed but greatly reduced in numbers throughout much of its range. Juveniles feed on insects while adults on fish.
181325		population	eng	This species is now very rare in some parts of its range and has experienced massive declines, and has been almost extirpated in the Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins. Some populations within its range however have seen a much lower rate of decline, and it is not currently possible to infer a global decline rate.
181325		threats	eng	Extremely sensitive to gillnetting and acts as an indicator species due to its sensitivities to pollution (Roberts and Baird 1995). P<span>opulations are reported to have<span class="sheader5">  greatly reduced numbers through parts of its range as a result of overfishing. It is likely to be  extirpated from Chao Phraya, Mae Khlong, Lake Songkhla and Java, and  heavily reduced in parts of the Mekong basin.</span>
181326		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species native and introduced range.
181326		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in southeast Asia, from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong, and to the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and possibly associated drainages in eastern Myanmar), Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sarawak (Rahim<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009) and perhaps Sabah), and Brunei (Belait River; Parenti and Meisner 2003).<br/><br/>Known from Sumatra (Tan and Ng 2005) and Lake Tundai, Kalimantan (Doi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).  Occurs throughout the year in lakes and main rivers of Kapuas  Lakes area in Kalimantan Barat, Borneo (Ref. Kottelat and Widjanarti 2005). The species has been introduced elsewhere, including to Irian Jaya, Singapore and the Philippines.
181326		habitat	eng	Inhabits sluggish, heavily vegetated waters, including rivers, canals, swamps, lakes and ponds.
181326		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats. Uncommon in central Thailand, more common in the Malay Peninsula.
181326		threats	eng	Pollution and wetland conversion are threats to this fish in general, but level is not significant to species survival.
181327		conservation	eng	The species requires taxonomic confirmation.
181327		distribution	eng	This species was described from two specimens discovered central  Thailand (Fowler 1937). It has been reported from Cambodia (Kottelat 1985) and from southern Lao PDR (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1999), but the latter records may refer to another species.
181327		habitat	eng	Little known; uncommon; perhaps localised in distribution. (Rainboth 1996).
181327		population	eng	There is no information available.
181327		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
181328		conservation	eng	The significant conservation measure for this species would be for the dams on the Mekong to not be built. However the species would also benefit from harvest and trade monitoring and management.
181328		distribution	eng	An anadromous species that is found in the South China Sea, coastal China (Guangdong, Guangxi) and Viet Nam and the Mekong River (Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand). The species spawning grounds are unknown, but they are in northern/upper part of its range in the Mekong - individuals with eggs have been recorded as far north as Nam Ou in northern Lao PDR.
181328		habitat	eng	An anadromous species, that feeds in coastal waters and migrates up main channels to breed. The species specific spawning are unknown but thought to be in the upper parts of the Mekong within the species range. The species breeds every year, once they reach 1.5 to 2 kg (around one year). The average generation length is thought to be seven years.<br/><br/>There are published data (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007) that show that within the Mekong, it has a population that  migrates over 1,000 km up  the main channel of the river. There are  other smaller populations that migrate up  other smaller rivers within  its range.
181328		population	eng	The species is in decline across its range. Catch per unit effort data shows that there has been a slow decline (Hogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) but in Thailand the species has almost disappeared (C. Vidthayon, pers comm. 2011).<br/><br/>This species is the fifth most common species in the wet season wing trap fishery at the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR; it represents 5% of the catch by weight (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)
181328		threats	eng	The major current threat to the species is over harvesting during its migration and at sea. However, the species is very susceptible to damming along the large rivers within its migration route. There are many dams currently proposed along the species major migration route (the species major population used the Mekong) in the Mekong. If some or all of these dams go ahead the species will be blocked from its spawning grounds and will only survive in small numbers that can use other rivers to breed.
181329		conservation	eng	The species was assessed as Vulnerable in Thailand (Vidthayanon 2005).
181329		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Mekong River at 'Kemrat' (Khemmarat), eastern Thailand. Locally common in the lower Mekong and tributaries in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Mahasarakarm (2007) reports that the species is one of the few Mekong migratory species that in Thailand has only been reported from the Mun River. It has been reported in several tributaries in Viet Nam (including the Sesan) and Lao PDR.
181329		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams and tributaries, including larger lakes and reservoirs connected to rivers. Prefer submerged woods and rocky crevices. Mahasarakarm (2007) report that the species is migratory.<br/><br/>Found near decaying debris in medium rivers, moving to flooded forests at high water. (Rainboth 1996).
181329		population	eng	Locally common in Cambodia and Lao PDR, but uncommon in Thailand.
181329		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from logging and siltation may impact this fish, but the species is able to adapt to impounded waters, and is locally abundant in the Nam Ngum and Sirinthorn reservoirs in Lao PDR and Thailand.
181331		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known. More research is needed for this species.
181331		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the lower Mekong River in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand. It is also found in the Mae Khlong and Tapi of Thailand, and the Pahang River of Malaysia.
181331		habitat	eng	It is found in large rivers especially in areas with considerable vegetation along the edges of the river. It does not inhabit standing waters. It eats shrimp and snails, and a number of flooded forest vegetation (flowers and fruit).
181331		population	eng	This species is common in parts of its range that have significant vegetation in the river.
181331		threats	eng	The species is threatened by over-harvesting, and habitat degradation from the removal or loss (as a result of agro-chemical pollution) of vegetation. It is likely to be impacted by dams developed along the Mekong River.
181333		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species distribution.
181333		distribution	eng	Known from the Malay Peninsula (Chumporn Province to Pattani and Satun) in southern Thailand and northern Malaysia. There is also a record from Singapore, which suggests a disjunct distribution.
181333		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, peat marsh, and water in shallow zones; adapted to paddy fields.
181333		population	eng	Locally common.
181333		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to intensive agriculture is an ongoing threat. Genetic contamination (hybridisation) with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Betta splendens</span> occurred in some areas as a result of release from collections.
181335		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
181335		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is known from the Red River drainage in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001) and in Yunnan Province, southern China (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
181335		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the species ecology, but it has been recorded from rivers.
181335		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181335		threats	eng	The species will be impacted by anthropogenic river modifications and pollution, however no details are available.
181336		conservation	eng	Protected by Thai law. Monitoring of population and habitat trends is required, as well as research into threats.
181336		distribution	eng	The species is known only from subterranean streams in Tham Phra Sai Ngam cave of Nernmaprang karst formation in Thung Salaeng Luang National Park, Pitsanulok Province, Thailand. The Extent of Occurrence, based on the extent of the karst limestone, is estimated at less than 50 km<sup>2</sup>.
181336		habitat	eng	Specific to torrent subterranean streams. Inhabits cave with only stagnant water in the dry  season and with reportedly only moderate flow in the rainy season. Described from c.200 m from the cave entrance.  Mostly found resting on  the bottom, sometimes free swimming, near crevices where they hide if  chased.<br/><br/>  Depend on cave micro-organism and organic matter, very sensitive to disturbance, water quality and hydrographic change.
181336		population	eng	Limited information available; considered to occur in low numbers.
181336		threats	eng	Human disturbance from tourism activities may threaten the species. Agriculture and deforestation in the catchment are future major threats.
181337		conservation	eng	Research into the species threats is needed.
181337		distribution	eng	The species has a Southeast Asia distribution. It is known from northeastern Borneo (Sabah and Kalimantan) (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993), the Natuna Islands (Indonesia) (Tan and Lim 2004), peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and the Mekong delta, upstream as far as Cambodia (Rainboth 1996).
181337		habitat	eng	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters, in areas of aquatic vegetation, including mangrove roots (Rainboth 1996). Feeds on zooplankton (Rainboth 1996).
181337		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181337		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species. Habitat loss (e.g., mangrove clearance) will impact the species.
181338		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
181338		distribution	eng	The species is known from Gâm River in northern Viet Nam (Nà Hang district, Tuyên Quang province; Nguyen 2005).
181338		habitat	eng	Described from a river; no further details available.
181338		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181338		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181339		conservation	eng	Taxonomic work is required to confirm the status of the species.
181339		distribution	eng	The species is only known from  Gâm River in northern Viet Nam (Na Hang district, Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen 2005), from where it was described.
181339		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
181339		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181339		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181340		conservation	eng	None required at present.
181340		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong basin in northern Lao PDR (Kottelat 1998), and from the Chao Phraya (Ping, Yom and Nan basins) in Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).
181340		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits streams with clear, flowing waters, often close to riffles, and with sandy bottoms (Kottelat 1998; W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibit small peak in beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
181340		population	eng	No information available.
181340		threats	eng	The species is not thought to have any major threats at present, and is not thought likely to be impacted by dams.
181341		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the taxonomic position of the species is required.
181341		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opsariichthys bea</span> is known from the type locality, the Lam River Basin in central Viet Nam (Ngyuen and Ngo 2001).
181341		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
181341		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181341		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
181342		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the impacts of threats, especially dams.
181342		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Salween and the middle Ayeyarwaddy basins, in southern China (Yunnan), Myanmar, and adjacent tributaries in western Thailand (Mae Hong Song and Tak provinces; Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
181342		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and tributaries, from lowland to montane streams and waterfalls.<br/>The species' dominant presence at the Khone falls is during the dry season, it exhibits a small peak at the beginning of the rainy season (Baran<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>et al.</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;</span>2005).
181342		population	eng	This species is locally common. Its range has declined in Thailand.
181342		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future on both the Salween and Ayeyarwaddy rivers.<br/><br/>The species&#160;is also thought to be at risk of competition from the non-native cyprinid <em>Barbonymus gonionotus</em>  which has become established in the Salween after escaping  from aquaculture projects in the area.
181343		conservation	eng	Little is known of the species and research is required to confirm its taxonomic position. It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181343		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Red River (Sông Hông) in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
181343		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
181343		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181343		threats	eng	No information available.
181344		conservation	eng	Research is required for this species to confirm its range, population trends, and threats.
181344		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Salween basin (a tributary of Houngarao, Tenasserim) in eastern Myanmar. Earlier records of the species from the Mae Khlong basin (Doi 1997) have now been identified as another species (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).
181344		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and streams.
181344		population	eng	Locally uncommon.
181344		threats	eng	Its habitats are in remote areas. Threats are unknown, except mainstream dam projects in the future.
181345		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species distribution and potential threats.
181345		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the (Tanintharyi) Tenasserim River, southeastern Myanmar. Further research is required, and the species could be present in associated streams in western Thailand.
181345		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams and larger tributaries in turbid waters.
181345		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its range.
181345		threats	eng	Hydropower dam development within the species habitat is a future threat to this species.
181347		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures at place. Research is needed into the species taxonomy, distribution, population trends, habitat requirements, and threats. The type locality is <span class="st">a national park and an UNESCO World Heritage Site.
181347		distribution	eng	The species is presently known only from the Phong Nha-Ke Bang mountain region in the Minh Hoa district, Quang Binh Province, Central Viet Nam (Mai 1978; Ngyuen and Ngo 2001).
181347		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology. The type locality is in karst limestone mountains.
181347		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181347		threats	eng	No information available.
181348		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
181348		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Xe Kong River drainage (a major tributary of the Mekong River) in central Viet Nam and southern Lao PDR.
181348		habitat	eng	There is no published information on the biology of this species, but like congeners, it most likely inhabits hillstreams with a swift current, clear water and a substrate of rocks/sand.<br/><br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak at beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
181348		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
181348		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
181350		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place.<span lang="EN-GB"> Part of the known range of this species occurs in protected areas. The level of protection provided varies across the species range and illegal dynamite fishing and poaching occurs in some areas (Kottelat, pers. comm., 2011).
181350		distribution	eng	Found in Nala and Buyuan rivers in Xishuang Banna, Upper Sekong, upper Nam Kading (Nam Theun and Nam Ngouang), upper Nam Ou, the upper Xekaman, and upper Nam Tha rivers in Laos (M. Kottelat and I. Baird, pers. comm. 2011). Continued presence in China, where it was described, requires confirmation.
181350		habitat	eng	A large species of predatory fish which reaches up to 70-100 kg in weight (Baird 1999). It occurs in deep pools in the upper reaches of large rivers. It is not considered migratory (Kottelat 2001).
181350		population	eng	Population numbers of this species are considered to be low, but this may be natural as this is a large predatory fish. It is uncertain as to whether this species still occurs in China. Population numbers are considered to be decreasing (Baird, Kottelat and Bouakhamvongsa, pers. comm., 2011).
181350		threats	eng	Dams (Sekong 4 and 5, Xekaman 1, 3, and 4 dams) have significantly altered parts of this species Area Of Occupancy. This species is illegally captured by dynamite fishing in deep pools. Its large size means it is a prime target for poachers. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected. New hydro-electric power projects are planned on all rivers within the species entire geographic range (Kottelat and Baird, pers. comm. 2011).
181351		conservation	eng	Harvest management is urgently needed.
181351		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Malay Peninsula from southern Thailand and southeastern Thailand to Kalimantan, and southeast Thailand to western Cambodia. The species is possibly present in Viet Nam in the lower Dong Nai River basin.
181351		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams and swamps, especially peatland and lowland forest covered streams, as well as from larger turbid rivers.
181351		population	eng	It is thought that the population might have suffered some decline from collection for the aquarium trade.
181351		threats	eng	Overfishing and marsh and peatswamp forest lost are main threats.
181353		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of its range are in protected areas.
181353		distribution	eng	The species has been collected from the middle Mekong basin in northeastern Thailand, in central Lao PDR (Xe Bangfai, Xe Don drainages, and Xe Kong; Kottelat 1998, 1990, 2001, 2011) and is possibly also present in Cambodia (Rainboth 1996). Records from China are misidentifications.
181353		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to rock substrate. Frequently observed in small creek, even in very shallow water.</p>
181353		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
181353		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
181354		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
181354		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the upper Sesan River, a tributary of Mekong River, in central Viet Nam only (Nguyen and Ngo 2001). It expected to occur in Sesan river drainage in Lao PDR.
181354		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no information available on the species ecology.
181354		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
181354		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
181356		conservation	eng	Habitat and population trends should be monitored.
181356		distribution	eng	Described from the Mekong basin, Nong Khai Province, Thailand. Recorded from the upper tributaries of the Mekong basin, from northern  Thailand (Nong Khai and Chiang Rai  Provinces, northern Thailand), northern Lao PDR and recorded from several localities in northern Myanmar (including a  tributary of the Chindwin).
181356		habitat	eng	Inhabits small, well-oxygenated, running streams under forest cover, and backwaters of larger rivers, but has also been collected from backwaters of larger  rivers, and there exists a single record from the main Mekong channel  itself.
181356		population	eng	Locally common in its range.
181356		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
181359		conservation	eng	<p><em><span lang="EN-US">Sotalia</em><span lang="EN-US"> sp. are listed in Appendix I of CITES and <em>S. guinanensis</em> is listed in Appendix II of CMS. The species is legally protected in most of the range countries.</span></p>
181359		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The Guiana Dolphin (<em>sensu</em> Flores and da Silva 2009) is found mostly in shallow waters near shore and in estuaries along the Atlantic coast of northwestern South America, from Florianópolis, Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil (27º35'S), northwards into the Caribbean Sea and along the coast of Central America to the mouth of the Layasiksa River, the west side of Waunta Lagoon (13°40'N), northeastern Nicaragua (Carr and Bonde 2000) and possibly Honduras (15°58'N, 79°54'W) (Flores and da Silva 2009). In the Orinoco River, there are frequent records of <em>Sotalia </em>dolphins at Ciudad Bolívar, some 300 km upstream, which are suspected to correspond to <em>S. guianensis</em> (da Silva and Best 1996, Meade and Koehnken 1991, Flores and da Silva 2009). Boher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1995) reported a sighting in the middle Orinoco, 800 km inland. Although there are disputed reports of <em>Sotalia </em>dolphins in the upper Orinoco, and even in the Apure River (Hershkovitz 1963, Borobia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, but see Boher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995), there are no confirmed records from the upper Orinoco and Apure Rivers, or in the lower reaches of most of the major Orinoco tributaries, in a compilation of sightings over the period from 1983 to 1990 (Meade and Koehnken 1991). It is assumed that <em>Sotalia </em>dolphins cannot traverse the rapids at the Casiquiare Channel, which connects the Orinoco and Amazon River basins (da Silva and Best 1996).</p>
181359		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-US">Preferred habitats appear to be estuaries, bays, and other shallow, sheltered coastal waters. The southernmost limit of this species, at Santa Catarina State, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Simões-Lopes 1986), is thought to be defined by the low sea-surface temperature under influence of the Malvinas/Falkland Current (Flores and da Silva 2009), though no supporting data exist for this. <span lang="EN-US">In Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, the dolphins prefer the deeper channels (25 m depth) and avoid areas shallower than about 6 m (Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 2007). In open coastal areas, they seem to avoid deep waters (e.g. <em></em>Edwards and Schnell 2001), although they can be sighted several kilometers from shore in areas where the continental shelf is shallow or in waters over offshore banks such as Abrolhos Bank, up to 70 km off the coast of Bahia State, northeastern Brazil (Rossi-Santos <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Orinoco River, dolphins seen as far up as Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela, probably belong to this species (Flores and da Silva 2009).&#160; <em>S. guianensis </em>is also often seen at the mouth of the Amazon River. Fresh water from the Amazon River reaches hundreds of kilometers into the sea (Muller-Karger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 1988, quoted in Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), so the animals sampled in Pará were actually living in fresh water. It would be interesting to analyze samples from intermediate locations along the Amazon River to determine how far upstream <em>S. guianensis </em>occurs and whether there is sympatry in any region with <em>S. fluviatilis.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>S. guianensis</em><span lang="EN-US"> is patchily distributed (Borobia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, Flores and da Silva 2009) as evident from the relatively small home ranges of individuals. In its southernmost limit at Baia Norte, estimated individual home ranges were only about 10-15 km² (Flores and Bazzalo 2004). In the Cananéia estuary, São Paulo state, where Guiana dolphins were found in water depths ranging from 1 to 23 m, observed home ranges varied from 1.6 to 22.9 km<sup>2</sup> (Santos and Rosso 2007). <span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Guiana dolphins consume both marine and estuarine species such as demersal and pelagic fish of the families Sciaenidae, Clupeidae, Mugilidae, Trichiuridae and Batrachoididae as well as neritic cephalopods, family Loliginidae (Borobia and Barros 1991, da Silva and Best 1994, 1996, Santos <em>et al.</em> 2002, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). They also prey on penaeid shrimps (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2002) and crabs (Flores and da Silva 2009). Young age classes of teleost fishes, including over 60 species, are usually the most important items in the diet (Flores and da Silva 2009). In northern Rio de Janeiro, for example, lengths of fish preyed upon by <em>S. guianensis</em> ranged from 1.2 to 106.9 cm and mantle lengths of cephalopods varied from 3.4 to 22.2 cm (Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). Sciaenid fishes that produce relatively loud sounds by swim bladder contraction were observed as common prey items. Feeding occurs both individually and in large groups.<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Predators of Guiana dolphins may include killer whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>) (Bittencourt 1983) and sharks, although there are no confirmed records other than an observed predation attempt by a bull shark, <em>Carcharhinus leucas</em> (Santos and Gadig in press). <span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Males reach sexual maturity at 7 years and at body lengths of 170-175 cm. Females mature at 5-8 years of age and at body lengths of 164-169 cm (Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). Calving is year-round and gestation lasts around 11-12 months, with newborn calves ranging in size from 90 to 100 cm (Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004, Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002). <span lang="EN-US">The reproductive cycle is estimated at 2 years, with no marked seasonality in ovulation or timing of birth (Santos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001, Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004)<span lang="EN-US">. The breeding system is promiscuous (Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002) within a fusion-fission society (Santos and Rosso 2008). <span lang="EN-US">Females older than 25 years have senescent ovaries (Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002). Maximum observed age (uncalibrated Growth Layer Groups) was 29 for males and 30 for females (Rosas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Santos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). <span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Group size ranged between 1 and 40 individuals, and groups of 2 -10 were most common in Guanabara Bay, southeastern Brazil (Azevedo <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the Cananeia estuary, group size varied from lone individuals to aggregations of up to 60 (mean ± SD: 12.4 ± 11.4 individuals) (Santos and Rosso 2007).&#160; <span lang="EN-US">No seasonal variation in group size was observed in either of those studies. Nursery groups were twice as large as non-calf groups in Guanabara Bay and much more frequent in the Cananeia estuary. <span lang="EN-US">In the Cayos Miskito Reserve, Nicaragua, the mean group size was 3 (Edwards and Schnell 2001). Although Flores and da Silva (2009) reported that Guiana dolphins do not associate with bottlenose dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncatus</em>) in Brazilian waters, there are records of aggression of bottlenose dolphins towards Guiana dolphins in Santa Catarina State (Wedekin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</span></span></span></span></span></span>
181359		population	eng	The population structure and phylogeography of <em>S. guianensis </em>along the Brazilian coast was investigated by Cunha (2007), using mtDNA control region sequences. Different analyses showed evidence for at least six MUs: Pará, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Bahia, Espírito Santo and the South-Southeastern area (from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states). Those MUs were highly differentiated, indicating severe restrictions to gene flow among them (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). An interesting finding was a lack of variation in the control region of dolphins from South-Southeastern Brazil (between parallels 22º and 25ºS, extending 900 km). Caballero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) analyzed populations of <em>S. guianensis </em>from the northern part of South America, Central America and the Caribbean and proposed two MUs for that area: one for Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, and another for Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. Those authors noted that dolphins from Maracaibo Lake, despite being included in the first MU, had some unique haplotypes and advised that their genetic distinctiveness be further investigated. However, only three individuals from southern Maracaibo were analyzed; the others were from the northern portion of the lake where it opens to the Gulf of Venezuela. Clearly, further analyses of samples from Maracaibo Lake must be analyzed<span lang="EN-US">.<br/><br/>This structuring pattern is probably due to the patchy and discontinuous distribution of <em>Sotalia</em> <em>guianensis</em> (Borobia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, Flores and da Silva 2009). Abundance estimates are not available for the total population or for any of the proposed MUs. Although the species appears relatively abundant in many parts of its range, estimates of absolute or relative abundance, such as minimum number sighted, encounter rate, or estimated minimum density, are available only for small areas.&#160; Not all estimates are consistent and some lack methodological rigor. Some of the differences observed in the same areas over time might be due to different methodologies rather than decrease or increase. For instance, Geise (1991) estimated that there were just over 400 dolphins in Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro State), southeastern Brazil. More recent estimates using photo-identification mark-recapture analysis indicate that there may be only 69-75 individuals in that area (Pizzorno 1999). It is not clear whether the difference is a result of population decline or of using different estimation methods. Geise <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) estimated that approximately 704.8 ± 367.7 individuals inhabited the area around Cananéia (São Paulo State), also in southeastern Brazil, where recent mark-recapture estimates suggest there are only 290-360 dolphins (Santos and Zerbini 2006). In Sepetiba Bay (Rio de Janeiro State), density was estimated as 2.79 dolphins/km², implying a total of 1,269 individuals (CI=739-2,196) (Flach <em>et al.</em> 2008). Density and abundance were similar for the entrance and interior of the Bay. In southern Brazil, abundance has been estimated only for Babitonga Bay (Santa Catarina State) where estimates varied from 231 (CI = 147-365; density of 1.44/km²) in 2001 to 154 (CI = 71-332; density = 0.96/km²) in 2003. Density of dolphins in Guaratuba Bay and Paranaguá and Antonina estuaries varied from 0.15/km² in the Bay (Filla 2004) to 11.56-23.16/km² in the estuaries, respectively (Filla 2004, Japp 2004). Bolaños-Jiménez (in IWC 2007) reported observations of groups as large as 70 in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. In Colombia, Bossenecker (1978) estimated 100-400 dolphins near the mouth of the Magdalena River and noted that the species was abundant in the Gulf of Cispata, near San Antero (Colombia).&#160; In Golfo de Morrosquillo, Colombia, an abundance of 70-90 individuals was estimated based on mark-recapture of photo-identified animals (Dussán-Duque <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Sotalia</em> have been described as common in the Marowijne River (border between Suriname and French Guiana) and also in the mouths of the larger rivers of Suriname (Husson, 1978, in da Silva and Best 1994, Duplaix, 1980). In Guyana, they have been reported from the Demerra, Cuyuni, Mazaruni and Essequibo river mouths (Williams 1928, Herald 1967 in da Silva and Best 1994). Edwards and Schnell (2001) estimated that there were about 50 <em>Sotalia</em> in Nicaragua's Cayos Miskito Reserve.
181359		threats	eng	<p><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place> dolphins are vulnerable to incidental mortality in fishing gear, especially monofilament gillnets, seine nets, and shrimp and fish traps (da Silva and Best 1994, IWC 2007). Significant catches have been reported in many parts of their range (<em>e.g</em>. Siciliano 1994, da Silva and Best 1994, 1996, Beltrán 1998, Di Beneditto 2003, IWC 2007). In addition there has been some direct killing for human consumption and for shark and shrimp bait (da Silva and Best 1994, IWC 2007). Beltran (1998) recorded 938 animals taken in drift nets from the <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">port</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> of <st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Arapiranga</st1:placename></st1:placename> (<st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pará</st1:placename></st1:place> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place>) during the summer of 1996 and a further 125 taken during the winter. These data were collected by interviewing fishermen in the port after trips and collecting carcasses. More recently, Monteiro-Neto <em>et al. </em>(2004) estimated that approximately 90 <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place></st1:place> dolphins were killed every year in the passive gill net fisheries along the Brazilian coast. In the metropolitan area of <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Fortaleza</st1:city></st1:city>, the capital of <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ceará</st1:placename></st1:place> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place>, 32 bycaught animals were recorded (Monteiro-Neto <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>  <p>Although there is no evidence of past or recent commercial hunting, molecular data indicated that dolphin-derived products illegally sold in the Brazilian Amazon as amulets or love charms came from <em>S. guianensis</em> instead of from Botos (<em>Inia geoffrensis</em>) as advertised by sellers (Cunha and Solé-Cava 2007, Gravena<em> et al.</em> 2008, Sholl <em>et al. </em>2008). They were probably accidentally captured in the Amazon estuary and along the adjacent Pará and Amapá coasts. <em>S. guianensis</em> amulets were found not only in Belém (<st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pará</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, at the Amazon Estuary) but also in <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Manaus</st1:city></st1:city>, <st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Amazonas</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State,</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> and <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Porto Velho</st1:city></st1:city>, <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rondônia</st1:placename></st1:place> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place>, despite the availability of botos and tucuxis in those areas. In one market in <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Porto Velho</st1:place></st1:city></st1:place></st1:city>, however, 90% of the eyeballs sold as dolphin products were in fact from pigs or sheep (Gravena <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is unclear what proportion of the dolphins that supplied or supply such markets are taken incidentally in fishing gear as opposed to killed deliberately.&#160; Dolphin charms may originate both from bycatch in legal fisheries and as a secondary product of the illegal catch of dolphins for bait (Cunha<em> et al</em>. 2010). The catch or bycatch of <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place></st1:place> dolphins for such purposes can be high. A single boat had 83 carcasses on board (footage done obtained by IBAMA and broadcast by a Brazilian television network on 07/16/2007), probably intended as bait for the shark fishery. Some Guiana dolphins taken off the coast of Panamá and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> in the late 1970s were kept in captivity in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place></st1:place> for more than 20 years (Terry 1986). A few dolphins are still kept in Colombian facilities, although since 2005 live-capture for captivity has been illegal (Culik 2004).</p>  <p>Pollution from industrial and agricultural activities may be a threat both directly, through the destruction of habitat, and indirectly, through contamination of prey. Large harbours such as Baia de Guanabara (Rio de Janeiro), Santos (São Paulo) and Paranaguá (Paraná), are very polluted with effluent, including heavy metals, posing a serious potential threat (da Silva <em>et al.</em> 2003, Medeiros and Bícego 2004, Bícego <em>et al.</em> 2006). The continued use of insecticides containing substances banned elsewhere is common in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South America</st1:place></st1:place> (da Silva and Best 1994, Yogui <em>et al</em>. 2003). Studies that included determination of micropollutant concentrations in Guiana dolphins from <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guanabara Bay</st1:place></st1:place> demonstrated the estuary to be a world hotspot for environmental contamination by persistent bioaccumulative toxicants (PBTs). In general, the PBT concentrations found in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place></st1:place> dolphins from this area are in the same range as the levels verified in coastal cetaceans from highly industrialized countries of the Northern Hemisphere. This latter statement holds for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (Lailson-Brito <em>et al.</em> in press), polychlorinated dibenzo-<em>p</em>-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzo-<em>p</em>-furans (PCDFs), dioxin-like PCBs (Dorneles <em>et al.</em> 2008a), organotin compounds (Dorneles <em>et al.</em> 2008b), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (Dorneles <em>et al</em>. 2008c), as well as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (Dorneles <em>et al</em>. 2010). &#160;Although the Cananéia estuary is known to be polluted by both chlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine concentrations were lower in the blubber of Guiana dolphins than in that of small cetaceans from developed areas (Yogui <em>et al.</em> 2003). Mercury is used in the refining of fluvial gold and then, like the pesticides, probably enters the aquatic food chain of the rivers and coasts. Mercury and selenium were found in the livers of two <em>Sotalia</em> from <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Suriname</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region> (da Silva and Best, 1994 and ref. therein). The detection of Cd, Hg and Pb in tissue samples of <em>S. guianensis</em> off the coast of Ceará, <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>, indicated that heavy metals are locally present in the water and bioaccumulation probably occurs through the food web. Contamination levels were not considered critical, but they could be related to Ceará's growing industrial development (Monteiro-Neto <em>et al.</em> 2002). Exploration for oil in the offshore regions of <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Brazil</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Venezuela</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Colombia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region> may not pose a direct threat to <em>Sotalia,</em> but spills in estuaries could affect local subpopulations (da Silva and Best 1994, Culik 2004). In recent years, skin diseases have been observed in estuaries (Van Bressem <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>
181361		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions for the Flagtail Swellshark. The distribution and status of this species needs to be better defined.</p>
181361		distribution	eng	<p>The Flagtail Swellshark is only known with certainty from off northeastern Queensland, Australia (Murray Isles and Lihou Reef), but may possibly also occur around New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Fiji (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
181361		habitat	eng	<p>The Flagtail Swellshark, a deepwater benthic catshark, is presently recorded from only two specimens trawled on the northeastern Australian continental slope at depths of 480–700 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum size is at least 74 cm total length (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Nothing is known of the biology of the species.</p>
181361		population	eng	<p>The Flagtail Swellshark is rare in museum collections and is most likely rare to uncommon in the wild.</p>
181361		threats	eng	<p>Areas where the few known specimens of the Flagtail Swellshark were collected receive little fishing effort. This species may be naturally rare, but no threats are apparent at present.</p>
181543		conservation	eng	None known.
181543		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a limited number of very dispersed populations. This species is found in temporary rivers, pools and swamps in western Sudan and Sahel Savannah areas. From the Gambia River system via the Niger basin to the Lake Chad drainage. An extension to the south to the Accra Plains in Southern Ghana. The complete range of distribution of this species is not known. Known distribution in Ghana: known from the upper reaches of the Volta, but also reported from Accra plains in southern Ghana . (Dankwa <em>et al.</em>, 1999)
181543		habitat	eng	This species occurs in temporary rivers, pools and swamps. This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory. 6.5 cm max TL. Bottom spawner, 1.5 month incubation.
181543		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181543		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and drought.
181544		conservation	eng	None known. Research is needed into this species taxonomy and distribution.
181544		distribution	eng	<em>Gephyroglanis habereri</em> is only known from the type locality in the Dja River, Central Congo  River basin, Cameroon.
181544		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181544		population	eng	No information available.
181544		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181545		conservation	eng	None known.
181545		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in north western Cameroon in the following rivers: Noun, Djerem, Sanaga, Kéllé, Mape, Assamba, Mbam, Mekay, Meng, Nchi, Nkoup, Mvi, Mevobo, affluent de Kim and Mifi-Nord.
181545		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181545		population	eng	No information available.
181545		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181546		conservation	eng	None known.
181546		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura bovei</em> is limited to the Lower Congo. The type locality is Vivi, near Matadi.
181546		habitat	eng	<em>Phractura bovei</em> is a demersal species.
181546		population	eng	No information available.
181546		threats	eng	None known.
181548		conservation	eng	None
181548		conservation	eng	None known.
181548		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution lies within the Malagarasi Ramsar Site. Population trends must be monitored.
181548		conservation	eng	Within the Malagarasi Ramsar Site.
181548		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo parvus</em> is widely distributed throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other West African coastal basins (Lévêque 1990). It is also known from Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarazi River basin.
181548		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other coastal basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo parvus</span> is widely distributed in the Middle and Upper Congo River.
181548		distribution	eng	The species is known fromMalagarasi River and also found in Congo river system.
181548		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Guninea to the Congo and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo parvus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other West African coastal basins (Lévêque 1990). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta and Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other coastal basins.
181548		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic fish.
181548		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo parvus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It is found in stony river beds and in mountain pools formed by small brooks (Bianco 1981).
181548		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo parvus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It is found in stony river beds and in mountain pools formed by small brooks (Bianco 1981) where it grazes algae on firm surfaces.
181548		habitat	eng	Found in deep waters and  rapids where it grazes algae on firm surfaces
181548		population	eng	Limited information available. Population sizes are not known, but it is rare in fisheries catches in Malagarasi River.
181548		population	eng	No available data.
181548		population	eng	No information available.
181548		population	eng	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches in Malagarasi R.
181548		threats	eng	None known
181548		threats	eng	None known.
181548		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion on river basins.
181548		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on river basins could threaten east African populations.
181549		conservation	eng	None known.
181549		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys mediolateralis</em> is known from the upper Kwango River drainage and from the upper Kasai, Central Congo River basin, northeastern Angola.
181549		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers and brooks (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
181549		population	eng	No information available.
181549		threats	eng	Threats of artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining activities in this region.
181550		conservation	eng	Information not available.
181550		conservation	eng	None known
181550		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181550		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Dalophis boulengeri</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>At global level it is present from Mauritania to Angola.
181550		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Reported from estuaries along the African coast from Mauritania to Angola (Leiby 1990) Recently a specimen was identified more than 100km inland from a small tributary of the Kouilou River basin near Kakamoeka (Congo).
181550		distribution	eng	This species is found along the west African coast, from Mauritania to Congo. It is a very common species on sandy/muddy bottoms near estuaries, that ascends the lower courses of rivers and often enters lagoons<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Reported from estuaries along the central African coast. Recently a specimen was identified more than 100km inland from a small tributary of the Kouilou River basin near Kakamoeka (Congo).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is common along the entire west Africa coast.
181550		habitat	eng	A common benthic species, burrowing in sand or mud in shallow waters, near estuaries and lagoons (Bauchot 1990, Leiby 1990). The species can swim upstream the lower course of rivers and enters estuaries (Bauchot 1990). A specimen has been collected in fully freshwater in the Kouilou River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalophis boulengeri </span>remains burrowed during the day, with only the head out of the sand, and swims freely during the night (Blache and Bauchot 1972). It is a demersal, mainly nocturnal species. During the day, this fish lies buried in the sediment with the head out.
181550		habitat	eng	A common benthic species, burrowing in sand or mud in shallow waters, near estuaries and lagoons (Bauchot 1990; Leiby 1990). The species can swim upstream the lower course of rivers and enters estuaries (Bauchot 1990). A specimen has been collected in fully freshwater in the Kouilou River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalophis boulengeri</span> remains burrowed during the day, with only the head out of the sand, and swims freely during the night (Blache and Bauchot 1972). It is a demersal, mainly nocturnal species. During the day, this fish lies buried in the sediment with the head out.
181550		habitat	eng	Brackinsh and marine. Mainly nocturnal. During the day, this fish lies buried in the sediment with the head out.
181550		population	eng	Information not available.
181550		population	eng	No information available.
181550		threats	eng	Information not available.
181550		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181551		conservation	eng	None known.
181551		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Nyong, Kribi and Lobe (Cameroon), Ntem (Cameroon and Gabon) and Ogowe Rivers (Gabon).
181551		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias longior</em> is a demersal species.
181551		population	eng	No information available.
181551		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181552		conservation	eng	None known.
181552		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Ogowe River drainage system and Estuaria de Gabon with the inflowing lower Komo River system in northeastern Gabon and the adjacent southern Equatorial Guinea. Also Cameroon, and Ghana to Benin.
181552		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) sexfasciatus</em> is found in swamps, pools, brooks, streams and small rivers. It is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. <em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) sexfasciatus</em> occurs in calm and weedy parts of rivers, lakes, swamps and brooks. The Maximum TL is 10 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and fish (Mills and Vevers 1989). <em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) sexfasciatus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).
181552		population	eng	No information available.
181552		threats	eng	None known.
181553		conservation	eng	None known.
181553		conservation	eng	None known. The taxonomy needs revision.
181553		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Niger, in the Ogun, in the Cross River Basin and in the upper Chari. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross, Mungo, Wouri, Lokoundjé, and Lower Sanaga Rivers.
181553		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnathonemus petersii</span> is apparently restricted to the Lower Niger, Ogun, Cross River basin and Upper Chari River basin<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Niger to Congo River basins.
181553		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria to Central African Republic, and south to Angola and Zambia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross Mungo, Wouri, Lokoundjé, and Lower Sanaga Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lower Niger, Ogun, Cross basin and This species is known from upper Chari basin.
181553		habitat	eng	<em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs close to the bottom where it probes for food with the long snout. Territorial and usually aggressive towards members of its own species. This behaviour has been shown to involve electric organ discharge (EOD) activity (Møller 1995). Feeds mostly at night on worms and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989), probably aided by electro-sensory inputs (Møller 1995). The electroreceptors are distributed over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). Sex-related EOD characteristics in this species has been demonstrated in the laboratory with freshly imported samples during the breeding season; such EOD dimorphism changed with time in captivity (Landsman 1993, 1995). Lead nitrate in water significantly increased EOD rate and selectively altered the EOD waveform of this species (Prabhakar and Landsman 1994). Dubbed a `hearing specialist' having auditory abilities in the range of 100-2500 Hz, with `best frequencies' between 300 and 600 Hz (McCormick and Popper 1984).
181553		habitat	eng	<em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs close to the bottom where it probes for food with the long snout.  Territorial and usually aggressive towards members of its own species.  This behaviour has been shown to involve electric organ discharge (EOD) activity (Møller 1995).  Feeds mostly at night on worms and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989), probably aided by electro-sensory inputs (Møller 1995). The electroreceptors are distributed over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). Sex-related EOD characteristics in this species has been demonstrated in the laboratory with freshly imported samples during the breeding season; such EOD dimorphism changed with time in captivity (Landsman 1993, 1995). Lead nitrate in water significantly increased EOD rate and selectively altered the EOD waveform of this species (Prabhakar and Landsman 1994). Dubbed a `hearing specialist' having auditory abilities in the range of 100-2500 Hz, with `best frequencies'  between 300 and 600 Hz (McCormick and Popper 1984).  Aquarium keeping:  in groups of 5 or more individuals; minimum aquarium size 150 cm; not recommended for home aquariums (BMELF 1999). It prefers streams and lakes to live.
181553		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish. Territorial. Feeds mostly at night on worms and insects, probably aided by electro-sensory inputs as it posses electroreceptors which are distributed over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located.
181553		population	eng	No available data.
181553		population	eng	No information available.
181553		threats	eng	None known
181553		threats	eng	None known.
181554		conservation	eng	None known.
181554		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma acutirostre</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
181554		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181554		population	eng	No information available.
181554		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181555		conservation	eng	None known.
181555		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis labrodon</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin from Kinganga to Kisangani, and from the Ubangui and Lomami Rivers. Specimens from the Lower Congo are probably misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. lateralis.</span>
181555		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis labrodon</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a benthic macrophage (Stiassny 1989) and feeds on insects and their larvae, as well as on molluscs, plants and detritus (Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
181555		population	eng	No information available.
181555		threats	eng	None known.
181556		conservation	eng	None known.
181556		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion lujae</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo basin.
181556		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion lujae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks and small streams in the rainforest and gallery forest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
181556		population	eng	No information available.
181556		threats	eng	None known.
181557		conservation	eng	None known.
181557		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus aviceps</em> is endemic to the Lower Congo River rapids.
181557		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus aviceps</em> is a demersal species. It is found over rock, sand, or mud (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
181557		population	eng	No information available.
181557		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181559		conservation	eng	None known.
181559		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality the Nye River (a tributary of the Ntem River) in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).
181559		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis hirsuta</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a fast-flowing creek over a rock/pebble substrate (Ng 2004).
181559		population	eng	No information available.
181559		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181560		conservation	eng	None known.
181560		distribution	eng	<em>Teleogramma monogramma</em> is known from Luebo on the Lulua River, from rapids on the Lulua River, from Luluabourg, Kasaï region and from Tshikapa, Kasaï River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species is thought to be more widespread in the region.
181560		habitat	eng	<em>Teleogramma monogramma</em> is a demersal species with a maximum recorded TL was recorded of 9.7 cm (Snoecks and De Boeck 1991).
181560		population	eng	No information available.
181560		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181561		conservation	eng	None known.
181561		distribution	eng	<em>Pterochromis congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the right and left effluents of the Central Congo River basin. There is a doubtful record from the upper Shari.
181561		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Upper Shari.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Central Congo River basin.
181561		habitat	eng	Demersal species.
181561		habitat	eng	<em>Pterochromis congicus</em> is a demersal species with a minimum recorded TL of 17.5 cm (Daget 1991).
181561		population	eng	No available data.
181561		population	eng	No information available.
181561		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to pollution.
181561		threats	eng	None known.
181562		conservation	eng	None known.
181562		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status.
181562		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
181562		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is known from the Congo to Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in swamps in the upper Zambezi system and in small forest streams in the extreme north west of Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is also found in the upper reaches of the Okavango, Kafue, Quanza and southern tributaries of the Congo system (Skelton 2001).
181562		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Upper reaches of the Okavango, Zambezi, Kafue and Quanza systems (Skelton 2001).
181562		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from swamps in the upper Zambezi system and in small forest streams in the extreme north west of Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also occurs in the upper reaches of the Okavango, Kafue, Quanza and southern tributaries of the Congo system (Skelton 2001).
181562		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181562		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found primarily in shallow, vegetated swamps, where it is often the only cyprinid species present, particularly in the most extreme swampy habitats of the upper Zambezi, where little or no open water can be seen (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
181562		habitat	eng	Primarily shallow, vegetated swamps, where it is often the only cyprinid species present, particularly in the most extreme swampy habitats of the upper Zambezi, where little or no open water can be seen (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
181562		population	eng	Abundant.
181562		population	eng	It is abundant within its range.
181562		population	eng	No information available.
181562		threats	eng	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species at present, although drainage of swamps for agriculture might be a future threat.
181562		threats	eng	None known.
181563		conservation	eng	None known.
181563		distribution	eng	<em>Oreochromis salinicola</em> is only known from Mwashia (also spelt Moa Chia and Mwashya), a region of saline springs near the Lufira River below the barrage lake at Mwadingusha in Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181563		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis salinicola</em> is a benthopelagic species that only lives in a region of saline springs.
181563		population	eng	No information available.
181563		threats	eng	Mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. There are no threats known specifically for the saline springs.
181564		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.
181564		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the upper Cross system in Cameroon.
181564		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus teugelsi</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is most abundant in densely shaded rainforest streams.
181564		population	eng	No information available.
181564		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.
181565		conservation	eng	None known.
181565		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys brichardi</em> is known from the Central Congo River drainage, including the shore region of Lake Tumba. The species is probably more widespread in the region.
181565		habitat	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys brichardi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in weedy parts of small rivers, brooks and swamps in river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181565		population	eng	No information available.
181565		threats	eng	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish anymore. All the fishermen turned to agriculture themselves. Since this is a small species (max. TL is 3 cm), it is assumed not be influenced by overfishing. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181566		conservation	eng	None known.
181566		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion cognatum</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower (Inkisi River) and the Central Congo basin.
181566		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion cognatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks, swamps and pools in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. Is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
181566		population	eng	No information available.
181566		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181567		conservation	eng	None known.
181567		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
181567		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
181567		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys spilauchen</em> is known from the mouth of the Senegal River to the mouth of the Congo River.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal waters from Cameroon to Angola.<br><br><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Chiloango River and Lower Kwanza River - the latter being a new distribution record (Skelton P. and da Costa L., pers. obs.)<br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species is found from the mouth of the Senegal River in Senegambia to Nigeria.
181567		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys spilauchen</em> is known from the mouth of the Senegal River to the mouth of the Congo River.
181567		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Banded lampeye is found in coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, estuaries and mangrove swamps from the mouth of the Senegal River in Senegambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal River to the mouth of the Bengo River in northwestern Angola.
181567		distribution	eng	The species is present from the Senegal River to the Congo River. In Angola, the species occurs in the Chiloango River and Lower Kwanza River - the latter being a new distribution record (Skelton and da Costa pers. obs.)
181567		habitat	eng	The species occurs in brackish coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, and mangrove swamps near beaches of the coastal area.<br/>Biology is not known.
181567		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brackish coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, and mangrove swamps near beaches (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish.  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181567		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory species. It occurs in brackish coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, and mangrove swamps near beaches (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986), only rarely entering fresh or marine water. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181567		habitat	eng	This species usually inhabits brackish water, only rarely entering fresh or marine water
181567		population	eng	No available data.
181567		population	eng	No information available.
181567		population	eng	Population size is not known.
181567		threats	eng	It has commercial value as an aquarium fish.
181567		threats	eng	None known.
181567		threats	eng	No threats are not known.
181567		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181568		conservation	eng	None known.
181568		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in northern Gabon and the adjacent part of Equatorial Guinea in the drainage systems of the Benito and Ogowe Rivers.
181568		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Episemion) callipteron</em> occurs in small rivers and brooks in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Episemion) callipteron</em> is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
181568		population	eng	No information available.
181568		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181569		conservation	eng	None known.
181569		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis parilus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo River rapids. It is also known from Bolobo, Mongende and Boende in the Central Congo River basin.
181569		habitat	eng	<em>Nanochromis parilus</em> is a demersal, rheophylic species. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).
181569		population	eng	No information available.
181569		threats	eng	Urbanisation in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. This is a commercially important aquarium fish.
181570		conservation	eng	Although fishery regulations are in place, implementation is lacking.
181570		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Lake Tana.
181570		habitat	eng	It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates throughout the lake, primarily in water deeper than 6 m. It is a benthivore mainly feeding on insect larvae, small molluscs, and detritus.
181570		population	eng	The population is not known; however, it appears to be rare when seen from the catch composition at the southern Bahirdar Gulf.
181570		threats	eng	Overexploitation appears to be the major threat for this species.
181571		conservation	eng	None known.
181571		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys thonneri</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
181571		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181571		population	eng	No information available.
181571		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181572		conservation	eng	None known.
181572		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura macrura</em> is only known from types from the Uamba and Cuilo Rivers, southern tributaries of Kasai, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
181572		habitat	eng	<em>Phractura macrura</em> is a demersal species with a maximum TL that was recorded at 11.3 cm.
181572		population	eng	No information available.
181572		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181573		conservation	eng	None known.
181573		distribution	eng	<em>Congochromis sabinae</em> is known from the central regions west of the Congo River in Congo (Central Congo River basin), and from the southeastern parts of Gabon.
181573		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181573		population	eng	No information available.
181573		threats	eng	None known.
181574		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
181574		distribution	eng	The species has been described from two syntypes caught in a coastal river at Mansoa Point, Guinea Bissau. Although it is reported from Guinée Bissau to Nigeria clarification on the species distribution is needed.
181574		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 32.0 cm TL maximum size
181574		population	eng	No available data.
181574		threats	eng	No information available.
181575		conservation	eng	None known.
181575		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kribia nana</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from affluent streams in the Lower Congo, the Central and Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it has been collected from the Cross, Sanaga, Nyong and Ntem drainages and is probably widespread in Lower Guinea. It is also present in many West African water basins, from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also present in the Chad basin and the Nile.
181575		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from the Niger River basin and along the western African coast from Guinea to the Cross River in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is a very widespread species ranging from Nile River, Lake Chad, and Congo River systems.
181575		distribution	eng	This species is present in many west African water basins, from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also present in the Chad basin and the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kribia nana</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from affluent streams in the Lower Congo, the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it has been collected from the Cross Sanaga, Nyong and Ntem drainages and is probably widespread in Lower Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile and Nile rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Niger basin and along the Western African coast from Guinea to the Cross River in Nigeria.
181575		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181575		habitat	eng	This is a small primarily freshwater eleotrid.
181575		population	eng	No available data.
181575		population	eng	No information available.
181575		threats	eng	None known
181575		threats	eng	None known.
181576		conservation	eng	None known.
181576		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis macropterus</em> is only known from the Luongo River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Zambia.
181576		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis macropterus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181576		population	eng	No information available.
181576		threats	eng	Threats to this species include dams for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream, and water withdrawal for agriculture also has an influence on water level of the streams.
181577		conservation	eng	In Mali there are fishing regulations in place that protect <em>Eleotris senegalensis</em>. However there is no other known protection. Policy based action and more research is required for this species.
181577		conservation	eng	In Mali there are fishing regulations in place that protect <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris senegalensis</span>. However in Senegal there is no protection for the species from fishing.
181577		conservation	eng	No information available.
181577		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
181577		distribution	eng	Species present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River at Cabinda province) system. No records south Congo mouth, but likely present.
181577		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is only known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Kouilou in the south, though not apparently collected from between the Ogooué and the Kouilou. Elsewhere, widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to Angola.
181577		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is present in fresh and brackish waters along the coasts of Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola.
181577		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Kouilou in the south, though not apparently collected from between the Ogooué and the Kouilou. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River, at Cabinda province) system. No records south Congo mouth, but it is likely to be present.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species is present along the coasts of Senegal to Nigeria.
181577		habitat	eng	Amphidromous, demersal and in fresh and brackish water. According to Albaret and Diouf (1994), the species has a sexual activity in lagoons where the stage of advanced maturation is very often observed.
181577		habitat	eng	<em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
181577		habitat	eng	<em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997). Ii inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. According to Albaret and Diouf (1994), the species has a sexual activity in lagoons where the stage of advanced maturation is very often observed.
181577		habitat	eng	Inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. Biology is not known.
181577		population	eng	No available data.
181577		population	eng	No information available.
181577		population	eng	Population size is not known.
181577		threats	eng	No information available.
181577		threats	eng	Overfishing is a threat to the species. Also, studies carried out by the OMVS on the evaluation of the effects on the environment of installations laid down in the basin of the Senegal River, show that when the course of the river has been suddenly modified (reduced flow etc), this species becomes locally extirpated or may take refuge in the reduced habitats in the affluent rivers if suitable.
181577		threats	eng	Overfishing is a threat to the species in western Africa. Also, studies carried out by the OMVS on the evaluation of the effects on the environment of installations laid down in the basin of the Senegal River, show that when the course of the river has been suddenly modified (reduced flow etc), this species becomes locally extirpated or may take refuge in the reduced habitats in the affluent rivers if suitable.
181577		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
181578		conservation	eng	The most eastern part of the species distribution is situated in the Korup National Park.
181578		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Meme, Mungo, and Wouri Rivers in Cameroon.
181578		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
181578		population	eng	No information available.
181578		threats	eng	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).
181579		conservation	eng	None known.
181579		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. lauzannei</span> is known only from the upper course of the River Lofa in Guinea.
181579		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181579		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181579		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and sewage pollution.
181580		conservation	eng	None known.
181580		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Shiloango River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo).
181580		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus shiloangoensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in streams (Vreven 2004).
181580		population	eng	No information available.
181580		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181581		conservation	eng	None known.
181581		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus lufupensis</em> is only known from the type locality: Lufapa River, Shaba, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181581		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus lufupensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181581		population	eng	No information available.
181581		threats	eng	None known.
181582		conservation	eng	None known.
181582		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe marmoratus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and from the Luila River, effluent of the Lukuga River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Including the Sangha River in Congo and the Central African Republic and the Ubangui system in the Central African Republic.
181582		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181582		population	eng	No information available.
181582		threats	eng	<em>Schilbe marmoratus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium fish.
181583		conservation	eng	None known.
181583		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Nyong basin in Cameroon.
181583		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
181583		population	eng	No information available.
181583		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181584		conservation	eng	None known.
181584		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus punctatus</span> is distributed in eastern This species is known from upper Guinean basins from the St. Paul (or Diani) River system (Sierra Leone) to the Cavally River system (Liberia/Côte d’Ivoire).
181584		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. Largest specimen observed, 215 mm SL.
181584		population	eng	No available data.
181584		threats	eng	The sub-population of Liberia and Sierra Leone are threatened by agriculture and mining activities, urbanisation and deforestation.
181585		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181585		conservation	eng	None known.
181585		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is known from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the Cross and Sanaga River basins and from upper Sahelian as well as coastal basins.
181585		distribution	eng	This species' distribution spreads from western Africa to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is known from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Cross and Sanaga River basins in Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is known from Guinea to Nigeria. This species has a wide distribution area, since it is known from the Sahelian as well as from coastal basins.
181585		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species (Reide 2004). It occurs mostly in forest rivers (Lévêque and Daget 1984). <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a polymorphic species.
181585		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species (Reide 2004), that lives in streams and grazes on aquatic plants. The maximum TL was recorded at 11 cm. It occurs mostly in forest rivers (Lévêque and Daget 1984). <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a polymorphic species.
181585		population	eng	No available data.
181585		population	eng	No information available.
181585		threats	eng	In western Africa this species is locally threatened by deforestation. In central Africa it has commercial value as an aquarium fish.
181585		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181586		conservation	eng	None known.
181586		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius moorii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is also widely distributed in Lower Guinea region, from the Sanaga basin to the Kouilou.
181586		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. In addition to its widespread distribution, this species is also found in the greatest number of habitats: from rivers to streams, from rapids to still water, both deep and shallow.
181586		population	eng	No information available.
181586		threats	eng	None known.
181587		conservation	eng	In Nigeria the species is protected within the Gashaka-Gumti National Park. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures and habitat restoration.
181587		conservation	eng	None known.
181587		distribution	eng	<em>Garra ornata</em> is known from the Senegal River, and from Nigeria to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found from the Niger to the Lower Congo River basin and from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga River, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme basins but probably more widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Senegal River in Senegal and Mali, and the upper course of the Niger.
181587		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Garra ornata</em> is known from the Niger to the Lower Congo River basin and from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga River, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme basins but probably more widespread.
181587		distribution	eng	This species has been has been reported from Niger River to Congo River systems. More information is needed on the exact distribution of the species within the region.
181587		habitat	eng	<em>Garra ornata</em> is a benthopelagic species of fast flowing streams. It is non-migratory.
181587		habitat	eng	<em>Garra ornata</em> is a benthopelagic species of freshwater.
181587		habitat	eng	<em>Garra ornatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181587		population	eng	No available data.
181587		population	eng	No information available.
181587		threats	eng	In western Africa, deforestation leading to siltation, irrigation and dam construction all pose threats to this species.
181587		threats	eng	None known.
181587		threats	eng	Unknown.
181589		conservation	eng	No information available.
181589		distribution	eng	This species is known from Omo and Baro Rivers as well as Lake Tana.
181589		habitat	eng	This species is found in running and standing waters.
181589		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
181589		threats	eng	No information available.
181590		conservation	eng	None known.
181590		distribution	eng	<em> Parachanna africana</em> occurs from Southern Benin (Ouémé River) to the lower course of the River Cross including the Lower Niger Delta. It is also found in Togo (Hezou River).
181590		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Parachanna africana</em> is only known from one locality on the lower Cross River, with a dubious record from Gabon. Elsewhere it is known from southern Benin (Oueme River) to the Niger Delta, Nigeria.  <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from south Benin (lower Ouémé River) to Nigeria (lower Cross River).  Also known from Cameroon.
181590		habitat	eng	<em>Parachanna africana</em> is a benthopelagic species. The eggs of this species float to the with floating plants covered surface where they are guarded by the male.
181590		habitat	eng	<em>Parachanna africana</em> is a benthopelagic species. The eggs of this species float to the with floating plants covered surface where they are guarded by the male. <em> Parachanna africana</em> is one of the two snakeheads found in Western Africa. This species possesses an air-breathing organ and so can survive hypoxic conditions. It is a carnivorous species.
181590		population	eng	No information available.
181590		threats	eng	Oil exploration is impacting the species in the Niger Delta.
181590		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181591		conservation	eng	None known.
181591		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality on the Okano River, a tributary of the Ogowe River, in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).
181591		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis nasutus</em> is only known from the Okan River, in rapids. It is a demersal species, found in a whitewater river (Ng 2004).
181591		population	eng	No information available.
181591		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181592		conservation	eng	None known.
181592		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias nigromarmoratus</em> is known from the Kasai and Kwango River systems, Central Congo River basin in Angola.
181592		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181592		population	eng	No information available
181592		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181593		conservation	eng	None known.
181593		distribution	eng	<em>Mesoborus crocodilus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Lualaba-Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. In the Lower Congo River basin, it is known from Djoué, right affluent of the Congo just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
181593		habitat	eng	<em>Mesoborus crocodilus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 26.5 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
181593		population	eng	No information available.
181593		threats	eng	None known.
181594		conservation	eng	None known.
181594		distribution	eng	<em>Pelmatochromis ocellifer</em> is limited to the type from Monsembé, Central Congo (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).
181594		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181594		population	eng	No information available.
181594		threats	eng	None known.
181595		conservation	eng	None known.
181595		distribution	eng	<em>M. occidentalis</em> occurs in all basins of Côte d’Ivoire as well as in some basins of Ghana, Liberia and Sierra Leone. A savannah-dwelling form of this species inhabits the upper courses of the Rivers Niger and Volta
181595		habitat	eng	Maximum size 8.0 cm TL
181595		population	eng	No available data.
181595		threats	eng	None known.
181596		conservation	eng	None known.
181596		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion castaneum</em> has a large range in the northeastern part of the Congo River drainage; according to Van der Zee and Huber (2006), some isolated populations are found in the Central Congo cuvette in tributaries of the Rivers Tshuapa, Lomela and of the Salonga River.
181596		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion castaneum</em> prefers stagnant water on darker and dirty substratum (dead leaves, mulm).
181596		population	eng	No information available.
181596		threats	eng	None known.
181597		conservation	eng	None known.
181597		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis ocellifer</span> is from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus the Benue), Volta, Senegal, and Gambia. This species has also been reported from Lake Turkana, but we have not been able to confirm these reports.
181597		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum size 49.0 cm TL. Maturity 11.1 cm TL for the male and 12.0 cm TL for the female in the Kainji Lake in Nigeria.
181597		population	eng	No available data.
181597		threats	eng	None known.
181599		conservation	eng	None known.
181599		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus binotatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai, Lukénie and Ubangui systems.
181599		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181599		population	eng	No information available.
181599		threats	eng	None known.
181600		conservation	eng	None known.
181600		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. levequei</span> is known only from the River Samou of the Konkouré basin in Guinea.
181600		habitat	eng	Maximum size 16.2 cm SL. This is a demersal fish
181600		population	eng	No available data.
181600		threats	eng	No information available.
181601		conservation	eng	None known.
181601		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus robertsi</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Ubangui River basin.
181601		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is collected mostly from the rapids. For specimens of the Lower Congo River basin (mainstream), water temperature was recorded at a range of 24.7-29.0°C, air temperature at 23.3-30.0°C, D.O. 8.0 mg/l, and pH 7.0-7.5 (Vreven and Teugels 1996).
181601		population	eng	No information available.
181601		threats	eng	None known.
181602		conservation	eng	None known.
181602		distribution	eng	This species is known from the headwater tributaries of Senegal River, near Ditinn and Mamou, Guinea. It is also known from the upper course of the Bafing River (Senegal basin) and the basins of the Konkouré, Corubal, Little Scarcies and the Fouta Djalon region in Guinea. (Occurrence records; In Guinea, Labe, Ditinn, Pita, Kasseri and Conakry (affluent of the Koumba), and in Sierra Leone, Mandu).
181602		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
181602		population	eng	No data available
181602		threats	eng	Hydro-electric dams and installations is leading to a decline in habitat quality and quantity. The species is also threatened by drought, deforestation and overfishing.
181603		conservation	eng	None known.
181603		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis variabilis</em> is known from the eastern Kasai and Sangha Rivers, from the Central Congo River tributaries and the mainstream Congo River from the region of Yangambi to the upper Lualaba River system. There have been found populations in the Luapula and Chambeshi River in Zambia.
181603		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis variabilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an opportunistic benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) that feeds on plants, insects and (to a lesser degree) molluscs (Lamboj 2004). This species is a female mouth-brooder (Gosse 1963, Stiassny 1989).
181603		population	eng	No information available.
181603		threats	eng	None known.
181604		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration is required.
181604		distribution	eng	This species is inhabits the drainage systems of the Mono, Zio and Hedjo Rivers, originating in the Togo Hills in southwestern Togo and southeastern Ghana, and areas eastward across southern Benin, southern Nigeria, including the Niger River delta, to the Cross River in southeastern Nigeria.
181604		habitat	eng	It can be found in small rivers, quiet parts of larger rivers and brooks in the coastal rainforest.
181604		population	eng	No information available on population trends.
181604		threats	eng	Oil spills and invasive aquatic weeds threaten this species, especially in Niger Delta.
181605		conservation	eng	None known.
181605		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species falls within the Korup National Park in Cameroon. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat restoration is needed.
181605		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is found in the coastal rivers of Cameroon, from the Cross to the Ntem. Elsewhere it is found in the coastal basins of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. There are no records from the region in between Cameroon and upper Guinea.
181605		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone, and Cameroon. There are no records from the region in between Cameroon and upper Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is found in the coastal rivers of Cameroon, from the Cross to the Ntem.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal basins of the Guinean (Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone) region.
181605		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is a demersal species.
181605		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is a demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.
181605		population	eng	No information available.
181605		threats	eng	Deforestation is a local threat to west African populations.
181605		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181606		conservation	eng	None known.
181606		distribution	eng	In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is known from the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, and Lokoundje basins. <br/><br/>Elsewhere it is found particularly in the lower courses of rivers throughout West Africa (Geba, Tomine, Fatala, Great Scarcies, Jong, Lake Kwarko, Loffa, Volta, Oueme, and the coastal lagoons of Nigeria).
181606		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found in lower course of several rivers, from Senegal to Cameroon. Lower Geba, Tominé, Fatala, Great Scarcies, Jong, Lake Kwarko, Loffa, Volta, and coastal lagoons of Nigeria. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also from the Wouri, Sanaga and Lokoundjé in Cameroon.
181606		distribution	eng	This species is found in lower course of several rivers, from Senegal to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is known from the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, and Lokoundje basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lower Geba, Tominé, Fatala, Great Scarcies, Jong, Lake Kwarko, Loffa, Volta, and coastal lagoons of Nigeria.
181606		habitat	eng	Demersal species.
181606		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded.
181606		population	eng	No available data.
181606		population	eng	No information available.
181606		threats	eng	It is threatened by overfishing.
181606		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181606		threats	eng	Overfishing threatens populations in western Africa.
181607		conservation	eng	No conservation measure in place.
181607		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Tekezze and Abbay River drainages of Northern Ethiopia .
181607		habitat	eng	It prefers running waters with vegetation at shores.
181607		population	eng	Not known; however relatively abundant.
181607		threats	eng	No major threats exist.
181608		conservation	eng	None known.
181608		distribution	eng	<em>Tetraodon miurus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.), Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Central Congo River basin and from one record from Kaswabilenga, right affluent of the Lufira River, This species is known from upper Lualaba.
181608		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is found in large rivers and sometimes in rapids (Roberts 1986). Aquarium keeping: solitary, aggressive towards others (René König, pers. comm., 2004).
181608		population	eng	No information available.
181608		threats	eng	None known.
181609		conservation	eng	None known.
181609		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys helicophagous</em> is only known from Tadi (near Inga) and from the Luozi region of the Lower Congo (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).
181609		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys helicophagous</em> is a demersal species, restricted to the mainstream. It mainly feeds on snails, which it swallows whole (Burgess 1989).
181609		population	eng	No information available.
181609		threats	eng	None currently known, but given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
181610		conservation	eng	None known.
181610		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo chariensis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from N'Kutu, Loango River, Chiloango.
181610		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo chariensis</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It is found in stony river beds and in mountain pools formed by small brooks (Bianco 1981).
181610		population	eng	No information available.
181610		threats	eng	None known.
181611		conservation	eng	None known.
181611		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the type locality, the Mougalaba River (Nyanga system), in southern Gabon.
181611		habitat	eng	No information available.
181611		population	eng	No information available.
181611		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181612		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.
181612		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the upper Cross River basin.
181612		habitat	eng	No information available.
181612		population	eng	No information available.
181612		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181613		conservation	eng	None known.
181613		distribution	eng	<em>Rasbora gerlach</em>i is only known from the type locality in Cameroon. This locality has not been specified any further.
181613		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181613		population	eng	No information available.
181613		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181614		conservation	eng	None known.
181614		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis carnosus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and Pool Malebo.
181614		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis carnosus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181614		population	eng	No information available.
181614		threats	eng	Urbanisation forms a problem in the region of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in fove years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181615		conservation	eng	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The locations on the Lufira River are located in the Upemba National Park.
181615		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis elisabethianus</em> occurs in the Lubumbashi River at Elisabethville, at Kiubo in the rapids below the falls of the Lufira and Luwilombo Rivers and at the Ngoma River, below the Ntumbatushi Falls, all in the outer range of the upper Congo River basin.
181615		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis elisabethianus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181615		population	eng	No information available.
181615		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181616		conservation	eng	None known.
181616		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes manyangae </em> is only known from the type locality Manyanga, Kinkenda, Lower Congo River basin. One record has been made from Oshwe.
181616		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181616		population	eng	No information available.
181616		threats	eng	There is a major logging industry in the region. There has been found oil in the region, so there is a potential oil exploitation. WWF opposes this region has a rich biodiversity though.
181617		conservation	eng	None known.
181617		distribution	eng	According to Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> (1986) this species is found in Mé, Comoé, Sassandra River drainages in Côte d'Ivoire. It is also reported from Burkina Faso.
181617		habitat	eng	The species occurs in small bodies of water, pools and brooks in forested areas. It is a benthopelagic species of maximum size 3.5 cm TL.
181617		population	eng	No available data.
181617		threats	eng	Threatened by agricultural and urban development, and deforestation.
181618		conservation	eng	None known.
181618		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus mawambi</em> is only known from the type locality Mawambi, Ituri River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181618		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus mawambi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181618		population	eng	No information available.
181618		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo causes deforestation. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
181619		conservation	eng	None known.
181619		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias platycephalus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, except from the Lower Congo and the upper Lualaba and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Sanaga and Kribi Rivers (Cameroon), the Ntem River (Cameroon/Gabon) and the Ogowe River (Gabon).
181619		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias platycephalus</em> is a demersal species that is restricted to equatorial forest and galley forest rivers. It feeds on fish (Teugels 1986).
181619		population	eng	No information available.
181619		threats	eng	None known.
181620		conservation	eng	None known.
181620		distribution	eng	<em>Pareutropius buffei</em> is known from the Lower Niger, the Lower Ouémé, from coastal freshwater lagoons lying between these rivers, and from the Cross River.
181620		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pareutropius buffei</em> is only known from the Cross basin.<br/><br/>Elsewhere it is known from the Niger, Oueme, and intervening coastal lagoons.
181620		habitat	eng	<em>Pareutropius buffei</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.
181620		population	eng	No information available.
181620		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181621		conservation	eng	None known.
181621		distribution	eng	<em>Leptoglanis bouilloni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has also been found in the Congo river at Yangambi, but this occurrence has to be re-examined. The distribution of this species could be larger.
181621		habitat	eng	<em>Leptoglanis bouilloni</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand and is hard to find.
181621		population	eng	No information available.
181621		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.
181622		conservation	eng	No information available.
181622		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and ideal habitat maintained.
181622		distribution	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops macrops</em> is known from the complete Congo basin, but records from the Lower Congo River need confirmation. It is found in the Lower Guinea in the Ntem, Como and Ogowe River basins.
181622		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Malagarasi River.
181622		habitat	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops macrops</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits rivers (Eccles 1992).
181622		habitat	eng	No information available.
181622		population	eng	No information available.
181622		threats	eng	No information available.
181622		threats	eng	The main threats to the species is its restricted distribution that makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.
181623		conservation	eng	None known.
181623		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities between Moudouma and Komi, on the road from Mimongo to Koulamoutou, and a locality northwest of these near Iboundji, southeastern Gabon. All these localities are small creeks flowing to the Onoy River, a tributary of the Offoué River (Ogowe system).
181623		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion passaroi</em> is only known from small creeks. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory; species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) passaroi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181623		population	eng	No information available.
181623		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
181624		conservation	eng	No information available.
181624		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
181624		conservation	eng	None known.
181624		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Currently no specimens of this species are known from the scientific collections from Lake Turkana, but local fishermen have confirmed the presence of Hyperopisus bebe in the northern part of the lake (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Nile basin (up to Albert and Murchison Niles). <br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also known from the great Sahelo-Sudanian river basins of Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Benoue, Volta, Oeme, Ogun, Logone and Chari (Bigorne 1990) (Coupley 1958).
181624		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperopisus bebe</span> is known from all Sahelo-Sudanese basins. Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Bénoué, Volta, Ouémé, Ogun, Logone and Chari.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Nile River basin (up to Albert and Murchison Niles).
181624		distribution	eng	This species is found only within the Nile, from Egypt to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species was previously caught from the entire Nile System in Egypt from Delta to Aswan, but is now only known from Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, the White Nile, Blue Nile,  and Nile to Lake Nasser in Sudan. It also occurs in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia.
181624		habitat	eng	Inhabits both still and flowing waters, breeds in the flood season. Demersal species. It feeds on molluscs. Possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive. Fecundity value of 18,924 eggs has been reported for this species.
181624		habitat	eng	Inhabits both still and flowing waters. Feeds on mollusks (Bailey 1994) and phytoplankton (Copley 1958). Possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but they are absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Moller 1995). It breeds in the flood season withup to 18,924 eggs reported (Narwar 1960) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181624		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and potamodromous. It inhabits both still and flowing waters, and breeds in the flood season. Food consists mainly of phytoplankton. It also feeds on molluscs and aquatic insects. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive.
181624		population	eng	In north Africa it is very rare, however at Khartoum it is said to be the commonest of all the mormyrids, occurring throughout the year and in large numbers during spring.
181624		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181624		population	eng	No population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
181624		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
181624		threats	eng	None known
181624		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are commercial fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181625		conservation	eng	None known.
181625		distribution	eng	<em>Belonophago tinanti</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.
181625		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181625		population	eng	No information available.
181625		threats	eng	None known.
181626		conservation	eng	None known.
181626		distribution	eng	<em>Leptocypris weeksii </em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Mweru-Luapua-Bangweulu system.
181626		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
181626		population	eng	No information available.
181626		threats	eng	None known.
181627		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
181627		distribution	eng	<em>Othochromis torrenticola</em> is known from the Lufira basin (This species is known from upper Congo River basin).
181627		habitat	eng	<em>Othochromis torrenticola</em> is a benthopelagic species, with mouth-brooding by the females.
181627		population	eng	No information available.
181627		threats	eng	None known.
181628		conservation	eng	None known.
181628		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo greenii</em> is found throughout the drainage basin of the Congo River (Tshibwabwa 1997). Hitherto, thought to be restricted to the upper Congo but now recorded from rapid water habitats of the Lower Congo (Holly 1927). Specimens from the Sanaga River have been identified as <em>Labeo greenii</em> by Holly, 1927 and by Thys van den Audenaerde, 1970.These results have not been published though and are probably misidentifications (Reid, G. Mc., pers. comm.).
181628		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo greenii</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181628		population	eng	No information available.
181628		threats	eng	None known.
181629		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance may be needed.
181629		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Africa, from Ethiopia and Somalia south to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is distributed in Ruaha-Rufiji system and rivers Ruaha, Pangani, Wami, and Rufiji.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Wabishebelle (Juba), Somalia, and Ethiopia
181629		habitat	eng	The species occupies open waters or the pelagic environment. It migrates up the rivers for spawning during the rainy season. It is carnivorous, feeding on invertebrates, especially zooplankton, snails and insect larvae.
181629		population	eng	Population numbers have been observed declining in Mtera dam (Chale and Mwaya 1984, Tamatamah 1996). Similarly a decline in population was reported for Mindu dam ( Bwathondi and Kulekana 1986). The species composed less than 0.14% of fishery catches in the systems where present (Fish.Div. 1994, 1996).
181629		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing across rivers during the migration using illegal small mesh nets and other methods, siltation and land based pollution.
181630		conservation	eng	None known.
181630		distribution	eng	<em>Genyomyrus donnyi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin. It is also known from the Lukushi River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181630		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181630		population	eng	No information available.
181630		threats	eng	None known.
181631		conservation	eng	No information available.
181631		conservation	eng	None known.
181631		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
181631		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, Bangweulu and Luapula-Mweru included. It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River basin (Eccles 1992).
181631		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Lower Malagarasi River.
181631		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon to Zambia, and east into Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, Bangweulu and Luapula-Mweru included. It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika (Eccles 1992).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the lower Malagarasi river.
181631		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits large, slow flowing vegetated rivers (Eccles 1992).
181631		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits large, slow flowing vegetated rivers (Eccles 1992) with bands of aquatic plants. Omnivorous, but feeds mainly on plants.
181631		habitat	eng	Riverine habitat with bands of aquatic plants. Omnivorous, but feeds mainly on plants.
181631		population	eng	No information available.
181631		population	eng	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.
181631		threats	eng	Fisheries pressure, and siltation and regression of vegetated wetland around river and lakes threatens east African distributions.
181631		threats	eng	None known.
181631		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure, siltation and regresion of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.
181632		conservation	eng	None
181632		conservation	eng	None known.
181632		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181632		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.
181632		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias theodorae</em> has a very broad distribution in the southern half of Africa, from the Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the upper Kasai system, Central Congo River basin, from the upper Congo system, and from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Lake Malawi catchment as well as the Lower Shire River and Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta. It also occurs in the Rufiji system in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is also known from the upper and Lower Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, and the coastal systems of Kwazulu-Natal (Skelton 2001).
181632		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias theodorae</em> has a very broad distribution. It is known from the Upper Kasai system, Central Congo River basin, from the Upper Congo system, and from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lakes Tanganyika, Kobo, Niumbe, and Malawi. It is also known from the Zambezi, Kafue and Shire Rivers, from the Chobe, Okavango and Cunene Rivers, from the Pungwe, Sabi, Lundi Rivers and from Zimbabwean tributaries of the Limpopo River and from Incomati, Pongolo and Umgeni Rivers and Lake Sibaya and the Umhloti River in Natal, South Africa.
181632		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Malawi catchment as well as the Lower Shire River and Lake Chiuta. Also occurs in the Rufiji system in Tanzania.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Cunene, Okavango, Upper  and Lower Zambezi as well as Kafue system.  Also found in the Limpopo and coastal systems of northern Natal.  Also occurs in the Zaire (Congo) system.
181632		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Congo River system, Lake Malawi catchment, Rufigi River (Tanzania), Upper and Lower Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, and the coastal systems of Kwazulu-Natal (Skelton 2001).
181632		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias theodorae</em> is a demersal species that lives in vegetated areas in shallow and swampy places around the lake. Occasionally it is found in cataracts, hiding under rocks (Teugels 1986). It feeds mostly on insects (Coleoptera, ants, Chironomid larvae) (Teugels 1986; Konings 1990).
181632		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias theodorae</em> is a demersal species that lives in vegetated areas in small swamps and streams. It also occurs in delta areas and lagoons of rivers. Occasionally it is found in cataracts, hiding under rocks (Teugels 1986). It is one of the species that is associated with floating islands that break adrift from peripheral marshes. Such floating islands may assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi. It feeds mostly on insects (Coleoptera, ants, Chironomid larvae) (Teugels 1986, Konings 1990) and occasionally small fish.
181632		habitat	eng	Prefers dense marginal vegetation or rootstocks along the banks of slow-flowing rivers and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it to be common in swamps, closed lagoons and drying pools as well as small tributaries of the Upper Zambezi. Apparently absent in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries but found in the upper reaches of the Kafue. Feeds on invertebrates and small fish.
181632		habitat	eng	Prefers small well vegetated swamps and streams. Occurs in delta areas and lagoons of rivers. Feeds on insects as well as small fish. It is one of the species that is associated with floating islands that break adrift from peripheral marshes.  Such floating islands may assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi.<br/>A small species reported to reach a maximum  of about 35-40 cm in length.
181632		population	eng	A common species in suitable habitats.
181632		population	eng	No information.
181632		population	eng	No information available.
181632		threats	eng	None known.
181632		threats	eng	Potential overfishing is a threat in eastern Africa.
181632		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is potential overfishing.
181633		conservation	eng	None known.
181633		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo annectens</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widely distributed in most basins.
181633		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo annectens</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in flowing rivers.
181633		population	eng	No information available.
181633		threats	eng	None known.
181634		conservation	eng	None known.
181634		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring only in the Mungo and Wouri systems, Cameroon.
181634		habitat	eng	No information available.
181634		population	eng	No information available.
181634		threats	eng	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).
181635		conservation	eng	None known.
181635		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion congicum</em> is only known from the type locality between the Kwango River and the Gamba River, southeast of Kinshasa.
181635		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion congicum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is only known from brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181635		population	eng	No information available.
181635		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181636		conservation	eng	Maintaining water level of rivers and streams is needed.
181636		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Dirma River and one reservoir in Tigrai, northern Ethiopia.
181636		habitat	eng	It prefers pools in rivers and reservoirs.
181636		population	eng	Not common (this species is rare).
181636		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the use of water for various purposes including construction of dams.
181637		conservation	eng	None known.
181637		distribution	eng	This species is known from upper Volta basins in Burkina Faso (Mouhoun, Bougouriba - Black Volta and the Nakambe - White Volta).
181637		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species, potamodromous.
181637		population	eng	No available data.
181637		threats	eng	This species is threatened by drought leading to the reduction of the flows and currents, and water pollution.
181638		conservation	eng	No information available.
181638		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Baro and Wabishebelle basins, but has also been recorded from the Uaso Nyiro in Kenya close to Lake Baringo.
181638		habitat	eng	No information available.
181638		population	eng	No information available.
181638		threats	eng	No information available.
181639		conservation	eng	None known.
181639		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus tshokwe</em> is known from the Kwango and Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin. It is probably more widespread than currently known. The recent study of Feulner <em>et al.</em> 2007 confirms the presence of this species in the main channel of the Lower Congo below Pool Malebo.
181639		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181639		population	eng	No information available.
181639		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181641		conservation	eng	None known.
181641		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus petchovskyi</em> is only known by the type; type locality: Alto Cuilo, Cuilo River, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
181641		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus petchovskyi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 3.8 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
181641		population	eng	No information available.
181641		threats	eng	None known.
181642		conservation	eng	No information available.
181642		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax niloticus</em> is Regionally Extinct in Northern Africa, used to be found from Beni Suef, Luxor and Aswan.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile River basin.
181642		distribution	eng	This species is now only found within the Nile basin in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It used to be found from Beni Suef, Luxor and Aswan, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known in the Bahr el Jebel system, White and Blue Niles, and Nile, Sudan.
181642		habitat	eng	It is found in marginal vegetation, in flowing water. It picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces. It reaches an average length of 6 cm.
181642		habitat	eng	This species is found in marginal vegetation, in flowing water. Picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces.
181642		population	eng	No information available.
181642		population	eng	This is a rare species.
181642		threats	eng	No information available.
181642		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181643		conservation	eng	No information available.
181643		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends need to be monitored.
181643		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Lakes Albert, the Murchison and Albert Niles.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>confined to the Nile system and those lakes that were once connected to the Nile.
181643		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Barbus bynni</em> spreads from Egypt to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Lake Albert, and the Murchison and Albert Niles.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  It is common along the Egyptian Nile, Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome, as well as Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Tekeze, Setit, Eritrea, as well as the Nile, Sudan, and several water bodies in Ethiopia.
181643		habitat	eng	Feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs, ostracods, small algae, chironomid larvae and organic debris. In the Jebel Aulia Reservoir, annual spawning coincides with the onset of the floods. Fecundity estimates ranged from 72 x 1,000 at 33 cm (4 yrs.) to over 14 x 10,000 at 74 cm (8 yrs) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181643		habitat	eng	This species feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs, ostracods, small algae, chironomid larvae and organic debris. The spawning season extends from March to April. In the Jebel Aulia Reservoir, annual spawning coincides with the onset of the floods.
181643		population	eng	Limited information available. In Egypt, its catch was first recorded during 1998 with 887 tones. Then the catch sharply decreased to 58 tones in 1999 and to 15 tones in 2000. Afterwards the catch increased gradually to be 860 tones in 2004.
181643		population	eng	No information available.
181643		threats	eng	For the majority of its range, there are no known threats, and it is not a commercial fishery species. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
181643		threats	eng	No known threats
181644		conservation	eng	None known.
181644		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ogowe River in Gabon.
181644		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis polyodon</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181644		population	eng	No information available.
181644		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181645		conservation	eng	None known.
181645		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found between Mouila and Bdede-Lebamba in the Ngounie and Nyanga Rivers in southwestern Gabon.
181645		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion primigenium</em> occurs in brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) primigenium</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181645		population	eng	No information available.
181645		threats	eng	No information on specific threats, but the general area suffers from habitat degradation.
181646		conservation	eng	None known.
181646		distribution	eng	This species is only certainly known from the River Cross and the Lower Niger in Nigeria. It is possibly in the River Offin (Ghana) - the records need verification. It has also been recorded in Central African Republic but the records are old and need checking.
181646		habitat	eng	This fish lives in streams and lakes and feeds on plankton, detritus and plants. It is a bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing.
181646		population	eng	No information available.
181646		threats	eng	There is localised habitat degradation but this is a hardy species.
181647		conservation	eng	No information available.
181647		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.
181647		conservation	eng	None known.
181647		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> is known from the Nile, Niger and Volta River systems and from rivers of Guinea-Buissau. It is also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers (Lévêque 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  Specimens of the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of Tshambi and Gangala na Bodio (Dungu River), Aro River and Ndrige River have been identified as <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> by Poll and Lambert respectively. These data have not been published though.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile river is unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Widely distributed from Ghazal el jebel systems to the White Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). Also found in Omo River and Rift lakes, and Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  Widely distributed in the Chad, Niger, Volta, Bandama and Comoé. Full distribution cannot be mapped, more information is needed
181647		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile River is unknown.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, White Nile, Lake No in Sudan, Niger, Volta Rivers systems and rivers of Guinea-Bissau. It is also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers.
181647		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> is known from the Nile, Niger and Volta River systems and from rivers of Guinea-Buissau. It is also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers (Lévêque 1990). Specimens of the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of Tshambi and Gangala na Bodio (Dungu River), Aro River and Ndrige River have been identified as <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> by Poll and Lambert respectively. These data have not been published though.
181647		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Fairly large extent of occurrence ocurring throughout the Lake Victoria drainage (Turkwell, Kerio and Kalakol Rivers) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished) and Lake Albert and Edward systems (Bannister 1987). Also recorded from the Lake Turkana drainage as Barbus werneri Boulenger 1905, a junior synonym (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). .<br><br><strong>Elsewhere in Africa:</strong> Nile, Niger, Volta Rivers systems and rivers of Guinea-Bissau. Also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers and the Upper Nile system (Banister 1987).
181647		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widely distributed in the Chad, Niger, Volta, Bandama and Comoé. Full distribution cannot be mapped, more information is needed<strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Nile.
181647		habitat	eng	Max size: 2.8 cm Sl (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181647		habitat	eng	No information available.
181647		habitat	eng	The species is benthopelagic and potamodromous.
181647		habitat	eng	This is benthopelagic, potamodromous species.
181647		population	eng	No available data.
181647		population	eng	No estimates.
181647		population	eng	No information available.
181647		threats	eng	No information available.
181647		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181647		threats	eng	No known threats.
181647		threats	eng	None known
181648		conservation	eng	No information available.
181648		conservation	eng	None known.
181648		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
181648		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology, and population trends should be monitored.
181648		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from tributaries of Lake Tanganyika, upper Zambezi, Okovango, Cunene and Limpopo (Skelton 1993).
181648		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Upper Zambezi , Okavango, Kasai River  (in Congo).
181648		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai,  Zambian Congo and Lake Tanganyika (Skelton 2001).
181648		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo south to Namibia and Botswana.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.<br><br><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Tanganyika<br><br><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai, Zambian Congo and Limpopo (Skelton 2001).
181648		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers rocks or marginal vegetation of flowing riverine channels to lagoons or backwaters. <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> feeds on a variety of food including detritus, algae and plant material, insects, snails and small fish, and scavenges readily. It breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993) and is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181648		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers rocks or marginal vegetation of flowing riverine channels to lagoons or backwaters. It is, for example, common in the Okavango River in the Panhandle but is very scarce in the Delta (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> feeds on a variety of food including detritus, algae and plant material, insects, snails and small fish, and scavenges readily. It breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993) and is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181648		habitat	eng	Prefers rocks or marginal vegetation of flowing river channels (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). It is, for example, common in the Okavango River in the Panhandle but is very scarce in the Delta (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Scavenges and feeds on a variety of foods including detritus, algae and plant material, insects, snails and small fish. Breeds in summer rainy season (Skelton 2001).
181648		habitat	eng	Prefers rocky habitats and marginal vegetation in rivers. Feeds on a wide variety, including detritus, algae, plant material, insects, snails, and small fish.
181648		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
181648		population	eng	No information available.
181648		population	eng	No population estimates
181648		population	eng	No population estimates, but a common and widespread species.
181648		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
181648		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species. In eastern Africa this species is also threatened by siltation.
181648		threats	eng	None known.
181648		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries and siltation.
181649		conservation	eng	None known.
181649		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type whose meristic features are very close to those of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mento</span>, recorded from Niger River, (Debo and Kainji Lakes).
181649		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish. Maximum size 25.0 TL.
181649		population	eng	No available data.
181649		threats	eng	No information available.
181650		conservation	eng	None known.
181650		distribution	eng	<em>Bagrus lubosicus</em> is only known from the type locality, the Lubuzi River (Luala River tributary), Lower Congo system.
181650		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus lubosicus</em> is a demersal species that is found in gallery forests.
181650		population	eng	No information available.
181650		threats	eng	None known.
181651		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181651		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus brachygramma</em> is only known from the type locality which is an affluent of the Lukinda River, upper Congo River basin.
181651		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus brachygramma</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181651		population	eng	No information available.
181651		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181652		conservation	eng	None known.
181652		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found from southern Cameroon to northern Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, in the Ntem, Middle Okano, Middle Mvoung, and This species is known from upper Ivindo, and This species is known from upper Benito Rivers.
181652		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion herzogi</em> is found in clear and sometimes fast flowing, brooks in mountain rainforest inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) herzogi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation (Huber 1996).
181652		population	eng	No information available.
181652		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181653		conservation	eng	None known.
181653		distribution	eng	This species has been found in coastal basins, from Guinea (Konkouré) to Southeastern Nigeria (River Cross). It is present in the upper Senegal, but apparently absent from the Gambia and the Niger.
181653		habitat	eng	This is a benthic fish.
181653		population	eng	No available data.
181653		threats	eng	None known.
181654		conservation	eng	None known.
181654		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus humilior</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Sangha systems though.
181654		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181654		population	eng	No information available.
181654		threats	eng	None known.
181655		conservation	eng	None known.
181655		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma nanum</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga to the Chiloango River. This is the only species of <em>Microctenopoma</em> that is widespread and common in the Lower Guinea region.
181655		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181655		population	eng	No information available.
181655		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181656		conservation	eng	None known.
181656		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus atroventralis</em> is known from throughout the Congo basin, with exception of the upper Lualaba-Lufira and Mweru-Luapuala-Bangweulu system.
181656		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181656		population	eng	No information available.
181656		threats	eng	None known.
181657		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181657		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181657		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus kerstenii</span> is a widely distributed species in Africa from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya, south to Namibia to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from Katanga, the Mweru-Luapula system and the Chambeshi system. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed in Zimbabwe, mainly in strongly flowing waters. The type locality is situated in the Sabi River system, Zimbabwe. It has been reported from the Kafue River system (Kapasa and Cowx 1991). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Widespread species reported from the Pagani drainage, Lake Kanyaboli,  Athi and Tana River systems, northern and southern Ewaso Nyiro systems (Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished). Also reported from the upper and Middle Akagera system, Lake Kivu drainage, Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Edwards basins. Possible in the Aswa River (This species is known from upper Nile). Widespread throughout Malawi but not yet recorded in Lake Malawi itself. Also occurs in Lake Chiuta and Chilwa in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Save-Runde and tributaries of the Lower Zambezi (Skelton 2001).
181657		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Central and East Africa, north to Lake Victoria (Greenwood 1962, Skelton 2001). In southern Africa, occurs in the Upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Save-Runde and tributaries of the Lower Zambezi (Skelton 2001).
181657		habitat	eng	Mountain and strongly flowing streams and vegetated fringes of large rivers (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also in some lakes, e.g.,  Lake Tanganyika in vegetated bays near river mouths (R. Bills, unpublished), and also in the brackish Lake Chilwa in Malawi (Tweddle unpublished).
181657		habitat	eng	This species is occurs in mountain streams and along vegetated fringes of large rivers (Skelton 1993). Permanent and even temporary fast flowing streams and inshore shallow waters in lakes. Feed predominantly on insect larvae (Greenwood 1966). In Lake Chiuta it prefers weedy, sheltered areas bordering fast flowing clear well oxygenated streams (Tweddle 1983). In Lake Chilwa it occurs in the lake which is saline and turbid (Tweddle, unpublished). It is recorded that it makes upstream migrations during rains to breed.
181657		population	eng	In southern Africa, the species is generally common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy, although Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be scarce and patchily distributed in the Upper Zambezi system. Absent from the Kafue system. In eastern Africa, it is thought that the population is probably declining. According to old fishermen in Rwanda and Burundi, this small species used to very abundant in streams (in upper and middle Akagera system) before the extension of agriculture in river valleys, but it has since become very rare. These small fishes used to be very abundant in streams before the extension of agriculture in the associated river valleys (according to fishermen in Rwanda and Burundi).
181657		population	eng	The species is generally common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy, although Tweddle <em>et al. (</em>2004) found it to be scarce and patchily distributed in the Upper Zambezi system. Absent from the Kafue system.
181657		threats	eng	In central Africa, overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. In eastern Africa water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension is thought to be having a negative effect on this species. In southern Africa, there are no known major threats known.
181657		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
181658		conservation	eng	None known.
181658		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the River Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire
181658		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 4.6 cm SL maximum size.
181658		population	eng	No available data.
181658		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181659		conservation	eng	None known.
181659		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia baloni</em> is known from the Luongo and Kalungwishi River, Zambian Congo system.
181659		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia baloni</em> is a demersal species.
181659		population	eng	No information available.
181659		threats	eng	None known. The abundant water falls on the Kalungwishi River could be an attraction for tourists in the future.
181660		conservation	eng	None known.
181660		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities in the savannah area in the vicinity of Mindouli, southern Congo (type locality).
181660		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion zygaima</em> is only known from a savannah area. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) zygaima</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181660		population	eng	No information available.
181660		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181661		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
181661		distribution	eng	<em>Pareutropius mandevillei</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin (Ubangui River at Bangui, Tshuapa and Lindi rivers and at Boende) and in the upper Congo River basin (Lufira and Nyonga Rivers and the Luapula River (Zambia)).
181661		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181661		population	eng	No information available.
181661		threats	eng	None known.
181662		conservation	eng	No information available.
181662		distribution	eng	<em>Salmo akairos</em> is endemic to Lake Ifni (31°2'N, 7°53'W, altitude: 2,300m) in Morocco.
181662		habitat	eng	It feeds on cyclops, terrestrial arthropods and filamentous algae and diatoms. It spawns in the lake. It reaches a length no larger than 20 cm.
181662		population	eng	No information available.
181662		threats	eng	The species does not have any current threats. However it is potentially threatened by water abstraction as the lake currently supplies water for irrigation purposes to a nearby village and introduced alien species (rainbow trout).
181663		conservation	eng	None known.
181663		distribution	eng	This species is known from the inland Niger basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.
181663		habitat	eng	Maximum SL 36cm. Riverine bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing. It is non-migratory.
181663		population	eng	No available data.
181663		threats	eng	None known.
181664		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181664		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis polystigma</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system.
181664		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis polystigma</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181664		population	eng	No information available.
181664		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181665		conservation	eng	None known.
181665		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of the basin of Volta.
181665		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum SL was recorded at 10.1 cm. It is oviparous.
181665		population	eng	No information available
181665		threats	eng	Deforestation threatens this species.
181666		conservation	eng	None known.
181666		conservation	eng	Partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon.
181666		conservation	eng	The range of this species is partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon. More information is needed on this species population range and numbers, as well as biology and ecology. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is required.
181666		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in west and east Cameroon, southward to the Lokundje River. It is also found on Bioko island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere it is known to occur in southern Nigeria.
181666		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found on the coastal plains in rain and secondary forests in Southern Nigeria, also on coastal plains of Cameroon, southward to the Lokundje River. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also on Bioko Island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea.
181666		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria and Cameroon. It is also found on Bioko island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in west and east Cameroon, southward to the Lokundje River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found on the coastal plains in rain and secondary forests in Southern Nigeria.
181666		habitat	eng	<em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal rivers and brooks.  It is benthopelagic, non-migratory species. The species occurs in small rivers and brooks, mainly in the streaming parts. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal plain rainforests and secondary forests. It is not a seasonal killifish. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181666		habitat	eng	<em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal rivers and brooks, mainly in the streaming parts on sedimentary soil. It is benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal plain rainforests and secondary forests. It is not a seasonal killifish. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181666		habitat	eng	This species is a killifish with rayed opercula. It is occurs in small rivers and brooks, mainly in the streaming parts on sedimentary soils. Difficult to maintain in the aquarium. Non-migratory.
181666		population	eng	No data available
181666		population	eng	No information available.
181666		threats	eng	A major threat is oil exploration in the Niger Delta, as well as pollution and habitat degradation.
181666		threats	eng	No information available
181666		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta locally threatens this species.
181667		conservation	eng	There is no major threat for this species because it is known from the Upemba National Park.
181667		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus upembensis</em> is only known from the type locality: Kalumengonga River, Upemba National Park, Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181667		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus upembensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181667		population	eng	No information available.
181667		threats	eng	None known.
181668		conservation	eng	None known.
181668		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus langi</em> is only known from the type locality, Faradje, Uele River basin.
181668		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181668		population	eng	No information available.
181668		threats	eng	None known.
181669		conservation	eng	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181669		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus moeruensis</em> is known from Lake Mweru and from the southern end of the upper Congo River basin. The generic identity of this species is tentative, pending the availability of specimens for anatomical analyses.
181669		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found amongst aquatic vegetation (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
181669		population	eng	No information available.
181669		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181671		conservation	eng	In the Katanga region, the last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181671		distribution	eng	<em>Kneria stappersii</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Luapula River system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181671		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181671		population	eng	No information available.
181671		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181672		conservation	eng	None known.
181672		distribution	eng	<em>Parauchenoglanis balayi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu region. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widespread in coastal basins from the Sanaga to the Chiloango.
181672		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181672		population	eng	No information available.
181672		threats	eng	None known.
181673		conservation	eng	None known.
181673		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the upper reaches of the River Mungo (draining to the south) and the upper reaches of the Bake river, tributary of Munaya River draining to the north into the Cross River in western Cameroon.
181673		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) cinnamomeus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks under forest cover on soils of the basement complex and volcanic soils. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) cinnamomeus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1966).
181673		population	eng	No information available.
181673		threats	eng	The upper Cross location is possibly being impacted by deforestation. The upper Mungo River location is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).
181674		conservation	eng	None known.
181674		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys longibarbis</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) to above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) around Ubundu.
181674		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181674		population	eng	No information available.
181674		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181675		conservation	eng	None known.
181675		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe mandibularis</span> is found in the river basins of St. Paul, St. John, Farmington, Nipoué (Cess), Cavally, Néro, San Pedro, Sassandra, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Comoé, Tano and Pra.
181675		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species of 50.0 cm TL. It feeds mainly on terrestrial insects (Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera) washed into the water and on mayfly larvae.
181675		population	eng	No available data.
181675		threats	eng	None known.
181676		conservation	eng	None known.
181676		distribution	eng	<em>Microsynodontis lamberti</em> is only known from the type locality, Yangole, Lilanda River, Central Congo River basin.
181676		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis lamberti</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181676		population	eng	No information available.
181676		threats	eng	None known.
181677		conservation	eng	None known.
181677		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is found throughout the Niger and Congo basins (in the Lower and Upper Congo River basins, and in the Dja and the Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin), headwaters of the Chad basin in Central African Republic, and almost every river basin in Cameroon except the Ndian and Nyong Rivers. This species is probably heterospecific and represents a species complex. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C.batesii </span>in the Lower Congo need confirmation.
181677		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is found in the basins of the Niger, Chad (Central African Republic), and Cross (Nigeria). Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is also widely distributed in the Congo basin and in coastal rivers of Southern Cameroon, but is absent to the west of the Niger.
181677		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is found throughout the Congo basins (in the Lower and This species is known from upper Congo River basins, and in the Dja and the Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin), and almost every river basin in Cameroon except the Ndian and Nyong Rivers. This species is probably heterospecific and represents a species complex. Records of <em>C.batesii </em>in the Lower Congo need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species is found in the basins of the Niger, Chad (Central African Republic), and Cross (Nigeria). It has also been recorded in Guinea and Mali.
181677		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
181677		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181677		population	eng	No available data.
181677		population	eng	No information available.
181677		threats	eng	None known
181677		threats	eng	None known.
181678		conservation	eng	None known.
181678		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma ansorgii</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region, verified from the Chiloango River (type locality). It has also been reported from the Nyong River drainage by aquarium fish importer P. Blowers (multiple sites in the general vicinity of Eseka, Cameroon; D.M. Armitage, pers. comm.), although no specimens have been verified. There is one record from the Niair-Kouilou system and one from the Lower Congo; these records need to be checked though. It has also been introduced to Madagascar and has established itself here (Lever 1996; Stiassny and Raminosoa 1994).
181678		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181678		population	eng	No information available.
181678		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181679		conservation	eng	None known.
181679		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic occurring only in the Sanaga River basin, Cameroon.
181679		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus kolleri</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 21.5 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
181679		population	eng	No information available.
181679		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181680		conservation	eng	None known.
181680		distribution	eng	<em>Malapterurus microstoma</em> is restricted to the Congo River system; absent from the lowland, central portion of the basin, distributed rather around its periphery (Norris 2002). It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
181680		habitat	eng	<em>Malapterurus microstoma</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It occupies horizontal holes or burrows (up to 3 m in length) in the banks of rivers (1-3 m in depth). The holes may be occupied by a pair of sexually mature animals, suggesting that they are the site of reproduction. Mouth brooding has never been observed. Individuals of different species never cohabit the same burrow. (Poll and Gosse 1969, Norris 2002). Gut content from several specimens (150-220 mm SL) consisted of large amounts of plant detritus mixed with animal remains, mostly soft-bodied invertebrates. One specimen had ingested what appear to be large number of fish eggs along with sand. This suggests that this species is a generalist bottom forager, rather than a strict piscivore. (Norris 2002).
181680		population	eng	No information available.
181680		threats	eng	None known.
181681		conservation	eng	None known.
181681		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus curvirostris</em> is known from the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Congo River basin.
181681		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181681		population	eng	No information available.
181681		threats	eng	None known.
181682		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
181682		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is endemic to western Africa and known from the rivers Kogon and Fatala (Guinea).
181682		habitat	eng	No information available
181682		population	eng	No information available.
181682		threats	eng	No information available.
181683		conservation	eng	None known.
181683		distribution	eng	This killifish is restricted to the brooks and small streams in the rain forest between the Cavally and Cess (Nipoué) rivers in Eastern Liberia.
181683		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brooks and small streams in the rain forest.
181683		population	eng	No available data.
181683		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural activities.
181684		conservation	eng	None known. Research into range is needed.
181684		conservation	eng	Partly contained within the Korup National Park.
181684		conservation	eng	This species is parlty contained within the Korup National Park. Research into range is needed.
181684		distribution	eng	<strong> Central Africa assessmen</strong><em>t: Pollimyrus adspers</em>us is only known from Boma and Matadi, Lower Congo River basin and  from the Lilanda River in Yangole and from KisanganIn Lower Guinea, <em>Pollimyrus adspersus</em> is known from both the Cross River and the Wouri. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the coastal fringes of the Volta basins. In seems  to have replaced Pollimyrus isidori in the coastal basins or in the lower reaches of rivers of West Africa. It is also known  from the Mono River in Togo and the Ouémé River in Benin (Lévêque <em>et al.</em> 1991).
181684		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Pollimyrus adspersus</span> is widely distributed from the coastal fringes of the Volta basins, Mono River in Togo and Ouémé in Bénin to Southern Nigeria. It seems to have replaced <span style="font-style: italic;">Pollimyrus isidori </span>(continental) in the coastal basins or in the lower reaches of rivers in western Africa but have reported from Niamey in Niger and Sokoto River (Nigeria). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also known from the Congo basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181684		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana to the Democratic Republic of Congo. In seems to have replaced <em>Pollimyrus isidori</em> in the coastal basins or in the lower reaches of rivers of West Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em> Pollimyrus adspersus</em> is present at Boma and Matadi, Lower Congo River basin and in the Lilanda River in Yangole and from Kisangan. In Lower Guinea, <em>Pollimyrus adspersus</em> is known from both the Cross River and the Wouri. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed from the coastal fringes of the Volta basins, Mono River in Togo and Ouémé in Bénin to Southern Nigeria
181684		habitat	eng	Demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. Non-migratory.
181684		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181684		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.
181684		population	eng	No available data.
181684		population	eng	No information available.
181684		threats	eng	Deforestation, agriculture and urban development are local threats.
181684		threats	eng	None known.
181685		conservation	eng	No information available.
181685		conservation	eng	None known.
181685		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Siluranodon auritus</em> is rare, and used to be found in the Nile from Delta, Cairo, Luxor and Aswan.<br/><br/>Globally, apart from the Nile, it is also present in Chad, Niger, Volta and Comoe.
181685		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Siluranodon auritus</span> is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, and Comoé. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area, it occurs in the Nile.
181685		distribution	eng	This species is found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and north along the Nile to the delta.<br><br><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  Rare. Used to be found in the Nile from Delta, Cairo, Luxor and Aswan. Now it is only found in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br><br><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile and Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia<br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Siluranodon auritus</em> is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, and Comoé.
181685		habitat	eng	Demersal fish that occurs beneath fringing Eichornia. It feeds on zooplankton, chironomids and debris.
181685		habitat	eng	In the Sudd, they occur beneath fringing Eichornia. Stomach of fish examined contained zooplankton, chironomids and debris. Oviparous, eggs are unguarded. Spawning takes place in summer.
181685		habitat	eng	In the Sudd, they occur beneath fringing <em>Eichornia</em>. Stomach of fish examined contained zooplankton, chironomids and debris. Oviparous, eggs are unguarded. Spawning takes place in summer. The largest specimens are about 18 cm long.
181685		population	eng	No available data.
181685		population	eng	No information available.
181685		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
181685		threats	eng	None known
181685		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181686		conservation	eng	None known.
181686		distribution	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax jobaerti</em> is known from the Kasai River basin and from the Lukenie River, Central Congo River basin.
181686		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax jobaerti</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in weedy parts near the banks of rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1988). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1966).
181686		population	eng	No information available.
181686		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Logging poses a threat to the species in the Lukenie River.
181687		conservation	eng	None known.
181687		distribution	eng	This species has a limited range of distribution in the border area of western Sierra Leone and southern Guinea.
181687		habitat	eng	The species is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish occurs in shallow brooks and temporary swamps. Maximum size 8 cm TL. It is a bottom spawner, 3 months incubation. The species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium.
181687		population	eng	No available data.
181687		threats	eng	No information available.
181688		conservation	eng	No information available.
181688		conservation	eng	None known.
181688		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181688		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> naturally occurs from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966) the species has been introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad to Yaoundé, Cameroon. Its presence is not confirmed by museum records. It is unknown whether the species is established or not.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the northern part of the Lake Turkana basin (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, and Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan. It also occurs in the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> occurs in the basins of the rivers Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad.
181688		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> has been recorded in the Nile. It is rare in Lake Nasser (out of the region).<br/><br/>It s global range comprises the White Nile, Niger, Volta, Chad, Senegal and Gambia basins and Lake Rudolf in Kenya.
181688		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnarchus niloticus</span> occurs in the basins of the rivers Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside the region also in the Nile and Lake Turkana.
181688		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Lake Turkana basin (northern part) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).
181688		habitat	eng	<em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia river) this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m. Here the eggs are laid and later guarded by one of the parents. Distinct pairing. It lays about 1000 'amber-like' eggs and the larvae hatch after 5 days (Budgett 1901). It feeds on crustaceans, insects, snails, frogs and fish (Bailey 1994). During the day it hides in holes or close to the roots of water plants. This species possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail (Bennet 1971), and is also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception (Szabo 1974). It showed increased electric organ discharge (EOD) rate by 50-60 Hz between 21 and 31°C (Lissmann 1958). <em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> breeds in well-vegetated, marginal areas of swamps and rivers, where a large, floating nest, about 1 m in diameter is constructed.
181688		habitat	eng	Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia river) this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m. It lays about 1000 'amber-like' eggs and the larvae hatch after 5 days (Budgett 1901). Feeds on crustaceans, insects and fish (Bailey 1994). Possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail (Bennet 1971). Also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception (Szabo 1974). Showed increased electric organ discharge (EOD) rate by 50-60 Hz between 21 and 31°C (Lissmann 1958).
181688		habitat	eng	The fish is active during night, feeding on small fish, frogs, snails and aquatic insects. During the day it hides in holes or close to the roots of water plants. It is a demersal and potamodromous species. Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia River), this species builds large elliptical floating nests, about 1 m in diameter, in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m; lays about 1000 'amber-like' eggs. Here the eggs are laid and later guarded by one of the parents. It possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail.
181688		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams, marshes/swamps. Migrates for reproduction. Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia River), this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m; lays about 1000 amber-like eggs; larvae hatching after 5 days. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and fish. Possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail. Also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception. Showed increased electric organ discharge (EOD) rate by 50-60 Hz between 21 and 31°C.
181688		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181688		population	eng	No information available.
181688		population	eng	Unknown
181688		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought are local threats
181688		threats	eng	Overfishing.
181688		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181688		threats	eng	This is a commercially important species in central Africa. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. Deforestation and drought are local threats in western Africa.
181689		conservation	eng	None known.
181689		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo sorex</em> has an apparently disjunct distribution and is known from the Lower Congo, and the central reaches (Kisangani) of the Congo River. Possibly, it also occurs in the rapids of the Central Congo area (Reid, Mc. G., pers. comm.).
181689		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo sorex</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is only known from the rapids of the Congo River where it appears most adapted. Among its adaptations are the reduce diameter of the eyes; the dorso-laterally flattened shape of the head, the very large lips which are apparently adapted for suction; the latero-ventral arrangement and form of the paired fins which is largely extended and compressed; and the blue or bluish colouration (Tshibwabwa 1997).
181689		population	eng	No information available.
181689		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
181690		conservation	eng	None known.
181690		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, river Via, Saint Paul’s River drainage, Liberia.
181690		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species; Maximum size 8.1 cm SL
181690		population	eng	No available data.
181690		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining threaten this species.
181691		conservation	eng	None known.
181691		distribution	eng	This species is known from basins of Chad and Niger (including the Benue). The species cannot be fully mapped, more information is needed.
181691		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 45.0 cm SL.
181691		population	eng	No available data.
181691		threats	eng	This species is locally impacted by deforestation and agricultural expansion.
181692		conservation	eng	None known.
181692		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis decorus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Luapula-Mweru system.
181692		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis decorus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is a more or less benthic insectivorous species (Froese and Garilao 2002).
181692		population	eng	No information available.
181692		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis decorus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
181693		conservation	eng	None known.
181693		distribution	eng	This species is known from the rivers Cavally and Nipoué (Cess) (Côte d’Ivoire/Liberia). It has also been collected in the upper courses of the St. John River in Liberia
181693		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic fish with 27.0 cm TL
181693		population	eng	No available data.
181693		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181694		conservation	eng	None known.
181694		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys okae</em> is known from upstream in tributaries of the Central Congo River basin: the Oka River, the Kululu River at Ikela and the Bowa River.
181694		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181694		population	eng	No information available.
181694		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181695		conservation	eng	None known.
181695		distribution	eng	<em>Pareutropius debauwi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is also known from the Ogowe, Nyanga, Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers in the Lower Guinea region.
181695		habitat	eng	<em>Pareutropius debauwi</em> is a demersal species. It is a schooling fish (Burgess 1989).
181695		population	eng	No information available.
181695		threats	eng	<em>Pareutropius debauwi</em> is commercially used as an aquarium fish.
181696		conservation	eng	Part of the distribution of the species is situated in the Korup National Park.
181696		conservation	eng	Part of the distribution of the species is situated in the Korup National Park. Habitat maintenance and conservation is needed.
181696		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em> is limited to the coastal rainforest of southwestern Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is occurring in southern Nigeria.
181696		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Fundulopanchax sjoestedti</em> is limited to the coastal rainforest of southwestern Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in the coastal rivers and swamps of southern Nigeria.
181696		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em> is limited to habitats on the sedimentary soils of the coastal rainforest. It is found in temporary swamps and pools, raffia swamps and swampy parts of slow-flowing brooks in the swampy coastal rainforest (Wildekamp<em> et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em>is  not a seasonal killifish.  It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. This species is easy to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181696		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax sjoestedti</em> is limited to habitats on the sedimentary soils of the coastal rainforest. It is found in temporary swamps and pools, raffia swamps and swampy parts of slow-flowing brooks in the swampy coastal rainforest (Wildekamp<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em>is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. This species is easy to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181696		population	eng	No information available.
181696		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in Cameroon. In Nigeria, it is threatened by habitat degradation from agriculture, urban development and oil exploration.
181696		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.
181697		conservation	eng	None known.
181697		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic revision may be needed, and the population and range details for this species should be established.
181697		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Known from the River system, Volta basin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Mali and Nigeria.
181697		distribution	eng	This species is only certainly known by the type specimen. Other specimens of this species have been misidentified. It was previously thought to be known from the Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Ouémé basins, but it may just be endemic to the Niger basin.
181697		habitat	eng	Demersal species that eats fish (Vivien 1991).
181697		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, where it occurs in streams less than 12 m depth. It preys on small fish, particularly <em>Alestes</em> spp; also feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs and vegetable matter.
181697		population	eng	No information available.
181697		threats	eng	None known.
181697		threats	eng	This is an important food fish, and overfishing is a potential threat. Other threats include increasing levels of agrochemicals from farming activities in the areas around the water bodies and effluents from mining activities in some areas.
181698		conservation	eng	None known.
181698		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis angelicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower, This species is known from upper and Central Congo River basin (except in central forest). It has been introduced into the Philippines in 1994 (ASAP 1996). It is not certain that has established itself though.
181698		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis angelicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is often sold as 'angel cats' (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181698		population	eng	No information available.
181698		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis angelicus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
181699		conservation	eng	None known.
181699		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from some small streams and rivers in the drainage systems of the Mamou River and the upper Little Scarcies River, in South Central Guinea.
181699		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish, occurs in small river and brooks. Maximum size 3.5 cm TL
181699		population	eng	No available data.
181699		threats	eng	No current threats known. There is a potential threats of deforestation
181700		conservation	eng	None known.
181700		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guinea (Forecariah River basin) and Sierra Leone.
181700		habitat	eng	No available data.
181700		population	eng	No available data.
181700		threats	eng	In Sierra Leone are threatened by agriculture and mining activities, urbanisation and deforestation.
181701		conservation	eng	None known.
181701		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the Ivindo, Ogowe, Nyanga and Kouilou River basins in Gabon and Congo.
181701		habitat	eng	No information available.
181701		population	eng	No information available.
181701		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181702		conservation	eng	This species is found within Park of Pendjari.
181702		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Volta basin in the Pendjari river in a protected area in Benin.
181702		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species found in streams.
181702		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181702		threats	eng	None known.
181703		conservation	eng	None known.
181703		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic common in the Ivindo River of Gabon, the type locality.  It is also reported from the lower Ntem River of Cameroon, although it is considered rare.
181703		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181703		population	eng	No information available.
181703		threats	eng	The Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. The population on the Lower Ivindo is threatened by iron mining.
181704		conservation	eng	None known.
181704		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia nyongana</em> is known from the Dja River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nyong, Ntem, Komo and Ogowe Rivers.
181704		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181704		population	eng	No information available.
181704		threats	eng	None known.
181705		conservation	eng	None known.
181705		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
181705		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is only found in the Cross River basin. <br/>Elsewhere, it is common throughout most of the great sahélo-soudanian basins (Senegal, Gambie, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad).  Also known from the White Nile (Gosse 1984).
181705		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the majority of the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins (Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé, Chad). Its distribution area is mainly continental and it is rarely found in the lower courses of these basins. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area, also in the White Nile.
181705		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is only found in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and jebel systems, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is common in the majority of the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins (Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé, Chad). Its distribution area is mainly continental and it is rarely found in the lower courses of these basins.
181705		habitat	eng	<em>Brevimyrus niger</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits fringing vegetation in the Sudd and migrates onto the floodplain to spawn. This species is a bottom feeding insectivore (Bailey 1994). <em>Brevimyrus niger</em> possesses electro receptors over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is also sensitive to sound frequencies (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1981).
181705		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fringing vegetation in the Sudd and migrates onto the floodplain to spawn. Feeds on detritus, plants, benthic and planktonic organisms. Possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. Also sensitive to sound frequencies.
181705		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181705		population	eng	No information available.
181705		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought.
181705		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought could threaten this species in western Africa.
181705		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181706		conservation	eng	None known.
181706		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, presently only known from two localities at the road from Lastoursville to Moanda in the rainforest of the Lekoudi River basin in southwestern Gabon.
181706		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion tirbaki</em> is found in brooks and small streams in rainforest. It is a benthopelagic species.
181706		population	eng	No information available.
181706		threats	eng	It is threatened by commercial manganese mining and urban and agricultural pollution. Iron mining is a potential threat to this species.
181707		conservation	eng	None known.
181707		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus microps</em> is known throughout the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from the Boumba River, Dja River basin, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon and from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). Records from outside the Lower Congo need confirmation.
181707		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181707		population	eng	No information available.
181707		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181708		conservation	eng	None known.
181708		distribution	eng	<em>Bagrus ubangensis</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. Two records have been made of the Ulindi and Lufira Rivers, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181708		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus ubangensis</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on mud and small fishes (Ankei 1989). Mostly caught at night over muddy bottoms (Gosse 1963).
181708		population	eng	No information available.
181708		threats	eng	None known.
181709		conservation	eng	None known.
181709		distribution	eng	<em>Raiamas batesii</em> is known from the Dja River. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga and Nyong Rivers.
181709		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas batesii</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
181709		population	eng	No information available.
181709		threats	eng	None known.
181710		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
181710		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the rivers Volta and Pra, and probably also occurs in some small coastal basins.
181710		habitat	eng	No information available.
181710		population	eng	No information available.
181710		threats	eng	The main threats of this species are invasive weeds, sedimentation, deforestation and drought in its area of distribution.
181711		conservation	eng	None known.
181711		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. occidentalis</span> is widely distributed in West Africa: Niger, Senegal and Volta, as well as in some coastal basins: Konkouré, Kolenté and Little Scarcies (Guinea and Sierra Leone), Pra (Ghana) and Sassandra (Côte d’Ivoire).
181711		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 6.2 cm TL maximum size.
181711		population	eng	No available data.
181711		threats	eng	No major threats known.
181712		conservation	eng	None known.
181712		distribution	eng	<em>Congothrissa gossei</em> is known from the Bangui fish market and from Mobaye, Ubangui River basin and from Yaekela, near Yangambi and Central Congo River basin.
181712		habitat	eng	<em>Congothrissa gossei</em> is a pelagic species that is apparently found in the main stream. It feeds on small shrimps and on larvae of mosquito and chironomids.
181712		population	eng	No information available.
181712		threats	eng	None known.
181713		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181713		conservation	eng	None known.
181713		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids near Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from Kinshasa and from the Nutile River. It is also known from the Kwango River and from the Ndjili River. Elsewhere, it is known from the type locality N'Zerekore in the Gbin River, Saint John River basin on the border of Guinea and Liberia.
181713		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guinea and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is present in the Kinsuka rapids near Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from Kinshasa and from the Nutile River. It is also found in the Kwango River and the Ndjili River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the type locality N'Zerekore in the Gbin River, Saint John River basin on the border of Guinea and Liberia.
181713		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is an oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966) and demersal species.
181713		population	eng	No information available.
181713		threats	eng	None known.
181714		conservation	eng	None known.
181714		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus affinis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from Kitutu, Lubushwa River, Mwenga territory, Kivu.
181714		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181714		population	eng	No information available.
181714		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181715		conservation	eng	None known.
181715		distribution	eng	This species is known from the mouth of the Gambia river southward to the area around Port Loko, southeastern Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Senegal.
181715		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory. This species occurs in pools, swamps, brooks and small streams in the forested coastal savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish.
181715		population	eng	No available data.
181715		threats	eng	Pollution and deforestation threaten this species.
181716		conservation	eng	No information available.
181716		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, uses and harvest levels, and cultural relevance, as well as monitoring of populations trends and potential conservation measures. Habitat maintenance and conservation may also be needed.
181716		conservation	eng	None known.
181716		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Citharinus latus</em> is rare in the Egyptian upper Nile, from Beni Suef southwards.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nasser in Egypt, Casamance in Senegal, Niger, Volta in Uganda, the Chad basin and certain coastal rivers in Guinea-Bissau, Togo and Benin. Also present in Lower Nile to Bahr El-Jebell and Lake Mobutu Sese Seko (Lake Albert).
181716		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Known only from Lake Albert<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widespread throughout west, central and north Africa.
181716		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the rivers Senegal, Casamance, Niger, Volta, Chad, and from some coastal rivers of Guinea Bissau, Togo and Benin ( Laleye  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also in the Nile and Lake Albert (Daget 1984).
181716		distribution	eng	This species is wide ranging from Senegal to Ethiopia, and found throughout the Nile excluding the Nile delta.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in Egyptian upper Nile; from Beni Suef southwards, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems; White Nile, Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan. Also found in Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the rivers Senegal, Casamance, Niger, Volta, Chad, and from some coastal rivers of Guinea Bissau, Togo and Benin. (Laleye <em>et al.</em> 2004)
181716		habitat	eng	It occurs in open water and vegetation beds of lakes and flowing water. It feeds on small prey, insects, cladocerans, microscopic algae and vegetation. It is common in winter. It reaches a length up to 42 cm.
181716		habitat	eng	Probably occupies similar habitats as Citharinus citharus citharus, namely, the shallow inshore waters of Lake Albert. It is absent or rare in the deeper waters. No information was available on food habitats and reproductive biology.
181716		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open water and vegetation beds of lakes and flowing water. Ingests mud containing benthic and sedimented algae (Holden and Reed 1972). Feeds on phytoplankton, aufwuchs, detritus and benthic animals.
181716		habitat	eng	This species is occurs in open water and vegetation beds of lakes and flowing water. Ingests mud containing benthic and sedimented algae (Holden and Reed 1972). Also feeds on phytoplankton, aufwuchs, detritus and benthic animals. In the Sudd, <em>C. latus</em> spawns in the perennial wetland at high water.
181716		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181716		population	eng	No information available.
181716		population	eng	No population estimates
181716		population	eng	No population estimates available.
181716		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.
181716		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181716		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Other threats include invasive aquatic weeds, deforestation, sedimentation and drought.
181717		conservation	eng	No information available
181717		conservation	eng	None known.
181717		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in game reserves.
181717		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in game reserves in southern Africa.
181717		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is known from the southern Congo River system, (Lualaba and Kasai Rivers and from the Luapula system). Elsewhere, it is known from eastern Angola (Cunene, Cubanga Rivers), northeastern Botswana (Chobe and Okavango Rivers), Zambia (Kafue and Luapula Rivers), northern Zimbabwe (Zambezi River), Malawi (Shire), Mozambique and Namibia (Huber 2006). It is also known from northeastern South Africa to Natal.
181717		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Within the region it only occurs in Malawi, in the Lower Shire River.<br><br>Elsewhere it is common being recorded from the Cunene and Okavango systems, Zambezi system as well as the Mozambique coastal plain and the Richards Bay area in Natal. Also known from the Lufira, Luapula and Zambian Zaire (Congo) systems
181717		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, to the Mozambique coastal plain, extending southwards to KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). It appears to be absent from the Middle Zambezi, but is common in the Lower Zambezi system, such as the Lower Shire marshes (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Also in the Zambian Congo system.
181717		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from the Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is found in the southern Congo River system (Lualaba and Kasai Rivers and from the Luapula system). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Within the east Africa region it only occurs in Malawi, in the Lower Shire River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from eastern Angola (Cunene, Cubanga Rivers), northeastern Botswana (Chobe and Okavango Rivers), Zambia (Kafue and Luapula Rivers), northern Zimbabwe (Zambezi River), Malawi (Shire), Mozambica and Namibia (Huber 2006). It is also known from northeastern South Africa to Natal.
181717		habitat	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in shallow and weedy parts of small rivers, brooks and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986), but is uncommon in floodplains. It feeds on insect larvae, daphnia and other small invertebrates. It is a serial spawner and lays eggs on vegetation. This species is useful as a mosquito control agent (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181717		habitat	eng	Prefers quiet, vegetated habitats and primarily found in tributaries of the Zambezi. Also occurs in backwaters and shallow, vegetated fringes of the main Zambezi channel and on the floodplain over flooded vegetation.Also in small forested streams near the Zambezi source. Not found in rocky or fast-flowing stretches of river (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Feeds on small invertebrates. Serial spawner, laying eggs on vegetation (Skelton 2001).
181717		habitat	eng	This species is very common throughout marshes and lagoons as well as in vegetation fringing the main river.  Feeds on insect larvae and daphnia as well as other small invertebrates.  This species is a serial spawner and lays its eggs on vegetation.
181717		population	eng	No information available
181717		population	eng	No information available.
181717		population	eng	Widespread and abundant.
181717		threats	eng	None known.
181717		threats	eng	The main threats to the species is sedimentation in rivers and streams leading to habitat degradation.
181717		threats	eng	This is a commercially important aquarium fish. It is also threatened by sedimentation in rivers and streams leading to habitat degradation.
181717		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181718		conservation	eng	None known.
181718		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurs in the lower Sanaga and Wouri River systems in western Cameroon. This probably represents a relict distribution.
181718		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion franzwerneri</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory; species. It occurs in very small pools, shallows in swamps and shallow swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) franzwerneri</em> is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) franzwerneri</em> has a greatly reduced swim bladder, and the fish lives on the bottom habitats in shallow water.
181718		population	eng	No information available.
181718		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.
181719		conservation	eng	None known.
181719		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Archiaphyosemion guineense</span> is found in pools, brooks and small streams in the Guinean savannah, upper Niger River drainage in Guinea, and the upper drainage systems of rivers flowing towards the coast in northeastern Sierra Leone and northern Liberia.
181719		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pools, brooks and small streams. It is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish of maximum size 7.0 cm SL.
181719		population	eng	No available data.
181719		threats	eng	This species is threatened by mining and deforestation in Liberia.
181720		conservation	eng	None known.
181720		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus carmesinus</em> is currently only known by the type from Zambi (Paugy 1984), however specimens recently collected in the Lefini River have tentatively been assigned to this species (AMNH) and the species may have a distribution extending into the middle Congo
181720		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181720		population	eng	No information available.
181720		threats	eng	None known.
181721		conservation	eng	None known.
181721		distribution	eng	This species described from the upper Niger, is also known from the upper basins of the Volta, Bandama and Agnébi in Ivory Coast, as well as from the Niger delta in Nigeria.
181721		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, potadromous.
181721		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181721		threats	eng	None known.
181722		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
181722		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the River Farmington (Gibi mountains) in Liberia. Several citations from other localities are due to misidentifications.
181722		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181722		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181722		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining threaten this species.
181723		conservation	eng	None known.
181723		distribution	eng	This species is known form Uganda and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys matthesi</em> is known from the Lufubu River at Chipili and from the Kalungwishi River. It is probably more widespread than currently known. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from two localities, western Uganda, within Lake Victoria basin.
181723		habitat	eng	<em>Lacustricola matthesi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
181723		population	eng	No information available.
181723		threats	eng	None known.
181724		conservation	eng	None known.
181724		distribution	eng	<em>Eugnathichthys eetveldii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
181724		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181724		population	eng	No information available.
181724		threats	eng	None known.
181725		conservation	eng	None known.
181725		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus citrinus</em> is only known from a few individuals from Yakoma (Ubangui basin) and from Poko (Bomokando, River, Uele River basin), Central Congo River basin.
181725		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus citrinus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181725		population	eng	No information available.
181725		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
181726		conservation	eng	None known.
181726		distribution	eng	This species is at present known only from the Konkouré basin (Guinea).
181726		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 17.6 cm SL maximum size.
181726		population	eng	No available data.
181726		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181727		conservation	eng	None known.
181727		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nigeria where it is found in the eastern part of the Niger River delta and in the area between the delta and the Lower Cross River, southeastern Nigeria.
181727		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys biafranus</em> is a killifish that grows to a maximum size of 5.0 cm TL. The species inhabits small rivers, creeks and swamps, usually among bordering vegetation. It is non-migratory.
181727		population	eng	No available data.
181727		threats	eng	Oil exploration and urban development are leading to pollution and loss of habitat. It is also targeted for the aquarium trade.
181728		conservation	eng	None known.
181728		distribution	eng	<em>Atopochilus macrocephalus</em> is only known from Fort Don Carlos I, Kwango (or Cuango) River, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
181728		habitat	eng	<em>Atopochilus macrocephalus</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181728		population	eng	No information available.
181728		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.
181729		conservation	eng	None known
181729		conservation	eng	None known.
181729		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
181729		conservation	eng	No targeted conservation in place
181729		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and associated smaller lakes and rivers including This species is known from upper and middle Akagera, as well as Lake Albert, Victoria Nile and the Nile, Semliki and Aswa rivers, and the Malagarasi and Rufiji Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Rift lakes, Ethiopia, and Juba, Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed, only absent south of the Pongolo River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is very widespread in western Africa. The species is known from the basins of Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Corubal and Geba. Within the coastal region between the Geba and the Sassandra, <em>S. intermedius</em> has been collected only in Little Scarcies. Further eastwards, <em>S. intermedius</em> is known from the basins of Sassandra, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Niger, Chad and Cross.
181729		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is widespread in Africa, only absent in north Africa and in southern Africa, south of the Pongolo River.
181729		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and associated smaller lakes and rivers including upper and middle Akagera; L. Albert, Victoria Nile and the Nile, Semliki and Aswa rivers; Rivers Malagarasi, Rufiji and Luiche,  Lake Rukwa; Zambezi and Okavango systems; In Malawi: Lower Shire. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Southern Africa: Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems soutwards to Phongoo in nothern Zululand. western Africa: Senegal, Volta, Niger, Chad
181729		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe intermedius</span> is very widespread in western Africa. The species is known from the basins of Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Corubal and Geba. Within the coastal region between the Geba and the Sassandra, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. intermedius</span> has been collected only in Little Scarcies. Further eastwards, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. intermedius</span> is known from the basins of Sassandra, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Niger, Chad and Cross. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also widespread outside western Africa.
181729		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Africa from South Africa to the Nile in Egypt and across into certain west African rivers.
181729		habitat	eng	A pelagic species feeding on a wide range of invertebrates including terrestrial insects and other small fishes. Lives in lakes and rivers. Migrates upstream from the lakes for spawning in the rivers.
181729		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is a potamodromous species. It is reported to be a pelagic species (van Oijen 1995). <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> occurs mainly on shallow waters and migrates to the surface at night (Witte and de Winter 1995). It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates including terrestrial insects and whole or pieces of fish (Bailey 1994). It spawns throughout the year peaking once and migrates into rivers in fairly compact schools during the rainy season to spawn in floodwater pools (Witte and de Winter 1995).
181729		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is a potamodromous species. It is reported to be a pelagic species (van Oijen 1995). <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> occurs mainly on shallow waters and open waters of lakes (van Oijen 1995), and migrates to the surface at night (Witte and de Winter 1995). Generally does not penetrate high up into river systems. It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates including terrestrial insects and whole or pieces of fish (Bailey 1994). It is primarily piscivorous at 13-34 cm TL (Witte and de Winter 1995). This species rarely grows to lengths greater than 30 cm SL (van Oijen 1995). It spawns throughout the year peaking once and migrates into rivers in fairly compact schools during the rainy season to spawn in floodwater pools (Witte and de Winter 1995). After establishment of Nile Perch in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga it is rarely encountered and when it is it is now usually close to river mouths.
181729		habitat	eng	Shallow inshore and open waters of lakes (van Oijen 1995). After establisment of Nile Perch in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga it is rarely encountered and when it is it is now usually close to river mouths. Feeds principally on small fishes and insect larvae. Migrates to breed in the tributaries of rivers and streams during the rainy season (Witte and de Winter 1995).  It has a diurnal vertical migration to the surface at night (Witte and de Winter 1995). More than 50% of population in spawing condition at any one time during the year.
181729		habitat	eng	Wide habitat range from the main channels of rivers through to marginal lagoons and isolated pans. Forages in open water at night. Generally does not penetrate high up into river systems.
181729		population	eng	Common in suitable habitats and widespread.
181729		population	eng	Common in suitable habitats and widespread. Population not known, but fisheries catches are reported to have locally declined in many lakes.
181729		population	eng	No available data.
181729		population	eng	No information available.
181729		population	eng	Population not known, but fisheries catches are reported to have locally declined in many lakes.
181729		threats	eng	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is commercially used in aquaculture.
181729		threats	eng	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is commercially used in aquaculture. There is heavy fishing pressure but the species is highly abundant and fecund. In eastern Africa the species is also threatened by biotope changes. No serious threats have been identified outside Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo.
181729		threats	eng	None known.
181729		threats	eng	None known. There is heavy fishing pressure but the species is highly abundant and fecund.
181729		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure and biotope changes. No serious threats have been identified outside Lakes Victoria,  Kyoga and Nabugabo.
181730		conservation	eng	None known.
181730		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, Niari-Kouilou River system in Gabon.
181730		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181730		population	eng	No information available.
181730		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181731		conservation	eng	None known.
181731		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from the Sanaga River (Cameroon).
181731		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe djemeri</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181731		population	eng	No information available.
181731		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181732		conservation	eng	None known.
181732		distribution	eng	This species is known predominantly from the Lower Guinea with a widespread distribution throughout the Ogowe River basin including the Ivindo, in the Woleu, in the Nyanga, and in coastal drainages of Southern Gabon.  It is found in Congo River and coastal drainages from Mayumbe to Bay of Guinea.  Also  known from Old Calabar, Nigeria and the coastal basins of Cameroon  (Bigorne 1990) .Teugels and Hopkins (1998) have analysed the morphology of the holotype of <em>Mormyrus kingsleyae</em> Günther, 1896 with the stated type locality of ‘Old Calabar’ near the mouth of the Cross River (present day Nigeria) and concluded that the type locality may have been reported in error because no <em>Paramormyrops kingsleyae</em> –like specimens have since been recovered from this area. These authors concluded that it is more likely that the holotype originates from Gabon, where Mary Kingsley travelled in 1895 after her visit to Old Calabar in May 1895 (Kingsley 1897). There is also a subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;">Paramormyrops kingsleyae eburneensis</span>) <em></em>reportedly endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is at present known only  from the Agnébi, San Pedro and Banco basins in Côte d’Ivoire. However the taxonomic status of this subspecies is uncertain.
181732		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
181732		population	eng	No information available.
181732		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181733		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration needed.
181733		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the rivers Como, Bandama and Sassandra in Cote d’Ivoire, and confirmed presence in Bia and Tano rivers in Ghana (Abban, pers. comm.)
181733		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Females can produce as many as 9,200 eggs (Albaret 1982). Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
181733		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181733		threats	eng	The removal of vegetation due to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads. Timber felling is an important threat in the Tano River.
181734		conservation	eng	None known.
181734		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality on the Kyé River (a tributary of the Ntem River) in eastern Equatorial Guinea (Ng 2004).
181734		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis nannoculus</em> is a demersal species.
181734		population	eng	No information available.
181734		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181735		conservation	eng	None known.
181735		distribution	eng	<em>Alestopetersius leopoldianus</em> is known from Kutu, Lake Mai 'N-Dombe (type locality), from Lake Tumba, from the Lomami and from the Ngula River, around Kisangani. The record from Lake Tumba needs confirmation.
181735		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181735		population	eng	No information available.
181735		threats	eng	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. The region north of the Congo River in the Kisangani area is threatened by gold mining.
181736		conservation	eng	None known.
181736		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from Libreville (type locality), Lamberene and the Nyama Pende creek in the Ivindo River basin.
181736		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias kerguennae</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 3.3 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
181736		population	eng	No information available.
181736		threats	eng	The population of the Ivindo basin is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture. The population at Libreville is being heavily impacted by the northern expansion of Libreville.
181737		conservation	eng	None known.
181737		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus polylepis</em> is known from the Lower and the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai, Lukénie and Sangha systems. Within Lower Guinea, there are two specimens from the Niari River, but these may belong to a new species (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
181737		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181737		population	eng	No information available.
181737		threats	eng	None known.
181738		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution and threats.
181738		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181738		distribution	eng	A <em>Chiloglanis</em> species complex is known from Lake Malawi and its catchment area, Shire River and its tributaries, Lake Chiuta. However the only correct known locality is the type locality, This species is known from upper Ububu River, Tanzania.
181738		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis neumanni</em> is known from the Luapula-Chambezi River systems, Upper Congo River basin in Zambia. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Zambezi (above and below Victoria Falls) Rivers, Pungwe and Buzi systems. It is also known from the Lake Malawi catchment and east coast rivers in Tanzania (Skelton 2001).
181738		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis neumanni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds on the biocover of rocks and grazes on algae (Konings 1990). It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181738		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis neumanni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in the cool waters of mountain streams and feeds on the biocover of rocks and grazes on algae (Konings 1990). It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181738		population	eng	No information available.
181738		threats	eng	No information available.
181738		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181739		conservation	eng	Part of the range is included within the Cross river National Park (Nigeria).
181739		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Oshun River, Niger delta and Cross River in Nigeria.
181739		habitat	eng	This species is small pelagic riverine distichodontid that grows to 4.9 cm in standard length. It is non-migratory.
181739		population	eng	No information available.
181739		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta threatens this species.
181740		conservation	eng	None known.
181740		distribution	eng	<em>Neolebias philippei</em> is only known from Ibembo on the Itimbiri River and from Boende on the Tshuapa River, effluents of the Central Congo River.
181740		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias philippei</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.7 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
181740		population	eng	No information available.
181740		threats	eng	None known.
181741		conservation	eng	No information available.
181741		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181741		conservation	eng	None known.
181741		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis sorex</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>At global level, it can be found in Chad, Niger, Nile, Volta basins and Bénoué River.
181741		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad, Niger, Volta basins and Bénoué River.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Nile.
181741		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It can be found in the White Nile, Sudan, and Blue Nile, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Chad, Niger, Volta basins and Bénoué River.
181741		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species. Oviparous.
181741		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic. It is oviparous.
181741		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic. Oviparous.
181741		population	eng	No available data.
181741		population	eng	No information available.
181741		threats	eng	No information available.
181741		threats	eng	Overexploitation from fishing
181741		threats	eng	Overexploitation from fishing threatens this species in western Africa.
181742		conservation	eng	None in place.
181742		conservation	eng	None known.
181742		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species threats and potential conservation measures, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation is also required.
181742		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is known from the Dja River basin and from Bangui, Ubangui basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widespread in all major drainages. It is also known from the Cross and Niger Rivers in Nigeria and from the Chad basin.
181742		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Niger and Cross Rivers in Nigeria, and reported from Ghana and Chad basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, lower part of Congo River basin.
181742		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is known from the Dja River basin and from Bangui, Ubangui basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widespread in all major drainages. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Niger and Cross Rivers in Nigeria, and is reported from the Chad basin.
181742		habitat	eng	<em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is a pelagic species. It is distinguished from <em>Neolebias</em> by its always complete lateral line. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).   It prefers streams
181742		habitat	eng	<em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is a pelagic species. It is distinguished from <em>Neolebias</em> by its always complete lateral line. It lives in small streams where and is omnivorous feeding mainly crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).
181742		habitat	eng	Oneline tetra is a small ornamental charachid that grows to 6.2 cm in total length. It lives in small streams where and is omnivorous feeding mainly on small invertebrates. Non-migratory.
181742		population	eng	No available data.
181742		population	eng	No information available.
181742		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the lower Niger delta and the potential water basin transfer from the Oubangui to the Chari system.
181742		threats	eng	This is a commercially valuable aquarium fish. It is threatened by oil exploration in the lower Niger delta and the potential water basin transfer from the Oubangui to the Chari system.
181742		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181743		conservation	eng	None known.
181743		distribution	eng	This species is known from the area of Fouta Djalon in Guinea, upper Gambia, Bafing, upper Konkouré, and upper basin of Little Scarcies in Sierra Leone.
181743		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic, maximum TL 5.8 cm
181743		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181743		threats	eng	Threats to this species include deforestation, urbanisation, water pollution and sedimentation.
181744		conservation	eng	No information available.
181744		conservation	eng	None known.
181744		conservation	eng	Protected in some reserves. Successfully artificially bred in captivity (Skelton 2001). Management of local gillnet fisheries is needed in many riverine fisheries. Construction of fishways around weirs and dams is needed.
181744		conservation	eng	This species is protected in some reserves in southern Africa. It has been successfully artificially bred in captivity (Skelton 2001). Management of local gillnet fisheries is needed in many riverine fisheries, as is construction of fishways around weirs and dams.
181744		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is known from most of sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia, and south to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is found throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is found in the Cross and Sanaga basins. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, including Malagarasi river, as well as Lake Albert and Murchison Nile, Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Lake  Rukwa. It is also present in the Lower Shire river, Rufigi and Ruaha Rivers. According to Hopson and Hopson (1982) in the Turkana Basin this species is principally riverine and ecological changes in the lake level have tended to inhibit incursions of<em> H. vittatus</em> into the lake. However, an erroneous identification by Worthington and Ricardo (1936) for <em>H. forskahlii</em> is also possible. In the latter case <em>H. vittatus</em> most likely does not occur in Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Zambezi and Okavango (but not the Kafue or Lake Malawi), south to the Save, Limpopo and Phongolo systems (Skelton 2001). It has also been found in Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In West Africa, this species occurs in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ouémé, and Senegal.
181744		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is not found in the northern African region. It is considered very rare in Lake Nasser (just outside the region).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the White and Blue Niles, Niger, Congo, Uganda (Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles), Lakes Tanganyika and Rudolf.
181744		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is found in the Cross and Sanaga basins. Elsewhere, it occurs in the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ouémé (unverified), Senegal, Nile, Omo, Zambezi, Limpopo, Rovuma, Shire, Rufiji and Ruaha basins, and Lake Tanganyika. It is also known from the Okavango and the lower reaches of coastal systems south to Pongolo (Skelton 1993). It has also been found in Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).
181744		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, including Malagarasi river; Lake Albert and Murchison Nile; Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished); Lake  Rukwa; Lower Shire river; Rufigi, Ruaha. Also reported from Lake Turkana by Worthington and Ricardo (1936). According to Hopson and Hopson (1982) in the Turkana Basin this species is principally riverine and ecological changes in the lake level have tended to inhibit incursions of H. vittatus into the lake. However, an erroneous identification by Worthington and Ricardo (1936) for H. forskahlii is also possible. In the latter case H. vittatus most likely does not occur in Kenya (Seegers <em>et al. 2004).
181744		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, this species occurs in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ouémé, and Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This demersal species is widespread. Outside western Africa it is found in the Nile, Omo, Congo, Lufira, Lualaba, Lake Bagweulu, Luapula, Lake Mweru, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Upemba, Zambezi, Limpopo, Rovuma, Lake Rukwa, Shire, Rufiji, and Ruaha.
181744		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from most of sub-Saharan Africa from the Senegal, Niger, Shari-Lake Chad and Nile systems in the north, to the Congo and Lake Tanganyika, the Zambezi and Okavango (but not the Kafue or Lake Malawi), south to the Save, Limpopo and Phongolo systems (Skelton 2001).
181744		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, mainly larger rivers and lakes. All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish; aptly described as fierce and voracious. <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> feeds on whatever prey is most abundant but <em>Brycinus</em>, <em>Micralestes</em>, <em>Barbus</em>, and <em>Limnothrissa</em> are favoured (Skelton 1993). It is a useful food fish in some areas (Eccles 1992). Breeding takes pace on a very few days each year, when the first good rains have swollen rivers and streams, usually in December and January at which time it undertakes a spawning migration up rivers and into small streams (Jackson 1961). The females spawn a great number of eggs in very shallow water, among the stems of grasses and other submerged and partly submerged vegetation and here the young live until the falling of the flood water forces them out of this refuge (Jackson 1961).
181744		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, mainly larger rivers and lakes. All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish; aptly described as fierce and voracious. <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> feeds on whatever prey is most abundant but <em>Brycinus</em>, <em>Micralestes</em>, <em>Barbus</em>, and <em>Limnothrissa</em> are favoured (Skleton 1993). It is a useful food fish in some areas (Eccles 1992). It prefers streams and lakes.
181744		habitat	eng	It keeps to deep water, mainly larger rivers and lakes, and is active in the evening and early morning. It can jump out of water to catch its food. It feeds on fish including <em>Alestes</em> spp. and <em>Tilapia</em> spp. Breeds during summer, and spawning may occur at night. Fecundity extremely high, as many as 780 000 ova in large females. It reaches a length to 48 cm.
181744		habitat	eng	Prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, in the larger rivers and lakes. All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish. It is a voracious piscivore feeding on whatever prey is most abundant but Brycinus, Micralestes, Barbus and Limnotrissa are favoured (Skelton 1993) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Breeding takes pace on a very few days each year, when the first good rains have swollen rivers and streams, usually in December and January at which time it undertakes a spawning migration up rivers and into small streams (Jackson 1961). The females spawn a great number of eggs in very shallow water, among the stems of grasses and other submerged and partly submerged vegetation and here the young live until the falling of the flood water forces them out of this refuge (Jackson 1961).  It is an important food fish in some areas (Eccles 1992) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).<br/>Max size: 105 cm FL (male/unsexed); 70.0 cm FL (female) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181744		habitat	eng	Rivers, streams and impoundments where it is the top predator. Breeds during summer, adults migrating up- or downstream to suitable spawning sites along flooded riverbanks or lakeshores. Fecundity extremely high, up to 780,000 ova in large females. More detail on life history summarised in Skelton (2001).
181744		habitat	eng	This prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, mainly larger rivers and lakes.  All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish; aptly described as fierce and voracious.  Feeds on whatever prey is most abundant but <em>Brycinus, <em>Micralestes, <em>Barbus, </em></em></em>and <em><em><em><em>Limnothrissa </em></em></em></em>are favored. Useful food fish in some areas.
181744		population	eng	Common and widespread.  In Lake Kariba on the Middle Zambezi River, its population  fluctuated considerably, mostly in relation to the abundance of the introduced clupeid <em>Limnothrissa miodon</em> which now forms a major part of its diet (Kenmuir 1973; Marshall 1985).
181744		population	eng	It is commercially exploited in Lake Rukwa, forming about 3.9% of the yield. In Mtera dam, species composition in the catches show a decline from 26.1% in  1987 to 14.3% in 1991, and 7% in 1996.
181744		population	eng	No available data.
181744		population	eng	No information available.
181744		population	eng	This species is generally common and widespread.  In Lake Kariba on the Middle Zambezi River, its population fluctuated considerably, mostly in relation to the abundance of the introduced clupeid<span style="font-style: italic;"> Limnothrissa miodon</span> which now forms a major part of its diet (Kenmuir 1973, Marshall 1985). It is commercially exploited in Lake Rukwa, forming about 3.9% of the yield. In Mtera dam, species composition in the catches show a decline from 26.1% in  1987 to 14.3% in 1991, and 7% in 1996.
181744		threats	eng	None known
181744		threats	eng	None known.
181744		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181744		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the heavy fishing pressure, silt loading  due to agricultural activities/ deforestation and pollution due to pesticides for agricultural use.
181744		threats	eng	Tigerfish have declined in some rivers in southern Africa due to pollution, water abstraction and obstructions such as dams and weirs that prevent passage. Unregulated gillnet fisheries locally threaten the species.
181744		threats	eng	Tigerfish have declined in some rivers in southern Africa due to pollution, water abstraction and obstructions such as dams and weirs that prevent passage. Unregulated gillnet fisheries locally threaten the species. East African populations are threatened by heavy fishing pressure, silt loading due to agricultural activities/ deforestation, and pollution due to pesticides for agricultural use. Threats from other regions are not known.
181745		conservation	eng	None known.
181745		distribution	eng	This monospecific species occurs in coastal basins of Guinea (starting from the Konkouré), Sierra Leone and Liberia (up to the River St. John)
181745		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum recorded TL 6.5 cm.
181745		population	eng	No available data.
181745		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181746		conservation	eng	None known.
181746		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is only known from the Wouri River (Cameroon). Elsewhere it is known from West Africa; <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> was originally described from Sierra Leone, but now known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and the Niger basin.  <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Cameroon, apparently in both lower and upper reaches of rivers, but the latter only confirmed in the case of the Niger; also the man-made lakes Kainji (Nigeria) and Volta (Ghana).
181746		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Sierrathrissa leonensi</span>s, originally described from Sierra Leone, is now known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, the Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Lake Volta (Ghana) and the Niger River basin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere it has been found in the River Wouri (Cameroon).
181746		distribution	eng	This species has a widespread but patchy distribution from Senegal to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is only known from the Wouri River (Cameroon). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Sierrathrissa leonensi</em>s, originally described from Sierra Leone, is now known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, the Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Lake Volta (Ghana) and the Niger basin.
181746		habitat	eng	<em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in rivers but also in man-made lakes. It schools in open shallow waters, rising to about 30 cm at night in Lake Volta. <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em>feeds on plankton, especially cladocerans.
181746		habitat	eng	This species is riverine, but also occur in man-made lakes where it schools in open waters and at about 2 to 8 m in Kainji Lake. It performs daily migration rising to about 30 cm from the surface at night in Volta Lake. Feeds on plankton, especially cladocerans.
181746		population	eng	No data on population trend
181746		population	eng	No information available.
181746		threats	eng	In Nigeria, this species has commercial importance.
181746		threats	eng	None known
181746		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance in Nigeria.
181747		conservation	eng	None known.
181747		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality (a tributary of the Bafing River, Senegal River system) and from the Niandan of the upper Niger in Guinea.
181747		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181747		population	eng	No available data.
181747		threats	eng	Quality of habitat is declining due to agricultural development and dams.
181748		conservation	eng	None known.
181748		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Raddaella) batesii</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin of southeastern Cameroon, northwestern Congo and the Sangha and lower Ubangui Rivers from the Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the drainage systems of the upper Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Doumé, Boumba and Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon, and the Ivindo River and Woleu in northern Gabon.
181748		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Raddaella) batesii</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is restricted to forested inland plateau. It inhabits raffia swamps and swampy parts of shallow brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). This species is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation (Huber 1996).
181748		population	eng	No information available.
181748		threats	eng	None known.
181749		conservation	eng	None known.
181749		distribution	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax zebra</em> is known from the Foulakari River, a tributary to the Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Lower Guinea from the upper Niari, This species is known from upper Louesse and This species is known from upper Kouilou River systems and from the upper Ogowe River drainage in central and western Congo.
181749		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax zebra</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It usually occurs in small forest brooks and rivers, usually in moderate to fast flowing bodies of water under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181749		population	eng	No information available.
181749		threats	eng	The species could be threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation in the Kouilou-Niari system. It is also harvested for the aquarium trade.
181750		conservation	eng	None known.
181750		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181750		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is known from Cameroon to the Congo River. Elsewhere from the Okavango and the Zambezi system.
181750		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from western Africa to the Congo basin, as well as the Okavango  and Upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001).  Also reported from the Batoka Gorge below Victoria Falls.
181750		distribution	eng	This species is distributed widely between Cameroon and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is known from Cameroon to the Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Okavango and This species is known from upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001).  It is also reported from the Batoka Gorge below Victoria Falls.
181750		habitat	eng	Closely associated with aquatic and emergent vegetation in the main rivers and large lagoons, also occurring in pools left by floodwaters (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Preys on shrimps, insects and small fishes. A nesting substrate spawner, breeding in early summer. The parents guard the nest and fry (Skelton 2001).
181750		habitat	eng	<em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It  is highly predaceous and thus used in some areas for tilapia control. Feeds on fish, shrimp and aquatic insects and is very aggressive and territorial (Yamamoto and Tagawa 2000). The parents guard the nest and larvae (Skelton 2001).  This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181750		habitat	eng	<em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is highly predaceous and thus used in some areas for tilapia control. It feeds on fish, shrimp and aquatic insects and is very aggressive and territorial (Yamamoto and Tagawa 2000). The parents guard the nest and larvae (Skelton 2001). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is closely associated with aquatic and emergent vegetation in the main rivers and large lagoons, also occurring in pools left by floodwaters (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). A nesting substrate spawner, breeding in early summer.
181750		population	eng	No information available.
181750		population	eng	This species is widespread but fairly uncommon, e.g. only a single specimen was caught in a survey of the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2003).
181750		population	eng	Widespread but fairly uncommon, e.g., only a single specimen caught in a survey of the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al. 2003).</em>
181750		threats	eng	None known.
181750		threats	eng	The species has a widespread distribution in large rivers and thus there are no major threats.
181751		conservation	eng	None known.
181751		distribution	eng	<em>Tetraodon duboisi</em> is only known from the type locality (Leopoldville, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo). Although it is a very distinctive species, it has not been found at other locations.
181751		habitat	eng	<em>Tetraodon duboisi</em> is a demersal species. This species is very difficult to catch in gill nets.
181751		population	eng	No information available.
181751		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
181752		conservation	eng	None known.
181752		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus niger</em> is known from the Lower Congo upstream to Wanie Rukula, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Mbonge River basin (Cameroon) in the north-east up to the Shiloango River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo) in the south.
181752		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181752		population	eng	No information available.
181752		threats	eng	None known.
181753		conservation	eng	None known.
181753		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys dendrophorous</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids downstream to at least Inga. This species is recorded from the entire Lower Congo but appears to be relatively rare.
181753		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys dendrophorous</em> is a demersal species. It is adapted to a life under stones of rocky bottoms of rapids (Poll 1966) and is probably only known from the main channel.
181753		population	eng	No information available.
181753		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. This species could be threatened to because it is a targeted food fish.
181754		conservation	eng	No information available.
181754		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the Cavally River, Côte d'Ivoire, although it may also exist in the Nipoue.
181754		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181754		population	eng	No available data.
181754		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181755		conservation	eng	No information.
181755		conservation	eng	No information available.
181755		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181755		conservation	eng	None known.
181755		distribution	eng	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It inhabits lakes and large rivers across much of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Cross River in Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, including Rusizi and Malagarasi, as well as Lakes Albert and Edward. It is found in the Blue and White Niles, Aswa river, Omo River, Lake Turkana and Giuba River.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is now rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Setit in Eritrea and the Ghazal and jebel systems in Sudan. It is also known from Baro, Omo and Wabishebelle Rivers in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Chad basin, the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia, where it is sympatric with <em>Auchenoglanis biscutatus</em>. Also occurs in the Volta basin, in Ivorian basins of the Comoe, Bandama and Sassandra, Casamance (Senegal), Géba and Corubal (Guinea), Jong and Moa (Sierra Leone) and in the River Cross. It has also been mentioned from the Ogun in Nigeria and from southern Ghana. It should be noted that this species has never been observed in large quantities in forested areas.
181755		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is rare in the Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile River, Nigeria, Congo, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Chad, Senegal and Uganda. It is all over Eastern and southern Africa.
181755		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Lake Chad, western Africa, eastern African lakes, Omo River and Giuba River. It is also known from the Cross River in Cameroon.
181755		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, i.e. Rusizi and Malagarasi;  Lakes Albert and Edward, Blue and White Niles, Aswa river; Omo River, Lake Turkana and Giuba River.
181755		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad basin, the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia, where it is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. biscutatus</span>. Also occurs in the Volta basin, in Ivorian basins of the Comoe, Bandama and Sassandra, Casamance (Senegal), Géba and Corubal (Guinea), Jong and Moa (Sierra Leone) and in the River Cross. It has also been mentioned from the Ogun in Nigeria and from southern Ghana. It should be noted that this species has never been observed in large quantities in forested areas.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Nile, Lake Chad, western Africa, Congo-Lualaba River system, East African lakes, Omo River and Giuba River.
181755		habitat	eng	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> inhabits lakes and large rivers, occurring in shallow water with muddy bottom. It is omnivore, feeds on plankton, molluscs, seeds and detritus.  It is oviparous, and nested eggs are guarded by the male parent. Breeding season extends from May to October. The largest specimen caught from Lake Nasser measured 30 cm long and in Sudan more than 1 m. Colour: uniform olive or brown, but some are spotted with dark brown or blackish spots; these spots when present are larger than in <em>A. biscutatus</em>, often very large on the dorsal and caudal fins, where they are separated by a narrow network of the pale ground-colour.
181755		habitat	eng	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It inhabits lakes and large rivers (Eccles 1992). This species occurs in shallow waters with muddy bottoms. It is an omnivore and feeds on plankton, molluscs, seeds and detritus (Willoughby 1974). <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The nested eggs are guarded and brooded by the male parent (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). Furthermore,  the male plays host to eggs and young of <em>Dinotopterus cunningtoni</em> which takes advantage of the already prepared nest and feeds on the host brood (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). This is an example of interspecific brood care.
181755		habitat	eng	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. This species is found in inshore areas of lakes and major rivers, sometimes in swamps of flood plains (Eccles 1992). This species occurs in shallow waters with muddy bottoms. It is an omnivore and feeds on insect larvae, worms, crustacea, molluscs other invertebrates, but also on plankton, seeds, plants and detritus (Willoughby 1974, Bailey 1994). <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The breeding season extends from May to October, and nested eggs are guarded and brooded by the male parent (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). Furthermore, the male plays host to eggs and young of <em>Dinotopterus cunningtoni</em> which takes advantage of the already prepared nest and feeds on the host brood (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). This is an example of interspecific brood care.
181755		habitat	eng	Found in inshore areas of lakes and major rivers, sometimes in swamps of flood plains (Eccles 1992). Feeds on insect larvae, worms, crustacea,  molluscs other invertebrates, but also on plankton, seeds, plants and detritus (Bailey 1994).
181755		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams lakes and large rivers. Occurs in shallow water with muddy bottom. Omnivore, feeds on plankton, molluscs, seeds and detritus.
181755		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181755		population	eng	No information available.
181755		population	eng	No population estimate available but in eastern Africa the species is common in fisheries catches and on the markets around Rusizi and Malagarasi rivers deltas. Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
181755		population	eng	No population estimate available but the species is common in fisheries catches and on the markets around Rusizi and Malagarasi rivers deltas. Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
181755		threats	eng	For the majority of its range, no major threats to this species are known. In eastern Africa, it is threatened by loss of flood plains and vegetated marshes around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension, as well as overfishing. In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this species.
181755		threats	eng	None known
181755		threats	eng	None known.
181755		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are loss of flood plains and vegetated marshes around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension and overfishing.
181755		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181756		conservation	eng	None known.
181756		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus tumifrons</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central and upper Congo River basin. It is not known from the Sangha and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.
181756		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181756		population	eng	No information available.
181756		threats	eng	None known.
181757		conservation	eng	The range in the Cross River is partly included within the Cross River National Park. Further protected areas should be put in place, and habitat maintenance and conservation is required.
181757		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion bivittatum</em> is restricted to small brooks and streams on calcium-bearing soils in the coastal rain forest of southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon, from the Lower Cross River as far east as Mundemba.
181757		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion bivittatum</em> is restricted to small brooks and streams on calciferous soils in coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em><em>et al.</em> </em>1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion bivittatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181757		population	eng	No information available.
181757		threats	eng	Oil palm plantations pose a threat to the species in the central Africa region. This species is also targeted by the aquarium trade. The main threat to the species is deforestation, pollution and wetland drainage.
181758		conservation	eng	No information available.
181758		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. Records from other areas are highly doubtful.
181758		habitat	eng	This species is found in clear and vegetated rocky areas in the shallow shore (less than 3 m. depth. The shore vegetation is mainly composed of <em>Ceratophyllum</em> species growing both on rocky and sandy substrate. The species was observed to swim in schools of few to several hundreds of fish.
181758		population	eng	The population of the species has not been estimated; however, it is known to be found in schools abundantly in the lake, especially at the southern gulf.
181758		threats	eng	No major threats known.
181759		conservation	eng	None known.
181759		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria abbreviata</em> is known only from the Kouilou Basin in Congo, the Ogowe Basin in Gabon, and the Mvila Basin in Cameroon.
181759		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181759		population	eng	No information available.
181759		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181760		conservation	eng	None known.
181760		distribution	eng	<em>Raiamas kheeli</em> is currently only known from the type series from two widely separated localities in the Lower Congo, near Inga and near Kilemfu (Inkisi River), although continued collecting in the region will probably extend this range (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2006).
181760		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas kheeli</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. The only two collections were made in complex habitats composed of alternating riffles and pools (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2006). In both cases, <em>Raiamas kheeli</em> was captured in deeper stretches of open water in relatively fast-flowing waters (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2006).
181760		population	eng	No information available.
181760		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
181762		conservation	eng	No information available.
181762		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance may be required.
181762		distribution	eng	The species is known from lakes Edward and George systems and the Albert Nile. Also present in the Blue and White Nile systems.
181762		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower Nile, from Ethiopia to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Edward and George systems and the Albert Nile. Also present in the Blue and White Nile systems.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Baro and Blue Nile basins, Ethiopia.
181762		habitat	eng	Deep water close to lake shores.
181762		habitat	eng	Deep water close to lake shores and running waters.
181762		population	eng	No information available.
181762		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the heavy fishing pressure and potential eutrophication in deep water habitats of Lake Albert.
181762		threats	eng	This species is threatened by localised heavy fishing pressure. Potential eutrophication in deep water habitats of Lake Albert could also have a negative impact.
181763		conservation	eng	None known.
181763		distribution	eng	This species is known from tributaries of the Mamou (Little Scarcies basin) and of the Kogon in Guinea.
181763		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 5.1 cm SL maximum size
181763		population	eng	No available data.
181763		threats	eng	No current threats known. There is a potential threat from deforestation.
181764		conservation	eng	None known.
181764		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kribia kribensis</em> is known from the Dja and Bumba River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross to the Ogowe, but not south of the Ogowe; however it is perhaps widespread in the Lower Guinea region. Elsewhere, it is found in many West African basins, from Guinea to Togo (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
181764		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is present in many western African water basins, from Guinea to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> From Guinea to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181764		distribution	eng	This is a fairly widespread species from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kribia kribensis</em> is known from the Dja and Bumba River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross to the Ogowe, but not south of the Ogowe; however it is perhaps more widespread in the Lower Guinea region. <br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is present in many West African water basins, from Guinea to Nigeria.
181764		habitat	eng	No available information.
181764		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181764		population	eng	No available data.
181764		population	eng	No information available.
181764		threats	eng	None known
181764		threats	eng	None known.
181765		conservation	eng	None known.
181765		distribution	eng	<em>Othochromis stormsi</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin from the Kisangani area to Lake Mweru. It has also been reported from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Regina Falls, but the identity of the Lower Congo population requires further investigation (under study, Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).
181765		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181765		population	eng	No information available.
181765		threats	eng	None known.
181766		conservation	eng	None known.
181766		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea present in the Cross River. <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Upper Senegal, Niger, Volta rivers and Lake Chad basin.  Also reported from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1988).
181766		distribution	eng	This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger and Volta, as well as from coastal basins, particularly in Cote d’Ivoire. Its known distribution in Ghana includes the Volta, the Bia and the Tano basins. (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999).
181766		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus punctitaeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181766		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus punctitaeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 4.4 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
181766		population	eng	No information available.
181766		threats	eng	Deforestation affects the habitat of some populations.
181766		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181767		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181767		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe banguelensis</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
181767		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe banguelensis</em> is a demersal species. Its diet has a strong fish component which grows in size as the fish gets larger (Jackson 1961).
181767		population	eng	No information available.
181767		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181768		conservation	eng	None known.
181768		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic found in southern Gabon and western Congo. Specifically, from the area around Moanda, in the Lékedi River drainage system, and southward to the area around Mossendjo, in the upper Louesse River drainage system.
181768		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion coeleste</em> occurs in swampy parts of rainforest brooks on the inland plains and hills (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) coeleste</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181768		population	eng	No information available.
181768		threats	eng	In the northern part of the species distribution, mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation. In the Kouilou basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
181769		conservation	eng	None known.
181769		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus tomiensis</em> is only known from Fort Sibut, Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.
181769		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus tomiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181769		population	eng	No information available.
181769		threats	eng	None known.
181770		conservation	eng	None known.
181770		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis elongatus</em> is known from two localities: the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and from Kindu in the Lualaba River, upper Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Stiassny 1990).
181770		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that is probably a benthic macrophage (Stiassny 1989). It seems to feed mainly on insects and insect larvae (Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
181770		population	eng	No information available.
181770		threats	eng	None known.
181771		conservation	eng	None known.
181771		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius bentleyi</em> is only known from the type locality, Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), Congo River.
181771		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181771		population	eng	No information available.
181771		threats	eng	None known.
181772		conservation	eng	None known.
181772		distribution	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax platysternus</em> is known from the Central (mainly around the Kisangani and Yangambi region) and upper Congo River basin (Middle Lualaba system).
181772		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax platysternus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in clear forest rivers and brooks. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181772		population	eng	No information available.
181772		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181773		conservation	eng	None known.
181773		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo degeni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool, Kinshasa) and the Central Congo River basin: the Kasai River in the Mushie region, Yakoma (Ubangui River), the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and the Fwa River and from the Mabwe River (East of Lac Upemba), This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181773		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo degeni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992).
181773		population	eng	No information available.
181773		threats	eng	None known.
181774		conservation	eng	None known.
181774		distribution	eng	<em>Bagrus caeruleus</em> is only known from the type locality (near Inga hydroelectric dam and near Gombe or Ngombe about 20 km downstream from Kinshasa). It has recently been found in between these sites.
181774		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus caeruleus</em> is a demersal species that prefers streams.
181774		population	eng	No information available.
181774		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181775		conservation	eng	No information available.
181775		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from southern tributaries of the Ogowe River southwards, in western Gabon, Congo and Cabinda.
181775		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys ansorgii</em> is found in brooks and small rivers in the rainforest of the coastal lowlands. It is a benthopelagic species.
181775		population	eng	No information available.
181775		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181776		conservation	eng	None known.
181776		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius dundoensis</em> is known from a restricted area in the Kwango and Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin in Angola. It is expected to be more widespread in this region though.
181776		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181776		population	eng	No information available.
181776		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181777		conservation	eng	None known.
181777		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181777		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. Population trends should be monitored.
181777		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> is known from the Central and southern part of Africa: Shaba, This species is known from upper Kasaï, This species is known from upper Kwango, This species is known from upper Cuanza, Cunene, Okavango, Lake Ngami, Zambezi, Limpopo, Sabi, Lundi, northern tributaries of the Orange River, Lake Malawi, the upper Congo River basin, and from the Bangweulu-Luapula-Mweru system. It has been introduced in several countries. The introductions to Tanzania and USA are known, but <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> has not established in this countries. It has probably also been introduced to Libya, Egypt, Chad and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is found in Kasai River in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In this region it is only known from the Lake Malawi catchment where it is common in the lower reaches of northern and central Lake Malawi catchment streams. It has not been recorded south of Chia lagoon (Nkhotakota) or anywhere in the Shire River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Zambezi system and Lake Malawi streams south to the Orange River and KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). Extensively translocated south of the Orange system.
181777		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> is known from the Central and southern part of Africa: Shaba, upper Kasaï, upper Kwango, upper Cuanza, Cunene, Okavango, Lake Ngami, Zambezi, Limpopo, Sabi, Lundi, northern tributaries of the Orange River, Lake Malawi, the Upper Congo River basin, and from the Bangweulu-Luapula-Mweru system. It has been introduced in several countries. The introductions to Tanzania and USA are known, but <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> has not established in this countries. It has probably also been introduced to Libya, Egypt, Chad and Sudan.
181777		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Zambezi system, Congo basin and Lake Malawi streams south to the Orange River and KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). Extensively translocated south of the Orange system.
181777		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs in a widely diverse habitat; it favours areas where plant cover exists along the edges of rivers, lakes or swamps and prefers shallow sheltered waters and does not colonize the open water of large lakes. Adults feed preferentially on filamentous algae, aquatic macrophytes and vegetable matter of terrestrial origin (leaves, plants, etc.) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). Juveniles feed small crustaceans and midge larvae (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is used as a forage fish for bass (Skelton 1993). This species undertakes seasonal upstream migration and breeds before and during these migrations (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The male spreads his milt over the cluster of eggs which are deposited on the bottom or even attached to the branches of aquatic weeds. The parents guard the eggs. Eggs and fry may be moved into the mouth to alternative sites during hatching operations but there is no evidence of actual mouth brooding.
181777		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs in a widely diverse habitat; it favours areas where plant cover exists along the edges of rivers, lakes or swamps and prefers shallow sheltered waters and does not colonize the open water of large lakes. Adults feed preferentially on filamentous algae, aquatic macrophytes and vegetable matter of terrestrial origin (leaves, plants, etc.) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). Juveniles feed small crustaceans and midge larvae (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is used as a forage fish for bass (Skelton 1993). This species undertakes seasonal upstream migration and breeds before and during these migrations (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The male spreads his milt over the cluster of eggs which are deposited on the bottom or even attached to the branches of aquatic weeds. The parents guard the eggs. Eggs and fry may be moved into the mouth to alternative sites during hatching operations but there is no evidence of actual mouth brooding. Newly hatched fry attach to the substrate by head glands and wriggle constantly for aeration. Fry are free-swimming after 7-8 days but remain in a shoal guarded by parents for several weeks (Skelton 2001).
181777		habitat	eng	Tolerant of a wide range of habitats but prefers quiet or standing water with submerged or emergent vegetation (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it throughout the Upper Zambezi system, the only habitat from which it was absent being rocky rapids. An omnivore, feeding on algae, soft plants, small invertebrates, and small fish. The male constructs a simple sacer-shaped nest in which eggs are guarded and tended by both parents. Eggs or fry may be moved by parents to alternative nests. Newly hatched fry attach to the substrate by head glands and wriggle constantly for aeration. Fry are free-swimming after 7-8 days but remain in a shoal guarded by parents for several weeks (Skelton 2001).
181777		population	eng	No information available.
181777		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant. It has been increasing in Lake Kariba in the last 10-15 years.
181777		population	eng	Widespread and abundant. Increasing in Lake Kariba in the last 10 to 15 years.
181777		threats	eng	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a species that is commercially used for aquaculture.
181777		threats	eng	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a species that is commercially used for aquaculture, and there is potential for overfishing.
181777		threats	eng	None known.
181778		conservation	eng	None known.
181778		distribution	eng	<em>Neolebias trilineatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the upper Lualaba-Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. Elsewhere, it has been recorded from Luhanga, 17 km of Uvira, Lake Tanganika, but this record is very doubtful.
181778		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181778		population	eng	No information available.
181778		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
181779		conservation	eng	No information available.
181779		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
181779		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> White and Blue Nile, Lake Albert, Lake Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Chad basin.
181779		distribution	eng	The native range of this species includes Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> According to FAO (2005), the species is introduced, probably by diffusion, at unknown date from Sudan to Congo. Its presence in Lower Guinea is not confirmed by museum records. The species is self reproducing and established in the wild according to FAO (2005) but no further details are provided.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the White Nile, and Lakes Albert and Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is found in the Gahzal and Jebel systems, White Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. It also occurs in the Blue Nile, Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia.
181779		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus niloticus</em> is a macro-herbivorous species and feeds on submerged water plants, <em>Eichornia</em> roots and periphyton. It is found in shallow inshore zones, especially in river deltas, but also sometimes in pelagic zones.This species is oviparous.
181779		habitat	eng	Found in shallow inshore zones, especially in river deltas, but also sometimes in pelagic zones. It feeds on on sumberged water plants and periphyton and macro-invertebrates (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181779		population	eng	No information available.
181779		population	eng	Population size not known
181779		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.
181779		threats	eng	This species experiences heavy fishing pressure in eastern Africa. Its habitat is also being degraded by agriculture.
181780		conservation	eng	None known.
181780		distribution	eng	<em>Hemichromis cerasogaster</em> is only known from the type locality in Lake Mai-N'dombe (Leopold II), and its satellite lakes.
181780		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181780		population	eng	No information available.
181780		threats	eng	The use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. This nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.
181781		conservation	eng	None known.
181781		distribution	eng	<em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is known from Gambia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may also be present in the upper reaches of Senegal (Niokolo-Koba National Park) (Bigome 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is mostly known from the lower basins of the Congo, however it has been recorded in central DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the majority of the West African coastal basins; and its presence has also been reported from brackish waters. Its distribution seems to be mainly restricted to the coastal band, even though its presence in the upper regions of Gambia and in the Kogon River (Guinea) has also been confirmed
181781		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is known from Gambia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may also be present in the upper reaches of Senegal (Niokolo-Koba National Park) (Bigome 1990).
181781		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. brachyistius</span> occurs in the majority of the western African coastal basins; and its presence has also been reported from brackish waters. Its distribution seems to be mainly restricted to the coastal band, even though its presence in the upper regions of Gambia and in the Kogon River (Guinea) has also been confirmed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also occurs in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
181781		habitat	eng	An epibenthic fish which prefers quiet, gently flowing stretches and muddy substratum or fine sand overlain with a layer of organic debris. It occurs mostly in shallow marginal water among aquatic macrophytes and in swamp pools. Feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates and detritus. Is considered a micropredator and an "aufwuchs browser.
181781		habitat	eng	<em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181781		habitat	eng	<em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is an epibenthic fish which prefers quiet, gently flowing stretches and muddy substratum or fine sand overlain with a layer of organic debris. It occurs mostly in shallow marginal water among aquatic macrophytes and in swamp pools. Feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates and detritus. Is considered a micropredator and an "aufwuchs" browser.
181781		population	eng	No available data.
181781		population	eng	No information available.
181781		threats	eng	None known
181781		threats	eng	None known.
181782		conservation	eng	There is no implementation of conservation measure although regulations are in place.
181782		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Lake Tana.
181782		habitat	eng	It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates, especially in the shore areas of the lake, almost exclusively in water shallower than 6 m. It is a specialized macro-molluscivore.
181782		population	eng	The size of the population is not known.
181782		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the resources is a major threat to the species.
181783		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
181783		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius lentiginosus</em> is genuinely only known from the type locality the Cuvo River, Mount Moko, Angola. Other records from the Kwango River system (Congo River basin), Luachimo River and Tchmenji River, Angola are probably not <em>A. lentiginosous</em> (Skelton P., pers. comm.).
181783		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Cuvo River (at Mount Moco) and Congo River (Luachimo River, Cuango River) systems.
181783		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius lentiginosus</em> is a demersal species. Its preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the headwaters. Biology is not known.
181783		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the headwaters. Biology is not known.
181783		population	eng	No information available.
181783		population	eng	Population size is not known.
181783		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181783		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
181784		conservation	eng	None known.
181784		distribution	eng	<em>Trachyglanis sanghensis</em> is only known from Ouesso, Sangha River, Central Congo basin (Pellegrin 1925).
181784		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181784		population	eng	No information available.
181784		threats	eng	None known.
181785		conservation	eng	None known.
181785		distribution	eng	<em>Alestes liebrechtsii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.
181785		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181785		population	eng	No information available.
181785		threats	eng	No information available.
181786		conservation	eng	None known.
181786		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma ashbysmithi</em> is only known from the type locality, an unnamed marsh, 10 km southwest of Kindu.
181786		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181786		population	eng	No information available.
181786		threats	eng	None known.
181787		conservation	eng	None known.
181787		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus elephas</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira en Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.
181787		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181787		population	eng	No information available.
181787		threats	eng	None known.
181788		conservation	eng	None known.
181788		distribution	eng	<em>Cypomyrus plagiostoma</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Kindu on the Lualaba River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181788		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181788		population	eng	No information available.
181788		threats	eng	None known.
181789		conservation	eng	None known.
181789		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys uniformis</em> is only known by the type specimen from Poko, Uele River,&#160;Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181789		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys uniformis</em> is found only in lakes and large rivers, on rocky bottoms or between tree stumps or branches (Matthes 1964).
181789		population	eng	No information available.
181789		threats	eng	None known.
181790		conservation	eng	No information available.
181790		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus guirali</em> is known from the Dja basin and from the Alima River, Sangha River basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from throughout the Lower Guinea area.
181790		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181790		population	eng	No information available.
181790		threats	eng	No information available.
181791		conservation	eng	No information available.
181791		distribution	eng	This species is known from Casamance River, Senegal to the Saint John River, Liberia.
181791		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Detritivore and oviparous.
181791		population	eng	No information available
181791		threats	eng	Drought, deforestation, overfishing and dams threaten this species.
181792		conservation	eng	No information available, but more measures are required to ensure the protection and preservation of this species and its habitat.
181792		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Afdera in the Danakil of Ethiopia, where it is found predominantly in the vicinity of hot springs that flow into the lake and its surrounding swamps.
181792		habitat	eng	It is found predominantly in the vicinity of hot springs that flow into  the lake and its surrounding swamps.
181792		population	eng	No information available.
181792		threats	eng	According to Getahun (2001), a new gravel road connecting Lake Adfera to the main road to Assab is under construction. One objective is to mine the lake as a source of salt, and production is underway. Salt extraction involves canalization, and water level drops are anticipated.
181793		conservation	eng	No conservation measure recorded. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
181793		conservation	eng	No information available.
181793		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Found in the Niger and Volta systems. Full distribution can't be mapped, needs more information.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in Africa in the Nile River system.
181793		distribution	eng	This species is found in patchy distribution from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Bahr el Jebel system, This species is known from upper White Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Niger and Volta systems.
181793		habitat	eng	Found on sandy bottoms of running water, burrowing into the substrate when disturbed.
181793		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy bottoms, burrowing into the substrate when disturbed.
181793		population	eng	Limited information is available. It is rarely recorded in northeast Africa.
181793		population	eng	No information available.
181793		threats	eng	Potential impact from continuing deforestation within the species range.
181794		conservation	eng	None known.
181794		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Amphilius longirostris</em> is known from the Dja River, a tributary of the Sangha (Congo), Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea from the Sanaga to the Ogowe River, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.
181794		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius longirostris</em> is a demersal species.
181794		population	eng	No information available.
181794		threats	eng	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat.
181795		conservation	eng	None known.
181795		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis contractus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin.
181795		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis contractus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It forms large schools in pools, rivers and smaller streams with muddy bottoms or among vegetation near the shore. <em>Synodontis contractus</em> prefers to swim upside-down and will feed in this position as it skims along just under the surface sucking in floating food. The mouth is ventrally located and the teeth are 'fused' together into a rasping patch or plate that is used to scrape algae and slime as well as other types of organisms off the surfaces of the plants, stones, driftwood, etc. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181795		population	eng	No information available.
181795		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis contractus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
181796		conservation	eng	No information available.
181796		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181796		conservation	eng	None known.
181796		distribution	eng	<em>Auchenoglanis biscutatus</em> is a common species across western and northeast Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is rare, but present, in the Lower Nile (Bishai and Khalil 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa: </strong>It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan; as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Chad basin and the rivers Niger, Senegal and Gambia.
181796		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Auchenoglanis biscutatus</em> is in Lower Nile, Egypt (Bishai and Khalil 1997).<br/><br/>At global scale it is present in Nigeria, White Nile, and very rare in Lake Nasser (Bishai and Khalil 1997).
181796		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad basin and the rivers Niger, Senegal and Gambia.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>River Nile.
181796		habitat	eng	A bottom feeder, this species feeds mainly on insects, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, nematodes and plant materials. Gravid fish are recorded throughout the year with a peak in the dry season.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It lives in shallow regions near the shore. The largest specimen recorded in Lake Nasser was 48 cm long.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Common in running water, lakes and submerged vegetation in the Sudd, rare in fringing vegetation.
181796		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow regions near the shore. It is a bottom feeder that feeds mainly on insects, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, nematodes and plant materials. Gravid fish were recorded throughout the year with a peak in dry season. The largest specimen recorded in Lake Nasser was 48 cm long. Colour: uniform olive green, with small round scattered blackish or brownish spots, lower side white (Bishai and Khalil 1997).
181796		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams, demersal. Commonly occurs in running water, lakes and submerged vegetation in the Sudd, rare in fringing vegetation. Feeds on the bottom on mud, debris, insects, notably chironomid larvae and molluscs. Gravid fish are recorded throughout the year with a peak in the dry season.
181796		population	eng	No information available.
181796		threats	eng	None known
181796		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181796		threats	eng	Throughout the majority of its range, no major threats are known. In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, and drought all pose possible threats to this species.
181797		conservation	eng	No information available.
181797		conservation	eng	None known.
181797		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> is only known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango River in the south, but not apparently collected from vicinities of the Ogowe and Nyanga basins. Elsewhere in rivers from Senegal to the Cunene River, Namibia.
181797		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Inhabits brackish-water estuaries, creeks, lagoons and mangrove areas from Senegal to Nigeria. Known distribution in Ghana: known from the lower reaches of the Volta and from coastal areas (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal to Angola.
181797		distribution	eng	This is a widespread coastal species known from Senegal to Namibia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> is known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango River in the south, but not apparently collected from vicinities of the Ogowe and Nyanga basins.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded on the Angola/Namibia border.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It inhabits brackish-water estuaries, creeks, lagoons and mangrove areas from Senegal to Nigeria.
181797		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> occur in estuaries, brackish streams, lagoons and mangroves. It occasionally enter freshwater (Harrison and Miller 1992). The species is known to be tolerant of wide range of salinity. This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997). It is used as bio-control agents, e.g. use in control of mosquito larva (Mojisola 2002).
181797		habitat	eng	Adults of <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> occur in estuaries, brackish streams, lagoons and mangroves. It occasionally enter freshwater (Harrison and Miller 1992). The species is known to be tolerant of wide range of salinity. This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997). It is used as bio-control agents, e.g., use in control of mosquito larva (Mojisola 2002).
181797		habitat	eng	Anadromous fish that occurs in estuaries, brackish streams, lagoons and mangroves. Occasionally enters freshwater.
181797		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181797		population	eng	No information available.
181797		threats	eng	It is used as bio-control agents, e.g., use in control of mosquito larva (Mojisola 2002).
181797		threats	eng	None known
181797		threats	eng	None known.
181798		conservation	eng	None known.
181798		distribution	eng	<em>Nothobranchius polli</em> is known from the Lufira system and from the region of Lumbumbashi, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181798		habitat	eng	<em>Nothobranchius polli</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in temporary pools, swamps, ditches in floodplains etc. (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a bottom spawner with 4-6 months incubation (Huber 1996).
181798		population	eng	No information available.
181798		threats	eng	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
181799		conservation	eng	None known.
181799		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus nanningsi</em> is known from the Lindu Dpt. and from the Luachimo River, Angola. There has been made one record that has not been published from Lula, Bushimaie River, Kasai, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181799		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus nanningsi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181799		population	eng	No information available.
181799		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
181800		conservation	eng	None known.
181800		distribution	eng	This species is found in the drainage systems of the upper and Middle Senegal and Gambia rivers in Senegal and Gambia, the Niger system in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. Also present in the so-called ‘Dohomey-gap’, the savannah extension southward through Benin, Togo and Eastern Ghana to the Accra Plains in southeastern Ghana and southwestern Togo.
181800		habitat	eng	This species occurs in temporary pools and swamps in the savannah. Bottom spawner, 3-4 months incubation.
181800		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181800		threats	eng	Deforestation threatens some populations.
181801		conservation	eng	No information available
181801		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and threats.
181801		conservation	eng	None known.
181801		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Malawi and its catchment, Shire River, and Lakes Chiuta and  Chilwa.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi and Lower Save systems.
181801		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from East Coast rivers on the Mozambique coastal plain from the Rovuma River south to the Save River. Present in affluent rivers of Lake Malawi.
181801		distribution	eng	This is a wide ranging species from main stream rivers through to swamps of larger streams and rivers in eastern and southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Malawi and its catchment, Shire River, and Lakes Chiuta and  Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in east coast rivers on the Mozambique coastal plain from the Rovuma River south to the Save River.
181801		habitat	eng	Occurs throughout Malawi waters. It is abundant in lagoons and lower reaches of rivers. Most abundant in quieter weedy areas. In L. Malawi it is common at 2-4m depth, but has been observed at 9 m.  In the Lower shire it is common in all types of habitats especially  in the marshes.  Observed to feed from plants as well as within the sand and on rock surfaces. This feeding behaviour suggests that it is an omnivore.
181801		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in lagoons and lower reaches of rivers, and is most abundant in quieter weedy areas. In Lake Malawi it is common at 2-4 m depth, but has been observed at 9 m. In the Lower shire it is common in all types of habitats especially in the marshes. It has been observed to feed from plants as well as within the sand and on rock surfaces. This feeding behaviour suggests that it is an omnivore.
181801		habitat	eng	Wide habitat range from main stream rivers through to swamps of larger streams and rivers.
181801		population	eng	No information available
181801		population	eng	No information available.
181801		threats	eng	In eastern Africa it is thought that overfishing, using small meshed gears (gill nets and seines) could pose a threat to this species. No major threats are known from southern Africa.
181801		threats	eng	None known.
181801		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing using small meshed gears (gill nets and seines).
181802		conservation	eng	None known.
181802		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ntem River of Southern Cameroon/Northern Gabon, and the Ivindo River of Gabon, two adjacent rivers that share several endemic species.
181802		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181802		population	eng	No information available.
181802		threats	eng	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. The populations on the Lower Ivindo drainage are threatened by iron mining.
181803		conservation	eng	None known.
181803		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius macrophthalmus</em> is only known from Tshikapa on the Kasaï River, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181803		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181803		population	eng	No information available.
181803		threats	eng	None known.
181804		conservation	eng	None known. This species is in need of taxonomic revision.
181804		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys multifasciatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the drainage systems of the upper Lékoni-Djouya and This species is known from upper Mpassa Rivers, southeastern Gabon and the Boumba river system in southeastern Cameroon.
181804		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys multifasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, small rivers and brooks under forest cover. Its max TL is 7 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). It inhabits creeks and other small bodies of water under rainforest cover or under gallery forest in savannah areas.
181804		population	eng	No information available.
181804		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
181805		conservation	eng	No major conservation measure in place. Policy-based actions, communication and education, research actions and habitat maintenance are all needed for this species.
181805		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout Ethiopia and into Northern Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>It is known from northern Ewaso Nyiro, Lake Baringo drainage, Lake Bogoria system (and affluent rivers), and the Lake Turkana basin (Turkwell River system, Keiro River sytem) and Suguta drainage.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is widely distributed in freshwaters of Ethiopia and Ouasso Nyiro, Wabishebelle (Juba), Benadir, Somalia
181805		habitat	eng	This species is found in running and standing waters.
181805		population	eng	Unknown.
181805		threats	eng	This species is treatened by overexploitation and habitat degradation.
181806		conservation	eng	None known.
181806		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on potential threats to this species, and populations should be monitored.
181806		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within western Africa it occurs around Lake Chad, in Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Beyond the region it is widely distributed occurring in the Sobat, Wadi Halfa and White Nile drainages in central Sudan.
181806		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lake Chad area, and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is occurring in the Sobat, Wadi Halfa and White Nile drainages in central Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Within Western Africa it occurs around Lake Chad, in Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria.
181806		habitat	eng	It is a small perennial killifish that occurs in pools, swamps, shallow waters and drainage ditches. Non-migratory.
181806		habitat	eng	It is a small perrenial killifish that occurs in pools, swamps, shallow waters and drainage ditches.
181806		population	eng	.No available data.
181806		population	eng	No available data.
181806		threats	eng	Water abstraction and potentially basin transfer from the Oubangui river threaten this species.
181806		threats	eng	Water abstraction and potentially basin transfer from the Oubangui River. Water shortage.
181807		conservation	eng	No information available.
181807		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181807		conservation	eng	None known.
181807		distribution	eng	<em>Tetraodon lineatus</em> is threatened in Lower an Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in Lake Nasser, Nile, Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Senegal Rivers.
181807		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Upper Nile system, Lake Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Sénégal Rivers.
181807		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Senegal Rivers. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also found in the Nile.
181807		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Nile system, and Lake Turkana <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Bahr el Jebel, White Nile, Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Senegal Rivers.
181807		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers, open water, weed beds and vegetated fringes. It feeds on molluscs. It rises to surface to inflate its body resembling a balloon. This inflation is useful to the fish as it is less easily eaten by predators. It reaches a length to 45 cm.
181807		habitat	eng	Occupies large rivers, open waters, macrophyte beds and vegatated fringes where it feeds on molluscs (Froese and Pauly 2003).
181807		habitat	eng	This species is found in large rivers, open water, weed beds and vegetated fringes. They are carnivores, crushing the shells and of  molluscs and shellfish.
181807		habitat	eng	This species occupies large rivers, open waters, macrophyte beds and vegetated fringes where it feeds on molluscs (Froese and Pauly 2003). It rises to surface to inflate its body resembling a balloon. This inflation is useful to the fish as it is less easily eaten by predators.
181807		population	eng	No available data.
181807		population	eng	No information available.
181807		population	eng	No quantitative population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing.
181807		threats	eng	Fishing activities leading to a possible reduction in population in the future, also climate change and the reduction of water flow.
181807		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. In western Africa, fishing activities could lead to a possible reduction in population in the future, also climate change and the reduction of water flow threaten this species.
181807		threats	eng	None known and it is not targeted by the fisheries.
181807		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181808		conservation	eng	None known.
181808		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo macrostoma</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
181808		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo macrostoma</em> is a benthopelagic species that lives in fast flowing waters.
181808		population	eng	No information available.
181808		threats	eng	None known.
181809		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
181809		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Warri, Nigeria (Niger delta).
181809		habitat	eng	It is only known from swamp habitat but more samples are required.
181809		population	eng	No available data.
181809		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration and general habitat degradation.
181810		conservation	eng	None known.
181810		distribution	eng	<em>Gephyroglanis longipinnis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin to just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai River systems.
181810		habitat	eng	<em>Gephyroglanis longipinnis</em> is a demersal species. Only the young are popular in the aquarium trade (Clarke 1988). It mainly feeds on worms (Burgess 1989).
181810		population	eng	No information available.
181810		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181811		conservation	eng	None known.
181811		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Mitemele River (Equatorial Guinea), and in the Mbei (or Mbe), Komo, Abanga and lower Ogowe Rivers (Gabon).
181811		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion striatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps, brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) striatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
181811		population	eng	No information available.
181811		threats	eng	None known.
181812		conservation	eng	None known.
181812		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle and lower courses of coastal rivers, from Guinea Bissau (Géba and Corubal) to the River Cess in Liberia.
181812		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 24.8 cm SL maximum size.
181812		population	eng	No available data.
181812		threats	eng	None known.
181814		conservation	eng	None known.
181814		distribution	eng	This species inhabits small rivers, brooks and swamps in the mountainous forested area of southeastern Guinea and northern Liberia. Probably also in the adjacent part of Western Côte d’Ivoire.
181814		habitat	eng	It is benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers, swamps, and brooks in mountainous areas. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size 4.5 cm TL
181814		population	eng	No available data.
181814		threats	eng	There is no information on any major threats to the species in Guinea; but in Liberia, the threats are from mining and deforestation
181815		conservation	eng	No information available.
181815		conservation	eng	None known.
181815		conservation	eng	None known. A taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as well as population monitoring and possible conservation measures, including habitat conservation.
181815		distribution	eng	<em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo across to Tanzania. The Genus is in need of revision and it is likely that <em>congicus</em> represents a species complex.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is found in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika, including the  Mutsindozi River, Malagarasi River basin.
181815		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Central and Upper Congo River basin and from Lake Tanganyika and from the Mutsindozi River, Malagarasi River basin. The genus is in need of revision and it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">congicus</span> represents a species complex.
181815		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Streams and rivers affluent to LakeTanganyika, including the Malagarasi River.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo basin.
181815		habitat	eng	<em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181815		habitat	eng	<em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers stream and riverine biotopes. Ecology not known.
181815		habitat	eng	Prefers stream and riverine biotopes. Ecology not known.
181815		population	eng	No information available.
181815		population	eng	Not known, but rare.
181815		threats	eng	For the majority of its range no major threats to this species are known. In eastern Africa water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation is threatening some populations.
181815		threats	eng	None known.
181815		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation.
181816		conservation	eng	None known.
181816		distribution	eng	This fish is found in Guinea Bissau to southern Liberia, around Monrovia. It inhabits creeks and small rivers under rainforest cover, in the zone of hills separating the coastal plain from the higher inland plains, in southeastern Sierra Leone between the Moa and Moha rivers of the Pujehun district. Also found in the adjacent part of southwestern Liberia, as far east as the Bomi Hills.
181816		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal rivers, brooks and swampy areas in forested savannah and under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. It is a benthopelagic fish
181816		population	eng	No available data.
181816		threats	eng	Threats include deforestation, water pollution and mining.
181817		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
181817		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis lufirae</em> is only known from the Lufira River system, including Lake Koni, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181817		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis lufirae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181817		population	eng	No information available.
181817		threats	eng	Mining, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
181818		conservation	eng	None known.
181818		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Nzi River, tributary of the Bandama, Côte d'Ivoire.
181818		habitat	eng	The type locality is situated in a savannah area, in a swamp which completely dries up every year. Maximum size 16.6 cm TL
181818		population	eng	No available data.
181818		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181819		conservation	eng	None known.
181819		distribution	eng	This species is known from rivers Cavally and Gbin (St. John basin, Liberia) and Corubal (Guinea Bissau).
181819		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 11.4 cm SL maximum size
181819		population	eng	No available data.
181819		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation, and agricultural development.
181820		conservation	eng	None known.
181820		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Sanaga River basin (Cameroon).
181820		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus sanagali</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in slow streams with a sandy bottom (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
181820		population	eng	No information available.
181820		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181821		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
181821		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra Leone, at Victoria near Freetown Peninsula, Pujehun and the Kasewe Forest.
181821		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
181821		population	eng	No information available.
181821		threats	eng	This species is impacted by deforestation, agricultural and urban developments.
181822		conservation	eng	None known.
181822		distribution	eng	<em>Chysichthys polli</em> is only known from the Yelelola Falls, Boma and Maleba in the Lower Congo River basin. The records from Boma and Malela are old records and probably refer to the area and not to the broad stretch of the main channel since the species appears to be living in rapids.
181822		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181822		population	eng	No information available.
181822		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five year,s will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
181823		conservation	eng	It is found within Kassawe Forest Reserve.
181823		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Kassawe Forest Reserve, Sierra Leone.
181823		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is oviparous.
181823		population	eng	No information available
181823		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181824		conservation	eng	None known.
181824		distribution	eng	<em>Platyclarias machadoi</em> is only known from Cafunfo, upper Kwango River basin, Angola.
181824		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181824		population	eng	No information available.
181824		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.
181825		conservation	eng	None known.
181825		distribution	eng	This species is reliably known only from water drainages of the mountainous Bamenda region (part of the Niger basin in Cameroon).
181825		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum reported size: 62.5 mm SL.
181825		population	eng	No available data.
181825		threats	eng	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened by deforestation.
181826		conservation	eng	None known.
181826		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis schwetzi</em> is only known from a limited number of locations on the Kwango River, Kasai drainage, Central Congo River system, Angola. It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango basin though.
181826		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis schwetzi</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females. This species practices buccal incubation (Poll 1967).
181826		population	eng	No information available.
181826		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.
181827		conservation	eng	None known.
181827		distribution	eng	<em>Trachyglanis minutus</em> is only known from the type locality, the Ubangui River at Banzyville, Democratic Republic of the Congo and possibly from the Lossi Creek, Sangha basin, Central African Republic.
181827		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181827		population	eng	No information available.
181827		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
181828		conservation	eng	None known.
181828		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Kouilou-Niari basin, Congo.
181828		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus rouxi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 7.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
181828		population	eng	No information available.
181828		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
181829		conservation	eng	None known.
181829		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring population trends.
181829		distribution	eng	<em>Garra dembeensis</em> is known from Cameroon to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from East Africa to Cameroon (Lévêque and Daget 1984), including the Kwango River (Cafunfo) in Angola and Kisala and Kidada in the Congo basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Victoria drainage, northern Ewaso Nyiro, Pangani drainage, Athi and Tana basins (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is also known from the Mukungwa River (This species is known from upper Akagera), and Lake Tana and affluents to Blue Nile. Lake Victoria system, Victoria Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in upper Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed in North East Africa and beyond. Found in the Nile in Egypt and Sudan and in all drainage basins of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species is only known from Chad basin (Omo and This species is known from upper Logone River).
181829		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Garra dembeensis</em> is known from Lake Tana and tributaries of the Blue Nile, Omo River and the upper reaches of Logone River and Chad basin. It is also known from eastern Africa to Cameroon (Lévêque and Daget 1984), including the Kwango River (Cafunfo) in Angola and Kisala and Kidada in the Congo basin.
181829		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is only known from Chad Basin (Upper Logone River). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Lake Tana and tributaries of the Blue Nile, Omo River and the upper reaches of Logone River and Chad basin. Known from eastern Africa to Cameroon.
181829		distribution	eng	The species is known from the  Lake Victoria drainage, northern Ewaso Nyiro, Pangani drainage, Athi and Tana basins (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Mukungwa River (Upper Akagera). Lake Tana and affluents to Blue Nile. Lake Victoria system, Victoria Nile.
181829		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species that is commonly found in rapid parts of rivers and also on wave-washed rocks. Feeds on algae. Adheres to stones in swift water.
181829		habitat	eng	Commonly found in river rapids and on wave-washed rocks (Eccles 1992). Feeds on algae (Fermon 1997). Adheres to stones in swift water (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181829		habitat	eng	<em>Garra dembeensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is commonly found in rapid parts of rivers and also on wave-washed rocks (Eccles 1992). <em>Garra dembeensis</em> feeds on algae (Fermon 1997). It adheres to stones in swift water (Bailey 1994).
181829		habitat	eng	<em>Garra dembeensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is commonly found in rapid parts of rivers and also on wave-washed rocks (Eccles 1992). It prefers habitats that are vegetated, as it is abundantly found in such habitats. However, it could also adapt to habitats that are highly affected by human activities. <em>Garra dembeensis</em> feeds on algae (Fermon 1997). It adheres to stones in swift water (Bailey 1994).
181829		population	eng	No available data.
181829		population	eng	No information available.
181829		population	eng	Not known.
181829		population	eng	The species is known to occur in great abundance in different basins of the northeast region. No further information is available.
181829		threats	eng	Minor commercial trade and use.
181829		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries for minor commercial trade (after Froese and Pauly 2003), and water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation.
181829		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance for the aquarium trade (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation, is likely to be threatening east African populations. In northeast Africa, degradation of the environment appears to have impact on the abundance of the species, although not crucially impacting the existence of the species.
181829		threats	eng	Unknown.
181830		conservation	eng	The northern part of the distribution is in Upemba National Park.
181830		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis dorsomaculatus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system.
181830		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis dorsomaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181830		population	eng	No information available.
181830		threats	eng	Mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
181831		conservation	eng	None known.
181831		distribution	eng	This species is inhabits the drainage systems of: the Lover Volta, Dayi and Ofu Rivers in southern and Central Ghana, the Sassandra, Comoé, Bandama, and Cavally Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and the St. John's and Douobe rivers in southeastern Liberia. There is also an unconfirmed record of the occurrence of this species in the Volta River system in Southwestern Burkina Faso.
181831		habitat	eng	The species is found in small rivers, books and swamps of the forested savannah in foothills of the plateau. These streams are recorded as being clear water with some flow rate over a sand base. Depth of water has been recorded at 30 cm, water temperature 20-30°C. Sympatric species include <span style="font-style: italic;">E.chaperi sheljuzhkoi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E.chaperi schreiberi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E.olbrechtsi olbrechtsi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Poropanchax rancureli</span>.<br/>This species is found in mid-water levels in shoals. They lay eggs on aquatic plants and roots of terrestrial plants at waters edge. Sexual maturity in 20 weeks. Full maturity at 7 months with a life expectancy of 3 years.
181831		population	eng	No available data.
181831		threats	eng	No current threats known, but there are potential threats to the species from agricultural development.
181832		conservation	eng	None known.
181832		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the drainage systems of the upper Via/Saint Paul and upper Saint John rivers in eastern Guinea and northwestern Liberia.
181832		habitat	eng	This killifish is found mainly among vegetation, or between fallen leaves, in brooks and small streams of the forested savannah.
181832		population	eng	No available data.
181832		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and pool draining.
181833		conservation	eng	None known.
181833		distribution	eng	<em>Kneria katangae</em> is only known from the Lufira River, upper Congo River basin.
181833		habitat	eng	<em>Kneria katangae</em> is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 5.5 cm (Poll 1984).
181833		population	eng	No information available.
181833		threats	eng	None known.
181834		conservation	eng	None known.
181834		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo nigricans</em> is only known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Kondue (Kasai) and Kisangani on the Central Congo River basin (Tshibwabwa 1997), three very dispersed locations. The species is assumed to be more widespread than currently known.
181834		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo nigricans</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181834		population	eng	No information available.
181834		threats	eng	None known.
181835		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181835		conservation	eng	None known.
181835		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus aboinensis</em> has been described from the Aboina River (Cross basin), but possibly also occurs in other coastal basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. It has been reported from Benoué River (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 1994).
181835		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus aboinensis</em> has been described from the Aboina River (Cross Basin), but possibly also occurs in other coastal basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. It has been reported from Benoué River (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 1994).
181835		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181835		habitat	eng	This small bentho-pelagic <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus</span> grows to 7 cm in standard length. It requires clean highly oxygenated water, and is non-migratory.
181835		population	eng	No information available.
181835		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.
181836		conservation	eng	None known.
181836		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Mpoulou River, tributary of Kouilou within the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve, Mayombe, Congo. Surrounding habitats have been surveyed and the species has not been found, it is most likely restricted to Mpoulou River. It is separated from a similar species, <em>Amphilius pulcher</em> (a widespread species) by a series of rapids.
181836		habitat	eng	No information available.
181836		population	eng	No information available.
181836		threats	eng	The Dimonika Biosphere Reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest. There are currently no threats to <em>Amphilius dimonikensis</em> (deforestation is an historical threat, but the human population has moved). A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not thought that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
181837		conservation	eng	None known.
181837		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ivindo and Benito River drainage systems, between Ovan and Bélinga, in northern Gabon.  Also found in the adjacent part of Equatorial Guinea, and Congo.
181837		habitat	eng	<em>Aphysemion (Diapteron) cyanostictum</em> is found in small, mostly swampy brooks in rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a demersal, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) cyanostictum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181837		population	eng	No information available.
181837		threats	eng	This species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture in the upper Ivindo drainage. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181838		conservation	eng	None known.
181838		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops boulengeri</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.
181838		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181838		population	eng	No information available.
181838		threats	eng	None known.
181839		conservation	eng	No information available.
181839		conservation	eng	None known
181839		conservation	eng	None known.
181839		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Policy-based actions at multiple levels are required, along with harvest management, to reduce the impact of overfishing.
181839		distribution	eng	<em>Lates niloticus</em> is widely distributed in the rivers and lakes of tropical Africa, occurring commonly in all major river basins including the Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  In Lower Guinea it is known from the Sanaga and Cross and coastal rivers of Cameroon. It has been introduced, at unknown date, from Sudan to Congo. According to FAO (2005), it is naturally reproducing and established. However, the species is native in the Congo River basin. Except for records from its natural distribution within the Lower Guinea province, no museum records are available.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles and Turkana. It is now fully established in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo, and the Victoria Nile, through introductions. According to Hartley (1984) an unpublicised introduction of <em>L. niloticus</em> took place in Lake Naivasha in the early 1970s and since the early 1980s several perch have been caught. No information is available on its present status but probably the species did not establish in the lake.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common in the Delta, Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, as well as Lakes Wadi El-Rayan and Burollos, and Nozha Hydrodrome. It is present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Nile drainage, Lakes Chamo and Abaya as well as Baro and Tekeze basins in Ethiopia. Also Setit in Eritrea.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found almost everywhere in West Africa. Widely distributed in the Volta basin. (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999) Present in Black Volta, White Volta and the Oti (Dankwa 1984).
181839		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Lates niloticus</em> is common in Delta, Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile, Lakes Wadi El-Rayan and Burollos, and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Lake Nasser, Lake Nubia, Blue Nile, Senegal, White Nile, Congo, Chad, Niger, introduced into Lake Victoria.
181839		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Lates niloticus</em> is widespread throughout the Ethiopian Region of Africa, occurring commonly in all major river basins including the Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo. In Lower Guinea it is known from the Sanaga and Cross and coastal rivers of Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed in the rivers and lakes of tropical Africa (Nile, Niger, Senegal and Volta). It has been introduced, at unknown date, from Sudan to Congo-Brazzaville. According to FAO (2005), it is naturally reproducing and established. However, the species is native in the Congo River basin. Except for records from its natural distribution within the Lower Guinea province, no museum records are available. It is present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria. It exists in Lakes Albert, Rudolph and Tana. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.
181839		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles and Turkana. Fully established in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo, and the Victoria Nile, through introductions. According to Hartley (1984) an unpublicised introduction of L. niloticus took place in Lake Naivasha in the early 1970s and since the eraly 1980s several perch have been caught. No information is availabe on its present status but probably the species did not establish in the lake.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>The Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo systems. Present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria.
181839		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Species found almost everywhere in western Africa. Widely distributed in the Volta basin. (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999) Present in Black Volta, White Volta and the Oti. (Dankwa 1984).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Widespread throughout the Ethiopian Region of Africa, occurring commonly in all major river basins including the Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo. Present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria. Exists in Lakes Albert, Rudolph and Tana. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction. (Gosse 1984).
181839		habitat	eng	Demersal; potamodromous; Inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals.  Adults inhabit deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water.  Feeds on fish especially clupeids and <em>Alestes</em> (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967); smaller fish also feed on larger crustaceans and insects.  Juveniles are planktivorous (Bailey 1994). Preferred Climate - tropical. It prefers to inhabit in streams and lakes.
181839		habitat	eng	Inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. Adults inhabit deep water while juveniles are found in shallow water (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is not present in the littoral rocky habitat (Witte and de Winter 1995). A voracious predator which predominantly feeds on fish although the juveniles feed on larger crustaceans and insects and are planktivorous (Froese and Pauly 2003). Reproduces around the year, with peaks in the rainy season. It probably spawns in shallow sheltered areas. Juveniles occur over wide depth range but the highest concentration of small juveniles are found in littoral and sub-littoral zones (Witte and de Winter 1995).
181839		habitat	eng	This demersal and potamodromous species inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. Adults live in deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water. It is piscivorous and feeds mainly on <em>Tilapia</em> spp, <em>Alestes</em> spp. and shrimps. During its long spawning season February-August, spawns in nests scooped in gravel. It reaches a length to 2 m. Introductions in Lake Victoria were mainly from Lake Albert. Nile perch is responsible through predation and competition for food of the decimation and possible disappearance of two hundred or more species of the unique flock of endemic haplochromine cichlids in Lake Victoria.
181839		habitat	eng	This specie prefers sandy bottoms but also found in rocky to muddy bottoms. Zones with vegetation in calm waters provide shelter to larvae and young. Inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. Adults inhabit deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water. Feeds on fish especially clupeids and “<span style="font-style: italic;">Alestes</span>”; smaller fish also feed on larger crustaceans and insects. Juveniles are planktivorous. Sexual dimorphism: females larger than males.
181839		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and potamodromous, and inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. It prefers sandy bottoms but also found in rocky to muddy bottoms. Zones with vegetation in calm waters provide shelter to larvae and young. Adults inhabit deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is not present in the littoral rocky habitat (Witte and de Winter 1995). A voracious predator which predominantly feeds on <em>Tilapia</em> spp and <em>Alestes</em> spp. etc. (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967) and shrimps, although the juveniles feed on larger crustaceans and insects and are planktivorous (Bailey 1994). Long spawning season February-August. It reproduces around the year, with peaks in the rainy season. It probably spawns in shallow sheltered areas. Juveniles occur over wide depth range but the highest concentration of small juveniles are found in littoral and sub-littoral zones (Witte and de Winter 1995). Sexual dimorphism: females larger than males.<br/><br/>Introductions in Lake Victoria were mainly from Lake Albert. Nile perch is responsible through predation and competition for food of the decimation and possible disappearance of two hundred or more species of the unique flock of endemic haplochromine cichlids in Lake Victoria.
181839		population	eng	For the majority of its range, there is no data on population trends. In Egypt, its catch was increased from 840 tones in 1995 to be 8,453 tones in 2004. This is may be due to the increasing of fishing effort and/ or fishing gears technologies.
181839		population	eng	In Egypt, its catch was increased from 840 tones in 1995 to be 8453 tones in 2004. This is may be due to the increasing of fishing effort and/ or fishing gears technologies.
181839		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181839		population	eng	No information available.
181839		population	eng	No overall population estimates
181839		threats	eng	None known
181839		threats	eng	Nowadays, the species is declining due to overfishing and pollution (Kraïem, M. pers. comm. 2007). In addition, the species is though to be threatened by dams, groundwater extraction and drought.
181839		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the increasingly eutrophic conditions in native Lake Albert.
181839		threats	eng	This is a highly commercial species, and is suffering from overexploitation in much of its native range, and to a lesser extent, pollution. Increasingly eutrophic conditions are threatening native populations in Lake Albert.
181839		threats	eng	This species has high commercial importance. It is used for commercial aquaculture.
181840		conservation	eng	None known.
181840		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus mpozoensis</em> is only known from the mouth of the Mpozo River and the opposite bank in the main river, Lower Congo River basin.
181840		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus mpozoensis</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species.
181840		population	eng	No information available.
181840		threats	eng	None known. Habitat loss and infrastructure development pose future threats.
181841		conservation	eng	No information available.
181841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic, at present known only from the River Yei draining into the Ghazal catchment, Sudan.
181841		habitat	eng	It is found in running water
181841		population	eng	No information available.
181841		threats	eng	No information available.
181842		conservation	eng	None known.
181842		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the lower and middle Wouri, Dibamba and Sanaga River systems in western Cameroon.
181842		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) riggenbachi</em> occurs in small streams and brooks in the coastal rain forest overlying soils developed from the ancient basement rocks. (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) riggenbachi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181842		population	eng	No information available.
181842		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
181843		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
181843		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in upper Konkouré River system in the Fouta Djalon range of Guinea.
181843		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181843		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181843		threats	eng	No information available.
181844		conservation	eng	None known.
181844		distribution	eng	This very poorly known species has only been collected in Benin (locality unknown) and Nigeria, near Lagos (holotype and paratype) and in the River Azumini at Azumini (six specimens).
181844		habitat	eng	This is a small riverine pelagic distichodontid characiform that grows to 1.8 cm SL. It is non-migratory.
181844		population	eng	No available data.
181844		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta. In the Ogun river the main threats are from deforestation, agriculture and urban development.
181845		conservation	eng	None known.
181845		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys macropterus</em> is known from the type localities Kisangani, the Tsuopo and Aruwimi Rivers.
181845		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181845		population	eng	No information available.
181845		threats	eng	None known.
181846		conservation	eng	None known.
181846		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea occurring in the Upper Cross River, Cameroon. Elsewhere, from Benin to upper Cross River in Cameroon. Elsewhere in Africa, it is known from the  basins of the Lower Niger, Bénoué, Ouémé, Ogun and Wouri.
181846		distribution	eng	This species is encountered in the following basins: delta of Niger, Benue, Ouémé, Ogun and Cross.
181846		habitat	eng	<em>Phago loricatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on large insects and fish.
181846		population	eng	No information available.
181846		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181846		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta, and deforestation, agriculture and urban development throughout the rest of its range.
181847		conservation	eng	None known.
181847		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Benin (Ouémé River) and Southern Nigeria, including the Niger River delta and the area around Port Harcourt. Possibly also in southern Ghana and Cameroon.
181847		habitat	eng	A semi-annual bottom spawning species with a 2 month incubation period for the eggs. It occurs in temporary swamps, raffia swamps, pools and swampy parts of brooks and small streams, and floodplains in the humid coastal rainforest of Southern Benin and Southern Nigeria, including the Niger River delta and the area around Port Harcourt. It is non-migratory.
181847		population	eng	No available data.
181847		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, habitat loss and degradation due to pollution, industrial, agricultural and urban development.
181849		conservation	eng	Its distribution is partly included within the Korup National Park.
181849		conservation	eng	Partly included with the Korup National Park.
181849		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias pachynema</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Some records from affluent streams to Pool Malebo and the Lower Congo. In the Lower Guinea, it is known from the Sanaga (Cameroon) to the Ogowe (Gabon). Elsewhere, it has been reported from the Oueme River in Benin (but this record is doubtful).
181849		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pachynema</span> occurs only in the River Cross (Nigeria), Niger Delta and in Ouémé River in Benin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere, it is also known from coastal basins in Cameroon and Gabon and from the Middle Congo, South Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo.
181849		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. There is lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
181849		habitat	eng	This species is a medium sized clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
181849		population	eng	No available data.
181849		population	eng	No information available.
181849		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to oil exploration in the Niger Delta.
181849		threats	eng	None known.
181850		conservation	eng	None known.
181850		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis robertsi</em> is known from the Ubangui River system and the Central Congo River basin above the bifurcation with the Ubangui River. There is a single established record of <em>Tylochromis robertsi</em> from the upper Congo River basin at Elila on the Kama River. It has also been recorded from Mabondo Island, Sangha River, Central Congo River basin.
181850		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an opportunistic benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) that mainly feeds on plants and insects (as well as their larvae) (Lamboj 2004). This species is a female mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
181850		population	eng	No information available.
181850		threats	eng	None known.
181851		conservation	eng	None known.
181851		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Volta River system.
181851		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
181851		population	eng	No information available
181851		threats	eng	It threatened by deforestation, overfishing and invasive aquatic weeds (Water Hyacinth)
181852		conservation	eng	None known.
181852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Niger River delta, southeastern Nigeria.
181852		habitat	eng	This species is a small semi-annual bottom spawning killifish that grows to 5 cm in SL. The eggs incubate in the substrate for 2 months and can withstand some degree of water restriction. It inhabits temporary swamps and swampy parts of small rivers and brooks in the coastal rainforest. It is non-migratory.
181852		population	eng	No available data.
181852		threats	eng	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. It is polluted by oil exploration and vandalization of oil pipelines as a result of civil conflict; it is an area of massive urban and industrial development in petrochemical and steel.
181853		conservation	eng	None known.
181853		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the drainage system of the upper Saint John River in northern central Liberia.
181853		habitat	eng	This is a non seasonal killifish that occurs in small brooks.
181853		population	eng	No available data.
181853		threats	eng	Habitat degradation as a result of mining and agriculture. It is also collected for the aquarium trade.
181854		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the distribution and threats of this species.
181854		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) spoorenbergi</em>  is not known with precision. The species was imported together with <em>Fundulopanchax ndianus</em> from the border area between Nigeria (towards Osombo and Mamfé) and Cameroon (Romand 1992).
181854		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) spoorenbergi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 5 months incubation. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181854		population	eng	No information available.
181854		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown as the location is not confirmed, although it has been harvested for the aquarium trade.
181856		conservation	eng	None known.
181856		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Niger basin in Guinea, Mali (inland delta), Niger and Nigeria (Lake Kainji).
181856		habitat	eng	<em>S. gobroni</em> is a very rare bentho-pelagic riverine mochokid catfish that grows to 47 cm SL. Omnivorous. Able to breath air so able to live in anoxic conditions. It is non-migratory.
181856		population	eng	No available data.
181856		threats	eng	None known.
181857		conservation	eng	None known.
181857		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some reserves such as Kafue National Park.
181857		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found yet in the Upper Lualaba-Lufirae and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. In the Lower Congo, it is known from the Kinsuka falls, just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue system.
181857		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, also the Kasai in the Congo system.
181857		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Nambia, Botswana and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found yet in the upper Lualaba-Lufirae and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. In the Lower Congo, it is known from the Kinsuka falls, just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, also the Kasai in the Congo system.
181857		habitat	eng	<em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is a pelagic species. It is found in marginal vegetation of large rivers, in flowing water, but absent from floodplain pools and lagoons, and tributaries away from the floodplain (Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004). Large specimens from the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi (see taxonomic note) inhabit fast-flowing, rocky forest streams. The different habitat also supports the suggestion that this may be a separate taxon. It picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces. Not sufficiently common for aquarium trade (Skelton 1993).
181857		habitat	eng	<em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is a pelagic species. It is found in marginal vegetation of large rivers, in flowing water. It picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces.  Not sufficiently common for aquarium trade (Skelton 1993). It prefers streams.
181857		habitat	eng	Found mainly along the margins of large river channels, usually in vegetation, but absent from floodplain pools and lagoons, and tributaries away from the floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Large specimens from the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi (see taxonomic note) inhabit fast-flowing, rocky forest streams. The different habitat also supports the suggestion that this may be a separate taxon.
181857		population	eng	No information available.
181857		population	eng	This species is widespread and fairly common but not abundant (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
181857		population	eng	Widespread and fairly common but not abundant (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).
181857		threats	eng	None known.
181858		conservation	eng	One of three known locations falls within the Gashaaka-Gumti National Park.
181858		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. benuensis</span> is known only from the Benue basin (Cameroon and Nigeria).
181858		habitat	eng	This is a very small catfish that is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with it clings to rock. It grows to 3.8 cm TL. It is non-migratory.
181858		population	eng	No available data.
181858		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by dam construction as the required rapids habitat is often lost.
181859		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181859		distribution	eng	This species is only known from type locality, Ismailia Channel, Ismailia, Egypt, 120 km northeast of Cairo.
181859		habitat	eng	No information available.
181859		population	eng	No information available.
181859		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and drought.
181860		conservation	eng	None known.
181860		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys sangmelinensis</em> is known from the upper Dja, Central Congo River basin, southeastern Gabon. In Lower Guinea, it occurs in drainage systems of the upper Sanaga, This species is known from upper Nyong and Ntem.
181860		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys sangmelinensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, brooks and small streams under forest cover. It has a max TL of 7 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181860		population	eng	No information available.
181860		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
181861		conservation	eng	No information available.
181861		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Abaya, Ethiopia.
181861		habitat	eng	It is found in standing water.
181861		population	eng	No information available.
181861		threats	eng	No information available.
181862		conservation	eng	No information available.
181862		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the range of this species, and population trends should be monitored.
181862		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Malagarasi River and the Murchison Nile.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower White Nile and Blue Nile.
181862		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Murchison Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile, Blue Nile, and Nile at Khartoum, Sudan. It is also found in Baro River, Ethiopia.
181862		habitat	eng	Most commonly found in quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains, but may be found also in fast flowing waters. Thought to feed on small invertebrates, mainly insect larvae.
181862		population	eng	Not known.
181862		population	eng	Not known, but rare.
181862		threats	eng	Regression of vegetated wetlands around rivers due to agriculture extension threatens this species.
181862		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is regression of vegetated wetlands around rivers due to agriculture extension.
181863		conservation	eng	None known.
181863		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic reported only from the Ivindo River (Ogowe River drainage), and the Nyanga River and Kouilou-Niari System. It has not been verified from the upper (southern) Ogowe River. A single specimen has been recorded in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), but this record is considered questionable. (Norris 2002).
181863		habitat	eng	It is an upland species, generally not found in lowland habitats, where it appears to be replaced by <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em>. This species is benthopelagic.
181863		population	eng	No information available.
181863		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181864		conservation	eng	None known.
181864		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea known from the Cross River basin. Elsewhere, known from the Volta River to Cameroon.  Africa:  Occurs east of the Volta basin to Cameroon.  Recorded from Chad basin and Benue River; Ghana and Nigeria (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
181864		distribution	eng	This species is known from the eastern side of the Volta to the Cross in Cameroon, including the Chad basin and Benue River.
181864		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181864		population	eng	No information available.
181864		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181865		conservation	eng	None known.
181865		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma weeksii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin, including the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).
181865		habitat	eng	<em>Ctenopoma weeksii</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181865		population	eng	No information available.
181865		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181866		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181866		distribution	eng	<em>Serranochromis stappersi</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the lower reaches of the Luapula River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
181866		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181866		population	eng	No information available.
181866		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181867		conservation	eng	None known.
181867		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored and harvest management introduced. Habitat conservation is also required.
181867		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe brevianalis</em> is found in the lower courses of the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga and Nyong Rivers, Cameroon. The record of <em>S. brevianalis</em> from the Ivindo-Ogowe River by De Vos (1995) is in fact a young specimen of <em>S. laticeps</em>, a species previously only known from the Congo basin. Elsewhere <em>S. brevianalis</em> is found in coastal rivers close to Lagos, and in the Ibo Kwa river (Nigeria).
181867		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe brevianalis</span> occurs in coastal rivers near Lagos, as well as in the rivers Kwa Ibo and Cross (Nigeria). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside western Africa, it is known from the Nyong, lower Sanaga and Wouri systems (Cameroon). Also in Gabon.
181867		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe brevianalis</em> is found in the lower courses of the Cross Wouri, Sanaga and Nyong Rivers, Cameroon. The record of <em>S. brevianalis</em> from the Ivindo-Ogowe River by De Vos (1995) is in fact a young specimen of <em>S. laticeps</em>, a species previously only known from the Congo basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in coastal rivers near Lagos, as well as in the rivers Kwa Ibo and Cross (Nigeria).
181867		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe brevinalis</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on insect larvae and zooplankton and adults feed on small fish. Migrates upstream from lakes for spawning in the rivers and streams. The species is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181867		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe brevinalis</em> is a demersal species. The species is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181867		habitat	eng	Pelagic species that feeds on insect larvae and zooplankton and adults feed on small fish. Migrates upstream from lakes for spawning in the rivers and streams.
181867		population	eng	No available data.
181867		population	eng	No information available.
181867		threats	eng	Locally impacted by dam construction which is blocking some of the migration routes and habitat degradation following deforestation, agriculture and urban development. Overfishing.
181867		threats	eng	On the lower Nyong River, the species is threatened by oil palm plantations. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (Mamonekene pers. comm.).
181867		threats	eng	On the lower Nyong River, the species is threatened by oil palm plantations. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.). In western Africa it is locally impacted by dam construction which is blocking some of the migration routes, and habitat degradation following deforestation, agriculture and urban development. It is also overfished.
181868		conservation	eng	None known.
181868		distribution	eng	According to Teugels and Al, (1988), Daget and Iltis (1965) record <span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis velifer</span> in Bandama, Sassandra and Comoé. All these individuals are of small size. The individuals of Comoé are not in collection. The presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. velifer</span> in Côte d'Ivoire needs to be confirmed.
181868		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181868		population	eng	No available data.
181868		threats	eng	None known.
181869		conservation	eng	None known.
181869		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Chiloango and Kouilou basins.
181869		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
181869		population	eng	No information available.
181869		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species in the lower Kouilou basin is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
181870		conservation	eng	None known.
181870		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus paucispinis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River rapids, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
181870		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in rapids where the bottom is predominantly coarse sand (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
181870		population	eng	No information available.
181870		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181871		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181871		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis moeruensis</em> is only known from Lake Mweru.
181871		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
181871		population	eng	No information available.
181871		threats	eng	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species, causing a decline in population size.
181872		conservation	eng	None known.
181872		distribution	eng	This species occurs in lower river courses from Guinea Bissau (Géba and Corubal) to the St. John in Liberia.
181872		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of 30.8 cm SL maximum size
181872		population	eng	No available data.
181872		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining are local threats.
181873		conservation	eng	None known.
181873		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ivindo system in the regions of Makokou and Belinga, in Central Gabon.
181873		habitat	eng	<em>Parananochromis axelrodi</em> is collected in small forest creeks and streams (Lamboj and Stiassny 2003). It is a benthopelagic species.
181873		population	eng	No information available.
181873		threats	eng	The southern location is situated in an iron mining region.
181874		conservation	eng	No information available.
181874		conservation	eng	None known.
181874		conservation	eng	None known. Habitat maintenance and conservation may be needed.
181874		distribution	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops microstoma</em> is found throughout central Africa, from Cameroon to Angola, and eastwards to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bryconaethiops microstoma</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin and from the Malagarasi River basin (Tanzania). It is known in the Lower Guinea found in the Nyong, Lobé (Lobi, Lobo), Ntem, Ogowe and Kouilou River basins and in the Nkomi lagoon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Tanganyika catchment including the Malagarasi and Lukuga rivers.
181874		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bryconaethiops microstoma</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin and from the Malagarasi River basin (Tanzania). Elsewhere, it is known in the Lower Guinea found in the Nyong, Lobé (Lobi, Lobo), Ntem, Ogowe and Kouilou River basins and in the Nkomi lagoon.
181874		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Tanganyika catchment including the Malagarasi and Lukuga rivers<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Common in the Congo basin.
181874		habitat	eng	Restricted to streams and rivers. Omnivorous feeding mainly on insects.
181874		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181874		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species restricted to streams and rivers. It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on insects.
181874		population	eng	It is rare in fishery catches.
181874		population	eng	No information available.
181874		population	eng	Rare in fishery catches
181874		threats	eng	None known.
181874		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension.
181874		threats	eng	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension is a threat in east Africa.
181875		conservation	eng	None known.
181875		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, the vicinity of Bouala, Western Central African Republic and from the upper reaches only of the Benue River basin in Nigeria and Cameroon
181875		habitat	eng	This is a killfish that grows to a maximum length of 5 cm. This species occurs in streams and swamps in the open and humid grassland savanna and highlands. Perrenial species. It is non-migratory.
181875		population	eng	No available data.
181875		threats	eng	In Nigeria the main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation following conversion of wetlands for farming - in particular for rice farming.
181876		conservation	eng	The locations on the Lufira River basin are located in or just beside the Upemba National Park.
181876		distribution	eng	<em>Paramormyrops tavernei</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin.
181876		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181876		population	eng	No information available.
181876		threats	eng	None known.
181877		conservation	eng	None known.
181877		distribution	eng	<em>Acanthcleithron chapini</em> is known from the Congo River basin (Ituri River and the Congo River from Kisangani to Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)).
181877		habitat	eng	<em>Acanthcleithron chapini</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181877		population	eng	No information available.
181877		threats	eng	None known.
181878		conservation	eng	None known.
181878		distribution	eng	<em>Congocharax olbrechtsi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
181878		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181878		population	eng	No information available.
181878		threats	eng	None known.
181879		conservation	eng	None known.
181879		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Nyong basin in southern Cameroon.
181879		habitat	eng	No information available.
181879		population	eng	No information available.
181879		threats	eng	The species is threatened by logging in the area of the Upper Nyong River.
181880		conservation	eng	None known.
181880		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo rectipinnis</em> is only known from the Kalamu River, near Boma and from Manianga, in the rapids of the Congo River (Lower Congo River basin). There have been surveys in the region, but is has not been found though (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).
181880		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo rectipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers rapids.
181880		population	eng	No information available.
181880		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181881		conservation	eng	None known.
181881		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ogowe River, Rembo Nkomi, and Nyanga basins in Gabon.
181881		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181881		population	eng	No information available.
181881		threats	eng	None known.
181882		conservation	eng	No information available.
181882		conservation	eng	None known.
181882		conservation	eng	None known. More information on possible threats to this species is needed, and monitoring of population trends.
181882		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some game reserves.
181882		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River in Malawi.  <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Okavango, This species is known from upper and lower Zambezi, Kafue, and rivers of coastal Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal. It is also found in the Quanza and southern Congo tributaries (Skelton 2001).
181882		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi in Zambia and Cubango-Okovango-Ngami in Angola and Botswana. It is also known from the Kafue, rivers of coastal Mozambique and the Cuanza River (Skelton 1993).
181882		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> the Lower Shire River in Malawi.  <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>the Okavango, Zambezi and Kafue systems, coastal rivers  of Mozambique and nothern Natal, Quanza and southern tributaries of the Congo system.
181882		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper and Lower Zambezi, Kafue, and rivers of coastal Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal. Also in the Quanza and southern Congo tributaries (Skelton 2001).
181882		habitat	eng	<em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans (Skelton 2001). This species feeds on any suitably small creature, including insects, shrimps, and small fish. Well camouflaged, <em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> hunts by slowly stalking prey. They may congregate in groups to breed. The eggs are scattered around and not guarded. It can endure warm stagnant waters and is known to leave the water and move overland to alternative sites in wet weather or at night (Skelton 1993). Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) observed it moving out from the Zambezi River onto newly flooded grasslands, e.g. they recorded 62 specimens from a single mat of grounded vegetation on the overflowing riverbank.
181882		habitat	eng	<em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans. This species feeds on any suitably small creature, including insects, shrimps, and small fish. Well camouflaged, <em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> hunts by slowly stalking prey. They may congregate in groups to breed. The eggs are scattered around and not guarded.  It can endure warm stagnant waters and is known to leave the water and move overland to alternative sites in wet weather or at night (Skelton 1993).It prefers living in streams, estuaries and mangroves,
181882		habitat	eng	Occurs in marshes and the main chanel of the Shire river. Feeds on small oragnisms such as insects and small fish.
181882		habitat	eng	Occurs in vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) observed it moving out from the Zambezi River onto newly flooded grasslands, e.g.,  they recorded 62 specimens from a single mat of grounded vegetation on the overflowing riverbank. Known to leave the water and move overland to alternative sites in wet weather. A predator on insects, shrimps and small fish, hunting by slowly stalking prey. May congregate to breed; eggs are scattered around and not guarded.
181882		population	eng	No information available.
181882		population	eng	Not known
181882		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in southern Africa.
181882		population	eng	Widespread and common.
181882		threats	eng	No major threats known, however it has commercial importance as an aquarium fish.
181882		threats	eng	None known.
181882		threats	eng	Overfishing.
181882		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181883		conservation	eng	None known.
181883		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from a few specimens from Bonge, Cameroon.
181883		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis marmorata</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181883		population	eng	No information available.
181883		threats	eng	The population on the Meme River is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
181884		conservation	eng	A large part of the species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.
181884		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus kamaia</em> is known from the type locality Jodatville, Kamaya River, from the Lufira River system and from the Luanza River, upper Congo River basin.
181884		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181884		population	eng	No information available.
181884		threats	eng	None known.
181885		conservation	eng	None known.
181885		distribution	eng	<em>Micropanchax camerunensis</em> is known from the upper Dja River system, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea, the species is known from the southern inland plateau of southern Cameroon and adjacent Equatorial Guinea, in the upper and middle Nyong, and probably also from northern Gabon (Ntem).
181885		habitat	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys camerunensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in rainforest brooks and swamps on the inland plains (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181885		population	eng	No information available.
181885		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
181886		conservation	eng	None known.
181886		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra Leone and Liberia (Bomi Hills area).
181886		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. This species occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the rainforest and forested savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish.
181886		population	eng	No available data.
181886		threats	eng	The threats to the species are from deforestation, mining, human settlements, agriculture leading to sedimentation and pollution.
181887		conservation	eng	None known.
181887		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Ngounie River system in the Du Chaillu Massif in central Gabon.
181887		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion joergenscheeli</em> occurs in fast flowing brooks and small streams. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks and small streams in the highlands with fast or moderate flow (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) joergenscheeli</em> is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
181887		population	eng	No information available.
181887		threats	eng	None known.
181888		conservation	eng	None known.
181888		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality the Mekay River, the Sanaga River basin Cameroon.
181888		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181888		population	eng	No information available.
181888		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181889		conservation	eng	None known.
181889		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is found in the Cross, Meme, Wouri and Sanaga River basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. Elsewhere it is found in coastal drainages throughout West Africa, from the Niger, Benue, and Niger delta, and in most of the West African coastal rivers in Senegal/Gambia. It is absent from the Volta River basin, and in Togo and Benin. It is absent from Lake Chad basin. The distribution of <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is discontinuous with its congener, <em>Papyrocranus congoensis</em> which occurs in the Congo River basin.
181889		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Papyrocranus afer</span> occurs in the upper Niger, Senegal, Gambia, the majority of coastal basins from Guinea to Côte d’Ivoire, the rivers of western Nigeria, the Lower Niger, the Benue and the Cross.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Sanaga River in Cameroon.
181889		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Ghana, and Nigeria and Cameroon. The distribution of <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is discontinuous with its congener, <em>Papyrocranus congoensis</em> which occurs in the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is found in the Cross Meme, Wouri and Sanaga River basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  It is found in coastal drainages throughout West Africa, from the Niger, Benue, and Niger delta, and in most of the West African coastal rivers in Senegal/Gambia. It is absent from the Volta River basin, and in Togo and from Lake Chad basin. A recent record from Benin in Oueme River needs confirmation (Lalèyè pers. comm.).
181889		habitat	eng	<em>Papyrocranus afer</em> prefers calm waters with dense vegetation. It is a demersal species.
181889		habitat	eng	This species prefers calm waters with dense vegetation. It is a demersal fish.
181889		population	eng	No available data.
181889		population	eng	No information available.
181889		threats	eng	None known
181889		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are subsistence fisheries. This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
181889		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance as an aquarium fish.
181890		conservation	eng	No major conservation measure is needed and is in place.
181890		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Eritrea, Sudan and Ethiopia (where it is abundant in the Abbay River basin).
181890		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and rivers and prefers vegetated shore areas.
181890		population	eng	This species is rarely sampled; not common.
181890		threats	eng	No major threats known.
181891		conservation	eng	None known.
181891		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the type locality on the Nyong River, Cameroon.
181891		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181891		population	eng	No information available.
181891		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181892		conservation	eng	None known.
181892		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys sharpii</em> is known from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) to the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
181892		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181892		population	eng	No information available.
181892		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181893		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
181893		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma ocellifer</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Luapula system as well. These records need conformation though.
181893		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181893		population	eng	No information available.
181893		threats	eng	None known.
181894		conservation	eng	None known.
181894		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyoplatys duboisi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the systems of the lower Kasai and Central Congo Rivers. It is also known from the drainage systems of the Nkéni, Alima, Vouma, Kouyou and Likouala Rivers in eastern Congo.
181894		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyoplatys duboisi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs mainly in the shallow and weedy parts of brooks, small streams and swamps in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
181894		population	eng	No information available.
181894		threats	eng	None known.
181895		conservation	eng	None known.
181895		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is restricted to the Cross River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, it is known from Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins, including the Nile.  Also known from Côte d'Ivoire.
181895		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The distribution area of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bovei</span> covers most of the regions considered here.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere also in the Nile.
181895		habitat	eng	<em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species which prefers living in lakes. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species. The EOD temporal pattern cues have been shown to play a role in species recognition for <em>P. bovei</em>. A ratio measure between olfactory and visual receptor areas suggests that this species relies more on visual than olfactory information. <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is a fractional spawner. It builds a nest for the eggs. No guarding or tending has been observed, though.
181895		habitat	eng	The species lives in lakes. Demersal and feeds on insects. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species. EOD temporal pattern cues have been shown to play a role in species recognition for <em>P. bovei. </em>A ratio measure between olfactory and visual receptor areas suggests that this species relies more on visual than olfactory information.  A fractional spawner. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
181895		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181895		population	eng	No information available.
181895		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181895		threats	eng	None known
181896		conservation	eng	No specific measures known, although some parts of its range fall within national parks and other reserves.
181896		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Zambezi River system and Okavango River. Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be widely distributed throughout the upper Zambezi system, in small tributaries, in isolated lagoons on the floodplain, and in the main river in the floodplain areas and the rocky stretches above Victoria Falls. It is rare in the northern tributaries of the Zambezi in Zambia, but it was found only a few kilometres from the river’s source.
181896		habitat	eng	This species prefers well-vegetated muddy bottomed marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. It migrates within rivers and moves up tributaries in shoals during the flood season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds on invertebrates, especially insect larvae. Electroreception is described in detail by Kramer <em>et al. </em>(2007).
181896		population	eng	It is widespread and common in suitable habitats.
181896		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. The rivers are large and healthy.
181897		conservation	eng	None known.
181897		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus occidentalis</span> has been confirmed from the Middle Gambia River (Gambia) and the Géba River (Guinea-Bissau).
181897		habitat	eng	The largest specimen examined is 320 mm SL.
181897		population	eng	No available data.
181897		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181898		conservation	eng	None known.
181898		distribution	eng	This species is known from the forested areas of Benin and Southeastern Nigeria.
181898		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum reported size: 138 mm SL.
181898		population	eng	No available data.
181898		threats	eng	Threats to this species include agriculture, deforestation and oil exploration (Nigeria).
181899		conservation	eng	None
181899		conservation	eng	None known.
181899		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181899		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.
181899		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias stappersii</em> is known from Angola and Namibia, to Malawi and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Kasai system in Angola and from the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>It is found in Limphaso dambo (though absent from Lake Malawi). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the upper Zambezi, Kafue and Okavango Rivers, as well as the Cunene, This species is known from upper Kasai, and Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).
181899		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias stappersii</em> is known from the upper Kasai system in Angola and from the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Kafue River, upper Zambezi and Cunene River and the Okavango (Teugels 1986).
181899		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Limphaso dambo (absent from Lake Malawi). <br><br>b>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi, Kafue systems, upper Congo system in Zambia  and Kasai.
181899		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi, Kafue and Okavango Rivers, as well as the Cunene, upper Kasai,  Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001), and also northern Lake Malawi lakeshore streams (Tweddle and Skelton 1993).
181899		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias stappersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated sluggish river channels and floodplain lagoons. It feeds on invertebrates and fish and breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993).
181899		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias stappersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated sluggish river channels and floodplain lagoons. It is more common in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries, suggesting a preference for forested streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds on invertebrates and fish and breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993).
181899		habitat	eng	More common in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries, suggesting a preference for forested streams (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Otherwise found in well-vegetated sluggish river channels and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001).
181899		habitat	eng	Recorded for the first time in Lake Malawi catchment in 1993 from the Limphasa dambo. Feeds on invertebrates and fish. Breeds in the rainy season.
181899		population	eng	Fairly uncommon on the Upper Zambezi flooplains, but more common in northern tributaries(Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Scarce in the Okavango and not found there by Tweddle<em> <em>et al. </em></em>(2003).
181899		population	eng	Limited information available. Fairly uncommon on the Upper Zambezi flooplains, but more common in northern tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Scarce in the Okavango and not found there by Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2003).
181899		population	eng	Little information
181899		population	eng	No information available.
181899		threats	eng	No major threats are known, however this species is within a regionally restricted range in eastern Africa.
181899		threats	eng	None known.
181899		threats	eng	Overfishing.
181900		conservation	eng	None known.
181900		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the basins of the Konkouré and Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea), Jong and Mano (Sierra Leone), St. John and Nipoué (Cess) (Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire) and Ofin (Ghana).
181900		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
181900		population	eng	No data on population trend
181900		threats	eng	None known.
181901		conservation	eng	None known.
181901		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis microdon</em> is known from Lake Tumba and Lake Mai-N'Dombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The presence of <em>Tylochromis microdon</em> in Lake Mai-N'Dombe could be due to an error in locality designation (Stiassny 1989). The record of Lake Mai-N'Dombe should be re-examined.
181901		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis microdon</em> is a benthopelagic species which is restricted in its distribution to the lake proper and absent from the surrounding swamps and inundated forest (Stiassny 1989). It is predominantly a lacustrine form (unusual among Tylochromines) (Stiassny 1989) and a benthic microphage (Stiassny 1989). It feeds mainly upon small organic particles, plants and invertebrates (Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
181901		population	eng	No information available.
181901		threats	eng	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. This nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. Many larger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappearing. Lake Tumba is experiencing declining fish yields and many fishermen have turned to agriculture.
181902		conservation	eng	None known.
181902		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ivindo River of Gabon, the Ntem River of Gabon and Southern Cameroon, and in the Woleu River of Gabon. It is absent from the Ogowe River basin and from Congo.
181902		habitat	eng	<em>Paramormyrops gabonensis</em> inhabits deep channels in slow moving water. It is a demersal species. The electric organ discharge (EOD) lasts 8 ms (Hopkins 1980).
181902		population	eng	No information available.
181902		threats	eng	The southern locations on the Ivindo drainage are being threatened by iron mining.
181903		conservation	eng	None known.
181903		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Woleu-Ntem drainages in northeastern Gabon, the Okano River (Ogowe drainage) in northwestern Gabon, and Rio Muni.
181903		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
181903		population	eng	No information available.
181903		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181904		conservation	eng	None known.
181904		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the Ivindo and Ogowe Rivers of Gabon.
181904		habitat	eng	The preferred environment of <em>Paramormyrops longicaudatus</em> are large rivers, where it inhabits shallow regions with rapids. It is a benthopelagic species.
181904		population	eng	No information available.
181904		threats	eng	In the Ogowe basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. On the Ivindo River drainage, the species is threatened by iron mining.
181905		conservation	eng	None known.
181905		distribution	eng	This species is reliably known from the upper basin of the Oti (Volta basin) in Atakora region in Benin. It has been reported from some coastal rivers in Ghana (Nungu Reserve), the White, Red and Black Volta in Ghana. Also known from the Ogun, Sokoto, Birnawa and Kaduna Rivers in Nigeria and also in the Mono River, Togo.
181905		habitat	eng	This is a small species of Barbus that grows to 30 mm SL and lives in small streams. It is non-migratory.
181905		population	eng	No available data.
181905		threats	eng	No major threats but localised impacts from sedimentation.
181906		conservation	eng	No information.
181906		conservation	eng	None known.
181906		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some reserves over its wide range.
181906		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some reserves over its wide range. Habitat maintenance is required, and population trends should be monitored. Taxonomic studies are needed on this species.
181906		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> This species is known from the upper Kasai system, from the upper Lualaba, Lufira and Luapula-Zambezi systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the lakes and river drainages in Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, eastern Angola, Namibia, northwestern Botswana, Zimbabwe and in northeastern South Africa.
181906		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong> Lake Malawi and its catchment, Upper and Middle Shire as well as Lake Chiuta (Wildekamp 1995).
181906		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Shire River at the ouflow from Lake Malawi. Found in the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, as well as the lower reaches of the Pungwe, Buzi and Limpopo rivers, but apparently absent from the main stream of the Lower Zambezi. It is also known from the east coast rivers in Mozambique and Tanzania (Skelton 2001).
181906		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across much of the southern half of Africa, from the Congo and Tanzania, to South Africa.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Micropanchax johnstoni</em> is known from the upper Kasai system, from the upper Lualaba, Lufira and Luapula-Zambezi systems. <br><br><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Malawi and its catchment, the upper and Middle Shire, as well as Lake Chiuta (Wildekamp, 1995).<br><br><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>This species is found in the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, as well as the lower reaches of the Pungwe, Buzi and Limpopo rivers, but apparently absent from the main stream of the Lower Zambezi.
181906		habitat	eng	Inhabits a wide range of habitats, including swamps, lagoons, flowing streams, and the fringes of the main river including the section of the Upper Zambezi just above Victoria Falls. During the flood season juveniles were abundant in floodplain habitats such as road culverts (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Usually found in small shoals near the surface feeding on small invertebrates such as mosquito larvae and daphnia. A serial spawner laying eggs that attach to vegetation (Skelton 2001).
181906		habitat	eng	It is benthopelagic; non-migratory; Found near the surface and among weeds in which it seeks refuge and food (Konings 1990).  Prefers standing or gently flowing water as in river backwaters, floodplains and swamps.  Usually found in small shoals.  Feeds on small invertebrates like mosquito larvae and daphnia.  A serial spawner, lays eggs which attach to vegetation.  When food is abundant, breeding occurs daily over an extended period (year-round where conditions are suitable) (Skelton 1993).  Not a seasonal killifish.  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). Preferred Climate - tropical ; It prefers living in streams and mangroves.
181906		habitat	eng	Occurs  in vegetated sheltered riverine habitats as well as in shallow weedy areas in the lake with standing or gently flowing water. In lake Chiuta it occurs in small shoals in quiet weedy areas of the lake as well as its affluent streams. Feeds on small invertebrates. This species is a serial spawner, its eggs attach to vegetation.  Its eggs hatch after 15-20 days and individuals of this species mature within 6 months. It has been observed under the shelter of floating islands in lake Malawi,  these islands can assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi.
181906		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide range of habitats, including swamps, lagoons, flowing streams, and the fringes of the main river including the section of the Upper Zambezi just above Victoria Falls. During the flood season juveniles are abundant in floodplain habitats such as road culverts (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Usually found in small shoals near the surface feeding on small invertebrates such as mosquito larvae and daphnia. A serial spawner laying eggs that attach to vegetation (Skelton 2001). Its eggs hatch after 15-20 days and individuals of this species mature within 6 months.
181906		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
181906		population	eng	No information.
181906		population	eng	No information available.
181906		threats	eng	None known.
181906		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are overfishing and sedimentation in rivers and streams.
181906		threats	eng	This is a commercially important aquarium fish, and may be threatened by overfishing. Its habitat is threatened by sedimentation in rivers and streams.
181906		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance.
181907		conservation	eng	None known.
181907		distribution	eng	<em>Neolebias gracilis</em> is only known from the type locality the Yokolo village in marshes of the Boteli River, affluent of the Tshuapa River, north-west of Ikela, Central Congo River basin.
181907		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias gracilis</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in small rivers (Daget and Gosse 1984).
181907		population	eng	No information available.
181907		threats	eng	None known.
181908		conservation	eng	None known.
181908		distribution	eng	<em>Nothobranchius malaissei</em> is only known from its type locality, a temporary swamp in the Luanza basin, Luapula drainage, eastern Shaba province, the southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181908		habitat	eng	<em>Nothobranchius malaissei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that spawns at the bottom, with unknown months incubation (Huber 1996).
181908		population	eng	No information available.
181908		threats	eng	None known.
181909		conservation	eng	None known.
181909		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis congicus</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids in the Lower Congo River basin, upstream to the upper Congo River basin, excluding the Luapula-Mweru system.
181909		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181909		population	eng	No information available.
181909		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis congicus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species. It has been known to aquarium hobbyists for some time under the incorrect name <em>Synodontis mummifer</em>.
181911		conservation	eng	The southern part of the species distribution in situated in the Salanka National Park in Zambia.
181911		distribution	eng	<em>Nothobranchius rosenstocki</em> is only known from the Luapula system.
181911		habitat	eng	<em>Nothobranchius rosenstocki</em> is a pelagic species. Populations of this species have been found scattered over a large area in the Luapula River basin. Specimens have been found mainly in shallow and vegetated parts of small, slow-flowing rivers which empty into swamps. The species was also collected from so-called "dembos" or water-filled depressions. All habitats were temporary and only filled with water during the wet season and for a short period afterwards, the bottom substrate of which were usually silt or clay with a high humus content (Valdesalici and Wildekamp 2005). It has distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181911		population	eng	No information available.
181911		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, and use of commercial insecticides, which cause a deterioration of the species habitat.
181912		conservation	eng	No information available.
181912		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Blue Nile, Awash, Rift lakes, and Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
181912		habitat	eng	It is found in running and standing waters.
181912		population	eng	No data available, but common.
181912		threats	eng	No information available.
181913		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181913		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis katangae</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Luashi River and the Lubumbashi region (high Katanga). A wider distribution can be expected.
181913		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis katangae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181913		population	eng	No information available.
181913		threats	eng	Mining in the Katanga region and overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets could pose threats to the species.
181914		conservation	eng	None known.
181914		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Sanaga River basin of Cameroon.
181914		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181914		population	eng	No information available.
181914		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181915		conservation	eng	None known.
181915		distribution	eng	<em>Oxymormyrus zanclirostris</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.  It is not known from the southern tributaties of the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the Ntem River, throughout the Ogowe basin, including the Ivindo River, the Nyanga River, and in the Kouilou River.
181915		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181915		population	eng	No information available.
181915		threats	eng	None known.
181916		conservation	eng	None known.
181916		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few localities in in the tropical rainforest of southeastern Sierra Leone; Mano Geleben, Serabu and Baham.
181916		habitat	eng	It can be found in small rivers and creeks. The species is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish of maximum size of 6.0 cm TL. The fish is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
181916		population	eng	No available data
181916		threats	eng	Mining and deforestation are the major threats to this species.
181917		conservation	eng	No information available.
181917		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181917		conservation	eng	None known.
181917		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Heterobranchus bidorsalis</em> is rare in the Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the White Nile, Chad basin, Senegal and Nigeria.
181917		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> This species has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Benue rivers in Lake Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere in the Nile River basin.
181917		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throught the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in upper Egyptian Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile and Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger and Benue rivers in Lake Chad.
181917		habitat	eng	Found in turbulent or fast running streams. It feeds on fish, molluscs and crustaceans. This species attains a considerable size, over 120 cm.
181917		habitat	eng	Freshwater demersal species.
181917		habitat	eng	This species is found in turbulent or fast running streams. It feeds on fish, molluscs and crustaceans. This species attains a considerable size, over 120 cm.
181917		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181917		population	eng	No information available.
181917		threats	eng	None known
181917		threats	eng	No specific threats are known. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
181917		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181918		conservation	eng	None known.
181918		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura lindica</em> occurs in the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Ouaka River (tributary of the Ubangui) and in the region of Yangambi. It is also known from the upper Congo River basin. It is probably also present in the Dja River (Sangha basin).
181918		habitat	eng	<em>Phractura lindica</em> is a demersal species.
181918		population	eng	No information available.
181918		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181919		conservation	eng	None known.
181919		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius greshoffii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.
181919		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181919		population	eng	No information available.
181919		threats	eng	None known.
181920		conservation	eng	None known.
181920		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus iriodes</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin.
181920		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181920		population	eng	No information available.
181920		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181921		conservation	eng	It needs attention, although not critical, but no conservation measure is in place.
181921		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ethiopia and recorded from Awash and Tekeze basins.
181921		habitat	eng	This species prefers vegetated habitat at shores of streams and rivers.
181921		population	eng	It is a rare species.
181921		threats	eng	This species is impacted by pollution in some rivers in Addis.
181922		conservation	eng	None known.
181922		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus schreyeni</em> is only known from Bokuma and from a river 15 km from Boende, Central Congo River basin. The species has recently been collected in Salonga National Park, and in the Lengoué River (Sangha Drainage).
181922		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181922		population	eng	No information available.
181922		threats	eng	None known.
181923		conservation	eng	No information available.
181923		conservation	eng	None known.
181923		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus sexfasciatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
181923		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and its southern inflowing rivers. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo basin
181923		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus sexfasciatus</em> is a pelagic species. It swims in shoals at the lower water layers of rivers and inshore areas of lake. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989).
181923		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream of large rivers and shallow waters in lakes. Omnivorous taking a wide variety of food items including insects, snails, small fishes and aquatic plants.
181923		population	eng	No information available.
181923		population	eng	Population size not known
181923		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure, siltation and regression of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.
181923		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade and human consumption.
181924		conservation	eng	None known.
181924		distribution	eng	<em>Malapterurus melanochir</em> is widely distributed in the Central Congo River basin, with some records outside the area in the upper Lualaba River System. It is also known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
181924		habitat	eng	<em>Malapterurus melanochir</em> is a demersal species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It occupies horizontal holes or burrows (up to 3 m in length) in the banks of rivers (1-3 m in depth). The holes may be occupied by a pair of sexually mature animals, suggesting that they are the site of reproduction. Mouth brooding has never been observed. Individuals of different species never cohabit the same burrow. (Poll and Gosse 1969, Norris 2002).
181924		population	eng	No information available.
181924		threats	eng	None known.
181925		conservation	eng	None known. Research is needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
181925		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality (southern Cameroon).  It is probably conspecific to <em>Epiplatys sangmelinensis</em>.
181925		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys zenkeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an ill-defined species (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).
181925		population	eng	No information available.
181925		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181926		conservation	eng	None known.
181926		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes attemsi</em> is only known from the holotype from Cameroon (unspecified locality).
181926		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181926		population	eng	No information available.
181926		threats	eng	None known.
181927		conservation	eng	None known.
181927		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the rainforest on the northern side of Bioko island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea.
181927		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax oeseri</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks and small coastal streams in rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax oeseri</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
181927		population	eng	No information available.
181927		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
181928		conservation	eng	None known.
181928		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Sanaga River basin, Cameroon. It is supposed to be present in between the currently known locations as well.
181928		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181928		population	eng	No information available.
181928		threats	eng	The species habitat in the Noun River is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. On the Mbam River, it is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging.
181929		conservation	eng	None known.
181929		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus gruveli</span> is known only from the type, collected in the River Dubreka near Conakry (Guinea).
181929		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish. Maximum size 28.0 cm TL.
181929		population	eng	No available data.
181929		threats	eng	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened by deforestation.
181930		conservation	eng	None known.
181930		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal lagoons and lower reaches of River basins from the Dodo in Côte d'Ivoire to southeastern Nigeria.
181930		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. This species occurs in lagoons and coastal rivers.
181930		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181930		threats	eng	None known.
181931		conservation	eng	None known. Measures need to be implemented to protect the species, and manage  fishing levels within this species' habitat.
181931		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
181931		habitat	eng	It is found at the bottom of the lake in shallower depths.
181931		population	eng	The population size is not exactly known; however, it is relatively abundant.
181931		threats	eng	This species is impacted by over exploitation of the fishes of the lake; as bycatch.
181932		conservation	eng	None known.
181932		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius schilthuisiae</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Sangha, Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai systems.
181932		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181932		population	eng	No information available.
181932		threats	eng	None known.
181933		conservation	eng	None known.
181933		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> is only known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Tonde River at Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181933		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.
181933		distribution	eng	This species is known in from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> is known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River, as well as the Tonde River at Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal zones from Senegal to Nigeria.
181933		habitat	eng	<em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> occurs in ponds, lagoons, creeks and river mouths (Maugé 1986), as well as in coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Harrison and Miller 1992). It is usually found in brackish waters of creeks close to river mouths, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). There are rare reports of the species ascending rivers to freshwater, which it may tolerate for short periods (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
181933		habitat	eng	<em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> occurs in ponds, lagoons, creeks and river mouths (Maugé 1986), as well as in coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Harrison and Miller 1992). It is usually found in brackish waters of creeks close to river mouths, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). There are rare reports of the species ascending rivers to freshwater, which it may tolerate for short periods (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). The maximum TL reported is 6 cm. It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
181933		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in brackish waters of creeks close to river mouths, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps. May tolerate freshwater for short periods.
181933		population	eng	No available data.
181933		population	eng	No information available.
181933		threats	eng	None known
181933		threats	eng	None known.
181934		conservation	eng	None known.
181934		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga basin, Cameroon.
181934		habitat	eng	<em>Prolabeops melanhypopterus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 10.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
181934		population	eng	No information available.
181934		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181935		conservation	eng	None known.
181935		distribution	eng	<em>Heterochromis multidens</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
181935		habitat	eng	<em>Heterochromis multidens</em> is a benthopelagic species. Fully grown specimens are deep-bodied (Lamboj 2004). Old males can exhibit a remarkable head profile with a well-developed hump (Lamboj 2004).
181935		population	eng	No information available.
181935		threats	eng	None known.
181936		conservation	eng	None known.
181936		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology, and population trends should be monitored.
181936		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Phractolaemus ansorgii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kwango, Kasai and Lukénie systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger Delta to Lake Nokoué.
181936		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ansorgii</span> is known only from a restricted area extending from the Niger delta (Nigeria) to Oueme River (Benin). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Elsewhere, the species also occurs in the central basin of the Congo and the Central Africa Republic.
181936		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benin to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Phractolaemus ansorgii</em> is present in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and in the Central Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kwango, Kasai and Lukénie systems. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, it is known only from a restricted area extending from the Niger delta (Nigeria) to Oueme River (Benin).
181936		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic; Swim bladder functions as lungs, which permit this species to survive in unoxygenated waters.  Mouth can be projected as a small trunk.
181936		habitat	eng	Hingemouth is a cigar shaped fish. The species swim bladder entirely alveolar, functioning like a lung. This adaptation to aerial breathing allows the fish to survive under poor oxygenation conditions.
181936		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic, cigar shaped fish, whose mouth can be projected as a small trunk. The species swim bladder entirely alveolar, functioning like a lung. This adaptation to aerial breathing allows the fish to survive under poor oxygenation conditions.
181936		population	eng	No available data..
181936		population	eng	No information available.
181936		threats	eng	None known.
181936		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta and elsewhere the impacts of urbanisation, agriculture and deforestation
181936		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta and elsewhere the impacts of urbanisation, agriculture and deforestation all threaten this species.
181937		conservation	eng	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
181937		conservation	eng	No information available.
181937		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, use and harvest levels, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181937		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Chelaethiops bibie</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan) and Wadi El Rayan Lakes. Previously it was caught from Lower Egyptian Nile, Nile Delta, Barrage and Cairo.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises also Lake Nubia, White Nile, South-Eastern Asia, China and tropical Africa.
181937		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>L. Turkana, Nile River, Webi shebeli, Niger, Benoue, Volta and Chad basin.
181937		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger, Benue and Volta but not found in the Chad basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere found in the Nile basin (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
181937		distribution	eng	This is a wide ranging species, found from Guinea to Somalia, Egypt to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is present in Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan) and Wadi El Rayan Lakes. Previously it was caught from lower Egyptian Nile; Nile Delta, Barrage and Cairo, but it may no longer be found this far north. It is still present in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from Baro and wabishebelle Rivers, Ethiopia, and is likely to have a wider distribution in Somalia and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species is known from the Niger, Benue and Volta  but not found in the Chad basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.
181937		habitat	eng	Associated with vegetation fringing flowing water. Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects (Hickley and Bailey 1987) and seeds at the surface (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
181937		habitat	eng	It lives in the shore regions of sheltered areas.
181937		habitat	eng	This demersal species is associated with vegetation fringing flowing water and the shore regions of sheltered areas. It feeds mainly on terrestrial insects (Hickley and Bailey 1987) and seeds at the surface (Bailey 1994).
181937		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish associated with vegetation fringing flowing water (streams). Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects and plants
181937		population	eng	Has been found at many places along the Nile and White Nile, sometimes in considerable numbers, but its occurrence seems to be very erratic (Sandon 1950).
181937		population	eng	Limited information available. This species has been found at many places along the Nile and White Nile, sometimes in considerable numbers, but its occurrence seems to be very erratic (Sandon 1950).
181937		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181937		population	eng	No information available.
181937		threats	eng	Dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought could all pose possible threats to this species in northern Africa. In western Africa, deforestation leading to sedimentation and aquatic weeds are threats to some populations. Elsewhere there are no major threats known to this species.
181937		threats	eng	Dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, drought.
181937		threats	eng	Deforestation leading to sedimentation and aquatic weeds are threats to some populations.
181937		threats	eng	None known threats.
181938		conservation	eng	None known.
181938		distribution	eng	<em>Atopochilus dybowskii</em> occurs in the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin, Central African Republic and in the Dja River, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon. It has also been recorded from the Congo River at Yaekela, the Ituri River and the Aruwimi River in the Yangambi region.
181938		habitat	eng	<em>Euchilichthys dybowski</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181938		population	eng	No information available.
181938		threats	eng	None known.
181940		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
181940		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus janssensi</em> is known from the Tungwe River (Kanonga) and Kalule River (Bowa), both effluents of the Lualaba River, from the Kafwe River (Kanakakazi), affluent of the Lufira River and from the Lubidi River (Kafupu), all in the upper Congo River system.
181940		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus janssensi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181940		population	eng	No information available.
181940		threats	eng	None known.
181941		conservation	eng	None known.
181941		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus inaequalis</span> is known from the basins of the Cavally, Nipoué and St. John, in the eastern part of the Guinean ridge. It is also reported from Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire.
181941		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of 5.1 cm SL
181941		population	eng	No available data.
181941		threats	eng	No information available.
181942		conservation	eng	None known.
181942		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in western Cameroon, from Malende in the north to the lower Lobe River area south of Kribi.
181942		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) fallax</em> is found in swamps and swampy parts of brooks in the humid coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) fallax</em> is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). This species is omnivorous and an egg-layer (Seegers 1997).
181942		population	eng	No information available.
181942		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the northern part of its distribution. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
181943		conservation	eng	Population trends should be monitored.
181943		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal rivers from Gambia to Côte d'Ivoire. Also known from Tano River in Ghana .
181943		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It prefers brackish water but is also found further upstream in rivers. Opportunistic benthic macrophage. It prefers insects and their larvae.
181943		population	eng	No information available.
181943		threats	eng	Drought and overfishing are local threats.
181944		conservation	eng	None known.
181944		distribution	eng	<em>Cyclopharynx schwetzi</em> is only known from the Fwa River, tributary to the Lubu River, tributary to the Sankuru River, in the southeastern Congo River drainage, Kasai Oriental Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181944		habitat	eng	<em>Cyclopharynx schwetzi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Gut either entirely filled with sand or with little finely divided vegetable matter and little or no sand. Microscopic examination of three specimens revealed numerous diatoms. (Roberts and Kullander 1994).
181944		population	eng	No information available.
181944		threats	eng	None known.
181945		conservation	eng	None known.
181945		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Campylomormyrus tamandua</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger and Benue, the Volta, Ogun and Chad basin.
181945		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger, the Volta, the Ogun, and the Chad basins. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also present in the Congo basin (Pool Malebo) (Snoeks pers. comm.).
181945		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution from Guinea to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Campylomormyrus tamandua</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Niger, the Volta, the Ogun, and the Chad basins.
181945		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish that possesses weak electric organ discharge (EOD).
181945		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass 1986, Landsman 1995).
181945		population	eng	No data on population trends.
181945		population	eng	No information available.
181945		threats	eng	Overfishing in some areas.
181945		threats	eng	The species has minor commercial importance.
181945		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance as an aquarium fish, and is overfished in some areas.
181946		conservation	eng	None known.
181946		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from the reservoir of the St. Paul river in Liberia, probably endemic to this river.
181946		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
181946		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181946		threats	eng	Deforestation, mining, and human settlement threaten the habitat of this species.
181947		conservation	eng	None known.
181947		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis depauwi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and has been recorded at Dundo (Kasai River basin) and at Cafunfo (Kwango River basin). Recently a specimen has been identified from collections made in the main channel of the Lower Congo near the confluence of the Foulakari.
181947		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis depauwi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181947		population	eng	No information available.
181947		threats	eng	In Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in the Kwango region.
181948		conservation	eng	None known.
181948		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a single collection in the Nyanga River at Tchibanga, Gabon.
181948		habitat	eng	No information available.
181948		population	eng	No information available.
181948		threats	eng	Urbanisation, leading to pollution, forms a threat to <em>Phractura stiassny</em>.
181949		conservation	eng	None known.
181949		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Africa in the basins of the Volta, Niger (Bénoué), Sénégal, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Casamance. It is reported from the Mono River in Togo. (Lévêque <em>et al.</em>, 1991)
181949		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species
181949		population	eng	No information available.
181949		threats	eng	There is a potential threats are localised, mainly deforestation (sedimentation) due to bad agricultural practices.
181950		conservation	eng	None known.
181950		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
181950		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias angolensis</em> is known from the Congo River basin, except the upper Congo basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the lower Ogowe in Gabon and the Kouilou and Chiloango in Congo.
181950		distribution	eng	This species distribution is limited to the Lower and Central Congo system and small systems around. In Angola, it occurs in the Chiloango River (Luali River ) and Bengo River systems.
181950		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias angolensis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits rivers, lakes and swamps. It feeds on a variety of food like algae, plants, <em>Hydracarina</em>, larvae of Ephemeroptera, Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, remains of insects (Coleoptera) and fish remains (Cichlidae, Anabantidae) (Matthes 1964).
181950		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers, lakes and swamps. It feeds on a variety of food like algae, plants, insects larvae.
181950		population	eng	No information available.
181950		population	eng	Population size is not known.
181950		threats	eng	None known.
181950		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
181951		conservation	eng	None known.
181951		distribution	eng	This species is currently known in certain Western African coastal basins: Casamance Corrubal, Kolenté (Geat Scarcies), Waanje and Taja (Pampana of Jong).
181951		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, freshwater species.
181951		population	eng	No data available.
181951		threats	eng	Drought, deforestation, overfishing and dams threaten this species.
181952		conservation	eng	None known.
181952		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a limited area in the upper Ogowe basin of southeastern Gabon and the adjacent part of Congo.
181952		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion buytaerti</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181952		population	eng	No information available.
181952		threats	eng	None known.
181953		conservation	eng	None known.
181953		distribution	eng	<em>Parauchenoglanis punctatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. Some records have been made of the upper Congo River basin as well. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region where it is found in the Benito and Ogowe Rivers.
181953		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181953		population	eng	No information available.
181953		threats	eng	None known.
181954		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainty must be resolved for this species, and more information is needed on its full distribution.
181954		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only found in the Ngongolon River basin (This species is known from upper Cross River basin) near Manyemen, Ebanga and between Nkomeku and Besing Kisen, western Cameroon.
181954		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181954		population	eng	No information available.
181954		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181955		conservation	eng	None known.
181955		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus fuliginosus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Sangha systems though. Specimens recently collected in the Lower Congo have tentatively been assigned to this species, but these need further examination to confirm whether the range of this species extends into the basin or if the Lower Congo specimens represent an undescribed species.
181955		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181955		population	eng	No information available.
181955		threats	eng	None known.
181956		conservation	eng	None known.
181956		distribution	eng	<em>Alestopetersius compressus</em> is known from Yangambi and from Buta, and Lac Maindombe in the Central Congo River basin.
181956		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181956		population	eng	No information available.
181956		threats	eng	None known.
181957		conservation	eng	None known.
181957		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ivindo River drainage system of northeastern Gabon.
181957		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) fulgens</em> occurs in small, mostly swampy brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em><em>et al.</em> </em>1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) fulgens</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
181957		population	eng	No information available.
181957		threats	eng	This species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181958		conservation	eng	No information available.
181958		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
181958		conservation	eng	None known.
181958		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis clarias</em> is rare in Lower Egyptian Nile and Lake Nasser.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in Chad, Niger (including the Bénoué River), Senegal, Gambia and Volta basins, also in the Nile.
181958		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus the Benue), Senegal, Gambia and Volta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside our area, this species occurs on the Nile.
181958		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lower Egyptian Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus the Benue), Senegal, Gambia and Volta.
181958		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
181958		habitat	eng	A bottom feeder, feeds on chironomid larvae, plant remains and mud. It reaches an average length to 40 cm.
181958		habitat	eng	A bottom feeder, it feeds on chironomid larvae, plant remains and mud.
181958		population	eng	No available data.
181958		population	eng	No information available.
181958		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
181958		threats	eng	None known
181958		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
181959		conservation	eng	None known.
181959		distribution	eng	<em>Pelmatochromis nigrofasciatus</em> has been found throughout the Central Congo River basin from Yangambi to Kinshasa, including the Ruki River, Tshuapa River, Dja River and the Kasaï. It is also known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids in the Lower Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from the Kouilou-Niari, Loeme and Djoungou Rivers (Congo) and the Ogowe River (Gabon).
181959		habitat	eng	<em>Pelmatochromis nigrofasciatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates, algae and detritus (Norris 2002). It is a substratum spawner with biparental care of the eggs and young (Gosse 1963).
181959		population	eng	No information available.
181959		threats	eng	None known.
181960		conservation	eng	None known.
181960		distribution	eng	In Lower Guinea, <em>Varicorhinus mariae</em> is found in the Sanaga and Wouri River basins, Cameroon.
181960		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181960		population	eng	No information available.
181960		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181961		conservation	eng	None known.
181961		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys phoeniceps</em> is known from the Sangha River drainage in Congo (from Makoua, Ignoli, Debrouille and Liouesso), central Congo River basin.
181961		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys phoeniceps</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in small brooks. It has a max TL of 6.5 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
181961		population	eng	No information available.
181961		threats	eng	None known.
181962		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181962		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
181962		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181962		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Lufira River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene River system (Angola and Namibia), Okavango River, upper Zambezi, and Kafue Rivers (Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe). It is possibly also present in coastal rivers north of the Cunene Rivers in Angola (Skelton 2001).
181962		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, as well as the Zambian Congo and possibly some coastal rivers north of the Cunene in Angola (Skelton 2001).
181962		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Congo to Namibia and Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Lufira River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, as well as the Zambian Congo and possibly some coastal rivers north of the Cunene in Angola (Skelton 2001).
181962		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated swamps and along the edges of rivers. It also occurs in fast-flowing reaches over sand and rocks. This species feeds on small fish, shrimps and insects.  It is a mouthbrooding species which breeds in spring (de Moor and Bruton 1988). The female incubates the eggs in her mouth. Parental care is exercised for a short while after hatching when the juveniles move off to shallow grassy areas and there they remain, in the Upper Zambezi, until floodwaters recede and force them back to the main river. They seek refuge in lagoons and backwaters until they reach a size large enough to avoid predation by tigerfish in the open waters of the river.
181962		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated swamps and along the edges of rivers. It also occurs in fast-flowing reaches over sand and rocks. Winemiller (1991) considered it to be a lagoon-dwelling, diurnal, ambush piscivore. This species feeds on small fish, shrimps and insects. It is a mouth-brooding species which breeds in spring (de Moor and Bruton 1988). The female incubates the eggs in her mouth. Parental care is exercised for a short while after hatching when the juveniles move off to shallow grassy areas and there they remain, in the Upper Zambezi, until floodwaters recede and force them back to the main river. They seek refuge in lagoons and backwaters until they reach a size large enough to avoid predation by tigerfish in the open waters of the river.
181962		habitat	eng	Restricted to the edges of main river channels and deep connected lagoons in fringing vegetation (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Winemiller (1991) considered it to be a lagoon-dwelling, diurnal, ambush piscivore. Skelton (2001) stated that its thin profile facilitates stalking and ambushing of small fishes. Breeds throughout the summer, males clearing small sand nests among vegetation at 1-3 m deep.
181962		population	eng	No information available.
181962		population	eng	This species is widespread and fairly common.
181962		population	eng	Widespread and fairly common.
181962		threats	eng	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is commercially used for aquaculture. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
181962		threats	eng	None known.
181963		conservation	eng	None known.
181963		distribution	eng	<em>Myomyrus macrodon</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is not known from east of the Congo mainstream. Ongoing studies indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">Myomyrus macrodon</span> is restricted to the Lower Congo region (Staissny and Sullivan, in prep.).
181963		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181963		population	eng	No information available.
181963		threats	eng	None known.
181964		conservation	eng	None known.
181964		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the southwestern slope of the Du Chaillu Massif, upper Ngounie River, southwestern Gabon.
181964		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys huberi</em> is only known from some creeks and small rivers in the rainforest on the southwestern slope of the Du Chaillu Massif. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. The maximum TL is 6.5 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Epiplatys huberi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
181964		population	eng	No information available.
181964		threats	eng	None known.
181965		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration is needed.
181965		conservation	eng	None known.
181965		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea found in coastal southwestern Cameroon. <br/><br/>Elsewhere occurring in southern Benin and southern Nigeria.
181965		distribution	eng	This species is found from Benin to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea found in coastal southwestern Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present from southern Benin through to southern Nigeria.
181965		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion calliurum</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks, small streams and pools in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is also found in secondary forest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) calliurum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
181965		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) calliurum</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks, small streams and pools in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is also found in secondary forest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) calliurum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
181965		population	eng	No information available.
181965		threats	eng	Especially in the southern half of the species distribution, it is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
181965		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation, particularly in the southern half of the species distribution. In western Africa, it has a restricted distribution pattern within a highly impacted region. It is also threatened by human activities (mining, oil spills and urbanisation) impacting on the habitat.
181966		conservation	eng	None known.
181966		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius kutuensis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Shangha systems.
181966		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181966		population	eng	No information available.
181966		threats	eng	None known.
181967		conservation	eng	No information available.
181967		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis woleuensis</em> has a relatively restricted distribution, and is known only from the Woleu River of Gabon (in Equatorial Guinea called the Mbini or Uoro River on modern maps, or the Benito River on older maps) and the Kyé (Kie) River, a tributary of the Ntem River, that runs along the border between Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.
181967		habitat	eng	No information available.
181967		population	eng	No information available.
181967		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181970		conservation	eng	None known.
181970		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, Gabon.
181970		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
181970		population	eng	No information available.
181970		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181971		conservation	eng	None known.
181971		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys wagenaari</em> is known from the Ubangui River and Central Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) to the junction of the Ubangui and Congo River. It is also known from just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).
181971		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181971		population	eng	No information available.
181971		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
181972		conservation	eng	None known.
181972		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus fwaensis</em> is only known from Lake Fwa, Kasai Occidental, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181972		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181972		population	eng	No information available.
181972		threats	eng	None known.
181973		conservation	eng	No information available.
181973		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Blue Nile basin, including Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
181973		habitat	eng	This species is found in both running and standing waters. In the Lake Tana region it occurs only in affluent rivers of the lake between the shore vegetation and floodplains at depths shallower than 1 m.
181973		population	eng	No information available.
181973		threats	eng	No information available.
181974		conservation	eng	None known.
181974		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops mariae</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has been recorded from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) by Boulenger, 1920 and from Gozobangui as well. It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181974		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181974		population	eng	No information available.
181974		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3, which will be built in five years. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3 will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
181975		conservation	eng	None known.
181975		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypetersius cadwaladeri</em> is known from the upper Kasai, the upper Lomami and the Lualaba basin.
181975		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181975		population	eng	No information available.
181975		threats	eng	None known.
181976		conservation	eng	None known.
181976		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring on the coastal plains of Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northwestern Gabon, from the Sanaga estuary, southward to Port Gentil in northwestern Gabon.
181976		habitat	eng	<em>Poropanchax stigmatopygus</em> occurs in small rivers and creeks. It is benthopelagic species.
181976		population	eng	No information available.
181976		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181977		conservation	eng	No information available.
181977		conservation	eng	None known.
181977		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., the Kafue National Park.
181977		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves, such as the Kafue National Park. Research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species, as well as monitoring of the populations.
181977		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus haasianus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo and Lufirae systems. It has also been recorded from Sandoa, Upper Kasai system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango, upper Zambezi, Kafue, lower Zambezi and Pungwe systems (Skelton 2001).
181977		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Okavango, upper and lower Zambezi, Kafue, Pungwe, Zambian Congo (Luapula, Lualaba) systems (Skelton 1993).
181977		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the southern half of Africa, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Botswana and Namibia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus haasianus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo and Lufirae systems. It has also been recorded from Sandoa, This species is known from upper Kasai system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> this species occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004) and also in the Kafue, Okavango, Zambian Congo, Lower Zambezi and Pungwe systems (Skelton 2001).
181977		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004) and also in the Kafue, Okavango, Zambian Congo, Lower Zambezi and Pungwe systems (Skelton 2001).
181977		habitat	eng	A very small species that is common throughout the marshes in shallow water (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats (Skelton 1993).
181977		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats (Skelton 1993).
181977		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is a very small benthopelagic species that is common throughout the marshes in shallow water (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). It inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats (Skelton 1993). It makes lateral movements onto floodplains to spawn as the floodwaters rise (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), when the males assume a rose-red colour.
181977		habitat	eng	Shallow floodplain lagoons and small streams (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Makes lateral movements onto floodplains to spawn as the floodwaters rise (Tweddle<em> <em>et al. </em></em>2004), when the males assume a rose-red colour.
181977		population	eng	No information available.
181977		population	eng	The species is abundant and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
181977		threats	eng	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species. There are local threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining).
181977		threats	eng	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species. There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining),
181977		threats	eng	Overfishing. This is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993).
181977		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
181978		conservation	eng	None known.
181978		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Volta basin and from the Benue. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.
181978		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
181978		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
181978		threats	eng	None known.
181979		conservation	eng	No information available..
181979		conservation	eng	None known.
181979		distribution	eng	<em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is known from central Africa, from Gabon to Angola, and east to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throught the Congo River system, including the Luapula system and some tributaries of Lake Tanganyika. It is also known from the Ogowe and Nyanga basins in Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.
181979		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is known from the Congo River system, including the Luapula system and some tributaries of Lake Tanganyika. It has also been reported from the Ruzizi basin (Rwanda) (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is also known from the Ogowe and Nyanga basins in Gabon.
181979		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Present in the Congo River system.
181979		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992) and is also found in deltas. <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a omnivorous fish species that feeds with insects, larvae and plant debris (Gosse 1963).
181979		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992). <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a omnivorous fish species that feeds with insects, larvae and plant debris (Gosse 1963).
181979		habitat	eng	Riverine species also found in deltas. Varied diet including  insects, molluscs and fishes.
181979		population	eng	No information available.
181979		population	eng	Not known; sporadic in fisheries catches in Malagarasi and Rusizi deltas.
181979		threats	eng	In eastern Africa, populations are threatened by fisheries pressure, and water turbidity due to erosion on the watershed.
181979		threats	eng	None known.
181979		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure and water turbidity due to erosion on watershed.
181980		conservation	eng	None known.
181980		distribution	eng	The type locality is in South Cameroon where two specimens were collected by George Latimer Bates, 1863-1940, an American naturalist and ornithologist who lived in Southern Cameroon during the first decade of the 20th Century and supplied many fish and reptile and amphibian specimens from this region to G.A. Boulenger at the British Museum.  The type locality for <em>Marcusenius batesii</em> and several other species first collected by Bates is “Efulen.”  Although several localities in Southern Cameroon today bear the name "Efoulan."  The Efulen (now Efoulan) of Bates is located in the upper Kienké River basin (then called the Kribi River), near present-day Akom II  at 2°46'59"N, 10°31'59"E (Fig. 12.89). Tentative identifications of museum specimens shows a wide distribution in Cameroon, including the Sanaga River basin, the Kienké River, parts of the Ogowe River basin of Gabon, and the Kouilou River basin of Congo. Some of the specimens mapped here may represent new taxa.
181980		habitat	eng	<em>Paramormyops batesii</em> is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass and Hopkins 1985; Landsman 1995). A mature male was reported to have an EOD waveform twice as long as that of two mature females (Landsman 1995).
181980		population	eng	No information available.
181980		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
181981		conservation	eng	None known.
181981		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the mouth of the Ogowe River in northwestern Gabon, southward to the Cabinda enclave of Angola and western Congo.
181981		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion australe</em> is found in coastal swamps, swampy parts of brooks, small rivers, and flooded areas in the coastal rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) australe</em> feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989). Two colour morphs, chocolate and gold, are in the aquarium trade (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991). It is not a seasonal killifish.
181981		population	eng	No information available.
181981		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
181983		conservation	eng	None known.
181983		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis ornatissimus</em> is known from the northern Congo River basin (Ubangui River and effluents).
181983		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis ornatissimus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181983		population	eng	No information available.
181983		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
181984		conservation	eng	None known.
181984		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Western Atlantic waters, including the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  Within Africa it is only known from western Africa, and has been recorded from Guinea Bissau freshwaters to Benin.
181984		habitat	eng	Highfin goby grows to a maximum size of 30 cm TL but common size is 4.7 cm. The species is found on shallow mud or mud-sand bottoms in turbid and generally brackish water near estuaries. It also occurs in weedy backwaters and hyper-saline waters.
181984		population	eng	No available data.
181984		threats	eng	None known.
181985		conservation	eng	There is no major threat for <em>Chiloglanis gestetneri</em> because it is known from the Upemba National Park.
181985		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus gestetneri</em> is only known from the type locality: above the falls on the Kalumengonga River, Upemba National Park, Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181985		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus gestetneri</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181985		population	eng	No information available.
181985		threats	eng	None known.
181986		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most southern and eastern location is situated in the Kasanka National Park.
181986		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus stappersii</em> is only known from Luapula-Mweru system and probably from the Lubumbashi River.
181986		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus stappersii</em> is a benthopelagic species.
181986		population	eng	No information available.
181986		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
181987		conservation	eng	None known.
181987		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis bakongo</em> is known only from the types from the Kwilu River drainage in the Lower Congo River basin. The type series is mixed and specimens from the Lukunga (Kasai) appear to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Haplochromis stigmatogenys</span> (Stiassny, in lit.). Subsequent efforts to relocate the species have been unsuccessful and much of Kwilu is heavily impacted by agricultural development.
181987		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis bakongo</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females. It is occurring in the smaller streams, rather than in the mainstream.
181987		population	eng	No information available.
181987		threats	eng	Erosion caused by agriculture, and human disturbance pose a minor threat.
181988		conservation	eng	None known.
181988		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tana and affluent rivers, Ethiopia.
181988		habitat	eng	It is found in shallow standing water, primarily over rocky substrates but it also occurs over mud and sand. It is an omnivore, with a diet consisting of fish, insects and macrophytes.
181988		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
181988		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing and degradation of the environment.
181989		conservation	eng	None known.
181989		distribution	eng	According to Daget (1991)., this species is known only from the rapids of Inga, Congo basin. It said to be endemic to Niger Republic.
181989		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis consortus</em> is only known from the rapids of Inga, mainstream Lower Congo River.
181989		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish.
181989		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish of 5.2 cm SL maximum size
181989		population	eng	No available data.
181989		population	eng	No information available.
181989		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, (if built) will divert a significant amount of flow, and block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
181989		threats	eng	No current threats known.
181990		conservation	eng	None known.
181990		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the Sanaga River basin in Cameroon.
181990		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
181990		population	eng	No information available.
181990		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
181991		conservation	eng	None known.
181991		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ntem, Woleu, Ivindo and Ngounie River basins, Gabon.
181991		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
181991		population	eng	No information available.
181991		threats	eng	No information available.
181992		conservation	eng	None known.
181992		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Niger and Ouémé Rivers and present in the Volta River system.&#160;It is also known from White Nile tributaries in Ethiopia (Barro and Alvero rivers) and the Omo River (Lake Turkana System) (Golubtsov and Berendzen, 1999), however these records are uncertain. It probably exists in Chad basin but has not been collected there.
181992		habitat	eng	This is a bentho-pelagic species with a strong electric discharge to stun its prey of small fishes. Max SL 102 cm. Commonly found offshore in open waters. Commonly breeds in September to November. It is non-migratory.
181992		population	eng	No available data.
181992		threats	eng	In Nigeria, the quality of the habitat declines due to oil exploration and urbanisation.
181993		conservation	eng	No information available.
181993		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Juba, Somalia, and Wabishebelle, Omo, Ethiopia.
181993		habitat	eng	No information available.
181993		population	eng	No information available.
181993		threats	eng	No information available.
181994		conservation	eng	None known.
181994		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the Du Chaillu-Massif in the upper Lolo and Yaou River systems, Ogowe system, southern Gabon.
181994		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion aureum</em> occurs in small, fast flowing mountain brooks (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) aureum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
181994		population	eng	No information available.
181994		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
181995		conservation	eng	None known.
181995		distribution	eng	<em>Malapterurus gossei</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River system, including the lower Congo and most major tributaries. It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system though.
181995		habitat	eng	<em>Malapterurus gossei</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It occupies horizontal holes or burrows (up to 3 m in length) in the banks of rivers (1-3 m in depth). The holes may be occupied by a pair of sexually mature animals, suggesting that they are the site of reproduction. Mouth brooding has never been observed. Individuals of different species never cohabit the same burrow. (Poll and Gosse 1969, Norris 2002). It is an opportunistic carnivore, enjoying a diet of fish and aquatic invertebrates. One specimen examined had ingested crabs. (Norris 2002).
181995		population	eng	No information available.
181995		threats	eng	None known.
181996		conservation	eng	None known.
181996		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
181996		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into this species biology and ecology.
181996		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is widespread from Democratic Republic of Congo, south to Namibia and Botswana<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> this species is known from the Lufira River basin and from the Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi, Kafue and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu area) (Skelton 2001).
181996		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is known from the Lufira River basin and from the Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi and Kafue Rivers (Skelton 2001).
181996		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi, Kafue and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu area) (Skelton 2001).
181996		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in shallow, well-vegetated water in backwaters, floodplains and river margins (Skelton 1993).
181996		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in shallow, well-vegetated water in backwaters, floodplains and river margins (Skelton 1993). Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be abundant in upper Zambezi tributaries, including many of the northern streams, and also in shallow lagoons, generally associated with well-vegetated areas.
181996		habitat	eng	Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it to be abundant in upper Zambezi tributaries, including many of the northern streams, and also in shallow lagoons, generally associated with well-vegetated areas.
181996		population	eng	No information available.
181996		population	eng	The species is generally abundant and widespread.
181996		threats	eng	There are localised threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining) only.
181996		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
181996		threats	eng	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining)
181997		conservation	eng	None known.
181997		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus maculipinnis</em> is only known from the type locality Kananga (Luluabourg), Kasaï River, Central Congo River basin.
181997		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181997		population	eng	No information available.
181997		threats	eng	None known.
181998		conservation	eng	None known.
181998		distribution	eng	<em>Thoracochromis callichromis</em> is only known from the Fwa River and Lake, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
181998		habitat	eng	<em>Thoracochromis callichromus</em> is demersal species with mouth-brooding by the females. It mainly feeds on macrophytes, snails and insect larvae (Roberts and Kullander 1994).
181998		population	eng	No information available.
181998		threats	eng	None known.
181999		conservation	eng	None known.
181999		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura tenuicauda</em> is known from the Central (the Lokendu and the Ubangui Rivers and Yangambi) and the upper Congo River system. One collection has been made at Kombetiko, Nguesse river, Sangha basin, Cameroon.
181999		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
181999		population	eng	No information available.
181999		threats	eng	None known.
182000		conservation	eng	None known.
182000		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype which was collected in the River Mano in Liberia.  Museum records from other areas (Rokel and Kolente in Sierra Leone and Guinea) need to be checked as the small west African <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus</span> are difficult to identify.
182000		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182000		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182000		threats	eng	No information available.
182002		conservation	eng	None known.
182002		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus tumbanus</em> is only known from Lake Tumba. It is not widely distributed in the lake and is probably in very specific, but unknown habitats (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).
182002		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182002		population	eng	No information available.
182002		threats	eng	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. Many larger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappearing and many fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture. However, this species is of small adult size and not targeted in the fishery.
182003		conservation	eng	No information available.
182003		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Eritrean freshwaters.
182003		habitat	eng	It is found in running waters.
182003		population	eng	This species is rare.
182003		threats	eng	No information available.
182004		conservation	eng	None known.
182004		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus ansorgii</em> is only known from a small range in the Kwango River basin, Central Congo River basin, Angola. It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango basin though.
182004		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus ansorgii</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182004		population	eng	No information available.
182004		threats	eng	This species is threatened by artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining.
182005		conservation	eng	None known.
182005		distribution	eng	<em>Awaous bustamantei</em> is found on the Gulf of Guinea islands of Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe, and Pagalu, only on islands. Specimens collected from the lower Ndian River, Cameroon that were tentatively identified as <em>A. bustamantei</em> are more likely <em>Awaous lateristriga</em> according to recent comparative studies.
182005		habitat	eng	<em>Awaous bustamantei</em> lives in cascade rivers: rivers with high velocity, cold, clear water.
182005		population	eng	No information available.
182005		threats	eng	High population density, therefore domestic pollution and small scale agriculture (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). Oil exploitation is a potential threat (pers. comm. Victor Pouomogne).
182006		conservation	eng	No information available.
182006		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182006		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the upper Nile.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known from the Nile Basin.
182006		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sudan and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is recorded around Khartoum and in the jebel Aulia reservoir.
182006		habitat	eng	No information available
182006		habitat	eng	This species is found in running and standing waters. It breeds in the flood season.
182006		population	eng	No information available
182006		population	eng	No information available.
182006		threats	eng	No information available
182006		threats	eng	No information available.
182007		conservation	eng	None known.
182007		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops nigricans</em> is known from the Foulakari River in Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Kindu, Lualaba River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region, where it is restricted to the main channel of the Ogowe River and the Ngounie River. It is absent from the Ivindo River.
182007		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182007		population	eng	No information available.
182007		threats	eng	None known.
182008		conservation	eng	None known.
182008		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo barbatus</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, including Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has also been found just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).
182008		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo barbatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in the Congo basin with rapid water flow (Tshibwabwa 1997).
182008		population	eng	No information available.
182008		threats	eng	None known.
182009		conservation	eng	No information available.
182009		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182009		conservation	eng	None known.
182009		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis filamentosus</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in the Nile basin, Chad, Volta and Niger basins.
182009		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus Benue) and Volta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside our area, this species occurs on the Nile.
182009		distribution	eng	This is a wideranging species from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile from Khartoum into the Jebel and Ghazal systems, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus Benue) and Volta.
182009		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182009		habitat	eng	It lives in the White Nile. It is an oviparous up-side down catfish.
182009		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, oviparous species.
182009		population	eng	No available data.
182009		population	eng	No information available.
182009		threats	eng	No information available.
182009		threats	eng	None known
182010		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182010		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182010		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Chad, Gabon, Congo and Central African Republic.
182010		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, which is listed as French Congo. This may refer to Chad, Gabon, Congo or Central African Republic.
182010		habitat	eng	No information available.
182010		habitat	eng	The species lives in rivers and lakes. Demersal.
182010		population	eng	No information available
182010		population	eng	No information available.
182010		threats	eng	Declining habitat quality due to agriculture and dams
182010		threats	eng	No information available.
182011		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182011		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182011		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
182011		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lulua River and from the upper Kasai system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene River system (Angola and Namibia), the Okovango River and swamps, the upper Zambezi River, the Kafue River, Lake Kariba and the Luangwa system (Skelton 2001). It is possibly also present in the Cuanza River.
182011		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Upper and middle Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, also southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, it occurs in the upper and middle Zambezi and is now abundant and widespread in all parts of Lake Kariba, having grown from a small population restricted to the western part of the lake during the 1960s. It is now established in the Zambezi River below Kariba and is probably invading the rest of the system (Marshall 1998).
182011		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lulua River and from the upper Kasai system. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper and middle Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, also southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, it occurs in the upper and middle Zambezi and is now abundant and widespread in all parts of Lake Kariba, having grown from a small population restricted to the western part of the lake during the 1960s. It is now established in the Zambezi River below Kariba and is probably invading the rest of the system (Marshall 1998).
182011		habitat	eng	A common serranochromine in the upper Zambezi, this species occurs primarily on the floodplain, in lagoons, a wide range of tributaries tributaries and quiet backwaters (Winemiller 1991, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also found in rocky areas on the edge of fast-flowing water (Bell-Cross 1974), and Tweddle et al. (2004) found it at the junction of the fast-flowing West Lunga and Madamyana tributaries of the Upper Zambezi at Mwinilunga. In Lake Kariba it occurs in most inshore habitats but is particularly abundant in vegetated areas. In the Zambezi below Kariba, it has been taken in sandy areas with little vegetation. Winemiller (1991) classifies it as a lagoon-dwelling, epibenthic, crepuscular piscivore.
182011		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is a demersal species that is common in a broad range of habitats from mainstream margins to floodplain channels and lagoons. Also found in rocky areas on the edge of fast-flowing water (Bell-Cross, 1974), and Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it at the junction of the fast-flowing West Lunga and Madamyana tributaries of the Upper Zambezi at Mwinilunga. In Lake Kariba it occurs in most inshore habitats but is particularly abundant in vegetated areas. In the Zambezi below Kariba, it has been taken in sandy areas with little vegetation. Winemiller (1991) classifies it as a lagoon-dwelling, epibenthic, crepuscular piscivore. It preys on insects and small fish, including mormyrids and barbs, which are taken near the bottom. It breeds in spring and early summer at low water before the annual floods arrive. Relatively few eggs are laid and mouth-brooded. This species matures after 1-2 years (Skelton 1993).
182011		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is a demersal species that is common in a broad range of habitats from mainstream margins to floodplain channels and lagoons. It preys on insects and small fish, including mormyrids and barbs, which are taken near the bottom. It breeds in spring and early summer at low water before the annual floods arrive. Relatively few eggs are laid and mouthbrooded. This species matures after 1-2 years (Skelton 1993).
182011		population	eng	No information available.
182011		population	eng	This species is widespread and locally common, especially in Lake Kariba where it can be numerous in suitable habitat.
182011		population	eng	Widespread and locally common, especially in Lake Kariba where it can be numerous in suitable habitat.
182011		threats	eng	None known.
182011		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182012		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182012		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sierra Leone in Sewa, Rokel, Pampana, Little Scarcies and Jong rivers.
182012		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182012		population	eng	No information available.
182012		threats	eng	No information available.
182013		conservation	eng	None known.
182013		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax uniocellatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. Recent collections of this species from the main channel and in some affluent streams (Yambi, Lunyonzo) of the Lower Congo extend the range and confirm the presence of the species in Lower Congo. It has been recorded from the Lualaba River as well.
182013		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax uniocellatus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.4 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182013		population	eng	No information available.
182013		threats	eng	None known.
182014		conservation	eng	None known.
182014		distribution	eng	A Lower guinea endemic, only known from the type locality the Ezanga River, about midway between Lake Ezanga and the lower Ogowe mainstream in Gabon (Ng 2004).
182014		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis notata</em> is a demersal species.
182014		population	eng	No information available.
182014		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182015		conservation	eng	None known.
182015		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax filamentosus</span> is endemic to western Africa. It is found from southern Togo, through southern Benin and southwestern Nigeria, to the area around Benin City in southern Nigeria. It is not found in the Niger Delta.
182015		habitat	eng	Blue killi is small semi-annual killifish that grows to 4 cm in SL. It is restricted to swamps and swampy parts of shallow brooks in the coastal rainforest. It feeds on worms crustaceans and insects. Bottom spawner with 1.5 months incubation for the eggs. Very diffficult to maintain in captivity. It is non-migratory.
182015		population	eng	No available data.
182015		threats	eng	Some impact from oil exploration current and future. Also future impacts predicted from bitumen mining. Habitat loss/degradation from urban development and deforestation.
182016		conservation	eng	No information available.
182016		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia.
182016		habitat	eng	It is found in running water.
182016		population	eng	No information available.
182016		threats	eng	No information available.
182017		conservation	eng	None known.
182017		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found between the eastern bank of the Cross River in southeast Nigeria, through the coastal plains of Cameroon, to the Rio Benito in northern Equatorial Guinea. It is also found on Bioko Island (formerly Fernando Poo Island), Equatorial Guinea.
182017		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Only found in the eastern bank of the Cross River in Southeast Nigeria. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere present in the coastal plains of Cameroon, to the Rio Benito in northern Equatorial Guinea. Also found on Bioko Island (formerly Fernando Poo Island), Equatorial Guinea. (Van der Zee, Woeltjes and Wildekamp, in press).
182017		habitat	eng	Brooks, swamps small streams and rivers in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp and Van der Zee 2003).
182017		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) infrafasciatus</em> is found in brooks, swamps, small streams and rivers in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp and Van der Zee 2003).
182017		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182017		population	eng	No information available.
182017		threats	eng	No major serious threats reported yet, but invasive weeds are causing habitat degradation.
182017		threats	eng	There are no major serious threats reported yet, but invasive weeds are causing habitat degradation.
182018		conservation	eng	None known.
182018		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities in the middle Ngounie River, western Gabon.
182018		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion exigoideum</em> occurs in brooks and swamps in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) exigoideum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
182018		population	eng	No information available.
182018		threats	eng	None known.
182019		conservation	eng	None known.
182019		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Mpoulou River, tributary of Kouilou within the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve, Congo. This is found upstream of the falls on the Mpoulou River, <em>Amphilius mamonekenensis</em> is found downstream of the falls.
182019		habitat	eng	No information available.
182019		population	eng	No information available.
182019		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to <em>Amphilius mamonekekensis</em> (deforestation is an historical threat, but the human population has moved). A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not thought that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182020		conservation	eng	None known.
182020		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only occurring in rivers and creeks around Mount Cameroon and the middle Mungo system.
182020		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182020		population	eng	No information available.
182020		threats	eng	Intensive agriculture and rubber harvesting cause threats to this species (pers. comm. Brummett, R. 2008). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Mamonekene, V., Dening, C.). Mount Cameroon is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Cooperation, including bananas, palm oil.
182021		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182021		distribution	eng	This species is known from the basins of the Konkouré, Kolenté and Little Scarcies.
182021		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of 9.0 cm SL
182021		population	eng	No available data.
182021		threats	eng	No information available.
182022		conservation	eng	None known.
182022		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Sassandra basin (Côte d’Ivoire).
182022		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 14.8 cm TL.
182022		population	eng	No available data.
182022		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182023		conservation	eng	No information available.
182023		conservation	eng	None known.
182023		conservation	eng	None known. Monitoring of population trends in needed, as is habitat restoration and management of protected areas.
182023		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias hilli</em> is found in Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Central Congo River system and in Lake Albert. One record has been made from the upper Congo River system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has also been found in the Musasa River in Burundi, and Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001)
182023		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias hilli</em> occurs in the Central Congo River system and in Lake Albert. One record has been made from the Upper Congo River system. It has also been found in the Musasa River in Burundi.
182023		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al. 2001)
182023		habitat	eng	Marginal grass and papyrus swamps. Mainly insectivorous.
182023		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182023		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is found in marginal grass and papyrus swamps. Mainly insectivorous.
182023		population	eng	No information available.
182023		population	eng	Not known
182023		threats	eng	None known.
182023		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension.
182023		threats	eng	Threats to this species include regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension threatens east African populations.
182024		conservation	eng	None known.
182024		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found the Henda, Nkwoh and Wouri Rivers in western Cameroon.
182024		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) puerzli</em> occurs in swamps, shallow and swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) puerzli</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation (Huber 1996).
182024		population	eng	No information available.
182024		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182025		conservation	eng	Implementation of sustainable fisheries management plans.
182025		conservation	eng	No information available.
182025		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182025		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. There has also been the implementation of sustainable fisheries management plans within the southern Africa region.
182025		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi, Buzi and Pungwe Rivers. Isolated populations are known from the Ruo River (Lower Zambezi system). It is also known from the Cuanza River in Angola and from Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika.
182025		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Malawi and affluent streams, throughout the Shire river and Lake Chiuta. Rufiji and Ruvuma rivers and Lake Rukwa in Tanzania. Lake Tanganyika.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi, Buzi, Pungwe and Lower Save-Runde systems. Also throughout the Zambian Congo system.
182025		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Lower Save River north to the Rufiji River in Tanzania. Extending westwards into the middle Zambezi and north into Lake Malawi and the Zambian Congo systems.
182025		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania to Zimbabwe and Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Malawi and affluent streams, throughout the Shire river and Lake Chiuta, as well as the Rufiji and Ruvuma rivers and Lake Rukwa in Tanzania, and Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi, Buzi and Pungwe Rivers. Isolated populations are also known from the Ruo River (Lower Zambezi system).
182025		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that is found in caves and muddy areas, it also hides among weeds. It forms shoal (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on insects and weeds but may also feed on small fishes (Konings 1990), blood worms, small crustaceans and molluscs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is active mainly at night. It breeds during the rainy season, moving upstream in rivers after flood spates have receded. The migrations appear to occur at irregular interval as this fish is not a powerful swimmer and would not be able to cope with very high water current (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Females carry 10,000-70,000 eggs. It can give a mild shock when caught (Skelton 1993).
182025		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that is found in caves and muddy areas, it also hides among weeds. It prefers quiet deep water with soft muddy bottoms and is rarely caught in marshy areas. In Lake Malawi this mormyrid is sufficiently common, and large, to be important as human food. It has been reported in Nkhata bay (L. Malawi) to be commonly caught in deep gill nets down to the limits of dissolved oxygen, and appears to prefer the deeper water where possible. It forms shoal (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on insects and weeds but may also feed on small fishes (Konings 1990), blood worms, small crustaceans and molluscs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is active mainly at night. It breeds during the rainy season, moving upstream in rivers after flood spates have receded. The migrations appear to occur at irregular interval as this fish is not a powerful swimmer and would not be able to cope with very high water current (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Females carry 10,000-70,000 eggs. It can give a mild shock when caught (Skelton 1993).
182025		habitat	eng	It prefers quiet deep water with soft muddy bottoms and is rarely caught in marshy areas.  In Lake Malawi this mormyrid is sufficiently common, and large, to be important as human food. It has been reported in Nkhata bay (L. Malawi) to be commonly caught in deep gill nets down to the limits of dissolved oxygen, and appears to prefer the deeper water where possible. Breeds during the rains where it appears to have a prolonged breeding season.  Active at night when it feeds on chironomid midge larvae, small fishes, aquatic plants, bloodworms, crustaceans, and molluscs  which it locates on sandy or muddy substrates.
182025		habitat	eng	Present in both main channels and marginal lagoons.
182025		population	eng	Little information available but a rare species in fisheries catches.
182025		population	eng	Little information but a rare species in fisheries catches.
182025		population	eng	No information available.
182025		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
182025		threats	eng	Overfishing threatens this species.
182025		threats	eng	Overfishing with drawnets pose threats to the species in all areas.
182025		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is fishing.
182026		conservation	eng	No information available.
182026		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182026		conservation	eng	None known.
182026		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Brycinus nurse</em> is present in the Upper Egyptian Nile, although this presence is unsure within the region and this may just be recorded from Lake Nasser (which is outside the region).<br/><br/>At global scale it is present in Lake Rudolf in Kenya, Lake Chad basin, Lake Victoria and Nabugabo, Victoria Nile and Lake Albert in Uganda, Niger, Volta in Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Liberia and Cameroon (Bishai and Khalil 1997).
182026		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Cross and Meme basins. Elsewhere it is widely distributed in the Nile, Chad, Niger (including the Benue river), Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Senegal basins.
182026		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widespread across the region. Known from the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Cross, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Senegal.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It also occurs in the basins of the Nile.
182026		distribution	eng	This species is wide spread across much of Africa, from Senegal to Ethiopia, from Egypt to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Cross and Meme basins.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and the Aswa River system (This species is known from upper Nile system). It is also present in Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Egyptian Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and Nile to Lake Nasser.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  It is widely distributed in the Nile, Chad, Niger (including the Benue river), Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Senegal basins.
182026		habitat	eng	<em>B. nurse </em>inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation.  It feeds on zooplankton, Caridina, insects, snails and vegetation.
182026		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus nurse</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. It feeds on zooplankton, <em>Caridina</em>, insects, snails and vegetation (Bailey 1994), and less frequently small fishes mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Haplochromis</span> spp. Dwarf populations are described in lake basins. It spawns at the beginning of the rainy season.
182026		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus nurse</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. It feeds on zooplankton, <em>Caridina</em>, insects, snails and vegetation (Bailey 1994).  Dwarf populations are described in lake basins:  Lake Turkana, <em>B. n. nana</em> Pellegrin, 1935 and Lake Chad, <em>B. n. dageti</em> Blache and Miton, 1960 (see Paugy 1990).
182026		habitat	eng	This pelagic and potadromous species inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. It is common in certain seasons and usually forms shoals in the clear shore regions of Lake Nasser. It feeds on algae, insects and planktonic crustaceans, and less frequently small fishes mainly <em>Haplochromis spp</em>. It spawns at the beginning of the rainy season. It ranges from 10 to 12 cm in standard length, being the largest specimens caught from the Nile 19.5 cm.
182026		population	eng	Little information available.
182026		population	eng	No available data.
182026		population	eng	No information available.
182026		threats	eng	Importance: minor commercial. This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182026		threats	eng	None known
182026		threats	eng	Populations of this species are threatened by heavy commercial fishing pressure for the aquarium trade. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats.
182026		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>Brycinus nurse</em> are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182027		conservation	eng	None known.
182027		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in southwestern Gabon and western Congo.
182027		habitat	eng	No information available.
182027		population	eng	No information available.
182027		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182028		conservation	eng	None known.
182028		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops sirenoides</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin, without the Sangha, Kwango and Kasai systems.
182028		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182028		population	eng	No information available.
182028		threats	eng	None known.
182029		conservation	eng	None known.
182029		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality in the upper Ogowe River in southeastern Gabon (Ng 2004).
182029		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis emarginata</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a very slow-flowing creek (Ng 2004).
182029		population	eng	No information available.
182029		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182030		conservation	eng	None known.
182030		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Cross River and the lower part of the Beno.
182030		habitat	eng	This fish is benthopelagic and non-migratory. It occurs in brooks, swamps, polls and streams in the humid forested and highland savannah and rainforest. It is a bottom spawner, with a one month incubation.
182030		population	eng	No information available.
182030		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
182031		conservation	eng	None known.
182031		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo polli</em> is only known from the Kafubu River at Lubumbashi and the Kanshéle River at Kivu, upper Congo River basin.
182031		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo polli</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182031		population	eng	No information available.
182031		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182032		conservation	eng	None known.
182032		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis brichardi</em> is known from throughout the Lower Congo River rapids.
182032		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis brichardi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds on filamentous green algae (Burgess 1989). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182032		population	eng	No information available.
182032		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182033		conservation	eng	None known.
182033		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only occurring in two localities in the Kouilou River basin, Congo.
182033		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182033		population	eng	No information available.
182033		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
182034		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182034		conservation	eng	None known.
182034		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma ocellatum</em> is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the adjacent rapids on the Lower Congo, and from the Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa: </strong>It was recently discovered in the Niger delta.
182034		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Recently discovered in the Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Congo basin.
182034		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182034		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species of maximum size of 14 cm.
182034		population	eng	No available data.
182034		population	eng	No information available.
182034		threats	eng	In Nigeria (Niger Delta) the location is affected by oil exploration and urban development.
182034		threats	eng	In Nigeria (Niger Delta) the location is affected by oil exploration and urban development. It is also commercially collected as an aquarium fish.
182035		conservation	eng	None known.
182035		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus notospilus</em> is known from the Luki River (Lower Congo River basin) and from the Central Congo River basin. It also is found throughout the Lower Guinea region, occurring in most rivers.
182035		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182035		population	eng	No information available.
182035		threats	eng	None known.
182036		conservation	eng	None known.
182036		distribution	eng	<em>Garra congoensis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River rapids but is most often found in rapids and riffles in affluent streams.
182036		habitat	eng	<em>Garra congoensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182036		population	eng	No information available.
182036		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182037		conservation	eng	None known.
182037		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the upper Cross River, where it has been collected from the main channel below Mamfe to the junction with the southern Munaya River.
182037		habitat	eng	<em>Gobiocichla ethylwynnae</em> occurs near river banks, primarily in small caves and cracks in stones, in flowing water with high turbulence and water speed. It is found only in rocky habitats with little or no sand or gravel. <em>Gobiocichla ethylwynnae</em> presumably feeds upon plants and other organisms which grow attached to the rocky substrate. It forages on algae using specialised, abrupt movements of the head. It is a benthopelagic species.
182037		population	eng	No information available.
182037		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.
182039		conservation	eng	None known.
182039		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus mokelembembe</em> is known from the Alima drainage in Congo and the Maringa and Tshuapa drainage in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is probably also present in the Pool Malebo area (Schliewen and Schäfer 2006).
182039		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus mokelembembe</em> is a demersal, air breathing species.
182039		population	eng	No information available.
182039		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182040		conservation	eng	None known.
182040		distribution	eng	Species known from the Cavally (Liberia/ Cote D’Ivoire border) as western distribution border up to the Densu River basin (Ghana) as the eastern distribution border of the species. Nevertheless, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. praensis</span> has a discontinuous distribution as it was only found in the Cavally and Sassandra River basins and further eastwards from the Bia to the Densu River basins. Moreover, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. praensis</span> was also found in the Central Niger River basin (Wandiaka, Mali)
182040		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182040		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182040		threats	eng	None known.
182041		conservation	eng	None known.
182041		distribution	eng	This species is known from Little Scarcies basin in Sierra Leone, west of Côte d'Ivoire, and east of Liberia.
182041		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182041		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182041		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution in Cote d' Ivoire, and deforestation in Liberia.
182042		conservation	eng	None known.
182042		distribution	eng	This species is known from the basins of the Gambia, Géba, Culufi, Jong, Kolenté and Tominé (Corubal).
182042		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 32.3 cm TL maximum size.
182042		population	eng	No available data.
182042		threats	eng	None known.
182043		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed to clear up the status and distribution of this species.
182043		distribution	eng	The type locality is vague: Lagos (probably southwestern Nigeria). Contrary to previous reports, it is not reported from Ghana by Lévêque (2003). Museum records at CAS from Ghana and BMNH from Cameroon need to be checked.
182043		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182043		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182043		threats	eng	No information available.
182044		conservation	eng	None known.
182044		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. teugelsi</span> is known from the middle and from upper courses of the rivers Cess, Sanguin and Cavally (Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia).
182044		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 15.0 cm SL maximum size.
182044		population	eng	No available data.
182044		threats	eng	Mining, deforestation, urban and forestry development threaten this species.
182045		conservation	eng	None known.
182045		distribution	eng	<em>Hylopanchax stictopleuron</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. A single specimen from Nziya on the Lower Congo (AMNH) has tentatively been identified, perhaps suggesting a distribution extending into the Lower Congo. In Lower Guinea it is known from the upper Ivindo system of northeastern Gabon.
182045		habitat	eng	<em>Hylopanchax stictopleuron</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs mainly in dark and acid forest creeks, partly under forest cover, partly weedy. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182045		population	eng	No information available.
182045		threats	eng	None known.
182046		conservation	eng	None known.
182046		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in coastal regions of western Cameroon around Moliwe and Douala, and Fernando Po.
182046		habitat	eng	<em>Benitochromis nigrodorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species with a pH range from 6.0 to 7.0 and a dH range from 3 to 10. It is found in coastal rivers and creeks (Sonnenberg 2002). The maximum TL is recorded at 14.0 cm.
182046		population	eng	No information available.
182046		threats	eng	Commercial agriculture poses a threat in this area - nearly the whole Moliwe River runs through a palm oil plantation (pers. comm., Brummett, R., 2008).
182048		conservation	eng	A transboundary protected area is planned in the region.
182048		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Bateke highland, in the upper Lékoni-Djouya and upper M'passa drainage systems of the Ogowe basin, southeastern Gabon.
182048		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) rectogoense</em> occurs in brooks in the savannah of the highland (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) rectogoense</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182048		population	eng	No information available.
182048		threats	eng	The species habitat is being impacted by the pollution from Franceville and deforestation leading to sedimentation.
182049		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of populations.
182049		conservation	eng	None known.
182049		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182049		distribution	eng	<em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is known from Angola and Namibia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Cunene River system and a tributary of the Luangwe-Congo system, Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species occurs in Kunene River (Kunene and Kului Rivers), Okavango River (Cubango River) and Congo River (Luangue River) systems.
182049		distribution	eng	Species endemic from Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in Kunene River (Kunene River, Kului River ), Okavango River (Cubango River ) and Congo River (Luangue River ) systems.
182049		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is known from the Cunene River system and a tributary of the Luangwe-Congo system, Angola.
182049		habitat	eng	<em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is known from only a few specimens.  More specimens are required for study (Skelton 1993).
182049		habitat	eng	<em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is known from only a few specimens. More specimens are required for study (Skelton 1993).
182049		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. The biology is not known.
182049		population	eng	No information available.
182049		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182049		threats	eng	None known.
182049		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182050		conservation	eng	None known.
182050		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius maesii</em> is only known from two localities: Oshwe (Mai-N'Dombe) and the region of Djuma, Luie River (Kwango), southwest of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Recent collections from small tributaries of the Lulua River (Kasai) confirm the presence of this species there also.
182050		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius maesii</em> is a demersal species. Stomachs contained crustaceans and insect larvae and nymphs (Matthes 1964).
182050		population	eng	No information available.
182050		threats	eng	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.
182051		conservation	eng	None known.
182051		distribution	eng	<em>Bathyaethiops greeni</em> is known from the Tshuapa basin and from Oka, Lembesse River basin (Congo), Central Congo basin.
182051		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182051		population	eng	No information available.
182051		threats	eng	None known.
182052		conservation	eng	None known.
182052		distribution	eng	This mochokid is found in Little Scarcies and Jong in Sierra Leone and Kolenté and Konkouré Rivers in Guinea.  It has also been reported from Rokel River, Sierra Leone.
182052		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182052		population	eng	No data on population trend.
182052		threats	eng	Locally threatened by development of new agriculture and human settlements.
182053		conservation	eng	None known.
182053		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis cuangoanus</em> is only known from a restricted area in the Kwango River, Central Congo River basin. It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango River basin though.
182053		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis cuangoanus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182053		population	eng	No information available.
182053		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.
182054		conservation	eng	None known.
182054		distribution	eng	<em>Nothobranchius hassoni</em> is currently only known from the Lufwa River system, Lower Lufira basin (Valdesalici and Wildekamp 2004).
182054		habitat	eng	<em>Nothobranchius hassoni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is only known from ephemeral pools from the floodplain.
182054		population	eng	No information available.
182054		threats	eng	None known.
182055		conservation	eng	None known.
182055		distribution	eng	<em>Atopochilus mandevillei</em> is only known from the type locality, Regina Falls, near Kinsuka, just downstream of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo. John Fril has found this species in the Lower Congo, downstream from the type locality (Stiassny, M, pers. comm.).
182055		habitat	eng	<em>Atopochilus mandevillei</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182055		population	eng	No information available.
182055		threats	eng	Urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182056		conservation	eng	None known.
182056		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Mungo and Meme Rivers and surrounding region in western Cameroon. Reports from Bioko have not been confirmed.
182056		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species with a pH range from 4.8 to 7.0 and a dH range from 1 to 7.
182056		population	eng	No information available.
182056		threats	eng	This area has heavily been surveyed, but <em>Benitochromis finleyi</em> has not been found. The species has a very localised distribution. Intensive commercial agriculture is impacting the rivers in this area. (pers. comm., Brummett, R., 2008). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).
182057		conservation	eng	No information available.
182057		distribution	eng	This species is present in the regions of the Tassili and Ahaggar mountains in southern Algeria. The species was also recorded in Libya (Tibesti mountains) by Pellegrin (1921).
182057		habitat	eng	The species is found in spring fed oasis (permanent) and small wadis from the oasis (rivers) which are often temporary.
182057		population	eng	No information available.
182057		threats	eng	Drought, desertification and water abstraction threaten this species.
182058		conservation	eng	None known.
182058		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus antonii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.
182058		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus antonii</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum weight recorded at nearly 10 kg (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182058		population	eng	No information available.
182058		threats	eng	None known.
182059		conservation	eng	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182059		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus stappersii</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the upper Congo River basin.
182059		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182059		population	eng	No information available.
182059		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
182060		conservation	eng	None known.
182060		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis vaillanti</em> is known from upper Ubangui River, Central African Republic, Central Congo River basin.
182060		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis vaillanti</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182060		population	eng	No information available.
182060		threats	eng	None known.
182061		conservation	eng	None known.
182061		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus hulstaerti</em> is known from the Kasaï, Momboyo, Tshuapa and Lomami Rivers, Central Congo River basin.
182061		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus hulstaerti</em> is a benthopelagic species. Stomach contents contained fine sand, plant debris, Hydracarina, Cladocera, and mainly insect larvae (Chironomids, Simulids and Ephemera) (Matthes 1964).
182061		population	eng	No information available.
182061		threats	eng	None known.
182062		conservation	eng	No information available.
182062		conservation	eng	None known.
182062		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is needed.
182062		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996), Lake Tanganyika (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991, Poll 1953) and from the Malagarasi River basin.
182062		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Malagarasi and its delta with Lake Tanganyika (De Vos <em>et al. 2001; Seegers 1996), Lake Rukwa basin (Seegers 1996).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widespread throughout the Congo Basin.
182062		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon to Angola, and east to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Malagarasi and its delta with Lake Tanganyika (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001, Seegers 1996), and Lake Rukwa basin (Seegers 1996).
182062		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. In contrast to <em>Polypterus endlicheri congicus</em> which is found in the main river channels, this species prefers small ditches and swamps (Poll 1967, Seegers 1996). It feeds on worms and insect larvae when young, but takes larger food, mainly fish, when adult (Seegers 1996). <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> mainly hunts at night (Seegers 1996). In general they are more or less solitary fish and do not form schools (Seegers 1996). The male starts with the balts and is the active partner (Riehl and Baensch 1991). The male makes a sort of cup from the anal fin and the female lays the eggs in this cup (Riehl and Baensch 1991). Probably spawns in the rainy season (Seegers 1996).
182062		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It inhabits calm waters of swamps and rivers (Poll 1967). It feeds on worms and insect larvae when young, but takes larger food, mainly fish, when adult (Seegers 1996). <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> mainly hunts at night (Seegers 1996). In general they are more or less solitary fish and do not form schools (Seegers 1996). The male starts with the balts and is the active partner (Riehl and Baensch 1991). The male makes a sort of cup from the anal fin and the female lays the eggs in this cup (Riehl and Baensch 1991).
182062		habitat	eng	In contrast to Polypterus endlicheri congicus which is found in the main river channels this species prefers small ditches and swamps (Seegers 1996). It feeds on worms and insect larvae when young and takes larger food items, mainly fish, when adult. It is a nocturnal hunter (Seegers 1996).<br/>Probably spawns in the rainy season (Seegers 1996).
182062		population	eng	No estimates, but rather rare in fisheries catches
182062		population	eng	No information available.
182062		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182062		threats	eng	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by fisheries, and changes in swamp biotopes due to agriculture extension.
182062		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are  fisheries and changes in swamp biotopes due to agriculture extension.
182063		conservation	eng	None known.
182063		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria vilhenae</em> is only known from Dundo, Kasaï system, Central Congo River basin.
182063		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182063		population	eng	No information available.
182063		threats	eng	None known.
182064		conservation	eng	None known.
182064		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax schoutedeni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Central region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182064		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182064		population	eng	No information available.
182064		threats	eng	None known.
182065		conservation	eng	None known.
182065		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius lamani</em> is known from the type locality (Kingoyi, at the Luala River which connects with the Lower Congo River). It has also been found in the Luozi region in the Lower Congo, before the Inga dam.
182065		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius lamani</em> is a demersal species.
182065		population	eng	No information available.
182065		threats	eng	It can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential for mining in the area. The high population density and erosion by slash and burn agriculture pose threats in the Kingoyi area.
182066		conservation	eng	Population trends should be monitored.
182066		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal rivers from Gambia to Côte d'Ivoire. Also known from Tano River in Ghana. In all its surface of distribution, it is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. jentinki.</span>
182066		habitat	eng	This is an opportunistic benthic macrophage. It prefers insects and their larvae.
182066		population	eng	No information available.
182066		threats	eng	Drought and overfishing are local threats.
182067		conservation	eng	None known.
182067		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops lineolatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai systems.
182067		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182067		population	eng	No information available.
182067		threats	eng	None known.
182068		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population trends and ecology of this species.
182068		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Amphilius kagrimensis</span> is known only from the Kakrima River, a tributary of the Konkouré in Guinea.
182068		habitat	eng	No available data
182068		population	eng	No available data.
182068		threats	eng	This species is potentially impacted by deforestation and mining.
182069		conservation	eng	None known.
182069		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes schelly</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin, near Inga.
182069		habitat	eng	<em>Micralestes schelly</em> was collected over a sand and gravel substrate in the main channel of the Congo River amongst large rock slabs of up to 4 m high thrusting upward at angles of 60-70 degrees, in pools up to 2 m deep (Stiassny and Mamonekene 2007). It is a pelagic species.
182069		population	eng	No information available.
182069		threats	eng	No information available.
182070		conservation	eng	No information available.
182070		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Only known from the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>occurs in the Middle and Lower Zambezi systems.
182070		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.
182070		habitat	eng	Occurs along the vegetated areas of river banks where it feeds on detritus, algae and benthic invertebrates.  Can live up to 4-5 years.
182070		habitat	eng	This species is found in riverine floodplains of larger rivers.
182070		population	eng	No information available.
182070		threats	eng	None known.
182070		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is its restricted range within eastern Africa.
182071		conservation	eng	Part of its range is within the Korup National Park.
182071		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Africa. It is known from Cross River in Nigeria and from Cameroon.
182071		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that lives in the rapids clinging to the rock using a sucker. It requires clear waters and high levels of oxygen.
182071		population	eng	No information available.
182071		threats	eng	The species is threatened by oil exploration in Nigeria.
182072		conservation	eng	None known.
182072		distribution	eng	A rather rare Lower Guinea endemic found in the upper Ogowe, Nyanga (south Gabon) and Kouilou (Congo) basins.
182072		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182072		population	eng	No information available.
182072		threats	eng	There are currently no threats. The locality on the Lower Kouilou River is possibly threatened. The Dimonika Biosphere Reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and canalisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional There is a potential threat is the construction of a dam (Sunda) on the Lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182073		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182073		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182073		distribution	eng	Although literature citations report a wide distribution throughout Africa, <em>Petrocephalus simus</em> may well be endemic to the Lower Guinea region (see discussion in Lavoué <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Lower Guinea it is present in the Ntem River, the entire Ogowe River basin including the Ivindo, the Rembo Nkomi and the Nyanga in the southern part of Gabon. It is also recorded from Luongo River, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983) and from Angola (Poll 1967).
182073		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Liberia to Angola. In Angola the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River ), in several coastal rivers, Okavango River (Cubango River, Cuebe River ), Congo River (Chiumbe River ,Chicapa River ), and Upper-Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.
182073		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182073		habitat	eng	<em>Petrocephalus simus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but they are absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is found schooling with other species having identical electric organ discharge (EOD) waveforms (Hopkins 1980). <em>Petrocephalus simus</em> is a fractional spawner (Kirschbaum 1995, Albaret 1982).
182073		population	eng	No information available.
182073		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182073		threats	eng	This is a commercially important fisheries species.
182073		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
182074		conservation	eng	There are no major conservation measures in place.
182074		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
182074		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in deeper, offshore waters in the lake. The species is a pelagic zooplanctivore, and is an importnat prey of the large piscivorous <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus</span> of Lake Tana.
182074		population	eng	The status of the population is not known.
182074		threats	eng	There is no major threat identified.
182075		conservation	eng	None known.
182075		distribution	eng	<em>Opsaridium maculicauda</em> is only known by the types from Tshikapa (This species is known from upper Kasai system), juvenile specimens very likely the young of <em>Opsaridium ubangiense</em>.
182075		habitat	eng	<em>Opsaridium maculicauda</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182075		population	eng	No information available.
182075		threats	eng	None known.
182076		conservation	eng	None known.
182076		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the River Kakrima, affluent of the River Konkouré in Guinea.
182076		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater, pelagic, riverine fish.
182076		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182076		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation.
182077		conservation	eng	None known.
182077		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis iturii</em> is only known from the type locality Mawambi on the Ituri River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182077		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis iturii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182077		population	eng	No information available.
182077		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo causes deforestation. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182078		conservation	eng	None known.
182078		distribution	eng	The only documented specimens of <em>Platyglanis depierrei</em> originate from the Djim River, a small tributary of the Mbam River near the confluence with the Mbam River.
182078		habitat	eng	No information available.
182078		population	eng	No information available.
182078		threats	eng	None known.
182079		conservation	eng	None known.
182079		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus nigrifilis</em> is only known by the type from the type locality Ankoro, at the junction of the Lualaba and Luvua Rivers, upper Congo River basin.
182079		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus nigrifilis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182079		population	eng	No information available.
182079		threats	eng	None known.
182080		conservation	eng	None known.
182080		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys longiventralis</span> has a rather limited, possibly relict, distribution. It is found in the swampy parts of small streams and sides of rivers on the eastern side of the Lower Niger River system and in the northern part of the Niger River delta (Nigeria).
182080		habitat	eng	This is a small perennial killifish that grows to 5 cm in TL. It lives in swamps and swampy part of small streams. It is non-migratory.
182080		population	eng	No available data.
182080		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration, and threatened with pollution and loss of habitat by sand filling for urban development and agriculture. It is targeted for the aquarium trade but is difficult to maintain in captivity.
182081		conservation	eng	None known.
182081		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, poorly collected and currently known only from the type locality, This species is known from upper Louesse River, Kouilou system, Congo.
182081		habitat	eng	This species is demersal. The maximum TL was recorded at 14.0 cm TL (male/unsexed; Skelton and Teugels 1986).
182081		population	eng	No information available.
182081		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182082		conservation	eng	None known.
182082		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax lineostriatus</em> is only known from the Cavuemba River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
182082		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax lineostriatus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.5 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182082		population	eng	No information available.
182082		threats	eng	None known.
182083		conservation	eng	No information available.
182083		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus martorelli</em> is known from the Dja and Nguesse Rivers, Central Congo River basin and from throughout the Lower Guinea region.
182083		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus martorelli</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 12.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182083		population	eng	No information available.
182083		threats	eng	No information available.
182084		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on potential threats to this species.
182084		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Chiloango and Kouilou-Niari basins.
182084		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182084		population	eng	No information available.
182084		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182085		conservation	eng	None known.
182085		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis fasciatus</em> is known only from the Lower Congo River, between Matadi and Boma.
182085		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis fasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
182085		population	eng	No information available.
182085		threats	eng	The growing cities Matadi and Boma and maritime transportation can pose plausible threats in the future. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3 that will be built in five years.
182086		conservation	eng	None known.
182086		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the following rivers: Mungo, Wowe, Ohumbe, Mekom, Kelle, Louetsie, Kouilou, Kissafou and Loubomo.
182086		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo camerunensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182086		population	eng	No information available.
182086		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182087		conservation	eng	None known.
182087		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus numenius</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from Maniema, Ulindi River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Specimens of this species have been reported from the rapids below Pool Malebo in the main channel of the Lower Congo River.
182087		habitat	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus numenius</em> is a demersal species. IT occurs only in big rivers (Gosse 1984).
182087		population	eng	No information available.
182087		threats	eng	None known.
182088		conservation	eng	Management of riverine fisheries.
182088		conservation	eng	Management of riverine fisheries is needed.
182088		conservation	eng	None known.
182088		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mormyrops anguilloides</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region, distributed in the Sanaga River basin, in the Nyong, the Lokoundjé and the Cross.  It is has a very wide distribution area and is present in the most part of West African basins. In southern Africa it is restricted to the middle and lower Zambezi and the Buzi and Pungwe Rivers (Skelton 2001). It is also known from Lakes Malawi, Tanganyika and Mobutu Skelton 2001).
182088		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> In Kenya it is known from the Northern Ewaso Nyiro system (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). An uncertain record of M. anguilloides from the Athi River basin discussed by Okeyo (1998) is unsubstantiated (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). In Uganda it is known from the Lake Albert basin, and Albert Nile. In Tanzania it is known from the Malagarasi River and Lake Tanganyika. In Malawi it is known from Lake Malawi.<br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Outside the region it is recorded from the Upper and lower Nile, Middle and lower Zambezi,  and all major river basins from Senegal to Cameroon. It is also present in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
182088		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">M. anguilloides</span> has a very wide distribution area and is present in the most parts of western African basins.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> White Nile, Lake Albert basin, rivers in Cameroon, small coastal basins in the Guinean zone. Widespread in the Congo basin, Lake Malawi, Tanganyika and Albert;  Whebi Shebeli and Juba (as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. deliciosus</span>). In southern Africa, it is restricted to the middle and lower Zambezi, Buzi, and Pungwe River (Skelton 1993).
182088		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in north, west, central and southern Africa. Nile, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi.
182088		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide distribution area and is present in most parts of sub-saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mormyrops anguilloides</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region, distributed in the Sanaga River basin, in the Nyong, the Lokoundjé and the Cross.  <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Lake Albert basin, and Albert Nile, as well as from the Malagarasi River and Lake Tanganyika. It is also known from Lake Malawi. In Kenya it has been recorded from the Northern Ewaso Nyiro system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004) but this is probably not correct. An uncertain record of <em>M. anguilloides</em> from the Athi River basin discussed by Okeyo (1998) is unsubstantiated (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, and the Blue Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It also occurs in the Wabi Shebelle basin, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In southern Africa it is restricted to the middle and lower Zambezi and the Buzi and Pungwe Rivers (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>M. anguilloides</em> has a very wide distribution area and is present in the most parts of West African basins.
182088		habitat	eng	Demersal; potamodromous; Adults prefer deep quiet water between boulders and below overhangs, away from strong currents.  Also occurs beneath <em>Salvinia</em> mats and in river estuaries in Lake Kariba.  Juveniles prey on invertebrates, mainly shrimps and insect larvae.  Larger individuals feed on small cichlids, minnows and labeos.  May live for 8 years or more.  Breeds during the rainy season (Skelton 1993).  A fractional spawner (Alberet 1982; Kirschbaum 1995).  Affinities:  <em>M. breviceps</em>.  It prefers streams, lakes and mangroves in tropical climate.
182088		habitat	eng	Main channels to open waters of large rivers and lakes.
182088		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams and and lakes. Demersal. Adults prefer deep quiet water between boulders and below overhangs, away from strong currents. Also occurs beneath “Salvinia” mats and in river estuaries in Lake Kariba. Juveniles prey on invertebrates, mainly shrimps and insect larvae. Larger individuals feed on small cichlids, minnows and labeos. May live for 8 years or more. Breeds during the rainy season. A fractional spawner. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182088		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, potamodromous species. This species inhabits rivers and river mouths. Juveniles are found in marginal habitats whereas adults prefer deep quiet water and estuaries away from strong currents (Tweddle and Willoughby, 1982). It also occurs beneath <em>Salvinia</em> mats and in river estuaries in Lake Kariba. Juveniles prey on invertebrates, mainly shrimps and insect larvae, whilst larger individuals feed on small cichlids, minnows and labeos. It breeds during the rainy season (Skelton 1993) and is a fractional spawner (Alberet 1982, Kirschbaum 1995).
182088		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and river mouths. Juveniles are found in marginal habitats whereas adults prefer deep quiet water and estuaries away from strong currents (Tweddle and Willoughby 1982).
182088		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182088		population	eng	No information available.
182088		population	eng	No information available, but it is rarely encountered.
182088		threats	eng	In eastern Africa this species is threatened by fisheries and environmental disturbance. Intense fishing pressure with gill nets in certain areas of the lower Zambezi probably affects this species.
182088		threats	eng	Intense fishing pressure with gill nets in certain areas of the Lower Zambezi probably affects this species.
182088		threats	eng	None known
182088		threats	eng	None known.
182088		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are fisheries and environmental disturbance.
182089		conservation	eng	None known.
182089		distribution	eng	<em>Thoracochromis brauschi</em> is endemic to the Fwa River and Lake, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182089		habitat	eng	<em>Thoracochromis brauschi</em> is a demersal species with mouth-brooding by the females. It mainly feeds on macrophytes and vegetable debris (Roberts and Kullander 1994).
182089		population	eng	No information available.
182089		threats	eng	None known.
182090		conservation	eng	None known.
182090		distribution	eng	The type locality of <em>Gymnallabes nops</em> is from near Tadi, about 50 km downstream of Luozi, Lower Congo River. Two additional specimens (one from Banda Nyenge about 60km upstream of Luozi, and one from near Mbelo about 70 km downstream of Pool Malebo) have been collected (AMNH). The species seems to be present in very low abundance and has been searched for intensively (Stiassny, M., pers. obs).
182090		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182090		population	eng	No information available.
182090		threats	eng	There are currently no threat to <em>Gymnallabes nops</em> known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182091		conservation	eng	None known.
182091		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammopetersius pulcher</em> is known from the Dja River basin, Central Congo River basin, south Cameroon. It is probably also known from the Sankum River, Kondue in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182091		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182091		population	eng	No information available.
182091		threats	eng	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat.
182092		conservation	eng	No information available.
182092		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion schoutedeni</em> is only known from the type area, near Madié in the northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is biogeographically replaced by <em>Aphyosemion christy</em> in the south, by <em>A. castaneum</em> in the southwest and by <em>A. decorsei</em> in the north.
182092		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion schoutedeni</em> prefers stagnant water on darker and dirty substratum (dead leaves, mulm).
182092		population	eng	No information available.
182092		threats	eng	No information available.
182093		conservation	eng	None known.
182093		distribution	eng	<em>C. maurus</em> has been found in almost all coastal rivers, from the Senegal to the Pra (Ghana). It also occurs in estuaries and lagoons.
182093		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 51.0 cm SL
182093		population	eng	No available data.
182093		threats	eng	None known.
182094		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182094		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. oudoti</span> is known only from the type collected in the Niger at Bamako. Reports of this species from other basins are based on misidentifications (Bigorne 1987)
182094		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 11.4 cm SL
182094		population	eng	No available data.
182094		threats	eng	No information available.
182095		conservation	eng	None known.
182095		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182095		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182095		distribution	eng	Species present from Gabon to Angola. In Angola, it occurs in the Bengo River (Lake Panguila), Kwanza River (Kwanza River ) and Chiloango River systems.
182095		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is mainly known from coastal rivers from Gabon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo; upper and lower Ogowe and its tributary the Ivindo; Chiloango system; Niari-kouilou; River Dja; Majumbe and Lukula. It has also been reported from Gambia and Senegal (Samb 1990) and Guinea (Hureau 1991).
182095		distribution	eng	This species is known predominantly from coastal rivers from Gabon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is mainly known from coastal rivers from Gabon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including This species is known from upper and lower Ogowe and its tributary the Ivindo, as well as the Chiloango system, Niari-kouilou, River Dja, Majumbe and Lukula. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in the Bengo River (and Lake Panguila), Kwanza River and Chiloango River systems.
182095		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is occasionally territorial. Stomachs contained algae, mainly unicellular or in short filaments (Trewavas 1983). Nests are made on sandy or loamy bottoms in water 40-80 cm deep, or more sparsely in depths of one meter or more. They are circular basins with a diameter of 115-185 cm, about 20 cm deep in the middle with a rim raised 7-8 cm above the surrounding level. Spawning occurs at night, the fishes are seeking deeper waters during the day to avoid high temperatures and intense illumination.
182095		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but the species occurs in rivers and lakes. It feeds on algae.
182095		population	eng	No information available.
182095		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182095		threats	eng	It is likely that <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> will be used for aquaculture in the future.
182095		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182095		threats	eng	Threats are not known. It is likely that <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> will be used for aquaculture in the future.
182096		conservation	eng	No information available.
182096		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia.
182096		habitat	eng	It is found in running water.
182096		population	eng	No information available.
182096		threats	eng	No information available.
182097		conservation	eng	None known.
182097		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Sanaga River, Cameroon.
182097		habitat	eng	No information available.
182097		population	eng	No information available.
182097		threats	eng	It is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.<br/>There are the dams in the Sanaga system which have regulated the flood regime of the river (however the Mbam is not dammed and not likely to be).
182098		conservation	eng	None known.
182098		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Guinea. The species is known only from the River Konkouré (type locality).
182098		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of 17.6 cm SL maximum size.
182098		population	eng	No available data.
182098		threats	eng	It is under threat from habitat degradation due to mining and deforestation.
182099		conservation	eng	None known.
182099		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brycinus carolinae</span> is known from the River Niandan (a tributary of the upper Niger) and from two other small rivers also headwaters of Niger.
182099		habitat	eng	It is a pelagic fish of 10.4 cm SL
182099		population	eng	No available data.
182099		threats	eng	No current threats known. There is a potential threats are deforestation and drought.
182100		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.
182100		distribution	eng	This species is known only from specimens collected along the White Nile between the Sobat confluence and Khartoum.
182100		habitat	eng	This species inhabuts running water.
182100		population	eng	Not common.
182100		threats	eng	No information available.
182101		conservation	eng	None known.
182101		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Mossendjo - Komono area, in the Louesse - Niari River system, southwestern Congo.
182101		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion thysi</em> is found in brooks and small streams in the hilly rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) thysi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182101		population	eng	No information available.
182101		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
182102		conservation	eng	None known.
182102		distribution	eng	<em>Atopochilus chabanaudi</em> is only known from Brazzaville, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Congo River.
182102		habitat	eng	<em>Atopochilus chabanaudi</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182102		population	eng	No information available.
182102		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182103		conservation	eng	None known.
182103		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Kathetys) exiguum</em> is known from the Dja, Central Congo basin. In Lower Guinea it is found in the Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Boume, Boumba and Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon and eastern Equatorial Guinea, and the upper Ivindo River basin in northern Gabon and northern Congo.
182103		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion exiguum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, swampy parts of brooks and small streams under forest cover on the inland plains rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182103		population	eng	No information available.
182103		threats	eng	None known.
182104		conservation	eng	None known.
182104		distribution	eng	<em>Bathyaethiops breuseghemi</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin.
182104		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182104		population	eng	No information available.
182104		threats	eng	None known.
182105		conservation	eng	None known.
182105		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys brevibarbis</em> is found in the Congo River basin below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), to the Lower Congo, mostly in the vicinity or downstream of Kinshasa and in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). The holotype is from Boma near the river's mouth. It possibly also occurs in the Sangha River in the Central African Republic. It is probably more widespread.
182105		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182105		population	eng	No information available.
182105		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182106		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Its distribution also lies partially within Kafue National Park.
182106		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182106		conservation	eng	The species has no protection other than in Kafue National Park.
182106		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> is known from the Luapula and Chambezi River systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue Rivers. Recently, it has been taken from the middle Zambezi above Kariba. (Skelton 2001).
182106		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango, Cunene and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001).
182106		distribution	eng	This species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> is known from the Luapula and Chambezi River systems. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is found in the upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango, Cunene and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001). Recently, it has been taken from the middle Zambezi above Kariba. (Skelton 2001).
182106		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> is a pelagic species. It prefers vegetated margins of rivers and oxbow lagoons or shallow lakes. It feeds by picking small invertebrates and epiphyton from stems of plants and roots. It breeds in summer (Skelton 1993) and is known to make seasonal movements onto floodplains during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
182106		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> s a pelagic species. It prefers vegetated margins of rivers and oxbow lagoons or shallow lakes. It feeds by picking small invertebrates and epiphyton from stems of plants and roots. It breeds in summer (Skelton 1993) and is known to make seasonal movements onto floodplains during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It prefers streams and mangroves to live.
182106		habitat	eng	Well vegetated rivers and streams, including rocky habitats (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Picks small invertebrates and epiphyton from stems and roots of plants. Breeds in summer (Skelton 2001).
182106		population	eng	Abundant and widespread in the upper Zambezi system, including northern Zambian tributaries such as the Mwombezhi system. To the west of the Mwombezhi, specimens from the northern tributaries have barred tails and need taxonomic investigation
182106		population	eng	Abundant and widespread in the upper Zambezi system, including northern Zambian tributaries such as the Mwombezhi system. To the west of the Mwombezhi, specimens from the northern tributaries have barred tails and need taxonomic investigation.
182106		population	eng	No information available.
182106		threats	eng	None known.
182106		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.&#160; This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182106		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. It is also commercially harvested as an aquarium species.
182107		conservation	eng	None known.
182107		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops attenuatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.
182107		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182107		population	eng	No information available.
182107		threats	eng	None known.
182108		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182108		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Oreochromis upembae</em> is known from the Upemba region and the Lualaba River to Yangambi and Isangi on the Upper Congo. It has also been reported from Tanzania (Eccles 1992) and Burundi.
182108		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Oreochromis upembae</em> is known from the Upemba region and the Lualaba River to Yangambi and Isangi on the upper Congo. It has also been reported from Tanzania (Eccles 1992) and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from Tanzania (Eccles 1992) and Burundi in Malagarasi basin, and Burundi's affluents of Lake Tanganyika.
182108		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis upembae</em> is a benthopelagic species. The female broods the young and eggs in the mouth in the shelter of sandbanks in the Congo at Yangambi.
182108		population	eng	No information available.
182108		threats	eng	None known.
182108		threats	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182109		conservation	eng	None known.
182109		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus delhezi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids, and the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.
182109		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus delhezi</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is a predator that lives in streams, lakes and zones of flood (Matthes 1964). The reproduction and spawning occurs during the rainy season (Matthes 1964), probably in flooded area (Boulenger 1899).
182109		population	eng	No information available.
182109		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182110		conservation	eng	None known.
182110		distribution	eng	<em>Opsaridium leleupi</em> is known from the upper Lualaba (from the Lualaba River at N'Zilo, from Kakundji and from the Kando River and Nyundeulu River).
182110		habitat	eng	<em>Opsaridium leleupi</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. The maximum TL was recorded at 14.5 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984). Stomach contents contained mainly terrestrial insects like Coleopterans, Ant, Termites, etc. and sometimes larvae of aquatic insects and eggs (of fish?) (Froese and Garilao 2002).
182110		population	eng	No information available.
182110		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182111		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration is required.
182111		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the Bandama and the Tano rivers.
182111		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182111		population	eng	Declining.
182111		threats	eng	The removal of vegetation due to mining and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads during heavy rains. Timber felling is an important threat in the Tano River.
182112		conservation	eng	None known.
182112		distribution	eng	This fish occurs in shallow parts of pools, and small streams in the rain forest of East and Eastern Central Sierra Leone. This species is found in the drainage systems of the Pampana River, the Waanje River and the Moa River.
182112		habitat	eng	This species occurs in floodplains and small brooks along the coastal zones of West Africa. Freshwater, benthopelagic. Maximum size: male 55 mm TL, female 45 mm TL.
182112		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182112		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining leading to sedimentation and pollution from human settlement.
182113		conservation	eng	No information available.
182113		conservation	eng	No information available..
182113		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182113		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus kannume</em> is common all along the River Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nasser, Blue Nile and Lake Victoria, Lake Kyoga, Lake Albert, and Lakes Edward and George.
182113		distribution	eng	The species has a widespread distribution in eastern Africa including: theLake Victoria drainage, Lake Turkana basin, Lake Kamnarok (Kerio system), River Turkwell, Omo delta, Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished), Middle and Lower Akagera, Lakes Edward, George,  Albert anbd Kyoga systems, and the entire Nile system as far as the delta (Victoria, Murchison and Albert Niles). It is also found in Rivers Pangani, Rufiji, and Kagera apart from Lake Burigi and Kirumi pools. <br><br>In Lake Victoria, its EOO has become restricted to the 10m depth contour whereas it previously extend to the 70 m (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). The species was originally distributed throughout Lake Kyoga but is now restricted to the open Lake. In Lakes Edward and George it is now largely restricted to Kasinga Channel and to the northern Papyrus fringed shore of Lake George.
182113		distribution	eng	This species distribution extends from Egypt along the entire length of the Nile, and into Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has a widespread distribution in eastern Africa including: the Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Turkana basin, Lake Kamnarok (Kerio system), River Turkwell, Omo delta, Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Middle and Lower Akagera, Lakes Edward, George, Albert and Kyoga systems, and the entire Nile system as far as the delta (Victoria, Murchison and Albert Niles). It is also found in Rivers Pangani, Rufiji, and Kagera apart from Lake Burigi and Kirumi pools. In Lake Victoria the EOO has become restricted to the 10m depth contour whereas it previously extend to the 70m (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). The species was originally distributed throughout Lake Kyoga but is now restricted to the open Lake. In Lakes Edward and George it is now largely restricted to Kasinga Channel and to the northern Papyrus fringed shore of Lake George.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is common all along the River Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, the White Nile and Blue Niles to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It is also present in the Baro River, Ethiopia.
182113		habitat	eng	It has a curious habit of swimming backwards. It spends the day on the bottom, but after nightfall it becomes very active, searching for food. Associated with rocks and is commonly caught in rapidly-flowing water. It feeds on insects, particularly chironomid larvae, annelid worms and bottom animals. Males outnumber females in the catch. Gonads are mature in spring and summer and only the left ovary or testis is present. Well grown fish can give quite an electrical shock. It reaches a maximum length of 1 m.
182113		habitat	eng	Solitary, nocturnal species (Bailey 1974). Widespread in both coastal and offshore waters. It feeds on benthic animals, with chironomid larvae as major food item (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Bailey 2003).
182113		habitat	eng	This is a solitary, nocturnal species (Bailey 1974). It is widespread in both coastal and offshore waters. It feeds on benthic animals, with chironomid larvae as major food item (Bailey 1994). It has a curious habit of swimming backwards. It spends the day on the bottom, but after nightfall it becomes very active, searching for food. Associated with rocks and is commonly caught in rapidly-flowing water. Males outnumber females in the catch. Gonads are mature in spring and summer and only the left ovary or testis is present. Well grown fish can give quite an electrical shock.
182113		population	eng	Common in commercial fisheries. Surveys of 1977-1999 in Uganda and Tanzania indicated a decline in abundance in research survey catches from 0.3 kg/hr during 1969-71 (Kudhongania and Cordone,1974) to 0.01kg/hr in 1999 (Okaranon <em>et al.1999). The species has a large extent of occurrence nationally but is now rarely encountered in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.</em>
182113		population	eng	No information available.
182113		population	eng	This species is common in commercial fisheries. Surveys of 1977-1999 in Uganda and Tanzania indicated a decline in abundance in research survey catches from 0.3 kg/hr during 1969-71 (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974) to 0.01kg/hr in 1999 (Okaranon <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species has a large extent of occurrence nationally but is now rarely encountered in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.
182113		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182113		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are predation pressure by Nile Perch, fishing pressure, aquarium trade, pollution, and competition with introduced species in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.
182113		threats	eng	This species faces a number of threats. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. In eastern Africa, threats include predation pressure by the Nile Perch, heavy fishing pressure and collection for the aquarium trade, pollution of its waterways, and competition with introduced species in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.
182114		conservation	eng	None known.
182114		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus glaber</em> is only known from the type locality: near Inga Dam site, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182114		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus glaber</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species. The intestines largely consist of diatoms and sand grains (Roberts and Stewart 1976).
182114		population	eng	No information available.
182114		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
182115		conservation	eng	None known.
182115		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal rivers in southern Cameroon to the Chiloango River in Cabinda.
182115		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182115		population	eng	No information available.
182115		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182116		conservation	eng	None known.
182116		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus congicus</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from Lake Tanganyika. It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182116		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus congicus</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is a predator that lives in streams, lakes and zones of flood (Gosse 1963, Matthes 1964). In Lake Tanganyika it is mostly found at the mouth or delta of rivers and lagoons to the west (Poll 1953).
182116		population	eng	No information available.
182116		threats	eng	Although there are some possible local threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species as a whole.
182117		conservation	eng	None known.
182117		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus tinanti</em> is known from the rapids of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo River.
182117		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus tinanti</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species with females that lay up to 100 eggs in the male's cave.
182117		population	eng	No information available.
182117		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi area. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182118		conservation	eng	None known.
182118		distribution	eng	<em>Congochromis pugnatus</em> is currently only known from a single collection from the vicinity of Kisangani (Stanleyville), This species is known from Upper Congo River, the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182118		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182118		population	eng	No information available.
182118		threats	eng	None known.
182119		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More information is needed on the species' biology and ecology, and population.
182119		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed in the upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004) and also occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, and Kafue river systems (Skelton 2001).
182119		habitat	eng	This species is occurs primarily in well-vegetated streams, but generally absent from marshes apart from pools closely adjacent to the main river (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds on small aquatic insects and algae. It breeds in summer, laying eggs amongst vegetation (Skelton 2001).
182119		population	eng	A common species wherever it occurs. Rare in the main Zambezi channel but more common in tributaries off the Barotse floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182119		threats	eng	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the Zambezi floodplains, there are no major threats to this species.
182120		conservation	eng	None known.
182120		distribution	eng	Drainage systems of the Louilou and Loémé rivers in western Congo. The Chiloango system in the Cabinda enclave of Angola. The Chiloango system in western Democratic Republic of the Congo.  The Lombo, tributary of the Loémé in southwestern Gabon.
182120		habitat	eng	<em>Plataplochilus cabindae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers , brooks and swamps in drainage systems (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Plataplochilus cabindae</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182120		population	eng	No information available.
182120		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182121		conservation	eng	None known.
182121		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax micros</em> is only known from the type locality, 30 km east of Kribi in Cameroon. It is possibly the same species as <em>Nannocharax parvus</em>.
182121		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182121		population	eng	No information available.
182121		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182122		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the status, distribution and threats of this species.
182122		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, Tonga, within the White Nile basin in South Sudan.
182122		habitat	eng	No information available.
182122		population	eng	No information available.
182122		threats	eng	No information available.
182123		conservation	eng	The range of this species is largely included within the Korup National Park.
182123		distribution	eng	This species is known from the River Cross in Nigeria and Cameroon, and has occasionally been reported from some localities of the West African coast. It has also been reported from Ghana, but this is doubtful.
182123		habitat	eng	A mainly freshwater species which can tolerate brackish waters. It prefers the mainstream of the river.
182123		population	eng	No information available.
182123		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the lower Cross River may threaten this species.
182124		conservation	eng	None known.
182124		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.
182124		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in western and southwestern Cameroon. Elsewhere it is found in southern Benin, southern Togo and southern Nigeria.
182124		distribution	eng	This species is known from Togo to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in western and southwestern Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species ranges from Togble-kope in Togo through southern Benin, southern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon.
182124		habitat	eng	<em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in, or close to, small forested rivers and brooks in swampy primary and secondary rainforest on coastal plains. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). This species is benthopelagic and non-migratory.
182124		population	eng	No information available.
182124		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the central Africa region. In western Africa, oil exploration and habitat degradation due to urban, agriculture and deforestation developments, all threaten this species.
182124		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.
182125		conservation	eng	No information available.
182125		distribution	eng	This species seems to be restricted to the small coastal basins lying to the southwest of Côte d’Ivoire (Néro, Dodo and Tabou).
182125		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species
182125		population	eng	No available data.
182125		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by water pollution from domestic sources. There is a potential threats from deforestation and agricultural expansion.
182126		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring population trends. Habitat maintenance and conservation may also be required.
182126		conservation	eng	None
182126		conservation	eng	None known.
182126		conservation	eng	The species has little or no protection.
182126		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is wide spread across much of Africa, from Sudan to Namibia. It has been introduced in the Philippines, but it is unknown where and when this species is introduced from, and whether or not it has established itself.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin, including the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system. The records of the Central Congo basin and of the northern part of the upper Congo basin have not been identified by Teugels, G. and are outside the distribution range in Teugels, G. (1986).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in affluent rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi drainages, the upper and middle Akagera and associated lakes, the Lake Victoria system, Lake Kyoga, Lake Bunyonyi, and Lakes Edward and George. Also found in the Tana River and This species is known from upper reaches of the South Rukuru river in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> A rare and small species recorded from Sudan by Bianchi (as cited in Bailey 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue systems. Also Zambian Congo and through African Great Lakes (Skelton 2001).
182126		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is known from the Central and Upper Congo River basin, including the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system. The records of the Central Congo basin and of the northern part of the Upper Congo basin have not been identified by Teugels, G. and are outside the distribution range in Teugels, G. (1986). It is also known from Lake Victoria, Edward, George, small lakes of Uganda, Lake Kivu, smaller lakes of Rwanda, Lake Tanganyika, in Malawi, Kagera, Malagarazi, Ruzizi and Tana Rivers. It is also known from Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 1993). <em>Clarias liocephalus</em> has been introduced in the Philippines, but it is unknown where this species is introduced from and when is has been introduced, and whether it has established itself.
182126		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Affluent rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi drainages, the Upper and middle Akagera and associated lakes, the Lake Victoria system, Lake Kyoga, Lake Bunyonyi, and Lakes Edward and George. Also found in the Tana River and upper reaches of the South Rukuru river.
182126		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi and Kafue systems. Also Zambian Congo and through African Great Lakes (Skelton 2001).
182126		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes (Greenwood 1957). This species is abundant in high mountain streams and torrents and on the bottom among stones (Jackson 1959) and absent from floodplains and non-rocky tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is omnivorous, feeding on insects and their larvae as well as small fish and vegetable matter (Seegers 1996). Specimens from Lake Victoria are principally insectivorous, but larger individuals are piscivorous (Greenwood 1957).
182126		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in marginal water-lily and papyrus swamps as well as in marginal weed beds. This species is abundant in high mountain streams and torrents and on the bottom among stones. It is not found in any situation lower than about 915 m above sea level nor in water of a higher temperature than 18 °C (Teugels 1986).
182126		habitat	eng	Found in marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes (Greenwood 1957). Also found in high mountain streams and torrents (Jackson 1959). Omnivorous, feeding on insects and their larvae as well as small fish and vegetable matter (Seegers 1996). Specimens from Lake Victoria are principally insectivorous, but larger individuals are piscivorous (Greenwood 1957).
182126		habitat	eng	Restricted to rocky areas of river,  absent from floodplains and non-rocky tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182126		population	eng	Formerly very common, this species has strongly declined in the upper Akagera system, most likely because of predation by or competition with the introduced Clarias gariepinus and Schilbe intermedius
182126		population	eng	Limited information is available, though it is likely that it is widely distributed and fairly common. In eastern Africa however, where formerly it was very common, this species has strongly declined in the upper Akagera system, most likely because of predation by or competition with the introduced <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> and <em>Schilbe intermedius</em>.
182126		population	eng	No information available.
182126		population	eng	Widely distributed and fairly common.
182126		threats	eng	For the majority of its distribution, no major threats to this species are known. Regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension, and competition with introduced species are both threatening populations in eastern Africa.
182126		threats	eng	None known.
182126		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension and competion with introduced species.
182127		conservation	eng	None known.
182127		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis flavitaeniatus</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
182127		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis flavitaeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182127		population	eng	No information available.
182127		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis flavitaeniatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182128		conservation	eng	No information.
182128		conservation	eng	No information on conservation measures is available for this species, though the population trend should be monitored.
182128		conservation	eng	None known.
182128		conservation	eng	There is no information available at present, but research actions are needed.
182128		distribution	eng	<em>Alestes dentex</em>is rare in northern Africa, found in Upper Egyptian Nile (Assiut, Sohag and Aswan).<br/><br/>Regarding to its global range, the species is present in Lower Nile, including Lake Nasser, White Nile, Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Chad River basin, and Uganda (Lake Albert and Murchison Falls).
182128		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, Nile, L. Omo and L. Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal.
182128		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal (Paugy 2003).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region also found in Nile, Lake ALbert, Lake Omo, Lake Turkana. Also known from the White Nile, Murchinson Nile, and Blue Nile (Paugy 1984).
182128		distribution	eng	This species is mainly found in inshore zones of lakes, across a large range within Africa<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, Nile, River Omo and Lake Turkana <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  This species is rare in northern Africa, found in the upper Egyptian Nile (Assiut, Sohag and Aswan) and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Appears to be the commonest <em>Alestes</em> sp. in the upper Nile system, Sudan. It is also present in Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In West Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal. (Paugy 2003)
182128		habitat	eng	Found mainly in the inshore zones of the lakes and lower reaches of rivers. It is omnivorous, feeding on seeds, zooplankton, insects (chironomid larvae, coleopterans), fish fry, detritus and plants. Spawning season extends from April to August with a peak in June. The longest specimens measures 31 cm; Colour: Silvery, body dark grey or dark green, blueblack spots of the upper half of the sides.
182128		habitat	eng	Found mainly in the inshore zones of the lakes and lower reaches of rivers. It is omnivorous, feeding on seeds, zooplankton, insects, fish fry, detritus and plants
182128		habitat	eng	It prefers rapidly-flowing waters. It feeds on insects (chironomid larvae, coleopterans) zooplankton and fish fry. Spawning season extends from April to August with a peak in June. The longest specimens measures 31 cm; Colour: Silvery, body dark grey or dark green, blue-black spots of the upper half of the sides.
182128		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams and lakes. Omnivorous - stomachs examined contained seeds, zooplankton, insects or fish fry.
182128		population	eng	Fairly widespread throughout Kenya and Uganda
182128		population	eng	No information available
182128		population	eng	The population decreased after the Aswan High Dam construction, and it is now rare.
182128		population	eng	This species is thought to be fairly widespread and common throughout much of its range. Within northern Africa however, the population decreased after the High Dam construction, and it is now rare.
182128		threats	eng	None known
182128		threats	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is currently overfished<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The production [fisheries] decreased after the High Dam construction. Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, and drought could all threaten the now rare north African populations.<br/><br/>In other regions there are no known major threats.
182128		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing.
182128		threats	eng	The production [fisheries] decreased after the Aswan High Dam construction. In addition, water pollution, groundwater extraction, and drought, are also main threats to the species.
182129		conservation	eng	None known.
182129		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus guttatus</em> is only known from the paratypes from Batangafo, Chari system, Central African Republic. The holotype is known from 30 km east of Kribi, Cameroon.
182129		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182129		population	eng	No information available.
182129		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182130		conservation	eng	No information available..
182130		conservation	eng	Parts of the Lower Zambezi delta are formally protected. Seasonal releases of dam waters will re-establish flow regimes in the Lower Zambezi.
182130		conservation	eng	Parts of the lower Zambezi delta are formally protected. Seasonal releases of dam waters will re-establish flow regimes in the lower Zambezi. More research is needed into this species taxonomy and population numbers and range, as well as threats. Population monitoring and potential conservation measures are needed, with habitat conservation and protected area management.
182130		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Northern Ewaso Nyiro and the lower parts of coastal drainages (Lower Tana River and Lower Galana-Sabaki). Also reported from Lake Jilore (Sabaki system) which is now dry (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).
182130		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from coastal Mozambique from the Lower Zambezi north into east Africa. Rarely collected and very few specimens in museums.
182130		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Africa, from Somalia to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Northern Ewaso Nyiro and the lower parts of coastal drainages (Lower Tana River and Lower Galana-Sabaki). Also reported from Lake Jilore (Sabaki system) which is now dry (Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Juba, Somalia<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from coastal Mozambique from the Lower Zambezi north into east Africa. Rarely collected and very few specimens in museums.
182130		habitat	eng	Found in swamps and floodplains. Lungfishes survive under the dried mud of floodplains (Eccles 1992).
182130		habitat	eng	Main river channels and floodplain swamps.
182130		habitat	eng	This species is found in swamps and floodplains. Lungfishes survive under the dried mud of floodplains (Eccles 1992).
182130		population	eng	No information available.
182130		population	eng	Not much information but reported as abundant in most floodwater pools and swamps near the Athi and Tana rivers (Whitehead 1959).
182130		threats	eng	Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation.
182130		threats	eng	Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation. In eastern Africa this species is threatened by encroachment of wetlands for agriculture, as well as land based pollution.
182130		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are encroachment of wetlands for agriculture and land based pollution.
182131		conservation	eng	None known.
182131		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo reidi</em> is only known from Kisangani, in the Tshopo River downstream of the hydroelectric dam and from the Congo River in Yangambi (Central Congo River basin). A specimen from the region of Bandundu (Kasai) has been identified as this species suggesting a wider distribution than previously thought for this species.
182131		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo reidi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182131		population	eng	No information available.
182131		threats	eng	None known.
182132		conservation	eng	None known.
182132		conservation	eng	The species range is fully contained within the Cross River National Park.
182132		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic from the Cross Wouri and Sanaga River basins.
182132		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cameroon and Nigeria where it is found in Manfe area of the Cross River, downstream of Lake Lagdo and from Wouri River at Yabassi.
182132		habitat	eng	Non-migratory cyprinid.
182132		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182132		population	eng	No available data.
182132		population	eng	No information available.
182132		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.
182132		threats	eng	Unknown.
182133		conservation	eng	None known.
182133		distribution	eng	<em>Euchilichthys astotodon</em> occurs in the Kasai and Kwango River systems, in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and in the rapids of Kinsuka, Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Specimens from Pool Malebo and Kinsuka need confirmation. It has been recorded from the Uele River, Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, but this has to be verified.
182133		habitat	eng	<em>Euchilichthys astotodon</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182133		population	eng	No information available.
182133		threats	eng	None known.
182134		conservation	eng	None known.
182134		distribution	eng	<em>Belonoglanis brieni</em> is only known from the types from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Congo River system.
182134		habitat	eng	<em>Belanoglanis brieni</em> is a demersal species.
182134		population	eng	No information available.
182134		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.
182135		conservation	eng	No major conservation implementation measure is in place.
182135		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Tana and tributary rivers, Ethiopia.
182135		habitat	eng	It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates all over the lake, preferably in water deeper than 6 m. It is a benthivore; specimens smaller than 10 cm FL already mainly eat insect larvae, although zooplankton and ostracods also are important food items. With size increase, insect larvae remain the most abundant food items, but adult insects, molluscs and detritus also become important.
182135		population	eng	The size of the population is not well known. However, it is one of the more abundant <em>Labeobarbus</em> spp. in the lake and tributary rivers.
182135		threats	eng	Overexploitation and damming are the major threats for the species.
182136		conservation	eng	No information available.
182136		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182136		conservation	eng	None
182136		conservation	eng	None known.
182136		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys auratus</em> is wide ranging from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throughout the Nile basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is widespread throughout Lower Guinea in estuaries as well as upstream. Populations from the upper Sanaga appear to have closer affinities with Sudanese populations than with those of estuaries.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana, and in the River Nile. May be more widespread (information is lacking).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is common in the whole of the River Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, to Lake Nasser, Sudan. Also found in Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species inhabits most of West African hydrographic basins, except in the coastal areas of Gambia and Liberia, where it is replaced by <em>C. maurus</em>, a very similar species. In those parts of the area where both species overlap (from Liberia to Ghana to the east of the Volta), <em>C. auratus</em> does not enter rivers but remains in estuaries and lagoons, where both species are sympatric. In the coastal region, <em>C. auratus</em> has up to now been reported as <em>C. filamentosus</em>.
182136		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Chrysichthys auratus auratus</em> is common in the whole Nile.<br/><br/>At global level, it is also present in Nile River system, Senegal, Chad and Volta Lakes. It is rare in Lake Nasser.
182136		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution:</span> In most of western African hydrographic basins, except in the coastal areas of Gambia and Liberia, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. maurus</span>, a very similar species. In those parts of the area where both species overlap (from Liberia to Ghana to the east of the Volta), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. auratus</span> does not enter rivers but remains in estuaries and lagoons, where both species are sympatric. In the coastal region, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. auratus</span> has up to now been reported as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. filamentosus</span>. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Possible also present in the Nile and Lake Turkana.
182136		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys (Chrysichthys) auratus</em> is widespread throughout Lower Guinea in estuaries as well as upstream. Populations from the upper Sanaga appear to have closer affinities with Sudanese populations than with those of estuaries. The species is also found in West Africa and in the Chad and Nile Basins.
182136		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>River Nile and Lake Turkana. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also reported from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon on the western coast of Africa.
182136		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys auratus auratus</em> is a bottom feeder. Insects and crustaceans are the most dominant food items, molluscs, nematodes, fish, plants and bottom deposits are of minor importance. Spawning season extends from September to April. The longest fish caught was 25 cm long.
182136		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys auratus</em> is found in lakes and coastal rivers (Risch 1986). It occurs usually over soft, slightly muddy substrates or substrates with heavy layers of leafy detritus in deep, relatively quiet waters (Burgess 1989). It feeds on molluscs and small crustaceans (Branchiopods, Copepods, Ostracoda), which it digs from the substrate (Laleye 1995). It also feeds on fish and insects (Bailey 1994). It is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). Spawning season extends from September to April.
182136		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys (Chrysichthys) auratus</em> is found in lakes and coastal rivers (Risch 1986). It occurs usually over soft, slightly muddy substrates or substrates with heavy layers of leafy detritus in deep, relatively quiet waters (Burgess 1989). It feeds on molluscs an small crustaceans (Branchiopods, Copepods, Ostracoda), which it digs from the substrate (Laleye 1995). It also feeds on fish and insects (Bailey 1994). It is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 900 g.
182136		habitat	eng	Occurs in lakes. Feeds on mollusks and small crustaceans (Branchiopoda, Copepoda, Ostracoda)  which it digs from the substrate. It also feeds on fish and insects .
182136		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lakes. Feeds on molluscs and small crustaceans (Branchiopoda, Copepoda, Ostracoda)  which it digs from the substrate. It also feeds on fish and insects.
182136		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182136		population	eng	No information available.
182136		population	eng	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing
182136		population	eng	No population estimate for the majority of the distribution of this species, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing.
182136		threats	eng	It is not thought that this species faces any widespread threats, and it is not fished commercially.
182136		threats	eng	None known
182136		threats	eng	The major threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182136		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182136		threats	eng	The species is not fished commercially.
182137		conservation	eng	None known.
182137		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> is found in the Upper Cross River in the vicinity of Mamfe, the Lower Cross River, the Wouri River in the vicinity of Yabassi, the Moko River (Nyangorobe), and the Meme River. Elsewhere the species occurs in the middle Niger and Benue systems in the Nilosudanic province.
182137		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylochromis sudanensis</span> is present in the Upper and Middle Niger, as well as in the Benue and the Cross. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Elsewhere it is known only from the Wouri in Cameroon.
182137		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria, Chad and Cameroon, as well as Mali and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> is found in the upper Cross River in the vicinity of Mamfe, the Lower Cross River, the Wouri River in the vicinity of Yabassi, the Moko River (Nyangorobe), and the Meme River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylochromis sudanensis</span> is present in the upper and Middle Niger, as well as in the Benue and the Cross. It has also been recorded in Mali and Guinea.
182137		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic freshwater species.
182137		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species which prefers algae and plant matter, as well as invertebrates (Lamboj 2004).
182137		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> prefers algae and plant matter, as well as invertebrates (Lamboj 2004).
182137		population	eng	No available data.
182137		population	eng	No information available.
182137		threats	eng	There is an ongoing decline of habitat in the Benue and Cross rivers due to oil exploration and from deforestation.
182137		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182138		conservation	eng	None known.
182138		distribution	eng	<em>Parauchenoglanis altipinnis</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it has been reported from the Nyong, Ogowe, and Chiloango basins.
182138		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182138		population	eng	No information available.
182138		threats	eng	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface could cause a decline of the habitat. Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182139		conservation	eng	None known.
182139		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the rivers of Gabon and Congo.
182139		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182139		population	eng	No information available.
182139		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182140		conservation	eng	None known.
182140		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis minor</em> is known from two localities in the Lower Congo rapids (a few kilometres downstream from Kinganga and near Tadi), above the Inga dams.
182140		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, rheophylic species.
182140		population	eng	No information available.
182140		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
182141		conservation	eng	None known.
182141		distribution	eng	<em>Kribia uellensis</em> is restricted to Uele River basin, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182141		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182141		population	eng	No information available.
182141		threats	eng	None known.
182142		conservation	eng	None known.
182142		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bénoué basin in Cameroon. Collections have also been made from Nigeria, New Calabar River and Orashi River in the Niger Delta.
182142		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal flatfish.
182142		population	eng	No information available.
182142		threats	eng	Although the Niger delta is highly threatened predominantly through oil exploration, the Bénoué basin locality is upstream of these impacts.
182143		conservation	eng	No information available.
182143		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lake Turkana.
182143		habitat	eng	This species is adapted to a wide range of lentic habitats that include brackish water lagoons, large lakes and riverine flood plains. It also occurs near vegetation beds and fringes. It feeds on insects and is a substrate spawner.
182143		population	eng	No information available.
182143		threats	eng	No known threats.
182144		conservation	eng	None known.
182144		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus baudoni </em>is found from Guinea to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus baudoni</em> is known from the Ubangui River system. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from the basins of the Chad, Volta, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Sassandra and Bandama basins in Côte d'Ivoire. It is also known from the Niger and Chari River systems (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182144		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus baudoni</em> is known from the Ubangui River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Chad, Volta, Gambia, Sassandra and Bandama basins in Côte d'Ivoire. It is also known from the Niger and Chari River systems (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182144		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the basins of the Chad, Volta, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Sassandra and Bandama. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Ubangi River systems in the Congo River basin (Leveque and Daget 1984).
182144		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182144		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus baudoni</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.
182144		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182144		population	eng	No information available.
182144		threats	eng	Deforestation leading to siltation is a localised threat.
182144		threats	eng	None known.
182145		conservation	eng	None known.
182145		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Marcusenius mento</em> is  found in the Cross and the upper Sanaga Rivers.  Elsewhere it is widely distributed over the greater part of western Africa from Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, the Niger River of Mali and the Niger River Delta. <em>Marcusenius mento</em> is also found in the Benoue. No specimens have ever been recovered in Gabon, the published type locality (Boulenger 1890), which must have been indicated in error in the original description.
182145		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">M. mento</span> occurs in the Cameroon area as well as in the Guinea-Sierra Leone-West Liberia region. It is also present in Gambia, Upper Senegal and the Upper Niger. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> The species is also present in Gabon.
182145		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed over the greater part of western Africa from Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, the Niger River of Mali and the Niger River Delta to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Marcusenius mento</em> is  found in the Cross and the upper Sanaga Rivers. No specimens have ever been recovered in Gabon, the published type locality (Boulenger, 1890), which must have been indicated in error in the original description. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Guinea-Sierra Leone-West Liberia region. It is also present in Gambia, This species is known from upper Senegal and the upper Niger.
182145		habitat	eng	Demersal fish. Weakly electrical discharging
182145		habitat	eng	Demersal fish with weak electrical discharge.
182145		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182145		population	eng	No available data
182145		population	eng	No available data.
182145		population	eng	There are significant differences in the fin ray counts and other meristic descriptors between the forms from Liberia and Sierra-Leone and in Cameroon (Jégu and Lévêque 1984), suggesting either clinal variation, or the possibility of two distinct species.
182145		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182145		threats	eng	None known
182146		conservation	eng	None known.
182146		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis marlieri</em> is only known from the type locality Ndakirwa River at Meshe, affluent of the Luhoho River, Lualaba basin, upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182146		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis marlieri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182146		population	eng	No information available.
182146		threats	eng	None known.
182147		conservation	eng	None known
182147		conservation	eng	None known.
182147		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182147		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found in lower courses of rivers from the Sanaga to the Ntem in Cameroon, and collected from the Benito River in Rio Muni and the Kouilou River in Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere, it has been collected from Tabou River at Yaka, River Dodo (Côte d'Ivoire); Lokunje River, Kribi (Cameroon); Rio Benito (Equatorial Guinea), Mombi River (Congo)  (Harrison 1993) and the lower Ntem river basin (Cameroon) (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998) and the Ivory Coast. <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> seems evasive and difficult to catch. Therefore, it is not well represented in collections and is probably more extensively distributed in the region than presently documented.
182147		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Tabou River at Yaka, River Dodo (Côte d'Ivoire). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Lokunje River, Kribi (Cameroon), Rio Benito (Equatorial Guinea), Mombi River (Congo) and the lower Ntem River basin (Cameroon).
182147		distribution	eng	This species is known from Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Congo and Equatorial Guinea. <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> seems evasive and difficult to catch. Therefore, it is not well represented in collections and is probably more extensively distributed in the region than presently documented.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found in lower courses of rivers from the Sanaga to the Ntem in Cameroon, and collected from the Benito River in Rio Muni and the Kouilou River in Congo. Elsewhere, it has been collected from Lokunje River, Kribi (Cameroon), Rio Benito (Equatorial Guinea), Mombi River (Congo)  (Harrison 1993) and the lower Ntem river basin (Cameroon) (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Tabou River at Yaka, River Dodo (Côte d'Ivoire).
182147		habitat	eng	<em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison, 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. Demersal; Inhabits fast flowing parts of rivers that have rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones (Harrison 1993). It prefers tropical climate.
182147		habitat	eng	<em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison, 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. Demersal; This species inhabits fast flowing parts of rivers that have rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones (Harrison 1993).
182147		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream. This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. Demersal fish.
182147		population	eng	No available data.
182147		population	eng	No information available.
182147		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182147		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are deforestation due to agriculture and urbanisation.
182148		conservation	eng	No information available. This species would benefit from protective legislation, as well as habitat restoration and maintenance.
182148		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Afdera, Ethiopia.
182148		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to a shore habitat in which the freshwater of the hot springs join the salty waters of the lake.
182148		population	eng	The population is not well estimated.
182148		threats	eng	It is expected that there will be high human interference in the  habitats of this species due to the production of salt in the area. The only source of  freshwater is the hot springs, and it is expected that humans and the  fishes will compete for this scant freshwater resource.
182149		conservation	eng	None known.
182149		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182149		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182149		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is known from the Upper Lualaba system, the Chambeshi River and Lake Bangweulu, the Luapula-Mweru system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. It is also known from a pond in Burundi.
182149		distribution	eng	The species is present in Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. In Angola, it occurs in the Kunene River (Kunene River ) and Upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.
182149		distribution	eng	This species is present in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system, the Chambeshi River and Lake Bangweulu, the Luapula-Mweru system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. It is also known from a pond in Burundi, but this is unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in the Kunene River and This species is known from upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.
182149		habitat	eng	<em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is a demersal species that feeds primarily on snails, and is used for snail and bilharzia control (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).
182149		habitat	eng	<em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is a demersal species that is used for snail and bilharzia control (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).
182149		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. It feeds primarily on snails.
182149		population	eng	No information available.
182149		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182149		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
182149		threats	eng	None known.
182150		conservation	eng	None known.
182150		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the southeastern tributaries of the Ogowe River, Gabon.
182150		habitat	eng	No information available.
182150		population	eng	No information available.
182150		threats	eng	Mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (and iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation.
182151		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. It should be ensured that any harvesting activities are managed and sustainable, and it would benefit from habitat maintenance, preferably within the protection of a protected area.
182151		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the lower Cross river basin but is found exclusively at the eastern side of the river in southeastern Nigeria.
182151		habitat	eng	This is a semi-annual killish that grows to 6.0 cm TL. It inhabits brooks and small streams in the coastal rain forest and forested savannah flowing over soil developed from basement rock, lower Cross river basin but found exclusively at the eastern side of the river in southeastern Nigeria. It is easy to maintain in the aquarium. It is non-migratory.
182151		population	eng	No information available.
182151		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade (however because it is easy to breed and maintain in the aquarium, it is not likely to suffer much wild collection by aquarist). It habitat may be threatened by oil exploration and deforestation.
182152		conservation	eng	None known.
182152		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the lower Ogowe and Komo River systems, northwest Gabon.
182152		habitat	eng	<em>Plataplochilus miltotaenia</em> is found in small streams, brooks, small rivers and swamps, usually in flowing water under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Plataplochilus miltotaenia</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182152		population	eng	No information available.
182152		threats	eng	The expansion of Libreville could pose a possible threat to the species.
182153		conservation	eng	None known.
182153		distribution	eng	<em>Nannopetersius lamberti</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin from Cameroon to Congo. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ntem, Ogowe, Nyanga, and Kouilou Rivers.
182153		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182153		population	eng	No information available.
182153		threats	eng	None known.
182154		conservation	eng	None known.
182154		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. sacratus</span> is known from the coastal basins of the Guinean ridge, from the River Tominé to Eastern Liberia.
182154		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182154		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182154		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation could locally threaten the species.
182156		conservation	eng	None known.
182156		conservation	eng	Unknown.
182156		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is common in western Africa, from the Chad basin to Lake Débo in the Central Niger Delta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Outside western Africa, it has been collected in the rivers Nile and Omo.
182156		distribution	eng	This demersal species is common across western Africa and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro and Omo basins, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is common in West Africa, from the Chad basin to Lake Débo in the Central Niger delta.
182156		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish.
182156		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish found in running waters.
182156		population	eng	No available data.
182156		population	eng	Unknown, but a rare species.
182156		threats	eng	No information available.
182156		threats	eng	None known
182157		conservation	eng	None known.
182157		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga basin. The species is recorded from the Mbam River (tributary to the Sanaga) and the Sanaga near Nachigal Falls, it is expected to be more widespread in the Sanaga system than is currently recorded.
182157		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). The species migrates from the main river channels to the tributaries and into flooded forest to spawn. It is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 19.6 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182157		population	eng	No information available.
182157		threats	eng	It is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging. The species needs flooded forest areas to spawn in and will be impacted by the dams in the Sanaga system which have regulated the flood regime of the river (however the Mbam is not dammed and not likely to be). The species is also harvested during the migratory runs.
182158		conservation	eng	None known.
182158		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus lusosso</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182158		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182158		population	eng	No information available.
182158		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182159		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182159		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182159		distribution	eng	Species present from South Cameroon to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system (Lucala River  and Cunje River ).
182159		distribution	eng	This species is known from Angola to Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found from Cameroon to Cabinda.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system (Lucala and Cunje Rivers).
182159		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182159		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182159		population	eng	No information available.
182159		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182159		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
182159		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182160		conservation	eng	None known.
182160		distribution	eng	It is known from Taia River, Little Scarcies River and Waanje River in Sierra Leone.
182160		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182160		population	eng	No information available.
182160		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182161		conservation	eng	None known.
182161		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias gabonensis</em> is found in the Lower and Central Congo system, including Lake Tumba, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Ubangui River. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe, Noya, Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers.
182161		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias gabonensis</em> is demersal species that is found in lakes, rivers and floodplains (during breeding season). Stomach contents consisted of sand, plants, larvae of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Chironomidae, remains of insects and fish scales. Juvenile specimens were found in isolated pools in the forest which might indicate that reproduction takes place during the rainy season (Matthes 1964).
182161		population	eng	No information available.
182161		threats	eng	None known.
182162		conservation	eng	None known.
182162		distribution	eng	<em>Gnathonemus echidnorhynchus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is probably present in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
182162		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182162		population	eng	No information available.
182162		threats	eng	None known.
182163		conservation	eng	None known.
182163		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the type locality the Rapids of Massoukou (Masuku) on the Ogowe River and a second population in the rapids on the Louétsi River near Bongolo, in Gabon.
182163		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182163		population	eng	No information available.
182163		threats	eng	No major threats to the western location. The eastern location is threatened by deforestation and manganese mining (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene).
182164		conservation	eng	None known.
182164		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius cryptobullatus</em> is known from the Chambezi-Luapula system.
182164		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius cryptobullatus</em> is a demersal species. It differs from all other <em>Amphilius</em> species in the development and extreme large size of the bilateral bony swimbladder capsules (Skelton 1986).
182164		population	eng	No information available.
182164		threats	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream. Overfishing poses a threat at the Zambian side, but <em>Amphilius</em> species are not really targeted.
182165		conservation	eng	No information available.
182165		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is required into this species biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.
182165		conservation	eng	None known.
182165		distribution	eng	<em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> is a marine species, found also in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons) from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it has been collected from Nkao in Cameroon, and from Loango and Pointe Noire in Congo. It is also known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found along the coast from Senegal to Nigeria.
182165		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> is distributed from Senegal to Congo-Brazzaville, and perhaps Angola. In Lower Guinea, it has been collected from Nkao in Cameroon, and from Loango and Pointe Noire in Congo-Brazzaville. It is also known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River.
182165		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobionellus occidentalis</span> is a marine species, found also in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons) from Guinea Bissau to Cameroon.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> From Guinea Bissau to Gabon.
182165		habitat	eng	Demersal fish which occurs inshore, over sand; in estuaries and lower course of streams.
182165		habitat	eng	<em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> occurs inshore, over sand, in estuaries and lower course of streams (Maugé 1986, Miller 1990). It  is a marine species, but is also found in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons); the adults may occupy sub-tidal burrows (Stiassn<em>y et</em> al. 2007). It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
182165		habitat	eng	<em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> occurs inshore, over sand, in estuaries and lower course of streams (Maugé 1986, Miller 1990). It  is a marine species, but is also found in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons); the adults may occupy sub-tidal burrows (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
182165		population	eng	No available data.
182165		population	eng	No information available.
182165		threats	eng	None known
182165		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182166		conservation	eng	None known.
182166		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes teugelsi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the rapids downstream of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and throughout the Lower Congo.
182166		habitat	eng	<em>Clariallabes teugelsi</em> is demersal species.
182166		population	eng	No information available.
182166		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the further elaboration of Kinshasa can pose future threats through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182167		conservation	eng	No information available.
182167		conservation	eng	None known.
182167		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182167		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo system. Elsewhere, it is known from the East coast from Ruvuma, Tanzania, to Umvoti, Natal, also Orange and Cunene (Skelton 2001).
182167		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs over a wide area of sub-Saharan Africa, from the upper Congo to the east coast in Tanzania and south to Natal, South Africa. In Malawi it occurs in all streams as well as in Lakes Malawi, Chilwa and Chiuta. In Tanzania it is found in the Ruvuma.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>recorded from Umvoti in Natal, also Orange, Cunene and Zambian Zaire systems (Skelton 1993).
182167		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from southern Tanzania to the Umvoti River, KwaZulu-Natal and the Lower Orange River, Northern Cape, South Africa. Absent from the upper Zambezi tributaries where it is replaced by the related species <em>B. poechii </em>Steindachner 1911.
182167		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from the upper Congo to the east coast in Tanzania and south to Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In Malawi it occurs in all streams as well as in Lakes Malawi, Chilwa and Chiuta. In Tanzania it is found in the Ruvuma.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed from southern Tanzania to the Umvoti River, KwaZulu-Natal and the lower Orange River, Northern Cape, South Africa. Absent from the upper Zambezi tributaries where it is replaced by the related species <em>B. poechii</em> Steindachner, 1911.
182167		habitat	eng	A wide ecological range. Occurs in main channels of large rivers, it penetrates high into some tributary systems and may also be present in isolated floodplain pools.
182167		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow water near river outlets or close to swampy areas (Konings 1990). <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> commonly occurs in a wide variety of habitats, especially where there is vegetation. It occurs in main channels of large rivers, it penetrates high into some tributary systems and may also be present in isolated floodplain pools.It feeds on insects and other small organisms, and seeds of plants. <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> breeds in the summer, with shoals of ripe adults moving upstream in spate after rain. Females produce as many as 8,000 eggs (Skelton 1993).
182167		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow water near river outlets or close to swampy areas (Konings 1990). It commonly occurs in a wide variety of habitats, especially where there is vegetation. It feeds on insects and other small organisms. <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> breeds in the summer, shoals of ripe adults moving upstream in spate after rain. Females produce as many as 8,000 eggs (Skelton 1993).
182167		habitat	eng	Information for the Malawi part of the range finds it widespread and abundant at all altitudes except in the montane areas.  It occurs in sheltered near-shore shallow areas of Lake Malawi itself as well as in marshes and swamps adjacent to the lakeshore especially where there is vegetation (Konings 1990). It prefers clear fast flowing waters. It has also been reported in offshore areas of the lake. This species breeds in summer when shoals of ripe adults moving upstream in spate after rain. Females produce as many as 8,000 eggs (Skelton 1993). Feeds on insect larvae as well as insects and seeds of plants.  <br/>Max Size: It reaches a length of 15 cm in some parts of its distribution, for Lake Malawi it has been noted that it grows to about 10 cm, but usually less.
182167		population	eng	Although in southern Africa it has been reported as usually common where encountered, in eastern Africa it was found not to be abundant at any of the sites sampled during survey (Orange river) (Skelton and Cambray 1981).
182167		population	eng	No information available.
182167		population	eng	Not abundant at any of the sites sampled during the survey (Orange river) (Skelton and Cambray 1981).
182167		population	eng	Usally common where encountered.
182167		threats	eng	No major threats known. However in eastern Africa it is used as bait for tigerfish, and is sold as suitable for ponds and larger aquariums (Skelton 1993). There are also localised threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining),
182167		threats	eng	None known.
182167		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is that it is used as bait for tigerfish.  It is suitable for ponds and larger aquariums (Skelton 1993).
182168		conservation	eng	None known.
182168		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis camelopardalis</em> is only known from the type locality Eala, Ruki River, Central Congo River basin.
182168		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis camelopardalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182168		population	eng	No information available.
182168		threats	eng	None known.
182169		conservation	eng	No information available.
182169		conservation	eng	None known.
182169		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Marcusenius cyprinoides</em> is rare in whole Egyptian River Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in the basin of Chad, Niger, Upper Congo and Nile rivers from delta to Bahr-el-Jebel.
182169		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Found only in the Chad basin, the Benue and lower Niger.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in the Nile, from the Delta to Bahr-el-Jebel.
182169		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria to Chad, and the entire length of the Nile. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in whole Egyptian River Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and jebel systems, and the White Nile, Blue Nile, and Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. In Ethiopia it is found in the Baro River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Chad basin, the Benue and lower Niger.
182169		habitat	eng	Inhabits lakes and streams. It is a bottom feeding insectivore, mainly on insects and crustaceans. Breeds during flood season and enters the floodplain. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182169		habitat	eng	This potamodromous specie inhabits lakes and demersal waters. Its food consists mainly of aquatic insects, crustaceans, annelid worms and vegetable matter. It has a nocturnal, mostly bottom living. Breeds during flood season and enters the floodplain for this purpose. Has electric organ in the caudal muscle with a weak discharge. Length does not exceed 30 cm.
182169		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, streams and lagoons, and is demersal and potamodromous. Food consists mainly of aquatic insects, crustaceans, annelid worms and vegetable matter. This species is nocturnal, and mostly bottom dwelling. It breeds during flood season and enters the floodplain for this purpose. It has an electric organ in the caudal muscle with a weak discharge.
182169		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182169		population	eng	No information available.
182169		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought.
182169		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought threaten this species in western Africa. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182169		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182170		conservation	eng	None known.
182170		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga and Wouri basins. It is supposed to be present in between the currently known locations as well.
182170		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus nounensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in small and shallow rivulets (0.1- 0.5 m deep) with a muddy or sandy bottom, a gallery of small trees, shrubs and high grasses and a moderate water current.
182170		population	eng	No information available.
182170		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses as in Lake Nyos.&#160;The species habitat on the Noun River is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation.
182172		conservation	eng	None known.
182172		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a creek of the Ngounie River, 50 km south of Mbigou, in the central Du Chaillu mountains, southern Gabon.
182172		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion wuendschi</em> is only known from a swampy creek in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species with a pH range from 6.5 to 7.2. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) wuendschi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
182172		population	eng	No information available.
182172		threats	eng	None known.
182173		conservation	eng	None known.
182173		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax luapulae</em> is known from the Lualaba, Luvua and the Luapula Rivers and from Lake Bangweulu, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182173		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182173		population	eng	No information available.
182173		threats	eng	None known.
182174		conservation	eng	None known.
182174		distribution	eng	This fish occurs in the coastal rivers of Atlantic slope of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.
182174		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182174		population	eng	No available data.
182174		threats	eng	None known.
182175		conservation	eng	No information available.
182175		conservation	eng	None known.
182175		conservation	eng	None known. Monitoring of population trends is required, and habitat conservation may be needed.
182175		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias dhonti</em> is known from rivers surrounding Lake Tanganyika, in Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species distribution includes rivers west of Lake Tanganyika (Democratic Republic of the Congo). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in the Malagarasi River basin in Burundi and possibly in Tanzania.
182175		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias dhonti</em> is known from rivers west of Lake Tanganyika (Democratic Republic of the Congo). It has also been recorded in the Malagarasi River basin in Burundi and possibly in Tanzania.
182175		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Only recorded from the Malagarasi River
182175		habitat	eng	Inhabits marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes. Mainly insectivorous
182175		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182175		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It inhabits marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes. Mainly insectivorous.
182175		population	eng	No information available.
182175		population	eng	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches
182175		population	eng	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.
182175		threats	eng	None known.
182175		threats	eng	Regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension threatens populations in eastern Africa.
182175		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension.
182176		conservation	eng	None known.
182176		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion lefiniense</em> is only known from La Léfini on the Léfini River and from a little affluent of the Louna River, in 'La Réserve Naturelle des Gorilles de Lesio-Louna'.
182176		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion lefiniense</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182176		population	eng	No information available.
182176		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182177		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182177		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182177		distribution	eng	In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River, Kwanza River ), Kunene River (Kwe River ), Catumbela River, Bengo River (Lake Kilunda) and Congo River (Kwango River, Luemba River ) systems.
182177		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Congo basin south to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus kessleri</em> is known from southern tributaries of the Central (Kwango and Kasai Rivers) and This species is known from upper Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala and Kwanza River), Kunene River (Kwe River), Catumbela River, Bengo River (Lake Kilunda) and Congo River (Kwango River and Luemba River) systems.
182177		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus kessleri</em> is a benthopelagic species. Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.
182177		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.
182177		population	eng	No information available.
182177		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182177		threats	eng	None known.
182177		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182178		conservation	eng	None known.
182178		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe River basin, Gabon.
182178		habitat	eng	<em>Hemistichodus vaillanti</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 11 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182178		population	eng	No information available.
182178		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182179		conservation	eng	None known.
182179		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus nicholsi</em> is known from Yangambi upstream to the upper Congo River basin.
182179		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182179		population	eng	No information available.
182179		threats	eng	None known.
182180		conservation	eng	None known.
182180		distribution	eng	<em>Paraphago rostratus</em> is only known the type locality Kutu, Central Congo River basin.
182180		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182180		population	eng	No information available.
182180		threats	eng	None known.
182181		conservation	eng	None known.
182181		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Liberia. The range of distribution extends from the drainage system of the Lower Mano River to that of the Lower Saint Paul River in southern and southwestern Liberia.
182181		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary swamps and pools, and swampy parts of forest creeks in the humid coastal rainforest. It is a bottom spawner fish, with 3 months incubation. The fish is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
182181		population	eng	No available data.
182181		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, mining and urban development.
182182		conservation	eng	None known.
182182		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis soloni</em> is known from the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) rapids and from Libenge. It is also widely distributed in the Lower Congo (Roberts and Stewart 1976) and from the Ubangui River at Zongo (Gosse 1968).
182182		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis soloni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182182		population	eng	No information available.
182182		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. The negative effects coming with the city of Bangui pose threats to this species.
182183		conservation	eng	None known.
182183		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the type locality in the Lokoundje basin of southeastern Cameroon.
182183		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis harbinger</em> lives in fast moving water (pers. comm., Dening, C.). This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182183		population	eng	No information available.
182183		threats	eng	The species is potentially impacted by road building. Deforestation and agriculture are occurring downstream of the species habitat.
182184		conservation	eng	None known.
182184		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found along the coastal plain from the foot of the southern Cameroon Plateau in the east to Pouma in the west, and between the Sanaga and Nyong Rivers. <em>Aphyosemion amoenum</em> is thought related to <em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em>, a species found on the southern Cameroon Plateau.<br/>There is one additional point from Brummett, R. :  04 05 37.8 N, 10 40 06.5 E.
182184		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion amoenum</em> is found in rainforest brooks along coastal plains. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
182184		population	eng	No information available.
182184		threats	eng	The species is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from palm oil plantations particularly in the south of the species distribution.
182185		conservation	eng	None known.
182185		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Africa. It is only known from the type locality Kissidougou in a tributary of upper Niger River system in the Guinean highlands, Guinea. Possibly present in the middle Niger River in Nigeria.
182185		habitat	eng	<em>B. kissiensis</em> is very small bentho-pelagic barbus of 1.7 cm standard length. It is non-migratory.
182185		population	eng	No available data.
182185		threats	eng	None known. There is a potential threat of deforestation
182186		conservation	eng	No avalaible data.
182186		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nigeria where it is restricted to the lower Ogun to lower Niger rivers.
182186		habitat	eng	A pelagic riverine fish that feeds on worms, insects and crustaceans. In aquaria female lays up to 1,000 eggs, after vigorous driving by the male, which hatch in 30 to 34 hours. Grows to 9.6 cm in standard length.
182186		population	eng	No available data.
182186		threats	eng	Since there is an extensive aquaria trade in this fish, mainly by wild capture, it can be inferred that the stock may be on a downward trend. This is coupled with deforestation and pollution in it ranges resulting in habitat loss and decline in quality.
182187		conservation	eng	No information available.
182187		conservation	eng	None known.
182187		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Hemichromis fasciatus</em> is recorded from Mauritania. It is rare in Egypt (Manzalah Lake).<br/><br/>Its global range includes Senegal to the Nile basins and from Lake Chad to Ituri River in Congo basin and upper Zambezi. It is also known from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed in West Africa.
182187		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The species is known majority of the basins in western Africa,<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Hemichromis fasciatus </span>has a vast distribution in Africa. Senegal to the Nile basins and from Lake Chad to Ituri River in Congo River basin and upper Zambezi.
182187		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Mauritania to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northern Africa:</span> The species is recorded from Mauritania. It is rare in Egypt (Manzalah Lake).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeastern Africa:</span> It is recorded in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, including Lake No, Sudan, and Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa:</span> The species is known across the majority of the basins in Western Africa.
182187		habitat	eng	Present in littoral riverine habitats and permanent floodplain lagoons with clear water. It feeds on shrimps, insects and small fishes. It is a nesting substrate spawner which breeds in the early summer.
182187		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent floodplain lagoons with clear water, occasionally on rocky streams, occasionally in standing deep water, common in shallow swamps. According to Pouilly (1993), <em>Hemichromis fasciatus</em> is found in rivers that have low speed of current, a strong height of water, a formed substrate of blocks and a few plant. According to Albaret (1982), the species is monogamist keeping and protecting eggs and alevins but not practising oral incubation. According to Daget (1965), the eggs are fixed on an immersed support, in a clean place, with the shelter of the current, a depth from 10 to 20 cm. The reproduction of the species seems spread out throughout the year (from April at November in Bandama), with the proportion of mature individuals constantly remaining relatively low and the RGS small. Up to 20 mm length, the alevins nourish phytoplankton. From 20 with 45mm, they preferably seek shellfish and insects. From 50 mm, the young attacks only large preys; they devour all the young fish which pass to their carried. So <em>H. fasciatus</em> is used in pisciculture to limit the proliferation of the species to laying many and invading such as <em>H. niloticus</em>. Used for tilapia control.
182187		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent floodplain lagoons with clear water, occasionally on rocky streams, occasionally in standing deep water, common in shallow swamps.  According to Pouilly (1993), <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemichromis fasciatus</span> is found in rivers that have low speed of current, a strong height of water, a formed substrate of blocks and a few plant. According to Albaret (1982), the species is monogamist keeping and protecting eggs and alevins but not practising oral incubation. According to Daget (1965), the eggs are fixed on an immersed support, in a clean place, with the shelter of the current, a depth from 10 to 20 cm. The reproduction of the species seems spread out throughout the year (from April at November in Bandama), with the proportion of mature individuals constantly remaining relatively low and the RGS small. Up to 20 mm length, the alevins nourish phytoplankton. From 20 with 45mm, they preferably seek shellfish and insects. From 50 mm, the young person becomes voracious extrêment and attacks only large preys; they devour all the young fish which pass to their carried. So<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. fasciatus</span> is used in pisciculture to limit the proliferation of the species to laying many and invading such as H. niloticus. Used for tilapia control.
182187		population	eng	Locally declining.
182187		population	eng	No information available.
182187		population	eng	This is a locally declining species.
182187		threats	eng	No information available.
182187		threats	eng	Overfishing, loss of dry season refuges and rapids habitat due to development and dams.
182187		threats	eng	Overfishing, loss of dry season refuges and rapids habitat due to development and dams all threaten populations of this species.
182188		conservation	eng	None known.
182188		conservation	eng	None known. Monitoring of population trends is required, as is habitat maintenance and restoration, and the identification of protected areas within this species range.
182188		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias jaensis</em> is known from Nigeria to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Dja and Sangha basins. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe River in Gabon, the Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ntem Rivers in Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Collected from southeastern Nigeria, including the River Cross and Niger Delta. One record has been made in Ngo-Nsi in the Northeast of Nigeria.
182188		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias jaensis</em> is known from the Dja and Sangha basins. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe River in Gabon, the Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ntem Rivers in Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is known from southeastern Nigeria, including the Cross River and the Niger delta. One record has been made in Ngo-Nsi in the Northeast of Nigeria.
182188		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Collected from southeastern Nigeria, including the River Cross and Niger Delta. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ntem, Ja (Dja) and Sangha rivers in Cameroon and Ogowé River in Gabon. Elsewhere in Equatorial Guinea.
182188		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182188		habitat	eng	This species is a medium sized clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
182188		habitat	eng	This species is a medium sized demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
182188		population	eng	No available data.
182188		population	eng	No information available.
182188		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to oil exploration in the Niger Delta.
182188		threats	eng	None known.
182188		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degredation due to oil exploration in the Niger Delta.
182189		conservation	eng	Limited information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182189		conservation	eng	No information available.
182189		conservation	eng	Trade restricted in FRG.
182189		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Clarias anguillaris</em> is rare in Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lower and Middle Nile; Chad system including the Logone and the Shari rivers; Niger and Benue river systems; coastal rivers of Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire; Gambia and lower Senegal rivers; Volta system; relict populations occur in Mauritania and southern Algeria.
182189		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad system including the Logone and the Shari rivers. Niger and Benoue River systems, coastal rivers of Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. Gambia and lower Senegal rivers and Volta River system. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Lower and middle Nile. Relict populations occur in Mauritania and southern Algeria.
182189		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Mauritania to Ethiopia, and the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It has also been recorded in Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in Bahr el Ghazal, White Nile, and the Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan. It is also present in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in Chad system including the Logone and the Shari rivers, and Gambia and lower Senegal rivers and Volta system. Also present in the Niger and Benoue river systems, coastal rivers of Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.
182189		habitat	eng	Demersal and potamodromous fish very common in inundated areas. Buries itself in the mud when the pools are drying up. Feeds mainly on fish and molluscs; also crustaceans, diatoms, detritus and bottom organisms. The reproduction of some claridae according to Albaret (1982) is generally limited to the period of rising.
182189		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias anguillaris</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is very common in inundated areas. It lives mainly in deep waters, in the muddy or semi-muddy bottom, and bury themselves in the mud when the pools are drying up. <em>Clarias anguillaris</em> feeds mainly on fish and molluscs, but also crustaceans, diatoms, detritus and bottom organisms (Teugels 1986). The reproduction of some claridae according to Albaret (1982) is generally limited to the period of rising.
182189		habitat	eng	It lives mainly in deep waters, in the muddy or semi-muddy bottom. Bury itself in the mud when the pools are drying up. It feeds on molluscs, crustaceans, fish scales, diatoms and mud. It reaches a considerable length at 75 cm long.
182189		population	eng	No available data.
182189		population	eng	No information available.
182189		threats	eng	Overfishing
182189		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182189		threats	eng	This species is threatened by commercial overfishing. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182190		conservation	eng	None known.
182190		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from central Kouilou to the Ogowe River basin.
182190		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182190		population	eng	No information available.
182190		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182191		conservation	eng	None known. Research is needed into the population numbers and range.
182191		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus felixi</em> is only known from the type locality Madjiole, Cameroon.
182191		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182191		population	eng	No information available.
182191		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182192		conservation	eng	No information available.
182192		conservation	eng	None known.
182192		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, and population range and numbers
182192		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is known from Nigeria to Sudan, and south to Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> has been found on the Lualaba River. (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 1990, Gosse 1986, Norris 1992, Norris <em>et al.</em> 1988). One record has been made of the Bangweulu swamps and one from the Luombwa River, Luapula system. The records of the upper Lualaba and Luapula system are strange and could be a different species.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the nothern end of Lake Tanganyika, the Rusizi River and its delta, the Malagarasi river system (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001) and, Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and Albert and their associated smaller lakes and streams.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and White Nile to Khartoum<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> occurs in the Lake Chad basin and eastern tributaries of the Niger River system (Benue River drainage).
182192		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is known from eastern tributaries of the Niger River system and from the Lake Chad basin, Nile River, tributaries of Lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward and George. It is also known from Lake Tanganyika. <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> has also been found on the Lualaba River. (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 1990, Gosse 1986, Norris 1992, Norris <em>et al.</em> 1988). One record has been made of the Bangweulu swamps and one from the Luombwa River, Luapula system. The records of the Upper Lualaba and Luapula system are strange and could be a different species.
182192		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Ctenopoma muriei</span> occurs in the lake Chad Basinand eastern tributaries of the Niger River system (Benue River drainage). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">C muriei</span> is present in the White Nile, and the area of the lakes Albert, Edward, George, Victoria, Tangayica, and in the Lualaba River.
182192		distribution	eng	The species is known from the nothern end of Lake Tanganyika, the Rusizi River and its delta, the Malagarasi River system (De Vos <em>et al. 2001) and, Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and Albert and their associated smaller lakes and streams.
182192		habitat	eng	<em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits swamp, lily ponds (Eccles 1992) and floodplains. Juveniles are found in interstitial pools in papyrus. <em>"ctenopoma" muriei</em> browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris (Bailey 1994).
182192		habitat	eng	<em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits swamp, lily ponds (Eccles 1992) and floodplains, marginal vegetation along lake shores close to river deltas. Also inhabits streams and swamps both temporary and permanent (Greenwood 1966). Juveniles are found in interstitial pools in papyrus. <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris (Bailey 1994). It probably breeds in streams during the rainy season. It feeds on insect larvae and crustacea (Greenwood 1966). Larvae have been found in temporary streams together with sexually active adults suggesting that spawning takes place when such streams are flooded during the rainy season (Greenwood 1966).
182192		habitat	eng	Inhabits marginal vegetation along lake shores close to river deltas. Also inhabits streams and swamps both temporary and permanent  (Greenwood 1966). Feeds on insect larvae and crustacea. Probably breeds in streams during the rainy season. Feeds on insect larvae and crustacea (Greenwood 1966). Larvae have been found in temporary streams togerther with sexually active adults suggesting that spawning takes place when such streams are flooded during the rainy season (Greenwood 1966).
182192		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish, inhabits swamps, lily ponds and floodplains. Juveniles are found in interstitial pools in papyrus.  Browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris. Feeds mainly on insects, algae, higher plants and organic debris.
182192		population	eng	In East Africa it is very rare in catches. No further information available.
182192		population	eng	No available data.
182192		population	eng	No information available.
182192		population	eng	Very rare in catches.
182192		threats	eng	None known.
182192		threats	eng	Pollution due to oil exploration in Nigeria.
182192		threats	eng	Regression of swamps biotopes due to farming extension threatens populations in eastern Africa. A major threat to west Africa is pollution due to oil exploration in Nigeria. Further threats are unknown.
182192		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the regression of swamps biotopes due to farming extension.
182193		conservation	eng	None known.
182193		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus ubanguiensis</em> is only known from the type locality: Mbomou river, a tributary of the Ubangui river, near Gozobangui, Central African Republic.
182193		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus ubanguiensis</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species.
182193		population	eng	No information available.
182193		threats	eng	None known.
182194		conservation	eng	None known.
182194		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Sananga River, Cameroon.
182194		habitat	eng	<em>Nannocharax rubrolabiatus</em> is a demersal species. It is found under rocks, in riffles of moderately large rivers (30-50m) in the savannah zone, in areas where there is a strong current (>1m/sec). In all sites where collection took place, there was a rather restricted gallery of shrubs and small trees on the river banks. The water was greenish with a transparency of about 50 cm, neutral pH (6.5-7.5), with a high content of dissolved oxygen (6.5-7.5 mg/l) and a rather low conductivity (35-45 µS/cm). Water temperatures were between 23 and 25 °C at noon (Van den Bergh 1995).
182194		population	eng	No information available.
182194		threats	eng	The habitat of the most eastern population of <em>Nannocharax rubrolabiatus</em> is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation.
182195		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic revision is needed.
182195		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, i.e., the upper course of the Yewa River between Meko and Ilara in Nigeria and Benin. It has been reported from the the river Kuetou at Foumbot, Cameroon, but this record is doubtful.
182195		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus clauseni</em> is a very small bentho-pelagic barbus of 3.0 cm standard length. It prefers the small rivers and streams.
182195		population	eng	No information available.
182195		threats	eng	There are no known major widespread threats, although there are localised impacts from deforestation.
182196		conservation	eng	None known.
182196		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus marmoratus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system and the eastern Kasai system. The species is thought to be present in between the known locations as well.
182196		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus marmoratus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182196		population	eng	No information available.
182196		threats	eng	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182197		conservation	eng	None known.
182197		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, 30 km east of Kribi, Cameroon.
182197		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182197		population	eng	No information available.
182197		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182198		conservation	eng	None known.
182198		distribution	eng	Niger, Chad, Gambia, Géba, Taja, Waange, Volta and Ouémé basins. Almost in all the basins of Western Africa except coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.
182198		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. This species occurs in shallow sheltered areas. Omnivore, feeds on detritus, plants, algae, nymphs, arthropods and molluscs. It is oviparous. Reproduction with high waters. It swims on its back 'upside down' (Pasquelin 1982).
182198		population	eng	No information available
182198		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by dams (reduction of flow and volume), agricultural pollution and overexploitation by fishing.
182199		conservation	eng	There are plans by the Lake Chad Basin Commission (GEF Project) to develop a catchment management plan for the Chari Basin.
182199		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Chad and Mayo Kebbi basins in Central African Republic.
182199		habitat	eng	This is a small riverine characid that grows to 3.3 cm TL.<br/>It is non-migratory.
182199		population	eng	No available data.
182199		threats	eng	Remote area with no known major threats.
182200		conservation	eng	None known.
182200		distribution	eng	<em>Paramormyrops sphekodes</em> is a Lower Guinea endemic. The holotype and one additional specimen of this species  were collected by A. Marche in the Ogowe River in or near rapids near the village of Doumé (present-day Lastoursville). Since then many specimens have been identified as <em>P. sphekodes</em> based on similarity with the original specimens.
182200		habitat	eng	<em>Paramormyrops sphekodes</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182200		population	eng	No information available.
182200		threats	eng	None known.
182201		conservation	eng	None known.
182201		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus machadoi</em> is known from upper Kasai (Dundo, in a pool in communication with the Luachimo River and Mwaoka), Central Congo River basin.
182201		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus machadoi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 9.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182201		population	eng	No information available.
182201		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182202		conservation	eng	None known.
182202		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo lukulae</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, and from just upstream of Kisangani. In Lower Guinea it is widespread throughout following basins: Lukula, Mbavu, Chiloango, Lebuzi, Luali, Tshela, Nyong, Loukenene, Loubomo, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme.
182202		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo lukulae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182202		population	eng	No information available.
182202		threats	eng	None known.
182203		conservation	eng	None known.
182203		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lower Guinea, found in the highlands in the Mbam, This species is known from upper Sanaga and This species is known from upper Mambere Rivers in central and western Cameroon. Elsewhere, found in the upper Mambere River of western Central African Republic, and the upper Mbam River, This species is known from upper Benue and This species is known from upper Logone systems in eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon.
182203		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Kathetys) elberti</em> occurs in small streams, brooks and swamps in the open and humid grassland savannah. It is a benthopelagic, omnivorous species and an egg-layer.
182203		population	eng	No information available.
182203		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182204		conservation	eng	None known.
182204		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis caudalis</em> is known from rapids in the Lower Congo River system and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has also been recorded from the Fimi River and from the region of Mushie, Kasai system.
182204		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis caudalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182204		population	eng	No information available.
182204		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182205		conservation	eng	None known.
182205		distribution	eng	<em>Neolebias trewavasae</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin (from Kitutu, Elila River, Kivu). It is also known from most river systems in the Lower Guinea region. It has been recorded from the Nile River basin (Bailey 1994), however there are no collections and it is likely that this is another species.
182205		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias trewavasae</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in fringing vegetation and is an omnivorous browser, consumes plant fragments, algae, protozoans, rotifers, small crustaceans and insects (Bailey 1994).
182205		population	eng	No information available.
182205		threats	eng	None known.
182206		conservation	eng	None known.
182206		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus puncticulatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, including the Boumba River, Dja River basin in Cameroon. It is not known more upstream than the bifurcation from the Ubangui and the Congo River. <em>Stomatorhinus puncticulatus</em> is not known from the Lukénie, Kwango and Kasai systems.
182206		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182206		population	eng	No information available.
182206		threats	eng	None known.
182207		conservation	eng	None known.
182207		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus pulverulentus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, upstream from Lake Tumba.
182207		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182207		population	eng	No information available.
182207		threats	eng	None known.
182208		conservation	eng	The lower location lies in the Kasanka National Park.
182208		distribution	eng	<em>Chetia mola</em> is known from the type locality at the Luongo River (above the mouth of its right tributary, the Chamwishitu River), Congo River basin, Zambia. One record has been made of the Luwombwa River, Zambia.
182208		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182208		population	eng	No information available.
182208		threats	eng	Water withdrawal for local agriculture also has an influence on water level of the streams. Overfishing with drawnets poses a threat in this region. A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream. Fishing with poison; commercial insecticides in rivers around and even in the Kasanka National Park, causes a deterioration of the species habitat.
182209		conservation	eng	None known.
182209		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Mangombe and Ngombe River systems, which are tributaries of the larger Sanaga and Dibamba River drainage basins, respectively. All known populations, except one, are from the area to the north of the Sanaga River in southwestern Cameroon.
182209		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) amieti</em> occurs in the swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is usually found in shallows It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) amieti</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).
182209		population	eng	No information available.
182209		threats	eng	The species is threatened by oil palm plantations. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
182210		conservation	eng	None known.
182210		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Kogon River in Guinea to the Bia River in Côte d’Ivoire.
182210		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 21.9 cm SL maximum size.
182210		population	eng	No available data.
182210		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182211		conservation	eng	No information available.
182211		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the population, ecology, trends and threats to this species.
182211		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182211		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus yeiensis</em> is known from Chad and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile river is unknown, and it may be regionally extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>This species is known from Yei River, draining into the Ghazal system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in the Chad system
182211		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus yeiensis</em> is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile River is unknown. <br/><br/>At global scale, it is present in the Nile River system and Chad basin.
182211		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad system (More information is needed on exact distribution, could not be mapped).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Nile River system and Chad River basin.
182211		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182211		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species.
182211		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182211		population	eng	No available data.
182211		population	eng	No information available.
182211		threats	eng	No information available.
182211		threats	eng	Unknown
182212		conservation	eng	None known.
182212		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
182212		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops engystoma</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It was reported from the Middle Chari by Pellegrin (1914), it has never again been found there. Furthermore, the specimens mentioned by Pellegrin have apparently not been preserved, and hence there is no possibility of further verification on this matter. (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 2003).
182212		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chari basin at Fort Archambault (Chad). Even though this species was reported from the Middle Chari by Pellegrin (1914), it has never again been found there. Also reported from Nigeria and Niger but not confirmed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>A rather rare mormyrid found in only three localities. In Lower Congo basin at Matadi and Tadi and in Chari basin at Fort Archambault (Chad).
182212		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182212		habitat	eng	This is a small mormyrid. Demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. Non-migratory.
182212		population	eng	No available data..
182212		population	eng	No information available.
182212		threats	eng	Potential impact for the proposed basin water transfer from the Oubangui through the River Chari to Lake Chad.
182212		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182213		conservation	eng	None known.
182213		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo nasus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Lower and Central reaches of the Congo River basin. It is also known from just upstream Kisangani on the Lualaba River as well.
182213		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo nasus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in rapid water habitats (Reid 1985).
182213		population	eng	No information available.
182213		threats	eng	None known.
182214		conservation	eng	None known.
182214		distribution	eng	<em>Sargochromis thysi</em> is only known from the Luembe River at Cachimo and Lumboma, tributary of the Kasaï, Congo River system, Angola.
182214		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182214		population	eng	No information available.
182214		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging from out of the river causes sedimentation.
182215		conservation	eng	None known.
182215		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Sanaga River basin in Cameroon where it has been reported from the main river channel near Nanga-Eboko, Nachtigal, and from the Mbam and its tributaries.
182215		habitat	eng	<em>Marcusenius sanagaensis</em> is a demersal species. It is found in raceways with sandy bottoms of larger rivers (50-200 m), in the tree savannah and the more or less degraded semi-tropical forest.
182215		population	eng	No information available.
182215		threats	eng	The most western part of the species distribution is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. It also is threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.
182216		conservation	eng	None known.
182216		distribution	eng	<em>C. agboyiensis</em> is known from the Ofin (Pra basin), Volta, coastal basins of Togo, Ouémé, Ogun, Oshun, delta and lower course of the Niger in Nigeria and coastal basins of southeastern Nigeria, including the River Cross. It is not known from other African basins.
182216		habitat	eng	This species is a small clariid that grows to 23 cm TL. It is a demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. There is lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
182216		population	eng	No available data.
182216		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration (Niger Delta) and impacts of agriculture, deforestation and urban developments. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams.
182217		conservation	eng	No information available.
182217		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in the Nogal Valley of north central Somalia.
182217		habitat	eng	It is found in running streams. It is found in springs and wells throughout a wide phreatic layer in the Nogal Valley, in an area with a wide range of salinities. It exhibits varying degrees of microphthalmia and troglomorphism which has resulted in a complex taxonomic history for this highly variable species (Romero and Paulson 2001).
182217		population	eng	Not known.
182217		threats	eng	No information available.
182218		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on this species' distribution and threats in order to carry out a full assessment.
182218		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, <em>Barbus kuiluensis</em> is only known from a Baudon collection from the Niari-Kouilou basin, Congo.
182218		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus kuiluensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 9 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182218		population	eng	No information available.
182218		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182219		conservation	eng	None known.
182219		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ivindo, Ogowe, Nyanga and Louzibi Rivers in Gabon, the Río Muni in Equatorial Guinea, and the Ntem River in southern Cameroon and Gabon.
182219		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182219		population	eng	No information available.
182219		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182220		conservation	eng	None known.
182220		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. occidentalis</span> occurs in the upper and Middle Niger, in the Niger delta (Nigeria), in the Cross River and in the Chari-Logone.
182220		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, potamodromous species.
182220		population	eng	No available data.
182220		threats	eng	There is an ongoing decline in habitat in the Niger Delta and the River Cross due to oil exploration.
182221		conservation	eng	None known.
182221		distribution	eng	<em>Paratilapia toddi</em> is only known from the type locality Lusambo, Kasai River, Central Congo River basin.
182221		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182221		population	eng	No information available.
182221		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging from out of the river causes sedimentation. In the southern region, there is industrial copper mining.
182222		conservation	eng	None known.
182222		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura scaphyhynchura</em> is known from the Luachimo River (Angola), the Léfini River (Congo), the Makaw River (Kasai system), from the Kululu and Egengo Rivers in the Ikela region, from the Tshuapa River and from the Neap River.
182222		habitat	eng	<em>Phractura scaphyhynchura</em> is a demersal species. It is entomophagous and feeds on plant debris and insect larvae (Matthes 1964).
182222		population	eng	No information available.
182222		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182223		conservation	eng	No information available.
182223		conservation	eng	None known.
182223		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182223		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182223		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is known from the coastal waters from the mouth of the Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola). This species was introduced from the Ivory Coast to the former USSR in 1978 (Welcomme 1988). It is probably not established in the wild.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found from Cameroon to Angola. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza, Kunene and Chiloango River systems<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal waters from Senegal to Cameroon.
182223		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in coastal waters, from mouth of Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola).
182223		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is known from the coastal waters from the mouth of the Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola). This species was introduced from the Ivory Coast to the former USSR in 1978 (Welcomme 1988). It is probably not established in the wild.
182223		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Coastal waters from Senegal to Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia guineensis</span> is known from coastal waters, from mouth of Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola)<strong><strong><em>.</em></strong></strong>
182223		distribution	eng	The species is present in the coastal waters from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza (Kwanza River ), Kunene and Chiloango River systems.
182223		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species. Feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus. In Casamance, the reproductive activity of <em>T guineensis </em>appears to be at a maximum in March and April (Albaret 1987).
182223		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia guinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). Substrate guarding of eggs as a form of parental care is done by both male and female (Goodwin <em>et al.</em> 1998).
182223		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia guinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). Substrate guarding of eggs as a form of parental care is done by both male and female (Goodwin <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Casamance, the reproductive activity of <em>T. guineensis</em> appears to be at a maximum in March and April (Albaret 1987).
182223		habitat	eng	It inhabits coastal waters. Feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus.
182223		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but the species occurs in streams and lakes. Feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus.
182223		population	eng	No available data.
182223		population	eng	No information available.
182223		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182223		threats	eng	<em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is commercially used for aquaculture.
182223		threats	eng	<em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is commercially used for aquaculture in central Africa. In western Africa, populations are locally impacted by dams
182223		threats	eng	Locally impacted by dams.
182223		threats	eng	No information available.
182223		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182224		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on this species.
182224		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
182224		habitat	eng	It has a preference for rocky substrates, but also lives over sand and mud, especially in inshore shallow water. It is primarily a piscivore but insects are also taken.
182224		population	eng	There is no information as to the size of the population in Lake Tana.
182224		threats	eng	Overexploitation of resources from the lake is a major threat.
182225		conservation	eng	None known.
182225		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus kamolondoensis</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin, including Lake Kasibasiba.
182225		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus kamolondoensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182225		population	eng	No information available.
182225		threats	eng	None known.
182226		conservation	eng	Measures need to be implemented to protect the species, and manage fishing levels within this species' habitat.
182226		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
182226		habitat	eng	It prefers the bottom of the lake at shallower depths.
182226		population	eng	The population is rare although the size is not estimated.
182226		threats	eng	This species is impacted by over exploitation of the fishes of the lake; it is taken as bycatch.
182227		conservation	eng	The northern part of the species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.
182227		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus wittei</em> is only known from the Muyé, Kilwezi and Lupweshi Rivers, tributaries of the Lufira River in the Katanga province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182227		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182227		population	eng	No information available.
182227		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182229		conservation	eng	Little information on conservation measures is available for this species, though the population trend should be monitored. Within western Africa, part of the range is included within the Ramsar sites at Malagarasi and the Lake Chad Basin.
182229		conservation	eng	No information available.
182229		conservation	eng	None known.
182229		conservation	eng	Part of the range is included within the Ramsar sites at Malagarasi and the Lake Chad Basin.
182229		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment: </strong><em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is known essentially from whole the Congo River basin, but not in the Lower Congo. It is also found in the Cross River in Nigeria, some coastal basins of Cameroon, Ogowe River in Gabon, and Lake Tanganyika and effluents (Paugy 1984).
182229		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Tanganyika and its affluent rivers and streams, including Malagarasi. It is also widespread throughout other regions of Africa.
182229		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>From Cross Rivers (Nigeria) Chad and Volta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also found in coastal basins of Cameroon, Ogouwe in Gabon, Congo and Lake Tanganyika.
182229		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in lakes and rivers throughout eastern, central and western Africa:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is known essentially from whole the Congo River basin, including some coastal basins of Cameroon, Ogowe River in Gabon, and Lake Tanganyika and effluents (Paugy 1984), but not in the Lower Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Within eastern Africa this species is found in Lake Tanganyika and its affluent rivers and streams, including Malagarasi.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It also inhabits the Cross Rivers (Nigeria).
182229		habitat	eng	<em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is a pelagic species. It occurring in rivers and lake's inshore waters generally in the reach of a river delta. It feeds on insects, mostly of chironomid larvae. This species has been reported to be potentially dominant in local fish fauna, particularly in the Lake Chad region. Lateral migration for floodplain spawning.
182229		habitat	eng	<em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in lakes and rivers in Tanzania (Eccles 1992).
182229		habitat	eng	Rivers and lake's inshore waters generally in the reach of a river delta.<br/>Feeds on insects, mostly of chironomid larvae.
182229		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic characid that grows to 60 cm standard length, inhabits rivers and lakes. This species has been reported to be potentially dominant in local fish fauna, particularly in the Lake Chad region. Lateral migration for floodplain spawning.
182229		population	eng	No available data
182229		population	eng	No information available.
182229		population	eng	No information is available on the population of this species, although in eastern Africa it is never abundant in fisheries catches.
182229		population	eng	Unknown, though never abundant in fisheries catches.
182229		threats	eng	Little information is reported on threats to this species. In central Africa, it has commercial importance. In eastern Africa it is reportedly threatened by water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds.
182229		threats	eng	None known
182229		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds.
182229		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182230		conservation	eng	No information available.
182230		conservation	eng	None known.
182230		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Haplochromis bloyeti</em> is present in the River Nile Delta and Coastal Lakes, especially Lake Mariut, where it is rare.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the Nile and rivers, streams and certain lakes in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Lake Debo (Niger River system in Mali) and Lake Chad.
182230		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Lake Debo (Upper Niger in Mali) and from the Chad River basin.
182230		distribution	eng	This species is known from streams and certain lakes in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania.
182230		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers, streams and freshwater lakes. It prefers sandy and stony bottom and water weeds. Adults carry eggs or young in their mouth and pharynx.
182230		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species, inhabits rivers, streams and freshwater lakes. Females are mouth-brooding. It prefers sandy and stony bottom and water weeds.
182230		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species, inhabits rivers, streams and freshwater lakes. It is mouthbrooding by females.
182230		population	eng	No available data.
182230		population	eng	No information available.
182230		threats	eng	None known
182230		threats	eng	None known.
182230		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182231		conservation	eng	None known.
182231		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma maculatum</em> has been collected in tributaries of the upper Sangha, in the Dja and Doumé Rivers, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is in the Lower Guinea region known from southern Cameroon, Rio Muni and northern Gabon in the Sanaga, Nyong, Ntem, Ivindo and Ogowe Rivers.
182231		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182231		population	eng	No information available.
182231		threats	eng	None known.
182232		conservation	eng	None known.
182232		distribution	eng	<em>Adamas formosus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  with Mbamu island and from the central and upper Congo basin. The record from the upper Congo basin is a literature record from Wildekamp (1993). It is also known from the drainage systems of the Alima, Vouma and Likouala in eastern Congo.
182232		habitat	eng	<em>Fenerbahce formosus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs mainly in the shallow and weedy parts of brooks, small streams and swamps in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation (Huber 1996).
182232		population	eng	No information available.
182232		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182233		conservation	eng	None known.
182233		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus jae</em> is known from the Dja and Sangha River basins. It is also known from the Foulakari River, Lower Congo River basin. It is present in the Lower Guinea in the basins of the Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ogowe, and Niari-Kouilou.
182233		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus jae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182233		population	eng	No information available.
182233		threats	eng	None known.
182234		conservation	eng	None known.
182234		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis oligacanthus</em> is only known from the Ubangui River system, Central Congo River basin.
182234		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis oligocanthus</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
182234		population	eng	No information available.
182234		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui. Large marshy areas provide refuge and natural protection though.
182235		conservation	eng	None known.
182235		distribution	eng	This species seems to be restricted to the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.
182235		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182235		population	eng	No available data.
182235		threats	eng	None known.
182236		conservation	eng	No information available.
182236		distribution	eng	The species has been described not only from Lake Tana and its tributaries, but also from other water bodies of Ethiopia.
182236		habitat	eng	In Lake Tana, where the species has been studied closely, it occurs especially over rocky substrates in water of no more than 6 m. deep. It is a macro-benthivore. Specimens smaller than 15 cm FL mainly eat insect larvae, but switch to a more diverse diet when their size increases: adult insects, molluscs and detritus become more important, and large specimens of this species are the only barbs in Lake Tana that eat freshwater crabs of the genus Potamoonautes.
182236		population	eng	Since the species is distributed in several water systems of Ethiopian freshwaters, its population is quite high, although a population estimation has not been undertaken.
182236		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the fish resource and construction of dams could be threats to this species, although it is distributed in several water systems in large numbers.
182237		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for this species are known. A clearer understanding of the threats facing this species is required, and monitoring of the population. Habitat maintenance/conservation is needed, as is suitable harvest management, to minimise threats from commercial fishing of this species.
182237		conservation	eng	No information
182237		conservation	eng	No information available.
182237		conservation	eng	None known.
182237		distribution	eng	<em>Bagrus docmak</em> is widely distributed throughout the Nile, Tchad, Niger, Volta, Senegal, Mono and Oueme Rivers, as well as the rift valley lakes Edward, George, Albert, Victoria and Tanganyika. Rivers Nile, Niger, Senegal, Volta and Lake Chad basins.  East African rift lakes, except Lake Kivu, where it was introduced in 1959 and 1960, apparently without success.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is recorded from the Cross and Sanaga River basins (Cameroon). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is present in Lake Tanganyika and estuaries of major affluent rivers, the Rusizi and Malagarasi. It is also found in Lakes Victoria, Nabugabo, Kyoga, Albert, Edward and George, as well as Semliki River, Albert Nile and  Victoria Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Common from Nile Delta to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia) and in Wadi El Rayan Lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and jebel systems, Nile and Lake Nasser, Sudan; it is also present in Blue Nile, Baro, Tekeze and Omo basins, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta and Senegal basins.
182237		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Bagrus dockmak</em> is common from the Nile Delta to Lake Nasser (this last one outside the region) and in Wadi El Rayan Lakes.<br/><br/>Global range: River Nile system to Lake Victoria, Blue Nile, Ethiopia (Lake Stephanie), Lake Albert, Lake Rudolf, Somalia (River Ganana), Mozambique (River Bavuma), Kenya, Cameroon, Uganda (Lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward and George, River Semliki and Murchison and Nile Albert system), Gold Coast, Northern Nigeria, Ghana (Lake and River Volta), Lake Tanganyika.
182237		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea recorded from the Cross and Sanaga River basins (Cameroon). Elsewhere, widely distributed throughout the Nile, Tchad, Niger, Volta, Senegal, Mono and Oueme Rivers, as well as the rift valley lakes Edward, George, Albert, Victoria and Tanganyika. Rivers Nile, Niger, Senegal, Volta and Lake Chad basins.  Eastern African rift lakes, except Lake Kivu, where it was introduced in 1959 and 1960, apparently without success.
182237		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Tanganyika and estuaries of major affluent rivers, Rusizi, Malagarasi. Lakes Victoria, Nabugabo, Kyoga, Albert, Edward, George; Semliki River, Albert Nile,  Victoria Nile.
182237		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta and Senegal basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Nile and the East African rift lakes, but not Lake Kivu.
182237		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus dockmak</em> inhabits lakes, swamps and rivers. It is widespread in both shallow and deep waters. It is probably associated with rocky bottoms and coarse substrates. It is mostly active during the night and the twilight hours. The fish feeds mainly on fish, insects, crustaceans and molluscs and to a minor extent on plants. Mature ovaries are seen in summer and there is a simple long breeding season, extending from March to September. In Lake Nasser, spawning nests were seen in shallow waters in sandy bottom or rocks. The largest specimen caught measured 109 cm. Catches have declined in Lake Victoria as a result of predation by Nile perch and also competition with Nile perch especially for haplochromines.
182237		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus docmak</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits lakes, swamps and rivers (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is widespread in both shallow and deep water, with a depth range 0-80 m but most common between 0 and 70 m (Witte and de Winter 1995). It is probably associated with rocky bottoms/coarse substrates (Lock 1982). This species is mostly active during the night and the twilight hours (Baensch and Riehl 1985). Juveniles may frequent exposed rocky shores (Corbet 1961). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> feeds mainly on fish, but also on insects, crustaceans and molluscs. In young fish invertebrates are the pricipal food source, adult fish are primarily piscivorous, piscivorous feeding occurs mainly at day, invertebrate feeding by night (Chilvers and Gee, 1974). Some debris and vegetable matter may also be ingested (Bailey 1994). Mature ovaries are seen in summer and there is a simple long breeding season, extending from March to September. In Lake Nasser, spawning nests were seen in shallow waters in sandy bottom or rocks.<br/><em>Bagrus docmak</em> is moderately important as a food species in Lake Victoria, but becoming rare with the appearance of Nile perch (Eccles 1992). Catches decreased strongly in Lake Victoria after the <em>Lates</em> upsurge (Witte and de Winter 1995). Predation by <em>Lates</em> and competition with <em>Lates</em> (for haplochromines) may have played a role in the decline (Witte and de Winter 1995). A notably recovery in waters between 3m and 6m depth in Lake Victoria has been reported (Ogari and Asila 1990). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is the second most important food species in Lake Edward, Congo (Vakily 1989). It has distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).<br/>Competition with the Nile Perch largely displaced the species from the inshore and open waters of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo. In Lake Victoria it is now largely restricted to mouths of large rivers e.g. the Nile and to the Victoria. The reproduction period in Lake Victoria is from September to February, although some reproduction occurs at lower levels throughout the year (Dadzie and Ochieng-Okach, 1989).
182237		habitat	eng	<em>Bagrus docmak</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits lakes, swamps and rivers (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is widespread in both shallow and deep water (Witte and de Winter 1995). It is probably associated with rocky bottoms/coarse substrates (Lock 1982). This species is mostly active during the night and the twilight hours (Baensch and Riehl 1985). Juveniles may frequent exposed rocky shores (Corbet 1961). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> feeds mainly on fish, but also on insects, crustaceans and molluscs. Some debris and vegetable matter may also be ingested (Bailey 1994). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is moderately important as a food species in Lake Victoria, but becoming rare with the appearance of Nile perch (Eccles 1992). Catches decreased strongly in Lake Victoria after the <em>Lates</em> upsurge (Witte and de Winter 1995). Predation by <em>Lates</em> and competition with <em>Lates</em> (for haplochromines) may have played a role in the decline (Witte and de Winter 1995). A notably recovery in waters between 3m and 6m depth in Lake Victoria has been reported (Ogari and Asila 1990). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is the second most important food species in Lake Edward, Congo (Vakily 1989). It has distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182237		habitat	eng	Found both in deep and shallow waters of lakes and deltas, depth range 0-80 m but most common between 0 and 70 m. Juveniles may occur on exposed rocky shores (Witte and de Winter 1995). Competition with the Nile Perch largely displaced the species from the inshore and open waters of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo. In Lake Victoria. Now largely restricted to mouths of large rivers e.g. the Nile and to the Victoria. In youg fish invertebrates are the pricipal food source, adult fish are primarily piscivorous, piscivorous feeding occurs mainly at day, invertebrate feeding by night (Chilvers and Gee 1974). The reproduction period in Lake Victoria is from September to February, although some reproduction occurs at lower levels throughout the year (Dadzie and Ochieng-Okach 1989).
182237		habitat	eng	The species occurs in streams and lakes. A benthopelagic species. Widespread in both shallow and deep water. Lives in muddy bottoms and feeds on benthic organisms including fish, insect larvae and invertebrates. Little is known about the biology of this fish.
182237		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182237		population	eng	No information available.
182237		population	eng	Population status not known, but has become rather rare in estuary of rivers around Lake Tanganyika; Has also declined in Kenya and Tanzania portion of the lake Victoria.
182237		population	eng	This species is widely distributed, although the population status is not exactly known. In eastern Africa it has become rather rare in estuary of rivers around Lake Tanganyika, and has also declined in the Kenya and Tanzania portions of the Lake Victoria.
182237		threats	eng	For the majority of its range, no major threats to this species are known. Within eastern Africa however, there is heavy fishing pressure upon this species, as well as changes in inshore biotopes. Competition for food and predation from introduced Nile Perch is a major threat, and has largely displaced the species from the inshore and open waters of many lakes in the region. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this species.
182237		threats	eng	None known
182237		threats	eng	None known.
182237		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are  the heavy fishing pressure,  changes in inshore biotopes and competition for food and predation from introduced Nile Perch.
182237		threats	eng	The major threats to this species in the region are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182238		conservation	eng	None known.
182238		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.
182238		distribution	eng	In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrops breviceps</em> is known from a single specimen from the Mvi River, Sanaga River basin, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from the Volta River, and from several coastal rivers in Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, and Guinée Bissau.
182238		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered locations from Guinea Bissau to Ghana, with one additional recording in Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrops breviceps</em> is known from a single specimen from the Mvi River, Sanaga River basin, Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The distributional area of this species seems to be restricted to the Volta, the rivers of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, and some coastal rivers of Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea Bissau (Culufi). However it might be assumed that <em>M. breviceps</em> in fact occurs within a coastal band extending from the Volta rivers to Guinea Bissau.
182238		habitat	eng	No information available.
182238		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
182238		population	eng	No information available.
182238		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182238		threats	eng	Pollution from mining is threatening some populations in western Africa.
182239		conservation	eng	No information available.
182239		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182239		conservation	eng	None known.
182239		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182239		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution:</span> This species inhabits brackish environments and freshwaters of coastal rivers, from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo and perhaps to the Cunene River in Northern Namibia.
182239		distribution	eng	Species present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River at Cabinda province) and Kunene River systems.
182239		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Eleotris daganensis</em> is only known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it is found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango in the south, though not apparently collected from southern Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere it is widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to the Cunene River, Namibia.
182239		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to the Cunene River, Namibia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eleotris daganensis</em> is known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it is found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango in the south, though not apparently collected from southern Gabon and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River, at Cabinda province) and Kunene River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species inhabits coastal rivers from Senegal to Nigeria.
182239		habitat	eng	<em>Eleotris daganensis</em> occurs in coastal rivers (Maugé 1986). It is a demersal species.
182239		habitat	eng	<em>Eleotris daganensis</em> occurs in lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers (Maugé 1986). It is a demersal species.
182239		habitat	eng	Inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. Biology is not known.
182239		habitat	eng	This demersal fish occurs in coastal rivers.
182239		population	eng	No available data.
182239		population	eng	No information available.
182239		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182239		threats	eng	No information available.
182239		threats	eng	None known
182239		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182240		conservation	eng	None known.
182240		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently known from scattered localities in the Ivindo and Ntem systems in eastern Gabon and southeastern Cameroon, and from the Ogowe system in the region of Ndjole in Western Gabon.
182240		habitat	eng	<em>Parananochromis brevirostris</em> inhabits small forest creeks and streams (Lamboj and Stiassny 2003). It is a benthopelagic species.
182240		population	eng	No information available.
182240		threats	eng	In the Ivindo system, the species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture.
182241		conservation	eng	None known.
182241		distribution	eng	This killifish is presently only known from two localities (This species is known from upper Santa River, a tributary to the Kolenté River) in the vicinity of Kindia, southeastern Guinea.
182241		habitat	eng	This species is found in small creeks.
182241		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182241		threats	eng	The threats to the species come from the expanding city of Kindia. The two locations are within the vicinity of Kindia, which is a small town with an expanding human population.
182242		conservation	eng	None known.
182242		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus erythozonus</em> is only known from the type locality: Foulakari River, Lower Congo River system, Congo.
182242		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus erythozonus</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 3.4 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182242		population	eng	No information available.
182242		threats	eng	None known.
182243		conservation	eng	None known.
182243		distribution	eng	<em>Rhabdalestes aeratis</em> is only known from the type locality Lake Tumba at Irebu, Central Congo River basin.
182243		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182243		population	eng	No information available.
182243		threats	eng	None known.
182244		conservation	eng	No information available.
182244		distribution	eng	This species is only known from type locality, Kosti, White Nile basin, Sudan.
182244		habitat	eng	This species is found in running water.
182244		population	eng	No information available.
182244		threats	eng	No information available.
182245		conservation	eng	None known.
182245		distribution	eng	<em>Cyclopharynx fwae</em> is only known from the Fwa River, tributary to the Lubu River, tributary to the Sankuru River, in the southeastern Congo River drainage, Kasaï Oriental Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182245		habitat	eng	<em>Cyclopharynx fwae</em> is a benthopelagic species. Larger specimens had guts entirely or almost entirely filled with sand. The smallest specimen had a gut filled with fine sand and fine vegetable matter, including large numbers of single barrel-shaped diatom species. (Roberts and Kullander 1994).
182245		population	eng	No information available.
182245		threats	eng	None known.
182246		conservation	eng	None known.
182246		distribution	eng	<em>Doumea alula</em> has been found in the Lower Congo rapids, the Central Congo and the Lualaba and Luapula system. It has also been reported from Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983) and possibly from the Kwango River and the rapids of the Luachima River (Angola) and from the Bambari River, affluent of the Ubangui River (Central African Republic).
182246		habitat	eng	<em>Doumea alula</em> is a demersal species that mainly lives in big rapids.
182246		population	eng	No information available.
182246		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182247		conservation	eng	None known.
182247		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from scattered localities throughout the region, rivers of South Cameroon and Rio Muni. <em>Varicorhinus werneri</em> has a strange distribution pattern that has to be looked at in more detail.
182247		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182247		population	eng	No information available.
182247		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182248		conservation	eng	None known.
182248		distribution	eng	All known specimens have been collected from the Ofin (Pra basin) and Tano rivers.
182248		habitat	eng	Largest specimen observed is 204 mm SL.
182248		population	eng	No available data.
182248		threats	eng	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in the Pra. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation due to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.
182249		conservation	eng	None known.
182249		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Africa, known from Lower Niger (type locality), and basins of the Ouémé (Benin) and Ogun (Nigeria)
182249		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 14.4 cm SL.
182249		population	eng	No available data.
182249		threats	eng	Threats to this species include declining habitat quality, and it is impacted by oil exploration in Nigeria
182250		conservation	eng	None known.
182250		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> is originally known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. <em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> has been introduced to the Philippines. It is unknown whether the species has established itself.
182250		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds mainly at night on insects, crustaceans and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The parents tend their clutch more than they guard it.
182250		population	eng	No information available.
182250		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182251		conservation	eng	None known.
182251		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe multitaeniatus</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon. It occurs in the Lower Guinea region from the Nyong and Ntem Rivers (Cameroon), from the Nyanga, Ogowe and N’dogo Rivers (Gabon), and from the Kouilou River (Congo).
182251		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182251		population	eng	No information available.
182251		threats	eng	None known.
182252		conservation	eng	None known.
182252		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, known from the Cross, Mungo, Wouri, Sanaga, Kribi and Ivindo.      <br/><br/>Elsewhere: Chad basin and Benue River system, Fernando Poo, Nigeria.  Also known from coastal basins in Benin to Cameroon (Lévêque 1990), from Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1988).
182252		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in coastal basins of Ghana to Cameroon, as well as in the Chad, Benue, Bagoé (Niger basin), and in some coastal basins in Côte d’Ivoire. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from Bioko (Fernando Poo) and coastal basins in Cameroon (Leveque and Daget 1984).
182252		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Barbus callipterus</em> ranges from Senegal to Chad:<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, this species is known from the Cross Mungo, Wouri, Sanaga, Kribi and Ivindo. <br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in coastal basins of Ghana to Cameroon, as well as in the Chad, Benue, Bagoé (Niger basin), and in some coastal basins in Côte d’Ivoire.
182252		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182252		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus callipterus</em> is a benthopelagic.
182252		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus callipterus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182252		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182252		population	eng	No information available.
182252		threats	eng	No major threats are known, though this species does have a commercial value as an aquarium fish in central Africa.
182252		threats	eng	None known
182252		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182253		conservation	eng	None known.
182253		distribution	eng	<em>Leptocypris lujae</em> is known from the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the lower, central and upper Congo River basin. It has  not been found in the upper Lualaba and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182253		habitat	eng	<em>Leptocypris lujae</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182253		population	eng	No information available.
182253		threats	eng	None known.
182254		conservation	eng	None known.
182254		distribution	eng	<em>Potamothrissa whiteheadi</em> is only known from the type locality, the Hombo River, tributary of the Luhoho River, from the upper Congo River basin.
182254		habitat	eng	<em>Potamothrissa whiteheadi</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers.
182254		population	eng	No information available.
182254		threats	eng	None known.
182255		conservation	eng	None known.
182255		distribution	eng	<em>Chromidotilapia schoutedeni</em> is known from the Congo River at Yangambi and in tributaries of the Lualaba and the Lualabe itself.
182255		habitat	eng	<em>Chromidotilapia schoutedeni</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.8 cm. It is found in clear running water (Daget 1991). The species is a female mouth-brooder.
182255		population	eng	No information available.
182255		threats	eng	None known.
182256		conservation	eng	The species distribution is located in the Upemba National Park.
182256		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus iphthimostoma</em> is only known from the Muye and Kateke Rivers, tributaries of the Lufira River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182256		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus iphthimostoma</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182256		population	eng	No information available.
182256		threats	eng	None known.
182257		conservation	eng	Part of the distribution of this species is situated in the Luilaka River in the Salonga Park (Stiassny, M., pers. comm).
182257		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis aristoma</em> is known from the Tshuapa and Lukuga Rivers, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from the Luilaka River in the Salonga National Park (Stiassny, M., pers. comm). The distribution extends throughout the whole Salonga area (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).
182257		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis aristoma</em> is a benthopelagic, microphagous species (Stiassny 1989). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
182257		population	eng	No information available.
182257		threats	eng	None known.
182258		conservation	eng	None known.
182258		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax parvus</em> is known from the Ogowe to Chiloango Rivers.
182258		habitat	eng	<em>Nannocharax parvus</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 4.2 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182258		population	eng	No information available.
182258		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182259		conservation	eng	None known.
182259		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus aspilus</em> is known from the Dja basin, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon and from the Nyong and Sanaga Rivers.
182259		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus aspilus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182259		population	eng	No information available.
182259		threats	eng	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
182260		conservation	eng	None known.
182260		distribution	eng	This species is presently only known from the type locality, a slow flowing creek near Samalofila, southwest of Bamako, and a locality east of Bougouni in southwestern Mali.
182260		habitat	eng	The species is found in schools, most commonly in the upper water layers. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish. It is easy to maintain in the aquarium. Maximum size 4.0 cm.
182260		population	eng	No available data.
182260		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182261		conservation	eng	None known.
182261		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper reaches of the Sanaga River in Cameroon.
182261		habitat	eng	No information available.
182261		population	eng	No information available.
182261		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182262		conservation	eng	None known.
182262		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Epiplatys spilargyreius</em> is known from Senegal to Sudan and the Central African Republic. There is an isolated population known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Recently, a second isolated population was discovered in an affluent of the Luala River, Lower Congo River basin. It has also been found in the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.
182262		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The Senegal and Gambia River systems in Senegal and Gambia; the coastal rivers in Guinea Bissau; the Niger River in Guinea, Mali, Northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria; the Benue River system in Nigeria and Cameroon; the Upper Volta River system in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; the Upper Comoé River system of Burkina Faso; the Lake Chad system and the Logone and Chari Rivers in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Swampy areas, brooks, small rivers and other bodies of quiet water in the savannah from Senegal to southern Sudan.
182262		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There is an isolated population known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Recently, a second isolated population was discovered in an affluent of the Luala River, Lower Congo River basin. It has also been found in the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Senegal and Gambia river systems in Senegal and Gambia; the coastal rivers in Guinea Bissau; the Niger River in Guinea, Mali, Northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria; the Benue River system in Nigeria and Cameroon; the upper Volta River system in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; the upper Comoé River system of Burkina Faso; the Lake Chad system and the Logone and Chari Rivers in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon.
182262		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys spilargyreius</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swampy areas, small brooks and small streams. It browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. The males are smaller than females (Bailet 1994). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species s very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182262		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys spilargyreius</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swampy areas, small brooks and small streams. It browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. The males are smaller than females (Bailey 1994). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182262		habitat	eng	Occurs in swampy areas, small brooks and small streams. Browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. Males are smaller than females (Huber 1996).
182262		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182262		population	eng	No information available.
182262		threats	eng	None known
182262		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182262		threats	eng	This species is commercially collected for the aquarium trade.
182263		conservation	eng	None known.
182263		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.
182263		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> A Lower Guinea endemic, known from only two collection localities in Lower Guinea, one from the Cross River and one from the Sanaga River of Cameroon. Its identification and distribution should be considered provisional pending additional collections.
182263		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from two collection localities in Lower Guinea, one from the Cross River and one from the Sanaga River of Cameroon. Its identification and distribution should be considered provisional pending additional collections.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Niger and Volta River basins.
182263		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus macrophthalmus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species.
182263		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus macrophthalmus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species. It has a weak electrical discharge.
182263		population	eng	No information available.
182263		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182263		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance in central Africa. Deforestation, droughts and invasive weeds are possible threats to some west African populations.
182265		conservation	eng	None known.
182265		distribution	eng	<em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> has been collected in the Niger and Benue basins, but also in the Moa, Cavally, Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Pra and Cross. This species may thus be sympatric with <em>R. senegalensis</em> or <em>R. steindachner</em>i, even if the latter two have separate distribution areas.
182265		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> is found in the Cross River.     <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Niger and Bénoué Rivers, also in Moa, Cavally, Sassandra, Bandama, and Comoé Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire, Pra River in Ghana and Cross River in Nigeria.
182265		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> is a demersal potamodromous species.
182265		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> is a demersal potamodromous species. The maximum TL was recorded at 12.5 cm.
182265		population	eng	No information available.
182265		threats	eng	There is an ongoing decline in habitat in the River Cross due to oil exploration. In the Pra the main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish.
182265		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182266		conservation	eng	No information available.
182266		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality, southern Sudan.
182266		habitat	eng	No information available.
182266		population	eng	No information available.
182266		threats	eng	No information available.
182267		conservation	eng	None known.
182267		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes melas</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids in Lower Congo, and from the Central Congo River basin.
182267		habitat	eng	<em>Clariallabes melas</em> is a demersal species that feeds on plant debris and insect larvae (Matthes 1964).
182267		population	eng	No information available.
182267		threats	eng	None known.
182268		conservation	eng	None known.
182268		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clypeobarbus congicus</em> is known from scattered locations in the Congo River basin. It has also been reported from Bujumbura (Ruzizi River, Burundi) and the Malagarasi River (Tanzania).
182268		distribution	eng	This species is found in Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Clypeobarbus congicus</em> is known from scattered locations in the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has been reported from Bujumbura (Ruzizi River, Burundi) and the Malagarasi River (Tanzania).
182268		habitat	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a polyphagous species; the stomachs contained fine sand, Diatomea, filamentous algae, Ostracods, little Oligochaeta and insect larvae (Chironomids, Ceratopogonids, Trichoptera and Ephemera) (Matthes 1964).
182268		population	eng	No information available.
182268		threats	eng	None known.
182269		conservation	eng	No information available.
182269		conservation	eng	None known.
182269		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182269		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is found in the Cross and Wouri River basins. Elsewhere it is known from Senegal to the Niger River.
182269		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> This species is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger and Benue, Mono, Volta, Pra, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Konkouré, Kolente, Kaba, Sewa, Moa, Mano, Senegal, Gambia, Tominé and Géba. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution:  </strong></strong>Outside the area here considered it has been reported from the Wouri (Cameroon).
182269		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species known from Senegal to Chad and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is found in the Cross and Wouri River basins.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger and Benue, Mono, Volta, Pra, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Konkouré, Kolente, Kaba, Sewa, Moa, Mano, Senegal, Gambia, Tominé and Géba.
182269		habitat	eng	<em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species.
182269		habitat	eng	Pelagic species, potamodromous.
182269		population	eng	No available data.
182269		population	eng	No information available.
182269		threats	eng	Oil extraction in Nigeria
182269		threats	eng	Oil extraction in Nigeria threatens local populations.
182269		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182270		conservation	eng	None known.
182270		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops microstoma</em> is known from Mbandaka, Central Congo River basin.
182270		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182270		population	eng	No information available.
182270		threats	eng	None known.
182271		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.
182271		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the upper Cross River basin, in the Mo, Me and Man Rivers, around the village of Numba, western Cameroon.
182271		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax moensis</em> occurs in in brooks and small rainforest streams. It is a benthopelagic species.
182271		population	eng	No information available.
182271		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182272		conservation	eng	None known.
182272		distribution	eng	This species is so far known only from the upper Senegal basin (Bafing, Téné) in Guinea.
182272		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 6.1 cm SL.
182272		population	eng	No available data.
182272		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and pollution.
182273		conservation	eng	None known. More information on this species is needed, as well as local awareness raising to educate how current practises are damaging the freshwater ecosystem.
182273		distribution	eng	This species is known from upper Mano river drainage, northern Liberia and eastern Guinea.
182273		habitat	eng	It is benthopelagic; non-migratory; pH range: 6.5 - 7.2. This species occurs in brooks in the forested savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium
182273		population	eng	No available data.
182273		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia.
182274		conservation	eng	None known.
182274		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus teugelsi</em> is known from the mainstream rapids in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo River rapids near Inga (Schelley and Stiassny 2004). Recent records have been made between these two sites (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.). It is only known from a stretch of river of about 200-300 km.
182274		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182274		population	eng	No information available.
182274		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
182275		conservation	eng	None known.
182275		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the inland plateau of northern Gabon, in the Okano River, between Koumameyong and Lalara. It is also found in southeastern Equatorial Guinea.
182275		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion maculatum</em> is found in rainforest brooks and small streams on the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) maculatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182275		population	eng	No information available.
182275		threats	eng	None known.
182276		conservation	eng	None known.
182276		distribution	eng	This species is known from the area between the River Corubal (Guinea Bissau) and the River St. Paul (Liberia).
182276		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum size of 15.6 cm SL
182276		population	eng	No available data.
182276		threats	eng	None known.
182277		conservation	eng	None known.
182277		distribution	eng	This species extends from west of the Volta and from the Côte d’Ivoire basins up to the Nipoué.
182277		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182277		population	eng	No available data.
182277		threats	eng	None known.
182278		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182278		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182278		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias dumerilii</em> is distributed from Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from the Luapala system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene River (Que River), Cuvo River and Congo River (Kasai, Tchimenji and Luachimo Rivers) systems. Records from the Okavango River are questionable.
182278		distribution	eng	Species present in the Central and Upper Congo system. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene River (Que River ), Cuvo River, Okavango River (Cubango River ), and Congo River (Kasai River, Tchimenji River, Luachimo River ) systems.
182278		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182278		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias dumerilii</em> is demersal species. It is a polyphagous species; the stomach contents consisted of sand, dead plant material, aquatic larvae (Chironomidae, Cératopogonidae, Ephemera and Trichoptera) and pieces of terrestrial insects (Coleoptera, ants) (Matthes 1964).
182278		population	eng	No information available.
182278		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182278		threats	eng	None known.
182278		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182279		conservation	eng	None known.
182279		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxoglanis parvus</em> is distributed in the Central Congo River system, from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) upstream into the middle Ubangui and as upstream in the Congo as Kisangani. It has not been verified from the Lower Congo, but is present in the Kumbinanimi system, a small coastal basin just north of the Congo mouth (Norris 2002).
182279		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182279		population	eng	No information available.
182279		threats	eng	None known.
182280		conservation	eng	None known.
182280		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal rainforest region of the southern Côte d'Ivoire and southwestern Ghana.
182280		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow brooks, shallow pools and shallow parts of swamps on sedimentary soil in the coastal rainforest. Usually found in the shallowest parts of the habitats such as small puddles and even animal foot prints in swampy ground. It is not a seasonal killifish.
182280		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182280		threats	eng	Effluents from mining activities in the coastal basins may cause problems for this fish. Also, residential developments in coastal areas and the water pollution associated with them may also pose a threat.
182281		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182281		distribution	eng	<em>Nothobranchius brieni</em> is known from the type locality Bukama, Middle Lualaba River and from Lake Upemba, Shaba province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182281		habitat	eng	<em>Nothobranchius brieni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is found in temporary pools and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a bottom spawner (Huber 1996).
182281		population	eng	No information available.
182281		threats	eng	None known.
182282		conservation	eng	None known.
182282		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus urotaenia</em> is only known from Dungre and from the Dungu River, upper Uele River, Central Congo River system.
182282		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus urotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182282		population	eng	No information available.
182282		threats	eng	None known.
182283		conservation	eng	None known.
182283		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis batesii</em> is found in the Dja and the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Nyong, Ntem of Cameroon, the Ivindo, Ogowe and Ouzibi of Gabon, in the Rio Muni in Equatorial Guinea and in the Central Congo basin.
182283		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182283		population	eng	No information available.
182283		threats	eng	None known.
182284		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.
182284		distribution	eng	<em>Sicydium bustamantei</em> is found on the islands of Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu in the Gulf of Guinea, up to altitudes of 1200 m. This species might also occur in the Lobe and Kribi rivers of Cameroon but this requires confirmation.
182284		habitat	eng	<em>Sicydium bustamantei</em> is known from fast flowing rivers. It is a demersal species.
182284		population	eng	No information available.
182284		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182285		conservation	eng	No information available.
182285		conservation	eng	No information available. Policy-based actions are needed to protect this species.
182285		conservation	eng	None known.
182285		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Bulabemba and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Vista and Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is distributed along the West African coast, from Senegal to Angola, and on the islands of the Gulf of Guinea.
182285		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species living brackish water long coasts of Senegal to Cameroon, occasionally out of fresh waters, but always close to the coasts.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola, including most offshore islands - Macias Nguema, São Tomé, and Principe island.
182285		distribution	eng	This species is found in brackish water along the West African coast, from Senegal to Angola, and on the islands of the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Bulabemba and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Vista and Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is distributed from Senegal to Cameroon, occasionally out of fresh waters, but always close to the coasts.
182285		habitat	eng	Amphidromous, reef-associated fish that lives in freshwater or brackish water. Amphibious air-breather that skips or walks on sand or mud in search of food; that is, on exposed intertidal mud flats of estuarine mangrove swamps. Feeds chiefly on arthropods (crabs, insects, etc.) of the mud surface. Also included in the diet is the white mangrove, <em>Avicennia nitida.</em> Spawns in burrows.
182285		habitat	eng	<em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is found on muddy substrates and in brackish waters of estuaries, lagoons, and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is found occasionally in freshwater, but always close to the coast (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a reef-associated and amphidromous species (Reide 2004). <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is an amphibious air-breather (Martin and Bridges 1999) that skips or walks on sand or mud in search of food; that is, on exposed intertidal mud flats of estuarine mangrove swamps. The adult feed chiefly on arthropods (crabs, insects, etc.) of the mud surface. Also included in the diet is the white mangrove, <em>Avicennia nitida</em> (Irvine 1947). They spawn in burrows (Miller 1981).
182285		population	eng	No available data.
182285		population	eng	No information available.
182285		threats	eng	It is used in subsistence fisheries; and commercially harvested for the aquarium trade.
182285		threats	eng	None known
182285		threats	eng	This species is harvested in subsistence fisheries, and has commercial value as an aquarium fish.
182287		conservation	eng	None known.
182287		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes uelensis</em> is known from the type locality, Ibembo region, from a swamp in connection with Lac Tumba, Tshuapa River, Yaekema swamp, Eala, Kunungu and Bonguma, all in the Central Congo River basin.
182287		habitat	eng	<em>Clariallabes uelensis</em> is a demersal species.
182287		population	eng	No information available.
182287		threats	eng	None known.
182288		conservation	eng	None known.
182288		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis macrophthalmus</span> is known only from the type locality, at Ampem, Volta basin in Ghana.
182288		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of maximum reported size: 202 mm TL (146 mm SL).
182288		population	eng	No available data.
182288		threats	eng	Dams, agricultural, urban and deforestation developments.
182289		conservation	eng	None known.
182289		distribution	eng	<em>Potamothrissa acutirostris</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin, including Brazzaville, the Ubangui, Lualaba, Kasai and other tributaries (Whitehead 1985). It is absent in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182289		habitat	eng	<em>Potamothrissa acutirostris</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and lakes, apparently in both still and running water. The distribution of this species suggests that it tolerates a wide variety of water conditions.
182289		population	eng	No information available.
182289		threats	eng	None known.
182290		conservation	eng	None known.
182290		distribution	eng	This species is known from Côte d’Ivoire, in the basins of the Bandama, Comoé, Sassandra, Agnébi, and Mé.
182290		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum TL was recorded at 28.1 cm
182290		population	eng	No available data.
182290		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182291		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182291		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoglanis camerunensis</span> is known from the type locality, Lagdo, situated in the upper Benue (Northern Cameroon), as well as from the upper course of the Niger in Guinea.
182291		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum reported size: 25 mm TL.
182291		population	eng	No available data.
182291		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182292		conservation	eng	No information available.
182292		conservation	eng	None known.
182292		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus hasselquistii</em> is Regionally Extinct, recorded by Boulenger (1907) from Egyptian Lower Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile and Chad basins. It is also known from the great Sahelo-Soudanian basins in Senegal, Gambia and Volta; also in the Mono, the Gêba, the Bandama, the Comoe River, and the Ebrie and Aguien lagoons.
182292		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Sahelo-Sudanese basins, the Sénégal, Gambia and Volta, Géba, Bandama, Comoé, Mono and the lagoons Ebrié and Aguien. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Also in the Nile (Gosse 1984).
182292		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It was recorded by Boulenger (1907) from Egyptian Lower Nile, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and White Nile to Khartoum, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Sahelo-Sudanese basins, the Sénégal, Gambia and Volta, Géba, Bandama, Comoé, Mono and the lagoons Ebrié and Aguien.
182292		habitat	eng	A demersal species that possess electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. A fractional spawner.
182292		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus hasselquistii</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. It is a fractional spawner. It reaches a maximum length 50 cm.
182292		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and potamodromous. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. A fractional spawner.
182292		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182292		population	eng	No information available.
182292		threats	eng	None known
182292		threats	eng	None known.
182292		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182293		conservation	eng	None known.
182293		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">C. citharus</span>  is common in the large Sudanese basins: Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad ( <span style="font-style: italic;">C. citharus citharus</span> ).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Lake Turkana ( <span style="font-style: italic;">C. citharus intermedius</span> ).
182293		habitat	eng	The species is common in large rivers of the Sudanese region. Feeds on phytoplankton, algae, macrophytes and organic debris. Anadromous.
182293		population	eng	No available data.
182293		threats	eng	This is an important food fish, and overfishing is a potential threat. In the Oti (Ghana), one major threat is aquatic weeds. Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices, as in the Black Volta. (Entsua -Mensah 1996)
182294		conservation	eng	No information available.
182294		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182294		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis caudovittatus</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1986).<br/><br/>Globally it is present in the Nile River basin in Egypt and Sudan.
182294		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the White Nile from Khartoum into the Jebel and Ghazal systems, Sudan, and the Baro River, Ethiopia.
182294		habitat	eng	It is oviparous. No more information available.
182294		habitat	eng	This species is oviparous. No more information available.
182294		population	eng	No information available.
182294		threats	eng	No information available.
182295		conservation	eng	None known.
182295		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis transvestitus</em> is only known from the Mai-N'dombe Lake near Ipeke (Lake Leopold II) and satellite lakes in the region, Central Congo River system.
182295		habitat	eng	<em>Nanochromis transvestitus</em> is a demersal species. It mainly feeds on benthic Cladocera, midge larvae, mites and detritus (Stewart and Roberts 1984).
182295		population	eng	No information available.
182295		threats	eng	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.
182296		conservation	eng	None known.
182296		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cadenati</span> has only been collected in the Konkouré basin (Guinea) situated on the Labé plateau in the Fouta-Djalon.
182296		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of maximum TL was recorded at 8.3 cm.
182296		population	eng	No available data.
182296		threats	eng	There is a potential threat of deforestation.
182297		conservation	eng	None known.
182297		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on this species population range and numbers, and biology and ecology. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is needed in some areas.
182297		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is found in the coastal rainforest of Cameroon and northwestern Equatorial Guinea. <br/>Elsewhere it is known from southeastern Benin, through southern Nigeria and the Niger delta to the Cross River.
182297		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> This species inhabits swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal rainforest, from Southeastern Benin to Southeastern Nigeria, including the Niger delta. Also recorded in Liberia (Voinjama) and Ghana (locality not known) - these two records need confirmation. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere from coastal Cameroon to northwestern Equatorial Guinea.
182297		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benin to Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is found in the coastal rainforest of Cameroon and northwestern Equatorial Guinea. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species inhabits swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal rainforest, from southeastern Benin to southeastern Nigeria, including the Niger delta. Also recorded in Liberia (Voinjama) and Ghana (locality not known) - these two records need confirmation.
182297		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal forest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).
182297		habitat	eng	This is a medium size killifish. Swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal rainforest. Non-migratory.
182297		population	eng	No available data.
182297		population	eng	No information available.
182297		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade, oil exploration, loss of habitat through urban development and agriculture are localised threats.
182297		threats	eng	Localised threats to this species include collection for the aquarium trade, oil exploration, and loss of habitat through urban development and agriculture.
182297		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182298		conservation	eng	None known.
182298		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion ferranti</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo basin.
182298		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion ferranti</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182298		population	eng	No information available.
182298		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182299		conservation	eng	None known.
182299		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus christyi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, including Pool Malebo and adjacent rapids, but it is not found in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is present in the Lower Guinea region where it is present from the Sanaga River to the Nyong River. It has also been recorded from the Ogowe River.
182299		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182299		population	eng	No information available.
182299		threats	eng	None known.
182300		conservation	eng	None known.
182300		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo quadribarbis</em> is only known from the Central Congo River basin: from the Congo River at Yangambi, Kisangani and Isangi and from Gangala-na-Bodio on the Dungu River and from Dilolo (Katanga) (Tshibwabwa 1997).
182300		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo quadribarbis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182300		population	eng	No information available.
182300		threats	eng	None known.
182301		conservation	eng	None known.
182301		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus lamani</em> is only known from the type locality Mukimbungu, in an left affluent of the Lower Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182301		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus lamani</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182301		population	eng	No information available.
182301		threats	eng	None known.
182302		conservation	eng	None known.
182302		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus polli</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and the Central Congo River basin (Gosse 1984, Hanssens <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gosse 1988).
182302		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus polli</em> is demersal, air breathing species. It is an entomophagous fish that lives in swamps and zones of flood (Matthes 1964).
182302		population	eng	No information available.
182302		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182303		conservation	eng	None known.
182303		distribution	eng	<em>Serranochromis spei</em> is known from the Kasai and Lualaba drainages, Congo River basin. It is thought to be more widespread than currently known.
182303		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182303		population	eng	No information available.
182303		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182304		conservation	eng	None known.
182304		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Ouémé, Ogun, Oshun, the Niger delta, Middle Niger to Lake Kainji and the rivers Benue and Cross.
182304		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182304		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182304		threats	eng	Oil spills may threaten the Niger delta populations
182305		conservation	eng	None known.
182305		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus kununguensis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is mainly known from around the main Congo River channel.
182305		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182305		population	eng	No information available.
182305		threats	eng	None known.
182306		conservation	eng	None known.
182306		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality, south of Wadalna near Belefuanai, at the road from Gbaruka to Zorzor, Central Liberia (approximately 09 (27’W; 07(13’N). This is a narrow (about 2 meters wide) forest creek with brown water. The fishes were shy and mainly found hiding among the overhanging vegetation.
182306		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small brooks. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium
182306		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182306		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining threaten this species. From the collector's record, it is found in a narrow 2 m wide forest creek. There is a lot of deforestation in Liberia and mining in central Liberia.
182307		conservation	eng	None known.
182307		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to type locality, River Via, Saint Paul’s river drainage, Liberia.
182307		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182307		population	eng	No available data.
182307		threats	eng	This species is impacted by habitat loss due to agricultural activities, deforestation and mining.
182308		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182308		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182308		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Curoca River system, a coastal river. Also present in the Congo River system (Cuango River).
182308		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis angolensis</em> has only been found in the stream crossing Chibia-Jau road, at Jau-Onguéria bifurcation, a few km south of Chibia, near Sá da Bandeira, Angola (type locality) (Eschmeyer 1997) and in the Kwango River (Cuango River) at Cafunfo, Central Congo River basin, Angola (Poll 1967).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Curoca River system, a coastal river.
182308		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis angolensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).Preferred habitat is not known, but species of this genus are adapted to rocky rapids.
182308		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but species of this genus are adapted to rocky rapids. The biology is not known.
182308		population	eng	No information available.
182308		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182308		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.
182308		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182309		conservation	eng	None known.
182309		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe system, Gabon.
182309		habitat	eng	No information available.
182309		population	eng	No information available.
182309		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182310		conservation	eng	None known.
182310		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus mirus</em> is known from the Central Congo River itself, including the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and from the Uele system, Central Congo River basin.
182310		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182310		population	eng	No information available.
182310		threats	eng	Overfishing on the Central Congo River and mining for gold north of the Congo stream pose threats to this species.
182311		conservation	eng	No information available..
182311		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance and harvest management is required.
182311		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and its major rivers the Malagarasi and Rusizi.
182311		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Raiamas salmolucius</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from Lake Tanganyika. It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Tanganyika and its major rivers, the Malagarasi and Rusizi.
182311		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas salmolucius</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. It prefers flowing waters in riverine habitats where it feeds on smaller fishes and insects (Eccles 1992).
182311		habitat	eng	Prefers flowing waters in riverine habitats where it feeds on smaller fishes and insects (Eccles 1992).
182311		population	eng	Not known, but very rare in fisheries catches.
182311		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion of river basins.
182311		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins threatens populations in eastern Africa.
182312		conservation	eng	No information available.
182312		distribution	eng	This species is known from the White Nile basin in Sudan and Ethiopia.
182312		habitat	eng	No information available.
182312		population	eng	No information available.
182312		threats	eng	No information available.
182313		conservation	eng	None known.
182313		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo longipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River Basin. One record has been made from Lake Tanganyika (Reid 1985).
182313		distribution	eng	This species is known from Central Africa Republic to Angola, and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo longipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River Basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> One record has been made from Lake Tanganyika (Reid 1985).
182313		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo longipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992).
182313		population	eng	No information available.
182313		threats	eng	None known.
182314		conservation	eng	No information available.
182314		conservation	eng	None known.
182314		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
182314		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Malagarasi River.
182314		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Malagarasi River, Tanzania. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Widespread in the Congo River basin.
182314		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Congo basin and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Malagarasi River, Tanzania.
182314		habitat	eng	<em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits large rivers and lakes (Roberts 1986) and also occurs in estuaries (Eccles 1992).
182314		habitat	eng	<em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits large rivers and lakes (Roberts 1986) and also occurs in estuaries (Eccles 1992) where it feeds mainly on molluscs and insects.
182314		habitat	eng	found in the lower riverine/delta habitat where it feeds mainly on molluscs and insects.
182314		population	eng	No information available.
182314		population	eng	Not known.
182314		threats	eng	Changes in riverine habitats due to farming extension on wetlands threatens populations in eastern Africa.
182314		threats	eng	None known.
182314		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are changes in riverine habitats due to farming extension on wetlands
182315		conservation	eng	None known.
182315		distribution	eng	This species is only present in the basins of the Lokundje, Sanaga and Lake Monoun.
182315		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182315		population	eng	No information available.
182315		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182316		conservation	eng	None known.
182316		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes congicus</em> is only known from the Tshuapa River, Central Congo River basin.
182316		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182316		population	eng	No information available.
182316		threats	eng	None known.
182317		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known,but more research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring of the population trends. Identification of suitable protected areas is also needed
182317		conservation	eng	None in place.
182317		conservation	eng	None known.
182317		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea known from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere, present in small coastal and forested rivers in Benin and south Nigeria.
182317		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover from Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Benin to Rio Muni in Equatorial Guinea (Cloffa).
182317		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in scattered localities from Benin to Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea known from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover from Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon.
182317		habitat	eng	<em>Barboides gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a monotypic genus. It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover (Lévêque and Daget 1984). It is a benthopelagic species.
182317		habitat	eng	<em>Barboides gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover (Lévêque and Daget 1984). This small stream monotypic barbus-like cyprinid is 1.8 cm in standard length. Mainly feeds on detritus and aquatic plants. It co-habits with<em> B. denticeps</em>, and is non-migratory.
182317		habitat	eng	This small stream monotypic barbus-like cyprinid mainly feeds on detritus and aquatic plants. Co-habits with <em>B. denticeps. </em>Non-migratory.
182317		population	eng	No available data..
182317		population	eng	No information available.
182317		threats	eng	In the Fifinda region, the species is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The species is also threatened by the oil palm plantations in the northern coastal regions.
182317		threats	eng	In the Fifinda region the species is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.
182317		threats	eng	Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.
182318		conservation	eng	No information available.
182318		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Ziway, Ethiopia. The lake is 25 km long and 20 km wide, and has a surface area of 434 km² (Earth Snapshot: <a href="http://www.eosnap.com/?tag=lake-koka">Volcano and Lakes around Addis Abbaba, Ethiopia</a>. 21 Dec. 2008).
182318		habitat	eng	This fish occurs in the deeper areas of Lake Ziway.
182318		population	eng	It is a rare species inhabiting usually the deeper parts of the lake.
182318		threats	eng	Specific threats to this species are not known but are likely to include the effects of deforestation, agriculture and urbanisation.
182319		conservation	eng	None known.
182319		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax elongatus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Gribingui River, Chad basin as well.
182319		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182319		population	eng	No information available.
182319		threats	eng	None known.
182320		conservation	eng	None known.
182320		distribution	eng	<em>Congochromis squamiceps</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182320		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182320		population	eng	No information available.
182320		threats	eng	None known.
182321		conservation	eng	None known.
182321		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus candens</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
182321		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus candens</em> is a benthopelagic species. Stomach contents were composed of fine sand, plant debris, Hydracarians but especially Entomostracans (Cladocerans and Copepods) and small insect larvae (Chironomids, Simulids, Ephemerans) (Matthes 1964).
182321		population	eng	No information available.
182321		threats	eng	None known.
182322		conservation	eng	None known.
182322		distribution	eng	This species is known from upper Guinea Rivers; Gambia, Geba, Taja, Moa, Mano, Loffa, St. Pauls, St. Johns, Nipoué and Tano rivers. However, its presence in Bia and several basins of Guinea must still be proven and its presence in Tano confirmed by other specimens.
182322		habitat	eng	This is a demersal in rivers
182322		population	eng	No available data.
182322		threats	eng	None known.
182323		conservation	eng	None known.
182323		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Benue River Cameroon (and possibly Nigeria) and the Mayo-Kebbi River Basin in Chad and the Chari system in Chad and the Central African Republic.
182323		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum size 3.5 cm SL
182323		population	eng	No available data.
182323		threats	eng	Threats to this species include mining and deforestation.
182324		conservation	eng	None known.
182324		distribution	eng	Malapterurus stiassnyae is broadly distributed in This species is known from upper Guinean basins east of the Fouta Djalon uplands, from the Bofon River (Guinea) to the St. Paul River (Liberia). A single small specimen is verified from the Cavally basin, somewhat disjunct from the main distribution block as it is presently known.
182324		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. The largest specimen observed was 300 mm SL.
182324		population	eng	No available data.
182324		threats	eng	Threats to this species include agricultural, mining, urban developments, deforestation and civil unrest (war).
182325		conservation	eng	None known.
182325		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes longicauda </em> is known from the Dja and Sangha River basins. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Sanaga, Nyong, and Woleu-Ntem Rivers in Cameroon, as well as the Ivindo and Nyanga Rivers from Gabon.
182325		habitat	eng	<em>Clariallabes longicauda</em> is a demersal species that feeds on invertebrates, fish eggs, Anura and even fish (Wyckmans <em>et al.</em> 2007).
182325		population	eng	No information available.
182325		threats	eng	None known.
182326		conservation	eng	The species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.
182326		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria thysi</em> is only known from the types from rapids above the Kiubo falls, Luifra River basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182326		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182326		population	eng	No information available.
182326		threats	eng	None known.
182327		conservation	eng	None known.
182327		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic to Lower Guinea restricted to the Ogowe River basin (including the Ivindo River where it is found in sympatry with <em>Ivindomyrus opdenboschi</em>), the Rembo Nkomi River (small coastal River below the mouth of Ogowe River) and the Nyanga River.
182327		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182327		population	eng	No information available.
182327		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182328		conservation	eng	None known.
182328		distribution	eng	This species is reliably known only from the types locality, River Via, Saint Paul drainage in Liberia. It may also occur in the River Corubal, but this needs to be confirmed.
182328		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182328		population	eng	No available data.
182328		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia.
182329		conservation	eng	None known.
182329		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182329		distribution	eng	Species present in the Congo River system. In Angola, the species occurs in the Longa River system.
182329		distribution	eng	This clariid is widely distributed ranging from Cross River (Nigeria), Kribi and Lobi Rivers (South Cameroon), Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia, Botswana and Namibia.
182329		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Kribi and Lobi (Cameroon), Komo and Ntem (Cameroon and Gabon) and the Ogowe Rivers (Gabon).
182329		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias submarginatus</em> is a demersal species.
182329		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.
182329		habitat	eng	This species is a small sized clariid. Lives in streams and in coastal mangrove marshes and swamps. Occasionally found in deep waters. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
182329		population	eng	No available data.
182329		population	eng	No information available.
182329		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182329		threats	eng	Not known as the actual localities are not known.
182329		threats	eng	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.
182329		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182330		conservation	eng	None known.
182330		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is distributed along the entire Atlantic coast, from Gambia to Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from the lower courses of large rivers and entire course of small coastal basins.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in coastal rivers from Gambia to Nigeria.
182330		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is distributed along the entire Atlantic coast, from Gambia to Congo-Brazzaville. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the lower courses of large rivers and entire course of small coastal basins.
182330		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Gambia to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. longipinnis</span> is distributed along the entire Atlantic coastal fringe, from Gambia to Congo.
182330		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is generally found in the upper and lower reaches of big rivers and also in estuarine zones of mixohaline waters. It is the only <em>Brycinus</em> species known to penetrate small rivers and streams (Paugy 1990). Such specimens are always smaller than those found in large rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
182330		habitat	eng	It is generally found in the upper as well as the lower river courses and may even occur in brackish waters of estuarine areas. This is the only <em>Brycinus </em>species that also inhabits the smaller water courses.
182330		population	eng	No available data
182330		population	eng	No available data.
182330		population	eng	The species has a minimum population doubling time between 1.4 to 4.4 years.
182330		threats	eng	None known
182330		threats	eng	None known.
182331		conservation	eng	None known.
182331		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182331		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeobarbus batesii</em> is widespread throughout Lower Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Dja basin (Central Congo River basin, Cameroon) and Tibesti (Chad).
182331		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad system and Tibesti.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Southern Cameroon and North Gabon forested area.
182331		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Cameroon and north Gabon forested areas, and possibly as far north as Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeobarbus batesii</em> is widespread throughout Lower Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Dja basin (Central Congo River basin, Cameroon).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Tibesti in the Chad system, though this record needs confirmation.
182331		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182331		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182331		population	eng	No available data.
182331		population	eng	No information available.
182331		threats	eng	Habitat Loss and degradation due to water pollution.
182331		threats	eng	None known.
182331		threats	eng	None known in central Africa. Habitat loss and degradation due to water pollution threatens the population in Chad.
182332		conservation	eng	None known.
182332		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the lower Ogowe River in northwestern Gabon and in southern Equatorial Guinea.
182332		habitat	eng	<em>Plataplochilus chalcopyrus</em> is found in forest brooks, usually in schools in faster flowing sections over sandy substrates. It is a benthopelagic species.
182332		population	eng	No information available.
182332		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
182333		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182333		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lower Volta.
182333		habitat	eng	No available data.
182333		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182333		threats	eng	Bad agricultural practices in areas around the Volta may pose potential threats to this fish species. Increased sediments and levels of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can harmfully impact the ecosystems, and negatively affect the fish. Other potential problems include aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste.
182334		conservation	eng	None known.
182334		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic from the Nyong River, Cameroon.
182334		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis steindachneri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182334		population	eng	No information available.
182334		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182335		conservation	eng	None known.
182335		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the type locality, Rivière Louvisi, affluent du Niari-Kouilou, Gabon.
182335		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus semireticulatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 15.8 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182335		population	eng	No information available.
182335		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182336		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182336		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana in the rivers Ofin (Pra basin) and Ankobra, also collected in the Tano.
182336		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It prefers clear waters (Abban, pers. comm.).
182336		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182336		threats	eng	The main threats posed to this fish species includes effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of these coastal rivers especially the Ankobra, Pra and Ofin. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling in some of these areas may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish. Timber felling is an especially important threat in the Tano. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments, as in the Densu river areas.
182337		conservation	eng	None known.
182337		distribution	eng	Limited to mountain slope of the Guinean mountain ranges: Konkouré, Moa, Waenje Rivers and from the Kogon.
182337		habitat	eng	Maximum TL was recorded at 7.6 cm. It would replace <em>L. niloticus</em> in the Guinean zone.
182337		population	eng	No information available.
182337		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182338		conservation	eng	None known.
182338		distribution	eng	This fish occurs in southeast Sierra Leone in the middle and lower drainage systems of the Sewa and Moa rivers and in the drainage systems of the Mano, Lofa and Saint Paul rivers in southern Liberia
182338		habitat	eng	This species occurs in brooks, swamps, pools and small streams in the coastal rainforest. It is not a seasonal killifish. Maximum size: male 50 mm TL, female 45 mm TL.
182338		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182338		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining.
182339		conservation	eng	None known.
182339		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes laticeps</em> is known from the Central and from upper Congo River basin.
182339		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182339		population	eng	No information available.
182339		threats	eng	None known.
182340		conservation	eng	None known.
182340		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrops caballus</em> is found in the Sanaga and the Nyong rivers of Cameroon. Elsewhere it occurs in west Africa, in the Benoué, the upper Niger and from several localities in Sierra Leone.
182340		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Benue, Upper Niger, Konkouré, as well as from Rokel, Sewa and Jong (Sierra Leone).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">M. caballus</span> has been reported from the Sanaga and Nyong rivers (Cameroon)
182340		habitat	eng	<em>M. caballus</em> is a demersal fish.
182340		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182340		population	eng	No available data.
182340		population	eng	No information available.
182340		threats	eng	Agricultural development and oil exploration (Nigeria)
182340		threats	eng	It is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.
182341		conservation	eng	No major conservation measures are implemented, although different regulations are in place.
182341		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Lake Tana.
182341		habitat	eng	It occurs especially over muddy and sandy substrates all over the lake, preferably in water deeper than 6 m. It is a benthivore that at larger size turns into a piscivore. Specimens smaller than 15 cm FL mainly eat insect larvae. Molluscs and plant material become more important with increased size. When the fishes reach sizes of 25 cm FL or more, fish is their main food item, while also some plants and insect larvae are consumed.
182341		population	eng	It is a rare species, although the size of the population is not known.
182341		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the fish resources is the major threat to the species.
182342		conservation	eng	None known.
182342		distribution	eng	<em>Xenocharax crassus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from coastal rivers from the Nyong to the Nyanga River in the Lower Guinea region.
182342		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182342		population	eng	No information available.
182342		threats	eng	None known.
182343		conservation	eng	None known.
182343		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis polypogon</em> is known only from the River Cross in Cameroon.
182343		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182343		population	eng	No information available.
182343		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182344		conservation	eng	No information available.
182344		conservation	eng	None known.
182344		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is found from Cameroon and Central African Republic to Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>   This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is also known from the Okavango, upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001).
182344		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is found from Cameroon and Central African Republic to Angola and Zambia. In southern Africa, the species is known from the Okavango, Upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001).
182344		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus miolepis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Okavango, Upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001).
182344		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182344		population	eng	No information available.
182344		threats	eng	None known.
182344		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
182345		conservation	eng	None known.
182345		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in two distinct areas of distribution, one associated with the Mbam and Ndjim Rivers and the other in the Sanaga River system, but south of the Sanaga River itself. The zone separating these two areas of distribution is occupied by <em>Aphyosemion elberti</em> (north of the Sanaga River) and <em>Aphyosemion exiguum</em> (immediately south of the Sanaga River).
182345		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Kathetys) dargei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182345		population	eng	No information available.
182345		threats	eng	<em>Aphyosemion dargei</em> is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.
182346		conservation	eng	None known.
182346		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis splendens</em> is known from the Lower Congo, down to below the Inga hydroelectric dam.
182346		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182346		population	eng	No information available.
182346		threats	eng	The key component of concrete is found in the Luozi region, and there is potential to mining in the area.&#160;Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Congo River with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
182347		conservation	eng	None known.
182347		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the drainage systems of the Nyong, Lokundje and Kienke Rivers in southwestern Cameroon.
182347		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) loennbergii</em> occurs in brooks, pools and small streams in the rain forest over soil derived from basement rock (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) loennbergii</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182347		population	eng	No information available.
182347		threats	eng	The species population is declining due to agricultural plantations causing pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182348		conservation	eng	None known.
182348		conservation	eng	The species falls within two Ramsar sites on the Cross river and the Hadejia-Jaamare River. The Hadejia-Jaamare River is also subject to a larger catchment management conservation initiative. The species range on the Cross river also falls within the Cross River National Park.
182348		conservation	eng	The species falls within two Ramsar sites on the Cross river and the Hadejia-Jaamare River. The Hadejia-Jaamare River is also subject to a larger catchment management conservation initiative. The species range on the Cross river also falls within the Cross River National Park. Habitat maintenance and restoration is required, as is monitoring of population trends.
182348		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes humilis</em> is known from Nigeria, and throughout the Congo to Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed within the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is found in the Cross Ntem, and Ogowe River basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa this species is found in the Chad basin, Cross River and in the Benue River.
182348		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Micralestes humilis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, found in the Cross, Ntem, and Ogowe River basins. Elsewhere, known from the Niger, and Zambezi Rivers, and lakes Chad, Mweru, and Tanganyika.
182348		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa this species is found in the Chad basin, Cross River and in the Benue (Cameroon).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it occurs in the basins of the Zambezi and in Congo.
182348		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182348		habitat	eng	This tetra is medium size characid. Non-migratory.
182348		population	eng	No data available
182348		population	eng	No information available.
182348		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, especially due to oil exploration and habitat alteration following changes in water flow and long-term climatic change. Proliferation of the invasive <em>Typha</em> sp. has had a major impact through loss of habitat.
182348		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, especially due to oil exploration and habitat alteration following changes in water flow and long-term climatic change. Proliferation of the invasive <em>Typha</em> sp. has had a major impact through loss of habitat. It also has commercial value as an aquarium fish.
182348		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182349		conservation	eng	No information available.
182349		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin, (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia. Its range possibly extends into Somalia.<strong></strong>
182349		habitat	eng	It is found in running water.
182349		population	eng	Population size unknown but this is a rare and endemic species.
182349		threats	eng	No information available.
182350		conservation	eng	None known.
182350		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from the River St. John (Liberia) to the Mono (Togo). Also reported by Daget and Iltis (1965) from the upper tributaries of the Baoulé (Niger basin). Specimens from the River Cross resemble <span style="font-style: italic;">A. atesuensis</span>, but differ from this species by their slightly longer head and the emarginate caudal fin. More material is needed to confirm the identity of these specimens.
182350		habitat	eng	Guinea (Gbin River) and Sierra Leone to Ghana (Pra River). Also known from the St. John River in Liberia and the Mono River in Togo
182350		population	eng	No available data.
182350		threats	eng	None known.
182351		conservation	eng	None known.
182351		distribution	eng	This species is known from Oriental Slope of Fouta Djalon in the upper reaches of the Gambia River, Baffing River, Little Scarcies River and the Niger. Possibly existing in the Occidental Slope.
182351		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182351		population	eng	No available data.
182351		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation.
182352		conservation	eng	No information available.
182352		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182352		conservation	eng	None known.
182352		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Labeo coubie</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is very widespread, occurring within the drainage basin of the river Nile (Blue, White, Lake Albert) and Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Senegal and Gambia basins, Cross River and Cameroon coast rivers. It is also known from East Africa and the middle reaches of the Congo. Not reliably known from the Zambezi drainage. It is rare in Lake Nasser.
182352		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo coubie</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) to Kisangani. Elsewhere, it is very widespread: it occurs within the drainage basin of the River Nile (Blue, White, Lake Albert) and Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Senegal and Gambia basins, Cross River and Cameroon coastal rivers. It is also known from eastern Africa. It is not reliably known from the Zambezi drainage.
182352		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, Murchison Nile, and Kingani.
182352		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Known from Senegal to Volta and also from coastal basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Very widespread, occurs within the drainage basin of the river Nile (Blue, White, Lake Albert) and Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Sénégal and Gambia basins, Cross River. Also known from eastern Africa and the middle reaches of the Congo. Not reliably known from the Zambezi drainage (Tchibabawa 1997).
182352		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, known from Senegal to Ethiopia, with populations present also in the Nile, south to Lake Albert.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo coubie</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) to Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, Murchison Nile, and Kingani.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Senegal and Gambia basins, Cross River and Cameroon coastal rivers.
182352		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo coubie</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers and lakes (Skelton 1993).
182352		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo coubie</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers and lakes (Skelton 1993), particularly sheltered bays. It is a bottom feeder, on mud, plant debris and diatoms. Mature ovaries are voluminous and well developed in spring and summer.
182352		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and lakes. A benthopelagic species.
182352		habitat	eng	Inshore waters of Lake Albert particularly in sheltered bays
182352		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic and potamodromous species inhabits inshore waters particularly sheltered bays, and rivers. It is a bottom feeder, on mud, plant debris and diatoms. Mature ovaries are voluminous and well developed in spring and summer. It reaches a length to 75 cm.
182352		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182352		population	eng	No information available.
182352		threats	eng	Limited information available, but this species is probably threatened by heavy fishing pressure. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182352		threats	eng	None known
182352		threats	eng	None known.
182352		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182352		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is probably the heavy fishing pressure.
182353		conservation	eng	None known.
182353		distribution	eng	<em>Leptocypris modestus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the lower, central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in upper Lualaba and Mweru-Luapua-Bangweulu system.
182353		habitat	eng	<em>Leptocypris modestus</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182353		population	eng	No information available.
182353		threats	eng	None known.
182354		conservation	eng	None known.
182354		distribution	eng	This fish occurs in southeastern Guinea and northern Liberia, in the upper Niger River basin and in the upper parts of the Lofa, Saint Paul and Saint John river systems in Northern Liberia and southeastern Guinea.
182354		habitat	eng	This species is found in brooks and small streams, not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium
182354		population	eng	No available data.
182354		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining occur in Liberia
182355		conservation	eng	None known.
182355		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius cuangoanus</em> is only known from a restricted area in the Kwango River system, Central Congo River basin, Angola.  It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango River basin though.
182355		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182355		population	eng	No information available.
182355		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182356		conservation	eng	None known.
182356		conservation	eng	Unknown.
182356		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It is found in the Lake Chad drainage, the entire Niger River drainage (except the lower Niger, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kingsleyae</span>), the Senegal and Gambia Rivers and coastal drainages in Ghana, Togo and Côte d'Ivoire (Norris 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Has a typical Nilo-Sudanian distribution. Also found in Cameroon, Gabon and the Nile.
182356		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species, found from Senegal to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and White Nile to Khartoum.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Lake Chad drainage, the entire Niger River drainage (except the lower Niger, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kingsleyae</span>), the Senegal and Gambia Rivers and coastal drainages in Ghana, Togo and Côte d'Ivoire (Norris 2003).
182356		habitat	eng	Inhabits marginal vegetation in streams, swamps, and floodplains. Browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris.
182356		habitat	eng	This species inhabits marginal vegetation, swamps and floodplains. It spawns in the permanent and seasonal floodplain. They are browsers ingesting debris and plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles and molluscs.
182356		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182356		population	eng	Unknown.
182356		threats	eng	No information available.
182356		threats	eng	None known
182357		conservation	eng	None known.
182357		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus carens</span> is known from the Kouilou, Chiloango, Luali, Luculla, and Lebuzi basins (Eschmeyer 1998), and Foulakari River, Lower Congo River basin.
182357		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182357		population	eng	No information available.
182357		threats	eng	There are currently no threats. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used).&#160; An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182358		conservation	eng	None known.
182358		distribution	eng	<em>Poecilothrissa centralis</em> is known from the region of Lake Tumba and the Ruki River. It is also known from the Congo River at Mbandaka and its nearby tributary, the Busira as far up as Bokungu on the Tshuapa branch.
182358		habitat	eng	<em>Poecilothrissa centralis</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and lakes, apparently in both still and running water. It seems to occur in rather acid waters.
182358		population	eng	No information available.
182358		threats	eng	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture.
182359		conservation	eng	None known.
182359		distribution	eng	<em>Notoglanidium pallidum</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin.
182359		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182359		population	eng	No information available.
182359		threats	eng	None known, but given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future. The key component of concrete is found in the Luozi region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region.
182360		conservation	eng	None known.
182360		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus alces</em> is known from the Lower, Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin, until Kasongo, Lualaba River.
182360		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182360		population	eng	No information available.
182360		threats	eng	None known.
182361		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on this species' population range and numbers, and threats. Monitoring of population trends is also required.
182361		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kenya and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in northern Ewaso Nyiro. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa are yet to be obtained.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is found in Wabishebelle, Ethiopia.
182361		habitat	eng	No information available.
182361		population	eng	No information available.
182361		threats	eng	In northeastern Africa this species is threatened by dam building on Genale, and water extraction for irrigation.
182362		conservation	eng	None known.
182362		distribution	eng	<em>Dundocharax bidentatus</em> is only known from the type locality Lucoge River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
182362		habitat	eng	<em>Dundocharax bidentatus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 2.4 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182362		population	eng	No information available.
182362		threats	eng	None known.
182363		conservation	eng	None known.
182363		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is known from Banana, Matadi and Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, the species is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in the lower courses of the Cross River in Nigeria, the Kienké and Lobé rivers in Cameroon, coastal sites in the vicinity of Libreville, and from lower courses of river basins from the Kouilou to the Chiloango in the south. However, it is likely to be more widespread throughout the region. Elsewhere the species is reported from Senegal to Angola.
182363		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found in estuaries and other brackish-water environments, from Senegal to Nigeria. Occasionally entering freshwater. Migrates from the Niger Delta as far as the confluent of Niger and Benue at Lokoja.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola.
182363		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Senegal to Angola.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is known from Banana, Matadi and Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, the species is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in the lower courses of the Cross River in Nigeria, the Kienké and Lobé rivers in Cameroon, coastal sites in the vicinity of Libreville, and from lower courses of river basins from the Kouilou to the Chiloango in the south. However, it is likely to be more widespread throughout the region.<br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in estuaries and other brackish-water environments, from Senegal to Nigeria. It migrates from the Niger Delta as far as the confluent of Niger and Benue at Lokoja.
182363		habitat	eng	<em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is a brackish water fish that ascends into freshwater. It inhabits littoral waters (Maugé 1986). Its food items include small crabs (Miller and Wongrat 1990). This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997).
182363		habitat	eng	<em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is found in littoral waters (Maugé 1986). Its food items include small crabs (Miller and Wongrat 1990). This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997).
182363		habitat	eng	This species is a brackish water fish that ascends into freshwater. It inhabits littoral waters where it feeds on small crabs.
182363		population	eng	No available data.
182363		population	eng	No information available.
182363		threats	eng	None known
182363		threats	eng	None known.
182364		conservation	eng	None known.
182364		distribution	eng	<em>Amarginops platus</em> is only known from the type locality, Kisangani, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182364		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182364		population	eng	No information available.
182364		threats	eng	None known.
182365		conservation	eng	None known.
182365		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Sudanese region including the basins of the Chad, Niger, Senegal, Volta, Comoé, Bandama and Sassandra.
182365		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus macinensis</em> is benthopelagic and potamodromous. Maximum size 5.0 cm SL
182365		population	eng	No available data.
182365		threats	eng	None known.
182366		conservation	eng	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182366		conservation	eng	No information available.
182366		conservation	eng	None known.
182366		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182366		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is present along the River Nile. Fish population used to increase during flood season before the construction of Aswan Dam. It is considered moderately common in the region.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present along the shores of Lake Nasser, Blue and White Nile, Senegal, Niger, Uganda, Gambia, Lakes Rudolf and Chad.
182366		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Lake Albert [also known as Lake Mobutu Sese Seko], Lakes Turkana and Gandjule (Margherita) and West Africa. The records from Lake Mweru are possibly <em>Hydrocinus vittatus</em>.
182366		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles, Nile, Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Senegal, Niger, Volta, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Cameroon, D. R.Congo, Ghana, Liberia, Chad, Sierra Leone, Benin
182366		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species has a wider distribution area than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocynus</span> species since it occurs in both, the savannah as well as the forested areas. In western Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Nipoué (Cess), St. Paul, Mano, Little Scarcies, Gambia, and Senegal. Known distribution in Ghana: occurs in the Volta basin. Present in Black Volta, White Volta, Oti, Pru and Wawa. (Dankwa 1985). Has also been reported from the Pra River basin (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Otherwise also in the Nile, Lake Mobutu Sese Seko, Lakes Turkana and Gandjule (Margherita).
182366		distribution	eng	This species has a wider distribution area than other <em>Hydrocynus</em> species since it occurs in both, the savannah as well as the forested areas. It ranges from Senegal to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). The records from Lake Mweru are possibly <em>Hydrocinus vittatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is found along the River Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). The population used to increase during flood season before the construction of Aswan Dam.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ghazal and Jebel systems in Sudan, Tekeze and Setit in Eritrea, and the Rift lakes, and Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In West Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Nipoué (Cess), St. Paul, Mano, Little Scarcies, Gambia, and Senegal.
182366		habitat	eng	An open water predator often found near the water surface, feeds mainly on fish and to a minor extent on insects, snail and shrimps. Spawning takes place most of the year. Its average length is 45 cm or more. Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during rains.
182366		habitat	eng	An open water shoaling predator often found near the water surface (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow but also takes insects, grass and snails (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Cannibalistic. Preyed upon by fish eagle Haliaeetus vocifer (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during rains [Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988; see also Loubens 1973 (Tchad)] (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
182366		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species that forms shoals. It is an open water predator often found near the water surface (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow and also takes insects, grass and snails (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is cannibalistic. It is preyed upon by fish eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer</em> (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during the rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Affinities:  <em>H. vittatus</em>. It prefers streams.
182366		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species that forms shoals. It is an open water predator often found near the water surface (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow and also takes insects, shrimps, grass and snails (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is cannibalistic. It is preyed upon by fish eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer</em> (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during the rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Spawning takes place most of the year.
182366		habitat	eng	This freshwater fish is an open water predator often found near the water surface. It forms shoals and feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow and also takes insects, grass and snails. Cannibalistic. Preyed upon by fish eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer. </em>Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during the rains.
182366		population	eng	Limited information available. Commonly found in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan
182366		population	eng	No information available
182366		population	eng	No information available.
182366		population	eng	No population estimates
182366		threats	eng	Bad agricultural practices in areas around the Volta may pose potential threats to this fish species. Increased sediments and levels of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can harmfully impact the ecosystems, and negatively affect the fish. Other potential problems include aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste.
182366		threats	eng	Bad agricultural practices in areas around the Volta may pose potential threats to this fish species. Increased sediments and levels of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can harmfully impact the ecosystems, and negatively affect the fish. Other potential problems include aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste. It is a commercially important fish species with heavy fishing pressure. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182366		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182366		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.
182366		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182367		conservation	eng	It is found within Korup National Park in Cameroon.
182367		conservation	eng	Within two National Parks of Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria and Korup in Cameroon.
182367		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>In Lower Guinea, <em>Chiloglanis disneyi</em> is known from the Ndian, Mungo and Cross River basins, western Cameroon. Paugy <em>et al.</em> (1994) mentioned the presence of <em>C. disneyi</em> in the Chad basin. However, it seems that this is a mistake (Paugy, pers. comm.).
182367		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known only from the rivers Cross. It is also reported from Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The species is also known from the Mungo River in Cameroon.
182367		habitat	eng	This is a very small mochokid catfish that is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks. Non-migratory.
182367		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is a very small mochokid catfish that grows to 3.5 cm TL. This species is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks. It is non-migratory.
182367		population	eng	No available data.
182367		population	eng	No information available.
182367		threats	eng	Dam construction, a potential threat, would lead to the elimination of its required habitat.
182367		threats	eng	The Mungo river basin location is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). Dam construction, a potential threat, would lead to the elimination of its required habitat
182368		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measure in place; however water level management needs to be implemented.
182368		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Geba River and other water bodies in Northern Ethiopia
182368		habitat	eng	It is found in running waters in streams and rivers.
182368		population	eng	Not well known, however relatively abundant.
182368		threats	eng	Use of water for various purposes including irrigation impacts this species.
182369		conservation	eng	None known.
182369		distribution	eng	<em>Platyallabes tihoni</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids downstream to Inga.
182369		habitat	eng	<em>Platyallabes tihoni</em> is a demersal species.
182369		population	eng	No information available.
182369		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential for mining in the area.
182370		conservation	eng	None known.
182370		distribution	eng	<em>Tetraodon schoutedeni</em> is known from the type locality (Leopoldville, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is also known from Bayonga, middle Sangha River, Central Congo River basin. However it is a very distinctive species, it has not been found at other locations.
182370		habitat	eng	<em>Tetraodon schoutedeni</em> is a demersal species. It is found in large rivers (Roberts 1986), i.e. not a brackish water species. It feeds on benthic animals such as snails and worms. This species is solitary and is aggressive against conspecifics. Eggs are deposited on leaves and defended by the male. The male sometimes guards the clutch. Preferred Habitat : Streams,
182370		population	eng	No information available.
182370		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182371		conservation	eng	None known.
182371		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type localities in the region of Nguti in the River Mamfue, a tributary of the upper Cross River (Cameroon).
182371		habitat	eng	Juveniles of <em>Etia nguti</em> were collected with beach seine in the shallow inshore zone in a water depth of few centimetres, adults in deeper water; juveniles prefer shallow water riffles with medium current, while adults congregate around submerged tree branches and rocky outcrops. It mainly feeds on detritus, occasionally on insects and plants. <em>Etia nguti</em> is a larvophilous mouth-breeder spawning in couples over open substrate. The female (rarely the male) incubates the fry. It is a benthopelagic species with a depth range from 0 - 2 m.
182371		population	eng	No information available.
182371		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182372		conservation	eng	None known.
182372		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys delhezi</em> is known from the Lower and Central (Coquilhatville (=Mbandaka), Bokuma and Bantoi) Congo River.
182372		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182372		population	eng	No information available.
182372		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182373		conservation	eng	None known.
182373		distribution	eng	<em>Teleogramma gracile</em> is known in the main channel of the Lower Congo from the Luozi region to the border of the Republic of Congo. It is probable that the type locality Matadi is in error and is the location from where the first specimens were shipped to Europe. No specimens of this species have been collected between Matadi and Luozi.
182373		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182373		population	eng	No information available.
182373		threats	eng	It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182374		conservation	eng	None known.
182374		distribution	eng	<em>Cypomyrus ghesquierei</em> is known from the Ruki, Busira and Tshuapa Rivers, Central Congo River basin.
182374		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182374		population	eng	No information available.
182374		threats	eng	None known.
182375		conservation	eng	None known.
182375		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax procatopus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
182375		habitat	eng	<em>Nannocharax procatopus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on small invertebrates (Baencsh and Riehl 1997).
182375		population	eng	No information available.
182375		threats	eng	None known.
182376		conservation	eng	None known.
182376		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi and Ivindo (Ogowe basin) Rivers. The species has a strange distribution pattern.
182376		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182376		population	eng	No information available.
182376		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182377		conservation	eng	None known.
182377		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus brichardi</em> is endemic to the Lower Congo River rapids.
182377		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus brichardi</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rock crevices in a rapids area (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986). This species is blind (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).
182377		population	eng	No information available.
182377		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182378		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182378		distribution	eng	This species is only known by the type (type locality: Bahr Sara, Lake Chad system).
182378		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic freshwater fish.
182378		population	eng	No available data.
182378		threats	eng	No information available.
182379		conservation	eng	None known.
182379		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo lualabaensis</em> is known from the Lualaba River basin and the Lufira River, upper Congo River basin.
182379		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo lualabaensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182379		population	eng	No information available.
182379		threats	eng	None known.
182380		conservation	eng	None known.
182380		distribution	eng	<em>Labeobarbus cardozoi</em> is known from the Sangha basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Luali, Lebuzi and Chiloango Rivers.
182380		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus cardozoi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182380		population	eng	No information available.
182380		threats	eng	None known.
182381		conservation	eng	None known.
182381		distribution	eng	This species occurs in several fresh water bodies of Ethiopia, including Lake Tana.
182381		habitat	eng	It is found in running streams and rivers as well as some lakes (e.g. Lake Tana)
182381		population	eng	This species is abundant where it is found.
182381		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
182382		conservation	eng	Conservation of streams where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. natalensis </span>occur, e.g., control of water abstraction and stocking of <em>O. mykiss, is needed.</em>
182382		conservation	eng	More research is required for this species. Conservation of streams where <em>A. natalensis</em> occurs, including control of water abstraction and stocking of <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>, is needed.
182382		conservation	eng	No information available
182382		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Malawi; Ruo River.  <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>From lower Zambezi (Zimbabwe) to Natal Drakensburg (Umkomass system)
182382		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Amphilius natalensis</em> falls mainly within South Africa, however it has been recorded as far north as Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>  This species is found in Ruo River, Malawi, and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in escarpment streams from Umkomaas River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north to the Ruo River, eastern Malawi. Two populations are known from Zimbabwe.
182382		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from escarpment streams from Umkomaas River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north to the Ruo River, eastern Malawi. Two populations are known from Zimbabwe. It is described from the eastern Drakensberg mountains in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Numerous isolated populations in streams of the east coast mountain chain. It shows considerable geographical variation across its range.
182382		habitat	eng	Inhabits fast flowing streams among rocks and stones. Noctunal feeder; feeds on benthic invertebrates. Breeds in summer
182382		habitat	eng	Small mountain streams, rocky substrates and fast flows.
182382		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast flowing mountain streams among rocky substrates and stones. It is a nocturnal feeder; feeding on benthic invertebrates. It breeds in summer.
182382		population	eng	No information available.
182382		population	eng	No information is available.
182382		population	eng	Not known
182382		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are sedimentation, water abstraction, alien vegetation (pine plantations) and alien fish (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss).</em>
182382		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is predation of other fishes.
182382		threats	eng	Within eastern Africa this species is threatened by predation of other fishes. In southern Africa, potential threats include sedimentation, water abstraction, alien vegetation (pine plantations) and alien fish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorhynchus mykiss</span>).
182383		conservation	eng	None known.
182383		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax ocellicauda</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is known from the Lower Guinea region in the rivers of southeastern Cameroon.
182383		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182383		population	eng	No information available.
182383		threats	eng	None known.
182384		conservation	eng	None known.
182384		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic occurring in the Ntem, Ogowe, Nyanga and Kouliou Rivers.
182384		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus hypostomatus</em> is a pelagic species.
182384		population	eng	No information available.
182384		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182385		conservation	eng	None known.
182385		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the coastal basins of Cameroon (Sanaga, Lokunje, Kienke, and Ntem Rivers), the Río Muni of Equatorial Guinea, and the Ntem and Ivindo Rivers of Gabon.
182385		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182385		population	eng	No information available.
182385		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182387		conservation	eng	None known.
182387		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Gambia River, coastal basins of Guinea Bissau, Guinea, and from Sierra Leone and Liberia to the River St. John. It has also been found in the Sassandra, Bandama, Agnébi, Mé and Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), but is not known from other African basins
182387		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 19.2 cm TL maximum size
182387		population	eng	No available data.
182387		threats	eng	None known.
182388		conservation	eng	None known.
182388		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Casamance in Senegal to the River St. John in Liberia.
182388		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater, demersal fish. Maximum reported size: 164 mm SL.
182388		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182388		threats	eng	This species is impacted by deforestation, human settlement and mining in one (Liberia) of its many locations
182389		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.
182389		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
182389		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Possibly present in Nigeria (locality not specified) and in the Kribi River in Cameroon - these records need confirmation.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Its distribution extends from the coastal area of Gabon from Libreville (Gabon) to Moanda (Lower Congo). It is also occurs in Angola. Possibly present in Nigeria (locality not specified) and in the Kribi River in Cameroon - these records need confirmation.
182389		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal areas from Libreville (Gabon) to Lower Congo (Moanda). It has also been reported from the Kribi River in Cameroon, but these records need to be verified.
182389		habitat	eng	Demersal species. Able to survive anoxic conditions.
182389		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, able to survive anoxic conditions.
182389		population	eng	No available data.
182389		threats	eng	No information available.
182389		threats	eng	Unknown.
182390		conservation	eng	No information available.
182390		conservation	eng	None known.
182390		conservation	eng	Research in to impacts is needed. Sustainable management of riverine fisheries will probably help this species. A catch and release policy for tourist anglers would also help.
182390		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is rare in Lower Egyptian Nile (Cairo) and sometimes from Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, Niger and Congo systems, Malagarazi River, Murchison Nile; Lake Edward, Gambia, Zambezi, Lakes Chad and Tanganyika.
182390		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Niger, Senegal, Congo system, upper and middle Zambezi. It is also present in Lakes Tanganyika and Edward (Skelton 1993), Gambia and Benue River, Chad and Volta basins, and the coastal basins of Guinea to Nigeria (Teugels 1992). In Lower Guinea, known form the Cross and Sanaga in Cameroon, and the Ogowe in Gabon.
182390		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika, Malagarasi River, Lake Rukwa drainage, Rufiji and Wami, Lower Shire River, Lake Rukwa system, Lake Edward, Murchision Nile, and Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). <br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Tchad, Congo basin, upper Senegal, Niger, Chad and Volta basins, and the coastal basins of Guinea to Nigeria.
182390		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Gambia, Upper Senegal, Niger, Benue, Lake Chad, Volta and coastal basins from Guinea to Nigeria, including the delta of Niger and the Cross River. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in the Nile, Congo system, upper and middle Zambezi. Also from Lakes Tanganyika and Edward. (Skelton 1993).
182390		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Middle and Lower Zambezi and north into central Africa. New records of a <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterobranchus</span> from the Rovuma River.
182390		distribution	eng	This is a very wide-ranging species with an almost Pan Africa distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.  In Lower Guinea, it occurs in the Cross and Sanaga in Cameroon, and the Ogowe in Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lake Tanganyika, Malagarasi River, Lake Rukwa drainage, Rufiji and Wami, Lower Shire River, Lake Rukwa system, Lake Edward, Murchision Nile, and Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lower Egyptian Nile (Cairo) and sometimes from This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan), as well as Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Nile and Lake Nasser, Sudan. It is also known from Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from middle and lower Zambezi and north into central Africa. There are also new records of a <em>Heterobranchus</em> from the Rovuma River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Gambia, This species is known from upper Senegal, Niger, Benue, Lake Chad, Volta and coastal basins from Guinea to Nigeria, including the delta of Niger and the Cross River.
182390		habitat	eng	A main channel species, little is known about this species' ecology or population numbers.
182390		habitat	eng	An uncommon species which inhabits large rivers. Occurs in large deep rivers within the mainstream or in deep pools and lakes. In southern Africa, most active at night, feeding on any available food, including invertebrates and insects when small, fish and other small vertebrates when large. Scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages. Live for 12 or more years (Skelton 1993).
182390		habitat	eng	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is uncommon and inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992). This species is the largest freshwater species in southern Africa. It occurs in large, deep rivers within the mainstream or in deep pools and lakes. <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is most active at night, feeding on any available food, including invertebrates and insects when small, fish and other small vertebrates when large. It scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages. (Skelton 1993).
182390		habitat	eng	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is uncommon and inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992). This species is the largest freshwater species in southern Africa. This species is found in quiet waters with deep pools and stretches, not necessarily associated with vegetation, in larger waterways and main river channels (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1990). <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is an onmivorous scavenger most active at night, feeding on any available food, including invertebrates and insects when small, fish and other small vertebrates when large. It scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages. (Skelton 1993). It under goes a spawning migration from the normal dry season habitat into the tributary rivers and floodplains during the rainy season (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1990), eggs and juveniles found among plants roots in shallow water. It lives for 12 or more years. It is caught from deep water by trammel or sinking gill-nets.
182390		habitat	eng	Found in quiet waters with deep pools and stretches, not necessarily associated with vegetation, in larger waterways and main river channels (Teugels <em>et al. 1990). An omnivorous scavenger and will eat anything small enough to fit into its massive jaws, including aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates, plants mud etc. (Teugels <em>et al. 1990). Under goes a spawning migration from the normal dry season habitat into the tributary rivers and floodplains during the rainy season (Teugels <em>et al. 1990).<br/>Max Size: 1170 mm (Teugels <em>et al. 1990).</em></em></em></em>
182390		habitat	eng	It occurs in large deep rivers within the mainstream or in deep pools and lakes. It feeds on invertebrates, insects or any available food when small, fish and other vertebrates when large. The species is most active at night. It breeds in summer, eggs and juveniles found among plants roots in shallow water. It lives for 12 or more years. It is caught from deep water by trammel or sinking gill-nets. It reaches a maximum length of 1.5 m.
182390		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182390		population	eng	No information available.
182390		population	eng	This species is uncommon, although exact population size is unknown.
182390		population	eng	Unknown.
182390		threats	eng	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> has recently been introduced in the aquaculture. The species has declined through much of its range. Perhaps the major threat is unregulated and expanding gill-net fisheries and angling. In eastern Africa populations are threatened by potential overfishing, and loss of wetland habitat. In northern Africa, general threats include dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182390		threats	eng	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> has recently been introduced into aquaculture.
182390		threats	eng	None known
182390		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182390		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are potential overfishing and loss of wetland habitat.
182390		threats	eng	The species has declined through much of its range. Perhaps the major threat is unregulated and expanding gill-net fisheries and angling.
182391		conservation	eng	None known.
182391		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Wagenia falls (Stanley Falls). Additional recent records from the Lower Congo have been confirmed.
182391		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species, adapted to rapids. It is oviparous has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182391		population	eng	No information available.
182391		threats	eng	None known.
182392		conservation	eng	None known.
182392		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo falcipinnis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from the Kasai River and Kisangani (Central Congo River basin), and from the Lualaba system.
182392		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo falcipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182392		population	eng	No information available.
182392		threats	eng	None known.
182393		conservation	eng	None known.
182393		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the rivers of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.
182393		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182393		population	eng	No information available.
182393		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182394		conservation	eng	None known.
182394		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus teugelsi</span> has been found only from the Kogon River system in Guinea.
182394		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. The largest specimen examined is 212 mm SL.
182394		population	eng	No available data.
182394		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182395		conservation	eng	None known.
182395		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis aterrimus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Lukenie systems.
182395		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis aterrimus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182395		population	eng	No information available.
182395		threats	eng	None known.
182396		conservation	eng	None known.
182396		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the type locality near Song Mahi, in tributries to the Nyong River on the eastern edge of the coastal plain at the foot of the Ngovayang Hills, which form the western edge of the southern Cameroon Plateau in western Cameroon.
182396		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion heinemanni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in clear forest brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) heinemanni</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182396		population	eng	No information available.
182396		threats	eng	None known.
182397		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182397		distribution	eng	This species is found in Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the lower reaches of the Athi and Tana River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Juba (Wabishebelle-Benadir), Somalia
182397		habitat	eng	No information available.
182397		population	eng	No information.
182397		threats	eng	No information available.
182398		conservation	eng	None known.
182398		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis smiti</em> is known from the Central and from the upper Congo River basin, from the Ubangui and the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and from the Lualaba Rivers respectively.
182398		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis smiti</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182398		population	eng	No information available.
182398		threats	eng	None known.
182399		conservation	eng	None known.
182399		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis nudiceps</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
182399		habitat	eng	<em>Nanochromis nudiceps</em> is a demersal species. It feeds mainly on Entomostracans and insect larvae (Matthes 1964).
182399		population	eng	No information available.
182399		threats	eng	None known.
182400		conservation	eng	None known.
182400		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Xenomystus nigri</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from just upstream Kisangani. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it occurs in the Wouri River, Cameroon and in the Ogowe River and coastal drainages in Gabon. Within the West Africa region, <em>Xenomystus nigri</em> has been reported from Sierra Leone, Liberia, and from Benin to Nigeria and the Chad basin. Elsewhere it is known from the Nile. It is apparently absent from the Volta, and from Ivory Coast (Roberts 1992).
182400		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Within western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenomystus nigri</span> has been reported from Sierra Leone (Lake Kwarko Krim and River Gbap), Liberia (Farmington Lake), Togo (Togble-Kope River, Kelegougan flood plain), and from Benin to Nigeria and the Chad basin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere it is known from the Nile, Congo and Ogowe basins.
182400		distribution	eng	This species has a scattered distribution from Sierra Leone to Angola and Sudan.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Xenomystus nigri</em>i is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from just upstream Kisangani. It is known from the Lower Guinea region where it occurs in the Wouri River, Cameroon and in the Ogowe River and coastal drainages in Gabon. <br><br><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Bahr el Jebel system, Sudan.<br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong>Within Western Africa, Xenomystus nigri has been reported from Sierra Leone (Lake Kwarko Krim and River Gbap), Liberia (Farmington Lake), Togo (Togble-Kope River, Kelegougan flood plain), and from Benin to Nigeria and the Chad basin.
182400		habitat	eng	A demersal species, it prefers quiet waters rich in vegetation in streams and lakes. It is a predator feeding on invertebrates. Has a modified airbreathing organ so can survive in polluted or deoxygenated conditions. Can produce barking sounds. Comes to the surface from time to time to swallow air. Feeds at dusk and during the night on worms, crustaceans, insects and snails (Mills and Vevers 1989). Although this fish, with its reduced pelvic fins, long anal fin and loss of dorsal fin superficially resembles gymnotiform electric fishes of South America, it does not have any specializations for generation of electric currents in water. Nevertheless, <em>Xenomystus</em> does possess electroreceptors of the ampullary type which it apparently uses for sensing prey (Braford 1982).
182400		habitat	eng	Although this fish, with its reduced pelvic fins, long anal fin and loss of dorsal fin superficially resembles gymnotiform electric fishes of South America, it does not have any specializations for generation of electric currents in water. Nevertheless, <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenomystus </span>does possess electroreceptors of the ampullary type which it apparently uses for sensing prey (Braford, 1982). Demersal. Prefers quiet waters with vegetation. Females lay 150-200 eggs of 2 mm diameter (Riehl and Baensch 1991). Can produce barking sounds. Comes to the surface from time to time to swallow air. Feeds at dusk and during the night on worms, crustaceans, insects and snails (Mills and Vevers 1989). Preferred Climate: tropical. Preferred Habitat:  Streams and lakes.
182400		habitat	eng	This species prefers quiet waters rich in vegetation in streams and lakes. Predator feeding on invertebrates. Has a modified airbreathing organ so can survive in polluted or de-oxygenated conditions. Non-migratory.
182400		population	eng	No available data..
182400		population	eng	No information available.
182400		threats	eng	No information available.
182400		threats	eng	No major threats to this hardy species.
182400		threats	eng	This is a hardy species, but it does have commercial importance as an aquarium fish.
182401		conservation	eng	No information available.
182401		distribution	eng	This species has a fairly large extent of occurrence, occurring throughout the Lake Turkana drainage (Turkwell, Kerio and Kalakol Rivers) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Lake Albert and Edward systems (Bannister 1987). It has also been recorded from the Lake Turkana drainage as <em>Barbus werneri</em> Boulenger, 1905, a junior synonym (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).
182401		habitat	eng	No information available.
182401		population	eng	No information available.
182401		threats	eng	No known threats.
182402		conservation	eng	None known.
182402		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Chiloango basin (Cabinda), Kouilou-Niari and Lower Loeme (Congo), and the Nyanga basin and This species is known from upper Ngounie River in Gabon.
182402		habitat	eng	<em>Chilochromis duponti</em> feeds primarily on aquatic vegetation (mostly algae) but also minor quantities of small insects. It is a typical substratum spawner. The species is aggressive in captivity (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.
182402		population	eng	No information available.
182402		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182403		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy), however this species would benefit from improved management plans, and habitat restoration.
182403		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the River Subin (Pra basin) in Ghana.
182403		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182403		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182403		threats	eng	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in the Pra. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.
182404		conservation	eng	None known.
182404		distribution	eng	This species is known from upper Gambia River, Niger and from upper Senegal (Téné) system.
182404		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182404		population	eng	No available data.
182404		threats	eng	Threats to this species include dams and habitat loss, and degradation due agriculture and its pollution.
182405		conservation	eng	None known.
182405		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys ornatus</em> is widespread in the Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).
182405		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys ornatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds mainly on larvae of aquatic insects and fish. The juveniles feed mainly on small larvae and Entomostacans (Matthes 1964).
182405		population	eng	No information available.
182405		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182406		conservation	eng	None known.
182406		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius leopoldianus</em> is known from the central Congo River basin.
182406		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182406		population	eng	No information available.
182406		threats	eng	None known.
182407		conservation	eng	None known.
182407		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the slopes of the southern Cameroon Plateau between the Nyong and the Sanaga Rivers. The present distribution is probably relict.
182407		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion raddai</em> occurs in the quiet parts of rainforest brooks on the slopes of the southern Cameroon Plateau. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks in the rainforest of the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).<em></em>
182407		population	eng	No information available.
182407		threats	eng	None known.
182408		conservation	eng	None known.
182408		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Sanaga River basin (Cameroon). It is supposed to have a wider distribution than currently known.
182408		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus seiteri</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits slow streams with sandy bottoms (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
182408		population	eng	No information available.
182408		threats	eng	The species habitat is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. The species is also threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal region.
182409		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.
182409		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, only found in the Mamfue River in the upper Cross basin. It is found in two clusters of populations. One near Tinto Mbu on the roads to Bajok, Dongwi and Tali. The other at about 18 km distance near Etuku and Bayenti.
182409		habitat	eng	This is a benthopleagic species.
182409		population	eng	No information available.
182409		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182410		conservation	eng	WWF and WCS have introduced sustainable fishing practices to the region.
182410		distribution	eng	<em>Dolichallabes microphtalmus</em> is known from the Central Congo River system (Kunungu, Bolobo, Boende and from the Tshuapa River at Bokuma) (Devaere <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has also been found a few kilometres above Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Stiassny, M, pers. obs.). In Lower Guinea, it is known from Mayumba, Tshela region, the Chiloango River system.
182410		habitat	eng	<em>Dolichallabes microphtalmus</em> is a demersal species. It is polyphagous and the stomach contents contained sand, debris of plants, different little invertebrates and numerous aquatic larvae (Matthes 1964).
182410		population	eng	No information available.
182410		threats	eng	In the rivers on the border of the Salonga National Park, fishing is now allowed throughout the whole length, but at a sustainable level.
182411		conservation	eng	None known.
182411		distribution	eng	The species was first described from Corbal River in Guinea Bissau. It has been reported later from the Niger basin, near Kouroussa (Guinea), in Lake Kainji and Ogun River (Nigeria ).
182411		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species living in rivers and lakes feeding on insects. It is non-migratory.
182411		population	eng	No available data.
182411		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to urbanisation, agriculture and deforestation.
182412		conservation	eng	None known.
182412		distribution	eng	<em>Psammphiletria nasuta</em> is currently only known from the Ubangui River upstream of Bangui (near Banda and at Isle Basiki), Central African Republic (Roberts 2003). It is expected to be more widespread.
182412		habitat	eng	<em>Psammphiletria nasuta</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand.
182412		population	eng	No information available.
182412		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182413		conservation	eng	None known.
182413		distribution	eng	<em>Hemichromis lifalili</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, except from the Shaba (Katanga) and Kasaï regions.
182413		habitat	eng	<em>Hemichromis lifalili</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is absent from rapids and swampy habitats (Daget and Teugels 1991).
182413		population	eng	No information available.
182413		threats	eng	There is diamond mining activity in Kasai occidental which blocks rivers by a repeating process of damming. The diamond is dug out of the river bed.
182414		conservation	eng	None known.
182414		distribution	eng	<em>Hemistichodus mesmaekersi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.
182414		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182414		population	eng	No information available.
182414		threats	eng	None known.
182415		conservation	eng	None known.
182415		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus pygmaeus</em> is only known from the type locality at Yaekama, Central Congo River stream, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182415		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus pygmaeus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182415		population	eng	No information available.
182415		threats	eng	None known.
182416		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). The restoration of habitat is needed.
182416		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Niger, the Benue and the Volta.
182416		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182416		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182416		threats	eng	Oil spills in the Lower Niger basin. In the northern basins deforestation and bad agricultural practices are the main threats. Resultant increases in sediment loads and leaching of agrochemicals may pose threats to the health of the fish. This is particularly relevant in the Black Volta. Another threat is pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weed invasion, which alter the habitat of the fish and affect oxygen levels. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species.
182417		conservation	eng	None known.
182417		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys cranchii</em> is known from throughout the Congo and Lualaba River system.
182417		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys cranchii</em> is found only in lakes and large rivers, on rocky bottoms or between tree stumps or branches (Matthes 1964).
182417		population	eng	No information available.
182417		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182418		conservation	eng	None known.
182418		distribution	eng	<em>Citharinus macrolepis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded).
182418		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182418		population	eng	No information available.
182418		threats	eng	None known.
182419		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Lake Bangweulu is situated in the Kasanka National Park.
182419		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis bangwelensis</em> is known from the Luapula River, Lake Bangweulu, and the Lukulu and Chambeshi Rivers in Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia.
182419		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis bangwelensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its predominant food is the lake-fly in its larval aquatic stages (Jackson 1961). It is a female mouthbrooder, breeding occurs during the rainy seasons and the young, a favourite prey for the tiger-fish, keep closer inshore among <em>Eleocharis</em> reed and other vegetation (Jackson 1961). Young fish still attached to the yolk sac can be found in the mouth of a parent which is at the verge of spawning again (Soulsby 1960).
182419		population	eng	No information available.
182419		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
182420		conservation	eng	None known.
182420		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. ussheri</span> occurs in different basins of Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and in the Ouémé.
182420		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum size of 30.5 cm SL.
182420		population	eng	No available data.
182420		threats	eng	No major threats known.
182421		conservation	eng	None known.
182421		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes simeonsi</em> is only known from the type localities on the Uele, Mosongolia, Mehokpa and Matanga Rivers.
182421		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182421		population	eng	No information available.
182421		threats	eng	Overfishing on the Central Congo River mainstream and mining for gold in the Ibembo region pose threats to this species.
182422		conservation	eng	No information available.
182422		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to sulphur lakes, springs and connecting canals of Northern Libya. It has been recorded from Ain el-Braghi near Agheila (Sirtica), Libya (30°N, 19°E) (Lazar 2001).
182422		habitat	eng	This species is found in sulphur lakes, springs and connecting canals.
182422		population	eng	No information available.
182422		threats	eng	No information available.
182423		conservation	eng	None known.
182423		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus mediosquamatus</em> is known from the type localities at the Luachimo River and from the Lukoge River in Angola, upper Kasai, Central Congo River basin. Recent collections in the Lulua River (Kasai) confirm the presence of the species there also.
182423		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus mediosquamatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 6.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182423		population	eng	No information available.
182423		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182424		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the distribution and threats of this species.
182424		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus cassaicus</em> is only known from two type specimens from the Luachimo River at Dundo and from one specimen from Lusambo, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin.
182424		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182424		population	eng	No information available.
182424		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182425		conservation	eng	None known.
182425		distribution	eng	<em>Duboisialestes bifasciatus</em> is known from the Ruki and Tsuapa Rivers and from the Sangha basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from Lake Tumba.
182425		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182425		population	eng	No information available.
182425		threats	eng	None known.
182426		conservation	eng	None known.
182426		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ogowe (Louetsi, Ngounie) River basin and Nyanga River in southwestern Gabon, Kouliou River (Getahun <em>et al.</em> 2004) and Tchibanga Region in Gabon (Getahun <em>et al.</em> 2004), and the Kouilou system in Congo.
182426		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182426		population	eng	No information available.
182426		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182427		conservation	eng	None known.
182427		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Niger basin, including the Benue. The specimens reported from the Ouémé by Poll (1971) belong to <em>S. melanopterus</em>.
182427		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 39.7 cm TL. Recorded size at maturity is 20.1 cm TL for female and 22.4 cm TL for male in Kainji Lake in Nigeria.
182427		population	eng	No available data.
182427		threats	eng	None known.
182428		conservation	eng	None known.
182428		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal lowlands of northwestern Gabon and southern Equatorial Guinea.
182428		habitat	eng	<em>Plataplochilus ngaensis</em> is found in flowing waters in creeks under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Plataplochilus ngaensis</em> occurs in small streams, brooks and swamps in drainage systems. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182428		population	eng	No information available.
182428		threats	eng	No information available.
182429		conservation	eng	None known.
182429		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypetersius huloti</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been found in Boma, Lower Congo River. Additional specimens from the Foulakari River  and in the Lower Congo main channel near the mouth of the Foulakari River (AMNH) further indicate its presence in the Lower Congo.
182429		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182429		population	eng	No information available.
182429		threats	eng	None known.
182431		conservation	eng	None known.
182431		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ivindo system in eastern Gabon and the Ogowe system in the vicinity of Okondja.
182431		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
182431		population	eng	No information available.
182431		threats	eng	In the Ivindo drainage, the species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture.
182432		conservation	eng	None known.
182432		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kribia leonensis</span> is known from Sierra Leone (records from Moa, Wanje and Sewa).
182432		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum size reported: 37 mm TL
182432		population	eng	No available data.
182432		threats	eng	Urban developments and deforestation threaten this species.
182433		conservation	eng	None known.
182433		conservation	eng	None known. This species needs (and is undergoing) taxonomic revision. Population trends should be monitored, and policy-based action may be needed to control exploitation. Habitat maintenance may also be required.
182433		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is widely distributed across the southern half of Africa, from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia, to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The distribution of this species in the Congo River Basin is limited to the Central and This species is known from upper regions (Tshibwabwa 1997). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is widespread in east Africa, and is present in the Pangani drainage, Athi River system (including Tsavo drainage), Galana system, This species is known from upper Tana, Northern Ewaso Nyiro basin, Lake Baringo system, Lake Bogoria (affluents), Turkwell and Kerio system (Turkana drainage), Suguta drainage.  It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. It occurs as a rarity in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also distributed in Lakes Malawi, Chuita and Chilwa Shire River, and the middle and lower Zambezi system. Boulenger (1903) reported this species from the Lumi River (Pangani drainage) as <em>Labeo montanus</em> (Günther, 1889), a junior synonym (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Baro River and Rift lakes of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from the Phongolo River in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001), South Africa, north into the Congo.
182433		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> The distribution of <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> in the Congo River Basin is limited to the Central and Upper regions (Tshibwabwa 1997). Elsewhere, it is widespread in the eastern African rivers south through the Zambezi system and east coastal drainages to the Phongolo system in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi.
182433		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Pangani drainage, Athi River system (including Tsavo drainage), Galana system, Upper Tana, Northern Ewaso Nyiro basin, Lake Baringo system, Lake Bogoria (affluents), Turkwell and Kerio system (Turkana drainage), Suguta drainage. Occurs as a rarity in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). also distributed in Lakes Malawi, Chuita and Chilwa Shire River, and the middle and lower Zambezi system. Boulenger (1903) reported this species from the Lumi River (Pangani drainage) as Labeo montanus (Günther 1889), a junior synonym (Seegers et al, unpublished).
182433		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from the Phongolo River in South Africa north into the Congo.
182433		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It occurs in both sediment-free and sediment-rich rocky biotopes. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> favours clear, running waters in rocky habitats of small and large rivers, also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. Also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. It feeds on diatoms and other small algae from the rocks (Konings 1990). <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> also feeds on `aufwuchs' from the surface of rocks, tree trunks and other firm surfaces. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> swims upstream in masses to breed, using the mouth and broad pectorals to climb damp surfaces of barrier rocks and weirs (Skelton 1993). It is mainly caught when migrating up streams from the lake to spawn. Populations in Lake Malawi have a well marked breeding season in December. The breeding season is very short and the eggs are laid among the rocks. In Malawi it is reported that there are both permanent riverine populations and lacustrine populations.
182433		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It occurs in both sediment-free and sediment-rich rocky biotopes. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> favours clear, running waters in rocky habitats of small and large rivers, also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. It feeds on diatoms and other small algae from the rocks (Konings 1990). <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> also feeds on `aufwuchs' from the surface of rocks, tree trunks and other firm surfaces. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> swims upstream in masses to breed, using the mouth and broad pectorals to climb damp surfaces of barrier rocks and weirs (Skelton 1993).
182433		habitat	eng	Occurs in both sediment-free and sediment-rich rocky biotopes but favours clear, running water in rocky habitats of small and large rivers. Also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. Feeds on diatoms and other small algae from the rocks (Konings 1990). Also feeds on 'aufwuchs' from the surface rocks, tree trunks and other firm surfaces. Migrates upstream in masses to breed, using the mouth and broad pectorals to climb damp surfaces of barrier rocks and weirs (Skelton 1993) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). It is mainly caught when migrating up streams from the lake to spawn. Populations in Lake Malawi have a well marked breeding season in December. The  breeding season is very short and the eggs are laid among the rocks. In Malawi it is reported that there are both permanent riverine populations and lacustrine populations. It reaches a length of 40 cm  and 1kg  in Lake Malawi (this is larger than the 23 cm and 0.9 kg reported in the southern African part of its range).  It grows to a smaller size in rivers reaching a maximum of about 30 cm in length.
182433		habitat	eng	Typically found in fast flowing, rocky sections of rivers and streams. Abundant in suitable habitats.
182433		population	eng	Abundant in suitable rocky fast flowing habitats.
182433		population	eng	Little information was available on population status. Abundant in suitable rocky fast flowing habitats in southern Africa. It is, however, assumed to be in decline in eastern Africa due to the many threats identified. It is rare in the fisheries around Lake Tanganyika.
182433		population	eng	Little information was available on population status. It is, however, assumed to be in decline due to the many threats identified. It is rare in the fisheries around Lake Tanganyika.
182433		population	eng	No information available.
182433		threats	eng	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is used as an algae grazer in public aquariums.
182433		threats	eng	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is used as an algae grazer in public aquariums, as well as collected as a food source. Its habitat is being degraded by sedimentation from agricultural practices.
182433		threats	eng	None known.
182433		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are the high fishing effort using illegal gears across rivers (over-exploitation), siltation (sedimention) and pollution, affecting spawning substrates (water turbidity due to erosion on river basins).
182434		conservation	eng	None known.
182434		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em> is known from the Dja system of the upper Sangha drainage (central Congo River basin) in southeastern Cameroon. In Lower Guinea found in the upper Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Boume, Boumba and This species is known from upper Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon, in eastern Equatorial Guinea and in the Ivindo basin of northern Gabon and northwestern Congo.
182434		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, swampy parts of shallow brooks and small streams under dark forest cover on the inland plains rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182434		population	eng	No information available.
182434		threats	eng	It is harvested for the aquarium trade.
182435		conservation	eng	None known.
182435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nigeria in the Lower Delta area. It is known from Southwestern Nigeria (Umuyara Mba at Etche to the Imo basin and the River New Calabar).
182435		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with a max SL 9.3cm. It prefers rivers and coastal lagoons. It is non-migratory.
182435		population	eng	No available data.
182435		threats	eng	Throughout its range the habitat is being seriously degraded by oil exploration and pollution in Nigeria.
182436		conservation	eng	None known.
182436		distribution	eng	<em>Microstomatichthyoborus bashforddeani</em> is known from the central and upper Congo River basin until Kindu on the Lualaba River.
182436		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182436		population	eng	No information available.
182436		threats	eng	None known.
182437		conservation	eng	None known.
182437		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis pulcher</em> is known from Lakes Tumba and Mai-N'Dombe, from the mainstream Central Congo River and from the Kasaï and Tshuapa River systems.
182437		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis pulcher</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is mainly found in lakes and surrounding swamps and seasonally inundated forests (Stiassny 1989). This species is primarily a benthic macrophage (Stiassny 1989) and feeds upon larger particles, plants as well as insects (Lamboj 2004). It is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
182437		population	eng	No information available.
182437		threats	eng	None known.
182438		conservation	eng	None known.
182438		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus decemmaculatus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. Recently, it has been found in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (pers. obs. Victorine Mbadu).
182438		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182438		population	eng	No information available.
182438		threats	eng	None known.
182439		conservation	eng	None known.
182439		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria kissi</em> is only known from the Luhoho River basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182439		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 11.5 cm (Poll 1984).
182439		population	eng	No information available.
182439		threats	eng	None known.
182440		conservation	eng	None known.
182440		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus christyi</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin (Matadi), from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Kasai and Fimi Rivers, Central Congo River basin.
182440		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182440		population	eng	No information available.
182440		threats	eng	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182441		conservation	eng	None known.
182441		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a restricted area around N’Zérékore in southeastern Guinea in the upper drainage systems of the Saint John/Mani and Saint Paul/Oulé rivers.
182441		habitat	eng	A non-migratory and benthopelagic fish. The species inhabits the quiet parts of brooks and streams. Maximum size 7.0 cm TL
182441		population	eng	No available data.
182441		threats	eng	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened from water pollution due to mining and untreated sewage
182442		conservation	eng	None known.
182442		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax angolensis</em> is known from the Kwango and Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin, Angola.
182442		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax angolensis</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.7 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182442		population	eng	No information available.
182442		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182443		conservation	eng	None known.
182443		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius friteli</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.
182443		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182443		population	eng	No information available.
182443		threats	eng	None known.
182444		conservation	eng	None known.
182444		distribution	eng	<em>Nanochromis teugelsi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, Kasai drainage and Congo River main channel, region from the Kasai River to Lake Tumba (Lamboj and Schelley 2006).
182444		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182444		population	eng	No information available.
182444		threats	eng	No information available.
182445		conservation	eng	None known.
182445		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys nigrolateralis</em> is only known from its type locality, Tchimenji River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, northeastern Angola.
182445		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182445		population	eng	No information available.
182445		threats	eng	None known.
182446		conservation	eng	No information available.
182446		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is now Regionally Extinct, but used to be found in Cairo during flood-time.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in Bahr el Jebel, White Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the basins, of Chad, Niger (plus Benue), Senegal and Gambia.
182446		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that swims upside down with its belly facing upwards. Its specific name "batensoda" means in Arabic, black belly. A surface feeder, feeds floating organisms i.e. mosquitoes, chironomid larvae and pupae, sometimes feeds on bottom organisms. It is provided with a well developed sieving apparatus enabling it to feed on planktonic and floating organisms.
182446		population	eng	No information available.
182446		threats	eng	None known.
182447		conservation	eng	None known.
182447		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannocharax ansorgii</em> is known from the Ubangui River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it occurs mainly in the upper basins of the rivers Senegal and Gambia, in the Géba and Culufi (Guinea Bissau), Waanje (Sierra Leone), Niger (and Benue) and Bandama (Côte d’Ivoire), Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire/Burkina Faso), Volta (Burkina Faso/Ghana), Pra (Ghana) and Chari-Logone (Chad-Cameroon-Central African Republic).
182447		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Senegal to Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannocharax ansorgii</em> is found in the Ubangui River basin in the Democratic Republic of Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs mainly in the upper basins of the rivers Senegal and Gambia, in the Géba and Culufi (Guinea Bissau), Waanje (Sierra Leone), Niger (and Benue) and Bandama (Côte d’Ivoire), Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire/Burkina Faso), Volta (Burkina Faso/Ghana), Pra (Ghana) and Chari-Logone (Chad-Cameroon-Central African Republic).
182447		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic and potamodromous species.
182447		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, potamodromous species that prefers tropical climate.
182447		population	eng	No information available.
182447		threats	eng	In central Africa, this species has commercial value as an aquarium fish. Oil exploration in Nigeria, agricultural, urban developments and deforestation all threaten this species in western Africa.
182447		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182448		conservation	eng	None known.
182448		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus weeksii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids, and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and upper Kasai systems.
182448		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus weeksii</em> is a demersal, air breathing species.
182448		population	eng	No information available.
182448		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182449		conservation	eng	None known.
182449		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Niari-Kouilou, Nyanga and Ogowe in Gabon.
182449		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus brichardi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.0 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182449		population	eng	No information available.
182449		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182450		conservation	eng	None known.
182450		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the hilly area  south of the Sanaga River, from several kilometres east of Edea to about 50 km south of Edea between the Sanaga and the Nyong Rivers in western Cameroon.
182450		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion edeanum</em> inhabits small bodies of water under rain forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) edeanum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182450		population	eng	No information available.
182450		threats	eng	In the southern part of its distribution, the species is threatened oil palm plantations.
182451		conservation	eng	None known.
182451		distribution	eng	Species present in most of the coastal river basins from the Cess/Nipoué as western distribution border and certainly up to the Volta and questionably up to the Niger river basin as the eastern distribution border.
182451		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182451		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182451		threats	eng	None known.
182452		conservation	eng	None known.
182452		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus orycteropus</em> is only known from the type locality, Pweto, Lake Mweru and from the rapids in he Lualaba River, km 47 on the route Kisangani-Wanie Rukula.
182452		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182452		population	eng	No information available.
182452		threats	eng	None known.
182453		conservation	eng	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182453		conservation	eng	No information available.
182453		conservation	eng	None known.
182453		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves such as Kafue National Park.
182453		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves such as Kafue National Park. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182453		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is assessed as Regionally Extinct. It used in to be found and caught from Luxor and Aswan in Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is widely distributed in tropical Africa including Sudan, Niger and Congo.
182453		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross and Sanaga Rivers.  Elsewhere, it occurs in the Niger, Zambezi, Okavango Rivers, and Lakes Kariba, Turkana, Tanganyika. It is also known from east coast rivers in southern Africa.
182453		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire river (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Rovuma River.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, and east coast rivers south of Phongolo.  Throuout the Zaire (Congo) system.
182453		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Found in the Niger and Cross Rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere, occurring in the Sanaga, Congo, Zambezi, Okavango Rivers, and Lakes Kariba, Turkana, Tanganyika (Schaefer in press).
182453		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Congo and Zambezi River systems, including the Cunene and Okavango, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo (Skelton 2001). This species is the only characin found in the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi system in Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>
182453		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, found from Sudan to South Africa, and westerly as far as east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, including Lakes Kariba and Tanganyika. In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross and Sanaga Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979) and Rovuma Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It used in to be found and caught from Luxor and Aswan in Egyptian Nile, but is now extirpated from the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Ghazal el Jebel systems, White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from Congo and Zambezi systems, including the Cunene and Okavango, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo (Skelton 2001). This species is the only characin found in the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi system in Zambia (Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004).
182453		habitat	eng	Common in water with fringing vegetation. Omnivorous, feeding on zooplancton and insects. After first summer rains, this species moves in shoals and migrates upstream to breed throughout the summer months.  It matures after a year and lives for 3 years.This species is not represented in the commercial catches of the Shire river.
182453		habitat	eng	<em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It forms shoals in clear, flowing or standing, open water. Common in water with fringing vegetation. It appears to co-exist with the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskalii</em> in open water although it is heavily preyed upon by that predator, particularly those shoals of tigerfish ranging up to 45 cm in length (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects. Also takes insect larvae, crustaceans and eggs and fry of other fish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). They mature after a year. A partial spawner of moderate fecundity, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female. Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains; breeds throughout the summer months. Used as forage fish and as bait for tigerfish and pike (Skelton 1993).
182453		habitat	eng	<em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It forms shoals in clear, flowing or standing, open water. It appears to co-exist with the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskalii</em> in open water although it is heavily preyed upon by that predator, particularly those shoals of tigerfish ranging up to 45 cm in length (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects.  Also takes insect larvae, crustaceans and eggs and fry of other fish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). They mature after a year. A partial spawner of moderate fecundity, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female.  Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains; breeds throughout the summer months.  Used as forage fish and as bait for tigerfish and pike (Skelton 1993) Its prefered habitats are streams, neritic, lakes and mangroves.
182453		habitat	eng	It shoals in clear, flowing or standing open water. Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects and zooplankton. Matures after year and lives for about 3 years. It is a partial spawner and its fecundity is moderate, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female. The fish does not exceed a length of 9.5 cm.
182453		habitat	eng	Pelagic in streams in lakes. Shoals in clear, flowing or standing, open water. Potamodromous. Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects. Also takes insect larvae, crustaceans and eggs and fry of other fish. Mature after a year. A partial spawner of moderate fecundity, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female. Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains; breeds throughout the summer months. Used as forage fish and as bait for tigerfish and pike.<br/><br/>Appears to co-exist with the tigerfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocynus forskalii</span> in open water although it is heavily preyed upon by that predator, particularly those shoals of tigerfish ranging up to 45 cm in length.
182453		habitat	eng	Rivers, streams and impoundments. Shoals in clear, flowing or standing open water. Omnivorous, often feeding at the surface on winged insects, also takes zooplankton (Skelton 2001). Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains, a partial spawner, breeding throughout the summer months.
182453		population	eng	Limited information. Numerous in suitable habitats.
182453		population	eng	No information.
182453		population	eng	No information available.
182453		population	eng	Not known
182453		population	eng	Numerous in suitable habitats.
182453		threats	eng	None known.
182453		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182453		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is ovefishing with small meshed gears.
182453		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182453		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing with small meshed gears.
182453		threats	eng	Unknown
182454		conservation	eng	No information available.
182454		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182454		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182454		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis frontosus</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>Globally, it can be found in the Nile basin, Rudolf, Albert, Edward and Kyoga Lakes; Chad basin; and Ubi Gibe.
182454		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Albert, Edward and Kioga, Lakes Turkana and Uebi Giuba (Uebi Shebeli); Albert and Murchison Niles. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile basin, Lake Chad basin.
182454		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Blache et al. (1964) report it from the Chad, but none of the specimens they have examined was preserved. Even though part of the Chadian fauna is nilotic, it seems strange that this species has never been found again, despite the intensive work carried out in that region. Therefore, the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frontosus</span> in the Chad region needs to be confirmed. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere, it occurs in the basins of the Nile and the Webi Shebeli, and Lakes Turkana, Albert, Edward and Kyoga.
182454		distribution	eng	This species is known along the length of the Nile to the rift lakes in Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Albert, Edward and Kioga, Lakes Turkana and Uebi Giuba (Uebi Shebeli), and the Albert and Murchison Niles. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the White Nile and Bahr el Jebel, Sudan, as well as the Baro, Omo and Wabishebelle Rivers, Ethiopia.
182454		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species that occurs in lakes.  Feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs.  Breeding takes place during flooding in June to early dry down in January.
182454		habitat	eng	Breeding takes place in channels and lakes during flooding in June to until the waters subside in January (Bailey 1994). Feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs (Bailey 1994).
182454		habitat	eng	It occurs in lakes and feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs. This oviparous fish breeds during flooding in June to early dry down in January. It is a squeaker or upside-down catfish.
182454		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Breeding takes place in channels and lakes during flooding in June to until the waters subside in January (Bailey 1994). It feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs (Bailey 1994).
182454		population	eng	No available data.
182454		population	eng	No information available.
182454		population	eng	No quantitative population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
182454		threats	eng	In eastern Africa this species is possibly threatened by heavy fishing pressure. The mounting eutrophication in Lake Albert is likely to generate anoxia in the deep waters which could degrade habitat of this species.
182454		threats	eng	No information available.
182454		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the possible heavy fishing pressure. The mounting eutrophication in Lake Albert is likely to generate anoxia in the deep waters which could degrade habitat of this species.
182454		threats	eng	Unknown.
182455		conservation	eng	None known.
182455		distribution	eng	<em>Chelaethiops elongatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, including the Ubangui River.
182455		habitat	eng	<em>Chelaethiops elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182455		population	eng	No information available.
182455		threats	eng	None known.
182456		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and threats to this species.
182456		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Maki River, Lake Zwai, Ethiopia.
182456		habitat	eng	It is found in standing water.
182456		population	eng	No data available, but this is a rare species.
182456		threats	eng	No information available.
182457		conservation	eng	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182457		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More policy-based action should be put in place, as well as population trend monitoring, and the maintenance of this species habitats.
182457		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger (down-river from Bamako), Volta, as well as in the Chad. Unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">D. rostratus</span>, its distribution area does not include the lower course of the Volta and other coastal basins located between Gambia and the Niger.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in Africa, also found in the White Nile. (Gosse and Coenen 1990).
182457		distribution	eng	This is a wide ranging species from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from the White Nile and Lake Roseires, Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger (down-river from Bamako), Volta, as well as in the Chad. Unlike <em>D. rostratus</em>, its distribution area does not include the lower course of the Volta and other coastal basins located between Gambia and the Niger.
182457		habitat	eng	This species prefers flowing water, and feeds on vegetation and periphyton (Holden and Reed 1972)
182457		habitat	eng	This specise prefers flowing water. Feeds on vegetation and periphyton. (Holden and Reed 1972).
182457		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182457		population	eng	No information available.
182457		threats	eng	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins, and the resultant increases in sediment loads. Heavy fishing practices and oil drilling may also affect some populations.
182457		threats	eng	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins. Resultant increases in sediment loads. Heavy fishing practices and oil drilling may also affect some populations.
182458		conservation	eng	None known.
182458		distribution	eng	Until recently <em>Brycinus bartoni</em> was only known from the holotype from the Ogowe basin (Ngounié at Mouila). However, many specimens have since been collected, mainly from this left bank tributary of the Ogowe. The species appears to be endemic to this basin and is not found in upper courses of the Ogowe River or in the Ivindo River.
182458		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182458		population	eng	No information available.
182458		threats	eng	<em>Brycinus bartoni</em> is threatened by slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene).
182459		conservation	eng	None in place.
182459		conservation	eng	None known.
182459		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as potential conservation measures, and maintenance of habitat.
182459		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Within the Lower Guinea province, <em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> is known from a single locality “30 km. N. van Douala, Mboumboula River” situated in the Mungo River Basin (Cameroon). Elsewhere <em>D. clupeoides</em> has a restricted distribution in West Africa from the Oueme River to the Niger delta. The species has not been found in the Cross River Basin (Teugels 1990).
182459		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Denticeps clupeoides</span> is restricted to western Africa where it is known from the Ouémé Basin(Benin) to the Niger delta. It has not been found in the River Cross. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area it occurs in the River Mungo (Cameroon).
182459		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benin to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>Within the Lower Guinea province, <em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> is known from a single locality “30 km. N. van Douala, Mboumboula River” situated in the Mungo River Basin (Cameroon). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ouémé basin (Benin) to the Niger delta. It has not been found in the River Cross.
182459		habitat	eng	<em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> occurs in shoals that tend to keep to the middle of the stream, where the current is at its strongest. It is a very good swimmer, extremely fast and hence not easily caught (Clausen 1959). It is a pelagic species.
182459		habitat	eng	This pelagic riverine clupeid-like fish grows to 15 cm in total length. Non-migratory.
182459		population	eng	No available data.
182459		population	eng	No information available.
182459		threats	eng	None known.
182459		threats	eng	Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.
182460		conservation	eng	None known.
182460		distribution	eng	<em>Atopochilus chrysti</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Luebo, the Yangambi region, Kisangani and the Tshopo River, Central Congo River basin.
182460		habitat	eng	<em>Atopochilus chrysti</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182460		population	eng	No information available.
182460		threats	eng	None known.
182461		conservation	eng	None known.
182461		distribution	eng	<em>Microsynodontis christyi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.It has not been reported from Pool Malebo, and it is not known from the Kasai system.
182461		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis christyi</em> is an oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966) and demersal species.
182461		population	eng	No information available.
182461		threats	eng	None known.
182462		conservation	eng	Unknown
182462		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the rivers Nipoué or Cess
182462		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182462		population	eng	No available data.
182462		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182463		conservation	eng	None known.
182463		distribution	eng	This species is known from swift waters in the upper and Middle Niger.
182463		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish of maximum size 6.2 cm SL.
182463		population	eng	No available data.
182463		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation particularly from agricultural, and deforestation developments.
182464		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of populations.
182464		conservation	eng	None known.
182464		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been reported from Lake Chad but its presence there needs confirmation.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. pumilus</span> was described from the White Nile.
182464		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sudan and Ethiopia, and possibly Lake Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>  It is found in Baro basin, Ethiopia and parts of the White Nile, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The species has been reported from Lake Chad but its presence there needs confirmation.
182464		habitat	eng	A small benthopelagic species.
182464		habitat	eng	A small benthopelagic species found in running water.
182464		population	eng	No available data.
182464		population	eng	No information available.
182464		threats	eng	No information available.
182464		threats	eng	Not known.
182465		conservation	eng	None known.
182465		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus atromaculatus</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. One record has been made from Mboma, Tadi River, Lower Congo River basin. This single MRAC specimen has been checked and looks extremely similar but has only three scales between lateral line and dorsal compared with four in all other specimens (Hanssens, M. pers. comm.). This needs further investigation.
182465		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus atromaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an omnivore; pieces of insects, plants and little crustaceans have been found in their stomach contents (Gosse 1963).
182465		population	eng	No information available.
182465		threats	eng	None known.
182466		conservation	eng	Population trend monitoring is needed.
182466		distribution	eng	<em>B. anniae</em> is known only from the River Koumba, a tributary of the Tominé/Corubal River in Guinea and in Guinea-Bissau.
182466		habitat	eng	A bentho-pelagic fish of maximum of 8.3 cm SL.
182466		population	eng	No available data.
182466		threats	eng	No current threats known, but it is potentially impacted by deforestation.
182467		conservation	eng	None known.
182467		distribution	eng	This species is known from small rivers and brooks in the forested central and coastal area of Togo.
182467		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish. It is not a seasonal killifish. Maximum size 2.5 cm SL
182467		population	eng	No available data.
182467		threats	eng	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened from deforestation.
182469		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182469		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo rouaneti</span> is known only from the River Kakrima (Konkouré basin in Guinea).
182469		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182469		population	eng	No available data.
182469		threats	eng	No information available.
182470		conservation	eng	None known.
182470		distribution	eng	In western Africa, this species occurs in coastal lagoons and lower river courses from Côte d’Ivoire (starting at the Tabou) to the River Cross in Nigeria. So far, it has not been collected in the area between the Pra in Ghana and Benin. Elsewhere, its is found in the coastal region to Southern Cameroon. Also known from Guinea Bissau (Culufi River).
182470		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal basins of the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Lokoundje, Kribi and Lobe (Cameroon) . Elsewhere it is known from coastal lagoons and lower courses of rivers from Ivory Coast to the Niger-delta, Nigeria. It has been introduced to Australia in 1960 - 1969 and from West Africa to the USA in 1974. These populations have established themselves. It has also been introduced from West Africa to the USSR, but it is unknown whether their populations have established themselves.
182470		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal lagoons and lower courses of rivers from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon. It has been introduced to Australia in 1960 - 1969 and from West Africa to the USA in 1974. These populations have established themselves. It has also been introduced from West Africa to the USSR, but it is unknown whether their populations have established themselves.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal basins of the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Lokoundje, Kribi and Lobe (Cameroon) . <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species occurs in coastal lagoons and lower river courses from Côte d’Ivoire (starting at the Tabou) to the River Cross in Nigeria. So far, it has not been collected in the area between the Pra in Ghana and Benin. Also known from Guinea Bissau (Culufi River).
182470		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal areas and the lower courses of rivers. It lives in still or flowing waters in rocky or mud-bottom areas. <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in warm springs and mud-bottomed to sand-bottomed canals. It consumes plant matter. The species reaches sexual maturity at 10-15 centimetres length. Parents prepare nest site on logs, leaves and other debris. The eggs (600-3,300 per female) are guarded by the parents and hatch in 1-3 days. Parental care of the brood continues until the fish are about 2.5-3.0 centimetres. It is a demersal species with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19. It lives in freshwater and in brackish water.
182470		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal areas and the lower courses of rivers. It lives in still or flowing waters in rocky or mud-bottom areas. <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in warm springs and mud-bottomed to sand-bottomed canals. It consumes plant matter. The species reaches sexual maturity at 10-15 centimetres length. Parents prepare nest site on logs, leaves and other debris. The eggs (600-3300 per female) are guarded by the parents and hatch in 1-3 days. Parental care of the brood continues until the fish are about 2.5-3.0 centimetres. It is a demersal species with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19. It lives in freshwater and in brackish water.
182470		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal lagoons, lower river courses and warm springs. A demersal species.
182470		population	eng	No available data.
182470		population	eng	No information available.
182470		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural development are localised threats.
182470		threats	eng	This is commercially used for aquariums.
182470		threats	eng	Threats to this species include oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural development are localised threats. It is also a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182471		conservation	eng	None known.
182471		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus tigripictilis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River, from above Luozi to Matadi (Schelley and Stiassny 2004).
182471		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182471		population	eng	No information available.
182471		threats	eng	The key component of concrete is found in the Luozi region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Congo River with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
182472		conservation	eng	There is no major conservation measures in place, however water levels should be managed.
182472		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Central rift valley lakes of Ziway, Langano, Koka and associated rivers; as well as in Awash basin.
182472		habitat	eng	This species is found in running waters as well as in lakes and reservoirs.
182472		population	eng	Not exactly known; however it is abundant.
182472		threats	eng	Pollution and extraction of water are major threats.
182473		conservation	eng	None known.
182473		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper courses of the Niger (and Benue) and the Chari-Logone (Chad).
182473		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species
182473		population	eng	No available data.
182473		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation from agricultural, urban developments and deforestation.
182474		conservation	eng	None known.
182474		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic with all known collections of <em>Stomatorhinus ivindoensis</em> coming from the Ivindo River margins or from small forest streams flowing into the Ivindo River in root tangles.
182474		habitat	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus ivindoensis</em> is known from the Ivindo River margins or from small forest streams flowing into the Ivindo River in root tangles. It is a demersal species.
182474		population	eng	No information available.
182474		threats	eng	The species is threatened by iron mining on the Lower Ivindo drainage.
182475		conservation	eng	None known.
182475		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus rhynchophorus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.
182475		habitat	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus rhynchophorus</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electro receptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995).
182475		population	eng	No information available.
182475		threats	eng	None known.
182476		conservation	eng	No information available.
182476		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves over its wide range.
182476		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves over its wide range. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range. Habitat maintenance may be required in certain areas.
182476		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus radiatus</em> is widespread, from Uganda southwards, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system in South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The presence of this species in the Lulua (Kasai) has recently been confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Lake Victoria basin, Tana River system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Malagarasi River and Rukwa system. Its distribution includes Lake Victoria and some of affluent rivers, Lake Nabugabo and Aswa river, Tanzania (near Dar es Salaam). It is also found in Lake Malawi and it catchment, the Lower Shire, and Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Widespread across its range including Zambian Congo, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system (Skelton 2001). It is known from parts of the Zambezi River system, from the Okavango River and swamps, westward and south-eastward flowing rivers of Angola.
182476		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Victoria basin, Tana River system (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Malagarasi river and Rukwa system. Lake Victoria and some of affluent rivers, Lake Nabugabo,  Aswa river, Tanzania (near Dar es Salaam). Lake Malawi and it catchment, Lower Shire, Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa.</em>
182476		distribution	eng	The species is widespread southwards from Uganda, including Zambian Congo, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system (Skelton 2001).
182476		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus radiatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 1993). It feeds on invertebrates (Konings 1990). This species is subject to seasonal migratory movements (Bell-Cross 1976). The preferred habitat is vegetation fringing main river channels (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), also marshes and lakes. In Swaziland, found in rock pools in the Komati River (Bills <em>et al.</em> 2004) and observed in Lake Malawi on rocky shore (D. Tweddle, unpublished). Active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 2001).
182476		habitat	eng	Prefers marshes and marginal vegetation of streams, rivers and lakes. Active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 1993). Feeds on invertebrates (Konings 1990). Feeds mainly on insects. Subject to seasonal migratory movements (Bell-Cross 1976). It is a wide-ranging species throughout Malawi although rarely abundant.  It occurs along  Lake Malawi's shoreline prefering shallow areas of marshes and marginal vegetation of streams, rivers and lakes. It is active in subdued light and at night.  It feeds on invertebrates.  In Lake Chiuta it is reported to be fairly common in the lake and in quiet stretches of affluent streams.
182476		habitat	eng	The preferred habitat is vegetation fringing main river channels (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), also marshes and lakes. In Swaziland, found in rock pools in the Komati River (Bills <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and observed in Lake Malawi on rocky shore (Tweddle, unpublished). Active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 2001).
182476		population	eng	Generally one of the less common barbs where it occurs, but its wide distribution means that populations are healthy.
182476		population	eng	Not known, but rarely seen in fisheries catches in Malagarasi river.
182476		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension and poisoning in some rivers e.g., Bua River, Malawi.
182476		threats	eng	There are no known immediate threats to this species.
182476		threats	eng	There are no known immediate threats to this species. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension and poisoning in some rivers e.g. Bua River, Malawi, do however pose possible localised threats to some populations.
182477		conservation	eng	None known.
182477		distribution	eng	<em>Myomyrus pharao</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) (paratype) and from Kisangani.
182477		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182477		population	eng	No information available.
182477		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to <em>Mormyrus pharao</em> known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182478		conservation	eng	None known.
182478		distribution	eng	The fish is from the Gambia River basin in the west, to the Cess or Nipoue River basin in the east  It includes the Atlantic drainage basins of Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire (Kolenté and Little Scarcies, Nipoué and Cavally Rivers), also the Konkouré Rivers in Gambia and Guinea and Gambia and Mako rivers in Senegal.
182478		habitat	eng	Freshwater, benthopelagic pelagic fish of maximum size 368 mm SL (383 mm TL).
182478		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182478		threats	eng	There is a potential threats from mining and deforestation from bad agricultural practices and sedimentation.
182479		conservation	eng	None known.
182479		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species range, and population trends should be monitored.
182479		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Erpetoichthys calabaricus</em> is known from coastal rivers of Cameroon to the Sanaga. Boulenger's (1909) record of <em>E. calabaricus</em> from the Chiloango in Congo-Brazzaville needs further corroboration (see Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). Elsewhere it occurs in coastal rivers from the Ogun in Nigeria to Cameroon.
182479		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Ouémé (Benin), Ogun and Cross River (Nigeria).<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is recorded from coastal rivers and lakes from Ouémé (Benin) to Chiloango (Congo).
182479		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benin to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Erpetoichthys calabaricus</em> is known from coastal rivers of Cameroon to the Sanaga. Boulenger's (1909) record of <em>E. calabaricus</em> from the Chiloango in Congo needs further corroboration (see Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ouémé (Benin), Ogun and Cross Rivers (Nigeria)
182479		habitat	eng	No information available.
182479		habitat	eng	This species is a freshwater species also found in brackish coastal waters. It prefers slow flowing rivers and standing waters. Apparently restricted to reedy habitats, and feeds at night on worms crustaceans and other insects. It is able to breath air and can tolerate low oxygen concentrations.
182479		habitat	eng	This species is a freshwater species also found in brackish coastal waters. Prefers slow flowing rivers and standing waters. Apparently restricted to reedy habitats. Feeds at night on worms crustaceans and other insects. Able to breath air and can tolerate low oxygen concentrations. Non-migratory.
182479		population	eng	No available data.
182479		population	eng	No information available.
182479		threats	eng	Habitat degradation/loss due to wetland drainage for agriculture and urban developments and deforestation.
182479		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal region.
182479		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal regions of central Africa. In western Africa, it is threatened by habitat degradation/loss due to wetland drainage for agriculture and urban developments and deforestation.
182480		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182480		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to the middle course of the Konkouré in Guinea
182480		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 10.0 cm SL maximum size
182480		population	eng	No available data.
182480		threats	eng	No information available.
182481		conservation	eng	The species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182481		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus symoensi</em> is known from Kilwezi and another location, both effluents of the Lufira River, from upper Congo River basin.
182481		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182481		population	eng	No information available.
182481		threats	eng	None known.
182482		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182482		distribution	eng	<em>Kneria wittei</em> is known from the Lualaba and from the Luapula system. It is also known from the west of Lake Tanganyika, the Lukuga region and effluents of Lake Tanganyika.
182482		habitat	eng	<em>Kneria wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits upland streams and pools. It is hardy and can survive some time out of water (Eccles 1992).
182482		population	eng	No information available.
182482		threats	eng	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries.
182484		conservation	eng	None known.
182484		distribution	eng	<em>Hemistichodus lootensi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from Lake Tumba, satellite lakes around Lac Mai-Ndombe, Mbandaka and Boende (Central Congo River basin).
182484		habitat	eng	<em>Hemistichodus lootensi</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 5.7 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182484		population	eng	No information available.
182484		threats	eng	None known.
182485		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182485		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus perungueyi</em> is endemic in the Luapula-Mweru system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182485		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182485		population	eng	No information available.
182485		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets threaten the species.
182486		conservation	eng	None known.
182486		distribution	eng	This species is known from upper and lower Niger, This species is known from upper course of the Benue, coastal basins of Nigeria, Volta and Chad basins.
182486		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182486		population	eng	No information available on population trends
182486		threats	eng	Deforestation and drought may be a threat to some populations.
182487		conservation	eng	None known.
182487		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the drainage system of the Kake River in the area around Mount Cameroon, western Cameroon.
182487		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) volcanum</em> inhabits the swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the rain forest, mainly on volcanic soils (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) volcanum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). One male spawns with several females (Riehl and Baensch 1991).
182487		population	eng	No information available.
182487		threats	eng	The species is threatened by intensive land use and pollution from rubber, banana, and palm oil plantations leading to pollution and sedimentation.
182488		conservation	eng	None known.
182488		distribution	eng	<em>Plataplochilus loemensis</em> is known from the Foulakari River, Lower Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from southwestern Gabon, and in western Congo from the Lombo (Ntombo), Loeme, Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers. Elsewhere, it occurs in Cabinda and western Congo. The Congo River basin is most probably the southern limit of its distribution.
182488		habitat	eng	<em>Plataplochilus loemensis</em> is found in small rivers, brooks and swamps in the coastal rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is difficult to maintain in aquaria (Seegers 1997).
182488		population	eng	No information available.
182488		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182489		conservation	eng	None known.
182489		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ogowe basin in Gabon.
182489		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis haugi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182489		population	eng	No information available.
182489		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182490		conservation	eng	None known.
182490		distribution	eng	<strong></strong><em>Alestopetersius brichardi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.
182490		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182490		population	eng	No information available.
182490		threats	eng	None known.
182491		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182491		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality: Ismailia Channel, Ismailia, Egypt, 120 km northeast of Cairo.
182491		habitat	eng	No information available.
182491		population	eng	No information available.
182491		threats	eng	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought are all potential threats to this species.
182492		conservation	eng	None known.
182492		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion wildekampi</em> is known from the Sangha River basin, Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the upper Ivindo River.
182492		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion wildekampi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks, swamps and small streams, mainly in the shallow parts in the rainforest and forested savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182492		population	eng	No information available.
182492		threats	eng	Cobalt mining and logging in the Sangha River basin are posing threats to the species.
182493		conservation	eng	None known.
182493		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Kouilou-Niari and Loeme-Loukene basins (Congo), Nyanga and This species is known from upper Ngounie basins, and Ogowe River (Gabon).
182493		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
182493		population	eng	No information available.
182493		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182494		conservation	eng	None known.
182494		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes fodori</em> is only known from Lake Fwa (Democratic Republic of the Congo).
182494		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182494		population	eng	No information available.
182494		threats	eng	None known.
182495		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182495		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax minutus</em> is known from the Luapula River basin and from the Bangweulu region in Zambia.
182495		habitat	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax minutus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.3 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182495		population	eng	No information available.
182495		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species.
182496		conservation	eng	None known.
182496		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Nyong River, Cameroon.
182496		habitat	eng	No information available.
182496		population	eng	No information available.
182496		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction were to recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
182497		conservation	eng	None known.
182497		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality Kasewe (Sierra Leone), which is said to have been captured in one of the small water courses belonging to the Gbangbaia basin, a small brook located to the west of the Jong. It is also reported from Liberia.
182497		habitat	eng	This monospecific species is a pelagic fish. Maximum size 3.1 cm SL.
182497		population	eng	No available data.
182497		threats	eng	The extent and quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to mining, urban developments and deforestation.
182498		conservation	eng	None known.
182498		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis praecox</em> is only known from two localities (Zambi (Bula) and Boma) in the tidal stretches of the Lower Congo River (Stiassny 1990).
182498		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis praecox</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is omnivorous and prefers small organic particles, regardless whether they are plants or small insects (Lamboj 2004). This species is an opportunistic benthic microphage (Keith <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989). It is probably tolerant of relatively high salinity levels (Stiassny 1989).
182498		population	eng	No information available.
182498		threats	eng	None known.
182499		conservation	eng	None known.
182499		distribution	eng	<em>Potamothrissa obtusirostris</em> is known from the Lower, Central and Upper Congo River basin.
182499		habitat	eng	<em>Potamothrissa obtusirostris</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and streams, but perhaps not in lakes. It feeds on aquatic insects (e.g. chironomid larvae) and hydracarians.
182499		population	eng	No information available.
182499		threats	eng	This species is important in subsistence fisheries.
182500		conservation	eng	None known.
182500		distribution	eng	Tilapia discolor is known from Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana, as well as from the basins of the Pra (Ghana), Tano (Ghana/Côte d’Ivoire) and Bia (Côte d’Ivoire)
182500		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish species of 22.5 cm TL
182500		population	eng	No available data.
182500		threats	eng	Threats to this species include agricultural, urban developments, mining and deforestation.
182501		conservation	eng	None known.
182501		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia tholloni</em> is known from the Lower Congo and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Elsewhere, it is known from the upper and lower Ogowe River in Gabon, Kouilou-Niari and the Chiloango system.
182501		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182501		population	eng	No information available.
182501		threats	eng	None known.
182502		conservation	eng	None known.
182502		distribution	eng	<em>Raiamas buchholzi</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from a few specimens from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.). It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the coastal basins of Cameroon to Congo.
182502		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas buchholzi</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182502		population	eng	No information available.
182502		threats	eng	None known.
182503		conservation	eng	None known.
182503		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from the type locality, a small mountainous brook in the Mbomi drainage system in the central Du Chaillu-Massif in southern Gabon.
182503		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion hofmanni</em> is found in the shallowest, swampy parts of brooks in the inland mountain rainforest. It typically inhabits water of only a few centimetres depth. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) hofmanni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182503		population	eng	No information available.
182503		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182504		conservation	eng	None known.
182504		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis robertsi</em> is only known from the holotype at the type locality Elombe on the Lukenie River, Central Congo River basin.
182504		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182504		population	eng	No information available.
182504		threats	eng	None known, except for the minor influence of agriculture.
182505		conservation	eng	None known.
182505		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus trachypterus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Lufira River system.
182505		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus trachypterus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182505		population	eng	No information available.
182505		threats	eng	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining)
182506		conservation	eng	The species distribution in the Congo basin is located in the Upemba National Park.
182506		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo Kibimbi</em> is known from Lake Upemba and the Lufira River (upper Congo River basin).
182506		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo Kibimbi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182506		population	eng	No information available.
182506		threats	eng	There is no major threat for this species because it is known from the Upemba National Park.
182507		conservation	eng	No information available.
182507		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Kisimayo, about 2 km from Goba, and 107.8 km from Kisimayo, Somalia.
182507		habitat	eng	It is found in temporary water filled by floods in which the pool changed into a temporary swamp, covered with grasses and reed.
182507		population	eng	No information available.
182507		threats	eng	No information available.
182508		conservation	eng	Habitat restoration is needed.
182508		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bandama, Comoé and Bia River drainage systems in central, southern and eastern Côte d'Ivoire and in the Bia, Tano, Ankobra river drainage systems in southwestern Ghana.
182508		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swamps, pools, brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest and forested savannah.
182508		population	eng	No information available.
182508		threats	eng	Mining and deforestation threaten this species.
182509		conservation	eng	None known.
182509		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus hutereaui</em> is only known from the type locality Dungu, Uele River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182509		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182509		population	eng	No information available.
182509		threats	eng	None known.
182510		conservation	eng	None known.
182510		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only found in the central area of the Du Chaillu Massif in southern Gabon and possibly also in the adjacent Congo.
182510		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion hanneloreae</em> is found in small rivulets in swamps in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) hanneloreae</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
182510		population	eng	No information available.
182510		threats	eng	None known.
182511		conservation	eng	None known.
182511		distribution	eng	The species is found from small coastal basins in the southern areas of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire.
182511		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182511		population	eng	No available information available.
182511		threats	eng	There is a potential threats to this species include invasive aquatic weeds and increasing levels of agrochemicals from farming activities in areas around the water bodies, and effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of these coastal rivers especially the Ankobra and Tano. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish. Timber felling is an especially important threat in the Tano. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges.
182512		conservation	eng	None known.
182512		distribution	eng	<em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is wide spread in coastal regions from Senegal to Gabon and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Loeme River (Congo), and a few specimens collected at Agilé (Fernan Vaz) in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Laeviscutella dekimpei</span> is known from the lower reaches of rivers, from Casamance River in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo (Gourène and Teugels 1994) and in lagoons (Lake Ébrié, Côte d'Ivoire, and Lake Nokué, Benin).
182512		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea <em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is only known from a few specimens collected at Agilé (Fernan Vaz) in Gabon. According to Poll <em>et al.</em> (1965), it is also known from the Loeme River (Congo-Brazzaville). Elsewhere known from West Africa in lower reaches of rivers (Casamance River in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Gourène and Teugels 1994) in lagoons (Lake Ébrié, Côte d'Ivoire; Lake Nokué, Benin).  Also recorded from  the Niger (Gourène and Teugels 1990).
182512		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Laeviscutella dekimpei</span> is found from the Casamance to the Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Casamance River in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182512		habitat	eng	<em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in rivers, chiefly near the coast and entering lagoons, where salinities vary with the tides. The species is presumably euryhaline, although it may escape high salinities.
182512		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rivers, chiefly near the coast and entering lagoons, where salinities vary with the tides. The species is presumably euryhaline, although it may escape high salinities.
182512		population	eng	No available information
182512		population	eng	No information available.
182512		threats	eng	Importance: subsistence fisheries
182512		threats	eng	None known
182512		threats	eng	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries in central Africa.
182513		conservation	eng	No information available.
182513		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus neglectus</em> used to occur in the region from the Nile, Lake Manzala, Damietta Branch (close to Barrage), Luxor and Aswan. It does not longer exist below the Aswan High Dam.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the River Nile basin until Blue Nile, Albert Nile.
182513		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Nile river basin, from Egypt to Ethiopia and Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is present the length of the Nile, including Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found as far as the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia.
182513		habitat	eng	A small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length. No information available on this species ecology.
182513		habitat	eng	It is a small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length. Colour: Yellowish with broard silvery lateral bands, fins white and transparent, a dark dot at the base of caudal fin.
182513		population	eng	It has a high resilience (high capacity to withstand exploitation).
182513		population	eng	This is a high resilience species (high capacity to withstand exploitation).
182513		threats	eng	Dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought are all possible threats to this species, however it is thought to be fairly resilient.
182513		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182514		conservation	eng	None known.
182514		distribution	eng	<strong> </strong><em>Gephyroglanis congic</em>us is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of  the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The type specimen comes from Upoto, near Lissala.
182514		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182514		population	eng	No information available.
182514		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not  affecting the species.
182515		conservation	eng	None known.
182515		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion labarrei</em> is only known from the lower and central Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin.
182515		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion labarrei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in small brooks and small streams in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182515		population	eng	No information available.
182515		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182516		conservation	eng	No information available.
182516		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Haplochromis wingatii</em> has been reported from the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>Its global range includes the Nile River and Lake Albert.
182516		distribution	eng	This species is known the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present throughout the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from Bahr el Jebel, This species is known from upper White Nile, Sudan.
182516		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species.
182516		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182516		population	eng	No information available.
182516		threats	eng	No information available.
182517		conservation	eng	None known.
182517		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clarias salae</span> is found from the River Géba in Guinea Bissau to the Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire
182517		habitat	eng	This demersal fish occurs in river systems which arise in mountainous areas and are entirely within the rain forest.
182517		population	eng	No available data.
182517		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, deforestation, mining, urban developments are local threats.
182518		conservation	eng	None known.
182518		distribution	eng	This species has a wide central and southern African distribution. In southern Africa from the Cunene River in the west east and south to the Save River in Mozambique. Outside of the southern Africa region it occurs in the Zambian Congo, eastern Africa and in Lake Victoria.
182518		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocephalus catostoma</span> shoals in quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be widely distributed throughout the system, in tributaries, on floodplains and in the main river on the floodplain and in the rocky stretches above Victoria Falls. Feeds on insect larvae and other small invertebrates. Breeds during the summer rainy season and may make lateral movements from main river channels for breeding during the rains. Both sexes are territorial but shoal at night for feeding.
182518		population	eng	Usually abundant in suitable habitats.
182518		threats	eng	None known.
182519		conservation	eng	None known.
182519		distribution	eng	<em>Hemichromis stellifer</em> is known from the Congo River and associated drainages around Kinshasa. Elsewhere, it is known from Rio Muni to Cabinda, also from the central region of Gabon, and from western Congo.
182519		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182519		population	eng	No information available.
182519		threats	eng	None known.
182520		conservation	eng	The species may be found in the Minkebe National Park to the northwest of its known range, but this area is very difficult to sample.
182520		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in northeastern Gabon between the Djoua and Djadie (or Zadie) River systems, Ivindo basin. The species may be found in the Minkebe National Park to the northwest of its known range, but this area is very difficult to sample.
182520		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) abacinum</em> is found in swampy or standing parts of slow-flowing rainforest brooks. This species is usually found close to the banks between overhanging grass or between fallen leaves. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swampy parts of quiet brooks under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. The species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium.
182520		population	eng	No information available.
182520		threats	eng	This species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture.
182521		conservation	eng	None known.
182521		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182521		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182521		distribution	eng	Species native from Central Africa countries where it occurrs in lowland coastal systems. In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (Bengo River, Lake Rumango), Kwanza River, Chiloango River (Loango River ) and Congo River systems.
182521		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia cabrae</em> is known the mouth of the Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the coastal zones around the Ogowe, Niari-Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also known from the Cuanza delta, Angola.
182521		distribution	eng	This species occurrs in lowland coastal systems of Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tilapia cabrae</em> is known the mouth of the Congo River, and from the coastal zones around the Ogowe, Niari-Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (including Lake Rumango), Kwanza River, Chiloango River (Loango River) and Congo River systems.
182521		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182521		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182521		population	eng	No information available.
182521		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182521		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are unknown.
182521		threats	eng	None known.
182521		threats	eng	Unknown.
182522		conservation	eng	None known.
182522		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys laticeps</em> is especially known from the Lower Congo and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), but has also been found in the central and upper Congo River system.
182522		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys laticeps</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.
182522		population	eng	No information available.
182522		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182523		conservation	eng	The part of the species distribution on the Lufira River and from Lake Upemba lays in the Upemba National Park. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182523		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis regani</em> is known from the Lualaba River, Lake Upemba and from the Lufira, Luvua and Luapula River above the Johnson Falls.
182523		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis reganis</em> is a benthopelagic species. This benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) feeds mainly on plants and insect larvae (Lamboj 2004). It is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
182523		population	eng	Specimens from certain of the smaller Upemba Lakes (e.g. Kinsale, Zimbamba and Kabamba) tend to have slightly more robust lower pharyngeal jaws and enlarged central molariform teeth (Stiassny 1989). Despite this differences, no correlated dietary differentiation was detected among the various populations (Stiassny 1989).
182523		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets poses threats to the species.
182524		conservation	eng	None known.
182524		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower coastal plains of Sierra Leone and western Liberia.
182524		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182524		population	eng	No information available
182524		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agricultural, urban and deforestation developments.
182526		conservation	eng	No information available.
182526		conservation	eng	None known.
182526		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182526		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Parailia pellucida</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Upper Nile to West Africa.
182526		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea known only from the Cross and Wouri River basins. Elsewhere, it occurs in the Nile, Chad, Niger, lower Senegal, Boubo, Bandama, Agnebi, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and the coastal lagoons of Nigeria.
182526		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the basins of Chad, Niger, lower Senegal, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun and coastal lagoons of Nigeria and Cross.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere in the Upper Nile.
182526		distribution	eng	This is a wide-ranging species known from the Senegal/Mauretania border to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is known only from the Cross and Wouri River basins.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the upper White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the basins of Chad, Niger, lower Senegal, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun and coastal lagoons of Nigeria and Cross.
182526		habitat	eng	No information available.
182526		habitat	eng	The species feeds on plankton and crustaceans.
182526		habitat	eng	This benthic species occurs in deep water and feed on plankton and crustaceans. It is oviparous, eggs are unguarded.  It is a demersal, potamodromous species.
182526		habitat	eng	This is a benthic, potomadromous species which occurs in deep water. It feeds on plankton and crustaceans. It is oviparous, and eggs are unguarded.
182526		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182526		population	eng	No information available.
182526		threats	eng	No information available.
182526		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182526		threats	eng	None known
182527		conservation	eng	None known.
182527		distribution	eng	Widespread in Gabon. It has been collected from the Ogooué basin (excepting its most This species is known from upper and lower reaches), the Ntem and Ivindo basins, and the Nyanga basin. On numerous occasions, the authors collected this species together with <em>P. simus</em> (Lavoué<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004).
182527		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182527		population	eng	No information available.
182527		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182528		conservation	eng	None known.
182528		distribution	eng	This species is known from the River Kolenté (Great Scarcies) in Guinea to Liberia, middle course of rivers St. Paul and St. John.
182528		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater, demersal fish. Maximum reported size: 95 mm SL.
182528		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182528		threats	eng	Deforestation, human settlement and mining mainly in Liberia threaten this species.
182529		conservation	eng	None known.
182529		distribution	eng	<em>Orthochromis kalungwishiensis</em> is only known from the Kalungwishi River, a major affluent of Lake Mweru and ultimately part of the Congo drainage system.
182529		habitat	eng	<em>Orthochromis kalungwishiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species, collected from clear, fast-flowing waters. The type series was taken from down to 2 m depth close to the shore, over rocky bottoms. (Greenwood and Kullander 1994).
182529		population	eng	No information available.
182529		threats	eng	The abundant water falls on the Kalungwishi River could be an attraction for tourists in the future. This will however have only a small impact on this species.
182530		conservation	eng	No information available.
182530		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182530		conservation	eng	None known.
182530		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus perince</em> is rare in Nile delta and lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range includes the Blue and White Niles, Uganda (Kazinga Channel, Lake Edward, Lake Albert and Semliki River), Lakes Chad, Benué River and Volta basins. It is also found in the Niger River basin.
182530		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad basin and the Niger (full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Outside western Africa, also in the Nile River, Lakes  Albert, Edward (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182530		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Uganda, and along the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lakes Albert and Edward.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Nile delta and lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>  This species occurs along the Nile, and in Baro and Blue Nile basins, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Chad basin and the Niger
182530		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182530		habitat	eng	It feeds on insects and other small invertebrates. It is favoured by slow-flowing streams with vegetation. It breeds in summer. It is a small-sized fish, around 10 cm in total length, with a silvery, greenish colour on the dorsal side, white or pale yellow fins, and often three distinct round blackish spots on each side.
182530		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic specis feeds on insects and other small invertebrates. It favours slow-flowing streams with vegetation. It breeds in summer. Small-sized fish, around 10 cm in total length.
182530		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182530		population	eng	No information available.
182530		threats	eng	Deforestation may be a threat to some populations.
182530		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought could all pose possible threats. In western Africa, deforestation may be a threat to some populations.
182530		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182531		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182531		conservation	eng	None known.
182531		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus lucius</em> is found in the Kouilou River, Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lucalla River, Angola.
182531		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Angola and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus lucius</em> is found in the Kouilou River, Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Lucalla River in the lower Kwanza system, Angola.
182531		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (Brummett pers. comm.). This species is benthopelagic.
182531		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182531		population	eng	No information available.
182531		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
182532		conservation	eng	None known.
182532		distribution	eng	<em>Hemigrammocharax wittei</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is found in Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and from the Luapula-Chambezi River system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded in Lac Calundo (Angola).
182532		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hemigrammocharax wittei</em> is known from Lac Calundo (Angola), Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and from the Luapula-Chambezi River system.
182532		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182532		population	eng	No information available.
182532		threats	eng	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining),
182532		threats	eng	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining).
182533		conservation	eng	None known.
182533		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe congensis</em> is known from Kinshasa (Léopoldville) downstream to Boma, Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from Kisangani.
182533		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182533		population	eng	No information available.
182533		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to <em>Schilbe congensis</em> known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, build in 5 years will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182534		conservation	eng	No information available.
182534		conservation	eng	None known.
182534		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182534		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Niger, Cross, Chad, Nile, Turkana system.
182534		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is only known from the Cross basin, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from the Nile River, Lake Turkana and effluents, Chad basin, and the Niger (including Lake Kainji).
182534		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Nile and Turkana systems.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Niger, Cross, Chad.
182534		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe uranoscopus</span> is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger (including Lake Kainji) and Cross. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside the area, this species occurs in the Nile, Lake Turkana and its tributaries.
182534		distribution	eng	This species is known from the length of the Nile to Kenya, and Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is only known from the Cross basin, Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Nile and Turkana systems.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, Nile and Lake Nasser, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger (including Lake Kainji) and Cross.
182534		habitat	eng	Demersal fish.
182534		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species (De Vos 1986). The species is oviparous and the eggs are ungraded. It is found in lake, delta and riverine habitats (Bailey 1994). It is a surface dwelling fish where it feeds mostly on insects, also on crustaceans, small fishes and to a lesser extent on molluscs. Maturity is attained during July and August and spawning takes place during August and September. It probably spawns in the flood season when it migrates to the rivers and deltas (Bailey 1994).
182534		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. The species is oviparous and the eggs are ungraded.
182534		habitat	eng	Found in lake, delta and riverine habitats (Bailey 1994). Predatory, feeding on a wide range of invertebrates, including terrestrial insects and fish (Bailey 1994). Probably spawns in the flood season when it mirgates to the rivers and deltas (Bailey 1994).
182534		habitat	eng	It is a surface dwelling fish where it feeds mostly on insects, also on crustaceans, small fishes and to a lesser extent on molluscs. Females and males attain maturity at a length of 16.8 cm and 25.2 cm respectively. Maturity is attained during July and August and spawning takes place during August and September. Spent females are frequent in turbid waters of the flood during August. It grows to 45 cm in length.
182534		population	eng	No available data.
182534		population	eng	No information available.
182534		population	eng	No quantitative population estimates but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
182534		threats	eng	No information available.
182534		threats	eng	None known
182534		threats	eng	Not known
182534		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182534		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182535		conservation	eng	None known.
182535		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis lulae</em> is only known from the Lulua River, Central Congo River system.
182535		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis lulae</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
182535		population	eng	No information available.
182535		threats	eng	None known.
182536		conservation	eng	None known.
182536		conservation	eng	Unknown.
182536		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad, Niger (incl. Benue) and Volta basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region it is found in the Nile.
182536		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guinea and Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad, and Sudan and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in Sudan, and the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Chad, Niger (incl. Benue) and Volta basins.
182536		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species that occurs over a muddy bottom but may also be found over rocks.  Feeds mainly on insect larvae but will also take algae. This is also an 'upside-down' species.
182536		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 14.6 cm SL maximum size. This species is occurs over a muddy bottom but may also be found over rocks. Feeds mainly on insect larvae but will also take algae. This is also an 'upside-down' species.
182536		population	eng	No available data.
182536		population	eng	Unknown.
182536		threats	eng	None known
182536		threats	eng	Unknown.
182537		conservation	eng	None known.
182537		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Lebuzi River (Chiloango basin).
182537		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182537		population	eng	No information available.
182537		threats	eng	None known.
182538		conservation	eng	None known.
182538		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis centralis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, including the Ouaka River in the Central African Republic.
182538		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis centralis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182538		population	eng	No information available
182538		threats	eng	None known.
182539		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. In the Katanga region, the last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution.
182539		distribution	eng	<em>Rhabdalestes rhodesiensis</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is also known from Kando, from upper Lualaba system.
182539		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182539		population	eng	No information available.
182539		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182540		conservation	eng	None known.
182540		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga, Wouri and Nyong basins, Cameroon (Holly 1929).
182540		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is pelagic.
182540		population	eng	No information available.
182540		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182541		conservation	eng	None known.
182541		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Mesaphysemion) etsamense</em> is only known from some populations found in rivulets along the road N5 between Medouneu and Kougouleu (Sonnenburg and Blum 2005).
182541		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion etsamense</em> is a benthopelagic species. It can be found in small rainforest creeks and rivers with slow flowing water (Sonnenberg and Blum 2005).
182541		population	eng	No information available.
182541		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182542		conservation	eng	None known.
182542		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias buthupogon</em> is known from throughout the Congo River system. In the Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe basin, the Sanaga, Wouri and Cross Rivers. Elsewhere, it is known from the coastal rivers of Nigeria and the Benin Republic. It has possibly been found in the Nile in Sudan and in the Chad basin in the Central African Republic. These records need to be confirmed though.
182542		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias buthupogon</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that is found in lakes, rivers, floodplains and swamps. It is a bottom feeder and the stomach contained plants, algae, insect larvae (Ephemeroptera, Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, Odonata), Entomostraca (Cladocera, Ostracoda), Thecamiba and remains of insects (Matthes 1964).
182542		population	eng	No information available.
182542		threats	eng	None known.
182543		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology.
182543		conservation	eng	The species has no protection
182543		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the headwaters of the Upper Zambezi, including the Kabompo River, and also the Kasai River in the Congo system (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).
182543		distribution	eng	This species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hypsopanchax jubbi</em> is known from tributaries of the upper Kasai river in northwestern Zambia, the southern Kasai province in Democratic Republic of the Congo and probably eastern Angola. It is probably more widespread in this region though. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the headwaters of the upper Zambezi, including the Kabompo River, and also the Kasai River in the Congo system (Skelton 2001, Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004).
182543		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax jubbi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It has been taken from small, forested streams with rocky substrate (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1966). It is found in small rivers and brooks in the gallery forest. Specimens from the Kabompo River were caught in reed root thicket (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182543		habitat	eng	Small forested streams. Specimens from the Kabompo River were caught in reed root thicket (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182543		population	eng	Known only from two localities in Zambia but also in the Congo system, thus the size of the population is unknown.
182543		population	eng	No information available.
182543		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In Kasai occidental, this mining activity takes place at an industrial level. In the southern region, there is industrial copper mining.
182543		threats	eng	None at present.
182544		conservation	eng	None known.
182544		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from River Meme, Cameroon. It is very likely this record is <em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em>, this needs to be verified.
182544		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis trewavasae</em> mainly feeds on insects and their larvae (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.
182544		population	eng	No information available.
182544		threats	eng	There is a large palm oil plantation upstream from the location the species is recorded from on the Meme River. (pers. comm., Brummett, R.)
182545		conservation	eng	None known.
182545		distribution	eng	<strong></strong><em>Lamprologus congoensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
182545		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182545		population	eng	No information available.
182545		threats	eng	None known.
182546		conservation	eng	None known.
182546		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes heterocephalus</em> is known from the Luita River, Angola, from the Bagata River, affluent of the Inzia River and from the Boende, Tshuapa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182546		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182546		population	eng	No information available.
182546		threats	eng	No information available.
182547		conservation	eng	No information available.
182547		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Wami, Ruaha and Rufiji Rivers (Brewster 1986).
182547		habitat	eng	This is a riverine species.
182547		population	eng	No information available.
182547		threats	eng	No information available.
182548		conservation	eng	None known.
182548		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus opisthotaenia</em> was described from the Kribi basin and Mvile river (Lokoundjé basin), south Cameroon. It is also found in the Sanaga and Ntem River basins in Cameroon, Mbini (Woleu, Benito) and Ogowe River basins in Gabon and the Kouilou River basin in Congo. It also occurs in the Dja River system (Central Congo River basin).
182548		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182548		population	eng	No information available.
182548		threats	eng	None known.
182549		conservation	eng	None known.
182549		distribution	eng	<em>Elops lacerta</em> is found in coastal waters from Mauritania to Angola or even Namibia, but likely sometimes confused with <em>E. senegalensis</em> (Whitehead 1990).
182549		habitat	eng	<em>Elops lacerta</em> has been caught in brackish water at the Kouilou River mouth and as far upstream as Kakamoeka (> 100 km from the coast). Leptocephalous larvae of about 30-35 mm TL have been collected from the Cross River somewhere between James Island (mouth of Cross River basin) and Ikom (upstream, in freshwater). The hypothesis of Whitehead (1981) that larvae of <em>Elops lacerta</em> migrate to the coast into areas of development, seems to be correct. Ugwumba (1989) reports that <em>E. lacerta</em> spends one (± 153 mm SL) or two years (± 244 mm SL) in the Lekki and Lagos lagoons (Nigeria) and then moves back to coastal waters where they attain maturity. The specimens from freshwater at Kakamoeka measure up to 271 mm SL. This seems to indicate that second year or even older specimens of <em>E. lacerta</em> migrate further upstream and can survive in fresh water habitats quite far inland. <em>Elops lacerta</em> feeds primarily on small fishes, mainly clupeids, crustaceans and molluscs. Ikomi (1994) reported a predominance of fish but found also insects in specimens of 7.0-25.0 cm TL collected in the Lekki Lagoon (Nigeria). It is a pelagic species that lives in shallow coastal waters with sandy-muddy substrates. It spawns at sea.
182549		population	eng	No information available.
182549		threats	eng	No information available.
182550		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182550		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes sardina</em> is known from Yangambi and Kisangani and from the Luapula-Mweru system, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182550		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182550		population	eng	No information available.
182550		threats	eng	None known.
182551		conservation	eng	No information available.
182551		conservation	eng	No information available..
182551		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182551		conservation	eng	None known.
182551		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Mochokus niloticus</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile (Beni Suef, Luxor, and Aswan).<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the Nile and Niger basins, and was reported from Chad basin. It is considered as very rare in Lake Nasser.
182551		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana system.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Niger, Nile and Chad basins.
182551		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger (plus Benue) and Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Also occurring in the Nile and Lake Turkana
182551		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed within Nigeria and Chad, and along the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lake Turkana system in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Beni Suef, Luxor, Aswan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), as well as in the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Niger (plus Benue) and Chad.
182551		habitat	eng	Demersal fish.
182551		habitat	eng	<em>Mochokus niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. Its length does not exceed 10 cm.
182551		habitat	eng	Found in lakes and majors rivers in shallow waters and marginal vegetation. Probably feeds on mollusc and insect larvae.
182551		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, potamodromous fish found in lakes and majors rivers in shallow waters and marginal vegetation. It probably feeds on mollusc and insect larvae.
182551		population	eng	No available data.
182551		population	eng	No information available.
182551		population	eng	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
182551		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. Elsewhere, threats are unknown.
182551		threats	eng	No information available.
182551		threats	eng	None known
182551		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182552		conservation	eng	None known.
182552		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe tumbanus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin (the Mushie region, Lake Tumba and from Eala in the Ruki River).
182552		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182552		population	eng	No information available.
182552		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen turned to agriculture themselves.
182553		conservation	eng	None known.
182553		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys punctatus</em> is known from the Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) to Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
182553		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182553		population	eng	No information available.
182553		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182554		conservation	eng	None known.
182554		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ogowe, Rembo Nkomi and Nyanga rivers, Gabon.
182554		habitat	eng	No information available.
182554		population	eng	No information available.
182554		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182555		conservation	eng	No information available.
182555		conservation	eng	None known.
182555		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> occurs in the Upper Congo River basin, in tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and in an affluent of the Kwango River, Angola. The type localities are not situated near Kalémie (Albertville) but actually on small tributaries of the Luvua River on the road between Kalémie and Kiambi.
182555		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Streams and rivers flowing into lake Tanganyika including the Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers.
182555		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and northern Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> occurs in the upper Congo River basin, in the Kasai system, in tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and in an affluent of the Kwango River, Angola. The type localities are not situated near Kalémie (Albertville) but actually on small tributaries of the Luvua River on the road between Kalémie and Kiambi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>It is found in streams and rivers flowing into lake Tanganyika including the Malagarasi rivers.
182555		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits rocky shores of lakes and rapid stony stretches of streams (Eccles 1992).  It is an oviparous species and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182555		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> is a benthopelagic species that feeds on benthic invertebrates. It inhabits rocky shores of lakes and rapid stony stretches of streams (Eccles 1992). It is an oviparous species and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182555		habitat	eng	Inhabits the rocky rapids in streams and rivers. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.
182555		population	eng	Information not available.
182555		population	eng	No information available.
182555		threats	eng	None known.
182555		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and farming extension.
182555		threats	eng	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and farming extension threatens this species in eastern Africa.
182556		conservation	eng	None known.
182556		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus mocquardi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
182556		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182556		population	eng	No information available.
182556		threats	eng	None known.
182557		conservation	eng	None known.
182557		distribution	eng	<em>Othochromis polyacanthus</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin from the Kisangani area to the Lake Mweru basin.
182557		habitat	eng	<em>Othochromis polyacanthus</em> is a benthopelagic species, with mouth-brooding by the females.
182557		population	eng	No information available.
182557		threats	eng	Mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing, overfishing form threats in the Upper Lualaba. Overfishing in Lake Mweru poses a threat as well.
182558		conservation	eng	No information available.
182558		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Wabishebelle system (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia.
182558		habitat	eng	It is found in running water.
182558		population	eng	This species is rare but the exact status unknown.
182558		threats	eng	No information available.
182559		conservation	eng	None known.
182559		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus abeli</em> is only known from Fort Sibut, Ubangui River, Central Congo basin.
182559		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182559		population	eng	No information available.
182559		threats	eng	None known.
182560		conservation	eng	None known.
182560		distribution	eng	<em>Labeobarbus progenys</em> is known from the Dja River (Central Congo River basin) and is widespread throughout Lower Guinea region.
182560		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Cross River. Its range covers less than 5% within west Africa.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus progenys</span> is known from Kribi and Dja rivers in Cameroon, Kwilu and Niari rivers in the Congo, Cross River in Cameroon.
182560		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic fish.
182560		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus progenys</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182560		population	eng	No available data.
182560		population	eng	No information available.
182560		threats	eng	None known.
182560		threats	eng	Not known.
182561		conservation	eng	The locations around the Ndian River are protected by the Korup National Park.
182561		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from rivers and creeks in northwest Cameroon in the region of the Korup National Park. <em>Benitochromis ufermanni</em> has been recorded at nine different streams in the southern Korup National Park (Ndian and Akpa-yafe systems). There is a point locality in the middle Cross River on the border between Cam and Nig - it is unknown whether this is correct though (pers. comm., Brummett, R., 2008).
182561		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic.
182561		population	eng	No information available.
182561		threats	eng	The upper Cross location is being impacted by deforestation, but the Ndian location is protected by the Korup National Park.
182562		conservation	eng	None known.
182562		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo cyclopinnis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui River and Kisangani. It is also known from above Kisangani.
182562		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo cyclopinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182562		population	eng	No information available.
182562		threats	eng	None known.
182563		conservation	eng	None known.
182563		distribution	eng	<em>Teleogramma depressum</em> is only known from the rapids of the Lower Congo River, around the Inga region.
182563		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182563		population	eng	No information available.
182563		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.
182564		conservation	eng	None known.
182564		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura brevicauda</em> is reported as a Lower Guinea endemic by Skelton (2007), known from  the Lobi and Kribi Rivers (Cameroon), the Ogowe and Kouilou basins (Gabon). It is however also known from Zambi from the  Lower Congo, and from the Sangha River system. It has also been found in the Salonga area as well (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).  Specimens of the Tshikapa River, Kasai system have been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phractura brevicauda</span> by Pellegrin, J., 1927. This  record has to be re-examined though. It is possibly more widespread in the Congo than reported.
182564		habitat	eng	This species is demersal with a pH range from 6.5 to 7.5 and a dH range from 5 to 15, and is highly adapted to fast flowing waters.
182564		population	eng	No information available.
182564		threats	eng	None known.
182565		conservation	eng	None known.
182565		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus tetraspilus</em> is only known from the type locality, Kavalli River, Bukoba, and upper Ituri River (Central Congo River basin) in Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182565		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus tetraspilus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182565		population	eng	No information available.
182565		threats	eng	None known.
182566		conservation	eng	None known.
182566		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax powelli</span> is endemic to the Niger River delta, Nigeria. This species is known only from the type locality, a temporary pool on an unnamed island, West-Northwest of Warri, in the western part of the Niger River delta, Delta State, Southern Nigeria. The island is formed by the Encravos River, Nana Creek and Jones Creek. The pool involved is situated at the edge of an isolated freshwater seasonal swamp forest, on an old beach ridge in the mangrove zone at Bakakodia.
182566		habitat	eng	This is a recently described killfish that grows to a maximum 80 cm SL. Nothing else is known.
182566		population	eng	No available data.
182566		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration - there is an oil terminal on the type locality.
182567		conservation	eng	No information available.
182567		conservation	eng	None known.
182567		conservation	eng	None known. Policy-based actions are required for this species, along with population trend monitoring and habitat maintenance.
182567		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> is Regionally Extinct, used to be caught from the Nile at Cairo.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Khartoum, Blue Nile, Niger, Volta, Ogun, Cross, Chad basin, Wouri also known from Senegal.
182567		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> occurs in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere it is known from Senegal to Cameroon, Lake Chad basin, Nile River, Niger (downstream of Bamako), Volta, Ogun, Cross and Wouri.
182567		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Niger, Volta, Ogun, Cross, and Chad basins, also known from Sénégal. (Daget and Gosse 1984).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Wouri and Nile.
182567		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> occurs in the Cross River basin, Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species used to be caught from the Nile at Cairo, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Jebel system, White Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Niger, Volta, Ogun, Cross and Chad basins, also known from Sénégal (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182567		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> is a demersal species. It prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms. <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> feeds on vegetation and periphyton.
182567		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> is a demersal species which prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms. <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em>feeds on diatoms, filamentous algae, insects and plant material.
182567		habitat	eng	It feeds on diatoms, filamentous algae, insects and plant material. Regular length 27 cm. Prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms.
182567		habitat	eng	Prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms. Feeds on vegetation and peripython. (Holden and Reed 1972).
182567		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182567		population	eng	No information available.
182567		threats	eng	In certain regions, overfishing, drought, dam construction and aquatic weeds have a large impact on the species.<br/><br/>In Ghana this is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Deforestation and bad agricultural practices may pose potential threats to the habitats of this species. Increasing farming activities in these northern basins may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. These two threats are especially relevant in the Black Volta. Another threat is pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste, for in many of these areas, water bodies are ultimately the receptacles for domestic waste. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and may affect all sorts of things such as oxygen levels. In extreme cases, excessive proliferation of aquatic weeds may lead to massive fish kills. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species. Increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments (Entsua-Mensah 1996).
182567		threats	eng	In certain regions, overfishing, drought, dam construction and aquatic weeds have a large impact on the species. In Ghana this is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Deforestation and bad agricultural practices may pose potential threats to the habitats of this species. Increasing farming activities in these northern basins may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. These two threats are especially relevant in the Black Volta. Another threat is pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste, for in many of these areas, water bodies are ultimately the receptacles for domestic waste. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and may affect all sorts of things such as oxygen levels. In extreme cases, excessive proliferation of aquatic weeds may lead to massive fish kills. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species. Increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments (Entsua-Mensah 1996).
182567		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182567		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182568		conservation	eng	No information.
182568		conservation	eng	No information on conservation measures is available for this species, though the population trend should be monitored.
182568		conservation	eng	There is no information available on conservation threats needed at present.
182568		conservation	eng	Unknown.
182568		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Alestes baremoze</em> occurs in Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005) and Upper Nile River in Egypt. This fish used to be found along the Lower Nile and Delta lakes, Rashid Branch, now restricted to the Upper Nile after the High Dam construction.<br/><br/>Related to its global range, it is present in the southern region of Lake Nasser, Blue and White Niles, Lake Nubia, and Lake Chad; Senegal, Gambia, Niger, and Uganda (Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles).
182568		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, Lake Turkana, Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Chad basin, Gambia, Sénégal, Niger, the coastal basins of the Côte d'Ivoire (Comoé, Bandama and Sassandra), Volta.
182568		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widespread in western Africa; Chad, Niger/Benue, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Tominé, Gambia and Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Alestes baremoze</span> occurs in the Nile, Omo.
182568		distribution	eng	This species is mainly found in inshore zones of lakes, across a large range within Africa<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found within Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa: </strong>This fish used to be found along the whole of the River Nile in Egypt; in Delta lakes, Rashid Branch and Lower Nile, but is now restricted to the upper Nile after the High Dam construction, so is no longer found within this region.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems; White and Blue Niles in Sudan, and the River Nile as far north as Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It is also present in the Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Widespread in western Africa; Chad, Niger/Benue, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Tominé, Gambia and Senegal.
182568		habitat	eng	<em>Alestes baremoze</em> is a benthopelagic potamodromous fish that is probably limited to inshore regions of lakes. There is considerable flexibility in its diet, feeding mainly of zoo- and phytoplankton, crustaceans, insects and, less frequently, fishes predominating and aquatic vegetation; Breeding fishes of both sexes are found in sheltered bays around the lakes shores. Adult fishes range between 30-45 cm long. It is mainly a diurnal species.
182568		habitat	eng	Mainly found in inshore zones of the lakes, but also potamodromous and benthopelagic. Occurs at temperature range of 14.6° C to  35.0° C. Has a considerable flexibility in diet as it shifts from zooplankton to zoobenthos, detritus and macrophytes as plankton densities decline.
182568		habitat	eng	This diurnal species is mainly found in inshore zones of the lakes, but is also potamodromous and benthopelagic. It occurs at temperature range of 14.6<sup>o</sup>C to 35.0<sup>o</sup>C. It has a considerable flexibility in diet as it shifts from zooplankton to zoobenthos, detritus and macrophytes as plankton densities decline. Breeding fishes of both sexes are found in sheltered bays around the lakes shores; Adult fishes range between 30-45 cm long. Reservoir ecology with upriver migration from the reservoir of prereproductive adults between May and September, to meet and mature in the rising floods to the south.
182568		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic, potamodromous and lives in freshwater at pH between 6.5 and 7.8; temperature between 15 to 35 °C. The species is a passive feeder and consumes what is available. Lateral migration for floodplain spawning.
182568		population	eng	Little information is available on the population of this species, although it is known to be common in Jebel Aulia and Roseires reservoirs, and in Lake Nasser (Bailey 1994).
182568		population	eng	No available data.
182568		population	eng	No information.
182568		population	eng	There is no information available.
182568		threats	eng	Locally threatened by pollution and agricultural development leading to habitat loss and degradation. In the Malamfatori area (Tchad), seine-net fishery on the River Yobe depends on seasonal upstream (from Lake Chad) and downstream migration during the flood (August-December) and dry (January-March) seasons, respectively.  Also, there is an intensive gillnet fishery from July-October at the river mouth.  <em>A. baremoze</em> moves offshore (in Lake Chad) beginning March.
182568		threats	eng	Regionally, this species faces different threats:<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is currently overfished<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Within the region the construction of the Aswan High Dam seems to caused the regional extirpation of the species. Overfishing and water abstraction are also thought to have threatened the species.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Unknown<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is locally threatened by pollution and agricultural development leading to habitat loss and degradation. In the Malamfatori area (Tchad), seine-net fishery on the River Yobe depends on seasonal upstream (from Lake Chad) and downstream migration during the flood (August-December) and dry (January-March) seasons, respectively. Also, there is an intensive gillnet fishery from July-October at the river mouth. <em>A. baremoze</em> moves offshore (in Lake Chad) beginning March.
182568		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing.
182568		threats	eng	Within the region the construction of the Aswan High Dam seems to have caused the regional extirpation of the species. Overfishing and water abstraction are also thought to have threatened the species.
182569		conservation	eng	None known.
182569		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. traorei</span> is known only from the type locality, the River Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire, where it is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. trispilos.</span>
182569		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of maximum size 5.5 cm SL
182569		population	eng	No available data.
182569		threats	eng	Agricultural and urban development is causing deforestation.
182570		conservation	eng	No information available.
182570		conservation	eng	None known.
182570		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis membranaceus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, used to be found in Cairo (Egypt) during flood time.<br/><br/>Globally, it can be found in the White and Blue Niles, Chad, Niger (including the Bénoué), Senegal, Gambia and Volta basins.
182570		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger, (plus Benue), Senegal, Gambia, and Volta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area covered here, it occurs in the Nile.
182570		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Regionally Extinct, this species used to be found in Cairo (Egypt) during flood time.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in Bahr el Arab, White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger, (plus Benue), Senegal, Gambia, and Volta.
182570		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species. Occurs in deep water close to the shore. Omnivore, feeds on plankton and detritus.  May also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans, and molluscs.
182570		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic, potamodromous and found in streams. This species is occurs in deep water close to the shore. Omnivore, feeds on plankton and detritus. May also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans, and molluscs. This species swims upside down with its belly facing upward; correlated with this is a reversal of the normal colouration, for the true ventral surface (which in this case turned upwards towards the light) is dark and the true dorsal surface is pale. In captivity, however, it sometimes turns over after a few days, swimming like other fish and then become, like ordinary fish, dark on the dorsal side and light on the ventral, thus reversing their colouration. It is oviparous. Distinct pairing during breeding.
182570		habitat	eng	It is a penthopelagic, potamodromous species that can be found in streams. It occurs in deep water close to the shore. It is omnivore, feeds on plankton and detritus, and may also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans, and molluscs. This species swims upside down with its belly facing upward. It is oviparous, with distinct pairing during breeding.
182570		population	eng	It has a medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).
182570		population	eng	No available data.
182570		population	eng	Uncommon although exact size of the population is not known. Medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).
182570		threats	eng	None known
182570		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182571		conservation	eng	None known.
182571		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus stanleyi</em> is known from the Central Congo River system in the area of Yangambi-Yaekala (Yangole, Lilanda River; Lotolo, Tofamba and Bumba Rivers; Romée River, on the route Kisangani-Opala).
182571		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus stanleyi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182571		population	eng	No information available.
182571		threats	eng	Overfishing on the Central Congo River may be a threat to the species.
182572		conservation	eng	No major conservation measures are undertaken, although fishery regulations are in place.
182572		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tana and its affluent rivers, Ethiopia
182572		habitat	eng	It is found in the Lake and affluent rivers. It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates all over the lake, primarily in water deeper than 6 m. It is a real piscivore in feeding habit.
182572		population	eng	This species is not well known. It is rarely seen in the catch from Lake Tana and tributary rivers.
182572		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overexploitation of the lake's fishes and reduction of spawning habitats because damming in the feeding rivers.
182573		conservation	eng	None known.
182573		distribution	eng	<em>Bathyaethiops caudomaculatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo basin. The species has recently been recorded Nziya near Inga on the Lower Congo River (AMNH)
182573		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182573		population	eng	No information available.
182573		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182575		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.
182575		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northern Kenya and Southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is present in Omo River, Ethiopia
182575		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams, swamps and shallows in the delta of the Omo river and shore regions of Lake Turkana (Wildekamp 1995).
182575		population	eng	No information available.
182575		threats	eng	This species is threatened by Gibe 3 Dam under construction on Omo River in Ethiopia, which will affect lake depth and salinity.
182576		conservation	eng	None known.
182576		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops parvus</em> is known from Boma, Lower Congo River basin. Recent collections (AMNH) have recorded this species in a stretch of the river from Boma to Bulu. The species is probably distributed more widely in the Lower Congo.
182576		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182576		population	eng	No information available.
182576		threats	eng	None known.
182577		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on this species' distribution and threats.
182577		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Rift lakes, Ethiopia.
182577		habitat	eng	It is found in standing waters.
182577		population	eng	No information available.
182577		threats	eng	No information available.
182578		conservation	eng	Management of rural fisheries is needed in certain areas.
182578		conservation	eng	Management of rural fisheries is needed in certain areas. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most southern part of the species distribution in the Congo River basin is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182578		conservation	eng	No information available.
182578		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Suince the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most southern part of the species distribution in the Congo River basin is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182578		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo altivelis</em> is known from the Upper Congo River and the Luapula-Mweru region and Lake Bangweulu of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Reid 1985). Elsewhere, it is known from the lower and the middle reaches of the Zambezi River system, including the Shire and Lake Malawi. It is also known from the Pungwe, Buzi and Save systems in Mozambique. Its range is now thought to extend to some East Coast rivers (Rufiji system).
182578		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Middle and Lower Zambezi systems, Pungwe, Busi and Lower Save systems.  Also occurs in the Zambian Zaire (Congo) system.
182578		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Lower and Middle Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers and the Zambian Congo.
182578		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Zimbabwe and Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo altivelis</em> is known from the upper Congo River and the Luapula-Mweru region and Lake Bangweulu of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Reid 1985). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the lower and middle Zambezi, Pungwe, Save and Buzi Rivers in Mozambique, and the Zambian Congo.
182578		habitat	eng	A main channel species collected over a variety of sand and rock habitats. Abundant in the Lower Zambezi being one of the dominant main channel species and forming a significant component of the fishery.
182578		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo altivelis</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It prefers large rivers but is also found in large lakes and dams. It grazes on algae and `aufwuchs' from rocks (Skelton 1993). From October to December in Lake Moëro, the adults gather and migrate to the spawning grounds. They go up the Luapula River up to the foot of Johnston Falls where they undergo one massive spawning between January and March. This massive spawning of short duration is known as kapata in the Luapula-Mweru system and in the tributaries of the Luapula. <br/><br/>This species is intensely fished and caviar is produced from eggs collected during migration from Lake Mweru to Luapula River (Tshibwabwa 1997).
182578		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo altivelis</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It prefers large rivers but is also found in large lakes and dams. It grazes on algae and `aufwuchs' from rocks (Skelton 1993). It migrates upstream into tributaries to breed during the rainy season. From October to December in Lake Moëro, the adults gather and migrate to the spawning grounds. They go up the Luapula River up to the foot of Johnston Falls where they undergo one massive spawning between January and March. This massive spawning of short duration is known as kapata in the Luapula-Mweru system and in the tributaries of the Luapula. This species is intensely fished and caviar is produced from eggs collected during migration from Lake Mweru to Luapula River (Tshibwabwa 1997). This species is of some economic importance especially during the low water conditions of the dry season.
182578		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers but can also occur in large lakes and dams.  Feeds on algae and afwuchs from rocks. Migrates upstream into tributaries to breed during the rainy season. Can live up to 9 years.<br/>This species was, where it was recorded in the Lower Shire River, of some economic importance especially during the low water conditions of the dry season.  The largest recorded individual from the Shire River weighed less than 1 kg but it is known to grow to a bigger size in other areas (recorded to attain about 3.6 kg) (Skelton 1993).
182578		population	eng	No information available.
182578		threats	eng	Heavily fished in much of its range. It was abundant in Lake Kariba after the lake initially filled but has since declined - probably naturally.
182578		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.
182578		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is over-exploitation (see Skelton 1993).
182578		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished in certain areas. It was abundant in Lake Kariba after the lake initially filled but has since declined - probably naturally.
182579		conservation	eng	None known.
182579		conservation	eng	Part of the range is included with the Cross River National Park (Nigeria) and the Korup National Park in Cameroon.
182579		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> occurs in Cross and Wouri River basins. Elsewhere it occurs in coastal Nigeria.
182579		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from the Niger delta (Nigeria), the Cross River (Nigeria and Cameroon) and in the Wouri River (Cameroon) outside western African region. It is also reported from Benin but the site locality is not known.
182579		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria and Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> occurs in Cross and Wouri River basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species has been reported from the Niger delta (Nigeria) and the Cross River (Nigeria and Cameroon). It is also reported from Benin but the site locality is not known.
182579		habitat	eng	<em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> is a pelagic species.
182579		habitat	eng	<em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits open water and fringing vegetation feeding on invertebrates and fish fry.
182579		habitat	eng	It inhabits open water and fringing vegetation feeding on invertebrates and fish fry. Non-migratory.
182579		population	eng	No available data.
182579		population	eng	No information available.
182579		threats	eng	Oil exploration within the Lower Niger Delta.
182579		threats	eng	The upper Cross location is being impacted by deforestation.
182579		threats	eng	The upper Cross location is being impacted by deforestation. It is also threatened by oil exploration within the Lower Niger Delta.
182580		conservation	eng	No information available.
182580		conservation	eng	None known.
182580		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends need monitoring.
182580		distribution	eng	<em>Heterotis niloticus</em> is natural distributed in savannah rivers of the Nilo-Sudanese region from Ethiopia to Senegal. It is also naturally distributed in the Chad basin and Lake Turkana. The species current distribution is now far more wide-spread as a result of man-made introductions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The species has been widely introduced in the Lower Guinea area, for aquaculture purposes. The species was introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad, or Northern Cameroon to Southern Cameroon (swamps of the Nyong River basin, Cameroon). It was used for the development of aquaculture in the fish culture station of Melen near Yaoundé (1955), in Bertoua (1957) and in Abong-Mbang (1958). From 1968 onwards it was also found in the Lower Sanaga River basin. According to Depierre and Vivien (1977), this was probably due to colonization originating from the Lower Nyong River basin and this through the mangroves during the high waters. In the 1950’s it was also introduced from Cameroon to the Lower Ogowe River basin, in the neighbourhood of Lambaréné, Gabon, and from Cameroon to Congo. According to FAO (2005) it was reintroduced to Congo in 1960, with Sudan mentioned as country of origin. Olaosebikan and Raji (1998) report the introduction of the species in the Cross River basin, Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>This species used to be caught from This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In the case of this species, a distinction must be made between the present area of occurrence resulting from man-made introductions, and its original, natural geographical distribution area. Original (natural) distribution: all basins of the Nilo-Sudanese region: rivers Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Chad. Areas of successful introduction of the species: in the area considered, artificial reservoirs of Côte d'Ivoire and Cross river.
182580		distribution	eng	<em>Heterotis niloticus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, and used to be caught from Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>At global level, it is native in all the basins of the Sahelo-Sudanese region.
182580		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>All the river basins of the Sahelo-Sandanian region, the Corubal, Sénégal, Gambia, Volta, Niger , Chad, Nile, and Omo. Successful introductions to: reservoir lakes Bandana and Bia, the River Cross, Sanaga, Nyong, Ogoué, and many other locations.
182580		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In the case of this species, a distinction must be made between the present area of occurrence resulting from man-made introductions, and its original, natural geographical distribution area. Original (natural) distribution: all basins of the Nilo-Sudanese region: rivers Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Chad. Areas of successful introduction of the species: in the area considered, artificial reservoirs of Côte d'Ivoire and Cross River.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Africa: all the river basins of the Sahelo-Sandanian region, the Corubal, Sénégal, Gambia, Volta, Niger (and Bénoué), Chad, Nile, Omo and Lake Turkana. Successful introductions: Reservoir Lakes Bandana and Bia, River Cross, Sanaga, Nyong, Ogôoué, Lower and Middle Congo River, the Oubangui and Kasai. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.
182580		habitat	eng	<em>Heterotis niloticus</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in shallow water where it feeds on invertebrates, copepods and chironomids (Reed 1967). Young are found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation (Moreau 1982, Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999); adults live in the open water of rivers and lakes, where they can be found in the pelagic zone as well as the littoral zone (Moreau 1982). Its auxiliary branchial air breathing organs enable it to survive in de-oxygenated waters; the hardiness of this fish, together with its great growth rate make it a candidate for aquaculture in Africa and it has been transported to a number of countries for this purpose (Welcomme 1988, Daget and d'Aubenton 1956). Escapees from ponds into the wild resulted in established populations, which form the basis for fisheries (Welcomme 1988). This species is considered as a mud-feeder (Hickley and Bailey 1987), but in West Africa also as a phytoplankton feeder (Holden and Reed 1972, Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). It feeds mostly on plankton, being the only plankton-feeder of the Osteoglossidae (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). It has a suprabranchial organ which has a sensory function, but also a mechanic function in concentrating the little food particles (Daget and Durand 1981, d’Aubenton 1955). During breeding, it creates a circular nest in swamps (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967, Balon 1975, Budgett 1901). The young leave the nest after a few days and are guarded by the male (Balon 1975). <em>Heterotis niloticus</em> breeds in the wet season in swamps and floodplains (Bailey 1994). It builds a circular nest about 1 m in diameter and 20 to 60 cm deep (Balon 1975), similar to a lagoon. The rim of the nest is a high wall formed out of plant chunks, about 15-20 cm thick and projecting above the water surface; the bottom is a clean platform of clay or mud (Balon 1975). After the spawning act the fish leave by way of a hole in the wall, through which, 5 days later, the young leave the nest and are guarded by the male (Balon 1975). Young possess external gills.
182580		habitat	eng	Occurs in shollow water where it feeds on invertebrates, copepods and chironomids (Reed 1967). The only member of Osteoglossidae with an epibranchial spiral organ apparently used to taste water before microfiltration (filter feeding) is activated.  During breeding it creates an elaborate nest of grass similar to a small lagoon (Ugwumba 1992) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
182580		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams, marshes and swamps. Pelagic. Young found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation. It occurs in shallow waters. Feeds on invertebrates, copepodes and chironomids. It is the only member of Osteoglossidae with an epibranchial spiral organ apparently used to taste water before microfiltration (filter feeding) is activated. During breeding, it creates an elaborate nest of grass, similar to small lagoon. Adults somersault in water creating a slapping noise as they re-enter. Young possess external gills.
182580		habitat	eng	Young individuals can be found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation. Adults live in the open water of rivers and lakes, where they can be found in the pelagic zone as well as the littoral zone. Its auxiliary branchial air breathing organs enable it to survive in deoxygenated waters. It is a bottom feeder specifically on arthropods, molluscs, chironomid larvae, vegetable debris and sometimes nematodes. Females deposit eggs in an enormous nest, measuring 4 feet in diameter.
182580		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182580		population	eng	No information available.
182580		population	eng	No population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
182580		threats	eng	More information is needed. It is reported as a commercially important fish in central Africa, but not eastern Africa. Threats in other regions are unknown.
182580		threats	eng	None.
182580		threats	eng	None known
182580		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182581		conservation	eng	None known.
182581		distribution	eng	<em>Raiamas christyi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.
182581		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182581		population	eng	No information available.
182581		threats	eng	None known.
182582		conservation	eng	None known.
182582		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus greshoffi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin upstream until Mbandaka.
182582		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus greshoffi</em> is a demersal species. It is occurs over rocky bottoms in rivers and lakes, and is also found in rapids (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
182582		population	eng	No information available.
182582		threats	eng	None known.
182583		conservation	eng	No information available.
182583		conservation	eng	None known.
182583		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
182583		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.
182583		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango, upper and lower Zambezi, and Kafue rivers, St. Lucia basin.
182583		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River, Malawi. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Okavango,  Zambezi,  Kafue system, St Lucia basin in Natal, and the southern tributaries of the Congo system.
182583		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper and Lower Zambezi and Kafue Rivers, and St Lucia basin, KwaZulu-Natal. Also in southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi system it is found in all the northern tributary systems (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>
182583		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Okavango, This species is known from upper and Lower Zambezi and Kafue Rivers, and St Lucia basin, KwaZulu-Natal. Also in southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In the upper Zambezi system it is found in all the northern tributary systems (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182583		habitat	eng	<em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is a benthopelagic species It occurs in dense marginal vegetation of rivers, lakes, lagoons and channels of swamps and floodplains. This species feeds on insects and other small organisms. Males build a bubble nest on the water surface under which spawning takes place; the eggs float and are stowed in the nest, to be guarded by the male. Its shallow water habitat make it susceptible to aerial spraying of insecticides (Skelton 1993).  Its preferred habitats are streams, lakes, estuaries and mangroves.
182583		habitat	eng	<em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in dense marginal vegetation of rivers, lakes, lagoons and channels of swamps and floodplains, where it is tolerant of extreme conditions (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species feeds on insects and other small organisms. Males build a bubble nest on the water surface under which spawning takes place; the eggs float and are stowed in the nest, to be guarded by the male. Its shallow water habitat make it susceptible to aerial spraying of insecticides (Skelton 1993).
182583		habitat	eng	Fiound in peripheral vegetation in main river channels as well as in flowing tributaries, drying lagoons and swamps, where it is tolerant of extreme conditions (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Preys on insects and other small organisms. Males build a bubble nest on the water surface under which spawning takes place; the eggs float and are stowed in the nest and guarded by the male (Skelton 2001).
182583		habitat	eng	Inhabits dense marginal vegetation of rivers, lakes, lagoons and floodplains in shallow areas. Feeds on insects and other small organisms. Spawning ocurs under a bubble nest constructed at the waters surface by the male.
182583		population	eng	No information available.
182583		population	eng	No population estimates
182583		population	eng	The species is widespread and common.
182583		population	eng	Where known, the species is widespread and common.
182583		threats	eng	Not known
182583		threats	eng	The species has no major threats.
182583		threats	eng	The species has no major threats, but is commercially targeted for the aquarium trade.
182583		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182584		conservation	eng	None known.
182584		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma nigricans</em> is known from the Lulua and Sankuru River drainages, tributaries of the Kasai River (Congo River basin) in the south-central Democratic Republic of Congo. The species is probably more widespread in the region though.
182584		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182584		population	eng	No information available.
182584		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182585		conservation	eng	None known.
182585		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, a swampy area without an outlet in a depression on volcanic soil, near Bolifamba in western Cameroon.
182585		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paludopanchax) robertsoni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182585		population	eng	No information available.
182585		threats	eng	None known.
182586		conservation	eng	None known.
182586		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia bilineata</em> is known from swampy forested areas of the Central Congo basin, the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182586		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182586		population	eng	No information available.
182586		threats	eng	None known.
182587		conservation	eng	None known.
182587		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Nyong and Ntem Rivers (Cameroon), Rio Benito (Río Muni), and Ogowe River (Gabon).
182587		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182587		population	eng	No information available.
182587		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182588		conservation	eng	None known.
182588		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius fuscus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.
182588		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182588		population	eng	No information available.
182588		threats	eng	None known.
182589		conservation	eng	None known.
182589		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypetersius pseudonummifer</em> is known from the Aruwimi and Lindi Rivers (Central Congo River basin) and from the Lualaba River, as well as from upper Congo River basin.
182589		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182589		population	eng	No information available.
182589		threats	eng	None known.
182590		conservation	eng	None known.
182590		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the upper Ogowe River system in southeastern Gabon.
182590		habitat	eng	<em>Plataplochilus terveri</em> is usually found in small rivers and brooks (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found in schools in flowing waters. <em>Plataplochilus terveri</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182590		population	eng	No information available.
182590		threats	eng	The species habitat is being impacted by the pollution from Franceville and deforestation leading to sedimentation. Mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation.
182591		conservation	eng	None known.
182591		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, a brook in the rainforest at 61 km from Franceville on the road to Boumango, between Madziba and Mboki, southeastern Gabon.
182591		habitat	eng	<em>Hypsopanchax catenatus</em> is found in the flowing waters, living in schools. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It lives in the streaming parts of brooks. <em>Hypsopanchax catenatus</em>is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182591		population	eng	No information available.
182591		threats	eng	None known.
182592		conservation	eng	None known.
182592		distribution	eng	<em>Tetracamphilius clandestinus</em> is only known from the Ubangui mainstream above Bangui (near Banda and at Bawili) (Roberts 2003).
182592		habitat	eng	<em>Tetracamphilius clandestinus</em> is a demersal species.
182592		population	eng	No information available.
182592		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182593		conservation	eng	None known.
182593		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the Nyong to the Ntem Rivers, southern Cameroon.
182593		habitat	eng	No information available.
182593		population	eng	No information available.
182593		threats	eng	On the Lokudje River, the species is potentially impacted by road building. Deforestation and agriculture are occurring downstream of the species habitat.
182594		conservation	eng	None known.
182594		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Sanaga and its effluents in Cameroon.
182594		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
182594		population	eng	No information available.
182594		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182595		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). Habitat restoration is the major conservation measure.
182595		distribution	eng	This species is found in the coastal lowlands of south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire and Southern Ghana.
182595		habitat	eng	It is found in shallow parts of swamps, brooks and rivers in the rainforest and the derived savannah. Six centimetres SL. It is not a seasonal killifish.
182595		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182595		threats	eng	The main threats posed to this fish include effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of coastal rivers especially the Ankobra, Pra and Ofin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide.&#160;Also, the removal of vegetation for mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads which may affect the feeding behaviour and feeding frequency of the fish, as well as cause other problems such as clogging of gills. Timber felling is an especially important threat in the Tano.&#160;Increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies. In Togo, the presence of phosphates released from the industries may affect the habitat of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments, as in the Densu river areas. In some areas, like the Densu, there are sand mining and quarry works that also may contribute to increasing sediment loads in the water bodies.
182596		conservation	eng	None known.
182596		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius intermedius</em> is known from the type locality Kabambaie on the Kasaï River, from Komi, Lodja and from Koteli, all in the Central Congo River basin.
182596		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182596		population	eng	No information available.
182596		threats	eng	None known.
182597		conservation	eng	The Cameroon part of the population is included within the Dano Reserve in Nigeria.
182597		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Chad River basin (Nigeria, Chad and Central African Republic) and the river Benue (Nigeria and Cameroon).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Beyond the region it is known from the Nile Basin.
182597		habitat	eng	<em>Ichthyborus besse</em> is a riverine characin that grows to 24.5 cm in total length. It is a predatory carnivore. Non-migratory.
182597		population	eng	No available data.
182597		threats	eng	No known major widespread threats to the species. However, there is a current (2006) proposal for a river basin water transfer between the Oubangui and Chari rivers which could have a major impact on many species.
182598		conservation	eng	None known.
182598		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion polli</em> is known from the eastern side of the Congo River from Bangui to Kinshasa, never far away from the Congo River.
182598		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion polli</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It prefers stagnant water on darker and dirty substratum (dead leaves, mulm) (Huber 2006).
182598		population	eng	No information available.
182598		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182599		conservation	eng	None known.
182599		distribution	eng	<em>Anaspidoglanis macrostoma</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo basin to Kisangani. It has been recorded from a small river (Lufili River) in Congo, flowing into the Lower Congo. In Lower Guinea it is widespread throughout the region, except in coastal basins north of the Sanaga River.
182599		habitat	eng	<em>Anaspidoglanis macrostoma</em> is a demersal species, which is nocturnal and crepuscular. It preys on insect larvae, crustaceans, and small fish (Burgess 1989). The juveniles are almost polyphagous and tend to prefer small streams and pools of inundated zones (Matthes 1964).
182599		population	eng	No information available.
182599		threats	eng	None known.
182600		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Lake Upemba is located in the Upemba National Park.
182600		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys moeruensis</em> is known from the Luapula system, Lake Mweru, Lake Young, the Luombo and Zambezi River drainages in northeastern Zambia. The species is probably also present in Lake Upemba. It has been reported from the Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983).
182600		habitat	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swampy parts of lakes and river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182600		population	eng	No information available.
182600		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. On the Luongo River, dams diverts the water from the mainstream for hydroelectricity. Water withdrawal for agriculture also has an influence on water level of the streams.
182601		conservation	eng	None known.
182601		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus papilio</em> is only known from the type locality: a nameless tributary of the Kasuku River at New Sciere village near Kindu, upper Congo River basin, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
182601		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus papilio</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182601		population	eng	No information available.
182601		threats	eng	None known.
182602		conservation	eng	None known.
182602		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. thomasi</span> is only known from the Guinean region: Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone.
182602		habitat	eng	It is a demersal of 20.0 cm SL.
182602		population	eng	No available data.
182602		threats	eng	Mining and deforestation in Liberia threaten this species.
182603		conservation	eng	None known.
182603		distribution	eng	<em>Alestopetersius caudalis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin.
182603		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182603		population	eng	No information available.
182603		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182604		conservation	eng	None known.
182604		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population range and numbers and biology and ecology. Conservation measures should be addressed, including habitat conservation and restoration, and population trends should be monitored.
182604		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> is recorded from coastal areas of the Meme, Wouri Sanaga and Lokoundje basin in Cameroon, and the Komo and Ogowe basin in Gabon. Elsewhere the species was originally described from the mouth of the Ethiop River in Nigeria and is also distributed in coastal areas of Nigeria and Benin east of the Oueme (Lévêque and Teugels 1991).
182604		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species has been found in Southern Benin, from the eastern side of the Ouémé to the Cross, including the lower course and the delta of the Niger River. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area covered here, it is known from the coastal basins of Cameroon and Gabon.
182604		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benin to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> is recorded from coastal areas of the Meme, Wouri Sanaga and Lokoundje basin in Cameroon, and the Komo and Ogowe basin in Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species has been found in Southern Benin, from the eastern side of the Ouémé to the Cross including the lower course and the delta of the Niger River.
182604		habitat	eng	A bentho-pelagic species occurring in rain forest areas. Has an accessory breathing organ so can tolerate low oxygen levels. Has a very large mouth and is a sit-and-wait predator. Builds bubble nests. Non-migratory.
182604		habitat	eng	A bentho-pelagic species occurring in rain forest areas. Has an accessory breathing organ so can tolerate low oxygen levels. It has a very large mouth and is a sit-and-wait predator. <em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> exhibits male parental care (Britz 1997). In captivity, 100-200 eggs (diameter 1.3-1.4 mm) are preferentially attached to the underside of floating leaves. After spawning the male builds a foam-nest below the leaf covering the eggs in air bubbles. Bubbles are produced by taking air into the mouth and releasing bubbles through the gill cover. Eggs hatch after 120 h (at 27°C). Larvae adhere to the nesting site with a multicellular attachment organ on top of their head. They are guarded by the male until they leave the nest around 24 h after hatching. Yolk sac is reabsorbed and larvae start to swim free on the second day after hatching.
182604		habitat	eng	<em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> exhibits male parental care (Britz 1997). In captivity, 100-200 eggs (diameter 1.3-1.4 mm) are preferentially attached to the underside of floating leaves. After spawning the male builds a foam-nest below the leaf covering the eggs in air bubbles. Bubbles are produced by taking air into the mouth and releasing bubbles through the gill cover. Eggs hatch after 120 h (at 27°C). Larvae adhere to the nesting site with a multicellular attachment organ on top of their head. They are guarded by the male until they leave the nest around 24 h after hatching. Yolk sac is resorbed and larvae start to swim free on the second day after hatching.          benthopelagic; Occurs in rainforest areas (Thys van den Audenaerde and Breine 1986). It prefers tropical climate.
182604		population	eng	No available data.
182604		population	eng	No information available.
182604		threats	eng	Oil exploration and land degradation due to impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural developments. Also potentially threatened by exploitation for the aquarium trade.
182604		threats	eng	This is potentially an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182605		conservation	eng	None known.
182605		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found from the Mbei (or Mbe) and Como River drainage systems in northwestern Gabon southward across western Gabon and Cabinda to the Chiloanga River. Also extends to Angola, Congo and Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182605		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion escherichi</em> occurs in coastal swamps and swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) escherichi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182605		population	eng	No information available.
182605		threats	eng	None known.
182606		conservation	eng	None known.
182606		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the middle and upper Ogowe River of central and eastern Gabon.
182606		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) lamberti</em> occurs in brooks and small streams in the forested and humid savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) lamberti</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182606		population	eng	No information available.
182606		threats	eng	In the upper Ogowe, it is threatened by commercial manganese mining and urban and agricultural pollution. Iron mining is a potential threat to this species. The species has a very broad distribution though.
182607		conservation	eng	No information available.
182607		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Tana and its tributary rivers.
182607		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly over rocky substrates all over the lake, both in shallow and deep water. The species is mainly piscivorous. Smaller specimens also eat considerable numbers of insects, but the larger ones almost completely switch to fish.
182607		population	eng	It is abundantly found in the catch although the size of the population is not known.
182607		threats	eng	Overexploitation of resources and damming are major threats to the species.
182608		conservation	eng	None known.
182608		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Noun River and Lake Monoun in Cameroon.
182608		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus bourdariei</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182608		population	eng	No information available.
182608		threats	eng	The species northern habitat is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses as in Lake Nyos.
182609		conservation	eng	None known.
182609		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chad, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, and Volta, as well as from some coastal basins
182609		habitat	eng	It is a freshwater species. This is a benthopelagic species.
182609		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182609		threats	eng	None known.
182610		conservation	eng	No information available.
182610		conservation	eng	None known.
182610		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus pallidomaculatus</em> This species is known from upper Niger, basins of the Volta, Mono and Ouémé. <em>P. pallidomaculatus</em> has also been reported from the Niger delta in Nigeria.
182610		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus pallidomaculatus</em> is only known from the Ituri River, Avakubi, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Niger, basins of the Volta, Mono and Ouémé. <em>P. pallidomaculatus</em> has also been reported from the Niger delta in Nigeria.
182610		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182610		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182610		population	eng	No information available.
182610		population	eng	No information on population trends.
182610		threats	eng	No information available.
182610		threats	eng	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in some areas of the Volta basin. Resultant increases in sediment loads and leaching of pesticides and other agrochemicals may pose threats to the health of the fish. In other areas, invasive aquatic weeds and pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste may be a problem.
182611		conservation	eng	None known.
182611		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is known from coastal and estuarine regions, and sometimes also from lower courses of coastal rivers, from Mauritania to Angola.
182611		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Coastal areas and lower reaches of rivers from the Senegal to Cross rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species occurs in coastal areas, estuaries and sometimes even lower reaches of rivers, from Dakhla, Western Sahara to at least Lobito, Angola, corresponding to the extreme northerly and southerly limits of the 25°C isotherms throughout the year; dwarf population exist in Lake Nokoué, Benin. Cape Verde records based on erroneous type locality for<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. fimbriata</span> by Bowdich - followed by later authors (Whitehead 1985).
182611		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal areas, estuaries and sometimes even lower reaches of rivers, from Dakhla, Western Sahara, to at least Lobito, Angola, corresponding to the extreme northerly and southerly limits of the 25°C isotherms throughout the year. A dwarf population exist in Lake Nokoué, Benin. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is known from coastal and estuarine regions, and sometimes also from lower courses of coastal rivers, from Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal areas and lower reaches of rivers from the Senegal to Cross rivers.
182611		habitat	eng	<em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is a pelagic, catadromous species. It occurs in inshore waters, lagoons and more than 300 km up rivers (e.g. Gambia River). The species feeds by filtering phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms. <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> breeds throughout the year in waters of salinities 3.5-38 ppt, but with peaks in at least some areas, becoming progressively later to south. It spawns in the sea, in estuaries and rivers. It prefers streams, neritic, marine, estuaries as habitats.
182611		habitat	eng	<em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is a pelagic, catadromous species. It occurs in inshore waters, lagoons and more than 300 km up rivers (e.g. Gambia River) (Whitehead 1985). The species feeds by filtering phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms. <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> breeds throughout the year in waters of salinities 3.5-38 ppt, but with peaks in at least some areas, becoming progressively later to south. It spawns in the sea, in estuaries and rivers.
182611		habitat	eng	Occurs in inshore waters, lagoons and more than 300 km up rivers (e.g., Gambia River) (Whitehead 1985). Catadromous pelagic migratory fish. Feeds by filtering phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms. Spawns in the sea, in estuaries and rivers. Feeds on phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms (Irvine 1947).
182611		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182611		population	eng	No information available.
182611		threats	eng	Importance: highly commercial; Landing: Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Cameroon - from 50,000 to 100,000; Main Catching Method: gillnets; Used for Aquaculture: experimental
182611		threats	eng	None known
182611		threats	eng	This is a highly important commercial fish in central Africa, mainly caught by gillnets.
182612		conservation	eng	None known.
182612		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus trinotatus</em> is known from the type locality Saidi's Village and from the Ndrige, Mbela and Bogu Rivers, Central Congo River basin.
182612		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus trinotatus</em> is benthopelagic species.
182612		population	eng	No information available.
182612		threats	eng	None known.
182613		conservation	eng	None known.
182613		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus crassus</em> is found in the vicinity of the Bulu on the Lower Congo River rapids. Recently a few specimens were collected from the region of Pioka suggesting the species is probably found throughout the Lower Congo rapids. The precise habitat of the species is unknown.
182613		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus crassus</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rapids with rocky bottom (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
182613		population	eng	No information available.
182613		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182614		conservation	eng	None known.
182614		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys mesogramma</em> is known from the Ubangui River drainage, central Congo River basin.
182614		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys mesogramma</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs between border vegetation in small streams and brooks under gallery forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182614		population	eng	No information available.
182614		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182615		conservation	eng	None known.
182615		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Polypterus senegalus</em> is known from the Congo River basin, from Yaekama to the Lualaba River and effluents in Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Gosse 1984). It is also known from the Ubangui River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal, Gambia, Niger and Volta Rivers in West Africa and moreover from the Chad basin, Nile and Omo Rivers, Lakes Mobutu and Turkana.
182615		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus senegalus meridionalis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species.
182615		population	eng	No information available.
182615		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182616		conservation	eng	None known.
182616		distribution	eng	This species is found around Salayea, northern Liberia and in brooks, swamps and small streams of the upper Saint Paul and upper Lofa River systems and southeastern Guinea. Exact distribution not known
182616		habitat	eng	This species occurs in brooks, swamps and small streams. 7 cm max SL. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
182616		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182616		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, agricultural developments and mining in Liberia.
182617		conservation	eng	None known.
182617		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the upper tributaries of the Pra basin in Ghana.
182617		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Maximum TL was recorded at 10.0 cm.
182617		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182617		threats	eng	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in Pra basin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation due to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its consequent adverse effects on the habitat and the fish. In some areas, other threats may include invasive aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste.
182618		conservation	eng	There is a project to organise the fishery in Pool Malebo.
182618		distribution	eng	<em>Duboisialestes tumbensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo, from Leverville-Soa in the Kwenge River and from Lake Tumba.
182618		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182618		population	eng	No information available.
182618		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen turned to agriculture themselves.
182619		conservation	eng	None known.
182619		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis polli</em> is known from the Lower Congo from above Pioka to Pool Malebo, where it occurs in the main channel and in affluent streams. It is also reported from the Central Congo main channel from above the pool to the vicinity of Kwamouth.
182619		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis polli</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
182619		population	eng	No information available.
182619		threats	eng	In Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182620		conservation	eng	None known.
182620		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the coastal rainforest and mangrove swamps in southwestern Ghana, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Liberia
182620		habitat	eng	This killifish inhabit small rivers, creeks, pools and swamps in the coastal rainforest and mangrove swamps.
182620		population	eng	No available data.
182620		threats	eng	None known.
182621		conservation	eng	None known.
182621		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus luapulaensis</em> is only known from Kabunda and Chipita, Luapula basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182621		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182621		population	eng	No information available.
182621		threats	eng	None known.
182622		conservation	eng	None known.
182622		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia louka</span> is known from the River Corubal (Guinea Bissau) to the Lofa (Liberia).
182622		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 25.0 cm SL maximum size
182622		population	eng	No available data.
182622		threats	eng	None known.
182623		conservation	eng	No information available.
182623		conservation	eng	None known.
182623		distribution	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops boulengeri</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin but confirmed records from the main channel of the Lower Congo River are lacking. The type locality is from the Ogowe River, however it is probable that this type locality is not correct.
182623		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Rivers and streams flowing into Lake Tanganyika<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Common in the Congo Basin
182623		habitat	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops boulengeri</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits riverine biotopes, and feeds on insects, mostly chironomid larvae.
182623		habitat	eng	Inhabits riverine biotopes. Feeds on insects, mostly chironomid larvae
182623		population	eng	No information available.
182623		population	eng	Not known
182623		threats	eng	None known.
182623		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension.
182624		conservation	eng	None known.
182624		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Isichthys henryi</em> is distributed throughout Lower Guinea, including the Cross River of Nigeria/Cameroon (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998), the Sanaga, the Kribi, the Ntem, the Ogowe, the Ivindo, the coastal streams around Mayumba, and in the coastal drainages in Congo-Brazzaville, including the Kouilou. Elsewhere it is known from the coastal rivers of Guinea, Sierra-Leone, Liberia, and from the Niger.
182624		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Isichthys henryi</span> is known in western Africa from the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, from Ogun as well as from coastal reaches of rivers in western Nigeria and the Lower Niger. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also recorded from the Lower Ntem River basin, Cameroon.
182624		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, and then from Nigeria to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Isichthys henryi</em> is distributed throughout Lower Guinea, including the Cross River of Nigeria/Cameroon (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998), the Sanaga, the Kribi, the Ntem, the Ogowe, the Ivindo, the coastal streams around Mayumba, and in the coastal drainages in Congo, including the Kouilou. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in West Africa from the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, and from Ogun as well as from coastal reaches of rivers in Western Nigeria and the Lower Niger.
182624		habitat	eng	<em>Isichthys henryi</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptor's over the entire head, the dorsal region and some parts of the ventral region; absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. The Electric organ discharge (EOD) rates are of low frequency and sexually dimorphic as to waveform (Møller 1995).
182624		habitat	eng	Thi species possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, the dorsal region and some parts of the ventral region; absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. Electric organ discharge (EOD) rates are of low frequency and sexually dimorphic as to waveform
182624		population	eng	No available data.
182624		population	eng	No information available.
182624		threats	eng	None known
182624		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182625		conservation	eng	None known.
182625		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, widespread from the Sanaga River in Cameroon to Loémé, Congo.
182625		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and has a pH range from 6.5 – 7.5 and a dH range from 8 - 18.
182625		population	eng	No information available.
182625		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182626		conservation	eng	None known.
182626		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops masuianus</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
182626		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182626		population	eng	No information available.
182626		threats	eng	None known.
182627		conservation	eng	No available data.
182627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Africa. The species is found in the Southern Ghana and in the Southern Nigeria (Ogun, Niger Delta and Benue Rivers).
182627		habitat	eng	This characid grows to 22.5 cm in total length. It migrates upriver for spawning.
182627		population	eng	No available data.
182627		threats	eng	There is an ongoing decline in habitat quality due to oil exploration (Niger Delta) and deforestation (Ogun river basin).
182628		conservation	eng	No information available.
182628		conservation	eng	None known.
182628		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Hemichromis bimaculatus </em> is very rare, and used to be caught from the coastal lagoons, especially Lake Mariut (Egypt) and Algeria. It is found in Tunisia in the wadis of Kebili in the south of Tunisia and in wadis near Chott Melrhir in eastern Algeria (Kraïem, M. pers. comm.). It is rare in Egypt (Wadi El Rayan Lakes).<br/><br/>At global scale, it is widely distributed in West Africa (Coastal basins from Southern Guinea to Central Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Gambia, Senegal and Cameroon) and Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nile basins.
182628		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> In western Africa, it is known from most hydrographic basins. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Hemichromis bimaculatus</span> is widely distributed in Africa. It has been found in the Nile, coastal basins of Cameroon and in the Congo.
182628		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout western Africa, but has also been recorded from Algeria to Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Within this region this species is very rare. It used to be caught from the coastal lagoons, especially Lake Mariut (Egypt) and Algeria. Its found in Tunisia in the wadis of Kebili in the south of Tunisia and in wadis near Chott Melrhir in eastern Algeria (Kraiem, pers. comm.), and Egypt (Wadi El Rayan Lakes).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from most hydrographic basins in western Africa.
182628		habitat	eng	<em>Hemichromis bimaculatus </em> is carnivorous and very aggressive towards cichlids. Prefers sheltered water and occurs in mud-bottomed and sand-bottomed canals some distance inland from the coast, associated with areas of intact or recently disturbed forest cover
182628		habitat	eng	This species is carnivorous, and very aggressive towards cichlids. It prefers sheltered water and occurs in mud-bottomed and sand-bottomed canals some distance inland from the coast, associated with areas of intact or recently disturbed forest cover.
182628		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mud-bottomed and sand-bottomed canals; some distance inland from the coast, associated with areas of intact or recently disturbed forest cover. Feeds on fish scales and insects.
182628		population	eng	No available data.
182628		population	eng	No information available.
182628		threats	eng	None known
182628		threats	eng	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, and drought are all potential threats to the northern population of this species. This species is also harvested.
182628		threats	eng	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought are main threats affecting to the species.
182629		conservation	eng	None known.
182629		distribution	eng	<em>Clupeocharax schoutedeni</em> is known from Lake Tumba and Lake Yandja (Yangambi), Central Congo River basin. Recent collections in and around Lake Mai-Ndombe have shown the species to occur there. It is probable that the species is more widespread in Central Congo.
182629		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182629		population	eng	No information available.
182629		threats	eng	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture.
182630		conservation	eng	None known.
182630		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus macroceps</em> is only known from the type locality: Epulu River, tributary of the Ituri River, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182630		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus macroceps</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182630		population	eng	No information available.
182630		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo causes deforestation. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182631		conservation	eng	None known.
182631		distribution	eng	<em>Euchilichthys boulengeri</em> is only known from the type locality Luluabourg (Kananga), Kasaï River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182631		habitat	eng	<em>Euchilichthys boulengeri</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has s distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is adapted to live in the rapids.
182631		population	eng	No information available.
182631		threats	eng	No information available.
182632		conservation	eng	None known.
182632		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis tourei </span>is found in upper Bafing (Senegal basin) in the Fouta Djalon, Guinea.
182632		habitat	eng	This is a demersal freshwater fish.
182632		population	eng	No data on population trend.
182632		threats	eng	No known threats.
182633		conservation	eng	None known.
182633		distribution	eng	It is known from the south of Guinea and Sierra Leone and the south-west of Liberia. The species is found at many locations.
182633		habitat	eng	This species populates the marshy sectors and the small rivers of the coastal plains generally under the forest cover.
182633		population	eng	No available data.
182633		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182634		conservation	eng	None known.
182634		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia dageti</span> is known from the upper Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire), Volta, Mono, Middle and upper Niger, Benue, and from upper Senegal and Lake Chad.
182634		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish of maximum size 40.0 cm TL
182634		population	eng	No available data.
182634		threats	eng	Urban and agricultural development and oil exploration in Nigeria threaten this species.
182635		conservation	eng	None known.
182635		distribution	eng	<em>Gnathonemus barbatus</em> is only known from the type locality on the Kasai River in Angola, Central Congo River basin.
182635		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182635		population	eng	No information available.
182635		threats	eng	None known.
182636		conservation	eng	None known.
182636		distribution	eng	<em>Euchilichthys geuntheri</em> has been found in the Lower and Central Congo River basin up to the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) in Kisangani, including Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Dja River (Cameroon) and the Pone River (Kwango basin, Angola). It has also been recorded from the Chambezi system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Angola.
182636		habitat	eng	<em>Euchilichthys geuntheri</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Brder and Rosen 1966).
182636		population	eng	No information available.
182636		threats	eng	None known.
182637		conservation	eng	Partly included within the Korup National Park.
182637		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species is partly included within the Korup National Park. Populations should be monitored, and habitat maintenance and restoration may be needed.
182637		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnallabes typus </span>occurs in the Niger Delta and Cross River in Nigeria, in Ouémé River in Benin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also known from the Ntem and Kom Rivers in Cameroon and Ogowe and Nyanga in Gabon. It has also been reported in the Congo Democratic Republic.
182637		distribution	eng	The natural range of <em>Gymnallabes typus</em> is restricted to Nigeria (the Niger Delta and Old Calabar (type location)) and western Cameroon (Cross River) and Benin (Lower Oueme).<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  The holotype of <em>Gymallabes typus heterocercalis</em> is reported from Cameroon (not specified). It has also been reported from the Ntem River.<br><br><strong>Western Africa: </strong><em>Gymnallabes typus</em> occurs in the Niger Delta and Cross River in Nigeria, and in Ouémé River in Benin.
182637		habitat	eng	Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in low oxygen conditions. Lives in the swamps and small lakes. Non-migratory.
182637		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in low oxygen conditions. It lives in the swamps and small lakes. It is non-migratory.
182637		population	eng	No available data.
182637		population	eng	No information available.
182637		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, habitat loss due to deforestation, agriculture and urban development.
182637		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta threatens populations. Elsewhere, habitat loss due to deforestation, agriculture and urban development are all threats to this species.
182638		conservation	eng	None known.
182638		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus tetrastigma</em> is known from the Dungu River, Uele River basin. It is also known from Yaekela and Yaekama, Central Congo River basin.
182638		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus tetrastigma</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182638		population	eng	No information available.
182638		threats	eng	None known.
182639		conservation	eng	None known.
182639		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality on the Ivindo River, Makokou in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).
182639		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis laevigata</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a small, shallow blackwater creek, with extremely low water; the substrate being sand and leaf litter, with the area having undergone severe human disturbance (Ng 2004).
182639		population	eng	No information available.
182639		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182640		conservation	eng	None known.
182640		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops intermedius</em> is only known from the type locality, the Rubi River, Central Congo River basin.
182640		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182640		population	eng	No information available.
182640		threats	eng	None known.
182641		conservation	eng	None known.
182641		conservation	eng	Part of the range is within the Korup National Park.
182641		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within the Korup National Park. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is required.
182641		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Boek: In Lower Guinea, <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is found from the Cross River to the Chiloango system. <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is distributed along the coastal plain of west and central Africa from the lower Volta River (Ghana) to the Shiloango River system (Angola and Congo-Brazzaville), and on the Island of Fernando Po. A single specimen is recorded from Sierra Leona (Upper Guinean region). As no other specimens among the numerous available specimens from the Upper Guinean region, this record is considered questionable (Norris 2002).
182641		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Lower Volta to Cameroon. Possibly present in Sierra Leone.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus beninensis</span> is distributed along the coastal plain of Central and western Africa from the Lower Volta River in Ghana to the Chiloango River system in Angola (Cabinda) and Congo, and on the island of Fernando Poo. It shows notable variation in pigmentation across its range.
182641		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana to Angola. It is also present on the island of Fernando Po. A single specimen is recorded from Sierra Leona (This species is known from upper Guinean region). As no other specimens among the numerous available specimens from the upper Guinean region, this record is considered questionable (Norris 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is found from the Cross River to the Chiloango system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs from the lower Volta in Ghana to Cameroon. It is also possibly present in Sierra Leone.
182641		habitat	eng	Bentho-pelagic species that lives in marshes, swamps, rivers and lakes. Emits a strong electrical discharge to stun its prey - other small fishes. Non-migratory
182641		habitat	eng	<em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It is mostly found in lowland habitats.
182641		habitat	eng	<em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It is mostly found in lowland habitats, and lives in marshes, swamps, rivers and lakes.
182641		population	eng	No available data.
182641		population	eng	No information available.
182641		threats	eng	None known.
182641		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts from agriculture, deforestation and urban development.
182641		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, there are negative impacts from agriculture, deforestation and urban development.
182642		conservation	eng	None known.
182642		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Mungo, Meme and Moko Rivers, western Cameroon.
182642		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paludopanchax) rubrolabialis</em> is found in temporary pools, raffia swamps and swampy parts of slow-flowing brooks in the humid coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is apparently restricted to habitats on sedimentary soils. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paludopanchax) rubrolabialis</em> is a bottom spawner. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182642		population	eng	No information available.
182642		threats	eng	The upper Mungo river basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The region of the lower Mungo, Meme and Moko Rivers are threatened by oil palm plantations.
182643		conservation	eng	None known.
182643		distribution	eng	<em>Poropanchax myersi</em> is only known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) in the Congo River, including its islands.
182643		habitat	eng	<em>Poropanchax myersi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in shallow and weedy parts near the banks of rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182643		population	eng	No information available.
182643		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182644		conservation	eng	None known.
182644		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus corneti</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from Ouesso, Sangha River basin and from Koteli, Central Congo River basin.
182644		habitat	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus corneti</em> is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass and Hopkins 1985 Landsman 1995). It exhibits sexual dimorphism in its EOD waveform (Møller 1995).
182644		population	eng	No information available.
182644		threats	eng	None known.
182645		conservation	eng	None known.
182645		distribution	eng	This species is known from upper and middle Gambia, also in the Bafing River (upper Senegal River).
182645		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182645		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182645		threats	eng	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened by deforestation.
182646		conservation	eng	None known.
182646		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes centralis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.
182646		habitat	eng	<em>Clariallabes centralis</em> is a demersal species that feeds on plant debris and insects (Matthes 1964).
182646		population	eng	No information available.
182646		threats	eng	None known.
182647		conservation	eng	None known.
182647		distribution	eng	This species is known from the coastal rivers of southeastern Guinea, Sierra Leone and western Liberia.
182647		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182647		population	eng	No available data.
182647		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to deforestation and agricultural activities are threats to the species particularly in Liberia.
182648		conservation	eng	None known.
182648		conservation	eng	The most northern location in Cameroon is situated in the Korup National Park. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance and restoration is required.
182648		conservation	eng	The most northern location is situated in the Korup National Park.
182648		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs mainly in coastal areas from the Wouri, around Moliwe, Muyuka,in the Kienke and Lobe systems, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from eastern Benin and southwestern Nigeria. Reports from Bioko (Castelo 1994) have not been confirmed.
182648		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa this species is known from southwestern Nigeria and the Niger Delta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it is found in coastal areas of Southern Cameroon.
182648		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon and Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs mainly in coastal areas from the Wouri, around Moliwe, Muyuka,in the Kienke and Lobe systems, Cameroon. Reports from Bioko (Castelo 1994) have not been confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa this species is known from Southwestern Nigeria and the Niger delta.
182648		habitat	eng	<em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs in coastal areas. It is a demersal, non-migratory species.
182648		habitat	eng	<em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs in coastal areas. It is a demersal species with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 12.
182648		habitat	eng	This is a small cichlid. Demersal species. Non-migratory.
182648		population	eng	No available data.
182648		population	eng	No information available.
182648		threats	eng	Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region leads to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The central African localities are threatened by oil palm plantations in that region. Oil exploration and habitat loss and degradation following deforestation and agricultural and urban development threaten the Nigerian populations.
182648		threats	eng	Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region leads to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The central localities are threatened by oil palm plantations in that region.
182648		threats	eng	Oil exploration and habitat loss and degradation following deforestation and agricultural and urban development.
182649		conservation	eng	None known.
182649		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from Gabon and Congo in the Biguilé River to the Louémé River, widespread in the Ogowe basin. Coastal and other eastern rivers from Cameroon to Congo
182649		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
182649		population	eng	No information available.
182649		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182650		conservation	eng	None known.
182650		distribution	eng	<em>Teleogramma brichardi</em> is only known from the rapids near Kinsuka. Other locations reported for this species are probably based on misidentifications and are currently under investigation (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.). Further collections are necessary to establish the precise distribution and limits of this species. It is abundant in and around the Kinsuka rapids.
182650		habitat	eng	<em>Teleogramma brichardi</em> is a demersal species with a maximum recorded TL of 11.0 cm (Snoecks and De Boeck 1991).
182650		population	eng	No information available.
182650		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182651		conservation	eng	None known.
182651		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus syntrechalepis</em> is only known by the type from the Oka River, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182651		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus syntrechalepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182651		population	eng	No information available.
182651		threats	eng	None known.
182652		conservation	eng	None known.
182652		distribution	eng	<em>Microthrissa royauxi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin. It has also been found in the Lualaba River at Kindu, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kasai River system.
182652		habitat	eng	<em>Microthrissa royauxi</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers.
182652		population	eng	No information available.
182652		threats	eng	This species is important in subsistence fisheries.
182653		conservation	eng	None known.
182653		distribution	eng	<em>Clariallabes variabilis</em> is known from the Kasai River system and from the Lofu River, Lukénie basin, all in the Central Congo River basin. One specimen assigned to this species from Pool Malebo (AMNH).
182653		habitat	eng	<em>Clariallabes variabilis</em> is a demersal species. Stomach contents contain sand, (dead) plant material, crustaceans (Cladocerans and shrimp), aquatic larvae and nymphs and numerous pieces of terrestrial insects (Matthes 1964).
182653		population	eng	No information available.
182653		threats	eng	None known.
182654		conservation	eng	None known.
182654		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo alticentralis</em> is known from one type from Kisangani (Stanleyville) and from one type from the Lualaba River at Avokoko, on the route from Kisangani to Wanie Rukula. One specimen has also been identified as <em>Labeo alticentralis</em> from the Kinsuka rapids, Lower Congo River basin.
182654		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo alticentralis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182654		population	eng	No information available.
182654		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182655		conservation	eng	No information available.
182655		conservation	eng	No information available. The population trends should be researched, and habitat maintenance is required.
182655		conservation	eng	None known.
182655		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Malawi and its catchment as well as the Shire river (Skelton <em>et al. 1980).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>occurs in the Pungwe River and Lower Zambezi (Skelton 1993) .
182655		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from part of the Lower Zambezi fauna - occurring in suitable habitats in Malawi, the Lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers. Unpublished data from Bills (1999) shows the southern limit as the Buzi system.
182655		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeast Africa, from Lake Malawi and southern Tanzania to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Lake Malawi and its catchment as well as the Shire river (Skelton <em>et al. </em>1980).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Part of the lower Zambezi fauna - occurring in suitable habitats in Malawi, the lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers. Unpublished data from Bills (1999) shows the southern limit as the Buzi system.
182655		habitat	eng	A common species, it occurs in the streams as well as sheltered inshore areas of the lake. It is reported as one of the species found under the shelter of floating islands of reeds in Lake Malawi. These islands can assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi. It migrates up streams during the rains to breed. This species is very common in marshy habitats (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979, Skelton 1993) in the Lower Shire river.
182655		habitat	eng	A common species, it occurs in the streams as well as sheltered inshore areas of the lake.  It is reported as one of the species found under the shelter of floating islands of reeds in L. Malawi. These islands can assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi.  It migrates up streams during the rains to breed.  This species is very common in marshy habitats (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979; Skelton 1993) in the Lower Shire river.
182655		habitat	eng	Found at the edges of main river channels in vegetation and marshy habitats.
182655		population	eng	No information available.
182655		threats	eng	It is not thought that this species faces any major threats, however it is a suitable aquarium species (Skelton 1993).
182655		threats	eng	None known.
182655		threats	eng	Unknown. This is a suitable aquarium species (Skelton 1993).
182656		conservation	eng	None known.
182656		distribution	eng	<em>Sarotherodon mvogoi</em> is known from the upper Dja River in Cameroon, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nyong, Ntem and Ivindo (Ogowe basin) Rivers.
182656		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182656		population	eng	No information available.
182656		threats	eng	None known.
182657		conservation	eng	No major conservation measure is in place although there is a legislation proclaimed to protect the resource at the national and regional levels.
182657		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lake Tana.
182657		habitat	eng	It occurs mostly over rocky substrates in relatively shallow water (less than 6 m deep). It is a piscivore with almost 100% of its diet consisting of fish.
182657		population	eng	The size of the population is not exactly known. However, this species is one of the rare species of <em>Labeobarbus</em> in the lake.
182657		threats	eng	Overexploitation of the fish resource is the major threat for this species.
182658		conservation	eng	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182658		conservation	eng	No information available.
182658		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More research is needed into population range and numbers for this species, as well as monitoring population trends. Habitat maintenance and restoration may also be required.
182658		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Hydrocynus brevis</em> is rare, used to be caught from Lower Egyptian Nile to Luxor, now restricted to Lake Nasser (just outside of the region).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, Chad, Niger/ Bénoué, Volta, Senegal and Gambia.
182658		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Chad, Niger/Bénoué, Volta, Senegal and Gambia.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is found only in the Sahelo-Sudanese River basins.
182658		distribution	eng	This is a wide-ranging species, found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throughout the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in this region. It used to be caught from Lower Egyptian Nile to Luxor, now restricted to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad, Niger/Bénoué, Volta, Senegal and Gambia.
182658		habitat	eng	Demersa species that occurs in open water habitats. Piscivorous but may also eat “Caridina” and insects.
182658		habitat	eng	It occurs in open water habitats. It feeds mainly on fish, aquatic insects and shrimps. Its average length is up to 50 cm.
182658		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, occurring in open water habitats. It feeds mainly on fish, aquatic insects and shrimps.
182658		population	eng	No information available
182658		population	eng	No information available.
182658		threats	eng	One potential threat to this commercial harvested food fish is fish is overfishing, defeorestation and pollution (mining and oil industry).
182658		threats	eng	One potential threat to this commercial harvested food fish is overfishing, as well as deforestation and pollution (mining and oil industry). In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182658		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182659		conservation	eng	None known.
182659		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus longidorsalis</em> is only known from the Loama and Kanshete Rivers, tributaries of the Luhoho River in the Kivu region, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182659		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus longidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182659		population	eng	No information available.
182659		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182660		conservation	eng	None known.
182660		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe, Ngounie, and Nyanga rivers, and coastal regions of central and southern of Gabon.
182660		habitat	eng	No information available.
182660		population	eng	No information available.
182660		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182661		conservation	eng	None known.
182661		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus nigripinnis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids, and from the Central Congo River basin, but is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Sangha systems.
182661		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995).
182661		population	eng	No information available.
182661		threats	eng	None known.
182662		conservation	eng	None known.
182662		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria malaissei</em> is only known from the Luanza River, Luapula River basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182662		habitat	eng	<em>Parakneria malaissei</em> is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 9.2 cm (Poll 1984).
182662		population	eng	No information available.
182662		threats	eng	None known.
182663		conservation	eng	None known.
182663		distribution	eng	<em>Microthrissa minuta</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from the Uele River basin. Records have been made from the Sangha River basin, Central Congo River basin.
182663		habitat	eng	<em>Microthrissa minuta</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers.
182663		population	eng	No information available.
182663		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. This species is important in subsistence fisheries.
182664		conservation	eng	None known.
182664		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from the type locality at Edea on the lower course of the Sanaga River, Cameroon.
182664		habitat	eng	<em>Thrattidion noctivagus</em> is a pelagic species. It is a riverine species, collected only at dusk and dawn in swiftly flowing water of about 1 m just above the hydro-electric dam at Edea, Cameroon. <em>Thrattidion noctivagus</em> feeds on plankton and some terrestrial insects.
182664		population	eng	No information available.
182664		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182665		conservation	eng	None known.
182665		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus taeniurus</em> is known from the Dja, Kribi and Ntem Rivers in Cameroon (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
182665		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus taeniurus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182665		population	eng	No information available.
182665		threats	eng	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat. The lower Ntem population will possibly be threatened in the future by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.
182666		conservation	eng	None known.
182666		distribution	eng	In the Lower Guinea this species occurs in coastal rivers, from western and southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, to northwestern Gabon.
182666		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It ranges from southeastern Nigeria through western and southwestern Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is known from Cameroon to Equatorial Guinea and northwestern Gabon.
182666		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) splendopleure</em> generally occurs in still waters of brooks and small streams in the coastal rain forest on soils derived from Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary deposits (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) splendopleure</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182666		habitat	eng	This is a small killifish. It occurs in quiet parts of brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest on tertiary and quaternary sedimentary soil. Non-migratory.
182666		population	eng	No available data.
182666		population	eng	No information available.
182666		threats	eng	The species is targeted by fisheries and the aquarium trade.
182666		threats	eng	The species is targeted by the aquarium trade and is difficult to maintain in captivity. Agricultural developments such as conversion for rice farming is leading to habitat loss and degradation.
182667		conservation	eng	None known.
182667		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus balayi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Kindu, Lualaba system. It is not known from the Lukénie, Kasai and Kwango systems. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region where it occurs in the lower course of the Ogowe River (Gabon) in numerous associated lakes, and in the small coastal rivers from south of the Ogowe to the border between Gabon and Congo.
182667		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182667		population	eng	No information available.
182667		threats	eng	None known.
182668		conservation	eng	The location of the Ndian is protected by the Korup National Park.
182668		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, associated with the Ndian River in southeastern Nigeria and probably also in western Cameroon. The distribution appears to be relict.
182668		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax ndianus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest. <em>Fundulopanchax ndianus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation.
182668		population	eng	No information available.
182668		threats	eng	The habitat is threatened by oil exploration in the Lower Cross River and the potential threat from development activities.
182669		conservation	eng	None known.
182669		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., the Kafue National Park.
182669		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa, such as the Kafue National Park. More research is needed into its biology and ecology.
182669		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is a benthopelagic species found from Democratic Republic of Congo to Botswana and Zimbabwe.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Luapula-Mweru systems. It is also known from the upper Kasai and the Lomami Rivers. It has been recorded from Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).<br><br><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004) and also in the Middle Zambezi, Kafue, Cunene, Okavango and Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).
182669		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Luapula-Mweru systems. It is also known from the upper Kasai and the Lomami Rivers. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001). It has been recorded from Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).
182669		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004) and also in the Middle Zambezi, Kafue, Cunene, Okavango and Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).
182669		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers well-oxygenated but vegetated waters such as floodplain river channels and permanent lagoons. <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is shy, emerging in subdued light, most active in early morning and late afternoon (Skelton 1993). It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> migrates during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Spawning occurs in thick plantation.
182669		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers well-oxygenated but vegetated waters such as floodplain river channels and permanent lagoons. Fringes and shallow, vegetated areas of main river channels and connected lagoons, also in larger tributaries, but rare in smaller streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is shy, emerging in subdued light, most active in early morning and late afternoon (Skelton 1993, 2001) and cann be observed over open sand in the shallows of the Upper Zambezi River by torchlight at night. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> migrates during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Spawning occurs in thick plantation.
182669		habitat	eng	Fringes and shallow, vegetated areas of main river channels and connected lagoons, also in larger tributaries, but rare in smaller streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also occurs around the shoreline of Lake Kariba. Most active in early morning and late afternoon (Skelton 2001) and observed over open sand in the shallows of the Upper Zambezi River by torchlight at night. Feeds on small organisms, often off plant surfaces (Skelton 2001).
182669		population	eng	No information available.
182669		population	eng	The species is common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182669		population	eng	The species is common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.  </em>2004).
182669		threats	eng	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.
182669		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
182670		conservation	eng	None known.
182670		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus macrops</em> is widespread through western Africa, from Senegal to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  <em>Barbus macrops</em> is known from the Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species  is widely distributed in West Africa including the rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins.
182670		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong>  <em>Barbus macrops</em> is known from the Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins. this species is widely distributed in West Africa: rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins. It has also been reported from the Nile.
182670		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus macrops</span> is widely distributed in western Africa including the rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> It has also reported from Central African Republic and from Mauritania.
182670		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic fish.
182670		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus macrops</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.
182670		population	eng	No available data.
182670		population	eng	No information available.
182670		threats	eng	None known
182670		threats	eng	None known.
182671		conservation	eng	None known.
182671		distribution	eng	<em>Parailia congica</em> is known from lakes and rivers from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.
182671		habitat	eng	<em>Parailia congica</em> is a demersal species. It feeds mainly on aquatic and small terrestrial insects (Burgess 1989).
182671		population	eng	No information available.
182671		threats	eng	None known.
182672		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182672		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis stigmatogenys</em> is known from the Kasaï and Luvua River systems and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from Mukishi, This species is known from upper Lomami River.
182672		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis stigmatogenys</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
182672		population	eng	No information available.
182672		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets also pose a threat.
182673		conservation	eng	None known.
182673		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to the drainage system of the Middle Konkouré River in the southern part of the Fouta Djalon plateau, western Guinea
182673		habitat	eng	This species is found most commonly in shallow parts of creeks and small rivers. It is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish of maximum size of 7.0 cm TL.
182673		population	eng	No available data.
182673		threats	eng	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened from water pollution due to mining and untreated sewage
182674		conservation	eng	None known.
182674		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, and coastal regions north of Libreville, Gabon.
182674		habitat	eng	No information available.
182674		population	eng	No information available.
182674		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182675		conservation	eng	None known.
182675		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops furcidens</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai systems.
182675		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182675		population	eng	No information available.
182675		threats	eng	None known.
182676		conservation	eng	None known.
182676		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Niger in the Mopti regions and from Lake Kainji (Nigeria). Also known from Guinea (this location can't be mapped, more information is needed).
182676		habitat	eng	Maximum SL 34.5 cm. Lives in streams and lakes. This is a bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing. It is non-migratory.
182676		population	eng	No available data.
182676		threats	eng	None known - a hardy species.
182677		conservation	eng	None known. More information on the distribution and status of this species is needed.
182677		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Chutes Lancrenon, from upper Logone River system.
182677		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182677		population	eng	No information available.
182677		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182678		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182678		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to western Africa and known from the Ogun (Nigeria), Ouémé (Bénin) and Mono (Togo) basins.
182678		habitat	eng	No information available
182678		population	eng	No information available.
182678		threats	eng	No information available.
182679		conservation	eng	None known.
182679		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the rivers Ogun and Oshun in Nigeria and from the Mono in Togo. Probably also in the Mono River in Benin and Ghana.
182679		habitat	eng	It is a medium size mormyrid growing to 17 cm SL. This is a demersal species in shallow waters. It can emit a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.
182679		population	eng	No available data.
182679		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation from agriculture, urban development and deforestation.
182680		conservation	eng	None known.
182680		distribution	eng	<em>Tricuspidalestes caeruleus</em> is known from Bokuma and the Tsuapa River, Central Congo River basin.
182680		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182680		population	eng	No information available.
182680		threats	eng	None known.
182681		conservation	eng	None known.
182681		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus bimaculatus</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo, Lualaba, Rubi and Lake Upemba of the Congo basin. The presence in the upper Congo system needs to be confirmed though.
182681		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182681		population	eng	No information available.
182681		threats	eng	None known.
182682		conservation	eng	None known.
182682		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus ater</em> is only known from Kidada, in an affluent of the Lower Congo River basin, but has yet to be reported from the main channel of the Lower Congo.
182682		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182682		population	eng	No information available.
182682		threats	eng	None known.
182683		conservation	eng	None known.
182683		distribution	eng	<em>Parananochromis longirostris</em> is restricted to southwestern Cameroon, northern Gabon in the Ntem system and associated drainages, and the Ivindo River and its tributaries, and Río Muni. There is uncertainty of the presence of this species in the Central Congo River system, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The specimens were identified by Pellegrin in 1927 and it is possible that the type locality is in error.
182683		habitat	eng	<em>Parananochromis longirostris</em> is a demersal species.
182683		population	eng	No information available.
182683		threats	eng	None known.
182684		conservation	eng	None known.
182684		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis nummifer</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found in centre of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the southern tributaries of the Congo River. Records from the Lower Congo require confirmation.
182684		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis nummifer</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). Stomach contents contained sand, mud, plant debris, herbs and insect larvae (mainly Chironomids) (Matthes 1964).
182684		population	eng	No information available.
182684		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis nummifer</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182685		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182685		distribution	eng	This species is known from lower reaches of Little Scarcies River and Waanje River in Sierra Leone.
182685		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182685		population	eng	No information available.
182685		threats	eng	No information available.
182686		conservation	eng	No information available.
182686		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182686		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis serratus</em> is rare in Upper Nile (Beni Suef to Aswan).<br/><br/>At global level, it can be found in Lake Nasser, Blue and White Niles.
182686		distribution	eng	This species is found the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is rare in This species is known from upper Nile (Beni Suef to Aswan), but present throughout, including Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs around Khartoum in the Nile and White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.
182686		habitat	eng	It prefers deep water and rocky habitats.
182686		habitat	eng	It prefers deep water and rocky habitats. This species reaches to 50 cm in length.
182686		population	eng	No information available.
182686		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182686		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182687		conservation	eng	None known.
182687		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Inhabits the drainage system of the Senegal and Gambia, Upper Niger and Great and Little Scarcies and Rokel rivers in Sierra Leone, the Lower Saint Paul River in Liberia, the Bafing and Niger rivers in Mali, the Black and White Volta rivers in Ghana, the Niger River in Niger, the Niger and Benue Rivers in Nigeria, Lake Chad in Nigeria and Cameroon, the Logone and Chari Rivers in Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the White Nile in Sudan.
182687		distribution	eng	This is a wideranging species from Senegal to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It inhabits the drainage system of the Senegal and Gambia, This species is known from upper Niger and Great and Little Scarcies and Rokel rivers in Sierra Leone, the Lower Saint Paul River in Liberia, the Bafing and Niger rivers in Mali, the Black and White Volta rivers in Ghana, the Niger river in Niger, the Niger and Benue Rivers in Nigeria, Lake Chad in Nigeria and Cameroon, the Logone and Chari Rivers in Chad.
182687		habitat	eng	A savannah dwelling species found in, or close to, vegetated parts of small rivers, brooks, and swamps. Benthopelagic. It is non-migratory. It is not a seasonal killifish.
182687		habitat	eng	A savannah dwelling species found in, or close to, vegetated parts of small rivers, brooks, and swamps. Freshwater. A benthopelagic species.. Non-migratory.<br/>Not a seasonal killifish.
182687		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182687		threats	eng	None known
182687		threats	eng	None known.
182689		conservation	eng	None known.
182689		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) schioetzi</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Sangha system. In Lower Guinea it is found in the upper Niari River in southern Congo.
182689		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) schioetzi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in the weedy parts of slow flowing brooks and small streams in the forested savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182689		population	eng	No information available.
182689		threats	eng	This fish is harvested for the aquarium trade.
182690		conservation	eng	No current conservation measures are known. Sustainable use of aquatic resources needs to be effected either through environmental education of rural communities or law enforcement.
182690		conservation	eng	No information available
182690		conservation	eng	None known.
182690		conservation	eng	Sustainable use of aquatic resources needs to be effected either through environmental education of rural communities or law enforcement.
182690		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is widespread in central, southern and east Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  <em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is found in the upper Lualaba, Luapula and Chambezi systems of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in fast flowing stretches of many tributaries, particularly in mountain streams of high altitude in the upper reaches of rivers. It is found in Lake Kivu and Rusizi basin; This species is known from upper Akagera; Malagarasi River basin; Lakes Rukwa and Jipe; Rivers Ruaha, Rufiji and Pangani; Limphasa /Luweya system and Rupashe river. Its distribution includes the entirety of Lake Malawi, Lake Chiuta and Lake Chilwa catchments, as well as the Ruo system. It is also found in the Lake Victoria system, and all major systems in Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Zambezi systems except for the Kafue, south to the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
182690		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is widespread in central and east Africa. It is also known from the Tana River, Kenya to Pongolo River, Natal. The species is also known from the Okavango, Zambezi systems, and east coast rivers south to the Mkuze system in northern Natal (Skelton 1993). <em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is also found in Burundi and in the upper Lualaba, Luapula and Chambezi systems of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182690		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Kivu and Rusizi basin; Upper Akagera; Malagarasi River basin; Lakes Rukwa and Jipe; Rivers Ruaha, Rufiji and Pangani; Limphasa /Luweya system and Rupashe river (Lake Malawi catchment).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Wide spread in Central and Southern Africa.  Also found in the Okavango and Zambezi systems, east coast rivers south to Mkuze system in northern Natal
182690		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Zambezi system except for the Kafue, south to the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
182690		habitat	eng	Colonizes lakes but prefers fast flowing streams, with pebbles and boulders, where the water is rich in oxygen (Seegers 1996). Feeds likely on insects and other invertebrates (Skelton 1993). Breeds in summer.  It survives in fast flowing rapids by paired fins adapted to form suckers to allow the fish to flatten themselves against the rocks.
182690		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is a demersal species that colonizes lakes but prefers fast flowing streams, with pebbles and boulders, where the water is rich in oxygen (Seegers 1996). It survives in fast flowing rapids by paired fins adapted to form suckers to allow the fish to flatten themselves against the rocks. It feeds on stream insects and other small organisms off rock surfaces (Skelton 1993). This species breeds in summer, laying eggs underneath stones. The juveniles are easily mistaken for tadpoles. It is preyed on by trout and probably eels (Skelton 1993).
182690		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is a demersal species that prefers clear, flowing water in rocky habitats. It feeds on stream insects and other small organisms off rock surfaces. This species breeds in summer. The juveniles are easily mistaken for tadpoles. It is preyed on by trout and probably eels (Skelton 1993).
182690		habitat	eng	Rocky riffle habitats of streams and larger rivers.
182690		population	eng	No information available.
182690		population	eng	Population not known, but quite common.
182690		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182690		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species. Specific threats include changes in stream biotopes due to agriculture extension, predation by other fishes, and river bank sedimentation in eastern Africa. Local impacts in Mozambique include sedimentation from gold mining activities and fish poisoning by rural fishermen. Impacts of dams affecting flow regimes and upland agricultural activities affect sediment levels. Alien fishes, mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorhynchus mykiss</span>, predate upon all <span style="font-style: italic;">Amphilius</span> species.
182690		threats	eng	Local impacts in Mozambique include sedimentation from gold mining activities and fish poisoning by rural fishermen. Impacts of dams affecting flow regimes and upland agricultural activities affect sediment levels. Alien fishes, mainly <em>O. mykiss, </em>predate upon all<em> Amphilius </em>species.
182690		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are changes in stream biotopes due to agriculture extension and predation by other fishes.
182691		conservation	eng	None known.
182691		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax taenia</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Pene-Ngongo, Maniawe River, upper Congo River basin.
182691		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182691		population	eng	No information available.
182691		threats	eng	None known.
182692		conservation	eng	No information available.
182692		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182692		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Labeo niloticus</em> is common along the river Nile in Egypt. It was common in Lakes Manzala, Burullus and Idku during flooding time, also in Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>Globally it is present in th Blue and White Nile, and Lake Nubia.
182692		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>found within the drainage basin of the Nile (Blue and White) and in the Omo River. Several dubious records from West Africa require validation.
182692		distribution	eng	This species is common along the Nile, from Egypt to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is known from the river Nile in Egypt. It is present in Lakes Manzala, Burullus and Idku during flooding time, also in Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Baro and Omo Rivers and Rift valley lakes, Ethiopia, and Sudan Nile.
182692		habitat	eng	Feeds on benthic animals and detritus.
182692		habitat	eng	This herbivorous species feeds mainly on diatoms, blue green algae, and to a lesser extent on crustaceans, rotifers, nemarodes and organic debris. It spawns in running water in May-June when about two years old. It reaches a total length of about 78 cm.
182692		habitat	eng	This is a predominantly herbivorous species, feeding mainly on diatoms, blue green algae, and to a lesser extent on crustaceans, rotifers, nemarodes and organic debris. It spawns in running water when about two years old. Spawning season runs May-June.
182692		population	eng	No information
182692		population	eng	No information available.
182692		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182692		threats	eng	No information
182692		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182693		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182693		distribution	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus bredoi</em> is only known from Lake Mweru.
182693		habitat	eng	<em>Campylomormyrus bredoi</em> is a demersal species.
182693		population	eng	No information available.
182693		threats	eng	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species, causing a decline in population size.
182694		conservation	eng	None known.
182694		distribution	eng	<em>Tylochromis lateralis</em> is known from the mainstream of Lower and Central Congo River and the Pool itself to the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), and from the Kasaï and Tshuapa River systems. It has been recorded from the Sangha River as well (Stiassny 1989).
182694		habitat	eng	<em>Tylochromis lateralis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) that feeds mainly upon insect larvae, plants and fruits, as well as detritus and molluscs (Stiassny 1989, Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).
182694		population	eng	No information available.
182694		threats	eng	None known.
182695		conservation	eng	None known.
182695		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia congica</em> is known from the swampy Central Congo area and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
182695		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182695		population	eng	No information available.
182695		threats	eng	None known.
182696		conservation	eng	No information available.
182696		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed.
182696		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is known from the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon border) in the North-West up to the Ntem River basin (Cameroon) in the South-East. Outside the region, this species is known from the Ouémé River basin (Benin) in the West up to the Kwa Ibo River basin (Nigeria) and from Bioko Island [formerly Fernando-Po, Equatorial Guinea]. It is also known from a record from the Ubangui system and from small streams in Dja and Boemba Rivers. These records have to be checked though.
182696		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>According to Paugy et al. (2003), the species is known basin of Ouémé in the West to the basin of the Cross-country race in the east. There are also records from the Chad basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Ntem in Cameroon and Middle Congo River basins.
182696		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria to Cameroon, and possibly Chad. It is also found on Bioko Island.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is known from the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon border) in the North-West up to the Ntem River basin (Cameroon) in the South-East. It is also known from a record from the Ubangui system and from small streams in Dja and Boemba Rivers. These records have to be checked though.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> According to Paugy <em>et al.</em> (2003), the species is known basin of Ouémé in the West up to the Kwa Ibo River basin, Nigeria. There are also records from the Chad basin.
182696		habitat	eng	Demersal
182696		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is a demersal species.
182696		population	eng	No available data.
182696		population	eng	No information available.
182696		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger delta. Elsewhere deforestation and agricultural development.
182696		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182696		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration in the Niger delta. Elsewhere in west Africa, it is threatened by deforestation and agricultural development. There is no information available on threats to this species in central Africa.
182697		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182697		conservation	eng	None known.
182697		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182697		distribution	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus pleuropholis</em> is known from the Chad and Congo River basins<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Its distribution probably includes Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of Congo. It is not found in the Mweru-Luapula -Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa it is only present in Chad
182697		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clypeobarbus pleuropholis</em> is known from the Chad and Congo River basins. It is not found in the Mweru-Luapula -Bangweulu system.
182697		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad River basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is known from the Chad and Congo basins.
182697		habitat	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus pleuropholis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182697		habitat	eng	The species is benthopelagic.
182697		population	eng	No available data.
182697		population	eng	No information available.
182697		threats	eng	None known.
182697		threats	eng	Unknown.
182698		conservation	eng	None known.
182698		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from Southeastern Ghana, through Southern Togo and Southern Benin, to Southern Nigeria, including the Niger Delta.
182698		habitat	eng	A perrenial killifish. The species forms schools near the water surface. Usually found in clear water, in small rivers, brooks and swamps in the primary and secondary rainforest of the coastal plains. It is non-migratory.
182698		population	eng	No available data.
182698		threats	eng	Targeted by the aquarium trade and subject to impacts of oil exploration in the Niger Delta. It is also threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to farming, urban development and deforestation.
182699		conservation	eng	None known.
182699		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182699		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182699		distribution	eng	In Angola, this species is occurring in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River, Luce River ), Kunene River (Kukulakazé River ), and Okavango River (Cubango River ) systems.
182699		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus lujae</em> is only known from the type locality Kondue, Sankuru River (Kasai). It has also been reported from the Luce River and from Kukulakaze in Angola in 1930 and 1936.
182699		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus lujae</em> is only known from the type locality Kondue, Sankuru River (Kasai). It has also been reported from the Luce River and from Kukulakaze in Angola in 1930 and 1936.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola it is occurring in the Kwanza River (Kwanza and Luce River), Kunene River (Kukulakazé River), and Okavango River (Cubango River) systems.
182699		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182699		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus lujae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182699		population	eng	No information available.
182699		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182699		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182699		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Further threats are unknown.
182699		threats	eng	Because no conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, threats are unknown.
182700		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.
182700		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus myersi</em> is only known from the type locality Kabunda, Muniengashsi River, upper Luapula. It is possibly present in Zambia: Chiansi Lagoon Kafue and Kashilu, 5 km upstream from the mouth, Luapula River.
182700		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus miersi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182700		population	eng	No information available.
182700		threats	eng	None known.
182701		conservation	eng	None known.
182701		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polypterus palmas</span> is known from the coastal rivers of the Guinea Gulf, from Guinea Bissau to Liberia and the upper Cavally River in Côte d’Ivoire.
182701		habitat	eng	Lives in swamps and rivers feeding on aquatic invertebrates. Juveniles have external gills. Adults are able to breath air and live in anoxic conditions. It is non-migratory.
182701		population	eng	No available data.
182701		threats	eng	None known.
182702		conservation	eng	None known.
182702		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the coastal rivers in South West Cameroon and Fernando Poo.
182702		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182702		population	eng	No information available.
182702		threats	eng	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The coastal locations are threatened by oil palm plantations.
182703		conservation	eng	None known.
182703		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guinean Atlantic area and Sierra Leone. Possibly also in coastal basins of Liberia, but its presence there has not yet been confirmed.
182703		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. 13 cm SL maximum size
182703		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182703		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation, mining and human settlement.
182704		conservation	eng	None known
182704		conservation	eng	None known.
182704		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Habitat maintenance and restoration is also needed.
182704		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is found from the Congo basin to the Niger delta.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Cameroon-Gabon area extending to the south along the coastal lowlands of Gabon to Congo. It is also known from the Dja basin, Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Cameroon extending westwards to the Niger delta. It seems to be abundant in small forested rivers and apparently does not occur to the west of the Niger, since all quotations for that area have been shown to correspond to other species.
182704		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is limited to the Cameroon-Gabon area extending a little to the Niger delta and to the south along the coastal lowlands of Gabon to Congo-Brazzaville. In Lower Guinea, from Cameroon and Gabon. Elsewhere to the West as far as the Niger River delta.
182704		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Cameroon extending westwards to the Niger delta. It seems to be abundant in small forested rivers and apparently does not occur to the west of the Niger, since all quotations for that area have been shown to correspond to other species.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It also occurs in Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island) (Abban pers comm.). Also reported from Gabon, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
182704		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is a benthopelagic ornamental fish that grows to 15.5 cm in total length. It is abundant in small forested rivers. It is non-migratory.
182704		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is abundant in small rivers in forest zones.
182704		habitat	eng	This is a small bentho-pelagic ornamental fish that grows to 15.5 cm in total length. It is abundant in small forested rivers. Non-migratory.
182704		population	eng	No available data.
182704		population	eng	No information available.
182704		threats	eng	The collection of this species in the wild for ornamental purposes is a potential threat if the trade recovers to the levels of the 1980s. Habitat destruction due to deforestation may be a future threat.
182704		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
182705		conservation	eng	None known.
182705		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus comptus</em> is found throughout Lower and Middle Congo, possibly also known from upper Congo.
182705		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182705		population	eng	No information available.
182705		threats	eng	None known.
182706		conservation	eng	None known.
182706		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a single specimen, collected from Ebome stream at Kribi, Cameroon.
182706		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182706		population	eng	No information available.
182706		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182707		conservation	eng	None known.
182707		distribution	eng	<em>Phago boulengeri</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Nyonga, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182707		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182707		population	eng	No information available.
182707		threats	eng	None known.
182708		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into the population, ecology and threats to this species.
182708		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle Niger near Niamey in Niger.
182708		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182708		population	eng	No information available
182708		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to drought and pollution.
182709		conservation	eng	None known.
182709		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Liberia. It is known from rivers Du and St. Paul near the coastline in Liberia
182709		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of 6.1 cm SL maximum size
182709		population	eng	No available data.
182709		threats	eng	Threats include deforestation and mining leading to siltation and pollution.
182710		conservation	eng	No information available.
182710		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and population trends.
182710		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus pobeguini</em> is known in Western Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to Burkino Faso and Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species has been captured in Adrar, Mauritania<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs across Sudanian basins of Senegal, Gambia and Volta.  Also in certain coastal basins, Comoé, Bandama, and Sassandra Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and Tominé River in Guinea, as well as the Bandingara Plateau in Mali.
182710		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus pobeguini</em> possibly occurs within the northern African region in Mauritania.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Sudanian basins of Niger, Senegal, Gambia and Volta. It is also present in certain coastal basins, Comoé, Bandama, and Sassandra Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and Tominé River in Guinea. It has been captured in Adrar, Mauritania and in the Bandingara Plateau in Mali.
182710		habitat	eng	Benthopelagic and potamodromous.
182710		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species.
182710		population	eng	No information available.
182710		threats	eng	No information available.
182711		conservation	eng	None known.
182711		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe zairensis</em> is only known from the type locality Lemfu, Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin.
182711		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182711		population	eng	No information available.
182711		threats	eng	None known.
182712		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on threats to this species.
182712		distribution	eng	This species is only found on Bioko (Fernando Po), Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu (Annobon) islands.
182712		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182712		population	eng	No information available.
182712		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182713		conservation	eng	None known.
182713		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus kingsleyae</em> is known from Banana (Lower Congo system), from the Lindi River and the Congo River just downstream of Kisangani (Central Congo system) and from the upper Congo system. This species has recently been collected in the Lulua River (Kasai). It has been reported by Borodin (1936) from Lake Tanganyika, but its presence in this area is certainly dubious (Poll, 1946). <em>Brycinus kingsleyae</em> was described from the Ogowe basin in Gabon. It is also found in the Sanaga, Nyong and Ntem basins in Cameroon, the Nyanga basin in Gabon, the Loémé and Kouilou basins in Congo and the Chiloango basin in Cabinda (Angola).
182713		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182713		population	eng	No information available.
182713		threats	eng	None known.
182714		conservation	eng	None known.
182714		distribution	eng	<em>Leptoglanis xenognathus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Ubangui River mainstream near Bawili (upstream from Banguii) and from Banzyville (Central African Republic), the Aruwimi River and from the Wagenia Falls, near Kisangani (Roberts 2003). The distribution of this species is thought to be larger.
182714		habitat	eng	<em>Leptoglanis xenognathus</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand and is hard to find.
182714		population	eng	No information available.
182714		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boot traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller. Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182715		conservation	eng	None known.
182715		distribution	eng	This species is found in Saint Paul river basin in Guinea and Lofa river basin in Liberia.
182715		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182715		population	eng	No available data.
182715		threats	eng	There are indications of continuing decline in quality of habitat due to siltation in its habitat in Liberia, but there is no indication of this in Guinea.
182716		conservation	eng	None known.
182716		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis schoutedeni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
182716		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis schoutedeni</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its electric organ is located dorsally and consists of modified striated muscle (Møller 1995). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182716		population	eng	No information available.
182716		threats	eng	None known.
182717		conservation	eng	None known. More information on this species is needed.
182717		distribution	eng	The species is known from the type locality (Tributaries Bagbwe River, Sierra Leone). Reported Reported from Jong and Sewa rivers in Sierra Leone.
182717		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182717		population	eng	No available data.
182717		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation due to water pollution from agriculture.
182718		conservation	eng	None known.
182718		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus brazzai</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). It is also known from the Ogowe, Ntem and Nyong Rivers.
182718		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus brazzai</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs over sandy-muddy substrates near aquatic vegetation composed mainly of the water hyacinth <em>Eichornia crassipes</em> and reed. It also occurs over rocks without vegetation (De Vos 1991).
182718		population	eng	No information available.
182718		threats	eng	None known.
182719		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.
182719		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a restricted area in the Bagwor and Mack systems around the villages of Takwai I and II, Atebong Wire and Edjuingan in the upper Cross River basin of western Cameroon.
182719		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gresensi</em> occurs in swampy parts of small forest streams, which may be subject to periodic drying. It is a benthopelagic species.
182719		population	eng	No information available.
182719		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.
182720		conservation	eng	None known.
182720		distribution	eng	<em>Parachanna insignis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is also known from just upstream of Kisangani. In the Lower Guinea, the species is not very abundant but is known from the Ogowe at Franceville, Gabon (type locality) and the Kouilou (Congo Brazzaville).
182720		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182720		population	eng	No information available.
182720		threats	eng	None known.
182721		conservation	eng	None known.
182721		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxoglanis cryptus</em> is only known from the type locality: near Aketi on the Kagola River, tributary of the Itimbiri River (Central Congo River basin) (Norris 2002).
182721		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182721		population	eng	No information available.
182721		threats	eng	Logging and a low level of diamond mining (lower value) are possible threats. Transport of the logs on the river is of minor importance.
182722		conservation	eng	None known.
182722		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality Ngomo in the Ogowe River, Gabon.
182722		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182722		population	eng	No information available.
182722		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182723		conservation	eng	None known.
182723		distribution	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus schoutedeni</em> is only known from the type locality: Gangala na Bodio, Dungu River, affluent of the Uele, Central Congo River basin.
182723		habitat	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus schoutedeni</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182723		population	eng	No information available.
182723		threats	eng	None known.
182724		conservation	eng	None known.
182724		distribution	eng	<em>Haplochromis demeusii</em> is known from the main channel of the Lower Congo River between Luozi and Matadi. It is also commonly found in many affluent rivers and streams throughout the region.
182724		habitat	eng	<em>Haplochromis demeusii</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.
182724		population	eng	No information available.
182724		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. In the Luozi region, it can also be threatened in the future by mining. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182725		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). A monitoring programme should be put in place.
182725		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe, Bia, Mé and Agnebi rivers in Côte d'Ivoire. Also recorded from the Tano River in Ghana (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1988). It disappeared from the Bia after the construction of a dam at Lake Ayamé in Côte d'Ivoire.
182725		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Anadromous.
182725		population	eng	No information available.
182725		threats	eng	Dam construction affects the habitat of the species. Overfishing is a threat as this is a commercially important food fish with declining populations.
182726		conservation	eng	None known.
182726		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys habereri</em> is known from the Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), including the Ubangui River and Lower Congo. It has been found just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) in the Maiko River as well. It has not been found in the Kwango and Kasai systems. The type specimen is coming from the Dja River, Cameroon.
182726		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182726		population	eng	No information available.
182726		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182727		conservation	eng	None known.
182727		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Ntem basin in southern Cameroon.
182727		habitat	eng	No information available.
182727		population	eng	No information available.
182727		threats	eng	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.
182728		conservation	eng	None known.
182728		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis notatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kwango and This species is known from upper Kasai systems, the Lufira system and the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system.
182728		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis notatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182728		population	eng	No information available.
182728		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis notatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182729		conservation	eng	No information available.
182729		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys neumanni</em> is known from the upper Dja, Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the Ivindo River basin, the middle Ntem River, and some northern tributaries of the middle Ogowe River in northern and northeastern Gabon, the extreme northwestern part of Congo, southern Cameroon and eastern Equatorial Guinea.
182729		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatus neumanni</em> inhabits creeks and other small bodies of water under rainforest cover.
182729		population	eng	No information available.
182729		threats	eng	No information available.
182730		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.
182730		conservation	eng	None known.
182730		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182730		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is widespread through the Congo basin, from Cameroon to Angola.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is also widespread throughout the Lower Guinea region.<br><br><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River), Bengo River, Chiloango River (Luali River - Cabinda area) systems. Record from the Okavango River (Cubango River, Cuebe River and Cuchi River) are misidentified (Skelton <em>et al.</em> 1985).
182730		distribution	eng	In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River), Bengo River, Chiloango River (Luali River - Cabinda area) systems. Record from the Okavango River (Cubango River, Cuebe River, Cuchi River ) are misidentified (Skelton <em>et al. </em>1985).
182730		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is widespread throughout the Lower Guinea region.
182730		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is strictly insectivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic benthic insects associated with terrestrial insects during the rainy season. <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> breeds during the rainy season, with fecundity ranging between 5 and 18 eggs per gram of body weight (Mutambue 1993).
182730		habitat	eng	Strictly insectivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic benthic insects associated with terrestrial insects during the rainy season. Breeds during the rainy season.
182730		population	eng	No information available.
182730		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182730		threats	eng	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182730		threats	eng	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species. Further possible threats to this species are unknown.
182730		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
182731		conservation	eng	None known.
182731		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion punctatum</em> is known from the Sangha River, Central Congo River basin. It is possibly also present in the adjacent basin of the upper Likouala River in northern Congo. In Lower Guinea it is found in the upper Ivindo River system.
182731		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion punctatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182731		population	eng	No information available.
182731		threats	eng	This fish is harvested for the aquarium trade.
182732		conservation	eng	None known.
182732		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes ambiguus</em> is only known from the Bari River, Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin.
182732		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182732		population	eng	No information available.
182732		threats	eng	None known.
182733		conservation	eng	None known.
182733		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus fasolt</em> is known from the Uele River at Niangara and from Bosabangi, Lindi River, Central Congo River basin. It is possibly also known from Kisangani and the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).
182733		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus fasolt</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182733		population	eng	No information available.
182733		threats	eng	None known.
182734		conservation	eng	None known.
182734		distribution	eng	<em>Tetracamphilius notatus</em> is known from the mainstream of the Ubangui River, from several of its larger tributaries, and from one specimen from the Kilwezi River, affluent of the Lufira River in the Congo River basin (Roberts 2003).
182734		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182734		population	eng	No information available.
182734		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182735		conservation	eng	No information available.
182735		conservation	eng	None known.
182735		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> occurs in the Kouilou, Lube, Ngoumbi, Malele, and Ogowe Rivers. Elsewhere this species is poorly known in West Africa, where it has been collected in Benin and Southern Nigeria (Niger basin).
182735		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is poorly known in western Africa, where it has been collected in Benin and Southern Nigeria (Ogun and Niger basin).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is more common in Cameroon, Gabon, and the lower regions of Congo.
182735		distribution	eng	This species is known from Benin to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> occurs in the Kouilou, Lube, Ngoumbi, Malele, and Ogowe Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is poorly known in Western Africa, where it has been collected in Benin and Southern Nigeria (Ogun and Niger basin)
182735		habitat	eng	<em>Neolabias ansorgii </em>is a very small riverine demersal distichodontid characiform. Non-migratory.
182735		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> is a pelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).
182735		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> is a very small riverine demersal distichodontid characiform, and a pelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).
182735		population	eng	No available data.
182735		population	eng	No information available.
182735		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta. In the Ogun river the main threats are from deforestation, agriculture and urban development.
182735		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta threatens this species. In the Ogun river the main threats are from deforestation, agriculture and urban development. No information is available on threats to this species within central Africa.
182735		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182736		conservation	eng	No information available.
182736		conservation	eng	None known.
182736		conservation	eng	The species distribution falls within some reserves in southern Africa. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation may be required.
182736		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some reserves.
182736		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is a wide-ranging species in the southern half of Africa, from Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the upper Lualaba, Luapula, Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the upper Kasai system and the Zambian Congo system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in  Lake Malawi and its catchment area, as well as the upper Shire River.  <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in This species is known from upper Zambezi, Chobe, Lake Ngami, Okavango, Cunene, and Kafue Rivers, as well as the Cuanza River (Angola), the Zambian Congo, the Lower Shire (Lower Zambezi), and the lower Save, Limpopo and Phongolo rivers (Skelton 2001).
182736		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is known from the upper Lualaba, Luapula, Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu, Upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the upper Kasai system and the Zambian Congo system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cuanza and Cunene Rivers, from Okavango, Chobe, Lake Ngami, upper Zambezi (above Victoria Falls), Lake Malawi, Pungwe, Buzi, Save, Limpopo, Incomati, lower Pongolo and lower Sabi, Lundi system. It is also known from the Kafue and the lower Shire (Skelton 1993).
182736		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>L. Malawi and its catchment area as well as the upper Shire River.  <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango,Upper Zambezi, Kafue, Lower Shire (lower Zambezi), Save, Limpopo and Phongolo systems; Zambian Congo system and the Cuanza (Angola).
182736		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene, and Kafue Rivers, as well as the Cuanza River (Angola), the Zambian Congo, the Lower Shire (Lower Zambezi), and the Lower Save, Limpopo and Phongolo rivers (Skelton 2001).
182736		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It lives over muddy bottoms in swampy areas and feeds on snails (Konings 1990). This species prefers vegetated habitats. Feeding habits overlap considerably with the sharptooth catfish. Important foods are molluscs, terrestrial and aquatic insects, shrimps, crabs and fish. Hard-shelled foods such as mussels are crushed before they are swallowed. <em>Clarias ngamensis</em> breeds during the summer rainy season.  Breeding is reportedly flood dependent and similar to that of <em>C. gariepinus.</em>
182736		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. This species prefers vegetated habitats in swamps and estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers. It lives over muddy bottoms in swampy areas and feeds on snails (Konings 1990). This species prefers vegetated habitats. Feeding habits overlap considerably with the sharptooth catfish (<em>Clarias gariepinus</em>). Important foods are molluscs, terrestrial and aquatic insects, shrimps, crabs and fish. Hard-shelled foods such as mussels are crushed before they are swallowed. It reportedly packhunts together with the sharptooth catfish in the Okavango Delta. <em>Clarias ngamensis</em> breeds during the summer rainy season when it moves into shallow flooded drainage channels to spawn.
182736		habitat	eng	Favours vegetated habitats in swamps and riverine floodplains. Often found together with the sharptooth catfish; feeding habitats overlap considerably. Packhunts together with the sharptooth catfish in the Okavango Delta. Important foods are molluscs, terrestrial and aquatic insects, shrimps, crabs and fish. Breeds during the summer rainy season, large numbers moving into shallows to spawn.
182736		habitat	eng	Prefers vegetated habitats in swamps and estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers. Feeds on molluscs, insects and fish. Breeds during the rainy season when it moves into shallow flooded drainage channels to spawn.
182736		population	eng	No information available.
182736		population	eng	Not known
182736		population	eng	This species is widespread and common.
182736		population	eng	Widespread and common.
182736		threats	eng	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is used in aquaculture.
182736		threats	eng	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is used in aquaculture, and in eastern Africa it is threatened with habitat degradation.
182736		threats	eng	None known.
182736		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat degradation.
182737		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182737		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Kakrima River and in the middle reaches of the Konkouré River in Guinea.
182737		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182737		population	eng	No information available.
182737		threats	eng	No information available.
182738		conservation	eng	No information available.
182738		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182738		conservation	eng	None known.
182738		distribution	eng	In Northern Africa, <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is rare in the Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile, Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal, Volta and coastal basins of Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Ouémé, Ogun and Sanaga.
182738		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is found in coastal basins from the Cross to the Sanaga, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from most major nilosudanic basins (Nile, Tchad, Niger, Gambie, Senegal and Volta), and in many coastal west African basins also (Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe, Tano, Pra, Oueme and Ogun).
182738		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Turkwell drainage (Lake Turkana system) (Seegers <em>et al. </em>2004). Also reported from Lake Turkana as Raiamas loati (Boulenger 1911), a junior synonym (see Lévêque and Bigorne 1983) (Seegers<em> <em>et al. </em></em>2004).<em><em><br/></em></em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> widely distributed throughout the Nile basin including L. Turkana, Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal, Volta.
182738		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Raiamas senegalensis </span>is known from the large Sudanese basins, i.e., Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal and Volta. It has also been collected in several coastal basins, i.e., the Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Ouémé, Ogun, up to the Sanaga which seems to represent its southern distributional limit.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also recorded from the Nile River.
182738		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, known from Guinea to Tanzania, and along the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is found in coastal basins from the Cross to the Sanaga, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from most major nilosudanic basins (Nile, Tchad, Niger, Gambie, Senegal and Volta), and in many coastal west African basins also (Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe, Tano, Pra, Oueme and Ogun).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Turkwell drainage of the Lake Turkana system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also reported from Lake Turkana as <em>Raiamas loati</em> (Boulenger, 1911), a junior synonym (see Lévêque and Bigorne, 1983) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in the upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the White and Blue Niles to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), as well as the Omo and Baro Rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is known from the large Sudanese basins, including Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal and Volta. It has also been collected in several coastal basins, including the Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Ouémé, Ogun, up to the Sanaga which seems to represent its southern distributional limit.
182738		habitat	eng	A freshwater, demersal species.
182738		habitat	eng	Demersal, potamodromous species. It reaches an average length of 18 cm.
182738		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004).
182738		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 60.0 g (Ita 1984).
182738		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal fish.
182738		population	eng	No available data.
182738		population	eng	No information available.
182738		threats	eng	No information available.
182738		threats	eng	None known
182738		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182738		threats	eng	There is limited information available on threats to this species. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182738		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182739		conservation	eng	None known.
182739		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal rivers from Gabon, Cameroon, Congo and  Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182739		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus rubrostigma</em> is a benthopelagic. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182739		population	eng	No information available.
182739		threats	eng	None known.
182740		conservation	eng	None known.
182740		distribution	eng	This fish is known from the upper tributaries of the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Corubal, Konkouré, Little Scarcies and Niger. Furthermore, this species has been reported (even though only once) from the River Loffa in Guinea. The species distribution in Niger and Nigeria can't be mapped.
182740		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, freshwater fish. Maximum reported size: 122 mm SL.
182740		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182740		threats	eng	There is a potential threat due to deforestation
182741		conservation	eng	None known.
182741		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is known from the basins of the Niger, Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Comoé, Bandama, Mono and Ouémé and also in the Cross river.
182741		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is in Lower Guinea present in the Cross River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger, Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Comoe, Bandama, Mono and Oueme Rivers.
182741		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.
182741		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It feeds on plants, insects and invertebrates.
182741		population	eng	No information available.
182741		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182741		threats	eng	Urbanization and deforestation may be localized threats to the species.
182742		conservation	eng	None known.
182742		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus gibbiceps</em> is known from the rapids on the Lower Congo River.
182742		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus gibbiceps</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species. It has a relatively short, uncoiled intestine and feeds largely on gastropods (Roberts and Stewart 1976).
182742		population	eng	No information available.
182742		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi area. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182743		conservation	eng	None known.
182743		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrus rume rume</em> is found in the Cross River.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from  Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Volta and Chad basins. Sahelo-Soudanian basins and the coastal basins of the rivers Cavally, Bandama, Sassandra, Comoé, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun and Culufi.
182743		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is known only from the great Sahelo-sudanese basins and from certain coastal basins, eg., Cavally, Bandama, Sassandra, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and Culufi basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Also present in the Congo River basin.
182743		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus rume</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It feeds on insects and larvae. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of long duration that seems to correlate with territorial behaviour of the  species.
182743		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams. Demersal. Feeds on insects and larvae. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of long duration that seems to correlate with territorial behaviour of the  species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182743		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182743		population	eng	No information available.
182743		threats	eng	Locally threatened by deforestation.
182743		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182744		conservation	eng	None known.
182744		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus barbatus </span>is broadly distributed in western This species is known from upper Guinean waters from the Kolenté River (Sierra Leone/Guinea), just east of the Fouta Djalon uplands to the Borlor River (Liberia, between the St. Paul and St. John rivers). This distribution closely approximates that of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. stiassnyae</span>, and overlaps that of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. punctatus </span>along its eastern margin
182744		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic fish occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. The electric organ, capable of discharging 300–400 V, is derived from pectoral muscle and surrounds almost the entire body. It is used both for prey capture and defence. Electric organ discharge (EOD) is intermittent and the amplitude increases with size of the fish. Responds immediately to cyclic light changes, exhibiting maximum EOD activity shortly after sunset and lowest activity just after sunrise. Its EOD duration decreased from 1.5 to 0.3 ms in response to increased temperature from 15 to 30°C. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes
182744		population	eng	No available data.
182744		threats	eng	Agriculture, mining and deforestation threaten this species.
182745		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy).
182745		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pra basin in southwestern Ghana.
182745		habitat	eng	This species occurs in brackish waters to the upper parts of rivers where there is pure freshwater. It feeds mainly on nymphs of the mayfly, <span style="font-style: italic;">Povilla adusta</span>.
182745		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182745		threats	eng	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in the Pra basin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Commercial timber felling and increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.
182746		conservation	eng	None known.
182746		distribution	eng	A lower Guinea endemic, known from the type locality La Passa in the upper Ogowe and from the Kouilou River basin.
182746		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182746		population	eng	No information available.
182746		threats	eng	The species is threatened by intensive commercial logging leading to sedimentation (pers. comm. Mamonekene, V.).
182747		conservation	eng	None known.
182747		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus altus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.
182747		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa this species is known from Gribingui River (Chad basin).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Central Congo basin.
182747		habitat	eng	Reproduction takes place in high waters, fast growth (approximately 50 to 1 year for a weight higher than 2,200 kg) maximum size observed 70 cm for 5 kg. Diet: very phytophagous, Distichodus are herbivores which nourish feuillles higher plants and tackle the rice plantations. They can cause important damage when the depth of water is sufficient (Pasquelin 1982).
182747		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182747		population	eng	No information available.
182747		threats	eng	None known.
182747		threats	eng	Widespread threats, particularly from drought, deforestation, overfishing and dam construction.
182748		conservation	eng	None known.
182748		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon where it is restricted to a small section between the altitude interval of 250 and 600 m.
182748		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) poliaki</em> is found in small mountain brooks, usually among overhanging vegetation. It is restricted to a small section between the altitude interval of 250 and 600 m. Other members of the subgenus <em>Chromaphyosemion</em> inhabiting the same general area are restricted to habitats on the coastal plain, not exceeding an altitude of 350 m. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) poliaki</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182748		population	eng	No information available.
182748		threats	eng	The Mount Cameroon is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Corporation, including bananas, palm oil.
182749		conservation	eng	None known.
182749		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis longirostris</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.
182749		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis longirostris</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182749		population	eng	No information available.
182749		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis longirostris</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182750		conservation	eng	None known.
182750		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops curtus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin (to Bokuma). It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182750		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182750		population	eng	No information available.
182750		threats	eng	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3, which will be built in 5 years. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3 will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in het area.
182751		conservation	eng	None known.
182751		distribution	eng	<em>Belonoglanis tenuis</em> occurs throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182751		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182751		population	eng	No information available.
182751		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182752		conservation	eng	No information available
182752		distribution	eng	This species is restrcited to the Lake Tanganyika drainage including Rusizi river basin (Wildekamp 1995).
182752		habitat	eng	This species occurs in river mouths, coastal swamps, estuaries and other shallow parts of the lake, in rivers flowing into the lake (Wildekamp 1995).
182752		population	eng	No data available  but never abundant in fisheries catches.
182752		threats	eng	No information available.
182753		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and status of this species.
182753		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tonga, on the White Nile River, Sudan.
182753		habitat	eng	No information available.
182753		population	eng	No information available.
182753		threats	eng	No information available.
182754		conservation	eng	None known.
182754		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus casuarius</em> is known from the rapids on the Lower Congo River.
182754		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus casuarius</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species with an extremely long, highly coiled intestine and feeds predominantly on algae (Roberts and Stewart 1976). <em>Steatocranus casuarius</em> is commercially used as an aquarium fish.
182754		population	eng	No information available.
182754		threats	eng	There are currently no threats known to the species. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi area. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182755		conservation	eng	None known.
182755		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus matthesi</em> is known from the Lilanda River (Yangole), the Congo River at Yaekela, the Tshuapa River, Ths Isalowe River at Yangambi and Mokumbe, Central Congo River basin.
182755		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus matthesi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 7.9 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984). It is a polyphagous species; stomach contents contained grains of sand, Diatomea, sometimes debris of bottom plants, benthic Protozoa (Thecamoeba), non-parasitic Nematoda, Hydracarina, insect larvae (Chironomida, Certaopogonida, Ephemera) and debris of adult insects (Matthes 1964).
182755		population	eng	No information available.
182755		threats	eng	None known.
182756		conservation	eng	None known.
182756		distribution	eng	<em>Microthrissa whiteheadi</em> is known from the Ubangui, Uele and from upper Congo River basins.
182756		habitat	eng	<em>Microthrissa whiteheadi</em> is a pelagic species.
182756		population	eng	No information available.
182756		threats	eng	None known.
182757		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182757		distribution	eng	Paugy and Roberts (2003) state that the species is restricted to one location the Lower Niger (Nigeria). But in Fishbase (Froese and Pauly 2006), it is said that the species is found also in Niger, Mali and Guinea.
182757		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 80.0 cm TL maximum size.
182757		population	eng	No available data.
182757		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger delta threatens this species.
182758		conservation	eng	None known.
182758		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma nigropannosum</em> is common throughout the much of the Congo River basin, except the upper Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is only found in the Chiloango and Kouilou Rivers, where it is apparently common in preferred habitat.
182758		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Niger Delta. Gosse (1986) mentioned that the species was also found in other parts of the western African countries.<strong> <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>According to Gosse (1986) this species is known from Niger Delta and Congo Rivers, including Ogowe River in Gabon. It is widely transported by the aquarium fish trade.
182758		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species.
182758		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species of maximum size 17.0 cm TL. It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182758		population	eng	No available data.
182758		population	eng	No information available.
182758		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and pollution from oil extraction.
182758		threats	eng	It is widely transported by the aquarium fish trade.
182759		conservation	eng	No information available..
182759		conservation	eng	None known.
182759		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves.
182759		conservation	eng	This species requires taxonomic revision. The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. It needs habitat and water quality conservation, and maintenance of flows in streams.
182759		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is a species complex, which is yet to be fully taxonomically researched and described. As this species currently stands, it has a widespread distribution across much of the southern half of Africa:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. It is also known from the Cuanza and Lake Tangayika (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>  Malawi where it occurs in the upland streams of the Ruo river. Also recorded in Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Small streams and tributaries throughout the upper Zambezi system, rarely in the main Zambezi river channel (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also reported from the Cunene, Okavango, Quanza and the Congo system (Skelton 2001). Other reported areas of occurrence, e.g. in eastern Zimbabwe, need further study. Populations of <em>B. eutaenia</em>- like fishes occur in South Africa (Mpumalanga, Kawazulu-Natal) and Swaziland.
182759		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi, east coast systems south to the Phongolo system. It is also known from the Cuanza and Lake Tangayika (Skelton 2001). It has also been reported from the Malagarasi Basin.
182759		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Malawi where it occurs in the upland streams of the Ruo river.  It has not been recorded elsewhere within the Lake Malawi catchment. Also recorded in Lake Tanganyika.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, east coast systems south of the Incomati system, South Africa.  Also in the Cuanza (Angola) and the Zaire system (Skelton 1993).
182759		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from small streams and tributaries throughout the upper Zambezi system, rarely in the main Zambezi river channel (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It has been also reported from the Cunene, Okavango, Quanza and the Congo system (Skelton 2001). Although reported by Skelton (2001) from east coast systems south to the Phongolo, this is recognised in this database as a separate species. Other reported areas of occurrence, e.g., in eastern Zimbabwe, need further study.
182759		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species complex. It favours clear-flowing waters, usually headwater streams with rocky habitats. <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> feeds on insects (Skelton 1993). It is known to ascend tributaries and move only onto floodplains in rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is also found rarely on the fringes of the main Zambezi River channel south of the Barotse floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It appears to be sensitive to habitat disturbance and pollution.
182759		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It favours clear-flowing waters, usually headwater streams with rocky habitats. <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> feeds on insects (Skelton 1993). It is known to ascend tributaries and move only onto floodplains in rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
182759		habitat	eng	Occurs in clear flowing waters, usually headwater streams with rocky habitats (Skelton 1993).  Feeds on insects (Skelton 1993). Migratory - known to ascend tributaries and move into the floodplains during the rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
182759		habitat	eng	Prefers clear, flowing streams and also found rarely on the fringes of the main Zambezi River channel south of the Barotse floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004), and often found in rocky habitats of headwater tributaries (Skelton 2001).  Feeds on insects.
182759		population	eng	Common throughout its range in suitable habitat.
182759		population	eng	No information available.
182759		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range in suitable habitat.
182759		population	eng	Unknown.
182759		threats	eng	At a local level, <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> suffers many threats. It is commercially important as an aquarium species, and appears to be sensitive to flow reduction, sedimentation and pollution. However, given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.
182759		threats	eng	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.
182759		threats	eng	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.
182759		threats	eng	Unknown. This is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993).
182760		conservation	eng	None known.
182760		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Comoé basin (Côte d’Ivoire).
182760		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 22.0 cm TL.
182760		population	eng	No available data.
182760		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182761		conservation	eng	None known.
182761		distribution	eng	<em>Chiloglanis pojeri</em> occurs in the Luvua and Lualaba River systems, upper Congo River system and in the Koki River (tributary of Lake Tanganyika).
182761		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis pojeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits rivers and streams (Eccles 1992). It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182761		population	eng	No information available.
182761		threats	eng	None known.
182762		conservation	eng	None known.
182762		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Niari-Kouilou basin.
182762		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus nigroluteus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 3.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182762		population	eng	No information available.
182762		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182763		conservation	eng	None known.
182763		distribution	eng	This fish is found in coastal basins from Sierra Leone to the River Sassandra (Côte d’Ivoire). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pellegrini</span> also seems to occur in the Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea) and a form reported to this species is found in the Niandan, an upper tributary of the Niger (Guinea).
182763		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish. Maximum reported size: 91 mm SL.
182763		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182763		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia is a local threat to the species.
182764		conservation	eng	None known.
182764		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Comoe in Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso
182764		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species; potamodromous.
182764		population	eng	No information available.
182764		threats	eng	Drought, pollution and deforestation threaten this species.
182765		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182765		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern Lake Chad and lower Chari river drainages in southwestern Chad and northern Cameroon.
182765		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic; non-migratory. This annual and endemic species is frequent in the backwaters, the marshes, the ditches and the temporary ponds of the basin of the southernmost part of the Lake Chad, that of Chari lower and the south-west of Chad and north Cameroon (Bhr Marako).
182765		population	eng	No available data.
182765		threats	eng	No information available.
182766		conservation	eng	None known.
182766		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis ansorgii</em> is known from basins of the Jong (Sierra Leone), Géba (Guinea Bissau), Kolenté (Great Scarcies) and Koumba (Guinea).
182766		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of 27.6 cm TL maximum size.
182766		population	eng	No available data.
182766		threats	eng	No current major threats known.
182767		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182767		conservation	eng	None known.
182767		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis niger</em> is only known from the upper Cross River and the Menchum River, Niger basin.
182767		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, the River Menchum (Benue basin) on the Bamenda heights in Cameroon.
182767		habitat	eng	This species is a very small mochokid catfish that grows to 3.5 cm TL. This species is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks.
182767		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous Breder and Rosen (1966).
182767		population	eng	No information available.
182767		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182767		threats	eng	There is a potential future threat from dam construction or deforestation.
182768		conservation	eng	None known.
182768		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat restoration may be required.
182768		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger Delta, and may be occurring in the coastal Nigerian fringe (Bigorne 1990).
182768		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species has been found in Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo River basin to Angola.
182768		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria to Angola.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is present throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species has been found in Niger Delta and may be occurring in the coastal Nigerian fringe (Bigorne 1990).
182768		habitat	eng	Demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. Non-migratory.
182768		habitat	eng	<em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is a demersal species. It has the same colour as <em>P. soudanensis</em>, but is distinguished by mouth position, number of teeth, eye size. It has the same morphology as <em>P. bane</em> and <em>P. ansorgii</em>.
182768		population	eng	No available data.
182768		population	eng	No information available.
182768		threats	eng	None known.
182768		threats	eng	Oil exploration in Niger Delta locally threatens this species.
182768		threats	eng	Oil exploration (Niger Delta)
182769		conservation	eng	No information available..
182769		conservation	eng	None known.
182769		conservation	eng	The species is protected in reserves such as Kafue National Park on the Kafue River.
182769		conservation	eng	The species is protected in reserves such as Kafue National Park on the Kafue River. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182769		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Pollimyrus castelnaui</em> is only known from the one location in the Zambian Congo River system (Luanshya junction Kitwe/Ndola road). Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi and Kafue Rivers (Skelton 2001). It has also been found in northern areas of Lake Malawi (Skelton 2001).
182769		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Affluent streams in the northern part of Lake Malawi.
182769		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue. Also along the northern part of the Lake Malawi lakeshore (Tweddle and Willoughby 1998; Skelton 2001). Specimens from the Zambian Congo are provisionally referred to this species (Bills unpublished)
182769		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Tanzania, to Namibia to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Pollimyrus castelnaui</em> is only known from the one location in the Zambian Congo River system (Luanshya junction Kitwe/Ndola road). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in affluent streams in the northern part of Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread throughout the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue.
182769		habitat	eng	Demersal; Inhabits dense vegetation along margins of rivers and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 1993).  Often found in lagoons and backwaters in shallow water just underneath the surface vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Feeds on aquatic insect larvae including a large component of Chironomidae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Its preferred habitat are streams and estuaries in tropical climate.
182769		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pollimyrus castelnaui</span> inhabits vegetation bordering rivers and in floodplain lagoons.  (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be common throughout the system, in tributaries and in swampy areas and drying lagoons on floodplains. Feeds on insect larvae and other small invertebrates.
182769		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, which inhabits dense vegetation along margins of rivers and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 1993). Often found in lagoons and backwaters in shallow water just underneath the surface vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds on aquatic insect larvae including a large component of Chironomidae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This is the smallest mormyrid known from Lake Malawi, not exceeding 10 cm in length. Reported to occur in northern areas of Lake Malawi where it is common in streams and swamps.
182769		habitat	eng	This is the smallest mormyrid known from Lake Malawi, not exceeding 10 cm in length. Reported to occur in northern areas of Lake Malawi where it is common in streams and swamps. Occurs in dense vegetation along margins of rivers and floodplain lagoons. Feeds on aquatic insect larvae, including a large component of chironomidae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
182769		population	eng	In southern Africa, the populations are widespread, although in some areas the species is uncommon where it occurs, e.g. in the Ruvuma Bills (2004) found it to be rare, while in the Lake Malawi system it is restricted to low-lying, well-watered areas on the northern lakeshore (Tweddle and Willoughby 1978). Also extremely rare in the Buzi River system. No information is available for other regions.
182769		population	eng	No information.
182769		population	eng	No information available.
182769		population	eng	Populations are widespread, although in some areas the species is uncommon where it occurs, e.g. in the Ruvuma Bills (2004) found it to be rare, while in the Lake Malawi system it is restricted to low-lying, well-watered areas on the northern lakeshore (Tweddle and Willoughby 1978). Also extremely rare in the Buzi River system.
182769		threats	eng	It has potential to be harvested as an aquarium fish.
182769		threats	eng	No information available.
182769		threats	eng	The species is widely distributed and has no immediate threats.
182770		conservation	eng	None known.
182770		distribution	eng	<em>Schwetzochromis neodon</em> is only known from the Fwa River, tributary to the Lubu River, tributary to the Sankuru River, in the south east Congo River drainage, Kasai Oriental Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182770		habitat	eng	<em>Schwetzochromis neodon</em> is a benthopelagic species. It appears to be strictly herbivorous and seems to feed on filamentous algae, diatoms and a great variety of small pieces of higher and lower plants (Roberts and Kullander 1994).
182770		population	eng	No information available.
182770		threats	eng	None known.
182771		conservation	eng	None known.
182771		distribution	eng	<em>Opsaridium boweni</em> is known from the Lulua River, near Kananga (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.) and from a tributary of the Lulua, Kasai, Central Congo River basin. It is probably more widespread in the Kasai system.
182771		habitat	eng	<em>Opsaridium boweni</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182771		population	eng	No information available.
182771		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182772		conservation	eng	None known.
182772		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from Senegal to Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded in White Nile, Sudan (Bailey 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus leonensis</em> is known from the large Sudanese basins: Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal, Gambia, as well as from the Comoé, Bandama (Côte d’Ivoire). The entire species distribution cannot be mapped (more information needed).
182772		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182772		population	eng	No available data.
182772		threats	eng	None known
182773		conservation	eng	None known.
182773		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the upper course of the River Hedjo (Volta basin), near the border between Togo and Ghana.
182773		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182773		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182773		threats	eng	No information available.
182774		conservation	eng	The species distribution is situated in the Korup National Park.
182774		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from a limited number of localities in the Akpa-Yafe and the upper Ndian Rivers, in the southern part of the Korup National Park, western Cameroon.
182774		habitat	eng	According to Kamdem Toham (1992) the species generally lives in the shallow swampy pools at the edge of small creeks under forest cover. These pools, up to 35 cm in depth, are partly covered with a layer of fallen leaves under which the fishes in the pools take cover. It is a pelagic species with a pH range from 5.0 to 7.5, a dH range from 0.6 to 1 and a depth range from 0 to 1 m.
182774		population	eng	No information available.
182774		threats	eng	None known.
182775		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182775		distribution	eng	Species present in Angola where it occurs in Kwanza River (Kwanza River ), Okavango River (Cubango River ), Upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) and Congo River (Luembe River, Cuilo River, Luachimo River, Cutele River, Lucoge River ) systems.
182775		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lufira River, Lualaba-Upemba, and Luapula-Moero in Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Angola where it occurs in Kwanza River, Okavango River (Cubango River), and the upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.
182775		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182775		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182775		threats	eng	As no conservation and biological works/projects have been done in the region, threats to the species are unknown.
182775		threats	eng	Because no conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, threats are unknown.
182776		conservation	eng	None known.
182776		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus petitjeani</span> was historically only known from the Bafing River (high basin of Senegal) in Guinea. However, recent collections in Milo and Niandan (High basin of Niger) in Guinea have extended the species range (Guegan 1990).
182776		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182776		population	eng	No available data.
182776		threats	eng	Threats to this species include the destruction and deterioration of habitat due to agricultural pollution and sedimentation.
182777		conservation	eng	None known.
182777		distribution	eng	This species is found from Guinean region of Mount Nimba in the basins of Cavally, Nipoué, Niger and St. Paul.
182777		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum size 7.4 cm SL
182777		population	eng	No available data.
182777		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and conflicts.
182778		conservation	eng	None
182778		conservation	eng	None known.
182778		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
182778		distribution	eng	<em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is known from throughout the Congo from Cameroon to Tanzania and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded) and from Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Lower Malagarasi River where it is occasionally reported in Lake Tanganyika close to the river mouth.
182778		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded) and from Lake Tanganyika.
182778		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower Malagarasi river where it is occassionally reported in lake Tanganyika close to the river mouth.
182778		habitat	eng	<em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits bays and river mouths (Eccles 1992).
182778		habitat	eng	<em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits bays and river mouths (Eccles 1992). This species is found in slow flowing rivers and deltas with vegetation and soft bottom substrates. It feeds on detritus, diatoms and arthropods.
182778		habitat	eng	Found in slow flowing rivers and deltas with vegetation and soft bottom substrates. Feeds on detritus, diatoms and arthropods.
182778		population	eng	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches
182778		population	eng	There are anecdotal reports of massive declines in this (and other  Citharinus) have been made throughout the lower and middle Congo. The species is now  extremely rare in lower Congo.
182778		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are overfishing  and biotope changes due to agricultural impacts.
182778		threats	eng	This is a commercially important species, and overfishing is a threat. Anecdotal reports of massive declines in this (and other <span style="font-style: italic;">Citharinus</span>) have been made throughout  the region. The species is now extremely rare in lower Congo. Biotope changes due to agricultural impacts could also have a negative effect on populations.
182778		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182779		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the survival or disappearance of this species in certain areas.
182779		distribution	eng	This species is known from the greater part of the Niger river basin, including the Benue River downstream Gauthoit Falls, and from Ouémé and Volta rivers.
182779		habitat	eng	It occurs in brackish and freshwater. This is a benthopelagic species, found in large rivers and their estuaries. Probably exceeds 165 cm.
182779		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182779		threats	eng	This fish has disappeared from areas due to overfishing. In Ghana, the fish has not been observed for many years (Abban, pers. comm.). Because it grows to a large size, it is caught by fishermen before reaching the mature stage. <br/><br/>Problems that may threaten this fish include increasing agricultural activities around the Volta rivers and the consequent problems of leaching of agrochemicals into the water and increases in sediment loads. In some parts of the Volta, aquatic weeds may also pose a threat to the fish. The fish is harvested commercially for food, and thus there is some potential danger of over fishing.
182780		conservation	eng	None known.
182780		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182780		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis ornatipinnis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Central Congo system (including Lake Tumba), the Luapula system and the Luongo River (Luapula system, Zambia). There is a record from Kwanza River (exact locality unknown), but it is not known if this is genuine.
182780		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, the species is present in Angola, where it occurs in Kwanza River (exact locality unknown) and Congo River systems.
182780		habitat	eng	Biology is not known.
182780		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis ornatipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182780		population	eng	No information available.
182780		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182780		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats to the species are unknown.
182780		threats	eng	None known.
182781		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution lays within the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve. This reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest though.
182781		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Niari-Kouilou basin.
182781		habitat	eng	No information available.
182781		population	eng	No information available.
182781		threats	eng	In the Kouilou basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. Deforestation is an historical threat but the human population has moved. The Dimonika Biosphere Reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182782		conservation	eng	None known.
182782		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus poptae</em> is known from the Central Congo basin, including the Sangha system in Cameroon.
182782		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182782		population	eng	No information available.
182782		threats	eng	None known.
182783		conservation	eng	No information available.
182783		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and threats of this species.
182783		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Hemichromis letourneuxi</em> has been recorded from Egypt.<br/><br/>At global level it is present from the Nile to Senegal and from North Africa to Côte d'Ivoire.
182783		distribution	eng	This species is known from the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is recorded from Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.
182783		habitat	eng	This is a savannah associated species which prospers in a range of lentic habitats that include brackish water lagoons, large lakes and riverine flood plains. It occurs near vegetation beds and fringes, and feeds on Caridina and insects. It is a substrate spawner, ripe and spent fish are common early in the flood season.
182783		habitat	eng	This savannah associated species prospers in a range of lentic habitats that include brackish water lagoons, large lakes and riverine flood plains. It occurs near vegetation beds and fringes and feeds on <em>Caridina</em> and insects. Substrate spawner, ripe and spent fish are common early in the flood season.
182783		population	eng	No information available.
182783		threats	eng	No information available.
182784		conservation	eng	None known.
182784		distribution	eng	This species is probably endemic to the River Cess (Nipoué) (in Liberia/Côte d’Ivoire).
182784		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182784		population	eng	No available data.
182784		threats	eng	There is evidence of catchment degradation due to deforestation resulting in siltation.
182785		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species biology and ecology, and habitat status and threats.
182785		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182785		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is found in the Chad and the Nile.
182785		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chad, Niger and Nigeria, as well as Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Chad basin, predominantly close to Lake Chad.
182785		habitat	eng	Demersal fish.
182785		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish, favours running water.
182785		population	eng	No available data.
182785		population	eng	Unknown.
182785		threats	eng	Unknown.
182786		conservation	eng	No information available.
182786		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182786		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, the species may have been present in the region prior to the construction of the Aswan High Dam.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in Rivers Nile and Niger. The species is recorded as rare in Lake Nasser and is found in River Nile in Sudan.
182786		distribution	eng	This species is only known to certainly occur in the Nile, Sudan, and Baro River, Ethiopia.
182786		habitat	eng	<em>Chiloglanis niloticus</em> is a small sized fish, found in shallow waters, occuring on rocky habitats; it feeds mainly on insects such as mayfly nymphs.
182786		habitat	eng	This is a small sized fish, found in shallow waters, occuring on rocky habitats; it feeds mainly on insects such as mayfly nymphs.
182786		population	eng	No information available.
182786		population	eng	This species is rarely recorded, although the excat population size is unknown.
182786		threats	eng	No information available.
182786		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182787		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and consequently more information on the distribution of this species is required.
182787		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus pedunculatus</em> is known from the type locality Boma, Lower Congo River basin and from one locality on the Kouilou-Niari River system in Gabon. Additional specimens from Lower Congo suggest the species is probably widespread in the system.
182787		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182787		population	eng	No information available.
182787		threats	eng	None known.
182788		conservation	eng	None known.
182788		distribution	eng	<em>Steatocranus bleheri</em> is only known from the type locality Lubumbashi, the upper Kafubu River basin, Luapula River System, Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo. This needs to be confirmed though. What seems to be the same species has been identified in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).
182788		habitat	eng	<em>Steatocranus bleheri</em> is a demersal, species that inhabits clear flowing water with rocks and river pools (Meyer 1993). It is found in small groups, up to 20 individuals (Meyer 1993). It is likely a pair-bonding, cave-spawning species, like its congeners (Lamboj 2004).
182788		population	eng	No information available.
182788		threats	eng	If it does occur in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182789		conservation	eng	None known.
182789		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis pardalis</em> is known from the Dja River and its tributary the Libi River (Central Congo River basin).
182789		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis pardalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182789		population	eng	No information available.
182789		threats	eng	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat.
182790		conservation	eng	None known.
182790		distribution	eng	<em>Labeobarbus habereri</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the Mbam, Kelle and Sanaga Rivers in Cameroon.
182790		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus habereri</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182790		population	eng	No information available.
182790		threats	eng	None known.
182791		conservation	eng	None known.
182791		distribution	eng	<em>Microthrissa congica</em> is found in most of the Congo River basin, but is apparently absent from the Lake Tumba area and in the Luapula-Mweru system.
182791		habitat	eng	<em>Microthrissa congica</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers but perhaps not in lakes.
182791		population	eng	No information available.
182791		threats	eng	None known.
182792		conservation	eng	None known.
182792		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus lukindae</em> is only known from a tributary of the Lukinda River, South Katanga, upper Congo River basin (Eschemeyer 1998).
182792		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus lukindae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182792		population	eng	No information available.
182792		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182793		conservation	eng	None known.
182793		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a shady creek in the primary rainforest of the Ogowe basin near Benguie, between Lambarene and Bifoun, western Gabon (Huber 1998).
182793		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion hera</em> is only known from a shady creek. It is a benthopelagic species.
182793		population	eng	No information available.
182793		threats	eng	None known.
182794		conservation	eng	None known.
182794		distribution	eng	<em>Parardoxoglanis caudivittatus</em> is known from the Tshuapa and Lukenie River systems (Central Congo River basin) (Norris 2002).
182794		habitat	eng	<em>Parardoxoglanis caudivittatus</em> is a demersal species. Besides plant matter (both intact and detrital), gut content examination revealed unidentified worms, a shrimp, insect larvae (colepteran and dipteran) and various unidentified insect parts (Norris 2002).
182794		population	eng	No information available.
182794		threats	eng	None known.
182795		conservation	eng	None known.
182795		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in western Africa from Guinea to Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This subspecies is in Lower Guinea known from throughout coastal Cameroon and Benito River in Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Guinea and the coastal basins from the River St. John in Liberia to the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon) and is also present in the Niger (Benue included) basin.
182795		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish, hunting macrofauna (predator).
182795		population	eng	No available data.
182795		threats	eng	None known.
182796		conservation	eng	None known.
182796		distribution	eng	This killifish inhabits the coastal lowlands of southern Guinea and across Sierra Leone to the area around Monrovia in Liberia.
182796		habitat	eng	This small killish inhabits quiet bodies of water, creeks and smaller rivers in the open savannah as well as in the rainforest. Usually found among bordering vegetation or lily pads in fresh water, but may also be found in slightly brackish water.
182796		population	eng	No available data.
182796		threats	eng	None known.
182797		conservation	eng	None known.
182797		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182797		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182797		distribution	eng	Species present in Upper Zambezi River and Congo River systems. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) system.
182797		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kneria angolensis</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Cunene and Upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 1994).
182797		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kneria angolensis</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Cunene and This species is known from upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 1994), though these records are doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) system.
182797		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known, but other species of the genus occur in upper reaches. Biology is not known.
182797		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182797		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. The preferred habitat is not known, but other species of the genus occur in upper reaches. Biology is not known.
182797		population	eng	No information available.
182797		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182797		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In Kasai occidental, this mining activity takes place at an industrial level.
182797		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In Kasai occidental, this mining activity takes place at an industrial level. No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats to this region are not known.
182797		threats	eng	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.
182798		conservation	eng	None known.
182798		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe laticeps</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Ntem and Ogowe Rivers in Cameroon and Gabon in the Lower Guinea region.
182798		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182798		population	eng	No information available.
182798		threats	eng	None known.
182799		conservation	eng	None known.
182799		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from one locality in the Ivindo basin, Gabon.
182799		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182799		population	eng	No information available.
182799		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182800		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy).
182800		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Volta and the Sokoto, a tributary of the Niger.
182800		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182800		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182800		threats	eng	The main threats to this fish are effluents from mining activities in the White Volta. These may introduce dangerous elements such as mercury and arsenic, and poisonous compounds like cyanide into the water, and these may lead to massive fish kills. In addition, invasive aquatic weeds are impacting the species habitat. Deforestation in the Sokoto.
182801		conservation	eng	None known.
182801		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus mawambiensis</em> is known from the Tua, Epulu and Dungu Rivers, Central Congo River basin.
182801		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus mawambiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182801		population	eng	No information available.
182801		threats	eng	None known.
182803		conservation	eng	No information available.
182803		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some game reserves.
182803		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Recorded from the Limphasa/ Luweya system and the Nkhotakota wildlife reserve in the Lake Malawi catchment  Also abundant in the marshes of the Lower Shire River and lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widely distributed in other parts of Africa.
182803		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Orange and southern KwaZulu-Natal northwards throughout the region, extends to southern Congo tributaries and the Lake Malawi lakeshore rivers (Skelton 2001).
182803		habitat	eng	It has never been recorded in Lake Malawi itself but is thought to live in the swampy environments around the lakeshore. It prefers vegetated zones, found mainly in quiet pools. It has a tendency to migrate upstream during the rains. Known to feed on insects and small fish.  Breeds from early spring to late summer.<br/>Max Size: In Malawi this species reaches 8 cm in length.<br/><br/>(Caught in fish traps at Chiuta, it has a slight commercial importance)
182803		habitat	eng	Wide variety of habitats from flowing waters to lakes and isolated sinkholes, usually favouring vegetated areas where the current is not too strong (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be the most widespread species throughout the Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems Preys on insects, shrimps and small fish. Breeds from early spring to late summer (Skelton 2001).
182803		population	eng	Generally abundant in suitable habitats.
182803		population	eng	No information available.
182803		threats	eng	No information available.
182803		threats	eng	None known.
182804		conservation	eng	None known.
182804		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Upper Shari.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Ubanghi Basinin Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic.
182804		distribution	eng	This species is found from Chad to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Congochromis dimidiatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is also found in the upper Shari.
182804		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182804		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182804		population	eng	No information available
182804		population	eng	No information available.
182804		threats	eng	Declining habitat quality due to agricultural development
182804		threats	eng	There is declining habitat quality due to agricultural development. Severe droughts may also affect this species.
182805		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182805		distribution	eng	Western and central Sierra Leone. One finds it in the basins of Great Scarcies (Kolenté), of Little Scarcies, Taia (Pampana) and Sewa
182805		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It is found in ponds and the small rivers in rain forest.
182805		population	eng	No available data.
182805		threats	eng	No information available.
182806		conservation	eng	None known.
182806		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma fasciolatum</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Congo River basin.
182806		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that builds bubble-nests.
182806		population	eng	No information available.
182806		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182807		conservation	eng	None known.
182807		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.
182807		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> occurs in Lower Lomé and Kienke drainages in southwestern Cameroon, Rio Utonde and Rio Beni river drainages in Equatorial Guinea and possibly also northwestern Gabon. Elsewhere it is known from the Kuramo (lagoon) east of Lagos in southwestern Nigeria eastward across the Niger River delta to the Cameroon border.
182807		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In Nigeria it is found in the Lower Niger Delta and the Ogun river. It has also been recorded in the upper reaches of the Birm River Ghana (Abban pers comm.). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is known from Lower Lomé and Kiende drainages in southwestern Cameroon and from the Utonde and Beni catchments in Equatorial Guinea.
182807		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea, and possibly Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> occurs in Lower Lomé and Kienke drainages in southwestern Cameroon, Rio Utonde and Rio Beni river drainages in Equatorial Guinea and possibly also northwestern Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Kuramo (lagoon) east of Lagos in southwestern Nigeria eastward across the Niger River delta to the Cameroon border.
182807		habitat	eng	<em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> inhabits brackish water, in river mouths, lagoons and estuaries along the coast. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in rivers and brooks, mostly in weedy areas and under forest cover in river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182807		habitat	eng	Scheel's lampeye is a small perrenial killifish. This species inhabits brackish water, in river mouths, lagoons and estuaries. Non-migratory.
182807		population	eng	No available data.
182807		population	eng	No information available.
182807		threats	eng	None known.
182807		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, deforestation and urban development are local threats.
182807		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, deforestation and urban development are local threats.
182808		conservation	eng	None known.
182808		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus brevis</em> is known from the Uele River. It is probably also present in the Ubangui River.
182808		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182808		population	eng	No information available.
182808		threats	eng	None known.
182809		conservation	eng	No information available.
182809		conservation	eng	None known.
182809		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182809		distribution	eng	<em>Ctenopoma kingsleyae</em> is widely distributed from Mauritania to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is common in forested regions of the Congo River basin (except for the upper Congo basin) and in the upper Guinea. It is widely distributed in the Lower Guinea region from the Cross to the Kouilou.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been reported from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found from Senegal to Democratic Republic of Congo (Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Ogowe and Congo River). In Western Africa this distribution is largely parapatric to <em>C. petherici</em>.
182809		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Ctenopoma kingsleyae</em> is reported from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo (Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Ogowe and Congo River basins).
182809		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It is found from Senegal to Democratic Republic of Congo (Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Ogowe and Congo River). In western Africa this distribution is largely parapatric to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. petherici. </span><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> This species is distributed widely in the forested regions of the Congo River basin and Upper and Lower Guinean drainages.
182809		habitat	eng	No information available.
182809		habitat	eng	The species prefers forest regions and vegetated habitats. Has an accessory breathing organ so can survive in de-oxygenated conditions. Non-migratory.
182809		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It prefers forest regions (Norris 1992) and vegetated habitats. It has an accessory breathing organ so can survive in de-oxygenated conditions. It is non-migratory.
182809		population	eng	No available data.
182809		population	eng	No information available.
182809		threats	eng	No information available.
182809		threats	eng	None - a hardy species.
182809		threats	eng	This is a hardy species which has no major threats. It does however have commercial importance as an aquarium fish.
182810		conservation	eng	The range is partially enclosed within the Korup National Park.
182810		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Cross River basin (Cameroon).
182810		habitat	eng	All type specimens were caught in the region of the rapids characterised by a swift current of crystal clear water flowing over a predominantly rock, stone or gravel substrate with small areas of coarse yellow sand (Roberts and Travers, 1986). However, <em>Mastacembelus sexdecimspinus</em> is also found in a wide variety of habitats such as turbid, sandy lagoons with a sluggish flow of water; heavily shaded, rocky or pebbly, clear swift streams; and exposed, pot-holed bedrock pools (Reid 1989, Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is a benthopelagic species.
182810		population	eng	No information available.
182810		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation, but the area around Ndian is protected by the Korup National Park.
182811		conservation	eng	None known.
182811		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus pellegrini</em> is only known from Shabunda, Matale, the Talya River and from Bukavu, both in the Kivu region, upper Congo River basin.
182811		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus pellegrini</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182811		population	eng	No information available.
182811		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182812		conservation	eng	None known.
182812		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus schoutedeni</em> is only known from the type locality Boma on the Lower Congo River.
182812		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182812		population	eng	No information available.
182812		threats	eng	None known.
182813		conservation	eng	None known.
182813		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus schoutedeni</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.
182813		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182813		population	eng	No information available.
182813		threats	eng	None known.
182814		conservation	eng	No information available..
182814		conservation	eng	None known.
182814		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance is required for east African populations.
182814		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo weeksii</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin. <em>Labeo weeksii</em> most closely resembles <em>Labeo lineatus</em> and is only dubiously distinct from that species (Reid 1985).
182814		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Endemic to the Malagarasi River.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Rivers flowing into the western shore of Lake Tanganyika and the upper Congo basin.
182814		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Congo, from Central African Republic to Angola, as well as Burundi and Tanzania. <em></em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo weeksii</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin.
182814		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo weeksii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found over sandy bottoms of deep waters of the Congo River. The species was collected from areas with rapidly flowing water (Tshibwabwa 1997).
182814		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo weeksii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found over sandy bottoms of deep waters, where it feeds on algae. The species was collected from areas with rapidly flowing water (Tshibwabwa 1997).
182814		habitat	eng	Inhabits deep and fast-flowing rivers where it feeds on algae.
182814		population	eng	No information.
182814		population	eng	No information available.
182814		threats	eng	No major threats are known for the majority of this species range. Increasing water turbidity due to erosion of river basins is threatening east African populations.
182814		threats	eng	None known.
182814		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the increasing water turbidity due to erosion of river basins.
182815		conservation	eng	None known.
182815		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the two localities: the type locality situated at 8 km southeast of Lamakara, and a second at 6 km northeast of Kanté, both in Northern Togo.
182815		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. This species occurs in brooks in the savannah. 4 cm max TL. It is not a seasonal killifish.
182815		population	eng	No information available.
182815		threats	eng	Deforestation is going on in the area and is likely to threaten the habitat of the species.
182816		conservation	eng	No information available.
182816		conservation	eng	None known.
182816		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored.
182816		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, and used to be caught from Upper Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>At global scale, it is an inter-tropical but absent in the Gambia basin. Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta and basins from Sierra Leone to Cameroon; Sudan border, upper Nile, Albert Nile and Murchison Nile, Lake Albert, Victoria, Omo and Lake Turkana, and Congo basin.
182816		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> occurs throughout most of inter-tropical Africa, but is absent from the Gambia basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles, and the Aswa River (This species is known from upper Nile system)<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is now extinct in northern Africa, although it used to be caught from This species is known from upper Nile, Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). Also found in Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea, and Baro and Omo Rivers in Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta and basins from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.
182816		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it occurs throughout most of inter-tropical Africa, but is absent from the Gambia basin.
182816		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles, Aswa River (Upper Nile system).
182816		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta and basins from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrolepidotus</span> occurs almost throughout intertropical Africa.
182816		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> is potamodromous species, found more commonly in rivers than in lakes. It feeds on insects , crustaceans, small fish, vegetation and debris (Bailey 1994). It is a pelagic, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 2000 g (Ita 1984). Spawning sites and season unknown.
182816		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> more common in rivers than in lakes. It feeds on insects , crustaceans, fish, vegetation and debris (Bailey 1994). It is a pelagic, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 2,000 g (Ita 1984)
182816		habitat	eng	Inhabits the inshore region of Lake Albert but also inhabits associated river systems. Feeds on insects, bottom debris and small fishes. Spawing sites and season unknown.
182816		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic fish. More common in rivers than lakes. Feeds on insects, crustaceans, fish, vegetation and debris.
182816		habitat	eng	This potamodromous species feeds on leaves of willow plant, vegetable matter, small insects, bottom debris and small fishes.
182816		population	eng	Information not available.
182816		population	eng	More common in rivers than lakes (Bailey 1994)
182816		population	eng	No available data.
182816		population	eng	No information available.
182816		population	eng	The species has a minimum population doubling time between 1.4 to 4.4 years.
182816		threats	eng	Fisheries: commercial
182816		threats	eng	Heavy fishing pressure, including from commercial fisheries, may threaten populations of this species.
182816		threats	eng	None known
182816		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is heavy fishing pressure.
182816		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182817		conservation	eng	None known.
182817		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis greshoffi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin, with exception of the Luapula-Mweru system. It has also been reported from Mang in the Boumba River and from Mieri in the Doumé River, Central Congo River basin, southern Cameroon.
182817		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis greshoffi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is a polyphagous, benthic species (Matthes 1964).
182817		population	eng	No information available.
182817		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis greshoffi</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182818		conservation	eng	None known.
182818		distribution	eng	This species is found in swamps and small streams in the Port Loko district of Western Sierra Leone. The known range is restricted to Bonkoron and Rokupr; also reported from Guinea and Liberia.
182818		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swampy areas and small rivers on the coastal plains. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size: male 50 mm TL, female 40 mm TL.
182818		population	eng	No available data.
182818		threats	eng	Threats to this species include agriculture, deforestation and mining developments.
182819		conservation	eng	None known.
182819		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion decorsei</em> is only known from the type location on the central Ubangui basin, Central African Republic.
182819		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion decorsei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks found in the savannah Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182819		population	eng	No information available.
182819		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182820		conservation	eng	None known.
182820		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Blackwater, Menge, Mungo and Sanaga basins.
182820		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.
182820		population	eng	No information available.
182820		threats	eng	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).
182821		conservation	eng	None known, but should be developed.
182821		distribution	eng	This species is known only from brooks and marshes of the savannah timbered in the west of Loko Port, towards the mouth of Little Scarcies in the south-west of Sierra Leone.
182821		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brooks and swamps.
182821		population	eng	No available data.
182821		threats	eng	The species is threatened by pollution due to mining activities and deforestation due agriculture activities.
182822		conservation	eng	No information available.
182822		conservation	eng	None known.
182822		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from East coast rivers. In the southern Africa region, it is known from central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and north into Kenya.
182822		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower reaches of eastern Africa's coastal rivers.
182822		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower reaches of Eastern Africa's coastal rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal rivers from Mozambique to central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
182822		habitat	eng	Collected in the main Zambezi channel above the estuary, with flow and over sand substrates. Reasonably common where collected.
182822		habitat	eng	Reported from fresh water to marine conditions in lowland rivers and bays (Watson 1991).
182822		habitat	eng	Reported from fresh water to marine conditions in lowland rivers and bays (Watson 1991). Collected in the main Zambezi channel above the estuary, with flow and over sand substrates. Reasonably common where collected.
182822		population	eng	No information available.
182822		threats	eng	No information available.
182822		threats	eng	None known.
182823		conservation	eng	Unknown.
182823		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sudan and Uganda<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Bahr el Jebel.
182823		habitat	eng	It is found occupying the hyacinth fringe in Sudd lakes moving into submerged vegetation during the flood. It is a mouth-brooder; and omniverous, consuming algae, vegetable fragment, zooplankton, Cardina and insects.
182823		population	eng	Unknown.
182823		threats	eng	No information available.
182824		conservation	eng	None known.
182824		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Habitat conservation is also needed, including the provision of protected area within at least part of this species range.
182824		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is found in the Ntem Riverin Cameroon (Risch 1992), and is known from the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, Gabon. Elsewhere, it i known from the type locality at Aluu, New Calabar River, Rivers State, Nigeria.
182824		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species was described from the Niger Delta in the river New Calabar at Aluu in Southwestern and in the rivers Imo at Chokoche (southeastern Nigeria).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Ntem (southern Cameroon).
182824		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is found in the Ntem River in Cameroon (Risch 1992), and is known from the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species was described from the Niger Delta in the river New Calabar at Aluu and in the rivers Imo at Chokoche (Southeastern Nigeria).
182824		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish that lives in both rivers and lakes. Migrates upstream and laterally to spawn in shoreline vegetation.
182824		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182824		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that lives in both rivers and lakes. It migrates upstream and laterally to spawn in shoreline vegetation.
182824		population	eng	A very rare species.
182824		population	eng	No information available.
182824		population	eng	No information available. A very rare species.
182824		threats	eng	<em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is threatened by sedimentation from commercial logging (Mamonekene pers. comm..). It is potentially threatened by a dam being built upriver (Brummett pers. comm.).
182824		threats	eng	The recently described catfish is not only rare but its habitat is being seriously degraded by oil exploration and pollution in Nigeria.
182824		threats	eng	The recently described catfish is not only rare but its habitat is being seriously degraded by oil exploration and pollution in Nigeria. <em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is threatened by sedimentation from commercial logging (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.) in central Africa. It is potentially threatened by a dam being built upriver (pers. comm., Brummett, R.).
182825		conservation	eng	None known.
182825		distribution	eng	<em>Nannothrissa stewarti</em> is only known from Lake Mai-N'Dombe, Central Congo River basin.
182825		habitat	eng	<em>Nannothrissa stewarti</em> is a pelagic, lacustrine species that is found in acid waters (pH 4).
182825		population	eng	No information available.
182825		threats	eng	The use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. This nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited. This species is important in subsistence fisheries.
182826		conservation	eng	None known.
182826		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus sylvaticus</span> is known only from Southern Benin (at Iguidi River) and the Lower Niger delta (Nigeria).
182826		habitat	eng	This species is a very small barbus of 1.9 cm SL. It co-habits with <em>Denticeps clupeoides</em>. It is non-migratory.
182826		population	eng	No available data.
182826		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta and deforestation and urban development in Benin.
182827		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182827		distribution	eng	This species is only known presently from one locality in Southeastern Guinea, not far from the border with Sierra Leone.
182827		habitat	eng	Maximum size: male 65 mm TL, female 60 mm TL
182827		population	eng	No available data.
182827		threats	eng	No information available.
182828		conservation	eng	None known.
182828		distribution	eng	<em>Marcusenius monteiri</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.
182828		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182828		population	eng	No information available.
182828		threats	eng	This is a commercially important fish.
182829		conservation	eng	None known.
182829		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus cyaneus</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin.
182829		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182829		population	eng	No information available.
182829		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
182830		conservation	eng	None known. Research into this species taxonomy is needed.
182830		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion trilineatus</em> is only known from the type locality, Cameroon (no type material).
182830		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It is ill-defined species (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).
182830		population	eng	No information available.
182830		threats	eng	None known.
182831		conservation	eng	None known.
182831		distribution	eng	Distribution ranges from southern Togo and southern Benin and across Nigeria to the Cross River in southeastern Nigeria. Possibly present in Cameroon.
182831		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion bitaeniatum</em> is a small killifish that grows to a maximum size of 5 cm TL. It occurs on small brooks and streams, swamps and lightly brackish coastal lagoons in the coastal rain forest. This species is restricted to areas underlain by soils derived from Quaternary sedimentary deposits. It is non-migratory.
182831		population	eng	No available data.
182831		threats	eng	There is potential for over-collection for the aquarium trade as it is a highly sought after species. High levels of transport mortality are an issue. There is also a threat from habitat destruction due to oil exploration, agriculture (wetland drainage) and urban development.
182832		conservation	eng	None known.
182832		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ntem and Ivindo Rivers, Gabon.
182832		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis acanthoperca</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182832		population	eng	No information available.
182832		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182833		conservation	eng	No information available.
182833		conservation	eng	None known.
182833		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrocynus goliath</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182833		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika where it has been reported only in the South of the lake, very rare.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Common in the Congo river basin.
182833		habitat	eng	<em>Hydrocynus goliath</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits lakes and large rivers (Eccles 1992).
182833		habitat	eng	Found in the lake's littoral zone and riverine habitat. Piscivorous.
182833		population	eng	No information available.
182833		threats	eng	None known.
182833		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.
182834		conservation	eng	None known.
182834		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Ivindo River of Gabon and the Ntem River of North east Gabon and South Cameroon. It is absent from the Ogowe River.
182834		habitat	eng	<em>Ivindomyrus opdenboschi</em> is a demersal species.
182834		population	eng	No information available.
182834		threats	eng	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. On the lower Ivindo, the species is threatened by iron mining.
182835		conservation	eng	None known.
182835		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology, and population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation is also required in eastern Africa.
182835		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some reserves, e.g., Kafue National Park.
182835		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacemebelus frenatus</em> is known from Uganda and Kenya, south to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been found in the Kasai, the upper Congo and the Luapula-Mweru system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Lake Victoria drainage. Also known from the Nabugabo systems, the Victoria Nile and Aswa River, as well as Tanganyika and major affluents, i.e. Rusizi and Malagarazi, Akagera, Lake Kyoga and associated smaller lakes and rivers. Records by Copley (1952, 1958) from the Athi River system might refer to this species. Most likely there are no mastacembelids in the Tana system despite records by Copley (1952, 1958) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001), and is widespread throughout the upper Zambezi system including many northern tributaries such as the Kabompo and West Lunga (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004)
182835		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mastacemebelus frenatus</em> is known from Lake Victoria through Lake Tanganyika and their associated catchment basins to the Upper Zambezi and Okavango Rivers, and the Nile system. It has also been found in the Kasai, the Upper Congo and the Luapula-Mweru system.
182835		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Victoria drainage. Nabugabo systems; Victoria Nile, Aswa River. Tanganyika and major affluents, i.e. Rusizi and Malagarazi, Akagera, Lake Kyoga and associated smaller lakes and rivers. Records by Copley (1952; 1958) from the Athi River system might refer to this species. Most likely there are no mastacembelids in the Tana system despite records by Copley (1952; 1958) (Seegers et al 2004). <br><br>It is also found in the Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue River Systems.
182835		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from central Africa from the basins of Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika, south to the Lufira (Congo) and the upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001). It is widespread throughout the upper Zambezi system including many northern tributaries such as the Kabompo and West Lunga (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>
182835		habitat	eng	Found in lake's and river's, marginal swamps and marginal wetlands. Also found in temporary streams. Recorded to depths of up to 20m. Feeds on invertebrates, mainly on insect larvae. Little is known about its ecology. Information on reproduction and growth is not known.
182835		habitat	eng	Rivers and floodplains, generally living amongst vegetation, tree roots or rocks. Occurs the edge of gentle rapids but does not occur in severe rapids, such as Sioma and Katombora on the upper Zambezi, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacemebelus vanderwaali.</span>
182835		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is occurs in swamps and shallow coastal waters (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on fish and insects (Fermon 1997).  Preferred Its preferred habitats are streams, neritic, lakes and mangroves.
182835		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is occurs in swamps, marginal wetlands and shallow coastal waters (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986). Also found in temporary streams, rivers and floodplains, generally living amongst vegetation, tree roots or rocks. This species is occurs the edge of gentle rapids but does not occur in severe rapids, such as Sioma and Katombora on the upper Zambezi, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacemebelus vanderwaali</span>. It feeds on fish and insects, mainly on insect larvae (Fermon 1997). Little is known about its ecology. Information on reproduction and growth is not known.
182835		population	eng	Common throughout its range.
182835		population	eng	No detailed information. Common but not abundant in fisheries catches. The relative index of abundance was less than 0.01 kg/hr in waters up to 30m of Lake Victoria during the 1969-1971 survey (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). Current surveys 1977-1999 show catch rates of 0.2 kg/h in Kenyan waters (Okaranon <em>et al. 1999). The population may be increasing in Lake Victoria despite a slight contraction in EOO.</em>
182835		population	eng	No detailed information. Common but not abundant in fisheries catches. The relative index of abundance was less than 0.01 kg/hr in waters up to 30m of Lake Victoria during the 1969-1971 survey (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). Current surveys 1977-1999 show catch rates of 0.2 kg/h in Kenyan waters (Okaranon <em>et al.</em> 1999). The population may be increasing in Lake Victoria despite a slight contraction in EOO.
182835		population	eng	No information available.
182835		threats	eng	In eastern Africa, this species is threatened by:<br/>- Predation by Nile Perch.<br/>- Illegal fishing practice.<br/>- Pollution of the inshore environment.<br/>- Wetland loss due to agriculture expansion.
182835		threats	eng	None known.
182835		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are predation by Nile Perch, illegal fishing practice, pollution of the inshore environment and wetland loss due to agriculture expansion.
182836		conservation	eng	None known.
182836		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis acanthomias</em> is known from the Lower, Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin (except in central forest) and in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182836		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis acanthomias</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182836		population	eng	No information available.
182836		threats	eng	None known.
182838		conservation	eng	None known.
182838		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes holargyreus</em> is only known from Boma to Matadi, Lower Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. One dubious record has been made from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin.
182838		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182838		population	eng	No information available.
182838		threats	eng	None known.
182839		conservation	eng	None known.
182839		distribution	eng	This killifish is found in the drainage system of the Middle Sassandra River in the Western Côte d’Ivoire, in the drainage systems of the upper Saint Paul, upper Saint John and upper Cess (Nipoué) rivers of Northern Liberia, and in the drainage systems of the upper Saint John and upper Milo rivers in Eastern Guinea.
182839		habitat	eng	This species inhabit brooks, pools and small streams in the forested savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish.
182839		population	eng	No available data.
182839		threats	eng	None known.
182840		conservation	eng	None known.
182840		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Ogowe and Como River basins.
182840		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182840		population	eng	No information available.
182840		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182841		conservation	eng	None known.
182841		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the upper Sanaga and Kouilou Rivers. <em>Barbus parajae</em> has a strange distribution pattern.
182841		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus parajae</em> is a benthopelagic species; It is found in small rivers (5-10 m wide) with a sandy bottom and a well developed gallery of trees and high grasses. The species hides in the aquatic vegetation in relatively calm pools.
182841		population	eng	No information available.
182841		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182842		conservation	eng	None known.
182842		distribution	eng	<em>Nannothrissa parva</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin (region of Lake Tumba; Ruki and Ubangui rivers and the Tshuapa River at Ikela).
182842		habitat	eng	<em>Nannothrissa parva</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and lakes, apparently in both running and still water. It often forms huge schools, feeds on plankton (unicellular algae, diatoms and especially copepods, but also hydracarians and aquatic insects) and breeds in Lake Tumba (August-September).
182842		population	eng	No information available.
182842		threats	eng	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture. This species is important in subsistence fisheries.
182843		conservation	eng	None known.
182843		conservation	eng	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation may be required.
182843		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is known from the Chad and Congo basins, from Niger and Chad to Democratic Republic of Congo. One record has been recorded from Sudan, identified by Teugels, G. in 1986. It is not clear whether this record is from the Congo basin or the Nile system.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from around Bambesa, Uele River system.  It has also been recorded from the Chad basin in Cameroon and the Central African Republic. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Lake Chad and in the upper Benue system. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.
182843		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is known from around Bambesa, Uele River system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Chad and the upper Benue system. It has also been recorded from the Chad basin in Cameroon and the Central African Republic. One record has been recorded from Sudan, identified by Teugels, G. in 1986. It is not clear whether this record is from the Congo basin or the Nile system.
182843		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in Lake Chad and in the Upper Benue.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region, it is found in the tributaries of the Upper and Middle Congo.
182843		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.
182843		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is ademersal, potamodromous species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
182843		habitat	eng	This species is a small clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
182843		population	eng	No available data.
182843		population	eng	No information available.
182843		threats	eng	Impacts of agriculture and deforestation. Potential impact of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui to Chari River. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams.
182843		threats	eng	Impacts of agriculture and deforestation threaten the habitat of this species. Potential impact of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui to Chari River could have a negative impact, and large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams. It is also harvested for consumption.
182843		threats	eng	None known.
182844		conservation	eng	None known.
182844		distribution	eng	<em>Tetracamphilius angustifrons</em> is known from the Ubangui River upstream of Bangui, Central Congo River basin (Roberts 2003) and from one specimen of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). There is one record from the Wagenia Falls, near Kisangani (Roberts 2003), but this has to be re-examined.
182844		habitat	eng	<em>Tetracamphilius angustifrons</em> is a demersal species.
182844		population	eng	No information available.
182844		threats	eng	This species is threatened by fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182845		conservation	eng	None known.
182845		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.
182845		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea present in the Cross River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Chad, Niger, Volta and Ogun River basins.    Africa:  The Nile, Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Ogun and Cross Rivers.
182845		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Ogun and Cross Rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus nigeriensis </span>is also known from the Nile.
182845		distribution	eng	This species is found from Togo across to Cameroon and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea this species is found in the Cross River. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper tributaries of Bahr el Ghazal, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  This species occurs in the Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Ogun and Cross Rivers.
182845		habitat	eng	The species is benthopelagic.
182845		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182845		population	eng	No available data.
182845		population	eng	No information available.
182845		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182845		threats	eng	None known
182846		conservation	eng	None known.
182846		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo maleboensis</em> is only known from one specimen from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has not been found since it has been described though.
182846		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo maleboensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182846		population	eng	No information available.
182846		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182847		conservation	eng	None known.
182847		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Sanaga River, Cameroon.
182847		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis rebeli</em>is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182847		population	eng	No information available.
182847		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182848		conservation	eng	None known.
182848		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus grandoculis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  and adjacent rapids, and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Lukénie and Kasai systems.
182848		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182848		population	eng	No information available.
182848		threats	eng	None known.
182849		conservation	eng	None known.
182849		distribution	eng	<em>Stomatorhinus patrizii</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Lukénie, Kwango and Kasai systems. A single specimen tentatively identified as this species from the Lower Congo may indicate a wider distribution for this species.
182849		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182849		population	eng	No information available.
182849		threats	eng	None known.
182850		conservation	eng	No information available.
182850		conservation	eng	None known
182850		conservation	eng	None known.
182850		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Habitat conservation is required, as well as the establishment of protected areas within this species home range.
182850		distribution	eng	<em>Malapterurus electricus</em> is widely distributed, from Senegal (and possible Mauritania) to Ethiopia, and along the entire length of the Nile from Egypt to Rwanda and the Great Lakes south to Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Tanganyika and lower parts of major affluents, including the Malagarasi and Rusizi, as well as the entire Nile system, and lakes Albert and Turkana. In Malawi it is also present in Lower Shire River. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. It is present in the Blue Nile and Baro Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It has a typical Sudanian distribution, occurring in the Lake Chad and Senegal basin, throughout the Niger system as well as smaller southward flowing basins in West Africa (Bandama through the Volta rivers).
182850		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Malapterurus electricus</em> is rare in Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Niger, Senegal, Blue Nile, Gabon, West Africa, Congo, Lake Tanganyika and middle and lower Zambia.
182850		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and lower parts of major affluents, including the Malagarasi and Rusizi; the entire Nile system, lakes Albert and Turkana. In Malawi: Lower Shire river. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Widespread throughout the Congo, Senegal, Niger, Volta and Chad systems. Also distributed throughout the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and lower Save  basins.
182850		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Has a typical Sudanian distribution, occurring in the lake Chad and Senegal basin, throughout the Niger system as well as smaller southward flowing basins in western Africa (Bandama through the Volta rivers).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere in most of the Nile basin, including Lake Turkana but not Lake Victoria (Norris 2002).
182850		habitat	eng	Diet consisting mainly of fishes and rarely molluscs; nocturnal feeding in Kainji Reservoir (Norris 2002).
182850		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow water, with muddy or sandy bottom neighbouring rocky areas, and favours sluggish or standing water (Skelton 1993). This species is active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. The electric organ, capable of generating 300-400 volts, forms a sheath under the skin around the body, and is used for both prey capture and defence (Skelton 1993). Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes (Skelton 1993).
182850		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow water, with muddy or sandy bottom neighbouring rocky areas, in fast flowing waters. Capable of generating 300-400 volts from large individuals and can produce a powerful electric shock. It feeds mainly on bottom worms, plants and animal debris. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. Lives for 10 years or more; Largest specimen caught from Lake Nasser 70 cm long.
182850		habitat	eng	Lives among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water (Skelton 1993). Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. The electric organ, capable of generating 300-400 volts, forms a sheat under the skin around the body, and is used for both prey capture and defence (Skelton 1993). Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes (Skelton 1993).
182850		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182850		population	eng	No information available.
182850		population	eng	No population estimates available.
182850		threats	eng	None known
182850		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182850		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing.
182850		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing in eastern Africa. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182851		conservation	eng	None known.
182851		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe system of Gabon.
182851		habitat	eng	<em>Chromidotilapia regani</em> is This species is found in middle sized or large rivers; small specimens prefer shallow regions and are found as single specimens or in small groups of 2-4 individuals between sunken wood or stones near the bank, while adults swim in deeper regions in the middle of the rivers (Lamboj 2002). It is a benthopelagic species.
182851		population	eng	No information available.
182851		threats	eng	In the upper Ogowe region, mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation. The species is also threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation on the central Ogowe system.
182852		conservation	eng	None known.
182852		distribution	eng	<em>Eugnathichthys macroterolepis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182852		habitat	eng	<em>Eugnathichthys macroterolepis</em> is a pelagic species. It feeds on small fishes (Baensch and Riehl 1997).
182852		population	eng	No information available.
182852		threats	eng	None known.
182853		conservation	eng	No information available..
182853		conservation	eng	None known.
182853		conservation	eng	None known. Habitat maintenance and conservation is needed in eastern Africa.
182853		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Marcusenius stanleyanus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Tanganyika.
182853		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout the lower reaches and deltas of the major affluents to lake Tanganyika including the Malagarasi.
182853		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon to Angola, and east to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Marcusenius stanleyanus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches and deltas of the major affluents to Lake Tanganyika, including the Malagarasi.
182853		habitat	eng	Found in well vegetated, muddy marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. Diet: feeds on varied invertebrates, especially insect larvae.
182853		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182853		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found in well vegetated, muddy marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. It feeds on varied invertebrates, especially insect larvae.
182853		population	eng	No information.
182853		population	eng	No information available.
182853		threats	eng	None known.
182853		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the loss of wetland habitats due to farming extension.
182853		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of wetland habitats due to farming extension threatens east African populations.
182854		conservation	eng	None known.
182854		distribution	eng	This species seems to be endemic to the Middle and This species is known from upper Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire
182854		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum TL recorded 8.65 cm. It is an ovophilic male mouth-brooder; both parents take care of the young after hatching.
182854		population	eng	No available data.
182854		threats	eng	It is potentially threatened by deforestation.
182855		conservation	eng	None known.
182855		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus ovis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin until Kasongo. It has also been recorded from the Kinsuka rapids (Tsabuka), just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182855		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182855		population	eng	No information available.
182855		threats	eng	None known.
182856		conservation	eng	None known.
182856		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a small brook under forest cover in the upper Ivindo River drainage system, 35 km south-west of Sembe, northwestern Congo. In addition to the type locality there is a point locality in northeastern Gabon.
182856		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) seegersi</em> is only known from a small brook under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) seegersi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182856		population	eng	No information available.
182856		threats	eng	None known.
182857		conservation	eng	None known.
182857		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em> is known from the Dja River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Upper Cross River. In West Africa it is known from the Senegal and the Rivers Kogon, Konkouré, Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea), Little Scarcies and Waanje (Sierra Leone), St. Paul, St. John and Cess (Liberia), Upper Cavally, Upper Sassandra, Bandama, Mé, Comoé, Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Pra, Volta (Ghana), Ouémé (Bénin), Niger (plus Benue) and Cross (Nigeria), and in the Chad basin.
182857		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. fasciatus</span> occurs in the Senegal and the Rivers Kogon, Konkouré, Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea), Little Scarcies and Waanje (Sierra Leone), St. Paul, St. John and Cess (Liberia), Upper Cavally, Upper Sassandra, Bandama, Mé, Comoé, Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Pra, Volta (Ghana), Ouémé (Bénin), Niger (plus Benue) and Cross (Nigeria), and in the Chad basin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside this region this species has also reported from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon.
182857		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em> is known from the Dja and This species is known from upper Cross Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, it occurs in the Senegal and the Rivers Kogon, Konkouré, Kolenté (Great Scarcies, Guinea), Little Scarcies and Waanje (Sierra Leone), St. Paul, St. John and Cess (Liberia), This species is known from upper Cavally, This species is known from upper Sassandra, Bandama, Mé, Comoé, Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Pra, Volta (Ghana), Ouémé (Bénin), Niger (plus Benue) and Cross (Nigeria), and in the Chad basin.
182857		habitat	eng	Pelgagic fish.
182857		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic and potamodromous species.
182857		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, potamodromous species that prefers tropical climate.
182857		population	eng	No available data.
182857		population	eng	No information available.
182857		threats	eng	None known
182857		threats	eng	None known.
182858		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182858		conservation	eng	None known.
182858		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182858		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus congicus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Chad basin.
182858		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> From western Africa this species is presently known from the Chad River basin, based on a single specimen from Logone, Lake Chad (Cameroon). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Outside of this region <span style="font-style: italic;">M. congicus</span> is reported from mainly all over the Congo River basin including the Lower Congo River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo), the Middle Congo River basin (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic) and the Upper Congo River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia). Finally, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. congicus</span> is also reported from Lake Albert (Democratic Republic of Congo).
182858		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cameroon to Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus congicus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> From Western Africa this species is presently known from the Chad River basin, based on a single specimen from Logone, Lake Chad (Cameroon).
182858		habitat	eng	No information available.
182858		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182858		population	eng	No available data.
182858		population	eng	No information available.
182858		threats	eng	Habitat degradation due to agriculture.
182858		threats	eng	None known.
182858		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to agriculture.
182859		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182859		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma uelense</em> is known from the upper Uele River drainage in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and from the upper and middle Ariwimi River drainage, a tributary of the Central Congo River. There is one single record known from across the Congo/Nile divide in the Yei River (a White Nile River tributary).
182859		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182859		population	eng	No information available.
182859		threats	eng	None known.
182860		conservation	eng	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182860		conservation	eng	No information available.
182860		conservation	eng	None
182860		conservation	eng	None known.
182860		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). Population trends should be monitored.
182860		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa and used to be caught in Lower Nile from Beni Suef and Luxor.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the River Nile system, Lake Victoria, Senegal, Niger, Lake Chad, and Gambia.
182860		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong>  In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is  found only in Aboina River in the Cross River system (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Senegal to the Chad basin.  Absent in coastal basins between Gambia and Sassandra (Côte d'Ivoire) but Daget and Gosse (1984) and Teugels, Lévêque, Paugy and Traoré (1988) report otherwise.  Also found in the Nile.
182860		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Is distributed throughout western Africa, from Senegal to the Chad basin. However, like the other species of the genus, it is absent from the coastal basins comprised between Southern Gambia and the Sassandra. (Paugy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also found in the Nile (Gosse and Coenen 1990).
182860		distribution	eng	The species is known from Murchison Nile.
182860		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along much of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is found only in Aboina River in the Cross River system (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Murchison Nile, Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species used to be caught in Lower Nile from Beni Suef and Luxor, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and jebel systems, White Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. Also in the Blue Nile and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout West Africa, from Senegal to the Chad basin. However, like the other species of the genus, it is absent from the coastal basins comprised between Southern Gambia and the Sassandra. (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 2003).
182860		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is a macro-herbivore, feeding on submerged plants, <em>Eichornia</em> roots and periphyton.
182860		habitat	eng	<em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is a macro-herbivore, feeding on submerged plants, <em>Eichornia</em> roots and periphyton. It prefers lakes.
182860		habitat	eng	It feeds on water weeds, vegetable debris, grass rootlets, filamentous algae and diatoms.
182860		habitat	eng	Marco-herbivores that feed on submerged plants, <em>Eichhornia </em>roots and periphyton (Holden and Reed 1972).
182860		habitat	eng	No information available
182860		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182860		population	eng	No information available.
182860		population	eng	Population size not known
182860		threats	eng	In western Africa, deforestation and overfishing may affect the species and its habitat. Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins. Resultant increases in sediment loads. This is particularly relevant in the Black Volta. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and affect parameters such as oxygen levels. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species (Entsua-Mensah 2001).
182860		threats	eng	On the regional level, deforestation and overfishing may affect the species and its habitat.<br/>Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins. Resultant increases in sediment loads. This is particularly relevant in the Black Volta. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and affect parameters such as oxygen levels. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species (Entsua-Mensah 2001).
182860		threats	eng	Overfishing.
182860		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182860		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182861		conservation	eng	Control of the water hyacinth.
182861		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Niger basin in Nigeria and the upper Niger delta in Mali.
182861		habitat	eng	This is a medium riverine size fish, growing to a maximum total length of 69.7 cm. It migrates upstream for spawning.
182861		population	eng	No available data.
182861		threats	eng	Potential impacts from oil exploration in the Lower Delta and potential impact of the invasive water hyacinth in the inland delta.
182862		conservation	eng	None known.
182862		distribution	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus bomokandi</em> is currently only known from two disjunct localities in the Congo River basin; the type locality, at Poko (Democratic Republic of Congo), and the Lekoli River, in the vicinity of Odzala (Congo). To date no specimens have been reported from the basin spanning these two regions.
182862		habitat	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus bomokandi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182862		population	eng	No information available.
182862		threats	eng	None known.
182863		conservation	eng	Measures are needed to reduce impacts of forestry activities, and prevent the spread of alien predators. The taxonomic status and the geographical range needs to be determined for this species.
182863		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a few specimens in the Komati system within the Malalotja Nature Reserve, Swaziland.
182863		habitat	eng	This species is found in clear water mountain streams, rocky habitats.
182863		population	eng	No information available.
182863		threats	eng	Alien fishes and sedimentation from forestry activities are main threats.
182864		conservation	eng	None known.
182864		distribution	eng	This species is only known by the holotype of the high course of Bagbwe River (Sierra Leone).
182864		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, found in running waters (Pouilly 1993) appear specialized in particular for strong speeds of current.
182864		population	eng	No information available.
182864		threats	eng	Hydrological installations have reduced the flow and current in the river and destruction of the diversity of the substrate in the habitats - the species is a rheophile (prefers fast flowing water).
182865		conservation	eng	None known.
182865		distribution	eng	The species is known in Sierra Leone and Liberia, but exact limits are yet to be confirmed.
182865		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species, potamodromous. It grazes on aquatic plants in streams and lakes.
182865		population	eng	No available data.
182865		threats	eng	Threats to this species include mining and deforestation.
182866		conservation	eng	None known.
182866		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Kouilou, Chiloango and Loeme Rivers.
182866		habitat	eng	<em>Congocharax spilotaenia</em> is a pelagic species.
182866		population	eng	No information available.
182866		threats	eng	A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182867		conservation	eng	None known.
182867		distribution	eng	<em>Raiamas longirostris</em> is only known from the type locality Banzyville on the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.
182867		habitat	eng	<em>Raiamas longirostris</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182867		population	eng	No information available.
182867		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182868		conservation	eng	None known.
182868		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic found mainly in the Ogowe and Ntem basins. Some specimens have also been collected in the Kribi (Kienké) basin.
182868		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182868		population	eng	No information available.
182868		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182869		conservation	eng	None known.
182869		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in northwestern Gabon in the upper Mbei (or Mbe), upper Komo, upper Abanga, and upper Nkam Rivers. It is also found in southeastern Equatorial Guinea.
182869		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion mimbon</em> occurs in brooks and small streams in the hilly rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) mimbon</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182869		population	eng	No information available.
182869		threats	eng	None known.
182870		conservation	eng	None known.
182870		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis violacea </em> is known from the Chad, Niger (Benue), Volta and Senegal basins.
182870		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Synodontis violacea </em> is found in the Cross River.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from  Chad, Niger and Volta basins.  Reported from Senegal basin.
182870		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis violacea</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding.
182870		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis violacea</em> is a benthopelagic species which is capable of airbreathing. It lives in streams and lakes, and feeds on plankton detritus and plants. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding.
182870		population	eng	No information available.
182870		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182870		threats	eng	None known, this is a hardy species.
182871		conservation	eng	None known.
182871		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys duttoni</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
182871		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182871		population	eng	No information available.
182871		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182872		conservation	eng	None known.
182872		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paradistichodus dimidiatus</span> is known from the Gambia, Casamance, Corubal, Niger, Volta and Chad basins.
182872		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Small fish of max 7.6 cm TL
182872		population	eng	No available data.
182872		threats	eng	None known.
182873		conservation	eng	None known.
182873		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bauchi plateau in Nigeria.
182873		habitat	eng	This small cyprinid is 8.5 cm in TL and restricted to the swift flowing streams on Jos Plateau toward Bauchi in Nigeria. It has an oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks. It is non-migratory.
182873		population	eng	No available data.
182873		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss (siltation) following deforestation and impacts of tin mining.
182874		conservation	eng	None known.
182874		distribution	eng	The species is known within the drainage basins of the Cavally and Nipoué rivers in Côte d'Ivoire in Liberia.
182874		habitat	eng	No information available.
182874		population	eng	No information available.
182874		threats	eng	This species is impacted by agriculture development and pollution, and overfishing.
182875		conservation	eng	None known.
182875		distribution	eng	<em>Oreochromis lepidurus</em> is known from Boma to the mouth of the Congo River.
182875		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis lepidurus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is microphagous, using plankton (Trewavas 1983, Thys van den Audenaerde 1964) and a maternal, ovophilic mouth-brooder (Lamboj 2004).
182875		population	eng	No information available.
182875		threats	eng	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3 that will be built in five years.
182876		conservation	eng	None known.
182876		distribution	eng	<em>Atopochilus pachychilus</em> is only known from the type locality, Kanda kanda, tributary of the Kasaï River, affluent of the Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182876		habitat	eng	<em>Atopochilus pachychilus</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182876		population	eng	No information available.
182876		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.
182877		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182877		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182877		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in Okavango Delta reserves.
182877		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is known from the Okavango delta, the upper Zambezi and from southern tributaries of the Congo River system (Skelton 2001).
182877		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango Delta, the upper Zambezi and some southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001).
182877		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is found in southern tributaries of the Congo River system (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Okavango Delta and the upper Zambezi.
182877		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in swamps and floodplain habitats, especially enriched pans and well-vegetated shallow littoral margins of drainage rivers. It feeds on detritus, soft plants and insect larvae. Males establish a territory and attract a ripe female to form a pair bond. The females construct a saucer-shaped nest in which eggs are laid and fertilized, then tended mainly by the female while the male guards the territory (Skelton 1993).
182877		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in swamps and floodplain habitats, especially enriched pans and well-vegetated shallow littoral margins of drainage rivers. It is found in very shallow water in the margins of swamps and floodplains, and also in flooded grasses on the floodplain at high water (Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004). It feeds on detritus, soft plants and insect larvae. Males establish a territory and attract a ripe female to form a pair bond. The females construct a saucer-shaped nest in which eggs are laid and fertilized, then tended mainly by the female while the male guards the territory (Skelton 1993). Eggs and fry are periodically moved to alternative brood pits excavated by the female.
182877		habitat	eng	Found in swamps and floodplains, especially enriched pans and well-vegetated littoral margins of drainage streams (Skelton 2001). Found in very shallow water in the margins of swamps and floodplains, and also in flooded grasses on the floodplain at high water (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Feeds on detritus, soft plants and insect larvae. The males establishes a territory and forms a pair bond with a ripe female. Females construct a saucer-shaped nest in which eggs are laid and fertilised, then tended mainly by the female while the male guards the territory. Eggs and fry are periodically moved to alternative brood pits excavated by the female.
182877		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
182877		population	eng	No information available.
182877		population	eng	This is a locally common species in suitable habitats.
182877		threats	eng	None known.
182877		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in the central Africa region.
182877		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182878		conservation	eng	None known.
182878		distribution	eng	<em>Opsaridium ubangiense</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from Cameroon to Congo. It has also been found in the Luongo River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin (Balon and Stewart 1983).
182878		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa it is found in the upper tributories of the Oubanangui in Chad and Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Opsaridium ubangiense</span> is a cyprinid with wide distribution, from coastal rivers of South Cameroon to Central Africa Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo River Basin, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania to Malawi.
182878		habitat	eng	<em>Opsaridium ubangiense</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. It migrates upstream for spawning.
182878		habitat	eng	This species is a cyprinid. Migrates upstream for spawning.
182878		population	eng	No available data.
182878		population	eng	No information available.
182878		threats	eng	None known
182878		threats	eng	None known.
182879		conservation	eng	None known.
182879		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus okae</em> is only known by the type from the Oka River, Central Congo River basin.
182879		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus okae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182879		population	eng	No information available.
182879		threats	eng	None known.
182880		conservation	eng	No information available.
182880		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182880		conservation	eng	None known
182880		conservation	eng	None known.
182880		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile (Aswan). Before the high Dam construction, used to occur in abundance following the flood, from Delta to Aswan.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile, Omo River (Ethiopia), Niger, Bénoué (Nigeria), Volta (Ghana), Senegal Rivers, and Lake Chad basin. It is rare in southern part of Lake Nasser.
182880		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is present in the Cross River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Omo, Chad, Niger, Bénoué, Senegal and Volta River basins.    <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from the  Nile, Omo, Niger, Bénoué, Volta, Senegal Rivers, and Lake Chad basin.  Not found in any coastal basins farther from the Cross River.
182880		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile, Omo, Niger, Bénoué, Volta, Sénégal Rivers and Lake Chad basin.
182880		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger, Benue, Senegal and Volta. It was also reported from the River Cross, but, so far, never found in other coastal basins. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in Africa in the Nile and Omo basins (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182880		distribution	eng	This is a wide ranging demersal species, found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and north as far as the Nile delta.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is present in the Cross River. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Aswan). Before the high Dam construction, it used to occur in abundance following the flood, from Delta to Aswan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia, as well as the White Nile, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger, Benue, Senegal and Volta. It was also reported from the River Cross but, so far, never found in other coastal basins.
182880		habitat	eng	A demersal species.
182880		habitat	eng	Demersal potamodromous fish.
182880		habitat	eng	<em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.
182880		habitat	eng	<em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species found in running waters especially on sandy shores and in irrigation canals. An active fish, moving in schools under the surface of shallow water. Food consists mainly of tiny fry of other fishes and zooplankton.
182880		habitat	eng	It is an active fish, moving in schools under the surface of shallow water. Food consists mainly of tiny fry of other fishes and zooplankton. It reaches a length to 2 - 9.5 cm.
182880		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182880		population	eng	No information
182880		population	eng	No information available.
182880		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182880		threats	eng	None known
182880		threats	eng	No particular threats identified.
182880		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182880		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182881		conservation	eng	None known.
182881		distribution	eng	<em>Alestopetersius nigropterus</em> is only confirmed from Lake Mai 'N-Dombe. However recent records from the Lengoué River (AMNH) suggest this species has a wider distribution in middle Congo.
182881		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182881		population	eng	No information available.
182881		threats	eng	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.
182882		conservation	eng	None known.
182882		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria damasi</em> is only known from the Malembia River, Kasongo territory and from N'Zilo, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182882		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182882		population	eng	No information available.
182882		threats	eng	None known.
182883		conservation	eng	No information available.
182883		conservation	eng	The species has little protection. River health programmes and the control of alien fish stocking are needed.
182883		conservation	eng	The species has little protection. River health programmes and the control of alien fish stocking are needed. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182883		distribution	eng	<em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, south to Namibia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It occurs in southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Okavango and Zambezi River system, south to the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers (Skelton 2001). Also from Zambian Congo. Although reported to be absent from the Kafue system, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) caught it in the Mwekera tributary.
182883		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Okavango and Zambezi systems as well as east coast rivers south to the Phongolo.  Also found in the southern tributaries of the Congo System.
182883		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Okavango and Zambezi River systems, south to the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers (Skelton 2001). Also from Zambian Congo. Although reported to be absent from the Kafue system, Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) caught it in the Mwekera tributary.
182883		habitat	eng	<em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. It prefers clear, flowing waters of larger perennial rivers, frequenting pools below rocky rapids (Lévêque and Daget 1984). It is also found in quiet water with aquatic cover. <em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> lives in shoals, usually in shallow water over sandy bottoms. It feeds on aquatic larvae and insects, shrimps and small crustaceans (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> breeds in the summer (Skelton 1993).
182883		habitat	eng	Inhabits clear flowing waters, occuring in shoals. Feeds on insects and other small organisms. Breeds in the summer.
182883		habitat	eng	Shoals in clear water flowing over sand or gravel; favours inflowing head of pools below rapids or runs. Feeds on insects and small organisms from the surface or in the water column, Breeds in spring and summer (Skelton 2001).
182883		population	eng	Generally common in suitable habitats. In Zimbabwe, however, this species has declined in some areas because of dam building (notably in Lake Kariba but other reservoirs as well) and also pollution and alien predators such as <em>Micropterus</em> spp. (Marshall and Gratwicke 2001). Its distribution on the central plateau of Zimbabwe is therefore rather fragmented but it is still abundant in suitable habitat.
182883		population	eng	Generally common in suitable habitats. In Zimbabwe, however, this species has declined in some areas because of dam building (notably in lake Kariba but other reservoirs as well) and also pollution and alien predators such as <em>Micropterus spp.</em>  (Marshall and Gratwicke 2001). Its distribution on the central plateau of Zimbabwe is therefore rather fragmented but it is still abundant in suitable habitat.
182883		population	eng	No information
182883		threats	eng	In east Africa this species is threatened by subsistence fishing, and sedimentation of spawning beds. In southern Africa there are localised problems due to dam building, pollution, alien predators, but overall the species populations are not heavily threatened.
182883		threats	eng	Localised problems due to dam building, pollution, alien predators, but overall the species populations are unthreatened.
182883		threats	eng	The main threat to the species are subsistence fishing and sedimentation of spawning beds.
182884		conservation	eng	There is no implemented conservation measures.
182884		distribution	eng	The species is known from Lake Tana and its affluent rivers.
182884		habitat	eng	It has a preference for rocky substrates and waters less than 6 m deep. It is a partial piscivore. Specimens less than 15 cm FL mainly eat insect larvae and zooplankton, but also some fish. With size the amount of fish in the diet increases, as does the amount of plant material, while the amount of insects decreases and zooplankton disappears altogether.
182884		population	eng	The size of the population is not precisely known. However, it is one of the abundant <em>Labeobarbus</em> spp. in the catch from the lake as well as the tributary rivers.
182884		threats	eng	Overexploitation of resources from the lake and the intended dams on some of the tributary rivers are threats for the species as it is spawning in these feeder rivers.
182885		conservation	eng	None known.
182885		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Nigeria, known only from the type locality in the Lower Niger.
182885		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species of 58.5 cm SL maximum size.
182885		population	eng	No available data.
182885		threats	eng	Oil exploration, urban and agricultural developments threaten this species.
182886		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures
182886		distribution	eng	This species is only reliably known only from the types, for which no precise locality is available, although they probably come from western Nigeria. Collections from Ghana need to be verified.
182886		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182886		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182886		threats	eng	No information available.
182887		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182887		distribution	eng	<em>Neobola moeruensis</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system and from Lake Mweru.
182887		habitat	eng	<em>Neobola moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182887		population	eng	No information available.
182887		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets. The species is very small though and fishing will not have a significant influence on the population. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
182888		conservation	eng	None known.
182888		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in southwestern Cameroon, between Bafoussam and Mbouda, in the upper Sanaga River system. The distribution of this species is limited (and may represent a relict of a once wider distribution).
182888		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion bamilekorum</em> This species is occurs in the border region of fast flowing brooks on the savannah highlands (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is usually found close to banks, under overhanging grasses. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion bamilekorum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182888		population	eng	No information available.
182888		threats	eng	The species habitat is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182889		conservation	eng	None known.
182889		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Nyong, Ntem (Cameroon) and Ivindo (Gabon) Rivers.
182889		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis tessmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182889		population	eng	No information available.
182889		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182891		conservation	eng	None known.
182891		distribution	eng	<em>Dolichamphilius longiceps</em> is only known from the type locality: Wagenia Falls, Congo River near Kisangani.
182891		habitat	eng	<em>Dolichamphilius longiceps</em> is a demersal species that lives in rapids.
182891		population	eng	No information available.
182891		threats	eng	None known.
182892		conservation	eng	None known.
182892		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality (Rio Bolo) on the Ntem River (Equatorial Guinea).
182892		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus aloyi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 5.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182892		population	eng	No information available.
182892		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182893		conservation	eng	No information available.
182893		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus leptopogon</em> is only cited from one record in 1834, in Algeria and has never been recorded since.
182893		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus leptopogon</em> is a pelagic species.
182893		population	eng	No information available.
182893		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182894		conservation	eng	None known.
182894		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis pleurops</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Congo River basin, with exception of the Luapula-Mweru system.
182894		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis pleurops</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182894		population	eng	No information available.
182894		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis pleurops</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
182895		conservation	eng	None known.
182895		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., in the Okavango Delta.
182895		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa, e.g. in the Okavango Delta.
182895		distribution	eng	<em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is present in the Kasai and Kwango River basin, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai River, a tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001).
182895		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is known from the Kasai and Kwango River basin, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango and upper Zambezi systems.
182895		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai River, a tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001).
182895		habitat	eng	<em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is a demersal species. It favours rocky habitats or marginal vegetation in slow-flowing rivers and lagoons, often taking shelter under trees. It is an omnivore; its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates like snails, shrimps and insects. The eggs are large and relatively few, suggesting parental care, but no details are know. This species 'grunts' when taken out of the water (Skelton 1993).
182895		habitat	eng	<em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is a demersal species. It favours rocky habitats or marginal vegetation in slow-flowing rivers and lagoons, often taking shelter under trees. Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) sampled specimens from grounded vegetation on sandbanks, and reported catches from traps set in a rocky patch of the main Zambezi River channel. It is an omnivore; its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates like snails, shrimps and insects. The eggs are large and relatively few, suggesting parental care, but no details are know. This species 'grunts' when taken out of the water (Skelton 1993).
182895		habitat	eng	Prefers rocky habitats or marginal vegetation in slow-flowing rivers and lagoons, often sheltering under trees (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) sampled specimens from grounded vegetation on sandbanks, and reported catches from traps set in a rocky patch of the main Zambezi River channel. Feeds on small fish and invertebrates. Produces relatively few large eggs, suggesting parental care (Skelton 2001).
182895		population	eng	No information available.
182895		population	eng	This species is widespread but apparently fairly uncommon, although its habitat is difficult to sample effectively.
182895		population	eng	Widespread but apparently fairly uncommon, although its habitat is difficult to sample effectively.
182895		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182895		threats	eng	None known.
182896		conservation	eng	None known.
182896		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus lukusiensis</em> is known from the Lualaba River system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from the Congo River at Yangambi and Yaekela, from Dingila pool (Uele system) and from Buta, Central Congo River basin.
182896		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus lukusiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182896		population	eng	No information available.
182896		threats	eng	None known.
182897		conservation	eng	None known.
182897		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Sanaga basin in northwestern Cameroon.
182897		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182897		population	eng	No information available.
182897		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182898		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology.
182898		conservation	eng	None known.
182898		conservation	eng	The species has no known protection.
182898		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus neefi</em> shows a divided distribution: Transvaal tributaries of the Steelpoort-Limpopo and headwaters of the Upper Zambezi, Kafue, and southern Congo River basins in Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo (Skelton 2001).
182898		distribution	eng	The distribution of <em>Barbus neefi</em>includes Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  This species is found in the southern Congo River basins in Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the headwaters of the upper Zambezi, Kafue and southern Congo systems in Zambia.
182898		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from headwaters of the Upper Zambezi, Kafue and southern Congo systems in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Skelton 2001).
182898		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus neefi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182898		habitat	eng	Tweddle <em>et al</em><em>. </em>(2004) found it to be common in all the sampled northern Upper Zambezi tributaries in Zambia, which are all strongly flowing, well-vegetated permanent streams, but not found further south.
182898		population	eng	No information available.
182898		population	eng	The species is generally abundant and widespread.
182898		threats	eng	None known.
182898		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
182899		conservation	eng	The most eastern part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
182899		distribution	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus pseudognathodon</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the Lobo River. It is also known from the upper Lualaba system.
182899		habitat	eng	<em>Clypeobarbus pseudognathodon</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182899		population	eng	No information available.
182899		threats	eng	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species.
182900		conservation	eng	None known.
182900		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the deeper sections of the Ivindo River and is also known from the Nyong River basin of Cameroon.
182900		habitat	eng	The Ivindo River bottom is rocky; the habitat is dense forest around the river. There are no records of this fish entering streams and creeks, as it appears to be confined to main river channels. The species is benthopelagic.
182900		population	eng	No information available.
182900		threats	eng	This species is impacted by mining.
182901		conservation	eng	No information available.
182901		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia and the Juba and Awata Rivers, Somalia.
182901		habitat	eng	It is found in running water.
182901		population	eng	No information available.
182901		threats	eng	No information available.
182902		conservation	eng	None known.
182902		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> is known from the lower Cross River and swampy locations in the Calabar and Great Kwa drainages, and the Ogowe basin. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) recorded the presence of two specimens from Lac Kobambi in the Kouilou-Niari system of Congo-Brazzaville (Teugels <em>et al. </em>1992). Examination of these specimens confirms their identification as <em>Thysochromis</em>, and preliminary analysis reveals no obvious differences with <em>T. ansorgii</em>. The presence of <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> in Congo-Brazzaville is a significant southerly range extension. Elsewhere it occurs in forested coastal lowlands from Ivory Coast to the Niger delta and Ethiop River of southern Nigeria.
182902		distribution	eng	This species is found from Côte d’Ivoire to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> is known from the lower Cross River and swampy locations in the Calabar and Great Kwa drainages, and the Ogowe basin. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) recorded the presence of two specimens from Lac Kobambi in the Kouilou-Niari system of Congo (Teugels <em><em>et al.</em> </em>1992). Examination of these specimens confirms their identification as <em>Thysochromis</em>, and preliminary analysis reveals no obvious differences with <em>T. ansorgii</em>. The presence of <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> in Congo is a significant southerly range extension. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from coastal basins in Côte d’Ivoire (Agnébi, Mé, Comoe, Bia, Tano), the Ouémé (Benin), Ogun, Oshun, the Niger delta, and the Lower Cross (Nigeria).
182902		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory species.
182902		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that lives in freshwater with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19.
182902		population	eng	No information available.
182902		threats	eng	Certain populations are threatened by oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural development threaten this species.
182902		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182903		conservation	eng	None known.
182903		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria cameronensis</em> is known from the Dja River, and possibly in northeastern DRC, with collections from Buta and the Epulu River. It is also known from the Lower Guinea from the Ntem Basin in Cameroon, and the Louetsi and Nyanga Rivers, and Mouvanga Creek in Gabon.
182903		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182903		population	eng	No information available.
182903		threats	eng	None known.
182904		conservation	eng	None known.
182904		distribution	eng	<em>Paramphilius baudoni</em> is known from the Sangha River, Central Congo River system (Skelton 2007). In the Lower Guinea region it is known from the Kouilou, Ogowe and Lokoundjé Rivers in Congo, Gabon and Cameroon respectively (Skelton 2007).
182904		habitat	eng	<em>Paramphilius baudoni</em> is a demersal species. Mainly found in soft bottoms in smaller rivers.
182904		population	eng	No information available.
182904		threats	eng	None known.
182905		conservation	eng	None known.
182905		conservation	eng	Partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon.
182905		conservation	eng	Part of the distribution of this species falls within the Korup National Park in Cameroon. Population trends of this species should be monitored, and habitat maintenance is required in Nigeria.
182905		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is known from the Cross River basin, and from western Cameroon (Ndonga). Elsewhere, it is known from eastern Benin and southern Nigeria, Niger River and tributaries.
182905		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, this species is known from Southwestern Nigeria to the River Cross. Also reported from Sierra Leone but this needs to be confirmed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere it occurs in the coastal area of Southern Cameroon.
182905		distribution	eng	This species is found in Nigeria and Cameroon, with a possible recording in Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is known from the Cross River basin, and from western Cameroon (Ndonga). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species is known from Southwestern Nigeria to the River Cross. Also reported from Sierra Leone but this needs to be confirmed.
182905		habitat	eng	Demersal substrate spawner. Feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. Non-migratory.
182905		habitat	eng	<em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is a demersal species with a pH range from 5.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19. It occurs in freshwater and in brackish water. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).
182905		habitat	eng	<em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is a demersal substrate spawner. It occurs in freshwater and in brackish water, and is able to survive in anoxic conditions.<em> Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).
182905		population	eng	No available data.
182905		population	eng	No information available.
182905		threats	eng	In Nigeria, oil exploration in the delta threatens this species, as does deforestation in southwest Nigeria.
182905		threats	eng	Oil exploration in the delta. Deforestation in south west Nigeria.
182905		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182906		conservation	eng	None known.
182906		distribution	eng	<em>Schilbe grenfelli</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is present from Cameroon and Gabon (Nyong, Lokoundje, Ntem, Mitemboni, Nyanga and Ogowe River systems) in the Lower Guinea region. It is possibly also found in the Buture River in Burundi.
182906		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe grenfelli</em> is a demersal species. Stomach contents contained plant debris, insect larvae (Trichopterans), nymfs of Odonates, pieces of terrestrial insects (ants, Hymenpterans, termites, Coleopterans, caterpillars) and fish pieces (Matthes 1964).
182906		population	eng	No information available.
182906		threats	eng	None known.
182907		conservation	eng	None known.
182907		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic known from many rivers of this ichthyogeographical region, Cameroon to Cabinda: Kribi, Mungo, Tshela, Shiloango, Bongola, Ntem, Bitande, Ohumbe, Okano, Mouanda, Kelle, Ogowe, Messok-Messok, Mekay, Lolo and Mvi. Not known from the Congo River basin or from the Chad and Niger-Benue basins (Reid 1985)
182907		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. Young specimens (up to 2.5 cm SL) are recorded from the Benito River in Cameroon (Reid 1985). Most of the individuals examined were collected from areas with rapidly flowing water (Tshibwabwa 1987).
182907		population	eng	No information available.
182907		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182908		conservation	eng	None known.
182908		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal rivers from southern Cameroon to the Chiloango River.
182908		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182908		population	eng	No information available.
182908		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182909		conservation	eng	None known.
182909		distribution	eng	<em>C. nebulosum</em> is known only from southeastern Nigeria. It has been taken in the Sombreiro and Imo rivers (Niger Delta) and from the lower Cross River.
182909		habitat	eng	<em>C. nebulosum</em> is a small anabantid. It has an air-breathing organ so can survive well in de-oxygenated conditions.
182909		population	eng	No information available.
182909		threats	eng	Habitat loss following deforestation, and oil exploration in the Niger Delta are potential threats.
182910		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182910		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chiloglanis lamottei</span> is known only from the holotype collected in the upper Cavally basin (Mount Nimba in Guinea).
182910		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum size 5.0 cm SL.
182910		population	eng	No available data.
182910		threats	eng	No information available.
182911		conservation	eng	None known.
182911		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic restricted to the Ivindo River basin of Gabon, and the lower Ntem river basin of Gabon/Cameroon.
182911		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182911		population	eng	No information available.
182911		threats	eng	The Ntem population is possibly threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.
182912		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182912		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Tana River system in Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). Other populations in East Africa remain to be confirmed as populations of this species.
182912		habitat	eng	It probably is found in similar habitats to <em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus</em>, i.e. marginal riverine vegetation.
182912		population	eng	Not known within Tana river. It may be widespread and common in other East African rivers (if they are confirmed as <em>M. devosi</em>).
182912		threats	eng	The Tana River is affected by hydroelectric generation and irrigation schemes. The potential impact of these on the species is unknown.
182913		conservation	eng	None known.
182913		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus dartevellei</em> is only known from a single specimen from the type locality (Matadi, Lower Congo River basin). It has only been reported once. It has never subsequently been found, despite attempts to locate it (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).
182913		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus dartevellei</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182913		population	eng	No information available.
182913		threats	eng	Marine transport and urban pollution form a threat in this region.
182914		conservation	eng	None known.
182914		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus werneri</em> is known from the rapids at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), downstream to above the Pioka region.
182914		habitat	eng	<em>Lamprologus werneri</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182914		population	eng	No information available.
182914		threats	eng	In Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage effluent and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182915		conservation	eng	None known. It is recommended that oil companies develop a containment programme for this species in its localised environment.
182915		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to West Africa, Nigeria. This fish has only been collected from the Niger Delta
182915		habitat	eng	This characid grows to 6.0 cm in total length. It is non-migratory
182915		population	eng	No available data.
182915		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration and consequential degradation of habitat in the Lower Niger Delta.
182916		conservation	eng	None known.
182916		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from the great Sahelo-sudanese basins and from certain coastal basins, eg. Cavally, Bandama, Sassandra, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and Culufi basins, extending as far east as the Cross River.
182916		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus rume</em> is a demersal, potamodromous subspecies. It feeds on insects and larvae. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of long duration that seems to correlate with territorial behaviour of the subspecies.
182916		population	eng	No data on population trends available.
182916		threats	eng	This subspecies is locally threatened by deforestation.
182917		conservation	eng	The species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.
182917		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus altipinnis</em> is known from the Lufira River system and from Lake Upemba, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
182917		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus altipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182917		population	eng	No information available.
182917		threats	eng	None known.
182918		conservation	eng	None known.
182918		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus retropinnis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Ogowe River (Gosse 1984), and possibly from the Cross River in Cameroon.
182918		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus retropinnis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is a predator (Matthes 1964) that is mostly found in little rivers, swamps and flooded zones (Gosse 1963, Matthes 1964, Roux 1967).
182918		population	eng	No information available.
182918		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
182919		conservation	eng	None known.
182919		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus thysi</span> has been described from only two sites in a narrow region drained by the Cess (Nipoué) and Cavally rivers, western Côte d’Ivoire.
182919		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. The largest known specimen is 240 mm SL.
182919		population	eng	No available data.
182919		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182920		conservation	eng	None known.
182920		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus paucisquamatus</em> is known from the Kivu region, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has also been record from Lake Kivu as well.
182920		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus paucisquamatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182920		population	eng	No information available.
182920		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182921		conservation	eng	None known.
182921		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">P. isidori </span>has a wide distribution area: Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta, Cross and from some coastal rivers in Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra, Comoé, Agnébi, Mé). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also known from the Nile (Gosse 1984).
182921		habitat	eng	The species lives in lakes. Demersal. Occupies floodplain pools in Sudd. Feeds on mud, vegetable debris and small invertebrates. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration (0.08 ms) that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species.  During the breeding season, males build nests and while patrolling their territory sporadically emit EODs at a mean rate of 18 Hz. Participating females, on the other hand, discharge at a fairly regular rate (8-11 Hz) and this has been shown to play a role in sex recognition during courtship and spawning. Male and female EOD waveforms also differ in the amplitude ratio of the first and third phase. Also produce natural sounds ('grunts', 'moans', 'growl', etc.) at different phases of courtship, nesting and territorial defence. A fractional spawner; females able to spawn up to 26 times in the course of one reproductive cycle, laying about 125 eggs per spawning episode. Larval electric organ situated in the deep lateral musculature; that of adults in the caudal peduncle.
182921		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182921		threats	eng	Deforestation may be a local threat.
182922		conservation	eng	None known.
182922		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus microphthalmus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region, where it is the most common <em>Petrocephalus</em> species: it is present from the Sanaga River (Cameroon) to the Niari Kouilou River (Congo).
182922		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182922		population	eng	No information available.
182922		threats	eng	None known.
182923		conservation	eng	None known.
182923		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the quiet parts of brooks, small rivers and streams under gallery forest cover in the savannah of the Fouta Dialon in Guinea. This species is found in the drainage systems of the upper Gambia, This species is known from upper Bafing and This species is known from upper Konkouré rivers.
182923		habitat	eng	This killifish occurs in brooks, small rivers and streams under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish.
182923		population	eng	No available data.
182923		threats	eng	No current threats known, but there are potential threats to the species.
182924		conservation	eng	No information available.
182924		conservation	eng	None known.
182924		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus anema</em> is found across the Chad and Niger river basins, and is also known in southern Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) between Aswan and White Nile, however it is now thought to be regionally extinct. Also found in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), on the north/northeastern Africa regional border.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the white Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is common in the Chad and Niger basins.
182924		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus anema</em> was previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) between Aswan and the White Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nubia and White Nile, being rare in Lake Nasser.
182924		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad and Niger basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:<em> </em></strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. anema</span> was described from the Nile and reported later on from the Chad and Niger basins.
182924		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus anema </em>is a benthopelagic species.
182924		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus anema</em> is a benthopelagic species, which lives in shallow, well vegetated streams. It feeds on small aquatic insects and algae, and breeds in the summer, laying eggs among vegetation. It is a small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length.
182924		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus anema</em> lives in shallow, well vegetated streams. It feeds on small aquatic insects and algae. It breeds in summer, laying eggs among vegetation. It is a small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length. Colour: Silvery yellowish, sometimes with blackish lateral streak passing through the eye. It has an economic importance as aquarium fish.
182924		population	eng	No available data.
182924		population	eng	No information available.
182924		threats	eng	No information available.
182924		threats	eng	None known
182924		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182925		conservation	eng	None known.
182925		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sierra Leone and Liberia, the species is known from the Little Scarcies River drainage system in western Sierra Leone southward to the drainage system of the Lower Lofa River in western Liberia.
182925		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in the shallow and stagnant parts of pools, brooks, swamps and small streams in the coastal rain forest.
182925		population	eng	No available data.
182925		threats	eng	This species is threatened by mining and deforestation in Liberia.
182926		conservation	eng	None known.
182926		distribution	eng	<em>Phractura fasciata</em> is only known from the type locality Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) (Skelton and Teugels 1986).
182926		habitat	eng	<em>Phractura fasciata</em> is a demersal species that lives in rapids.
182926		population	eng	No information available.
182926		threats	eng	None known.
182927		conservation	eng	None known.
182927		distribution	eng	This species is found in the drainage systems of the Lower Tano River system in Southwestern Ghana, and the Lower Comoé, Banco, Boubo, Bia, Mé, Lower Bandama, Lower Sassandra and Lower Cavally River systems in Southern Côte d’Ivoire. May also be present in the extreme southeastern part of Liberia
182927		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish. It occurs in small forest rivers and brooks in the swampy rain forest on the coastal plain. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size 5.0 cm TL
182927		population	eng	No available data.
182927		threats	eng	None known.
182928		conservation	eng	No information available.
182928		conservation	eng	None known.
182928		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182928		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis schall</em> is common in whole Egyptian Nile and Wdai El Rayan Lakes.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nasser, Blue and White Niles, Lake Chad, Senegal and Lake Albert.
182928		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Synodontis schall</em> has been recorded in the Cross River basin.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from the Nile Basin, Abaia, Stephanie, Rudolf Lake, Tana, Uebi Guiba (Uebi Shebeli), Chad, Niger, Senegal, Volta.  Also known from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia (Paugy and Roberts 1992).
182928		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, Semliki River, Albert and Murchison Niles, Lake Turkana. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also known from Guinea, Chad, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Niger and Sénégal. Records of this species from the Athi and Tana Rivers (Copley 1952; 1958; Mann 1968) are misidentifications probably referring to <em>Synodontis zanzibaricus</em>.
182928		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found practically in all western African basins, except for the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from Nile basin, Abaia, Stephanie, Rudolf Lake, Tana, Uebi Guiba (Uebi Shebeli).
182928		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species from Mauritania to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Synodontis schall</em> has been recorded in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, Semliki River, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and Lake Turkana. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common in whole Egyptian Nile and Wdai El Rayan Lakes, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea and the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Lake Nasser in the Sudan, as well as several water bodies of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found practically in all west African basins, except for the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.
182928		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182928		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis schall</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It is found both in deep, open water and in quite shallow water, but it is never close to the shore (Worthington, 1929). This species is an omnivore and feeds on insect nymph, larvae, eggs and detritus (Willoughby 1974). It also feeds on fish, bivalves in the Sudd and snails in Gezira irrigation canals. <em>Synodontis schall</em> is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). Breeding occurs during the flood season (Bailey 1994) in comparatively shallow and sheltered waters (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). <em>Synodontis schall</em> is utilized for human consumption.
182928		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis schall</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. This species is an omnivore and feeds on insect nymph, larvae, eggs and detritus. It also feeds on fish, bivalves in the Sudd and snails in Gezira irrigation canals. <em>Synodontis schall</em> is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding. Breeding occurs during the flood season. <em>Synodontis schall</em> is utilized for human consumption. Its preferred habitats are streams and lakes.
182928		habitat	eng	Found both in deep, open water and in quite shallow water, but it is never close to the shore (Worthington 1929). It is omnivorous feeding on ostracods, copepods, zooplankton, fish-remains, prawns, and gastropods (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). Breeding takes place in comparatively shallow and sheltered waters (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).
182928		habitat	eng	It lives on the bottom feeding on molluscs, crustaceans, annelid worms and algae, fish scales, mud and sand. It is active at night. It breeds in during flood season. I reaches a length to 40 cm.
182928		population	eng	In Egypt, the average annual catch for the period from 1995 to 2004 was 3672 tones.
182928		population	eng	No available data.
182928		population	eng	No information available.
182928		population	eng	No quantitative population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
182928		population	eng	No quantitative population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana. In Egypt, the average annual catch for the period from 1995 to 2004 was 3672 tones.
182928		threats	eng	None known
182928		threats	eng	Not known
182928		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182928		threats	eng	This is a commercially important fish. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
182928		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
182929		conservation	eng	None known.
182929		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. petricolus</span> is endemic to Western Africa and known only from the upper and Middle Niger basins. The downstream limit of its distribution seems to be Lake Kainji.
182929		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.
182929		population	eng	No available data.
182929		threats	eng	Threats to this species include Water Hyacinth in the inner delta has led to problems of sedimentation, loss of habitat (water loss) and deoxygenation.
182930		conservation	eng	None known.
182930		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprologus lethops</em> is currently only known form the type locality: near Bulu, Lower Congo River mainstream (Schelley and Stiassny 2004, Maréchal and Poll 1991).
182930		habitat	eng	<em>Lamprologus lethops</em> appears to be a benthopelagic, blind species.
182930		population	eng	No information available.
182930		threats	eng	None known.
182931		conservation	eng	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved.
182931		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax intermedius</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the Kribi, Nyong and Ntem Rivers in Cameroon. It is possibly the same species as <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em>.
182931		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182931		population	eng	No information available.
182931		threats	eng	None known.
182932		conservation	eng	None known.
182932		distribution	eng	This species is numerous in the coastal basins from Konkouré to West of Volta.
182932		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
182932		population	eng	No available data.
182932		threats	eng	None known.
182933		conservation	eng	None known.
182933		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in brackish waters, i.e. estuaries and occasionally lagoons, from Senegal to Nigeria. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
182933		distribution	eng	This species occurs in brackish waters, i.e. estuaries and occasionally lagoons, from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in Pointe Noire in Republic of Congo, and is probably more widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.
182933		habitat	eng	This species is occurs inshore, in brackish waters, lagoons, estuaries and rivers under tidal influence. It sometimes ascends rivers, but rarely moves beyond the intertidal zone.
182933		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore, in brackish waters, lagoons, estuaries and rivers under tidal influence. It sometimes ascends rivers, but rarely moves beyond the intertidal zone.
182933		population	eng	No data on population trends.
182933		threats	eng	None known
182933		threats	eng	None known.
182934		conservation	eng	None known.
182934		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Ogowe and Louesse-Niari Rivers, between Mossendjo and Komono in southwestern Congo.
182934		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion schluppi</em> occurs in brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) schluppi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182934		population	eng	No information available.
182934		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
182935		conservation	eng	None known.
182935		distribution	eng	This species is reported from rivers situated on the western part of Côte d'Ivoire and eastern part of Liberia: Cavally, Nipoué/Cess, Dodo, Tabou, Saint Paul, and Loffa.
182935		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182935		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
182935		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia.
182936		conservation	eng	None known.
182936		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status, as well as monitoring of population trends, and habitat conservation.
182936		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182936		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is widespread in the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai River systems. It is also known from two localities on the upper Zambezi River, Zambia.
182936		distribution	eng	The species has been described from the southern Congo system but found in Zambia in the East Lumwana tributary of the Mwombezhi/Upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).
182936		distribution	eng	This species is known from Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is widespread in the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai River systems. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Described from the southern Congo system but found in Zambia in the East Lumwana tributary of the Mwombezhi/This species is known from upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).
182936		habitat	eng	A species of forested streams.
182936		habitat	eng	<em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is a demersal species. It prefers smaller forest streams with rocky bottoms and feeds mainly on terrestrial and aquatic insects (Skelton 1993).
182936		population	eng	No information available.
182936		population	eng	Not known. Only three specimens have been recorded from the East Lumwana, one in 1984 and two in 2003. It is possibly widespread in southern Congo and in Mwombezhi system.
182936		threats	eng	None known.
182936		threats	eng	None known at present.
182937		conservation	eng	None known.
182937		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys singa</em> is known from the coastal Lower Congo basin, and one population from near Inkisi has been confirmed as <em>E.singa</em> (van de Zee, in lit.) suggesting a disjunct distribution in the Lower Congo. In Lower Guinea it is known from the lower Ogowe River, the KangoKomo, Nyanga and other coastal river systems, of western Gabon, and the lower Kouilou and Loeme River drainages in western Congo and the Chiloango River system, Cabinda.
182937		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys singa</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in small river, brooks and swamps in the coastal rainforest and wooded savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
182937		population	eng	No information available.
182937		threats	eng	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.
182938		conservation	eng	None known.
182938		distribution	eng	<em>Micralestes lualabae</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from the Lualaba, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Specimens tentatively identified as this species have been reported from the Lower Congo River.
182938		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182938		population	eng	No information available.
182938		threats	eng	None known.
182939		conservation	eng	None known.
182939		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Loeme and Niari-Kouilou River basins.
182939		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus stauchi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 10.6 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182939		population	eng	No information available.
182939		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. The species is also threatened by gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.
182940		conservation	eng	None known.
182940		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality in the Zanaga area, This species is known from upper Ogowe River, south central Congo.
182940		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion caudofasciatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) caudofasciatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182940		population	eng	No information available.
182940		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182941		conservation	eng	No information available.
182941		conservation	eng	None known.
182941		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> In Tanzania it is distributed in the Lake Rukwa basin, including swampy areas and in the River Ruvuma. In Malawi it is known from the Lower Shire River.  <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi south to the Phongolo system.
182941		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle and lower Zambezi River south to the Phongolo River in South Africa. It is absent from the upper Save, and recent surveys in Swaziland did not collect it and so it may be locally extinct there. It may be naturally on the edge of its range in Swaziland.
182941		habitat	eng	Prefers slow flowing reaches of rivers where it finds shelter in crevices or holes or under logs. It is a nocturnal feeder, taking detritus, plant material, invertebrates, snails, and insects. It breeds in the rainy season.
182941		habitat	eng	This species is found in riverine habitats in larger streams and rivers. It does not seem to penetrate far up into river systems with high gradients. It is capable of entering estuaries and tolerating saline conditions. It has been collected in the Phongolo estuary near Maputo.
182941		population	eng	No information available.
182941		population	eng	The population  in Lake Rukwa is on the increase.
182941		threats	eng	None known.
182941		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are illegal fishing practice and land based pollution.
182942		conservation	eng	No information available.
182942		distribution	eng	<em>Atopodontus adriaensi</em> is endemic to the Lower Guinea ichthyofaunal region of West-Central Africa, and is documented from rapids in the Ivindo, Okano, Ngounié, and Nyanga Rivers of Gabon. Like <em>Atopochilus savorgnani</em>, with which it co-occurs at several localities, this new species may have a broader distribution throughout all the major tributaries of the Ogooué River system, as well as in neighbouring basins like the Woleu/Mbini/Uoro and Ntem River systems.
182942		habitat	eng	This species is found in rapids.
182942		population	eng	No information available.
182942		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182943		conservation	eng	None known.
182943		distribution	eng	This species is found in the basin of the Cross River in Southwestern Cameroon, in southern central and southern Nigeria in the drainage systems of smaller coastal flowing rivers, and in the Niger and the Benue rivers.
182943		habitat	eng	Bluegreen lampeye is a small perrenial killifish with rayed opercula and grows to 5.5 cm TL. It inhabits small rivers and brooks under forest cover and in the forested savannah on soils of basal origin. It usually swims in schools in the streaming parts of the creeks.
182943		population	eng	No available data.
182943		threats	eng	Heavy deforestation and urbanisation in southwestern Nigeria may threaten this species.
182944		conservation	eng	None known.
182944		distribution	eng	<em>Papyrocranus congoensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin.
182944		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182944		population	eng	No information available.
182944		threats	eng	None known.
182945		conservation	eng	None known.
182945		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo fulakariensis</em> is known from the lower and central Congo basin. It has recently been found in the Lulua, tributary of the Kasai River (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).
182945		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo fulakariensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182945		population	eng	No information available.
182945		threats	eng	There are no current threats to the species known. It can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo River with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182946		conservation	eng	None known.
182946		conservation	eng	The river Cross has been submitted as a candidate Ramsar site.
182946		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, this species is known from the upper course of the River Cross and some locations in the Niger Delta (Nigeria). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area, it has been reliably reported from the River Kribi (Cameroon). Also known in Gabon.
182946		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic found in the Cross Kribi (Kienké) (type locality), Ogowe and Nyanga basins. <em>Brycinus intermedius</em> is most probably more widespread.
182946		habitat	eng	This is a small riverine <em>Brycinus</em> that migrates up river for spawning.
182946		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182946		population	eng	No available data..
182946		population	eng	No information available.
182946		threats	eng	Potential threats might arise if there is a proposal for dredging the river Cross to improve navigation. Also currently threatened by oil exploration.
182946		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182947		conservation	eng	None known.
182947		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion elegans</em> is known from the central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.
182947		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion elegans</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks, swamps parts of small streams, swamps, pools and border regions of lakes 5 cm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182947		population	eng	No information available.
182947		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182948		conservation	eng	No information available.
182948		conservation	eng	None known.
182948		conservation	eng	None known. More information is required on the extent of this species distribution.
182948		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus niloticus</em> is Regionally Extinct. It used to be distributed along the whole River Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in the River Nile system and Uganda, Lake Albert basin.
182948		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Regionally found in Lake Albert and the Albert Nile.
182948		distribution	eng	There are outdated records of this species along the entire Nile from the Delta in Egypt to Lake Albert in Uganda.
182948		habitat	eng	<em>Mormyrus niloticus</em> is a demersal species.
182948		habitat	eng	No information available
182948		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species found in running water.
182948		population	eng	Little information but no evidence of population decline.
182948		population	eng	Medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).
182948		population	eng	No information available.
182948		threats	eng	No information available
182948		threats	eng	No information available.
182948		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
182949		conservation	eng	The Ndian location is protected by the Korup National Park.
182949		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal streams of south-western Cameroon including tributaries of the Akpa-Korup and Ndian Rivers.
182949		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius korupi</em> occurs in small streams, shallow water among leaf litter.
182949		population	eng	No information available.
182949		threats	eng	<em>Amphilius korupi</em> occurs in low concentrations, and may possibly rely upon the flooding of forest. The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation, but the Ndian location is protected by the Korup National Park.
182950		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)
182950		distribution	eng	Ghana (Ibi River near d'Appolonia) and Côte d'Ivoire (Agnébi River)  (Risch, 2004)
182950		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182950		population	eng	No information available.
182950		threats	eng	Its habitat is being impacted by invasive aquatic weeds.
182951		conservation	eng	None known.
182951		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire with a probable extension into Guinea. It is known only from the Sassandra and Bandama basins.
182951		habitat	eng	Maximum SL of 19.2 cm. Riverine bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing. It is non-migratory.
182951		population	eng	No available data.
182951		threats	eng	None known - this is a very hardy species.
182952		conservation	eng	No information available.
182952		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
182952		habitat	eng	This species is found in the standing water of Lake Tana.
182952		population	eng	No information available.
182952		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing.
182953		conservation	eng	None currently known, however the river Cross has been submitted as a candidate Ramsar site. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
182953		conservation	eng	None known.
182953		conservation	eng	The river Cross has been submitted as a candidate Ramsar site.
182953		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross, Kienké (Kribi) and Lobé (Lobi, Lobo) basins. Elsewhere, it occurs in the Niger delta.
182953		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger delta and Cross River in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Kribi and Lobe rivers in Cameroon.
182953		distribution	eng	This species is known from from Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross Kienké (Kribi) and Lobé (Lobi, Lobo) basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Niger delta and Cross river in Nigeria
182953		habitat	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops quinquesquamae</em> is a small characid; non-migratory.
182953		habitat	eng	<em>Bryconaethiops quinquesquamae</em> is a small characid that grows to 11 cm in standard length. It is pelagic and non-migratory.
182953		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
182953		population	eng	No available data.
182953		population	eng	No information available.
182953		threats	eng	None known.
182953		threats	eng	Potential threats might arise if the proposal for dredging the river Cross to improve navigation is successful. Also threatened by oil exploration.
182953		threats	eng	Potential threats might arise if the proposal for dredging the river Cross to improve navigation is successful. It is also threatened by oil exploration.
182954		conservation	eng	None known.
182954		distribution	eng	<em>Labeobarbus vanderysti</em> is known from the type locality, Kisantu, affluent of the Lower Congo River. Specimens of Matadi and the Inkisi River (also Lower Congo) have been identified as <em>Labeobarbus vanderysti</em> by Poll and Fowler respectively. This has never been published though.
182954		habitat	eng	<em>Labeobarbus vanderysti</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182954		population	eng	No information available.
182954		threats	eng	None known.
182955		conservation	eng	In Nigeria the species is protected within the Gashaka-Gumti National Park.
182955		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. waterloti</span> is known from the Senegal River in Senegal and Mali, and the upper course of the Niger.
182955		habitat	eng	This is a small cyprinid of 7 cm maximum size. It is adapted to fast flowing streams. It is non-migratory.
182955		population	eng	No available data.
182955		threats	eng	This species is impacted by deforestation leading to siltation, as well as irrigation and dam construction.
182956		conservation	eng	None known.
182956		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys chevalieri</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin (Wildekamp 1996). Populations on the west of the Congo River are here regarded as <em>Epiplatys chevalieri chevalieri</em>, while those found to the east and north of the Congo River represent <em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> (Wildekamp 1996).
182956		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in rivers, brooks and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found in small rivers, creeks and swamps in the rainforest and forested savannah (Wildekamp 1996). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182956		population	eng	No information available.
182956		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182957		conservation	eng	None known.
182957		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Ogowe River basin, Gabon.
182957		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias gossei</em> is a pelagic; species. The maximum TL was recorded at 3.6 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).
182957		population	eng	No information available.
182957		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182958		conservation	eng	None known.
182958		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus castrasibutum</em> is only known from the type locality (Fort Sibut, Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin), Central African Republic.
182958		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus castrasibutum</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182958		population	eng	No information available.
182958		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182959		conservation	eng	None known.
182959		distribution	eng	Lower and middle Gambia River, Guinea-Bissau (lower Geba River), Sierra Leone (Jong Basin).
182959		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182959		population	eng	No information available.
182959		threats	eng	None known.
182960		conservation	eng	None known.
182960		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only found on the Du Chaillu Massif, in the upper Ngounié River, southern Gabon and western Congo.
182960		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion ocellatum</em> is found in fast flowing brooks and small streams on the inland plains and hilly areas (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) ocellatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182960		population	eng	No information available.
182960		threats	eng	None known.
182961		conservation	eng	None known.
182961		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus chicapaensis</em> is only known from certain locations (Zovo, Coca River, Cuilo River and Lucogne River), all effluents of the Central Congo River basin in Angola. The species is assumed to be more widespread in the Kasai systems.
182961		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus chicapaensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 10.6 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
182961		population	eng	No information available.
182961		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182962		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the range, status and threats of this species.
182962		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from This species is known from uppermost reaches of rivers and creeks in vicinity of the village of Dimonika, in the Biosphere-Reserve of Dimonika, Congo.
182962		habitat	eng	No information available.
182962		population	eng	No information available.
182962		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
182963		conservation	eng	None known.
182963		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Northern Sherbo district, Benguema (Jong river) and Njala (Jong river or Taja) in Sierra Leone.
182963		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182963		population	eng	No information available
182963		threats	eng	Threats include deforestation, agricultural and urban developments. This species is potentially impacted by over-harvesting.
182964		conservation	eng	A small captive breeding program is underway. More research is needed for this species, and it would benefit from habitat restoration, and the development of a Protected Area within its range.
182964		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Oued Saoura basin, and was once thought to occur throughout it. It is now only known from one remnant population (near Mazzer) in the Sahara desert, having known to have disappeared from numerous other localities (Oued Zousfana basin at Igli, El Ouata and Kerzaz - all in the greater Saoura basin). Numerous attempts have been made to record from these localities and no specimens were found.<br/><br/>Recorded from Mazzer (30° 19'N, 2°16'W) inside the Oued Saoura basin, Villwock and Scholl (1982) analyzed specimens from Igli Oasis, Oued Zousfana basin, a tributary basin to the Saoura. Specimens from El Ouata (MRAC 83-002-P-0082-0111) and Kerzaz (MRAC A3-045-P-0906) are deposited in Royal African Museum in Tervuren, both of which are within the greater Oued Saoura basin and in geographic proximity to Mazzer; Kerzaz is the most distant locality, approximately 120 km away.
182964		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species with preferred subtropical climate.
182964		population	eng	No information available.
182964		threats	eng	Introduced <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>poses a serious threat, with current densities of <em>Gambusia</em> to <em>Aphanius</em> being more than 100 to one. In addition, excessive groundwater withdrawal for agricultural purposes, the drying of wetlands, and water pollution are also main threats to the species.
182965		conservation	eng	None known.
182965		distribution	eng	<em>Varicorhinus brauni</em> is only known from the Loama and Kanshete Rivers, tributaries of the Luhoho River in the Kivu region, Central Congo River basin.
182965		habitat	eng	<em>Varicorhinus brauni</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182965		population	eng	No information available.
182965		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the north-east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182966		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Korup National Park.
182966		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the area northeast of Mbonge, western Cameroon. The present distribution is probably relict.
182966		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Pauciradius) marmoratus</em> is found in swamps and the swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Pauciradius) marmoratus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996). It can be done semimanuell, the eggs do not need a dry period for hatching. This updates previous information from Riehl and Baensch 1991.
182966		population	eng	No information available.
182966		threats	eng	The Mungo river basin location is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The species is also threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.
182967		conservation	eng	None known.
182967		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis pulcher</em> is known from the holotype from the type locality, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo. One other specimen has been caught in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).
182967		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis pulcher</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182967		population	eng	No information available.
182967		threats	eng	Urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.
182968		conservation	eng	None known.
182968		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Bitandé system of the Ntem River drainage and the Massif des Mamelles, belonging to the Lobe River drainage, in southwestern Cameroon.
182968		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) lugens</em> inhabits small forest streams. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) lugens</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182968		population	eng	No information available.
182968		threats	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) lugens</em> is threatened by commercial logging and women's' traditional fisheries leading to sedimentation. The Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182969		conservation	eng	None known.
182969		distribution	eng	<em>Ichthyborus ornatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), through the Lower Congo, and the Central Congo River basin.
182969		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182969		population	eng	No information available.
182969		threats	eng	None known.
182970		conservation	eng	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.
182970		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus luluae</em> is known from the Lulua River (type locality) and from Dilolo (Katanga) (Central Congo River basin). It has also been reported from the Luvua River and Malembia River (upper Congo River basin).
182970		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus luluae</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182970		population	eng	No information available.
182970		threats	eng	None known.
182971		conservation	eng	None known.
182971		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ntem River drainage in southern Cameroon and northern Gabon, as well as the Campo, Ivindo, Lobe, Nyong and Sanaga River drainages in southern and central Cameroon. Although <em>Microsynodontis batesii</em> appears to have a much wider distribution compared to all other <em>Microsynodontis</em> from the Lower Guinea, it is possible that more than one species is involved in what is recognised as <em>M. bastesii</em> here. In particular, the populations from the northernmost extent of its distribution (i.e. the Nyong and the Sanaga River drainages) should be further studied to verify their conspecificity with the material from southern Cameroon and northern Gabon, but the paucity of relevant material available for study does not allow for a more conclusive test of this hypothesis (Ng 2004).
182971		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis batesii</em> is a demersal. It is viparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182971		population	eng	No information available.
182971		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182972		conservation	eng	None known.
182972		distribution	eng	This species has only been reported from two locations, the Saint John river basin in Liberia and Saint Paul river basin in Guinea.
182972		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species fish.
182972		population	eng	No available data.
182972		threats	eng	There are indications of deterioration in habitat quality due to deforestation resulting in siltation.
182973		conservation	eng	None known.
182973		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis longispinis</em> is only known from the type locality at the Sangha River, Central Congo River basin.
182973		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis longispinis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
182973		population	eng	No information available.
182973		threats	eng	None known.
182974		conservation	eng	None known.
182974		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>The <em>Amphilius cf. jacksonii</em> is the name used for the populations of the Chambezi, Luongo, Luapula and near Lubumbashi. The "real" <em>Amphilius jacksoni</em> occurs along the eastern border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. <em>Amphilius jacksoni</em> has also been found in an affluent river of the Lake Victoria drainage, Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).
182974		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius jacksonii</em> is a demersal that occurs in flowing, well-oxygenated waters (Skelton 1993). It feeds predominantly on benthic aquatic insects (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is iteroparous, with asynchronous ovarian development (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000).
182974		population	eng	No information available.
182974		threats	eng	The war and coltan mining in the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and sabotage have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.
182975		conservation	eng	None known.
182975		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the Kelle, Lokoundje, Kienke, Lobe and Ntem River systems in southwestern Cameroon.
182975		habitat	eng	<em>Procatopus nototaenia</em> occurs in small rivers and brooks under forest cover, mainly in streaming parts of the river system (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found in coastal rainforest on sedimentary soils. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Procatopus nototaenia</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182975		population	eng	No information available.
182975		threats	eng	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.
182976		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182976		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182976		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus ansorgii</em> is found only in Angola<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus ansorgii</em> is known from the Luache River at Bange Ngola (type locality) and the Cuango River, Central Congo River basin, Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species is present in Angola and only known from Kunene River (Caculovar River) and Congo River (Cuango and Luache Rivers) systems.
182976		distribution	eng	This species is present in Angola and only known from Kunene River (Kunene River, Caculovar River ) and Congo River (Cuango River, Luache River ) systems.
182976		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus ansorgii</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its preferred habitat is not known.
182976		habitat	eng	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.
182976		population	eng	No information available.
182976		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182976		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the central Africa region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182976		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182978		conservation	eng	None known.
182978		distribution	eng	<em>Brycinus grandisquamis</em> is known from the Lower, Central and from upper Congo basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).
182978		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182978		population	eng	No information available.
182978		threats	eng	None known.
182979		conservation	eng	None known.
182979		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Niger and Benue River basins.
182979		habitat	eng	This species lives in streams and lakes and feeds on plankton, detritus and plants. It is a bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing.
182979		population	eng	No available data.
182979		threats	eng	None known - this is a hardy species.
182980		conservation	eng	None known.
182980		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Bagbé and Rokel Rivers in Sierra Leone.
182980		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
182980		population	eng	No information available.
182980		threats	eng	Deforestation, agricultural development and drought threaten this species.
182981		conservation	eng	None known.
182981		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus jubbi</em> is known from upper Kasai system (Luembe River, Luachimo and Canhicuna Rivers), Central Congo River basin.
182981		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus jubbi</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182981		population	eng	No information available.
182981		threats	eng	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
182982		conservation	eng	None known.
182982		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182982		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is uncommon in collections, and is represented by only two lots of fishes from the Kribi region of coastal Cameroon. The species has been recorded from Fifinda (Dening pers. comm.). Brummett has not found the species at Kribi. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the delta and lower reaches of the Niger and to some coastal basins in Guinea and Sierra Leone.
182982		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found in the Niger and in some other coastal basins of Guinea and Sierra-Leone. Full distribution can't mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also in the Kribi River in Cameroon, Lake Malawi, Rukwa, Tanganyika, and other eastward flowing rivers.
182982		distribution	eng	There is limited information on this species, but it has been recorded from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is uncommon in collections, and is represented by only two lots of fishes from the Kribi region of coastal Cameroon. The species has been recorded from Fifinda (pers. comm. Dening, C.). Brummett, R. has not found the species at Kribi. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Niger and in some other coastal basins of Guinea and Sierra-Leone.
182982		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182982		habitat	eng	<em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It may be limited to the delta and the lower reaches of rivers (Gosse 1984). <em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> lives in swampy areas (pers. comm. Nicanor Mbe Tawe, A.).
182982		habitat	eng	<em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It may be limited to the delta and the lower reaches of rivers (Gosse 1984). It lives in swampy areas (Nicanor Mbe Tawe pers. comm).
182982		population	eng	No available data.
182982		population	eng	No information available.
182982		threats	eng	Oil exploration, deforestation.
182982		threats	eng	The Kribi location will have been heavily impacted by urbanisation pollution, etc. (Brummett pers. comm.). The only location within the region that the species has been recorded from recently is Fifinda in marsh habitat where it is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing).
182982		threats	eng	The Kribi location will have been heavily impacted by urbanisation pollution, etc. (pers. comm. Brummett, R.). The only location within the central Africa region that the species has been recorded from recently is Fifinda in marsh habitat where it is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). In western Africa it is threatened by oil exploration and deforestation.
182983		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182983		conservation	eng	The most southern location is situated in a National Park. The Central African Republic has together with the FAO conducted a fishing code, regimentation of mesh size and a prohibition on poison. More research into this species population range and numbers, habitat status and threats is needed.
182983		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma lineatum</em> is restricted to Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from Banzyville and the Itimbiri River in the Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Gribingui River of the Lake Chad basin.
182983		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Gribingui River of the Lake Chad River basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">M. lineatum</span> is reported from only three localities: Gribingui River of the Lake Chad basin, and two sites in the Northern Congo River basin (Ubangui River at Brazzaville and Itimbiri River).
182983		habitat	eng	Airbreathing species with a high tolerance to de-oxygenated waters.
182983		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species with a high tolerance to de-oxygenated waters.
182983		population	eng	No available data.
182983		population	eng	No information available.
182983		threats	eng	Fishing with poison, and diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system pose threats to the location at Banzyville.
182983		threats	eng	Unknown.
182984		conservation	eng	None known.
182984		distribution	eng	This species is known from the upper Senegal and Niger basins.
182984		habitat	eng	The fish is a benthopelagic species. Maximum size 20.3 cm
182984		population	eng	No available data.
182984		threats	eng	None known.
182985		conservation	eng	None known.
182985		distribution	eng	<em>Distichodus noboli</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower (Kinsuka rapids) and the Central Congo River basin.
182985		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182985		population	eng	No information available.
182985		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182986		conservation	eng	None known.
182986		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion chauchei</em> is only known from Makoua, Likona River system, Central Congo River basin, Congo.
182986		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion chauchei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
182986		population	eng	No information available.
182986		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.
182987		conservation	eng	None known.
182987		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma milleri</em> is only known from the type locality at or near Lukala, and from the Lunyonzo River, Lower Congo River basin.
182987		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182987		population	eng	No information available.
182987		threats	eng	None known.
182988		conservation	eng	None known.
182988		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callopanchax occidentalis</span> is found in coastal river systems in Sierra Leone from the Little Scarcies River system, to the Lofa River system in western Liberia. Also present in the adjacent part of southern Guinea.
182988		habitat	eng	<em>C. occidentalis</em> is found in pools, temporary swamps and swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest and the humid forested savannah. It is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish of 8.0 cm TL. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. It is a bottom spawner, 3 months incubation. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium.
182988		population	eng	No available data.
182988		threats	eng	There is no information on any major threats to the species in Sierra Leone; but in Liberia the species has some threats, including mining and deforestation.
182989		conservation	eng	None known.
182989		distribution	eng	This species is known from Gambia, Senegal, upper Niger, Sassandra and Volta basins.  This species is known from all great Sudanian basins and in the basins of the north-Guinean zones.
182989		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish of 32.1 cm SL. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
182989		population	eng	No available data.
182989		threats	eng	None known.
182990		conservation	eng	None known.
182990		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo cyclorhynchus</em> is known from throughout the Lower Congo River basin, from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui River. It is also known from just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).
182990		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo cyclorhynchus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
182990		population	eng	No information available.
182990		threats	eng	None known.
182991		conservation	eng	More research on this species is needed.
182991		distribution	eng	This species had been described from material collected in the Niger basin in west Africa by Daget (1954) as a sub-species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cromeria nilotica</span> and named <span style="font-style: italic;">Cromeria nilotica occidentalis</span>. Recently, Timo <em>et al.</em> (2006) distinguished two separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nilotica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. occidentalis</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. occidentalis</span> is endemic to western Africa. The species was reported to be found in This species is known from upper and middle Niger, This species is known from upper Benue and This species is known from upper Volta (needs confirming). The specimens described by Timo <em>et al.</em> (2006) were from Pendjari river (Benin), a river depending to the Volta basin.
182991		habitat	eng	This species burrows into the sand.
182991		population	eng	No information available.
182991		threats	eng	No information available.
182992		conservation	eng	None known.
182992		distribution	eng	<em>Nannocharax pteron</em> is only known from Fort Sibut, Ubangui system, Central Congo River basin.
182992		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
182992		population	eng	No information available.
182992		threats	eng	None known.
182993		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of its population.
182993		distribution	eng	This species is only known from coastal rivers in Tanzania.
182993		habitat	eng	It inhabits coastal rivers (Gosse 1986).
182993		population	eng	No information available.
182993		threats	eng	No information available.
182994		conservation	eng	A considerable part of the species distribution is located in the National park of Upemba.
182994		distribution	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys lualabaensis</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Mabwe River drainages, including the Upemba lakes. It is also known from the Luapula system.
182994		habitat	eng	<em>Aplocheilichthys lualabaensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks and quiet parts of rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).
182994		population	eng	No information available.
182994		threats	eng	None known.
182995		conservation	eng	None known.
182995		distribution	eng	<em>Opsaridium engrauloides</em> is only known by the type, a juvenile specimen very likely the young of another species (type locality: Ubangui River at Bangui).
182995		habitat	eng	<em>Opsaridium engrauloides</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
182995		population	eng	No information available.
182995		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.
182996		conservation	eng	None known.
182996		distribution	eng	<em>P. ansorgii</em> is known from upper and Lower Niger, Benue and coastal rivers of Nigeria, extending to the Cross River.
182996		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Petrocephalus ansorgii</em> is restricted to the Cross River basin. Elsewhere it is distributed in the upper and lower Niger River, the Benué, and the coastal rivers of Nigeria.
182996		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
182996		population	eng	No information available.
182996		threats	eng	Habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to oil exploration, and urban, commercial and deforestation.
182996		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
182997		conservation	eng	No information available.
182997		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
182997		conservation	eng	None known.
182997		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
182997		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is known from Mauritania to Angola (Risch 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It occurs in the estuary of the Congo River, but not far inland.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (at Cabiri) and Kwanza River systems, and in Cabinda province rivers (Povo Grande).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed and known from most basins within western Africa. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.
182997		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present from Senegal to Cabinda, Angola, and reported from Mauritania.
182997		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is known from Senegal to Cabinda, Angola (Risch 1986). It occurs in the estuary of the Congo River, but not far inland. The species has been reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005).
182997		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nigrodigitatus</span> is known from most basins within western Africa. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Extending from Senegal to Angola.
182997		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (at Cabiri) and Kwanza River systems, and in Cabinda province rivers (Povo Grande).
182997		habitat	eng	<em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom, in rivers and in swamps. It is an omnivorous fish that feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish (Laleye 1995).
182997		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom. It is omnivorous, and feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus. Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, and larger fish may feed on decapods and fish.
182997		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom. Omnivorous, feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus. Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish.
182997		habitat	eng	This demersal fish that occurs in shallow waters of lakes, over mud and fine sand bottom.  Omnivorous, feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus.  Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish.
182997		population	eng	No available data.
182997		population	eng	No information available.
182997		population	eng	Population size is not known.
182997		threats	eng	No information available.
182997		threats	eng	None known
182997		threats	eng	None known.
182997		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
182998		conservation	eng	None known.
182998		distribution	eng	<em>Orthochromis luongoensis</em> is known from two localities in the Luongo River (Zambia), a tributary of the Luapula River and ultimately an affluent of Lake Mweru.
182998		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
182998		population	eng	No information available.
182998		threats	eng	A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream.
182999		conservation	eng	None known.
182999		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
182999		distribution	eng	<em>Microctenopoma congicum</em> is known from the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Congo basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea, occurring in the Chiloango River, with a single specimen from the Ogowe. As with <em>C. gabonense</em>, there are no recent collections of the species from the region. It has been reported from Lake Chad basin (Blache 1964) but this has not been confirmed by verifiable specimens.
182999		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Recorded from the upper Chari and Gribingui rivers, however these records cannot be verified as no specimens were retained.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The species is known from Congo River basin and Chad River basin.
182999		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
182999		habitat	eng	<em>Microctenopoma congicum</em> is a benthopelagic species that builds bubble nests.
182999		population	eng	No information available
182999		population	eng	No information available.
182999		threats	eng	No current threats known.
182999		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade.
183000		conservation	eng	None known.
183000		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys etzeli</span> is known only from a limited area in and around the Ono lagoon and Hébé River, east of Abidjan in south Côte d’Ivoire.
183000		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys etzeli</em> is an benthopelagic species. Maximum size 5.0 cm. This species occurs in small brooks. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
183000		population	eng	No available data.
183000		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, industrial and urban development.
183001		conservation	eng	No information available.
183001		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of the Omo River, Ethiopia.
183001		habitat	eng	It is found in running water.
183001		population	eng	No information available.
183001		threats	eng	No information available.
183002		conservation	eng	No information available.
183002		conservation	eng	None known.
183002		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into the threats for this species, as well as corridors to allow spawning migratory runs.
183002		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is widespread throughout the Congo basin. Elsewhere, it is widespread in western and southern Africa.
183002		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika, including Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers; Lake Rukwa, rivers Rufiji, Ruvuma; L. Malawi and its catchment area; Shire River and its tributaries; Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa (Paugy 1984).
183002		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Brycinus imberi</span> is widespread in nearly almost all of Sahelian Africa. In western Africa, from the Mono in the east to the Nipoué (Cess) in the west.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Elsewhere, the species is found in the Mid and Lower Zambezi, and in eastern Africa from the Wami in the north to the the Pongola in the south, throughout the Congo River basin, on the west coast in Quanza to Nyanga provinces.
183002		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in east coast rivers from the Phongolo River north into Tanzania. Not present in the upper Zambezi systems. Present in the Congo system and across into western Africa.
183002		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western and southern Africa:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is widespread throughout the Congo basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika, including Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers, as well as Lake Rukwa, Rufiji and RuvumaRivers, and Lake Malawi and its catchment area. It is also found in the Shire River and its tributaries, and Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa (Paugy 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in east coast rivers from the Phongolo River north into Tanzania. Not present in the upper Zambezi systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widespread in nearly almost all of Sahelian Africa. In Western Africa, it is found from the Mono in the east to the Nipoué (Cess) in the west.
183002		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus imberi</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow and sheltered waters of swampy bays. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is generally restricted to shallow waters where they may be found in various habitats such as over sand, rock or, less frequently, in aquatic weed beds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). It is common in shallow vegetated areas (Eccles 1992). The species is also found in large rivers and floodplain pans and lagoons. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> feeds on insects, tiny fishes, vegetable matters (Konings 1990) and crustaceans (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Its main predator is the tigerfish (Skelton 1993). The species breeds in the summer, migrating to spawning sites after rains. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> migrates to tributary rivers and floodplains when the rivers come down in spate Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). It is known to mass at river mouths while waiting for suitable conditions to trigger off the breeding migrations upstream (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Used as live bait for tigerfish and large catfish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987).
183002		habitat	eng	<em>Brycinus imberi</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow and sheltered waters of swampy bays. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is generally restricted to shallow waters where they may be found in various habitats such as over sand, rock or, less frequently, in aquatic weed beds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987).  It is common in shallow vegetated areas (Eccles 1992). The species is also found in large rivers and floodplain pans and lagoons. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> feeds on insects, tiny fishes, vegetable matters (Konings 1990) and crustaceans (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Its main predator is the tigerfish (Skelton 1993). The species breeds in the summer, migrating to spawning sites after rains. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> migrates to tributary rivers and floodplains when the rivers come down in spate Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). It is known to mass at river mouths while waiting for suitable conditions to trigger off the breeding migrations upstream (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987).  Used as live bait for tigerfish and large catfish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Assumed to be the same as <em>Arnoldichthys spilopterus.</em> It prefers streams, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.
183002		habitat	eng	Found in a wide variety of habitats including large rivers, floodplains and lagoons. Feeds on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates and plant material.
183002		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow and sheltered waters of swampy bays. Generally restricted to shallow waters where they may be found in various habitats such as over sand, rock or, less frequently, in aquatic weed beds. It is also found in large rivers and floodplain pans and lagoons. It feeds on insects, tiny fishes, vegetable matters and crustaceans. Migrates to tributary rivers and floodplains during flood to breed.
183002		habitat	eng	Wide ecological range - found in open waters of large rivers through to marginal lagoons.
183002		population	eng	In suitable open water habitats it is usually common.
183002		population	eng	No available data.
183002		population	eng	No information available.
183002		population	eng	Not known, but not frequent in fisheries catches, and thought that in suitable open water habitats it is usually common. The population has been declining despite the fact that it supports a subsistence fishery in Lake Rukwa.
183002		population	eng	Not known, but not frequent in fisheries catches.The population has been declining despite the fact that it supports a subsistence fishery in Lake Rukwa.
183002		threats	eng	Likely threat is dam construction which may prevent spawning migratory runs.
183002		threats	eng	None known.
183002		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension in the watersheds.
183002		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
183002		threats	eng	This species faces different threats in different regions:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is commercially collected as an aquarium fish<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension in the watersheds pose a threat to this species<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> No major threats are known in this region.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> A likely threat is dam construction which may prevent spawning migratory runs.
183003		conservation	eng	None known.
183003		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius brevis</em> is known from the central and upper Congo River basin.
183003		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius brevis</em> is a demersal species. The stomach contents contain shrimps, large sized larvae and pieces of fish (Gosse 1963).
183003		population	eng	No information available.
183003		threats	eng	None known.
183004		conservation	eng	None known.
183004		distribution	eng	<em>Tetracamphilius pectinatus</em> is known from the mainstream of the Ubangui upstream from Bangui, from the type locality at the Luozi River in the Lower Congo basin, and from the Lulua River near Luluabourg (=Kananga) in the Kasai region, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Roberts 2003).
183004		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
183004		population	eng	No information available.
183004		threats	eng	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. It can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
183005		conservation	eng	None known.
183005		conservation	eng	Partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon.
183005		conservation	eng	The range of this species is partly included within the Korpu National Park in Cameroon. Monitoring of population trends is needed, and more research into the threats for this species.
183005		distribution	eng	<em>Clarias camerunsensis</em> is known from coastal rivers in Togo to the Congo River basin. It has been recorded from Yambio in Sudan (identified by Teugels, G. in 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa, <em>C. camerunensis</em> occurs in the Volta, and in the coastal basins of Togo, Benin and Nigeria, including the Niger delta and the Cross River. It has been reported from Ghana (Trewavas and Irvine 1947), and in the Bagbwe River (Sierra Leone).
183005		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. camerunensis</span> occurs in the Volta, and in the coastal basins of Togo, Benin and Nigeria, including the Niger delta and the Cross River. Also in the Bagbwe River (Sierra-Leonne).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere, it is found in the coastal basins of Cameroon, in the Ogowe (Gabon) and the Middle and Lower Congo. Also found in Angola, South Africa, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea.
183005		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias camerunsensis</em> is known from coastal rivers in Togo to the Congo River basin; it is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has been reported from Ghana (Trewavas and Irvine 1947). It has been recorded from Yambio in Sudan (identified by Teugels, G. in 1986).
183005		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias camerunensis</em> is a demersal species. Data on the diet of <em>C. walkeri</em> (same as <em>C. camerunensis</em>) showed larvae of mayflies, chironomids, and caddis insects to be the main food of small and middle-sized specimens (Matthes 1964).
183005		habitat	eng	<em>Clarias camerunensis</em> is a demersal species. Data on the diet showed larvae of mayflies, chironomids, and caddis insects to be the main food of small and middle-sized specimens (Matthes 1964). This species is a medium sized clariid with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
183005		habitat	eng	This species is a medium sized clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.
183005		population	eng	No available data.
183005		population	eng	No information available.
183005		threats	eng	None known.
183005		threats	eng	Oil  exploration  in the Niger Delta, and impacts of agriculture, deforestation and urban developments. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams.
183005		threats	eng	Oil exploration (Niger Delta) and impacts of agriculture, deforestation and urban developments poses major threats to this species. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration, however it can generally pass the smaller dams.
183006		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on this species distribution.
183006		distribution	eng	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in upper portions of Cross River basin in Cameroon (Vari and Ferraris 2004).
183006		habitat	eng	<em>Nannocharax reidi</em> is a pelagic species.
183006		population	eng	No information available.
183006		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183007		conservation	eng	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). Habitat restoration and trends and monitoring are needed.
183007		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwestern Ghana and Southeastern Cote d’Ivoire (basins of the Pra, Tano and Bia) and Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana.
183007		habitat	eng	Adapted to living in fast-flowing rivers with rapids. This is a demersal species.
183007		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
183007		threats	eng	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices around Lake Bosumtwi. Resultant increases in sediment loads and leaching of pesticides and other agrochemicals may pose threats to the health of the fish. Other threats include invasive aquatic weeds and effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of these coastal rivers especially the Ankobra, Pra and Ofin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Timber felling is an important threat in the Tano. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.
183008		conservation	eng	None known.
183008		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus latens</em> is currently known only from two specimens from the region of Bulu. Despite concerted efforts to collect this species in and around Bulu (Staissny), no additional specimens have been located. It is probable the species lives in deeper water habitats.
183008		habitat	eng	<em>Mastacembelus latens</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rapids (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
183008		population	eng	No information available.
183008		threats	eng	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in 5 years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.
183009		conservation	eng	None known.
183009		distribution	eng	<em>Parakneria ladigesi</em> is only known from the Cafunfo, Kwango River, Central Congo River basin, Angola. The species has recently been collected in the Lulua River (Kasai).
183009		habitat	eng	<em>Parakneria ladigesi</em> is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 7.8 cm (Poll 1984).
183009		population	eng	No information available.
183009		threats	eng	None known.
183010		conservation	eng	None known. Research is needed into this species taxonomy and distribution.
183010		distribution	eng	<em>Gephyroglanis gymnorhynchu</em>s is known from the Aruwimi River and Port Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
183010		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
183010		population	eng	No information available.
183010		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183011		conservation	eng	None known.
183011		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality at Ivindo River in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).
183011		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis armatus</em> is a demersal species. It is found in a blackwater forest stream with sand and leaf litter bottom (Ng 2004).
183011		population	eng	No information available.
183011		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183012		conservation	eng	None known.
183012		distribution	eng	<em>Amphilius zairensis</em> is known from the Lower Congo. It has also been found in Kisangani in the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), in the upper Congo River, on the route from Kisangani to Wanie Rukula and in the Aruwimi River. These records may need to be verified though.
183012		habitat	eng	<em>Amphilius zairensis</em> is a demersal species. It occurs in the mainstream and high gradient tributaries (Skelton 1986). It is specially found in rapids.
183012		population	eng	No information available.
183012		threats	eng	None known.
183013		conservation	eng	None known.
183013		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus iturii</em> is only known from the type locality, the Ituri River, Central Congo River basin.
183013		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus iturii</em> is a benthopelagic species.
183013		population	eng	No information available.
183013		threats	eng	None known.
183014		conservation	eng	None known.
183014		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Niger delta (Nigeria).
183014		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neolebias powelli</span> is a small riverine pelagic distichodontid characiform that grows to 1.6 cm in standard length. It is non-migratory.
183014		population	eng	No available data.
183014		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is oil exploration within the delta.
183015		conservation	eng	None known.
183015		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus brachyrhinus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River rapids and from the Kisangani region. It has also been found in the Ubangui River, upriver from Bangui. The species is difficult to catch, thus the distribution is probably larger than currently known.
183015		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is found in rapids (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).
183015		population	eng	No information available.
183015		threats	eng	None known.
183016		conservation	eng	None known.
183016		distribution	eng	<em>Psammphiletria delicata</em> is currently only known from the type locality Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo (Roberts 2003).
183016		habitat	eng	<em>Psammphiletria delicata</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand.
183016		population	eng	No information available.
183016		threats	eng	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.
183017		conservation	eng	None known.
183017		distribution	eng	<em>Euchilichthys royauxi</em> is known from the Congo basin, up to Lake Mweru system, including the Dja basin (Cameroon), Kafunfo, Kwango basin (Angola) and Ubangui River.
183017		habitat	eng	<em>Euchilichthys royauxi</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
183017		population	eng	No information available.
183017		threats	eng	None known.
183018		conservation	eng	None known.
183018		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo kirkii</em> is known from the Lower, Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known the Rovuma River, which is the type locality (Lévêque and Daget 1984), situated on the border between Tanzania and Mozambique.
183018		habitat	eng	<em>Labeo kirkii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is known to occur in rapid waters and swampy areas (Tshibwabwa 1997).
183018		population	eng	No information available.
183018		threats	eng	None known.
183019		conservation	eng	None known.
183019		distribution	eng	<em>Microstomatichthyoborus katangae</em> is known from the Lualaba River system.
183019		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
183019		population	eng	No information available.
183019		threats	eng	None known.
183020		conservation	eng	Management of riverine fisheries may reduce impacts on this species.
183020		distribution	eng	This species is known from the middle and lower Zambezi south to the lower Save River. It is present in major tributaries but does not penetrate into tributary streams.
183020		habitat	eng	It is found in main channels of large rivers where it prefers hiding during the day in root stocks and under rocks.
183020		population	eng	No information available.
183020		threats	eng	This species is taken in subsistence fisheries but many people do not consume it. It is difficult to assess impacts on this species as it appears to be naturally rare and main river channels are difficult to sample.
183021		conservation	eng	None known.
183021		distribution	eng	<em>Cypomyrus weeksii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.
183021		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
183021		population	eng	No information available.
183021		threats	eng	None known.
183022		conservation	eng	None known.
183022		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus humeralis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from the Lukuga and Lubalaye Rivers, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. One specimen has been caught in Lake Upemba (Poll 1933).
183022		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus humeralis</em> is a benthopelagic species.
183022		population	eng	No information available.
183022		threats	eng	None known.
183023		conservation	eng	None known.
183023		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities, along the road from Kougouleu to Medouneu, all in the vicinity of the village of Engong Mouame, in the basin of the Komo River of northwestern Gabon. It is possibly also known from one point on Cape Esturias.
183023		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) kouamense</em> occurs in still water of brooks and small streams in the rain forest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
183023		population	eng	No information available.
183023		threats	eng	None known.
183024		conservation	eng	None known.
183024		distribution	eng	<em>Leptocypris weynsii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the lower, central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
183024		habitat	eng	<em>Leptocypris weynsii</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.
183024		population	eng	No information available.
183024		threats	eng	None known.
183025		conservation	eng	Located within the Korup National Park.
183025		conservation	eng	None known.
183025		conservation	eng	Part of its range falls within the Korup National Park. Population trends should be monitored.
183025		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Synodontis obesus</em> has been reported from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region it is known from the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, and possibly the Nyong basins. <br/><br/>In West Africa, it occurs in coastal basins from Ghana to Gabon, including the Ofin and Infoan (Ghana), Mono (Togo), Opoba, Enyong and Cross (Nigeria).
183025		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is widely distributed. It occurs in various coastal basins from Ghana to Gabon, including the Ofin and Infoan (Ghana), Mono (Togo), Opobo, Enyong and Cross (Nigeria). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region, this species occurs in several Cameroonian basins: Kribi, Lobé, Sanaga, and Wouri (Cameroon). There are also two paralectotypes from Gabon without any precise information on collection localities. Also recorded from the Central African Republic.
183025		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ghana to Gabon.<br><br><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Synodontis obesus</em> has been reported from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region it is known from the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, and possibly the Nyong basins. <br><br><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in various coastal basins including the Ofin and Infoan (Ghana), Mono (Togo), Opobo, Enyong and Cross (Nigeria).
183025		habitat	eng	<em>Syonodontis obesus</em> is a benthopelagic riverine species. Its electric organ is located dorsally emitting a weak electric current for location and protection, and consists of modified striated muscle (Møller 1995). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is able to breath air so able to live in anoxic conditions.
183025		habitat	eng	<em>Syonodontis obesus</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its electric organ is located dorsally and consists of modified striated muscle (Møller 1995).  It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
183025		habitat	eng	This is a bentho-pelagic riverine species. Planktivore. Able to breath air so able to live in anoxic conditions. Has a dorsal electric organ emitting a weak electric current for location and protection.
183025		population	eng	No available data.
183025		population	eng	No information available.
183025		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis obesus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
183025		threats	eng	None known.
183026		conservation	eng	None known.
183026		distribution	eng	<em>Barbus longifilis</em> is only known from the Luhoho River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.
183026		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus longifilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 32 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).
183026		population	eng	No information available.
183026		threats	eng	War in the Kivu region could have negative consequences for the populations. Agriculture activities in the region could pose minor problems.
183027		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
183027		distribution	eng	<em>Microthrissa moeruensis</em> is endemic to Lake Mweru, upper Congo River basin.
183027		habitat	eng	<em>Microthrissa moeruensis</em> is a pelagic, lacustrine species but perhaps it is also found in small streams or rivers feeding Lake Mweru.
183027		population	eng	No information available.
183027		threats	eng	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species, causing a decline in population size.
183028		conservation	eng	None known.
183028		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Benue and lower Niger to the Comoé. It has also been reported from other coastal rivers such as the Ibu, Ogun and Mono, as well as from the Volta basin.
183028		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183028		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
183028		threats	eng	Oil spills in the Niger delta may affect the populations living there.
183029		conservation	eng	None known.
183029		distribution	eng	This species is found in the upper Comoé River drainage in Southern Burkina Faso, in the upper Konkouré and This species is known from upper Bafing River systems in Guinea, the upper Gambia River system in southeastern Senegal, and the system of the Bani River, a tributary to the Niger in southern Mali.
183029		habitat	eng	This species lives in quiet brooks, swamps, and the swampy and weeded parts of small streams. It is a benthopelagic non-migratory species. Maximum size 6.0 cm
183029		population	eng	No available data.
183029		threats	eng	None known.
183030		conservation	eng	None known.
183030		distribution	eng	<em>Trachyglanis ineac</em> is known from Yangambi, Yangole and Yaekama (Central Congo River basin).
183030		habitat	eng	<em>Trachyglanis ineac</em> is a demersal species. It is a microphagous, especially an entomophagous species (Matthes 1964). Micro-organisms, fish eggs and small insect larvae were found in the stomach contents (Matthes 1964). It is mainly found in the vegetated borders of small streams where it holds itself between the vegetation in the current (Matthes 1964).
183030		population	eng	No information available.
183030		threats	eng	None known.
183031		conservation	eng	None known.
183031		distribution	eng	<em>Synodontis alberti</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.
183031		habitat	eng	<em>Synodontis alberti</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a nocturnal species (Burgess 1989) and is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).
183031		population	eng	No information available.
183031		threats	eng	<em>Synodontis alberti</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.
183032		conservation	eng	None known.
183032		distribution	eng	<em>Labeo sp.</em> is only known from its origin locality: Magba, Mbam River, Cameroon.
183032		habitat	eng	No information available.
183032		population	eng	No information available.
183032		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183033		conservation	eng	None known.
183033		distribution	eng	<em>Protopterus dolloi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basins. It also occurs in the Ogowe, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme Rivers in the Lower Guinea region.
183033		habitat	eng	<em>Protopterus dolloi</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. This species is not aestivating in cocoons during the dry-season, although it never lost the capability to aestivate (Poll 1961). However, in the dry season, the male guards the eggs and larvae in the nest, which is built in the mud of the swamps, while the females can be found in the open water of the rivers (Brien 1959). The diet of <em>Protopterus dolloi </em> consists of fishes and insects, but during the time of reproduction his food is more vegetarian (Poll 1961, Roux 1967). Nests are found from June until October; the male guards the eggs and young (Poll 1961).
183033		population	eng	No information available.
183033		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.
183034		conservation	eng	None known. Research is needed into the population range and numbers of this species.
183034		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrops batesianus</em> is only known from one location, the Bumba River, Dja River basin,  Central Congo River basin in South Cameroon.
183034		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
183034		population	eng	No information available.
183034		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183035		conservation	eng	None known.
183035		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Neolebias unifasciatus</span> is distributed throughout western Africa, from Gambia to the Chad basin (except in the River Senegal). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> It also occurs in Cameroon, Gabon and in the Central African Republic (Chad and Ubangui basins).
183035		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em> occurs in most river systems including Cameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic (Chad and Oubangui basins, and the Dja, Sangha and Ubangui river systems). Elsewhere it is widespread in rivers of west and west central Africa from Gambia to Chad, including the Lake Chad basin (but is absent from the Senegal River).
183035		distribution	eng	This is a wide-ranging species from Senegal to Central African Republic and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em> occurs in most river systems including Cameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic (Chad and Oubangui basins), as well as the Dja, Sangha and Ubangui River systems, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout West Africa, from Gambia to the Chad basin (except in the River Senegal).
183035		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em>is a pelagic species.
183035		habitat	eng	<em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em>is a pelagic species that inhabits freshwaters with a pH range from 6.0 to 7.0.
183035		habitat	eng	Pelagic fish.
183035		population	eng	No available data.
183035		population	eng	No information available.
183035		threats	eng	None known
183035		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183036		conservation	eng	None known.
183036		distribution	eng	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in southwestern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea.
183036		habitat	eng	This species is demersal.
183036		population	eng	No information available.
183036		threats	eng	Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region leads to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.
183037		conservation	eng	None known.
183037		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality in the lower Ogowe River drainage in Gabon (Ng 2004).
183037		habitat	eng	<em>Microsynodontis vigilis</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a forest stream with a sandy bottom (Ng 2004).
183037		population	eng	No information available.
183037		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183038		conservation	eng	None known.
183038		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is found in marshes, creeks and small rivers in the upper coastal lowlands and plateau around Bouaké in Southern and central Côte d’Ivoire. It is also found in the drainage systems of the upper and Middle White Bandama and Maraoué rivers and the Middle Comoé River in central Côte d’Ivoire.
183038		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits marshes, creeks and small rivers in the upper coastal lowlands. Maximum size: male 70 mm TL, female 60 mm TL
183038		population	eng	No available data.
183038		threats	eng	The quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to deforestion, urban and forestry developments.
183039		conservation	eng	No information available.
183039		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from the Niger and Volta basins, western Africa.
183039		habitat	eng	This subspecies is demersal.
183039		population	eng	No information available.
183039		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degredation from agricultural and urban development, deforestation and invasive weeds are likely to affect the habitat of the subspecies.
183040		conservation	eng	None known.
183040		distribution	eng	This subspecies seems to be  known from the Comoé basin and the Volta basin.
183040		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183040		population	eng	No available data.
183040		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and deforestation threaten this subspecies.
183042		conservation	eng	None known.
183042		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Ogowe River of central Congo.
183042		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion wachtersi wachtersi</em> is found in pools, brooks and small streams in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) wachtersi wachtersi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
183042		population	eng	No information available.
183042		threats	eng	None known.
183043		conservation	eng	More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183043		conservation	eng	No information available.
183043		conservation	eng	None known.
183043		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present from Senegal to southern Cameroon.
183043		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> One record from the Ja River in south Cameroon, which is a part of the Congo River system. Brackish water from Senegal (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991) to southern Cameroon.  Introduced to several countries in Asia, USA and Europe (Wohlfarth and Hulata 1983).  At least one country reports adverse ecological impact after introduction. After introduction, probably established in Suriname and established in the USA and Hawaii. Probably not established in Russia and not established in Japan.
183043		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in lagoons and estuaries from Cote d'Ivoire to southern Cameroon.
183043		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in lagoons and estuaries from Cote d'Ivoire to southern Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There is one record from the Dja River in south Cameroon, which is a part of the Congo River system. The subspecies may be more widespread within Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal regions from Nigeria to Côte d'Ivoire.
183043		habitat	eng	Demersal species that is primarily estuarine, found in mangroves and lower reaches of streams also fresh and salt water. Mainly nocturnal, feeds on aufwuchs (animals encrusted on hard surfaces) and detritus, as well as on bivalves and zooplankton.
183043		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is a demersal, primarily estuarine species. It occurs in lower reaches of streams and can tolerate high salinity (Page and Burr 1981). It is abundant in mangrove areas and ventures in to both fresh and salt waters in native and non-native ranges (GSMFC 2003). It forms schools and is mainly nocturnal with intermittent daytime feeding. This species feeds on aufwuchs and detritus (Trewavas 1983), as well as on bivalves and zooplankton (Diouf 1996). This species spawns in shallow water close inshore. The initiative in courtship, pit digging and mating activities are taken by the female. Eventually a male is stimulated to react in a mainly passive manner and a pair-bond is established. The sexual dimorphism is minimala and there is no T-stand by the partners during fertilization. This species exhibits a mouth-brooding habit (Eyeson 1983). The males mainly incubate the eggs (Eyeson 1979).
183043		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is a demersal, primarily estuarine species. It occurs in lower reaches of streams and can tolerate high salinity (Page and Burr 1981). It is abundant in mangrove areas and ventures into both fresh and salt waters in native and non-native ranges (GSMFC 2003). It forms schools and is mainly nocturnal with intermittent daytime feeding. This subspecies feeds on aufwuchs and detritus (Trewavas 1983), as well as on bivalves and zooplankton (Diouf 1996). This subspecies spawns in shallow water close inshore. The initiative in courtship, pit digging and mating activities are taken by the female. Eventually a male is stimulated to react in a mainly passive manner and a pair-bond is established. The sexual dimorphism is minimal and there is no T-stand by the partners during fertilization. This subspecies exhibits a mouth-brooding habit (Eyeson 1983). The males mainly incubate the eggs (Eyeson 1979).
183043		habitat	eng	The taxon is primarily estuarine. It is abundant in mangrove areas and venture into both fresh and salt waters in native and non-native ranges.
183043		population	eng	No available data.
183043		population	eng	No information available.
183043		threats	eng	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is used for aquaculture and as an aquarium fish. In western Africa, it is locally threatened by dams, agriculture and urban development.
183043		threats	eng	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is used for aquaculture and as an aquarium species.
183043		threats	eng	Locally threatened by dams, agriculture and urban development.
183043		threats	eng	No information available.
183044		conservation	eng	None known.
183044		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from the River Cess (Nipoué) in Liberia.
183044		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183044		population	eng	No available data.
183044		threats	eng	There is evidence of catchment degradation due to deforestation resulting in siltation.
183046		conservation	eng	No information available.
183046		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183046		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Pollimyrus isidori isidori</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Gambia, middle Niger, Volta and Chad basins, coastal rivers of Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra, Bandama, Mé); also including the Nile. It is also known from the Bénoué and Senegal Rivers. It is rare in Lake Nesser.
183046		distribution	eng	This is a wideranging subspecies found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along the length of the Nile to Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in the upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the Nile from the delta to Gondokoro but is also recorded from the Blue Nile, and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies has a wide distribution area: Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta, Cross and from some coastal rivers in Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra, Comoé, Agnébi, Mé).
183046		habitat	eng	It lives in quiet water of rivers, moving on to flood plains to breed. The fish spends most of its time suspended in mid-water but occasionally lie on the muddy bottom. Its food consists mainly of annelid worms, anthropods and vegetation. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD). It is a fractional spawner; females able to spawn up to 26 times in the course of one reproductive cycle, laying about 125 eggs per spawning episode. It reaches a maximum length to 10 cm.
183046		habitat	eng	This subspecies lives in quiet water of rivers, moving on to flood plains to breed. The fish spends most of its time suspended in mid-water but occasionally lie on the muddy bottom. Its food consists mainly of annelid worms, anthropods and vegetation. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration (0.08 ms) that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species. During the breeding season, males build nests and while patrolling their territory sporadically emit EODs at a mean rate of 18 Hz. Participating females, on the other hand, discharge at a fairly regular rate (8-11 Hz) and this has been shown to play a role in sex recognition during courtship and spawning. Male and female EOD waveforms also differ in the amplitude ratio of the first and third phase. Also produce natural sounds ('grunts', 'moans', 'growl', etc.) at different phases of courtship, nesting and territorial defence. A fractional spawner; females able to spawn up to 26 times in the course of one reproductive cycle, laying about 125 eggs per spawning episode. Larval electric organ situated in the deep lateral musculature; that of adults in the caudal peduncle.
183046		population	eng	No information available.
183046		threats	eng	Deforestation may be a local threat. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
183046		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183048		conservation	eng	None known.
183048		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the hills of the Lekoumou Province in central Congo, Kouilou-Niari system and in the adjacent area of the upper Ogowe River system in southeastern Gabon.
183048		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion ogoense pyrophore</em> is found in rainforest brooks and small streams in the hills. It is a benthopelagic subspecies.
183048		population	eng	No information available.
183048		threats	eng	The northern part of the subspecies distribution is threatened by mining manganese which is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation. In the southern part, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.
183049		conservation	eng	No information available.
183049		conservation	eng	None known.
183049		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus bovei bovei</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) in Rosetta Branch and Lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is found in Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins, including the Nile. It is also known from Côte d'Ivoire.
183049		distribution	eng	This subspecies has a widespread Nilo-Sudanian distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">bovei</span> is restricted to the Cross River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Now Regionally Extinct, it was previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) in Rosetta branch and Lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile and Ghazal system, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The distribution area of <em>P. bovei bovei </em>covers most of the region between Senegal and Nigeria, as well as in the Lake Chad area.
183049		habitat	eng	Demersal, potamodrous taxon. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD).
183049		habitat	eng	<em>Petrocephalus bove bovei</em> is a demersal, potamodromous fish associated with lakes. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the subspecies (Hansen <em>et al.</em> 1983, Møller <em>et al.</em> 1979). The EOD temporal pattern cues have been shown to play a role in species recognition for <em>P. bovei</em> (Kramer and Lücker 1990). A ratio measure between olfactory and visual receptor areas suggests that this fish relies more on visual than olfactory information (Grossman 1983). <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is a fractional spawner (Kirschbaum 1995, Albaret 1982). It builds a nest for the eggs. No guarding or tending has been observed, though.
183049		population	eng	No information available.
183049		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and groundwater extraction.
183049		threats	eng	Threats to this subspecies are unknown.
183050		conservation	eng	None known.
183050		distribution	eng	This subspecies is distributed from Lake Bosumtwi to the rivers Tano in Ghana, Sassandra, Bandama and Comoé in Côte d’Ivoire
183050		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish of maximum size of 13.7 cm SL. The young are carnivorous, the greater proportion of their stomach contents consists of insects from the water surface. Adults feed exclusively on phytoplankton, blue-green algae and desmids (an algae). This subspecies is mainly nocturnal. In open waters, it undergoes a diel migration, sinking to depths of up to 30 m by day and rising to the surface at night. It reportedly undergoes a diel vertical migration in open waters and with a horizontal component in the littoral zone. It feeds at night near the surface. The lacustrine habitat is characterized by a high concentration of sodium salts and a high pH and alkalinity.
183050		population	eng	No available data.
183050		threats	eng	There are widespread threats to this subspecies, particularly from agricultural, urban developments and deforestation.
183051		conservation	eng	None known.
183051		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus caballus </em><em>caballus </em><em> </em>is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from the Lower Congo River basin and from the southern tributaries of the Central Congo River basin.
183051		habitat	eng	This is a demersal subspecies.
183051		population	eng	No information available.
183051		threats	eng	None known.
183052		conservation	eng	No information available.
183052		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the hot springs in the upper Northern Ewaso Nyiro above Chandler's Falls.
183052		habitat	eng	This fish feeds on filamentous green algae and unicellular and four-celled algae (probably blue-green algae). It also feeds on insects as parts of insect cuticle were found in stomach contents, and fish were seen to consume dead insects thrown on the water (Trewavas 1983).
183052		population	eng	No information available.
183052		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.
183053		conservation	eng	No information available.
183053		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, use and harvest levels, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183053		conservation	eng	None
183053		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Citharinus citharus citharus</em> is very rare in the Egyptian Upper Nile at Luxor. It used to be caught from the Nile near Cairo and Giza but disappeared from these regions after the High-Dam Construction.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Upper Nile, Blue and White Niles, Chad basin, Senegal, Niger, Uganda and Gambia.
183053		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles. <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower Nile and Lake Chad.
183053		distribution	eng	This subspecies is widely distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia, and from Egypt to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, and the Albert and Murchison Niles. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This subspecies is very rare in Egyptian This species is known from upper Nile at Luxor. It used to be caught from the Nile near Cairo and Giza but disappeared from these regions after the High-Dam Construction.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Lake Nubia, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies is common in the large Sudanese basins: Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad.
183053		habitat	eng	Inhabits the shallow inshore waters of Lake Albert where it is absent or rare in deeper waters. Feeds on macroplankton particularly detrital particles. Also reported to feed on the surface algal film. No information available on breeding habits in Lake Albert.
183053		habitat	eng	It is an anadromous subspecies which usually inhabits inshore waters of lakes, and is absent or rare in deeper open water. Food consists mainly of diatoms, macroplankton especially crustaceans, and sometimes bottom worms and small prey. Also reported to feed on the surface algal film. Spawning takes place is swampy areas during the season of heavy rainfall.
183053		habitat	eng	This anadromous taxon usually inhabits inshore waters of lakes, being absent or rare in deeper open water. It feeds mainly diatoms, macroplankton especially crustaceans, sometimes bottom worms and small prey. Spawning takes place is swampy areas during the season of heavy rainfall. Its length is 45-60 cm.
183053		population	eng	No information available.
183053		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183053		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.
183053		threats	eng	This is an important food fish, and overfishing is a potential threat throughout its range. In the Oti (Ghana), one major threat is aquatic weeds. Threats to this fish may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices, as in the Black Volta. (Entsua-Mensah 1996). In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this subspecies.
183054		conservation	eng	No information available.
183054		distribution	eng	This subspecies is native to Kenya and Ethiopia. It has been introduced, in 1950, for aquacultural purposes, from Kenya to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal rivers of Kenya from the Mwena River near the Tanzania border to the Sabaki-Galana below Lugard's Falls. It is also found in pools and lakes in the Athi flood-plain and coastal lagoons near its mouth, including the warm and saline Lake Chem, as well as Lower and Middle Tana and the Northern Ewaso Nyiro. It has also been introduced to many dams and river systems including Lake Kamnarok, the Kerio drainage, and the Lake Turkana system.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This subspecies occurs in Wabishebelle, Ethiopia.
183054		habitat	eng	<em>Oreochromis spilurus</em> is a benthopelagic species.
183054		population	eng	No information available.
183054		threats	eng	No information available.
183055		conservation	eng	No information available.
183055		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183055		conservation	eng	None known.
183055		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is known Senegal to Ethiopia and Tanzania; from the White Nile, Lake Albert, Lake Turkana, Omo River, Lake Chad and Chari River, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), it has been introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad to Yaoundé, Cameroon. Its presence has been confirmed by a single museum specimen and record from a pond at Melen, Cameroon (Nyong River basin) collected by Thys van den Audenaerde in 1964. It is unknown whether the subspecies is established or not.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, the Victoria Nile below Murchison Falls, the Albert Nile, and the Lake Turkana basin (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies is recorded from the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum and beyond in Sudan, and Baro and Omo Rivers in Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta and Chad basins, Oti, and Pra (Dankwa 1985).
183055		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is recorded from the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the Nile basin and West Africa, including Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta and Lake Chad basins.
183055		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is known from the White Nile, Lake Albert, Lake Turkana, Omo River, Lake Chad and Chari River, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), it has been introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad (12°07’N-15°03’E) to Yaoundé, Cameroon (3°52’N-11°31’E). Its presence has been confirmed by a single museum specimen and record from a pond at Melen, Cameroon (03°51'N-11°30'E) (Nyong River basin) collected by Thys van den Audenaerde in 1964. It is unknown whether the species is established or not.
183055		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Victoria Nile below Murchison Falls, the Albert Nile, and the Lake Turkana basin (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo and Lualaba river basins, Nile basin, Senegal, Gambia, Niger and Volta basins, and Lake Chad.
183055		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypterus senegalus senegalus</span> has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta and Chad basins, Oti, Pra (Dankwa 1985) <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere in Africa in the Nile basin (Gosse 1990).
183055		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> inhabits marginal swamps and freshwater lagoons and it appears to favour sheltered inshore habitats; it inhabits the muddy regions at the sides of rivers and swampy waters, where it lies quiet or glides about with snake movements. During the hottest hours of the day, it comes to the surface just on the outer edge of the vegetation, and it goes back to the bottom when disturbed. It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fish. <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is mainly insectivorous Longevity of <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> in captivity can be 34 years and more. It is a demersal, potamodromous species.
183055		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> inhabits marginal swamps and freshwater lagoons (Roberts 1967) and it appears to favour sheltered inshore habitats (Lewis 1974); it inhabits the muddy regions at the sides of rivers and swampy waters, where it lies quiet or glides about with snake movements (Worthington 1929). During the hottest hours of the day, it comes to the surface just on the outer edge of the vegetation, and it goes back to the bottom when disturbed (Pekkola 1919). It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fish (Greenwood 1966, Bailey 1994). <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is mainly insectivorous (Blache 1964) Longevity of <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> in captivity can be 34 years and more (Brown 1957). Larval fish were found in papyrus root mat and juveniles of up to 10 cm TSL retaining external gills were found in fringing water hyacinth. It is a demersal, potamodromous species (Reide 2004). In the Sudd, breeding commences in swamps at the start of the floods and continues amongst floodplain migrants.
183055		habitat	eng	Inhabits swamps, rivers and lakes. Larval fish have been found in papyrus root mat and juveniles retaining external gills were found in fringing water hyacinth. It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fishes (Bailey 1994, Blache 1964, Reed <em>et al. 1999).</em>
183055		habitat	eng	It inhabits the muddy regions at the sides of rivers and swampy waters. It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fishes.
183055		habitat	eng	The species inhabits swamps, rivers and lakes. Demersal. Feeds mainly on fishes, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs as well as on plant fragments and seeds. In the Sudd, breeding commences in swamps at the start of the floods and continues amongst floodplain migrants.
183055		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183055		population	eng	No estimates for population
183055		population	eng	No information available.
183055		threats	eng	Local loss of wetland habitats threatens east African populations. There is no information available on threats to this subspecies in other regions.
183055		threats	eng	No information available.
183055		threats	eng	None known
183055		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the local loss of wetland habitats.
183055		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183056		conservation	eng	No information available.
183056		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the Athi River and Tributaries above Lugard's Falls and the upper tributaries of the Tana River. It has also been introduced to many dams and river systems (see Trewavas (1983) for details).
183056		habitat	eng	To feed, it grazes on the surface water algal film. The main food items are diatoms, but at a larger size it will also eat insect larvae and, at least in a confined space, even small fishes (Trewavas 1983).
183056		population	eng	No information available.
183056		threats	eng	No information available.
183057		conservation	eng	None known.
183057		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this subspecies' biology and ecology, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183057		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri nigerianus</em> is found in upper Cross River in southeastern Nigeria.<br/>Elsewhere, it occurs in the Niger and Benue Rivers and upper systems of most coastal rivers in Nigeria.
183057		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found in the shallow and swampy parts of pools, brooks and small streams, usually in the secondary forest of southern and southwestern Nigeria and in the humid savannah areas of Central, Northern and Eastern Nigeria. It is found also in the drainage systems of the Niger and Benue rivers and most minor coastal rivers of southeastern Nigeria. It also occurs in the system of the Benue River in western Cameroon.
183057		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri nigerianus</em> is found in shallow and swampy parts of pools, brooks and small streams, usually in the secondary forest of southern and southwestern Nigeria and in the forested savannah areas of central, northern and eastern Nigeria. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
183057		habitat	eng	This fish is found in the shallow and swampy parts of pools, brooks and small streams, usually in the secondary forest of southern and southwestern Nigeria and in the humid savannah areas of central, northern and eastern Nigeria.
183057		population	eng	No information available.
183057		threats	eng	Agriculture, deforestation, oil exploration all threaten the habitat of this fish.
183057		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.
183058		conservation	eng	None known.
183058		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Louesse River system of southwestern Congo.
183058		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion wachtersi mikeae</em> is found in pools, brooks and small streams in the rainforest.
183058		population	eng	No information available.
183058		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.
183059		conservation	eng	None known.
183059		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality near Bifoun, on the northern side of the Ogowe River, northwestern Gabon.
183059		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion gabunense marginatum</em> is only known from a rainforest brook. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.
183059		population	eng	No information available.
183059		threats	eng	None known.
183060		conservation	eng	None known.
183060		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ngounie River in western Gabon.
183060		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion gabunense boehmi</em> is found in swamps and small swampy brooks in the coastal rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.
183060		population	eng	No information available.
183060		threats	eng	The locality is situated in a timber exploitation region.
183061		conservation	eng	None known.
183061		distribution	eng	<em>Ichthyborus besse congolensis</em> is known from the Tshopo River at Kisangani and from the Lualaba River basin.
183061		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic fish.
183061		population	eng	No information available.
183061		threats	eng	None known.
183062		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and status of this subspecies.
183062		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present in the lakes of the Ethiopian Rift Valley and part of the Omo River.
183062		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in standing and running waters.
183062		population	eng	No information available.
183062		threats	eng	No information available.
183063		conservation	eng	None known.
183063		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to the drainage systems of the upper Bandama and Kan rivers in Central Côte d’Ivoire. It represents the easternmost known subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys olbrechtsi</span>.
183063		habitat	eng	This subspecies is restricted to forest streams. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. It is a benthopelagic subspecies, and non-migratory. Maximum size 6.0 cm.
183063		population	eng	No available data.
183063		threats	eng	Threats to this subspecies include deterioration of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire by agriculture, industrial and urban development.
183064		conservation	eng	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of five years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project.
183064		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus stappersii kapangae</em> is known from the type locality, Kapanga, Katanga, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has also been recorded from Sandoa and Kasaji, upper Kasai River system and from Kasangami, Lufira River system. The subspecies is probably more widespread than currently known.
183064		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183064		population	eng	No information available.
183064		threats	eng	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.
183065		conservation	eng	None known.
183065		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from the River Cavally, between Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia.
183065		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183065		population	eng	No data on population trend
183065		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to farming and deforestation.
183066		conservation	eng	None known.
183066		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a small mountain stream, 27 km north-west of Zomoko, Ogowe system in northern Gabon.
183066		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense haasi</em> is found mainly in the shallowest parts of the stream, living in leaf litter.
183066		population	eng	No information available.
183066		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this subspecies.
183067		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
183067		conservation	eng	The subspecies has no protection. This fish needs a harvest management plan to prevent overfishing.
183067		distribution	eng	The subspecies has been recorded from lakes Chilwa and Chiuta on the Malawi/Mozambique border (Tweddle 1979).
183067		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Chilwa and its tributaries.
183067		habitat	eng	A generalist <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis</span> species feeding on plant detritus, blue-green algae, diatoms and planktonic crustacea (Kirk 1970, Furse 1979).
183067		habitat	eng	This subspecies feeds on a wide variety of foods. During the three life stages they have different food preferences. Larvae target zooplankton, juveniles target detritus while adults prefer phytoplankton. <br/>Spawning takes place in shallow sandy bottoms of the littoral areas of the lake and the breeding season extends from late August through to early May. The male constructs and guards a nest and entices spawning females. The fertilized eggs are gathered and hatched in the females’ mouth where they remain for 2-3 weeks. The main harvesting gears for this species are gill nets, matemba seines and the fish traps. Gill nets harvested about 50% of the total catch whereas the matemba seines and the fish traps harvest about 31% and 17% respectively (from 1979-1999). Lake Chilwa has been known to undergo moderate recession periods (in 1900, 1923, 1931/33, 1943, 1949, 1953/55 and 1960/61) as well as severe recession periods (in 1914/15, 1966/67 and 1995 ) which resulted complete drying out of the lake. After a severe recession period, research has shown that tilapia species such as <em>Oreochromis shiranus chilwae</em> and <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> are the last fish species to recolonize when the lake recovers. During such dry periods the fish take refuge in small remaining pools. In 1995 efforts were made by the Fisheries Department and communities to protect such pools from being fished out thus ensuring the availability of fish for restocking of the lake after it recovers. After the last severe drought in 1996 the lake recovered and the catches of this species started to recover to a total catch of about 3,600 tonnes in 1999.
183067		population	eng	A common fish but heavily impacted by fishing pressure.
183067		population	eng	A common species but heavily impacted by fishing pressure.
183067		threats	eng	The species is subject to an intensive fishery in the two lakes, resulting in considerable catch depletion. The range of distribution downstream of the lakes in Mozambique  is not known, hence the overall impact on stocks is unknown.
183067		threats	eng	The subspecies is subject to an intensive fishery in the two lakes, resulting in considerable catch depletion. It is also threatened by drought, with seasonal drying of the lake every few years.
183068		conservation	eng	No information available.
183068		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus catostoma haullevillei</em> is known only from the Chiloango and Niari-Kouilou systems.
183068		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183068		population	eng	No information available.
183068		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this subspecies.
183070		conservation	eng	None known.
183070		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Bandama, Comoé and Ouémé Rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">P. endlicheri endlicheri</span> is present in the Nile River.
183070		distribution	eng	This subspecies is patchily distributed from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum and beyond, Sudan, and Baro River in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Bandama, Comoé and Ouémé Rivers.
183070		habitat	eng	It inhabits swamps and rivers. It is demersal, and feeds upon fishes, snails and crustaceans.<br/>Electrobiology – electrosensing only.
183070		habitat	eng	The species lives in swamps and rivers. Demersal, feeds upon fishes, snails and crustaceans. Electrobiology – electrosensing only.
183070		population	eng	No information available.
183070		threats	eng	None known
183070		threats	eng	None known.
183071		conservation	eng	None known.
183071		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present in the rivers resulting from Fouta Djalon (Konkouré, Kolenté), High Senegal in Guinea and the coastal basins of Sierra Leone. It is endemic to this area.
183071		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183071		population	eng	No information available.
183071		threats	eng	This subspecies is impacted by overfishing and pollution due to agriculture and damming of rivers.
183072		conservation	eng	None known.
183072		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to the drainage system of the upper and middle Sassandra River, also recorded from the Cavally.
183072		habitat	eng	This subspecies inhabits brooks, streams, small rivers and swampy areas in the rainforest and guinean-type of savannah under gallery forest cover on the higher plateau of western Côte d’Ivoire.
183072		population	eng	No available data.
183072		threats	eng	This subspecies is impacted by the deterioration of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire by agriculture, industrial and urban development.
183073		conservation	eng	No information available.
183073		conservation	eng	No information available..
183073		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183073		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Protopterus aethiopicus aethiopicus</em> is very rare in Lake Nasser, just outside the region.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile, Lakes Albert, Edward, Victoria, Nabugabo, Tanganyika, Kyoga and No.
183073		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout eastern African Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Kanyaboli and Lake Turkana. Introduced into Lake Baringo in 1974. Records of this species from elsewhere in Kenya are based on misidentifications. There are only 3 occurrence records for Lake Turkana where the species seems to be very rare (KMFRI station, Kalokol, Turkana) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Also present in lakes Albert, Edward, Kyoga, George and Nabugabo and associated rivers and swamp systems. Around lake Tanganyika it is found in swamps associated with major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarazi (Eccles 1992). Introduced in the Upper Akagera system around 1988-1989 from lake Edward (De Vos <em>et al. 2001).
183073		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from along the length of the Nile, south to the Lake Victoria drainage in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed throughout Eastern Africa, including the Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Kanyaboli and Lake Turkana. It was introduced into Lake Baringo in 1974. Records of this species from elsewhere in Kenya are based on misidentifications. There are only three occurrence records for Lake Turkana where the species seems to be very rare (KMFRI station, Kalokol, Turkana) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpublished). It is also present in Lakes Albert, Edward, Kyoga, George and Nabugabo and associated rivers and swamp systems. Around Lake Tanganyika it is found in swamps associated with major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarazi (Eccles 1992). It was introduced in the upper Akagera system around 1988-1989 from Lake Edward (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but very rare in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan, as well as Baro River in Ethiopia.
183073		habitat	eng	Inhabits river and lake fringes, swamps and flood plains (Bailey 1994). In Lake Victoria it is found in the open lake and marginal swamps and in the Lake Tanganyika basin near rivers and deltas (Eccles 1992). This species can also live in streams and swamps which are completely dry for long periods of the year (Lockley 1949). It withstands desiccation by aestivating in cocoons until the next rains, breathing air by a small passage leading to the outside (Lockley 1949). The principal diet of adults and sub-adults consists of molluscs but small fishes and insects are also eaten in small quantities. Young individuals feed almost wholly on insects (Witte and de Winter 1995). Breeds during the flood season (Bailey 1994). One or several females spawn in burrows which are dug and cleaned by the male who later guards the eggs and the young.
183073		habitat	eng	It inhabits open lakes and marginal swamps. It burrows in the mud during the dry season to from a cocoon with an air channel extending to the surface of the soil. Breathing by both gills and lungs. Omnivorous, feeds mainly on fish, molluscs, worms and aquatic plants. It reaches a maximum length to 2 m.
183073		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits river and lake fringes, swamps and flood plains (Bailey 1994). In Lake Victoria it is found in the open lake and marginal swamps and in the Lake Tanganyika basin near rivers and deltas (Eccles 1992). This subspecies can also live in streams and swamps which are completely dry for long periods of the year (Lockley 1949). It withstands desiccation by aestivating in cocoons until the next rains, breathing air by a small passage leading to the outside (Lockley 1949). The principal diet of adults and sub-adults consists of molluscs but small fishes and insects are also eaten in small quantities. Young individuals of less than 35 cm TL feed almost wholly on insects (Witte and de Winter 1995). This subspecies breeds during the flood season (Bailey 1994). One or several females spawn in burrows which are dug and cleaned by the male who later guards the eggs and the young.
183073		population	eng	No information available.
183073		population	eng	Not known, but it is becoming rare in catches around Lake Tanganyika. Kudhongania and Cordone (1974) established a CPUE of 11,9 kg/haul/hour in 1967-1971 surveys compared to the recent surveys which indicate CPUE of 3 kg/haul/hour (Getabu and Nyaundi 1999). This indicates that the population is declining in Lake Victoria.
183073		population	eng	Not known, but it is becoming rare in catches around Lake Tanganyika. Kudhongania and Cordone (1974) established a CPUE of 11.9 kg/haul/hour in 1967-1971 surveys compared to the recent surveys which indicate CPUE of 3 kg/haul/hour (Getabu and Nyaundi 1999). This indicates that the population is declining in Lake Victoria.
183073		threats	eng	No information available.
183073		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are minor commercial fisheries, collection for aquariums and loss of wetland habitat due to agricultural encroachment.
183073		threats	eng	This subspecies has minor commercial importance in fisheries, and is also collected for the aquarium trade. Loss of wetland habitat due to agricultural encroachment also threatens this species in eastern Africa. No information is available on threats to this subspecies in other regions.
183074		conservation	eng	No information available.
183074		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the Wami River, Tanzania (Trewavas and Teugels, 1991). It is also present in Zanzibar but it was probably introduced (Trewavas 1966).
183074		habitat	eng	No information available.
183074		population	eng	No information available.
183074		threats	eng	No information available.
183075		conservation	eng	None known.
183075		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in southeastern Gabon and northern central Congo, in the upper Ogowe and Mpassa Rivers.
183075		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion ogoense ogoense</em> is found in brooks and small streams in the humid and forested savannah of the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic subspecies.
183075		population	eng	No information available.
183075		threats	eng	None known.
183076		conservation	eng	None known.
183076		distribution	eng	<em>Aphyosemion ogoense</em> is known from the upper Lefini River, Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Bembe plateau, from the upper Djoue and from the upper Bouenza River systems, Kouilou-Niari in southern Congo.
183076		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic subspecies. It occurs in brooks and small streams in the rainforest and forested savannah of the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).
183076		population	eng	No information available.
183076		threats	eng	The Imboulou dam on the lower Léfini could pose a threat to the subspecies.
183077		conservation	eng	None known.
183077		distribution	eng	<em>Sarotherodon galilaeus boulengeri</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River to the Lower Kasai.
183077		habitat	eng	This is a demersal subspecies.
183077		population	eng	No information available.
183077		threats	eng	None known.
183078		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and harvest levels, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat maintenance and conservation is also required.
183078		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
183078		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus catostoma catostoma</em> is known from the Zambian Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems south to the Save River (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Great Lakes and eastern Africa including the Tana River and Lake Victoria (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin.
183078		distribution	eng	This subspecies has a wide central and southern African distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus catostoma catostoma</em> is known from the Zambian Congo River system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004), Lake Nabugabo and Victoria Nile, middle and lower Akagera, as well as Lakes Tanganyika, Rukwa and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>  In southern Africa it is known from the Cunene River in the west east and south to the Save River in Mozambique.
183078		habitat	eng	Demersal; potamodromous; Occurs in shallow and muddy waters, sheltered bays, in lagoons, and swampy areas.  Forms shoal (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Prefers quiet parts of rivers where there is abundant vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Feeds mostly on insect larvae and other invertebrates at night (Konings 1990).  Shoals within quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains.  Oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).  Known to undergo upriver migration which may well be correlated with breeding (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Breeds during the rainy season, possibly moving upstream to suitable sites.  An unconfirmed report claims the males are territorial and build a nest (Skelton 1993).  Found schooling with other species with identical electric organ discharge (EOD) waveforms (Hopkins 1980).  Caught in nets for food (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982). It preferred habitats are streams, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.
183078		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, potamodromous fish. It occurs in shallow and muddy waters, sheltered bays, in lagoons, and swampy areas. In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be widely distributed throughout the system, in tributaries, on floodplains and in the main river on the floodplain and in the rocky stretches above Victoria Falls. It forms shoals (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) within quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains. This subspecies prefers quiet parts of rivers where there is abundant vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds mostly on insect larvae and other invertebrates at night (Konings 1990). It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966), and known to undergo upriver migration which may well be correlated with breeding (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It breeds during the rainy season, possibly moving upstream to suitable sites, and may make lateral movements from main river channels for breeding during the rains. An unconfirmed report claims the males are territorial and build a nest (Skelton 1993). It can be found schooling with other species with identical electric organ discharge (EOD) waveforms (Hopkins 1980). Caught in nets for food (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982).
183078		population	eng	No information available.
183078		threats	eng	In central Africa, overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the subspecies. It is an important subsistence fishery species, and has commercial value as an aquarium fish. In eastern Africa, threats include overfishing (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982), the aquarium trade, and the loss of floodplain biotopes due to agriculture extension.
183078		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Subsistence fisheries are a main threat to the species.  This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
183079		conservation	eng	None known.
183079		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Akono and Mefou River systems associated with the Yaoundé Massif. This subspecies exhibits a relict distribution of limited extent, south and west of Yaoundé, in central Cameroon.
183079		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense obscurum</em> is found in shallow and swampy parts of streams in the rainforest.
183079		population	eng	No information available.
183079		threats	eng	There are currently no threats. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).
183080		conservation	eng	None known.
183080		distribution	eng	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bichir lapradei</span>, the type of which comes from Senegal, is also present in the Gambia River, Géba River in Guinea Bissau, Volta River, Niger River, Benue River and Ouémé River.
183080		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish. This subspecies inhabits rivers and swamps. It migrates to the flooded lands and swamps to spawn. It appears to be entirely piscivorous when adult. Maximum size 74.0 cm TL
183080		population	eng	No available data.
183080		threats	eng	None known.
183081		conservation	eng	None known.
183081		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Saharian oases Borku, Ennedi and Tibesti in northern Chad.
183081		habitat	eng	The diet can be planktivorous and phytophagous. <span style="font-style: italic;">S. galilaeus</span> is an oral incubator, with the female and more rarely the male practising incubation (Daget and Iltis 1965). Benech (1990) states that ovary maturation in <span style="font-style: italic;">S. galilaeus</span> starts in May with the laying of eggs in June reaching a maximum in August-September (central delta of Niger). The subspecies shows the potential to lengthen the period of reproduction when the conditions are favourable. Albaret (1982), states that in Cote d'Ivoire the species lays all the year.
183081		population	eng	No information available.
183081		threats	eng	It requires high quality water so is vulnerable to any future decline in water quality. Drought is also a potential threat to the subspecies.
183082		conservation	eng	No information available.
183082		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183082		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor multicolor</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile River system, Lake Albert, Semliki River, Lakes Victoria and Kyoga, Malawa and Aswa Rivers Lake George, Lake Nabugabo, swampy lakes Kachira, Kijanebalola and Nakavali, which lie between Lakes Edward and Victoria.
183082		distribution	eng	The subspecies is only positively known from the Lower Nile (CLOFFA 1991), however there have been no recent records and it is likely that this subspecies is now Regionally Extinct. There are records from the upper White Nile, but whether these records belong to this subspecies or <em>P. multicolor victoriae</em> is not clear.
183082		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams and ponds. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects, algae, vegetable fragments and small fish.
183082		habitat	eng	This fish probably occurs among submerged plants and in open water zones enclosed by papyrus swamps. It inhabits streams and ponds. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects, algae, vegetable fragments and small fish.
183082		population	eng	No information available.
183082		threats	eng	No information available.
183083		conservation	eng	None known.
183083		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to some creeks and small rivers, usually with swampy margins, under rainforest or gallery forest cover, in eastern central Liberia. Restricted to the upper Gwen River system, a tributary of the Nipoué (Cess) River.
183083		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic subspecies inhabits creeks and small rivers, usually with swampy margins, under rainforest or gallery forest cover. Its maximum size is: male 85 mm TL, female 75 mm TL
183083		population	eng	No available data.
183083		threats	eng	The extent and quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to mining, urban, agricultural and forestry developments.
183084		conservation	eng	None known.
183084		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a few water courses on Elephant Hill, about 10 km southeast of Kribi, in the direction of Nyete (in the Lobe River drainage). This locality is about 10 km from the nearest <em>Aphyosemion pascheni pascheni</em> locality, the area in between being unsuitable for <em>Aphyosemion</em> species.
183084		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion pascheni festivum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. It is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
183084		population	eng	No information available.
183084		threats	eng	This is a commercially harvested aquarium subspecies.
183087		conservation	eng	None known. More information is needed on the full distribution of this subspecies, and numbers should be monitored.
183087		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a tributary creek flowing into Lake Ejagham, western Cameroon. It has also been found along the banks of the lake itself.
183087		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri lacustris</em> is found in pools and quiet parts of small streams and brooks associated with a tributary creek flowing into Lake Ejagham. It is also found in pools and shallows along the banks of the lake itself. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.
183087		population	eng	No information available.
183087		threats	eng	Lake Ejagham has a surface of only 0.5 km². The subspecies is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.
183088		conservation	eng	None known.
183088		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is at present known only from the Agnébi, San Pedro and Banco basins in Côte d’Ivoire.
183088		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish. Maximum size 7.7 cm SL
183088		population	eng	No available data.
183088		threats	eng	No current threats known. There is a potential threat from deforestation
183089		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the extent of its distribution.
183089		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from Lake Tanganyika and the Lower Malagarasi and its delta.
183089		habitat	eng	It inhabits swamps around lake, and its rivers and deltas. It is thought to feed on fish, crustacea and other animal items.
183089		population	eng	No estimates, but rather rare in fisheries catches.
183089		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by fisheries, and changes in the swamp biotopes due to agriculture extension.
183090		conservation	eng	None known.
183090		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Mungo River drainage system in western Cameroon.
183090		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion celiae celiae</em> is usually found in the shallow parts of streams, swamps and pools in the coastal rainforest and secondary savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) celiae celiae</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
183090		population	eng	No information available.
183090		threats	eng	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). This could pose a possible threat to all the species downstream. This is a commercially harvested aquarium fish.
183091		conservation	eng	None known.
183091		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander dispersus</em> is known from the upper Kasai and upper Kwango systems, Central Congo River basin.
183091		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish that produces up to 100 eggs. The female incubates the eggs in the mouth.
183091		population	eng	No information available.
183091		threats	eng	None known.
183093		conservation	eng	None known.
183093		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus caballus lualabae</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin, from Kisangani (Stanleyville) up to Nyonga (except the Lufira River above the rapids and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system).
183093		habitat	eng	This is a demersal subspecies.
183093		population	eng	No information available.
183093		threats	eng	None known.
183094		conservation	eng	A considerable part of the subspecies' distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.
183094		distribution	eng	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Yangambi region and from the Lualaba. The rather strange distribution pattern will be caused by differences in sample intensity.
183094		habitat	eng	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus congicus</em> is a demersal, air breathing species through lunges. It can live through a period of drought by covering itself with a cocoon of mucus in a hole in the ground. It is a predator. This lungfish is fluviatile, it is confined in the calm places with a muddy bottom (Gosse 1963).
183094		population	eng	No information available.
183094		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats to this subspecies in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the subspecies as a whole.
183095		conservation	eng	None known.
183095		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Sierra Leone and known only from a few localities in the rainforest of southeastern Sierra Leone. One is the type locality, north of Kenema. Another locality is situated 4 km from Joru in the direction of Kenema.
183095		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic fish and occurs in coastal rivers, brooks and swampy areas in forested savanna and under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size: male 85 mm TL, female 75 mm TL.
183095		population	eng	No available data.
183095		threats	eng	Deforestation and mining threaten this subspecies.
183096		conservation	eng	None known.
183096		distribution	eng	<em>Polypterus senegalus</em> is known from the Congo River basin, from Yaekama to the Lualaba River and effluents in Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Gosse 1984).
183096		habitat	eng	<em>Polypterus senegalus meridionalis</em> is a demersal, air breathing subspecies.
183096		population	eng	No information available.
183096		threats	eng	Although there are some possible threats in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the subspecies as a whole.
183097		conservation	eng	No conservation.
183097		conservation	eng	None known.
183097		conservation	eng	None known. More research is required into this subspecies habitat status and threats, and population trends should be monitored.
183097		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from marine waters, rivers and estuaries along the West coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola (Dawson 1986).
183097		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>West coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola.
183097		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from marine waters, rivers and estuaries along the West coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola (Dawson 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the subspecies occurs in the Kwanza River system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal waters from Senegal to Cameroon.
183097		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the subspecies occurs in the Kwanza River system.
183097		habitat	eng	<em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is a demersal fish. It occurs in coastal rivers, streams and estuaries (Dawson 1986). The subspecies is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). The eggs are attached to a kind of brood pouch, formed by two skin folds on the belly of the male, for one to three weeks, until young of about 1.5 cm TL leave the pouch. In the Kouilou River the subspecies is found from its mouth up to Kakamoeka (> 100 km inland). It has not been caught in the smaller tributaries. The subspecies breeds in freshwater (Dawson, 1981). At Bas-Kouilou in brackish water, hundreds of loosely dispersed specimens have been observed above a sandy substrate in shallow water near shore.
183097		habitat	eng	<em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is a demersal subspecies. It occurs in coastal rivers, streams and estuaries (Dawson 1986). The subspecies is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). The eggs are attached to a kind of brood pouch, formed by two skin folds on the belly of the male, for one to three weeks, until young leave the pouch. In the Kouilou River the species is found from its mouth up to Kakamoeka (less than 100 km inland). It has not been caught in the smaller tributaries. The subspecies breeds in freshwater (Dawson 1981). At Bas-Kouilou in brackish water, hundreds of loosely dispersed specimens have been observed above a sandy substrate in shallow water near shore.
183097		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Ovoviviparous species. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
183097		habitat	eng	The species occurs in coastal rivers, streams and estuaries. Demersal. The species breeds in freshwater (Dawson 1981).
183097		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183097		population	eng	No information available.
183097		population	eng	Population size is not known.
183097		threats	eng	None known
183097		threats	eng	None known.
183097		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
183098		conservation	eng	None known.
183098		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found in Côte d’Ivoire and from Ghana to the west of the Volta (Rivers Sassandra, Bandama, Niouniourou, Comoe, and Tano)
183098		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish, potamodromous.
183098		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
183098		threats	eng	None known.
183099		conservation	eng	None known.
183099		distribution	eng	<em>Sarotherodon nigripinnis dolloi</em> is known from the brackish parts of the Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the lower courses of the Loeme and Kouilou Rivers. Its distribution remains unclear. (Falk <em>et al.</em> 2003).
183099		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon nigripinnis dolloi</em> is a demersal subspecies, restricted to coastal, brackish waters. It is a microphageous subspecies, mainly feeding on bottom detritus and epiphytes from stones and plants (Thys van den Audenaerde 1964). This subspecies is a paternal mouth-brooder.
183099		population	eng	No information available.
183099		threats	eng	The utilisation of pesticides in eucalyptus plantations in the coastal area causes a decline in habitat quality.
183100		conservation	eng	None known.
183100		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the M'polongwe River system around Longji, southwestern Cameroon.
183100		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion pascheni pascheni</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks under forest cover in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic subspecies.
183100		population	eng	No information available.
183100		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this subspecies.
183101		conservation	eng	No information available..
183101		conservation	eng	None known.
183101		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. In the Lufira River basin, the species is protected by the National Park of Upemba. It is also protected within National Parks of Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183101		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. In the Lufira River basin, the subspecies is protected by the National Park of Upemba. It is also protected within National Parks of Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183101		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru and Lufira River basins in the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the middle and lower Zambezi basin and all east coast rivers south to the Limpopo River (Gosse 1984, Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is also known from the Upper Cubango and Okavango system (Gosse 1984) and from Lake Rukwa (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> has been translocated to additional sites in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Skelton 1993).
183101		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River, and Monkey Bay in Lake Malawi (Lake Malawi catchment). Introduced to the Mpasanjoka dambo (Salima).<br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>South Africa, DCR, Zambia.
183101		distribution	eng	The subspecies has been recorded from coastal rivers of Mozambique from the Incomati River north to the Zambezi. Extends upstream into the middle Zambezi and present in the Zambian Congo. Also occurs in arid regions of the Changane system (northern Limpopo River) in Mozambique and extending up into the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe.
183101		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to northern South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru and Lufira River basins in the upper Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire River, and Monkey Bay in Lake Malawi (Lake Malawi catchment) after introduction to the Mpatsanjoka dambo (Salima).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal rivers of Mozambique from the Incomati River north to the Zambezi. It extends upstream into the middle Zambezi and present in the Zambian Congo. Also occurs in arid regions of the Changane system (northern Limpopo River) in Mozambique and extending up into the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe. <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> has been translocated to additional sites in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Skelton 1993).
183101		habitat	eng	<em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is a demersal, air breathing fish. It is usually found in large river systems associated with floodplains or non-perennial tributary streams which flow through flat country (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It has the ability to use gills and lungs to breath in and out of water; when the floods recede it excavates a burrow in shallow water, deep enough to take its body, and by the time the water has disappeared the lungfish is encased in a thin membranous cocoon made from secreted mucus and mud (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The aestivation lasts until the habitat is again filled with water (Skelton 1993). <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> preys mainly on slow-moving bottom-dwelling creatures such as snails, insects and worms, but also takes fish and amphibians (Skelton 1993). An U-shaped burrow is excavated to a depth of nearly 60 cm for spawning purposes. The nest is usually placed amongst the roots of aquatic vegetation where the male will attend to several females during the breeding season. He will aerate the eggs with body and fin movements and afford protection to the young for a while after incubation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183101		habitat	eng	<em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is usually found in large river systems associated with floodplains or non-perennial tributary streams which flow through flat country (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It has the ability to use gills and lungs to breath in and out water; when the floods recede it excavates a burrow in shallow water, deep enough to take its body, and by the time the water has disappeared the lungfish is encased in a thin membranous cocoon made from secreted mucus and mud (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The aestivation lasts until the habitat is again filled with water (Skelton 1993). <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> preys mainly on slow-moving bottom-dwelling creatures such as snails, insects and worms, but also takes fish and amphibians (Skelton 1993). An U-shaped burrow is excavated to a depth of nearly 60 cm for spawning purposes. The nest is usually placed amongst the roots of aquatic vegetation where the male will attend to several females during the breeding season. He will aerate the eggs with body and fin movements and afford protection to the young for a while after incubation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183101		habitat	eng	Most common in marshy areas where it feeds on snails, insects, worms, fish and amphibians.  It constructs a nest for breeding - this can be a u-shaped tunnel or a simple excavation.  Males guard the nest with eggs and young (Skelton 1993). It uses a lung for breathing air so can live in poorly oxygenated waters.  When water levels start to drop, it forms a burrow in the soft bottom sediments and secretes a mucous cocoon.  The fish becomes dormant, breathing through a small opening (Skelton 1993). This species is seldom eaten by people and is of no commercial importance in the Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).
183101		habitat	eng	Typically found in marginal floodplain habitats, pans and lagoons that dry up. Lungfish have a lung which enables airbreathing and thus they can survive in poorly oxygenated waters. They can also aestivate in burrows through a dry season (Skelton 2001).
183101		population	eng	Limited information available but it is reported to be uncommon throughout its range (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183101		population	eng	Limited information but reported to be uncommon throughout its range (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183101		population	eng	No information available.
183101		threats	eng	Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation. Its geographical range remains large despite localised threats.
183101		threats	eng	Overfishing.
183101		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets could pose a threat to the species. Subsistence fisheries make the species particularly vulnerable in Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183101		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets could pose a threat to the subspecies. Subsistence fisheries make the subspecies particularly vulnerable in Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation. Its geographical range remains large despite localised threats.
183103		conservation	eng	No information available.
183103		distribution	eng	<em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> is known from the Central Congo basin. It is thought that the falls in the Congo River, the "Portes d'Enfer" mark the upstream limit of distribution in the upper Congo River basin. The full distribution of this subspecies is not known, but most probably it is restricted to forested areas and in not expected to inhabit the adjacent savannah. Populations on the west and north of the Congo River are here regarded as <em>Epiplatys chevalieri chevalieri</em>, while those found to the east of the Congo River represent <em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em>. (Wildekamp 1996).
183103		habitat	eng	<em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> occurs in forest creeks, small rivers and swampy areas (Wildekamp 1996). It is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). The diet of <em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> mainly consists of terrestrial insects that fall on the water and the larvae of aquatic insects. Some filamentous algae was occasionally found in their stomachs (Matthes 1964).
183103		population	eng	No information available.
183103		threats	eng	No information available.
183105		conservation	eng	None known.
183105		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known only from a very limited area in southern Liberia, St John River.
183105		habitat	eng	This fish occurs in swamps, small streams and rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.
183105		population	eng	No available data.
183105		threats	eng	Threats to this subspecies include agriculture, mining and deforestation.
183106		conservation	eng	No information available.
183106		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183106		conservation	eng	None known.
183106		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Petrocephalus bane bane</em> Northern is only found in Egyptian Upper Nile (regions Assiut, Sohag and Aswan) where it is now rare, and Lake Nasser (outside of the region), it is no longer found in the lower Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile basin, the Bénoué, Chad and Volta River.
183106		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This subspecies occurs in Niger, Chad, Volta and Cross River basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also in the Nile basin. (Gosse 1984).
183106		distribution	eng	This subspecies is patchily distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia, and north along the Nile to Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies is only found in Egyptian upper Nile (regions Assiut, Sohag and Aswan) where it is now rare, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It is no longer found in the Lower Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Blue Nile and Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa: </strong>This subspecies occurs in Niger, Chad, Volta and Cross Rivers.
183106		habitat	eng	Inhabits open water and vegetated areas of lakes, lagoons and irrigation canals. Females grow larger and are more frequently caught than males. Chiefly insectivorous, feeding on the bottom and in vegetation. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.
183106		habitat	eng	Inhabits open water and vegetated areas of lakes, lagoons and irrigation canals. Food consists mainly of algae, plankton, small fishes and chironomid larvae. Breeding takes place at beginning of September. It has an electric organ in the caudal muscles with weak discharge. It reaches an average length to 20 cm.
183106		habitat	eng	This subspecies inhabits open water and vegetated areas of lakes, lagoons and irrigation canals. Chiefly insectivorous, feeding on the bottom and in vegetation. Its diet consists mainly of algae, plankton, small fishes and chironomid larvae. Females grow larger and are more frequently caught than males. Breeding takes place at beginning of September. It has an electric organ in the caudal muscles with weak disharge.
183106		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183106		population	eng	No information available.
183106		threats	eng	Deforestation is a local threat
183106		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. Deforestation is a local threat in western Africa.
183106		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183108		conservation	eng	None known.
183108		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a small stream under rainforest cover in the upper Meme River, Cameroon.
183108		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion celiae winifredae</em> is only known from a small stream under rainforest cover.
183108		population	eng	No information available.
183108		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.
183109		conservation	eng	None known.
183109		distribution	eng	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus mesmaekersi</em> is only known from the Boma region (Gosse 1984). However, there are a lot of records from 1950-1970.
183109		habitat	eng	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus mesmaekersi</em> is a demersal, lungfish. It can live through a period of drought by covering itself with a cocoon of mucus in a hole in the ground. It is a predator.
183109		population	eng	No information available.
183109		threats	eng	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Intensive fishing poses a threat to this subspecies.
183110		conservation	eng	None known.
183110		distribution	eng	This subspecies inhabits creeks and small rivers under rainforest cover, in the zone of hills separating the coastal plain from the higher inland plains, in southeastern Sierra Leone between the Moa and Moha rivers of the Pujehun district. Also found in the adjacent part of southwestern Liberia, as far east as the Bomi Hills
183110		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits creeks and small rivers under rainforest cover, in the zone of hills separating the coastal plain from the higher inland plains
183110		population	eng	No available data.
183110		threats	eng	Threats to this subspecies include agriculture, deforestation and mining.
183111		conservation	eng	None known.
183111		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known form brackish areas and freshwaters near the coasts of Sierra Leone and Western Liberia. Occasionally it is found in the sea.
183111		habitat	eng	This subspecies is a demersal is a demersal fish found brackish and freshwaters and also occasionally in the sea. Its maximum size is 17.1 cm SL.
183111		population	eng	No available data.
183111		threats	eng	Urban development and deforestation threaten this fish.
183112		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is required.
183112		distribution	eng	This is a widespread subspecies found from Senegal to Somalia, and south to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lower Tana River (Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished) and Malagarazi delta.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Giuhar (Benadir), Webishebelle, Somali. It is also reported from temporary tributaries of the Chari River in the Kordofan area of western Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from Senegal, Niger, Gambia, Volta and Chad basins, Bandama and Comoé basins in Côte d'Ivoire and certain basins of Sierra Leone and Guinea.
183112		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in marginal swamps and backwaters of rivers and lakes (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is carnivorous, feeding on molluscs (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999), frogs, fish, crabs and insecta (Reed 1967). It normally lives on flood plains and when these dry up, during the dry season, it secretes a thin slime around itself which dries into a fragile cocoon. It can exist in this state for over a year, although normally it hibernates only from the end of one wet season to the start of the next (Holden and Reed 1972). Young ones have four pairs of external gills.
183112		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183112		threats	eng	This subspecies holds minor commercial importance in fisheries, and is also targeted for the aquarium trade. Loss of wetlands due to agricultural expansion threatens this subspecies in eastern Africa. In western Africa, populations are threatened by deforestation and drought.
183113		conservation	eng	None known.
183113		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Ogowe and lower Ngounie River systems in northwestern Gabon.
183113		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion gabunense gabunense</em> occurs in swamps and brooks in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) gabunense gabunense</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).
183113		population	eng	No information available.
183113		threats	eng	The southern part of the distribution is situated in a timber exploitation region.
183114		conservation	eng	None known.
183114		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from southern Cameroon and northern Gabon.
183114		habitat	eng	<em>Amphyosemion cameronense halleri</em> is only known to inhabit a limited number of quiet streams in the rainforest.
183114		population	eng	No information available.
183114		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.
183115		conservation	eng	None known.
183115		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus isidori fasciaticeps</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.
183115		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183115		population	eng	No information available.
183115		threats	eng	None known.
183116		conservation	eng	None known.
183116		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger, Senegal, Volta, Ouémé, and Ogun.
183116		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic fish.
183116		population	eng	No data available on population trends.
183116		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat.
183117		conservation	eng	Maintenance of pure stocks in refuge areas may be needed to protect this species, as well as the control of the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em>. Population trends should be monitored.
183117		conservation	eng	No information available.
183117		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>the coastal plain from the Lower Zambezi southwards to Mkuze in Zululand. East coast rivers north to the Lukuledi in Tanzania.
183117		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found on the coastal plain rivers of the east African coast from Mozambique to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal to the central plains of Mozambique. In Zimbabwe it occurs in the lower Save-Runde system and lower sections of some Zambezian tributaries, such as the Mazowe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183117		habitat	eng	Occurs in vegetated sheltered habitats along the margins of main streams as well as floodplain lagoons.  Large specimens prefer the main river channel. In the Lower Shire it is caught in insufficient quantities to be considered economically important.
183117		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in vegetated sheltered habitats along the margins of main streams as well as floodplain lagoons. Large specimens prefer the main river channel. In the Lower Shire it is caught in insufficient quantities to be considered economically important. In the lower Zambezi it was collected in slow flowing sections of main channel habitats and not marginal lagoons. It has been reported only from freshwaters and low altitudes and so its salinity tolerances are probably narrower than <em>O. mossambicus</em>.
183117		population	eng	No information available.
183117		population	eng	This subspecies is widespread and abundant in areas surveyed within the Niassa Reserve.
183117		threats	eng	No information available.
183117		threats	eng	This subspecies is fished for consumption, as well as sport. The spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> is a potential threat although interbreeding between the two species has not yet been reported.
183118		conservation	eng	No information available.
183118		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from Awash basin, Ethiopia.
183118		habitat	eng	It is found in standing water.
183118		population	eng	No information available.
183118		threats	eng	No information available.
183120		conservation	eng	No information available.
183120		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on threats to this subspecies, and population trends should be monitored.
183120		conservation	eng	None known.
183120		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, Polypterus bichir bichir used to occur along the whole River Nile in Egypt from Damietta Branch to Aswan. It is now restricted to Lake Nasser which is outside the region.<br/><br/>Globally, the Nile River, Lake Turkana and Omo River, Lake Chad, Chari River and Logone River.
183120		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> the Nile Basin and Lake Turkana and the Omo River (Ethiopia). In L. Turkana  the fish is more common in the Southern part.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lakes Chad and Chari, and the Logone Rivers in Cameroon. Also present in Lake Volta, Ghana.
183120		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa this subspecies is known from Lake Chad and the Chari and Logone rivers. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Beyond the region <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bichir bichir</span> is also present in the Nile River, Lake Turkana and Omo River.
183120		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the length of the Nile to Kenya and Uganda. It is also known from Nigeria, Chad and northern Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Nile Basin and Lake Turkana and the Omo River (Ethiopia). In Lake Turkana the fish is more common in the southern part.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies used to occur along the whole River Nile in Egypt from Damietta Branch to Aswan, but is now restricted to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum and beyond in Sudan, as well as in Baro and Omo Rivers in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa this subspecies is known from Lake Chad and the Chari and Logone rivers.
183120		habitat	eng	Inhabits the shallow warm bays inlakes where it mainly feeds on fish (Copley 1952, 1958; Blanche, 1964). The spawning period is July - August and the eggs are deposited in vegeation, and the parent guards the young.
183120		habitat	eng	It is a bottom feeder and predates on siluroids, eels and tilapias. It spawns in July, August and September. It moves with snake-like movement. Young have external gills. It reaches a length up to 75 cm.
183120		habitat	eng	The species lives in shallow waters and likes to bask near the surface. Eggs are deposited n the vegetation. It is a piscivore. Non-migratory.
183120		habitat	eng	This subspecies inhabits the shallow warm bays inlakes where it mainly feeds on fish (Copley, 1952, 1958, Blanche, 1964). It is a bottom feeder and predates on siluroids, eels and tilapias, as well as insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs, plant fragments and seeds. The spawning period is July - August and the eggs are deposited in vegetation, and the parent guards the young.
183120		population	eng	No available data.
183120		population	eng	No estimates
183120		population	eng	No information available.
183120		threats	eng	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. In western Africa this subspecies is threatened by the potential impacts of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui River.
183120		threats	eng	Not known. It is not commercially fished.
183120		threats	eng	Potential impacts of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui River.
183120		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183121		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The subspecies also has some protection in the Okavango Delta reserves.
183121		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
183121		conservation	eng	The species has some protection in the Okavango Delta reserves.
183121		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lualaba and from the Kasai. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okovango River, the upper Zambezi River and the Kafue River (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Cunene River and the middle Zambezi River including the Luangwa River. It has been translocated to localities in Zimbabwe and to the Limpopo River and Natal, South Africa (Skelton and Teugels 1991).
183121		distribution	eng	The subspecies has been recorded from Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Kafue and Zambian Congo systems. Its native range in Zimbabwe is the Zambezi River above Victoria Falls although two specimens were taken in Lake Kariba in 1968 (Balon 1974a) and some were stocked in 1975 (Kenmuir 1983). It has been widely translocated by anglers in Zimbabwe and could be expected in almost any river or impoundment on the central plateau.
183121		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lualaba and from the Kasai.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper Zambezi, Okavango, Kafue and Zambian Congo systems. Its native range in Zimbabwe is the Zambezi River above Victoria Falls although two specimens were taken in Lake Kariba in 1968 (Balon 1974) and some were stocked in 1975 (Kenmuir 1983). It has been widely translocated by anglers in Zimbabwe and could be expected in almost any river or impoundments on the central plateau.
183121		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is a demersal subspecies that mainly feeds on small fish, including squeakers (<em>Synodontis</em> spp.), insects and other small animals (Jackson 1961).  Larger specimens prefer deeper water close to the bank, both in quiet water in eddies and also in strong current where the bank is being undercut. Smaller specimens are widespread including vegetation fringing the main channels,open and closed lagoons, and small tributaries (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). In its introduced range it occurs in streams and impoundments with varying characteristics. This subspecies incubates the eggs in the mouth. It breeds in summer, nesting along vegetated fringes of the mainstream. Winemiller (1991) classified the subspecies as a river-dwelling, epibenthic, diurnal piscivore.
183121		habitat	eng	<em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is a demersal subspecies that mainly feeds on small fish, insects and other small animals (Jackson 1961). This subspecies incubates the eggs in the mouth. It constructs a shallow concave nest on a sandy or muddy substrate in fairly shallow water.
183121		habitat	eng	Larger specimens prefer deeper water close to the bank, both in quiet water in eddies and also in strong current where the bank is being undercut. Smaller specimens are widespread including vegetation fringing the main channels,open and closed lagoons, and small tributaries (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). In its introduced range it occurs in streams and impoundments with varying characteristics. Preys on fish, including squeakers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis</span> spp.). Breeds in summer, nesting along vegetated fringes of the mainstream. Winemiller (1991) classified the species as a river-dwelling, epibenthic, diurnal piscivore.
183121		population	eng	Common and widespread.
183121		population	eng	It is common and widespread.
183121		population	eng	No information available.
183121		threats	eng	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.
183121		threats	eng	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Localised fishing effort depletes adult populations.
183121		threats	eng	None known, although localised fishing effort depletes adult populations.
183123		conservation	eng	None known.
183123		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the middle Niger.
183123		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish of 19.5 cm TL
183123		population	eng	No available data.
183123		threats	eng	Threats include agricultural, urban and deforestation developments, and oil exploration in Nigeria.
183124		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
183124		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in Lake Barombi-ba-Kotto and immediate vicinity, Cameroon.
183124		habitat	eng	No information available.
183124		population	eng	No information available.
183124		threats	eng	The subspecies is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.
183125		conservation	eng	None known.
183125		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus isidori osborni</em> is known from the central and upper Congo River basin, without the Mweru-Luapula-Banhweulu system.
183125		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183125		population	eng	No information available.
183125		threats	eng	None known.
183126		conservation	eng	None known.
183126		distribution	eng	This subspecies is apparently restricted to the drainage systems of the upper Pra and Ankabra rivers and their tributaries, the Ofin, Anum and Birim rivers, in the Southwestern part of Central Ghana
183126		habitat	eng	This subspecies usually inhabits the quiet parts of small rivers and creeks. Maximum size: male 65 mm TL, female 55 mm TL
183126		population	eng	No available data.
183126		threats	eng	Main threats are from mining activities in the Pra. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation for mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.
183127		conservation	eng	None known.
183127		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal zone of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Distribution remains unclear. (Falk <em>et al.</em> 2003)
183127		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon nigripinnis nigripinnis</em> prefers brackish water but is found in freshwater during low tide (Roman 1971). It is a male mouth-brooder (Loubens 1964). This subspecies is demersal.
183127		population	eng	No information available.
183127		threats	eng	None known.
183128		conservation	eng	None known.
183128		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus rume proboscirostris</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.
183128		habitat	eng	This is a demersal subspecies. Females lay about 300 eggs averaged (Seidel 2003). The eggs hatch at day 4 and need food from day 10 onwards.
183128		population	eng	No information available.
183128		threats	eng	None known.
183129		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.
183129		distribution	eng	<em>Pollimyrus stappersii stappersii</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system, upper Congo River basin.
183129		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183129		population	eng	No information available.
183129		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the subspecies.
183130		conservation	eng	None known.
183130		distribution	eng	<em>Petrocephalus catostoma congicus</em> is known from the upper Lomami, Central Congo River basin and from the Lualaba and Malembia River, upper Congo River basin. It is expected to be more widespread though.
183130		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183130		population	eng	No information available.
183130		threats	eng	Industrial diamond mining is a very important threat for the Upper Lomami location.
183132		conservation	eng	None known.
183132		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found from the Lower Sassandra River system in Southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, eastward to the Tano River system in Southwestern Ghana.
183132		habitat	eng	This subspecies inhabits swamps, creeks and small rivers, usually under rainforest cover, in the coastal lowlands.
183132		population	eng	No available data.
183132		threats	eng	Agricultural, urban, mining and deforestation threaten this fish.
183133		conservation	eng	No information available.
183133		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in Lake Malawi and the upper Shire River. It has also been translocated to the Ruo river (Malawi).
183133		habitat	eng	This fish is common in vegetated areas in the shallows bordering main rivers. It feeds on fish. It breeds in the summer along vegetated fringes of streams. It is a large cichlid and can attain about 50 cm in length and over 2 kg in weight. It is widespread but not abundant in Lake Malawi.
183133		population	eng	No information available.
183133		threats	eng	Fishing of this subspecies is unlikely to be having a major impact at the moment, although could increase in the future. Other threats are unknown.
183134		conservation	eng	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The part of the subspecies distribution in the Lufira basin is located in the National Park of Upemba.
183134		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus caballus asinus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru and Chambezi basins. The subspecies is probably more widespread in these basins than currently known.
183134		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183134		population	eng	No information available.
183134		threats	eng	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the subspecies.
183135		conservation	eng	None known.
183135		distribution	eng	This fish occurs in Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire (Tai area), and also in Guinea.
183135		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in swamps, small streams and rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. This is a benthopelagic subspecies.
183135		population	eng	No available data.
183135		threats	eng	Deforestation, sedimentation, and mining in Liberia are threats.
183136		conservation	eng	None known.
183136		distribution	eng	This subspecies is restricted to coastal rivers (Komoe, Bandama and Sassandra) in Côte d'Ivoire.
183136		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183136		population	eng	No available data.
183136		threats	eng	No current threats known.
183137		conservation	eng	No information available.
183137		conservation	eng	Population trends should be monitored.
183137		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Sarotherodon melanotheron heudeloti</em>i is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, the taxon is found from Mauritania to Guinea.
183137		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from brackish water from Mauritania to Guinea. The subspecies had been introduced in many other countries and basins.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In north Africa it is known from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present from Senegal to Guinea.
183137		habitat	eng	It inhabits in brackish water.
183137		habitat	eng	This is a demersal subspecies found in brackish and fresh water. The subspecies is a microphage feeding on plankton and detritous (Pasquelin 1982, Diouf 1996). It reproduces in estuaries and lagoons.
183137		population	eng	No information available.
183137		threats	eng	No information available.
183137		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by overfishing, dams and drought. The Diama dam on the Senegal river (built in 1986), has led to the reduction of the brackish water zone where this subspecies lives. The production of freshwater fish below the dam has almost dropped to zero. The dam has impacted many fish species (including <em>Sarotherodon melanotheron heudelotii</em>) some of which are migratory and can no longer reach above the dam.
183138		conservation	eng	None known.
183138		distribution	eng	<em>Mormyrus caballus bumbanus</em> is known from the northern tributaries of the Congo River, including the Dja and Bumba Rivers in Cameroon and the Ubangui River. It is also known from the Central Congo River itself to Kisangani (Stanleyville).
183138		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish.
183138		population	eng	No information available.
183138		threats	eng	None known.
183139		conservation	eng	None known.
183139		distribution	eng	This subspecies inhabits brooks and rivers under rainforest cover in the coastal lowlands of Southern Liberia, from the Lower Saint Paul River to the Lower Cestos (Cess, Nipoué) River.
183139		habitat	eng	The fish inhabits brooks and rivers under rainforest cover in the coastal lowlands
183139		population	eng	No available data.
183139		threats	eng	The extent and quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to mining, urban and forestry developments.
183140		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this subspecies' taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183140		distribution	eng	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the drainage system of the upper Cross River, in the rainforest of the Mamfe lowlands in southwestern Cameroon.
183140		habitat	eng	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri mamfensis</em> inhabits mainly the shallow parts of pools and brooks. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.
183140		population	eng	No information available.
183140		threats	eng	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.
183152		conservation	eng	None known.
183152		conservation	eng	Protected in some coastal reserves.
183152		conservation	eng	This species is protected in some coastal reserves in southern Africa. More information on threats to this species is needed, as well as monitoring of population trends.
183152		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sabaki River, Kenya to Coffee Bay, South Africa; also Madagascar (Skelton 2001). It is reported from Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183152		distribution	eng	The species is widespread throughout the coastal rivers of eastern Africa.
183152		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the coastal rivers of Eastern Africa, as well as Madagascar (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found the entire coast length from Sabaki River, Kenya, southwards.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>  It is present from Mozambique to Coffee Bay, South Africa. It is also reported from Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).
183152		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Found in quiet waters amongst vegetation (Dawson). Probably feeds on minute invertebrate organisms. The male broods the eggs and larvae in an abdominal pouch (Skelton 1993).
183152		habitat	eng	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams where it can be found in quiet water among vegetation (Skelton 2001) or in the vicinity of logs at river edges. Probably feeds on minute invertebrate organisms such as crustaceans and insects. Ovoviviparous, during mating the female passes eggs to the male and the eggs become fertilised as they pass into the pouch of the male. The male brood the eggs and larvae in an abdominal pouch. After about three weeks the pouch opens and the male gives birth to fully formed young. The young begin to feed soon and may take refuge in the male pouch if necessary.
183152		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal rivers and streams where it can be found in quiet water among vegetation (Skelton 2001) or in the vicinity of logs at river edges. Probably feeds on minute invertebrate organisms such as crustaceans and insects. Ovoviviparous, during mating the female passes eggs to the male and the eggs become fertilised as they pass into the pouch of the male. The male brood the eggs and larvae in an abdominal pouch. After about three weeks the pouch opens and the male gives birth to fully formed young. The young begin to feed soon and may take refuge in the male pouch if necessary.
183152		population	eng	A widespread species.
183152		population	eng	No information available.
183152		threats	eng	No information available.
183152		threats	eng	None known.
183153		conservation	eng	None known.
183153		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Myrophis plumbeus</em> is known from Malela and Banana, Lower Congo River. Eastern tropical Atlantic from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo (Leiby 1990). According to McCosker <em>et al.</em> (1989) also present in the western Atlantic: Suriname, French Guiana, south to Brazil (Smith 1997).
183153		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern tropical Atlantic from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo (Leiby 1990). According to McCosker <em>et al.</em> (1989) also present in the western Atlantic: Suriname and French Guiana, south to Brazil (Smith 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Myrophis plumbeus</em> is known from Malela and Banana, Lower Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal areas from Senegal to Nigeria.
183153		habitat	eng	A common littoral species, mainly frequenting muddy or sandy bottoms of estuaries, bays, mangroves and the outlets of lagoons (Blache 1968; Leiby 1990). Species known from inshore brackish and freshwater (Leiby 1990). Living burrowed with only the head and the throat region out of the sediment. Adults mainly feeding on crabs, rarely on fish (Blache, 1968). Demersal; burrows in mud or sand in shallow waters of bays and estuaries (Leiby 1990). It prefers tropical climate.
183153		habitat	eng	A common littoral species, mainly frequenting muddy or sandy bottoms of estuaries, bays, mangroves and the outlets of lagoons (Blache 1968, Leiby 1990). This species known from inshore brackish and freshwater (Leiby 1990). It can be found living burrowed with only the head and the throat region out of the sediment. Adults mainly feed on crabs, rarely on fish (Blach 1968). Burrows in mud or sand in shallow waters of bays and estuaries (Leiby 1990).
183153		population	eng	No information available.
183153		threats	eng	No information available on threats to this species.
183154		conservation	eng	None known.
183154		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183154		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The distribution area of this species is rather limited. Described from the surroundings of Abidjan and Agboville in Côte d’Ivoire, it has been found in the Banco, Agnébi and Mé, all small coastal basins in Southern Côte d’Ivoire. It has also been reported from Southwestern Ghana, but we have not examined any specimens from that region. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It has also reported from Madagascar at Soumou River.
183154		distribution	eng	The distribution area of this species is rather limited. It is described from the surroundings of Abidjan and Agboville in Côte d'Ivoire, it has been found in the Banco, Agnébi and Mé, all small coastal basins in Southern Côte d'Ivoire. It has also been reported from southwestern Ghana, but this needs to be verified.<br/><br/>Global distribution: It has also reported from Madagascar at Soumou River.
183154		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish that occurs in running freshwater.
183154		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic fish; it occurs in running freshwater.
183154		population	eng	No available data.
183154		threats	eng	Agriculture and urban development.
183154		threats	eng	This species is threatened by agriculture and urban development.
183155		conservation	eng	Little is known about genetic structuring on eel populations and this needs investigation before eels are moved around for farming operations. The impacts of exploitation are unknown and basic biology of eels in southern African rivers is needed e.g. age and growth, population numbers etc. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions. Collection of glass eels and elvers for aquaculture purposes should be prohibited.
183155		conservation	eng	Little is known about genetic structuring on eel populations and this needs investigation before eels are moved around for farming operations. The impacts of exploitation are unknown and basic biology of eels in southern African rivers is needed e.g., age and growth, population numbers etc. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions.  Do not allow collection of glass eels and elvers for aquaculture purposes.
183155		conservation	eng	No information available
183155		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Found in East Coast Rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Athi and Tana River systems (Copley 1941 1958)(see Seegers <em>et al. 2004).
183155		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the East coast rivers from near Cape Town north into Kenya. It is present in other western Indian Ocean islands e.g., Madagascar. Within Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces this species reaches higher up in catchments than any other eel.
183155		distribution	eng	This species is found in east African coastal rivers, from South Africa to Kenya. It is also present in other western Indian Ocean islands, such as Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>Found in East Coast Rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988), including the Athi and Tana River systems (Copley 1941, 1958)(see Seegers<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> East coast rivers from near Cape Town north into Kenya.  Within Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces this species reaches higher up in catchments than any other eel.
183155		habitat	eng	Breeds at sea and migrates well inland as elvers. Matures in freshwaters. Eats freshwater invertebrates and fishes.
183155		habitat	eng	Migratory species (catadromous) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Inhabits both quiet and fast flowing water. Elvers ascend rivers mainly at night and overcome waterfalls and walls of dams with great determination (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Carnivorous, eats dead or living prey but especially fish and crabs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). After feeding in freshwater for ten years or more, adults assume a silver breeding dress, the eyes become enlarged and they return to sea to breed. Considered to breed east of Madagascar but thought to move soouth of that island in its way to the Mozambique coast and South African rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Flesh fatty but highly esteemed as smoked or jellied eel (Bruton <em>et al. 1982) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).</em></em>
183155		habitat	eng	This is a migratory species (catadromous) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). It inhabits both quiet and fast flowing water. Elvers ascend rivers mainly at night and overcome waterfalls and walls of dams with great determination (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is carnivorous, eating dead or living prey but especially fish and crabs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). After feeding in freshwater for ten years or more, adults assume a silver breeding dress, the eyes become enlarged and they return to sea to breed. Considered to breed east of Madagascar but thought to move south of that island on its way to the Mozambique coast and South African rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Flesh fatty but highly esteemed as smoked or jellied eel (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).<br/>Max size: 150 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
183155		population	eng	Common.
183155		population	eng	No information available.
183155		threats	eng	Development of industries to exploit eels could threaten eels in several ways. Movement of eels could cause homogenisation of stocks and capture of juveniles as they enter estuaries as glass eels could decimate river stocks. The impacts of such activities is unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed. Overfishing is thought to be a threat in eastern Africa, and within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.
183155		threats	eng	Development of industries to exploit eels could threaten eels in several ways. Movement of eels could cause homogenisation of stocks and capture of juveniles as they enter estuaries as glass eels could decimate river stocks. The impacts of such activities is unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed. Within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.
183155		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is overfishing.
183156		conservation	eng	None known.
183156		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and potential threats, as well as monitoring of the population trends.
183156		distribution	eng	Species present from Senegal to the Cunene River, and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene mouth and Bengo.
183156		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Awaous lateristriga</em> is known from Malela, Zambi and Boma, Lower Congo River. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from St. Louis, Senegal to the Cunene River, Angola and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea.
183156		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>St. Louis, Senegal to the to Cross River, Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This fish occurs in St. Louis, Senegal to the Cunene River, Angola and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea. Reported from the East Coast drainage of Africa.
183156		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Angola, and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Awaous lateristriga</em> is known from Malela, Zambi and Boma, Lower Congo River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene mouth and Bengo.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found from St. Louis, Senegal to the to Cross River, Nigeria.
183156		habitat	eng	<em>Awaous lateristriga</em> occurs usually in fresh waters, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. It is also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
183156		habitat	eng	<em>Awaous lateristriga</em> occurs usually in fresh waters, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. It is also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997). It is an ovoviviparous species, and the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
183156		habitat	eng	Occurs usually in fresh waters, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. Also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. Ovoviviparous species. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
183156		habitat	eng	The species occurs usually in freshwater, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. This is also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. Amphidromous.
183156		population	eng	No data on population trends
183156		population	eng	No information available.
183156		population	eng	Population size is not known.
183156		threats	eng	No major threats known.
183156		threats	eng	None known
183156		threats	eng	None known.
183157		conservation	eng	None known.
183157		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Specimens examined from Lower Cross, Niger Delta (Imo and Osse) and lower Ogun but the distribution seems to be much wider that this. Also reported from Lokoja near the confluence of the Benue and Niger, the lower Benue, Chari in the Chad basin, lower Oueme in Benin and Jong in Sierra Leone (a relict population).<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Central Africa and Upper Zambezi.
183157		distribution	eng	This species is patchily distributed from Benin to Chad, and south to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) upstream to Tanganga River, Lualaba River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Cross River (Nigeria), mouths of small coastal basins between the Cross and the Sanaga Rivers (Cameroon), and the southern part of the Ogowe (Gabon). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Specimens have been collected from Lower Cross Niger Delta (Imo and Osse) and Lower Ogun but the distribution seems to be much wider that this. Also reported from Lokoja near the confluence of the Benue and Niger, the Lower Benue, Chari in the Chad basin, and Lower Oueme in Benin.
183157		habitat	eng	<em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It is a species from calm waters (White 1994). It lives in swamps, creeks and backwaters (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998), and inhabits the calmer parts of rivers (Matthes 1964), where it can be seen on the surface waters (Gosse 1963). They are capable of jumping out of the water, to search for insects or to escape from predators (Teugels 1990). It is not a glider, but a ballistic jumper (Saidel <em>et al.</em> 2004), with a tremendous jumping power (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is an exophageous insectivore, feeding on terrestrial insects and aquatic larvae and nymphs of insects (Matthes 1964). It also feeds on crustaceans and fish (Mills and Vevers 1989). It was introduced in 1905 to European aquarists (White 1994, Arnold 1935). <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is a favourite fish for aquarists; in the aquarium it can rest with the top of the head and the large pectoral fins touching the surface, while the long rays of the pelvic fin hang down perpendicularly, forming a tempting morsel for other aggressive fish in the same tank, and therefore it should be stocked together with only bottom dwellers (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> lays 80 to 220 eggs (Riehl and Baensch 1996).
183157		habitat	eng	Pelagic fish that inhabits surface waters. Can leap out of the water and glide for short distances. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and fish. Lays between 80 and 220 eggs.
183157		population	eng	No available data.
183157		population	eng	No information available.
183157		threats	eng	It has commercial value as an aquarium fish.
183157		threats	eng	None known
183158		conservation	eng	No information available.
183158		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in the estuaries and lower/middle reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline.
183158		distribution	eng	This species occurs from East Africa to Samoa, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Queensland, Australia and New Caledonia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>  It is distributed in the estuaries and lower/middle reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its range in Africa extends southwards to South Africa.
183158		habitat	eng	Mainly freshwater, occuring occasionally in sea (Maugé 1986). Occurs in estuaries and the middle reaches of rivers, usually in fast-flowing clear streams (Randall and Randall 2001).
183158		habitat	eng	This species is mainly freshwater, occurring occasionally in sea (Maugé 1986). It occurs in estuaries and the middle reaches of rivers, usually in fast-flowing clear streams (Randall and Randall 2001).
183158		population	eng	No information available.
183158		threats	eng	No information available.
183160		conservation	eng	No information available.
183160		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some estuarine reserves.
183160		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some estuarine reserves in southern Africa.
183160		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower reaches of the East African coastal rivers such as the lower Tana River and Sabaki-Galana river system. Also found in Mzima Springs (Tsavo system).
183160		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the east coastal rivers and estuaries south to Algoa Bay (Skelton 2001), also Madagascar.
183160		distribution	eng	This species is known from east coast rivers and estuaries from Somalia to South Africa, as well as Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the lower reaches of the east African coastal rivers such as the lower Tana River and Sabaki-Galana river system. Also found in Mzima Springs (Tsavo system).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the northern coastal rivers of Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present from Mozambique, south to Algoa Bay (Skelton 2001).
183160		habitat	eng	Found in pools and running water, usually over sandy bottoms into which it may bury itself with only the head and eyes exposed. Preys on invertebrates (Skelton 2001). Occasionally penetrates well inland, e.g.,  found in the upper reaches of the Mhlatuzane River, Usuthu system, Swaziland at an altitude of 600 m (Bills <em>et al. </em>2004).
183160		habitat	eng	Fresh and brackish waters, most rivers and estuaries (Maugé 1986). Found in pools and running water, usually over sandy substrate into which it may bury itself (Skelton 1993). Diet is mainly invertebrates (Skelton 1993).
183160		habitat	eng	This species is present in fresh and brackish waters, most rivers and estuaries (Maugé 1986). It is found in pools and running water, usually over sandy substrate into which it may bury itself with only the head and eyes exposed (Skelton 1993). It preys mainly on invertebrates (Skelton 1993). Occasionally penetrates well inland, e.g. found in the upper reaches of the Mhlatuzane River, Usuthu system, Swaziland at an altitude of 600 m (Bills <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183160		population	eng	No information available.
183160		population	eng	Not known, but widespread and probably common.
183160		threats	eng	No information available.
183160		threats	eng	None known.
183161		conservation	eng	None known.
183161		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found in rivers in vicinity of Limbe, Cameroon, and from the islands of Sao Tome, Principe, and Pagalu (Annobón) in the Gulf of Guinea. It is possibly more widespread than currently known.
183161		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is brackish/ freshwater fish that is found in most coastal drainage basins of Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria.  <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Mainly know in western Africa from Kribi, Lokunje, Lobe in Cameroon and Rivers of Sao Tome and Principe. Widespread in the coastal drainages of the Gulf of Guinee.
183161		distribution	eng	This is a brackishwater/freshwater fish that is found in most coastal drainage basins of Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria, and from the islands of Sao Tome, Principe, and Pagalu (Annobón) in the Gulf of Guinea.  It is possibly more widespread than currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found in rivers in vicinity of Limbe, Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in lower courses of rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria to Cameroon.
183161		habitat	eng	<em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison, 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. demersal; Larvae ascend rivers, adults occur in freshwater (Maugé 1986).
183161		habitat	eng	<em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Mainly brackish but both larvae and adults ascends freshwater mainly Kribi, Lokunje, Lobe in Cameroon and Rivers of Sao Tome and Principe to feed. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters.
183161		habitat	eng	This species is mainly brackish but both larvae and adults ascends freshwater mainly Kribi, Lokunje, Lobe in Cameroon and Rivers of Sao Tome and Principe to feed.
183161		population	eng	No available data.
183161		population	eng	No information available.
183161		threats	eng	None known
183161		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal regions of Cameroon.
183162		conservation	eng	No information available.
183162		conservation	eng	None known.
183162		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Aplocheilichthys pfaffi</em>is present in Egypt.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Sudan, Niger, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso (Upper Volta), Chad and Cameroon.
183162		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Living in the drainage system of the Bafing and Upper Niger rivers in Guinea, the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in northern Cote d’Ivoire, the Black Volta, White Volta and Comoé rivers in the Burkina Faso, the Upper Volta River in Ghana; the Niger River in Niger; the Niger River and Lake Chad, in Northern Nigeria; Lake Chad, in Northern Cameroon; Lake Chad and the Chari River basin in Chad and probably also in Northern Central African Republic. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from Egypt.
183162		distribution	eng	This species can be found living in the drainage system of the Bafing and This species is known from upper Niger rivers in Guinea, the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in northern Cote d'Ivoire, the Black Volta, White Volta and Comoé rivers in the Burkina Faso, and the upper Volta River in Ghana. It is also present in the Niger River and Lake Chad, and the Chari River basin in Chad and probably also in northern Central African Republic.
183162		habitat	eng	Occurs in small rivers, brooks and swamps. Not a seasonal killifish.
183162		habitat	eng	The species lives in small rivers, brooks swamps and shallow parts of larger water bodies. A benthopelagic species.. Non-migratory. Not a seasonal killifish.
183162		habitat	eng	This species is found in small rivers, brooks swamps and shallow parts of larger water bodies. It is benthopelagic and non-migratory. It is not a seasonal killifish.
183162		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183162		population	eng	No data on population trends is available.
183162		population	eng	No information available.
183162		threats	eng	Locally impacted by deforestation
183162		threats	eng	Potential threats in the region are dams, water pollution (Agriculture, Domestic and Commercial/Industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183162		threats	eng	This species is locally impacted by deforestation.
183163		conservation	eng	No information available.
183163		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183163		conservation	eng	None known.
183163		distribution	eng	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is widely distributed across the northern half of Africa. It is naturally known from South Morocco, Sahara and different river basins in West Africa, like Senegal River, Ogun River, Sassandra River, Volta basin, Niger basin, and Benoue River. It also occurs in the Chad basin, the Ubangui-Uélé-Ituri River, Lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile River and the Jordan system. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tilapia zillii</em> has been introduced in 1949 as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, from the Fisheries station of Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé, Cameroon. The name <em>T. melanopleura</em> was then used for <em>T. rendalli</em>. Apparently, a mix was created at Yangambi between this population of <em>T. rendalli</em>, originating from Katanga, and <em>T. zillii</em>. The latter, even if rather uncommon in the Kibali-Ituri forest biotope (Thys van den Audenaerde, pers. comm. in Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007), had gradually replaced <em>T. rendalli</em> in the ponds at Yangambi. This mix was transported to Cameroon, and as a result the specimens were at least in part <em>T. zillii</em>. The presence of <em>T. zillii</em> in Cameroon is confirmed by several museum records.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Native to Lakes Turkana and Albert. Introduced into the Lake Victoria system, Lake Naivasha and Tana River. According to Welcomme (1967; 1988) introduced in 1953-1955 from Lake Albert into Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria to fill a vacant niche. Introduced in Lake Navaisha in 1955. Mann (1968) reported established 'wild' populations of <em>Tilapia zillii</em> in the Tana River (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In general it is widely distributed throughout Uganda through introductions in dams and ponds for aquaculture.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Common in coastal lagoons, Lakes (Qarun, Wadi El Rayan, Manzalah, Burllos, Maruit, and Abu Zabal) and along the River Nile in Egypt. Native in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Kraiem pers comm 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum, and Lakes Kundi and Keilak. It has also been introduced into several water bodies of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, <em>Tilapia zillii</em> is occurs in the Senegal, the Niger (and Benue), Chad basin, Volta, Ogun, Oshun, Bia, Comoé, Mé, Bandama, Boubo, Sassandra and Ouémé.
183163		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Tilapia zillii</em> is common in coastal lagoons, Lakes (Qarun, Wadi El Rayan, Manzalah, Burllos, Maruit, and Abu Zabal and along the River Nile in Egypt. It is native to Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Kraïem pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>At global scale, it can be found in Africa, North of the Equator (River Nile system and Western Africa to Morocco) and Middle East (Jordan Valley, Syria). It has been recently introduced to East Africa, United States (California, Florida, and Hawaii), southern Russia, Japan, Malaysia and Philippines. It has started to contribute to the harvest of Lake Nasser.
183163		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia zillii</em> is naturally known from South Morocco, Sahara and different river basins in West Africa, like Senegal River, Ogun River, Sassandra River, Volta basin, Niger basin, and Benoue River. It also occurs in the Chad basin, the Ubangui-Uélé-Ituri River, Lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile River and the Jordan system. <em>Tilapia zillii</em> has been introduced, in 1949, as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, from the Fisheries station of Yangambi (0°47’N-24°28’E), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. The name <em>T. melanopleura</em> was then used for <em>T. rendalli</em>. Apparently, a mix was created at Yangambi between this population of <em>T. rendalli</em>, originating from Katanga, and <em>T. zillii</em>. The latter, even if rather uncommon in the Kibali-Ituri forest biotope (Thys van den Audenaerde, pers. comm. in Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007), had gradually replaced <em>T. rendalli</em> in the ponds at Yangambi. This mix was transported to Cameroon, and as a result the specimens were at least in part <em>T. zillii</em>. The presence of <em>T. zillii</em> in Cameroon is confirmed by several museum records.
183163		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Native to Lakes Turkana and Albert. Introduced into the Lake Victoria system, Lake Naivasha and Tana River. According to Welcomme (1967; 1988) introduced in 1953-1955 from Lake Albert into Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria to fill a vacant niche. Introduced in Lake Navaisha in 1955. Mann (1968) reported established 'wild' populations of Tilapia zillii in the Tana River (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).  In general it is widely distributed throughout Uganda through introductions in dams and ponds for aquaculture.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widely distributed in other parts of Africa.
183163		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia zillii</span> is occurs in the Senegal, the Niger (and Benue), Chad basin, Volta, Ogun, Oshun, Bia, Comoé, Mé, Bandama, Boubo, Sassandra and Ouémé. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere it is known from the Ubangui, Uélé, and Ituri (Congo), Lake Albert, Nile, Lake Turkana and the Jordan basin. It has been introduced into several catchments.
183163		habitat	eng	A diurnal fish preferring shallows areas with vegetations, feeding on aquatic weeds and epiphytic diatoms. It is the most salt tolerant of all <em>Tilapia</em> species, tolerating salinities as high as 40 NaCl (sodium chloride). Spawning season extends from May to August. It builds nests for egg incubation, i.e., it is not a mouth breeder. It can be found in areas with water temperatures below 13°C. It reaches a maximum length to 29 cm.
183163		habitat	eng	Depth range 0-30 m but it is most common between 0 and 10 m. It is caught in shallow marginal waters in the waterlily zones, inlets, drowned forest areas, and also on sandy shores (Witte and de Winter 1995). Feeds on higher plants in many of its native lakes. In Lake Victoria it feeds mainly on bottom deposits due to a lack of submerged vegetation (Witte and de Winter 1995). Reproduces throughout the year with a slight increase during the rainy season. Spawns on firm clear substrates inshore. Nurseries are on sheltered sandy and shelving rocky shores (Witte and de Winter 1995).
183163		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that occasionally forms schools and is mainly diurnal. It is caught in shallow marginal waters in the waterlily zones, inlets, drowned forest areas, and also on sandy shores (Witte and de Winter 1992). Fry are common in marginal vegetation and juveniles are found in the seasonal floodplain. It is a herbivorous species that feeds on water plants and epiphyton, and some invertebrates. This species reproduces throughout the year with a slight increase during the rainy season. It is a substrate spawner (Bailey 1994). Larvae develop in close association with substrate. It spawns in lake bottoms with pebbles or sand and abundant vegetation (Philippart and Ruwet 1991). Adhesive eggs are laid on the substratum which are guarded by both parents (Eyeson 1983). It has been reported to deposit and guard eggs in shallow nest (Sigler and Sigler 1987). Depth range 0-30 m but it is most common between 0 and 10 m. It is the most salt tolerant of all tilapia species, tolerating salinities as high as 40 NaCl.
183163		habitat	eng	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that occasionally forms schools and is mainly diurnal. It prefers shallow,  vegetated areas (Eccles 1992). Fry are common in marginal vegetation and juveniles are found in the seasonal floodplain. It is a  herbivorous species that feeds on water plants and epiphyton, and some invertebrates. It is a substrate spawner (Bailey 1994).  Larvae develop in close association with substrate. It spawns in lake bottoms with pebbles or sand and abundant vegetation  (Philippart and Ruwet 1991). Adhesive eggs are laid on the substratum which are guarded by both parents (Eyeson 1983). It has  been reported to deposit and guard eggs in shallow nest (Sigler and Sigler 1987).
183163		habitat	eng	The species is benthopelagic species. Exist naturally in hyper-saline waters at Bardowil lagoons of Israel. In still or running water of upper Niger, the species lives over rock, sand or mud, but generally found in vegetative areas. Occasionally forms schools; is mainly diurnal.  Prefers shallow, vegetated areas.  Fry are common in marginal vegetation and juveniles are found in the seasonal floodplain.  Herbivorous, feeds on water plants and epiphyton, and some invertebrates.  Substrate spawner. Larvae develop in close association with substrate.
183163		population	eng	No available data.
183163		population	eng	No information available.
183163		population	eng	Unknown but common
183163		threats	eng	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a commercially very important species since it is widely used in aquaculture.
183163		threats	eng	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a commercially very important species since it is widely used in aquaculture. It is also threatened by habitat destruction - macrophyte beds are destroyed by the use of drag or seine nets. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
183163		threats	eng	None known
183163		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183163		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction - macrophyte beds are destroyed by the use of drag or seine nets.
183164		conservation	eng	Management plans are needed to reduce the impact of heavy fishing pressure.
183164		conservation	eng	No information available.
183164		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. 2004), Lakes Albert and Kioga. Also in the Murchison Nile.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Northeast Africa within the drainage basin of the Nile River (Blue, White). Not known from east coast rivers. Congo basin.
183164		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004), Lakes Albert and Kioga. Also in the Murchison Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia, and the Sudan Nile.
183164		habitat	eng	Restricted to inshore waters and sheltered bays of Lake Albert. A bottom dweller, feeding on ostracods, microscopic plants, macrophytes and sand.
183164		habitat	eng	This species is found in running and standing waters. This species is restricted to inshore waters and sheltered bays of Lake Albert. A bottom dweller, feeding on ostracods, microscopic plants, macrophytes and sand.
183164		population	eng	Thought to be declining (Twongo, pers. obs.)
183164		population	eng	Thought to be declinning (Twongo, pers. op.)
183164		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the heavy subsistence fishing pressure.
183164		threats	eng	This species is threatened by heavy subsistence fishing pressure in eastern Africa.
183165		conservation	eng	No information available.
183165		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower courses of Sabaki, Pangani, and Tana rivers.
183165		distribution	eng	This species is found in the lower courses of Sabaki, Pangani, and Tana rivers in Tanzania. It is also recorded in Madagascar.
183165		habitat	eng	Mostly found in freshwater but also inhabits estuaries (Fischer <em>et al. 1990). Feeds mainly on invertebrates and small fishes (Fischer <em>et al. 1990).</em></em>
183165		habitat	eng	This species is mostly found in freshwater but also inhabits estuaries (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). Feeds mainly on invertebrates and small fishes (Fischer <em>et al</em>., 1990).
183165		population	eng	No information available.
183165		threats	eng	No information available.
183166		conservation	eng	No information available.
183166		conservation	eng	None known.
183166		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.
183166		distribution	eng	In Lower Guinea, <em>Micralestes elongatus</em> is found in the Cross River basin. Elsewhere it is known from the Senegal, Volta, Chad, and Niger Rivers.
183166		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>most of the Sudani-Sahalian river basins, Lake Chad, and the Niger, Volta, Sénégal and Cross rivers..
183166		distribution	eng	This widespread species is found from Guinea to Central African Republic, and possibly as far as Kenya<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>In Lower Guinea, <em>Micralestes elongatus</em> is found in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is possible that this species is present in Lake Turkana, but confirmation is needed.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> it inhabits most of the Sahelo-Sudanese basins of West Africa, Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Cross.
183166		habitat	eng	Inhabits fringing vegetation of rivers and lakes, feeding on zooplankton, beetles and other insects (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
183166		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic.
183166		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic. It inhabits fringing vegetation of rivers and lakes, feeding on zooplankton, beetles and other insects (Bailey 1994).
183166		population	eng	No information available.
183166		population	eng	Not known
183166		threats	eng	No major threats known
183166		threats	eng	The main threat posed to this fish species is increasing farming activities in Sahelo-Sudanese basins which may increase pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies as well as destroy the vegetation in which this species inhabits.
183166		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183167		conservation	eng	No information available.
183167		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific, as well being present in the Red Sea and along the east coast of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Its only presence in Africa is widespread along the eastern African coastline.
183167		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and lower reaches of coastal rivers and streams (Dawson 1986).
183167		population	eng	No information available.
183167		threats	eng	No information available.
183168		conservation	eng	None known.
183168		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It is in the Cross River (Nigeria) and N'Dian River in Cameroon. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Angola.
183168		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is known from coastal rivers in Benin to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Parauchenoglanis monkei</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the northwestern part of Cameroon, where it is found in the N?Dian, Mungo, Wouri and downstream part of the Sanag<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  It is present in most coastal basins of Benin, and the Cross River (Nigeria).
183168		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams feeding on macrofauna, including small fishes (predatory species). Non-migratory.
183168		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. <em>Parauchenoglanis monkei</em> is a nocturnal and crepuscular species. It preys on larvae, crustaceans and small fish (Burgess 1989)
183168		population	eng	No available data.
183168		population	eng	No information available.
183168		threats	eng	None known but there is a potential threat from oil exploration.
183169		conservation	eng	No information available.
183169		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population range, biology and ecology, and threats.
183169		conservation	eng	None known.
183169		conservation	eng	The species has no protection.
183169		distribution	eng	Species present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Lulongo River, at Cabinda province), Bengo River and Kwanza River (at Cunga, Lower Kwanza) systems.
183169		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Eleotris vittata</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Malela, Lower Congo River and from Moanda and Vista coastal Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it is on Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu islands, and in the lower courses of rivers from the Cross, south to the Loémé, but does not appear to have been collected from rivers in Gabon. Elsewhere, widespread from Sierra Leone to Angola.
183169		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in small coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks, estuaries and mangrove areas from as far north as possibly Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola.
183169		distribution	eng	This species is present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eleotris vittata</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Malela, Lower Congo River and from Moanda and Vista coastal Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is on Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu islands, and in the lower courses of rivers from the Cross south to the Loémé, but does not appear to have been collected from rivers in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Lulongo River, at Cabinda province), Bengo River and Kwanza River (at Cunga, lower Kwanza) systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in small coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks, estuaries and mangrove areas from Senegal to Nigeria
183169		habitat	eng	A demersal fish which inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers.
183169		habitat	eng	<em>Eleotris vittata</em> is found in coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks and estuaries. It is demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).
183169		habitat	eng	It inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. Biology is not known.
183169		population	eng	No available data.
183169		population	eng	No information available.
183169		population	eng	Population size is not known.
183169		threats	eng	No information available.
183169		threats	eng	None known
183169		threats	eng	Threats are not known.
183170		conservation	eng	None known.
183170		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, collected from lower course of rivers in Cameroon and Republic of Congo. Ranges from Senegal to Angola (Harrison and Miller 1992), including islands of the Gulf of Guinea.
183170		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Occurs from Senegal to Angola.
183170		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Senegal to Angola (Harrison and Miller 1992), including islands of the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it has been collected from lower course of rivers in Cameroon and Republic of Congo, but is expected to be found along the entire coastline to Angola. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found from Senegal to Nigeria.
183170		habitat	eng	The species is common in brackish waters of estuaries, also frequently entering freshwaters, often moving up rivers to considerable distance from the sea. It is demersal, occurring in the inshore in the intertidal zone.  It prefers tropical climate.
183170		habitat	eng	The species occurs inshore in the intertidal zone. Common in brackish waters of estuaries, but may migrate up rivers into freshwaters, often at considerable distance from the sea (Harrison <em>et al. </em>2003).
183170		habitat	eng	This species is common in brackish waters of estuaries, also frequently entering freshwaters, often moving up rivers to considerable distance from the sea (Harrison<em> et al</em>. 2003). It is demersal, and occurs inshore in the intertidal zone.
183170		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183170		population	eng	No information available.
183170		threats	eng	None known
183170		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183171		conservation	eng	None known.
183171		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Liza dumerili</em> is usually found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais 1980; Harrison, personal observation). Elsewhere, it occurs along Atlantic coast of Africa from Mauritania to Namibia, and along Cape and Indian Ocean coasts of Africa from Mossel Bay (South Africa) to Delagoa Bay (Mozambique).
183171		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widely distributed along the western Africa coast.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Mauritania to South Africa. Western Indian Ocean: Delagoa Bay, Mozambique to Mossel Bay, South Africa.
183171		distribution	eng	This species occurs along Atlantic coast of Africa from Mauritania to Namibia, and along Cape and Indian Ocean coasts of Africa from South Africa to Delagoa Bay Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Liza dumerili</em> is usually found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais 1980, Harrison pers. obs.). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> On the west coast the species range extends into Namibia, whilst on the east coast it can be found from Mossel Bay (South Africa) to Delagoa Bay (Mozambique).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed along the western Africa coast.
183171		habitat	eng	Demersal and catadromous fish that occurs in freshwater, brackish and marine waters. Inhabits shallow coastal waters, including estuaries and tidal rivers. It shows a remarkable adaptation to the hyperhalinity (up to 97 % in Sine Saloum, in Senegal). The species is a detritivore feeding upon algae and small benthic organizations. It also swallows the mud which it filters thanks to well developed branchiospines.
183171		habitat	eng	Found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais, 1980; Harrison, personal observation). This species is demersal; catadromous; Inhabits shallow coastal waters (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993), including estuaries (Schneider 1990) and tidal rivers (Thomson 1986).  Feeds on plankton and detritus (Diouf 1996).
183171		habitat	eng	This species is found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais 1980). This species is demersal; catadromous; This species inhabits shallow coastal waters (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993), including estuaries (Schneider 1990) and tidal rivers (Thomson 1986). It shows a remarkable adaptation to the hyperhalinity (up to 97 % in Sine Saloum, in Senegal). The species is a detritivore feeding upon algae and small benthic organizations. It also swallows the mud which it filters thanks to well developed branchiospines.
183171		population	eng	No available data.
183171		population	eng	No information available.
183171		threats	eng	Mugilidae are highly exploited in the estuaries of Senegal and Mauritania. In addition, dams on the river Senegal have formed a physical barrier which stops the migration of Mugilidae. They have also caused the brackish water zone to reduce considerably in the Senegal river (approximately 200 km length before the construction of Diama dam, now does not extend any more than 50 km).
183171		threats	eng	Mugilidae are highly exploited in the estuaries of Senegal and Mauritania. In addition, dams on the river Senegal have formed a physical barrier which stops the migration of Mugilidae. They have also caused the brackish water zone to reduce considerably in the Senegal river (approximately 200 km length before the construction of Diama Dam, now does not extend any more than 50 km).
183171		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance.
183172		conservation	eng	None known.
183172		distribution	eng	<em>Parachanna obscura</em> is known from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throughout the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from most coastal basins (the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Lobe, Ntem in Cameroon, Ogowe et Nyanga Rivers in Gabon, and the Kouilou River in Congo- Brazzaville). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Jebel and Ghazal systems, White Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River in Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Within western Africa, <em>Parachanna obscura</em> is found in the rivers Casamance, Gambia, Tominé and the Kogon in Guinea, Geba (Sierra Leone), the coastal basins of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, the basins of the Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Niger, Chad and Cross.
183172		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within the area considered here, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parachanna obscura</span> is found in the rivers Casamance, Gambia, Tominé and the Kogon in Guinea, Geba (Sierra Leone), the coastal basins of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, the basins of the Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Niger, Chad and Cross.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also in Nile River basin.
183172		habitat	eng	<em>Parachanna obscura</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that inhabits marginal vegetation and floodplains, patchily distributed in flood plain pools of the Sudd. It feeds on insects and small fish (Bailey 1994).
183172		habitat	eng	The species inhabits marginal vegetation and floodplains in streams. Feeds on insects and small fish. Demersal.
183172		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183172		population	eng	No information available.
183172		threats	eng	Some populations haven declined in western Africa, possibly linked to overfishing.
183172		threats	eng	Some populations haven declined, possibly linked to overfishing.
183173		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and status of this species.
183173		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
183173		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span>Upper Logone, Chad River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Ethiopian streams, may also be present in the Logone River of the Chad River basin.
183173		distribution	eng	Within northeastern Africa this species is distributed in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is also occurs in the coastal areas of the Red Sea, including Saudia Arabia and Yemen.
183173		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species.
183173		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
183173		population	eng	No information available.
183173		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by extraction of water for various purposes.
183173		threats	eng	Unknown.
183174		conservation	eng	None known.
183174		distribution	eng	<em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is found in coastal basins of Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is found from Sierra Leone to Nigeria, except for the Lower Volta basins.
183174		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is found in coastal basins of Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is found from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.
183174		habitat	eng	<em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is a eurytopic species that is most frequently found in association with stands of emergent or submerged aquatic plants. It is particularly abundant in shallower and quieter stretches of large rivers, in small lateral tributaries of such streams, in oxbow lakes and in swampy habitats. It even maintains breeding populations in coastal lagoons. The species is absent from rapids zone of streams or in headwaters flowing through montane forest; forest-associated species (Loiselle 1979). <em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is an omnivore. It spawns up to 300 eggs which hatch after 2 days, the young are free-swimming after 5 days (Bijnens 1991).
183174		population	eng	No information available.
183174		threats	eng	The Mount Cameroon location is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Cooperation, including bananas, palm oil. This species is often mislabelled as <em>Hemichromis bimaculatus</em> and it is widely used in the aquarium trade ( Brummett pers. comm.).
183174		threats	eng	The Mount Cameroon location is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Cooperation, including bananas, palm oil. This species is often mislabelled as <em>Hemichromis bimaculatus</em> and it is widely used in the aquarium trade (pers. comm. Brummett, R. and Cichlid Fishes of Western Africa).
183175		conservation	eng	None known.
183175		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is only known from Banana, Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Tonde River on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it has been collected from the lower courses of several rivers in Lower Guinea, and from Lac Onangue in Gabon. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from Cape Verde and islands in the Gulf of Guinea (Miller 1990).
183175		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.
183175		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower courses of rivers from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from Cape Verde and islands in the Gulf of Guinea (Miller 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is present in Banana, Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Tonde River on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from Lac Onangue in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found from Senegal to Nigeria.
183175		habitat	eng	<em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is a demersal species. It occurs inshore, in the intertidal zone, mangrove areas, estuaries, lagoons and lower river basins, mainly in brackish and fresh waters (Maugé 1986). The species feeds on fish, lamellibranchs, phytoplankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). It may establish burrows in sub-tidal mud (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also tolerant of freshwaters and may ascend rivers, although less common in these habitats (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
183175		habitat	eng	The species inhabits brackish and freshwaters, particularly estuaries, coastal lagoons, creeks and mangrove swamps. Feeds on fish, lamellibranchs, phyplankton and detritus.
183175		population	eng	No data on population trends.
183175		population	eng	No information available.
183175		threats	eng	None known
183175		threats	eng	None known.
183176		conservation	eng	No information available.
183176		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Butis koilomatodon</em> is native to estuaries of the tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean where it ranges from China and Australasia to Madagascar and Mozambique. <em>Butis koilomatodon</em> has been introduced in the Ndian River basin, Cameroon, but only from brackish water habitats. According to Miller <em>et al.</em> (1989) its presence at Port Harcourt (Nigeria) is the result of accidental transportation in ballast waters of oil tankers. Meanwhile it has been found in West Africa in Guinea, Nigeria and Cameroon. Other introduced populations are known from Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Its presence in Lower Guinea is confirmed by museum records.
183176		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the lower courses of east flowing rivers in Tanzania. <em>Butis koilomatodon</em> is native to estuaries of the tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean where it ranges from China and Australasia to Madagascar.<br/><br/><em>Butis koilomatodon</em> has been introduced in the Ndian River basin, Cameroon, but only from brackish water habitats. According to Miller <em>et al.</em> (1989) its presence at Port Harcourt (Nigeria) is the result of accidental transportation in ballast waters of oil tankers. Meanwhile it has been found in West Africa in Guinea, Nigeria and Cameroon. Other introduced populations are known from Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Its presence in Lower Guinea is confirmed by museum records.
183176		habitat	eng	<em>Butis koilomatodon</em> inhabits rivers, estuaries (Eccles 1992) and mangrove creeks (Miller and Wongrat 1990). It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes. This species is demersal and amphidromous.
183176		population	eng	No information available.
183176		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
183177		conservation	eng	None known.
183177		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Moanda and Vista on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal to Angola, including the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. It is also known from the western Atlantic:  Florida Keys in the USA, Bermuda and Bahamas to Santos, Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986, Cervigón 1994) and from unconfirmed records from the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is suspected to be conspecific with <em>Bathygobius fuscus</em>. The record from Algeria needs confirmation and the occurrence in Viet Nam is doubtful (Kuronuma 1961).
183177		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in marine and brackish waters (lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and swamps), from Senegal to Angola. Occasionally found in freshwater.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Florida Keys in the USA, Bermuda and the Bahamas to Santa Catarina, Brazil and the Mediterranean Sea.
183177		distribution	eng	This species is known from Senegal to Angola, including the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. It is also known from the western Atlantic:  Florida Keys in the USA, Bermuda and Bahamas to Santos, Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986, Cervigón 1994) and from unconfirmed records from the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is suspected to be conspecific with <em>Bathygobius fuscus</em>. The record from Algeria needs confirmation and the occurrence in Viet Nam is doubtful (Kuronuma 1961).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Moanda and Vista on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in marine and brackish waters (lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and swamps), from Senegal to Nigeria.
183177		habitat	eng	<em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999). The species is mainly found in pools (Maugé 1986). It is abundant in rocky tide pools and along water's edge (Robins and Ray 1986) in lagoons, creeks, and estuaries (Miller 1990). This species is a benthic spawner. <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is tolerant of a wide range of salinities, and lives benthically over sandy and muddy substrates in brackish waters of a variety of intertidal ecosystems (e.g., lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and mangrove swamps); it is occasionally found in freshwaters (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
183177		habitat	eng	This species is particularly abundant in rocky tidal pools and along water's edge in lagoons, creeks, and estuaries. Occasionally enters freshwaters. Non-migratory.
183177		population	eng	No available data.
183177		population	eng	No information available.
183177		threats	eng	None known
183177		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
183177		threats	eng	This species is commercially valuable as an aquarium fish.
183178		conservation	eng	None known.
183178		distribution	eng	<em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is known from the West African coast from Cap Vert, Senegal, to Angola (Allen 1981). It is also known from the Canary Islands (Desoutter 1990).
183178		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is known from the West African coast from Cap Vert Senegal, to Angola (Allen 1981). It is also known from the Canary Islands (Desoutter 1990).
183178		habitat	eng	<em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is very common in estuaries, lagoons, swamps, and inferior courses of rivers. Species also found in freshwater and able to enter quite far into freshwater. It feeds on fish, shrimps, zooplankton and various small invertebrates (Allen, 1981; Diouf, 1996). Sometimes the species is found in shoals composed of several hundred of individuals (Allen, 1981). Pelagic; Inhabits mainly estuaries and mangroves (Schneider 1990). After a stormy courtship a female lays 15,000 or more eggs which hatch in 24 hours (Mills and Vevers 1989). It prefers marine, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.
183178		habitat	eng	<em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is very common in estuaries, lagoons, swamps, and inferior courses of rivers. Species also found in freshwater and able to enter quite far into freshwater. It feeds on fish, shrimps, zooplankton and various small invertebrates (Allen 1981; Diouf 1996). Sometimes the species is found in shoals composed of several hundred of individuals (Allen 1981). Pelagic; This species inhabits mainly estuaries and mangroves (Schneider 1990). After a stormy courtship a female lays 15,000 or more eggs which hatch in 24 hours (Mills and Vevers 1989).
183178		population	eng	No information available.
183178		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance.
183178		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance as an aquarium fish.
183179		conservation	eng	None known.
183179		distribution	eng	<em>Mastacembelus marchei</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (formerly Stanley-Pool) and from the Dja River basin (a major tributary of the Central Congo river basin). It is also known from Kribi River basin (Cameroon) up to the Kouilou/Niari (Congo).
183179		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
183179		population	eng	No information available.
183179		threats	eng	None known.
183180		conservation	eng	No information available.
183180		conservation	eng	None known.
183180		conservation	eng	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183180		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is common along the River Nile, Wadi El Rayan, Abu Zabal and Coastal Lakes in Egypt and Drâa in Morocco (Bishai and Khalil 1997).<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Africa and Eurasia. In the Jordan system, especially in lakes, coastal rivers of Israel. In the Nile River system, including the delta lakes and Lake Albert and Turkana. It is also present in Central Congo and widespread in western Africa.
183180		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is naturally distributed in the Cross River, Lake Barombi-Kotto and Meme River, Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is known from throughout western Africa, the Nilosudanic province, including the Jordan River basin. <br/><br/><em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> has been introduced into Lower Guinea, mainly after 1955, from the Nilo-Sudan region, Fort-Lamy (12°07’N-15°03’E), Chad, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. It has also been introduced, in 1953, from Sudan to Congo-Brazzaville. According to FAO (2005) it is self reproducing and established in Congo-Brazzaville. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) reported the presence of <em>S. Galilaeus</em> from the Kouilou River basin in Congo-Brazzaville and mentioned the possibility of an introduction. After introduction from Sudan, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is established in Congo-Brazzaville, but not in South Africa (from Israel), Japan (from the USA) and China (from Sudan).
183180		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Albert and Turkana and the upper Nile.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widespread throughout Africa and Eurasia: Jordan system, esp. in lakes; coastal rivers of Israel; Nile system, incl. the delta lakes; Jebel Mara, Chad basin w/ the Shari River; central Congo basin, Ubanghi and Uele Rivers, L. Kotto, Niger, Ogun, Volta, Corubal, Gambia, Casamance and Senegal rivers, Draa (Morocco), Adrar (Mauritania). Populations in Lake Ejagham, Cameroon are declining.
183180		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this subspecies is known from the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Casamance (Senegal), Géba (Guinea Bissau), Konkouré (Guinea), Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Cross, Benue, Logone, Shari and Lake Chad. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it is found in the River Ubangui, the lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile basin, lakes Huleh and Kinereth in Israel, as well as in the Jordan River.
183180		distribution	eng	This is a very widespread species from Senegal to the Congo and Kenya, and along the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is naturally distributed in the Cross River, Lake Barombi-Kotto and Meme River, Cameroon. <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> has been introduced into Lower Guinea, mainly after 1955, from the Nilo-Sudan region, Fort-Lamy, Chad, to Yaoundé, Cameroon. It has also been introduced, in 1953, from Sudan to Congo. According to FAO (2005) it is self reproducing and established in Congo. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) reported the presence of <em>S. galilaeus</em> from the Kouilou River basin in Congo and mentioned the possibility of an introduction. Populations in Lake Ejagham, Cameroon are vulnerable.  <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Albert and Turkana, and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common along the River Nile, at Wadi El Rayan, Abu Zabal and Coastal Lakes in Egypt, and Drâa in Morocco.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and the Blu and White Niles to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, as well as  Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this subspecies is known from the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Casamance (Senegal), Géba (Guinea Bissau), Konkouré (Guinea), Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Cross Benue, Logone, Shari and Lake Chad.
183180		habitat	eng	Demersal fish that has been reported to occur at 9°C. Occasionally forms schools; territorial.  Prefers open waters but juveniles and breeding adults are found inshore.  Often associated with beds of submerged vegetation in Sudd lakes.  Feeds on algae and fine organic debris.  Bi-parental mouthbrooder. Is an obligate particulate feeder during the larval and juvenile stage, and is mainly an obligate filter feeder when adult. A transition period exists during which both feeding modes can be used according to environmental conditions.
183180		habitat	eng	<em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus </em>is a demersal, potamodromous species. It has been known to occur at 9°C and occasionally forms schools. It is a territorial species.<em> <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus </em></em>prefers open waters but juveniles and breeding adults are found inshore. It is often associated with beds of submerged vegetation in Sudd lakes. It feeds on algae and fine organic debris. This subspecies is a bi-parental mouthbrooder. The initiative throughout courting and mating is taken predominantly by the female; the female is mainly responsible for the excavation of the nest and for defending the mating territory. Pair-formation exists and is dissolved as soon as the eggs are in the parental mouth.
183180		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow inshore waters of Lakes. Food predominantly phytoplankton, planktonic crustaceans are also eaten. It is a mouth-breeder fish, males keeping their brood in the mouth. Spawning takes place in shallow, quiet waters through most months of the year. It can survive at 10°C. It reaches a length to 40 cm.
183180		habitat	eng	Present in large shools throughout Lake Turkana (Trewavas 1983). Pairs move inshore to breed, spawning on sandy or gravel bottoms where plants are abundant (Trewavas 1983). The female is mainly responsible for building and defending the nest. Both sexes participate in parental care. The pair bond is dissolved as soon as the eggs are safely in the parental mouth(s) (Trewavas 1983).
183180		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</span> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occasionally forms schools, and is a territorial species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</span> prefers open waters but juveniles and breeding adults are found inshore. It is often associated with beds of submerged vegetation in Sudd lakes. It feeds on algae and fine organic debris - it is an obligate particulate feeder during the larval and juvenile stage, and is mainly an obligate filter feeder when adult. A transition period exists during which both feeding modes can be used according to environmental conditions. This subspecies is a bi-parental mouthbrooder. Spawning takes place in shallow, quiet waters through most months of the year. Pairs move inshore to breed, spawning on sandy or gravel bottoms where plants are abundant (Trewavas 1983). The female is mainly responsible for building and defending the nest. Both sexes participate in parental care. The pair bond is dissolved as soon as the eggs are safely in the parental mouth(s) (Trewavas 1983).
183180		population	eng	No available data.
183180		population	eng	No information available.
183180		population	eng	No population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
183180		population	eng	The population size is not exactly known; however, Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.
183180		threats	eng	No information available.
183180		threats	eng	None known
183180		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
183180		threats	eng	The species has an important commercial species for both food and as an aquarium fish.
183180		threats	eng	This species has commercial importance in central Africa for subsistence, aquaculture and the aquarium trade, with seine netting being the most common method for catching. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.
183181		conservation	eng	None needed. Occurs in many coastal reserves.
183181		conservation	eng	This subspecies occurs in many coastal reserves.
183181		distribution	eng	The subspecies has been recorded from East coast from Kenya south to Natal area, also Madagascar and Mauritius (Skelton 2001). Other subspecies are widespread worldwide.
183181		distribution	eng	This subspecies is widespread along the east African coastline, as well as the islands of Madagascar, Mauritius and Reunion.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches of rivers from Kenya southwards.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the east coast from Mozambique south to Natal area, South Africa.
183181		habitat	eng	Occurs in relatively shallow (25-150 cm), still to slow-flowing water. Inhabits freshwater streams, rivers and estuaries. Juveniles and subadults are usually found in estuaries while adults are found upstream in freshwater areas. Feeds on worms, crustaceans and zooplankton. Ovoviviparous, the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
183181		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in relatively shallow (25-150 cm), still to slow-flowing water. It inhabits freshwater streams, rivers and estuaries. Juveniles and subadults are usually found in estuaries while adults are found upstream in freshwater areas. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and zooplankton (Pethiyagoda 1991). This subspecies is ovoviviparous, and the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.
183181		population	eng	A widespread and common subspecies.
183181		threats	eng	None known.
183182		conservation	eng	Management of fishing levels and methods is needed in selected areas. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions.
183182		conservation	eng	More research is needed into the threats and harvest levels of this species. Management of fishing levels and methods is needed in selected areas. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions.
183182		conservation	eng	No information available
183182		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake malawi and its catchment area as well as Shire River and its tributaries. Eastward flowing Africa rivers, Athi and Tana drainages (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). <br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also present in the Zambezi system.
183182		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in the African east-coast rivers from around the Phongolo in South Africa and north into Kenya. Elsewhere it is also present in western Indian Ocean islands across to India.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake malawi and its catchment area as well as Shire River and its tributaries. Eastward flowing Africa rivers, Athi and Tana drainages (Seegers <em>et al,</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Zambezi system. Not common south of the Save River.
183182		distribution	eng	This subspecies occurs in the African east-coast rivers from around the Phongolo in South Africa and north into Kenya. Not common south of the Save River. The dominant species in the Zambezi.
183182		habitat	eng	Breeds at sea and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams.
183182		habitat	eng	Juveniles feed on insects and other aquatic invertabrates; adults feed on fish and crab. Adults prey on fish, including trout in the streams of the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. Migratory species, breeds in the ocean (see Seegers <em>et al. 2004). Inhabits various niches in a river system (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Penetrates far inland, surmounting formidable barriers in its upstream migration, including the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams.</em>
183182		habitat	eng	This is a migratory subspecies, breeds in the ocean (see Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004) and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams. Juveniles feed on insects and other aquatic invertebrates; adults feed on fish and crab. Adults prey on fish, including trout in the streams of the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. This subspecies inhabits various niches in a river system (Bell-Cross and Minshull, 1988). Penetrates far inland, surmounting formidable barriers in its upstream migration, including the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams.
183182		population	eng	Common and widespread..
183182		population	eng	This subspecies is thought to be uncommon in eastern Africa, but common and widespread in southern Africa.
183182		population	eng	Uncommon species
183182		threats	eng	In eastern Africa, threats to this species include habitat degradation, overfishing, and game fishing. In southern Africa there is fishing pressure from hook and line catching, and poisoning. Within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.
183182		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, overfishing and game fishing.
183182		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is fishing pressure from hook and line and poisoning. Within southern Africa, major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.
183183		conservation	eng	None known.
183183		conservation	eng	The fish is protected in some game reserves.
183183		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander</em> is known from the Kasai, Lufira, Lualaba-Upemba and Luapula-Mweru River systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the Orange River system, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi system, Quanza, Lake Malawi, south-east Africa from lower Zambezi south to Vungu River in Natal.
183183		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout much of the southern half of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander</em> is known from the Kasai, Lufira, Lualaba-Upemba and Luapula-Mweru River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the Limphasa/ Luweya system and the Nkhotakota wildlife reserve in the Lake Malawi catchment  Also abundant in the marshes of the Lower Shire River and lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from the Orange and southern KwaZulu-Natal northwards throughout the region, extending to southern Congo tributaries and the Lake Malawi lakeshore rivers (Skelton 2001).
183183		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander </em>is benthopelagic species that is found in various habitats, from flowing waters to lakes and isolated sinkholes, e.g., Lake Otjikoto, Namibia (Agenbag 1998). It usually prefers vegetated zones and feeds on insects, shrimps and even small fish. It breeds from early spring to late summer. The males defend a territory, construct a simple cleared nest and attract ripe females.  The eggs are laid in the nest, fertilized and collected by the female. The females withdraw to a nursery to brood the eggs until juvenile stage (Skelton 1993). The female lays batches of eggs on a substratum which the male begins to inseminate. The female collects the eggs almost immediately after laying a batch and incubates eggs in her mouth for 12-14 days at 26°C, releasing the young afterwards. The female parent guards the young for 5-7 days, keeping them into her mouth when approached by predators or divers. It inhabits streams, lakes and mangroves.
183183		habitat	eng	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander is benthopelagic species that is found in various habitats, from flowing waters to lakes and isolated sinkholes, e.g., Lake Otjikoto, Namibia (Agenbag 1998). It has never been recorded in Lake Malawi itself but is thought to live in the swampy environments around the lakeshore. It prefers vegetated zones, where the current is not too strong (Skelton 2001), and is found mainly in quiet pools. It has a tendency to migrate upstream during the rains. Known to feed on insects and small fish. It breeds from early spring to late summer. The males defend a territory, construct a simple cleared nest and attract ripe females. The eggs are laid in the nest, fertilized and collected by the female. The females withdraw to a nursery to brood the eggs until juvenile stage (Skelton 1993). The female lays batches of eggs on a substratum which the male begins to inseminate. The female collects the eggs almost immediately after laying a batch and incubates eggs in her mouth for 12-14 days at 26°C, releasing the young afterwards. The female parent guards the young for 5-7 days, keeping them into her mouth when approached by predators or divers.</em>
183183		population	eng	It is generally abundant in suitable habitats.
183183		population	eng	No information available.
183183		threats	eng	None known.
183184		conservation	eng	No information available.
183184		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.
183184		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Aphanius dispar dispar</em> is found in the coastal and fresh to saline inland waters of the Red Sea basin of Egypt and also a landlocked population in the Siwa Oasis, western Egypt.<br/><br/>At global level, it is also present in the Indian Ocean and Somalia southward to Eil. It migrates through the Suez Canal into the southeastern Mediterranean basin, Egypt and Israel; Dead Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, western India; landlocked populations in Saudi Arabia, Iran.
183184		distribution	eng	This coastal subspecies is found in predominantly saline habitats in north and northeastern Africa. Elsewhere it is an immigrant through the Suez Canal into the southeastern Mediterranean basin and Israel. It is present in the Dead Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf and western India. There are also landlocked populations in Saudi Arabia and Iran.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies is found in the coastal and fresh to saline inland waters of the Red Sea basin of Egypt and also a landlocked population in the Siwa Oasis, western Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from northern saline lakes of Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia.
183184		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal zones, also found in oasis with hypersaline to fresh water. It forms schools. Highly tolerant to wide range of salinity up to full marine water and has wide temperature range. It is chiefly an herbivorous taxon. Not a seasonal killifish. Spawn in areas where roots of hyacinth or other floating plants abound. It breeds throughout the year with a probable peak in the months of April to June.
183184		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in coastal zones. Forms schools. Highly tolerant to wide range of salinity up to full marine water and has wide temperature range. Mainly a herbivorous species. It is not a seasonal killifish. It spawns in areas where roots of hyacinth or other floating plants abound. It breeds throughout the year with a probable peak in the months of April to June.
183184		population	eng	No information available.
183184		threats	eng	No information available.
183185		conservation	eng	This snake has been recorded from many protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species. Although this species is not in need of specific conservation actions, protection of additional forests within its range, and efforts to limit deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures across Southeast Asia, and will benefit this species.
183185		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Southeast Asia. It ranges from southern Thailand into Peninsular Malaysia (including Pulau Tioman) and Singapore, from here south into Indonesia as far as Bali (including the Mentawai Archipelago, Sumatra, Nias, the Riau Archipelago and Java), Borneo (Brunei, Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak), and the Philippines (Basilan, Culion, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Palawan, Polillo, Sibutu, Panay, Samar and the Sulu Archipelago). Records from the Lesser Sundas east of Bali, including Sambawa and Flores, refer to the recently-described <em>B. hoeseli</em>. <em>B. cynodon</em> is found from close to sea level to around 600 m asl. in the Philippines. The presence of this snake in Myanmar is uncertain.
183185		habitat	eng	This highly arboreal, oviparous species is found in a wide range of habitats, from primary and secondary forest, to cultivated areas, rural gardens and urban areas (Steubing and Inger 1999). It is often found in coconut plantations (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011). In forested areas, it is known to live in the canopy (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011). It feeds on small vertebrates. In Bali, Indonesia, the snake is fairly common in secondary forest and gardens, particularly where it is able to inhabit trees and bushes over rivers and streams (R.P.H. Lilley pers. obs. 2011). The presence of young animals in these areas indicates that the species probably breeds successfully in secondary habitats, although alternatively snakes may be seeking refuge in the small areas of relatively undisturbed riverine habitats which remain at the edges of cultivated land (R.P.H. Lilley pers. comm. October 2011).
183185		population	eng	This is generally a common species.
183185		threats	eng	Although forests are under pressure throughout its range, there are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
183187		conservation	eng	The species is known from two protected areas in Sabah (Kinabalu and Crocker Range Parks).<br/><br/> In the Philippines, the is species is not known from any protected areas and further research is needed to determine if the species persists in the Philippines, and if it does, how strictly it is associated with remaining forests.
183187		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the island of Borneo, where it has been recorded from Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak (Stuebing and Inger 1999), and the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Cagayan Sulu (orignal desciption), Sibutu, Bongao, Sanga-Sanga and Siasi and is presumably present on Tawi-Tawi (A. Diesmos pers. comm.). It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,430 m. asl.&#160; in Borneo.
183187		habitat	eng	In Borneo, this species has been recorded under dead leaves, or 1-2 cm under soil, in primary tropical moist forest (Stuebing & Inger 1999).
183187		population	eng	There are many records of the species from Borneo, where it is thought to be relatively common. It is not known if the species is still present in the heavily deforested Sulu Archipelago as there have been no recent records (A. Diesmos pers. comm.).
183187		threats	eng	In the Philippines, the species is threatened by illegal logging activities (especially on Tawi-Tawi). Much of the Sulu Archipelago has been deforested and converted to coconut plantations. In Kalimantan (Borneo) in the is threatened by coal mining&#160; activities. In other areas of Borneo the species lives in areas where there is ongoing deforestation.
183188		conservation	eng	This snake is found within several protected areas in the Philippines. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of lowland forest throughout the range of this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
183188		distribution	eng	This Southeast Asian snake has been recorded from Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nias, Riau Archipelago, Buton and Sulawesi), the island of Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan) and the southern Philippines islands of Palawan, the Sulu Archipelago and Mindanao. It has been recorded from sea level to 300 m asl in the Philippines, and up to 1,000 m asl on Mount Kinabalu.
183188		habitat	eng	This uncommonly-encountered snake is largely fossorial, being found under rotting logs and similar ground cover in both primary and secondary tropical lowland moist forests, and rural villages (A. Diesmos and G. Tampos pers. comm.). It is an oviparous species.
183188		population	eng	In the Philippines, it is known from very few specimens. The species is uncommonly encountered elsewhere, although it has been recorded from a wide area.
183188		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through the conversion of forest to areas of slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture.
183191		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The snake is listed as nationally Data Deficient in the Philippines, as it is known from only three specimens in this country, and more research is needed into its population status and distribution within these islands.
183191		distribution	eng	This widespread Southeast Asian species has been recorded from southern Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah [a single record on the outskirts of Sandakan]), Singapore, Indonesia and Palawan in the Philippines (known from three specimens from Iwahig, but likely to range more widely) (Cox<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1998, Inger and Stuebing 1999, A. Diesmos pers. comm.).&#160; In Indonesia the species is known from Sumatra, and has recently been recorded from Java (D. T. Iskandar, unpubl. data). In the Philippines it has been recorded from sea level up to 100 m asl.
183191		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal and arboreal species, recorded from lowland primary and old secondary tropical moist forest in the Philippines (A. Diesmos pers. comm.) Peninsular Malaysia (L. Grismer pers. comm. September 2011). It is also reported to occur in hills (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. 1</span>998).
183191		population	eng	This snake is common in Peninsular Malaysia. In the Philippines it is known only from three specimens, however it is a highly cryptic species.
183191		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been reported. In parts of its range, including the Philippines, there is ongoing forest loss resulting from slash and burn ('kaingin') agriculture and timber extraction, but this is localized and appears to represent only a minor threat in areas where these activities are ongoing
183192		conservation	eng	The species occurs in&#160; the protected areas of&#160; Gunung Mulu Park and Bako National Park (Sarawak), Tawau Hills Park (Sabah), and in Brunei in Temburong National Park.&#160; Further studies are needed to understand&#160; the ecology, population trends and threats to this poorly-known species.
183192		distribution	eng	This poorly known snake has been recorded from the Philippines, Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak, Kalimantan and Brunei) and Indonesia (Natuna Islands). In the Philippines, the range is poorly known, but it has been recorded from the islands of Palawan and Balabac (Alcala 1996). In Brunei is known from two localities Kuala Belalong and Sun Gai Liang up to 700 m. asl.
183192		habitat	eng	This is a tropical moist forest species found from flat peaty areas to steep hilly forests (Stuebing & Inger 1999). It has been found both on the forest floor, and in shrubs and trees, and has been recorded foraging in rocky areas (Stuebing & Inger 1999, Das 2007).
183192		population	eng	There is no information available on the population of this species within its range.
183192		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not well known. In Borneo deforestation is a potential threat.
183193		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas.
183193		distribution	eng	This snake has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, south-central Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and southern China (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998, Pauwels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Stuart and Emmett 2006). It may have been confused with <em>Dryocalamus subannulatus</em> in southern Thailand, so the exact southern limit of its distribution is unclear (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Records from Viet Nam include the provinces of Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Khanh&#160; Hoa, Binh Thuan, Dong Nai, Tay Ninh, Kien Giang, and from Ho Chi Minh City (Nguyen et al., 2009). There is a recent record from Hon Can ranger station, Van Xuan Commune, Thuong Xuan District, Thanh Hoa province, north Viet Nam (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It has been recorded between sea level and 1,500 m asl.
183193		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake is semi-arboreal in disturbed and secondary forest (T. Neang and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), as well as in primary evergreen forest&#160; (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) found this snake in limestone forest on a night-time excursion, and it has also been found at night in sites in southern Viet Nam (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It feeds on vertebrates, including small geckos (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).
183193		population	eng	No population data are available for this species, although the population of this widespread snake is presumed to be stable. It is uncommon in Indochina (T. Neang and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), but is reported to be common in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).
183193		threats	eng	Deforestation resulting from slash and burn agriculture may threaten this arboreal species in parts of its range (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011). As this species is tolerant of degraded and secondary forest habitats, it is probably not heavily impacted by other forms of habitat modification.
183196		conservation	eng	The wide distribution of this species coincides with protected areas. Research is needed to determine harvest and trade levels of this species and if this represents a threat to the persistence of the species.
183196		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Myanmar eastward to central Viet Nam, southward through the Malay Peninsula and in island Southeast Asia (including both the Andaman and Nicobar Islands) as far east as the Philippines and Lombok, Indonesia (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In the Philippines it occurs in the Sulu Archipelago, Balabac, Palawan, Bohol, Lubang, Luzon, Negros, Panay, Itbayat, Samar and Mindoro.
183196		habitat	eng	This is a diurnal, arboreal snake that occurs in primary forest, but appears to prefer edge habitats, secondary growth, plantations and rural gardens (Stuebing and Inger 1999, A. Demegillo and A. Diesmos pers. comm.). The species occurs up to 1,100m asl (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). It is oviparous, laying clutches of between 5 and 12 eggs (Cox<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1998, Stuebing and Inger 1999).
183196		population	eng	This species is common in Borneo (Stuebing and Inger 1999) but it is generally hard to find in the Philippines (A. Demegillo and J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.). It is uncommon in Viet Nam (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. October 2011). Due to high rates of harvesting in parts of its range, it is likely to be suffering local population declines, but the impact of this activity on the global population is unknown.
183196		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species. The scale of exploitation may not be large enough to threaten this species across its range, although the effects of harvesting on local subpopulations are unclear.
183199		conservation	eng	This species is present in many protected areas throughout its range. There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
183199		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Peninsular Malaysia through the archipelagos to Java, Indonesia and the southern Philippines (including Bubuan, Palawan [including Iwahig] with possible misidentifications from the Sulu Archipelago) (Leviton 1963, Taylor 1965, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999, Das 2007, Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.). The species is also reported from Lam Dong Province, Viet Nam (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but see taxonomic comment. It also occurs in the extreme south of Thailand along its border with the Malay Peninsula. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 1,200 m.
183199		habitat	eng	Little is known about the natural history of this snake. The species has been reported to range from lowland tropical forest to lower hill forest, and can be found hiding amongst leaf-litter (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Stuebing and Inger 1999, Das, 2007), and as high as 3 m above the ground in trees (Grismer 2011). It is not known if the species can persist in secondary or degraded forest. It is found up to 1,200 m asl (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 1998).
183199		population	eng	The species is poorly-known, with no information available on its population size.
183199		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
183200		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. On the island of Palawan in the Philippines, both mountain ranges where the species has been recorded fall within protected areas (Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.). In Sabah, the species is present in the Kinabalu National Park.
183200		distribution	eng	This species occurs from eastern Myanmar across southern China southward through the archipelagos to Sumbawa and Flores Island&#160; (Indonesia) and the Philippines (Smith 1943; Zhao &amp; Adler 1993; David &amp; Vogel 1996; Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; Lilley pers. comm.). In the Philippines, it is found on the island of Palawan, with records from Mantalingihan and Victoria mountain  ranges, and an old record from Puerto Princessa (Diesmos pers.  comm.). In Borneo, it has been recorded in Sabah and Sarawak.
183200		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. subcinctus</span> is nocturnal and both terrestrial and arboreal. The species is found on the forest floor litter or in vegetation, and sometimes climbing large trees (Stuebing & Inger 1999). It occurs in forest (Stuebing & Inger 1999), in disturbed primary and secondary tropical moist forest and plantations (Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.), and in agricultural land (McKay 2006) from&#160; near sea level to approximately 1,800 m. asl. (McKay 2006).
183200		population	eng	Smith (1943) reported that the species is rare in the northern part of its range, except in Hong Kong, where it is common. It is considered common in Sumatra, Indonesia (David and Vogel 1996). There are very few records of this species in the Philippines (Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.). It is widely distributed in Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia.
183200		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
183202		conservation	eng	&#160;Additional studies are needed to establish the distribution, natural history and threats to the species.
183202		distribution	eng	This little-known species has been recorded from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (Malaysia) and Banjarmasin in Kalimantan (Indonesia) on the island of Borneo (Stuebing and Inger 1999, Malkmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.</span> 2002). It is a lowland species recorded between sea level and 600 m. asl., considering merely the distribution in Borneo.
183202		habitat	eng	The natural history of this species remains poorly-known. It is fossorial (Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.), and found in tropical lowland&#160; moist forests. The localities for the Philippines are from lowland. In Kalimantan it is from near the sea-level but the only record from Sabah is from Mt Kinabalu.
183202		population	eng	No information is currently available on the abundance or trends of this species' population.
183202		threats	eng	It seems likely that the leading threat to this species is the general deforestation of lowland forest, through conversion to agricultural land, logging and mining.
183203		conservation	eng	It is not known from any protected areas in the Philippines. In Borneo, it is present in Kinabalu Park (Sabah), Pelagus and Batang Ai National Parks (Sarawak) and Temburong National Park (Brunei) and Bukit Baka-Bukit&#160; Raya National Park (Kalimantan). There is a need to conserve suitable lowland forest habitat within the range of this species on Palawan and Borneo. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.
183203		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippine island of Palawan and the island of Borneo ("Kinabalu"), the east coast of Sabah and southwestern Malaysia (Sarawakand), and from Brunei (Stuebing &amp; Inger 1999, Malkmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Das 2007). There is a recent record from Batang Ai National Park in Sarawak, close to the border with Kalimantan (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data). There are three Palawan records of this species, one at Iwahig in 1961, and two at Mantalingahan (2003 and 2007) (Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.). On Palawan, it is a lowland species recorded between 200 and 600 m. asl. On Borneo, it has been recorded at 75 to 900 m. asl. (Malkmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Das pers. comm.). The species was recently found in Central Kalimantan (Maruwai) and West Kalimantan.
183203		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal semi-aquatic and riparian snake, with specimens found at the edge of small dipterocarp or heath forest streams, in the water of a forest swamp and inhabiting rocky streams (Stuebing &amp; Inger 1999, Malkmus<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2002, Das 2007, Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.). It has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist lowland forest (Malkmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Arvin Diesmos pers. comm.).
183203		population	eng	This snake is known from few specimens in Borneo (Stuebing &amp; Inger 1999), and three from the Philippines (A. Diesmos pers. comm.). Isolated records of this snake from Kalimantan include four from Maruwai in Central Kalimantan, and one from West Kalimantan (D.T. Iskandar, pers. obs.).
183203		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by rapid deforestation in the lowlands of Palawan and Borneo.
183206		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183206		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California and southern Baja California, Mexico to northern Peru.
183206		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits mud-sand substrata, sometimes near weed-covered rocky reefs, and most frequently between 15-30m although it can be found as deep as 90m.  It feeds on bony fishes and crustaceans.
183206		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However it is one of the most common shorefish species in the Eastern Pacific, and is moderately common in bycatch from trawling.
183206		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183207		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183207		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to northern Peru (Robertson and Allen, 2006).
183207		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores. It can also be found in barnacle and worm tubes in rocky and coral reef.
183207		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183207		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183208		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to northern Peru.
183208		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found over hard substrate of shallow coastal waters (McKay and Schneider, 1995) to depths of 35m.
183208		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is sometimes collected in trawls but is uncommon.
183208		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered to be an important commercial fish in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004).
183209		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a few Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).
183209		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from the lower half of the Gulf of California and the Revillagigedos islands. It is also found along the coast of Costa Rica and Panama.
183209		habitat	eng	This epipelagic species is found in coastal waters to 5m depth. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances above the surface.
183209		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183209		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
183210		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183210		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Mexico to northern Peru.
183210		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata at depths from 15-55m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183210		population	eng	This species is common within its rangee. There is no population information for this species.
183210		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183211		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183211		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Anaheim Bay in southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to southern Peru (Jimenez Prado and Bearez, 2004), including the Galapagos Islands.
183211		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs in shallow coastal waters, including estuaries, usually over sand or mud substrate. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs, and algae (De la Cruz Arguero, 1997).
183211		population	eng	This species is common in the Gulf of California, Ecuador, and in Gorgona, Colombia. It is considered rare in California.
183211		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183212		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Alto Golfo and Loreto Bay Marine National Park.
183212		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California.
183212		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow reefs, and lives among seaweed to depths of 5m.
183212		population	eng	This is one of the most common shallow reef blennioids in the northern Gulf of California.
183212		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183213		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183213		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to northern Chile, including the Galapagos archipelago.
183213		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic and demersal species found in coastal waters up to at least 50 m depth. It generally forms schools near the bottom. The juveniles are encountered near the surface. It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183213		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183213		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br><br>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries using gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is also caught with shrimp trawls.
183215		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, most of this species' distribution is included in continental and island Marine Protected Areas.
183215		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific region and is found from Costa Rica to western Panama, and in Cocos, Malpelo, and the Galapagos islands.
183215		habitat	eng	This species lives on rubble and shell substrata on the inner to outer continental shelf, probably primarily an insular species. It is found from 20-280m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183215		population	eng	This is not a common species in this range. There is no population information for this species.
183215		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183216		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However this species can be found in at least a few Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific. For example, Panama and Colombia have a number of Marine Protected Areas managed through Conservation International's Eastern Pacific Seascape Program, which is considered to be a valuable component of reef habitat protection (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003).
183216		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Panama to Colombia.
183216		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and form aggregations in shallow coastal waters to depths of 10m.
183216		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183216		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species restricted range and relatively shallow water habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species population are needed.
183217		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas.
183217		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183217		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters and off river mouths (e.g. Rio Mayo, Gulf of California), thus it can tolerate lower salinities.   It feeds on planktonic crustaceans.  It spawns over an extended period off Costa Rica and forms large schools in bays, estuaries, and in brackish river mouths. It is found to 10m.
183217		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183217		threats	eng	Theer are no major threats to this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead, 1985). This species can be use as bait. Other commercial uses should be investigated.
183218		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range.
183218		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to Panama (Birdsong 1981).
183218		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits muddy shell substrates and tide pools, estuaries and mangrove streams (Birdsong 1981).
183218		population	eng	This species is moderately common within suitable habitat.
183218		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.
183219		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay Marine National Park and Cabo Pulmo National Park.
183219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower half of the Gulf of California, and from the Tres Marias Islands to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico.
183219		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and worm or mollusk tubes on rocky reefs.
183219		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range.
183219		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183220		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183220		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Puget Sound, Washington State to Cabo San Lucas, and from the Gulf of California to Guayamas, Mexico.
183220		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found on sandy substrate, sand patches around rocky reefs, and boulder and gravel strewn slopes. This fish is active during the day and may bury itself in sand, with only its eyes and mouth protruding, to hunt its prey (Humann and Deloach 1993).
183220		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183220		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183221		conservation	eng	The Galápagos Islands are a National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). The species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183221		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Although the holotype was dredged from waters 18-46 m deep, most specimens examined by Dawson (1976) were collected from waters 0-6 m deep.
183221		habitat	eng	This benthic species occurs on coastal sandy areas, generally in shallow waters to 10 m deep.
183221		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. The original description was based on a collection of more than 100 specimens (Dawson 1976).
183221		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and primarily shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183222		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the region, including Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).
183222		distribution	eng	This species is found near Jalisco, Mexico, the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and from Costa Rica to southern Panama, including Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1993).
183222		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate to a depth of 65m.
183222		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183222		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183223		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183223		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, ranging from El Salvador to Ecuador. However, it is only known from a few collections.
183223		habitat	eng	This species lives by sandy beaches near estuaries and deeper soft substrate in nearshore waters. It can also be found in fresh water, for example in a canal zone.
183223		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
183223		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183224		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo and Galagapos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183224		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from central Baja and the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands .
183224		habitat	eng	This benthic reef-associated species can be found between rocks, and over sand and mud substrates.
183224		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183224		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183225		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183225		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California, Mexico to Peru, including all of the offshsore islands. It has also been recorded in the artificially warmed waters off the Encina Power Plant in San Diego, California, USA, far outside normal range (Sommer 1995).
183225		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species swims in slightly polarized schools though it is occasionally solitary or in small groups (Humann and  Deloach 1993) to depths of 20 m. Juveniles are commonly encountered under floating objects in front of the Central American coast (Sommer 1995).
183225		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. <br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.29 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales 1997), a mean density of  0.024 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup> and a frequency of observation of 2.4% was registered. In Gulf of Papagayo, Panama (Dominici <em>et al.</em> 2005), a mean density of <0,01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> was registered. Nevertheless, it could not be found at Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006, or at Golf Dulce, Costa Rica (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, <em>Kyphosus</em> sp. could be observed once in just one reef (Espinoza and Salas 2005). This fish was one of the most abundant — 4.36% — in a gill-net-fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, coastal zone of the central Mexican pacific (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001), together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids. However, in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this animal was considered scarce — relative abundance between 0.1-1% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183225		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183226		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183226		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Bahia Magdelena, Baja California and throughout the Gulf of California to Colombia, including Gorgona and Malpelo Island (Brando <em>et al</em>. 1992; Rubio et al 1992).
183226		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms to depths of 20m.
183226		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183226		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is somestimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling.
183227		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183227		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species is from Oregon to southern Baja California, and the southwestern and eastern Gulf of California (Galvan-Magana <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183227		habitat	eng	This fish is found over soft substrata in deep coastal areas, as well as in shallower areas in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Galvan-Magana <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species is found from 3-305m.
183227		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183227		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183228		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region, including Cocos Island National Park, Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, and Coiba National Park (WDPA 2006).
183228		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Nicaragua to Ecuador, including the Cocos and Malpelo islands.
183228		habitat	eng	This cryptic reef-associated species can be found among macroalgae on rocky reefs. However, it is usually not seen unless flushed out with chemical ichthyocides.
183228		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183228		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183229		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and Baja California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands.
183229		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over sand, mud, and areas of coral rubble. It may be encountered by divers in sandy patches among stands of coral or rocky reefs (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997). This species is usually found deeper than 40m.
183229		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183229		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183230		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183230		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183230		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy-sand substrata, between 14 and 160m depth.
183230		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered to be locally common. It uncommon in trawls in the Gulf of California, El Salvador and Panama.
183230		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It does not have major commercial interest, likely due to its small size (Heemstra, 1995).
183231		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183231		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.
183231		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow coastal areas and lagoons, including estuaries. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, algae and occasionally small fish (Bussing 1995).
183231		population	eng	This species is common in coastal lagoons along the Pacific coast of Mexico.
183231		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183232		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may fall into some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183232		distribution	eng	This eastern tropiocal Pacific species is found from Nicaragua to northern Peru and in the Galapagos Islands.
183232		habitat	eng	This species lives on deep sandy, muddy, and shell substrata; it feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). It has been recorded from a depth range of 95-385 m.
183232		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183232		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is sold fresh in local markets and is processed as fish meal.
183233		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas, including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183233		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California, including the Tres Marias Islands, to southern Mexico. There are also several questionable museum records from outlying localities, including the Revillagigedo Islands and Panama.
183233		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species occurs in rocky areas (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183233		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
183233		threats	eng	There are no known major threats known for this species.
183234		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to determine population numbers and range, to better understand its distribution, and to assess the effect of major threats.
183234		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded once in the Eastern Pacific at the mouth of the Golfo de San Miguel in Panama. It is known from a single specimen collected by a shrimp trawl conducted by a research vessel. However, comparison of the behaviour of the Atlantic and Pacific taxa may indicate that <em>Aplatophis zorro</em> is more widely distributed (McCosker <em>et al.</em> 1989).
183234		habitat	eng	This species is assumed to live in permanent or semi-permanent burrows, with only snout and eyes exposed. The cryptic behaviour of this species makes it difficult to collect.
183234		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, as it is known from only a single specimen.
183234		threats	eng	Extensive trawling within its restricted known range likely poses a major threat to the survival of this shallow water species.
183235		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183235		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Los Angeles, California, USA to Sechura Bay, Peru.  This species is often included in some accounts of Opisthonema bulleri and Opisthonema libertate, which used to be the only Pacific species recognized (Whitehead and  Rodriguez-Sánchez, 1995)
183235		habitat	eng	This pelagic fish is usually found near shore, forming schools.  It feeds on crustaceans and pteropods (Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sánchez, 1995).
183235		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183235		threats	eng	The demand for this resource is increasing, and abundance is heavily decreasing due to fishing pressure. For example, between 2003 and 2004, there was a 15,126 metric t reduction of fishing discharge, representing a 68% decline compared to the previous five years (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183236		conservation	eng	The Pearl Islands are currently not protected. Given the extent of coastal development in the area, there is a need for protection of habitat in these islands. In addition, further survey work is required to determine the current distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and potential major threats for this species.
183236		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from one specimen collected in 1990 at the Pearl Islands (Isla del Rey) in Panama Bay. Extensive examination of museum specimens throughout Panama of the similar species, <em>Protemblemaria bicirrus</em>, did not reveal other collections of this species and suggested that it is likely confined to the Pearl Islands (Hastings 2001).
183236		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and the only known specimen was taken taken from a sandy bottom.
183236		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1990 (Hastings 1992).
183236		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by increasing coastal development for the tourism industry within its restricted, shallow-range habitat. In addition, localized stochastic events including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events may have detrimental effects on the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183237		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183237		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico to central Peru.
183237		habitat	eng	This bathydemersal species inhabits deep water over benthic and soft substrate and feeds on mobile invertebrates and other fishes.
183237		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183237		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183238		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183238		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
183238		habitat	eng	This coastal demersal species is found on soft substrata (Bussing 1995). This species is common in estuaries. It is found to 10m.
183238		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information available for this species.
183238		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183239		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183239		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183239		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits sand and mud substrata to depths of 130m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.
183239		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is occasionally caught as bycatch in trawls in El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama.
183239		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183240		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Chile, Peru, Ecuador (WDPA 2006).<br><br>More research is needed to determine the population status of this poorly known species.
183240		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Chile.
183240		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It inhabits rocky reefs possibly to depths of 35m.
183240		population	eng	This species appears to be abundant, based on museum records, but there is no recent population available.
183240		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183241		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
183241		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the south-western Gulf of California, and from Mazatlan to Oaxaca, Mexico including the Tres Marias Islands.
183241		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits rocky and adjacent sandy rubble areas to depths of 30m.
183241		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183241		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183242		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183242		distribution	eng	This poorly known species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to the Gulf of California.
183242		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It appears to favour shallow sandy substrate nearshore, and possibly in estuaries.
183242		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered rare as it is only known from a few records.
183242		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183243		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its range falls entire into the Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183243		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Cocos Islands (Bussing 1990, Robertson and Allen 2006).
183243		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It may inhabit deep rocky substrata to depths of 90 m.
183243		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, although it is considered to be very uncommon.
183243		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is restricted to a small island where regional endemics may be threatened by localized stochastic threats including oceanographic environmental changes caused by ENSO and climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although this deep-water species is unlikely to be threatened by ENSO and climate change events, more research is needed to determine if there are any threats to this poorly known and very restricted range species.
183244		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183244		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to eastern central Pacific, specifically from southern El Salvador to Ecuador, and possibly Peru (Chirichigno F. and Velez D. 1998).
183244		habitat	eng	This is a coastal pelagic fish that enters bays and tolerates lower salinities.  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183244		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183244		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species at any coastal habitats. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183245		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
183245		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru. It is also found in Cocos and the Galapagos islands.
183245		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic schooling fish. It occurs in coastal waters over sand or gravel in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, as well as over mud.  It is found to 10m. It may spawn throughout the year in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica.  It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183245		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183245		threats	eng	This species has no major threats. However, it (as some other anchovies) may be affected by overfishing due to bycatch methods. <br><br><br>There are no known commercial uses for this species. This species is taken in subsistence fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). This species (as some other anchovies) may be affected by overfishing due to bycatch methods.
183246		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183246		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
183246		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found in the intertidal zone up to 20m in depth. It inhabits rocky, crevice-rich and reef habitats.
183246		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183246		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183247		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. There are only a few very small marine protected areas within this species' range (WDPA 2006).
183247		distribution	eng	This species is present in southern Mexico, from Acapulco to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its shallow depth and specific habitat requirements, an area of occupancy of less than 1,000 km².
183247		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in freshwater streams and brackish lagoons and is also found in estuaries and soft bottom areas (mud, sand, estuary and mangrove). It prefers brackish water and freshwater, not marine. It is found at depths to two m. It feeds on detritus, zooplankton and insects.
183247		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183247		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation from human development, mangrove loss (Jimenez 1994) and extensive coastal development within its shallow freshwater and estuarine habitat.
183248		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183248		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Costa Rica.
183248		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species occurs offshore in deeper waters to depths of 845m.
183248		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, however it is assumed that it is moderately common based on research trawling activities in deep water.
183248		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183249		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183249		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Mexico.
183249		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, inhabits sand-rubble substrata at depths down to 91m.
183249		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183249		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.
183250		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183250		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has the greatest range of any Pacific Gobiesox (Briggs, 1955). It is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Tres Marias Islands, and Cocos Island.
183250		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs and coral reef.
183250		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183250		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183251		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico.
183251		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the southwest and central east of the Gulf of California.
183251		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 10m.
183251		population	eng	This is a relatively common species. No population data is available for this species.
183251		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183252		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183252		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico (Gulf of Tehuantepec) to northern Peru.
183252		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in the surf zone of coastal waters, in estuaries and in coastal lagoons. It can occur to 100m depth.
183252		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, this species seems to be abundant in Mar Muerto, Oaxaca, Mexico.
183252		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté, 2006), in Panama. This species can be seasonally common in local markets.
183253		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183253		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to central Mexico.
183253		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocks and boulders with abundant algae in shallow waters.
183253		population	eng	This species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan, 1983).
183253		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183254		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (Revillagigedo islands, Mexico, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, among others).
183254		distribution	eng	This species is present in the temperate eastern Pacific; at the Revillagigedos, as well as in Ecuador and Peru.
183254		habitat	eng	This species is found in oceanic, pelagic habitats and only in marine waters. It feeds on zooplankton, bony fishes, pelagic crustaceans, and pelagic fish larvae. This species is found from 80-200 m.
183254		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183254		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183255		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183255		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, stretching from southern Baja California and Mazatlan (Mexico) to Colombia (Hoese 1971). It has passed through the Panama Canal to the Atlantic (Rubinoff and Rubinoff 1969), but has not been seen in the Atlantic for 30 years.
183255		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky tide pools and shallow rocky intertidal areas to depths of 10 m.
183255		population	eng	This species has a relatively wide distribution, but is considered uncommon within its range. Populations within its range appear to be declining. Along the Pacific coast of Panama, this species used to be found regularly (Rubinoff 1969), but recent sampling has found abundance to be reduced, most likely due to coastal development. Also, Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> (2000) did not find this species in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, although it was previously recorded there. Similarly, Atlantic populations were not found by McCosker and Dawson (1975), and are thought no longer to exist.
183255		threats	eng	This populations of this species are thought to be declining due to coastal development and aquaculture, especially shrimp farms.
183256		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183256		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Colombia to Chile. It is also found in the Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
183256		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species forms schools in open water above rocky, boulder strewn reefs and slopes and hard substrate with strong currents or tides (Humann and Deloach, 1993) to depths of 35m.
183256		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in western and southern regions of Galapagos. However, this species was not found in surveys at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997).
183256		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is captured in small quantities in Galapagos artisanal fisheries.<br>Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined more than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations have recoved over the subsequent two year period.
183257		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183257		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.
183257		habitat	eng	This amphidromous fish inhabits estuaries, stagnant ditches or creeks of low current velocity. It is a benthic species and is most abundant on sandy and muddy substrate (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).  It ingests mud, detritus and small fishes. This species is found typically in freshwater, but moves freely into the sea and can be regularly found in middle estuaries, mangroves, bar-formed lagoons and upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke 1992).
183257		population	eng	This species is very common within its range.
183257		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183258		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its likely distribution falls within the Galápagos Islands National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site.
183258		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Isla Española in the Galapagos Islands (McCosker <em>et al.</em> 2003).
183258		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown, but the original specimens were collected from a tidepool.
183258		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens collected in 1964. In January 2002, a collecting trip surveyed tidepools contiguous with the type locality. Although the original pool sampled in 1962 could not be accessed, surveyors were able to sample two pools within a kilometer of that site, and both pools were devoid of large fish (McCosker <em>et al.</em> 2003).
183258		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. Recent El Niño events (1982-1983 and 1997-1998) had strong effects on tidepool and shallow subtidal species at the Galápagos. For example, the abundant shallow-water chaenopsid, <em>Acanthemblemaria castroi</em>, had largely disappeared following the most recent El Niño. McCosker <em>et al.</em> (2003) considered the possibility that <em>Cottoclinus canops</em> might be a naturally-occurring casualty of a recent El Niño event.
183259		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species is found in Marine Protected areas in the tropical eastern Pacific.
183259		distribution	eng	This species is present in the southeast Pacific, and it is known only from the Cocos, Malpelo, Gorgona Island (vagrant) and Galapagos islands.
183259		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species; it stays under ledge overhangs and other shaded areas on rocky reefs and slopes during the day. It is found between 3-45 m. It feeds in the open at night (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is a mouthbrooder.
183259		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is common in Cocos islands.
183259		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183260		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.
183260		distribution	eng	This species is known from Independencia Bay, Peru to Valparaiso, Chile.
183260		habitat	eng	This species is found in tide pools and rocky shore areas to depths of 10m.
183260		population	eng	This species is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm).
183260		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183261		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183261		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Malpelo Island.
183261		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits rocky reef areas from 25 to 305m. It probably forms schools, and lives near the bottom in deep waters (Heemstra 1995).
183261		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183261		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance (Heemstra, 1995).
183262		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Although this species may be present in a few small Marine Protected Areas within its range, these measures are unlikely to offer sufficient protection for this species. For example, it is present in the Machalilla Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003, WDPA 2006); however, better enforcement of zone regulation is required to adequately safeguard species in this region. More information on effort is needed to confirm if this trend  can be used to infer a corresponding decline in population size.
183262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeast Pacific, and is found from Colombia to central Peru.
183262		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits rocky substrata to depths of 50 m.
183262		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is commonly encountered in fishmarkets in Ecuador and northern Peru, but is considered rare in Colombia. The majority of this species' population is confined to Ecuador and northern Peru.<br><br>In the 1980s, large specimens were common in fishmarkets, however fewer and smaller fish are now present in fishmarkets (Bearez pers. comm.). Based on reported catch landings, this species' population may have possibly declined by at least 30% over the past 15 years, with coincident major decline in mean size of individuals caught (Bearez pers. comm.), however little effort information is available.
183262		threats	eng	This species is targeted in long line fisheries. Large specimens were common in fishmarkets in the 1980s, however fewer and smaller fish were present in fishmarkets in 2007. Reported catch landings have declined by at least 30% over the past 15 years, with coincident major decline in mean size of individuals caught (Bearez pers. comm.).
183263		conservation	eng	This species is found in a number of Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (WDPA 2006).
183263		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the US-Mexican border on outer coast of Baja California, throughout the Gulf of California to Chile (Pequeño, 1989), including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands (Lea and Rosenblatt, 2000).
183263		habitat	eng	This species commonly occurs on sandy substrate or sand patches around rocky reefs and boulder and gravel strewn slopes. In some areas this species is associated with massive coral reefs (Pavona spp.), shallow exposed rocky reef zones (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006), or areas of dead corals (Baxter, 2004). This solitary species is generally found perching motionless on its pectoral fins. It is active at night, and may bury in sand with only its eyes and mouth protruding during the day (Humann and Deloach, 1993).
183263		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183263		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183264		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species occurs in the Cabo Pulmo National Park. Research is needed to properly assess the taxonomic validity of this species.
183264		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the southwest Gulf of California, and has an area of occupancy of less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
183264		habitat	eng	This demersal fish forms large colonies on sandy areas near reefs. It primarily occurs on sandy slopes and reef edges, feeds on zooplankton suspended in the water column (De La Cruz Agüero 1997).
183264		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183264		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183265		conservation	eng	Cocos Island is designated as a national park, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).
183265		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, where it is known only from Cocos Island, Costa Rica.
183265		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate in rocky and coral reef areas to depths of 10 m.
183265		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
183265		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183266		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, Ecuador has a number of Marine Protected Areas and is considered to be a valuable component of reef habitat protection (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Peru there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas. However, not all Marine Protected Areas are considered to mediate major threats on the ecosystems and many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the population trends, habitat, ecology and threats for this species is needed.
183266		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast of Ecuador, Peru, and northern Chile. However, it was recorded for the first time in Chile during El Niño event of 1982 and 1983 (Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 2002), and therefore the distribution in Chile should be reviewed (Dyer 2000).
183266		habitat	eng	This species is found in pelagic and coastal habitat, but is only present in marine habitats to depths of 10 m. The diet consists of pelagic fish larvae, zooplankton and fish eggs.
183266		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183266		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, this is one of the species triggered by ENSO events. It was found to be associated to all of the last three ENSO events (82/83; 91/92; 97/98) in Chile, where its abundance in most cases was very low (Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 2002).
183267		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, it is found in the Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). More information is needed to better quantify the impact of beach degradation, shrimp aquaculture and other threats to this restricted range species.
183267		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is restricted to the western and upper Gulf of California. It has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km²
183267		habitat	eng	This inshore species is found over sandy substrates off shallow beaches, as well as in coastal lagoons and estuaries.
183267		population	eng	This species is thought to be moderately common, although no reliable population data is available. The majority of its population is thought to be restricted to the northern Gulf of California.
183267		threats	eng	This species is highly dependent on selected beach sites for nesting. It is threatened by beach collecting during spawning runs, destruction of nesting habitat by coastal traffic (e.g. ATVs), and coastal development including shrimp aquaculture.
183268		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183268		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos, the Galapagos and the Revillagigedo Islands.
183268		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits flat sand and sandy mud bottoms to depths of 77m. It may also enter estuaries and brackish waters (Hensley, 1995).
183268		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered common throughout its range.
183268		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is sometimes caught as bycatch for shrimp fisheries and also may be affected by localized coastal development and mangrove destruction.
183269		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama.
183269		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to western Panama.
183269		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found at depths from six to 27m.
183269		population	eng	This is a relatively common species throughout its range. No population data is available for this species.
183269		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183270		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California.
183270		distribution	eng	The geographical range of this species confined to the western and northeastern Gulf of California.
183270		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 30m.
183270		population	eng	This is a relatively common species in the Gulf of California. No population data is available for this species.
183270		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183271		conservation	eng	The species range includes protected areas along the coast of northern Chile. More research on the species biology, ecology, and distribution will be important for developing conservation measures.
183271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Paita, Perú to Valparaíso, Chile. In Chile, probably it is more abundant in the northen part of the country, near Arica.
183271		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology of this species.  Mann (1954) reports the species has a preference for calm waters over muddy bottoms.  Nichols and Murphy (1922) refer to S. minor as a "sand haunting fish" and reported fishermen catching them from a pier at Pacasmayo, Peru using the anomuran decapod, Emerita analoga, as bait.  Juveniles have been taken by beach seine at Paracas, Peru (Morrow, 1957).
183271		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183271		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is a target species for fisheries, but specific information on fisheries catches is not available. The species distribution also falls within the geographic range of El Niño events.
183272		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183272		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Ecuador.
183272		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in clear waters between 10 and 30m depth. It is occasionally found in estuaries but not in freshwater.
183272		population	eng	This species is fairly common throughout its range.
183272		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in small commercial fisheries.
183273		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183273		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California.
183273		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef associated species is found in shallow waters in the rocky intertidal and subtidal zone.
183273		population	eng	This is the most common primary reef fish in Gulf of California reefs (Thomson and Gilligan 1983).
183273		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183275		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183275		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Panama (Hastings, 1995) to southern Chile (Williams, 1990). However, the northern limit of distribution is unclear.
183275		habitat	eng	This demersal, shallow-water species that inhabits rocky coasts (Hastings, 1995).
183275		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183275		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. In some areas, this species is sometimes used to prepare a soup called 'borracho' which evokes slight intoxication and tiredness of short duration (Hastings, 1995).
183276		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183276		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern California to the tip of Baja California, in all of the Gulf of California (except the northernmost region), and along the coast to central Chile. It is also found in the Galapagos, Revillagigedos, Cocos, and Malpelo islands.
183276		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is commonly caught in bays, estuaries, and shallow coastal areas (Bussing 1995). According to Cooke (1992), it may regularly be found in the middle regions of estuaries and in mangroves and may occasionally be found in bar-formed lagoons. At Gorgona Island, Colombia, it is frequently sighted on sandy substrata and is occasionally found on rocky substrata (Rubio 1986). This species is found to 107m.
183276		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183276		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183277		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as areas with soft substrata.  More research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183277		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern central Pacific extends from Jalisco (Mexico) to Honduras.
183277		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal lagoons and estuaries, with sandy and muddy substrata and low visibility.  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton, it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183277		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183277		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004; Soto 2001).
183278		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183278		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru.
183278		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters, lagoons and estuaries and is also found offshore to depths of 30m. It feeds mainly on small fishes and shrimps.
183278		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.  However, this species is not as common as C. reticulatus, but is not rare.
183278		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté, 2006), both in Panama.
183279		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Alto Golfo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183279		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California, Mexico.
183279		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky intertidal zones. It is reported to be capable of surviving for two days out of water if kept moist, and it is resistant to extreme temperatures (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183279		population	eng	This a very abundant species in the upper Gulf of California.
183279		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183280		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Isla del Caño National Park and Coiba National Park (WDPA 2006). This species should be carefully monitored given its restricted range and potential susceptibility to ENSO events.
183280		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Panama.
183280		habitat	eng	This benthic species that inhabits rocky shores and coral reefs to depths of 40m.
183280		population	eng	This species can be locally common. In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, the average density was 0.001 inds/ m<sup>2</sup> (Rojas, 2001).
183280		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Although it may be locally affected by El Niño events given its restricted range and the high incidence of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Pacific (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004; Soto, 2001).
183281		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183281		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California and the western and lower eastern Gulf of California to Peru; and is also found in Cocos and Malpelo (possibly in Galapagos islands, Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183281		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species; it is found in soft and sand bottom. It is found from 50-390 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes. It is often found in large aggregations.
183281		population	eng	It is apparently a common species.
183281		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183282		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183282		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
183282		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits coastal rocky and coral reefs up to at least 40m depth. During the day they form schools of 30 or more individuals, which sometimes remain stationary.  Juveniles are effective mimics of the damselfish Chromis atrilobata and are often seen swimming with them (Allen, 1995; Robertson and Allen, 2006).
183282		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range, such as on coral reefs in Gorgona. However, it is considered to be uncommon on reefs of Panama, Malpelo, and Nicaragua. <br/><br/>In la Azufrada coral reef in Gorgona Island, Colombia, the reported density for the species was 0.215 individuals /10 m<sup>2</sup>, and the frequency of observation of the species was 29.7% (Zapata and Morales, 1997).
183282		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance in artisinal fisheries.
183283		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183283		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.
183283		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over hard substrata from 40-300m depth. It feeds on small planktonic crustaceans (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983), plankton and pelagic fish larvae.
183283		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183283		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183284		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183284		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific region, and is only known from three very small island locations: Negritos Island in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica; South Viradore Island in Port Culebra, Costa Rica; and Secas Island, Panama (Collette 1968), with an total area of occupancy estimated to be less than 200 km².
183284		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrate, and is mostly found near offshore islands (Collette 1973).
183284		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon in collections.
183284		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss from coastal development and pollution within its restricted range. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and around offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183285		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.
183285		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru (Birdsong, 1981).
183285		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand or mud broken-shell substrate near shore to depths of 6m (Birdsong, 1981).
183285		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its specific habitat.
183285		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.
183286		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183286		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern tropical Pacific from El Salvador to northern Peru.
183286		habitat	eng	This species forms aggregations in shallow bays and coastal reefs (Allen and Robertson 1994) to depths of 10 m.
183286		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183286		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183287		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183287		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California to Peru, including Revillagigedos, Cocos, the Galapagos and Malpelo islands.
183287		habitat	eng	This species is epipelagic in oceanic waters to 5m. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances over the surface.
183287		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183287		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183288		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183288		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Ecuador to northern Peru, including the Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183288		habitat	eng	This demersal fish inhabits rocky reefs.
183288		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183288		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183289		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183289		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to Peru.
183289		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabitats the coast, over soft substrate to depths of 40m. This species is poorly known.
183289		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183289		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183290		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183290		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from the tip of Baja California and Mazatlan (Mexico) to Panama.
183290		habitat	eng	This species is demersal. It inhabits rocky coastal shores to 15m. It is a reef associated species, found in rocky/coral reef.
183290		population	eng	Although this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California , it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000). This is a common species in Costa Rica.
183290		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no specific use for this species.
183291		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183291		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Colombia.
183291		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 15m.
183291		population	eng	This is a relatively common species in Colombia and Panama. No population data is available for this species.
183291		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183292		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.  More studies about the population status for this species are needed.
183292		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.
183292		habitat	eng	This species is common in coastal waters less than 20m in depth and enters coastal lagoons and freshwater; it may be found as deep as 40m.  It feeds on crustaceans, small fishes, polychaetes, and occasionally detritus. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Krupp 1995).
183292		population	eng	This is a common species. There is no population information for this species.
183292		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183293		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183293		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the lower 2/3 of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, and Malpelo Island.
183293		habitat	eng	This pelagic oceanodromous species inhabits coastal and oceanic waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 50m depth. It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and other benthic invertebrates (De La Cruz Acero 1997).
183293		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not rare.
183293		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.<br><br><br><br>This species is incidentally fished, and can be caught in artisanal nets and shrimp trawls. It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is typically caught with gillnets.
183294		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183294		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacifc region, and is found from California, USA to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.
183294		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found in coastal and lagoon areas with mangroves (Collette, 1995), in bays and harbors (Watson, 1996), and can also enter fresh water (Collette, 1995). Adults occur in small schools and feed mainly on small fishes (Collette, 1995).
183294		population	eng	This species is common in collections.
183294		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183295		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183295		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the northern Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.
183295		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is encountered generally over rocky substrate in the vicinity of coral reefs, to at least 40 or 50m. Juveniles may penetrate rocky littoral pools (Allen, 1995).
183295		population	eng	This species is consistently present but not very common throughout its range. The mean abundance in Galapagos Island was of 0.01 individuals / 500 m<sup>2</sup> and the majority of individuals were found far-northern region of the islands (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183295		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183296		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research is needed on the current level of harvest, if any, and on potential threats to this species.
183296		distribution	eng	This species is present in the temperate eastern Pacific, in Peru and Ecuador, the Galapagos and Malpelo.
183296		habitat	eng	This is a coastal and near coastal pelagic species that is sometimes commensal with jellyfishes. It feeds on zooplankton, bony fishes, pelagic crustaceans, and pelagic fish larvae. It is found to 500m.
183296		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183296		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183297		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183297		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to Peru. It has also been reported in the Revillagigedo Islands, the Galapagos, and Cocos Island (Bearez, 1996; Charter, 1996).
183297		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate and feeds on mobile invertebrates.
183297		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Recent observations made from a submersable indicate that it may be more abundant than previously thought.
183297		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183298		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183298		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to central Chile, the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo islands.
183298		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in shallow waters around rocky reefs, coralline substrata, and over sandy and rubble substrata, and in the middle regions of estuaries and in mangrove habitats (Bussing 1995; Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006; Rubio 1986; Cooke 1992). It feeds on sea urchins, small crustaceans, and mollusks (Humann and Deloach 1993).  This species is found from 3-35m.
183298		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183298		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183299		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. There is a need for survey work to determine the precise distribution range and population status of this species.
183299		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two collections. The first is the holotype collected in 1939 of unknown provenance, and given as "somewhere between Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica and 30 miles south of Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco, Mexico" (Briggs 1951). The second is from Isla Negrito, Costa Rica (USNM 369258), from 1968. The species is most probably known only from Costa Rica.
183299		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is a benthic species that presumably inhabits rocky shores.
183299		population	eng	This species is only known from two specimens.
183299		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183300		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls entirely into the Galapagos Marine Protected Area in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183300		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galapagos Islands (Richards and McCosker, 1998).
183300		habitat	eng	This species is found over flat sandy bottoms between depths of 400 and 500m (Richards and McCosker, 1998).
183300		population	eng	This species is abundant in appropriate deep water habitats.
183300		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, especially as it is found primarily in deeper waters.
183301		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183301		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Arguello, in southern California, USA to Bahia Almejas, Baja California, Mexico.
183301		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate close to shore (Allen and Robertson, 1994).
183301		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183301		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183302		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. Further fieldwork is necessary to locate specimens and define the distribution of this species, its population status, habitat, and ecology and any potential threats.
183302		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen from the type locality at Iquique, Chile.
183302		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology for this species.
183302		population	eng	There is no population information available, as it is known only from a single specimen.
183302		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183303		conservation	eng	The species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay National Maprine Park and Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183303		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Huatulco, southern Mexico.
183303		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacle shells on rocky reefs.
183303		population	eng	This species can be quite common in dense barnacle zones (Hastings, 2000).
183303		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally  impacted by El Niño and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183304		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183304		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos.
183304		habitat	eng	This demersal species that inhabits soft sand or muddy-sand substrata to depths of 150 m. The diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.
183304		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered abundant.
183304		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species does not have major commercial interest (Heemstra 1995), and is only caught by minor local artesanal fishing in Ecuador.
183305		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls entirely into the Galápagos Island and Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183305		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands.
183305		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits open sand slopes to depths of 25 m, but usually below 10 m depth. In the Galápagos, adults often share habitat with the Garden Eel <em>Heteroconger klausewitzi</em>.
183305		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is considered to be very patchily distibuted, but locally common.
183305		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183306		conservation	eng	The only known specimens were collected in El Parque Nacional Natural Enseneda de Utria in Colombia.
183306		distribution	eng	Although this species is thought to be distributed in the Eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to northern Colombia, it is only known from a few specimens collected at the type locality in Bahia Utria, Colombia. This species may be abundant in deeper waters but no surveys have been conducted.
183306		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Specimens have been collected in shallow water over a gray sand beach (McCosker and Lavenberg 2001).
183306		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, as it is only known from a few specimens.
183306		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183307		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution lies within the Isla del Coco and Galápagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183307		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from three locations:  Isla del Coco, the Galápagos and Gorgona Island, Colombia (Hoese and Reader 2001).
183307		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in crevices and deep recesses in the rocks to depths of 30 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates but also, like some other <em>Elacatinus</em>, this species is a cleaner; it picks parasites from other fishes.
183307		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183307		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183308		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183308		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the northern Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, and including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183308		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits shallow rocky reefs exposed to surge. It wedges itself into crevices close to shore in shallow water, darting out to defend its territory (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). It is a diurnal feeder that grazes on algae and sessile invertebrates, using its comb-like incisor teeth to scrape food (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183308		population	eng	This species is considered abundant in many parts of its range. In the 1970s, it was recorded to be one of the 10 most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2000). The overall mean abundance for this species in Galapagos Island was 24.4 per 500  m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em> et al.</em> 2004). However, recorded densities for this species in several studies in Costa Rica is very low (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005, Espinoza and Salas 2005).
183308		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183309		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183309		distribution	eng	This species endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central eastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.
183309		habitat	eng	This pelagic coastal species is found in shallow near-shore waters (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183309		population	eng	This species is relatively abundant. In surveys conducted in shallow waters off of Guatemala and Nicaragua,  71,376 individuals were collected representing 34% of all species collected, and 2% of the biomass from the entire harvest (Bianchi, 1991).
183309		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to this species population, this species is caught in subsistence fisheries in some areas within its range (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). However, it is not fished for subsistence in Panama or Nicaragua.
183310		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183310		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is primarily found from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands. This species can also be found at the mouth of the Gulf of California, and around the Revillagigedo Islands. However, futher genetic studies are required to identify potential taxonomic differences or similarities between spotted and unspotted individuals, as the current distribution is based on those with a lack of spots.
183310		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow waters, forms big schools (Krupp 1995), and generally inhabits rocky areas (Jiménez Prado and Béarez 2004). It is herbivorous and feeds in schools on algae attached to rocks or corals (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183310		population	eng	This species is extremely abudant in southern part of its range, but is considered uncommon in the northern part. In the Galapagos archipelago, studies of this species reported a mean density of 118.6 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br>In the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, this species had a mean density of 0.03 (±0.22) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em> et al.</em> 2005). In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.000 (±0.0020 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.011% (Figueroa 2001).
183310		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183311		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183311		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands.
183311		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 60m. However it is more commonly found  between 4 and 35m. Adults can penetrate as much as 20 Km up rivers (Robertson and Allen, 2006), and juveniles may be encountered in estuaries with mangroves and at the mouths of rivers (Allen, 1995). In Panama, this species is found only over massive coral zones (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183311		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br><br>In the reef of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica median density reported for this species was 0.008 (individuals/ m<sup>2</sup>) and the relative abundance percentage was 0.216% (Rojas, 2001). In the coral reef of Gorgona Island, Colombia, the species density was 0.010 (individuals/10 m<sup>2</sup>) and the frequency of observation was 4.9% (Zapata and Morales, 1997). The overall mean abundance for the species in Galapagos Island was 0.14/per 500  m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183311		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. As this species is also associated with mangroves, estuaries and freshwater, it is likely also threatened by localized coastal development, pollution, and mangrove/estuarine habitat throughout its range.
183312		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More information and research is needed on the possible  environmental and human impacts that may affect the survival of this  species.
183312		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to Colombia (Tighe and McCosker, 2003).
183312		habitat	eng	This species can be found in muddy areas, soft substrate, beaches, and estuaries.
183312		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183312		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183313		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183313		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183313		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found near the littoral zone of coastal waters to a depth of 20m, and may enter estuaries. In Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this species was considered to be an occasional or transient species in two different estuaries areas associated with mangroves (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183313		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is considered to be reasonably common in Panama.
183313		threats	eng	This shallow-water species is threatened by removal of mangroves and coastal development.
183314		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
183314		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Gulf of California, from Sonora to Nayarit, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its shallow depth and specific habitat requirements, an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
183314		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater streams and brackish lagoons and is also found in estuaries and soft substrata areas (mud, sand, gravel, beach, estuary and mangroves). It is found at depths to two m. The diet consists of detritus, zooplankton and insects.
183314		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183314		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation from human development, mangrove loss (Jimenez 1994) and extensive coastal development within its shallow freshwater and estuarine habitat.
183315		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area of Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).
183315		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Cocos Island, Costa Rica.
183315		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble substrate and is associated with reef edges to depths of 150m.
183315		population	eng	No other population information is available for this species.
183315		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is has a very restricted range and is limited to Cocos Island. However, given its deep water habitat it is unlikely to be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and climate change events.
183316		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the northern Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183316		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the eastern Gulf of California (van der Heiden and Plascencia González, 2005).
183316		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrates in coastal areas to depths of 40m, and does not enter brackish waters (van der Heiden and Plascencia González, 2005).
183316		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be common in many parts of its range.
183316		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch of industrial shrimp fisheries.
183317		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183317		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Pacific, this species occurs from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183317		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species can be found over sandy and rubble substrate and occasionally on coral reefs and rocky areas (Courtenay and Sahlman 1978) to depths of 75 m. It can be found over sand and rubble, deep rocky reefs as well as in massive corals, exposed shallow rocky reefs and zones on madreporic branching coral in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). Juveniles are often found near the shore, over sandy substrate near seagrass beds (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1993).
183317		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its range. <br><br>This species was found in a survey at Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, with a mean density of 0.102 (± 0.234) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 2.761% (Figueroa 2001). The mean density found at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was 0.12 (± 0.58) ndividuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured seven times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183317		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183318		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species probably occurs in the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183318		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found on the Pacific coast of central to southern Baja.
183318		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It lives on shallow, weed-covered rocky reefs and tidepools to depths of nine m, and it may occur in mangrove areas.
183318		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183318		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats for this species. However, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183319		conservation	eng	The species is recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Coiba N.P. and the Cocos Island National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).
183319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including Cocos Island.
183319		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and worm and mollusk tubes on rocky reefs. It is also found in coral reef, typically in waters from 1 to 5m deep.
183319		population	eng	This species is quite common in suitable habitat, but as it is also small and cryptic, and it is often overlooked.
183319		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183320		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA, 2006). However, this is a poorly known species and is in need of further survey work. In particular, the status of Panamanian population that is based on a single confirmed record, requires further study. It has a disjunct and restricted range, more research is  needed to determine this species' distribution and potential threats.
183320		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known from the central and southern western Gulf of California. There has also been a single specimen collected in 1971 from Gulf of Chiriqui in Panama (SIO collection).
183320		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 40 m.
183320		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183320		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183321		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species range falls entirely within the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).
183321		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Revillagigedo Islands.
183321		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow rocky reefs to depths of 20m.
183321		population	eng	This species was considered common in the Revillagigedos during surveys in the 1990s.
183321		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO and climate change events are considered to less likely affect this species than other endemic Revillagigedos species, given the lack of apparent impact of El Niño on <em>K. elegans</em> and <em>K. analogus</em> in the Galapagos. Similarly, ENSO events are not considered to be severe in the Revillagigedos Islands.
183322		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183322		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the southwestern Gulf of California and central Mexico to northern Colombia, (excluding the Gulf of Tehuantepec and Guatemala), including the Revillagigedo, Galapagos, Clipperton, and Cocos Islands .
183322		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in rocky reef habitats.
183322		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183322		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183323		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183323		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja and the Gulf of California to Panama (Hoese and Reader, 2001). However, the distribution of this species is patchy as it exists only suitable habitat.
183323		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found burried in sand substrate within small crevices at the base of rock walls or under loose rock nearby, to depths of 20m. This species is cryptic and difficult to see.
183323		population	eng	This species is uncommon in suitable habitat.
183323		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect this species habitat.
183324		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183324		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo islands.
183324		habitat	eng	This pelagic oceanodromous species occurs in oceanic and coastal waters, commonly found in shallow water, with larger individuals up to 100 m depth (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Also found in brackish water and occasionally ascends rivers (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Forms medium to large-sized schools, but large adults may be solitary. Juveniles are often found in river estuaries. It feeds mainly on fishes, but also takes shrimps and other invertebrates. This species has been observed in rocky reef in Cano Island, Costa Rica (Molina pers. comm.).
183324		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species may be common.
183324		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.<br>This species is fished in sport fisheries by hook and line, and is a targeted artisanal fish. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh, frozen, smoked and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183325		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Malpelo Island, Colombia (WDPA 2006).
183325		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Malpelo Island, Colombia (Findley 1975).
183325		habitat	eng	This species is found in rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges above the coral zone, and over cobble bottom with some calcarious sand and boulders (Findley 1975). It can be found from 10–30 m depth.
183325		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183325		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183326		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for any species on Clipperton Island.
183326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Clipperton Island reefs, and has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².
183326		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated cryptic species that is found in coral reefs from 10-100 m depth. The diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.
183326		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is common, but cryptic.
183326		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.<br/><br/>However, this species is found in deeper waters, and was observed to be common after at least one El Niño event in 1997-1998 (Robertson pers. comm.), so declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.
183327		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to  determine the impact of commercial fishing on this species throughout  its range.
183327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to northern Chile, including the Galápagos Islands.
183327		habitat	eng	This is a large, and likely slow-growing species, whose biology and ecology is not well-known. It is most often found below 15 m depth, but with occasional individuals in shallow water. It is associated with deeper algal turf habitats (Pérez-Matus 2007). It is associated with deep water kelp forests in the Galápagos (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2007). Its strong dentition makes it an opportunistic predator, even of hard-shelled benthos as shown by its stomach contents of coarse calcareous remains and detritus (Reck 1983).
183327		population	eng	This species is more common in the southern portion of its range. It was studied in different sites at Galápagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.49 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004),where it primarily occurs in the west and south of the islands below the thermocline. In Peru, this species occurs rarely north of Lima, but is common south and in northern Chile.
183327		threats	eng	This species is a large and probably slow growing wrasse making it vulnerable to  overfishing. There is special concern for the Galápagos population,  which is heavily exploited. <br/><br/>Given its deep-water habitat and southerly distribution, ENSO is unlikely to greatly affect the population. Population numbers declined more than 80% at sites studied in Galápagos during 1997/98 El Niño, with recovery one year later in 1999. This species presumably migrated to deep water during the El Niño event.
183328		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183328		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183328		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species can be found in soft substrate, generally sand and mud in estuaries near mangroves. Some individuals can be found accidentally in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Cooke, 1992).
183328		population	eng	This species is abundant in many parts of its range. For example, in a gill net fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, along the central Mexican Pacific, this species was the most abundant (29.02%) together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183328		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183329		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. In Mexico there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas than there are in other parts of its range.
183329		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific, found in Clipperton, the Revillagigedos islands and from southern California to the tip of Baja California.
183329		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and is found in rocky reefs (Allen and Robertson 1994). It is found from 3-50m. It seeks shelter during the day (De La Cruz Agâero 1997).  This species is a mouthbrooder.
183329		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183329		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183330		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183330		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Peru.
183330		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs over sandy substrate, among rocks and high up in kelp beds, usually in schools (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983), to depths of 33m.
183330		population	eng	This species is common in at least parts of its range. It is known to form large schools in Baja California.
183330		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183331		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183331		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Costa Rica to northernmost Peru.
183331		habitat	eng	This is an estuarine species that is also found in coastal freshwater. It can be found in mangrove swamps over soft substrata. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found to 10m of depth.
183331		population	eng	This species is common. There is no population information for this species.
183331		threats	eng	There are no species specific threats.
183332		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183332		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Nayarit in central Mexico to northern Peru.
183332		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found along sandy coasts, estuaries and bays to depths of 30m. It feeds mainly on worms and other marine invertebrates.
183332		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183332		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183333		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), such as the Galapagos Islands.
183333		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few records in the southwest Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands.
183333		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species has been rarely collected. It has been collected on reef flats (Myers 1991) only in the Gulf of California and the Galapagos.
183333		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183333		threats	eng	There are no major threats currently known for this species. However, given that this species is only known from a few locations and exists in relatively shallow habitat, it may be susceptible to oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO events.
183334		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183334		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo Islands. This species has previously been reported from Malpelo Island, Colombia, however, report appears to be based on a record from Gorgona, and after 17 years of observations, this species has never been seen in Malpelo Island.
183334		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs on rocky and sandy substrate offshore to depths of 80m, and over hard substrate in inshore reef areas.
183334		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in some parts of its range.
183334		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, and no current  indication of widespread population decline from commercial fishing  throughout its range.
183335		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183335		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to western Panama, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.
183335		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs and is found on the roof of small crevices and caves in rocky walls and shelves to depths of 70m.
183335		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is moderately common within suitable habitat.
183335		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183336		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as areas with soft substrata.
183336		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific is in Mexico (Baja California and southern Gulf of California) and from Costa Rica to northern Peru, including the Galapagos islands.
183336		habitat	eng	This is a coastal-pelagic species that forms dense schools alongshore, lagoons, and estuaries.  It tolerates brackish and fresh water.  It is found down to 10m. This species feeds on plankton, especially on small crustaceans and fish larvae (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).  It may be found in streams, estuaries, and sandy and muddy shores.
183336		population	eng	Abundance and biomass in mangrove swamps in Baja California, Mexico showed marked seasonal variation of organism/ha (grams/ha); autumm: 0.09 (0.12), winter: 0.36 (1.57), spring: 11.4 (79.0), summer: 12.36 (85.7) (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al</em>. 2005).
183336		threats	eng	This species has no major threats. <br><br><br>There are no targeted fisheries for this species: it is often caught by cast net (FAO 1995). This species is important as a minor commercial fishery resource (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183337		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183337		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from British Columbia (Canada) to southern Baja California (Mexico), and the west and northeast of the Gulf of California.
183337		habitat	eng	This is a bentho-pelagic fish that occurs near the surface of coastal water down to soft bottom of continental shelf.  It is found from 9-91m.  It feeds on mobile benthic invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183337		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is considered to be common in California (USA).
183337		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.<br><br><br>This species is popular in fresh-fish markets for its good quality (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is also found in commercial fisheries and sport fisheries (Fishbase 2008).
183338		conservation	eng	The Tres Marias Islands are designated as the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve. This is a very poorly known species that has not been collected since the original collection, and there is an urgent need for further survey work to assess its current population status, habitat requirements, distribution, and potential threats.
183338		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is only known from the original collection in 1959 in theTres Marias Islands, Mexico.
183338		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is a benthic species thought to inhabit rocky substrate.
183338		population	eng	This species is known only from 11 specimens collected in 1959 (Briggs 1960).
183338		threats	eng	There are no known major threats known for this species. However, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on  marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183339		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183339		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from western and central eastern Gulf of California to Peru and the Galapagos (possibly northern Chile - needs confirmation).
183339		habitat	eng	This fish occurs near the surface of coastal water to over soft substrata of continental shelf. It feeds on benthic mobile invertebrates and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from 10-40 m.
183339		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is considered to be common in the south Pacific off Costa Rica.
183339		threats	eng	This species is possibly regionally threatened by fisheries.<br><br><br>This species is important for commercial fisheries in some countries (ASOEXPEBLA 2007). This species is bycatch in local communities, and may be used as bait or for human consumption. In some local communities it is discarded.
183340		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183340		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (Pezold and Cage, 2002)
183340		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers of low to high current velocity, generally occuring in freshwater but sometimes in slightly brackish river mouths. It is normally more abundant near the coast and only large individuals are found upstream. It feeds on small shrimps and fishes and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Bussing and Lopez, 2005). According to Cooke (1992) this species is regularly found in middle estuaries, mangroves, bar-formed lagoons and upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It has also been found in a high saline lake in Salton Sea in California (Pezold and Cage, 2002), but it is not clear if this is the result of an introduction.
183340		population	eng	This species is relatively common within its suitable habitat.
183340		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183341		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183341		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the central Gulf of California to Ecuador and all the offshore islands.
183341		habitat	eng	This rocky and coral reef-associated species hides in shaded, protected recesses in rocky reefs, boulder strewn slopes and along walls (Humann and Deloach 1993). It is frequently found on coralline and sandy substrata and occasionally on rocky substrata. According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this fish is occasionally found in intertidal pools. It is found from 2-20m.
183341		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183341		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. However, if the guidelines for the aquarium trade are not closely monitored, there could be a threat from over-exploitation. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this species is in the aquarium trade in Costa Rica.
183342		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183342		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California (Bahia Tortugas), and the entire eastern Gulf of California to Peru.
183342		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lower estuarine regions to depths of 50m. According to Cooke (1992), I. remifer (cited as Isophistus altipinnis) regularly occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves, and is occasionally found in bar-formed lagoons in Peru and Costa Rica. It feeds on fishes, shrimps and cephalopods.
183342		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183342		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183343		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region. More research is needed on the impact of fishing activities on this species' population.
183343		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183343		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits rocky reefs and adjacent sand patches to depths of 70 m. It feeds on mobile <br/>benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish and bony fishes.
183343		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is relatively common throughout its range. However, throughout its range, mean body size observed in fish markets over the past 15 years has been declining. Similarly, number of individuals in fish markets appear to be declining in Ecuador.
183343		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species throughout its range. It is not known if fishing activities can be attributed to the observed decrease in body size in fish markets throughout its range.
183344		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183344		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few specimens collected from Nayarit to Guerrero, central Mexico.
183344		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 15 m. It feeds on zooplankton.
183344		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
183344		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183345		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183345		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is only found along rocky shores in the western Gulf of California (Villarreal <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183345		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits rocky crevices in tide pools and under cobble in shallow water.
183345		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183345		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this restricted-range species. However, in some areas there may be localized threats from coastal development for tourism and urban development.
183346		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.
183346		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to Bahia Magdalena, Baja California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183346		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found in coastal areas over soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of approximately 100m (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183346		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183346		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is often caught as by-catch in shrimp trawling.
183348		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the specific area of occupancy of this species, including number of locations and population status.
183348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to central Peru.
183348		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found over shallow sandy substrate to depths of approximately 10 m.
183348		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183348		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown. However, given its restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.,/i> 2004). As a planktivorous species with temperate distribution, this species is likely to be greatly affected by El Niño events.</em>
183349		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183349		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja and the lower Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Malpelo Island.
183349		habitat	eng	This is a  benthopelagic and demersal species found in shallow coastal waters. It forms small schools, generally near the bottom and feeds on squid, small crabs, small fishes and polychaetes (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to depths of 50 m.
183349		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183349		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries using gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183350		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183350		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
183350		habitat	eng	This demersal is found in shallow water to depths of 20m, sometimes entering mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds mainly on shrimps and other benthic invertebrates.
183350		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183350		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.
183351		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183351		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific region, and is found from the mouth of the Dulce River, Mexico to the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Collette, 1995).
183351		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is found on soft substrate in bays, at the mouths of rivers, and in estuaries (Collette, 1995). It feeds mainly on crabs, other invertebrates, and fishes (Collette and Russo, 1981).
183351		population	eng	This species is common in bays, the mouths of rivers and in estuaries (Collette, 1995). It is considered abundant in Jiquilisco Bay, Costa Rica.
183351		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183352		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.
183352		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mexico to El Salvador.
183352		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in estuaries, mangroves and brackish waters to depths of 20 m.
183352		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183352		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development and pollution throughout its range.
183353		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the possible environmental and human impacts that my affect its survival is needed.
183353		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern California and through the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and the Juan Fernandez islands.
183353		habitat	eng	It inhabits rocky or coral reefs, where it is often found among red algae, and in shallow bays and sloughs, among eelgrass and other seaweeds. This species is found to 20m.
183353		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183353		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
183354		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its population, biology and potential threats.
183354		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few specimens found near southern Baja California and in the southern Gulf of California.
183354		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is benthopelagic and found in shallow water, as it has only been caught at a depth of two m, but likely occurs deeper to at least 15 m. It is a carnivore and feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, worms and gastropods.
183354		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183354		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183355		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183355		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Conception, California, USA to Magdalena Bay, Baja California, Mexico. Records from the Gulf of California are likely erroneous and are based on misidentification of other cusk-eels.
183355		habitat	eng	This demersal deep-water species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183355		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183355		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183356		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>More research is needed on its distribution, population status, biology and ecology and threats.
183356		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from one specimen taken from the Gulf of San Miguel, in eastern Panama.
183356		habitat	eng	This demersal species likely inhabitats soft bottoms in estuaries in shallow waters.
183356		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183356		threats	eng	This species likely has a very restricted distribution, and is only found in shallow estuarine waters, a habitat under threat from coastal development, resource extraction, and pollution throughout its range.
183357		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, it is found in the Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183357		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. Given is shallow depth range and restricted distribution, it has an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
183357		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found in shallow coastal areas, lagoons and mangroves to depths of four m.
183357		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183357		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to coastal development, mangrove removal, pollution, cessation of flow from the Colorado River and by shrimp aquaculture development throughout its range. In the northern portion of its range, estuaries, riparian, wetland, and tidal areas of the Colorado River delta have been reduced by over 90% since dam construction begin in the early 20th century.
183358		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183358		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183358		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries, and can occur to depths of 100m. It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans.
183358		population	eng	There is limited population information for this species, but is known to be common throughout its range.
183358		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté, 2006), Panama. It is also likely common in the subsistence fisheries and caught as by-catch through shrimp trawling activity. For example, this species is very commonly taken in the shrimp trawl fishery in the northern Gulf of California (eg. several trawls producing more than 500 individuals) (Nava-Romo, J.M., 1994).
183359		conservation	eng	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a biosphere reserve (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183359		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, where it is known only from the Revillagigedo Islands.
183359		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in rocky intertidal and subtidal areas to depths of 10 m.
183359		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183359		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183360		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls with the Galápagos Islands National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).
183360		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.
183360		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species is infrequently encountered in rocky shallows to depths of five m.
183360		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183360		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183361		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However,this species' distribution includes Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California.
183361		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only from southern Baja California and in the Gulf of California.
183361		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits substrata with fine sand at depth of 25 to 100m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, zooplankton, bony fishes, and pelagic fish larvae.
183361		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common throughout its restricted range.
183361		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183362		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183362		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.
183362		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits soft bottoms to depths of approximately 140 m, but can also enter fresh water from shallow estuaries and mangroves (Hensley 1995).
183362		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be common in many parts of its range.
183362		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important for subsistence fisheries and is utilized fresh (Hensley 1995).
183363		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183363		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Monterey Bay to the tip of Baja, and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Malpelo, Galapagos, and Guadalupe Islands.
183363		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in open rocky areas and reefs to 75 m depth, but often retreats to crevices or holes or hides among spines of sea urchins when threatened. It is territorial.
183363		population	eng	This species is common within its range. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this fish is common in Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In North Colorado Island of Baja California, this species has a density of 1.28 (± 0.56) individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup>; in San Clemente, 3.8 (±0.83) ndividuals per m<sup>2</sup>; in Santa Catalina, 5.36 (±1.34) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Pondella <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183363		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183365		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183365		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Baja California to the central Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183365		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that is found  in rubble and soft substrata. It is found from 48-351m. It is marine only and feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, squid, cuttlefishes, and bony fishes.
183365		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183365		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183366		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183366		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja and central Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands, to Ecuador.
183366		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits rocky and rubble substrate to depths of 10 m. It can also be found in rocky and coral reef areas.
183366		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183366		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183367		conservation	eng	This species is fully protected in California, and it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico and United States (WDPA 2006).
183367		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California to the tip of Baja and southwestern Gulf of California, including Guadaloupe and Rocas Alijos. There are records from the Tres Marias Islands, but these are likely vagrants.
183367		habitat	eng	This species occurs over rocky bottom in clear water, often near crevices and small caves, occasionally in kelp to depths of 30m.
183367		population	eng	This species is considered common in California. Its population at Channel Islands National Park, California in kelp forests had a mean density of 238/ha (Davis and Anderson, 1989).
183367		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this fish was historically exploited by the aquarium trade (Moe, 1992).
183368		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183368		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Panama Bay in the Eastern Pacific, however more research is needed to determine if its range may extend further in the region.
183368		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but has been found over mud and sand substrate at depths from 35 to 44 m.
183368		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183368		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183369		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a very small Marine Protected Area in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183369		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is patchily distributed in the central western Gulf of California (Findley 1983).
183369		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been found over rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges at depths from 10 to 45 m.
183369		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183369		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183370		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183370		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Pacific, and ranges from southern California to the Gulf of California and to northern Peru.
183370		habitat	eng	This species is demersal in estuaries and mangrove areas. It resides in waters over soft substrata. This species is found from 15-385m.
183370		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183370		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183371		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More survey work and research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.
183371		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Puerto Vallarta to Puerto Escondido, Mexico, and Panama.
183371		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits shallow rocky reef bases with sand and rubble to depths of five m.
183371		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species. This species is only known from a handful of collections.
183371		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183372		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species occurs within the Galápagos, Cocos and Malpelo Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183372		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Galápagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183372		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in sand flats and rocky areas mixed with boulders, gravel rubble and sand to depths of 30 m.
183372		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183372		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183373		conservation	eng	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). Given the extremely limited distribution of this species, the species requires close population monitoring.
183373		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Socorro Island in the Revillagigedo Islands.
183373		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species is found on rocky and coral reefs to depths of 5 m.
183373		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183373		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183374		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183374		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos Island (Bussing and Lopez 2005).
183374		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sand and sandy mud or rubble bottoms to depths of 190 m.
183374		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is an uncommon species over much of its range.
183374		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp and other trawling activities.
183375		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo, Galagapos, and the Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183375		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of California, along central Mexico, and from El Salvador to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183375		habitat	eng	This demersal species lives between rocks in littoral pools. It is not frequently seen.
183375		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183375		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183376		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183376		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from north and eastern Gulf of California to the Ecuador-Peru border.
183376		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata, including estuaries. It is found to 100m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183376		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183376		threats	eng	This species has no major threats.
183377		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183377		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific. It has a disjunct distribution, as it is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to Nayarit, Mexico and from Costa Rica to northern Peru.
183377		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits soft substrate.
183377		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be common throughout its range (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183377		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183378		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183378		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Galapagos archipelago.
183378		habitat	eng	Thie reef-associated species is commonly encountered in rocky reefs and sandy areas adjacent to reefs to depths of 70m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata, except sand and rubble (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183378		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range on the continental coast. However, it is considered uncommon in the Galapagos Islands.<br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), H. chierchiae is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance between 0.1-1%, and a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Surveys conducted at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997; Rubio, 1986), also could not find this species.
183378		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, however, such localized collecting is unlikely to significantly affect the population.
183379		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183379		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to Panama Bay, but is possibly found to northern Peru.
183379		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore, but enters brackish, if not fresh, water (thus probably similar to L. grossidens).  It is found to 10m. It feeds on fishes (including other anchovies), and also possibly crustaceans.   It has pelagic eggs and larvae, and nearly ripe females occur in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica in June, August and September.  Juveniles of 3.3-4.5 cm occur in January and October.
183379		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183379		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988).
183380		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183380		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from thesouthern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Archipelago.
183380		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters (Chao, 1995) to depths of 100m. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans (Chao, 1995).
183380		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183380		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. It can be common in local markets.
183381		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183381		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from soutwestern Baja California and the northern Gulf of California to Costa Rica, including the Revillagigedo and Cocos Islands (Bussing and Lavenberg, 2003; Bussing and Lopez, 2005).
183381		habitat	eng	This demersal species is primarily found over sand-rubble bottoms, but can also be found in a variety of habitat types. It can be reef-associated, and can also be found over soft bottoms in estuaries and mangroves.
183381		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is considered to be abundant at Isla Angel de la Guarda in the Gulf of California.
183381		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is a sport fish in localized parts of Gulf of California and juveniles are sometimes collected for the aquarium trade.
183382		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.
183382		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez).
183382		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic and coastal fish, living over sand and gravel substrata to 10m.  It feeds on zooplankton, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183382		population	eng	There is no population data is available for this species.
183382		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species in many coastal habitats. This species may also be threatened by water being diverted away from the rivers.
183383		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution, population, biology, ecology and potential threats.
183383		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two specimens from the type locality in Arica, Chile (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2009).
183383		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information for this poorly known species.
183383		population	eng	No population information is available, as it is known only from two specimens.
183383		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183384		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution does not overlap with any known Marine Protected Areas.
183384		distribution	eng	This species is found from the tip of Baja California and the southern mouth of the Gulf of California to Panama, including the Galapagos Islands (Smith and Karmovskaya, 2003; Smith, 1995).
183384		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate and feeds on mobile invertebrates.
183384		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183384		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183385		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Although this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183385		distribution	eng	This species is found near Banderas Bay, Mexico, El Salvador, and from Costa Rica to Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).
183385		habitat	eng	This species occurs over sandy substrate, beaches, and in estuaries to depths of 70 m.
183385		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183385		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183386		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183386		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183386		habitat	eng	This bentho-pelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 78 m. According to Cooke (1992), <em>Larimus effulgens</em> is occasionally found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans.
183386		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183386		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. It can be common in local markets.
183387		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).
183387		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from El Salvador to Colombia.
183387		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is generally found near shore and can enter estuaries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995)
183387		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183387		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183388		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183388		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183388		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in sandy coasts and bays to depths of 20m. It also occurs in littoral pools. It feeds on crustaceans and worms. In general, the genus Umbrina (except for U. Bussingi, a deep water species) can be occasionally found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke, 1992).
183388		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. <br><br>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it was previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured four times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183388		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish and can be found in local markets. Its is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and is a target species for artisinal fisheries.
183389		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183389		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from central Mexico to northernmost Peru.
183389		habitat	eng	This species may be found over shallow sandy and muddy substrata and may enter fresh waters in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and small fishes and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from 10-40m.
183389		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183389		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183390		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183390		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico to northern Peru.
183390		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow water to depths of 20m over sandy and muddy substrate. It can also occur in estuarine and mangrove areas. It feeds mainly on shrimps and other benthic invertebrates.
183390		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. <br><br>In one survey in Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 4 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183390		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and in artisinal fisheries. It is often found in local markets.
183391		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183391		distribution	eng	This species is known from only two specimens; one from central Gulf of California and the other from El Salvador.
183391		habitat	eng	Little is known about the ecology or biology of this species.
183391		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183391		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183392		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, the species distribution falls within Marine Protected Areas, including those in the gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183392		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of California, and in Costa Rica, Colombia, and the Galapagos and Clipperton Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183392		habitat	eng	This species inhabits muddy and sandy substrate to depths of 35m, and may be found at reef edges feeding on invertebrates. It is a cryptic species and lives its adult life buried in the sand.
183392		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183392		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species as it lives most of its adult life buried in the sand, and is therefore relatively protected from fishing activity and potential ENSO events.
183393		conservation	eng	Cocos Island has been designated as a national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183393		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found from Cocos Island, Costa Rica.
183393		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate at the reef edge to depths of 15 m.
183393		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183393		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183394		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183394		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Costa Rica.
183394		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is found in coastal, brackish and fresh water to depths of 20m.
183394		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is very common in central Mexico and El Salvador.
183394		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is important in small commercial fisheries in some areas. It is also likely locally affected by the extensive disturbance of estuarine areas within its range.
183395		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003),  better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard Galápagos endemic species.
183395		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.
183395		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species forms large daytime aggregations along walls and over rocky slopes, often in somewhat protected areas (Humann and  Deloach 1993), to depths of 20 m. It is most commonly encountered in rocky areas with steep bottom profile.
183395		population	eng	This species is locally abundant. However, fish monitoring studies indicated that this species disappeared from all sites studied for the two years following 1987/88 El Niño, but populations are thought to have somewhat recovered. This species was studied in different sites at Galápagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 12.1 individuals per 500 m² (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183395		threats	eng	This species has been observed to be greatly affected by severe El Niño events. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183396		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Coiba National Park.
183396		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.
183396		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sandy substrate and tidepools.
183396		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183396		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183397		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183397		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to central Peru, including all the offshore islands.
183397		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky and coral reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 20 m, and is usually found in large aggregations. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish could be found over massive corals, deep rocky walls, exposed shallow rocky reef and zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). The diet of this diurnal feeder consists of plankton at the surface or mid-water, it also grazes on benthic invertebrates and algae on the reef.
183397		population	eng	This species is considered to be common throughout its range.<br><br>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, being the second most abundant species, with an overall mean abundance of 12.4 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.14 (±0.52) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.257 (±0.210) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 6.939% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed just in two sites, with an overall observations of 45 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. passer</em> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 30-70%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common — one to five % of the overall abundance — with a relative frequency between 50-75% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured just twice within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline and sandy bottoms while frequent in rocky bottoms and tide pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 3.628 (±9.773) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 80%. This fish was not observed in a survey conducted at Clipperton Atoll (Robertson and Allen 1996).
183397		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica. However, aquarium collecting is so localized that it is very unlikely to affect population numbers.
183398		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183398		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183398		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits soft sandy or muddy substrata at depths of 15 to 100m. Its diet consists of small crustaceans and bony fishes. This species is a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Franke and Acero, 1995).<br><br>In Parque Gorgona, Colombia, 66.0% of the studied individuals were captured between March and June. Although mature specimens were found during the entire year except in October and December, it is suggested that, in Gorgona, the highest reproductive peak occured between the month of June and July (Franke and Acero, 1995).
183398		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It has been captured with low frequency (Borton 1977), although in Parque Corgona, Colombia, it is very abundant and is frequently captured (Franke and Acero 1995).
183398		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.This species does not have major commercial interest, likely due to its small size (Franke and Acero, 1995).
183399		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183399		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Isla Maria Magdalena (Tres Marias Islands) to south central Mexico.
183399		habitat	eng	This benthic species nhabits coastal sandy areas.
183399		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183399		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183400		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183400		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central eastern Gulf of California to southern Mexico, and from southern Panama to Ecuador. This disjunct distribution may be due to undersampling.
183400		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found exclusively in empty barnacle shells on rocky reefs. It is oviparous, with eggs attached to the walls of the parent's shelter and brooded by the male parent (Matarese <em>et al.</em> 1984).
183400		population	eng	This species is not considered to be very abundant, although it can be locally common.
183400		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183401		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status and distribution of this species, and to better understand its habitat preferences.
183401		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is thought to be found in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica. However, it is only known from the original description in 1955.
183401		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species. A specimen from Golfito was collected on a bottom type of mangrove leaves, mud and shells (Briggs 1955).
183401		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It has not been collected since the original description in 1955.
183401		threats	eng	Major threats for this species are unknown, although it may be at risk of habitat loss due to the extraction of mangroves within its range.
183402		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any Marine Protected Areas within its range.
183402		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama.
183402		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on sandy and sand-mud substrate. It has an extended pre-juvenile life stage (Lea 1997; Nielsen et al, 1999).
183402		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be uncommon throughout its range.
183402		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183403		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183403		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to the central Gulf of California. to Central Peru, as well as the Galapagos and Malpelo.
183403		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species, it stays under ledge overhangs and other shaded, reclusive areas, on rocky reefs and slopes during the day.  It feeds in the open at night (Humann and Deloach 1993).  This species is found to 60m. It often occurs with other cardinal fish (Humann and Deloach 1993). It is a mouthbrooder.
183403		population	eng	This species is common in Costa Rica. There is no population information for this species.
183403		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183404		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183404		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from nothern Peru to northern Chile.
183404		habitat	eng	This species is normally found in coastal waters to primarily to depths of 30m. It inhabits coastal cold waters and soft bottoms particularly inside the first band of 50 nautical miles off shore. Data of acoustic backscattering shows that this fish is distributed throughout the entire water column according to diel cycles, though during the night it is despersed close to the surface.  Depending on the depth of the oxycline, this fish can go to depths of 140m (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The diet of this species varies seasonally. During summer and autumn anchovy is usually its main food in proportions of 62.7% and 53.9%, respectively. The crustacean munida is only part of its diet during spring and autumn (13% and 0.4% respectively). However, it has a preference for invertebrates, especially polychaete worms, when the fish is a juvenile, and prefers other fishes when it is an adult. The comparison and analysis of distribution areas of bagre, anchovy and munida lead to the conclusion that bagre inhabit zones that are part of the main nursery areas of anchovy. Bagre are usually associated with the harvestiing of adult anchovies, which demonstrates its strong seasonal dependence on this food source (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The proportion between females and males is 2.3.  The fecundity was 27 eggs per individual during the main spawning season in summer. Its size of first maturity is around 17.3 cm of total length. It is a bucal-pharingeal brooder, and males guard the few, large eggs and recently hatched young in their mouths.
183404		population	eng	This species is very common and abundant in Peru. <br/><br/>The acoustically detected main areas of distribution are Punta La Negra (06°S) and Chimbote (09°S), where the continental shelf reachs out to its maximum longitudinal width. Acoustic assessments performed between 1998 and 2006 show a maximum abundance level of 2,133,357 t during the winter of 1998 (corresponding to the El Niño event of 1997-98). Forthcoming abundance estimates were sometimes significant, though of lower levels, which might indicate that it exists at a certain level of resident population that could have a dynamic role regarding ecological interactions with other coastal species that overlap their spatial distributions. Warm events, like summers and moderated or weak El Niño or Kelvin waves disperse the fish along the coast, though its presence was null during summer of 1998 and very low during summer of 2004. Its presence during winter 2000 was null as well but was likely due to an aggregation close to the northern end of NHCE. Furthermore, the minimum assessed abundance was of about 28,000 t during winter 2005.  Depending on occasional high densities,  this species can also behave as a pelagic fish. The distributions show seasonal patterns of aggregation that are rather well defined: during winters the main densities occur, especially in the coastal zone along 7° and 9° S, and during spring its main aggregations are moved down to the area between 8 and 10°S (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007).
183404		threats	eng	Although not considered a threat to populations at this time, this species is a commercial species in Peru. The fluctuations in abundance are rather well reflected in harvests of artisanal fisheries though this species is not the objective of a sustained catching. Its presence in harvests is also often the product of by-catch (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007). It also is found in areas heavily effected by ENSO events, but appears to adapt by going deeper or surviving in the southern part of its range.
183405		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183405		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the central western Gulf of California (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).
183405		habitat	eng	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It is a demersal species that burrows in sand and rubble.
183405		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from three type specimens from two localities.
183405		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183406		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' distribution, population, habitat requirements, ecology and threats in order to determine its conservation status.
183406		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype taken once from Panama Bay in 1953.
183406		habitat	eng	This demersal species presumably inhabits soft substrate, although there is no habitat information listed with the type description (Collette and Russo 1981).
183406		population	eng	This species is presumably very rare since it is only known from a single specimen despite numerous collections in the type locality. Extensive collections in Panama Bay and elsewhere in the Eastern Pacific have failed to record this species. This species may be extinct.
183406		threats	eng	This restricted range and shallow-water species is likely threatened by habitat loss from the removal of mangrove forests around Panama Bay, coastal development and pollution.
183407		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Galápagos Islands (WDPA 2006).
183407		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.
183407		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow sand-rubble substrate adjacent to rocky reefs to depths of five m.
183407		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183407		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183408		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California to the western and central eastern Gulf of California.
183408		habitat	eng	This is a benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores in shallow waters.
183408		population	eng	This species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan, 1983).
183408		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183409		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico and the United States (WDPA 2006).<br><br>More research is needed to determine the impact of fisheries on its population, especially in the Gulf of California.
183409		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from California to southern Baja and the northern Gulf of California.
183409		habitat	eng	This demersal species is often found in caves and crevices of exposed coasts and open bays in California to depths of 100 m. The disjunct subpopulation in the northern Gulf of California occurs on sandy/muddy bottoms.
183409		population	eng	This species is moderately common through most of its range, except for in the northern Gulf of California where it is uncommon perhaps due to the shrimp fishery.
183409		threats	eng	The disjunct subpopulation in the northern Gulf of California is likely in decline due to capture as by-catch in shrimp trawl fisheries and probably gillnet fisheries.
183410		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183410		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southwestern and northeastern Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.
183410		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand and mud bottoms to depths of 191m.
183410		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range, such as in the Gulf of California.
183410		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It occurs occasionally in bycatch of artesanal gill net fisheries.
183411		conservation	eng	In California the species has management plans. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Pacific region.
183411		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from Oregon to the Gulf of California. It is found also in Revillagigedo islands, and possibly into southern Mexico.
183411		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic fish that inhabits oceanic and coastal areas, but is mainly found on the continental shelf and although often classified as demersal, the distribution and behavior suggest a largely pelagic existence. Adults live in large schools in waters overlying the continental shelf and slope, except during the spawning season when they are found several hundred miles seaward. It is found at depths from 12-1400 m. This species is a nocturnal feeder that preys on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (Cohen <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <br><br>Growth is relatively fast, especially during the first four years and can live up to 15 years. It begins to mature at three years of age and most individuals are mature by four years and at about 35 to 42 cm total length. <br><br>This fish is a pelagic spawner, females laying, depending on their size, 80,000 to 500,000 eggs. Spawning occurs mainly in deep waters off southern California and Baja California in the winter and spring (from January to April or June). This hake migrates northward to southern Oregon in the summer and autumn (from July to September), and begins to return by December. The northward migration is accompanied by movement towards the shore and into shallower water, while the southward migration is accompanied by movement into deeper water and seaward (FAO-FIGIS, 2001).
183411		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183411		threats	eng	The species is a valuable commercial fish, and has been highly exploited. <br>This is a highly commercial species used for fishmeal. The harvesting of this species is mainly in the USA, from 100,000 to 500,000 t. Since the inception of the USSR, (hake fisheries totaled 133,667 t in 1966) this species has been an important constituent of distant-water fisheries. Most of the US harvest was used for fish meal and pet food, while the Soviet harvest was frozen for human consumption as soon as they were caught (this hake tends to become soft and less palatable from two to four hours after being caught). The harvest reported to the FAO in 1995 totaled 177,117 t (all taken by the USA and almost exclusively from area 67, northeast Pacific). Since 1966, the harvests have had substantial decreases, in 1980 (57,086 t) and in 1991-92 (31,413 and 56,231 t). The total catch reported for this species to the FAO for 1999 was 217,000 t. The countries with the largest harvests were the USA (216,889 t) and Mexico (111 t).
183412		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183412		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Malpelo Island.
183412		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species can be found in schools around coastal reefs during the day, dispersing over sandy substrate at night (McKay and Schneider 1995) to depths of 33 m. It can also be found at deep rocky walls as well as in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183412		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout most of its range.<br><br>A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0,308 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> for this species (Figueroa 2001).This species was found in a survey at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, and is considered to be frequent and abundant, with a 30-70% abundance (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001). In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales 1997), a mean density of  3.169 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup> was registered. The mean density found at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was 0.07±0.27 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured eight times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183412		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance.
183413		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183413		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the southeastern Gulf of California (Mazatlan) to Colombia. Given its specific habitat requirements, this species likely has a patchy distribution throughout its range.
183413		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits intertidal zones on mud substrate, and can enter freshwater.
183413		population	eng	The species is relatively common throughout its range in suitable habitat.
183413		threats	eng	Coastal development for tourism and aquaculture, and the removal of mangrove habitat are the most serious threats to this species.
183414		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183414		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from El Salvador to southern Panama.
183414		habitat	eng	This pelagic fish is found in shallow coastal waters (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183414		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183414		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183415		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the amount and effect of mangrove habitat loss on its population.
183415		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from El Salvador to Panama.
183415		habitat	eng	This species is found over soft mud and sand substrate in shallow-water estuaries and mangroves to depths of five m.
183415		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is not considered to be common throughout its range.
183415		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range and is dependent on shallow water mangrove habitats. Extensive mangrove destruction for development for urbanization, aquaculture and tourism throughout is range is a major threat for this species (Jiménez 1994). However, the percent of mangrove destruction within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.
183416		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183416		distribution	eng	The range of this species in the tropical eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183416		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters, possibly entering brackish estuaries (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found at depths to 10 m.It feeds on zooplankton and other small invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183416		population	eng	In surveys of global demersal fauna from Mexico to Costa Rica, this species represents 541 kg, 0.25% of total weight, from a total of 208,163 kg. 270,077 individuals of this species where obtained from a total of 16,077,777 individuals from all the species in this survey. This species represents 1.67% of the total number of individuals with a frequency of 41 (Bianchi 1991).
183416		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183417		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183417		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to western Panama including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (Bussing and Lopez 2005).
183417		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs, and is found on the roof of small crevices and caves in rocky walls and shelves to depths of 20 m.
183417		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is moderately common within its restricted habitat.
183417		threats	eng	This shallow-water species may be threatened by  localized coastal development within its restricted range. In addition, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water and restricted range species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183418		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including the Cocos Islands National Park and the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (WDPA 2006).
183418		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to southern Ecuador, including Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183418		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef associated species inhabits shallow rocky areas in rocky and coral reef.
183418		population	eng	There is no widespread population information available for this species, although it is considered common in Malpelo.
183418		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183419		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183419		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to western Panama, and Malpelo and Gorgona islands, Colombia.
183419		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species that is found in rocky reefs to 60m.  It seeks refuge during the day (De La Cruz Agâero 1997). It is a mouthbrooder.
183419		population	eng	This species is extremely rare in Costa Rica . There is no other population information for this species.
183419		threats	eng	There are no known threats.<br>This species has no commercial interest, although it is of potential interest as aquarium fish (De La Cruz Aguero 1997)
183420		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183420		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the lower half of Baja California, and from Mazatlan to Colombia, including the Tres Marias Islands and Malpelo Island.
183420		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits rocky and rubble substrate and coral reefs to depths of 25m.
183420		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered a common species.
183420		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183421		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183421		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to Colombia, including the Revillagigedo, Malpelo, Galapagos, and Cocos Islands.
183421		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in sand-rubble fringe of rocky reefs or coral patches at depths of 2 to 40m (Allen and Robertson, 1994). According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this species is present in edge habitats on sandy deep rocky zones in the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama and is one of the most dominant species of gobiids. It forages on tiny crustaceans among rocks on the bottom.
183421		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range in the Gulf of California. However, according to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this fish is rare in Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency below 10%, and this species is considered scarce Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br><br>This fish was studied in various sites at Galapagos archipelago with an overall mean density of 0.09 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183421		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183422		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to quantify the effect of shrimp trawling activities on this species' very restricted population and habitat.
183422		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from southern Costa Rica to central Panamá, where it has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².
183422		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over sand and mud bottoms between depths of 20 and 60 m.
183422		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is mostly known from its capture in shrimp trawls.
183422		threats	eng	This species is heavily caught as bycatch in shrimp trawls throughout its restricted range.
183423		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183423		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183423		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits small patch reefs or rocky outcrops in sand-rubble areas in rocks to 60m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, and bony fishes
183423		population	eng	This species is common around shallow reefs throughout its range. In an study conducted in the Galapagos, the mean abundance for this species was 2.58 (per 500  m<sup>2</sup>.) (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, the standard deviation for the species was 0.003 (inds/ m<sup>2</sup>), the standard deviation was 0.007 (inds/ m<sup>2</sup>) and the percentage of abundance was 0.074% (Rojas 2001). The density for this species in the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica was (0.01 individual  m<sup>2</sup>) and the standard deviation was 0.02 ind / m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em> et al.</em> 2005).
183423		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183424		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.
183424		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the type locality of Buenaventura, Colombia.
183424		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Based on market specimens, it is expected to be found in brackish habitats (Betancur and Acero 2006).
183424		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from the type series of six specimens.
183424		threats	eng	This species has no information about a definitive distribution making it difficult to define its environmental threats.
183425		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183425		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from lower Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands. It has also been collected in the locks at the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal (Robertson and Allen, 2006).
183425		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in rocky areas, and in rocky and coral reefs, especially near branching corals (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997). It can inhabit empty barnacle shells often with only the head protruding, usually at depths of 1-3 m, and feeds by nabbing bits of floating food (Humann and Deloach, 1993).
183425		population	eng	Although this species is widespread, it is generally found in low abundance. However, in the right habitat it can be common. The overall mean abundance for the species in Galapagos Island was 0.05 per 500  m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183425		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183426		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, the species distribution falls partially in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183426		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183426		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on sandy substrate.
183426		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183426		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183427		conservation	eng	This species is found entirely in the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, it requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183427		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Malpelo Island, Colombia.
183427		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits shallow subtidal rocky reefs and vertical surfaces to depths of 20 m.
183427		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
183427		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183428		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183428		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183428		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sandy, rubble and muddy bottoms near the coast to a depths of 125m (Hensley, 1995).
183428		population	eng	This species is moderately common throughout its range. There is no other population information available for this species.
183428		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch in industrial shrimp fisheries.
183429		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183429		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Malpelo Island.
183429		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found in littoral waters; it tolerates low salinities and may temporarily penetrate estuarine waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to 30m.
183429		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183429		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br><br>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183430		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183430		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Ecuador.
183430		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183430		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183430		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183431		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183431		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Lobos de Afuera, Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183431		habitat	eng	This species is inhabits rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) to depths of 16m with juveniles occurring commonly in tidepools. In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species was found in deeper waters over middle sized rocks, massive corals, and exposed shallow rocky reef and zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). In the Galapagos, this species is most common in the shallow subtidal zone in rock boulder habitat in sheltered bays. It often occurs in the same habitat as Stegastes arcifrons in the Galapagos Islands, and possibly forms hybrids with that species.
183431		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. The population in the Galapagos Islands is thought to be increasing since the 1980s.<br><br>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.01 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004); however, the species occurs frequently in water shallower than that surveyed (GE). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.07±0.09 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>.. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.301±0.435 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, - relative abundance of 8.128% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was observed in 3 sites, with 47 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). S. acapulcoensis was not recorded in a survey made at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001).  A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in sandy bottoms and tide-pools while occasional in rocky and coralline bottoms. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.366±0.465 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 70.3%.
183431		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), it is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, but collection is unlikely to affect the total population.
183432		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183432		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Gulf of California to Colombia.
183432		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata, from the inner to middle continental shelf. This species is found from 20-120m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183432		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183432		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183433		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the population is fully protected in Cocos Island Marine Procted Area (WDPA 2006).
183433		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Cocos Island, Costa Rica. However, possible juveniles of this species have been photographed at Malpelo Island, Colombia.
183433		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over rubble and sand substrata, occuring frequently amongst pebbles and sand to depths of 35 m.
183433		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be locally common at Cocos in restricted rubble and sand habitat.
183433		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183434		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183434		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico to Peru, including Cocos Island.
183434		habitat	eng	This benthic, demersal species can be found over hard rock and rubble substrate (McKay and Schneider, 1995), and in rocky habitat in estuaries to depths of 25m.  It was found over a massive coral reef in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183434		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout most if its range. Near Buenaventura, Colombia, it is moderately common in rocky areas in estuaries. In Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica,  this species was recorded to have a mean density of 0.004 ind/ m<sup>2</sup>.
183434		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183435		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific (WDPA 2006). Additionally, populations are known to exist within RAMSAR sites in southeastern Gulf of California.
183435		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the eastern Gulf of California to Panama.
183435		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits shallow estuaries (0-8 m), and is restricted to substrate of a firm mixture of mud and sand. It feeds on mobile benthic worms and crustacea.
183435		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is thought to be uncommon.
183435		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of habitat due to shrimp farming, coastal aquaculture, and mangrove destruction from coastal development. As this species is restricted to near-shore shallow water habitat with specific substrate, more information is needed to determine the effect of widespread habitat loss and degradation on its population.
183436		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas, and collections have been made in the Galapagos Islands (WDPA 2006).
183436		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands (Lea and Rosenblatt, 2000).
183436		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft-bottom and often burrows into loose sand.
183436		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183436		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183437		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as areas with soft substrata such as mud. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.
183437		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from lower Baja California and the lower 2/3 of the Gulf of California to Peru.
183437		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy or muddy shores, and enters brackish and high salinity estuaries. It occurs at depths down to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183437		population	eng	This species was described in 2002 and no population data is currently available.
183437		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183438		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  More information is needed on this species population, habitat and ecology.
183438		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja California and Jalisco (Mexico) to Panama, including Revillagigedos islands.
183438		habitat	eng	This species is found in near-shore coastal zones, and may occur either over hard and soft substrata. It is found to 10m. This species' habitat and ecology has not been well documented.
183438		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not considered to be uncommon, but is less common than other mullet species.
183438		threats	eng	The are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species may be caught incidentally with other mullet species (Harrison, 1995).
183439		conservation	eng	This species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006). In Mexico, legislation was enacted in March 2004 to prohibit increased fishing of the species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993). However, enforcement of Marine Protected Areas and legislation is necessary for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the impact of fishing activities on this species' population.
183439		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA, to Baja California and in the Gulf of California, Mexico. However, this species is also often misidentified in southern California.
183439		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits shallow inshore sandy and muddy areas, although it can be found to 100 m depth. It feeds mainly on small fishes.
183439		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is considered uncommon in southern California and likely uncommon in northwestern Baja California.
183439		threats	eng	This species is not commercially targeted, but given its distribution and general habitat, it is very commonly caught in gillnet and handline fisheries along with similar fishes, especially in the Gulf of California where the majority of its population occurs. The effect of fisheries on this species' population is unknown.
183440		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183440		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the lower southeastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama.
183440		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand, mud, and rubble substrate of coastal waters and lagoons. It is also found in estuaries in freshwater, brackish, and marine areas (Bussing, 1995).
183440		population	eng	This species is considered not to be very common in Mexico.
183440		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183441		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Galapagos Islands (WDPA 2006).
183441		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a single specimen collected at the Galapagos Islands (Findley 1983), although the type locality for this species is uncertain.
183441		habitat	eng	This species may live in rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges at depths from 20 to 40 m.
183441		population	eng	There is no information known about this species. Only one specimen has ever been recorded.
183441		threats	eng	If this species can be shown to have a viable population in the Galapagos Islands, localized stochastic events including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events as well as coastal development may have detrimental effects on this species' habitat and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183442		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from Cocos Island Marine Protected Area (Bussing and Lopez 2005).
183442		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Gulf of California and Costa Rica (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003). It has also been recorded from Cocos Island (Bussing and Lopez 2005), where it may be vagrant.
183442		habitat	eng	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It has been collected from burrows in sand and rubble at depths from 55 to 82 m.
183442		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known only from four specimens from Costa Rica and three from Gulf of California at different localities (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).
183442		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183443		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measure for this species. However, this species is present in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183443		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico, and from El Salvador to southern Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183443		habitat	eng	This species is associated with reefs. It forms small groups on rocky and occasionally soft substrates, or near the surface at night. The adults hide under conspicuous rocks and in small caves during the day (Watson, 1996). In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species can be found over deep rocky walls and reefs, exposed shallow rocky reefs, zones of massive corals, and zones of madreporic branching corals (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183443		population	eng	This species is abundant in most of its range. In the Galapagos archipelago, this species had a mean density during day surveys of 0.22 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004), however, much higher densities can be found in night surveys. In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.001±0.006 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, with and relative abundance of 0.04% (Rojas-Figueroa, 2001). In Los Islotes, Gulf of California this species is frequent and abundant, and has an occurrence frequency between 30-70% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001).
183443		threats	eng	No major threats known are known for this species.
183444		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183444		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Peru, including Malpelo Island.
183444		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocky and coral reefs to depths of 35m. In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish was only seen at a deep rocky wall (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). Adults are secretive, nocturnal fish that hide under ledges by day and come out only at night to feed on the epifauna of the substrate. Schools of juveniles appear only in the summer.
183444		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183444		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183445		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this specie's distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>This species should be carefully monitored given its restricted range, and shallow-reef associated habitat.
183445		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands.
183445		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species often occurs in large schools or loose aggregations above rocks and small boulder strewn slopes covered with leafy blade algae to depths of 30 m.
183445		population	eng	This species was studied in different sites at Galápagos Archipelago, being the second most abundant species, with an overall mean abundance of 0.05 individuals per 500 m² (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183445		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183446		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California y Delta del Rio Colorado (Hastings and Findley 2006).
183446		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California and near Mazatlan, Mexico.
183446		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits the intertidal zone, and is found around large boulders and vertical outcrops in rocky, wave-swept areas.
183446		population	eng	This is species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan 1983).
183446		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183447		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183447		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, near southern Baja California, and from Costa Rica to Panama.
183447		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand and mud substrate to a depth of at least 10m.
183447		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183447		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183448		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183448		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to southern Colombia.
183448		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in intertidal zones with some freshwater.
183448		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183448		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183449		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183449		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California and Magdalena Bay, Baja California  to Chile (Pequeño, 1989; Bussing, 1995).
183449		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over sand and mud bottoms to depths of 107m. This species is also occasionally found in estuaries and mangrove areas.
183449		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. It is considered fairly common in the Gulf of California and in Jalisco and Guerrero. It is occasional in Ecuador.
183449		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls.
183450		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo, Galagapos Islands and the Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183450		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the southwest Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183450		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives between rocks, boulder strewn areas, and walls.
183450		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183450		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183451		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183451		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few collections in the southern Gulf of California and central Mexico, and along the coast from Costa Rica to Ecuador (Bedenbaugh 1988).
183451		habitat	eng	This deep-water species lives on benthic muddy and sandy soft substrate at depths of 15 to 80 m.
183451		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183451		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183452		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006).
183452		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, and the Revillagigedos Islands (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183452		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 75 m.
183452		population	eng	This species is common in at least some parts of its range. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>Chromis limbaughi</em> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 30-70%.
183452		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183453		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.
183453		distribution	eng	This species is present from Mexico (Jalisco) to Colombia.
183453		habitat	eng	This species lives in estuaries along the coast in coastal lagoons and rivers and tolerates fresh, brackish and saltwater habitats. It is found to depths of five m. It swims at the surface or near bottom in shallow waters, over sandy or muddy substrate. This species is most abundant near mouths of rivers and feeds on filamentous algae, diatoms, detritus and ooze (Bussing 1998).
183453		population	eng	This is a very common species.
183453		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183454		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183454		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183454		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow water in mainly rocky shores to a depth of 10m. It can usually be found in tide pools, and often over sand and gravel substrate in estuaries (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183454		population	eng	This species is probably the most common tidepool fish in the Gulf of California.
183454		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may this species habitat in some parts of its restricted range.
183455		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Area (WDPA, 2006).
183455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galapagos Islands.
183455		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to occur in coastal waters and schools, and feed on plankton and small nekton (Grove et al., 1997).
183455		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a very few specimens.
183455		threats	eng	This planktivorous species has a restricted distribution and is found in shallow water habitat. Future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen et al., 2004; Soto, 2001). However, more information on this species population status, distribution and habitat requirements is required to adequately assess the potential effect of ENSO events on this species and its ecosystem.
183456		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species is found in the Galapagos Island Marine Protected Area.
183456		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Galapagos Islands and along the coast of Costa Rica. It has also been observed at Cocos Island (Bussing and Lopez, 2005), where it may be vagrant.
183456		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms, occasionally in shallow water (5-15m). At one location in the Galapagos where it is abundant, this species is associated with fungiid corals, although it is not known if this association is obligate.
183456		population	eng	This species is considered to be common at some sites in the Galapagos.
183456		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Although Fungiid corals are affected by ENSO events in the region, it is not known if this species association with these corals is obligate, and this species has been observed after several severe El Niño events.
183457		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, it is found in the Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183457		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the uppermost part of the Gulf of California in the Colorado River Delta.
183457		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water over mud, and over muddy sandy substrates to depths of four m.
183457		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183457		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to the cessation of flow from the Colorado River and by shrimp aquaculture development. Estuaries, riparian, wetland, and tidal areas of the the Colorado River delta have been reduced by over 90% since dam construction begin in the early 20th century. Currently, this species has an extremely restricted geographic range in the upper Gulf of California and Colorado River delta region, and likely represents a relict population. It has an extent of occurrence of 5,000 km², but its area of occupancy is not known given the current degraded state of its delta habitat.
183458		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183458		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the central Gulf of California to central Mexico (Hoese and Reader, 2001).
183458		habitat	eng	This ireef-associated species that inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 30m.
183458		population	eng	This species is reletively common throughout its range in suitable habitat.
183458		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.. However, due to its bright coloration it is sometimes collected for ornamental use, which may present a localized threat in some areas.
183459		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Marine Protected Areas.
183459		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to Panama (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183459		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits flat sand substrata (Birdsong 1981, Robertson and Allen 2006). It is found to depths of 36 m.
183459		population	eng	This species is thought to be uncommon in the southern extent of its range. There is no population information available for this species.
183459		threats	eng	There are no known major threats specific to this species.
183460		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183460		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from lower Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Costa Rica, including Revillagigedo Island.
183460		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in shallow rocky reefs exposed to surge to depths of five m. It is also common in intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky habitats.
183460		population	eng	This species is locally common in suitable microhabitat throughout its range.
183460		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183461		conservation	eng	This species occurs in at least one Marine Protected Area with questionable enforcement (Findley pers. comm.).
183461		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the upper Gulf of California.
183461		habitat	eng	This is species is found on sand substrata, estuaries, beaches, and soft substrata (Findley pers. comm.). This species is found at depths to 36 m.
183461		population	eng	This species is not abundant. The number of Locations (areas near estuaries) is around 10.
183461		threats	eng	Coastal development such as marina construction and also from aquaculture development has caused much of the estuarine habitat of this species to be degraded (Findley pers. comm.).
183462		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, this species is present in Marine Protected Areas in Galápagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the population status and distribution of this species.
183462		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Galápagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands. It has also been recorded as a vagrant on the coast of Costa Rica and in the Pearl Islands, Panama. Given its shallow-water, reef-associated habitat, this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
183462		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 20 m.
183462		population	eng	This species is considered abundant in the Galápagos, and moderately common in Mapelo and Cocos Islands. However, only juveniles were observed at Malpelo and Cocos, suggesting that the Galápagos may have the only viable self sustaining population. More research on the population status and distribution is required.
183462		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. <br/><br/>Populations in Galápagos declined by more than 50% with the 1997/98 El Niño, but were able to rebound within one year.
183463		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183463		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to Ecuador (Acero 1981).
183463		habitat	eng	The species is poorly known. It is found inshore over sand and mud substrate to depths of 58 m.
183463		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183463		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats for this species. However, localized coastal destruction, especially of mangroves, may  pose a potential threat in some parts of this species' range.
183464		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.
183464		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species extends throughout the tropical eastern Pacific, from the Pacific coast of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183464		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters, but is most often it is recorded from bays, lagoons and estuaries, thus it is able to tolerate lowered salinities (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183464		population	eng	It is considered as a common species. A study in La Paz, Baja California, observed abundance (Ind/ha) and biomass (grams/ ha) to be 0.6 (0.24) in autumm, 0.09 (0.16) in winter, and 3.45 (71.3) summer. (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al</em>. 2005)
183464		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183465		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183465		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Monterey, California to Baja California, and in the Gulf of California.
183465		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits shallow inshore areas to 15 m depth. It is encountered frequently in schools.
183465		population	eng	This species is considered to be moderately common in the Gulf of California, with no indication of major population fluctuations, and is common on Pacific coast of Baja. In California, the population has increased over the past decade.
183465		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183466		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183466		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.
183466		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits rivers, creeks and lakes from the brackish swamps to sea level to 115 m elevation. Uvenilles are very abundant near the coast, suggesting reproduction in marine or brackish waters (Bussing 1998). According to Cooke (1992) this species is occasionally found in middle estuaries and mangroves, while regularly found at bar-formed laggons and upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast.
183466		population	eng	This species is relatively common within its range.
183466		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and aquaculture may affect habitat quality.
183467		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183467		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern California to the southwestern coast of the Gulf of California; it is absent from the northwestern and northern regions of the Gulf of California; and has a continuous distribution from the northeastern coast of the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru.  It is aslo present in Malpelo Island.
183467		habitat	eng	This species is found on mud, sand, or rubble substrata in deep water (45-235m). It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995).
183467		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183467		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183468		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183468		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands. It may be vagrant in Cocos Island.
183468		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky, boulder strewn reefs and slopes to depths of 25m, and commonly in reefs with stony corals. In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish was found over massive corals, deep rocky reef and zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). It feeds by scraping algae from rocks and corals.
183468		population	eng	This species is the least common Scarid in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. It is generally uncommon, but where present can often occur in moderate numbers.<br><br>S. compressus was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.96 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density <0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.000±0.002 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.010% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was not  observed (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), S. compressus is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (0.1-0.01% of total abundance) with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce (0.1-1% of the overall abundance) with a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Surveys made at Gorgona Island did not observe this species (Rubio, 1986; Zapata and Morales, 1997).
183468		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, spearfishing comprises a possible local threat in some parts of its range. Similarly, all Scarids are commercially-exploited at a small scale by spearfishers in Panama, and in the Gulf of California have been recently subjected to heavy fishing pressure.
183469		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006), including Loreto Bay Marine National Park.
183469		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the south-western Gulf of California.
183469		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef associated species inhabits rocky reef areas and tidepools to depths of 60m.
183469		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183469		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183470		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas.
183470		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from lower Baja California to the lower half of the Gulf of California, extending southward to Ecuador.
183470		habitat	eng	This pelagic species occurs in coastal waters, but probably does not enter estuaries.  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183470		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183470		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. <br><br><br>  - This species is taken as bycatch in shrimp trawling fisheries (Medina and Bernal pers comm).
183471		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183471		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183471		habitat	eng	This pelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 50m. According to Cooke (1992), L. argenteus is occasionally found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical Eastern Pacific coast. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans.
183471		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183471		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species is often found in the local fish market.
183472		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183472		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183472		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky inshore reefs exposed to wave action and currents to depths of 15m, and is most frequently observed near large boulders in the shallow subtidal zone. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish can be found in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183472		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br><br><br>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.94 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density < 0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, still in Costa Rica, it had a density <0.001±0.002 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, - relative abundance of 0.023% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could not be observed (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), M. bairdii is a rare species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (accounted less than 0.01% of total abundance) with an occurrence frequency below 10%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it has already been recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), showed that this fish seems to be occasional in coralline, rocky and sandy bottoms.
183472		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, however this is unlikely to significantly affect the population.
183473		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in the Revillagigedo Island Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).
183473		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near the Revillagigedo Islands and Clipperton Atoll. It has also been observed as a vagrant at the tip of Baja California.
183473		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs, mainly in surgy shallow waters to depths of 10 m.
183473		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is considered moderately common at Clipperton Atoll and in the Revillagigedos, where it is estimated that 90% of its population is found. It was not recorded at Baja California prior to the 1997/98 El Niño event, but afterwards, it was considered to be moderately common in 1999 and present in low numbers in 2005.
183473		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range and specific habitat type, with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.  In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183474		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
183474		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico (including the Tres Marias Islands) to Panama.
183474		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits tide pools and coastal sandy areas.
183474		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183474		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183475		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183475		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Peru.
183475		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits shallow sand or mud substrate of shallow mangrove bays and estuaries to depths of 5m.
183475		population	eng	This is most probably the most common Goby species in the Eastern Tropical Pacific in mangrove habitats. This species was studied in a mangrove swamp in El Conchalito La Paz Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico and is considered common, with an occurrence frequency of 7% (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183475		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, mangrove destruction and coastal development, including shrimp aquaculture activities, threaten their habitat type throughout their range.
183476		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. The majority of this species' range lies within the Galapagos Island Marine Protected Area. However, this species is not well-known, and more information is needed  on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, life  history and major threats.
183476		distribution	eng	This species is appears to be endemic to the Galapagos, although there are some records from coastal Ecuador. This species distribution is not well known, given that it is only known from a few deep water specimens.
183476		habitat	eng	It reef-associated species is found on rocky substrata from 80-200m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefishes, and bony fishes.
183476		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183476		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is restricted to a small part of the Eastern Pacific that is most strongly affected by ENSO, but because it is a deepwater species, it is not likely to be affected by these events.
183477		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183477		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern Baja and the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183477		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in rocky, boulder strewn areas, and walls. This species may occasionally wander into open sandy areas about 10-20m from cover.
183477		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183477		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183478		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine this species' population status, especially fisheries data with catch effort and information on generation length given that it is a heavily targeted commercial species throughout much of its range.
183478		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern Peru to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.
183478		habitat	eng	This demersal fish inhabits soft bottoms to depths of 50 m. The minimum population doubling time is estimated to be between two and five years.
183478		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is common in Chile and Peru fish markets.
183478		threats	eng	This species is regarded as a prime table fish in South America (Frimodt 1985). Off the central Chilean coast in the Valparaíso Region, there is intense fishing activity primarily with long-lines and, to a lesser extent, gill nets targeting ‘corvina’ <em>Cilus gilberti</em> (Simeone ,i>et al. 1999). <br/><br/>Based on FAO statistics, there has been a fluctuating but steady decline in fishery landings for this species from a peak of 19,600 t in 1960 to approximately 10,000 t in the late 1980s, to 6,000 t in the early 2000s, but these data do not include fishing effort.<br/><br/>In addition, this temperate species is likely affected by ENSO events in northern part of its range.
183479		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183479		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru.
183479		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and mollusc shells on rocky and coral reefs.
183479		population	eng	This species is considered to be locally common.
183479		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183480		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183480		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found near southern Baja California and in the central western Gulf of California, Mexico and from central Mexico to Ecuador.
183480		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas, estuaries, mangroves and brackish water. It is also found in other soft bottom habitats.
183480		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183480		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.
183481		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the locality is within a Marine Protected Area.
183481		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found from Isla del Caño, Costa Rica to western Panamá (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).
183481		habitat	eng	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It likely inhabits burrows in sand and rubble, and was found in different substrata including rock, coral, and fine sand (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).
183481		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from the type series of two specimens.
183481		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183482		conservation	eng	This species occurs in both the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WDPA 2006).
183482		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Cocos Island and the Galápagos Islands.
183482		habitat	eng	This benthic species occurs in tide pools and shallow coastal areas to depths of 10 m. It inhabits black volcanic sand and coarse, white coral sand, where it often occurs together with <em>Platygillellus rubellulus</em> (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183482		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183482		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183483		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183483		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183483		habitat	eng	This species is associated with shallow reef habitat to depths of 5m. It primarily iinhabits rocky inshore reefs exposed to wave action (Schneider and Krupp, 1995), and is common in intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky bottom habitats in the Galapagos, Gorgona, and elsewhere along the continental coast.
183483		population	eng	This species is locally common insuitable habitat throughout its range. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, a density of 0.005±0.009 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.126% were recorded for this species (Figueroa, 2001)
183483		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183484		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.
183484		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Costa Rica to northern Peru.
183484		habitat	eng	This species is primarily found in brackish waters, estuaries and river mouths to depths of 20 m.
183484		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is common in estuaries in central Panama and Costa Rica.
183484		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development and pollution throughout its range.
183485		conservation	eng	There are no known specific specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183485		distribution	eng	This species is found from central Baja California through the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands (Charter, 1996; Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).
183485		habitat	eng	This species is a reef-associated fish that inhabits sand flats, often in protected bays and coves.
183485		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183485		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183486		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Colombia, including the Tres Marias Islands.
183486		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits rocky reef and rubble substrata, and can be found in coral reefs to depths of 21m.
183486		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is not considered to be uncommon.
183486		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183487		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.
183487		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species forms schools above rocky, boulder strewn reefs, slopes, and hard substrate with strong currents or tides (Humann and Deloach 1993) to depths of 30m. It can also be found over sand and rubble, exposed shallow rocky reefs as well as madreporic branching corals in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183487		population	eng	This species is locally common in many parts of its range.<br><br>A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0.027±0.096 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> for this species  0.730% of relative abundance (Figueroa, 2001). This species was not found in surveys made at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001) and Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997; Rubio, 1986). The mean density found at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was <0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 7 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 6 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183487		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is considered important for commercial fisheries in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004). Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined more than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.
183488		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183488		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia, including Cocos Island and Malpelo Island.
183488		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits burrows in sand-rubble areas. This species has been observed at depths of 5 to 40m (in Malpelo) and up to 110m in Cocos Island.
183488		population	eng	This species is common in both Malpelo, Gorgona and Cocos islands, as well as along the Gulf of Chiriqui and Costa Rica.
183488		threats	eng	Collection for the aquarium trade may represent a future threat.
183489		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183489		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja and the Gulf of California to Peru, including all  of the oceanic islands except Clipperton Atoll.
183489		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is often solitary, and can be found hiding in reefs and caves during the day (McKay and Schneider 1995) to depths of 30m. This species was also found with a frequency of 9% in estuaries associated with mangroves in Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1994). It is feeds on reef invertebrates at night (McKay and Schneider 1995), and forms resting schools on reefs during the day.
183489		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout much of its range. <br><br>A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0.004 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> for this species (Figueroa, 2001). This species was considered to be rare in Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10 and 15% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001), and was not found in surveys at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005), nor at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 10 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183489		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. In some areas, such as in the Galapagos, this species is caught in artesanal fisheries. Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined more than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations have recoved over a subsequent two year period.
183490		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183490		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador (Hoese, 1971).
183490		habitat	eng	This species is found on rock and rubble substrate with mud/sand substrate to depths of 5m. In Gorgona Island, Colombia  this species seems to be occasional in coralline substrate, and frequent in sandy areas (Rubio, 1986).
183490		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range within suitable habitat.
183490		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183491		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.
183491		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern California (Grove and Lavenberg 1997), through the Gulf of California, to Chile; plus the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo islands.
183491		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species found in shallow water and seaweed-covered reefs as well as on open, sandy areas (Thomson 1987). This species is found to 85 m. An opportunistic predator, this cryptic fish lies unseen on the reef top waiting for small fishes to pass by (Thomson 1987).
183491		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183491		threats	eng	There are no major threats. This species is important for subsistence fisheries, commonly caught with hook and line. Although the flesh is of excellent quality, it is not utilized commercially due to its venomous spines (Poss 1995).
183492		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a very small Marine Protected Area in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183492		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the central and southwestern Gulf of California.
183492		habitat	eng	This species lives in rubble-sandy substrates on rocky reefs at depths of 2 to 30m.
183492		population	eng	This cryptic species is relatively common within its suitable habitat throughout its range.
183492		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183493		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in several Marine Protected Areas within its restricted distribution (WDPA 2006). However, this species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and near-shore shallow water habitat.
183493		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only known from the Gulf of Panama and the southern tip of the Peninsula de Azuero, Panama. It has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km².
183493		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef associated species inhabits rocky shores in rocky and coral reef to depths of 10 m.
183493		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183493		threats	eng	These species is threatened by habitat degradation from extensive coastal development with its restricted range. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183494		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species. As this species is found in relatively deep water, it is not likely to occur in Marine Protected Areas, except in Mexico where it may occur in some protected areas (WDPA 2006).
183494		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the southern Gulf of California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico (Collette, 1995).
183494		habitat	eng	This species is found in relatively deep water over sandy and muddy substrate.
183494		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183494		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
183495		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183495		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Panama.
183495		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in brackish waters in river mouths and mangrove areas to depths of 60m.
183495		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is common in gill net and intertidal trap catches in Parita Bay, Panama (Cooke and Tapia, 1994 as <em>A. osculus</em>). Also, in a fish fauna survey in mangroves in Costa Rica, this species was the one with the highest biomass of the entire study with 22,472 g in a survey from April and June, 1993 (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183495		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught in coastal gill nets and intertidal traps, and is  presumably affected by coastal development and pollution.
183496		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183496		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only along the coast of Costa Rica and Panama.
183496		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal, brackish and fresh water to depths of 20m.
183496		population	eng	This species is abundant in some parts of its range such in the estuaries of the Central Panama (Cooke and Tapia, 1994).
183496		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is an important commercial fish, and it is marketed fresh. Localized coastal development may also affect the habitat of this species, however it likely can adapt to some disturbed habitats.
183497		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183497		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has an apparently disjunct distribution: occurring in southern Baja California; central Mexico and the Tres Marias Islands; and then from Nicaragua to Panama.
183497		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits estuaries, mangroves and shallow sandy areas. It is also found in other soft bottom habitats.
183497		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183497		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.
183498		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within southern Baja California, the Cocos Island and Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183498		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacfic in the southern Gulf of California and the Revillagigedo Islands, and from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183498		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate in shallow waters up to a depth of 30m.
183498		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183498		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183499		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183499		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from  Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).
183499		habitat	eng	Of all the Neotropical ariids, this species inhabits the deepest water, often to depths of 60 m, and is found furthest from estuaries.
183499		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered locally abundant in many parts of its range.
183499		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is frequently caught as by-catch in commercial fisheries such as shrimp trawls. It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke 1992).
183500		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Cocos Island National Park, which is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). More information on this species' distribution, population, habitat requirements and threats is needed to determine its conservation status.
183500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is thought to be distributed from Costa Rica to Colombia, including Cocos Island. However, it is only known from a few museum specimens.
183500		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is a demersal species that likely inhabits worm tubes on sand-rubble substrate.
183500		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183500		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183501		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183501		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and central Mexico to northern Peru.
183501		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30 m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183501		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183501		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183502		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183502		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the central Gulf of California, from Costa Rica to southern Panama, and in southern Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).
183502		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits muddy and sandy substrate to a depth of 760 m (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).
183502		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183502		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183503		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183503		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from El Salvador to Panama.
183503		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and found to 5m. This species is found on rocky reefs covered in a thin layer of algae.
183503		population	eng	This is a rare species. There is no population information available on this species.
183503		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no specific use for this species.
183504		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Cabo Pulmo National Park (WDPA 2006).
183504		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Easternl Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California to southern Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands.
183504		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits the surge zone along rocky shores.
183504		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183504		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183505		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California, including Cabo Pulmo National Marine Park and Loreto Bay National Marine Park (WDPA 2006).
183505		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the central and southwestern parts of the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183505		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is usually found in rocky areas, where it inhabits empty worm and mollusk tubes. It feeds on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183505		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
183505		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this restricted range species.
183506		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of  Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183506		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to the Bay of Tenacatita, Mexico.
183506		habitat	eng	This species can be found over soft substrate in a wide range of depths from the intertidal zone to 224m (Collette, 1995).
183506		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183506		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
183507		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183507		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183507		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found on soft substrate, generally sand and mud estuaries near mangroves, to depths of 60m. Its occurence in shallow water of coastal inlets seems to be regular (Cooke, 1992).
183507		population	eng	This species is common in trawl catches in Panama.
183507		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183508		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures specifically for this species.  However, it occurs in Marine Protected Areas of the Gulf of California and Malpelo (WDPA 2006).
183508		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Magdalena Bay, Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including Malpelo Island.
183508		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrate (Bussing and Lavenberg 1995).
183508		population	eng	In research cruises conducted by the R/V El Puma between 1990-92 in the Sinaloa-Nayarit area (five cruises) and in the Gulf of Tehuantepec (three cruises),  Synodus species were frequently caught in the Sinaloa-Nayarit area and tended to be more abundant further from the coast. In the Gulf of Tehuantepec, the largest catches were obtained off Salina Cruz. The length  of this species ranged from six to 29 cm, and they were collected below 30 m. In Sinaloa-Nayarit, this species was more abundant at depths greater than 90 m, and its length range increased with depth. At depths greater than 90 m, only fish over 30 cm were found (Morales-Nin 1996). Differences in abundance between Sinaloa-Nayarit and the Gulf of Tehuantepec may be due to different ecobiological causes.
183508		threats	eng	This species occurs in shrimp trawl by-catch. The larger body lengths for this species found at increased depths in Sinaloa-Nayarit compared to the Gulf of Tehuantepec may be indicative of more exploitative fisheries in the Sinaloa-Nayarit area (Morales-Nin 1996).
183509		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been collected in Marine Protected Areas in the Malpelo, Cocos, and Galapagos islands (WDPA 2006).
183509		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, from Cabo San Lucas, Baja California and Mazatlan, Mexico to central Colombia, including the Galapagos, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.
183509		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal fish. Adults are secretive and bottom-dwelling, and prefer soft substrata where they can burrow with their tails (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).
183509		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183509		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183510		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183510		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the lower  Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galápagos Archipelago.
183510		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is benthopelagic and inhabits mainly rocky coastal areas to depths of 13 m. The genus <em>Corvula</em> can be occasionally found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke 1992).
183510		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens, and is considered to be very uncommon.
183510		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183511		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183511		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific at the tip of Baja California, and from Costa Rica to southern Ecuador (McCosker, 1974).
183511		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 17m.
183511		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is very abundant in collections.
183511		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183512		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183512		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Colombia to the tip of Chile.
183512		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought occur over sand and soft substrate in marine, estuarine and brackish habitats.
183512		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183512		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is unknown if coastal development is negatively impacting the estuarine and brackish habitat of this shallow-water species. More research is needed to determine this species' distribution, population status and habitat requirements, as well as the potential impact of coastal development on this species.
183513		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from southern Ecuador and northern Peru. It has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its very shallow near-shore and intertidal habitat (<6 m depth), it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 50 km² (based on a distribution of approximately 500 km of coastline).
183513		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits shallow tide pools and rocky coastal areas to depths of 6 m.
183513		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183513		threats	eng	This species is affected by habitat decline from coastal development and degradation throughout its restricted range. Additionally, in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183514		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183514		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California to Madgalena Bay, Baja California and in the upper Gulf of California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183514		habitat	eng	This species is found in nearshore areas over shallow soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 50 m. It also enters estuaries (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183514		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is considered common in the northern part of its range, but rare in the Gulf of California.
183514		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, shrimp trawling is a localized threat to this species in the Gulf of California.
183515		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183515		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California (Lea and Rosenblatt 2000), Baja California, and the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos and the Revillagigedo Islands.
183515		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate near the coast and in deep waters (Schneider 1995). This species is also occassionally observed in middle estuaries and mangroves (Cooke 1992).
183515		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in rocky and sandy substrata while occasional in coralline bottoms. However, it may be rare in the Galapagos Islands as there are no recent records from there.
183515		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, this species is considered important for artesanal fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004) and Ecuador, and small numbers are regularly collected by shrimp trawlers along the continental part of its range.
183516		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183516		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from Jalisco (Mexico) to central Ecuador.
183516		habitat	eng	This is a coastal pelagic fish that feeds on zooplankton and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to 10m.
183516		population	eng	No population data is available for this species. It is rare in Costa Rica.
183516		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species at any coastal habitats.
183517		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183517		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the northern Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183517		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 21m. It is usually found near Eucidaris thouarsi (Robertson and Allen, 2006). According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this fish is present in deep rocky walls and reefs, zones of massive coral and exposed shallow rocky reef in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio 1986), this species is occasionally found in intertidal pools and coraline substrate.
183517		population	eng	This species is relatively common within isuitable habitat within its range.
183517		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, due to its bright coloration, it is collected for ornamental use, which may be a localized threat in some areas.
183518		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status and distribution of this species, and to better understand its habitat preferences.
183518		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is only known from the original collection in Port Parker, Costa Rica.
183518		habitat	eng	This benthic species is poorly known. The precise habitat type is unknown, but is probably subtidal or intertidal rocky.
183518		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. It is known only from the original description in 1955.
183518		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183519		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present within the Marine Protected Area of Malpelo Island (WDPA 2006).
183519		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Malpelo Island, Colombia.
183519		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species can be found over coarse sand and gravel substrate between depths of seven and 20 m (Allen and Roberston 1992).
183519		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be relatively common at Malpelo Island.
183519		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183520		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More studies about the population status for this species are needed.
183520		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from Ecuador to central Chile.
183520		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish typical in most coastal areas within its range. It is found to 100m. It feeds on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates, and has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183520		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183520		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183521		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Cocos Island National Park.
183521		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo and Cocos Island.
183521		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate near reefs, and also in tidepools (De La Cruz Agüero 1997).
183521		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183521		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183522		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183522		distribution	eng	This species is present in the central eastern Pacific from the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including all the offshore islands.
183522		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in small recesses on rocky reefs and especially along walls. They blend almost perfectly with the background, often taking the markings of tube-worm snails or appear to be encrusting sponges (Humann and Deloach 1993). They are found between the surface to 15 m in depth; rarely until 40 m.
183522		population	eng	A survey conducted at Gorogona Island, Colombia, showed that <em>Antennarius coccineus</em>, <em>A. sanguineus</em>, and <em>Antennatus strigatus</em> had a mean number of individuals of 0.40 (±0.7), with a mean standard length (mm) of 7.5 (±1.2) (Mora and Zapata 2000).
183522		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183523		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183523		habitat	eng	This demersal is found in shallow water to depths of 20m, and can enter mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds mainly on shrimps and other benthic invertebrates.
183523		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183523		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183524		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183524		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Guatemala to northern Peru (Kailola and Bussing 1995).
183524		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal waters and estuaries  to depths of 20 m.
183524		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is fairly common in shrimp trawls and gillnet captures in Nicaragua and Panama, and in Colombia.
183524		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. In some areas, it is an important commercial fish. For example, it is sold frozen in Colombian markets.
183525		conservation	eng	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a Biosphere Reserve, the Archipielago de Revillagigedos (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183525		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Revillagigedo Islands, including Clarion and Socorro Islands.
183525		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits barnacles and worm tubes on shallow rocky shores to depths of 10 m.
183525		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
183525		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183526		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, the Galagapos Islands, and the Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183526		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the southwest Gulf of California and central Mexico, and from El Salvador to central Colombia, including the Galapagos, Cocos, Clipperton and Revillagigedo Islands.
183526		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sand and gravel, tidepools and reef edges.
183526		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183526		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183527		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183527		distribution	eng	The geographical range of this species in the south east Pacific extends from central Peru down to the Chiloe Islands in Chile. It is also found in the Galapagos Islands.
183527		habitat	eng	This fish occurs from continental shelf waters (around 50 m depth) to the upper continental slope down to around 500 m. It is sometimes found off the bottom or in midwater. Females grow faster than males and attain a much greater size. The main spawning period extends from August to March, with a peak in the spring (Peruvian subspecies), and from August to November (Chilean subspecies). The boundaries of the spawning ground of the Peruvian subspecies are estimated between 4S and 8S, while those of the Chilean subspecies are found in deep waters off Chile. The Chilean subspecies feeds on fishes, crustaceans and squids. The estimated maximum length for the Peruvian subspecies is 68 cm for males and 115 cm for females. The estimated maximum length for the Chilean subspecies is 87 cm. The common length for both subspecies is up to 50 cm. (FAO-FIGIS 2001).
183527		population	eng	No population data is available for this species. It is not an uncommon fish.
183527		threats	eng	The combined catch for both populations (subspecies) reported to FAO in 1987 totaled 64,286 t. Of this harvest, 32,026 t were collected by Peru and 30,905 t by Chile. The yield of the fishery has decreased considerably. This species is caught with artisanal purse-seines and trawls. The most common fishing techniques are demersal bottom trawling and purse seining. The total catch reported for this species to FAO in 1999 was 141,053 t. The countries with the largest harvests were Chile (103,789 t) and Peru (37,121 t). (FAO-FIGIS 2001). It is marketed fresh and frozen, and is also utilized as fishmeal (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). The Peruvian population has become an important target fish for distant-water fisheries since the 1960s.
183528		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution is included in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Humboldt Current region.
183528		distribution	eng	This southeastern Pacific species is found from Ecuador to Chile.
183528		habitat	eng	Adults of this species inhabit soft substrata on the continental shelf, whereas juveniles occur in shallower waters including estuaries and mangrove habitats. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes (Medina <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is found at depths to 35 m.
183528		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183528		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This is an important in commercial fisheries in Chile (Pequeno 1989).
183529		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More information on this species' life history traits including longevity and age of maturity is needed to better assesss the possible impact of habitat loss on its population.
183529		distribution	eng	This species is found from the central eastern Gulf of California to Colombia, but the depicted range distribution is not very representative as it is restricted to mangrove and estuarine habitat (Aburto <em>et al.</em> 2008).
183529		habitat	eng	This demersal species is frequently found in shallow-waters over rock, sand and mud substrate of mangroves and estuaries to depths of five m.
183529		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is reasonably common in mangrove habitats in Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, and fairly common in rocky habitats in estuaries in Barra de Santiago, El Salvador, and is frequently reported in studies of mangrove habitats in Colombia. However, it is considered to be uncommon in the Gulf of California.
183529		threats	eng	Coastal development and loss of mangrove and estuarine habitat are the main threats to this species.  The exact percentage of habitat loss throughout its range needs to be estimated. Currently there is no known fishery for this species.
183530		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in Marine Protected Areas in Galapagos, Malpelo, Cocos, Machalilla and Gorgona (WDPA 2006).
183530		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Galapagos, Malpelo, Cocos Islands, Isla Plata (Ecuador), and coastal Ecuador from Manabi to Salinas. This species is also a recorded vagrant off the coast of Costa Rica.
183530		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) to depths of 20m. This fish is omnivorous, feeding primarily on algae and invertebrates including tubeworms, small crustaceans, and the tentacles of anemones (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).
183530		population	eng	This species is extremely abundant in shallow reef habitats in Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands.<br><br>In the Galapagos archipelago it had an overall mean abundance of 8.30 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183530		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  In Galapagos, a minor decline in population numbers accompanied the 1997/98 El Niño event, but was followed by a full population recovery within one year.
183531		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183531		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Cocos Island.
183531		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species occurs on offshore rocky reefs to at least 50m, with young often found inshore, sometimes in shallow coastal waters and estuaries (Allen, 1995).
183531		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range, especially in deeper waters. <br/><br/>In the Golfo of Agua Dulce, Costa Rica the maximun density registered for the species was 0,004 (inds/ m<sup>2</sup>) and the percentage of relative abundance was 0.007% (Rojas, 2001).
183531		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183532		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183532		distribution	eng	In the eastern Pacific, this species ranges from northern California to the Gulf of California to central Chile and all the offshore islands. It also occurs in Hawaii (may be a vagrant), where it may be establishing a population, and seen in the Marquesas islands in 1999.
183532		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species occurs in rocky reefs, boulder strewn slopes, and adjacent areas of sand. Adults are demersal; and young are pelagic (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). It feeds on sea urchins, small crustaceans, and mollusks (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is known to occur to 50m but may occasionally be found deeper.
183532		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information available for this species.
183532		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183533		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, there are some limited protected areas within Panama Bay in which the species may occur.
183533		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Central Pacific, and is thought to be distributed from El Salvador to Panama. However, all known records are from the Bay of Panama and the Gulf of Montijo in Panama (Collette and Russo 1981), where given its shallow water habitat, it has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km². Its distribution outside of these areas needs to be confirmed.
183533		habitat	eng	This species inhabits intertidal zones (Collette 1995) and it can also be found on soft substrate in estuaries to depths of 20 m.
183533		population	eng	This species is common in Panama Bay.
183533		threats	eng	This shallow-water and near-shore species is threatened by habitat loss from extensive coastal development and pollution within its restricted range.
183534		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations are required to adequately safeguard these Galápagos endemic species.
183534		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.
183534		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species may form schools above rocky, boulder strewn reefs, slopes and hard substrate with strong currents or tides. It may mingle with yellowtail grunts and golden-eyed grunts (Humann and  Deloach 1993).
183534		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species was studied in different sites at Galápagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 2.80 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004), however, underwater visual census records of this species have been partly confused with other <em>Orthopristis</em> species.
183534		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species. However, given this species'  restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Populations of haemulid species (<em>Orthopristis</em> spp., <em>Anisotremus interruptus</em> and <em>A. scapularis</em>, <em>Haemulon scudderi</em>) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Niño, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.
183535		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Coiba National Park and Isla del Caño National Park (WDPA 2006).
183535		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to western Panama.
183535		habitat	eng	This species is only found in reef areas, which are patchily distributed within its restricted range, and is therefore estimated to have an area of occupancy less than 2,000 km². This species can primarily be found in mollusc and worm tubes on near-vertical rock faces in shallow rocky reef areas and in zones of massive corals.
183535		population	eng	This species has been recorded as locally common in some areas, such as the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama and Isla del Caño, Costa Rica (Rosenblatt and Stephen 1978, Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006).
183535		threats	eng	This species is threatened by reef habitat loss due to extensive coastal development and coral extraction throughout its restricted range, and by activities such as dynamite fishing (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006).
183536		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on the impact of fishing activities on this species' population.
183536		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
183536		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters, bays, and estuaries to depths of 30 m. It feeds on crustaceans, fishes and cephalopods.
183536		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183536		threats	eng	This species has a relatively restricted near-shore range and is a highly valued food fish that is targeted by commercial, artisanal, and sport fisheries throughout its range. However, the impact of fishing activities on this species' population is unknown.
183537		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183537		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Panama to Peru.
183537		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrata and can also be common in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes; and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). It is found to 50m.
183537		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183537		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183538		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183538		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to central Mexico.
183538		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in coastal lagoons, estuaries and river mouths, and deep water far from the coast to 100m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic worms, crustacea, gastropods, mussels and bony fish.
183538		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.  However, this species is very common in bottom trawls in the upper Gulf of California.
183538		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.
183539		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183539		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to central Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.
183539		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is poorly known throughout much of its range. In the Galapagos it is usually seen on rocky reefs in the cooler waters of the western islands (Isabela and Fernandina), and is usually present below the thermocline.
183539		population	eng	Although widely distibuted, little is known on population status of this species along the continental coast. It is considered common in the west and south of the Galapagos Islands, and uncommon elsewhere.
183539		threats	eng	The impact of potential threats to this species is poorly-known. There may be possible population declines due <br/> to fishing pressure in Galapagos. This fish is collected for the aquarium trade (Beltrán-León and Herrera, 2000), and minor captures are made by Galapagos artisanal fishers. Also, given this species preference for temperate waters, future oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO and global warming events may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and this species, especially in the northern portion of its range (Gynn and Ault 2000, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004, Soto 2001).
183540		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183540		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Sinaloa, Mexico to Colombia (Tomson <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183540		habitat	eng	This estuarine, demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate and tide pools to depths of 13m. In El Salvador, specimens collected in 20- 40 feet were found in broken shell and sand bottom under rocks and ledges.
183540		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range.
183540		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is dependent on shallow water mangrove habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction for development for urbanisation, aquaculture and tourism may pose a threat to this species in some parts of its range (Jiménez, 1994).
183541		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183541		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.
183541		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas and tide pools.
183541		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183541		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183542		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, more research is needed to determine this species distribution and population status before a conservation assessment can be made.
183542		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Peru, although it has also been reported in Nicaragua (Sánchez 1997).
183542		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal areas, soft substrate, and estuaries in marine and brackish waters.
183542		population	eng	The distribution of this species needs to be clarified, as this species has never been observed in Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia and is considered very common in Nicaragua.
183542		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183543		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183543		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.
183543		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over soft substrate in coastal waters, brackish waters (Bussing, 1995), mangrove areas, and fresh water.  It feeds on crabs and shrimps (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997), benthic worms, crustaceans, and gastropods.
183543		population	eng	This species is common in the Gulf of California, in mangrove areas of La Paz Bay (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in coastal lagoons in Mexico. It is considered uncommon in Ecuador (Bearez, pers.comm.).
183543		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this is a species of minor commercial importance, and localized declines may occur from coastal development and loss of mangrove habitat throughout its range.
183544		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183544		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Sinaloa, Mexico to Panama, including the Tres Marias Islands.
183544		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sandy areas around estuaries. It is also found in mangrove areas, and in marine and brackish waters.
183544		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183544		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.
183545		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183545		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Guatemala to northern Peru, including one locality from Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986).
183545		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow brackish water to 2m in tide pools and rocky shores of bays, and in creeks and estuaries (Rubio, 1986). In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986) this species is occasionally found over rocky substrate, although is more frequent in intertidal pools and sandy substrate.
183545		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range.
183545		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183546		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. It is not known to occur in any Marine Protected Areas.
183546		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range in the Eastern Pacific, as it is found in the western Gulf of California, the central Mexican coast off Mazatlan, and the Gulf of Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1972, McCosker 1998).
183546		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been recorded from sandy substrate to depths of 30 m (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).
183546		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is known from only a very few specimens.
183546		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183547		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183547		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos Island.
183547		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found in nearshore to offshore areas on sand or sandy mud bottoms to depths of approximately 120 m.
183547		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is uncommon thoughout its range.
183547		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activities, but is too small as species to be kept.
183548		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower two-thirds of the Gulf of California to southern Mexico.
183548		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty mollusk tubes on rocky and coral reefs.
183548		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183548		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183549		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183549		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru (Chirichigno and Velez 1998).
183549		habitat	eng	This is a bentho-pelagic fish that occurs near the surface of coastal water to over soft substrata of continental shelf. It is found to 108m. It feeds on benthic mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183549		population	eng	During surveys of demersal assemblagles, this species had a total biomass of 209 kg (2%) and 1130 individuals in shallow waters stations near San Marcos (Mexico to Northern Guatemala); 730 kg (7%) and 3842 individuals in shallow waters of Nicaragua and Guatemala; 543kg (6%) and 6388 individuals (4%) in the Gulf of Fonseca and adjacent water from El Salvador and Nicaragua; 281 kg (7%) and 2651 (2%) on statios distributed all over the upper and intermediate shelft over the region; and 219 kg (1%) and 27357 individuals in lower intermediate shelf in Nicaragua.  All percents and the biomasses given are in relation to the total biomass and total number of fishes found on this study (Bianchi 1991).
183549		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. Overfishing could affect local populations.<br/><br/><br/>     - This species is considered to be of high potential for fisheries (Rojo Vazques <em>et al</em>. 2001).
183550		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos Island and Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183550		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of California and around Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). Given its shallow water and sandy habitat type, this species has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 1500 km<sup>2</sup>.
183550		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate to 20m depth.
183550		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183550		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183551		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species, although this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  Research is required on the effects of the threats on this limited habitat type for this species.
183551		distribution	eng	This species is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
183551		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, inhabiting mud and sand substrata in brackish and freshwater coastal streams and estuaries; it is also found in mangrove areas. The type specimen was collected from Râo Durango in north-western Ecuador. This species is found at depths to two m.
183551		population	eng	This species is very rare in Costa Rica and was only collected once. There is no other information available on the population status of this species.
183551		threats	eng	This species is associated with estuarine areas and mangrove areas, which are currently subject to extensive habitat destruction, coastal development and pollution. The species may be susceptible to El Niño associated climatic changes, especially given its narrow depth range (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183552		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183552		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the south-western Gulf of California to central and southern Mexico.
183552		habitat	eng	This benthic species that inhabits rocky substrate to depths of 10m.
183552		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is considered to be uncommon throughout its range.
183552		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183553		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183553		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia.
183553		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over flat, sandy bottoms (Allen and Robertson, 1994).
183553		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183553		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is occasionally caught in shrimp trawls.
183554		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183554		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Gulf of California to central Mexico. Given its specific habitat-type that is associated with shallow sandy intra-reef areas, it has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
183554		habitat	eng	This demersal fish primarily occurs on clean flat, sloping sandy substrate and reef edges, forming large colonies on sandy areas near shallow reefs.
183554		population	eng	This species was reported to be rare in surveys of the Gulf of California, where relative abundance was lower than 0.01% of the fish community (Arburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001). However, this species is commonly observed by scuba divers and may exist in abundant colonies.
183554		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183555		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183555		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183555		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in rocky and rubble substrata to depths of 25m. It can also be found in rocky and coral reefs.
183555		population	eng	This species is considered to be common. The overall mean abundance for this species in Galapagos island was 0.10 per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183555		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183556		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183556		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from Mexico to Panama, including the Cocos and Galapagos islands.
183556		habitat	eng	This species forms aggregations near reefs (Allen and Robertson 1994) and is also found in estuaries,  in marine and brackish water to depths of 10m. The diet is mainly based on zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae, and pelagic fish eggs.
183556		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183556		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species relatively shallow water habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species population are needed.
183557		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183557		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed over the Eastern Central Pacific, from the Gulf of California to southern Peru (Charter, 1996; Bearez, 1996; Bearez <em>et al</em>. 2002).
183557		habitat	eng	This species is inhabits soft-muddy substrate.
183557		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.  However, it is common in shrimp trawl captures.
183557		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183558		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California and the Delta del Rio Colorado (Hastings and Findley, 2006).
183558		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found iin the Gulf of California, Mexico from Punta Penasco, Sonora to the tip of Baja California (Briggs, 1955).
183558		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in intertidal and subtidal zones in rocky reef.
183558		population	eng	The species is very common throughout its range (Briggs, 1955).
183558		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183559		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distributional limit, population status, biology and ecology, and threats.
183559		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Peru, however there is uncertainty about its southern distributional limit.
183559		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found over hard and muddy bottoms to depths of 325 m. It feeds on zooplankton, euphausiids and other small crustaceans. It is often caught with <em>Merluccius gayi</em>.
183559		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183559		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183560		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183560		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the holotype collected in the Gulf of Panama, from the lower lock of Miroflores.
183560		habitat	eng	This species most likely lives on mud substrate and brackish waters in mangroves and estuaries to depths of 10 m.
183560		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from the collected material, and it is unsure whether this is in fact a valid species.
183560		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183561		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Mexico (WDPA 2006).
183561		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico. It was introduced with success into the Salton Sea in southern California, USA (Welcomme, 1988), but very likely has since been extirpated from there.
183561		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries to depths of 20m. It is uncommonly in lower rivers. According to Cooke (1992), it occurs occasionally in middle estuaries, mangroves and bar-formed lagoons in Mexico. It has also been introduced into the Salton Sea, a warm, relatively shallow, and highly saline lake (Page and Burr, 1991), but very likely has since been extirpated from there.
183561		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183561		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183562		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to Ecuador.
183562		habitat	eng	This species is not well-known. This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183562		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.  It is not considered to be common.
183562		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183563		conservation	eng	The Galápagos Islands are protected as a National Park, and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).
183563		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.
183563		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in small recesses on rocky reefs, slopes and walls, clinging to rocky substrates in the surge zones (Humann and Deloach 1993, Allen and Robertson 1994).
183563		population	eng	This is a cryptic species that is common in the western part of the Galápagos Archipelago.
183563		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species ‘restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183564		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Cabo Pulmo and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
183564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Gulf of California to southern Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands.
183564		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species found in shallow, weed-covered, rocky reef areas and in coral reefs. It feeds on small invertebrates (Robertson and Allen, 2006).
183564		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species.
183564		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183565		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the amount yearly catch of this species throughout its range.
183565		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Valparaiso, Chile.
183565		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits soft bottoms to depths of 50m. It feeds on mobile benthic worms, gastropods, bivalves and crustacea.
183565		population	eng	In Peru, this species is historically one of the most fished species,   with over 7,000 metric t caught in 1963 (Doucet and Einarsson, 1966).   However, there is no recent data on catch statistics or population   trends for this species.
183565		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183566		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the ecology, population trends, and possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.
183566		distribution	eng	The geographical range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and the lower 2/3 of the Gulf of California, to Peru and it may be found in the Revillagigedos islands.
183566		habitat	eng	This species is neritic and occurs from near-shore waters to continental slopes to depths of about 1,200 m. It is probably a vertical migratory species. This species is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae. It lives over soft substrata on the continental shelf and slope, feeds on plankton, and has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183566		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183566		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183567		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area (WPDA, 2006).
183567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found primarily in the Revillagigedo Islands, with occasional observations near the tip of Baja California.
183567		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky inshore reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 20 m.
183567		population	eng	This species is considered to be abundant in Revillagigedo Islands and is rare along the continental coast. More than 95% of the population is estimated to occur in Revillagigedo Islands.
183567		threats	eng	Given its shallow-water, reef-associated habitat, and the estimation that 95% of its population is found in one location (Revillagigedo Islands), this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183568		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183568		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
183568		habitat	eng	This species that is found in sandy substrate adjacent to rocky reefs (Lavenberg <em>et al</em>. 1995) to depths of 10m. It is also found in esturaine water systems.
183568		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183568		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species restricted range and relatively shallow water habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species population are needed.
183569		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183569		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.
183569		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species is found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 40 m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183569		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183569		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183570		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183570		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from northern California (Tomalas Bay) to southwestern Baja California, and in the northern half of the Gulf of California.
183570		habitat	eng	This species is found on intertidal sand substrate in bays and estuaries to depths of 7m.
183570		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183570		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect this species habitat within its restricted range.
183571		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Magdalena Bay, Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru.There is a disjunct population segment in Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja California (Lea 1995; Nielsen 1999).
183571		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits substrate with fine sand, sand-mud, or rubble (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183571		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species
183571		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183572		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island National Parks and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WDPA 2006).
183572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands.
183572		habitat	eng	This benthic intertidal species, actively shuttles back and forth between rock pools and air. It can trek on land as far as 30m from the sea due to its physical adaptive modifications, such as laterally flattened corneas to avoid myopia and thickening and filament enlargement of the gills for respiration out of water (Martin and Bridges 1999).
183572		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but the species is widely distributed within the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Islands.
183572		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183573		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct distribution as it is found in southern Mexico and from El Salvador to Panama (Bussing, 1981).
183573		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species occurs in rocky reefs and rock outcrops surrounded by sand and gravel at depths of 5 to 20m.
183573		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it has been observed to be common over sand and gravel bottoms asscociated with rock reefs (Bussing, 1981).
183573		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183574		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183574		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the tip of Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California down to northern Peru.
183574		habitat	eng	This species is common in coastal waters less than 20m deep and enters coastal lagoons and up into freshwater. It feeds on crustaceans, small fishes, polychaetes, and occasionally detritus. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Krupp, 1995). This species is found from 5-45m of depth.
183574		population	eng	This species is common. There is no population information for this species.
183574		threats	eng	This species has no major threats.
183575		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps at least one Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).
183575		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Galapagos, Ecuador, and Peru.
183575		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic epipelagic species that can be found down to 5m. It is a planktivorous fish that feeds on zooplankton and pelagic fish eggs.
183575		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183575		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
183576		conservation	eng	In the US, commercial fishing of this species is banned, and size limits apply for sport fishing. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in southern California currently being developed that will offer greatly enhanced protection. However, it is heavily fished in the Gulf of California, and Marine Protected Areas in this portion of its range may not be providing effective protection for this species.
183576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to the tip of Baja, and the Gulf of California. Historically this species has ranged from Monterrey, California to Mazatlan, Mexico (California Fish and Game, 2004).
183576		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits low-profile, often weed-covered, reefs adjacent to sandy substrata areas to depths of 61m. It feeds on small fishes and benthic crustaceans during the day (Heemstra 1995).  It is capable of tolerating ample fluctuations of temperature (from 7.5 to 32C) and survive extreme cold intervals (Heemstra 1995). Compared to other species in the area, this species has a limited habitat range and its recruitment is more temperature dependent and variable (California Fish and Game, 2004).
183576		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered common in many parts of its range.
183576		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. The impact of fishing on this species population is unknown. Population trends are difficult to interpret as this species responds positively to ENSO events, which enhance its recruitment (California Fish and Game, 2007).
183577		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southeastern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California (La Paz and Topolobampo) to south Acapulco, Mexico.
183577		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found along sandy coasts and bays, estuaries, river mouths, and coastal lagoons to depths of 33m.  It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans, mollusks and worms.
183577		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183577		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.
183578		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183578		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to central Chile.
183578		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and bays to depths of 40m. According to Cooke (1992), M. panamensis regularly occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and mollusks.
183578		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It may be locally common. For example, this fish was studied at Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio 1986), and was considered frequent over sandy bottoms. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured three times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183578		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species is also considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004).
183579		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183579		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from central California to southern Peru, and all the offshore islands; intermittently recorded in abundance at Hawaii.
183579		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found on the continental shelf, generally near the coast but also in deeper waters to 100m; it is also known to penetrate estuaries especially the juveniles (Smith-Vaniz 1995).  It primarily feeds on fishes, but also eats squids, shrimps and other invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183579		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is an abundant species.
183579		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, or current indication of population reduction from artisanal fisheries.<br>This species is fished in artsanal fisheries with gill nets and beach seines, and with hook and line. It is marketed fresh, salted or dried, and smoked (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004).
183580		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183580		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183580		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found along sandy bays, lagoons, and estuaries (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 1999) to depths of 30m. According to Cooke (1992), E. archidium is occationally found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on zooplankton and pelagic fish larvae.
183580		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is considered to be uncommon.
183580		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183581		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Chile.
183581		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found along sandy coasts and in bays, possibly to depths of 30m.  It feeds mainly on worms and other benthic invertebrates.
183581		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183581		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets, and can be locally important commercially.
183582		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls entirely into the Marine Protected Areas in Cocos and Malpelo Islands (WDPA 2006).
183582		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Cocos Island and Malpelo Island.
183582		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species occurs in areas with live coral, and in rock and rubble areas to depths of 30 m.
183582		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be common at Cocos Island, and uncommon at Malpelo Island, where it may possibly represent vagrants from Cocos.
183582		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183583		conservation	eng	Cocos Island is protected as a National Park, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, this species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183583		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near Cocos Island, Costa Rica.
183583		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species is found in barnacles and worm tubes on rocky shores and in rocky and coral reef to depths of 30 m. It is oviparous, and its eggs are attached to the walls of the parent's shelter and are brooded by the male parent (Matarese <em>et al</em>. 1984).
183583		population	eng	This species is common, although easily overlooked by divers.
183583		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183584		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183584		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru (Lea 1995).
183584		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183584		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183584		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183585		conservation	eng	This species is found in the Galapagos Islands national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It presemably occurs in other Marine Protected Areas elsewhere within its range (WDPA 2006).
183585		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Peru to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.
183585		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species occurs along shallow coastal shores and is found in rocky areas.
183585		population	eng	This species is though to be fairly common as it is well represented in collections.
183585		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, the population in the Galapagos may be susceptible to ENSO events, especially given its shallow depth range and because it is primarily a temperate species.
183586		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006).
183586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern Baja California and the entire Gulf of California south to Acapulco on the Mexican mainland, including Revillagigedos Island. This species is sometimes confused with <em>Stegastes flavialatis</em> and <em>S. acapulcoensis</em>, especially in records south of central Mexico and the Gulf of California.
183586		habitat	eng	This species rocky inshore reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 12 m.
183586		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range.  For example, it is considered abundant around the Baja Peninsula and Gulf of California, but rare in Revillagigedo Islands. <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>S. rectifraenum</em> is one of the most dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California and accounted more than 1% of total abundance with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common with between 1-5% of the overall abundance registered and a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183586		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183587		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183587		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to northernmost Peru.
183587		habitat	eng	This species inhabits inshore waters to 20 m depth, and is also found in brackish-water estuaries, amongst mangroves, and at river mouths.
183587		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183587		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183588		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183588		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the eastern Gulf of California. It is only known from a few specimens.
183588		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 20 m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183588		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183588		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183589		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183589		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is patchily distributed. It is only known from the south eastern Gulf of California and central Mexico near the Tres Maria Islands. It has only recently been described (Hoese and Reader 2001).
183589		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 30 m. It feeds on sessile invertebrates and frequently cleans parasites from other fishes (frequently moray eels).
183589		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183589		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, due to its bright coloration it is collected for ornamental use, which may be a localized threat in some areas within its restricted range.
183590		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183590		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from lower Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183590		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits open mud or sand substrata to depths of 134 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes. It is a synchronous hermaphrodite (Franke and Acero 1995).
183590		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is moderately common, and is abundant in the Gulf of California and the Gulf of Panama (FAO 1995). It is not uncommonly caught as bycatch in trawls in Panama, Costa Rica and El Salvador.
183590		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183591		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).  The taxonomy and distribution of this species complex need to be clarified.
183591		distribution	eng	This taxa is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, but represents a species complex of three species that extend from El Salvador to northern Peru.
183591		habitat	eng	This taxa is found over muddy bottoms to depths of 20 m, and can also be found in brackish waters.
183591		population	eng	This taxa (species complex) is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is very common in shrimp trawls in Panama.
183591		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this taxa.  The species are important in commercial fisheries, and have been used in subsistence fishery since pre-colombian times (Cooke 1992).
183592		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183592		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Ecuador.
183592		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183592		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183592		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183593		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183593		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and Gulf of California, Mexico to Bahía de Sechura, Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183593		habitat	eng	This species inhabits offshore, soft bottomed habitats and migrates into shallow areas to spawn in late spring and early summer. It is primarily nocturnal and stays buried in the sand or other soft substrate during the day, and rises up the water column at night to feed (Collette, 1995).
183593		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183593		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183594		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given its very shallow estuarine and near-shore brackish water habitat requirements, more research is needed to determine if coastal development or removal of mangroves within its restricted range are a threat to this species.
183594		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from eastern Panama to Colombia (Pezold 1984).
183594		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits shallow brackish water in estuaries.
183594		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not commonly seen given its specific habitat.
183594		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183595		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183595		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.
183595		habitat	eng	This coastal, pelagic species forms schools near the surface, and can also be found in marine and brackish water estuaries
183595		population	eng	This species is particularly common in the Gulf of California and the Bay of Panama (Collette, 1995).
183595		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183596		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183596		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Mapelo, Galapagos, Cocos, Clipperton and Revillagigedo Islands.
183596		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species occurs in coastal waters, frequently around rocky and coral reefs to depths of 60 m. This species sometimes forms large diurnal aggregations on rocky or coral reefs (Allen 1995). It is only found over zones of madreporite branching corals in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183596		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br><br>In the Coral reef of Gorgona island, Colombia, the species reported a density of 6.482 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup> and the observation frequency was 93.3% (Zapata and Morales 1997).
183596		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It appears to be more associated with coral reef than most other snappers, and therefore may be more susceptible to reef destruction.
183597		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183597		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to central Peru.
183597		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is found over soft substrate.
183597		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183597		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183598		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species northern distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183598		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific. It is a temperate species, and is found from Washington state, USA to Magdalena Bay, Baja California. There are also two records from Ecuador (Lea and Bearez, 1999).
183598		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on sandy substrate from the shore to a depth of 280m (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Adults burrow tail-first in the sand and live in mucus-lined holes.
183598		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered uncommon.
183598		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183599		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands (WDPA 2006).
183599		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to northern Peru, including the Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1975).
183599		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores.
183599		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
183599		threats	eng	There are no known major threats known for this species.
183600		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Loreto Bay Marine National Park (WDPA 2006).
183600		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the northern Gulf of California to southern Mexico.
183600		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shallows close to shore.
183600		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
183600		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183601		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183601		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183601		habitat	eng	This species is common over muddy substrata in estuaries, mangroves, and on the inner continental shelf.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995). This species is found from 1-60m.
183601		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183601		threats	eng	This species has no major threats.
183602		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species' biology, ecology and population status to determine if the population is declining due to fishing activities. There has been a decline in catch over the past decade, but it is not known if this reflects a widespread decline in population, especially as recruitment and mortality for this species is not well known.
183602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to Baja California and in the entire Gulf of California. However, this species' distribution in the Gulf of California is not well-known as there have been possible misidentifications of this species with cogeneric specimens.
183602		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs along sandy shores and in bays to depths of 20 m, usually in sandy surfs of the exposed outer coast. It is usually found in small groups, but larger fish are more solitary. It feeds on sand crabs, other small crustaceans, and worms. Spawning begins in July.
183602		population	eng	Population size, recruitment, and mortality of this species are unknown. Hauls from beach seines along the open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded slightly lower but similar numbers of Corbina (<em>Menticirrhus undulatus</em>) to those obtained during a similar study from 1953 through 1956. In addition, similar angler catch-per-unit efforts during the 1980s and 1990s indicate that the population is likely sustaining itself under present recreational harvest levels (Valle and Oliphant 2001).
183602		threats	eng	This species is highly targeted in commercial and sport fisheries. Corbina can be taken throughout the year, but shing is highest in summer and early fall. Most Corbina are caught along sandy surf-swept beaches, but they are also taken from piers and jetties. Anglers on private and rental boats or commercial passenger shing vessels seldom take them. <br/><br/>A 1965-1966 survey estimated that 30,000 Corbina were taken by southern California shore anglers along the open coast, making it the third most abundant species accounting for 13% of the surf-angler’s creel. Since then, the annual number of Corbina caught by anglers has been quite variable. Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey annual catch-estimates for 1980 through 1998 ranged between 17,000 and 75,000 sh with an average of 44,600. However, annual catch estimates were much lower in the 1990s than during the 1980s even though catches-per-unit effort were similar (Valle and Oliphant 2001).<br/><br/>In addition, this species is often caught as by-catch by intensive shrimp trawling throughout its range.
183603		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California y  Delta del Rio Colorado, and Loreto Bay Marine National Park (WDPA 2006)
183603		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183603		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on cobble beaches in shallow subtidal zones. It can remain out of water under rocks or seaweed (Martin and Bridges, 1999), and tolerates extreme changes in temperature and salinity (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183603		population	eng	This species is common.
183603		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183604		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas in Mexico, for example coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183604		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is only from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, to southern Mexico (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995) and probably to Costa Rica (Gulf of Nicoya).
183604		habitat	eng	This is a coastal pelagic fish that feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to depths of 10 m.
183604		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183604		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this species (Grove 1985, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183605		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183605		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a widespread but disjunct distribution. It is found off the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California; near central and southern Mexico; and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including Cocos Island.
183605		habitat	eng	This demersal species frequently inhabits mollusc tubes at the reef-sand interface.
183605		population	eng	This species is considered relatively common in at least some parts of its range.
183605		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183606		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183606		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183606		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata at depths of 10-165 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183606		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183606		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183607		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183607		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is known only from central to southern Baja California and along the entire west coast to the middle eastern coast in the Gulf of California.
183607		habitat	eng	Adults are found in bays and over sandy substrata, while small juveniles are often in more open areas over cobble or rocky substrata (Walker and Bussing 1996). It is found to 20m.
183607		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183607		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183608		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. This species range falls entirely within the Cocos Island and Malpelo Island Marine Protected Areas.
183608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183608		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand-rubble fringe of reefs primarily from 9 to 43m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, squid, octupus, cuttlefishes, and bony fish.
183608		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common at Cocos Island.
183608		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009, Guzmán and Cortés 1992). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004, Soto 2001, Glynn and Ault 2000). Given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. <br/><br/>However, this species is known to have survived previously strong ENSO events. Given that this species is present at two widely separated locations, with each location with an AOO estimated to be less than 20 km2, it should be carefully monitored as it may be susceptible to other localized stochastic threats.
183609		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.
183609		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from central Panama to northern Colombia.
183609		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is likely demersal in marine and brackish waters.
183609		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens, and is likely rare.
183609		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183610		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183610		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and central Gulf of California to Manzanillo, central Mexico.
183610		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is usually found in sandy areas near the edge of reefs. During the day, this species occurs in large schools that slowly move to the boarders of reefs, while at night it moves offshore and divides into smaller schools to feed (McKay and Schneider, 1995).
183610		population	eng	This species is moderately common, at least in the southern Gulf of California.  However, in a survey conducted at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, it was considered rare, with an occurrence frequency below 10% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).
183610		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183611		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183611		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Monterey, California, USA to the northern and central Gulf of California.
183611		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species is found in intertidal shallows (Robertson and Allen, 2006). It is territorial and feeds on small benthic invertebrates and algae (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997). The female deposits the eggs in sheltered areas, where they are guarded by the male until hatching (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183611		population	eng	This species is considered reasonable common throughout its range.
183611		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183612		conservation	eng	This species is found entirely in the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, it requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range and potential threats.
183612		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Malpelo Island, Colombia.
183612		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits shallow subtidal rocky areas and vertical surfaces in reefs to depths of 15 m.
183612		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
183612		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183613		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California.
183613		distribution	eng	The geographical range of this species is only in the western and northeastern Gulf of California.
183613		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 33m.
183613		population	eng	This is a relatively common species in the Gulf of California. No population data is available for this species.
183613		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183614		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183614		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to Peru. It is also present in Cocos Island.
183614		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species found in rocky and rubble substrata, at depths of 35-80m.
183614		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.  It is considered to be a rare species (Poss 1995).
183614		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183615		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Islas Revillagigedos Biosphere Reserve. There is a need for further survey to clarify the distribution of the species especially in central Mexico.
183615		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct range. It is found from the western and central eastern Gulf of California, the Tres Marias Islands, the Revillagigedo (Socorro and Clarion), Mexico and then from Golfo de Nicoya and southern Costa Rica.
183615		habitat	eng	Thiis benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas.
183615		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although Dawson (1976) mentions it was abundant in collections.
183615		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183616		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183616		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to southern Peru.
183616		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over hard substrata to depths of 80 to 200m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, bony fishes, and cuttlefish.
183616		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is occasionally found in fish markets from its capture as bycatch in shrimp trawling in Ecuador.
183616		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183617		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183617		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
183617		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species forms schools in coastal reefs to depths of 30 m. It can be found on massive corals at Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). Some individuals can be found accidentally in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Cooke 1992).
183617		population	eng	This species can be locally common.<br><br>In a survey at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, it was considered to be commonly frequent, with an abundance between 10-30% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001). The mean density of this species at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was <0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 11 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al</em>. 2001).However, this species was not found in surveys made at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986, Zapata and Morales 1997), and Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica (Figueroa 2001). This species is considered rare in the Galapagos.
183617		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183618		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Canada to the Gulf of California.
183618		habitat	eng	This demersal species often occurs in rocky areas and in kelp beds. It is found from inshore areas and feeds on seaweed and small invertebrates.
183618		population	eng	This species is considered common in California, with no evidence of recent population change.
183618		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183619		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.
183619		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183619		habitat	eng	This is a schooling species, occurring in coastal waters to 10m.  It is most often in muddy estuaries in either full salt, brackish or apparently freshwater, and penetrates up to a few kilometers up rivers  (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. Maturing females were caught in January, August, and October in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, suggesting a protracted spawning season.  The eggs are oval shapped, TL = 1.219 SL (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183619		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183619		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183620		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183620		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern mouth of the Gulf of California, to the northern tip of Peru. It is also found at the Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
183620		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found near deep rocky walls and reefs to depths of 25m, and in massive corals in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). Some individuals can be found accidentally in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Cooke, 1992).
183620		population	eng	This species is locally common in at least parts of its range. It is very common on rocky reefs of islands in Gulf of Fonseca and Los Cobanos, El Salvador. A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0.001 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> for this species (Figueroa 2001). Although it was found in surveys at Gulf of Chiriqui, its density was low (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183620		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183621		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. This species? entire range lies within the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area. Given its very small area of occupancy, this species should be carefully monitored.
183621		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Revillagigedo islands, and given its relatively shallow depth range (5-20 m) has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 25km².
183621		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in rocky reef areas from 5-20 m depth. It feeds on bony fishes.
183621		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183621		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183622		conservation	eng	This species distribution falls within several Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (WDPA 2006).
183622		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Magdalena Bay in western Baja California and the central Gulf of California south to Sechura, Peru.
183622		habitat	eng	In the Gulf of Chiriqui, this demersal species was found ocassionally on the edges of sandy habitats, in massive corals, and in rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). It has not been reported in other quantitative surveys in other reef locations in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (Zapata and Morales ,1997; Arburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001; Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183622		population	eng	This species is thought to be uncommon (Bussing and Lavenberg, 1995).
183622		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183623		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183623		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Tres Marias islands, Mexico (eastern mouth of the Gulf of California) to central Chile and in the Galapagos islands.
183623		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrata (Bussing 1995). It is found to 10m.
183623		population	eng	This is a common fish in Costa Rica and is likely to be common elsewhere in its range. There is no population information available for this species.
183623		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183624		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183624		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Chile, including all the offshore islands of Clarion, the Revillagigedos, Clipperton, Isla de Cocos and the Galapagos. It is also recorded from  the northern tip of Chile between Arica and Iquique.
183624		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky or coral areas to depths of 75m. It is sometimes also found on sandy substrate and where marine plants abound (Gomon, 1995). At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata, except sand and rubble (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). This species can also occasionally be found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke, 1992). <br/><br/>This species is solitary or may form aggregations of only a few individuals. It feeds on crabs, brittle stars, mollusks, and sea urchins (Gomon, 1995). At night, this species agglomerates in cracks and crevices of rocks and caves to sleep (Gomon, 1995). It starts life as a female, later becoming a functional male. Males defend temporary reproductive territories called leks. Sex change may be due to local social conditions, but it may also have a genetic component, since the reversal occurs over a limited size range (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).
183624		population	eng	This species is considered to be abundant throughout much of its range. <br/><br/>This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with an density of 0.03±0.03 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, a mean density of 0.005±0.015 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> was recorded, with a relative abundance of 0.131% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was observed 51 times in all sites (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). In Isla Gorgona, Rubio (1986) showed that this species is frequent in rocky and coralline substrates and occassionally found on sandy substrates. In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997), a mean density of  0.158 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup> and a frequency of observation of 41.2% was registered. This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 18.4 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), B. diplotaenia is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common, with a relative abundance between 1-5%, and a relative frequency higher than 75% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured 4 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001)
183624		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, but such localized collecting of juveniles is unlkely to affect population.
183625		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present within the Marine Protected Area of the Revillagigedo Islands (WDPA 2006).
183625		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the found the Revillagigedo Islands. However, it may also be present at Alijos Rocks and Guadalupe Island, off the coast of central Baja.
183625		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species can be fairly abundant over rock and coarse sand substrates to depths of 20 m. It forms schools of various sizes that move approximately one m above the bottom (Allen and Robertson 1992).
183625		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species was considered common at Revillagigedos in 1992 (Allen and Robertson 1992).
183625		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183626		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including the Isla Marias and Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserves (WDPA 2006).
183626		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Sinaloa to Oaxaca, Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands.
183626		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits rocky coasts with abundant macro-algae.
183626		population	eng	This species is considered uncommon throughout its range.
183626		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for the species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183627		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to Peru. However, a more patchy distribution is suspected.
183627		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mud and sand substrates in intertidal zones of coastal lagoons and estuaries to a depth of 5 m.
183627		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. The species is considered to be relatively uncommon.
183627		threats	eng	This species is dependent on shallow water, near-shore habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction and coastal development for development for urbanisation, aquaculture and tourism throughout is range is a major threat for this species (Jiménez, 1994). However, the percent of coastal development and habitat loss within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.<br/><br/>In addition, given this species shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001).
183628		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183628		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Mazatlan, Mexico to southern Panama.
183628		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits empty mollusc shells on sand-rubble substrate.
183628		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183628		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183629		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183629		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Ecuador.
183629		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty worm and mollusk tubes on rocky reefs. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá this species can be found in areas of middle size rocks and sand covered by fleshy algae, in rock walls covered by red algae, in zones of massive coral, on exposed shallow rocky reef, and in deep rocky reef exposed to oceanic currents (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).
183629		population	eng	In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama this species is considered quite common, although not abundant (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).
183629		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183630		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Mexico where there are some Marine Protected Areas.
183630		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from central to southern Mexico.
183630		habitat	eng	This species is demersal. It inhabits rocky coastal areas to 15m.
183630		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species.
183630		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br><br>There is no specific use for this species.
183631		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on the impact of fishing activities on this species' population, as it is suspected to be in decline.
183631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183631		habitat	eng	This benthic nearshore species is found in sand or sandy mud bottoms to depths of 100 m.
183631		population	eng	There is no population information available for this fairly common and widespread species. There are reported declines of mean size of the largest individuals due to fishing activities.
183631		threats	eng	There has been reported decline in the mean size of individuals due to intensive fishing. However, the rate of population decline from fishing is unknown.
183632		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183632		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central eastern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183632		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is found on soft bottoms of trawling grounds and bays to depths of approximately 50m, it is also commonly found in estuaries and sometimes enters freshwater.
183632		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is uncommon offshore, but is considered more common within estuaries and lagoons and has been reported to penetrate freshwater (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 1978).
183632		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch by industrial shrimp-fisheries and artisanal fisheries, although not abundantly. However, coastal development, in particular affecting estuaries, mangroves and coastal lagoons may also be a serious future threat to this species as it degrades important habitat.
183633		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183633		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southwestern and eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador (Pezold, 1984).
183633		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits estuaries and brackish mangrove creeks. It has also been recorded from rivers (Uribe-Alcocer and Díaz-Jaimes, 1996).
183633		population	eng	This species is widespread and moderately common within suitable habitat.
183633		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect this species habitat.
183634		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183634		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Magdalena Bay and the tip of Baja California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Cocos and Galapagos islands (Lea, 1995).
183634		habitat	eng	This deep-water demersal species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183634		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183634		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183635		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.  However, the species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region, but not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. The efforts for Marine Protected Areas in Central America are weak, but they are needed as a conservation tool, especially for endemic species. More research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183635		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the tropical eastern Pacific from central Mexico to Ecuador.
183635		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters off oceanic sandy beaches to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183635		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183635		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species in many coastal habitats. This species is of potential interest for fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183636		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183636		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the lower half of the Gulf of California to Chile, and Malpelo Island.
183636		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic and demersal species found in shallow coastal waters. It is found in small schools near the bottom. It feeds on small squids, shrimps, polychaetes and small fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found at depths to 50 m.
183636		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183636		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries using gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183637		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183637		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Cocos and Galapagos Islands.
183637		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is generally found offshore and is associated with reefs, but may also encountered in coastal areas (Collette 1995).
183637		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range.
183637		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183638		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183638		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama, including the Galapagos Islands.
183638		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits beaches and sandy areas. It is also found in other soft bottom habitats, and in mangroves and estuary zones.
183638		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183638		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.
183639		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183639		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183639		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found along sandy coasts, bays and estuaries, possibly to depths of 30m.  It feeds mainly on worms and other marine invertebrates.
183639		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183639		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183640		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183640		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from  Mazatlân, Mexico to central Peru, as well as in the Galapagos and Cocos.
183640		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species. It mainly inhabits rocks, but is also occurs on coral reefs. It is present from 3-45m. It is a mouthbrooder.
183640		population	eng	This is very common in Costa Rica. There is no other population information for this species.
183640		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183641		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the distribution, habitat requirements, and current population status of the species.
183641		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, where it is known only from three collections in central Mexico, the last one in 1972.
183641		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is likely a benthic, reef-associated species that inhabits rocky substrate and tidepools.
183641		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species. It has not been recorded since 1972.
183641		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats to this species. However, given its potentially restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO and global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.,/i> 2004).</em>
183642		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183642		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
183642		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits sand, rubble or sandy-mud bottoms to depths of 225m (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983).
183642		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is common in the Gulf of California, Colombia, and Ecuador. It is present but not common in Nicaragua.
183642		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is of commercial importance, and various types of gears are used as catching methods (Bussing, 1995). It is primarily used for fish meal in northern Peru.
183643		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183643		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific at the tip of Baja, the east central and southeast Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Galapagos, and Malpelo Islands.
183643		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in rocky, boulder strewn areas, and walls.
183643		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183643		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183644		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species, and it is not known from any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.
183644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific where it is known only from the northern end of Angel de la Guarda Island in the Gulf of California (Hubbs 1954). The holotype was collected between 28 and 40 m depth, but three other specimens taken in a subsequent dredge haul were taken at an undefined greater depth (Hubbs 1954).
183644		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species associated with deep rocky reefs.
183644		population	eng	This species is known only from four specimens collected in 1952.
183644		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183645		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183645		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the northern and eastern Gulf of California to Peru.
183645		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits soft offshore bottoms to depths of 114m, but can also enter fresh waters from shallow estuaries and mangroves (Hensley, 1995; Balart <em>et al.</em> 1997; Robertson and Allen, 2006).
183645		population	eng	There is no available population information for this species. It is uncommon in many parts of its range.
183645		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important for subsistence fisheries and is utilized fresh (Hensley, 1995). It is also captured as bycatch by shrimp trawlers.
183646		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183646		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Mexico, including the Revillagigedo Islands, and from El Salvador to northwest Costa Rica.
183646		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on shallow reefs in schools, and feeds on algae in rocky areas (Krupp 1995).
183646		population	eng	This species is abundant in many parts of its range.According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>Prionurus punctatus</em> is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, and has an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species is considered common, with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183646		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183647		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area at Cocos Island. More collections should be made to further establish its depth range as this may affect its level of vulnerability to climatic events.
183647		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cocos islands, Costa Rica.
183647		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs to depths of three m, and feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous.
183647		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183647		threats	eng	This species appears to live in a very narrow depth zone just below the surface. It is potentially vulnerable to relatively small scale adverse climatic events. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183648		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183648		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183648		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters, especially along sandy shores and lagoons, to depths of 70m.  According to Cooke (1992), M. elongatus it is regularly found in middle estuaries and mangroves, and is occasionally found in bar-formed lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and mollusks.
183648		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183648		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in some parts of its range such as in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004). It can be common in local markets.
183649		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183649		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island, and the Revillagigedo and Tres Marias Islands of Mexico.
183649		habitat	eng	This shallow-water species is found in sandy-bottom tide pools to depths of 2m along rocky coasts. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), this species is frequently found in coraline substrate. It is a carnivore, feeding on mobile benthic worms, crustaceans and gastropods.
183649		population	eng	This species is very common and abundant throughout its range within suitable rocky intertidal habitat.
183649		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183650		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183650		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Colombia (Bussing, 2001).
183650		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy-rubble substrates on reef edges to depths of 25m (Bussing, 2001).
183650		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range. No other population information is available.
183650		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183651		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183651		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Malpelo Island.
183651		habitat	eng	This benthic, demersal species can be found in coastal waters to 30m depth. It forms schools over rocky and sandy substrate (McKay and Schneider, 1995). This species can also be found at deep rocky walls and reefs, as well as in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). Juveniles can be found near estuaries in Mexico (Cooke, 1992).
183651		population	eng	This species is common. It was among the most abundant fishes (1.32%) in a gill net fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, the coastal zone of the central Mexican Pacific (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001), together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids.<br><br>However, in the Gulf of Papagayo, Panama (Dominici <em>et al.</em> 2005), a mean density <0.01 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> was recorded. In surveys made at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001), and near Gorgona Island (Rubio, 1986; Zapata and Morales, 1997), and in the Gulfo Dulce, Costa Rica (Figueroa, 2001) this species could not be found.
183651		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance (McKay and Schneider, 1995).
183652		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183652		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to Pisco, Peru, and the Galapagos islands.
183652		habitat	eng	This species is common on rocky reefs (including tide pools) and adjacent sand patches and is often seen in mid-water high off the bottom or at the surface. It is found to 105m. Juveniles inhabit the high and middle salinity portions of estuaries (Bussing 1995; Cooke 1992) including mangrove habitats (Cooke 1992; Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 2006).
183652		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information available for this species.
183652		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183653		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183653		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183653		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral or rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) to depths of 80m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish could be found in all sites studied over different types of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). It aggregates in large numbers in open water above reefs and feeds on zooplankton.
183653		population	eng	This species is considered common or abundant in many parts of its range. <br><br>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 5.19 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.68±1.21 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, still in Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.119±0.316 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 3.208% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in all sites, being the most abundant species; it had 1169 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), C. atrilobata is a the most dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California and accounted more than 1% of total abundance, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered abundant, more than 5% of the overall abundance registered - with a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline, sandy bottoms and tide-pools while occasional in rocky bottoms. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 51.724±100.536 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>,  the most abundant species, with an observational frequency of 84.9%.
183653		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Populations studied in the Galapagos declined by more than one order of magnitude during the one year period commencing at the start of the 1997/98 El Niño events, but populations had recovered by 2000. No equivalent population changes were observed at Gorgona during the same period (Fernando Zapata, pers obs).<br><br>According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, however this probably has an insignificant effect on the population.
183654		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Mexico where there are some Marine Protected Areas.
183654		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific stretching from the tip of Baja California and Mazatlan to southern Mexico.
183654		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and found to 15m. It is found over rocky substrata covered in a thin layer of algae.
183654		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. Although, this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183654		threats	eng	There are no known threats. There is no specific use for this species.
183655		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006),  including Cabo Pulmo and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
183655		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in central Baja California and throughout the Gulf of California, and in southern Mexico.
183655		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef associated species is found in rocky and coral reefs to depths of 8m.
183655		population	eng	This is the second most abundant primary fish species in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan 1983).
183655		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183656		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution is included in some Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183656		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and throughout the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru, and Malpelo Island.
183656		habitat	eng	This species lives on muddy-sandy substrata over a depth range of 7-100m.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995, Galven-Magaa <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183656		population	eng	This is a common species and is very commonly caught in the Gulf of California. There is no population information available for this species.
183656		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183657		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
183657		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183657		habitat	eng	This is a schooling species. It occurs in coastal waters, near shores, entering bays and tolerating some lower salinities. It is found to 10m. It spawns throughout the year, but more intensively in the warmer months. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. (Joseph 1963; Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995)
183657		population	eng	It is a fairly common species in Costa Rica. No population data is available for this species.
183657		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/><br/>This is the most important tuna baitfish in Manta, Ecuador.<br/><br/>This species is important for minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It also consumed for food (FAO 1995).
183658		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.<br><br>More studies about the population status for this species are needed.
183658		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru. Also, there are vagrants in the Galapagos islands.
183658		habitat	eng	This species is a marine species that is also found in estuaries and mangroves over soft substrata and may enter freshwater systems. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Balart <em>et al</em>. 1997, Krupp 1995). This species is found from 0-107m.
183658		population	eng	This is a common species. There is no population information for this species.
183658		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183659		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas such as the Galapagos Marine Reserve (WDPA 2006) and Machalilla Marine Protected Area. However, better enforcement of regulations are required to adequately safeguard species in these and other Marine Protected Areas.
183659		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, as is found from southern Ecuador to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands. This species has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on shallow water and mangrove habitat in northern Peru, where the majority of its population occurs.
183659		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow inlets and bays and mangrove areas to depths of 25 m. It is occasionally seen on rocky reefs. It is most common in areas of patchy rock and sand. Its diet consists mainly of bony fishes.
183659		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common in continental Ecuador and northern Peru, moderately common in the Galapagos, and only occasional in south to central Peru.
183659		threats	eng	The juveniles of this restricted range species are often found in association with mangroves, a habitat threatened by extraction and coastal development in many parts of the Eastern Pacific (Jimenez 1994).  Surveys in other regions show that the reduction of mangroves brought some fish species to extinction (Ferreira <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is estimated that less than 5,000 km² of mangrove habitat is left in northern Peru (FAO 2007), which is the majority of its range. This species is also important in commercial fisheries, and is vulnerable to overfishing given its relatively shallow water, near shore habitat. In Galapagos, this species is heavily fished, and it is occasional in fish markets in Peru and Ecuador. Its relatively low abundance may possibly be caused historical overfishing as this is a highly desired food fish.
183660		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research should be conducted to determine the population trends, habitat, and ecology of this species.
183660		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Gulf of California to Chile, including Revillagigedos, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos islands.
183660		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on small recesses in rocky reefs and especially along walls. They blend almost perfectly with the background and appear like encrusting sponges (Humann and Deloach 1993).  This species is found at depths to 40 m.  According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this species is frequently found over sandy and coralline substrata and occasionally found in intertidal pools.
183660		population	eng	A survey conducted at Gorogona Island, Colombia, showed that <em>Antennarius coccineus</em>, <em>A. sanguineus</em> and <em>Antennatus strigatus</em> had a mean number of individuals of 0.40 (±0.7) with a mean standard length (mm) of 7.5 (±1.2) (Mora and Zapata).
183660		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183661		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183661		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found Sinaloa, Mexico to northern Peru (Chirichigno and Cornejo, 2001).
183661		habitat	eng	This species iis found in coastal seas and brackish estuaries to depths of 25m, but does not enter fresh water. It is particularly common in mangroves and tidal rivers.
183661		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is very common in Panamanian and Colombian estuaries.
183661		threats	eng	This species habitats mangroves and tidal rivers where it is impacted by extraction, development, and pollution throughout its range.
183662		conservation	eng	This species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). In Panama, the fishing season is only 6 or 7 months, with no fishing during the reproductive season (October through December).
183662		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA, Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.  Depth information varies for this species, as it is known to occur in Panama to 15m, and in Nicaragua to 100m.
183662		habitat	eng	This coastal pelagic fish is found over soft substrate near the surface in both coastal and offshore waters. It forms dense schools and feeds on phytoplankton (Carmona and Alexandres, 1994; Watson and Sandknop, 1996) This species is present in 50 to 80 t groups, with the adults found at deeper depths than the juveniles.
183662		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout most of its range, with the exception of the outer coast of Baja California where it is considered rare (Watson and Sandknop, 1996). In surveys of global demersal fauna from Mexico to Costa Rica, this species represented 0.15% of the total number of species collected in the survey. However, this species had a high frequency of appearance, even though it showed a low relative abundance and biomass in the entire community (Bianchi, 1991). Based on fishing records, this species population fluctuates greatly and seems to be correlated with upwelling event. For example, during the last 5 years the catch in Panama has been between 33k and 60k t per year, with an average of 47.8 kt. This species is considered the most abundant of the Eastern Pacific Opisthonema species.
183662		threats	eng	The demand for this resource is increasing, and abundance is heavily decreasing due to fishing pressure. For example, between 2003 and 2004, there was a 15,126 metric t reduction of fishing discharge, representing a 68% decline compared to the previous five years (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Similarly, in Nicaragua much of the population was fished out in the 1980s, and the availability of the fish has diminished such that the fishers have stopped taking it.
183663		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research needs to be conducted to determine the current population trends of this species.
183663		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Colombia to Ecuador (Walker and Bollinger 2001).
183663		habitat	eng	This species can be found over soft substrata in coastal areas and in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found at depths from 10-40 m.
183663		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183663		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183664		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183664		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific at the tip of Baja California, central Mexico, and from southern Colombia to northern Peru. It is also known from several isolated islands and coastal islands in the Eastern Pacific: Santa Catalina Island, California, Isla Guadalupe, Cabo San Lucas, Islas Revillagigedo, Cocos, Galapagos, Malpelo, and Gorgona (McCosker and Smith, 2004).
183664		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits deep, rocky, boulder strewn areas, and walls.
183664		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183664		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183665		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183665		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in southern Baja California (Magdalena Bay area) and the upper Gulf of California (northern Sinaloa) (Cooper and Chapleau, 1998).<br><br>This is the southern most species of the genus and the only one preferring subtropical waters.
183665		habitat	eng	This species is found offshore over sand and sandy mud soft substrates to depths of 140m.
183665		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is a common species throughout its range.
183665		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is commonly caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activites.
183666		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in Marine Protected Areas, unless its presence in the Malpelo Marine Protected Area is verified.
183666		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Nicaragua to south central Chile.
183666		habitat	eng	This species lives on sandy and muddy substrate to depths of 280m, and feeds on invertebrates and fishes.
183666		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183666		threats	eng	Although no major threats are currently known for this species, commercial fishing is now aimed at this fish in the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador and Peru.
183667		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183667		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Monterey Bay, California, USA, to Callao, Peru including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands. Although <em>Polydactylus approximans</em> and <em>Polydactylus opercularis</em> are both recorded from Chile, such records remain unsubstantiated (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).
183667		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is found in shallow water near the coast, on sand and mud bottoms (Schneider 1995) to depths of 20 m. This fish also regularly occurrs in middle estuaries and mangroves and is occasional in bar-formed lagoons (Cooke 1992). <br>Larvae and small juveniles (>4 cm) are pelagic and sometimes occur several hundred kilometers offshore, whereas the larger juveniles and adults prefer shallow near-shore waters like bays, sloughs or estuaries, where the bottom is sandy or muddy (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). This species is omnivorous and feeds on worms, sand crabs, shrimp, and clams.
183667		population	eng	This species is locally common in some parts of its range. It is reasonably common in estuaries (Cooke 1992), and relatively common in the Central American region in latitudes between 5° and 20° N (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, Grove and Lavenberg (1997) reported a single small example (LACM W53–178) collected from the Galápagos Islands, the species is considered to rarely occur around the islands (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).
183667		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish in the eastern tropical Pacific (Motomura 2004). In addition, local populations may potentially be affected by mangrove clearing, pollution and estuary development.
183668		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183668		habitat	eng	This cryptic species inhabits reef rubble and cobble that is well covered by algae (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 1979).
183668		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range.
183668		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect this species habitat.
183669		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183669		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183669		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters, bays and lower parts of estuaries to depths of 30 m.  According to Cooke (1992), <em>Menticirrhus nasus</em> it is regularly found in middle estuaries and mangroves, and occasionally found in bar-formed lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs.
183669		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183669		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.
183670		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183670		distribution	eng	The distribution range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Colombia to northern Ecuador.
183670		habitat	eng	This species lives either in rivers or enters rivers from the sea (Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sanchez 1995). It is found to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton and other small invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183670		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183670		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183671		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183671		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183671		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over mud and sandy bottoms to depths of 105m.
183671		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183671		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is occasionally caught as bycatch in shrimp trawls.
183672		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183672		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia (Bedenbaugh 1988).
183672		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits muddy sand substrate from 15 to 120 m depth. It is carnivorous and planktivorous, and feeds on mobile benthic worms and crustaceans.
183672		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183672		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183673		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183673		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Nicaragua to Colombia (Hoese and Reader, 2001).
183673		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs at depths from 3 to 30m. According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this fish is present in deep rocky reefs and zones of massive coral in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama.
183673		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is not commonly seen.
183673		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183674		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, further research is required on the species distribution and impact of potential major threats on this species' population.
183674		distribution	eng	Chirichingno and Velez (1998) report this species as occuring from Ecudaor to Isla Gunape, Peru. However, the only registered specimens are the type specimens from Callao Bay (Peru) and from an undefined location in Chile. Therefore, the geographic range of this species needs further analysis and confirmation.
183674		habitat	eng	There is no information on the biology or ecology of this poorly known species.
183674		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, and there are only two registered specimens.
183674		threats	eng	The region of Callao Bay, where the species is definitely known to occur, is highly polluted from Lima and Callao. It is not known if there are any major threats in other parts of the possible range of this species.
183675		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183675		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA  and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.
183675		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand and mud substrate of bays and estuaries. It may also venture as much as 20km up rivers.  Juveniles are commonly found in estuarine regions, mangroves, tidal streams and rivers far from the coast.  Adults occur in deeper waters (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).  This species forms schools (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).  It is an omnivore (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997), feeding on vegetable matter, micro-invertebrates and detritus (Bussing, 1998).
183675		population	eng	This species is considered very common in the Gulf of California  and occasional in Ecuador. No other population information is available.
183675		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may threaten this species and its freshwater/coastal habitat in some areas within its range.
183676		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region, including Cocos Island National Park (WDPA 2006). Additional research is necessary to determine its current distribution and population status across its range.
183676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is thought to be found from Panama to Colombia, including Cocos Island.
183676		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is a demersal species that inhabits empty mollusc shells on sand-rubble substrate.
183676		population	eng	This species has been recorded as abundant at 10 m depth in Cocos Island. However, it was not recorded in survey work conducted in Gulf of Chiriqui in Panama, or in the Gulf of Papagayo in Costa Rica. More survey work is needed to determine its distribution and population status.
183676		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183677		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183677		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos, Clipperton, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands.
183677		habitat	eng	This is reef-associated species that lives in rocky and coral reefs. It is found to 70m. It actively hunts at night, preying on small fish (Humann and Deloach 1993).
183677		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is cryptic, but is considered common.
183677		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183678		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), such as those in the Gulf of California and El Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona in Colombia.
183678		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Humboldt Bay in northern California to Peru. This species was first reported from California (Hubbs, 1916) from a specimen collected off of Long Beach. Since then, there have been a number of reports from California. The snake eels that have been observed have all been adults and most have been exceptionally large individuals (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).
183678		habitat	eng	This fish inhabits rocky and sandy areas to depths of 110m, and is a burrowing species that feeds on clams and fish (Fitch and Lavenberg, 1968).<br><br>As Ophichthus species have been collected in warm-water as well as cold-water years, and some studies suggest that captures in California may be correlated with El Niño events. Warm oceanographic conditions have persisted since the early 80s, and may explain the mechanism of transport for tropical ophichthids to higher-latitude waters. It may be that Ophichthid leptocephali arrive off the coast during conditions of northerly flow of ocean currents correlated with warm-water events, settle out, and then live an expatriated existence life.
183678		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183678		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183679		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183679		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Panama.
183679		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reefs and rocky areas in shallow waters.
183679		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183679		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183680		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183680		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southern margins of Gulf of California to Peru.
183680		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over hard surfaces of the continental shelf (McKay and Schneider 1995) to a depth of 40 m, and in estuaries associated with mangroves in Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183680		population	eng	This species is common in at least part of its range. It was found with a frequency of 18% in estuaries associated with mangrove in Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183680		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered to be an important commercial fish in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004), and it is sometimes caught as bycatch in cast net fishery in El Salvador.
183681		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183681		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183681		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits crevices and ledges of weed-covered rocky reefs to depths of 20 m (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183681		population	eng	This cryptic species is uncommon within its range.
183681		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this shallow-water species is associated with reefs, a habitat under threat from coastal development within its restricted range. Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183682		conservation	eng	This species' distribution falls into the Colorado River Biosphere Reserve in the upper Gulf of California (WDPA 2006). Legislation for this species has been formally in place in Mexico since 2005 (NOM-009-PESC-1993), mandating seasonal closure of fisheries from 1 May to 31 August. However, it is suspected that this timeframe falls outside of the main spawning aggregation period for this species. Future enforcement of seasonal closure is a recommended high priority conservation measure, especially for spawning aggregations.
183682		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few locations in the northern and central Gulf of California. Given its current known distribution and maximum depth of 30 m, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 20,000 km².
183682		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters to depths of 30 m. <em>Cynoscion</em> juveniles are often found near river mouths but within this species' distribution, the one large river mouth available for juveniles is the Colorado River which has ceased to flow consistently since the 1960s.
183682		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species became commercially extinct in the 1960s (Román <em>et al.</em> 1998), when river flow to the Gulf effectively ceased. In 1993, a controlled release of Colorado River water dramatically increased flows to the Gulf of California, and in the three years after the release, <em>Cynoscion othonopterus</em> catches increased from 32 to 1,278 metric tons (t) in the fishing village of El Golfo de Santa Clara, Sonora, Mexico (M. Román, unpublished data). However, unpublished fisheries data (Román <em>et al</em>.) between 1998 and 2002 shows a continued decrease in average size of individuals by 10 cm that likely indicates overfishing.
183682		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing within its very restricted range. Even though it is present in a Marine Protected Area (Biosphere Reserve), it is still fished seasonally during its spawning aggregation. Shrimp trawling activities also capture juveniles as by-catch. Declines in commercial landings have also been at least partially attributed to reduced river flow.<br/><br/>Over the past 40 years, reduction in Colorado River flow due to the construction of upstream dams has all but eliminated nursery habitat for juveniles.The Colorado River Estuary once extended up to 70 km south into the upper Gulf of California, creating a 4000 km<sup>2</sup> of fresh and brackish-water habitat in the upper Gulf of California (Carbajal <em>et al</em>. 1997, Lavín and Sánchez 1999). Since the 1960s, the Colorado River has rarely reached the Gulf (Lavín and Sánchez 1999) is now a negative estuary where salinity averages 38‰ in the upper Gulf (Lavín and Sánchez 1999, Calderon-Aguilera <em>et al</em>. 2003).
183683		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183683		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island.
183683		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope. This species is found from 80-300m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183683		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183683		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183684		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183684		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos and Malpelo islands.
183684		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in coastal waters, usually forming schools (Smith-Vaniz 1995), and usually in shallow inshore sandy habitats. It feeds on mollusks, crustaceans, other invertebrates, as well as small fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to 25m.
183684		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183684		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br><br>This species is caught incidentally and in artisanal fisheries. It is an excellent food for human consumption (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183685		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183685		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the southwest Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos archipelago and Malpelo Island.
183685		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic and demersal species found in coastal areas (Smith-Vaniz 1995), including rocky reef areas. This species is found to 30m.
183685		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183685		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br><br>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries.
183686		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research on the biology, ecology,and distribution of this species will assist in developing appropriate conservation measures.
183686		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from the coasts of Ecuador (Type locality: Fish Market, Puerto López, Manabí) to Paita, Peru.
183686		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moderately deep water between 100-200 m depth, probably living near the bottom. The maximum size recorded was 30.3 cm (TL).
183686		population	eng	This is a small sized-species that is uncommon (Bearez 2001). It is known from only six specimens.
183686		threats	eng	This species is caught by longline and the type specimens were obtained  from a  fish market. It is not known if this collection for food is causing population declines.
183687		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183687		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found over soft sand and sandy mud bottoms in coastal areas to depths of 40m.
183687		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is rarely seen in commercial trawls. It is often misidentified as S. ovale as it is very difficult to tell them apart, and only the males can be seperated by morphological traits.
183687		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activities, but is too small a species to be kept for commercial purposes.
183688		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183688		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja and the lower Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183688		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species found in coastal waters and penetrates brackish waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 30m.
183688		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally abundant.
183688		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is incidentally caught in shrimp trawling and gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and, salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183689		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may fall into some Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183689		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California, to Panama.
183689		habitat	eng	This species lives on deep sandy and muddy substrata, feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). It has been recorded from a depth range of 90-258m.
183689		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183689		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183690		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures known. This species' range lies entirely within the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003). Better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard Galápagos endemic species.
183690		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.
183690		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species forms large, dense, polarized schools along walls and over rocky slopes, often in somewhat protected areas to depths of 20 m.
183690		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species occurs locally in large schools in central, southern and western Galápagos.
183690		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183691		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183691		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and from Central Mexico (Mazatlan) to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.
183691		habitat	eng	This demersal species forms schools over sandy shallow substrate to depths of 33m. Its occurence in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast seems to be occasional (Cooke, 1992).
183691		population	eng	This species is considered to be abundant in many part of its range, such as in Baja California and Panama.
183691		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183692		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183692		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from Humboldt Bay, California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183692		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 20m (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). This species may also be found in tide pools and in deeper waters to depths of 155m (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).
183692		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183692		threats	eng	This species is regularly captured by shrimp trawlers and discarded as by-catch. However, there is no evidence that the trawling is a major threat to this species.
183693		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183693		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, except for the northernmost regions to Ecuador; and all the oceanic islands.
183693		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is common around rocky reefs on a variety of substrata at insular and continental locations (Bussing 1995; Dominici-Arosemena 2005). It feeds on sea urchins, small crustaceans, and mollusks (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is found from 3-35m.
183693		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183693		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183694		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Isla del Caño National Park and Coiba National Park.
183694		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to fewer than five locations off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama.
183694		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sandy substrate at reef edges and the intertidal zone to depths of 15 m.
183694		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183694		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183695		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183695		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of Fonseca, El Salvador  to central Costa Rica.
183695		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal areas, mangroves and in high-salinity estuaries to depths of 20m.
183695		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is common in shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Fonseca.
183695		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is often caught as bycatch in shrimp trawls in El Salvador, and occurs in highly polluted estuaries.
183696		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183696		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to Magdalena Bay, Mexico and in the northern and central eastern part of the Gulf of California (Cooper and Chapleau, 1998).
183696		habitat	eng	This species lives in offshore areas over soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 237m (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183696		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is relatively common in California, USA and rare in the Gulf of California.
183696		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp and other trawling activities.
183697		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known to this species. However, this species is present in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183697		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos islands.
183697		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found hiding in small caves or in crevices and cracks of rocks during the day.  At night, they feed on small crustaceans. In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species could be found over exposed shallow rocky reefs, zones of massive corals, and zones of madreporic branching corals (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).
183697		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of its range, including both continent and offshore islands.<br><br>According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish is frequent enough to have a resident population in Clipperton Atoll. In the Galapagos archipelago, this species had an overall mean density of 0.24 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In a survey conducted in the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, it had a mean density of 0.01±0.04 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.010±0.019 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, with and relative abundance of 0.262% (Rojas-Figueroa, 2001). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this species is common at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species had a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183697		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
183698		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.
183698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only off Panama.
183698		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It probably occurs in estuarine areas, but its habitat preferences are largely unknown.
183698		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Although this species has been reported as common in Panama (Kailola and Bussing 1995), it has not been seen in shrimp trawls over the last 20 years and has only been collected twice in Panama City Market during this period.
183698		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183699		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay Marine National Park, Cabo Pulmo National Park, and Alto Gulfo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183699		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183699		habitat	eng	This demersal species primarily inhabits empty mollusk shells on sand-rubble substrate.
183699		population	eng	This species can be locally common.
183699		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, given this species' shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its restricted range.
183700		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183700		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, Cocos and Malpelo.
183700		habitat	eng	This species is demersal found in coastal waters (Poss 1995). It inhabits sand and rubble substrata to 160m.
183700		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183700		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.
183701		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Mexico where there are some Marine Protected Areas.
183701		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific in central Baja California and the western and northeastern Gulf of California.
183701		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and is found to 15m. It inhabits rubble substrata and rocky reefs covered in algae.
183701		population	eng	No population information is known.  Although this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California , it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183701		threats	eng	There are no known threats. There is no specifric use for this species.
183702		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard these Galápagos endemic species.
183702		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Galápagos Islands.
183702		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on soft substrate, possibly to depths of 30 m.
183702		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, in large part because of confusion with other <em>Orthopristis</em> species.
183702		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species. However, given its restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Populations of haemulid species (<em>Orthopristis</em> spp.,<em> Anisotremus interruptus</em> and ,i>A. scapularis, <em>Haemulon scudderi</em>) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Niño, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.
183703		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll with an area of occupancy less than 9 km².
183703		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on the outer reef slope, frequently in areas where surge is strong, to depths of 60 m. It likely has a short generation time and therefore may be stable to perturbations.
183703		population	eng	This species is abundant within its resticted range.
183703		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range, with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and relatively shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183704		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands (WDPA 2006).
183704		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from San Juanico Bay in central western Baja California, and the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands (Pequeño, 1989).
183704		habitat	eng	This species is a commonly found on soft substrate (Bussing and Lavenberg, 1995). It is abundant in cooler waters with high salinity and low dissolved oxygen, and in deeper water near the open ocean. (Cordova- Murueta <em>et al.</em> 2006)
183704		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183704		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183705		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Coiba National Park and Isla del Caño National Park.
183705		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to fewer than five locations off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama.
183705		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sandy substrate.
183705		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183705		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183706		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within some Marine Protected Areas in the region, including Cabo Pulmo and Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).
183706		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Gulf of California, and from central Costa Rica to Panama, including Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1972, McCosker 1998). It is included, incorrectly, as an Indo-Pacific species in a study from the Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183706		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and rocky substrate to depths of 25 m.
183706		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, this species has been reported from Cabo Pulmo in the Gulf of California in historical surveys, but it is not mentioned in surveys in the region from 1986 to 1998 (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000), or in recent surveys (Arburto-Oropeza and Ballart 2001).
183706		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183707		conservation	eng	This species can be found in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Cocos Island, the Galapagos Islands, and protected areas within the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183707		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.
183707		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on the outer shelf (usually deeper than 64m) over muddy sand substrate (Markle and Olney, 1990; Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183707		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be uncommon.
183707		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183708		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183708		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Panama.
183708		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tidepools and intertidal mud flats over upper sandy beaches, and over soft substrate in estuaries and mangroves to depths of five m.
183708		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. The species is considered uncommon throughout its range.
183708		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range and is dependent on shallow water, near-shore habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction and coastal development for urbanization, aquaculture and tourism throughout its range is a major threat to this species (Jiménez 1994). However, the percent of mangrove destruction and coastal development within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.<br/><br/>In addition, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183709		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes at least a few Marine Protected Areas in the Humboldt current area in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183709		distribution	eng	This species is distributed only in the southeastern Pacific in Peru (Puerto Pizarro in the Gulf of Guayaquil to Callao and Pisco Bay; presumably to the border with Chile, but no records exist) and Chile (entire coast south to Talcahuano) (Espino <em>et al.</em> 1989).
183709		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species that occurs in coastal waters and is known to form large schools. It is found as deep as 10 m. It feeds by filtering phytoplankton (diatoms) and zooplankton (especially copepods), but will also eat small fishes and crustaceans. This species breeds in spring, in Chile, depositing its eggs in coastal waters on sand, to which the sticky eggs cling. Upon hatching, the larvae then rise and join the surface plankton (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 1987).
183709		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183709		threats	eng	Fisheries in the South American region, where this species is native, are overexploited or slowly recovering. The industrial fleet is mainly responsible for overfishing and the destruction of marine biodiversity in the Humbolt Current region. This situation has led to multinational control and a monopoly on these fisheries (Cardenas and Mellillanca 1999). Along with the fisheries pressure, oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this restricted, south eastern Pacific species (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183710		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Costa Rica (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003). As this species has a very restricted range and is primarily found in estuaries, more information is needed on number of locations, general abundance and severity of threats for this species.
183710		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in Costa Rica.
183710		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is rare, and has primarily been collected in estuaries and may enter fresh water.
183710		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183710		threats	eng	This species is likely affected by coastal development in estuaries and clearing of mangroves.
183711		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), such as those in the Gulf of California.
183711		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of California, and from Costa Rica to central Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183711		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and rocky substrate to depths of 35m.
183711		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183711		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183712		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California
183712		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to central Mexico.
183712		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on rocky and rubble substrata between two and 183 m depth.
183712		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, individuals in fish catch landings appear to have declined substantially in mean size from the 1980s to present in the Gulf of California (Findley pers. comm.). The landings indicate that this species is moderately common in the Gulf of California, where most of the total population is likely located.
183712		threats	eng	Individuals in fish catch landings appear to have declined substantially in mean size since the 1980s, however more information is needed to determine if fishing activities are having an impact on this species' population.
183713		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  More research is needed on distribution, population, habitat and ecology for this species.
183713		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from the southeastern Guatamala to Peru, including the Galapagos islands.
183713		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters to depths of 10m, most commonly in areas of mangrove development and shallow embayments. It is often seen scraping algae from lava rocks or browsing on filamentous algae (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). This species habitat and ecology has not been well documented.
183713		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be fairly common.
183713		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/> - This species is sometimes incidentally caught with other mullet species (Harrison 1995).
183714		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183714		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.
183714		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand and gravel substrate of coastal waters.
183714		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range.<br><br>A survey conducted at Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica showed that this species 0.013±0.046 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.339% (Figueroa, 2001). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this species was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 1.37 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183714		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This fish has a minor commercial importance, and can be common in local markets (McKay and Schneider, 1995).  Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations recoved over the subsequent two year period.
183715		conservation	eng	In Mexico, there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas that coincide with this species' range. Given its very restricted  range, and preference for shallow water areas, more research is needed  to determine this species' population status.
183715		distribution	eng	This species is present from California to lower Baja California and the Gulf of California.
183715		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species found in rocky, sandy and rubble substrata. It is found at depths to 183 m, but is more commonly observed above 30 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes. This species usually occurs in rocky areas of bays and along shores, especially in caves and crevices (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). It has venomous spines in the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins (Parsons 1986).
183715		population	eng	Data from trawl studies conducted by the  Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Southern California Coastal  Water Research Project and the Orange County Sanitation District from  1974-1993, show that there are substantial short-term fluctuations in  California Scorpionfish abundance within the Southern California Bight  (California Department of Fish and Game 2001). It can be considered rare in California.
183715		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183716		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  More information on population status, general ecology, and life history would be useful for further evaluation of this species.
183716		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California to the central Gulf of California to Peru, and all the offshore islands.
183716		habitat	eng	This pelagic species inhabits rocky littoral zones and tidepools. It also may be found over sandy or muddy substrata.  It feeds on algae that grows on rocks by scraping it off with its specialized teeth. The ecology of this species is not well-documented.
183716		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is probably common, but less so than other eastern Pacific Mugilidae species. Population trends are unknown.
183716		threats	eng	This species has no major threats. This species is likely fished as part of the general Mugilidae fishery.
183717		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Cabo Pulmo National Park and Loreto Bay Marine National Park .
183717		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183717		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate both inshore and offshore.
183717		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183717		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183718		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183718		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species in the central eastern Pacific extends from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru and the Galapagos islands.
183718		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish living over soft substrata, feeding on plankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found from 18-1270 m.
183718		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183718		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183719		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183719		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California to central Peru.
183719		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs in coastal, inshore waters. The adults are common in shallow water and feed mainly on molluscs, but also consume crustaceans and small fishes. The juveniles are frequently encountered in estuaries and feed on a variety of benthic invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to depths of 72 m.
183719		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183719		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br>This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). This is an important game fish in Panama (D'Croz <em>et al</em>. 1994). Marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183720		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution falls within the Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos Islands (WDPA 2006).
183720		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is restricted to the Galápagos Islands.
183720		habitat	eng	This species forms schools in coastal areas, feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found to 10 m.
183720		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183720		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183721		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of Fonseca (southern El Salvador) to northern Peru.
183721		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species is found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of about 30 m, and can enter mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183721		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183721		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species..
183722		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183722		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the northern Gulf of California. Given its specific habitat requirements, it has patchy distribution within its restricted range.
183722		habitat	eng	This species lives in very shallow rocky or sandy tide pools in the uppermost intertidal zone to depths of only two m, where it is likely living at its thermal maximum.
183722		population	eng	This species is considered to be uncommon within its range.
183722		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development on beaches for tourism and aquaculture.
183723		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
183723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the central western and eastern Gulf of California.
183723		habitat	eng	This species lives on sand and mud substrate in shallow hypersaline coastal lagoons, and mangrove estuaries to depths of five m.
183723		population	eng	This species can be locally common in suitable habitat.
183723		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal development and mangrove destruction throughout its range, particularly due to shrimp aquaculture activities.
183724		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known for this species.
183724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Smith Sound, British Colombia, Canada to Magdelana Bay, Baja California, Mexico.
183724		habitat	eng	This species is found over mud and sand bottoms to depths of over 300 m.
183724		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183724		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
183725		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps at least one marine protected area within its range.
183725		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the islands of San Felix, San Ambrosio and the Juan Fernandez Islands off the coast of Chile.
183725		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky bottoms to depths of 9m.
183725		population	eng	This species is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm 2008).
183725		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183726		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183726		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found along sandy shores and bays, also in estuaries and lagoons. It can occur to depths of 100m.  According to Cooke (1992), M. altipinnis can regularly be found in middle estuaries and occasionally in coastal lagoons.
183726		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be a common species.
183726		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught with trawls and seines, and can be common in local markets.
183727		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Loreto Bay Marine National Park and Cabo Pulmo.
183727		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and central eastern Gulf of California.
183727		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on rocky reefs and in tide pools to depths of 33m.
183727		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, species is considered an abundant primary reef fish in the Gulf of California (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2002).
183727		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183728		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183728		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few historical records in Costa Rica and El Salvador. The precise limits of the distribution range of this species are unclear.
183728		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits coastal rocky areas to 10 m.
183728		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species. The last collection was in 1972.
183728		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats for this species. It may at least be undergoing localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and from oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO and climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183729		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures.
183729		distribution	eng	This northeastern Pacific species is found from from Alaska to the tip of Baja.
183729		habitat	eng	This pelagic oceanodromous species is often found offshore, up to 500 miles from the coast (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to depths of 400m. It forms large schools; the young frequently occur in schools near kelp and under piers (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). It feeds mainly on small crustaceans and fish larvae (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Large individuals often move inshore and north in the summer (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
183729		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species can be locally abundant.
183729		threats	eng	Although this species is caught in commercial fisheries, it is not thought to be experiencing any widespread population decline from the fishery.<br><br>This species is caught in commercial fisheries, sometimes as bycatch.This is an important sport fish, and is a bait fish. In the commercial fisheries it is caught with purse seines in mixed schools (Scomber japonicus). Also caught with round-hull nets.This species is utilized canned and fresh, and for fish meal.<br><br>Landing: mainly USA in area 77 - from 1,000 to 10,000. It is typically caught with seines.
183730		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Loreto Bay Marine National Park, Cabo Pulmo, and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
183730		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to southern Mexico.
183730		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species occurs in shallow sand-weed areas and rocky reefs to depths of 20m.
183730		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, this species is considered to be common.
183730		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183731		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183731		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the western and southeastern Gulf of California to Colombia.
183731		habitat	eng	This  reef-associated species can be found to depths of 40 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata, except for zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183731		population	eng	This species is locally common in at least Panama, Baja California, and Costa Rica.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) this species was recoreded to have a density < 0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, still in Costa Rica, it was the most abundant species, with a density of 1.010 (±3.909) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 27.234% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in four sites, as a total of 10 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. melanotis</em> could not be found at Los Islotes, Gulf of California. However, in Bahía de Navidad, México, this fish was not captured within 12 month-long field trips throughout the year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Colombia, surveys conducted at Gorgona Island coral reefs (Rubio 1986, Zapata and Morales 1997), could not find this species.
183731		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183732		conservation	eng	The Pearl Islands are currently not protected. Given the extent of coastal development in the area, there is a need for protection of habitat in these islands. In addition, further survey work is required to determine the current distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and potential major threats for this species.
183732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is thought to be restricted to the Pearl Islands (Isla del Rey) in Panama Bay. However, this species is only known from three museum specimens collected in 1990. Extensive examination of museum specimens throughout Panama of the similar species, <em>Protemblemaria bicirrus,/i>, did not reveal other collections of this species and  suggested that it is likely confined to the Pearl Islands (Hastings 2001).</em>
183732		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to be associated with reefs and rocky coasts.
183732		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from three museum specimens.
183732		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by increasing coastal development for the tourism industry within its restricted, shallow-range habitat. In addition, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183733		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183733		distribution	eng	This species is found from central Baja and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru.
183733		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found in the surf zone and in the near shore upper water column along the open coast and in bays and estuaries (Watson, 1996).
183733		population	eng	This species is abundant in parts of Mexico.
183733		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat at this time, coastal development in some areas may negatively affect this species and its near shore, shallow-water habitat.
183734		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in Peru (WDPA 2006).
183734		distribution	eng	This species endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found in the Humboldt current region off the coast of Ecuador, Peru, and central Chile (Sielfeld and Vargas, 1996).
183734		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow water on soft substrate to depths of 50 meters (Sielfeld and Vargas, 1996), and can also be found in tidepools.
183734		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is thought to be common throughout its range.
183734		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183735		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.
183735		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Costa Rica to southern Peru. However, the distribution is not well known, and the presence of this species in Colombia and Ecuador is doubtful.
183735		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal, brackish and freshwater  to depths of 20 m. It moves up into freshwater as adults (Cooke and Tapia 1994).
183735		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.  It is considered common in Panama.
183735		threats	eng	This species is caught incidentally in small commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh. This species is most common in shallow coastal and estuarine waters, and moves upstream as adults. Both of these habitats are under serious threat from coastal and riparian development and pollution. Adults are also under serious threat from illegal gill netting in rivers.
183736		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183736		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to central Baja, and the northwestern and eastern Gulf of California.
183736		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs in coastal waters, frequently in rocky reefs and occasionally over sandy substrate (McKay and Schneider, 1995), often near kelp beds. Juveniles form schools in littoral pools (McKay and Schneider, 1995).
183736		population	eng	This species is moderately common in southern California.
183736		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an important sport fish (Riedel <em>et al.</em> 2002).
183737		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183737		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific stretching from southern (rarely from central) California to the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Galapagos and Cocos islands.
183737		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. The adults inhabit rocky areas, including the intertidal zone, and can also be found on sandy and muddy substrata (Schneider and Lavenberg 1995). Young individuals feed heavily on crustaceans, but as they grow larger, they consume more and more fish, sometimes catching and eating fishes their own size (Fitch and Lavenberg 1975). <br><br>According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this species is abundant over coralline substrata and is occasionally found in intertidal pools and over rocky and sandy substrata.
183737		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183737		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183738		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
183738		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Gulf of California, from Sonora to Nayarit, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its shallow depth and specific habitat requirements, an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
183738		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater streams, brackish lagoons, and estuaries and soft bottom habitat (mud, sand, gravel, beach, estuary and mangrove). It is found at depths to two m. It is found only in brackish and freshwater environment; it is a non-marine species. The diet consists of detritus, zooplankton and insects.
183738		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183738		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation from mangrove loss (Jimenez 1994) and extensive coastal development within its shallow freshwater and estuarine habitat.
183739		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species.
183739		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll.
183739		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits fine deep sand to depths of 70 m. Specimens were collected from a reef-surrounded sand patch (Allen and Robertson 1995).
183739		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This fish was common in the one sand hole shallower than 50 m present at Clipperton Atoll, and in deeper water with extensive sand habitat.
183739		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, and specific habitat type. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183740		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183740		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183740		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183740		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183741		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183741		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and central Mexico to the Panama/Colombia border.
183741		habitat	eng	This benthic intertidal species actively shuttles back and forth between shallow rock pools and air (Martin and Bridges, 1999).
183741		population	eng	There is no population information available on this species.
183741		threats	eng	There are no known major threats known for this species, although there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development. Given this species shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001).
183742		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas; for example Mexican coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected. Further research in needed to determine the complete habitat and ecology, population trends, threats, and potential uses of this species.
183742		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific is restricted to the southeastern Gulf of California (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183742		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow coastal waters (lagoons or estuaries), but not in the sea.  It inhabits somewhat murky-brackish to salt water, over mud or firm sand with a veneer of mud. It is found at depths to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183742		population	eng	This is one of the top three dominant fishes in the Huizache-Caimanero lagoon system in Mexico (Whitehead 1985). No population data is available for this species.
183742		threats	eng	This species is of potential interest for fisheries. Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species (Grove 1985, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183743		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183743		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru.
183743		habitat	eng	This demersal species is usually found among vegetation in bays and estuaries, and occasionally among floating <em>Sargassum</em> species.
183743		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183743		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, since it is found in estuaries, coastal development may be a local threat to this species in some areas of its range.
183744		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring of this species population and fishing pressure is recommended.
183744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Conception, in southern California, to the tip of Baja California and in the northeastern Gulf of California. Historical records however have been reported from as far north as San Francisco, California (Chao, 1995).
183744		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow sandy areas, often in surf zones, bays and tidal sloughs, although it can be found to depths of 45m. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, marine worms and bivalves. It is often caught by surf fishers.
183744		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. <br><br>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it was previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured twice within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183744		threats	eng	This species is heavily  fished and threatened by coastal development, however its population appears to  be increasing in some parts of its range.
183745		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, its range is entirely within the Marine Protected Area of the Galapagos islands.
183745		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galapagos islands.
183745		habitat	eng	This cryptic, reef-associated fish inhabits rocky crevices, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous (Maller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is found from 0.5 to 10m.
183745		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183745		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species is associated with coral reef environments. However, this species is not coral reef dependent.  Despite protection measures, the marine environment of the Galapagos islands still faces significant human threats. These threats include human population increase, invasion and spread of non-native species, increasing pressure from ecotourism, and illegal commercial fishing. None of this is likely to affect this species.
183746		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. The few small Marine Protected Areas present within its range are unlikely to offer sufficient protection for this species.
183746		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Colombia to northern Chile.
183746		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species occurs in schools (Chirichigno 1974), and is found on rocky substrata to 180 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes.
183746		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is rarely seen in fish markets in Ecuador, but is abundant in fish markets in Peru and northern Chile. However, there has been a more than 60% decline in reported landings of this species in Peru over the past 10 years (1996-2006) (FAO 2009).
183746		threats	eng	Catch landings in Peru without catch effort show a steady decline in catch over the past 20 years from a peak of 7,500 mt in 1985 to 700 mt in 2006 (FAO 2009). However, more detailed information is needed on catch effort and mean catch body size to more accurately determine the impact of harvest levels on this species' population. Also, it is not known how oceanographic environmental changes associated with El Niño/ENSO events within its range may affect this species population (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004, Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2009).
183747		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183747		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.
183747		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky inshore reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 38 m. It can also be found on rocky substrate in mouths of estuaries along the continental coast.
183747		population	eng	This species is common in at least some parts of its range. For example, in the Revillagigedo, Galapagos and Cocos Islands this species is considered rare, but it occurs abundantly along the continental coast.<br/><br/>This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.05 (±0.05) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.003 (±0.007) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.071% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in all sites, with 132 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>S. flavilatus</em> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California — 0.1-0.01% of total abundance, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce with 0.1-1% of the overall abundance registered (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in sandy bottoms, frequent in coralline while occasional in rocky bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.107 (±0.190) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 40.6%.
183747		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica; however, localized collecting is highly unhlikely to have significant impact on the population.
183748		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183748		distribution	eng	This species was orginally known from the Pedro Miguel locks in the Panama Canal. It has since been found in the Pacific entrance to Panama Canal, and north to the Miraflores locks.
183748		habitat	eng	This species is found only in brackish and fresh waters to depths of five m. It can be associated with estuaries and mangroves but is never found in high salinity water environments.
183748		population	eng	This species is considered rare. It appears to have undergone an extreme decline in population. Recent sampling studies could not find any individuals in any of the original areas of distribution, apart from the lake north of Miraflores locks (Van Tassell pers. comm.).
183748		threats	eng	This species is threatened by coastal and freshwater pollution. In addition, predation by introduced cichlid fishes also poses a serious threat to this species, and is thought to be a major reason for population decline in the canal. Coastal development for tourism and removal of mangrove habitat are also serious threats, and the planned future expansion of the Panama canal will continue to add to the destruction of habitat.
183749		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183749		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll.
183749		habitat	eng	This species is associated with reefs and can be found from five to 50 m depth.
183749		population	eng	This species is rare. At the time of intial collection in the 1950s it was considered rare, then despite intensive searches, it was not seen in 1994, and only 10 individuals were seen in 1998. However, there may have been a resident population at Clipperton Atoll at one time (Robertson and Allen 1996).
183749		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range, an area of occupany of less than 5 km<sup>2</sup>, and a presumably very small and fluctuating population. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183750		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183750		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Oregon, USA to the tip of Baja California, Mexico. It has also been recorded from British Columbia, Canada (McAllister, 1990).
183750		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs inshore, often over sandy bottoms. It is common in bays and tidal sloughs, around pilings and moves to deeper water at night, and can be found to depths of over 100m. This species forms schools and feeds on small shrimps, marine worms and fishes. The mean interval between spawnings is about 7.4 days (DeMartini and Fountain, 1981; Hunter and Macewicz, 1985).
183750		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183750		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183751		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central western and southeastern Gulf of California to Peru.
183751		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms near reefs to depths of 200 m.
183751		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. It is abundant in trawling in the Pacific off of Baja California and in the entire Gulf of California.
183751		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in artesanal fisheries and is commonly caught as by-catch in shrimp trawling in the Gulf of California.
183752		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183752		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific is found from California to the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Clipperton Atoll and the Galapagos archipelago.
183752		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is epipelagic and neritic, in warm coastal waters to 5 m. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances above the surface.
183752		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183752		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species.
183753		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183753		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the holotype collected near Jalisco, Mexico.
183753		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The only known specimen of this demersal species was collected from a depth of 55 m off the Jalisco coast.
183753		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183753		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183754		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183754		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to central Mexico. Larvae have been collected near Galapagos, although no adults recorded from that region.
183754		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on fine sand to depths of 27m.
183754		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is considered to be locally common in at least parts of its range such as Baja California.
183754		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183755		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183755		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from El Salvador to Peru.
183755		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found in coastal waters and lagoons with mangroves (Collette, 1995), and can enter estuaries and river mouths. It feeds mainly on small fishes (Collette, 1995).
183755		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, although it is thought to be less common than Strongylura exilis.
183755		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183756		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. In Mexico there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas than in other areas within its range.
183756		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, ranging from southern California to tip of Baja California, also found in Islas Revillagigedos.
183756		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated, inhabiting rocky reefs from 10-30m.  It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans and small fishes (Fitch and Lavenberg 1975). It is a mouthbrooder.
183756		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183756		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183757		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
183757		distribution	eng	The geographical range of this eastern central Pacific species extends from central Mexico to northern Peru.
183757		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters, entering estuaries perhaps to spawn, and feeds on planktonic crustaceans.  Larger individuals feed on shrimp, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to 10 m.
183757		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183757		threats	eng	There are no major threats for the survival of this species.<br><br><br>This species is important in minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183758		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is not known to exist in any Marine Protected Areas, except in the Galapagos Islands where an extremely small portion of the population exists.
183758		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183758		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over mud and sandy substrate. It grows to at least 10 cm in size (Nielsen et al.,1999), which is smaller compared to other close relatives (Franke and Acero, 1995).
183758		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered a relatively rare species.
183758		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is sometimes caught as by-catch from larger Brotula clarkae fisheries.
183759		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region, such as those in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183759		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the central Gulf of California to Colombia (Smith, 1994).
183759		habitat	eng	This species burrows in sandy and muddy substrate, and feeds on benthic crustaceans (shrimps/crabs), benthic gastropods, bivalves, and benthic worms.
183759		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183759		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183760		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico to eastern Panama.
183760		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow waters over soft substrate (Collette 1995).
183760		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183760		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
183761		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183761		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from  southern Colombia to Chile.
183761		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft substrata from 10-35m. It feeds on mobile invertebrate and fishes.
183761		population	eng	This is probably a common species. There is no population information available for this species.
183761		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br><br><br>This species has minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and utilized fresh or as fishmeal (Hensley 1995)
183762		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183762		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of California.
183762		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit sandy muddy substrate. Depth limits are unknown.
183762		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183762		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183763		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183763		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
183763		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species can be found over hard substrate to at least 50 m depth. Adults may form schools consisting of several hundreds of individuals (Allen 1995). For example, in Malpelo, this species aggregates in large groups over sandy and rubble substrate to 60 m. Juveniles are encountered in shallow waters, including littoral pools and estuaries, and may utilize mangroves and river mouths as nursery grounds.
183763		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>The mean abundance in Galapagos Island was of 1.08 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> and the majority of individuals were found far-northern of the island (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, the median density was 0.001 individuals per  m<sup>2</sup>, the standard deviation was 0.006 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, the percentage of abundance was 0.039% and the maximum density registered for the species was 0.021 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Rojas 2001).
183763		threats	eng	The loss of mangroves throughout its range from coastal development may also negatively impact the availability and quality of nursery areas for juveniles of this species.
183764		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Alto Golfo Marine Protected Area.
183764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central to southern Baja California and in the western and central eastern Gulf of California.
183764		habitat	eng	This benthic species is common in sargassum algae. It reef-associated, and found in shallow rocky reef areas to depths of 10m.
183764		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is considered common within its range.
183764		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001).
183765		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183765		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru. It is considered vagrant in the Galapagos Islands.
183765		habitat	eng	This demersal fish is found inshore, usually on muddy bottoms to depths of 177 m. It also enters estuaries and mangrove areas (Cooke 1992).
183765		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br><br>In a demersal-coastal survey conducted on the continental shelft-upper slope from the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico to the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, this species showed a total biomass (weight) of 1,137 kg. This represents 0.54 % of the total biomass (all organisms) that was 208,155 kg. In the same surveys, the maximun number of individuals of this species that was found was 8,974. This represents 0.05% of the total number, 16,077,777, of individuals (all organisms) collected in the survey (Bianchi, 1991). Common in landings and an abundant fish in Panama and Colombia and in artisinal fisheries in Nicaragua.
183765		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in commercial fisheries, and has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke, 1992).
183766		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
183766		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from Isla San Lorenzo, Peru to Concepcion, Chile.
183766		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky subtidal areas.
183766		population	eng	This species is common (Hastings, P. pers comm).
183766		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183767		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (WDPA 2006).
183767		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Baja California to the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos,  Revillagigedo, and Malpelo islands.
183767		habitat	eng	This species is epipelagic and oceanic. Adults generally form large schools (Collette, 1995).
183767		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range.
183767		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is commercially important fishery species. It is found in seafood markets in Panama (Collette, 1995), and is an important baitfish species for bilfish fishing.
183768		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. It is found in the Galapagos marine reserve and in the Cocos National Park.
183768		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Galapagos and Cocos islands.
183768		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species that is found in sandy and rocky substrata. It is found from 50-120m.
183768		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183768		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183769		conservation	eng	Although this species' entire range is in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area, it is still subject to active commercial fishing.
183769		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.
183769		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs and nearby sand patches. Depth of occurrence varies within the archipelago according to temperature, with preference for cooler water (Reck 1983) but ranges between 10-75 m. The diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, and cuttle fishes.<br/><br/>Although exact generation length is not known, age of first maturity is estimated to be between 1-2 years and longevity is estimated to be about 10-12 years based on <em>Paralabrax maculatofasciatus </em>(Andrews <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), and therefore generation length is conservatively estimated to be 5 years.<em><br/></em>
183769		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, a substantial decline (approximately 70%) in population numbers occurred between 1998 and 2001, as inferred from landings of fishes in the Galápagos with no evidence of a decrease in fishing effort (Danulat and Edgar 2002).
183769		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). This deep water species is unlikely to be affected by oceanographic changes caused by ENSO/climate change events. However, juveniles of this cool water species have primarily been observed in relatively shallow water including near mangroves, where they may be affected by increased temperatures during severe El Niño events.
183770		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183770		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.
183770		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It has been collected along shallow rocky coasts, including in tide pools, and may be found in brackish waters, mangroves and estuaries.
183770		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.
183770		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.
183771		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in Marine Protected Areas in the Cocos, Galápagos, and Revillagigedos Islands (WDPA 2006).
183771		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Galápagos and the Tres Marias Islands.This species was recorded as a vagrant at Cabo San Lucas (Baja California), in Nicoya (Costa Rica), and in Ensenada de Utria (Colombia). Depth information is from the original description.
183771		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is generally encountered around islands, over shallow rocky substrate to depths of five m. Very little is known on this species biology.
183771		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered rare in many parts of its range including the Galápagos archipelago. It is considered common in Cocos Island, where is the majority of the breeding population is present.
183771		threats	eng	The majority of this species range is largely confined to Cocos Island, where El Nino is regarded as severe threat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183772		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183772		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183772		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found in coastal lagoons and estuaries (marine and brackish water) to depths of 10 m. It forms small schools (Lavenberg and Chernoff 1995). The diet consists of zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae and pelagic fish eggs.
183772		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183772		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given its relatively shallow water estuarine habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species' population are needed.
183773		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
183773		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the central eastern Pacific from central Mexico to El Salvador.
183773		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found at depths from 1 to 8m.
183773		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183773		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183774		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico and the United States (WDPA 2006). This species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and shallow, reef-associated habitat.
183774		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from a few locations in southern California, USA, Alijos Rocks (about 240 km off Baja California), Guadalupe Island, and the Revillagigedo Islands. Given its shallow-water, reef associated habitat, it is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².
183774		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky inshore reefs to depths of 20 m, often near drop-offs.
183774		population	eng	This species is considered to be occasional in small aggregations. There has been no indication of change in population numbers since the late 1990s in northern part of its range (B. Lea pers. comm.).
183774		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. For example, <em>Azurina eupalama</em>, a endemic sister species from Galapagos, was not seen anymore after the strong ENSO from the 1980s (Grove 1985). However, the impact of ENSO events in this northern portion of the Eastern Tropical Pacific, is estimated to be less severe (Glynn and Ault 2000).
183775		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183775		distribution	eng	In the southeastern Pacific, this species is found from Ecuador to Chile, and can be found in the Galapagos islands as a vagrant.
183775		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous fish that occurs mainly within 80 km of the coast, forming huge schools, chiefly in surface waters. It is found todepths of 50 m. It is a filter-feeder that is entirely dependent on the rich plankton of the Peruvian Current and its northern distribution is limited in Peruvian waters in years when a tongue of warmer and less saline surface water extends southward over the northbound coastal Peruvian Current (the so-called El Niño phenomenon) (FAO-FIGIS 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).  In some studies, diatoms constituted as much as 98% of the diet of this species. The preferred climate of this species is subtropical (Castro and Hernandez 2000).<br/><br/>Eggs are ellipsoidal and this species breeds throughout the year along the entire coast of Peru. The major spawning is in the winter/spring (July to September) and a lesser one is in the summer (February and March). It also spawns throughout year off of Chile, with peaks in winter (May to July) and the end of spring (especially December). This species matures at about one year (about 10 cm standard length). It attains about eight cm as its standard length in six months, 10.5 cm in 12 months and 12 cm in 18 months, with a longevity of about three years (FAO-FIGIS 2001).
183775		population	eng	This is the most heavily exploited fish in world history, yielding 13,059,900 t in 1971, but with great fluctuations and a decline since that year. After the drastic reduction in the harvests of the 80s, influenced by the strongest El Niño of the century (1982-83), in the 90s the harvests began to recover and peaked in 1994 with 12,520,611 t. The fishes are recruited to the fishery at about eight cm standard length at the age of five or six months. They are caught by purse seine (vessels known as bolicheras in Peru). Common fishing techniques are midwater otter trawling and small pelagic midwater trawling. A good summary of the dynamics of this fishery is given by Schaeffer (1967) and the state of the fishery is monitored in publications by the Institute del Mar del Peru in cooperation with FAO (in Bulletins and Reports of the Institute). The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 8,723,265 t. The countries with the largest harvests were Peru (6,740,225 t) and Chile (1,983,040 t) (FAO-FIGI 2001).
183775		threats	eng	This is the most heavily exploited fish in world history (FAO-FIGIS 2001). Among other threats, global warming is probably affecting the fisheries of this species (Soto 2002).<br/>This is a highly commercial species, mainly utilized as fish meal. The harvest in 1990 in Peru was 4,017,106 t and in Chile was more than 500,000 t. Seines were used as the main method of harvesting (Watson and Sandknop 1996).
183776		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas.
183776		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
183776		distribution	eng	This species is circumsubtropical. In the eastern Pacific this species occurs from California to southern Baja California and in the southeastern Gulf of California. It also occurs off Panama, Cocos and the Galapagos and from Ecuador to southern Chile.
183776		distribution	eng	This species occurs in subtropical waters of all oceans. In the east Atlantic, it has been recorded from Spain and the English Channel, Portugal to Mauritania and from south Namibia, and also off the Cape (South Africa) (Heemstra and Parin 1986). In the west Atlantic, it is known from Massachusetts (USA) and Bermuda to south Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the west, central and south-east parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and also in Tunisia (Soussi <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the central Mediterranean Sea, it is frequent mostly in late spring and summer. Two specimens of this species have been recorded in the north-east Aegean Sea (M. Oral pers. comm. 2007).
183776		habitat	eng	It is an oceanic pelagic species found to 5m. The species has a maximum size of 31cm in southern Chile (Vera and Pequeno, 2002).
183776		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species inhabiting oceanic surface waters. The species is capable of leaping out of the water and gliding for considerable distances above the surface (Gibbs 1981). Its eggs have a group of filaments opposed by a single filament on the opposite pole (Parin 1986).
183776		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183776		population	eng	This species appears in the Mediterranean Sea from time to time each year. No population trends are known in the region.
183776		threats	eng	Generally this is a species of commercial interest.<br/><br/>There is a specific fishery for this species in the summer months in the south Tyrrhenian and the Strait of Messina, targeting the species for recreational fishing and food. It is fished using handnets and harpoons, but it has only a minor market interest.
183776		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183777		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). Since immature individuals make up the bulk of the catch in  some areas, this species should be carefully monitored and size capture  limits are recommended.
183777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos and Malpelo Islands. This species has also been reported from the Galapagos Islands (Molina <em>et al.</em> 2004), where it may be vagrant. However after 17 years of observations, there have been no recent sightings of this species in Malpelo.
183777		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in inshore reef areas, sandy bays, and estuaries, and is also found in deeper trawling grounds to depths of over 100 m. Juveniles inhabit estuaries and mouths of rivers (Allen 1995), while the adults are often found in deeper areas (Vega 2004). This species is generally found solitary or in small groups, but may occasionally form big schools (Allen 1995).
183777		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>This species is the most abundant snapper in Gorgona, and other Colombian localities and markets, and in Nicaragua (Cotto 1998). In Gorgonia Island, Colombia the mean annual density for the species was recorded as 0.026 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, the standard deviation was 0.096 and the frequency of observation was 10.9% (Zapata and Morales 1997). In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica medium density for the specie was 0.040 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, the standard deviation was 0.065, the percentage of abundance was 1,077%, and the maximum density registered was 0.214 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Rojas 2001).
183777		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is an important commercial species however there is no current indication of widespread population decline.
183778		conservation	eng	In Mexico, legislation was enacted in March 2004 to prohibit increased fishing production of the species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993). Management should be considered to further regulate fisheries throughout its range by establishing a minimum capture size requirement.  Additionally, more research is required to determine the effects of the fisheries on this species, as overfishing throughout its range is suspected.<br/><br/>This species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183778		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183778		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters to depths of 50 m. <em>Cynoscion</em> juveniles enter estuaries, river mouths, and shallow bays. According to Cooke (1992), it regularly occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves and occasionally in upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. This species feeds on shrimps, fishes and cephalopods.
183778		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183778		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished  in many parts of its range.
183779		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183779		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is restricted to the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183779		habitat	eng	This species lives on muddy and sandy substrate in deep water.
183779		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183779		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
183780		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183780		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico to Peru, including the Mapelo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.
183780		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits inshore areas, including shallow mangrove-lined embayments and also occurs on deeper offshore trawling grounds to depths of 200m. This species forms schools in surface waters around Cocos Island, Costa Rica (Allen, 1995) and Malpelo Island.
183780		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range, such as in Malpelo, Colombia where it is often present in extremely large groups. However, it is considered to be uncommon in continental Colombia and Nicaragua, and rare in Ecuador and in Panama reefs.
183780		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by localized habitat loss throughout its range, given its association with estuaries, mangroves and coastal areas not close to freshwater (Vega, 2004).
183781		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
183781		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from Point Conception in California, USA to Bahia Magdalena, Baja California Sur, Mexico.
183781		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky substrates from the intertidal to subtidal depths.
183781		population	eng	This species is common and locally abundant (Hastings, P. pers comm.).
183781		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183782		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos Islands complex (WDPA 2006).
183782		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.
183782		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in small recesses of rocky reefs, slopes and walls to depths of 75 m.
183782		population	eng	This fish was studied in various sites in the Galápagos archipelago, being the most abundant endemic species, with an overall mean density of 15.2 individuals per 500 m² (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183782		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183783		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas, including those in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183783		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the southern Gulf of California, and from Costa Rica to central Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183783		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand with rubble and rocky substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 20m.
183783		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183783		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183784		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially entirely into the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More survey work is needed to determine this species' population status and impact of any potential threats.
183784		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.
183784		habitat	eng	This species is not well-known. It is associated with rocky and coral reefs to depths of 35 m. It generally hides during the day, and feeds on the epifauna of the substrate.
183784		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. A recent survey conducted at Galápagos archipelago did not observe this species (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is cryptic and difficult to observe.
183784		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183785		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Cocos Island, Costa Rica (WDPA 2006).
183785		distribution	eng	This fish is endemic to Cocos Island, Costa Rica (Bussing 1990, Bussing and Lopez 2005).
183785		habitat	eng	This species lives in rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges, and is found from two to 30 m depth.
183785		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183785		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183786		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183786		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183786		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found on rocky reefs from 20-120m. It forms schools and feeds on plankton (Heemstra 1995).
183786		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183786		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance (Heemstra, 1995).
183788		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183788		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific in the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, and Cocos and Malpelo.
183788		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated. It inhabits shallow, weed-covered, rocky reefs and is also found in rocky and coral reef areas to 10m.
183788		population	eng	This is a common species in Costa Rica. Although this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).
183788		threats	eng	There are no known threats.<br><br><br>This species is of commercial importance as an aquarium fish (Hastings 1995).
183789		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). <br><br>More research is needed to determine the population status of this poorly known species, especially in the southern portion of its range.
183789		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands. However, the records from Malpelo, Cocos, Panama and Colombia possibly represent vagrants.
183789		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky coasts (Allen 1991) to depths of 10 m.
183789		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon in the Galapagos Islands, but can occur in moderate numbers in localised areas with suitable habitat. There is no population information available for the continental part of its range.
183789		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, in the northern part of its range, oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemics. For example, the extent of occurrence for this species in the Galapagos Islands greatly contracted (>50%) following the 1997/98 El Niño, likely due to the loss of macroalgal habitat.
183790		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183790		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California to the eastern Gulf of California , Mexico (Lea 1995).
183790		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183790		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered rare throughout its range.
183790		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183791		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, in Mexico, this species is found in a small number of Marine Protected Areas.
183791		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific off the Baja California Sur; the southwestern part of the Gulf of California; as well as the Revillagigedos and Clipperton islands.
183791		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species; it is found in rubble substrata. It is a deep reefs associate. It is found from 30-120m.
183791		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183791		threats	eng	This species has no major threats.
183792		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, muddy substrate producing mangroves are protected by some RAMSAR sites in located within parts of this species restricted range. However, it is unknown whether protection is effective for this species or its habitat.
183792		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is only known from El Salvador to Panama (Van Tassel and Baldwin 2004).
183792		habitat	eng	This species has very specific habitat requirements, as it is found in anoxic black muddy substrate of estuaries and mangroves. These specific habitat requirements are produced by mangroves.
183792		population	eng	This species is commonly trawled in shrimp fisheries in El Salvador (Van Tassel and Baldwin 2004). But it is uncommon in other areas throughout its range.
183792		threats	eng	As this species is highly dependent on black mud substrates produced by mangroves, reduction of mangroves throughout its restricted range is likely a serious threat.
183793		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Chile, Peru, Ecuador (WDPA 2006).<br><br>More research is needed to determine the population status of this poorly known species.
183793		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Chile (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183793		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It inhabits rocky reefs possibly to a depth of 35 m.
183793		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183793		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183794		conservation	eng	The Galápagos Islands are designated as a national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).
183794		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.
183794		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sandy and rubble substrate on reef edges and tidepools (Dawson 1974). It is a carnivore that preys on a variety of benthic invertebrates (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183794		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183794		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183795		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183795		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Peru.
183795		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found on sandy substrate near the coast, and also enters estuaries and mangroves.
183795		population	eng	This species is common in several parts of its range. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured four times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered to be an occasional or transient species in two different estuaries areas associated with mangroves (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is considered to be reasonably common in estuaries in Panama.
183795		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183796		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183796		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183796		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish that lives on sandy and muddy substrata, typically on the mid to outer continental shelf. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from 20-320m.
183796		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183796		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183797		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its population status, habitat requirements, and threats.
183797		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the tip of Baja California and the lower-eastern Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). The distribution of this species is not well-known.
183797		habitat	eng	This deep water species is poorly known. It inhabits sandy offshore bottoms, generally in deep waters to depths of approximately 150 m.
183797		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183797		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, especially as it is found in deeper waters where no shrimp trawlers operate.
183798		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.However, not all Marine Protected Areas are considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems and many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas.
183798		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Chile, including the Galápagos islands.
183798		habitat	eng	This pelagic reef-associated species is found in rocky substrata from 10-55 m, and in rocky and coral reefs. It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183798		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is occasionally seen in fish markets in Peru and Ecudaor. However, the numbers sighted in markets appears to be declining substantially, and the population has also likely been affected by a decline in prey (anchoveta) in Peru. Between 1998 and 2001, the catches in Galápagos have declined by approximately 75%, while in Ecuador, they have declined by more than 50% between 1992 and 2007 (Merlen pers. comm.).
183798		threats	eng	This species does not have major commercial importance, but it supports subsistence fisheries. It is targeted by artisan fisheries in Galápagos, southern Ecuador and Peru. However, harvest levels and effects on population trends is unknown. It is not known if declines observed in Ecuador and in markets in Peru are due to decreased achoveta prey availability (Jarre-Teichmann 1998), associated El Niño events (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004, Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2009), or overharvesting.
183799		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. But, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas; for example sand, mud, and other areas with soft substrata.
183799		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern California and the Gulf of California to Colombia (its presence in northern Ecuador needs to be verified; as well as its presence in the Pacific coast of Baja California and north). The presence between Gulf of California to southern Mexico needs verification as well.
183799		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, bathypelagic fish, with pelagic eggs and larvae. It feeds on fish and mobile invertebrates. It occurs from the shallow, continental shelf to the upper continental slope, and in the mid-waters of the open sea and on sea-mounts (Uncle Sam Bank) (Cohen <em>et al</em>. 1990). It is found from 80-500 m.
183799		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183799		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. The species is caught in small quantities in local trawl fisheries; there are no FAO reports (Lloris <em>et al</em>. 2003).
183800		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183800		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one specimen from El Salvador (Van Tassell and Baldwin 2004).
183800		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but is thought to inhabit mud and sand substrate in estuaries offshore from mangroves.
183800		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype specimen. Extensive trawling from El Salvador to Panama resulted in no other individuals being found.
183800		threats	eng	This species is likely threatened by habitat destruction of mangroves throughout its range.
183801		conservation	eng	The fishing of this species is stricty regulated in the USA, and it is recommended that similar measures should be implemented in Mexico.
183801		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Washington state, USA to Magdalena Bay, Baja California.
183801		habitat	eng	This species lives on soft sand and sandy mud bottoms in coastal areas to depths of 180 m. It can also be found in larger bays and estuaries.
183801		population	eng	The population for this species appears to be stable in the majority of its range off the coast of California (Haugen 1990). Thjs species has shown a historical decline in commercial landings from a maximum of 5,000,000 lbs in 1919, mainly due to overfishing. In the late 1950s and 1960s, there was a slight increase in landings following warmer waters during El Niño events. Annual landings in 1970 were a historical low of 257,000 lb. Since 1980 however, landings have been relatively stable and average a little more than 1 million lb annually (California Fish and Game 2004).
183801		threats	eng	This species population is likely limited by the amount of available nursery habitat, as juvenile halibut appear to be dependent on shallow water embayments as nursery areas. The overall decline in halibut landings is considered to correspond to a decline in shallow water habitats in southern California associated with dredging and filling of bays and wetlands (California Dept of Fish and Game 2004).
183802		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (WDPA 2006).
183802		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Panama to Colombia, including Malpelo Island.
183802		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shore areas.
183802		population	eng	There is no widepsread population information available for this species, although it is considered common in Malpelo.
183802		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
183803		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183803		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Colombia.
183803		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata at depths from 1-150m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183803		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183803		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183804		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Isla Gorgona National Park and Isla del Caño National Park.
183804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia.
183804		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits shallow rocky reefs and sandy or weedy areas to depths of 5m.
183804		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183804		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines in population due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183805		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galapagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations required to adequately safeguard Galapagos endemic species.
183805		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galapagos Islands.
183805		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is usually seen in aggregations while grazing over shallow reefs (Allen and Robertson, 2004) to depths of 15m. It may also mix with schools of other species (Humann and  Deloach, 1993).
183805		population	eng	This species is considered to be locally abundant. This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 2.09 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). The limited available data indicate that the population declined during 1997/98 El Niño event, but has subsequently rebounded and perhaps range has expanded within the archipelago.
183805		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species. Given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001). However, this species range has expanded since the last El Niño event.
183806		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern topical Pacific region.
183806		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183806		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata on the inner and middle continental shelf.  It is found from 15-110m.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183806		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183806		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183807		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species, and it is not known to inhabit any Marine Protected Areas.
183807		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183807		habitat	eng	This species inhabits muddy substrate in deeper waters from 80 to 200m.
183807		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183807		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183808		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183808		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, and Malpelo islands.
183808		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic oceanodromous species is found in oceanic waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Adults are demersal, while the juveniles and larvae are pelagic. This species is found to 100m.
183808		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species maybe be common.
183808		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br><br><br>This species is fished in sport fishery and in artisanal fisheries. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). Marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183809		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183809		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits sand substrata, and is also other soft substrata (mud, gravel, beach, and estuaries) from depths of 10 to 80 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.
183809		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively uncommon as bycatch in trawls in the region.
183809		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is likely of no commercial interest due to a small size (Heemstra 1995).
183810		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183810		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Galapagos islands (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183810		habitat	eng	This species is found over a variety of soft-bottom substrates, occasionally near reefs. Small specimens may be taken from tide pools and other shallow habitats. It feeds mainly on small benthic invertebrates, has pelagic eggs and larvae, and has been found from 1-120m of depth.
183810		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183810		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183811		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.
183811		distribution	eng	This species is distributed over the tropical eastern Pacific, from the southern Gulf of California to Colombia.
183811		habitat	eng	The habitat and biology of this species is probably similar to <em>Anchoa panamensis</em>. It is found to 10 m. This is a coastal pelagic fish that enters bays and tolerates lower salinities. In the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, <em>A. mundeola</em> was noted to occur only in the northern region, where salinities are generally lower (Palacios and Phillips 1984). This species feeds on zooplankton, and has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183811		population	eng	This is not a common species in Costa Rica. No population data is available for this species.
183811		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There are no known commercial uses for this species. Individuals taken in artisanal fisheries are consumed by local communities  (salted/dryed).
183812		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this specie's distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183812		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru.
183812		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in shallow water to depths of 30 m, and entering estuaries and river mouths. It forms schools and feeds mainly on crustaceans and pelagic fishes.
183812		population	eng	This species is uncommon in many parts of its range. <br><br>In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish could not be observed (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density < 0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) and Catalinas Islands (Espinoza and Salas 2005), also in Costa Rica, this species was not observed. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Surveys conducted at Gorgona Island (Rubio 1986, Zapata and Morales 1997) could not observe this species.
183812		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183813		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br><br>More research is needed to determine the population status of this species throughout its distribution.
183813		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
183813		habitat	eng	This species is abundant in shallow coastal areas, especially in rocky coasts with macroalgae to depths of 20 m. It may be solitary or swim in loose schools (Humann and  Deloach 1993), and feeds by scraping or breaking off chunks of the reef and digest the algae that grows within, or directly on algae (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
183813		population	eng	This species is locally common in cooler waters and in upwelling areas in appropriate habitat (macroalgal beds) such as in the Gulf of California, the Gulf of Papagayo Costa Rica, the Galapagos, and Peru. It is rare elsewhere in its range.<br><br><em>Nicholsina denticulata</em> was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.36 individuals/500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a survey conducted at Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish was not observed (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density <0.01 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. There are a number of surveys made where this species was not observed (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000, Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001, Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001, Espinoza and Salas 2005).
183813		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' shallow habitat and wide distribution, its presence should have been observed in many surveys, but it has only been recorded in three surveys. These surveys also show that the abundance of this fish is very reduced. Populations in the Galapagos declined after the 1982/83 El Niño event (Grove 1985); but no data is available on the population status after the 1997/98 El Niño event. Therefore, some concern exists for populations in Galapagos and northern Peru because this species appears relatively susceptible to impacts of strong El Niño events.
183814		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183814		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from Southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183814		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in coastal waters and penetrates brackish waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 30m. It usually forms schools (De La Cruz Aguero 1997).
183814		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183814		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br><br>This species is incidentally caught by shrimp trawling and in artisanal gill nets.This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183815		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas off Mexico, in the Gulf of California.
183815		distribution	eng	The geographical range of this species is only in the western and northeastern Gulf of California.
183815		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 30m.
183815		population	eng	This is a relatively common species in the Gulf of California. No population data is available for this species.
183815		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183816		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183816		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific and has a disjuct range. It is found in the eastern Gulf of California to central Mexico, and from Costa Rica to Colombia, including the Galapagos Islands (Bedenbaugh 1988).
183816		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found in soft muddy sandy substrate at depths of 60 to 100 m.
183816		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183816		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183817		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Conception in California, USA to Guadalupe Island off or north-central Baja California, and the Gulf of California in Mexico.
183817		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species can be found close to rocks near patches of sand and in tide pools to depths of 40m. It darts into sand when disturbed and sleeps at night buried in sand with its head protruding. Each individual functions first as female but changes to a male at length of about 30 cm. This species is a pelagic spawner.
183817		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is consdiered to be common in northern Gulf of California and in southern California.
183817		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183818		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183818		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183818		habitat	eng	This species is common in coastal waters to depths of 20m, and also enters estuaries. It occurs in a wide variety of habitats.
183818		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in many parts of its range, and occurs in a variety of habitats.<br><br>In a fish fauna survey conducted in mangroves in Costa Rica, this species had the highest biomass of the entire study.  91,406 g (28.5%) and 201 individuals (12%) were collected in a survey from april and june 1993 (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183818		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is important in small commercial fisheries. It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke, 1992).
183819		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas across its range, including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183819		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Isla Gorgona, Colombia.
183819		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits intertidal rock pools and subtidal boulders.
183819		population	eng	There is no information available on the population status of this species.
183819		threats	eng	There are no known major threats known for this species.
183820		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls entirely into the Galápagos Islands Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.
183820		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms in the vicinity of rocky reefs to depths of 30 m.
183820		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It may be locally common.
183820		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183821		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls entirely within the Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).
183821		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Galapagos Islands, although there is one record from Ecuador (Hubbs, 1958) and other questionable records from Ecuador and Peru (Bradbury et al, 1999).
183821		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble substrate and is associated with reef edges to depths of 120m.
183821		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in the Galapagos Islands.
183821		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though this species is restricted to the Galapagos Islands, given its deep water habitat it is unlikely to be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and climate change events.
183822		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183822		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
183822		habitat	eng	This species primarily inhabits shallow waters over rocky or coral reefs separated by sandy areas (Gomon 1995), although it can be found to depths of 75 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183822		population	eng	This species is the most abundant <em>Halichoeres</em> species in the region, and although the population declined by more than 50% during the 1997/1998 El Niño, the population recovered by 2000.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 43.6 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. 2005) this species had a density of 0.08 (±0.15) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it could not be found (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was observed in four sites, as a total of 53 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. dispilus</em> is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance between 0.1-1%, and a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in corals while occasional in rocky and sandy bottoms. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.027 (±0.134) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observationed frequency of 9.7%.
183822		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this species is an important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, but is considered to be so abundant that localized collection is extremely unlikely to affect population.
183823		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into the Cocos Island Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).  More research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.
183823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near Cocos Island, Costa Rica.
183823		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It lives in nearshore areas over deep soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 120 m (van der Heiden and Mitchell 1998).
183823		population	eng	This species was only known from two specimens from Cocos islands until 1998, when another sample of approximately 50 specimens were discovered (van der Heiden and Mitchell 1998). There is no other population information available for this species.
183823		threats	eng	Given this species' restricted distribution and potentially small population size, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO and global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, given its deep water and generalized habitat, it is not known if this species would be affected by ENSO events.
183824		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into at least two Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183824		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).
183824		habitat	eng	This species burrows in sand and rubble.
183824		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from approximately 50 specimens from three localities, however it is abundant based on rotenone collections in at least one of these localities.
183824		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183825		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183825		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183825		habitat	eng	This species  inhabits rocky reefs, below the surf zone (Allen 1991) to depths of 25 m, and is most common in the shallow subtidal zone amongst fields of large boulders. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish is found in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006) and tends to occur in slightly shallower water than <em>M. bairdii</em>.
183825		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range.<br><br>It was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 6.43 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.02 (±0.7) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.012 (±0.040) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.336% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed just in two sites, with 16 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>M. dorsalis</em> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (between 0.1-1% of total abundance) with an occurrence frequency between 30-70%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common (between 1-5% of the overall abundance registered) with a relative frequency between 50-75% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured four times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in coralline and sandy bottoms while occasional in rocky ones.
183825		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica; however, this is unilkely to have a significant effect on the population.
183826		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183826		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galápagos Islands.
183826		habitat	eng	This species lives on shallow sandy substrate to depths of 10 m.
183826		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183826		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183827		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).  More research is needed to understand abundance of harvest and to track population trends.
183827		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, from Oregon to southern Baja California, and the western Gulf of California.
183827		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic, and is found to depths of 29m. Adults inhabit inshore areas, including bays and form schools (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). They are demersal spawners in nearshore habitats (Shanks <em>et al.</em> 2005) and are oviparous, with planktonic, primarily neustonic larvae (Watson 1996).  Eggs are attached to one another by spawning substrate via adhesive filaments (Watson 1996).
183827		population	eng	This species is considered to be common.
183827		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is targeted in commercial and sport fisheries.
183828		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183828		distribution	eng	This species is found near Nayarit, Mexico, El Salvador, and from Costa Rica to central Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).
183828		habitat	eng	This species lives on soft substrate and feeds on invertebrates and small fishes from depths of 25 to 80m.
183828		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183828		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183829		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183829		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Guatemala to northern Peru.
183829		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters to depths of 30m.  It feeds mainly on worms and other benthic invertebrates.
183829		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183829		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183830		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>As this species is an important sport fish, and its habitat has been modified by coastal development throughout its range, its population and habitat status should be carefully monitored.
183830		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA to the tip of Baja California, and in the eastern Gulf of California.
183830		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs in sandy shores and bays, mostly in shallow surf zones, usually to 15m depth. It is often found near rocks and entrances to bays. This species usually forms small groups, but aggregates for spawning. It feeds on invertebrates, such as marine worms, clams, crabs and small crustaceans.
183830		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Their population size, recruitment, and mortality are unknown.
183830		threats	eng	In California, hauls from beach seines along the open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded fewer spotn croaker than during a similar study from 1953 through 1956. However, catch-per-unit effort estimates from Marine Recreational Fishing Statistics Survey data and gillnet sets inside bays and along the open coast indicate that spotn croaker populations were increasing in the late 1990s (Valle and Oliphant, 2001).<br/><br/>In addition, modications of bay and nearshore environments, including coastal development, land lls, and dredging, have had an adverse effect on the habitats of this species throughout its range.
183831		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.
183831		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Panama.
183831		habitat	eng	This species lives on mud substrate and brackish waters in mangrove channels, shallow bays and estuaries to depths of 10 m.
183831		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its specific habitat.
183831		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.
183832		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The halting of further development in mangrove streams flowing into the the Panama canal zone is recommended to reduce habitat loss of this very restricted range, and mangrove-dependent species.
183832		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two mangrove streams that flow into the Panama Canal on the Pacific side (Hoese and Reader 2002).
183832		habitat	eng	This species has only been found in shallow fresh waters of mangrove streams.
183832		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. It is only known from a few specimens and is considered rare. Extensive sampling of the area has turned up no other specimens between 2000 and 2005.
183832		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the extensive development of the Panama canal zone, and the severe loss of mangrove habitat this area.
183833		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.
183833		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal areas on sandy or muddy substrate, generally in estuaries near mangroves. It was also found at Gorgona Island reef to be frequent in rocky substrate (Rubio, 1986).
183833		population	eng	This species is considered to be common in many parts of its range. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183833		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183834		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos Islands (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on its population status, habitat requirements, and threats.
183834		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Galápagos Islands (Hoshino and Amaoka 1999).
183834		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, and may inhabit sandy bottoms in coastal areas to depths of 95 m.
183834		population	eng	No population information is available for this specie;, it is only known from a few recent specimens.
183834		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is only known from one location in the oceanic islands of Galápagos.
183835		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183835		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to southern Peru.
183835		habitat	eng	This species is demersal. Adults are found in schools on soft substrate in shallow bays, and juveniles are found in coastal lagoons and estuaries.
183835		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of its range. For example, it is common in the Gulf of California, and abundant along entire Mexican coast (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183835		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183836		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species is found within the Cocos and Galapagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183836		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific off the coast of southern Baja California and Panama, including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183836		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate to a depth of 85m.
183836		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183836		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183837		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183837		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from central Mexico to northern Panama (Bussing 1978).
183837		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is common in fresh and brackish waters, such as in rivers, estuaries, and coastal lagoons (Lavenberg <em>et al.</em> 1995).
183837		population	eng	This species is abundant in some parts of its range.
183837		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat at this time, in some areas coastal development including marinas, tourism, and shrimp aquaculture may threaten this species and the quality of its habitat.
183838		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Isla del Caño National Park.
183838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Islas Tres Marias and Nayarit, Mexico to Panama.
183838		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate.
183838		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183838		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183839		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183839		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
183839		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow, coastal waters (Bellwood 1995) near rocky and coral reefs to depths of 20 m. It occurs in small aggregations and feeds by scraping the substrate for coralline red algae, and probably on coral polyps. In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish can be found over massive corals, rocky reef and zone of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183839		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of its range. <br><br><em>Scarus perrico</em> was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.68 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density <0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) and Catalinas Islands (Espinoza and Salas 2005), also in Costa Rica, this species was not observed. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>S. perrico</em> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California — 0.1-0.01% of total abundance — with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce - 0.1-1% of the overall abundance (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in coralline and rocky bottoms while occasional in sandy ones. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, could not observe this species.
183839		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, spearfishing comprises a possible local threat in some parts of its range. Similarly, all Scarids are commercially-exploited at a small scale by spearfishers in Panama, and in the Gulf of California have been recently subjected to heavy fishing pressure. The Galapagos population declined by approximately 50% after the 1997/98 El Niño event, but appeared to recover by 2000.
183840		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), the including Cabo Pulmo and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.
183840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Acapulco, central Mexico, including the Revillagigedo islands and the Tres Marias Islands.
183840		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species found in weed-covered, rocky shores and also in coral reefs to depths of 10m.
183840		population	eng	This species is the most common member of the genus at most localities in the Gulf of California, and one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2002).
183840		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183841		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to southern Ecuador.
183841		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty worm and tube mollusk tubes on shallow rocky reefs. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá, this species is found in rock walls covered by red algae, in zones of massive coral, in exposed shallow rocky reef, and in deep rocky reef exposed to oceanic currents (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).
183841		population	eng	This species is considered common, and sometimes even locally abundant. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, density of this species was recorded at 70 individuals per 150  m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).
183841		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183842		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Although this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area (Galápagos) in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), it is not known whether this species or its ecosystem are adequately protected.
183842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands  (Grove and Lavenberg 1997), where it is known from less than 10 locations and has an area of occupancy of less than 1,200 km².
183842		habitat	eng	This species lives on soft muddy or sandy substrate and feeds on mobile benthic invertebrates.
183842		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be rare.
183842		threats	eng	There are no bottom commercial fishing activities that might affect this species in the Galápagos. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, given this species' relatively deep water and muddy/sandy substrate habitat, it is not clear if this species would experience rapid declines during future severe ENSO events.
183843		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183843		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California to Ecuador.
183843		habitat	eng	This is a deep water species that occurs from 30 to 200m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods and bivalves.
183843		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183843		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183844		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern Costa Rica to southern Peru.
183844		habitat	eng	This species lives over soft substrate, and sometimes enters fresh water (Collette 1995).
183844		population	eng	This species is common in collections, although no other population information is available.
183844		threats	eng	Although not considered to cause population decline at this time, this species is exploited in minor fisheries. It has been used since pre-colombian times as food source by indigenous peoples in Central America (Cooke 1992).
183845		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Cabo Pulmo National Park.
183845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California to Jalisco in central Mexico. The species is frequently mentioned as occurring to western Panama (e.g., Robertson and Allen, 2006), but the validity of this distribution requires confirmation.
183845		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate.
183845		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183845		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183846		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183846		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama. There is also one record from north of Baja California at San Pedro in southern California, USA.
183846		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in intertidal areas and rocky reefs.
183846		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183846		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183847		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico to northern Peru.
183847		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal, brackish and probably fresh water to depths of 15m.
183847		population	eng	This species is considered abundant in many parts of its range, especially in mangroves and tidal rivers. In a fish fauna survey conducted in mangroves in Costa Rica, this species was the one with the highest biomass of the whole study with 17,288 g and one of the largest sizes with 980 mm in a survey from April and June, 1993 (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183847		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Although not considered a threat to populations at this time, it is very important in commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh. It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-colombian times (Cooke, 1992). It is also likely affected by coastal development and pollution throughout its range.
183848		conservation	eng	There is a captive breeding program in California for this species, and numerous fishery regulations now in place to help restore this species population, including restrictions on recreational fisheries and further commercial catch of this species (gill nets are prohibited). In March 2004, legislation was enacted to prohibit increased fishing production of the species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993). Commercial fishing of this species is now prohibited in California.<br/><br/>This species may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico, the Unites States and Canada. However, more enforcement in is needed, especially in Marine Protected Areas outside of the United States.<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the status of the subpopulation of this species in the Gulf of California.
183848		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Alaska to the Gulf of California. However, no recent records are available for the northern part of its range.
183848		habitat	eng	This demersal fish often occurs in schools over rocky bottoms and in kelp beds to depths of 125 m. It can also be found in the surf zone, with young fish found in bays and along sandy beaches (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). This species feeds on fishes, squids, and crayfish (Hart 1973).
183848		population	eng	This species was previously an important fishery species in California, but the population declined to commercial extinction. Populations are recovering due to fishery regulations along the coast of California that have placed restrictions on recreational fisheries and banned further commercial catch of this species (gill nets are prohibited). No population information exists for the subpopulation in the Gulf of California, but it is suspected to be in decline due to continued intensive fishing with gill nets.
183848		threats	eng	This species has been historically over-fished throughout its distribution. Its population has declined since the early part of this century, corresponding to a decline in landings since the late 1920s. Its range is now likely reduced as few are found regularly north of Point Conception, in northern California. In addition to over-fishing, pollution and habitat destruction have probably contributed to this long-term population decline and range reduction. <br/><br/>However, the large numbers of small White Seabass caught in recent years suggests that the warm water period beginning with the 1982-1983 El Niño event helped to increase young sh survival. Young sh surveys conducted in southern California as part of Ocean Resources Enhancement and Hatchery Program (OREHP), showed a dramatic increase in the number of fish taken in research gillnet sets. During research work in 1997 over 600 juvenile sh were captured, in 1998 approximately 700 sh were taken, and in 1999 slightly over 1,300 juveniles were captured. Anecdotal evidence from commercial and sport shers conrms this dramatic increase in juvenile White Seabass. However, it is unknown whether this increase in juveniles will subsequently enhance the adult spawning population (Vojkovich and Crooke 2001)<br/><br/>The subpopulation within the Gulf of California, from approximately Guaymas northward, appears to be completely disjunct and is still heavily fished by gillnet. No population data exists but the species in this region is suspected to be in serious decline.
183849		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183849		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to Peru, including all the offshore islands.
183849		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species sometimes can be seen in schools with <em>K. analogus</em> and is also known to school and graze with <em>Prionurus laticlavius</em> (Sommer 1995).  At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, it has been found in deep zones of middle-sized rocks and sand, massive corals, deep rocky reef and exposed shallow rocky reef (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183849		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range. There was no apparent decline associated with 1997/98 El Niño for populations in the Galapagos.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.36 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia, this species was considered frequent in rocky and sandy substrata while occasional in corals (Rubio 1986). In Gulf of Papagayo, Panama (Dominici <em>et al.</em> 2005), a mean density <0.01 individuals per  m<sup>2</sup> was recorded for this species. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, a mean density of 0.041 (±0.0810) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 1.113% was recorded by (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, <em>Kyphosus</em> sp. could be observed once in just one reef (Espinoza and Salas 2005). This fish was one of the most abundant — 2.02% — in a gill-net-fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, coastal zone of the central Mexican pacific (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001), together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids. However, in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this animal was considered scarce — relative abundance between 0.1-1% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). This fish was found in a survey at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, considered commonly frequent, with an abundance between 10-30% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).
183849		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183850		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the EasternTropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183850		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183850		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over soft substrate.
183850		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183850		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183851		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183851		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found near southern Baja California and in the central and southern Gulf of California, Mexico.
183851		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty mollusk tubes on shallow rocky reefs.
183851		population	eng	This species occurs at relatively low densities in boulder fields.
183851		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this restricted range species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183852		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. This species' range lies entirely within the Revillagigedo Marine Protected Area.
183852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Revillagigedo Islands.
183852		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and inhabits sand-rubble areas around the fringes of rocky reefs, however, its depth range is relatively unknown. It has been found from 5-20 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes.
183852		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens, but is likely to be locally common.
183852		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range (only 4 small islands) in a very dynamic environment. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and known shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183853		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' range lies within the Galápagos Islands  National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).
183853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.
183853		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs, rubble and sandy substrates to depths of 25m.
183853		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is not considered to be uncommon.
183853		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183854		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Galapagos Islands National Park, Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve, and the Revillagigedos Biosphere Reserve.
183854		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Tres Marias, Revillagigedo and Galapagos Islands.
183854		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits weed-covered, rocky reefs and coral reef areas to depths of 20m.
183854		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Although this species is not uncommon.
183854		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
183855		conservation	eng	Cocos Island is a designated National Park, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, this species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range and potential threats.
183855		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near Cocos Island.
183855		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits shallow rocky reefs to depths of 35 m.
183855		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183855		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183856		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Monitoring of harvest levels and the population trend are recommended for this species.
183856		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in temperate waters from British Colombia to the tip of Baja California, and can be found throughout most of the western and the central eastern Gulf of California.
183856		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species that is usually found in coastal waters within about 30 km from shore, but as far out as 480 km.  It is found as deep as 310 m. It forms large, tightly packed schools, entering bays and inlets. This species feeds on euphausiids, copepods, and decapod larvae, both by random filter-feeding and by pecking at prey (Chiappa-Carrara and Gallardo-Cabello 1993).  <br/><br/>This is an oviparous, epipelagic batch spawner. It spawns throughout the year, peaking once at night between 2000 and 0400 hours. The spawning region corresponds from British Colombia south to Magdalena Bay, Baja California, but most abundantly between Point Conception and Point San Juanico. There are two major spawning areas: 1) southern California and northern Baja California and 2) central and southern Baja California.  This species is oviparous, spawning either in inlets or offshore throughout the year, but mainly in the winter and early spring. It depends on hydrological conditions, preferably at in upper water layers and around 22.00 hours (Hunter and Goldberg 1980, Watson and Sandknop 1996).
183856		population	eng	It is a very common species within its range. This species has been overfished, and harvest was restricted by law solely as a baitfish in California from 1949 to 1955, but it has since been used in British Colombia in the 1940s, when it was very abundant, for canning or processing into fishmeal or oil. There have been wide fluctuations in populations, partly in relation to hydrology, but complicated by the relation with the also fluctuating populations of the California pilchard (<em>Sardinops caeruleus</em>). The recorded catch in 1982 was 294,859 t (247,997 t by Mexico). It was fished with lampara nets, but after about 1946 mainly by purse seines. The total catch reported for this species to the FAO for 1999 was 11,137 t. The countries with the largest harvests were Mexico (5,814 t) and USA (5,323 t) (FAO-FIGIS 2001).
183856		threats	eng	This species has been overfished.  The countries with the largest harvests were Mexico (5,814 t) and USA (5,323 t) (FAO-FIGIS 2001).<br/><br/><br/>This species is important in commercial fisheries, and the harvesting sites for fisheries are mainly in Mexico in FAO fishing area 77 - from 10,000 to 50,000 t. Seines are the main method used to harvest this species. It is then processed into fishmeal, used as bait for tuna and other fishes, and occasionally canned (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183857		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into Coiba National Park in Panama (WDPA 2006).
183857		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region. The original distribution for this species was listed from Costa Rica to Panama (Collette 1966). However, the record from Costa Rica has since been described as a distinct species, <em>Daector schmitti</em> (Collette 1968). This species’ range is now considered to be restricted to two locations: Panama Bay and Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Collette 1995), with an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².
183857		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow waters over soft, muddy substrate in bays and estuaries to depths of 30 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has a benthic stage with no pelagic eggs or larvae (Collette 1995).
183857		population	eng	This species is common in collections from Panama.
183857		threats	eng	This shallow-water and near-shore species is threatened by habitat loss from extensive coastal development and pollution within its restricted range.
183858		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing of this species has been prohibited in California since the 1950s. In addition, size limits of 12 inches minimum size apply for sport fishing with a bag limit of 10 <em>Paralabrax</em> spp. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in southern California currently being developed that will offer greatly enhanced protection.
183858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to the tip of Baja California. This species has historically ranged as far north as the Columbia River, Oregon. However, it is now considered rare north of Point Conception, California (California Fish and Game 2001).
183858		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in or near kelp beds to depths of 61 m  (Young 1963). Juveniles feed on benthic invertebrates (especially crustaceans), and adults feed on fishes and cephalopods (Heemstra 1995). Both juveniles and adults may feed on plankton when abundant (Heemstra 1995)<br/><br/>This species can range throughout the water column, but can be found in the greatest numbers in shallower waters at less than 25 m depth. Mature individuals usually gather to breed in deeper water near kelp beds and rocky headlands. Several hundred adults may aggregate in a small area during spawning. Kelp Bass produce free-drifting eggs which enter the plankton in coastal waters. Larvae remain in the plankton for 28 to 30 days, after which they settle into shallow water habitats that have attached algae and drift algae, including kelp. They mature at three to five years, and the oldest known kelp bass was 34 years old and 63 cm long (California Fish and Game 2004). However, current average body sizes are smaller than historical records.
183858		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.This species is considered common in southern California and northwestern Baja California.
183858		threats	eng	This species has been negatively impacted by past commercial and current sport fishing. In the 1970s and 1980s, this species was among the top three species taken in sport (angler) fisheries. The Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey (MRFSS) catch estimates show trends in declining catches through most of the 1990s with a low in 1999, and with landings rebounding in 2000 and 2001 (California Fish and Game 2004). In general, peak landings of Kelp Bass have followed El Niño events. Surveys in the 1970s and 1980s indicated that a stable spawning population was being maintained, because a large number of age-classes were being caught by anglers (California Fish and Game 2004).
183859		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183859		distribution	eng	This species is found in both the southwestern and southeastern Pacific. In the southwestern Pacific it is found at Lord Howe Island.&#160; In the Eastern Pacific it occurs from southern Ecuador to Chile. It is also found in Easter Island (Randall and McCosker, 1975).
183859		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits rocky and coral reefs.
183859		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183859		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183860		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Humboldt current coastal region.
183860		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in the southeastern Pacific and is only found in Ecuador and Peru.
183860		habitat	eng	This fish can be found over soft substrata in deep coastal areas, and also in shallower estuarine habitats. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found from 20-100 m.
183860		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
183860		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <i.et al.=""> 2004).</i.et>
183861		conservation	eng	Commercial fishing of this species has been prohibited in California since the 1950's. In addition, size limits of 12-inches minimum size apply for sport fishing with a bag limit of 10 Paralabrax spp. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in southern California currently being developed that will offer greatly enhanced protection.
183861		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the tip of Baja California, and the southwest Gulf of California.
183861		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on sand substrata among or near rocks from shallow areas to about 185m depth, however it is most common in above 30m.  Juveniles feed on benthic invertebrates (crabs, bivalves, and mysids) and rarely fish; while adults prey on fishes (especially Porichthys notatus) and also on crustaceans (Heemstra 1995).<br/><br/>A juvenile barred reaches sexual maturity at 3 to 5 years at a length of 7 to 10.5 in. The oldest known barred sand bass was determined to be 24 years old (California Fish and Game, 2004).<br/><br/>Barred sand bass gather to breed over sandy bottoms at depths of 60 to 120 ft in the late spring and summer months. Spawning occurs from April through November, usually peaking in July. Barred sand bass produce numerous small, free-drifting eggs that enter the plankton in coastal waters. In the early 1970s, evidence was presented that tumors,<br/>deformities, and other anomalies found in barred sand bass may have been linked to industrial and domestic wastes discharged into the nearshore environment. Reports of such abnormalities have decreased over the past two decades (California Fish and Game, 2004).
183861		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This is a common species.
183861		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183862		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183862		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California (excluding the northernmost region) to northern Peru, and all the oceanic islands except Clipperton.
183862		habitat	eng	This species is found on hard substrata (rocks, shell rubble, boulder, and gravel strewn slopes) to 120m.  It is often seen at reef edges in rubble substrata (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183862		population	eng	This species is uncommon in its range. There is no population information for this species.
183862		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183863		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183863		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Tres Marias Islands to Tangola, Oaxaca, Mexico.
183863		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species is found in rocky coastal areas and reefs in deeper water, to depths of 100m.
183863		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183863		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183864		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183864		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico to Peru.
183864		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits sandy/muddy substrate in shallow coastal waters to 20m. It also enters estuaries and sometimes river mouths.
183864		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, market observations indicate that the species is common at least in Peru.
183864		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for artisanal fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004).
183865		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given that the last records of the species date back to the 1960s, this species should be a priority for further survey work.
183865		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found off the coast of Ecuador. This species is only known from three specimens collected in the early 1960s north of Esmeraldas, Ecuador near the Colombian border.
183865		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is demersal, and the original specimens were taken from tidal and shallow subtidal waters.
183865		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from three specimens, and there has been no or limited survey work in the region for this species.
183865		threats	eng	Major threats for this species are unknown. However, given this species' potentially restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO and global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183866		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).
183866		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to southern Colombia, including the Clipperton and Galapagos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183866		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate, from shallow waters up to a depth of 145 m.
183866		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183866		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183867		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183867		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.
183867		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found in tide pools and coastal sandy areas. It feeds on small fishes and invertebrates (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183867		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183867		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
183868		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. However this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas.
183868		distribution	eng	This is a tropical Indo-Pacific species. In the eastern Pacific, it is found in oceanic offshore waters from Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.
183868		habitat	eng	It is an oceanic epipelagic species found to 5m.
183868		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183868		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183869		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Ecuador to Peru.
183869		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal waters and bays to depths of 20m. It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans, and mollusks.
183869		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183869		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries, and can be common in local markets.
183870		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183870		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the western and southeastern Gulf of California to southern Mexico, all the offshore islands, and in the Lobos de Afuera islands off Peru.
183870		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) and coral reefs to depths of 200m.
183870		population	eng	This species is considered common in some parts of its range, especially in deep reefs in Malpelo, Clipperton and Revillagigedo Islands.<br><br>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 1.49 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce  with 0.1-1% of the overall abundance registered and a relative frequency below 10% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183870		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183871		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183871		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from central Gulf of California to Peru.
183871		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits shallow mangrove estuaries, generally to depths of 5m. It is an herbivore that feeds on benthic microalgae.
183871		population	eng	This species relatively common in the majority of its range. However, in a mangrove swamp in El Conchalito, La Paz Bay, Baja California Sur, it was considered rare with an occurrence frequency of 1% (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183871		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, mangrove destruction and coastal development including shrimp aquaculture activities threaten their habitat type throughout its range.
183872		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183872		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to central Peru, and Malpelo Island.
183872		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species forms schools in coastal marine and brackish waters, including lagoons with mangroves (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to 53m.
183872		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common.
183872		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is commonly caught as bycatch by shrimp trawlers. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh, salted and fried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183873		conservation	eng	The Galápagos Islands are protected as a National Park, and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range, and past history of El Niño associated declines.
183873		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.
183873		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacle shells on rocky reefs to depths of 25 m. It often perches in the opening with only the head protruding, and darts out to nab bits of floating food (Humann and Deloach 1993). It is oviparous, with eggs attached to the walls of the parent's shelter and brooded by the male parent (Matarese <em>et al</em>. 1984).
183873		population	eng	This species was known to be very abundant until the 1997/1998 El Niño event, afterwhich the species could not be found. The species reappeared a few years later, and there is other anecdotal evidence of previous population fluctuations. A recent survey found an overall mean abundance for the species of 1.41 individuals per 500 m² on Galápagos Island (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183873		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, and is subject to extreme fluctuations in population numbers following El Niño events (Groves, 1985). In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183874		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183874		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands.
183874		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy bays and estuaries, including the brackish lower parts of streams and mangroves (Flores <em>et al.</em> 1990; De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).
183874		population	eng	This species is considered abundant and the most common of the gerreids along Pacific coasts.
183874		threats	eng	Although not currently considered a major threat to widespread population decline, this species an important species for artisanal fisheries (Flores <em>et al.</em> 1990). It is caught with seine nets, gill nets, cast nets, hook-and-line,  and purse nets (De la Cruz Aguero, 1997). In addition, localized threats include the removal of mangroves and coastal development throughout its distribution.
183875		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183875		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California, USA to central Baja California and the northern half of the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183875		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in holes and crevices in rocky areas (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997), in burrows of boring clams or tubes of marine worms, and in mussel beds (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).  It is mostly sedentary and territorial (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
183875		population	eng	This species is considered common in California waters.
183875		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183876		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183876		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern Nicaragua to northern Peru.
183876		habitat	eng	This species is found in near-shore shallow coastal waters, perhaps entering water with low salinities (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183876		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183876		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183877		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution may fall within some Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183877		distribution	eng	This species is found in lower Baja California and the central Gulf of California, and from northern Costa Rica to southern Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).
183877		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate to 30 m depth, and is also present in estuaries and mangroves.
183877		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183877		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this shallow water species may be threatened by the localized destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development within its restricted and disjunct range.
183878		conservation	eng	This species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). However, decreases in harvests of this species in Panama has led to the limitation of fishing licenses for the production of fishmeal and oil, and increased restrictions on the storage capacity of ships (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005). In an agreement between fishing companies, the fishing season in Panama is limited to the non-reproductive season, April to October, and since the groups are very homogeneous in size, only those with lengths of 13 cm or more are fished.
183878		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo and Galapagos Islands.
183878		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore, principally over mud flats and forming quite large schools. Apparently, it does not make long migrations along sandy or rocky areas. Juveniles feed principally on diatoms, and also silico-flagellates, dinoflagellates and small crustaceans, while adults feed mainly on benthic diatoms and are oviparous with peliagic larvae (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995, Watson and Sandknop 1996). In Panama, this species is more associated with the upwelling in Gulf of Panama, and migrating to shallower waters between between February and April.
183878		population	eng	This species is considered abundant in Nicaragua and Panama. In Panama, this species is present in groups of 20 to 120 t.
183878		threats	eng	This species is highly commercial. It is used as tuna baitfish, and is processed into fishmeal and oil (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995, Watson and Sandknop 1996). It is caught with cast nets for local consumption, but with lampara nets for the bait fishery, and purse seines for the reduction fishery, mainly within eight km of the shore (FAO-FIGIS 2001).  <br/><br/>Since 1974, total harvests have had repeated fluctuations with peaks every two to four years. In 1995, 106,743 t of the Pacific Anchoveta was harvested in the Eastern Central Pacific, and 41,484 t in the Southeastern Pacific. However, in Panama, harvests were reduced by 34,742 metric t in 2004 in relation with year 2003, and over the last five years the catch has been between 47,000 and 134,000 t, with an average of 85,400 t (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005). By contrast, this species is no longer taken commercially in Nicaragua, and this species is only taken by artisanal fishing for bait fish.
183879		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the few specimens known were collected from two Marine Protected Areas, Isla Gorgona and Cocos Island.
183879		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia. This species was previously known only from Isla Gorgona, Colombia, but has also been collected in Costa Rica at Isla del Cano (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).
183879		habitat	eng	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It has been found in burrows in sand and rubble.
183879		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from a few specimens.
183879		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183880		conservation	eng	Cocos Island is designated as a national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
183880		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found only near Cocos Island, Costa Rica.
183880		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores in rocky and coral reef areas to depths of 10 m.
183880		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183880		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183881		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' broad distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183881		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to central Peru.
183881		habitat	eng	This species can be found in tide pools, estuaries, and inlets with sandy substrates ranging out onto the inner continental shelf. This species is found to 55m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183881		population	eng	This is a common species throughout its range. There is no population information for this species.
183881		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183882		conservation	eng	There are no known specific specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within several Marine Protected Areas in the region, including the Cocos Island and Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183882		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution and is only known from 4 locations: along the southeastern coast of the Gulf of California, northern Peru (Lobos de Afuera Island), the Galapagos Islands, and Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
183882		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 40m.
183882		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183882		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183883		conservation	eng	This species' distribution falls within a CONABIO marine priority zone, El Complejo Insular de Baja California.
183883		distribution	eng	This species is only occurs in the Gulf of California.  It is known only from the holotype collected at Puertocitos, in the northeastern Gulf of California (McCosker and Robertson 2001).
183883		habitat	eng	The only specimen of this benthic species was collected during low tide in a sand bank.
183883		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, as it is only known from the holotype.
183883		threats	eng	Given this species' shallow-water habitat, it is likely threatened by extensive coastal development, tourism and aquaculture development in the Gulf of California.
183884		conservation	eng	This species is restricted to the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).
183884		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, although it may be more widely distributed.
183884		habitat	eng	This species lives over sand, rock and coral substrate.
183884		population	eng	This species is only known from the original four specimens (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1972). It has not been reported in recent surveys of shallow and deeper sandy reef areas in the Galápagos region (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183884		threats	eng	It is unknown if there are any major threats to this species. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, this species is not well-known and may be more deeply distributed, which may provide it some protection from a severe ENSO event.
183885		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183885		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of Panama.
183885		habitat	eng	This pelagic species occurs in near-shore, shallow coastal waters (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995) to depths of 10 m.
183885		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183885		threats	eng	This shallow-water, near-shore species has a restricted range. It may be caught as by-catch in fisheries operating in the Gulf of Panama. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183886		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183886		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to Colombia, and including the Tres Marias, Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.
183886		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow intertidal rocky reefs, including tide pools. It is also often found in empty barnacles in surge zones.
183886		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183886		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183887		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species occurs in the Tres Marias and Bahia de Utria Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183887		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two collections, one near Tres Marias Islands, Mexico and the second in Bahia Utria, Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).
183887		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The only collections of this species have been made over shallow sandy substrate (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).
183887		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, as it is only known from two collections.
183887		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183888		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), and it is known specific to occur in the Northern Gulf of California Biosphere Reserve.
183888		distribution	eng	This species distribution in the Eastern Pacific is disjunct; it is found in the eastern portion of the Gulf of California, and from Guatemala to the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). However, it is also known from Acapulco, Jalisco and South Mazatlan, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre and Suárez de los Cobos, 1983).
183888		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 10m.
183888		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183888		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is often captured and discarded by trawlers as by-catch.
183889		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183889		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific. It has a disjunct distribution: central Baja California and the Gulf of California, northern Costa Rica to central Colombia, and northern Peru, considered to comprise three subspecies (Lea, 1995).
183889		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on soft substrate.
183889		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183889		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183890		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183890		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the holotype found off the coast of Costa Rica.
183890		habitat	eng	The only known specimen of this species was collected from dredging muddy substrate in Costa Rica at a depth of 20 m.
183890		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183890		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183891		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183891		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Revillagigedos, Malpelo, and Galapagos islands.
183891		habitat	eng	This species is epipelagic and neritic in coastal waters to 5m. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances from the surface.
183891		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183891		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183892		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183892		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia.
183892		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata on the inner and middle continental shelf. This species is found from 10-115m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183892		population	eng	This is a common species. There is no population information for this species.
183892		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183893		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However,its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183893		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the southwestern Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183893		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy coasts and bays to depths of 50 m. It can also be found  in the surf zone. It feeds on crabs, other crustaceans and marine worms.
183893		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183893		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish and can be found in local markets. It is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and is a target species for artisinal fisheries.
183894		conservation	eng	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California y Delta del Rio Colorado (WDPA 2006).
183894		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California, Mexico.
183894		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate in rocky reefs.
183894		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183894		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183895		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many endemic species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas.
183895		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Ecuador to central Chile.
183895		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found on shallow rocky reefs and also in coral reefs to depths of 50 m. Its diet consists mainly of mobile crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish and bonyfishes.
183895		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183895		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, as this species is found on rocky and coral reefs, more information and research is needed about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival or habitat. For example, Eastern Pacific coral reefs have developed under restricted conditions, and possibly represent the most extreme situation in the history of coral reefs (Cortes 1997). Also, commercial fishing by spear and handline may pose a local threat to populations in some regions.
183896		conservation	eng	This species is only found in Bahia de San Quintin, which is a 4,000 ha (40 km²) lagoon classified as protected habitat, and characterized as a high productivity zone due to the presence of <em>Zostera</em> and <em>Spartina</em> seagrass beds.
183896		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the 40 km² Bahia San Quintin, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Hubbs 1952).
183896		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow tidepools and upper reef flat to depths of six m.
183896		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is currently considered to be very rare, although it has formerly been considered to be common.
183896		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural runoff and coastal development throughout its restricted range.
183897		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183897		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and around Malpelo (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183897		habitat	eng	This inhabits sand-mud trawling grounds (Robertson and Allen 2006).   It feeds on mobile benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods, bivalves, octupuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183897		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.  There is no population information for this species.
183897		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183898		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Conception, Chile.
183898		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over soft substrata (mud, sand, gravel, mangrove and estuaries) from 5 to 80m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic cruataceans and bony fishes.
183898		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is commonly caught in bycatch by shrimp trawlers, and by children using handlines from shore in Peru.
183898		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is commonly caught as bycatch by shrimp trawlers.
183899		conservation	eng	Juan Fernandez archipelago is recognized nationally and internationally as protected area. Further research on this species is needed on its biology, ecology, and distribution.
183899		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is only found in Juan Fernandez archipelago and Isla San Felix in the Desventuradas islands, Chile.
183899		habitat	eng	This species is found over rocky shores to depths of 30m.
183899		population	eng	According to Arana (2000) Umbrina reedi represents 7.8% of the principal catch (599 kg) from gillnet catches in Juan Fernandez in January and February 1997. There is no other information on populaton for this species.
183899		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is fished with gill nets, and local fishermen may use this species as bait for lobster cages, but there is no data to indicate that this is causing any population decline.
183900		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from three collections: the southwestern Gulf of California, Costa Rica, and the Galapagos Islands (Bedenbaugh 1988).
183900		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found over muddy/sandy soft substrate at depths from 90 to 255 m.
183900		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183900		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183901		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183901		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and from central Mexico to northern Peru.
183901		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters along shores and in estuaries to depths of 30 m. According to Cooke (1992), <em>C. squamipinnis</em> is occasionally found in middle estuaries, mangroves and coastal lagoons. For example, in Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered an occasional visitor in one mangrove area (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans.
183901		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it is likely a common species throughout its range.
183901		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is common in commercial and subsistance fisheries throughout its range. For example, it is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté 2006), Panama.
183902		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its range falls entire into the Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Cocos Island (Bussing 1990).
183902		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, and may inhabit deep rocky substrata from 90 to 150 m (Bussing 1990).
183902		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be uncommon.
183902		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is restricted to a small island where regional endemics may be threatened by localized stochastic threats including oceanographic environmental changes caused by ENSO and climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although this deep-water species is unlikely to be threatened by ENSO and climate change events, more research is needed to determine if there are any threats to this poorly known and very restricted range species.
183903		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183903		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from central Baja California, throughout the Gulf of California (except in the northernmost region), to northernmost Peru.
183903		habitat	eng	This species lives on sandy, muddy, and shell substrata, feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). This species is found from 45-160m.
183903		population	eng	This species is not common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183903		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183904		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183904		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Chiapas, Mexico to Peru, including the Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183904		habitat	eng	This costal, pelagic species (Collette, 2005) can be found in shallow waters and estuaries.
183904		population	eng	This species is particularly common in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica and Panama Bay (Collette, 1995).
183904		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183905		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183905		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific only near the Revillagigedo and Clipperton Islands (Robertson and Allen, 1996).
183905		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found in shallow waters to 20m depth among rocks and sand (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1993).
183905		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183905		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species. Although this species distribution is restricted to 5 islands within the two island groups, and lives in a relatively shallow water habitat, current or future ENSO/climate change events are not expected to affect this species or its habitat type in these areas (Glynn and Ault, 2000).
183906		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183906		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183906		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata, frequently in estuaries and inlets. It is found from 1-35m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).
183906		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183906		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183907		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183907		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.
183907		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores. It can also be found in barnacle and worm tubes in rocky and coral reef.
183907		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183907		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183908		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls fully within the Cocos and Galapagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183908		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Galapagos and Cocos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998), and possibly Malpelo Island.
183908		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits sand and rubble substrate to depths of 200m.
183908		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183908		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183909		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species may occur in one or two marine protected areas within its range.
183909		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few localities around the northern town of Barquito, in Valparaiso, Chile.
183909		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky bottoms to depths of 15m.
183909		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species has been commonly collected, but in small numbers at each collection (J. Williams pers comm.).
183909		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183910		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183910		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from the eastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru.
183910		habitat	eng	This coastal pelagic species forms schools is found near-shore in coastal areas  (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995; Whitehead, 1985).
183910		population	eng	This is the least abundant species of Opisthonema in the Eastern Pacific (Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sanchez, 1995; Whitehead, 1985).
183910		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183911		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183911		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.
183911		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
183911		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183911		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183912		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. As this species has a very restricted range and is primarily found in near-shore areas and estuaries, more information is needed on number of locations, general abundance and severity of threats for this species.
183912		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from southern Ecuador and northern Peru. The current range is based on historical records, and no recent specimens are known.
183912		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabitat coastal areas on sandy or muddy substrate, entering brackish estuaries and river mouths.
183912		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183912		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given its very restricted range, fishing and historic mangrove clearance are likely threats to this species and its habitat, as well as oil exploration and production in the area.
183913		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
183913		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on the Eastern Pacific coast from northern Peru to Chile.
183913		habitat	eng	This species probably inhabits similar habitats to Sciaena deliciosa, and found over soft substrata.
183913		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183913		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183914		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183914		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Bussing 1983).
183914		habitat	eng	This species is found over soft sandy substrate on shallow beaches, estuaries and mangroves to a depth of four m.
183914		population	eng	This species is uncommon within its range.
183914		threats	eng	This species has a restricted range and is dependent on shallow water, near-shore habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction and coastal development for urbanization, aquaculture and tourism throughout its range is a major threat for this species (Jiménez 1994). However, the percent of mangrove destruction and coastal development within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.<br/><br/>In addition, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
183915		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measures for this species, although this species may be present in areas that contain mangrove habitat (WDPA 2006).
183915		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to Costa Rica and Panama.
183915		habitat	eng	This species lives in intertidal sand substrate in bays, beaches and estuaries to depths of 6m, and generally in association with mangrove roots.
183915		population	eng	This species moderately common within its range in suitable habitat.
183915		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are mangrove destruction for coastal development.
183916		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183916		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Colombia, including Isla Gorgona and Cocos Island (Hoese and Reader 2001). However, this species' distribution is patchy as it exists only suitable habitat.
183916		habitat	eng	This cryptic species inhabits sandy-rubble substrate close to reefs to depths of 20 m. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986) this species was recorded frequent in coralline substrate.
183916		population	eng	This species is uncommon in suitable habitat.
183916		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect this species habitat.
183917		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183917		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador and possibly northern Peru.
183917		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore along sandy beaches and in tide streams, and also forms large schools in brackish river mouths. It is found as deep as 10m. Juveniles up to 7 cm occur on beaches and in bays, thereafter moving further from the shore.  It feeds by filtering phytoplankton and zooplankton, and it has a pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183917		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183917		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important in minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). There is a no targeted fishery for this species; it is used as bait.
183918		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  It is not known from any Marine Protected Areas.
183918		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Central Pacific from Costa Rica to Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). Given its restricted range and shallow water sandy habitat, it is estimated that this species area of occupancy is less than 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.
183918		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate to 30m depth, and feeds on mobile invertebrates.
183918		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183918		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183919		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183919		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador.
183919		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over sandy mud bottoms to depths of 60 m.
183919		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is rare in the Gulf of California.
183919		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183920		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183920		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from El Salvador to Colombia (Walker and Bollinger 2001).
183920		habitat	eng	This species can be found over soft substrataa in coastal areas and in estuaries and mangrove swamps. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from two to 40 m, typically in depths less than 18 m.
183920		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183920		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183921		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183921		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Peru (excluding the Gulf of Tehuantepec and Guatemala), including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183921		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is often seen in shallow water to depths of 25m. It feeds mainly at night on crustaceans and fishes (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 1979).
183921		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183921		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183922		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
183922		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja and southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183922		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic fish that occurs in coastal waters, perhaps entering brackish water. It is found to 10m. It feeds mainly on small fishes (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).  This species inhabits inshore waters over soft substrata, sometimes entering estuaries, and it may feed on a variety of zooplankton.  It has pelagic eggs and larvae.
183922		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183922		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183923		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183923		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja and the Gulf of California, to northern Peru, including Cocos Island and the Galapagos archipelago.
183923		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives over sandy substrate with gravel and isolated reefs. Each individual functions first as a female but later changes to a male (Gomon 1995).
183923		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is uncommonly collected in small mesh trawls between El Salvador and Panama.
183923		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it has been caught in the open sea as by-catch of trawlers fishing for prawns and shrimps (Gomon 1995).
183924		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
183924		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Peru north to Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador.
183924		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtidal rocky shores.
183924		population	eng	There is no population informaiton available for this species.
183924		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183925		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species is found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
183925		distribution	eng	This insular species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific with resident populations in the Galapagos and Cocos islands; and with other recorded sighting from the continental mainland at Panama, Ecuador, and northern Peru.
183925		habitat	eng	This species hovers just above the substrate in mixed areas of sand, gravel, and boulders. It buries in the sand at night (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is found from 5-20m.
183925		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183925		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
183926		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183926		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Morro Bay in central California, USA to the tip of Baja California, and in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183926		habitat	eng	This species lives on shallow sand and mud substrate in coastal lagoons and estuaries, including mangroves to depths of 4m.
183926		population	eng	This species is moderately common in the majority of its range. It is less abundant where this species and its congener, Q. guaymasiae co-occur. In a mangrove swamp in La Paz Bay, Baja California, it was considered rare, with an occurrence frequency of 2% (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183926		threats	eng	This shallow-water, near-shore species is threatened by coastal development and mangrove destruction, particularly by shrimp aquaculture in the Gulf of california.
183927		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More information on this species' population, range, habitat requirements, and threats are needed.
183927		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found along the coast of Costa Rica and Panama.
183927		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is found along edges of slow moving rivers and streams near the fresh/salt water interface and farther upstream.
183927		population	eng	This species is uncommon within its range, although this may be due to its cryptic nature.
183927		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect habitat quality.
183928		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183928		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the tip of Baja California and in the Gulf of California, although it is absent from the southeastern Gulf (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183928		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep nearshore areas over sand and sandy mud soft substrates to depths of 136m (Oda, 1991; Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).
183928		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is uncommon, at least in the Gulf of California, and most often caught in deeper waters.
183928		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activities, but it usually lives in deeper water where the boats don't operate.
183929		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.
183929		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Americas, mainly in tropical seas. In the western Atlantic it is found from from Belize to Brazil (Harrison 2002). In the eastern Pacific it is found from southern Baja California (probably excluding the Gulf of California) to Ecuador.
183929		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal marine and estuarine areas, and tends to occur over sandy and muddy substrata. It may be found over rocky substrate. It is found to 10 m.
183929		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. In general, this species is not considered to be uncommon, but is less common than other Mugilidae species.
183929		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
183930		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes many of the Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183930		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, and includes the Revillagigedos and the Galapagos  islands.
183930		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated and uncommon species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999) though it has a wide distribution.  It inhabits rocky areas of shallow waters, feeding on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.  This species is viviparous and has pelagic larvae. This species is known from 5 to 20m but may be found in shallower waters.
183930		population	eng	This is an uncommon species. It lives in crevices in rocky reef and is difficult to collect. No population data is available for this species.
183930		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183931		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183931		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific  extends from central California to Peru (at least to Callao), including the Gulf of California (Watson and Sandknop 1996).
183931		habitat	eng	This is a schooling species found in coastal waters to 10 m. It forms dense schools along shores and estuarine areas with salinities slightly lower than that of fully marine waters. This species feeds on planktonic crustaceans (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae (Watson and Sandknop 1996).
183931		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183931		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries and is utilized as bait (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183932		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183932		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from northern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru.
183932		habitat	eng	This species is common in coastal waters less than 20m depth and enters coastal lagoons and fresh water. It feeds on crustaceans, small fishes, polychaetes, and occasionally detritus. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Krupp, 1995). This species is found from 1-55m.
183932		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.
183932		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183933		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution is included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.
183933		distribution	eng	This wastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California, and the Gulf of California (excluding the northernmost region), to northern Peru.
183933		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft substrata over a depth range of 23-233m.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes.
183933		population	eng	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information available for this species.
183933		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br><br><br>This species has minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and utilized fresh or as fishmeal (Hensley 1995).
183934		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Central America.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.
183934		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the Fonseca Gulf to Panama (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183934		habitat	eng	This species occurs along sandy shores forming large schools.  It is found at depths to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
183934		population	eng	No population data is available for this species. It can be very rare in Costa Rica.
183934		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of any regional endemic species in any coastal habitats. This species is bycatch in Panamanian shrimp trawling activities (Medina pers. comm.).
183935		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183935		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru with one record from northern Chile during an El Niño year.
183935		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found along sandy shores and bays to depths of 30m. It can also be found in estuaries. It feeds mainly on marine worms and other benthic invertebrates.
183935		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183935		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183936		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Costa Rica.
183936		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to Costa Rica.
183936		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated fish that inhabits rocky crevices, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous (Møller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is found from 0-18m.
183936		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183936		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
183937		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard these Galápagos endemic species.
183937		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and only known from the Galápagos archipelago, with an unconfirmed record from Clipperton Atoll. However, current taxonomy shows this species to have a disjunct distribution involving Galápagos, Clipperton and Gulf of California populations, and more research is required to validate this species' taxonomy and distribution.
183937		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found on sand and gravel substrate in coastal waters (Eschmeyer 1998). <em>Orthopristis</em> species are commonly found on sand near reefs.
183937		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183937		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species. However, given its restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). Populations of haemulid species (<em>Orthopristis</em> spp., <em>Anisotremus interruptus</em> and <em>A. scapularis</em>, <em>Haemulon scudderi</em>) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Niño, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.
183938		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species region-wide distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183938		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
183938		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species found on reefs and soft substrata near beaches and estuaries to 70m. It actively hunts at night, preying on small fish.
183938		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species relatively common.
183938		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183939		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on threats to this species population and habitat status.
183939		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in less than five locations in Panama (including the Tuyra estuary, Parita Bay, and the Gulf of Montijo), with its range only possibly extending northward to Costa Rica. Given that it is only known from less than five mangrove and estuarine areas in Panama, its area of occupancy is estimated to be well below 2,000 km².
183939		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in fresh and brackish waters to depths of 20 m, mangroves, river mouths and in the middle parts of rivers. It can be found in rivers up to 30 km from the sea (Cooke and Tapia 1994).
183939		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Where found, this species is common in rivers in central Panama (Cooke and Tapia 1994).
183939		threats	eng	Coastal development, river and coastal pollution, and mangrove extraction are major threats throughout its restricted range.
183940		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183940		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Baja California and the lower 2/3 Gulf of California to Chile; and all the oceanic islands except Clipperton. (Chirichigno 1974).
183940		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits crevices and ledges of weed-covered rocky and coral reefs. It is found to 160m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, cuttlefish, squid, and bony fishes (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2006).
183940		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is considered to be common, but not abundant, in Coco island and Guanacaste province (Costa Rica).
183940		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183941		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay Marine National Park, Cabo Pulmo Marine National Park, and Alto Gulfo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
183941		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct distribution. It is found in southern California, USA and northern Baja California, Mexico and in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California.
183941		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits worm tubes on sand-rubble substrate adjacent to reefs.
183941		population	eng	This species is considered common in the Gulf of California.
183941		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, other than it has an intrinsically restricted and disjunct range.
183942		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.  Further research is needed to determine whether or not there are any threats affecting this species.
183942		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific.  It is distributed over eastern Pacific insular locations specifically the Revillagigedos, Cocos, and Galapagos islands. Along the mainland, this species has a very restricted geographic range and is only known from around the tip of Baja California.
183942		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand or gravel substrata in shallow waters. This species is found from one to 75 m.
183942		population	eng	This is a rare species. There is no population information for this species.
183942		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
183943		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Galápagos Islands and Malpelo Island National Parks and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WDPA 2006).
183943		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos and Malpelo Islands.
183943		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species occurs in a wide range of habitats to depths of 25 m, from boulder strewn slopes and rocky reefs to ledges and undercuts along wall faces (Humann and Deloach 1993).
183943		population	eng	This species is considered common, and is the most abundant member of its genus in the Galápagos. The overall mean abundance for the species in Galapagos island was 2.55 (per 500 m²) (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).
183943		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183944		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183944		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja California to Panama.
183944		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy substrate.
183944		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183944		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183945		conservation	eng	This species is found in at least one protected area (Lake Budi in Chile has a protected area status). However, within this area native people are permitted to catch this species (Melendez-Cortes pers. comm.). More research is needed on its taxonomy, as well as the impact of current fishing efforts and coastal development on this species' population.
183945		distribution	eng	This species is known from Budi Lake and Laguna Torca in south and central Chile (Kong and Valdez 1990). However, the range may be larger than this because <em>Micropogonias</em> typically migrates along coasts and into estuaries.
183945		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow coastal lagoons to depths of 20 m. No other information is available on habitat and ecology. <em>Micropogonias</em> typically migrates along coasts and into estuaries, although this species has only been collected from two lagoons in central Chile.
183945		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, catches of this species were 19 t in 2005, 25 t in 2006, and then dropped to two t in 2007, and three t in 2008. However, no effort data is available to better understand this drop in catch (Servicio National de Pesca Chile, 2009).
183945		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing from artisinal fisheries (there has been a continuous local fishery for this species in Budi for over 50 years), and contamination of coastal lagoons caused by human activities such as tourism.
183946		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183946		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the eastern Gulf of California to Colombia.
183946		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow areas to depths of 20m, but is not common in brackish waters with low salinity. It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates.
183946		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183946		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.
183947		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183947		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, ranging from Costa Rica to Peru.
183947		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mud and sand substrate to depths of 120 m.
183947		population	eng	This species is abundant within suitable habitat. However, it is known mostly from trawls, and numbers in some areas may have declined due to heavy shrimp trawling activities.
183947		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this deep-water species. However, shrimp trawling in some regions of its range may threaten this species, especially in areas of high activity. For example, this fish is commonly caught by trawlers in Panama Bay as bycatch (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183948		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183948		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos, Malpelo, Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands.
183948		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in inshore reef areas over hard substrate to depths of at least 60m. It is tolerant of freshwater (Bussing, 1998), and juveniles are common in estuaries. For example, only small individuals were captured in mangrove areas in the Gulf of Montijo, which suggests that this area is mostly used for breeding and reproduction (Vega, 2004).
183948		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>The mean abundance of the species in Galapagos Island was 0.44 individuals / 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Gorgona Island, Colombia, the annual density was 0.693 (no./ 10 m<sup>2</sup>), and the frequency of observation was 36.4% (Zapata and Morales, 1997).
183948		threats	eng	The loss of mangroves throughout its range from coastal development may also negatively impact the availability and quality of nursery areas for juveniles of this species.
183949		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the Tres Marias are designated as the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). There is a need for further survey work to determine the current distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and potential threats for this species.
183949		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the type locality at Isla San Juanito, in the Tres Marias Islands, Mexico (Rosenblatt and Parr 1969).
183949		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species is poorly known, but was collected in a rocky coastal area at depths of 10 m.
183949		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from the type locality.
183949		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183950		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Revillagigedo Islands complex (WDPA 2006).
183950		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Revillagigedo Islands in the eastern central Pacific (Bussing 1990).
183950		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species lives in small recesses of rocky reefs, slopes and walls to depths of 20 m.
183950		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183950		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183951		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183951		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from San Diego, California, USA to Peru, including the Gulf of California and the Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
183951		habitat	eng	This species is found in surface inshore areas and estuaries waters.
183951		population	eng	This species may be the most common inshore halfbeak in the Eastern Pacific. However, abundance of fish species collected in el Conchalito mangrove swamp, Baja California reported 1.09 individuals/ha during summer season, and it has also been described as a rare species (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).
183951		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183952		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Alto Gulfo Biosphere Reserve, Loreto Bay Marine National Park and Cabo Pulmo National Park (WDPA 2006).
183952		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found off of southern Baja California and in the Gulf of California, Mexico.
183952		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow waters and in calm rocky areas (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997). It is primarily found in mollusk tubes and barnacles on rocky reefs.
183952		population	eng	This species may be locally common in suitable habitat.
183952		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
183953		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183953		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the western Gulf of California, Mexico to eastern Panama, including the Clipperton, Cocos and Galapagos Islands. It is absent from Gulf of Tehuantepec and Guatemala.
183953		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is cryptic and inhabits rocky crevices in shallow water habitats. It feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999, Allen and Robertson, 1994).
183953		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183953		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183954		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183954		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to northern Peru.
183954		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in coastal waters to depths of 50 m. Juveniles enter estuaries and shallow bays. It feeds mainly on shrimps and fishes.
183954		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is considered a common species.
183954		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183955		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183955		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few historical records in the southwestern Gulf of California and around Guerrero, central Mexico.
183955		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species in rocky and rubble areas to depths of 35 m.
183955		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. The few specimens that are know were from collections before 1975.
183955		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183956		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183956		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.
183956		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal areas on sandy or muddy substrate, generally in estuaries near mangroves.
183956		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered to be reasonably common, as it is often found in shallow trawl catches in Panama.
183956		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183957		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183957		distribution	eng	This species is found from Canada to Baja California, and the upper Gulf of California.
183957		habitat	eng	This species is found in marine and brackish waters (Robertson and Allen 2002) down to depths of 26m. This species is commonly found in bays, muddy and rocky areas and kelp beds, and is also common in estuaries (Watson 1996). Adults feed on zooplankton (Lavenberg 1995), while juveniles feed on algae, kelp, and fly larvae (Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg 1975).  Juvenile and adults will move into shallow waters and feed on the bottom (Emmett 1991). This fish is a demersal spawner in nearshore habitats (Shanks 2005) that is oviparous, with planktonic, primarily neustonic larvae (Watson 1996).  Eggs are benthic, larvae are planktonic, and juveniles and adults are schooling pelagic fish. Eggs are attached to spawning substrate and to one another by adhesive filaments (Watson 1996). Eggs are laid primarily on eelgrass (Zostera spp.) and adhere to macroalgae on tidal flats.  Larvae are often found over soft, unconsolidated sediments and other substrates.  Juveniles and adults occur along sandy beaches, in kelp beds, over rocky reefs, and around piers (Emmett 1991).
183957		population	eng	It is considered to be a common species.
183957		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. However, this species is found in commercial fisheries and is also taken by sport fishermen.
183958		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183958		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct distribution. It is found in the southwestern Gulf of California, in southern Mexico, and from El Salvador to southern Panama (Bussing 1990).
183958		habitat	eng	This cryptic species is poorly known, is associated with subtidal rocky reefs, and has been found at depths from 5 to 32 m.
183958		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is rare and only known from a few specimens.
183958		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183959		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of the species.
183959		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the type locality in Esmeraldas, Ecuador and three collecting localities in Colombia (USMS-Smithsonian collections: 00299956, 00299952, 00299955).
183959		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species has been found in tide pools and shallow rocky habitat to depths of 10 m.
183959		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. Although described from only two specimens collected from a tide pool (Springer and Rosenblatt 1965), additional specimens from the type locallity have since been located. There are also three specimens in USNM collections collected in 1969 and 1970.
183959		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183960		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183960		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the Gulf of California to Panama. However, this species is only known from a few records, and this distribution needs to be verified.
183960		habitat	eng	This benthic species it thought to inhabit nearshore soft substrate to depths of 10 m.
183960		population	eng	There is no population information for this species, it is only known from a few records.
183960		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
183961		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species.
183961		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll in assocation with its four km² area of reefs, and therefore has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 10 km².
183961		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs and associated calcareous rock habitat (Allen 1991) to depths of 100 m. It is omnivorous, feeds on benthic microalgae, sessile crustacea and worms and mobile benthic crustacea.
183961		population	eng	According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species was relatively commonly at the Clipperton Atoll.
183961		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.<br/><br/>However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.
183962		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species does not fall within existing Marine Protected Areas. However, it is recommended that current and future Marine Protected Areas should be designed to include mangrove habitat and to protect marine, freshwater and estuarine species dependent upon them for breeding and feeding, etc.
183962		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to Ecuador (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).
183962		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy, muddy substrate of shallow waters to depths of 10 m. Although the biology of this species is poorly known, the adults are known to inhabit mangroves, and are also often associated with non-marine wetlands.The diversity and abundance of this species in its mangrove habitat is dependent on food availablity and environmental fluctuations caused by climatic and hydrologic variations (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Generation length is not known for this species, but is estimated to be at least 5-7 years, as many eels are considered to have a life span of at least 20 years.
183962		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183962		threats	eng	In many parts of the Eastern Tropical Pacific, mangrove habitats are threatened by extraction, destruction from coastal development, and oceanographic and environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming. It is estimated that between 1960 and 1988 at least 43% of mangroves on the Pacific coast of Panama have been lost (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996). Between 1976 and 1989, at least 65% of mangroves were removed in Colombia, and between 1966 and 1989, at least 80% of mangroves were removed from the coast of Ecuador (Mastaller 1996). Based on these same rates of loss, it is estimated that at least 25% of mangroves have been removed within this species' range over the past 10-15 years.
183963		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area (WPDA, 2006).
183963		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found primarily in the Revillagigedos Islands, but has also been recorded from central Baja California, the Gulf of California, and off of central Mexico.
183963		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs and coral areas (Allen 1991) to depths of 18 m.
183963		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant. For example, it is very abundant in the Revillagigedo Islands. In general, it is primarily an insular species, where it occurs abundantly, and is generally uncommon along the continental coast. An estimated 90% of its population (R. Robertson, pers comm) is confined to a single location in the Revillagigedo Islands.
183963		threats	eng	Given its shallow-water, reef-associated habitat, and the estimation that 90% of its population is found in one location (Revillagigedo Islands), this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km2. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
183964		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More studies about the taxonomy and the population status for this species are needed.
183964		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and along the southern coast of Mexico to Panama.
183964		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that lives over deep sandy and muddy substrata from 100-110 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995).
183964		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
183964		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183965		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific or general conservation measures.
183965		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific stretching from southern Ecuador to Peru, and is found in the Galapagos and Malpelo islands. Also, it occurs in New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989).
183965		habitat	eng	This pelagic oceanodromous species is found along shore and in the open oceanic waters from 10-300 m. It forms schools. It feeds mainly on fish larvae and small crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species occurs in upwelling areas, and is migratory.
183965		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.  Abundance is cyclical according to oceanographic conditions.
183965		threats	eng	It is unknown if current levels of exploitation are causing widespread population decline.&#160; This is a targeted commercial species with 0.7-1.2 million metric tons harvested annually. Reported landings were 3,852,928 t in 1990,&#160; mainly from Chile and the USSR (each with more than 500,000 t). <br/><br/>It is marketed fresh (Smith-Vaniz 1995). It is utilized canned for human consumption and also made into fishmeal (Frimodt 1995).This species is typically caught in seines.
183966		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
183966		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to southern Ecuador and northern Peru.
183966		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. Based on knowledge of closely related species, this demersal species likely inhabits rocky and coral reefs.
183966		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
183966		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183967		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). Increased monitoring is needed to determine the effect of shrimp and other trawling activities on this species population.
183967		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to southern Peru.
183967		habitat	eng	This demersal species lives on sandy and muddy substrate in deep waters, feeding on fishes and invertebrates.
183967		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183967		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183968		conservation	eng	Malpelo is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (WDPA 2006). It is a Special Sensitive Zone under the International Marine Organization. Given the extremely limited distribution of this species, the species requires close population monitoring.
183968		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Malpelo Island, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km².
183968		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and worm or mollusc tubes on shallow rocky reefs.
183968		population	eng	This species is considered to be locally common.
183968		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. In addition, this species' unique shallow water habitat may be threatened by increases in tourism and coastal development on Malpelo Island.
183969		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the northeastern Pacific region. More information/research about the life history, ecology, population size and trend, and possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.
183969		distribution	eng	This is a northeast Pacific temperate species. The geographic range extends from Oregon to the Gulf of California.
183969		habitat	eng	This species is demersal, inhabitating offshore waters. It is oviparous with pelagic eggs and larvae, and it feeds on zooplankton. It is found from 10-300 m.
183969		population	eng	The species is considered common where it occurs.
183969		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There are no known commercial uses for this species but it can be found in fisheries as bycatch.
183970		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
183970		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru. There are also records of specimens off the central west coast of Baja California and southern California, USA.
183970		habitat	eng	This benthic shelf species is found to depths of up to 650 m. However, juveniles are common on reefs (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183970		population	eng	This species is not considered to be rare. No other population information is available for this species.
183970		threats	eng	This species is important in commercial fisheries. In Ecuador, Colombia and northern Peru, there is a dedicated fishery for this species. In other areas, it is occasionally caught in other artesian fisheries or as by-catch (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Colombia, this species is the largest in size and the most important to fisheries from the genus, as it can reach more than one m in length and eight kg in weight (Franke and Acero 1995). Based on fisheries institute reports and observation, populations in South America have been rapidly declining due to increased fishing pressure over the past 15 years.
183971		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183971		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.  One specimen was reportedly captured near Channel Islands off Santa Barbara in southern California, USA (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
183971		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy mud bottoms of trawling grounds to depths of 200m.
183971		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range, such as in the Gulf of California.
183971		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It occasionally occurs in bycatch of shrimp trawling in the Gulf of California.
183972		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and Gulf of California to southern Peru.
183972		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and penetrates estuaries (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 30m. This species is most commonly found in shallow, near-shore beaches.
183972		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183972		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br><br>This species is incidentally caught. It is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
183973		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183973		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru.
183973		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on sand-mud substrate of shallow coastal seas. It can sometimes be found in estuaries, but prefers marine habitat.
183973		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the Gulf of California and Nicaragua. However, it has not been observed in Colombia or Ecuador. It is present but not common in the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica (Rojas 2001).
183974		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183974		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to northern Peru.
183974		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on zooplankton.
183974		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183974		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183975		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.
183975		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from El Salvador to northern Peru (Birdsong, 1981).
183975		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits mangroves streams and channels with mud substrata to depths of 6m.(Birdsong, 1981).
183975		population	eng	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.
183975		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.
183976		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183976		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.
183976		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky and coral reefs from 25 to 250m.  It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.
183976		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not considered common, but is cryptic and may be overlooked. For example, it is considered rare in Malpelo Island. It may be more abundant at greater depths. For example, it is considered common between 50 and 100 m at Clipperton Island (Robertson, pers comm 2007).
183976		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Because it is a deep-water species, it is unlikely that collection for the aquarium trade is a threat to this species.
183977		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183977		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern Los Angeles Harbor, California, USA, to Paita, Peru (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002), although being relatively rare north of Baja California, Mexico. The record from off Paita, Peru, was based on a single juvenile specimen (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).
183977		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries, on sand and mud bottom (Schneider 1995) to depths of 20 m. It is also found along sandy beaches (Motomura 2004) and sand-mud bottoms of bays and river mouths. This fish seems to be regularly observed in middle estuaries and mangroves (Cooke 1992). It feeds on mobile benthic invertebrates (Robertson and Allen 2006).
183977		population	eng	This species can be locally common.<br><br>In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in sandy bottoms while occasional in coralline and rocky bottoms.
183977		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish in the eastern tropical Pacific (Motomura 2004). In addition, local populations may potentially be affected by mangrove clearing, pollution and estuary development.
183978		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.
183978		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the western Gulf of California to western Panama, including the Galapagos and Cocos Island.
183978		habitat	eng	This demersal species lives on soft substrata at depths of 75 to 265m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefishes, and bony fishes.
183978		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183978		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183979		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into at least one Marine Protected Area in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). This species is best protected in the small coral reef area at Cabo Pulmo Baja California Sur.
183979		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is known only from the tip of Baja California, the Tres Marias Islands, and central Mexico (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its distribution is disjunct and poorly known.
183979		habitat	eng	This cryptic species can be found in tidepools and in subtidal areas of rocky and coral reef shores.
183979		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is uncommon within its range.
183979		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species' habitat may be threatened by localised construction in coastal areas for urbanisation and tourism.
183980		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183980		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to central Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.
183980		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef-associated species lives in empty tube-worm snail shells, often extending the head from the opening. It feeds by joining loose groups of look-alike rainbow wrasse and darting out to nip at nearby fish, taking mucus and perhaps small bits of flesh (Humann and Deloach, 1993). The skin of larger fishes is the mainstay of the diet, although they are also known to eat eggs (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).
183980		population	eng	This species is considered common in most parts of its range. In the Galapagos, the mean abundance for the species  was 11 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Costa Rica and near Gorgona Island, Colombia, however, this species has been found to have a lower occurence and density (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005; Espinoza and Salas, 2005; Mora and Zapata, 2004).
183980		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183981		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given that this species is found in brackish waters in muddy burrows, it is not well known and more information is needed on this species ecology and potential threats.
183981		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern El Salvador to Peru.
183981		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits brackish tidal rivers, estuaries and fresh water, and is often found in muddy burrows.
183981		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout its range.
183981		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183982		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More research is needed to determine the complete distribution, habitat, ecology, population size and population trends of this species.
183982		distribution	eng	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from the Gulf of Fonseca to northern Peru, and also reachs Malpelo island.
183982		habitat	eng	This fish lives over soft substrata, feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found from 90-310 m.
183982		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
183982		threats	eng	This species has no major threats. This species is found in commercial fisheries and is used as fish meal.
183983		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.
183983		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru (Birdsong 1981).
183983		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to mud substrate and brackish waters in mangroves channels to depths of six m.
183983		population	eng	This species is moderately common within its specific habitat.
183983		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species' habitat.
183984		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183984		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia.
183984		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits shallow coastal waters (Chao, 1995) to depths of 20m. According to Cooke (1992) , it  occurs regularly in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. For example, in Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered to be transient or an occasional visitor in two mangroves areas (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).
183984		population	eng	This species is moderately common throughout its range.
183984		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered important for artisenal fishing in many parts of its range, and is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp fisheries in the Gulf of California.
183985		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183985		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru, including all the offshore Islands.
183985		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found in reefs subjected to surges, generally to depths of 65 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish was found in the zone of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
183985		population	eng	This species is moderately common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.59 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was not found in surveys at Gulf of Papagayo (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005), Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) or Catalinas Island (Espinoza and Salas 2005), in Costa Rica. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>T. grammaticum</em> is a rare species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency below 10%. <br/><br/>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered abundant — more than 5% of the overall abundance registered — with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, México, this fish was not captured within 12 month-long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). At Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales 1997), this species is less abundant, with a density of 0.0007 (±0.007) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 1.2%. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish was commonly collected and apparently abundant enough to have a resident population at Clipperton Atoll.
183985		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
183986		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183986		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru.
183986		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found inshore, usually on muddy bottoms, to depths of 20m. It also enters estuaries and mangrove areas (Cooke, 1992).
183986		population	eng	This species in abundant in many parts of its range.
183986		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh, but many times is sold under the name of other more socially acceptable, higher-priced species such as sciaenids "corvinata" (Cooke, 1993). It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke, 1992).
183987		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
183987		distribution	eng	This species endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is only known from the type locality thought to be in northwestern of Gulf of California.
183987		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known.
183987		population	eng	This species is only known from one collection locality, which may be erroneous.
183987		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183988		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183988		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island.
183988		habitat	eng	This is a benthic fish that inhabits sandy bottoms to depths of 145m.
183988		population	eng	There is no available population information for this species. However, it is a common species throughout its range.
183988		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, especially as it prefers deeper waters.
183989		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183989		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Jalisco, Mexico, to northern Peru.
183989		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and bays to depths of 20m. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and mollusks.
183989		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183989		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183990		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
183990		distribution	eng	Among the species of <em>Exocoetus</em> this species has the most limited distribution. It occurs in only a small zone in the southeastern part of the tropical eastern Pacific from Ecuador to southern Peru (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000).
183990		habitat	eng	It is an oceanic pelagic species. It is found at depths to five m.
183990		population	eng	This species was recently described and is known from about 50 specimens. There is no other population information available for this species.
183990		threats	eng	There are no known threats.
183991		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183991		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from British Columbia to the lower Gulf of California to central Peru, including all the oceanic islands except the Clipperton Islands.
183991		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate (Schneider and Krupp, 1995), but can also be found over soft sand and mud substrate.
183991		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range. For example, it is considered common in Malpelo at deeper depths, but is uncommon in Nicaragua and in the Gulf of California.
183991		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is heavily fished in the Gulf of California in sport and commercial fisheries and is also regularly taken in shrimp bycatch.
183993		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183993		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, but the northern and southern limits of its distribution have not been resolved. In some reports, it is found from Santa Ana in southern California, USA, to Panama (Watson 1996), including the Cocos Islands. Past records have reported this species from Peru and the Galapagos Islands (Chirichigno 1974), while more recent reports place this species southern limit near Mazatlan, Mexico (Collette 1995).
183993		habitat	eng	This is a coastal pelagic species. Adults are found near shore, frequently in coastal bays at or near the surface. This species often forms small schools and occasionally enters fresh waters (Collette 1995).
183993		population	eng	There is nothing known about this species' population status or trends.
183993		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, since it is a nearshore species that penetrates fresh waters, it may be threatened by coastal development and pollution.
183994		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
183994		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern California through the Gulf of California to Peru, and all the oceanic islands.
183994		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated, inhabiting reef crevices at depths to 50m. It is found in cracks, crevices, under ledge overhangs, and other recesses on rocky reefs, steep slopes, and especially on walls.  Small individuals often stay near the protective spines of long spined urchin, (Humann and Deloach 1993).
183994		population	eng	This species is considered to be common.  There is no population information for this species.
183994		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.
183995		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183995		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island.
183995		habitat	eng	This demersal is found in shallow water to depths of 20 m, and can enter mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.
183995		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. <br><br>In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
183995		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
183996		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183996		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Nayarit, Mexico to central Peru.
183996		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries with high salinities to depths of 30 m. It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans.
183996		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183996		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Veg, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté 2006), Panama. Is also important for sport fishing (D'Croz <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is also likely common in the subsistence fisheries and caught as by-catch through shrimp trawling activity.
183997		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
183997		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Ecuador.
183997		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in shallow water to depths of 20m, but is not common in estuaries with low salinities. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.
183997		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
183997		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch and can be found in local markets.
183998		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
183998		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found from the Gulf of California to Tres Marias Islands, Mexico (Lea 1995).
183998		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
183998		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
183998		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
183999		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status and distribution of the species, as well as to better understand its habitat preferences.
183999		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is only known from two collections: the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (Briggs 1969), and around Buenaventura, Colombia (USNM collections). It has not been collected since 1970.
183999		habitat	eng	This benthic species is poorly known. The limited information available from collecting localities suggests it is associated with mangroves.
183999		population	eng	This species is known only from the original description, a series of eight specimens collected four decades ago (Briggs 1969), and two subsequent collections in 1969 and 1970.
183999		threats	eng	Major threats for this species are unknown. However, given this species' apparent association with mangroves, it is likely threatened by habitat loss from coastal development and extraction of mangroves throughout its restricted range.
184000		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
184000		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in eastern Pacific extends from El Salvador to Ecuador and probably farther south to northern Peru (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
184000		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters to 10m.  Studies in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, mention that it is confined to the inner parts, thus apparently tolerating lowered salinities with a preferred tropical climate. (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995)  It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
184000		population	eng	No population data is available for this species. It is common in Costa Rica.
184000		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.<br>There are no major commercial uses for this species at present. This species is of potential interest for fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
184001		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within the Revillagigedos Islands Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).
184001		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Revillagigedo Islands.
184001		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits shallow and rocky areas to depths of 10 m.
184001		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184001		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
184002		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species.
184002		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gorgona Island, Colombia in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (Acero 1981).
184002		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but probably lives in deep rocky reefs (Acero 1981).
184002		population	eng	This cryptic species is only known from the holotype specimen.
184002		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this deep-water species.
184003		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the majority of this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
184003		distribution	eng	This tropical eastern Pacific species is primarily found around the oceanic islands and from scattered records along the coasts of Costa Rica and western Panama.
184003		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is found near oceanic islands, and generally forms large schools (Smith-Vaniz 1995). It is found to 25m.
184003		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally common.
184003		threats	eng	There are no region-wide major threats for this species.
184004		conservation	eng	The Galápagos Islands are protected as a National Park, and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range. One possible mitigation measure to limit the effects of anchor damage to reef habitat is the use of buoys to provide mooring for boats.
184004		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.
184004		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits worm tubes on sand and rubble substrate to depths of 30 m. Males are territorial and vigorously defend their worm tube homes.
184004		population	eng	This species can be common in the right habitat, but is not considered abundant.
184004		threats	eng	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
184005		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
184005		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru (Lea 1995).
184005		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
184005		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184005		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184006		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
184006		distribution	eng	This species is found in the tropical eastern Pacific ranging from southern California to the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Galapagos.
184006		habitat	eng	This species is bathydemersal. It is found on soft substrata and also in estuarine areas. It is found from 15-600 m. It feeds on cephalapods as well as bony fishes.
184006		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
184006		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184007		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184007		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern central Pacific from the southern and central Gulf of California to Puerto Utria, Colombia, including the Revillagigedo Islands and Cocos Island (Watson, 1996).
184007		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species forms small schools in shallow bays and near coastal reefs (Lavenberg and Chernoff, 1995).  It is oviparous, with planktonic larvae (Watson, 1996).  Eggs are presumably attached to spawning substrate via adhesive filaments (Watson, 1996).
184007		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout most of its range.
184007		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184008		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).
184008		distribution	eng	This species is present in the tropical eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including all offshore oceanic islands.
184008		habitat	eng	This species is epipelagic in oceanic waters to 5m depth. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances above the surface.
184008		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184008		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184009		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184009		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Colombia.
184009		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found in shallow rocky and coral areas to depths of 20 m.
184009		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
184009		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184010		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
184010		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the western Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Galapagos and Malpelo islands.
184010		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is epipelagic in neritic coastal waters to 5m. It is capable of leaping and gliding considerable distances above the surface.
184010		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184010		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184011		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
184011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and northeastern Gulf of California (Hoese and Larson 1985).
184011		habitat	eng	This cryptic species inhabits rocky shores from the intertidal zone to deeper areas up to 32 m. The species is commonly found in rocky areas with extensive to considerable algal cover. It can also sometimes be found under sponges (Hoese and Larson 1985).
184011		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184011		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this restricted-range species. However, localized threats from coastal development and construction for tourism and urbanization may occur in some parts of its range.
184012		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary and Galapagos Island National Park.
184012		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California to the western Gulf of California and from central Mexico to Colombia, including the Galapagos, Revillagigedo and Malpelo Islands.
184012		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits sandy substrate.
184012		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it is commonly collected.
184012		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
184013		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184013		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Panama.
184013		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits flat sand substrate to 40m, and is cryptic.
184013		population	eng	This species is uncommon within its range.
184013		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184014		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184014		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and from El Salvador to Costa Rica.
184014		habitat	eng	This demersal, reef associated species inhabits empty invertebrate shelters along shallow coastal rocky areas, especially those characterized by boulders.
184014		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184014		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.
184015		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.
184015		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern tropical Pacific from Colombia to northern Peru, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos. Studies in El Parque Gorgona, Colombia, show a presence of this species in the area. (Franke and Acero 1996)
184015		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species found in sandy substrata. It is found from 50m to 110m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octopuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes.
184015		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
184015		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.<br><br><br>This species does not have commercial interest, it is captured using hooks and lines (Heemstra 1995).
184016		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184016		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from California to southern Baja, and an isolated population in the central and northern Gulf of California.
184016		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic, non-migratory species inhabits the intertidal region.  It can leave tide pools if aquatic conditions become inhospitable (Martin and Bridges, 1999). It is also found near or over rocks and in kelp beds up to about 30 m depth. It  can form dense schools in spring in kelp beds, and breathes air when it is out of water (Martin and Bridges, 1999).
184016		population	eng	The population is apparently stable in California, but in the Gulf of California, this species is considered rare.
184016		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184017		conservation	eng	There were no conservation measures known for this species. However, it was historically present in the Galápagos Islands Marine Protected Area. More survey work in other potential areas, such as the Los Lobos Islands in Peru, is needed to determine if this species has survived outside its historically known range.
184017		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands. However, there have been no recent sightings of this species. It has evidently disappeared from the Galápagos during the intense El Niño event of 1982-1983 (Grove 1985), when greatly increased sea temperatures had strong adverse effects on the islands marine fauna and flora. Its sister species, <em>A. hirundo</em> occurs in a similar environment, the Revillagigedos Islands, near the northern limit of the Eastern Tropical Pacific. It may be possible that populations of <em>A. eupalama</em> may still exist on islands off Peru that have warm temperate conditions, such as the Lobos Islands.
184017		habitat	eng	This  species inhabits rocky inshore reefs to depths of 30 m, often in open water near drop-offs.
184017		population	eng	This species may already be extinct (Robertson and Allen 2006). It was considered 'occasional' in 1977, and prior to 1982-1983 El Niño event, was recorded from Floreana, Española, Isabela, Marchena, Santiago, San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz, Santa Fe Islands in the Galapagos Archepelego. Numbers of this species were greatly reduced during 1982-1983 El Niño (Grove 1985), and there have been no sightings since that time.
184017		threats	eng	Oceanographic environmental changes associated with the 1982/1983 El Niño event is presumably responsible for the apparent disappearance of this species from the Galápagos. The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).
184018		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
184018		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific species is found from Costa Rica to northernmost Peru.
184018		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on soft substrata of shallow coastal areas (Bussing 1995). According to Cooke (1992), it may occasionally be found at middle regions of estuaries and in mangroves in Peru and Panama. It is found to 20m.
184018		population	eng	This species is common within its range. There is no population information available for this species.
184018		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184019		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184019		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to northern Peru.
184019		habitat	eng	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.
184019		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. However, it can be locally abundant.
184019		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.
184020		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It has been recorded from one Marine Protected Area in the Gulf of California: the Complejo Insular de Baja California Regiones Marines Prioritarias (WDPA 2006). There is a need for further research to determine the current population status, habitat requirements, and potential major threats for this species.
184020		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and central eastern Gulf of California. It is only known from a few specimens.
184020		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and inhabits empty mollusc shells on sand-rubble substrate.
184020		population	eng	This species is considered to be very rare. It has been collected only sporadically, and is only known from a few specimens. However, it has been recorded as abundant in the San Jose Islands, in the Gulf of California.
184020		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184021		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184021		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.
184021		habitat	eng	This demersal species can be found over sandy or muddy substrate of coastal waters and in estuaries near mangroves.
184021		population	eng	This species is common. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 8 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
184021		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184022		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). However, more information is needed to assess the extent of coastal development within its range, as well as its population and habitat status.
184022		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from southern Nicaragua to northern Peru.
184022		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs covered with algae in shallow waters, including tide pools. It can also be found in barnacles and worm tubes.
184022		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184022		threats	eng	This shallow-water species has a restricted distribution and very narrow depth range. Localized stochastic events including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events as well as coastal development may have detrimental effects on the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).
184023		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184023		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
184023		habitat	eng	This benthic, demersal species can be found over soft substrate in coastal waters to depths of 72m.
184023		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184023		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184024		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas as for example sand, mud and other areas with soft substrata.
184024		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from central Baja California to Peru, but is not present in the Gulf of California.
184024		habitat	eng	This is a demersal fish living over soft substrata, feeding on plankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Cohen 1990). It is found as deep as 330 m.
184024		population	eng	No population data is available for this species.
184024		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184025		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area of the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).
184025		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Cocos and the Galápagos Islands.
184025		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic species inhabits rocky shore and reefs to a depth of at least 18 m. It is a carnivore, feeding on mobile benthic crustaceans, worms and gastropods.
184025		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.  A recent survey made in different sites at Galápagos archipelago (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004) did not report this species.
184025		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
184026		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. If the range is extended through synonymy with H. klausewitzi, then its distribution will overlap with the Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
184026		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific form the southwestern Gulf of California and central Mexico to Panama. If this species is synonymous with H. klausewitzi, then its range would extend south through Colombia including Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos islands.
184026		habitat	eng	This demersal fish inhabits clean sand and feeds on zooplankton.
184026		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
184026		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184027		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.
184027		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica and Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).
184027		habitat	eng	This species lives on benthic-soft substrate in deeper waters from 100 to 240m.
184027		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
184027		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184028		conservation	eng	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a biosphere reserve (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.
184028		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Revillagigedo Islands (Briggs 1955).
184028		habitat	eng	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate to depths of 10 m.
184028		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184028		threats	eng	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.
184029		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184029		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Carmel Bay, California to the tip of Baja California including Guadalupe Island.
184029		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in subtidal rocky reef areas, often in caves and crevices from intertidal to 100m depth.
184029		population	eng	This species is moderately common within suitable habitat.  In Santa Catalina Island off of Baja California, this species was recorded to have a mean density of 0.01 ± 0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> (Pondella II <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184029		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats known for this species.
184030		conservation	eng	The range of the species overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas, including Humedal de Importancia Internacional Punta Patiño, a 30,000 ha RAMSAR site (WDPA 2006). Improved protection of remaining mangrove habitat in the range of the species is urgently needed.
184030		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, where it known from the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica to Darien, in the Gulf of Panamá.
184030		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found only in areas with <em>Rhizophora</em> mangrove prop roots. It is usually attached to root surfaces or moving about and feeding from them at high tide (Szelistowski 1990). Juveniles have been recorded from floating mangrove leaves, which they may use as a dispersal mechanism into mangrove root systems. Stomach contents contained barnacle cirri and barnacle cyprid larvae, <em>Sphaeroma peruvianum</em>, small oysters and other bivalves, amphipods, and harpacticoid copepods (Szelistowski 1990).
184030		population	eng	In suitable mangrove habitat, this is a common species. Szelistowski (1990) reported mean densities of 0.8-1.4 fish per mangrove root in his study area in the Gulf of Nicoya.
184030		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is extensive habitat loss from extraction of <em>Rhizophora</em> mangroves in Central American countries (Jiménez 1994). Surveys in other regions show that the reduction of mangroves brought some fish species to extinction (Ferreira <em>et al</em>. 2005). As of 2000, the area of mangroves remaining in Costa Rica (including the Atlantic coast) and Panama combined was estimated at around 2,000 km² (FAO 2007).
184031		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184031		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico (around Mazatlan) to Lobos de Tierra, Peru (Dawson 1976).
184031		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas.
184031		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184031		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.
184032		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184032		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.
184032		habitat	eng	This pelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 60m.  According to Cooke (1992), L. acclivis seems to is regularly found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans.
184032		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
184032		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. It is common in the local markets.
184033		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184033		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to northern Peru.
184033		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits rocky areas to depths of 60m. It feeds on the epifauna of the substrate.
184033		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
184033		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184034		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
184034		distribution	eng	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.
184034		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrata in shallow waters (Bussing 1995). It is found from 5-118m.
184034		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184034		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184035		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184035		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Revillagigedo, Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
184035		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found over sand and gravel substrate near coral reefs to depths of 85 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish could be found in all types of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).
184035		population	eng	This species is considered common thorughout its range.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 2.56 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.03 (±0.05) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.010 (±0.030) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.268% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in four sites, as a total of 34 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. nicholsi,/i> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance between 0.1-1%, and a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, México, this fish was not captured within 12 month-long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in rocky and coral substrata while occasional in sandy bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.017 (±0.105) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 3.6%.</em>
184035		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184036		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.
184036		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru There is also a  record from Bahia Magdalena on the southwestern coast of Baja California.
184036		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on sand, silt, or mud substrate of bays, estuaries and tidal creeks to depths of 6m (Birdsong, 1981).
184036		population	eng	This species is uncommon in at least the southern portion of its range.
184036		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.
184037		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the status of the Gulf of California population, which is highly localised and about which little is known.
184037		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California, USA  to central Baja California, Mexico with an isolated population in the upper and central Gulf of California.
184037		habitat	eng	This demersal fish occurs offshore, and is usually found in deeper water than other surfperches (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).
184037		population	eng	This species is rare, with only a few records in the Gulf of California. Although the Californian population appears stable and is  moderately common in deep water.
184037		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184038		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184038		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos Island.
184038		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found over sandy bottoms to depths of 35m. Juveniles are also found in littoral pools. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and bivalves.
184038		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. <br><br>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it has already been recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured 5 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).
184038		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184039		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184039		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in the Central and Eastern Pacific. In the Eastern Pacific, it is found from Baja California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos and Cocos islands. It has also been reported in Hawaii (Markle and Olney 1990, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
184039		habitat	eng	This demersal species inhabits the body cavity of pearl shells (<em>Pinctada</em>), pen shells (<em>Pinna</em>), and cockles (<em>Laevicardium</em>). In the Gulf of California, it can be found in the shells of <em>Megapitaria squalida</em>, <em>M. aurantiaca</em>, <em>Laevicardium elatum</em> and <em>Spondylus princeps</em> (Allen and Robertson 1994, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).
184039		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, although it is generally considered uncommon.
184039		threats	eng	Oyster fisheries directly affect the survival of this species as it lives inside these invertebrates, and may be considered as by-catch. In addition, the expansion of commercial mollusc fisheries directly threaten this species habitat in at least several parts of its range, including the Gulf of California, Mexico, and the Galapagos Islands (Danulat and Edgar 2002).
184040		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.
184040		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the southeastern Gulf of California to Sinaloa (Mexico), where it has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km².
184040		habitat	eng	This species is usually in freshwater but can also be found in estuaries to depths of 10 m. They feed on zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae and pelagic fish eggs.
184040		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184040		threats	eng	Given this species' restricted range and dependence on limited freshwater resources, this species is threatened by environmental and human impacts such as coastal development and pollution.
184041		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species can be found in the Cabo Plomo, the Northern Gulf Biosphere Reserve, the Galapagos, and the Cocos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
184041		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from Magdalena Bay, Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands. There is a doubtful record from San Francisco Bay, California (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1993).
184041		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 25m. In the Gulf of Chiriqui, this species is found in deep rocky wall reefs and in shallow pocilloporid reefs. This species can be observed in daylight searching for prey under rocks and in crevices over rocky substrate, or buried completely in the sand (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 1979).
184041		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, other than it is generally found in low densities (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). However, this species has not been present in quantitative surveys of Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Galapagos (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004), Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997) or the Gulf of California (Arburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001).
184041		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184042		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).
184042		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California to the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California.
184042		habitat	eng	This benthic fish lives on soft bottoms offshore to depths of 350 m.
184042		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is uncommon in deeper waters.
184042		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, especially as it prefers deeper waters where no shrimp trawlers operate.
184043		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
184043		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Cocos, Malpelo, and Galapagos Islands.
184043		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is a secretive dweller of rocky crevices to depths of 40m. It feeds mainly on small fishes and mobile benthic crustaceans.
184043		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is cryptic, but is considered common in at least some parts of its range.
184043		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184044		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
184044		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from north central California to southwestern Baja California, and the from the central to northern Gulf of California (Balart <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, the the tiny northern most population in the Gulf of California may represents a separate species, G. detrusus (Gilbert and Scofield, 1898).
184044		habitat	eng	This species inhabits bays and coastal sloughs, burrowing in shallow mud substrate in tidal flats and bays including coastal lagoons.
184044		population	eng	This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat within its range.
184044		threats	eng	Coastal development in lagoons and esturaries, such as marinas and aquaculture, is the most serious threat to this restricted range species.
184045		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184045		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from southern Chiapas, Mexico to western Panama.
184045		habitat	eng	This pelagic species is commonly found around rocky outcrops and around sand beaches.  In Costa Rica, its diet consists mainly of terrestrial insects and fruit (Bussing, 1998).
184045		population	eng	This species is abundant in the Mexican part of its range.
184045		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184046		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).
184046		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from San Pedro, southern California, USA to Peru.
184046		habitat	eng	This species is found in tide pools and on shallow muddy and sandy substrate. It is a benthic but not a burrowing species (Charter and Moser, 1996). The young of this species are attracted to lights at the sea surface, and adults may often be observed near the surface as well (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).
184046		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
184046		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184047		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
184047		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Pacific stretching from southern California to Peru, including Isla del Coco.
184047		habitat	eng	This pelagic oceanodromous species occurs in schools in shallow inshore areas. It penetrates lagoons and estuaries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to 10m. Spawning probably occurs in the open ocean and leptocephalus larvae migrate towards coastal areas (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
184047		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184047		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.<br><br><br>This species struggles vigorously when caught on hook and line. It has low commercial value due its numerous bones (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).
184048		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution within the The Tres Marias Islands Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). More survey work and research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.
184048		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Cleopha Island in the Tres Marias Islands, Mexico.
184048		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits rocky areas to depths of 15 m.
184048		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. This species is known only from the holotype and 10 paratypes collected from the same site in 1961.
184048		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184049		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184049		distribution	eng	This species has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. argalus pterura</span> is restricted to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower third of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.
184049		habitat	eng	This epipelagic subspecies is typically found inshore, and is often abundant around islands (Collette, 1995). It feeds mainly on small fishes (Collette, 1995), and its eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils on the egg's surface (Breder and Rosen, 1966).
184049		population	eng	This subspecies is considered abundant throughout its range.
184049		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this subspecies.
184050		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this subspecies' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.
184050		distribution	eng	This eastern Pacific subspecies is found from southern Baja California and most of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Galapagos and Malpelo islands.
184050		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found inshore, usually along sandy beaches, in bays and inlets; enters estuaries and fresh water and prefers turbid water (Smith-Vaniz 1995). It occurs in schools. It feeds on fishes and crustaceans. This subspecies is found to 50m.
184050		population	eng	There is no population information available for this subspecies.
184050		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this subspecies. This species is caught in artisanal fisheries. It is marketed fresh and salted or dried, but the flesh is not highly esteemed (Smith-Vaniz 1995).
184051		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184051		distribution	eng	This species is circumtropical. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylosurus crocodilus fodiator</span> is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.
184051		habitat	eng	This pelagic subspecies is generally found in coastal waters and is reef-associated, but can also be found offshore (Collette 1995).
184051		population	eng	This subspecies is abundant throughout its range.
184051		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this subspecies.
184052		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. More information is needed on this its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.
184052		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Chile. However, the distribution is not well known as it is only known from two specimens.
184052		habitat	eng	This benthic fish is found over soft bottoms to depths of 50 m (Hensley 1995)
184052		population	eng	There is no population information available for this subspecies, as it is only known from two specimens.
184052		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
184053		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this subspecies' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).
184053		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present in the eastern Pacific from Oregon to the tip of Baja California, including the southwestern Gulf of California and the Revillagigedos islands.
184053		habitat	eng	This is a epipelagic, neritic fish found to 5 m. This species is capable of leaping and gliding out of the water for considerable distances above the surface.
184053		population	eng	There is no population information available for this subspecies.
184053		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this subspecies.
184055		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
184055		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the tropical Indo-Pacific from East Africa and the Red Sea to the Americas. In the Eastern Pacific region, the subspecies <em>D. excisus excisus</em> is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including all the offshore islands. In the Revillagigedo Islands, a different subspecies may exist as <em>D. excisus paulus</em>.
184055		habitat	eng	This reef-associated subspecies inhabits rock and coral reefs in lagoon and seaward reefs to a depth of 45 m or more (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is cryptic (Humann and Deloach 1993 ), prefering crevices in rocks and coral walls. It is often associated with green morays in Gorgona, and black urchins in Malpelo. It is often seen in pairs, and uses its tubelike snout to ingest small crustaceans and plankton (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).
184055		population	eng	This subspecies is considered to be abundant in suitable habitat. However, it also considered rare in Gorgona, more common in Malpelo, common in the southern Gulf of California, and uncommon in the Galapagos (Humann and Deloach 1993).
184055		threats	eng	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this subspecies appears in the aquarium fish trade.
184056		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.
184056		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found from primarily in temperate waters throughout the entire eastern Pacific (Parrish <em>et al</em>. 1989).
184056		habitat	eng	This is a coastal fish that forms large schools (Whitehead 1985). It is found at depths to 200 m. In the California region, Pilchards make northward migrations early in the summer and travel back south again in autumn. With each year of life, the migration becomes longer (Hart 1973). In the Gulf of California, some individuals spawn in their first year, but most spawn in their second year (Whitehead 1985). In Australia (as <em>Sardinops neopilchardus</em>), it breeds in spring and summer in the southern part of its range, and in summer and autumn in the northern part. This is apparently related to seasonal movement of the limiting isotherms, occurring in autumn to early spring. It was believed that individual Australian Pilchards only spawn once or twice in a season (Blackburn 1960), but research on related species suggests that they may spawn a number of times (Hunter and Goldberg 1980). Batch fecundities range from about 10,000 eggs in 13 cm long females to about 45,000 eggs in females of about 18 cm (Fletcher and Tregonning 1992). It feeds on zooplankton and other small invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.
184056		population	eng	No population data is available for this subspecies.
184056		threats	eng	Currently, there are no major threats to this subspecies. However, ENSO and fishing pressure may cause future declines. <br/><br/>Widespread hypoxia and massive eruptions of noxious, radiatively active gases currently characterize the world's strongest eastern ocean upwelling zone. A theory supported by modelling results and observations, suggests that the world's coastal upwelling zones will undergo progressive intensification in response to greenhouse gas buildup. This presents the prospect of progressive development of similarly degraded marine ecosystems in additional regions, and the prospect of a contributing feedback loop involving associated additions to the global buildup rate of greenhouse gases. This would result in further increases in upwelling intensity and the creation of additional sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Abundant sardine stocks of this subspecies that are exposed to fishing pressure might be a mitigating factor opposing the process, but at the same time the populations are collapsing. (Bakun and Weeks 2004) <br/><br/>The fishing of this pelagic fish started in 1950, and reached a peak of captures of >12 million t. A combined effect of a strong ENSO in 1972/1973, overfishing and possibly other large-scale oceanographic changes in the Humbolt current region, led to a collapse of the population of this sardine that was one of the more dominant fish. During early 1980, pelagic harvests remained low, but following the 1984 ENSO event, harvests rose again. In 1994, harvests reached the level of year 1972. Until 1991, the harvests were around 3.0 million t, but the harvest of this sardine had already recently decreased in this region in 1999 to very low values of 300,000 t. It seems that ENSO may have positive and negative effects on the population. Changes in world atmospheric circulation patterns, possibly a consequence of global warming, have been proposed to have effects on its population as well (Wolff <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This subspecies is important for commercial fisheries. It is used for fishmeal and oil. The main area of harvesting is the northeastern Pacific in Mexico. The harvest was around 4,189,889 t in 1990 and seines were the primary catching method (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is marketed fresh, frozen or canned, and is typically utilized for fishmeal, but is also eaten fried and broiled (FAO 1992).
184067		conservation	eng	The species is present in many protected areas. Research is needed to establish the correct taxonomic status of this widespread species.
184067		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Myanmar to Viet Nam, then southward and eastward through the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian islands to the Philippines (Palawan, Balabac, Culion, Busuanga, Mindanao) and Ternate, Indonesia (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Its occurrence on Sulawesi has been reported but is considered doubtful (de Lang and Vogel 2005). Records from Hainan Island (China) reported by Zhao and Adler (1993) represent a separate species, since described as <em>R. adleri</em> (Zhao 1997). This snake has been recorded from 200 to 1,700 m asl.
184067		habitat	eng	This species occurs along streams in tropical forests. It is tolerant of some disturbance and has been found in secondary forest. It is oviparous, laying clutches of 3 to 10 eggs (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). In Peninsular Malaysia, this snake is more common in upland forested areas.
184067		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range, including Borneo (Stuebing and Inger 1999).
184067		threats	eng	This species may be affected by deforestation, although it is not considered to be a major threat at present since this species is widespread, it is still common in areas such as Borneo which are subject to high rates of forest loss, and is able to survive in secondary forest.
184068		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.
184068		distribution	eng	This species is known from Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali and Lombok), and the Philippines (Tawi Tawi in the Sula Archipelago) (Gaulke 1995, McKay 2006). It has been recorded up to 1,300 m. asl.
184068		habitat	eng	It is a diurnal species found in lowland forests, and also known from agricultural land on Bali (McKay 2006). Females lay between one and three eggs (McKay 2006).
184068		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance or trends of the population of this species.
184068		threats	eng	Deforestation is a current threat to this species locally, although is not considered significant at the level of population.
184073		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
184073		distribution	eng	This widespread species is present in southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines (Iwahig and Mount Mantalingahan on Palawan, and the Calamian Islands). It ranges from the lowland to around 1,500 m asl (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Arvin Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).
184073		habitat	eng	It is primarily a forest species, but can also be found in second growth, gardens, parks, rice fields, plantations and house compounds (Steubing and Inger 1999). It is oviparous, laying clutches of between 6 and 23 eggs (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
184073		population	eng	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species. On Sumatra and Kalimantan the species is considered as uncommon, but can be common in some areas, especially rice fields. In Peninsular Malaysia it is extremely common in oil palm plantations. In Thailand it is common in hilly forests and in rubber plantations in hilly areas.
184073		threats	eng	Although it is heavily collected in the Philippines for food and the pet trade, it only represents a small portion of its range and in the remainder of its range the species does not have major threats.
184075		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Noturus miurus</em>.
184075		distribution	eng	The range of this species&#160;encompasses Lake Erie and Lake Ontario drainages in Ontario and New York state, extending southwest through most of the Ohio River basin and lower Mississippi River basin (west to eastern Kansas and Oklahoma). It has also been noted from Mohawk River in New York as well as the Pearl River and Lake Pontchartrain drainages on central Gulf Slope in Mississippi and Louisiana (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 731,281 km<sup>2</sup>.
184075		habitat	eng	Habitat types for this species&#160;include pools and other areas of slow current, with a seasonal occurrence in riffles of creeks and rivers. Substrate types include mud, sand, or gravel in weedy areas or areas with sticks and leaf debris. There have been noted occurences within lakes (Rohde in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Smith 1985; Burr and Warren 1986; Robison and Buchanan 1988; Pflieger 1997; Ross 2001). Individuals usually take shelter during the daylight hours. Eggs are laid under rocks, logs, or in or under other objects, including discarded cans (Goodyear <em>et al</em>. 1982; Etnier and Starnes 1993).
184075		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (e.g., see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 individuals. This species is seldom seen in large numbers, but it is not uncommon in the core of its range (Rohde in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Burr and Warren 1986).<br/><br/>This species has been extirpated from significant portions of its range in Illinois (Smith 1979), but in most areas it appears to remain widely distributed and relatively common.<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) described the current population trend of this species as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.
184075		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species, however in localised areas there have been noted extirpations which has been attributed to declines in water quality from coal mine waste, sewage, and excessive siltation (Smith 1979).
184076		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notropis anogenus</em>. Future conservation and management efforts would best be directed towards determining a minimum viable population, protecting spawning habitats, and water turbidity management schemes. Further research should also be directed into the impact of aquatic vegetation management, and the interaction between competitors and predators.
184076		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis anogenus</span> has a disjunct distribution almost entirely confined to the Great Lakes region, primarily Wisconsin, Michigan (Becker 1983), Minnesota, and northeastern Illinois. There are still reports of a few other extant populations within other states; 1 in Iowa, 5 in New York, and a few in Ontario. It is thought that this species has been extirpated from North Dakota.<br/> <br/> The original range of this species extended from &#160;north central New York and eastern Ontario, west to southeastern North Dakota, south to northern Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern Indiana, and northern Ohio. Despite this large range, its localities within certain states was largely peripheral as seen in Illinois, Iowa, North Dakota, Indiana, Ohio, New York, and Ontario (Smith 1979, Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Trautman 1981, Smith 1985). The range indicates that this species had a glacial refuge in the upper Mississippi basin (Bailey 1959), as well as the Red River drainage of Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan basins, and the lower Great Lakes, including Ontario, to the head of the St. Lawrence River. Bailey (1959) reported a single verified location in each of the Missouri and the Ohio basins. The northernmost populations are in Ontario. The only records in Ohio were from western Lake Erie, and none have been found in the state since 1931 (Trautman 1981). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 138,472 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>
184076		habitat	eng	<em>Notropis anogenus</em> can exclusively be found in clear, heavily vegetated glacial lakes and vegetated pools and runs of low gradient creeks and rivers. Typical substrate types include sand, mud, marl, and gravel. During the summer months, this species can be found in shallow waters, and during the winter months they move to deeper waters (Smith 1979, Lee <em>et al. </em>1980, Trautman 1981, Becker 1983, Smith 1985, Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>This species is associated with two, smaller cyprinid species, the Blackchin Shiner (<span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis heterodon</span>), and the Blacknose shiner (<span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis heterolepis</span>). The Blackchin Shiner is said to have nearly the same distribution as that of <em>N. anogenus</em>, while the Blacknose Shiner has a far greater range than the other two species.
184076		population	eng	<em>Notropis anogenus</em> is represented by records from 50+ locations over a wide range, in the last 25 years. About 40 such occurrences were documented in states and provinces other than Minnesota. Minnesota is thought to have more occurrences than any other state (Phillips <em>et al. </em>1982). Becker (1983) mapped about 35 collection sites in Wisconsin.<br/><br/>Total population size is unknown. This fish is generally rare (Lee<em> et al</em>. 1980; Smith 1979). Phillips <em>et al.</em> (1982) noted that even with intense sampling effort, only a few specimens will be collected. However, Wisconsin records indicate several sites with collections of 30-80 individuals in some years, and Becker (1983) stated that the species may be locally abundant in Wisconsin. This species is rare in Minnesota (Moyle 1975), a core part of the range. The habitat is difficult to sample effectively, so available information may underestimate abundance.<br/><br/>Bailey (1959:121) indicated that the species was "becoming rare in areas where it was formerly common" and that it remained most common in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Page and Burr (1991:158) reiterated Bailey's evaluation: "rare and becoming even less common over most of its range," but it was not clear whether or not this statement was based on new data.<br/><br/>  In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region></st1:place>, a population trend has not been documented, though Scott and Crossman (1973) noted a decrease in the (historically small) range. According to Parker <em>et al.</em> (1987), this species has never been found in large numbers in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region></st1:place>, and therefore the current low population is not enough reason to consider this species endangered or threatened. Genetic distinctiveness has been investigated in <st1:state w:st="on">Ontario</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New&#160; York</st1:place></st1:state> (McCusker unpublished).<br/> </span><br/>The range in Michigan appears to have become more restricted. In recent decades, the species has been found in only seven of the 18 watersheds from which it was historically recorded (Derosier 2004). Latta (2005) in 1995-98 collected the species at only one of 31 sites where it had occurred in the past. However, in 1994 and 1997, he found the species at two new sites. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (2005) recommended the species be classified as endangered.<br/><br/>  Howell (pers. comm. 1993) reported declines in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state></st1:place>. The species may be extirpated from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:state></st1:place>; none have been collected there since the 1960's, despite intensive inventory of historic sites and s<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ilar habitat in 1982 and 1991. Remaining <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Illinois</st1:state></st1:place> populations occur in three lakes; historically this species was known from a few other glacial lakes in the state (Smith 1979; Karnes pers. comm. 1993).&#160; Three are two areas of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state> where the species is still present while it appears to be longer present from a third (Carlson 2001).<br/> </span><br/>This species has not been monitored sufficiently to clarify recent range-wide population trends, but ongoing declines seem likely.<br/><br/><em>N. anogenus</em> is a naturally rare for reasons which have never been fully understood (C.R. Gilbert 2007 pers. comm.).
184076		threats	eng	Declines in the population of <em>Notropis anogenus</em> have been attributed to increased turbidity and loss of aquatic vegetation (Herkert 1992). This loss of habitat quality is in part due to siltation, pollution, boating associated with tourism, and land use change. In North Dakota, agricultural activities have resulted in moderate to high stream turbidity (Peterka 1992).  Increased turbidity has been suggested as the primary cause of the decline (Smith 1979, Trautman 1981, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1987). Introduction of whole-lake treatment with herbicides has also been suggested as another cause of population decline.
184077		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Percina austroperca</em>. There are some designations in Florida which which protect shoreline areas of some inhabited creeks. Monitoring of the population numbers and distribution range is needed due to the relatively small range over which this species is found.
184077		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Escambia and Choctawhatchee river drainages, in western Florida and southern Alabama (Gilbert 1992, Boschung and Mayden 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,536 km².
184077		habitat	eng	The habitat types for this species&#160;include rivers and large creeks with substrate types of clean sand, gravel, and rubble shoals (Gilbert 1992, Thompson 1995, Boschung and Mayden 2004). It is likely that the eggs are buried in sand/gravel substrates, in a swift current. Based on the biology of several closely related species (logperches), this species very likely feeds beneath substrate objects and engages in stone-flipping behaviour wherein its pig-like snout is used to roll objects and expose aquatic insects, small molluscs, and other organisms.  Logperch generally spawn in gravel areas (W.C. Starnes 2008 pers. comm.).
184077		population	eng	This species is represented by several distinct occurrences within its small range (e.g. see map in Boschung and Mayden 2004, in which 17 collection sites are mapped in Alabama). <br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown. Although not a numerically abundant species, this species is commonly and frequently collected in routine electrofishing samples (Bass <em>et al</em>. 2004), and its distribution and abundance are thought to be stable (Gilbert 1992).<br/><br/>Boschung and Mayden (2004) stated that this species is showing "no signs of stress" in Alabama, which encompasses a significant portion of its range.
184077		threats	eng	It is unlikley that this species&#160;is being impacted by any major threat processes in either Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004) or Florida (Bass<em> et al.</em> 2004). More general threats to this species include habitat degradation due to dam and impoundment construction, pollution and siltation. This species is probably tolerant of moderate motorised boat traffic.
184078		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
184078		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Fundulus seminolis</em> encompasses peninsular Florida from St. Johns and New River drainages, south through all but the southern most part of the peninsula (Page and Burr 1991).
184078		habitat	eng	This species is a demersal to mid-water species, forming small aggregations in open areas of streams and lakes, over sandy substrates (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980). Juveniles are closely associated with floating or submergent vegetation, from which they get shelter.<br/><br/>Spawning typically occurs between April and May, although some spawning activity is seen during the summer months.
184078		population	eng	<em>Fundulus seminolis</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 individuals. This fish has been described as common (Page and Burr 1991) and the population numbers are thought to be stable (Warren <em>et al. </em>2000).
184078		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.
184079		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the threats faced by this species to determine how they are impacting the global population. Monitoring of the population numbers and distribution range of this species is needed to identify any threatened subpopulations.
184079		distribution	eng	This species range includes the Tallapoosa River system (Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996, Boschung and Mayden 2004). The species is widespread in the Tallapoosa River system but may be quite rare locally (Cashner<em> et al</em>. 1988). Most of the known range is in Alabama and much of the population is restricted to the upper Tallapoosa River system. This species may have an extent of occurrence less than 5,000 km².
184079		habitat	eng	This fish occurs over sand and gravel in margins, pools, and backwaters of creeks and small to medium rivers. It seems to be most abundant in shallow sandy backwaters of clean, free-flowing, medium-sized creeks (Cashner <em>et al.</em> 1988, Page and Burr 1991, Mettee<em> et al</em>. 1996, Boschung and Mayden 2004).
184079		population	eng	Mettee <em>et al.</em> (1996) and Boschung and Mayden (2004) mapped 20–21 collection sites representing perhaps 12–15 distinct subpopulations.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. Page and Burr (1991) described this species as locally common, whereas Boschung and Mayden (2004) stated that the species is "uncommon in many areas" and "its numbers are usually few at any given site."<br/><br/>Trends are unknown.
184079		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by threats upon its habitat and the flow regime of rivers and streams such as reservoirs, sediments (and other non-point sources), conversion of agricultural lands to urban corridors, severe droughts, and water abstraction (S.J. Walsh 2008 pers. comm.). The upper Tallapoosa River system is undergoing habitat degradation due to upland development, stream impoundment and altertion of the hydrological regime (Storey 2003). Due to the restricted range of this species, these could pose a significant future potential threat to the population of this species.
184080		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
184080		distribution	eng	This species is native to the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes, Hudson Bay (Red River), and Mississippi River basins from Quebec to Manitoba and south to Louisiana; Gulf Slope drainages from Mississippi River, Louisiana, to Rio Grande, Texas and New Mexico (Page and Burr 1991). It has been introduced widely within and outside its natural range.
184080		habitat	eng	This species is known from a range of habitat types including the open waters of large lakes and reservoirs, to the pools of slow-moving small and large rivers. This species is typically seen in schools at the water surface. During the day this species is seen offshore in the open waters of the lake, and at night it moves inshore. It displays an avoidance for areas of continuous turbidity. Spawning grounds are usually in the running water of tributary streams with rock or gravel substrate, or along lake shores with high wave action. Individuals tend to return to specific spawning grounds.
184080		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations):&#160;Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 1,000,000.<br/><br/>Abundance has increased in the lower Missouri River as a result of human-caused changes in the river (e.g. reservoir construction and consequent reductions in turbidity) (Pflieger and Grace 1987).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorized the trend as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.
184080		threats	eng	There are no known major threats thought to be causing a significant decline in the population numbers of this species. In some areas of its range, it is under pressure for resources due to competition with the invasive species <em>Morone americana</em>. This species is also fished recreationally, however this does not appear to pose a significant threat to this species as it is described as growing in abundance in areas and expanding its range.
184081		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
184081		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Luxilus chrysocephalus</em> extends from the southern Great Lakes region to the Gulf Coast, between the Appalachians and the Great Plains. It is also known from the Great Lakes and Mississippi River basins, western New York, southern Ontario, and southeastern Wisconsin, south to Alabama, Louisiana, and eastern Texas. In the Gulf Coast drainages it ranges from Mobile Bay, Georgia and Alabama, to Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana (Gilbert in Lee <em>et a</em>l. 1980, Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed, is approximately 144,504 km².
184081		habitat	eng	This species typically inhabits creeks and small to medium rivers with clear water, a moderate to swift current, and alternating pools and riffles over a gravel or rubble substrate, often with some silt (Gilbert in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). It spawns over gravel in riffles, in crater-like nests made by the male, or in depressions made by other species in both still and running water (Smith 1979).
184081		population	eng	<em>Luxilus chrysocephalus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown, but is thought to exceed 1,000,000 individuals. This fish is abundant in the north and common in the south of its range (Page and Burr 1991). <br/><br/>A decline in the range of this species has occurred in areas (e.g. Wisconsin, Illinois, and parts of Missouri) (Becker 1983, Pflieger 1975, Smith 1979). In Canada, numbers are low and populations appear to be limited by water condition and interspecific competition, but a decline is not evident (Goodchild 1993).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorised this species as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.<br/><br/>In many of the streams in the Kentucky and Cumberland River systems, the striped shiner is typically in the top three most commonly collected species (S. Harrel 2008 pers. comm.).
184081		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. Localised declines in population numbers, are likely to be a result of stream habitat degradation.
184082		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
184082		distribution	eng	This species' distribution range is restricted to the Edisto, Combahee, Broad, and Savannah river drainages below the fall line in South Carolina ad Georgia (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Page and Burr 1991).
184082		habitat	eng	This species is typically found inhabiting clear, or tannin-stained creeks and small rivers. It shows a preference for fairly strong currents over a gravel or sand substrate in or near aquatic vegetation, fallen logs and debris. In a third-order blackwater stream in South Carolina, it was most common in medium to moderately fast current over sandy substrates in association with leafy debris, undercut banks, and vegetation (Layman 1993). Captive adults were observed burying eggs in sand and fine gravel (Layman 1993). Spawning occurs during April to July and lasts for approximately 4 months (Layman 1993).
184082		population	eng	Lee <em>et al.</em> (1980) mapped approximately 25 collection sites, most in South Carolina, a few in Georgia: These probably represent at least a dozen distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. This fish is common within its small range (Page and Burr 1991; Layman 1993).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised this species as "currently stable."
184082		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to be causing a significant decline in the population of this species.
184083		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Clinostomus funduloides</em>. At present no further research action or conservation measures are required for this species.<br/><br/>This species is considered to be of special concern within the state of North Carolina, and is listed as "In need of management" in Tennessee
184083		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Clinostomus funduloides</em> includes upland Atlantic Slope drainages from the lower Delaware River drainage in southern Pennsylvania, to the Savannah River drainage in Georgia, the Ohio River basin in West Virginia, southern Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi. This species is common to abundant in upland areas, absent from most of Kentucky, and rare in the Cumberland River drainage (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>Clinostomus estor</em> has been found in the lower and middle Cumberland River and Tennessee River drainages, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Undescribed subspecies ar known from the Little Tennessee River system, Tennessee and North Carolina. Subspecies funduloides and the undescribed subspecies intergrade in headwaters of the Little Tennessee River system, North Carolina and Georgia, and headwaters of the Savannah River drainage in Georgia. Hiwassee River may contain intergrades between subspecies estor and the undescribed subspecies (Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 159,388km<sup>2</sup>.
184083		habitat	eng	<em>Clinostomus funduloides</em> occupies mid-water habitats in small to medium sized streams (Grossman <em>et al</em>. 1998) with clear to turbid water and a moderate current (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980) It is often seen in deeper riffles, runs and pools. In Coweeta Creek, it generally occupies focal point velocities that maximise their net energy gain (i.e. 14 - 17 cm/s depending on season, Grossman <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is most commonly found in small clear streams (Page and Burr 1991). It spawns in gravel riffles and sometimes uses the nests of chubs.<br/><br/>The rosyside dace can grow to 91mm SL (Coweeta Creek specimen) and probably attains a maximum age of 4 - 5years (Grossman unpublished data). This species reporoduces during the late spring to early summer months (DeHaven<em> et al</em>. 1992) and age at maturity is approximately 1+. Number of reproductions each year is unknown but based on gonadal weights, reproduction occurs over a several month period in late spring/ early summer. Fecundity is uncertain but probably ranges from 500 - 1,000 eggs for a 2 - 3year old fish. For successful spawning to occur, rosyside dace require gravel beds and may on occasion use the nests of river chub (<em>Nocomis micropogon</em>), or stonerollers (<em>Campostoma anomolum</em>) (pers. comm. Grossman).
184083		population	eng	<em>Clinostomus funduloides</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see maps in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 individuals. This fish is uncommon to common, often abundant, in much of its range (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). This species is locally abundant in North Carolina and Georgia, however abundance has been greatly impacted in recent years by a number of environmental and anthropogenic factors; these threats have greatly reduced abundance in degraded habitats and created local extinctions in some areas (pers. comm. Grossman).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
184083		threats	eng	The distribution of this species within the southeastern US is currently affected by siltation and turbidity from development, increased temperature due to disturbance of the riparian canopy, and pollutants from agriculture (pers. comm. Grossman).
184084		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notropis blennius</em>:&#160;At present no further research actions or conservation measures for this species are required.
184084		distribution	eng	The range of this species&#160;includes the Hudson Bay basin from Alberta to Manitoba; south through the Red River in Minnesota and North Dakota; the Mississippi River basin from Wisconsin and Minnesota to Texas, Lousiana, and Mississippi, west to eastern Colorado, and east to West Virginia. This species is common in the central part of its range, especially in the upper Mississippi and lower Ohio rivers. It is absent from the upper Missouri drainage. It occurs in the Great Lakes drainage only in Lake Winnebago in Wisconsin (Gilbert in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). The are in which this species is distributed is approximately 174,809 km<sup>2</sup>.
184084		habitat	eng	This species may be found in pools and the main channels of large rivers and the lower parts of main tributaries (and associated lakes), in water of varying clarity (usually turbid), over substrates of silt, sand, and gravel. This mid-water fish is most abundant in clear water in Illinois. It spawns over sand and gravel bars (Trautman 1981).
184084		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is common to abundant in much of its range. &#160;Abundance has increased in the lower Missouri River as a result of human-induced changes in the river (e.g. reservoir construction and consequent reductions in turbidity) (Pflieger and Grace 1987).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorised this species population trend as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.
184084		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
184085		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Cottus pitensis</em>.
184085		distribution	eng	<em>Cottus pitensis</em> is distributed through the Pit River system (Modoc, Lassen and Shasta counties in California). This includes the north and south forks of the mainstem and many accessible tributaries down to Squaw Creek in the Shasta County. It also includes tributaries to Goose lake in Oregon and California; as well as the Lassen and Willow Creeks in Modoc County; Drews, Cottonwood and Thomas Creeks in Lake County, Oregon (Moyle and Daniels 2002).
184085		habitat	eng	This species occupies rocky riffles of cool, well-shaded, small streams; spring-fed creeks; and small boulder-strewn rivers (Moyle 2002). Spawning occurs annually in early spring months (Daniels 1987).
184085		population	eng	This species is known from at least a few dozen collection sites that are well distributed throughout its historical range (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Adult population size is unknown, but this fish is still common throughout the Pit River drainage in California (Moyle 2002).<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
184085		threats	eng	There are no major known threats for <em>Cottus pitensis</em>. In the Pit River watershed, this species has adapted to degraded habitats (Moyle 2002).
184086		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Culaea inconstans</em>.
184086		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Culaea inconstans</em> includes most of the southern half of Canada (Atlantic and Arctic drainages from Nova Scotia to Northwest Territories); and the northern part of the eastern United States, extending south in the Great Lakes-Mississippi River basins to Colorado (Woodling 1985), Nebraska, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania. A population in northeastern New Mexico was regarded as probably introduced (through bait bucket or incidental to stocking of exotic salmonids) by Sublette <em>et al</em>. (1990) and Gach (1996), though the apparent native status in eastern Colorado (Woodling 1985) suggests that the New Mexico population could be native. This species has been introduced in various places south of the native range, such as in Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, northwestern Colorado, northeastern Utah (Modde and Haines 1996), and California. Present distribution was influenced by postglacial dispersal from separate refugia in the Mississippi and Ohio river basins (Gach 1996).
184086		habitat	eng	<em>Culaea inconstans</em> generally occupies cool, clear, heavily weeded, spring-fed creeks, small rivers, lakes, and ponds, usually in shallow, quiet to flowing pools and backwaters over sand or mud. This species is occassionally seen burrowing into soft sediments. Occasionally this fish can be found in brackish water. In a lake in Manitoba, adults were most abundant at the outer margin of emergent vegetation (Moodie 1986). Eggs are deposited in a nest made of plant material by the male just above the bottom in shallow water.
184086		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrrences (subpopulations) (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980).<br/><br/>Adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 individuals.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
184086		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
184087		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Notropis rafinesquei </em>.
184087		distribution	eng	<em>Notropis rafinesquei</em>is endemic to the Yazoo River basin, Bluff Hills and north central plateau physiographic provinces, Mississippi (Suttkus 1991), and the Coldwater, Tallahatchie, and Yalobusha River systems (Ross 2001). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 23,930 km².
184087		habitat	eng	This species is a benthic, schooling species found in the riffles and runs of small to medium-sized streams over sand or gravel substrate. If disturbed, individuals may move into deeper pools (Suttkus 1991, Ross 2001). This species is found in shallow, sandy streams with characteristic incised channels throughout northern Mississippi (Shields <em>et al.</em> 1995). This is an early-maturing, short-lived species (Adams<em> et al.</em> 2004). There is a great deal of variation in the reproductive traits of sub-populations of this species, indicating an ability to readily adapt to variation in the stream environment (Winemiller and Rose 1992). In a study by Adams<em> et al</em>. (2004), they found this species did not vary significantly in abundance over time or between streams, further illustrating the adaptive nature of this species to changing environmental conditions.
184087		population	eng	Ross (2001) mapped 40+ collecion sites between 1983-1993 and 30+ sites for the pre-1983 period; these are likely to represent at least a couple dozen distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown, however <em>Notropis rafinesquei</em> was found to be one of the most abundant and widespread fish species in some streams of northern Mississippi (Haag <em>et al.</em> 2007). Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised the population trend as "currently stable."<br/><br/>In Haag <em>et al.</em> 2007 study of this species, they concluded that abundance did not vary significantly among over time or between streams (Adams <em>et al.</em> 2004). This was attributed to a tolerance for variability in a range of variables. This species is very abundant throughout much of its range, even in highly degraded streams (W.R. Haag 2008 pers. comm.).
184087		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species: This species has been described as secure (Ross 2001).
184088		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. This species is listed as an invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group.
184088		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Morone americana</em> encompasses the Atlantic slope drainages from the Lake Ontarion-St Lawrence drainage basins in Quebec, south to Peedee River in South Carolina. The Lake Ontario populations may have colonised through the Erie Canal, however there are few records of this species from the Lake Erie drainage basin. The highest abundance of this species is found in the Hudson River and Chesapeake Bay (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). Inland populations of this species are more common in northern areas. This species has undergone an increase in distribution through introductions and stockings as a game fish
184088		habitat	eng	This species occurs predominately in brackish water and generally close to shore in saltwater. This species is common in quiet water, usually over mud, far upstream in medium to large rivers, and in lakes and ponds with no sea connection. This species has been observed to move offshore during day, and inshore at night. Spawning occurs in this spring months in shallow, fresh or slightly brackish water, over a sandy substrate. Eggs sink to the bottom substrate where they stick (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 1978).<br/><br/>This species has now been listed as an invasive species and poses a threat to other native species. They out-compete native species for food and feed on the eggs of walleye (<em>Stizostedion vitreum</em>) and white bass (<em>Morone chrysops</em>). Their feeding on the eggs of <em>S. vitreum</em> has been attributed to observed declines in the species (Fuller<em> et al</em>. 2006). This species has hybridised with native <em>Morone chrysops</em> in Lake Erie. Hybrids are believed to potentially dilute the gene pool (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2006).
184088		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980):&#160;Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000.<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorised the population trend for <em>Morone americana</em> as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.<br/><br/>This species has now become very common in shallow portions of inland lakes and rivers (Minnesota Sea Grant 2001; Wisconsin Sea Grant 2002).
184088		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
184089		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species:&#160;At present no further research or conservation actions are required for this species.
184089		distribution	eng	The range of this species&#160;encompasses the Atlantic, Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, Upper Mississippi, Missouri and Peace-Mackenzie river drainages; from New Brunswick to Yukon and British Columbia, south to New York, Wisconsin, Nebraska and Wyoming, with hybrids found in Colorado (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Page and Burr 1991).
184089		habitat	eng	<em>Phoxinus neogaeus</em> can be found in the pools of boggy headwaters, creeks and small rivers, as well as lakes and ponds. This species is often found in beaver ponds over silty substrates or near vegetation (Page and Burr 1991; Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980). Spawning occurs under logs and amongst debris.
184089		population	eng	<em>Phoxinus neogaeus</em> is represented by a large number of occurrences (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).&#160;Total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is common in the central portion of its range, with sporadic occurences in the Missouri River drainage system (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations is probably relatively stable or declining at a rate less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
184089		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
184090		conservation	eng	<em>Fundulus notatus</em> was listed as a species of special concern in May 2001 by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and this species is managed under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Species monitoring and recovery activities are currently being undertaken&#160;in the Sydenham River, Ontario (Species at Risk Public Resgistry 2008).
184090		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Fundulus notatus</em> encompasses the Gulf Slope from the Mobile Bay drainage, western Alabama, to the San Antonio Bay drainage in Texas. The northern part of this species range can be seen in the Mississippi Valley, north to Iowa and southern Wisconsin. This includes the Lake Michigan and Lake Erie drainages from Wisconsin to Ohio and Ontario (Lee <em>et al. </em>1980; Page and Burr 1991). This species range extends into Canada in the Sydenham River in southwestern Ontario, although it is thought to be limited to an area of approximately 60 km<sup>2</sup>.
184090		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small to large, lowland, low gradient streams and sloughs. They are typically found in water with moderate to high water clarity (Shute 1980), although they are able to tolerate high turbidity.  Habitat types include creeks, rivers, lakes, swamps, drainage ditches, highwater pools of rivers, and ponds. This species is most commonly seen in the lowlands, and is rare to absent in the uplands (Page and Burr 1991). Eggs are typically found attached to aquatic vegetation, leaf litter or detritus (Becker 1983), with spawning occuring during late spring to summer months. Females will lay 20 - 30 eggs typically over a short time period (Carranza and Winn 1954). During the warmer months they can be found near the water surface, and in colder months they are found in deeper waters (Government of Canada 2008).
184090		population	eng	<em>Fundulus notatus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is usually common, but never collected in large numbers (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Population dynamics for this species are not precisely known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/><br/>Populations in southern drainages are currently stable (Warren <em>et al.</em> 2000).
184090		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. There are a number of localised threats that are threatening the integrity of this species' habitat, such as loss of riparian vegetation, water abstraction or diversion thereby draining wetlands or disturbing the hydrological regime of waterways. However due to the widespread range of this species, these are not considered a major threat to the global popultion.
184091		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Fundulus nottii</em>.
184091		distribution	eng	This species range extends from the Yazoo and Big Black River systems, the Pearl River drainage, and Lake Pontchartrain drainage (Louisiana and Mississippi) east to the Mobile Basin, Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004).
184091		habitat	eng	This species lives among aquatic vegetation in backwaters, swamps, sloughs, bayous, ponds, borrow ditches, and streams with moderate to slow flow (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Ross 2001; Boschung and Mayden 2004).
184091		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (e.g. see maps in Ross 2001 and Boschung and Mayden 2004).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 individuals: This species is common within its small range.<br/><br/>Trends are not known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorized this species as "currently stable."
184091		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
184092		conservation	eng	<em>Notropis topeka</em> has been found in the Flint Hills Prairie (The Nature Conservancy), Pipestone National Monument in Minnesota, Blue Mounds State Park in Minnesota and the Three Creeks State Forest in Missouri. It is currently estimated that more than 95% of the remaining population of this species, occur on privately owned land.<br/><br/>The USFWS (2004) designated a total of 83 stream segements (1,356km) in Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska, as critical habitat. Areas of Missouri, Kansas, and South Dakota were excluded from the critical designation as these states had already implemented management plans that provided comprehensive conservation measures and programs for the recovery of population of this species. In South Dakota, the conservation decision support tool, Aquatic Gap, is being used to help prioritise stream reaches for further study and management (Wall and Berry 2006).<br/><br/>Future conservation efforts need to be directed towards improving farming practices to reduce siltation, prevent channelisation and the construction of impoundments, and prevent grazing or removal of riparian buffer strips. Further monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.
184092		distribution	eng	<em>Notropis topeka</em> was formerly widespread through the lower and middle Missouri Basin (Phillips<em> et al.</em> 1982). It has been extirpated in many localities, but still occurs in all six states of its historical range. The current range is restricted to small areas in Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Minnesota. Most of the remaining populations are in South Dakota and Minnesota (C. Berry 2007 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In South Dakota, this species still persists in many places (60 streams) of the Big Sioux, Vermillion, and James River drainage basins, making up to 5% of the cyprinid assemblage (C. Berry 2007 pers. comm.). In the Big Sioux and Rock River drainages, this species was recorded from 89 sites on 17 streams (Hatch 2001). Within Iowa (North Racoon River Basin) (USFWS 1997) and other states, this species exists in low numbers. <br/><br/>This species was formerly widespread through Missouri, but is now confined to a few drainage basins in the northwest and central portions of the state (Pflieger 1975, Gelwicks in Figg and Bessken 1995) and recently extirpated from one site (V. Tabor 2001 pers. comm.). It once inhabited all major drainages in Kansas but is now restricted to the Flint Hills headwater streams in the Cottonwood and Kansas River drainages (Kerns 1982, Tabor 1993, Minckley and Cross 1959, Cross 1967, Schwilling 1981). It has been described as locally common in some of these streams (F.B. Cross pers. comm., H. Kern pers. comm.). Populations are said to be stable at many sites in the Cottonwood and Mill Creek drainage basins (V. Tabor 2007 pers. comm.) <br/><br/>In Nebraska, this species is extant in the upper Loup River drainage and in the Elkhorn River basin (USFWS 1997), although very few individuals have been recorded in recent years.
184092		habitat	eng	<em>Notropis topeka</em> is typically found in quiet, open and permanent pools of small, clear, high-quality headwaters and creeks that drain upland prairie areas. It may also be found in tiny spring-fed pools in headwaters and larger streams (G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In South Dakota, the presence of this species is said to be related to a number of factors including the presence of groundwater, stream size (creeks and small rivers) with a substrate of alluvium parent material, and an irregular stream flow (Wall<em> et al.</em> 2004). The results from further habitat modelling have found stream flow, channel slope and network position, related to presence of this species. In areas in which the streams were buffered by a 30m riparian buffer strip of pasture, trees, and grasses, there was a greater occurrence of<em> N. topeka</em> than streams fringed by wetland. Most commonly occupied streams do not have a strong continuous flow; the flow is usually less than 5 cubic feet per second (Minckley and Cross 1959).<br/> <br/>Streams that have been channelised or impounded or that drain cultivated fields, generally are not suitable habitat for this species (Schrank <em>et al</em>. 2001, G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm., Prophet pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Many of the streams occupied by this species, are intermittent and maintained by springs during the summer months. Within Minnesota and Iowa, habitat types include oxbow lakes and cut-off channels which may be seasonally flooded (Hatch pers. comm.; Menzel pers. comm.). In South Dakota, this species was found to occur in excavated floodplain ponds used for livestock watering. Within the ponds several year classes were found, indicating over winter survival and reproduction (Thomson 2008). Individuals have also been found in drying up pools, supporting the idea that this species is tolerant of oxygen stress (Kerns and Bonneau 2002). In this same study by Kerns and Bonneau, fish were found in permanent pools over silt covered gravel and rubble susbstrates. There was an age range of 2–36 months and at 36 months they had attained a length of 53 mm. There was a sex ratio of 1:1 apart from age class 2 where the males outnumbered the females. Topeka were observed to be diurnal feeders near the substrate and fed predominantly upon chironomids and ephemeropterans. <br/><br/>Riffles are only occupied if this species is exceptionally abundant in a local area (Minckley and Cross 1959). The pools in which it may be found, do not usually have rooted aquatic vegetation but many have plankton blooms during the summer months (Minkley and Cross 1959, Kerns and Bonneau 2002). In Kansas streams,<em> N. topeka</em> is pelagic, occupying the lower half of the water column (Kerns and Bonneau 2002), though Tabor (1993) stated that this species is found in surface to mid-waters. <br/><br/>The temperature range of these various habitats, ranges from near freezing in winter, to 90°F (32°C) in summer (G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm.). Water clarity may range from clear to murky, dependent on plankton blooms and substrate type (G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Males occupy a small territory around the Green sunfish (<em>Lepomis cyanellus</em>) or the orange-spotted sunfish (Lepomis humilis). Spawning occurs over the sunfish nests. The juveniles will then shelter in the shallow margins of pools in mixed-species groups during their first summer. In South Dakota, this species is said to be associated with five species including the orange-spotted sunfish. These five species are found in small streams with low to moderate flow, four of which spawn on clean gravel beds (Wall and Berry 2006).
184092		population	eng	<em>Notropis topeka</em> is known from about 80 sites as of the late 1990's (USFWS 1998), representing 20-40 extant occurrences (subpopulations) in six midwestern states. Recent surveys have added new occurrences and expanded the known range in South Dakota and Minnesota. Although found in low numbers and poor habitat condition, this species continues to persist within the state of Iowa. In the state of Nebraska, very few individuals have been recorded in recent years (V. Tabor 2007 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species still persists in many places (about 60 streams), sometimes making up as much as 5% of the cyprinid assemblage, and having a mean catch per unit effort of 6–9 fish/100 m² for the three drainages (James, Vermillion, Big Sioux) (Wall and Berry 2006).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be over a few thousand individuals considering the new discoveries in South Dakota and Minnesota. This fish is generally uncommon even in suitable habitat (Page and Burr 1991, Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980).<br/><br/>While this species range is still observed within all the states that it is historically known from, its population numbers and occurrence within watersheds has declined. The number of historically known collection sites (documented in the literature or by museum specimens) has been reduced by approximately 70 percent, with approximately 50 percent of this decline occurring within the last 40–50 years (USFWS 2002).<br/><br/>The current population trend for this species varies across its range. In Kansas and Missouri it is said to be declining; in Iowa and Nebraska it is stable to declining while in Minnesota and South Dakota it is thought to be stable (C. Berry 2007 pers. comm.).
184092		threats	eng	The major threats faced by <em>Notropis topeka</em> relate to changing land use and water practices that alter the physical and biological characteristics of streams. This species is reasonably tolerant to acute stress but sensitive to permanent changes in habitat such as reduced water quality and increased water temperture. <br/><br/>Chronic, persistent changes in land-use practices, such as cultivation, clearcut logging, infrastructure development, and intensive, continuous grazing, result in increased sediment loading within streams (Platts 1979, G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm., Pflieger pers. comm.). Sedimentation in streams reduces instream water clarity, covers fish eggs, and covers possible spawning beds with excess silt (Platts 1979). Grazing livestock impact a watercourse through introducing excess nutrients, erosion of stream banks, and grazing of riparian buffer strips (Tabor pers. comm.). In South Dakota, this species may still be found in waterways fringed by pasture livestock where the grazing pressure is light to moderate and there is still riparian vegetation (Wall and Berry 2006).<br/><br/>Channelisation is a major threat to this species through its alteration of water temperature, flow regime and stream morphology. During the channelisation process it may also increase the sediment load of the stream, covering potential spawning grounds and gravel beds. Wall and Berry (2006) related the abundance of this species in South Dakota, to the fact that only 3% of streams in this state had been channelised and most of the wetlands (60%) had been conserved. <br/><br/>Water abstraction in some areas has proved problematic in maintaining cut-off pools as the water table is lowered and so spring-fed pools quickly dry up (Gorman pers. comm.). The building of impoundments stocked with predatory game fishes is a major threat in some areas (Schrank<em> et al.</em> 2001) due to the introduction of new predators and the alteration of stream morphology, hydrology and species dispersal patterns (Cross pers. comm., Kerns pers. comm.). However it should be noted that introduced predators such as the largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>), do not selectively prey on this species (Knight and Gido 2005). Construction of impoundments recently threatened the largest remaining populations in Kansas (Tabor 1993). While the threat of watershed dams still persists, it is has diminished as planning permission is no longer given to the construction of dams that are in areas with known<em> N. topeka</em> populations.
184093		conservation	eng	<em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> was listed as a species of special concern in November 2001 by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and this species is managed under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of this species; it's habitat status, population numbers, and rates of decline is needed. Once these factors have been better described, conservation measures can be prescribed for what is thought to be significant population declines in ares of this species range.
184093		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> includes the Lake Ontario basin and the St. Lawrence River drainage system, southern Quebec, eastern Ontario, and New York. In the Atlantic Slope drainages, the range extends from southern Maine, south to the James River drainage of Virginia, although is apparently extirpated from the Potomac and Rappahonnock river drainages. This species is also known from the Neuse River drainage, eastern North Carolina (probably extirpated from there and also in the Chowan River drainage), and the Santee River drainage in South Carolina (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991). This species range has been significantly reduced in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Carolinas. The area in which this species is distributed, is approximately 249,980km<sup>2</sup>.
184093		habitat	eng	<em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> can be found in warm-water small creeks and ponds, to large lakes and rivers with clear to moderate water clarity (except when temporarily turbid after heavy rains). This species is usually found over mud, silt, or detritus, in sluggish pools or slow to moderate velocity streams, or backwaters with abundant vegetation. In the southern area of its range, <em>N. bifrenatus</em>  may also occur in tidal and slightly brackish water (e.g. tidal freshwater marshes and beaches in Virginia) (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991). Spawning areas are in still, shallow water, near-shore with vegetation (Scott and Crossman 1973).
184093		population	eng	<em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> is represented by a large number of historical subpopulations, but it is rare or no longer extant in many of these locations.<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown.<br/><br/>This species has undergone a range-wide decline in abundance, number of subpopulations, and area of occupancy. For example, it has been found recently in only 1 of 31 historical locations in Pennsylvania (Argent <em>et al</em>. 1997; Finger 2001) and in a small percentage of several dozen historical locations in Massachusetts (Hartel <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and abundance appear to be widely declining, but up-to-date information is lacking for many areas. This species has been described as "vulnerable" in the southeastern United States by Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000).
184093		threats	eng	The main threats impacting upon <em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> are related to the loss of aquatic vegetation. Agricultural pollution may also be degrading this species habitat (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991) due to excess nutrients, sedimentation, and loss of water clarity. In many areas, the causes of population decline are not fully understood.
184094		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
184094		distribution	eng	This species' range encompasses the Ozark Uplands of the middle Arkansas River drainage of central Arkansas, the White, Black and St. Francis river systems of northern Arkansas. Within Missouri it is known from the southwest and southeast parts of the state and Meramec, Gasconade, and lower Osage river systems of the eastern part (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Robison and Buchanan 1988, Pflieger 1997, Miller and Robison 2004). It is also known from northeastern Oklahoma.
184094		habitat	eng	This species is found in midwater schools in clear, permanently flowing streams, medium-sized creeks and moderately large rivers. It usually occurs near riffles or in the adjacent areas of pools, over sand, gravel or rubble substrates. It spawns over gravel riffles in a swift current (Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980).
184094		population	eng	This species is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see maps in Robison and Buchanan 1988; Pflieger 1997). The total adult population size is unknown, but this species is relatively common throughout its range. The species has not been taken in over 30 years in the Elk and James rivers in southwestern Missouri and is thought to be extirpated from those rivers (Pflieger 1997). Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) described the trend for this species as 'currently stable'.
184094		threats	eng	This species is not known to be impacted by any major threat processes at present.
184095		conservation	eng	This species was listed as a species of special concern in April 1989 by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and this species is managed under the Species at Risk Act. <br/><br/>No further conservation measures are required at the present time due to the reported stability of the population.
184095		distribution	eng	The native range of <em>Lepomis auritus</em> encompasses the Atlantic slope from New Brunswick, south to central Florida, west on the Gulf slope to Apalachicola and Choctawhatchee drainages in Florida and Georgia. This species has been introduced in Gulf drainages as far west as the Rio Grande and in the Mississippi River basin as far north as Kentucky and Arkansas (Page and Burr 1991). There are some known occurrences in Canada (Houston 1990).
184095		habitat	eng	<em>Lepomis auritus</em> can be found in rocky and sandy pools at the margins of creeks, small to medium-sized rivers, and lakes. In streams with rapids, this species occurs at depth in slow flowing areas over rock and gravel, often near cover or obstructions. This species forms aggregations in deeper holes where the water temperature falls to just below 5<sup>o</sup>C. Eggs are laid in nests made by the males on the lake or river bottom. Nests may be close together in ponds and lakes, and are usually found on the downstream side of a rock within streams. Spawning occurs from April to October.
184095		population	eng	<em>Lepomis auritus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations.<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This fish is known to be locally common.<br/><br/>As a result of introductions, the range extent, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations may be larger than the historical distribution.&#160;Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/><br/>Populations in the southern United States are currently stable (Warren <em>et al.</em> 2000).
184095		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. Dams and water pollution are likely to have caused a few localised declines in the population numbers of this species. The introduced flathead catfish (<em>Pylodictis olivaris</em>) may negatively impact this species in larger creeks and rivers (Albanese pers. comm. 2008).
184096		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etheostoma lynceum</em>.  Monitoring of the extent of occurrence, and population numbers of this species is needed to forewarn of increased rates of habitat loss.
184096		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Etheostoma lynceum</em> encompasses the tributaries of the Mississippi River on the former Mississippi embayment in western Kentucky, western Tennessee, Mississippi and Louisiana. It has also been noted in the Gulf Coast drainages (excluding the Mobile basin) from Escatawpa River to the extreme southwestern Alabama, with only a few noted occurrences in this state (Page and Burr 1991).
184096		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs in streams, often with considerable spring flow, over gravel riffles, around logs, or in detrital aggregations, in second to fourth order streams (Etnier and Starnes 1993; Ross 2001). Rooted aquatic vegetation is often present, although is not a necessary habitat feature (Etnier and Starnes 1993).
184096		population	eng	<em>Etheostoma lynceum</em> is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see map in Ross 2001).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown, but this species is common in much of its range (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>Populations are secure in Mississippi (Ross 2001), and this is likely to be the case throughout most of its range. Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised this species as "currently stable."
184096		threats	eng	Stream rechanneling projects "undoubtedly have eliminated many populations" but this species&#160;"continues to be a common species in better quality streams within its range" (Etnier and Starnes 1993). There are no threats known to be causing a significant decline in the population numbers of this species.
184097		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cyprinella venusta</em>. Further study is needed on the taxonomy of this species to ascertain if further revision of the genus is warranted.
184097		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Cyprinella venusta</em> extends from the Rio Grande basin in Texas to the Suwannee River drainage in Florida and Georgia, north to the Mississippi River basin, to southern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and western and southern Tennessee (Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 141,865 km<sup>2</sup>.
184097		habitat	eng	<em>Cyprinella venusta</em> is most commonly found in pools and runs of clear, sandy-bottomed, small to medium rivers, in areas of sparse vegetation and a strong current. Upland populations occur in creeks over more gravel/ rubble substrate (Lee <em>et al. </em>1980; Page and Burr 1991). Populations in the western part of the this species range are often found in turbid water. This species eggs are spawned into crevices.<br/><br/>Recent studies indicate that this species is able to outcompete <em>C. lutrensis</em>, especially in areas below reservoirs (Matthews and Marsh-Matthews 2007). Suttkus and Mette (2009) noted the complete extirpation of <em>C. lutrensis</em> from the Sabine River below a reservoir, where <em>C. venusta</em> numbers are stable or increasing.
184097		population	eng	<em>Cyprinella venusta</em> is represented by a very large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). It is one of the most ubiquitous minnows in drainages along the northern gulf coast (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Boschung and Mayden 2004; Ross 2001).<br/><br/>The adult population size is unknown, but likely exceeds 1,000,000 individuals. <br/><br/>Extent of occurence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are thought to be relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
184097		threats	eng	It is unlikely that <em>Cyprinella venusta</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.
184098		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notemigonus crysoleucas</em>. At present no further research is required on this species.
184098		distribution	eng	The distribution for this species&#160;ranges from the Atlantic and Gulf slope drainages in Nova Scotia to southern Texas. This includes the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay (Red River), the Mississippi River basins west to Alberta, Montana, Wymoming, and western Oklahoma. This species has also been introduced and established in many other areas around western North America (Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980; Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,056,673 km<sup>2</sup>.
184098		habitat	eng	This species typically occupies clean, quiet, vegetated ponds and lakes but may also be found in sections of streams and rivers with low water velocity. This species spawns over beds of submerged vegetation and occassionally in the nests of the largemouth bass (Becker 1983).
184098		population	eng	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et a</em>l. 1980):&#160;The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 1,000,000 individuals. This species is described as common to abundant in much of its range.<br/><br/>Warren<em> et al.</em> (2000) categorised the population trend as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.
184098		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
184099		conservation	eng	<em>Spirinchus thaleichthys</em> is listed as endangered in California (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995):&#160;Recovery strategies are needed for the Californian subpopulation.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats to this species across its entire range.
184099		distribution	eng	The range of this species&#160;extends along the Pacific coast of North America from the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary and Monterey Bay (single record), California, north to the southwestern Gulf of Alaska (westward beyond Prince William Sound to the base of the Alaska Peninsula), Alaska. The range of this species also includes Willapa Bay, Skagit Bay, Columbia River, Grays Harbor, and Puget Sound in Washington; Coos Bay and Yaquina Bay in Oregon; Fraser River estuary and near Prince Rupert and Vancouver in British Columbia; Dixon Entrance, Yakutat Bay, Prince William Sound, and Cook Inlet in Alaska; Van Duzen River in Eel River drainage, Russian River estuary, San Francisco Bay-Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, and the Gulf of the Farallones in California (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994; Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995; Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002; Moyle 2002; Wydoski and Whitney 2003). There has also been a few confirmed records of this species in the Klamath River mouth and this species is also thought to possibly be extirpated in Humboldt Bay.<br/><br/>Landlocked populations of this species&#160;occur in Harrison Lake, British Columbia, and lakes Washington and Union, Washington. (Page and Burr 1991; Moyle 2002; Wydoski and Whitney 2003).
184099		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species&#160;includes a wide range of temperature and salinity conditions in coastal waters near shore, bays, estuaries, and rivers (Moyle 2002). Some populations of this species are landlocked in lakes. This species has been taken at depths up to at least 150 metres in the sea. Unverified records indicate presence up to several miles offshore in California and Alaska (Federal Register, 6 January 1994). In estuaries this fish  is usually found in the middle or bottom of the water column (Moyle 2002). Adults in lakes occupy deep water by day, move upward in water at night (Wydoski and Whitney 2003). Spawning occurs in fresh water, over sandy-gravel substrates, rocks, and aquatic plants (Moyle 2002). Anadromous populations spawn in fresh water close to the coast. After hatching, larvae move up into surface waters and are transported downstream into brackish-water nursery areas. Lake populations spawn in tributaries (Wydoski and Whitney 2003).
184099		population	eng	This species is represented by at least a couple of dozen subpopulations (counting each estuary as a single occurrence or subpopulation).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 individuals. This species may be common in Willapa Bay, Skagit Bay, and Puget Sound in Washington and in Coos Bay and Yaquina Bay in Oregon. <em>S. thaleichthys</em> is evidently common to highly abundant in the Columbia River and Grays Harbor, Washington. In Alaska, large numbers are found in the Gulf of Alaska (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994).<br/><br/>Declines are well documented in California, but there is a lack of trend information for most of the remainder of the range, where populations are generally considered common or abundant (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994). In the San Francisco Estuary this species historically exhibited wide fluctuations in abundance that paralleled variations in rainfall (lowest abundance during drought years) (Moyle 2002). In California, the species has declined dramatically since the early 1980s in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (Moyle 2002) and has apparently disappeared from Humboldt Bay. In the 1970s this fish was considered abundant in Humboldt Bay, California, but since 1983 numbers have plummeted. Despite extensive sampling it has not been collected from Humboldt Bay since 1994. The remaining California populations are small and of uncertain status (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995; Moyle 2002).<br/><br/>Current trends are not well documented in most of the range, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulatioins probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10years.
184099		threats	eng	Threats have been defined only in areas of known declines in the California portion of the range. Declines in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary in California are due mainly to the effects of water diversions from the Delta (Moyle 2002): Low flows result in upstream movement of the productive freshwater-saltwater mixing zone, constricting the size of favorable habitat and making the fishes vulnerable to diversion into water project pumps and structures (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994). It is unlikely that many individuals survive entrainment, but the degree of effect on larvae is not well known (Moyle <em>et al.</em> 1995). Low flows also fail to disperse larvae downstream into productive nursery areas in Suisun Bay (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994; Moyle <em>et al.</em> 1995). The causes for decline in the northern California estuaries are unknown but probably similar to the causes for declines in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995; Moyle 2002). <br/><br/>Other potential threats include pesticide runoff from agricultural areas and invasions by exotic species such as clams and copepods (Moyle<em> et al.</em> 1995; Moyle 2002). Sedimentation due to human activities may also have an effect on northern California estuaries. The loss of tidal marsh habitat and resulting reduced productivity, together with reduced flows in the Mad River due to water diversions and land reclamation, may have caused disappearance from Humboldt Bay, California. Due to a two-year life cycle, relatively brief periods of reproductive failure could lead to extirpations (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994).
184100		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Esox americanus</em>.
184100		distribution	eng	The native range of this species&#160;emcompasses the Atlantic Slope from the St.Lawrence River drainage basin in Quebec, to Lake Okeechobee in Florida. The distribution of this species also extends from the Gulf drainage basins, west to the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes basins and Brazos River, Texas; north to Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan and southern Ontario. This species&#160;is absent in the Appalachian uplands (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Page and Burr 1991).This species has also been introduced to various locations in the western United States (e.g. Washington, California, Colorado) and eastern United States.
184100		habitat	eng	This species can be found in a range of habitat types including small, quiet, heavily vegetated waters in streams, drainage canals, ponds and bays of small lakes (Crossman 1980). It is more commonly seen in streams than in lakes, over rocky or sandy substrata. The eggs of <em>E. americanus</em> sink and stick to the bottom and vegetation. Adults of this species may move upstream to spawn in flooded stream margins or marshes where vegetation is abundant (Scott and Crossman 1973) during the spring and occassionally winter months (Crossman 1980).
184100		population	eng	<em>Esox americanus</em> is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and presumably exceeds 1,000,000. This species&#160;is common in many parts of its large range.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or decreasing at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/><br/>Populations in the southern United States are currently secure (Warren <em>et al.</em> 2000).
184100		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
184101		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lythrurus bellus</em>. At present no further research action actions or conservation measures are required.
184101		distribution	eng	This species' range encompasses middle and upper coastal plain streams of the Mobile Basin, Bear and Yellow creeks (Tennessee River drainage), Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004); northeastern Mississippi (Ross 2001); and western Georgia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 104,338 km<sup>2</sup>.
184101		habitat	eng	This species is commonly found in the pools of headwaters, creeks, and small rivers of low to moderate gradient. This species usually occurs over sand, silt, or clay bottoms, but is rarely found over gravel or bedrock (Snelson in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Ross 2001; Boschung and Mayden 2004). This species exhibits a tolerance for polluted waters (Ross 2001).
184101		population	eng	<em>Lythrurus bellus</em> is represented by hundreds of subpopulations (see map in Boschung and Mayden 2004).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is abundant in much of its range (Ross 2001; Bosching and Mayden 2004).&#160;Warren<em> et al.</em> (2000) described the population trend as "currently stable."
184101		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.
184102		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Percina aurora</em>. There are areas of this species distribution range that fall within state owned nature reserves and wildlife amangement areas such as the Desoto National Forest. <br/><br/>Conservation measures to protect the remaining habitat of <em>Percina aurora</em> is crucial as this species is close to qualifying for a higher threat category. Further research is needed to fully understand the impact that threats are having on the population numbers of this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed to determine the rate of population decline. Future conservation efforts should be based on further understanding of the key threats this species is under.
184102		distribution	eng	The historical distribution for <em>Percina aurora</em> includes the Pearl and Pascagoula river drainages in Mississippi and Louisiana (Suttkus <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species is now apparently extirpated in the Pearl River drainage in both Mississippi and Louisiana (Ross 2001, Bart and Thompson, pers. comm., cited by Douglas and Jordan 2002).<br/><br/>Fish collections from the Pearl River drainage (Suttkus <em>et a</em>l. 1994) suggest that this species once inhabited the large tributaries and main channel habitats from St. Tammany Parish in Louisiana, to Simpson County in Mississippi, including sections of the Pearl River, Strong River, and Bogue Chitto River. Bruce Thompson made 27 samples at eight localities on the Bogue Chitto and Pearl rivers (historical locations and others) on 10 different dates from November 1998 to September 1999 and found no <em>P. aurora</em>. <br/><br/>Museum collections suggest that the Pearl darter had a historical noninclusive range of about 30 river miles of the Pascagoula River, 24 river miles of Black Creek, 48 river miles of the Leaf River, 24 river miles of Okatoma Creek, 102 river miles of the Chickasawhay River, 24 river miles of the Bouie River, and eight river miles of Chunky Creek.  Since 1983, Pearl darters have only been found in scattered sites including the Pascagoula, Chickasawhay, Chunky, Leaf, and Bouie rivers, and Okatoma and Black creeks (Bart and Piller 1997, Ross in press, USFWS 2001). Bart and Piller (1997) made 27 ancillary collections in 1996 and 1997 from the Pascagoula drainage and collected only 10 Pearl darters at four sites (the Leaf River at Estabutchie, lower Leaf River at Merril, Bouie River downstream of I-59 crossing, and Okatoma Creek at Collins). Three specimens were collected in the Leaf River at Estabutchie in the spring of 1998, whereas in December 1998 no Pearl darters were found in the upper reaches of the Leaf River between Estabutchie and north Hattiesburg (Bart and Ross pers. comm.). No Pearl darters were found in selected sites of the Chunky River in 1995 and 1997 (Bart pers. comm.). Suttkus <em>et al</em>. (1994) speculated that portions of the Leaf River and possibly the lower Black Creek may continue to support reproducing populations even though no recent collections have been made.<br/><br/>Fish collections from the Pearl River drainage (Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994) suggest that the darter once inhabited approximately 96 miles of the Pearl River, 10 miles of the Strong River, and 32 miles of the Bogue Chitto River. This species is now believed to be absent from all these sites. <br/><br/>This species is thought to have an extent of occurrence of approximately 200 km².
184102		habitat	eng	<em>Percina aurora</em> have been recorded from a number of habitat types including slow to moderate currents, in deep runs over gravel or bedrock substrates, in sand pools with shallow riffles, in swift (90 cm/second) shallow water over firm, gravel and cobbles in mid-river channels, and in swift water near brush piles (Bart and Piller 1997, Ross 2001). A single post-spawning individual was collected in a deep sluggish run over silty sand (Bart and Piller 1997). Suttkus<em> et al.</em> (1994) mentioned that specimens were collected in rivers in slow to swift current over gravel substrate at depths of 0.5 m or more.
184102		population	eng	Even before its description in 1994,<em> Percina aurora</em> was considered of conservation concern (Deacon <em>et al</em>. 1979) due to its rarity, infrequent collection, and occurrence at low numbers (Bart and Piller 1997). The Pearl darter was collected from only 14% of 716 fish collections from site specific locations within the Pearl River drainage, despite annual collection efforts by Suttkus from 1958 to 1973 (Bart and Suttkus 1996, Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994). No Pearl darters have been collected in the Pearl River drainage since 1973, even though Suttkus has made 64 fish collections over the last 25 years from the Pearl River (Bart and Piller 1997). Collection data from Bart and Piller (1997), Bart and Suttkus (1996), Suttkus <em>et al</em>. (1994), and Ross (in press) suggest that the Pearl darter is very rare in the Pascagoula River system. Bart and Piller (1997) examined Suttkus' work before 1974 and found that only 19 Pearl darters were collected out of 19,300 total fish in 10 Tulane University Museum of Natural History collections. Additionally, from the "Mississippi Freshwater Fishes Database," Dr. Stephen Ross (Bart and Piller 1997) estimated the rarity of the Pearl darter within the Pascagoula drainage from 379 collections (81.514 fish specimens) since 1973, and found only one Pearl darter collected for every 4,795 specimens.<br/><br/>This fish disappeared from several areas in the Pearl River in the 1970s (Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994). Collections since the early 1980s indicate that the range has decreased by approximately 66% in the Pascagoula drainage (Bart and Piller 1997, USFWS 2001).
184102		threats	eng	Removal of riparian vegetation and extensive cultivation adjacent to rivers have caused excessive rapid runoff, bank erosion, channel scouring, and silt deposition in the Pearl River drainage, evidently resulting in large population declines and possible extirpation of<em> Percina aurora</em> (Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Because of this species restricted range within the Pascagoula drainage and localisation to specific habitats, the Pearl darter is vulnerable to non-point source pollution, changes in river and stream geomorphology, and other human-induced threats to its environment, such as dam construction. Non-point source pollution from land surface run-off can originate from virtually all land use activities, and may include sediments, fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, septic tank and grey water leakage, oils, and greases. Construction activities that involve significant earthworks typically increase sediment loads into nearby streams. Siltation sources include timber clear cutting, clearing of riparian vegetation, and mining and agricultural practices that allow exposed earth to enter streams. Practices that affect sediment and water discharges into a stream system change the erosion or sedimentation pattern, which can lead to the destruction of riparian vegetation, bank collapse, and increased water turbidity and temperature. Excessive sediments are believed to impact the habitat of darters and associated fish species by making it unsuitable for feeding and reproduction. Sediment has been shown to abrade and or suffocate periphyton, disrupt aquatic insect natural processes, and, ultimately, negatively impact fish growth, survival, and reproduction (Waters 1995).<br/><br/>In the Pascagoula drainage, water quality problems exist on the Leaf River from municipal run-off at Hattiesburg and dioxin contamination at New Augusta and on the Chickasawhay River from brine water releases from oil fields (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990). Permitted effluents to the Pascagoula River Basin include ammonia, chloride, sodium sulphate, toluene, cyclohexane, and acetone (EPA 1989). Bart and Piller (1997) noted extensive algal growth during warmer months in the Leaf and Bouie rivers, suggesting nutrient and organic enrichment. Municipal and industrial discharges into the watershed, particularly during low water, concentrate pollutants. Releases from the Leaf River Paper Mill at New Augusta affect temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH in the lower reaches of the Leaf River. Existing housing and urbanisation along the banks of the Leaf River between I-59 and Estabutchie may contribute nutrient loading through sewage and septic water effluent. <br/><br/>The flora and fauna of many coastal plain streams have been adversely affected by accelerated geomorphic processes, specifically headcutting caused by in-stream sand and gravel mining (Patrick <em>et al</em>. 1993). The bed of the Bouie River is considered a significant natural resource by American Sand and Gravel (ASGC 1995). Historically, ASGC has mined sand and gravel using a hydraulic suction dredge, which is operated within the banks of the Bouie River. Sand and gravel mining has also occurred within, and adjacent to the Leaf River. Large sections of the river and its floodplain have been removed over the past 50 years resulting in the creation of very large open water areas that function as deep lake systems (ASGC 1995). Currently, only two permitted mines are operating within the Pascagoula drainage (Stan Phielling, Mississippi Geological Survey, Mining Office, pers. comm.). However, due to the permit exemption category for mining of less than four acres and less than ¼ mile from other mine sites, there are numerous non-permitted operators mining gravel throughout the Pascagoula and Pearl river drainages (Stan Phielling, Mississippi Geological Survey, Mining Office, pers. comm.). Hartfield (1993) and Patrick and Hartfield (1996) investigated the negative impacts of stream erosion due to headcutting on aquatic life in several Mississippi river drainages and believed that the drainages were also experiencing geomorphic instability caused by in-stream sand and gravel mining. Mining in active river channels typically results in incision upstream of the mine (by nickpoint migration) and sediment deposition downstream. The upstream migration of nickpoints or headcutting may cause undermining of structures, lowering of alluvial water tables, channel de-stabilisation and widening, and loss of aquatic and riparian habitat. Geomorphic change, particularly headcutting, may cause the extirpation of riparian and lotic species (Patrick <em>et a</em>l. 1993). Lyttle (1993) and Brown and Lyttle (1992) found that in-stream gravel mining reduces overall fish species diversity in Ozark streams and favours a large number of a few small fish species. Patrick <em>et al</em>.(1993) documented geomorphic changes that were adversely affecting the Bayou darter, an endangered species endemic to the Bayou Pierre basin.  Bart and Piller (1997) attributed the decline of the Pearl Darter in the Leaf and Bouie rivers and Black Creek of the Pascagoula drainage, to threats from siltation caused by unstable banks and loose and unconsolidated stream beds. Bart (pers. comm.) believes that bank erosion and bar migration on the Leaf River at Eastabutchie is affecting the riffles where the only known spawning of the Pearl Darter, is occurring. <br/><br/>The confluence of the Bouie and Leaf rivers, within the Pascagoula drainage, possibly provides significant habitat for the Pearl darter. Fish collections from this area indicate that it may be a site critical for maintaining the current population of Pearl darters. The Bouie River at the confluence with the Leaf River is being considered by the city of Hattiesburg to be dammed and used as a major water supply (The Clarion-Ledger, October 28, 1998, Jackson, Mississippi). Such a project would substantially alter and fragment significant occupied habitat of the Pearl darter in the Bouie River. Locality records (1997) of the Pearl Darter within the gravel mine area of the Bouie River in Hattiesburg place the species within the exact vicinity of the proposed dam (Ross pers. comm.). Pearl Darters have not been collected in impounded waters and are intolerable of lentic habitats.  <br/><br/>The current range of the Pearl Darter is restricted to localised sites within the Pascagoula River drainages. Genetic diversity has likely declined due to fragmentation and separation of populations. The long-term viability of a species is founded on conservation of numerous local populations throughout its geographic range (Harris 1984). These features are essential for the species to recover and adapt to environmental change (Noss <em>et al</em>. 1994, Harris 1984). Populations of Pearl Darters are becoming increasingly disjunct. This disjunct distribution makes these populations vulnerable to extirpation from catastrophic events, such as toxic spills, large in-stream gravel mining projects, or changes in flow regime. <br/><br/>In general, small species of fish such as the Pearl Darter, which are not utilised for either sport or bait purposes, are unknown to the general public. Therefore, harvesting of this species by the general public is not considered a problem. Scientific collecting and take by private and institutional collectors, is also presently not thought to be a threat. Scientific collecting is controlled by the State through permits. <br/><br/>Predation upon the Pearl Darter undoubtedly occurs. However, there is no evidence to suggest that disease or natural predators threaten this species. To the extent that disease or predation occur, it becomes a more important factor as the total population decreases in number.
184103		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em>.
184103		distribution	eng	The native range of <em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em> includes coastal lowlands (Coastal Plain, and lower and middle Piedmont) from extreme southern New York (lower Hudson River drainage), south to southern and extreme western Florida, lower Tombigbee River in Alabama, and the Biloxi Bay system of Mississippi (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994; Ross 2001). This species has been introduced and established in small parts of the Finger Lakes drainage in New York (Werner 1972; Smith 1985), and the lower Mississippi River basin (Ross 2001).
184103		habitat	eng	<em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em> is commonly found over sand or mud substrate, in pools and backwaters of heavily vegetated, sluggish creeks and medium-sized rivers. It has also been found in ponds, lakes, and small impoundments (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). In some areas, it inhabits moderate-gradient headwaters with pools and runs with submergent vegetation or tree roots (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). The lower extent of this species range sees it in brackish water along the coast, however it is more commonly found in freshwater habitats. Eggs are laid on the bottom or among plants, in a solitary nest made by the male in a small territory (Cooper 1983).
184103		population	eng	<em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see maps in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Menhinick 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is described as common to uncommon within its range (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable, or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.
184103		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at the present time. Coastal development poses a threat to this species (Albanese pers. comm.), however considering this species preference for inland freshwaters, this is unlikely to pose a significant risk to the global population of this species.
184165		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.
184165		distribution	eng	This is a widely distributed species in Mexico.
184165		habitat	eng	<em>I. lennoni</em> is a demersal, viviparous species.
184165		population	eng	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.
184165		threats	eng	No threats are known.
184181		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184181		distribution	eng	The species is known from two localities in Congo (Makaba, Dimonika) and from three or more in Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa, Eala, Kungu).
184181		habitat	eng	No precise information, but most likely to be found in and around rainforest streams.
184181		population	eng	No information available.
184181		threats	eng	No information available.
184182		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184182		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
184182		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Tanzania (Mpanda, Kigoma), Uganda (Bwamba Forest, “20 miles west of Kampala”, Budonogo Forest), Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri Forest).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri Forest).
184182		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Tanzania (Mpanda, Kigoma), Uganda (Bwamba Forest, “20 miles west of Kampala”, Budonogo Forest), and Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri Forest).
184182		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184182		population	eng	No information available.
184182		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184182		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to forest destruction and agriculture are major causes of threat.
184183		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable
184183		conservation	eng	None.
184183		conservation	eng	None in place. Population trends should be monitored.
184183		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ivorian type material and Central African Republic (Legrand 1980), Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia (seen by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and also present in the Central African Republic.
184183		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ivorian type material (Legrand 1980) and Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia (seen by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also known from Central African Republic (Legrand 1980).
184183		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia. It is also known from Central African Republic (Legrand 1980).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Ivorian type material (Legrand 1980) and Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia (seen by Dijkstra).
184183		habitat	eng	Forested streams.
184183		population	eng	No information available.
184183		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184183		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184183		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184184		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184184		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Gabon (Ipassa, Mokokou) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala and Busu Bombenga).
184184		habitat	eng	Found in and around temporary rainforest pools.
184184		population	eng	No information available.
184184		threats	eng	No precise information is available, but it is most likely to be threatened by rainforest destruction.
184185		conservation	eng	No information available.
184185		conservation	eng	No information available. Threats to this species should be monitored.
184185		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone. Replaces the much commoner <em>P. iridipennis</em> on rainforest rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Gabon.
184185		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo Basin to Sierra Leone. Replaces the much commoner <em>P. iridipennis</em> on rainforest rivers.
184185		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone. Replaces the much commoner <em>P. iridipennis</em> on rainforest rivers.<br/><br/>In central Africa present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, and Gabon. Present from Cameroon to Sierra Leone in western Africa.
184185		habitat	eng	Rainforest rivers.
184185		population	eng	No information available.
184185		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184185		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184185		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184186		conservation	eng	No information available.
184186		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species replaces <em>P. cognatus</em> from north east  Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo (record needs confirmation); presence in Cameroon is assumed.
184186		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone eastwards.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It replaces <em>P. cognatus</em> from north east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone.
184186		distribution	eng	This species replaces <em>P. cognatus</em> from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone. Present in central Africa in Democratic Republic of Congo, and assumed in Cameroon. Recorded in western Africa from Sierra Leone eastwards.
184186		habitat	eng	Open streams and rivers.
184186		population	eng	No information available.
184186		threats	eng	No information available.
184187		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184187		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality "Dundo, Angola" in northern Angola (locality is uncertain), and the border to Democratic Republic of Congo. It is most likely to occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.
184187		habitat	eng	The species is most likely found in and around forest streams
184187		population	eng	No information available.
184187		threats	eng	No information available.
184188		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184188		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in Rwanda (1,500 m asl, West Rwanda, Nyungwe Forest). It is likely to occur in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo as well, but this is not confirmed.
184188		habitat	eng	No information available but most likely to occur in rainforest streams.
184188		population	eng	No information available.
184188		threats	eng	No information, most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
184189		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184189		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kabongo).
184189		habitat	eng	No information available.
184189		population	eng	No information available.
184189		threats	eng	No information available.
184190		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status would be valuable.
184190		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from an area around Makokou in Gabon, and in Congo (this record needs confirmation).
184190		habitat	eng	The taxon is known from flooded 'anthropogenic savannah' - forest clearings, within forest matrix.
184190		population	eng	No information available.
184190		threats	eng	No information available.
184191		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184191		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184191		conservation	eng	None.
184191		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species ranges from north-east Republic of Congo to Cameroon, just entering Nigeria in south-east.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo; expected to be present in Cameroon.
184191		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north-east Congo-Kinshasa to Cameroon, just entering Nigeria in the south east.
184191		distribution	eng	The species ranges from north-east Congo to Cameroon, just entering Nigeria in south-east.
184191		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184191		population	eng	No information.
184191		population	eng	No information available.
184191		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184191		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184191		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be a threat to the species.
184192		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184192		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Gabon.
184192		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest rivers.
184192		population	eng	No information available.
184192		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
184194		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
184194		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the central Africa region. Known from Cameroon (6 records) and Central African Republic (one record). The Sierra Leone record is erroneous (Dijkstra 2003).
184194		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams. Appears to be a lowland species, but no information on the altitude of the Mt. Cameroon records.
184194		population	eng	No information available.
184194		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
184195		conservation	eng	Research required into the species' taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring.
184195		distribution	eng	Larvae of the genus <em>Onychogomphus</em> have been found in Ethiopia, which might be this species. An old record lists <em>O. nigrotibialis</em> for Ethiopia, which is uncertain. The genus <em>Onychogomphus</em> is present in the region, the exact species requires more research.
184195		habitat	eng	No information available.
184195		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184195		threats	eng	No information available.
184196		conservation	eng	Research required into the population numbers and range for this species, as well as trends/monitoring.
184196		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo (Bobey, Busu Lite, Eala, Bomboma, Busu-Gbandi, Busu-Bombenga, Ebuku,  Kambaye and Bambesa).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Somalia by Tsuda, which is a mistake as this tropical species is unlikely to occur in Somalia.
184196		habitat	eng	Forest streams and/or rivers.
184196		population	eng	No information available.
184196		threats	eng	No information available.
184198		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184198		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality Lokutu in Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra 2007).
184198		habitat	eng	The species has been found along a steep bank of the main channel of the Congo River (less than one kilometre broad), where bushes and trees overhang the water. The damselflies were perched on <span style="font-style: italic;">Eichhornia </span>and emergent twigs low above the water.
184198		population	eng	No information available.
184198		threats	eng	No information available.
184199		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184199		conservation	eng	No information available.
184199		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184199		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from four disjunct areas that coincide with pleistocene rainforest refugia, and coloration different in each: east Liberia and south west Cote d'Ivoire; south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon; north east Gabon; north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northeastern Gabon, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and southwestern Cameroon.
184199		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from four disjunct areas (only 2 in the region) that coincide with pleistocene rainforest refugia, and coloration different in each: east Liberia and south west Cote d'Ivoire; south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The other two locations are in north east Gabon and north east Democratic Republic of Congo
184199		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from four disjunct areas in east Liberia and south west Cote d'Ivoire, south east Nigeria, south west Cameroon, north east Gabon and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in north-eastern Gabon, north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and south western Cameroon.
184199		habitat	eng	Only known from Pleistocene rainforest refugia, probably breeds in inundated areas along streams.
184199		population	eng	No information available.
184199		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184199		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184199		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184200		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184200		conservation	eng	No information available.
184200		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184200		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from south east Nigeria to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo.
184200		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to central Congo Basin.
184200		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria to Central Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Cong and Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
184200		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams.
184200		population	eng	No information available.
184200		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184200		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184200		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184201		conservation	eng	Probably benefits from the creation of artificial lakes in the savannah zone (Parr 1974).
184201		conservation	eng	Probably benefits from the creation of artificial lakes in the savannah zone (Parr 1974). Research into population numbers and range would be valuable.
184201		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from the Central African Republic, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; northern Cameroon and the Central African Republic likely
184201		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Scattered records from Central African Republic, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.
184201		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered records from Central African Republic, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, northern Cameroon likely.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria and Sierra Leone.
184201		habitat	eng	Lakes with emergent grasses, especially Echinochloa pyramidalis, in savannah and woodland (Parr 1972, 1974a, 1974b, 1977).
184201		habitat	eng	Lakes with emergent grasses, especially <em>Echinochloa pyramidalis</em>, in savannah and woodland (Parr 1972, 1974a, 1974b, 1977).
184201		habitat	eng	Lakes with emergent grasses, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinochloa pyramidalis</span>, in savannah and woodland (Parr 1972, 1974a, 1974b, 1977).
184201		population	eng	No information available.
184201		threats	eng	No information available.
184202		conservation	eng	No information available.
184202		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo (Busu-Bombenga, Dongo and Eala).
184202		habitat	eng	No information, most likely rainforest streams.
184202		population	eng	No information available.
184202		threats	eng	No information available.
184203		conservation	eng	No information available.
184203		conservation	eng	None. Research required into the taxonomy for this species.
184203		conservation	eng	Research required into the taxonomy for this species.
184203		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is described from various countries of the northern savannah belt (Ethiopia to Ivory Coast). <br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from several records from Ethiopia and Eritrea, for Sudan assumed.
184203		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Mali east to Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is known from Liberia and Mali east to Ethiopia and Yemen.
184203		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Liberia and Mali east to Ethiopia and Yemen. Described from various countries of the northern savannah belt (Ethiopia to Cote d'Ivoire).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from several records from Ethiopia and Eritrea, and it is assumed to be present in Sudan.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Liberia and Mali, east to Centra African Republic.
184203		habitat	eng	Fast, rocky sections of open rivers.
184203		habitat	eng	Large rivers
184203		habitat	eng	Large rivers.
184203		population	eng	No information available.
184203		threats	eng	No information available.
184203		threats	eng	None known.
184204		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.
184204		conservation	eng	No information available.
184204		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.
184204		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within the Central African Republic
184204		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only indication of its presence in western Africa is a specimen from Yeale (Cote d'Ivoire) in Paris museum (Dijkstra 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184204		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within Central African Republic.<br/><br/>The only indication of its presence in western Africa is a specimen from Yeale (Cote d'Ivoire) in Paris museum (Dijkstra 2005).
184204		habitat	eng	Forest.
184204		habitat	eng	This is a forest species.
184204		population	eng	No information available.
184204		threats	eng	Deforestation.
184204		threats	eng	Deforestation for logging and agricultural expansion is a threat around Yeale.
184204		threats	eng	Forest destruction, for logging and agricultural expansion, is a threat around Yeale.
184205		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184205		conservation	eng	No information available.
184205		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and population trends should be monitored.
184205		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Cameroon (eastern limit unknown).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; reported from Equatorial Guinea, and occurrence in Gabon likely.
184205		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Cameroon outside the western Africa region, however the species eastern limit is unknown.
184205		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea to Cameroon outside the western Africa region, however the species eastern limit is unknown. Everything east of western Cameroon are unlikely; eastern Cameroon should be ignored.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, occurrence in Gabon likely.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Cameroon.
184205		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
184205		population	eng	No information available.
184205		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184205		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184205		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184206		conservation	eng	No information available.
184206		conservation	eng	No information available. More information is needed on threats to this species.
184206		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
184206		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to central Congo Basin, wherever there is decent rainforest. Must also occur in Sierra Leone and in Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the central Congo basin (Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo), and likely to be present in Cameroon.
184206		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon, wherever there is decent rainforest. Must also occur in Sierra Leone. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to central Congo Basin.
184206		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Liberia and Guinea to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon, wherever there is rainforest. Must also occur in Sierra Leone.
184206		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184206		population	eng	No information available.
184206		threats	eng	Agriculture and forest destruction.
184206		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184206		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184207		conservation	eng	No information available.
184207		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.
184207		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
184207		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon.
184207		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone and Guinea, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea
184207		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone and Guinea, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest.
184207		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
184207		population	eng	No information available.
184207		threats	eng	Agriculture and forest destruction.
184207		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184207		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184208		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184208		conservation	eng	No information available.
184208		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184208		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon (Takamanda forest and other areas) and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (found in Takamanda Forest, Nigeria).<br><br><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is only recorded from Cameroon.
184208		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is found in Takamanda Forest, south west Cameroon and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (but currently no records).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon (Takamanda forest and other areas) and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (found in Takamanda Forest, Nigeria).
184208		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and also likely to be present in Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon (Takamanda forest and other areas) and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (found in Takamanda Forest, Nigeria).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest, south west Cameroon and it is probably on the region adjacent south east Nigeria, although it has not been currently recorded from here.
184208		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184208		population	eng	No information available.
184208		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184208		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184208		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184209		conservation	eng	Research required into the species population and range, biology and ecology, and potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring.
184209		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Somalia and Ethiopia.
184209		habitat	eng	Pools and slow waters in arid areas.
184209		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184209		threats	eng	No information available.
184210		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184210		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon but no further details are available apart from McLachlan's collection of Natural History Museum (London), Congo (Tervuren) and Gabon. Not much information is available but it is possibly also present in Democratic Republic of Congo.
184210		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams and rivers.
184210		population	eng	No information available.
184210		threats	eng	Deforestation is thought to threaten the species.
184211		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184211		conservation	eng	No information available.
184211		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and monitoring of population trends.
184211		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in central Democratic Republic of Congo from a single disjunct record.
184211		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra unpubl.).
184211		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra unpubl.)<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from central Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.
184211		habitat	eng	Forested rivers.
184211		population	eng	No information available.
184211		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184211		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184211		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction is a threat to the species.
184212		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184212		distribution	eng	The species has been described by Compte Sart (1964) from "Kama (Kogo)", which should be Cogo in the extreme southwest of Rio Muni (continental part of Equatorial Guinea). Two males were recorded by Legrand from Mvouti in the southwestern corner of Congo, Brazzaville. Type locality was re-examined by Legrand and found close but distinct from Cameroonian <em>E. pruinosa</em>. Also new records from a number of localities in Gabon have become available.
184212		habitat	eng	No information, but most likely rainforest streams.
184212		population	eng	No information available.
184212		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation.
184213		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184213		conservation	eng	No information available.
184213		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184213		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo basin and a record from Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
184213		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from one record, subspecies lamtoensis described from Cote d'Ivoire; nominate from Congo Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo basin.
184213		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Congo basin. Ivory Coast record described as separate sub-species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo basin and a record from Cote d'Ivoire<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from one record, subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lamtoensis </span>described from Cote d'Ivoire; nominate from Congo Basin.
184213		habitat	eng	Probably forest rivers.
184213		population	eng	No information available.
184213		threats	eng	No information available.
184214		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184214		conservation	eng	No information available.
184214		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north-east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea; probably present wherever there is some forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184214		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from west to Sierra Leone and Guinea; probably present wherever there is some forest.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north-east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea
184214		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from north-east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present west to Sierra Leone and Guinea; probably present wherever there is some forest.
184214		habitat	eng	Streams, swamps and pools in forest.
184214		population	eng	No information available.
184214		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184214		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are forest destruction through agriculture and wood extraction.
184215		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184215		conservation	eng	No information available.
184215		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184215		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species replaces <em>C. radix</em> in Cameroon. It is expected to be found in south east Nigeria, but no records are currently present. Extending to Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon. All records of <em>C. glauca</em> further west are considered as<em> C. radix</em> (Dijkstra 2003). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, a record from Congo needs confirmation.
184215		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Takamanda Forest in Cameroon. Expected to be found in south east Nigeria, but no records are currently present. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It replaces <em>C. radix</em> in Cameroon extending to Democratic Republic of Congo, All records of <em>C. glauca</em> further west are considered as C. radix (Dijkstra 2003).
184215		distribution	eng	This species replaces <em>C. radix</em> in Cameroon extending to Democratic Republic of Congo, all records of <em>C. glauca</em> further west are considered as <em>C. radix</em> (Dijkstra 2003). Congo specimens were seen by Dijkstra and its validity confirmed, also Gabon. Suitable habitat present between the two collection areas and likely present between the two.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, a record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest in Cameroon. Expected to be found in south east Nigeria, but no records are currently present.
184215		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184215		population	eng	No information available.
184215		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to agriculture and wood extraction, is believed to be affecting to the species.
184215		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184216		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184216		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Mount Kupe, Jide River to the south-west province of Cameroon (Dijkstra pers. comm.), near Bamenda. Probably endemic to the Cameroon Highlands.
184216		habitat	eng	Found in and around montane streams.
184216		population	eng	No information available.
184216		threats	eng	No information available.
184217		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184217		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Democratic Republic of Congo, and a record from Congo that needs confirmation.
184217		habitat	eng	No information is available, it is most likely found in and around rainforest streams/rivers.
184217		population	eng	No information available.
184217		threats	eng	No information available.
184218		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184218		distribution	eng	The species is known from two localities, one in Congo (near Brazzaville) and one in Democratic Republic of Congo (Mongati à l’Est de Kinshasa).
184218		habitat	eng	No information, but probably rainforest streams.
184218		population	eng	No information available.
184218		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation caused by wood extraction.
184220		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184220		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from various localities in the Congo Basin, all records within Democratic Republic of Congo.
184220		habitat	eng	No information, probably swampy forest areas.
184220		population	eng	No information available.
184220		threats	eng	No information available.
184221		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184221		distribution	eng	The species is known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Its occurrence in Gabon is likely.
184221		habitat	eng	It is found in and around forest rivers.
184221		population	eng	No information available.
184221		threats	eng	No information available, but most likely threatened by forest destruction.
184222		conservation	eng	No information available.
184222		conservation	eng	No information available. The taxonomy of the species requires confirmation, and more research into threats to this species is needed.
184222		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
184222		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Gabon and possibly further east, but taxonomy confused. Remarkably listed by Legrand (2003) for Guinea-Bissau, but not Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, Cameroon, and likely to be present in Equatorial Guinea.
184222		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria. Remarkably listed by Legrand (2003) for Guinea-Bissau, but not Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone and Guinea to Gabon and possibly further east, but taxonomy confused.
184222		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Gabon and possibly further east, but taxonomy confused.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Gabon, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria. Remarkably listed by Legrand (2003) for Guinea-Bissau, but not Cote d'Ivoire.
184222		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184222		population	eng	No information available.
184222		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184222		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184222		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184223		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but population monitoring would be valuable.
184223		conservation	eng	No information available.
184223		conservation	eng	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. More research into threats to this species is required.
184223		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Bioko, Nigeria (incl. Ondo and Plateau provinces) and south west Ghana (Dijkstra, unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko).
184223		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria (including the. Ondo and Plateau provinces) and south west Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Bioko, Nigeria and south west Ghana.
184223		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Bioko, Nigeria and south west Ghana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Bioko.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria (including Ondo and Plateau provinces) and south west Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.).
184223		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184223		population	eng	No information available.
184223		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184223		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture is a threat to the species.
184223		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184224		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184224		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Lake Tanganyika (Cammaerts 2004). Known from dubious records in Somalia and erroneously listed for Nigeria, but it is considered that records other than those given in Cammaerts (2004) are considered erroneous.
184224		habitat	eng	Lake Tanganyika.
184224		population	eng	No information available.
184224		threats	eng	No information available.
184225		conservation	eng	No information available.
184225		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184225		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Congo.
184225		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.
184225		distribution	eng	The species is present from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon, and in Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea. Records from Democratic Republic of Congo are erroneous.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.
184225		habitat	eng	Forested streams and small rivers.
184225		population	eng	No information available.
184225		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184225		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184225		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture and logging.
184226		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184226		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184226		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest streams.
184226		population	eng	No information available.
184226		threats	eng	No information available.
184227		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184227		distribution	eng	The species is present in Bwindi National Park (Uganda).
184227		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams.
184227		population	eng	No information available.
184227		threats	eng	No information available.
184228		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184228		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mobeka and Lokutu in Democratic Republic of Congo and from eastern Congo.
184228		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams.
184228		population	eng	No information available.
184228		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species.
184229		conservation	eng	No information available.
184229		conservation	eng	No information available but research into habitat status would be valuable.
184229		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the habitat status of this species is needed.
184229		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is described from north east  Democratic Republic of Congo and assessor confirms records from Sierra Leone; records from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria and the Central African Republic therefore appear probable.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon.
184229		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been described from north east Democratic Republic of Congo and records from Sierra Leone; there are records from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Central African Republic therefore appear probable.
184229		distribution	eng	The species has been described from north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and records from Sierra Leone; records from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, therefore Nigeria and Central African Republic appear probable. The Gabonese record is dubious (within rainforest, and this is a savannah species).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria.
184229		habitat	eng	Probably woodland or savannah.
184229		population	eng	A very scarce species.
184229		population	eng	No information available.
184229		threats	eng	No information available.
184230		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.
184230		distribution	eng	Species endemic to Gabon, only known from the type locality Nyamé Pendé River, Makokou, and from the Balé and Belé River in the vicinity (Legrand 1984).
184230		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and rivers.
184230		population	eng	No information available.
184230		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by wood extraction is known to threat to the species.
184231		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184231		conservation	eng	No information available.
184231		conservation	eng	No information available.  Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184231		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the type material of bella (north east Congo-Kinshasa) and from two synonyms from Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo. Its presence in Congo and Cameroon is assumed.
184231		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Guinea (as synonym diplacoides) and Sierra Leone (as synonym <em>leonensis</em>)<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the type material of bella (north east Congo-Kinshasa) and from two synonyms from Guinea Sierra Leone.
184231		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type material of Bella (north east Congo-Kinshasa) and from two synonyms from Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, in Congo and Cameroon assumed<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea (as synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">diplacoides</span>) and Sierra Leone (as synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">leonensis</span>)
184231		habitat	eng	Unknown.
184231		population	eng	No information available.
184231		threats	eng	No information available.
184232		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184232		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184232		conservation	eng	None.
184232		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congoongo, Guinea (Nimba) and Cote d'Ivoire (Tai Forest). The distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon. Likely to be present in Republic of Congo.
184232		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only on Mt Nimba (Guinea) and in Tai Forest (Cote d'Ivoire) and listed for Nigeria by Medler (1980). This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also known from Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184232		distribution	eng	The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea (Nimba), Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria.<br><br>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea (Nimba) and Cote d'Ivoire (Tai Forest). The distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.<br><br>In western Africa, the species is only on Mount Nimba, (Papua New Guinea) and in Tai Forest (Cote d'Ivoire) and listed for Nigeria by Medler (1980). This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.
184232		habitat	eng	Small streams and seepage in rainforest.
184232		habitat	eng	Small streams in rainforest.
184232		habitat	eng	Small streams in rainforest; not found in drier areas and savanna.
184232		population	eng	No information.
184232		population	eng	No information available.
184232		population	eng	None.
184232		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184232		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184232		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
184233		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184233		distribution	eng	The species has been found from an area around Lokutu, central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra 2008). It is the only <em>Platycypha</em> species found in central Democratic Republic of Congo. The species may be localised. Despite being conspicuous, it is absent from the substantial collections in Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale. Well-sampled sites nearest to Lokutu are larger than 350 km away in Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra 2007b).
184233		habitat	eng	Found on three clear sandy streams (2 to 5 m broad) within 5 km from the Congo River. Two streams were in dense forest and largely shaded. The other ran along an oil palm plantation and was largely sunny.
184233		population	eng	No information available.
184233		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to the species.
184234		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184234		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from one location within Zambia on the Democratic Republic of Congo border.
184234		habitat	eng	No information, but most likely forest habitats, swampy dambo on a river.
184234		population	eng	No information available.
184234		threats	eng	No enough information available, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
184235		conservation	eng	No information available. Further survey to determine the species range, ecology, habitat and population trends is required.
184235		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in northern Zambia: Kamankundju River, Sakeji, Ikelenge, Mwinilunga. Occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo might be anticipated.
184235		habitat	eng	No information available.
184235		population	eng	No information available.
184235		threats	eng	No information available.
184236		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184236		conservation	eng	No information available.
184236		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring this species.
184236		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to Gabon, possibly further east.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo
184236		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to Gabon, possibly further east.
184236		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from south east Nigeria to Gabon, possibly further east.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and possibly also present in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
184236		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184236		population	eng	No information available.
184236		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184236		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area as a result of logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184236		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184237		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184237		conservation	eng	No information available.
184237		conservation	eng	None.
184237		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, must also occur in forest areas of Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in western Cameroon.
184237		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, must also occur in forest areas of Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It also occurs in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.
184237		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, must also occur in forest areas of Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from western Cameroon
184237		habitat	eng	Forested streams and rivers.
184237		population	eng	No information.
184237		population	eng	No information available.
184237		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184237		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184237		threats	eng	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184238		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184238		conservation	eng	No information available.
184238		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into possible threats to this species, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184238		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> At the foot of highlands: Loma in Sierra Leone, Nimba in Guinea, Adamawa massif in Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and the Central African Republic, and Atewa range in Ghana. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo.
184238		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from the foot of highlands: Loma in Sierra Leone, Nimba in Guinea, Adamawa massif in Nigeria, Cameroon and Central African Republic, and Atewa range in Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also present in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.
184238		distribution	eng	The species is found in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville, Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Nigeria, Ghana and Cameroon; occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Gabon, Central African Republic, Cameroon and Congo; occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo assumed. Single record from western Democratic Republic of Congo confirmed (a further record from south east Democratic Republic of Congo is correctly identified but locations is likely to be incorrect).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from the foot of highlands: Loma in Sierra Leone, Nimba in Guinea, Adamawa massif in Nigeria, Cameroon and Central African Republic, and Atewa range in Ghana.
184238		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams at foot of highlands, appears associated with sections of rapid flow, e.g. near waterfalls (Dijkstra unpub.).
184238		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams at foot of highlands, appears to be associated with sections of rapid flow, e.g. near waterfalls (Dijkstra unpub.).
184238		population	eng	No information available.
184238		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in parts of the species range, could be a threat to the species. In Nimba and Atewa there is the potential threat of mining.
184239		conservation	eng	No information available.
184239		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range would be valuable.
184239		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known only from north Sierra Leone (Kamabai) and Mali, as well as north Benin (Tanougou).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also recorded from Sudan (Dijkstra unpubl.).
184239		distribution	eng	The species is known from north Sierra Leone (Kamabai) and Mali, as well as north Benin (Tanougou). Also recorded from Sudan (Dijkstra unpubl.).
184239		habitat	eng	Savannah streams.
184239		population	eng	No information available.
184239		threats	eng	No information available.
184241		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184241		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Mount Elgon, East Mau Escarpment (both Kenya).
184241		habitat	eng	Found in and around rivers.
184241		population	eng	No information available.
184241		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to water extraction, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture (mainly livestock) and wood extraction.
184242		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184242		conservation	eng	No information available.
184242		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184242		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from southern Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea and possibly further east: similar <em>P. superbum</em> in Democratic Republic of Congo may be a synonym.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon. Also reported from the Central African Republic.
184242		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Southern Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Southern Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea and possibly further east: similar <em>P. superbum</em> in Democratic Republic of Congo may be a synonym.
184242		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea and possibly further east: similar <em>P. superbum</em> in Democratic Republic of Congo may be a synonym.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from southern Nigeria and south-west Cameroon.
184242		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184242		population	eng	No information available.
184242		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184242		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184242		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184243		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184243		conservation	eng	None.
184243		conservation	eng	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184243		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was first described from Gabon and also listed for Cameroon and Nigeria and a still to be confirmed record from Congo. It is believed the species is more widespread in this region even though it is known from a few records, but this is most likely due to the fact that the species is very difficult to catch.<br><br><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon; possibly present in Congo.
184243		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from south west Cameroon and Nigeria (assumed south east Nigeria). It is believed the species is more widespread in this region even though it is known from a few records, but this is most likely due to the fact that the species is very difficult to catch.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was first described from Gabon and also listed for Cameroon and Nigeria.
184243		distribution	eng	This species was first described from Gabon and also listed for Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, and also likely in Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon and Nigeria (assumed south east Nigeria). It is believed the species is more widespread in this region even though it is known from a few records, but this is most likely due to the fact that the species is very difficult to catch.
184243		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams.
184243		population	eng	No informaiton.
184243		population	eng	No information available.
184243		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184243		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184243		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184244		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184244		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Congo, Brazzaville (e.g., Etoumbi forest) (Aguesse 1966; Legrand and Lachaise 1980). Also seen material from near Brazzaville (Dijkstra).
184244		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest streams.
184244		population	eng	No information available.
184244		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to the species.
184245		conservation	eng	No information available.
184245		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Congo Basin, where it is widespread (Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea).
184245		habitat	eng	Found in and around streams in rainforest areas.
184245		population	eng	No information available.
184245		threats	eng	No information available, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
184246		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184246		conservation	eng	No information available.
184246		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.
184246		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia; Bambesa; Eala; Bobey; Busira), Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon; also reported from Angola.
184246		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Democratic Republic of Congo.
184246		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Gambia to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia, Bambesa, Eala, Bobey, Busira), Angola, Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.
184246		habitat	eng	Forest streams and rivers.
184246		population	eng	No information available.
184246		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184246		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184247		conservation	eng	No information available.
184247		conservation	eng	None.
184247		conservation	eng	None known.
184247		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Gabon, Bioko, Cameroon, Congo-Brazaville, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinee-C, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone require renewed study. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), and Gabon.
184247		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone require renewed study. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also recorded from Gabon, Bioko, Cameroon and Congo-Brazaville.
184247		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Gabon, Bioko (Equatorial Guinea), Cameroon and Congo. Scattered records from Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone require renewed study.
184247		habitat	eng	Probably rainforest streams.
184247		population	eng	No information available.
184247		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184247		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by wood extraction is a major threat to the species.
184248		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status would be valuable.
184248		conservation	eng	No information available.
184248		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.
184248		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Guinea Bissau to north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Garamba) and the Central African Republic. Expected from Congo, and reported from Cameroon (requires confirmation).
184248		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea Bissau to Burkina Faso and Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea Bissau to north east Democratic Republic of Congo.
184248		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea Bissau to north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northeast Democratic Republic of Congo (Garamba), record from Cameroon needs confirmation, expected from northern Central African Republic and Congo.
184248		habitat	eng	Probably savannah.
184248		population	eng	No information available.
184248		threats	eng	No information available.
184248		threats	eng	None.
184249		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184249		distribution	eng	The species has been found in Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic. According to Lindley (1980), it is "undoubtedly widespread around Bouar".
184249		habitat	eng	Found in gallery forest along streams.
184249		population	eng	No information available.
184249		threats	eng	No information available.
184250		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184250		distribution	eng	The species is known from two localities in the Mayombe Hills, western Congo Brazzaville.
184250		habitat	eng	No precise information is available, but the species is probably found in and around forest streams or rivers.
184250		population	eng	No information available.
184250		threats	eng	No information available.
184251		conservation	eng	No information available.
184251		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184251		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and western Uganda, locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. flavipes</em>) is probably wrong.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.
184251		distribution	eng	The species is found in Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Uganda. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known from forests in central and western Uganda. The locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. flavipes</em>) is probably wrong.<br/><br/>The species is reported from other parts of Africa (including western Africa) but these reports originate from prior confusion (due to poor description of the species) around this species (Dijkstra<em> et al</em>. 2006).
184251		habitat	eng	Rainforest.
184251		habitat	eng	Streams in dense rainforest.
184251		population	eng	No information available.
184251		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184251		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184252		conservation	eng	The specimen from the Limpopo River needs to be further investigated to determine whether its identification is correct. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184252		distribution	eng	This species is known from four records from the Democratic Republic of Congo, and widespread all along the Congo.
184252		habitat	eng	It is known from large rivers.
184252		population	eng	No information available.
184252		threats	eng	No information available.
184253		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184253		distribution	eng	Its global distribution comprises several localities around Makokou in Gabon.
184253		habitat	eng	It lives in small temporary forest ponds.
184253		population	eng	No information available.
184253		threats	eng	No information available.
184254		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184254		distribution	eng	The taxon has been found in rainforests along the Albertine Rift, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly is present in Tanzania. In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi, near Kampala, Budongo and Bwamba Forests.
184254		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
184254		population	eng	No information available.
184254		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.
184255		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184255		conservation	eng	No information available.
184255		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring this species.
184255		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and Cameroon to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa assessment region:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.
184255		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and Cameroon to Democratic Republic of Congo.
184255		distribution	eng	This species is known from southeast Nigeria and Cameroon to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Equatorial Guinea, and likely to be present also in Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.
184255		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
184255		population	eng	No information available.
184255		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184255		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184255		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184256		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184256		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Congo Basin, recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo. Only known from type locality, Eala (Democratic Republic of Congo) and suspect record from Kribi, Cameroon, Paris Museum.
184256		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams/rivers.
184256		population	eng	No information available.
184256		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation caused by wood extraction.
184257		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184257		conservation	eng	No information available.
184257		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from several records in south west Uganda (Bwindi National Park) and one locality (Mt. Hoyo) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (only record within central Africa region).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from one locality (Mt. Hoyo) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (only record within central Africa region).
184257		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from several sites in south west Uganda (Bwindi National Park) and one locality (Mount Hoyo) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.
184257		habitat	eng	Montane rainforest streams.
184257		population	eng	No information available.
184257		threats	eng	No information available.
184258		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184258		distribution	eng	The species is only known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo: Eala, Coquilhatville (holotype), Bobey; Boende, Bambesa, Busu-Moto and Lokutu (RMNH).
184258		habitat	eng	Found in rainforest.
184258		population	eng	No information available.
184258		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
184259		conservation	eng	No information available.
184259		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Togo. Presence in Nigeria must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Central African Republic.
184259		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Togo. Presence in Nigeria must be confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Togo. Presence in Nigeria must be confirmed.
184259		habitat	eng	Probably savannah and woodland rivers.
184259		population	eng	No information available.
184259		threats	eng	No information available.
184260		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184260		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Democratic Republic of Congo: Stanleyville, Bambesa (holotype), Eala, Kapanga and Thepaza.
184260		habitat	eng	Found in and around rainforest streams.
184260		population	eng	No information available.
184260		threats	eng	No information available.
184261		conservation	eng	No information available.
184261		conservation	eng	None.
184261		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.
184261		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.
184261		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Congo and Cameroon.
184261		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Somalia. Occurrence in Sudan, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.
184261		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert.
184261		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa to northern South Africa except rainforest areas. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Sudan, Djibouti and Eritrea is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, although it does not occur at the Cape.
184261		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. It does not occur at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.
184261		habitat	eng	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savanna and bush.
184261		habitat	eng	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savannah and bush.
184261		population	eng	No information available.
184261		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
184261		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184261		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.
184261		threats	eng	No information available.
184261		threats	eng	None.
184261		threats	eng	None known.
184261		threats	eng	No serious threats are known to be affecting the species at present.
184262		conservation	eng	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring.
184262		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from Ethiopia (Wush Wush, Wondo Genet). The localities are well apart and a wider distribution of the species can be assumed.
184262		habitat	eng	Clear and fast mountainous streams in forest.
184262		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184262		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation.
184263		conservation	eng	No information available.
184263		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.
184263		conservation	eng	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems using policy-based actions and increasing education and awareness. Information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends, and habitat/site based conservation is also required.
184263		distribution	eng	<em>Mesocnemis robusta</em> is endemic to the River Nile system, ranging from Ethiopia to the Nile delta.
184263		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The is known from Egypt and Sudan across to Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan; presence in Egypt assumed.
184263		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles et al. 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Egypt and Sudan accross to Nigeria, Benin, Ghana.
184263		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Egypt and Sudan across to Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Although records show two disjunct populations, the species is likely to be present in between.<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from central Africa region yet, but likely to occur in the northern zones of Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is endemic to the River Nile system, ranging from Ethiopia to the Nile Delta.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt and Sudan.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria to Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles <em>et al</em>. 1998).
184263		habitat	eng	Open rivers.
184263		habitat	eng	Streams, rivers and brooks.
184263		population	eng	No information available.
184263		population	eng	No information available.<br/><br/>In northern Africa,  two records are known from Egypt (one from the lower Nile (1988), and one from Assouan in Upper Egypt (1912), which is possibly now extinct due to the Assouan Dam), and five from Sudan. Some records are dated 1980-1988
184263		population	eng	Two records are known from Egypt (one from the lower Nile (1988), and one from Assouan in Upper Egypt (1912), which is possibly now extinct due to the Assouan Dam), and five from Sudan. Some records are dated 1980-1988.
184263		threats	eng	No information available.
184263		threats	eng	Over-irrigation and water pollution; stream management.
184263		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are over-irrigation, water pollution, stream management and infrastructure development. It is inferred that it would be affected by drought in the future.
184264		conservation	eng	No information available.
184264		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa). An additional record from Congo (Tsuda) requires confirmation.
184264		habitat	eng	No information available.
184264		population	eng	No information available.
184264		threats	eng	No information available.
184265		conservation	eng	None.
184265		conservation	eng	None known.
184265		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from western Cameroon.
184265		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside of the region, the species also occurs in Cameroon outside the assessment area.
184265		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone to Cameroon; might be expected in Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from western Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.
184265		habitat	eng	Probably forested rivers.
184265		population	eng	No information.
184265		population	eng	No information available.
184265		threats	eng	Deforestation.
184265		threats	eng	Deforestation and agriculture.
184265		threats	eng	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.
184266		conservation	eng	No information available.
184266		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is required.
184266		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range would be valuable.
184266		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, the Central African Republic and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
184266		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Ghana, Togo and Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Central African Republic and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.
184266		distribution	eng	This species is present in Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known only from Central African Republic and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from Ghana, Togo and Nigeria.
184266		habitat	eng	Woodland streams.
184266		population	eng	No information available.
184266		threats	eng	No information available.
184267		conservation	eng	No information available.
184267		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Dula (types); Banzyville (types); Yakoma; Eala; Bambesa); it is assumed for Cameroon and Congo.
184267		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.
184267		distribution	eng	The species is known to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone. It is assumed to be present in Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo in Dula (types), Banzyville (types), Yakoma, Eala, Bambesa, and assumed for Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.
184267		habitat	eng	Probably open rivers.
184267		population	eng	No information available.
184267		threats	eng	No information available.
184267		threats	eng	None.
184268		conservation	eng	No information available. Taxonomic revision is required, along with a better understanding of this species' range.
184268		conservation	eng	None.
184268		conservation	eng	None but research into taxonomy would be valuable.
184268		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was first described from Cameroon, Legrand (1980) found it in Cote d'Ivoire, listings for Guinee-C and Nigeria are more uncertain: status of species and all records must be revised.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Gabon (unknown localities), and an unconfirmed record from Angola.
184268		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> First described from Cameroon, Legrand (1980) found it in Cote d'Ivoire, listings for Guinea and Nigeria are more uncertain: status of species and all records must be revised.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species localities in Cameroon are unknown and may occur outside the western Africa region.
184268		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Cote d'Ivoire, and uncertain listings for Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon (unknown localities), Gabon and an unconfirmed record from Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is described from Cameroon and Legrand (1980) found it in Cote d'Ivoire. Listings for Guinea and Nigeria are more uncertain and the status of the species and all records must be revised.
184268		habitat	eng	Probably forest streams.
184268		population	eng	No information.
184268		population	eng	No information available.
184268		threats	eng	No information available.
184268		threats	eng	Unknown.
184269		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184269		distribution	eng	The species is known from two records from the same location (including the single holotype male) in Makokou, Gabon.
184269		habitat	eng	Found on upper sections of streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
184269		population	eng	No precise information available.
184269		threats	eng	No information available.
184270		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184270		conservation	eng	No information available.
184270		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184270		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly present within Republic of Congo.
184270		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from a single record from Liberia (Lempert 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Kinshasa.
184270		distribution	eng	The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Kinshasa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from a single record from Liberia (Lempert 1988).
184270		habitat	eng	Swamps, probably in forest.
184270		population	eng	No information available.
184270		threats	eng	Unknown.
184271		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184271		conservation	eng	No information available.
184271		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.
184271		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Central Democratic Republic of Congo to Cameroon. Erroneously listed for Cote d'Ivoire by Tsuda (2000).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon
184271		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species may be found in the very south east of the western African region in south west Cameroon. It was erroneously listed for Cote d'Ivoire by Tsuda (2000).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Central Democratic Republic of Congo to Cameroon.
184271		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species may be found in the very south east of the western African region in south west Cameroon. It was erroneously listed for Cote d'Ivoire by Tsuda (2000).
184271		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
184271		population	eng	No information available.
184271		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184271		threats	eng	The specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184272		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184272		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Semliki National Park in western Uganda, occurrence in adjacent east Democratic Republic of Congo assumed.
184272		habitat	eng	No precise information available, but it is most likely found in rainforest streams and/or rivers.
184272		population	eng	No information available.
184272		threats	eng	No information available.
184273		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184273		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from western and southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala, Upemba and Inongo).
184273		habitat	eng	No information, probably found in and around forest streams.
184273		population	eng	No information available.
184273		threats	eng	No information available.
184274		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184274		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two males from the type locality in Cameroon (Dikume-Balue, in the Rumpi Hills), within the central Africa region. There is also an unpublished record from Kodmin, in the Bakossi Mountains (Vick pers. comm.).
184274		habitat	eng	No information available.
184274		population	eng	No information available.
184274		threats	eng	No information available.
184275		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184275		conservation	eng	No information available.
184275		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184275		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from the Congo Basin to Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from various localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Banza-Ouest; Bobey; Bambesa; Bokoro; Bokote; Bomboma; Bumbuli; Bunia; Businga; Busira River; Eala; Gulukulu; Lake Leopold II; Lifoko?; Lubumbashi; Lungolu?; Mahagi-Port; Momenge; Ruki), Congo, Gabon and Cameroon.
184275		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is recorded from Nigeria but the location is unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin to Nigeria. Assessor has seen a male pertaining to this species from Guinea-Bissau.
184275		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Congo Basin to Nigeria. Assessor has seen a male pertaining to this species from Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from various localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Banza-Ouest; Bobey; Bambesa; Bokoro; Bokote; Bomboma; Bumbuli; Bunia; Businga; Busira River; Eala; Gulukulu; Lake Leopold II; Lubumbashi; Mahagi-Port; Momenge; Ruki) and from Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria but the location is unknown.
184275		habitat	eng	Unknown, possibly swamp forest.
184275		population	eng	No information available.
184275		threats	eng	No information available.
184276		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184276		conservation	eng	No information available.
184276		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184276		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species was described from 'Guinea portugaise' (Guinea-Bissau) in 1908 and also known from 'Congo' (very old record). The labels of both records are arbitrary and may both pertain to localities in the Lower Guinea. There are also three records from Cameroon (Marienberg).
184276		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species was described from 'Guinea portugaise' (Guinea-Bissau) in 1908. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also known from 'Congo' (very old record).<br/><br/>The labels of both records are arbitrary and may both pertain to localities in the Lower Guinea.
184276		distribution	eng	The species is known from two generalised localities, but recently collected from Sanaga Delta, Cameroon (Dijkstra pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is described from 'Guinea portugaise' (Guinea-Bissau) in 1908 and also known from 'Congo' (very old record). The labels of both records are arbitrary and may both pertain to localities in the Lower Guinea.<br/><br/>The record from Congo in central Africa is uncertain.
184276		habitat	eng	Probably large rivers (Dijkstra).
184276		habitat	eng	Unknown
184276		habitat	eng	Unknown.
184276		population	eng	No information available.
184276		threats	eng	No information available.
184277		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats would be valuable.
184277		distribution	eng	The species is only known from western Central Democratic Republic of Congo (Bumbuli), no recent information is available.
184277		habitat	eng	No information available, but probably occurs in rainforest streams.
184277		population	eng	No information available.
184277		threats	eng	No information available.
184278		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184278		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality "Lualaba: Kabongo" in Democratic Republic of Congo (Cammaerts 1968).
184278		habitat	eng	No information, it is likely to occur in rainforest streams.
184278		population	eng	No information available.
184278		threats	eng	No information available.
184279		conservation	eng	No information available.
184279		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required.
184279		conservation	eng	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range of the species would be valuable.
184279		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Central Congo Basin to Liberia and possibly Senegambia; precise range in western Africa poorly known, as most references do not separate <em>R. fenestrina </em>from <em>R. notata.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, and Gabon.
184279		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Precise range in western Africa is poorly known, as most references do not separate <em>R. fenestrina</em> from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria, Benin and Ghana and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Central Congo Basin to Liberia and possibly Senegambia.
184279		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Central Congo Basin to Liberia and possibly Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic.<br/><br/>The precise range from western Africa is poorly known, as most references do not separate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fenestrina</span> from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria, Benin and Ghana and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.
184279		habitat	eng	Swampy habitats, generally near forest.
184279		population	eng	No information available.
184279		threats	eng	No information available.
184279		threats	eng	None.
184280		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184280		conservation	eng	No information available.
184280		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184280		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Only a handful of records along Congo and Ubangi rivers in Congo Basin, and the single record from Nigeria are available.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu (RMNH); Kinshasa (lectotype ISNB, leg. Waelbroeck); Kasai, Lukenge (S, leg. Fontainas, paralectotype); Stanleyville (leg. Christy); Leopoldville (leg. Bequaert); Ubangi, Duma (ZMUH, leg. Schubotz)). Assumed in Angola, Cameroon and Congo as well.
184280		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from a single old record from Nigeria (locality not specified, identification of specimen confirmed by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only a handful of records along Congo and Ubangi rivers in Congo Basin, and the single record from Nigeria.
184280		distribution	eng	The species is know only from a handful of records along Congo and Ubangi rivers in Congo Basin, and a single record from Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu, in RMNH), Kinshasa (lectotype ISNB, leg. Waelbroeck), Kasai, Lukenge (leg. Fontainas, paralectotype), Stanleyville (leg. Christy), Leopoldville (leg. Bequaert), Ubangi, Duma (ZMUH, leg. Schubotz) and Angola. It is assumed to be present in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from a single old record from Nigeria and even though the locality is not specified, its identification has been confirmed by the assessor.
184280		habitat	eng	Probably large forested rivers.
184280		population	eng	No information available.
184280		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184280		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184280		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184281		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184281		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from northern Angola (Dundo).
184281		habitat	eng	No information available.
184281		population	eng	No information available.
184281		threats	eng	No information available.
184283		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184283		conservation	eng	No information available.
184283		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184283		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and north west  Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo; it is assumed in appropriate habitats in between (Equatorial Guinea) and Zambia.
184283		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from one record from Liberia<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and north west Zambia.
184283		distribution	eng	This species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and north west Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, northwestern Zambia, assumed in appropriate habitats in between (Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only known from one record from Liberia.
184283		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184283		population	eng	No information available.
184283		threats	eng	Agriculture and forest destruction.
184283		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184283		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184284		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184284		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala; Bambesa; Lokutu; Kapanga; Stanleyville).
184284		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184284		population	eng	No information available.
184284		threats	eng	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation.
184285		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184285		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Democratic Republic of Congo (near Boende) and from Likete.
184285		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in a "periodically flooded equatorial evergreen dense forest" (Cammaerts 2004).
184285		population	eng	No information available.
184285		threats	eng	No information, most likely to be affected by forest destruction.
184286		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184286		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from various localities in the region of Lubumbashi (Democratic Republic of Congo).
184286		habitat	eng	It is found in dry forests.
184286		population	eng	No information available.
184286		threats	eng	No information available.
184287		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184287		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184287		conservation	eng	None.
184287		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from a handful of specimens from the Guineo-Congolian realm (Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone), but probably difficult to find rather than rare. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Gabon; in Cameroon expected.
184287		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from recent west African records are from Ghana (Pinhey 1962), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994), Liberia (Lempert 1988) and larvae only from Mt Nimba, Guinea (Legrand 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from a handful of specimens from the Guineo-Congolian realm (Democratic Republic of Congoongo to Sierra Leone), but probably difficult to find rather than rare.
184287		distribution	eng	The species is known only from a handful of specimens from the Guineo-Congolian realm (Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone), but probably difficult to find rather than rare. Present also in Ghana and Cameroon (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, in Cameroon expected. Probably quite widespread within the Congo Basin.<br/><br/>Recent western African records are from Ghana (Pinhey 1962), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994), Liberia (Lempert 1988) and larvae only from Mt. Nimba, Guinea (Legrand 2003)
184287		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and rivers.
184287		population	eng	No information.
184287		population	eng	No information available.
184287		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184287		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184287		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184289		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184289		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from two localities in the vicinity of Kungu (Ubangi: Ebuku; Bomboma), Democratic Republic of Congo.
184289		habitat	eng	No information, but most likely rainforest streams and/or rivers, as for all <em>Chlorocypha</em> spp.
184289		population	eng	No information available.
184289		threats	eng	No information available but ongoing deforestation is assumed in the area.
184290		conservation	eng	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.
184290		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184290		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.
184290		distribution	eng	In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the upper Zambesi catchment, northwest Zambia. Only one record is known from outside the region (Democratic Republic of Congo). Globally, it is recorded from north and northwest Zambia, and can be expected to occur in the Congo (Shaba). It is a very mobile species.
184290		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the upper Zambesi catchment, northwest Zambia, adjacent Democratic Republic of Congo, and from one other record in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184290		distribution	eng	This species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the Upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia, adjacent Democratic Republic of Congo, and from one other record in Democratic Republic of Congo.
184290		habitat	eng	Reedy margins of streams or in gallery forest, usually at fast waters (Pihney 1984a).
184290		population	eng	No information available.
184290		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.
184290		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.
184290		threats	eng	Unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.
184291		conservation	eng	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, uses and harvest levels, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184291		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded only from Congo (Foret de la Tsiama) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala, Mabali).
184291		habitat	eng	Probably found in and around swampy forest habitats, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.
184291		population	eng	No information available.
184291		threats	eng	No information available.
184292		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184292		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the holotype from Dundo, Angola.
184292		habitat	eng	No information available.
184292		population	eng	No information available.
184292		threats	eng	No information available.
184294		conservation	eng	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184294		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa (Congo Basin) Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.
184294		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams
184294		population	eng	No information available.
184294		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is deforestation caused by wood extraction.
184295		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184295		distribution	eng	This unnamed species appears to range from northern Uganda through the savannah belt to Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.
184295		habitat	eng	Probably open streams and rivers.
184295		population	eng	No information available.
184295		threats	eng	No information available.
184296		conservation	eng	No information available.
184296		conservation	eng	No information available but research into threats and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.
184296		conservation	eng	No information available. Taxonomic resolution required, and more research into threats to this species is needed.
184296		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184296		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ghana to Liberia and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia.
184296		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia.<br/><br/>In central and western Africa, the species is known from Ghana to Liberia and from south west Cameroon.
184296		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184296		population	eng	No information available.
184296		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184296		threats	eng	Forest destruction and agriculture.
184296		threats	eng	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.
184297		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184297		conservation	eng	No information available.
184297		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184297		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Aburi (Ghana) from the early 1900's until recently, but discovered in central Democratic Republic of Congo by Dijkstra (2005).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu), and assumed to occur in the area between Ghana and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184297		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the type series from Aburi (Ghana) in the early 1900s, and it hasn't been seen in the region since.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Aburi (Ghana) from the early 1900s until recently, but discovered in central Democratic Republic of Congo by Dijkstra (2005).
184297		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Aburi (Ghana) from the early 1900s until recently, but discovered in central Democratic Republic of Congo by Dijkstra (2005).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu), assumed to occur in the area between Ghana and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known from the type series from Aburi (Ghana) in the early 1900s, and it hasn't been seen in the region since.
184297		habitat	eng	Swampy pools, possibly preferably with floating water plants.
184297		population	eng	No information available.
184297		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are unknown.
184297		threats	eng	Unknown
184297		threats	eng	Unknown.
184298		conservation	eng	Greater awareness of the value of biodiversity and impact studies should be developed.
184298		distribution	eng	<em>Enallagma deserti</em> is endemic to north-west Africa. It is present in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria; a single record exists for western Africa (Ghana), but this is very likely to be a mislabelled specimen (Schneider pers. comm.).
184298		habitat	eng	Habitats include water reservoirs, ponds and dunary slacks. It is found in both freshwater and brackish water bodies.
184298		population	eng	Fairly abundant in semi-arid regions.
184298		threats	eng	Habitat alterations caused by dams are the major threat to the species, among which introduction of exotic fish, pollution and hydrological changes are the most serious.
184299		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184299		conservation	eng	No information available.
184299		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and monitoring of population trends.
184299		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Bioko (Gambles 1975).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon and Bioko, Equatorial Guinea.
184299		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Bioko (see Gambles 1975).
184299		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Bioko (see Gambles 1975).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.
184299		habitat	eng	Small rainforest streams.
184299		population	eng	No information available.
184299		threats	eng	Forest destruction.
184299		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.
184299		threats	eng	Forest destruction, primarily from clearance for agriculture.
184300		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184300		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Uganda (Bwindi National Park in Buhoma, Munyaga Valley) and likely to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.
184300		habitat	eng	Forest streams.
184300		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184300		threats	eng	No information available.
184301		conservation	eng	No information available but research into taxonomy, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.
184301		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the highlands of Ethiopia and western Sudan.
184301		habitat	eng	Highland streams, often in forest. Common in the highlands at 1650-1850 m in rivers and streams with some gallery vegetation and forest.
184301		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184301		threats	eng	Forest destruction caused by wood extraction and river pollution are major threats to the species.
184302		conservation	eng	No information available.
184302		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184302		habitat	eng	Large streams and small rivers in rainforest
184302		population	eng	No information available.
184302		threats	eng	The major threat to the species is deforestation caused by wood extraction.
184303		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184303		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from two sites in southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kalenge), and one site in Bambesa.
184303		habitat	eng	Most likely found in and around forest rivers.
184303		population	eng	No information available.
184303		threats	eng	No information available.
184304		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184304		conservation	eng	No information available.
184304		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Nigeria to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.
184304		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to central Congo Basin.
184304		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria.
184304		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams.
184304		population	eng	No information available.
184304		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184304		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184304		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184305		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.
184305		conservation	eng	No information available.
184305		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.
184305		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon. Possibly present in south east Nigeria , but records from Nigeria may pertain to <em>P. guttifera.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184305		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon (occurs in Takamanda Forest of Cameroon). Possibly present in south east Nigeria , but records from Nigeria may pertain to <em>P. guttifera</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon.
184305		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Gabon. It is possibly also present in Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest in south west Cameroon . It is possibly also present in south east Nigeria, but records from Nigeria may pertain to <em>P. guttifera</em>.
184305		habitat	eng	Possibly rainforest streams.
184305		population	eng	No information available.
184305		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184305		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.
184305		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.
184306		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184306		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two localities in southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbashi, Katonga in Katanga).
184306		habitat	eng	No information, but most likely to occur in rainforest streams and rivers.
184306		population	eng	No information available.
184306		threats	eng	No information available.
184307		conservation	eng	No information available.
184307		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Nigeria and south-west Cameroon. Gives way to <em>S. gloriosa</em> in south Cameroon, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from south-west Cameroon.
184307		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It replaces <em>S. cilita</em> in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species gives way to <em>S. gloriosa</em> in south Cameroon, Gabon and the Congos. Reports from western Africa pertain to <em>S. ciliata</em>.
184307		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria. Gives way to S. gloriosa in southern Cameroon, Gabon and the Congos. Reports from western Africa pertain to <em>S. ciliata</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south-west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species replaces <em>S. cilita</em> in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria.
184307		habitat	eng	Forested streams and rivers.
184307		population	eng	No information available.
184307		threats	eng	The species is well adapted to farm bush, therefore deforestation which is occuring in the region isn't thought to be a threat.
184307		threats	eng	The species is well adapted to farm bush, therefore deforestation which is occurring in the region is not thought to be a threat.
184307		threats	eng	The species is well adapted to farm bush, therefore deforestation which is occurring in the region isn't thought to be a threat.
184308		conservation	eng	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184308		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo around the town of Mbuji-Mayi (Kabongo, Lulua, Tshibalaka). As the localities are 400 km apart and the entire area is under sampled, the species is expected to be widespread in the given area and its surroundings.
184308		habitat	eng	Rainforest streams and/or rivers.
184308		population	eng	No information available.
184308		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by wood extraction is a major threat.
184310		conservation	eng	No information available. Further survey to determine the species range, ecology, habitat and population trends is required.
184310		distribution	eng	So far only recorded from Malawi and northwestern Zambia, but most likely more widely distributed due to confusion with <em>A. sinuatum</em>. It has been recorded from Northern Malawi (Mzimba District; 11º22.98’S, 33º58.86’E; alt. 1,325 m asl), central Malawi (Lilongwe District; 14º15.6’S 33º27.3’E; alt. 1,250 m asl), Limpasa Dambo (Malawi); Zambia (Kabwe, Lisombo river, Kabompo river). No records for the central Africa region. Much more restricted than <em>P. sinuatum.</em>.
184310		habitat	eng	Swampy areas in savannah and Miombo woodland.
184310		population	eng	No information available.
184310		threats	eng	No information available.
184311		conservation	eng	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.
184311		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from south west Cameroon (Vick 2003) and Central African Republic. Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.
184311		habitat	eng	Found in and around forest streams.
184311		population	eng	No information available.
184311		threats	eng	No information available.
184424		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species though it is located within a national park.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax leckii</span> is of conservation concern, and further research is required on the biology and ecology of this species. Finer scale mapping of this species’ distribution within Koreelah National Park is recommended, along with detailed investigations of its environmental tolerances (Coughran, Leckie and Gartside 2008). Further research is urgently required to ascertain how the population is affected by threats.
184424		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a tributary of Koreelah Creek in the Koreelah National Park which can be found on the New South Wales/ Queensland Border in Australia (Coughran 2005). Two hundred and forty five sites were sampled in surrounding areas over a three year period (some sites were re-sampled) and no further specimens were found suggesting that this is a range restricted species (Coughran 2005).
184424		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected from beneath cobbles and boudlers, in shallow depressions and multi-chambered burrows. Surface water was absent, but there was water in a pool overlying bedrock, and further upstream. This species' occurrence above an elevation of 400 m, is unusual for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> genus (Coughran 2005).
184424		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
184424		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats within this species' range: cattle trampling, pesticides and herbicides (used in park maintenance), and climate change (global temperature increase). A new and emerging threat is posed by specimen collection by hobbyists, especially for restricted range species such as this (J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010). Whilst the precise effects of these threats on the population are not known, they are considered a significant threat to this highly restricted range species.
184425		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
184425		conservation	eng	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites.
184425		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria amphibia</em> is a subcosmopolitan species, occurring throughout most of Europe except the extreme north and less frequently in the south. It is found in Asia, North and southern Africa and North America.
184425		distribution	eng	<em>Persicaria amphibia</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a Eurasian or subcosmopolitan species. It is found in Asia, North and southern Africa, North America and in most of Europe, where it is rare in the extreme south.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
184425		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. amphibia </span>is a perennial Hydrogeophyte. It generally occurs in still slow-flowing water, from which it will spread in a terrestrial form away from the water. It is most typical of mesotrophic to eutrophic water bodies, particularly lakes, canals and canalised lowland rivers.
184425		habitat	eng	This perennial Hydrogeophyte prefers stagnant and slow flowing water bodies, ponds, freshwater or brackish marshes, reed beds, wet meadows and freshwater lakes.
184425		population	eng	In North Africa, <em>P. amphibia</em> is rare everywhere: Morocco (one location at the Atlantic coast), Algeria (rare, wetlands of the Algiers and Constantine regions of Tell) and Tunisia (only one locality, Garaet Sedjenane), where it is likely extinct due to the drainage of the lake to turn it into an agricultural area.<br/>It is widespread in France, Portugal and Spain (more common in the north), Italy and not rare in Croatia.
184425		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. amphibia </span>is widespread and abundant throughout most of its European range, although it appears to be less frequent in the Mediterranean region.
184425		threats	eng	<p>There are no known past, ongoing, or future threats to the survival of this species.</p>
184425		threats	eng	The wetland habitat of this species is generally threatened in the Mediterranean basin but the species is not facing specifc threat across its range. The populations are however restricted in North Africa and the only location in Tunisia has been destroyed by agricultural development .
184430		conservation	eng	Nothing is known about the distribution, population, trends and effects of threats to the species. &#160;It is also confused for <em>E. montana.</em> &#160;Research in all the identified fields is recommended.
184430		distribution	eng	The species is distributed in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh in India.
184430		habitat	eng	It occupies slow to medium fast moving streams with sandy to muddy bottom.
184430		population	eng	Information on population and trends is not available. &#160;This is not a very commonly caught species in fisheries.
184430		threats	eng	Since its description in Rihand River near Pipri in 1950, a dam has been constructed in the type locality. &#160;The status of the species since the dam construction is not known, but it is presumed to be threatened by habitat loss due to the dam.
184431		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.
184431		distribution	eng	<em>Mystus carcio</em> is widely distributed in the Brahmaputra River drainage in India (Assam, West Bengal and Tripura) and the Meghna River drainage in Bangladesh (Comilla District) (Darshan <em>et al.</em> 2010).
184431		habitat	eng	It occupies flooded wetlands during monsoons and rivers and prefers sandy/muddy bottom.
184431		population	eng	It is quite commonly found in Guwahati and Tripura markets and hence assumed to be abundant in the river systems (W. Vishwanath<em> pers. comm</em>.).
184431		threats	eng	There are no threats identified for the species.
184432		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne sophia</span> is included in Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Endangered and in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (Krasnoborov 1988) as Endangered. It is protected in the Vovczanskij protected area in the Charkiv region in Ukraine.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ex situ </span>protection is underway in the National Botanic Garden of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, in the botanical garden of Kiev and Charkiv universities. Protection of every subpopulation is needed.
184432		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne sophia</span> is endemic to the Central Russian Upland, including Russia and the Ukraine. <br/><br/>The distribution area of the species is limited to the river basin of Siverskij Donez in the south of the Central Russian Upland, where it is found in four regions: Belgorodsko-Shebeninskij, Valujsko-Voloconovskij, Rovenkowskij and Novoolsolskij bordering the Belgorodskaya and Voronejskaya regions in the Russian Federation and the Charkivska region in the Ukraine. As a result of botanical field surveys, 21 localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne sophia</span> were found. Nearly 50 years later, only 13 of these are remaining today.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be smaller than 52 km² as the largest subpopulation occupies an area of less than one 4 km² grid square.
184432		habitat	eng	This shrub of 30-175 cm height grows in ecotones between forest and steppe vegetation. The habitats are adjacent to forest fringes on slopes of gorges or river terraces in beech woods (Melnyk 2000). The flowering period is May to July and the plant reproduces by root shoots.
184432		population	eng	Subpopulations are small in area and number of individuals. The area of the largest Russian population near Rovenki at the right side of the river Ajdar is 180-200 m long and 15-20 m wide. About 1,000 shoots of <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne sophia</span> have been counted here. In other locations in Russia the population quantity is critical. In the Valujskij district, Belgorodskaja region, around the village Jablokovo village, 200 individuals were counted, near the village Borki there are 150 individuals, in Staraya Symonovka 50, and in Thizov Log 60 individuals (Melnyk 1996).<br/><br/>In the Ukraine, the number of individual are 175 shoots near Ochrimivka village, 770 shoots near Mala Vovcza village, 600 shoots near Zovtneve Druge, 1,500 shoots near Kolodazne village in the Charkivska region (Diduch 2009).<br/><br/>Looking at these numbers it is inferred that the 13 remaining populations host less than 10,000 mature individuals. The populations are now severely fragmented.
184432		threats	eng	Clear cut of trees as well as selective felling, forest planting on slopes, and chalk mines are the main threats to the remaining habitats.
184436		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys gibbonsi</em> is protected from commercial exploitation in Mississippi and possession is limited to four individuals. It is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. <em>Graptemys gibbonsi</em> has been suggested to qualify for inclusion as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) (Lindeman 1999, Selman and Qualls 2007 in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). </p>  <p>Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) stated that appropriate conservation measures for the species include: </p>  <ul><li>Protecting and improving the      water quality of the rivers and streams it inhabits;</li><li>Discouraging channelization and      removal of snags;</li><li>Promoting streamside management      zones and proper forest management practices within riparian zones;</li><li>Prohibiting or further      regulating commercial collecting;</li><li>Further population surveys and      systematic monitoring densities of known populations </li><li>Further research on natural      history, ecology, and the effects of recovery measures. </li></ul>
184436		distribution	eng	<p><em>Graptemys gibbonsi</em> is restricted to the Pascagoula River system of Mississippi, USA (Ennen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Its total range comprises about 760 km of river: Pascagoula = 130 km, Leaf = 290 km, Chickasawhay = 340 km.</p>
184436		habitat	eng	<p><em>Graptemys gibbonsi</em> primarily inhabits large to medium-sized rivers with log and snag basking sites, sandy beach nesting sites, and substantial molluscan prey populations. Clear water is preferred and polluted and saline water conditions are apparently avoided (Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). </p>  <p>Males and small females are predominantly insectivorous, while large females feed predominantly on freshwater snails and clams. </p>  <p>Females reach up to 29.5 cm carapace length (CL) at 3.15 kg, males to 12.4 cm CL at 340 g. </p>  <p>Smallest reported gravid female was 17.9 cm CL, average of eight gravid females was 22.4 cm in the Leaf River. Maturity was estimated to be reached at age 15–20 years by females, males probably at a younger age, possibly as young as four years (Selman in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Cagle in Ernst and Lovich 2009). Generation length has not been determined but is unlikely to be shorter than 25 years. </p>  <p>Average clutch size has been reported as 7.5 eggs, and multiple nesting is likely (McCoy and Vogt in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Hatchings measure about 39 mm CL (Selman in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). </p>
184436		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys gibbonsi </em>(including<em> G. pearlensis </em>at that time)<em> </em>was considered the second rarest <em>Graptemys</em> species by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys.</p><p>The species used to be observed/captured (in the 1950s–1960s) in about an equal ratio to the sympatric species<em> G. flavimaculata</em>, whereas since the 1990s it has been observed in a one (<em>gibbonsi</em>) to five (<em>flavimaculata</em>) ratio (Lindeman pers. comm 6 Aug 2009). The total population density of <em>flavimaculata</em> has also declined significantly in the same period. This steep decline was attributed to water pollution impacting mollusc populations on which this species feeds. The only density estimate available is 34 animals per river km (significantly less than <em>G. flavimaculata</em> at 80–120 animals/km) (Sellman and Qualls 2009). </p>
184436		threats	eng	<p>Recorded declines of <em>G. gibbonsi</em> have been attributed to water pollution impacting mollusc populations on which they feed, snag and log removal, channelization and impoundment, as well as collection for the pet trade, wanton destruction by fishermen and others, and potentially by subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) increasing nest predation rates. </p>    <p>Riverine pollution was particularly significant in parts of the Pascagoula River system, including the Leaf River, as a result of riverside paper industries, municipal run-off, and riverine gravel mining (review in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and while pollution levels have improved, they remain of concern. In addition, the river has suffered significant impact from hurricanes in recent years. <br/></p>
184437		conservation	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pearlensis</em>, as former part of <em>G. gibbonsi</em>, is protected from commercial exploitation in Mississippi and possession is limited to 4 individuals. Its Louisiana populations are considered an Animal of Conservation Concern. The genus <em>Graptemys </em>is included in CITES Appendix III (United States) since 14 June 2006. </p>  <p><em>Graptemys gibbonsi</em> has been suggested to qualify for inclusion as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) (Lindeman 1999, Selman and Qualls 2007), and the taxonomic and conservation status of the split-out taxon <span style="font-style: italic;">pearlensis</span> reinforces this further. </p>  <p><em>Graptemys pearlensis</em> is likely to benefit from conservation measures in place for sympatric <em>G. oculifera</em>, including turtle-sensitive channel management practices in the 19 km section of the Pearl River designated as ringed map turtle sanctuary (Jones and Selman 2009). </p>  <p>Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) stated that appropriate conservation measures for the species include: </p>  <ul><li>Protecting and improving the      water quality of the rivers and streams it inhabits;</li><li>Discouraging channelization and      removal of snags;</li><li>Promoting streamside management      zones and proper forest management practices within riparian zones;</li><li>Prohibiting or further      regulating commercial collecting;</li><li>Further population surveys and      systematic monitoring densities of known populations </li><li>Further research on natural      history, ecology, and the effects of recovery measures. </li></ul>  <p>Conservation actions for this species should occur in synergy with efforts already underway for the conservation of sympatric <em>Graptemys oculifera</em>. </p>
184437		distribution	eng	<em>Graptemys pearlensis</em> is restricted to the main stems and major tributaries of the Pearl and Bogue Chitto rivers of Louisiana and Mississippi, USA (Ennen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The occupied section of suitable habitat in the Pearl is about 800 km and the occupied section of the Bogue Chitto about 140 km, for a total estimated length of 940 km of occupied river length.
184437		habitat	eng	<p>Very limited ecological data are available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Graptemys pearlensis</span>; in most aspects it is probably similar to those reported for <em>G. gibbonsi</em> in the Leaf-Pascagoula systems.<br/><br/>Females reach up to 29.5 cm carapace length (CL), males to 12.1 cm CL. Average cluch size has been reported as 6.4 eggs, and multiple nesting is likely (McCoy and Vogt in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Hatchings measure about 23 mm plastron length (PL) (CL apparently not reported). </p>  <p>Females of the analogous and closely-related <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gibbonsi</span> were estimated to mature at an age of 15–20 years (Selman in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Generation length has not been determined but is unlikely to be shorter than 25 years. </p>
184437		population	eng	<p><em>Graptemys pearlensis</em>, as part of <em>G. gibbonsi</em>,<em> </em>was considered the second rarest <em>Graptemys</em> species by Lindeman (pers. comm 6 Aug 2009) based on extensive basking surveys. </p>  <p><em>Graptemys pearlensis</em> used to be observed/captured in the 1950s–1960s in almost double numbers than sympatric G. <em>oculifera</em> (review by Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), whereas it had declined severely by the 1990s and it is now being observed in, at best, a one to five ratio (Lindeman 1998, 1999, pers. comm 6 Aug 2009); in context, <em>G. oculifera</em> populations have held stable or locally declined during the same time (Jones and Selman 2009). This steep decline was attributed to water pollution impacting mollusc populations on which <em>pearlensis</em> feed. </p>
184437		threats	eng	<p>Recorded declines in Pearl River broadheaded <em>Graptemys</em>, i.e. <em>G. pearlensis</em>, has been attributed to water pollution impacting mollusc populations on which <em>pearlensis</em> feed, snag and log removal, channelization and impoundment, as well as collection for the pet trade, wanton destruction by fishermen and plinking rednecks, and potentially by subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) increasing nest predation rates. <br/></p>  <p>Over 21% of the range of the species had already been channelized by 1986, and plans for channelization of an additional 28% of the Pearl River and over 160 km of the Bogue Chitto river, while not executed, have not been entirely rescinded and remain as a significant potential threat to the species’ future (Jones and Selman 2009). <br/></p>  <p>Riverine pollution has been particularly significant in the Pearl River system as a result of riverside paper industries, and riverine gravel mining (review in Lovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In addition, the river has suffered significant impact from hurricanes in recent years. Because of the connectivity of river mainstem habitat, a catastrophe somewhere in the river basin will affect the entire turtle population (and/or its prey base) in the downstream parts of that river, increasing the species’ vulnerability to impacts elsewhere in the basin. </p>
184438		conservation	eng	Due to the recent discovery of the species research into the its distribution, population and any potential threats is required. Until more sites are found the two known sites should be conserved.
184438		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in south-western Switzerland in the Prealps north-east of Lake of Geneva.
184438		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives on extensively used pastures on southerly exposed slopes. The snails live on the ground between the vegetation composed of typical alpine herbs and grasses.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
184438		population	eng	<p>There is very little information available for this species in terms of population size and trends having only been described very recently (Pfenninger and Pfenninger 2005), but the density seems to be low.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
184438		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
184439		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
184439		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Jadova River in Croatia where it is known only from the type locality, an ephemeral stream in a karstic area.
184439		habitat	eng	This fish occurs in streams, but it is suspected to also survive in refuge ponds and underground waters when the river dries out.
184439		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends for this species.
184439		threats	eng	The major threats to this fish are the invasive species of <em>Lepomis</em> and <em>Squalius cephalus</em>, water abstraction and from increasing severity of droughts caused by climate change.
184440		conservation	eng	<p>There is ongoing research to determine the reasons for the decline of the species.</p>
184440		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lake Visovac, in the lower part of the Krka River.
184440		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species.
184440		population	eng	The species is declining massively (Mustafic pers. comm.).
184440		threats	eng	The reason for the population decline is unknown. However pollution from  nearby towns (Drin and Knin) could be a cause and sometimes&#160; fish kills are seen but without any obvious reasons (Mustafic pers. comm.).
184441		conservation	eng	Research is needed on the species, particularly on its distribution and potential threats.
184441		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the River Morača, southern Montenegro, where it is found in the lower part of the river. This distribution corresponds well with previous records of freshwater gobies identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Knipowitschia panizzae </span>(Verga, 1841) in the lower Morača (Marić 1995). <span style="font-style: italic;">Knipowitschia montenegrina</span> most probably also occurs in Lake Skadar, because Ivanović (1973) and Marić (1995) recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Knipowitschia panizzae</span> there. It also may well occur throughout the whole Ohrid-Drim-Skadar system.
184441		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from shallows with slow current in the Morača River and in pools remaining in gravel pits after river flooding.
184441		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
184441		threats	eng	No information is available on current or potential threats to this species.
184442		conservation	eng	No information available.
184442		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the River Morača and in Lake Skadar, southern Montenegro.<span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>
184442		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5"> Lives in the slow current shallows of the Moraca  River and in pools remaining in gravel pits after river flooding. The  substratum is gravel, covered with fine sediment and overgrown by  dense filamentous algae, within which gobies are concealed.
184442		population	eng	Locally very common.
184442		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species.
184443		conservation	eng	Stocking of salmonids at these sites should be prohibited. Further investigation into the species population genetics should be conducted to determine the conservation units along with research into the species biology and ecology. The species also needs some degree of protection from national legislation. Part of the species range is also under protection from the National Ecological Network of Croatia (Stajnicka Field, Lug Field and Jasenak Field.
184443		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded at four localities around the Velika Kapela and Mala Kapel mountains, Croatia: Stanjica Creek in Stanjica field; Susik Creek in Lug field; and Jezero Lake and Jasenicica Creek in Jasenak field. These locations are very small and the species has an estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of 4 km².
184443		habitat	eng	It is found in clear springs.
184443		population	eng	The most abundant population has been found in Lug Field. The population in Jezero Lake and in Jasencica Creek the population is also abundant and reproducing.
184443		threats	eng	This species has suffered loss in habitat area and quality. Susik Creek has turbid water and is subjected to significant anthropogenic impacts; in the summer the creek dries to less than 20 cm deep (from a two metre depth in spring). It is believed that this fish survives this dry period by retreating to underground waters. These karstic systems are also under threat across the region from water abstraction and pollution.<br/><br/>Salmonid species are also a threat; their presence has led to the exclusion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Telestes </span>sp. nov.<br/><br/>In 2008, a large infection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ichthyophthirius</span> with a secondary bacterial infection was discovered at Susik Creek but it is not known if this is part of a natural cyclical process (a similar occurrence was observed at Stanjnicka Jarug Creek).
184444		conservation	eng	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
184444		distribution	eng	It is restricted to the Tajo, Guadiana, Odiel and Guadalquivir river basins. Previously the species was recorded has being present in the rivers Huebra, Águeda and Uces in the Duero River basin in Salamanca province, western Spain; these populations have now been described as a seperate species <span style="font-style: italic;">Achondrostoma salmantinum</span>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
184444		habitat	eng	This species lives in the middle and lower reaches of rivers with slow current and abundant submerged vegetation.
184444		population	eng	<em>Iberochondrostoma lemmingii</em> is a rare species and its population is suspected  to have decreased by over 30% in the past 10 years. This decline is  attributed to water extraction, drought, pollution and the introduction  of fish predators. It is suspected that this decline rate will continue into the  future.
184444		threats	eng	Water extraction, drought and pollution are the main threats. Introduction of exotic fish predators is also a concern for this species.
184445		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184445		distribution	eng	The species inhabits the Huebra, Águeda, Yeltes, Turones and Uces tributaries of the Duero River basin in Salamanca province, western Spain.
184445		habitat	eng	Typically this species inhabits seasonal streams, with clear waters, sandy bottoms, and it prefers slow-flowing reaches with abundant aquatic macrophytes. Natural hybrids with&#160;<em>Pseudochondrostoma </em><span style="font-style: italic;"> duriense</span> (a native sympatric species) have been reported in several localities.
184445		population	eng	It is locally abundant within its range, where it can be the dominant species in terms of numbers of individuals. However, this fish is in overall decline.
184445		threats	eng	Habitat has been reduced during the past few decades by receding water levels due to extensive agriculture, construction of dams and weirs, and by water transfers. Consequently, the species is currently in decline.
184446		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place.
184446		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Squalius castellanus</span> is known from only one small populations along the Gallo River (Tagus basin) and its main tributaries, both Bullones and Arandilla Rivers, Central Spain (Doadrio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
184446		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rivers.
184446		population	eng	In the last ten years only one individual has been collected in the Gallo River.
184446		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is pollution from the city of Molina de Aragon.
184448		conservation	eng	No information available.
184448		distribution	eng	<p>Atlantic Ocean, North and Baltic Sea basins, from Loire drainage eastward, eastern Great Britain and Rhône drainages, upper Danube and middle and upper Dniestr, Bug and Dniepr drainages (Black Sea basin). Eastern and southern limits not clear. Introduced to eastern and northern Italy. </p>
184448		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Nearly all types of riverine and lacustrine habitats with sand bottom. Known from small mountain streams, large lowland rivers and large lakes. Spawns in shallow water, over stones, sand or plant material. Often at lakes shores or in riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at 1-3 years; most individuals spawn 1-2 years. Spawns several times in April-August at temperatures above 13°C. Eggs are released above substrate and drift with current, sinking to bottom and sticking to substrate. Larvae and juveniles are benthic and prefer detritus-rich sandy habitats and low current. Feeds on a wide variety of large benthic invertebrates.
184448		population	eng	Abundant.
184448		threats	eng	No major threats known.
184449		conservation	eng	No information available.
184449		distribution	eng	According to the available molecular data, the species is restricted to the Volga River basin only (Mendel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Reports of its occurrence in neighbouring river systems needs further investigation.
184449		habitat	eng	The species survives in rivers and streams.
184449		population	eng	No information available.
184449		threats	eng	Mo major threats are known.
184450		conservation	eng	No information.
184450		distribution	eng	From Loire drainage (France) eastward, in nearly all rivers draining to North and Baltic Seas. In Black Sea basin, widespread in Danube and coastal rivers south of Danube in Bulgaria and Turkey. In Mediterranean basin, in Rhône and some small coastal drainages from Provence (France) eastward to Genova (Italy), Aoos (Greece, Albania) and western Greece as far south as Sperchios drainage.
184450		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers in foothills, with well oxygenated, fast-flowing water. Spawns on gravel in swift current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years and usually only one or two seasons. Spawns in May-July, when temperature rises above 12°C. Single females spawn more than once during a season. Spawns in small groups, depositing eggs deep into gravel. Juveniles in a wide variety of shoreline habitats. All age classes inhabit open water of streams and small rivers. Feeds on terrestrial and drifting invertebrates.
184450		population	eng	Abundant.
184450		threats	eng	Stream regulation, stocking of trout and pollution.
184451		conservation	eng	No information available.
184451		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in the rivers Dniester, South Bug and Dnieper draining to the Black Sea. It is also distributed in Don river drainage in the Sea of Azov basin and in the Volga drainage, in the Caspian Sea basin where it is known from upper reaches in Tver Province and upper reaches of Oka River downstream to Kama river (inclusive, with tributaries) and rivers and lakes of Samara Province.</p>
184451		habitat	eng	<p>Streams and small rivers with fast to moderately running shallow water, often over gravel, pebble or rocks.</p>
184451		population	eng	No information available.
184451		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
184452		conservation	eng	No information available.
184452		distribution	eng	Kuban River drainage where it is found from the upper reaches of tributaries down to the piedmont sections. Also reported from the Gastogay River, which formerly belonged to the Kuban River drainage but now flows into the Vityazevskiy Liman of the Black Sea (Plotnikov and Emtyl 1991).  <br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
184452		habitat	eng	<p>Streams and rivers with fast to moderately running shallow water, often over gravel, pebble or rocks.</p>
184452		population	eng	No information available.
184452		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
184453		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species threats and possible conservation actions.
184453		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the small streams Chernaya, Belbek, Kacha, Alma and Salgir of the Crimea Peninsula.
184453		habitat	eng	The species occurs in streams with fast to moderately running shallow water, often over gravel, pebble or rocks.
184453		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends.
184453		threats	eng	Intensive water abstraction and drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change) are the main threats to this fish.
184454		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known.
184454		conservation	eng	No information
184454		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the river drainages of the south-western  Caspian coast from Samur down to rivers of the Lenkoran and most likely  east to Atrek.
184454		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the river drainages of the southwestern Caspian coast from Samur down to rivers of the Lenkoran and most likely east to Atrek.
184454		habitat	eng	Streams and rivers in foothills, with well oxygenated, fast-flowing water. Spawns on gravel in swift current.
184454		population	eng	Very abundant
184454		population	eng	Very abundant.
184454		threats	eng	No known major threats.
184455		conservation	eng	No information available.
184455		distribution	eng	Rivers of the western Caspian coast (eastern Ciscaucasia) from Sulak southward to rivers at Derbent.
184455		habitat	eng	<p>The species prefers upper sections of rivers and hill streams, also found in small reservoirs and canals (Bogutskaya and Coad 2009).</p>
184455		population	eng	Abundant.
184455		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
184487		conservation	eng	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
184487		distribution	eng	<p>    </p><p>This species is known from the Barak River drainage (the upper portion of the Surma-Meghna River system) in Mizoram, northeast India.</p>  <p></p>
184487		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits fast-flowing rivers and streams with a substrate of sand or gravel.</p>
184487		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>
184487		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. The impact of planned dams in the Barak drainage need to be studied.<br/></p>
184488		conservation	eng	No information available.
184488		distribution	eng	This species has recently only been cited from Agourai (Morocco) by shell-collectors.
184488		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184488		population	eng	No information available.
184488		threats	eng	Shells are collected for sale. However there are few collectors and they are obviously trying not to kill off the whole population. Human populations in this area are expanding, and increasing drought, water diversion, pastoralization all represent significant threats to waterways in this area, so there is a decline in habitat quality.
184489		conservation	eng	It would be beneficial to protect the springs and find other possibilities for drinking water for the local population.
184489		distribution	eng	This species is known from Aïn Louada spring in the region of Tétouan and Aïn Sfia spring in the Taza region, Rif Mnts (Morocco). It is very restricted and localised. These springs are very small.
184489		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184489		population	eng	No information available.
184489		threats	eng	This species is threatened by groundwater abstraction for agriculture which is reducing the water level very rapidly. Villages nearby are also creating domestic pollution. Also, climate change leading to drought and the lowering of the water table.
184490		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the current extent of this species and its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to determine the effects of environmental change on the life history of the species. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for <em>Coelatura rotula</em>.
184490		distribution	eng	<em>Coelatura rotula</em> is endemic to central Africa in the the lower Congo, known from specimen records to occur from Malebo Pool up to the Sangha River. This species has a known area of occupancy of 500 km².
184490		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184490		population	eng	No information available.
184490		threats	eng	Malebo Pool is threatened by increasing urbanization and pollution due to increasing human population pressures in areas of Brazzaville and Kinshasa. Agriculture and increased organic and inorganic pollution are likely to become severe future threats (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, no specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura rotula</em>. Overfishing may potentially impact on the availability of host fish species for the species' reproductive cycle.
184491		conservation	eng	Additional research on the taxonomy, distribution, population demography and life history is necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184491		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Mutela hargeri</em> is known from Lakes Mweru, Mweru Wantipa and Bangweulu, and it has been reported from the intervening Luapula River. Specimens referable to this species have also been collected in the upper Chambeshi River.
184491		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184491		population	eng	No information available.
184491		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Mutela hargeri</em>. However, its habitat might be threatened in the future by growing human populations (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184492		conservation	eng	To limit water pollution and reduce water abstraction.
184492		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the oued Makhfamane (Morocco).
184492		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont, found in hyporheic water.
184492		population	eng	No information available.
184492		threats	eng	Drought, deviation of waterflow for irrigation, pollution from villages, and pesticides from agriculture all threaten this species.
184493		conservation	eng	No information available.
184493		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the region of Massawa (Eritrea) and the Dahlak Archipelago (see Bacci 1951).
184493		habitat	eng	It occurs in marine-brackish water, in mangroves.
184493		population	eng	No information available.
184493		threats	eng	No information available.
184494		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184494		distribution	eng	<em>Lobogenes pusilla</em> is endemic to southeastern DRC. It is known from two locations; Kibovu River, which flows into 'Lake de Retunue', and two sites on a large reservoir 'Lake de Retunue' on the Lufira River.
184494		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and lakes; found on decomposing reeds at edge (Brown 1994).
184494		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184494		threats	eng	This species is reported from three sampling sites. No known major threats. Localised threats to sites from human use, sedimentation and pollution.
184495		conservation	eng	These species would benefit from protection of wells, covers on wells, and piping water into homes to reduce human contact with wells.It also needs reduced pumping of water, and reduced use of chemicals on farm.
184495		distribution	eng	This species is known from two wells - a farm near Fes and a well 6 km from a town called Midar, region of Al Hoceima, Morocco.
184495		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.
184495		population	eng	This species has a very small population.
184495		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table. The well on a farm is threatened by agriculture, e.g. chemical pollution, infiltration.
184496		conservation	eng	No information available.
184496		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (Uganda). The type locality is near Dagusi Island, although it appears to be uncommon in the lake (Mandahl-Barth 1954).
184496		habitat	eng	This species is recorded near Dagusi Island in the lake at a depth of 12 - 13 meters, described as not common in the Lake.
184496		population	eng	No information available.
184496		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation, pollution and anthropogenic disturbances.
184497		conservation	eng	No information available.
184497		distribution	eng	This species is known from Oudref (Tunisia).
184497		habitat	eng	It inhabits small streams in the oasis of Oudref.
184497		population	eng	No information available.
184497		threats	eng	No information available.
184498		conservation	eng	This species requires protection of springs from pollution and degradation, and a reduction of water abstraction.
184498		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Chbouka spring, Ouiwane spring, and Azerzou and Timdighas, Middle Atlas, Morocco. Chbouka and Ouiwane spring are recent records, the other two are old records (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).
184498		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont, found near springs.
184498		population	eng	This species is only found in small populations.
184498		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pumping, pollution, and a lowering water table.
184499		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.  Surveys are required to establish whether the species is present between these sites and to assess the oxygen levels need to maintain the species.
184499		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Congodoma zariensis</em> is endemic to the Central Africa region, where it was known from DRC at Matadi. DBL collections have recently extended its known range; the species is known in the lower Zaire River near Kinshasa and the River Zaire around Matadi. The species may be present between these two sites on suitable rapids and possibly on Egeria reefs on the river.
184499		habitat	eng	It is found among rocks in swiftly flowing rivers.
184499		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184499		threats	eng	A locally distributed species where logging and sedimentation may impact the water quality.
184500		conservation	eng	No information available.
184500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kenya.
184500		habitat	eng	No information available.
184500		population	eng	No information available.
184500		threats	eng	Trout and other introduced species of fish and water regulation are potential threats.
184501		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184501		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
184501		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia connollyi</em> is recorded from South Africa and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in southeastern DRC (Shaba).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known in the region only from the type locality at Black River at Maitland, Western Cape, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).
184501		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia connollyi</em> is recorded from South Africa and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba).
184501		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams.
184501		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
184501		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184501		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
184501		threats	eng	No information available.
184501		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
184502		conservation	eng	No information available.
184502		distribution	eng	This species is known from Morocco: Berkane, Fez and Ouadi Korifla. These populations are very localised, and the sites where it occurs are threatened. It has been recorded from Algeria in the past, but it may no longer be found there.
184502		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184502		population	eng	No information available.
184502		threats	eng	The habitat is under threat of degradation, as it is found near large towns with increasing urbanisation, and deviation of water flow. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184503		conservation	eng	None known.
184503		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa. This species is only recorded from Wiwane Spring in the Middle Atlas (Morocco).
184503		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont, only found in one spring. It is found in good quality, fresh cold water right near where the spring comes out.
184503		population	eng	No information available.
184503		threats	eng	It is known from one location only, Wiwane spring, which is situated in the Middle Atlas, a region which is hit very hard by  increasing drought and desertification. This evolution combined with the  demographic growth, overgrazing, overexploitation of water resources  does not bode well for these underground hydrobiids. Likely threats include over-exploitation of water resources, as this is a spring snail with very a small distribution, with habitat degradation due to 'improvement of the springs to offtake water' and water pollution as a secondary threat.
184504		conservation	eng	No information available.
184504		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Giuba basin, southeast Somalia.
184504		habitat	eng	No information available.
184504		population	eng	No information available.
184504		threats	eng	Taking in consideration the fact that there is a main town (Bardera),  i.e. with more than 100,000 inhabitants situated on the Middle Giuba,  without any wastewater treatment and with such highly polluting  industries as leather ware production it should be assumed that the  area, extent and quality of the habitat is severely affected downstream  during the dry season.
184505		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of wells, and limiting pollution by waste water treatment.
184505		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from a well at Aïn Bouquellal, region of Taza (a well inside a shop) and a locality in the region of Fès (Morocco).
184505		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont.
184505		population	eng	No information available.
184505		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water abstraction at Bouelal, and pollution at Fez because of very high urbanisation there.
184506		conservation	eng	No information available.
184506		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the region of Oran, Tlemcen, Mosthaganem, Alger, Constantine, Biskra and Annaba (Algeria).
184506		habitat	eng	It is found in different types of surface waters including brackish ones.
184506		population	eng	No information available.
184506		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution and urbanisation.
184507		conservation	eng	Protection of wells, and limiting use of wells by bringing water from higher up in pipes into people's homes is needed, thereby reducing people's contact with wells.
184507		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from wells in the villages of Oulad Zahra, Oulad Aamer and Oulad Ahmed in the region of Beni Mellal (Morocco). They are all in one basin.
184507		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont.
184507		population	eng	No information available.
184507		threats	eng	This species is threatened by groundwater abstraction for agriculture which is reducing the water level very rapidly. Villages nearby are also creating domestic pollution.
184508		conservation	eng	No information available.
184508		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga.
184508		habitat	eng	No information available.
184508		population	eng	No information available.
184508		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to agricultural runoff, eutrophication in the northern part of its range.
184509		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of spring area. Also limited contact between tourists and springs to reduce the chance of pollution and disturbance of habitat from tourists.
184509		distribution	eng	This species is known from Aîn Chfa spring at Immouzzer Kander, Aïn Aghbal near Azrou and Aïn Chkef near Fez (Morocco).
184509		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont, which lives in cold water springs.
184509		population	eng	This species is abundant in springs.
184509		threats	eng	Some sites are very close to urbanisation, e.g. a spring near Fes. Other threats include water extraction by bottling industry, and use by irrigation, diverting water from springs for intensive use by agriculture. Springs are also used to go into trout fisheries. Also, climate change leading to drought and the lowering of the water table.
184510		conservation	eng	None known.
184510		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Lower Nile in Egypt. This species is only known from museum collections. It has not been collected during recent surveys, and is possibly extinct. (The type locality for this species is Lower Egypt near Ramses).
184510		habitat	eng	It is found in muddy bottoms in slow flowing waters in chaneks of the Nile Delta
184510		population	eng	This species is possibly extinct.
184510		threats	eng	Aquatic pollution threatens this species.
184511		conservation	eng	No information available.
184511		distribution	eng	This species was originally found in 1887 in Djebel Zaghouan in Tunisia in one single Roman temple where there was a bath, and it hasn't been found since.
184511		habitat	eng	No information available.
184511		population	eng	No information available.
184511		threats	eng	No information available.
184512		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Increased pressure for improving water abstraction points may threaten this species, so EIA's required in region.
184512		distribution	eng	<em>Funduella incisa</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it is known only from Republic of Congo, western DRC. It was originally described it from specimens collected from the Fundu Fundu Stream. Other records exist It is known from the source of the Madienge River, northeast of Kimpese. There are additional records from "Kimana (Lukala)", which is thought to be in western DRC. There have been no further records of the species since the 1970s. This is a species with few survey records and as it is small, and occurs in the more inaccessible locations within the basin. This gives a disjunct range. It is possible that the western DRC records may be erroneous as there is another locality in western Zaire (Lukula)
184512		habitat	eng	It is only known from small streams and headwaters within the Congo basin (Mandahl-Barth 1982, Brown 1994), with records from upper and lower tributaries, but not the main river. This is a very small species (less than 3 mm) and as such it is likely to be overlooked in surveys. At first glance it looks like a juvenile of other species, but it is highly distinctive, so species-specific surveys should find this mollusc.
184512		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184512		threats	eng	This species is only reported from a few localities. Little knowledge of threats to habitats but the position of sites may make them less susceptible to logging. Use of sources and headwaters for water extraction and watering animals leads to habitat degradation (concreting, increased sedimentation, damming)
184513		conservation	eng	No information available.
184513		distribution	eng	<em>Eupera sturanyi</em> is endemic to central Africa. It is recorded from Kinshasa and the Dungu river at Faradje (DRC). The species is likely to have a wide range in the Zaire River.
184513		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater (riverine). A very small species occurring on oyster shells.
184513		population	eng	No information available.
184513		threats	eng	No information available.
184514		conservation	eng	No information available.
184514		distribution	eng	A common species of Lake Victoria (endemic).
184514		habitat	eng	No information available.
184514		population	eng	This is probably an abundant species.
184514		threats	eng	No information available.
184515		conservation	eng	Legislation development and implementation at national level, as well as more research on its habitat trends and conservation are needed.
184515		conservation	eng	No data available.
184515		conservation	eng	None known.
184515		distribution	eng	It is present in the Lower Nile in Egypt and the Ethiopian highlands and Lake Nasser. Its type locality is the Mahmudia Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.
184515		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been reported from Lake Nasser (Egypt) (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999) and the Ethiopian Plateau (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile. The type locality is in Mahmudia Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.
184515		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lower Nile in Egypt, including Lake Nasser, and the Ethiopian highlands.
184515		habitat	eng	Inhabits slow-flowing waters. Spread by birds. Needs relatively quiet waters and cold. Cold water species whose range is shrinking since the Middle Holocene (Van Damme 1984).
184515		habitat	eng	It lives on slow-flowing waters and needs relatively quiet and cold waters. It drains in the lower Nile. It is spread by birds.
184515		habitat	eng	This species is found in slow-flowing waters. It is spread by birds and needs relatively quiet, cold waters. Also found in drains in the lower Nile.
184515		population	eng	No data available.
184515		population	eng	This species is abundant in drains in the Lower Nile.
184515		population	eng	This species is always rare.
184515		threats	eng	Its decline may be a consequence of climate change. It is very sensitive to the habitat and does not breed easily.
184515		threats	eng	May be in decline due to climate change. It is very sensitive to habitat. Doesn't breed easily.
184515		threats	eng	No information available.
184516		conservation	eng	No information available.
184516		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria basin (Mandahl-Barth 1954 categorises it as endemic to the lake). It is found near Bujjagali, 11 Km North of Jinja and Hippo bay, Entebbe.
184516		habitat	eng	It is found among lake habitats beneath stones - usually in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentorbis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Burnupia</span>.
184516		population	eng	No information available.
184516		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to water pollution and tourist activities. Bujjali is proposed as a site for dam construction for a HEP station (plans passed by government) and is a tourist destination for white-water rafting, with possible Hotel developments.
184517		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys are needed.
184517		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocleopatra bennikei</em> is endemic to DRC. It is known from two sites along the Zaire River, near Kinshasa (Stanley Pool) and near Matadi (Kala Kala). It is possibly present between the two sites; i.e. along about 300 km of river (with an area of occupancy around 450 km²).
184517		habitat	eng	Potentially this species can adapt to a range of water flows, from faster flowing waters to slow rivers. In Kala Kala, it was found in a ravine.
184517		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. The species was last collected in 1972, 1973 and 1974.
184517		threats	eng	The species has a relatively narrow range and may be sensitive to pollution, increased sedimentation and changes in water quality. The construction of the Grand Inga dam is also a potential threat to this species.
184518		conservation	eng	No information available.
184518		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on soft substrate in all four countries.
184518		habitat	eng	It is abundant on mud, silt or sandy substrates across a variety of water depths, 5-60 m.
184518		population	eng	No information available.
184518		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.
184519		conservation	eng	No data available.
184519		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tana (3,500 km²) and possibly to the adjacent part of the Blue Nile.
184519		habitat	eng	No information available.
184519		population	eng	No data available.
184519		threats	eng	The strong reduction of its former range clearly is temperature related.  This cold water species is hence likely threatened by climate change.  Additional local environmental threats listed for Lake Tana are: silt  load, pollution, water drainage, water level fluctuation, overfishing.
184520		conservation	eng	No information available.
184520		distribution	eng	This species is only reported from Green Island and the vicinity of Massawa (Eritrea).
184520		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal habitats and mangroves.
184520		population	eng	No information available.
184520		threats	eng	No information available.
184521		conservation	eng	No information available.
184521		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Monlo-Sakassigan in Massai steppe and possibly represented by specimens from the Malagarasi river, northeast of Kasulu (Brown 1994).
184521		habitat	eng	No information available.
184521		population	eng	No information available.
184521		threats	eng	Agricultural and domestic pollution and deforestation all threaten this species.
184522		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated, and more sampling is necessary to estimate population demography. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184522		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela joubini</em> is known from scant material from the Niger, Chad and Oubangi basins (Daget 1998). Graf and Cummings (2007) record the range as widespread in West Africa, from the Niger and Lake Chad Basins, south to the Congo. In the Zambongo Area, it is known only from the upper Oubangi drainage.
184522		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184522		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184522		population	eng	No information available.
184522		population	eng	No information is available.
184522		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented. In the general area there agricultural activities, some pollution from urban areas and fish poisoning occurs in some areas, but the severity of the effects of these activities on <em>M. joubani</em> is not known.
184522		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented. In the general area there agricultural activities, some pollution from urban areas and fish poisoning occurs in some areas, but the severity of the effects of these activities on <em>M. joubani</em> is not known. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184523		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to elucidate the precise distribution and population trends of this species.
184523		distribution	eng	This species is found along Indo-Pacific coasts. The terra typica is Natal (South Africa), and it has a disjunct distribution from East African to subtropical South African coasts. Specifically, it has also been recorded from the mouth of the Giuba River (Somalia) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India (Tikadar 1986, cited by NBIC 2010).
184523		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal and estuarine habitats, in mangrove swamps and mudflats (NBIC 2010).
184523		population	eng	<p>This species is usually found to be quite common, but has a disjunct distribution as a result of the reduction in mangroves (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
184523		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>Because of its widespread occurrence along the Eastern African coastal regions and its potential occurrence across Indian Ocean island groups, it is unlikely that this species is facing any significant threats across its global distribution. At a local scale, typical coastal and mangrove may be affecting the species in parts of its range. <br/></p>  <p></p>
184524		conservation	eng	No information available.
184524		distribution	eng	It is recorded from the thermal springs at Djenndel near Annaba (Algeria), Bourgignat 1862. That is the only time it is been seen, and these springs no longer exist.
184524		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont of warm springs.
184524		population	eng	No information available.
184524		threats	eng	Pollution and disappearance of springs threaten this species.
184525		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of well, waste water treatment, and reduced water abstraction.
184525		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single locality, a well at Ichafoudène in Morocco.
184525		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont
184525		population	eng	No information available.
184525		threats	eng	The well where this species is found is near a village, so there is extraction of water and possibility of contamination of the ground water.
184526		conservation	eng	No information available.
184526		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Shells only are known from DRC (Kalemie, Tembwe and Moliro) and Zambia (Nsumbu), but living animals have not been found.
184526		habitat	eng	Empty shells have been dredged from soft substrates.
184526		population	eng	No information available.
184526		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation are the most likely potential threats.
184527		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.
184527		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from Tanzania to Botswana and South Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species is known from rivers in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern and north-eastern South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> The species is found in Malawi and Tanzania.
184527		distribution	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>The species is known from rivers in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland and northern and north-eastern South Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>the species is found in Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
184527		habitat	eng	It has a parasitic life stage that depends upon fish. However, nothing is known about this and the parasitic stage has not been described. The species is found in rivers and floodplains in sand/mud substratum.
184527		habitat	eng	It has a parasitic life stage that depends upon fish. However, nothing is known about this and the parasitic stage has not even been described.<br/>The species is found in rivers and floodplains in sand/mud substrate.
184527		population	eng	No information.
184527		population	eng	No information available.
184527		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.
184527		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g. mining is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184528		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184528		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Burnupia alta</em> is known only from the type locality in southeastern DRC (Kisanga River near Lubumbashi (Brown 1994).
184528		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184528		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184528		threats	eng	No information available; the species is only known from type locality.
184529		conservation	eng	The distributional range comprises part protected area.
184529		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Aberdare range in East Africa, specifically the Kinangop Plateau and Mau escarpment (areas of Mau Narok, Molo and Kipkabus) in Kenya.
184529		habitat	eng	It is found in pools in streams 1940 - 2760m asl.
184529		population	eng	No information available.
184529		threats	eng	Part of the species range is in fast declining wetlands in human settlements.
184530		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184530		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Burnupia walkeri</em> is known only from the type locality in southeastern DRC (Lualaba River at Kalangwe) (Brown 1994).
184530		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184530		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184530		threats	eng	No information available; only known from the type locality.
184531		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184531		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)
184531		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia zambiensis</em> is known only from the type locality for this species is Lwada stream, and Chiteti stream in Mtanda, Zambia. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably is present throughout Africa, although it is overlooked because it is a small species (Brown 1994).
184531		distribution	eng	<em>Ferrissia zambiensis</em> is known only from the type locality: Lwada stream, and Chiteti stream in Mtanda, Zambia. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably is present throughout Africa, although it is overlooked because it is a small species (Brown 1994).
184531		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
184531		habitat	eng	It inhabits streams.
184531		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184531		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
184531		threats	eng	No information available.
184531		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
184532		conservation	eng	No information available.
184532		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Edward. It is found at one locality (one dead shell). No data is known about its habitat and it is suspected to be more widely distributed.
184532		habitat	eng	No information available. Although most of the other species of the genus like well oxygenated water usually at lake edges.
184532		population	eng	No information available.
184532		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184533		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184533		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudogibbula cara</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. Originally it was described it from specimens collected upstream of Kisangani. It is still known only from the type locality and Mandhal-Barth (1982) noted it had not been rediscovered. This is an area which has been re-sampled over a period, and other very rare species which have also not been rediscovered. In 2001, at Unitas Malacologia Piechocki reported collecting in region, finding only common species.
184533		habitat	eng	No specific data on the ecology, but habitat is likely to be river.
184533		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184533		threats	eng	No information available.
184534		conservation	eng	No information available.
184534		distribution	eng	Globally, this species occurs in Zanzibar and the East African coast It is known from Somalia to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented as occurring in Zanzibar and the East African coast It is known from Kenya to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the coasts of Somalia.
184534		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> it is documented as occurring in Zanzibar and the eastern African coast from Somalia to South Africa.
184534		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Coasts of Somalia. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is documented as occurring in Zanzibar and the eastern African coast from Kenya to South Africa.
184534		habitat	eng	Documented to thrive in mud beneath mangrove trees.
184534		habitat	eng	This species is documented to thrive in mud beneath mangrove trees.
184534		population	eng	No information available.
184534		threats	eng	A main threat to the species is sedimentation.
184534		threats	eng	No information available.
184534		threats	eng	This species is threatened by mangrove destruction, sedimentation and degradation.
184535		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required.
184535		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides liebrechtsi</em> is endemic to DRC. The species is known only from the type locality in Kinshasa, but it is not known whether the site is upstream or downstream from Kinshasa.
184535		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. This species occurs on sand banks. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184535		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. It was last collected in the 1930s.
184535		threats	eng	No information available. If it occurs downstream, it will be affected by pollution, but if it occurs upstream there may be few, if any, major threats.
184536		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184536		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra obscura</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it has been recorded from only three sites on the Kimilolo River in southeastern DRC. Its extent of occurrence is around 16,000 km².
184536		habitat	eng	The principle habitat is rapidly flowing streams, but can tolerate standing water. It has been collected at the overflow of Kipopo Fish Dam.
184536		population	eng	The species is locally abundant. Nothing is known of population trends, but may currently be stable.
184536		threats	eng	No specific threats are known to this species. The environment has been altered for local human use and increased human use of the area with consequent habitat degradation is a potential future threat. Also, the possibility of increasing fish stocks causing increased predation on molluscs is a potential future threat.
184537		conservation	eng	No information available.
184537		distribution	eng	A widespread species particularly on the East African coast. In Kenya, it has been reported from Kitui, the coastal area and western region. In Tanzania it is found in the northwestern region, coastal region and Mwanza, and several parts of Uganda.
184537		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater bodies, some drying up for up to 5 months. It is known to be a primary host of human urinary bilharzia parasites (S. haematobium).
184537		population	eng	No information available.
184537		threats	eng	Like most other <em>Bulinus</em> snails, it appears to be an adaptable species which is unlikely to face any major threats.
184538		conservation	eng	This species needs protection of springs.
184538		distribution	eng	This species is known from springs and small streams in the Middle Atlas in Morocco, at Chbouka and Azerzou. The type locality is Timdighas in mid-Atlas. All sites are in same basin, so this is a very localised species (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).
184538		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont, found near springs.
184538		population	eng	No information available.
184538		threats	eng	It is threatened by pumping, pollution, and reduction of water table with climate change.
184539		conservation	eng	No information available.
184539		distribution	eng	<em>M. scalaris</em> occurs in the Middle Atlas, eastern Morocco and in Algeria. It has been recorded in the Fez river, which is heavily polluted. It is also known from the upper reaches of Rbia and Melouia. It has already gone from the lower reaches.
184539		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184539		population	eng	The species has disappeared from more than 50% of its range based on Ghamizi's records of the  species. A proportionate decline in the population size is believed to have occurred.
184539		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184540		conservation	eng	No information available.
184540		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Tripoli, Libya.
184540		habitat	eng	No information available.
184540		population	eng	No information available.
184540		threats	eng	No information available.
184541		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184541		distribution	eng	<em>Gabbiella spiralis</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known only from the Zaire River at Kinshasa.
184541		habitat	eng	Likely to be found in water margins within aquatic vegetation.
184541		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184541		threats	eng	This species is found only within a 20 km area which is directly impacted by urbanization, so increased pollution and sedimentation.
184542		conservation	eng	Protection of wells, and a reduction of pumping is needed.
184542		distribution	eng	This species is known from a well at Tamait Izder south of the Souss River north of Temsia, Morocco.
184542		habitat	eng	Stynobiont. It is found in wells.
184542		population	eng	One specimen has been found only.
184542		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, extraction of water, decreasing ground water level.
184543		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of wells, and reduced abstraction of water.
184543		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Rif (Morocco) where it is widespread. It is localised to wells - it is known from nine wells but is probably present in more.
184543		habitat	eng	This is a stydgobiont, found from wells only.
184543		population	eng	No information available.
184543		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and lowering water table.
184544		conservation	eng	No information available.
184544		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria bernardii</em> is known from Gabon, western Congo, western DRC, and maybe Angola.
184544		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water. Mouth of streams.
184544		population	eng	No information available.
184544		threats	eng	No information available.
184545		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys in the area are needed to determine the status of this species.
184545		distribution	eng	<em>Potadomoides hirta</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known from two sites on the Lualaba River; Nyangwe and Kasongo.
184545		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184545		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184545		threats	eng	This species is only reported from a few localities. Current threats are not known.
184547		conservation	eng	None known.
184547		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lakes Ashangi (Ashenge) and Haik, Ethiopia (Brown 1994).
184547		habitat	eng	It is found among vegetation shallow water of Lake Ashangi.
184547		population	eng	No available data.
184547		threats	eng	Water extraction threatens this species.
184548		conservation	eng	No information available.
184548		conservation	eng	None.
184548		distribution	eng	<em>Cyrenoida rhodopyga</em> occurs in lagoons from the Côte d'Ivoire to Congo.
184548		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Cyrenoida rhodopyga</em> occurs in coastal lagoons from Côte d'Ivoire to Congo.
184548		habitat	eng	Brackish water.
184548		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water.
184548		population	eng	No information available.
184548		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184548		threats	eng	No information available.
184549		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184549		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes congicus</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it is known from northern Angola, the lower DRC, and the Republic of Congo.
184549		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184549		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184549		threats	eng	No information available.
184550		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is necessary to determine the relationships of Congolese populations of this species to those of <em>Mutela rostrata</em> and <em>Mutela dubia</em>. Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extant of the range of this species, and studies to determine the hosts of parasitic larvae would be valuable to future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184550		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela mabilli</em> is widespread in the Congo Basin, from the vicinity of Malebo Pool up through the Lualaba and Ulele/Oubangui basins.
184550		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184550		population	eng	No information available.
184550		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Mutela mabilli</em>. However, in the upper part of its range, fresh waters are impacted by continued civil unrest. In the lower part of its range (Malebo Pool), freshwater habitats are threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184551		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184551		conservation	eng	No information available.
184551		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
184551		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia kempi</em> is known from Ethiopia to northern Tanzania and Lake Kivu.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs in DRC close to Lake Kivu.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from Kigezi and Lake Kivu in Uganda and an unspecified locality in northern Tanzania. It is believed to exist in the great lakes although needs research to clarify status.
184551		distribution	eng	<em>Burnupia kempi</em> occurs from Ethiopia to northern Tanzania and Lake Kivu. It also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo close to Lake Kivu.
184551		distribution	eng	The species has been reported from Kigezi and Lake Kivu in Uganda and an unspecified locality in northern Tanzania. It is believed to exist in the great lakes although needs research to clarify status.
184551		habitat	eng	Found in streams, rivers and lakes.
184551		habitat	eng	Lives in mountain streams and great lakes.
184551		habitat	eng	No reliable information.
184551		population	eng	No information available.
184551		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184551		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
184551		threats	eng	No information available.
184551		threats	eng	Undocumented. Deforestation leading to the destruction of river water catchments, changes in river water volume and sedimentation is a potential threat. Other general threats include wild fires, organic and inorganic pollution from agro-pesticides, herbicides, sewage systems, industrial systems and domestic activities.
184552		conservation	eng	No information available.
184552		distribution	eng	This species is known from brackish waters of Morocco at Kenitra, Rabat, Salé and the estuaries of the Oued Sebou, Oued Bou Regreg and Oued Oum Rbia.
184552		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish waters, in estuarine areas of Morocco.
184552		population	eng	No information available.
184552		threats	eng	This is a brackish species so may quite tolerant to pollution.
184553		conservation	eng	No information available.
184553		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Enfidaville (Tunisia), but it has not been found since and the spring has disappeared, so it is certainly extinct.
184553		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184553		population	eng	No information available.
184553		threats	eng	No information available.
184554		conservation	eng	No information available.
184554		conservation	eng	None known.
184554		distribution	eng	<em>Iphigenia delessertii</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.
184554		distribution	eng	<em>Iphigenia delessertii</em> ranges from the Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.
184554		habitat	eng	Found in river mouths and lagoons
184554		habitat	eng	It is found in river mouths and lagoons. It is found in brackish water.
184554		population	eng	No information available.
184554		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184554		threats	eng	No information available.
184555		conservation	eng	No conservation measures proposed.
184555		conservation	eng	No information available.
184555		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes carinatus</em> has a wide distribution range from Lower Egypt to Uganda and Kenya. Its type locality is in Kalidje Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.
184555		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is restricted in two regions in north east Kenya (Lake Jilore and Hola area) and in north Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species appears to be distributed beyond eastern Africa
184555		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999), south Sudan, south east Ethiopia and Uebi and Giuba rivers in south Somalia (Brown 1994)<strong>.</strong>
184555		distribution	eng	This species is known from Egypt south through Ethiopia to Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is restricted to two regions in north east Kenya (Lake Jilore and Hola area) and in north Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is probably found throughout the Nile, including Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in southern Sudan, southeast Ethiopia and Uebi and Giuba rivers in south Somalia (Brown 1994)
184555		habitat	eng	Documented to thrive in standing and slowly flowing waters with rich vegetation.
184555		habitat	eng	This common species lives on fringing vegetation of the Nile, slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps, also thriving in ditches and pools flooded by rain. It may aestivate. It is present in colonies and associated with certain aquatic plants.
184555		habitat	eng	This species is documented to thrive in standing and slowly flowing waters with rich vegetation.
184555		population	eng	No information available.
184555		threats	eng	It survives in areas that appear severely hit by drought and are most likely subject to intense disturbance by humans and livestock.
184555		threats	eng	No major threats identified.
184556		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184556		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma angulata</em> is endemic to Cameroon in central Africa. Originally it was described it from specimens collected from Samanga and Yaoundé; it was last seen in Yaoundé in 1967. The species is also present in the Sanaga River close to Idea, suggesting that it may be in two different river systems. However there are no longer suitable habitats present at Yaoundé (van Damme, pers. comm.). It is possible that one of the names Samanga/Sanaga may be the same location which would leave one location on the Sanaga River. The extent of occurrence is estimated under 5,000 km², with low area of occupancy.
184556		habitat	eng	It is found in streams. This species is found on hard bottoms. It requires clear fast flowing water with some shade. The genus can be found in small streams amongst forest with very iron-poor, low-calcium waters.
184556		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184556		threats	eng	This species is only reported from a few localities in Cameroon. Any disturbance to gallery forest (logging, cutting) as well as sedimentation in these rivers are a threat this species.
184557		conservation	eng	No information available.
184557		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (south western section) and Lake Edward.
184557		habitat	eng	This species thrives among papyrus thickets in the lakes and stony beaches.
184557		population	eng	No information available.
184557		threats	eng	No information available.
184558		conservation	eng	No information available.
184558		distribution	eng	This species is known from small streams in the oasis of Oudref (Tunisia)
184558		habitat	eng	No information available.
184558		population	eng	No information available.
184558		threats	eng	No information available.
184559		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further taxonomic research is needed for this species.
184559		distribution	eng	<em>Tomichia kivuensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known from only two sites at the Ruzizi Plains and Lwiro.
184559		habitat	eng	It is found in streams.
184559		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184559		threats	eng	Current threats are unknown.
184560		conservation	eng	No information available.
184560		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from Moba bay (DRC), one location in Zambia (Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project), and Luiche River delta platform near Kigoma (Nyanza Project).
184560		habitat	eng	It inhabits Mulobozi, one tributary of Lake Tanganyika and lives on muddy river deltas in Lake Tanganyika.
184560		population	eng	Population status unknown, but shells occur in large numbers in the few sites where present.
184560		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.
184561		conservation	eng	No information available.
184561		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is found on the Kenyan coast at Gazi and near Malindi and the Rufiji delta in Tanzania.
184561		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangrove swamps.
184561		population	eng	No information available.
184561		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation caused by increased deforestation. It is threatened by habitat destruction caused by shrimp farming on mangroves. The destruction of habitat is currently being documented by EARO (IUCN).
184562		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are essential to monitor the population trends for this species. Research and implementation of any measures to protect the species in Lake Mweru are also essential.
184562		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra mweruensis</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it has been recorded only from Lake Mweru (Zambia and DRC). The lake has an area of 4,850 km², but this is declining.
184562		habitat	eng	The species occurs throughout the lake; it is not restricted to the margins of the lake.
184562		population	eng	No direct information regarding population sizes. However, future population decline is expected due to drying out of the lake.
184562		threats	eng	This species is only reported from Lake Mweru. In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
184563		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184563		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma ponthiervillensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. Three localities are recorded; on the Zaire River, Tchopo River (below the falls), and Lualaba River. Main sites are towards Ubundu, 60 km south of Kisangani.
184563		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. This genus is usually on hard bottoms on rocks amongst shaded areas.
184563		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184563		threats	eng	No major threats above Kisanangi but small-scale logging in  upper part of the species range may also be an issue.&#160; The habitat of the lower part of the species' range is degrading due to  urbanization, with pollution and sedimentation. The sites near the town may have been lost to urbanization, but no recent survey data.
184564		conservation	eng	Mzima springs is situated in the Tsavo National Park (but outside the northeastern Africa assessment region). The other areas where the species have been recorded are not protected.
184564		conservation	eng	Mzima springs is situated in Tsavo national park. The other areas where the species have been recorded are not protected.
184564		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ewaso Nyiro River at Chanler's falls (Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kiboko River at Hunters lodge and Mzima springs, Kenya.
184564		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Ewaso Nyiro river at Chanler's falls, Kiboko river at Hunters lodge and Mzima springs, Kenya.
184564		habitat	eng	It lives in shallow water, shaded by trees with a muddy sediment.
184564		habitat	eng	Lives in shallow water, shaded by trees with a muddy sediment.
184564		population	eng	No information available.
184564		threats	eng	The Ewaso Nyiro at Chanler Falls is affected by drought. The Kiboko river flows through a very busy commercial and agricultural area, and the site is situated next to a hotel. Thus the water system is very vulnerable to organic and inorganic pollution. Mzima Springs are situated in a tourist area, and are tapped for water in Mombasa.
184565		conservation	eng	No information available.
184565		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the 19th Century from springs and head waters of brooks in the vicinity of Oran, Mascara, Bougie and in the forest of Zeralda between Stauéli and Koléah (Algeria).
184565		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont. It is found in springs and small streams near them.
184565		population	eng	No information available.
184565		threats	eng	No information available.
184566		conservation	eng	No information available.
184566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa. It occurs in thermal waters in the vicinity of Constantine and El-Outaia near Biskra (Algeria). This species is only shell remains. It was last found in 1864. It is possibly extinct.
184566		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont of thermal springs.
184566		population	eng	No information available.
184566		threats	eng	These thermal waters are polluted because used as bathing places, with soap and detergents.
184567		conservation	eng	No information available.
184567		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the White Nile (Sudan).
184567		habitat	eng	No information available.
184567		population	eng	No information available.
184567		threats	eng	No information available.
184568		conservation	eng	No information available.
184568		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania and Burundi).
184568		habitat	eng	No information available.
184568		population	eng	No information available.
184568		threats	eng	No information available.
184569		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelatura luapulaensis</span> needs to be re-evaluated taxonomically, additional sampling is necessary to determine extent of its occurrence, and host-fish studies are necessary steps to understanding the status of this species for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184569		distribution	eng	<em>Coelatura luapulaensis</em> is known from the Luapula and Chambeshi river basins, above Lake Mweru.
184569		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184569		population	eng	No information available.
184569		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <span style="font-style: italic;">Coelatura luapulaensis</span> is restricted to the upper Congo Basin in Zambia (and adjacent DRC) and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184570		conservation	eng	Taxonomic studies are necessary to determine the relationships of populations in the Ulele and Lualaba to those in the Luapula and Chambeshi. Additional sampling is necessary to estimate population demography, and studies are necessary to determine hosts for parasitic larvae. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184570		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Chambardia dautzenbergi</em> is known from the upper Congo Basin, including the Ulele and Lualaba in the DRC, and up through the Chambeshi River in Zambia.
184570		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184570		population	eng	No information available.
184570		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented against <em>Chambardia dautzenbergi</em>, but fresh waters throughout the range of the species are impacted by continued civil unrest (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184571		conservation	eng	No information available.
184571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Njema Pool, Bagamoyo area (Brown 1994), Tanzania. A possible record is also known from Mligasi River (West Tanzania).
184571		habitat	eng	No information available.
184571		population	eng	No information available.
184571		threats	eng	Pollution from domestic and agricultural activities threaten this species.
184572		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from limiting pumping from ground water, and protection of the Blue Spring from degradation and pollution.
184572		distribution	eng	There are two populations of this species on the Atlantic coastal region of the Anti-Atlas at the Blue Spring of Tiznit, and it is also known from some wells of Mirhelft to the south west of Tiznit, all in Morocco.
184572		habitat	eng	The species found in wells and in a spring.
184572		population	eng	No information available.
184572		threats	eng	Blue Spring is inside the city of Tiznit, and so there are many threats. The wells are specifically threatened by pollution and a reduction in the water table as ground water is taken out. Because the wells are near the sea, if too much ground water is removed, the water in the wells will become saline.
184573		conservation	eng	No information available.
184573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Albert (Uganda) and Lake Cohoha (Burundi).
184573		habitat	eng	It is associated with areas in lakes with vegetation.
184573		population	eng	No information available.
184573		threats	eng	No information available. It is an intermediate host for human intestinal bilharzia causing parasites (<em>S. mansoni</em>) and possibly tolerant to many changes affecting wetlands.
184574		conservation	eng	No information available.
184574		conservation	eng	None known.
184574		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is found in Kenya (Rumuruti and Mt. Kenya), Tanzania and Uganda.  It is also documented as occurring beyond eastern Africa.
184574		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known to be wide spread Afrotropical species (Ethiopia to Shaba).
184574		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring from north Africa south through Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, and possibly to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Kenya (Rumuruti and Mt. Kenya), Tanzania and Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is a widespread Afrotropical species that is recorded from Holocene deposits in the Fayum (Egypt) (Van Damme 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is reported from 'South Africa' but precise locations not known (see Korniushin 1998).
184574		habitat	eng	All types of fresh waters
184574		habitat	eng	No information available.
184574		population	eng	No information available.
184574		threats	eng	No information available.
184574		threats	eng	None known.
184574		threats	eng	Sedimentation is the most likely threat.
184575		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended on the population status, distribution and threats of this species.
184575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania (Muli 2005).
184575		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in Lake Victoria (Muli 2005).<br/></p>
184575		population	eng	<p>This species is not frequently found, but is widespread and not particularly uncommon (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
184575		threats	eng	There are no known immediate threats affecting this species in Lake Victoria, although additional research on potential threats is suggested.
184576		conservation	eng	No information available.
184576		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from Dahlak Island (Eritrea).
184576		habitat	eng	It is found in diverse coastal habitats, mangroves.
184576		population	eng	No information available.
184576		threats	eng	No information available.
184577		conservation	eng	No information available.
184577		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the region of Oran and Mascara (Algeria).
184577		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184577		population	eng	No information available.
184577		threats	eng	This species is known from a highly populated region with degraded habitats. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184578		conservation	eng	No information available.
184578		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common along the Burundi, DRC, Tanzania and Zambia coastlines.
184578		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hard substrates including cobbles, boulders and stromatolites, at moderate depths, 10-50 m. Occasionally found in shallow water but then only under rocks. Oviparous.
184578		population	eng	When present, this species is relatively common in deeper water.
184578		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.
184579		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184579		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrobia luvilana</em> is endemic to central Africa in the Lower Zaire systems, where it is recorded from Republic of Congo and western DRC. The species is recorded from two localities about 250 km apart: the type locality 30 km inland from Pointe Noire and south of Loudima. The DBL collection has specimens from Nianga Stream near Kisantu. The area is under-recorded and the species may be more widespread.
184579		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and rivers. This species is found in streams with gravel with abundant vegetation (Brown 1994) as well as larger rivers.
184579		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184579		threats	eng	At present this species is only known from two widely spaced localities. The region is known to have multiple threats of gold mining,  deforestation, pesticide pollution and pterochemical exploitation and as  such the species may be susceptible to changing quality of habitat.
184580		conservation	eng	No information available.
184580		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Giuba (Jubba) River basin (southeast Somalia).
184580		habitat	eng	No information available.
184580		population	eng	No information available.
184580		threats	eng	No information available.
184581		conservation	eng	No information available.
184581		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to East Africa. This species occurs in the eastern Africa coastal strip (Kenya and Tanzania).
184581		habitat	eng	This species is found on mud beneath mangrove trees.
184581		population	eng	No information available.
184581		threats	eng	No information available.
184582		conservation	eng	No information available.
184582		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Salemba stream (and spring-fed pools) in Taita Taveta District, south eastern Kenya.
184582		habitat	eng	This species is found on fallen tree branches and leaves in streams and spring-fed pools.
184582		population	eng	No information available.
184582		threats	eng	Siltation, severe drought and destruction of the river catchment in the Taita Hills forests all threaten this species.
184583		conservation	eng	No information available.
184583		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common along the Congolese, Tanzanian and Zambian coastlines, but not known from Burundi.
184583		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to hard substrates including cobbles, boulders and stromatolites, at moderate depths, 10-50 m. Oviparous.
184583		population	eng	Population trends unknown. When present, this species is relatively common in deeper water.
184583		threats	eng	Water pollution and sedimentation are the potential threats.
184584		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Future monitoring of this species is necessary.
184584		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra johnstoni</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it occurs in Zambia and DRC. The species is recorded from Lake Mweru and the Luapula River. Seven collection sites are known, but the species is quite widespread along the Luapula River (with an extent of occurrence of approximately 30,000 km²).
184584		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes and rivers.
184584		population	eng	This species is easy to find where it occurs; it occurs in high densities.
184584		threats	eng	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there. This is a future threat to part of the population, but the rest of the population is relatively widespread in the Luapula River. Threats to the rest of the population depend on activities in Zambia.
184585		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research and field sampling are necessary to determine the validity of this nominal species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for <em>Coelatura kipopoensis</em>.
184585		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura kipopoensis</em> is a poorly characterized species reported from the area of Lubumbashi in the upper Congo. Specimens referable to this species (based upon Mandahl-Barth’s comments and figure) are known from the Luapula and Lake Mweru as well.
184585		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184585		population	eng	No information available.
184585		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented. The area near Lubumbashi is effected by mining and continued civil unrest (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184586		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184586		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrobia plena</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known from two localities; one on the Zaire River at Ango Ango (4 km south of Matadi (upstream)), and the second on a small tributary river 100 km northeast near Kisantu. The two sites are about 250 km apart.
184586		habitat	eng	It is found among rocks in swiftly flowing water at the Zaire rivers. This group may be good colonizers.
184586		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184586		threats	eng	This species is only reported from a limited number of localities. The presence of the species on the edges of rivers within fast flowing rivers makes it vulnerable to many types of threat which lead to declining quality of habitat. This species is threatened by sedimentation, urbanization and domestic water pollution in the dry season. If the Grand Inga dam proposal were to be adopted the site at Matadi would be lost.
184587		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184587		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocleopatra dartevellei</em> is endemic to DRC. It is known from the type locality on the Zaire River at Matadi, where it was first recorded in the 1940s and 50s.
184587		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184587		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184587		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. Small-scale logging, and possible pollution from tributyltin which is used in antifouling paint on boats.
184588		conservation	eng	The species is known from a limited number of museum specimens. Additional sampling is needed to determine both the extent of occurrence and occupancy of <em>Coelatura briarti</em>, as well as to estimate population demography. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184588		distribution	eng	<em>Coelatura briarti</em> is known from the middle Congo, from as far down as the Sangha and Oubangi rivers and up into the Lualaba.
184588		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184588		population	eng	No information available.
184588		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura briarti</em>, but fresh waters within the area of occurrence of this species are impacted by continued civil unrest, logging and mining (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184589		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required.
184589		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides nyangweensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. It is known from the lower Lualaba River at Nyangwe and other places (Brown 1994), but the exact locality is not known.
184589		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184589		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes or trends.
184589		threats	eng	No information available; the location of this species is not clear.
184590		conservation	eng	No information available.
184590		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria nux</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is found in the mouth of the River Zaire.
184590		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water, mainly in mangroves
184590		population	eng	No information available.
184590		threats	eng	No information available.
184591		conservation	eng	No information available.
184591		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Turkana. It is believed to be extinct. Mandahl-Barth (1988) comments that during Pluvial periods, the species may have had a distribution which included Lake Victoria and Lake Rudolf.
184591		habitat	eng	No information available.
184591		population	eng	No information available.
184591		threats	eng	Human disturbance, organic and inorganic pollution including sedimentation are detrimental to the species survival and need to be evaluated.
184592		conservation	eng	No information available.
184592		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Albert on the western shore between Kawa and Sabiloko. It probably exists (or at least existed) in Lake Edward according to the pleistocene/holocene lacustrine deposits.
184592		habitat	eng	No information available.
184592		population	eng	No information available.
184592		threats	eng	No information available.
184593		conservation	eng	No information available.
184593		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Albert.
184593		habitat	eng	This species is found between 8 - 40 m deep.
184593		population	eng	No information available.
184593		threats	eng	Erosion and silting and water pollution from the catchment threaten this species.
184594		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required.
184594		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides agglutinans</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is recorded from the Zaire River at Kala Kala. Three surveys in the 1970s over a five year period failed to locate the species. It is known from only one location (the type locality).
184594		habitat	eng	It is found in crevices among rocks in swiftly flowing water. Perhaps asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184594		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184594		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. The species requires highly oxygenated waters. Since the original collection of the species, the human population in the area has increased and habitat degradation is ongoing. Sedimentation is a particular threat to this species. A future threat is the potential construction of the Grand Inga dam.
184595		conservation	eng	None known.
184595		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Jonglei area in south Sudan. It is endemic to the White Nile, Sudan.
184595		habitat	eng	It is found in lagoons with Eichornia plants.
184595		population	eng	No information available.
184595		threats	eng	No major threats are known for the location.
184596		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184596		distribution	eng	<em>Lobogenes spiralis</em> is endemic to southeastern DRC. Originally it was thought to be very localised, but it now appears that it is a widespread species (based on DBL records).
184596		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184596		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184596		threats	eng	This species is only known from a few localities. No major threats and present in widely distant localities
184597		conservation	eng	No information available.
184597		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria and the Victoria Nile.
184597		habitat	eng	No information available.
184597		population	eng	No information available.
184597		threats	eng	This species is most likely threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances.
184598		conservation	eng	This species has been assessed as Critically Endangered in the North African Regional Red List Assessment (IUCN 2010). Further research is needed into this species' population size and trends.
184598		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Morocco and as regionally endemic to North Africa (Kabat and Hershler 1993, IUCN 2010).
184598		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species.
184598		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184598		threats	eng	Several threats to freshwater species exist in the Maghreb region (which includes Morocco). These include habitat loss as a result of water abstraction for agricultural, commercial and domestic use, pollution and eutrophication, salinisation of surface waters, invasive species and increasing periods of drought and climatic instability (IUCN 2010).
184599		conservation	eng	No information available.
184599		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Giuba-Shebeli River system (south east Somalia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is known from northeastern Kenya in Lake Jilore near Malindi.
184599		distribution	eng	The species has been documented from north eastern Kenya in Lake Jilore near Malindi and in Somalia.
184599		distribution	eng	This species is known from Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented from north eastern Kenya in Lake Jilore near Malindi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Somalia.
184599		habitat	eng	No information available.
184599		population	eng	No information available.
184599		threats	eng	No information available.
184599		threats	eng	No specific threats known but possibly sedimentation and drought.
184599		threats	eng	Possibly sedimentation and drought.
184601		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.  Requires good water quality, so control of logging, pollution and sedimentation is recommended.
184601		distribution	eng	<em>Septariellina congolensis</em> has been recorded only from DRC; at Matadi and Kala Kala on the River Congo. It has a very small range area, lying within a 20 km area.
184601		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. Brown (1992) reported it from rocks at the edge of rapids, so species likes well oxygenated water.
184601		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184601		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the small area near type locality. The extension of logging within the region may impact water quality within the river which will impact this species. Increased siltation in the river may changed the nature of the microhabitat. Detergents in the water would impact the species.
184602		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184602		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma alutacea</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. It is restricted to only two localities; Tchope River in Kisangani, and Amankiti (Lupoto district). Mandhal-Barth (1982) suggested that it is known from Kisangani to Luputo district.
184602		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus can be found in small streams amongst forest.
184602		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184602		threats	eng	This species is only reported from a few localities. At Kisangani, urban development is reducing habitat quality through sedimentation, pollution and sewage in the river. Upstream the threats are reduced.
184603		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184603		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma riperti</em> is endemic to Cameroon, where it is known from the eastern region at Mikel. The species is only known from the type locality and has never been seen since it was first located.
184603		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184603		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184603		threats	eng	No information available.
184604		conservation	eng	No information available.
184604		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is known from coastlines of Tanzania and Zambia.
184604		habitat	eng	The species found on soft substrates in moderate to deep water, 10-80 m depth.
184604		population	eng	No information available.
184604		threats	eng	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.
184605		conservation	eng	No information available.
184605		distribution	eng	This species was known from a spring at Casablanca and spring at Settat (Morocco). In both locations no active springs presently persist.
184605		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184605		population	eng	No information available.
184605		threats	eng	No information available.
184606		conservation	eng	Ex-situ breeding programmes and introductions are needed.
184606		distribution	eng	Fresh empty shells were found in the late 1990s by Van Nienhuys (pers. comm.) in the Oued Grou just downstream of the hydroelectric dam east of Rabat. It is assumed here that populations of <em>A. pallaryi</em> still do occur in the artificial lake. The populations of the Oued M'da are extinct.
184606		habitat	eng	It is found in silty bottoms of standing or slowly flowing waters.
184606		population	eng	Nothing is known of the present population size
184606		threats	eng	Pollution probably is not a major threat but invasive molluscivorous species such as the Red Louisiana river XXXX that is rapidly spreading through Mediterranean Europe is, as well as food competitors such as the Ponto-Caspian bivalve <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span>.
184607		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of wells, covers on wells, piping water into homes to reduce human contact with wells, and reduced pumping of water.
184607		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is found in a well in Douar N'Gar, Lamsantah, Beni Mellal, a well in Douar Oulad Zahra and Douar Oulad Aamer, and a well in Douar Oulad Ahmed, Sebt Oulad Nemma. As they are all part of the same groundwater basin, it is counted as one location.
184607		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.
184607		population	eng	This species has a small population.
184607		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table.
184608		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extent of range of this species and its population demography. Detailed taxonomic research is necessary to verify how distinctive these populations are from <em>Mutela rostrata</em> in the Congo Basin and West Africa generally. Host-fish need to be determined in order to understand the impact of environmental change on the life cycle of the species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Mutela langi</em> is recorded from the lowest reach of the Congo, based upon the types and paratypes specimens in various collections. However, its extent in the lower Congo (below the rapids) is unknown due to limited sampling effort. It was recorded from below an area of rapids in the lower reaches, so it is likely to be restricted to this area; area of occupancy is less than 500 km²; extent of occurrence may be less than 5,000 km².
184608		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184608		population	eng	No information available.
184608		threats	eng	<em>Mutela langi</em> is known only from the lower Congo River, below the rapids (Graf and Cummings 2006). The area is threatened a high population density, deforestation and mining. Moreover, the Congo receives untreated sewage and other wastes from Kinshasa and Brazzaville. The Grand Inga Dam is likely to substantially disrupt flow in the lower Congo (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184609		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to check if is still present, and if so, its range.
184609		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa. It is known from Oued Melah near Aonana, Tunisia (Boeter 1976).
184609		habitat	eng	Very localised in Oued Melah. In a river near a road.
184609		population	eng	No information available.
184609		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution and urbanisation.
184610		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to check if it is still extant.
184610		distribution	eng	This species was recorded from the region of Constantine (Algeria) in the 19th Century.
184610		habitat	eng	No information available.
184610		population	eng	No information available.
184610		threats	eng	This species is threatened by development and urbanisation.
184611		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184611		distribution	eng	<em>Lanistes nsendweensis</em> is endemic to central Africa, where the species is known from DRC and Central African Republic.
184611		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184611		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184611		threats	eng	No information available.
184612		conservation	eng	No information available.
184612		distribution	eng	This species is known from Oudref and Oued Gabés near Gabés (Tunisia), found only by Letourneux and Bourguignat 1887. The three sites are all right near each other so one location. It has not been found since.
184612		habitat	eng	Also lives on rocks by springs feeding oases in the desert. This species is a crenobiont. Most of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola</span> are like this - springs and clear springs coming from them. The snails are found only in the tiny distance between spring and oasis (mainly a metre or two). They are replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria</span> immediately below that level (physical succession). <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria</span> is spreading (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).
184612		population	eng	No information available.
184612		threats	eng	These are found on rocks where water seeps out of desert into oases. As soon as they start pumping water from the ground, the springs stop and the snails disappear.
184613		conservation	eng	No information available.
184613		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kichwambae crater lake and in region near Fort Portal, also Lake Lutoto (small lakes less than 2 km²).
184613		habitat	eng	No information available.
184613		population	eng	No information available.
184613		threats	eng	Erosion and silting threaten this species.
184614		conservation	eng	No information available.
184614		distribution	eng	This species is endemic north African species which has only been recorded from Morocco and Algeria.
184614		habitat	eng	No information available.
184614		population	eng	No information available.
184614		threats	eng	No information available.
184615		conservation	eng	No information available.
184615		distribution	eng	<em>Melanopsis chlorotica</em> was found in the Haouz Plain (Marakkech, Morocco) and is still found mid-Atlas (Ghamizi 1998). It is now not in the Haouz Plain any more. In mid-Atlas it only inhabits a small area, less than 10 km².
184615		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184615		population	eng	No information available.
184615		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184616		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184616		distribution	eng	<em>Gabbiella matadina</em> is endemic to central Africa, known only from the type locality in western DRC at Matadi. It has not been rediscovered during recent surveys at Matadi.
184616		habitat	eng	Only found within a water reservoir. This is a very distinctive species of <em>Gabiella</em> and maybe present in adjacent small streams draining into the reservoir. It is possibly from small streams on stones or branches.
184616		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184616		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. Human population pressure in region is increasing with potential impact on the sites. This species is threatened by sedimentation, small scale wood extraction for charcoal and building and domestic water pollution in the dry season.
184617		conservation	eng	None known.
184617		distribution	eng	This species is described it from Socotra Island only in the 19th century. It was not mentioned by Brown (1994), nor found during the latest intensive limnological survey (1999-2004) (Lab Ecology, Ghent University, Belgium).
184617		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish waters/creeks at river mouth.
184617		population	eng	No data available.
184617		threats	eng	No data available.
184618		conservation	eng	No information available.
184618		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa. It was reported from El Goléa, Nefta, Kebili and Limaguess (Tunisia) in 1887 by Letourneux and Bourguignat but Boeters did not find it any more.
184618		habitat	eng	It was found in little streams.
184618		population	eng	No information available.
184618		threats	eng	No information available.
184619		conservation	eng	Benefits to this species would include: reduced deforestation, and restored habitats.
184619		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Rif mountain range (Morocco) (Ghamizi 1989). There is a historical record found in Chechaouen, but it has not been found there again.
184619		habitat	eng	It is found in marshes and small shallow rivers. Also water storage ponds.
184619		population	eng	No information available.
184619		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation. It is found in shallow habitats, which are easily filled up with mud from erosion, and during storms.
184620		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Awareness of this species' existence in the rapid areas of the Zaire River is needed, particularly for those people involved in granting planning permission for dam projects in the area.
184620		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma wansoni</em> is known from only one location in western DRC, at the Zaire River near Matadi (Brown 1994).
184620		habitat	eng	It is found in swiftly flowing water (rapids).
184620		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184620		threats	eng	This species is known only from the type locality. The Inga Dam project is based on the Zaire River; this includes a possibility for the Grand Inga Dam, which could have a serious impact on this species' habitat. Local logging activities could have an effect, but no information is available to confirm this. The population of Matadi is increasing and this could also have an impact.
184621		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various populations, especially in the upper Congo parts of its range. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Coelatura gabonensis</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184621		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura gabonensis</em> is known from throughout the Congo Basin, from the mouth up through the Lualaba. It is also known from coastal drainages from Gabon north to Cameroon.
184621		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184621		population	eng	No information available.
184621		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184622		conservation	eng	No information available.
184622		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa. It is recorded in the 19th Century from Guelma, Hammam-Berda, Boghar, Boudjariah, Rivet, Boudounou, Mostaghanem, Mascara and other localities in Algeria. It has also been seen in Tunisia.
184622		habitat	eng	No information available.
184622		population	eng	No information available.
184622		threats	eng	No information available.
184623		conservation	eng	Pollution control is needed.
184623		distribution	eng	This species is known from Morocco and Algeria. It is only left in the upper reaches of rivers, mostly disappeared from lower down. It used to be more common.
184623		habitat	eng	It is found in slow moving, very clean waters with low water level (< 50 cm)
184623		population	eng	No information available.
184623		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution, particularly resulting in oxygen deficiency. It is only left in the upper reaches, gone from lower areas. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> are in decline because of human alteration of habitat such as water pollution.
184624		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184624		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma liricincta</em> is endemic to northeastern DRC. It is known from six locations; two sites are within the Ituri forests, and the other four sites are on the Zaire River (Lubuli-Kibale District, Buessa District). Brown (1994) and Mandahl-Barth (1982) recorded that this was a common species in northeast Zaire.
184624		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and rivers. This species is found on hard bottoms. It requires clear fast flowing water with some shade. The genus can be found in small streams amongst forest with very iron-poor, low-calcium waters.
184624		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184624		threats	eng	Changes to the shading of sites through logging will impact this species.
184625		conservation	eng	No information available.
184625		distribution	eng	It is recorded from type locality at the north east side of Dagusi Island in Lake Victoria, Uganda. It is believed to have spread to various sites in northern Lake Victoria (Uganda and Kenya).
184625		habitat	eng	No information available.
184625		population	eng	No information available.
184625		threats	eng	There is a possible threat of sedimentation and lake pollution.
184626		conservation	eng	No information available.
184626		conservation	eng	None known.
184626		distribution	eng	<em>Iphigenia curta</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.
184626		distribution	eng	<em>Iphigenia curta</em> ranges from the Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.
184626		habitat	eng	Found in river mouths and lagoons.
184626		habitat	eng	It is found in river mouths and lagoons. It is found in brackish water.
184626		population	eng	No information available.
184626		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184626		threats	eng	No information available.
184627		conservation	eng	No information available.
184627		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known at 36 sites It is known from all four coasts, it is possible that further surveys may locate more sites for this species.
184627		habitat	eng	It is abundant on mud, silt or sandy substrates across a variety of water depths, 5-60 m depth.
184627		population	eng	No information available.
184627		threats	eng	Water pollution, deforestation, erosion and sedimentation are possible threats.
184628		conservation	eng	No information available.
184628		conservation	eng	Unknown.
184628		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria paradoxa</em> ranges from Sierra Leone to Angola.
184628		habitat	eng	Found in mouth of streams.
184628		habitat	eng	It is found in river mouths, brackish water.
184628		population	eng	No information available.
184628		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184628		threats	eng	No information available.
184629		conservation	eng	Protection of wells, limited contact with population, limiting flow of pesticides from agriculture into streams/rivers (particularly Oued Makhamane, where the stream is bordered by vineyards). Reducing use of chemicals for agriculture.
184629		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is known from Oued Makhfamane; hyporheic water below this stream. It is present in wells in Jbilet near Marrakech, wells in Imin Ifri, Demnate, and wells near the Zat stream, near Ait Ourir village.
184629		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in hyphoreic water under streams/rivers, and wells.
184629		population	eng	This species is not very abundant.
184629		threats	eng	Threats to this species include domestic pollution and urbanisation, diversion of water for irrigation, pollution from pesticides, and climate change and the resulting droughts lowering water table and reducing flow.
184630		conservation	eng	No information available.
184630		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to two crater lakes south of Fort Portal, south west Uganda. It has not been collected from type localities since time of collection.<br/>A distribution map not possible due to lack of detailed information.
184630		habitat	eng	No information available.
184630		population	eng	No information available.
184630		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184631		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184631		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma kadeii</em> is endemic to eastern Cameroon. It has been recorded only from the Kadei River from under the road bridge at Panna.
184631		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, on large stones in shaded areas with hard bottom.
184631		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184631		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality, which is in a region of heavy logging, which changes shade conditions on river and leads to increased sedimentation.
184632		conservation	eng	No information available.
184632		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in north Africa and has not been recovered since the original description.
184632		habitat	eng	Moved by birds, so distribution changeable. Form of shell probably varies with habitat leading to uncertainty over taxonomy.
184632		population	eng	No information available.
184632		threats	eng	No information available.
184633		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extant of the range of this species, and studies to determine the hosts of parasitic larvae would be valuable to future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184633		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. Most records for <em>Coelatura leopoldvillensis</em> are known from the Ulele and Congo River above the Central Cuvette, but the type locality is Malebo Pool and numerous specimens are known from Zambia in the region of the mouth of the Congo.
184633		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184633		population	eng	No information available.
184633		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura leopoldvillensis</em>. However, in the upper part of its range, fresh waters are impacted by continued civil unrest. In the lower part of its range (Malebo Pool and the lower Congo), freshwater habitats are threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining. The Congo receives untreated sewage and other wastes from both Kinshasa and Brazzaville, and the Grand Inga Dam is likely to substantially disrupt flow in the lower Congo (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184634		conservation	eng	No information available.
184634		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded only from the region of Moulay Taieb (Morocco), but this is an old record.
184634		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184634		population	eng	No information available.
184634		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184635		conservation	eng	No information available.
184635		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria schwabi</em> is restricted to Cameroon, where it is found in the lower Sanaga River.
184635		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water, but further up river.
184635		population	eng	No information available.
184635		threats	eng	No information available.
184636		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the current extent of this species and its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to determine the effects of environmental change on the life history of the species. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for <em>Mutela legumen</em>.
184636		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela legumen</em> is endemic to central Africa, known from the vicinity of Malebo Pool and the adjacent Congo Basin immediately above the Pool, as far up as the Oubangi and the Kasai. Less than ten locations are estimated, based on localised threats in much of the known range, and more severe threats around Kinshasa. The extent of occurrence is above the thresholds for criterion B, but area of occupancy based on the known range is approximately 600 km².
184636		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences. <em>Mutela</em> occur in larger rivers, so this species is unlikely to occur in the smaller tributaries.
184636		population	eng	No information available.
184636		threats	eng	Malebo Pool is threatened by increasing urbanization and pollution due to increasing human population pressures in areas of Brazzaville and Kinshasa. Agriculture and increased organic and inorganic pollution are likely to become severe future threats. Elsewhere in the range of this species, continued civil unrest hampers research (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, no specific threats are documented for <em>Mutela legumen</em>.
184637		conservation	eng	Urgently needs work. It needs protection of current habitat, and possibly propagation or translocation of some mussels to other suitable waterbodies.
184637		distribution	eng	Former known range: Mediterranean Maghreb It is known from the streams in the Edough forest (western Algeria) to the marshes in the Algerian-Tunisian border region. <br/><br/>Present range: not recorded any more from Algeria since the early 20th Century, and it must be considered as extinct over most of its former range in Algeria, though populations possibly may still survive near the Tunisian border in the El Kala marshes. In Tunisia a new location was discovered in 2000 by Khalloufi and Boumaïza (2005) in the Oued Sedjenène downstream of the artificial lake Ichkeul (northeast Tunisia) .
184637		habitat	eng	It is found in slow flowing streams and marshes in the Mediterranean coastal region of Algeria and Tunisia.
184637		population	eng	No information available.
184637		threats	eng	This species is threatened by drainage of sites, and alteration of habitat.
184638		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of wells, in the same way as <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gofasi</span>. It is known that once waste water treatment is introduced, the water quality can improve.
184638		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is found at Khettara (old irrigation system) near Marrakech, some wells near the edge of the road to Safi near Tensift, a well at Guelmin, and one well at Tafraout.
184638		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.
184638		population	eng	This species has a small population.
184638		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the pollution of water, water extraction, and the effects of climate change reducing the water table level.
184639		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184639		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrobia gabonensis</em> is endemic to Gabon. The species is known from the type locality in the Ogowe River, but Brown (1994) also gave a record from Lake N'dougou near Gamba. Mandahl-Barth (1982) notes that the species was not rediscovered since Morelet originally described the species. The DBL database shows no records from Lake N'dougou near Gamba. Consequently the record from Lake N'dougou is questionable.
184639		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rivers and lakes. No details available on preferred habitats.
184639		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184639		threats	eng	This species has a limited geographical distribution.
184640		conservation	eng	Protection of well with cover, limited pumping, and waste water treatment is needed.
184640		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from a well at Ait Salah, Jihadia Dehairia and Arhbalou Masa, south of Agadir (Morocco).
184640		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont.
184640		population	eng	This species is abundant in wells.
184640		threats	eng	This species is threatened by groundwater extraction and water pollution from sewage and pesticides. Urbanisation also affects this species, with some wells now in a large city (previously a small town).
184641		conservation	eng	No information available.
184641		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa. It is recorded from one spring Aïn Sfa in the region of Oujda (Morocco).
184641		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184641		population	eng	No information available.
184641		threats	eng	People are moving to this area because it is a tourist area. Potential pollution and groundwater extraction are putting the spring in danger.
184642		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated and the region of the Lobo and Nyang rivers needs to be surveyed in general for freshwater mollusks.
184642		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura lobensis</em> is known only from the type material in the Lobo and Nyang rivers in Cameroon; only two locations only. This species is only a few specimens have been located; the species appears to be localised.
184642		habitat	eng	It is a riverine species. No specific information is available.
184642		population	eng	No information available. This species is only known from the type material. Surveys carried out since the type was collected have failed to find the species.
184642		threats	eng	No information is available for <em>Coelatura lobensis</em>, although freshwater habitats in Cameroon are known to be jeopardized by habitat destruction due to deforestation and other human activities (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184643		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184643		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra pilula</em> is endemic to the Kasai Region in southern DRC. There are four known collecting sites, and the species was last collected in 1958 (however collecting in DRC has been difficult after this time due to difficulties in getting permits).
184643		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from open water rivers and standing waters.
184643		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes or trends; it was last collected in 1958. When it was collected it was considered locally abundant.
184643		threats	eng	This species is only found in the Kasai region, Southern DRC. The area the species was collected from is known for mining activities resulting in sedimentation and disturbance of river beds. The species is apparently localised, and other threats add to the effects of mining (conversion of habitat to agriculture, logging activities, etc.)
184644		conservation	eng	No information available.
184644		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Athi River Plains. It is found in seasonal rivers downstream from Athi River town, south-east Kenya. It has an EOO of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
184644		habitat	eng	This species is recorded by D. Brown on small seasonal streams along the Athi River Plains.
184644		population	eng	No information available.
184644		threats	eng	Its distribution area is characterized by frequent prolonged droughts. Streams are known to go dry for several months. There is also development in the form of settlement schemes on the Athi River Plains which may have affected the regional streams.
184645		conservation	eng	No information available.
184645		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi with a fragmented distribution. It is found at Monkey Bay, but total distribution is unknown.
184645		habitat	eng	It is found in sand and weed beds, common at 1.5m depth, but dredged from 35m. Uses burrowing behaviour to avoid predation by fish.
184645		population	eng	Papers by Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) provide population and growth information for Lake Malawi (information not available to this writer).
184645		threats	eng	This species is likely to be impacted by general habitat threats to Lake Malawi benthos (such as sedimentation, and dredging by fishermen). It is predated by fish and vulnerable to changing habitats at edge of lake margin, as well as pollution (Brown 1995).
184646		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further taxonomic work is needed for this species.
184646		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides bavayi</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known only from the type locality on the Lualaba River at Kibombo (Brown 1994); the exact location of the type locality is unclear.
184646		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184646		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184646		threats	eng	No information available. The species is known only from the type collection.
184647		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from waste water treatment, protection of wells, limited agricultural pollution into rivers, reducing use of chemicals in agriculture bordering the river. It is proven now that when waste water treatment is introduced, the water quality can improve.
184647		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is found in hyporheic water of the river Zat, wells and khettara (the name for the old irrigation system) of Marrakech, wells in the region of Guelmin, wells in Tahla near Tafraout and wells in Doutarga near Tiznit.
184647		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont, found in hyporheic water below rivers and wells.
184647		population	eng	No information available.
184647		threats	eng	Threats to this species includes pollution from domestic populations (i.e. sewage), water extraction, and a lowering water table because of climate change and drought.
184648		conservation	eng	None known.
184648		distribution	eng	This is a northeast African endemic, only known from the type locality (near Debra Berhan) in Ethiopia.
184648		habitat	eng	It is known from the Ethiopian Highlands.
184648		population	eng	There is only a single population.
184648		threats	eng	Water extraction and degradation threaten this species.
184649		conservation	eng	&#160;None known.
184649		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184649		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.
184649		distribution	eng	<em>Ceratophallus kigeziensis</em> is recorded from DRC and Uganda, and maybe as far north as Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lakes Victoria, Edward and Kivu<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It probably also occurs in the northern part of the basin belonging to Ethiopia.
184649		distribution	eng	In central Africa, <em>Ceratophallus kigeziensis</em> is recorded from Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.
184649		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from specimens recently  (2007) collected in small pools in the Turkana Basin (Kenya) but not in the lake were identified by the present assessor and belonging to this species. Probably also occurs in the northern part of the basin belonging to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Lakes Victoria, Edward and Kivu.
184649		habitat	eng	Found in pools without vegetation in the Turkana Basin. Spread by birds.
184649		habitat	eng	It is usually found in lakes.
184649		habitat	eng	Mostly found in lakes.
184649		population	eng	No data available.
184649		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184649		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
184649		threats	eng	No information available.
184649		threats	eng	None known.
184651		conservation	eng	No information available.
184651		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Sudan and Ethiopia (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda.
184651		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sudan to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Jinja bay in Lake Victoria (Type locality). It is also documented from Lake Mutanda, several undisclosed localities in Uganda and the Kenyan and Tanzanian shores of Lake Victoria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in south Sudan and Ethiopia (Brown 1994)
184651		habitat	eng	It lives in papyrus swamps and on stony beaches.
184651		habitat	eng	Lives in papyrus swamps and stony beaches.
184651		population	eng	No information available.
184651		threats	eng	No information available.
184652		conservation	eng	No information available.
184652		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).
184652		habitat	eng	No information available.
184652		population	eng	No information available.
184652		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation is a potential threat.
184653		conservation	eng	No information available.
184653		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is endemic to Lake Edward (2,203 km²) and Lake Mirambi Crate Lake (< 20 km²). No information from DRC shores of Lake Edward (Brown 1994).
184653		habitat	eng	It is commonly found in vegetation or sands up to 4 - 10 m depth.
184653		population	eng	No information available.
184653		threats	eng	There is a declining quality of habitat due to agricultural runoff. This species is likely to be very tolerant to such disturbance.
184654		conservation	eng	No information available.
184654		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. Total distribution is unknown. It has been dredged from down to 70 feet.
184654		habitat	eng	No information available.
184654		population	eng	No information available.
184654		threats	eng	No information available.
184655		conservation	eng	This species should be protected by covering wells, and waste water treatment to avoid pollution.
184655		distribution	eng	This species is known from wells at Attebane, Doutarga and at Agadir Izder in the region of Tiznit (Morocco).
184655		habitat	eng	This is a stygobiont - it lives in groundwater.
184655		population	eng	No information available.
184655		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and lowering water levels.
184656		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184656		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides dupuisi</em> is endemic to central Africa. It is known from DRC; Zaire River at Ngandu, Kinshasa and Ubangi River at Banzyville. These sites are far apart, but if it is assumed that the species occurs at some sites between these localities then area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². The record from Banzyville (from the DBL database) may refer to a similar but different species (D. van Damme, pers. comm.); if this record is erroneous, the area of occupancy would reduce to less than 500 km².
184656		habitat	eng	The species was collected from riverine areas. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184656		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184656		threats	eng	At least part of the population (occurring downstream from Kinshasa) is threatened due to pollution from human activities.
184657		conservation	eng	No information available.
184657		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known only from Kala Bay, Zambia. Further sampling is needed to determine whether this species has a wider distribution outside this bay.
184657		habitat	eng	It inhabits sand and mud substrates in shallow water, 2-7 m.
184657		population	eng	No information available.
184657		threats	eng	Pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.
184658		conservation	eng	No information available.
184658		distribution	eng	It is known from near Constantine (Algeria). This species is only mentioned in 1870 from Algeria.
184658		habitat	eng	No information available.
184658		population	eng	No information available.
184658		threats	eng	No information available.
184659		conservation	eng	No information available.
184659		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.
184659		habitat	eng	This species occurs in Lake Victoria at more than 30 meters deep.
184659		population	eng	No information available.
184659		threats	eng	No information available.
184660		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection from pollution.
184660		distribution	eng	This species is known from a spring called Ain Meski, and hyporheic water of Ziz river, Morocco.
184660		habitat	eng	It is found in springs and hyporheic water. This species is a stygobiont.
184660		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
184660		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table. This spring is visited a lot by tourists and may be polluted by them.
184661		conservation	eng	No information available.
184661		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from the coasts of Somalia, Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread along coasts of  eastern and southern Africa.
184661		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa main rivers, and on the Como islands. It can also be found along the coasts of Somalia, Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea.
184661		habitat	eng	It is found in salt marshes and mangrove swamps.
184661		habitat	eng	Salt marshes and mangrove swamps.
184661		population	eng	No information available.
184661		threats	eng	No information available.
184662		conservation	eng	None known.
184662		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ethiopian highlands between Addis Ababa and Dessie and north of Gondar (Brown 1994).
184662		habitat	eng	It is found in streams above 2,000 m flowing through grasslands.
184662		population	eng	No data available.
184662		threats	eng	This species is affected by impacts of climate change.
184663		conservation	eng	No information available.
184663		conservation	eng	None known.
184663		distribution	eng	<em>Iphigenia messageri</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.
184663		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers.
184663		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. It is found in brackish waters.
184663		population	eng	No information available.
184663		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184663		threats	eng	No information available.
184664		conservation	eng	No information available.
184664		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
184664		habitat	eng	No information available.
184664		population	eng	No information available.
184664		threats	eng	No information available.
184665		conservation	eng	No information available.
184665		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Médénine, Djerba, Tunisia. Surveys in neighbouring areas did not find this species, so it is certain to be highly localised.
184665		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water species, so not easily affected by pollution.
184665		population	eng	Not abundant.
184665		threats	eng	Threats include over-exploitation of water resources, as this is a  spring snail with very a small distribution, with habitat degradation  due to 'improvement of the springs to offtake water' and water pollution  as a secondary threat. The island of Djerba has a population of roughly 60.000 but is visited annually by ca. 600,000 tourists. Considering that the island has a length of only 20 km and that tourists use water abundantly, the aquatic fauna of wells and underground springs can be  considered as endangered.
184666		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184666		distribution	eng	<em>Ceratophallus gibbonsi</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa. It also occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo at Nalunda.
184666		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Ceratophallus gibbonsi</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa. It also occurs in eastern DRC at Nalunda.
184666		habitat	eng	Found in comparatively permanent waterbodies.
184666		habitat	eng	It is found in comparatively permanent waterbodies.
184666		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184666		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
184666		threats	eng	No major threats.
184666		threats	eng	No major threats known.
184667		conservation	eng	No information available.
184667		conservation	eng	Unknown.
184667		distribution	eng	The range of <em>Egreria kockii</em> is unknown; it possibly occurs in central Africa, but more information is required to confirm this.
184667		habitat	eng	Unknown presumed to be brackish water
184667		habitat	eng	Unknown presumed to be brackish water.
184667		population	eng	No information available.
184667		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184667		threats	eng	No information available.
184668		conservation	eng	Protection of wells, limited contact with wells by pumping the water directly into people's homes with just one pump, so that less contact and less pollution.
184668		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is known from a well in Douar N'Gar, Lamsantah, Beni Mellal, and a well in Larbaa Fkih Ben Salah, region de Beni Mellal. These are part of the same groundwater basin, so count as a single location.
184668		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.
184668		population	eng	This species has a small population.
184668		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table.
184669		conservation	eng	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to understand its life cycle. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184669		conservation	eng	No information available.
184669		distribution	eng	<em>Pleiodon spekii</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.
184669		habitat	eng	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184669		habitat	eng	It lives in flat sand and mud bottoms. This species is found in some bands of littoral bays at about 0-10 m depth.
184669		population	eng	No information is available.
184669		population	eng	Population well represented in the lake occurring in high numbers.
184669		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Pleiodon spekii</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.
184669		threats	eng	Pollution and sedimentation are the most likely threats. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184670		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184670		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides wagenia</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. It is known from two separate sites in the Kisangani district (Tschopo River and Bitumbi River).
184670		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from tributary streams near Kisangani. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184670		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. It was last recorded in 1970.
184670		threats	eng	Small-scale logging activities threaten this species.
184671		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184671		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrobia schoutedeni</em> is endemic to DRC. The species is known from only two localities; one on the Zaire River at Ango Ango (about 4 km from Matadi (probably upstream)), and the second at Chaundron de Enfer. The two sites are closely located.
184671		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, living on rocks with well oxygenated waters.
184671		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184671		threats	eng	The presence of the species on the edges of rivers within fast flowing rivers makes it vulnerable to many types of threat which lead to declining quality of habitat. This species is threatened by sedimentation, urbanization and domestic water pollution in the dry season. If the Grand Inga dam proposal were to be adopted the site at Matadi would be lost.
184672		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. This species has not been seen for many years and surveys are required to confirm that it still exists.
184672		distribution	eng	<em>Cleopatra langi</em> is endemic to central Africa; it is known only from the type collection (collected in the 1920s) from Kisangani, DRC.
184672		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from margins of the Zaire rivers.
184672		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184672		threats	eng	No information available; the species is only reported from the type locality. The species was collected from Kisangani, which is a rapidly expanding urban area.
184673		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required to confirm the status of the known populations.
184673		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides kinshassaensis</em> is endemic to central Africa. It is known from DRC, where the species has been collected from many sites, downstream from Kinshasa, and Stanley Pool (upstream from Kinshasa). It was last collected in the 1970s (1972, 1973 and 1974).
184673		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184673		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. But it occurs in sites downstream from Kinshasa and is likely to be affected by habitat degradation from this highly populated area.
184673		threats	eng	The species is known only from an area downstream from Kinshasa. Threats to this species include habitat degradation from pollution (domestic and sewage), sedimentation, and potentially from industrial pollution.
184674		conservation	eng	No information available.
184674		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Jilore. However Brown suggests that the species' extent of occurrence could be between Lake Jilore and the coast at Takaungu, Kenya.
184674		habitat	eng	It occurs in small lakes.
184674		population	eng	No information available. This species is possibly declining due to habitat destruction.
184674		threats	eng	The biggest threats to this species are drought and siltation. Dr. Luke De-Vos reported that Lake Jilore is almost drying up due to soils brought to the lake from wild animals and livestock trails.
184675		conservation	eng	No information available.
184675		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Balleh Mersin, Ogaden Province, Ethiopia.
184675		habitat	eng	No information available.
184675		population	eng	No information available.
184675		threats	eng	No information available.
184676		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is needed to determine both the extent of occurrence and occupancy of <em>Aspatharia semicorrugata</em>, as well as to estimate population demography. At present, the species is known from a limited number of museum specimens, and the taxonomy is confused. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184676		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <span style="font-style: italic;">Aspatharia semicorrugata</span> is known from few localities in the Congo River It is known from Malebo Pool to above Kisangani. A single record is also known listing the Kasai (Zambia).
184676		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184676		population	eng	No information available.
184676		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Aspatharia semicorrugata</em>, but fresh waters within the range of the species are impacted by continuing civil unrest and increasing human population pressures in the vicinity of Malebo Pool (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184677		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required to determine where this species is still extant.
184677		distribution	eng	<em>Segmentorbis excavatus</em> is endemic to the central Africa region. The species is known only from southeastern DRC, where it is recorded from several localities in the Kisanga River, a tributary of the Kafubu River near Elizabethville (Brown 1994). It has not been recorded elsewhere, whereas other similar species have been found in a wider range. It may have a genuinely restricted range.
184677		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers.
184677		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184677		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality and may genuinely have a restricted range. There are 250 mines in the Kitanga region and these are causing habitat degradation through siltation of rivers. Road construction is contributing to this heavy siltation of rivers throughout the region.
184678		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184678		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides depravata</em> is endemic to central Africa. The species is known from eastern DRC; Lualaba River at Nyangwe, Nsendwe and Kibombo. The collection sites are about 100 km apart. It is not known whether the species has a restricted range or whether its recorded range is an artifact of sampling effort.
184678		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184678		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184678		threats	eng	This species is only reported from Lualaba River. Its known range is not within an area of high human impact, but localised threats (mining and deforestation leding to siltation) may affect the species.
184679		conservation	eng	No data available.
184679		conservation	eng	No information available.
184679		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from East African coast and coasts of the west Indian Ocean.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found on the coasts of Somalia<br><br><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the eastern Africa coastal strip.
184679		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been reported from the coasts of Somalia.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been reported from the eastern Africa coast and coasts of the west Indian Ocean.
184679		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Eastern Africa coastal strip.
184679		habitat	eng	According to Brown (1994) is this species is mainly found in mangrove forests where specimens aggregate on trees and at high tide.
184679		habitat	eng	According to Brown (1994) is this species mainly found in  mangrove forests where specimens aggregate on trees.
184679		habitat	eng	It inhabits mangroves ecosystem.
184679		population	eng	No data available.
184679		population	eng	No information available.
184679		population	eng	Usually abundant where present.
184679		threats	eng	Destruction of mangroves.
184679		threats	eng	The destruction of mangroves threatens this species.
184679		threats	eng	The mangrove habitat in which <span style="font-style: italic;">C.decollata</span> resides is threatened by shrimp farming and use of wood (deforestation and sedimentation).
184680		conservation	eng	No information available.
184680		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> the species is found in north eastern Kenya at the Ewasso Nyiro River. It is also found at some locations in Sudan.
184680		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern Kenya between the Ewasso Nyiro (Eusso Nyiro) river and Mount Marsabit, also found at some locations in Sudan.
184680		habitat	eng	No information available.
184680		population	eng	No information available.
184680		threats	eng	Affected by sedimentation induced by recently higher rates of rainfall.
184681		conservation	eng	No information available.
184681		distribution	eng	This species is known from little streams in the region of Oran, Mascara, Djelfa and in the Smendou region near Constantine, Algeria (Bourgignat 1862).
184681		habitat	eng	This is a species of clear running waters.
184681		population	eng	No information available.
184681		threats	eng	No information available.
184682		conservation	eng	No information available.
184682		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Edward (southwest Uganda and DRC).
184682		habitat	eng	No information available.
184682		population	eng	No information available.
184682		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184683		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184683		distribution	eng	<em>Potadomoides schoutedeni</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known from the rivers Luvua and Lualaba. Six collection sites are recorded (Glaubrecht and Strong 2007), relatively well spaced apart (it is likely to have a greater than 20,000 km² extent of occurrence).
184683		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184683		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. Most recently collected in 1959, but surveys in that area have not been possible since that time.
184683		threats	eng	This species is only reported fro a few localities. The area the species occurs in is not known to be heavily impacted by human activities.
184684		conservation	eng	No information available.
184684		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the vicinity of Géryville and in the springs of Chellala south-west of Boghar (Algeria).
184684		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184684		population	eng	No information available.
184684		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the drying up of springs.
184685		conservation	eng	No information available.
184685		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It is recorded from the Winum Gulf (type locality) though it is believed to be widespread in the lake.
184685		habitat	eng	The species is associated with clean shallow water but tends to be absent from areas with anthropogenic disturbances and pollution.
184685		population	eng	Not clearly understood. In an ongoing survey to document the freshwater gastropods of Lake Victoria less than 15 individuals have been recorded.
184685		threats	eng	Unspecified in publications but the ongoing gastropods biodiversity study in Kenya has indicated low preference of the species to disturbed and polluted lake sections but more research is needed to better identify the threats.
184686		conservation	eng	No information available.
184686		conservation	eng	None known.
184686		distribution	eng	<em>Mytilopsis africanus</em> is known from Senegal to Congo. It was possibly introduced.
184686		distribution	eng	<em>Mytilopsis africanus</em> occurs from Senegal to Congo.
184686		habitat	eng	This is an estuarine species, occurring in brackish water.
184686		population	eng	No information available.
184686		threats	eng	No information available.
184687		conservation	eng	No information available.
184687		distribution	eng	This species is known from northwest coastal Algeria, where it hasn't been seen in a long time, and two localities on the same stream (Berguent, Rais el Ain) in northeastern Morocco, where it is very rare.
184687		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184687		population	eng	No information available.
184687		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution, and water-extraction. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184688		conservation	eng	No information available.
184688		distribution	eng	This species was first recorded in Algeria from 'streams in the Sahara' by Bourguignat in 1864. Possibly the vague location Bourguignat gives is erroneous. Specimens offered for sale by a shell dealer with the notice 'very rare' had as locality 'Kerrando, Morocco'.
184688		habitat	eng	It is found in streams in the desert. Medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184688		population	eng	This is a very rare species.
184688		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is shell-collecting. The use of all available water by people because of water scarcity is likely to be preventing normal flow in streams and rivers, on which this species relies.
184689		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Additional research is recommended on this species' population status and trends, its habitat preferences, general ecology and threats.
184689		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (Daget 1998, Graf and Cummings 2007).
184689		habitat	eng	<p>This is a freshwater species found in Lake Victoria (Daget 1998, Graf and Cummings 2007).<br/></p>
184689		population	eng	<p>This species is quite abundant in the lake as fresh specimens can be collected on all shores (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
184689		threats	eng	Although there are no specifc threats documented for this species, sedimentation as a result of logging, mining and dam building, and pollution are issues concerning the freshwater systems of Africa (Graf and Cummings 2007). However, because the species is quite abundant in the lake, it is unlikely that any significant threat is currently affecting the species.
184690		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are proposed.
184690		conservation	eng	None known.
184690		distribution	eng	<em>Theodoxus niloticus</em> is present in the Nile and canals of the Delta in Egypt, as well as found in Lake Nasser. It is endemic to the Nile and also found in Ethiopia in the Blue Nile (Bourguignat 1883) and Eritrea near Massawa (Bocci 1951), but these records may be erroneous according to Brown (1994). Its type locality is the Nile in Egypt.
184690		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species has been reported in Ethiopia from the Blue Nile (Bourguignat 1883) and from Eritrea near Massawa (Bacci 1951), but these records need to be confirmed according to Brown (1994). Also listed from Lake Nasser by Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> (1999).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common in the Nile in Egypt. The type locality is the Nile in Egypt.
184690		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Nile. It is present in the Nile and canals in the Delta in Egypt, and in Lake Nasser. It is found in Ethiopia in Blue Nile (Bourguignat 1883) and Eritrea near Massawa (Bacci 1951), but these records may be erroneous according to Brown (1994).
184690		habitat	eng	It lives in stony habitats in rivers, canals, lakes and in shallow areas. It is spread by birds.
184690		habitat	eng	It lives on stony places on banks of rivers, canals, lakes and in shallow areas. It is spread by birds.
184690		habitat	eng	Lives on stony places on banks of river, canal, lake and in shallow areas; also in brackish water.
184690		population	eng	No information available.
184690		threats	eng	A tolerant species, seems to survive well despite pollution.
184690		threats	eng	A tolerant species which seems to survive well despite pollution.
184690		threats	eng	This is a tolerant species, which seems to survive well despite pollution.
184691		conservation	eng	No information available.
184691		conservation	eng	None.
184691		distribution	eng	<em>Cyrenoida dupontia</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.
184691		distribution	eng	Globally, <em>Cyrenoida dupontia</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.
184691		habitat	eng	Occurs in brackish water.
184691		habitat	eng	This species occurs in brackish water.
184691		population	eng	No information available.
184691		population	eng	Unknown.
184691		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184691		threats	eng	None known.
184692		conservation	eng	In southern Africa, restoration of mangroves is ongoing.
184692		conservation	eng	No information available.
184692		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from coastal Somalia (Giuba estuary).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern African coasts to south Africa
184692		distribution	eng	This species is found from coastal South Africa northwards throughout Tanzania, Kenya and Somalia (Giuba estuary).
184692		habitat	eng	Estuarine habitats.
184692		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water. Mudflats, salt marsh and mangroves.
184692		population	eng	No information available.
184692		threats	eng	No information available.
184692		threats	eng	The destruction of mangroves threatens this species.
184693		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the both extant of the occurrence and occupancy of this species, and studies to determine the hosts of parasitic larvae would be valuable to future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184693		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Chelidonopsis hirundo</em> is limited to the Congo Basin above Malebo Pool, up through the Lualaba, including the Cassai and Cuango.
184693		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184693		population	eng	No information available.
184693		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Chelidonopsis hirundo</em>. However, in the upper part of its range, fresh waters are impacted by continued civil unrest. In the lower part of its range (Malebo Pool), freshwater habitats are threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184694		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184694		distribution	eng	<em>Liminitesta sulcata</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known only from the lower Zaire River. Four sampling sites are known; within Kinshasa and just downstream near Ngaliema.
184694		habitat	eng	It is apparently adapted to living on stones in rapidly flowing water (Brown 1994). Resistant to rapid changes in water levels and withstand very strong flows.
184694		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184694		threats	eng	This species has a limited geographical distribution. Human population pressure in region is increasing with potential impact on the sites. This species is threatened by sedimentation and domestic water pollution in the dry season.
184695		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184695		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma nyongensis</em> is endemic to Cameroon. It is known from Nyong river (TL) and Man River at Sakbayeme (North of Edea). Both sites are very closely localised, within 15 km of each other.
184695		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. It is usually these species are found on hard bottoms. It requires clear fast flowing water with some shade.
184695		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184695		threats	eng	This species is only known from a few sites within three locations. Much of the region is being converted to Oil Palm plantations, with logging to remove gallery forest. Creation of fish ponds close to the river for Tilapia. As species is vulnerable to changing shade qualities on the rivers.
184696		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184696		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrobia rheophila</em> is known only from DRC, where it has been recorded from the Zaire River on river rapids at Kala Kala near Matadi.
184696		habitat	eng	It is found among stones in swift current requiring highly oxygenated waters.
184696		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184696		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. It requires highly oxygenated water and is vulnerable to changes in habitat quality resulting from logging, sedimentation and domestic water pollution, especially in the dry season.
184697		conservation	eng	No information available.
184697		distribution	eng	Originally collected in the vicinity of Oran (Algeria), it is known only from springs which may not exist any more.
184697		habitat	eng	It is found in springs
184697		population	eng	No information available.
184697		threats	eng	This species is threatened by groundwater abstraction, causing a lowering of the water table.
184698		conservation	eng	No information available.
184698		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Butiaba, Lake Albert, Uganda.
184698		habitat	eng	No information available.
184698		population	eng	No information available.
184698		threats	eng	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184699		conservation	eng	No information available.
184699		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Malawi and some of its influent rivers, Lake Malombe and the Shire river. It also occurs in rivers in southern Tanzania and Malawi.
184699		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species.
184699		population	eng	No information available.
184699		threats	eng	Lake level fluctuations and resulting increase in alkalinity. Introduction of exotic fishes that predate on native cichlids. Overfishing by an increasing lake shore human population. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184700		conservation	eng	No information available.
184700		conservation	eng	None.
184700		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria heukelomii</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.
184700		habitat	eng	Found in brackish water.
184700		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water.
184700		population	eng	No information available.
184700		threats	eng	No information available.
184701		conservation	eng	This species is in need of conservation measures. In Spain, in situ (stringent protective regulation) and ex situ (successful breeding and reintroduction projects) have been instigated  since ca. 1995 for the protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudunio auricularius</span>. For breeding experiments, the easily reared Siberian sturgeon, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acipenser baeri</span>, was successfully used as a substitute for the European sturgeon, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acipenser sturio</span> (see Araujo and Ramos 2000, 2001, Machordom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003)). In France a similar project for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudunio auricularius</span> has started in 2007 (see also  Cochet, 1999, 2001, 2002). <br/><br/>In Morocco no protective measures have as yet been taken even though this species is even more threatened than its European relative . Ecological research on the Moroccan species and the instauration of conservation measures should be given priority since it is so rare and the few representatives of the Margaritiferidae in the world are all rare and most are protected.
184701		distribution	eng	This species used to be found in the permanent rivers of Atlantic northwest Morocco, from the Oued Sebou till the Oued Oum er Rbia. The type locality for this species is Oued Fès, a tributary of the Oued Sebou (where it is now extinct). It occurred all along the river in large quantities according to Pallary, but is now located in a few tributaries in the upper mountains, including  Oued Denna and Oued Abid (both in the Oum Rbia basin), and Oued Beth, in the Sebou basin.
184701		habitat	eng	This species is a large (up to 17 cm), long lived (80 -100 years) najad. It occurred in the lower and middle parts of the Oued Sebou and Oued Oum er Rbia hydrographic systems but is presently restricted to two tributaries of the latter where it is found in deeper parts of the river (ca. 2 - 8 m) on coarser sediments. As virtually all unionoids is the larva ectoparasitic on a fish host, that as yet is unknown. It relies on a host fish so makes it particularly vulnerable. Host fish is probably trout which is also Endangered because of pollution.
184701		population	eng	There has been a massive reduction in the last 100 years and the estimated  remaining population size is fewer than 250 individuals with an  estimated continuing decline of more than 25% in 1 generation.
184701		threats	eng	This species was possibly collected (till the 19th Century) for pearls since the old name of the Oued Derna is River of Pearls. The major threats for the few surviving populations are pollution or any kind of mechanical alteration/disturbance (impoundment, canalisation, dredging, etc.) to the waterbodies in which they still persist. Further rarefaction of their fish host or hosts or any type of activity causing barrier-effects for the fish hosts also constitute a major threat, as it relies on a host fish, probably trout, which is also endangered because of pollution.
184702		conservation	eng	No information available.
184702		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Kano plains in Western Kenya (an area of less than 5000 km²). So far has only been recorded from a wetland at Awasi, Kano plains (type locality) with an estimated area of less than 500 km².
184702		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and seasonal water pools/watercourses.
184702		population	eng	No information available.
184702		threats	eng	Siltation and agricultural development and pollution threaten this species. Sugar cane and rice plantation expansions are reclaiming regional wetlands. Also increased water harvesting for the expanding regional human population and domestic pollution is having an effect.
184703		conservation	eng	No information available.
184703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mount Kenya. It is believed to be found at high altitudes, possibly in streams and tarns.
184703		habitat	eng	No information available.
184703		population	eng	No information available.
184703		threats	eng	Trout and other introduced species of fish and water regulation are potential threats. Climate change is potential threat especially to high altitude restricted range species.
184704		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184704		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma trochiformis</em> is endemic to Cameroon. It is now known from three localities: the Man River in the Nyong system, Obala, and Chutes de Nachtigal (DBL collection data).
184704		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. These snails need tree cover for suitable habitat.
184704		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184704		threats	eng	Cobalt mining occurs in the area and there is high human habitation in the species' range. This species needs tree cover for suitable habitat; even local logging activities would affect its occurrence at local levels.
184705		conservation	eng	No information available.
184705		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Oued Melah near Oudref (Tunisia) but Boeters did not find it there anymore so it is now considered extinct.
184705		habitat	eng	No information available.
184705		population	eng	No information available.
184705		threats	eng	No information available.
184706		conservation	eng	No information available.
184706		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, the Oued Uebi upstream of Gheledi (Somalia) (Bourguignat 1889).
184706		habitat	eng	No information available.
184706		population	eng	No information available.
184706		threats	eng	No information available.
184707		conservation	eng	Monitoring of this population is needed.
184707		distribution	eng	It is recorded from the region of Essaouira and from the Middle Atlas in Morocco and there is old data from Algeria (in the region of Oran). It is not expected to be found in other sites (Ghamizi pers. comm.). The original population is extinct.
184707		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, clear streams near springs, also irrigation channels pumped from wells where the water is very pure.
184707		population	eng	No information available.
184707		threats	eng	This species is very sensitive to pollution because it is restricted to very pure water. It is not found in a region where there are serious threats for the moment. However where there are irrigation channels it is threatened by agricultural pollution.
184708		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from breeding/translocation to other suitable habitats. Also restoration of flows in original habitats.
184708		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Atlantic Morocco south of Agadir in the Oued Souss and Oued Massa. Originally it was only known from the Oued Souss where it has not been recorded any more in the last decades. A second population was discovered by Dr. M. Ghamizi (1998) in a small tributary of the Oued Massa at Ifentar Tassila. This is probably the last remaining population.
184708		habitat	eng	It is found in coarse substrate (gravel, coarse sand) of permanent slowly flowing limpid rivers flowing into the Atlantic in southern Morocco.
184708		population	eng	This species is only found in small relict populations.
184708		threats	eng	Increasing demand of water and due to global warming an irreversible trend of desertification. Damming and impounding increases the fragmentation. The Oued Souss and Oued Massa probably will cease to flow permanently and turn into ouadis. The extinction in the wild is therefore probably unavoidable if the present climatological trends persist.
184709		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
184709		conservation	eng	None known.
184709		distribution	eng	Formerly restricted to the Nile Delta, its range has expanded during the last decades and it is now also found in the Nile as far south as Lake Nasser and is also reported from Taourga (northwest Libya) and north Sudan (Brown 1994). It is the intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> and therefore treated as a pest.
184709		distribution	eng	It is formerly restricted to the Nile Delta the species' range is expanding during the last decades and it is now also found in the Nile as far south as Lake Nasser. It has also been reported from Taourga (north western Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and northern Sudan (Brown 1994). It is the intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma manson</em>i and therefore treated as a pest. Its type locality is in the Nile between Alexandria and Rosetta.
184709		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the region of Lake Nasser and north Sudan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile, and is also reported from Taourga (north west Libya). It is the intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> and therefore treated as a pest and destroyed with molluscicides. The type locality is the Nile between Alexandria and Rosetta.
184709		habitat	eng	Found everywhere. Vector of Schistosomiasis, treated as a pest. Lives in standing or slow flowing waters, thrives in man-made irrigation. Expanded to upper Egypt after the dam slowed the flow.
184709		habitat	eng	It is a widespread species, vector of Schistosomia, and therefore treated as a pest. It lives in standing or slow flowing waters, thriving in man-made irrigation. Its distribution has expanded to the Upper Egyptian Nile after the High Aswan Dam slowed the flow.
184709		habitat	eng	This species is found everywhere. It is a vector of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> treated as a pest. It lives in standing or slow flowing waters, thrives in man-made irrigation. Expanded to upper Egypt after the dam slowed the flow.
184709		population	eng	No information available.
184709		population	eng	This is a very common species, widespread in the Nile and irrigation canals.
184709		threats	eng	No known threats.
184709		threats	eng	No threats known.
184709		threats	eng	Not known threats.
184710		conservation	eng	No conservation measures exist. Similar measures as listed in the EU Water Quality Directive need to be imposed to save the species.
184710		distribution	eng	This species is found in the rivers in Morrocco, Algeria and Tunisia belonging to the Mediterranean Basin, and some Moroccan rivers draining into the Atlantic.
184710		habitat	eng	It is found in permanent unpolluted slow flowing rivers and streams of the Maghreb (Mediterranean North Africa) in soft substrate.
184710		population	eng	The number of mature individuals is currently less than 10,000 (and possibly less than 2,500). The population is believed to have declined by more than 50% in the past 30 years, and this decline is expected to continue into the future.
184710		threats	eng	Pollution, damming, water use, erosion, aridification. This species, like al large freshwater bivalves is completely sedentary and therefore extremely vulnerable to all environmental changes. A single pollution event can wipe out all populations in a river.
184711		conservation	eng	No information available.
184711		conservation	eng	None known.
184711		distribution	eng	<em>Iphigenia laevigata</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.
184711		habitat	eng	Found in river mouths and lower parts of streams.
184711		habitat	eng	It is found in river mouths and lower parts of streams. It is found in brackish water.
184711		population	eng	No information available.
184711		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184711		threats	eng	No information available.
184712		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from sewage treatment, reduction in water use/pumping, and protection of the well with a cover to improve water quality in the well.
184712		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from one well at Anzi (Morocco). It is only known from one empty shell (now in Paris Museum).
184712		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont.
184712		population	eng	No information available.
184712		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the pollution of water, water extraction, and the effects of climate change reducing the water table level.
184713		conservation	eng	No information available.
184713		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the northern shores of Lake Victoria; at Hippo bay and Buvuma channel up to 9 m depth.
184713		habitat	eng	No information available.
184713		population	eng	No information available.
184713		threats	eng	No specific threats but declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution. It is restricted to northern shores of Lake Victoria.
184714		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys are needed to determine the status of this and other mollusc species in the area.
184714		distribution	eng	<em>Potadomoides broecki</em> is known only from its type locality in eastern DRC, at the Aruwimi River.
184714		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184714		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184714		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. Current threats are not known.
184715		conservation	eng	The subspecies of <em>Coelatura choziensis</em> need to be re-evaluated taxonomically, and host-fish studies of the mussel’s parasitic larvae are necessary steps to understanding the status of this species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184715		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura choziensis</em> is reported from Lake Bangweulu as well as the Chambeshi River. The type locality is in the river Chozi (a tributary of the Chambeshi River).
184715		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184715		population	eng	No information available. The species is not well characterized (Graff and Cummings 2007).
184715		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <em>Coelatura choziensis</em> is restricted to a relatively small area and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184716		conservation	eng	No information available.
184716		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Uebi Shebele river in Somalia (Bacci 1951) and from the mouth of the Sagan River (south Ethiopia) (Piersanti 1941).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zanzibar and the coastal strip of eastern Africa (Brown 1994).
184716		distribution	eng	This species is found in Somalia, Ethiopia and probably extends to eastern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented to occur in Zanzibar and probably in the coastal strip of East Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the Uebi Shebele river in Somalia (Bacci 1951) and from the mouth of the Sagan River (south Ethiopia) (Piersanti 1941).
184716		habitat	eng	Found in standing and slowly flowing waters.
184716		habitat	eng	It is found in standing and slowly flowing waters.
184716		population	eng	No information available.
184716		threats	eng	No information available.
184716		threats	eng	No specific threats known but sedimentation could be a risk.
184717		conservation	eng	No information available.
184717		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, and Shire River.
184717		habitat	eng	Taxa restricted to the edges of the lake, near river mouths. Has a limited range due to habitat preferences.
184717		population	eng	No information available.
184717		threats	eng	It is undergoing a declining quality of habitat, as the region is already very disturbed with sedimentation and pollution.
184719		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.
184719		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides crawshayi</em> is endemic to central Africa; it is known from Zambia and possibly also occurs in DRC (Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula River). The area of Lake Mweru is around 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but it is declining.
184719		habitat	eng	It inhabits lakes and rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184719		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184719		threats	eng	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.
184720		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to check if it's still there.
184720		distribution	eng	It is recorded from Tunisia, at one site only in Kebili. Ghamizi (1998) has not found it in Morocco.
184720		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont. It is found in springs
184720		population	eng	No information available.
184720		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the lowering of the water table, pollution and degradation of the site of the springs. Many springs have already gone from this region, so it could be extinct already as this is a very old record (1887).
184721		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Burnupia kimiloloensis</em> is known only from the type locality in the upper Luapula region, southeastern DRC.
184721		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184721		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184721		threats	eng	No information available; only know from a limited area of Southeast DRC.
184722		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place specific for this species. Water quality needs to be maintained.  A region where logging may lead to loss of the species.
184722		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudogibbula duponti</em> is endemic to western DRC. Material in the collection at DBL dates from the 1930s. It was also sampled by Mandhal-Barth in the 1970s from two different sites on the River Matadi. It is likely to be restricted to a 20 km region.
184722		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. Brown (1992) reported it from rocks at the edge of rapids, so species likes well oxygenated water.
184722		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.  Mandhal-Barth (1982) reported it was very common, and there were three colour forms described.
184722		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. The extension of logging within the region may impact water quality within the river which will impact this species. Increased siltation in the river may changed the nature of the microhabitat. Detergents in the water would impact the species.
184723		conservation	eng	No information available.
184723		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria congica</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is found found in the mouth of the River Zaire.
184723		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water.
184723		population	eng	No information available.
184723		threats	eng	No information available.
184724		conservation	eng	No information available.
184724		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to one river, the Oued Oum Rbi (Oued Oumer Rbia) in Morocco. It is found in the lower part of the river.
184724		habitat	eng	It's a river that's degrading rapidly, with lots of pollution, abstraction and divergence for irrigation. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis</span> are found in medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184724		population	eng	This species has a very abundant population, not thought to be declining.
184724		threats	eng	It is found in a river that is degrading rapidly, with lots of pollution, water abstraction and divergence for irrigation. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.
184725		conservation	eng	No information available.
184725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to north Africa, recorded from the 'province d' Alger' and from the region of Oran. There is no recent information available. The last records are from the 1800s, with no specific localities.
184725		habitat	eng	No information available.
184725		population	eng	No information available.
184725		threats	eng	No information available.
184726		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.  Control of water quality in the river is required.
184726		distribution	eng	<em>Valvatorbis mauritii</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known only from Matadi. The species was last recorded in the 1930s. Extensive research since in the region by DBL staff (1973-1976) failed to rediscover this species, although other similar species in these habitats were located.
184726		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. Fast flowing rivers on stones at the edges. This is a very small species (under 2 mm), so it is able to get into crevices.
184726		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184726		threats	eng	This species is only reported from the type locality. The extension of logging within the region may impact water quality within the river which will impact this species. Increased siltation in the river may changed the nature of the microhabitat. Detergents in the water would impact the species.<br/>The small size would make the species more vulnerable to oxygenation issues in the water.
184727		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184727		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides nsendweensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. The species is known from the Lualaba River at Nsendwe, through Kisangani (Tshopo River) to Zambia. It occurs only in the margins of the main river, along an approximately 500 km length of the river (known from three localities). Area of occupancy is approximately 700 to 800 km² (based on an area of 500 x 1.5 km). Extent of occurrence is much larger than this.
184727		habitat	eng	It is found in rivers at sandbanks.
184727		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184727		threats	eng	Threats to the species are quite general, and include urbanization, overfishing, and some gold mining. Although the species is known from three locations at present, it seems to occur on sandbanks where large rivers converge and it is likely to occur at many more than currently known. The location at Kisangani may be affected by pollution.
184728		conservation	eng	Protection of wells, reduced abstraction of water, and waste water treatment are needed.
184728		distribution	eng	This species is known from a well at Sidi Abbou in Chtouka Massa plain northeast of Tiznit, a well at Ait Salah in Chtouka Massa plain, a well at Tamait Izder near Souss River north of Temsia and a well at Chtouka Massa plain, Morocco.
184728		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.
184728		population	eng	This species is only found in small populations.
184728		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, pumping, decreasing water level.
184729		conservation	eng	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extent of occurrence of this species and its population demography. Host-fish need to be determined in order to understand the impact of environmental change on the life cycle of the species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184729		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura stagnorum</em> is known from few localities, from the mouth of the Congo up to the Matadai and the rapids. It is not known from above the rapids or Malebo Pool. The extent of its distribution is the lower Congo (below the rapids) is not known due to limited sampling effort.
184729		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.
184729		population	eng	No information available.
184729		threats	eng	<em>Coelatura stagnorum</em> is known only from the lower Congo, below the rapids. The area is threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining. Moreover, the Congo receives untreated sewage and other wastes from Kinshasa and Brazzaville. The Grand Inga Dam is likely to substantially disrupt flow in the Lower Congo (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184730		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184730		distribution	eng	<em>Tomichia hendrickxi</em> is known only from eastern DRC at Kakondo and Maya Moto, Katena.
184730		habitat	eng	This species is found in hot-water ponds in an area of volcanic activity.
184730		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184730		threats	eng	No information available. The species apparently already occurs in a stressful environment (hot water pools).
184731		conservation	eng	No information available.
184731		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kriz and Limaguess (Tunisia).
184731		habitat	eng	No information available.
184731		population	eng	No information available.
184731		threats	eng	No information available.
184732		conservation	eng	No information available.
184732		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria tenuicula</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is found in the mouth of the River Zaire.
184732		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water, but further up river.
184732		population	eng	No information available.
184732		threats	eng	No information available.
184733		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.
184733		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides mweruensis</em> is known only from Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula River (Zambia and DRC). The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but it is declining, however the species also occurs in the river (to at least 40 km² downstream of the lake, and a little way upstream). The extent of occurrence is likely less than 20,000 km².
184733		habitat	eng	It inhabits lakes and rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184733		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. However, the lake is drying out and the population is likely to be affected by this.
184733		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the drying out of Make Mweru. In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there. If the lake dries out, the river downstream of this will also be affected, therefore the species is under threat.
184734		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184734		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma schoutedeni</em> is known from western DRC and the Republic of Congo. In the western region it occurs close to the coast, including Shilango River and its side tributaries (Lukulu River, Kouilou River and Tshela River at Lubuzi). It is also recorded from the Sala River, Mayumbe.
184734		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
184734		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184734		threats	eng	The only known potential threat is possibly increased siltation.
184735		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of wells, covers on wells, and piping water into homes to reduce human contact with wells, as well as reduced pumping of water.
184735		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is sympatric with <em>G. mellanensi</em> and <em>G. costata</em>. It has been reported from a well in Douar Oulad Aamer, Lamsantah, another well in Douar Oulad Ahmed, Sebt Oulad Nemma, and one well in Larbaa Ben Salah, region of Beni Mellal. All wells are from the same groundwater basin, so count as one location.
184735		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.
184735		population	eng	This species has a small population.
184735		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table.
184736		conservation	eng	No information available.
184736		conservation	eng	Unknown.
184736		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria concamerata</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa
184736		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria concamerata</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.
184736		habitat	eng	Found in brackish water.
184736		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water.
184736		population	eng	No information available.
184736		threats	eng	No information available.
184737		conservation	eng	No information available.
184737		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Webbi Giuba-Shebele system in southeast Somalia and Eill (northeast Somalia) (Brown 1994).
184737		habitat	eng	Originally found in the Giuba-Shebele river system, but now also confirmed as present in a spring.
184737		population	eng	No information available.
184737		threats	eng	No information available.
184738		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from the reduction in water abstraction, protection of wells by putting a cover over the top, and waste water treatment.
184738		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from one well at Bouzoug near Agadir and two wells at Tikiouine in the region of Drarga, Ait Melloul, in Morocco.
184738		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont. It is found only in wells.
184738		population	eng	This species is abundant in these wells.
184738		threats	eng	This species is threatened by groundwater extraction and water pollution from sewage and pesticides. Also, climate change leading to drought and the lowering of the water table.
184739		conservation	eng	No information available.
184739		distribution	eng	This species has been found only in the basin of a Roman temple on Djebel Zaghouan, and springs at Kairouan (Tunisia). It has not been found since despite good surveys by Boeters so it is now considered extinct.
184739		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184739		population	eng	No information available.
184739		threats	eng	No information available.
184740		conservation	eng	None known.
184740		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Nile Delta (Egypt) also Lake Qaron and Sinai (en Mosa) at a spring. It has also been described it from Cap Bon (Tunisia) and Malta, as well as Libya.
184740		habitat	eng	It is found in strongly mineralised waters. It is spread by birds. It is found in springs and can live in water which is too mineralised for other sprecies. It can live in brackish water. It is found in irrigation channels. In Egypt mainly around northern lakes of delta (i.e. where there is mixing of saline and freshwater).
184740		population	eng	When it is present, it is abundant.
184740		threats	eng	None known.
184741		conservation	eng	No information available.
184741		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is known from Ethiopia, Uganda, and possibly also in Lake Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs at Butiaba in Lake Albert, Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lakes Awasa and Zwai, Ethiopia,
184741		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs at Butiaba in Lake Albert (18m deep), Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from Lakes Awasa and Zwai, Ethopia, Lake Chad, Lake Albert.
184741		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Lakes Awasa and Zwai, Ethiopia. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Lake Chad and Lake Albert.
184741		habitat	eng	Found in bottom sediment of Lakes Albert, Awasa, Zwai and Chad.
184741		habitat	eng	In Lake Albert it is found at 18m deep.
184741		habitat	eng	No information available.
184741		population	eng	No information available.
184741		threats	eng	Declining quality of habitat due to erosion/silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184741		threats	eng	No specific threats but there is declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184742		conservation	eng	No information available.
184742		distribution	eng	This species is known from Djebel Zaghouan (in temple basin), Kairouan, El Kis and Feriana (all in Tunisia).
184742		habitat	eng	It is found in springs and small streams; crenobiont.
184742		population	eng	No information available.
184742		threats	eng	No information available.
184743		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184743		distribution	eng	<em>Gabbiella depressa</em> is endemic to Cameroon. Originally it was described it from specimens collected from the River Nyong, but it has also been recorded from a lake near Wum (Wright 1965, given in Brown 1994). It may well now be extinct in the lake as this is a crater lake which has experienced gas releases due to volcanic activity.
184743		habitat	eng	This species can be found in rivers and lakes. The genus <em>Gabbiella </em>is commonly found in <em>Valliscenaria</em> vegetation within waterbodies and does not tolerate drying.
184743		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184743		threats	eng	No information available.
184744		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184744		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma ignobilis</em> occurs in eastern DRC and southeastern Central African Republic. It is known only from four localities, but these are quite widespread. It is probably it is under-recorded in the region. Brown (1994) recorded this species as being widespread in the region. Van Damme (pers. comm.) reported that it has a range across towards Lake Tanganyika.
184744		habitat	eng	It is found in streams and rivers.
184744		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184744		threats	eng	No information available.
184745		conservation	eng	No information available.
184745		conservation	eng	None.
184745		distribution	eng	<em>Egreria cailliaudi</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.
184745		habitat	eng	Found in brackish water.
184745		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water.
184745		population	eng	No information available.
184745		threats	eng	No information available.
184746		conservation	eng	No information available.
184746		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Kichwamba and Lake Bunyonyi (type locality) in south west Uganda.
184746		habitat	eng	No information available.
184746		population	eng	No information available.
184746		threats	eng	Lake Bunyonyi is becoming a popular tourist site in the south west and pollution is a potential threat to lake biodiversity in addition to erosion from agriculture.
184747		conservation	eng	No information available.
184747		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in north Africa. It is not considered here as distinct. Genetic analysis is necessary to elucidate the taxonomy of the African <em>Ferrissia</em> species.
184747		habitat	eng	Spread by birds therefore the distribution is changeable. Live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny.
184747		population	eng	No information available.
184747		threats	eng	No information available.
184748		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184748		distribution	eng	<em>Potadomoides bequaerti</em> is known from two collection sites in eastern DRC, on the Luaba River (Kindu and Lokandu).
184748		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, but not necessarily shaded habitat (van Damme pers. comm).
184748		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. Surveys have been carried out in the general area the species is known from; it was last collected (from Lokandu) in the 1950s. Surveys in this part of DRC are now difficult. It is likely to be a very localised species.
184748		threats	eng	The only known localities are in an area that is not known as being under particular pressure from human activities.
184749		conservation	eng	Protection of thermal springs would have protected this species.
184749		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from thermal springs of Djenndel near Annaba (Algeria), which no longer exist.
184749		habitat	eng	This is a crenobiont of thermal springs (42°C).
184749		population	eng	No information available.
184749		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution of the thermal springs.
184750		conservation	eng	No information available.
184750		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in eastern Africa. It is very common in Lake Victoria, Victoria Nile, Lake Kyoga and Lake Albert (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).
184750		habitat	eng	An ongoing study of freshwater gastropod diversity in Lake Victoria has found the species to be very abundant on the disturbed lake regions implying that it is fairly tolerant to disturbance and pollution and is also existing in other habitats. This species occurs from shore to about 12 meters in depth. It is an intermediate host of Bilharzia Schistosomiasis causing parasites (S. Mansoni).
184750		population	eng	Not fully described but in an ongoing study in Lake Victoria in Kenya, over 500 specimens have been recorded.
184750		threats	eng	Undocumented. In the ongoing study no threats have been identified. In fact, the species appears to be occurring in regions suspected to be unsuitable for them (the polluted and disturbed areas).
184751		conservation	eng	No information available.
184751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on all shores.
184751		habitat	eng	This species thrives on muddy substrata from 10 - 150 metres.
184751		population	eng	No information available.
184751		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation.
184752		conservation	eng	No information available.
184752		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Artesian wells at Tougourt and Megarin (Algeria) from Bourguignat 1862. It has not been found since as no-one has sampled for it. It is not known even if it is the same species at these two wells.
184752		habitat	eng	This species is a stygobiont.
184752		population	eng	No information available.
184752		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution of wells and lowering of water table.
184753		conservation	eng	No information available.
184753		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thala (Tunisia).
184753		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont.
184753		population	eng	No information available.
184753		threats	eng	No information available.
184754		conservation	eng	No information available.
184754		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.
184754		habitat	eng	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.
184754		population	eng	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> give a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>, also in Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) at 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water.
184754		threats	eng	No information available.
184755		conservation	eng	None known.
184755		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern Africa. It is found in the lower Awash River (Ethiopia) and Shebeli and Giuba rivers (Somalia).
184755		habitat	eng	It is found in marshes in the Lower Awash.
184755		population	eng	No information available.
184755		threats	eng	None known.
184756		conservation	eng	No information available.
184756		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found in Tanzania, Burundi, DRC and Zambia waters. This species is only known from dead shells.
184756		habitat	eng	It lives in inshore muddy habitats.
184756		population	eng	No population data was traced.
184756		threats	eng	This species is threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic influences.
184758		conservation	eng	No information available.
184758		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Souk el Arba du Rharb (Morocco).
184758		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.
184758		population	eng	No information available.
184758		threats	eng	Shells are collected for sale. However there are few collectors and they are obviously trying not to kill off the whole population.
184759		conservation	eng	None known.
184759		distribution	eng	This is a species of the Atlantic coastal region of Spain and Portugal, and in Morocco it is restricted to the Bay of Tanger. This species occurs only in heavily polluted regions which are strongly urbanised.
184759		habitat	eng	It is found in brackish water species. It is spread by birds.
184759		population	eng	It is abundant where found.
184759		threats	eng	Pollution is a potential threat to the species.
184760		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated in the context of other rift-lake coelatura-type species.
184760		distribution	eng	<em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em> is known only from two localities in Lake Tanganyika; one from the eastern side (Tanzania) and one from the western side (Democratic Republic of Congo).
184760		distribution	eng	<em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em> is known only from two localities in Lake Tanganyika; one from the eastern side (Tanzania) and one from the western side (DRC).
184760		habitat	eng	No information is available.
184760		population	eng	No information available.
184760		population	eng	No information is available.
184760		threats	eng	No information is available for <em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em>, although Lake Tanganyika (especially the northern end) is known to be effected by sedimentation, deforestation and water pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).
184760		threats	eng	No information is available for <em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em>, although Lake Tanganyika (especially the northern end) is known to be effected by sedimentation, deforestation and water pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
184761		conservation	eng	More research is necessary to determine the extent of occurrence of this species in Lake Tanganyika. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
184761		distribution	eng	<em>Moncetia anceyi</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia). Mandahl-Barth (1988, and Brown and Mandahl-Barth 1987) reported that this species was known from only shells, but Kondo (1984) reported live specimens. It has been collected from five sites in the lake and the lower reaches of its tributaries.
184761		distribution	eng	<em>Moncetia anceyi</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (DRC, Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia). Mandahl-Barth (1988, and Brown and Mandahl-Barth 1987) reported that this species was known from only shells, but Kondo (1984) reported live specimens. It has been collected from five sites in the lake and the lower reaches of its tributaries.
184761		habitat	eng	At least two fish are reported to serve as host for the larvae: <em>Lobochilotes labiatus</em> and <em>Lamprologus tretocephalus</em>. Kondo (1984) reported that <em>Moncetia anceyi</em> was common in the rubbled bottom between 3 and 7 m depth.
184761		population	eng	Kondo (1984) found live brooding individuals, but it is not known if juveniles were found.
184761		population	eng	No information is available. Kondo (1984) found live brooding individuals, but it is not known if juveniles were found.
184761		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Moncetia anceyi</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).
184761		threats	eng	No specific threats are documented for <em>Moncetia anceyi</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).
184762		conservation	eng	No information available.
184762		distribution	eng	It is recorded from Kenya near Lodwar as sub fossil shells. Elsewhere is documented to occur in south west Somalia.
184762		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya near Lodwar as sub fossil shells. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Elsewhere, it is documented to occur in south west Somalia.
184762		habitat	eng	Documented to thrive in seasonal pools.
184762		habitat	eng	This species is documented to thrive in seasonal pools.
184762		population	eng	No information available.
184762		threats	eng	Possibly drought and sedimentation.
184762		threats	eng	This species is possibly threatened by drought and sedimentation.
184763		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184763		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoides anomala</em> is endemic to southeastern DRC, where it is recorded from the rivers Lualaba, Lufira and Luapula. It is widespread in the Kasai region.
184763		habitat	eng	It is found in lakes, rivers and irrigation channels. It is found in sand or gravel without vegetation. Perhaps asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).
184763		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes. The species is relatively widespread and common.
184763		threats	eng	Although there may be localised threats, the species is not believed to be under global threat. It is widespread and tolerant of a relatively wide range of habitats.
184764		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
184764		distribution	eng	<em>Potadoma zenkeri</em> is endemic to Cameroon, where it is known from the Lukonge River and the Changue River, with the type locality near Kribi.
184764		habitat	eng	It is found in shaded rivers with hard bottoms with clear waters and gallery forest. The disappearance of this species from a water body is an indicator of declining water quality.
184764		population	eng	No information available regarding population sizes.
184764		threats	eng	The species occurs in an area of oil palm plantations. Deforestation is a major threat to the species as shaded habitat is removed, siltation increases in the rivers, and the chemical composition of the water is altered.
184765		conservation	eng	No information available.
184765		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria, possibly extending its distribution in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
184765		habitat	eng	No information available.
184765		population	eng	No information available.
184765		threats	eng	No information available.
184766		conservation	eng	No information available.
184766		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from L. Nasser and the Sudanese Nile Basin. The more elongated  form recorded from the Lower Omo, the Lower Awash Valley and the Giuba and Shebele rivers in Somalia is here referred to as <em>C. bulimoides pauli</em>.<br><br><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile and in eastern Africa in the  Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda, Chad and Senega (Brown 1994). Some of these records may pertain to distinct species.
184766		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from throughout the Egyptian Nile, Lake Nasser and the Sudanese Nile Basin, and in East Africa in the Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda. It is found from Chad to Senegal (Brown 1994). Some of these records may pertain to distinct species.
184766		habitat	eng	Occurs in rivers, lakes and even irrigation channels on muddy or sandy substrata usually with vegetation.
184766		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in rivers, lakes and even irrigation channels on muddy or sandy substrata usually with vegetation.
184766		population	eng	No information available.
184766		threats	eng	Building of dams, pollution and drought all threaten this subspecies.
184766		threats	eng	No information available.
184767		conservation	eng	No information available.
184767		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria and inflowing tributaries and Victoria Nile.
184767		habitat	eng	No information available.
184767		population	eng	No information available.
184767		threats	eng	No information available.
184768		conservation	eng	No information available.
184768		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Victoria Nile and Lake Kyoga, Uganda.
184768		habitat	eng	It lives in fine sediment.
184768		population	eng	No information available.
184768		threats	eng	Agriculture threatens this subspecies, through erosion, siltation and loss of habitat.
184769		conservation	eng	If there is more water conservation and recycling, then the water quality of the lower wells would improve and the species would probably return.
184769		distribution	eng	This new subspecies is recorded from different wells and springs in the region of Guelmin, Sidi Ifni, Marrakech, Ourika and Ait Ourir in Morocco. All these are the same groundwater basin, and therefore count as one location.
184769		habitat	eng	It is found in wells and springs.
184769		population	eng	No information available.
184769		threats	eng	This subspecies is found near Marrakech so the groundwater is heavily polluted and it has already disappeared from several wells in the last 10 years. So the higher wells contain good populations, but the lower wells are contaminated.
184770		conservation	eng	No information available.
184770		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria. It is described as widespread and found in Kenyan, Ugandan and Tanzanian waters.
184770		habitat	eng	This subspecies is found in most of the lake habitats even in disturbed and polluted areas.
184770		population	eng	In an ongoing Kenyan freshwater gastropod study 2002/2003, the subspecies was reported in high abundance in the lake and described as stable.
184770		threats	eng	No information available.
184771		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.
184771		conservation	eng	No information available.
184771		distribution	eng	Globally, this subspecies is found from White Nile down to the Great Lakes and coastal Tanzania and Kenya.
184771		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The subspecies is known from White Nile - Mountain Nile, Omo river, and coastal Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The subspecies is known from the Great Lakes, Tanzania.
184771		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers.
184771		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers.
184771		population	eng	No information available.
184771		threats	eng	No information available.
184772		conservation	eng	It needs protection of wells.
184772		distribution	eng	It is known from two wells in southern Morocco, Larba Sahel near Tiznit, Tit Tarant near Sidi Ifni.
184772		habitat	eng	This subspecies is a stygobiont.
184772		population	eng	No information available.
184772		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by pollution of wells, lowering of water table due to groundwater extraction.
184773		conservation	eng	No information available.
184773		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Edward, Uganda.
184773		habitat	eng	It lives in fine sediment.
184773		population	eng	No information available.
184773		threats	eng	Threats to this subspecies include the possible contamination of water by the cobalt stockpiled at the former kilembe mines in Kasese. Also habitat degradation by erosion from agriculture.
184774		conservation	eng	No information available.
184774		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to East Africa. It is found in Kenya at Lake Naivasha and other several localities. It also occurs in Uganda and several localities in northern Tanzania.
184774		habitat	eng	This subspecies is known to thrive in lakes.
184774		population	eng	No information available.
184774		threats	eng	No information available.
184775		conservation	eng	No information available.
184775		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to northeast Africa, in the Lower Omo, the Lower Awash Valley and the Giuba and Shebele rivers in Somalia.
184775		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and large lakes.
184775		population	eng	No information available.
184775		threats	eng	No information available.
184776		conservation	eng	No information available.
184776		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria the Victoria Nile and small rivers flowing in to the lake.
184776		habitat	eng	This subspecies is known to occur from shallow water to about 20 m deep.
184776		population	eng	No information available.
184776		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances.
184777		conservation	eng	No information available.
184777		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is present on all four shores according to the Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP).
184777		habitat	eng	No information available.
184777		population	eng	No information available.
184777		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by sedimentation.
184778		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from treatment of waste water so that it doesn't pollute the ground water, and recovery of ground water in wells.
184778		distribution	eng	The type locality for this subspecies is Oued Seyad, Morocco. It is also known from a well near Zat river at Ait Ourir, and hyporheic water of Ourika river at Tnine Ourika, as well as wells at Gueliz. All are found in the area around Marrakech.
184778		habitat	eng	It is a stygobiont subspecies found in wells. Hyporheic waters of Ourika river at Oulmes. It lives in the flow under the ground below the river. It lives in flowing waters underground.
184778		population	eng	Abundant population in the well near Marrakech.
184778		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by the pollution of water, water extraction, and the effects of climate change reducing the water table level.
184779		conservation	eng	No information available.
184779		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to East Africa. This subspecies occurs in the Lango district (most likely Lake Kyoga) in Uganda and eastwards. It is known from the shores of Lake Victoria to Shinyanga in Tanzania (Brown 1994).
184779		habitat	eng	It is found in seasonal water bodies, ditches and burrow pits. It is recognised as an intermediate host for the Bilharzia causing parasite.
184779		population	eng	No information available.
184779		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by erosion and silting as a result of agriculture. It is affected by water pollution.
184780		conservation	eng	No information available.
184780		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to a Crater lake in Western Uganda (Toro region).
184780		habitat	eng	No information available.
184780		population	eng	No information available.
184780		threats	eng	This subspecies faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.
184781		conservation	eng	No information available.
184781		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The subspecies is confined to the rivers of south Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in east  Kenya.
184781		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present in east Kenya, and the rivers of south Somalia.
184781		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers and dams.
184781		habitat	eng	It inhabits large rivers and dams.
184781		population	eng	No information available.
184781		threats	eng	No information available.
184781		threats	eng	There is a main town (Bardera), i.e. with more than 100,000  inhabitants, situated on the Middle Giuba, without any wastewater  treatment and with such highly polluting industries as leatherware  production it should be assumed that the area, extent and quality of the  habitat is severely affected downstream during the dry season.
184782		conservation	eng	None known.
184782		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Mutanda, Uganda.
184782		habitat	eng	It is found among aquatic vegetation (marginal and floating), around stones in slowly flowing streams, rivers, large dams and lakes. It is tolerant of shade.
184782		population	eng	No information available.
184782		threats	eng	This subspecies is threatened by erosion from agriculture and consequent loss of habitat due to silting and clearing of vegetation.
184783		conservation	eng	None known.
184783		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
184783		habitat	eng	No information available.
184783		population	eng	No information available.
184783		threats	eng	Environmental threats listed for Lake Tana are: silt load, pollution, water drainage, water level fluctuation, overfishing. Extent and quality of suitable habitat are therefore declining or likely to decline.
184784		conservation	eng	No information available.
184784		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from Lakes Victoria, Edward, and Albert.
184784		habitat	eng	No information available.
184784		population	eng	No information available.
184784		threats	eng	Anthropogenic pollution, disturbance and sedimentation are possible threats.
184785		conservation	eng	No information available.
184785		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and affluent rivers and streams.
184785		habitat	eng	It lives in large lakes, rivers, tributaries and marshes (Brown 1994).
184785		population	eng	No information available.
184785		threats	eng	General threats to this subspecies are water pollution, human activities, deforestation, and sedimentation.
184786		conservation	eng	No information available.
184786		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Albert, Uganda.
184786		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in shallow waters (12 metres deep) in fine sediment.
184786		population	eng	No information available.
184786		threats	eng	Erosion and water pollution threaten this subspecies.
184787		conservation	eng	No information available.
184787		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Malawi.
184787		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater subspecies.
184787		population	eng	No information available.
184787		threats	eng	No information available.
184812		conservation	eng	No information available.
184812		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species in the Indomalayan, Australian and Oceanian realms. It occurs at many localities in Indonesia, Malaysia, Australia and the Philippines. It has also been found in Thailand on Phuket Island, in Okinawa, Japan, Singapore and at Milne Bay in Papua New Guinea.
184812		habitat	eng	It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is not rare in mud-flats at the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Thailand.
184812		population	eng	No information available.
184812		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted locally by loss of habitat.
184813		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184813		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in eastern and southern Thailand, from Chumphon Province in the north into Malaysia in Pahang.
184813		habitat	eng	It lives in small, swift streams attached to limestone (rocks and boulders). The species seems to prefer a position directly in the water current.
184813		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is locally abundant where present (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184813		threats	eng	<p></p><p>It is not believed to be threatened over the entire range, but may be locally threatened by deforestation causing sedimentation, impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.<br/></p><p></p>
184814		conservation	eng	No information available.
184814		distribution	eng	This species is known only from klongs (canals) around Bangkok, Thonburi, central Thailand (Brandt 1974).
184814		habitat	eng	It lives in canals with tidal water or drainages of mud-flats with brackish water of low degree of salinity.
184814		population	eng	No information available.
184814		threats	eng	As little is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.
184815		conservation	eng	No information available.
184815		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cambodia, Viet Nam, Thailand, Lao PDR and Malaysia. The type locality was from Bangkok.
184815		habitat	eng	It is known to occur in freshwater areas.
184815		population	eng	No information available.
184815		threats	eng	<p>No considered to be threatened across its range.<br/></p>
184816		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184816		distribution	eng	This species is considered to be restricted to Thailand. There, it occurs only in the Songkram River at Sri Songkram (type locality) and Maenam Un, a tributary of the Songkram, Nakhon Phanom Province (Brandt 1974). An occurrence at Ban Dan in the Mekong River needs to be reviewed.
184816		habitat	eng	It belongs to the "group" of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra</span> species which occur in freshwater, and it has been recorded from rivers.
184816		population	eng	No information available.
184816		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184818		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184818		distribution	eng	This species is known from a creek 40 km north of Ranong (the type locality) and from Ban Bang Mhag, Trang Province, southern Thailand. Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) report the the species from the Lower Mekong region, without giving specific locations. A brackish water species that may occur more widely in the region and further survey work is needed.
184818		habitat	eng	It occurs in brackish or tidal water.
184818		population	eng	No information available.
184818		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184819		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184819		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from the river systems of the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin and the Salween (with Moei River) in Thailand and Myanmar, as well as the Chao Praya system (including the Ping River and the Nan River) in Thailand.</p>
184819		habitat	eng	<p>It lives in clear creeks and rivers on rocks and roots, as well as on sand, mud and among piles of leaf litter. It occurs only rarely in still waters.<br/></p>
184819		population	eng	There are no population trend data but the species is believed to be abundant where present.
184819		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over its entire range.</p>
184820		conservation	eng	No information available.
184820		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River at Khong Island&#160;in Lao PDR to&#160;Kratie Province&#160;in Cambodia (Brandt 1974; ANSP collections). The records from Chantaburi, Thailand seem to be questionable, as there is no source for the information.
184820		habitat	eng	It lives in quiet parts of rivers on sandy grounds, where it feeds on decaying organic matter.
184820		population	eng	No information available.
184820		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current 'flood pulse', the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184822		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184822		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong system in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia. It occurs in eastern Thailand in Ubon Ratchathani Province at Ban Dan, Ban Khee Lek, Ban Kum, Phibun Mangsahan and Khemmarat, and in the Mun River, Ban Khar Loem. It was found on Khong Island in Lao PDR at Phapheng Falls, Somphamit Falls (type locality), Ban Na, Muang Khong and Luang Prabang (Luang Prabang Province). In Cambodia, it is known from Kratie and Sambor.&#160;It is present along c.700 km stretch of the Mekong River.
184822		habitat	eng	Found in the Mekong River in rapids attached to rocks and sticks. It was found in Phibun Mangsahan at a minimum depth of 1.2 m.
184822		population	eng	No information available.
184822		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over the entire range, but may be locally threatened by deforestation causing sedimentation, impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.&#160;</p>
184823		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' population status.
184823		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand (Brandt 1974). Specifically, it is known from between Sri Songkram and Tat Panom on the Mekong River, the tributaries of the Songkram River and Huai Tuai and Kham River in Nakon Panom province (Brandt 1974). It is also found in the Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen, Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
184823		habitat	eng	This species is found in reservoirs and rivers (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
184823		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184823		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
184824		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184824		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to the Thoungyin River, a tributary of the Salween River which is called Moei River in Thailand and in some of the tributary rivers in Thailand. This river forms the border between Thailand and Myanmar, and it is found north to Sob Moei (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).</p>
184824		habitat	eng	<p>It was found attached to stones in fast flowing, well oxygenated waters in the river.&#160;</p>
184824		population	eng	No information available on population trends, however the species is locally abundant where present, but not found throughout the range.
184824		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over its entire range, but may be locally threatened by impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources over a small part of the river.&#160;</p>
184825		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184825		distribution	eng	According to the systematic revision of Köhler and Glaubrecht (2006), the only confirmed information on this species comes from the type material, which came from 'Raheng, Siam' (believed to be in Tak Province, Thailand), but the species has not been relocated since. Reports from northern Viet Nam (Thai Nguyen Province, Bac Ninh Province, Bac Can Province, the Chay River (Lao Cai and Yen Bai provinces), Lo and Gam rivers (Ha Giang and Tuyen Quang provinces), Hong, Ma and Chu rivers (Thanh Hoa Province), Nghe An Province (Lam River), and Ha Tinh Province), and from northeastern Lao PDR (Dang and Ho 2007), are considered erroneous. They probably refer to misidentified specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sulcospira tonkiniana </span>(widespread in northern Viet Nam) and potentially <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia mariae </span>(central-northern Lao PDR).
184825		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater.
184825		population	eng	No information available.
184825		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.</p>
184826		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution, population status and threats.
184826		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong around Ban Khum and Ban Dan, Ubon Ratchathani Province (Brandt 1974). In ANSP collections there are specimens from "Sithandon", which refer to the Siphandon wetlands, Champasak Province, Lao PDR.
184826		habitat	eng	Members of this genus inhabit slow-moving sections of rivers with sandy substrate and are also found on rocks in rapids (Brandt 1974).
184826		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184826		threats	eng	<p>The species may suffer locally from changes in flow regime resulting from damming of the Mekong River. There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.</p><p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
184827		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species' distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
184827		distribution	eng	<p>The species is only known from the Mekong River where it is found along a <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 50 km river stretch of the river in Thailand and Lao PDR.&#160;It was recorded from&#160;Khemarat (ANSP collections)&#160;at Ban Khum and Ban Dan, near the confluence between Mekong and Mun River in Thailand, and it it should be looked for in the Mun River basin.<br/></p>
184827		habitat	eng	It is found in quiet parts of the rivers on sandy ground as well as on rocks in the rapids. It feeds on decaying organic matter and algae (Brandt 1974).
184827		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184827		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. <br/><p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
184828		conservation	eng	No information available.
184828		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has a wide distribution in eastern Myanmar, and in central and northern Thailand (Phichit, Phetchabun, Nakhon Ratchasima (Tesana 2002), and Chiang Mai provinces) (Brandt 1974). There are also specimens known from Pahang State (Tepuyai River and the Mergau River; G.W. Davis, ANSP) in Peninsular Malaysia. The species has also been introduced to mainland north America (Perez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). Research is needed to confirm the species' distribution.
184828		habitat	eng	It is known from freshwater localities.
184828		population	eng	No information available.
184828		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ‘flood pulse’, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184829		conservation	eng	None required.
184829		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from coastal parts of Thailand (east and west peninsular Thailand, to the Gulf of Thailand), Malaysia (certainly Peninsular, and probably east Malaysia), western parts of Indonesia, Philippines (possibly introduced) and surrounding areas (Tomascik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997). Brandt (1974) lists records from Peninsular Malaysia (Penang; type locality), Viet Nam and Thailand (Bangna, Samrong, Samut Prakan and Chachoengsao Province). Reports from Myanmar need to be confirmed, but possibly present in coastal areas adjacent to Thailand. Also present in Singapore (Tan and Woo 2010), and might be expected to be present in Cambodia.
184829		habitat	eng	It lives in brackish water creeks in the tidal zone. Found in mangrove areas in the Philippines, and in shrimp aquaculture ponds in Thailand.
184829		population	eng	No information available.
184829		threats	eng	No threats are known. Habitat loss may be a threat, however it has been found in anthropogenic habitats.
184830		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation action plans are in place, however the species requires survey work to determine range and future threats. The species is poorly defined with respect to other  described taxa in this family, and they are in need of revision.
184830		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Maeklong River between Ban Pong and&#160;Kanchanburi&#160;in western Thailand (Brandt, 1974). It is also known from the three different sites along the Maenam Kwae Noi River,&#160;Kanchanburi&#160;Province - one of the tributaries of the Maeklong River (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011); records of the species from other rivers refer to other species (Brandt 1974). There have been no recent surveys that have found this species, so more recent data are required to establish population trends and habitat trends.
184830		habitat	eng	The species was found in sand and gravel in freshwater rivers.
184830		population	eng	Population trends are unknown and it is not found in abundance, it occurs at low densities.
184830		threats	eng	<p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may impact the species (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184831		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184831		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from the Mekong River between Khemmarat Rapids (Thailand) and Sompamit Falls near Khone Falls (southern Lao PDR) (Brandt 1974).&#160;</p>
184831		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocks in the rapids and feeds on algae. It was also found under large trees in Khone.
184831		population	eng	Population size is not known and there is no recent survey data.
184831		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
184833		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184833		distribution	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is only known from the type locality, a creek north of Ban Kham, 18 km northwest of Nan, northern Thailand.&#160;There have been several surveys for freshwater molluscs that have failed to find them at this site. &#160;</p>
184833		habitat	eng	It is known to live in freshwater habitats; described from a small stream.
184833		population	eng	No information available.
184833		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.<br/></p>
184834		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends. Taxonomic comparison of fresh material is required to confirm the correct taxonomic placement of the species.
184834		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong River between the Khemmarat rapids in Thailand and Khong Island, Champasak Province (type locality), in southern Lao PDR. The record from&#160;Khemmarat (from the ANSP collections) requires confirmation as it is a blank record (ANSP A5044C) with no data.
184834		habitat	eng	It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is restricted to freshwater, and has been collected from rapids.
184834		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184834		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30-32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009),  sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological  effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992)  mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular  fluctuation of the water level. Water pollution due to the ongoing  industrialisation in those developing countries may also be a threat to  the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184837		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' taxonomic status. In&#160;addition, if it is a valid species, research is needed regarding its current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184837		distribution	eng	Brandt (1974) reported that although it was only recorded from the Phetburi River in Thailand, no specimens were found in surveys that matched the type specimens. The types come from two localities in Phetchaburi Province (type locality) and from Ubon Ratchathani Province.
184837		habitat	eng	Uncertain, although came from the Phetburi River.
184837		population	eng	No information available.
184837		threats	eng	As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.
184838		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends, as well as taxonomic study of fresh material.
184838		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand and Lao PDR from the Mekong River and the Mun River in Ubon Ratchatani Province around Ban Dan. The species is also recorded at Khemmerat (ANSP collection database online).&#160;The record from Khong Island (ANSP collection database A5265D) has been discounted as the record is erroneus, showing blank data.
184838		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater.
184838		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184838		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. <br/><p>Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
184840		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184840		distribution	eng	This species is known between Myawaddi (in Myanmar) and Mae Sot (in Thailand) in the Moei (Thaungyin) River, a tributary of the Salween River.
184840		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater rivers.
184840		population	eng	No information available.
184840		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, little can be inferred of its threats. However, there are not thought to be threats present currently (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184841		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
184841		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from the Kaek River (central Thailand; a tributary of the<span class="st"> Nan River, Chao Phraya basin), where it is found on&#160;the 70 km stretch of river between&#160;Sakunothayan and Thung Salaeng. Records include sites&#160;at Wang Nok Nang Aen (east of Wang Tong) and from the Sakunothayan Falls near the type locality in Thailand.</p>
184841		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates in river rapids and waterfalls. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
184841		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is locally abundant where present (<span class="st">F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184841		threats	eng	<p>No current threats to this species, but it is vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation, as like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean fast flowing water. Part of this site lies in a national park. The species is vulnerable to future changes in water quality from sedimentation and sewage.</p>
184842		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184842		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ban Na Village on Khong Island, Champasak Province, Lao PDR, only (Brandt 1974).
184842		habitat	eng	It<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is known from sandy grounds in quiet parts of the Mekong River. There, it feeds on decaying organic matter.
184842		population	eng	No information available.
184842		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
184843		conservation	eng	No information available.
184843		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Songkram River at Wanon Niwat and Si Song Khram as well as in the Mekong River at Ban Dan, Amphoe Phibun Mangsahan and Khemmarat and in the Mun River at Phibun Mangsahan and Ban Khan Loem in Thailand (Brandt 1974). In Cambodia, it was found in the Mekong River at Sambor and at Muang Khong in Lao PDR.
184843		habitat	eng	It is found on rocks in freshwater rivers.
184843		population	eng	No information available.
184843		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184844		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184844		distribution	eng	<p>Apparently widespread in northern, central and eastern Thailand (Nan, Prae, Chiang Rai, Phayao, Lampun, Lampang, Nakon Sawan, Nakhon Ratchasima, Tak, Chiang Mai, Sukhothai, Phitchit, Phitsanulok, and Mae Hong Song provinces) and in regions bordering Thailand in Myanmar, and present in Cambodia (Tonle Sap River at Phnom Penh, Prek Te (on the Mekong near Kratie), and at Stoeng Sen (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)), northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam. In Thailand, this species was found north of a line from Nakhon Sawan Province to the border of Myanmar and west of the mountain range between Maenam Pasak (Pasak River) and Maenam Nan (Nan River) (Brandt 1974). Brandt (1974) also reports the species from Nepal and northeastern India.<br/></p>
184844		habitat	eng	It is known from freshwater rivers.
184844		population	eng	No information available.
184844		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species.</p>
184845		conservation	eng	No information available.
184845		distribution	eng	This species was described from a roadside ditch about 2 km north of Satun in southern  Thailand (Brandt 1974). The only other record appears to be from Tale Luang at Lam Pam, Phattalung Province, also in southern Thailand (Biologiezentrum Linz Oberoesterreich).
184845		habitat	eng	The species is found together with <span style="font-style: italic;">G. prasongi</span> in slightly brackish water (Brandt 1974). The natural habitat of the species is not known.
184845		population	eng	The species is known from very few specimens.
184845		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184846		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of the nominate and subspecies requires clarification, and surveys are required to confirm the species' distribution and to obtain material for taxonomic study.
184846		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widespread in central and south Thailand, where it occurs from the provinces of Chiang Mai to the border of Malaysia (Brandt 1974), Peninsular Malaysia (as the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">F. m. penangensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">perakensis</span>, and <em>kelantanensis</em>), Indonesia (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. m. henrici</span>), and southern China (as <span style="font-style: italic;">F. m. noetlingi</span>). It has also been reported from Viet  Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia, though these taxa may belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">F. m. cambodiensis</span>. Brandt (1974) reports that the species should be expected in adjacent parts of drainages in Myanmar.
184846		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">F. m. martensi</span> has been found to harbour several kinds of cercariae and metacercariae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostomatidae</span>. As this subspecies serves as local food, it is an important intermediate host for Garrison's fluke infection (Echinostomiasis) and Angiostrongyliasis.</p>
184846		population	eng	No information available.
184846		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted locally by habitat loss and degrdation, but is not threatened across its range.
184847		conservation	eng	No information available.
184847		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from southern Thailand (Ranong, Krabi, Trang, Rayong, Samut Prakan, Chonburi, Chanthaburi and Trat). Brandt (1974) considers that the species may occur in Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia, and there are records from Vung Tao in southern Viet Nam (G.M. Davis; ANSP Malacology Collection), and the species should also be looked for in suitable habitat in Cambodia. Further surveys are needed to confirm the species' full current distribution.<br/></p>
184847		habitat	eng	It occurs in drainage trenches of mud-flats, nipa and mangrove swamps in brackish water. They were found partly buried in the mud and feed on decaying organic matter.
184847		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known and there are no recent survey data.
184847		threats	eng	There is no information on threats, but the species is likely to have been impacted locally by habitat conversion and degradation.
184848		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species.
184848		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mun River at Amphoe Tha Thum, Ubon and Rasi Salai (the type locality) in Thailand (Brandt 1974, Temcharoen 1992, Osbourne 2009). The record from ANSP collections at Khong island may be erroneous, as based on dead shells which maybe from floodline debris.
184848		habitat	eng	This species can be found in freshwater river systems (Brant 1974, Temcharoen 1992, Osbourne 2009).
184848		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
184848		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 5,000 km from        its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River   passes      through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and   Cambodia. But   since    the 1980s the character of the river has been   steadily   transformed by    dam-building programs in Yunnan province in   China.   Three  hydroelectric   dams are already in operation and two   more are   under  construction due   for completion in 2012 and 2017.   Until 2030   there  could be plans for at   least two more dams. There   are also   eleven  proposed dams on the   mainstream of the Mekong below   China.   Even if no  dams are built on the   mainstream below China  the  dams in   China will  ultimately have serious   effects on the   functioning of the   Mekong. It  will alter the hydrology of   the river   and so the current 'flood  pulse', the regular rise and fall   of  the  river on an annual   basis. The  dams will block the flow of    sediment  down the river which   plays a  vital part in depositing  nutrients   on  the agricultural   regions flooded  by the Mekong River.  The dams will    also lead to the   erosion of river  banks (Osborne  2009). Although  the   ecological   effects of these dams on  freshwater  snails are  poorly known     Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a  negative  effect on the  snails caused by     irregular fluctuation of the  water  level. </p>   Water pollution due  to    the ongoing  industrialisation  in those  developing countries may  also  be a   threat  to the  freshwater snails  of the Indo-Burma-Region   (Temcharoen   1992).
184849		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
184849		distribution	eng	This species is known from Dawei (Tavoy), Myanmar (type locality) and also in several provinces of western and southern Thailand (Phetchaburi (Kaeng Krachan National Park), Kanchanaburi (e.g., in the Khwae Noi River), Ranong, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Chumphon) (Brandt 1974). It is likely to have a wide distribution within the known range within Thailand.
184849		habitat	eng	It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>lives in mountain creeks and small rivers in mountainous areas. It avoids sluggish water. Always in creeks near waterfalls and under rocks in clear, clean fast flowing water.
184849		population	eng	No information available.
184849		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species, as the rivers are still fairly clean (P. Sri-anoon pers. comm. 2011) in the species' known range.<br/></p>
184850		conservation	eng	No information available.
184850		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> occurs in the middle and lower reaches of the Mun River, Surin Province (type locality: Ban Tha Thum) as well as in the lower reaches of the Chi River,&#160;the lower reaches of the Songkram River&#160;and Mekong River in Thailand (Brandt, 1974) and Khong Island&#160;Mekong River in&#160;Lao PDR (ANSP Collections).
184850		habitat	eng	It lives in the quiet parts in the rivers on sandy grounds and feeds on decaying organic matter.
184850		population	eng	No information available.
184850		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current 'flood pulse', the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184851		conservation	eng	Surveys are required to confirm the distribution and taxonomic status of specimens from through its range.
184851		distribution	eng	<p>The subspecies<em> F. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">s. speciosa</span> is known from much of eastern and southern Thailand (provinces of Khon Kaen, Kalasin, Mahasarakam, Roi Ett, Nakon  Panom, Ubon, Buriram, Surin, Sri Saket, Chantaburi, Prachinburi, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Phattalung, Songkhla, Yala, Pattani, and Narathiwat), Lao PDR, Cambodia and northern Viet Nam. <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. polygramma</span> is known from central and southern Thailand and Yangon and southern Myanmar. <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. peninsularis </span>is known from a few localities in southern Thailand (Brandt 1974, Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Malaysia and Singapore (Tan and Woo 2010).</p><p>Most records from Malaysia refer to other species (Brandt 1974), however the species is present in Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra; type locality). Further work is required to confirm the identity of specimens from throughout its range.<br/></p>
184851		habitat	eng	<p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. speciosa</span> is predominantly fluviatile, but it is also found in still water.</p>  <p>Several cercariae of unidentified trematodes have been obtained in this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and it serves as an important intermediate host for representatives of the trematode family, as it is generally infected with metacercariae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostomatidae</span>. It can cause also Angiostrongyliasis.<br/></p>
184851		population	eng	No information available.
184851		threats	eng	Although likely to be threatened in parts of its range, the threats are not thought to be widespread.
184852		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184852		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is only known from Palian, Trang Province, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
184852		habitat	eng	Described from a brackish water drainage ditch close to a road in a mangrove swamp.
184852		population	eng	No information available.
184852		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.<br/></p>
184853		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions known, but none are considered necessary.
184853		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout southeast Asia (Brandt 1974). It is present in Indonesia (Celebes, Jawa, Bali and Kalimantan), Andaman Island (India), Malaysia (West Malayan States Malacca, Johore, Negri Sembilan, Selangor and Perak, and might be assumed to be present in Malaysian parts of Borneo), and is also known to be widely distributed in southern Thailand, but only locally in west and northern Thailand (Brandt 1974). Its presence in Indochina is doubtful&#160;(Brandt 1974).
184853		habitat	eng	The species is found in calm freshwater habitats, such as paddy fields, ponds, klongs, pools and slow moving streams. They usually climb on the aquatic grass/plants by their feet. It is amphibious.&#160;It can aestivate and tolerates drying out.
184853		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
184853		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over the entire range, but may be locally threatened by pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.&#160;</p>
184854		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into the impacts of dam construction on this species.
184854		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in the northern provinces of Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004) and from near Mandalay, Myanmar (Brandt, 1974).<br/></p>
184854		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers, and has also been found in reservoirs (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004, MRC 2006).
184854		population	eng	This was one of the most dominant species found in a study of the species composition of the Ubolratana reservoir, northeastern Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
184854		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ?flood pulse?, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p><br/></p>
184855		conservation	eng	No information available.
184855		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be restricted to the Mun River drainage, eastern Thailand (Brandt 1974). It has been recorded from the Mun River at Ubon Ratchathani (type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. z. zilchi</span>) and Rasi Salai in Sisaket Province. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. z. reducta</span> is found upstream of the Mun River in the lower Lam Chi River in Maha Sarakam Province.
184855		habitat	eng	It occurs on sandy ground in rivers. It is found in slow-flowing areas feeding on decaying organic matter.
184855		population	eng	No information available.
184855		threats	eng	<p>A dam was built on the Mun River about 30 years ago, with at least twelve further major dams constructed within the Mun River drainage since (International Rivers 2012), and consequently the species may have been impacted by impoundment, changes in flow regimes, and sedimentation. Additional threats include pollution (sedimentation and agricultural) from forest clearance and agricultural activities within the drainage.<br/></p>
184857		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184857		distribution	eng	This species was described from a roadside ditch about 2 km north of Satun in southern  Thailand (Brandt 1974). The only other&#160;published&#160;record, which requires confirmation, is from Tha Thung Na Reservoir, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand (Leardburoos 2001).
184857		habitat	eng	The trench in which it was described contains almost completely freshwater in rainy season, but is slightly brackish during dry seasons and high tide (Brandt 1974). The natural habitat of the species is not known.
184857		population	eng	No information available.
184857		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.<br/></p>
184859		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
184859		distribution	eng	The species is known from a small number of sites along the lower Mekong River from&#160;Ban Dan (the confluence of the Mun and Mekong rivers) in Thailand (Brandt 1974, ANSP collections), through Lao PDR (Khong Island; Somphamit and Phapheng Falls;&#160;ANSP collections), to Cambodia (Ban Na and Ban Houay&#160;to&#160;Sambor in Kratie Province; Brandt 1974). Recent records are from Cambodia (Stung Treng Ramsar Site, and the lower Se Kong River; Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The species should be looked for in other tributaries of the Mekong.
184859		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater areas of the Mekong River and tributaries.
184859		population	eng	Population size is not known.
184859		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. Mainstream dams are proposed at a number of sites through the species known range, including at Khone Falls in Lao PDR and at Sambor in Cambodia.<br/></p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184860		conservation	eng	None required.
184860		distribution	eng	The species is known from western, southern, central, and northern Thailand (from Bangkok, and Saraburi Province (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011), Sopprap (Lampang  Province; ANSP Malacology Collection), the Yom River (Jivaluk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), Kwai Yai River (Kanchanaburi Province; Ukong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), southeastern Myanmar (type locality: Tenasserim River), and northern Malaysia (Peninsular). The species is probably more widely present within the Chao Phraya system in Thailand.<br/><br/>Brandt (1974) records the species from Indonesia (Java) which perhaps requires confirmation. It is uncertain if a record from the Nam Pat River refers to Muang Soum, Vientiene Province (part of the Mekong drainage), or to Uttaradit Province in Thailand; the latter seems more likely.
184860		habitat	eng	In Thailand, it is found in rivers, rice fields, klongs (canals) and ponds. Found in stagnant waters fairly close to the coast.
184860		population	eng	No information available.
184860		threats	eng	<p>It is not considered to be threatened over its range.</p>
184861		conservation	eng	No information available.
184861		distribution	eng	The species was described from from klongs (canals) in and around Bangkok and Thonburi, central Thailand. It was also found in drainage canals in the estuarine area of Glaeng (Rayong Province (coastal central Thailand; Gulf of Thailand)) and Paknam Ban Don (Tapi River drainage, Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand (Brandt 1974, Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005)). The species should be looked for in adjacent parts of Peninsular Malaysia.
184861		habitat	eng	In coastal drainages; brackish water with a low degree of salinity. In klongs (canals) it prefers tidal water.
184861		population	eng	No information available.
184861		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184862		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184862		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is recorded from southern Thailand and mainly found in the Malay Peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra (recorded from Melaka, Malaysian Peninsula). A reported occurrence in Sumatra is uncertain.
184862		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and rivers. It is rarely found in still water; it prefers fast flowing, well oxygenated waters.
184862		population	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184862		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over its entire range, but may be locally impacted by deforestation causing sedimentation, impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.&#160;</p>
184864		conservation	eng	The site where this species is found is located within a protected area (<span class="new">Sai Yok National Park).
184864		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is only known from the type locality (Nam Tok, a creek at the Sai Yok falls), Mae Klong drainage, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand.
184864		habitat	eng	It was found in a small, tangled, swift stream on limestone, that discharges into the Kwae Noi River, Thailand.
184864		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is locally abundant where present (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184864		threats	eng	<p>The species is vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation, if like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean fast-flowing water. The known site is adjacent to a road and is popular with national and international tourists, which may contribute to the degradation of habitat, and sedimentation from agricultural development and deforestation are widespread in this region.</p>
184865		conservation	eng	No information available.
184865		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from Glaeng and Khlung Districts (Chantaburi Province) and between Narativat and Saiburi in southern Thailand.</p>
184865		habitat	eng	It lives in brackish water, but tolerates freshwater as well.
184865		population	eng	No information available.
184865		threats	eng	<p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184866		conservation	eng	No information available.
184866		distribution	eng	<p>The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is only known from Thailand. This species was found from Phetchaburi Province through central Thailand to the provinces of Lampang, Lamphun, and Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (Brandt 1974, Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In eastern Thailand, it was only found in Korat Province.<br/></p>
184866		habitat	eng	The type specimen was found in a swampy paddy-field. The natural habitat is likely to include swamps and marshes.
184866		population	eng	No information available.
184866		threats	eng	<p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184867		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184867		distribution	eng	The only known locality of this species is a trench in a mangrove swamp south of Palian in Trang Province, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
184867		habitat	eng	Described from brackish water in mangrove swamps.
184867		population	eng	No information available.
184867		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.</p>
184868		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation action plans in place, however the species requires survey work to determine range, taxonomic status and future threats.
184868		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from the Mekong in Thailand and Lao PDR, and from the Mun River around Ban Dan in Thailand. There are specimens in the Mahidol Museum collection from the Mekong near Ban Dan in Lao PDR (P. Sri-anoon pers. comm. 2011). ANSP collections have material collected by Davis and Hoagland from Khong Island, southern Thailand, as well as Ban Dan (from ANSP collection database).</p>
184868		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids on rocks and also in quieter parts of the river on sandy ground. It feeds on algae and decaying organic matter (Brandt 1974).
184868		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184868		threats	eng	<p>There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Dams are also planned at Khong Island, which may impact the other location. Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184869		conservation	eng	No information available.
184869		distribution	eng	This species was recorded from Thailand in the Mekong, Songkram and Mun rivers, from specimens collected from Ban Dan, Amphoe Tha Thum, Ban Khi Lek, Ubon, Rasi Salai (type locality), Khemmarat, Si Song Khram and Wanon Niwat. In Lao PDR, it was found at Champasak and Muang Khong in southern Lao PDR.
184869		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocks and sticks in the rivers.
184869		population	eng	No information available.
184869		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
184870		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
184870		distribution	eng	<p>The species is thought to be endemic to the Kaek River (central Thailand; a tributary of the Nan River, Chao Phraya basin) and was only found in a section of the river between Sopha Falls (65 km east of Phitsanulok) and the Sri Dit Falls in the upstream region, about 92 km east of Phitsanulok. It was reported from a tributary of the Kaek River, a locality on the Nam Huai Chieng, but this has not been confirmed in recent surveys (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011), and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species from this tributary are though to have been eradicated by habitat degradation.<br/></p>
184870		habitat	eng	<p>It&#160; was found in comparatively quiet parts of the river on rocky and sandy substrates.</p>
184870		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is rare (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184870		threats	eng	<p>The species is vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation. As with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean water. Parts of the range lie in a national park, however this species is uncommon and so may be vulnerable to future changes in water quality.</p>
184871		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.&#160;Further new survey data are urgently required to determine its current range, population trend and ecological requirements.
184871		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Thailand, with an unconfirmed record from Yunnan in southern China. It was described from a creek west of Ban Pang Makhan Pom (type locality; Davis 1968), Fang District, Chiang Mai Province), Thailand, as well as from Wat Tam Tab Tao, also in Fang District. It has also been found in the Songkram River at Wanon Niwat, Sakon Nakhon Province (Brandt 1974). The species is also present in Chiang Dao (Chiang Mai Province) where it was collected in surveys in 2010 (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011). In China it is recorded from Yunnan Province&#160;(Davis 1968).
184871		habitat	eng	It it found in limestone areas in creeks with clear water, and the snail lives on the roots of the water plants (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011). This species can serve as intermediate host for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma </span>species of human parasites in the laboratory, but not shown to have much infection in villages (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011).
184871		population	eng	No information available.
184871		threats	eng	<p>Water abstraction and wetland clearance would impact the species.<br/></p>
184872		conservation	eng	Research into the species' current distribution and population trends is needed.
184872		distribution	eng	This species is known to occur in the Mekong River, recorded from Ban Dan (Ubon Ratchathani Province, Thailand) through Khong island (Lao PDR) to Krati (Cambodia) (Brandt 1974). It was recorded from Khong Island (Mahidol University, ANSP collections) and from Ban Dan (ANSP collections) in the 1970's.
184872		habitat	eng	This species lives on sandy ground at quiet parts of the Mekong River, either buried in the sand or attached to wood. It feeds on decaying organic matter. The eggs are deposited singly in brownish capsules with a calcareous shell. Brandt (1974) suggests that it harbours cercariae of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">Schistosoma japonicum</span>which  causes Schistosomiasis (blood fluke), however tests at Mahidol  University suggest that this is not correct (P. Sri-anoon, pers. comm,  2011).
184872		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184872		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184873		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184873		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from the lower reaches of the Mun  River (Brandt 1974), Thailand.<br/></p>
184873		habitat	eng	Collected from rocks in the rapids of the Mun River (Brandt 1974).
184873		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184873		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
184874		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184874		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong River from Ban Dan in Thailand to Sandan in Cambodia. In Lao PDR it was found at Somphamit Falls, Done Tane, Khong, Ban Na and Pakse in Champasak.
184874		habitat	eng	It occurs in quiet parts of the Mekong River on sandy ground. It feeds on decaying organic matter.
184874		population	eng	No information available.
184874		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184875		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184875		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Mekong River in Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia. Recorded from Ban Khum, north of Ban Dan in Thailand and Samboc in Kratie, Cambodia (Brandt 1974). In Lao PDR, it occurs at Champassak and on Khong Island.
184875		habitat	eng	In Lao PDR, it was found in the rapids of the Mekong River.
184875		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184875		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184876		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184876		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower parts of the Chao Phraya in central Thailand, with records from rivers and klongs around Bangkok and Thonburi (ANSP collection; Mahidol University Collections). It has also been recorded in the Mekong River Delta at Long Xuyên in Viet Nam; Malaysia (Sarawak, and likely to be present in peninsular Malaysia); and from the lower parts of the Mekong in Cambodia (Brandt 1974). Known records are likely to under-represent the species distribution. Tenison-Woods (1888) reports a questionable record from New Caledonia.
184876		habitat	eng	It lives in brackish water as well as in freshwater under tidal influence; present in klongs (drainage channels) and swamps.
184876		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184876		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184877		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
184877		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Maenam San river and&#160;its tributary Huai Kao Man (Heung River system), and&#160;from the catchment of the Loei River, Loei Province in northeast Thailand. Reports from Lao PDR, Viet Nam and from Myanmar are considered erroneous (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).
184877		habitat	eng	This species prefers fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks but can also be found on sandy ground in quiet parts of rivers and streams.&#160;Not in polluted or stagnant water.
184877		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is locally abundant where present (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184877		threats	eng	<p>There are no known specific threats to this species, but it would be vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation if, like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean fast flowing water.&#160;</p>
184879		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184879		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Se Bang Fai River near Ban Tha Deua (type locality) in Lao PDR, Khammuan as well as in the Lam Chi River in Thailand, and from the Mekong River between Tat Panom in Thailand and Pakse in Lao PDR.
184879		habitat	eng	It<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in the quiet parts of rivers on sandy grounds. It feeds on decaying organic matter.
184879		population	eng	No information available.
184879		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184880		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
184880		distribution	eng	The species is apparently known only from records from the 1960-70s from the&#160;Mekong River&#160;between Sambor (near Kratie) in Cambodia, and the mouth of the Mun River at Ban Dan,&#160;Ubon&#160;Ratchathani&#160;Province&#160;in Thailand (type locality). In Lao PDR, it has been recoded from Khong Island (ANSP Malacology Collection). It is known from three locations over 250 km of river in the rapid areas.
184880		habitat	eng	In Lao PDR, it was found on rocks and sandbars.
184880		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184880		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184881		conservation	eng	Further new survey data are urgently required for a more accurate assessment of the conservation status of this species.
184881		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Mekong River between&#160;That Phanom (Nakhon&#160;Phanom&#160;Province) in Thailand and&#160;Pakse in Lao PDR&#160;(Brandt 1974).
184881		habitat	eng	It lives on sandy ground in the qiuet parts of the Mekong River and feeds on decaying organic matter.
184881		population	eng	No information available.
184881		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184882		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' threats, habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184882		distribution	eng	This species has only been reported from the vicinity of Khong Island,&#160;in the Mekong River, southern Lao PDR. It is found in a&#160;short stretch <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 10 km of the river upstream and downstream of Khong Island (including&#160;Somphamit Falls)&#160;in Champasak Province (Brandt 1974; ANSP collection database online). Its extent of occurrence is estimated at 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
184882		habitat	eng	It is known in the rapids of the Mekong River.
184882		population	eng	Population size is not known and there is no recent survey data.
184882		threats	eng	It may be impacted by future changes to the Mekong River flow regimes as it is restricted to rapid areas in the river, and there are plans for a dam at Khong Island (the Don Sahong dam). The dam will change patterns of sediment deposition, and lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
184884		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is required.
184884		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from Thailand,&#160;Cambodia, Lao PDR and Malaysia (Brandt 1974). In Thailand it is widely known in central, northern and northeastern areas (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011) from the Meakok River near Fang and Nan in the north, to Ubon Ratchathani and Udon Thani provinces in northeastern Thailand (Takrong River (Nakhon Ratchasima), Ayutthaya, Sutrang River, Chiang Mai). It is also known from the Moei River that forms the border between Thailand and Myanmar, and is therefore likely to be present in Myanmar. A record (as synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Vivipara basicarinata</span> Kobelt, 1908; Brandt 1974) from 'Phuc-son, Annam' (Phuoc Son?) refers to Viet Nam; location uncertain, but probably in present-day central Viet Nam.<br/></p>
184884		habitat	eng	Found in rivers, as well as freshwater in ponds, rice fields and irrigation channels (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011).
184884		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is locally abundant where present in Thailand (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011).
184884		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species.</p>
184885		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
184885		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from the Mekong River in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia, with an unconfirmed record from Viet Nam. Known records are from Thailand between Ban Khum, north of Ban Dan (Khong Chiam) and Samboc, north of Kratie in Cambodia. It also occurs in the Mun River at the Tana Falls in Thailand (Brandt 1974). There are numerous records in Thailand from Khemmarat, Ubon Ratchathani (Bruce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1976, ANSP collection), and from Siphandone, Lao PDR (ANSP collection). One specimen is known from Viet Nam without any further information (ANSP collection).<br/></p>
184885		habitat	eng	<p>It was found attached to rocks in the rapids feeding on algae.</p>
184885		population	eng	<p>No information is available on the populations of this species.</p>
184885		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184887		conservation	eng	<p>Research is required to determine the species current distribution, population trends, and threats across its entire range.</p>
184887		distribution	eng	The species is known from several mountain streams in eastern Thailand in the Pong River, in the upper Mun River drainage (part of the Mekong River system). It occurs in a tributary to the Huai Ka Mi River (type locality), in a stream near Ban Pha Nok Khao (Loei Province) and in the Pong River. The area of occupancy has not been calculated, but is inferred to be restricted.
184887		habitat	eng	It occurs in mountain streams and the habitats are believed to be relatively unimpacted. From other members of the genus, it is thought to need some aquatic vegetation.
184887		population	eng	No information available.
184887		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be impacted over its range, as the habitats are relatively pristine. However, one of the species' known locations has a dam, and some parts of the watershed are impacted by sedimentation.<br/></p>
184888		conservation	eng	Research into the distribution, population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
184888		distribution	eng	<p>This species is only known from Pibun Mangsahan on the Mun River near Ban Dan (the confluence of the&#160;the Mekong River and the Mun River) in Thailand (Brandt 1974) and from the Mekong River at Khemerat about 50 km upstream of Ban Dan (ANSP collections), Lao PDR.</p>
184888		habitat	eng	It has been found in rapids on rocks as well as in quiet parts of the rivers on sandy ground. Algae and decaying organic matter serve as nutrition. (Brandy 1974).
184888		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184888		threats	eng	<p>There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.&#160;</p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
184889		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184889		distribution	eng	This species is known from its type locality at Khlung harbour in Chanthaburi Province (eastern Thailand), Phetchaburi Province (Amphe Ban Laem; Yutitham 2004), and from a klong (canal) (Tan Yong) north of Narathiwat town (Narathiwat Province) in southern Thailand (Brandt 1974). The species should be looked for in neighbouring parts of northern Peninsular Malaysia, and there is a record of the species from Java (Indonesia) (Segara Anakan Cilaca; Sastranegara 2011), which requires confirmation.
184889		habitat	eng	It is known from brackish water canals and mangrove areas.
184889		population	eng	No information available.
184889		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184890		conservation	eng	Thee species is within a national park (Thung Salaeng Luang National Park). Conservation actions required include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
184890		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Sopha waterfalls (Namtok Kaeng Sopha) on the Kaek River (Chao Phraya basin) in Phitsanulok Province, Thailand.
184890		habitat	eng	It is known to be restricted to freshwater, found in fast-flowing, well-oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not found in polluted or stagnant water.
184890		population	eng	No information available.
184890		threats	eng	<p>The species is vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation, as like other <em>Brotia</em> species, it requires clean fast-flowing water. The known location is a popular national and international tourist atraction, with potential impacts from pollution.<br/></p>
184892		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however more data are required on the distribution and taxonomic status of this species.
184892		distribution	eng	This species has only been reported from Museum specimens from scattered localities in Lao PDR (Muong-Bet sur le Song-Ma), Cambodia (Pakse, Mekong River) and Viet Nam (Environs de Gang&#160;and Song Yet, near Yuong-het,&#160;northern Viet Nam) (Koehler and Glaubrecht 2006). There are no recent survey records despite the apparently wide range and survey activity in the region.
184892		habitat	eng	As most&#160;<em>Brotia</em>&#160;species are found in rivers and mountain creeks, it is assumed that this species also occurs in this habitat and is found only rarely in still water.
184892		population	eng	No recent survey information available.
184892		threats	eng	<p>There are no known specific threats to this species, but it would be vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation if, like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean fast flowing water. At one site (Pakse) there are proposed dams, and if the species was refound at this site, then the impoundment may change flow regime and destroy this site, so survey work is encouraged to establish if the species is more widespread, and hence less threatened.</p>
184893		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184893		distribution	eng	This species is apparently only known from its type locality near Ban Don Makok in Glaeng district, Rayong Province, southern Thailand (Brandt 1974).
184893		habitat	eng	In the dry seasons the trench in which this species occurs is slightly brackish, but in the rainy seasons it is nearly filled with freshwater. The type locality is connected to the Prasae River.
184893		population	eng	No information available.
184893		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184894		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184894		distribution	eng	The species was only known from the type locality, the Mun River at Rasi Salai,&#160;in eastern Thailand. It has not been collected again at the type locality since it was described by Brandt (1974) and its status at this site is uncertain, despite regular surveys for molluscs each year in the last 20 years (P. Sri-anoon pers. comm. 2011).&#160;There are ANSP Museum specimens from Amphoe Selaphum on the&#160;Mun River&#160;collected in 1971, and in 2001&#160;P. Sri-anoon (pers. comm. 2011) found two specimens of the species at a second site on the Mun River, in Warim Champrap District, Ubon Ratchathani Province.
184894		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater, but the original habitat is unknown. The shell is a carinate shell suggesting that it is used to live in fast flowing waters (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184894		population	eng	These species is poorly known with few verified records.
184894		threats	eng	<p>There are hydropower dams on the river changing the site from fast-flowing river to slow flowing river with high water levels.&#160;</p>
184896		conservation	eng	No information available.
184896		distribution	eng	This species was recorded in the Mekong River from Ban Dan in Thailand to Kratie in Cambodia (type locality in Sambor) by Brandt (1974). Known from a <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 150 km stretch of river in rapids areas.
184896		habitat	eng	This species was found in the freshwater of the Mekong River in rapids.
184896		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184896		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30-32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath et al. 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown. Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009),  sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological  effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992)  mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular  fluctuation of the water level. Water pollution due to ongoing  industrialisation may also be a threat to  the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184897		conservation	eng	Both locations lie in protected areas,&#160;but there are no specific species actions plans, and the only conservation actions required are the continuation of the protected areas.
184897		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Kaek River catchment (a <span class="st">third-order tributary of the Nan River in the <span class="st">Chao Praya drainage; Phitsanulok Province, north-central Thailand; Brandt 1974) and was found in the middle course of the river between the Sakunothayan Falls (33 km east of Phitsanulok) and the Thung Salaeng Luang National Park (90 km east of Phitsanulok). It is also recorded from the Kwae Noi River (Chattrakan National Park; F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010), a catchment about 50 km north of the other sites on the Kaek River.</span>
184897		habitat	eng	It was found on hard substrate, attached to boulders and rocks. This species seems to prefer waters with a swift current and is found in a section between 5 cm above and 20 cm below the water surface. This species, like the other species within this genus, occurs in rivers and mountain creeks. It is is only rarely in still water.
184897		population	eng	No information available.
184897		threats	eng	<p>Both known locations lie in protected areas, with some deforestation, but there is not a significant impact from deforestation on the streams and rivers in this area at present (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).</p>
184898		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184898		distribution	eng	The species is known from tributaries of the Pakchan (Kraburi) River near Kraburi (Ranong Province) in southern Thailand, and its type locality on Penang Island, Malaysia (Pfeffer 1886, Brandt 1974). It has a&#160;scattered distribution in brackish waters from Thailand to Malaysia. It should be looked for in adjacent habitat in Myanmar.
184898		habitat	eng	It lives in brackish or tidal waters.
184898		population	eng	No information available.
184898		threats	eng	As little is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.
184899		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184899		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Thailand, where it has been recorded from several locations (Wanon Niwat, Ta Uthen and Si Song Khram) in the Songkhram River, and from the Kham River at 'Tat Panom' (interpreted as That Phanom, between Nakhom Phanom and Savannakhet, on the west bank of the Mekong) (Zoologische Staatssammlung München).
184899		habitat	eng	It is restricted to freshwater rivers, but with no details available.
184899		population	eng	No information available.
184899		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, little can be said of its threats.<br/></p>
184900		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184900		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in southeast Asia. It is present throughout Thailand. Known from the lower Mekong system: Cambodia, it is known from Kratie, but is likely to be more widespread, as in Lao PDR, where it is known from Champasak and Vientiane. In Viet Nam it is present in the south of the country and perhaps more widely. It is widespread in Peninsular Malaysia (Perak, Kelantan, Selangor, Sarawat, Johore, Perlis), as well as in Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java, and Sumatera), and the Philippines (Palawan, Davao, San Miguel). It is also found in Myanmar and India. Given presence in Kalimantan, presence other parts of Borneo should be looked for.
184900		habitat	eng	Found in paddy fields, irrigation canals and similar habitats. It can aestivate through the dry season. It is a species host for the metacercariae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostoma ilocanum</span>, which causes Human Echinostomiasis ("Garrison's fluke infection") and it can cause also Angiostrongyliasis.
184900		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it can be locally abundant.
184900		threats	eng	<p>This species is not considered to be threatened as it is present through many countries in the region, although it is localised.</p>
184901		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.
184901		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in the Mun River, Thailand and in the Mekong River between Kemmarath, Thailand and Paks, Lao PDR (Brandt 1974).</p>
184901		habitat	eng	It is known to occur in the current of the Mun River on the sandy bottom.
184901		population	eng	No information is available on populations of this species.
184901		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will  lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and  changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on  freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992)  mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular  fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a  threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen  1992).</p>
184902		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however more data are required on the distribution and taxonomic status of this species.
184902		distribution	eng	Recent fieldwork has revealed that this species occurs in Umphang, Tak Province, western Thailand (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011). Former records from northeastern Thailand (Brandt 1974) may&#160;refer to misidentified specimens: Kaek River at So Pa Falls, at the Tad San Falls (Huai Nam San, Loei Province) and also in the Phung River (Loei Province)&#160;(F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184902		habitat	eng	Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia</span>, this species occurs in rivers and mountain creeks, too. It has been found in rapids and falls attached to rocks. It is found only rarely in still water.
184902		population	eng	These species is poorly known with few verified records.
184902		threats	eng	<p>There is no real threat at the site where the species has been verified in western Thailand; nothing is known of the possible records in northeastern Thailand.<br/></p>
184903		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184903		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in the Mun River at Tana Falls in Thailand (5 km west of Ban Dan), Ubon Ratchathani Province (Brandt 1974) down to Ban Dan (ANSP collection data).
184903		habitat	eng	Found attached to rocks and feeds on algae. It lives sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">J. harmandi</span>.
184903		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184903		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
184904		conservation	eng	Research into possible threats is advised.
184904		distribution	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known in eastern Thailand in Trad Province. It is also found on the Hawaiian Islands, Fiji Islands and on the Cook Islands as well as in the Philippines.</p>
184904		habitat	eng	<p>It was found in mangrove and nipa palm swamps.&#160;This species is found in brackish waters in lagoons and estuaries (Brandt 1974).</p>
184904		population	eng	No information available.
184904		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by habitat loss (mangrove and coastal wetland development), however there is no information available.
184905		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' distribution, population status, ecology and impact of threats.
184905		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Khong Island within the Mekong River, Cambodia (Fischer 1891).
184905		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
184905		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184905		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
184906		conservation	eng	Both locations lie in protected areas,&#160;but there are no specific species actions plans, and the only conservation actions required are the continuation of the protected areas.
184906		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Kaek (Khek) River (Phitsanulok Province, north-central Thailand; Brandt 1974) and was found in the middle course of the river between the Sakunothayan Falls 33 km east of Phitsanulok and the Thung Salaeng Luang National Park 90 km east of Phitsanulok. It is also recorded from the Kwae Noi River (Chattrakan National Park; F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010), a catchment about 50 km north of the other sites on the Kaek River. Brandt (1974) mentioned a discontinuous distribution in the Kaek River, and it has also been found at the Tap Ta Mi Falls, Ban Palo, Poy Falls, Gaeng Song, Sopa Falls and the Tong Salaeng Luang  Botanical Garden (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011).</p>
184906		habitat	eng	The species is found on hard substrates, attached to boulders and rocks. This species seems to prefer waters with a swift current. This species, like the other species within this genus, occurs in rivers and mountain creeks. It is is only rarely found in still water.
184906		population	eng	No information available.
184906		threats	eng	<p>Both locations lie in protected areas, with some deforestation, but there is not a significant impact from deforestation on the streams and rivers in this area at present (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).</p>
184907		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
184907		distribution	eng	The species is known form the Mekong River in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand. In Cambodia, it is recorded from Sambor, near Kratie (type locality). In Lao PDR, it is recorded from Khong Island (Ban Na, Ban Hat Sai Khoune and Vernkhao Village), and in Thailand it is recorded from Ban Dan (at the confluence of the Mun and Mekong rivers), Ban Khum and north to Khemmarat (Ubon Ratchathani Province; Brandt 1974).
184907		habitat	eng	It was found on rocks and sticks in the shallows of the Mekong River. It was also found on a sandy shore on Khong Island.
184907		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184907		threats	eng	<p>  </p>There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change  the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.  Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009),  sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological  effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992)  mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular  fluctuation of the water level. Water pollution due to ongoing  industrialisation may also be a threat to  the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184908		conservation	eng	The species lies within a protected area, and hence a species specific management plan would ensure the consideration of the species during management of the catchment. General actions include education and awareness of the biodiversity in the natural habitat, especially the importance of fast flowing rivers and streams. Habitat and populations should be monitored.
184908		distribution	eng	<p>This species is thought to be restricted to the Kaek River (the Maenam Kaek; Chao Phraya basin) upstream of the Sakunothayan rapids, ca. 33 km west of Phitsanulok, in lower northern Thailand. It was formerly recorded from the northern tributary Huai Chieng Nam of the Kaek River (Phitsanulok Province) (Brandt 1974, Glaubrecht and Köhler 2004). Decline in habitat quality in&#160;Huai Chieng Nam&#160;has resulted in the loss of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species from the river (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).</p>
184908		habitat	eng	<p>Like other <em>Brotia</em> species this species occurs in&#160;fast flowing well oxygenated water in&#160;rivers, rapids and waterfalls attached to rocks. Intolerant of stagnant water. Buries into sandy substrata in quiet parts of the swift river.<br/></p>
184908		population	eng	Locally abundant when present, however the decline in water quality in the Huai Chieng Nam&#160;has resulted in the loss of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species from a tributary river (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184908		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species, but it would be vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation, as like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean fast flowing water. Populations in&#160;the Huai<br/> Chieng Nam (Brandt 1974) have been lost as a result of habitat degradation (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).</p>
184909		conservation	eng	No species-specific actions plans are known and given the widespread nature of this species, no actions are consider necessary.
184909		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK5">This species</a> is distributed from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia to Viet Nam. In Thailand the species was found in the central and eastern provinces of Phitsanulok, Kalasin, Ratchathani (Sri-Aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and Roi Et. The type was found in the Takrong River near Nakon Ratchasima. In Thailand it is widespread in most lowland areas (P. Sri-Aroon pers. comm. 2010). It is also known from southern Lao PDR (Champasak Province).</p>
184909		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs in irrigation trenches and muddy, slow flowing freshwater streams. It is also found in muddy temporary pools. It was also found on emergent rocks and plants.</p>
184909		population	eng	No information available.
184909		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to this species as it is tolerant of changing water quality and variable flow regimes.&#160;</p>
184911		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184911		distribution	eng	A widespread species in southeast Asia. Occurs in Viet Nam (Dinh Tuong), Lao PDR (Vientiane), Cambodia and southern Thailand. It is widely distributed in West Malaysia (Selangor, Perak, Trengganu, Penang, Kelantan, Perlis and Kedah).
184911		habitat	eng	Found in paddy fields, irrigation canals and similar habitats. It can aestivate through the dry season.
184911		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is infrequent where present in Thailand (P. Sri-Anoon pers. comm. 2011).
184911		threats	eng	<p>This species is not considered to be threatened as it occurs in many countries in the region, although it is localised.&#160;</p>
184912		conservation	eng	No information available.
184912		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia. In Lao PDR it is known from Khong Island (Siphandon<span class="mw-redirect">, Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR). It is found in the Mekong River between Ban Dan (Khong Chiam) in Thailand and Sambor in Cambodia. It is also found in the Mun River close to Phibun Mangsahan in&#160;Phibun Mangsahan District, Thailand.
184912		habitat	eng	It was found in the rapids of the rivers on rocks and algae, sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">H. munensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">hosptalis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elongata</span>.
184912		population	eng	No information available.
184912		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regimes. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
184913		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184913		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from klongs (canals) around Bangkok (Thonburi) (Klong Bang O type locality), in the Chao Phraya delta from <span class="st">Ayutthaya to Bangkok and Thonuri (Brandt 1974).
184913		habitat	eng	Found in slightly brackish water and in freshwater in the tidal zone.
184913		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184913		threats	eng	Possibly impacted by habitat loss or pollution, however without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184914		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184914		distribution	eng	There are few available records of the species. It was described from Tandjong Tiram, northwestern Sumatera, Indonesia, and has only been recorded elsewhere from Thailand, where it is known from the Gulf of Thailand (Thonburi; Academy of Natural Sciences, MAL database) and Samut Prakan, and from Peninsular Thailand (Trang and Ranong; Brandt 1974).
184914		habitat	eng	Recorded in brackish water creeks in mud-flats as well as in mangrove forests.
184914		population	eng	No information available.
184914		threats	eng	Without better information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats. Possibly impacted by habitat loss.
184915		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
184915		distribution	eng	This species is known  from the Mekong River between Khammarat (Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand) and Kratie (Cambodia) (Brandt 1974, Bruce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1976, ANSP Malacology Collection). It also occurs in  the lower reaches of the Mun River at Tana Falls in Thailand, as well as in Lao PDR in the Mekong River at Somphamit  and Phapheng Falls.
184915		habitat	eng	Like the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lacunopsis</span>, it lives on rocks in the rapids.
184915		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184915		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184916		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however more data are required on the distribution and taxonomic status of this species.
184916		distribution	eng	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in central and eastern Thailand in the Provinces of Nan, Loei, Prae&#160;and Phetchabun (type locality) (Brandt 1974). &#160;There are records from Mahidol Museum collections from western Thailand at Phetchaburi (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011) from 1968.&#160;There are recent records from this region and it is thought to be fairly widespread (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
184916		habitat	eng	As it is known for the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia</span>, it occurs also in rivers and mountain creeks.
184916		population	eng	No information available, but it is locally abundant at sites where it is found.
184916		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species, but it would be vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation, as like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species, it requires clean fast flowing water.</p>
184917		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184917		distribution	eng	The species is apparently known from only two locations (Brandt 1974) in Suphanburi Province, central Thailand.
184917		habitat	eng	The species has only been reported from two locations, both artificial reservoirs, and nothing is known of the species' natural habitat.
184917		population	eng	No information available.
184917		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184918		conservation	eng	Research into the species' distribution is needed.
184918		distribution	eng	<p>This is a widespread species found in coastal areas of Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Mauritius, India, Myanmar, Malaysia (coastal areas of all provinces), Indonesia (Sumatera, Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Islands), New Guinea, northern and eastern Australia, New Caledonia and New Ireland, the Philippines, Fiji, Taiwan (Province of China), and China. In Thailand, it was found in the eastern Provinces of Chonburi, Chanthaburi, Trat, Rayong as well as in the southern provinces of Ranong, Trang and Nakhon Si Thammarat (Brandt 1974).</p><p>Brown (1971) recorded the species from a mangrove swamp in South Africa, and it appears that the species' full distribution requires further investigation.<br/></p>
184918		habitat	eng	In Thailand, it is numerous in mangrove swamps, nipa palm forests and mud flats with vegetation.&#160;This species is found in brackish waters in lagoons and estuaries (Brandt 1974).
184918		population	eng	No information available.
184918		threats	eng	<p>This species may be impacted by habitat loss (mangrove and coastal  wetland development), however there is no information available.</p>
184919		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184919		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong River, from&#160;Khemmarat Town (ANSP collection)&#160;in&#160;Thailand, through Ban Dan down to&#160;Pakse and&#160;reaching the southern limit at&#160;the&#160;Khong Islands (Somphamit Falls, Done Tane, Muang Khong, Ban Na Village,&#160;Champasak) in Lao PDR (Brandt 1974; Mahidol University Collection, ANSP). Presence in Cambodia downstream from the Khone Falls should be looked for.
184919		habitat	eng	It is known to live on sandy grounds in quiet parts of the rivers. It feeds on decaying organic matter.
184919		population	eng	No information available.
184919		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
184921		conservation	eng	No information available.
184921		distribution	eng	The species is known from a 100 km stretch of the Mekong and Mun rivers in Lao PDR and Thailand. In Lao PDR it has been collected from the Somphamit Falls and other sites at Khong Island (ANSP), and in Thailand it is recorded from the Mekong River at Ban Dan (confluence of Mekong and Mun River) and from the Mun River in Thailand (Brandt 1974; ANSP collection database online). A record from Khone Nam Mou (Brandt 1974) is believed to lie in Lao PDR between the two sites.
184921		habitat	eng	It is found under stones in river rapids of Mekong River.
184921		population	eng	Population size is not known and there is no recent survey data.
184921		threats	eng	<p>It may be impacted by future changes to the Mekong River flow regimes as it is restricted to rapid areas in the river, and there are plans for a dam at Khong Island (the Don Sahong dam). The dams will change patterns of sediment deposition, and lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>
184922		conservation	eng	The current distribution of the species requires confirmation.
184922		distribution	eng	<p>The species has a wide distribution from eastern Myanmar (from Mandalay southwards), in all parts of Thailand to Peninsular Malaysia, Lao PDR, Cambodia, north and south Viet Nam, and perhaps into southern China (Brandt 1974, Sri-aroon 2007).</p>
184922		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in a wide variety of usually shallow water bodies, including slow-flowing rivers, streams, ponds, and other anthropogenic habitats, such as irrigated fields. From Lao PDR it is known that the species occurs in ponds, trenches and in quiet parts of the Mekong.<span style="font-style: italic;"> B. s. siamensis</span> is a host for the Cat liver fluke (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthorchis tenuicollis</span>), and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. s. goniomphalos</span> is the first intermediate host of this parasite. It is also known as vector for Garrison's fluke infection (Echinostomiasis).<br/></p>
184922		population	eng	No information available.
184922		threats	eng	The species is unlikely to be impacted by natural wetland loss as it can be found widely in anthropogenic habitats.
184923		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
184923		distribution	eng	<p>Brandt (1974) considered the species to be restricted to Myanmar and northern Thailand (Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai and Lampang provinces), with records from India referring to <span style="font-style: italic;">F. bengalensis,</span> and records from other parts of Thailand referring to <span style="font-style: italic;">F. martensi.</span></p>However, the species continues to be reported from other parts of the region e.g. northeastern Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), Cambodia (the Tonle Sap River and Lake; Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), Lao PDR, and to the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam (Pham 2002). It has also been recorded from India ('Kopianga, Mikia Hills'; Biologiezentrum Linz Oberoesterreich, and 'Assam', Florida Museum of Natural History), and Singapore (Tan and Woo 2010).
184923		habitat	eng	The species is found in lentic waters such as paddy fields, ponds, ditches (klongs), pools and slow moving streams.
184923		population	eng	No information available.
184923		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species.&#160;</p>
184926		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine this species' current population status, distribution, ecology and the impact of threats.
184926		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from its type locality at the Mun River in eastern Thailand (Brandt 1974). It was also collected by Davis (ANSP collection database) at the same site.<br/></p>
184926		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in rapids attached to rocks (Brandt 1974).
184926		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184926		threats	eng	<p>The Pak Mun dam was completed on the Mun River in 1994 and may have changed the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184927		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation action plans in place, however the species requires survey work to determine range, taxonomic status and future threats.
184927		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from the Bang Prakon River drainage in Chachoengsao Province, central Thailand.
184927		habitat	eng	Found in brackish waters with muddy ground.
184927		population	eng	No information available.
184927		threats	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology. Without further information, the threats to this species cannot be identified.
184928		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions known,&#160;however the species requires survey work to determine range, taxonomic status and future threats.
184928		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be restricted to central Thailand. It has been recorded in the Mae Klong River (type locality), Prachin River and Nan River. It occurs also in several klongs around Bangkok (Klong Bang O, Klong Ban Yikkan, Klong Prapa) and Klong Rapipat at Babn Ta Luang in Ayutthaya Province. In Patalung, it was found in a lagoon.&#160;This species is poorly known with few verified records. A record from Songkhla Lake (Songkhla and Phatthalung provinces) requires confirmation (<span class="txt_green_bold">Southern Marine and Coastal Resources Research Center, Thailand).
184928		habitat	eng	This is the only species in the largely marine family Marginellidae which lives in freshwater. It is found in rivers, lakes, and canals along                 the Gulf of Thailand.
184928		population	eng	This species is poorly known with few verified records.
184928		threats	eng	<p>Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.</p>
184930		conservation	eng	No information available.
184930		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong River between Ban Khum in Thailand and Kratie, Cambodia. In Thailand, it occurs at Ban Dan (type locality), Ban Khi Lek, Amphoe Khemmarat, Ban Khum and Ban Saphai. It was found in Lao PDR in the Province of Champasak at Khong Island (Mahidol University Collection), Ban Na and at the Somphamit and Phapheng Falls (Brandt 1974). In Cambodia, it has been found at Sambor and Kratie.
184930		habitat	eng	It is a freshwater species which lives on rocks and sticks.
184930		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
184930		threats	eng	<p>There are current and proposed dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.</p><p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
184931		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184931		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from the Mekong and Mun rivers in Ubon Ratchatani Province around Ban Dan in Thailand. The species is also recorded at Khemmarat (ANSP collection database online). Dead shells were collected near the Somphamit Falls, Khong Island in Lao PDR, however these shells may have been floodline debris washed down, and hence these records must be discounted until survey work shows the records to be confirmed, given the collecting effort for this species group at these sites.</p>
184931		habitat	eng	The species occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pachydrobia wykoffi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. crooki</span> and with species of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Hubendickia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraprososthenia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra</span> on sandy grounds of the river and rarely on rocks in quieter parts of it. It is found near the rapids, but never in strong currents.
184931		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184931		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong (proposed) and the Mun River (constructed) and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. <br/><p>Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
184932		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
184932		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Mekong River at Ban Khum, near Ban Dan and several locations in the Mun River (Pibun Mansahan, and the mouth of the Mun River) (ANSP collections database), and has been reported from Khong Island in Lao PDR (Brandt 1974). It is not known if the species is present below the Khone Falls in Cambodia.
184932		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids, attached on rocks, and feeds on algae.
184932		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184932		threats	eng	There are proposed dams (Sambor, Stung Treng and Don Sahong dams may be  built within ten years; I. Baird pers. comm. 2011) on the Mekong River and  these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the  species. Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may  also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen  1992).
184933		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184933		distribution	eng	The species is known from its type locality near Tha Uthen, Nakhon Phanom Province, <span class="field-data">and from Ubolratana Reservoir in Khon Kaen Province (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), in northeastern Thailand. An occurrence in Lao PDR at Don Khone, C<span class="field-data">hampasak Province (ANSP Mollusc Database) suggests a wider distribution.</span>
184933		habitat	eng	It lives on sandy grounds together with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. fasciata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. koratensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. jiraponi</span>.
184933		population	eng	No information available.
184933		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184934		conservation	eng	No information available.
184934		distribution	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widespread in Thailand (P. Sri-anoon pers. comm. 2011). The type locality is a trench near to Wat Gaeo, Thonburi Province, Thailand (Brandt 1974). Other known sites include a small pond at Ban Nong Koi in the Tong Sung District of Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Chiang Mai Province, Phang-Nga Province (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"> Records from coastal central Viet Nam <span class="hps">(Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan provinces) (Taiwan Malacofauna Database 2011) require confirmation. It is a very distinctive species, with a sinistral shell with conspicuous  ornamentation, and hence easily identified (J. Burch pers. comm. 2011).</span></p>
184934		habitat	eng	<p>It occurs, like the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Camptoceras</span>, in freshwater, but also in the zone of the tidal influence. It can be found in lotus ponds, and in other stagnant waters with aquatic vegetation.</p>
184934		population	eng	Population size is not known, however it is not abundant where found (P. Sri-anoon pers. comm. 2011).
184934		threats	eng	No information&#160;available.
184935		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
184935		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River at Khong Island (Brandt 1974). Records from museum collections show that in Thailand, it occurs only in the Ban Dan (Ubon Ratchathani Province, ANSP collections). In Lao PDR, it is found in the Mekong River at Khone Island (Mahidol University Collections) at Champasak Province.
184935		habitat	eng	Like all species of this genus, it lives on sandy grounds in qiuet parts of the Mekong, where it feeds on decaying organic matter.
184935		population	eng	No information available.
184935		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
184936		conservation	eng	No information available.
184936		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from the Mekong River around Ban Dan at the Thailand/Lao PDR border (Brandt 1974). There are records from the Mahidol Museum collection from the Mun River at Banen, (Mangsa District) and Mekong River at Pakse (Lao PDR).</p>
184936		habitat	eng	It is found on sandy ground on rocks in the rapids as well as on sandy ground in the quiet parts of the river. This species is known to feed on decaying organic matter and algae.
184936		population	eng	Population size is not known, as there are no recent survey data.
184936		threats	eng	Proposed mainstream dams on the Mekong will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.
184937		conservation	eng	None required.
184937		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from several provinces in northern and northeastern Thailand (e.g., Chiang Mai (Ngern-klun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), Kalasin (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), Mae Hong Son, Tak, Lamphun, and Chiang Rai) (Brandt 1974, Ngern-klun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). A record from Peninsular Malaysia requires confirmation.
184937		habitat	eng	<p>In Chiang Mai, Mae Sot and Lamphun, it was found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia siamensis</span> in freshwater. Specimens from Chiang Mai and Lamphun have been proven to be infected with cercariae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthorchis tenuicollis</span> (Cat liver fluke). It can also cause Echinostomiasis.<br/></p>
184937		population	eng	No information available.
184937		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
184939		conservation	eng	No information available.
184939		distribution	eng	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is common in Thailand along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand and of the Indian Ocean. Some individuals were found on the west coast of Malaysia (Brandt 1974). The species has recently been reported from Indonesia (Segara Anakan lagoon, Java; Nordhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/></p>
184939		habitat	eng	<p>Found in mud swamps, nipa palm and mangrove forests in brackish water. It feeds on decaying organic material.</p>
184939		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known and there are few recent survey data.
184939		threats	eng	There is no information on threats, but the species is likely to have  been impacted locally by habitat conversion and degradation.
184940		conservation	eng	No information available.
184940		distribution	eng	The species is known from southern Viet Nam (Vung Tau District), Thailand (only recorded from central-coastal Thailand (Samut Phrakan) and peninsular Thailand (Surat Thani) provinces, but likely to be more widespread), and Peninsular Malaysia. It should be looked for in suitable habitat in Cambodia.
184940		habitat	eng	It occurs in fresh and brackish waters with muddy ground and feeds on decaying organic material. It lives sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">I. bombayana</span>.
184940		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known and there are no recent survey data.
184940		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known, but may be impacted locally by pollution and habitat loss and conversion.
184943		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation action plans in place, however the species requires survey work to determine range, taxonomic status and future threats.
184943		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the River Kwai at Ban Kao Pun, north of Kanchanaburi in western Thailand (Brandt 1974; Mahidol University Collections).
184943		habitat	eng	It lives on sandy grounds in the river at quiet parts and feed on decaying organic matter.
184943		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
184943		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species, but it would be vulnerable to water pollution and sedimentation.</p>
184945		conservation	eng	None.
184945		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are needed in the wider Mediterranean region. In northern Africa, more data are required to be able to determine the range of the species in this area and the status of any populations there.
184945		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures needed in the wider Mediterranean region. In Northern Africa, more data are required to be able to determine the range of the species in this area and the status of any populations there.
184945		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura evansi</em> ranges from Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) (Krylova 1972, Borisov 1984) through the Middle East (Schneider 1981, Dumont 1991) to the Libyan desert in the west (Kimmins 1950). In the Northern Africa assessment area the species occurs only in Egypt.
184945		distribution	eng	<em>Ischnura evansi</em> ranges from Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) (Krylova 1972, Borisov 1984) through the Middle East (Schneider 1981, Dumont 1991) to the Libyan desert in the west (Kimmins 1950). It has also been recorded from Legrand (Dijkstra pers. comm.) in a lake on the border with Ethiopia and Djibouti. It is present in Egypt (Siwa oasis area, where the records are relatively clustered). The species habitat (salt marshes and swampy areas) are common, and it is likely that the species is more widespread Dijkstra, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt and Sudan (single record), Tsuda's listing for Djibouti is likely but needs verification. Occurrence in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia is assumed.
184945		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species occurs in North Africa, the Middle East, Azerbaijan and Iran.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt and Sudan, Tsuda's listing for Djibouti is likely but needs verification. Occurrence in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia is assumed.
184945		habitat	eng	The larvae of the species tolerates high salinity (Schneider 1981) and is therefore often found in backwaters, irrigation/drainage ditches, saline marshes, and saline pools in oases. Because of similar requirements it is very often associated with its congeners <em>Ischnura senegalensis</em> and <em>Ischnura fountaineae</em>. It is also the only <em>Ischnura</em> species known to migrate (nocturnal), and such movements may account for the widely scattered distribution in the northern part of the eremian zone (desert zone) (Waterston and Pittaway 1991).
184945		habitat	eng	The larvae of the species tolerates high salinity (Schneider 1981) and is therefore often found in backwaters, irrigation/drainage ditches, saline marshes, and saline pools in oases. Because of similar requirements it is very often associated with its congeners <em>Ischnura senegalensis</em> and <em>Ischnura fountaineae</em>. It is also the only <em>Ischnura</em> species known to migrate (nocturnal), and such movements may account for the widely scattered distribution in the northern part of the eremian zone (desert zone) (Waterston and Pittaway 1991).<br/><br/>Found  in oasis in western parts of northern Egypt, and in eastern Egypt along the Red Sea coast to Ethiopia.
184945		habitat	eng	Unknown.
184945		population	eng	No detailed information is available for this species. It has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean region and is locally abundant where it occurs. No population information is available from the northern Africa region.
184945		population	eng	No detailed information is available for this species. It has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean region and is locally abundant where it occurs. No population information is available from the Northern Africa region.
184945		population	eng	No information available.
184945		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present in the wider Mediterranean region. The species will tolerate higher saline conditions and may be more robust to drying conditions than other odonates. Nothing is known of the Northern Africa population.
184945		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present. The species will tolerate higher saline conditions and may be more robust to drier conditions than other odonates.
184945		threats	eng	None known.
184946		conservation	eng	More research is needed in the northern African region to determine the range and status of the species there.
184946		conservation	eng	More research is needed in the northern African region to determine the range and status of the species there. In general, research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.
184946		conservation	eng	No information available.
184946		conservation	eng	No information available. Research needed into population numbers and range for this species, and trends/monitoring.
184946		distribution	eng	<em>Orthetrum ransonneti</em> is a species with a wide but discontinuous distribution from Afghanistan (Schmidt 1961), Iran (e.g., Heidari and Dumont 2002), Arabia (Ris 1910, Waterston and Pittaway 1991, Schneider and Dumont 1997), Israel (Dumont 1991, Schneider 1986) and Jordan (Schneider 1986, Terzani 1995) to Africa. <br/><br/>Within the northern Africa region, it occurs in Egypt, where it reaches the Mediterranean via the Nile (Dumont 1980, Geene 1994, Ris 1910). Elsewhere in its global range, the species is restricted to inland desert habitats in the western Sahara, Niger, Chad, Algeria, and Sudan (Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000, Dumont and Martens 1984).
184946		distribution	eng	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is found in all major desert mountain areas of the Sahara.<br><br><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from the Red Sea Hills in Sudan within the region.
184946		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species just reaches into the north of the region - Algeria (Hoggar Mts), Niger (Air Mts) and Chad (Tibesti Mts).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species extends from Afghanistan and Arabia into the Sahara.
184946		distribution	eng	The species is present in the inland desert habitats in the western Sahara, Niger, Chad, Algeria, and Sudan (Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000, Dumont and Martens 1984). <em>Orthetrum ransonnetii</em> is a species with a wide but discontinuous distribution from Afghanistan (Schmidt 1961), Iran (e.g., Heidari and Dumont 2002), Arabia (Ris 1910, Waterston and Pittaway 1991, Schneider and Dumont 1997), Israel (Dumont 1991, Schneider 1986) and Jordan (Schneider 1986, Terzani 1995) to Africa. Probably present in Libya, where there has been little survey (Boudot pers. comm.). From central Algeria to Egypt and Sudan.<br/><br/>Within the northern Africa region, it occurs in Egypt, where it reaches the Mediterranean via the Nile (Dumont 1980, Geene 1994, Ris 1910). <br/><br/>The species just reaches into the north of the western Africa region - Algeria (Hoggar Mts.), Niger (Air Mts.) and Chad (Tibesti Mts.).
184946		habitat	eng	Desert.
184946		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on the ecology of <em>Orthetrum ransonneti</em>. Waterston and Pittaway (1991) report the species "occurring around deep rocky pools in boulder-strewn wadis", an observation that can be confirmed for Jordan (Schneider, unpublished data).
184946		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on the ecology of <em>Orthetrum ransonnetii</em>. In northern Africa, Waterston and Pittaway (1991) report the species "occurring around deep rocky pools in boulder-strewn wadis", an observation that can be confirmed for Jordan (Schneider, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is found in waters in desert mountain areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in the desert.
184946		habitat	eng	Waters in desert mountain areas.
184946		population	eng	Little information is available for this species. Few observations indicate that the species is never abundant at a given locality (Schneider, unpublished data).
184946		population	eng	No information available.
184946		population	eng	No information is available for this species. Few observations indicate that the species is never abundant at a given locality (Schneider, unpublished data).
184946		population	eng	Population size is unknown.
184946		threats	eng	No information.
184946		threats	eng	No major threats known.
184946		threats	eng	None known.
184946		threats	eng	Unknown
184948		conservation	eng	<span title=""><span title="">Since the low population density is the most pressing problem, it is necessary to manage/stop the catch and reinforce the population with individuals reared in captivity. <span title="">The species should be included in the National and Regional Endangered Species Catalogue, which would legally prohibit its harvest.&#160;Because of its popularity in Andalusia and its great appeal in the world of amateur malacology would be possible to use.&#160;Since 2005, a Conservation Plan for <em>Iberus g.&#160;</em><em>gualtieranus</em> is developed within the Programme for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Land Snails of Andalusia, sponsored by the Ministry of Environment of the Junta de Andalucía and led by the Physiology and Zoology&#160;Department (<span title="">University of Seville).&#160;At present, breeding in captivity (laboratory scale in Seville University) has been obtained to complete cycle (Arrébola, Ruiz, and Cárcaba, unpublished data).&#160;In this sense, it is crucial to begin the half-scale breeding of the species (this will be done in 2011).</span></span>
184948		distribution	eng	The original distribution area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberus gualtieranus</span><em> gualtieranus</em> is the eastern third of Sierra de Gádor (Almería, Andalucía, south of the Iberian Peninsula), although it is also known from several narrower, isolated and restricted sites in eastern Andalucía: at least Sierra de Jaén (Jaén), Sierra Elvira (Granada) and even Almanzora (NE Almería). According to Elejalde <em>et al</em>. (2005, 2008)&#160;the subpopulation of&#160;Sierra de Gador is the only native population,<em>&#160;</em>having originated the others by recent anthropogenic introductions (due to its gastronomic use) carried out from this only autochthonous population.&#160;There are slight conchological differences between Sierra Gádor shells and others, specially in relation with the greater size of&#160; the original subpopulation shells. The data in this assessment (such as the extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO)) refer to the original and only subpopulation in Sierra de Gador, where the EOO would be continuous and have the same surface as the AOO, if there was no anthropic habitat destruction and fragmentation. The other subespecies&#160;<em>I.g. mariae</em> and <em>I.g. ornatissimus</em> are restricted to Los Alcores de Punta Entinas (type locality) and Barranco Fuerte in Huecija (type locality) and surroundings (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
184948		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberus gualtieranus</span> <span title=""><em></em><em>gualtieranus</em> is a&#160;calcicolous, drought tolerant and thermophilic&#160;species&#160;living in limestone mountain areas of rocky substrate and sun exposure&#160;sub-desert&#160;environments with sparse vegetation. It can also occur in areas with more vegetation cover in Sierra Elvira (Moreno-Rueda 2002). It avoids earthy and shady places.&#160;During dry weather, it takes refuge inside the crevices of the rocks and under stones.&#160;<span title="">Studies on its biology (unpublished data) indicated a low reproductive success, dispersal and predation rates, high rates of&#160;adult resistance, synchronization of the activity, absence of predators and/or good defence against them and juvenile mortality due to adverse environmental conditions.&#160;With its&#160;flattened shell is well adapted to living in strict climates of drought and insulation for long periods, allowing it to penetrate deeper into the fissures of the rock and displace&#160;<em>I.&#160;</em><em>alonensis sensu lato</em> in the native range of <span title=""><em>I.&#160;</em><em>g.&#160;</em><em>gualtieranus</em><span title=""><span title="">.&#160;<span title="">The subpopulations of the species living in areas of low rainfall, have developed a fast and accurate behavioural response to the rare rainy moments of the year.&#160;Aestivation is the time of year when more juveniles die because of high temperatures that produce animal dehydration.The active periods of feeding, movement, growth and reproduction are mainly occurring during two times of the year: spring and specially in&#160;autumn.&#160;During&#160;cold and dry winters, its activity is reduced (unpublished data).</span></span></span>
184948		population	eng	<span title="">The first census for this species has been done in Sierra de Gádor (unpublished data) and the results were not very optimistic: <em>I.g. gualtieranus </em>could be under the minimum density threshold for population viability, so that the density of adults would not be enough for positives or nulls growth rates&#160;(Arrebola and Ruiz 2008; unpublished data). As there are no previous census data, it is not possible to estimate the rate of the population decline. However, indirect evidences support the hypothesis of a population decline (loss of habitats, harvest increase, fires, motorways construction, etc.). Back in 1979, Cobos already indicated that this population was declining and now, the subspecies in Almeria is already commercially extinct. Another census has been done in Sierra Elvira (Moreno-Rueda and Pizarro 2007).
184948		threats	eng	Highway construction has meant that 8.7% of the&#160;area of occupancy&#160;is divided into 14 fragments physically separated by insurmountable barriers for snails. Three important fires have happened in the area of occupancy since 2003 (affecting 9,5% of the extent of occurrence) producing a comparatively lower density of individuals at present. I<span title="">rreversible loss of the area of occupancy occurred between 1991 and 1999 (3.4 km<sup>2</sup>) due to urban and agriculture&#160;development&#160;(2.43% of the total EOO in 1991).&#160;<span title="">Habitat loss reaches 8.7% of the EOO from 1956 (no agriculture or urban pressure) and 2004. From a biologic point of view, poor recruitment and population reproduction and regeneration index, high juvenile mortality and low density are also impacting the species survival.&#160;<span title="">Analysis of fronts of hybridization between the subpopulations of <em>I.&#160;</em><span title=""><em>g.&#160;</em><em>gualtieranus</em>&#160;and other <em>Iberus</em> species indicate that they are in a dynamic equilibrium, and no evidence has been found that these fronts are a threat to the conservation of the subspecies. Traditional harvesting <span title="">has produced a strong impact on population intrinsic factors (low rates of recruitment, reproduction and regeneration population, aggravated by high juvenile mortality) and the current density may have reached a point where the population viability would be naturally&#160;compromised&#160;(unpublished data).&#160;The indiscriminate and uncontrolled collection made in recent decades derives from its great gastronomic appreciation, and even though it has been considered commercially extinct, it is still collected due to its high market value<span title="">.&#160;Furthermore, the catches are made in times of activity, when most individuals are visible to collectors, causing an irreversible impact on the population (unpublished data).</span></span></span>
184949		conservation	eng	From a conservation management point of view, the resolution of the taxonomy and the assessment of the genetic divergence of&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;have been of great significance because it allows to particularize the different situations.&#160;The large size of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Iberus</em>&#160;makes them the best candidates for gastronomic purposes, most of them being locally consumed in their particular distribution areas, specially the flattened&#160;<em>I. gualtieranus&#160;</em>and the rounded&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><em>I.</em></st1:place><em>&#160;alonensis</em>&#160;groups which represent a true traditional, natural and economic resource to rural population.&#160;Unfortunately, the impact caused by uncontrolled and excessive snail captures, accumulated during a long time, as well as other pressures originated by human activities (the advance of agriculture, habitat degradation, fires…) have produced a significant reduction in snail’s numbers in the environment and the necessity to take urgent actions to mitigate them. <em>I. alonensis</em> has recently been proposed as a VU species in the region of Castilla La Mancha by Bragado, Araujo & Aparicio&#160;(2009).&#160;In our opinion, it would be necessary and urgent to manage this species like the natural and economic resource that it represents: to establish appropriate periods and catch sizes, to investigate the still unknown aspects of the species and its population, to monitor the processes and to promote the heliciculture...&#160;Several attempts of&#160; <st1:place w:st="on"><em>I.</em></st1:place><em>&#160;alonensis</em>&#160; heliciculture are known in Spain, even though rather old and rudimentary techniques are employed. In addition to its zootechnic potentiality, heliciculture of the genus&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;is also an important  conservation tool (i.e. reintroductions and restockings). Knowing the personal motivations, the politic and social context and the local interest in relation with the species would also be useful in order to involve citizens and public authorities in the management of the resource by means of information and education and other similar actions (Reynolds, Mace, Redford & Robinson 2001)
184949		distribution	eng	The endemic <em>I. alonensis</em> is distributed in the eastern half of the Iberian Peninsula, except in Andalusia and in the south end of the Murcia provinces where it has contact zones with <em>I. carthaginiensis</em>&#160;(Elejalde&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2008).
184949		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone areas refuges under stones, in crevices or at the base/inside of plants and shrubs.
184949		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However,&#160;it is possible to infer that there are a great number of individual due to its large range even though different observations have demonstrated that it exists at low density (i.e. Bragado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
184949		threats	eng	The main threats against <em>I. alonensis</em>&#160;is the unregulated over-harvesting as a long-standing tradition, causing important impact on the population. Agriculture, habitat degradation and fires are other potential threats.
184950		conservation	eng	From a conservation management point of view, the resolution of the taxonomy and the assessment of the genetic divergence of&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;have been of great significance, because it allows&#160;to particularize the different situations. Unfortunately, nothing is known about the population status of&#160;<em>I. campesinus</em>&#160;and therefore it is not easy to be accurate in the&#160;assessment. However, considering that it is moderately harvested and has a small range, where no natural protected site is included, it is considered that, unlike other <em>Iberus,</em> <em>I. campesinus</em>&#160;could face a more serious threat. It is necessary and urgent to conduct research on order to get more population data. This snail is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucia). It has not been included in Atlas of the Spain Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2006, 2009) or in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
184950		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberus campesinus</span> is endemic of the Iberian Peninsula. Its range comprises a small area in the east of the Almería provinces and the southernmost part of the Murcia provinces (Elejalde <em>et al</em>. 2008). Despite the fact that more surveys need to be done, it is considered that this species is not found at more than 10 locations.
184950		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone mountains refuges under stones or at the base/inside of plants and shrubs. There are many cases of hybridization between <em>I. campesinus</em> and other geographically close <em>Iberus</em> species (<em>I. carthaginiensis </em>and<em> I. gualtieranus</em>).
184950		population	eng	There are no population studies for this species, but the population is thought to be declining because this species is collected as food. Based on observation in nature, a low density can be inferred.
184950		threats	eng	As other&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;spp. the main threat to <em>I. campesinus</em>&#160;are the unregulated over-harvesting as a long-standing tradition (for human consumption), potentially affecting the population. Fires and desertification are also threats to this species and the quality of its habitat. Effects of agriculture activities and other threats should be investigated in the future.
184951		conservation	eng	From a conservation management point of view, the resolution of the taxonomy and the assessment of the genetic divergence of&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;have been of great significance, because it allows&#160;to particularize the different situations. Unfortunately, nothing is known about the population status of <em>I. carthaginiensis</em> and therefore it is not easy to be accurate in the&#160;assessment, specially as it is harvested for human consumption. Luckily, natural protected parks of Sierra María in Almería and Sierra Espuña in Murcia are part of its range and several other mountain areas are&#160;inaccessible to&#160;collectors. However, it is necessary and urgent to conduct studies in order to get population data and then, if the situation requires it, to manage this species like the natural and economic resource that it represents: to establish appropriate periods and catch sizes, investigate the still unknown aspects about the species and its population, monitor processes, promote the heliciculture...&#160;We consider helpful and practical to know the personal motivations, politic and social context and local interest in relation with the species and then to involve citizens and public authorities in the management of the resource by means of information and education and other similar actions (Reynolds, Mace, Redford & Robinson 2001).&#160;It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent recognition as a valid species, it has been neither included in Atlas of the Spain Theatened Invertebrates (Verdú & Galante 2009) nor in the Red Book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperón, Moreno 2008).
184951		distribution	eng	<em>Iberus carthaginiensis</em>&#160;is confined to limestone sierras and surroundings places in the northern part of the Granada and Almería provinces and in the southern half of Murcia (Iberian Peninsula). Following Elejalde <em>et al</em>. (2008), the records of <em>I. alonensis</em> in this area must be referred to <em>I. carthaginiensis</em>, what would mean that it is found in about 15 grids of 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
184951		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone sierras refuges under stones, in crevices or at the base/inside of plants and shrubs.
184951		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. According to our observations in the nature, a low density can be inferred.
184951		threats	eng	As other <em>Iberus</em> spp., the main threats to <em>I. carthaginiensis</em>&#160;are the unregulated over-harvesting as a long-standing tradition (for human consumption), impacting the population. Luckily, a significant proportion of the population lives in mountain areas that are inaccessible or hardly accessible to collectors and act as reservoirs and ensure the survival of the species. Other threats should be investigated in the future.
184952		conservation	eng	Research on the ecology of this species and monitoring of the harvest trends is required. It lives in the Natural Park Cazorla, Segura y Las Villa, one of the most important and well preserved parks in Andalusia (and Spain). It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent recognition as a valid species, it has not been included in the Atlas of the Spainish Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) or in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperón and Moreno 2008).
184952		distribution	eng	The Iberian Peninsula endemic <em>I. guiraoanus</em> is known from eastern Jaén, north Granada and some localities in the south of the Albacete provinces (Elejalde <em>et al</em>. 2008; Bragado, Araujo and Aparicio 2009). It is very close to the allopatric (i.e. geographically separated) species&#160;<em>I. angustatus.</em>
184952		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone mountains,&#160; mainly in crevices, but also under stones or at the base/inside of plants and shrubs.&#160;Hybridization with other&#160;geographically close&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;is not excluded, especially with&#160;<em>I. angustatus.</em>
184952		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. According to our observations in the nature, a high density of individuals can be inferred.
184952		threats	eng	Harvest for food is the main specific threat for this species
184953		conservation	eng	Research and harvest management and monitoring are the most important actions for&#160;<em>I. angustatus</em>&#160;conservation.&#160;It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of the Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent recognition as valid species it has been neither included in Atlas of the Spain Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú & Galante 2009) nor in Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón, Ballesteros-Duperón, Moreno 2008).
184953		distribution	eng	<em>Iberus angustatus</em>&#160;lives in the south of Jaén and an adjacent area in the north of Granada provinces (Iberian Peninsula). This range is located between the distributions of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. ortizi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. guiraoanus</span>, which are allopatric species (i.e. species occurring in separate, nonoverlapping geographic areas) with some contact zones (Elejalde <em>et al</em>. 2008).
184953		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone mountains mainly refuges in crevices, but also under stones or at the base/inside of plants and shrubs.&#160;Hybridization with other&#160;geographically close&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;is not excluded&#160;(i.e. with&#160;<em>I. guiraoanus, I. ortizi, I. loxanus</em>).
184953		population	eng	There are no population data about this species. However, it seems to occur at high density in the wild.
184953		threats	eng	The harvesting could be a threat for the population, but, as other medium-sized&#160;&#160;<em>Iberus</em>&#160;spp., this is not a target species for snail collectors. Furthermore, a good proportion of the population lives in&#160;inaccessible or hardly accessible&#160;mountain areas that act as reservoirs that ensure the survival of the species. Other threats should be investigated in the future.
184954		conservation	eng	Research on the population, ecology and threats (including harvest trends) is the most urgent conservation measure for this species. It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). Due to its recent recognition as valid species, it has not been included in Atlas of the Spain Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) or in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
184954		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the south of the province of Córdoba (Andalusia, Spain). It is allopatric&#160; (i.e. geographically separated) with <em>I. angustatus</em> (Elejalde <em>et al</em>. 2008).
184954		habitat	eng	This species lives in limestone mountains, mainly in crevices, but also under stones or within branches of plants and shrubs.
184954		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
184954		threats	eng	Harvest could impact this species. Agriculture and fires are also potential threats.
184961		conservation	eng	Known to occur within protected areas in parts of its range. No information is available on conservation measures in place
184961		distribution	eng	Within the southern Africa region, the species appears to be widespread in the tropical north (Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, and South Africa), but has a very localised distribution. In South Africa, it is known only from Mjabeni swamp, where it was first recorded in the country in February 2001 (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, it has been recorded from Angola to Mozambique and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), and Tanzania.
184961		habitat	eng	Swamps. It was recorded from swamp forest on Pemba Island. In South Africa it is recorded from extensive marshland bordered by trees (Samways 2006 in press).
184961		population	eng	In South Africa, it was recorded to occur in large numbers at its only known site, but since it was not recorded here prior to 2001 and its only known site periodically almost dries out, it is thought to be a species whose range extends into the country only under periodically suitable conditions (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available from elsewhere in the range.
184961		threats	eng	Current threats across its range are unknown. In South Africa, it is known only from a site within a protected area and the only threats are likely to be natural (e.g., El Niño droughts) rather than anthropogenic (Samways 2006 in press).
184985		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods and further research is needed to improve our understanding of species’ reproductive biology, growth, and population structure to ensure that appropriate conservation measures can be put in place (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). No catch data for this species is available; it should be noted this species is not considered to be common (Chan 1998). Further research is required to establish its population size and the potential effects of harvesting on this species’ population. Furthermore, conservation measures should be put in place to protect this species’ habitat. Coral reefs in both Indonesia and the Philippines are under high levels of stress, degradation, and fishing pressure; which increases the possibility of a decline in this species population numbers.
184985		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean (Chan and Ng 2008). It is known from Indonesia and the Philippines (Holthuis 1983, Chan 1998).
184985		habitat	eng	This species is found on shallow coral reefs at depths of 0-1 m (Chan 1998, Poupin 2002). It is considered to be shy and is often found hiding in rock cavities (Holthuis 1983, Chan 1998).
184985		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it is not considered to be common (Chan 1998).
184985		threats	eng	This is a highly prized and very popular species in the aquarium trade industry (Chan 1998, Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). Specimens are collected from wild populations using the chemical rotenone, and manually by divers (Chan 1998, Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). Export of live specimens is likely to occur on a regular basis from Indonesia and the Philippines (Chan 1998). However, no catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size. Furthermore, coral reefs in both the Philippines and Indonesia are exposed to a number of threats, such as destructive fishing practices (cyanide and blast fishing), increase in sedimentation due to deforestation and coastal developments, coral bleaching and climate change, which have led major degradation of coral reef habitats (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
184986		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its current distribution, population size and habitat preferences and to identify potential threats.
184986		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality on Rapa Iti, French Polynesia:&#160;27°36’S, 144°16’W&#160;(Holthuis 2002).
184986		habitat	eng	The type material was collected at a depth of 250-300 m (Holthuis 1993, Poupin 1996).
184986		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species; it is only known from its type locality (Holthuis 2002).
184986		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
184987		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the population, distribution, and threats impacting this species are needed.
184987		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from two specimens collected from Formosa Bay (Ungama Bay) northern Kenya between 7°45'S 40°28'E and 2°20'S 41°10'E (Holthuis 2002).
184987		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from substrate that includes stones and sponges (Holthuis 2002)
184987		population	eng	This species is known from two specimens.
184987		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
184988		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences, and to identify potential threats.
184988		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Queensland and New South Wales, Australia (McWilliam <em>et al.</em> 1995, Davie 2002, Holthuis 2002). It is known from the lower east coast of New South Wales (approximately 37°S) north to the central east coast of Queensland (approximately 26°30’S) (Davie 2002, Holthuis 2002).
184988		habitat	eng	This is a sublittoral species that has been collected from muddy substrate and can also be found among fan corals (Davie 2002, Holthuis 2002). It has been recorded from depths of approximately 70-230 m (Holthuis 2002).
184988		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184988		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
184989		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
184989		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andaman Sea, specifically off the island of Sumatra, Indonesia (Galil 2000).
184989		habitat	eng	This species is found from unknown habitat at depths between 1,150 and 1,757 m (Galil 2000).
184989		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184989		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however due to the great depths at which it occurs it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.
184990		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further collections of this species are needed to&#160; better understand ecology, abundance and distribution.
184990		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Japan (Sagami Bay and Suruga Bay), Indonesia (Kai Islands and Tanimbar Islands), and Australia (Western Australia, New South Wales, and possibly Victoria and Tasmania) (Chan 1997, Watabe and Lizuka, 1999, DEWHA 2009). The type locality for this species is the Indian Ocean, west of Ashmore Reef, Western Australia, at a depth of 900-1,000 m (13°06'S, 122°18'E) (Macpherson 1993).
184990		habitat	eng	This is a deep sea species, recorded from depths of 350 - 1,105m. &#160;Its substrate preferences are unknown.
184990		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species as it is only known from approximately six specimens (Chan 1997).
184990		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species faces any major threats.
184991		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
184991		distribution	eng	This species is known from Indonesia only (Galil 2000), from depths between 650 and 915 m.
184991		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
184991		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184991		threats	eng	This deep sea species is unlikely to be impacted by any threats.
184992		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics and distribution is suggested as these data are lacking.
184992		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the central Great Barrier Reef, Coral Sea, Australia (Ahyong <em>et al.</em> 2007).
184992		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft substrates in coral reef areas (Ahyong <em>et al.</em> 2007).
184992		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184992		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
184993		conservation	eng	There is no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods.<br/><br/>Further research on the life history, population structure, and level of harvesting is needed (Calado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
184993		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern, central and western Atlantic Ocean (Poupin 2003, Chan and Ng 2008). In the western Atlantic, it is known from: the Bermuda Islands, Florida (USA), the Bahamas, the Netherland Antilles, the French West Indies, the Caribbean coast of Panama, Columbia, and south to Cabo Frio in Brazil (Gordon 1968, Fausto-Filho 1970, Manning and Camp 1989, Poupin 2003, Ceballos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Gregati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is also known from Ascension and St. Helena Islands in the central Atlantic Ocean. Also, in the eastern Atlantic Ocean it is known from: Madeira, the Canary Islands, the Gulf of Guinea, and Cape Verde (Gordon 1968, Wirtz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988, Manning and Camp 1989, Poupin 2003).
184993		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow waters in rocky and coral reefs and is generally found at depths of 5-201 m (Poupin 2003, R. Wahle pers. comm. 2009). This is a cryptic species that often hides in crevices during the day (Manning and Camp 1989).
184993		population	eng	It is thought to be common and has been found to be locally abundant in the central Atlantic Ocean (Poupin 2003).
184993		threats	eng	This species has no commercial fishery (Poupin 2003, Gregati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This is a highly prized species in the aquarium trade (Calado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Gregati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Its estimated commercial value is 25-40 Euros per specimen (Calado 2006). Specimens are currently harvested from wild populations for the aquarium trade, however commercial culture techniques are being developed (Calado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).Calado (2006) considers this species to be vulnerable in Madeira due to its commercial value and its novelty in the aquarium market. No catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size.<br/><br/>Furthermore, coral reefs in the Caribbean are exposed to a number of threats, such as increase in sedimentation, pollution and climate change, which have led major degradation of coral reef habitats (Caribbean Environment Programme 2001). However, this species is widely distributed and it is therefore unlikely that it is experiencing a significant decline in population size.
184994		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/>Further research into the population, habitat and ecology, distribution, as well as the threats impacting this species is needed.
184994		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Albany passage in the Torres straight region of North Australia. It has also been recorded as having been collected in Japan, but this specimen is thought to be mis-labelled (Holthuis 2002)
184994		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology for this species is unknown.
184994		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
184994		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
184995		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/>Further research is needed into the distribution, abundance and threats to this species.
184995		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Red Sea (Holthuis 1967; Bourdon 1967), and the southern Gulf of Suez (Zarenkov 1971).
184995		habitat	eng	The original material for this species was taken from depths ranging from 40-46 m and 73-82 m; Zarenkov (1971) specimens were reported from the depth range of 20-60 m (Holthuis 2002).
184995		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184995		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991, 2002).
184996		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
184996		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Bohol and Sulu Seas of the Philippines (Ahyong and Chan 2008).
184996		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown habitat at a depth range of 784 - 1,773 m (Ahyong and Chan 2008).
184996		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
184996		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however due to its occurrence at great depths it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes, such as from commercial fishing activities.
184997		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information on threats, and population to this species is needed.
184997		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from the Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands (Holthuis 2002). Material examined for the Hawaiian Islands included specimens from the south coast of Molokai, Kapuai Point near Kauai, Mokuhooniki Islet, Auau Channel between Maui and Lanai, and Oahu (Rabbit/ford Id, Pokai Bay, and Sand Id) (Holthuis 2002). From the Marquesas Islands material was collected from Eiao Island, Nuku Hiva Island, Ua Huka Island, Ua Pou Island, Anaho Bay, and Matuhee Bay (Holthuis 2002).
184997		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from depths between 29 and 112 m (one report 27-29 m and one is 97-402 m), mostly between 50-100 m (Holthuis 2002). <br/><br/>This species has been found on coarse sandy bottoms (sand, algae, broken shells, coral, fine coral sand, globigerina, coral and sand) (Holthuis 2002).
184997		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184997		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991). Other threats to this species are unknown.
184998		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods and further research is needed to improve our understanding of species’ reproductive biology, growth and population structure to ensure that appropriate conservation measures can be put in place (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). No catch data for this species is available and this species is considered to be uncommon (Chan 1998). Further research is required to establish its population size and the potential effects of harvesting on this species’ population.
184998		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific (Chan and Ng 2008). It is known to occur in Indonesia, New Caledonia, Hawaii, and possibly Japan (Holthuis 1983, Chan 1998, Poupin 2003).
184998		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs and is found at depths of 12-25 m (Chan 1998, Poupin 2003).
184998		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be uncommon (Chan 1998).
184998		threats	eng	This is a highly prized and very popular species in the aquarium trade industry (Chan 1998, Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). The average commercial value of this species is $25 U.S. (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). Specimens are collected from wild populations by hand nets during night dives (Chan 1998). Most specimens exported for the aquarium trade are from Indonesia (Chan 1998); however, no catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size.
184999		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on population, habitat, and threats is recommended as these data are lacking.
184999		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa (Holthuis 1991), including Namibia (Macpherson 1991).
184999		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species, and was found at depths of 100-300 m off the coast of Namibia (Macpherson 1991).
184999		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
184999		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known; however this is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).
185000		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185000		distribution	eng	This species is found across the globe, from as northerly as Greenland to South Africa (Galil 2000). It is also known from Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Bay of Biscay across the Atlantic to Canada and the USA (Galil 2000). It has also been recorded from West Africa and the Azores, the East China Sea, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Wallis and Fortuna Islands, Vanuatu, New Zealand, Solomon Islands and Australia (Galil 2000, Ahyong and Galil 2006). Additionally this species is known from the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea and India, and from Alaska, USA to Chile (Hendrickx 1995, Galil 2000).
185000		habitat	eng	This species has been found on muddy substrates from a depth range of 300 - 4,000 m.
185000		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185000		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
185001		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. &#160;Further research is required to determine this species full distribution.
185001		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a single holotype collected east of Rapa Island in the Bass group of the Austral Islands, French Polynesia (Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185001		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from an unknown habitat at a depth of 900-1,300 m (Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185001		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
185001		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185002		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research is needed on the distribution, extent of the fishery, harvest levels, and fishing effort.
185002		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippines, Indonesia and northwest Australia (Carpenter and Niem 1998).
185002		habitat	eng	This species is taken over soft substrates (sand and mud) at a depth range of 150-391 m (Carpenter and Niem 1998).
185002		population	eng	There is no population information available.
185002		threats	eng	This species is frequently confused with <em>Ibacus ciliatus</em> (Carpenter and Niem 1998). This species is harvested in trawls and is likely to be mixed with <em>I. ciliatus</em> in Philippine markets (Carpenter and Niem 1998). This species is frequently taken as by-catch in the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery of Australia (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004). The status of the fishery and the effect of harvesting on the population numbers is unknown.
185003		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;
185003		distribution	eng	This species is currently know from a few specimens collected in Marinduque, Luzon, Cagayan, Panaon, Mindanao and Leyte islands in the Philippines, Mollucas and South Doworra island in Indonesia, and the Straits of Malacca and the Mindanao Sea in the Gulf of Thailand (Galil 2000).
185003		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown habitat at a depth range of 280 - 1,785 m.
185003		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185003		threats	eng	This species is not likely to face any major threat due to its deep-water nature.
185004		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics and distribution is suggested as these data are lacking. Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185004		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, at Snake Pit, a hydrothermal vent (Segonzac and Macpherson 2003). Specifically it is found at 23°22.15’N -44°57.15’W (Segonzac and Macpherson 2003).
185004		habitat	eng	This sepcies is found on deep water geothermal volcanoes, known as 'black-smokers' (Segonzac and Macpherson 2003).
185004		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185004		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
185005		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its current distribution and population size and to identify potential threats.
185005		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western and central Pacific (Poupin 2003). It is known from: the Loyalty Islands in New Caledonia, the Austral, Society and Tuamotu Islands in French Polynesia, and possibly Japan (Poupin 2003; Chan and Ng 2008).
185005		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hard bottom substrates and is generally found at depths of 80-300 m (Poupin 2003). It is mostly found at depths of more than 100 m (Poupin 2003).
185005		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Ten individuals of this species were trapped in a single station, indicating that it can be locally abundant (Poupin 2002).
185005		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185006		conservation	eng	There are currently no species-specific conservation measure in place. Further research into the&#160;population, distribution, ecology, and threats impacting this species are needed.
185006		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the holotype collected in the West Lagoon Viti Levu, Fiji Isalnds at 17°52.5'S 177°15.5'E and at a depth of 25 m (Holthuis 2002).
185006		habitat	eng	This species was collected at a depth of 25 m (Holthuis 2002).
185006		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
185006		threats	eng	The threats to this species are currently unknown.
185007		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics and distribution is suggested as these data are lacking. Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185007		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan, Taiwan, and New Caledonia (Carpenter and Niem 1998).
185007		habitat	eng	This species prefers rocky substrates (Carpenter and Niem 1998). &#160;It has been collected from depths of 150 - 340 m.
185007		population	eng	This species is described as rare (Carpenter and Niem 1998).
185007		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. Although this species is occasionally caught in dredges and tangle nets, it is not considered to be commercially viable (Carpenter and Niem 1998).
185008		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the popluation and threats impacting this species are needed for conservation measures to be put in place.
185008		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from specimens collected in Walter Shoals, Madagascar Ridge approximately 400 nautical miles South of Madagascar at 33°9-16'S 44°49-56'E. The specimens were collected at a depth of more than 100 m (Groeneveld<em> et al.</em> 2006).
185008		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from shallow shoals up to a depth of 15 m (Groenveld<em> et al.</em> 2006).
185008		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185008		threats	eng	A high seas species that is occasionally fished by vessels visiting Walters Shoals. Also captured on other seamounts in the &#160;SWIO region by commercial and research vessels (Romanov 2003). Sold on European markets, possibly as <span style="font-style: italic;">Palinurus elephas </span>(A. Cockcroft pers. comm. 2010).
185009		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed.
185009		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens which have been collected from Taiwan and Japan (Chan and Yu 1995).
185009		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat preferences of this species, however other species in the genus are typically found on deep reef slopes at a depth range of 59-670 m (Chan and Yu 1995).
185009		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185009		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
185010		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed.
185010		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Juan Fernandez Islands of Chile (Holthuis 2002).
185010		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. The holotype was collected from a depth of 55 m (Bouvier 1909).
185010		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
185010		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
185011		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its current distribution, population size, habitat preferences and ecology.
185011		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines (Kensley and Child 1986). It is only known by the holotype which was collected on Batan Island, Philippines (20°24'40"N, 121°58'35"E) (Kensley and Child 1986, Chan and Ng 2008).
185011		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected at a depth of 2 m (Kensley and Child 1986).
185011		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype (Poupin 2002, Chan and Ng 2008).
185011		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185012		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185012		distribution	eng	This species is found across the globe, including the Mediterranean, down to the Canary Islands and Mauritania, the Cape Verde Islands, West Africa, South Africa, East Africa, Comoros Islands and Madagascar (Galil 2000). In the Atlantic, this species is known from USA, Canada, Iceland and the Labrador Sea, down to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea and also as far as Guyana and Chile (Galil 2000). Additionally it is present in the waters off Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Fiji, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, China Sea up to Japan and Taiwan (Galil 2000, Ahyong and Chan 2004, Ahyong and Galil 2006). It has been recorded in the Arabian Sea, Sri Lanka and Gulf of Aden (Galil 2000).
185012		habitat	eng	This species has been found on muddy substrates off the coast of Ireland and a Chilean methane seep area (ERT Scotland Ltd 2007, Sellanes <em>et al.</em> 2008). &#160;It is found between depths of 200 and 4,000 m.
185012		population	eng	This species is described as abundant in the Catalan sea, western Mediterranean and the Mexican Gulf (Cartes and Sardia 1993, Wicksten and Packard 2005).
185012		threats	eng	This species faces no major threat.
185013		conservation	eng	There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the population, distribution, and threats impacting this species are needed.
185013		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the holotype collected off the coast of Espirito Santo, South-Eastern Brazil at 18°59'S, 37°49'W (Tavares 1997).
185013		habitat	eng	This species was collected at a depth range of 290-315 m (Tavares 1997)
185013		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
185013		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185014		conservation	eng	The minimum legal size (MLS) of catch imposed in early 1990s of 6.2 cm carapace width has been recently increased to 7.5 cm in 1995 (Courtney 2002). Further research into the population size is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185014		distribution	eng	This species is known from Queensland, Australia (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2001), from depths between 10 and 30 m.
185014		habitat	eng	This species is found on  fine mud or 'silty inshore substrates' between 10 to 30 m (Brown 1997, Spanier and Lavalli 2007). This species reaches sexual maturity at 125 to 135 mm, which is within the first year (Brown 1997).
185014		population	eng	There is no overall population information for this species, however a density of approximately 12,000 per km<sup>2</sup> was found around Queensland, Australia (Jones 1993). The available catch per unit effort data for this species indicates that 16.5 (±1.4) were captured per hour trawled and per hectare trawled (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2001). Relative abundance, as measured by mean catch per hectare equated to 1.78 (±0.15) (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2001).
185014		threats	eng	This species is often caught as by-catch in northeastern Australia and sold along with <em>Thenus orientalis</em> under the name of 'Moreton Bay Bug' (Courtney 2002). It is mostly caught while trawling for endeavour, banana and tiger prawns in near-shore waters at depths of 10-30 m (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2001). Fishing logbooks does not contain separate records of the landings or catch weight for each <em>Thenus</em> species and are often recorded with 'Balmain bug' species <em>(Ibacus chacei</em>, <em>I. brucei,</em> <em>I. peronii</em>, <em>I. alticrenatus</em>) data (Courtney 2002). Overall bugs landings for Queensland, Australia have declined from maximum of 755 t in 1997 to a minimum of 386 t in 2001, which is probably due to the decline in effort and the use of turtle excluder devices (Courtney 2002). However, despite there being no reported issues with stock, the uncertainty around the CPUE data cannot be resolved until this species is recorded separately from <em>Thenus orientalis&#160;</em>(Brown 1997).
185015		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the ecology of this species is needed.
185015		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic and Caribbean (Galil 2000). Specimens have been found off the Moroccan coast, Portugal, Canary Islands, Bahamas, around the Gulf of Mexico, and also from the east coast of the USA (Galil 2000).
185015		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185015		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185015		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185016		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on population, distribution, and threats is recommended as these data are lacking.
185016		distribution	eng	This species is known from Caribbean Sea (Holthuis 1991). It is reported from the Gulf of Mexico and the western Caribbean waters (Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca 2004). This species was originally described in the 1960s by Holthuis, and was found off the coasts of Honduras, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela (Holthuis 1969).
185016		habitat	eng	This species does not reach a carpace length greater than 10 mm (Holthuis 1969). This species was found at depths between 16 and 53 fathoms, and possibly between 10 and 54 fathoms (18-99 m), with the majority of specimens found in the study by Holthuis (1969) at 19 to 38 fathoms. The habitat consists of shell rubble, mud or sand bottoms (Holthuis 1969).
185016		population	eng	This species was stated to be rare in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the western Caribbean in adult form by Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca (2004).
185016		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however this is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).
185017		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;
185017		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sarawak, Singapore, Banka, the Aru Islands, Australia (Western Australia north to the Northern Territory and south to Moreton Bay in Queensland) (Holthuis 2002). A phyllosoma stage has been collected from the Hawaiian Islands (Phillips and McWilliam 1989).
185017		habitat	eng	This species is typically found over soft substsrates including soft mud, sandy mud, mud, sand and shells, and coral reefs at a depth range of 5-59 m, though most specimens are taken between 10-25 m (Holthuis 2002).
185017		population	eng	This species is found in abundance off Western Australia (Holthuis 2002).
185017		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial value, likely due to its small size. There are no known major threats that are currently impacting the population of this species.
185018		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185018		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andaman Sea and the Arabian Sea (Galil 2000).
185018		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. &#160;It has been collected from depths of 1,668 - 1,703 m (Galil 2000).
185018		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185018		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185019		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185019		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Pacific, including Queensland and New South Wales in Australia (Poore and Ahyong 2004). Additionally it is known from New Zealand (including the Kermadec Islands), the islands of Melanesia, Fiji, Wallis and Futuna Islands and New Caledonia (Galil 2000, Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185019		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths between 229 and 1,152 m (Galil 2000).
185019		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185019		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185020		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185020		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the east coast of Australia from Victoria (Gabo Island), East Tasmania, New South Wales, and north to Queensland (Gulf of Carpentaria). There is a single record of this species (misnamed <em>Scyllarus bicuspidatus</em>) off Western Australia on Rottnest Island (Holthuis 2002).
185020		habitat	eng	This species occurs from the intertidal zone to depths of 250 m (Poore 2004). Habitats include reefs, under rock shelfs, underwater caves, and mud substrates (Holthuis 2002).
185020		population	eng	Holthuis (2002) described this species as "not ... very rare along the E Australian coast".
185020		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although shallower parts of its habitat (such as that off the east Victoria coast) may be threatened by bottom trawling and dredging (O'Hara 2002). Predation by yellowfin tuna may be of minor importance to this species off New South Wales (Young <em>et al. </em>2001). It does not appear to be harvested on a large scale throughout its range.
185021		conservation	eng	Management of the fishery includes a ban on the taking of egg-bearing females, a minimum legal size limit of 50 mm carapace length, which is based on their size at sexual maturity (Stewart, Kennelly and Hoegh-Guldberg 1997).
185021		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Australia. It ranges from around latitude 17°S in northern Queensland, south to latitude 36°S in southern New South Wales though it is quite rare south of 34°S (Haddy, Stewart and Graham 2007).
185021		habitat	eng	This species is found on soft substrates such as sand and mud at a depth range of 2-330 m, though it most abundant between 5-50 m (Haddy, Stewart and Graham 2007).
185021		population	eng	This is a common species.
185021		threats	eng	This species is commercially harvested throughout its range. Landings are said to have declined significantly over the last five years (Stewart 2005). Historically this species was by-catch of the prawn fishery; however in recent years in response to the increased consumer demand, this species is now targeted by fishers. The increased fishing effort has led to significant declines in the catch, and reduced average size of specimens (Stewart, Kennelly and Hoegh-Guldberg 1997, Stewart 2005). However, catch per unit effort data indicates that abundance may in fact be relatively stable (if taken as an index of abudance appropriate to the taxon).&#160;<br/>In 1990/1991 the catch of both this species and <em>Ibacus peronii</em>, totalled around 28 t with an average of 3.885 kg/day. The catch peaked at around 85 t in 1995/1996 with a daily harvest rate of 6.6 kg/day. The annual harvest declined again to 25 t in 1999/2000 with a harvest rate of 1.85 kg/day but rose again to 76 t in 2003/2004 and a harvest rate of 5 kg/day. In 2008/2009 the harvest rate was at a low of 16.7 t but with a harvest rate of 5.33 kg/day (J. Stewart pers. comm. 2009) (Note that <em>Ibacus peronii</em> only makes up a small fraction of this two species catch). Much of the landings of this species are taken in Queensland and New South Wales (Haddy, Stewart and Graham 2007).
185022		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185022		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic off the coast of West Africa, from Mauritania to Namibia (Macpherson 1991, Galil 2000), between depths of 100 and 2,100 m.
185022		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185022		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185022		threats	eng	It is considered an 'important' by-catch when caught along the Gulf of Guinea by deep sea trawlers (Schnieder 1992), however it is only taken in a small part of its range. This species faces no major threat at the present time.
185023		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
185023		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in the Nazca and Sala-y-Gomez Ridges in the Southeast Pacific, the Marquesas Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, Banc Tuscarorar, Combe and Field in French Polynesia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Bathus, New Zealand, New South Wales in Australia, the Makassar Strait in Indonesia, Macsarene Ridge in the Indian Ocean, Reunion Island, Madagascar and Mozambique (Galil 2000).
185023		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown habitat at a depth range of 350-1,525 m (Galil 2000).
185023		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185023		threats	eng	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely to face any major threat.
185024		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods and further research is needed to improve our understanding of species’ reproductive biology, growth and population structure to ensure that appropriate conservation measures can be put in place (Calado <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is no catch data for this species and further research is required to establish its population size and the potential effects of harvesting on this species’ population.
185024		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific and the western Indian Ocean (Holthuis 1983, Poupin 2003, Chan and Ng 2008). It is known from La Réunion, Indonesia, the Philippines, Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands, Austral, Society and Tuamotu Islands in French Polynesia and Hawaii (Gordon 1968, Holthuis 1983, Chan 1998, Poupin 2003).
185024		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reef slopes and is generally found in the deeper parts of reefs at depths of 20-80 m (Chan 1998, Poupin 2003).
185024		population	eng	There is no population available for this species.
185024		threats	eng	This is a highly prized species in the aquarium trade industry (Daum 1982, Holthuis 1983, Chan 1998, Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). Specimens are harvested from the wild for the aquarium trade (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, no catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size.
185025		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and distribution is suggested as these data are lacking.
185025		distribution	eng	This species is only found in French Polynesia and Vanuatu (Carpenter and Niem 1998, Tsang <em>et al.</em> 2009). Specifically, this species is from the Tuamotu Archipelago of the French Polynesia (Carpenter and Niem 1998).
185025		habitat	eng	This species is found on hard coral substrate (Carpenter and Niem 1998) at depths of 160 - 320 m.
185025		population	eng	This species is described as very rare, and has only been captured during scientific explorations (Carpenter and Niem 1988).
185025		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat.
185026		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
185026		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific, Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, Caribbean and Indian Ocean (Galil 2000, Poore and Ahyong 2004). It is present in the Gulf of Mexico, USA and Bermuda (Galil 2000). It is also found around the coast of Africa, including West Africa, Cape Verde Islands, Madagascar, Comoros Islands, the Gulf of Aden and South Africa (Galil 2000). In the East China Sea, this species is present off Japan and Taiwan (Galil 2000). It is also recorded off Australia, Philippines, Indonesia and the Maldives (Galil 2000). Recently this species has also been discovered off the coast of Brazil, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga (Richer de Forges <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ahyong and Chan 2004, Costa <em>et al. </em>2007).
185026		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit areas near coral banks on soft muddy substrates (Mastrototaro <em>et al.</em> 2009).
185026		population	eng	This species has been described as common and frequently occurs in scientific trawls (Abello <em>et al.</em> 2002, Mastrototaro <em>et al.</em> 2009). For example, in trawls of the Mediterranean, this species was caught on average of 15 individuals per hour between 600 to 800 m below sea level and eight individuals per hour at 400 to 600 m below sea level (Abello and Cartes 1992).
185026		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. This species has not been considered for commercial harvesting as of yet (Paulmier 1996).
185027		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of its range coincide with protected areas; however, coverage in the Pacific and Indian oceans is low (~ 2-7 %) and poorly managed (Mora <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>Further work is recommended to determine how the population is affected by deterioration of coral habitat.
185027		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the Indo-West Pacific region, including: Fiji,&#160;Philippines, Australia (Queensland, Western Australia and Northern Territory), Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia (Moluccas, Irian Jaya, Sulawesi), Guam, New Caledonia, Chesterfield Islands, Loyalty Islands, and Hawaii (Holthuis 2002).
185027		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 6-48 m, although unconfirmed records have been as deep as 65 m (Holthuis 2002). Specimens have been collected from a variety of habitats, including "on the shore", on coral reefs, and in caves (Holthuis 2002). Most records were collected by scuba diving at night (Holthuis 2002). Large aggregations of this species are occasionally observed in Hawaii (Hoover 2009).
185027		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
185027		threats	eng	This species is not fished commercially (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007); however, coral reefs (its main habitat) are under intense pressure from a wide variety of threats. These threats include: climate change-induced bleaching, pollution, overfishing, tourism, coastal development, and sedimentation (CEP 2001).
185028		conservation	eng	There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the&#160;population, distribution, and threats impacting this species are needed.
185028		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the holotype collected off Ponta da Barra Falsa, Mozambique at 20°30'S 35°43'E at a depth of 62 m (Holthuis 2002).
185028		habitat	eng	This species was collected at a depth of 62 m (Holthuis 2002)
185028		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
185028		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185029		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185029		distribution	eng	This species is known from Japan and Australia (Chan and de Saint Laurent 1999). It is also found off the Dongsha Islands, which are part of Taiwan (Chan and de Saint Laurent 1999).
185029		habitat	eng	This species prefers sandy-muddy substrates (Chan and de Saint Laurent 1999) and is found at depths between 205 and 822 m.
185029		population	eng	This species is described as 'rare' (Chan and de Saint Laurent 1999).
185029		threats	eng	There is no targeted fishery for this species, and other known major threats.
185030		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods and further research is needed to improve our understanding of species’ reproductive biology, growth, and population structure to ensure that appropriate conservation measures can be put in place (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). No catch data for this species is available and further research is required to establish its population size and the potential effects of harvesting on this species’ population.
185030		distribution	eng	This species is found in the east Atlantic Ocean (Chan and Ng 2008). It is found in the Gulf of Guinea, Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands (Intès and Le Loeuff 1970, Merino and Lindley 2003, Poupin 2003).
185030		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hard rocky bottoms and is often found in caves (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 1993, Merino and Lindley 2003, Poupin 2003). It is generally found at depths of 30-200 m (Poupin 2003).
185030		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is thought to be rare in the Cape Verde Archipelago (Merino and Lindley 2003).
185030		threats	eng	This is a highly prized species in the aquarium trade industry (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). Specimens are harvested from wild populations for the aquarium trade (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, no catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size.
185031		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further collections of this species, and further research into the ecology, biology, range, population, and threats are needed.
185031		distribution	eng	Currently, records for this species indicate that it is known from: Natal in South Africa, Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Indian Ocean coast of Malaysia, Aru Islands, and Western Australia (Holthuis 2002).
185031		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from substrates consisting of sand and shells with stones, sponges and rubble, and the encrusting algae <em>Lithothamnion</em> spp. Specimens have been collected from a depth range of 27-55 m (Holthuis 2002).
185031		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185031		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be impacted by any threat that is significantly impacting the global population.
185032		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its range coincides with marine protected areas (MPAs), although these suffer from low coverage and poor management in the Indo-Pacific region (Mora <em>et al. </em>2006). Further work is recommended to assess the impact of coral reef declines on this species.
185032		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Persian Gulf to Australia and Southern China (Holthuis 2002).<br/><br/>It has been recorded in the following regions: Persian Gulf (Sabiya Peninsula, Kuwait), India (Mumbai), Sri Lanka (Gulf of Manaar), South China (Hong Kong and Fuzhou), Gulf of Thailand (Viet Nam, Thailand), Malaysia (west coast off Penang and Sulu Sea off Sandakan), Singapore Straits, Phillippines, Indonesia (Sumatra, Irian Jaya, Maluku, Java Sea), and Australia (from Eighty Mile Beach, Western Australia, through Northern Territory and the Great Barrier Reef to Moreton Bay, Queensland) (Holthuis 2002).
185032		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths from 2.7 m to 73 m, but mostly between 10 and 20 m (Holthuis 2002). It is found on hard and sandy bottoms with various substrates (including shells and coral), and also coral reefs (Holthuis 2002).
185032		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
185032		threats	eng	This species is caught as by-catch in Australia's Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) (Tonks <em>et al. </em>2008), and in the New South Wales (NSW) Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery, which both use demersal trawling methods (Macbeth <em>et al. </em>2008). However, amounts caught in both these fisheries are small and probably do not impact populations of this species.<br/><br/>In India this is generally a non-commercially important species (Radhakrishnan <em>et al. </em>2007), although a local fishery exists in the Gulf of Mannar between Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu (Tamil Nadu Department of Environment 2003).<br/><br/>The deterioration of coral reefs globally, particularly in the Indo-West Pacific (Carpenter <em>et al.</em> 2008), may also present a threat to populations of this species. There are many causes of coral reef declines, most notably climate change (and coral bleaching); sedimentation from mangrove destruction; damage from overfishing (structural and to ecosystems); pollution; and anthropogenic influences (e.g., tourism and coastal development).<br/><br/>However given the extensive range of this species, these threats are likely only resulting in negligible, localised declines at the present time.
185033		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
185033		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in Peru and Chile (Galil 2000).
185033		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown habitat at a depth range of 1,815-2,416 m (Galil 2000).
185033		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185033		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however given the great depths at which it exists it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.
185034		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185034		distribution	eng	This species is only found off Japan and Taiwan (Ahyong and Chan 2004).
185034		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths between 452 and 1,000 m.
185034		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185034		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185035		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185035		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution in the Indo-West Pacific region from: Mozambique to the Phillippines and New Caledonia (Holthuis 2002). It has been recorded from: the Gulf of Mannar (separating India and Sri Lanka), the Arabian Sea, Madagascar, Indonesia, Australia (Botany Bay, New South Wales), the Chesterfield and Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji (Holthuis 2002).
185035		habitat	eng	This is a deep-sea species, occuring at depths from 183 m to 732 m. It prefers a bottom of fine sediment mixed with coarser particles, such as broken coral and shells (Holthuis 2002).
185035		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
185035		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
185036		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185036		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Namibia and South Africa (Macpherson 1991, Galil 2000).
185036		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. &#160;It is found at depths between 292 and 2,195 metres (Galil 2000).
185036		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185036		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
185037		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185037		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific, in the east from San Clement Island, California, USA to Valaparaiso, Chile (Wicksten 1981).
185037		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185037		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185037		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
185038		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185038		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western and eastern Atlantic Ocean, Indo-West Pacific Ocean and the Eastern Pacific (Poore and Ahyong 2004, Ahyong 2007). It is specifically recorded in the waters off Brazil, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Taiwan (Eldredge <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ahyong and Chan 2004, Poore and Ahyong 2004, Ahyong and Galil 2006, Ahyong 2007, Costa <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also found off Colombia, Canada, USA, Indonesia, Tasmania, Philippines, Fiji, Galapagos Islands, Panama, Madagascar, Easter Island and Sri Lanka (Galil 2000, Poupin 2003).
185038		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. &#160;It has been collected from depths of 215 - 2,505 m (Galil 2000).
185038		population	eng	This species is described as common in the Tasman Sea (Ahyong 2007).
185038		threats	eng	It is unlikely this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes and the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185039		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on its exact location, population, habitat and threats is recommended as these data are lacking.
185039		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West Africa (Holthuis 1991). This species was found to be present off Grand-Bassam (Côte-d'Ivoire) between 1969 and 1970 (Le Loeuff and Intés 1999).
185039		habitat	eng	This species was found to live on or near the bottom, and do not exhibit vertical migrations (Le Loueff and Intés 1999).
185039		population	eng	This species was found off Grand-Bassan (Côte-d'Ivoire) between January 1969 to January 1970, at an occurrence rating of 70, and abundance of 1,061 and a vertical distribution of 25-55 metres; this speices was also found to be abundant in day, night and other surveys in the same study (Le Loueff and Intés 1999). This species was found to change in abundance, and be commonly occuring at the beginning of the warm season (March) and at the beginning of the cold season (July-August) (Le Loueff and Intés 1999).
185039		threats	eng	This species is associated with shrimp fishing grounds in the area of Grand-Bassam (Côte-d'Ivoire)  at a 45 m depth (Le Loueff and Intés 1999). This species is not a commercial species; however is potentially caught as by-catch (Holthuis 1991).
185040		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185040		distribution	eng	This species is known from New Caledonia, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, Solomon Islands and Madagascar (Galil 2000, Ahyong and Chan 2004). &#160;This species has been found from depths between 787 and 2,947 m.
185040		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185040		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185040		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this deep-dwelling species.
185041		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine population size, and trend, and if there are any threats to this species.
185041		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few records in the South China Sea (60 miles off Sarawak), the Phillippines (Tayabas), the Makassar Strait off Indonesia, and the Fiji Archipelago (Holthuis 2002).
185041		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths from 100 to 200 m. The preferred substrate is unknown, except for the type specimen which was found on green mud (Holthuis 2002).
185041		population	eng	As this species is only known from a limited number of records there is no population information.
185041		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, though it is not known to be fished (T.Y Chan pers. comm. 2009).
185042		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185042		distribution	eng	This species was originally described by Holthuis (1960) to be distributed "from North Carolina to northeastern Brazil, throughout the Caribbean area" (Tavares 1997). This species is presently known in Brazil from the states of Para, Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro (Tavares 1997). Holthuis (1991) records this species distribution as the western central Atlantic. This species is present in the south west Gulf of Mexico (Soto <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Nizinski (2003) confirms this species range across the Western Atlantic as, Cape Hatteras, North Carolina to Bahia, Brazil, including the West Indies, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (Williams 1984, Coelho and Ramos-Porto 1998 <em>in </em>Nizinski 2003).
185042		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths greater than <em>S. americanus </em>(Tavares 1997). This species was found on the upper slope of a trawl survey, in depth ranges form 500-536 m in south west Mexico (Soto <em>et al.</em> 1998).
185042		population	eng	This species was found on the continental shelf between Cape Fear (North Carolina) and Cape Canaveral (Florida) from trawl surveys on seasonal cruises, out of 12,943 individual specimens taken, 158 specimens of this speces were taken, at a depth range of 20 - 66 m (most individuals collected at 28 - 55 m in the summer season), and temperature range of 14.0 - 29.0°C (Wenner and Read 1982).<br/><br/>This species was stated to be rare in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Western Caribbean in adult form by Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca (2004).
185042		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however this is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).
185043		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the distribution,&#160;population, habitat and ecology, as well as the  threats impacting this species is needed.
185043		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the holotype collected in the Coral Sea, New Caledonia at 24°45.70’S 159°42.13’E (Richer de Forges 2006).
185043		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a rocky slope at a depth range of 360-530 m, though as this species is known from only the holotype it has been speculated that it may also live on a soft substrate like the species <em>Neoglyphea inopinata</em> (Forest 2006)
185043		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype.
185043		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185044		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, population, and threats to this species.
185044		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern and eastern coasts of Australia; from Eucula, Western Australia to Port Stephens, New South Wales (Holthuis 2002). It has the most southern range of all the scyllarid genera (Holthuis 2002).
185044		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185044		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185044		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991). Other threats to this species are unknown.
185045		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further collections of this species are needed.
185045		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two specimens taken off the northeast coast of Taiwan, both at Tai-Shi (Holthuis 2002).
185045		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded at depths of 250-350 m (Holthuis 2002). The holotype was recorded from "sandy mud bottom" (Chan and Yu 1992).
185045		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
185045		threats	eng	The two specimens examined were both from fishermen (one at a market, the other from a commercial trawler), but it is not known how extensively this species is harvested.
185046		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
185046		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in the Andaman Sea, off the coast of southern Myanmar and around the Philippine Islands of Boholo, Balicasaq Island and Pangloa Island (Holthuis 2002).
185046		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from steep slopes at a depth of 69-300 m (Holthuis 2002).
185046		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
185046		threats	eng	This species is of no commercial interest. There are no other known threats to this species.
185047		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. &#160;Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species.
185047		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in Balicasag Island, and Momo Beach on the main island of Panglao, Philippines, and from Sri Lanka (Chan and Ng 2008).
185047		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rocky reefs at a depth range of 90-200 m (Chan and Ng 2008).
185047		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185047		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; it is not known what impact harvesting for the aquarium trade is having on local and/or global populations.
185048		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185048		distribution	eng	This species is known from New Zealand (Holthuis 1991, 2002; Chan and Crandall <em>in press</em>), including the east coast of the North Island (Bradford <em>et al</em>.2005), and also the Tasman Sea (Booth and Webber 2001).&#160;<br/>It is described as being 'infrequently encountered in subtropical species', and is found along the east coast of New Zealand, and has been reported as far south as the East Cape (Chiswell and Booth 1999).
185048		habitat	eng	This species is small; up to 30 mm carapace length (Chiswell and Booth 1999). It has a short larval life (Chiswell and Booth 1999). The vertical distribution of the larvae (phyllosomas) is between 0 - 20 m during the night (Bradford <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/>It is often found in shallow waters, less than 100 m, along the coast (Chiswell and Booth 1999).
185048		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185048		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).&#160;<br/>This species may be taken as part of the prawn catch (of <em>Ibacus alticrenatus</em>); but these occurrences are thought to be rare (New Zealand Fisheries 2009).
185049		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185049		distribution	eng	This deep-sea species is found off the Australian coast, from Yamba to Sugarloaf Point in New South Wales, and from Tonga (Poore and Ahyong 2004, Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185049		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. &#160;Australian specimens&#160;were collected between 256 and 477 m, and&#160;the Tongan specimens at 569-573 m (Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185049		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185049		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185050		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185050		distribution	eng	This species is known from West Africa, Azores over to the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and Sargasso Sea (Galil 2000, Escobar-Briones <em>et al.</em> 2008).
185050		habitat	eng	This species has been found buried in sediments at the bottom of the sea or covered in mud and ooze (Gore 1984) at depths between 1,760 and 4,064 m.
185050		population	eng	This species is common in the Gulf of Mexico (Wicksten and Packard 2005).
185050		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
185051		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this  species. This species is unusual as it has a combination of characters  intermediate between the subgenera <em>Enoplometopus</em> s.s. and <em>Hoplometopus</em>  (Chan and Ng 2008). A detailed phylogenetic study is required to ensure  that this species is placed in the appropriate subgenus (Chan and Ng  2008). Further research is required to establish population size and to  identify potential threats to this species.
185051		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western and central Pacific (Chan and Ng 2008). It is known to occur in: Taiwan, Marquesas in French Polynesia, the Philippines, and northern Australia (in the Timor Sea) (Chan and Yu 1998, Poupin 2003, Chan and Ng 2008).
185051		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that is found on hard bottom substrate on the continental shelf and on reefs (Davie 2002, Poupin 2003, Chan and Ng 2008). It is generally found at depths of approximately 80-120 m (Poupin 2003, Chan and Ng 2008).
185051		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185051		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185052		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods and further research is needed to improve our understanding of species’ reproductive biology, growth and population structure to ensure that appropriate conservation measures can be put in place (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). No catch data for this species is available and further research is required to establish its population size and the potential effects of harvesting on this species’ population.
185052		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific (Chan and Ng 2008). It is known to occur in the Maldives and Sri Lanka (Türkay 1989, Poupin 2002).
185052		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef caves on slopes and is generally found at depths of 6-35 m (Türkay 1989, Poupin 2002).
185052		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185052		threats	eng	This is a highly priced species in the aquarium trade industry (Calado<em> et al.</em> 2003). Specimens are harvested from wild populations for the aquarium trade (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, no catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effect on its population size.
185053		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the distribution, habitat and ecology, as well as the  threats impacting this species are needed for conservation measures to be put  in place.
185053		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the holotype collected in Reunion in the West Indian Ocean. The vertical distribution for this species is unknown (Poupin 2003).
185053		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information for this species.
185053		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype.
185053		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185054		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185054		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Atlantic, from Jamaica to Venezuela, the Tasman Sea, Philippines, Bay of Bengal, South Africa and Madagascar (Galil 2000). It is also recorded as present off the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands (Bouvier 1917 in Tiefenbacher 2001).
185054		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185054		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185054		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
185055		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185055		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the location of the type specimen, which was collected off Hawaii (Galil 2000). This species was listed in a survey of Hawaiian species in 2000 (Eldredge and Evenhuis 2000).
185055		habitat	eng	This species was found between 1,323 and 1,557 m deep (Galil 2000).
185055		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185055		threats	eng	This species has not appeared in fish markets, or sold as food or bait, and is not considered a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).<br/><br/>This species is a member of the Polychelidae family (Wood-Mason 1875); all members of this species inhabit the deep sea and no member of the family are considered to be of commercial value (Holthuis 1991). Although some of the species of this family are reported to be of a 'good commercial size' but have relatively lttle meat and therefore are of no economic interest (Holthuis 1991).
185056		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. &#160;Further research is required to determine this species exact distribution, population status, habitat requirements and whether it is impacted by any threat processes.
185056		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from north India and Pakistan in the Indian Ocean and from Queensland and Northern Territory, Australia and Papua New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean (Burton and Davie 2007).
185056		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
185056		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185056		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185057		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is needed on harvest levels and fishing effort to determine stock status.
185057		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Saint Helena Island (Holthuis 1993)
185057		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rocky reefs at a depth range of 9-55 m (Holthuis, 1993). This species forages during the night and shelters during the day (Lavalli <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species feeds on bivalves (Lavalli <em>et al.</em> 2007).
185057		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185057		threats	eng	Threats to this species come from subsistence fishing practices. Yield figures range between 50 and 4,650 kg annually using stump pots. These figures do not take into account increase or decrease in restriction on catches.
185058		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185058		distribution	eng	This species is found off the western and eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Indo-West Pacific Ocean (Poore and Ahyong 2004, Ahyong 2007). Specifically in Australia it is found from Queensland, New South Wales and Tasmania (Poore and Ahyong 2004). This species is also present around Brazil, South Africa, West Africa, Canary Islands, USA, Chile, Vanuatu, New Zealand, Caribbean Sea, South Georgia Islands and the Azores (Galil 2000, Costa <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has recently been recorded in the Economic Exclusion Zone around New Caledonia (Richer de Forges <em>et al.</em> 2000).
185058		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown habitat at depths of 914 - 3,365 m (Galil 2000).
185058		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185058		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185059		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the&#160;habitat, population, effects of by-catch, and other threats&#160;to this species are needed.
185059		distribution	eng	This species is known from West Africa (Holthuis 2002). Its type locality was Pointe Noire, Congo (Appeltans <em>et al</em>. 2010). It has been reported from Cadiz, Spain, south to the Congo (Appeltans&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2010).<br/><br/>Holthuis (1977) reported this species as West African with a distribution from Senegal to the Congo; however, since 1974, it has been repeatedly found in the Bay of Cadiz, Spain (Pozuelo <em>et al</em>. 1976 in Holthuis 1977).
185059		habitat	eng	This species has been taken at a depth range of 25-60 m (Le Loeuff and Intès 1999).
185059		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185059		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991); however, it is known from the shrimp fishing grounds off the Cote d'Ivoire. It is taken in trawls as by-catch. Other threats to this species are unknown.
185060		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Only a few countries have implemented regulations on the collection of ornamental decapods and further research is needed to improve our understanding of species’ reproductive biology, growth and population structure to ensure that appropriate conservation measures can be put in place (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). No catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size. Further research is required to establish its population size and the potential effects of harvesting on this species’ populations.
185060		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean and central Pacific Ocean (Davie 2002, Chan and Ng 2008). It is known from South Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Réunion, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Indonesia, eastern Australia, Taiwan, Japan and Hawaii (Barnard 1934, Holthuis 1983, Davie 2002, Poupin 2003).
185060		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs and is generally found in deeper areas on the outer reef (Holthuis 1983, Chan 1998, Cushing and Reese 1998, Davie 2002). It is found at depths from shallow subtidal to about 100 m (Davie 2002). It is nocturnal and hides in rock cavities and crevices during the day (Chan 1998, Davie 2002).
185060		population	eng	This is thought to be the most common species of this genus, however it is still considered rare and is only caught by divers occasionally (Chan 1998, Poupin 2002).&#160;There is no further population information available for this species.
185060		threats	eng	This is a highly prized species in the aquarium trade industry (Daum 1982, Chan 1998, Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has an estimated commercial value of $30 U.S. per specimen (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). Specimens are currently harvested from wild populations for the aquarium trade (Calado <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Hawaii, a total of 5,878 individuals were caught for the aquarium trade between 1967-2003 (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2004). No catch data for this species is available and it is unknown if the harvesting of wild specimens has any significant effects on its population size. However, this species is widely distributed and it is therefore unlikely that it is experiencing a significant decline in population size.
185061		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185061		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific Ocean, off Hawaii, French Polynesia, the Indian Ocean Ridge and in the Bay of Biscay, Atlantic Ocean (Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185061		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths of 573 - 2,245 m (Galil 2000).
185061		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185061		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185062		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185062		distribution	eng	This wide-ranging species is known from South Africa, Madagascar, Taiwan, Japan, the Phillippines, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu (Holthuis 2002). There is an unconfirmed report from Papua New Guinea, and records from Hawaii (Clarke 1972) have been reclassified as another species (<em>Galearctus aurora</em>) by Holthuis (2002). Larvae were recorded off the southern coast of Queensland, Australia (Ritz 1977) and adults have been caught as by-catch&#160;(Barker&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2004, Courtney&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2007).
185062		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 80 to 390 m (Holthuis 2002).<br/>The phyllosomas of this species have been found thousands of miles offshore, far beyond the depth range of adults (Sekiguchi <em>et al. </em>2007).
185062		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185062		threats	eng	This species is caught in small quantities as by-catch off Queensland (in the Eastern King Prawn Trawl Fishery and Scallop Fishery) (Barker <em>et al. </em>2004, Courtney <em>et al. </em>2007). It is taken more frequently in deeper waters (> 91 m) than shallow waters (Courtney <em>et al. </em>2007). However this is unlikely to be having a significant impact on the population numbers of this species.
185063		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the harvest levels and fishing effort is needed.
185063		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan, to the South China Sea (Takeda 2001).
185063		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy mud bottoms at depths of between 50 m and 500 m. In the East China Sea females are generally ovigerous from mid-September to mid-April, and lay less than 1,500 eggs (Holthuis 1991, Wallner and Phillips 1995). Peak catches of this species occur at night-time (Aguzzi <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185063		population	eng	This species appears to be abundant around Taiwan (Chan and Yu 1987).
185063		threats	eng	This species is commercially harvested for food in Korea and Taiwan, generally by trawl-net fishing (Takeda 2001). In Taiwan it is often caught together with <em>Metanephrops formosanus</em>; it is less numerous but fetches a higher market price (Chan and Yu 1987). For both species the harvest is year-round although catches are not large (Chan and Yu 1987). This species is also exported under the name "Pacific Scampi".   The catch is declinding in Taiwan though no good fishery statistics are available. Large amount of this species caught from the South China Sea are imported to Taiwan (T. -Y. Chan pers. comm. 2009).
185064		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185064		distribution	eng	This species is found off French Polynesia, Vanuatu, Fiji, New Caledonia, Philippines, Solomon Islands, Taiwan and Australia (Galil 2000, Ahyong and Chan 2004, Ahyong and Galil 2006).
185064		habitat	eng	This species is found from unknown habitat within the depth range 435 - 1,598 m (Galil 2000).
185064		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185064		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
185065		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the species' abundance and distribution is recommended.
185065		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Indonesia and Australia (West Australia and South Australia) (Chan 1997, Poore 2004). It is possible that this species has a wider distribution than is currently known.<br/>The type locality for this species is the North West Shelf off the coast of West Australia at a depth of 392-400 m (18°33.2'S, 117º30.9'E) (MacPherson 1993).
185065		habitat	eng	The preferred substrate of this bathyl species is unknown. &#160;It has been recorded at depths of 390 - 1,430 m.
185065		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
185065		threats	eng	There is no fishery for this species. The threats to this species are unknown.
185066		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185066		distribution	eng	This species is found from the western Pacific Ocean (Ahyong and Chan 2004). Specifically it is present from Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, Vanuatu and New Caledonia (Ahyong and Chan 2004). It has recently been recorded off Australia (Poore 2008).
185066		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths between 155 and 679 m.
185066		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185066		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185067		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185067		distribution	eng	This species is found between the Panama Basin, Peru, Galapagos Islands and Ecuador (Wicksten 1989, Hendrickx 1995, Galil 2000).
185067		habitat	eng	This species has been found from unknown habitat at depths between 1,079 - 1,411 metres.
185067		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185067		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185068		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further collection of this species are needed to understand abundance, distribution and habitat requirements.
185068		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected in Bermuda (Manning 1997).
185068		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a depth range of 800-824 m (Manning 1997).
185068		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
185068		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185069		conservation	eng	Thre are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
185069		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens [collected as <em>P. phosphorus</em> (Galil 2000)] collected in Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Australia, Japan, the Philippines and Taiwan (Ahyong and Brown 2002, Ahyong and Chan 2004).
185069		habitat	eng	This species has been collected [as <em>P. phosphorus </em>(Galil 2000)] from unknown habitat at a depth range of 200-1,354 m (Ahyong and Brown 2002).
185069		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185069		threats	eng	While this species is known from few specimens, it is found at great depths and so is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats.
185070		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further collections are needed to better describe its range, abundance, and ecological requirements.
185070		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Vanuatu and the Philippines (Yang, Chen and Chan 2008).
185070		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available. &#160;This species has been collected from depths of 80 - 300 m.
185070		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185070		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
185071		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185071		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia and New Zealand (Poore and Ahyong 2004). Specifically it is found from northern Queensland to the centre and in New South Wales from Newcastle south (Poore and Ahyong 2004). In New Zealand it is present off the Kermadec Islands (Poore and Ahyong 2004).
185071		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths from 549 m to 951 m.
185071		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185071		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths at which this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
185072		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bay of Bengal to Sri Lanka, the Andaman Sea and the Laccadive Sea (Ahyong and Brown 2002). A new species identified by Ahyong and Brown (2002) was previously misidentified as <em>S. phosphorus</em> in the China Sea, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Australia (Galil 2000).
185072		habitat	eng	This species prefers sandy or muddy substrate (Davie 2002).
185072		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185072		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
185073		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
185073		distribution	eng	This species is known from specimens collected in waters of New Caledonia, including the Loyalty and Chesterfield Islands, Vanuatu, Bali in Indonesia, off the NW coast of Australia, the Solomon Islands and the East China Sea (Galil 2000, Ahyong and Galil 2006). It has also been recorded from Taiwan (Ahyong and Chan 2004).
185073		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from an unknown deep photic and bathyl habitat at a depth range of 144 - 1,050 m (Griffin and Stoddart 1995, Galil 2000).
185073		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185073		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to face any major threat.
185074		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences and to identify potential threats.
185074		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific Ocean (Holthuis 2002). It is known from Japan, Korea, Taiwan, New Caledonia and Fiji (Holthuis 2002, Sekiguchi and Inoue 2002, Higa <em>et al.</em> 2005).
185074		habitat	eng	The habitat preference of this species is unknown.
185074		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185074		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species is of no interest to fisheries.
185075		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. &#160;Further research on population status and harvest levels is recommended.
185075		distribution	eng	This species is found north of Fraser Island to the Torres Strait off the coast of northern Australia (Burton and Davie 2007).
185075		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy substrate.
185075		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185075		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however it may be taken as by-catch by shrimp fishing trawlers similar to other species of the genus.
185076		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences and to identify potential threats.
185076		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the northern and southern Pacific Ocean (Holthuis 1982, 2002). It is known from Hawaii, Japan, the Society Islands, New Caledonia, the Mariana Islands and islands in the Austral, Tuamotu, Marquesas and Gambier archipelagos (Holthuis 1982, 2002, Phillips and McWilliam 1989, Poupin 1996, Eldredge and Evenhuis 2003, Paulay <em>et al.</em> 2003, Chan and Mitsuhashi 2007).
185076		habitat	eng	The habitat preference of this species is unknown. It is found at depths of 90-300 m (Poupin 1996, Holthuis 2002).
185076		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Sekiguchi and Inoue (2002) considered this species to be rare in Japanese waters.
185076		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species is of no interest to fisheries. It is widely distributed and it is therefore unlikely that this species is experiencing a significant decline in population size.
185077		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is required to assess approximate abundance of this species.
185077		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the West Central Atlantic region (Holthuis 2002). It is known from eastern Florida, the northern Bahamas, and through the Gulf of Mexico to Guadeloupe (Holthuis 2002).&#160;Countries where it has been recorded include: Costa Rica, Barbuda, Anguilla, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Bahamas, and Guadeloupe (Lyons 1970).
185077		habitat	eng	This species occupies a depth range of 229-457 m (Lyons 1970). Ovigerous females were collected from February to July in the Caribbean (Lyons 1970).
185077		population	eng	This species is apparently "not abundant in Cuban waters" (Cruz 2003). Little population data exists for this species as it is of little value to fisheries.
185077		threats	eng	There is no established fishery for any of the Western Central Atlantic species of Scyllaridae (Tavares 2002), and are primarily landed as by-catch from other fisheries (e.g., Caribbean spiny lobster; Sharp <em>et al. </em>2007). This species was not recorded in experimental trawls in the Gulf of Mexico, most likely due to its depth range (Lyons 1970).
185078		conservation	eng	There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;<br/>Further research into the population, distribution, and threats impacting this species are needed for conservation measure to be put in place.
185078		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the holotype collected South-West of Tongatapu in the Tonga Islands, 21°15'S 175°14'W (Holthuis 2002).
185078		habitat	eng	This species has been collectd at a depth range of 319-333 m (Holthuis 2002).
185078		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen.
185078		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
185079		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed to better describe the ecology and abundance.
185079		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Kyushu-Palau Ridge, Japan (Galil 2000).
185079		habitat	eng	This species as been collected from unknown habitat of the Kyushu-Palau Ridge at a depth range of 520-700 m  (Galil 2000).
185079		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens
185079		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however due to the great depths it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes and is not commercially harvested.
185080		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185080		distribution	eng	This species has a wide, but disjunct, distribution in the Indo-West Pacific region (Holthuis 2002).<br/><br/>It is known from: the east coast of Africa (Somalia to Mozambique, Madagascar and the Seychelles), Japan (Pacific south coast of Inubo-zaki to Ryukuyu Islands and Yonaguni Island), northeast Taiwan, Chinese coast,&#160;Philippines, Indonesia (only from the Kai Islands), and Hawaii (Holthuis 2002).
185080		habitat	eng	This species ranges from 124 to 300 m depths, on a range of substrates (hard bottom, coarse coral sand, muddy sand, mud) (Holthuis 2002).
185080		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185080		threats	eng	This species is not fished commercially in Hawaii (DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). It is not known whether it is fished in any other part of its range, or if this species is impacted by any other major threats, though major threats are unlikely given this species extensive range.
185081		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on population, habitat and threats is recommended.
185081		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the west central Atlantic (Holthuis 1991). This species is also present off the east and west coasts of Florida and North Carolina (Robertson 1971), and from the tropical northwestern Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico and in the western Caribbean waters (Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca 2004). This species is reported off the Columbian Caribbean coastline (Gabriel <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>The type locality for <em>Arctus depressus</em>, described by Smith (1881) was a small (18.7 mm) immature specimen dredged from 86 fathoms (157 metres) near Block Island, off the coast of Rhode Island (Robertson 1971).
185081		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185081		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species was stated to be rare in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the western Caribbean in adult form by Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca (2004).
185081		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however this is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).
185082		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185082		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Southern Ocean, including New Zealand, South Africa, Juan Fernandez Islands and the Kermadec trench (Galil 2000).
185082		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185082		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185082		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
185083		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185083		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia, Indonesia, Philippines, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna Islands and Fiji (Galil 2000, Poore and Ahyong 2004). Specifically in Australia it is known from Queensland to New South Wales (Poore and Ahyong 2004).
185083		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths between 229 and 1,250 m (Galil 2000).
185083		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185083		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185084		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185084		distribution	eng	This species is known from the both sides of the Atlantic (Galil 2000). On the eastern side, it is found in West Africa from the Gulf of Guinea to Angola, Azores and on the western Atlantic in the Caribbean, Panama and the Gulf of Mexico (Galil 2000).
185084		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths between 41 - 650 m (Galil 2000).
185084		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185084		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185085		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the fishing effort and abundance of this species.
185085		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single seamount on the Foundation Seamount Chain (35°S 120°W), in the southeast Pacific Ocean, to the west of Chile (Webber and Booth 1995).
185085		habitat	eng	This species is found on, or near seamount crests at a depth range of 140-180 m (Webber and Booth 1995). &#160;This species is thought to be long-lived, late to mature, with a low fecundity (South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation 2007).
185085		population	eng	Up until 1995, this species was known from 12,000 individuals (A. MacDiarmid pers. comm. 2009).
185085		threats	eng	It is possible that this species was fished during the 1960s, when a species matching the description of this one, was taken in significant quantites in on the Foundation Seamount Chain but this cannot be confirmed (South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation 2007).<br/><br/>This species has been occassionally fished by New Zealand fishers since its discovery in 1995. Approximately 20 t has been taken and marketed fresh in New Zealand (Booth and Webber 2001).<br/><br/>The status of the stocks is unknown (South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation 2007).
185086		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research is needed to confirm this species distribution. &#160;Additionally research on the habitat and ecology of this species, and potential threats that may be impacting, is recommended.
185086		distribution	eng	This species is known from the west central Atlantic (Holthuis 1991) and is found along the west coast of Florida, around St. Petersburg (Sims Jr. 1966). This species is also reported from Brazilian waters (Tavares 1997). There is some debate into whether this species is present in Brazilian waters. Taveres (1997) states that this species has been recorded from Paraiba, Pernambuco and Sao Paulo on the Brazilian coast; and that the exisiting depth data for these specimens of <em>S. americanus</em> and <em>S. chacei</em> are in agreement with Holthuis (1960) statement that<em> S. chacei</em> is found at greater depths than<em> S. americanus</em> (Tavares 1997). Additionally, Tavares (1997) lists the original description of <em>S. americanus</em> distribution, by Holthuis 1960 "is known to inhabit the Atlantic coast of the U.S.A. from North Carolina to Florida, and the eastern Gulf of Mexico, including Cuba". Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca (2004) states this species distribution as the tropical northwestern Atlantic, including the Gulf of Mexico and the western Caribbean waters.
185086		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water, usually between three and 12 fathoms (5.5 and 21 metres) (Sims Jr 1966).
185086		population	eng	In a study by Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca (2004) this species was reported to have an average density of phyllosomas, in the Southern Gulf of Mexico as 4.62 org./1,000 m³; with the highest density of this species phyllsoma larvae along the Campeche Bank area. The further developed larval individuals of this speceis (stages IV and VI) were found in neritic waters (Manzanilla-Dominguez and Gasca 2004).
185086		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991). There is no other threat information available for this species.
185087		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/>Further research into threats, population, distribution, life history, and ecology of this species is needed.
185087		distribution	eng	This species is known only from New Caledonia and the southeast coast of Taiwan (Holthuis 2002). It is likely that this species occurs in other areas, but due to its depth it has not been found elsewhere.
185087		habitat	eng	This deep-water species occurs at depths from 500-580 m (Holthuis 2002).
185087		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
185087		threats	eng	This species is sometimes taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries in the&#160;Taiwanese&#160;part of its range (T.Y. Chan pers. com. 2009). Other threats to this species are unknown.
185088		conservation	eng	There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research into the distribution of this species is needed.
185088		distribution	eng	This species is known from specimens found in the Seychelles, Macclesfield Bank (South China Sea), and New Caledonia (Holthuis 2002).
185088		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from flat sandy bottoms often with the corals, Gorgonaria, calcareous algae, <em>Halimeda </em>and Foraminifera (Holthuis 2002).
185088		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185088		threats	eng	This species is not harvested as a food source. Other major threats to this species are unlikely given its broad range.
185089		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185089		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Red Sea and western Indian Ocean, including: the Gulf of Aqaba, Sinai Peninsula, Dahlak Archipelago, Port Louis, Mauritius, and Madagascar (Holthuis 2002).
185089		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters from 0-11 m, and has once been reported from a reef (Holthuis 2002).
185089		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
185089		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
185090		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
185090		distribution	eng	This species has a very wide distribution from Madagascar to the South China  Sea (Holthuis 2002).
185090		habitat	eng	This species has been collected on flat bottoms of shelly and sandy maerl or with coral (Holthuis 2002)
185090		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens.
185090		threats	eng	This species is not harvested for food. No other major threats to this species are known.
185091		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
185091		distribution	eng	This species is known from the islands of Melanesia, New Caledonia, Madagascar, Gulf of Aden and Indonesia (Galil 2000).
185091		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from unknown habitat at depths of 1,100 - 3,080 m (Galil 2000).
185091		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185091		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes; however the great depths this species exists at means commercial harvesting is unlikely (Chan 1998).
185092		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research is required to determine this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and whether it is impacted by any threat processes.
185092		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from various locations in the Indo-West Pacific Oceans near Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and Mozambique (Burton and Davie 2007).
185092		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown.
185092		population	eng	This population is known from a few specimens.
185092		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown
185093		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185093		distribution	eng	This species ranges from South Africa and Madagascar, through the Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea to Japan, Indonesia, and New Caledonia (Holthuis 2002). It may be distributed as far east as the Mariana Islands (Sekiguchi 1990). Larvae have also been recorded from the Houtman Abrolhos Islands off the coast of Western Australia (Pearce <em>et al. </em>1992).
185093		habitat	eng	This species is found between 2-108 m, most commonly from 26 to 65 m (Holthuis 2002). Habitats include sandy bottoms with broken shells or dead coral, and less commonly coral reefs (Holthuis 2002). Larvae of this species show vertical diel migrations, occurring near the surface at night and between 40-100 m during the day (Booth <em>et al. </em>2005). Spawning occurs between May and August in Japanese waters (Sekiguchi 1986).
185093		population	eng	Larvae of this species were predominant in lobster catches off the Pacific coast of central Japan, making up more than 90% of the catch (Sekiguchi 1986).
185093		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be fished commercially in any part of its range, and levels of subsistence fishing are unknown.
185094		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.  Further research into the population demographics, habitat and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
185094		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Galapagos Islands, Juan Fernandez Islands and up to the Gulf of Panama (Galil 2000), between the depths of 2,380 m and 4,005 m.
185094		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185094		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185094		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
185095		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. &#160;Further research on the population, habitat, and threats of this species is recommended as these data are lacking.
185095		distribution	eng	This species is known from West Africa (Holthuis 1991), including the Gulf of Guinea (Schneider 1990).
185095		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
185095		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
185095		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown; however this species measures up to nine cm, and therefore is of no significant interest to fisheries (Schneider 1990).
185096		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species.
185096		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Indian Ocean including the coasts of: Somalia, Tanzania (Dar-es-Salaam), and the Philippines (Tawi Tawi Group, Sulu Archipelago) (Holthuis 2002). This species has a disjunct distribution.
185096		habitat	eng	Specimens of this species which were found in the Philippines were found between 16 - 33 m, and were found on bottom coral or green mud (Holthuis 2002).
185096		population	eng	This species is only known in literature from the recorded material in Holthuis (2002).
185096		threats	eng	This is not a commercial species (Holthuis 1991).
185126		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
185126		distribution	eng	In the south-east Atlantic, this species is present from Morocco to the English Channel.<br/><br/>It is present in the west and north-east part of the Mediterranean Sea and in the west part of the Black Sea.
185126		habitat	eng	This species lives on muddy bottoms. This species was found in a <em>Halophila stipulacea</em> bed in a coastal zone of Sicily (Di Martino <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>This species is mainly nocturnal. It feeds on small invertebrates. It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). It spawns in April (Marseille) or July (England), eggs are laid under mussel-shells or stones and guarded by the male (Zander 1986).
185126		population	eng	There are no known population information for this species.
185126		threats	eng	This species is often caught by trawlers, but is discarded. There are no known major threats.
185127		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185127		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present along the coasts of  France (Brittany), the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco, southwards to Senegal, including the Canary Islands and Madeira. This species is distributed in the west and the north-east Mediterranean Sea, including the Levant Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Balearic Islands - Ibiza (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 2007).
185127		habitat	eng	This is a shallow water species which inhabits rocky shores (Bath 1990). It may remain out of water under rocks and seaweeds where it can breathe air (Martin and Bridges 1999). <br/><br/>This species is very inactive except during spawning. It feeds on mussels, other benthic invertebrates and algae (Zander 1986). This is the only known nocturnally active combtooth blenny (Nieder and Zander 1993). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).
185127		population	eng	This is a common species with a stable population.
185127		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to pollution and coastal development.
185128		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185128		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species but it is widespread and may occur in protected areas.
185128		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from south France to Morocco. Some past papers reported this species present in the Azores and Madeira Islands, however, it has been concluded that the occurrences were misidentifications of <em>Parablennius ruber</em> (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/>It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.<br/><br/>It is also found in the Balearic Islands (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 2007).
185128		distribution	eng	In the northeast Atlantic, this species is present from south France to Morocco. Some past papers reported this species present in the Azores and Madeira Islands, however it has been concluded that the occurrences were misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">Parablennius ruber</span> (Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).<br/><br/>It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Also, it is found in the Balearic Islands (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
185128		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocks and rocky reefs.<br/><br/>This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). It spawns in from March to May. Spawning males reside in holes where several females spawn. Males guards the eggs from several females, until larvae are about 1 month old (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
185128		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs. It spawns from March to May. Spawning males reside in holes where several females spawn. Males guards the eggs from several females, until larvae are about one month old (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
185128		population	eng	The average fish density was 0.18 and 0.08 fish per 100m<sup>2</sup> in sampling areas in the Gulf of Trieste, Northern Adriatic Sea (Lipej <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
185128		population	eng	The population is stable.
185128		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
185146		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
185146		distribution	eng	<em>Tripterygion delaisi</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea, recorded from southern UK and the English Channel southwards and along the coast of west Africa, including Madeira and the Canary Islands (Zander 1986), and south to Senegal.<br/><br/><em>T. delaisi</em> is in the northern and eastern Mediterranean Sea.
185146		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, inhabiting shallow coastal waters with rocky substrate. It is found under overhanging rocks, entrances of caves and other biotopes with reduced light. In the Atlantic, it also occurs in shallow, light-exposed biotopes. It feeds on benthic invertebrates, also on harpacticoids. Males court by figure-8-swimming (Zander 1986).
185146		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean.
185146		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
185155		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
185155		distribution	eng	A near Mediterranean endemic, this species occurs in adjacent eastern Atlantic waters from southern Portugal to northern Morocco. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea except for the western Adriatic Sea and some of the main islands. It is also found in the Mamara Sea and Bosporus.
185155		habitat	eng	A demersal species that inhabits shallow inshore waters amongst dense algal growth. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.
185155		population	eng	This species is common throughout the Mediterranean.
185155		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species, as it does not have any commercial interest and is not caught by any fishing techniques.
185156		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
185156		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present off the coast of south Portugal. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the west and north-east parts of the basin. It is also present in Israel and Lebanon (Goren and Galil 2001).<br/><br/><em>L. canevae</em> can also be found in the Balearic Islands (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 2007).
185156		habitat	eng	This species lives on exposed steep rocky walls in holes made by molluscs and in crevices.<br/><br/>This species feeds on small invertebrates, especially crustaceans. It may also feeds predominantly on algae (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Males guard the eggs in the hole spawned by several females (Zander 1986).
185156		population	eng	There is no population information specific to this species.
185156		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to pollution.
185165		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
185165		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present along the coasts of west England, Spain, Portugal, France, Morocco, Madeira and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>It is also present in throughout the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea.
185165		habitat	eng	This species lives in shallow waters with rocky shores (Bath 1990). It also may remain out of the water under rocks and seaweeds (Martin and Bridges 1999), where it can breathe air.<br/><br/>Juveniles are found in small tide pools (Nieder 1993). This species is oviparous with demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). The territories are protected by males and include depressions, crevices or piddock holes (Zander 1986). There is distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).  During mating, the male fans the nest as if it was cleaning and ventilating the area. Males release sperm during periodic quivers to fertilize eggs in the nest much like other blennies (Gibran <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Males guard the egg-masses of various females (Zander 1986).
185165		population	eng	This is a common species.
185165		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to pollution.
185168		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
185168		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present along the Moroccan coast. It is also present in the Mediterranean and Black seas and in the Balearic Islands (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 2007).
185168		habitat	eng	This species is found in very shallow rocky areas exposed to sunlight and surf on horizontal, algae-covered terraces. It is able to live on artificial hard structures in shallow waters.<br/><br/>This species feeds on benthic invertebrates and algae (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with demersal, adhesive eggs and distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). Males guard eggs in burrows (Zander 1986).
185168		population	eng	There have been regional declines in Turkey due to habitat degradation. Otherwise, this is a common species.
185168		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to pollution.
185175		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185175		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present along the coasts from France to Morocco.<br/><br/>It is also present in the Mediterranean and Black Seas and in the Suez Canal.
185175		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the intertidal zone and shallow bottoms, on rocks or sand between pebbles and vegetation (Zander 1986). This species is tolerant to different salinities (euryhaline) and is more commonly found in brackish waters down to 5 ppt (Zander 1986). It inhabits crevices or piddock holes, males remain in cavities above water-level during low tide (Zander 1986).  <br/><br/>This species feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly molluscs, and algae (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). It has been reared in captivity (Patzner and Brandstaetter 1989). Males court by nodding and undulating movements and drive females to spawning place by biting and butting (Zander 1986). Male guards eggs from several females (Zander 1986).
185175		population	eng	This species is a common species, but it is less common in the east Mediterranean Sea.
185175		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
185181		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185181		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present in Madeira, the Canary Islands, Victoria (Cameroon) and the Iberian Peninsula.<br/><br/>This species is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea (Zander 1986, Bogorodskii 2006).
185181		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky shores of shallow coastal waters (Bath 1990).  <br/><br/>This species feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, it also feeds on algae (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen, 1966).
185181		population	eng	This species is locally common. There is no specific population information for this species.
185181		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to pollution and coastal development.
185182		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185182		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the English Channel to Angola, Madeira, and the Azores. In the west Atlantic, it is found from Massachusetts, USA and the Gulf of Mexico to Argentina. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found in all areas with suitable habitat. Specific records include Iberian waters (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), the Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006), and also the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
185182		habitat	eng	This species is primarily associated with sandy habitats. It is found on sand, mud or over rocks in sandy areas, exploring the bottom with the free part of the pectoral fins (Roux 1986). It mainly feeds on benthic crustaceans, especially crabs,  as well as clams and small fishes.
185182		population	eng	This species is not rare. It does not aggregate in large groups.
185182		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance (it is rarely caught as bycatch).
185185		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185185		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present along the coast of Portugal, Spain and Morocco south to Guinea, including the Canary Islands. It is also present in the north-west and north-east parts of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea (Zander 1986).
185185		habitat	eng	This species occurs over rocky substrata with boulders and light vegetation. It hides in crevices (Zander 1986).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).
185185		population	eng	The population is considered stable.
185185		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
185193		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
185193		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the Loire, France to Morocco.<br/><br/>This species is also present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
185193		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal areas of pebbles and on photophilic algae-covered rocks.<br/><br/>This species feeds almost exclusively on algae. It spawns from May to July. This species has distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).
185193		population	eng	This is a common species. There is no known specific population information about this species.
185193		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
185203		conservation	eng	It is found in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park. However, this species requires habitat management and site protection as well as legal measures to avoid&#160; any future issues.
185203		distribution	eng	Endemic to KwaZulu-Natal coast, from Umdoni Park in the Umzinto district, to the St Lucia wetlands area as far north as Cape Vidal (Baijnath 1976), where it is very common. From Durban southwards, the range overlaps with the very similar <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus prolifer</span>, and several records of hybrids between the two species are known from this area (Baijnath and Getliffe 1977). <br/><br/>The collection records of this species indicate remarkable disjunctions along the KwaZulu-Natal coast - there is about 190 km between the St Lucia records and Durban and another 60 km between Durban and Umdoni Park. It can not necessarily be assumed that this species occurs nowhere in between these areas and that the localities known from herbarium records (below) are the only existing localities. <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>St Lucia eastern shores, including Cape Vidal. Well protected area within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park world heritage site. No serious threats to subpopulations in this area. Herbarium specimens report that species is locally very common in the extensive coastal marshlands of this area.<br/>1) Hlabisa district, St Lucia, Eastern Shores. Altitude 8 m. Very common. (Feely, J.M. and Ward, C.J. 30-11-1959)<br/>2) St Lucia Park, 4 km from St Lucia estuary (Arnold, T.H. 0-9-1973)<br/>3) Zululand, Hlabisa district, Mhlambanyati pan (Michelmore A. 27-3-1941)<br/>4) St Lucia, Cape Vidal to St Lucia, 3 km. Altitude 5 m (Goetghebeur P. 31-1-1982)<br/>5) Bangazi lake, Cape Vidal, SE compartment (Musil, C.F. 30-9-1976)<br/><br/>St Lucia Area, western side of lakes to Kwambonambi. This area is <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 90% transformed to forestry plantations, which may have led to losses of habitat in the past, although the extent cannot be quantified. Much of the former state owned plantations in this area have recently been handed over to the conservation minded Siya Qhubeka forestry company. In order to maintain their FSC accreditation, Siya Qhubeka has done a lot of rehabilitation of remaining wetlands in the forestry plantations, especially at Langepan.<br/>6) Zululand, Hlabisa district, W of Charters Creek. Altitude 50 m. (Ward, C.J. 24-11-1955)<br/>7) Mtubatuba district, Makhakhatana (Ward 11-1969)<br/>8) Hlabisa Dist. Kwambonambi Forest, Langepan. Occurrence common. (Glen, R.P.  20-8-1996)<br/>9) North Coast, Lake Nhlabane, North Lake, south shores. Altitude 5 m. (Ward, C.J. and Begg, G.W. 17-9-1991)<br/>10) North Coast, Lake Nhlabane, South Lake, north shores. Altitiude 5 m. Occr: common. (Ward, C.J. and Rajh, A. 3-1-1992).<br/><br/>Durban. Two subpopulations are known within the urbanized Durban harbour area. There are very likely serious impacts on water quality of these wetlands due to disruption of water flow resulting in stagnation, pollution, eutrophication and probably invasion by alien species. However, whether this is likely to negatively affect subpopulations is not known, see notes on habitat.<br/>11) Wentworth, Happy Valley Bird Sanctuary. Occurrence common (Baijnath, H. 23-9-1978) Type locality.<br/>12) Merebank, Clairwood Race Course (Baijnath 12-1969)<br/><br/>Umzinto District. Only one record of this species from this area, although there are a number of records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. prolifer</span> and the hybrid, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. x turbatus</span> (Baijnath and Getliffe 1976). Severely threatened by rapid coastal development.<br/>13) Umdoni Park (Baijnath 2-1970)
185203		habitat	eng	Coastal grasslands and dunes. Associated with seasonal pans, forms a conspicuous zone around the water edge. Altitude 5-50 m. Perennial Herb. Species is potentially tolerant of wetland degradation.<br/><br/>The <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus sensilis</span> hybrid, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. x turbatus</span>, is found in disturbed wetland areas where road construction and excessive trampling have impeded drainage (Baijnath 1976). It is not certain whether this could indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sensilis</span> is generally also tolerant of stagnant, degraded wetland habitats. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus sensilis</span> has been recorded from the same sites as some known localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. x turbatus</span> (Clairwood Race course, Umdoni Park). However, on the eastern shores of Lake St Lucia, where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sensilis</span> appears to be most common, wetland habitats are mostly pristine, so it cannot be assumed that the preferred habitat is degraded wetlands, although it may be tolerant of stagnation to a degree.
185203		population	eng	Estimate: 10-15 locations. 9 locations (see below) known but probably undercollected in areas between Durban amd St Lucia, and Durban and Umdoni Park.  <br/><br/>All localities/subpopulations on St Lucia eastern shores considered one location with no serious threats. Other subpopulations in St Lucia area each considered a separate location (estimated four locations) as Langepan site is well managed, but it is not known whether or not Makhakhatana area is also owned and well managed by Siya Qhubeka. Lake Nhlabane (two localities) are also considered a separate location as these sites which are closer to the coast appear to not be directly impacted by forestry plantations. Two Durban subpopulations are considered two locations, one is on a severely neglected piece of natural vegetation in the middle of a racecourse, while the other is in a park/bird sanctuary, although this does not mean that the habitat is protected from degradation at all, as the city council does not necessarily effectively manage such areas. Umdoni Park threatened by coastal development and considered a separate location.
185203		threats	eng	This species has probably lost a lot of habitat to forestry plantations in the past around St Lucia, although the extent of loss of to the population and the time frame cannot be estimated accurately. Forestry plantations, especially gum trees, have extensive impacts on the water levels of wetlands and drainage lines, and therefore, although much of the forests in the area is owned by a conservation minded company, the impacts of the plantations on the water levels of wetlands are likely to be ongoing.<br/><br/>In the Durban area the wetland systems are disrupted and polluted by surrounding urban areas, and although the species appears to still occur in degraded wetlands, there may also have been declines in the past due to drainage of wetlands for development.<br/><br/>Coastal areas between Durban and St Lucia are excessively transformed to commercial sugarcane (transformation = 74%, calculated using GIS), and between Durban and Port Shepstone coastal development is rapidly transforming coastal areas. If this species occurs in these areas, it is quite likely threatened and quite possibly not as common as the St Lucia area where the most extensive areas of suitable wetland habitat can be found.<br/><br/>South of Durban coastal development is causing ongoing, rapid declines in the habitat of coastal species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus sensilis</span>.
185204		conservation	eng	No information
185204		distribution	eng	South Africa and Namibia. Kalahari region, Transvaal, Ramalopa, 400ft.
185204		habitat	eng	Grows on flat pans or between rocks, after the seasonal water recedes. Annual Herb
185204		population	eng	No information
185204		threats	eng	None known
185205		conservation	eng	Research in geographic range, population trends and the ecology of the species is needed.
185205		distribution	eng	Records from Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria.
185205		habitat	eng	Plant living attached to submerged rocks or wood in running water, in rapids or water falls of streams and rivers.
185205		population	eng	No information available.
185205		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought
185206		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and restoration and research actions are needed.
185206		distribution	eng	Species present along the rivers of of western Africa from Senegal to Ghana (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone).
185206		habitat	eng	Wet swamps, fresh or brackish, especially on the landward side of coastal mangrove
185206		population	eng	Abundant along rivers.
185206		threats	eng	Impacted by habitat loss due to agricultural development, overharvesting and drought
185207		conservation	eng	None known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed.
185207		distribution	eng	This plants occurs throughout the western Tropical Africa to Chad and Angola. It is found in Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, Togo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Chad.
185207		habitat	eng	This annual plant grows in tufts which are found in damp places in savanna.
185207		population	eng	No information available
185207		threats	eng	Unknown.
185208		conservation	eng	None at the moment. Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed. Further research is also needed in order to  understand better the species populations and range, and the habitat status.
185208		distribution	eng	This species is a Central Africa endemic found in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Congo.
185208		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing fixed on rocks in waterfalls and rapids. It grows fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.
185208		population	eng	The plant present in three different countries, medium size population. In Cameroon it has been recorded in two sites; in Congo and DRC there are fairly numerous collections.
185208		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to, dam construction, tourism and recreation
185209		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185209		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in West Africa to Congo in Central in Africa.
185209		habitat	eng	Plant living on river borders.
185209		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185209		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution.
185210		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185210		distribution	eng	Mostly Central African species, but can extends westwards to Nigeria.
185210		habitat	eng	Undershrub of river border in forest.
185210		population	eng	Widely distributed species and in general locally abundant, therefore large size population.
185210		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture or logging.
185211		conservation	eng	Habitat and site management and protection is required as well as  restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat. Population trends should  also be monitored . Finally, legal protection measures for this species and&#160; its habitat should be put in place.
185211		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa (Northern and Western Cape Provinces) (Cook 2004). Bokkeveld Mountains, Gifberg flats and Namaqualand at Hondeklip Bay. Found only in seasonal pools which are dry in summer, on plateau of the Bokkeveld Mountains east of Vanrhynsdorp. Described from seasonal pools on the Bokkeveld Mountains near Nieuwoudtville in the Northern Cape Province but known also from the foot of the nearby Gifberg-Matsikamma massif, in the Western Cape, and from the coastal flats near Hondeklip Bay in central Namaqualand (Manning and Goldblatt 2001).<br/><br/>At the time of revision this geophyte was only known from the Bokkeveld escarpment east of Vanrhynsdorp. It has, however, since been collected near Hondeklip Bay in the Namaqualand rocky hills.  <br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Van Rhynsdorp, road to Gifberg, in pool. (Manning 2002)  / Van Rhynsdorp in seasonal pool (Helme 1997). Less than 60 plants. <br/>2) Van Rhynsdorp just S.E. of Mauwerskop (Oliver 1974)<br/>3) Van Rhynsdorp in flat clay pool, Randkraal towards national road (Snijman 1986)<br/>4) Calvinia, Nieuwoudtville in vlei (Glen 1994)<br/>5) Calvinia, between Van Rhyns Pass and Nieuwoudtville (De Vos 1968)<br/>6) Between Menzieskraal and Nieuwoudtville (Markötter 1933)<br/><br/>From Manning and Goldblatt 2001:<br/>7) 15 km E of Hondeklipbaai (Le Roux 1980)
185211		habitat	eng	Vernal pools. Grows in seasonal pools which are dry in the summer months. The surrounding vegetation is either Namaqualand Broken Veld or Dry Mountain Fynbos or Western Mountain Karoo Veld.
185211		population	eng	Specific to vernal pools. Seeds are not adapted for long distance dispersal as they drop into the water. Many vernal pools do not have this species occurring in them indicating that dispersal is limited.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >10,000; <br/>Estimated number of locations: seven;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: seven known but a few more likely;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): no; <br/>Overall population decline (current): no<br/>Estimated current localities: <10; common in pools where they occur.
185211		threats	eng	Habitat being degraded due to heavy grazing and trampling of plants floating in shallow pools, observed by Helme at Vanrhysdorp subpopulation and by Raimondo at some Nieuwoudtville subpopulations. Agriculture is also posing a low to moderate level threat as some farmers plough up these seasonal pools. This has occurred in Nieudoutville in 2005, but it is not general practice as crops do not grow well in seasonally inundated areas (D. Raimondo pers. comm. 2006).  P.Goldblatt and J.Manning (pers. comm. 2005) also state that mining is a potential threat.<br/><br/>The specialized habitat requirements of this species may result in it becoming more threatened.
185212		conservation	eng	No specific measures at the moment, but the species occurs in protected areas. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed. Raising public awareness is also needed.
185212		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and south Nigeria. Its presence in Mali and Niger is uncertain.
185212		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophyton</span><em> fluitans</em> is an aquatic submerged herb, living in permanent or intermittent flowing waters.
185212		population	eng	Regional endemic herb and low population due to low area of occupancy (AOO) and the ecology of the plant.
185212		threats	eng	As submerged plant, any extreme fluctuation in the water condition (water component, temperature etc.) might cause the local extinction of the plant. The life of the plant will also depend on the water availability. Activities causing siltation (e.g. logging) can negatively impact these kind of species.
185213		conservation	eng	No information
185213		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Botswana and Lesotho) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185213		habitat	eng	Perennial helophyte. Marshes
185213		population	eng	No information
185213		threats	eng	None known
185214		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation initiatives. More research in population trends, geographical range and possible threats is needed.
185214		distribution	eng	The species is known from Uganda (Mengo and Teso Districts), Kenya (North Kavirondo District from 1,000-1,400 m), Tanzania (Buha, Kahama and Songea Districts), Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.
185214		habitat	eng	This erect perennial species is found in swamps and seasonally water logged depressions.
185214		population	eng	No data is available.
185214		threats	eng	No threat has been identified. But wetland reclamation to create land for rice farming in Yala swamps (western Kenya) and its environments could be a serious threat. But investigations are needed to establish the species distribution.
185215		conservation	eng	Requires taxonomic clarification with potential or actual synonyms.
185215		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Thought to be endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185215		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known. It is an hemicryptophyte.
185215		population	eng	No information available.
185215		threats	eng	No information available.
185216		conservation	eng	No information available.
185216		distribution	eng	This species is found in South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho.
185216		habitat	eng	Its habitat is not well known. No information available.
185216		population	eng	No information available.
185216		threats	eng	None known.
185217		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185217		distribution	eng	This species is present in Tropical Africa, from Ivory Coast and Ethiopia south to Botswana and South Africa (Cook 2004:183).<br/><br/>It is found in Sub-Saharan Africa in general. In Southern Africa it has been recorded from South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is found between 0 and 1,650  m above sea level. Recorded from Sesse and Bugala Islands of Lake Victoria and Namanve. Also recorded from Kenya and Tanzania (T1. 2, 3,4. Bukoba district).
185217		habitat	eng	Perennial aquatic herb, sometimes annual, floating in marshes of humid areas.  Found in temporary pools, ponds and rivers up to 1,660 m above sea level.
185217		population	eng	Quite widespread species although it is probably rare in South Africa (Cook, 2004).
185217		threats	eng	Some of the following threats might affect the species in the future but this is yet to be confirmed:<br/>- Plantation of water demanding tree species as Eucalyptus use to dry up this type of habitat very fast.<br/>- For dry season agriculture, in certain areas especially in towns, people use permanent marshes as water source to water their garden.
185218		conservation	eng	It is present in protected areas although there is no clear data.
185218		distribution	eng	This species is present in Angola, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe
185218		habitat	eng	In seasonally wet swamps and moist or boggy grassland.
185218		population	eng	It is common in Tanzania and Kenya where it is found between 750 -1,500 metres above sea level. No information available from other countries.
185218		threats	eng	Agricultural activities have been identified as possible threats but this need to be confirmed.
185219		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
185219		distribution	eng	This species is native to Tropical Central and Western Africa.  It is widespread in western Africa and present in Central Africa.
185219		habitat	eng	Aquatic and semi-aquatic geophyte. Its natural habitat is swamps; it is totally submerged or amphibious. It can aslo be found on understory or open areas of riparian forests. The natural growth of the species is very slow. Its forms little colonies and reproduces easily by stolon and side shoots.
185219		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185219		threats	eng	Wetland management for agriculture is a potential threat but it is not considered of major importance.
185220		conservation	eng	No information
185220		distribution	eng	Endemic to Southern Africa. South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape).
185220		habitat	eng	In wet situations, in water surrounding seasonal pools or along stream margins and dams, 1000-2000m. Perennial cyperoid
185220		population	eng	No information
185220		threats	eng	None known
185221		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas. Research on population abundance, ecology and threats is needed. Western African botanists have found it hard to distinguish between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. nigritana</span>, so more information is needed on these two (this species appears to avoid the Sahelian zone).
185221		distribution	eng	A western African species found from Senegal east to west Cameroon.
185221		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vetiveria fulvibarbis</span> grows in alluvial plains around rivers, and in seasonally flooded rivers. Widely used for soil stabilization.
185221		population	eng	Relatively abundant.
185221		threats	eng	Expanding agriculture for crops and the increasing occurrence of periodic droughts are the main threats. Increasing bush fires are an added pressure.
185222		conservation	eng	Four populations are within National Parks.
185222		distribution	eng	This species is native to Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs between 2,750 m and 4,300 m asl. It is common in Mt. Rwenzori in Uganda, less common on Mt. Elgon. In Kenya, it is found in Aberdare and Elgon mountains between 2,700-4,300 m asl.
185222		habitat	eng	Swamps, bogs and lake sides, ericaceous belt and giant Lobelia-Alchemilla zone (var. <span style="font-style: italic;">runssoroensis</span>)<br/>Alpine moorland and ericaceous belt, often on exposed rocks and tarns shores (var. <span style="font-style: italic;">aberdarensis</span>)
185222		population	eng	Probably quite healthy where found.<br/><br/>The variety <em>aberdarensis</em> has also been recorded from Aberdare National Park and Mt Kenya National Park.
185222		threats	eng	Increased population has resulted in a quest for more grazing land for the surrounding communities. Congestion by tourists is resulting in degradation of bogs.
185223		conservation	eng	No information available.
185223		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa and not declining.<br/><br/>Also found in northern, western, central, and Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>As <em>A. cafrum </em>var. <em>asperum</em> it has been recorded in Kenya (Trans-Nzoia District: Kitale, Prison dam, Uasin Gishu District: Kipkarren, ); Tanzania ( Iringa District: Mufindi, W side of Lake Ngwazi, Songea District: 2 km E of Songea by Nonganonga stream, Ufipa District: Tatanda mission, near Zambian frontiers on Mbala–Sumbawanga road); Uganda (Kigezi District: Kanungu, Masaka District: NW side of lake Nabugabo, Toro District: Nyakasura, on hill near crater. Also Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo; Ethiopia; Ghana; Guinea; Malawi; Nigeria; Rwanda; South Africa; Sudan; Zambia; and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>As <em>Adenostemma caffrum</em> var.<em> longifolium</em> it has been recorded from Kenya (Naivasha District: Lake Naivasha and S side of Lake Naivasha, Buha District: Kaberi swamp, Masaka District: Lwera, 32 km on Masaka–Kampala road, Teso District: Bugondo, Lake Kioga, Also in Botswana, Guinea and Sierra Leone.
185223		habitat	eng	Weedy annual which grows in damp places or places where water stood during the rain and has dried out (Cook 2004).
185223		population	eng	No information available.
185223		threats	eng	None known.
185224		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and so on.
185224		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon.
185224		habitat	eng	Small aquatic herb, annual, living on rocks in waterfalls.
185224		population	eng	Endemic species, restricted habitat, only two localities, therefore low population. No significant exchange of propagules between the two known sites is  likely to occur.
185224		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human activities (dam construction, tourism and recreation).
185225		conservation	eng	The taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, but population numbers and range, and its uses and harvest levels are needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185225		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Sudan (Jonglei Prov., Jonglei, S.-Sudan).
185225		habitat	eng	Tall perennial grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">c. </span>3 m), with rhizomes, forming large monospecific patches among <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus papyrus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vossia ouspidata</span> in permanently moist and seasonally flooded sites with peaty soil overlaying sandy clay. <span style="font-style: italic;">Zehneria ainutflora</span> is the only associated species.
185225		population	eng	Rare and restricted.
185225		threats	eng	Due to the species limited dispersal and restricted range, the species is threatened by drought.
185226		conservation	eng	No information.
185226		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Cape Region (Western and Eastern Cape provinces), South Africa.
185226		habitat	eng	This perennial geophyte is confined to permanently wet places, especially along streams and in seepage areas, 5-1,200 m above sea level.
185226		population	eng	No information.
185226		threats	eng	No information.
185227		conservation	eng	This plant is not under any conservation measures but some populations are protected in forest and national reserves.
185227		distribution	eng	This species occurs Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. In Kenya it is present in upland at an atitude  between 2600-3400 metres above sea level.
185227		habitat	eng	Swamps, flushes and streamsides in montane grassland, montane forest, upper bamboo zone, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hagenia </span>forest, lower alpine (ericaceous) zone, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>forest, also mist forest and seepage zones in craters.
185227		population	eng	Area under this plant is not known.
185227		threats	eng	Agricultural activities are the main threats to this species.
185228		conservation	eng	This species requires habitat protection and site management. Legal measures to protect the species and habitat are needed. Habitat restoration is needed to increase species' suitable habitat.
185228		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Eastern and Western Cape (South Africa) (Cook 2004).<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) A specimen was collected from Aloes (Tippers Creek) Reserve at Blue Water Bay, Port Elizabeth. Specimen in GRA (June 2002). Another specimen from the same area in the 1970s.<br/><br/>From PRECIS (South African National Biodiversity Institute2007): <br/>2) Port Elizabeth. Korsten (R. Liversidge) / Port Elizabeth, Near Koster (E.A.C.L.E. Schelpe 1961) <br/>3) Port Elizabeth District, Zwartkops River Valley. 33°56'S; 23°33'E to 33°46'S; 25°38'E. 5-100 m a.s.l. (R. Anderson 1977) <br/>4) Red House near Port Elizabeth. (F.M. Paterson 1912) and (A.O.D. Mogg 1919) / Port Elizabeth Division, Upper reaches of Papenkuils Stream (R. Liversidge 1957)<br/>5) Alexandria Dist. Kolsrand, Kop Alleen rd (S.M. Johnson 1954)<br/>6) Flats near Bredasdorp. Grown at Kirstenbosch (Schelpe 1957) <br/>7) Riversdale, Cultivated in Kirstenbosh (E.J. Van Jaarsveld 1980) Common along edges of pond<br/>8) Also collected by J. Burrows in the Albertinia. Specimen in the Buffelskloof private herbarium (pers communication July 2007)
185228		habitat	eng	Mat-forming plants found along the margins of seasonal pools and along water courses from near sea level to about 200 m.
185228		population	eng	Estimated total population size: > over 10,000 individuals.
185228		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to agriculture and urban development is an ongoing threat. Due to the fact that this species is restricted to wetlands in a densely populated and intensively cultivated region, its survival is threatened (J. Burrows pers. comm.). The population at Aloes Reserve (Tippers Creek) at Blue Water Bay near Port Elizabeth is threatened by urban development. The reserve is an informal reserve on municipal land (Dold pers. comm. 2004).
185229		conservation	eng	No information.   Further research on threats, habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.
185229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Cape (South Africa).
185229		habitat	eng	Its habitat is not well known. No information available.
185229		population	eng	No information.
185229		threats	eng	No information.
185230		conservation	eng	No information
185230		distribution	eng	Endemic to Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185230		habitat	eng	Locally abundant, often in deep water in rivers and ponds but also in marshes and mountain streams; Perennial Hyperhydate
185230		population	eng	No information
185230		threats	eng	None known
185231		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. Conservation measures should be  directed towards the protection of&#160; its habitat. This can be  done improving communication and education of savanna residents. Policy  makers,  especially authorities in charge of the protection of the environment  should be aware of the presence and the importance of protecting  freshwater plants. They should be trained to be able to make decisions  based on knowledge and understanding of freshwater ecology.
185231		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola. The plant is assessed as endemic to Central Africa, but this might be wrong although it is definitively endemic to Africa. The plant's distribution in Angola is unknown.
185231		habitat	eng	Small herb growing in water of granite cracks in woody savanna.
185231		population	eng	Rather rare species in view of its ecology. It is presumed that it has a small population size.
185231		threats	eng	Severe droughts and bush fire have been identified as major threats.
185232		conservation	eng	No information
185232		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa; Namibia, Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Free State, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)
185232		habitat	eng	Forms dense mats in vleis and at the edges of pools and along water courses
185232		population	eng	No information
185232		threats	eng	None
185233		conservation	eng	No information available.
185233		distribution	eng	Widespread in southern Africa (Botswana, South Africa, Namibia and Swaziland) and not declining. Often confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. denudatus</span>.
185233		habitat	eng	No information available. Perennial Cyperoid
185233		population	eng	The species is widespread.
185233		threats	eng	None known.
185234		conservation	eng	No information.
185234		distribution	eng	Found in Tropical Africa south to South Africa.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, it is present in Tanzania (Ufipa district Mwimbi - Sopa road, Mbeya district Mbosi circle, Ndungu Estate).<br/><br/><em>Zantedeschia albomaculata albomaculata</em> has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185234		habitat	eng	This perennial geophyte is occasionally found in marshes from 350 - 2250 m above sea level.
185234		population	eng	No information
185234		threats	eng	None known.
185235		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through environmental authorities commitment is needed. Also formal education on nature conservation practices of local residents is recommended.
185235		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa. Found in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Angola and Zambia.
185235		habitat	eng	Terrestrial herb, growing in swampy savannas.
185235		population	eng	Low extent of occurrence (EOO), probably low area of occupancy (AOO), therefore small size population.
185235		threats	eng	Although terrestrial, the major threat faced by this species depends on the availability and the quality of water. Sudden and severe drought, water pollution due to human activities will affect the quality of water while&#160; wood agriculture might affect the availability of water. Infrastructure development and human settlement can also threaten the habitat of this species.
185236		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185236		distribution	eng	Mostly Central African species (Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and probably the DRC), having Nigeria as its western border.
185236		habitat	eng	Secondary forest understory or at streamsides.
185236		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185236		threats	eng	Potetntially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture or logging.
185237		conservation	eng	No information available.
185237		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Benin to western Central Tropical Africa. Recorded from Benin, Gabon, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo.
185237		habitat	eng	Shallow waters of swamps, ponds and lakes
185237		population	eng	No information available.
185237		threats	eng	In the Central African Republic civil war has caused conservation budgets to be drained and human population in the area to increase. This has caused the WWF ecoregion to be endangered.
185238		conservation	eng	No information
185238		distribution	eng	Confined to SE and S Africa from Zimbabwe south to South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland and Lesotho (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape).
185238		habitat	eng	In permanently wet swamps, 1000m. Perennial herb
185238		population	eng	No information
185238		threats	eng	None known
185239		conservation	eng	No information available. Urgent research is needed to find out whether the species still exists or not.
185239		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.
185239		habitat	eng	Rivers, lakes, pools, in deep water.
185239		population	eng	The is no information available.
185239		threats	eng	Threat to this species are unknown.
185240		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185240		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Africa, in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola.
185240		habitat	eng	Wet meadows, usually in shady stagnating waters.
185240		population	eng	Rather rare species, small size population.
185240		threats	eng	Water pollution, and sudden and severe droughts may affect the species. The general region where the species occurs in DRC is severely impacted by mining.
185241		conservation	eng	This plant is found in protected areas i.e. Aberdare National Park, Mt Kenya, Mt Kilimanjaro, Bale Mtns, Simien Mtns. <br/>The existence of putative hybrids with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. runssoroensis</span> (FTEA) require investigation.
185241		distribution	eng	This species is native to Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded in Mts. Kenya, Aberdares and Elgon at altitudes of 2,700-4,400 m above sea level.
185241		habitat	eng	Upper bamboo and Hagenia forest, grassland in ericaceous belt, swamps and lakes and streams near glaciers.
185241		population	eng	The number of collections suggests a degree of rarity.
185241		threats	eng	All the mountain parks suffer from some tourism impacts. Loss of glaciers on Mt Kenya and Kilimanjaro could affect this species.
185242		conservation	eng	No information
185242		distribution	eng	Endemic to Western Cape, South Africa. It has probably escaped from cultivation in Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape. Widely cultivated in South Africa.
185242		habitat	eng	Usually gregarious in shallow pools or slowly flowing streams, 300 m above sea level.
185242		population	eng	No information available.
185242		threats	eng	None known.
185243		conservation	eng	None
185243		distribution	eng	Namaqualand to Biedouw Valley, Roggeveld, South Africa.
185243		habitat	eng	In permanent rivers. Dependant on hawkmoths (Hyles lineata) for pollination.
185243		population	eng	Widespread and no longer to be considered a rare species. <br/><br/>Estimated number of locations: six known <br/>Overall populations decline (past): unknown<br/>Overall population decline (current): none, unlikely
185243		threats	eng	None known
185244		conservation	eng	No information
185244		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal,possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)
185244		habitat	eng	Permanently wet places, usually near the sea. Perennial herb
185244		population	eng	No information
185244		threats	eng	None known
185245		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185245		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa (Gabon, Cameroon and Congo).
185245		habitat	eng	Forest of forest understorey, generally found on damp places, streams, rivers and lake borders.
185245		population	eng	Locally abundant species, large size population.
185245		threats	eng	Forest clearing for agriculture.
185246		conservation	eng	No information
185246		distribution	eng	Endemic to Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, possibly Gauteng, Northern Cape)
185246		habitat	eng	Loosely tufted plants in seasonally flooded places, 600-1250m. Perennial Hydrophyte
185246		population	eng	No information
185246		threats	eng	None known
185247		conservation	eng	No information
185247		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Drakensberg range (Lesotho and South Africa) (RSA: possibly Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal)
185247		habitat	eng	Wet places, streams or still water. Annual Tenagophyte
185247		population	eng	No information
185247		threats	eng	None known
185248		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures have been suggested for the Pan-Africa region.
185248		distribution	eng	From Cameroon to Ethiopia and around Congolian forests to Angola, Namibia and South Africa, Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa it has only been recorded from Cameroon. Its widespread outside the Eastern Africa region. Recorded from Kenya (western Kenya in Mumias (K5) and Central Kenya in Machakos (K4), rare and occurs from 1,400 to 1,700 m above sea level); Tanzania (T2, 5. Floor of Ngurdoto Crater) and Malawi (Kasungu Game Reserve, Lingadzi Dambo).
185248		habitat	eng	This perennial aquatic herb, grows floating in more or less permanent marshes, dependent on big rivers and lakes, in savanna as well as in light forest. It also occurs in Interstitial waters which are sometimes briefly drained.
185248		population	eng	Although it is considered as rare in North-eastern Africa, it is a widespread species in the other regions.
185248		threats	eng	Some of the following threats might affect the species in the future but these have to be confirmed:<br/>- Plantation of water demanding tree species as Eucalyptus use to dry up this type of habitat very fast.<br/>- For dry season agriculture, in certain areas especially in towns, people use permanent marshes as water source to water their garden.
185249		conservation	eng	None for the moment. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise  awareness are needed.
185249		distribution	eng	Congolian distribution, from Nigeria in the west to Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.
185249		habitat	eng	Geophyte of swampy forest understory, riparian bushlands and sandy streamsides.
185249		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185249		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution. No major widespread threats have been identified.
185250		conservation	eng	None at the moment. This plant is generally very well adapted but its habitat should be protected.
185250		distribution	eng	Widespread species from Senegal to the Central Africa.
185250		habitat	eng	This rhizomatous herb grows in freshwater or weakly brackish water, stagnant or slow running shallow water. Frequently in the edges of marshy forest.
185250		population	eng	This is a gregarious species, generally forming large populations where it grows. In great planting on edges of marshy forest.
185250		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasion by other species (<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> for example), and water pollution.
185251		conservation	eng	Habitat and site management and protection is required. Appropriate legal measures should be put in place&#160; at a National and Regional level.
185251		distribution	eng	Endemic to a relatively small area in the south western part of Western Cape, South Africa (Cook 2004). Darling to Stellenbosch and the Cape Flats.<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Isoetesvlei (Strauss, M. 1970) a number of collections from this site - still extant but threatened by eutrification, numbers very scarce at this site.<br/>2) Cape Town. Duthie Reserve (Boucher, C. 1974) - possibly extant<br/>3) Worcester. Farm De Mond of Hartebees River (Roux, J.P. 2003) - healthy extant,  potential threat from alien invaders <br/>4) Aerodrome, Wocester near Koelenhof (Roux, J.P. 1987) - extant<br/>5) Harmony Flats (Boucher, C. 1974) - J.P. Roux says incorrect id is <span style="font-style: italic;">I. stellenboschensis</span><br/>6) Flats near Gordon's Bay (Van Niekerk, A. 1954) - highly likely to be extinct most of this area has been urbanised just the Harmony Flats fragment remains <br/>7) Vergenoegd Estate. Lat.: 34° 01.818' S; Long.: 18° 43. 68' E. (Roux, J.P. 2002) – extant, small population in a disturbed area<br/>8) Romansrivier, Wolseley. Old geometric tortoise reserve (I. Ebrahim. 15-Sep-05) - 100-1,000 plants, extant<br/>9) Stellenbosch Flats (Duthie, A.V. 1927) - extinct.<br/>10) Platteklip (1939 - unknown collector) - likely to be the Stellenbosch area <br/>11) Cape Flats, temporary vleis (Duthie, A.V. 1927) - and numerous other collections, most temporary vleis on the Cape Flats no longer exist
185251		habitat	eng	Seasonally flooded depressions and in pools on granite or shale.
185251		population	eng	This species is restricted to a specialised habitat of seasonal vleis that are never larger than 2 ha each.  Species occupies specialised habitats (seasonal vleis) that are small, natural disjunct and further severely fragmented by intervening agricultural and urban land uses. It is a very cryptic species and other populations may exist.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >1,000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: 6;   <br/>Estimated number of past subpops: >40;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 6;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  90% decline over past 50-100 years.
185251		threats	eng	Urbanisation is a severe threat on Cape Flats. Many populations already lost. Eutrophication - severe threat on Cape Flats especially at Isoetesvlei. Alien plants potential threat to Rawsonville and Romansriver population.
185252		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation measures. But some populations are protected in national parks and forest reserves.
185252		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Zambia, Kenya and Uganda. <br/><br/>It is uncommon in Eastern Africa, found between 1100-3200 m., in Kenya. It has been reported from Western Kenya (Trans-Nzoia District, Mt Elgon); Central Kenya (Embu District, Aberdare Ranges, Mt Kenya) and Central Rift Valley in Kericho District. Also recorded from Uganda (Ankole District: Bunyaruguru; Masaka District: Kabula, and Mbale District: Benet).
185252		habitat	eng	This species form tussocks in swamps. It also grow along streams in the moorland.
185252		population	eng	The exact area covered by this species is unknown.
185252		threats	eng	No threat has been reported. But this species suitable are perhaps suspectible to wetland reclamation and forest logging to create land for cultivation.
185253		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and or conservation are also required.
185253		distribution	eng	A widespread annual in tropical and subtropical Africa but rarely collected (Hilton-Taylor, pers.comm.2009). Known from relatively few and scattered collections in eastern Africa, extending from southern Sudan and Kenya to South Africa (Kruger National Park, Limpopo, Mpumalanga). The Kenyan specimen may be a different species (Glenm pers. comm. 2009).
185253		habitat	eng	On the edges of pans, pools and slow flowing streams. Foun at an altitude of 450 m. The juveniles are submerged, the adults are floating, emergent or terrestrial. Does not always appear annually and capable of accommodating great changes in water level.
185253		population	eng	In Southern Africa the estimated number of locations is 6. It is rare in North Eastern Africa.
185253		threats	eng	None except trampling by elephants but this is probably a natural occurrence.
185254		conservation	eng	No information.
185254		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa, from Noodsberg to Lusikisk. It has been recorded from KwaZulu-Nata and, Eastern Cape. Widely cultivated across the workd by carnivorous plant growers.
185254		habitat	eng	This perennial carnivore is not a true wetland species. It often&#160; grows on wet vertical rocks, betweeen 20-1200 m above sea level, near waterfalls.
185254		population	eng	No information
185254		threats	eng	None known.
185255		conservation	eng	No information
185255		distribution	eng	Confined to southern Mozambique, Swaziland and KwaZulu-Natal (Cook 2004). Maputuland endemic.
185255		habitat	eng	Altitude: up to 1100 m. Locally common in seasonally inundated pans. Mat-forming plants, in mud at eadges of pans.
185255		population	eng	No information
185255		threats	eng	None
185256		conservation	eng	None at the moment. But where necessary, people should be aware on the risk of wild fire and global warming on the humanity future, the necessity of preserving the environment.
185256		distribution	eng	West to east African distribution, from Senegal, Burkina Faso and Sierra Leone in the west to  Kenya, Sudan, Uganda in the East, then downwards to South Africa.
185256		habitat	eng	A scrambling or erect herb of damp open ground, especially in montane meadow above 1,100 m above sea level.
185256		population	eng	Widespread species in open meadow
185256		threats	eng	Habitat loss, caused by global warming with less rain as consequence, more wild or bush fire, therefore less damp grassland. Also human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, livestock agriculture, infrastructure development).
185257		conservation	eng	Further research on the species threats, population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185257		distribution	eng	Recorded from Sudan and Uganda. In Uganda it was recorded at 900 m on the Victoria Nile at the junction with Lake Albert, it has also been recorded at Lake Bisinia. However the species may be more widespread as the species has also been recorded from Malawi, in the Lower Zambezi (lower Shire river).
185257		habitat	eng	This submerged aquatic herb grows in still fresh waters.
185257		population	eng	This species is rare.
185257		threats	eng	The water hyacinth may pose a threat to this species as it is a competitor for resources.
185258		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185258		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire in West Africa to CAR and Gabon in Central Africa.
185258		habitat	eng	Climber of forest understory and streamsides.
185258		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185258		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture and logging.
185259		conservation	eng	No information available. Further information on the species range, distribution and trends is required. Threats to this species need to be identified as it could easily be under serious risk.
185259		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola (holotype from Lunda, Angola).
185259		habitat	eng	Presumably aquatic as most <em>Drosera</em> species are but this needs confirmation.
185259		population	eng	No information available.
185259		threats	eng	Lunda province, where this species was found,&#160; has two diamond mining areas that may be affecting the local flora. However, this needs to be confirmed once the exact location for this species is know.
185260		conservation	eng	The species is not under any protection measures but species found in Mt Kenya, Aberdares, Mt Elgon and Mt Kilimanjaro are protected under national parks and forest reserves laws. Those in West Pokot could be under pressure from cultivation and livestock grazing.
185260		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in the Aberdares, Mt Kenya and in West Pokot; Mt Kadam and Mt Elgon in Uganda, and Kilimanjaro and Ngorogoro  in Tanzania.
185260		habitat	eng	Montane grassland, moorland and bogs, and next to streams.
185260		population	eng	Three populations recorded from high altitudes of Mt Kenya, Aberdare as well as areas in West Pokots. Often dominant in Aberdare. Locally common on Mt Kadam and Mt Elgon.
185260		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
185261		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185261		distribution	eng	Records from Ghana, Mali, Senegal and Nigeria. Sudano-guinean in Africa.
185261		habitat	eng	Grassy swamps and beside streams of sudano-guinean region.
185261		population	eng	No information available.
185261		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development.
185262		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation measures. Aberdare is protected as a National park as well as a Forest Reserve. However, the species is rare and only found from one locality.
185262		distribution	eng	Recorded in Mount Aberdare on the Nyeri side at 2,700 m. This species is endemic to Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo and has been recently identified from Tanzania.
185262		habitat	eng	Clearings in upper montane forest, bamboo and giant heath.
185262		population	eng	In Kenya only one population is found in Aberdare Forest on the Nyeri side. Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo from Ruwenzoris. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Mt Kilimanjaro.
185262		threats	eng	No major threats have been reported or observed for the species. However forest destruction and degradation is the major threat to  the Aberdare Mountains, through agricultural encroachment, forest grazing of livestock and forest-fires.
185263		conservation	eng	No information available.
185263		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known only from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), from the Kundelungu Plateau.
185263		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known.
185263		population	eng	No information available.
185263		threats	eng	No information available.
185264		conservation	eng	This species is not under any specific conservation measures although some populations are protected within established national parks and forest reserves.
185264		distribution	eng	This species is present in Ethiopia, Kenya Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo. It is widely distributed in Kenya, in Mountain Elgon between 3,400-4,100 metres above sea level. Also recorded from Aberdares and Mt Kenya. In Uganda in Mgahinga and Elgon; in Tanzania in Kilimanjaro and Udzungwa National Park.
185264		habitat	eng	Swampy areas in upland grassland and moorland, montane forest, Hageni-Hypericum alpine belt.
185264		population	eng	No data available.
185264		threats	eng	No data available.
185265		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but it's important to study the species in order to define its habitat and population status. Where necessary, the conservation measures will consist of educating the riverside residents and to aware the environmental authorities.
185265		distribution	eng	From West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Nigeria) to East Africa (Uganda) through Central Africa (Cameroon, Congo and Angola).
185265		habitat	eng	Coarse perennial herb, growing in damp shady places.
185265		population	eng	Widespread species, important population.
185265		threats	eng	Potentially threatened locally by alien invasions, infrastructure development, natural disasters (drought) or water pollution.
185266		conservation	eng	Further information on the species range, distribution and trends is required.
185266		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>This species is thought to be endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185266		habitat	eng	This species is found in seasonal streams. It is an hemicryptophyte.
185266		population	eng	No information available.
185266		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the activity of extractive industries.
185267		conservation	eng	None known
185267		distribution	eng	This species has a Afrotropical distribution. It is widely distributed within Western Africa. It also occurs in Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Chad, Ethiopia, Sudan and Uganda
185267		habitat	eng	Annual green clear plant with sometimes solitary stems, more frequently grouped in a short dense tuft; root purple. It is found on flooded rice fields or recently waterlogged, more or less muddy temporary flooded soils, and around stagnant water.
185267		population	eng	This species is believed to be common throughout its range.
185267		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought have been identified as threats but not considered as major.
185269		conservation	eng	More&#160; research in population trends and size, ecology and current threats is needed.
185269		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Africa. Known from Mount Cameroon (Cameroon), a single mountain on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and Mount Elgon (Kenya and Uganda).
185269		habitat	eng	Wet places and by streams in upland grassland and moors.
185269		population	eng	No information.
185269		threats	eng	Restricted to high altitudes where there are few human impacts. However, lava flows on Mount Cameroon could wipe out known sites if the lava flow was in the same place (Mt Cameroon erupts approximately every 20 years). The mountain on Bioko has not erupted for <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>100 years but could again in the future.
185270		conservation	eng	Research needed on the species distribution within Western Africa.
185270		distribution	eng	Pantropical, soudano-zambezian distribution, scattered throughout tropical Africa, endemic to Africa. Present in Senegal, Ethiopia, Angola, Malawi and Madagascar.
185270		habitat	eng	Perennial briefly rhizomatous growing in a loose tuft. It grows in temporary flooded soils, border of freshwater pools.
185270		population	eng	This species is common.
185270		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought.
185271		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders.
185271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon and Gabon.
185271		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.
185271		population	eng	Low population. This plant is known from one collection from one locality only in Cameroon and from the type collection only in Gabon.
185271		threats	eng	Dam construction is a potential future threat, although no imminent plans are known. Also tourism disturbance is a problem.
185272		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185272		distribution	eng	Recorded from Benin and Ghana.
185272		habitat	eng	Marshy meadows.
185272		population	eng	Unknown.
185272		threats	eng	Wetlands management for agriculture is compromising species survival.
185273		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
185273		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Benin, Ghana, Senegal, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Uganda.<br/><br/>In Uganda, it occurs in Teso, Omunyal swamp at 1,100 m above sea level.
185273		habitat	eng	This plant grows in swamps and wet savanna.
185273		population	eng	No data available.
185273		threats	eng	Over grazing and uncontrolled burning of the wetland may pose a threat to the species.
185274		conservation	eng	No information available.
185274		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa (distributed in the Limpopo province and North West province).
185274		habitat	eng	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plants sometimes found in moist situations but they are not considered to be wetland species. Annual herb
185274		population	eng	No information available.
185274		threats	eng	None known.
185275		conservation	eng	Research actions on habitat status, threats, ecology, population numbers and range are needed.
185275		distribution	eng	Recorded from Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon and Central African Republic.
185275		habitat	eng	The species grows in marshy areas.<br/><br/>Scapes usually numerous, less than six inches high; leaves rather thick  and opaque, acuminate; capitula hemispherical, palid or fuscescent about  4-5 mm diam., distinctly echinatewith protruding bracts.
185275		population	eng	Population trends and abundance are unknown.
185275		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185276		conservation	eng	No information
185276		distribution	eng	Confined to but not widespread in southern Africa. Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho and possibly Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)
185276		habitat	eng	In vleis, seepage areas below dams and at the edges of pools. Perennial cyperoid
185276		population	eng	No information
185276		threats	eng	None known
185277		conservation	eng	No information available. Further research is needed to confirm that the species is still found in Zambia and Angola.
185277		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>recorded from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (one known site in Haut-Katanga), from Zambia and from Angola.
185277		habitat	eng	Occurs in marshy dambos (wet springs, usually in open country).
185277		population	eng	No information available.
185277		threats	eng	Clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.
185278		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed.
185278		distribution	eng	This species is present in East Africa (Uganda, Tanzania), then Congo and Zanzibar and throughout Southern Africa.
185278		habitat	eng	Rhizomatous aquatic herb, growing in swamps, dams and rivers.
185278		population	eng	Quite widespread species, especially in the southern part of Africa.
185278		threats	eng	No current major widespread threats. Potential threats are habitat loss through human activity (Human settlement, infrastructure development etc.); water pollution, and alien invasion.
185279		conservation	eng	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of the following protected areas (Lusaka East Forest Reserve in Zambia).
185279		distribution	eng	Recorded from Southern Africa in Angola, Zimbabwe, south to South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland. Presence  is uncertain within Central Africa.
185279		habitat	eng	This perennial hydrophyte, grows in seasonally flooded areas and along rivers, up to 1,400 m above sea level. Also in temporary/permanent ponds, dry stream beds, roadside drains, seasonally flooded areas and, marginally in shallow waters.
185279		population	eng	No information.
185279		threats	eng	None known.
185280		conservation	eng	No information.
185280		distribution	eng	This species has been only recorded from Angola, Zambia, Namibia and Botswana and South African Cape Provinces.
185280		habitat	eng	Vegetative parts totally submerged, usually in pools in floodplains.
185280		population	eng	No information
185280		threats	eng	None known
185281		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place. Protection of the two known sites is required as well as further research on population trends and actual threats.
185281		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gabon.
185281		habitat	eng	Rapids in fast-flowing rivers.
185281		population	eng	It is known from two sites so population is presumably relatively small.
185281		threats	eng	General threats to other members of the family include water pollution and dam construction.
185282		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation measures.
185282		distribution	eng	Only known from one seasonal pool at Thika (Kenya).
185282		habitat	eng	Recorded in seasonal pools in rocky areas.
185282		population	eng	Only two collections have been recorded from the same site: Fort Hall District in Thika, at the north side of Thika river.
185282		threats	eng	The species is highly threatened by human-related activities. The area is under fairly intense development with a new highway under construction between Nairobi and Thika. Although this site is on the other side of Thika and hence not directly threatened by the road, the increased activity in the Thika area should impact on the site (W.R.Q. Luke pers. comm. 2010). The remaining population is situated in private land, and it my be threatened by agricultural and urban development.
185283		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas (Mole National Park in Ghana). Need more research on the range, abundance and threats to this species.
185283		distribution	eng	Has a fairly restricted range and is endemic to West Africa. Known only from Burkina Faso and Ghana.
185283		habitat	eng	Grows in savanna mostly on disturbed secondary sites, but also in marshy savanna on floodplains. It is not known if the species is used or not.
185283		population	eng	The species is moderately abundant.
185283		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are: loss of habitat due to increasing droughts and increased fire frequency.
185284		conservation	eng	None known
185284		distribution	eng	This species is found from Senegal to north Nigeria, Chad and Sudan.
185284		habitat	eng	Marshes and beside pools on rock outcrops
185284		population	eng	Localized population
185284		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought may threaten population locally although they are not considered as major threat.
185285		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185285		distribution	eng	Central to East African distribution, from Angola, Gabon and Congo to Ethiopia and down to Mozambique. In Eastern Africa It has been recorded in Tanzania (Buha District: Gombe National Park, Upper Kakombe River and Mpanda District: Kungwe-Mahali Peninsula, Lubugwe River). Also in Uganda (Toro District: Kibale Forest and West Nile District: Zoka Forest)
185285		habitat	eng	Forest or riverine forest's species, forest understory or across the river.
185285		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185285		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for shifting agriculture of logging.
185286		conservation	eng	No information available.
185286		distribution	eng	It is endemic to the Erongo mountains in Namibia at 1,200 m.
185286		habitat	eng	Seasonally wet depressions and near seasonal springs.
185286		population	eng	No information available.
185286		threats	eng	None known.
185287		conservation	eng	No information
185287		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185287		habitat	eng	In water in a wide variety of habitats. Perennial Hydrophyte
185287		population	eng	No information
185287		threats	eng	None known
185288		conservation	eng	No information available.
185288		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape, possibly Gauteng).
185288		habitat	eng	Along the coast in wet places or in still or flowing shallow water along streams and rivers, 5-1,680m.; Perennial Helophyte.
185288		population	eng	<p>There is no data available.</p>
185288		threats	eng	None known
185289		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, and law and policy actions to protect the species habitat are urgently needed.</p>
185289		distribution	eng	Endemic to Western Cape, South Africa between Eendekuil to Tygerberg (Goldblatt and Manning 2000).  <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) 4 km NW of Philadelphia, Schoongezicht farm (Manning 2006)<br/>2) Cape Town. Tierhoogte Farm, about 2 km west of Philadephia.<br/>3) Cape Town. Vernal pools 13 km east of Hopefield (Goldblatt 1997) also seen by CREW in 2005 population highly threatened by alien grasses and infilling of pool by farmer subpopulation expected to be extinct in the next two years. <br/>4) Clanwilliam. Duikerfontein. NW Sandveld (Van Jaarsveld 1987) - likely to be extant<br/>5) Dwars in die Weg, 1 km SE of Eendekuil.  32°45' 27" S and 18°52'32.4" E. Small population of about 100 plants (Helme 2007) / Bellville, Tygerberg, in pools. (Compton 1947) - extinct<br/>6) Piquetberg. The Pools, Piquetberg District. 17 miles NNW of Porterville (Lewis 1937) and (Compton 1937) - extinct searched for unsuccessfully by CREW volunteers and D. Raimondo in 2006<br/>7) Malmesbury District. ½ mile east of Mamre Road station, on Road between Darling and Malmesbury (Rourke 1968) - possibly extant but area highly transformed and consisting now of dense stands of acacias<br/>8) Cape Peninsula. Porterville (Schlechter 1894) - extinct<br/>9) Kalabaskraal - possibly extinct
185289		habitat	eng	Vernal  pools on shale. Juveniles submerged, adults floating, emergent or temporally terrestrial (Cook 2004). Flowering from August to September. Disseminules cypselas with hairs below and bristles above, dispersal unknown but not by wind.
185289		population	eng	Although there are still many vernal pools remaining on the Swartland most of these do not have <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquaticus</span>. This species is obviously not able to disperse easily.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >1,000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: 4;   <br/>Estimated number of past locations: >10;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 4;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes > 70% in past 100 years;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  yes.
185289		threats	eng	Livestock grazing and trampling especially by cattle and horses has likely led to the loss of this species in many of its historic localities. Infilling of wetlands and mechanical damage by heavy machinery is considered as a severe ongoing threat. Other less severe threats are invasion by alien grasses caused by dumping of cattle  feed in dry pools during summer and eutrophication (run-off from fertilizers used on surrounding ploughed lands).
185290		conservation	eng	Further information required on the species ecology, population and range.
185290		distribution	eng	Widespread in tropical Africa from Ethiopia and Ghana, south to South Africa. Central African Republic, Zambia, Angola, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Botswana, South Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has bee recorded from Angola, Zimbabwe (Victoria Falls and Trour river) and South Africa in Southern Africa (KwaZulu-Natal).  Only known from 1 collection in South Africa but is fairly common in Angola where there is a lot of habitat with sparse human populations and no obvious threats. <br/><br/>Reported from Central African Republic and Zambia but is likely to be very much more widespread within the region, but few collections. In Kenya, this species is only known from Mua Hills (Lolokwi) in Machakos areas at 1,950 m above sea level. Also recorded north of Malawi (Nyika National Park).
185290		habitat	eng	Found in and around black pools of mud, forest streams and lakes, usually in swampy land, 1400-1600 m above sea level, according to J.P. Roux occurs in seepage areas and never in standing water. It is not a strict aquatic plant. It also grows in damps grassland with scattered bushes, together with various sedges, <em>Eiocaulon, Ilysanthes Aeschynomene</em>, etc.
185290		population	eng	Widespread species.
185290		threats	eng	No major widespread threats identified. The species could be potentially affected by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural activities.
185291		conservation	eng	No information
185291		distribution	eng	South Africa: Widespread (Eastern Cape and Kwazulu-Natal provinces) with 13 specimens and nine unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells.
185291		habitat	eng	According to Cook (2004), this is not aquatic or wetlands species but may be found in seasonally damp or wet places. Perennial Helophyte
185291		population	eng	No information
185291		threats	eng	None known
185292		conservation	eng	Research into the species distribution and levels of harvest.
185292		distribution	eng	Distributed in west Africa: Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.
185292		habitat	eng	Colonizes wet places. The plant is recorded as a weed on rice land in Sierra Leone
185292		population	eng	In places it is locally frequent
185292		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought
185293		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures aimed to the species have been proposed.
185293		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Southern Africa in Zambia and Angola south to Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Also from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185293		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, sometime perennial, floating in temporary marshes where rainwater is collected, in areas of  meridional dry forest sides, almost in the steppe region. Also in temporary pools particularly in the flood plains of rivers.
185293		population	eng	Medium to wide population, despite a wide extent of occurrence.
185293		threats	eng	None known.
185294		conservation	eng	None known
185294		distribution	eng	Western tropical Africa, Senegal (lower part of Casamance), Sierra Leone (Rokupr) and Guinea (Koba and Kabak).
185294		habitat	eng	This plants grows in flooded rice fields by freshwater or marshes recently waterlogged.
185294		population	eng	The species is moderately abundant throughout its range.
185294		threats	eng	Unknown
185295		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness, education and further research on the population numbers and threats, have been suggested.
185295		distribution	eng	This species is widespread from West Africa to Central Africa down to Angola.
185295		habitat	eng	Small aquatic herb, annual, submerged in rapids and waterfall, but can also be found into rocky streams during the rainy season.  The plant grows fixed by thallus on rocks.
185295		population	eng	Quite well represented species, good population despite low Area of Occupancy (AOO) due to habitat specialization.
185295		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought. Also dam construction and tourism.
185296		conservation	eng	No information.
185296		distribution	eng	South Africa: distributed in the SW, SE, NW (Bokkeveld mountains to Port Elizabeth).
185296		habitat	eng	Marshy flats and slopes (Goldblatt and Manning 2000).
185296		population	eng	No information.
185296		threats	eng	No information.
185297		conservation	eng	Research actions on threats, habitat status, population numbers and range is needed.
185297		distribution	eng	Recorded from Senegal, Gambia, Mali and Sierra Leone. This species seems to be endemic to the west of Western Africa.
185297		habitat	eng	Temporary pools in lateritic outcrops.
185297		population	eng	No information available.
185297		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185298		conservation	eng	None known
185298		distribution	eng	Tropical African species extending south to Botswana. Widespread in western  Africa.
185298		habitat	eng	This annual plant grows in tufts in shallow waters such as  seasonal or permanent pools, along the marshy banks of pools, and in swamps.
185298		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
185298		threats	eng	Main threat to this species is Agriculture. In western Africa, damming in the Okavango region could become a threat and this may affect its regional status.
185299		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed.
185299		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cameroon, in a small area going from the Lobe waterfalls down to Campo only. The area of occupancy is small and the species is only known from three collections from two localities.
185299		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.
185299		population	eng	Population presumably low.
185299		threats	eng	Dam construction is a potential threat, but tourism is a current threat. The Lobe waterfall where this plant has been collected, as well as many other Podostemaceae species, is very attractive to tourists so unregulated trampling is a serious problem.
185301		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed. More research on its actual geographic range is needed.<br/></p>
185301		distribution	eng	Mostly west African species, but extends through Central Africa (Angola, Congo) to East Africa.  The plant probably exists in Cameroon.  It has also been recorded in Kenya (Kilifi District and Kwale District) and Tanzania (Tanga District and Uzaramo District) but this needs to be confirmed.
185301		habitat	eng	Mostly terrestrial shrub, but found at the water sources.
185301		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185301		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution of all kinds and forest clearing for shifting agriculture.
185302		conservation	eng	No information available.
185302		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known only from DRC where, although it is a small and apparently rather inconspicuous annual, there are a fair number of collections (more than 10) (M. Lock pers. comm.).
185302		habitat	eng	A small and apparently rather inconspicuous annual; a distinctive taxon.
185302		population	eng	No information available.
185302		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.
185304		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness and further research on the habitat status, biology and ecology of the species , have been suggested.
185304		distribution	eng	Ony present from western  to Central Africa, from Côte d'Ivoire to Nigeria, then in Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.
185304		habitat	eng	This species is a stout perennial that grows in swampy places in forest and savanna.
185304		population	eng	No information available about the population of this species, except that as a herbaceous species, its population is expected to be locally abundant.
185304		threats	eng	Major threats will depend on water quality and availability. Water composition can fluctuate considerably due to human activities and water availability can be affected by drought or pumping for irrigation.
185305		conservation	eng	Habitat and site management and protection is required as well as  restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat. Also, legal measures at a National and Regional level  should be put in place. More research is needed on its distribution and population trends.
185305		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lambert's Bay to Stilbaai, Western Cape, South Africa (Goldblatt and Manning 2000)<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Cape Town, Milnerton, Rietvlei (I E.L. St 1930) - likely to be extinct / Cape Peninsula, Milnerton, Rietvlei (A.A.Mauv)<br/>2) Cape Peninsula, Varsche Vley, pools in vley - extinct<br/>3) Cape Peninsula, Kommetjie, Kommetjie effluence (A.H.Wolley-Dod) - extinct<br/>4) Cape Peninsula Dist. Noordhoek, in vlei (A.A.Mauve R.H.Simons) / Clanwilliam Dist. Lamberts Bay, Lange Vlei (H.R.Tolken 1963) - not likely to be the correct ID this is a Cape Peninsula endemic.
185305		habitat	eng	Totally submerged in brackish pools by the sea. Annual (occasional perennial) herb
185305		population	eng	Decline from at least four locations in past to two at present.
185305		threats	eng	Eutrophication of wetlands as a result of human habitation in surrounding areas. Both of the potentially remaining wetlands at Noordhoek and Rietvlei have experienced much development over the past 20 years.  Alien plant invasions threatened both of the potentially remaining sites.
185306		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. The species has been recorded as VU in Namibia (Golding 2002).
185306		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining.
185306		habitat	eng	Perennial Geophyte. In seasonally flooded pans, particularly in mopane woodland.
185306		population	eng	Estimated total population size: one in Namibia.
185306		threats	eng	None known.
185307		conservation	eng	Research actions on population numbers and range, ecology and threats needed.
185307		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Guinea and Sierra Leone.
185307		habitat	eng	Thallus with slender stem, to 15 cm long, naked or with scattered forming compact rosettes, occasionally loose and elongate. Its ecology is barely known.
185307		population	eng	<p>Population patterns for this species are unknown.</p>
185307		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185309		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders.
185309		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central African countries (Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Central Africa Republic, Angola).
185309		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.
185309		population	eng	Although very gregarious plant where it grows, its specialization into very narrow habitat (waterfall) tends to make of it a low abundant plant. Known from four to five sites in Cameroon (three in Flora of Cameroon; plus Tello and possibly Vina: J.-P. Gogue pers. comm. 2008).
185309		threats	eng	Dam construction, but also tourism. The waterfalls are generally appreciated for tourism and excursions.
185310		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and the various threats.
185310		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon. The plant is known from two localities, one in the Littoral province Bakaka  (near Nkong'samba) and the other one in the South-west (near Mamfe).
185310		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, growing on rocks in flooded rivers.
185310		population	eng	This species has a low population and restricted area of occupancy.
185310		threats	eng	Water pollution, temperatures extremes and sudden drought have been identified as main threats.
185311		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185311		distribution	eng	This is a species is found from Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania through to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi down to Southern Africa.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has been recorded from Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In Kenya (common and widspread from 1400-2700 m), it has been recorded from Cherangani hills in Elgeyo District, in Naivasha District and at Mt. Kenya in Embu District. In tanzania it has been met at Usambara mts. In Lushoto District, at Mbisi forest in Ufipa District and at Iheme in Iringa District. In Burundi, the species is known only in the high land rain forest area at Ryarusera marsh, Ijenda marshes, Mt Campazi, Rwegura peatbog and at Muyange marsh in the province of Bururi.<br/><br/>Central Africa: Occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi in the assessment region. It is also known from 2 sites in Cameroon.<br/><br/>In North Eastern Africa it has been recorded from Sudan (Imatong Mountains), Ethiopia (Abbassynia Chire), Somalia and Eritrea. Somalia distribution is uncertain.
185311		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows in very wet swamps, along stream and river banks or growing in shallow water,  beside streams, pools or lakes. Also found in wet montane grassland.
185311		population	eng	Common species.
185311		threats	eng	No major widespreading threats.
185312		conservation	eng	None.
185312		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Benin, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>It occurs at 1,160 m above sea level. Recorded from Masaka and in West Nile in Uganda.  In Eastern Africa, it has also been recorded from Kenya, in Kitale area between 1,800-1,900 m above sea level
185312		habitat	eng	In swamps or on organic soil at lake edges.
185312		population	eng	No Data available.
185312		threats	eng	Cultivation in wetlands and uncontrolled fires have been identified as threats but are not considered major.
185313		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, further research in population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185313		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Southern Africa, Eastern Africa and Ethiopia. <br/><br/><em>M. farinosa farinosa</em> is found in Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa (possibly North West, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal). <em>M farinosa arrecta </em> occurs in southern Botswana and northern South Africa (Cook 2004) (Limpopo and North West Provinces), Lesotho and Swaziland. Known localities: 1) South Africa, 40 km south of Grobbelar's drift on Potgietersrus road (Burrows, J. 1985) - Type locality 2) Gaborone Dist. Content Farm (1972) 3) 3 miles north of Gaborone (1974)<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is found Kenya where the species is known from two localities in Lukenya-Donyo Sabuk area (Machakos) in a seasonal water hole and a seasonal stream.
185313		habitat	eng	This perennial herb occurs in seasonally flooded places and along rivers and streams. Also in dry sandy river beds, in dried-out valleys, dried mud pans, on moist banks of dry river beds, usually forming large mats.
185313		population	eng	Rare in North-eastern Africa. No more information is available.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa only two populations have been recorded. The area they cover is not known.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, <em>M farinosa arrecta</em>  has been recorded in aproximately 5 locations.
185313		threats	eng	The species and subspecies are situated in places with intense human and livestock activities. Many sites are also privately or communaly owned.  At a Pan Africa level the species faces no major widespread threats.
185314		conservation	eng	None at the moment. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved  communication to raise  awareness are needed. Research is need to confirm actual number of locations and population trends.
185314		distribution	eng	Central African distribution (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia).
185314		habitat	eng	Aquatic plant of swamps, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea </span>ponds and clayish dembo up to 1,850 m above sea level.
185314		population	eng	Only three locations in the Democratic Republic of Congo. If the tendency is the same in Angola and Zambia, then the population size should be small.
185314		threats	eng	Water pollution and invasion by alien species.
185315		conservation	eng	No information available.
185315		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Aluka 2008).
185315		habitat	eng	In permanent lake with about 15 cm mud; found at 5.4 m depth with fertile leaves 30-45 cm high and in 0.6 m water with fertile leaves 15-20 cm high.
185315		population	eng	No information available.
185315		threats	eng	No information available.
185316		conservation	eng	No information
185316		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa (RSA: North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)
185316		habitat	eng	Wet swampy places, tolerates periodic flooding, 350-3500m. Perennial helophyte
185316		population	eng	No information
185316		threats	eng	None known
185317		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185317		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gabon and Angola (Mayombe).
185317		habitat	eng	Forest shrub, found in shady situations along rivulets on the river.
185317		population	eng	The population is estimated to be small.
185317		threats	eng	Water pollution is a major threat associated with the survival of this plant.
185318		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185318		distribution	eng	Recorded from Senegal to Liberia.
185318		habitat	eng	Edges of water particularly in the Gambia River.
185318		population	eng	No information available.
185318		threats	eng	Wetland destruction for agriculture has been identified as major threat.
185319		conservation	eng	This species is found in Ruwenzori National Park which is a World Heritage Site declared in 1995.
185319		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Uganda (Ruwenzori). It is found between 3,200 m and 3,850 m asl. This genus has only two more species in East Africa which are confined to western Uganda where the genus is known to have its northern limit.
185319		habitat	eng	Found in mountain bogs along streams and on wet rocks.
185319		population	eng	The species is believed to be rare (Haines and Lye 1983) but this needs to be confirmed.
185319		threats	eng	Rebel insurgence in the 1990s hence lawlessness in the Park may have resulted in changes in its population. Unhappy local communities about the loss of traditional rights to harvest resources from the National Park, and to freely use the footpaths.
185320		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185320		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon).
185320		habitat	eng	Understory of forests crossed by waterstreams.
185320		population	eng	The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) includes two countries (Cameroon and Gabon) and it has medium size population.
185320		threats	eng	Forest clearing for agriculture and logging.
185321		conservation	eng	No information available.
185321		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Only known from Democratic Republic of Congo. It is an annual so it may have been possibly overlooked.
185321		habitat	eng	Anual aquatic plant.
185321		population	eng	No information available.
185321		threats	eng	No information available.
185322		conservation	eng	Existing conservation: The species is found in the Oribi Gorge, Mpenjati, Vernon Crookes, Umtamvuna, Mkambati Game Reserve.
185322		distribution	eng	South African endemic: W and E Cape and southern KwaZulu-Natal. Uvongo southwards and from two localities near Dumisa. Disjunct in that it does not occur between Port St John's and Howiesons Poort (near Grahamstown), but it is common in the Western Cape.
185322		habitat	eng	Marshy coastal areas. An aquatic or semi-aquatic plant growing in and along rivers, mostly near the coast. Alt. up to 830 m. It sometimes grows so densely that it chokes rivers.
185322		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: > 10;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: >> 10;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes.   <br/>Range in Natal decreased by 60% (Hilton-Taylor (pers.com))
185322		threats	eng	Degradation of rivers due to diminishing water quality and quantity. Siltation and transformation of coastal vleis.
185323		conservation	eng	No information
185323		distribution	eng	Present in South Tropical Africa to Namibia. Found in the northern part of South western Africa. Recorded from Angola, Zambia Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana, where it is frequent in the Okavango, Chobe, Zambesi and Quito Rivers and their tributaries. Also found in Democratic Republic of Congo in Luapula River.
185323		habitat	eng	Vegetative parts totally submerged, grows at depths of up to 4m, in lakes, dams and ditches.
185323		population	eng	No information
185323		threats	eng	None known
185324		conservation	eng	No information
185324		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa (Western Cape)
185324		habitat	eng	Usually in flowing water, emergent or submerged, sometimes under waterfalls. Perennial Emergent hydrophyte.
185324		population	eng	No information
185324		threats	eng	None known
185325		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but the authorities of the ministry of environment should be informed of the presence of this narrow endemic species in this site, who will inform the authorities of the dam and convince them to take protection measure during the construction of the dam. If possible, this plant can be reintroduced somewhere else.
185325		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cameroon, where it is known from a single site (The Nachtigal waterfalls).
185325		habitat	eng	Small aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing on rocks in waterfalls.
185325		population	eng	Rather rare species, population very low.
185325		threats	eng	A dam construction is planned at the exact site of this species (The Nachtigal waterfalls) in the near future. This plant is known only from this site.
185326		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas (e.g., the transfrontier park Niokolo-Badiar). Research is required on population numbers and range and the threats.
185326		distribution	eng	A West African endemic, known only from Ghana, Guinea (Fouta Djalon mountains) and Sierra Leone. From current records known only from three separate localities. Possibly, it also occurs in Burkina Faso and maybe in Côte d'Ivoire.
185326		habitat	eng	Marshy grass savanna subject to flooding. Not known if it is harvested for use.
185326		population	eng	The species is not common and appears to be scarce.
185326		threats	eng	Increasing frequency of fires and periodic droughts are the main threats.
185327		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185327		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185327		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky river borders.
185327		population	eng	It is known from one locality only. Small size population.
185327		threats	eng	Water pollution has been described as an important threat. Also, there is a high mining activity in the Haut-Katanga region, where this plant is found.
185328		conservation	eng	No information
185328		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lesotho and South Africa (RSA: possibly Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004:7 )
185328		habitat	eng	In permanent water and along the banks of small, slow-flowing rivers. (Cook 2004:7 )<br/>Growing in areas with permanent standing water or along bank of slow flowing rivulets. (Tolken 1985). Alt. 50-3000m. Perennial (occ. annual) Hydrophyte.
185328		population	eng	No information
185328		threats	eng	None known
185329		conservation	eng	None at the moment. Formal education and habitat restoration and maintenance are needed.
185329		distribution	eng	West and Central African species, from Ghana in the west to Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
185329		habitat	eng	Herb of generally shady and wet places. It can be found at the stream borders.
185329		population	eng	It is a widespread species with large sized population.
185329		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution.
185330		conservation	eng	No information
185330		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa where it is widespread and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185330		habitat	eng	Annual herb. Freshwater swamp and aquatic veges.
185330		population	eng	No information
185330		threats	eng	None known
185331		conservation	eng	No information available.
185331		distribution	eng	Perhaps endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
185331		habitat	eng	In water in pans and along rivers. Perennial Helophyte.
185331		population	eng	&#160;No information available.
185331		threats	eng	None known.
185333		conservation	eng	No information available.
185333		distribution	eng	Restricted to the Kavango, Chobe and Upper Zambezi rivers in Angola, Namibia, Zambia and Botswana. Recent collections only from the Caprivi area. Probably undercollected because this is an inconspicuous aquatic.
185333		habitat	eng	Aquatic on river edges.
185333		population	eng	No information available.
185333		threats	eng	None known.
185335		conservation	eng	No information
185335		distribution	eng	Endemic to Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185335		habitat	eng	Along water courses and in moist and frequently flooded land, 610-2150m. Perennial herb
185335		population	eng	No information
185335		threats	eng	None known
185336		conservation	eng	The situation is quite dramatically different within the Sehlabathebe Nature Reserve, the type locality of this species, where the vegetation was observed to be in good condition (Zonneveld 1998) and where there are no serious threats at present (C.R. Scott-Shaw pers. comm.)<br/><br/>The only known South African locality is also well protected within the Ukahlamba Drakensberg National Park, and there are no known serious threats to this site.
185336		distribution	eng	According to a number of sources (Zonneveld 1998, Scott-Shaw 1999, Carbutt and Edwards 2003, Pooley 2003) this species is known only from a small area (about 10 km across) in the Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho, and the bordering areas near Tarn Cave at the top of Bushman's Nek Pass, on the KwaZulu-Natal - Lesotho border. However, an other source (Meakins and Duckett 1993) also reports sightings of this species at the headwaters of the Bokong River in the Maloti Mountains, central Lesotho, where the habitat is severely threatened.<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Lesotho Sehlabathebe Nature Reserve. 2 52’ S, 2 07’ E. Altitude 8500 ft. Deep pools on sandstone base (Jacot-Guillarmod, A.M.F.G. 15-12-1971) - Type<br/>2) Lesotho Sehlabathebe National Park (Schmitz, M.O. 0-12-1976)<br/>3) KwaZulu-Natal, Underberg district, Bushman’s Nek, vicinity of Tarn Cave above Bushman’s Nek in pools (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 21-11-1983)<br/>4) Lesotho, headwaters of Bokong River (Meakins and Duckett 1993).
185336		habitat	eng	Rock pools, permanently wet tarns and high altitude mires, 2,400-3,300m. Basalt and Clarens sandstone. Confined to pools up to 7 m deep in Cave Sandstone [Clarens] formation at about 2,600 m altitude’ (Jacot Guillarmod and Marais 1972). High habitat specificity.
185336		population	eng	This species occurs in two adjoining nature reserves, where it is only potentially threatened. However these reserves are likely to have different management practises as one is in South Africa and the other in Lesotho, and therefore they should be considered separate locations. This species is known from at least one locality in Lesotho outside of protected areas, but there may possibly be others as well. These should all be considered one location as all land in Lesotho outside of protected areas are severely impacted by overgrazing, trampling, overburning and subsistence farming.<br/><br/>Estimated number of locations: 1 in SA; ± 3 in Lesotho;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): 33% of the habitat has been degraded in Lesotho, stable in SA;  <br/>Time frame of decline (past): 60 years;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): continuing in Lesotho, stable in SA;  Ongoing;  Decline understood? Yes
185336		threats	eng	Lesotho mires are very fragile ecosystems and extremely sensitive to grazing and trampling, as well as burning (Mucina and Rutherford 2006). Across Lesotho communally owned land is severely degraded due to overgrazing, trampling, overburning, erosion and subsistence farming, even in quite remote places such as the headwaters of the Bokong River in the Maloti Mountains where direct impacts of mire degradation on subpopulations of this species have been observed (Meakins and Duckett 1993).
185338		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. No further measures necessary.
185338		distribution	eng	Widespread in western Africa. Introduced to North America.
185338		habitat	eng	Grows in permanent shallow water (1-2 m deep), in swamps, lakes, and dams. Always in still water.
185338		population	eng	This species is abundant throughout its range.
185338		threats	eng	The increasing occurrence of drought, sedimentation and invasive species are the main threats.
185339		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation or protection measures. More research is needed on population trends,habitat status, ecology and species' distribution. A site visit to check the species is still present is needed urgently.
185339		distribution	eng	The species is very rare in Kenya and has only been recorded from Machakos District at 1,650 m. It is endemic to Kenya and occupies a very narrow range.
185339		habitat	eng	It grows at the edge of a seasonal pools in salt-marshes.
185339		population	eng	Only one population and its size is unknown.
185339		threats	eng	The species is found in one site which is susceptible to road construction, livestock grazing and agricultural activities. This area (65 km from Nairobi) is now undergoing subdivision into smallholder plots.
185340		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in a protected area in the south of Senegal. However, better information on the range and abundance of this species is needed.
185340		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the environs of Fouta Djalon, Senegal. Should be looked for in Gambia and Guinea. Possibly&#160; found from 200 m to over 1,000 m above sea level.
185340		habitat	eng	It only occurs on laterite pools (hard pans), edge of temporary water.
185340		population	eng	The species is not very abundant.
185340		threats	eng	Increasing frequency of drought is the main threat to this species.
185341		conservation	eng	No information
185341		distribution	eng	Endemic to Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal)
185341		habitat	eng	Seasonally flooded areas, river beds and pans. Perennial Herb
185341		population	eng	No information
185341		threats	eng	None known
185342		conservation	eng	No information
185342		distribution	eng	Endemic to W Cape, from Vanrhyns Pass through the Cederberg to the Hex River Mountains. (Cook 2004: 78) There is a PRECIS record in Lesotho, but this is presumed an incorrect identification. This species occurs in mountainous areas and has many collections. (> 20 locations)
185342		habitat	eng	In shallow water in flat rock pools and flooded depressions on sandstone, 860-2000m and can survive under ice.(Cook 2004. 78). Usually growing in rock pools in Table Mountain sandstone. (Tolken. 1985. FSA 14:102); Annual Lithophyte
185342		population	eng	No information
185342		threats	eng	None known
185343		conservation	eng	More research is needed on distribution, threats, biology and ecology and habitat status. The species is in found in protected areas.
185343		distribution	eng	Only recorded from Kenya. It has been recorded at Meru District in the Meru National Park, Joshua Lugga (1979) in the Northern Frontier District in Wamba (1958) and the Samburu-Isiolo Game Reserve (1974).
185343		habitat	eng	Perennial herb of damp places.
185343		population	eng	No information.
185343		threats	eng	No information.
185344		conservation	eng	Most known localities in South Africa are well protected within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park.
185344		distribution	eng	Along the eastern coast of Africa from Mozambique to northern E Cape and KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) (Cook 2004:130). EOO in South Africa (based on herbarium collections) is 7000-8000 km2, range in Mozambique not specified in Cook (2004), and therefore total EOO could not be calculated.
185344		habitat	eng	Marshland particularly along the coast, 1-120m.; Annual Tenagophyte
185344		population	eng	10 known localities in South Africa, but probably undercollected in areas between Durban and St Lucia, as well as between Durban and Port Edward and into the Eastern Cape Wild Coast. Unknown range and number of localities in Mozambique.
185344		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss due to forestry plantations and subsistence farming to subpopulations outside of the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park in northern KwaZulu-Natal, and urbanization around Durban. Threats in Mozambique not known.
185345		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185345		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola).
185345		habitat	eng	Herb growing into the mud, at the marshland borders.
185345		population	eng	Rare species, small population.
185345		threats	eng	Water pollution is a major threat to this species.
185346		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and so on.
185346		distribution	eng	Central African distribution. Found in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo&#160; (DRC), and Angola.
185346		habitat	eng	Submerged freshwater plant, living attached to rocks' surface or any hard materials in rapids.
185346		population	eng	Rather rare species. Only one or two subpopulations of less than 100 m<sup>2</sup> each in Cameroon. Some populations of the same size are mentioned in DRC and Angola. The population is severely fragmented.
185346		threats	eng	Dam construction has been identified as a major threat.
185347		conservation	eng	No information
185347		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa (RSA: Northern Cape, Western Cape)
185347		habitat	eng	Annual Helophyte. Marshes
185347		population	eng	No information
185347		threats	eng	None known
185348		conservation	eng	No information
185348		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185348		habitat	eng	Perennial helophyte. Found in marsh habaitats.
185348		population	eng	No information
185348		threats	eng	None known
185349		conservation	eng	No information.
185349		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola but as it grows in the River Cunene system it may be found in Namibia. (Cook 2004).
185349		habitat	eng	Vegetative parts totally submerged, found in pans, dams and streams.
185349		population	eng	No information.
185349		threats	eng	Endemic in Angola. Probably few threats as the area is sparsely inhabited.
185350		conservation	eng	None known
185350		distribution	eng	Widespread in western Africa (Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ivoiry Coast, Nigeria, Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Niger)
185350		habitat	eng	A rheophyte, found on rocks in rapids. It forms sometimes dense tufts in the rocks of waterfall or on the border of rivers.
185350		population	eng	<p>This plant is abundant throughout its range.</p>
185350		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by drought
185351		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185351		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Africa (Gabon, Cameroon, Congo).
185351		habitat	eng	Terrestrial herb of shady path in secondary forest and lake's border.
185351		population	eng	No formal information about the population, but the extent of occurrence includes three countries. The plant is locally abundant, then the population can be estimated to be of large size.
185351		threats	eng	Land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture are potential threats.
185352		conservation	eng	No information
185352		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa. In easternern Africa it is found in uplands and northern parts of Kenya between 800-2,200 m above sea level.
185352		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte may be found in seasonally damp or wet places.
185352		population	eng	Population is not suspected to be declining.
185352		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
185353		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185353		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Togo in West Africa to Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo in  Central Africa.
185353		habitat	eng	Damp meadows at the border of temporarily flooded basin.
185353		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185353		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution.
185354		conservation	eng	Habitat and site management and protection is required. Legal measures should be put in place at a National and Regional level. Restoration of sites for increasing species suitable habitat is highly recommended.
185354		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Stellenbosch. Platklip seems to be the only remaining locality for the for this taxon. According to the ISEP file it had previously occurred on the Stellenbosch flats as well, but a university building has now been built on the site.
185354		habitat	eng	Vernal pools on granite.
185354		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: 1;   <br/>Estimated number of past locations: 2 (but > 3 generations ago);   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 2;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing
185354		threats	eng	The granite outcrop here was blasted in the late 60s early 70s. The blasting was stopped but the major threat here is that local care takers will use the rockery for horticulture because it is very close to their offices. A sewerage farm site, municipal buildings is very close to remaining population. Alien plants threatened the second population just S of quartintine area, causing continuing decline as the site itself is very disturbed. Scattered garden plants have been noted amongst the populations of Isoetes in the Platkip sewerage farm (ISEP 1974).
185355		conservation	eng	No information available.
185355		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa (RSA: Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
185355		habitat	eng	Seasonally submerged in temporary pools and vleis. Perennial geophyte
185355		population	eng	No information available.
185355		threats	eng	None known.
185356		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation measures but the Langata record may stretch into Nairobi National Park. No other collection sites have any protection.
185356		distribution	eng	This species is locally abundant in the central parts of Kenya from 1,500-2,500 m (Lari). It has been collected in the Naivasha District,&#160; Kiambu District (Lari near Uplands in 1976, Kahurananga and  Kibui); Nairobi (Eastleigh, 1971, Mwangangi and Mukenya). Several sites have been reported around Nbi - Langata, Msongari, French Mission, Mbagathi R. and Nyeri and Meru.<br/><br/>Present in Uganda in Lake Kyoga, but has either disappeared or this record was an error as it is no longer found there.
185356		habitat	eng	Found in swamp sites along streams and marshy grassland characterised by black cotton soils.
185356		population	eng	It would appear to be locally common but the main area of collection, Nbi Distr, is under intense development and few of the sites remain.
185356		threats	eng	Observation shows that swamps along rivers are today being reclaimed and converted to agricultural lands. Severe land conversion around Nairobi and Naivasha has also been noted.
185357		conservation	eng	Research actions needed to discern its real distribution and impact of threats.
185357		distribution	eng	Records from Senegal, Gambia, Nigeria, Burkina Faso (it was collected in two small stone ponds in Burkina Faso, in the centre and west of the country). But according to Airy Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1968) the species is found from Senegal to the Central African Republic.
185357		habitat	eng	Genus of two species. On mud beside pools.
185357		population	eng	Unknown.
185357		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.
185358		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
185358		distribution	eng	This species occurs in west central and east Tropical Africa. Recorded from Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Zambia.
185358		habitat	eng	This species occurs in <em>Miscanthidium</em> swamps with <em>Sphagnum</em>. Its very slender stems are supported by the larger grass stems.
185358		population	eng	Very rare or perhaps overlooked (Lye 1983).
185358		threats	eng	Important threats identified are expanding tourism development, burning of swamps, and cultivation in wetlands.
185359		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
185359		distribution	eng	Extending from Nigeria to Cameroon in west Africa, to Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola and Zambia.
185359		habitat	eng	Slender tufted annual growing in boggy ground.
185359		population	eng	The population is expected to be locally abundant.
185359		threats	eng	No widespread major threats known. The species is thought to be locally impacted by poor water quality and availability (drought or irrigation).
185360		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of riverine populations and stakeholders. Measures should be taken during the construction of the dam to protect this species.
185360		distribution	eng	Endemic to Cameroon and Gabon. Small area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO).
185360		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, submerged, fixed on rocks in fast water of waterfalls and rapids.
185360		population	eng	Generally gregarious species.
185360		threats	eng	The major threat to this species&#160; in Cameroon is the dam construction planned in the only site locality of this species: The Ntem Waterfall at Menve'ele near Nyabizan, 60 km east of Campo.
185361		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed.
185361		distribution	eng	This species occrus in the drier northern part of western Africa from Senegal to N Nigeria, and E Cameroon, Sudan and further south east to Kenya. In Kenya one collection has been made in Kenya and Uganda border. In Uganda, recorded from Karamoja (Kotido), a semi arid area with communities with nomadic mode of living.
185361		habitat	eng	An aquatic plant with yelowwish flowers, floating leaves growing stagnant, shallow and sometimes temporary freshwater pools..
185361		population	eng	Colonies are dispersed, it is rare in North Eastern Africa.
185361		threats	eng	In addition to the subsistence use of the tuber by locals as food; the species s of limited dispersal and restricted range. Not considered as majro threats.
185362		conservation	eng	Research is urgently needed on the status and threats to this  species, as it could easily be threatened. Protection of the habitat through education and awareness of policy makers and local populations is needed.
185362		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphoides tenuissima</span> is restricted to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia only.
185362		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, floating in small temporary marshes, not deep (25-30 cm), on laterite or on rocks
185362		population	eng	Presumably narrow population.
185362		threats	eng	The plant depends on a non-permanent habitat and therefore will be easily threatened by inappropriate land management and infrastructure development and drought.
185363		conservation	eng	No information
185363		distribution	eng	Eastern part of southern Africa. South Africa and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal).
185363		habitat	eng	Along river banks and around vleis, often spreading out over the water surface, 200-1600m. Perennial graminoid
185363		population	eng	No information
185363		threats	eng	None known
185364		conservation	eng	No information available.
185364		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known only from Zambia, Congo-Kinshasa (DRC) and Angola.
185364		habitat	eng	A bulbous-based species of open grasslands (doubtfully aquatic) which is rarely collected, perhaps because it flowers early in the wet season. It is may be an hemicryptophyte or geophyte.
185364		population	eng	No information available.
185364		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.
185365		conservation	eng	None at the moment. But in need, research action to know better about the population numbers and range, the habitat status and the potential threats faced by this plant, then where possible, communication and education of the surrounding population about the potential freshwater plants' threats (pollution etc.).
185365		distribution	eng	Present in Southern Africa: Zambia and Zimbabwe, south to Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)<br/><br/>In Central Africa it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185365		habitat	eng	Locally abundant in shallow water, in pools, swamps, flood plains, seasonally inundated grasslands or on the muddy banks of rivers or ponds, 3300m. This perennial herb it is frequent in places where the water is shallow, often by less than 15 cm of water depth and more rarely can groe totally submerged.
185365		population	eng	<em>A. junceus</em> has been collected in one locality only in DRC, but this seems to be due to the fact that the species tends to be rather southern African's where it occupies at least 5 countries. Its Area of Occupancy (AOO) in these countries in not fixed, but it can be estimated that the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) is high enough to justify a high population.
185365		threats	eng	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought. It’s also mentioned that most of the species of the genus Aponogeton have edible tubers, leaves and inflorescences (Flore d'Afrique Centrale). This is not explicitly clear for this species, but in any case, this is a lethal removal from the wild and if not controlled can affect the population and later on the survival of this species.
185366		conservation	eng	Although taxonomy, biology and ecology are in place, information on threats, population numbers and range are needed.
185366		distribution	eng	Only recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In Kenya it is found in Northern Frontier and Tana Districts and in Ethiopia it has been recorded in Gondaraba.
185366		habitat	eng	The species grows in damp places.
185366		population	eng	Rare species, no additional information.
185366		threats	eng	Unknown.
185367		conservation	eng	No information
185367		distribution	eng	Endemic to Gifberg and Cedarberg mountain ranges, Northern and Western Cape.<br/><br/>Localities:<br/>1) Gifberg, many temporary standing pools or rock flushes on the Gifberg have the plant, this is all one subpopulation (J.P. Roux) <br/>2) Pakhuis Pass, possibly more common on the Cedarberg. J.P Roux recently found additional sub populations of this species in the Cedarberg extending the range listed in Cook.  <br/>3) 22 km SE of Vanrhynsdorp, 1.0km south of Oubergpad, Gifberg road. 2001
185367		habitat	eng	Submerged in a temporary pond, 565m, on rocks
185367		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: >10;   <br/>Three known but probably many more, very cryptic undercollected species (J.P. Roux pers. comm. 2006).
185367		threats	eng	No known threats - plants occur on rocky areas.
185368		conservation	eng	No information.
185368		distribution	eng	Coastal easternern Cape (Wild Coast) and KwaZulu-Natal as far north as Maputaland. Aslo recorded in Zambia, Sudan and Democratic Republic of Congo.
185368		habitat	eng	This perennial Cyperoid grows in lowland coastal swamps, in grassland or on the edges of swamp forest.
185368		population	eng	No information.
185368		threats	eng	None known.
185369		conservation	eng	No information
185369		distribution	eng	Confined to SE and S Africa from Zambia and Zimbabwe south to South Africa, Namibia, Botswana (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape).
185369		habitat	eng	In permanently wet or seasonally flooded areas such as vleis, river banks and marshes, 520-1520m. Perennial herb.
185369		population	eng	No information
185369		threats	eng	None known
185370		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and management of the existing sites is required. The species would benefit from some kind of legal protection.
185370		distribution	eng	This species is known from Darling to Agulhas, South Africa (Strelitzia 2000). The population is severely fragmented.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>Cape Province:<br/>1) Vredenburg. Southern edge of Paternoster, near Lizaseklip. Alt: 10 m. Common in damp sands near coast. (Helme, N.A. 2-7-2005)<br/>2) Riet Valley (Pole Evans, I.B.12-12-1920)<br/>3) Milnerton, Rugby (Tolken, H.R.  20-11-1963)<br/><br/>Western Cape:<br/>4) Zuur Fontein (Schlechter, F.R.R. 17-8-1896)<br/>5) Albertinia, Albertinia Commonage (Muir, J. 0-10-1913)<br/>6) Cape dist. Green point (Alexander-Prior, R.C. 0-8-1846)<br/>7) Riviersonderend Vill, Verdwaalkloof, 2 miles E of Riviersonderend (Taylor, H.C. 22-8-1962)<br/>8) Caledon Dist. Riviersonderend 2 miles E of Riviersonderend in river flats (Acocks, J.P.H.  22-8-1962)<br/>9) Riversdale (Schlechter, F.R.R. 14-11-1892) / Western Cape, South Africa (Bohnen, P. 24-9-1978) / Riversdale, Stillbay. <br/>10) Milnerton (Young, R.G.N.  12-9-1925)<br/>11) Cape Town, Kenilworth (Bolus, H.)<br/>12) Retreat Vley (Wolley-Dod, A.H. 2 -5-1897)<br/>13) Ceres Road. (Schlechter, F.R.R. 12-9-1896)<br/>14) Cape Peninsula, Chapmans Peak (Esterhuysen, E.E.  5-12-1954)<br/>15) West Coast National Park, Langebaan, Churchhaven. Alt: 0m (Mucina, L. 21-8-1997)<br/>16) Velddrif, Bergrivier (Hugo, L. 6-10-1981)  <br/>17) Rocher Pan Nat. Res. (Van Rooyen, N. and Ramsey, M.  8 21-1-1981)<br/>18) De Hoop, Potberg (Van Wyk, C.M.  18-9-1984) and (Burgers, C.J. 17-10-1978) / Potberg Nat. Res. <br/>19) Bredasdorp Dist. Rietfontein. (Esterhuysen, E.E. 11-8-1983)<br/>20) Modder River, 500 M from mouth (O'Callaghan, M.G. 12-11-1986)<br/>21) Pringle Bay (Greuter 1-10-1989)<br/><br/>Northern Cape<br/>22) Namaqualand, Groen River mouth
185370		habitat	eng	Marshy ground, pools and damp places on the Cape flats.
185370		population	eng	There are more than 20 specimen location, but approximately five of these are likely to be extinct (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007).
185370		threats	eng	Agriculture (severe), aliens (moderate), urbanization (severe).
185371		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need for management plans to protect its habitat and more research in ecology, threats and utilization of this species.
185371		distribution	eng	Widespread in western Africa.
185371		habitat	eng	It grows on the edge of swamps.
185371		population	eng	No information available
185371		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.
185372		conservation	eng	No information
185372		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, possibly North West, Gauteng, possibly Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape)
185372		habitat	eng	Usually grows along streams in mountainous regions but also found in wet places in lowlands along the east coast. Perennial Herb
185372		population	eng	No information
185372		threats	eng	None known
185374		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185374		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guinea (Kinkon Falls close to Pita) (and possibly Cote D'Ivoire, according to GBIF records, though it cites Kinkon Falls as the locality which is in Guinea and not Cote D'Ivoire).
185374		habitat	eng	Stem densely covered with triangular, entire or tridentate leaflets, two mm long. Very abundant, attached to rocks in the river below the falls, only the flowers emerging from the water.
185374		population	eng	Unknown.
185374		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, mining and drought.
185375		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185375		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Sao Tome, Equatorial Guinea and Angola).
185375		habitat	eng	Forest undershrub found at the river border.
185375		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185375		threats	eng	Land and water pollution.
185376		conservation	eng	No information
185376		distribution	eng	Confined to Zimbabwe, Angola and South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga);  <br/><br/>Known localities (PRECIS):<br/>1) Zoutpansberg Dist. Dongola Area, De Klundert (Bruce 16-3-1948)<br/>2) Kruger Nat. Park. Pretoriuskop (Van der Schijff, H.P. 25-2-1954)
185376		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools, particularly on granite, rooting in mud. Gregarious and turf-forming. On Inselbergs and granite koppies.
185376		population	eng	Locations: 2 in South Africa.  Likely to be >10 across range.
185376		threats	eng	No signs of threats, based on a spatial assessment of range vs transformation in the region. The species has a patchy distribution, but is not in a threatened habitat.
185377		conservation	eng	No information available.
185377		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known only from the type specimen (DRC) and a small number of dubious records.
185377		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known.
185377		population	eng	No information available.
185377		threats	eng	No information available.
185378		conservation	eng	No information.
185378		distribution	eng	Cape Peninsula to Caledon (Manning and Goldblatt 2000), according to PRECIS it also occurs in George, and potentially in Namibia according to Cook (2004), however the taxonomic status of specimen in Namibia is not clear.<br/><br/>Known localities: <br/>1) Onrust River. Alt: 3 m. (Schlechter F.R.R. 29-11-1896)<br/>2) George, Rondevlei (Jacot-Guillarmod, A.M.F.G., Shaw, I. and Saenger, P. 15-4-1971)<br/>3) Caledon Dist.Alt: 5 m. (Schlechter, F.R.R. 11-4-1897)<br/>4) Bredasdorp Dist. De Hoop Vlei, Moeraskloof (Van der Merwe, C.V. 2-6-1974)<br/><br/>Namibia:<br/>5) Swakop River mouth (Giess, J.W.H. 8-2-1964) - taxonomic status of this specimen is unclear
185378		habitat	eng	On drying sand or in shallow water or on marshy land. Near sea level.
185378		population	eng	Three to five locations.
185378		threats	eng	One locality (George) under threat of housing development (E. Sieben&#160; pers. comm.).
185379		conservation	eng	Further research on population, range and threats is recommended.
185379		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Somalia.
185379		habitat	eng	In damp grassy places.
185379		population	eng	Considered to be common within Somalia.
185379		threats	eng	Unknown but pollution and natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.
185380		conservation	eng	None known
185380		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian and Soudano-zambezian distribution. Widespread in western  Africa.
185380		habitat	eng	Annual plant growing in tufts in swamps.
185380		population	eng	It is a common species.
185380		threats	eng	Invasing species may pose a threat to this plant.
185381		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185381		distribution	eng	Records from Guinea and Sierra Leone.
185381		habitat	eng	Found in backwaters. It has been described on cascade rocks in beds of torrential brook.
185381		population	eng	Low occurrence in West Africa.
185381		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.
185382		conservation	eng	No information.
185382		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Cape, South Africa. (Cook 2004).
185382		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools.
185382		population	eng	No information.
185382		threats	eng	No information.
185383		conservation	eng	No information available. Urgent research is needed to find out whether the species still exists or not.
185383		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. In Zambia, only the type locality  has been recorded: six miles North of Kasama.
185383		habitat	eng	Deep slow-moving water, rivers, lakes and pools.
185383		population	eng	There is no information about its population.
185383		threats	eng	Threat to this species are unknown.
185384		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Research action for population and habitat status.
185384		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo).
185384		habitat	eng	Small aquatic herb, annual, growing on rocks in waterfalls.
185384		population	eng	Medium size population, two sites in Cameroon (Lobe Waterfalls; Lokundje river at Bipindi), one site in Democratic Republic of Congo (Island of Mimosas/Ile de Mimosas in Kinshasa), two sites in Gabon (Ogooué a Booué; Ogoulou, Mitingo).
185384		threats	eng	Dam construction, tourism and recreation have been identified as major threats.
185385		conservation	eng	There is a reserve in the area, but not sure if the species occurs in the area or not. Need to have a survey to establish the range, abundance and threats to this species.
185385		distribution	eng	This is a Guinean-Congolian species, known only from western Senegal and the Cape Verde Islands.
185385		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist or flooded depressions on the littoral sand dunes.
185385		population	eng	Unknown.
185385		threats	eng	Increasing frequency of drought is leading to salinization of the area. Furthermore, much of the Cape Verde area has been developed for urban expansion of Dakar and expansion of agricultural lands.
185386		conservation	eng	No information.
185386		distribution	eng	Confined to a relatively small region in south western part of Western Cape Province (Cook 2004). Darling to Stellenbosch and the Cape Flats. <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Karbonkelberg<br/>2) Rondebosch Common<br/>3) Harmony flats<br/>4) Stellenbosch flats - many historic collections<br/>5) Stellenbosch, Jan Marais Park<br/>6) Duthraie reserve <br/>7) Koelenhof <br/>8) Vergenooigt estate<br/>9) Tulbagh <br/>10) Paarl Mountain<br/>11) Darling - Tienieversveld
185386		habitat	eng	On sandy soil in seasonally flooded pans and on seeps on rock faces.
185386		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: >10; Each subpopulation is large.  <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: >10;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing
185386		threats	eng	Harmony Flats and Rondebsoch Common populations threatened by aliens (grass and woody aliens). Safe in Darling area and in Paarl Mountains. Dutheriae Reserve and Jan Marais park - no significant threat - but many populations lost in the past to urbanisation. Koelenhof population next to the brick works where there is a threat of future development
185387		conservation	eng	Investigation is needed to determine whether it is still present in one of its last localities and whether it has a persistent seed bank. It is probably only present in one or two localities and it has not been collected for 30 years.
185387		distribution	eng	Distributed in the SW Cape Peninsula to Stellenbosch (Goldblatt and Manning 2000). No localities listed in digitised records in PRECIS (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007).
185387		habitat	eng	Marshy flats (Goldblatt and Manning  2000).
185387		population	eng	Overall populations decline (past): declining in Cape Flats;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): unknown distribution, might still be present in persistent seed bank. <br/>Two Locations
185387		threats	eng	Urbanization is a severe past and ongoing threat. Its habitat in Kenilworth Race course is heavily infested with alien grasses (C. Cupido and E. Siebert pers. comm.).
185388		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185388		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa (Gabon and DRC).
185388		habitat	eng	Plant of river border in forest.
185388		population	eng	The extent of occurrence of this species includes two countries, the population is expected to be of small size.
185388		threats	eng	This plant is affected by land pollution.
185389		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185389		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Sudan (Didinga Mountains NE Chukdum, N 4º 15´ - E 33 º 27´), Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/>In Kenya at Baringo District: Kiserian; Northern Frontier District: Moyale; Tana River District: Baomo Lodge. In Tanzania at Dodoma District: Chaya; Kilwa District: Masoko; Musoma District: Kihunda, Zanaki. In Uganda at Karamoja District: Mt Kadam [Debasien], Napyenenya, and Lotome Mission.
185389		habitat	eng	Perennial, rarely annual herb, of damp places.
185389		population	eng	The species is common throughout its range.
185389		threats	eng	No major wide spreading threats.
185390		conservation	eng	No information available. Further survey is required to confirm the range and population of this  species.
185390		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known from a single record in Haut-Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185390		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte is found in seasonal wetlands, it was found in a grassy swamp in 1912.
185390		population	eng	No information available.
185390		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.
185391		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in conservation areas such as national parks and forest reserves.
185391		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania,&#160; and Uganda.
185391		habitat	eng	Found in alpine bogs and montane grasslands, giant heath zones, roadsides in rain forests, usually in swampy sites or on stream banks.
185391		population	eng	Area covered by this plant is not known.
185391		threats	eng	No threats had been reported. However, it must be noted this species lies in a high agriculture potential area where wetlands are being converted into other uses. Wetlands are also receiving a lot sediment from surrounding farms.
185392		conservation	eng	No information
185392		distribution	eng	Endemic to Southern Africa. South Africa, Botswana, Namibia (RSA: Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
185392		habitat	eng	In water surrounding seasonal pools or along stream margins and vleis. Perennial cyperoid
185392		population	eng	No information
185392		threats	eng	None known
185393		conservation	eng	Research is need to confirm its true native range and current threats. This species is not under any conservation measures. Lake Turkana in Kenya is not completely protected. Only the eastern side and the islands are protected within Sibloi National Park.
185393		distribution	eng	This species is native to Kenya (Lake Turkana), Uganda, Angola, Botswana and Namibia.<br/><br/>There are two varieties of this species that are important. Variety <span style="font-style: italic;">trabeculata</span> is found in Angola, Botswana, Namibia<br/>Variety<span style="font-style: italic;"> microglumis</span> is only known from Type (Turkana at 600 m above sea level). More information is needed on its distribution and actual locations of these varieties.
185393		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonal swamps and on mud beneath <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>seyal in case of <span style="font-style: italic;">var. microglumis</span>.
185393		population	eng	The area occupied by this species in unknown.
185393		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by grazing although more information on actual threats is needed.
185394		conservation	eng	No information available.
185394		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa (RSA: possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
185394		habitat	eng	Permanently wet places, in full sun in swamps, marshes and seasonally flooded places. Perennial Cyperoid.
185394		population	eng	No information available.
185394		threats	eng	None known.
185395		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185395		distribution	eng	This species is native to Cameroon to south Sudan and Southern Africa. It has been recorded from Cameroon, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa.<br/><em></em>
185395		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte inhabits marshes and wet mountain grasslands.
185395		population	eng	Widespread species.
185395		threats	eng	No information available.
185396		conservation	eng	No information available.
185396		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Africa. Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa and perhaps also Zimbabwe (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185396		habitat	eng	Wet areas of vleis, seasonally flooded places and streams, sometimes grows in still or flowing water. Perennial Helophyte
185396		population	eng	No information available.
185396		threats	eng	None known.
185397		conservation	eng	Mountain regions in the W. Cape are well protected.
185397		distribution	eng	Endemic to Western Cape (South Africa). Likely to be undercollected.
185397		habitat	eng	Attached to stones in fast flowing mountain streams and rivulets.
185397		population	eng	No information.
185397		threats	eng	None known.
185398		conservation	eng	None at the moment. But where necessary, people should be aware on the risk of wild fire and global warming on the humanity future, the necessity of preserving the environment.
185398		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian, mostly in western Africa (From Senegal to Nigeria and Cameroon), but extends to Central Africa where the Congo is its southern limit.
185398		habitat	eng	A perennial herb growing in damp grassland.
185398		population	eng	Widespread herbaceous species of savanna area, important population.
185398		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to more wildfires (probably due to changes in precipitation patterns caused by global warming)  or bush fire, therefore loss of damp grassland. Also human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, infrastructure development).
185399		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but habitat protection is needed. The authorities of the ministry of environment should be aware about the presence of this species at the dam's site so that they can inform the authorities of the dam and incite them to take conservation measures.
185399		distribution	eng	This species' range extends from West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire - Rapids at Cavally at Soklodeba near Grabo) and Central Africa (south Cameroon, Lope river rapids in Gabon).
185399		habitat	eng	Robust aquatic herb, annual, standing on rocks in waterfalls.
185399		population	eng	Gregarious species, more or less important population, despite low area of occupancy (AOO). It has been collected recently in the Meve'ele waterfalls south  Cameroon, where there is a planned dam construction. It's also mentioned that this plant has been collected  in Makak and in the Nyong around Mbalmayo (Cusset 1987). The  river Nyong around Mbalmayo has been surveyed, as well as the Mpoume  waterfalls on the Nyong around Makak and this species has not been  found. The reason of this is not well know or we probably need more  field research.
185399		threats	eng	Habitat loss through human activities especially in this case dam construction.
185400		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and the various threats.
185400		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Cameroon, known from a single collection in the Nyong river around Mbalmayo.
185400		habitat	eng	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged, growing on rocks in flooded river bed.
185400		population	eng	No formal studies about the population. Area of occupancy is low and there is a low population.
185400		threats	eng	Water pollution, temperatures extremes and sudden drought have been  identified as main threats.
185401		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. Some research is needed on the habitat status and trends.<br/><br/>EA: None known or needed
185401		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in Burundi, West Cameroon, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Swaziland and South Africa.
185401		habitat	eng	It grows in forest, secondary areas in forest zone, stream-sides
185401		population	eng	The abundance of this species is not well know although its presumed to be fairly common.
185401		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought have been identified as threats but they are not specific to this species.
185402		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.
185402		distribution	eng	West to Central African distribution, from Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire to Central African Republic and Angola.
185402		habitat	eng	Forest understory shrub, but can also be found at the river's borders.
185402		population	eng	Quite widespread species, large size population.
185402		threats	eng	Forest clearing for shifting agriculture or for logging. None of them as considered as major threats.
185403		conservation	eng	No information
185403		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells. Widely introduced, including North America and Australia.
185403		habitat	eng	Perennial Helophyte. Moist conditions, drains, swamps, streams.
185403		population	eng	No information
185403		threats	eng	None known
185404		conservation	eng	No information
185404		distribution	eng	South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique. Widespread and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185404		habitat	eng	Annual Herb. In shallow wet soil on or around granite rock outcrops.
185404		population	eng	No information
185404		threats	eng	None known
185405		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185405		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Nigeria to Cameroon and Congo.
185405		habitat	eng	Riparian, shady, wet and flooded forest understory, rich in litter and sometime in altitude.
185405		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185405		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture and logging.
185406		conservation	eng	Wetland conservation and research actions on species taxonomy, threats and ecology are needed.
185406		distribution	eng	Plant collected in Guinea (Sériba to Sambailo) and Senegal. Presence of species in other countries of West Africa possible, but no records found to confirm.
185406		habitat	eng	Usually in temporary wet and marshy places.
185406		population	eng	Population unknown.
185406		threats	eng	Impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185407		conservation	eng	Part of the species remaining range is within the Elandsberg Nature Reserve.
185407		distribution	eng	Currently distributed from Stellenbosch to Somerset West and Elandsberg, South Africa. Historically distributed from Piketberg to Cape Peninsula and Worcester (Cape Plants 2000).<br/><br/>Two extant localities:<br/>1) Stellenbosch (Chelchim farm), owner keen to conserve (K. Oberlander pers. comm.).<br/>2) Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve. - extant (D. Raimondo pers. obs. 2006) and numerous historic collections.<br/><br/>Extinct localities: note all Salter's historic localities have been searched for by B. Bayer and could not be found, this species has lost the majority of its localities in the past hundred years.<br/>1) Cape Peninsula, Wynberg Dist. Doornhoogde on the Cape Flats - extinct<br/>2) Cape Peninsula, Kenilworth Flats - extinct<br/>3) Cape Peninsula, Wynberg Flats - extinct<br/>4) Piquetberg Road - extinct<br/>5) Wynberg Church between German Church and Golf Links - extinct<br/>6) Cape Flats and Princess Vlei - extinct<br/>7) Claremont Flats - extinct<br/>8) Stellenbosch Dist, Uitspan, northwest of Koelenhof - extinct<br/>9) 12 miles south of Worcester - extinct<br/>10) Cape Peninsula. Kenilthworth Race Course - extinct<br/>11) Stellenbosch Dist. Uitspan, northwest of Koelenhof - extinct<br/>12) Bredasdorp. The Poort - extinct<br/>13) Cape Town. Grassy Park - extinct
185407		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools, at altitudes of 50 - 200 m.
185407		population	eng	Estimated total population size: >10 000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: 2;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  yes
185407		threats	eng	Loss of habitat to urbanisation and agriculture is a severe past threat as >90 % of locations have been lost to these threats. Inbreeding depression, the subpopulation occurring in the disturbed area at Chelchim farm has shown significant decline in ability to set seed with less than 5% of plants naturally setting seed. 10 % of plants are handpollinated. This is completely contrary to the subpopulations at Elandsberg that have high natural seed set. <br/>Threatened in the long term by erosion of the seasonal streams. Cutback erosion leading from furrows in the adjoining ploughed fields are already apparent. This species appears to require very slow flowing water to survive. It is highly sensitive to eutrification and changes in hydrological flow. This is the suspected cause of loss of the Cape Flats populations (B. Bayer pers. com. 2006)
185408		conservation	eng	Research on the species distribution, population status and impact of threats is needed. Various measures from habitat maintenance and conservation is also needed as the species could be threatened.
185408		distribution	eng	Endemic to Guinea. Recorded near Siguri (Raynal 1971).
185408		habitat	eng	Oligotrophic ponds in rocks.
185408		population	eng	Unknown.
185408		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by drought
185409		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185409		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire in West Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.
185409		habitat	eng	Forest herb living at the river border or shady places. 400-500 m altitude. High density population.
185409		population	eng	Low EOO, low AOO in Gabon (two locations only), locally abundant.
185409		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture.
185410		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185410		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in West Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.
185410		habitat	eng	Forest understory herb, generally found at the river's border.
185410		population	eng	Widespread species, therefore large size population.
185410		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture or for logging.
185411		conservation	eng	More research is needed to know better population numbers and range, habitat status and potential threats. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185411		distribution	eng	Throughout tropical Africa and into the Transvaal and SW. Africa. Senegal, Mali, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria. Widely dispersed.<br/><br/>Good presence in many countries of West Africa. Recorded from Sudan (Blue Nile Province – Arshkol Mountains – Equatorial) in North-eastern Africa. In Southern Africa it found in Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng). <br/><br/>In Eastern Africa this species is rare. It was recorded in Lake Victoria area at Ahero. Also found in Western Kenya in Mumias and Central Kenya in Machakos. Recorded from Tanzania and Uganda.
185411		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, widely submerged. It grows in freshwater or brackish water, stagnant or current. Also found in swamps, ponds on laterite, rice fields. From 900 - 2575 m above sea level.
185411		population	eng	Quite widespread species, covering the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa.
185411		threats	eng	None at the moment. Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185412		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185412		distribution	eng	From Senegal in West Africa to Ethiopia in the East, then southwards to Malawi.
185412		habitat	eng	Perennial herb of shady places and river borders.
185412		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185412		threats	eng	Land pollution may threaten the species locally.
185413		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185413		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in west Africa to Congo in Central Africa. The species is abundant in Gabon and Cameroon.
185413		habitat	eng	Geophyte of shady, damp or swampy forest understory.
185413		population	eng	Widespread species. Large size population.
185413		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution. Forest clearing for logging and agriculture.
185414		conservation	eng	This plant is not under any specific conservation measures although the in the population found in Kenya is found within two protected areas, Aberdare Npand Mt Kenya National Parks.
185414		distribution	eng	This species is native to Kenya and Tanzania. The only population known from Kenya is found in Lake Narasha (Timboroa) and in Kinangop in Aberdare Mountains at the altitude of 3,000 m above sea level. In Tanzania it has only been recorded in Ossirwa Crater.
185414		habitat	eng	Upland bogs and marshes in ericaceous zone, streamsides, crater lake edges
185414		population	eng	Rare species.
185414		threats	eng	Swamp drainage, droughts and agricultural expansion.
185415		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185415		distribution	eng	Endemic to western Africa where the species is recorded from Ghana, Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire (and possibly in Guinea, Benin and Togo). More information is needed.
185415		habitat	eng	In marshy savanna.
185415		population	eng	No information available.
185415		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185416		conservation	eng	It is listed as DD in Lesotho (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa). This species requires legal protection as well as the protection of its habitat.
185416		distribution	eng	This grass genus is confined to the ‘archipelago’ of high African mountain summits (White 1978), and this particular species is endemic to the Drakensberg Mtns (KwaZulu-Natal, RSA and Lesotho). (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa). Very wet places in high altitude grassland; on summit of Drakensberg; mainly in Lesotho. <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>South Africa:<br/>1) Sani River / Sani Pass. W of Pass, Sani Flats along river<br/>2) Hodson's Peak<br/>3) Underberg Dist. Sani Pass on summit of Drakensberg. <br/>4) Qachas Neck, Sani Pass.<br/><br/>Lesotho:<br/>5) 27 km from oxbow in to Letseng-la-terae in pan<br/>6) Butha Buthe.<br/>7) 33 km. NW of Mokhotlong<br/>8) Butha Buthe Dist. Pone Valley, Mothae Mt.
185416		habitat	eng	Wet places, in streams and moors at high altitudes (2,900-4,000 m). In shallow water along streamsides or in small ponds (C. Hilton-Taylor pers.comm. 2006).
185416		population	eng	The estimated number of locations is less than 10.
185416		threats	eng	Possibly threatened by unnatural fire regimes and climate change in South Africa and overgrazing in Lesotho.
185417		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or in need.
185417		distribution	eng	This species is present in North East Africa S. of Sudan (River Narije) and Ethiopia (Gaffat).<br/><br/>Also found in Angola, Tanzania, Kenya and possibly Madagascar. In Kenya it has been recorded from Embu District, in Tanzania from Iringa District: Kitulo Plateau, above Salala waterfalls; Njombe District: Ruhudji river waterfall; and Rungwe District: Kiwira river.
185417		habitat	eng	On sandstone and limestone, locally common on rocks in rapids of larger rivers.
185417		population	eng	This species is ommon.
185417		threats	eng	No threats have been identified although this species is prone to be affected by any disturbance due to its limited dispersal and restricted range.
185418		conservation	eng	No information.
185418		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa's W and E Cape (Cook 2004).
185418		habitat	eng	Wet shaded banks in and along streams, also submerged in pools.
185418		population	eng	No information.
185418		threats	eng	No information.
185419		conservation	eng	Uncollected in the past 30 years. This species needs to be searched for (N. Helme pers. comm. 2006).
185419		distribution	eng	Endemic to Western Cape (near Cape Town), South Africa. (Cook 2004). Cape Peninsula: Green Point.<br/><br/>Most historic localities in PRECIS now extinct, this species could even be extinct as previously seasonal wetlands are now mostly permanent (see also Hall and Ashton 1983). Said to be endemic to the Cape Peninsula occurring on Table Mountain, the Cape Flats and Simonstown. <br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Noordhoek Salt Pan (Waher 1971) - only site that this species may possibly still exist however there has been significant transformation of this wetland and its surrounds since 1971.<br/>2) Cape Peninsula. Submerged in vlei near Maitland (Stephens 1926) - highly likely to be extinct due to urban development and changes in water flow regimes.<br/>3) Muizenberg (Mitchell 1921) - highly likely to be extinct due to urban development and changes in water flow regimes.<br/>4) Chapmans Bay (Wolley-Dod 1897) - extinct.<br/>5) Capre Penninsula, Green Point (Schlechter 1896, MacOwan 1896) - extinct due to development - there are no longer seasonal water bodies in Green Point.
185419		habitat	eng	Primarily seasonal Coastal Pools. Altitude up to 2,000 m. Mostly in brackish water but also in fresh water. Growing in still or slowly moving water, sometimes forming floating mats. It is also found in marshes and on wet sand. It is usually annual, but in deep water, it may perennial. Flowers from April to June.<br/><br/>Pollinated by insects and is self incompatible, frequently setting no seed outside its range. Disseminules flattened cypselas without a pappus, perhaps dispersed by adhesion to animals. It has been reported to be a weed in drainage channels. It is a decorative plant.
185419		population	eng	Only the Noordhoek location is possibly still extant.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: unknown;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: < 5;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 1;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): Unknown;
185419		threats	eng	Urbanisation and development (e.g. Noordhoek Saltpans have been developed over the past 10 years). Drainage of wetlands - past severe threat (N. Helme pers. comm. 2006). Many historical seasonal wetlands are now permanent eutrophic wetlands. These wetlands are often invaded by aliens (past, present, severe threat)
185420		conservation	eng	Some populations are protected within established national parks and forest reserves.
185420		distribution	eng	This species is present in Kenya, Uganda, Ehtiopia, and The Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from two upland sites in Kenya are available: Cherangani and Naro Moro from 1,900-3,200 m asl. Also recorded from Mt Elgon, Naro moru, Cherangani, Simien Mtns, Bale Mtns, Ol Moti Crater.
185420		habitat	eng	On rocks, streams banks, heath areas.
185420		population	eng	No data available.
185420		threats	eng	No threats have been identified. However, some populations are found in agricultural areas such as Naromoru. These are wetlands that may be converted to agricultural lands.
185421		conservation	eng	More research in population trends, threats and ecology are recommended. No specific conservation measures are in place.
185421		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, south eastern border of Democratic Republic of Congo and Zimbabwe (van Bruggen 1973).<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is known from southern Zambia and may be expected in the Caprivi or Okovango regions (Cook 2004). <br/><br/>In Kenya this species has only been recorded in Central Kenya around Thika District (Fort Hall) at Thika Hillside. Its altitude is suspected to range from 1,000-1,600 m. In Tanzania it was found in Mbeya district Usangu plain near Utengule (Utencile), Iringa district 11 km SE of Iringa on Dabaga road.
185421		habitat	eng	Locally common in open, temporary pools and rivulets on sand and clay in mixed dry scrub. Also found in swamps and marshes.
185421		population	eng	No specific information available.
185421		threats	eng	No information available.
185422		conservation	eng	This plant has not been collected for > 30 years it is a very high priority to check the status of this species.
185422		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa (Western Cape, Northern Cape) (Cook 2004). Namaqualand to Pakhuis Pass (Cape Plants 2000).
185422		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools, wet seeps and in streams on sandstone soils, 400-800 m. Perennial Geophyte.
185422		population	eng	Known only from seven to 10 locations.
185422		threats	eng	Agricultural transformation to rooibos tea is a very severe threat at all known localities. Most of these areas are severely transformed but seasonally wet areas are sometimes not ploughed as Rooibos does not grow well in seasonal wet areas.
185423		conservation	eng	Information on population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats is needed.
185423		distribution	eng	Distributed in tropical Africa from Senegal to Angola and to Tanzania.<br/><br/>It is widespread in western Africa<br/><br/>Known in East Africa from one gathering only, but widespread from Senegal to the Sudan (White Nile) and through the Belgian Congo to Zimbabwe.
185423		habitat	eng	This is a small perennial aquatic 1-2in high in mud or up to 6 inches if growing in water. Present in shallow stagnant freshwater, in marshes and swamps, swampy forests and grasslands. Can also grow on emerged silt until 1500 m above sea level and therefore is smaller size, while the plant is bigger when submerged.
185423		population	eng	Widespread species and presumably large population.
185423		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by habitat loss due to agro-industry farming, development of dams, alien species, natural disasters such as drought, and intrinsic factors like limited dispersal.
185424		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Recovery management and conservation measures are also required.
185424		distribution	eng	This species is found in Somalia in Buur Heybo Bay (Bur Eibi). Very small population possibly spreading into Ethiopia, although it is not reported to occur there in the Flora of Ethiopia.
185424		habitat	eng	Among short grass in seepage areas of granitic outcrops; associated with another apparently narrow endemic confined to similar habitats on granitic outcrops in the Bay Region;
185424		population	eng	Very rare.
185424		threats	eng	Due to its restricted range and limited dispersal this species is threatened by sudden drought.
185425		conservation	eng	Research actions on population numbers and range, threats and habitat status is needed.
185425		distribution	eng	Essentially tropical African plant, extending from Sierra Leone in the West to Central Africa Republic (CAR) and Angola. Only five sites are known globally. One in Cameroon - Tchabal Mbabo Biem Pass; one in CAR -  La Pipi à Wadda; one in Angola; and two in Sierra Leone - River Mameli near Kroknaima,  Riv. Kolel, Kabala à Makeni. There is a possible record in Nigeria, but this is not mentioned by Cusset (1984) so it may be dubious.
185425		habitat	eng	Moss-like annual aquatic herb, growing fixed on rocks, submerged in fast water. In Western Africa it has been found in falls.
185425		population	eng	Only recorded in a few localities but this plant is said to be gregarious. Therefore we can consider the population may be reasonably large but highly localized.
185425		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought. Dam construction will be the major threat faced by this species.
185426		conservation	eng	The research action should be carried out in order to well understand the biology and the ecology of the plant as well as its habitat status and the conservation measures to be eventually undertaken.
185426		distribution	eng	Central African species, restricted to Cameroon, Gabon,   Democratic Republic of Congo  and possibly Congo.
185426		habitat	eng	Small rosulate ephemeral, living in muddy seepages in rocky and grassy places on blackish clay soil; 1,200-1,600 m above sea level.
185426		population	eng	No information about the population of this species.
185426		threats	eng	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution and sudden drought.
185427		conservation	eng	Further research on distribution range of the species is needed.
185427		distribution	eng	This is a Sudano-guinean and zambezian species. <br/><br/>It is widespread in western Africa. No more information is available about its occurrence in other African countries.
185427		habitat	eng	It grows on sandy wet places and on shallow pools particularly in the wet season.
185427		population	eng	It forms dense plantings, sometimes great meadows, sandy humid places particularly on wet season.
185427		threats	eng	In its natural habitat there's no major constraints. It is increasing in certain region.
185428		conservation	eng	None known
185428		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout tropical Africa.  In western Africa, it is found from Senegal to South Nigeria. Also found in Chad, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, and Angola.
185428		habitat	eng	This is a robust annual plant with solitary stems or grouped in a small tuft. Leaves are greyish to brown reddish. It grows in marshy and open-water sites. Also in rice fields, grassy swamps, on muddy bed of stream, edge of pools, often on thin soil over rock.
185428		population	eng	This species is present in high densities of population.
185428		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought may pose a threat to this species locally but they are not major widespread threats.
185429		conservation	eng	Protection and effective management is essential for the remaining known localities. Legal measures at a National and Regional level are also required.
185429		distribution	eng	Endemic to Eastern Cape (South Africa), confined to a relatively small area between Grahamstown and East London (Cook 2004). T.R. Sim (1915) recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes wormaldii</span> floating in ponds around East London, and in the Victoria Park, East London. These plants were abundant in these ponds in 1902.  <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/><br/>1. Grahamstown, Strowan Farm, west of Grahamstown (Still fine for now, but undergoing fluctuations: all gone until 2006, when found again).<br/>2. Grahamstown. Between 7 and 8 miles from town centre on Port Alfred Rd. In small natural pond/pan next to main road / Albany District: 8 miles on Kowie Road from Grahamstown (Stones Hill).<br/>3. East London. In Ponds - obliterated.<br/>4. Peddie.<br/>5. Possibly Table Farm.
185429		habitat	eng	Recorded growing in temporary pools and streams or perenially submerged in slow-flowing rivers. Still or flowing, temporary or permanent water, at altitudes of about 50-800 m. It is rooted under water with the flattened leaves floating on the water surface. It only appears after disturbance by cows, then goes dormant for a few  years.
185429		population	eng	Not severely fragmented as spores can be dispersed over great distances by wind, and all sites are quite close together (none more than 50 km apart). Average population size about 10-15 mature individuals, possibly about three subpopulations in maturity at one time. Only appears after disturbance by cows, then goes dormant for a few years.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: 30-45; <br/>Locations: 3 (or 4) currently; 4 (or 5) in past but >3 generations ago<br/>Area of occupancy: 4 or 5 "ponds" of about 10 x 10 m each = 0.5 km
185429		threats	eng	One subpopulation (East London) has been lost to development. Remaining ones are subject to extreme fluctuations due to the nature of their life cycle.
185430		conservation	eng	No information
185430		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa. Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, Northern Cape). In Botswana, it is known from the north in seasonal water pans. Probably under-collected and widespread (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa).
185430		habitat	eng	Not confined to wetlands but is often found in flooded seasonal pans, dams and water holes, also along the margins of vleis, usually in sandy soils 800-1900m. In Botswana, it is known from the north in seasonal water pans. Annual Graminoid.
185430		population	eng	No information
185430		threats	eng	None known
185431		conservation	eng	No information
185431		distribution	eng	Angola, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Namibia, Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).
185431		habitat	eng	This annual cyperoid occurs in pools among rocks and in streams.
185431		population	eng	No information
185431		threats	eng	None known
185432		conservation	eng	Research actions needed to determine its range, population trends, threats and habitat status.
185432		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Cameroon (locality unknown), Niger (locality unknown), Nigeria (Ogoja Province on the Boje-Aboabam path crossing the Afi River), Sierra Leone (Bumbuna waterfall, river Seli, tributary of Rokel river) and Gabon (inside Ogooué river at Lastoursville).
185432		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing fixed on rocks in  waterfalls and rapids. It grows fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other  hard object.
185432		population	eng	Unknown.
185432		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.
185433		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185433		distribution	eng	This species is Widespread in East tropical Africa.<br/><br/>Widespread in East Tropical Africa. Known from Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In Malawi it is found opposite Matope Mission in the Lower Shire in Blantyre, Elephant Marsh in Chikwawa, and Lake Malawi at Mangochi Ferry on Shire River.  In Burundi the species has been met in  the Rusizi plain. Kenya The species is found in Nakuru, Baringo and Kajiado.  Tanzania T1-4,5,6,7.  Shinyanga district Seseku, Ufipa district Milepa Niombe R., Iringa district Mkwawa springs. Also recorded from Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon.<br/><br/>In North East Africa it is found Sudan (White Nile) and Somalia. Considered as Extinct from Egypt.
185433		habitat	eng	It grows in sluggish streams and backwaters.
185433		population	eng	North-eastern Africa: Common
185433		threats	eng	Widespread with no major threats.
185434		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
185434		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in Nigeria, Sudan, Chad, Burundi, Zimbabwe and Angola. <br/><br/>In Malawi it has been found in Marymount in Mzuzu, Kachere Village in Kasungu, Lunyangwa in Mzuzu, Lake Chilwa road from Zomba, Mabulawo in Mzimba, and Kongwe Hill in Dowa.
185434		habitat	eng	It occurs in stream banks and moist places.
185434		population	eng	No data available.
185434		threats	eng	No major threats described.
185436		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation measures. But some of its populations are protected in national parks and forest reserves (i.e. Kigogo Forest). Further research on the subspecies of this species is recommended as it may need to be assessed separately.
185436		distribution	eng	This species is locally abundant and widely distributed, from 1,800-3,000 m above sea level. It has been recorded in Lake Victoria region, Western Kenya (Mt Elgon, Kitale), Rift Valley (Uasin Gishu, Mts Cherangani, Mau and Tinderet) and Central Kenya in Aberdare range. Also Tanzania in Loliondo.<span class="bold"><span class="bold"><br/><br/>Subspecies <em>mufindiensis</em> is known from Iringa District, around Mufindi tea estates and also from Malawi (<span class="dist-lvls-c"><span class="dist-lvl-src">Namanungu stream,  near Chongoni Forest) and Mozambique (<span class="dist-lvls-c"><span class="dist-lvl-src">Lichinga near Vila  Cabral).<br/></span></span></span>
185436		habitat	eng	Found in stream banks and swampy environments.<span class="bold"><span class="bold"></span>
185436		population	eng	The area covered by this species is not known.
185436		threats	eng	No threat has been identified. However, this species preferred habitats are being  reclaimed at an alarming rate to create land for subsistence farming.
185437		conservation	eng	No information available.
185437		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lesotho and South Africa, widespread in the Drakensberg mountains (RSA: Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004).
185437		habitat	eng	In or near water or in shaded rock crevices, 1,000-3,200m. (Cook 2004). Growing in moist places near standing water or in shaded rock crevices (Tolken 1985). Perennial Succulent.
185437		population	eng	No information available.
185437		threats	eng	None known.
185438		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185438		distribution	eng	Central African species: Gabon, Congo and Cabinda (Angola).
185438		habitat	eng	Perennial herb of muddy river's borders in forest, or forming small colony in a very shady river bed itself inside the dense forest, about 400 m altitude.
185438		population	eng	Population rather difficult to estimate.
185438		threats	eng	Water and land pollution have been identified as important threats.
185439		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185439		distribution	eng	Central African species (Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon), extending eastwards to Uganda.
185439		habitat	eng	Woody terrestrial forest shrub, liking swampy understory or river borders.
185439		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185439		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture of logging.
185440		conservation	eng	No information
185440		distribution	eng	South Africa: Endemic to the Cape region (Eastern and Western Cape provinces). <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) Piquetberg in shallow clayey seasonal pools between pools siding and Grey's Pass, 3 miles west of Piquetberg. <br/>2) Malmesbury, 8 miles south west of Hopefield. <br/><br/>No PRECIS specimens collected in E Cape, but Cook (2004) describes their distribution in this area.
185440		habitat	eng	Temporary pools, sometimes locally dominant, 180-400m (Salter, 1944). Perennial Geophyte
185440		population	eng	No information
185440		threats	eng	None known
185441		conservation	eng	Possibly in protected areas in Western Africa, but uncertain. Need better information on the distribution of this species and its threats.
185441		distribution	eng	Native to west and west and central Africa but cultivated elsewhere. May have a wider or a narrower range as it has been confused with <em>C. papyrus</em>.
185441		habitat	eng	It grows in marshes, forming rafts in open water and fringing lakes.
185441		population	eng	As an herbaceous species, the population of this plant is expected to be locally important.
185441		threats	eng	Expanding agriculture (for crops), increasing frequency of droughts, and utilization are the major threats. This plant grows in marshes, and the major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. In fact any serious fluctuation in the habitat is likely to affect directly the population. This fluctuation can be the water pollution by human activities for example and the water availability can also be affected by a natural disaster as sudden drought and irrigation for agriculture.
185442		conservation	eng	No information.
185442		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa. Western Cape (South Africa) (Cook 2004).
185442		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools.
185442		population	eng	No information.
185442		threats	eng	No information.
185443		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed. More research is needed on its ecology, distribution and threats.<br/></p>
185443		distribution	eng	Species collected in Guinea (falls of River Kinkon at Pita).
185443		habitat	eng	Species recorded at water falls. It is a rheophyte ( lives in fast moving water currents).
185443		population	eng	No information available.
185443		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by drought and water pollution.
185444		conservation	eng	None at the moment.  Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved   communication to raise  awareness are needed.
185444		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa, from West (Togo, Nigeria) to East (Uganda). In Central Africa, the plant is present in Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Angola<br/><br/>Widespread in the forest regions of West and Central Africa, east to SE Sudan and south to N Angola, in East Africa it is known from across Uganda, western Kenya and western Tanzania.
185444		habitat	eng	Normal terrestrial woody plant, but also found at the river border.
185444		population	eng	Widespread species, tolerant with a large size population.
185444		threats	eng	Potentially affected by land pollution.
185445		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185445		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Gabon.
185445		habitat	eng	Herb growing on rocks at the middle of streams or at the border of fast water.
185445		population	eng	This species is known from three locations only. Small size population.
185445		threats	eng	The species is threatened by water pollution.
185446		conservation	eng	Research actions on threats, population numbers and range are needed.
185446		distribution	eng	Limited distribution in western Africa (records from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Senegal).
185446		habitat	eng	Stagnant, acidic, clear freshwater with sandy bottom. Found in rice fields.
185446		population	eng	Unknown.
185446		threats	eng	Agricultural development and drought
185447		conservation	eng	Biotopes protection and regular evalution of situation.
185447		distribution	eng	Cameroon, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin and Nigeria
185447		habitat	eng	In wet places and shallow muddy water, of upland savanna.The plant is commonly found in outcrop and rock hill-top pools. It forms masses in pure stands.
185447		population	eng	Plant commonly met in important colonies in out crop and rock hill pools. Plant is used as ornamental and is cultivated or partially tended. Sometime it grows so much that it is considered as a weed.
185447		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by drought
185448		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185448		distribution	eng	this species is endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185448		habitat	eng	Perennial shrub of dry or flooded primary forests and woody river borders. Flowers from October - February.
185448		population	eng	Very common in three localities only in DRC, therefore small population size.
185448		threats	eng	Forest clearing for agriculture or logging.
185449		conservation	eng	Legal protection through relevant policy and habitat protection is required for this species.
185449		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Bokkeveld escarpment, Nieuwoudtville, South Africa. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>, however this species is restricted to seasonally water logged areas and the area of occupancy might be less than 2 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>Recently discovered (1986) and described.  <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) Type locality, Nieuwoudtville flower reserve<br/>2) Brakkerivier, farm in dolerite kopies, close to Nieuwoudtville waterfall<br/>3) Glen Lyon farm Dolerite vertisol - two sub-populations <br/>4) Oorlogskloof farm Dolerite vertisol - two sub populations
185449		habitat	eng	Grows in seasonally waterlogged Dwyka tillite soils wedged between large dolerite rocks. Occurs in Western Mountain Karoo Veld in association with the rare <span style="font-style: italic;">Zantedeschia odorata</span> and the vulnerable <span style="font-style: italic;">Sparaxis pillansii</span>.
185449		population	eng	Estimated total population size: <500;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: six;    <br/>Overall populations decline (past): no;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): no;  potential.
185449		threats	eng	Although 48% of this habitat has already been lost to ploughing - it occurs amongst rocks so is relatively safe, the ploughing between sites is likely to be affecting geneflow between populations.<br/><br/>Grazing is also a potential threat especially as these areas are all used for livestock and livestock concentrate around these seasonal moist areas (the farmer adjacent to the Nieuwoudtville reserve has no <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynalle aquatica</span> despite having the correct habitat type due to over grazing.) S. Todd also observed no seed set due to grazing pressure.<br/><br/>Climate change is a very high potential threat facing this species.
185451		conservation	eng	None in place or needed.
185451		distribution	eng	Widespread from Western Africa (Senegal to N Nigeria) to Central Africa (Congo Basin) and Eastern Africa. Also present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/>In Kenya where this species has only been recorded in Central Rift Valley, Kipkarren in Uasinn Gishu District (K3) from 1050-1700 m above sea level. In Uganda it is locally abundant.
185451		habitat	eng	It grows in clear shallow water (-30 cm), particularly in temporary pools on laterite. <em>A. vallisnerioides</em> is an aquatic herb of marshes, ditches, small streams where the water generally is clean and shallow, on breast-plates and rock outcrops (laterite), between 200-1500 m above sea level.
185451		population	eng	In Western Africa its found as isolated individuous or in small colonies. The plant has been abundantly collected in West Africa (See in FWTA) and in Central Africa (Flore du Cameroun and Flore d'Afrique Centrale). We can conclude to an important population.
185451		threats	eng	None at the moment. Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185453		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Legal measures are recommended in order to protect the species habitat.
185453		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. Albany district, between Alexandria, Grahamstown, Bathurst and East London.<br/> <br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Grahamstown near Salem. <br/>2) Bethelsdorp (Unknown if this is correct ID)<br/>3) Albany Div. Jagersdrift, between the Bushmans and Kareega rivers<br/>4) East London Dist. near Fort Jackson<br/>5) Alexandria. Albany, near Southwell Village / Waaiheuwel.<br/>6) Albany. Riebeck. 11 miles from Grahamstown.<br/>7) Bathurst Dist. 3 miles from Shaw Park<br/>8) Grahamstown, 5 km outside Grahamstown
185453		habitat	eng	Natural wetlands in seasonal vleis.
185453		population	eng	The population is severely fragmented.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: < 2000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: eight;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): unknown;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): apparently none;  possible
185453		threats	eng	Potentially threatened in some subpopulations by change in water quality through pollution caused by agriculture, and residential and industrial development.
185454		conservation	eng	It occurs in Saiwa National Park which is a protected area.
185454		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, from Mali and the Ivory Coast to Sudan and Ethiopia and south to South Africa. In Eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
185454		habitat	eng	Swamps, boggy grassland, temporarily wet grassland
185454		population	eng	No data available.
185454		threats	eng	Recreation and tourism might be major threats but this needs to be confirmed. No threats reported at the moment.
185456		conservation	eng	Rivers bank protection and conservation and rational management have been recommended.
185456		distribution	eng	This species is widely spread through the tropics including tropical Africa and Asia, temperate Asia and Australia. It is also naturalised and cultivated throughout the tropics.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Egypt. Chad, Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan, Eknya, Uganda, Cameroon, Rwanda, Cote D'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Angola, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Transvaal), and Swaziland.
185456		habitat	eng	Species grows on rivers banks in flooded zones.
185456		population	eng	Species with wide occurrence through tropical Africa
185456		threats	eng	Rice farming, impacts from livestock, harvesting and drought have been identified as possible future threats but these are not major threats.
185457		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and restoration and research actions are needed.
185457		distribution	eng	Plant distributed widely in West tropical Africa (Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone).
185457		habitat	eng	Swampy ground in savanna, wet ground, by rivers often forming thickets.
185457		population	eng	Locally abundant.
185457		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, harvesting and drought
185458		conservation	eng	No information available.
185458		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa. Confined to the Cape region (Northern and Western Cape provinces)
185458		habitat	eng	Seasonal ponds, wet marshy places and along streams, 300-500 m. Perennial Geophyte
185458		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: <10 known
185458		threats	eng	Grazing is a potential threat at some localities but many of the localities of this species in Namaqualuland and even Anysberg have no known threats.
185459		conservation	eng	This species is now easily propagated and cultivated at Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. The spring water where it is native is still flowing but it sequestered before it reaches the surface. However, with the appropiate conservation actions such as site protection and restoration, and a re-introduction programme, there could be an opportunity to reintroduce <em>Nymphaea thermarum</em> to Rwanda.
185459		distribution	eng	It is endemic to one single locality Mashyuza, southwest Rwanda, only known in the wild from the type locality, collected in 1987.
185459		habitat	eng	Damp mud created by the overflow of a freshwater hot spring, where the water has cooled to around 25˚C.
185459		population	eng	It disappeared from this location due to over-exploitation of the hot spring that fed this fragile habitat, and no plant is known to have survived in the wild. Repeated searchers of numerous hotsprings in Central Africa failed to find a single population (Fischer pers. comm. 2010). At present all the extant plants are in cultivation at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in United Kingdom and in Bonn Botanic Gardens, Germany.<br/><br/>Before becoming extinct in the wild, <em>Nymphaea thermarum </em>occurred in Mashyuza, southwest Rwanda (Africa). <br/><br/>There are over 50 <em>Nymphaea thermarum</em> plants in the Living Collection at Kew, which is the only place in the world where it is being propagated regularly and in large quantities.
185459		threats	eng	The only population of this species has died out as a consequence of over-exploitation of the aquifer that fed the hot spring that kept the plants moist and at a constant temperature.
185460		conservation	eng	This is a near endemic plant, therefore its habitat has to be preserved. The possibility should be studied to know how to build damps that can preserve rapids and waterfall species.
185460		distribution	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicraeanthus </span>is essentially Cameroonian. Some specimens of this genus have been collected in Central Africa Republic, but in localities very close to its border with Cameroon. One collection of <em>Dicraeanthus</em> sp. exists in Gabon and one in Democratic Republic of Congo, but it's not clear whether they are <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicraeanthus africanus</span> or not.
185460		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, submerged or semi-floating in fast water of waterfalls and rapids, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.
185460		population	eng	Where this plant grows, the population is generally dense and abundant.
185460		threats	eng	The dam construction is a major threat faced by waterfall and rapid species. In the case of Podostemaceae, they can support high degree of pollution.
185461		conservation	eng	No information.
185461		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Angola (Huila, Cuene) and northern Namibia (Ovamboland) (Cook 2004).
185461		habitat	eng	Usually in permanent water in lakes, pools and slowly flowing rivers.
185461		population	eng	No information.
185461		threats	eng	No information.
185462		conservation	eng	Further research in population numbers and range is needed.
185462		distribution	eng	Only present in southern Somalia (Bay region, Bur Akaba inselberg, Baidoba).
185462		habitat	eng	In damp spots where water trickles over the rock after rain.
185462		population	eng	Rare.
185462		threats	eng	Drought is the major threat to the species.
185463		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185463		distribution	eng	It is found in western Africa from Mali and Niger to Sudan and south to South Africa.<br/><br/>In North east Africa it has been recorded in Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. Also in Eastern Africa from Kenya to Malawi and south to Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and South Africa.  <br/><br/>In Kenya, it has been recorded from Masai and Northern Frontier districs. In Tanzania it has been found in Mbulu, Rufiji  and Ufipa districts.
185463		habitat	eng	Wet and damp places.
185463		population	eng	Fairly Common.
185463		threats	eng	Wide spread with no major threats.
185464		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but conservation measures overtaken should be those protecting the habitat of this species.
185464		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa:    Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Angola, Zambia.
185464		habitat	eng	Terrestrial herb living in swamps.
185464		population	eng	Moderate extent of occurrence with small area of occupancy, therefore relatively small population size.
185464		threats	eng	Water pollution.<br/>- Invasion by alien species<br/>- Infrastructure development (industrial and human settlement)..<br/>- Wood agriculture of water demanding trees close to the swampy area.<br/>- Severe drought followed by extreme temperature elevation.
185465		conservation	eng	No information
185465		distribution	eng	Endemic to the mountains of the south western part of Western Cape province (South Africa)
185465		habitat	eng	Fast-flowing mountain streams over sandstone, often in waterfalls, 120-1220m. Perennial graminoid
185465		population	eng	No information
185465		threats	eng	None known
185466		conservation	eng	Not known if it occurs in any protected areas, but probably. Need better information on the true range, abundance and threats to this species.
185466		distribution	eng	This species is found in Western Africa and Southern Africa. It occurs in Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Chad.
185466		habitat	eng	Grows in marshy areas and sometimes on wet sands (seasonally damp ground). It can also be found in wet depressions in <em>Terminalia spinosa</em> wooded grassland
185466		population	eng	Unknown.
185466		threats	eng	Increasing occurrence of drought  and agricultural activity (livestock - nomadic and small-holders) may pose a threat to this species.
185468		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
185468		distribution	eng	The plant is present in tropical western, eastern, central, and south east Africa.
185468		habitat	eng	Semi aquatic annual growing in flooded savanna.
185468		population	eng	Herbaceous plant, the population is expected to be locally abundant.
185468		threats	eng	No specific threats to the species are known. It is likely that the species is locally impacted by drought, irrigation for agriculture and pollution by solid waste.
185469		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed. Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.</p>
185469		distribution	eng	Guineo Congolian distribution. In west Africa the plant is present in Mali, Liberia, Guinea and Siera Leone while in Central Africa the plant is present in Congo.
185469		habitat	eng	Swamps and seasonal pools, swallow water at lake edges.
185469		population	eng	Locally abundant population.
185469		threats	eng	This plant grows in water and the major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. Water composition can fluctuate considerably due to human activities and the water availability can be affected by a natural disaster as sudden drought, irrigation for agriculture and saturation by solid waste.
185470		conservation	eng	No information.
185470		distribution	eng	This species is found in Western Cape (South Africa) (Cook 2004)
185470		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools.
185470		population	eng	No information available.
185470		threats	eng	No information.
185471		conservation	eng	None at the moment. More research on population numbers and distribution range is needed.
185471		distribution	eng	Congolian (Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon). Its distribution within Gabon and Nigeria needs more information.
185471		habitat	eng	Understory of dense and wet forest, often on damp or swampy soil. Also in gallery forest in savanna. Up to 1,000 m above sea level.
185471		population	eng	Medium size population.
185471		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture. No major widespread threats have been identified.
185472		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185472		distribution	eng	Endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon and Gabon).
185472		habitat	eng	Liana of forest understory and river's borders.
185472		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185472		threats	eng	Forest clearing for agriculture or logging.
185473		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. Land water management and awareness raising through training, education and communication are recommended.
185473		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is e</strong>ndemic to Gabon.
185473		habitat	eng	Generally an understory herb, but can grow in river valleys.
185473		population	eng	It has been found in four locations (Heine 1966). Populations are small.
185473		threats	eng	Land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture or logging have been identified as threats.
185474		conservation	eng	No information available.
185474		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>There are a number of records from Gabon (M. Lock pers. comm. 2008); also recorded from Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185474		habitat	eng	The species grows in seasonally wet grasslands. It is an hemicryptophyte.
185474		population	eng	No information available.
185474		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and activities of extractive industries.
185475		conservation	eng	No information
185475		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Northern and Western Cape, South Africa with 14 herbarium specimens in eight unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells
185475		habitat	eng	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plant is sometimes found in moist situations but is not considered to be a wetland species. Perennial Herb
185475		population	eng	No information
185475		threats	eng	None known
185476		conservation	eng	In Senegal at least occurs in some protected areas. Research on the population, range and threats are required.
185476		distribution	eng	Limited area in western Casamance and in Guinea (Kindia and Friguiagbé) and Guinea-Bissau. The species could be further widespread, there is a record listed for Nigeria (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2002).
185476		habitat	eng	Occurs in moist soils, rice fields and temporary flooded areas. Mat forming.
185476		population	eng	Unknown.
185476		threats	eng	Unknown.
185477		conservation	eng	Site management is required as well as implementation of&#160; legal measures to protect the species is required. Restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat is also highly recommended.
185477		distribution	eng	South African endemic: Clanwilliam valley (Cape Plants 2000);  <br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Brandewyn Rivier, northwest of Pakhuis Pass. Not common, growing close to the river in deepish sands, was in a disturbed area (L. Dreyer and K. Oberlanders pers. comm. 2006).<br/>2) Clanwilliam Div. between Greys Pass and Graafwater (Leipoldt 1940) - likely to be extinct due to agriculture and alien plant invasion.<br/>3) Clanwilliam, 10 miles north of town (Salter 1933) - highly likely to be extinct due to agriculture, area now under orchards.<br/>4) Clanwilliam Div. Warmbaths (Edwards 1915) - highly likely to be extinct.<br/>5) Clanwilliam (Schlechter 1896).<br/>6) Olifants River Mts (Schlechter 1894).
185477		habitat	eng	Marshy places or in seepage bands.
185477		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: 1;   <br/>Estimated number of past locations: at least 4;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes severely;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  yes
185477		threats	eng	The Brandewyn River is the only known extant locality, with decline in habitat caused by heavy livestock grazing and trampling and alien invasive plants.  All other localities are likely to have been lost due to being drowned by Clanwillian and Bulshoek dams, or to agricultural development.
185478		conservation	eng	No information.
185478		distribution	eng	Endemic to Brandewyn's river causeway between Pakhuis Pass and Doornbosch, Clanwilliam division, the Cape, South Africa. However it might be a form of a more common species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oxalis dregei</span>).
185478		habitat	eng	Wet marshy places and along streams. At an altitude of about 400 m.
185478		population	eng	No information.
185478		threats	eng	Agricultural activities may be threatening the species but this needs to confirmed.
185479		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation measures. Some of its populations are found in protected areas such forest reserves and national parks.
185479		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
185479		habitat	eng	Found in moorland swamps, bogs, peatlands and wet grassland.
185479		population	eng	The exact area covered by this plant is not known although it may be widespread, at least in Eastern Africa. It is locally common in Kenya, in high altitude from 1,800-4,350 m above sea level.
185479		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
185480		conservation	eng	No information available.
185480		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern part of the Western Cape, South Africa (Cook 2004);    <br/><br/>Big populations present at Grassy Park in Cape Town, Bredasdorp, Hopefield and Rawsonville. Also present in Princessvlei, Seekoeivlei, Riverlands, Kenilworth, Duthie Reserve near Stellenbosch, Elandsberg and Elandskloofberg. In three localities the species has probably gone extinct: Salt River, the Stellenbosch flats and around the forestry faculty in Stellenbosch.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Elandsberg. Slangkop Road. Alt: 70m. (Parker, E. 29-6-1996) / W Coast, Riverlands Nature Reserve (Snijman, D.A. 28-9-2005)<br/>3) Cape Flats, Princess Vlei (Walgate, M.M. 29-8-1946)<br/>4) Worcester Div. Worcester Vlei (Tolken, H.R. 0-9-1965) / Rawsonville, Brandvlei, (Marsh, J.A. 17-9-1968) / Bokkekraals, Brandvleidam (Mauve, A.A. and Oliver, E.G.H. 18-9-1974)<br/>5) Hopefield Div. Darling Bot. Res. In Vlei (Mauve, A.A. 18-9-1967)<br/>6) Cape Town, Grassy Park (Compton, R.H. 18-9-1942) / Seekoevlei. Alt: 5m. (Koutnik, D.L. 6-7-1983)<br/>7) Duthie Reserve, Stellenbosch (Van Elsen 10-7-1968)<br/>8) Bredasdorp, Karsrivier vlei. Alt: 15m (Glen, R.P. 21-8-1994)<br/><br/>Extinct localities:<br/>9) Salt River (Marloth, H.W.R. 0-8-1884) - extinct<br/>10) Stellenbosch Div. Stellenbosch Flats (Thompson, M.F. 17-11-1967) / (Strey, R.G. 15-9-1946)<br/>11) Stellenbosch, Flats Of Old Golfcourse (Bos, J.J. 31-7-1963)<br/>12) Cape Province, Greenpoint, Cape Flats (Pappe)
185480		habitat	eng	Sandy lakeshores that dry out in summer. Shallow pools or rivers with slow running water up to 300 m above sea level (van Bruggen 1985).<br/><br/>In water up to about 1 m deep in shallow pools or slowly flowing rivers, it can grow emergent for a while after the water level falls. Common in the permanent Cape vleis, such as Zeekoei Vlei and Princess Vlei (Cook 2004).
185480		population	eng	There are around 10 subpopulations (eight precise localities), three of which are probably extinct. A 30% decline in population can be in inferred. This species is considered severely fragmented as > 50 % of its known localities are isolated from one another and the seeds are known to be dispersed in water (van Brugen 1985) and it is thus presumed that dispersal between isolated water bodies occurs very seldom.
185480		threats	eng	Drying up of vleis associated with urbanisation. Four of the 12 recorded  locations in PRECIS have been lost due to urbanisation of Cape Town and Stellenbosch over the past 120 years. According to J. Day (pers. comm.) there has been at least a 30 % loss of habitat in the past 50 years. <br/><br/>The species seems to be able to deal with the invasion of alien grasses such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum vaginatum</span>.
185481		conservation	eng	No information available.
185481		distribution	eng	Endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), only present in Haut-Katanga.
185481		habitat	eng	The ecology of this helophyte in unknown. Only known from the type collected in 1911 in humus-rich soil in  savanna.
185481		population	eng	No information available.
185481		threats	eng	The species is threatened by mining activities affecting its habitat where around 250 mining concessions have been granted.
185482		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but habitat should be protected through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. More research in habitat status and actual threats is needed.
185482		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon. The species is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).
185482		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.
185482		population	eng	It is known from the type collection only, but this population is not expected to be very important.
185482		threats	eng	The waterfalls are generally appreciated for tourism and excursions, so trampling is a problem.
185483		conservation	eng	No information. Research is needed to know more about the species distribution, trends and taxonomic status.
185483		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality on top of Table mountain above Cape Town (Western Cape, South Africa).&#160;  Known locality (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007): Tafelberg (Ecklon and Zeyher).
185483		habitat	eng	Growing in shallow rock basins filled with humus (Tolken 1985); temporary pools and wet depressions (Cook 2004).
185483		population	eng	No information available.
185483		threats	eng	Unknown.
185484		conservation	eng	No information available.
185484		distribution	eng	South Africa and Swaziland endemic. Occurs on KwaZulu-Natal South coast (Port Shepstone to Port Edward) and into the Bizana area of Transkei.
185484		habitat	eng	Damp situations in sand along the margins of streamlets and pools and in hollows among sandstone outcrops. Not a wetland or aquatic species, but may be found in seasonally wet or damp places. Perennial Helophyte
185484		population	eng	No information available.
185484		threats	eng	None known.
185485		conservation	eng	No information
185485		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mozambique and South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Eastern Cape)
185485		habitat	eng	Not very gregarious, usually found mixed with other floating plants or between emergent reeds in pools and lakes. Perennial herb
185485		population	eng	No information
185485		threats	eng	None known
185486		conservation	eng	No information
185486		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Cape Province, South Africa with 26 specimen in 9 unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells
185486		habitat	eng	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plants sometimes found in moist situations but they are not considered to be wetland species. Perennial Dwarf shrub
185486		population	eng	No information
185486		threats	eng	None known
185487		conservation	eng	No information.
185487		distribution	eng	It occurs in Southern Africa up to Kenya.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is known from Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State).  Also in Eastern Africa where the species has only been collected from Central Kenya (K4) near Thika Town (North -side of Chania Hill-side of Thika River) at 1,450 m above sea level. Also present in Malawi.
185487		habitat	eng	Perennial hydrophyte, locally abundant in temporary, shallow pools, flooded pans and on muddy or sandy banks, 800-1700 m. Perennial Hydrophyte
185487		population	eng	No information.
185487		threats	eng	None known.
185488		conservation	eng	No information available.
185488		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Angola and Zambia.
185488		habitat	eng	No information available.
185488		population	eng	No information available.
185488		threats	eng	No information available.
185489		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
185489		distribution	eng	Known from Malawi, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. In Malawi it is found in Dedza Mountain, and Chiakngawa Forest in Mzimba. The record from Malawi needs to be confirmed.
185489		habitat	eng	Swamps, bogs, streamsides and moist ground in bamboo, <em>Hagenia</em>, <em>Hypericum </em>and <em>Erica</em> zones, moorland and upland forest, grassland with <em>Acacia</em>.
185489		population	eng	No data available.
185489		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
185490		conservation	eng	Research on the species threats, population numbers and range is needed.
185490		distribution	eng	The species is known only from two locations northern Somalia and not known elsewhere.
185490		habitat	eng	It is found in small lakes and pools with very variable water level, sometimes fully inundated.
185490		population	eng	Very rare.
185490		threats	eng	The species is likely to be disturbed by water level fluctuations due to the construction of dams.
185491		conservation	eng	The species is found within Protected areas.
185491		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in Eastern Africa extending to Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In Tanzania, it has been recorded from Bukoba district; Munene Forest Reserve, Lushoto district; Wan guwe R. Gare foot path; Morogoro district; Uluguru Mts., Bunduki, Kisaki. Its presence in Gabon is uncertain.
185491		habitat	eng	Rain forest, riverine and swamp forest. From 500 - 2,100 m above sea level.
185491		population	eng	Unknown.
185491		threats	eng	Unknwown.
185493		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in conservation areas such as national parks and forest reserves.
185493		distribution	eng	Widespread in Western Kenya and present in Uganda (e.g. Mt. Elgon, Timboroa). The species is endemic to Eastern Africa.
185493		habitat	eng	Found in alpine bogs and grasslands. It grows  between 1,800-3,500 m above sea level.
185493		population	eng	No information available.
185493		threats	eng	No threats had been reported. However, it must be noted this species lies in a high agriculture potential area where wetlands are being converted into other uses. Wetlands are also receiving a lot sediment from surrounding farms.
185494		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the species' distribution and threats as it could easily be threatened or even extinct.
185494		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Somalia. It has been recorded from an unspecified site near Baidoa, at about 200 m above sea level (Lye 1996)
185494		habitat	eng	The habitat is not fully known although it has been collected in a damp ground near a spring (Lye 1996)
185494		population	eng	It is a rare species.
185494		threats	eng	Unknown.
185495		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185495		distribution	eng	Tropical African species, mostly Guineo-Congolian (Nigeria, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon), but extends eastwards to Uganda, and south to Angola.
185495		habitat	eng	Perennial shrub found into marshes.
185495		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185495		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution.
185496		conservation	eng	No information
185496		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Western Cape Provice, South Africa with 28 specimens in 9 unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells.
185496		habitat	eng	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plant sometimes found in moist situations but they are not considered to be wetland species. Perennial Dwarf shrub.
185496		population	eng	No information
185496		threats	eng	None known
185497		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness and further research on the population status, biology and ecology of the species , are needed.
185497		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Western to Southern Africa.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Benin, Mali, Côte d'ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, and Central African Republic. Also in one site in Niger and in Namibia. The species is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).
185497		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, living on rocks in waterfalls.
185497		population	eng	Unknown population in Western Africa and low in Central Africa.
185497		threats	eng	The species is potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought. Also  habitat loss due to human activities (dam construction, tourism and education).<br/><br/>Although the species is considered as threatened in Central Africa where it is affected by a dam, none of this threats are considered major at a Pan Africa level.
185498		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
185498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Southern part of the African continent, from Democratic Republic of Congo down to South Africa.<br/><br/>Recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Eastern Cape).
185498		habitat	eng	Central Africa: Piece of water or seasonal water drying up the major part of the year; stagnating, slow to fast water, about 1.8 m depth, on granite, clay or diorite, from 0-2,000 m above sea level.<br/><br/>Southern Africa: In still or flowing water up to 2 m deep, or in marshes and dams, in pools in outcrops, 60-1,220 m; Perennial Epihydate
185498		population	eng	Central Africa: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertum</span> is a widespread species.
185498		threats	eng	Central Africa: The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought. It’s also mentioned that the tubers of this species are edible (Flore d'Afrique Centrale). This is a lethal exploitation and if not controlled can affect the population and even the survival of this species.<br/><br/>Southern Africa: None known
185499		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness and formal education have been suggested.
185499		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in the west to Democratic Republic of Congo.
185499		habitat	eng	Geophyte of swampy forest understory and streamsides.
185499		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185499		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution. No major widespread threats have been identified.
185500		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Research on taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends has been recommended.
185500		distribution	eng	Native to Africa, Asia, Pacific and southern America. Pan tropical weed.<br/><br/>In Africa it is found in Ghana, Guine, Liberia, Senega, Sierra Leone, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Cote D'Ivoire, Kenya, and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In Kenya, It has been recorded from Kwale District: Shimba Hills, Mwalunganji and Teita District: Taita Hills, Mnyuchi. In Tanzania in  Mpanda District: 11 km on Mpanda–Uruwira road, Mbinga, Mitomoni, and in Tanga District: Mnyusi, Manta.
185500		habitat	eng	Annual or perennial with fasciculate roots; the leaves are opposite and the flowers are co linear. <br/><br/>Sometimes locally abundant, near the sea until 100 m or in cultivated places in the base of hills, mountains, along the roads. In swampy or low-lying ground. In New Caledonia, it is spontaneous herb.
185500		population	eng	Unknown.
185500		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.
185501		conservation	eng	No information.
185501		distribution	eng	Namibia and South Africa (Free State Province) (Cook 2004).
185501		habitat	eng	Found in temporary pools.
185501		population	eng	No information.
185501		threats	eng	No information.
185502		conservation	eng	No information.
185502		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Okavango River, and currently known only from Namibia and Botswana (Golding 2002).
185502		habitat	eng	Spreading aquatic.
185502		population	eng	No information available.
185502		threats	eng	No information.
185503		conservation	eng	No information.
185503		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola and Botswana (Cook 2004).
185503		habitat	eng	Not very gregarious, usually found mixed with other floating plants or between emergent reeds in pools.
185503		population	eng	No information.
185503		threats	eng	No information.
185504		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. Conservation measures should be  directed towards the protection of&#160; its habitat. This can be  done improving communication and education of savanna residents. Policy makers,  especially authorities in charge of the protection of the environment  should be aware of the presence and the importance of protecting freshwater plants. They should be trained to be able to make decisions based on knowledge and understanding of freshwater ecology.
185504		distribution	eng	Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in Ubangi-Uele to Central African Republic (CAR). Here we assess this plant as endemic to Central Africa, but this may not be the case. In fact, we don't know the plant's distribution in CAR and the extent of occurrence (EOO) might extend out of the Region's boundary.
185504		habitat	eng	Herb, semi-submerged in pond water on laterite.
185504		population	eng	Ecologically specialist species. It is presumed it has a small size population.
185504		threats	eng	Water and land pollution, severe drought, infrastructure development and human settlement are the main threats.
185505		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders.
185505		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon. It is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).
185505		habitat	eng	Small aquatic herb, submerged or not in waterfall's water, fixed with thallus on rocks.
185505		population	eng	Medium size population (three different collecting sites in Cameroon).
185505		threats	eng	Dam construction, but also tourism and excursions.
185506		conservation	eng	No information
185506		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa and Lesotho: Harrismith, Ncandu area, near Ficksburg and Bethlehem to the Mpumalanga/KwaZulu-Natal border between Wakkerstroom and Ermelo.<br/><br/>Known localities (PRECIS):  <br/>1) Mountain Road<br/>2) Tandjiesberg, 27 km. NE of Ladybrand<br/>3) Ficksburg, Mpharane Mt.<br/>4) Bethlehem<br/>5) Slabbberts, Paterimo<br/>6) Harrismith, Loskop<br/>7) Uitrecht Dist. Naauwhoek<br/>8) Glencoe Dist. Biggarsberg, One Tree Hill<br/><br/>TPA record: <br/>9) Ermelo Dst. Lake Chrissie (Moss 1975)
185506		habitat	eng	Montane grassland, in mountain rock pools, pans and vleis. Marshy areas or shallow vleis at high altitude (1600-3400 m). Flowers from January to March.
185506		population	eng	7 localities known, but probably >10.
185506		threats	eng	none
185507		conservation	eng	Research actions on population numbers, range, ecology, threats and conservation measures needed.
185507		distribution	eng	Recorded from Cameroon (Bamenda; NW sopes of Mba Kokeka Mt. 7,500 ft above sea level;  Tchamba; Nakalba, 21 km WSW Tchamba).
185507		habitat	eng	This is a moss-like herb with a ribbon-like thallus. Anchored to wet rocks.
185507		population	eng	Unknown.
185507		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought
185508		conservation	eng	More research in population trends, biology and ecology, habitat status, and geographical range is needed.
185508		distribution	eng	This plant has only been recorded from Ghana in western Africa and Kenya and Uganda in Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>In Kenya the species is locally common from 1,650-3,500 m, recorded from the Aberdare Ranges, Laikipia District and Nairobi area and Trans-Nzoia, Mt Elgon and Tinderet. In Ghana the species was found in Ejisu, Kumasi.
185508		habitat	eng	Found in still or slow moving water in streams, lakes and reservoirs. Also submerged and fixed in streams and damp areas.
185508		population	eng	Small occurrence in Africa.
185508		threats	eng	This species may be potentially locally impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought although these are not considered major threats.
185509		conservation	eng	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of riverine populations and stakeholders.
185509		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea).
185509		habitat	eng	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged, fixed on rocks in the fast water of waterfalls and rapids
185509		population	eng	Locally more or less widespread species, gregarious. Important population.
185509		threats	eng	Dam construction is a potential future threat. One of the sites in  Kienke (Kribi) is in the town and is likely to be severely affected by pollution of various kinds.
185510		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185510		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Ethiopia. Only know from the type collection in Ethiopia (Asela region).
185510		habitat	eng	Bare wet soil along small streams.
185510		population	eng	Rare.
185510		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal and natural disasters such as drought.
185511		conservation	eng	No information available.
185511		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia and Botswana) and not suspected to be declining.
185511		habitat	eng	Perennial Geophyte. Riverine and swamp species.
185511		population	eng	The species is widespread. Specimens where collected from at least ten quarter degree squared  (15'x15') grid cells.
185511		threats	eng	None known.
185512		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed. The species might is present in  protected areas.
185512		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in several African countries, from Nigeria to Ethiopia and south to Zimbabwe.
185512		habitat	eng	Perennial herb of damp places.
185512		population	eng	The species is common.
185512		threats	eng	No major widespread threats.
185513		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185513		distribution	eng	This species has a Congolian distribution. It has been recorded from Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.
185513		habitat	eng	Liana growing on the swampy or sloppy forest understory.
185513		population	eng	Widespread species, medium size population.
185513		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water and land pollution, forest clearing for agriculture and logging.
185514		conservation	eng	Research on threats, population numbers and range is needed.
185514		distribution	eng	It has only been recorded in Sudan (unknown location).
185514		habitat	eng	It grows submerged in various water bodies.
185514		population	eng	This species is rare.
185514		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.
185515		conservation	eng	No information
185515		distribution	eng	Present in Mozambique South Africa and Namibia.
185515		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte is not an aquatic or wetland species but may be found in seasonally damp or wet places.
185515		population	eng	It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.
185515		threats	eng	None known.
185516		conservation	eng	No information available.
185516		distribution	eng	Perhaps endemic to southern Africa; Swaziland, South Africa and possibly Lesotho (RSA: North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185516		habitat	eng	Shallow water in seasonal or permanent pools, also found along the marshy banks of pools and in swamps. Perennial Herb.
185516		population	eng	No information available.
185516		threats	eng	None known.
185517		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
185517		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ethiopia to Cape Province in South Africa.
185517		habitat	eng	This species occurs in medium altitude swamps between 1,500 m to 2,500 m asl.
185517		population	eng	No data available.
185517		threats	eng	No known major widespread threats
185518		conservation	eng	None at the moment. Site based management, educational activities  and communication need to be put in place  to raise species awareness.
185518		distribution	eng	Central Africa endemic. Found in Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.
185518		habitat	eng	Annual herb, rarely biannual of swampy savannas and meadows.
185518		population	eng	This plant is not common in DRC where only two locations are mentioned. If this is the same case in Angola and Namibia, then naturally the population size of this species is small.
185518		threats	eng	Land pollution, infrastructure and agriculture development. Also severe drought.
185519		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.
185519		distribution	eng	This species is found in Kenya (Nzoia District and Uasin Gishu District), Ethiopia (Tigre, Teramne), and Eritrea. Locality in Eritrea has not been confirmed yet although Osmara has been mentioned (Vollensen 2008), exact location need to be confirmed.
185519		habitat	eng	Found in permanent  river, streams, lakes and pools.
185519		population	eng	This species is rare.
185519		threats	eng	The species vulnerable to any stress due to its limited dispersal and restricted range. Potentially threatened by natural disasters such as drought.
185520		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185520		distribution	eng	Guineo Congolian species, present in Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire from the west to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.
185520		habitat	eng	It grows in streamsides.
185520		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185520		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution.
185521		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185521		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in west Africa to Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.
185521		habitat	eng	Liana of riparian forest, understory or ia flooded areas, more rarely in gallery forest understory, epiphytic or forming dense population on the ground.
185521		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185521		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land or water pollution, forest clearing for logging of agriculture.
185522		conservation	eng	Not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys to determine the true range, abundance and threats to this species are recommended.
185522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Africa, apparently only known from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, Togo and Gabon.
185522		habitat	eng	This is a perennial graminoid grows singly around pools and in marshy grassland.
185522		population	eng	There is no data available.
185522		threats	eng	Unknown, although increased occurrence of drought and bush fires could be considered as threats where they occur.
185523		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.
185523		distribution	eng	In North East Africa it has been found in Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Tanzania in Masai district Great north road Tarangire, Mbulu district 10km from Lake Manyara near kwa kuchinja (Kuchinia). In Kenya the species occurs widely (K1,3) from 450 - 1000 m above sea level. It is rare and has of recent been recorded in Lake Kamar in Baringo district in Uganda (Central Rift Valley).
185523		habitat	eng	In temporary seasonal pools, ponds and depressions which hold water for a few weeks after rain.
185523		population	eng	Rare in North-eastern Africa.
185523		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. It is therefore vulnerable to natural disasters such as drought.
185524		conservation	eng	No information
185524		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa where it is widespread and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185524		habitat	eng	Perennial Helophyte. Marshes
185524		population	eng	No information
185524		threats	eng	None known
185525		conservation	eng	Protection of the habitat. The Lobe waterfall, the only place where this plant, as well as many other Podostemaceae species grow, is very attractive for tourists. Information should be made available so that everyone is aware that some threatened species exist in the area. More research and surveys are needed to confirm if this species is extinct.
185525		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Cameroon. Believed to have been sighted in Equatorial Guinea according to the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Gardens), but this record is considered dubious and will not be considered (Central African Assessment Workshop 2008).
185525		habitat	eng	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged, fixed on rocks in the fast water of a waterfall.
185525		population	eng	Only one collection so far in one locality with small area of occupancy. It has not been seen since the single type collection was made <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>1908.
185525		threats	eng	The Lobe Waterfalls in Cameroon, where this plant occurs, are very attractive to tourists, so unregulated trampling is a serious problem.  Dam construction is a potential future threat.
185526		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the species distribution and threats within the region.
185526		distribution	eng	Bibliography shows that the species is collected in one country in West Africa, Senegal. However, its presence is possible in other countries of West Africa too. According to Flora of Tropical East Africa the species, as <em>M. nubica var. gymnocarpa</em>, is found in West Africa, from Mauritania and Senegal to Sudan and Namibia and also in Madagascar. The species has been recorded in South Africa.<br/><br/>Therefore, the species is believed to be present on Eastern, Western Africa, and Madagascar.
185526		habitat	eng	Wet and swampy places.
185526		population	eng	Unknown.
185526		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185527		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185527		distribution	eng	Congolian distribution, with all the central African countries (Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, DRC, Angola, Eq. Guinea and Cameroon).
185527		habitat	eng	Swampy forest understory or streamsides.
185527		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185527		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution. No major widespread threats have been identified.
185528		conservation	eng	No information
185528		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Southern Africa.
185528		habitat	eng	Not an aquatic or wetalnd species but may be found in seasonally damp or wet places. Perennial Herb
185528		population	eng	It is widespread and not suspected to be declining.
185528		threats	eng	None known
185529		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further information on the species range, distribution and population trends is required.
185529		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Sudano-Zambesian Region, south to South Africa. <br/><br/>Found in Cameroon, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it occurs in South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, possibly north western and Gauteng), Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it has been recorded from one region in Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda. In Kenya the species is locally common (K1,4,6,7) from sea-level to 1,700 m. The species has been recorded in South Rift Valley in Narok, Kajiado and Magadi areas. It has been reported along the Kenya Coast in Taita District (Mudanda Rock) and Kilifi District in Mariakebuni and Marafa areas. Other population have been collected in western  Kenya in Mumias.<br/><br/>In Sudan it has been recorded from the Blue Nile Province. Also present in Ethiopia and Somalia in North-eastern Africa.
185529		habitat	eng	This perennial hydrophyte is found in lakes, dams, ponds, in permanent or temporary water and in slowly flowing water. It prefers high light intensity, sheltered areas protected from wind, waves, and currents.
185529		population	eng	Very Common species.
185529		threats	eng	None known.
185530		conservation	eng	No information
185530		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa and Lesotho (Drakensberg Range) (RSA: FDS, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185530		habitat	eng	Along mountain streams, often partly submerged after rain. Perennial Geophyte
185530		population	eng	No information
185530		threats	eng	None known
185531		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in established National Parks and Forest Reserves.
185531		distribution	eng	This species is native to Eastern and Central Africa. It is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.<br/><br/>It has been recorded in Central Kenya (Aberdare Ranges), Rift Valley (Nakuru District, Narok, Amboseli National Park). In Tanzania the species is known from Arusha, Lushoto and Musoma Districts. In Uganda the species is recorded from the Mengo and Toro Districts.
185531		habitat	eng	Found near springs, river banks, swamps and often on alkaline soils.
185531		population	eng	This species is locally abundant in Kenya from 400-1,800 m above sea level.
185531		threats	eng	No widespread threats have been identified but the distribution of this species makes it susceptible to wetland reclamation to create land for subsistence agriculture and animal grazing.
185532		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185532		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa, from West (Togo, Nigeria) to East (Uganda). In Central Africa, the plant is present in Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Angola.
185532		habitat	eng	Normal terrestrial woody plant, but also found at the river border.
185532		population	eng	Widespread species, tolerant with a large size population.
185532		threats	eng	Potentially affected by land pollution.
185533		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place.
185533		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa from Senegal to Somalia, south to Zambia. With records from Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Angola, Congo, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia.
185533		habitat	eng	It is plant of moist savanna, pasture, marshes, peatlands, edges of streams  between 650 and 2000 m of altitude.
185533		population	eng	It is a very common species.
185533		threats	eng	No threats.
185534		conservation	eng	None in place or needed.
185534		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon and Sudan (el Ehs. Am Weissen Nil - At the River uokko - In Lande der Mitten - Balv el Ghazal Province) and Ethiopia.
185534		habitat	eng	This marsh-plant grows in wet or muddy places places or on the edges of water.
185534		population	eng	Poor litterature concerning its population although it is believed to be common in North Eastern Africa.
185534		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185535		conservation	eng	None at this moment. Education of local people to raise awareness is recommended. More research is needed in the biology and the ecology of the plant as well as its habitat status and potential conservation measures.
185535		distribution	eng	In West Tropical Africa to Tanzania. Known  from Senegal, Benin, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Togo, Sierra Leone in Western Africa. It Central Africa it occurs, from Senegal in the west to Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).  The record from DRC is unclear and presence remains doubtful.<br/><br/>No Eastern African specimens have been recorded recently (H.J, Beentje pers.comm. 2010). Haines & Lye (1983) state this is “only known from Kigoma and Iringa Districts” but cite no specimens. It is therefore a taxon of doubtful occurrence in Tanzania.
185535		habitat	eng	Herbaceous plant of river banks and similar damp places. Also found in depressions of coastal dunes, rice fields, borders of water, waterlogged soils, river-banks and damp places. It is robust plant which is well establish because of its dense tuft.
185535		population	eng	Abundant in Western Africa and likely to be locally important in Central Africa
185535		threats	eng	No major widespread threats for the Pan-African region have been identified although agriculture, land reclamation, droughts and pollution can threaten the species locally.
185536		conservation	eng	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of the following protected areas: Parc national des Virungas (National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, II) which overlaps with Rwenzori Mountains (National Park, World Heritage Convention, Uganda). More research is needed on the species distribution, threats and habitat status.
185536		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Uganda (with records from the western slopes of Mount Muhavura, Mount Elgon, and Ruwenzori range), Tanzania (Kilimanjaro), Kenya (Mount Kenya, Aberdare range, mount Elgon), Ethiopia and Democratic Republic of Congo. (Ruwenzori range and Virunga Mountains).
185536		habitat	eng	Damp places and marshy grassland, usually in shade in higher part of upland rainforest and in upland moor.
185536		population	eng	No information available.
185536		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown, though there are many general threats in region including agricultural expansion, deforestation and increasing population densities.
185537		conservation	eng	None
185537		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Democratic Republic of Congo to Kenya and Tanzania to Southern Africa. Recorded from Okavango and Zambesi rivers, in Uganda it is only known from an island on Lake Victoria and in Tanzania it occurs at Bukoba district in Lake Victoria.
185537		habitat	eng	A submerged plant in still or slow flowing water.
185537		population	eng	No data.
185537		threats	eng	No major widespread threats. Locally impacted by human settlements and their pollution of water.
185538		conservation	eng	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Research action for population and habitat status. Especially, the authorities of the dam should be aware of the existence of this plant, and convinced to take any conservation measure.
185538		distribution	eng	The monospecific genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Zehnderia</span> is endemic to Sanaga falls in Edea, Cameroon. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 200 m<sup>2</sup>.
185538		habitat	eng	Submerged freshwater plant, attached on rock surface or hard objects in rapids.
185538		population	eng	Rare species.
185538		threats	eng	This plant grows at the site of the dam at Edea. If for any reason the dam is extended 100 or 200 m to the left, then this plant is gone for ever.
185539		conservation	eng	No information.
185539		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Lesotho and Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining. Also present in eastern Africa and The Democratic Republic of Congo.
185539		habitat	eng	Perennial herb found in wet places at high altitudes.
185539		population	eng	No information
185539		threats	eng	None known.
185540		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185540		distribution	eng	Central African species, that extends westwards to Ghana and Nigeria.
185540		habitat	eng	Perennial herb of streamside in forest.
185540		population	eng	Quite widely distributed species, large size population.
185540		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water and land pollution of all kind.
185541		conservation	eng	<p>Raising public awareness through communication and education, and further research on habitat status, ecology and population trends of the species need to be undertaken.</p>
185541		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon</span><em> stipantepalum</em> is a rather rare Central African species, restricted to Cameroon,    Democratic Republic of Congo  and possibly Congo.
185541		habitat	eng	Probably perennial herb, growing at the margins of small pools and flooded depressions in grassland, on iron-rich ground; 1,250 m above sea level.
185541		population	eng	No information about the population size.
185541		threats	eng	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, alien invasion, sudden drought.
185542		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species distribution, ecology and threats.
185542		distribution	eng	Limited information available. There are records from Mali and Ghana.
185542		habitat	eng	Shallow or deep water, temporary or permanent.
185542		population	eng	Unknown.
185542		threats	eng	Unknown.
185544		conservation	eng	No information available.
185544		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, although occurrence in Congo requires confirmation. It has been mentioned in Gabon and also extends into the forest zone in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville where it occurs in natural forest clearings on sandy soil. Probably confined to Kalahari Sands. Most likely endemic.
185544		habitat	eng	Helophyte. Probably confined to Kalahari Sands.
185544		population	eng	No information available.
185544		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and extractive industries.
185545		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185545		distribution	eng	Records from Senegal, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Benin and Burkina Faso.
185545		habitat	eng	Marshes and swamps. Shallow water, temporary or permanent, still streams, grassy marshes and rice fields.
185545		population	eng	Unknown.
185545		threats	eng	Unknown.
185546		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185546		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian, from Guinea in West Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.
185546		habitat	eng	Shady forest understory, sometime marshy.
185546		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185546		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture and logging. Water pollution.
185547		conservation	eng	No information
185547		distribution	eng	Confined to Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia.
185547		habitat	eng	Permanent swamps and seasonally flooded vleis, often floating but also emergent or sometimes submerged
185547		population	eng	No information
185547		threats	eng	None known
185548		conservation	eng	No information
185548		distribution	eng	Endemic to SE Africa, extending from Zimbabwe to the eastern escapement. Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga,possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal,possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Naturalized in New Zealand and St Helena.
185548		habitat	eng	Permanently wet places, along streams, in pans and around pools. Perennial Hyperhydate
185548		population	eng	No information
185548		threats	eng	None known
185549		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers, range and threats is needed.
185549		distribution	eng	This species has a Soudano-zambezian distribution. It has only been recorded from Senegal, Burkina Faso Cameroon, Tanzania (Songea district 6.5 km west of Songea valley and near R. Mtanda, 9.5 km west of Songea), Sudan (Equatoria - Djur, "Grosse seriba Ghattas") and Ethiopia.
185549		habitat	eng	Shallow or deep water. Temporary or permanent water also found in rice fields and pools in boogy grasslands.
185549		population	eng	Unknown. Species has important population in many ponds, dams and swamps in Burkina Faso (Ouedraogo, pers. comm.).
185549		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.
185550		conservation	eng	No information available.
185550		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known only from Congo-Kinshasa and Zambia (one collection; M. Lock pers. comm.).
185550		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known.
185550		population	eng	No information available.
185550		threats	eng	No information available.
185551		conservation	eng	Research action about species needed.
185551		distribution	eng	Records from Guinea (Kollangui) and Mali (30 km west of Kita).
185551		habitat	eng	Dry beds of rivers and marshy places.
185551		population	eng	No information available.
185551		threats	eng	Wetlands management for agriculture.
185552		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed. Research action for population status should also be carried out. The authorities of the ministry of environment should be informed of the existence of this species, who should advice the authorities of the dam&#160; to take conservation measures to protect this plant. If possible, a possible introduction of this species in a suitable habitat should be considered.
185552		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameroon. This plant is found in a single locality (Edea waterfalls on the Sanaga river). The species is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).
185552		habitat	eng	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged or not, growing on the rocks in waterfalls and rapids.
185552		population	eng	Very low population as the location site has been seriously reduced by the dam.
185552		threats	eng	At the location site of this plant on the Edea waterfalls, a dam has already been built and has drastically reduced the habitat available for the species, although it has been confirmed to persist at the site (J.-P. Ghogue pers. comm. 2008). The major threat faced by this species will be the extension of the dam as it is found only 100 to the left of the dam. Also, because the population is now much smaller than before it will be more vulnerable to other threats.
185553		conservation	eng	Further information on the species' range, threats, distribution and trends is required.
185553		distribution	eng	Known from five sites in Democratic Republic of Congo, including the type locality (Haut-Katanga, DRC).
185553		habitat	eng	This species inhabits damp grasslands and swamps. It is an hemicryptophyte.
185553		population	eng	No information available.
185553		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.
185554		conservation	eng	The Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal subpopulations are all safely protected within National Parks (Lesotho National Park in Sehlabathebe, and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park), however, this species is undergoing rapid declines in Mpumalanga and parts of Limpopo.
185554		distribution	eng	Occurs in seasonal pools at high altitudes, from KwaZulu-Natal, Free State and Lesotho Drakensberg to Mpumalanga and Limpopo (Burrows 1990).<br/><br/>Known localities.  <br/><br/>Limpopo Province:<br/>1. Lapalala Wilderness. Doornleegte Farm. Alt: 1,168 m. Few localised plants. (Klopper, R.R. 29-3-2004)<br/>2. Blaauwberg summit, Van der Schiff - type (Anthony and Schelpe 1982) / Blaauwberg at trig beacon, shallow pool in rocks (Codd, L.E.W. and Dyer, R.A. 12-1-1955) / Blaauberg, near Baken. Rain pool in rock (Strey, R.G. and Schlieben, H-J.E. 26-6-1961) / Blouberg, above mountain forest zone (Vorster, P.J. 19-4-1973) / Blouberg, farm Beauley, in shallow rock pool by trig beacon (Anderson, H.M. 8-4-1989) - this subpopulation was recently destroyed when a cellphone tower was constructed at the site (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006)<br/><br/>Mpumalanga:<br/>3. Quarry near Balmoral off-ramp on N 4 between Witbank and Bronkhorstspruit. On edge of seasonal rock pool. Occr: common (Burrows, J.E. and Burrows, 25-12-1995) - half of the subpopulation have been lost since this collection was made as a result of ongoing expansion of the quarry (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006). Subpopulation is declining.<br/>4. Lydenburg, Lisabon (now Uitsoek) State Forest. Occr: abundant. Partially submerged in quiet shallow pools next to small perennial stream (Burrows, J.E. and Burrows, S.M. 27-12-1995) - this subpopulation is still extant, but the locality is surrounded by plantations and exotic invaders are intruding into the wetland (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006). Subpopulation is declining.<br/>5. Dullstroom, on Kruisfontein road just south of Dullstroom (Burrows, J.E. 7-1-1984) - this subpopulation is still extant, but surrounded by housing developments. John Burrows has witnessed the recent destruction of at least two subpopulations in the Dullstroom area. This subpopulation will probably also be lost soon to ongoing development (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006).<br/>6. Pelgrims Rus Distrik, Mariepskop, plato by baken (Van der Schijff, H.P. 10-12-1963) / Pilgrim’s Rest, Mariepskop, permanent pools on rock table on mountain summit (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 18-1-1969) / Pilgrims Rest district, Mariepskop, top of mountain, Erica-Passerina veld, in sand in rock pools (Venter, S. 18-11-1987) - this locality is at the moment relatively safe from development (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006)<br/><br/>KwaZulu-Natal<br/>7. Underberg district, Bushman’s Nek, Thamathu cave (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 5-2-1976)<br/>8. Underberg, Cobham forest station, Sipongweni Caves (Anthony and Schelpe 1982)<br/>9. Mpendhle district, Mulangane ridge, above Carter’s Nek. In rock pools (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 4-2-1984)<br/>10. Underberg district, Chameleon cave area. Shallow pools on sandstone outcrops (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 2-12-1984)<br/><br/>Lesotho:<br/>11. Underberg, Matsa a Mafikeng. Sehlabathebe National Park. Alt: 2,450 m (Hoener, F.K. 8-9-1978) / Underberg, Sehlabathebe (Anthony and Schelpe 1982) / Underberg, just outside Sehlabathebe National Park (Anthony and Schelpe 1982)<br/><br/>Free State:<br/>12. Excelsior district, Korannaberg (Du Preez, P.J. 9-3-1989)<br/>13. QuaQua. In seasonal pools near entrance gate to mountain road (Roux, J.P. 14-1-1987)<br/>14. Senekal district, Clocolan, Sherwood (Anthony and Schelpe 1982)
185554		habitat	eng	High altitude seasonal pools. Restricted to sandstones in montane grassland. Altitude 1,600-2,000 m (Anthony and Schelpe 1986, Burrows 1990).
185554		population	eng	Thirteen locations (based on herbarium locality information). May be overlooked in remote areas in the Drakensberg (J. Burrows pers. comm.). At least three subpopulations in Mpumalanga have been destroyed in the last 10 years.  <br/><br/>Extent of occurrence (AOO) <500 is an estimate. Seasonal pools tend to be small (<1 ha), and although this species has a large EOO, this is a very rare and restricted habitat (also in terms of altitudinal range), therefore AOO probably very small. Subpopulations are generally large in suitable habitat, unlikely to qualify for C criteria.
185554		threats	eng	The Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal subpopulations are all safely protected within National Parks. However, this species is undergoing rapid declines in Mpumalanga and parts of Limpopo. Three subpopulations in Mpumalanga and Limpopo have recently been destroyed by housing developments and the construction of cellphone transmitter towers, while a further three subpopulations are in decline due to invasive alien species, the expansion of a quarry and ongoing housing developments (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006)<br/><br/>The status of this species in the Free State is unknown, localities are in areas that are untransformed according to NLC (16), but the populations will require surveys.
185555		conservation	eng	Some populations occur within established national parks and forest reserves. For example, Elgon National Park and Mt Kenya National Park.
185555		distribution	eng	Native to Uganda and Kenya. This species only occurs in Mbale, Uganda between 3,200 m and 3,650 m asl. It is known to be more widespread in Kenya where it is found in uplands areas between 3,200-3,650 m (Elgon, Timboroa, Mt Kenya).
185555		habitat	eng	Afro-alpine swamps and riversides in Hagenia-Hypericum and heath zones, margins of bamboo forest.
185555		population	eng	No data available.
185555		threats	eng	The main threats identified in Uganda are: illegal harvesting of plant products and high human population density that results in increased encroachment and loss of habitats. In Kenya no threats have been reported. However, this species may be threatened by agricultural activities in the upland forests.
185556		conservation	eng	None known.
185556		distribution	eng	Widespread in western Africa and has been collected once in Democratic Republic of Congo. It's likely that the specimen of<em> M. brevipetiolata</em> collected in Democratic Republic of Congo is rather<em> M. africana</em>.
185556		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, growing in pools on laterite rocks.
185556		population	eng	Widespread species in West Africa, but rather rare in Central Africa.
185556		threats	eng	Main threats are drought, sedimentation, and human activities (land management, infrastructure development etc.).
185557		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185557		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to Gabon.
185557		habitat	eng	Herb growing on shady river border.
185557		population	eng	Rather rare species with small population size.
185557		threats	eng	Land and water  pollution of all kinds have been identified as threats.
185558		conservation	eng	The species occurs in protected areas. Additional research on the range and threats is needed.
185558		distribution	eng	Found over most of western Africa (probably more widespread than the country list indicates).
185558		habitat	eng	A helophyte in the Guinean and Sudanian savanna. Ocurs frequently in ponds, pools and marshy areas. Also colonizes seasonally flooded rocky depressions and fallow rice fields.
185558		population	eng	Relatively abundant.
185558		threats	eng	The increasing occurrence of periodic drought is a significant pressure, as the habitats are dependent on rainfall.
185559		conservation	eng	The habitat of this species has to be studied and protected.
185559		distribution	eng	This plat is endemic to Africa. It has been recorded from Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Chad, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola and Zambia.
185559		habitat	eng	Aquatic submerged herb, rooted in swamp mud.
185559		population	eng	No information about the population of this species. It is not a very common species.
185559		threats	eng	This species is prone to be affected by invasion by alien species, wetland reclamation for human settlement, sudden drought and extreme temperatures. However, none of these have been reported as critical for the species survival.
185560		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the species distribution, impacts of threats and population status and trends within the region.
185560		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Gabon where it was found from one site only in 1917 (Chutes de Samba, Sindara, dans la Ngounyé).
185560		habitat	eng	Dwarf herb up to 11 mm including the pedicellate infrutescence. Found in water falls.
185560		population	eng	Unknown.
185560		threats	eng	Unknown.
185561		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185561		distribution	eng	West to East Africa, from Cote d'Ivoire to Uganda, through Cameroon, Angola and Congo. Also recorded in Uganda (Bunyoro District: Budongo Forest andMengo District: Sezibwa Falls).
185561		habitat	eng	Ground herb of forest floor, at the shady and damp places or at the river borders.
185561		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185561		threats	eng	Forest clearing for logging or shifting agriculture. None of them as considered as major threats.
185562		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. More research on ecology, taxonomic status and population trends is needed.<br/></p>
185562		distribution	eng	According to Cook (2004), this species is not correctly published. He assumed this because the description is an illustration. However according to the International Code of Botanial Nomenclature (IBCN), illustrations are allowed, so this was a valid species. Subsequently, the species has been synonomised with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. compressa</span>. It is also possible that this species is naturalised in SA.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):  <br/><br/>1) Eshowe, Dhlinza Forest (Strey, R.G. 1963)<br/>2) Port St. Johns, Ntafufu (Strey, R.G. 1969)<br/>3) Albany District, Kloof between Featherstone's Kloof and bottom of Woest. (Schonland, S. 1892)<br/>4) Grahamstown (Schonland, S. 1893)<br/>5) King Williams Town, Perie For. (Flanagan, H.G.)<br/>5) King Williams Town District near Komgha along streams. (Flanagan, H.G. 1894)<br/>6) Silver River (Schlechter, F.R.R. 1894)
185562		habitat	eng	No information is available.
185562		population	eng	No information is available.
185562		threats	eng	No information is available.
185563		conservation	eng	No information
185563		distribution	eng	Endemic to the coastal areas of south Mozambique and eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185563		habitat	eng	Usually near the coast, locally common in swamps, around lakes, along streams and in floating mats of vegetation. Perennial helophyte
185563		population	eng	No information
185563		threats	eng	None known.
185564		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185564		distribution	eng	Senegal to Liberia.
185564		habitat	eng	In marshy meadows, particularly in lowland Casamance. Weed of rice-paddies.
185564		population	eng	No information available.
185564		threats	eng	This species is affected by wetlands management for agriculture.
185565		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. No further measures required.
185565		distribution	eng	Appears to be widespread in western Africa, but occurrence in many countries needs to be confirmed as Its distribution outside western Africa is uncertain. Possibly endemic to the region.
185565		habitat	eng	Occurs in temporary ponds and rice fields.
185565		population	eng	Moderately abundant.
185565		threats	eng	Trampling by livestock may be a problem.
185566		conservation	eng	No information
185566		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa (W Cape Province)
185566		habitat	eng	Wet soil, marshes, stream margins and temporary pools. Occasionally grows in water. Annual (occ. perennial) hydrophyte
185566		population	eng	No information
185566		threats	eng	None known
185567		conservation	eng	The species is found in Upemba National Park. More research is needed about its ecology, status and current population trends.
185567		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Known only from three collections from the Kibara Plateau, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185567		habitat	eng	This plant is an helophyte. Its habitat is not well known.
185567		population	eng	No information available.
185567		threats	eng	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and extractive industries.
185568		conservation	eng	Need to find out more about the range, abundance and threats to this species.
185568		distribution	eng	In western Africa known only from Mali and Chad. It has also been recorded from Tanzania.
185568		habitat	eng	Grows in marshes and flood plains, submerged or floating.
185568		population	eng	Unknown.
185568		threats	eng	Unknown, but probably the increasing occurrence of drought.
185569		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185569		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire in west Africa to Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.
185569		habitat	eng	Undershrub of forest understory, river and lake's borders.
185569		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185569		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture or logging, water and land pollution.
185571		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. The completion of site management  plans, educational activities to train and raise awareness&#160; as well as communication initiatives have been  suggested.
185571		distribution	eng	Guinean species, from Nigeria in west Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in the centre.
185571		habitat	eng	Undershrub of forest understory or river borders.
185571		population	eng	Relatively widespread species, medium size population.
185571		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by by forest clearing for agriculture and logging.
185572		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185572		distribution	eng	Occurrence seems to be restricted to Guinea, Mali, Cameroon and Burkina Faso.
185572		habitat	eng	Recorded from pools of ironstone plateau.
185572		population	eng	No information available.
185572		threats	eng	Drought and crop production are potential threats.
185573		conservation	eng	No information
185573		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa (RSA) and Lesotho (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004).
185573		habitat	eng	In shallow standing water, often filling depressions, 2600-3230m. Perennial Herb
185573		population	eng	Very widespread in quite remote areas. 11 localities known in PRECIS. Possibly also found in Tiffindale.   Quite likely much more common than collections indicate.
185573		threats	eng	Habitat threatened by overgrazing and peat degradation.
185574		conservation	eng	This species range falls within the Table Mountain National Park, which means that most of the habitat is quite safe. Some areas, e.g. Steenberg and Muizenberg were affected by alien invasives in the past, but aliens have been eradicated across the Peninsula and are now carefully managed. Therefore alien species remain only a potential threat, along with too frequent fire.
185574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa. It is known from the Western Cape in Summo monte "Steenberg", Muizenberg Plateau, Noordhoek mountains, Cape Point Patrys Vlei, Smitswinkel flats Cape Peninsula, S. Cape Peninsula on slopes above Noord hoek and Steenberg Plateau south to the Smitswinkel flats (Ornduff 1999).
185574		habitat	eng	Wet soil and marshes. Perennial herb.
185574		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: < 10 <br/>Overall population decline (current): probably
185574		threats	eng	Alien species and frequent fires are a potential threat.
185575		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the species exact range and threats.
185575		distribution	eng	Only recorded in Africa, from Tanzania to Angola. <br/><br/>Recorded from Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Angola, Zambia, and Tanzania. In Tanzania it has been recorded in Songea district, Kwamponjore valley.
185575		habitat	eng	Still water, usually in temporary pools.
185575		population	eng	No information available.
185575		threats	eng	No information available.
185576		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the threats, distribution and conservation actions for this species.
185576		distribution	eng	This species is endimic to Somalia. Only recorded from near a drying pool between Bihen and Las Anod.
185576		habitat	eng	The species forms groups in a drying pool.
185576		population	eng	No information available.
185576		threats	eng	Infrastructure development such as tourism and recreation and human settlement, and drought are potential threats to the species.
185577		conservation	eng	No information
185577		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa, Namibia and Botswana.
185577		habitat	eng	Annual herb. Recorded from open pans in Namibia (Simmons et al 1999).
185577		population	eng	Widespread and not declining
185577		threats	eng	None known
185578		conservation	eng	No information
185578		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185578		habitat	eng	Not strictly a wetland species. Sometimes growing together with wetland species after rains. A weedy plant growing in damp places or places where water stood during the rains but has dried out. Annual Herb
185578		population	eng	No information
185578		threats	eng	None known
185579		conservation	eng	Habitat and site management and protection is required. Also, legal measures to protect the species habitat  should be put in place. Restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat is also recommended.
185579		distribution	eng	Vanrhynsdorp to Clanwilliam and in Calvinia, Western Cape, South Africa.  <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Cape Province, Calvinia. ca. 42 km SE of Nieuwoudtville (Goldblatt, Snijman. 1983) <br/>2) W Cape, Northern Bokkeveld Escarpment S of Perdekraal (Oliver 1983) - locally frequent aquatic near edges of pan, also seen by D.Raimondo Augst 2006 > 500 plants seen at this location<br/>3) Cape, Vanrhynsdorp. Along boundary of farm Sandkraal and farm 256 at base of Mitsikamma (Snijman 1983) - growing in abundance in seasonal clay pool. <br/>4) Cape, Calvinia. Bokkeveld escarpment (Tweevlei, Snijman 1980)<br/>5) Van Rhynsdorp, Rd. To Mauwerskop south of Vanrhynsdorp third of way from Raskraal (Oliver 1974)<br/>6) Calvinia. Lokenberg near Nieuwoudtville (Barker)<br/>7) Clanwilliam Div. 4 miles west of Clanwilliam (Salter 1932)<br/>8) Calvinia Dist. 2 miles north of summit of Botterkloof (Salter 1932). Refound by L. Dreyer and K. Oberlander 2006 July. <br/>9) Clanwilliam Div. Doorn River (Schlechter 1897)
185579		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools and pans in clay.
185579		population	eng	Seasonal pools are highly isolated from one another but it is unknown that if a sub population goes extinct whether it could be recolonised. Not much is known about the dispersal strategy of these aquatic oxalisis.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >10,000; <br/>Estimated number of locations: six; < 20 subpopulations (eight localities in PRECIS. <20 suspected.)
185579		threats	eng	Habitat threatened by heavy grazing and trampling of plants floating in shallow pools was observed by Helme at Vanrhysdorp subpopulation and by Raimondo at some Nieuwoudtivlle subpopulations. Agriculture (low to moderate threat) as some farmers plough up these seasonal pools. This occurred in Nieuwoudtville in 2005, but it is not general practice as crops do not grow well in seasonally inundated areas.
185580		conservation	eng	No information
185580		distribution	eng	South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique and Swaziland (RSA: Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). The species has also&#160; been recorded from Malawi.
185580		habitat	eng	This species grows on wet rocks in water of river beds; submerged or partly. Tightly fixed to rock under swiftly flowing water. Between1,000-2,700 m above sea level.
185580		population	eng	No information
185580		threats	eng	None known
185581		conservation	eng	No information available.
185581		distribution	eng	Endemic to mountains of southern Africa. South Africa and Lesotho (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Also recorded from Botswana and Namibia.
185581		habitat	eng	This annual epihydate grows in rivers.
185581		population	eng	No information available.
185581		threats	eng	None known.
185582		conservation	eng	No information available.
185582		distribution	eng	Perhaps endemic to South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Western Cape) (Cook 2004).<br/><br/>Known localities: Umbilo. This is from a very old collection (1911) from the Durban area.
185582		habitat	eng	Terrestrial on wet soil but tolerating longer periods of flooding.
185582		population	eng	No information available.
185582		threats	eng	No information available.
185583		conservation	eng	No information
185583		distribution	eng	Endemic to Southern Africa (Namibia and South Africa) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185583		habitat	eng	The ecology of this shrublet or woody herb is unknown, found in a stream valley.
185583		population	eng	No information available.
185583		threats	eng	None known
185584		conservation	eng	Habitat and site management and protection is required as well as  restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat. Population trends should also be monitored .
185584		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa's Western Cape from Piketberg to Malmesbury (Cook 2004). Manning (2005) states three locations, three seasonal pools all middle of farmland (wheat farming), all declining, number of plants in each about 100 in two and less than 50 in one of them. Two locations within 1 km apart and the other about 50 km away. <br/><br/>Known localities: <br/>1) Sandvlei vernal pool, Sandvlei farm (D. Raimondo 04-Sep-05) 100-1,000 plants / Hopefield. 3 miles S of Koperfontein (M. De Vos 1956) / Malmesbury, near to Soutrivier and Koperfontein (M. De Vos 1956)<br/>3) The Pools between Piquetberg and Greys Pass (Barker 1951) / Clanwilliam. Between Piquetberg and Olifants River Mountains (T. Oliver 1980s) / Piketberg. (M. De Vos 1956) (a few other collections from here) / Clanwilliam. 30 km S of Citrusdal towards Piketberg (Snijman 1985). Not found by CREW (Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers) in Septemeber 2006, possibly extinct (however there are more pools 20 km SE of the pools that need to be checked according to N. Helme)<br/>3) Vanrhynsdorp. In seasonal pools near Aries (Vlok 1994). This is far out of range of all other collections but still definitely correct species. J.Vlok says this has been dispersed by ducks. According to J. Manning and D. Snijman (pers. comm.) this is <span style="font-style: italic;">R. multisulcata</span>.
185584		habitat	eng	Seasonal pools on clay flats.
185584		population	eng	Sandvlei vernal pools have <1,000 plants other subpopulation not known.  Matrix vegetation between vernal pools all transformed to wheat fields.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: unknown; <br/>Estimated number of locations: 5;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: <5; <br/>One probably gone; (although well collected only actually two localities).  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): continuing decline;
185584		threats	eng	Agricultural transformation to wheat is a severe past and present threat (J. Manning pers. comm. 2005). These vernal pools are completely surrounded by wheat fields, the farmers are unaware of the biodiversity within the pools pools are being degraded by being filled in and by allowing large numbers of stock to trample in the pools.<br/><br/>Of the five farms visited by CREW in 2005 in the Sandvlei Kooperfontein area all had vernal pools in degraded conditions. Only one pool at the entrance of Sandvlei had this species still on it.
185585		conservation	eng	No information
185585		distribution	eng	Confined to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/>In Botswana, it is known from the north (Samedupe Bridge) and the southeast (Content Farm). It is also found in Namibia, in seasonally flooded areas, growing in water. Probably under-collected and widespread (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa).
185585		habitat	eng	Seasonally flooded places, dams and pans, also in vleis and growing in water. Altitude of about 1050 m
185585		population	eng	No information
185585		threats	eng	None known
185586		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
185586		distribution	eng	Southern Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State). <br/><br/>In Kenya the species has been recorded from Northen Kenya (Moyale), Nairobi Nationa Park, Thika District, Taita District and (Tsavo East National Park, Mudanda Rock) from 550 - 1650 m above sea level. In Tanzania, it is known from Musoma district 97 km. from Seronera to Klein's  Camp; Moshi district Sanya plain; Dodoma district kazikazi.
185586		habitat	eng	This perennial hydrophyte occurs in rain-fed pools on sandstone or granite, 500-2300 m above sea level.
185586		population	eng	The plant is present in at least 8 countries and we can conclude that the population is high.
185586		threats	eng	None known.
185587		conservation	eng	Research actions needed.
185587		distribution	eng	Plant collected in Guinea (Ditinn to Diaguissa) and Sierra Leone.
185587		habitat	eng	&#160;It is a rheophyte ( lives in fast moving water currents). <span style="font-style: italic;">Stonesia</span> species live attached to submerged rocks or wood in rushing water in rapids or falls of streams and rivers.
185587		population	eng	No information available.
185587		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by water pollution and drought.
185588		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185588		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from West to Central Africa.
185588		habitat	eng	Herb of lake and river borders.
185588		population	eng	Quite widespread species, large size population.
185588		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by water pollution.
185589		conservation	eng	No information.
185589		distribution	eng	West to East African distribution, from Nigeria in the West to Uganda and Tanzania in the East. Recorded from Nigeria; Cameroon; Democratic Republic of Congo; Ethiopia; Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi; Nigeria; Rwanda; Burundi, Sudan; and Zambia. Presence in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea needs to be confirmed.
185589		habitat	eng	Swampy or moist grassland; Upland grassland or moorland, often in moist sites or bogs, riverine, in forest glades por bamboo margins, also in secondary scrub in this zone; may be locally common.
185589		population	eng	Locally common.
185589		threats	eng	No threats have been identified.
185590		conservation	eng	No information.
185590		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Angola (in Kubango river, which then turns to be the Okavango River) and Northern Namibia (Cook 2004).
185590		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing fixed on rocks in  waterfalls and rapids. It grows fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other  hard object.
185590		population	eng	This species is found in only two sites. Population is very likely to decrease between 30-50% if its existing habitat is destroyed or degraded.
185590		threats	eng	If the dam on the Kavango river is being built this species may get drowned by the dam which would decrease its habitat in Namibia.
185591		conservation	eng	No information
185591		distribution	eng	Zimbabwe, Mozambique south to South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal).
185591		habitat	eng	Found in pans, dams and streams; Perennial Hydrophyte
185591		population	eng	No information
185591		threats	eng	None known
185592		conservation	eng	Some populations are found in conservation areas such as national parks and forest reserves.
185592		distribution	eng	This species is present in Burundi, Cameroon, Bioko island (Equatorial Guinea), Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of  Congo (Congo-Kinshasa), Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Widespread in upland area from 1,050-3,050 m above sea level.
185592		habitat	eng	Found in damp upland forests, near streams and bogs. Also in wet grasslands, swamps and bogs, alongside water, in damp places in upland montane forest
185592		population	eng	No data is available.
185592		threats	eng	Currently, the species faces no major threat. However, its suitable habitats can easily be threatened by human activities such as wetland reclamation to create land for agriculture and pastures.
185593		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range are needed. Habitat based actions such as maintenance/conservation are also required.
185593		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in Ethiopia (Wadela).
185593		habitat	eng	Submerged macrophyte in waterbodies.
185593		population	eng	The species is rare.
185593		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and is potentially impacted by drought.
185594		conservation	eng	No information
185594		distribution	eng	Endemic to south Angola, Namibia and possibly Botswana.
185594		habitat	eng	Mat or loose cushion forming plants in vleis, along the margins of water courses. At altitudes between 600 and 1200m.
185594		population	eng	No information
185594		threats	eng	None known
185595		conservation	eng	No information.
185595		distribution	eng	Endemic to Angola and Northern Namibia (Cook 2004).
185595		habitat	eng	Minute compact land plant.
185595		population	eng	No information.
185595		threats	eng	No information.
185597		conservation	eng	No information available.
185597		distribution	eng	Endemic to Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana.
185597		habitat	eng	Mat forming or loosely tufted plants, in temporarily flooded places on sandy soils.
185597		population	eng	No information available.
185597		threats	eng	None known.
185598		conservation	eng	None known.
185598		distribution	eng	This species ins Widespread in Old World tropics.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Chad, Sudan, Niger, and Burkina Faso.
185598		habitat	eng	Ponds, still rivers, lakes and flooded zones of rivers.
185598		population	eng	The species is generally common and sometimes abundant.
185598		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by drought.
185599		conservation	eng	This species has been found within Kahuzi-Biega-National Park, in Mt. Kahuzi, Democratic Republic of Congo (Fischer 1993).
185599		distribution	eng	This species is native to Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo.  It is found between 3,050 m to 3,150 m asl. It extends from south west Uganda to east of Democratic Republic of Congo.
185599		habitat	eng	In montane or afro-alpine bogs.
185599		population	eng	The species is believed to be rare but locally dominant (Haines and Lye 1983)  but this needs to be confirmed.
185599		threats	eng	This species was previously heavily encroached by agriculture. High human population growth in the surroundings and illegal activities like harvesting of plant resources (bamboo) for building, agriculture, and firewood have been identified as threats. Extended dry periods and uncontrolled fire could impact this species severely.
185600		conservation	eng	Edea Dam authorities, riverside populations and policy makers need to be informed about the threats faced by this species. Today, this plant is continuing surviving in torrents during the rainy season and one affluent opening to the dam. This is the only place on the earth where this plant can still be seen so far. If the dam infrastructure is extended 100-200 m towards the left,&#160; this plant will become extinct. The introduction or re-introduction of this species in a similar habitat is recommended.
185600		distribution	eng	Endemic to a single locality: Edea waterfall in Cameroon.
185600		habitat	eng	Annual aquatic herb, submerged in fast water of rapids and torrents, fixed by a thalllus on rocks or any hard object.
185600		population	eng	More or less dense population.
185600		threats	eng	Dam construction.
185601		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. The completion of site management  plans, educational activities to train and raise awareness&#160; as well as  communication initiatives have been  suggested.
185601		distribution	eng	This is a Central African species (Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon). It's distribution extends westwards to western Cameroon.
185601		habitat	eng	Shrub liking river's or waterfall's borders in forest area or deep shade in forest
185601		population	eng	This plant has a limited extent of occurrence and therefore a small size population.
185601		threats	eng	Water and land pollution. Forest clearing for logging or agriculture.
185602		conservation	eng	Habitat protection and conservation are needed.
185602		distribution	eng	This species is found in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Angola, Ethiopia, Sudan and possibly in Egypt. It has also been recorded in India according (Karthikeyan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989).
185602		habitat	eng	Submerged aquatic herb.  The ecology of this species is not well defined.
185602		population	eng	No formal study about the population, but it is rare in Angola and DRC. There is no information about its abundance in other countries.
185602		threats	eng	Sensitive to water pollution of all kind and temperature extremes.
185603		conservation	eng	No information available.
185603		distribution	eng	It is confined to high altitudes in the Drakensberg (Lesotho and South Africa) (RSA: Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004). It is probably under-recorded as a recent survey of wetlands in the area revealed two new localities. It has also been recorded from Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Namibia.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007)<br/>1) Lesotho. Indumeni Dome, between Indumeni Dome and Cleft Peak. Alt: 800 ft. (1958) <br/>2) Eastern Cape. Barkly East Dist. Ben Macdhui Alt: 8,600 ft (1983)<br/><br/>Isotype of current name<br/>3) Lesotho. Oxbow, 3 km from New Oxbow Inn to Moteng Pass. Occr: occasional Alt: 2,550 m (1987)
185603		habitat	eng	High altitudes. This species is rare and localized and prefers the most boggy areas of a wetland. Perennial Herb
185603		population	eng	No information available.
185603		threats	eng	This habitat is well conserved though may be potentially threatened from climate change and overgrazing in the Lesotho parts of its range. South African range is under private ownership so likely to be less intensively grazed.
185604		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. More research is needed to know better about the population numbers and range, the habitat status and the potential threats faced by this plant. This information should be used for education, training and communication initiatives to raise awareness.
185604		distribution	eng	Narrow endemic of the Haut-Katanga area in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
185604		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aponogeton bogneri</span> is an annual aquatic plant, living in deep and fast rivers in sunny areas.
185604		population	eng	Only three collections so far in the same locality (Kafubu in the DRC). The population is presumably narrow.
185604		threats	eng	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought. It’s also mentioned that most of the species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aponogeton</span> have edible tubers, leaves and inflorescences (Flore d'Afrique Centrale). This is not explicitly clear for this species, but in any case, this is a lethal exploitation and if not controlled can affect the population and later on the survival of this species. Mining activity and logging are increasing in the general area where this species occurs, which may increase the turbidity of the water and have a negative impact on this species.
185605		conservation	eng	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of the following protected areas: Rwenzori Mountains (National Park, World Heritage Convention, Uganda) and Parc National des Volcans (Rwanda).
185605		distribution	eng	This plant occurs in Ethiopia to eastern Central Tropical Africa. It has been recorded from Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.
185605		habitat	eng	Tufted perennial in swamps and damp places from upper parts of upland rainforest and grassland into upland moor and moor grassland, sheltered or in the open among rocks at higher altitudes.
185605		population	eng	No information available.
185605		threats	eng	There is increasing pressure from human presence, expanding agriculture and habitat fragmentation in these areas. However, actual threats need to be identified.
185606		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation measures.
185606		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia.
185606		habitat	eng	Found in swamps and water pools.
185606		population	eng	The species is recorded as having a restricted range and of being 'noteworthy flora' in the Lake Bisina (Uganda) Ramsar Information Sheet.
185606		threats	eng	No threat has been identified. Could be locally impacted by wetland reclamation to create land for subsistence agriculture.
185607		conservation	eng	Further research in population numbers and range,  taxonomy, biology and ecology is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185607		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Tanzania in Masasi District: NE of Masasi, Pangani; Songea District: waterfall on R. Luhira; Ulanga District: Mlahi. Also present in Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Rwanda, Burundi, Zimbabwe, Victoria Falls, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
185607		habitat	eng	Damp sandy ground by drying water hole in boggy grassland.
185607		population	eng	No information.
185607		threats	eng	No known major threats
185608		conservation	eng	The protection of its habitat and&#160; management of the existing sites is required.
185608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Africa and Lesotho (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004). Restricted in range and localities because of a preference for wetlands at an altitudinal range where wetlands are rare.<br/>  <br/>Known localities: <br/>Localities in Lesotho and Maclear, Naudes Nek and Ongeluksnek.
185608		habitat	eng	In bogs, wet flushes or along rivers at high altitudes, usually in full sun. Perennial Helophyte
185608		population	eng	It is known from fewer than 10 locations.
185608		threats	eng	Localities in Lesotho and Maclear are under threat from overgrazing. Localities near Naudes Nek and Ongeluksnek are secure.
185609		conservation	eng	Research actions on population numbers, range and threats are needed.
185609		distribution	eng	This plant has been recorded from Ghana, Togo and Benin.
185609		habitat	eng	Ponds, flooded areas, rivers, calm often muddy temporary water. Generally eutrophic, but sometimes brackish, or oligotrophic.
185609		population	eng	<p>Population patterns for this species are unknown.</p>
185609		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185610		conservation	eng	No information available.
185610		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Drakensberg mountains (Lesotho and South Africa).
185610		habitat	eng	Rock pools and pools in marshes up to one m or more deep, 1,980-3,000 m; Annual Herb
185610		population	eng	No information available.
185610		threats	eng	None known.
185611		conservation	eng	No information available.
185611		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.
185611		habitat	eng	Annual Herb found in damp places. It is not a strictly wetland plant.
185611		population	eng	The species is widespread. Specimens where collected from at least ten  quarter degree squared  (15'x15') grid cells.
185611		threats	eng	None known.
185612		conservation	eng	Research&#160; actions are needed.
185612		distribution	eng	Plant collected in Cameroon, Guinea (Great Falls, Kindia) and Sierra Leone.
185612		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stonesia</span> species live attached to submerged rocks or wood in rushing water in rapids or falls of streams and rivers. It is a rheophyte ( lives in fast moving water currents).
185612		population	eng	No information available
185612		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by water pollution and drought.
185613		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185613		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Africa. It has been recorded from Benin, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.
185613		habitat	eng	It grows in seasonally wet depressions.
185613		population	eng	This species is rare in Somalia but common in Western Africa and Eastern Africa.
185613		threats	eng	The species is mainly threatened by natural disasters such as drought. Intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal may make the species more sensitive to disturbances.
185614		conservation	eng	No information
185614		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa. Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and possibly Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape)
185614		habitat	eng	This perennial herb frequently grows in water. Prefers wetter habitats than <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fluviatilis</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">caledonica</span>.
185614		population	eng	No information
185614		threats	eng	None known
185615		conservation	eng	No information
185615		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining.
185615		habitat	eng	Its is an annual (occ. perennial) herb that grows in wet grassland by swamps or streams, and sandy lake margins.
185615		population	eng	No information
185615		threats	eng	None known
185616		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185616		distribution	eng	<em>Juncus dregeanus</em> subsp.<em> bachitii </em> is endemic to Africa. Widespread in upland Kenya from 2100-3200 m above sea level. Also  found in Sudan and Ethiopia, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
185616		habitat	eng	Swampy ground, often near streams and in shallow water.
185616		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout its range.
185616		threats	eng	No major threats.
185617		conservation	eng	No information
185617		distribution	eng	Endemic to Eastern Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa.
185617		habitat	eng	This annual (occasionally. perennial) hydrophyte is found in temporarily wet places.
185617		population	eng	No information
185617		threats	eng	None known
185618		conservation	eng	No information
185618		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to Southern Africa. South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, possibly North West, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Botswana, Namibia.
185618		habitat	eng	Common near the coast and found in saline pools and estuaries. Perennial herb
185618		population	eng	No information
185618		threats	eng	None known
185619		conservation	eng	None known
185619		distribution	eng	Collected information shows that the species seems to be present in the soudano-Guinean zone in West Afrca. Recorded from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and probably in Benin.
185619		habitat	eng	In damp or marshy savanna and grassland, sometimes in cultivated ground.
185619		population	eng	Population relatively abundant in west Africa.
185619		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought
185620		conservation	eng	No information
185620		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, possibly Eastern Cape), introduced in Australia (Cook 2004:72)
185620		habitat	eng	This perennial herb grows seasonally submerged or emergent in permanent water. It is found 150-1450 m above sea level.
185620		population	eng	No information
185620		threats	eng	None known
185623		conservation	eng	Requires taxonomic study to confirm as a valid species. Also, more research in population trends, size and distribution is needed.
185623		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>Recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo. Potentially endemic if a valid species.
185623		habitat	eng	This helophyte grows in wet places in rain-forest (common along river banks). Also in pure  stands; bushland on steep slopes or&#160; mixed evergreen forest.
185623		population	eng	No information available.
185623		threats	eng	No information available.
185624		conservation	eng	None.
185624		distribution	eng	This plant is only found at 2,450 m, in Karamoja, Uganda.
185624		habitat	eng	In buffalo wallow in montane forest.
185624		population	eng	No data available.
185624		threats	eng	Tribal conflicts, human settlement in the forest, over stocking of livestock that may result in overgrazing and loss of this plant especially on overuse of the waterholes.
185625		conservation	eng	Riverlands subpop is in a nature reserve.
185625		distribution	eng	Endemic to Western Cape, South Africa. Cape Flats. (Cook 2004) Darling to Cape Peninsula (Goldblatt and Manning 2000). <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1. Verlorenvlei  32°19.00S, 18°21.70E (Low 2002)<br/>2. Malmesbury Distr. Riverlands (Esterhuysen 1983) - likely to be extant, threatened by change in surface water availability associated with heavy infestation of acacias in area surrounding Riverlands<br/>3. Piquetberg Div. 3.2 km NW of Sauer Post Office (Acocks 1970) - possibly extant<br/>4. Milnerton, Rugby (Tolken 1963) & (Levyns 1940) - Highly like to be extinct due to urbanisation. <br/>5. Cape Peninsula, Zeekoe Vlei (Wilman 1949) - Extinct not collected for over 68 years, and hydrology of Zeekoevlei much altered since 1970's due to urbanisation.
185625		habitat	eng	Pools and damp places on the cape flats, tolerating brackish water; to 30m. It is a annual tenagophyte (juvenile submerged, adult usually terrestrial).
185625		population	eng	Only three subpops (5 in past).
185625		threats	eng	One subpopulation is known to be under threat (Verlorenvlei) due to groundwater pumping. Agriculture (severe); aliens (moderate); urbanization (severe). Urbanisation is severe past threat, Zeekoevlei and Milnerton subpopulations lost.
185626		conservation	eng	No information
185626		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa (Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and South Africa) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.
185626		habitat	eng	This perennial herb is found in wet vleis, marshes and riversides between 1,200–2,100 m above sea level.
185626		population	eng	No information
185626		threats	eng	None known
185627		conservation	eng	No information
185627		distribution	eng	Probably native and endemic to South Africa (mostly in the Cape Flats and areas near Bredasdorp) (Cook 2004:80). Crassula natans var. minus has been introduced into Australia, where it now occurs widespread in temperate regions. (Tolken 1985)
185627		habitat	eng	Usually in shallow water or on mud around pools, 50-1000 m. Annual (occ. perennial) succulent.
185627		population	eng	No information
185627		threats	eng	None known
185628		conservation	eng	No information
185628		distribution	eng	Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185628		habitat	eng	Along streams in mountainous regions. Perennial tenagophyte (Juvenile submerged, adult usually terrestrial)
185628		population	eng	No information
185628		threats	eng	None known
185629		conservation	eng	Most specimens from large nature reserves.
185629		distribution	eng	Endemic to South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal Province)
185629		habitat	eng	In open water in seasonal pans and vleis, in wet grassland mostly in coastal flatlands. Perennial helophyte.
185629		population	eng	No information
185629		threats	eng	None known
185630		conservation	eng	No information
185630		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa. Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).
185630		habitat	eng	Occasionally found in water. Marsh herb. Perennial geophyte.
185630		population	eng	No information
185630		threats	eng	None known
185631		conservation	eng	No information
185631		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.
185631		habitat	eng	Perennial herb found in wet grasslands.
185631		population	eng	No information.
185631		threats	eng	None known
185632		conservation	eng	No information
185632		distribution	eng	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.
185632		habitat	eng	Not considered to be a wetland species.  Weedy, grows in damp places or places where water stood during rains but has dried out. Perennial herb
185632		population	eng	No information
185632		threats	eng	None known
185633		conservation	eng	A popular material for weaving, particularly for sleeping mats. It has been over-gathered in parts of Kwala-Zulu Natal. In St Lucia it may be gathered only in the month of May.
185633		distribution	eng	The subspecies krausii is confined to SE Africa, extending from Mozambique to South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, WC).
185633		habitat	eng	Brackish areas mostly near the coast, often forming large stands on salt flats. Growing from the sea level to about 1,200 m.
185633		population	eng	No information
185633		threats	eng	None known
185634		conservation	eng	No information
185634		distribution	eng	Widespread in South Africa (Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal)
185634		habitat	eng	According to Cook (2004), the species grow in damp soil or in depressions and may be temporary flooded but they hardly qualify as wetland plants (Cook 2004:243). Perennial Herb.
185634		population	eng	No information
185634		threats	eng	None known
185635		conservation	eng	No information
185635		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lesotho, South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) and possibly Swaziland  (Cook 2004:80)
185635		habitat	eng	Usually in shallow water or on mud around pools, tolerates brackish conditions, 50-3400m (Cook 2004:80). Annual (occ. perennial) succulent.
185635		population	eng	No information
185635		threats	eng	None known
185637		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. However, some populations are found in protected areas such National Parks and Forest Reserves, for example, Aberdare National Park.
185637		distribution	eng	Recorded in upland Kenya, West of Aberdare Mountains at an altitude between 2,100-3,200 m above sea level. This species has a narrow range, restricted to this locality in Kenya and and scattered locations in Tanzania. It may be present in Cameroon but this has to be confirmed.<br/><br/>Also recorded from Congo-Kinshasa and Zimbabwe.
185637		habitat	eng	Stream banks, lake margins, swamps and seepage bogs in grassland or forest or woodland, sometimes growing in water
185637		population	eng	No data.
185637		threats	eng	In the lower zones, there are agricultural and livestock rearing activities.
185638		conservation	eng	No information
185638		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern and eastern parts of southern Africa. Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).  Naturalized in New Zealand.
185638		habitat	eng	This Perennial helophyte grows in marshes, along streams and wet grasslands. It is found up to 2,840 m above sea level.
185638		population	eng	No information
185638		threats	eng	None known
185639		conservation	eng	Legal protection measures have been recommended for this species.
185639		distribution	eng	Southern Botswana and northern South Africa (Cook 2004) (Limpopo and North West Provinces);  <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) South Africa, 40 km south of Grobbelar's drift on Potgietersrus road (Burrows, J. 1985) - Type locality<br/>2) Gaborone Dist. Content Farm (1972)<br/>3) 3 miles north of Gaborone (1974
185639		habitat	eng	Seasonally flooded places and along rivers and streams.
185639		population	eng	Estimated number of locations: <5 known;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: <5 known
185639		threats	eng	Overstocking of livestock especially in Botswana main potential threat.
185640		conservation	eng	No information
185640		distribution	eng	Endemic to southern Africa. South Africa and Lesotho. (RSA: North West, Free State, possibly KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape).
185640		habitat	eng	This perennial herb occurs in very wet situations. Prefers more terrestrial habitats than <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fluviatilis </span>var<span style="font-style: italic;">. fluviatilis.</span>
185640		population	eng	No information
185640		threats	eng	None known
185641		conservation	eng	No information available.
185641		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers<em> et al.</em> 2004)
185641		habitat	eng	A pelagic fish. Max size: 31.5 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003)
185641		population	eng	Not known.
185641		threats	eng	Overfishing.
185642		conservation	eng	Unknown
185642		distribution	eng	E. Africa: Lake Baringo system, affluents of Lake Bogoria, Turkwell River system (Lake Turkana drainage) (Kenya) (Seegers et al., unpublished).
185642		habitat	eng	Unknown
185642		population	eng	Very rare (De Vos, pers. Communication). But population estimates are not available.
185642		threats	eng	1. Deterioration in habitat quality due to pollution and siltation.
185643		conservation	eng	No targeted conservation in place.
185643		distribution	eng	Found in western Uganda in the drainages of Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Lakes George and Edward (Seegers 1996).
185643		habitat	eng	Streams and marginal vegetation of lakes and rivers. Feeds on insect larvae and small crustaceans.
185643		population	eng	Not known.
185643		threats	eng	Loss of habitat through agricultural encroachment.
185644		conservation	eng	No information available.
185644		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Tana system (see Seegers <em>et al.</em>, unpublished). It probably doesn't occur above Garissa (± 0°28'S-39°38'E) (600 feet above see level) (see Whitehead and Greenwood 1959).
185644		habitat	eng	Max size: 6.9 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).
185644		population	eng	No information available.
185644		threats	eng	Fisheries (Froese and Pauly 2003).
185646		conservation	eng	None known.
185646		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known only from Nkhata Bay (north western part of the lake).
185646		habitat	eng	Occurs over both sand and mud/silt habitats at depths ranging from 40-100 m.  It feeds on snails. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).<br>Max Size: 20 cm TL.
185646		population	eng	No information available.
185646		threats	eng	Potential overfishing.
185647		conservation	eng	No information available.
185647		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Baringo drainage and hotsprings near Lake Bogoria.
185647		habitat	eng	Lives in shoals in the open water where it is most abundant species in the lake (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). Feeds on phytoplankton, mostly Microcystis and Botryococcus, rotifers and a few remains of Cladocera (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). The adults visit the inshore sandy water in 2 to 4 feet of water to breed. The male scours out a hollow in the sand where the female lays her eggs. After fertilisation the female guards the eggs and the developing fry in her mouth (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).<br>Max Size: 36.0 cm TL (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).
185647		population	eng	There are no quantitative estimates but the population is visibly declining (Fisheries department of Kenya).
185647		threats	eng	1. Overfishing<br>2. Deteroriation in water quality and quantity.
185648		conservation	eng	No information available.
185648		distribution	eng	Endemic to Suguta River system, Kenya.
185648		habitat	eng	Max Size: 171 mm SL (Trewavas and Teugels in Daget <em>et al. </em>1991).
185648		population	eng	No information available.
185648		threats	eng	No information available.
185649		conservation	eng	No information available.
185649		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Turkana drainage.
185649		habitat	eng	Largely restricted to inshore waters where it occurs in large numbers along the sheltered sandy beaches. It does, however,  occasionally form shoals in the deep water. One one occasion, several shoals were reported at the surface a few hundred yards from the shore. Feeds mainly on phytoplankton, macrophytes, and possibly fish - fish remains were found in the stomach of one specimen. Males builds nests in the sand, sometimes over a yard in diameter, in only a few feet of water. After fertilisation the female broods the eggs and young fry in her mouth. Young fish live in very shallow water close to the shores, where they swim about in shoals (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).<br>Max Size: 64 cm TL, but those in the crater lake on the central island only measured 18,5 cm TL (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).
185649		population	eng	No quantitative information available but thought to be increasing (Kenya Fisheries Dept.)
185649		threats	eng	No information available.
185650		conservation	eng	No information available.
185650		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Lake Malawi basin, including the inflowing rivers, the Upper Shire River and Lake Chiuta.
185650		habitat	eng	It is an inshore species common in sheltered vegetated shores.  It is one of the most common fish in Lake Malawi, particularly in estuaries and reedy lagoons. It forms an important commercial species in Lake Chiuta, contributing over 70% of the total landings from 1979-1999.
185650		population	eng	No information available.
185650		threats	eng	No information available.
185651		conservation	eng	No information available.
185651		distribution	eng	Rufiji River and its tributaries, the Kilombero and Great Ruaha rivers, and the Kingani and Mbenkuru Rivers (Trewavas and Teugels 1991).
185651		habitat	eng	No information available.
185651		population	eng	No information available.
185651		threats	eng	No information available.
185652		conservation	eng	None known.
185652		distribution	eng	Found along the lower reaches of rivers along the East Africa Indian Ocean coastline.
185652		habitat	eng	Occurs in relatively shallow still to slow flowing waters. Inhabits freshwater streams, rivers and estuaries. Juveniles and subadults are usually found in estuaries while adults are found upstream in freshwater areas (Pethiyagoda 1991). Feeds on worms, crustaceans and zooplankton (Pethiyagoda 1991).
185652		population	eng	No information available.
185652		threats	eng	No information available.
185653		conservation	eng	No information available.
185653		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Malagarasi river from its delta to the swamps of its upper reaches.
185653		habitat	eng	Found in shallow standing or slow-flowing waters, mainly in the marginal vegetation and swamps around the main river, lagoons, ponds and its delta. Feeds on finely divided plant material, protozoa and bacteria. This species represent one of the most important species in the delta fishery.
185653		population	eng	No information available.
185653		threats	eng	1. Overfishing<br/>2. Regression of the swamps in the wetlands around the main river due to agriculture and human settlement.
185654		conservation	eng	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring.
185654		conservation	eng	Research actions needed
185654		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this subspecies is known from the type specimen collected at Old Calabar, Nigeria. However the specimen from Old Calabar is suspected, by Tuegels and Hopkins (1998), to have originated from the Ogowe River (Gabon) as no other specimens have been found in this area.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is mainly known from coastal areas of Cameroon (Lower Ntem River Basin) and Congo.
185654		distribution	eng	This subspecies is known from the type specimen collected at Old Calabar, Nigeria. However the specimen from Old Calabar is suspected, by Tuegels and Hopkins (1998), to have originated from the Ogowe river (Gabon) as no other specimens have been found in this area. It is mainly known from coastal areas of Cameroon (Lower Ntem River Basin) and Congo.
185654		habitat	eng	This mormyrid grows to 13.5 cm TL. It is found in rivers, small streams and deltas.
185654		habitat	eng	This mormyrid is found in rivers, small streams and deltas. Non-migratory.
185654		population	eng	No available data.
185654		threats	eng	No information available.
185654		threats	eng	Unknown.
185655		conservation	eng	None known.
185655		distribution	eng	This subspecies is only known from Chad basin.
185655		habitat	eng	This subspecies is a demersal fish. It matures at 53.5 cm in Lake Kaiji in Nigeria
185655		population	eng	No available data.
185655		threats	eng	None known.
185657		conservation	eng	No information available.
185657		conservation	eng	The Cameroon part of the population is included within the Dano Reserve in Nigeria. More information is needed on threats to this species, and population trends should be monitored.
185657		distribution	eng	In Northern Africa, <em>Ichthyborus besse besse</em> is Regionally Extinct, but used to be found in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Khartoum, White Nile and Lake Nubia, Chad basin, and Bénoué.
185657		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chad basin, River Nile and River Bénué.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Although it used to be found in upper Egyptian Nile, it is now Regionally Extinct<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad basin (Nigeria, Chad and Central African Republic) and the river Bénué (Nigeria and Cameroon).
185657		habitat	eng	The fish used to descend the Nile in pairs for breeding. It reaches a maximum length to 19 cm. It inhabits open water and fringing vegetation. This carnivorous fish feeds on <em>Caridina</em> and fish fry.
185657		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open water and fringing vegetation, and feeds on <span style="font-style: italic;">Caridina</span> and fish fry. The fish used to descend the Nile in pairs for breeding.
185657		population	eng	No information available.
185657		threats	eng	No known major widespread threats to the species. However, there is a current (2006) proposal for a river basin water transfer between the Oubangui and Chari rivers which could have a major impact on many species.
185657		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
185658		conservation	eng	Some of the sites where the species occurs should be monitored and protected, especially in its northern range (Orontes drainage in Syria).
185658		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudagrion syriacum</em> is an endemic of the Levant with its distribution restricted to Turkey (two records), west Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Palestine (Dumont 1974b, 1991; Schneider 1981a,b, 1986, 1995; Salur and Kiyak 2006). Being a member of a tropically/subtropically distributed genus, it becomes rarer in the northern part of its range.
185658		habitat	eng	The species prefers slow flowing brooks with dense vegetation, often associated with <em>Mentha</em> spp. (Dumont 1973, Schneider1981). It flies close to the water and is easily overlooked being dark and pruinose as adult.
185658		population	eng	No information is available for this species. It can be locally abundant in the south of its range, but not in the north.
185658		threats	eng	Major threats are water extraction and drying up of suitable habitats. Potentially drought and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change.
185659		conservation	eng	Current conservation actions in place are not known.
185659		distribution	eng	<em>Platycnemis pennipes nitidula</em> is restricted to the southern Balkans.
185659		habitat	eng	In Macedonia, the species is confined to areas with strong Mediterranean influence. Has been found in flowing waters. Specific habitat preferences are not known.
185659		population	eng	Population size is not known, however <em>P. p. nitidula</em> is very abundant within its range.
185659		threats	eng	<em>Platycnemis pennipes nitidula</em> has a restricted range. Habitat degradation is a general threat to Odonata and this species' restricted range makes it more susceptible to this. Potentially increased drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change is a future threat.
185661		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species, but the  recovery of riparian vegetation along the lakes, rivers and streams  would aid in the recovery of this species' habitat (A.P. Almeida pers.  comm. September 2010).&#160; More information is needed on this species'  distribution, population status, and natural history.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
185661		distribution	eng	<p>This species is currently only known from Lagoa Nova, Fazenda Gemada, Municipality of Mucurici, State of Espírito Santo, Southeastern Brazil (Caramaschi <em>et al.</em> 2009). Individuals were collected from a 20,000 m<sup>2 </sup>(0.02 km<sup>2</sup>) pond with a maximum depth of about 1 m (Caramaschi <em>et al.</em> 2009) located in the Northern Extreme Microregion of the State of Espírito Santo, with average altitudes of 250 m asl (Caramaschi <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is possible that it may have a more widespread distribution (A.P. Almeida pers. comm. September 2010).</p>
185661		habitat	eng	<p>    </p>This new species was found in a large permanent pond, flooded by the rain, where the water is black due to dissolved humic acid. It is located in open, dry artificial grassland for cattle raising within a Brazilian region characterized by flat and wavy topography, and tropical climate (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Originally the region was covered by Atlantic Rain Forest, which was devastated in the early 20th century (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160; 2009). Nowadays, the region is largely dedicated to coffee, manioc, and papaya cultures, besides extensive cattle farming (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160; 2009). The pond had significant presence of emergent vegetation (mainly Juncaceae) and some portions were extensively covered by floating vegetation (mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistia</span> sp., Araceae) (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). As with other congeners, it is presumed to have an early sexual maturation (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and to breed in lentic waters.  <p></p>
185661		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be common at the type locality (A.P. Almeida pers. comm. September 2010).<br/></p>
185661		threats	eng	<p>The area where the type locality is found, northwestern Espírito Santo,  has been largely altered due to extensive agriculture (coffee, manioc  and papaya cultures), but mostly by cattle farming and ranching (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, A.P. Almeida pers. comm. September 2010). However, this species appears to be tolerant to modified habitats, so the extent to which it may be threatened by these particular threat factors is suspected to be limited.<br/></p>
185664		conservation	eng	All of the known Georgia sites are located in the Chattahoochee National Forest, while the site in South Carolina is located in the Brasstown Creek Heritage Preserve, which is the highest protection status that the state of South Carolina can give (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011).  However, The species could also occur outside of these protected areas (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011). More research is needed on this species distribution and population status.
185664		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from ten small streams (five of them in the same watershed) in the Appalachian foothills (Blue Ridge escarpment in Stephens County and Habersham County) of northern Georgia, and one site across the Tugaloo River in Oconee County, South Carolina, USA (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011).  All sites can be found within an area of less than 5 km<sup>2</sup>, and range in elevation from 225-280 m asl (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011). While the known range is small, it is possible that this species may occur more widely, given that there are many streams in the area that still require survey work (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011).
185664		habitat	eng	This species can be found in small streams associated with steep-walled ravines (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011), either within or along the banks of the non-flooded part of the streambed (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Individuals were found under rocks and in loose leaf litter; however, it is thought that they might occupy more terrestrial microhabitats under suitably moist conditions. The clutch size appears to vary between 6-14 eggs (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and the species has a multi-year aquatic larval development (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
185664		population	eng	Adults of this species seem to be relatively rare: the type series comprises eight adults (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and adults have only been found at three of the ten known sites (C.Camp pers. comm. January 2011). But   this could also be a function of its suspected fossorial habits. Larvae appeared to be more common at the type locality's study stream (five were collected within 45 min; Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), and were also found in some of the neighbouring streams (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011).
185664		threats	eng	<p>No major obvious threats have been observed at the species' currently known sites; however, further survey work is needed to determine if it occurs more widely and if so, whether damaging activities could be occurring at unknown sites (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011). Any factor that would disrupt water flow, canopy cover, or leaf-litter layer would likely impact populations (C. Camp pers. comm. January 2011). </p><p>  </p>
185668		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
185668		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenoplectiella praelongata</em> is a tropical species, native to tropical Africa, Australia and Papua New Guinea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs only in Egypt: in the Nile delta, at the Mediterranean coast (Damietta) and in the Oases of the Libyan desert (Dakhla, 'Ain Shirif).
185668		habitat	eng	This perennial sedge is growing in rice fields.
185668		population	eng	<em>Schoenoplectiella praelongata</em> is common in the Nile delta.
185668		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, except for possible agricultural water pollution.
185670		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation activities but some populations are found in parks and forest conservation  areas.
185670		distribution	eng	Recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Socotra, Madagascar, and Mauritius Islands. Not confirmed in Uganda. It has been recorded in Socotra, Yemen.
185670		habitat	eng	Stream sides, forest clearings and margins, secondary vegetation derived from forest, rocky sites.
185670		population	eng	No data
185670		threats	eng	No threat has been identified but the species could be under threat from wetland reclamation for agricultural and settlement purposes.
185671		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is recommended. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation is also required.
185671		distribution	eng	From central Somalia to north west India. In Africa it has only been recorded from Somalia.
185671		habitat	eng	It grows in wet places.
185671		population	eng	this species is rare.
185671		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by drought.
185673		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
185673		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Kenya. It has been recorded in Kisumu, Nakuru, Naivasha, Nanyuki, Machakos and Nairobi. In Tanzania it has been recorded in Iringa, Musoma, and Pare District. In Uganda it is found in Busoga District: near Jinja, Mwiri, Turtle Pool.<br/><br/>Also recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Rwanda, Sudan, and Zambia.
185673		habitat	eng	Grow in pools, streams and road sides ditches. From 800 – 1,800 m above sea level.
185673		population	eng	No data is available.
185673		threats	eng	Found in agricultural and urban areas where there are road construction and farming activities. No major threats identified.
185674		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas. No other measures required.
185674		distribution	eng	Widespread species in Asia and Tropical Africa, from Senegal and Guinea in the West to Uganda in the East.<br/><br/>The species is widespread in the Guinean-Congolian-Sudano-Zambezian zone of western Africa. In Eastern Africa, it is present in Uganda, known from Lake Nabugabo and from Namanve wetlands. Recorded from West Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, and in South Western Africa countries.
185674		habitat	eng	Delicate aquatic herb,  floating in lakes, rivers and Sphagnum swamps at 1,850 m above sea level. It grows in moving shallow water of streams.
185674		population	eng	Western Africa: Abundant.
185674		threats	eng	The increasing occurrence of periodic droughts leads to reduction and loss of habitat.
185675		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational and training activities, and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
185675		distribution	eng	One of the most widespread Acanthaceae in Tropical Africa. From Senegal to Angola. Not yet recorded from north or north-eastern Africa.<br/><br/>Also found in Arabia.
185675		habitat	eng	Normally terrestrial perennial herb of wet ground and river borders.
185675		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
185675		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land pollution.
185676		conservation	eng	Research actions on population numbers and range and on threats.
185676		distribution	eng	Relatively widespread in western Africa from Ghana and Burkina Faso to Nigeria.<br><br>Its distribution within central Africa needs more research. It has not yet been recorded in Cameroon.
185676		habitat	eng	Floating on lagoons, marshes and still rivers. It occasionally forms pure settlements because of its high capacity of multiplication. Also found in eutrophic water and brackish water.
185676		population	eng	This species is abundant.
185676		threats	eng	The invasion by <em>Salvinia molesta</em> could constitute a major threat for <em>Salvinia nymphellula</em>.
185677		conservation	eng	It is found in some protected areas in Western Africa. Additional research is required on the distribution, population and habitat management for this species.
185677		distribution	eng	Global range of this species is tropical America and Africa extending south to South Africa. In Africa, it is present in Sudan (Imatong Mountains - Bahr Elghzal), Ethiopia, Angola, Botswana, and in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. Present in Lushoto district and Marui in Tanzania. It also occurs in rivers and lakes, in the driest and northern parts of western Africa (Sahelian region). It has been recorded from Mare d'Oursi and Mare aux Hippopotamus in Burkina Faso.
185677		habitat	eng	This perennial herb has a floating thallus usually curved in a semicircle, with the broadest part at the surface of still water. It is not very gregarious and usually found mixed with other floating plants or growing among reeds. Prefers calm water. It occurs From sea level up to 500 m asl.
185677		population	eng	Its is rare in North East Africa and much more localised than other aquatic species in West Africa although it is locally abundant in some places.
185677		threats	eng	Drought is the only major threat affecting this species. In dry years the species has a more restrictred range being confined to the remaining water bodies and is more easily impacted by human activities, for example, trampling by livestock. However, the species appears to be resilient to this and recovers and expands its range during the wetter years.
185678		conservation	eng	Research actions needed to gather more information on population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.
185678		distribution	eng	Widespread in Western and Central Africa down to Zimbabwe, including Sudan Nubia, Cordofanum, Araseh-Cool), Ethiopia and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it has only recorded from Lake Nabugabo (Uganda) and in Tanzania. It occurs between 1,000m and 1,125m.
185678		habitat	eng	This is a submerged aquatic with the appearance of a Potamogeton species. It occurs in pools, marshes, puddles, swampy grasslands in stagnating or slow waters, often on laterite rocks.
185678		population	eng	<em>W. schweinfurthii </em>is found in at least 10 countries in Tropical Africa and is common throughout its range.
185678		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat loss resulting from livestock from agro-industry, land management of non-agricultural areas, and dam development. Water pollution from agricultural, domestic, commercial and sewage sources is also a threat.
185679		conservation	eng	No conservation measures.
185679		distribution	eng	The species is native to from New Zealand and Australia now a widespread weed , common in the warmer parts of the Old and New World.<br/><br/>This species is considered as introduced in Northern Africa, and Madagascar. However, it seems to be accepted as native in South Africa and Lesotho where it is and widespread. It is not clear whether it is native to Eastern Africa or not (recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi).
185679		habitat	eng	Humid, subhumid, montane; freshwater wetland. Weed of gardens and ruderal sites close to human habitation, usually in moist places.
185679		population	eng	It is a common species.
185679		threats	eng	None known
185680		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
185680		distribution	eng	Found in easternAfrica including Uganda, Tanzania, Congo Democratic Republic, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Angola and Madagascar. In Malawi it is found at Katoto in Mzimba District.
185680		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally wet grasslands near lake edges, often inside Cyperus papyrus or Miscanthidium violaceum swamps. Also found at margines of lake side forests.
185680		population	eng	No data available.
185680		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown.
185681		conservation	eng	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of Bangweulu (Game Management Area, VI, Zambia) which contains Bangweulu Swamps: Chikuni, (Ramsar site); and in  Lunga-Luswishi (Game Management Area, VI, Zambia).
185681		distribution	eng	Very widespread throughout Africa and warm to subtropical N and C America, E Asia and Australia.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is  present in Agola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa (Mpumalanga), and Botswana (Okavango Delta). Just comes into South Africa at Loskop dam in Mpumalanga. In Central Africa it has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola. This species is rare in Kenya and has been recorded in Tinderet, Central Riftvally (K3) at 2700 m. Also found in Tanzania (Bukoba district Kongolero Lake, Njombe district Ukinga Bulongwa), and Ethiopia.
185681		habitat	eng	An aquatic herb of moderately deep water. It is found in lakes, swamps and slow waters, often associated with <em>Nymphaea </em>spp.
185681		population	eng	Common species in many parts of Africa.
185681		threats	eng	No major widespread threats have been identified for this plant.
185682		conservation	eng	No conservation measures an in place.<br/><br/>Central Africa: None at the moment, but it's important to study the species in order to define its habitat and population status. Where necessary, the conservation measures will consist of educating the riverside residents and to aware the environmental authorities.
185682		distribution	eng	This species has a Sudano-guinean distribution, it is found from Mali eastwards to Cameroon.
185682		habitat	eng	This is a branched aquatic herb of swamps.
185682		population	eng	Western Africa: Unknown<br/><br/>Central Africa: Narrow distribution, therefore medium size population.
185682		threats	eng	This plant may be potentially threatened by alien invasion., ifrastructure development, natural disaster (drought), wood plantation&#160; and water pollution. However, none are considered currently as major threats.
185683		conservation	eng	None
185683		distribution	eng	This species is spread throughout Africa and Madagascar, described as a pantropical weed. It may be naturalised in southern Africa. Also recorded from Egypt.
185683		habitat	eng	A small spreading herb with numerous slvery-woolly flowers-head crowd in spike-like clusters; florets pale yellow. It grows on river sand and wastes places.Also on moist soil on rivers banks or dams after water retreat.
185683		population	eng	Favours muddy or sandy streamsides and similar damp places. It often forms a dense carpet on river banks under trees.
185683		threats	eng	No major threats identified although it may be affected by agriculture on river or dams bank.
185684		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation initiatives. Conservation of River Tana forests, delta  and associated biodiversity is yet to succeed due to resistance from the local people who have rejected government plans to resettle them elsewhere.
185684		distribution	eng	The species has  been reported from Coast Province in Tana River District along the Garsen-Malindi Road in Kiunga, Kui and Boni forests.<br/><br/>Also recorded from Tanzania (Mikumi National Park), Sudan, and Madagascar.
185684		habitat	eng	Found in swamp and marshy places as well as margins of open waters.
185684		population	eng	No data on population size is available.
185684		threats	eng	No threat has been reported. But wetland reclamation in Tana River to create land for rice growing has been going on for several years. Fluctuations of water in lower Tana has been reported in recent years. Destruction of riverine forest has been going un
185685		conservation	eng	No specific measures, but further research on population numbers and range is needed.
185685		distribution	eng	Widespread in Madagascar and in Africa from Morocco south to South Africa, and  Madagascar.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa where it is found in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe (Victoria Falls), Mozambique, South Africa (Limpopo Province), Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland.  Widely disjunct isolated popualtions occur throughout it's range.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is foun in Malawi where it is known from two localities: Zomba Mountain along Mangasanja Road, and Nyika Naional Park near Thazima in Rumphi District<br/><br/>In Sudan it was recorded at Im Land der Djur. Seriba Ghattas, Seriba Ghassar.
185685		habitat	eng	It grows in seasonally flooded pans (growing in 13 cm of water or sometimes partially submerged) and along water courses or boggy rice cultivations, from 800 - 1100 m above sea level.
185685		population	eng	In Africa too little is known about the exact number of sub-populations and where they occur to list this species as threatened but it is definitely a rare species that may be potentially threatened.
185685		threats	eng	In Namibia potential threat of dam building. Overstocking of cattle in communal areas of Namibia may be impacting this species Various water pollutants released from agriculture land could be the major factors that threaten the species. Drought may also be a threat in the future.
185686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to study its distribution in Morocco and Algeria.
185686		distribution	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, Tropical Asia and Northern America (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1962). <br/><br/>Maire (1957) indicates that <em>J. compressus</em> subsp. <em>gerardi</em> var. <em>eu-gerardi</em> (=<em>J. gerardi</em> Loisel) has been observed in eastern Algeria (rather common in Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aures mountains) near Algiers and El-Harrach, and in Morocco (Atlas mountains, etc). The species is however not mentioned for Morocco in Hamada <em>et al.</em> (2002) nor in Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002). <br/><br/>According to Maire (1957), this species is absent in Tunisia, present in Algeria (Tell, Hautes Plaines, Atlas saharien & Aurès) and in Morocco (Moyen and Grand Atlas: five locations) under the name: <em>J. compressus</em> subsp. <em>gerardii</em>.
185686		habitat	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is a perennial species and geophyte. It is found in brackish wet meadows, rarely flooded, on various substrates (peat, clay, sand) mostly in wetlands along the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Channel.
185686		population	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in large populations in Algeria and Morocco.
185686		threats	eng	<em>J. gerardi</em> is not directly threatened but suffers locally from the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands.
185687		conservation	eng	None at the moment.
185687		distribution	eng	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Senegal in west Africa to Dem. Rep. of Congo and Angola in Central Africa.
185687		habitat	eng	Normally the species is found in various areas, in the forest understory, swampy or dry, on high altitude or not, roadside and savanna frequently under shade and among rocks.
185687		population	eng	Widespread species, normally large size population.
185687		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution of all kinds.
185688		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also recommended.
185688		distribution	eng	This species is present in Sudan (Fung District Southern Sudan), Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique and Madagascar. In Uganda it has been found at 900 m asl at Lake George. Also recorded from Kibimba Rice Scheme.
185688		habitat	eng	It occurs in standing water, often floating in swamps and irrigation canals. Also in muddy areas, in (dried-up) pools and in shallow water
185688		population	eng	Rare throughout its distribution range.
185688		threats	eng	No threats described at a Pan-Africa level. In eastern Africa suitable habitats are subject to wetland conversion into agricultural land and pastures. Cultivation on lake edges and increasing human population in the fishing settlements pose a threat due to excessive harvesting of plants, illegal livestock grazing and burning of wetlands. Increased tourism on Lake George can also threaten the population. Pollution of the wetland caused by spillage from cobalt rich pilings causes death of plants. Dredging of the water channels at Kibimba can result in further reduction of populations.
185689		conservation	eng	None known
185689		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in West and Central tropical Africa and in the New World.<br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa where it has been recorded from Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, and Gabon.
185689		habitat	eng	It has been found in wampy places although exact ecology is unknown. Only known from the type locality.
185689		population	eng	Goog occurrence of population throught West tropical Africa.
185689		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.
185690		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine biology, ecology, range of distribution, and threats.
185690		distribution	eng	In North East Africa it is foun in Ethiopia and Eritrea (Amasen lungo un fosso asciutto presso medrizien).
185690		habitat	eng	The specific habitat if this aquatic fern is unknown.
185690		population	eng	This species is rare.
185690		threats	eng	Unknown
185692		conservation	eng	No information.
185692		distribution	eng	Found in Southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Certainly naturalized in west and south Europe, Northern Africa and South America.<br/><br/>In Africa it is native to Namibia and South Africa: Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape.
185692		habitat	eng	This annual (occ. perennial) herb occurs mostly in brackish water but also in fresh water. It grows in still or slowly moving water, sometimes forming floating mats; it is also found in marshes and on wet sand, 2000 m above sea level.
185692		population	eng	No information.
185692		threats	eng	None known.
185693		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range in North Eastern Africa is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185693		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Arabian Peninsula, Asia Minor to Pakistan, Sicily and scattered in Africa from north to south.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is present in Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, possibly Mpumalanga Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In north-eastern Africa it is found in Sudan and Somalia.
185693		habitat	eng	This perennial helophyte is found in and around saline or alkaline pools and marshes, often in gypseous soils, up to 1,300 m above sea level.
185693		population	eng	It is rare in north-eastern Africa.
185693		threats	eng	The species might be sensitive to any disturbance due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. No specific threats have been identified.
185694		conservation	eng	Known to be within Protected Areas.
185694		distribution	eng	Recorded from Chad, Kenya Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania and Madagascar.
185694		habitat	eng	Mainly in wet areas, swamps, bordering lakes and ponds
185694		population	eng	Widespread in upland Kenya  from 1,500-2,950 m. It is common in other countries at high altitudes.
185694		threats	eng	Conversion of wetlands to agriculture.
185695		conservation	eng	None
185695		distribution	eng	This is a Pantropical species which is widespread in western and Eastern Africa, extending to the south east to Zimbabwe and South Africa. Globally it is also present in North America and Indonesia.
185695		habitat	eng	Forest, woodland, grassland, cultivate lands, riverbanks, wetlands, coastal dunes
185695		population	eng	Great population growing in valleys and edges of rivers.
185695		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by drought.
185696		conservation	eng	No information.
185696		distribution	eng	North and South America and South Africa (Northern Cape) (Cook 2004; pg 43).  Probably introduced in South Africa.<br><br>There is currently no information available regarding the distribution of this species in North Eastern Africa.
185696		habitat	eng	This annual herb was recorded at the edge of a seasonal pan.
185696		population	eng	No information.
185696		threats	eng	None known.
185697		conservation	eng	<p>In Italy, it is considered of Lower Risk (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).</p><ul><li>  Regional protection in France (Iles-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur) is in place, but no other conservation measures are in place in the Mediterranean region. The following actions are recommended: </li><li>Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new areas</li><li>To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size </li><li>Monitoring the population dynamics </li><li>Habitat conservation</li><li>Implementation of legal protection measures </li><li>Raising public awareness</li></ul>
185697		conservation	eng	The following conservation measures have been proposed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new areas<br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Habitat conservation<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness
185697		distribution	eng	<em>Carex mairei</em> is a species from the western Mediterranean. It is found in France, Spain, Italy, Morocco and Algeria.<br/><br/>In North Africa, this species is considered as rare in Morocco with a distribution limited to the Middle Atlas (Tazekka, Tioumliline, Ras-el-Ma, sources of the Ifrane river, the former biological station of Ifrane, Ouiouane lake and valley of the Senoual) and in the Rif (Bni Zedjel). According to Valdés <em>et al.</em> (2002), it is also present in Tangier, Ouezane and Tazzeka. In Algeria, it is present in Oranie.<br/><br/>At Mediterranean level, the extent of occurrence is about 960,000 km² within which the occupied area exceeds 2,000 km².
185697		distribution	eng	<em>Carex mairii</em> is a species from the western Mediterranean. It is found in France, Spain, Italy, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In North Africa, this species is considered as rare in Morocco with a distribution limited to Middle Atlas (Tazekka, Tioumliline, Ras-el-Ma, sources of the Ifrane river, the ex biological station of Ifrane, Ouiouane lake and valley of the Senoual) and in the Rif (Bni Zedjel). According to Valdés <em>et al.</em> (2002), it is also present in Tangier, Ouezane and Tazzeka. In Algeria, it is present in Oranie. Its extent of occurrence is about 42,000 km², with an occupied area estimated of 700 km².
185697		habitat	eng	<em>Carex mairei</em> is a perennial, calcicole plant (Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte) that is present in mountain marshlands and is found in wetlands on limestone. Its flowering periods are spring and summer.
185697		habitat	eng	<em>Carex mairii</em> is a perennial, calcicole plant (Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte) that is present in mountain marshlands. Its flowering periods are spring and summer.
185697		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but they seem to be fragile due to threats on its habitat.  In Morocco it is rare with a confirmed presence in eight localities and probable in three other. In Algeria it is very rare, reported only in Oran (Ghar-Rouban).
185697		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but they seem to be fragile due to threats to its habitat.<br/><ul><li>Morocco: rare with a confirmed presence in eight localities and probable in three more;</li><li>Algeria: very rare, reported only in Oran (Ghar-Rouban);</li><li>Italy:    present only in Liguria (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) in only one locality (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) </li><li>Spain: present in 28 provinces; </li><li>France: it is rare and scattered in the Mediterranean region (Provence, Alpes-Cote d'Azur, Languedoc, Roussillon) where it seems to have disappeared from low elevation and is now restricted to mountainous areas; it is also found in western France (Poitou), in the Parisian basin, and in the east of the country.</li></ul>
185697		threats	eng	Overgrazing, drainage, agriculture, water pollution and frequent droughts are major threats to its habitat.
185697		threats	eng	Overgrazing, drainage, agriculture, water pollution and frequent droughts are the major threats to this species' habitat.
185698		conservation	eng	Formal education and  raiseawareness about the necessity of protection and conservation of freshwater plant species among local people and main stakeholders.
185698		distribution	eng	Central to Eastern tropical Africa, from Nigeria to Ethiopia and south to Congo (Kinshasa) and Malawi, inlcuding Madagascar.
185698		habitat	eng	Herb of damp mountain grasslands. Streamsides in grassland or forest, seasonally flooded grassland, swamp grassland. It is not freshwater specific species.
185698		population	eng	No formal study about the population of this herbaceous species. Its Extent of Occurrence (EOO) covers 7 countries and therefore we can estimate its population as important.
185698		threats	eng	No major specific threats to this species have been identified. Habitat loss through global warming and human activity (intensive livestock agriculture for example) may threatened species survival in the future.
185699		conservation	eng	No information available.
185699		distribution	eng	Tropical and Southern Africa inlcuding Madagascar. <br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameoun, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo). Eastern Africa it has been recorded from Kenya where the species is locally common. In Malawi it is known from Likangwa River mouth on Lake Chilwa, Sanjika Hill in Blantyre, Sand Bar between Lake Chilwa and Lake Chiuta, Elephant Marsh on Shire River among many locations. Also known in Tanzania, Sudan, Ethiopia (Abyssinie: Chiré) and Eritrea. In Southern Africa it is present in South Africa (Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga), Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland.
185699		habitat	eng	This is perennial aquatic species of slow-moving waters, lakes and ponds. It grows in permanent, still or slowly flowing water or in temporary pools. Also found in dams and shallow moving water. It has submerged leaves and yellow or white flowers above water level.
185699		population	eng	Fairly common species.
185699		threats	eng	The plant is widely spread with no major theats. Some potentially major threats include agricultural development, alien species, drought, or habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.
185700		conservation	eng	Western Africa: Wetlands, ponds and swamps regular evaluation to detect early constraints.<br/><br/>Central Africa: None at this moment, but is in need the Communication and education with local people. Also the research action should be undertaken in order to well understand the biology and the ecology of the plant as well as its habitat status and the conservation measures to be eventually undertaken…<br/><br/>Southern Africa:No information
185700		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.  In western Africa it is found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritanie, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal. Found in Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, and Tanzania in Eastern Africa. In Malawi it is recorded from Shire River at Likwenu river mouth, and Mangochi. It is locally common in high rainfall areas of western and central Kenya between 900-1,980 m above sea level. Extending from Guinea in west to Cameroon and The Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa. Also found in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) Namibia (Caprivi strip), Botswana (Okavango Delta), Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique.
185700		habitat	eng	This perennial graminoid&#160; grows floating in mats, on mud or in swamps, bogs and open  water edges. Species grows very well in shallow water, swamps and eutrophic conditions. It is found etween 1 and 1030 m above sea level.
185700		population	eng	Western Africa: Species give very dense colonies in eutrophic ponds and swamps, elsewhere.<br/><br/>Central Africa: As herbaceous species, the population is expected to be locally important.<br/><br/>Southern Africa:No information
185700		threats	eng	Western Africa: Drought and wetlands management.<br/><br/>Central Africa: This plant grows in swamps, bogs and open water and the major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. In fact any serious fluctuation in the water condition is likely to affect directly the population. This fluctuation can be the invasion of the water surface by alien species, the water pollution by human activities. The water availability can also be affected by a natural disaster as sudden drought and irrigation for agriculture. The marshland can also be filled-up for human settlement.<br/><br/>Southern Africa:None known
185701		conservation	eng	Not under any conservation measures but population reported in Mt Elgon areas are protected with forest reserve.
185701		distribution	eng	The species is has been reported from Mt Elgon at 2600-2950 m. However, its distribution has not been fully investigated.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Tropical African Mountains in Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo-Kinshasa), Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.
185701		habitat	eng	Fould in alphine swamps and wet grasslands. It is often found near streams.
185701		population	eng	Not known but probably undercollected due to altitude.
185701		threats	eng	No threat has been reported
185702		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Further research on the biology, the ecology, habitat status and possible conservation measures is needed. The is also a need of communication and education to local communities.
185702		distribution	eng	Tropical African distribution, from Senegal to Nigeria in the west. In Central Africa the plant is recorded from Cameroon, Central African Republic and Chad. The plant is also present from Tanzania to Zimbabwe and extends to Madagascar. It is also found outside Africa in Thailand and Vietnam.
185702		habitat	eng	Slender herb growing in rice fields and other marshy grounds. It can also be found in boggy ground and seepage zones in woodland zone.
185702		population	eng	The population of this herbaceous plant is expected to be important locally.
185702		threats	eng	This plant's life depends on water, therefore major threats will depend on water condition and availability. Any serious fluctuation in the water condition is likely to affect directly the population. This can be due to human activities such as agriculture, human settlement, solid waste deposit, droughts, irrigation for agriculture or flooding. However, no specific major threats have been described for the Pan-African region.
185703		conservation	eng	The plant is not under any conservtion measures. But some populations are found in national parks and forest reserves.
185703		distribution	eng	It is very common plant in Kenya, found in Central (Nairobi, Aberdare and Machakos); South Rift Valley (Kajiado, Narok); Central Rift Valley Kenya (Naivasha, Mau, Cherangani) and Western Kenya from Trans-Nzoia and Kitale  from 600 to 2500 m above sea level.<br/><br/>Also found in Madagascar, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Angola.
185703		habitat	eng	The perennial herb grows in river banks and swamp sites. Also in upland grasslands and edges of crops.
185703		population	eng	The area covered by this plant is not known.
185703		threats	eng	No threat has been identified. But the distribution of this plant is suspectible to wetland reclamation to create land for agriculture that have been increasing in the recent past.
185704		conservation	eng	No conservation measures needed.
185704		distribution	eng	This species is found in Tropical and southern Africa. From Ghana to the Sudan, and southwards to South Africa.<br><br>In Eastern Africa, it is known in Uganda: Lango District (Oruma), Ankole District (Ruizi river), Teso District (Amuria); in Kenya: Nothern frontier District (sololo), Nairobi District (Nairobi game park); in Tanzania: Tanga District (flats by Lwengera river 5 km E. of Korogwe), Moshi District (Mpololo) and in Zanzibar at pemba island (Vitongoge). In Burundi, that species is known only in the low lands of the country such as Rusizi plain. The species is found in Northern Kenya districts, Nairobi, Mumias and Kisii from 50 1410 m above sea level<br><br>Also known from Senegal, Ivory cost, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, Centra African Republic, Sudan (Nubia, Cordofanum, Araseh-Cool), Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Bostwana, South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal), and Namibia.
185704		habitat	eng	This is a dioecious, perennial, rhizomatous herb. Leaves submerged or emergent. It is found along the banks of lakes and pools, in temporary ponds and in marshes, usually in shalow water.
185704		population	eng	Its population is relatively stable.
185704		threats	eng	The species is affected by water pollution as all aquatic species. It could be threated in the future by change of management regime of non-agricultural areas. However, no current widespread threats have been identified.
185705		conservation	eng	No conservation measures for Pan Africa are in place. Formal education and training of local communities and officers, and more effective communication to raise awareness on species importance has been suggested. More research on threats and trends of this species is needed.
185705		distribution	eng	Widespread in western Africa and present from Senegal to western Cameroon. It is also found in Madagascar and South America.
185705		habitat	eng	Western Africa: Tufts on marshy places and flooded soils.<br/><br/>Central Africa: Annual herb, growing in marshland.
185705		population	eng	Western Africa:Average to small.<br/><br/>Central Africa: As herbaceous annual, the population of this species is likely to be important locally.
185705		threats	eng	As marshland species, any major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. Therefore, any serious fluctuation in the water condition is likely to affect directly the population. This fluctuation can be due to the invasion by alien species, water polluted by human activities, or natural disasters such as drought. Agricultural management has also been identified as a major threat.
185706		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place
185706		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout tropical Africa. It is recorded from Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa and Swaziland. Also recorded from Madagascar.
185706		habitat	eng	Tufted plant of about 120 cm high, growing in damp grassland or marshes.
185706		population	eng	As herbaceous species, the population of <em>M. keniensis</em> is expected to be locally abundant.
185706		threats	eng	No major widespread threats known. May be locally impacted by changes in water levels due to human activities (irrigation, dams etc.)
185707		conservation	eng	This species sn some Protected Areas, for example, Shimba Hills. Although, taxonomy is known, more knowledge on habitat status, biology and ecology, population numbers and range is needed.
185707		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Madagascar, Mauritius Islands and the eastern coast of Africa. It has been recorded from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), Somalia, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya. In Kenya the species is fairly widespread in low altitudes.
185707		habitat	eng	This perennial herb occurs building stands at the edge of lakes, pools and along streams especially along the coastal areas. Also in seasonally flooded grasslands, in wet mud or shallow water, between 5 - 455 m above sea level.
185707		population	eng	It is rare in North Eastern Africa and quite common in coastal areas of Eastern Africa.
185707		threats	eng	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.  It may also be affected by swamp drainage and land conversion to agriculture in Eastern Africa. No major widespread threats described.
185708		conservation	eng	No information. More research is needed on the population and exact distribution of the species
185708		distribution	eng	Known from Mali, Ghana, Tanzania, Angola; Mali; Namibia; South Africa; Zambia; Zimbabwe (TANZANIA Tunduru District: just E of Songea District Boundary, 6 June 1956, Milne-Redhead & Taylor 10590!) (Zambia W: Mwekera, 14.iv.1967, Fanshawe 10026 (BM; K; NDO). (Zimbabwe N: Darwin, Musengezi Camp, 8.v.19S5, Whellan 849 (BM; SRGH).<br/><br/>It is widespread in Southern Africa where it has been recorded in Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe south to South Africa (Northern Cape) (Cook 2004:33). In South Africa it occurs in Lydenberg, Mpumalanga. In Namibia it occurs in Karibib District. (From Koos Roux - Isoetes expert);  Known localities:  Only one location known in South Africa from Mpumalanga: see locality below - Cook 2004 states that distribution extends to Northern Cape in RSA, but J.P Roux RSA Isoetes expert is not aware of this locality.
185708		habitat	eng	Usually in temporarily wet places, such as shallow depression and stream beds, 1225 - 1350 m above sea level. It is a terrestrial species in flushes or in seasonal stream beds usually well below mud surface, obviously able to withstand dry conditions.
185708		population	eng	Highly scattered populations over the range.
185708		threats	eng	Potential threat of grazing and alien plants in Mpumalanga South Africa. No major widespread threats identified.
185709		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
185709		distribution	eng	This plant is distributed throughout Tropical Africa including Madagascar. In  western Cameroon it has been recorded from the Ndop plain. In tropical east Africa it can be found in Angola and Mozambique district at the east cost of lake Nyassa. It is also known in south Africa and Mascarene Islands. In Burundi, the species has been found in the high land marshes at Rushubi, Ijenda, Mahwa, Gitanga, Nyamuswaga, Mageyo, Muyange and Musigati. The species is widespread and locally common in Kenya from the altitude of 300-2,100m above sea level. Also found in Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Rwanda, Ethiop, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Botswana, South Africa, Swaziland and Mauritania.
185709		habitat	eng	Robust plant to about 120 cm high with broad leaves and bracts, characterized by branched spikes of numerous spikelets with glumes arcuate at maturity. Present in pools, swamps, open water edges, and marshes, on the landside of Cyperus papyrus.
185709		population	eng	Moderately abundant
185709		threats	eng	Although no major widespread  threats have been described, agriculture, drainage of its habitat, and drought can threaten the species locally.
185710		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, the locations, etc.
185710		distribution	eng	<em>Potamogeton hoggarensis</em> is only found in Algeria, central Sahara, Hoggar (Imarera 1,950 m above sea level). Aslo recorded from N. Chad in Tibesti.
185710		habitat	eng	<em>Potamogeton hoggarensis</em> is a perennial plant that grows in freshwater ponds more or less permanent. Flowers and fruits are unknown.
185710		population	eng	There is only one location in North Africa in Algeria.
185710		threats	eng	No information
185711		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185711		distribution	eng	Over the rest of tropical Africa, and in central and south tropics. It is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa. Also found in Cuba and tropical South America.<br/><br/>In Africa it is widespread throughout Western and Central Africa, from Senegal to Kenya, and down to Mozambique, including Zambia and Angola. It is also present in Sudan and Ethiopia.
185711		habitat	eng	Aquatic herb floating upper leaves, in pools and streams. Stagnant or slow current freshwater, rice fields, marsy savanna.
185711		population	eng	Quite widespread species, found in almost all sub-Saharan African countries.
185711		threats	eng	None at the moment. Potential threats in the future could be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought.
185712		conservation	eng	No major conservation measures except more information needed on population numbers and range, and habitat status.
185712		distribution	eng	This species is mainly distributed in the Afromontane region. It is widespread in Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. In Northern Africa, it has been recorded from Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea.
185712		habitat	eng	Ponds, pools and streams often moving water. <em>P. Richardii</em> grows mainly in regions with high rainfall. It occurs mostly at elevated altitudes.
185712		population	eng	Widespread and common in upland areas.
185712		threats	eng	No major threats.
185713		conservation	eng	The species is found within some protected areas.
185713		distribution	eng	Afro-Madagascan and soudano-zambezian distribution. The species is widespread in western Africa, towards east, through Central Africa Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), to Eastern Africa. <br/><br/>Recorded from Western Africa to Central African Republic, DRC, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique, Madagascar, Angola and Namibia.<br/><br/>In Kenya, it has been recorded from Teita District: Tsavo National Park (East), Buchuma Waterhole and in Dika Plains. In Tanzania it has been recorded in Pare District: Mkomazi to Mkombara.
185713		habitat	eng	Small plant with stolons more or less underground. <em>Marsilea nubica </em>is found on temporary pools and rice fields.
185713		population	eng	Abundant.
185713		threats	eng	No major widespread threats.
185714		conservation	eng	None at the moment. But raising public awareness and more research have been suggested.
185714		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa, from Guinea Bissau and Senegal in the West to Uganda, Sudan and Tanzania in the East, then down to South Africa. Also India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Pacific Islands, Indonesia<br/><br/>Present in From Senegal to Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia, and west of South Africa including Swaziland.
185714		habitat	eng	Annual weed of damp shady places mainly in forest. It grows in temporary water forming annual grassy meadows in weakly to moderately flooded soils.
185714		population	eng	Quite widespread herbaceous species. Important population.
185714		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, infrastructure development). It is also threatened by drought.
185715		conservation	eng	It is found within Protected Areas.
185715		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in western Africa and along the Old World tropics
185715		habitat	eng	It occurs in bare temporary humid well drained soils and edges of water.
185715		population	eng	This species is abundant.
185715		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
185716		conservation	eng	No information
185716		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout tropical Africa. <br/><br/>In Southern Africa, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In Kenya, the species has been recorded in Machakos, Nairobi and Kajiado areas.
185716		habitat	eng	Often found in stream beds, sometimes in running water with leaves floating or in dried up pools, vleis (shallow seaseonal lake) and pans, in temporarily flooded grassland,1800m.
185716		population	eng	No information.
185716		threats	eng	None known
185717		conservation	eng	Some research is needed on the habitat status and population trends.
185717		distribution	eng	Tropical Africa and South Africa. It occurs in Burundi, Cameroon, Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Swaziland and North-West province in South Africa.
185717		habitat	eng	Perennial or sometimes annual, with short rhizome, generally growing in tuft. Stems 20 - 40 cm high, 1-3 mm thick. Leaves are all inserted at the base of the stem. It grows in borders of rivers.
185717		population	eng	Failry common throughout its range.
185717		threats	eng	Agriculture and drought have been identified as possible threats.
185718		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, research in population numbers and range is needed.
185718		distribution	eng	In north eastern Africa it occurs in Ethiopia (but there are no records in the flora area), Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, Zimbabwe, and in Cape Provinces, KwaZulu-Natal and North Western Province in South Africa.
185718		habitat	eng	It occurs in still water.
185718		population	eng	This species is rare in North East Africa.
185718		threats	eng	None known.
185719		conservation	eng	More research needed for distribution within Africa
185719		distribution	eng	Found in  Madagascar, Indian Ocean Islands, Reunion, Comoros, Mayotte. Distribution from Tanzania to Madagascar and Comoros.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Zanzibar, I. Mwera R., Pemba I. Chakechake and Bandani.
185719		habitat	eng	This emergent aquatic plant occurs in pure stands in fresh water swamps, near sea level.
185719		population	eng	Unknown
185719		threats	eng	Unknown.
185720		conservation	eng	Further research in population numbers and range, threats, and habitat status is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185720		distribution	eng	Present in from Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda and Tanzania, south to Botswana. Also Madagascar. <br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has been recorded from Okavango Delta and northern province in Zambia. Also present in Angola, and Zimbabwe.
185720		habitat	eng	This  perennial aquatic herb grows floating or loosely anchored. Roots sometime anchored in floating weeds, but more often in soft mud in pools and shallow lakes. Found in deep or flowing water.
185720		population	eng	No formal information about the population, but <em>W. filifolia</em> is a widespread species with a presumably large population.
185720		threats	eng	he major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, alien invasion, and sudden drought. However, these are not considered major threats.
185721		conservation	eng	No information available.
185721		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Tanzania in Maswa district; Simuyu R., near Shanwa, Singida district; Isuna on Singida - Manyoni Rd, Kondoa district; and in Sambala, Dodoma district, Kilimatinde.
185721		habitat	eng	Shallow seasonal rapidly drying pools where tubers lie exposed on the surface.
185721		population	eng	No information available.
185721		threats	eng	No information available.
185722		conservation	eng	More information on habitat and ecology is also needed so that preferred habitat can be identified. Also specific threats to the species need to be identified.
185722		distribution	eng	This species is present in Macaronesia and Mediterranean areas to Afghanistan. In Africa, it has been recorded only from Somalia in North Eastern Africa and from Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Morocco in Northern Africa. It may be present also in South Africa although this needs to be confirmed.
185722		habitat	eng	Muddy sandy or gravelly margins of pond, lakes, streams and rivers on marshes. Also present in brackish situations such as mud and sand-flats, dune-slacks in coastal dune systems, and on the margins of saline and brackish lakes
185722		population	eng	This species is rare in Somalia. There is no information about other countries.
185722		threats	eng	This species is prone to be threatened due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.&#160; However, more information is needed to identify specific threats throughout its entire range.
185723		conservation	eng	Formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and main stakeholders about the main threats faced by freshwater plant species and the necessity of nature conservation.
185723		distribution	eng	Throughout tropical Africa, Sao Tome and Principe, Madagsacar and Mascarene islands. Some authors consider it as adventive in West and Central Africa where it is widespread.<br><br>It is present Eastern Africa where it is not a common species. Only recorded from Zanzibar and one locality in Uganda near Lake Victoria.<br><br>The species is found in the moist tropics of the New World in South and South-east Asia and America.
185723		habitat	eng	Triannual or more species of swamps and damp places.
185723		population	eng	Quite widespread herbaceous species, important population. In Eastern Africa it is quite rare, only recorded from Zanzibar (Unguja, Jozani Forest) and one locality in Uganda in Busoga district.
185723		threats	eng	No current major threaths. However, there is a risk of future habitat loss through global warming, human settlement, industrial development and water demanding trees plantations around wetlands. The invasion of Alien species can also be harmful in the future.
185724		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine total range and population trends.
185724		distribution	eng	This species is present in tropical and subtropical Africa, and in Madagascar.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded from Kenya (Machakos and Northern Frontier Districts, and Mt elgon), Tanzania (Arusha and near the source of Ngolo river) and Uganda (Ankole, Mengo and West Nile Dristrics) . The species si presumed to be present in other tropical African countries.
185724		habitat	eng	This herb grows in damp places where water stood during rains but has dried out. Also in humid and sub humid forests.
185724		population	eng	No information.
185724		threats	eng	None known.
185725		conservation	eng	No data available.
185725		distribution	eng	It is a widely spread species in tropical Africa, Madagascar and in the Middle East. Present from Senegal to south of Nigeria in western Africa. In Eastern Africa, the species grows in many parts of Burundi between 1,000 and 2,000 m above sea level. Common and wide spread in Kenya from 30 - 2,450 m asl. Also present in Egypt, South Africa  (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, and Swaziland.
185725		habitat	eng	This helophyte occurs in the border of lakes and sometimes it forms great planting. Mostly gregarious in swamps or in open water, in wet or marshly places. It is a robust perennial, with short and lignified rhizome, often reddish root
185725		population	eng	No data available although it seems a widespread species.
185725		threats	eng	None major widespread threats are known.
185726		conservation	eng	It is considered as a threatened species in North Eastern Africa where conservation measures are needed. No conservation measures are needed at a Pan Africa level.
185726		distribution	eng	Recorded from Senegal to Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and from India to China and Thailand.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique.
185726		habitat	eng	An annual herb of damp or swampy, even brackish sites.
185726		population	eng	This species is rare in Somalia. It is common from West to South Africa.
185726		threats	eng	No major threats have been identified.
185727		conservation	eng	Further research in population numbers, habitat status, biology and ecology, and geographical range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185727		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Tropical to South Africa. Recorded from western, easten, southern and North Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>In Kenya, it has only been recorded from Karamoja. Also recorded from a single floral region in Mbulu district in Tanzania.
185727		habitat	eng	This perennial hydrophyte  grows in pools, ponds and swamps, submerged in still and slowly flowing water or in pools.
185727		population	eng	This species is common.
185727		threats	eng	It may be potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought but this has not been confirmed as major threat.
185728		conservation	eng	Research actions needed. Ithas been recorded in at least one protected area in chad (Plaines d’inondation des Bahr Aouk et Salamat).
185728		distribution	eng	Formerly regarded as endemic to Madagascar, but discovered in northern Cameroon in 1964 (Letouzey (1967). Also present in Chad, in the RAMSAR site Plaines d’inondation des Bahr Aouk et Salamat. More information is needed to determine its distibution.
185728		habitat	eng	Annual or perennial aquatic herb, floatting or rooting in substrate. It grows in fresh water, swamps and dams.
185728		population	eng	The species is very uncommon.
185728		threats	eng	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.
185729		conservation	eng	Further research in population numbers, range and threats is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185729		distribution	eng	Known from Mozambique and East Tropical Africa, Madagascar, and Malawi. Also present in Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Malawi, it has been recorded from Chikwawa on the edge harbour and Elephant marsh, Shire river banks at Liwonde National Park in Machinga, Ndindi marsh at Marka in Nsanje, Mangochi, Nkotakota at Chia lagoon, and Salima. Also recorded from Kenya (from Lamu District: Boni Forest, Maungi Pool) and Tanzania (Rungwe District: Mwaya).
185729		habitat	eng	Floating on water, sluggish streams and backwaters, marshes and river banks.
185729		population	eng	[Unknown]
185729		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
185730		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation measures but some populations are found in protected areas (national parks and forest reserves).
185730		distribution	eng	This species is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Sudan, Ethiopia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, including Madagascar.<br/><br/>It is is widespread and common in upland forest  in Kenya, from 1,200 - 2,400 m above sea level. In Malawi it is found at Domasi River in Zomba. Also recorded from Burundi and Rwanda.
185730		habitat	eng	In wet habitats, on river banks, near streams, pools and in swamps.
185730		population	eng	No data available.
185730		threats	eng	The species may be under threat locally from land degradation due to cultivation and road constructions although this is not considered a major threat throughout Africa.
185731		conservation	eng	The species is not under any conservation measures. But some populations are protected in national parks and forest reserves.
185731		distribution	eng	Occurs in Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda. This species is widespread in Kenya, from sea-level to 2,100 m. In Malawi it occurs at Marymount dambo in Mzuzu, and Chiakangawa Forest Reserve in Mzimba.<br/><br/>Its is widespread in west and central Africa, down into Angola and in Comoro Islands.
185731		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest swamps, along-paths and streams. Also, along forest streams, occasionally in grassland or roadsides.
185731		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation in form of logging, agricultural and animal grazing activities.
185732		conservation	eng	None known
185732		distribution	eng	It is a species that is widely spread from Western to Eastern tropical Africa down to Southern Africa, including Madagascar and Mauritius Islands.<br/><br/>Recorded from Burundi, Cameroon; the Democratic Republic of Congo; Côte d'Ivoire; Equatorial Guinea; Ghana; Kenya, Malawi; Nigeria; Rwanda; Sierra Leone; South Africa; Zambia; Zimbabwe.
185732		habitat	eng	It is a species of mountain forest area in marshes, peatlands and streams.
185732		population	eng	No information
185732		threats	eng	No threats
185733		conservation	eng	None known.
185733		distribution	eng	From Africa with a sudano-zambesian distribution. Widesspread in Western Africa. Also recorded from Tanzania (Moshi District: Kware), Mozambique, and Zambia.
185733		habitat	eng	Temporary pools and rice fields.
185733		population	eng	Relatively abundant.
185733		threats	eng	No major widespread threats identified.
185734		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place althogh its likely to be present in protected areas.
185734		distribution	eng	This species is present in Tropical Africa, with a scattered distribution from Guinea to Sierra Leone, Liberia and Nigeria, to Eastern Africa and Zimbabwe.
185734		habitat	eng	<em> L. angolense</em> is a perennial aquatic herb, helophyte of shallow lakes, marshes, swamps, ditches until 1900 m alt.
185734		population	eng	Widespread species, no formal information about the population, but its wide distribution suggests a quite important population.
185734		threats	eng	None at the moment, but the hypothetical threat should be the habitat loss due essentially to alien invasion, water pollution or sudden drought.
185736		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place but surveillance and monitoring of the existing sites, raising public awareness on wetlands importance, and further research on the population status and threats, have been suggested.
185736		distribution	eng	Known only from north of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Congo, Central African Republic and Chad.
185736		habitat	eng	Herb growing in savanna marshes on rocky breast-plates and outcrops.
185736		population	eng	The species is know from a few locations. Thus, the population of this species is presumably low.
185736		threats	eng	Fire, drought, Agriculture,  livestock farming and invasion by alien species.
185737		conservation	eng	This species is not under any conservation programme, but some of its populations are found in protected areas such as National Parks and Forest Reserves.
185737		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Tropical and Southern Africa. It has also been recorded from India, Vietnam and North Australia.<br><br>The distribution of this species covers the whole of Afrotropical region, from Senegal and Mali in the West to East Africa, then down to Gabon to South Africa. The plant is also found in Madagascar.<br><br>In Eastern Africa,<em> Cyperus denudatus denudatus,</em> is widespread in Kenya from 100 - 2,100 m above sea level. <em>Cyperus denudatus lucentinigricans</em> is also widespread in upland Kenya  from 1,500-3,000 m above sea level.
185737		habitat	eng	Humid to flooded soils, ditches, pools, edges of salted soils. Marshy grassland. It tolerates salinity. Also river banks, flood plains, swamps, damp grassland, moist rock crevices.
185737		population	eng	As Herbaceous species, the population of this plant is likely to be locally important.
185737		threats	eng	The species may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and improper land use practices such wetland reclamation for human settlements. However, no major widespread threats have been recorded.
185738		conservation	eng	None known.
185738		distribution	eng	It is Widespread in western Africa extending south to Bostwana.
185738		habitat	eng	This annual creeping herb grows everywhere in the rainy season, but in the dry season it is found only in humid places like the "Niayes of Senegal" (depressions) and in field rice. Often found in stream-beds of the savanna and open country. Forms dense carpets at the edges of water.
185738		population	eng	Locally common.
185738		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by land management for agriculture.
185739		conservation	eng	No information.
185739		distribution	eng	The species is found in Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Western Asia, China, Indian subcontinent, Indo-China.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa (Botswana; Lesotho; Namibia; South Africa - Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal; Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded from Senegal in Western Africa; Upper Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.
185739		habitat	eng	This annual plant is not an aquatic or wetland species, but may be found in temporarily wet places.
185739		population	eng	A widespread weed, common in the warmer parts of the Old World.
185739		threats	eng	None known.
185740		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are in known, further research in population numbers and range are is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.
185740		distribution	eng	In tropical to warm temperate regions of Africa, Asia and Australasia.<br><br>The species is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia, Uganda, Ethiopia (Abyssinie in palibus prope Axum), Eritrea, and Malawi. In Kenya, it is found in Central Kenya (K3, 4, 6) from sea level to 600 m. It was recorded in areas such as Naivasha, Machakos, Maasai Mara plains, Taita District and Tsavo East National Park. Tanzania T1, 3-5. Musoma district Klein's camp to seronera, Mpanda district Katisunga. In Central Africa it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Rwanda. Also known from Zambia and Mozambique.
185740		habitat	eng	<em>Aponogeton abyssinicus</em> is an aquatic herb living in shallow temporarily marshes, rocky basins in open or close grassy vegetation, irrigation canals, inundated grasslands, stagnant river branches, salty sandy inundated soils, from the sea level up to 2,700 m.<br/><br/>They are fully aquatic herbaceous plants with milky sap, becoming dormant during drought conditions. Most species grow from tubers. The starchy tubercles of the African species are able to survive the dry season by shedding their leaves and undergoing a dormant period. <em>A. abyssinicus</em> seems to do best in softer water with a loose and nutrient rich substrate.
185740		population	eng	Widespread species, presumably important population.
185740		threats	eng	No major widespread threats are known.
185741		conservation	eng	No information.
185741		distribution	eng	This species is present  in Southern Africa, India, and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is found in Angola, Mozambique, extending south to Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo Province). Also recorded from Tanzania, Uganada, Burundi, Rwanda, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, south of Mauritania and south west of Mali.
185741		habitat	eng	This perennial aquatic fern grows at the edges of small pools and in seasonally swampy areas, from 800-1400 m above sea level.
185741		population	eng	No information.
185741		threats	eng	None known.
185742		conservation	eng	No information.
185742		distribution	eng	This species is present in Tropical Africa but there is no data available on specific distibution.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.
185742		habitat	eng	Not a strictly aqualtic or wetland species but may be found in temporarily wet places.; Annual (occ. perennial) Hydrophyte
185742		population	eng	No information.
185742		threats	eng	None known.
185743		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of exisiting sites and population dynamics, further research on species biology, ecology and population sizes and search for ne sites have been suggested as conservation measures.
185743		distribution	eng	<em>Carex demissa</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution includes Europe, western Siberia, boreal America and North Africa. <br>In Africa it is only present in Morocco. Its extent of occurrence covers about 40,000 km², occurring in 11 locations.
185743		habitat	eng	It is a vivacious, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte). Preferentially calcicole, this species is found in very humid pastures and along the edges of springs and streams of plains and mountains, in bioclimatic humid environments. Flowering occurs between mid spring and the beginning of summer.
185743		population	eng	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous localities, but it has a restricted distribution in North Africa (AOO <100 km²). The tendency of the populations is unknown. <br>- Morocco: one location in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), four locations in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen in Arhbalou n'Aït-Amou at 1,700 m, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy path at the crossing of Oued Zad) and fairly common in the Rif (Tanger, Issaguène, Madissouka valley, Jbel Arhoud, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine). Its presence in the massif of Jbel Mtourzgane, near the Oued Ouerdane springs, is uncertain.<br>- Portugal: fairly common; <br>- Spain: 92 sites; <br>- France: very common, occurring in numerous locations.
185743		threats	eng	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species' habitat are its main threat.
185744		conservation	eng	Wetlands regular monitoring and rational management.
185744		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout tropical Africa, Central and east Asia and South America. It occurs in the northern part of western Africa from Mauritius to Niger and Cameroon. It is also present in Eastern, Noth Eastern and Southern Africa.
185744		habitat	eng	Shallow water, swamps and moist sites in differents conditions. Plant characterised by the lax-spicklettes, cylindrical, digitatly-arranged spikes of spreading spikelet, with a central golden stripe.
185744		population	eng	Population evolution seems positive. Species grows well even in semi-aride lands.
185744		threats	eng	Wetlands drought, wetlands management for agriculture have been identified as threats to this species.
185745		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place. More research is needed on species actual distribution, population and habitat status.
185745		distribution	eng	Locally common in Kigezi and Toro in Uganda. Also recorded from Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
185745		habitat	eng	This species occurs in medium altitude swamps between 1,500 m to 2,500 m asl.
185745		population	eng	No data available.
185745		threats	eng	The threats to the species are only known for the Ugandan part of the species range, where agriculture extension into the wetlands especially due to the high human population density has been identified as a major threat. Dairy farming in the wetlands may result  in changes in the available plant diversity which may ultimately result in loss of the species.
185746		conservation	eng	None known
185746		distribution	eng	In Africa it is found in Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan and Somalia. Also found in the tropics of Asia and America.
185746		habitat	eng	In pools and river beds.
185746		population	eng	No information
185746		threats	eng	None known
185747		conservation	eng	In North Africa, there are currently no conservation measures in place. The following actions for conservation are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation the population size.<br/>- Study of the population dynamics.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.
185747		distribution	eng	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species occurring from North Africa to southern Scandinavia. <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in Algeria (El Kala-Annaba region), Morocco, and Tunisia. In Tunisia there are three populations in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka) and Mogods (Jbel Chitane).
185747		habitat	eng	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a herbaceous perennial stoloniferous amphibious Helophyte, growing in weakly acidic water-bodies, on oligotrophic peaty soils, and on sandy banks of canals, pools and ponds, within the zone of water seepage.
185747		population	eng	While available data are insufficient to evaluate accurately the present-day status of <em>Baldellia repens</em>, it seems to be rare and declining over all its distribution area, especially in the Mediterranean region. It is Critically Endangered in Italy and Croatia (one subpopulation known in each country).
185747		threats	eng	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia repens</em>.
185748		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones, and to monitor populations dynamics.
185748		distribution	eng	<em></em> This is a Euro-American species. Its distribution covers Europe, eastern North America and Morocco. It is widespread in the Mediterranean region.<br/>In North Africa it is only present in Morocco, with an extent of occurrence under 20,000 km², eight locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 100 km².
185748		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and the edges of springs and streams, with a preference for chalky soils. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).
185748		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean region (several locations and an AOO >200 km²). <br/>In North Africa it is rare, with restricted populations due to spatial limitations (eight locations and an AOO <100 km²). The trend of the populations is unknown. It is rare in Morocco, occurring in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy road near Oued Zad) and the Rif (Issaguène, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine).
185748		threats	eng	The drainage of its habitat is the main threat to this species.
185750		conservation	eng	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.
185750		distribution	eng	<em>Tralia ovula</em> has only been recorded from Gabon (DBL collection data; Mandahl-Barth).
185750		habitat	eng	Brackish water. Species in this genus are likely to occur in mud flat areas (D. Van Damme, pers. comm.).
185750		population	eng	No information regarding population sizes.
185750		threats	eng	No information available.
185752		conservation	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Chigua </span>is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The current taxonomic reference used by CITES still refers to <span style="font-style: italic;">Chigua restrepoi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. bernalii </span>so this taxon is still listed on CITES appendix I. Plants rescued from the area flooded by the dam have been replanted in a reforested area but it is uncertain whether or not this restoration effort will result in an increase in population numbers. This species is poorly represented in collections and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections need to be strengthened.
185752		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a small area in northern Colombia in the province of Cordoba. It occurs along or near the Rio Sinu at altitudes ranging from 75 to 150 m.
185752		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet lowland primary rainforest and in savanna.
185752		population	eng	Originally numbers of ca. 250 plants were referred to, however, a visit to the site in 2008 (Lindström 2009) indicated that there were only scattered individuals (<50). Plants rescued from the dam area have been replanted in a reforested area but the survival of these plants and their contribution to the population recruitment are not certain.
185752		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the area where these plants are found is severe (cattle farming, mining and oil exploration). A dam has been built across the Rio Sinu at Urra and plants may have been lost as a result of the area being flooded. Plants are also removed and sold to collectors.
185754		conservation	eng	No data available.
185754		conservation	eng	No information available.
185754		conservation	eng	None known.
185754		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium viridarium</em> occurs mainly in east and southern Africa, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province) (Piechocki 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Ethiopia.
185754		distribution	eng	<em>Pisidium viridarium</em> occurs mainly in eastern and southern Africa Africa, and Madagascar. Within the central Africa region: southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo, in the Shaba Province (Piechocki 1993).
185754		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from most of Central and southern Africa.
185754		habitat	eng	Found mainly in highland rivers and streams.
185754		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in highland rivers and streams. This is a cold water species.
185754		habitat	eng	No data available.
185754		population	eng	No data available.
185754		population	eng	No information available.
185754		threats	eng	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.
185754		threats	eng	No data available.
185754		threats	eng	No information available.
185757		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of springs from pollution and reduce groundwater abstraction are needed.
185757		conservation	eng	This species would benefit from protection of springs from pollution, reduced abstraction from groundwater.
185757		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudamnicola dupotetiana</em> is present in southern Europe, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Ghamizi <em>et al</em>. 1997). Its type locality is in Algiers and Bejaia, Algeria.
185757		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Europe, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).
185757		habitat	eng	It is found in springs and adjoining parts of small clear streams with good water quality. Further downstream the other genus, <em>Mercuria</em>, is found.
185757		habitat	eng	It lives in springs and adjoining parts of small clear streams with good water quality. Further downstream the other genus, <em>Mercuria</em>, is found.
185757		population	eng	The species is abundant.
185757		population	eng	This is an abundant species.
185757		threats	eng	Pollution, groundwater level lowering and urbanisation are major threats to the species. The springs in Marrakech that were historically mentioned in old papers have all been lost. One of the springs is used for trout fishery.
185757		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution and groundwater level lowerin, as well as urbanisation. The springs in Marrakech have all been lost (ones mentioned in old papers). One spring used for trout fishery.
185758		conservation	eng	No information.
185758		distribution	eng	Species (erroneously) cited in recent literature (Ibrahim <em>et al</em>. 1999) as belonging to the modern freshwater fauna of Egypt, endemic to Lake Qaron (or Quarun).
185758		habitat	eng	No information available.
185758		population	eng	No information available.
185758		threats	eng	No information.
185759		conservation	eng	No information available.
185759		conservation	eng	None known.  It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all Ferrissia spp.)
185759		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>   The species is known from Ethiopia and perhaps Sudan (Brown 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Egypt: Suez, Ismailia, Mahmoudia Canal in Alexandria region but rare in Egypt. Brown (1994) considers the records from Kenya and Yemen to be erroneous. The type locality is Ramleh near Alexandria, Egypt
185759		distribution	eng	The species is present in Europe and northern Africa. In northern Africa, it occurs in Egypt, Ethiopia and perhaps Sudan (Brown 1994). It is rare in Egypt, where it can be found in Suez, Ismailia and Mahmoudia Canal in Alexandria region. Brown also considers the records from Kenya and Yemen. It is certainly not in north western Africa. Its type locality is in Ramleh near Alexandria, Egypt.
185759		distribution	eng	This species is known from Egypt, Ethiopia and perhaps Sudan (Brown 1994). Its distribution may also extend into Europe. In Egypt it is known from Suez, Ismailia, and the Mahmoudia Canal in Alexandria region but it is rare.
185759		habitat	eng	It is spread by birds so its distribution is changeable. It inhabits all kinds of inland waters. It is very easily overlooked as it is a very small species. It sticks to leaves and trees that hang in the water.
185759		habitat	eng	Spread by birds so distribution is changeable. <em>Ferrissia iselli</em> live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny. Sticks to leaves and trees that hang in the water.
185759		habitat	eng	Spread by birds so distribution is changeable. Live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny. Sticks to leaves and trees that hang in the water. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)
185759		population	eng	No information available.
185759		threats	eng	It is threatened by pollution.
185759		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).
185762		conservation	eng	Conservation measures needed are reducing groundwater abstraction and avoid pollution of springs.
185762		distribution	eng	This southern Paleartic species has been from five much localised areas in Morocco recently recorded. Its recent distribution in Algeria is uncertain, and it is likely to occur also in Tunisia.
185762		habitat	eng	Stenotopic species that is spread by birds and therefore with a variable distribution. It is present in shallow quiet and clean waters, attached to vegetation that grows just below springs, in very restricted areas.
185762		population	eng	No information available.
185762		threats	eng	Drying up of springs and water pollution are main threats affecting to this species.
185763		conservation	eng	Protection of springs limiting water use and abstraction from spring, as well as preventing climate change are needed.
185763		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, the species is known from the region of the Rif and eastern Morocco. <br/>In Morocco, it was found in the spring Ain Jdida, spring Ain Louada, the spring Ain Sendiyine, Larach and Ain Tamahdit, in the region of Tetouan.
185763		habitat	eng	It is a crenobiont.
185763		population	eng	No information available.
185763		threats	eng	Pollution and use of water from springs are main threats to the species in the region, as well as lowering of the water level. Rising temperatures due to climate change are also affecting this species that lives in cold springs, so if water gets warmer, species won't be able to survive (and water may stop flowing).
185764		conservation	eng	Protection from pollution and degradation and to avoid urbanisation around the spring is needed.
185764		distribution	eng	<em>Mercuria zopissa</em> is a species recorded from Italy. <em>Mercuria</em> cf. <em>zopissa</em> is a related form recorded from Aïn Sfa near Oujda (Morocco) by Ghamizi (1998). Other nearby springs were checked and this species was not found. Other species of this genus were also found.
185764		habitat	eng	It is a crenobiont that lives in clean springs with good water quality.
185764		population	eng	The taxon is not abundant in Morocco, where it is known only from in one spring.
185764		threats	eng	Pollution and habitat degradation due to tourism are major threats.
185765		conservation	eng	No information available.
185765		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species and none are considered necessary.
185765		distribution	eng	Paleartic south European species with a distribution range that extends into the Maghreb, where it has been recorded as widely dispersed from Morocco (Ghamizi 1990) and, according to recent data, also from near Algiers (Algeria). In northern Africa, it occurs in Morocco and Algeria. It is experiencing an increase in Morocco. Its type locality is Mitidja marsh in Algeria.
185765		distribution	eng	This species is known from Spain and Portugal in Europe, and has a range that extends into the Maghreb, where it has been recorded as widely dispersed from Morocco and Algeria (van Damme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Araujo (pers. comm., 2010) reported the species as widespread and common in the Iberian peninsula, except in the north where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Planorbarius corneus</span>.
185765		habitat	eng	This opportunistic species is suspected to be the intermediate host of parasites, although more information is needed to confirm this. It lives on vegetation around slow-moving waters and can stand some degree of water pollution. In is also present in man-made drainage ditches.
185765		habitat	eng	This opportunistic species lives on vegetation around slow-moving  waters and can stand some degree of water pollution. In is also present  in man-made drainage ditches.
185765		population	eng	Its populations are stable and possibly increasing in Morocco.
185765		population	eng	Its populations are thought to be stable and possibly increasing.
185765		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species.
185765		threats	eng	No major threats are known to this species and it is tolerant of disturbed and mildly polluted habitats.
185766		conservation	eng	No conservation measures proposed.
185766		conservation	eng	None.
185766		conservation	eng	None known.
185766		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded only with certainty from Lake Tana (Piersanti 1941). Haas (1936) gives as locality 'Abyssinia'. No record in the last 50 years.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Species that is wide spread and very common in the Paleartic and reaches its southern limit in northern Africa. The type locality is in Thangelsted, Germany.
185766		distribution	eng	The species is widely spread and very common in the Paleartic realm, reaching its southern limit in the Maghreb where it appears to have become widespread and common during the last decades (Ghamizi 1998). It is known from Morrocco and Algeria. Its distribution in Tunisia is poorly known. Its type locality is in Thangelsted, Germany.
185766		distribution	eng	This is a species that is widespread and very common in the Paleartic and reaches its southern limit in the Maghreb where it appears to have become widespread and common during the last decades (Ghamizi 1998). This species is known from Morocco and Algeria. The distribution in Tunisia is poorly known. It seems to be resistant to pollution.
185766		habitat	eng	Does well in organic rich waters. It is distributed by birds. Seems to be increasing in Northern Africa but present situation in northeastern Africa is unknown.
185766		habitat	eng	It does well in organic rich waters. It is spread by birds.
185766		habitat	eng	This species does well in organic rich waters. It is distributed by birds. Seems to be increasing in Northern Africa.
185766		population	eng	It seems to have increasing populations in northern Africa.
185766		population	eng	No information available.
185766		threats	eng	No information on present threats to the species in the region.
185766		threats	eng	None known.
185767		conservation	eng	Protection of springs is needed in the region.
185767		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, the taxon is present in the Middle Atlas in Morocco. Its type locality is near Banola (Catalan part of France) 1869. In Morocco, it was found in a spring at Ain Aghbal, a spring at Ouiwane, spring at Timdighas, a small stream at Sidi Addi - all Moroccan sites in the Middle Atlas.
185767		habitat	eng	Crenobiont living in springs and brooks with good quality water.
185767		population	eng	No information available.
185767		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat to this taxon, which is also affected by drying up of springs, caused by groundwater abstraction and drought.
185768		conservation	eng	Maintaining good water quality is in need.
185768		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to northern Africa. <em>Semisalsa aponensis</em> is a south European taxon, which is represented in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia by the wide spread subspecies <em>Semisalsa aponensis peraudieri</em>. Its type locality is in Biskra, Algeria.
185768		habitat	eng	It occurs on irrigation channels, stagnant pools, man-made or otherwise (e.g., concrete ponds). It only lives on freshwater, not brackish, and needs clean water to survive.
185768		population	eng	No information available.
185768		threats	eng	The main threat to the species habitat decline due to water pollution.
185770		conservation	eng	Control of pollution is needed.
185770		conservation	eng	It would benefit from a reduction of pollution.
185770		distribution	eng	It is widespread and common Paleartic species, which is rare and localised in Africa. It reaches its southern limit in Morocco, where it is presently confined to the north western coastal region between Kenitra and Tangier (Ghamizi 1998). It has also been recorded from Algeria during the 19th Century (Brown 1994) but unlikely to still be there. It was once recorded in Egypt in Lake Qaron (Fayoum) but no longer can be found there as this is becoming highly salinized. Its type locality is in Germany.
185770		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and common paleartic species, which is rare and localised in Africa, reaching its southern limit in Morocco, where it is presently confined to the northwestern coastal region between Kenitra and Tanger (Ghamizi 1998). It has also been recorded from Algeria during the 19th Century (Brown 1994) but unlikely to still be there. It was once in Egypt in Lake Qaron (Fayoum) but no longer there (this is becoming highly salinised).
185770		habitat	eng	It is found in stagnant, permanent and temporary freshwaters, but with good quality, less organic matter (unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea peregric</span>). It can also survive in oligo-mesohaline waters. It needs vegetation otherwise get eaten by fish.
185770		habitat	eng	The species lives in stagnant, permanent and temporary freshwaters, but with good quality, with little organic matter (unlike <em>L. peregric</em>). It can also survive in oligo-mesohaline waters. It needs vegetation otherwise it will get eaten by fish.
185770		population	eng	No information available.
185770		threats	eng	Poor water quality due to pollution is a main threat to the species. Its disappearance from several ancient sites in Algeria, where it is possibly extinct, evidences that over the long term the species is also declining due to climate change.
185770		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to poor water quality. Over the long term it is also decreasing because of climate change (several ancient sites in Algeria).
185771		conservation	eng	None known.
185771		conservation	eng	Taxonomic research is needed.
185771		distribution	eng	<em>Mutela dubia</em> is widespread in Africa. The subspecies <em>Mutela dubia nilotica</em> occurs in the Nile from the Great Lakes downstream to the Nile Delta.
185771		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Lake Nasser in Egypt, Sudanese Nile basin, Lower Omo (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Great lakes, Egyptian Nile.
185771		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers and lakes.
185771		habitat	eng	It lives in large rivers.
185771		population	eng	No data available.
185771		population	eng	No information available.
185771		threats	eng	No major threats are known to the taxon.
185771		threats	eng	None known.
185772		conservation	eng	None conservation actions needed.
185772		conservation	eng	None traced from literature.
185772		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> This subspecies occurs in the Nile basin in Lake Nasser (Egypt), in the White Nile in Sudan and Lake Tana (Ethiopia). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The subspecies has been recorded from the Nile in Egypt, and from Lake Victoria.
185772		distribution	eng	The taxon is widely distributed in the Nile Basin.
185772		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers and lakes.
185772		habitat	eng	It live in large rivers and floodplains.
185772		population	eng	It is a common species.
185772		population	eng	No population data were traced.
185772		threats	eng	No information available.
185772		threats	eng	No major threats to the species.
185773		conservation	eng	No information available.
185773		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has only been recorded from coastal Eritrea (near Massawa) (Pollonera 1898). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Indo-pacific brackish water species.
185773		habitat	eng	Beaches and brackish water pools.
185773		population	eng	No information available.
185773		threats	eng	No information available.
185774		conservation	eng	None required at present.
185774		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Dahlak Island, Eritrea.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Seychelles, Reunion.
185774		habitat	eng	A marine species that extends to brackish waters (e.g., mangroves).
185774		population	eng	No information available.
185774		threats	eng	None known.
185775		conservation	eng	No information available.
185775		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from mangroves of Dahlak archipelago (Eritrea).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Red Sea coasts. It was originally described from Arabia.
185775		habitat	eng	Found in marine-brackish areas (mangroves).
185775		population	eng	No information available.
185775		threats	eng	No information available.
185777		conservation	eng	No data available.
185777		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from mangrove swamps in Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Indo-Pacific coasts.
185777		habitat	eng	Found in mudflats and mangroves.
185777		population	eng	No data available.
185777		threats	eng	No data available.
185778		conservation	eng	No information available.
185778		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found on Bali, Indian Ocean and Pacific coastal and estuarine habitats. Within Africa, it is recorded from the Dahlak archipelago and Massawa (Eritrea) by Jickeli (1874) and Pollonera (1898) and from Djibouti by Morelet (1872) and Germain (1904).
185778		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Dahlak archipelago and Massawa (Eritrea) by Jickeli (1874) and Pollonera (1898) and from Djibouti by Morelet (1872) and Germain (1904).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Bali, Indian Ocean and Pacific in coastal and estuarine habitats. In mangrove forests and mudflats.
185778		habitat	eng	In coastal and estuarine habitats e.g., mangrove forests and mudflats.
185778		habitat	eng	It is found in coastal and estuarine habitats e.g., mangrove forests and mudflats.
185778		population	eng	No information available.
185778		threats	eng	No information available.
185780		conservation	eng	No data available.
185780		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
185780		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> This species is common along the Egyptian coast and hence logically should also  occur along the coast of Eritrea but there is no mention in literature. From the region only a single record is known (Laguna di Hordio, north Somalia) (Connolly 1928) <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Brackish waters in the Mediterranean Region, Red Sea and Gulf of Arabia (Brown 1994).
185780		distribution	eng	This species occurs patchily along coastal habitats in the eastern and southern Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as in Libya, Sardinia and Malta. In Egypt, it is found inland in saline lakes such as Birket Gessebaya, Birket Maragi, Lake Qarun and the Bitter Lakes (Taraschewski and Paperna 1981).
185780		habitat	eng	Found in brackish /alkaline coastal and near coastal waters.
185780		habitat	eng	This euryhaline species inhabits coastal and inland lagoons on fine, sandy or muddy substrates. It also occurs in saline and hypohaline lakes in the Nile Delta and has been recorded in the Suez Canal (Taraschewski and Paperna 1981). It can tolerate extreme temperatures (5-45°C) and salinities (15-90% S), although it cannot survive in habitats exposed to waves (Taraschewski and Paperna 1981).<br/><br/>This species is the vector of heterophyasis, an intestinal disease caused by the trematode <em>Heterophyes heterophyes</em>, which infects humans, cats, dogs, as well as other wild mammalian and avian piscivorous hosts (Taraschewski and Paperna 1981).
185780		population	eng	No data available.
185780		population	eng	This species is common in Egypt, reaching population densities of up to 500 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in some lagoons (Taraschewski and Paperna 1981).
185780		threats	eng	No data available.
185780		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
185781		conservation	eng	None known.
185781		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The taxon is known from south Egypt (Lake Nasser), Ethiopia and northern Sudan. <br/><br/>It is also common in the Egyptian Nile down to the delta. The type locality is the Nubian Nile.
185781		habitat	eng	No information available.
185781		population	eng	No information available.
185781		threats	eng	None known.
185782		conservation	eng	No information available.
185782		distribution	eng	The spcies has been recorded from  Lake Turkana in Kenya. Probably also occurs in the part of the lake situated in south Ethiopia.  It is uncertain if this is a species restricted to the lake <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu stricto</span> or that it is some alkaline tolerant species with a wider distribution. The second is more likely, since this species is missing from the extensively studied Holocene deposits in the basin (Van Damme 1976) and hence seems to be a 'new' addition to the Turkana fauna.
185782		habitat	eng	Found in alkaline waters.
185782		population	eng	No information available.
185782		threats	eng	No information available.
185783		conservation	eng	No information available.
185783		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species may possibly occur in Eritrea.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described by von Martens (1858) from the Red Sea.
185783		habitat	eng	Found in the brackish waters of the Red Sea.
185783		population	eng	No data available.
185783		threats	eng	No information available.
185784		conservation	eng	Further research into habitat and ecology are required.
185784		distribution	eng	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The subspecies is known from Sudan and Lake Nasser (Egypt).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Nile Delta southwards to Kenya and westwards to Senegambia, but localities widely scattered. The type locality is Alexandria, Egypt.
185784		habitat	eng	No information available.
185784		population	eng	It is common.
185784		threats	eng	None known.
185785		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.
185785		distribution	eng	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southeastern coasts of Africa. It may also be an Indo-Pacific species.<br/>In southern Africa it is known from a coastal strip (to about 5 km max in land) of Mozambique, Komati estuary and South African coast to Knysna.
185785		habitat	eng	A rock and mangrove dwelling species found in fresh and brackish water (euryhaline species). (Appleton 2002, Brown 1996).
185785		population	eng	No information available.
185785		threats	eng	No specific threats known, but habitat degradation and loss particularly of estuaries and mangroves is a likely threat. Another threat is the siltation of lagoons and estuaries which decreases tidal influence and the salinity of the water - this is mainly due to poor agricultural practices inland.
185786		conservation	eng	No information available.
185786		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterranean species occurring on the Balearic Islands, Spanish coast and recently recorded from the Mediterranean coast of Morocco in the Oued Mellah and Oued Smir near Tetouan (Ghamizi 1998). It is possibly newly arrived in Africa, but this is a difficult group which is hard to correctly identify.
185786		habitat	eng	It occurs in the brackish parts of the rivers. It is found in coastal species. It is found only in the mouth of small estuaries, not large ones, and only in shallow estuaries.
185786		population	eng	This species is common where it occurs.
185786		threats	eng	The water quality is threatened by urbanisation, and there is lots of tourism which is chasing away the local population, and will result in more pollution. There are lots of large hotels being built.
185788		conservation	eng	Protection of spring from pollution and degradation, avoid urbanisation around the spring.
185788		distribution	eng	<em>Mercuria zopissa</em> is a species recorded from Italy. <em>Mercuria cf. zopissa</em> is a related form recorded from Aïn Sfa near Oujda (Morocco) by Ghamizi (1998). Other nearby springs were checked and this species was not found.
185788		habitat	eng	This species is a crenobiont. It is found in springs, good water quality, clear.
185788		population	eng	Not abundant in Morocco - only in one spring.
185788		threats	eng	This species is threatened by pollution and degradation of its habitat because of tourism.
185794		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species has been found within an area protected as part of the&#160;Amazon Conservancy for Tropical Studies (ACTS) field station (W.C. Funk per.comm. January 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.</p><span lang="EN-US"><p></p></span>
185794		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Amazon Conservatory for Tropical Studies (ACTS) Field Station (at 102 m asl),&#160;65 km northeast of Iquitos, Region of Loreto, Peru (Funk and Cannatella 2009). However, it is thought to be more widely distributed (W.C. Funk pers. comm. January 2011).
185794		habitat	eng	This species was found in unflooded primary rainforest approximately 1.3 km south-southeast of the ACTS Field Station. It was found on the ground at night, in a linear clearing of forest called "lindero" (approximately 5–10 m wide) which demarcates a boundary between properties (Funk and Cannatella 2009). This species breeds by direct development and females&#160;lay pigmented eggs of approximately 1 mm in diameter&#160;(Funk and Cannatella 2009).&#160;It is also thought to breed in small empty indentations (approximately 2–5 m diameter)&#160;of the forest floor, which may fill in the rainy season, as no&#160;ponds, swamps, or lakes, were in the immediate vicinity&#160;(Funk and Cannatella 2009).
185794		population	eng	This species is considered to be rare at this site as only one specimen has been found at the type locality despite intensive surveys efforts in suitable neighbouring areas&#160;(Funk and Cannatella 2009). More inventories&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">at other sites in the Amazon would be necessary to determine if this species may occur elsewhere (W.C. Funk pers. comm. January 2011).
185794		threats	eng	<p>Illegal logging activities occurred in the area in the past, but there are currently no obvious threats to this species (W.C. Funk pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></p><p></p>
185795		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and it is not known from any national protected areas (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p>
185795		distribution	eng	This species is known from Provincia de Rioja, Region of San Martín, northern Peru, where it occurs on the steep eastern slope of the Cordillera Central between 1,980 and 2,180 m asl (Duellman 2004). The two known localities lie along the road from Abra Pardo de Miguel to Moyobamba.
185795		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species of cloud forest. Animals occur in association with small, rocky streams, where they have been found under streamside rocks during the day (Duellman 2004). In common with related species in the northern Andes, <em>H. aeruginosus</em> probably lays eggs on land; a parent then transports hatched tadpoles to quiet pools within streams to complete development.
185795		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.</p>
185795		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted geographic range, but there is no information on major threats. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis was first reported from Peru in 1998 (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2008), and has been responsible for severe declines and extinctions among Andean amphibians, especially of high-elevation, stream-breeding frogs with small ranges (Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010). It is, however, unknown whether this disease represents a specific threat to this species.
185796		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185796		distribution	eng	The only known locality lies north of the Rio Huallaga in the upper reaches of the Amazon Basin, at an elevation of 360 m asl. This site is approximately 16 km ESE of Shapaja in San Martín Province, Region of San Martín, Peru (Duellman 2004).
185796		habitat	eng	This diurnal species was found near a small stream in disturbed lowland rainforest, within a rocky ravine. This frog exhibits the reproductive mode typical of poison dart frogs, in which adults transport newly-hatched tadpoles to water to complete development. In the one recorded case, a male was observed carrying five larvae (Duellman 2004), but clutch size is unknown. Eggs are presumably laid in terrestrial situations, as is the case in most related species.
185796		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, which is known from only two specimens (Duellman 2004). There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185796		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range, but there is no information on major threats. Its occurrence in disturbed forest indicates a degree of resilience to habitat modification, but the extent of this tolerance is unknown.
185797		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and it is not known from any national protected areas (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185797		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Peru, where it has been recorded from a number of locations in the middle Río Marañón valley, at altitudes between 1,260 and 2,600 m asl (Duellman 2004). Known sites are all located within the Regions of Amazonas (Chachapoyas and Bongará Provinces) and Cajamarca (Celendin Province).
185797		habitat	eng	This frog is confined to rocky mountain streams of the Cordilleras Central and Occidental, in an area otherwise dominated by dry cactus scrub. It appears to exhibit a particular preference for the spray zones of waterfalls. Tadpoles of this species develop in small pool habitats (Duellman 2004). It is likely that this frog lays eggs on land and transports newly-hatched larvae to the natal pool; clutch size is unknown, but is between 12 and 40 eggs in related species (Duellman 2004).
185797		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185797		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis was first reported from Peru in 1998 (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2008), and has been associated with severe declines and extinctions among Andean amphibians, especially of high-elevation, stream-breeding frogs with small ranges (Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010).   It is, however, unknown whether this disease represents a specific threat to this species. Restricted as it is to aquatic habitats scattered through an arid landscape, this frog may be vulnerable to climate change if rising temperatures result in the loss of high-altitude streams.
185798		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and it is not known from any national protected areas (Aguilar et al. 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185798		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a site called Molinopampa (Chachapoyas Province, Region of Amazonas) in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in the Peruvian Andes (Duellman 2004). It has been found at an altitude of 2,400 m asl.
185798		habitat	eng	This species is known only from a well-vegetated, marshy stream in pastureland (Duellman 2004). It is known to have large, free-living tadpoles (Duellman 2004), and is likely to lay eggs on land in common with related species.
185798		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185798		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted geographic range, but there is no information on major threats. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis was first reported from Peru in 1998 (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2008), and has been associated with severe declines and extinctions among Andean amphibians, especially of high-elevation, stream-breeding frogs with small ranges (Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010).   It is,  however, unknown whether this disease represents a specific threat to  this species. It is known only from heavily degraded agricultural land (Duellman 2004). It is unknown whether this is a remnant population of a species at risk from agricultural conversion, or whether the frog is genuinely tolerant of this degree of habitat modification.
185799		conservation	eng	This frog is known only from a site within a protected area (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 2010), Cutervo National Park. No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185799		distribution	eng	This frog is only known to occur in a valley in the vicinity of Cutervo village, Region of Cajamarca, in the northern Peruvian Andes (Duellman 2004). It has been recorded from 2,620 m asl.
185799		habitat	eng	Frogs have only been found in small, rocky streams near or within cultivated land (Duellman 2004).
185799		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185799		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted geographic range, but there is no information on major threats. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis was first reported from Peru in 1998 (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2008), and has been associated with severe declines and extinctions among Andean amphibians, especially of high-elevation, stream-breeding frogs with small ranges (Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010).   It is, however, unknown whether this disease represents a specific threat to this species. This species is known only from an agricultural landscape, but it is unknown whether it is at risk from agricultural development.
185800		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185800		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites at the eastern base of the Cordillera Central. Peru, in the Provinces of Bagua (Region of Amazonas) and Lamas (Region of San Martín). It has been found between 500 and 520 m asl (Duellman 2004).
185800		habitat	eng	This frog has been found in association with streams, where it is apparently active by night. Animals shelter under boulders by day (Duellman 2004). The species is known from both disturbed (cutover) lowland rainforest and from dry thorn forest. Tadpoles presumed to belong to this species have been found in pools within a rocky stream (Duellman 2004).
185800		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185800		threats	eng	This species has a restricted geographic range, but there is no information on major threats. Its occurrence in cutover forest indicates some degree of resilience to habitat modification, but the extent of this tolerance is unknown.
185801		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and it is not known from any national protected areas (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185801		distribution	eng	This frog has been recorded from a single site southeast of La Peca, Utcubamba Province, Region of Amazonas, Peru (Duellman 2004). The known locality lies at 2,326 m asl, on the western slope of the Cordillera Colán.
185801		habitat	eng	The only known individual of this species was associated with leaf litter in high-altitude cloud forest (Duellman 2004). No life history information is available but it is presumed that, in common with related forms, this frog lays eggs terrestrially and has a stream-dwelling aquatic larval stage.
185801		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, which is known from a single female. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185801		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted geographic range, but there is no information on major threats. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis was first reported from Peru in 1998 (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2008), and has been associated with severe declines and extinctions among Andean amphibians, especially of high-elevation, stream-breeding frogs with small ranges (Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010).&#160;It is, however, unknown whether this disease represents a specific threat to this species.
185802		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
185802		distribution	eng	This frog has been recorded from a single locality at the eastern base of the northern Cordillera Central, in Provincia de Lamas in the Region of San Martín, Peru, at an elevation of 500 m (Duellman 2004). The site lies about 10 km northeast of San José de Sisa and 30 km SW of Zapatero.
185802		habitat	eng	This diurnal frog has been found associated with a rocky stream in degraded (cutover) lowland rainforest (Duellman 2004). This species exhibits reproductive behaviour typical of most poison frogs, in which newly-hatched tadpoles are transported to water by an adult attendant to complete development. In the one recorded case, a male was observed transporting seven tadpoles (Duellman 2004). In common with related species, eggs are presumed to develop on land in clutches of 12-40 (Duellman 2004).
185802		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. There are no known recent surveys for this frog.
185802		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted geographic range, but there is no information on major threats. Its occurrence in cutover forest indicates some degree of resilience to habitat modification, but the extent of this tolerance is unknown.
185803		conservation	eng	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, further research on population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.
185803		distribution	eng	In North East Africa: Ethiopia and Somalia (1st record). Also found in Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania.
185803		habitat	eng	Moist sites such as river banks, lake margins, near springs, in groundwater forest, on black cotton soils, in mangrove; occasionally on saline or alkaline soils
185803		population	eng	This species is rare.
185803		threats	eng	None known.
185804		conservation	eng	This species has rarely been reported and more information is needed.
185804		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185804		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.
185804		population	eng	No information available.
185804		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185805		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185805		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185805		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185805		population	eng	No information available.
185805		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185806		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185806		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185806		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185806		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 50% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
185806		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185807		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185807		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185807		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.
185807		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 100% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 89% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
185807		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185808		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185808		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a prawn-eater.
185808		population	eng	No information available.
185808		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185809		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185809		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185809		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185809		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 7% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 66% in 1978 to 0% in 1987. In 10 min trawls and large trawl shots carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08, and 1999-2008 respectively, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.
185809		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185810		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185810		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185810		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as an insectivore.
185810		population	eng	No information available.
185810		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185811		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185811		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185811		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. The species is a prawn-eater.
185811		population	eng	No information available.
185811		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185812		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
185812		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185812		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
185812		population	eng	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes decrease from less than 2 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, and then increased from less than 1 in 1993/95 to more than 30 for 2006/08. Although exact figures are not given, this was reported to be an abundant species during a large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf between 1999 - 2008.
185812		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185813		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185813		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185813		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185813		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s, and has not been recorded since 1980.
185813		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185814		conservation	eng	None known, but more information is needed on the range, biology and threats to this species, and the population trend should continue to be monitored.
185814		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Emin Pasha Gulf, Lake Victoria, Tanzania.
185814		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
185814		population	eng	No information available.
185814		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185815		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185815		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185815		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. This species is found over all substrates (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a phytoplanktivore.
185815		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 50% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, and less than 1% for 1993/95 and 2006/08.
185815		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185816		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185816		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185816		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185816		population	eng	No information available.
185816		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185817		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185817		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185817		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is a prawn-eater.
185817		population	eng	No information available.
185817		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185818		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185818		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185818		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185818		population	eng	This species has declined since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 41% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 96% in 1978 to 0% in 1987. In 10 min trawls and large trawl shots carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08, and 1999-2008 respectively, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.
185818		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185819		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185819		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185819		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. <em>H. cinctus</em> feeds on detritus and phytoplankton.
185819		population	eng	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 26 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. '75', Haplochromis sp. nov. 'dusky wine red fin'</em> and <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. 'nigrofasciatus'</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.
185819		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185820		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185820		habitat	eng	The species has been found over a sandy bottom in the sub-littoral zone, in a relatively exposed area. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185820		population	eng	No information available.
185820		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185821		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185821		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185821		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore. It is morphologically and ecologically partly molluscivore.
185821		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s.
185821		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185822		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
185822		distribution	eng	This species is known from three islands scattered across south eastern lake Victoria: Chamagati (Sengerema Region ), Makobe (south-western Speke Gulf) and Nansio (Ukerewe). At each of these islands, it occurs with moderate abundance. It is unclear why it is absent from many other localities with similar habitats (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
185822		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. It lives and forages exclusively on the surface of the rocky substrate, usually exposed to wave action, and has never been observed  or collected in crevices, and rarely in sheltered embayment (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). This species is an insectivore. Its diet consists of benthic invertebrates and periphyton.
185822		population	eng	No information available.
185822		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
185823		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185823		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185823		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. The species is a detritivore.
185823		population	eng	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 447 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis katunzii, Haplochromis antleter</em> and <em>Haplochromis cinctus</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1,004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.
185823		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185824		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185824		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185824		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It belongs to the trophic group of oral shellers.
185824		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased due to recent range extensions, as the species is adapting to new conditions in the lake.
185824		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185825		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185825		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185825		habitat	eng	There is no information known about the habitat requirements for this species. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information (the species is only known from the holotype).
185825		population	eng	No information available.
185825		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185826		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185826		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185826		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. This species is found over all substrates (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a phytoplanktivore.
185826		population	eng	The species was present in Lake Victoria in the past but the population has declined since the 1970s. It has not been seen since 1986.
185826		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185827		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185827		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185827		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species, only found off shore over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
185827		population	eng	No information available.
185827		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185828		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185828		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185828		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185828		population	eng	No information available.
185828		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185829		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185829		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185829		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. The species is a prawn-eater.
185829		population	eng	No information available.
185829		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185830		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185830		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185830		habitat	eng	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185830		population	eng	No information available.
185830		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185831		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185831		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185831		habitat	eng	The species has been found in the littoral zone, the sub-littoral zone and off shore, over sand and mud. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185831		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 38% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
185831		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185832		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185832		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185832		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185832		population	eng	No information available.
185832		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185833		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185833		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a parasite-eater.
185833		population	eng	No information available.
185833		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185834		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185834		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185834		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185834		population	eng	No information available.
185834		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185835		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185835		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185835		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a prawn-eater.
185835		population	eng	No information available.
185835		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185836		conservation	eng	This species has not been reported since the 1980s. More studies are needed to establish if it is still extant.
185836		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185836		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
185836		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 21% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 62% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
185836		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185837		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185837		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185837		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185837		population	eng	No information available.
185837		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185838		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185838		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. <em>H. plutonius</em> was believed to be a prawn-eater. At present this is uncertain.
185838		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s.
185838		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185839		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185839		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185839		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
185839		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 53% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
185839		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185840		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
185840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185840		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species has been found over sand and mud. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
185840		population	eng	This species has declined since 1980. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 6 in 1979/80 to 0.1 for 1987/88,  and 0 for 1993/95, rising to about 0.1 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a drop from a mean of 2,000 caught per hour in 1978 to 0 in 1987. Although there is no information from recent large trawls, it is not expected that this species has been completely eradicated.
185840		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185841		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185841		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information (the species is only known from the holotype).
185841		population	eng	No information available.
185841		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185842		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185842		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185842		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
185842		population	eng	No information available.
185842		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185843		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185843		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185843		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).
185843		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s.
185843		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185844		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185844		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185844		population	eng	No information available.
185844		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185845		conservation	eng	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.
185845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185845		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the sub-littoral zone, mainly occurring over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.
185845		population	eng	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes increase from 0.3 in 1979/80 to 0.7 for 1987/88, 4.6 in 1993/95 to more than 5 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed an increase from a mean of 0 caught per hour in 1978 to 18 in 1987. Between 1999 - 2008, although exact figures are not given, it was reported to be a commonly caught species.
185845		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).
185846		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185846		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185846		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.
185846		population	eng	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 15 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis katunzii, Haplochromis cinctus</em> and <em>Haplochromis coprologus</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1,004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.
185846		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185847		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185847		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185847		population	eng	No information available.
185847		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185848		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185848		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185848		habitat	eng	There is no information known about the habitat requirements for this species. It cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information on the species (only known from the holotype).
185848		population	eng	No information available.
185848		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185849		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185849		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185849		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a parasite-eater.
185849		population	eng	No information available.
185849		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185850		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185850		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185850		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.
185850		population	eng	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 91 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis cinctus, Haplochromis antleter</em> and <em>Haplochromis coprologus</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1,004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.
185850		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185851		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185851		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185851		habitat	eng	The species has been found in the sub-littoral zone and off shore, over sand and mud. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185851		population	eng	No information available.
185851		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185852		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185852		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185852		habitat	eng	No information known about the habitat. The species could be a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>), however this is not certain as the species is only known from the holotype.
185852		population	eng	No information available.
185852		threats	eng	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185853		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185853		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185853		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. The species is a prawn-eater.
185853		population	eng	No information available.
185853		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185854		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185854		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to island groups in the middle of the Speke Gulf, Lake Victoria (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).
185854		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to rocky substrates, living between 2 and 14 m depth (littoral and sub-littoral zone). It is a zooplanktivore.
185854		population	eng	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 6/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), but appears to be rare.
185854		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185855		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185855		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185855		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a prawn-eater.
185855		population	eng	No information available.
185855		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185856		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185856		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185856		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185856		population	eng	No information available.
185856		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185857		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185857		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the littoral zone. The species is restricted to rocky shores. It is classified as an insectivore.
185857		population	eng	Although the frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, it dropped to 0% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 10/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).
185857		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.
185858		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.
185858		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species from the sub-littoral zone. The species has mainly been found over mud substrate. The species is a phytoplanktivore.
185858		population	eng	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s, and has not been seen since 1986.
185858		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185859		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185859		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.
185859		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.
185859		population	eng	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 60% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 100% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.
185859		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185860		conservation	eng	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Tanzania.
185860		habitat	eng	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone and sub-littoral zone. It is unknown if it also can be found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).
185860		population	eng	The species has always been rare in the Mwanza Gulf area; from 1977 to 1980 only 45 specimens were collected. It is thought that the population has declined even further since the 1970s.
185860		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185861		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185861		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185861		habitat	eng	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.
185861		population	eng	No information available.
185861		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185862		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.
185862		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).
185862		habitat	eng	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. <em>H. erythrocephalus</em> feeds on detritus and phytoplankton.
185862		population	eng	No information available.
185862		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.
185863		conservation	eng	Very few subpopulations are within protected areas
185863		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis moorei</span> (including <span style="font-style: italic;">A. corbassonii</span>) occurs in small subpopulations scattered throughout most of the main island of New Caledonia, at altitudes ranging from 250 to 1,000 m. The current extent of of occurrence is estimated to be 7,394 km<sup>2</sup>. Herbarium records indicate that it was formerly more widespread.
185863		habitat	eng	A large emergent tree mainly restricted to areas of lowland rainforest that are mostly on non-ultramafic substrates.
185863		population	eng	The total population for this species is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals. Continued logging throughout its range is estimated to lead to at least a 10% reduction of the population within the next three generations, probably within the next ten years.
185863		threats	eng	Substantial declines have occurred in recent years due to overexploitation of the timber. Logging is continuing. An increase in fires and conversion of forest to other uses has led to increased habitat fragmentation  and a lack of regeneration.
186067		conservation	eng	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species and none are considered necessary.
186067		distribution	eng	A European species found in northern and central Europe which extends to Russia, and is not found in the Mediterranean, based on current knowledge. In Europe records include Norway, Sweden, Lithuania, France (mainland), Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Latvia, Ukraine, Bulgaria and UK (I. Killeen pers. comm. 2010) however, more countries may recognise the species now that it has been separated from <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium castertanum</span>.
186067		habitat	eng	In mainland Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium globulare</span> has been recorded from swamps, forest pools, wet meadows, littoral zone of small ponds and lakes, often in the floodplains of large lowland rivers. The habitats are often ephemeral, shallow and naturally high in nutrients.
186067		population	eng	As this is a recently separated species, the population trends are unknown.
186067		threats	eng	The types of habitat required by the species are frequently considered to have little conservation value, and thus, they are especially vulnerable to land drainage and pollution, water abstraction, changes in agricultural practice, and destruction and infilling of pools, however these threats are localised and are not considered to be problematic over the region.
186069		conservation	eng	None known.
186069		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mauligobius nigri</em> is apparently collected from coastal localities near Limbé, Cameroon and from island of Bioko. It has been previously reported as possibly entering estuaries, from Nigeria to Rio Muni and possibly also the Cape Verdes Islands. According to Brito and Miller (2001), the lack of reliable data for West African specimens suggests this species might be restricted to the Cape Verdes Islands and more likely a benthic inhabitant of marine intertidal zones.
186069		habitat	eng	<em>Mauligobius nigri</em> is a demersal species. It occurs inshore (Maugé 1986) and probably intertidal (Reiner 1996). The species has been collected in shallow water among large lava-pebbles under strong wave action, and smaller examples came from a boundary area between rocks and sand at 2-4 m depth (Brito and Miller 2001). According to Brito and Miller (2001), the lack of reliable data for West African specimens suggests this species might be restricted to the Cape Verdes Islands and more likely a benthic inhabitant of marine intertidal zones.
186069		population	eng	No information available.
186069		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
186071		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> However, the type locality for this fish is near a protected area in Agumbe. Further research is required to understand its population status, life history, ecology and threats.
186071		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Betadevario ramachandrani </span>is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and is currently known only from the west flowing river in the upper Sita River drainage above the Onakkeabbi falls in Karnataka, India (Pramod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).&#160;There are only two species of fish in the stream, the other one being a currently undescribed species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura</span>.
186071		habitat	eng	The type locality for this species (at 558 m above sea level) is a small, high-altitude stream with a cascade and riffle-pool habitat. The width of the stream is 2-2.7 m, the depth at most about 30 cm in the dry season. This area has a notably high precipitation, Agumbe receives an average annual rainfall of 7,640 mm. Substrate is mostly boulders and cobbles (Rahul Kumar pers. comm.). This fish attains 61 cm standard length (Pramod <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
186071		population	eng	No information is available on the population trends, but the species is quite abundant at the type locality.
186071		threats	eng	While it is known from only one location, over-collection for the aquarium trade is a potential threat to this species.
186072		conservation	eng	Currently there is no specific conservation action plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax malabarensis</span>. However, type locality of the species is in the protected area (Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary). Research is required on taxonomy to validate the species, population status, life history, ecology and threats to the species.
186072		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax malabarensis</span> is endemic to Western Ghats of India and currently it is known only from hill stream of Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (Urutty Stream, Valapattanam River drainage), Kannur District, Kerala, India (Gopi 2010).
186072		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax malabarensis</span> was collected from submerged crevices formed by large boulders in an upland stream (210 m a.s.l.), about 6 m wide and 0.5-1.5 m deep, flowing through a forest patch on the western slopes of the Western Ghats in Kerala. The stream bed was made up of pebble and sand with embedded large boulders. Riparian forest vegetation in the vicinity of the stream provided ample shade. Maximum size of this species is 55.2 mm standard length (Gopi 2010).
186072		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax malabarensis</span>. It is recently described and known only from the type series.
186072		threats	eng	No specific information is available regarding threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyptothorax malabarensis</span>.
186073		conservation	eng	No information
186073		distribution	eng	Probably endemic to southern Africa: South Africa, possibly Namibia, Botswana (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Free State, Northern Cape).
186073		habitat	eng	Sometimes in water but flowering in drying mud, 1345m. Annual herb
186073		population	eng	No information
186073		threats	eng	None known
186074		conservation	eng	No information
186074		distribution	eng	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal Province (Cook 2004:185)
186074		habitat	eng	Annual hydrophyte herb.
186074		population	eng	No information
186074		threats	eng	No information
186075		conservation	eng	It is not known whether the species occurs in a protected area or not. No specific measures are in place.
186075		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in Malela and Katala, Zambi and Angola. A lowland species. Potentially endemic, though distribution in Angola is not known.
186075		habitat	eng	This is a lowland species, found on the edge of small streams, in muddy areas.
186075		population	eng	Only known from two sites in DRC.
186075		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown but it is restricted to four sites which makes the species vulnerable to any disturbance.
186077		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>
186077		distribution	eng	Widespread species in tropical Africa from the west to Kenya and then it extends southwards to South Africa.
186077		habitat	eng	Annual forest herb, generally found on damp more or less shady ditch by track in secondary forest, also found by the river borders.
186077		population	eng	Widespread species, large size population.
186077		threats	eng	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture.
186078		conservation	eng	None known.
186078		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bathygobius casamancus</em> is only known from Banana, Lower Congo River and from a location in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere, it is known from Dakar, Senegal to southern Angola. It is also known from Mauritania (Harrison and Miller 1992), Cape Verde and the islands of Guinea (Miller 1990).
186078		habitat	eng	<em>Bathygobius casamancus</em> is a demersal species. It is an inshore species occasionally found in lagoons (Maugé 1986), found in intertidal rock pools and mudflats at high tide (Miller 1990). This is a marine species, inhabiting the intertidal zone, it may also enter brackish waters though (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).
186078		population	eng	No information available.
186078		threats	eng	None known.
186079		conservation	eng	None known.
186079		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Oxymormyrus zanclirostris</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.  It is not known from the southern tributaties of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Ntem River, throughout the Ogowe basin, including the Ivindo River, the Nyanga River, and in the Kouilou River.
186079		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
186079		population	eng	No information available.
186079		threats	eng	None known.
186080		conservation	eng	None known.
186080		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys matthesi</em> is known from the Lufubu River at Chipili and from the Kalungwishi River. It is probably more widespread than currently known. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lake Rukwa drainage, from northern Zambia and from Burundi and Uganda.
186080		habitat	eng	<em>Lacustricola matthesi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.
186080		population	eng	No information available.
186080		threats	eng	None known.
186081		conservation	eng	None known.
186081		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus macrolepidotus</em> is known from Kisangani upstream the Upper Congo River basin.
186081		habitat	eng	<em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus macrolepidotus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that prefers well-vegetated, muddy bottomed marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. It is a shoaling species which moves inshore after dark and migrates within rivers. It has been recorded to move up tributaries in shoals during flood season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds on invertebrates, especially midge and mayfly larvae and pupae taken from the bottom and off plant stems. It breeds during the rainy season in shallow vegetated localities; females carry up to 6,000 eggs (Skelton 1993). This species possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It has been caught with dipnets in the Kafue floodplain, Zambia.
186081		population	eng	No information available.
186081		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
186082		conservation	eng	None known.
186082		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Subgenus (Mesaphyosemion): <em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em> is known from the Dja system of the upper Sangha drainage (central Congo River basin) in southeastern Cameroon. In Lower Guinea found in the upper Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Boume, Boumba and upper Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon, in eastern Equatorial Guinea and in the Ivindo basin of northern Gabon and northwestern Congo.
186082		habitat	eng	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, swampy parts of shallow brooks and small streams under dark forest cover on the inland plains rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish.  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).
186082		population	eng	No information available.
186082		threats	eng	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.
186083		conservation	eng	No information available.
186083		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus radiatus aurantiacus</em> is known from parts of the Zambezi River system, from the Okavango River and swamps, westward and south-eastward flowing rivers of Angola.The presence of this species in the Lulua (Kasai) has recently been confirmed.
186083		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
186083		population	eng	No information available.
186083		threats	eng	No information available.
186084		conservation	eng	None known.
186084		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus radiatus radiatus</em> is widespread, from Uganda southwards including the Zambian Congo, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system in South Africa. It is also known from the MalagaraSi River basin.
186084		habitat	eng	<em>Barbus radiatus radiatus</em> is a benthopelagic subspecies. It prefers marshes and marginal vegetation of streams, rivers and lakes. <em>Barbus radiatus radiatus</em> is active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 1993). It feeds on invertebrates (Konings 1990).
186084		population	eng	No information available.
186084		threats	eng	None known.
186085		conservation	eng	None known.
186085		distribution	eng	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chromidotilapia guntheri guntheri</em> is in Lower Guinea known from throughout coastal Cameroon and Benito River in Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere it is widespread from Liberia to Cameroon and the Niger basin from Guinea to Cameroon.
186085		habitat	eng	No information available.
186085		population	eng	No information available.
186085		threats	eng	There is no information available on threats to this species.
186089		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species' full distribution.
186089		distribution	eng	<span>The species is found in the Indo-Pacific region, in coastal waters, estuaries, and the tidal zone of rivers from eastern Africa, the Andaman Islands, around the southern coast of India <span>(Nadu coast, Kerala, Goa; <span>Talwar and Jhingran 1991), <span>and to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Sumbawa; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, <span>Rainboth 1996). It has been recorded from the Mekong Delta by Rainboth (2005).</span></span>
186089		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters, estuaries and tidal zones of rivers.&#160;There are a few records from brackish and fresh waters.
186089		population	eng	This species is locally common in suitable habitats.
186089		threats	eng	No information available.
186091		conservation	eng	No information available.
186091		distribution	eng	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> L. Turkana.<br><br><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile, Chad,  Niger and Bénoué, Cross, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Sénégal.
186091		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. Feeds on zooplankton, Caridina shrimp, insects, snails and vegetation.
186091		population	eng	No population estimates
186091		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are overfishing and aquarium trade.
186093		conservation	eng	This species is found within protected areas, such as the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon (LeBreton, 2003). &#160;It is not recorded in the Mawne Forest Reserve, Cameroon; however it is likely to be present there (Foguekem and LeBreton, 2002). Further research is required to determine the impact threats are having on this species.
186093		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout West and Central Africa, from Guinea to Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, northern Cameroon and the Central African Republic (e.g. Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000, Schmitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Aremu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Ullenbruch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). During Ullenbruch's <em>et al.</em> (2010) exploration of Benin, this species was found in the Lama Forest in Southern Benin.
186093		habitat	eng	This species is found in savannah habitat (LeBreton 2003, Chirio and LeBreton 2007), as well as lowland primary and secondary forests (Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000, Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006,  Ullenbruch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
186093		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
186093		threats	eng	Between 1900 and 1985 the forests of Benin, Ghana, and Ivory Coast declined in mass by: 96, 83, 72 per cent respectively (Fairhead and Leach 1998). Forest loss continues at a rate of 1.17% per annum throughout West Africa (FAO 2009); therefore loss of forest habitat due to agricultural and urban expansion is the main threat to this species. In West Africa, such future habitat loss is most likely going to be caused by conversion of land for smallholdings and urban demand for woodfuel (FAO 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>
186094		conservation	eng	<p>This species has been found in Pia Oac Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province in Viet Nam. &#160;Further research into population numbers, distribution, and ecology are needed.</p>
186094		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China and northern Viet Nam, and is known from only five localities.
186094		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits high altitude grassland and secondary forest, up to 1,520 m a.s.l. in Viet Nam and up to 13,000 ft in China (Schmidt 1927, Walters 2008, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2010b).&#160;</p>
186094		population	eng	<p>Populations are small (with only a few specimens), and isolated in both China and Viet Nam.</p>
186094		threats	eng	<p>This species is at risk from habitat degradation and loss due to: shifting agriculture, infrastructure, and development.&#160;</p>
186095		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, its distribution coincides with protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p>
186095		distribution	eng	<p></p>This species is endemic to the northern Hengduan Mountains Region, in southwest China (Guo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006: 433). This area is west of Sichuan, and northwest of Yunnan (Zhao 2006). Recorded in Zhongdian (Shangri-la), Yunnan, China (Pan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Zhao (2003) reported that this species is found in Batang, Jiulong, Kangding, Xiangcheng of Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan. It is found at altitudes of 2,750 to 3,200 m above sea level (Zhao 2006).<p></p>
186095		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in a variety of habitats, including: brushwood, among grasses, under trees, or amongst rocks.</p>
186095		population	eng	<p>This species is hard to find.</p>
186095		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
186097		conservation	eng	No information available.
186097		conservation	eng	None known.
186097		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis batensoda</em> is extirpated. The species used to be found in Cairo during flood-time.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, Chad, Niger (including the Bénoué), as well as Senegal and Gambia basins.
186097		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in the basins, of Chad, Niger (plus Benue), Senegal and Gambia. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area covered here, it occurs in the Nile.
186097		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic species. Omnivore, feeds on plankton, algae and detritus.  May also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans and molluscs.
186097		habitat	eng	This species swims upside down with its belly facing upwards. Its specific name "batensoda" means black belly in Arabic. A surface feeder, feeds floating organisms i.e. mosquitoes, chironomid larvae and pupae, sometimes feeds on bottom organisms. It is provided with a well developed sieving apparatus enabling it to feed on planktonic and floating organisms. Its average length is 20 cm.
186097		population	eng	No available data.
186097		population	eng	No information available.
186097		threats	eng	None known
186097		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
186098		conservation	eng	No information available.
186098		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Hyperopisus bebe bebe</em> was previously caught from the entire Nile System in Egypt from Delta to Aswan.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the White Nile and Blue Nile, Chad, Senegal, and Niger basins.
186098		habitat	eng	It is a demersal and potamodromous taxon that inhabits both still and flowing waters, and breeds in the flood season. Food consists mainly of phytoplankton. It also feeds on molluscs and aquatic insects.  Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive. Fecundity value of 18,924 eggs has been reported for this taxon. It reaches a length to 48 cm.
186098		population	eng	No information available.
186098		threats	eng	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
186099		conservation	eng	No information available.
186099		distribution	eng	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus bynni bynni</em> is common along the Egyptian Nile, Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>Related to its global range, it is common in Lake Nasser, River Nile system, Lakes Victoria and Albert, the Murchison and Albert Niles and Lake Rudolf.
186099		habitat	eng	Males and females attain their first maturity at 55 and 60 cm total length. The spawning season extends from March to April. Food consists mainly of green algae, diatoms, blue algae and to a minor extent animal detritus, molluscs and insects. Its maximum length is about 75 cm.
186099		population	eng	In Egypt, Its catch firstly recorded during 1998 with 887 tones. Then the catch sharply decreased to 58 tones in 1999 and to 15 tones in 2000. Afterward the catch increased gradually to be 860 tones in 2004.
186099		threats	eng	The main threats to this taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.
186101		conservation	eng	The species has no protection. It needs habitat and water quality conservation, and maintenance of flows in streams.
186101		distribution	eng	Populations of <em>B. eutaenia-</em> like fishes occur in South Africa (Mpumalanga, Kawazulu-Natal) and Swaziland.
186101		habitat	eng	Wide habitat preferences from rocky streams through to vegetated margins of floodplains. Perennial flowing waters. Appears to be sensitive to habitat disturbance and pollution.
186101		population	eng	Fairly common.
186101		threats	eng	In South Africa, the species is affected by varied threats - flow reduction, sedimentation and pollution.
186102		conservation	eng	None known.
186102		distribution	eng	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This subspecies is widely distributed in western Africa, it is known from Senegal and the coastal basins from the River St. John in Liberia to the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon) and is also present in the Niger (Benue included) basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Sierra Leone to Lower Cameroon and Benito River.
186102		habitat	eng	This species is a benthopelagic fish that hunts macrofauna (predator).
186102		population	eng	No available data.
186102		threats	eng	None known
186103		conservation	eng	No information available.
186103		distribution	eng	This species is native to Africa. It is found from Lake Chad to Somalia and south to Kwala-Zulu Natal. It is usually the commonest member of the genus <em>Sesbania</em>.<br/><br/>It is widespread in southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded from Chad, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea.
186103		habitat	eng	Found at low altitudes on river or stream margins and lake shores, in wet or swampy ground, only away from water in areas of high and frequent rainfall. This is a perennial shrub, very common, specially above 1,000 m.<br/><br/>The species (<em>S. sesban</em>) is native to monsoonal, semi-arid to sub-humid regions with 500-2,000 mm annual rainfall.  Grows best where periodic waterlogging or flooding is followed by a progressively drier season (Cook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
186103		population	eng	This species is widespread throughout its range.
186103		threats	eng	None known
186106		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is may be present in marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include regulation of human activities in areas of coralligenous habitats and further inclusion in marine protected areas.
186106		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas within its distrbution. <br><br>Recommended conservation measures include regulation of human activites in areas of coralligenous benthic habitats and further inclusion of these habitats in Marine Protected Areas (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).
186106		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from northern-central Norway southwards, excluding the Baltic Sea but including the southern coast of the United Kingdom, to Gabon in the Gulf of Guinea, including Madeira and the Canary Islands, but excluding the Azores and Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, the species is generally widespread, but it is very rare in the eastern Mediterranean, where it has been recorded from Lebanon but not from Israel in the Levant. It is not present in the Sea of Marmara nor in the Black Sea. This species probably also occurs around the main Mediterranean offshore islands, but additional infromation is needed (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
186106		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present southwards from northern Norway, excluding the Baltic Sea but including the southern coast of the United Kingdom, to Gabon in the Gulf of Guinea, including Madeira and the Canary Islands, excluding the Azores or Cape Verdes. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, the species is generally widespread, but rare in the eastern Mediterranean, where it has been recorded from Lebanon but not Israel in the Levant. It is not present in the Sea of Marmara or the Black Sea.
186106		habitat	eng	This species lives in benthic coralligenous habitat. It also inhabits overhangs, rocky cliffs, and entrances of caves (Sartoretto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is a solitary species.
186106		habitat	eng	This species usually lives in benthic coralligenous habitats. It also inhabits rocky overhangs, rocky cliffs and the entrances to underwater caves (Sartoretto <em>et al.</em> 1997), and it can also occur over sandy substrates (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is generally a solitary species but can also occur in small groups. Its diet consists mainly of benthic invertebrates. (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008)
186106		population	eng	This species is considered to be relatively rare but as the habitat in which it lives is not generally trawled, few specimens are likely to be captured (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
186106		population	eng	This species is rare.  The habitat where this species lives in the Mediterranean Sea is not trawled, so few specimens are captured.
186106		threats	eng	The major threat for this species is habitat degradation due to siltation and water eutrophication. In the shallow portion of the distribution of this species, boat anchoring can also detrimentally affect the habitat.
186106		threats	eng	There are no known major threats. In the Mediterranean, minor threats may include habitat degradation due to siltation and eutrophication. In the shallower parts of its depth range, boat anchoring may also detrimentally affect its habitat.
186158		conservation	eng	<p>Most of the subpopulations of this species are outside protected areas, but many others can be found inside such areas (S.D. Biju pers. comm. September 2010).<br/></p>
186158		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from several geographical localities throughout Kerala state in India, such as Athirimala<span class="MsoCommentReference">, Bonakkad, Chathankod, Ponmudi, Kalpetta, Mananthavady and Sulthanbathery&#160;<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">(S.D. Biju pers. comm. September 2010)<span class="MsoCommentReference">. <span class="MsoCommentReference">It has <span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">also<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"> been found in Kiriparai and&#160;Kannikatti<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">, in Tamil Nadu state, southeastern India, and in&#160;Mercara and Galibeedu (12 km north of Madikeri in Coorg), in Karnataka state&#160;(S.D.  Biju pers. comm. January 2011;&#160;A. Goel pers. comm. March 2010)<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">. It is found at elevations between 180-1,425 m asl across its range&#160;(Biju and Bossuyt 2009).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p><strong><br/></strong></p><p>    </p>  <span class="MsoCommentReference">
186158		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, from evergreen forest to plantations near secondary forest fringes like roadside vegetation (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Individuals were found on leaves between 1 and 2 m above the ground (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).&#160;</p>  <span style=""></span>
186158		population	eng	<p>It is commonly encountered in the Western Ghats, except in Galibeedu&#160;<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">(S.D.  Biju pers. comm. September 2010; S. Molur pers. comm. May 2011),&#160;<span lang="EN-US">which is&#160;<span lang="EN-US">the southernmost point of this species’ distribution in Karnataka state.</span></span></span></p><p><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><br/></span></span></p><p><br/></p><p><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"></span></span></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
186158		threats	eng	<p>It is presumed to be tolerant of disturbed environments associated to forest patches since it can be found within plantations and roadside vegetation, which is being cleared annually (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).&#160;</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>
186159		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species (S.D. Biju pers.comm. December 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status,&#160;natural history and threats.</p>
186159		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Munnar (1,410 m asl), Idukki district, state of Kerala, within the Western Ghats mountain range in India (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Since this species has only been found at the type locality despite further survey efforts in neighbouring areas, its EOO its thought to be less than 100 km<sup>2 </sup>(S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
186159		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It occurs in disturbed sholas (Biju and Bossuyt 2009), a type of high-altitude evergreen  forest found only in the southern portion of the Western Ghats. Individuals have been found near secondary forest and tea and eucalyptus plantations after heavy rain, from about 1 m above the ground, from thickets of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Lantana</span><span style="background-color: white;"> or leaves of</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> Eupatorium  glandulosum </span><span style="background-color: white;">(Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).</span><span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span>
186159		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be a rare species (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).&#160;</p>
186159		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in a highly degraded area being used extensively for large-scale tea, eucalyptus and wattle plantations (S.D. Biju pers.comm. December 2010). The tourism industry in this region has also experienced considerable development and could be a potential threat to this species, although it is currently not very intensive (SD. Biju pers. comm. January 2011). While this species appears to be adaptable, its tolerance threshold to more disturbed habitats is not fully understood.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
186160		conservation	eng	<p>This species is not known to occur within any protected area, and the current habitat patches are not safeguarded <span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">(S.D.  Biju pers. comm. January 2011).<strong>&#160;</strong>The implementation of conservation measures,<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"> <span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">such as habitat protection, should be a priority (S.D. Biju pers. comm December 2010).<strong>&#160;</strong>There is ongoing research into this species' distribution and population size (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
186160		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi (980 m asl) in the Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala, India (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Surveys within suitable neighbouring areas have not been able to find it elsewhere and since this species seems to only occur in a single geographical locality and thus threat-defined location, its extent of occurrence is presumed to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> (S.D. Biju pers. comm. April 2011).
186160		habitat	eng	It is known from an abandoned tea plantation and nearby disturbed evergreen forest patches (Biju and Bossuyt 2009, S.D. Biju pers. comm. May 2011). Individuals have been found on tea plant leaves (average height of about 2 m above the ground), and on the ground, either on the surface of dead leaves or beneath leaves or logs (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984 in Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).    <p><br/></p>
186160		population	eng	<p>It appears to be common at the type locality<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
186160		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs is used extensively for tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations but more information is needed to fully understand major threats to this species&#160;<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">(S.D.  Biju pers. comm. January 2011).<br/></span></span>
186161		conservation	eng	<p>All the known subpopulations of this species are outside protected areas (S.D. Biju pers. comm. September 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.</p>
186161		distribution	eng	<span style="">This species is known from</span><span style=""></span><span style=""> Sims Park, a</span><span style="">&#160;0.12 km<sup>2</sup> botanical garden</span><span style="">, municipality of Coonoor, and </span><span style="">Kothagiri, </span><span style="">both in Tamil Nadu state, India, although it is thought that it could also occur in neighbouring areas (Biju and Bossuyt 2009; S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). </span><span style=""><span style="">Its altitudinal range is 1,780 – 1,850 m asl </span><span style="">(Biju and Bossuyt 2009)</span><span style=""><span style="">. &#160;&#160;</span></span>
186161		habitat	eng	It is known from a plantation and neighbouring disturbed forest (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Individuals were collected on leaves 1-1.5 m high, near an abandoned eucalyptus plantation next to Coonoor Sims Park (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). All specimens were collected during rain in the late evening (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). <span style=""> Given that the species is locally abundant and that it occurs in disturbed environments, this seems to suggest that it is tolerant to a degree of habitat disturbance. </span>
186161		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be locally abundant (S.D. Biju pers.comm. December 2010).</p>
186161		threats	eng	<span style="">The area where this species  occurs is used extensively for large-scale eucalyptus plantations, and there is also a developing tourism industry in the region (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).</span>
186163		conservation	eng	<p>This species does not occur within any protected area (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Habitat conservation should be a priority for this species, given its currently understood distribution. More information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and threats.&#160;</p>  <p><em><br/></em></p>
186163		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is known only from the type locality of Kaikatti (at 1,000 m asl)</span><span style="background-color: white;">, in </span>the Nelliyampathi Hills,<span style="background-color: white;"> within the Western Ghats mountain range in India (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Its AOO is thought to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated from the remaining suitable habitat in the area),&#160;<sup> </sup>its EOO less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>,&#160;and it is believed to be endemic to</span> the&#160;Nelliyampathi Hills<span style="background-color: white;"> (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span>
186163		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen forest patches (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Individuals are nocturnal and have been found in 1 m tall trees (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species is thought to breed by direct development (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).
186163		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be rare since it was only found in its type locality despite intensive surveys efforts in suitable neighbouring areas (S.D. Biju per. comm. December 2010). Its population is presumed to be declining (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).</p>
186163		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss and fragmentation due to small and large-scale agricultural practices and due to infrastructure development and construction for tourism over the past five years are major threats to this species (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
186164		conservation	eng	This widespread species mostly occurs outside of formally protected areas, but inside some informally protected sanctuaries&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. September 2010). It is usually found in disturbed roadside vegetation of secondary forests; thus, it is thought to be highly tolerant of human-induced disturbance (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><br/></span></span>
186164		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in southern Kerala state and it is also known to occur in Tamil  Nadu state, India (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). It is known from several geographical localities including Aralam, Periyar, Kakkayam,<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"> Chathankod, Palode, Bonakkad, Neyar, Ponmudi and Parambikulam–Puliyarapadam <span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">(S.D.  Biju pers. comm. September 2010), as well as from the foothills of  Agasthyamala,in Kerala state,&#160;<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">between  150 and<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"> 2,000 m asl, and from Mundanthurai (200 m asl) and Kiriparai (220 m asl), in Tamil Nadu state (Biju and Bossuyt 2009).<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
186164		habitat	eng	Individuals have been found within the vegetation of secondary forest patches from about 0.5 m above the ground and near a tribal settlement and in&#160;disturbed road side vegetation of secondary forests&#160;(Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers.comm. December 2010).
186164		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be one of the most common amphibian species in the Western Ghats mountain range in southern India&#160;<span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference">(S.D. Biju pers. comm. September 2010). Besides being a widespread species in this area, it is also considered to be locally abundant where it occurs (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).</span></span></p>
186164		threats	eng	<p>It is considered to be tolerant to human disturbance as it only occurs in highly disturbed habitats, where habitat loss is produced by logging and large-scale agricultural activities (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).&#160;</p>
186165		conservation	eng	<p>This species does not occur within any protected area (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Given that it is only known to occur at Kaikatti-Nelliyampathi, conservation of its evergreen forest habitat is a priority. More information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and threats.</p><p><br/></p>
186165		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Kaikatti-Nelliyampathi (at 1,000 m asl), Palakkad district, state of Kerala, India (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Its AOO is thought to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, its EOO to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is believed to be&#160;endemic&#160;to the Nelliyampathi Hills, as surveys in neighbouring areas have not recorded this species beyond its type locality   (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).
186165		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This species occurs in disturbed evergreen forest patches (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Males were found in the rain in a late evening on leaves about 1 m high and females were found on the ground on the surface of dead leaves (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).</span>
186165		population	eng	<p>This species is considered to be rare (S.D. Biju pers. comm December 2010). Its population is thought to be possibly declining (S.D. Biju pers. comm January 2011).</p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></p>
186165		threats	eng	<p>Habitat loss and fragmentation due to small and large-scale agricultural practices and infrastructure development and construction for tourism over the last five years are major threats to this species (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). However, it is unknown how much tolerance this species may have to disturbed environments.</p><p><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p></p>
186166		conservation	eng	<p>This species hasn't been found within any protected area and no conservation actions are currently known (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Given that it is currently only known from an isolated forest patch, protection of its forest habitat is urgently needed. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p>
186166		distribution	eng	<span style="">This Western Ghats species is only known from Andiparai Shola, municipality of Valparai in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu state, India, and it is restricted to elevations above 600 m asl (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Its </span><span style="">extent of occurrence (</span><span style="">EOO) is presumed to be&#160;less than 100 km² (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011). It is believed to be genuinely restricted given that intensive surveys in neighbouring areas have turned up no additional records.</span><span style=""><br/></span><p><strong><br/></strong></p>
186166		habitat	eng	<span style="">It is known from a forest patch&#160;(Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Individuals have been found during rainy evenings  on leaves or stems of undergrowth, 1-2 m high (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Juveniles have been found end of September on the ground under the leaf litter, away from any permanent water sources (Biju and Bossuyt 2009). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (S.D. Biju pers.comm. December 2010).</span>
186166		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be rare; it could only be found at its type locality despite intense searches throughout neighbouring areas (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
186166		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to expanding small and large-scale tea and cardamom plantations&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. May 2011). Forest habitat is quickly diminishing as a result of these activities (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010).&#160;</p>
187351		conservation	eng	<p></p><p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no conservation action for this species.</p><p></p>
187351		distribution	eng	The species is known from a restricted area in the borders between Greece and Bulgaria.&#160;Hubenov (2007), reports it from the mountain of &#160;Pirin (Bulgaria). According to the collections of HNHM this species is present in at least six sites in Greece and Bulgaria.
187351		habitat	eng	The species is mainly found under stones or piles of stones and limestone surfaces.
187351		population	eng	The species is rare in Bulgaria (Hubenov 2007, Irikov and Eross, 2009). According to the HNHM collection, in Greece the species is locally abundant (type locality). There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187351		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Fire and quarrying can potentially restrict the populations of the species.&#160;Considering&#160;that the species is thought to be relatively rare in the restricted region that it is distributed, then in the case of its habitat reduction or&#160;impoverishment&#160;a rapid decline of its population is highly probable.&#160;</p>
187352		conservation	eng	The geographic range of the species is not exactly known so research on the distribution is recommended. Some of the known sub-populations occur within protected areas.
187352		distribution	eng	This species inhabits southwest Bulgaria, east Rep. Makedonija and northeast Greece. According to P. Subai (pers. comm. 2010) the species lives in the Rhodope Mountains, and south from Plovdiv until the Greek boarder (Hvojna, Tesel, Narecen, Asenovgrad, Jugovo, Trigrad and Devin).
187352		habitat	eng	This species prefers limestone habitats, deciduous forests, is found rarely in pinetree forests and in open terrains.
187352		population	eng	Within its relatively large range this species does not appear to be rare.&#160;The population trend is thought to be stable.
187352		threats	eng	This species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modifications. Local sub-populations might be threatened by the complete or severe destruction of the vegetation (deforestation followed by erosion, mining, etc.). Considering the large extent of occurrence and the large number of sub-populations, local events would not affect the whole population significantly.
187354		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as&#160;Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.&#160;More research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species.</p>
187354		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, reported from south-eastern Peloponnese (Gittenberger 1984).
187354		habitat	eng	Little&#160;is known about the habitat of the species. It was found on a rocky slope.
187354		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of the species, but it is quite abundant.<br/></p>
187354		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There is no evidence for any direct current threats for the species in the near future. Nevertheless, further study is needed in order to assess the extent of the species' distribution.
187355		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;No conservation action is currently applied regarding&#160;<em>Monacha aniliensis</em>.&#160;</p>
187355		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, restricted to a small area in the north-western part of the country (Reischütz and Sattmann 1990).
187355		habitat	eng	The species has been found in a meadow (Reischütz and Sattmann 1990).
187355		population	eng	The species has a restricted number of individuals in its population.&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187355		threats	eng	The available information for the ecology of the species is quite restricted and there is no evidence for the species being under current or future threats.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187356		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). Although there are a number of areas in Crete included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.
187356		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, known only from a small area in Irakleio, vikariant with the ranges of&#160;<em>Orculella&#160;cretimaxima</em> and <em>O. fodela</em> (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187356		habitat	eng	<p>Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species has an average height of 7.4 - 9.3 mm and a width of 3.8 - 4.0 mm.</p>
187356		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
187356		threats	eng	<p>&#160;Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.&#160;</p>
187357		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas, especially, &#160;in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
187357		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, present on the islands of Antikythira and Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187357		habitat	eng	Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species has an average height of 5.7 - 7.8 mm and a width of 2.6 - 3.5 mm.
187357		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;The species is known from many places in the lowlands of Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187357		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
187358		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
187358		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, found in the western part of the island (Chania) (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187358		habitat	eng	Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of 4.2 - 5.9 mm and a width of 2.45 - 2.7 mm.
187358		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;The species seems to be quite common in the western part of Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187358		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
187359		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
187359		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, distributed in the eastern part of the island (Lasithi) (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187359		habitat	eng	Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;5.7 - 7.8 mm and a width of 3.0 - 3.7 mm.
187359		population	eng	<p>The species is known from a few localities from eastern Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p><p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187359		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
187360		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
187360		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, found in the central part of north Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187360		habitat	eng	Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;9.1 - 12.7 mm and a width of 4.0 - 4.2 mm.
187360		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
187360		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
187361		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
187361		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, and some nearby islets (i.e. Gavdos, Psira, Paximadia, Giannisada) (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187361		habitat	eng	<p>Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;3.6 - 4.9 mm and a width of 2.2 - 2.45 mm.</p>
187361		population	eng	The species is known from a significant number of localities (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
187361		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
187362		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
187362		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Crete, disjunctly distributed, usually at high altitudes (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187362		habitat	eng	<p>Usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;6.4 - 9.4 mm and a width of 2.8 - 3.5 mm. This species is found on&#160;in areas with limestone rocks, and at altitudes between 1,000 and 2,250 m.</p>
187362		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species may be among the most common gastropod species in Crete&#160;(Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
187362		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
187363		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there the island of Dia is included in Natura 2000 (site&#160;GR4310003), there is no conservation action regarding the species. Population studies are recommended.
187363		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the small islet Dia, which lies very near to Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187363		habitat	eng	<p>This species is usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;4.8 - 5.9 mm and a width of 2.0 - 2.3 mm.</p>
187363		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
187363		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
187364		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas in<st1:place u1:st="on"> Crete</st1:place><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
187364		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to Crete, found in the north part of central Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).</p>
187364		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;6.8 - 8.4 mm and a width of 3.0 - 3.3 mm.</p>
187364		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species. The species is know from a number of locations in the north part of central Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;</p>
187364		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
187365		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;Although there the island of Dia is included in Natura 2000 (site&#160;GR4310003), there is no conservation action regarding the species.
187365		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the small islet Dia, which lies very near to Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187365		habitat	eng	<p>This species is usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types. This species is an average height of&#160;4.6 - 5.1 mm and a width of 2.2 - 2.3 mm.</p>
187365		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;&#160;The species is known from a rather restricted number of individuals (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).&#160;</p>
187365		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
187366		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there the island of Dia is included in Natura 2000 (site&#160;GR4310003), there is no conservation action regarding the species. Population studies are recommended.</p>
187366		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the small islet Dia, which lies very near to Crete (Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004).
187366		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is usually found on the soil under stones and limestone rocks. It can be found in a variety of vegetation types.&#160;This species is an average height of&#160;4.0 - 6.1 mm and a width of 2.4 - 2.7 mm.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
187366		population	eng	There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;According to&#160;(Gittenberger and Hausdorf 2004) it is the most common <em>Orculella</em> species of Dia.
187366		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
187367		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerbale (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
187367		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, distributed in the central part of south&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese and in Evrytania (central Greece)</st1:place>&#160;(Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).</p>
187367		habitat	eng	<p><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</p>
187367		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated appear to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.</p>
187367		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span></span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p>
187368		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187368		distribution	eng	This species is found from the eastern coasts of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago to Japan, Palau, western Micronesia, Samoa, Tonga and southeastern Australia. It is excluded from the Indian Ocean, except for offshore islands of northwestern Western Australia and the southern coasts of eastern Indonesia, west to about Java. It is also reliably reported from Sagami Bay, Japan, western edge of Micronesia, Samoa, Tonga, New Caledonia and Montague Island, New South Wales, Australia. Although known from Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands, it rarely occurs on the central Pacific geologic plate (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187368		habitat	eng	A moderately small species, to about 144 mm SL.  Individuals are usually found at depths of 9-30 m. The species is almost always associated with living coral reefs. Juveniles are often found near black coral and gorgonians (Myers 1989).
187368		population	eng	This is a very common species. There is no population information available for this species.
187368		threats	eng	Degradation of coral reefs from climate change and coastal development are possible major threats.
187369		conservation	eng	This species is observed in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park through baited underwater video surveys (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007, Speare and Stowar 2007).  <br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (<em>Choerodon</em> spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all <em>Choerodon</em> species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).<br/><br/>This species is poorly known, as it occurs in deeper waters and has not been well-studied. More information is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, biology, ecology, and major threats.
187369		distribution	eng	This species is only known from four locations in the Western Central Pacific: Banggai Islands and Togean Island, Indonesia, Checkfield Bank, New Caledonia, and the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Allen and Adrim 2003, Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007, Speare and Stowar 2007). As this species is found in deeper waters, it is not well-known, but its distribution is likely wider than these three locations.
187369		habitat	eng	This species is demersal  and has been recorded at a depth of 30-82 m (Bogutskaya 2007). There is no information on this species habitat requirements, biology or ecology. The maximum size of this species is 10.3 cm SL (Randall 1997).
187369		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is a deeper water species, and has not been commonly observed.
187369		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. Although this species was observed in an underwater biodiversity survey and was identified as being susceptible to trawling given its depth and habitat association in the Great Barrer Reef (Pitcher <em>et al.</em> 2007), it is probably not threatened in many areas of Australia due to the depth (to 82 m) of its occurrence (Bogutskaya 2007) and the maximum size of this species recorded at 10.3 cm SL (Randall 1997), which means it does not the current minimum legal capture size of 40 cm in many areas of Australia (Queensland Government, Government of Western Australia 2008, 2008a).
187370		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
187370		distribution	eng	This species is found from Bali and Sumatra in Indonesia to western Thailand and to India.
187370		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse found in shallow water reef flats in rubble. It is found in depths from one to five m.
187370		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187370		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187371		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Given that is occurs in deeper water, it is unknown if species distribution includes Marine Protected Areas within its range. More research is needed to determine the population status, habitat requirements, biology and ecology of the species. Further research on the threats, utilization and harvest levels are also needed.
187371		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in the western central Pacific in New Caledonia, the Philippines (Parenti and Randall 2000) and Chesterfield Island (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).  This deep water species is not-well known, and its distribution is likely larger than these locations. The record from the Phillippines is the original description and is a specimen from a market (Parenti and Randall 2000).
187371		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and is found to depths of 70 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is distinguished by a pale stripe or a horizontal series of spots directed horizontally from lower edge of eye extending around the tip of snout and adjoining stripe from opposite site, an additional stripe located dorsally on caudal peduncle and below most of dorsal fin base (Westneat 2001). The maximum size of <em>C. margaritiferus</em> is approximately 11 cm SL (Randall 1997).
187371		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This deep water species is not commonly observed or collected.
187371		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.  Given that this is a deeper water species, it is unlikely that its habitat is threatened.
187372		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation actions currently in place for this species.  It may occur in protected areas, although this is unconfirmed.
187372		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Western Indian Ocean from Dhofar and Masirah Island, Oman.
187372		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depth of one to at least 20 m. The species is dimorphic, with the largest males reaching 43.5 cm and the largest females reaching 31.1 cm. Like many other species of Labridae, it is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite, but no primary literature could be found to confirm this.
187372		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is rare (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).
187372		threats	eng	There are no major threats currently known for this species.  However one of the paratypes for this species was purchased at the national fish market in Oman. This indicates that there is some degree of fishing effort for this species.
187373		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187373		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indo-Pacific from Oman and East Africa to South Africa, eastward to the Pitcairn group, northward to southern Japan and southward to southern western Australia in the west and southern Queensland including Lord Howe Island and Middleton Reef in the Tasman Sea. Records from Socotra Island and Yemen need to be checked to see if they are <em>H. sexfasciatus</em> or <em>fasciatus</em>.
187373		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse (up to 30 cm) characteristic of shallow sandy and rubble bottoms around coral reef areas with a depth range from 1-35 m. It feeds mainly on small crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms (Westneat 2001). Juveniles are secretive on inshore reefs. Large adults swim openly on reefs, singly or in small loose aggregations (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). There are no demographic data available. Spawning occurs in small groups in reef passes (Colin and Bell 1991).
187373		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187373		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and in artisanal fisheries. It is one of a large number of small widely distributed wrasses taken occasionally.
187374		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187374		distribution	eng	This species is known from very few specimens collected at only four localities, the Comoro Islands and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean and Okinawa, Japan in the Western Pacific Ocean (Gomon 2006) with additional records from Guam (Myers and Donaldson 1996). This species is probably more widely distributed within the range, however it is a deeper water species and not commonly seen.
187374		habitat	eng	This species reaches at least 177 mm SL. It is a deeper water species.
187374		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187374		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187375		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, the Visayan Sea region is known to have the most number of Marine Protected Areas in the Philippines (PhilReefs.org) and may offer protection to this species.
187375		distribution	eng	This species is found from Taiwan (Pen-hu) to the Philippines (Samar Sea and Visayan Sea). The range of this species may be larger than known as it inhabits deeper waters.
187375		habitat	eng	This is a small species, to about 137 mm SL. It is found in sandy rubble type habitats. It feeds on small polychaete worms, small molluscs, ophiuroids, shrimps and unidentified crustaceans.
187375		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known from only a few specimens due to deep water habitat.
187375		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187376		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187376		distribution	eng	This species is found in southwestern India (Parenti and Randall 2000).
187376		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sandy bays at reef margins.
187376		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from one specimen.
187376		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187377		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187377		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south-eastern tropical Atlantic only around Saint Helena Island. It was previously thought that it may also occur around Ascension Island, but these latter records are almost certainly a separate but closely related species, <em>T. ascensionis</em> (J.H. Choat pers. comm., Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Castagliola <em>et al.</em> 2004).
187377		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated, and inhabits shallow coastal waters near rocks and rocky reefs (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Although nothing appears to be known about its biology, like its congeners, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates, it is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).
187377		population	eng	Nothing appears to be known about the populations of this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2009). It has been reported that <em>T. sanctaehelenae</em> has very high abundances at their geographic locations (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
187377		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187378		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187378		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to the eastern coast of Africa (Kenya and Comoros Islands), Madagascar and eastward to Christmas Island (Australia). Records from the Comoros Islands are questionable since it might have been based on<em> B. tanyokidus</em>, which was thought to be a male of <em>B. opercularis</em>. However, species might most likely be found in the Comoros (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187378		habitat	eng	A small species, to at least 132 mm SL. It occurs at intermediate depths, specimens collected in 42-61 m on deep rock and coral reefs and along vertical drop-offs (Gomon 2006). It was collected in 32 m depth in the Red Sea (Lieske and Myers 2004).
187378		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187378		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187379		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187379		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea.
187379		habitat	eng	This tropical species inhabits sand and rubble substrates in shallow coral reef areas (Randall 1999). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Thresher and Colin 1986). It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.
187379		population	eng	Little or no information is available on the status of populations of this species. It is relatively common in the Red Sea.
187379		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in some local coastal artisanal fisheries.
187380		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187380		distribution	eng	This species is only known from southern India, near Pondicherry and Madras.
187380		habitat	eng	There is very little information on this species. It is presumed to occur in sandy bottom habitat.
187380		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is only known from the type specimen.
187380		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187381		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It is found in the Bai Tu Long National Park (Viet Nam) (Quan 2006), the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland Australia) (Sweatman 2008),Solomon Island (Weiant and Aswani 2006), Hoi Ha Wan, Tung Ping Chau and Yan Chau Tong Marine Parks (Hong Kong) (Cornish 2000). It is also observed in the Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve (Hong Kong) and the Watamu Marine Park (Kenya) which has eliminated fishing for more than 10 years (AFCD 2008) and 20 years (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2002), respectively. Spawning aggregation was observed outside the Great Barrier Reef marine park (Russell 2001) and elsewhere have been observed and reported. <br/><br/>Furthermore, the Government of Australia is currently revising the proposal of establishing a 400,000 square mile Coral Sea Heritage Park, where fishing would be banned, in the Great Barrier Reef (Underwater Times 2008).<br/><br/>While many marine parks/reserves have been introduced within the geographic distribution range of this species, in places like Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Philippines (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004),  most of these marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered to be poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced due to the lack of expertise, resource and effective co-ordination. For instance, some of the fish sanctuaries in the Philippines are only managed and enforced by the resort management (Tubod fish sanctuary) or local communities (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). As the efficacy of any legislation depends entirely upon its enforcement (Claydon 2004), the majority of these MPAs might not be able to provide sufficient protection (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187381		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in the Indo-Pacific,  and occurs from Eastern Africa and the Red Sea to the Line Islands, and from Japan to New Zealand. It is one of the most widespread reef fish in the southern hemisphere, found at equatorial regions ranging to 36° S (Ackerman 2004). It was also recorded in Pohnpei (Allen unpublished survey).
187381		habitat	eng	This species is diurnally active (Pawlik <em>et al.</em> 1988), and inhabits coral, coastal, rocky and sheltered reefs at depths ranging from one to 30 m (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001). In Hong Kong, it was found in areas of corals, boulders and bedrock along sheltered and highly exposed shores. It was observed singly or in groups (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>It feeds primarily upon small benthic invertebrates and fish eggs (Pawlik <em>et al.</em> 1988, Westneat 2001, Ackerman 2004), Randall <em>et al.</em> (1990) also noted that it occasionally consumes fishes. Juveniles are more abundant in coral areas where they remain close to the substrate, especially branching Acropora corals (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>No enlarged tooth can be found at rear of upper jaw, lateral line bends down below posterior portion of dorsal fin base with 25 pored scales (Westneat 2001). Small fish differs in colour from adults and possess a truncate caudal fin, whilst adults have a distinct lunate caudal fin (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Adults are bright green to blue with a vertical red band on each scale and most horizontal, red or purple lines on head, while small individuals are olive green on upper part of the body and blue-white ventrally (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>It is reported to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Robertson and Choat 1974, Ackerman 2004), where individuals change sex from females to males. Males were significantly larger and older than females of the same age. Male growth trajectory appears to continue increasing in size with increasing age, however, the increase in size with age for the females is markedly reduced in comparison. From age of three to five years the increase in size for mature females is relatively small. In the Great Barrier Reef, this species exhibited sex change at age of approximately three years and size of approximately 12 cm SL. Females were found to be mature at the age of one year and size of sevem cm SL, and few mature females were found to be remaining in the population beyond four years of age. The maximum longevity was 12 years (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975). <br/><br/>Cleaning behaviour was reported for this species (Okata 1994).<br/><br/>A general pattern of increasing longevity with increasing latitude was demonstrated in both the Indian Ocean and Pacific basins. In addition, it was found that reef exposure appeared to play a significantly role in shaping the life history parameters. Populations inhabiting in sheltered regions exhibited slow initial growth rates compared with those populations in exposed regions. However, the impact of reef exposure on the life histories is unpredictable (Ackerman 2004).<br/><br/>This species is not permanently territorial, it sets up temporary territories during spawning season. Pair spawning, involving a single male and female, or aggregate spawning in which one female and a group of males have been observed (Robertson and Choat 1974). In the Great Barrier Reef, spawning aggregations were observed in July and ripe gonads were found in August. Spawning events occur throughout the year at Palm Group Islands, Great Barrier Reef (Ackerman 2004). It uses the exposed habitats as spawning sites and spawn upon a strong current tidal effect, yet resides in more sheltered conditions (Robertson and Choat 1974). It was found that this species may move up to 500 m along a contiguous reef during periods of strong tidal movement for spawning purposes (Ackerman 2004).<br/><br/>Duration of planktonic larval stage was found to be 55 days in One Tree Lagoon, Great Barrier Reef (Brothers <em>et al.</em> 1983) and 46.8 +/- 6.3 days in Palau, Western Pacific (Victor 1986). The maximum recorded size of this species is 25-28 cm TL (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>At One Tree Lagoon, the Great Barrier Reef, overall mortality during the first year was 29% and average annual mortality 4.9% +/- 1.2 %, it did not show any significant relationship between mortality rates and population of the species (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975, Eckert 1987).<br/><br/><em>Thalassoma lunare</em> x <em>T. quinquevittatum</em> and <em>Gomphosus</em> species x <em>T. lunare</em> hybrids were observed in the wild (Allen 2006).
187381		population	eng	This species is common in reefs distributed throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific (Randall 1983).<br><br>In Australia, it was found to be one of the top fifth most abundant labrids (Fulton <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is found in large abundances along both the west and east coasts of Australia to as far south as Rottnest (32 °S) and Montague Islands (36 °S), respectively (Ackerman 2004). It is also one of the most common fish species in the Great Barrier Reef (Sale and Steel 1989), population abundant in the Lizard Island (Grutter 1995, Stewart and Beukers 2000), with a density of 13 individuals per 150 m<sup>2</sup> (Green 1996) and listed as the top ten most abundant fish species in One tree island (Caley 1995), density of 14 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> (Ackerman 2004), the Great Barrier Reef. It is found throughout both inshore, mid-shelf and outer shelf reefs on the Great Barrier Reef, temperate rocky reef systems and exposed, sheltered and lagoon areas (Ackerman 2004). In addition, schooling has been reported in the Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia (Hutchins 2003), density of 30 and 25 individuals per site were found at Palm Islands and Whitsunday Islands, Queensland respectively (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2003). In 2004, Ackerman found this species in the Solomon Islands (15 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibiting greater density estimates than both Lizard Island and Port Stephens. Whilst at the Outer Reef regions, off Lizard Island and One Tree Island, potentially had the least number of individuals. However, it is worth noting that new recruits were released for other experimental study in Lizard Island (Beukers 1996) and so might cause bias to the density estimation in the underwater visual census surveys.<br><br>In Kimbe Bay of Papua New Guinea, it was found to be one of the top seventh most abundant species with a total abundance of 6,816 individuals and a mean density of 3.28 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Srinivasan and Jones 2006).<br><br>On coral reefs of the Adang-ra Wi Islands, The Adaman Sea, mean density was 27 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Satapoominl undated). <br><br>In Fiji, a total of 353 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br><br>In New Caledonia, this species is the most common fish species, a total of 10,657 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-28 cm TL. In a total of 45 stations, 221 individuals were caught with total body weight of 1.7 kg (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br><br>In French Polynesia, a total of 23 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 100-200 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br><br>In Tonga, a total of 184 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br><br>In the Indian Ocean, it is the most abundant fish species in the Reunion Islands (Letourneur 1996). However, the most southern and northern regions (Abrolhos Island with seven individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibited the lowest estimates of density, whilst Ningaloo North exhibited a relatively higher estimates with 11 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>. <br><br>Approximately 27 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> have been observed in the Okinawan coral reef (Nanami <em>et al.</em> 2005). A mean density of seven individuals per 250 m<sup>2</sup> was found in Eritrean coastal waters, Red Sea (Daw <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br><br>It was found to be common in the Hong Kong waters (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 15.5 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br><br>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 3.67 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br><br>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.67 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).
187381		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is taken by fish traps, hook and line and monofilament traps and sold for food and is also collected for the aquarium trade.
187382		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187382		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea south to Inhaca Island, Mozambique and east to the Hawaiian (one specimen) and Tuamoto islands, north to southern Japan, south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and Austral Islands.
187382		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a wide range of shallow reef habitats.
187382		population	eng	There is a high level of population structure, possible presence of cryptic species. This is a very common species.<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of two individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187382		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade in some localities.
187383		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.
187383		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Hawaiian and Easter Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Lord Howe Island. <br><br>In Australia, it is known from the central Western Australian coast, around the tropical north of the country, and south to the central coast of New South Wales (Froese and Pauly 2008).
187383		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seagrass beds and algal-covered flats, occasionally in lagoon and seaward reefs to a depth of at least 30 m (Myers 1991, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Gell and Whittington 2002), and is only occasionally found in reefs (Myers 1991). It is a benthopelagic species and usually solitary. Juveniles are secretive in seagrasses or attached Sargassum (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), adults usually occurs in small loose aggregations, but occasionally form large schools to spawn. It feeds mainly on crustaceans, mollusks, sea urchins (Myers 1999) and other hard-shelled prey (Froese and Pauly 2008).
187383		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common througout its range, especially in algal covered flats and seagrass beds.<br><br>In French Polynesia, a total of five individual were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of 32-35cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In Fiji, a total of 148 individuals were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of  10-40cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In New Caledonia, a total of 673 individuals were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of 3-40 cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In Tonga, a total of 92 individuals were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of 5-50 cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In New Caledonia, 13 individuals were caught in four stations with combined total weight of 255 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187383		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is caught in multi-species fisheries, and occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.  Current evidence however suggests that the scale of its fisheries is generally small (e.g., Boer <em>et al.</em> 2001, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187384		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, individuals were found in permanent marine reserves of Southwest lagoon of New Caledonia (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/><em>Cheilinus chlorourus</em> was observed in the Tung Ping Chau Marine Park and Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong (Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>In Western Australia, several small no-take zones, Surf Point, Mary Anne Island, and Sandy Point are likely to encompass habitat occupied by <em>C. chlorourus</em>. There are totally eight no-take zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park, spear-fishing is prohibited throughout the marine park and proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks in the Dampier Archipelago (Penn 2002) where <em>C. chlorourus</em> was observed (Hutchins 2004). It is worth noting that marine parks in western Australia do not necessarily imply no-take zones, but may include no-take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on catch limits or methods used for fishing. In Queensland, there is a minimum legal catch size for wrasses of 25 cm and daily catch limit of five fish per angler (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2003). <br/><br/>In the south coast region of Western Australia, there is no minimum legal catch size for wrasse (Labridae), however the daily bag limit for the wrasse is eight fish per angler (Government of Western Australia 2008) and spear-fishing for wrasse (Labridae) is restricted in all marine park waters (Government of Western Australia 2000).
187384		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to the Marquesan and Tuamoto islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to New Caledonia and Rapa.
187384		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral reefs, coastal reefs and in areas with mixed sand, rubble and corals, individuals are also recorded occasionally in sea grass areas (Allen 2000) at depths of two to at least 30 m (Myers 1991).  Coastal reefs and sand lagoons inside outer reef areas (Kuiter 2006).<br/><br/>Coloration of this species is similar to <em>C. trilobatus</em> (Myers 1991) and colours are variable in intensity but always include black and white specks on body and white specks on pelvic, anal and caudal fins. Caudal fin of adult males have upper and lower rays prolonged as filaments, conversely, fin rounded in females (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Juveniles of this species are protected by living in live branching corals, such as ,i>Labrichthys unilineatus and so might explain the generally low mortality (Eckert 1987). <br/><br/>At One Tree Lagoon, the Great Barrier Reef, overall mortality during first year for  <em>C. chlorourus</em> was 25%, average annual mortality was 20.5 +/- 4.1 % (Eckert 1987).<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates including molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes and sea urchin (Froese and Pauly 2008).<br/><br/><br/>Maximum size of the species is 45 cm TL (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187384		population	eng	This species is common in much of its range, and can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>In Solomon Islands, this species is rare (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>In Micronesia, this species is moderately common in areas of mixed sand, rubble and coral of lagoon reefs at depths of two to at least 30 m (Myers 1991). <br/><br/>In Hong Kong, abundance variable but exists in reasonable numbers in some shallow coral areas and less abundant in areas of boulders (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>One to 25 individuals of <em>C. chlorourus</em> have been observed during visual surveys in 1998 and 2000 at Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia (Hutchins 2004).<br/><br/>2.306 +/- 0.156 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> of  <em>C. chlorourus</em> which accounting 9.8 % of the total percentage of the density of all piscivores of the western side of Lizard Island (14°40’S, 145°28’E) have been noted in Stewart and Jones (2001).<br/><br/>Fourty-one individuals were observed in the lagoon areas in Rodrigues, Mauritius (Hardman <em>et al.</em>, 2008) and  <em>C. chlorourus</em> is listed as common fish species in Taiaro Atoll (Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia) (Galzin <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 1,286 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 50-300 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 3,644 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 30-400 mm TL. In 29 stations, a total of 68 individuals were caught with total body weight of 2,203 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 1785 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 30-300 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 1,084 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 40-300 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 2.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187384		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is caught incidentally in the live reef fish food trade in some parts of its range, and is also collected for the aquarium trade.
187385		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187385		distribution	eng	This species is present in the west Pacific from southern Korea, Southern Japan, Ryuku Islands and Taiwan.
187385		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 190 mm SL. This species inhabits rocky reefs, in depths shallower than 100 m (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997). It lives in small haremic groups composed of one territorial male and many females, with individual body sizes varying considerably between and within species (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br><br>Spawning reported in October (Nakazono 1979) but more usually occurs from mid-November to mid-December with pair spawning occuring within TP male territories (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It forages in association with morwong, <em>Goniistius zonatus</em>, and feeds mainly on crustaceans and molluscs (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1999).
187385		population	eng	This species is very common on the coasts of the Sea of Japan, but rare on the Pacific coasts (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997). It is also rare in Korea (Kim and Go 2003).
187385		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187386		conservation	eng	There are no species speciific conservation measures in place.
187386		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia).
187386		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths of one to at least 30 m.  It is haremic, with one dominant male and several smaller females, and like other members of the Labridae is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite (unconfirmed in primary literature).  It reaches a maximum size of at least 31.8 cm, and feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187386		population	eng	There is no data available on population trends for this species. However, it is considered to be common.
187386		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. However, juveniles resemble a popular species (<em>Coris gaimard</em>) in the aquarium trade.
187387		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It is reportedly found in the Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve which is the only no-take zone in  Hong Kong waters (Cornish 2000). It is worth noting that the total area of the marine reserve is about 20 hectares which comprising less than 1 % of the total sea area of Hong Kong. <br/><br/>Currently, only the boat fishery and set-net fishery need licenses for operations in Japan, while recreational fishing is not included in the licensing system. More species-specific information on population trends and harvest levels is needed.
187387		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northwest Pacific, from Korea and northern Japan to Taiwan and southern China.
187387		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and is found near shore over pebble and sand bottoms to about 30 m depth (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kuiter 2002, Nakabo 2002) in temperate waters (Fujiwara <em>et al.</em> 1994, Sadovy and Cornish 2000). It is commonly found in the coastal waters of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikiko, Japan and is commercially important in Seto Naikai (Hashimoto <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/> <br/>Juveniles and females form small groups, while large males are often seen solitary (Kuiter 2002). It has been observed to hibernate in sand during winter months in Japan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>One annulus of each scale is formed once a year in hibernating period from Jan to April. It spawns in early summer from late June to July in Seto Nakai (Hashimoto <em>et al.</em> 1991). It is known that the central part of Seto Inland Sea maintains a high frequency of primary males (43%, Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic. Terminal phase fish have a green body with orange lines on face, orange dotted along the body and develop a large blue-black blotch above pectoral fin (Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991, Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The genus <em>Parajulis</em> is confirmed to be protogynous (Sadovy de Mitcheson and Liu 2008). It is reported to be diandric protogynous (Kuwamura <em>et al.</em> 2007, Sakai <em>et al.</em> 2007, Miyake <em>et al.</em> 2008). Large territorial males are derived either from initial females that change sex to male or from primary males into terminal phase males. Initial phase primary males maintain a higher testis to body weight ratio than terminal phase males who are derived from females (Fukui unpublished data in Sakai <em>et al.</em> 2007). Sakai <em>et al.</em> (2007) also suggested that the transition from primary male to terminal phase is closely related to the dominance relationship (size order) within social group. Sex reversal has been shown based upon observations of external transformation of sex characters and internal changes of the gonad (Okada 1962).<br/><br/>Specimens from Seto Inland Sea showed that species larger than 140 mm were males or regarded as males, but in another study, specimens collected from Tokyo bay measuring 140 to 150 mm were females and above 160 mm were observed to be males (Okada 1962).<br/><br/>Terminal phase males maintain territories where they form pairs and spawn with females, whereas initial phase primary males have been found to exhibit parasitic mating behaviour, which is known as streak spawn, in the territory of terminal phase males (Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991, Kimura and Kiriyama 1992). During spawning season, territorial phase males frequently make active approaches to females, swimming quickly and continuously erecting all their fins (Kimura and Kiriyama 1992). While initial phase males or females that are not in a reproductive state usually swim away from the territories (Sakai <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In a captive environment, Kimura and Kiriyama (1992) recorded continuous daily spawning and Kimura <em>et al.</em> (1998) found that it spawns from June to September during the period 0700-1100. Eggs of <em>P. poecilepterus</em> are buoyant and spherical with colorless yolk filled and a single oil globule. The diameter is approximately 0.67-0.72 mm while the diameter of the oil globule is around 0.13-0.16 mm (Kimura <em>et al.</em> 1998). Maximum size of this species is 34 cm TL (Masuda <em>et al.</em>, 1984).
187387		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common in some parts of its range.<br><br>It is a common labrid in temperate waters around Japan (Kinoshita 1936, Okada 1962, Nakazono 1979, Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991, Kimura and Kiriyama 1992, Kobayashi and Suzuki 1994). More than 438 individuals have been observed in an underwater visual survey with 360 transects at Nagahama, Kyoto (Masuda 2008).<br><br>It is rare in Hong Kong, only few fish have been observed in areas of boulders and bedrock between three and 20 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br><br>There are no quantitative data on the populations of this species in Korea Republic and Taiwan.
187387		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for commercial and recreational fisheries in Japan.
187388		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187388		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern Australia, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs and New Caledonia.
187388		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand and rubble areas of reef channels and seaward coral reefs in depths from one to at least 27 m.  It reaches a maximum known size of 10 cm.
187388		population	eng	There is no explicit information on population trends available for this species, however it is considered common by most accounts.
187388		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.
187389		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187389		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northeastern Sulawesi to the Banggai Islands, and Palau.
187389		habitat	eng	This species occurs on open hard-bottom substrates with algae and sparse coral growth, usually in strong current zones between depths of 15 to 40 m.
187389		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187389		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade sometimes with the use of cyanide solution in Indonesia.
187390		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187390		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Suez, Hurghada (Ghardaqa) in northern Red Sea, Gulf of Aden off the northern coast of Somalia, and Persian Gulf, Bahrain.
187390		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 100 mm SL. Small aggregations of juveniles were observed in 25 m on open sand adjacent to coral reefs, but adults may prefer deeper water (Kuiter 2002).
187390		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is fairly common.
187390		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187391		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187391		distribution	eng	This species is only known conclusively from the Kyushu-Palau Ridge east of Okinawa, Japan.
187391		habitat	eng	This is a small species, reaching a length of at least 148 mm SL. It occurs in deeper water, specimens collected at depths of between 320 and 395 m.
187391		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
187391		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187392		conservation	eng	This species is protected from spearfishing, but not line fishing around Lord Howe Island (where there is a bag limit of one fish per day). It occurs within Marine Protected Areas around parts of Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef, and at Middleton Reef, where it is totally protected. <br/><br/>As it has such a restricted distributional range and is only present at low densities in most areas, more effective conservation management is needed for the species, as well as further information on these and other aspects of its biology and ecology.
187392		distribution	eng	This Australian endemic species is known only from several small isolated islands and reefs in the northern Tasman Sea (including Lord Howe Island, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, and Norfolk Island), though a single specimen was also apparently recorded off Byron Bay on the mainland coastline of northern New South Wales in eastern Australia (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has a total area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
187392		habitat	eng	This sub-tropical species inhabits coral, coral rubble and sand substrates in coral reef areas, including lagoonal and reef slope environments (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also known from shallow rocky reef habitats (Lieske and Myers 1994), and the young have been collected from tidepools (Randall 1999).   <br/><br/>This species is an active forager which feeds mainly on molluscs and crabs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It occurs in schools, with the largest male being the dominant individual (Kuiter 1993), and large groups can be found in back reef habitats (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Preliminary ageing studies have indicated that fish between around 40 and 65 cm were between six and 19 years of age (D. Ferrell pers comm., Ferrell 2005). The maximum size of fish found at Middleton and Elizabeth reefs was ~65 cm, with estimated ages of up to 21 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006). The angling record for this species was 6.35 kg (Randall and Kuiter 1982).
187392		population	eng	There is little or no information available on the status of populations of this species, though it is relatively common in restricted habitats at Lord Howe Island and off the southern part of Elizabeth Reef, in both of which areas it is fished. Populations around Middleton reef are nominally totally protected in a Marine Protected Area, and the species is rare at Norfolk Island.<br/><br/>Densites at Middleton Reef averaged 3.3 fish per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>, with 2.1-2.9 fish per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in exposed reef habitats and 4.5-5.3 fish per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in back reef and lagoonal habitats. Juveniles were only found there in shallow lagoonal waters (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187392		threats	eng	This species is targeted locally for food in recreational line fisheries, particularly at Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef where in addition to Middleton Reef, most of its population may be found.
187393		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187393		distribution	eng	This species is found from Oman to Tanzania in Eastern Africa to western Thailand, including the Andaman Islands and northern Sumatra.
187393		habitat	eng	This species occurs along reef margins on rubble, algae or coral zones at about 20-40 m depth (Kuiter 2002), and also on outer reef slope from 12 to 35 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994). Females gather in small groups and males swim around them, often moving from one area to another between groups of females, while small juveniles are secretive and often appear singly or in small groups amongst the rubble (Kuiter 2002).
187393		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in the Seychelles.
187393		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187394		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187394		distribution	eng	This species is known in the Indo-Pacific from Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, and Australia (including Western Australia). It is also found in Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs and New Caledonia.
187394		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths of 10 to at least 30 m. It has been recorded in shallow estuaries or lagoons, but appears more common in depths below 20 m. It reaches a maximum size of about 12 cm. Juvenilles are associated with sand living anemones (e.g. <em>Stichodactyla haddoni</em>).
187394		population	eng	There are no data on population trends for this pecies. It is a common species in appropriate habitat.
187394		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species.
187395		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187395		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Zanzibar to the Hawaiian Islands. In the Indian Ocean it is found from Zanzibar, Mauritius, Maldive Is, and Chagos Archipelago.  In the western Pacific, it is found north to the Ryukyus, eastwards to Hawaii, and south to Lord Howe Island, Australia (Randall and Earle 2002).
187395		habitat	eng	This species lives on open, clean, sandy areas of lagoon and seaward slopes (Lieske and Myers 1994). In Hawaii, it is widely distributed in suitable sandy habitat, it is more common in depths of about 15 m in aggregations (Randall and Earle 2002).
187395		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It can be common in open sandy habitat.
187395		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187396		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species has been observed at protected areas on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Hutchins and Sawinston 1996), at Ras Mohammed National Park, Egypt (Bshary 2003) and in the Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania (Garpe and Öhman 2003). Given the intensive collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is needed on the local and global impact of collection, as well as on the implementation of sustainable harvest and trade measures.
187396		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from southern and eastern Africa and the Red Sea to the Tuamotus in the south Pacific, and from southern Japan to the southern Great Barrier Reef and south-western Australia.
187396		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral rich areas and subtidal reef flats to seaward reefs to depths of at least 40 m. It is widely reported to be a monandric hermaphrodite but further confirmed to display bi-directional sex-change, exhibits socially controlled sex reversal and lives in single-male, multiple female social groups (Kuwamura 1984, Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Kuwamura <em>et al.</em> 2002, Sadovy de Mitcheson and Liu 2008). Males exhibit territoriality and the largest, oldest individual is a male which dominates all the females in the group (Robertson 1972, Nakashima <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>It feeds on crustaceans ectoparasites and mucus of fishes which gather at specific cleaning ‘stations’ for attention (Pott 1973). Males and females are the same in colour, juveniles are black with a single blue stripe running from snout to the upper part of caudal fin.<br/><br/>It is active in daytime and is reported to be able to produce a protective mucous cocoon at night. Seasonal fluctuation of the activity rate has been observed with almost all individuals always active during late spring and early summer (Kuwamura 1981).<br/><br/>In Japan, spawning occurred within 4-5 months of the year, from late May to early September. Larvae of about 1.8 mm in total length hatch at 30 hours after spawning (Kuwamura 1981).<br/><br/>This species is monochromatic, spawns in harem. Spawning ascent distance was about three m with rapid ascending speed. Spawning activities were seen in March, May, June and November at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991). The size of eggs is approximately 0.64 mm and spherical in shape. Eggs contained multiple oil globules<br/><br/>Maximum size of species has been recorded at 22 cm (TL) in New Caledonia and maturity is reached at a size of about six cm TL (Kuwamura 1981,  M. Kulbicki pers. comm.). All of the larger adults have an almost completely developed ventroanterior hook in the caudal fin. Maximum lifespan is estimated to be four years (Allsop and West 2003) and minimum population doubling time is approximately 1.4-4.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2008).<br/><br/>It shows cleaning behaviour, which only occurs during the day and particularly in the early morning (Grutter 1996). In captivity it is affected by abundance and size-frequency distribution of the monogenean parasites on the host of fishes, which was more pronounced on larger fish than on small fish (Grutter <em>et al.</em> 2002). It spends 60 to 154 more times cleaning larger fishes (> 12.5 cm SL) than medium (9.5 to 12.5 cm SL) or small sized fish (< 9.5 cm SL). In the Great Barrier Reef, it was found to spend 256 +/- min per day cleaning 2297 +/- 83 fish (Grutter 1996) from over 132 species (Grutter and Poulin 1998). In New Caledonia, it spent 26% of its time inspecting a large number of fish (59.5 +/- 5.1 per 15 minute) (Grutter 1999).<br/><br/>It consumes a large number of parasites (1218 +/- 118) each day or 4.8 +/- 0.4 parasites per minute (Grutter 1996) and most of the prey items were juvenile gnathiid isopods (Grutter 1997). The biomass of gnathiids in the diet in New Caledonia was lower than at Lizard Island, but higher than at Heron Island, suggesting that the role of gnathiids in cleaning behaviour is variable (Grutter 1999).<br/><br/>At One Tree Lagoon on the Great Barrier Reef, overall mortality during first year for <em>L. dimidiatus</em> was 50%, juveniles do not shelter within the substratum and displayed relatively high mortality over the first twelve months (Eckert 1987). The average annual mortality of<em>L. dimidiatus</em> was 11.1 +/- 2.2 %.
187396		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>It is common in the southern coral areas of the Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Kataoka <em>et al.</em> 1970), on the inshore rocky reefs, whereas it does not live on the sand or pebble areas (Kuwamura 1981). The populations increased in summer and autumn, but decreased in winter, sometimes nearly zero. About 0.9 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> have been recorded at rocky reefs at Shirahama (Kuwamura 1981). <br/><br/>It is common in the Capricorn/ Bunker Group, One Tree and Heron Islands and Wistari Reef, Fairfax, Fitzroy, Llewellyn and Musgrave Islands on the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.77 recruits per 100m<sup>2</sup> (Eckert 1984).<br/><br/>In Australia, it was found to be one of the most abundant labrids at Lizard Island, GBR (three individuals per 150 m<sup>2</sup>) and occurred in similar densities in all habitat zones (Green 1996).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, it is common in shallow areas of boulders and coral areas, but never abundant (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 475 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-17 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 1,407 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-22 cm TL. In 31 stations, a total of 58 individuals were caught with a total weight of 242.1 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 568 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 205 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-11 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Mean density was 1.5 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> on coral reefs of the Adang-ra Wi Islands in the Adaman Sea (Satapoomin undated). <br/><br/>It is common at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991), Solomon Islands (Allen 2006) and in the Red Sea (Richard and Field 1998).<br/><br/>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 4.55 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187396		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade and there are occuring coral habitat degradation in parts of its range.
187397		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include regulation of human activities in area of coralligenous habitats and further inclusion in marine protected areas.
187397		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Recommended conservation measures include regulation of human activites in areas of coralligenous habitats and the further inclusion of these habitats in Marine Protected Areas (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).
187397		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from south of Norway to Senegal, including UK, Ireland, Azores, Madeira Islands, and the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is widespread in the northern and western portions of the Mediterranean and common in Cyprus but absent in the south-east Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Lebanon and Syria (M. Bariche pers. comm.).
187397		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway southwards to Senegal, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is widespread in the northern and western Mediterranean and common in Cyprus, but absent from the south-eastern Levant, including Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Lebanon and Syria (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187397		habitat	eng	This species is mainly associated with coralligenous habitats, and particularly gorgonians. In the Azores (and probably in other Macaronesian islands), adults live bellow 50 m depth, only juveniles being sporadically found in shallower waters (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). It is usually either solitary or found living in pairs in the case of younger individuals in the Mediterranean and also in the Azoreas (P. Afonso, pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It mainly feeds on crustaceans, but may also consume small fishes and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986). <br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and sex reversal is completed in seven months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Lönnberg and Gustafson 1937). It displays  marked sexual colour dimorphism, and in  the breeding season builds nests of seaweed (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187397		habitat	eng	This species is mainly associated with coralligenous habitats and particularly gorgonians. The depth range is from 20-200 m. This species is usually solitary or in pairs with young individuals. It builds nests of algae or seaweed.  It mainly feeds on crustaceans but also feeds on fishes and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986). Sex reversal is completed in 7 months (Lönnberg and Gustafson 1937, Sadovy and Shapiro 1987).
187397		population	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. The population is stable in Turkey (Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>It is frequent but very minor catches in the Azores indicate that this species occurs in low numbers but is widespread and probably stable in its preferred habitat (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187397		population	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. The population is stable in Turkey (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007).
187397		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is habitat degradation due to eutrophication. Other lesser threats to its habitat are boat anchoring, bottom gear and diving activities that may destroy gorgonian corals. Habitat degradation is primarily a threat in the shallower areas of the distribution of this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>The larger individuals of this species may be caught and used as a food fish in the Mediterranean Sea and the Macaronesian islands. It is commonly caught in trammel nets in Cyprus (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). In spite of the reduced catches, this may present a threat in the future given the intrinsic factors such as the low density and the sexuality of the species (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187397		threats	eng	The largest threat to this species is habitat degradation through eutrophication. Other lesser threats to the habitat are boat anchors and diving activities that destroy gorgonian corals. Habitat degradation is primarily a threat in the shallow regions of the distribution of this species.<br/><br/>The larger individuals of this species may be caught and used as a food fish in the Mediterranean Sea.
187398		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187398		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway to Morocco, including the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens and the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there are some questionable records from the Adriatic and Marmara Seas and elsewhere (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is absent from the Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187398		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in inshore waters (10-20 m depth) around rocks, offshore reefs and amongst seaweeds. Young individuals are often found in intertidal areas. It feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986).<br/><br/>All individuals are born females, and they change sex when they are between four and 14 years old (Muus and Nielsen 1999). One (or more) females spawn in a nest built of algae by the male in a rocky crevice. The male guards the nest for one to two weeks until the eggs hatch (Muus and Nielsen 1999). The larvae are pelagic.
187398		population	eng	There was apparently a decrease in the Turkish population during the 1970s (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007) but this may have been misidentifications of <em>L. viridis</em>.
187398		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187399		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. Two thirds of its range is protected by the Papahanaumokuakea marine national monument.
187399		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
187399		habitat	eng	This species inhabits quiet sandy bottoms beyond the reef in depths from 6-76 m (Mundy 2005). In Hawaii, adult females maintain separate territories within the larger territory of a dominant male, spawning behaviour reported by Randall and Earle (2002).
187399		population	eng	This species is locally common, with the most abundant species at Kahe Point, Oahu (Randall and Earle 2002).
187399		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187400		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187400		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Northern Australia (Allen and Swainston 1988) and southern Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987).
187400		habitat	eng	This species inhabits flat sandy or weedy areas. It is found between 10-40 m depth. The maximum length of this species is 20 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Allen and Swainston 1988).
187400		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is not uncommon.
187400		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally captured in prawn trawls in Northern Australia which may also may have detrimental effects on the habitat.
187401		conservation	eng	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Brazil. There is a quota of 1,000 individuals/company for each species of this genus targeted for the aquarium trade in Brazil in place since 2004 (IN 202/2008). More research is recommended on this species population trends and habitat status, particularly as not much is known about the deeper habitats where the adults are generally found.
187401		distribution	eng	This species occurs from French Guiana to the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil.
187401		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found from three to 60 m depth, and also occurs in rubble areas. Juveniles up to eight cm act as specialized cleaners. Each individual tends a defined cleaning station sought by several species of reef fishes including damselfishes, goatfishes, and surgeonfishes. At the cleaning station this wrasse swims in a characteristic seesaw motion (Sazima and Gasparini 1998).
187401		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be naturally rare, except in the islands of Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas. <br><br>Temporal trends from 2003-2006 based on stationary UVC in the offshore reefs of the Abrolhos Bank, eastern Brazil show densities of 0.035 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2003, 0.03 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2004, 0.025 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2005 and 0.05 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2006 (Francini-Filho and Moura unpublished data).
187401		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187402		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187402		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Japan, the Ryuku Islands to the south China Sea (Mohsin and Ambak 1996)  including Taiwan, south Vietnam and Tioman Island, Malaysia (Randall and Jonsson 2008).
187402		habitat	eng	This species lives on sandy bottoms.
187402		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187402		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
187403		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007). The occurrence in marine protected areas should be monitored.
187403		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia (eastern Peninsula and Sabah), the Philippines, northern Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. It has also been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef (Westneat 2001).
187403		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small to large groups along deep slopes or on slopes at the base of drop-offs, usually at depths of five m or more, but generally most common at about 25 m depth (Kuiter 2002). <em>P. filamentosus</em> also occurs in rubble areas and on the outer reef slope, occasionally seen in lagoons (Allen 2000), and feeds on zooplankton and other benthic invertebrate (Froese and Pauly 2008).<br/><br/>Males display to each other or to gravid females to spawn, flashing their colours whilst ‘racing’ past with erected fins (Kuiter 2002). During spawning, one or two males accompanied by a group of smaller females repeatedly formed tight aggregations a short distance above the substratum (Allen 1974). This was followed by a rapid vertical dash for a short distance, and an abrupt return to the bottom with the fish releasing a visible cloud of milt and eggs at the apex of the ascent (Allen 1974). <br/><br/>Colour variation exists for nuptial males, which are influenced by the presence of similar species (Froese and Pauly 2008). <br/><br/>The maximum size of this species is 15 cm SL (10 cm excluding the filaments (Kuiter 2002)).
187403		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in some areas, it is considered occasional in eastern peninsular Malaysia.<br><br>From a 72-hour UVC using SCUBA in Indonesia, <em>P. filamentosus</em> was occasionally observed from 10 to 50 m depth in 11 out of the 47 surveyed sites (Allen 2002). Based on results from surveys using  SCUBA in 1974, <em>P. filamentosus</em> was suggested to be relatively common in Papua New and Solomon Islands and were often observed in groups of 20-30 individuals (Allen 1974). From a more recent 94-hour underwater visual census in the Solomon Islands, however <em>P. filamentosus</em> was found to be common and recorded in 33 out of 65 sites surveyed (Allen 2006).
187403		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187404		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187404		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Hawaiian Islands from Kure Atoll, north of Midway to island of Hawaii and at Johnson Atoll (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008) to Maui in the south and Johnston Island (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187404		habitat	eng	This species is common in rock and coral areas throughout those parts of the Hawaiian Islands that are not exploited by commercial aquarium fish collectors (Randall  pers. comm.). It was collected at depths of 8-35 m. Strasburg <em>et al.</em> (1968) recorded individuals from submarine observations in 30-110 m off Oahu. <br/><br/>Juveniles are known to clean other fishes (R. Myers pers. comm).
187404		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is a common species.
187404		threats	eng	Juveniles of this species are utilized as aquarium fish (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). Large individuals are taken by spear fisherman and terminal males are uncommon in shallow waters of the main Hawiian Islands (Myers pers. comm., Randall 2007).
187405		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.  It may occur in shallower marine protected areas throughout its range, however, deeper outer reef slope are not frequently included in marine protected areas.
187405		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from North Carolina, USA through the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea to northern South America.
187405		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep seaward reefs from 18-100 m.
187405		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is not commonly observed given that it occurs in relatively deeper waters.
187405		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size.  It is not likely to be attractive to the aquarium trade.
187406		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is found in protected areas in parts of its range (i.e. New Caledonia Lagoon - World Heritage Area).
187406		distribution	eng	This species is found from New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu and southern Great Barrier Reef and Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs.
187406		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs. It is usually found over sand or rubble near coral heads at a depth range from 5-30 m.<br/><br/>Scaleless head. Caudal fin slightly rounded to truncate, the corners a little prolonged, pectoral fins of adults short. Initial phase  light greenish yellow to bluish grey with 2 series of vertically elongate orange spots on body that continue onto head as solid stripes, caudal fin orange to yellow, body of terminal male light greenish dorsally, white ventrally, with orange bars on side that become pale lavender-blue to purple bars anteriorly on lower side, an oval black spot on side of body dorsal to pectoral fin, head green with pink bands radiating from eye, caudal fin blue with a large, whitish semicircular area posteriorly. (Randall, 2005).
187406		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187406		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in local subsistance fisheries in the Pacific and is collected as bycatch for the aquarium trade.
187407		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is well-protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).
187407		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to the islands of French Polynesia (except Rapa and the Austral Islands), the Pitcairn Islands, and the islands of Micronesia (type locality, Guam), Ryukyu Islands to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia.
187407		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, in caves and crevices (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is known from reefs at depths of 1-30 m, it is a very secretive species and is rarely seen. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.<br/><br/>Fresh specimens of adults are grayish brown to reddish brown, sometimes with dark narrow edges on scales on mid side of body. Dark edged light yellow bar on head behind and adjacent to eye, another at front of caudal peduncle, iris red and yellow. Juveniles (up to about 3.8 cm SL) have two broad pale bars on body. Spinous portions of dorsal and anal fins deeply incised. One predorsal bone.<br/><br/>It is distinguished from the two other species of <em>Wetmorella, W. albofasciata</em> and <em>W. tanakai</em>, by having two broad and slightly oblique white bars on the body only as juveniles and subadults. <em>Wetmorella. Tanakai</em> also has a longer head, longer snout, and narrower interorbital space. <em>Wetmorella albofasciata</em> has two narrow white bars on the body, but they converge as they pass ventrally (see Randall and Kuiter 2007).
187407		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a difficult species to see as it is cryptic and secretive.
187407		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is probably not used in the aquarium trade as it is difficult to capture.
187408		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187408		distribution	eng	This species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187408		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy rubble bottoms usually at depths from 48 m.
187408		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187408		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187409		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. However, non-fishing areas within MPAs typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones is unknown. The West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery (in Western Australia) has recently undergone restructuring to become a managed commercial fishery. Changes to the management of the commercial fishery and restrictions to the recreational sector aim to reduce effort in the fishery by 50 % and reduce catches overall by a similar amount.
187409		distribution	eng	This species is found in temperate Australia, from Byron Bay in northern New South Wales, to Victoria, South Australia, and to the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia.
187409		habitat	eng	A relatively large species, to about 400 mm TL. It inhabits mainly deeper offshore reefs in depths to about 60 m.  <br/><br/>Adults often aggregate in large numbers, juveniles more solitary in harbours and estuaries (Kuiter 2002). On the east coast of Australia, spawning occurs from January-March, sexual maturity is reached after second (2.1) year at 185 mm TL, with rapid growth to about 300 mm TL in 6 years, longevity is at least 13.8 years (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, sexually dichromatic, sex change occurs at about 295 mm TL (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). It feeds mainly on polychaetes, polyplacophorans, marginellid gastropods (especially Austroginella sp.), bivalves and echinoids (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008b).<br/><br/>On the mid-west coast of Western Australia, spawning occurs between September and February, and maturity of females occurs when at least three years of age and at 181 mm TL (L50). Males have small testes relative to most gonochorists, suggesting pair-spawning activity is likely, as for many labrids. Protogyny confirmed on the west coast, sex change occurring at 254 mm (L50) and 7.1 years (A50). Maximum age recorded of 10.4 years (Lek <em>et al.</em> in prep.).
187409		population	eng	This species is rare in the Bass Strait region, but common and widespread elsewhere over its range. <br/><br/>It has a continuous distribution in southern Western Australia. Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found <em>O. lineolatus</em> to be frequent or abundant on the mid west coast (Port Denison) southwards and eastwards to Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be relatively abundant at that location (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep).
187409		threats	eng	This species is captured in recreational fishing (Steffe <em>et al.</em> 1996, Henry and Lyle 2003, Kennelly and McVea 2003) and also sold commercially (Sydney Fish Market 2005) in NSW. It is also a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab fishery (South Australia). <br/><br/>It is likely to be bycatch species of West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery in Western Australia (although labrids are reported as one group, i.e. wrasse). <em>Ophthalmolepis lineolatus</em> suffers from barotrauma-related injuries and does not survive well after capture in waters > 10 m.<br/><br/>On the west coast of Australia, a substantial increase in the number of wrasse released by boat-based recreational fishers in a 2005/06 survey by Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) may be related to the increase in human population size since the last survey in 1996/97. While there is some evidence that recreational fishers are retaining more wrasse than previously (Harvey 2004), Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) indicate that the number retained has declined since 1996/97. Stock assessments of indicator species (includes other large target species) on the west coast of Western Australia demonstrate that overfishing of those species is occurring in this region (Wise <em>et al.</em> 2007). There is potential for increases in the catches of labrids such as <em>O. lineolatus</em> to compensate. Fisheries of moderate-sized wrasse species in South Australia for a live reef fish trade saw rapid declines in stock when unmanaged (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187410		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187410		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Fiji Islands.
187410		habitat	eng	This species is found over coral and rubble bottoms between about 20 to 50 m.
187410		population	eng	This species is common in its area of occurrence. Currently, population size and trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187410		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187411		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187411		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Ryukyus and Ogasawara Is, south to Great Barrier Reef , Lizard Island, QLD (14°40'S) (AFD 2009) and Christmas Island, Australia (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found in Guam (Myers 1999).
187411		habitat	eng	This species is found over sandy bottoms of coastal areas and also in areas with some seagrass or algae. It ranges to a depth of over 18 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is usually in large spread-out groups on upper slopes of sand and mud banks with males defending its section that has numerous females (Clark 1983, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey, including mollusks and crustaceans (Gomon and Randall 1984).
187411		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in the Philippines in marine reserves (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009). It is most likely common throughout its range.
187411		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187412		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187412		distribution	eng	This species is found from Vietnam (Randall and Jonsson 2008), Hong Kong and Taiwan.
187412		habitat	eng	Species of Iniistius are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).  <br/><br/>Juveniles are found in coastal waters along reef edges on sand or rubble, or open patches on reef. Adults occur mainly in deep outer reef habitats in small loose group along sand ridges (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187412		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It was originally known from one specimen from Hong Kong. This species is now known from 76 additional specimens from Vietnam, from a fish importer in Sweden (Randall and Johnsson 2008).
187412		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is probably targeted as a food fish (Randall and Jonsson 2008).
187413		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187413		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Indian Ocean, and is known from the Amirante Islands and other locations in the Seychelles. There is one specimen from the aquarium trade from Kenya.
187413		habitat	eng	This species can be found over rubble or hard bottom with a depth range from 21 to 50 m (Randall 1999, Kuiter 2002). It is also found on rubble slopes (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187413		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common over rubble slopes near reefs (L. Rocha pers. comm.).
187413		threats	eng	There are are no major threats known for this species, although it is found in the aquarium trade.
187414		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187414		distribution	eng	This species is known in the western Pacific from the southern Great Barrier Reef North to New South Wales, and east to Chesterfield Bank, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Tonga.
187414		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow areas of mixed sand and rubble, usually with algal cover. It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187414		population	eng	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species.  It is generally considered uncommon.
187414		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.
187415		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be protected in marine reserves in parts of its range.
187415		distribution	eng	This species is found in Palau and the Marshall Islands.
187415		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef and rubble from 55 to 92 m, including mixed coral, rubble, and sand slopes along the bases of steep protected seaward reefs.
187415		population	eng	This species is common on slopes of rubble and sand bottoms. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187415		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is exploited in the aquarium trade,  although it is not commonly traded.
187416		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187416		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Red Sea in the western Indian Ocean, the Maldive/Laccadive ridge west to Natal, South Africa, and Madagascar and surrounding islands.
187416		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoons and sand or rubble patches on seaward coral reefs in depths of one to at least 30 m.  It feeds on micro-zoobenthos and burrows in the sand in response to predators.
187416		population	eng	There is no explicit information on population trends available for this species, however it is considered common by most accounts.
187416		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.
187417		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is well protected throughout its range.
187417		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Maldives to Marshall Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Sydney, Tonga and Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey). It is also present on the Ashmore reefs in Western Australia.
187417		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths from 1-34 m and reaches a maximum size of 15.1 cm.  It is typically found on protected reefs where there is more sand and rubble than coral.
187417		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species at the moment. However, this species is considered common.
187417		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187418		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
187418		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187418		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this Atlanto-Mediterranean species is present from Portugal southwards to around Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Selvagens and Cape Verde Islands. From Senegal southwards along the west African coast to Cape Lopez in Gabon, this species is probably replaced by a separate species, <em>T. newtoni</em>. References to this species occuring in Sao Tome and Principe (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 1999) probably refer to <em>T. newtoni</em> (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008). <br><br>It is found throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the northern coasts of the western Mediterranean and the Adriatic Sea. It is however found in the Ligurian Sea and around Sardinia (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Sara <em>et al.</em> 2004, Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2004, Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is absent from the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187418		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to south of Cape Lopez, Gabon and including Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe. It is also found throughout Mediterranean Sea except for parts of the northern coasts in the western Mediterranean and Adriatic, and also Sardinia.  It is absent from the Black Sea.<br/><br/>This species also is found along the Ligurian Sea in Bergeggi Island&#160; (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), western Liguria (Molinari 2005), Cinque Terre MPA (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006), Portofino MPA (Tunesi and Molinari 2005), eastern Liguria (Sara <em>et al. </em>2004); it is also found in Sardinia in the Tavolara MPA (Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2004), Sinis MPA and Capo Carbonara MPA (Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187418		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal waters near rocks and seagrass beds. It is also often found near man-made structures such as shipwrecks and jetties, etc. (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is either gregarious, being found in small groups or forming larger aggregations in loose schools, in association with the two types of mating system, territorial haremic or group spawning, respectively (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It feeds on small molluscs and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). The juveniles of this species often clean other fishes (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with distinct sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It spawns in spring, and the eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187418		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal waters near rocks and seagrass beds. It is usually solitary, but sometimes this species is aggregated in small groups. It feeds on small molluscs and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite fish, with distinct sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).
187418		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is less common in the northwest, as it prefers warmer waters. It is common elsewhere.<br/><br/>The population declined in the 1970s in the Ligurian Sea, and is now recolonising this area (L. Tunesi pers. comm.). This species is also expanding in the Gulf of Lion where it was not previously present (J.P. Quignard pers. comm.). Overall, the Mediterranean population of this species is currently stable.
187418		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is less common in the north-western basin, as it prefers warmer waters. It is mainly common elsewhere. <br><br>The population declined in the 1970's in the Ligurian Sea, but is now recolonising this area (Tunesi pers. comm.). This species is now also expanding its range in the Gulf of Lion, where it was not previously present (Quignard pers. comm.). Overall, the wider Mediterranean populations of this species appear to be stable.<br><br>It is the most abundant and common wrasse in the shallow rocky habitats of the Azores (Porteiro 1995, Afonso 2002), Madeira (Ribeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006) and the Canaries (Falcón et al 1996, Brito <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also common but not as abundant in Cape Verde (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187418		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.<br/><br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is locally fished with hook, line and traps (M. Bariche pers. comm.).
187418		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is fished locally in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Macaronesian islands with hook and line and with traps (Bariche pers. comm. and Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187419		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187419		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Philippines (Lieske and Myers 1994) to Indonesia and northwestern Australia.
187419		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and is found on deep outer reef habitats and flat sandy or weedy areas.
187419		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This is not an uncommon species. It is rarely seen by diving and is usually caught on lines from deep water (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187419		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is caught as bycatch by lines (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and is possibly affected by blast fishing in the Philippines and Indonesia (A. Cabanban pers. comm., Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2001).
187420		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species.
187420		distribution	eng	This species was taken only in Fatu Hiva and Nuku Hiva within the Marquesas Islands, and Henderson Island and Ducie Atoll in the Pitcairn Group. Although regions adjoining these islands have not been thoroughly sampled, it has not been encountered elsewhere in the Tuamotu Archipelago even though the area has been explored (Randall pers. comm. in Gomon 2006).
187420		habitat	eng	This is a large species, to about 315 mm SL. It inhabits coral reefs in depths of 13-74 m.
187420		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187420		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is possibly caught as bycatch.
187421		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187421		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia, from Yapen Island in the Birds Head area of west Papua.
187421		habitat	eng	This species was observed over a dense mixture of spindly, branched coral and algae in a gentle slope at 34 m depth (Allen and Erdmann 2006).<br><br>The courtship dance performed by male <em>P. walton</em> was observed to occur between 1,700-1,800 hours during which male fish continuously “flash” a short distance above the bottom (Allen and Erdmann 2006).
187421		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. During the field investigations at Cenderawasih Bay, Indonesia, numerous groups of <em>P. walton</em> were observed, each containing about 1-3 males and up to about 20 females (Allen and Erdmann 2006).
187421		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187422		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. More research is needed on this species population status, habitat type, biology, ecology and threats.
187422		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens from the Arabian Sea in Oman and Socotra Island in the western Indian Ocean.
187422		habitat	eng	This species has only been collected from very shallow water (in 0-2 m depth) (Randall and Mee 1994). The main habitat is probably coral reefs (Randall and Mee 1994). From Randall’s FishBase photos, the males appear to be much more colourful than the juveniles, and no photos of the females are included.
187422		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from a few individuals.
187422		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187423		conservation	eng	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution of this species. For example, it is known that this species occurs within the Kenting National Park of Taiwan (Shao 2005). However, specific management on this species is largely lacking throughout its range of occurrence.
187423		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea in the northern Gulf of Aqaba (Randall and Khalaf 2003) and is also known from Indonesia (including northern Sumatra and the Mentaiwai Islands) to Samoa, and from the Ryukyu Islands to New Caledonia.
187423		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs (Allen 2000) and deep slopes (Kuiter 1993) from 15-80 m (Westneat 2001). It is also found in seagrass beds, silty, sand and rubble (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008), as well as algal beds. It feeds mainly on shrimps, fishes and other crustaceans (Kuiter 1993). Females swim in small groups.
187423		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. It is considered occasional in the Philippines, and is not considered common in Indonesia.
187423		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. There is no information on the level of fishing on this species neither for food or ornamental trade.
187424		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>Country-specific<br/>Australia<br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 250 mm TL and a bag limit of five fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>Taiwan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Taiwan. <em>Stethojulis bandanensis</em> occurs within the Kenting National Park (Shao 2005). Its recorded occurrence in Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, offer protection to this species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species is used in aquarium trade but quantitative data on its catcher are absent (Shao 2005). There is no information on the aquarium fish trade.
187424		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from Christmas Island and Cocos-Keeling Islands to the Pitcairn Islands and from Japan to New South Wales, Australia. It also occurs in the Eastern Pacific in Baja California and the Gulf of California, Costa Rica, Panama and all of the offshore islands.
187424		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef flats, lagoon and seaward reefs to 30 m, generally in shallow clear water areas of mixed sand, rubble, and coral (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds mainly on crustaceans and small benthic invertebrates (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>Information on its reproductive biology and ecology is absent.
187424		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common in most of its range.<br><br>From Pratas Island, this species was found to be a relatively abundant fish in six out of seven sites surveyed using underwater visual census in Pratas Island (Chen 1995). But this species was reported to be rare from Hong Kong using underwater visual census (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br><br>It is common in the Pacific Islands. In Fiji, a total of 472 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-10 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 3,354 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-20 cm TL. In 23 stations, a total of 50 individuals were caught with total body weight of 298 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In French Polynesia, a total of 706 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-16 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Tonga, a total of 331 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-11 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187424		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187425		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Rowley Shoals is a designated marine protected area (Department of Environment and Conservation 2009).
187425		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rowley Shoals and Scott Reef off northwestern Australia, and has an area of occupancy estimated to be 900-1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
187425		habitat	eng	This is a small species that grows to about 90 mm TL. It inhabits coral reefs on deep rubble slopes that are below the outer reef walls in depths of 35-50 m, but it is also found in lagoons as shallow as 12 m. Large individuals, all male, occur in small groups (Kuiter 2002).
187425		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is fairly common in deeper water.
187425		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil and gas exploration and extraction on or near reefs off of the northwestern shelf of Australia. Other potential major threats to the habitat of this species include seismic survey drilling, pollution and mechanical damage. The oil industry in this region is going to continue developing into the future.
187426		conservation	eng	The legal minimum length (LML) is 28 cm, and the commercial fishery capped at 51 licenses in Victoria.<br/><br/>Minimum legal size of 30 cm  with no upper limit in Tasmania, and 58 fishing licences. There are concerns that bluethroat wrasses in Tasmania may not be adequately protected by the current minimum size limit because of life history characteristics (males are derived from mature females and are strongly site attached, therefore making them more vulnerable to overfishing).<br/><br/>Management plans need to be formed and research is needed on harvest, trends, conservation measures and management of the live fish trade for this species. Research is needed on reproductive demography.
187426		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and eastern South Australia.
187426		habitat	eng	A large species, to at least 405 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. It is a site attached monandric sequential hermaphrodite (Barrett 1995a, 1995b). Hybrid specimens of this species and <em>N. fucicola</em> have been reported. It is common on rocky reefs in shallow water, but present in depths over 100 m (P. Ziegler pers com).  It feeds principally on crustaceans and molluscs (Shepherd and Clarkson 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs in spring. Size-at-maturity (females) 20-25 cm TL. 12% of females change sex per year after age four. Fish in catches range in age from 3-23 years. Youngest male was five years (Barrett 1995a).
187426		population	eng	This is an abundant wrasse in SE Australian waters (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). The population status is thought to be relatively stable.
187426		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is fishing (domestic live fish trade) in Tasmania and Victoria, with growing interest in South Australia. It is taken mainly by handlines and to a lesser degree in traps, but also a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab fishery. The major market is in Sydney, where wrasse are sold to Asian restaurants. Refrigerated trucks are used to transport the wrasse in cooled seawater.<br/><br/>The live fish fishery developed in the 1990s in Tasmania and Victoria. Catches (all wrasses, but dominated by bluethroat) inTasmania dramatically increased from 70 t (1991/92) to 100 t (1992/93), Since 1995/96, wrasse catches were relatively stable and consistently over 70 t. Over the last five years, they have generally increased and reached 108 t in 2006/07, largely due to higher handline catches (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Victoria, catches peaked in 1998 at about 90 t, and subsequently declined to about 50 t.  Effort also has declined since 1998, but overall, catch rates are being maintained in Victoria (Smith et al 2003).<br/><br/>Fished recreationally and commercially (mainly live fish trade). In Victoria, commercial catches of females and males dominated by ages five and nine, and 8-17 years respectively. Estimates of total mortality by catch curve analysis: 0.32, natural mortality 0.2. In Victoria current legal minimum length (LML) of 28 cm TL, which represents a tradeoff between yield and proportion of males. Eggs per recruit estimates indicate females reach maximum reproductive potential at age five, below the current LML (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187427		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in any marine protected areas.
187427		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia and the Coral Sea (Holmes Reef and Chesterfield Bank).
187427		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef and rubble from five to 217 m.
187427		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. Species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187427		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the international aquarium trade.
187428		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
187428		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean, around Maldives, Thailand, peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
187428		habitat	eng	This species is found along the reef edge, in sand and rubble areas.
187428		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187428		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187429		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187429		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three specimens taken in deep waters off the Hawaiian Islands of Hawaii and Oahu and Maro Reef northwards. Its poor representation in collections is undoubtedly due to its deep distribution (Gomon 2006).
187429		habitat	eng	A small species to at least 149 mm SL. It has been collected at depths of 67 to 238 m, though apparently preferring depths of 100-120 m.
187429		population	eng	This species is apparently common in deep water. R. Pyle (pers. comm. 2006) reported he has seen it on almost every dive he has made in excess of 100 m off Hawaii. He encountered it most often in pairs, one individual usually being much larger than the other (Gomon 2006).
187429		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187430		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, its distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. Although marine parks and marine reserves, which encompasses seagrass habitat, with various levels of fishing pressure are in place within the range of this species, its occurrence within them is not documented. <br/><br/>In Australia, a minimum size of 300 mm TL and a bag limit of six fish apply to all species in this genus (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closures to the taking of all coral reef fishes including <em>Choerodon</em> species in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). However, there is no specific management or regulation on <em>C. cephalotes</em>.
187430		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, but may possibly be also found in the Aru Islands and southern Java, Indonesia. More research is needed to better determine the northern limit of this species distribution.
187430		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow coral reefs and seagrass beds (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> 2008). Depth information is unknown, but is likely less than 10 m given its habitat preferences.<br/><br/>It is a solitary species and feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey including crustaceans, molluscs and sea urchins.<br/><br/>Information on reproductive biology and ecology is lacking.
187430		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187430		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, given the reliance of both juvenile and adult <em>C. cephalotes</em> on seagrass habitats, there may be some localized declines due to habitat degradation from coastal development in some parts of its range.Though some seagrass beds are included within marine parks or reserves system and therefore gain certain levels of protection, these habitats are threatened in general by eutrophication, toxic pollutants from factories, dredging and sediment run-off (Kirkman 1997).<br/><br/>Western Australia harbors about 2,200 km<sup>2</sup> of seagrass habitats (Kirkman 1997). However, loss of seagrass beds, which may be important habitat for <em>C. cephalotes</em>, is reported (Kirkman 1997). Analysis using aerial photographs suggested over 70% loss of seagrass beds down to 10 m in Cockburn Sound since the 1960s (Kendrick <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Seagrass habitats cover over 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Northern Territory (Kirkman 1997). Anthropogenic damage to seagrass habitat is relatively rare but tropical cyclones and floods may cause serious degradation of the habitat (Kirkman 1997). About 4,300 km<sup>2</sup> of seagrass can be found in Queensland (Kirkman 1997). Recent studies show declines in seagrass beds in some locations (Cambell <em>et al.</em> 2002, Rasheed <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is targeted in recreational and commercial fisheries in various states in Australia, although there is no information on its landings and the level threat from these fisheries cannot be evaluated.
187431		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187431		distribution	eng	The species is found from the Red Sea to the east Andaman Sea, and eastwards to Tonga, north to Japan and south to Lord Howe Island (east Australia).
187431		habitat	eng	This species is secretive and cryptic occurring on coral reefs where it hides among soft corals and benthic algae (Whiteman and Côté 2004). It inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs at depths 4-67 m (Myers 1999). It likes rich soft or hard coral growth or scattered algae and stays well hidden. <br/><br/>This species is a pair spawner (Donaldson 1995). At spawning both male and female assume a dark brown colour pattern without the normal white markings. It is monogamous. It feeds on benthic invertebrates (Whiteman and Côté 2004). <br/><br/>The largest recorded size was 9.5 cm TL (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990). Mature females were recorded at 36 mm and males at 45 mm.
187431		population	eng	This species was recorded in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, with a mean density of 1.6 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187431		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187432		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187432		distribution	eng	This species ranges from South Korea (Ceju Island) to southern Japan (Randall 1999). Records from the Philippines (Parenti and Randall 2000) are either H. tenuispinis or a new similar species (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187432		habitat	eng	This is a dermeral species that inhabits coral reefs and rocky reefs, and macro-algae covered substrates. The maximum length recorded was 12.2 cm SL male/unsexed (Randall 1999).
187432		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
187432		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a threat - this species range falls within area of intensive coastal development.
187433		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187433		distribution	eng	This species is found from Japan (with questionable records off Ryukyo islands), Taiwan, South Korea (Cheju Island), China (Pratas Island) (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1999, Parenti and Randall, 2000, Randall and Lim, 2000, Shimada 2002) (R. Myers, pers. comm. 2008).
187433		habitat	eng	This species is found in algal beds and rocky reefs (Kuiter 2002).  It is a protogynous sex changer (Nakazono 1979, Lee <em>et al.</em> 1992). Reproductive season includes May and June in Korea when water temperature begins to rise according to gonadosomatic index (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1992)
187433		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species.
187433		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is taken in the local fishery in Japan and Korea as food fish.
187434		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although there are no marine protected areas within its range, there are some uninhabited islands that may offer effective protection for this species.
187434		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Marquesas Islands.
187434		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a mixutre of sand and rock (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008) and is found in shallow waters from 0-10 m (Randall 2000), the deepest collection at 10.5 m.
187434		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is abundant in the Marquesas.
187434		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187435		conservation	eng	The Pelican Caye is a World Heritage Site but there is no actual protection. Given this species very small range and extensive habitat loss, it should be carefully monitored and effective conservation measures and outreach are needed.
187435		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Pelican Keys, Belize and has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
187435		habitat	eng	Adults are reef associated, and juveniles are mangrove and shallow reef dependent. It is found in shallow coral reefs over coral, sand, rubble or seagrass substrata (Randall and Lobel 2003) to depths of 10 m. Juveniles feed on zooplankton and form evasive, compact schools when threatened (Randall and Lobel 2003).  Estimated larval life of two to three weeks, however, it may not be able to disperse outside known area given the possible lack of suitable habitat.<br/><br/>Life history traits (longevity and age of maturity) are based on similar species in this genus of similar size.
187435		population	eng	Currently, population size and trends have not been assessed. From the original description, it may seem that the population numbers are high, as juveniles are abundant where they occur. However, adult individuals are rarely observed.
187435		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive habitat destruction within and around this species' very restricted range within the Pelican Caye World Heritage Site. Habitat loss is due to continued extensive mangrove and coral removal and dredging for coastal and resort development at least since 2003.
187436		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187436		distribution	eng	In the western and central Pacific Ocean and the eastern Indian Ocean, this species is found from the Tuamotu and Society Islands in the east to Christmas and Cocos Keeling Islands in the west and from southern Japan and Hawaii in the north to northern Australia in the south.
187436		habitat	eng	This tropical species inhabits coral, sand, and rubble of exposed outer reef flats and lagoon and seaward reefs to 78 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, including molluscs, crabs, tunicates and foraminiferans.<br/><br/>It shows a very distinct sexual colour dimorphism, and also between the juveniles and the adults (Kuiter 2002). It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.
187436		population	eng	Although very widespread, little or no information is available on the status of populations of this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187436		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as bycatch in local artisinal fisheries throughout much of its range.
187437		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.
187437		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the central and southern portions of the Red Sea off Sudan and Ethiopia, and southern Egypt (Lieske and Myers 2004).
187437		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 45 mm SL. It occurs in aggregations on coral reefs and appears to feed on zooplankton about half a metre above the substratum. It was observed on exposed outer reef areas off Port Sudan at depths of 10-12 m and in sheltered harbour at Suakin in only 1.5 m.
187437		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is probably a common species.
187437		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187438		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur in marine protected areas in parts of its range.
187438		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Japan to Sydney in Australia, and from peninsular Malaysia, east to Samoa and Tonga.
187438		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse, approximately 12 cm in length. It is found in lagoon and seaward reefs, in coral-rich areas. It is also found along drop-offs on the bottom of large caves. It inhabits depths of 2-40 m on reef slopes.
187438		population	eng	There is no available population information for this species. This is a common species.
187438		threats	eng	There are no known major threats, although there is some aquarium trade collecting.
187439		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas where it is likely offered effective protection in marine protected areas in approximately one-third of its range.
187439		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Great Barrier Reefs in the Coral Sea, New Caledonia, the Loyalty Islands, and Vanuatu.
187439		habitat	eng	This species is found on coral, rock and rubble, on reef slopes from 7-55 m.
187439		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187439		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187440		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187440		distribution	eng	This species is found only in Papua New Guinea and the northern Great Barrier Reef.
187440		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef and rubble from 5-70 m.
187440		population	eng	This species is common on slopes of rubble bottom. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187440		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is exploited in the aquarium trade,  although it is not commonly traded.
187441		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of <br/>Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on population trends and harvest levels is needed.
187441		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the tropical and sub tropical waters (mainly ~30°N to ~30°S) of the Indo-Pacific Region. It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa (Oman to South Africa) in the west to the Galapagos Islands and Panama in the eastern Pacific, and in the western Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) and Hawaiian Islands in the north to Lord Howe Island (off eastern Australia) in the south.
187441		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy and rubble areas among coral reefs, including semi-exposed reef flats, lagoons and seaward reefs. It often occurs over areas of mixed sand and rubble subject to mild surge (Myers 1991). Juveniles are found over shallow rubble amongst large bommies or protected open patches on reef crests. Larger adults are often found in pairs over rubble areas, where they move pieces of coral debris with their mouths to search for food. <br/><br/>This species feeds on zoobenthos, including molluscs, echinoderms, polychaetes and crabs (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). The juveniles, which imitate floating leaves or algal fronds, are quite different in their form and colour pattern to the adults, which are highly territorial (Westneat 2001).
187441		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for this species, although it can apparently be fairly common, though generally not abundant, in parts of its range.
187441		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is present in the marine aquarium fish trade but the degree of its extraction is not known.
187442		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187442		distribution	eng	This species is present in the west Pacific from Southern Japan, Okinawa, Ogasawara Is, southeastern China and Taiwan.
187442		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 207 mm SL. It is common on rocky reefs, in depths shallower than 30 m (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997).<br><br>It lives in small haremic groups composed of one territorial male and many females, with individual body sizes varying considerably between and within species (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). Spawning occurs from mid-November to mid-December with pair spawning occuring within TP male territories (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It forages in association with morwong, Goniistius zonatus, and feeds mainly on crustaceans and mollusks (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1999).
187442		population	eng	This species is very common along the Pacific coasts of southern Japan (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997). In Korea, it is reported only from Cheju I. (Kim and Go 2003).
187442		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187443		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187443		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, from Cocos-Keeling Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and Tuamoto islands, north to southern Japan, south to New South Wales and Lord Howe Island.
187443		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated from 1-15 m. It inhabits shallow reefs and rocky shores, and is commonly found in seagrass areas exposed to surge and rubble. It feeds on benthic crustaceans, mollusks, polychaetes, forams, fishes, and fish eggs (Myers 1991). It is one of several similar species that have near identical juvenile and female stages (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187443		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is very common throughout its range.
187443		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187444		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187444		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from South Florida, USA and Bahamas to Venezuela.
187444		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found from 5-30 m, normally high above the bottom.  It feeds on various invertebrates. It is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite, it forms leks during breeding. Length at sex change = 7.9 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).
187444		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in many parts of its range, although it is considered rare in South Florida. Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected (Rocha 2004).
187444		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).
187445		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187445		distribution	eng	This species occurs only from the two types collected at Kwajalein Atoll, in the Marshall Islands, but is no doubt more broadly distributed. There is a record from Palau misidentified as <em>B. opercularis</em> (Myers 1999).
187445		habitat	eng	A small species, to at least 97 mm SL. The types were collected on vertical dropoffs at depths of about 50 m.
187445		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187445		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187446		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. <br/><br/>This species was recorded in the Saikai National Park, including Fukue and Wakamatsu Marine Parks, Japan (DINRAC 2007). However, most of the MPAs situated in southeast Asia are considered to be poorly managed and subjected to heavy illegal fishing pressure (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187446		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the northwest Pacific, including the Republic of Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.
187446		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral and rocky areas from 3-10 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).  It has been observed in coral atolls (Nanami and Nishihira 2004). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans including copepods, isopods, tanaids and cumaceans from algal mats, while adults consume polychaetes, sipunculids, gastropods, chitons and crustaceans including crabs, shrimps and hermit crabs (Shibuno <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>It was reported to spawn during mid-morning, before 10:00 am (Moyer 1974, Meyer 1977), group or aggregate spawning (Meyer 1977) by the terminal phase was observed in the Japanese waters. There was no evidence of spawning during late morning and afternoon, and the observations of spawning were four days prior to the new moon (Moyer 1974). Breeding ground of this species is approximately 200 m<sup>2</sup>, varying from nine to 11 m in depth. Water temperature was 27 °C (Moyer 1974).<br/><br/>Spawning begins with the arrival of large numbers of initial-phase fish at the coral or rocky areas, where they begin to mill about in increasingly tighter aggregations (Thresher 1984). The size of aggregations varies from a dozen to as many as several hundred individuals with different-sized aggregates. In addition, it has been reported to perform a “bobbing” motion while swimming with the entire body arcing up and down (Moyer 1974, Meyer 1977). <br/><br/>Moyer (1974) described the spawning behaviour of <em>T. cupido</em> in detail. During the first day of spawning, this species aggregates close to the rocks, and split periodically into three or four groups of close to 100 individuals each. Larger fish appeared to be about 10-13 cm in length and were obviously the aggressors. Only one or rarely two or three fish in each group dash up to discharge their reproductive clouds. Second day, the number of fish participating had decreased remarkably compared to the first day. On the fifth day, reproductive activity has almost ceased, but small individuals of about fifteen fish were sighted. Little herding and no clouds of reproductive materials were observed.<br/><br/>Hatched in a captivity laboratory environment, eggs of this species were found to be buoyant and spherical with a single spherical oil globule. Diameters ranged from 0.54 mm to 0.65 mm and spawning was observed from June to August in the morning between 0800 to 1200 (Kimura <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>It exhibits similar colour patterns with <em>T. purpureum, T. trilobatum, T. quinquevittatum</em> and <em>T. heiseri</em> (Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has been reported to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Devlin and Nagahama 2002), however, gonadal histology has not been studied in any detail (Sadovy de Mitcheson and Liu 2008). It has been noted as one of the cleaner fishes in Japan (Kuwamura 1976).
187446		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is likely abundant throughout its small range.<br><br>It is one of the most common shore-fish in Igaya Bay, southern Japan (Moyer 1974).
187446		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is caught in both recreational and commercial multi-species fisheries.
187447		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures.  However, 80% of its geographic range lies within the northwest Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary.
187447		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Hawaiian Islands. Vagrants can be found in Johnston Atoll.
187447		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef and rubble from five to 186 m. It inhabits mixed coral, rubble, and rocky slopes.
187447		population	eng	This species is common on reef dropoffs. Currently, the population size or trends have not been assessed. It is not present in the FAO global production estimates.
187447		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187448		conservation	eng	There are no size or bag limits. This species is monitored in five NE state recreational fishery surveys. Research is needed on the population numbers and range, biology and ecology and the habitat status of the species.
187448		distribution	eng	This species found in the Atlantic coast of North America and the offshore banks, from Conception Bay, east coast of Newfoundland, and the western and southern parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, southward to New Jersey, and occasionally as far as the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.
187448		habitat	eng	A common inshore small labrid that inhabit rocky areas and around pilings, seawalls and wharves. It is found to a depth of 120 m but most abundant in shallow water to 20 m. It usually occurs in schools or small groups. It achieves a maximum size of 1.1 kg and 38 cm. Maximum age six to seven years (Serchuk and Cole 1974).<br/><br/>It spawns chiefly from late spring through early summer. The eggs are buoyant, transparent, 0.75 to 0.85 mm. in diameter, and they do not have an oil globule. Incubation occupies about 40 hours at temperatures of 70° to 72°, but it is probable that about three days are required for hatching in the cooler waters of the Gulf of Maine (55° to 65°).
187448		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown. Total recreational harvest in 2003/2004 from US wide recreational fishery record 60 metric tones comprising 161,000 individuals (US Marine Recreational Fisheries 2004).
187448		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/>Recreational fishing by line is a minor threat. Historically dating back to the late 1800's large catches were recorded for commercial purposes for food (US Marine Recreational Fisheries 2004).
187449		conservation	eng	This species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).<br/><br/>It is recommended to collect more information on the population status and distibution.
187449		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Philippines to Flores Island, Indonesia, in reef bottoms up to 21 meters depth (Randall and Kuiter 2007).
187449		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters around reef areas.<br/><br/>It is distinguished from the two other species of <em>Wetmorella</em>, <em>W. albofasciata</em> and <em>W. nigropinnata</em>, by having a narrow oblique white bar behind the eye and two parallel, narrow, white bars in the middle of the body that are slightly oblique. <em>Wetmorella albofasciata</em> has two narrow white bars on the body, but they converge as they pass ventrally. <em>Wetmorella nigropinnata</em> has two white bars on the body only as juveniles and subadults, but the bars are broad and slightly oblique in the other direction. <em>Wetmorella tanakai</em> also has a longer head, longer snout, and narrower interorbital space.
187449		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It was recently described, from three specimens (35.7 to 42.0 mm in standard length). <em> Wetmorella tanakai</em> was collected from a coral reef from a depth of 21 m off the Indonesian island of Flores, and also from the aquarium trade from southern Sulawesi. It is also known from a photograph of a Philippine fish.
187449		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
187450		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some marine protected areas throughout its range.
187450		distribution	eng	This is an Indo-Pacific species occurring from the north at Sagami Bay, Japan, south to Victoria, Australia and New Caledonia, and from Cocos-Keeling Atoll east to Tonga.
187450		habitat	eng	This species inhabits edges of coral reefs with rubble, sand, and algal cover. It likely feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187450		population	eng	There is no explicit information on population trends currently known for this species. It is uncommon in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009) and is most likely uncommon elsewhere also.
187450		threats	eng	There are no major threats currently known to this species.  It may occasionally be taken in the aquarium trade, but the level of utilization does not appear to be causing population declines.
187451		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place but probably occurs in some MPAs within its distribution.
187451		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Sri Lanka and the Andaman Sea (R Myers pers. comm. 2009) east to Tonga including the Indo-Malay Archipelago, north to Ryuku Islands and south as far as Queensland in Australia.
187451		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow coastal reefs and seagrass beds in shallow waters from 1-10 m (Kuiter 2002).
187451		population	eng	There is no available data on the population of this species.  It is one of a number of small abundant reef associated wrasses in this genus.<br><br>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 1.33 individuals from three 100m X 2m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 1.35 individuals from twenty 50m X 5m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187451		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
187452		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187452		distribution	eng	This species is found from Miyake-jima, Izu Islands and Ryukyu Islands Japan, Palau, Caroline Islands, Guam and the Mariana Islands.
187452		habitat	eng	This species is known from depths ranging from 10 to at least 40 m at exposed outer reef areas rather than in lagoons or harbors. It occurs in loose groups.
187452		population	eng	This species is considered common in at least some parts of its range. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187452		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187453		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place except in New South Wales (south-eastern Australia), where it is a protected species. However, it is well protected within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution, at least in Australia.
187453		distribution	eng	This sub tropical to warm temperate species is known from the south-western Pacific Ocean, in southern Queensland, the (mainly northern) mainland coastline of New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, Norfolk Island (Australia), the Kermadec Islands and the north-eastern mainland coastline of the north island in New Zealand (Gill and Reader 1992). It may occur in New Caledonia, and also at Rapa, Mangareva, Pitcairn and Easter Islands in the south Pacific Ocean (Lieske and Myers 1994). Records from other areas in the south and south-eastern Pacific are probably erroneous.
187453		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs in island and coastal waters around rocky and coral reefs. Juveniles may be found in small schools amongst algae in coastal bays and harbours, with larger juveniles occurring in small aggregations on coastal reefs and adults often in deeper waters (Coleman 1981, Kuiter 1993). It is more likely to be encountered around offshore reefs and islands than mainland coastlines. <br/><br/>This carnivorous species feeds mainly on crustaceans, molluscs and worms (Ayling and Cox 1982). It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism, is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the terminal males are territorial (Ayling and Cox 1982, Lieske and Myers 1994). Sexual ontogeny is unknown, but there are striking differences in colour patterns.
187453		population	eng	Populations of this species are less abundant in mainland coastal compared with offshore island waters, at least in south-eastern Australia. It is rare in most locations though it is common at Lord Howe Island, where it is found mainly in shallow fringing reef lagoonal waters (Randall 1974, Coleman 1981), and also at Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, where it occurs within the lagoons around reefs and over rubble (Gill and Reader 1992). In northern New Zealand it occurs at densities of less than two individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> of habitat (Choat <em><em>et al.</em></em> 1988). Parker (1999) found it to be relatively uncommon in deeper waters (15-24m) off the Julian Rocks in northern New South Wales.
187453		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens may occasionally be captured for the aquarium trade.
187454		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187454		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) to Solomon Islands, north to Japan, and south to the Great Barrier Reef in Australia.
187454		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow lagoons or bays to depths of 15 m, usually over sand, rubble, or seagrass bottom (Gell <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is usually solitary and aggressive towards members of its own species. It feeds on small crustaceans by picking them off the sandy bottom.  It is reportedly a protogynous hermaphrodite (Leem <em>et al.</em> 1998).
187454		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common throughout its range.
187454		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187455		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but coastal marine reserves protect portions of its population (P. Afonso, pers. comm. 2008).
187455		distribution	eng	In the eastern and central Atlantic, this species is known from the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.<br><br>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is only known from three specimens caught near Banyuls (SW France) in 1967 (Quignard and Pras 1986). Since then, no other specimens have been caught in the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187455		habitat	eng	This small species is usually found in shallow inshore areas near rocks and seagrass beds (Quignard and Pras 1986). It can be found in depths from 1-30 m. Males are generally larger than females, build nests with algae and guard the eggs (Almada <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187455		population	eng	This species apparently has populations in shallow waters around those eastern Atlantic island groups where it is known to occur. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is only known from three specimens caught off the coast of SW France in 1967, and has not been recorded there since.<br><br>It is relatively abundant in some areas studied. Using circular point census in the inshore waters of the Azores which covered 350 – 450 m<sup>2</sup> for each census, C. trutta was one of the most abundant wrasses and the 10th most abundant fish recorded and had a mean density per census of 10 fish at 0 – 10 depth (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2001). In another fish survey, at Madeira Island, underwater visual census was conducted in a proposed marine protected area and the density of C. trutta was  found to be 0.48 +/-0.45 in 100 m<sup>2</sup> of transect (Ribeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br><br>However, at the other sites, this species is generally of low abundance. For example, from a UVC in the Canarian Archipelago, it was reported in 7 out of 36 surveyed sites with a mean density of 0.552 in 8,100 m<sup>2</sup> (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2004). In another, this species was recorded in 5 out of 7 sites surveyed in Gran Canaria (Canary Islands) and averaged 0.11 +/- 0.57 fish per survey using UVC and stationary point counts (Hajagos and Van Tassel 2001). <br><br>Extensive trawling activity in the Mediterranean off Al Hoceima in Morocco and off Spain has turned up no further specimens from the western Mediterranean area (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187455		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187456		conservation	eng	This species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. <br/><br/>In Brazil, <em>D. megalepis</em> has been managed through a Federal Act (56/04), established in 2004 by the Brazilian environmental protection agency, based on the establishment of export quotas for the aquarium trade. The quota for <em>D. megalepis</em> is 1,000 individuals/company/year.
187456		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Bermuda and southern Florida, USA to Santa Catarina, Brazil (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003, Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2003), and Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas. In the Eastern Atlantic it is only known from São Tomé and Cape Verde Island (Gomon and Forsyth 1990, Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007).
187456		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow beds of turtle grass (<em>Thalassia,/i> spp.) or weedy areas (Lieske and Myers 1994, Robins and Ray 1986) to depths of 15 m. In Brazil, it occurs primarily on macroalgae and in seagrass (Halodule sp.). <br/><br/>It exhibits sexual dimorphism, males usually are larger and more deeply colored than the females. This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite and the polygynous mating system occurs. <em>D. megalepis</em> and <em>Sparisoma radians</em> share the same space. The daily spawning periods for these two species coincide. The spawning season lasts at least from mid-May through late August (Farm 1993). Recruitment to Halodule sea grass habitats observed during summer in NE Brazil (from January to march) (Rezende pers. comm. 2008).</em>
187456		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species may be quite common but its habits and coloration may prevent it from being observed (Randall 1983). It is common but seldom noticed (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>In a study site at Arraial do Cabo, the density of <em>D. megalepis</em> was 0.06 ± 0.04 and the percent of the total observed was 0.01% (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2001).  It was the most abundant labrid captured by hand trawl net over sea grass (Halodule sp.) in NE Brazil, in sizes between 16.3 and 46.0 mm CT (Rezende in prep.).
187456		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Doratonotus megalepis</span> may be locally threatened by habitat destruction of shallow sea grasses from coastal development throughout its range.
187457		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Further investigation into the effects of the threats to seagrass habitat is recommended and also the dependance on the different species of seagrass.
187457		distribution	eng	This species is known from eastern and northern Tasmania, (D’Entrecasteaux Channel to Rocky Cape, including Bass Strait islands, South Australia and SW Australia (Recherche Archipelago to Rottnest Island).
187457		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seagrass beds and is less commonly associated with algal covered rocky reefs in shallow water in sheltered bays and estuaries, and possibly over sand in deeper waters. It is a cryptic species. The deepest collected specimen was taken by scallop dredge in 47 m depth off Goose Island, Bass Strait (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187457		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively common.
187457		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is the depletion of seagrass beds and habitat destruction.
187458		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187458		distribution	eng	This species was formerly grouped with <em>C. fasciatus</em>. It is possible that both species occur in the Gulf of Aden.
187458		habitat	eng	Photographs taken in the Northern Red Sea as well as observations show that all individuals have a color pattern distinct from <em>C. fasciatus</em>. All large adults have a clearly different tail morphology: the entire outer margin is serrated or broom-like while it is smooth in <em>fasciatus</em> (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>Habitat of <em>C. fasciatus</em> might apply to this species. It inhabits relatively shallow coral reefs, to about 30 m&#160;depth. Members of this species, as in others of the genus, are solitary in habit and do not congregate in large numbers.&#160;It feeds mostly on hard-shelled prey, including molluscs, crustaceans and sea urchins (Fischer and  Bianchi 1984).
187458		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, species was formerly grouped with <em>C. fasciatus</em>. Specimens need to be obtained for further genetic study.
187458		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187459		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187459		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Australia, from Rottnest Island northwards to Shark Bay.
187459		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 101 mm SL. It inhabits rubble bottoms adjacent to rocky reefs from sheltered inshore waters to deeper water offshore. This species was trawled in depths of 200-204 m (NW Shelf).
187459		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187459		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there is oil and gas drilling on the northwest shelf within the distribution of this species.
187460		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species distribution, depth range, habitat and ecology, and potential collection for the aquarium trade.
187460		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (Kalimantan and the Mentawai Islands), and is only known from a few specimens.
187460		habitat	eng	This species is not well-known. It likely inhabits rubble flats above steep dropoffs (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008), in water deeper than 40 m.
187460		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. This is a recently described species. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187460		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it has been reportedly collected for the aquarium trade in Sulawesi and Cebu, Philippines (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).
187461		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is found in several marine protected areas in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA, Sangire Talaud and Phoenix Island Protected Area (PIPA)).
187461		distribution	eng	The most widespread species of the genus (Randall 2005). This species is found in the Indo-Pacific: from the east coast of Africa (type locality, Pinda Mozambique) to the Line Islands and the Tuamotu Archipelago, Ryukyu Islands to the far northern Great Barrier Reef (Randall 2005) and Palau and Kwajalein in Micronesia (Myers 1999).
187461		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on exposed reefs from 2-10 m but has been seen at 32 m (Randall 2005).<br/><br/>Caudal fin rounded in juveniles and females, double emarginated in males. Adult males olivaceous dorsally shading to white, pale blue or pink ventrally. With an oval black spot generally as large as or larger than eye posteriorly on caudal peduncle with its lower edge on the lateral line, a blue line  sometimes broken extending from below peduncular spot to beneath pectoral fin. An oblique blue line from corner of mouth above eye to nape and continuing along base of dorsal fin, another from behind eye, breaking up above pectoral fin, and a third from the corner of mouth to upper edge of pectoral fin base, base of pectoral fin with a blue-edged black bar, the margin of fin red, median fins with a variable amount of red. Juveniles and small females red with an oval blue-edged black spot posteriorly on caudal peduncle, and a medial white spot at front of snout.
187461		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. In the southwest Pacific, this species is considered to be common, but is less common in Micronesia.
187461		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade. In the southwestern Pacific it is targeted but not always commonly traded as the collection is often driven by demand.
187462		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187462		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific, originally described from the Philippines but now known from Kochi, southern Japan, Milne Bay in Papua New Guinea (Kuiter 2002),Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003), and Vanuatu.
187462		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 69 mm SL. It inhabits deeper water usually at depths of 30-40 m or more  (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), on open rubble bottoms with small corals and soft corals.
187462		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187462		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187463		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187463		distribution	eng	This species is found from the northern coast of Taiwan to the Philippines, Indonesia (Flores), and Papua New Guinea (Milne Bay).
187463		habitat	eng	<em>Leptojulis urostigma</em> is a small species, to about 76 mm SL. It feeds on small polychaete worms, crustaceans and small fish. This species occurs mainly over muddy bottoms, often in deep sediments deposited by rivers. Adults are observed at 30 m depth.
187463		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187463		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187464		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187464		distribution	eng	This species occurs in tropical east-central Atlantic waters around Sao Tome Principe in the Gulf of Guinea, and possibly from approximately Ghana southwards to Angola along the West African coastline. <br/><br/>In the Cape Verde Islands and from Senegal northwards it is replaced by <em>T. pavo</em> (Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Costagliola <em>et al.</em> 2004).
187464		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated, apparently inhabiting shallow insular and coastal waters, around rocky reefs to depths of approximately 40 m (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Like its congeners, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates. It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, as photos in Fishbase show distinct dichromatism similar to that in <em>T. pavo</em>. And like the latter species, its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.
187464		population	eng	In 50 UVCs, the density was estimated to be approximately five individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008). This species is one of the most abundant fishes in the Sao Tome Islands.
187464		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187465		conservation	eng	There are no known specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187465		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and extends to Socotra.
187465		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef rubble and rocky shores. It is found in depths from 3-25 m.
187465		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187465		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187466		conservation	eng	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution of this species. For example, it is known that this species occurs within the Kenting National Park of Taiwan (Shao 2005). However, specific management on this species is largely lacking throughout its range of occurrence.
187466		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Marshall Islands and Samoa, north to Taiwan and south to the Great Barrier Reef.
187466		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoon and sheltered seaward reefs, from three to possibly 120 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is solitary. Although it has been observed to swim with a group of goatfish, change its colour to resemble these fish, and dart out from the group to capture small fish (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997).
187466		population	eng	This species is considered to be common in many parts of its range. <br><br>Population information for this species has occasionally been recorded. For instance, from a beam trawl survey in Tanzania, the density was reported to be 0.01 individual per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in seagrass bed, which is less preferred habitat for this species (Gullström 2008), from a UVC using five 20 x 1 m belt transects, six individuals with size range 6-30 cm total length were sighted (Shibuno <em>et al.</em> 2008), and from a dive survey in the Solomon Islands, this species was reported to be a moderately common species (Allen 2006).<br><br>In Fiji, Tonga and New Caledonia, this species was commonly recorded, 187, 242 and 769 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.). However, this species is not common in French-Polynesia, only five individuals were counted (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 0.7 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187466		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species is not considered as a food fish in Taiwan (Shao 2005), however, it may be utilized in subsistence fisheries. This species was reported to be collected for the aquarium trade in Mozambique (Whittington <em>et al.</em> 2000).
187467		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187467		distribution	eng	This species is found from Yemen, south to Natal, South Africa and east to Indonesia and western Thailand.<br><br>Range size 3,770,973 km<sup>2</sup>
187467		habitat	eng	This species is common on reef rubble patches on flats and slopes from 1-31 m (Kuiter 2002).
187467		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a very common species.
187467		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. This species is taken in the aquarium trade, but as bycatch and does not pose a threat.
187468		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187468		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Easter Island.
187468		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 222 mm SL. It inhabits rocky areas in deeper water, in depths down to 250 m.
187468		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens. There is no known population information.
187468		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187469		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Easter Island has three designated marine protected areas (Wood 2007).
187469		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Easter Island. The area of occupancy based on 200 m bathymetry, is estimated to be 100 km<sup>2</sup>.
187469		habitat	eng	This species occurs over sand and rubble bottoms to depths up to 250 m.<br/><br/>Species of <em>Xyrichtys</em> are called Razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).
187469		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This deep water species is not commonly observed.
187469		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187470		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187470		distribution	eng	Due to taxonomic confusion between <em>Halichoeres tenuispinis</em> and <em>H. bleekeri</em> (Randall 1999), to date, <em>H. tenuispinis</em> has only been confirmed in the Northwest Pacific Ocean including Japan, Hong Kong, Xiamen and Taiwan only. However, records from Japan are probably specimens of <em>H. bleekeri</em> (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The specimens present in Herre (1953), Kawamura (1980), Jeong <em>et al.</em> (2003), Choi <em>et al.</em> (2005), Kim <em>et al.</em> (2005) and Park (2005) could possibly be mis-identifications of <em>H. bleekeri</em>.
187470		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small groups on kelp reefs, with a colorful dominating male in charge (Kuiter 2002). It is also found in lagoons, reef flats and mangrove channels to depths of 20 m.<br/><br/><em>H. tenuispinis</em> and <em>H. bleekeri</em> are very similar in colour and general morphology. <em>H. tenuispinis</em> appears to lack the rose pink band across the lower part of the head posterior to the corner of the mouth. Males of<em>H. tenuispinis</em> are more red-orange overall, while males of <em>H. bleekeri</em> are more green colored. <em>H. tenuispinis</em> also differs from <em>H. bleekeri</em> by having nearly always 14 pectoral rays and 11 to 15 suborbital pores. Conversely, in <em>H. bleekeri</em>, 13 pectoral rays and 7 to 11 suborbital pores were observed (Randall 1999). Initial phase of <em>H. tenuispinis</em> has a distinct black spot at pectoral junction (Saodvy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Diets of <em>H. tenuispinis</em> also include amphipods and benthic crustaceans. It fed mostly early in the morning and pecks an average 362 times per day (Edgar and Aoki 1993). Previous records also showed that <em>H. tenuispinis</em> is a diandric species, maturing at six cm SL and changing sex between seven to nine cm SL. It is found in depths to at least 15 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>Due to taxonomic confusion, it is unclear to which species the following information applies:<br/>In Japan and Korea,<em>H. tenuispinis</em>/<em>H. bleekeri</em> was found to be a protogynous hermaphrodite fish (Jeong <em>et al.</em> 2003, Choi <em>et al.</em> 2005, Park 2005) which the terminal phase of this species are derived from either initial phase male or female that has undergone sex change (Warner 1984). Edgar and Aoki (1993) found that <em>H. tenuispinis</em> consume disproportionately high numbers of large sieve-size prey including Ericthonius pugnax and Gammaropsis japonica.<em>H. tenuispinis</em>/ <em>H. bleekeri</em> was found to be diurnally active and was relatively active during one to two hours after sunrise and one to two hours before sunset. <em>H. tenuispinis</em> was observed to hide themselves among the rocks and seaweeds (Nakazono andTsukahara 1972).<br/><br/>In Japan, seasonal patterns of larval settlement for <em>H. tenuispinis</em>/<em>H. bleekeri</em> were noted, and juveniles were observed on the rock reef in late July (Kishiro and Nakazono 1991). Otolith increments were reported to form daily. The shortest duration of planktonic life was 26 days.
187470		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in at least part of its range. In Hong Kong, abundance estimates have been found to be moderately abundant. It was not seen in shallow coral areas, but occurs in reasonable numbers over some exposed rocky reefs (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). However, there is no information available on the abundance in Taiwan and Xiamen.<br/><br/>Due to taxonomic confusion, it is unclear to which species the following information applies:<br/><br/><em>H. tenuispinis/H. bleekeri of <em>H. tenuispinis</em> was estimated in April, whilst 23 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and 63 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> were found in March and May respectively thru underwater visual surveys (Edgar and Aoki 1993, Nakazono and Tsukahara 1972). Along the coast of northern Kyushu, Japan, it is abundant (more than 100 individuals were observed in May, July, September and October) (Nakazono and Tsukahara 1972). <br/><br/>Maximum density recorded the fish smaller than 15 mm TL was 600 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> in August in Japan (Kishiro and Nakazono 1991).</em>
187470		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187471		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Given this species restricted range within an area of intensive artesanal and multi-species fisheries, more reseach is needed on this species population and habitat status, harvest levels, and major threats.<br/><br/>In Mozambique, there is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>In Tanzania, there is no specific fishery management on this species. There are several marine parks and reserves in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marine parks are zoned for different purposes including no-take core zone and no fishing is allowed within the marine reserve unless authorized by a government department (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001). These protected areas may offer protection to this species, however its occurrence within these areas need further investigation.
187471		distribution	eng	This species is found iin Eastern Africa from Kenya to Mozambique, including Zanzibar. There is some confusion as to whether this species is found in Taiwan and Japan, as this species is reported to occur there (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984).
187471		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky reefs and over rubbles from 5-30 m depth. It feeds on crustaceans, shelled-molluscs and echinoderms. Nothing is known about its reproductive biology or ecology. The maximum size of the species is 20 cm TL.
187471		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187471		threats	eng	This species is likely caught in artisanal and multispecies fisheries, however there is nothing known on harvest levels or on the impact of fisheries on this species. Fisheries within its restricted range are generally heavily exploited such as in Mozambique and Tanzania (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002, Afonso 2004).
187472		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187472		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Ryukyus and Kashiwajima Island, Japan, to the Philippines, Indonesia and also in New Caledonia.
187472		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal sand and rubble reef, usually on flat substrates with remote coral bommies in current zones. It mixes with various other fishes in open water to feed on zooplankton (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is found in depths from 5-30 m (Kuiter 2002, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187472		population	eng	Theres is no population information available for this species.
187472		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187473		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187473		distribution	eng	This species is found from Seychelles to Indonesia and northwards to the Andaman Sea.
187473		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse, approximately 12 cm in length.  It occurs in shallow weedy areas of rocky shorelines, not where there is rich coral growth.
187473		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species.<br><br>This species was recorded from Pangkor Island, Malaysia, with a mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br><br>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).
187473		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187474		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187474		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island and Rowley Shoals in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and Ducie Islands, north to south Japan, and south to Lord Howe Island, Australia. There are also records from Hong Kong (Ni and Kwok 1999) and it has been recorded in the South China Sea from southwest Taiwan, Spratley Islands and Paracel Islands (M. Liu pers. comm. 2009).
187474		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and found from 1-30 m. It inhabits sandy areas of reef flats, lagoons, and semi-protected outer seaward reefs.  Juveniles occur in shallow, protected coastal waters, while adults are found to about 30 m depth (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It feeds on sand and rubble dwelling invertebrates (crustaceans, molluscs, forams, polychaetes, fish eggs, and small fishes). It has the habit of following sand-disturbing fishes such as goatfishes in order to intercept escaping prey.
187474		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is very common.
187474		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187475		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas within its distribution.
187475		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187475		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from northern Portugal and Spain to northern Morocco, including the Azores, Canary and Madeira islands.<br/><br/>This species is found throughout Mediterranean Sea, including Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea.
187475		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to northern Morocco and throughout the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, the Selvangens and the Canary islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). It is also found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187475		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky substrata and in coralligenous habitats. It is also associated with seagrass beds. This species feeds mainly on molluscs, gastropods, bivalves, tubicolous worms, chitons, sea urchins, and bryozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986).
187475		habitat	eng	This species is generally found over vegetated rocky substrates and in coralligenous habitats. It is also found associated with seagrass beds (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). It feeds mainly on gastropods, bivalves, tubiculous worms, chitons, sea urchins and bryozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986), and also crustaceans (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is found from 1-70m depth.<br/><br/>Spawning takes place in spring, and the eggs are laid in a nest constructed by the male (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187475		population	eng	This species is generally common, except in the Levant coasts where it is less abundant. The population is stable in Turkey, and most likely throughout the Mediterranean Sea.
187475		population	eng	This species is generally common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except along the coasts of the eastern Levant, where it is less abundant. The population is stable in Turkey, and most likely also throughout the rest of the Mediterranean Sea (Bilecenoglu pers. comm.).<br><br>In the Azores it is quite common although found in relatively low numbers (Afonso 2002) throughout its preferred habitat, and populations are thought to be stable. In the Canary islands, it is occasional and thought to have diminished in the last two decades (Brito <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187475		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. This species may be utilised and sold when caught in local artisinal fisheries.
187475		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this small species, although it may be utilised and sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187476		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.<br/><br/><em>Hemigymnus melapterus</em> is found in the Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania (Carpe and Öhaman 2003), the Great Barrier Reef (Grutter 1994), Berbera Marine Protected Area, Somali (Schleyer and Bladwin 1999), Shark Reef Marine Reserve, Fiji (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006), NHA Trang Bay, Vietnam (Dung 2007), Curieuse Marine National Park (Pittman 1997), Bar Reef Marine Sancutuary, Sri Lanka (Öhman <em>et al.</em> 1997), Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park, Indonesia (Aktani 2003), Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park (personal observations), Apo and Sumilon Island Reserve, Cebu, Philippines (Russ and Alcala 1989), Marine Protected Areas of Philippines (Abesamis <em>et al.</em> 2006), Amédée, Signal, Larégnère, Bailly and Maître Reserve, New Caledonia (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997).  <br/><br/>In Phillippines:<br/>It is worth noting that those captioned marine parks do not necessarily equal to no-fishing areas since limited fishing activity is allowed. For instance fishing is allowed in Sumilon Island reserve and <em>H. melapterus</em> is reported to be targeted by local fishers. The mean density of <em>H. melapterus</em> in Sumilon Island Reserve has been observed to decline after fishing was allowed within the reserve areas (Russ and Alcala 1989).<br/><br/>In Western Australia, there is no legal catch size for Labridae but daily catch limit is seven individuals per angler. No spear-fishing is allowed within the Ningaloo Marine Park (Government of Western Australia 2008a). In Queensland, the minimum legal size for wrasse is 25 cm and daily bag limit is five individual per species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries: Queensland Government 2008).
187476		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific (Myers 1991, Allen 2000), and is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to French Polynesia (Westneat 2001), north to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan and south to Lord Howe Island (Myers 1991). It is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey 2008).
187476		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral reefs (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001), sub-tidal reef flats, lagoons, outer reef slopes and drop-offs at depths of at least 40 m. It is solitary (Richard and Field 1998, Kuiter 2002) or occurs in small groups (Kuiter 2006).<br/><br/>Juveniles were found inshore (Kuiter 2002) and settled among long spines of urchins or close to substrate among other stinging invertebrates for protection (Kuiter 2006). While in Micronesia, juveniles were observed to occur among branching corals (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>Colour phase varies drastically according to age and sex (Allen 2000, Kuiter 2006), juveniles are green and with a main white bar developing behind pectoral fin, at about a length of seven cm (Kuiter 2002) individuals develop a characteristic bi-colour pattern with pale anterior and dark posterior (Allen 2000). <br/><br/>Diet varies from demersal planktonic crustaceans to hard-shelled invertebrates with growth (Myers 1991). It feeds by picking at dead branching coral or taking in mouthful of sand, sorting out small invertebrates including crustaceans, polychaetes, mollusks and brittle stars in the mouth, and then expelling the sand through the gill operculae (Westneat 2001, Grutter <em>et al.</em> 2002). The highest feeding rates occurred at mid-day with approximately 1.65 bites per 30 min and it does not feed at night (Grutter <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>At One Tree lagoon, Great Barrier Reef, the percentage mortality of the newly settled <em>H. melapterus</em> during the first 12 months was 51 % and the annual mortality was 18.6 +/- 1.6 %. Initial phase have been observed to move away from their home-range when becoming adults, thus, it is worth noting that the mortality might involved component of emigration (Eckert 1987). <br/><br/>Lewis (1997) revealed that the maximum percentage of post-recruit immigration at Heron Island, Australia, was 24.3 % and <em>H. melapterus</em> was more abundant on the reef flat than on the slope due to the influence of prey specific preference.<br/><br/>Gills of this species have been found to accommodate many gill- inhabiting copepods, Hatschekia hemigymni (Grutter 1994, 2002) and the ectoparasite numbers and compositions inhabiting the body varied spatially and temporally in the Great Barrier Reef (Grutter 1994). <br/><br/>Grutter <em>et al.</em> (2002) suggested that the immune system of the juveniles are not as competent as the larger fish, thus, a high density of parasite <em>Benedenia lolo</em> was found on the relatively smaller fish. Grutter (1998) also analysed the differences in the abundance of parasites and suggested that the home range of this species was about hundreds of metres.
187476		population	eng	This is a common species on shallow coral reefs throughout the Indo-Pacific (Grutter and Pankhurst 2000). It is noted as abundant in Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef (Grutter 1995) and is one of the most common wrasses in the Capricorn/ Bunker Group, One Tree, Heron and Wistari reefs, Fairfax, Fitzroy, Llewellyn, Musgrave, in the Great Barrier Reef (Eckert 1984). In Western Australia it occurs in some of the outer reefs, where it is considered more common (B. Russell per. comm. 2009). <br><br>In Micronesia, it is moderately common in areas of mixed sand, rubble and coral (Myers 1991).<br><br>In the rocky reef flat of Sesoko Island, Japan, mean density was recorded at 1.89 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup>. At Amédée, Signal, Larégnère, Bailly and Maître, New Caledonia, the mean density  and biomass was 2.19 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and 432 g per 100 m<sup>2</sup> respectively (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997)<br><br>Twentynine individuals were observed in Kambing Island, Indonesia (Sumadhiharga 2006). Mean density at Sumilon Island Reserve, Philippines in 1983 was 4.1 fish per 750 m<sup>2</sup>, however, mean density varied to 0.5 fish per 750 m<sup>2</sup> in 1985. Mean density at the Apo Reserve, Philippines was 1.4 individuals per 750 m<sup>2</sup> (Russ and Alcala 1989).<br><br>In Fiji, a total of 766 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-45 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 4,834 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-55 cm TL. In 12 stations, a total of 29 individuals were caught with total body weight of 2,725 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br> <br>In French-Polynesia, a total of five individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 8-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Tonga, a total of 494 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-40 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 1.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187476		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted by spearfishers and is collected for the aquarium trade and in multispecies fisheries.
187477		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187477		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean from the Red Sea to South Africa, to Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Johnston Island, Australia, Lord Howe and Tuamotu Islands, but not in the Hawaiian Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000).<br><br>It is found in Kimbe Bay (Papua New Guine) (Hubble 2003), Shark Reef, Beqa Lagoon, (Fiji), Mozambique (Pereira 2000), Solomon Islands (Allen 2006), at Guadalcanal (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 1991), Reunion Island (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004)  and the Jordanian Red Sea (Khalaf and Kchhzius 2002).
187477		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seaward reefs among coral branches. It also occurs in clear coastal waters, dense coral habitats on shallow reef crest or slopes to a depth of about 20 m. It inhabits depths from 3-30 m (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006). It usually occurs in small loose groups. <br/><br/>This species is identified by the brightly colored line pattern and the small ocellus on the caudal fin base (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  It is a shy species, usually swimming amongst the protection of coral branches (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is commonly associated to Pocillopora (Hubble 2003). It feeds mainly on small crustaceans (Myers 1991). It is a secretive species (Myers 1999).<br/><br/>It is known to spawn just before sunset at Miyake-jima (Izu Islands), the upward spawning dash very short and rapid, to reduce predation risk upon spawning adults by crepuscular carnivores (Kuwamura 1981).
187477		population	eng	For the Solomon Islands Marine Assessment (Allen 2006) it was considered moderately common at depths from 2-35 m, but only a few were seen on each dive. This species displayed cryptic habits. It was occasionally seen at Pulau Tioman Marine Park, Tioman Island, Malaysia (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2005).
187477		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is targeted and very popular in the ornamental aquarium fish trade.
187478		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range.
187478		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines, western Thailand to Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and northern Australia. It is also found in Pohnpei and Chuuk.
187478		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral-rich lagoon and inner channel reefs. It is also found in mixed coral and algae habitats.
187478		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common species.
187478		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187479		conservation	eng	The fishery is subjected to comprehensive assessments among USA east coast states and is also subject to size limits (35-40 cm), bag limits (one to eight per day, but most at three to four), and seasonal closures.
187479		distribution	eng	This species is found from South Carolina, USA to Nova scotia, Canada. It is most abundant from Cape Cod to Chesapeake Bay.
187479		habitat	eng	This species has many of the same biological features as the <em>Achoerodus</em> species. It is fairly long-lived in the south and there is a possibility that nothern populations are even longer lived still but there is no available demographic data from northern populations (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2008).<br/><br/>There is little field based biological information available especially concerning spawning and reproductive behavior despite the amount of effort put into the catch and fishery statistics of this species (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species inhabits shallow water in the summer but migrates to deeper water (25-40 m) when temperatures fall below 10°C. Adults are usually associated with reefs and manmade structures (Arendt <em>et al.</em> 2001).  Adult males are territorial and active during the day to feed and rest in crevices at night.  Newly settled individuals and small juveniles occur in estuaries (Dorf and Powell 1997). Juveniles are found in seagrass or algal beds (Bigelow and Schroeder 2001). This species undergoes seasonal migrations (Olla <em>et al.</em> 1974)<br/><br/>Maximum size is 94 cm (TL) and 11.4 kg. Maximum age is 34 years, age at female maturity is 3-4 yrs and size 14-25 cm (White <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is slow growing (Hottstetter and Munroe 1993). More recent work suggests that growth rates maybe higher in the far southern end of the range but that work has yet to be peer reviewed ASMFC (2006). Few age estimates from the northern range of this species. <br/><br/>Species is a gonochoristic (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 1997, LaPlant and Schultz 2007), serial spawner, with up to 58 spawnings per season (White 1996), peak spawning is from May to June. Spawning was noted in June-July in Canadian waters, but appears more protracted (April-July) in coastal waters of Virginia, USA. It feeds mainly on mussels, gastropods, other molluscs and crustaceans. This species has gained popularity as a prized food and sport fish (Leim and Scott 1966, Hostetter 1993, Arendt <em>et al.</em> 2001). Investigation on the diel and seasonal activity patterns of the adult tautog in its southern range were conducted using ultrasonic telemetry (Arendt <em>et al.</em> 2001). It spawns in groups or in pairs. Pairing occurs between females and size-dominant males exhibiting strong territoriality and performing a protracted courtship (Hostetter and Munroe 1993). There is no histological evidence yet to prove or disprove the occurrence of hermaphroditism in this species.
187479		population	eng	A very good set of catch and fishery statistics is available for this species, but most of the data are fishery dependent. Peak abundance from fisheries estimate 40,000,000 individuals in 1982 and 20,000,000 in 2003 (ASMFC 2006). Therefore, over the past 24-30 years there has been a decline of 50% of the estimated population.
187479		threats	eng	The Tautog has been subject to an intensive fishery over the last two decades (ASMFC Fishery Focus 2006) of which recreational fishing accounts for 90% of recorded landings. Over this time recreational landings in the Atlantic United States have declined from a peak of 4,201,575 kg in 1988 to 1,698,750 kg in 2004, a reduction of 60% in recorded landings (ASMFC Fishery Focus 2006), with effort assumed to be at least constant. Declines in the northern (Canadian) portion of its range are not known. <br/><br/>Despite the development of a live fish trade element, the commercial fishery returns have remained stable and increases in fishing mortality are attributable to the recreational fishery. An intensive stock assessment (ASMFC 2006) confirmed that fishing mortality driven by recreational fisheries was above recommended levels. <br/><br/>A modeling exercise in the stock assessment program indicated a decline in the estimated spawning biomass from 39,916,128 kg in 1986 to 10,886,217 kg in 2004, a 73% reduction (ASMFC Fishery Focus 2006). The main conclusion of the ASMFC reports was that overfishing was occurring and that demography and habitat selection makes this species particularly susceptible to over fishing. Present management initiatives seek to reduce fishing pressure through bag and size limits and seasonal closures.
187480		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187480		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia, in northern New South Wales, Solitary Islands to Sydney, Western Australia (Abrolhos Islands to Dampier Archipelago), Northeastern New Zealand (Cape Reinga to Poor Knights Islands) and Norfolk Island. Records from southern Japan (Izu Islands) are a new species (R.Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187480		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 126 mm SL. It is a shallow water species, occurring in depths to about 25 m on rubble and rocky algal covered bottoms. It is sexually dichromatic and haremic, but sex change is apparently related to age (Francis 2001).
187480		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
187480		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187481		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187481		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout New Zealand, including Three Kings Islands,  Chatham Islands,  Stewart Island and the Snares Islands (Francis 1996).
187481		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 272 mm SL. It is common on exposed rocky reefs. It occurs mainly in deeper water as shallow as four m but more common in depths of 10-40 m.  <br><br>Food consists of crabs, hermit crabs and ophiuroids, (Graham 1939, Russell 1983). It searches for food among encrusting organisms and algal holdfasts using the large forward-jutting canine teeth to rake its food from the substratum (Russell 1983). Spawning occurs in late winter-spring, August – November  (Doak 1972, Francis 2001), and juveniles about five cm found in February-March in shallow water. They grow rapidly, maturing at one year old.  Females breed for two to three years before changing sex at about four years old (Francis 2001). Juveniles and females sometimes act as cleaners (Francis 2001).
187481		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. It is abundant at Three Kings Islands and the southern part of its range.
187481		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187482		conservation	eng	This species is present within several marine protected areas across its range. Baseline research on population trends is needed, as little is known about this species population status.
187482		distribution	eng	This species occurs from North Carolina, USA and Bermuda to Rio de Janeiro (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003) Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and throughout the Caribbean.
187482		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and found to at least 30 m depth. It is commonly found in rocky and reef areas in shallow waters.  It is less common in seagrass beds.  <br/><br/>It feeds on other fishes (Böhlke and Chaplin 1993) and gastropods (Cervigón 1993). It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003).  It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Allsop and West 2003). It is diandric. It is also a pelagic spawner (Nemtzov 1985). Sex reversal is completed in more than three to four weeks (Roede 1972, Sadovy and Shapiro 1987). Length at sex change = 30.2 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).
187482		population	eng	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.  <br/><br/>Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected, except for the ones in North Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, which are genetically distinct and may represent a different species (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is the most common wrasse in the Caribbean, but is considered to be relatively rare in Brazil.
187482		threats	eng	There are no major threats  known for this species.
187483		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187483		distribution	eng	This species is found from Kashawa-jima, Japan and southern Taiwan, to the Philippines and the Macclesfield Bank, South China Sea.
187483		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs over rocky bottoms, six to 40 m deep.
187483		population	eng	This species is common over rocky bottoms within its range.
187483		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187484		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187484		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Indonesia and Christmas Island (Australia).
187484		habitat	eng	This species occurs over coral and rubble bottoms between depths of three to 20 m.
187484		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common.
187484		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade sometimes by cyanide solution.
187485		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187485		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Japan (Okinoshima) and Hawaii (Oahu). It has also been recorded 200 m off northwest Australia (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187485		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 142 mm SL. This species inhabits deep shelf waters in depths of more than 40 m. Trawled in depths of 119-168 m (Oahu).
187485		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few records.
187485		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187486		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Shark Bay is a world heritage area covering more than 2.2 million ha (sharkbay.org).
187486		distribution	eng	This species is known only from part of the sub tropical coastline of Western Australia in the Eastern Indian Ocean (Shark Bay and possibly south to Perth). It is only known from a few historical specimens.
187486		habitat	eng	This species was collected from shallow rocky and weedy reefs (Allen 1997).
187486		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187486		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187487		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187487		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Java, Indonesia (Eschmeyer 1999). Records from the Red Sea (Goren and Dor 1994) are suspect (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187487		habitat	eng	There is very little information about this species. It most likely inhabits sand and rubble bottom habitats.
187487		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
187487		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187488		conservation	eng	In Australia, a minimum size of 30 cm TL and a bag limit of six fish apply to this genus (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes including <em>Choerodon</em> species in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). In Caledonia, however, there is no specific management measures or regulation on this species. <br/><br/>This species is also present in some Marine Protected Areas within its restricted range. Marine parks are established within Queensland including the Heron Island where this species is recorded (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2004). Marine parks in Queensland are zoned for different purposes and they offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities. <br/><br/>In New Caledonia, no-take marine reserves have been established in five islands of the Southwest lagoon, which cover a total area of about 27 km<sup>2</sup>, in New Caledonia since 1989. Underwater visual censuses revealed significantly higher biomass and density of <em>C. graphicus</em> in these marine reserves after five years of protection (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>More information is needed on this species population status, harvest levels, and potential impact of fisheries.
187488		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Great Barrier Reef, Cardwell, Queensland, and Elizabeth or Middleton Reef, Australia  (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008), and in New Caledonia.
187488		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, usually found solitary on rubble and sand bottoms at depths greater than 20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994), and down to 46 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey including crustaceans, molluscs and sea urchins (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>The recorded maximum size of the species is 80 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). Information on its reproductive biology and ecology is lacking.
187488		population	eng	Descriptive account on this species by Lieske and Myers (1994) reported that this species was common along its range of occurrence. <br><br>In New Caledonia, a total 5,094 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-80 cm TL. In a total of 19 stations, a total of 81 individuals were caught with total weight of 10.4 kg (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187488		threats	eng	This species is collected in recreational and commercial fishery in Australia and New Caledonia, however there is no information on its landings and the level of threat from these fisheries is unknown. Given this species large size and location in areas targeted by the live food fish trade, more research is needed on this species population status and harvest levels.
187489		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. There is some protection through the Marine Aquarium Council standards and certification and from quota regulations in Australia for aquarium fishes.
187489		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa south to Algoa Bay, South Africa (Randall 1986) and east to the Marshall and Tuamoto islands. In the western Pacific, this species extends from Sagami Bay, Honshu to New South Wales (Australia).
187489		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seagrass beds and areas of mixed sand, rubble, and algae of inner reef flats and shallow lagoons. <br/><br/>Female length is from (Masuda and Allen 1993). It swims in small aggregations over large areas. Maximum depth is 20 m (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Depth range is from 2-15 m (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The maximum length is 15.0 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) and seven cm TL (female). The larval duration is 23.4 days (SD 2.2) in Palau (Victor 1986).
187489		population	eng	This species is common on the Great Barrier Reef and in many other parts of the range. It is rare in the central Philippines during a survey (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Indonesia it was found in two out of 19 sites in a study (Mous 2002). There is no specific population information.
187489		threats	eng	A major threat is the collection for the aquarium trade. There is also habitat degradation in southeast Asia.
187490		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187490		distribution	eng	This species is found from Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996) to South Africa in the west (Randall 1986) to the Line, Marquesas, and Tuamoto islands in the east, northwards to southern Japan (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007), southwards to Papua New Guinea (Jenkins 2002), to the Rowley Shoals and Lord Howe Island, Australia, northern New Zealand and Rapa Islands.
187490		habitat	eng	This species is found over shallow lagoon and seaward reefs at depths between 1-15 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers 1991) and over reef flats (Westneat 2001). Prey items are mainly crustacean zooplankton (Myers 1991). Feeding habits include selective plankton-feeding (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984) and the species was observed to be a diurnal carnivore in the Glorieusis Islands, western Indian Ocean (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Juveniles, females and young males have similar colour patterns, but those of larger males are different and often variable (Kuiter 2002). Small juveniles are sometimes found under ledges together with sea urchins, and they tend to form schools at an early age, often staying close to the reef substrate. Adults are often found in large schools of mixed sexes, feeding in midwater on zooplankton. Colourful males are often found separately from these schools (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>Larvae collected in Palau had a larval duration mean of 72.4 days with a range of 53-90 (Victor 1986).<br/><br/>This species has been observed to be a group spawner (Nakazono 1979), at depths of 5-7 m, in channels or passages and around promontory or bommie areas of coral reefs (Collin 7 Bell 1991). School size was 2.8 individuals/school with average fish lengths of 8.57 cm. Density was .0029 individual/m<sup>2</sup> and biomass .0269 g/m<sup>2</sup> (Matoto <em>et al.</em> 1996).
187490		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range, such as in the Philippines and in Indonesia.<br><br>In the Great Barrier Reef, 93 +/-75 individuals were found in 104 sites at inter-reef and deep locations (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is common in the Solomon Islands at depths of 0-15 m (Allen 2006) and in the Banda Islands, Indonesia where it was found in 15 out of 19 sites surveyed (Mous 2002). The maximum number found using Baited Remote Underwater Video was two individuals in the green zone of the Magnetic Shoals (site 14) of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia (Speare and Stowar 2007).
187490		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade. This species may be subject to localized threats from habitat destruction in some parts of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2004, Hodgson 1999).
187491		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  However, in Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales, several marine parks have recently been established or are being established within its range and comprise “no fishing” areas. However, those areas typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones is unknown.
187491		distribution	eng	This species is found in temperate Australia from New South Wales to South Australia, and Western Australia though not reliably recorded from Tasmania or Victoria (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187491		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 126 mm SL. Inhabits rocky areas in depths of about 10-40 m (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).<br>In Jurien Bay Marine Park, occurring on deeper more exposed reefs (> 10 m), closely associated with the substrate, among red algae, turfs and ledges (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Biological data from a few individuals collected on mid-west coast of Australia suggests protogyny, e.g. differential size range of females and males and sexual dichromatism, coupled with histological analyses of gonads (males contain secondary testes), but not confirmed/conclusive at this stage (Fairclough, D. unpublished data).<br><br>Species is common in shallow water in Western Australia (to about 20 m), but tends to be in deeper water (to 40 m) in sponge habitats elsewhere (B. Russell pers. comm.2008).
187491		population	eng	Presumed continuous distribution in Western Australia. Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found <em>A. maculatus</em> to be frequent or abundant at seven locations surveyed between the Houtman Abrolhos Islands (ca 28-29°S, 114°E) and Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be relatively abundant at that location, occurring on deeper more exposed reefs (> 10 m), closely associated with the substrate, among red algae, turfs and ledges (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Harvey <em>et al.</em> (2004) also found <em>A. maculatus</em> to be abundant over reef habitats at Esperance. The population is probably stable.
187491		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187492		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187492		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it found throughout most of this sea and the Sea of Marmara, though it is rare in the Levant. It is also present in the western and north-western Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187492		habitat	eng	This species lives in small groups, mainly over algal-covered rocky substrates, but also in seagrass beds. It feeds on bryozoans, hydroids, tubiculous polychaete worms, shrimps, amphipods and molluscs. The young fish may act as cleaners of other fishes.<br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the male builds, maintains and guards a nest made of seaweed (Cystoseia), in which several females lay their eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187492		population	eng	This species is relatively common thoughout the Mediterranean Sea, but is less abundant along the coast of the Levant.
187492		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries.
187493		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187493		distribution	eng	This species is found in the West coast of Africa: from Western Sahara, Madeira and the Canary Islands in the north via the offshore Cape Verde Islands, Sao Tome and Principe in the Gulf of Guinea, southwards to central Angola (Westneat in press).
187493		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 50 cm but is more common at 40 cm. It inhabits rocky and reef-like areas, rich in algae, but is also caught in eel-grass beds (Westneat in press). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It was taken between one and 75 m depth. (Westneat in press). It appears to be common at depths of 20-40 m as evidenced by the many specimens collected in the 1973 International Guinean Trawling Survey. Juveniles occur, at least occasionally, in rocky areas at depths of 10-12 m.
187493		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There are suspected declines for this population, but there is no data to support this.
187493		threats	eng	Fishing is considered a major threat for this species.
187494		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187494		distribution	eng	This species is known from Indonesia from northeastern Kalimantan to western Papua (Sangalakki GRA, Borneo, Banggai I., Togean I., G. Tomini, Togean Is GRA, Raja Ampat GRA, Papua Comb).
187494		habitat	eng	This species occurs on sheltered reefs with mixed low corals and algae-rubble, and may form small groups on shallow reef crests and mix with <em>Paracheilinus filamentosus</em> (Kuiter 2002). Males display with their spectacular metallic blue backs, swimming frantically to impress females (Kuiter 2002). It lives at 6-15 m depth, and can be found as deep as 35 m (R. Myers pers. comm.). Except the brief account on breeding behaviour of <em>P. cyaneus</em>, nothing about the biology, ecology or abundance is known for this species.
187494		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be less common than <em>P. filamentosus</em> (Kuiter 2002).
187494		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187495		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The efficacy of these marine protected areas is not known.
187495		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary and Cape Verde Islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Based on 100 m bathymetry, the area of occupancy of this species is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
187495		habitat	eng	This is a large species with males reaching at least 70 cm TL in the Azores (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). A maximum length of 80 cm has been recorded (Hanquet 2005). <br/><br/>It inhabits rocky reefs of island shores and offshore reefs and shallow banks in depths from 20-100 m. It prefers areas of high bottom relief and strong hydrodynamic conditions.<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on macro invertebrates (sea urchins, gastropods, etc.). It is a sequential protogynous hermaphrodite (all males result from sex-changing females at 45-65 cm TL). It shows marked haremic territorial system, typically one male to two to three females (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Supposedly a pelagic spawner, it does not build a nest or provide any parental care. Juveniles occur isolated below 30 m, sheltering within reef crevices and holes.
187495		population	eng	There has a been a population decline throughout its range. <br/><br/>In the Azores it is common on rocky reefs from 15-50 m depth all across the archipelago and offshore shallow banks with suitable habitat, but naturally occurs in scarce numbers , especially in the northernmost islands (Afonso 2002).<br/><br/>In Madeira (Ribeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005, Ribeiro <em>et al. </em>2006) and the Canaries (Falcón <em>et al.</em> 1996) populations are less numerous, or even absent locally, although in the recent past they have supported local multispecies fisheries. The very limited information available also points to the rarity of this species in the Cape Verdes (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2008), its southern distribution limit (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187495		threats	eng	This species is threatened by overfishing throughout its restricted range. Sensitivity to recreational fishing is also of major concern throughout its range due to increasing boatfishing and freediving.<br/><br/>In the Canary Islands it was recently considered commercially threatened due to overexploitation, mostly in the 1990s (Brito and Morales 1998). In Madeira it is rare or absent, most probably due to overfishing and habitat degradation of the coastal communities in past decades. In the Azores, numbers have been reduced in fished areas in recent years, particularly those of larger (male) individuals (Afonso 2002, Afonso <em>et al. </em>2006).
187496		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. It has been recorded in a nature reserve at the Eilat area, Egypt (Rilov and Benayahu 2000).  More information on harvest levels for the aquarium trade is needed.
187496		distribution	eng	This species was observed from the Red Sea (Richard and Field 1998) and Gulf of Aden (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187496		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow reefs, especially in areas of rich coral and algae growth (Debelius 1993) to depths of 20 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). According to Richard and Field (1998), it is often seen in the lagoon areas, close to the fringing reef.
187496		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered uncommon in the Red Sea. <br/><br/>Only eight individuals have been observed during a study at Mangrove Bay, Egypt (Lange 2006) and it has been recorded with a low relative abundance of 0.04 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and 0.1-1 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> at the south of Eilat and nature reserve of Eilat, Israel respectively (Rilov and Benayahu 1998, Rilov and Benayahu 2000).
187496		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is collected for the aquarium trade, although there is no quantitative data and monitoring on the marine aquarium trade of this species. As this species occurs in coral reefs, it may also be affected by localized habitat decline.
187497		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187497		distribution	eng	This species is found from east Africa (Somalia to Sodwana Bay, South Africa) to Samoa, north to Izu Islands, and south to the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. It is also found in Pohnpei (G. Allen, unpublished survey).<br/><br/>Range size 22,682,870 km<sup>2</sup>
187497		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse and is an uncommon inhabitant of coral-rich areas of clear outer lagoon and seaward reefs. It relies on live coral. Juveniles are cleaners while adults feed on coral polyps.
187497		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species, but very widespread.
187497		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade and may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, these are considered to be localized threats.
187498		conservation	eng	More than 75% of the range of <em>C. ballieui</em> is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a no-take marine reserve. No species specific conservation actions are in place.
187498		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (USA).
187498		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths from 10-108 m, although it is typically observed below 20 m.  Its habitat is typically sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs.  It utilizes the sand for protection from predators by “diving” into it.
187498		population	eng	No explicit data are available on population trends in this species.  Casual observations indicate that the species is common and has a stable population.
187498		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187499		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187499		distribution	eng	This species is present in the West Central Pacific from Indonesia, the Philippines and northern Papua New Guinea.
187499		habitat	eng	This species is found on semi-open sandy substrates along reefs, often in deep channels to lagoons that are prone to strong tidal currents and where seawhips thrive (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).This species is found down to 20 m and possibly found on shallow coral reefs at about five m. The maximum size is 18 cm TL.
187499		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This is a rare species.
187499		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Possibly fishing and habitat destruction on shallow reefs.
187500		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. The islands within this species range are not heavily populated.
187500		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the south Pacific Ocean around Pitcairn Island and Rapa Island, and possibly also the Tuamotu Archipelago.
187500		habitat	eng	The main habitat of this species is probably rocky reefs, and maybe also coral reefs to depths of 15 m. The diet probably comprises mainly benthic macro-invertebrates, and the eggs and larvae are probably pelagic.
187500		population	eng	Theres is no population information available for this species.
187500		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187501		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species occurs within the Tomini Bay Marine Protected Area.
187501		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tomini Bay, Indonesia.
187501		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small groups along reef edges with rubble patches in depths to about 15-30 m.  Juveniles are found in small groups in shallower depths (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187501		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends for this species have not been assessed.  It is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187501		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187502		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187502		distribution	eng	This species is found at the Ashmore-Cartier Reefs, Scott Reef, and the Rowley Sholls off the coast of north-western Australia.
187502		habitat	eng	This species is found over rubble and coral bottoms from 10 to 40 m.
187502		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187502		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187503		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187503		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean on the eastern African coast from Somalia to Mozambique and the islands of Zanzibar, Aldabra, Comoros Islands and the Seychelles.
187503		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 88 mm SL. In Aldabra it inhabits seagrass beds on outer seaward edge of intertidal reef flats (Randall and Randall 1981). This species has a maximum depth of six m.
187503		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is uncommon in Aldabra.
187503		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There may be some habitat degradation of seagrass beds in some parts of its range.
187504		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187504		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Japan, from the Izu Islands, Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara Island (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997). There are also records from the Philippines (Fuga Island, near Batangas, Buckwheat Bay, Dalumpiri Island) in the Sulu-Celebes Sea Dantis and Aliño (2002) (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008).
187504		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky habitats in bays and is reported to retire in the sand at night to depths of 12 m.
187504		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187504		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187505		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187505		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines, Indonesia and Palau.
187505		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rubble areas and finely branching corals on protected coral and rubble slopes, with a depth range of 6-40 m (Myers 1999). It occurs in schools or in small groups.
187505		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187505		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187506		conservation	eng	This species occurs on reefs within marine parks in Western and South Australia. There is no legal minimum size for retention of this species in Western Australia and, on the west coast of Australia, fishers are allowed to retain up to 40 fish per person per day (dependent on various other limitations). On the south coast of Western Australia, fishers are limited to a maximum of eight fish per person per day (D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>These bag limits seem relatively high considering the life history parameters of this species, including its long generation time and longevity.
187506		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the temperate waters of southern Australia, with confirmed records from east of Mooloolaba, Queensland, New South Wales and northeastern Tasmania in the east and between about Port Denison, Western Australia and the York Peninsula, South Australia in the west (Gomon 2006).
187506		habitat	eng	This is a large species, reaching about 450 mm TL. It occurs on reefs at depths of 15-80 m. Scott (1962) reported the species (as <em>L. vulpinus</em>) to be reasonably common in somewhat deeper coastal waters off South Australia. In Western Australian waters, it frequents deeper coastal reefs with juveniles preferring ledges and adults venturing into more open areas (Gomon 2006).  It is associated with macro-algae in shallower waters (J. Meeumig pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, multiple spawner, spawns in late spring and summer. This species is very long lived, reaching ages of greater than 60 years (validated by marginal increment analysis, D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is frequent on reefs from Perth to Esperance in Western Australia (Hutchins 2001) and occurs commonly on shallow reefs (< 18 m) at Jurien (D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008 ).
187506		population	eng	This is a relatively common species. There is no specific population information. Although there is some fishing catch data for this species (Cossington <em>et al.</em> 2008), reliable data is relatively unavailable. This species is only abundant along the southern coast of Western Australia, but relatively rare on the western coast of Western Australia.<br><br>The population is estimated to have declined at least 20%, if not more, over the past 50 years due to fishing pressure (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187506		threats	eng	This species is captured in trawl fisheries throughout its range in New South Wales, and in commercial and recreational line fisheries in Western Austraila. It is also collected for the aquarium trade, and has a high value (US$ 28.50-$35 per fish) but is probably collected in small numbers (Ryan and Clarke 2005). It suffers barotrauma when caught in waters greater than 10 m (D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008)
187507		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in marine protected areas in parts of its range.
187507		distribution	eng	This species is found from Java to the Philippines, Ryukyu Islands, Moluccas, Palau (Belau), Solomons, Truk, Pohnpei (G. Allen, unpublished survey), and Kwajalein. Its southeastern range extends to Tonga.
187507		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow lagoon and channel reefs in coral reefs, up to a depth of at least 20 m, with rich soft-coral growth.  It occurs in small loose groups. It can get up to 17 cm in length.
187507		population	eng	This is an abundant species. There is nothing known about the specific population size.
187507		threats	eng	There are no known major threats, although there is some collection for the aquarium trade.
187508		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187508		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Rapa Island (Austral Islands, French Polynesia).
187508		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 158 mm SL. This species inhabits rocky areas in moderately deeper water, in depths of 15-24 m.
187508		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens. There is no population information available.
187508		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187509		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187509		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the western coast of Australia between the Monte Bello Islands and the Houtman Abrolhos (Gomon 2006).
187509		habitat	eng	This species is moderately large, to about 350 mm SL.  It is taken by trawl in deeper water, 61-108 m.
187509		population	eng	There is no population information availalbe for this species.
187509		threats	eng	All the records are from trawlers or trap fishing records. These fishing methods are a potential threat.
187510		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187510		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southeast Atlantic from Tristan da Cunha Group, Gough, and the Vema Seamount. In the Western Indian Ocean it is found at St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands.
187510		habitat	eng	This is a small species to about 176 mm SL. It occurs in tide pools and amongst kelp to depths of 30 m.
187510		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187510		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187511		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. <br/><br/>In New Caledonia for example, marine reserves are established within the natural range of this species (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997) These reserves cover reef habitat which are suitable to <em>C. fasciatus </em>(Lieske and Myers 1994). Though this species has not been recorded within these reserves, it is very likely that these no-take areas can provide protection to <em>C. fasciatus</em>.  About 60 marine parks (with no-fishing areas and buffer zones) are established in Japan including the Okinawa Kaigan Marine Park in Ryukyu where this species may occur (UNEP-WCMC 2008). Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, may also offer protection to this species though its occurrence in the area needs further survey. <em>C. fasciatus</em>, which may also occur among Western Pacific Islands, may be protected by the newly established Phoenix Island Protected Area in Kiribati, which is currently the largest marine protected area in the world.<br/><br/>In Australia, a minimum size of 300 mm TL and a bag limit of six fish apply to all species in this genus (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes including Choerodon species in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). However, there is no specific management or regulation on <em>C. fasciatus</em>.
187511		distribution	eng	This species is occurs from East Africa including Madagascar and the Maldives to New Caledonia and Fiji, and from the Ryukyu Islands to Australia.
187511		habitat	eng	This species is solitary and inhabits seaward reefs. It feeds on mollusks, crustaceans, various worms and echinoderms. It is territorial, and ranges over a large area of reef (Lieske and Myers 1994), and lives down to 35 m (Shao 2005).<br/><br/>This species is reported to be monogamous (Whiteman and Côté 2004). Other information on its reproductive biology or ecology is lacking.
187511		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species in the majority of its range. It is considered common in at least some of its range, including Australia and New Caledonia.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 368 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 10-43 cm TL. In two stations, two individuals were caught with total body weight of 272 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Fiji, this species is rare, only one individual was recorded with 22 cm TL during various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187511		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. Due to its popularity in the aquarium trade, pressure for collection could represent a local threat to this species in some areas. However, the level of collection for aquarium trade relative to natural abundance is unknown.
187512		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187512		distribution	eng	This species is found from Florida, USA and the Caribbean to Trinidad and Tobago.
187512		habitat	eng	This reef associated species is found from 10 to 91 m. It is found over rocky reef and rubble substrates. Juveniles up to eight cm may act as specialized cleaners, based on observations from its sister species, <em>H. diimidiatus</em>.
187512		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be common. In Brazil, 1,256 individuals were exported in 2007 (IBAMA 2007).
187512		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is occasionally caught by anglers as bycatch.  Generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size.
187513		conservation	eng	This species is a no-take species in South Africa.
187513		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the western Indian Ocean (South Africa and southern Mozambique).
187513		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of at least 60 m. It feeds on macro zoobenthos (crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and ascidians).
187513		population	eng	There is very little population information available for this species. It is considered rare throughout its range. <br><br>In 2002 and 2003, underwater visual census (UVC) found a mean density of .33 fish/1,000m<sup>2</sup> in the Pondoland region between the Mtamvuna River and Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape, South Africa (Mann <em><em>et al.</em></em> 2006).  It was the ninth most dense species of wrasse (of 18 species observed).
187513		threats	eng	Formerly, this species was threatened by spearfishing, however it was recently made a no-take species in South Africa, although poaching may still occur.
187514		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187514		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines and north to Taiwan and Iriomote-jima (Ryukyu Islands), and in Anambas, Indonesia (Adrim <em>et al.</em> 2004). There are questionable records from northern Bali (Kuiter and Allen 1999, Allen and Adrim 2003) Flores, Indonesia and from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187514		habitat	eng	This species is found at bases of steep outer reef slopes, close above rubble or coral, from 12 to 40 m depth (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003) Females occur in small groups, with males usually nearby (Kuiter 2002).
187514		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be rare in Taiwan (Shao 2005), and is also considered rare in the Philippines (V. Hilomen and J. Pontillas pers. comm.).
187514		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187515		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur in marine protected areas in parts of its range.
187515		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Indonesia and the Philippines.
187515		habitat	eng	This species inhabits outer reef flats and upper slopes of coastal reefs to depths of 10 m with rich coral and hydrozoan growth.  It is usually solitary and found on shallow reef flats and crest (Kuiter 2002). It is one of the slightly larger wrasses, approximalty 18 cm length.
187515		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common species.
187515		threats	eng	There are no major threats, although it is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade as bycatch.
187516		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187516		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea to Durban, South Africa and extending eastward to Pitcairn Island. It appears to be excluded from the coasts of India. In the Western Pacific, it is found from Okinawa, Japan in the north to eastern and western Australia (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008) in the south.
187516		habitat	eng	This species is moderately small, to about 143 mm SL. It inhabits clear lagoon and seaward reefs. Adults occur commonly in clear shallow waters at depths of 1-8 m. Large individuals do occasionally occur at somewhat greater depths, having been collected below 27 m at Cocos-Keeling Atoll. Juveniles are often found in caves and beneath ledges in moderately deep waters, occurring regularly at depths of 14 to 26 m. It is almost always associated with well-developed coral reefs. It feeds mainly on benthic, hard-shelled, invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans. Juveniles act as cleaners by picking at bodies of other fishes (adults occasionally do this).
187516		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common and widespread species.<br><br>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).
187516		threats	eng	This species is not commonly marketed and is occasionally seen in the aquarium trade. It is sometimes caught as fisheries bycatch.
187517		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187517		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific from the Philippines, Palau, Indonesia, New Guinea, east to Baker Island and south to northwest Australia and the Great Barrier Reef (AFD 2009).
187517		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral rich areas of shallow lagoons and sheltered seaward reefs. Adults feed mainly on coral polyps while juveniles remove ectoparasites from small territorial fishes (Randall and Springer 1973, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990). Adults swim in small groups. Usually, only small juveniles clean other fishes (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187517		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is thought to be a common species.<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 3.4 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187517		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187518		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187518		distribution	eng	This species is found at Pohnpei, Caroline Islands and Marshall Islands. Strays have been found at Johnston Atoll.
187518		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small groups over lagoon patch reefs in outer reefs from eight to 30 m.  It feeds on zooplankton in the water column.
187518		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. There is no population information available for this species.
187518		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187519		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187519		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout temperate southern Australia, including New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and southern Western Australia.
187519		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 270 mm TL (Barrett 1995a). It occurs predominantly on algal-covered rocky reef in shallow water (Morton 2007), but also inhabits sponge covered bottoms to depths of about 40 m.  <br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic. This species is a site-attached protogynous hermaphrodite, where females have widely overlapping home-ranges and males are territorial (Barrett 1995a, 1995b), at least during the breeding season, and exclude all other males from their range (Barrett 1995a). Spawning occurs from October-December (NSW, Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a) and late August to January (Tasmania, Barrett 1995b), sexual maturity is reached in first (0.9) year at <95 mm TL, with rapid growth to about 180 mm TL in three years, longevity is at least 4.8 years (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a) and maximum age estimate is 10 years (Tasmania, Barrett 1995b). Sex change typically occurs at about 130-150 mm TL, at two years in NSW (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a) and 3+-5+ years in Tasmania (Barrett 1995a). A generalist benthic carnivore with small individuals <150 mm TL feeding mainly on amphipods and small decapods, and larger individuals feeding mainly on trochid gastropods (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008b).
187519		population	eng	This species is common in algal-covered rocky reef habitat throughout its range.
187519		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in recreational line fisheries.
187520		conservation	eng	The current bag limit in Western Australia is one per day and size limit of greater than 500 mm TL.  This species is not protected in Victoria and is still subject to commercial fishing there. It is totally protected in the Spencer Gulf and the Gulf of St. Vincent in southern Australia, although the records of this protection are linked to <em>A. viridis</em> but refer to <em>A. gouldii.</em> <br/><br/>Management plans need to be developed and implemented, especially in western Australia where there is very little protection. Although this species exists in reasonable numbers in Esperance, there are continuing records of poor catches along the central Western Australian coast, and more fishers are moving down there. Moreover, research is needed on the population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures and trends (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
187520		distribution	eng	This species is a large long-lived wrasse that is endemic to the southwestern and southern coasts of Australia. <br/><br/>Its geographic range extends from the Geraldton on the central western Australian coast to Bass Strait in the east. As this species only occurs in reef environments, its area of occupancy is estimated to be approximately 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, its distribution within this range is not uniform.
187520		habitat	eng	This is largest and longest-lived wrasse recorded, achieving a length of 170 cm and 70 years of age. The species is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite based on age and size distribution with a highly asymptotic growth pattern in both sexes and with males achieving a larger size than females. Spawning occurs in winter (June to October peaking in August). Recruitment to the reef habitat is highly episodic. Female maturity is late at 17 years, and occurs at a large size 653 mm TL with sex change at 35 years  and at 830 mm TL. Based on a longevity of 70 years and first maturity of 17 years, average generation length is estimated to be 25 years. As this species does not typically change sex until a relatively old age (35-39 years), the abundance of the males of this protogynous hermaphrodite would be especially at risk of becoming depleted through fishing (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>This species recruits onto more vegetated sheltered parts of reefs, and once they mature they move out onto deeper exposed coasts. Recruitment occurs on inshore reefs  and larger individuals occur offshore on deeper reefs. <br/><br/>Natural mortality is 0.054/year (0.021-0.090/year), and fishing mortality 0.039/year (0.003-0.073/year) (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009).
187520		population	eng	Although the geographic range extends over 1,500 km along the Australian coastline, this species achieves relatively high abundances (seven individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup>) at only one section of it geographical range around Esperance. In the northwestern part of its range, its abundance has declined since the 1990s between 60% (near Albany) and 93% (near Capes which is 635 km to the west of Esperance) based on recorded landings from commercial gillnet fisheries. Abundance in this western part of its range has correspondingly declined to about  ~0.2 individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> (DeLacy 2008). <br/><br/>This species has experienced declines of 60-90% over the past 20 years (since at least the 1990s) in at least a third of its range in the western part of its distribution, and due to fishing throughout its relatively restricted range, is considered to be in very low abundances and declining in almost all of its range. The overall population decline for this species is therefore conservatively estimated to be at least 30% over the past 30 years (J.H Choat pers. comm. 2008), and may likely increase with continued commercial fishing in some parts of its range. It is conservatively assumed that the population trend before this time was either stable or also in decline from fishing, and the population was in the same if not in greater abundance.
187520		threats	eng	This species is subject to both recreational and commercial fishing including bylines, spearing and commercial gill netting. The commercial fishery is dominated by gill netting which targets individuals between 428-1,162 mm and six to 70 years of age (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Western Australia  in 2002 the recreational fishery for wrasse species caught 192,000 individual fish (Henry and Lyle 2003)  which have a smaller mean size than those taken in the commercial fishery. The blue groper component can account for 90% of the catch (DeLacy 2008). Direct observation and CPUE data (DeLacy 2008) and estimates of yield per recruit and fishing mortality (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009) demonstrate that this species is overfished in Western Australian waters. <br/><br/>In eastern Australia, this species has suffered such heavy fishing mortality in the 1980s, that the waters of that region were closed to commercial and recreational fishing for that species and still remain closed to spear and commercial fishing (Gillanders 1999).<br/><br/>However, monitoring of this species populations by fishery independent methods is sporadic. The rapid increase in the use of improved technology (e.g. echo sounders, GPS) for coastal fishing since 1990 shows the major impact of these instruments on fishing effort.
187521		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps somel marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187521		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, from Madagascar, Basas d' India Banks, and South Africa. There are also records from the Comoros Islands (Randall 1999).
187521		habitat	eng	This species can be found in outer reef slopes and barrier reefs to a depth of 50 m, but usually in depths from 10-30 m (Froese and Pauly 2008).
187521		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187521		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187522		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may be present in marine protected areas within its distribution.
187522		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range..
187522		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Belgium to northern Morocco. It occurs infrequently in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Spain and the Balearic Islands.
187522		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Atlantic, primarily in western European waters where is it present from Belgium to northern Morocco, and also reported down to Mauritania (Westneat in press). It is also an occasional inhabitant of the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been found off the coasts of Spain and the Balearic Islands (Quignard and Pras 1986).
187522		habitat	eng	This species inhabits littoral and inshore coastal habitats, mainly occurring around rocks but also in seagrass beds (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It is a small fish with a maximum length of around 20 cm (SL). It is found at depths of down to 50 m.
187522		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the littoral zone in seagrass beds and around rocks (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).
187522		population	eng	Little is known about the Eastern Atlantic populations of this species, and there are only a few records from the Mediterranean. It is relatively uncommon.
187522		population	eng	There are few records of this species in the Mediterranean.
187522		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. This species may be sold when caught in local artisinal fisheries.
187522		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is caught as food in artisanal fisheries.
187523		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. Individuals of this species have been recorded in several marine protected areas. However, details of their recent status is often lacking in many other countries. There are very few fishery management measures relevant to this species, and monitoring on its international trade is absent. <br/><br/><br/>Country-specific<br/>Madagascar<br/>Labrids are not major catches in the reef fishes surrounding the south-west Madagascar in 1997 (Laroche <em>et al.</em> 1997), but catch-per-unit-effort is still relatively high in these fishing grounds. There are two marine protected areas, with no-take zones, located in the northwest region of Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005). This species was occasionally sighted during a rapid biodiversity survey in northwest Madagascar, and is likely protected within the protected areas (McKenna and Allen 2005).<br/><br/>Australia<br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 250 mm TL and a bag limit of five fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>Taiwan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Taiwan. <em>O. bimaculatus</em> occurs within the Kenting National Park (Shao 2005). Its recorded occurrence in Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, offer protection to this species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species is used in aquarium trade but quantitative data on its catcher are absent (Shao 2005). There is no information on the aquarium fish trade.
187523		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from Eastern Africa and the Red Sea to the Hawaiian Islands and the Marquesas, north to Japan and south to Australia.
187523		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear lagoon and seaward reefs, over rubble or sand, also found in seagrass beds, from two to 110 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000, Sadovy and Cornish 2000). There is no information on the reproductive biology or ecology on this species.
187523		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It can be common in some parts of its range. There are occasional accounts on the relative abundance of this species.<br><br>In Pondoland coast of South Africa where only six individuals of <em>O. bimaculatus</em> were recorded from 261 underwater point-counts and resulting in fish density of 0.38/1000 m<sup>2</sup> (Mann <em>et al.</em> 2006). In French Polynesia, a total of four individuals were counted in various UVC survey with body sizes of 709 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). While in Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, <em>O. bimaculatus</em> was one of the top 35 most abundant fish species, with a mean abundance of 0.27 at each site (Parrish and Boland 2004). The underwater visual census in Okinawa seagrass beds also reported relatively high density of <em>O. bimaculatus</em> among all fishes recorded (Nakamura and Tsuchiya 2008).
187523		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, atlhough it is utilized as both food fish and aquarium fish (Gell and Whittington 2002, Mulochau and Durville 2005, Shao 2005).
187524		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187524		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Red Sea, from Saudi Arabia to Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia.
187524		habitat	eng	The main habitat of this species is coral reef margins and seaward reef slopes (Lieske and Myers 1994) to depths of 30 m. It feeds on benthic macrofauna (Masuda and Allen 1993).
187524		population	eng	Although it appears to be widespread in the Red Sea, there is no specific information available on the status of its populations there.
187524		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Although it is taken in the marine aquarium fish trade, exploitation levels are unknown.
187525		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187525		distribution	eng	This species is found from Indonesia to Papua New Guinea, Palau and New Caledonia.
187525		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep coastal outer coral reef habitats, scattered small patch reefs. It is found between 25-100 m depth.
187525		population	eng	There is no population information available. It is thought to be uncommon and lives in deeper areas and so is not seen often.
187525		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187526		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007). <br/><br/>It is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population.
187526		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
187526		habitat	eng	This species occurs in fringing reefs, among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth. Adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes. It relies on live coral.
187526		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187526		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade and this could possibly pose as a threat.
187527		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is well protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA, Sangire Talaud and Phoenix Island Protected Area (PIPA).
187527		distribution	eng	This species is found from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa and east to Samoa and the Line Islands. It is found from southern Japan south to the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia. It is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).
187527		habitat	eng	This species typically occurs over pockets or channels of sand and rubble areas near reefs from the lower surge zone to depths of over 30 m. Juveniles normally occur in closely-knit groups that remain close to the bottom. Adults are solitary or occur in loosely-knit groups and venture some distance from the bottom (Myers 1999). It feeds mainly on fishes and crustaceans, occasionally on brittlestars and polychaete worms (Randall 2005).<br/><br/>Elongated compressed body with small scales. Scaleless head. Juveniles whitish with three narrow orange-red stripes. Caudal fin slightly rounded in juveniles to double emarginate in large adults. Initial phase pale bluish, greenish or pinkish gray with 20-23 orange brown bars on body, a black spot on opercular flap, body of terminal males light blue-green, pinkish or yellowish with lavender-blue to purple bars, and often a pale yellowish bar in pectoral region bordered by purple bars, head pale green with a purplish red band in each lopeand elongate spots in central part (Randall 2005).
187527		population	eng	This species is generally common within its range. There is no specific population information known.
187527		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in local subsistance fisheries in the Pacific and is collected for the aquarium trade.
187528		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187528		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type series collected in Rarotonga and Papua New Guinea, and a photo taken in New Caledonia (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187528		habitat	eng	A small species, reaches at least 99 mm SL. It occurs at depths of at least 50-115 m.
187528		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187528		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187529		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br><br>This species has been observed in the Burnett-Mary Region including the Hervey Bay Marine Park, Fraser Island World Heritage Area and Woongarra Marine Park (Kirkwood and Hooper 2004). It is worth noting that the marine park doesn’t imply as a no-take zone since limited fishing activity is allowed within the marine park under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority).<br><br>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (Choerodon spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all Choerodon species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).
187529		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northeastern Australia (Parenti and Randall 2000, Kirkwood and Hooper 2004).
187529		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and is found in rubble and soft substrate (Pitcher <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been recorded at a depth of 60 m. The biology and ecology of this species is not well known.
187529		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species across its geographic distribution range.
187529		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is a relatively deep water species, and is not known to be specifically targeted by fisheries. However, in Australia the majority of <em>Choerodon</em> captured by commercial fish sectors are all reported as “<em>Choerodon</em> spp.” The commercial landing weight for <em>Choerodon</em> spp. in western Australia is approximately, 28 t each month (Penn <em>et al.</em> 2005).
187530		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187530		distribution	eng	This species is known from southwest Madagascar and Rodrigues Island in the western Indian Ocean (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009) to Papua New Guinea and the Marquesan Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to Lord Howe Island, Lizard Island and Sydney Harbour, Australia (AFD 2009).
187530		habitat	eng	This species usually inhabits current zones such as tidal channels and is common over sandy areas of reef flats and shallow sandy lagoons to a depth of  20 m (Myers, 1999), but usually to about six m (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is also found in estuaries. Juveniles are often found in small outcrops of rubble and algae or around the edges of sparse seagrasses (Kuiter and Tonozuka, 2001). This species is capable of diving into sand when threatened. It reaches about 20.0 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka, 2001).
187530		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187530		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187531		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The Galapagos Islands are a designated marine reserve with a total area of 133,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
187531		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Galapagos Islands.
187531		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from a depth of 115 m.
187531		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, it is only known from a few specimens.
187531		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
187532		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187532		distribution	eng	In the eastern-central Atlantic, this species is found along the West African coastline southwards from at least Senegal to Gabon in the Gulf of Guinea, and around the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome Principe. Possibly extends from Western Sahara in the north to Angola in the south.<br><br>Although this name has been treated as a junior synonym of Coris julis (which occurs northwards of Senegal as far as Norway, and throughout the Mediterranean Sea), according to Randall (1999) it is a valid species (Aurelle <em>et al.</em> 2003, Guillemaud <em>et al.</em> 2000) (D. Pollard and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187532		habitat	eng	As with the closely related <em>Coris julis</em>, this species probably occurs in littoral and inshore coastal waters around rocks and over seagrass beds. Also, as in the case of <em>C. julis</em>, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates, it is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, as it shows two distinct color morphs (an initial phase and terminal phase males), and its eggs and larvae are probably also planktonic.
187532		population	eng	No information is available on the status of populations of this species, though it is thought to be relatively common.
187532		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in local artisanal fisheries.
187533		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187533		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific from subtropical and warm temperate eastern Australia, occurring in Queensland as far north as Port Douglas (J.H.Choat pers. comm. 2008) and in New South Wales at least as far south as Jervis Bay (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187533		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 148 mm SL. It inhabits algal covered rocky and coral reefs, generally in shallow water, in depths down to 20 m.  It reportedly spawns in winter (August – December) in southern Queensland (Russell <em>et al.</em> 1977).  Food items consist of small crustaceans (Choat 1969).
187533		population	eng	This species is common over its range of distribution.
187533		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, though it may be caught as bycatch in recreational line fisheries.
187534		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187534		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea down the coast of eastern Africa and Madagascar, to western Indonesia and Thailand.
187534		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open sand and rubble areas of seaward reefs and deep reef sandy slopes from 10-85 m.
187534		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species.
187534		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187535		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures directed at N. parilus specifically. However, in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria (the range of <em>N. parilus</em>), several marine parks have recently been established or are being established within its range and comprise “no fishing” areas. However, those areas typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow-on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones is unknown. The West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery (in Western Australia) has recently undergone restructuring to become a managed commercial fishery. Changes to the management of the commercial fishery and restrictions to the recreational sector aim to reduce effort in the fishery by 50 % and reduce catches overall by a similar amount.
187535		distribution	eng	This species is known from Victoria (Queenscliffe), South Australia and southern Western Australia, from the Recherche Archipelago to Shark Bay in the north.
187535		habitat	eng	This species is common on rocky reefs in shallow water, down to about 20 m. It also occurs in seagrass beds on the west coast of Australia (Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 2003, Harvey <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bivoltisis 2007, Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep.)<br/><br/>A large species, to about 312 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner (Lek <em>et al.</em> in prep.). It spawns in the Austral winter and early spring on the mid-west coast of Australia. Spawning occurs in both reef and seagrass habitats. Males have small testes relative to most gonochorists, suggesting pair-spawning activity is likely, as for many labrids. Sexual maturity of individuals over reefs occurring at approximately three years and sex change at six (from logistic regression analyses, maximum age recorded: 10.4 years) Smaller size and age at maturity and sex change over seagrass than reefs, coupled with a shorter life span (or emigration).
187535		population	eng	This species is abundant in shallow coastal waters in western Australia.<br/><br/>Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found this species to be abundant at eight locations surveyed between Kalbarri (ca 28°S, 114°E) and Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be abundant at that location (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Harvey <em>et al.</em> (2004) also found this species to be abundant over reefs at Esperance.
187535		threats	eng	Recreational fishing and increasing human population. It is also a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab fishery (South Australia). It is likely to be bycatch species of West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery in Western Australia (although Labrids are reported as one group, i.e. wrasse). Notolabrus parilus suffers from barotrauma-related injuries and does not survive well after capture in waters > 10 m.<br/><br/>On the west coast of Australia, a substantial increase in the number of wrasse released by boat-based recreational fishers in a 2005/06 survey by Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) may be related to the increase in human population size since the last survey in 1996/97. While there is some evidence that recreational fishers are retaining more wrasse than previously (Harvey 2004), Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) indicate that the number retained has declined since 1996/97. Stock assessments of indicator species (includes other large target species) on the west coast of Australia demonstrate overfishing of those species is occurring in this region (Wise <em>et al.</em> 2007). There is potential for increases in the catches of labrids such as N. parilus to compensate, however, the flesh of this species is not typically considered to be of high quality. Fisheries of related wrasse species in South Australia for a live reef fish trade saw rapid declines in stock when unmanaged (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers in Western Australia often use wrasse as bait, when caught incidentally, for larger target species. There is some evidence that recreational fishers are beginning to retain this species for food, as a result of declines in the stocks of typically targeted species (Harvey 2004).
187536		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range. <br/><br/>This species has been observed in the Shark reef Marine Reserve, Fiji (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006) where no fishing is allowed in the marine reserve. In the Great Barrier Reef regions, only licensed fishermen are allowed to capture fishes for ornamental trade and currently it is monitored by the Department of Primary Industry, Australia. Fishing is allowed outside the protected areas and the use of chemicals to capture fishes and any destruction of habitat are prohibited (Dufour 1997). <br/><br/>While many marine parks and marine reserves have been introduced in areas within the geographic range of this species, for instance, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Philippines, however, most of these marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered to be poorly managed or have poor legislation enforcement. Thus, the majority of these MPAs probably provide insufficient protection to the species that they are housing (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Within its distribution range, destructive fishing practices including poison, explosive and illegal fishing coupled with heavy fishing pressure might rapidly reduce the number of this species (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002). In addition, consumers' preference on the brightly coloured males and its relatively higher value (Sadovy and Vincent 2002) might contribute to its rapid decline in the numbers of males in assemblages locally. Furthermore, selective harvesting for males of particular populations might also lead to reproductive failure and ultimately population collapse due to heavily biased sex ratios in remaining schools (Vincent and Sadovy 1998). More information is needed regarding to the impacts of aquarium fish collecting on this species.<br/><br/>Worldwide coral reef decline has now been well documented (Stone <em>et al.</em> 1996), some 50% of the world’s corals would be completely destroyed over the next 30 years and massive coral species extinctions are to be expected (Stone 2007). As G. varius is highly associated with coral areas, data on the conservation and habitat status of this species are recommended.
187536		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific (Westneat 2001). It is found from Cocos-Keeling to the Hawaiian and Tuamoto Islands, and from the Philippines, north to Ryukyu Islands, Japan, south to Indonesia, Australia, Papua New Guinea and Rapa Islands. It is replaced by <em>G. caeruleus</em> in the Indian Ocean (Myers 1999).
187536		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoons, coral rich areas, rocky and seaward reefs at depths of two to at least 30 m (Allen 1999, Myers 1999, Mundy 2005). Juveniles are sometimes found in seagrass.  It is common on both ocean-side and lagoon reefs (Colin and Bell 1991).  It is diurnally active and found in small groups or solitary. Abundance is positively correlated with coral topography (Nanami <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It is a trophic specialist that uses its elongate jaws to pick up small benthic crustaceans including crabs and alpheid shrimps, brittle stars, molluscs and small fishes from coral and rocky crevices (Hiatt and Strasburg 1960, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990, Westneat 2001). Hobson (1974) reported that approximately 70.4% of the diet volume consisted of crustaceans. It covers large areas and goes at high speeds when foraging (Bellwood and Wainwright 2001).<br/><br/>Sexual pattern of this species is still unknown. The colour pattern differs according to the sexual development. Females are generally lighter in colour than males (Allen 2000). The females possess a light white-cream colour on the front half of the body and the male has an all green body, ranging from a light olive to a dark green or greenish blue (Kuiter 1999). Jaws of adults are extremely elongate, while snouts of juveniles are less elongate (Myers 1999). Caudal fin rounded in small individuals, but truncate with prolonged into filamentous in large males (Westneat 2001). Lateral line curved below posterior portion of dorsal-fin base with 26 or 27 pored scales (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>Large terminal phase males have been observed to move to prominent corals within the reef areas to spawn (Thresher 1984). Pair and group spawning have been observed (Thresher 1984, Colin and Bell 1991, Sancho <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>Terminal phase males appeared territorial during reproductive hours, with terminal phase male – male aggression. Patrolling of territories was not observed. During courtship, terminal phase males' body colouration became bluish and the green bar intensified. Males positioned above and quivered while fluttering the pectoral and caudal fins. Spawning ascent distance was about two to four m with rapid ascending speed. Spawning activities occurred after high tide and were observed in March, April, May and November. Egg sizes ranged from 0.55-0.56 and were spherical in shape (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>In Hawaii, based upon the analysis of otolith increments, planktonic larval duration was found at around 65.3 +/- 5.8 days, while in Palau, the larval duration was recorded at 51.8 +/- 6.4 days (Victor 1986). Victor (1986) suggested that it has relatively long larval lives among the one hundred examined labrids.<br/><br/>Juveniles  have been observed to settle on the substrate at approximately 35-40 mm TL in French Polynesia (Lecchini and Galzin 2005). Furthermore, hybrids of <em>G. varius</em> with <em>Thalassoma lunare</em> and <em>Thalassoma duperrey</em> have been documented from Australia and Hawaii, respectively (Randall and Allen 2004).<br/><br/>Maximum size of this species is 30-32 cm SL (Westneat 2001, Michel Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187536		population	eng	This species is common throughout most of its range.<br><br>In general, it is possibly one of the most abundant species in Hawaii and French Polynesia, however, there are no data on total numbers of this fish. In French Polynesia, it is the most abundant species in the barrier reef community. Mean density of juveniles at eight sampling stations was recorded at 5.26 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Lecchini and Galzin 2005). In Pelekane Bay, Hawaii, 1.9 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> were observed by using underwater visual census surveys (Tissot 1998). In Tonga, biomass was estimated at 12.35 g per 100 m<sup>2</sup> in Tongatapu reefs (Matoto <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br><br>It is one of the most common fishes in the marine protected area of south central Vietnam (Nguyen and Phan 2008). <br><br>In Solomon Islands, it is common (Allen 2006).<br><br>In Fiji, a total of 285 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 2,241 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-30 cm TL. In 16 stations, a total of 39 individuals were caught with total body weight of 712 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br><br>In French-Polynesia, a total of 512 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-32 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br><br>In Tonga, a total of 306 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-25 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br><br>In addition, more than 50 individuals have been observed at Lizard Island and found to be abundant in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Fulton <em>et al.</em> 2001). Stock was estimated at around 230,000 individuals in TUVALU (Secretariat of Pacific Community 2007).
187536		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. However, this species is collected for the aquarium trade in many parts of its range. For example, aquarium trade of <em>G. varius</em> is reported in Sri Lanka (Ekaratne 2000). There are no detailed and long term information on the numbers of this species that are being collected, aquarium trade monitoring, and location of extractions. <br/><br/>An unknown number of amateurs collect this species throughout the Great Barrier Reef region (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986) and use chemicals such as chlorinated lime, quinaldine with potassium permanganate or methylene blue to capture fishes in the Great Barrier Reef regions (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986). Researches indicate that use of destructive fishing practices is widespread in Southeast Asia, for instance, in the Philippines, approximately 70% of ornamental fishes are caught with cyanide (Hingco and Rivera 1991) and it is reported that poison fishing would cause severe damage to coral colonies and the intestinal lining of fishes (Bellwood 1981). High mortality in the aquarium trade can also exert stresses on wild populations if shops then purchase replacement animals (Sadovy and Vincent 2002). Thus, marine aquarium trade could be one of the main threats to this species.<br/><br/>Many of the focal organisms might be vulnerable to overharvesting since they possess complex life history characteristics, limited and highly specific habitat requirements (Ochavillo and Hodgson 2006). Destructive fishing techniques might directly destroy coral reef habitats or disrupt the ecosystem structure and function by poisoning or physically damaging the corals (Wood 2001). Coral reefs are currently suffering from both human- and natural- induced disturbances and worldwide declines have been well documented (Stone 2007). Since <em>G. varius</em> is highly associated with the coral habitats, it might be assumed that habitat destruction would be another main threat to this species.
187537		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187537		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Japan and Taiwan. It is also found in Ceju-do in Southern Korea and Pratas Reef.
187537		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocky and coral reefs at depths between 2-30 m.
187537		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187537		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187538		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
187538		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct range as it is known from New Caledonia, Samoa, Fiji, Palau and the Philippines.
187538		habitat	eng	This species is found over rubble and coral bottoms from 30 to 90 m.
187538		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187538		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187539		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187539		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Western Pacific, from Japan to Taiwan and south to Indonesia.
187539		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy rubble bottom habitats in depths from 1-7 m. They bury themselves in the sand and are not seen often.
187539		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187539		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187540		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, there are 17 designated marine protected areas in Mauritius (Wood 2007).
187540		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, and is currently known only from Mauritius.  It is likely to occur in Reunion and probably in Madagascar.
187540		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deep water, usually at depths in excess of 35 m (Kuiter 2002). It is found over rubble and sandy areas (Randall 1999).
187540		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187540		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187541		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is present in marine protected areas.
187541		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187541		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to Morocco including the Azores Islands.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present throughout the entire area, except in the east Levant. This species is not present in the Black Sea.
187541		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to Morocco, including the Azores Islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present throughout the entire area except for the eastern Levantine Sea. It is not present in the Black Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187541		habitat	eng	This species is found around rocks, amongst seaweeds and in seagrass beds. It exhibits some schooling but are more solitary when older. It feeds on sea urchins, ophiuroids, mollusks, crabs and worms. <br/><br/>Maturity occurs after two years at lengths between 15 and 20 cm. This species spawns from February to May in the western Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Pras 1986). Demersal eggs are laid amongst seagrasses and are protected by the males (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187541		habitat	eng	This species is found around rocks, seaweeds, and in seagrass beds. It feeds on sea urchins, ophiuroids, molluscs, crabs and worms. Maturity occurs after two years (length between 15 and 20 cm). This species spawns from February to May in the west Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Pras 1986).
187541		population	eng	This species is relatively widespread and common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187541		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in the Mediterranean Sea.
187541		threats	eng	For this species, the major threat is habitat degradation, specifically the reduction of <em>Posidonia</em> seagrass beds.<br/><br/>Larger individuals may be caught and eaten in the Mediterranean region.
187541		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat degradation, specifically the reduction of Posidonia seagrass beds. <br/>Larger individuals may be caught in the artisanal fisheries and used as food locally in the Mediterranean region (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187542		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Non-fishing areas within marine protected areas typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones are unknown.
187542		distribution	eng	This species is known only from southern Western Australia, from the Recherché Archipelago to the Houtman Abrolhos Islands (Hutchins 2001, Hutchins and Swainston 2002).
187542		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 172 mm SL. It inhabits rocky algal covered reefs in shallow water in depths to at least 15 m. In the Jurien Bay Marine Park, it was observed to occurr on deeper more exposed reefs (> 10 m), closely associated with reef ledges comprising red algae and sponges (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep).<br/><br/>Biological data collected from reasonable sample size (approx 92 fish) on mid-west coast of Western Australia suggests protogyny, e.g. differential size range of females and males and sexual dichromatism, coupled with histological analyses of gonads (males contain secondary testes), but not confirmed/conclusive at this stage. Sexually mature individuals collected in winter and spring (D. Fairclough unpublished data).
187542		population	eng	This species is common over its range of distribution, particularly in offshore areas.<br><br>Presumed continuous distribution in Western Australia. Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found this species to be frequent or abundant at five locations surveyed between Port Denison (ca. 29°S, 115°E) and Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca. 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be relatively abundant at that location (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Harvey <em>et al.</em> (2004) also found this species to be abundant over reef habitats at Esperance.
187542		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is caught by fishers and is collected for the aquarium trade.
187543		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species range overlaps the Cenderawasih Bay Marine Protected Area.
187543		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (Cenderawasih Bay). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be approximately 30,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on area calculations from 25-75 m depth within Cenderawasih Bay.
187543		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sheltered rubble substrates at the base of slopes (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is common on sheltered seaward reefs, primarily on the inner and eastern portions of the Cenderawasih Bay at depths between about 22 to 60 m, although it is more abundant below about 35 m.
187543		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its restricted range.
187543		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occasionally seen in the international aquarium trade.
187544		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The Marine Aquarium Council sets standards and promotes certification of the aquarium industry around the world. There are also national regulations on operations and export quotas for aquiring fishes.
187544		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Eastern Indian Ocean, from the Rowely Shoals (Myers 1991), Similan Islands, Andaman Sea and Christmas Island.  In the Western Pacific, it occurs from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Taiwan, Thailand, Philippines, Papua New Guinea (Lieske and Myers 1994), Palau, Indonesia to  the Great Barrier Reef (Australia).
187544		habitat	eng	This species forms aggregations pme to two m above coral or rocky bottoms and coral rubble along the edges of lagoon, channel, and outer reef slopes. It feeds on zooplankton in the water column. It sometimes forms large schools (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The habitat for this species is coral reefs, and is found at depths between 2-30 m (Westneat 2001). The maximum size 15 cm TL.
187544		population	eng	There is no population information. This is a relatively common species. The populations are probably declining due to collection for the aquarium trade and habitat destruction.
187544		threats	eng	Threats to this species include habitat destruction on shallow reefs from collection for the aquarium trade.
187545		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187545		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Sri Lanka, the Andaman Islands, and eastwards through Malaysia to Indonesia.
187545		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow coastal reefs, mainly rock substrates with soft coral and algal growth. It occurs in small loose groups dominated by a large male (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187545		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is inferred to have declined due to habitat degradation and collection for the aquarium trade.
187545		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade (Randall 1980) and there is occuring habitat destruction in Southeast Asia (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187546		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.
187546		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Bermuda, southern Florida (USA), and Bahamas to Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago.
187546		habitat	eng	This species inhabits outer reef areas and is most common at depths of 10-30 m, although it can occur to 40 m. It feeds planktivorously in aggregations off the bottom on copepods, jellyfishes, pteropods, tunicates and larvae.  Of 41 reef fish species counted as a monitoring program in the Gulf of Mexico, Flower garden reserve was the most abundant (Precht <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>This species is a small schooling wrasse that occurs in high densities in the near-reef pelagic zones. It is protogynous, monandric (Warner and Robertson 1978). It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003). Length at sex change = 15.78 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).
187546		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common throughout its range. For example, it is common in San Blas (Warner and Robertson 1978) and in the Gulf of Mexico (Precht <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187546		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187547		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187547		distribution	eng	This species is found from Micronesia to Samoa, reported from Rowley Shoals and Christmas Island off northwestern Australia, Taiwan, and Kermadec Islands. It is reported to extend to the Indian Ocean to the Maldives, Mauritius and East Africa.
187547		habitat	eng	This species is found up to a depth of at least 25 m in lagoon, channel and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994).  It is often on open sand flats with large remote bommies in depths of about 20 m. Juveniles congregate on reefs, usually in depths of 10-20 m feeding on mysids. Aggregates (with females outnumbering the males) are found along upper edges of coral slopes to feed on zooplankton (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187547		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species. It is the most common and widespread species of the genus (Kuiter 2002).
187547		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it may be occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187548		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187548		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific throughout the tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean including the Red Sea.
187548		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef flats, reef margins, and rocky shores to 40 m. It is found mainly in inshore weedy areas, such as seagrasses and macroalgae.
187548		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is abundant throughout its range.
187548		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is rarely collected for the aquarium trade.
187549		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187549		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Atlantic from North Carolina, USA and Bermuda to Trinidad and Tobago.
187549		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-30 m. It is abundant on reef tops and in shallow rocky areas.  It is also found in Sargassum beds in Venezuela (Cervigon 1993).  <br/><br/>The tricolored pattern of the initial phase is similar to that of the juveniles of the yellowmouth grouper, Mycteroperca interstitialis, an aggressive mimic (Sazima 2002). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Allsop and West 2003).  It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003).  Length at sex change = 10.9 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).
187549		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively common throughout its range. In Brazil, 183 individuals were exported in 2007 (IBAMA 2007).
187549		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187550		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187550		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern-central Atlantic, off the West African coast in Sierra Leone and Guinea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187550		habitat	eng	This species is apparently rocky reef associated, having been caught in trawls over relatively deep (~100 m) rocky bottoms. Nothing is known about the diet or breeding biology of this species (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).
187550		population	eng	Nothing is known about the populations of this species, which appears to be restricted to coastal and insular waters off Sierra Leone and Guinea, where it has been caught by trawling (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187550		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, though it may occasionally be caught as bycatch of trawl fisheries.
187551		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187551		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Red Sea. Records from the Gulf of Aden and Socotra Island need to be verified.
187551		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of coral reefs, sand rubble and sheltered areas (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species is found at depths between 1-20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187551		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
187551		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187552		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187552		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Socotra Island.
187552		habitat	eng	This species occurs over algae-rubble slopes, usually along reef margins, to a depth of about 25 m (Kuiter 2002), and also in coral-rich areas of seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994). While juveniles swim in small groups close to the seabed and often shelter amongst large soft-coral colonies, adult females may swim higher above the substrate in pursuit of zooplankton with a single male in close vicinity (Kuiter 2002). It inhabits depth ranges from 5-45 (Baensch and Debelius 1997).
187552		population	eng	This species is common throughout most parts of the Red Sea. From an UVC using SCUBA and transect survey, it  was found to be one of the most abundant species, accounted for 6.4% of all fish recorded (Khalaf and Kochzius 2002). In Eilat, Israel, an UVC using SCUBA around jetties of oil terminals, which is closed to the public and therefore almost undisturbed, revealed that <em>P. octotaenia</em> was the tenth most abundant fish around these artificial pillars (Rilov and Benayahu 1998). In another survey around newly established artificial reefs in the Gulf of Elat, northern Red Sea, <em>P. octotaenia</em> was found to be common (Golani and Diamant 1999). While from a recent region-wide underwater visual census to sites with high and low exploitation pressure for ornamental fish in Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Djibouti, the total counts of <em>P. octotaenia</em> ranged from 100-2,158, this species was one of the 25 most abundant fish species from the survey (PERSGA 2004).
187552		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187553		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187553		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southwestern Australia: Western Australia (Shark Bay) to South Australia (Ceduna).
187553		habitat	eng	A large species, reaches at least 315 mm SL. It lives at depths of at least 100-250 m in areas with sandy bottom and some rock and coral rubble.
187553		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187553		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187554		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187554		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Somalia to Durban, South Africa to the Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. In the Western Pacific, it is found from Wakayama, Japan to Bali, Indonesia and New Caledonia. It is evidently absent from the Red Sea, northwestern Indian Ocean and the east coast of Australia.  The relatively poor representation of this species in collections, especially from Indonesia and southeast Asia, may be due to its occurrence on deep offshore reefs. This habitat is poorly collected at many localities (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187554		habitat	eng	This is a large species, to about 310 mm SL. It occurs on deep reef slopes rich with invertebrates such as sponges and seawhips, but young adults are occasionally seen much shallower. Specimens have been taken at depths of 8-160 m. It is usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs. It feeds mainly on benthic, hard-shelled, invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans. It is protogynous (DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at sex change: 38.6-40.5 cm L.
187554		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is fairly common in some areas and in deeper waters.
187554		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187555		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, more than two thirds of its range is enclosed by the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument in the northwestern part of the Hawaiian islands. This is a federally regulated no-take reserve that, while not monitored efficiently, is very remote and difficult to get to.
187555		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Hawaiian Islands chain.
187555		habitat	eng	This species occurs in insular coastal waters around rocky and coral reefs, and particularly around seaward coral reefs to depths of 136 m.<br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993). It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. A single male is usually found together with a group of females (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187555		population	eng	This species is common. However, there is no other population information available for this species.
187555		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although specimens are occasionally captured for the marine aquarium fish trade. It is one of the most popular Anampses species in the aquarium trade (Rocha pers. comm. 2009).
187556		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is well protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).
187556		distribution	eng	This species is found from Tanzania to the Hawaiian and Society islands, south to the Great Barrier Reef, Pohnpei and Marshall Islands in Micronesia. The type locality is from Mabul Island, Philippines (Randall 2005).
187556		habitat	eng	This is a cryptic species that inhabits caves or crevices of lagoon and seaward reefs, reef slopes and drop-offs, usually taken at depths of at least 30 m (Myers 1999). Specimens were collected from depths of 10-42 m, but most from 30 m. It is rarely seen underwater (only fleetingly in the deep recesses of caves (Randall 2005).<br/><br/>It closely resembles juveniles of Cheilinus fasciatus and Epibulus insidiator. Since they have broadly overlapping meristics, color pattern is the only reliable distinguishing character (Myers 1991). Body of adults when fresh is grayish brown, becoming reddish brown on mid side and ventrally on some specimens. Grayish to reddish brown with three white bars narrower than pupil on body and three radiating from eye, a large black spot on abdomen between pelvic fins, and one on soft portion of dorsal, anal and pelvic fins (Randall 2005).<br/><br/><em>Wetmorella albofasciata</em> has two narrow white bars on the body, but they converge as they pass ventrally. It is distinguished from <em>W. tanakai</em> which has a narrow oblique white bar behind the eye and two parallel, narrow, white bars in the middle of the body that are slightly oblique. <em>Wetmorella nigropinnata</em> has two white bars on the body only as juveniles and subadults, but the bars are broad and slightly oblique in the other direction (see Randall and Kuiter 2007).
187556		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species. It is seen mostly in deeper waters.
187556		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is probably not used in the aquarium trade as it is difficult to capture due to depths and probably would not do well in captivity.
187557		conservation	eng	This species is found in the marine protected area in Cheynes Beach. There are no species specific conservation measures in place.<br><br>Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) state “ there is no evidence for decline for this species” but suggested lower risk (near threatened) status as precautionary measure based on its very restricted distribution and apparent rareness.
187557		distribution	eng	This species is known only from south-west Western Australia (Cheynes Beach, near Albany), but is possibly more widely distributed.
187557		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 74 mm SL. It is cryptic, inhabits shallow areas of algal covered reef in shallow water (Hutchins and Morrison 1996). Females occur in small aggregations.
187557		population	eng	This species is known only from a total of 5 specimens collected. There was only one specimen seen by J.B. Hutchins in 25 years of diving in SW Australia. The professional fish collector who collected the type series has never seen this species anywhere except in the type locality (Cheynes Beach) (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187557		threats	eng	This species has an extremely limited known distribution and an apparently small population size. Habitat degradation could affect this species within its narrow range in the future (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187558		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187558		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from eastern Australia, southern Great Barrier Reef to Jervis Bay (NSW), southern part of New Caledonia at Noumea.
187558		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 91 mm SL. This species is found on silty sand or muddy substrates in harbours and estuaries and also deeper reefs and sand and rubble bottoms to at least 30 m depth (Kuiter 2002).
187558		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187558		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187559		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>While many marine parks have been introduced within the geographic distribution range of this species, for example in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Philippines (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004),  most of these marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered to be poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced due to the lack of expertise, resource and effective co-ordination. For instance, some of the fish sanctuaries in the Philippines are only managed and enforced by the resort management (Tubod fish sanctuary) or local communities (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). As the efficacy of any legislation depends entirely upon its enforcement (Claydon 2004), the majority of these MPAs might not be able to provide sufficient protection (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187559		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, and occurs from east Africa to the Line and Tuamoto Islands and from Japan to Lord Howe and Austral Islands (Myers 1991), including Thailand, Taiwan, Pratas and Spratley Islands (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
187559		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs (Allen 2000), shallow lagoon and seaward reefs, slopes and along drop-offs to depths of one to 15 m (Myers 1991, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), but may be found deeper.<br/><br/>Bodies of terminal phase individuals have six vertical black bars which are progressively shorter posteriorly, the first black bar passing beneath pectoral fins to abdomen, whilst the last bar is a saddle-liked spot on caudal peduncle (Westneat 2001) and broad pink bands radiating from eye (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Kuiter 2006). Males and females differ slightly in colour although males are gaudier (Myers 1991). Initial phase is light green in colour with six wedge-shaped, slightly diagonal, dark bars dorsally on body (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Adults are diurnally active foraging over large (> 1000 m<sup>2</sup>) home ranges (Shima 1999a). It feeds on a variety of preys including fish eggs (eggs of Stegastes ngricans) (Shima and Osenberg 2003), benthic and planktonic crustaceans, small fishes, foraminiferans (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984) and fish larvae (<em>Dascyllus flavicausus</em>) (Holbrook <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/>The mean duration of the planktonic larval stage was approximately 47 +/-8 days and the maximum recorded duration was 63 days (Victor 1986). It was found to settle on live coral habitat during the early benthic life history (Shima 1999) and settlement occurred during discrete lunar periods (Shima and Osenberg 2003). In Moorea Island, French Polynesia, Dufour <em>et al.</em> (1996) found that settlement occurred over five consecutive nights surrounding new moons between January and June. It was observed to settle at 35 mm in length (1999). It settles directly to patch reefs composed of live coral habitats or algal turf and newly settled individuals remain relatively inactive in algal turf or within branching corals for one to three days while developing juvenile pigmentation patterns (Shima 2001). In addition, juveniles remain site-attached for approximately four to six months (Shima 1999a).<br/><br/>Shima (1999, 2001, 2001a) demonstrated that density dependent mortality occurred shortly after settlement to coral communities. And strength of the density dependence mortality was found to be heterogeneous in space and time and was correlated with coral community attributes (Shima 1999, 2001, Shima and Osenberg 2003, Shima <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>It has been reported to be diandric in Japan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). During courtship, the terminal phase males had a dark spot on the center of the caudal fin which was absent on the initial phase females. The female ascent rapidly about three to four m when ready to spawn and the terminal phase male swam above her, rapidly fluttering pectoral and caudal fins. Spawning activities were observed in the morning after high tide in May at Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>Aggregation spawning was documented at Heron Island (Robertson and Choat 1974) and waters adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Russell 2001). However, such behaviour has rarely been study.
187559		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br><br>It is the most common labrid on Moorea, French Polynesia (Galzin 1987). A total of 6,090 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Fiji, a total of 803 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-17 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Tonga, a total of 809 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-25cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 3,712 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-23 cm TL. In 9 stations, a total of 20 individuals were caught with total body weight of 417 g(M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Marshall Islands, it occurred on most shallow reefs, but not abundant (Colin and Bell 1991). It is also a common reef fish in Solomon Island (Allen 2006), the Barakau Village and Papua New Guinea (Raga 2006) <br><br>It is the one of the top twentieth most common species of piscivorous fish at Lizard Island (14° 40’ S 145° 28’ E), Australia (Stewart and Beukers 2000). <br><br>In Kimbe Bay of Papua New Guinea, it was found to be one of the top fifteenth most abundant species with a total abundance of 3231 individuals and a mean density of 1.55 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Srinivasan and Jones 2006). It is also the dominant fish species in Trou aux Biches and Troud’ Eau Douce, Mauritius (Ministry of Agro Industry and Fisheries and Albion Fisheries Research Centre 2004).<br><br>In Micronesia, it is moderately common in clear water areas of mixed coral, rubble and sand, particularly along upper edges of protected reef slopes (Myers 1991). <br><br>Large numbers were found in the upper lagoon of the Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve (Kospartov <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br><br>In Hong Kong, it is rare, only one individual was seen in area of coral at 3 m depth (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br><br>8 individuals were observed in the Maumere, Indonesia through an underwater visual census survey (Kulbicki undated).
187559		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade, but is not heavily targeted. Coral reef loss and habitat destruction may contribute to localized declines in some parts of its range.
187560		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187560		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Philippines (Cebu and Batangas), to Japan in the north (Ryukyu and Yaeyama).
187560		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the base of steep outer reef slopes, and can be found in small groups close above rubble or coral from 12 to 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>Males are more colourful and larger in size than females, colour of males intensify during courtship (Froese and Pauly 2008).
187560		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187560		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187561		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187561		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Indonesia and western Irian Jaya, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.
187561		habitat	eng	This species reaches approximately 14 cm in length. It is found in coastal reefs and lagoons often on sand-rubble substrates with large staghorn coral colonies from 8-15 m depth range.
187561		population	eng	This species is uncommon. There is no specific population information available.
187561		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although there is possibly some minor collection for the aquarium trade.
187562		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187562		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Pacific from  Korea, Japan, Taiwan, mainland China and Viet Nam.
187562		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 114 mm SL. This species is found around coral and rock patches in shallow protected sandy areas. Amphipods, small crustaceans, and polychaetes have been reported from the stomachs of Japanese specimens.
187562		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There are only a few specimens for this species, most of them are from the initial phase.
187562		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187563		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. There is some protection through the Marine Aquarium Council standards and certification and from quota regulations in Australia for aquarium fishes.
187563		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa, the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, south to South Africa and to the Solomon Islands in the east. And from the Philippines to New South Wales, Australia.
187563		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral reefs on coastal to outer reef crests. In Japan, it is found in areas of mixed sand, rock and coral (Lieske and Myers 1994). It occurs in small groups to about 20 m depth (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). They aggregate to spawn (L. Squire and M. Samoilys in Russel 2000). Allen (2006) found them in a group of four at 10 m (schooling).<br/><br/>It feeds by sorting small animals from mouthfuls of sand and detritus.
187563		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is rare in Malaysia, Indonesia the Philippines (Allen 2006, A. Cabanban pers. comm. 2008). It is common in western Australia.<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 0.75 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187563		threats	eng	A major threat is the degradation of the coral reef habitat. This species is collected for the aquarium trade, which is considered a threat due to the fact that they are rare.
187564		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187564		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Cocos-Keeling Island and Rowley Shoals in the eastern Indian Ocean and eastwards to the Pacific in the Philipiines, Marquesan, Pitcairn islands and Micronesia. It is also recorded from Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).
187564		habitat	eng	This species occurs in steep outer reef slopes associated with rubble beds in depths from 10-55 m. It is rare in shallow water (Myers 1999, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2007).
187564		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187564		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187565		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187565		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Philippines to Samoa, northwards to southern Japan and southwards to Rowley Shoals and Ningaloo Reef in the west and southern New South Wales (Montague Island) in the east.
187565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seaward reefs to at least 35 m depth, usually from seven to 35 m usually in areas of mixed coral and reef rock with sand patches (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is also found in reef crests and slopes on rocky or rubble-algae substrates (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  The maximum size recorded for male/unsexed is 12.0 cm TL (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187565		population	eng	Estimates of population numbers are unknown.  It is inferred from its exploitation in the aquarium trade and from the degradation of coral reefs in Southeast Asia (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002) that there is probably a decline of the population in the south-east Asian part of the range. However, the range in Australia most likely acts as a refuge.
187565		threats	eng	This species is traded in the aquarium industry. It is not clear whether the aquarium trade has caused the low numbers of such popular coral reef fishes in the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean due to lack of baseline data (Hodgson 1999). <br/><br/>It is also recorded as a rare minor component in the Guam subsistence and recreational fisheries records (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187566		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187566		distribution	eng	This species is largely restricted to the South Island of New Zealand, although also recorded from Wellington (Makara) and as far north as Napier on east coast of North Island and at Three Kings Is, but apparently rare at these localities. It is common at Chatham Is, Stewart I. the Snares Is and Auckland Is (Francis 1996).
187566		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 300 mm SL. It is sexually monochromatic. It is common on rocky reefs. It occurs mainly in shallow water but recorded to depths of about 91 m (Graham 1938).  Food items consists of molluscs and small crustaceans (Graham 1939). Juveniles are cleaners (Francis 2001). Spawning appears to occur in summer (February to March).
187566		population	eng	This species is common over most of its range, it is rare north of Cook Strait.
187566		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187567		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may be protected within some Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
187567		distribution	eng	This species is known only from northwest Australia (Joseph Bonaparte Gulf to Shark Bay). It has also been reported from the Gulf of Carpenteria, Australia (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 2004). This record needs to be checked. Records from Vietnam (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006) are probably incorrect.
187567		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species generally occurs in shallower inshore coastal waters, from the surge zone down to around 25 m, where it is most often found singly or in pairs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It can also be found in rubble and algae (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding primarily on benthic macro-invertebrates (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>Although it is reported to show little change in colour with sex or age, photos from Randall in FishBase show two distinct colour morphs.  However, different colors for the initial and terminal phases as shown in Kuiter (2002).
187567		population	eng	There is nothing known on the population of this species, but  it may be relatively common in northwest Australian coastal waters.
187567		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be occassionally taken in the marine aquarium fish trade and may also be taken locally for food.
187568		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187568		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Central Pacific from Indonesia to Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines and New Caledonia.
187568		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and inhabits coastal, usually turbulent waters with muddy substrates. It occurs in shallow inshore waters but ranges to deeper water (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is found in coral reefs (Mohsin and Ambak 1996) and deep-water (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187568		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is not considered to be a common species. There are most likely declines in parts of the Philippines and Indonesia due to overfishing.
187568		threats	eng	This species is collected for food and may be subject to overfishing and habitat destruction in the Philippines and Indonesia, but not in other parts of the range (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not common in fish markets and in the wild (A. Cabanban pers. comm. 2008).
187569		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in several marine protected areas throughout its range of distribution. However, species-specific management on this aquarium fish is lacking and fisheries in its range of distribution are mostly ineffectively managed or unmanged. <br/><br/><br/>Country-specific general management<br/>Kenya<br/>Fishery management and regulation are not known. Several marine protected areas are established and fishing activities are regulated (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001, McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species occurs within the Watamu Marine National Park (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Tanzania<br/>There is no specific fishery management on this species. There are several marine parks and reserves in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marine parks are zoned for different purposes including no-take core zone and no fishing is allowed within the marine reserve unless authorized by Government department (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001). These protected areas may offer protection to <em>G. caeruleus</em>, however its occurrence within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Mozambique<br/>There is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species was recorded from 10 out of 11 marine protected areas (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>South Africa<br/>About 20 marine protected areas are established which encompass various habitat types and offer various level of protection to fish through zoning (e.g. no-take zone, controlled fishing zone) (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 2008, SouthAfrica.info 2008). These protected areas represent about 18% of coastline in South Africa (WWF 2004). <em>Gomphosus caeruleus</em> has been reported from recent ichthyofaunal surveys in one marine protected area (Mann <em>et al.</em> 2006), the relatively large area of coastline and the representation of various habitat types within the marine protected area network is likely to encompasses more locations utilized by this species in South Africa. <br/><br/>Seychelles<br/>Several marine protected areas are established in Seychelles, which covers over 220 km<sup>2</sup>, however enforcement and regulations within them are suggested to be very weak (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). The occurrence of <em>G. caeruleus</em> within these areas is unknown. Fisheries operating in Seychelles, both artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries, are regulated by licensing system and mesh-size limit, and compliance to these regulations is maintained through regular patrols (Seychelles Fishing Authority 2008). <br/><br/>India<br/>Fishery management seems lacking. There are about 30 marine protected areas in India encompassing various habitat types, however details of the enforcement and occurrence of species is lacking (Singh 2003)<br/><br/>Indonesia<br/>There are licensing system, gear type restrictions, limited entry and total allowable catches for artisanal and coastal fisheries (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007a). Commercial fisheries such as the purse seine fisheries are not formally managed (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007a). There are marine protected areas in Indonesia but the occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Maldives<br/>There are management measures for shark and tuna fisheries, also a licensing system within some areas, however management measure is lacking for many other reef fisheries except for the export bans on rare species (Adam 2006). Marine protected areas are established, fishing is prohibited except for the traditional live bait fishing (Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment 2003).<br/><br/>Red Sea<br/>Fisheries in the Red Sea, which are shared by many countries such as Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan and Somalia are largely unmanaged and are heavily fished (De Young 2006). Over the 70 marine protected areas that are established or have been proposed in the Red Sea, however few are managed appropriately (PERSGA/GEF 1998, Gladstone 2000).
187569		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa (Randall 1986) and east to the Andaman Sea.
187569		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs to at least 30 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). Nothing is known about its reproductive biology or ecology.
187569		population	eng	This species was suggested to be a common in underwater transect surveys in coral reefs in Jordan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia (PERSGA/GEF 2004). There is no other estimate on its population size or relative abundance throughout its range of distribution.
187569		threats	eng	The main threat to this species likely comes from collection for the aquarium trade. A study on the impact of aquarium fish collection in Mozambique suggests that the aquarium collection poses little detrimental effect on the reefs studied (Whittington <em>et al.</em> 2000). Notably, the management on fish collection for aquarium trade in Mozambique is considered ineffective (Whittington <em>et al.</em> 2000). Long-term and increased harvest of this species throughout the species range may threaten this species if fisheries are not well-managed. <br/><br/>Coral reefs, which are important habitats for this species, is reported to be declining overall within Southeast Asia (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004), but less so within the western Indian Ocean (Ahamada <em>et al.</em> 2004). Habitat degradation can threaten survival of this species but this may not be the main threat currently.
187570		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187570		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Western Atlantic from the Bermuda and offshore reefs east of the Carolinas to Honduras and northern South America, including the Antilles. It also extends down through the entire Brazillian coast from south of the Amazon to Santa Catarina including Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha. It is also found in São Tomé Island in the Gulf of Guinea (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007)
187570		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 270 mm SL.  It is associated with rock and coral cover in depths of 18-110 m, but rarely at depths greater than 24 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).  It feeds on crabs and small shellfish (Gomon 1978). Juveniles pick parasites from other fishes (Lieske and Myers 1994). <br/><br/>It may hybridize with the Spanish hogfish, <em>B. rufus</em> (Sazima and Gasparini 1999).
187570		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>Aquarium trade export data for Brazil for 2007 recorded 3,531 individuals (IBAMA 2007).
187570		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Minor threats include capture for the aquarium trade.
187571		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187571		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Fanning Atoll in the Line Islands and Birnie to the Nikumaroro in the Phoenix Group (Allen pers. comm. in Gomon 2006). It has also been recorded in Howland and Baker Islands, north of the Phoenix group of islands (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187571		habitat	eng	The length of this species was recorded at  210 mm SL. It is found around foliose corals and rarely swims out in the open. Adults found between seven and 20 m, while juveniles were seen only below 30 m depth (Gomon 2006).
187571		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187571		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187572		conservation	eng	Although it is the official New South Wales State fish emblem, this species is not a totally protected species in New South Wales. It is only protected against spearfishing, netting and commercial sale to protect it from large catches by spearfishers. In 1974, angling and commercial fishing were allowed again, but spearfishing was still prohibited. In 1975, concern over the large catches by commercial fishers led to a ban on bottom-set gill nets. All Blue Groper were banned from sale in 1980. There is currently a minimum size limit of 30 cm, and the bag limit is two per day with only one > 60cm (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1996, Gillanders 1999).<br/><br/>Angling is still allowed, with a bag limit of two fish in possession, taken by line only, and a "slot" size limit of >30 cm, with only one fish over 60 cm allowed. The spearfishing prohibition is in the form of a "rolling" ban, renewed possibly every 10 years. If this spearfishing ban were to be lifted, the species would very quickly decline in New South Wales waters given that they are very easy to spear, with even the biggest individuals up to almost a meter in length.<br/><br/>It is suspected that <em>A.viridis</em> which is smaller and maybe shorter lived than <em>A. gouldii</em>has a higher turnover rate but there is still no real information on the very largest and oldest elements of the population and Fisheries New South Wales has no demographic data on this species.
187572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to inshore rocky shores and rocky reefs off south-eastern Australia (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Its extent of occurance is less than 64,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and extends from Caloundra in southern Queensland to Wilsons Promontory in southern Victoria including east Bass Strait (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187572		habitat	eng	Adult populations are the most common on coastal and offshore reefs. In an extensive study focused on central  New South Wales populations  (Gillanders 1999) gave maximum body length estimates of 100 cm and 18 kg. <br/><br/>Reaching  a peak abundance of approximately two individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> (Gillanders and Kingsford 1998), adult individuals (>20cm TL) are most abundant on rocky reefs including open coastal  and offshore reefs. Juveniles and individuals (<20cm TL) are most abundant in estuarine and inshore reefs (Gillanders 1997). Newly settled larvae are collected from seagrass beds (Leis and Hay 2004) . Early juveniles in seagrass beds feeds on crustaceans. On rocky reefs food items are dominated by crabs molluscs and echinoderms. Adult foods also importantly include crabs, which is the main recreational line fishing bait used in New South Wales (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>A protogynous monadric hermaphrodite females reach sexual maturity at two to three years. This species is a winter/spring  (July/Sept) spawner (Gillanders 1995). Relatively little information on age-based demography. Gillanders (1999) provides estimates of age and size at maturity 295-300 mm (TL) or two to three years. All individuals < 600 mm TL are female. Maximum age estimates are 35 years with a 30 year fish reaching a total length of 725 mm. No comprehensive age-based demographic data including very large adults are available (J.H.Choat pers. comm.2008).<br/><br/>Generation length for this species is estimated to be between 12 and 15 years.
187572		population	eng	There is no commercial fishery data for this species. The population has suffered severe declines of at least 30 to 50% in the past due to spear fishing (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008), however spearfishing and the commercial net-fishing in New South Wales was banned in 1972. The population may now be stable.
187572		threats	eng	As with most large labrid species, larger adults are relatively rare with a habitat restricted to coastal reefs. This species is endemic to southeastern Australia and has a limited geographic range. It was subject to intense spearfishing prior to 1960, and is still subject to recreational and minor commercial line fishing in Victoria. It is also subject to substantial recreational fishing and minor commercial fishing throughout its range, although species-specific population information is not available (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
187573		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present throughout the whole Mediterranean basin and the western part of the Black Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187573		habitat	eng	This species lives mainly over Posidonia seagrass beds, though it is also present on algal-covered rocky reefs. It frequently occurs in large aggregations and feeds on small benthic organisms such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. Spawning takes place in spring, when the male builds and guards a nest of algae, in which one or more females lay adhesive eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187573		population	eng	This species is common and widespread in the Mediterranean Sea.
187573		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be utilized as food when caught in local artisanal fisheries.
187574		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps a number marine protected areas within its range.
187574		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Australia. Records from Japan and Ogasawara Islands (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997) need clarification.
187574		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 103 mm SL. Trawled in moderately deep water (32-75 m) off the coast of NW Australia.
187574		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187574		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187575		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It is worth mentioning that marine parks do not necessary imply as no take zones, for instance fishing and animal collections are allowed in the Sinub Island (Jenkins 2002). Given the intensive collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is need on the local and global impact of collection, as well as on the implementation of sustainable harvest and trade measures.
187575		distribution	eng	This species is found in the west Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean, including Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island to the Line and Pitcairn Group of Islands, north to the Bonin Islands, and south to Rowley Shoals and the Great Barrier Reef (Myers 1991, Allen 2000, Parenti and Randall 2000).
187575		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of seaward, clear lagoon reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000) and outer reefs (Kuiter 2002) at depths of 2 to 28 m (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>It is distinguished by the large black spot at lower edge of pectoral fin-base (Allen 2000, Kuiter 2002). It has been observed to “clean” parasites from other fishes (Randall and Springer 1975, Allen 2000). It is reported that the combination of colour and dance-like movement of <em>L. pectoralis</em> is an advertisement to other fishes, including predators, for “cleaning” services (Kuiter 2002). “Cleaning” included removal of parasite, dead tissue from wounds, food scraps from teeth or gills. Juveniles were observed to be territorial, working singly along reef walls, while adults work in pair and specifically at particular caves which are known as “cleaning stations” (Myers 1991, Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>The mean plantktonic larval duration of L. pectoralis was 26.8 + / - 4.2 days and the highest larval duration was recorded to be 31 days in Palau (Victor 1986).
187575		population	eng	This species is common in at least parts of its range. There is no other information available on the abundance of L. pectoralis. It is the most frequently observed species in Tutuila and Swains Island, Samoa (Brainard 2004), while in Micronesia, it is reported to be the smallest and least common cleaner wrasse (Myers 1991).
187575		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade and there are occuring coral habitat degradation in parts of its range. <br/><br/>Overfishing, destructive fishing practices and pollution from the land have been reported within the area of highest coral reef diversity, such as the Philippines and Indonesia (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004) and might cause habitat alteration or even loss. Such habitat alteration or degradation has been shown to influence the fish community (Öhman <em>et al.</em> 1997) and population depletions. Thus, habitat destruction might constitue as a main threat since most of this species habitat is in high coral cover areas.<br/><br/>The marine ornamental trade is an expanding industry and there is a threat of overcollection of the target species since most of them are taken from the wild (Ochavillo and Hodgson 2006). However, the data for the aquarium trade on is unregulated and with very limited documentation. There is no information available on the numbers that are being collected, location of extractions and monitoring on the trade.
187576		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187576		distribution	eng	This species is known conclusively from Indonesia: Sulawesi (near Maluku) and Flores (Pomana Besar), in the Western Pacific, and Fiji and Kiritimati Atoll, Line Islands in the Central Pacific (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). It was recorded from Sogod, Cebu, Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009). The photograph was confirmed by M. Gomon (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187576		habitat	eng	A small species to at least 87 mm SL. It has photographed it at depths of 25-50 m, noting that adults occur in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m, with juveniles observed at about 50 m (B. Russell pers comm. 2008).
187576		population	eng	There is no population information avaiable for this species. This is an uncommon species.
187576		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. However, species is sought after by aquarium trade collectors.
187577		conservation	eng	There is no specific management for this species. There are some marine protected areas in the distribution regions of this species. However, the presence of this species within the MPAs needs further investigation. In the Great Barrier Reef at least, this species has not been recorded in UVC (Sweatman <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187577		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New South Wales, Chesterfield Bank in the Coral Sea, New Caledonia and Tonga.
187577		habitat	eng	This species has been found in protected waters of lagoons or harbors on mixed sand and coral-reef habitats at depth of 10-27 m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187577		population	eng	There is no known population information available for this species. This species has been recently described.
187577		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187578		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species has been observed in the Ningaloon Marine Park which includes both a sanctuary for no-take and recreation zones for anglers (Westera <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also, it was observed in the Wakatobi Marine Park, Indonesia (Unsworth <em>et al.</em> 2007), Marine protected area of Nha Trang Bay, Vietnam (Dung 2007), Masinloc marine protected areas, the Philippines (IW:LEARN 2008), the Great Barrier Reef, Tung Ping Chau Marine Park and Cape d’ Aguilar (Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>It is worth noting that the marine park doesn’t imply as a no-take zone since limited fishing activity is allowed within certain marine parks, such as Tung Ping Chau Marine Park, Hong Kong. Cage trap or monofilament nets are still allowed within the Tung Ping Chau Marine Park for licensed fishers (AFCD 2007). Furthermore, illegal and destructive fishing activities have been reported in the many Southeast Asian countries (IW:LEARN 2008) due to the poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002). Thus, such protected areas might provide insufficient protection to the species.<br/><br/>In Queensland, recreational fishing for reef fish for personal home aquariums is allowed, but currently, there is no information available on the level of recreational harvest of marine aquarium species. Only licensed fishermen are allowed to capture fishes for aquarium trade in Australia and in Queensland, the total number of fishes harvested for the ornamental fish fishery approximately 140,000 in 1991 involving about 150 species, 240,000 in 1995, 140,000 in 1997, 2,108,345 annually (1998-2003) (MCS 2001, Ryan and Clarke 2005).<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (Choerodon spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all Choerodon species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).
187578		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from Sri Lanka to Tonga, and from Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands to New Caledonia and northeastern Australia (Myers 1991, Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
187578		habitat	eng	This species is found in seagrass beds and areas of mixed coral, rubble and sand of reef flats, channels and lagoons from depths of one  to 25 m.<br/><br/>This species spawns in aggregations. For example, at Palau, it aggregates to spawn along the outer edge of fringing reefs around the new and full moons of January to March (Myers 1991). The planktonic larval duration of <em>C. anchorago</em> was found to be 19.3 +/- 1.8 days in Palau (Victor 1986).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, this species was found singly, although sometimes small groups were observed, in shallow boulder and coral areas in a depth of at least 10 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). In Micronesia, it was observed in rubble or sandy areas, seagrass beds and areas of mixed coral, rubble and sand of reef flats, channels and lagoon at a depth of 25 m (Myers 1991). In Australia, it inhabits reef crests and slopes with algae and soft corals. Juveniles occur inshore and often form small aggregations in seagrass beds where near mangrove or freshwater run-offs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter 1992, 2000). In the Solomon Islands, this species is moderately common and usually found in slity areas (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>An enlarged canine is present on each side at rear of upper jaw and lateral line continuous smoothly curved with 29 pored scales. This species is distinctive and can be recognized by a large rectangular white saddle situated dorsally on caudal peduncle extending forward below rear of the dorsal fin (Kuiter 2000, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Westneat 2001). The body colour undergoes very little change and does not change much according to size or age (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Adults are territorial (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and feed primarily on hard-shelled invertebrate prey such as crustaceans, molluscs, crabs , sea urchins (Tedman 1980, Ferry-Graham <em>et al.</em> 2002) and fishes (Bellwood <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species has been observed to use its large teeth to pick up rocks and search for prey beneath (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>Maximum size of this species is 38 cm SL (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001) and population doubling time is approximately 4.5-14years (Froese and Pauly).
187578		population	eng	Total numbers of this species are not known and there is limited information on the current population status of this species. However, this species is common in many parts of its range.<br><br>It is moderately abundant in Hong Kong waters and was observed mostly in shallow boulders and coral areas at a depth of at least 10 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), but there is no quantitative data on this species in those areas. In Hong Kong, this species is also found in local markets (Situ and Sadovy 2004).<br><br>In Solomon Islands, this species is moderately common (Allen 2006).<br><br>Unsworth <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that this species is one of the most abundant seagrass fish species in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia with a mean density of 17.9 +/- 4.2 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> during high tide. <br><br>Large populations of <em>C. anchorago</em> have been found in Baraulu, and it is a common fish in the Duduli marine protected area (Aswani <em>et al.</em> undated).<br><br>Only 28 individuals of <em>C. anchorago</em> have been recorded in the Kambing Island, East Java, Indonesia (Sumadhiharga 2006).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 509 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 8-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187578		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.  However, this species is one of the most common of the genus found in the locally-sourced live food fish trade. For instance, it is taken by hook-and-line, fish traps, monofilament nets or with spears by divers (Ishizuka <em>et al.</em> 1996, Westneat 2001) and turns up sporadically in markets particularly during summer months (Sadovy and Cornish 2000) or being exported for international trade (Ishizuka <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, the levels of fishing pressure and landing fishery data for this species are not known.<br/><br/>Furthermore, it has been reported to form spawning aggregations during the spawning season (Myers 1991), such grouping behaviour might put the species vulnerable to any kind of fishing pressure and increasing the possibility of permanent loss of the population from a particular site since heavily fishing on a specific spawning aggregation could have taken the entire adult population over a very short time period (Sadovy and Domeier 2005). However, the targeted of spawning aggregations of this species has not been reported.<br/><br/>The majority of <em>Choerodon</em> captured by western Australia commercial fishes are reported as “<em>Choerodon</em> spp.” (Penn <em>et al.</em> 2005) which making the catch statistics to be under-representative of the real landings of this species. The commercial landing weight for <em>Choerodon</em> spp. in western Australia is approximately, 28 t each month and in New South Wales, about 69 t of mixed species (wrasse, tuskfish and gropers) were collected commercially in a one year period (NSW Department of Primary Industries 2005).<br/><br/>This species is occasionally taken for the marine aquarium trade (Westneat 2001). It is marketed for export from Queensland, small size is valued at $ AUD 12, and medium and large sizes at $ AUD 16.5 (Ryan and Clarke 2005).
187579		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, more research is needed on the population status, range and depth, biology and ecology of the species.
187579		distribution	eng	This species was recorded only from Sao Tome, in the Gulf of Guinea.
187579		habitat	eng	This species is a pelagic schooling wrasse similar to <em>C.parrae</em>, and is a semi-pelagic feeder. It is found in rocky reef and rocky shores. Depth information is unknown, but likely occurs from the surface to at least 10 m.
187579		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common.
187579		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187580		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Many marine protected areas within this species range do not include deep water habitat, except for possibly Bunaken National Park, Indonesia.
187580		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Vanuatu. It likely occurs also in the Solomon Islands, although it may not have been recorded there given that it is found in deep waters.
187580		habitat	eng	This species is found over sloping rubble bottoms from 55 to 82 m.
187580		population	eng	The abundance of this species is unknown, but it seems to be common below 55 m.
187580		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187581		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if this species is effectively protected in any marine protected areas within its range.
187581		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Maldives and Chagos Archipelago, to Sri Lanka.
187581		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep reefs over coral, rubble or sandy bottoms from 40 to 50 m.
187581		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187581		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade.
187582		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187582		distribution	eng	This species is found from New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, southern Western Australia. It was also recorded from Kent Group (Bass Strait) and probably occurs also in northern Tasmania.
187582		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 124 mm SL. It inhabits weedy rocky reefs in depths to about 40 m.
187582		population	eng	This species is rare in the Bass Strait region, but common and widespread elsewhere over its range.
187582		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187583		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187583		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Pacific from Tosa Bay, Kochi Prefecture, Japan, the Kanmu Seamount of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, and from the Coral Sea between Australia and New Caledonia (Gomon 2006). Distribution is likely more widespread but there are only a few records of this deep water species.
187583		habitat	eng	This species reaches a size of at least 142 mm SL. It occurs in deep water, specimens collected at depths of at least 250–370 m.
187583		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few records, but deeper water collecting would most likely extend the range.
187583		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187584		conservation	eng	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Florida, the Caribbean and Brazil. There is a quota of 1,000 individuals/company for each species of this genus targeted for the aquarium trade in Brazil in place since 2004 (IN 202/2008).
187584		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Florida, USA and the Bahamas to Santa Catarina, Brazil (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187584		habitat	eng	This species is found from one to 30 m depth in coral and rocky reef, seagrass, and over rubble substata. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is diandric. It forms leks during breeding.  Length at sex change = 8.3 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).
187584		population	eng	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. It is very common throughout its range. Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected (Rocha 2004).
187584		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is not heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. However, it is the most commonly caught species of this genus in northeastern Brazil by artisanal fisheries. It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).
187585		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187585		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Oman. The range size is 51,008 km<sup>2</sup>.
187585		habitat	eng	This species is often seen at the interface of low rocky reef and sand, foraging either over reef or sand. It occurs mainly in small groups of one male and approximately 10 females, with the male observed swimming rapidly and making frequent courtship displays. It is found in depths of 7-12 m.
187585		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species.
187585		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187586		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187586		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the South Pacific from Pitcairn Group, Austral Islands, Tuamoto Archipelago and Society Islands. There is a possible new species found in Micronesia including Guam, and the Ogasawara Islands off southern Japan.
187586		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 116 mm SL. It occurs in outer reef areas well above the bottom of exposed seaward reefs and clear lagoons (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species was collected in depths of 12-31 m.
187586		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187586		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187587		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187587		distribution	eng	This species is the most common Bodianus in the western Indian Ocean and, in particular, the Mozambique Channel. It occurs from the Red Sea to South Africa (Natal), Comoro Is, Aldabra, Seychelles, Mauritius, Reunion, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Nicobars, Cocos-Keeling. This species is also reliably reported from Kenya, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman and Pakistan (Gomon 2006).
187587		habitat	eng	This is a moderately small species, to about 169 mm SL. It is almost always associated with living coral reefs (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). Juveniles often shelter near black corals and gorgonians, also frequent cave ceilings (Kuiter1992).  It feeds mainly on benthic  invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans.  Juveniles regularly remove parasites from other fishes (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Although usually found at depths of 9–30 m, individuals have been taken at 36–49 m at Cocos-Keeling Atoll.
187587		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is the most common species in the genus.
187587		threats	eng	Possible threats from reef degradation.
187588		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187588		distribution	eng	This species is found form Northeastern New Zealand (Poor Knights Islands, Three Kings Islands) the Kermadec Islands (Francis 1993, 1996), and in Australia, central New South Wales, northeastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania.
187588		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 113 mm SL. It inhabits sandy patches adjacent to rocky reefs in depths usually to about 40 m, but may range to 100 m (Ayling and Cox 1982).  <br><br>It is sexually dichromatic, social organization and sexual behavior described by Doak (1972) and Ayling and Cox (1982). A facultative cleaner symbiont (Ayling and Grace 1971) removing parasites and damaged skin and scales from other species. It also feeds on small crustaceans from the bottom and from seaweed fronds. Spawning occurs repeatedly during June-December, and juveniles (one cm) settle out on seaweed covered reefs in January-February. They mature after seven months at about seven cm TL and reach 10 cm TL after the first year. They spend one to two spawning seasons as females then in February – March many change simultaneously into males and compete for new territories. <br><br>This species lives to a maximum age of about four years (Francis 2001).
187588		population	eng	This species is moderately common at offshore localities in northeastern New Zealand, abundant at Three Kings Islands. It is less common and in isolated populations in Australia.
187588		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187589		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187589		distribution	eng	This species is found from the East African coast south to Natal, South Africa, also from Madagascar, Seychelles and Chagos Archipelago.
187589		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse to 11 cm. It inhabits deeper reef slope rubble habitats in depths from 5-43 m.
187589		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common species.
187589		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187590		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187590		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mauritius (approximate extent of occurrence 1,800 km<sup>2</sup>).
187590		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fringing reef slopes, over coral or rubble bottoms at depths from 40 to 60 m.
187590		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187590		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187591		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187591		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Central Pacific in Easter, Pitcairn Group, Rapa and Austral islands.
187591		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 134 mm SL. It inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water, in depths down to 14 m.
187591		population	eng	This species is common througout its range.
187591		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187592		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187592		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Ua Pou in the Marquesas Islands.
187592		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy areas in shallow waters from 15-17 m. It may be found in a wider range of depths. It quickly dives into the sand when threatened (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187592		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
187592		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187593		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187593		distribution	eng	This species is found in North Western Australia only on Dirk Hartog Island (around 26 degrees South)
187593		habitat	eng	This species is found in sub-tropical coral reefs.
187593		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is only known from one record (Dirk Hartog Island).
187593		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187594		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is well protected throughout its range in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud.
187594		distribution	eng	In the western central Pacific, this species is found from southern Philippines to Indonesia and Micronesia (Parenti and Randall 2000). From Papua to Flores and Togean Islands (Allen and Adrim 2003), Celebes (Indonesia) to Palau and in Kimbe bay (Papua New Guinea) (Hubble 2003).
187594		habitat	eng	This species is found in still coastal waters, where brittle corals grow high. It occurs in small groups that feed actively among the lower and dead parts of the corals with coralline algae. It is easily overlooked because of its small size. The recorded length is up to 6.5 cm, but usually much smaller (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). This is a species that relies heavily on corals. <br/><br/>It is a secretive species and feeds on amphipods and other small invertebrates. It is commonly associated to Anacropora (Hubble, 2003).
187594		population	eng	For the Solomon Islands Marine Assessment (Allen 2006) it was considered generally rare, but locally common on sheltered reefs, at depths from 5-25 m. It is also thought to be uncommon to rare in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009).
187594		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Due to their reliance on live corals, coral bleaching may be a threat locally where it occurs.
187595		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, coastal marine reserves in the region protect portions of its population.
187595		distribution	eng	This species is found in the sub-tropical Eastern Atlantic, around the Azores Islands only (Azevedo 1999).
187595		habitat	eng	This inshore demersal species is found around rocky reefs, sometimes with interspersed sand or gravel, in the shallow coastal waters of the Azores Islands. It is highly dependent on vegetated substrates (e.g. <em>Cystoseira</em> sp., <em>Dictyota</em> sp.) due to its feeding habits (on phytal invertebrates and algae, Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 1999), nest-building behavior and shelter for its recruits. Juveniles can also be found in tide pools. This species is rarely observed as a cleaner species on shallow rocky reefs, although it is abundant in the Azores (Bertoncini <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with maturation occurring at lengths of 12 cm (TL) (for males) and 14 cm TL (for females). Males can thus be initial phase fish, with some females changing sex to become terminal-phase males (Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 1999). During the spawning season (March to June, Azevedo <em>et al.</em>, 1999), larger terminal males form harems and defend territories (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Terminal males can attract several females at a time to spawn their demersal eggs in the nest, which eggs are cared for by the male. However, primary males, which have larger testes, can attempt to ‘steal’ fertilizations with the females (Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 1999, P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187595		population	eng	This species occurs only in the shallow coastal waters around the Azores Islands. It is very frequent in its preferred habitats, of shallow rocky reefs around all of the nine Azorean Islands (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is the third most abundant labrid species in the Azores littoral waters (Porteiro 1995, Afonso 2002). Adults typically occur in small numbers locally (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008) and juveniles can be observed in small schools hiding among algal turfs of Asparagopsis armata (Bertoncini <em>et al.</em> in press). Densities of 0.071 fish/m<sup>2</sup> were obtained during summer months on shallow reefs at Terceira and Corvo islands (Azores) (Bertoncini pers. comm. 2009)
187595		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187596		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in any marine protected areas.
187596		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Marshall Islands, however, it is not certain if it occurs around all of the islands.
187596		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, above coral, rubble or algae.  It feeds on zooplankton.
187596		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187596		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is exploited in the aquarium trade, and is commonly traded.
187597		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187597		distribution	eng	This species is found from Southern Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia (Bali), northern Australia (Arafura Sea). This species may be more widely distributed than the known range, but it is a deeper water species and there are few records.
187597		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, largest specimen examined 202 mm SL, but photographs of individuals up to about 300 mm are known. Photographs of it have been taken at depths of at least 50-70 m. It is found from 150 m off Scott Reef (M. Cappo pers. comm. 2008).
187597		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187597		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187598		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187598		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from Sri Lanka to the Indo-Malayan region. The record from Christmas needs to be verified.
187598		habitat	eng	This species is found in inshore, usually silty habitat on sand or mud near shallow reefs and seagrass beds (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It grows to about 12.0 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187598		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is probably common.
187598		threats	eng	There are no specific major threats to this species. General threats in the area of distribution are coastal development, sedimentation, destructive fishing, overfishing, and pollution of coral reefs (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hodgson 1999).
187599		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187599		distribution	eng	This species is known from Australia (Coral Sea) to Pitcairn island.
187599		habitat	eng	This species is more common in outer reef areas than sheltered lagoon reefs. It is usually seen in small groups feeding a short distance above the bottom on zooplankton.
187599		population	eng	This species is not commonly observed in shallow waters, it is considered more common in deeper reefs throughout its range.
187599		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187600		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, this species is found in Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park (Cornish 2000, Ku <em>et al.</em> 2007), Yan Chau Tong Marine Park and Tung Ping Chau Marine Park (Cornish 2000). It has also been recorded from the Mu Ko Surin National Park, Thailand (Comley <em>et al.</em> undated).<br/><br/>However, marine protected areas do not always imply the presence of no-take zones. For example, licensed fishing and specimen collecting are allowed in the Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park, Yan Chau Tong Marine Park and Tung Ping Chau Marine Park (AFCD 2008).  This species was also observed in the Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong (Cornish 2000) where fishing is prohibited for more than 10 years.<br/><br/>It is recommended that research be conducted to determine possible indicators of localized or regional declines due to current fishing activities within this species range.
187600		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West-Pacific, from Taiwan, Philippines, Hainan Island, Singapore and Indonesia (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), and western Indian Ocean (Parenti and Randall 2000), from Durban, South Africa to the Gulf of Oman and southeast India, and the latitudinal range from Hong Kong to northwest Australia (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187600		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow rubble and algae reef areas with little coral growth (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000, Kuiter 2002), and is found to depths of 20 m. The abundance was observed to decline with water temperature, as it was rarely seen under 16.5 °C in Hong Kong waters. Small individuals have been recorded to clean other fishes (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Although this species was reported to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), detailed gonadal histology is needed for further confirmation. Males are larger than females in body sizes. In Hong Kong, females become sexually mature at less than 8 cm TL and the smallest mature males are about 10 cm TL. Spawning activities have been observed around mid-day in shallow areas from April to July in Hong Kong waters (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Histology study showed that it becomes mature from May to September and has a spawning season that lasts approximately three months. It was also found that sperm in the early developing stage aggregate in lobules with tails oriented towards the centre and such distinctive feature disappeared when gonads become ripe close to spawning (Valerie 2002).<br/><br/>Males are light greenish dorsally and pale ventrally with six to seven interconnected reddish brown bars (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). It has approximately 13 pectoral fin rays and yellow corners to caudal fin (Allen 200). Black and yellow spots are present in the dorsal fin. Juveniles have a black spot on soft dorsal fins and there is a prominent dark spot at upper pectoral fin base in both sexes. The dorsal fin spot has been observed to flash occasionally (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
187600		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout its range and can be locally abundant. It is common in Hong Kong waters. Sadovy and Cornish (2000) noted that it is the most abundant wrasse in shallow areas of corals and boulders in sheltered and exposed shores. <br/><br/>Visual surveys were carried out on the east coast of Zanzibar Island (6°6-13’S, 39°24-31’E), Tanzania, with a mean density found at 0.01 fish per 1000 m<sup>2</sup> and mean biomass of 0.088 g per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (Gullström <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it was rarely found in the 10 sampling stations at Ko Tao and the frequency of occurrence was less than 10 (Scaps 2006).<br/><br/>Despite the broad geographic distribution of this species, there is no information on the total numbers and there is very limited information on its local population stocks. Thus, the population status <em>H. nigrescens</em> cannot be inferred due to insufficient data.
187600		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch in a number of different fisheries. It is vulnerable to a wide range of fishing gears. It is not known if the pressure from fishing within the distribution of this species is considered to be a major threat.
187601		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures. However, at least 80% of this species range is included in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary.
187601		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Hawaiian Islands Chain and Johnston Atoll, though possibly also found in other locations in the Pacific to the south and north west.
187601		habitat	eng	The main habitat is coral reefs, especially clear lagoon and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Mundy 2005) to depths of 60 m. It is also found over rocky reefs.<br/><br/>The initial phase fish (juveniles and possibly females) are a uniform greenish colour, and the terminal phase fish (probably males) are a uniformly patterned greenish grey. The diet includes benthic invertebrates and also small teleost fishes (Lieske and Myers 1994). The eggs and larvae are probably pelagic.
187601		population	eng	Nothing is known about the status of its population. This species is abundant in surge zones in Hawaii.
187601		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is caught by subsistence and recreational fisheries.
187602		conservation	eng	More than two thirds of the range of this species is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a no-take marine reserve (USA). There are no species specific conservation actions  in place.
187602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (Central Pacific).
187602		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths of 1-98 m. It is generally listed as a protogynous hermaphrodite (e.g., DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005) but no primary literature could be found to confirm this. This species feeds on echinoderms, molluscs, gastropods, crustaceans, and polychaetes. The maximum recorded size is 56 cm and 2.8 kg.
187602		population	eng	There is no explicit data on population trends available for this species.  However, it is understood from casual observations that the species is more common in the unpopulated northwestern Hawaiian Islands than in the populated islands in the southeast. This is likely a cause of fishing pressure.
187602		threats	eng	This species is a relatively large wrasse and is taken by fisherman (line, spear, net and trap).  Fishing pressure for this fish may represent a significant threat to the species as the abundance in populated areas has anecdotally been noted as lower in these areas.  However, it remains to be tested whether or not fishing pressure is the direct cause for this change in abundance, or if it is an ecological difference stemming from habitat changes in the population high islands versus the low reefs and atolls of the unpopulated northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
187603		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution may overlap some marine protected areas within its range.
187603		distribution	eng	This species is known in the eastern central Pacific from the Pitcairn islands, Mangareva, Austral Islands, Rapa, and Rarotonga.
187603		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble patches adjacent and scattered within coral reefs.  It has been collected from tidepools to 58 m.
187603		population	eng	There is no explicit information on population trends available, however this species is considered common in most accounts.
187603		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187604		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species was observed in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia covering 1,390,000 hectares (Bolton 2006) and Komodo National Park (Erdmann 2004).  It has also been recorded from the Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, Queensland (Ceccarelli <em>et al.</em> 2008) and Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong (Cornish 2000), which are strict no-take marine sanctuaries.
187604		distribution	eng	This species is found from Indonesia to Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003), north to Guam and south to southeastern Australia (Kuiter 2002).
187604		habitat	eng	This species is found in various habitats from shallow coastal algae reefs to deep offshore on soft bottom with sponges and hydroid colonies (Kuiter 1993, 2006), to a depth to 18 m (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). It also occurs in sheltered reef crest with stinging hydrozoans (<em>Aglaophenia</em> spp) for protection (Kuiter 2002). Kuiter and Tonozuka (2001) found that it rarely leaves its cover except to move quickly between hydrozoan colonies. <br/><br/>It is highly variable in colour and tends to blend with habitat (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Juveniles usually with eye-sized ocellus on gill cover, but intermittent in adults (Kuiter 2006). It is distinguished by the 9 spines in the dorsal fin (Kuiter 2002) and filaments extend from first two interspinous dorsal membranes in males (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
187604		population	eng	In general, there is little information available on the abundance of this species across its geographic distribution. General abundance is difficult to estimate as this species is secretive and hides among algae.<br><br>It was rarely observed during an underwater census survey in the Raja Ampat Islands, Indonesia (McKenna <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br><br>In French-Polynesia, only one individual was counted in various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008 ).
187604		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and is utilized as food fish.
187605		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187605		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Ascension and St. Helena Islands on reefs, with areas of 39 km<sup>2</sup> and 37 km<sup>2</sup> respectively. It is also found in Sao Tome, in the Gulf of Guinea (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007, Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2008). However, taxonomic research is needed to determine if these are separate species.
187605		habitat	eng	This species occurs to a depth of at least 20 m, but likely occurs deeper. Direct observations at St. Helena indicates that this species is associated with sand pockets and sandy slopes. It occurs in haremic groups with single large males.
187605		population	eng	There is no population infromation available for this species. This species is abundant in each of the three island locations where it is found.
187605		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. This species occurs in relatively unaccessable habitat and in isolated populations.
187606		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187606		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Coral Sea reefs and in American Samoa.
187606		habitat	eng	This species is found over coral rubble from depths of five to 46 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187606		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187606		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187607		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
187607		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, known only from Mauritius (Randall and Randall 1981) and the Seychelles (Randall and van Egmond 1994).
187607		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 84 mm SL. It inhabits deeper water usually at depths of 50-60 m (Kuiter 2002) on rubble bottoms with some rock and coral (Randall and Randall 1981).
187607		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187607		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187608		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species is present in at least one Marine Protected Area. More research is needed on this species distribution, population trends, habitat, ecology, and major threats.
187608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Western Gulf of Mexico, and is only known from Veracruz in southern Mexico, and the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, Texas. It was recently recorded from Alacranes Reef, a reef platform off northern Yucatan Peninsula, southern Gulf of Mexico (Aguilar-Perrera and Tuz-Aulub, 2009).
187608		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral reef to depths of 24 m. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology.
187608		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from a few specimens.<br/><br/>This species was recorded as relatively common from Alacranes Reef, where it forms small (15 individuals) to large (200 individuals) aggregations in depths from 2-25 m (Aguilar-Perrera and Tuz-Aulub, 2009).
187608		threats	eng	It is not known whether there are any major threats for this species.
187609		conservation	eng	There are no known sepcies specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187609		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippines to southern Indonesia.
187609		habitat	eng	This species usually occurs in moderately large groups commonly in depths of about 20-25 m. It occurs in a variety of habitats including coastal and inner reefs, and outer reefs over bottom of coral rubble or heads of small finely branched coral. It feeds on zooplankton, and occurs from 4-55 m depth.
187609		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout the Philippines, but can be uncommon in other parts of its range and in shallow waters.
187609		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187610		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187610		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Philippines to Indonesia (Sulawesi, Moluccas), Taiwan, Ogasawara Is, Samoa, Marshall and Marianna Is, Guam, and Hawaiian islands (Randall and Earle 2002).
187610		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow waters from six to nine m (Myers 1999) but in Hawaii was observed as deep as 15 m. It inhabits open sandy bottoms close to reefs in areas of strong current. This species is wary and dives into the sand with the approach of danger (Randall and Earle 2002).
187610		population	eng	This species is patchily distributed and wary, making population assessments difficult.
187610		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187611		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, there are 16 designated marine protected areas in Taiwan (Wood 2007).
187611		distribution	eng	This species is found from Taiwan, and Izu Oshima off southeastern Japan.
187611		habitat	eng	This species hovers in the water column about one to four m above reef slopes. It feeds on zooplankton during the day. It inhabits depths from 4-15 m (Chen and Shao 1995).
187611		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187611		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187612		conservation	eng	This species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br><br>It was found in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005), Ningaloo Reef Marine Park (Colquhoun <em>et al.</em> 2007) and marine park at Fiji (Jennings and Polunin 1997, Brown <em>et al.</em> 2007).  However, marine parks do not imply presence of no take zones as limited fishing activity is allowed within certain marine parks.<br><br>In Gascoyne region of western Australia, <em>Choreodon</em> spp. Is noted as vulnerable to localised depletion. The minimum legal catch size for <em>Choreodon</em> spp. Is 40 cm and daily catch limit is two individuals per angler. No spearfishing is allowed within the Ningaloo Marine Park (Government of Western Australia 2008a). <br><br>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (<em>Choreodon</em> spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all <em>Choreodon</em> species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).<br><br>In Pilbara or Kimberley regions, Labridae is considered to have the highest risk of localised depletion (Government of Western Australia 2008). Besides, the minimum legal catch size for Labridae is 40 cm and the daily catch limit is two individuals per species per angler, while the mixed daily bag limit is seven individuals per angler. Currently, management plans are being developed for the new Marine Conservation Parks which including no-take zones (Government of Western Australia 2008).<br><br>Only licensed fishermen are allowed to capture fishes for aquarium trade in Australia and in Queensland and the total number of fishes harvested for the ornamental fish fishery is approximately 2,108,345 annually (1998-2003) (Ryan and Clarke 2005). Furthermore, the Government of Australia is currently revising the proposal of establishing a 400,000 square mile Coral Sea Heritage Park, where fishing would be banned, in the Great Barrier Reef (Underwater Times 2008).
187612		distribution	eng	This species is found mainly in the western Pacific Ocean, north to the Ryukyu islands, Japan and south to Western Australia and the Great Barrier Reef, but scattered locations in southeast Asia (Allen 2000), east to Samoa and Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187612		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy areas adjacent to reefs and is usually found at depths of 15-30 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). In Australia, it was observed singly or in small loose aggregations in rubble slopes below drop-offs at depth > 20 m (Kuiter 2006). <br><br>It preys on mollusks by means of a strong oral jaw (Sale 2002). Juveniles and adults of this species are almost morphologically identical (Kuiter 2006) and is distinguished by the blackish wedge on rear part of body and a pale spot situated below posterior end of dorsal fin base (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001). <br><br>Coral reef fishes avoid agonistic interaction between conspecific and other species by building up nests (Robertson and Sheldon 1979). Dome-type nest construction with a framework of dead coral skeletons (Takayanagi <em>et al.</em> 2003) by this species was observed on the sandy bottom near Sesoko Island, Japan. It thrusts its head under coral gravels and scrapes out sand to make one or two entrances. Then it lays the dead branching coral skeletons at the entrances. During daytime, it was found that this species patrolled and tidied the nest within its territory (Nanami and Nishihira 1999). At night, the nest was used as a sleeping site for this species. It forms a harem and spawns around sunset (Thresher 1984) but it has been reported that spawning activity of this species does not occur within the nest (Nanami and Nishihira 1999).
187612		population	eng	Total numbers of this species are not known and information on the current population status of is very scarce. It is rare where it has been studied. <br><br>Only two individuals were observed and a mean biomass of 1.73 g per 100 m<sup>2</sup> was estimated during an underwater census survey in Tongatapu reefs, Tonga (Matoto <em>et al.</em> 1996). A total of 15 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys in Tonga (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). Biomass of this species in Fiji Islands was found to be accounting for approximately 0.1 % of the total biomass of reef fishes in 10 different census sites with 1.4% of occurrence frequency (Jennings and Polunin 1997).
187612		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, it is collected for the marine aquarium trade and there is no up-to-date information regarding the impacts of aquarium fish collecting on this species. It is also collected for the ornamental trade. In areas such as the Philippines, Taiwan and Indonesia, cyanide has reportedly been used for capturing ornamental fishes. It is known that the use of poison to capture fishes can damage the intestinal lining of fishes (Bellwood 1981).<br><br>This species is one of the smallest Choerodon spp. (Kuiter 2006), it rarely reaches more than the legal capture size of the fishing regulations in the states of Australia, thus, it is generally believed that it is possibly less threatened in Australia under such regulations.
187613		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187613		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern Florida, USA to the Antilles, to Suriname, and down the coast of Brazil to Rio Grande do Sul State (Bertoncini pers. comm. 2009).
187613		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deeper waters and is mainly found over rocky bottoms of insular areas.
187613		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187613		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is a decently sized fish and is caught for food, but it is not known  to what extent.
187614		conservation	eng	There are no known sepcies specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187614		distribution	eng	This species is found in Okinawa and the Ogasawara Islands, Japan and also recorded from southern Taiwan. Some specimens collected in Bali and the Sangihe Islands (Indonesia) have been tentatively identified as this species, but are likely undescribed species (Kuiter 2002).
187614		habitat	eng	This species is collected at depths ranging from 23 to 55 m on dead coral and rubble substratum.
187614		population	eng	This species can be locally common, but not present over a very wide area. There is no population information available for this species.
187614		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187615		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187615		distribution	eng	This species occurs off the coast of Mozambique.
187615		habitat	eng	This is a small, demersal species that occurs in depths up to 200 m.
187615		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187615		threats	eng	This species is collected for the aquarium trade, however, this is an unquantified threat.
187616		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
187616		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mauritius (Parenti and Randall 2000). The range was recently expanded into South Africa (Heemstra 1995), however, this record may need to be checked (Kuiter 2002).
187616		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse, approximately 16 cm. It lives on sand and rubble to 20-85 m depth on reef slopes.
187616		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187616		threats	eng	This species is only known from Mauritius, where there is extensive coastal development, pollution and tourism impacts in at least the shallow part of this species depth range. However, it is not known how these potential threats may be affecting this species population.
187617		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187617		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, in South Africa (Natal), Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues and the Seychelles.
187617		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small groups in rocky reef areas with little coral cover (Lieske and Myers 1994), at depths of 4-25 m (Baensch and Debelius 1997).<br/><br/>There appears to be some colour dimorphism between the initial phase (with a whitish belly) and the terminal phase (with a greenish body, darker above, and yellow bands behind the head and before the tail). It feeds on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993).
187617		population	eng	This species is common in the Seychelles (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).
187617		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187618		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187618		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Horn of Africa, coasts of Yemen, Oman and the mouth of the Arabian Gulf.
187618		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs and adjacent rubble, sand and seagrass habitats typically along the edges of coral rich fringing reef slopes, (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled invertebrates, especially mollusks (Gomon and Randall 1984). It is generally associated in colonies of 4-8 individuals with single large males.<br/><br/>Preliminary demographic work (J.H. Choat, pers. comm. 2008) shows Oman populations have maximum age of 19 years and a rapid growth rate in males to ~55cm TL. It is protogynous. Primary and initial color phases Randall (1995). Juveniles are found in shallower water. Adult depth distribution ranges from 5-45m. <br/><br/>It has many similar characteristics to <em>Cheilinus undulatus</em> (large size rapid growth of males, low densities) but maximum size and age are smaller and younger.
187618		population	eng	This species is a north-western Indian Ocean and Red Sea endemic with a restricted range size. It is another one of the big wrasses which has a very low abundance on the local scale and in this case a limited geographical distribution (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>There are few estimates of abundance but as with most large wrasses, species is rare. Abundance in the Red Sea ranges from 0.1 to 1.7 per hectare. It is more abundant on the coast of Oman (up to three per hectare JHC unpublished).<br/>It does not extend into the central and northern reaches of the Arabian Gulf (A.M. Ayling pers. comm. 2008).
187618		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/>This species is impacted by subsistence line and trap fishing. It is usually present in low numbers in the Muscat fish market. Low fishing pressure must be evaluated in the context of local rarity and a restricted geographic range.
187619		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187619		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Hawaiian Islands.
187619		habitat	eng	This is a large species, reaches about 456 mm SL. It is restricted to deep waters (165-256 m) of the Hawaiian Islands. Chave and Mundy (1994) observed this species from a submersible at depths of 185-190 m over various substrates.
187619		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187619		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187620		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187620		distribution	eng	This species is found from Japan, Taiwan and the Philippines to Scott Reef, Australia. <br/><br/>Range size: 4,274,908 km<sup>2</sup>
187620		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rich coral reefs in clear coastal to outer reef habitats. Adults feed on coral polyps but may also clean other fishes.
187620		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species.
187620		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade. It may be susceptible to localized coral bleaching events.
187621		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187621		distribution	eng	This species is found from East Africa to the Hawaiian and Ducie Islands, north to the Yaeyama Island, Japan and south to New Caledonia.
187621		habitat	eng	This species is found from  2-50 m (Myers 1991). It occurs among rubble or live corals of seaward reefs, usually in caves and crevices with rich invertebrate growth. It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans, but also takes small molluscs, echinoids (sea urchins), fish eggs, fish, copepods and crab larvae (Myers 1999, Randall 1999).
187621		population	eng	There is no known population information available for this species. This species is abundant in many parts of its range.
187621		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187622		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187622		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Palau, Philippines (Luzon and Cebu Provinces), Papua New Guinea (Madang Province, Milne bay), Indonesia (Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Flores) and Solomon Islands. It is probably more widespread than recorded.
187622		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in protected coastal coral reefs and coral lagoon areas. It is also found in seagrass adjacent to coral reefs. It feeds on fishes, crabs , shrimps and other crustaceans. Spawning was observed on several occasions at Ngerikuul, Palau, at Nikko Bay and Cemetery Bay in late afternoon, not correlated with high tide. Courtship and spawning variable, but different from <em>E. insidiator</em>. A ripe female was measured at 75 (SL) (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187622		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively common.
187622		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade together with <em>E. insidiator</em>.
187623		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187623		distribution	eng	This species is found from India and northern Australia (Northwest Shelf, WA (19°14'S) and Cape York, QLD (12°00'S) to Montague Island, NSW (36°15'S) (AFD 2009), and southern Japan and the China seas.
187623		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental shelf (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006) in sandy bottom habitat.
187623		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187623		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187624		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187624		distribution	eng	This species is found in Christmas Island, Australia and in the western Pacific from the Solomon Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Rowley Shoals and New South Wales (Australia). It was recently reported from Tonga. It is replaced by Halichoeres leucoxanthus in the Indian Ocean, but with overlapping distributions in Indonesia.
187624		habitat	eng	This species inhabits outer reef slopes from 10-30 m (Kuiter, 2002).
187624		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187624		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is exploited for the aquarium trade and is a target fish.
187625		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187625		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Philippines to Indonesia, Malaysia, and Palau (Myers 1999). Records from the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea are questionable.
187625		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated.  It is found in sheltered inner reefs amongst broken coral and rubble. It is usually seen in less than 10 m depth, staying well hidden in reefs, but sometimes swimming amongst the long-spined Diadema urchins or in thick algae coverage (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>The maximum size recorded in Palau was 5.7 cm (Myers, 1999) but has been noted to 9 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187625		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187625		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There is some minor collection for the aquarium trade as indicated by aquarium trade websites.
187626		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187626		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed. It is found from the Hawaiian Islands, Society Islands, Loyalty Islands, Cook Islands, Samoan Islands, Fiji, Lord Howe Island, Kermadec Islands, eastern Australia, Great Barrier Reef (Escape Reef to Sydney), southern Japan and Ryuku Islands, Taiwan, Philippines and Vietnam. In the Indian Ocean it is found in Mauritius, Reunion, Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa.
187626		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 103 mm SL. It commonly occurs in clear lagoon and seaward reefs over coral rubble bottoms, occasionally over live coral and algal clumps (Myers 1999) in depths of about 3-61 m, but generally in depths greater than 21 m (Liekse and Myers 1994). It is sexually dichromatic.
187626		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187626		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187627		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).
187627		distribution	eng	This species is found from Japan to Indonesia.
187627		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seaward reefs in areas of mixed sand, rubble, and coral.
187627		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is rare and is only known from a small number of specimens.
187627		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although juveniles are sometimes collected for the aquarium trade and adults captured as bycatch in subsistence fisheries.
187628		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation actions currently in place.  However, the remote nature of its known area of occupancy (only known from Easter Island) likely affords protection from utilization in the aquarium trade (the only probable use for the species).
187628		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Easter Island in the eastern Pacfiic.  Eastern island has approximately 60 km of linear coastline, and a relatively small continental shelf containing approximately 2 km of suitable habitat.  Thus, the area of suitable habitat for this species is approximately 120 km<sup>2</sup>.
187628		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of mixed sand and rubble in depths of 1-60 m.  Juveniles are often found in tide pools, but may occur in deeper waters. It feeds on gastropods (mainly <em>Strombus maculatus</em>), pelecypods (with mytilid and Lima), ophiuroids (<em>Ophiocoma</em>), hermit crabs (<em>Pagurus pascuensis</em>), crabs (with <em>Trapezia</em>), and echinoids, with molluscs as the major prey items (Randall, 1999).
187628		population	eng	There is no explicit information on population trends available for this species.
187628		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, its restricted area of occupancy (~120 km<sup>2</sup>) may make this species vulnerable to large-scale environmental perturbations (e.g., climate change and accompanying oceanographic changes).
187629		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range of distribution is a designated marine protected area (Wood 2007).
187629		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs (Australia).
187629		habitat	eng	There is very little known about this species. It is only known from the type specimen. It is most likely found in sandy bottom habitats. This species is found from depths of 10-25 m.
187629		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187629		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187630		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187630		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Indian Ocean, restricted to Western Australia, from Recherche Archipelago to Rottnest Island.
187630		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 141 mm SL. It inhabits rocky areas in exposed shallow water to depths of about 5 m.
187630		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187630		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187631		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes numerous Marine Protected Areas within its range.
187631		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the tropical and sub tropical coral reef waters (mainly between ~25°N and ~25°S) of the Indo-Pacific Region, from Eastern Africa (Tanzania to Mozambique) and the main Indian Ocean Islands in the west, to Micronesia and Samoa in the Pacific Ocean in the east, and from southern Japan (Ryukyu Islands) and Taiwan in the North West Pacific Ocean in the north, via the eastern parts of South East Asia to northern Western Australia, the southern Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island in the South West Pacific Ocean in the south.
187631		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral rich areas from shallow lagoons to semi-protected seaward reefs, down to depths of around 20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Letourner <em>et al.</em> 2004, Nguyen and Nguyen 2006), and outer reef zones on shallow crests and slopes (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>There is some adult colour dimorphism, the males having brighter blue markings on the head and around the margins of the fins and a broad yellowish bar on the body behind the head (Kuiter 2002), with the larger females having a generally more uniform dark greenish colour pattern. The juvenile colour pattern (blackish with a white stripe) is different from that of the larger adults (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>This species feeds on the polyps of hard corals, mainly on branching forms such as Acropora (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984). <br/><br/>The maximum recorded size of this species is around 20 cm (TL) (Kuiter 2002), 17.5 cm (TL) in FishBase.
187631		population	eng	This species is thought to be relatively common but not particularly abundant in parts of its range.
187631		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it may occasionally be taken in the marine aquarium fish trade. Also, coral habitat degradation may have some localized impacts on this species.
187632		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187632		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to South Africa and east to Maldives and Chagos Islands, western coast of Thailand, and northern Sumatra to Bali (Indonesia).
187632		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef flats, clear lagoon and seaward reefs and feeds on small invertebrates, especially crustaceans and mollusks (Lieske and Myers 1994), it is also found on rocky substrate in the Reunion Islands (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004) and seagrass beds in Mozambique (Gell and Whittington 2002)<br/><br/>It is found singly or in small groups consisting of one male and a few females (Lieske and Myers 1994). In the Glorieusus Islands, West Indian Ocean, it was observed to be diurnal carnivores (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003)
187632		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common in the Seychelles (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008), as well as in Indonesia (S. Suharto pers. comm.).
187632		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although localized threats to the species include habitat destruction from pollution and blast-fishing (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is rarely collected for the aquarium trade.
187633		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187633		distribution	eng	This species is known from far southern Queensland and New South Wales, with a single record from Lord Howe Island.
187633		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 360 mm TL (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). <br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic. It is common on algal covered rocky reef in shallow water, down to about 20 m (Morton 2007), but probably ranges deeper than this. Spawning occurs from April-October, sexual maturity is reached after first (1.8) year at 177 mm TL, with rapid growth to about 300 mm TL in six years, longevity is at least 9.6 years (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, sex change typically occurs at about 260-280 mm TL, 4-5 years, but early sex change can occur at lengths of 200 mm, 2.8 years (McPherson 1977, Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). <br/><br/>A generalist benthic carnivore with small individuals of <150 mm TL feeding mainly on amphipods, and larger individuals feeding mainly on decapods, trochid gastropods and bivalves (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008b). Males are highly territorial, defending reef patches of approximately 400 m<sup>2</sup> from other males for periods in excess of two years (Morton 2007). Territories are shared with up to 10 juvenile and female individuals.
187633		population	eng	This species is common in rocky reef habitat throughout its range.
187633		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187634		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187634		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Pacific, from Taiwan to Japan to NE Australia, Sumatra and the Solomon Islands.
187634		habitat	eng	This species is an abundant and widespread wrasse found in coastal, very shallow and usually algae-rocky coastal reefs.
187634		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a very common species in shallow waters.
187634		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187635		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187635		distribution	eng	This species is found in Indonesia (Bali, Togean Is, Sulawesi, Ambon, Ceran, Buru, Flores) and Ashmore-Cartier reef off of northwestern Australia.
187635		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal reef slopes and estuaries (Froese and Pauly 2008) to depths of 35 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>It occurs in small groups with numerous females, juveniles and several males, often covering a large section of reef (Kuiter 2002). Juveniles are secretive when small and form small groups at later life stages.
187635		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187635		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187636		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187636		distribution	eng	This species is known from Sagami Bay, Japan and south Korea (Cheju Islands), the Philippines, Indonesia and northwestern Australia including the Ashmore-Cartier reefs.
187636		habitat	eng	This species occurs over coral and rubble bottoms in seaward reefs at depths between three and 35 m. This species can form large schools.
187636		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. In Nonoc Island, Philippines, this species occurs in great abundance when present, 540 individuals were recorded within 300 m<sup>2</sup> (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2009).
187636		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187638		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187638		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan, the Palau Archipelago, New Guinea, New Britain, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Marshall Islands, Poor Knights Islands in New Zealand  (probably a vagrant) (Gomon pers. comm. 2006) and Queensland, Australia. It is also recorded from the Maldives,  Madagascar and Mauritius (Gomon 2006).
187638		habitat	eng	This is a small species, to about 59 mm SL. It is shallow ranging, collected in depths of 30-60 m. Allen (1973) reported the species as “being moderately common” on deep reefs associated with vertical dropoffs in Palau. <br/><br/>It forms small aggregations in soft bottom habitats with sponges and soft corals. The group usually comprising juveniles and females which are dominated by a large male (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>Although there appear to be red and yellow forms of this species, no morphological differences are apparent. B. Russell (pers. comm. 2008) observed juveniles and adults of both living together on deep reefs of Papua New Guinea, but did not see them interact. At depths in excess of 60 m, bright neon yellow individuals occurred in groups around isolated rocks on muddy slopes, and individuals with broader red lines on the flanks were more often seen near ledges or beneath overhangs on drop-offs.
187638		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187638		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. There is a potential threat from degradation of coral reefs.
187639		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within is range. Research needs include clarification on the distribution of the two species.
187639		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea down the east coast of Africa, Madagascar, Maldives and Laccadives and possibly presence in Andaman and Nicobar Islands needs clarification. Records from most of South East Asia probably refer to <em>A. melanurus</em>.
187639		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs – lagoon and seaward reefs usually deeper than 20 m to at least 42 m.<br/><br/>Juveniles are solitary and adults form small groups, each with several females and a dominant male.
187639		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. The population status is unknown.
187639		threats	eng	This species is exploited for the aquarium industry. Habitat degredation on coral reefs.
187640		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures are in place, however the range of this species includes marine protected areas (e.g., Pulu Keeling National Park (Australia)).
187640		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, from the southern Arabian Peninsula south to Zanzibar and South Africa (30°S) and east to Sumatra and Bali.
187640		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of rubble between and within coral reefs in exposed lagoons and seaward reefs in depths 0.5-50 m. It feeds on small invertebrates and is haremic (one dominant male with several smaller females).
187640		population	eng	There is no explicit data on population trends for this species, however casual observations indicate that <em>C. cuvier</em> is a common species and has an apparently stable population.
187640		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  It is utilized in the aquarium trade, however the level of extraction does not appear to significantly impact populations on a global scale. Local reductions in population may be present.
187641		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187641		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, the Great Australian Bight to the far southern coast of Westerm Australia.
187641		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 200 mm SL. This species occurs on rocky reefs mainly in deeper water, from about 10-218 m. It feeds on small invertebrates, predominantly crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 1982). It has also been observed cleaning ectoparasites from other reef species (Barrett 1995a). It is sexually dichromatic. This species is a site-attached monandric protogynous hermaphrodite, where females have widely overlapping home-ranges and males are territorial (Barrett 1995a, 1995b), at least during the breeding season (late August to January), and exclude all other males from their range (Barrett 1995a). Maximum age is about 11 years with sex change occurring at 5+ - 7+ years (Barrett 1995a).
187641		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187641		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab trap fishery (South Australia).
187642		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187642		distribution	eng	This species is found from Ogasawara Is. Southern Japan, south to Indonesia and east to Tuamoto Islands including Cocos Island, French Polynesia, and Palau to the Coral Sea off northeastern Australia.
187642		habitat	eng	This species is found in exposed escarpments (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008) to depths between 25-50 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003) in deep outer reef drop-offs. It forms aggregations of females and a single dominating male (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). This species is a planktivore (Myers 1999).
187642		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187642		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187643		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187643		distribution	eng	This species occurs in St. Paul Rocks, Ascension and St. Helena.
187643		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 300 mm TL (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).  Ecological data are available for the holotype and 10 paratypes taken during a collecting trip to Ascension Island by R. Lubbock. The specimens were collected near rocks on calcareous algal rubble, rocks on sand and in an area of scattered rubble on relatively fine coralline debris. Capture depths ranged from 12 to 35 m. it is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with obvious sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Lubbock 1980). It is also collected by Choat and Robertson in Ascension and St. Helena. It is seen at depths of around 20 m in St Helena (J.H. Choat pers. comm.).
187643		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is one of the more abundant wrasse species on Ascension and St. Helena (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008)
187643		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
187644		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187644		distribution	eng	This species is known only from three specimens collected from Okinawa and the Oshima Islands, off Honshu, Japan. However, this species has been photographed in many locations in southern Japan and the Ryuku Islands (Kuiter 2002).
187644		habitat	eng	This species is found over rocky bottoms, along steep seaward reefs between 30 and 60 m but is more commonly observed at depths greater than 40 m (Kuiter 2002).
187644		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187644		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187645		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187645		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Indo-West Pacific, from Sri Lanka to Indonesia and as far north to the Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan. It is possibly also in the Philippines and Saipan. This species is most likely found in more areas within the distirbution but there are no records, as the species lives in deeper waters.
187645		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 92 mm SL. It occurs deep on offshore reefs in 50-60 m depth (Kuiter 2002). It is found mainly in open ground areas covered with rubble, it may also be found in areas with rock and coral patches (Bellwood and Randall 2000).  It is found in small harems and feeds on material on the substratum (Bellwood and Randall 2000).
187645		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187645		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187646		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187646		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Niccobar Islands and eastward to Tonga. It is recorded from Wakayama Prefecture, Japan in the north and south to Elizabeth Reef and Sydney in eastern Australia and New Caledonia. <br><br>It is common in museum collections and is evidently excluded from the oceanic mid-Pacific plate (Gomon 2006).
187646		habitat	eng	A moderately small species, to about 147 mm SL. Ranging into subtropical zones as juveniles expatriates caused by warm currents during pelagic stage (Kuiter andTonozuka 2001). Adults occur mostly at depths of one to 20 m on coral and rock reefs, especially on steep, coral-rich slopes. Juveniles in caves, adults swim openly about, but usually close to the substrate, and often engage in cleaning larger fishes (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). <br/>Juveniles are not well represented in collections, but do appear to occur in depths similar to those of adults (Gomon 2006).
187646		population	eng	This species is not uncommon. There is no specific population information available for this species.<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 0.05 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187646		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187647		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. However, more research is needed on this species population, range, biology and ecology.
187647		distribution	eng	This species is only known from records in the Philippines, Chesterfield Island, the South China Sea and Taiwan (Rivaton 1989, Parenti and Randall 2000, Huang 2001). Because it is a deep water species, it has not been commonly observed or collected and its distribution is likely wider than these records.<br/><br/>Parenti and Randall (2000) found that records from New Caledonia were misidentifications of Choerodon jordani (M. Liu pers. comm. 2008).
187647		habitat	eng	This species has been observed to occur between 60 and 90 m. Although more information is needed on this species habitat, biology and ecology, given that it occurs in deeper waters, its habitat is not thought to be threatened.<br/><br/>It is distinguished by a broad dark, oblique band that present on the dorsal half of body and a dark band with pale marginal bands anteriorly and posteriorly (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>Specimens of C. melanostigma have been collected at depths of 60 – 90 m in the Chesterfield Island region (19°-22 °S and 157°-160 °E) and the size of the specimens ranged from 50-62 mm (Rivaton 1989). This record is a misidentification of <em>C. jordani</em> (M. Liu pers. comm. 2008).
187647		population	eng	There is no information available on the abundance of this species. It is a deep water species and not commonly observed.
187647		threats	eng	Given its deep water habitat, there are no threats known to this species.
187648		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187648		distribution	eng	This species is found from Mauritius including Rodrigues Is. (Heemstra <em>et al.</em> 2004), Reunion and St. Brandon's Shoal. Records outside this area appear to be based on specimens of <em>B. bilunulatus, B. loxozonus</em> or <em>B. perditio</em> (Gomon 2006).
187648		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 258 mm SL. It inhabits exposed seaward reefs with sand patches at depths of about 13-40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187648		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187648		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187649		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/><br/>Country-specific<br/>Tanzania<br/>There is no specific fishery management on this species. There are several marine parks and reserves in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marine parks are zoned for different purposes including no-take core zone and no fishing is allowed within the marine reserve unless authorized by Government department (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001). The build-up of these large species may reduce the abundance of small wrasses such as <em>C. oxycephalus</em> (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Nonetheless, these protected areas may offer protection to <em>C. oxycephalus</em>, however its occurrence within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Mozambique<br/>There is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). A fish survey in 2000 at various locations including marine protected areas did not record this species (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Madagascar<br/>This species was reported from the Natural Reserve of the Glorieuses Islands (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003). Labrids are not major catches in the reef fishes surrounding the south-west Madagascar in 1997 (Laroche <em>et al.</em> 1997), and catch-per-unit-effort is still relatively high in these fishing grounds. There are two marine protected areas, with no-take zones, located in the northwest region of Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. Fishery management or regulations are lacking.<br/><br/>Seychelles<br/>Several marine protected areas are established in Seychelles, which covers over 220 km<sup>2</sup>, however enforcement and regulations within them are suggested to be very weak (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Occurrence of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> within these areas is unknown. Fisheries operating in Seychelles, both artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries, are regulated by licensing system and mesh-size limit, and compliance to these regulations is maintained through regular patrols (Seychelles Fishing Authority 2008). <br/><br/>Comoros<br/>One marine protected area is found in Comoros (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002), within which no-take areas are set up (Granek and Brown 2005). Co-management between government and local villages is adopted to regulate fisheries within the area. (Granek and Brown 2005). The occurrence of this species within the marine protected areas needs further investigation. Fishery management and regulation are not known. <br/><br/>Kenya<br/>Fishery management and regulation are not known. Several marine protected areas are established and fishing activities are regulated (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001, McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the occurrence of this species within the marine protected areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>South Africa<br/>About 20 marine protected areas are established which encompass various habitat types and offer various level of protection to fish through zoning (e.g. no-take zone, controlled fishing zone) (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 2008, SouthAfrica.info 2008). These protected areas represent about 18% of coastline in South Africa (WWF 2004). Although <em>C. oxycephalus</em> has not been reported from recent ichthyofaunal surveys in some of these marine protected areas (Wood <em>et al.</em> 2000, Mann <em>et al.</em> 2006), the relatively large area of coastline and the representation of various habitat types within this marine protected area network is likely to encompasses locations utilized by <em>C. oxycephalus</em> in South Africa. <br/><br/>Western Pacific Islands<br/>There is no known fishery management on this species in Fiji, Tonga or Samoa. One and nine marine protected areas are established in Fiji and Tonga respectively (WWF 2006, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2007a). While in Samoa, two marine protected areas, covering 140 and 100 km<sup>2</sup>, are established and are co-managed between villagers and the government (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2007b, Conservation International 2008). The distribution of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> among Western Pacific Islands implies that the newly established Phoenix Island Protected Area in Kiribati, which is currently the largest marine protected area in the world, may provide protection to this species (Phoenix Island Protected Area 2007). However, occurrence data of this species within these marine protected areas are lacking.<br/><br/>Palau<br/>There are seasonal ban, gear restriction on fishing and a licensing system for aquarium fish collection, but there is no specific management on this species (Secretariat of the Pacific Community and Bureau of Marine Resources 2007). Several marine protected areas are in place but the occurrence of this species within these areas is unknown (Golbuu 2005). <br/><br/>Papua New Guinea<br/>There is no information on fishery management. The Kimbe Bay marine protected area may provide protection to this species (The Nature Conservancy 2008) but further investigation is needed.<br/><br/>Australia<br/>Western Australia<br/>Several marine parks and reserves, which have various level of fishing or no fishing, are established within Western Australia (Department of Environment and Conservation 2008). However the occurrence of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> within these marine parks and reserves is unknown. <br/>For fishery management, a bag limit of two labrids applies to recreational fishery in Pilbara/Kimberley region (Department of Fisheries 2008). However there is no specific management for the commercial fishery.<br/><br/>Northern Territory<br/>There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in either commercial or recreational fishery. Marine parks are in place (Northern Territory Government 2007). However the occurrence of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> within these marine parks and reserves is unknown.  <br/><br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland including the well-know Great Barrier Reef. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 250 mm TL and a bag limit of 5 fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>This species is collected as part of the international aquarium fish trade in Queensland. Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). There is no specific management or regulation on <em>C. oxycephalus</em>. <br/><br/>New Caledonia<br/>Marine reserves are established within the natural range of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997) These reserves cover reef habitat which are suitable to <em>C. oxycephalus</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994). Though this species has not been recorded within these reserves, it is very likely that these no-take areas can provide protection to this <em>C. oxycephalus</em>. Regulation on either commercial or recreational fishing is lacking.<br/><br/>Maldives<br/>There are management measures for shark and tuna fisheries, also a licensing system within some areas, however management measure is lacking for many other reef fisheries except for the export bans on rare species (Adam 2006). Marine protected areas are established, fishing is prohibited except for the traditional live bait fishing (Ministry of Hone Affairs, Housing and Environment 2003).<br/><br/>Mainland China<br/>There is very limited information about the fisheries in Mainland China. There are seasonal protected area, mesh size limit in some fisheries, however enforcement is suggested to be weak (Chen 1999).<br/><br/>Japan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Japan. About 60 marine parks (with no-fishing areas and buffer zones) are established in Japan (UNEP-WCMC 2008) but occurrence data of this species within these areas need further investigation.<br/><br/>Taiwan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Taiwan. <em>C. oxycephalus</em> occurs within the Kenting National Park (Shao 2005). Its recorded occurrence in Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, offer protection to this species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>Philippines<br/>There is no fishery management or regulation specific for the fin-fish fishery. There are over 400 marine protected areas, within which no-take zone, regulated fishing zones are established (Haribon Foundation 2002). And these areas may allow the build-up of reef fishes (Russ and Alcala 1998). This species may occur within these areas but further investigation is needed.<br/><br/>Vietnam<br/>Fishermen have to be licensed and there are certain gear size and type restrictions, and seasonal closures but no specific fishery management for reef fisheries, however enforcement of these regulations are suggested to be weak (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007a). There are marine protected areas in Vietnam but information on enforcement is not available. <br/><br/>India<br/>Fishery management seems lacking. There are about 30 marine protected areas in India encompassing various habitat types, however details of the enforcement and occurrence of species is lacking (Singh 2003)<br/><br/>Indonesia<br/>There are licensing system, gear type restrictions, limited entry and total allowable catches for artisanal and coastal fisheries (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007b). Commercial fisheries such as the purse seine fisheries are not formally managed (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007b). There are marine protected areas in Indonesia but the occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation.
187649		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, it is found from East Africa to the Marquesas, Society islands and Tuamoto, north to Taiwan, south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and the Austral Islands.
187649		habitat	eng	A secretive species which inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs from 1 to over 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994), and stays close to shelter (Allen 2000).<br/><br/>Pairing-up of adults are reported (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), except for this, not much is known on its reproductive biology or ecology.<br/><br/>The maximum body size is nornally between 14 and 17cm, but there is one record of 35 cm TL (Michel Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187649		population	eng	This species is common in at least some parts of its range.<br><br>In Fiji, a total of 15 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 153 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-35 cm TL. In nine stations, a total of 32 individuals were caught with total body weight of 428 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In French Polynesia, a total of 185 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187649		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is occasionally caught in the aquarium trade, but given its small size it is not often targeted for food.
187650		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
187650		distribution	eng	This species occurs in warm temperate waters of eastern Australia from southeastern Queensland to southeastern Tasmania and New Zealand around the North Island and the northern tip of the South Island at about 150 m. It has also been sighted by divers at the Poor Knights Islands in depths below 30 m (Doak 1972). It is collected to depths of 150 m (Gomon 2006).
187650		habitat	eng	A large species, reaches about 368 mm SL. It has been collected at depths of 30-150 m. Francis (1988) indicated that it is found in caves and archways on reefs.
187650		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187650		threats	eng	This species is caught in trawl fisheries.
187651		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187651		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Mediterranean (a Lessepian migrant from the Red Sea) (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), from Turkey, Greece and Cyprus (Kaya <em>et al.</em> 2000, Taskavak <em>et al.</em> 2000, Corsini and Economidis 1999, Golani and Sonin 1992, Randall 1981). Its native range is in the western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea and the eastern coast of Africa southwards to Durban, South Africa, and around Madagascar and adjacent Indian Ocean Islands.
187651		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seagrass beds at depths from 0.5-28 m (Randall 1981).
187651		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is likely common in some parts of its range.
187651		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187652		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species is found in marine reserves in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, USA (Grorud-Colvert 2006), Hol Chan Marine Reserve, Belize (National Parks of Belize), Barbados Marine Reserve, Barbados (Cheney and Côté 2003), Barbados Marine Park (Rakitin and Kramer 1996) and Bonaire Marine Park, Bonaire (Pattengill-Semmens undated). It is worth noting that Barbados Marine Park does not imply as a no-take zone, baited fishing and trawling are still allowed within the areas and currently two non-fishing zones are being proposed (STINAPA Bonaire 2007).<br/><br/>While many marine parks have already been introduced in areas within the geographic range of <em>T. bifasciatum</em>, it is worth noting that the degree of protection within marine reserve varies according to the effectiveness of management. Currently, there is little information on the effectiveness of those marine parks, therefore, more information is necessary to establish its conservation status.
187652		distribution	eng	This species is common in the tropical waters of the western central Atlantic Ocean, and is found in Bermuda, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea to Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago.
187652		habitat	eng	This species is one of the best-studied protogynous hermaphrodites (Warner and Swearer 1991, Schärer and Vizoso 2003, Munday <em>et al.</em> 2006). It occurs in tropical waters and associates with coral reefs to depths of at least 40 m, and is also known to inhabit inshore bays and seagrass beds. Tagging studies showed that adults do not leave the reef upon which they have settled (Warner and Hoffman 1980). <br/><br/>Individuals feed primarily on zooplankton and small benthic crustaceans (Warner and Hoffman 1980), including echinoderms (sea stars, brittle stars), molluscs and polychaetes, in addition, diet consists of ectoparasites found on other fishes (Deloach 1999). <br/><br/>This species occurs in two major colour phases, initial phase individuals can be either males or females. The common terminal phase individuals are males and tend to be the largest individuals in any local population (Warner and Robertson 1978). Large females are able to change sex into secondary males (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975). Sex change and the transition to terminal phase coloration are reported to be controlled by local social conditions (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs on a daily basis throughout the year (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975, Warner and Robertson 1978, Warner and Hoffman 1980, Fitch and Shapiro 1990), for about an hour in mid afternoon. Fertilization is external and there is no parental care of the pelagic zygotes (Warner and Hoffman 1980, Warner 1984). Randall and Randall (1963), however, noted that reproduction seemed to occur mostly within a period of a few days during the full moon and to a lesser extent, new moon. During the mating period, the majority of males are located at the down-current end of the reef, where they attempt to mate with the arriving females. <em>T. bifasciatum</em> is noted as resident spawning aggregation which is aggregated by locally abundant populations from the same reef (Domeier and Colin 1997). Seasonal recruitment was found in Barbados, West Indies and spawning was found to occur primarily between January and August (Herbing and Hunte 1991). <br/><br/>The largest terminal phase males aggressively defend breeding sites and therefore gain exclusive access to females visiting the site, conversely, initial phase females or males have no territorial defense and are much less aggressive (Warner 1984). The mean home range of adults is approximately eight m<sup>2</sup> at Tague Bay, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Island, while for juveniles it was less than two m<sup>2</sup> (Jones 2005). The home range area was positively correlated with the fish total length<br/><br/>It has been found that the predators of this species include Aulostomus maculates, Epinephelus guttatus, Myceteropera venenosa and Rypticus saponaceus. Length at sex change has been reported at 8.3 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003) and individual fish mature at 3.5 cm SL, size approximately 30 % of the maximum size (Warner 1998). Evidence showed that the final body sizes might have a strong influence on maturity sizes (Robertson 1972, Warner and Swearer 1991). Minimum population doubling time is less than 15 months (Froese and Pauly 2008) and maximum lifespan is estimated to be three years for individuals reaching the terminal phase (Warner 1998). <br/><br/>Eggs hatch at 1.4 mm (Cato and Brown 2003). Larvae are approximately 12 mm in length and the pelagic larval duration  has been found to be 38 to 54 days (Philibotte 2002).
187652		population	eng	This species is common throughout the northwest Atlantic (Warner 1984) and Caribbean coral reefs (Herbing and Hunte 1991, Warner and Schultz 1992). It is one of the most abundant species throughout the West Indies (Florida Museum of Natural History-Ichthyology Department).<br/><br/>Through a series of underwater visual surveys, 1,334 individuals and 2,335 individuals were observed in La Parguera Region, Puerto Rico and Rincón Region, Puerto Rico, respectively, and this species has been observed to be one of the most abundant reef fish species in both regions (Richard <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Virgin Islands (USA), fish density has been reported at 3.4 individuals m<sup>2</sup> and over 10,000 individuals have been observed at any one time at the aggregation (Warner 1995). It is one of the most frequently sighted species in Bonaire reefs, Netherlands Antilles (Pattengill-Semmens undated), and 5,087 individuals were observed in Barbados Marine Reserve, Barbados between August and December, in 1992 (Rakitin and Kramer 1996). <br/><br/>In addition, it is known that population varies according to the size of reefs, with about 200 individuals living on a small reef (under 600 m<sup>2</sup>) and up to 10,000 individuals on some of the larger reefs (over 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) (Warner 1984).
187652		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is closely associated with coral reefs and shows high site fidelity. Adults remain on their home reefs, with no emigration or immigration after settlement (Warner and Hoffman 1980). <br/><br/>Habitat destruction may pose a local threat to this species.
187653		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas found in its distribution.
187653		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187653		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Gulf of Gascogne (i.e. Bay of Biscay, north-western Spain) to Gibraltar and northern Morocco. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the western and northern Black Sea.
187653		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Gulf of Gascogne (northwestern Spain) to Gibraltar and northern Morocco. This species is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the western and northern Black Sea.
187653		habitat	eng	This species is found near rocks and in seagrass beds. It is mainly solitary (Quignard and Pras 1986). The seaweed nest is built by the male (Quignard and Pras 1986). It feeds on molluscs, bivalves, gastropods, shrimps, sea-urchins, and hydroids (Quignard and Pras 1986).
187653		habitat	eng	This species is found near rocks and in seagrass beds, where it is mainly solitary (Quignard and Pras 1986). It feeds on molluscs, shrimps, sea-urchins and hydroids (Quignard and Pras 1986). <br/><br/>Spawning takes place in spring, when a seaweed nest is constructed and guarded by the male, in which several females may lays their eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187653		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in the Mediterranean Sea.
187653		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.<br/><br/>It may be sold when caught in local artisinal fisheries.
187653		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though it may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries.
187654		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species probably occurs in marine protected areas within its distribution. The regulation of spearfishing of this species is recommended.<br/><br/>Further research should also be conducted to determine the population trends of this species in the western Mediterranean Sea and elsewhere in its range.
187654		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The regulation of spearfishing of this species is recommended. Further research should also be conducted to determine the population trends of this species in the western Mediterranean Sea and elsewhere in its range.
187654		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to northern Morocco. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present throughout most of the area, including Cyprus (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), although it has not been recorded from Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Lebanon or Syria (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). This species is also found in the western Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187654		habitat	eng	This species is found in seagrass beds and around rocky reefs, particularly algal-covered rocks. It is generally solitary or found living in pairs, but it may also be found living in small groups (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on crustaceans and small fishes (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>It displays very distinct sexual dimorphism, and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The adhesive demersal eggs are laid in vegetated habitats (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187654		habitat	eng	This species is found in seagrass beds and around rocky reefs, particularly algal-covered rocks. It is generally solitary or found living in pairs, but it may also be found living in small groups (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on crustaceans and small fishes. It displays very distinct sexual dimorphism, and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The adhesive demersal eggs are laid in vegetated habitats (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species is similar in demography with <em>Notolbarus fucicola</em> which has a generation length of about 7.5 years based on age at fist maturity of 2.5 years in southern New Zealand (H. Choat and D. Pollard  pers comm. 2009). Generation length for this species is estimated to be approximately 8.5 years based on a longevity of 20 years and age of first maturity of three years.
187654		population	eng	This is a widespread but now relatively uncommon species. In the north-western part of the Mediterranean Sea the population is continuing to decline, and the situation in the rest of the area is unknown (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007). Declines in the numbers of large specimens have occurred due to spearfishing in Italy (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007), and most likely also in France and Spain. Over the past 25 years, the population decline in France has been around 80%, and in Tunisia around 50% (D. Pollard pers comm. 2007).  However, although this species may still be commonly found in the western Mediterranean Sea, it is not known whether similar declines may have also occurred in other parts of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2007). <br/><br/>Overall population declines are inferred to be in the range of 30-50% over the past 25 years in the northwestern Mediterranean and is predicted to continue into the future and in the remaining parts of the range.
187654		population	eng	This is a widespread but now relatively uncommon species. In the northwestern part of the Mediterranean Sea the population is continuing to decline, and the situation in the rest of the area is unknown (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Declines in the numbers of large specimens have occurred over the past 10 to 20 years due to spearfishing in Italy (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008), and most likely also in France and Spain. The population decline in France has been around 80%, and in Tunisia around 50% (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). However, although this species may now be less commonly found in the western Mediterranean Sea, it is not known whether similar declines may have also occurred in other parts of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Based on overall declines of 50-80% in at least a third of its range in the western Mediterranean, overall population declines since at least the 1990s are inferred to be more than 30% and are predicted to continue into the future and in the eastern portion of its range.
187654		threats	eng	Catches in local artisanal fisheries occur in Italy and Tunisia. Spearfishing in the north-western Mediterranean Sea is also a major threat, and there are some concerns about the spread of this sport through the whole Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>Habitat degradation, and more specifically seagrass bed reduction, is also a threat to this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187654		threats	eng	This species is caught in local artisanal fisheries in Italy and Tunisia. Spearfishing in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea is also a major threat, and there are some concerns about the spread of this sport throughout the whole Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>Habitat degradation, and more specifically seagrass bed reduction, is also a threat to this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187655		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187655		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Japan, south through Indonesia, and eastwards to Guam.
187655		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the upper part of sand and mud banks, usually on the flat areas, just before sloping down in depths from seven m down to about 15 m. <br/><br/>It is found in spread out groups, often with <em>X. pentadactylus</em> in the same general area, but this species grows much larger and dominates. The biggest males swim over large areas and move away quickly when approached by divers rather than diving into the bottom (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
187655		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187655		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187656		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187656		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippines, Sabah (Malaysia), and northeastern Kalimantan (Indonesia).
187656		habitat	eng	This species is found in sheltered reefs with rich coral and algae mix along upper parts of slopes, and over rubble. It often occurs in small groups of mixed sexes, but females outnumber males (Kuiter 2002). The depth ranges from 10 to 40 m (Kuiter 2002).
187656		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species. This species is rare in the Philippines.
187656		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187657		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187657		distribution	eng	This species is found from Mauritius to Madagascar and Christmas Island, Australia.
187657		habitat	eng	This is a small species and is found in depths from 8-120 m (Randall 2007).
187657		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There are very few specimens of this species.
187657		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is caught in artisanal fisheries as bycatch.
187658		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187658		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from the Red Sea to South Africa, to Japan in the north and Australia to the west, and east to the Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands in the south (Parenti and Randall 2000). It is recorded in Seychelles, Pemba (Tanzania) and Aldabra Attoll. It is also recorded from Kimbe bay (Papua New Guine) (Hubble 2003), Solomon Islands (Allen 2006), Guadalcanal (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 1991), Shark Reef, Beqa Lagoon, (Fiji) and Kingdom of Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Indian Ocean, it is recorded in Mozambique (Pereira 2000), Reunion Island (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004) and the Jordanian Red Sea (Khalaf and Kchhzius 2002).
187658		habitat	eng	This species is commonly associated to rubble with turf (Hubble 2003). It was observed at Kuroshima (Japan) along the outer reef edge in depths of about 10 to 40 m, and usually solitary, being occasionally seen in groups of two or three individuals (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). It is rare in less than 20 m (Myers 1991). The depth range recorded in Fiji was from 3 to 30 m (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006).<br/><br/>Females are similar to males in color pattern, but are generally less intensely hued (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). This species is supposed to reproduce during summer (June to August) at Miyakejima (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). It is generally solitary and feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is known to show red fluorescence, in which the red fluorescent pigment is associated with bony scales and fin rays (Michiels <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187658		population	eng	For the Solomon Islands Marine Assessment (Allen 2006) it was considered moderately common, especially on outer reefs at depths from 6-40m. It is also common at Miyakejima (Izu Islands), found along eroded lava flows and rocky reefs in depths greater than 15m (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). Shepard and Okamoto (1977) also reported that although the holotype was found in a “deep tidal-pool in lava rocks”, Snyder (1904), reported specimens taken by the steamer “Albatross” about the Hawaiian islands from depths ranging between 50 and 140m.
187658		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187659		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187659		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia).
187659		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs at depths of one to at least 40 m.  It reaches a maximum size of at least 16.7 cm.  As with many other Labrids, this species is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite, but no primary literature could be found to confirm this speculation.  It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187659		population	eng	There is no population trend information currently available for this species.
187659		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187660		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species occurs in MPAs in parts of its range (Pati Point, Piti Bomb Holes and Sasa Bay Marine Preserves, Haputo, Horote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area and Guam Territorial Seashore Park and National Wildlife Refuge).
187660		distribution	eng	This species is found from Guam to Saipan (Myers and Donaldson 1996) and the outer margin of Okinawa Trough, Japan (Parenti and Randall 2000). It is not found in Taiwan (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187660		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths to about 100 m (Parenti and Randall 2000). It is most likely found in sandy bottom habitats.
187660		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187660		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is likely to be picked up in trawl fisheries.
187661		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187661		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the coast of India, Sri Lanka, and the Andaman Sea. Records for the Maldive Islands are questionable. Gomon (2006) cites Burgess and Axelrod (1973) for the Maldives record (misidentified as <em>B. luteopunctatus</em>), however Randall and Anderson (1993) point out that the species in the aquarium photograph were taken in Sri Lanka and not in the Maldives (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187661		habitat	eng	A moderately small species, to about 170 mm SL. It inhabits shallow coastal reefs and turbid lagoon reefs at depths of 5-18 m.
187661		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187661		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187662		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187662		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout New Zealand, including Stewart I. but not recorded at Snares Is., Auckland Is. Or Three Kings Is. (Francis 1996).
187662		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 240 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. Hybrid specimens of this species and <em>N. fucicola</em> have been reported (Ayling 1980). It is abundant on rocky reefs and estuaries. It occurs mainly in shallow water but recorded to depths of about 145m (Graham 1938). <br/><br/>Food items consists of small bivalve molluscs, grapsid crabs and hermit crabs (Russell 1983, 1988). It uses its forward-jutting front teeth to rake food from the substrate (Russell 1983).<br/><br/>It is monandric and sexual maturity is reached at about 100-110 mm SL, with sex/colour reversal occurring at about 150-170 mm SL (Jones 1980). This species is a pelagic spawner (Jones 1980), spawning occurs from late July until the end of October (Doak 1972, Jones 1980).
187662		population	eng	This species is the most abundant and ubiquitous wrasse in New Zealand waters. The population is stable.
187662		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187663		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, its distribution overlaps several Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
187663		distribution	eng	In the north-western Pacific, this species is found in southern Japan (including the Ogasawara Islands), Izu Islands, Taiwan and the Philippines.
187663		habitat	eng	This sub-tropical species inhabits shallow inshore coastal waters around algal-covered rocks and reefs, deeper rocky reefs, and possibly also coral reefs. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates. This species may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187663		population	eng	There is little information available on the status of populations of this species. This species is possibly uncommon in Japan (M. Craig pers. comm. 2009).
187663		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in some coastal fisheries.
187664		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps some marine protected areas.
187664		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the western Indian Ocean from Oman and the southern Red Sea to South Africa  and east to Sri Lanka. It is also found in Madagascar, Reunion and Mauritius.
187664		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths from 2 to 30 m. It maintains harems with a dominant male and several smaller females and is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite, but primarily literature to confirm this could not be found. This species feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187664		population	eng	There is no explicit data available on population trends. This is an uncommon species (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).
187664		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken in the aquarium trade, but this is not considered to be a major threat.
187665		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187665		distribution	eng	This species is known in Australia only from northern New South Wales, Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, Northeastern New Zealand, Cape Reinga to East Cape and the Kermadec Islands (Francis 1996).
187665		habitat	eng	A large species, to about 325 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. Hybrid specimens of this species and <em>N. fucicola</em>in northeastern New Zealand have been reported (Ayling 1980, Russell 1988). It inhabits shallow rocky reefs to about 17 m depth, it is frequently associated with kelp (Ecklonia) beds. It feeds on small molluscs and crustaceans (Russell 1983).
187665		population	eng	This species is abundant at the Kermadec Islands, Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island but apparently rare at other locations. It is found mainly around offshore islands and coastal headlands (Francis 2001).
187665		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187666		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in marine reserves in parts of its distribution (i.e. Saline L`Hermitage, Saint-Leu, L’Etang, Saint Pierre Fishing Reserve, Cap La Houssaye Marine Park (Reunión), Port Loius, Riviere du Rampart, Trou d’Eau Douce Fir, Flavq, Grand Port, Black River Fishing Reserve, Coin de Mire, île aux Cocos, île aux Sables  Nature Reserve, Blue Bay Marine Park (Mauritius).
187666		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Reunion, Mauritius and eastern Madagascar.
187666		habitat	eng	This species occurs in reefs  from 15-37 m. It most likely lives in coral reef and fringing habitat.
187666		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187666		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187667		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187667		distribution	eng	This species is known in the Western Indian Ocean from northern Natal in South Africa, Mauritius and Réunion and Madagascar. Records from Rodriguez need to be verified.
187667		habitat	eng	This species is poorly documented. Like other species of Macropharyngodon, it likely inhabits sand and rubble patches on coral reefs in shallow waters.
187667		population	eng	There is no explicit information available on population trends fro this species. It is thought to be rare in Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2003), and uncommon in other parts of the range.
187667		threats	eng	There are are no major threats known for this species.
187668		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.
187668		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Marshall Islands, including Kwjalein Atoll and Bigej-Meck Reef.
187668		habitat	eng	This species is found over dense algal beds of deep lagoons to depths of 28 m, feeding on zooplankton 1-2 m above the bottom.
187668		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered abundant over soft-bottoms covered in algae.
187668		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Given its small size, it is not likely targeted for food.
187669		conservation	eng	This species distribution overlaps two important protected areas, Fernando de Noronha National Park and Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve. Brazilian national Law (IN 202, 2008) bans collection of oceanic island endemic fish for aquarium trade, so it is protected from harvesting.
187669		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northeastern Brazil. It was recorded from Parcel Manoel Luis Reefs (Rocha and Rosa 2001), Atol das Rocas (Rosa and Moura 1995), Fernando de Noronha (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been observed in the Parcel Manuel Luis (MA) (B. Ferreira pers. comm. 2008 as pers. comm. from Luiz Rocha) and in the coast of Rio Grande do norte state (B. Ferreira pers. comm. 2008 as pers. comm. from C. Sampaio)  between depths of  30-35 m.  Rodrigo Leão has collected an specimen in Ceara state (MZUSP).
187669		habitat	eng	This species is known from Brazilian offshore islands, where coral-algal reefs are the main coastal habitats, and deep reefs (42 m) at the States of Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte (Sampaio <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>It was observed to form groups of up to 30-40 individuals (Lubbock and Edwards 1981). Razorfishes spawn only in pairs (Clark 1983, Thresher 1984, Victor 1987) daily, during a late afternoon spawning period, all year-round (Clark Shen and Scarr pers. obs.)
187669		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. In Atol das Rocas, it was only observed but not recorded during belt transect census (Rosa and Moura 1995) probably due to its area of occurrence (sand bottom).
187669		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade but only rarely.
187670		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It is present in conservation areas throughout the Caribbean, USA and Brazil.
187670		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bermuda and southern Florida (USA) to Brazil (including Fernando do Noronha and Trinidade Islands) (Bertoncini pers. comm. 2009), and throughout the Caribbean Sea.
187670		habitat	eng	This species is most common in shallow, sandy areas in and around seagrass beds and coral reefs to depths of 15 m. It prefers clear waters over sand and rubble bottoms adjacent to reefs.<br/><br/>Species of <em>Xyrichtys</em> are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).
187670		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, and can be abundant in sand bottoms adjacent to reefs.
187670		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187671		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187671		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southeast Pacific and is known only from Islas Juan Fernandez and Isla San Felix, Chile.
187671		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 103 mm SL. It inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water.
187671		population	eng	This species is common over its range of distribution.
187671		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187672		conservation	eng	There is little conservation action that targets the Spanish Hogfish specifically in its distribution, nor are there any limits to domestic or international trading. An exception is Florida (USA), where <em>B.rufus</em> is subject to a minimum and maximum size restriction of two inches and eight inches, aside from bag limits and permitting requirements. In addition, there is a limit of fifty animals per person per day, and a maximum possession limit of 100 of either at any time aboard a vessel with two or more persons licensed as required (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring is required to establish population trends. Research is also needed to establish areas of occupancy. It is highly recommended that density sampling performed at a large enough scale (sampling more area to obtain sound abundance-area relationships) and be conducted proportionally at all parts of the distribution.
187672		distribution	eng	This species occurs in tropical shallow waters of the western Atlantic from Bermuda and southern Florida (USA) to the state of Sao Paulo in southern Brazil (Gomon 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 26,970 km<sup>2</sup> based on area of coral reefs in the Caribbean and the east coast of Brazil, which is highly likely to be an overestimation due to the patchiness of the Spanish Hogfish’s distribution.<br/><br/>There is one doubtful record of <em>B. rufus</em> in St. Helena (Central South Atlantic) dating back to 1965 (Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences accessed 2008), probably based on a misidentification.<br/><br/>Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 26,960 km<sup>2</sup> based on the area of coral reefs in the western Atlantic region (25,960 km<sup>2</sup> in the Carribean (Burke and Maiden 2004), and 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Southern Atlantic (Spalding and Grenfel 1997). This is based on the assumption that the species is present on all reefs in the Caribbean and the east coast of Brazil, it is highly likely to be an overestimation since distribution of local population density is uneven and not all areas may be habited.
187672		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 300 mm SL.  <em>Bodianus rufus</em> is commonly found near coral cover, but also occurs on rock reefs, algal covered reefs and seagrass meadows (Gardiner and Harborne 2000). Demersal, lives in close association with the reef substratum (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2004) and inhabits inshore, midshore and offshore areas (Ferro 2005), usually at depths of 1-6m, but sometimes as deep as 30m (Gomon 2006). Diurnal (Reebs 2002) and relatively sedentary (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Juveniles displayed a certain amount of habitat specificity during a regional study in Panama, and were found exclusively around large coral heads (such as Monastrea cavernosa) located at the offshore end of coral structure (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). Juvenile density is suggested to have a positive relationship with mean depth and the percentage of algal turf cover (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). However, this is only verified in one study. <em>Bodianus rufus</em> is able to delay metamorphosis but usually settle at relatively smaller sizes (8-10mm SL) during the minimum amplitude tides of the third-quarter moon and second minimum amplitude tide, which may be linked to currents as they are weak swimmers (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). Unlike most labrids, <em>B. rufus</em> settles directly to the reef, without burrowing in the sand. Larval duration is around 42 days (Victor 1986) and metamorphosis is gradual and occurs while these fishes remain above the substrate (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). <br/><br/>Adults are mobile invertebrate feeders that predominately prey on mollusks, as well as brittle stars, crustaceans and sea urchins (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bardach 2002, Randall 1967). Juveniles actively pick parasites from larger fishes and are facultative cleaners (Johnson and Ruben 1988). The fish is infrequently the prey of the Bottlenose dolphin in Florida Bay (Torres 2007). <br/><br/>The species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with a dominant male guarding a permanent territory of several females (Hoffman 1983). The number of females varies throughout the distribution, ranging from 3-12 (Hoffman 1985) or up to 20 in some cases (Rocha 2000). The male will go around the territory to pair spawn with each female. Breeding cycle is acyclic, usually occurring at dusk, and mating takes place all year (Hoffman 1985). It may hybridize with spotfin hogfish, <em>B. pulchellus</em>.
187672		population	eng	No population estimates exist for Spanish Hogfishes, but an approximate estimate may be derived under very loose assumptions based on the number of individuals as the product of density, distribution area and sighting frequency (as an indication of the probability of occupancy at an area). <br/> N= Density*Distribution area*SF% <br/><br/>Assumptions: <br/>1. The average density of the animal is around 0.025/100 m<sup>2</sup>. Three estimates of density are available in the relevant literature, although of which two are from a single locality at one time (2.8 /100 m<sup>2</sup>, Pattengill-Semmens 2000, 0.5/100 m<sup>2</sup>, Brosnan et al 2002 and 0.025/100 m<sup>2</sup>, Opitz 1996). The 0.025/100 m<sup>2</sup> density was chosen since it applies to the Caribbean locality, which constitutes the majority of the distribution. However, as the estimates clearly indicate, density distribution is extremely patchy and the average density across the entire distribution could be vastly different.<br/><br/>2. The fish is commonly and almost exclusively associated which coral reef habitats across its distribution (Gomon 2006). Therefore the total area of coral reef is taken as habitat range, which totals 26,960 km<sup>2</sup> for the Caribbean and the Atlantic Brazilian coast.<br/><br/>3. The species occurs in low densities, and abundance is extremely patchy. Therefore sighting frequency for a particular site will be treated as probability of occurrence in a site. In this case, SF% is around 57% as average of respective SF% in different areas averaged over the known record (REEF, accessed May 4th, 2008).<br/>Upon such assumptions, the estimated total number Spanish Hogfish is ~3,841,800 individuals. Confidence limits cannot be stated but the estimate is clearly based on very loose assumptions. In order to better grasp the overall picture of population trends, density needs to be systematically sampled for larger areas to eliminate variations between sites. More study is needed research into variability in habitat use at different sites in order to make the estimate of total population size more rigorous.<br/><br/>Aquarium trade export data for Brazil for 2007 are 3,177 individuals (IBAMA 2007).
187672		threats	eng	There are no major threats.<br/><br/>Exploitation and habitat degradation are probably the biggest potential threats to the Spanish Hogfish, both of which are extensive and continuing throughout its distribution. However, the lack of investigation prevents any substantial analysis of the responses to the present level of threats.<br/><br/>In terms of exploitation, which mainly occurs for the aquarium trade, it is estimated from GMAD data that labrids account for 6-7% of the global trade of fish (Wabnitz et al 2003). In the largest single trading country of <em>B.rufus</em>, Brazil (Wood 2001), the fish is under high pressure of the aquarium trade (Gasparini <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, databases (e.g. GMAD) as well as official figures represent underestimations of the total number of captured specimens (Gasparini <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, it is unknown how the pressures of exploitation are distributed in different parts of the entire distribution. <br/><br/>Even less clear is whether or how habitat degradation is affecting <em>B.rufus</em>. However, as two thirds of Caribbean reefs are under medium to high threat (Burke and Maiden 2004), the animals will be hard-pressed to find a spatial escape, should there be any detrimental impact. The degradation of reef habitats is largely anthropogenic in source, and most severe near major urban centers, where discharge of storm water and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation for reefs (Burke and Maiden 2004). However, there is little information on how <em>B.rufus</em> utilizes the reef habitat or how sensitive it is to habitat loss of degradation.
187673		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187673		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific, from the Red Sea south to Sodwana Bay, South Africa and east to the Line, Marquesan and Tuamoto islands, north to southern Japan, and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef.
187673		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated from 1-30 m. It inhabits sand patches of lagoon and outer seaward reefs to at least 30 m (Myers 1991). It is also found on slopes to moderate depths along drop-offs (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  <br/><br/>Juveniles are common at the bottom of surge channels (Lieske and Myers 1994).  It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey, including mollusks, crustaceans and sea urchins (Westneat 2001).
187673		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in many parts of its range.
187673		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187674		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. More species-specific information on population trends and harvest levels is needed.
187674		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, and is found from Cocos-Keeling Island in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Pitcairn and Ducie islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Rowley Shoals in northwestern Australia.
187674		habitat	eng	This is species is reef-associated and is usually found solitary in coral rich areas of clear lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of 161 m. Juveniles are associated with soft corals and hydrozoans. It feeds mainly on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans (Westneat 2001). It may be ciguatoxic (Myers 1999).
187674		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 52 individuals were recorded in several UVC surveys with a size of 6-28cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In French Polynesia, a total of 16 individuals were recorded in several UVC surveys with a size of 8-22cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187674		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally caught in minor fisheries and is collected for the aquarium trade.
187675		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187675		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Solomon Islands to Samoa Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Loyalty Islands in New Caledonia, Tonga and Great Barrier Reef, Elizabeth and Middelton Reefs and Lord Howe Island, Australia.
187675		habitat	eng	This species is a small, coral feeding wrasse (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2008)  associated with rich coral growth areas in lagoons, reef  passes and slopes.
187675		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187675		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Due to its reliance on corals, it may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, this is considered to be a localized threat.
187676		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187676		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Maldives.
187676		habitat	eng	This species is known only from a juvenile captured specimen: The specimen was reared from May 3, 1985 to July 22, 1986 in an aquarium at the Musée de Zoologie de l'Université de la Ville de Nancy (Randall and Conde 1989).
187676		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from the type specimen.
187676		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187677		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The Marine Aquarium Council also sets standards and certification for species collected for the aquarium trade. In Australia, there are regulations in place for the trade of this species.
187677		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific, from the Ryuku Islands, southern Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984) south to the Great Barrier Reef in the east and the Kimberlys in the west of Australia (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) and east to Samoa (Wass 1984) and Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). Western limits are most likely eastern Java, Indonesia. It is replaced by <em>Halichoeres vrolikii</em> in the Indian Ocean (Myers 1999). It is also known from Thailand and Nha Trang, Vietnam (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187677		habitat	eng	This species is found mostly on shallow coral reefs and rocky shores (Westneat 2001). The duration of the larval stage was recorded at 22.1 (SD 1.6) days, range: 20-24 m (Victor 1986). It feeds on small invertebrates such as polychaetes, copepods, isopods and forams (Myers 1991).
187677		population	eng	This species is uncommon (found at only five out of 19 sites) in Banda Flores, Indonesia (Mous 2002).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 0.8 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187677		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there are human impacts on coral reefs in parts of its distribution (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187678		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (although it is possibly too deep). <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures should include regulation of human activites in areas of coralligenous habitat and inclusion of these areas in Marine Protected Areas.
187678		distribution	eng	This species is native to the western, northern and central Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic (Quignard and Pras 1986, Dulcic <em>et al.</em> 2006), where it is found in Spain, France, Italy, the eastern Adriatic and North Africa, within the Macaronesian North Atlantic islands it is found at Azores (F. Tempera and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008) and Madeira (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187678		habitat	eng	This species lives in benthic coralligenous habitat. It is also found in deep rocky areas, inhabiting overhangs, the entrances to caves and rocky cliffs (Sartoretto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It feeds on crabs, gastropods and polychaete worms (Quignard and Pras 1986).
187678		population	eng	This species is naturally rare. Few specimens are caught in the Mediterranean Sea as the habitat where it lives is not trawled (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187678		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a threat to this species in the shallower areas of its range. Siltation and water eutrophication are the leading causes of habitat degradation in this region, and boat anchoring can also cause habitat degradation in shallower areas (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Threats can also result from the use of bottom gear over coralingenous habitats in the Azores, but this is currently not assessed (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187679		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187679		distribution	eng	In the south-western Pacific, this species is found along the mainland coastline of south-eastern Australia (southern Queensland, New South Wales and occasionally to northern Victoria), in northern New Zealand (including the Kermadec Islands), and around some islands and reefs in the southern Coral Sea (Chesterfield Reefs off New Caledonia) and the northern Tasman Sea (Lord Howe Island, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, and Norfolk Island).
187679		habitat	eng	This sub tropical to warm temperate species inhabits shallow inshore coastal waters around algal-covered rocks, deeper rocky reefs and inshore and insular coral habitats. It is also commonly found around jetties and wharves (Whitley 1980). Adults may form aggregations (Kuiter 2002). Specimens found in the Chesterfield Islands in New Caledonia were taken from 84m depth (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>It feeds on small benthic invertebrates (especially small crabs and shrimps), and the juveniles may clean other fishes (Grant 1987). It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.
187679		population	eng	Little information is available on the status of populations of this species, though it is very common off the coastline of New South Wales.
187679		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in recreational line fisheries.
187680		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures currently in place for M. geoffroy, however two thirds of its range is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a federally protected no-take reserve.
187680		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (USA).
187680		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow water in depths from 6 to 32 m.  It occurs in rubble patches as well as well developed coral reefs. It feed on micro-zoobenthos.
187680		population	eng	There is no explicit data on population trends available for this species, however casual observations indicate that the species is common throughout its range.
187680		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.
187681		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187681		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa (Randall 1986), and east to the Society Islands, the Line Islands and Hawaii (Randall et al 2006). In Australia it is found in Ningaloo Reef (22°00'S) , Rowley Shoals (17°20'S) and Scott Reef (14°03'S), WA, Ashmore Reef, Timor Sea (12°15'S) and Lizard Island (14°40'S) to Capricorn Group (23°30'S), QLD (AFD 2009).
187681		habitat	eng	This species reaches about 20.0 cm SL (Westneat 2001). It inhabits reef flats and shallow lagoons, in sandy, current-swept areas and sparse seagrass beds usually in shallow water to about six m (Lieske and Myers 1994) but may occur as deep as 27m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is capable of diving into the sand with the approach of danger. It is rarely caught by fishers or aquarium collectors (Westneat 2001).
187681		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187681		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187682		conservation	eng	There are no known sepcies specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution falls within the Ashmore National Nature Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Protected Area.
187682		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ashmore-Cartier Reefs (Hibernia Reef) off northwestern Australia.
187682		habitat	eng	This species is common over flat bottoms covered with dense Halimeda at depths of 23-35 m (Allen 1999).
187682		population	eng	This species can be common. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187682		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187683		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187683		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Gulf of Oman to Somalia and Kenya. It is also reliably reported from the coasts of Pakistan and western India (Manilo and Bogorodsky 2003).
187683		habitat	eng	A large species, to about 595 mm SL. It is reef associated and lives in areas with rocky bottoms. Specimens have been taken at depths of 3-65 m (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Juveniles have been observed in three m (Mee pers. comm. in Gomon 2006). It is sometimes found in macro-algae habitats (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
187683		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. In southern Oman it is relatively rare - one per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers. comm.2008).
187683		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187684		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187684		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to South Africa, east to Vanuatu, north to southern Japan (Kochi Prefectory),Taiwan, and south to central northwestern Australia (Burgess and Axelrod 1974, Yogo <em>et al.</em> 1986, Parenti and Randall 2000).
187684		habitat	eng	The species is found among algae patches (especially in mixed <em>Sargassum</em> and seagrasses), soft corals with mixed rubble or rocky reefs (Kuiter 2002). It is seen singly in weedy rocky areas. It sleeps below large rocks and macroalgae.<br/><br/>The maximum recorded sizes were 20.0 cm TL (male) and 15 cm TL (female) (Randall 1986), 27 cm (TL) (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1975).
187684		population	eng	This species is common in sheltered bays (Kuiter <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is no population information available for this species.  It is very rare in southern Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1975).  It is rare in the Calamianes group of islands, Philippines but this may be because of its cryptic habit (Werner and Allen 2000).
187684		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187685		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187685		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, found from Eastern Africa in the west to Ducie Island (Pitcairn Islands group) in the east, and from the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007) and the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to far northern New Zealand, including the Kermadec Islands and Rapa Island in the south. <br><br>It is replaced by Thalassoma grammaticum in the tropical eastern Pacific (Myers 1999). This species is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).
187685		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear coastal waters to outer reef slopes and drop-offs in Australia (Kuiter 2002), over sand and rubble. It is found in depths from one to 30 m (Myers 1991, Baensch and Debelius 1997). <br/><br/>It forms spawning groups at 4-6 m depth, along channels or passages and promontories or bommies. It spawns from March to May and in October-November at full moon and on an ebb tide in the Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991). Juvenile and adult male colour patterns differ (Kuiter 2002). <br/><br/>Larval duration in Hawaii was 78 days (Victor 1986).
187685		population	eng	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. For example, it is very abundant in the South Pacific, it is common in Indonesia, but is relatively uncommon to rare in Malaysia (L. Rocha, S. Suharti, Y. Yusuf pers. comm.). It is rare in Banda Flores, Indonesia, where it was found at only three of the 19 sites surveyed in 2002 (A. Cabanban pers. comm.).
187685		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187686		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187686		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan and Taiwan (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187686		habitat	eng	There is very little information for this species. It is most likely found in sandy bottom habitats.
187686		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187686		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187687		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187687		distribution	eng	This species was initially described as endemic to Papua New Guinea (Kuiter and Randall 1995) but subsequently recorded from Palawan province, Philippines (Werner and Allen 2000). <br><br>Range size: 1,848,338 km<sup>2</sup>
187687		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse (12 cm) characteristic of sheltered lagoonal habitats over soft bottom environments up to 25 m (Kuiter 2002). The single species recorded from Palawan, Philippines was seen at depths from 10-20 m (Werner and Allen 2000).
187687		population	eng	There is no available data but habitat and distribution patterns suggest that this species has a small population size.
187687		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187688		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187688		distribution	eng	This species is found from South Africa to the west, east to the Tuamotu islands and north to the Line Islands and Ryukyu islands, southern Japan (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008)<br><br>In the Indo-Pacific, this species is found from Taiwan, Seychelles, PNG, Palau, Indonesia, Fr. Polynesia, Christmas Is., Australia, and Chagos archipelago.
187688		habitat	eng	This species is found in outer reef crests in loose groups. It inhabits depths from 2-54 m. Females occur in small groups, and usually a male is nearby. It is usually well above open bottoms with mixed sand, rubble, and coral. It feeds on zooplankton (Kailola 1987, Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers 1999).
187688		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187688		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187689		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It was observed in the Sinub Island Marine Wildlife Management Area, Papua New Guinea (Jenkins 2002), Wakatobi National Park (May 2005) and Muko surin national park, Thailand (Comley undated). Legal fishing and collecting are allowed in Sinub Island Marine Wildlife Management Area (Jenkins 2002).
187689		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, and is found from Maldives to Samoa and Palau, north to Tokara Island of Japan and south to the Montague Island of Australia (Kuiter 2002).
187689		habitat	eng	This species is often found on exposed shallow reefs (Allen 2000, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and outer reef habitats (Kuiter 2006) at depths from one to 20 m (Myers 1999). Small loose groups were found along upper edge of drop-offs or over reef crests in Australia (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Kuiter 2006).<br/><br/>Initial and terminal phases differ markedly. Initial phase is greenish to brownish grey and with numerous whitish dots on upper two thirds of the body, while in terminal phase, three narrow pink stripes along the body and a 4th additional on the head which extends to partly onto the body, a dark spot can be found at mid-base of the caudal fin and gill rakers range from 25 to 28 (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>This species is reportedly diandric in Japan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Claydon (2005) found that most spawn in discrete pairs within small aggregations (< 15 individuals). At Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea, it spawns at various times of the day and the spawning is not influenced by either lunar or tidal effects (Claydon 2005).
187689		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species not particularly common within its range.<br><br>It is moderately common at depths of 1-10 m in Solomon Islands (Allen 2006). <br><br>In the inshore reefs of Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea 190 individuals were recorded at five sampling stations (Claydon 2005). <br><br>In Fiji, a total of 88 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). Whilst in Fiji, this species accounts for about 0.3 % of the total biomass of reef fishes in seventy census sites (Jennings and Polunin 1997).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 45 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-13 cm TL  (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>Sabarini (undated) found that the mean densities in the coral areas and seagrass habitats at the Karimunjawa National Park, Indonesia were 197 individuals per hectare and 105 individuals per hectare, respectively. In addition, mean density of 123 individuals per hectare was recorded in the transitional area between corals and seagrass at the Karimunjawa National Park.<br><br>In Hong Kong, this species is very rare and specimens were purchased from market (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 1.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187689		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187690		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187690		distribution	eng	This species is known from relatively few specimens collected in Mauritius and Réunion in the Indian Ocean and southern Japan and eastwards to the Izu Islands, and Taiwan.  It is ikely to occur at Seychelles (Smith and Smith 1963). It is also found in Bali and Palau (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2002).
187690		habitat	eng	This species reaches at least 161 mm SL. It occurs on deep reefs in 50 m off Japan. It is found in depths from 35-200 m.
187690		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.
187690		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
187691		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187691		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Mozambique and Natal, South Africa, also in Reunion, Mauritius, Madagascar and Oman.
187691		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky bottoms or reefs rich in algae and found in seagrass beds. It goes to depths of 2-15 m.
187691		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187691		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187692		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187692		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific ranging north from southern Japan and south to Sydney in Australia and east from Cocos-Keeling Atoll, East to the Pitcairn Islands.
187692		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow patch reefs, lagoons, and bays with sand and rubble substrate in depths of one to at least 30 m. It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187692		population	eng	There is no explicit information available on population trends for this species. It is generally considered as common.
187692		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187693		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187693		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the western and central Pacific, from eastern Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands to the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands (Australia), Kermadec Islands (New Zealand), to New Caledonia and Tonga (Randall 2003). It is also found in Niue (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187693		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs, from inshore to outer reef areas, and also tide pools, with a depth range of 0-15 m (Randall 2003).
187693		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187693		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187694		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Given the high loss of coral reef habitat within its range (Carpenter <em>et al.</em> 2008), more research is recommended on this species habitat and population status.
187694		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific from the Philippines to Taiwan and southern Japan, and south to northwest Australia.
187694		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs or shallow rocky areas at depths of 5 to 25 m.
187694		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is naturally uncommon.<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 1.4 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187694		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187695		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.
187695		distribution	eng	This species is found in Flores, Indonesia and in West Papua.
187695		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas with brittle corals growing dense and high on rubble slopes of inner reef, coastal side, in depths between 10-35 m.
187695		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species.
187695		threats	eng	It is not known if the collection for the aquarium trade poses a threat to this species.
187696		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
187696		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187696		distribution	eng	This species has a widespread tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic distribution from North Carolina to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, in the western Atlantic. It is found from southern Spain to Gabon, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome and Principe, in the Eastern Atlantic. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>There is no record of this species in the oceanic islands of Brazil (C. Ferreira pers. comm. 2009).
187696		distribution	eng	This species has a wide tropical and subtropical Atlantic distribution from North Carolina to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea in western Atlantic, and southern Spain to Gabon, including Azores, Madeira, Canaries, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe in eastern Atlantic. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara.
187696		habitat	eng	This species generally inhabits clear shallow areas with sandy substrates, usually in the vicinity of seagrass beds and coral reefs (Schneider 1990), although it can be found to 90m. It lives singly or in small groups (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on molluscs, but also on crabs and shrimps (Gomon 1978). <br/><br/>This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with sexual dimorphism apparent in the shape of the head and the length of the pelvic fin (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It builds nests out of coral debris in coral reef habitats. When disturbed it may dive head first into the sand (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>The western Atlantic fish are generally smaller than the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean fish.
187696		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear shallow areas with sandy substrata, usually in the vicinity of seagrass beds and corals (Schneider 1990). It feeds mainly on molluscs, but also crabs and shrimps (Gomon 1978). This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite fish. The sexual dimorphism is apparent in head shape and length of pelvic fin (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It builds nests with coral debris. When frightened, individuals dive head first into the sand (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187696		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered common in the majority of its range.<br><br>For example, this species is common in Lebanon and Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, but there is little or no population information available for it throughout most of its Mediterranean range (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). In the western Atlantic, this species is relatively common throughout most of its range. It is also common in the Azores islands on shallower sandy habitats (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187696		population	eng	This species is common in Lebanon and Sicily. <br/><br/>There is no population information for this species.
187696		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187696		threats	eng	This is a commercially important species in Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007) and Sicilly (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2007). It is fished by hook and line.
187697		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187697		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Shizuoka and Wakayama Prefectures (Japan) to Taiwan, southward to New Caledonia and Norfolk Ridge. It has also been recorded in Palau (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008)
187697		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 149 mm SL. Shallow ranging, specimens have been collected from rocky reefs at depths of 30–113 m, but the species may be more common at greater depths (Gomon 2006).
187697		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187697		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
187698		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is protected in marine reserves throughout its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).
187698		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and South Africa to the Society Islands and Pitcairn, north to Southern Japan and south to Great Barrier Reef and Rapa Island (Randall 2005).
187698		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of sand and rubble of clear lagoon and seaward reef slopes. Juveniles remain near bottom whilst adults may swim well above bottom. Mainly feeds on fish and crustaceans to a lesser extent (Myers, 1999)<br/><br/>This species has an elongated compressed body with small scales. Scaleless head. Jaws with 2 pairs of canine teeth infront. Caudal fin slightly rounded in juveniles, emarginate in adults. Initial phase brown to olive brown with 17-19 dark brown bars, a blue and black spot on opercular membrane, a black spot on side of lips, larger on lower, caudal fin with a large whitish crescent posteriorly, body of terminal males green sometimes shading to blue-green ventrally, with numerous bluish red bars, often with a pale yellowish bar on body above origin of anal fin, head light purplish with green to blue-green bands radiating from eye , one  forward onto snout expanding broadly and branching (Randall, 2005). Indian Ocean and Red Sea species males shows a white band central to the greenish body whilst the Pacific form shows a pale peduncular area when in nuptial mode.
187698		population	eng	This species is generally rare in Micronesia and uncommon in the Marianas (Myers 1999). This is an uncommon species, but common in some parts of its range (e.g. Philippines).
187698		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in local subsistance fisheries in the Pacific and is collected as bycatch for the aquarium trade.
187699		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187699		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Marquesan and Tuamoto islands in the central Pacific, north to southern Japan, and south to the Great Barrier Reef. It is replaced by the closely related<em> H. ornatissimus</em> in Hawaii (Randall and Rocha 2009).
187699		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-15 m. It inhabits lagoon and outer seaward reefs.  It feeds primarily on small benthic crustaceans and mollusks (Randall 1985).
187699		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
187699		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187700		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187700		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan and Taiwan. It is also found in Palau (P. Colin pers. comm. 2009). It has also been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef off Townsville, Queensland (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187700		habitat	eng	This is a small species that inhabits reefs and grows to about 16 (TL) (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984).
187700		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187700		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is considered a non-target trawl fish.
187701		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in marine reserves in  parts of its range (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA, Sangire Talaud,Cartier Island Marine Reserve, Ashmore reef and Mermaid reef National Natural reserve, Scot reef nature reserve, Rowley schoals, Ningaloo, Barrow Island and Montebello Islands Marine Park, in Australia).
187701		distribution	eng	This species is found from Ryukyu Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000), Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Western Australia (Carpenter and Niem 2001).  The range was extended south on the western Australian coast to North West Cape (22° S) (Randall and Adamson 1982).
187701		habitat	eng	There is very little known of its biology. It is found in shallow (2-10 m) waters (Baensch and Debelius 1997) with dense coral growth on coral rubble and sand, also in weedy areas.
187701		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187701		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187702		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187702		distribution	eng	This species is found from Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Palau, and Marshall Islands. It was recorded from Fiji in 2003 by G. Allen. This is interesting to note as there is often a break between the western Pacific and southern Pacific (Fiji, Tonga, etc.) distributions and Labropsis is a genus with very well defined patterns of regional distribution (H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).
187702		habitat	eng	This species occurs in steep reef slopes in lagoons and outer reef fronts in association with living coral in depths between 4-52 m. It is one of a group of obligate coral feeding wrasses, its abundance is linked to that of live digitate corals. This species is reliant on live corals.
187702		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187702		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Due to its reliance on corals, it may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, this is considered to be a localized threat.
187703		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species distrubution overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas within its range.  More research is needed to determine if the Brazilian population is a separate species.
187703		distribution	eng	This species is found from North Carolina (USA), Bermuda, and northeastern Gulf of Mexico to Margarita Island, Venezuela. There is also an isolated population in Southeastern Brazil.
187703		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and is found from 8 -100 m. It generally inhabits deep reefs, but is found in shallow rocky reefs in Brazil.
187703		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not commonly observed as it is a relativey deep water species. However, in Brazil it is more common in shallower waters.
187703		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187704		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species.
187704		distribution	eng	This species is known only off Rarotonga, Cook Islands.
187704		habitat	eng	This species is found on reef and rubble from 55-100 m, often in areas with strong current.
187704		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed, although it is considered common on deep reefs.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187704		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is exploited in the aquarium trade,  although it is not commonly traded.
187705		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187705		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa (to Natal) to the Society Islands, north to southern Japan and Hawaii, south to New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island and New South Wales, Australia. In the Eastern Pacific, it is found from the Gulf of California to Panama and the Galapagos Islands (Randall and Earle 2002).
187705		habitat	eng	Species of Iniistius are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).  <br/><br/>This species is usually solitary in lagoon and seaward reef areas with fine to loose, coarse sand bottoms (Myers 1991). It is found in areas with sandy bottoms, at depths of seven to at least 30 m (Gomon 1983). Adults rare in less than 20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994) but have been observed as deep as 100 m (Randall and Earle 2002). Juveniles are sometimes observed in shallow estuaries (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Individuals are encountered hovering just above the bottom, and dive headfirst into the sand with the approach of danger (Gomon 1983). It feeds mostly on hard-shelled prey, including molluscs and crustaceans (Gomon 1983). Juveniles mimic drifting dead leaves by holding the elongate detached front part of dorsal fin forward over head. Good to eat, flesh very white (Titcomb 1972).
187705		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187705		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade, and captured occationally in aritisanal fisheries.
187706		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps some marine protected areas within its distribution.
187706		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Red Sea (Israel and Jordan).
187706		habitat	eng	The species is found between 40 and 50 m along deep rubble slopes, also sometimes one to two m above rock and coral bottoms. This species feeds on zooplankton (Froese and Pauly 2008). Males are territorial and haremic.
187706		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187706		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187707		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187707		distribution	eng	This species is widespread and occurs throughout much of the Indo-West central Pacific region (Allen and Adrim 2003).  It is found from East Africa in the western Indian Ocean to the Pitcairn Islands in the east, the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) in the north (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007), and Rapa Island in the south Pacific Ocean.<br><br>This species was recorded from Bali, Komodo, Togean and Banggai Islands and Pulau Weh, with an Indonesian distribution from Papua to Sumatra (Allen and Adrim 2003). It is also known from the Spratly Islands (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006). It was recorded in Malaysia (Anon 1987), Indonesia and the Philippines (Myers 1991).
187707		habitat	eng	This species is generally found inshore (Randall 1985), over shallow exposed reef flats, usually with rock-base and mixed coral and algae (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Mundy 2005). It also occurs on surge-swept reef flats, reef margins, and clear rocky shorelines, but may venture into deeper waters up to 10 m depth (Randall 1985). It is benthopelagic (Mundy 2005). Habitats include seagrass beds and coral reefs in the Spratly Islands (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006).<br/><br/>The primary phase of this wrasse is almost indistinguishable from that of <em>T. purpureum</em>. The head of the male of <em>T. trilobatum</em> is plain brown to orange or shaded with blue. The female has a more spotted and shorter head which lacks the distinct 'V' on the snout that shows clearly on the female of <em>T. purpureum</em> (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The initial phase has a dark diagonal red line below the front of the eye (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>This species feeds on crustaceans (especially crabs), molluscs, and ophiuroids (brittle stars) (Randall 1985). Diet at recruit/juvenile stage is mainly zoobenthos and smaller nekton (Hobson 1974).The larval duration is 78.3 (s.d. +/- 12.3) days, range  is 60-99 (Victor 1986).
187707		population	eng	This species is rare based on reports from Indonesia (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and it was only found in two out of 19 sites surveyed in Banda Flores, Indonesia (Mous 2002). In the Philippines, this species is only found at a few locations and is considered relatively uncommon (V. Hilomen pers. comm.).
187707		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats may include overfishing and habitat destruction from pollution and blast-fishing in some parts of its range in SE Asia (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187708		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution overlaps a few marine protected areas within its range, but it is not known if they provide effective protection.
187708		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan from the Izu pennisula south to Kashiwa-jima.
187708		habitat	eng	This species is found on rock and rubble, in reef slopes from 20-40 m.<br/><br/>Observations at Kashiwa-jima Island and in adjacent waters showed the species to form loose groups comprising one or two males and several females, pairs, or solitary to several females.  In some cases, single male appeared to maintain harems of several females. This species often forms aggregations with <em>Cirrhilabrus cyanopleura, C. lunatus, C. rubrimarginatus</em> and <em>C. temminckii</em>, over rocky substrata.
187708		population	eng	This species is considered common. However, population size or trends have not been assessed. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187708		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187709		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187709		distribution	eng	This species is known in the eastern Pacific from Salt Point in northern California to southern central Baja California.
187709		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs and kelp forests in depths of 1-73 m, but is most common above 20 m. It feeds on small invertebrates and may act as a “cleaner” for larger fishes.  It is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite.
187709		population	eng	This species is one of the most common wrasses in southern California. It reaches densities of up to 0.5 fish per m<sup>2</sup>, and is among the top three species recorded by fisheries independent diver surveys (Craig <em>et al.</em> unpublished data).
187709		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187710		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187710		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-West Pacific region and in the western Pacific Ocean from the Kashiwa-jima Islands, S Japan, east to French Polynesia (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008) and southwestern and central eastern Australia (including Lord Howe Island) (Lieske and Myers 1994).  There are questionable records of the species from Mauritius in the western Indian Ocean.
187710		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallower insular and coastal waters, primarily around coral reefs, in depths from 3-25 m. It may also occur over algal habitats (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates, and especially crustaceans (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984, Lieske and Myers 1994, Broad 2003). It shows sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994, Leem <em>et al.</em> 1998).
187710		population	eng	This is a relatively common species throughout parts of its range. There is no other population information available for this species.
187710		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are occassionally captured for the marine aquarium fish trade.
187711		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. At least 70% of its range lies within the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, in the northwest Hawaiian Islands.<br/><br/>It was observed in Papawai and Red Hill South, a fishery management area where collection of aquarium fishes has been prohibited since 1991 (Tissot and Hallacher 2003) and it is present in the Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park which is currently managed by the State of Hawaii (National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior 2008).
187711		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiin Islands and Johnston Atoll (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1985, Barry and Hawryshyn 1999, Mundy 2005).
187711		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and inhabits rocky, coral and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994) to depths of at least 21 m. It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans. It has been reported to act as cleaner by cleaning the ectoparasites of other fishes (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1985).<br/><br/>It exhibits protogynous hermaphroditism (Ross 1984), lives in sexually integrated, overlapping home ranges and mates promiscuously rather than in a harem (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1983). Sex change is socially controlled , induced by the presence of smaller conspecifics and inhibited by the presence of larger conspecifics (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1983, Ross 1987, Ross <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs either in aggregations or pairs (Sancho <em>et al.</em> 2000). In 1986, Victor found that the duration of the larval phase was 89.2 days. Minimum population doubling time of this species is less than 15 months (Froese and Pauly 2008) and maximum size was recorded at 28 cm TL (Randall 1985).
187711		population	eng	There are no data on total numbers of this fish, but this species has been noted as abundant throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago (Ross 1984). <br><br>This species hybridizes with <em>T. lutescens</em> at Johnston Atoll (Rocha pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>The frequency of occurrence at 44 locations in the Hawaiian Islands was 95.4% (Brainard <em>et al.</em> 2002). In 1993, 1994 and 1999, it was recorded as one of the top ten most dominant species numerically and with 100% occurrence in 24 sites during the surveys in Hanalei Bay, Hawaii (Jokiel and Brown 2000).<br><br>In Coconut Island, density has been recorded with 3 +/- 0.64 individuals per 300 m<sup>2</sup>. It is a dominant fish species in Kahekili reef with density varying from approximately 26.7 +/- 2.1 individuals per 250 m<sup>2</sup> in 1994 to approximately 37.29 +/- 3.9 individuals per 250 m<sup>2</sup> in 1997, in addition, short term total fish abundance increases up to 79.4 individuals per 50 m<sup>2</sup> when people were feeding the fishes (Hultquist 1997). <br><br>This species is noted as an abundant species in Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (University of Hawai’I at Manoa) and more than 7,000 individuals have been recorded within the lagoon at Midway from 1981 to 1985 (Schroeder and Parrish 2006). <br><br>Biomass of 0.293 kg per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and mean density of 17 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> were recorded at Kure Atoll and noted as the top twenty most abundant species at Kure Atoll (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187711		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187712		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187712		distribution	eng	This species is found from Japan, Vietnam and Taiwan and down to Hong Kong. It was collected in Hue, Viet Nam at a fish market (Phil Hastings pers. comm. 2009).
187712		habitat	eng	There is little known about this species. It most likely lives in sandy rubble habitats.
187712		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187712		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187713		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187713		distribution	eng	This Indo-Pacific species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Tuamotu Islands, north to southern Japan and south to Lord Howe Island, Australia (Parenti and Randall 2000).
187713		habitat	eng	This species inhabits depths from 3-60 m (Westneat 2001), usually 4-40 m (Baensch and Debelius 1997). It inhabits clear channels and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994). Juveniles are commonly found along drop-offs below 18 m. Adults usually found near caves while juveniles frequently live inside them. <br/><br/>Adults are solitary and feed on algae and small invertebrates. Juveniles have been observed 'cleaning' other fishes. Because of its dentition, it is regarded as a close relative to the parrotfishes (Scaridae), although it behaves like the species of <em>Anampses</em>.
187713		population	eng	This species is relatively common in some areas within its range. It is rare in Malaysia and the Philippines.
187713		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187714		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is probably present in marine protected areas in its distribution.
187714		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.
187714		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the Arcachon basin to Gibraltar. <br/><br/>This species is also spread throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Quignard 1986).
187714		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Arcachon basin (Bay of Biscay, SW France) to Gibraltar. It is found throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Quignard 1986).
187714		habitat	eng	This species is generally found on sandy substrata but it can also be found on rocky substrata and in seagrass beds.
187714		habitat	eng	This species is generally found on sandy substrates, but it can also be found around weed-covered rocks and in seagrass beds. Diet mainly comprises small benthic crustaceans and molluscs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). This is a small fish that is found between 1-30 m. It spawns in spring, and one or several females lay their eggs in a nest built by a single male (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187714		population	eng	There is little specific information available on the main populations of this species in the Eastern Atlantic or the Mediterranean Sea.<br><br>This small species 16 cm (TL) is not generally targeted by any large fisheries, although it is fished locally in the Thau, Berre, Bage-Sijean and Salse-Leucate lagoons in France, where it is used in fish soup. There have apparently been noticeable declines in these coastal lagoon populations in France (Quignard pers. comm. 2008), and it is possible that the populations found in these lagoons may comprise a separate sub-species (Quignard pers. comm.). If this turns out to be the case, this sub-species may warrant listing in a threatened or near threatened category (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187714		population	eng	There is no specific information on the population for this species. <br/><br/>It is not targeted by any large fisheries, although it is locally fished in the Thau, Berre, Bage-Sijean and Salse-Leucate lagoons in France and used for soup. There has been a decline in the lagoon populations in France (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007). It is possible that the population in the French lagoons is a sub-species. If this turns out to be the case, then this sub-species would be in a threatened category.
187714		threats	eng	Major threats for this species in France's lagoons are based on over-fishing, pollution and habitat degradation of seagrass beds.<br/><br/>There are no major threats in the open sea for this species.
187714		threats	eng	Major threats to this species in French coastal lagoons include overfishing, pollution and habitat degradation of seagrass beds. There are no known major threats to this species in the open sea.
187715		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187715		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea to Eastern Africa and extending to Okinawa, Japan in the north, eastward to the Tuamotu archipelago and south towards Eastern Australia (Queensland) (Parenti and Randall 2000, B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187715		habitat	eng	This species is moderately small, to about 161 mm SL. It inhabits seaward reefs at depths of about 20–60 m, whereas juveniles have been taken at about 6 m within the Red Sea. It occurs on reefs rich with invertebrates such as gorgonians, sea whips and black corals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is common along steep outer reef slopes deeper than 25 m in Micronesia. It is usually seen as lone individuals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Juveniles pose as cleaners (Kuiter 1992). It may be solitary or may exist in pairs (Cornic 1987).
187715		population	eng	There is no population information for this species (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). It is moderately common.
187715		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Aquarium collection of juveniles can be a potential threat to this species.
187716		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Anampses caeruleopunctatus is present in the Bateman Bay, Ningaloo Reef Marine Park, Australia (Fitzpatrick and Penrose 2002), Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve, Australia (Oxley <em>et al.</em> 2003), Booderee National Park, Australia (Australian Government 2006), Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa (Green <em>et al.</em> 2005) and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Kuiter 2006). Currently, creation of a fishing-free sanctuary zone in the Booderee National Park is under-reviewed (Australian Government 2006) and the proposal of establishing a 400,000 square mile Coral Sea Heritage Park, where fishing would be banned, in the Great Barrier Reef is under revising (Underwater Times 2008). Furthermore, in Micronesia, SCUBA fishing has been banned and Non-Governmental Organizations and Government are developing more MPAs (Kelty and Kuartei 2004). It is worth mentioning that marine parks or national parks do not necessary equal to no-fishing zones. For example, limited fishing is allowed for the licensed fishers in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Parks.<br/><br/><em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em>  is also found in the Watamu Marine National Park, Kenya where fishing has been prohibited for more than 20 years (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2002) and the Cape d’ Augilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong where recreational and commercial fishing are restricted (Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>While many marine protected areas (MPAs) have been introduced within the geographic distribution range of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em>, such as Kiribati possesses the world’s largest marine protected area that comprising about 410,500 km<sup>2</sup> including the Phoenix islands archipelago and both Winslow and Carondelet reefs (PIPA 2008), In Philippines, there is a rapidly increase in the number of MPAs (Alino <em>et al.</em> 2000). Thus, it is believed that <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> might be present in one of those MPAs, but yet to be documented.<br/><br/>However, marine protected areas, especially in the south and southeast Asia, countries, are considered to be poorly managed due to the lack of expertise, resource, effective co-ordination and proper enforcement (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004). For instance, destructive fishing practises, unconfirmed dynamite fishing and anchor damage have been found in the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, Sri Lanka (Ohman <em>et al.</em> 1997). Thus, majority of these MPAs might not be able to provide sufficient protection to the species that they are housing.
187716		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, and is found from East Africa and the Red Sea and to the Line, Marquesan and Easter Island including Papua New Guinea, Marshall Islands, Samoa Islands and Phoenix Islands, north to the south Japan (Shinohara <em>et al.</em> 2000, Westneat 2001), and south to Australia and Lord Howe Island (Myers 1991).
187716		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow protected reefs, lagoons (Westneat 2000, Kuiter 2002) to depths of 30 m. It is also found on the surge zones of coral reefs, rocky coasts (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000, Thi and Quan 2006) and has been collected at depth of 20 m (Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>It is found to occur in groups (Westneat 2001, Kuiter 2002) or pairs (Lieske and Myers 1994). Juvenile and adults have been observed in rocky reef flat (Nanami and Nishihira 2002). Juveniles have been reported to feed primarily on small benthic crustaceans and polychaetes, while adults taking larger crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes (Myers 1991, Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Westneat 2001). Juveniles swim with their head pointing toward the bottom and undulate their body (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Kuiter 2002). It is diurnally active (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003) and buries itself at night (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A single pair of incisiform forward-projecting teeth at front of each jaw, there is no teeth at corner of mouth or on roof of mouth. The lateral line of, <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> , continuous and deflected downward below base of ninth dorsal-fin ray to a horizontal section on caudal peduncle with 27 lateral line scales (Westneat 2001). Initial phase of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> is reddish brown and dorsal, caudal and ventrally with a dark-edged light blue spot on each scale, dorsal fin. Terminal males are olive with a dark-edged blue streak on each scale of body and irregular, narrow, dark-edged, blue bands are present on the heads (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>In Hong Kong, females of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> are shy and hide in crevices while males left the area (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>In Micronesia, the standard lengths of females ranged from 14.7 to 23.8 cm, whilst males ranged from 16.3 to 26 cm (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>The maximum size of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> is 42 cm TL (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is sexually dimorphic, spawning in harem with the male patrolling territory (Colin and Bell 1991). When patrolling a territory, the male occasionally raised his caudal fin momentarily and circled females when the male passed. Spawning activities was observed after high tide involving species ascent rapidly about two to four m to spawn. Females were reported to lead the spawning and during courtship, the blue band between the eyes and mouth and the single green bar on the body of the male became brighter. Spawning activities were found from March to May. Egg shape is nearly spherical.
187716		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Lord Howe Island, density of A. caeruleopunctatus at depths of 14-20 m and three to six m was 7.3 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> and one individual per 500 m<sup>2</sup>, respectively. Biomass of A. caeruleopunctatus in Fiji Islands was found to be accounting for approximately 1.9 % of the total biomass of reef fishes and the occurrence frequency of A. caeruleopunctatus in the ten census sites was 52.9 % (Jennings and Polunin 1997).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 12 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 7-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 86 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-27 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/>In French-Polynesia, a total of seven individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 10-21 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. Comm, 2008).<br/><br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 36 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-30 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187716		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and caught locally as a food fish in some parts of its range.
187717		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. However, there is likely effective protection only in Lombok and in the Thousand Islands marine protected areas.
187717		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Pacific, in Java Sea, Indonesia from southern Sumatra to the Timor Seas.
187717		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep coastal slopes and is known from deep water trawls, but also lives in shallow muddy estuaries. Feeds above substrate on zooplankton. It is found from depths of five to 35m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>It is haremic (forming small groups of juveniles, females and a single large male) with sexual ontogeny. This species is highly suspected as being protogynous.
187717		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is relatively uncommon.
187717		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus filamentosus</span> is a highly valued aquarium species and is commonly traded.
187718		conservation	eng	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution regions of this species. However, the occurrence of this species within these marine protected areas needs further investigation. In Mozambique, for example, there is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007), however, this species has not been recorded from any of these studied marine protected areas (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187718		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Samoa. There are also records from the Philippines (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003), however only one individual was recorded in Tubbataha (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008) and another individual from Calamianas Islands (J. Pontillas pers. comm. 2008).
187718		habitat	eng	This species feeds mainly on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans (Westneat 2001). It favors steep outer reef dropoffs, and is found in caves from 25 m to over 46 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Randall and Khalaf 2003) with large gorgonians or soft corals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), and is cryptic (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187718		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown. In Fiji, the density of this species was very low, about 0.00002/m<sup>2</sup> (Michael Kulbicki, personal communication). This species is uncommon in Indonesia, and rare in Philippines.
187718		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is caught in seine-nets and fish traps (Gell and Whittington 2002).
187719		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.
187719		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from Maranhao to Santa Catarina, including St. Pauls rocks, Fernando de Noronha, Trindade Island, and Atol das Rocas.
187719		habitat	eng	This species is found to depths of 60 m, and is associated with reefs. Adults form large schools and feed on plankton from mid-water (10-20 m), while juveniles form large schools and are found closer to reefs. It occurs in large aggregations along the coast especially in offshore mid-shelf reefs.This species is a schooling plankton feeder.
187719		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species forms large aggregations along the coast especially in offshore mid-shelf reefs. It is common in many places throughout its range, but it is rare at St Pauls rocks (Feitoza et al 2003).
187719		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187720		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (<em>Choerodon</em> spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all <em>Choerodon</em>  species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government). The legal size limit for other parts of its range is not known.
187720		distribution	eng	This species is only known from northern Australia, and occurs from Queensland to northwestern Australia.
187720		habitat	eng	This species inhabits flat sandy, seagrass or macroalgae areas (Allen 1997) to 30 m depth (Bogutskaya 2007).
187720		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187720		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, it may be potentially threatened by fishing in some areas, but it falls below the legal size limit for this genus in Queensland.
187721		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187721		distribution	eng	This species is found from Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984) to Taiwan (Shao 1997), New Caledonia and New South Wales (Australia) (Yearsley <em>et al.</em> 1997). It has also been recorded in Palau (Bishop Museum 1999) and Papua New Guinea (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187721		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 92 mm SL. Shallow ranging, it occurs at depths of about 30-35 m on rocky reefs (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1975). It has also been recorded at depths of 20 m.
187721		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187721		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187722		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.<br/><br/><br/>In Madagascar<br/>This species was reported from the Natural Reserve of the Glorieuses Islands (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003). Labrids are not major catches in the reef fishes surrounding the south-west Madagascar in 1997 (Laroche <em>et al.</em> 1997), and catch-per-unit-effort is still relatively high in these fishing grounds. There are two marine protected areas, with no-take zones, located in the northwest region of Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005). This species was commonly sighted during a rapid biodiversity survey in northwest Madagascar, and is likely protected within the protected areas (McKenna and Allen 2005).<br/><br/>In Mozambique<br/>There is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). A fish survey in 2000 at various locations including marine protected areas did not record this species (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>In Australia<br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland including the well-know Great Barrier Reef. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 25 cm TL and a bag limit of 5 fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>This species is collected as part of the international aquarium fish trade. Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). There is no specific management or regulation on <em>E. insidiator</em>.
187722		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific and occurs from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Hawaiian and Tuamoto Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to New Caledonia. <br><br>Records from the main Hawaiian islands are based on single individuals recorded in O'ahu and Lanai and are considered waifs (Randall 2007). In this region, reproducing populations are known only in Johnston Atoll and the central part of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
187722		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reef down to 42 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species was suspected to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/><em>Epibulus insidiator</em> male colour was observed to intensify during courtship (Colin and Bell 1991). Males swam with caudal fin collapsed and tilted up and the anal fin folded and extended down. Males can revert to normal colour pattern when disturbed. The territory sizes of males were approximately 500-1,000 m<sup>2</sup> and females seemed to have home ranges within this territory. Spawning occurred after or near high tide. It is sexually dimorphic with the size of male larger than the female. This species spawned in harem with males patrolling territory. Spawning ascent distance was about two to three m. Females were reported to lead the spawning. Spawning activities were found in March, April, May, July, September and October. The shape of the eggs is almost spherical.
187722		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br><br>This species was described as common in northwest Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005) and Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991).<br><br>In Fiji, a total of 230 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-30 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In New Caledonia, a total of 524 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-40 cm TL. In 15 stations, a total of 29 individuals were caught with total body weight of 2,127 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In French-Polynesia, a total of 210 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-33 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>In Tonga, a total of 130 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-35 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 4.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187722		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for food fish fisheries, and was reported in the Hong Kong fish market (Situ andSadovy 2004). This species is also collected for the aquarium trade and such trade may have significant effect on fish natural population (Tissot and Hallacher 2003), however the level of use in ornamental fish or food trade is unknown.
187723		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187723		distribution	eng	This primarily tropical species is widely distributed throughout much of the Indo-West Pacific region, from the Red Sea and East Africa in the west to the Tuamotu Islands in the east, and from southern Japan in the north to northern Australia in the south (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187723		habitat	eng	This demersal species occurs in insular and coastal waters primarily around coral reefs, and particularly around seaward reef areas over mixed living coral, coral rubble, consolidated limestone and sand habitats. It may also occur over soft coral and sponge habitats (Randall 1972), and also in sheltered and back reef areas in northern Australia (Coleman 1981).  <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993).<br/><br/>It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187723		population	eng	This is a relatively common species throughout most of its broad range.
187723		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are commonly captured for the marine aquarium fish trade (Edwards and Shepherd 1992, Wabnitz <em>et al.</em> 2003), particularly in Indonesia and the Philippines (Marine Aquarium Council 2004).
187724		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas in the US and Caribbean.
187724		distribution	eng	This species is found from South Florida, USA and Bermuda to Venezuela.
187724		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-30 m depth. It is commonly found on shallow and deep reefs and exposed rocky ledges. It feeds on various invertebrates. It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003). It is a  protogynous hermaphrodite and a monandric species (Allsop and West 2003).  Length at sex change = 7.3 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).<br/><br/>It is constantly on the move but easily attracted by divers.  It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).
187724		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common throughout its range. Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected genetically (Rocha 2004). The population from Bermuda has a different color pattern, but is genetically identical to the rest of the global population.
187724		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187725		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Isla del Coco Marine Park, Isla del Caño, Corcovado National Park (Costa Rica), Biosphere Reserve of Isla Marias, Archipelago de Revillagigedo and Huatulco National Park (Mexico).
187725		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern central Pacific, from Mexico to Nicaragua, including Cocos Island.
187725		habitat	eng	This species is found over sandy bottoms associated with gravel and rocky reefs from 150 to 200 m.<br/><br/>Red above, whitish below, three or four yellow horizontal stripes on upper sides, curved yellow stripes on head, spinous dorsal fin black. Juveniles pink with more yellow stripes and a large black blotch on upper caudal peduncle (Bussing and Sanchez 2004).
187725		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Specimens are known from bycatch records.
187725		threats	eng	This species is caught as by-catch in industrial trawl fisheries.
187726		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187726		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, including Socotra Island and Sri Lanka.
187726		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fringing reefs, over coral or rubble bottoms at depths of three to 43 m.
187726		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered common.
187726		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187727		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187727		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and the coasts of India (Gomon and Randall 1984), and eastern Papua New Guinea (Randall 1995). It has a disjunct distribution.
187727		habitat	eng	This species is found in open sand areas adjacent to reefs and in deep lagoons.
187727		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187727		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187728		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187728		distribution	eng	This species is found from Belau to the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands.
187728		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse that occurs in clear lagoon and seaward reefs at depths of seven to over 33 m. Juveniles usually associate with ramose Acropora corals to gain protection from the branches.
187728		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187728		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Due to its reliance on corals, it may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, this is considered to be a localized threat.
187729		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species occurs in protected areas in parts of its range.
187729		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia where it is known from New South Wales to the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also found in New Caledonia.
187729		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow waters in rubble areas with algal cover. It is found at depths of 3-10 m.
187729		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species.
187729		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187730		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187730		distribution	eng	This species is found in the south western to central Pacific, from New Caledonia and Norfolk Island (Australia) to Fiji and was recently recorded from Tonga (Randall 2003).
187730		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and inhabits flats with patchy reefs (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is found in shallow waters from 0-6 m. It occurs in small groups over algal rubble on semi-open substrate (Kuiter 2002).
187730		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered uncommon.
187730		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187731		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.
187731		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct distribution from Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, Solomons Island and Samoa (Randall and Jonsson 2008). It has also been recorded in the Red Sea off Eritrea based on a misidentification of <em>Xyrichtys melanopus</em> by Dor and Fraser-Brunner (1977) (Randall and Earle 2002).
187731		habitat	eng	Hawaiian specimens have been collected over sand in 15-32 m. Juveniles form small groups of widely spaced individuals off reef promontories at depths of about 15 m. Colonies of adults are found offshore far from the nearest reef in depths of 18-20 m. This species is territorial and dives into sand when threatened (Randall and Earle 2002).
187731		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187731		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187732		conservation	eng	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Brazil. However, less than 5% of this species range is included within Brazil's no-take marine reserves.<br/><br/>More research is needed on the impact of recreational and artisanal fisheries on this species, as it is unknown if current fishing practices are sustainable. <br/><br/>It is recommended that MPAs are established within the species range, and legislation to regulate fisheries. Community management initiatives and awareness for managing artisanal fisheries is also needed.
187732		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil, and is found from Maranhão to Santa Catarina, including Trindade Island (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003)
187732		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found from one to 60 m. It inhabits biogenic and rocky reefs (Rocha and Rosa 2001). Large individuals are found at depths of 10 m or more, juveniles in areas as shallow as tide pools (Rocha and Rosa 2001).  It feeds on benthic invertebrates (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).<br/><br/>There is very little known on the biology of this species. <br/><br/>The maximum size was recorded at 50 cm (TL) (C. Ferreira pers comm. 2009).
187732		population	eng	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. It is considered common. It is commonly caught by artisanal fisheries, and terminal "large" males are not often observed in areas of intensive fishing.<br/><br/>Aquarium trade data for Brazil show 310 individuals exported in 2007 (IBAMA 2007).
187732		threats	eng	This species is intensively fished in artisanal fisheries, primarily by hook and line and spearfishing. It is taken in gillnets as part of the multi-species fisheries. This species is also important in sport fisheries, which may be a threat for many recreationally fished species (Lewin <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is not often observed outside of reserves which enforce no-take zones.
187733		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187733		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to the Hawaiian, Marquesas and Tuamoto Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and south to the Cook Islands and Lord Howe Island off eastern Australia (Randall 1990, Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been reported to occur in the Gulf of Aden (Kemp 2000). <br><br>It is replaced by Thalassoma cupido from southern Japan to Taiwan, Thalassoma heiseri in the Pitcairn Islands, and Thalassoma loxum in Oman (Myers 1999). It reportedly hybridizes with Thalassoma jansenii in the Banda Sea, Indonesia, and with Thalassoma nigrofasciatum at Holmes Reef in the Coral Sea (Walsh and Randall 2004).
187733		habitat	eng	This species is found on clear outer lagoon reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994) and exposed seaward reefs. It is abundant in shallow exposed areas with surge channels (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), and in gutters, around large Acropora plates and on algal bottoms (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is benthopelagic (Mundy 2005). <br/><br/>Males are often found in small loose groups, swimming over reef sections where small groups of females stay close to the bottom. Juveniles are secretive in shallow gutters (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans (crabs, shrimps), small fishes, gastropod molluscs and sea urchins.<br/><br/>It forms spawning groups (Collin and Bell 1991) at ~1 m depth (Craig 1998), along channels or passages and around promontories or bommies (Collin and Bell 1991, Craig 1998), and at down-current margins of reefs (Craig 1998). Larval duration is 56.4 (s.d. +/- 7.9) days, range 46-68 days (Victor 1986).
187733		population	eng	This species is common in at least parts of its range. For example, it is common in Banda Islands, Maluku, East Indonesia, where it was found in 10 out of the 19 sites surveyed (Mous 2002). It is occasional (but more common in sites exposed to tidal surges) in Solomon Islands (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187733		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats to the species in some parts of southeast Asia are overfishing for the marine aquarium fish industry and coral habitat destruction from pollution and blast-fishing (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187734		conservation	eng	There is a minimum legal size limit of 30 cm, and a bag limit of six per day. Present populations are found in a number of no-fishing zones on southern GBR. Research is needed on the population numbers and range, biology and ecology of the species.
187734		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the tropical and sub-tropical eastern Australian coast. The focus of the fishery for this species is between 23 to 28°S on offshore shoals.
187734		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas from shallow reef waters over coral rubble bottom to at least 95 m. Cappo <em>et al.</em> (2007) found this to be an indicator species of shallow offshore reef system of the southern GBR. Maximum size was recorded at 65 cm. Juvenile habitat unknown but possibly deep water rubble and seagrass beds. Major prey items include molluscs and benthic crustaceans.<br/><br/>It is more abundant on offshore reef and shoal systems (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007) and does not extend into the Coral Sea reef systems.<br/><br/>It is protogynous although there is a need to examine sexual identity of juvenile fishes. It is reproductively active in April May.<br/><br/>Maximum age at 16 yrs, VBGF growth estimates range from Linf  829-839 cm, K  .08.  Age of sexual transition ~ six yr . Age at female sexual maturity two to three yrs. (Platten <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187734		population	eng	There are no direct estimates of population size. This is a common species on the deeper areas of the Great Barrier Reef.
187734		threats	eng	There is some evidence of overfishing in reefs close to mainland (Masthead Is) compared with remote reefs (Swains).<br/>Platten et al (2002) compare heavily and lightly fished areas. Results show heavily fished mortality rate Z=1.7, largest fish 40 cm. Lightly fished Z=0.4, Largest fish 60 cm.
187735		conservation	eng	There is no specific management for this species. There are some marine protected areas in the distribution regions of this species. However, the presence of this species within the MPAs needs further investigation.
187735		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Gulf of Aqaba. It is also known from northwestern Madagascar (G. Allen pers. comm. 2008).
187735		habitat	eng	This is a solitary species inhabiting fringing reefs near coral heads from 1-20 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994). It was reported to be a mimic of the goatfish <em>Parupeneus macronemus</em>, changing colour when swimming close to the goatfish and this appears to help <em>O. mentalis</em>to approach unwary prey (Randall 2005).
187735		population	eng	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species.
187735		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187736		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187736		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic from North Carolina, USA and Bermuda to Trinidad and Tobago. In Brazil, it occurs only in the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas and St. Paul’s Rocks, and not along the continental coast.
187736		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-55 m. Adults are found on shallow patches of coral or rocky reefs or deeper seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994), juveniles and subadults are found in shallower (one to five m) coral reefs (Gomon 1978). It feeds on molluscs, sea urchins, crustaceans, and brittle stars (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187736		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common.
187736		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187737		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187737		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Cook Islands, Austral, Pitcairn Islands and the Society Islands. It is also found in Tonga (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187737		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deep reefs from 49-85 m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187737		population	eng	There is nothing known on the population size of this species. It has been recently described, and is found in deeper waters.
187737		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187738		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187738		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northwestern Pacific from Hong Kong, China (Hainan Island),Taiwan, Korea, southern Japan, the Spratley Islands, and Pratas Islands (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984, Shao <em>et al.</em> 1992, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997, Ni and Kwok 1999, Randall 2000, Kim <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are records from Viet Nam (Randall 2000).
187738		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs (Masuda and Allen 1993) in shallow waters from two to seven m (Randall 2000). It forms small to large groups to 25 m depth over sand or rubble gutters (Kuiter 2002).
187738		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187738		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. Although it is not dependent on live coral, coral reefs in most of the species' range are under threat from blast fishing and overfishing (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187739		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.<br/><br/>This species is found in the Curieuse Marine National Park, Seychelles (Pittman 1997), Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania (Garpe and Öhman 2003), Natural Reserve of Glorieuses Islands, Western Indian Ocean (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003), Marine conservation area of Tuvalu (Kaly 1997), Fiji Marine Protected Area (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Shark Reef Marine Reserve (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006) and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Russell 2001).<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for wrasse is 25 cm and daily bag limit is fivr individual per species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).<br/><br/>In Pilbara or Kimberley regions, Labridae is considered to have the highest risk of localised depletion and valued for eating qualities (Bray and Kennedy 1998, Government of Western Australia 2008). The minimum legal size for Labridae is 40 cm and the daily catch for Labridae is two per individuals per species per fisher, while the mixed daily bag limit is seven individuals per angler. Currently, management plans are being developed for the new Marine Conservation Parks which including no-take zones (Government of Western Australia 2008).<br/><br/>In Gascoyne region of Australia, there is no legal catch size for the Labridae and daily catch limit is seven individuals per angler. No spearfishing is allowed within the Ningaloo Marine Park (Government of Western Australia 2008a).
187739		distribution	eng	This species is broadly distributed in the Indo-West-Pacific, and occurs from east Africa to Micronesia, Samoa and Marshall Islands, and north to the Ryukyu Island (Myers 1991, Parenti and Randall 2000, Westneat 2001) and south to the Great Barrier Reef, northwest Australia and New Caledonia (Myers 1991, Allen 2000).<br/><br/>Species of <em>C.quinquecinctus</em> are formerly lumped with this species. The true fasciatus does not occur in the Red Sea. Populations of <em>C. fasciatus</em> recorded from the Gulf of Aden, Socotoa and NE Somalia are probably quinquecinctus, but this needs to be researched.
187739		habitat	eng	This species is found in the coastal (Kuiter 2002, 2006), lagoon, seaward reefs, and usually in areas with mixed coral, sand and rubble (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000) at depths of four to at least 40 m (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>Juveniles of this species are often associated with the sea-grass beds and mangroves that adjacent to coral reefs (Dorenbosch <em>et al.</em> 2006), along edges with algae-rubble and sand, and silty reefs (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Small juveniles are mistaken as adult of Wetmorella spp. or mis-identified as <em>Epibulus</em> spp. Due to their thin vertical white barring (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Kuiter 2002). <br/><br/>The jaw is prominent, especially lower jaw in adults, two strong canines situated anteriorly in each jaw and there is no enlarged tooth present on rear or upper jaw of this species. Caudal fin rounded in juveniles, while the upper and lower rays forming extended cadual fin lobes in large individuals, a trilobed appearance. The lateral line of this species is interrupted below the posterior portion of dorsal-fin base with a total of 22 or 23 pored scales (Westneat 2001). It is distinguished by the bright red area at front of body (Allen 2000, Kuiter 2002) and thin orange to red lines radiating from eyes (Kuiter 2006). In large individuals, the six dark bars are usually broader than the six light ones (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>It feeds primarily upon benthic small hard-shelled invertebrates, such as molluscs, crustaceans and sea urchin (Myers 1991, Westneat 2001) by possessing a strong oral jaw (Sale 2002).<br/><br/>In Marshall Islands, spawning was observed on the winward lagoon. It was found that spawning was not influenced by tidal currents. It spawned in harem with males patrolling territory. Patrolling males swam with the caudal fin folded and the dorsal and anal fin tips folded to points. Spawning activities lasted for almost three hours and concurred with similar activity by male Epibulus insidiator. Females ascended about one to three m over patch reef or coral head when ready to spawn with slow ascending speed (two to four sec. to go up with a length of 1.5 m). Spawning was observed only during afternoon and occurred at different tidal phases. Spawning activities were observed in May and October, while courtship was found in June and November (Colin and Bell 1991). <br/><br/>Further, the mean planktonic larval duration of this species was found to be 25.7 +/- 1.4 days (Victor 1986). <br/><br/>The maximum size is approximately 40 cm SL (Westneat 2001).
187739		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>It is one of the most commonly observed target-species in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. The percentage occurrence of <em>C. fasciatus</em> was 88% in the underwater census surveys of fifty-seven sites at the Louisiade Archipelago (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>It is particularly common in areas of mixed coral and rubble of lagoon patch reefs in Micronesia (Myers 1991) and is also common reef fish in the Red Sea (Richard and Field 1998). In addition, it is common on lagoon and seaward reefs at Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>Nakamura and Sano (2004) estimated the mean density of <em>C. fasciatus</em> in the Iriomote Island, Japan was 10 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>In the Island of Zanzibar, east Africa, mean density of <em>C. fasciatus</em> was found to be 7.2 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> and the highest density of this species was found at Morogo with 24.5 fish per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Dorenbosch <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Despite the wide geographic range of this species, there is little quantitative information available on the local population status of this species. Further, the total numbers of <em>C. fasciatus</em> are not known.<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 230 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body length of 6-40 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 153 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body length of 6-35 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 2.6 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187739		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.  This species is caught for food and for the aquarium trade in some parts of its range.<br/><br/>Labrids are frequently captured by recreational and commercial fishers in Australia which are known to contribute to significant reductions in labrid densities (Gladstone 2001, Platten <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Majority of the <em>Cheilinus</em> spp. captured by recreational fishers are reported as “wrasse/grouper” making the catch statistics under-representative of the real landings of <em>C. fasciatus</em>. In Gascoyne region, a 12 month survey indicated that 9,677 wrasse/groupers are captured by recreational fishers annually and in Shark Bay, western Australia, 10,082 individuals from wrasse/gropers were fishes annually (Summer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Meanwhile, on the west coast of western Australia, it was found that 65,000 individuals of various species from wrasse/groper were caught in recreational fishing (Summer and Williamson 1999).
187740		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187740		distribution	eng	This species is found from Japan to the Hawaiian and Tuamoto islands, and south to the Austral Islands.
187740		habitat	eng	This species inhabits depths from 6-44 m. It is a secretive species that inhabits seaward reefs, among live coral or rubble. It is often observed hiding around the base of small heads of live coral, especially Pocillopora meandrina. Stomach contents of specimens taken from Oahu and Johnston I. consisted of demersal eggs, copepods, amphipods, alpheid shrimp, crab megalops, larval shrimp and gastropod. However, it is likely that the copepods and larval food items are from demersal plankton because this species is never seen more than a few centimeters off the bottom (Myers 1991, Randall 1999).
187740		population	eng	There is no known population information available for this species. This species is cryptic.
187740		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187741		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in some parts of its range (Cook Island Aquatic Reserve).
187741		distribution	eng	In the eastern central Pacific, this species is found in the Cook, Austral and Pitcairn Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000).
187741		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated in rocky and fringing coral reefs, and is known at depths ranging from 23 to 48 m.
187741		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187741		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187742		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species range overlaps the Kimbe Bay Marine Protected Area.
187742		distribution	eng	This species is found in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
187742		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoons, seaward reef slopes exposed to current (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is found from five to 30 m over coral and rubble.
187742		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed, it is a recently described species. It is considered common in most of its range. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187742		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is potentially exploited by the aquarium trade, but is not targeted.
187743		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.
187743		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Cook, Austral, Society and Tuamoto islands.
187743		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse that occurs in seaward coral reefs in areas of high coral growth. It is reliant on live coral.
187743		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187743		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade and may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, these are considered to be localized threats.
187744		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187744		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines, Marshall Is, Marianas, Indonesia (Bali), Queensland (Australia), New Caledonia and eastward to Pitcairn Island.  It does not occur in the Hawaiian Islands (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187744		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 227 SL. It was measured at 40 cm TL (Randall 2005). It inhabits clear lagoon and seaward reefs, on slopes or along upper part of drop-offs at depths of 3–50 m (Myers 1989, Myers pers. comm. 2008). It feeds mainly on benthic, hard-shelled, invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans (Westneat 2001).
187744		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species in not uncommon.
187744		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187745		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187745		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ascension Island (Lubbock 2006) and St. Helena (Edwards and Glass 1987).
187745		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas with sandy bottoms at depths ranging from five  (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2009) to 40 m (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).
187745		population	eng	There is no population information available. It is a very common species.
187745		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187746		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187746		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific, as it occurs from East Africa and the Red Sea to central America. It is replaced by Thalassoma virens in the Revillagigedo Islands (Myers 1999). This species is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).
187746		habitat	eng	This species is found around coral reefs between 0-10 m depth (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 2006), in clean coastal waters to outer reef flats, often in the surge zone but also down to 15 m (Kuiter 2002). <br/><br/><em>Thalassoma purpureum</em> and <em>T. trilobatum</em> (which have a similar geographic range, (Kuiter 2002)) have nearly identical initial (female) phases (Myers 1991), and only differ slightly in coloration and length of the head. <em>Thalassoma purpureum</em> has a slightly longer head and the female of this species is best distinguished by a V-shaped mark on the snout (Myers 1991, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The initial phase has a vertical dark red line below the front of the eye, usually with a branch to the front of the snout (Westneat 2001). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005), and forms spawning groups (Squire and Samoilys unpub. in Claydon 2004).
187746		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, and can be locally abundant. It is uncommon in Banda Flores, Indonesia, where it was found at only three of the seven sites surveyed (Mous 2002).
187746		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187747		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187747		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf south to Mozambique and Mauritius,  to India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Taiwan and northwards to the Ryuku Islands off southern Japan.
187747		habitat	eng	This species is found on deep (40-70 m) coral reefs.  It is solitary (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990) and found on deeper coral and rocky reefs. It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey including crustaceans, mollusks and sea urchins (Gomon and Randall 1984).
187747		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187747		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187748		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
187748		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187748		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from southern Norway to northern Morocco, including much of the Baltic Sea, and around the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Azores Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the western and north-eastern Mediterranean basins, the Levantine Sea and the Adriatic Sea.
187748		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from southern Norway to northern Morocco including the Baltic Sea, UK, Ireland, and Azores Islands. It is also present in the western and northeastern Mediterranean, Levant and Adriatic Seas.
187748		habitat	eng	This  schooling, territorial fish  occurs around rocks, rocky reefs and seagrass beds, and also in coastal lagoon habitats. It feeds on molluscs, hydroids, bryozoans, worms and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). <br/><br/>There is a clear sexual dimorphism, and this species is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The male constructs a nest of seaweed amongst rocks or in rock crevices, in which the adhesive eggs are laid (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187748		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocks, rocky reefs, seagrass beds, and lagoons habitats. This species is non-migratory. Sex reversal is sometimes observed. It feeds on molluscs, hydroids, bryozoans, worms and various crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). The nest is made by the male with seaweed among rocks or in crevices.
187748		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. Its abundance varies throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It is a cold water Atlantic species and therefore is more common in the west Mediterranean Sea.
187748		population	eng	There is very little population information available for this species. It is primarily a colder-water Eastern Atlantic species, and therefore is more common in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Its abundance varies throughout the remainder of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187748		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. This species is sometimes caught as bycatch and locally sold.
187748		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is sometimes caught as bycatch in local fisheries and sold for food.
187749		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187749		distribution	eng	This species is found from Sri Lanka to the Andaman Sea (west coast of Thailand), southwest India (Vizhinjam), and Indonesia (Bali, Lombok, Sunda Strait).
187749		habitat	eng	<em>Leptojulis chrysotaenia</em> is a small species, to about 92 mm SL. It occurs close to the substratum over open bottoms of silty sand and coral rubble (Randall 1996), at depths of 15-30 m. The maximum depth reported is taken from (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Juveniles are observed in small groups, adults only seen singly. It feeds on benthic crustaceans.
187749		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It can be locally common, but is never abundant.
187749		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187750		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187750		distribution	eng	This species is found in East Africa, Seychelles and Maldives to western Indonesia.
187750		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy areas of deep lagoon and seaward reefs, usually along deep drop-offs with large caves, rich with invertebrate growth in depths from 25-56 m.
187750		population	eng	There is no population information availlable for this species.
187750		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187751		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
187751		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187751		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Norway to Morocco including the UK, Ireland, and the Baltic Sea.  <br/><br/>This species is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, up to Antalya in Turkey, but it is absent from Eastern Levant Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is also found in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
187751		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from central Norway southwards to Morocco, including the United Kingdom, Ireland and the southern Baltic Sea. <br><br>This species is present though rare throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, including up to Antalya in Turkey in the eastern basin, though it is absent from the Eastern Levantine Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may occur around the main Mediterranean islands, although more information is needed.This species is also found in the Marmara Sea, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187751		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly present on rocky, weed-covered substrates down to depths of around 50 m. Larger, older individuals may be found in deeper waters. It feeds on bryozoans, crustaceans and gastropods (Bauchot 1987). <br/><br/>It reaches maturity at two years, displays no sexual dimorphism, spawns from winter to summer, and has a life span of up to eight years (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). During the spawning season the male defends a territory (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Spawning takes place in mid water, and the pelagic eggs hatch to become planktonic larvae (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187751		habitat	eng	This species is present on rocky, weed-covered shores to 50 m. Larger, older individuals are found in deeper waters. This species feeds on bryozoans, crustaceans and gastropods (Bauchot 1987).  It spawns in the summer and during this time the male defends a territory (Muus and Nielsen 1999).  This species is used in salmon culture as a cleaner fish (Tethmeyer pers. comm. 2007).
187751		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187751		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea.
187751		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187751		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch and is locally caught in artisanal fisheries. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is commercially caught in artisanal fisheries.
187752		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it can be found within Marine Protected Areas within its distributional range.
187752		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it can be found within the marine protected areas in its distribution.
187752		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species has a possibly disjunct northern European distribution from central Norway to Spain and Portugal, and thence occurs southwards along the West African coastline to around Senegal. It is not present around the United Kingdom or Ireland. It is also reported from the Azores, Selvagens, Madeira and the Canary Islands. Specimens from the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome Principe, and along the mainland coastline from around Senegal southwards to Gabon, belong to the closely related species Coris atlantica (Randall 1999, Guillemaud <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>This species is present along most of the Mediterranean coastline, including around most of the main Mediterranean islands. In the eastern Mediterranean basin, however, this species is rare, being absent from Cyprus and Israel, though one location is known from Lebanon. It is present in the Sea of Marmara and the far western part of the Black Sea (in Turkey and Bulgaria).
187752		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Sweden to south of Cape Lopez, Gabon. It is not present around the UK or Ireland. <em>Coris</em> reported from Madeira, Canary Islands, and Sao Tome Principe, Cape Verde and Senegal southward are probably <em>Coris atlantica</em> (Randall 1999). This is treated as a junior synonym pending a publication of validity. <br/><br/>This species is present along Mediterranean coasts, including the islands. In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, this species is very rare: it is absent in Cyprus and in Israel, one location is known in Lebanon.
187752		habitat	eng	This common species generally occurs in littoral and inshore coastal waters around rocks and over seagrass beds. During the winter it can be found in deeper waters. It is typically found in aggregations but can also be found as solitary individuals, especially in rocky habitats. During the night, or when disturbed, it can bury itself in the sand. The eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>It feeds on small gastropods, sea urchins, worms, shrimps, isopods and amphipods. Small individuals are known to clean other fishes. <br/><br/>It reaches sexual maturity at one year and is a protogynous hermaphrodite with pronounced sexual dimorphism (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). The females change to males before reaching 18 cm in length. All individuals above 18 cm in length are males (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Sex change can take from several weeks up to 5.5 months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Reinboth 1962, Muus and Nielsen 1999). <br/><br/>It reproduces from May to August. Larger terminal phase males hold territories and spawn sequentially with haremic females, smaller terminal phase males can live in groups up to several tens of individuals. Initial phase males live and spawn in large groups, pelagic spawning and eggs (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Mediterranean and Atlantic populations show strong morphological and genetic differentiation (Aurelle <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187752		habitat	eng	This resilient species occurs in the littoral zone, near rocks and seagrass beds. During the winter, this species can be found in deeper water. This species is typically found in aggregations but can be found as solitary individuals among rocks. During the night or when frightened, it buries itself in the sand.<br/><br/>This species feeds on small gastropods, sea urchins, shrimps, worms, isopods, and amphipods. <br/><br/>This species reaches sexual maturity at one year. It is a protogynous species: females change to males before reaching 18cm length. All individuals above 18 cm length are males (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Sexual change takes from several weeks up to 5.5 months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Reinboth 1962, Muus and Nielsen 1999).
187752		population	eng	Populations of this species are apparently increasing in the Gulf of Lion (France, north-western Mediterranean Sea). This may be explained by water temperatures having increased there due to the construction of numerous dams on the Rhone River, which have reduced cold water inflow, though climate change may also be playing a part. Another hypothesis which has been offered to help explain these population increases could possibly be the installation of artificial reefs, providing an increase in suitable reef habitat.
187752		population	eng	This population of this species is increasing in the Gulf of Lion (France). This is explained by cycle changes due to the increase of the water temperature as numerous dams on the Rhone River reduce cold water influx. Another hypothesis to explain the increases is the installation of artificial reefs that provide suitable habitats.
187752		threats	eng	In some areas of the Mediterranean this species is caught in commercial fisheries. Many specimens are also captured for the local aquarium trade. In the Macaronesian islands it is caught in the small-scale, artisanal fishery (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).
187752		threats	eng	In some areas, this species is commercially fished. Many individuals are also captured for the local aquarium market.
187753		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187753		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the east coast of Africa between the Gulf of Aden and Natal in South Africa. There is a possible record from south west Madagascar based on Mauge (1967) as <em>Bodianus luteopunctatus</em>.
187753		habitat	eng	A moderately large species, to about 230 mm SL. It is collected at depths from 50 to 82 m (Gomon 2006).
187753		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187753		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187754		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187754		distribution	eng	This species is  known only from the Hawaiian Islands.
187754		habitat	eng	This reef associated species inhabits depths down to about 119 m (Mundy 2005), it grows to at least 17.8 cm SL (Tinker 1978). It occurs over sand bottom in lagoon and feeds on fishes. (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1993)
187754		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187754		threats	eng	There are no major threats known. Although this species is collected for the aquarium trade, collection is an unquantified threat and is thought to be minor.
187755		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution includes some Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Given the collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is needed on the impact of its collection.
187755		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western and cental Pacific Ocean, from Samoa to Tonga, Cook Islands, Line Islands, Society Islands, French Polynesia and Pitcairn Island. <br/><br/>Records from the Philippines are almost certainly misidentifications (though they could possibly be of aquarium specimens), and those from Vanuatu, New Caledonia and the northern Great Barrier Reef need to be verified.
187755		habitat	eng	This tropical species inhabits a variety of coral reef habitats, including lagoons and seaward reefs to at least 32 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>There appears to be no adult colour dimorphism, the males and females having generally the same colour pattern. No information appears to be available on the juvenile colour pattern. <br/><br/>Like other species in this genus (<em>L. phthirophagus</em> and <em>L. dimidiatus</em>), this species is probably active in the daytime, and probably produces a protective mucous cocoon at night (Tinker 1978). It is probably also an obligate cleaner, feeding on the crustacean ectoparasites of other fishes, probably including gnathiid isopods (Grutter 1997), and also on fish mucus (Masuda and Allen 1993).
187755		population	eng	Little is known about the status of the populations of this species. This species is relatively common throughout its range.
187755		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occassionally taken in the marine aquarium fish trade and coral habitat degradation may have some localized impacts on this species.
187756		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187756		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is also present in the Sea of Marmara (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), but it is absent from the Levant (Golani pers. comm. 2008), the northern Adriatic, the northern Aegean, Cyprus and the Black Sea.
187756		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky areas and seagrass beds. It feeds on worms, small crustaceans (e.g. amphipods and copepods), bryozoans and hydrozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It also acts as a cleaner of ectoparasites from other fishes. Spawning takes place in spring and early summer, and the male guards a territory within which the females lay their eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187756		population	eng	The abundance of this species is variable throughout the Mediterranean Sea. For instance, while it is common in Italy, it is uncommon in Turkey. However, there is no available information on the overall status of the Mediterranean populations (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187756		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this small species, although it may be sold as food when caught in artisanal fisheries.
187757		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187757		distribution	eng	This newly described species is only known from Indonesia (Bird's Head Peninsula, New Guinea).
187757		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-sheltered areas expose to periodic strong currents. It is invariably associated with gradual rubble slopes at depths ranging from about 5-50 m or more, but is most abundant between 20-35 m (Allen and Erdmann 2008). Large aggregations of about 30 males and several hundred females, were occasionally encountered at theTriton Bay.
187757		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally abundant.
187757		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187758		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, more than two thirds of its range is enclosed by the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument in the north-western part of the Hawaiian Islands Chain. This is a federally regulated no-take reserve that, while not monitored efficiently, is very remote and difficult to get to.
187758		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the east-central and north-western Pacific Ocean, being found only around the Hawaiian Islands Chain and Johnston Atoll. Records from Indonesia are most probably incorrect (Randall 1972).
187758		habitat	eng	This species occurs in insular coastal waters around shallow rocky shores and reefs, and to a lesser extent around coral reefs to depths of 26 m. It is also occassionally found in tide pools and in deeper waters (Lieske and Myers 1994, Mundy 2005).  <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding primarily on benthic macro-invertebrates, including mainly crustaceans but also molluscs, echinoderms, tunicates, sipunculids, forams, algae and occasionally fishes (Hobson 1974, Randall 1985). It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism, and is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994, De Martini <em>et al.</em> 2005).
187758		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range.
187758		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occasionally captured for the marine aquarium fish trade.
187759		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is protected within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its relatively wide distribution.
187759		distribution	eng	This primarily tropical species is widely distributed throughout parts of the western Pacific Ocean, from southern Japan (Izu Islands) in the north to eastern Australia (Great Barrier Reef, and juveniles to as far south as to southern New South Wales), and from Taiwan and the Philippines in the west to Fiji and Tonga in the east (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is also recorded in Palau (Myers 1999, Randall 2005). This species is possibly also found further east to the French Polynesia (Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187759		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallower insular and coastal waters, primarily around coral reefs, in living coral and over coral rubble and sand, including on reef crests and slopes (Masuda and Allen 1993, Lieske and Myers 1994, Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Westneat 2001).  It shows sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994). Females are found in small groups, generally accompanied by a dominant male, and juveniles are generally solitary (Kuiter 1996).
187759		population	eng	This is a relatively common species throughout much of its range. There is no other population information available for this species.
187759		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are occassionally captured live for the marine aquarium fish trade, and others are occassionally found in local fish markets.
187760		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it occurs in the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park that encompasses an area of 95.71 km<sup>2</sup> (Wood 2007) in its range of distribution.
187760		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southeast Pacific, where it is only known from the Juan Fernández and Desventuradas Islands.
187760		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow water in littoral rocky reefs (Sepúlveda and Pequeño 1985,  Pequeño and Lamilla 2000, Pequeño and Saez 2000).
187760		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187760		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, it may be fished but there is no available harvest data to date.
187761		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures, though the species is present in marine protected areas within parts of its range.
187761		distribution	eng	This species occurs in sub-tropical to warm temperate waters of the south-eastern Indian Ocean, occurring only in south-western Western Australia from approximately North West Cape in the north and west, to Bremmer Bay in the south and east.
187761		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly in shallow protected seagrass (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008) and algal habitats. It is also found in clear waters around coastal reef margins (Kuiter 2002). Small juveniles are secretive and solitary in protected reefs, larger juveniles and adults forming small to moderately large groups, especially over seagrass beds (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>This species probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates. It displays some sexual colour dimorphism, but it is not known if it is a protogynous hermaphrodite.
187761		population	eng	There is no specific population information, though this species is claimed to be common and relatively abundant in seagrass and algal habitats in south-western Australia (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008).
187761		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, there are human impacts on seagrass habitats within its distribution.
187762		conservation	eng	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution of this species. It is known that this species occurs within the Kenting National Park of Taiwan (Shao 2005). However, the occurrence of this species within these marine protected areas needs further investigation. Specific management on this species is largely lacking throughout its range of occurrence.
187762		distribution	eng	This species is found from Moluccas to the Solomon Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Rowley Shoals, and was recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187762		habitat	eng	This species inhabits protected coral-rich reefs from three to 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187762		population	eng	The abundance of this species varies among different studied regions. This species is considered relatively common in Indonesia and in the Philippines.<br><br>From a UVC using SCUBA on a fringing reef around Iriomote Island in Japan, this species was shown to have a density of 0.55 fish per 20 m<sup>2</sup> (Nakamura and Sano 2004). While in another similar survey in coral-rich areas around the Ishigaki Island in the Ryukyu Islands, a total of seven individuals were sighted from ten transects (Shibuno <em>et al.</em> 2008). In the Solomon Islands, this species was reported to be moderately common from a UVC (Allen 2006). This species is rarely caught in Taiwan waters (Shao 2005). In New Caledonia, a total of seven individuals were counted with very low density of 0.000005/m<sup>2</sup> (Michael Kulbicki, pers. comm. 2008).
187762		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Habitat degradation could be a major threat to this species in some areas. There is little record on food and aquarium trades for this species.
187763		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187763		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, and is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Tonga, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Lord Howe Island.
187763		habitat	eng	This species is found in seagrass beds, rubble covered with algae, and sandy algal flats of lagoons and mangrove channels.  It is secretive amongst the vegetation and well-camouflaged. It feeds on zoobenthos.<br/><br/>Juveniles are known to mimic <em>Ablabys</em> spp. (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187763		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species can be common.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of seven individuals were observed in several UVC surveys with a size of seven to 14 cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187763		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.  However, this species may be locally threatened by habitat loss from coastal development in some parts of it range. It is present in the aquarium trade but degree of extraction is not known.
187764		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Western Austrlian. While the latitudinal range extends from 22° South (Ningaloo) to 33° South (Esperance) the greatest abundances occur in the central section of this range from Geraldton to Perth. It is recorded from Ningaloo Reef and Murion islands (NW Australia) (Hutchins 2001).
187764		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated and is found in sandy areas. Although foraging over sand is strongly reef associated (Vanderklift <em>et al.</em> 2007). It occurs from 1-45 m depth range. It forages in groups that appear to be haremic in nature. Juveniles act as cleaners to larger reef fish. It has many ecological similarities with the eastern sister species <em>Coris sandageri</em>.<br/><br/>It achieves a maximum life span of 12 yrs (southern area of range). Mean life span of northern populations three to four years extending to seven years at Bremmer Bay. Mean size increase with latitude from 130-140 mm in northern regions to mean of 281 mm Esperance. This species is probably a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite.
187764		population	eng	This is a common species, and the population is most likely increasing due to the removal of larger wrasse species through fishing.<br/><br/>The greatest abundance is found on the central WA coast. Density estimates of 50 and 28 individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> at Jurian Bay and Perth respectively. Greatests abundances (52 per 125 m<sup>2</sup>) recorded from Rottnest island. Abundances fall rapidly from the SW corner to the southern WA coast to < eight individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> (DeLacy 2008). It achieves greatest abundances in areas subject to high fishing pressure on larger reef fishes. It is the most abundant wrasse at Marmion and Jurian Bay central WA (Vanderklift <em>et al.</em> 2007). At Abrolhos Islands, it achieves highest abundances in areas not protected from fishing (Watson <em>et al.</em> 2007).
187764		threats	eng	There are no major threats. Although not targeted by the commercial or recreational fishery, declines in the abundance of co-occurring larger wrasses means that this species may be subject to increasing recreation fishing pressure, especially in the southern areas of the range.
187765		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187765		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western central Pacific, in the Marshall Islands, the Caroline Islands and Palau. It is replaced by <em>Paracheilinus filamentosus</em> in the Philippines.
187765		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly on algae-rubble beds to about 8-31 m depth (Kuiter 2002), and also in deep lagoons (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187765		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common over algal beds in lagoons in the Marshall Islands (L. Rocha pers. comm.).
187765		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.
187766		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187766		distribution	eng	This species is found in Western Sumatra and in the Andaman sea. It has also been recorded from West Papua (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187766		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rubble-algae reef flats and in seagrass habitats. It can cope with habitat disturbance.
187766		population	eng	This species has a restricted distribution. The population size is unknown.
187766		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
187767		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes numerous Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Given the collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is needed on the local and global impact of its collection, as well as on the implementation of sustainable harvest and trade measures.
187767		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the tropical and sub tropical waters (mainly between ~25° N and ~25° S) of the Indo-Pacific Region, from eastern Africa (Oman to South Africa) and the main Indian Ocean Islands in the west, to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia) in the south Pacific Ocean in the east, and from southern Japan in the north west Pacific Ocean in the north, and via most of South East Asia to northern Western Australia, the southern Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island in the south west Pacific Ocean in the south.
187767		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral rich areas from sub-tidal reef flats to deeper lagoons and seaward reefs, down to depths of at least 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Letourner <em>et al.</em> 2004, Nguyen and Nguyen 2006). <br/><br/>Juveniles are generally solitary in deep ledges and are rarely seen cleaning. Adults tend to move over larger areas to clean, rather than waiting at fixed cleaning stations like some other cleaner wrasses (e.g. <em>L. dimidiatus</em>) (Kuiter 2002). It shows pronounced cleaning behaviour which only occurs during the day. <em>Labroides bicolor</em> is active in the daytime, and may possibly produce a protective mucous cocoon at night. <br/><br/>It is probably a monandric hermaphrodite, but might also undergo bi-directional sex-change (Robertson 1972, Kuwamura <em>et al.</em> 2002, Sadovy and Liu 2008, re <em>L. dimidiatus</em>).  There appears to be no obvious adult colour dimorphism, the males and females having enerally the same colour pattern (though the male may exhibit a bluer head, Kuiter 2002). The juvenile colour pattern (yellow with a black stripe) is however different from that of the adults (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>It feeds on the crustacean ectoparasites of other fishes, probably including gnathiid isopods (Grutter 1997), and also on fish mucus (Masuda and Allen 1993).
187767		population	eng	This species is relatively common in parts of its range.  It is rare in many sites in the Philippines (Werner and Allen 2000, V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008) and in peninsular  Malaysia (Y. Yusuf pers. comm. 2008).
187767		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it used to be targeted in the marine aquarium fish trade but not commonly traded. Also, coral habitat degradation may have some localized impacts on this species.
187768		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187768		distribution	eng	This species ranges in the Indo-Pacific from Sri Lanka and western Australia, through Indonesia. Although its current distribution includes Papua New Guinea, these records should be verified.
187768		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and sheltered seaward reefs, in areas with mixed sand, rubble, and coral to at least 30 m. It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187768		population	eng	There is no explicit information available on population trends for this species.  It is generally considered to be common.
187768		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187769		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187769		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Great Barrier Reef, and in New South Wales, Australia, including Lord Howe Island and the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs to southern New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa and Tonga.
187769		habitat	eng	This species is found over coral or rubble on shallow protected reefs, and occasionally in exposed areas, from 2 to 32 m.
187769		population	eng	This species is common over coral or rubble bottoms throughout its range.
187769		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187770		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps a few marine protected areas within its range.
187770		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeastern Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
187770		habitat	eng	This species occurs over coral, rubble and sand bottoms between depths of 10 and 65 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187770		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187770		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187771		conservation	eng	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Brazil. There is a quota of 1,000 individuals/company for each species of this genus targeted for the aquarium trade in Brazil in place since 2004 (IN 202/2008).
187771		distribution	eng	This species is found along the Brazilian coast, from Maranhão to São Paulo (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003, Luiz-Jr <em>et al.</em> 2008), and Trindade Island.
187771		habitat	eng	This reef-associated species is found from 1-30 m.
187771		population	eng	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. It is more common in the northern part of its range.
187771		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is too small to be of major importance in fisheries or in the aquarium trade.
187772		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187772		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) east to the Philippines and Samoa, north to Ryukyu Islands, and south to northern Australia.
187772		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of mixed sand and rubble adjacent to reefs in depths of 1-32 m.  It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187772		population	eng	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species. It is generally considered  to be common.
187772		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. It is generally not utilized, although juveniles may occasionally be taken in the aquarium trade.
187773		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it occurs within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution. The species was previously assessed as being Data Deficient for the Australian region by Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002).
187773		distribution	eng	In the south-western Pacific, this species is found along the mainland coastline of south-eastern Australia  (New South Wales and probably northern Victoria), in the northern Tasman sea (at Lord Howe Island, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, and Norfolk Island), and in north-eastern New Zealand (especially around the adjacent islands) and the Kermadec Islands.
187773		habitat	eng	This sub-tropical to warm temperate species inhabits coastal and island waters over algal-covered rocks, sandy substrates, deeper rocky reefs and coral reef habitats (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). It occurs in small aggregations of juvenile to sub-adult individuals over deep sand slopes from 20-40 m, with larger adults occurring nearby (Kuiter 1993). It is common in the lagoons at Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, where it occurs around coral outcrops and over coral rubble (Gill and Reader 1992). In New Zealand it is often found over sand patches, but tends to avoid large expanses of purely rocky habitat (Ayling and Cox 1982).<br/><br/>It is active during the day and sleeps buried in the sand at night (Ayling and Cox 1982, Edgar 1997). Juveniles are cleaners of other fishes, and adults feed on small benthic invertebrates, and especially crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and worms (Doak 1972, Ayling and Cox 1982).<br/><br/>It is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the males maintain territories during the spawning season (December to March), courting any females that may be in the area at the time (Ayling and Cox 1982). Its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic. <br/><br/>Males may reach an age of 22 years (Choat unpublished), and the spearfishing record for this species in New Zealand was 2.7 kg (Doak 1972).
187773		population	eng	Little information is available on the status of populations of this species off the coastline of New South Wales, where it is relatively rare (Coleman 1980). Parker (1999) found it to be rare in 10-20 m depths around the Julian Rocks off Byron Bay in northern New South Wales. However, it is much more common in north-eastern New Zealand, where it occurs at densities of 0.8-12.6 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup>. The highest densities (12.6 per 100 m<sup>2</sup>) were recorded off the Poor Knights Islands (Choat and Ayling 1987, Denny 2005), and densities there ranged from 4.4 to 7.2 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> during the period from 1975 to 1982 (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1988).
187773		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though it is taken by spearfishers and may also be taken as a bycatch in recreational line fisheries. Because of its relative rarity in New South Wales coastal waters, the Underwater Research Group of New South Wales requested that this species be placed on this state's Protected Species list, but examination of spearfishing competition records indicated that there had been no declines in either fish numbers or fish sizes in these competition catches, so it was not listed (Smith and Pollard 1996).
187774		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187774		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Marquesas Islands (Fatu Hiva, Tahuata, Nuku Hiva).
187774		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 72 mm SL. It occurs on open rubble and sand bottoms. It was collected in depths of 19-41 m.
187774		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There are very few records of this species.
187774		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187775		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187775		distribution	eng	This Mediterranean endemic species is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for the Gulf of Lion in the north-western basin, the eastern Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), and the north-western Aegean Sea. It is present in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.
187775		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky shores and reefs, and also seagrass (<em>Posidonia</em>) beds. It feeds on bryozoans, worms, small molluscs and amphipods (Quignard and Pras 1986). Spawning takes place from May to July in the Western Mediterranean (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187775		population	eng	This species is abundant in the Mediterranean Sea where it occurs, but is generally more common in the western basin. There is no specific population information available for this species.
187775		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187776		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are a number of established marine protected areas in Mauritius (Wood 2007).
187776		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single male specimen sampled in Pointe aux Canonniers, Mauritius.
187776		habitat	eng	A small species, known only from the holotype, a male 64.4 mm SL, collected by hand net in 25 m.
187776		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from one specimen.
187776		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187777		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Raita and West St. Rogatien Bank Reserve Preservation Areas (RPAs) in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve (NWHICRER). <br/><br/>The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve allows bottom fishing (Kelley and Ikehara 2006), but P. russelli is considered as bycatch. Kahoolawe Island Reserve does not allow bottom fishing.
187777		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western central Pacific from Okinawa and east to the Society Islands including Hawaii.
187777		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deep rocky reefs, ranging from 100 to 353 m.<br/><br/>It is similar in color pattern to another deepwater labrid, Halichoeres raisneri described in 2001 from the southeast Pacific, Galapagos Islands. The former differs from <em>H. raisneri</em> in having three (vs. two) yellow stripes, the dorsalmost running along the base of the dorsal fin (see Baldwin and McCosker, 2001).<br/><br/>A juvenile of about 100 mm (TL) was videotaped by Randall in 315 m. Its most striking marking is a large pale-edged black spot at the upper base of the caudal fin. On adults this spot is red and less distinct (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1985).
187777		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Specimens are known from bycatch.
187777		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured for food by trawls but mostly by hook and line.
187778		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187778		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the northern Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). The distribution for this species is uncertain.
187778		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 68 mm SL. Habitat of this species is not known.
187778		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens which are initial phase individuals.
187778		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187779		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187779		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the western Indian Ocean, and is found from Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1992) to South Africa (Randall 1986) in the west, via the main Indian Ocean Islands, and eastwards to Madagascar and the Maldive Islands. It is also recorded in Sri Lanka (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187779		habitat	eng	This species is coral reef-associated (Masuda and Allen 1993), found on lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of 30 m. There appears to be no distinctive colour dimorphism in this species.
187779		population	eng	This species is very common throughout its range.
187779		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and is caught as food fish for subsistence fisheries. There is some destruction of its coral reef habitats in some parts of its range (Hodgson 1999).
187780		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187780		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Maldives east to Fiji, and north to southern Japan, and south to the Solomon Islands and to Shark Bay in northwestern Australia. It is also reported from Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).
187780		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coral reefs and reef flats (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006) from 1-15 m (Myers 1991) but is usually found in depths from 1-12 m (Baesch and Debelius 1997). Prey items include zoobenthos and macrofauna (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Color pattern remains generally similar throughout life. Large juveniles and females are mostly black with a single white band and white area below the head to the anus. Males retain the white central band, though this is more yellow, and they also develop a second narrow band halfway towards the head (Kuiter and Tonozuka 1994). <br/><br/>Initial phase is white with three black bars, the first on upper half of head and anterior body containing a yellow streak at edge of opercle, the second across dorsal fin and ventrally to anus, the third covering most of the body and posterior portions of dorsal and anal fins. Terminal male with yellow between black bars. Pectoral fins bluish (Westneat 2001).
187780		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is common in Indonesia (S. Suharto), and is considered moderately common in shallow waters (0-15 m) exposed to surge, in Solomon islands (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187780		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.
187781		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187781		distribution	eng	This species occurs in three widely disjuct areas of distribution in the Indo-Pacific: from the Natal coast of South Africa to the Mascarene Islands, including St Brandon’s Shoals, and northern Madagascar, eastern Australia to the Pitcairn Group including New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Fiji, Norfolk Island, southern Queensland and northern New South Wales coast south to Sydney Harbour, in the Northern Hemisphere from Taiwan and southern Japan northward to Sagami Bay and south to the Ogosawara Islands (Gomon 2006).
187781		habitat	eng	A large species, to about 460 mm SL. It inhabits the vicinity of coral and rocky reefs, often over sand or rubble in deeper water but juveniles may occur as shallow as nine m. <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans (Westneat 2001).
187781		population	eng	This species is extremely common in New Caledonia (Gomon 2006). It constitutes approximatly 12% by weight of commercial fish landings in New Caledonia (Gomon 2006).
187781		threats	eng	Threats to the species are hook and line fisheries in New Caledonia. There are no major threats elsewhere.
187782		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it occurs in MPAs in parts of its range (Pati Point, Piti Bomb Holes and Sasa Bay Marine Preserves, Haputo, Horote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area and Guam Territorial Seashore Park and National Wildlife Refuge).
187782		distribution	eng	This species was described from specimens from D’Entrecasteaux Islands and Uama Island, Papua New Guinea, Guam, Mariana Islands, Wake Island, Normanby Island, and Gallow’s Reef. It is also found in the lagoon of Tahiti, Society Islands. It has been recorded from southern Japan (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007),  New Caledonia and Vanuatu (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187782		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand or sand and rubble bottoms, at depths of 21-49 m. Generally at depths of 30 m or more, and well away from coral reefs (Randall and Lobel 2003).<br/><br/><em>Xyrichtys halsteadi</em> is distinct from the one other described species of the genus in the Indo-Pacific, the Hawaiian <em>Xyrichtys woodi</em>, in having the first two dorsal spines flexible (one in <em>woodi</em>), a more elongate body (depth 3.1–3.35 in standard length, compared to 2.7-2.8 for <em>woodi</em>), and in color (Randall and Lobel 2003).<br/><br/>Juveniles of <em>X. woodi</em>, however, more closely resemble the young and female stage of <em>X. halsteadi</em> in color. Juveniles and females of <em>X. halsteadi</em> are whitish with a red band from above eye to back at base of dorsal fin, males are more colorful, featuring a pale-edged black spot on the seventh lateral-line scale and scales in the next row below (Randall and Lobel 2003).
187782		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187782		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187783		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. There are national regulations on exports and quotas. Also, the Marine Aquarium Council sets standards and certification for captures aquarium species.
187783		distribution	eng	This species is distirbuted in the Western Pacific from southern Japan to Queensland, Australia. It is also recorded from Mentawai Island, Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984).<br><br>It may ultimately be regarded as a subspecies of <em>Halichoeres zeylonsis</em> of the Indian Ocean. <em>Halichoeres hartzfeldii</em> is replaced by <em>H. zeylonicus</em> to the west of Bali (Kuiter 2002).
187783		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seaward reefs, prefers open expanses of sand or mixed sand, rubble, and pavement usually below 11 m.  It inhabits depths from 10–70 m (Shao 1986). It occurs in loose groups of one male and numerous smaller females and juveniles.  Small groups of females and males were observed moving over large areas by themselves, regularly checking females (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>The maximum size recorded was 18.0 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Kuiter 1993).
187783		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187783		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187784		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution overlaps several marine reserves in parts of its range.
187784		distribution	eng	This primarily tropical species is widely distributed throughout much of the Indo-Pacific region, from the Red Sea (Jordan) and East Africa in the west to the Tuamotu Islands and Rapa (French Polynesia) in the east, and from the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) in the north to the Great Barrier Reef in the south (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187784		habitat	eng	This species occurs in insular and coastal waters primarily around coral reefs, and particularly in clear lagoon and seaward reef areas over mixed living coral, coral rubble and sand habitats, from the lower surge zone down to 30 m (Myers 1991, Lieske and Myers 1994).  <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993, Lieske and Myers 1994).  It shows some sexual colour dimorphism. It is not known whether this species is a protogynous hermaphrodite like most other members of the genus.
187784		population	eng	This is apparently a relatively common species throughout most of its broad range. There is no other population information available for this species.
187784		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are occasionally captured live for the marine aquarium fish trade, and others are occassionally sold in local fish markets for food.
187785		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place, however more than two thirds of its range is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a federally protected no-take marine reserve (USA).
187785		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Hawaiian Islands (USA).
187785		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble patches adjacent to and within coral reefs, usually among algae, in depths less than 10 m.  It feeds on mollusks, gastropods, crustaceans, echinoderms, polychaetes, amphipods, isopods, chitons, and foraminiferans (Randall, 1985).
187785		population	eng	There is no available explicit information on population trends.  However casual observations and most species accounts indicate that this species is very common throughout its range.
187785		threats	eng	There are no known threats for this species.
187786		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
187786		distribution	eng	This species is found in Eastern Indonesia to Palau and the Line Islands. It is replaced by Halichoeres trispilus in the Indian Ocean. This species probably has a wider intermediate distribution not picked up due to the deeper habitat type.
187786		habitat	eng	This species is a small wrasse approximately 10 cm in length. It is found in deep reef slopes from 37-74 m. It occurs in small groups of females and dominating males.
187786		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187786		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187787		conservation	eng	In Brazil, <em>T. noronhanum</em> has been managed through a Federal Act (56/04), established in 2004 by the Brazilian environmental protection agency, based on the establishment of export quotas for the aquarium trade. The quota for this species is 1,000 individuals/company/year. More research is needed to determine if this quota is sustainable for all species.This species is present in a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Fernando de Noronha Marine Park and Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve, the two places where it is most abundant.
187787		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil. It is found from Maranhao to Santa Catarina, inluding all oceanic islands (Lubbock and Edwards 1981, Ramos 1994, Moura <em>et al.</em> 1999, Rosa and Moura 1997, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001, Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003, Hostim <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187787		habitat	eng	This species is associated with coral and rocky reefs and occurs at depths of 0 to 60 m (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001). It has been recorded inside the lumen of tubular sponges (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>The Noronha wrasse is classified as a specialized cleaner. Groups of 10-450 individuals, in initial phase, clean Surgeonfishes, Damselfishes, Parrotfishes and Groupers at Fernando de Noronha and Trindade Island (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001). The following behavior was observed between the Noronha wrasse and the green turtle (<em>Chelonya midas</em>) where it was seen picking off particles stirred from the bottom by the turtle’s activity (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2004). It was also recorded following 15 species of fish at Fernando de Noronha: two species of grunt, two goatfishes, one damselfish, two wrasses, three parrotfishes, one surgeonfish, one triggerfish, one filefish, one boxfish and one trunkfish (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>This species is diurnal, feeds mainly on small benthic invertebrates and zooplankton and is one of the last reef fishes to emerge from nocturnal shelters and one of the first to retreat (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2001, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>Initial-phase individuals are predominantly dark-brown and white, whereas terminal-phase males are blue and purple. Usually form harems, but pair spawning was also recorded. The harems are dominated by a few terminal-phase males (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001).
187787		population	eng	This species is very abundant in the northern portion of its range, but is uncommon or rare in rocky reefs in the southern portion of its range. It is the most abundant fish species in the oceanic islands, except on St. Pauls Rocks.<br><br>For the northeastern Brazil, Feitoza <em>et al.</em> (2005) states that the population status of is abundant. A single subadult in a large rockpool at Sain Paul’s Rocks was recorded (Lubbock and Edwards 1981). In this same island, Feitoza <em>et al.</em> stated that the population status of the Noronha wrasse is rare. It was classified as very common (observed in a variety of habitats, with more than five individuals per dive) at Trindade Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).The Noronha wrasse is specially abundant around the oceanic islands of the Atol das Rocas and the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005). It was the most abundant fish (79,8% of the total number of individuals) in a study performed by Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> (2000) at Fernando de Noronha. The total length of the terminal individuals were about 115 mm (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Atol das Rocas, the Noronha wrasse was the dominant teleost (30.5% of the total number of individuals) (Rosa and Moura, 1995).  It is apparently also common in Bahia (Moura <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br><br>There were 154 individuals exported in 2007 from Brazil (IBAMA 2007).
187787		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187788		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to be present in any marine protected areas.
187788		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Sumatra, Indonesia but may also range to Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Laccadives Islands in the Andaman Sea, and to southwestern Thailand (Kuiter 2002).
187788		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mixed coral, rubble, and sand slopes from depths of 12 to 40 m.<br/><br/>A group of 10-15 individuals were sighted and observed on rubble bottom at the base of a moderate slope. Twice during late afternoon males were observed chasing females and engaging in courtship displays in which dorsal and pelvic fins were fully erect (Allen 2000).
187788		population	eng	This species is common on slopes of coral, rubble and sand bottoms in northern Sumatra. Currently population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187788		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187789		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187789		distribution	eng	This species is newly described and is only known from Holmes Reef, in the Coral Sea.
187789		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. The few specimens were collected in a depth range of 8 to 15 m on rubble and hard bottom (Randall and Walsh 2008).
187789		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is recently described.
187789		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species.
187790		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>It is recommended that research be conducted to look at the full distribution of this species and also to assess the extent of the habitat development in the Arabian Gulf region.
187790		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range, found only from northern Oman to Qatar in the Arabian Gulf (Randall and Earle, 1994). It has an extent of occurance of less than 65,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and an area of occupancy estimated to be approximately 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
187790		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow reef flats and rubble areas. The habitat has small pockets of reef.
187790		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, there have been declines due to the coastal development of the habitat.
187790		threats	eng	The shallow water habitat and restricted distribution of this species is threatened from seabed reclamation in many areas within the Arabian Gulf.
187791		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187791		distribution	eng	This species is only known from reefs in the Coral Sea, Fiji, Tonga and Vanuatu.
187791		habitat	eng	This species is found between 46 to 56 m.
187791		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187791		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species.
187792		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures currently in place for <em>C. centralis</em>, however a reasonable portion of its range is within marine protected areas (Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (USA)).
187792		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western central Pacific in the Line Islands (Kiribati), Johnston atoll, and Phoenix Islands.
187792		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy lagoons and low-profile patch reefs from depths of 4.5-46 m. It reaches a maximum size of 10 cm.
187792		population	eng	There is no explicit information known on population trends in this species. <em>Coris centralis</em> is a common species.
187792		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187793		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187793		distribution	eng	This species is known from the western Pacific in Japan and Taiwan.
187793		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of boulders and rubble with high algal cover in depths of 7-17 m.  It likely feeds on micro-zoobenthos.
187793		population	eng	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species.
187793		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it may be caught as bycatch in the aquarium trade.
187794		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Trawl-fishery in northern Australia is relatively well-managed.
187794		distribution	eng	This species is found from Northwestern Australia (Sainsbury <em>et al.</em> 1985) to Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987).
187794		habitat	eng	This species inhabits flat sandy or weedy areas.  It is a demersal species found in depths from 10-50 m.
187794		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187794		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187795		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187795		distribution	eng	This is a coastal species found in Kenya, Tanzania including Zanzibar, to Inhaca Island, Mozambique and extends south to Aliwal Shoal in South Africa. It is also found in Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles.
187795		habitat	eng	This species is a small highly secretive wrasses. It is associated with sheltered shallow reef and shore environments dominated by macroscopic algae (Kuiter 2002). It is a small species up to 15 cm (TL).
187795		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187795		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there is habitat degradation from coastal development such as aquaculture.
187796		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. There are some 14 marine protected areas of various degree of protection around along the coast of O’ahu where <em>A. dicrus</em>was reported to occur (Wood 2005).<br/><br/>This species is not-well known, more research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements, life history and major theats.
187796		distribution	eng	This species is known from Wake Atoll and from the Hawaiian Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000, Lobel and Lobel 2004, Mundy 2005).
187796		habitat	eng	This species is found over open sand bottom and rocky shores, in small, swift-swimming schools (Randall and Carlson 1997). It is a benthopelagic species, feeding on zooplankton above the substratum (Randall 2007).
187796		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.  It is locally abundant in Oahu.
187796		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. It may be locally affected by human disturbance such as coastal development and habitat loss.
187797		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the  population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats to the species.
187797		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Gulf of Oman (Bandar Sibab) to the Arabian Gulf, Sri Lanka (Negombo, Tricomalee), southwest coast of India (Vizinjam), Singapore (Salu Islet), E. coast of Malaysia (Pulau Chebeh, PulauTulai), Philippines, Indonesia (Flores, Ambon, Pulau Seribu, northeast Sulawesi), Solomon Is (Savo and Guadalcanal), Papua New Guinea (Madang) and Australia (Great Barrier Reef to Sydney, Western Australia (Ningaloo Reef to Monte Bello Islands), southwards to Point Quobba).
187797		habitat	eng	This is a small species, to about 108 mm SL. It occurs in aggregations on or near reefs on rubble bottoms, usually where water is turbid and rich in plankton. It feeds on zooplankton about a metre or more above substratum. It is collected in depths of 4-45 m. <br/><br/>This species is sexually dichromatic, IP fish are much more abundant than TP males, suggesting a haremic population structure. It is a fast growing species (B. Yeeting pers. comm. 2009).
187797		population	eng	There is no population information avaialble for this species. It is uncommon in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009). This species can be locally common but not abundant.<br><br>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 33.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br><br>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 0.5 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187797		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is collected as bycatch for the aquarium trade.
187798		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. It is not known to occur in any marine protected areas.
187798		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Indonesia (western Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands).
187798		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated from 10-30 m (Randall and Kunzman 1998). This species is found in rubble and sandy areas.
187798		population	eng	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed for this species. This species is not considered to be very common. It is not present in FAO global production estimates.
187798		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187799		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187799		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Island.
187799		habitat	eng	This species occurs in reef flats and clear lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of 15 m. It feeds primarily on bivalves, polychaete worms, peanut worms, gastropods, various small crustaceans and foraminiferans.
187799		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common.
187799		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187800		conservation	eng	This species has a legal minimum length (LML) and the commercial fishery is capped at 51 licenses in Victoria. The minimum legal size is 30 cm with no upper limit, and 58 fishing licences have been issued in Tasmania. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. <br/><br/>However, research is needed on population numbers and with regard to fisheries, trends should also be monitored.
187800		distribution	eng	This species is known in Australia from southern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and eastern South Australia. Throughout New Zealand, including Three Kings Is,  Stewart I. and Snares Is. (Francis 1996).
187800		habitat	eng	A large species, to about 365 mm SL. It is common on rocky reefs in depths to about 90 m (Graham 1938).  Spawning occurs during the same period in New Zealand and Australia from about August to December (Barrett 1995a, Denny and Schiel 2002, Harwood and Lokman 2006). Spawning in southern New Zealand occurs once each lunar cycle during the spawning season, resulting in four batches of eggs each year around the time of the full moon (Harwood and Lokman 2006). Annual fecundity in southern New Zealand fish ranged between 298,000 (± 139,600) and 447,000 (± 209 400) eggs/kg body weight (Harwood and Lokman 2006).  <br/><br/>Sexually dichromatic, monandric and secondary gonochorists (Barrett 1995, Denny and Schiel 2002). The sex of purple wrasse appears to be genetically based and is determined before sexual maturity is reached (Barrett 1995a, Denny and Schiel 2002). <br/><br/>Early life history stages described by Welsford <em>et al.</em> (2004). Males and females attain maturity at around 15 cm TL. Maximum age in Tasmania is reported as about 20 years (Barrett 1995a, Ewing <em>et al.</em> 2003) and in Victoria 16 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). The relationship between fork length and age was described by the von Bertalanffy growth function (L∞ = 368 mm, K = 0.116 and t0 = -1.87 for males and L∞ = 385.7 mm, K = 0.109 and t0 = -1.96 for females) (Ewing <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is site attached, but, males may range over at least 1,700 m<sup>2</sup> of reef (Barrett 1995b).<br/><br/>Hybrid specimens of this species and both <em>N. celidotus</em> and <em>N. inscriptus</em> have been reported (Ayling 1980, Russell 1988). Food items consists of crabs, hermit crabs, limpets and gastropod molluscs (Russell 1983, 1988).
187800		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range. Populations are thought to be curently stable, however there are some concerns that fishing pressure, if continued at current levels, may cause populations to decline in the future (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).
187800		threats	eng	Major theats are fishing (domestic live fish trade) in Tasmania and Victoria. Taken together with bluethroat wrasse, <em>Notolabrus tetricus</em>, mainly by traps and to a lesser degree by handlines. There is an apparent market preference for bluethroat wrasse, but purple wrasse are more robust for live handling (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Live fish fishery developed in 1990’s in Tasmania and Victoria. Catches are not separately reported, but total catches of purple (<em>N. fucicola</em>) and bluethroat (<em>N. tetricus</em>) wrasses in Tasmania dramatically increased from 70 t (1991/92) to 100 t (1992/93). Since 1995/96, wrasse catches were relatively stable and consistently over 70 t. Over the last five years, they have generally increased and reached 108 t in 2006/07, largely due to higher handline catches (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Victoria, catches peaked in 1998 at about 90 t, and subsequently declined to about 50 t.  Effort also has declined since 1998, but overall catch rates are being maintained in Victoria (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).
187801		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.
187801		distribution	eng	This species is known from the north of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan through the Philippines, Sabah (Malaysia), Palau, and Indonesia to Vanuatu, Fiji, and Tonga. It has also been reported from Cocos-Keeling Islands (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).
187801		habitat	eng	This species is found in deep coastal to outer reef drop-offs and steep slopes. It occurs over rubble or sandy bottoms with small isolated patch reefs of low profile. Juveniles are solitary among large rubble, usually in 2-30 m depth. Adults are found in loose aggregations in moderate depths, usually 40 m or more around patch reef.
187801		population	eng	This species is common in some parts of its range. It is considered occasional in Tonga and Vanuatu.
187801		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.
187802		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187802		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa in the west (Randall 1986) to the Line and Ducie Islands in the east, northward to southern Japan, southward to Lord Howe Island, Rapa Islands and also in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey). <br/><br/>Indo-Pacific distribution achieves its highest abundance on the Australian plate, especially in Western Australia (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).
187802		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the vicinity of sand or rubble patches of exposed outer reef flats, lagoon reefs, and seaward reefs (Myers 1991), often in semi-exposed surge zones (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  Adults are solitary. Juveniles are common in shallow tide pools (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled invertebrates including crustaceans, molluscs and sea urchins (Westneat 2001). Minimum depth reported of three m from Baensch and Debelius (1997). Randall (1999) questioned the identity of specimens exceeding 70 cm. Size recorded to 120 cm but this record is questionable.  Largest size recorded from GBR was at 47.8 cm (FL).<br/><br/>It is a reef front species generally occurring on outer slopes of reefs to at least 45m (1-26m in Western Australia). Juveniles are found in shallow water of sheltered habitats. Maximum recorded age 16 yrs (J.H. Choat pers. comm.).  It is a rare fast growing wrasses achieving large size by rapid growth of males (J.H. Choat pers. comm.) This species is probably protogynous but this needs confirmation.
187802		population	eng	This is a common species although not always abundant. Abundance estimates (mean number per hectare) in Seychelles 0.3-0.5, Cocos Keeling 0.1-0.9, West Australia off shore 0.4-1.8 , GBR 0.4-0.9, and Coral Sea 0.33 with highest numbers on WA Offshore reefs (Rowley Shoals) (JH Choat pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This is one of the large tropical wrasses with a broad geographic distribution. As with most of the other widely distributed tropical species, it is relatively rare in any particular locality (0.1-1.8 individuals per hectare) over much of its range and we do not have a very good handle on numbers or trends. For the large wrasses, wide-spread tropical species such as  <em>C.undulatus, C.aygula, L.maximus</em> and possibly <em>C.schoenleinii</em> have been impacted by fisheries over much of their ranges.
187802		threats	eng	Threats to this species include harvesting of juveniles for the aquarium trade (Wood 2001), artisanal and subsistence fishing in the Indo-Pacific. <br/><br/>For the large wrasses, wide spread tropical species, such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. undulatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aygula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. maximus </span>and possibly <span style="font-style: italic;">C. schoenleinii</span>, have been impacted by fishing over much of their ranges. Threats must be considered in the context of local rarity but widespread distribution (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species consistently shows up in subsistence and recreational fisheries in Guam (every year since 1985 -2007), caught mainly by hook and line and spear (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008, Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources data, unpublished annual reports).
187803		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187803		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern Atlantic from central Norway southwards to Portugal, including the southern Baltic Sea, the United Kingdom and Ireland, and south-eastern Greenland. It was introduced into the Mediterranean Sea at Malaga, southern Spain, in 1979 (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187803		habitat	eng	This species is apparently mainly found in shallow inshore areas near rocks and seagrass beds (Quignard and Pras 1986), although exact depth ranges are not available. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, and particularly crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is apparently used in salmon culture as a cleaner fish (Tethmeyer pers. comm.). It spawns in the summer, when the eggs are laid in a nest constructed of seaweed (Muus and Nielsen 1999). <br/><br/>Nothing is known on the reproductive biology of this species.
187803		population	eng	This species apparently exists as healthy populations in shallow waters around the cool temperate coastlines of Western Europe, where it is apparently relatively common. There is no specific population information available. It was also apparently introduced into the Mediterranean Sea, near Malaga in southern Spain, in 1979, though there is no current information on its survival in this area (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187803		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
187804		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187804		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the subtropical and warm temperate northwestern Pacific between Sagami Bay, Japan, and the northeastern tip of Taiwan. It was reported from the Southern tip of Korea (Kim <em>et al.</em> 2005).
187804		habitat	eng	A moderatly large species, reaches about 290 mm SL.This species lives in rocky reefs and coral reefs. Depths are estimated to at least 50 m, probably deeper (Myers pers. comm. 2008).
187804		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187804		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187805		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that are found within its distribution.
187805		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187805		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from northwestern Spain to northwestern Morocco. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
187805		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from north-western Spain to north-western Morocco. It is present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
187805		habitat	eng	This species is found near rocks and rocky reefs, in seagrass beds, and sometimes in salty lagoons. It is often gregarious. The seaweed nest is built and kept by the male with one or more females spawning. It feeds on sea urchins, ophiuroids, bivalves, shrimps, and crabs.
187805		habitat	eng	This species is found near rocks and rocky reefs, over seagrass beds, and sometimes also in saline coastal lagoons. <br/><br/>It lives singly or in small groups, and feeds on sea-urchins, ophiuroids, bivalves, shrimps and crabs.<br/><br/>There is a distinct sexual dimorphism, and the species is at least partially a protogynous hermaphrodite. Spawning takes place in spring, when a seaweed nest is built and guarded by the male, with one or more females laying their adhesive eggs in it (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
187805		population	eng	This species is common throughout the Mediterranean Sea.
187805		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. This species is sometimes caught as bycatch, and is locally sold when captured.
187805		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, being the largest member of its genus, it is sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).
187806		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).
187806		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Natal, South Africa, and Madagascar.
187806		habitat	eng	Like other species in the genus, <em>M. vivienae</em> likely inhabits shallow areas of sand and rubble adjacent to reefs. It is found in depths from 10-30 m.
187806		population	eng	There is no explicit information available on population trends for this species.
187806		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade.
187807		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187807		distribution	eng	This species is found from Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, off the southern tip of New Caledonia, the Lord Howe Ridge and the Kermadec Ridge northeast of New Zealand.
187807		habitat	eng	A large species, reaches about 422 mm SL. It is collected at depths of 114–340 m.
187807		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187807		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
187808		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is probably well protected within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution, at least in Australia.
187808		distribution	eng	This sub-tropical to warm temperate species is known from the south-western and south-eastern Pacific Ocean, from the southern Great Barrier Reef (Queensland), off the northern and sometimes southern mainland coastlines of New South Wales, and at Lord Howe Island, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs in Australia, and in New Caledonia (Chesterfield Islands) in the south-western Pacific. <br/><br/>It is also reported to be found at Rapa (French Polynesia), and Pitcairn and Easter Islands in the south-eastern Pacific Ocean (Lieske and Myers 1994), though some or all of the latter south-eastern Pacific island localities could represent a different species. There are visual records reported from the Philippines that need to be confirmed (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008).
187808		habitat	eng	This species generally occurs in insular and coastal waters around rocky and coral reefs (Coleman 1981) at depths of 10 to 30 m.<br/><br/>Small juveniles are secretive amongst kelp plants, and adults aggregate in small groups in deeper waters just below the kelp line (e.g. around the inshore rocky islands off northern New South Wales in SE Australia) (Kuiter 1996). This species is carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans, but probably also on other benthic macro-invertebrates. It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism, and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994).
187808		population	eng	In New Caledonia, 98 individuals were recorded in UVC surveys at the Chesterfield Reefs (M. Kubicki pers. comm. 2008). This species is relatively uncommon in SE Australian mainland coastal waters. In French Polynesia this species is considered uncommon.
187808		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though it is occasionally taken for the marine aquarium fish trade.
187809		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It was observed in Bateman Bay, Ningaloo Marine Park by using baited underwater video surveys (Fitzpatrick and Penrose 2002). It was also recorded in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2004).
187809		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific, including northwest Australia (North West Shelf to Cape York) and New Caledonia, and throughout southeast Asia, the Indo-Malay-Phillippine Archipelago, and extending into the Indian Ocean in an area to the west of the Malay Peninsula (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001).
187809		habitat	eng	Ecology of this species is unknown (Westneat 2001). It inhabits flat sandy bottoms or rubble areas (Allen and Swainston 1988, Allen 2000) and coral reefs at depths of 35 to 85 m (Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>The maximum size is around 14 cm SL (Allen 2000). Curved canines are present on each side of rear of upper jaw and lateral line smoothly curved, uninterrupted, with 29 pored scales. Initial phase is olivaceous the upper part of the body and a broad blackish band present dorsally on side (Westneat 2001). It is distinguished by the four or five narrow blue stripes outlined with yellow-orange in front of eye and yellowish fins (Allen 2000).
187809		population	eng	There is limited information on the population status of this species. This species is not well sampled, given its deeper water habitat.<br><br>60 individuals were recorded through a trawling survey in the Chesterfield Islands, on the Bellona plateau and Lansdowne Bank (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 1990). In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, two individuals and 69 individuals were found by using baited remote underwater video sampling and prawn trawls (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br><br>In the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia, Blaber <em>et al.</em> (1994) reported that the percentage of occurrence in 107 trawl stations was 0.9 %. In a summary of an internal report produced for the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australian Government, only two individuals were officially recorded in the gillnet, hook and trap fishery and great Australian bight trawl fishery from 1993-2004 (Bromhead and Bolton 2005).<br><br>In New Caledonia, only one individual with 12 cm TL was counted in various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).
187809		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this water as it inhabits deeper waters. However, it may be locally caught as it was found in by-catch during a shrimp trawl survey in the northern Australia Prawn Fishery (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2001).
187810		conservation	eng	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.
187810		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Pacific, from the Indo-Malay Archipelago, Philippines, to PNG, Solomon Islands and NE Australia. It has also been recorded from the Cocos Keeling Islands (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Range size 8,058,943 km<sup>2</sup>
187810		habitat	eng	This species is a moderately sized <em>Halichoeres</em> (18 cm). It is common on sheltered reefs and shallow rubble sites to 10 m (Westneat 2001).
187810		population	eng	This species is common in shallow water rubble sites.<br/><br/>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 2.05 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).
187810		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, although it is a minor component of the aquarium trade.
187811		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures. There are some MPAs in Mauritius, however these are not thought to be effective.
187811		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Mauritius.
187811		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated.<br/><br/>The maximum length is 28 cm (TL) (Randall 1972).
187811		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen. There is no other population information available.
187811		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>A. viridis</em> is threatened by human activities and coastal development (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001). Degradation of coral reefs resulting from pollution from domestic and industrial wastes, sedimentation, tourism activities, and blast-fishing. The reefs in Mauritius have also been affected by coral bleaching and also degraded by over-fishing.
187812		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
187812		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Southwestern Pacific. It is widely distributed in cool tropical and warm temperate waters of the southern Pacific. It is known so far from off southeastern Australia, Lord Howe Island (Francis 1991), Norfolk Island, New Zealand, the Kermadec Islands (Francis <em>et al.</em> 1987), Rapa and Easter Island. Future collecting will likely reveal <em>B. unimaculatus</em> to occur at intermediate island localities. It is also reliably reported in the literature as far north as Noosa, Queensland in eastern Australia (Grant 1978) and has been collected in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria in the south. <br><br>It has been previously confused with <em>Bodianus vulpinus,/i>, a West Australian endemic, <em>Bodianus oxycephalus</em> from Japan, and other similar species at Easter Island and Hawaii.
187812		habitat	eng	A large species, reaches at least 365 mm SL. It occurs at shallow depths of about 6–60 m (Doak 1972) along “broken rocky coasts” and around offshore islands. Spawning season from July- September (New Zealand) (Francis 2001).
187812		population	eng	This species is most abundant around offshore islands and coastal headlands (Francis 2001). There is no specific population information available.
187812		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187813		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187813		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Northeastern New Zealand (Cape Reinga to Bay of Plenty), Australia, south Queensland, northern New South Wales, southern part of New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Kermadec Islands (Francis 1993, 1996).
187813		habitat	eng	A small species, to about 117 mm SL. It inhabits sandy patches adjacent to algal and sponge covered rocky reefs, from estuaries to very deep offshore where trawled in depths to about 100 m. It is sexually dichromatic.
187813		population	eng	This species is abundant at Kermadec Islands but rare in mainland New Zealand (Francis 2001).
187813		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187814		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187814		distribution	eng	This species is found in Fraser Island, Queensland(25°23'S) to Sydney, New South Wales (33°53'S) and Lord Howe Island, Australia. It was also recorded from north-western Western Australia (Sainsbury <em>et al.</em> 1985) based on an undescribed species (Australian Faunal Directory 2009).
187814		habitat	eng	There is very little information known. This species is most likely found in sandy rubble bottom habitats.
187814		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
187814		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187815		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
187815		distribution	eng	This species is found from Indonesia (Bali to Flores) to Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) and Papua New Guinea (Madang).
187815		habitat	eng	<em>Leptojulis polylepis</em> is a small species, to about 80 mm SL. It occurs on silty sand or mud bottoms, in depths of 25-46 m. It feeds on small polychaete worms, crustaceans and small fish.
187815		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from a few specimens.
187815		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
187817		conservation	eng	This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).&#160;Due to the recent confirmation of its existence and validity, it has been neither included in Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) nor in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its situation and main threats are similar to the ones of the other species in the area, but more research is needed on the population, ecology and distribution of this species. The development and implementation of an integral recovery plan for the west coast of the Almería province (or more extensive) is required. It would&#160;benefit not only&#160;<em>&#160;H. cobosi</em>&#160;but other threatened species in this area, i.e.: the terrestrial snails&#160;<em>Iberus g. gualtieranus</em>&#160;(Linnaeus, 1758),&#160;<em>H. stiparum</em>&#160;(Pfeiffer, 1854),&#160;<em>Theba subdentata helicella</em>&#160;(Wood, 1828),&#160;<em>Xerotricha mariae</em>&#160;(Gasull, 1972),&#160;<em>X. adolfi</em> (Pfeiffer, 1854), <em>Xerocrassa cobosi</em> (O. de Zárate, 1962)&#160;and&#160;<em>Iberus gualtieranus mariae</em>&#160;(Cobos, 1979) (Ruiz, Cárcaba, Arrébola and Puente 1998). The steps needed to ensure the conservation of the species should be defined in this plan.
187817		distribution	eng	This Iberian endemic is distributed in the eastern half of Andalusia, in the provinces of Almería, Málaga and Granada (Arrébola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)
187817		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hatumia</span><em> cobosi</em> inhabits low altitude and human influenced places (i.e. ruderal) in xeric and argillaceous grounds, on limestones and dolomites and within vegetation zones that correspond to regression stages of the climax forest (Corbella and Guillén 2002). Most of the localities where it has been cited are near to the coast. Like other closely related species, it is frequently found under stones and trunks or hidden in crevices of stones walls (Arrébola <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
187817		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
187817		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hatumia</span> <em>cobosi </em>does not live very far from the coast in several separate areas of the provinces of Granada, Málaga and Almería, where tourism and urban development have strongly increased in the last decades. The species appears in ruderal and other modified biotopes, but this seem to be a way to resist the human pressure rather than a species selection.<span title=""><span title=""> The expansion of intensive agriculture  under plastic (greenhouses) in Almería, is causing the actual decline  and fragmentation of other species subpopulations (i.e. <em>H. stiparum, X. adolfi</em>).</span>
187818		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as Vulnerable (VU) in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Arrébola and Ruiz 2008), the same category&#160;also considered previously at the national level (Alonso&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160;It is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía).&#160;It would be necessary to elaborate and implement an integral recovery plan to the western coast of the province of Almería that would&#160;benefit several&#160;other threatened species in this area, i.e.: the terrestrial snails <em>H. stiparum</em> (Rossmässler, 1854),&#160;<em>Iberus g. gualtieranus</em>&#160;(Linnaeus, 1758),&#160;<em>Xerosecta adolfi</em>&#160;(Pfeiffer, 1854),&#160;<em>Theba subdentata helicella</em>&#160;(Wood, 1828),&#160;<em>Xerotricha mariae</em>&#160;(Gasull, 1972),&#160;<em>Hatumia cobosi</em>&#160;(Ortiz de Zárate, 1962),&#160;<em>Xerocrassa cobosi</em>&#160;(O. de Zárate, 1962)&#160;and&#160;<em>Iberus gualtieranus mariae</em>&#160;(Cobos, 1979) (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
187818		distribution	eng	<em>Theba subdentata </em>(Férussac, 1821) is a polytypic species found in western Morocco. In Europe, the subspecies <em>T. s. helicella </em>(Wood, 1828) is only found at several localities in the south of the province of Almería (Menez 2006, Moreno and Ramos 2007, Arrébola and Ruiz 2008). It is also found&#160; in the south-west of Morocco from the mouth of the Oued Tensift (~30 km south of Safi) southward to Cap Rhir (~35 km north west of Agadir) (Gittenberger and Ripken 1987).
187818		habitat	eng	In Almería,&#160;<em>T. subdentata helicella</em> lives in a narrow strip of land of dunes, beaches and "ramblas" (seasonal watercourses), of about 2-3 km wide near the sea. Like other terrestrial snails in this area, it is mainly active at night in autumn or winter. In hot and dry seasons, the snails are strongly adhered to bushes, up to more than 1 m above ground (probably to&#160;prevent excessive heat from the sand substrate) (Moreno and Ramos 2007, Arrébola and Ruiz 2008). According to Menez (2006) and Moreno and Ramos (2007) this species is very common on <em>Ziziphus lotus</em>,&#160;<em>Thymelaea hirsuta </em>(L.), <em>Launaea</em> sp.,&#160;<em>Stauracanthus </em>sp. and bushes. It is also observed on grasses, as <em>Ammophila arenaria</em>, <em>Imperata cylindrica</em> and <em>Stipa tenacissima</em>, rushes, as <em>Juncus</em> sp., small trees, as <em>Tamarix</em> sp. and <em>Nicotiana glauca</em> or on&#160;introduced&#160;species as <em>Agave</em> sp. There are also some specimens without keel that are only found &#160;near rock outcrops which are originated by tectonic faults in the bedrock, or by Pleistocene conglomerates of ancient beaches (Moreno and Ramos 2007). At the site where Menez found <em>T. s. helicella </em>there was also <em>Theba pisana</em>, though at densities less than 50 % of those observed for <em>T. s. helicella</em>. As far as this author knows, this would be the only recorded instance of the existence of two <em>Theba </em>species at the same locality in southern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain. In Morocco, it lives in rocky places (Gittenberger and Ripken 1987).</st1:country-region></st1:place>
187818		population	eng	Menez (2006) found a few individuals attached to <em>Thymelaea hirsuta </em>(L.) shrubs in Retamar, but observed densities of about 50 individuals/m<sup>2&#160;</sup>in El Alquián&#160;mostly on&#160;<em>Stauracanthus&#160;</em>sp. shrubs with well&#160;established populations with juvenile, sub-adult and adult snails. According to this author,&#160;this subspecies may have very localized distributions with foci of high abundance, and some areas of low abundance. There are no other&#160;population data about this species, however it is probable that the rapid decline of its habitat caused mainly by tourism and human infrastructure development, cause a decreasing in the current population trend (Arrébola and Ruiz 2008).
187818		threats	eng	<span title=""><span title="">The progressive and rapid decline of its habitat caused mainly by tourism and human infrastructure development, with an expected reduction in the availability of optimal habitat is the main concern for this species (Menez 2006, <span title=""><span title="">Arrébola and Ruiz 2008).</span></span>
187830		conservation	eng	<p>A well-conserved subpopulation of this species occurs within the protected area of&#160;the&#160;Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary (BWLS) although this species' chorus call pattern is being severely affected by road traffic noise from that area (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011). Additional habitat protection could be needed for subpopulations outside the BWLS<span style="">&#160;as its restricted and patchy distribution outside this protected area suggests&#160;that its distribution could have been fragmented due to habitat degradation between the northern and southernmost occurrence points (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and threats.</span></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US"></p>
187830		distribution	eng	<span style=""><span style=""><p>This species is known from Kurichiyarmala in the Wayanad Plateau, Wayanad district, state of Kerala (between 800 and 1,500 m asl)&#160;(Biju and Bossuyt 2009); from&#160;Kemmanagundi&#160;(218 km away from&#160;Kurichiyarmala at 1,434 m asl within the&#160;Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary) (Dinesh<em> et al</em>. 2010); and from Galibeedu (1,100 m asl, 12 km north of Madikeri, Coorg district) (A. Goel pers. comm. March 2010), <span class="apple-style-span">Honey Valley Estate (1,200 m asl, Coorg district), and Talakaveri (1,000 m asl), in Coorg (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011), all in Karnataka state,&#160;India. Its </span><span style=""><span style=""><span class="apple-style-span">extent of occurrence (</span><span class="apple-style-span">EOO) is estimated to be approximately 7,204 km² and it is presumed to occur in other regions of the Western Ghats&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. September 2010). Despite this species being known from five geographical localities, these are identified as three threat-defined locations.</span></p></span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><p><strong><br/></strong></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
187830		habitat	eng	<span style="">It occurs in shola forests (</span>a type of high-altitude evergreen forest formed by shrubs and small trees&#160;found only in the southern portion of the Western Ghats) in&#160;&#160;Kurichiyarmala and&#160;Kemmanagundi, and in&#160;medium-level wet evergreen forests in Coorg, as well as in coffee and cardamom plantations with native shade adjacent to forested areas in Honey Valley Estate and Talakaveri&#160;<span style="">(Biju and Bossuyt 2009;&#160;A. Goel and S. Molur pers. comm. May 2011; K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011). During monsoon individuals can be found either on the ground under leaf litter or on leaves about 1 m above the ground in forest patches, whereas in winter and summer they can be seen&#160;resting below the small rocks and pebbles of perennial streams and in tree cavities (Biju and Bossuyt 2009; K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. February 2011). Specimens have also been sighted on C<em>rotolaria</em> bushes by rivulets in plantations (A. Goel and S. Molur pers. comm. May 2011).&#160;</span><span style="">Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Its tolerance threshold&#160;to</span>&#160;habitat degradation is still not fully understood, although this is thought to be a forest-dwelling species highly sensitive to noise disturbance (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011).<p></p>
187830		population	eng	This species is considered to be locally common in&#160;Kurichiyarmala, Kemmanagundi, Honey Valley Estate and Talakaveri (K.P. Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011), but not as common in Galibeedu (A. Goel pers. comm. March 2010).&#160;This species' population is considered to be severely fragmented given that its habitat is patchy and fragmented, its dispersal capacity is believed to be low, and over half of the known population is found in small isolated habitat patches separated by large distances.
187830		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to&#160;small and large-scale plantations, largely coffee crops&#160;around&#160;Kurichiyarmala and Coorg area, and ecotourism due to noise disturbance from road traffic in&#160;Kemmanagundi<strong>&#160;</strong>and Coorg&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011; K.P.&#160;Dinesh pers. comm. June 2011).&#160;</p>
187831		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs within the Kottawa, Kitulgala, Sinharaja and Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakyadeniya Forest Reserves; however, agricultural encroachment and pollutant runoff suggest that reserve boundaries require reinforcement.   No conservation actions are currently known for this species, but it does receive some indirect protection in the form of prevention of illegal tree felling within forest reserves (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history. <br/></p><p></p>
187831		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is currently known from three locations: Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN Complex; 201.39 km<sup>2</sup>), Kitulgala, Kottawa Forest Reserve (0.15 km<sup>2</sup>), and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (85.64 km<sup>2</sup>) (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. November 2010). These forest patches add up to nearly 290 km<sup>2</sup>, but are believed to be in decline both in extent and habitat quality due to agricultural encroachment, invasive plant species and pollutant effects. It is also quite possible that this species may occur  in other rainforest patches in the wet-zone lowlands of Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010). It is known to occur between 60 and 513 m asl (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
187831		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowlands and mid-elevation rainforests and is restricted to primary and secondary forests with extensive canopy  cover (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), suggesting that it has a low tolerance threshold towards habitat disturbance. Individuals can be found perching on leaves of shrubs that they climb at night to vocalize (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Males have been observed 0.5-1.5 m above ground level (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This species breeds by direct development, where eggs are laid in a depression in the soil and the female covers it up later (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010).
187831		population	eng	<p>Although the species' distribution within canopy-covered forest is not uniform, it is considered to be common where it is found (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010). It is believed to be a forest-dependent species, so it is thought that its dispersal ability would be severely hindered by forest fragmentation, which has occurred in its former habitat (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. November 2010).&#160;</p><p>  </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>  </p>
187831		threats	eng	<p>There are tea plantations surrounding most parts of these reserves, and encroachment of all the forest reserves by tea growers, as well as associated use of biocides and fertilizers, has led to a reduction of this species' AOO as well as the quality of its habitat (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. November 2010). The tourism industry has also experienced considerable development in these areas, but its effects still remain poorly understood. <br/><a class="x-tab-right" href="https://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text  "></span></em></a></p><p></p>
187832		conservation	eng	This species occurs along the perimeter of the Beraliya (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 61.70 km<sup>2</sup>, near Pituwala) and Kanneliya (51.08 km<sup>2</sup>) Forest Reserves.    No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Keeping forest edges protected will help in this species' conservation (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
187832		distribution	eng	This species is known from Beraliya (24 m asl, near Pituwala) and Kanneliya (45 m asl)  Forest Reserves, both in Galle District, Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is likely to have a wider distribution, and probably also occurs in other open habitats close to patches of  rainforest elsewhere in the wet-zone lowlands of Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), although this still requires confirmation. The forest reserve areas where this species is known to occur total just under 113 km<sup>2</sup>, and this figure is taken as a proxy for area of occupancy.<br/><p><br/></p>
187832		habitat	eng	This is a forest-edge species, and it does not occur in areas where there is a lot of canopy cover, it only occurs in open shrub areas of the lowland wet zone (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010); although it is associated with forests, and it has not been found too far away from them (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. November 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species may be able to disperse through secondary forest corridors and suitable anthropogenic habitats (Meegaskumbura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Like most other congeners of this genus in Sri Lanka, this is also thought to be a soil egg-laying species characterized by direct development.
187832		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be a common species (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. October 2010). </p>
187832		threats	eng	<p>The open unprotected forest edge areas where the species has been found so far are under constant pressure from human activities such as encroachment by tea growers, who, in addition, use biocides and fertilizers, and also from urban development, suggesting that the perimeter of these forest areas are in decline (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm. November 2010).</p><p></p>
187833		conservation	eng	<p>This species occurs within the&#160;Kubah National Park (Matsui 2009). However, due to potential threats in the fringe areas of the park, further conservation measures could be necessary (Matsui 2009). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p><br/><p></p><p></p>
187833		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Gunung (Mount) Serapi, in the suburbs of Kuching (less than 25 km from the city of Kuching), in the Matang Range, lowland of Sarawak State, western Borneo, East Malaysia (Matsui <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2009).   Its altitudinal range is 165-330 m asl &#160;and it occurs within&#160;the 22.3 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;Kubah National Park (Matsui 2009).
187833		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">It is known from mixed dipterocarp lowland forest  (Matsui 2009). Individuals have been found perching on leaves of trees (0.6–3 m above the ground) along a road (Matsui 2009). Males call from November to January, being less active and calling from higher portions of trees in November; calls were&#160;rarely heard in August (Matsui 2009). Females are currently unknown (Matsui 2009). Like other congeners, this species is presumed to breed by direct development. I</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">t is unknown whether this species is tolerant of disturbed environments.</span>
187833		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p><p><br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>
187833		threats	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;">Although a large area of the Matang Range (including the type locality) is protected as Kubah National Park, the fringe areas of the Matang Range are rapidly being developed, and a significant increase in tourism in the park might cause environmental deterioration (Matsui 2009).&#160;</span></p><p><br/></p><br/><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
187835		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the National Park Viñales and the protected area of Mil Cumbres in Cuba and also in both the Rió Abajo Forest Reserve and the Cambalache Natural Reserve of Puerto Rico. There are 26 plants in the National Botanical Garden of Cuba.
187835		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Jamaica, Western Cuba, and the North Central area of coastal Puerto Rico (forests of the Rio Abajo).
187835		habitat	eng	This species prefers grassland, ravines and open forest dominated by species of <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Quercus</em>. Plants occur on steep limestone hills and among limestone rocks.
187835		population	eng	The populations that have been surveyed in western Cuba indicate that there are four documented subpopulations with 171 individuals. No other population information is available.
187835		threats	eng	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of road building and land clearance for agricultural practices. This species is very rare in the wild although quite common in cultivation. It may be extinct in Jamaica and is almost extinct in Puerto Rico as a result of habitat destruction and to some extent by over collection by commercial growers, rather than by cycad collectors.
187867		conservation	eng	No information.
187867		distribution	eng	In Europe, western tributaries of River Kuban in northern Caucasus. In Asia, coastal Black Sea drainages of southern Caucasus from Chorokh to Psyrtskha.
187867		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Freshwater, in a wide variety of flowing waters from cold hill to foot hill streams. Never found in brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males guard eggs in gravel or rocky cavities. Biology not studied.
187867		population	eng	Abundant.
187867		threats	eng	No major threats known.
187869		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is required for the species.<br/></p>
187869		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from the upper Nam Xhat River, in Nam Khan drainage, a Mekong tributary in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000). <br/></p>
187869		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
187869		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known from a single survey in 1999 and has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out (Kottelat 2000).</p>
187869		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threats are known to this species. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
187870		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to this species and its habitats are needed.
187870		distribution	eng	Described (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhinus lineatus</span>, Smith, 1945) from Lam Tong Lang, north of Pakjong, a tributary of Menam Sak, Chao Phraya basin, Nakorn-Rachasima, central Thailand. Recorded in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand, Cambodia, and Lao PDR.
187870		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Occurs mainly in medium to large-sized rivers and enters flooded fields (Taki 1978). In the Mekong, known from the mainstream and from minor tributaries and streams.
187870		population	eng	No information available.
187870		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing, but no specific information available.
187871		conservation	eng	Ba Bê Lake is a national park and has also been designated a Ramsar Site.
187871		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from Ba Bê Lake and the Nang River drainage in northern Viet Nam (Bác Can Province) only (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).  The area of the lake is between 5 and 8 km<sup>2</sup>.
187871		habitat	eng	The species is known from a freshwater river and lake.
187871		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187871		threats	eng	Ba Bê Lake is impacted by a number of threats including illegal timber and firewood collection for domestic use; continued occupation of agricultural land within the national park; grazing of cattle within the national park; pollution of lake waters due to dynamite and poison fishing techniques; sedimentation of the lake due to agricultural practices in the catchments of the three rivers that feed it; infrastructure development and unsustainable tourism development. A road has recently been constructed around the southern shore of Ba Bê Lake, increasing disturbance and facilitating access to natural resources within the national park (Birdlife Indochina 2010). The Nang River is impacted by sedimentation.
187872		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research required into the species population trends and distribution.
187872		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Song Da (Black River drainage) in northwestern Viet Nam.
187872		habitat	eng	Recorded from rivers.
187872		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187872		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by dams and pollution (from urban, agriculture and from deforestation).
187874		conservation	eng	No information available.
187874		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in tropical and subtropical coastal eastern and southeast Asia, with records from <span>southern China (Hainan, Hong Kong, and Guangdong), Japan, Taiwan, Viet Nam, Philippines (<span>Japan, Taiwan, Viet Nam, Philippines (Cagayan Province, Luzon)<span> <span>and Indonesia (Watson 1991, Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993).</span></span>
187874		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers.
187874		population	eng	Locally common to uncommon throughout its range.
187874		threats	eng	There are no current known threats to this species - overfishing and pollution may be future potential threats.
187875		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range occurs within Protected Areas.
187875		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in southeast Asia. It occurs in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, Mae Khlong basins and in the northern Malay Peninsula (Kottelat<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 1989, M. Kottelat pers comm. 2011).
187875		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moving waters with gravel to stone substrate and aquatic vegetation. This species seems less sensitive to minor habitat changes compared to species with similar habitat preferences (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187875		population	eng	This species is widely spread and common throughout its range (Kottelat 1989, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187875		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011).
187877		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187877		distribution	eng	The species is known from Viet Nam only (Nguyen and Duong 2006).<span id="result_box" class="long_text" lang="en"> The original paper is not available, however the abstract mentions the locations <span class="hps">Ma <span class="hps atn">(<span>Thanh Hoa<span>) <span class="hps">and Nhat Le <span class="hps">(Quang <span class="hps">Binh<span>)</span>.<span class="hps"></span></span></span></span>
187877		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species' ecology.
187877		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187877		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the location, ecology or biology of the species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
187878		conservation	eng	Research into the harvest and trade of the species is needed, as well as specific environmental threats.
187878		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Maeklong basins in Thailand and Cambodia, and from peninsular Thailand.
187878		habitat	eng	Occurs in medium to large-sized rivers (Taki 1978) in standing and flowing waters.  Found in crevices in rocks, usually over sandy substrates.  Feeds on molluscs and benthic invertebrates.   Probably moves into temporarily flooded areas during high water   levels (Rainboth 1996).  Young of the year return to rivers in November and December in  the lower Mekong.
187878		population	eng	No information available.
187878		threats	eng	No information available.
187879		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is needed to confirm the species taxonomic status.
187879		distribution	eng	The species is&#160;only&#160;known from the Nâm Na River in northwestern Viet Nam (Lai Châu Province) (Nguyen 2005).
187879		habitat	eng	Recorded from rivers though there is no information available on the species ecology.
187879		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187879		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187880		conservation	eng	Research into the species threats and distribution is required.
187880		distribution	eng	The species is known from northern Peninsular Thailand and northern peninsular Malaysia.<br/><br/>Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1997) report the species from Nakhon Ratchasima (central-eastern Thailand), Kanchanaburi (central-western), and the northern provinces of Chiang Mai, Phrae and Nan
187880		habitat	eng	Submontane to hill streams, with clear water and sandy-rocky bottoms.<br/>Dominant exclusive peak at beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
187880		population	eng	Locally uncommon in suitable habitats.
187880		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is potential threat.
187881		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species distribution, and the impact of threats, including proposed dams.
187881		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the upper Mekong basin. It is known from Yunnan (China), is also reported to occur in northern Lao PDR (Nam Ou; Kottelat 2001), and possibly occurs downstream to Myanmar and northern Thailand.
187881		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mainstreams and tributaries.
187881		population	eng	This species is uncommon, and poorly known.
187881		threats	eng	This species would potentially be threatened by mainstream dams (Baran<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).
187882		conservation	eng	None required.
187882		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from Eurasia and southeast Asia:  from the Amur southward to the Xi Jiang in southern China; reported from northern Vietnam (Kottelat 2001). In China the species is recorded from the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang River), Huang He River  (Yellow River), Liao River, Amur River, Zhujiang River (Pearl River), and Hainan Island.  <span>In Viet Nam recorded from rivers and large reservoirs in northern provinces, particularly the Hong, Thai Binh, Ma, and the Lam River. In Russia it is known from the Ussuri River, Khanka River, Alkedon River, and the middle and lower reaches of  the Amur.<br/><span></span>
187882		habitat	eng	Found in rivers. They live in the middle and bottom of rivers in open water. They feed algae and zooplankton. Reaches maturity after about one year. Spawns in open water. Fry grow in lower section for a short time, then move to middle stream to live.
187882		population	eng	No information available.
187882		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted across parts of its range by various threats including pollution and dams.
187883		conservation	eng	Fishing regulation and habitat local management are needed in Myanmar.
187883		distribution	eng	Widely distributed in Myanmar in the lower Ayeyarwaddy to the lower reaches of the Salween-Tennasserim basins, and with a disjunct distribution in the lower Chao Phraya basin and Tapi River of peninsular Thailand. Records from Kemarat on the Khorat Plateau are considered erroneous (Ratmuangkwang 2007).
187883		habitat	eng	Found in marshland, floodplain and flooded forest swamps, including lower reach of the mainstreams rivers.
187883		population	eng	Common in Myanmar but uncommon in peninsular Thailand; much declined in Thailand and lost from parts of its range in central Thailand.
187883		threats	eng	Habitat conversion of floodplains is a threat to this species in Thailand.
187884		conservation	eng	Research into taxonomy, distribution, population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
187884		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana binhluensis</span> is presently known from rivers in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Thô district, Lai Châu Province) only (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
187884		habitat	eng	Described from a river.
187884		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187884		threats	eng	No information is available on the threats to the species.
187885		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of the range is in protected  areas.
187885		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Nam Kading (Nam Theun and Nam Gnouang), Nam Ngiap and Nam Ngum drainages, Mekong basin, Lao PDR. It is assumed to be present in the intermediate drainages. Its presence in the lower parts of these drainages is unknown, for lack of surveys.
187885		habitat	eng	It <span class="sheader5">has been collected in streams in stretches with relatively slow current and gravel or sandy substrate.
187885		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
187885		threats	eng	Part of the range of the species is impacted by the Theun Hinboun, Theun Hinboun Extension and Nam Theun dams and reservoirs.<span lang="EN-GB">   Several dams are proposed on the middle Nam Ngum. Logging,  deforestation, agriculture and gold mining occurs in the  area, with  associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers.  comm. 2011).
187886		conservation	eng	Habitat and population surveys are needed, and restoration of wetlands is important for this species. Ex-situ conservation from captive stock is an option to support remaining wild populations. The location of the wild source of specimens should be identified and the location protected.<br/><br/>The species is listed in the Thai Red Data book as threatened.
187886		distribution	eng	The species was recorded from the lowland Mae Khlong basin near Ratchaburi in central Thailand.
187886		habitat	eng	Found in lowland marshes with aquatic plants. The species is dependent upon underwater plants as it lays sticky eggs on the lower arts of the plants. If aquatic plants are lost, then it is likely that populations will decline.
187886		population	eng	This fish has been collected in the past for the aquarium trade. It had not been seen for twenty years, but now occurs occasionally in mixed catches for the aquarium trade. There are some in captivity and it is occasionally bred in aquaria.<br/><br/>Although considered possibly extirpated, it is apparently still present in the wild, but probably in localised populations.
187886		threats	eng	Habitat degradation from wetland conversion for farmland and urbanization, particularly due to the loss of vegetation. The species may also be taken in mixed catches.
187887		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is required to confirm the taxonomic identity and distribution of the species.
187887		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River (Song Hông) delta region in northern Viet Nam (District Giao Thuy, Province Nam Dinh, northern Viet Nam), and the Rivers Huong, Thu Bôn, Trà Khúc and Côn in central and southern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005).
187887		habitat	eng	Described from freshwater rivers.
187887		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187887		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by pollution and habitat degradation throughout its range, however there is no information available on the scale of the impacts.
187888		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
187888		distribution	eng	&#160;This species is only known from Khoung Nam Don, resurgence of Nam Don stream near Ban Phandou village, Khammouan, Lao PDR (Kottelat and Bréhier1999).
187888		habitat	eng	This is a species of cavefish.
187888		population	eng	Known only from a single specimen collected in 1998 (Kottelat and Bréhier 1999).
187888		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and pollution are potential threats to this species as they occur in a very sensitive habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187891		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for the species. More research is needed on the species.
187891		distribution	eng	<p>The species has been considered be restricted to the Lancangjiang basin (Upper Mekong) in Yunnan Province, China (Zhou and Cui 1996 ), however specimens probably referring to this species have been collected from the Mekong at Nong Khai in Thailand (on the border with Lao PDR) (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012).<br/></p>
187891		habitat	eng	Inhabits larger streams and rivers in clear&#160;gravel and cobble beds. Migratory. Omnivorous, feeding on vegetable matter such as fruits, as well as fish, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Rainboth 1996).
187891		population	eng	No information is available on the population of the species.
187891		threats	eng	There is no information&#160;available on the threats to the species and further research is required. The species and its habitat is probably impacted by indiscriminate fishing methods (poison and blast fishing), by pollution, and by hydropower development.
187892		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
187892		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ba River (coastal Viet Nam) and the Srepok and Sesan Rivers (Mekong River basin) in Central Viet Nam only (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006)).
187892		habitat	eng	Found usually in medium-size to samll streams with running water und riffles, over gravel and sandy bottom (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <em>et al.</em> 2006)
187892		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187892		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187893		conservation	eng	The conspecificity with <em>H. pluriradiatus</em> needs to be investigated, and more information on population and its trends is needed.
187893		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Red River drainage in northern Viet Nam. Described from the Song Gam, part of the Song Lo  drainage (itself a chief tributary of the Red River) in northern Viet Nam  (Nguyen 2005).
187893		habitat	eng	There is no information on the biology of this species, but based on that of closely-related congeners, it likely inhabits upland rivers with a moderate current and a predominantly sandy substrate.
187893		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
187893		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
187894		conservation	eng	The species is recorded from the Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh Province, Viet Nam.
187894		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Phong Nha River in central Viet Nam (Kebang district, Quang Bình Province) (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
187894		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187894		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187894		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected.<br/></p>
187895		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187895		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from creeks and rivers of the mountain region in the northern coastal region of Viet Nam (Huong Son district, Ha Tinh Province; Nguyen 2005).
187895		habitat	eng	Found in  creeks and rivers in a mountain region.<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p>
187895		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187895		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187896		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research required to confirm the species taxonomic status.
187896		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Kien Giang River in central Viet Nam (Kien Giang River, Quang Binh Province).
187896		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187896		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187896		threats	eng	No information available.
187897		conservation	eng	None required.
187897		distribution	eng	<span> The species is found in the Mekong basin in the mainstream and in tributaries in Lao PDR (Xe  Bangfai, and at Ban Hang  Khone, just below the Great Khone waterfalls, Khong District, Champasak  Province, and at Vientiane)<span> and Thailand (Vidthayanon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1997).</span>
187897		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers and tributaries.
187897		population	eng	No information available.
187897		threats	eng	Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) consider the species vulnerable to impacts from mainstream hydropower dams.
187898		conservation	eng	As this species is known from headwaters of the Lam River drainage within a protected area only, no further conservation measures will be needed
187898		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from headwaters of the Lam River drainage in central Viet Nam (Ha Tinh province) only (Ng and Freyhof 2001).
187898		habitat	eng	Occurs in small river and streams with waterfalls. Specimens were found only in waterfalls where they were adhering to vertical surfaces of rocks (Ng and Freyhof 2001).
187898		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187898		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187900		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
187900		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the short coastal river drainages (Song An Lao, Song Thu&#160;Bon and Song Ve) draining the eastern slope of the Annam Cordilleras, central Viet Nam (Ng 2009).
187900		habitat	eng	This species&#160;inhabits small to medium sized streams and rivers, being more frequently encountered in streams with&#160;fast running waters and stony substrate.
187900		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
187900		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
187901		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
187901		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northern end of the Tonlé Sap. The southern extension of the species range is not known.
187901		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater and estuarine habitats essentially consisting of large rivers/lakes with turbid water and a substrate of mud.
187901		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
187901		threats	eng	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified
187902		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187902		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Gâm River in northern Viet Nam (Tuyên Quang Province) (Nguyen 2005).
187902		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
187902		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187902		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187903		conservation	eng	None required at present.
187903		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Mekong delta in Viet Nam and southern Cambodia, including the Bassac River (Watson 1991, Ng and Rainboth 2011).
187903		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and the lower reaches of mainstream rivers and tributaries.
187903		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
187903		threats	eng	No current threats are known; overfishing and pollution may be future potential threats.
187904		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species distribution, population trends and threats.
187904		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Sê Kông River (Mekong River basin) in central Viet Nam (A Luoi district, Thua Thien province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001). Similar specimens have been collected from the same drainage in Lao PDR, but differ in some physical details (Kottelat 2011).
187904		habitat	eng	Found in the upper parts of a river catchment.
187904		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187904		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
187905		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
187905		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the Mekong delta in southern Viet Nam (Ng and Kottelat 1998).
187905		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the bottoms of large rivers with a moderate flow and a muddy substrate. It has also been encountered in estuarine areas where the water is brackish.
187905		population	eng	Although there is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, and Vidthayanon (2008) records it as an uncommon species, this species is relatively abundant in the Mekong delta (W.J. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011), where it is frequently encountered as bycatch.
187905		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
187906		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for the species at present, further research required on its possible future threats.
187906		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed throughout mainland Southeast Asia from the lower Salween to the lower Mekong (below the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia; Roberts 1993) basins and the Malay Peninsula. It is also known in lowland Cambodia (Kottelat 1985) to freshwater parts of the Mekong delta in Viet Nam.&#160;Records from Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo and Java; Kottelat 1985) are thought to possibly refer to another species (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012), and their identity requires confirmation.<span>
187906		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, floodplain and swamps, occurs in shallow sluggish or standing-water habitats with a lot of vegetation. Feeds on zooplankton, crustaceans and insect larvae (Rainboth 1996).<br/><br/>Often found in  disturbed habitats such as paddy fields and ditches.
187906		population	eng	Locally common in all suitable habitats throughout its range.
187906		threats	eng	Wetland degradation is a potential threat to this species.
187909		conservation	eng	There is no information on the conservation status of the species, and further research is required.
187909		distribution	eng	The&#160;species<em></em> is presently known from the Nâm Mu creek (Black River drainage) in northwestern Viet Nam (Lai Châu Province; Nguyen 2005).
187909		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187909		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187909		threats	eng	There is no information available on the threats to the species.
187910		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species taxonomic identity, as well as its distribution, ecology and threats.
187910		distribution	eng	The species was described from specimens collected from Mu Stream, Tân Thành, Bac Quang, Hà Giang Province, northern Viet Nam, in the Lô River drainage (Nguyen 2005).
187910		habitat	eng	The species was collected from a stream, probably a hill stream; no further information available.
187910		population	eng	No information available.
187910		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
187911		conservation	eng	Part of this species range occurs within a Protected Area.
187911		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the middle and upper Xe Kong basin in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001). It is missing on the Bolaven plateau and in the upper Xe Kaman (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). It is not recorded in the headwaters in Viet Nam.
187911		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters in rapids and waterfalls (Roberts 1998).
187911		population	eng	No information available.
187911		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the known geographic range of this species is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dams. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected.&#160;This species will also be utilized as part of local subsistence fisheries. <br/></p>
187915		conservation	eng	Monitoring of habitat trends is needed to conserve peatswamp fishes.
187915		distribution	eng	The species is known from the southern Malay Peninsula to Indonesia (Sumatra) and Borneo.
187915		habitat	eng	Lowland streams and rivers, including peat swamps and lakes.
187915		population	eng	Locally uncommon in suitable habitats
187915		threats	eng	Peatswamp deforestation and degradation are the main threats to this fish.
187916		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research and monitoring is needed.
187916		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from the Vinh Thanh River drainage in Bình Định Province, central Viet Nam&#160; (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
187916		habitat	eng	Found in medium-sized rivers and streams, in riffles with especially fast current (Serov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006).
187916		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population. However unpublished data, comparing the habitat situation in 2000 and 2009 (J. Freyhof pers. comm. 2012), suggest a strong decline in suitable habitats (riffles with especially fast current)&#160;of this species due to dam constructions in the Vinh Thanh River drainage, and the species population is inferred to have declined.
187916		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are overfishing, habitat degradation and loss through dam constructions and siltation caused by deforestation practices.
187917		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the taxonomic identity of the species is required.
187917		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Black River (Sông Đà) drainage in northwestern Viet Nam (Hoah Binh Province; (Nguyễn and Nguyễn 1997, Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
187917		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
187917		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187917		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
187918		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The entire Nam Leuk catchment is within the Phou Khao Khouy National Biodiversity Conservation Area, however no attention has been given to aquatic organisms. Research is urgently needed to determine whether the species occurs within in the reservoir and if it is still present elsewhere within the catchment (M. Kottelat pers, comm. 2011). <br/></p>
187918		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Nam Leuk catchment, Lao PDR. <span lang="EN-GB">In 1997, construction of the Nam Leuk dam began and  was completed in 1999. The known geographic range of this species now  occurs almost entirely downstream of the Nam Leuk dam, where very  little water remains. No suitable habitat is expected to remain   upstream of the dam. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Based  on the ecological parameters of most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura </span>species, this  species is not expected to survive in the reservoir created by the  construction of the Nam Leuk dam<span lang="EN-GB"> (Kottelat 2000, M. Kottelat pers comm. 2011).</span></span></span></span>
187918		habitat	eng	Collected in shallow water of a small stream over rock and stone substrate (Kottelat 2000).
187918		population	eng	Known from an environmental impact assessment survey carried out in the area in 1997<span lang="EN-GB">, and also collected in 1998 by Rainboth (W. Rainboth, pers. comm). It has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out in the area (Kottelat 2000).
187918		threats	eng	The known geographic range of this species now occurs almost entirely downstream of the Nam Leuk dam (which was completed in 1999). No suitable habitat is expected to remain upstream of the dam and very little water remains downstream of the dam. Logging, deforestation and agriculture also occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected.
187921		conservation	eng	Taxonomic and distribution research is required. Parts of this species range occur within protected areas. Additionally, in Lao PDR, many of the villages have locally designated and regulated conservation areas within the rivers in which fishing is prohibited (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187921		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong basin in China (Yunnan), Lao PDR and Thailand (Kottelat 2001).
187921		habitat	eng	This species lives in rivers and large streams with moderate to swift current. Large adults are found in deep pools, juveniles usually occur in shallow areas with sandy substrate (which possibly is not the preferred habitat, but habitat where it is observed; Kottelat 2001).
187921		population	eng	The total population of this species has been observed to be decreasing over the last 20 years (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187921		threats	eng	This species is at threat from overfishing, where dynamite and hooks are used. Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs throughout the species range, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011), and any type of vegetation removal from its habitat negatively affects this species.
187923		conservation	eng	The species has been assessed as 'Endangered' in Thailand (Vidthayanon 2005), and it has been proposed that it should be reassessed as 'Critically Endangered' there as a result of recent survey in the Nan River drainage (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012).
187923		distribution	eng	The species is known from a small number of records in larger tributaries in the Mekong drainage in Lao PDR (e.g., the upper Xe Bangfai (Kottelat 1998), and the Xe Kong drainage (Kottelat 2011)), Thailand (e.g., the lower Mun River; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and southern China (Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan; Kottelat and Chu 1987). The species is also known from the Nan River, a tributary of the Chao Phraya in northern Thailand, however a recent survey (March-April 2012) at five localities in Nan River tributaries did not find the species (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012), although others report that the species is still present in the upper parts of the Nan drainage (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012). Further appropriate survey work is required to determine the species' presence in the drainage.<br/><br/>The species is currently known from only five populations, but may be present at further locations within the currently known extent as the species is usually present at low densities and is hard to collect in surveys (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012); it is apparently present at patchy and low densities, with a few areas of higher density.
187923		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">This species occurs in riffles, in clear, fast-flowing water (Kottelat 1998<span class="sheader5">). It is found in small streams with sandy bottom and moderate current (Kottelat and Chu 1987<span class="sheader5">) in the upper parts of rivers.</span>
187923		population	eng	The species is usually present at low densities and is hard to collect  in surveys. The species had previously been found in and easily obtainable for the aquarium trade (in 2001) in the upper Nan River (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012), and in surveys undertaken during 1995-2003, when the species was found in the Nan drainage e.g., in the Nam Wa and Mae Jarim streams, where it was common. However, a survey in 2012 did not record the species in the drainage (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012).<br/><br/>There is no information on the species' population trend in other parts of the species range. With the exception of the Xe Kong (surveyed in 1999 and 2009, when it was found at the same low densities of one to three individuals per sampling station; M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012) and the Nan River drainage, none of the known locations have been sampled twice. The population trends of the species' sub-populations in the Nan, Mun and upper Mekong (at Xishuanbanna) rivers is uncertain as a result of known threats at these locations.<br/><br/>Given the lack of repeated survey at most of the known locations, estimating population declines is problematical, however a decline of at least 30% within the last ten years across the species' range is suspected based on the presence of known threats and inference from the recent survey in the Nan River drainage.
187923		threats	eng	The known distribution of the species is very fragmented, with the Xe Kong population likely to be impacted by hydropower projects, with all known sampling sites on the river downstream of existing or planned dams, and consequential impacts from construction activities or water diversion. In the Mun River the species is likely to have been heavily impacted by dam development and pollution from agricultural sources, with consequential impacts on the species' population there. The species will be impacted by pollution (sedimentation from agricultural activities and from forest clearance) across its range.
187924		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research into the species population trends and major threats in needed.
187924		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the Ba (Da Rang) River basin and the Sesan River basin in Central Viet Nam (Gia Lia and Kon Tum Provinces).
187924		habitat	eng	Found in riffles and rapids with very high current velocities, usually in small high gradient streams. Feeds mainly on aquatic invertebrates (Freyhof and Serov 2000; Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
187924		population	eng	In the last ten years, a strong decline in the abundance of this species was observed (J. Freyhof, unpublished data).   It is suspected that the decline might be as high as 80%, mainly due to overfishing.
187924		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are overfishing, habitat degradation through dam constructions and siltation caused by deforestation practices.
187925		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place, research needed for future threats.
187925		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Mekong basin, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia (Rainboth 1996). In Cambodia, the species is recorded around the Tonle Sap lake and river (Thuok and Sina 1997)&#160;and known from the Sangke River (Battambang province) (Rot 2002).<br/><br/>In Thailand it is naturally found in the Chao Phraya basin and from the Maeklong&#160;basin (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997 and Kottelat 2001). Introduced in the Mekong basin (Kottelat 2001) and elsewhere as a result of&#160; introductions arising from the ornamental fish trade; its natural range requires some confirmation.
187925		habitat	eng	Found in ponds lakes and swamps with standing water which holds high quantities of aquatic vegetation&#160;(Kottelat 2001).
187925		population	eng	Locally common in all suitable habitats.<strong><br/></strong>
187925		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been reported, however, pollution  in wetlands, infrastructure and draining water may impact the species.
187926		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population size and trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
187926		distribution	eng	This species is known from river drainages in central Sumatra, Borneo (except in the northeast), and the Malay Peninsula northwards to Songkhla.
187926		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forested streams, typically with a swift current and a sandy bottom.
187926		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data indicate that it is still an abundant species throughout much of its range.
187926		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
187927		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
187927		distribution	eng	The species is&#160;only&#160;known from the Ma River (Sông Mã) system in northern Viet Nam (Ngyuen 2005).
187927		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187927		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187927		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187928		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More information is needed.
187928		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from the Dujiang River system in Hainan and the mountain areas of northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, Nguyen 2005).
187928		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187928		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187928		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187929		conservation	eng	Research into population trends, habitat trends, and impacts of known threats.
187929		distribution	eng	The species was described by Freyhof (2003) from River Thu Bong basin in Central Viet Nam (Quang Nam Da Nang Province), and presently it is known from this area only.
187929		habitat	eng	Inhabits rocky rapids and deep pools over sandy substrates. Also found in rocky pools isolated from the main river (Freyhof 2003, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
187929		population	eng	In the last ten years (2000-2010), a strong decline in the abundance of the species has been observed (J. Freyhof unpub. data).
187929		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are habitat degradation through massive water pollution and siltation caused by gold mining activities and deforestation practices, overfishing and dam construction. Further research on the impact of collection for the aquarium trade is required as it may be collected in high quantities.
187930		conservation	eng	Research into population and habitat trends and threats to the species and is needed.
187930		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong River drainage between Dau Tieng in southern Viet Nam and  Luang Prabang in northern Lao PDR; also the middle Chao Phraya River drainage  in Thailand.
187930		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and smaller streams. Adults feed strictly on fishes. Enters flooded forest during high water and stays near the edge of the forest during low water (Roberts 1993). Migrates into smaller streams to spawn (Sokheng 1999).
187930		population	eng	No information available.
187930		threats	eng	The species is likely to have been impacted by the loss of riverine forests, and could be impacted by changes to flow regimes arising from dam development.
187931		conservation	eng	Research is required for this species.
187931		distribution	eng	The species is presently known only from the Bolaven plateau, Xe Kong drainage, Mekong basin, in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001, 2011; pers. comm. 2011)
187931		habitat	eng	This species is found in very fast flowing water, rapids and waterfalls (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187931		population	eng	No information available.
187931		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"> A part of the species' range will be impacted by the planned Xe Nam Noy - Xe Pian reservoir. The species is not able to survive in standing water. Water will be diverted and very reduced downstream of the two dams; flow will be reduced. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected. Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187932		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187932		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is known from the Nâm Na River (Black River drainage) in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Thô district, Lai Châu Province; Nguyen 2005).
187932		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river. There is no further information available on the species ecology.
187932		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187932		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187933		conservation	eng	None required.
187933		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be endemic to the Lower Mekong basin.
187933		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, swamps and floodplains with dense submerged vegetation.
187933		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
187933		threats	eng	Wetland degradation in its range is a potential threat.
187934		conservation	eng	Research into the species distribution, population trends, and threats is required.
187934		distribution	eng	Known from the upper Salween basin in China, and possibly also occurs in the Salween basin in Myanmar.<br/><br/>Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) report the species from tributaries in the upper Lancangjiang (Mekong) in China, a record that requires confirmation.<span class="st"><em><br/></em>
187934		habitat	eng	Submontane to hill streams, with clear water and sandy-rocky bottoms.<br/>Dominant exclusive peak at beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
187934		population	eng	Population trend unknown.
187934		threats	eng	Dams and habitat degradation are potential threats to this species.
187935		conservation	eng	None required.
187935		distribution	eng	<span>The species has a very widespread Indo-West Pacific distribution:  East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Red Sea,  Arabian Peninsula, Persian Gulf to India and Andaman Islands, and  southeast Asia.  Reaches south to the Arafura Sea and western and northeastern Australia, Papua, and New Caledonia.
187935		habitat	eng	Freshwater, brackish, and marine. <span class="sheader5">Inhabits coastal and brackish waters.
187935		population	eng	No information available.
187935		threats	eng	Threats are unknown.
187936		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species taxonomy, current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
187936		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parabotia vacuongi</span> is presently known from the Gâm River in northern Viet Nam (Nà Hang district, Tuyên Quang province) only (Nguyen 2005).
187936		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187936		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187936		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187937		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187937		distribution	eng	Only known from the lower Chao Phraya basin, in Bangkok.
187937		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lowland streams and tributary rivers.        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;</p>
187937		population	eng	Its abundance and population trend are unknown.
187937		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
187938		conservation	eng	The taxonomic identity of the species requires confirmation.
187938		distribution	eng	The species is known from Thu Bon River drainage in the southern coastal region of Viet Nam (Quang Nam Province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001, Sheaves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
187938		habitat	eng	The species is known from a freshwater river. Sheaves<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2008) reported the sepcies to be found in the upper part of the drainage in fast rifles with a stony substrate.
187938		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187938		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187939		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of this species range occur within protected areas. Additionally, in Lao PDR, many of the villages have locally designated and regulated conservation areas within the rivers in which fishing is prohibited (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved.<br/></p>
187939		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Mekong Basin in southern China (Yunnan), Lao PDR, Chao Phraya basin Thailand, Java, Borneo, Sumatra, Brunei, Malay Peninsula and possibly Viet Nam (Zhou and Cui 1996; Roberts 1999;&#160; Kottelat 1998, 1999, 2000 and Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.</span> 1993). Known from Mekong tributaries (e.g., the Xe Bang Fai and Nam Theun in Lao PDR).
187939		habitat	eng	The species lives in large streams and rivers with moderate to swift flow. Adults live in deep pools and juveniles are most commonly observed in or near rapids (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Adults enter the mainstream Mekong River near the Khone Falls between October and December. Found in rivers during dry season, moves downstream in rainy season, spawns in mouths of small streams (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<span class="s1"><br/><p></p>
187939		population	eng	Although no quantitative data exists, the population is observed to be decreasing (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187939		threats	eng	<p>The species is at threat from overfishing, where dynamite, poison and hooks are used. Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs throughout the species range, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
187940		conservation	eng	None required.
187940		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Salween, Maeklong, Chao Phraya (Doi 1997) to Mekong basins (Vidthayanon 1997)<span>.
187940		habitat	eng	Lowland to hill streams, with clear water and sandy-rocky bottoms.<br/>Dominant exclusive peak at beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
187940		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its range.
187940		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is a potential threat.
187941		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of population and habitat trends is needed.
187941		distribution	eng	The species is known from a small coastal drainage of the Mong Mo River in Central Viet Nam (southern slope of Bach Ma mountains) (Freyhof and Serov 2001; Serov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).
187941		habitat	eng	Found in small mountain streams with waterfalls and small riffles, usually in pools with gravel or sandy bottom (Freyhof and Serov 2001; Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
187941		population	eng	In the last ten years (2000-2010), no decline in the abundance of this species was observed (J. Freyhof., pers. comm.).
187941		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the future development of water resource use in its distribution range.
187942		conservation	eng	Further information is required on the species distribution and ecology.
187942		distribution	eng	Known from a few specimens collected during a single survey in 1978 from Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China (Kottelat and Chu 1998).
187942		habitat	eng	No information is available.
187942		population	eng	Known from a few specimens collected during a single sample in 1960.
187942		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species ecology and distribution, little can be said of the threats to the species.
187946		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends, and the impact of known threats on the species.
187946		distribution	eng	The species is known from Hô Tây (West) Lake, in Hanoi, northern Viet Nam (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
187946		habitat	eng	The species is known from a lake (a former branch of the Red River).
187946		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187946		threats	eng	The known location, Hô Tây Lake, is within Hanoi city, and is impacted by pollution from a range of sources. The lake is also heavily utilised for recreational activities. The impact of these threats is not known.
187948		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution, ecology and population trends.
187948		distribution	eng	The species is known from Viet Nam only (Duong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), with no locality data available.
187948		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
187948		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187948		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
187950		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187950		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and small rivers within the catchment area of the Lam River in the northern coastal region of Viet Nam (Nghe An Province; Nguyen 2005).
187950		habitat	eng	Known from creeks and small rivers<br/>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at beginning of new hydrological year (Oct-nov) (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p>
187950		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187950		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187951		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range occur within Protected Areas.
187951		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong drainage downstream of the Khone Falls in Lao PDR and Cambodia, in the Malay Peninsula from Narathiwat in Thailand southwards and from Borneo (Kottelat 2001). It is possibly present in the Mekong delta in VietNam (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187951		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams, usually found in leaf litter among wood debris and roots of shore vegetation (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187951		population	eng	It is not uncommon in the Malay Peninsula, but elsewhere it has been less frequently observed (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187951		threats	eng	<p>Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
187952		conservation	eng	Research required.
187952		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan), and perhaps Sarawak and Sabah on Borneo as well.
187952		habitat	eng	Inhabits lowland rivers and submontane streams, swamps and lakes to inner estuaries.
187952		population	eng	Locally common throughout its range.
187952		threats	eng	Major threat to this species are unknown.
187953		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are no conservation measures in place. Research is needed to determine the exact range of the species and confirm that the population from the Malay Peninsula is conspecific with the northern Thailand one.</p>
187953		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from Thailand where it has been collected in the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya basin (upper Mae Nam Ping) and in Mae Nam Saiburi drainage (peninsular Thailand). It is also known from peninsular Malaysia in Kelantan River drainage (Zakaria-Ismail 1988, Kottelat 1990). The disjunct range suggests that either it is present in intermediate drainages or the identity of the peninsular populations should be re-examined. <br/></p>
187953		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate current, over a sand or gravel substrate.</p>
187953		population	eng	No information available.
187953		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting the flow and increasing sedimentation. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.
187955		conservation	eng	There is no conservation measures currently in place for the species. Research is needed to confirm the species distribution and habitats, as well as threats to the species and its habitats.
187955		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be restricted to estuaries and lower parts of the Salween, Sittaung, and Ayeyarwaddy rivers and their tributaries in Myanmar, extending into Tenasserim Province, Myanmar. Its presence in&#160;Thailand (Ranong) is possible but still unknown (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).
187955		habitat	eng	A freshwater species, apparently found in the lower parts of rivers and estuaries.
187955		population	eng	No information is available on the population of the species.
187955		threats	eng	Potential overfishing for aquarium&#160;demand may pose a threat to this species in the future.
187958		conservation	eng	Habitat management is needed to conserve the species' habitat. Harvest monitoring for the ornamental trade is recommended.
187958		distribution	eng	The species is known from the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula (southern Thailand and West Malaysia), and from Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan; Roberts 1989). The species has been recorded from central Thailand (the lower Chao Phraya drainage around Bangkok; Bleeker 1865, Hora 1923, Smith 1945), however there are no recent records of the species from this area, and populations in central Thailand may have been extirpated (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012).
187958		habitat	eng	Inhabits peat marshlands and swamps, and lowland flooded forests.
187958		population	eng	Populations of the species have much declined in some  parts of the species' range (central Thailand, and possibly the Malay  Peninsula) due to habitat loss and degradation as a result of peatland   and wetland conversion and reclamation. Levels of decline are expected   to continue and may approach 30% across its range in the next  10-20  years, and the level of habitat loss is expected to continue.
187958		threats	eng	Habitat loss as a result of peatland conversion and wetland reclamation are the main threats, especially in central Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. Overfishing for the aquarium trade is a secondary threat.
187961		conservation	eng	Parts of this species' range occur within Protected Areas.
187961		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Xe Kong basin in Lao PDR and possibly Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001, 2011; pers. comm. 2011).
187961		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing water, rapids and waterfalls (M. Kottelat pers comm. 2011).
187961		population	eng	The species is locally abundant in suitable habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187961		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The construction of the Xe Kaman dams impacts part of its range.<br/></p>
187962		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
187962		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Tam Duòng River in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Thô County, Lai Châu Province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
187962		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
187962		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187962		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
187963		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187963		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ngòi Bo River in Lào Cai Province, northwestern Viet Nam (Ngyuen 2005).
187963		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
187963		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187963		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187964		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
187964		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macropodus erythropterus</span> is only known from the type locality, the Quang Tri River, the Cam Lo River and the Giang River basins in Central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Herder 2002).
187964		habitat	eng	Found in small hill streams along heterogeneously structured shores with overhanging shrubs and submerged roots (Freyhof and Herder 2002).
187964		population	eng	The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Macropodus erythropterus</span> is relatively stable (J. Freyhof unpublished data).
187964		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187966		conservation	eng	Part of this species range is included in Protected Areas.
187966		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Yunnan Province, southern China (Kottelat 2001; pers. comm. 2011).
187966		habitat	eng	Occurs in fast flowing waters and rapids (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187966		population	eng	This species is found only in suitable habitats and always in low densities (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187966		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
187967		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The species taxonomic status needs confirmation and more information is needed.
187967		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from Nâm So Creek (Black River drainage) in northern Viet Nam (Phong Thô district, Lai Châu Province) only (Ngyuen 2005).
187967		habitat	eng	Recorded from a river (creek) but no information is available on the species ecology.
187967		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187967		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187968		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
187968		distribution	eng	The species is known from river drainages that drain into the eastern coast of northern Sumatra, river drainages that drain both the eastern and western coast of the northern Malay Peninsula, from the Perak River northwards to the Isthmus of Kra, and the short coastal rivers that drain the southern face of hills in southeastern Thailand.
187968		habitat	eng	The species is found in upland streams and rivers, typically with a sandy or rocky susbstrate, clear water and a swift current.
187968		population	eng	There is no information available on the populations and its trends for this species, although recent survey data indicates that it is still relatively abundant.
187968		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to&#160;anthropogenic&#160;habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187970		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Ba Bê Lake is a national park and has also been designated a Ramsar Site.
187970		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is presently known from Ba Bê Lake and the Nang River (a tributary of the Song Lo River), in northern Viet Nam (Bác Can Province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001). The area of the lake is between 5 and 8 km<sup>2</sup>.
187970		habitat	eng	The species has been found in a freshwater river and lake.
187970		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187970		threats	eng	The Nang River is heavily impacted by sedimentation. Ba Bê Lake is impacted by a number of threats including illegal timber and firewood collection for domestic use; continued occupation of agricultural land within the national park; grazing of cattle within the national park; pollution of lake waters due to dynamite and poison fishing techniques; sedimentation of the lake due to agricultural practices in the catchments of the three rivers that feed it; infrastructure development and unsustainable tourism development. A road has recently been constructed around the southern shore of Ba Bê Lake, increasing disturbance and facilitating access to natural resources within the national park (Birdlife Indochina 2010).
187971		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
187971		distribution	eng	The species is presently only known from creeks and rivers in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Tho district, Lai Chau Province) (Nguyen 2005).
187971		habitat	eng	Only known from creeks and rivers.
187971		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187971		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187972		conservation	eng	Research into the impact of threats and the scale of population declines across the species range is required, and the taxonomic status of populations across the species range requires confirmation. The species was assessed as Critically Endangered in Thailand (Vidthayanon 2005).
187972		distribution	eng	The species has a scattered distribution in Southeast Asia, with records from a small number of separate areas; the lower Maeklong and Chao Phraya (Ang Thong, Ayuthaya, Sintang, and Bangkok (Karnasuta 1993) in Thailand, the lower Mekong mainstream and tributaries (northeastern Thailand, including the lower Songkhram (Hortle and Suntornratana 2008) and the lower Mun River (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011), where it was uncommon), Cambodia (including around the Tonle Sap river and lake, where its occurrence was uncommon and apparently localised; W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011), and Viet Nam (presence uncertain, but reported in Vidthayanon 2008)), and Indonesia (Sumatra and western Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak). The species is also present in the lower parts of Peninsular Malaysia (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>Records from Indonesia include Kalimantan (from Danau Pengembng (a tributary of the Kapuas) and from Djongkong (=Jongkong; eastern Borneo according to Karnasuta (1993), but correctly placed on the Kapuas River in western Kalimantan by Kottelat (1995) and several unnamed records (Karnasuta 1993), and Sumatra (Palembang and the Batang Hari River (Karnasuta 1993), and Djambi (Roberts 1989)).<br/><br/>There are few, if any, recent records. The species has not been seen in the Chao Phraya or Maekhlong rivers in Thailand since the 1970's (Karnasuta 1993, C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011), and several of the records from other parts of the species range also date to the 1970's. Vidthayanon (2008) reports that the species is uncommon in markets in the Mekong delta.<br/><br/>It is probably that specimens from the Mekong delta in Viet Nam are from non-tidal, mainly freshwater areas, with records from saline areas probably referring to <span style="font-style: italic;">Osteochilus melanopleurus</span>. (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011). The species occurs not far upstream in Cambodia, but tidal areas seem to lack them entirely. Vidthayanon&#160; (2008) does record the species from the delta, but it is probable that they may be from a peat swamp that has very little current&#160; near the end of the Cau Mau Peninsula (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).
187972		habitat	eng	Inhabit slow-flowing and turbid mainstreams and larger tributaries, moves up into marshlands and floodplains (flooded forest, agricultural fields, and grasslands) in the rainy season (Rainboth 1996).
187972		population	eng	Locally uncommon in the lower Mekong basin, Borneo and Sumatra. Very rare in Thailand, and possibly extirpated (Karnasuta 1993, Vidthayanon 2005).
187972		threats	eng	Overfishing and wetland degradation in the Mekong are future threats in the lower basin. In Thailand, the species has possibly been extirpated due to habitat degradation (including dams and pollution).
187973		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187973		distribution	eng	The species is only known form the type locality, Thác Bà reservoir, in northwestern Viet Nam (Yên Bái Province) (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
187973		habitat	eng	The species was described from a freshwater reservoir, and presumably also a river species.
187973		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187973		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species. The species is known from the reservoir of a hydropower dam, and is thus presumed to be able to exist in anthropogenic habitats.
187974		conservation	eng	Research is required.
187974		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong in Thailand to the lower Mekong basin (Hui and Kottelat 2009).
187974		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams and tributaries of lowland rivers.
187974		population	eng	Locally uncommon in suitable habitats.
187974		threats	eng	No information available on threats to the species.
187975		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
187975		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known from the upper Mae Nam Ping, Chao Phraya basin, in Thailand.</p>
187975		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
187975		population	eng	No information available.
187975		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
187976		conservation	eng	Research into threats to the species and its habitat.
187976		distribution	eng	<span>Restricted to the Mekong drainage in northern Lao PDR, Thailand, China (Xishuangbanna protected area in Yunnan) and Myanmar.
187976		habitat	eng	Recorded from upland rivers. Probably eats algae etc. scraped off rocks.
187976		population	eng	No information available.
187976		threats	eng	Deforestation and sedimentation impact significant parts of the upper parts of the Mekong drainage in this area.
187977		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. F<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); ">urther work is required to confirm its taxonomic status (Kottelat 2001).</span>
187977		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is&#160;only&#160;known from the creeks and small rivers within the Red River drainage in northwestern Viet Nam (Nguyen 2005).
187977		habitat	eng	Known from creeks and small rivers.
187977		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187977		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187978		conservation	eng	Research is required.
187978		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong basin to northern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, Dubeau 2004) and may be present in the Chao Phraya basin (Kottelat 2000).
187978		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and streams, marshlands, swamps and floodplains with dense submerged vegetation.
187978		population	eng	Locally common in its suitable habitats.
187978		threats	eng	Wetland degradation is a potential threat.
187979		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place or needed. More research on the ecology, distribution and threats
187979		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Myanmar in the lower parts of Ayeyarwaddy and Sittaung River basins. Presence in adjacent basins is a possibility.
187979		habitat	eng	It is found in small freshwater streams.
187979		population	eng	There is no information available on population trends.
187979		threats	eng	No threats have been recorded.
187980		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends. There are no conservation measures in place.
187980		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Cau River in northern Viet Nam (Bac Thai, Bac Giang and Bac Ninh provinces) (Mai 1978, Kottealt 2001, Nguyen 2005).
187980		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
187980		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187980		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187981		conservation	eng	Habitat and population trends should be monitored.
187981		distribution	eng	Widely distributed from the lower Salween basin, throughout continental southeast Asia and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, and Kalimantan) (Rainboth 1996, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2012). Introduced to Sulawesi and Philippines and widely elsewhere either intentionally or as escapees from aquaria.
187981		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, swamps to peatlands and occasionally in flowing waters. Well adapted to impounded and anthropogenic water bodies and fairly tolerant of slightly polluted waters.
187981		population	eng	Abundant to common in suitable habitats throughout its range. Reduced or locally extirpated in severely polluted areas.
187981		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Pollution in wetlands, infrastructure and water drainage may pose a general threat to aquatic life in these habitats, and the species populations may have been lost in severely polluted areas.
187983		conservation	eng	More information is needed about the species ecology, as well as population trends.
187983		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Mekong basin, from Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and possibly Viet Nam.
187983		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, swamps and floodplains with dense vegetation. Occurs marginally in rivers and larger tributaries. Adaptive in impounded waters.<br/><br/>Localised migrations from swamps into rivers and streams.
187983		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats, less common in impounded water bodies.
187983		threats	eng	Dams and impounded waters may threaten this species, although it can adapt to habitat changes. Runoff and nutrient loads may pose a threat in some areas as well as unsustainable fisheries.
187984		conservation	eng	Further information on threats to the species are needed, as well as data on population trends and the level of harvest.
187984		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand and Cambodia
187984		habitat	eng	Associated with fast waters and stony to rocky substrate, in medium to large-sized rivers. Takes shelter in crevices and  under cover of rocks, tree limbs or other objects during the day  and comes out to forage at dusk and night time.  Feeds on molluscs and  other benthic invertebrates.
187984		population	eng	No information available.
187984		threats	eng	No information available.
187985		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
187985		distribution	eng	The species has a southeast Asian distribution, with records from the lower Mekong drainage (from at least as far upstream as the Xebangfai tributary (Kottelat 2001) to Cambodia, and the Chao Phraya drainage and the Mae Klong basin in Thailand (Roberts 1998).
187985		habitat	eng	Inhabits rivers and tributaries, occasional in marshlands.<br/>        <p>        <p><span class="s1">Arrive at Khone falls at start of hydrological year (Oct - Nov) (Baran <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160;</p></p>
187985		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
187985		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the species, and research is required.
187986		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
187986		distribution	eng	This fish is known from the Thua Luu River (Thua Thuen Hue province, 50 km south of Hue) and from two  small streams flowing to the sea between Thua Luu and Hai Van Pass in Central Viet Nam only (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>The original extent of occurrence (EOO) was estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 5,000 km², however recent surveys (2010) only found the species in a single stream (a single location).
187986		habitat	eng	Inhabits shallow, clear, fast-flowing water over rocky bottoms in upland streams. Seasonal movements are slight, if they occur at all. Feeds on insect larvae, some algae and phytoplankton (Freyhof and Serov 2001).
187986		population	eng	In the last ten years (2000-2010), a marked decline in the abundance of this species has been observed (J. Freyhof unpublished data). Despite intensive survey in its distribution range, this species has been found again in only one stream.
187986		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the urban development in its small distribution, which causes degradation of its habitat through water pollution and water abstraction.<br/><br/>The known locations are small streams that are very easily impacted by fishery activities and other known threats, and the species habitat is projected to decline as use, threats and suitable habitat decline.
187987		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation status of this species.
187987		distribution	eng	The species has a western Pacific distribution, however the full range of the species is not well known. Records are from Peninsular Thailand (e.g., Phuket; <span class="f">Satapoomin 2011), Singapore, northern Viet Nam (Quang Ninh Province; Kottelat 2001), <span class="f">Brunei and the Philippines (Larson 2009).</span>
187987		habitat	eng	The genus is known from estuarine and shallow coastal habitats (Larson 2009).
187987		population	eng	There is no information available on the species' population.
187987		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
187988		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
187988		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River basin in northwestern Viet Nam (Lào Cai Province; Nguyen 2005), close to the border with China.
187988		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater stream in a hill area.
187988		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187988		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
187989		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the taxonomic identity of the species is required, as well as information on its current distribution and ecology.
187989		distribution	eng	The species is known only from Thua Luu, Hué Province, Viet Nam.
187989		habitat	eng	No information available on the species; congeneric species are found mainly in slow flowing and muddy rivers, swamps, lakes, and anthropogenic habitats such as ponds and rice fields.
187989		population	eng	No information available.
187989		threats	eng	Without better information of the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of the threats to the species.
187992		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Baseline surveys needed to determine its actual distribution.
187992		distribution	eng	Presently known only from the upper Nam Ngiap, a tributary of the Mekong, in Lao PDR. Might be present in headwaters of other main Mekong tributaries in Xiangkhouang, but the area is ichthyologically virtually unexplored for security reasons.
187992		habitat	eng	This species inhabits very fast flowing water, like rapids and waterfalls, with a rocky or boulder bottom.
187992		population	eng	No information available.
187992		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
187993		conservation	eng	No information is available. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">More information is urgently required on the population, ecology and potential threats originating from the surface.&#160;</span></span></span>
187993		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is only known from one cave in <span lang="EN-GB">the centre of Chin Chu Chai village (10 km south of Tam Doung), in the middle of <span lang="EN-GB">Lai Chau Province, northern Vietnam (Kottelat 2004).</span></p>
187993		habitat	eng	This is a species of cavefish, but no further information is known (Kottelat 2004).
187993		population	eng	Currently only known from three specimens collected in 2002 (Kottelat 2004).
187993		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The cave is situated in a populated area. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts <span lang="EN-GB">through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution<span lang="EN-GB"> suspected to have some effect on the cave habitat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</span></p>
187994		conservation	eng	Further information on the species population and harvest trends is required.
187994		distribution	eng	Recorded from Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and southern Viet Nam in the <span>Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, and also from the northern Malay Peninsula.
187994		habitat	eng	Found in large rivers with a muddy substrate, and also with bottom cover of rocks, logs, or even brush piles.<br/><br/>Nocturnal or crepuscular fish. Feeds on molluscs, benthic insect larvae and worms. Moves into flooded areas during the rainy season and returns to rivers during November and December
187994		population	eng	No information available.
187994		threats	eng	No information available.
187995		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More information is needed.
187995		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from Nam Xam basin in Laos (Kottelat 2001, Kottelat and Chen 2004) and is expected to occur also in northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
187995		habitat	eng	Recorded from rivers, but there is no information available on the species ecology.
187995		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187995		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
187996		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
187996		distribution	eng	The species is known from Indonesia (Borneo, Sumatra), Malay Peninsula (Malaysia, Thailand northwards to the Tapi River basin) and southeastern Thailand.
187996		habitat	eng	The species lives in streams in forest. It is found in thick mats of leave litter. Because of this secretive habits it is rarely observed and seems to be in low density, which is probably a sampling artefact.
187996		population	eng	Always seen at low densities but this is probably a collection artefact resulting from the usual habitat.
187996		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.
187997		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends, distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
187997		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Red River drainage in northern Viet Nam and southern China.
187997		habitat	eng	This species inhabits relatively swift rivers, typically with a sandy substrate.
187997		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.
187997		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
187998		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
187998		distribution	eng	The species is known from fast-flowing creeks and rivers in northeastern Viet Nam (Ba Be district, Bac Can province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
187998		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
187998		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
187998		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
187999		conservation	eng	No conservation action is in place. Research is required to understand the impacts of known threats.
187999		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Sekong drainage in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001, Roberts 1997).
187999		habitat	eng	Found in rapids and fast flowing waters in the mainriver and larger tributatries. Also in stretches of river with large gravel (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187999		population	eng	This species is uncommon, but this is possibly because the preferred habitat is not easily sampled (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
187999		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Dams are constructed (on the Xe Kaman) or planned that will impact its habitat by sedimentation and reduction of flow.<br/></p>
188000		conservation	eng	Parts of the range of this species is within protected areas. No other conservation measures have been put in place. The identity of the population in Cambodia needs confirmation.
188000		distribution	eng	This species is known in the Malay Peninsula northwards until the Tapi basin in Thailand. In Cambodia, it has been recorded in the mainstream of the Tonle Sap River (Rainboth 1996).
188000		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits fast water rivers and streams over bedrock, boulder and cobble substrate.
188000		population	eng	There is no information on number of individuals or population trends.
188000		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188001		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research and monitoring is needed.
188001		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single locality in the Pako River (Sesan River basin) in central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2000). the species has not been recorded downstream in Cambodia (W. Rainboth pers. comm).
188001		habitat	eng	Found in rapids with a current velocity exceeding 1 ms<sup>-1</sup>. The analysis of stomach contents showed that the species feeds on aquatic invertebrate (Freyhof and Serov 2000).
188001		population	eng	In the last ten years, a very strong decline in the abundance of this species has been observed (J. Freyhof, unpublished data).
188001		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are overfishing (susceptible to electro-fishing and other indiscriminate methods), habitat degradation through dam construction and siltation caused by deforestation practices.
188004		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
188004		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species has only been recorded from the Nam Tha and Nam Ou drainages, Mekong basin, in Lao PDR.</p>
188004		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species was collected in rapids and stretches with stone bottom (Kottelat 2000).</p>
188004		population	eng	Usually observed at very low density, but this may reflect a sampling artefact.
188004		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment  (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188005		conservation	eng	No conservation&#160;measures&#160;are currently in place.
188005		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the lower Mekong basin, from the Delta to central Cambodia (including the Tonle Sap) (Rainboth 1996). Possibly extends upstream to southern Lao PDR below the Khone Falls.
188005		habitat	eng	Inhabits mainstreams and larger tributaries, enters the Tonle Sap in Cambodia in the dry season, and moves upstream during the rainy season<span class="s1"> (Rainboth 1996).
188005		population	eng	Seasonally and locally common in the Tonle Sap Lake and the Tonle River, uncommon elsewhere.
188005		threats	eng	Overfishing is a potential threat to this species.
188006		conservation	eng	Research on the species capture for the aquarium trade is required.
188006		distribution	eng	<span>Recorded from the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and <span>Mae Khlong <span>basins in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia (<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Rainboth 1996</span><span><span><span><span><span><span>; Kottelat 1989<span><span><span>).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
188006		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader5">Usually found in large rivers with a muddy substrate, and occasionally in flooded fields.  Feeds at night on worms, crustaceans and insects.  Oviparous.<br/><br/>A strongly migratory species.   Above the Khone Falls of the Mekong basin, it migrates into  tributaries and small streams, where it spawns during the early flood  season.  When water starts to recede, it moves back to the main  tributaries and to the Mekong mainstream.  An upstream migration occurs  from the Mekong Delta, around the saline intrusion zone to just below  the Khone Falls between November and March.  This migration is  reportedly triggered by receding water levels.  From May to July, the  species migrates the opposite way, downstream from the  Khone Falls to  flooded areas in southern Cambodia and the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam (Sokheng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).
188006		population	eng	No information available.
188006		threats	eng	No information available. Capture of fish from the wild for the aquarium trade should be monitored.
188007		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, and research is required.
188007		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong basin in central Lao PDR, eastern Thailand and Cambodia (Kottelat 1998, 2001, pers. comm. 2011).
188007		habitat	eng	This species lives in streams with gravel and stone substrate (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188007		population	eng	This species is fairly regularly seen in suitable habitat, but always in low densities (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188007		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by altering the flow cycle. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188009		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species distribution is needed.
188009		distribution	eng	The species is known from coastal regions of Singapore (although not reported in recent surveys), and Indonesia and Malaysia (Larson 2005), where is is known from Borneo (Sarawak and Kalimantan (Banjarmasin, Barito and Martapura rivers; Larson 2005). A record from Sumatra requires confirmation (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993).
188009		habitat	eng	Inhabits brackish streams (Larson 2005).
188009		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188009		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188011		conservation	eng	Population monitoring and research into the impact of dam development is required. Its habitat within flooded forests in the Tonle Sap needs to be protected.
188011		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mekong (Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia), Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins, and associated lowland areas.
188011		habitat	eng	Occur in rapids and in slow flowing water (Singhanouvong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). Collected in numerous tributaries as small as 2-3 m wide in widely separated localities in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia.<br/><br/>Possibly the single most abundant species in the Mekong basin. In terms of absolute numbers, it is the most abundant fish species in the major migrations that occur in the mainstream of the Mekong River below Khone Falls every December-February and May-July, where there is an important artisanal fishery. It is one of the lead species in the massive migrations of cyprinid fishes moving up the Mekong mainstream in the Khone Falls area. The fish in Laos migrate from Tonle Sap in Cambodia (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
188011		population	eng	<span class="sheader5">  This is a keystone species in the Mekong. In terms of absolute numbers, it is the most  abundant fish species in the major migrations that occur in the  mainstream of the lower and middle Mekong River. However the population is heavily dependent on hydrological situations, and it is expected to be in slow decline.
188011		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted in parts of its range by overfishing, and considered vulnerable to impacts from proposed mainstream and lowland tributary dams on the Mekong (ICEM 2010).
188012		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of this species range occur within protected areas. Additionally, in Lao PDR, many of the villages have locally designated and regulated conservation areas within the rivers in which fishing is prohibited (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188012		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong basin in Yunnan province, China, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam, Java, Borneo (except western Sabah), Sumatra and probably Malay Peninsula (Kottelat 2001; Roberts 1999). Distant populations are probably different species, and research is required. Known from Mekong tributaries (e.g., the Xe Bang Fai and Nam Theun in Lao PDR).
188012		habitat	eng	This species lives in deep pools in clear water rivers with moderate to swift flow (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188012		population	eng	Although no specific infomation is available it is suspected that the overall population of this species is decreasing (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188012		threats	eng	<p>This species is at threat from overfishing, where nets, dynamite and hooks are used. Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs throughout the species range, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188013		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
188013		distribution	eng	The species is presently know from the Ve River and Tra Khuc River in Central Viet Nam only (Freyhof and Serov 2000, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It was <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>described from the Trac Khuc River in Central Viet Nam (Nghia Bin Province).
188013		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rapids and riffles of fast-running creeks (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006)
188013		population	eng	In the last ten years (2000–2009), a decline in abundance of over 50% was observed in the Ve River and Tac Khu River (J. Freyhof, unpublished data). This decline is inferred to have also occurred in other parts of the species range.
188013		threats	eng	Major threats to the species are overfishing, habitat degradation through dam constructions and siltation caused by deforestation practices.
188016		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place. The species is in need of research to confirm its full distribution.
188016		distribution	eng	The species is known from Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan; Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993) and Thailand (Bangkok and Surathani; Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
188016		habitat	eng	The species is known from the lower parts of rivers, coastal areas, and mangroves; areas with heavy vegetation and slow flows. There is no information available on the species ecology.
188016		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188016		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188017		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
188017		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ngan Pho and Ngan Sau rivers in the northern coastal region of Viet Nam only (Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
188017		habitat	eng	The species is known from freshwater rivers.
188017		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188017		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
188018		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species distribution, threats and population trends.
188018		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Vu Gia River in central Viet Nam (Da Nang Province; Doi 2000), however a later study of the river basin did not report the species (Sheaves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
188018		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
188018		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188018		threats	eng	At least eight major and 34 smaller hydropower developments are proposed or have been developed within the Vu Gia - Thu Bon River basin in central Viet Nam (Sheaves<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).
188019		conservation	eng	Further information on the species ecology, distribution and threats is required.
188019		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Mekong River drainage in southern China (Simao, Yunnan) and Lao PDR (Nam Ma Oun drainage, Louang Namtha Province, northwestern Lao PDR) (Ng and Rainboth 2001). Records of the species from the Zaqu and Sequ sub-catchments (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) are somewhat further north from the previously known records and require confirmation.
188019		habitat	eng	Found in tributary streams.
188019		population	eng	No information available.
188019		threats	eng	It is assumed that the species will impacted by deforestation and habitat modifications; eight dams are either proposed or already constructed in the Upper Mekong (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) within Yunnan. Although the species migratory habits, if any, are unknown, it does require fast-flowing, highly oxygenated and fairly cold water (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011), conditions that will be impacted by hydropower dam development. In addition, dams will certainly isolate separate populations, each of which will be more susceptible to extermination, with re-colonization becoming impossible. The dams will basically take out the entire centre of the distribution.<br/><br/>Whilst a relatively small fish (<7 cm; Ng and Rainboth 2001), the species is still likely to be subject to fishery pressure, at least at the subsistence scale. Some tributaries of the Mekong within Yunnan are also impacted by pollution from agricultural run-off and from industrial sources (Kang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
188020		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
188020		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the upper part of the middle Mekong basin in Yunnan Province, China (Chu and Chen 1990).
188020		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188020		population	eng	No information is known.
188020		threats	eng	<p>Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188021		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the distribution of the species.
188021		distribution	eng	The species has a Western Pacific distribution, with records from the coastal regions of Borneo (Brunei (Belait River), Kalimantan (Kapuas River basin), and Sarawak; (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993, Larson 2001<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, 2005, 2008), Sumatra (from an estuary in Padang Island; Larson 2001)), Peninsular Malaysia (Muar River, Johor) and Singapore (although there are no recent records form here; Larson 2001). No records have been found from Sabah, but it is assumed to be present there.
188021		habitat	eng	Adults and juveniles are common in small (and shallow) clear, tannin-stained mangrove pools and rivulets among <span style="font-style: italic;">Nypa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhizophora</span> roots and litter at low tide, usually well back from the main stream (Larson 2005). Also found in tannin-stained, fresh-tasting water, but in a non-mangrove habitat (Larson 2005). Records from Singapore were found in the marine harbour, associated with a reef.
188021		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188021		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is assumed to be a problem in parts of the species range, but without details.
188022		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range occur within Protected Areas.
188022		distribution	eng	Known from the Mekong basin in Lao PDR, Thailand and Yunnan, China. Also possibly present in the Mekong basin in Myanmar, and the Se Kong drainage, Cambodia (Kottelat 2001).
188022		habitat	eng	Found in fast flowing waters and rapids (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188022		population	eng	Relatively common in areas of suitable habitat (Kottelat 2001, M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188022		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188024		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188024		distribution	eng	The species known from fast-running creeks and rivers in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Tho district, Lai Châu Province) (Nguyen 2005).
188024		habitat	eng	The species known from fast-running creeks and rivers.
188024		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188024		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
188026		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the species taxonomic validity and distribution is required.
188026		distribution	eng	Kottelat (2001) tentatively assigns this species name to specimens from the Hong River basin at Hekou, Yunnan, southern China, at the border with Viet Nam.
188026		habitat	eng	Material guessed to possibly pertain to this species was collected from the Hong River.
188026		population	eng	No information available.
188026		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, little can be said of its threats.
188027		conservation	eng	There are no conservation action in place.
188027		distribution	eng	The species is found in the tributaries of the Chao Phraya River around the central plain of Thailand. It is not known in the Mae Nam Ping. Records from Chanthaburi province (Monkolprasit<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1997) need confirmation; records from Prachinburi Province and from the Mekong basin are probably erroneous.
188027		habitat	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">This species is observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
188027		population	eng	The population size and trends of this species are unknown.
188027		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
188028		distribution	eng	Known from the Malay Peninsula in both slopes from Tapi to the Pahang basins.
188028		habitat	eng	Inhabits small streams from lowland to submontane.
188028		population	eng	Uncommon in its suitable habitats, possibly declining.
188028		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is potential threat to this fish, but still poorly known.
188029		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
188029		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper reaches of the Mae Nam Ping, Mae Nam Wang and Mae Nam Yom, Chao Phraya basin, in Thailand (Kottelat 1990).
188029		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to rock substrate. Frequently observed in small creek in forest, even in very shallow water.<br/></p>
188029		population	eng	No information available.
188029		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
188030		conservation	eng	Little is known of the species full distribution or population trends.
188030		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality at Houaykhoua (Nam Ka basin, Nam Pa),&#160;Xieng Khouang Province, Lao PDR (Ng and Rainboth 2001).
188030		habitat	eng	This species is found in swift-flowing rivers with a substrate consisting predominantly of large rocks.
188030		population	eng	No information on the population and its trends for this species are available.
188030		threats	eng	Existing and planned dams in the Mekong drainage could impact on this species' habitat, and pollution in the Mekong basin could have an effect, although more data on the population and geographic range of this species is needed to ascertain this.
188032		conservation	eng	Further information required into the species distribution, population trends, and threats.
188032		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Salween and Ayeyarwaddy drainages in Thailand and Myanmar and possibly in India (Manipur; see Taxonomic Notes). A record from the Mekong drainage in Myanmar is probably a misidentification.
188032		habitat	eng	Recorded from smaller, slow flowing streams and rivers, over and in sandy bottom (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). Dominant presence at Khone falls during the dry season, exhibits a small peak at the beginning of the rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
188032		population	eng	No information available.
188032		threats	eng	The species is potentially impacted by future mainstream dams on the Ayeyarwaddy and Salween rivers.
188033		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
188033		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nanla drainage in Xishuangbanna (Yunnan, China) and its tributary, the Nam Youan, in Lao PDR, Mekong basin.
188033		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate. <br/></p>
188033		population	eng	No information available.
188033		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (siltation, water diversion) (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188034		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
188034		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from the upper Red River (Yuánjiāng) basin in southern China (Yunnan Province) only, but it is expected to occur in the same river basin in northern Viet Nam (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).
188034		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
188034		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188034		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
188035		conservation	eng	More information is needed in particular on the effect of dams to the life cycle of this migratory species.
188035		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Mekong basin, from Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). The species is also known from the Tonle Sap lake and river.
188035		habitat	eng	The species is believed to migrate from the Tonle Sap in Cambodia up to southern Lao PDR and northeastern Cambodia between November and February (Baird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003). It returns to Tonle Sap July-August. It feeds on detritus, algae, zooplankton and leaves (Baird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
188035		population	eng	It is common throughout its range.
188035		threats	eng	The species is threatened by overfishing and mainstream Mekong dams. It is not known to what extent proposed dams will impact this species, but other migratory species are expected to have significant negative affects.
188036		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
188036		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Vinh Thanh River basin in central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2000; Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188036		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams with shallow rapids with rocky substrate; current relatively slow and water  very clear; deep pools with detritus and muddy or sandy substrate.  Stomach contents indicate that this species feeds on aquatic  invertebrates (Freyhof and Serov 2000).
188036		population	eng	In the last ten years (2000-2009), a strong decline in the abundance of this species in the Vinh Thanh River of at least 50% was observed (J. Freyhof, unpublished data). Probably caused by the construction of a dam.
188036		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing and dam construction.
188038		conservation	eng	The whole range of this species occurs within the Nakai National Biodiversity Conservation Area, which is developing as an effectively managed site (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188038		distribution	eng	This species is only found in two streams in the upper Nam Theun drainage, Laos PDR (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). These were previously connected, but are now separated by the Nam Theun reservoir.
188038		habitat	eng	Adults live in deeper parts of large streams over rock and stone substrate and spawn in riffles. Juveniles have been found in a small creek near a spawning site (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188038		population	eng	This is a rare species found in low numbers.
188038		threats	eng	In addition to the impacts of the dam, overfishing within the protected area is a potential threat (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188039		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Parts of the range are in protected areas.
188039		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nan River drainage, a branch of the Chao Phraya, in Thailand.
188039		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
188039		population	eng	No information available.
188039		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting fast water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The Sirikit reservoir occupies part of the EOO.<br/></p>
188042		conservation	eng	The only known location is in a protected area. More research is needed.
188042		distribution	eng	This species is presently known from creeks and small rivers in the Pumat National Park, Central Viet Nam (Nghe An Province) only (Nguyen and Nguyen 2007).
188042		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology but it is expected to have similar requirement as most species in its genus and live in <span lang="EN-GB">streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.
188042		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188042		threats	eng	The species is found within Pumat National Park, however the current threats are unknown. According to Tordoff <em>et al.</em> (2002) &#160;"along river valleys and at other easily accessible points, the forest has been degraded by illegal timber extraction. However, most of the forest in [Pumat National Park]&#160;remains relatively undisturbed". &#160;Birdlife International (2012 - though the data is from&#160;2004) also mention that Gold mining and deforestation for cultivation are impacting the National Park.&#160;It is unknown if these threats have continued and impact the species (which was described in 2007) or if there are other current threats occurring within the NP.
188043		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188043		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nam Na and Nam Lay Rivers in northwestern Vietnam (Lai Chau Province) Kottelat 2001).
188043		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
188043		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188043		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
188044		conservation	eng	Protection of the on the Mekong mainstream rapids is vital for this species. More research is needed on its distribution.
188044		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sekong River, the Mekong at Savannakhet and the Mun River at Keng Tana, Thailand.
188044		habitat	eng	Found in rocky rapids in large streams and rivers.
188044		population	eng	There is very little information available, however the Mun River populations in Thailand have been almost extirpated due to the development of the Pak Mun Dam (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2011). The Sekong 4 and Sekong 5 dams are due to commence construction during 2011-2012, and it is expected that this will have a significant negative impact on this population. A projected population decline over the next ten years is conservatively given as 30-50%, however if the construction of Ban Koum dam goes ahead the decline could be even greater.
188044		threats	eng	The major threat to this species are dams. It is already known to have been heavily impacted (and almost extirpated) in the Mun River due to the construction of the Pak Mun Dam in Thailand, and it is likely to disappear quickly on other parts of its range where dams are developed. The Sekong 4 and Sekong 5 dams threaten the Sekong population of this species (Baird and Shoemaker 2008) and the Ban Koum Dam threatens the Mekong population.
188046		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the species distribution, population trends, and threats.
188046		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the Ben Hai River basin in central Viet Nam (Quang Tri and Quang Binh provinces) (Freyhof and Herder 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
188046		habitat	eng	A common resident of stagnant shallow sluggish waters, including streams, and often found in rice-field canals and ditches (Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
188046		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188046		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species. The species occurs within an area impacted by habitation and agriculture, however Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) reported that the species is also found in anthropogenic habitats.
188047		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species. as well as its distribution and population trends.
188047		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and rivers in northeastern Viet Nam (Ba Be District, Bac Can Province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
188047		habitat	eng	Apparently found in streams and rivers.
188047		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188047		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
188050		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188050		distribution	eng	The species is presently known from lakes in the northern plain of Viet Nam (Ngyuen 2005).
188050		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater lake.
188050		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188050		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
188051		conservation	eng	More information is needed on the species population and impacts of threats that are&#160;occurring&#160;within the species range.
188051		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from the Mekong River basin in southern China (Yunnan Province), Laos and Thailand (Yang <em>et al</em>. 1992, Vidthayanon et al. 1997, Kottelat 2001).
188051		habitat	eng	Inhabits streams and rivers with rocky bottoms. Feed on algae and insects (Yang and Chen 1992).
188051		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188051		threats	eng	No information available on the direct threats to this species. Potential threats which are&#160;occurring&#160;within the species range and may impact the species are overfishing and habitat degradation through dam construction and other river modification activities.
188052		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Research is required to confirm the species' distribution and threats.
188052		distribution	eng	<p>The species is only known from the Xe Bangfai drainage, Lao PDR, where it has been observed within a restricted area downstream of the underground course of the Xe Bangfai and upstream of the impact of the release of the Nam Theun 2 power plant discharge. The species may be present in adjacent drainages, however it has not yet been observed from outside the known locations within the Xe Bangfai (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011; W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188052		habitat	eng	Found in stretches with slow flowing water, over mud or under stones, wood debris, etc.
188052		population	eng	No information available.
188052		threats	eng	Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with  associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat  pers. comm. 2011). The exit from the underground portion of the river is a popular tourist area.
188054		conservation	eng	Research into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed.
188054		distribution	eng	<span>The species has a wide distribution in southeast Asia. Recorded from Thailand (Mekong and Chao Phraya basins), elsewhere in the Mekong basin (Lao PDR, Viet Nam<span> and Cambodia), Malaysia (Peninsula, and most likely Sabah and Sarawak), and Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan).</span>
188054		habitat	eng	Occurs in large rivers (Kottelat 1998). Found along the shores of flowing and standing waters with overhanging vegetation. This is the more common species of the genus, found well upstream from estuaries. Feeds on terrestrial insects, zooplankton, crustaceans and aquatic insect larvae. Found in fresh and brackish waters, including estuaries; potamodromous.
188054		population	eng	No information available.
188054		threats	eng	No specific threats known. May be impacted by pollution in the lower parts of rivers and estuaries.
188055		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More information is needed on the species taxonomic status, ecology, threats and population.
188055		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from the Hang Jiang River basin and tributaries of the Pearl River basin in southeastern China, the Nandujiang River on Hainan Island, the Red River basin in southern China and northern Viet Nam, and the Nam Ma River basin in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001, Xi <em>et al.</em> 2003). A record from central Viet Nam in the Vu Gia - Thu Bon River (Sheaves <em>et al.</em> 2008) requires confirmation.
188055		habitat	eng	Recorded from rivers, at higher altitudes in riffles and rapids&#160;(Sheaves&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).
188055		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188055		threats	eng	The impacts of the many threats (including dams, over harvesting,&#160;destructive fish practices&#160;and water pollution) across the species range is unknown. However in the&#160;Vu Gia – Thu Bon basin the fish fauna appeared&#160;surprisingly intact in 2007 (Sheaves&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). However, the future development of hydropower across the Vu Gia – Thu Bon&#160;basin (eight major and 34 minor hydropower developments) is likely to impact the fish fauna there (Sheaves&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008), and as many of these dams are in the upstream tributaries it is likely to alter the flow regime and aquatic habitats required by this species (riffles and rapids).
188057		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The species taxonomic status needs confirmation.
188057		distribution	eng	The specie is  known only from small rivers and creeks of the Lo River (Sông Lô) system in  northwestern Viet Nam (Hà Giang Province) (Nguyen 2005).
188057		habitat	eng	The species is known from small rivers and creeks.
188057		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188057		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188058		conservation	eng	At present there are no conservation measures in place.
188058		distribution	eng	The species is known from&#160;across the lower Mekong basin in Lao PDR (including tributaries such as the Nam Theun; Kottelat 1998), Cambodia (including from the  Lake Tonle Sap near Siem Reap; Motomura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), Viet Nam and Thailand (Kottelat 1998). The species has also been recorded from<span class="st"> Nakhon Ratchasima, Sakon Nakhon  and Nakhon Sawan provinces (Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997) in the Chao Phraya drainage.
188058		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, floodplain and swamps.
188058		population	eng	Locally common in Mekong suitable habitats, rare in Chao Phraya.
188058		threats	eng	Wetland degradation is a possible threat to this species.
188060		conservation	eng	Research in to the species distribution and population trends is needed.
188060		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR (adjacent to Nong Khai and southern Lao PDR, unconfirmed identification), Viet Nam, and Cambodia (e.g., the Stung Treng region).
188060		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers; only recorded from sections of river with hard or rocky bottoms. Not recorded from the Great Lake in Cambodia for example.<br/>Dominant presence at Khone falls during dry season, exhibits small peak in beginning of rainy season. (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
188060		population	eng	No information available.
188060		threats	eng	Overfishing in parts of its distribution. Proposed dams within the region would impact the species habitat.
188061		conservation	eng	Research into the species threats is needed.
188061		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ayeyarwaddy and Salween-Tennasserim (Z. Lunn pers. comm. 2011) and associated drainages in eastern Thailand.
188061		habitat	eng	Submontane to hill streams, with clear water and sandy-rocky bottoms.<br/>Dominant exclusive peak at beginning of rainy season (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
188061		population	eng	Locally uncommon in its suitable habitats.
188061		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and dams may potentially threaten this fish.
188063		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on population trends and current threats to this species are needed.
188063		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Xe Kong basin, southern Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, 2001, pers. comm. 2011).
188063		habitat	eng	This species was collected in rapids, stretches of the main river with stone bottom and smaller tributaries (Kottelat 2000).
188063		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Population size and trends are unknown.</p>
188063		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Part of the EOO is impacted by the construction of the Xe Kaman dams. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011<span lang="EN-GB">).</span></p>
188064		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place, but parts of the range is in protected areas.
188064		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Ma and Nam Xam in Lao PDR. The Nam Ma flows from Viet Nam to Lao PDR and back to Viet Nam; the Nam Xam flows to Viet Nam. The species has been collected close to the border and Viet Nam is included in its range.
188064		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast flowing streams and creeks, over stone to rock bottom.
188064		population	eng	No information available.
188064		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known but logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
188065		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
188065		distribution	eng	The species has a northwest Pacific distribution, from the eastern Russia Federation (Vladivostok,  Olga Bay and Peter the Great Gulf (Primorsky Krai); Dawson 1985), southward to northern Viet Nam, the Gulf of Tonkin. Occurs throughout the Japanese coast (Masuda<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1984), including Ryuku Island and Ogasawara Island, Korean Peninsular, and Taiwan (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984, Dawson 1985, Kim<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005).
188065		habitat	eng	Common in estuaries and in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera </span>and other vegetation. Juveniles associate with drifting seaweed (Safran 1990, Safran and Omori 1990). <span class="sheader5"> Ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).  The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail <span class="sheader5">(Breder and Rosen 1966).</span>
188065		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188065		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, however there are not details available.
188066		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.
188066		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontobutis potamophilus</span> has an East Asia distribution. It is known from the Yangzte River basin in China (Iwata and Sakai 2002) and occurs probably also in nothern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
188066		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
188066		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188066		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188069		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188069		distribution	eng	The species is  presently known from the Ma River (Sông Mã) and the Nhat Le River drainages in the north-central coast of Viet Nam (Camthuy district, Thanh Hoa Province)  only (Duong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
188069		habitat	eng	Known from freshwater rivers.
188069		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188069		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
188070		conservation	eng	Small parts of this species range occur within Protected Areas.
188070		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in lower Salween and Ataran drainages in Myanmar and Thailand. Only a small part of the species range is in Thailand (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188070		habitat	eng	This species is found in riffles (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188070		population	eng	No information is available.
188070		threats	eng	<p>Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat per. comm. 2011).</p>
188071		conservation	eng	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed. More research is need on the species taxonomic status and distribution.
188071		distribution	eng	There is no&#160;information available on the species distribution range as&#160;no locality was mentioned in the description by Mai (1978). The vietnamese name "Ca chach da cho Don" or "Ca chach da" of Cho Don, a district in Thai Ngyuen province, indicates that <span style="font-style: italic;">S. uniformis</span> was recorded in the Thai Nguyen province, northern Viet Nam (Kottelat 2001).
188071		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
188071		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188071		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The species taxonomic status needs confirmation.
188072		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is known from Black River (Sông Đà) drainage in northwestern Viet Nam (Phong Thô district, Lai Châu province) only (Nguyen 2005).
188072		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
188072		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188072		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188073		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188073		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper parts of the Red River (Yuanjiang) basin in southern China (Yunnan Province), and also recorded from the Yangbi River, a tributary of the Mekong (Kottelat 2000).
188073		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers.
188073		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188073		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188074		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the taxonomic status of populations in the Mekong require confirmation.
188074		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Lower Mekong drainage in Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia, and from other drainages in Thailand to the Malay Peninsula.<br/><br/>In Thailand, records are from the Maeklong, rivers in Peninsular Thailand, and the Mekong basin (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997); found in the Mekong River and tributaries from Ban Dan to Nakon  Phanom, including the lower Songkhram River (Blake and Pitakthepsombut 2006) and in Peninsular Thailand, from the Khlong Falamee<span class="st"><em></em> (Roberts 1981; flowing into inner lake of the Tale Sap, 2 km west of Pak Payoon, Isthmus of Kra), the Tale Sap and Lake Songkhla, from Pak Payoon (Phatthalung) (Songkhla and Phatthalung provinces) Monkolprasit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997), and from the Tapi River (Lheknim 2004).<br/><br/>W. Rainboth (pers. comm. 2011) has collected the species from the area of Savannakhet (Lao PDR) downstream to Cambodia; it probably occurs upstream from Savannakhet  but has not yet been recorded from there (<span class="st">W. Rainboth <span class="st">pers. comm. 2011). All collections that have come from the Thai-Lao area are from the Mekong proper or at the mouths of rivers where they join the Mekong (e.g., the Xebangfai). In Cambodia, the fry and larvae of the species were one of the three most abundant found in the Tonle Sap Lake (Chea and Hortle 2005).<br/><br/>Ng and Tan (1999) mention ‘<span style="font-style: italic;">Sundasalanx cf. praecox</span>’ in the Endau drainage, Johor state, southern Peninsular Malaysia, <span class="st">and these specimens were confirmed <span class="st"> as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sundasalanx praecox</span> by H.H. Ng (pers. comm. 2011)<span class="st">.<span class="st"></span></span></span>
188074		habitat	eng	Found in freshwater rivers and lakes, as well as impounded waters and canals. Where present, found in large schools, for example in dam reservoirs in the Maekhlong.
188074		population	eng	No information available.
188074		threats	eng	No information available. Found widely in anthropogenic waters.
188075		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188075		distribution	eng	The species is known from creeks and rivers in northeastern Viet Nam (Ha Giang Provinz) (Mai 1978, Nguyen 2005).
188075		habitat	eng	Known from creeks and rivers.
188075		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188075		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
188078		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
188078		distribution	eng	The species is know from streams draining to the Tonle Sap Lake, in Cambodia (Kottelat 1990, Rainboth 1996).
188078		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate current, over sand bottom.</p>
188078		population	eng	No information available.
188078		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threat known. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment. <br/></p>
188079		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
188079		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, from the lower Mekong basin (from Lao PDR from at least as far upstream as Nam Kading, to Viet Nam, including tributaries such as the Se San, Sre Pok and Se Kong (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005)) to Thailand (Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins), the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo (Kottelat 2001).
188079		habitat	eng	Inhabits large rivers, canals,&#160;oxbows,&#160;floodplains and marshlands.&#160;Migrates to floodplains to spawn (Rainboth 1996). Highly migratory in the Mekong (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005); movements elsewhere in its range are not understood.
188079		population	eng	Locally and seasonally common throughout its range.
188079		threats	eng	No present threats recorded but overfishing and habitat degradation, especially from migration disruption in the Mekong drainage could be concern in the future.
188081		conservation	eng	No conservations are in place for this species. Research is required for this species.
188081		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is currently known from a single locality (unnamed small forest stream along road from Thad Leuk to Nam Leuk dam site) <span lang="EN-GB">in the Nam Leuk catchment, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000).</span></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-GB"></p><p><br/></p>
188081		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Found amongst leaf litter in very shallow water in a small forest creek (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
188081		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Three specimens were collected from a single sampling in 1997 and it has not been observed again as no further research has been carried out in the area (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
188081		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment through soil erosion, sedimentation and agricultural pollution expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). The impact of dams in the locality is unknown.<br/></p>
188082		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed on this species distribution,&#160; trends, habitat and ecology, and threats. The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified.
188082		distribution	eng	The species was described from creeks and small rivers (Phong-Thô and Nâm-Na creeks) within the Black River drainage in northwestern Viet Nam (Lai-Châu Province) (Nguyen 2005).
188082		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing rivers.
188082		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188082		threats	eng	Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by  reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and  agriculture occurs throughout the species range, with associated impacts  on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188083		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
188083		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is known only from the Mae Nam Noi drainage, a tributary of the Salween. The Mae Nam Noi makes the border between Thailand and Myanmar. Although the species has been observed only in Thailand for lack of surveys in Myanmar, there is no reason to doubt that it also occurs in Myanmar.</p>
188083		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel to stone substrate.</p>
188083		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown.
188083		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting and increasing sedimentation. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occur in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment.</p>
188084		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
188084		distribution	eng	The species is known from the middle Mekong River drainage in Lao PDR and northeastern Thailand (Ng and Kottelat 1998).
188084		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description, but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit swift rivers and streams with a substrate of sand/mud and rocks.
188084		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
188084		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
188085		conservation	eng	Parts of this species range occur in Protected Areas. The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified.
188085		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong (Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand), Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins. Possibly present in the Mekong drainage in China (Xishuanbanna) and Myanmar (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
188085		habitat	eng	Headwaters and upper reaches of streams in moderate to swift current (M. Kottelat pers.comm. 2011). Found in forest streams only, and quickly disappears following deforestation events.
188085		population	eng	Populations are scattered. Once relatively common in headwaters in Lao PDR, however there are indications that several populations have sharply decreased since 1990. No information is available for other parts of the range, however populations in Thailand have largely been extirpated but may still be present in Loei province of Thailand.
188085		threats	eng	Targeted fishing may threaten this species. Anthropogenic modification of river morphology impacts this species by reducing or interrupting water flow. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). It is very sensitive to deforestation in particular, and disappears immediately following deforestation events.
188086		conservation	eng	Research is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, as well as its distribution and population trends.
188086		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Nho Quê River in northern Viet Nam (Bao Lac County, Cao Bàng Province; Nguyen and Ngo 2001).
188086		habitat	eng	Described from a freshwater river.
188086		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188086		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of the threats to the species.
188087		conservation	eng	Research into habitat and population trends is required.
188087		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in southeast Asia, occurring in both the Mekong and Chao Phraya drainages, although its native distribution is not completely certain as it has been introduced widely. Paepke (2009) gives the native range as southern Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Thailand, and the Malay Peninsular, and it is also present in Myanmar. Introduced widely, e.g., the Philippines, southern China (Hong Kong), Sri Lanka and elsewhere.
188087		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marshlands, swamps and peatlands, and occasionally in running waters; it is well adaptive in impounded and man-made water bodies, but does not tolerate polluted waters.
188087		population	eng	This species' population is reduced or locally extirpated in severely polluted areas.
188087		threats	eng	Pollution in wetlands, infrastructure development and wetland clearance impact the species. In central Thailand, the Samutprakarn district of Bangkok was a major ranching area of this fish, but urbanisation and industrial estates have replaced it.
188088		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
188088		distribution	eng	The species is known from several coastal drainages in central Viet Nam: Huong River (Thua Thien Hue Province), Thu Bon River  (Quang Nam Da Nang  Province), Trac Khuc River and Ve River (Quang Ngai Province) and An Lao River  (Binh Dinh Province) and some streams in between (Freyhof and Serov 2000, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
188088		habitat	eng	Inhabits rapids and riffles in small rivers and streams. Feed mainly on benthic invertebrates and algae. Underwater observations indicate that this species is active during daytime, searching for food in periphyton on both horizontal and vertical surfaces of stones (Freyhof and Serov 2000).
188088		population	eng	A strong decline (of at least 30%) in the population density has been observed in the last ten years (2000-2010) (J. Freyhof pers. comm.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2010).
188088		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are overfishing, habitat degradation  through dam construction, siltation caused by deforestation practices.
188089		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More research is needed.
188089		distribution	eng	The species&#160;is presently known only from the Da Dung River and Dai Tan River (Dong Nai River drainage) and the Sre Poc River (Mekong basin) in Central Viet Nam (Da Lat mountains) (Freyhof &amp; Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
188089		habitat	eng	Found in medium size high gradient rivers and streams, usually in rapid water over gravel and rocky bottom (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
188089		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188089		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188090		conservation	eng	No information available.
188090		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mae Khlong, Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, and the Malay Peninsula (Rainboth 1996).
188090		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mainstreams and larger tributaries.        <p><span class="s1">Found in lowland rivers (Rainboth 1996).&#160;</p>
188090		population	eng	Locally uncommon throughout its range.
188090		threats	eng	Overfishing and dams are potential threats, although the scope of impacts is not well understood.
188092		conservation	eng	The species needs research to confirm its taxonomic status and distribution.
188092		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Phong Nha-Ke Bang area of the north-central coast of Viet Nam (Bo Trach and Min Hoa districts, Quang Binh Province).
188092		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology. Found in freshwater rivers.
188092		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188092		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188094		conservation	eng	The conservation of the species habitats is required to maintain its trade use.
188094		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from peninsula and southeastern&#160;Thailand (Kottelat and Witte&#160;1999, C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2012) and southern Cambodia (Tuk Sap, near Kampot; Kottelat<strong>&#160;</strong>1985).
188094		habitat	eng	Inhabits submontane streams in forest covered pools, marshes, swamps, and slow flowing streams with heavy growth of submerged aquatic plants and dense riparian vegetations (Rainboth 1996).<span class="sheader5">
188094		population	eng	Locally common in suitable habitats.
188094		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to farmland, urbanization and drainage are the main threats. Overfishing for the aquarium trade is a potential threat in Thailand.
188095		conservation	eng	Parts of the range of this species occurs within Protected Areas.
188095		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong basins in central Thailand (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.,</span> 1997; Kottelat, pers.comm., 2011).
188095		habitat	eng	It occurs in riffles of medium to small streams (Kottelat, pers. comm., 2011).
188095		population	eng	No information is available.
188095		threats	eng	<p>Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment (Kottelat, M., pers. comm., 2011).</p>
188096		conservation	eng	None required at present.
188096		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Chao Phraya in Thailand and the Mekong in Thailand, and Cambodia (Stung Treng and most likely in the Great Lake). It has also been reported from Lao PDR (central) and Viet Nam. The type locality is from Chiang Mai.
188096		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, swamps and floodplains with dense vegetation. Occurs marginally in rivers and larger tributaries, as well as flowing waters in canals. The species migrates into temporary standing waters in the rainy season where it reproduces. Famous for its large mixed-species migrations at the end of the breeding season. Feeds on plants, algae, and other micro-organisms.
188096		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats, less common in impounded water bodies. Found in large numbers in the Chao Phraya (W. Rainboth pers. comm. 2011).
188096		threats	eng	Dams and impounded waters may threaten this species, although it is fairly adaptive. Runoff, nutrient loads and unsustainable fishing may also threaten this species.
188097		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
188097		distribution	eng	The species has a southeast Asia distribution. It is known from the Pearl River basin in southeastern China, rivers in Hainan Island, most Pacific coastal drainages in north and central Viet Nam (Freyhof and Serov 2001) and the Nam Xam River basin in Lao P.D.R.(Kottelat 2001).
188097		habitat	eng	Usually found in small rivers and streams, in pools with slow water and dense aquatic vegetation over clay and sandy bottom (Freyhof and Serov 2001, Serov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)
188097		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188097		threats	eng	Major threats to this species are habitat degradation through dam construction (there are some dams under construction or planned within the species range) and water pollution.
188098		conservation	eng	Conservation of its habitats is required.
188098		distribution	eng	Recorded throughout the Malay Peninsula (Thailand and Malaysia) and Singapore. Records from Indonesia (Sumatra) refer to another species.
188098		habitat	eng	Found in small forested streams, typically with moderate current and soft, acidic, water.
188098		population	eng	Locally common in parts of its range; decreasing in Thailand, but still common in Malaysia.
188098		threats	eng	Habitat conversion to farmland, urbanization and drainage are the main threats. Overfishing for the aquarium trade is a potential threat in Thailand.
188099		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research is required to confirm the distribution and conservation status of the species.
188099		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is presently known from the Lo River (Song Lô) drainage in northern Viet Nam (Hà Giang Province) (Nguyen 2005).
188099		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, over gravel to stone substrate (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p>
188099		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188099		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Being a hillstream species, this species is expected to be vulnerable to anthropogenic habitat disturbance (e.g. siltation caused by deforestation).
188101		conservation	eng	This species occurs within a number of protected areas in Australia and likely elsewhere throughout its range.
188101		distribution	eng	The species has an Indo-West Pacific distribution, from South Africa to the Philippines, north to Japan (the Ryukyu Islands), south to Australia, New Caledonia and Fiji (e.g. Masuda<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1984, Séret 1997, Rainboth 1996).
188101		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in estuaries, mangroves and the lower parts of rivers, often upstream from the tidal zone (Rainboth, 1996). Young are usually found while wading in rocky creeks near the coast (Allen, 1991). Adults feed mainly on large benthic crustaceans and small fishes (Rainboth, 1996). Juveniles and adults may enter urban drainage ditches and canals (Larson, H. pers. obs. 2011).
188101		population	eng	This species is very common and abundant, but there is limited specific information available on the species' populations.
188101		threats	eng	There is no information available on the threats to the species. Local populations may be affected by fishing practices. It is adaptable and capable of living in a range of habitats, including degraded areas (e.g. urban canals).
188102		conservation	eng	None required.
188102		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout southeast Asia in a range of natural and anthropogenic habitats (Rainboth 1996). The species is known from the lower Mekong basin in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam, from Thailand (Mae Khlong, Chao Phraya, and Peninsular Thailand river systems (Vidthayanon&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1997).
188102		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, floodplain, swamps,&#160;ditches and small ponds. Most common in standing or stagnant water that has a dense cover of floating plants and may sometimes has low oxygen levels. Feeds on zooplankton and aquatic insects (Rainboth 1996).
188102		population	eng	Locally common in all suitable habitats throughout its range.
188102		threats	eng	There are no known current threats to the species at this time. Possible future threats include over farming for trade and habitat loss, but these need further research.
188103		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation actions known. Research is required into the species threats and distribution.<br/></p>
188103		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is currently known from two separate locations (~60 km apart<span lang="EN-GB">) in the Nam Ngum catchment, Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000). Described from the Houay Sala Yai, a tributary of the Nam San, Saisomboun Special Zone.</span></p><p><br/></p><p><span><br/> </p>
188103		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Observed in streams with moderate to fast water, in riffles, over gravel.</p>
188103		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Population unkown as currently only known from two seperate sampling efforts, carried out in 1997 and 2009 (Kottelat 2000).<br/></p>
188103		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific threats are known. Logging, deforestation and agriculture occurs in the area, with associated impacts on the aquatic environment expected (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011). A number of dams are built, under construction or proposed within the Nam Ngum drainage (Nam Ngum 1 (operation); Nam Ngum 2 (construction); Nam Ngum 3 (proposed); Nam Ngum 5 (proposed); Nam Lik 1 and 2 (proposed); Nam Bak 1 and 2 (proposed)). The Nam Ngum river basin includes parts of the Xaysomboune special zone, Vientiane and Xiengkhuang provinces. <br/></p>
188105		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures currently in place.
188105		distribution	eng	<em>E. danrica</em> occurs in Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and throughout India.
188105		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species, usually found in ponds, tanks, ditches and canals.  They are active fish that swim and feeds on insects close to the surface, and prefer well-aerated water.  The species has also been found in brackish waters.
188105		population	eng	<em>E. danrica</em> is quite common throughout it's range, particularly in the flood-prone areas of Chennai city.
188105		threats	eng	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.
188108		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. More information is needed and the species taxonomic status needs confirmation.
188108		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Black River (Sông Đà) drainage in northwestern Viet Nam (Dien Bien and Lai Châu provinces) only (Nguyen 2005).
188108		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the species ecology.
188108		population	eng	There is no information available on the species population.
188108		threats	eng	No information available on the threats to the species.
188112		conservation	eng	None required at present.
188112		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Mekong basin (Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia), as well as the Mae Khlong and Chao Phraya basins, and associated lowland areas.
188112		habitat	eng	Inhabits marshlands, swamps and floodplains with dense vegetation. Occurs marginally in rivers and larger tributaries, as well as flowing waters in canals. The species migrates into temporary standing waters in the rainy season where it reproduces. Famous for its large mixed-species migrations at the end of the breeding season. Feeds on plants, algae, and other micro-organisms.
188112		population	eng	Abundant in suitable habitats, less common in impounded water bodies. Found in large numbers in the Mekong basin.
188112		threats	eng	Dams and impounded waters may threaten this species, although it is fairly adaptive. Runoff, nutrient loads and unsustainable fishing may also threaten this species.
188113		conservation	eng	No information available.
188113		distribution	eng	Azov and northern Black Sea basins from Bulgaria to eastern Crimea. In freshwater only in Danube delta.
188113		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, brackish lagoons, estuaries and lower part of large rivers, usually associated with rock bottom or sunken trees.  <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in December-April. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Feeds mostly on crustaceans.
188113		population	eng	Abundant.
188113		threats	eng	No major threats known.
188114		conservation	eng	No information.
188114		distribution	eng	Caspian basin. In Volga upriver to Astrakhan until 1977, since spreading upriver to Lakes Ivankovskoje and Rybinskoje (2000). Invaded Don drainage (Black Sea basin) through Volga-Don canal (first record in 1972). Now abundant in Lake Tsimlyansk and lower Don.
188114		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mainly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Most females spawn for the first time at one year, males at two years. Spawns in April-May, rarely until July. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds mostly on small fish, as well as on a wide variety of invertebrates.
188114		population	eng	Abundant.
188114		threats	eng	No major threats known.
188115		conservation	eng	No information available.
188115		distribution	eng	Black Sea basin: Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages. Since late 1990s, range regularly expanding upstream in Danube drainage, in 1999 recorded for first time in Germany (2,400 km from sea) and in 2005 in upper reaches of Rhine drainage close to canal connecting it with Danube. Meanwhile has colonized the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine and is slowly invading the upper Rhine. In Dniepr up to Kiev. In Dniepr up to Kiev.   Absent in Azov Sea basin.
188115		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with very low salinity (less than 2). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom in still waters as well as in rapids. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in March-May. Adhesive eggs deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates. Larger individuals take mostly small fish.
188115		population	eng	Very abundant and expanding range.
188115		threats	eng	No major threats known.
188116		conservation	eng	No information.
188116		distribution	eng	Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins.
188116		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, large rivers on mud bottom. Restricted to coastal areas. In Caspian Sea does not enter rivers <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Spawns in March-June. Individual females may spawn twice during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish.
188116		population	eng	Abundant, particularly in Sea of Azov.
188116		threats	eng	No major threats known.
188118		conservation	eng	No information.
188118		distribution	eng	Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Since late 1990s, invasive immigrant in rivers of northern Black Sea basin. In Danube up to Vienna (about 2000 km from sea), in Dniepr up to Belarus. Recorded in 1996 from middle Vistula in Poland, where it arrived from Dniepr via a navigation canal. Fast spreading in Vistula observed in 2002. Invaded Volgograd reservoir through Volga-Don canal.
188118		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with low salinity (< 2 ?). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers up to small, fast-flowing streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mainly found in well vegetated or high-complexity habitats. Abundant in backwaters and still channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June, occasionally until mid-August. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Usually spawns only for a single season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.
188118		habitat	eng	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with low salinity (< 2 ‰). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers up to small, fast-flowing streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mainly found in well vegetated or high-complexity habitats. Abundant in backwaters and still channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June, occasionally until mid-August. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Usually spawns only for a single season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.
188118		population	eng	Very abundant and expanding range.
188118		threats	eng	No major threats known.
188126		conservation	eng	This species is included in the Threatened Species of Valencia community (named as <span style="font-style: italic;">Tudorella sulcata</span>). One canyon is a regional natural park (LIC). A translocation of this species was done in Alicante province in 1996. The species has established there and is reproducing successfully. Habitat and population monitoring is recommended.<br/><em></em>
188126		distribution	eng	In Europe, this species is restricted to two locations in south-eastern Spain. It is currently found near the coast in Orihuela (Alicante) and  Motril (Granada). The wide distribution of plio-quaternary deposits in the peninsula<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>seems to indicate a seclusion to hot  refuges of its original area of distribution, due to cold episodes of  the Quaternary. It is also known from the north-west of Algeria and the north-east of Morocco (where recently  a new population has been found in Al Hoceima in the  Natural Reserve Bocoyas).
188126		habitat	eng	It lives in pine (<em>Pinus halepensis</em>) forests and shrubs (<em>Chamaerops humilis</em>, <em>Maytenus senegalensis </em>subps.<em> europaea, </em><em>Pistacia lenticus</em>, <em>Rhamnus lycioides, </em><em>Stipa tenacisima, </em><em>Foeniculum vulgare</em><em></em>, <em>Sideritido-Helianthemetum capuz-felicis</em>) with calcareous substratum with stones<em>. </em>It lives near the coast in small canyons on the slopes (Martínez-Ortí 1999, 2009; Martínez-Ortí and Robles 2003, 2005). Currently, in Orihuela it lives in urban areas in the small and isolated patches of&#160; authoctonous vegetation. It is a gregarious species with dioecous species with sexual dimorphism with females being larger than males. In the Orihuela subpopulation it coexists with <em>Leonia mamillaris</em> (Lamarck 1822), which is a competitor and probably is displacing <span style="font-style: italic;">Tudorella mauretanica</span>. Thus is it necessary to research the interaction of both species (Martínez-Ortí 1999, 2009).
188126		population	eng	It is a gregarious species with relatively high population densities under normal conditions. In the Orihuela area it lives in several canyons in close proximity. Nevertheless, during the last decades it has disappeared  from some of these canyons while there are several hundred individuals in others (Martínez-Ortí 1999). It has disappeared from the locality of Pilar de la Horadada. It is also found in the area of Motril, but this subpopulation is formed only by few specimens (Martínez-Ortí 2009).
188126		threats	eng	The main threat is urban enlargement and developments, especially in the Orihuela population. Another threat is road construction and enlargement. Furthermore, in the subpopulation of Motril rock climbing is a potential threat. Fires, predation by rodents (rats) and birds, urban waste, competition with <span class="apple-style-span"><em>L. mamillaris, </em>shell collecting and stochastic events (heavy rains and storms) and the presence of invasive plants are other potential threats.<br/><p><span class="apple-style-span"><strong></strong></p></span>
188129		conservation	eng	No information available.
188129		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Drin drainage, including Skadar Lake basin, in Montenegro and Albania. It occurs in both lake and rivers of the basin, for example, Sasko Lake, rivers Radika, Beli Drin and its tributaries, Morača (middle and lower reaches) and tributaries Oraoštica, Kiri, Zeta (middle and lower reaches). It is suspected, that Squalius from Ohrid lake and Drin river also belong to this species (Zupancic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
188129		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rivers and lakes
188129		population	eng	No information available.
188129		threats	eng	No major threats known.
188136		conservation	eng	Not present in protected areas.
188136		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs on several inner Seychelles islands: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Thérése, L’Islette, and Conception (RDLP workshop 2006), and was recently introduced to North Island, but is not yet naturalized. The EOO was determined to be 8.6 km² on the largest island Mahé (entire area is 158 km²). The EOO on the other islands could not be determined due to lack of exact distribution information. The total area of Praslin is 38 km², of Silhouette is 20 km², of Conception is 6 km², of Therese is 7 km² and of L’Islette is 3 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). Therefore, the EOO and AOO are both estimated to be less than 100 km².<br/><br/>In a survey in 1994, the species was found in five out of 73 areas of special conservation value: two on Mahé (Pointe Maravi, Anse Petite Police), two on Praslin (Fond D'Albaretz, Fond Diable), and one on Silhouette (Mont Poules Marrons) (Carlström 1996). Friedmann (1994) reported additional sites on Mahé (Anse Bazarca, Anse Capucine), on Silhouette between Pointe Jardin and Pointe Grande Barbe and on Praslin Cap Jean Marie. A total of 10 sites are known from literature.
188136		habitat	eng	Highly branched shrub or small tree up to 3 m tall, with slender branches, occurring in littoral forest, from near sea level to about 100 m (Carlström 1996). Its fruits show features for dispersal by frugivores. There are areas  where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sechellensis</span> hybridises with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pervillei</span>  (Friedmann 1994, L. Chong Seng pers. comm. 2006). It is not  known how severe  this hybridization is, as it is not well documented  in the literature.
188136		population	eng	The current population size is unknown. The  species is common and seems to reproduce well on Silhouette, Conception and Praslin.
188136		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction (land use), construction, and hybridization with another <span style="font-style: italic;">Allophylus</span> species. There is high land use pressure on the habitat of this  species. The  areas are not protected or managed and this species is  threatened by  infrastructure development (at least on the well developed  islands Mahé  and Praslin). As there is not enough information on former distribution available, it is not clear how much of its former habitat has been destroyed by infrastructure development. Before the big infrastructure development, early settlers already used the lowland areas for agriculture, wood plantations and to farm livestock. There have been extensive infrastructure developments near the sea since the early 1970s. Because of this increased land use, it is most probable that there was a big habitat decline. A quantification of this decline is not possible. There are also areas  where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sechellensis </span>hybridises with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pervillei</span>  (Friedmann 1994, L. Chong Seng pers. comm. 2006).
188306		conservation	eng	This widespread common species may not require immediate conservation attention.
188306		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Widely distributed in southeast Asia, extending from eastern India to Viet Nam and south into Peninsular Malaysia. Records from Sumatra are dubious (Lieftinck 1954).
188306		habitat	eng	Found in forest streams, usually perches on exposed boulders and riparian vegetation.
188306		population	eng	This widespread species is common over much of its range.
188306		threats	eng	There is no definite evidence of threats to this species and given its wide distribution it is not likely to be globally threatened.
188307		conservation	eng	Fresh information is urgently needed on this species, and will only be obtained through extensive sampling in West Bengal and adjacent regions.
188307		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type series collected nearly ninety years ago at the Hasimara Tea Estate, Duars, West Bengal, India.
188307		habitat	eng	No information is available, but it is likely that this species breeds in streams.
188307		population	eng	No information available.
188307		threats	eng	The known location is in a more developed part of India, with extensive tea estates and other forms of agriculture.
188308		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, but it is not likely to need specific conservation measures at this time.
188308		distribution	eng	<p>The species is fairly widespread  in the Himalayan belt, occurring from Uttarakhand (Prasad 1974, Kumar and Mitra 1998) to Darjeeling (Laidlaw 1922) and Arunachal Pradesh (Mitra, T.R. 2002) in India,  Nepal (Asahina 1955; St. Quentin 1970; Mahato 1988, 89) and Bhutan (Mitra, A. 2002). Records from Myanmar (e.g. Williamson 1907; Fraser 1924, 1934) may or may not actually refer to this species; those from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam do not</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  R. Dow (pers. comm.) has seen a specimen probably referable to this species from Pakistan.<em></em></p>
188308		habitat	eng	Adults perch on partially submerged rocks or overhanging vegetation on the fast flowing hill streams. Teneral adults take rest among the nearby vegetation away from larval habitats. Breeding occurs inside the stream as well as in the side pools.
188308		population	eng	This species is quite common throughout much of its range.
188308		threats	eng	No information available although water pollution and sedimentation in hill streams could be a potential threat for the species.
188309		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, particularly on distribution, precise habitat requiremets and tolerance to disturbance. However it probably does not require specific conservation measures.
188309		distribution	eng	This species is known from India and Nepal. Records from India are from West Bengal (Darjeeling), Uttar Pradesh , Uttaranchal.
188309		habitat	eng	This species breeds in small streams. Adults are sometimes found patrolling over the small channel like streams.
188309		population	eng	No specific information is available, but this species appears to have been recorded with some regularity in Nepal and at Dehra Dun in India, suggesting that it may be fairly common.
188309		threats	eng	Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development.
188310		conservation	eng	There is a need for much further data on this species, especially on distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance. However, specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.
188310		distribution	eng	This species is known from India, Nepal and Myanmar.
188310		habitat	eng	This is a species of forest streams in hilly areas.
188310		population	eng	No information available.
188310		threats	eng	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of these threats on the known localities of the species is not known.
188311		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its distribution, and on tolerance to disturbance, e.g. is it really as tolerant of disturbance as the record from Chiang Rai (see under Habitats and Ecology) suggests.
188311		distribution	eng	This species is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1934), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 1999). The species is also recorded from India.
188311		habitat	eng	This species breeds in forest streams. In Chiang Rai, Thailand Dow (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010) caught a freshly emerged female at a highly disturbed stream with just patches of forest remaining, running through agricultural land, suggesting that this species is tolerant of a high degree of disturbance.
188311		population	eng	There are not all that many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphids, and it is probably fairly common over much of its range.
188311		threats	eng	This species appears unlikely to be threatened across its range.
188324		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
188324		distribution	eng	<em>Chromis chromis</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. It has been recorded along the coast of Portugal to the Gulf of Guinea (São Tomé Island), and may also reach Angola. <br/><br/><em>C. chromis</em> is widespread around the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
188324		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species, forming small shoals in midwater above or near rocky reefs or above seagrass meadows (<em>Posidonia oceanica</em>). It feeds on small planktonic or benthic animals (Quignard and Pras 1986).
188324		population	eng	This is a very abundant species in the Mediterranean. It is uncommon in the Black Sea and Sea of Marmara, but very common in the Aegean Sea.
188324		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
188652		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions for the species.
188652		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the upper Dragonja River system in the Adriatic Sea basin in Slovenia (Bogutskaya and Zupancic 2010).
188652		habitat	eng	The species lives in rivers and streams.
188652		population	eng	It is locally abundant. The species is not known or suspected to be declining at present.
188652		threats	eng	No current threats to the species are known, However, introduced fish species and increasing severity of droughts due to climate change are real potential threats.
188653		conservation	eng	No information available.
188653		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Neretva River drainage including Lakes Kuti and Baćinska, Hutovo blato wetland, waters of karstic fields Rastoke and Jezero near Vrgorac, Mušnica River (Gatačko polje), Trebišnjica River (Popovo polje) and Tihaljina/Trebižat River system. In the Neretva upriver to the Buna River and in the lower and middle section of the Neretva River from the mouth to about 20 km upstream of Mostar (Buj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
188653		habitat	eng	Lives in streams and lakes.
188653		population	eng	Locally abundant and not known to be declining
188653		threats	eng	Even though there are threats to other endemic fishes in the Neretva river (invasive species (e.g.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Lepomis gibbosus</span>, <em>Sander lucioperca </em>and many others), dams, water abstraction, drought and agricultural pollution are threats to the species) these do not seem to impact this species in a way that qualifies for any threatened category.
188654		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for the species.
188654		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lake Ammersee (which has an area of 41 km²), Germany.
188654		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a lake.
188654		population	eng	The population is suspected to be declining.
188654		threats	eng	The species is suspected to be impacted by introduced  fish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnocephalus acerina</span>) which is present in the lake.
188655		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>
188655		distribution	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2">The species is only</a> k<span lang="EN-GB">nown only from the holotype male collected at Toungoo in Myanmar (Fraser 1924, 1934).</p>
188655		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>
188655		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from a single specimen and there is no information on the&#160;species&#160;population.</p>
188655		threats	eng	<p>Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Threats faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>
188656		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Morne Seychellois and the Praslin National Parks.
188656		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles. It occurs on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and St. Anne (Friedmann 1994, RDLP workshop 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are thought to be less than 110 km². The measured EOO on Mahé is 61 km². The EOO on the other islands could  not be determined because of a lack of exact distribution information. The  total area of the other islands (Silhouette, Praslin and St. Anne) is 50  km²<sup></sup>  (National Statistics Bureau 2005).<br/><br/>In a survey in 1994 the species was found in only nine out of 73 areas of special conservation value. This indicates its restricted intra island distribution.
188656		habitat	eng	It generally occurs as scattered individuals under the canopy of trees and on exposed rocky outcrops (Carlström 1996), at 300-750 m asl. The fruit  is eaten and most probably dispersed by frugivores (Kronauer 2005).
188656		population	eng	The population consists of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, but is suspected to be stable at present (RDLP workshop 2006). Historically, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. carinatum</span> was said to be “common in the mountain forests  of Mahé and Silhouette, at an elevation of above 1,000 feet above sea  level” (Baker 1877). Nowadays<span style="font-style: italic;">, C. carinatum</span> is confined to only a few  areas (Carlström 1996). In the past 100 years, the population size has declined by at least 30%.
188656		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the decline in habitat quality through the invasion of alien plant species. The severity and extent are unknown.
188657		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
188657		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles and is found on Mahé and Silhouette, mainly at higher altitudes (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994). The EOO on Mahé is 51 km²<sup></sup>. The EOO for Silhouette was not determined, but the  total area of the island is approximately 20 km² (National Statistics Bureau 2005). The EOO and AOO are therefore estimated to be no more than 71 km².<br/><br/>In a survey in 1994 the species was found in only six out of 73 areas of special conservation value (all on Mahé) (Carlström 1996). This shows the restricted intra island distribution on Mahé.
188657		habitat	eng	This is a typical understory shrub (up to 5 m tall), confined to undisturbed sites in humid forest mainly at the higher altitudes (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994). Its fruit might be eaten and dispersed by frugivores (Kronauer 2005).
188657		population	eng	The population consists of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and is thought to be declining (RDLP workshop 2006). The largest subpopulation probably occurs on Morne Seychellois. Over the past 100 years the population has decline by more than 30%. In 1874, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sechellense </span>was thought to be<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>“common  in the damp shady forests of Mahé at an elevation of about 2,000 feet”  (Baker 1877). Nowadays it is confined to only a few undisturbed sites. Reproductive success on Mahé differs widely between the sites.  There    are stands that reproduce well and others where there is hardly  any    reproduction (RDLP workshop 2006). The species occurs at very low densities on Silhouette, where regeneration seems to be disturbed (young plants    seem to be short lived) (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006).
188657		threats	eng	The major threats to this species are invasive alien species affecting habitat quality, poor recruitment and its restricted range. Its habitat is heavily  affected by invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium  cattleianum</span>). A planned road on Silhouette could eliminated the main population on this island.
188659		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex panormitana</span> is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive.
188659		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex panormitana</span> is endemic to Sardinia and Sicily (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). It is found at five locations with an area of occupancy of less than 500 km².
188659		habitat	eng	This plant occurs in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>92C0 <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Liquidambar orientalis</span> woods (<span style="font-style: italic;">Platanion orientalis</span>)</li><li>92D0 Southern riparian galleries and thickets (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nerio-Tamaricetea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Securinegion tinctoriae</span>)</li></ul>
188659		population	eng	There are less than 10,000 mature individuals in total and the populations are stable.
188659		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is water pollution (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
188665		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188665		distribution	eng	The species is known from 'Ban Tham Niap; Glaen Harbour' (location uncertain, but possibly: Ban Tham Niap, Songkhla), and from Chon Buri, Rayong Province in Thailand (Academy of Natural Sciences Malacology database).
188665		habitat	eng	The species is probably found in estuarine waters (most of the other Assiminea are tolerant of brackish water, and one of the known locations was a harbour).
188665		population	eng	No information available.
188665		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
188666		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
188666		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong River between Khong Island (Lao PDR) and Sambor in Cambodia (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971, Brandt 1974). In Lao PDR records are from Muang Khong, Ban Na and Vernkhao Village. In Cambodia, it was found in the Mekong River at Sambor. It is known from c.160 km stretch of river between two locations (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971).
188666		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater areas, possibly in rapids areas.
188666		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188666		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne  2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the  ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, &#160;Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by  irregular fluctuation of the water level. Mainstream dams are proposed  at a number of sites through the species known range, including at Khone  Falls in Lao PDR and at Sambor in Cambodia.<br/></p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188667		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
188667		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong River between Ban Kum and Khammarat in Thailand (Bruce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1976) and Sambor, Cambodia. Records include: Lao PDR (Khone Island at Siphandone (Wat, Phapheng Falls, Ban Na); ANSP Malacology Collection, Brandt and Temcharoen 1971). The species was not listed by Brandt (1974) in his review of the Thailand fauna.
188667		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids and in the main flow of the river.
188667		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188667		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188669		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188669		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong River, where it is only known from a few localities near Khong Island in Lao PDR (Done Houat, opposite Muang Sene, Somphamit Falls, Muang Khong) (Brandt 1974; Mahidol University Collections, ANSP Collections). Further survey work is needed to confirm that the species is not present below the Khone Falls in Cambodia, nor further upstream in the Mekong watershed; there is an unverified record from the Mun River, Thailand.
188669		habitat	eng	Known records are along the shore of Khong Island, on sandbars and in the rapids. It was found on stone and sand with green algae.
188669		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188669		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
188671		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188671		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Mekong River, northeastern Thailand and Lao PDR. It was found in a 300 km stretch of river between the Thai provinces of Nong Khai (at Vientiane) and Ubon Ratchathani (Ban Bung Village and Khemmarat Amphoe) (G. Davis, ANSP collection). Further work is required to confirm the species' full current distribution.
188671		habitat	eng	Found on granite, sandstone and conglomerate rocks with silt surface in rivers.
188671		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188671		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188673		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
188673		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong River where it is found in a <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>.200 km river stretch in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia,&#160;although only present in the river rapids.&#160;In Cambodia, it was found only at Kas Lognieu and&#160;Sam Bo (about 100 km downstream from the Khone Falls). In Lao PDR, it was found north of the Khone Falls, at Ban Na, Sophamit and Phapheng Falls. In Thailand, it was recorded from Ubon Ratchathani Province, southwest of Amphoe Trakon Phut Phon, from Phibun Mangsahan, Mekong River at Ban Dan, Khemmarat, Ban Bung Village as well as in the Mun River at Phibun Mangsahan. As <span style="font-style: italic;">H. spiralis,</span> it is recorded from Kemmarath in Thailand and Sambor in Cambodia, the Mun and Mekong rivers at Ban Dan and Ban Kum in Thailand, and the Phapheng Falls, at Ban Na and Khong Island in Lao PDR. As <span style="font-style: italic;">H. siamensis</span>, it has been recorded from the Mun River and form the Mekong at the Khone Falls.
188673		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocks, in pockets and grooves in the rapids, as well as on algae and twigs. It was found also on sandbars.
188673		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188673		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
188674		conservation	eng	No information available.
188674		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality (the Mekong River at Ban Dan in Ubon Ratchathani Province, Thailand), where it was collected by Davis in 1973. It has not been recollected since, however there has been little recent survey work in the region.
188674		habitat	eng	No information available; recorded from the Mekong mainstream.
188674		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188674		threats	eng	There are proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong River  and  these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to  the  species. Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development  may  also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen   1992).
188675		conservation	eng	The taxonomic status of the species requires confirmation, and surveys are required to confirm its distribution and population trends.
188675		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lao PDR without any further details, and from Hue, 'Annam' in central Viet Nam (Dautzenberg Collection, UMMZ).
188675		habitat	eng	No information available.
188675		population	eng	No information available.
188675		threats	eng	Without further information on the species' ecology and distribution, nothing can be inferred of the species' threats.
188676		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology and potential threats.
188676		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a number of locations in or near to Hanoi ('Grand Lac de Hanoi' and 'Phu Qouc Oai, Tonkin', Viet Nam (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Mollusk Division Online Catalog). Grove (1990) reported the species to be a major intermediate host of parasitic disease, and the species may be inferred to have a greater distribution.<span class="notranslate">
188676		habitat	eng	No information available.
188676		population	eng	No information available.
188676		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
188677		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
188677		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Lao PDR in the Sedon River north of Pakse, from the Mekong River near Khong Island (Somphamit Falls and north of Phapheng Falls); from Cambodia at Sambor, Kas Lognieu and Sandan.&#160;These sites are in a small area likely to be impacted by proposed dams and are considered to be present at one location as impacts could affect all sites at same time.
188677		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocks at top of falls, pools and channels.
188677		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is very rare in collections, so probably rare when present (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
188677		threats	eng	There are several proposed dams on the Mekong and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. <br/><p>Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
188679		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are required as the species is widespread&#160;(F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
188679		distribution	eng	The species is widespread and abundant in mountainous regions of northern  Viet Nam ('Tonkin') in the Red (Hong) River system and tributaries, and  probably in adjacent regions of southern China (Yunnan and Guangxi)  (Köhler and Dames 2008, F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
188679		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater creeks, streams, rivers and lakes&#160;(F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
188679		population	eng	Widespread and abundant where found. The population status is probably stable, but there are insufficient data on trends (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011)
188679		threats	eng	<p>This species is probably tolerant to change as it exists in many different habitats&#160;(F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).</p>
188680		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
188680		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from Khong Island in Champasak Province, Lao PDR.
188680		habitat	eng	Recorded from the mainstream of the Mekong River.
188680		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188680		threats	eng	Proposed dams on the mainstream of the Lower Mekong may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
188682		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
188682		distribution	eng	The species is known from a limited number of records from the Mekong River in Thailand (Ban Dan, Ban Khum, Ban Bung Village and Khemmarat Amphoe, Ubon Ratchathani Province (Brandt 1970, 1974)), Lao PDR (Phapheng and Somphamit Falls, at Vernkhao Village, Ban Na and Khong), and Cambodia (Sambor (type locality)).
188682		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids and has been also found at sandbars.
188682		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188682		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188683		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
188683		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Lao PDR in Champasak Province, with records from around Khong Island (found at Khong Town, Ban Na Village and at the Somphamit and Phapheng Falls).
188683		habitat	eng	It occurs in the Mekong River in the rapids as well as offshore from rocky areas in a minimum depth of 5-8 cm.
188683		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188683		threats	eng	The proposed dam on the Mekong River may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
188684		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188684		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Thailand to Lao PDR and Cambodia in the Mekong River and its tributaries (Brandt 1968, Brandt and Temcharoen 1971). In Thailand, it is known only from Khemmarat and Phibun Mangsahan. In Lao PDR, it occurs at the Somphamit Falls (type locality), at Muang Khong, Ban Mophou, south of Khone, Ban Na Village. In Cambodia, it has been found at Kas Lognieu, Sambor and Sandan.
188684		habitat	eng	It lives on rocks, where it feeds on algae.
188684		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188684		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188685		conservation	eng	No information available.
188685		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Lao PDR (Khong (type locality), Ban Na, Vernkhao Village, Wat, Ban Houay and Somphamit Falls), but rare in Thailand (Ban Dan) and Cambodia (Kas Lognieu, Sambor and Samboc). The closely related species <span style="font-style: italic;">H. munensis</span> occurs in the Mun River in eastern Thailand.
188685		habitat	eng	It was found on the shore and in the rapids of the river. It harbours <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma japonicum</span>.
188685		population	eng	This species is very common in Lao PDR (Khong (type locality), Ban Na, Vernkhao Village, Wat, Ban Houay and Somphamit Falls), but rare in Thailand (Ban Dan) and Cambodia (Kas Lognieu, Sambor and Samboc).
188685		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
188687		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188687		distribution	eng	Described from '...aux rapides de Tio-Compih' (location uncertain, upstream from 'Somboc', Cambodia; Crosse and Fischer 1876). Records of the species are from Cambodia around Kratie at Sambor and Sandan (Brandt 1974, ANSP Malacology Collection, Mahidol Collection, collected 1969), and from Lao PDR it is recorded from Siphandone (Mahidol Collection, coll. 1969). Brandt (1974) reports that the species has not been recorded from Thailand.
188687		habitat	eng	Recorded from rapids in the Mekong River, found under stones (Cross and Fischer 1876).
188687		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188687		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regimes. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188688		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. New surveys are required to confirm its continued presence in the river. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
188688		distribution	eng	This species is apparently only known from specimens collected in the 1960-70s from Lao PDR (Sedone River, north of Pakse, and from Khong Island), and from Cambodia (Sam Bar (Sambor?) village, c.200 km downstream in the Mekong River) (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971).
188688		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater areas, in large rivers on hard substrates.
188688		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188688		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. Mainstream dams are proposed on the Mekong at Khone Falls and elsewhere within the species' known range.<br/><br/>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188689		conservation	eng	The distribution of the species needs confirmation. Species' populations should be monitored, epsecoally if proposed dams in the region are constructed.
188689		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Lao PDR in the Province of Champasak, where it appears to be restricted to the Mekong around Khong Island (Khong Town, Ban Na Village and Ban Nuah), as well as in the Kekong River, Ban Xieng Wang area. Further surveys may find the species in suitable habitat in other tributaries, and it should be looked for in Cambodia, downstream from the Khone Falls.
188689		habitat	eng	It lives in the Mekong River offshore from rocky areas and in the rapids.
188689		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188689		threats	eng	<p>A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.</p>
188690		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A number of records for the species are not recent, and the species presence in India requires confirmation. Further research into the species distribution, population trends and the impact of threats is therefore recommended.
188690		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Kapar Mangrove Forest Reserve, Port Swettenham, Selangor, Malaysia (Sasekumar 1974), the Segara Anakan lagoon, Java, Indonesia (Norhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), Sumatra, Malaysia, Vung Tau (Viet Nam), Thailand (Provinces of Chachoengsao, Surat Thani and Nakhon Si Thammarat) (Brandt 1974), near Manila and on Busuanga (Philippines), Singapore (Nevill 1884), and Sri Lanka (SysTax 2009). Reports from India need to be reviewed, and the species should be looked for in other countries, including Cambodia and (if presence in India is confirmed) Myanmar and Bangladesh.
188690		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from the semi-fluid soil of streams colonised by <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhizophora mucronata</span> (Sasekumar 1974). The mangrove-fringed Segara Anakan lagoon, Java, Indonesia (Norhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), and has been described as not rare in mud-flats and mangrove forests on the Indian Ocean and Gulf of Thailand (Brandt 1974).
188690		population	eng	The mean density with which this species has been collected was found to be 154.6 individuals m<sup>-1</sup>. Further, this species is thought to be one of the most common faunal species of the Port Swettenham mangrove shore (Sasekumar 1974). Norhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) found that this species occurs in high densities within Segara Ankan Lagoon, Indonesia, and states that this species can typically be found in Indo-West Pacific mangroves.
188690		threats	eng	The Segara Anakan Lagoon is effected by over-exploitation of natural resources, through fishing and illegal deforestation (Nordhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Agricultural expansion, through rice fields and aquaculture conversion, has decreased the mangrove and lagoon area substantially. Furthermore, high sediment input from Citanduy River, as well as domestic, industrial and agricultural effluent have also threatened aquatic organisms within this lagoon (Jennerjahn and Yuwono 2009). Kapar Mangrove Forest Reserve is threatened by the reclamation for agriculture and housing, illegal mangrove timber extraction, pollution from developing industries, aquaculture schemes and use of pesticides in plantations (Birdlife International 2009).<br/><p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from  its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes  through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since  the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by  dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric  dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due  for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at  least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the  mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the  mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious  effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of  the river and so the current ?flood pulse?, the regular rise and fall  of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of  sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients  on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will  also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the  ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known  Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by  irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>   <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in those  developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of  the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p><br/><br/><p><br/></p>
188691		conservation	eng	No conservation action required, as no significant threats.
188691		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Moei River between Myanmar and Thailand (type locality) near Mae Hong Song in western Thailand (Mahidol collection, collected between 1964-1968). It has also been found in the drainage systems of the two large rivers Salween and Ayeyarwaddy (Brandt 1974, F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Morrison (1954) considered<span style="font-style: italic;"> Melania henriettae </span>Gray, 1834 from China may be a synonym of this species. If confirmed, this would extend the species' range into southern China.
188691		habitat	eng	Found in rivers and streams with a strong current, but it was also found in almost still water (Brandt 1974), including a swamp.
188691		population	eng	No information available.
188691		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over the entire range, but may be locally threatened by deforestation causing sedimentation, impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.&#160;</p>
188693		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary as it is widespread.&#160;Should any threat change the water quality of all of the river it would require reassessment. The species is poorly defined with respect to other  described taxa in this family, and they are in need of revision.
188693		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong catchment in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia. In Thailand, it has been found in the Lam Chi River at Selaphum (<span class="st">Roi Et Province), in the Maenam Songkhram (river) north of Tha Uthen (<span class="st">Nakhon Phanom Province), in the Mun River at Amphoe Rasi Salai, Amphoe Tha Thum, Ban Dan and Ban Bao Yai, as well as west of Amphoe Phibun Mangsahan and Amphoe Muang Sam Sip <span class="st"><span class="st">(Brandt 1974)<span class="st"><span class="st">. It has also been recorded from a canal in Nong Khai province <span class="st"><span class="st">(Srikoom and Panha 2004).<br/><br/><span class="st"><span class="st">In the Mekong River, it has been found at Ban Dan in Thailand, at Phnom Penh (type locality), Stung Treng, Kas Lognieu and Kratie in Cambodia. In Lao PDR, it occurs in the Mekong River at Cham Passak, Khong Falls, Houa Khong, at the Somphamit Falls and at Ban Nuah (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971, Brandt 1974). The species is probably much more widely distributed within the Mekong basin than current records suggest.</span></span></span></span></span>
188693		habitat	eng	Riverine, in sandy beds and on rocks. In Cambodia at Phnom Penh, it was found on a sand-bank.
188693		population	eng	Population trends are unknown, but this is not an abundant species (P. Sri-aroon pers. comm. 2011).
188693		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development within the region may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
188694		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' taxonomy, current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188694		distribution	eng	The species was described from 'Yaylaymaw', Myanmar (Preston 1915), and has been recorded from an unknown location in Myanmar ('Burma', and 'Upper Burma'; Michigan Museum of Zoology, Mollusk Division Online Catalog). As the synonym (Brandt 1974: 63) <span style="font-style: italic;">B. tonkiniana</span>, it has been reported from Tonkin (Viet Nam). Given that <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species have relatively small distributions in general, this synonymy has to be confirmed.
188694		habitat	eng	No information available.
188694		population	eng	No information available.
188694		threats	eng	Without more information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
188695		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188695		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong River from Ubon Ratchathani Province in Thailand to Kratie in Cambodia. Records include Ban Kum Islands (Ubon Ratchathani Province), Ban Dan (confluence of the Mekong and Mun rivers), near Pakse, Muang Khong, Ban Na, and Khong Island (Siphandone) in Lao PDR, and at Sandan in Cambodia (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971, Brandt 1974). The species is found in rapids along a c.200 km stretch of the Mekong River.
188695		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids and off shore from rocky areas.
188695		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188695		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188696		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
188696		distribution	eng	This species is considered endemic to Lao PDR. It is recorded from Somphamit and Phapheng falls, Muang Khong (type locality), Ban Na and Khone Island.&#160;Single island site with rapids upstream and downstream which maybe effected by proposed dam projects at Khone Falls.
188696		habitat	eng	It occurs in rapids, the main body of the river, and offshore from rocky areas.
188696		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188696		threats	eng	The proposed Khone Falls dam may change the flow regime of the river, providing a potential threat to the species. <br/><p>Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
188700		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188700		distribution	eng	This species is endemic in Lao PDR. It occurs in the Mekong River at Khong Island - found around the island at Ban Na, Ban Done, as well as the Somphamit Falls, Phapheng Falls and Muang Khong (type locality). Further survey work is required to confirm that the species is not present below the Khone Falls in Cambodia.
188700		habitat	eng	It lives in rapids, shallow rapids and also in quiet water.
188700		population	eng	No information available.
188700		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
188703		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
188703		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand in the Mekong River in the provinces of Ubon Ratchathani (Khemmar Island (possibly Khammarat), and Ban Dan; confluence of the Mun and Mekong rivers) and Chiang Rai (Chiang Khong District) (ANSP collection data, det. G. Davis).
188703		habitat	eng	It lives on the shelf of rocks in the Mekong River.
188703		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188703		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regimes. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188706		conservation	eng	No species specific action plan is known. Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the distribution in the region.
188706		distribution	eng	This species occurs in&#160;Lao PDR near Pakse, where it is known from&#160;one certain location at the type locality at Pakse, and is probably restricted to southern Lao PDR and Cambodia (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010). There is a doubtful record Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, that probably refers to <em>Adamietta housei</em>.
188706		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater areas. Found in small flowing waters and possibly in rice paddies as well.
188706		population	eng	No information available.
188706		threats	eng	<p>If the species' habitat was permanently inundated due to dam construction, then this would lead to loss of these populations. There is a planned dam in the area of Pakse, and hence this is a real threat to the species as it would not survive under stagnant water conditions (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).</p>
188707		conservation	eng	New surveys are required to confirm the continued presence in the river. Conservation actions include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
188707		distribution	eng	This species is apparently restricted to the Mekong in Cambodia, where it has been collected from Sandan, Samboc, Sambor (  Zoological Museum Amsterdam, ANSP Malacology Collection) and Kas Lognieu. Sandan and Sambor are both collecting stations on the Mekong River. 'Kas&#160;Lognieu' is an island in the Mekong in central Cambodia near Sambor.
188707		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids of the Mekong River as well as in quiet parts of the river.
188707		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
188707		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
188709		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188709		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Mekong River, currently known from a 50 km stretch of river with three rapids in Cambodia and Lao PDR (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971). It was found between Khong Island in Lao PDR and Sambor in northern Cambodia (Brandt 1974). It has been found at Ban Na, Muang Khong (type locality) and Phapheng Falls in Lao PDR. In Cambodia, it occurs also at Kas Lognieu.
188709		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater areas, and is likely to be found&#160;on rocks and sticks in the shallows of the Mekong River. It was also found on a sandy shore on Khong Island.
188709		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188709		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009).<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
188711		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188711		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lao PDR in the Mekong River at Khong Island (including several ANSP collections from Ban Na village and the Somphamit Falls and other locations around Khong Island). In Thailand it has been recorded at Ban Dan, at the confluence between the Mun and Mekong Rivers; specimens were collected by Davis (ANSP collections). Bruce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1976) collected the species between Khemmerat and Ban Khi Lek, Ubon Ratchathani, upstream from the confluence of the Mun and Mekong rivers at Ban Dan. Presence in suitable habitat in the Mun and other tributaries is possible, and the species should be looked for in adjacent parts of the Mekong in northeastern Cambodia.
188711		habitat	eng	Found on rocks at the top of falls, as well as in pools and channels. It was also found along the shore of Khong Island.
188711		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data. Bruce<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(1976) collected the species in 'large numbers' from a site near to Khemmarat.
188711		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188714		conservation	eng	Research is required into the species' distribution and ecology.
188714		distribution	eng	Described from Guangdong Province ('La Fou' River), southern China in the late 19<sup>th </sup>Century. Little is known of the species' distribution, with no more recent records, only some old museum shells from c.1900 (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011). Potentially also present in Guangxi Province in China. Recorded from northern Viet Nam (it might also occur in Ha Giang and Cao Bang&#160;provinces in&#160;northern Viet  Nam (based on museum material from 'Tonkin'), Lao Cai and "Phac Kha, Golfo de Tonkin" (Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales)), however this requires  confirmation, as pachychilid species normally have restricted  distributions (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), and are thought to not refer to this species.
188714		habitat	eng	Presumably rivers, but no information available.
188714		population	eng	No information available.
188714		threats	eng	Without further information on the species' ecology and distribution, nothing can be inferred of the species' threats.
188716		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
188716		distribution	eng	The species is widespread through Southeast Asia, with two subspecies, the nominate subspecies is known from Indonesia (Java; Sumatra (Semule River) and other Indonesian islands). The mainland subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic; ">Idiopoma javanica continentali</span>s) is found from&#160;Thailand, southern Lao PDR, Cambodia, southern Viet Nam, and with some populations  from Malaysia which are almost identical with the typical form from  Java. In Thailand, it is recorded widely except in northern areas, including Khon Kaen and Chonburi provinces (Bang Pra: type locality).
188716		habitat	eng	It is found in freshwater ponds, rice fields, and irrigation channels.
188716		population	eng	Population trends are unknown but the species is locally abundant where present.
188716		threats	eng	<p>No known specific threats to this species.&#160;</p>
188717		conservation	eng	The species urgently requires new surveys to confirm the range, as there have been few records since the 1970s. If the threats at Khong Island escalate, then a higher threat category as Critically Endangered would be a possibility. Further new survey data is urgently required for a more accurate assessment of the conservation status of this species and to determine its current range, population trend and ecological requirements. Confirmation of the taxonomic position of the species is needed.
188717		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Lao PDR at Khong Island, where there are records from Khong Town and Ban Na Village (Champasak).
188717		habitat	eng	It lives in the rapids, but was also found on the sandy shore.
188717		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188717		threats	eng	<p>This species may be impacted by future changes to the Mekong River flow regimes as it is restricted to rapid areas in the river, and there are plans for a dam at Khong Island.&#160;</p>
188718		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary. Confirmation of the taxonomic status of the species from northern Viet Nam requires confirmation.
188718		distribution	eng	This species was described from&#160;Hainan Island&#160;and is known from Guangdong Province and Hong Kong, southern China. Records from northern Viet Nam require confirmation.
188718		habitat	eng	It is confined to stony mountainous streams and the upper courses of rivers. The rivers are often shaded by large trees and are rich in leaf material, where the snails dwell on muddy to pebbly substratum among boulders.
188718		population	eng	There is no population trend data but the species is believed to be abundant where present.
188718		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over its entire range, but may be locally threatened by deforestation causing sedimentation, impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.&#160;</p>
188719		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species, and into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188719		distribution	eng	The species is known from the Mekong River in Lao PDR (Khone Island, Champasak Province), eastern Thailand, and Cambodia. In Thailand, it was found in the Mun River. Davis collected the species at four different locations in Lao PDR ('Ban Nuah') and Thailand (Surin and Ubon Ratchathani provinces; ANSP collection data). The species was originally described from '<span><span>Cochinchine Vietnam-Cambodge<span>, <span><span>Mékong, Khône<span>' (MNHN, Paris); <span><span>Cochinchine generally refers to the southern parts of current day Viet Nam, however it seems likely that the collection site was the Khone Falls area.<br/></span></span></span></span>
188719		habitat	eng	Davis (1979) mentions it as<em>&#160;</em>a species from the Mekong River which occurs in river rapids, and rocks and small islands in the Mekong.
188719		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
188719		threats	eng	As little is known of the species' distribution and ecology, it is difficult to infer threats. It is likely that mainstream dams on the Mekong and Mun rivers will impact the species. The Don Sahong dam, on the mainstream of the Mekong River is proposed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, one of the known sites of the species (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009).
188720		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required. In addition, the species has not been formally described and published.
188720		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Lao PDR. It is present in the Mekong River, recorded only from Khong Island (ANSP collection&#160;5997A&#160;coll. G. Davis) in Siphandone Province.
188720		habitat	eng	Recorded from the Mekong River in the main flow on rocks below the riffle line.
188720		population	eng	Population trends are unknown as there are no recent surveys.
188720		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will  lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and  changes to water flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on  freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992)  mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular  fluctuation of the water level. <br/></p> <p>Water pollution due to  the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a  threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen  1992).</p>
188721		conservation	eng	<p>None required.<br/></p>
188721		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Viet Nam, with records from Nam Dinh (Nghia Lac, Nghia Phu (FIBOZOPA 2005)), Phu Tho (Viettri Lake and Hung Hoa), and Lang Son (That Khe) provinces (Haskoning 2008, Dung <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In Nam Dinh, it was found only sporadically.
188721		habitat	eng	Found in small irrigation channels, rice fields and ponds. It is infected with Monostome and Parapleurolophocercaria trematode parasites.
188721		population	eng	No information available.
188721		threats	eng	<p>Although there are plans which would impact some local rivers, possibly impacting the adjacent crops, this species lives in paddy fields and irrigation channels and is unlikely to be affected.&#160;</p>
188724		conservation	eng	<p>No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research and monitoring are required.</p>
188724		distribution	eng	The species is known from Lao PDR and Thailand, from two locations on a 100 km stretch of river. Data (ANSP Malacology Collection) suggest that this species is found in Ubon Ratchatani Province close to Ban Dan, and from the Mekong River at Khong Island (Brandt 1974) in Lao PDR.
188724		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitats and ecology of this species. Habitat is assumed to be similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraprososthenia </span>species.
188724		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188724		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.</p>  <p>Water pollution may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188725		conservation	eng	No information available.
188725		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lao PDR in the Nam Pat River (Muang Soum, Vientiane Province), and the Huai Moi River (Ban Huai, Vientiane Province). This species has not been re-collected since it was first described by Davis and Hoagland in 1976.
188725		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers.
188725		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188725		threats	eng	<p>The first dam in the catchment was built in 1971, although the species was first collected after the dam was built. However, there are plans for further dams on these rivers in the near future, and as such these may impact the flow regime and change the habitat for this species. Sedimentation may also change the habitats.&#160;</p>
188728		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology; its taxonomic status requires confirmation.
188728		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Khong Island, Champasak Province, on the Mekong River, Lao PDR (ANSP Malacology Collection).
188728		habitat	eng	The species was found in the river, between large rocks and sandy substrates in 0.6-1.0 m depth of water, in rapids.
188728		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188728		threats	eng	The proposed Don Sahong dam would likely impact upon the species' habitat (Baird 2009).
188731		conservation	eng	No information available.
188731		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Lao PDR. In Thailand, it occurs in nearly all tributaries in the provinces from Loei to Ubon Ratchathani. The species is present throughout the lower Mekong, although apparently restricted based on current information, to the mainstream rather than tributaries. From Thailand it is recorded from between Tha Uthen (Nakhon Phanom Province) to Ban Dan. In Lao PDR, it is known from Ban Na Village, Phapheng Falls and Khong (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004, Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. k. koratensis</span> is in Huai Takrong at Nakhon Ratchasima, that of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. k. holosculpta</span> is at Maenam Kham near Tat Phanom. Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) found the species throughout the lower Mekong in Cambodia (Tonle Sap River at Phnom Penh, Mekong at Kampi, Mekong at Stung Treng, Mekong at Nak Loeung) and Viet Nam (Long Xuyen, Tan Cha, Cha Doc).
188731		habitat	eng	It lives in rapids of rivers and streams. <span style="font-style: italic;">S. k. holosculpta </span>has been found in the very quiet parts of the Mekong River.
188731		population	eng	No information available.
188731		threats	eng	Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
188735		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation action plans are in place, however the species requires survey work to determine range, taxonomic status and future threats. Monitoring is recommended.
188735		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong River in Thailand (Ban Dan, type locality; Brandt 1974) and Khong Island, Lao PDR (various sites on Khong Island; Ban Na, Muang Khong ANSP collection database). It is currently known from a c.100 km stretch of the river. Presence downstream in Cambodia is possible and should be investigated.
188735		habitat	eng	The species is found on rocks in fast-flowing parts of the river (Brandt 1974).
188735		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188735		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30-32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (Mekong River Commission 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al</em>. 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown. Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009),  sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological  effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992)  mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular  fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing  countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the  Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
188736		conservation	eng	No information is available on the conservation status of this species, therefore research, monitoring and habitat management are required.
188736		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Cambodia in the Mekong River at Sambor (type locality) (Brandt 1974), in Lao PDR from Khemerrat, Ban Na and Khong Island. It has been also reported from Thailand at Ban Bung Village. The recent records from&#160;Khemerrat and Khong Island come from the ANSP collection database.
188736		habitat	eng	It lives on rocks in the shallows of the river.
188736		population	eng	No information is available on populations of this species.
188736		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009).<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
188738		conservation	eng	No information available.
188738		distribution	eng	The species has an uncertain range with poorly localised records from 'Siam' and 'Chine' (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).
188738		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater areas.
188738		population	eng	No information available.
188738		threats	eng	<p>Uncertain, as there are no locality data.</p>
188739		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188739		distribution	eng	This species is listed from northern Viet Nam (Tonkin) and there is no detailed information on its distribution.
188739		habitat	eng	No information available.
188739		population	eng	No information available.
188739		threats	eng	<p>As nothing is known of the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be said of its threats.<br/></p>
188740		conservation	eng	No information available.
188740		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Don Pakam (Sithandone wetlands) on the Mekong River near Champasak (Champasak Province) in Lao PDR; collected by Brandt in 1972 (ANSP Malacology Collection).
188740		habitat	eng	The species was described from the Mekong River; no details of habitat available.
188740		population	eng	No information available.
188740		threats	eng	<p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regimes. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188742		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' taxonomy, current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
188742		distribution	eng	The species is apparently only known from Viet Nam ('Tonkin'; <a name="Top">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>).
188742		habitat	eng	No information available.
188742		population	eng	No information available.
188742		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
188745		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
188745		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Lao PDR in the Mekong River around Khong Town, Ban Na Village and the Somphamit Falls (2 km south of Khong Island) as well as in the Phapheng Falls. All sites are within a small area (less than 10 km) and so are treated as one location given the current threats from potential dam construction at this site.
188745		habitat	eng	Found in the mainstream of the Mekong River as well as in waterfalls, and was found at a minimum depth of between 5-8 cm.
188745		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
188745		threats	eng	There are dams proposed on the Mekong at the Khone Falls and this may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.
188747		conservation	eng	The species limits are poorly defined with respect to other described  taxa in this family, and they are in need of revision. Any future change of taxonomic status will require a revised conservation  assessment. No species-specific conservation actions are known, but none are considered necessary.
188747		distribution	eng	This species seems to occur everywhere in the Mekong River in&#160;Lao PDR and Cambodia, and given the current range it may occur in the adjacent regions of Thailand and Viet Nam. It is recorded&#160;between Champassak (Lao PDR) and Samboc (Cambodia). In Cambodia, it has been found at Kratie, Sandan, Kas Lognieu (type locality) and Stung Treng. In Lao PDR, it has been found at Khong town, Pakse and Ban Sala.
188747		habitat	eng	It was found in Cambodia on a sand-bank within the main river channel.
188747		population	eng	Population trends are unknown.
188747		threats	eng	<p>This species could be impacted by the damming on the Mekong River, but there are insufficent data to assess whether the widespread range would overcome the potential changes on the river.&#160;There are few verified records from recent surveys.&#160;</p><p>Mainstream dams will lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009), sedimentation, and changes to flow regime. Although the ecological effects of dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level.<br/><br/>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development within the region may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
188749		conservation	eng	Currently there is no conservation plan directed towards <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius rohani</span>. Research is needed to generate further information on lifehistory, ecology, population trends, use and trade and threats to this species.
188749		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius rohani</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and is at present known only from the hill streams of Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, India, draining into the Arabian Sea (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
188749		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius rohani </span>is found in hill streams (Devi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Maximum size of the fish is recorded as 95 mm standard length.
188749		population	eng	No information on the population trends is available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius rohani</span>.
188749		threats	eng	The area from where <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius rohani</span> is reported has several threats including urban development, tourism, invasive species, agricultural pollution and excessive harvesting (Knight 2010).
188750		conservation	eng	More data on distribution, habitat and tolerance to disturbance are needed for this species.
188750		distribution	eng	According to Fraser (1934) the type material was collected from the&#160;Toungoo and Karen districts, Myanmar.&#160;Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) recorded the nominate <em>A. x. xanthenatus </em>from Chiang Mai and Kanchanaburi in Thailand.<em>&#160;Asiagomphus&#160;xanthenatus acco&#160;</em>Asahina (1996) was described from Cuc Phuong, Gia Vien, Ninh Binh Province, Viet Nam and Wilson (2005) subsequently recorded&#160;<em>Asiagomphus&#160;xanthenatus acco&#160;</em>from&#160;Chunxiu,&#160;Guangxi. All these records occupy a similar latitude across Indo-China through to southern China.
188750		habitat	eng	Members of this genus prefer muddy margins of sluggish sections of moderate to swift flowing forested hill streams.
188750		population	eng	The records of&#160;<em>Asiagomphus&#160;xanthenatus acco </em>from the subspecies type locality in northern Viet Nam are spatially very close to Wilson's (2005) records from Chunxiu near the Vietnamese border in Guangxi, China. The distance between the two sites is <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 150 km. Apart from the original specimens of the nominate species collected from the type locality in&#160;Toungoo and Karen districts in Myanmar, and Asahina's two female records from Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) there are no other records of <em>A. x.</em><em>&#160;xanthenatus</em>.
188750		threats	eng	Little is know about the distribution and habitat preferences of this species, so that any threats that it faces cannot be assessed.
188758		conservation	eng	There are no consevration measures in place for this species.
188758		distribution	eng	According to Burch (1989), citing Goodrich (1941), this species is found (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Elimia gerhardti</span>) in the Coosa River basin, from north Georgia to lower tributaries of the Coosa River in Alabama. According to Gordon (pers. comm. 2010), it also occurs in Tennessee River near Chattanooga. The extent of occurrence is probably less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188758		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater tributaries and river basins.
188758		population	eng	This species is reported to be abundant where it is present.
188758		threats	eng	There are no significant threats currently impacting the global population of this species.
188870		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species current distribution, population status, ecology and the impact of threats.
188870		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Mekong River, Cambodia (Fischer 1891).
188870		habitat	eng	This species has been found in the Mekong River, but no further specific habitat information is available for this species.
188870		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188870		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow) (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).<br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006).<br/>Many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). These threats are likely to increase as local human pressure increases.
188871		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. However, following Russian taxonomy, the species <em>Colletopterum kokandicum</em> is included in the Red Book of Uzbekistan (The National Biodiversity Strategy Project Steering Committee 1998). Further research is required to establish this species' population size and habitat and to identify potential threats.
188871		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Aral Sea and southern Caspian Sea drainages in Central Asia (Graf 2007). The species is described from the Kura River in Georgia, thus the range includes the Transcaucasian region as well. It is known from the Caucasus mountains and adjacent regions, including the Caspian area (see Zhadin 1938, Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is found in waterbodies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, southern European Russia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
188871		habitat	eng	Zhadin (1938) mentioned that this species dwells in rivers, brooks and lakes. It prefers silt substrata.
188871		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188871		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. However, the areas around the Caspian Sea are experiencing major development due to commercial exploitation of hydrocarbon deposits (Caspian Environment Programme 2005). Oil and gas producing industries and associated transport activities are a major risk to water quality in the area. Furthermore, the Volga River, which flows into the Caspian Sea, is polluted with numerous chemical and biological contaminants, thus further reducing water quality (Caspian Environment Programme 2005). Similarly, cotton and rice farming, vegetation changes, the use of fertilisers and the diversion of rivers pose major threats in the region around the Aral Sea (Glantz 1999). However, it is unclear in which river drainages this species occurs and what threats are present in its habitat.
188872		conservation	eng	Currently work is being carried out to assess the feasibility of designating large parts of the Volga delta as a world heritage site (NHPF 2008). If this was accepted, greater protection would be bestowed upon vital habitat for this species. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
188872		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the Volga River delta, in the Caspian Sea (Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
188872		habitat	eng	This species is located in the Volga delta, in very large waterbodies of different types (M. V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
188872		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
188872		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
188873		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on the precise range, habitat requirements and possible threats for this species is needed. Monitoring programmes may help to detect any population declines.
188873		distribution	eng	This species is found north of the Himalayas in Asia (Kuiper <em>et al. </em>1989). In China, it is found at high altitudes up to 14,500 feet above sea level. It has been found in Kampa Dzong, Kham Province, and the Gyantse Valley, Tibetan province of China (Dance 1967).
188873		habitat	eng	This species is found in plateau streams (Dance 1967). It may also be known from other habitat types.
188873		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188873		threats	eng	It is unknown if any threat processes are having an impact on this species.
188874		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
188874		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mississippian region; Great Lakes: Michigan and Erie; Mobile basin; Gulf Coastal region west to the Rio Grande system of Texas and Mexico (Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas), and Calcacieu River system of Louisiana (Johnson 1999).  Recently this species has been confirmed to be likely extirpated from the main channel of the Detroit River between Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie, Michigan/Ontario; due to zebra mussel invasion (Schloesser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). Its extent of occurrence has been estimated to be in excess of 200,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188874		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lakes (Johnson 1999, Schloesser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).
188874		population	eng	Population data is unavailable but some localised declines have been reported from the  Great Lakes, northern Mississippi drainage, and range edges in the west  and northeast; it is most stable in the Gulf Coastal region and southern  Mississippi drainage (Johnson 1999, Schloesser<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).
188874		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting this species at a global level, however, localised declines have been observed which are most likely due to common freshwater threats.
188875		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to ascertain the full distribution and abundance of this species and determine whether it is being impacted upon by any threat process.
188875		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southeast of Turkmenistan, and in the southeast of Tajikistan (Starobogatov and Zatrawkin 1987, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
188875		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
188875		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188875		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
188876		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species. If it is found to be a valid species, then research is needed into its population size and geographic distribution, life history and ecology, and the potential impact of threats such as dam and weir construction.
188876		distribution	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">T</strong>his species is known from the Murray River, Merbein in Victoria, Australia (Korniushin 2000).
188876		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. However, it is thought to be closely related to <em>Musculium tasmanicum</em>, which occurs in lakes, ponds and swamps (Korniushin 2000).
188876		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
188876		threats	eng	The construction of dams and weirs on the Murray River has caused significant changes in water flow. This has led to unseasonal flooding of wetlands, loss of connection with the floodplain, habitat simplification, bank erosion and reduced water quality (Norris <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on this species.
188877		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further studies are recommended to resolve the taxonomic issues surrounding this&#160; species' genus placement. Furthermore, it is necessary to clarify the distribution and abundance of this species.
188877		distribution	eng	This species is known from its type locality, the River Avon near Horseshoe Lake in Christchurch, on New Zealand's South Island (Suter 1905), but has populations recorded across both islands (B. Marshall pers. comm. 2009).
188877		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most freshwater systems (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It is found on the invasive North American pondweed <em>Elodea canadensis</em> (Suter 1905), generally on the undersides of floating leaves or other floating debris (Knox 1969).
188877		population	eng	Knox (1969) describes this species as rare, but "after any summer when the water level remains moderately high … [it] has been found in appreciable numbers".
188877		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected to some degree by habitat degradation and loss from agriculture, forestry, and urbanisation (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188878		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundnace, distribution, life history and ecology, and threats.
188878		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens collected in Hong Kong (Yipp 1995). In addition, reports of <em>Thiara costellaris</em> (Kress 2000) in the Phillipines and <em>Stenomelania costellaris</em> in the Bonin Islands (Miura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) could have been mistaken for this species as the taxonomic authority is that of <em>Melanoides costellaris</em>.
188878		habitat	eng	This species was collected from unknown freshwater habitat with a soft sediement bed (Yipp 1990). In this report, Yipp assessed streams, rivers, flooded furrows (irrigation ditches) and ponds, but failed to indicate which habitat contained this species.
188878		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
188878		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. <br/><br/>Although no assessment of the specific threats to this species have been made, several threats to freshwater systems exist in Hong Kong. Freshwater quality in the Hong Kong region has improved significantly over the past decade, but threats are still present from unsewered villages in upper catchments and some expedient connections (EPD 2008). This report by the Environmental Protection Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region did not, however, assess biodiversity concerns of these water courses. It can be assumed that the reported increased channelization is reducing the soft sediment habitat occupied by this species.<br/><br/>The lower courses of Hong Kong rivers are heavily affected by channelization associated with urban development.&#160; In addition, several large dams are in place to provide water storage outside of the monsoon season. Furthermore a recently implemented network of deflatable rubber dams have been designed to reduce flow in the dry season and mitigate against flooding in the monsoon season (Tam 1997).
188879		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the population trends of this species and future surveys are recommended in order to monitor this species carefully&#160;  in the event of novel threats impacting this species.
188879		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality: Nizhnjaja Shakuranskja Cave in the Caucasus, Georgia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188879		habitat	eng	This species is known from a subterranean karst system (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188879		population	eng	There is no information available on the population trends of this species.
188879		threats	eng	There are no immediate and significant threats to this species, however uncontrolled cave tourism may influence the habitat (D. M. Palatov pers comm. 2011).
188880		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
188880		distribution	eng	This species is common and widely distributed along the Atlantic Slope from the Altamaha River basin in Georgia north to the St. Lawrence River basin, and west to Lake Superior and parts of the Hudson Bay basin (Burch 1975).
188880		habitat	eng	This species is reported to occur in freshwater lakes and rivers (Burch 1975).
188880		population	eng	This species is considered stable throughout most of its range (Burch 1975).
188880		threats	eng	As this species is considered stable throughout most of its range, it is unlikely that there are any threats impacting the global population.
188881		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
188881		distribution	eng	This species is known from several rivers in Brazil and is also found in Peru (Paredes<em> et al.</em> 1999, Beasley 2001). Specifically, it is known from the Tocantins and Irituia Rivers, Pará, and Catalão, at the confluence of the Solimões and Negro rivers, in the state of Amazonas in Brazil and the Rio de la Plata and Uruguay Rivers in Argentina (Haas 1969, Beasley 2001, Souza do Vale <em>et al.</em> 2005, Simone 2006, Pimpão <em>et al.</em> 2008, Rumi<em> et al. </em>2008). According to more recent reports, this species is no longer present in the Rio de la Plata (G. Darrigan pers. comm. 2010).
188881		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater rivers (Beasley 2001).
188881		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188881		threats	eng	Although there are no known direct impacts to this species, the recent construction of a dam on the Tocantins River may negatively impact this species (Beasley 2001). This species is also harvested for the button industry by local people who dive to collect the shells (Beasley 2001). However, due to the small size of the shell, this species is not as sought after as other species, which are collected in larger quantities (Beasley 2001). Also, changes in the hydrological regime of the Tocantins river due to deforestation may negatively impact this species (Costa<em> et al. </em>2003). A paper mill on the bank of the Uruguay River may be affecting the water quality here (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
188882		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the land surrounding Lake Mcilwaine was designated as a National Park soon after the lake was formed in 1952 (ILEC 2008). Further research is needed to establish whether this species is restricted to Lake Mcilwaine, or whether it is also found in other waterbodies in the area. Information on the abundance of this species and the impact that threats, such as water abstraction, may be having on the population would also be valuable.
188882		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Mcilwaine, Zimbabwe (Kuiper 1966). Mandahl-Barth (1988) describes its distribution as Zimbabwe as well as a few locations in Zambia and Shaba (= Katanga, Congo).
188882		habitat	eng	This species is, for example, known from Lake Mcilwaine (Kuiper 1966), which is a man-made lake, created in 1952 by the construction of the Hunyanipoort Dam. It is a warm, monomictic lake with a mean depth of 9.4 m and a maximum depth of 27.4 m (ILEC 2008).
188882		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
188882		threats	eng	Up until the 1970s, Lake Mcilwaine was used as a receptacle for sewage effluent from the city of Harare. As a result, the lake became highly eutrophic, but it has since been rehabilitated to a mesotrophic state through a programme of lake management (ILEC 2008).<br/><br/>The lake is now used as a water source for the city of Harare, with approximately 250,000,000 m³ of water being pumped from the lake to the city each year. The lake is also used for commercial fishing, boating, swimming and angling (ILEC 2008). However, it is not known what impact these activities are having on this species.<br/><br/>Other threats may affect this species in localized parts of its range, but these are unlikely to affect the global population of this species.
188883		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its range falls within some protected areas (e.g., Taman Negara National Park). However, even within protected areas in Borneo extensive deforestation has been documented (Curran <em>et al. </em>2004). Therefore presence within such an area can not be used as a guarantee of protection. The impact of deforestation is potentially a serious threat to populations of this species, and the study of this, as well as its population size and range, is a priority for this species.
188883		distribution	eng	This species occurs in mountain streams in Western Borneo, from Sabah to South Kalimantan (Köhler  and Glaubrecht 2001). At present it is only known from the type locality, Sabah, east Malaysia, Borneo and one other location in south-west Indonesian Borneo (F. Köhler  pers. comm. 2010). Its area of occupancy is estimated to measure less than 500 km²<sup></sup>.
188883		habitat	eng	This species requires well-oxygenated, small, clear mountain streams, preferring rocky or pebble substrates. It is mainly found in mud, on stones, or under leaves and therefore is only present in remnant patches of rainforest (Köhler  and Glaubrecht 2001, F. Köhler  pers. comm. 2010).
188883		population	eng	The distribution of this species is highly fragmented, however where it occurs it could be locally abundant (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
188883		threats	eng	Slash-and-burn agriculture has been used extensively in the forests of Borneo, and contributes to a high (>300,000 ha per annum) rate of deforestation on the island. This has detrimental effects (e.g., sedimentation, soil erosion, loss of riparian habitat) on stream habitats and communities (Iwata <em>et al. </em>2003). Deforestation has been most extensive in the east and south of the island, and this is projected to spread further inland towards the central highland area (Ahlenius 2007). The rivers in logged habitats are not suitable for this species due to change in flow, quality and substrate composition (F. Köhler   pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>Protected areas (PAs, e.g., Gunung Palung National Park (GPNP) in West Kalimantan) have also seen extremely high rates of deforestation by timber concessions, with further degradation from oil palm plantations. GPNP lost 38% of its forest between 1988 and 2002, at rates of nearly 10% a year. Across West Kalimantan, lowland PAs were reduced by 63% from 1985 to 2001, primarily by intensive logging, while Kalimantan's other provinces saw a 48% reduction in forest cover over the same period (Curran <em>et al. </em>2004).
188884		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
188884		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Tennessee and southwest Virginia to southern Michigan, Illinois and Iowa (Burch 1989).  In the upper Mississippi drainage, it can be found in southern Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio; as well as eastern Iowa and southwestern Virginia (van der Schalie and Dundee 1955).  Clarke (1981) notes some claims of its occurrence in Canada in southern Ontario, but does not list it for Canada because there are no confirmed records.
188884		habitat	eng	This species has a tolerance of a broad range of habitats (it is amphibious) throughout freshwater river drainages and lakes and demonstrates a tolerance to  habitat modification.
188884		population	eng	This species has a wide distribution and a presumed large population.
188884		threats	eng	This species has a tolerance to  habitat modification and it is unlikely that there are any significant immediate threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
188885		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish abundance of this species and the impact of threats such as pollution and changes to the hydrological regime.
188885		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is the Lower Amur River, southeastern Russian Federation. The area is 22 km upstream from Kalinovka, and 337 km from the mouth of the Amur (Bogatov and Starobogatov 1994).
188885		habitat	eng	This species was recorded from the Amur River, although there is no specific habitat or ecological information available for this species.
188885		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188885		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to this species. However, Alexei (2004) suggests the Lower Amur River is impacted by intensive changes to the hydrological regime caused by hydropower stations. The three largest developments are the Zeiskaya and Bureiskaya in Russia, and Funmanskaya in China. Significant changes to the river run-off have occurred, causing significant transformation in the middle and lower Amur water regime. Pollution from sewage, siltation, heavy metals, and agricultural activities have impacted the lower Amur River. The report goes on to state that the Amur River ranks first in northeast Asia in terms of suspended sediment content, and substances of anthropogenic origin.
188886		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. As this species has a wide distribution, it may occur in National Parks. Further research regarding population status and trends would greatly increase the knowledge on this species.
188886		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Regatas Lake in Palermo, Buenos Aires city (Vega <em>et al</em>. 2006), Rio de la Plata, Nunez, Buenos Aires Province, Paraná River between the cities of Santa Fe and Santo Tomé, Argentina (Castro-Vazquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). This species also occurs as far as Bolivia (Castellanos and Fernandez 1976, Simone 2006)
188886		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from aquatic plants close to the surface at a depth of roughly 3 m (Poppe and Poppe 2009). It is known to occur in slow-flowing, deep, freshwater bodies (Akvaryum 2009). Regatas Lake is known to be a man-made pond (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010)
188886		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188886		threats	eng	This species may be threatened locally, but it has a wide distribution and has no threats impacting on its global distribution.
188887		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable on the Japanese Red List (Japan Red Data Book 2007). Regionally it is most endangered in Kagawa Prefecture (listed as Critical and Endangered), and is also Endangered or Vulnerable in Hyogo, Chiba, Shizuoka, Aichi, Oita, Kumamoto and Kagoshima Prefectures (Japan Red Data Book 2007). Further research is needed into this species' global population status and the magnitude of declines.
188887		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippines, Japan and Republic of Korea. Within Japan it is known from Honshu (Mikawa Bay), Shikoku and Kyushu (Fukuoka, Kumamoto and Oita Prefectures) (Japan Red Data Book 2007).
188887		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries and brackish wetlands. Seo <em>et al.</em> (1977) collected it from "a reedy marshy area". It is a host of the flatworm <em>Paragonimus ohirai </em>(Blair <em>et al. </em>1999).
188887		population	eng	In Aichi Prefecture, Japan, populations of this species have decreased significantly, leading to an Endangered listing (Aichi Red Data Book 2009). In Hadong, Republic of Korea, a study found this species made up 18 % of the freshwater snail population (Seo <em>et al. </em>1977).
188887		threats	eng	Many factors threaten the wetlands of Japan including human activities such as conversion for agriculture and urban and industrial development (Birdlife International 2009). Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, causing significant population declines in Japan and a high risk of extinction (Aichi Red Data Book 2009).
188888		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, habitat preferences and threats.
188888		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
188888		habitat	eng	This species is found in hot springs with temperatures up to 42˚C (Prozorova 2003; Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
188888		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188888		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188889		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine its present native distribution, as well as the extent and ecological impact of the introduction of this species outside its native range.
188889		distribution	eng	This species was described from Java and also occurs in Borneo and Sabah, Malaysia (Van Benthem Jutting 1956). It was later reported from Thailand, although this was likely an imported specimen (Brandt 1974). It is associated with the horticultural trade and has since been recorded in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan (probably introduced in the late 1990s), in botanical gardens in Tokyo and Fukushima Prefecture, in Guam in 2007, in the Northern Territory of Australia, and intercepted by US quarantine officials between 1993 and 1998 (Hayes <em>et al. </em>2007). It was first recorded in Hawaii in 2004, where it is almost entirely confined to horticultural facilities (Hayes <em>et al. </em>2007), but these are now thought to be mis-identified specimens of another <em>Cyclotropis</em> sp. (Cowie <em>et al. </em>2008).
188889		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ditches with running water (Brandt 1974).
188889		population	eng	There are only limited records of this species within its native range. However, it appears to be able to spread easily via the horticultural trade and has colonised a number of new regions (Hayes <em>et al. </em>2007).
188889		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
188890		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' distribution, population status, ecology and impact of threats.
188890		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Khong Island within the Mekong River, Cambodia (Fischer 1891).
188890		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
188890		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188890		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
188891		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding the population trends and life history of this species.
188891		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Mun and Songkram River, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
188891		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from Mun and Songkram Rivers (Brandt 1974).
188891		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188891		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any threat processes.
188892		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' population status and threats.
188892		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River, Banda, Ubon Province, Thailand (Brandt 1974). Specifically it occurs in the Mekong between Kong Island and Sambor, Cambodia (Brandt 1970).
188892		habitat	eng	This species was collected from rocks in the Mekong River (Brandt 1974).
188892		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188892		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow) (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).<br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet. It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
188893		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the population trends and ecology of this species.
188893		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Paysandu, Uruguay (Pilsbury 1911). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188893		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
188893		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188893		threats	eng	On the Paraná   River, the Itaipu Dam, the largest in the world, flooded   approximately 100,000 ha of land and destroyed significant aquatic   habitat including Guaira Falls. The basin faces the second greatest   number of planned dams in the world (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.   2007).&#160;The upper Paraná   basin is impacted by industrial, domestic,   and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of   river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe  in  parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the   Upper Paraná. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have   the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay   region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the   Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic   life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species.
188894		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' population status, distribution, ecology, and threats.
188894		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from rivers in Great Nicobar, Camorta and Katchall in the Nicobar Islands group and unspecified Andaman Islands (Nevill 1884, Preston 1915).
188894		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from an unknown fluvial habitat (Nevill, 1884, Preston 1915).
188894		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188894		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Rivers on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are predominantly non-perennial, rain-fed streams which dry up in summer (India Environment Portal 2010). This may limit habitable waterways for this species, making it more susceptible to anthropogenically driven perturbation during the dry season. Recent physico-chemical analysis of ground and surface water quality in  the Andaman Islands surrounding the capital Port Blair have found that  they lie within the accepted limits for Indian water quality. Heavy  metals, however, were found to be present in excessive amounts.  Furthermore, bacteriological analysis found contamination with faecal  matter in ground water (Mahajan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). However, the sensitivity of this speceis to heavy metal and faecal contamination is not known.
188895		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/> <br/>Further research is needed on the ecological requirements, distribution and possible threats for this species. Monitoring programmes would be beneficial and aid the detection of population declines.
188895		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan. It has been collected from Tobecho (Onoyama <em>et al.</em>2001).
188895		habitat	eng	There is no available habitat or ecology information available for this species.
188895		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188895		threats	eng	It is possible that this species is affected by localized threats within its range, such as habitat degradation, water course alteration and pollution. However, there is no information available regarding the environmental tolerances of this species or whether threats are known within its range.
188896		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species population abundance, ecology and threats.
188896		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected between Bandan (Ban Dan Ky), Cambodia and Khong Island, Lao PDR (Brandt 1974). The area of this stretch of the Mekong is less than 50 km<sup>2</sup>. It could be assumed that this is the species' extent of occurrence. This does, however, require verification.
188896		habitat	eng	This species was collected from unknown fluvial habitat (Brandt 1974). Other species of this genus occupying the same area of the Mekong (<em>Clea helena</em>) inhabit littoral habitat (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188896		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens (Brandt 1974).
188896		threats	eng	The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, within which this species resides, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (Fougeirol 2007). <br/><br/>The stretch of the Mekong between Bandan (Ban Dan Ky) and Sambor (Kaoh Sambor), within which this species is reportedly found, is flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Further reports exist of sand exploitation causing increased turbidity (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometer north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as alter water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet. These threats are likely to increase as local human pressure increases. It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting upon this species.
188897		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
188897		distribution	eng	This species is found in the San Franciso River in northeast Brazil (Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering 2006), from the states of Pernambuco and Bahia (dos Santos 2003). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 13,650 km<sup>2</sup>.
188897		habitat	eng	This species is found attached to the upper surface of stones in lotic habitats (such as small fast-flowing streams) (dos Santos 1994).
188897		population	eng	Little is known about the population of this species. However, dos Santos (1994) describes it as "common in lotic habitats" in northeastern Brazil.
188897		threats	eng	The Sao Francisco River is severely polluted in areas, from urban waste and organic chemicals. Both water quality and quantity are in decline, and this has caused effects at all trophic levels (CPWF 2009). It is not known what effect this is having on this species.
188898		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is found in Kosciuszko National Park. Further research is recommended on the species' abundance throughout its range, and possible threats.
188898		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New South Wales, Australia. It is found in the Murrray-Darling River Basin, and at the alpine level in the area surrounding Mt Kosciusko in the Snowy Mountains. This includes Blue Lake, Club Lake, Lake Albina and Cootapatamba Lake (Kuiper 1983, Smith 1992, Korniushin 2000). This species is found at depths between 8 m and 26 m (Kuiper 1983).
188898		habitat	eng	This specialist species is found in pools, creeks and glacial lakes at the alpine level (Kuiper 1983).
188898		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant in two lakes in the Snowy Mountains, New South Wales (Korniushin 2000).
188898		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
188899		conservation	eng	&#160;This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009). The species also occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range.
188899		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) lists the distribution of the nominal subspecies as New Brunswick west to southeastern Ontario, west to Saskatchewan, northwest to the Mackenzie River system, south to Georgia and Louisiana and west to Nebraska. This species is very widespread, being found in every Canadian province and in 35 US States.
188899		habitat	eng	This species occurs in ditches, and in slow and fast moving freshwater from creeks to big rivers. This species is recorded as a habitat generalist (Burch 1989, Turgeon <em>et al. </em>1998).
188899		population	eng	This species is recorded as being widespread and common (Burch 1989, Turgeon <em>et al. </em>1998).
188899		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species' global population.
188900		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the Australian Government has implemented a number of action plans to ensure the recovery of the Murray-Darling Basin (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009). Appropriate regulation and habitat restoration are needed to ensure the recovery of the river system.<br/><br/>A recent study by Baker <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that this species is closely related to species in the genus <em>Velesunio</em>, suggesting that the two genera <em>Alathyria</em> and <em>Velesunio</em> might be in need of revision. Therefore, this species’ taxonomy is in need of clarification and future monitoring of population trends is required to ensure that the populations are currently stable.
188900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia and is found in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Victoria (Haas 1969). It is widespread in the inland river systems of the Murray-Darling Basin (McMichael and Hiscock 1958; Sheldon and Walker 1989; Walker<em> et al.</em> 2001).
188900		habitat	eng	This species is found in inland rivers throughout most of the Murray-Darling system (Lamprell and Healy 1998; Walker<em> et al.</em> 2001). It preferentially inhabits channels of large rivers where the currents are strong. This species is considered to be a powerful burrower, which enables it to inhabit such fast flowing streams (Sheldon and Walker 1989). It is completely absent from still waters (Sheldon and Walker 1989). Furthermore, this species has been shown to be unable to endure long periods of hypoxia (Sheldon and Walker 1989).<br/><br/>This species can live for up to 30 years and it reaches maturity at 3 to 4 years of age (CRC for Freshwater Ecology 2003).
188900		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however Walker (1981) noticed that it was fairly patchily distributed in the River Murray. Records of individuals of this species vary from 1.2 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in the River Murray near Overland Corner to 303 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> near Yarrawonga (Walker 1981). Furthermore, Walker (1981) noticed that populations of this species in the lower Murray were declining. A recent study by Baker <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that this species is closely related to species in the genus <em>Velesunio</em>, suggesting that the two genera <em>Alathyria</em> and <em>Velesunio</em> might be in need of revision.
188900		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however over-allocation of water resources, increased salinity and climate change have caused major degradation of this species’ habitat in the Murray-Darling Basin (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).
188901		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of its range coincide with protected areas (e.g. the Pedra Branca State Park, Rio de Janeiro; dos Santos <em>et al.</em> 2003).
188901		distribution	eng	This species is known throughout the state of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil (Thiengo <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002, 2004a,b, 2006), and from Goias, Rio Grande do Sul, and Sao Paolo states (dos Santos 2003, Thiengo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Agudo-Padron 2009). It was recently recorded for the first time in Iguazú National Park, northeast Argentina (Gregoric <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are no known records from Paraguay or Uruguay; however, this is likely a reflection of sampling effort rather than regional absence.
188901		habitat	eng	This species occurs in polluted and unpolluted streams and rivers in Brazil (Thiengo <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is also found in irrigation ditches (Muniz 2007). It is the host of a trematode worm,<em> Echinostome cercaria.</em> It was found to associate with the roots of <em>Eichhornia azurea</em> and <em>E. crassipes</em> (Pfeifer and Pitoni 2003). Marcus and Marcus (1962) reported predation of this species by the flatworm <em>Macrostomum gigas</em> Okugawa 1930.
188901		population	eng	This species is the most common species of Ancylidae in the state of Rio de Janeiro (Thiengo <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2004a,b). However, it may be declining due to the introduction of the aquatic Prosobranch <em>Melanoides tuberculata</em> Müller, 1774 (Braun <em>et al</em>. 2001 in dos Santos 2003).
188901		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species. This species is found in polluted and unpolluted streams (G. Darrigran and G. Pastorino pers. comm. 2010). Given its wide distribution and tolerance to pollution it is unlikely to be impacted by major threat processes.
188902		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
188902		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to peninsular Florida, occurring in five drainages and many lakes, ponds, and canals, including the St. Johns River south to Lake Okeechobee and Lake Osbourne (Johnson 1972). An unpublished range extension to the Chipola River (Heard pers. comm. 1988) is considered questionable and recent surveys of this drainage failed to find this species (Brim Box and Williams 2000).
188902		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater drainages and many lakes, ponds, and canals, including the St. Johns River south to Lake Okeechobee and Lake Osbourne (Johnson 1972)
188902		population	eng	This species is extremely abundant within its restricted range and is stable, remaining common to abundant (often dominant) at many sites; and may often be the only unionid present (Brim Box and Williams 2000).
188902		threats	eng	This species is reported to be common with a stable population and it is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting this species on a global scale.
188903		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, Darlot Creek, where this species exists, is within the boundary of Mount Eccles National Park, Victoria. Further research is recommended to determine the total range size and produce an abundance estimate.
188903		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Glenelg River, Darlot Creek, and a small number of other locations in southern Victoria, Australia. It is also found in northern Tasmania (Korniushin 2000).
188903		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks and is often associated with the freshwater cockles <em>Pisidium tasmanicum</em> and <em>Musculium tatiarae</em> (Korniushin 2000).
188903		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
188903		threats	eng	Threats associated with the Glenelg River include loss of riparian vegetation, salinization, bank erosion, siltation and water pollution, all as a result of agricultural development in the area (Playford and Walker 2008). The recent introduction of the Common Carp, <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>, is also a potential threat as carp feed indiscriminately on benthic invertebrates and have a destructive mode of feeding which can degrade stream habitats (Playford and Walker 2008). However, it is unknown what effect these threats may be having on this species, or how widespread these threats are over the entire range of the species.
188904		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2009). The American Fisheries Society list it as Vulnerable (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011). In Alabama, Lydeard <em>et al.</em> (1999) listed it as a species with undetermined status, and Garner<em> et al.</em> (2004) designated it a species of moderate conservation concern. Few occurrences are appropriately protected or managed, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas (NatureServe 2009). Conservation recommendations include: determining the habitat requirements and host fish, and determining the tolerance of this species to impounded conditions, since it appears that <em>Amblema plicata</em> can tolerate impounded conditions but <em>Amblema neislerii</em> does not (NatureServe 2009); and appropriate site and habitat protection. Recommended research includes taxonomic studies to resolve species status and population and range surveys and monitoring.
188904		distribution	eng	This species is a Mobile Basin endemic and is known only from the Coosa River drainage throughout Alabama and Georgia and the Upper Cahaba River, Alabama (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is known from more than ten locations (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011) and has an estimated extent of occurrence of around 31,000 km².
188904		habitat	eng	There is little information available on the habitat of this species, although it appears to be confined to the main channel of large rivers. According to Williams <em>et al.</em> (2008), this species occurs in large creeks to large rivers in slow to strong current in substrates of sand, gravel and cobble from depths of <1 m to >6 m.&#160;However, Gangloff (2003) found that this species was abundant in shallow (~0.2–0.3 m depth) runs with moderate current. This species&#160;is presumably a short-term brooder, gravid in spring and summer and its glochidial hosts are unknown (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
188904		population	eng	This species is extant in most of its historical range, but appears to be declining in some localized areas and may be extirpated from some sites (possibly from historical occurrences in the main stems of the Coosa and Etowah rivers, and from historical occurrences in tributaries; Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). Although Gangloff (2003) reports a severe contraction of this species' range (to <10% of historic levels),  populations in larger streams such as Terrapin and Big Canoe creeks appear to be stable and show evidence of recent recruitment (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Elsewhere in the Terrapin Creek sub-basin, this species is present but less abundant. Hurricane Creek appears to be an important refuge for this species and, despite the stream's small size and proximity to agricultural row crops, it appears to support a relatively dense and species-rich unionid mussel assemblage (Gangloff 2003).
188904		threats	eng	It has been suggested that this species may be tolerant of impoundment (NatureServe 2009) and can flourish in habitat adjacent to agricultural land (Gangloff 2003). However, there is a documented decline in localised parts of its range, and as such it may be locally threatened (Gangloff 2003, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). The likely threats that this species is experiencing include increased sedimentation; loss of habitat; and reduction in water quality. It has been suggested that there is a potential threat from invasive species such as the Asiatic Clam (<em>Corbicula fluminea</em>) (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
188905		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (NatureServe 2009). On a global scale, it is unknown whether any occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed (NatureServe 2009). In places the species' distribution coincides with protected areas, and there are many local and state action plans in place. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of&#160;<em>Elliptio crassidens</em>&#160;should be undertaken due to the recent AFS mussel evaluation (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press) elevating the threat status to Vulnerable. Localised threats and further population declines must be monitored in order to elevate this species' threat category in the future.
188905		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species is wide-ranging in the Midwest, eastern and some southern states with its southeastern distribution ending in the Escambia and Apalachicola River drainages in the Florida panhandle (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). This species occurs in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin. It is presumed extirpated in Oklahoma and is possibly also extirpated in Pennsylvania and Iowa (NatureServe 2009).&#160;In Canada, this species is known from Quebec and Ontario (NatureServe 2009).
188905		habitat	eng	This species inhabits muddy sand, sand, and rocky substrates in moderate currents, and is also an inhabitant of channels (Heard 1979). When surveying the ACF Basin, Brim Box and Williams (2000) found the species to be most common in large creeks to rivers with moderate to swift currents primarily on sand and limestone or rock substrates.<br/><br/>The primary host fish for this species is the Skipjack Herring (<em>Alosa chrysochloris</em>) (Missouri Department of Conservation 2000).
188905		population	eng	This species is considered stable in the Apalachicola/Chattahoochee/Flint River Basin (ACF basin) (Brim Box and Williams 2000) and southern portions of its range. The species is widespread but relatively rare in the Midwest; locally abundant in some parts of the Ohio and White rivers of Illinois and Indiana; endangered in Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin; and threatened in Illinois and Minnesota (Cummings and Mayer 1992). Locally this species has been extirpated from the Minnesota River and likely the Mississippi River in Minnesota (Sietman 2003) as well as parts of northern Illinois. <br/><br/>The most recent AFS mussel evaluation (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press) will list this species as Vulnerable, changed from currently stable (K.Cummings pers. comm. 2011). Abundance estimates for Canadian populations are not known.
188905		threats	eng	This species is threatened on a local scale by siltation, mining, headcutting, damming and agriculture run-off (Bogan 1993, Brim Box and Mossa 1999, NatureServe 2009), but these factors are not considered a major threat to the species over its entire range. This species has been found to be intolerant to drought conditions (Golladay <em>et al.</em> 2002).
188906		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Since this species appears vulnerable to invasive competitors and pollution episodes (e.g. oil spills), monitoring is recommended to identify any future declines, at least in specific high-risk areas of its range. Control of invasive species may be beneficial to this and other freshwater species.
188906		distribution	eng	This species was first described from Montevideo, Uruguay. It is found in central Chile (Valdovinos 2006, Zarges 2006), in Cordoba, Entre Rios and Buenos Aires provinces, Argentina (Tada and Bucher 1996), throughout Brazil (Lanzer 1996, dos Santos <em>et al. </em>2003, Thiengo <em>et al. </em>2005, Agudo-Padrón 2009), in the Paraná   River in Paraguay (Kochalka 1987, de Neiff and Carignan 1997), and in Antioquia, Colombia (Gomez <em>et al.</em> 2004). Its distribution spreads north to Costa Rica (Lanzer 1996) and Puerto Rico (Raffucci 2008) and south to Patagonia (Hylton-Scott 1963, dos Santos 2003). However, South Patagonian records need to be verified (G. Pastorino pers. comm. 2010).
188906		habitat	eng	Tada and Bucher (1996) list this species as occurring in springs, mountainous streams, and medium-sized rivers. On Ilha Grande island, Brazil, it was found in a small stream in a swampy area (dos Santos <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species also occurs in the Rio de la Plata estuary in Argentina (Ocon <em>et al</em>. 2008). It associates with the roots of <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, and can withstand periods of low water in lentic habitats (de Neiff and Carignan 1997).
188906		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188906		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species. However, a synonym of this species was recorded as having high sensitivity to oil pollution in the Rio de la Plata estuary, Argentina (Ocon <em>et al. </em>2008). Also, in the same region, this species has shown significant declines in the wake of invasive freshwater bivalves such as the Golden Mussel, <em>Limnoperna furtunei</em> (Dunker, 1857) (Darrigran and Ezcurra de Drago 2000).
188907		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine its current distribution and population status.
188907		distribution	eng	This species' distribution is known only from the type locality in Dongjiang River, Guangdong province, China (Graf and Cummings 2007).
188907		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information for this species.
188907		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
188907		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188908		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, due to its widespread distribution and stable population (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
188908		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mississippi drainage north to eastern South Dakota, south to northern Mexico, and all of the Gulf drainages from the Withlacoochee River, Florida, to the Rio Grande (Burch 1975, Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  It also occurs in the Appalachicolan Basin (ACF basin is formed by Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint Rivers) of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, where it was historically known from 101 records from 40 sites and where it was once widespread including the mainstem and tributaries of the Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, Chipola, and Flint Rivers with current distribution much the same (Brim Box and Williams 2000).  It also occurs in the Mobile basin (Johnson 1999). The range extends as far south as northern Mexico (Parmalee and Bogan 1998; Howells <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), including Coahuila (Johnson 1999) and Nuevo Leon (Metcalf 1982), although it might no longer be extant in Mexico (Howells 2003).
188908		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river systems.
188908		population	eng	This species is widespread and secure throughout most of its range across the Mississippi drainage.
188908		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting this species at a global scale.
188909		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species exact distribution, population status, ecology and the possible impact of threats.
188909		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Mekong River (Poirier, 1881). Brandt (1974) reported that the species was not known from Thailand, but Davis (1982) has records from Lao PDR and there are voucher specimens in ANSP collections suggesting that the species is known from the following locations: <br/><ul><li>Ban Na Village, shore of Khong Island and into rapids, Khong Province, Mekong River, Lao PDR Voucher (ANSP <a href="http://clade.ansp.org/malacology/collections/search.php?mode=details&catalognumber=331556">331556</a>) </li><li>River, Khong Island, Sithandone Prov. Lao PDR (Voucher ANSP <a href="http://clade.ansp.org/malacology/collections/search.php?mode=details&catalognumber=346855">346855</a>) <br/></li><li>Sampamit Falls, Mekong River, Sithandone Prov. Lao PDR (14.6.30N; 105.51.30E) Voucher <a href="http://clade.ansp.org/malacology/collections/search.php?mode=details&catalognumber=335946">(ANSP 335946</a> [Records from various years of collecting)</li><li>Sompamit Falls, Sithandone Province, Mekong River, Lao PDR (13.57N; 105.55E) <a href="http://clade.ansp.org/malacology/collections/search.php?mode=details&catalognumber=338984">(ANSP 338984</a> </li><li>Papeng Falls, Mekong River, Sithandone Province, Lao PDR (ANSP  <a href="http://clade.ansp.org/malacology/collections/search.php?mode=details&catalognumber=340043">340043)</a></li><li>Papaeng Water Falls, collected one side branch of the fall, Sithandone Province, Lao PDR (ANSP <a href="http://clade.ansp.org/malacology/collections/search.php?mode=details&catalognumber=338972">338972)</a></li></ul>      <p> </p>
188909		habitat	eng	On and under rocks on bed of river fast-flowing rapids section.
188909		population	eng	There is no population trend&#160; information available for this species.
188909		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun River upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow) (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).<br/><br/>A 30–32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). These threats are likely to increase as local human pressure increases.
188911		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and actions should in fact be taken to limit its spread and population growth, before the negative impacts on many ecosystems become irreversible. Records demonstrate that this species can tolerate low levels of salinity (Mills <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Further research is recommended to determine whether this species and <em>D. rostriformis</em> are separate species or two races of the same species.
188911		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (secure). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, and actions should in fact be taken to limit its spread and population growth, before the negative impacts on many ecosystems become irreversible. Records demonstrate that this species can tolerate low levels of salinity, so that eventual colonization into estuarine and coastal areas of North America cannot be ignored (Mills <em>et al</em>. 1996). Further research is recommended to determine whether this species and <em>D. rostriformis</em> are separate species or two races of the same species.
188911		distribution	eng	This species is native to the middle and south Caspian Sea at depths of 20 - 80 m (Therriault <em>et al</em>. 2004). Whilst the closely related species <em>D. rostriformis</em> has never been reported outside this historical distribution, this species has spread from the Black Sea basin north-east along the Volga River into Russia, north along the Dnieper River into Ukraine, and west along the Danube canal and Rhine as far as the Netherlands (van der Velde and Platvoet 2007). <br/><br/>This species has also spread to North America and Canada, where it was first reported (from Lake Ontario) in 1991 (Therriault <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has since spread throughout the Great Lakes region and south-west to the Mississippi River, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Nevada, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Arizona and California (Benson <em>et al</em>. 2011, NatureServe 2010).
188911		distribution	eng	This species is native to the middle and south Caspian Sea where it is found at depths of 20-80 m (Therriault <em>et al</em>. 2004). Whilst the closely related species <em>D. rostriformis</em> has never been reported outside this historical distribution, this species has spread from the Black Sea basin northeast along the Volga River into Russia, north along the Dnieper River into Ukraine, and west along the Danube canal and Rhine as far as the Netherlands (van der Velde and Platvoet 2007). This species has also spread to North America and Canada, where it was first reported (from Lake Ontario) in 1991 (Therriault <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has since spread throughout the Great Lakes region and southwest to the Mississippi River, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Nevada, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Arizona and California (Benson <em>et al</em>. 2011, NatureServe 2010).
188911		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater or oligohaline (less than 3%) rivers, lakes and canals; it was recorded at depths of 0-28 m in the Ukraine, but as deep as 130 m in the Great Lakes (Mills <em>et al</em>. 1996, Therriault <em>et al</em>. 2004).
188911		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater or oligohaline (less than 3% salinity) rivers, lakes and canals; recorded at depths of 0 - 28 m in the Ukraine, but as deep as 130 m in the Great Lakes (Mills <em>et al</em>. 1996, Therriault <em>et al</em>. 2004).
188911		population	eng	This invasive species has steadily increased its abundance in Europe and North America in the last 10-20 years, colonizing freshwater rivers and lakes and decimating native mussel populations through competitive interference. This species has increased in abundance to the extent that it is now displacing the highly invasive Zebra Mussel (<em>D. rostriformis</em>) (Ricciardi and Whoriskey 2004).<br/><br/>In a study by Schloesser and Masteller (1999) in Presque Isle Bay, Lake Erie, all native unionid (Unionidae) shells were found to be infested by dreissenids in 1991. In this year, they collected about 500 individual unionids belonging to fifteen species; in 1992, 246 individuals belonging to twelve species were collected; in 1993, 64 individuals of six species; in 1994, three individuals of three species; and in 1995, no unionids were found (Schloesser and Masteller 1999).
188911		population	eng	This invasive species has steadily increased its abundance in Europe and North America in the last 10 - 20 years, colonizing the freshwater rivers and lakes and decimating native mussel populations through competitive interference. This species has now increased in its abundance to the extent that it is now displacing the highly invasive Zebra Mussel (<em>D. rostriformis</em>) (Ricciardi and Whoriskey 2004).
188911		threats	eng	There are no threats affecting this species. This species itself threatens the biodiversity of the habitats it invades.
188911		threats	eng	There are no threats impacting on this species. This species itself threatens the biodiversity of the habitats it invades.
188912		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Lake Baikal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and has been protected under Russian Federal Law since 1999. This has, however, not yet been implemented, and there is need for a more integrated and comprehensive management and monitoring plan for the lake's biodiversity (UNEP 2009). Further research is needed on this species to determine population size and trend, and whether it is impacted by any of the threats affecting Lake Baikal.
188912		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern and central Lake Baikal, Russia (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). The species is still only known from two localities. The first is the type locality and the second is Anga Bay, middle Baikal, on the western shore of the lake (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004). Based on present knowledge, it has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100-5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188912		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Lake Baikal at depths of 20 to 30 m (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
188912		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188912		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. However, due to the current lack of specific information about this species (e.g. population status, ecology), it is impossible to estimate the effects of these threats on the species.<br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems, including litter, which jeopardize the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialized city near Lake Baikal. This could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
188913		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Lake Biwa has an IUCN Protected Area Category V ("protected area managed  mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation"). The Lake  is also a UNESCO Ramsar Wetland, and is managed under the Shiga  Prefecture Natural Parks Management Plan (Amako 2008). Additional research on the species' population, distribution and ecology is recommended.
188913		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from all over Lake Biwa, Japan (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010). Both extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of this species are less than 670 km<sup>2</sup> (the approximate size of Lake Biwa). However, it is difficult to reliably assess the number of locations that this species occurs in, as it is unknown what effect the prevalent threats (mostly eutrophication) are having on this species and reliable population  size and distribution information is lacking. While threats such as eutrophication can affect the lake throughout, some regions are more severely affected than others. Therefore, taking all the evidence into account, it is likely that the species occurs in less than ten locations.
188913		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to rocky littoral habitat (Watanabe 1984).
188913		population	eng	This species is not rare in Lake Biwa, and is widespread within the lake (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
188913		threats	eng	Fisheries damage due to agro-chemicals and inadequate wastewater treatment in the catchment area have altered the water quality of Lake Biwa. Conversion of 80% of lagoons to paddy fields, degradation of 50% of reed belts and development of lake shore due to urbanization also pose a threat to this ecosystem.  Further, most of the rivers flowing into the Lake have been straightened and concreted for flood control purposes, and during the month of June the water level is intentionally lowered, which has affected migration and breeding sites for many fish species. Global warming is also thought to be a possible threat (Kira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2006).
188914		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to assess its present population status and trend, and how exotic species such as <em>Melanoides tuberculata </em>are impacting it.
188914		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lima and Callao north to Cerro Malabrigo along the Pacific coast of Peru (Paraense 2003), and is found in the Casma and Lurin Rivers (Ramirez <em>et al. </em>2003).
188914		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lentic brackish wetlands, including lagoons, and ponds with muddy substrate (Chinchayán <em>et al. </em>2008).
188914		population	eng	Nintey-three individuals were recorded from a brackish wetland (the Marvilla lagoon) on the outskirts of Lima, equivalent to about seven percent of the total mollusc fauna (Chinchayán <em>et al. </em>2008). This species has started to disappear from the Lurin River (near Lima), either due to introduced species or degradation of freshwater habitats (Ramirez <em>et al. </em>2003).
188914		threats	eng	This species is displaced by the exotic Malaysian Trumpet Snail, <em>Melanoides tuberculata </em>(Müller, 1774), which was thought to be introduced to Peru via the aquarium trade in the 1970s. <em>M. tuberculata</em> has a high rate of reproduction (by parthenogenesis), is a pollution-tolerant habitat generalist, and predates upon native snail species, as well as being a vector for several human parasites (Iannacone 2006).
188915		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance, habitat preferences and threats processes.
188915		distribution	eng	The known distribution of this species is vague, but can be inferred to include Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Iran, Iraq, China and Mongolia (Machattie 1936, Mills <em>et al.</em> 1936, Farley 1971, Al-Hassan and Soud 1985).Within Iraq, this species occurs in Amarah; Baghdad; Baqubah; Zoba; Hillah; Diwaniyah; Khanaquin; and the Shatt al-Arab River in Basra (Mills <em>et al.</em> 1936, Al-Hassan and Soud 1985).
188915		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and estuaries with muddy intertidal zones such as the Shatt al-Arab river in Iraq. This is a brackish river with a comparatively high temperature during summer and moderately low temperature during winter. It is influenced by the semidiurnal tide of the Arabian Gulf. This species has also been found in ditches, pools, canals and rice paddies (Machattie 1936, Mills <em>et al.</em> 1936, Ali and Salman 1986).<br/><br/>This species can be found on the aquatic hornwort plant (<em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em>) (Idrisi and Salman 2005). It is an intermediate host of the <em>Schistosoma</em> parasite <em>Orientobilharzia turkestanicum</em> (Farley 1971).
188915		population	eng	Machattie (1936) described this species as 'common' along the banks of the lower Euphrates River, Iraq. Mills <em>et al.</em> (1936) described this species as being by far the most prevalent gastropod in all parts of central and southern Iraq, and they collected 11,300 specimens from eight Iraqi districts during their 1936 study. However, there is a lack of recent literature to confirm if this species is still common.
188915		threats	eng	It is unlikely that the species is being affected by any major threats.
188916		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further research is recommended to monitor the ongoing effects that introduced Thiarids are having on this species, and to determine if this species is being affected by other threat processes.
188916		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caribbean, Central America, and western South America (Paraense 1996). Specifically, this species has been found in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Barbados, Jamaica, Haiti, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Peru (Paraense 2003a).&#160;In Peru, this species has been collected from Fundo San Andrés, 1 km west of Trujillo (Paraense 2003a).&#160;In Cuba, this species has been collected from Mosquito Pond in La Habana, and Zapata Swamp (Durand <em>et al.</em> 1998, DeJong <em>et al.</em> 2001).
188916		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swamps, marshes, lakes, marshy pools and ditches (Paraense 2003a, 2003b). This species is a potential host of the Human Bloodfluke, <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> (DeJong <em>et al.</em> 2001).
188916		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188916		threats	eng	The parthenogenic snails <em>Thiara granifera</em> and <em>T. tuberculata</em> have been introduced to the Neotropics in recent decades to control populations of <em>Biomphalaria</em> species, because <span style="font-style: italic;">Biomphalaria</span> is a potential intermediate host of the Human Bloodfluke <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em>. Thiarids have demonstrated their capacity to colonize rapidly and densely many types of habitats while at the same time reducing and even eliminating populations of <em>Biomphalaria</em> species. In 1989, several artificial lakes in Cuba harboured dense populations of <em>T. granifera</em> which had eliminated different species of pulmonates from the habitat, including this species (Pointier and McCullough 1989). However, due to the large distribution of this species, it is unlikely that populations of introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Thiarids </span>are constituting a global threat.
188917		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution might fall within some state forests, which may offer some protection to its habitat. However, state-regulated timber harvesting activities take place in Tasmania’s state forests (Forestry Tasmania 2008). Further research is required to establish the extent of its distribution, its population size and identify potential threats.
188917		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from a number of small streams and rivers in central northern Tasmania (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 5,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
188917		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small rivers and streams and is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
188917		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it can be abundant in places (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
188917		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat degradation due to forestry and agricultural activity (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188918		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the species' population status and possible threats in the lake.
188918		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Sara Cocha, 80 km from Lake Titicaca in Peru (Haas 1951). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 13 km<sup>2</sup>.
188918		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species (Haas 1951).
188918		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188918		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188919		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is recorded as Vulnerable on the Japanese Regional Red List.
188919		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Japan, Republic of Korea, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia and India, but it is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known (Pfeiffer 1857, Murty and Balaparameswara Rao 1977, Tomascik 1997, Saravanakumar <em>et al</em>. 2007).
188919		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove forests, salt marshes and estuaries and can be found around the roots of reeds (Tomascik 1997, Bishogai 2009).
188919		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant (Murty and Balaparameswara Rao 1977).
188919		threats	eng	Mangrove and estuarine ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
188920		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, and a National Status Rank of N5 - Secure for both Canada and the US (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to confirm the present distribution and abundance of this species, particularly in the USA.
188920		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout North America east of the Great Plains, except for mountainous areas, and is considered both widespread and common. (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). For example, it has been reported from Louisiana northeast to Tennessee and Virginia, where it occurs up to the headwaters of the Tennessee River system (Binney <em>et al.</em> 1865, Vaughan 1893). It has also been recorded from Jamaica and Puerto Rico (Ferguson and Richards 1963, Raffucci 2007).
188920		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater rivers and streams (Walther<em> et a</em><em>l</em>. 2006, Albrecht<em> et a</em><em>l</em>. 2007).
188920		population	eng	This species was widely reported in Puerto Rico (Ferguson and Richards 1963), and in Louisiana it was found "in nearly all of the smaller streams throughout the state" (Vaughan 1893). It is considered widespread and abundant (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
188920		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
188921		conservation	eng	poIt is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance and potential or emerging threat processes.
188921		distribution	eng	This species is found in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Iran and Pakistan (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009, Kijashko 2009). It is likely that it also occurs in Afghanistan, although this is not documented. Specifically, this species has been collected in the Kushdil Khan reservoir in the hill-country of Baluchistan north of Quetta, Pakistan; from the water bodies of the Kopet-Dag mountain range in Turkmenistan; and from a small pool in the desert some miles south of Nasratabad in Seistan, on the Iran-Afghanistan border (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188921		habitat	eng	This species has been found in pools and reservoirs, and is likely to also occur in lakes (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188921		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
188921		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.
188922		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. More specifically, live specimens must be collected to verify this species' present existence.
188922		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from the middle and southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968), although it must be noted that no live specimens were found.
188922		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of 50-100 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
188922		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Recent investigation of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna has found this species to be less abundant than other gastropods surveyed in the area, with 19.05 % occurrence across 42 sampling stations (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
188922		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
188923		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. In 1999, this species was assigned a status of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009), corresponding to an IUCN Red List status of Least Concern. It is not certain whether suitable habitat for this species has been reduced since then, or whether additional threats have emerged. Local assessment of this species has found it to be locally Vulnerable in Ontario and Alberta. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its habitat, ecology and threats.
188923		distribution	eng	This is species is currently known from recently surveyed populations across large parts of North America, particularly the northwest, including Arizona, Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Virginia, Wyoming, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario and Saskatchewan.
188923		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from free flowing and impounded rivers, along the water's edge among wet mud sticks and stones, as well as in shallow pools and other protected areas (Miller 1966, NatureServe 2009).
188923		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for the species.
188923		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, given its large distribution and widely available habitat, this species is presently not thought to be at risk.
188924		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range falls within the Witjira National Park (Department for Environment and Heritage 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat. The Witjira-Dalhousie Springs are also listed on the National Heritage List, which offers this area protection under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).&#160;Further research is required to establish its population size, distribution and monitor potential threats.
188924		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Dalhousie Springs, Lake Eyre basin in South Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1996).
188924		habitat	eng	This species is known from thermal springs (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1996).
188924		population	eng	This species is common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188924		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Some of the Dalhousie Springs are a popular tourist attraction. Threats associated with tourism include trampling and inappropriate bathing (i.e. soap, sunscreen and detergents) (Fensham <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the springs that this species are known from are very rarely  visited by tourists, so most of the populations are probably not overly  affected by threats caused by tourism. Additionally, the Dalhousie Springs are considered to be well controlled and appropriately managed (Fensham <em>et al.</em> 2007).
188925		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding this species' population status and trends, and to establish the threat processes impacting upon this species.
188925		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in rivers of the Yenissei River basin, and estuaries of the large tributaries of Lake Baikal, in the north of Western Siberia (Starobogatov and Streletzkaya 1967, Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Lazutkina 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188925		habitat	eng	This species is found in large rivers, small rivers, large lakes and floodplain lakes (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
188925		population	eng	This species is somewhat rare but widely distributed, and in the northern part of Siberia 10-20 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> can be found. (Dolgin 2001). For the Novosibirsk Region, abundance estimates are available from Andreev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), with species abundance in this waterbody varying from 40 to 320 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>.
188925		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
188926		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve in Peru (Ituarte 2004). Further research is recommended into the species' full distribution, threats and abundance.
188926		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Amazonian floodplains in the Pacaya-Samiria Reserve, Loreto, Peru (Ituate 2004).
188926		habitat	eng	This species has been found in ponds that have formed from ancient river branches due to excessive sedimentation (Ituarte 2004).
188926		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
188926		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
188927		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into the impacts of the threat processes documented.
188927		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand and Cambodia (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004). Specifically, it is known from the Mekong River in the Sege District, the Prachin River near Kabinburi, Petburi River in Petburi Province, Chao Praya, Maenam Ping, Maenam Nan and Maenam Pasak in Thailand (Brandt 1974). It is also found in the Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen, Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
188927		habitat	eng	This species is found in reservoirs and rivers (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
188927		population	eng	This species is noted as being abundant in the Tachin river and common around the Strung Treng Ramsar site (Chinnasote 2005, Allen <em><em>et al.</em></em> 2008).
188927		threats	eng	<p>A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/> <br/> A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong  River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/> <br/> The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.</p>
188928		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into population status, trends and the distribution of this species may be  beneficial in establishing a baseline against which to evaluate any  future population and distribution changes.
188928		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Japan, the Philippines, Hong Kong, Tonga, Viti and the islands in Melanesia, and in Upolu, western Samoa (Garrett 1887, Cowie and Robinson 2003, Yang 2007, Bishogai Database 2009). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
188928		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove swamps, where it is found on mud roots and leaves (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
188928		population	eng	In 1887, Garrett described this species as common in Tonga, Viti and the islands of Melanesia. There is no data available providing an estimate of current population trends.
188928		threats	eng	Mangrove and mud flat ecosystems are impacted upon by many different  threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove  swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be  due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion  to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels,  mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil  spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995).  Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges  also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further  threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise  (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these  threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide  distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global  scale.
188929		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place.
188929		distribution	eng	This species is known from several locations including the Houston ship channel system west of Houston, Harris Co., and the San Jacinto, Liberty and Neches River systems, Texas; the Bayou Teche system in Louisiana; the  Mississippi River system in Louisiana, eastern Arkansas, northwestern Tennessee, Illinois, eastern Iowa, Minneapolis and White Bear Lake, Minnesota; Pearl River system, Mississippi; Coosa-Alabama River system, Alabama; Altamaha River system, Georgia; Edisto and Santee River systems, South Carolina; Rainy Lake, Koochiching Co., Minnesota (Burch 1989).
188929		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river systems.
188929		population	eng	It is wide ranging and can, at times, be common.
188929		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting this species at a global scale.
188930		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. As this species was only described 30 years ago and has been very poorly studied, further research is recommended to ascertain this species' exact distribution and population trends. Surveys are also recommended to ensure the species is being monitored should threat levels increase in the future.
188930		distribution	eng	Little is known about this species' distribution. It is distributed very sporadically and its real abundance is unknown (M. V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011). It is estimated that it is currently only known from six locations (Vinarski M. V., Grebennikov M.E., unpublished data). These are scattered throughout the European region of Russia from Moscow (in the west) to the South Urals (in the east). It is therefore suggested that this species occurs in European Russia except in the northern and southern parts. It is likely that this species is endemic to Russia, but there is no information available regarding its presence in waterbodies from adjacent countries (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
188930		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary waterbodies including floodplain pools, brooks and wet meadows (Kruglov and Starabogatov 1981, Khothutkin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
188930		population	eng	This species was only described 30 years ago and is still very poorly studied (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).&#160; In the Moscow region, recent assessments of this species' abundance varied from 1-20 specimens /m<sup>2</sup> (usually 10-15 individuals / m<sup>2</sup>), however abundance is critically dependent upon seasonality. Population size drastically alters between spring and autumn (D.M. Palatov pers. comm. 2010).
188930		threats	eng	No obvious threats are impacting the global population of this species (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010), but too little is known about this species at present to verify this.
188931		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify its abundance, taxonomy, ecology, and threats.
188931		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected in the Andaman Islands (Preston 1915).
188931		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown habitat in the Andaman Islands (Preston 1915). Other members of this genus occupy a benthic fluvial habitat (Sripongpun 2003).
188931		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188931		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Rivers on the Andaman Islands are predominantly non-perennial, rain-fed streams which dry up in summer (India Enviroment Portal 2010). This may limit habitable waterways for this species, making it more susceptible to anthropogenically driven perturbation during the dry season. Recent physico-chemical analysis of ground and surface water quality in the Andaman Islands surrounding the capital Port Blair have found that they lie within the accepted limits for Indian water quality. Heavy metals, however, were found to be present in excessive amounts. Furthermore, bacteriological analysis found contamination with faecal matter in ground water (Mahajan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). However, the sensitivity of this speceis to heavy metal and faecal contamination is not known.
188932		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes affecting Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
188932		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, Russia (Sitnikova and Ropstorf 1999, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It has been found in Listvyanka, Lake Baikal, at a depth of 15 m (Albrecht <em>et al.</em> 2007); in shallow waters (1.8 – 5.2 m depth) in Bolshiye Koty Bay, Southern Lake Baikal (Kravtsova <em>et al.</em> 2004); and in the mouth of the Angara River (Ropstorf and Sitnikova 2006). In the past, it was reported to be widely distributed and abundant in the Angara River (Golyshkina 1967). The subspecies <em>C. maacki maacki</em> is known from the littoral zone of both eastern and western southern Lake Baikal, <em>C. maakai korotnevi</em>&#160;(some opinion considers this species as a&#160;separate&#160;species- <em>C. korotnevi</em>) from Maloe more strait, Ushkan'i isl, north-western Lake Baikal, and <em>C. maacki elatior</em> from the eastern littoral zones of northern and central Lake Baikal (T. Sitnikova pers. comm. 2012).
188932		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and river mouths, preferring a stony substrate (Ropstorf and Sitnikova 2006, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species competes for habitat dominance with <em>Choanomphalus amauronius</em> (Kravtsova <em>et al.</em> 2004).
188932		population	eng	Kravtsova <em>et al.</em> (2004) found this species to be dominant in their surveys of Bolshiye Koty Bay, Southern Lake Baikal. Most collection specimens of this species (ZIN records, Golyshkina 1967) were collected over 40 years ago.
188932		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to the lack of population trend infromation for this species. However, the species was found to be dominant during recent surveys, so is likely to be not significantly affected by threat processes.<br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
188933		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
188933		distribution	eng	This species is the only representative of its genus in Brazil, where it is known from the coastal region in the south of the country (Thiengo <em>et al. </em>2002), including the Jacui delta and Sapucaia and Gravatai Rivers in Rio Grande do Sul (Pfeifer and Pitoni 2003), Santa Catarina (dos Santos 2003), and Barro Alto, Campinacu, Colinas do Sul, Minacu, Niquelandia, Santa Rita do Novo Destino, and Uruacu in Goias (Thiengo <em>et al. </em>2005).
188933		habitat	eng	This species occurs in ponds and rivers where it is found on substrates dominated by organic material and sludge. It commonly associates with the roots of the Water Hyacinth species<em> Eichhornia azurea </em>and <em>E. crassipes</em> (Pfeifer and Pitoni 2003). Its abundance peaks in the spring (Pfeifer and Pitoni 2003). Thiengo<em> et al.</em> (2005) recorded this species near the Serra da Mesa dam, Goias.
188933		population	eng	This species made up 0.8 to 4.6% of the malacofauna in a sample from the Jacui delta, Rio Grande do Sul (Pfeifer and Pitoni 2003).
188933		threats	eng	Thiengo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) recorded this species near the Serra da Mesa dam, Goias. It is unknown what effect this has on the species.
188934		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
188934		distribution	eng	This species is found in western and central Siberia (Zasypkina 2004, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160;The type locality is in northern Kazakhstan, however M.V. Vinarksi has since returned to the site and was unable to find any specimens (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). It is only known from four or five localities.
188934		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a lake and river floodplain channel (M. Vinarksi pers comm. 2010).
188934		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188934		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188935		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding this species' habitat, population size and distribution, as well as the threats it may be facing.
188935		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Rio Mixiollo in Auallaga Province, Peru (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). This species has an extent of occurrence of 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188935		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
188935		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188935		threats	eng	Unsustainable harvesting of natural resources in general pose a widespread threat to ecosystem health, specifically commercial over-fishing. Further, development and contaminants from petroleum extraction have had a major impact on freshwater biodiversity along the Peruvian Amazon (WWF 2009).
188936		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ distribution falls within Cape Liptrap Coastal Park (Parks Victoria 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat. Further research is required to establish its population size, ecology and to identify potential threats.
188936		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Victoria, Australia (Ponder <em>et al.</em> 1994, Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is only known from a small stream at Cape Liptrap, near Waratah Bay (Ponder <em>et al.</em> 1994, Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 200 km².
188936		habitat	eng	This species is known from a small stream and is generally found on weeds, roots and leaves (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
188936		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, although it was found to be relatively common at the type locality (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188936		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. A number of unauthorised walking and vehicle tracks are known to cause significant soil erosion in the stream where this species is found (Parks Victoria 2003). Farmland is also found near to the species' location (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It is unknown how resilient this species is to such changes in habitat quality.
188937		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996 it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986 the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;<br/>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
188937		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Kravstova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
188937		habitat	eng	This species is 'patchily distributed' and found in depths of between 18.5 and 20 metres in Lake Baikal (Kravstova<em> et al.</em> 2004).
188937		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188937		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
188938		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Monitoring of habitat and population trends should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
188938		distribution	eng	This species is known from Taiwan, French Polynesia and Guam (Lee and Chao 2003, Smith 2003, Trondle and Boutet 2009). It is also found in the Benoki and Ohura Rivers, Okinawa, Japan (Velammal <em><em>et al.</em></em> 2005).
188938		habitat	eng	This species has been found in the intertidal zone and rivers (Lee and Chao 2003).
188938		population	eng	This species is noted as 'rare' (i.e. less than five specimens collected in sampling) in Taiwan (Lee and Chao 2003).
188938		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however, the shell of this species is sold in an online shop (Australianseashells.com 2009).
188939		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
188939		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from the Catawba River drainage to the Tar/Pamlico drainage (Bogan 2002). This species was described from the Neuse River near Raleigh, North Carolina. Previously considered to be a North Carolina endemic, it was also recently recorded from seventy sites in the Pee Dee River drainage in South Carolina (Black Lynches Rivers) (Catena Group 2006).
188939		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river basins (Bogan 2002).
188939		population	eng	No detailed population data is available, but populations appear stable (Bogan 2002).
188939		threats	eng	The population appears to be stable, therefore it is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
188940		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protection of the spring in which the species occurs is recommended, along with monitoring of population numbers.
188940		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single location, a spring in a creek bed in the middle of a ranch/cattle farm, near Ouaméni, Bouloupari basin, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy is likely to be less than 10 km².
188940		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a spring in a creek bed (Haase and Bouchet 1998). It is possible that it could occur in other springs nearby; however, its area of occupancy and extent of occurence would still meet the thresholds for Critically Endangered (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
188940		population	eng	This species was neither rare nor abundant at the type locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
188940		threats	eng	Land clearance and purpose-lit fires have increased, and this has sped up the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). Native forest has been reduced and is overgrown with <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark) (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
188941		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to acertain information on the population and threats affecting this species.
188941		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Bamowoo, Chekiang Province, China (Annendale 1925).
188941		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.<br/><br/>This genus is known generally as a good coloniser, as they can tolerate muddy waters and low oxygen levels that can occur after disturbances. This genus dominates its habitat by immigration rather than recruitment, and is slow growing and long lived (Attwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).
188941		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188941		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
188942		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into the impacts of the threat processes documented.
188942		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mun river, Mekong river and Kwai river in Thailand (Mizuno and Mori 1970, Brandt 1974). Specifically, it is known from Maenam Yom, Maenam Kwae Noi and Nakon Thai, Maenam Pong and Huai Dom Yai rivers and the Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen, Thailand (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
188942		habitat	eng	This species is found in the muddy sandy bottoms of rivers and in reservoirs (Mizuno and Mori 1970, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
188942		population	eng	This species is noted as abundant (Mizuno and Mori 1970).
188942		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
188943		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work on taxonomic classification is necessary to resolve potential synonymies with <em>Gyraulus albus. </em>
188943		distribution	eng	This species was originally described from near Dinan, France. Kantor <em>et al.</em> (2009) record its distribution as "Europe and south of Western Siberia, Tuva, in permanent waterbodies" (see also Vinarski <em>et al. </em>2007a,b). It has recently been recorded from waterbodies adjacent to Lake Baikal (T.Ya. Sitnikova, unpublished information).&#160;In Ukraine, the species is recorded from Central Ukraine (Stadnichenko 1990). It is also more or less frequently recorded in the Urals and Western Siberia, however, its pattern of distribution is rather sporadic. Compared to related species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisus</span> (specifically <span style="font-style: italic;">A. albus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. acronicus</span>), this species is relatively rare (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). However, the true distribution of this species is uncertain due to the taxonomic confusion which exists around this species.
188943		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and other permanent water bodies (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). It has also been recorded in Lake Baikal where it associated with the invasive Canadian pondweed <em>Elodea canadensis</em> (Pronin <em>et al. </em>2009).
188943		population	eng	This species is common in the Chelyabinsk Region, Southern Urals (Vinarski <em>et al. </em>2007b). Leshko (1998) estimates the species density at as many as 200 specimens/m<sup>2</sup> (Pechora basin). In Ukraine, Stadnichenko (1990) estimates its density as only 0.5 specimens/m<sup>2</sup>.
188943		threats	eng	Prevailing threats differ in the various parts of this species' wide range. Most commonly, the species suffers from habitat pollution, ecosystem degradation and anthropogenic transformation of waterbodies (e.g. damming). However, it is unlikely that these threats are impacting the global population of this species.
188944		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
188944		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Baikal, Russian Federation (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188944		habitat	eng	This species is found in a lake, at depths of between 3 and 35 metres (Kantor<em> et al. </em>2009).
188944		population	eng	This species is common in the lake (Shirokaya 2004).
188944		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
188945		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, life history and ecology.
188945		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the rivers of the northern part of the Australian continent, where it is found in the Greyian, Leichhardtian, Timor Sea, and Gulf drainages. Furthermore it can be found in the South East Coast fluvifaunal provinces. Its northernmost occurrence is in the Iron Range area. There exists one single record from the southwest of Western Australia, while no records exist from the southern coastal zone of the continent (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). This species has the largest range of all of the Australian endemic thiarids.
188945		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from lentic and lotic freshwater habitats (Smith 1992), where it occupies an algal and detritus feeder niche. This species has been recorded in freshwater rivers, streams, swamps, marshes and ponds (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It has been found in regions of rivers completely outside the influence of brackish waters (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This species is eu-viviparous, releasing fully shelled live juveniles (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188945		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188945		threats	eng	This species has a wide distribution and is unlikely to be threatened at a global level (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010)
188946		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine distribution, population status and potential threats impacting this species.
188946		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the southern Kuril Islands (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009), and probably also inhabits Sakhalin and Hokkaido (Bogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
188946		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent waterbodies (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188946		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188946		threats	eng	The southern Kuril Islands were declared a “Free Economic Zone” in the 1990s by Russia in order to stimulate the economy. Priority was given to businesses exploiting “biological resources”, particularly those involving deforestation (IKIP 1994). It is not known what impact this has had on freshwater ecosystems and this species in particular.
188947		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, threats and habitat preferences of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
188947		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Taiwan and the Philippines (Pilsbry and Hirase 1905, Van Cleave and Altringer 1937).
188947		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
188947		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188947		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
188948		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify its taxonomy, abundance, ecology, and threats.
188948		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from Camorta of the Nicobar Islands (Nevill 1884).
188948		habitat	eng	This species was collected from an unknown freshwater habitat (Nevill 1884). Other members of this genus occupy a benthic fluvial habitat (Sripongpun 2003).
188948		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188948		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Rivers on the Nicobar Islands are predominantly non-perennial, rain-fed streams which dry up in summer (India Environment Portal 2010). This may limit habitable waterways for this species, making it more susceptible to anthropogenically driven perturbation during the dry season.
188949		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends and the threats impacting this species.
188949		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hissar Ridge in Tajikistan (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
188949		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater springs (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188949		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188949		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.
188950		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the distribution, population demographics, habitat and threats is suggested as these data are lacking.
188950		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Hainan, China. Recent literature for specimens from China and Vietnam have referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">boettgeri</span> (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), however in absence of a formal taxonomic revision of the group, validity of this taxon as a real species is unclear (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
188950		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available.
188950		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188950		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
188951		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation methods in place for this species. Populations have shown large declines from historical sizes, but these happened more than 20 years ago. It is not known whether they are now largely stable or still declining. Further work is needed to determine current trends in the two restricted areas where this species occurs.
188951		distribution	eng	In Japan, this species was previously widespread but is now restricted to a few colonies along the Obitsu River in Chiba Prefecture, and the Kofu Basin in Yamanashi Prefecture (Tanaka and Tsuji 1997, Kirinoki <em>et al. </em>2005). Being restricted to two locations, the area of occupancy of this species is estimated as less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188951		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ditches, rice paddies, river banks, and other stagnant water bodies with clay or sandy-clay substrates (Tanaka and Tsuji 1997).
188951		population	eng	This snail was previously abundant in Japan, but as an intermediate host of <em>Schistosomiasis japonicus</em> a major eradication programme was undertaken in the 1950s and 1960s to remove it from endemic disease areas. The last snails were recorded from Namazu District in 1962; Katayama District and Tone River Basin in 1973; and Chikugo River basin in 1973 (Tanaka and Tsuji 1997). Snails were eradicated from most areas by 1983, but some uninfected snails remained at Kofu Basin and on the banks of the Obitsu River (Tanaka and Tsuji 1997).
188951		threats	eng	This species was controlled in the past using a variety of methods in order to eliminate <em>Schistosomiasis japonicus</em>. These included:<br/><li>Construction of cement ditches;<br/></li><li>Molluscicides spraying (e.g., niclosamide);<br/></li><li>Land reclamation (e.g., in Kofu Basin: destruction of snail habitats by draining paddy fields and converting to orchards, reducing snail habitat from 180 km² in 1956 to ~70 km² in 1966);<br/></li><li>Burning on the surface of the soil (e.g., with military flame-throwers);<br/></li><li>Biological control (e.g., using larvae of various firefly spp).<br/><br/>Since the eradication of the disease from Japan in the 1980s there has been less incentive to continue such methods of control, however, impacts of land clearing for human development are continuing. Work is now focused on monitoring populations in the two areas where it still occurs (Kofu Basin and Obitsu River) and developing predictive techniques in case of future infections. Any future revival of eradication programs would have a devastating effect on this species.<br/><br/><br/></li>
188952		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the distribution and population of this species.
188952		distribution	eng	The holotype of this species was collected from Darwin, Australia. It has a coastal distribution in the Northern Territory (Smith 1992).
188952		habitat	eng	This brackish species has been collected from estuaries and mangroves (Smith 1992, S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188952		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, species of this genus can be common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188952		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation as a result of land clearance for agricultural activities and urbanisation (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188953		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding the validity of this species as well as its distribution and threats impacting this species.
188953		distribution	eng	The species is considered to be an endemic of Ukraine, as the type locality for this species is River Dnieper, near Kiev; however, this species is only known from a single specimen collected by Crosse (1863), and as such the status of the species requires review (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
188953		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
188953		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, as it is only known from one specimen.
188953		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
188954		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
188954		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Langdon Brooks 1950).
188954		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the freshwater Lake Baikal (Langdon Brooks 1950).
188954		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188954		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
188955		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is necessary to ascertain the taxonomic classification, population trends and threats impacting this species.
188955		distribution	eng	This species was originally described from Ohio and was later confirmed there (Sterki 1902).  If it is a valid species, Baker (1902) lists the distribution as Connecticut and Massachusetts west to Iowa, and south to Tennessee and Alabama.
188955		habitat	eng	This species can be found in freshwater rivers, creeks and streams and can be found on various substrates.
188955		population	eng	This species is presumed to be abundant.
188955		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any significant threats impacting the global population of this species.
188956		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended to provide a population estimate of this species, and to ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.
188956		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Kimberley region of north Western Australia (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009).
188956		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pools in creek beds, and water flowing from caves (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and nothing on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
188956		population	eng	This species has only recently been described, and as such there is no population information available.
188956		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown. However, it is likely that this species is, to some degree, being affected by the current drought conditions in Australia.<br/>Other potential threats include habitat degradation from agricultural activities (namely cattle ranching) and mining.
188957		conservation	eng	Lake Issyk-Kul is a Ramsar site of globally significant biodiversity and forms part of the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve. Further research is recommended to clarify the taxonomic status of this species, as this may have a bearing on any future reassessments of this species, and the impact of threats to the global population of this species.
188957		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is also found in&#160;Tere-hol, Mongolia, Tibet and mountainous countries of Central Asia (ZIN 2011).
188957		habitat	eng	This species is found in large mountain lakes (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188957		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
188957		threats	eng	The freshwater biodiversity of Lake Issyk-Kul is threatened by overfishing, indirect impacts from the tourist industry and the naval testing facility. However, it is unknown what impact these processes are having on this species.
188958		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine the population abundance and distribution of this species and to separate it from the previously synonymous <em>Cyclotropis carinata.</em>
188958		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Trang province, Thailand and Sumatra (Brandt 1974). The exact distribution of this species is unknown as it was previously confused with <em>C. carinata</em> (Brandt 1974).
188958		habitat	eng	Members of this genus live at or above the water mark in brackish or tidal freshwater habitats. They are “truly amphibious” according to Brandt (1974).
188958		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188958		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting this species.
188959		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Williams <em>et al</em>. (2011, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010) list this species as Currently Stable according to the AFS assessment.&#160;This species is listed as G3 - vulnerable - by Nature Serve (2009) as it is an endemic with a secure population.&#160;Monitoring of population numbers is recommended in order to make sure that potential future declines are not going unnoticed.
188959		distribution	eng	This species is a peninsular Florida endemic restricted to the St. Johns and Withlacoochee river systems south to the Everglades. It is one of only a few unionids restricted to Florida (Johnson 1972). Specifically, it is&#160;known from the drainages Kissimme, Ookeechobee, Everglades, Hillsborough and Peace (Johnson 1972, J. Brimbox pers. comm. 2002). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as between 5,000 and 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188959		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lakes and slow moving portions of large creeks and medium sized rivers and is tolerant of artificial impoundments (Heard 1979).
188959		population	eng	This species has approximately 60-80 occurrences in Florida, however, population trends are not known.
188959		threats	eng	<br/>The region where it occurs in Florida is susceptible to habitat loss due to population encroachment, urbanisation and recreation activities (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). It is unknown what affect this is having on this species. However,&#160;this species is tolerant to impoundment and moderate pollution and siltation. Therefore it is unlikely that it is being affected on a global scale.
188960		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further site surveys are needed to describe the exact range of this species.
188960		distribution	eng	This species is only known from one seepage in a rainforest in Tendea, Farino, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less  than 100 km², with an area of occupancy within this estimated as less than 10 km².
188960		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a trickle with seeps (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
188960		population	eng	This species is not reported to be a very common species within the locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
188960		threats	eng	This species is found in a rainforest, so although this area is unprotected it will be protected somewhat from impacts from land clearance and agricultural fires (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). However, if this area is cleared in the future, then this species will be in critical danger.
188961		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
188961		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov<em> et al.</em> 2004). There is also a single record from a lake in Kamchatcka (ZIN collection). Further surveys in the region may reveal many more locations, however this area is not well studied due to climatic conditions and remoteness. There are few cities and little human presence in the area, and mainly small communities of native people (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
188961		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small permanent and semi-permanent water bodies (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al. </em>2004). In Azabache Lake, it is found on pebble-mud substrates (ZIN collection), elsewhere it has been found in small rivers and small lakes (ZIN collection).
188961		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188961		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188962		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, ecology and threat processes impacting this species.
188962		distribution	eng	This species' range is limited to springs in Real Co. and Williamson Co., Texas; and the Cuatro Cienegas Basin, Coahuila, Mexico (Hershler and Longley 1986, Thompson 2008).
188962		habitat	eng	It is a cave obligate that occurs in spring habitats (Hershler and Longley 1986).
188962		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
188962		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188963		conservation	eng	This species has a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009), a National Status of N5, and a State Status within Florida of S5 (NatureServe 2009).
188963		distribution	eng	This species is found in Florida, USA, where it is “widely but sparsely distributed” (Thompson 2004).
188963		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in marshy habitats along streams (Thompson 2004).
188963		population	eng	The population of this species is large and stable enough not to qualify for a threat listing (NatureServe 2009).
188963		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
188964		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' population size and current distribution.
188964		distribution	eng	This species is known from Java, Indonesia (Van Benthem Jutting 1956).
188964		habitat	eng	This species inhabits "moist rocks in the neighbourhood of salt wells" (Van Benthem Jutting 1956).
188964		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188964		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
188965		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this morphologically variable genus.
188965		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Levant region from Kara Sou in Turkey down to the Dead Sea (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has specifically been reported from Lake Kinneret in Israel (Geary 1990), and also from the Khuzestan Province in southwest Iran (Farahnak <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>The subspecies<em> M. c. costata</em> is found in Kara Sou and Lake Gölbaşi (Turkey), Sadjour Sou and Aleppo (Syria), and the Orontes River (Lebanon and Syria) (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005, Şereflisan <em>et al</em>. 2009). <em>M. c. lampra</em> is distributed in Hula Valley (upper Jordan River, north Israel), on the coastal plain of northern Israel, and in the Azraq Oasis (Jordan) (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005).<em> M. c. jordanica</em> is only known from Lake Kinneret, Israel (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005).<em> M. c. obliqua</em> is known from the lower Jordan Valley and the coastal plain of the ‘southern Levant’ (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Fossil specimens of this species are recorded from the Euphrates Valley in Syria (Freedman and Lundquist 1977), Morocco (Wengler and Vernet 1992), and Jordan Valley on the border between Jordan and Israel (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005, Bandel <em>et al</em>. 2007).
188965		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist. It has been found in a variety of habitats including agriculture canals, pools, lakes, streams, oases, swamps and ditches: on substrates of muddy silt, mud, submerged vegetation, stones and boulders (Geary 1990, Falniowski <em>et al</em>. 2002, Farahnak <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species has been recorded to withstand salinity of almost 400 mg/l(Cl–) (Falniowski <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>This species is the first intermediate host of <em>Pygidiopsis genata</em>, a trematode metacercaria that infects cichlids in Lake Kinneret, Israel (Dzikowski <em>et al</em>. 2003).
188965		population	eng	This species has been described as ‘abundant’ in the agriculture canals of Khuzestan Province in southwest Iran (Farahnak <em>et al</em>. 2006), and as ‘widespread’ in the Levant region (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005).
188965		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species. This species was found to flourish during a period of drought in Lake Kinneret (Dzikowski <em>et al</em>. 2003).
188966		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the possible threats to this species, population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
188966		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Russian Federation, specifically in Amur and the southern Primorye district river basins (Starobogatov<em> et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009).
188966		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers and lakes (Starobogatov<em> et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009).
188966		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188966		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. This region is greatly impactd by high levels of pollution from northern China in the Amur, and is also very highly populated (downstream flow of pollution). It is under pressures of habitat loss as a result of deforestation and agriculture.
188967		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - critically imperilled (NatureServe 2009). There is insufficient information regarding population numbers to assess the effect of increased salinities on this species, so that further research is recommended.
188967		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality and a small surrounding area in the northern area of Pyramid Lake, Washoe County, Nevada (Hershler and Frest 1996). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated as no more than 3,050 km²<sup></sup>.
188967		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from small streams (Hershler and Frest 1996).
188967		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188967		threats	eng	The salinity of Pyramid Lake has risen from 3.75 to 5.5 g L<sup>-1</sup> between 1933 and 1980 (Williams 1999), likely as a result of ground water abstraction for agriculture, upstream water diversion programs, and decreased rain fall. The species is found in an area of decreasing water availability with increased salinities as development progresses, however, the species has been collected repeatedly over the years, is still present and often referred to as common (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011). Therefore there is no real evidence that the salinity change has affected the population, although precise data on the population effects of increased salinity is lacking .
188968		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is recommended regarding habitat, population trends and threats affecting the species.
188968		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Loa River, Chile (Government Chile 2004). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 5,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
188968		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Government Chile 2004).
188968		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188968		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
188969		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be conducted in the area where the type specimen was recorded to assess whether the species is still found there.
188969		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Puerto el Hambre in the Strait of Magellan, Chile (Rosenberg 2009). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 1,850 km<sup>2</sup>.
188969		habitat	eng	This species inhabits muddy bottoms in brackish water (Forcelli 2000).
188969		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188969		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188970		conservation	eng	This species is listed by the Japan Red Data Book (2007) as Least Concern. Further work is needed on population size, distribution, trends and threats.
188970		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan, and is restricted to Hyogo Prefecture (Japan Red Data Book 2007).
188970		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
188970		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
188970		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
188971		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumed to be extinct in both the Caspian and the Aral Sea, however targeted surveys are required to verify this claim.
188971		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caspian and the Aral Sea (Logvineko and Starobogatov 1968, Aladin and Potts 1992). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">caspia</span> is found in the Caspian Sea and subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">pallasi</span> in the Aral Sea.
188971		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the Aral and Caspian Sea (Logvineko and Starobogatov 1968, Aladin and Potts 1992). In the Caspian Sea, it inhabits the coastal zone with salinities of 7–13 ‰ (Starobogatov and Andreeva 1994).
188971		population	eng	This species is thought to be extinct in both the Caspian and the Aral Sea. It has not been recorded in the Caspian Sea since the 1940s (Rosenberg and Ludyanskiy 1994, Starobogatov and Andreeva 1994). It was last recorded in the Aral Sea in 1980 (Aladin and Potts 1992), and was reported to be absent from the Aral Sea in 1989 (Andreev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992).
188971		threats	eng	In the Caspian Sea, competition with introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Mytilaster</span> species is thought to have driven this snail to extinction (Logvineko and Starobogatov 1968, Starobogatov and Andreeva 1994, Dumont 1998), since it has not been recorded since the 1940s (Rosenberg and Ludyanskiy 1994, Starobogatov and Andreeva 1994). Similarly, it is also presumed to be extinct in the Aral Sea due to an increase in salinity caused by water abstraction from the inflowing rivers (Aladin and Potts 1992). It was last recorded in the Aral Sea in 1980 (Aladin and Potts 1992).
188972		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
188972		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) cites the upper tributaries of the Chipola River in Florida and Alabama, and the tributaries of the Choctawhatchee immediately to the west. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188972		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the upper tributaries of the Chipola and Choctawhatche rivers.
188972		population	eng	Despite its limited range, the species is common where it does occur.
188972		threats	eng	This species has no substantial or immediate threats impacting its global population.
188974		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species has a Nature Serve status of G4 (Least concern) (NatureServe 2009).
188974		distribution	eng	Burch (1975) cites distribution as Kamchatka (eastern Asia); Alaska; the whole Yukon River system of Alaska and Yukon Territory; Washington, Oregon, and possibly (not likely) California.  Washington and Oregon records (Puget Sound, Upper Klamath Lake, Ten Mile Lake in Coos Bay, Flores Lake south of Bandon, Green Lake in Seattle, Skookumchuck River, Scatter Creek, Crescent Lake, Lake Leland, Whatcom Lake) are all historical and are derived from Henderson (1929).  In Alaska, this species occurs from the Aleutian Islands and southwestern Alaska to northern and central interior and into the upper Yukon River drainage and Old Crow Basin, Yukon Territory (Clarke 1981, Nedeau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).  It may also occur in Oregon, California and Washington (Henderson 1929, Ingram 1948), but sites need verification (T. Frest pers. comm. 2003).  It has also been reported from Kamchatka, Russia (Baxter 1983, Clarke 1981, Nedeau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Russia, the species is known from Kamchatka and Chukotka peninsulas, northern part of Magdadan region and from Kurile Archipelago (Paramushir Island) (Zatrawkin and Bogatov 1987, Saenko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
188974		habitat	eng	The distribution and abundance of this species is closely linked to the population dynamics of its hosts. The species has a range of fish hosts with most recent discoveries including the ninespine stickleback, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pungitius pungitius</span>, and nonandadromous Kokanee salmon, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorhynchus nerka</span>. This species is long lived&#160; (20-40+ year lifespan) and is found in slow moving streams, ponds, or lakes with a sand or gravel substrate. As a filtter feeder of zooplankton, phytoplankton and bacteria, it requires water free of large amounts of sediment in order to feed (NatureServe 2009).
188974		population	eng	Populations appear to be abundant and stable where found, so that this species has been given a Nature Serve status of G4 (Least concern) (NatureServe 2009).
188974		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting the global population of this species.
188975		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its range falls within the Far East State Marine Reserve, created in 1978 (Gul'bin 2004). Further work is recommended on this species' population size, trend, distribution and threats.
188975		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peter the Great Bay, Russia. In a recent survey it was only recorded at one locality in Uglovoy Bay (Ivanova <em>et al. </em>2008).
188975		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish waters along the coast, including lagoons and estuaries (Ivanova <em>et al. </em>2008), where it is found in the littoral zone (Gul'bin 2004).
188975		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
188975		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species at a global scale. However, the Amur Bay area where this species occurs is a popular tourist destination and recreation area, and this could lead to disturbance.
188976		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
188976		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens possibly collected from Manila (Alderson 1925).
188976		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
188976		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188976		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
188977		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' abundance and threats, and to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species; however, the latter is unlikely to have an effect on the Red List category assigned to this species.
188977		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from specimens collected from Upola in Samoa, Tutuila and Ofu in American Samoa, and Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Ovalau in Fiji (Haynes 1987, 1988, Cowie 1998, Sherley 2000). The extent of occurrence is approximately 17,700 km<sup>2</sup>.
188977		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from pebbles stones and boulders in fast flowing streams and rivers (Haynes 1990, Yule 1996). In addition, Cowie (1998) claims this species can be found in sandy or muddy edges of lower course streams, further positing that it is tolerant of strong currents. Specimens of this species have been collected from Monasavu man-made reservoir in Fiji where slow-moving water was recorded with low dissolved oxygen (SKM 2005).&#160;This species adopts a scraper-grazer role in the habitat it occupies, consuming filamentous algae, diatoms, fine particulate organic matter and coarse particulate organic matter which it abrades from rocky substrates (Yule 1996).
188977		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
188977		threats	eng	This species is included in a Consolidated Environmental Impact Assessment funded by the World Bank prior to construction of a planned hydroelectric dam in Nadarivatu (SKM 2007). This report recognises this species as an important native species.&#160;Further to this, the risk posed to this species by the planned construction of the Sigatoka and Ba Rivers Hydropower Scheme in Fiji has been documented (SKM 2005). Siltation of the water course as a result of dam and infrastructre construction is cited as a major risk factor (SKM 2007).
188978		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and habitat preference of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
188978		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of the Nizhnjaja Shakuranskaja cave, in the Caucasus (Starobogatov 1962 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188978		habitat	eng	This species is known from caves (Starobogatov 1962 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
188978		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188978		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
188979		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether any conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
188979		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Chapare region, Bolivia, at an altitude of 400 m (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 9,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188979		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater systems at 400 m altitude (Blume and Pain 1952).
188979		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188979		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
188980		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends of this species.
188980		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Murchison Region north of Geraldton, to the north of Esperance, Western Australia (Ponder and Clark 1988, Pinder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
188980		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal lagoons, creeks, mangroves on the mud surface and under stones. It is most commonly found in estuarine habitats, though is also found far upstream into lentic wetlands, and in dredge spoil and black, silty mud (Ponder and Clark 1988; Pinder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
188980		population	eng	There is no information on the population trends of this species.
188980		threats	eng	This species is likely to be locally impacted by pollution and habitat loss, however it occupies a relatively underdeveloped region in a range of habitat types and therefore is unlikely to face any major threat to its global population.
188981		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, ecology and identify potential threats.
188981		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Tasmania, Australia (Ponder 1988; Smith 1992; Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in small coastal streams along the D’Entrecasteaux Channel (Ponder 1988, Clark <em>et al. </em>2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, it potentially has a wider distribution than is currently known (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188981		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and is generally found on leaves, roots and stones (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
188981		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it can be very abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
188981		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Many of the streams flowing into the D’Entrecasteaux Channel have experienced high levels of degradation due to farming practices in the locality (Ponder 1988). It is unknown how resilient this species is to such changes in habitat quality.
188982		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed on the population status, habitat, ecology and threats to this species. Taxonomic revision is also recommended as the species was described in 1939 and no further information has come to light about it since then.
188982		distribution	eng	This species was described from Hunan, China and other than this, there is no further information regarding distribution or population (Yen 1948).
188982		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
188982		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188982		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any threat processes.
188983		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is very similar to <em>A. conicus</em>, and while they are considered to be separate species at the moment, they may prove to be variants of the same taxon (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).&#160;This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size, to identify potential threats and clarify the extent of occurrence.
188983		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia and is found in a number of small rivers and streams (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
188983		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small rivers and streams and is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
188983		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be locally abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
188983		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting the global population of this species, although the species may be experiencing localised declines as a result of&#160; habitat degradation due to agriculture and forestry activities (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188984		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the exact distribution and population demographics of this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Further research is also recommended to clarify the threats impacting the global population of this species.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
188984		distribution	eng	This species is known from Tajikistan (Andreeva 1987). There is a single specimen also reported from Kushmurun, Kazakhstan (large brackish water lake) (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
188984		habitat	eng	This species is known from 'brackish waters of Tajikistan' (Andreeva 1987). Available habitat is very patchy for <span style="font-style: italic;">Caspiohydrobia</span> species (M. Vinarski pers. comm 2010.).
188984		population	eng	This species is only known from two localities: the type locality in Tajikistan and the Kushmurun lake locality (Northern Kazakhstan, Kustanay Region)  (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). There is no further population information available for this species.
188984		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, agricultural practices have resulted in fertilizer, pesticides and mineral salts polluting rivers, along with industrial waste and untreated sewage (Vinogradov and Langford 2001). The rivers are also used as water sources for irrigation and food production (Vinogradov and Langford 2001).
188985		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish this species' population size and ecology as well as the threat processes impacting it.
188985		distribution	eng	The species is likely to be an endemic of Northern Japan and adjacent island territories. The type locality is situated in Nagano, Japan, and it is also found in the southern Sakhalin and the South Kuril Islands (Kunashir and Zelenyi), Russia (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is only known from four localities.
188985		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent and semi-permanent water bodies (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). There are four known localities of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in the ZIN collection (from small rivers, lakes).
188985		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188985		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188986		conservation	eng	As this species is listed as Critical and Endangered by the Japanese Red Book (jpnrdb.com 2009) there is a possibility that it is receiving conservation measures, yet this is currently unknown. Further research is needed on the distribution, population  trends, taxonomy, threats and conservation of this species.<br/><br/>The three lakes belong to the ‘Kizaki-ko Wetlands’ officially  recognized as number 195 of the 500 Important Wetlands in Japan (Ministry of  Environment 2002).
188986		distribution	eng	<p>The type locality is Lake Kizaki (22 km²). It also is found in nearby Lake Nakatsuna (0.1 km²), a satellite lakelet of the larger L. Aoki, Nagano Prefecture, Japan. The species is endemic to these lakes. These are about 8 km apart from each other and interconnected by the Nougu River. Water is pumped during part of the year from the lower lake (L. Aoki) &#160;to the upper one (L. Kizaki). The string of the three nearby interconnected&#160; lakes can be considered as a single location on the Nougu River (van Damme pers. comm. 2012).</p>
188986		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in two small &#160;lakes in the Nagano Prefecture of Japan, namely Lake Kuzaki (22 km²) and Lake&#160; Nakatsuna (0.1 km²) (Fujita and Habe 1991). These lakes lie in the subalpine zone and are tourist resorts. Originally mesotrophic (L. Kuzaki), algal blooms seasonally occurring since the 1970s indicate that the lakes have become eutrophicated (Ho-Dong 2001). Water abstraction causes level fluctuations of 3 m. The lakes’ ecosystem has also been altered in recent years by the introduction of Western Waterweed (<em>Elodea nuttallii</em>) (Nagasaka 2004) and by the subsequent introduction of a Chinese Grass Carp (<em>Ctenopharhyngodon idellus</em>)<em>.</em>&#160; As a result of heavy grazing by this fish, aquatic flora has become locally extinct in Lake Kizaki.<em> C. idellus </em>is known to eat all aquatic plant species including emergent ones such as reeds and cattails and to completely denude shorelines of natural aquatic vegetation (Washitani 2004).</p>  <p>The two lakes belong to the Japanese national site ‘Nishina Three Lakes’, i.e. L. Aoki, L. Nakatsuna and L. Kuzaki, which is an attraction for winter tourism, health spa tourism, fishing and camping. The sedentary human population is low. The three lakes belong to the ‘Kizaki-ko Wetlands’ officially recognized as number 195 of the 500 Important Wetlands in Japan (Ministry of Environment 2002). One of the reasons for the selection of the site is the occurrence of this species&#160;which was assessed as endangered in 2002.</p>
188986		population	eng	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>
188986		threats	eng	<p>Seasonal algae blooms since the 1970s have depleted dissolved oxygen in the water, and the introduction of waterweeds and grass carp alter the original aquatic ecosystem (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2012).</p>
188987		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. Further research is required regarding this species' population trends, life history and the threats.
188987		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Klong Wan, roughly 5 km south of Kraburi in Ranong Province, and some tributaries of the upper reaches of the Pakchan River, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
188987		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in water that is brackish during the dry season and completely fresh during the wet season (Brandt 1974).
188987		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188987		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any threat processes.
188988		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species was last seen in 1989, and is currently known from only one locality. Further site surveys would be beneficial to determine if this species is still in existence.
188988		distribution	eng	This species was originally collected from Bondé, New Caledonia, however there are additional specimens from a seepage between Koumac village and Koumac River (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Currently, this species is known from this second locality only (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). The stated locality of Bondé could refer to any area of the Diahot River drainage; since this species has not been found again in the type locality, it may potentially be locally extinct there (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). The current extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km² and the area of occupancy within this as less than 10 km².
188988		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from one seepage (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
188988		population	eng	This species was last sampled in 1989. It is common at the one location where it has been recently found (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010)
188988		threats	eng	The Bondé area where this species was originally collected from is now highly disturbed and there are no known freshwater springs. It is not known if this species still exists in this region (Haase and Bouchet 1998).&#160;The Koumac River and surrounding catchment has been significantly changed by European settlement. Land clearance and fires have increased, and this has sped up the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010)
188989		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on population trends and life history patterns of the species.
188989		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Zijiang River, Hunan, China (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1992).
188989		habitat	eng	This species has been found on the underside of rocks at the breakwater and on stones at the bottom of the Zijiang River, at a depths of 2 to 2.5 m (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
188989		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188989		threats	eng	The inland waters of China have been adversely effected by many threats including; habitat loss, modification and fragmentation; introduction of exotic species; overfishing; degradation of biodiversity through accelerated eutrophication (Xie and Chen 1999).
188990		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 - apparently secure/secure (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Special Concern (1 Jan 1993).&#160;Williams <em>et al. </em>(in press)&#160;rank it as Vulnerable (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas (NatureServe 2009).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance and taxonomy (some populations may be separate conservation unit).
188990		distribution	eng	In the United States this species occurs in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky,  Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee and Wisconsin.  NatureServe (2009) have classified it as Critically Imperilled in North  Carolina, New York, Iowa, Arkansas, Alabama and Virginia and it is Presumed  Extirpated in Kansas. In Canada, this species occurs in Ontario.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the eastern United States and is distributed in the lower and middle sections of the St. Lawrence River Systems; Lake Huron, St. Clair and Erie; and the upper Mississippi River system, south to Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee River systems (Clarke 1981).
188990		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in creeks and headwaters of rivers, but has also been reported in larger rivers and in lakes (Clarke 1981). This species may prefer a substrate composed of sand and fine gravel, although in stretches where there is continuous current it will thrive in a mud and sand bottom among the roots of aquatic vegetation (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). <br/><br/>Host fish include the Banded Sculpin (<em>Cottus carolinae</em>) and probably the Mottled Sculpin (<em>Cottus bairdi</em>) and Johnny Darter (<em>Etheostoma nigrum</em>) (Watters 1994).
188990		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species. However, it is considered to be stable throughout most of its range (NatureServe 2009), although regional declines have been observed. It is considered Critically Imperilled in Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, New York, North Carolina and Virginia,&#160; Imperilled in Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan, Vulnerable in Indiana, Ontario, and Tennessee, and Apparently secure/Secure in Ohio and Kentucky under Federal State Listings (NatureServe 2009).
188990		threats	eng	This species is threatened at a local level and considered to be endangered in some states. Although it has been found to be intolerant of impoundment, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon the species globally (NatureServe 2009). This species is likely to be susceptible to typical threats faced by freshwater bivalves, such as siltation, pollution etc.
188991		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the abundance and threat processes for this species.
188991		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from a number of sites throughout Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (Sobarzo <em>et al.</em> 2002).&#160;In Uruguay, its type locality is at Swampy Creek, Montevideo, and it also has a ‘discontinuous distribution’ in areas south of the Negro River (Sobarzo <em>et al.</em> 2002, Martinez and Rojas 2004). In Argentina, it has been found in Azul Creek in Azul; Primera Creek in Estancia, Magdalena; Miguelin Creek of Santiago River in Ensenada; Cami Lagoon of the Quequén River in Tierra del Fuego; Buenos Aires; San Carlos, Province of Mendoza; Bahia Blanca; and Carmen de los Patagones (Pilsbry 1911, Sobarzo <em>et al.</em> 2002, Lee and O'Foighil 2003). In Brazil, it has been reported from the Ecological Station at Taim, at Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil (Sobarzo <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Chile, it has been documented to occur in the Lautaro stream (38º 32´ S; 72º 27´ W) and La Poza, Villarrica lake (39º16’27’’S; 71°58’54’’W) in Southern Chile (Peredo <em>et al.</em> 2008).
188991		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks, streams, rivers, lagoons and lakes. It is found buried in muddy sediments (Sobarzo <em>et al.</em> 2002, Peredo <em>et al.</em> 2008).
188991		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188991		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
188992		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Critically Endangered + Endangered on the 2007 Japan National Red List. Further work is needed on threats to this species throughout its range, as well as the status and current trends of its populations. Taxonomic studies of populations from the Philippines and Japan / China / Hong Kong are also necessary to establish whether one or more true species exist.
188992		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Philippines, Hong Kong, southern China and Japan, but does not extend to the Ryukyu Islands (Jiang and Li 1995, Kojima <em>et al. </em>2006).
188992		habitat	eng	This coastal species occurs in mangroves and estuaries (Kojima <em>et al. </em>2006). It is classed as euryhalinous (Jiang and Li 1995). In Hong Kong it is found exclusively in mangrove habitats (Walthew 1995), where it attaches on trees in upper intertidal levels (Wells 1985). It has been found on mangroves up to 1.5 m above the substratum (McMahon and Cleland 1990).
188992		population	eng	This species is dominant in the mangroves of the Jiulong River in Fujian, China (Jiang and Li 1995). In Hong Kong 'mangals' (mangrove habitats) this species was found in population densities ranging from 0.1 to 1 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Walthew 1995). Wells (1985) described it as "rare at all localities except Ting Kok", where it was abundant.
188992		threats	eng	The habitats of this species are now limited to a few sites in Japan (Kojima <em>et al. </em>2006), although it also occurs on the Asian mainland where it is a typical coastal species. This is likely due to the loss of mangroves.  It is vulnerable to desiccation and shows high rates of water loss when exposed to air for short periods (McMahon and Cleland 1990). However there is no threat to the global population.
188993		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
188993		distribution	eng	Thiaridae are generally known to have a rather variable shell and the correct delimitation of many species described by 19th century authors remains dubious in absence of a comprehensive modern revision of the group. The species has rarely been referred to in subsequent taxonomic literature and the few available references need to be treated with care for being based on shell similarity only. The species has been reported from Sarawak (Tenison-Woods 1888). However, not being reported again ever since, its current status, distribution and biology remains unknown.
188993		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
188993		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188993		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
188994		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further taxonomic work is suggested as the taxonomy of this genus is uncertain (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Surveys to determine distribution and clarify extent of threat impacts are also recommended as these are currently lacking for this species.
188994		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Western Australia, in the southwest coastal region (ABRS 2009). It was last recorded in 2000 (DEWHA 2009).
188994		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lentic and lotic freshwater environments (ABRS 2009). Any freshwater environment with the exception of salt lakes and brackish water can be a suitable habitat for species of this genus (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188994		population	eng	This species is thought to be relatively common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188994		threats	eng	The major threats affecting this species are habitat degradation and loss through agriculture, forestry, and urbanisation (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
188995		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
188995		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mediterranean regions of Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Israel (Schütt 1982, Yildirim <em>et al. </em>2006), including Lake Hula which was extensively drained in the 1950s (Ohlhorst and Hutchinson 1977). The species is now considered to be extinct in Israel due to the the effects of invasive species, wetland drainage and afforestation of Eucalyptus trees (Mienis 2010, Ü.&#160; Kebapçı pers. comm. 2011). Its historical distribution in Israel was in coastal streams (Schütt 1982).
188995		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow gravel bottoms of lakes and ponds and is known to be able to withstand lake eutrophication. At Lake Gölbaşı in Turkey, its abundance was highest in the summer months and lowest during winter<em></em> (Sereflisan <em>et al. </em>2009).
188995		population	eng	This species was one of the most abundant molluscs collected at Lake Gölbaşı, in Hatay, Turkey (Sereflisan <em>et al. </em>2009).
188995		threats	eng	There are no recorded major threats to this species. It is known to tolerate lake eutrophication (Sereflisan <em>et al. </em>2009). However, in Israel the species is now considered to be extinct, due to the effects of invasive species (which are a considerable threat to freshwater species in Israel), the drainage of swamps in the inner coastal region (since 1920) and the Hula Valley (in the 1950s), and the afforestation of parts of these former wetlands with Eucalyptus trees. Such pressures have caused the extiction of many species in Israel, including <em>Helobia longiscata</em>, <em>Acroloxus lacustris</em>, <em>Segmentina nitida</em> and <em>Radix auricularia auriculatia</em> (H. Meinsis pers. comm. 2011).
188996		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to estimate the population abundance of this species, and determine whether it is affected by threat processes.
188996		distribution	eng	This species is found in China in the Sungari basin, and although it may be found in the Amur River near to the mouth of the Sungari River (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009), there appears to be no evidence of this species in the territory of Russia.
188996		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and rivers (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). Bogatov and Zatravkin (1990) suggest that this species inhabits small floodplain waterbodies. However, due to a lack of materials, it is impossible to outline the habitat profile of this species (M.Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
188996		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188996		threats	eng	The Sungari Basin is being affected by many threat processes including wetland drainage, urban and industrial development, agricultural fires, deforestation (which can cause sedimentation), pollution, the use of pesticides, habitat disturbance and the operation of fisheries (Birdlife 2011). However, it is unknown if any of these threats are affecting this species.
188997		conservation	eng	This species is recorded as Critically Endangered and Endangered on the Japanese Regional Red List, however there is little information available to clarify the specific distribution or threats affecting this species. Therefore, further research is recommended to determine the species' distribution and an estimate of abundance, and also the threat processes affecting the species.
188997		distribution	eng	This species has been described from Japan and Ambon Island, Indonesia. Other species from this genus usually have wide distributions (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
188997		habitat	eng	The specific habitat preferences of this species are unknown, however other species from this genus are are found in brackish habitats and inhabit mangrove swamps and estuarine and coastal habitats; they usually also have wide distributions.
188997		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188997		threats	eng	Mangrove ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting this species at a local level, although this will probably have little effect on the global population (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).<br/><p></p>
188998		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range falls within the Witjira National Park (Department for Environment and Heritage 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat. The Witjira-Dalhousie Springs are also listed on the National Heritage List, which offers this area protection under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).&#160;Further research is required to establish this species' population size, distribution and monitor potential threats.
188998		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern South Australia (Ponder <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is only known from a few small seeps and the shallow lower outflow of one larger spring in Dalhousie Springs, Lake Eyre Basin (Ponder <em>et al.</em> 1996, Perez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Additional sampling efforts might extend this species’ distribution to cold outflows distant from spring sources (Colgan and Ponder 1998). The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
188998		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small, cold seeps and outflows of thermal springs (Ponder <em>et al.</em> 1996, Colgan and Ponder 1998). However, additional sampling efforts might  extend this species’ distribution to cold outflows distant from spring  sources (Colgan and Ponder 1998).
188998		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however in some places it can be abundant (S. Clark pers. comms. 2010).
188998		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Some of the Dalhousie Springs are a popular tourist attraction. Threats associated with tourism include trampling and bathing (i.e. via the use of soap, sunscreen and detergents) (Fensham <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the Dalhousie Springs are considered to be well controlled and appropriately managed (Fensham <em>et al.</em> 2007). Furthermore, this species range falls within the Witjira National Park (Department for Environment and Heritage 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat. The Witjira-Dalhousie Springs are also listed on the National Heritage List, which offers this area protection under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).
188999		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In particular, this species' distribution coincides with Barguzin State Nature Biosphere Reserve. However, as there are many different conservation measures in place in the area, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to clarify the species' abundance and threat processes.
188999		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is the Angara River in Irkutsk, southeast Siberia, Russia (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,477 km<sup>2</sup>.
188999		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes (Kantor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2009).
188999		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
188999		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to a lack of population infromation for this species. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189000		conservation	eng	The "Tigrovaya balka" reserve has been submitted (in 2006) to the Tentative List for the UNESCO World Heritage Site (UNESCO 2009). However, it has not yet been established as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Further research is recommended regarding the distribution, population trends, life history and threats impacting the global population, as currently very little is known about this species.
189000		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, in the natural reserve "Tigrovaya balka", in the Tajik SSR (now Tajikistan) (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189000		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189000		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189000		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189001		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution and threats.
189001		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mongolia (Charyev 1989, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009, Kijashko 2009). It is also described as occurring in the Western Middle East, eastern Transcaspia and Central Asia (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009), e.g. Turkmenistan (Charyev 1989). This suggests a distribution which could encompass Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of China, and Mongolia (M. V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011). As a result, it is possible that this species<em></em> has a wide Central Asian distribution.
189001		habitat	eng	Judging from information from the ZIN catalogue, this species inhabits a  wide range of habitats, including artificial channels, floodplain  lakes, small rivers. Charyev (1989) found this species in agricultural irrigation areas near the Qaraqum canal area in Turkmenistan. This species is an intermediate host of the ruminant parasitic flatworm <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> (Charyev 1989).
189001		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. However, Charyev (1989) found the population of this species increased with the expansion of the Qaraqum Canal irrigation networks in Turkmenistan, which is the largest irrigation and water supply canal in the world. The primitive construction of the canal allows almost 50 % of the water to escape en route from the Amu-Darya River across the Karakum Desert, creating lakes and ponds along the canal. This suggests that this species easily adapts to altered habitats.
189001		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189002		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measuers in place for this species. Further research is required on the abundance of this species, and whether there are any plausible threats affecting it.
189002		distribution	eng	This species is found in a shallow stream near Lagunella, Venezuela (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189002		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow streams (Cowie and Thiengo 2003) at an altitude of 8000 m.
189002		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189002		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats affecting this species. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189003		conservation	eng	This species may be afforded some protection within the Savannah river ecology site (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010). Further research regarding this species' taxonomy, population status and impacts of threats may be useful to direct conservation efforts in the future.
189003		distribution	eng	Davis and Mulvey (1993) distinguished this species from <em>Elliptio complanata </em>in the Penn Branch of the Mill Creek, in South Carolina, while Johnson (1970) lists the type locality as near Macon, Bibb Co., Georgia (Ocmulgee River drainage flowing into Altamaha River).  Bogan and Alderman (2004), however, do not list it in their workbook on South Carolina freshwater mussels.  Museum specimens (UMMZ) (most historical and unverified) exist for the Abbeville section of South Carolina, as well as for Georgia in Macon and Dougherty, Lees Creek in Lee, North Fork Pennahatchee Creek in Dooly, Kiokee Creek in Terrell, branch of the Flint River in Baker, Swift River in Bibb, Lake Boykin in Baker, Spring Creek in Decatur, and Brier Creek in Burke Cos.<br/><br/>Johnson (1970) lists this species (as a synonym of <em>Elliptio complanata</em>) from [Upper] Ocmulgee River drainage, Georgia.  Davis and Mulvey (1993) collected this species from the Penn Branch of the Mill Creek in Savannah river basin, South Carolina.
189003		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in small and medium sized creeks and rivers, within flowing water (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
189003		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189003		threats	eng	Typical threats to freshwater systems in this region include habitat degradation as a result of water abstraction, logging, wood and pulp plantations and industrial, domestic and agricultural pollution&#160;(A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010), although none of these appear to be impacting the global population.
189004		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G2G3 - Apparently Secure to Vulnerable (NatureServe 2009).
189004		distribution	eng	This species occurs in California and Nevada. It is a widely distributed species, found in Owens Valley (where most of the populations occur), and nine other drainage basins from Rose Valley in central California, to Mono Lake and the Carson River Valley in Nevada (Liu and Hershler 2007). Its extent of occurrence is in excess of 600,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189004		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to seeps, headsprings and upper reaches of spring runs (Liu and Hershler 2007). It is "typically common in watercress and/or on small bits of travertine [sedimentary rock] and stone" (Hershler 1989).
189004		population	eng	This is an abundant species, with one survey collecting 17,899 individuals from Owens Valley springs (Sada and Herbst 2001). It is known from numerous localities in the Owens Valley area, all likely to be separate populations due to the low dispersal ability of this group (Hershler and Pratt 1990).
189004		threats	eng	The primary threat to this and other species of hydrobiid is the invasive New Zealand Mud Snail (<em>Potamopyrgus antipodarum</em>, also a hydrobiid), a habitat generalist with the potential to alter habitats and competitively displace similar species. This species is currently spreading through Pacific and continental drainages in the U.S., although efforts are being made to mitigate the invasion (Dudley <em>et al. </em>2009).
189005		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine this species population status, current distribution, ecology and the impact of threats.
189005		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens found in the Mekong River, Lao PDR, and at Ban Dan, Thailand (Davis 1979).
189005		habitat	eng	This is a riverine species (Davis 1979).
189005		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189005		threats	eng	<p>A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/> <br/> A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong  River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/> <br/> The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
189006		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas.
189006		distribution	eng	This is a very widely distributed species.&#160;It is found in eastern Canada and Nova Scotia west to North Dakota, Great Slave Lake south to northern Iowa, northern Ohio and Maryland (Burch, 1989).&#160;According to Hubendick (1951) the range of this species extends from Nova Scotia to North and South  Dakota, and from the Great Lake region to Hudson Bay and Lake Winnipegosis with an isolated occurrence in Great Slave  Lake. Clarke (1981) differentiated the various subspecies; <em>S. catascopium catascopium</em> all across North America below the tree line and south in U.S. to about 40 degrees N, <em>S. catascopium nasoni</em> in Great Lakes from Lake Superior to western Lake Ontario, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, Rainy River system and Lake of the Woods, and <em>S. catascopium preblei </em>confined to Canada in northern Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba in Hayes, Nelson, and Churchill River systems.&#160;In the United States, it occurs in Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In Canada, this species occurs in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec and Saskatchewan (NatureServe 2010).
189006		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes, creeks and other shallow water bodies (NatureServe 2009).
189006		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (NatureServe 2009).
189006		threats	eng	This species may be threatened locally from habitat degradation, but is unlikely to be affected on a global scale.
189007		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, and a National Status Rank of N5 - Secure for both the US and Canada (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189007		distribution	eng	This species is common and wide ranging in the Atlantic drainages from the Lower St. Lawrence River basin south to the Altamaha River basin and west to the Great Lakes, Georgia, and in the Alabama-Coosa River drainage, and the Apalachicola and Choctawhatchee River basins, Georgia.  In the Apalachicola Basin (ACF basin = formed by Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint Rivers) of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, this species is historically known from 21 records from 12 sites, including the main channel of the Apalachicola River and mainstem and tributaries of the Chipola and Chattahoochee Rivers (but not the Flint River) (Brim Box and Williams 2000). In the ACF basin, it was recently collected from four of 324 sites in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia the lower main channel of the Chipola River in Florida (first state record) and three tributaries of the Flint River (the first records from this system) (Brim Box and Williams 2000).
189007		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river systems of the Atlantic drainages (Brim Box and Williams 2000).
189007		population	eng	This species is reported to be common  (Brim Box and Williams 2000).
189007		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats negatively impacting this species at a global level.
189008		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine whether this species exists in other locations, to provide an estimate of population size, and to ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be implemented.
189008		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Queensland, Australia, in a large, swampy spring on Doongmabulla Station in the catchment of the Belyando - a tributary of the Burdekin Rivers. Specimens from one other locality near Mount White in the Isaac and Mackenzie tributaries of the Fitzroy River are also tentatively attributed to this species (Ponder 2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,550 km<sup>2</sup>.
189008		habitat	eng	This species is known from a large swampy spring, inhabiting muddy areas (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and nothing on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
189008		population	eng	This species has only recently been described, and as such there is no population information available.
189008		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown. However, it is likely that this species is, to some degree, being affected by the current drought conditions in Australia.
189009		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population status, ecology, and threats.
189009		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Klong Premprachakon in Bangkok, Thonburi Province, Nakon Pathom and Ayutthia Province, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189009		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species, however this genus is known generally as a good coloniser, and can tolerate muddy waters and low oxygen levels that often occur after disturbances. This genus dominates its habitat by immigration rather than recruitment, is slow growing, and long lived (Attwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189009		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189009		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189010		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  This species is located at the edge of a protected area, but is not contained wthin it (G. Pastorino pers. comm. 2010). Further research into the population size of this species and monitoring of both population and habitat trends is suggested, as these data are currently lacking. Also, any threats to this species and specific conservation measures required to ensure this species' survival need to be investigated.
189010		distribution	eng	This species is known from the “aguada de Paposo”, a spring in Paposo and Rattles, in Antofagasta, in the coastal region of the Atacama Desert, Chile (Sielfeld 2001). The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 0.1 km²<sup></sup>.
189010		habitat	eng	This species inhabits one spring, with an area of 30 m, in the northern coastal region of Taltal (Valdovinos 2006).
189010		population	eng	There is no information regarding the population of this species.
189010		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, it ranges outside of the future protected area (Proyecto Reserva Nacional Paposo) in a very small stream. Highways and water plants are projected to be built in the short term with the usual alterations of the habitat (G. Pastorino pers. comm. 2011).
189011		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution, population size and threats.
189011		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from around Ban Dan (type locality) and Khemmarat in the Mekong (Thailand and Lao PDR), and from the Mun River in Ubon Ratchathani Province, Thailand. Dead specimens were found in Ban Na Village and at Somphamit Falls in Lao PDR. These animals may have been washed downstream, because they have never been found alive in this area (Brandt 1974).
189011		habitat	eng	Members of this genus inhabit slow-moving sections of rivers with sandy substrate and are also found on rocks in rapids (Brandt 1974).
189011		population	eng	Population size is not known and there is no recent survey data.
189011		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species.<br/><br/>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for <span style="font-style: italic;">ca.</span> 5,000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also 11 proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current flood pulse, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in those developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992). It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
189012		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In parts of its range, however, it coincides with protected areas. Further research is needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species, however this is unlikely to affect the conservation listing for this widely distributed species.
189012		distribution	eng	This species occurs along the northern coast of Australia in the states of Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia (Australian Faunal Directory 2009), west to the Murchison River (near Kalbarri National Park) and east to the Mitchell River in Queensland (GBIF 2009).
189012		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lotic habitats.
189012		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189012		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189013		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance in various parts of its wide range.
189013		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected from Lan-yu island, off Taiwan, China (Chao 1984), Vanuatu (McLaughlin and Murray 1990), Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Palau Islands, Moluccas, Aru, New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, New Hebrides, New Caledonia and Fiji (Starmühlner 1984).
189013		habitat	eng	Generally, species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara</span> occupy lotic and lentic  freshwater prefering headwaters and middle reaches of rivers, with  rarer instances of ranges stretching as far as brackish influence  (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). This species has been collected from the lower courses of rivers and streams (Starmühlner 1984). During the day, it can be found digging in mud and sand, while at night it resides on the benthos near the river bank or in pools between cascades. It has a temeprature tolerance of 24.2 to more than 30 <sup>o</sup>C. This species produces free-swimming veliger larvae and can withstand some salinity toward estuarine areas.
189013		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Its wide and recently documented distribution (Starmühlner 1984) suggests its population is not critically low.
189013		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Given its widespread distribution, however, consisting of many independent locations, the global population of this species is likely to be under little immiment threat.
189014		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189014		distribution	eng	As the family of Baicaliidae is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation, it is inferred that this species is also endemic to this area (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2001).
189014		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species. It is inferred it inhabits Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al. </em>2001).
189014		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189014		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189015		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Rare in the Russian Red Data Book. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomy and threats impacting this species.
189015		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the southern part of Sakhalin Island, Russia, near the Yablochnyi settlement (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189015		habitat	eng	This species is known from small streams and their floodplains (Russian red data book website), at the type locatliy only. The species has been described on the base of a single empty shell, so its true taxonomic position and validity should be checked by further investigations. Determination of its true taxonomic identity is strongly recommended before any conservation assessments can be carried out (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189015		population	eng	This is a rare species (Russian red data book website).
189015		threats	eng	It is not known what threats are impacting this species. While the species is known from the vicinty of a settlement, the region itself is relatively underdeveloped.
189016		conservation	eng	None required.
189016		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China (particularly Yunnan), Myanmar (in northern and southern Shan states), and Thailand (north and west), in the Ayeyarwaddy and Salween river systems (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).
189016		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear mountain streams and rivers with strong currents, and is normally found attached to stones and rocks (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006). Females are viviparous and have a high fecundity, retaining 150 to 300 juveniles in a brood pouch (Köhler 2008).
189016		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189016		threats	eng	There are no known major threats facing this species.
189017		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Future monitoring of this species' population is recommended.
189017		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central western New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Lack of resources and the minute size of species of this genus make      comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result,      defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species of      this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is  known     about this species, it has a very restricted distribution in three locations, with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and a likely area of occupancy of less than 10 km²<sup></sup>.   Although there  is  some  uncertainty about these estimates, the order   of magnitude of  the   documented extent of occurrence is considered to   be correct (P.  Bouchet   pers. comm. 2011).
189017		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a creek, a limestone spring, and the overflow of a dam (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189017		population	eng	This species is only known from three localities, but is reported to be abundant at these sites (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189017		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include land clearance for human development and purpose-lit fires which have accelerated the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This may have  caused the restricted distribution of species of  this    genus, so that  it has therefore been suggested that this restriction     may be of quite  recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its restricted     distribution  makes this species more vulnerable to the continued   threat   processes  of intensifying agriculture, land clearing, and bush   fires  (P.  Bouchet  pers. comm. 2011). Agricultural activities and the reduction of native forest which has become overgrown with <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark) also poses threats of habitat degradation and loss to this species (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189018		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution is likely to overlap with a number of national parks and reserves. Further research is required to establish population size and ecology of this species.
189018		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the state of Western Australia, Australia (Walker 1988, Smith 1992). It is widely distributed throughout the coastal areas of the Kimberley and Victoria River regions in the north of the state (Walker 1988, Smith 1992).With further survey work this species may be found to also occur in the Northern Territory (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189018		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, streams and creeks along the coast of northern Western Australia (Burch 1977, Smith 1992). It is exposed to turbulent waters during the wet season (Burch 1977).
189018		population	eng	This species is considered to be widespread in northern Western Australia (Walker 1988).
189018		threats	eng	Major threats to this species includes habitat degradation from agricultural activities and&#160;mining is also a potential threat. However, the large distribution means it is unlikely to be seriously impacted at a global scale (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010)
189019		conservation	eng	It is thought that this species might have been introduced to a number of islands through the aquarium trade or via taro plants (Haynes 1990, Cowie 2000). It is not clear whether this species is native or whether it has been introduced to the islands where it is currently found. Further research is needed to establish the native distribution of this species.
189019		distribution	eng	This species has a wide west- and south-Pacific distribution. It is known from New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Tonga, Fiji, the Cook Islands and Samoa (Cowie in prep., Solem 1961, Haynes 2000). Cowie (2000) considers this to be an introduced species to the Cook Islands, American Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, New Caledonia and Vanuatu.
189019		habitat	eng	This species inhabits ponds as well as running water and can be found in ditches (Cowie in prep., Haynes 1990, Haynes 2000).
189019		population	eng	This species is common (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189019		threats	eng	This species has a wide distribution and is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale.
189020		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research would be beneficial to monitor the known populations of this species.
189020		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to seven known localities in the drainages in the east and west of central New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Lack of resources and the minute size of species of this genus make comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result, defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species of this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is known about this species, it has a very restricted distribution with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 25 km²<sup></sup>, and is currently known to occur in no more than seven locations. Although there is some uncertainty about these estimates, the order of magnitude of the documented extent of occurrence is considered to be correct (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2011).
189020		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from seepage, creeks, creeks inside caves, and creeks below thermal spring (Haase and Bouchet 1998, P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189020		population	eng	This species is common where it has been collected (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189020		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, changes in vegetation cover from land clearance and fires, and trampling by cattle are major threats to this species (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010), as these are likely to be primarily responsible for the drying up of springs and creeks (Haase and Bouchet 1998). This may have caused the restricted distribution of species of this genus and it has therefore been suggested that this restriction may be of quite recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). This restricted distribution makes this species more vulnerable to the continued threat processes of intensifying agriculture, land clearing, and bush fires (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2011).
189021		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends and potential threats impacting the global population of this species.
189021		distribution	eng	This species is known from American Samoa, Fiji, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia and Tahiti (Solem 1953; Ellison 2008; Cowie pers.comm. 2010).
189021		habitat	eng	This species has been found in 'fast-flowing streams' and rivers (Haynes 1991; Cowie pers.comm. 2010).
189021		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189021		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189023		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
189023		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cambodia (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189023		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189023		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189023		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189024		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
189024		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern European Russia and Siberia east to the Sea of Okhotsk and south to the Amur and Primorye regions, and the Baikal Lake (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Prozorova and Zasypkina 2005, Potikha <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are some older findings from Scandinavian countries (Glöer and Vinarski 2009).
189024		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent waterbodies (Prozorova and Zasypkina 2005, Potikha <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species is rather common in North Siberia where it is inhabiting a range of waterbodies, small semi-permanent lotic habitats predominantly (M.V.Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). There are some findings of this species in the artificial Novosibirsk Reservoir, in the southern part of Western Siberia (Andreyev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189024		population	eng	Vinarski <em>et al.</em> (2007) considered this species to be conditionally rare in the Ilmeny State Reserve, Russia. In northern part of Western Siberia it is relatively abundant. In the Novosibirsk Region, the relative abundance of this species has been estimated to range from 0 to 40 specimens per m<sup>2</sup> in different parts of this large waterbody (Andreyev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
189024		threats	eng	Prevailing threats differ in the various parts of this species' wide range. Most commonly the species is suffering from habitat pollution, ecosystem degradation and anthropogenic transformation of waterbodies (e.g. damming).
189025		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance, distribution and ecology of this species, and to assess whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189025		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Yangtze-Huang subregion and the Amur-Beringia subregion (Bama 2005). The type locality for this species is Yunan (D.V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
189025		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information avaliable for this species.
189025		population	eng	This species is believed to be widespread throughout its distribution (Graf 2007).
189025		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats affecting this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189026		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its exact distribution, population abundance, life history and threats.
189026		distribution	eng	Current knowledge suggests that this species occurs in a small stretch of the Mekong River, between Bandan (Ban Dan Ky) and Sambor (Kaoh Sambor), Cambodia (Brandt 1974). It may also occur in the tributaries of the Mekong and may be able to withstand changes in river regimes.
189026		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown fluvial habitat (Brandt 1974).
189026		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens (Brandt 1974).
189026		threats	eng	The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, within which this species resides, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (Fougeirol 2007). <br/><br/>The stretch of the Mekong between Bandan (Ban Dan Ky) and Sambor (Kaoh Sambor), within which this species is reportedly found, is flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides,  leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). Further reports exist of sand exploitation causing increased turbidity (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). These threats are likely to increase as local human pressure increases. It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
189027		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed in order to clarify the species' population trends and habitat as well as identify any threats which may be impacting on the species.
189027		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Río Limarí, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 9,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189027		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Valdovinos 2006).
189027		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189027		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189028		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended to provide a population estimate for this species, and to ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.
189028		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the coastal plains of the Gulf of Carpentaria and the eastern base of Cape York in Australia (in the north of the Northern Territory, and the far north of Queensland) (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009).
189028		habitat	eng	This benthic species inhabits the mud of billabongs and pools, and is often associated with macrophytes and algae (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009).<br/>There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and nothing on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
189028		population	eng	This species has only recently been described, and as such there is no population information available.
189028		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown. However, it is likely that this species is, to some degree, being affected by the current drought conditions in Australia as well as habitat degradation as result of agricultural activities (namely cattle ranching) and mining.
189030		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. The habitat of this speceis is, however, contained within Horton Plains National Park and is thus covered by its conservation remit. Upstream catchments of the streams are located wthin the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary (Kotagama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2009).<br/><br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance and threats.
189030		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected in the highlands of the Central Province of Sri Lanka (Starmuhlner 1977), mainly within Horton Plains National Park (Kotagama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189030		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from cool upland rivers of the central Province of Sri Lanka at an alititude range of 800 - 2000 m asl, with the type specimen reportedly collected at 6000 feet (Subba Rao 1989). These rivers have a temperature of about 15<sup>o</sup>C, have a very low hardness and are slightly acidic (pH 5.4 (Kotagama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). These rivers are additionally characterised by having low mineral content and fast, smooth flow (Starmuhlner 1977). The majority of this suitable habitat is located within Horton Plains National Park, Central Province, Sri Lanka.<br/><br/>This species is a member of the subgenus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tanalia</span>, characterised by possessing a relatively long and strong radula, used to scour algae off the hard granitic rocks of its habitat (Starmuhlner 1977). Species of this genus in Sri Lanka are known to act as intermediate hosts for lung flukes of the genus <em>Paragonimus</em> (Iwagami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
189030		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens, although its abundance has been cited as being higher than others of the subgenus <span style="font-style: italic;">Philopotamis</span> which it occupies (Starmuhlner 1977).
189030		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. Given this species solely occupies mineral deficient rivers, addition of allochthonous minerals may perturb its habitat. Furthermore, as the distribution of this species is extemely limited, it may be vulnerable to any stochastic events which destroy suitable habitat or populations.
189031		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Targeted surveys in the Santa Cruz and Chico Rivers are recommended to determine presence and population status of this species.
189031		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Argentina, where it is only known from small tributaries of the Rio Chico, 35 miles above the Sierra Oveja (Pilsbury 1911, Rumi <em>et al. </em>2008) and from springs above the Sierra Oveja (Pilsbury 1911). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189031		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams and springs (Pilsbury 1911).
189031		population	eng	This species is only known from shell data, implying that few specimens have been collected since Pilsbury (1911) described the holotype (de Francesco 2007). Whether this is due to rarity, possible extinction or sampling effort is not known.
189031		threats	eng	The Santa Cruz estuary is comparatively pristine and has suffered little habitat degradation (Ferrari <em>et al. </em>2003). However, the Santa Cruz River is dependent upon glacial melt for its flow, and is likely to be impacted by climate change and the frequency and strength of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events (Depetris and Pasquini 2000).
189033		conservation	eng	The Arakan Yoma mountain range, Myanmar, is a World Wildlife Fund (WWF) ‘Ecoregion’ and has been classified as ‘relatively stable’ with about two-thirds of the forest still intact. This species’ range overlaps with the Natma Taung protected area (WWF 2001).<br/><br/>Further research is recommended to provide a population estimate and ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.
189033		distribution	eng	This species has only been collected from the Arakan Yoma mountain range, western Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).
189033		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill streams (Subba Rao 1989). There is very little extra information available on the life history and ecology of this species. However, a similar species <em>T. saxea</em> is known to be active only during and after the rainy season when there is water in the seasonal streams in which it lives. During the remainder of the year the species can withstand a great deal of desiccation, remaining embedded in the muddy stream beds (Prashad 1931).<br/><br/>Species from the genus <em>Turbinicola</em> are actually better suited to aerial respiration, and do not usually inhabit the deeper areas of streams. They have been found to die of asphyxiation after a few days when kept underwater in an aquarium (Prashad 1931).
189033		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189033		threats	eng	Shifting cultivation and deforestation are the main threats affecting the area where this species is found, although it is unknown what impact this is having upon the species (WWF 2001).
189034		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the possible threats to this species and population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189034		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Russian Federation, specifically the Lake Bolshoi Vavai, near Aniva Bay, south Sakhalin Island (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009). It is also recorded at Lake Vavayskie, southern Sakhalin in the Russian Federation (Labay 2008) though this is likely to refer to the same lake.
189034		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes (Labay 2008, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009)
189034		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189034		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189035		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the taxonomy of this species, its abundance, distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189035		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ecuador (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189035		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information avaliable for this species.
189035		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189035		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189036		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but its range coincides with a national park.  Further research into the population size, distribution and population and habitat trends is suggested as these data are lacking. Also, investigation of potential threats to this species is recommended to ensure that the current assessment of no major threats affecting this species is correct.
189036		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Watrel in Chile and the Provinces of Neuquen, Santa Fe and San Luis in Argentina (Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2007, Sielfeld 2001). Specifically, it is known from Junín de Los Andes in Neuquen (Rumi <em>et al. </em>2007)
189036		habitat	eng	This species is known from lakes (Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189036		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189036		threats	eng	Given its wide distribution, this species is unlikely to be impacted by major threat processes in the near future. In addition, parts of the range of this species lie within a National Park.
189037		conservation	eng	There are no species-specfiic conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance and the potential threats impacting this species.
189037		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected in the Northern Territory and Western Australia, in Australia (ABRS 2009). Its distribution stretches from the Kimberley drainages and Fitzroy Rivers of the Northern Territory to the Gulf of Carpentaria drainages in northwest Queensland. This effectively expands the distribution across the entire Leichhardtian fluvifaunal province (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
189037		habitat	eng	Generally, species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara</span> occupy lotic and lentic  freshwater, prefering headwaters and middle reaches of rivers, with  rarer instances of ranges stretching as far as brackish influence  (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This species is a detritus feeder as well as euryoecic in the limnic habitats of northern Australia. Commonly, it can be found in small streams and river headwaters as well as lower courses of rivers, excluding any brackish influence. Although this species is most abundant in flowing water, it has also been collected from isolated and shallow (<0.5 m) drying pools without flow at the edge of streams or rivers, with a base of sand, leaf litter and sticks (Dally and Larson 2008). This species is eu-viviparous, releasing fully shelled live juveniles (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Recent investigation has found a positive correlation between adult shell size and number of shelled juveniles in the brood pouch of the female (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189037		population	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens.
189037		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, although it is unlikely that there are any major threats significantly impacting the global population of this species. Little human disturbance exists in many of the relevant catchments.
189038		conservation	eng	This species is listed as a 'rare vulnerable species' by a Russian fauna red book (Fauna Russia 2009). In Saitama Prefecture, Japan, it is listed as locally threatened (Saitama Prefecture 2009). Further work is needed to resolve taxonomic relationships between this species and <em>S. hemisphaerula.</em>
189038		distribution	eng	This species is known from the South Kuril Islands (Kunashir), Hokkaido, and Honshu (Fauna Russia 2009, Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
189038		habitat	eng	This species is found in lotic waters with loose suspension present. It also inhabits lakes, rice paddies and has been recorded in polluted rivers (Fauna Russia 2009). It is an intermediate host of the trematode liver fluke <em>Echinostoma macrorchis </em>in Japan (Lo 1995).
189038		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189038		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
189039		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed on population size, trend, and distribution and possible threats to this species.
189039		distribution	eng	This species occurs in India. The type locality is the Narmada River, near Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh (Prashad 1921).
189039		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks and rivers where it is found attached to weeds (Prashad 1921).
189039		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189039		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189040		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding this species' population trends, precise habitat requirements and threats is required.
189040		distribution	eng	This species is found in the high Andean areas of Bolivia, Chile and Peru (Ituarte 1995, Kuiper and Hinz 1983, Parada and Pereda 2002). This species is tenuously reported from the Jujuy Province, northwestern Argentina (Ituarte 1995, 2005). The type locality of this species is Lake Laurichocha, in the headwaters of the Rio Maranon, Peru (Ituarte 1995). <br/><br/>In Bolivia, this species has been found in Suches (4,600 metres above sea level), Apolobamba (Lake Nubi) at 4,600 metres above sea level and Belén, near the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca, at 3,900 metres above sea level. In Chile, this species was found in Ojos de Ascotan at 3,800 metres above sea level, in the Province Antafagasta. In Peru, it was found in La Torna near Cuzco at 3,300 metres above sea level, Cachimayo at 3,350 metres above sea level, Cashca-Maihei near Torna, Acomayo at 2,500 metres above sea level, and in a stream near Huanuco, Titicaca (Kuiper and Hinz 1984, Ituarte 1995).
189040		habitat	eng	While there is no precise habitat information available for this species, it has been recorded from lakes and rivers.
189040		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189040		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189041		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information on the distribution and possible threats affecting this species is needed.
189041		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few sites in New Caledonia including Oubatche, near Puebo, and around Hienghène (Haase and Bouchet 1998). The extent of occurrence is approximately 430 km<sup>2</sup>.
189041		habitat	eng	This species was collected from freshwater streams.
189041		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189041		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189042		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the population status and abundance, and identify potential threats which may be affecting this species.
189042		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chile and Argentina (Pilsbry 1911, Ituarte 1999, Ituarte 2007). In Chile, it has been found in the Octava region at Concepción, in the Novena region in the River Cautin in Lautaros City, and in Lake Villarrica. It is also found in the Decima region, from Valdivia to Chaiten. In Argentina, it has been found at Gutiérrez Creek, Bariloche, Rio Negro (Ituarte 2007).
189042		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks, rivers and lakes (Ituarte 2007).
189042		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189042		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189043		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189043		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Nanakita River estuary, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan (Kurata <em>et al</em>. 2001) and the Wanggang tidal-flat, China (Xie and Gao 2009).
189043		habitat	eng	This species has been found to inhabit salt marshes (Kurata <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and tidal-flats (Xie and Gao 2009).
189043		population	eng	This species is known to occur with a density of up to 1000 individuals per square metre (Kurata and Kikuchi 2000).
189043		threats	eng	The inland waters of China have been adversely affected by many threats including habitat loss, modification and fragmentation, introduction of exotic species, overfishing and degradation of biodiversity through accelerated eutrophication (Xie and Chen 1999). Many factors threaten the wetlands of Japan including human activities such as conversion for agriculture and urban and industrial development. As well as habitat loss, these freshwater ecosystems are impacted by hunting and pesticide use (Birdlife International 2009).
189044		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance and the effects of threat processes on its population.
189044		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Lake Baikal in Russia (Dybowski 1902). Specifically, it has only been found from Angarski sor, Chivyrkuy Bay, Selenga shallow, Murino, Utulik, B. Koty, Goloustnoe and Maloe more strait (T. Sitnikova pers. comm. 2012), localities mainly confined to the central and southern parts of Lake Baikal.
189044		habitat	eng	This very small species (less than 4 mm) is endemic to the freshwater Lake Baikal, and is found at depths between 20-60 m (Dybowski 1902). Species such as this one generally live in the bottom muds and provide an important source of food for fish and other invertebrates (M. Seddon pers. comm. February 2012).
189044		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189044		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. However, because we have insufficient information on this species, it is at present impossible to gauge the severity of these threats to this species.<br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189045		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to ascertain the population trends, life history and threat processes impacting this species.
189045		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from Dzhaushangoz hot spring, southeastern Tajikistan (Starobogatov and Izzatullaev 1980).
189045		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from hot springs (Starobogatov and Izzatullaev 1980).
189045		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
189045		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189046		conservation	eng	<em>Pomacea effusa glauca</em>&#160;has been used as a biological control agent for aquatic plants due to its voracious appetite (Perera and Watts 1996). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats. It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for<em> Pomacea effusa cumingi</em>. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189046		distribution	eng	<em>Pomacea effusa glauca</em>&#160;is found in the Dominican Republic, Lesser Antilles, and northern South America from Bolivia, Colombia and Venezuela through Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana (Perera and Walls 1996). It is unknown whether this species spreads further south into the Amazon (Perera and Walls 1996). It has also been recorded in&#160;Trinidad, Grenada, Guadaloupe, and Martinique (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).<br/><br/><em>Pomacea effusa cumingi</em>&#160;is found in Chiapas, Mexico and Panama (Ghesquiere 2007).
189046		habitat	eng	<em>Pomacea effusa glauca</em>&#160;inhabits clean, clear water, including flowing water streams, canals and ditches, but reaches its highest densities in lake environments (Perera and Walls 1996). The eggs are bright green. It is a voracious eater and consumes almost all plants and regularly leaves the water for land (Perera and Walls 1996). <br/><br/>The eggs of<em> Pomacea effusa cumingi</em>&#160;are deposited above the water line (Gheresquiere 2007).
189046		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189046		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189047		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. NatureServe ranks it G5 - secure (2009).
189047		distribution	eng	This species is relatively common and generally distributed throughout Canada and the U.S. in the more temperate latitudes; absent from the northern (e.g. Yukon, Northwest Territories, Alaska) and southern (e.g. Texas, New Mexico, Florida) parts of North America (Mackie 2007). South Dakota and eastern Iowa represent the edge of the range for this species (Miller 1970).
189047		habitat	eng	This species inhabits almost all natural perennial-water habitats (Clarke 1981). This species has also been found in spill pools associated with coal mining (Canton and Ward 1981). Miller (1970) found this species in soft substrate of sand or mud including areas of rooted aquatic vegetation. This species has a capacity for self-fertilization (Mackie 1979).
189047		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189047		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. However, Saunders and Kling (1990) suggest that this species species cannot tolerate bicarbonate concentrations of less than 1 mg-1. Lake acidification may cause marginal habitats to become unsuitable for this species. This is not believed to be a significant threat at present because this species readily colonize a range of habitat types by passive dispersal (Mackie 1979).
189049		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on its abundance, distribution, ecology and threats, as hardly anything is currently known about this species.
189049		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189049		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information avaliable for this species.
189049		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189049		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189050		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Lake Biwa has an IUCN Protected Area Category V ("protected area managed   mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation"). The Lake   is also a UNESCO Ramsar Wetland, and is managed under the Shiga   Prefecture Natural Parks Management Plan (Amako 2008). This species has been listed as Data Deficient by the Japanese Red List. Additional research on the species' population, distribution and ecology is recommended.
189050		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in Lake Biwa, Japan (Kawanabe 1996). Both extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of this species are less than 670 km<sup>2</sup>  (the approximate size of Lake Biwa). However, it is difficult to reliably assess the number of locations that  this species occurs in, as it is unknown what effect the prevalent  threats (mostly eutrophication) are having on this species and reliable  population  size and distribution information is lacking. While threats  such as eutrophication can affect the lake throughout, some regions are  more severely affected than others. Therefore, taking all the evidence  into account, it is likely that the species occurs in less than ten  locations.
189050		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from Lake Biwa (Kawanabe 1996).
189050		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189050		threats	eng	Fisheries damage due to agro-chemicals and inadequate wastewater treatment in the catchment area have altered the water quality of Lake Biwa. Conversion of 80% of lagoons to paddy fields, degradation of 50% of reed belts and development of lake shore due to urbanization also pose a threat to this ecosystem.  Further, most of the rivers flowing into the lake have been straightened and concreted for flood control purposes, and during the month of June the water level is intentionally lowered, which has effected migration and breeding sites for many fish species. Global warming is also thought to be a possible threat (Kira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006).
189051		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its life history, ecology, and threats.
189051		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from specimens collected from the southern and central Caspian Sea between depths of 0-200 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Although previously known to occur only at these depths, recent surveys report its presence at depths of greater than 250 m (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189051		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from benthic sediment (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189051		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Recent investigation of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna has found this species to be one of the most abundant in the area surveyed, with 52.38% occurrence across 42 sampling stations (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189051		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including the intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>Given the size and widespread distribution of this species, it is thought to be little affected by threat processes unless these involve major ecosystem modifications.
189052		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to first and foremost establish the distribution of this species.
189052		distribution	eng	This species' range is uncertain as there is no distribution information available (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189052		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information for this species.
189052		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189052		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species.
189053		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, given the widespread distribution of this species, it is likely that it occurs within a number of protected areas.
189053		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout northern South America, Central America, the Caribbean and the southeastern United States including Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Illinois (introduced), Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Kentucky and Mississippi (Heard 1965, Mackie and Huggins 1976, Branson 1981, NatureServe 2009, Sneen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Northern South America is assumed to encompass Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and possibly Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. Central America is assumed to encompass Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama. The Caribbean is assumed to encompass Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands and United States Virgin Islands.<br/><br/>In Cuba, this species has been found in Villa Clara, and in various localities of the island like Havana City and Habana province, Cienfuegos, Holguin, and Santiago (NatureServe 2009).
189053		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams of all sizes and appears to show a preference for stable substrates associated with root systems of the Water Willow, <em>Justicia americana</em> (Heard 1965, Branson 1981). It often attaches to plant roots, aquatic vegetation, decaying wood and even rusty beer cans (Heard 1965, Branson 1981). Individuals can live for up to three years and produce broods of up to 64 larvae per year (Mackie and Huggins 1976).  This species is also known to be tolerant to relatively high concentrations of the pesticides, eldrin and toxaphene (Mackie and Huggins 1976).
189053		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189053		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in the United States are threatened by habitat loss and degradation, overexploitation, chemical and organic pollution, and the spread of exotic species (Allan and Flecker 1993). It is not known what impact these processes may be having on this species, but given its widespread distribution, it is likely that any threats are acting on a localized scale only and therefore do not represent major threats to the global population of this species.
189054		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the full geographic range, abundance and possible threats for this species.
189054		distribution	eng	The only distribution data for this species is from a small number of museum shell specimens found at locations in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. These locations are listed as the town of Taquara, a small river near Maratá and a small stream called Jose Joaquin near Sapucaia do Sul (Mansur and Pereira 2006). This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189054		habitat	eng	This species is thought to inhabit freshwater rivers and streams (Mansur and Pereira 2006).
189054		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189054		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any major threats are impacting on this species.
189056		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. As it is only known from the holotype, further research is necessary to determine its present population size, distribution and trends.
189056		distribution	eng	This species is known from Java, Indonesia: the type locality is "Toksewiwi Swamp, on the Djeng [Dieng] Plateau at an altitude of 2,000 m", near Wonosobo (Rensch 1934).
189056		habitat	eng	This species occurs in "spring swamps" (Rensch 1934).
189056		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189056		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species. However, Java is under severe pressure from population growth and many wetlands are under threat from conversion to aquaculture and agriculture (rice cultivation), or simply from urban encroachment (BirdLife International 2003).
189058		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this species and establish whether it consitutes a valid species or is a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fontinalis</span>.
189058		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Brittany, France (Taylor 2003) and Lake Baikal, Russia.
189058		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189058		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189058		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189059		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the possible threats, population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189059		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Russian Federation, specifically a small lake near Lake Shuchie, lower Kolyma basin near Cherskii settlement (Starobogatov<em> <em>et al</em>. </em>2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189059		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a small lake.
189059		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189059		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189060		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Further research is needed into the population size and precise geographic distribution of this species, as well as the potential impact of threats such as water abstraction.
189060		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sebleni stream, Zanzibar, Tanzania (Mandahl-Barth 1973,   Gössling  2001). It is not known whether the Sebleni stream is the sole locality in which the species occurs, due to its small size and low detectability. It is however highly likely that the species does occur elsewhere, as it is assumed that the dispersal of species within the <em>Eupera</em> genus is facilitated by birds and flying insects. For example, similar species such as <em>Eupera ferrunginea</em> are found in hydrologically isolated unstable waters such as oases and crater lakes (van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
189060		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater streams (Mandahl-Barth 1973).
189060		population	eng	There are insufficient population data available for this species.
189060		threats	eng	Increased water abstraction, particularly as a result of the growing tourist industry, is a major threat to freshwater systems in Zanzibar. The over-use of freshwater resources could result in a lowering of the groundwater table, deterioration in groundwater quality, land subsidence and saltwater intrusion (Gössling 2001). However, it is not known what impact these threat processes may be having on this species.
189061		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and potential threats to this species is suggested as these data are currently lacking. Research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189061		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago and Papua New Guinea (Haynes 1988, Cowie 1998).
189061		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish slow-flowing streams (Cowie 1998).
189061		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189061		threats	eng	It is highly unlikely that there is an imminent threat to this species, however it could be affected by climate change, as it is present on small Pacific islands.
189062		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out to detect threat processes and population declines before these become significant.
189062		distribution	eng	This species is known from Europe (except for the extreme north) and northern Kazakhstan. In the Russian Federation, it is found in the Altai, the south of Western Siberia and southern Central Asia (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189062		habitat	eng	This species inhabits 'shallow permanent waterbodies' (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189062		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189062		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189063		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189063		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Pacific coast of western Nicaragua and southwestern Costa Rica (Thompson 2008). Pilsbry (1891) recorded specimens collected from El Polvon and Rio Fula, Nicaragua.
189063		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater streams (Schneider and Lyons 1993).
189063		population	eng	This species is common in areas of suitable habitat. It occurs in large numbers in several Costa Rican streams such as the Rio Claro and is known to migrate upstream in huge aggregations (>500,000 individuals) (Schneider and Lyons 1993).
189063		threats	eng	The area in which this species is found is relatively underdeveloped. It is unlikely to be undergoing significant declines in abundance though it may be undergoing localised declines as a result of pollution and alterations to the hydrological regime of stream systems.
189064		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Furhter research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, threats, taxonomy, life history and ecology.
189064		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Guizhou, China and is currently known from an unknown number of specimens (Costa and Starmuhlner 1972, Iwagami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
189064		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from an unknown location of unknown characteristics. Other species of this genus from India, however, are known to occupy habitats under or on top of submerged rocks in cascades (Costa and Starmuhlner 1972). Furthermore, other species of this genus are known to act as intermediate hosts to lung flukes of the genus <em>Paragonimus</em> (Iwagami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)
189064		population	eng	This species is known from an unknown number of specimens.
189064		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189065		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the distribution, population trend and threats of this species is recommended.
189065		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected from Ras al-Khaimak, United Arab Emirates (Neubert 1998).
189065		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers. It belongs to a genus which demonstrates attributes that make it a successful colonizer, such as its tolerance to muddy waters and low oxygen levels that may occur as a result of habitat disturbance. It is also a long-lived genus, is slow growing and tends to dominate its habitat by immigration rather than recruitment (Attwood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
189065		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189065		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threat processes.
189066		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189066		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Thailand, Java in Indonesia, Sarawak in Malaysia, and the Philippines (Abbot 1958, Brandt 1974). In the Philippines, specimens have been recorded from Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Masbate, Mindoro, Palawan, Negros and Leyte (Abbot 1958). There are also records from Taiwan, although these are yet to be confirmed.<br/><br/>Abbot (1958) considered it likely that <em>A. ignota</em> from the Andaman Islands was a synonym of this species. Another potential synonym, <em>A. australis</em>, would extend the distribution to Tasmania (Brandt 1974).
189066		habitat	eng	Members of this genus often inhabit brackish waters, and seem to require a degree of salinity. They are generally restricted to lowland coastal regions, often within reach of marine waters, and many are amphibious in nature (Abbot 1958).<br/><br/>This species is found in "low, warm, moist coastal regions", including mud flats, brackish creeks, mangroves and estuaries, preferring mud, stones or rotten logs (Abbot 1958, Ashton <em>et al. </em>2003). It is also semi-terrestrial and can withstand direct sunlight; according to Abbot (1958): "[this species] is probably an example of an estuarine species on its way to becoming terrestrial". It feeds on decaying organic matter (Brandt 1974).
189066		population	eng	This is a common species in the Philippines (Abbot 1958).
189066		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189068		conservation	eng	&#160;There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information is required regarding the population trends and threats impacting the global population.
189068		distribution	eng	This species was found in the Aral Sea (Zonn <em>et al</em>. 2009), but was last recorded there in 1999 (N. I. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010). It was last collected from the Kushmurun Lake in the late 1960s, in the Turgai depression of the upper Ubagan River Basin, Kustanai Region, Kazakhstan (Starobogatov and Andreeva 1981, Andreeva 1987). The most recent findings of this species are of empty shells only (N .I. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010).
189068		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish water (Zonn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189068		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189068		threats	eng	Owing to the saline nature of the soils in this region, there has been little conversion of surrounding land for agriculture and much of the Turgai depression is in a pristine state (Birdlife 2004). It is not known what other threats this species may be facing.
189069		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189069		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is the vicinity of Barnaul, Altay region, Russia. It has a wide distribution across Siberia and the northern Far East (Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009). Specifically, this species is known from the Amur basin (Zhadin 1965); the Kiparisovka River, Primorye; an unnamed lake in the area of Tikhaya Bight, Ussuriiskii Bay (Tokmakova <em>et al.</em> 2006); the basin of Middle Ob, the basins of Gydan, Tazov and Jamal peninsulas and the basin of Lower Ob in West Siberia (Dolgin <em>et al.</em> 2004); a freshwater lake in Tikhaya Bay in Vladivostok (Galimulina <em>et al.</em> 2004); and Lake Khubsugul and Lake Baikal (Slugina 2006b). In Mongolia, this species is found in Lake Hovsgol (Slugina 2006b).
189069		habitat	eng	This species thrives in many different types of habitat including small puddles, ponds, lakes, floodplains, canals, big rivers, and occasionally river backwaters (Zhadin 1965, Galimulina <em>et al.</em> 2004b, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species is very adaptable and has been found to occur in unfavorable conditions (Galimulina <em>et al.</em> 2004b).<br/><br/>The life cycle of this species occupies only 1–2 years (Tokmakova 2006).
189069		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189069		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, Lake Baikal is affected by many threats including sedimentation from logging, erosion of the shoreline, residential waste water and agricultural run-off (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, considering the large distribution of this species, it is unlikely that these threats are affecting its overall population.
189070		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology, and threats.
189070		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the southern Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189070		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of 40-75 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
189070		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Others species of this genus have been assessed in the southern Caspian, where significant widespread populations have been found (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189070		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189071		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It is listed as S5 in Florida and Georgia, and as S3S4 Alabama. Overall this species is classified as G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009).
189071		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Suwanee River, Florida, west to the Escambia River, Alabama (Burch 1989) and occurs in eleven drainages listed by Clench and Turner (1956). Its extent of occurrence is in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189071		habitat	eng	This species can be found in freshwater rivers, creeks and streams. This species is a successful habitat generalist and can be found on various substrates.
189071		population	eng	This species is abundant in Suwannee (Thompson 1999).
189071		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting the global population of this species.
189072		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the exact distribution of this species and the effects that threats such as pollution and introduced species may be having on the population.
189072		distribution	eng	This species is found across Queensland, including northern Queensland, on the western slope of the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales and Victoria, and sporadically across Southern Australia (Korniushin 2000).
189072		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers and large streams and has a preference for sand and other hard sediments (Korniushin 2000).
189072		population	eng	This species is scarce across its entire range (Korniushin 2000).
189072		threats	eng	Many streams and rivers in Australia are threatened by siltation and changes in water quality as a result of disturbance and land clearing for agriculture, mining, forestry and urban development (Ponder 1997). Pollution from urban, agricultural and mining activities is also a problem and dams and other forms of water management have the potential to seriously impact invertebrate populations (Ponder 1997). Introduced fishes including brown and rainbow trout, which feed on a wide variety of invertebrates, including molluscs, may also pose a threat (Ponder 1997). However, it is not known what effect any of these threats may be having on this species.
189073		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences, and clarify its taxonomy.
189073		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay (Parodiz 1968, Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is found in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and the state of Paraná in Brazil (Martello <em>et al</em>. 2004, Agudo-Padrón 2005) and in central and southeastern Uruguay (Parodiz 1968). Simone (2006) lists this species from the Amazon River basin, Brazil. It is also found in Paraguay (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011).
189073		habitat	eng	This species is found in flowing rivers with relatively slow currents and clay substrate (Kotzian and Simões 2006; Castillo <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189073		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. During a nine-month survey in the Rio Uruguay, fifteen individuals of this species were recorded (Castillo <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189073		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are unknown, however, it is likey to be impacted upon by general freshwater threats within this region (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
189074		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the species occurs in a protected area in the Uruguay river, El Palmar National Park (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed to elucidate the species' precise distribution, population status and ecology.
189074		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Alto Paraná  , Argentina (Rumi <em>et al</em>. 2008) and the Uruguay River at Paysandu, Uruguay (Pilsbury 1911).
189074		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in freshwater rivers (Pilsbury 1911).
189074		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189074		threats	eng	On the Paraná   River, the Itaipu Dam, the largest in the world, flooded   approximately 100,000 ha of land and destroyed significant aquatic   habitat including Guaira Falls. The basin faces the second greatest   number of planned dams in the world (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.   2007).&#160;The upper Paraná   basin is impacted by industrial, domestic,   and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of   river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe  in  parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the   Upper Paraná. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have   the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay   region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the   Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic   life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species. Rio Negro Province in Patagonia is exposed to increasing  threats  due to toxins from mining and oil extraction, deforestation  leading to a  decrease in water quality and sedimentation, as well as  hunting (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
189075		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to clarify the limits of its distribution, provide a population estimate and identify potential threats.
189075		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Australia, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from a small creek in the central Flinders Ranges (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 200 km<sup>2</sup>.
189075		habitat	eng	This species is only known from one small creek and is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189075		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it can be locally abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189075		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, this specis is located in an urban and agricultural area both of which could be negatively impacting its habitat (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189076		conservation	eng	There are no proposals in Chile to protect endangered populations of this species (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). Attemps to relocate populations have been successful, with translocated populations still viable after three and 18 years (Peredo <em>et al. </em>2005). Further work is needed primarily to resolve the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding this species, and the (sub)species <em>D. c. patagonicus</em>, found on the eastern side of the Andes in Argentina (Graf and Cummings 2009).
189076		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Chile, from the Limari River (30<sup>o</sup>28'S; 71<sup>o</sup>05'W) to Lake Diana (51<sup>o</sup>50'S; 72<sup>o</sup>9W) (Parada and Peredo 2008); and in Argentina, between 32<sup>o</sup>52'S and 45<sup>o</sup>51'S (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplodon chilensis patagonicus</span> is from the Argentine side of the Andes  and is known from Chile and Isle de Chiloe (Parada and Peredo 2008).
189076		habitat	eng	This species inhabits both lentic and lotic environments (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). In Lake Llanquihue, Chile, it is found in large beds in soft bottom substrates (Soto and Mena 1999), while it prefers sand-gravel substrates in Lake Panguipulli, and mud substrates in Lake Villarrica (Lara and Parada 2009). It occurs in plateau rivers in Andean Patagonia (Miserendino 2001). This is a slow-growing species with a long lifespan, late sexual maturity, and high fecundity (Lara and Parada 2009).
189076		population	eng	This is the most common freshwater mussel species in Chile, although large declines in abundance, and even population extirpations, have been observed in recent decades (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). For example, the population in Lanalhue Lake was considered to be "terminal" by Valdovinos and Pedreros (2007) due to extremely low densities (<1 ind. km<sup>2</sup>). Recent extirpations were also recorded in seven out of 31 lakes studied, mainly concentrated in the Nahuelbutan and Chiloe Lakes regions (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). In many other Chilean lakes this species is considered threatened (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). Many populations have also declined or disappeared in Chilean rivers (Peredo <em>et al. </em>2005). However, it is still abundant in parts of Chile, particularly in coastal areas and bays (such as Lake Llanquihue) where densities can reach 50 to 200 ind. m<sup>-2</sup> (Soto and Mena 1999). It reaches its greatest biomass in lakes and rivers in central and southern Chile and Patagonia (Lara and Parada 2009). In Andean Patagonian rivers it was found to be common (Miserendino 2001).
189076		threats	eng	This species is highly susceptible to water quality degradation, eutrophication, erosion and siltation, all of which are thought to have been responsible for recent large-scale declines of Chilean popualations (Valdovinos and Pedreros 2007). This is particularly true in rivers, which are vulnerable to the impacts of pollution from agricultural and industrial chemicals and engineering projects (Lara and Parada 2009). Other threats to this species include habitat destruction (impoundment, canal construction) and the introduction of fish species for aquaculture or for tourism, which displace native species and by doing so remove potential glochidial hosts (Peredo <em>et al. </em>2005).
189077		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' distribution, population size, ecology and threats.
189077		distribution	eng	This species is known from Japan (Kabat and Hershler 1993).
189077		habitat	eng	This species is known from wells (Kabat and Hershler 1993).
189077		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189077		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189078		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to resolve taxonomic issues, and to determine the distribution and population status of this species.
189078		distribution	eng	This species occurs in South America. In Brazil, it is found in the states of Para; Amazonas; and Rio Grande do Norte (G. Pastorino pers. comm. 2011). Forcelli (2000) lists it as endemic to Magellanes, southern Chile. However, Da Silva and Davis (1983) also record it from the Falkland Islands. However, this is due to taxonomic uncertainty as to the placement of this species.
189078		habitat	eng	This species' specific habitat requirements are unknown.
189078		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
189078		threats	eng	As there is little known about this species' habtat requirements, it is also unknown whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189079		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to properly determine its current population size, distribution and trend.
189079		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Macau (Zilch 1967).
189079		habitat	eng	Members of this genus often inhabit brackish waters, and indeed seem to require a degree of salinity. They are generally restricted to lowland coastal regions, often within reach of marine waters, and many are amphibious in nature (Abbot 1958).
189079		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189079		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189080		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to clarify the abundance, distribution,  ecology, population trends, taxonomy and impact of any major threats  before a more accurate assessment of its conservation assessment can be  made.
189080		distribution	eng	This species is found in East Asia, in the Lower Amur Basin, including the Ussuri, in eastern Russia and south into China (Zhadin 1938, Graf 2007). However, recent Russina authors (see for example Saenko 208) believe that 'true' <span style="font-style: italic;">L. cylindrica </span>do not inhabit Russia, and mollusks of this genus living in the Russian Far East should be classified as belonging to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lanceolaria </span>(M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
189080		habitat	eng	Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lanceolaria </span>are known to inhabit rivers and lakes, with silty and silty-sandy substrates being preferred (Bogatov and Zatrawkin 1987). The precise habitat requirements for this species are unknown.
189080		population	eng	Zhadin (1933) considers this species to be 'very rare'.
189080		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats affecting this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regimes.
189081		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996 when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986 the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006). The Zeya-Bureya River plains are also protected as they are Ramsar sites, although they are subject to similar threats from agricultural practices (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2000).<br/><br/>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189081		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Russian Federation, in the upper part of the Zeya River Basin in northern Sakhalin, Amur (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> <em>et al</em>. </em>2009). It is also found in Lake Baikal, the Khilok River (a tributary of the Selenga River) and the Transbaikalia basins (Prozorov and Zasypkina 2005).
189081		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lakes and rivers (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> <em>et al</em>. </em>2009). In northern Sakhalin, it is found in brooks and floodplain lakes on submerged vegetation and other objects (stones, logs etc) (Bogatov and Zatrawkin 1990).
189081		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189081		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189082		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A number of local groups are working on re-vegetation and other habitat improvement programs along the banks of Mount Emu Creek (Department of Primary Industries 2009). Further research is required to establish this species' population size and identify potential threats, and further survey work is recommended to clarify the distribution.
189082		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Victoria, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from only one location on Mount Emu Creek, south of Terang (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003), with an estimated extent of occurrence of around 1,400 km<sup>2</sup>. It is likely to occur in other localities (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010) such as further up and down stream of the type locality (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189082		habitat	eng	This species is known from Mount Emu Creek and is generally found on leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189082		population	eng	This species is known to be very abundant (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
189082		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Mount Emu Creek flows through farmland, where much of the bank has been cleared (Department of Primary Industries 2009). Sheep and beef farming and grain production are some of the main land uses in the area around Mount Emu Creek (Glenelg Hopkins Catchment Management Authority 2009).
189083		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its distribution and ecology.
189083		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be endemic to Lake Albert (on the border of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo), although it has also been found at a single location at Al Duwaym, Sudan (Graf and Cummings 2007).
189083		habitat	eng	This species is found in Lake Albert.
189083		population	eng	The species is quite common in Lake Albert (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
189083		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being affected by any major threats. It may, however, be affected by localised threats in parts of its range, but these are unlikely to cause significant declines in the global population.
189084		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' exact distribution, population abundance, ecology and threats, as virtually nothing is currently known about this species.
189084		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is unclear, but <span style="font-style: italic;">Daudebardiella naegelei</span> has been documented in Turkey (Kabat and Hershler 1993).
189084		habitat	eng	<p>    </p><p>There is no habitat information available for this species.</p>  <p></p>
189084		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189084		threats	eng	Due to uncertainty over the range of this species, the threats to this species are unknown.
189085		conservation	eng	In 2006, an agreement of cooperation was signed between the  Chinese-Russian working group on the ecology of the Argun River, with  regard to the protection of water quality and approval of the ecological  status of the river, and joint water quality monitoring (UNECE 2009). <br/><br/>Additionally, the Russian Federation recognised measures which needed to  be implicated to achieve good status of watercourses. These included:  stabilization of the riverbed, decreasing negative consequences of the  erosion of riverbeds (specifically for the Amur in Amur Oblast), use of  low-waste and non-waste technology, increasing capacities for wastewater  treatment, legal measures to respect use restriction in water  protection zones, and improving sanitary conditions in human settlements  (including cities) by methods such as the collection and treatment of  storm water run-off (UNECE 2009).
189085		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in rivers and running lakes of the Amur basin, but excluding the upper part of the Zeya basin and the Amgun basin (Bogatov and Zatrawikin 1990, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189085		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, lakes and floodplain channels. It is a freshwater species, but is possibly also found in brackish water (Amur Estuary) (ZIN 2011).
189085		population	eng	A study on Cercariae by Besprozvannykh and Ermolenko (2009) took 1,000 specimens of this species  from the Arsenkevka River. This is an abundant species based on the ZIN collections (M.V. Vinarski  pers. comm. 2010).
189085		threats	eng	Areas of the Amur river bassin are classified as 'polluted' or 'very polluted', with the concentrations of pollutants in the Argun River exceeding the maximum allowable limit (UNECE 2009). Extreme pollution events also occur in this area, caused primarily by industries, and causing fish kills and animal deaths in the areas close to the river (UNECE 2009).
189086		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history and the threats impacting this species.
189086		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Maenam and Kham Rivers, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189086		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rivers.
189086		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189086		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any significant threats are impacting this species' global population.
189087		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further taxonomic study is recommended, monitoring of the existing populations is needed.
189087		distribution	eng	This species is known from Po, Ponérihouen, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998).&#160;There are other reported subpopulations from other areas, however Haase and Bouchet (1998) comment that these may in fact represent closely related species. Lack of resources and the minute size of species of this genus make     comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result,     defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species of     this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is known     about this species, it has a very restricted distribution in less than ten locations, with an estimated extent of occurrence of around 16,000 km²<sup></sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km²<sup></sup>.  Although there  is  some  uncertainty about these estimates, the order  of magnitude of  the   documented extent of occurence is considered to  be correct (P.  Bouchet   pers. comm. 2011).
189087		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a seeping marsh and a small creek (Haase and Bouchet 1998). It is likely to occur in other locations nearby (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189087		population	eng	This species is reported to be abundant (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189087		threats	eng	Land clearance for human development and purpose-lit fires have increased, and this has increased the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This may have  caused the restricted distribution of species of  this   genus, so that  it has therefore been suggested that this restriction    may be of quite  recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its restricted    distribution  makes this species more vulnerable to the continued  threat   processes  of intensifying agriculture, land clearing, and bush  fires  (P.  Bouchet  pers. comm. 2011). There has also been a reduction  of  native forest,  which is now overgrown with the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark), posing a significant threat to the species' global population (P.Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189088		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its habitat and ecology, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189088		distribution	eng	This species is found in Paraguay, Brazil, and Bolivia (Simone 2006). It is most likely that this species occurs in the Paraguay and Amazon Rivers (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/><em>Pomacea bridgesii bridgesii</em>: This species is only found in Bolivia in the Rio Grande, Reyes River at Beni (Pain 1960, Perera and Walls 1996).<br/><em>Pomacea bridgesii diffusa</em>: This species is very widespread and found throughout the entire Amazon River system (Ghesquiere 2007).
189088		habitat	eng	<em>Pomacea bridgesii bridgesii</em> is a large species, over 65 mm high (Perera and Walls 1996). It lays between 200 - 600 pink eggs, which it deposits just above the water line (Ghesquiere 2007). It eats dead and rotting plants and will only consume living plants if there is nothing else to feed on (Ghesquiere 2007). It is usually found burrowed in muddy substrates (Ghesquiere 2007).<br/><br/><em>Pomacea bridgesii diffusa</em> is slightly smaller at 40 mm (Perera and Walls 1996). This genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers, where it lays its eggs above the water line  (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
189088		population	eng	<em>Pomacea bridgesii bridgesii </em>is found in one locality and is considered to be rare (Perera and Walls 1996). <em>Pomacea bridgesii diffusa</em> is considered to be widespread (Perera and Walls 1996).
189088		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189089		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000, it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189089		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal at 300-400 m depth and can be found near Sosnovka (Matekin <em>et al</em>. 1988, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). This species is only known from this locality (the type locality - Sosnovskaya Banka). However, northern Lake Baikal is considerably less studied than the southern basin and so the lack of specimens for this species may be an artefact of poor sampling effort (E. Michel pers. comm. 2010). The estimated extent of occurrence for this species is approximately 1,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
189089		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths between 300-400 m, inhabiting the sublittoral and transitional zones of Lake Baikal, which have a substrate of pebbles, sand and silt, with very clear water (Brooks 1950, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189089		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189089		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although due a lack of information about the species' precise distribution and population trends, it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189090		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding this species' distribution, population trends, ecology and threats to inform future reassessments.
189090		distribution	eng	This species' type locality is a pool at the side of a road running from Villa Unión toward Siqueiros, Sinaloa, Mexico (Taylor 2003). The extent of occurrence is 600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189090		habitat	eng	While there is no detailed habitat information available for this species, its type locality is a small pool.
189090		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189090		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189091		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population, ecology and threat research is required before an accurate assessment can be made.
189091		distribution	eng	This species' type locality is Guatemala City [13º40’N, 88º13’W] and this species is distributed from southeastern Mexico (Chiapas) to southern Guatemala (Taylor 2003).
189091		habitat	eng	This riverine species was found to be present in areas of unfavourable weather (continuous periods of flood and drought) and experiencing inadequate food resources in a study of freshwater molluscs in the Ecological Reserve El Eden, Quintana Roo, Mexico by Cózatl-Manzano and Naranjo-Garcia (2007).
189091		population	eng	This species was found to have a low abundance in a study by Cózatl-Manzano and Naranjo-Gracia (2007).
189091		threats	eng	Continuous periods of drought and flood may threaten this species' abundance in parts of its range (Cózatl-Manzano and Naranjo-Garcia 2007).
189092		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996 it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189092		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from the Angara River and Lake Baikal, Russia (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). There are no recent specimens from the Angara River, restricting the current range for this species to northern Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, the true taxonomic identity of the northern Baikal shells is in question (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189092		habitat	eng	This species inhabits Lake Baikal and the Angara river, where it has been found on stones with small areas of sand, at depths of&#160; 2–15 m (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189092		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189092		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to a lack of&#160;information&#160;on population status and trends. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189093		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.&#160;It has been given a NatureServe status of G4 - Apparently Secure - and an American Fisheries Society (AFS) Status of Currently Stable (NatureServe 2009).
189093		distribution	eng	This species is found in Canada, in Nova Scotia, Quebec and on Newfoundland Island (NatureServe 2009).
189093		habitat	eng	This species is thought to be a 'broad generalist', as it can be located in many habitats, from freshwater pools to lakes and streams (Nedeau<em> et al.</em> 2000, in NatureServe 2009). It can be found on silt, sandy and gravel substrates (Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2000, in NatureServe 2009).
189093		population	eng	The population of this species is described as 'common and stable' (NatureServe 2009).
189093		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species and it has been given a NatureServe status of G4 - Apparently Secure - and an American Fisheries Society (AFS) Status of Currently Stable (NatureServe 2009).
189094		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to its limited distribution on two islands, this species is likely to be vulnerable to a number of threats. Therefore further research is recommended to determine its present distribution and abundance on Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, and any islands in between, as well as establish which threats may be of particular importance to this species.
189094		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Puerto Rico (Pimentel and White 1959) and Guadeloupe (Academy of Natural Sciences).
189094		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streams and puddles (Crosse 1892).
189094		population	eng	In the Quebrada Sabana Llana, Puerto Rico, this species had a population density of 0.19 individuals per m²<sup></sup>, and was present in 1.1–1.7% of riverine habitats surveyed (Pimentel and White 1959).
189094		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189095		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' population abudance and threats.
189095		distribution	eng	This species is currently distributed widely across the Indo-Pacific (Morton 1984, Tan and Kastoro 2004, Bayen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), overlapping considerably with the distribution of its congener <em>Ploymesoda erosa</em>. Unconfirmed reports of this species also exist from Vanuatu, India and Sri Lanka (Morton 1984).
189095		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from the landward side of intertidal mud and mangroves (Morton 1984, Tan and Kastoro 2004), where it occupies a filter feeder niche (Bayen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has been speculated that this species is less tolerant of colder waters of the northern and southern extremities of its distribution. This species is also reportedly found in man-made prawn ponds (Bayen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
189095		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Given its wide distribution and present use as a human food source, its populations are most likely significant.
189095		threats	eng	Given this species wide distribution, it is currently not considered to be threatened. However, the highly threatened nature of its mangrove habitat makes future threats highly likely. This species is reported to harbour high levels of heavy metals (Bayen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), but this has yet to be corroborated.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is currently widely used in cooking (FAO 1998) and is regarded as a local delicacy as "Lokan".
189096		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189096		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the Caribbean and much of South America, and has been specifically documented from Cuba, Guadeloupe, and most regions of Brazil (DeJong <em>et al</em>. 2001, Vidigal <em>et al</em>. 2001, Pointier and David 2004). In Brazil, it does not occur in the following states: Amazonas, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina (Vidigal <em>et al</em>. 2000).
189096		habitat	eng	This species is found in ponds (Pointier and David 2004). Several <em>Biomphalaria</em> species including <em>B. glabrata, B. tenagophila, B. straminea, B. helophila, B. havanensis</em> and <em>B. peregrina</em> are potential hosts of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em>, a significant parasite of humans which causes intestinal schistosomiasis; this species, however, is not thought to be a host (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2001, Vidigal <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species has a rapid growth rate and a much shorter lifespan than other <em>Biomphalaria</em> species, and therefore has a strong advantage at the beginning of the rainy season. It is able to colonize some habitats very rapidly after the dry season which then in turn helps it to resist more effectively the threat of competitors or predators (Pointier and David 2004).
189096		population	eng	In a study by Pointier and David (2004) in Guadeloupe, this species was described as ‘dominant’ and its populations were found to fluctuate depending on the wet season. Their results did not suggest either a global increase or decrease of this species’ abundance over the thirteen years of study. There is no information on the population of this species in other areas of its range.
189096		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189097		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. More specifically, live specimens must be collected to verify this species' present existence.
189097		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the western coast of the middle Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009),  although it must be noted that no live specimens were found.
189097		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea. Empty shells have been found at depths of 20-30 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <span style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:Arial; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue;mso-ansi-language:EN-US; mso-fareast-language:RU;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA"></span>
189097		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189097		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189098		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further research is required on this species' population status, trends and the effects of threats, in order to fill some of the knowledge gaps surrounding this species.
189098		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern and central Baikal though the most recent specimens were found along the western shore of the lake (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004, Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189098		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of between 3-140 m in the south basin of Lake Baikal, on sand or silt substrate (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004). It was also found on the underside of stones on the rock layer at 7-45 m depths (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004 ).
189098		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189098		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently been closed (The Guardian 2008) The Selenga River is another source of pollution as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay et al. 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay et al. 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay et al. 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).<br/><br/>Threat coding:<br/>1.1 Ecosystem degredation<br/>1.2 Ecosystem degredation<br/>1.3 Ecosystem degredation<br/>3.1<br/>5.3.4 Ecosystem degredation<br/>7.3 Ecosystem degredation<br/>9.1.1 Ecosystem degredation<br/>9.2.3. Ecosystem degredation<br/>9.3.4 Ecosystem degredation<br/>9.4 Species Mortality<br/>9.5.4 Ecosystem degredation
189099		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
189099		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
189099		habitat	eng	This species inhabits semi-permanent lentic water bodies (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al. </em>2004).
189099		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189099		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189100		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas.&#160;Further research&#160; is recommended to clarify the taxonomic confusion surrounding this species, although it is unlikely that this will have a bearing on the conservation listing assigned to this species.
189100		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from southern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, and Victoria (ABRS 2009).
189100		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lentic and lotic freshwater environments (ABRS 2009), including rivers, creeks, lakes, ponds, marshes and swamps (Brown 2001). It is found on littoral rocks at depths of 1 - 14 m (Timms 1981). It has an upper salinity level of 400 mg/L (Morris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and appears to tolerate high levels of pollution (Brown 2001).
189100		population	eng	This species is common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). In Lake Purrumbete near Melbourne, Victoria, this species made up 2.5% of the littoral invertebrate community, with a mean density of 1.4 individuals m<sup>-2</sup> (Timms 1981).
189100		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting the global population of this species.
189101		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research to determine this species' exact distribution, population status and impact of threats is required.
189101		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Jelai drainage in central peninsular Malaysia, where it is restricted to mountain foothills at altitudes of 30–90 m asl (Attwood <em>et al. </em>2005). This species has a restricted range, is currently known from less than ten populations, and its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 3,300 km². Deforestation poses the major ongoing threat to this species causing changes in stream quality and decreasing the availability of roots which this species prefers. This means that potentially every stream population can be counted as a separate location. It is likely that more populations will be discovered, boosting the number of locations at which this species occurs to more than ten, however, it has to be noted that decline in suitable habitat is ongoing.
189101		habitat	eng	This species inhabits first- to fourth-order streams in mountain foothills, generally in the submerged root masses of <em>Saraca thaipingensis </em>trees or similar root structures (Attwood <em>et al. </em>2005). There is a single record of a population on soft silt substrate in a small tributary of the Kapor river, Pahang state (Davis and Greer 1980). This species is an intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma malayensis</em> in Pahang state, which infects rodents and people (Attwood <em>et al. </em>2003).
189101		population	eng	This species was abundant in first-order streams flowing into the Kapor river (Davis and Greer 1980).
189101		threats	eng	This species is an intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma malayensis</em> in Malaysia and therefore is a potential target for control programmes (Upatham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). Extensive logging, deforestation and mining throughout peninsular Malaysia may also impact this species through sedimentation and pollution of its freshwater habitat (Butler 2006). Deforestation in particular poses a major threat to this species, causing ongoing declines in stream quality and the availability of roots which this species appears to prefer (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
189102		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189102		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species across thirty two states: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming in the United States of America (NatureServe 2009). It is also present in Alberta, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan in Canada and Northern Mexico (Brim Box and Williams 2000, NatureServe 2009).
189102		habitat	eng	This generalist species is found in small shallow streams, 'high in conductivity, with a fine sediment cover and detritus' as well as headwater creeks in marshes, pools, the margins of streams and backwater areas (Gagnon<em> et al.</em> 2006). Impoundments, lakes and pools that have mud bottoms with little or no current enable this species to become abundant and attain the largest possible size for this species, along with its tolerance for sedimentation and pollution (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, NatureServe 2009). It also has a large number of host fish which can further explain the wide distribution and large populations of this species (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189102		population	eng	This species has a stable, common and abundant population that is showing no evidence of decline, most likely due to the fact that it can tolerate impoundment conditions (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Cummings and Berlocher 1990, NatureServe 2009).
189102		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160; It has been found to be tolerant of sedimentation and pollution to a certain degree and thus these processes do not pose a significant threat to the species throughout its range&#160;(Parmalee and Bogan 1998, NatureServe 2009).
189103		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but in places its distribution will coincide with protected areas. Further surveys are needed to determine the extent of this species' range and research is suggested on the impact of mangrove loss on population numbers.
189103		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the Gulf of Carpentaria, northern coastal Queensland and the Northern Territory (OBIS Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database 2009).
189103		habitat	eng	This species is found in mangrove forests within estuaries (OBIS Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database 2009).
189103		population	eng	This species has been described as relatively common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189103		threats	eng	This genus lives in estuarine conditions such as mangroves. Thus, this species may be affected by habitat degradation and loss from human and agricultural development, in addition to pollution. However, it is unknown to what extent this is impacting upon this species (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189104		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Habitat and specific site protection may aid in stopping the deterioration of this species' habitat. Further research is recommended into this species' exact distribution, population status and threats.
189104		distribution	eng	This species was originally reported by Brandt (1974) in the Mae Khok River (type locality) near Chiang Rai Province and the On River at Ban Pong near Ngao District, Lampang Province (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). However, the study by Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) only found this species on the Mae Chedi River, Mae Chedi sub-district, Wiang Pa Pao District in the Chiang Rai Province, northern Thailand.
189104		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
189104		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189104		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. By 2030, there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China, the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ‘flood pulse’, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in the developing countries of the Indo-Burma-Region may also be a threat to freshwater snails (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
189105		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the abundance and the effects of habitat degradation needs to be carried out. Monitoring programmes may help to detect any significant population declines in time.
189105		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Yarkand River (970 km in length), Northwest China. This river is a tributary of the Tarim River.
189105		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers.
189105		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189105		threats	eng	The Tarim River basin and surrounding areas are experiencing widespread environmental degradation as the Chinese economy develops. Both temperature and streamflow of the Yarkand River have increased in the past 50 years (Ya-ning <em>et al.</em> 2007). Agriculture has also caused changes to the hydrological regime of this system (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unknown what impact these threats are having on the population of this species.<br/><br/>Climate change may also pose a threat to this species. Within the Tarim River, the peak discharge and total flooding volume of glacial lake outburst floods are becoming larger and more frequent. As glaciers which feed into the Yarkand and Tarim melt, the glacial lakes which form as a result are expanding, and the risk of glacial lake outburst floods are increasing (Yongping <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Dams built in the region of the Yarkand and Tarim Rivers, together with associated activities such as irrigated agriculture, have been a major cause in the decline of freshwater and river-margin biodiversity in recent decades (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>Threat coding:<br/>9.3.4<br/>11.4<br/>7.2.3
189106		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - apparently secure (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Special Concern (1 Jan 1993).&#160;In South Carolina, this species is listed as State Endangered (Bogan and Alderman 2008).<br/><br/>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended into the causes of decline in the southern portions of this species' range.
189106		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont and Virginia. NatureServe (2009) have classified it as Critically Imperilled in Florida, Georgia, Maryland, West Virginia, and it is Possibly Extirpated in Delaware and District of Columbia.<br/><br/>In Canada, this species occurs in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec.<br/><br/>The range of this species extends from the lower St. Lawrence River Basin south to the Ogeechee River Basin in Georgia (Bogan and Alderman 2008, Bogan <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189106		habitat	eng	Northern populations of this species avoid larger rivers, preferring small streams going far up towards the headwaters. This species favours a steady flow of water rather than riffles or rough water. Occasionally, it can be found in lakes, ponds and canals. It lives mostly in a mixture of coarser or finer gravel with sand and mud, or in between large stones (Clarke 1981). Southern populations are also found in big rivers in muddy sand with moderate current (Heard 1979).<br/><br/>Hostfish include the Blacknose Dace (<em>Rhinichthys atratulus</em>), Common Shiner (<em>Luxilus cornutus</em>), Fallfish (<em>Semotilus corporalis</em>), Largemouth Bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>), Longnose Dace (<em>Rhinichthys cataractae</em>), Pumpkinseed (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>), Slimy Sculpin (<em>Cottus cognatus</em>) and White Sucker (<em>Catostomus commersoni</em>), (Watters <em>et al.</em> 1999 from Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2000).
189106		population	eng	This species is wide ranging across the Atlantic Slope, and maintains some fairly stable populations. Although widespread and even common in some areas, the species has experienced pockets of decline in the southern portion of its range for unknown reasons. This includes declines in the populations of North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, and also central New York. More populations exist in New England than anywhere else throughout its known range along the Atlantic coast (NatureServe 2009).
189106		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It seems to be less affected by habitat degradation than other mussel species, and it is thought to use a greater diversity of fish hosts than most other mussels found in similar ecosystems (Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2000, Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, some localised declines have been observed and the reasons for this need to be identified in order to avoid similar declines elsewhere.
189107		conservation	eng	Shantou is a rapidly expanding seaport city in China which incoporates over 51,000 hectares of important wetland area (UNEP 2006). However, the Shantou Government has implemented the 'Harmonious and Ecological Shantou' project to allow economic development of the city whilst still protecting the wetland areas (UNEP 2006). They have recognised the number of threatened and endangered species in this habitat and that public awareness and participation in wetland activities need to be improved (UNEP 2006). The Shantou Government has also authorised the Zhongshan University to conduct surveys in order to implement the UNEP GCF South China Sea project, which is designed to 'reverse environmental degradation, particularly in the areas of coastal habitat degradation and loss, land-based pollution, and fisheries' (UNEP SCS 2009). Despite these plans, there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the threats to this species and the population distribution, size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring of this species should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189107		distribution	eng	Due to the taxonomic difficulties  the distribution of this species is uncertain. Authors refer to the distribution as from Hong Kong to Guangdong, but this remains uncertain (Golding <em>et al.</em> 2007, Hubendick 1945).
189107		habitat	eng	This species is known from mangrove habitats (Golding <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189107		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189107		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, the mangrove and wetlands where this species is reported from is in a rapidly developing city, with a high population density (Global Environment Facility 2007). Currently, the wetlands are under threat from farming, transition to salt fields and tourism (Global Environment Facility 2007). This species could be further threatened by the increase in human activity, which includes converting wetlands into aquaculture and for property developments (GEF 2007). Also water pollution from untreated sewage and the wastewater from aquaculture poses more potential problems for this species' survival (Global Environment Facility 2007).
189108		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G2 (Imperilled) (NatureServe 2009).
189108		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central coastal California, from Sonoma County to Monterey County (Hershler 1994). Populations from the Sierra Nevada recorded by Taylor (1981) require confirmation (Hershler 1994). The extent of occurrence is estimated as 40,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189108		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs (Hershler <em>et al. </em>2003), where it associates with watercress and <em>Chara</em> (Hershler 1989).
189108		population	eng	This species was described as common in California by Dudley <em>et al. </em>(2009).
189108		threats	eng	The primary threat to this and other species of hydrobiid is the invasive New Zealand Mud Snail (<em>Potamopyrgus antipodarum</em>, also a hydrobiid), a habitat generalist with the potential to alter habitats and competitively displace similar species. This species is currently spreading through Pacific and continental drainages in the US, although efforts are being made to mitigate the invasion (Dudley <em>et al. </em>2009).
189109		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189109		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) lists the species as an Atlantic drainage taxon occurring from Cedar Lake near Litchfield (upper Susquehanna drainage) and Albany (Hudson River drainage), New York, south to South Carolina.  Clench and Turner (1955) cited the range as from Cedar Lake near Litchfield, New York (upper Susquehanna drainage) south to Lake Waccamaw, Columbus Co., North Carolina. Although more common in the northern, cooler regions of its range, it may be extirpated from New York and Pennsylvania. Although&#160;Clench (1965) cited specimens from Normanskill in Albany, New York, the species may be extirpated from that state with no recent records (Jokinen 1992).  Reports by Branson (Branson and Batch 1981) from Kentucky are false, likely misidentifications for <em>Lioplax sulculosa</em>.
189109		habitat	eng	This species can be found in freshwater river drainages and lakes.
189109		population	eng	It is thought that this species has a large population.
189109		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting this species at a global scale.
189110		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189110		distribution	eng	This species is known from the states of Rio Grande do Sul (Bemvenuti and Netto 1998, Silva 2003), Rio de Janiero (Thiengo <em>et al</em>. 2001) and Santa Catarina, Brazil (Veitenheimer-Mendes and Lopes-Pitoni 1995).
189110		habitat	eng	This species is found in both rivers and lagoons (Bemvenuti and Netto 1998, Silva 2003). It is typically found in the sediment or in the roots of aquatic vegetation (Mansur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
189110		population	eng	This species is found in high densities in the Rio Guaíba (Bemvenuti and Netto 1998).
189110		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be globally threatened as it occupies a broad geographic range. However, it may be undergoing localised declines.
189112		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size, distribution and trends is suggested as these data are lacking. The threats to this species and possible conservation measures need investigating, and habitat and population monitoring is recommended.
189112		distribution	eng	This species is known from several sites in north eastern Tasmania and one in central Tasmania, Australia (Ponder and Avern 2000). The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
189112		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks, lakes and rivers (Ponder and Avern 2000).
189112		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189112		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.&#160;However, it is likely that this species is affected to some degree by habitat degradation through land clearing for human development, and forestry and agricultural activities.
189113		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189113		distribution	eng	This species is only known from approximately four localities on the southwestern shore of Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189113		habitat	eng	This species has been found on the surface of small to medium sized stones in Lake Baikal, at a depth of 5-25 m (Sitnikova<em> et al</em>. 2004).
189113		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189113		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby<em> et al</em>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189114		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its range falls within Taman Negara National Park in Pahang (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006). Further work is recommended on population size and trends, as well as threats facing this species.
189114		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Pahang River system in Pahang state, Peninsular Malaysia (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).
189114		habitat	eng	This species is only found on rocks in rapids (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006). Species of this genus are known to inhabit mountain streams and are not usually found in the lower courses of rivers (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189114		population	eng	There is no population information available, although this species is likely to be both rare and restricted as it has been little recorded despite a distinctive shell morphology. This is unlikely to be due to limited sampling effort as it occurs in sympatry with a very abundant species that has been recorded regularly in the Pahang River system, <em>Brotia episcopalis </em>H. Lea & I. Lea, 1851 (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).
189114		threats	eng	Water abstraction for rice paddy irrigation along the Pahang River is likely to be a minor problem, being mainly small in scale. River water is also used for other agricultural activities (rubber and oil palm plantations), and for domestic and industrial consumption (Tachikawa <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/><br/>However, due to increasing water demands elsewhere in Malaysia, a large-scale project is being undertaken to transfer water from the Pahang basin to the Langat River (the Pahang-Selangor Interstate Raw Water Transfer system; Weng and Mokhtar 2009). This is projected to divert up to 4,000 million litres per day from the Pahang, which has a total water capacity of 8,500 million litres per day. This is likely to further degrade the water quality of the Pahang River, which is already under increasing population pressure from recent immigration, and suffers from pollution due to discharged waste water from the rubber and oil palm plantations (Weng and Mokhtar 2009).
189115		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189115		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal and can be found mostly in the southern and central regions, including Bolshiye Koty Bay (Kravtsova <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189115		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the shallower areas of Lake Baikal, on a stony substrate, with very clear water (Brooks 1950, Sitnikova 2004). This species can be found at depths between 2 and 40 m (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189115		population	eng	This species has been described as a dominant species in southern Baikal (Kravtsova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189115		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189117		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 (vulnerable) (NatureServe 2009).
189117		distribution	eng	This species is known from California, Nevada and Utah (USA) and Mexico (Hershler<em> et al.</em> 2007). Specifically, it is found in Salton Basin, San Francisco estuary and Long Valley in California, the Colorado River delta, eastern Lahontan Basin in Nevada, Bonneville Basin in Utah and Sonora in Mexico (Hershler<em> et al.</em> 2007). It is also an introduced species into Hawaii (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189117		habitat	eng	This species can exist in hot springs as well as estuaries (Hershler <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189117		population	eng	This species was noted to be 'abundant' in the San Francisco estuary (Hershler<em> et al.</em> 2007). The population is considered to be stable.
189117		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats significantly impacting the global population of this species.
189118		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to confirm its present population size, distribution and trends.
189118		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, "Kerkichi, right bank of Amu-Darja" in Turkmenistan (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). No living specimens have been found.
189118		habitat	eng	<em>Helicorbis</em> species in Siberia inhabit non-permanent waterbodies (M. Vinarksi pers. comm. 2010), and this species may have similar habitat preferences.
189118		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189118		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any specific threats are affecting this species. However, water from the Amu-Darya is diverted and used extensively for irrigation, and there are several large dams and barrages along its length. This has resulted in the Aral Sea environmental disaster, but also in ecological changes in the river itself (Gleick 2003), through a combination of habitat modification and deterioration in water quality (water pollution, salinization and mineralization) (Pavlovskaya 1995). These threats are compounded by climate change (thought to be the cause of a recent multi-year drought in the region) and human population growth, resulting in even scarcer water resources in the Amu Darya (Glantz 2005).
189119		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures implemented for this species. However, it does occur throughout several protected areas.
189119		distribution	eng	This species is common in North America from Florida and Texas to southern Canada (Burch 1989).  It was also recently shown to have a wide introduced distribution across Europe (previously under a variety of synonymous names, including <em>Acroloxus lacustris, Ferrissia shimekii, Ferrissia wautieri</em>) to a point where it is nearly cosmopolitan (Walther <em>et al</em>. 2006).
189119		habitat	eng	This species occurs throughout freshwater rivers, streams and tributaries.
189119		population	eng	This species is reported as being common.
189119		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the global population of this species.
189120		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, population status, ecology and threats of this species, as virtually nothing is currently known about it.
189120		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Central Asia (Izzatullaev 2002).
189120		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189120		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189120		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189121		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189121		distribution	eng	This species is distributed a coastal species located in the Australian states of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland (DEWHA 2009, S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189121		habitat	eng	This brackish species is a detritus feeder inhabiting salt-marshes and mangroves (DEWHA 2009).
189121		population	eng	This species is common (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189121		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is being impacted on a local level by threat processes such as habitat degradation and sea level rise, but due to the distribution of the species and its abundance, it is unlikely that it is being affected at a global scale.
189122		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution does coincide with the Ilmeny State Reserve in the Chelyabinsk Region (Southern Urals), which is one of the oldest protected areas in Russia (established in 1920) (Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007b).
189122		distribution	eng	This species has been found throughout all of Western Siberia, including Lake Chany and the provinces of Irtyshian, Lower Obian and Middle Obian. It also occurs in Kazakhstan and the Chelyabinsk Region, Southern Urals (Iurlova and Serbina 2004, Iurlova and Vodyanitskaya 2005, Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007a, 2007b, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189122		habitat	eng	The type species was found in a small, somewhat saline lake in the Steppe Sari Dala, northern Kazakhstan (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Vinarski <em>et al.</em> (2007b) found this species to be a habitat generalist, inhabiting clean, deep lakes, ponds, reservoirs and brooks. They state that much of the habitat for this species in the Urals is still in a natural virgin state.
189122		population	eng	Vinarski <em>et al.</em> (2007b) found this species to be 'very common' in their study of the aquatic gastropods of the Ilmeny State Reserve (Southern Urals, Russia). This status was based upon the species being 'widely distributed in the Urals region, inhabiting a wide spectrum of waterbodies of different kinds and reaching high abundance.'
189122		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.
189123		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is possibly benefitting from the implementation of the UNDP-GEF Dnipro Basin Environment Programme in 1996 (Barica 2005). Further research is recommended to provide an estimate of abundance for this species, and to ascertain the extent to which this species is being impacted upon by threats.
189123		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Dnieper River delta, Kherson Region of the Ukraine, and Western Siberia (Vinarski <em>et al</em>. 2007, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189123		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found in floodplain lakes (M.V. Vinarksi pers. comm. 2010).
189123		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189123		threats	eng	Besides the Volga River, the Dnieper River is one of the most endangered river systems in the former USSR, as a result of pollution and impoundments (WWF/TNC 2008). The dam system, for which the Dnieper River is famous, may have dispersal implications for this species. An additional potential threat to this species is the radioactive contamination of its environment, as a result of the Chernobyl disaster and other nuclear-related environmental threats in the region (ICRIN 2009). However, because little is known about this species, it is currently impossible to assess the impacts these threats may be having on the species.
189124		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the habitat, range, population size, and distribution is suggested as these data are lacking. It is also worth investigating any threats to this species.
189124		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the southern part of the Caspian Sea (Logvinenko & Starobogatov 1968).
189124		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths between 25 and 40 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968) in the Caspian Sea.
189124		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189124		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, although it is possible that typical threats to the Caspian ecosystem such as habitat degradation as a result of human impact - particularly via oil production (Kostianoy and Kosarev 2005, Zonn 2010) - may be impacting the species.
189125		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em> Diplodon hylaeus</em>, a synonym of this species, was listed as Data Deficient in an assessment by the Fundação Biodiversitas (2003) using IUCN Red List categories. It is unknown what information this listing was based on. This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size, threats and habitat preferences.
189125		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South America. It is found in Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Guyana and Ecuador (Haas 1969).   It is also found in Uruguay, however this, and the records from Guyana, Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay are questionable (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011). The records that cover the Southern area are referring to a different species and will probably go by the name of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. guaraniana </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(d'Orbigny 1835).
189125		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species, however it has been found in permanent rivers (Haas 1969).
189125		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189125		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, it is likely to be affected by threats commonly experienced by freshwater bivalves such as siltation, habitat loss and pollution (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
189126		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189126		distribution	eng	This species is known from the regions of Choapa, Elqui, Limarí and Salamanca in Chile (SINAB 2009)
189126		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189126		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189126		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189127		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the precise distribution of this species and the possible threats affecting it.
189127		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bolivia, Chile and Peru (Kuiper and Hinz 1983). It has recently been recorded from Tarapaca in northern Chile (Ituarte 1995). It has also been found at a number of locations between Cota-Cotani in Tarapaca, Chile, and La Paz, Bolivia. It can found between 3,500 m and 4,600 m above sea level (Ituarte 2007).
189127		habitat	eng	This species is found predominantly in streams, but has also been recorded from ditches and lakes (Kuiper and Hinz 1983). It has been found at 3,500 m to 4,600 m above sea level (Kuiper and Hinz 1983).
189127		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189127		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threat processes. Within South America generally, freshwater ecosystems are heavily affected by habitat degradation and destruction. Habitat alteration is often a result of rapid population growth and urbanisation. A lot of wetlands are currently being converted to rice fields, ground water is being extracted, and coastal wetlands are being used for shrimp farming. Dams and channelization are major threats facing freshwater systems in the area. There are over 885 dams over 15 m high, resulting in dramatic changes to the hydrological regime of surrounding water systems (Castro and Parcells 1996). Without further information on this particular species, however, it is not known which, if any, of these threats are affecting this species. Nothing is known of its tolerance to pollution, and alterations to its habitat. It is also possible that the areas this species inhabits are currently unaffected by the threat processes outlined above.
189128		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189128		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States of America, where it is found in the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee River systems and the Mississippi River drainage from Wisconsin and Minnesota, south through Kansas and Oklahoma to Texas, east to Louisiana, Ohio and Mississippi (Williams <em>et al. </em>2008). This species also occurs in Arkansas, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas (NatureServe 2009).
189128		habitat	eng	This species has been located in medium to large rivers at depths of up to 15–18 feet, and where the substrata is composed of sand and mud (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). The glochidia of this species favour the Channel Catfish (<em>Ictalurus punctatus</em>), Flathead Catfish (<em>Lepomis macrochirus</em>), Largemouth Bass<em> </em>(<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>), White Crappie (<em>Pomoxis annulari</em>s) and the Black Crappie (<em>Pomoxis nigromaculatus</em>) (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189128		population	eng	In Tennessee, this species was noted as uncommon in most of the sites where it was discovered, apart from sections of the lower Tennessee River (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). However, where there is suitable preferred habitat, this species can increase (Davis 2003, Davis 2005, Miller and Lynott 2006). In larger rivers in the Upper Mississippi River System, it is fairly widespread and can be abundant where found.
189128		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, the NatureServe Status is G4 - apparently secure (NatureServe 2009), and the American Fisheries Society Status is Currently Stable.
189129		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended regarding the distribution, population trends and threat processes impacting this species.
189129		distribution	eng	This species was originally found in Quebec and New Brunswick west to Alberta and south to Wyoming, Arkansas, and Virginia (Burch, 1989); western occurrences are strongly disjunct and specimens from the Washington and Montana populations need to be compared in detail with more easterly occurrences, in view of the fact that speciation has occurred in several other genera with disjunct species swarms with both eastern and western representation. Recently, the species has been found in several lakes in the Clark Fork and Flathead drainages, Lake Roosevelt, Washington, Ferry Co., the Flathead Indian Reservation, Montana, searches in Idaho turned up no sites (Frest and Johannes 1995).
189129		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and tributaries.
189129		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
189129		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
189130		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189130		distribution	eng	This species occurs in New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tanna, the southernmost island of Vanuatu (Haynes 2000).<br/><br/><em></em>
189130		habitat	eng	In Vanuatu this species was recorded from streams close to the sea (Haynes 2000). In Fiji it was found on boulders and rocks in fast-flowing streams (Haynes 1997).
189130		population	eng	This species is apparently common in New Caledonia and Fiji (Haynes 2000). Only three specimens were recorded in Vanuatu (Haynes 2000).
189130		threats	eng	On Fiji the main threat to freshwater snails is sedimentation of stream habitats, caused by deforestation, road construction, mining, and hillside cultivation. Silt and grit is washed into streams and rivers where it covers the snails' food; they will only return if the silt is washed away (Haynes 2007).
189131		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189131		distribution	eng	This species occurs naturally in the central Chipola River (Burch 1989) in Jackson and Calhoun Cos. and as an introduced species in the Santa Fe River system, Columbia Co., Florida (Thompson 1999).
189131		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river systems.
189131		population	eng	This species is reported to be abundant.
189131		threats	eng	There are no major threats that are significantly impacting the global population of this species.
189132		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 - Vulnerable, and a State/Province Status rank of S3 - Vulnerable for Virginia and S2 - Imperilled in Tennessee (NatureServe 2009, Tennessee Department of Environment &amp; Conservation 2009). It is also listed under Appendix A (species of greatest conservation need) in Virginia's Wildlife Conservation Strategy (VDGIF 2005).<br/><br/>Targeted field surveys are recommended to determine the presence and status of this species in Tennessee and Virginia. Site regeneration and protection is needed where habitats have been degraded in the past from impoundment and other activities.
189132		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the U.S.A., being restricted to southwestern Virginia and Tennessee (NatureServe 2009). It is known only from two rivers: the Holston and Tennessee.&#160;In Tennessee, it is recorded from the upper Holston River; the Ridge and Valley region; and northeast Tennessee (Tennessee Department of Environment &amp; Conservation 2009).&#160;In Virginia, it is known from one location in the Holston River in Washington County, but has not been recorded for over 100 years (Stewart and Dillon 2004). Its extent of occurrence (including the portion of its range in Virginia) is estimated as approximately 7,100 km<sup>2</sup>. NatureServe (2009) reports 21 to 80 occurrences of this species. While it is difficult to translate this into number of locations without actual point localities, given the predominant threats of impoundments and pollution these localities are unlikely to result in less than ten locations for this species.
189132		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (NatureServe 2009).
189132		population	eng	There is an absence of recent records from Virginia, according to Stewart and Dillon (2004), which "indicate [this] species might be imperiled if not already extirpated from Virginia." There is no population information available for Tennessee.
189132		threats	eng	Despite this species' limited distribution, evidence of threats and declines are lacking (NatureServe 2009). However, as in related species, impoundment is likely to have been a contributing factor to the present status of this species. For example, in the 1950s, three large dams were constructed in a tributary of the Holston River with wide-ranging impacts on the mollusc fauna. This included the extirpation of 35 species of freshwater mussel and a rise in invasive species (Parmalee and Polhemus 2004). Similar impacts have been observed in the Tennessee River system, the only other habitat of this species. Sedimentation from mining, and pollution from agricultural effluent are also likely to be threats to this species.
189133		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189133		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Black Sea and the Holocene of south Ukraine (Malacolog 2009). This species is known from areas adjacent to the northern Azov Sea (Antonovsky and Degtiarenko 2009).
189133		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater estuaries.
189133		population	eng	This species was frequently taken in the samples collected by Antonovsky and Degtiarenko (2009).
189133		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is pollution. The Azov Sea is the most polluted sea in Russia as a result of industrial and agricultural point source pollution (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189134		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species has been observed in Mogote de Pico Chico, a Floristic Managed Reserve comprising a river ecosystem (Perrera and Valderrama 2010). Further research is required regarding this species' distribution and population trends.
189134		distribution	eng	Very little is known about the distribution of this species. It is endemic to Cuba, and is restricted to possibly nine rivers of the mountainous Province of Pinar del Rio in the westernmost part of Cuba (Johnson 1981, Pointier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Perrera and Valderrama 2010). These streams flow into both the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. Previous reports have placed this species in the Rio Zanjonal (near Viñales), however this river could not be located on Cuban Military Maps of 1942. Additionally, Johnson (1981) stated it was impossible to tell which of the two Rio Hondos in the Pinar del Rio Province were intended. Similarily, there have been reports of species presence on the Isla de Pinos located in the Rio Santa Fé, from an authority that cannot be referenced by the author (Johnson 1981); no specimens can be found in collections, and a survey made by Henderson (1916) could not find the species on this island. Johnson (1981) therefore concludes that the species is restricted to the Province of Pinar del Rio.<br/><br/>Specimens have been examined and recorded within the Pinar del Rio; Gulf of Mexico drainages of Rio San Vicente, Viñales and Baños de San Vicente; Rio Rosario, Mina Constancia, Viñales; Rio Guacamayos, South of Concolacion del Norte; Rio Las Pozas, Cacarajícara. Caribbean drainages of the Rio Cuyaguateje, Sumidero and Guane; Rio Los Portales; Rio San Diego, Caiguanabo and San Diego de los Baños; Rio Taco Taco; Rio San Cristóbal, San Cristóbal (Johnson 1981).<br/><br/>The estimated extent of occurrence of this species is 11,050 km<sup>2</sup>.
189134		habitat	eng	This species is present in mountainous streams and rivers (Johnson 1981).
189134		population	eng	This species is thought to be not particularly abundant, although this is based on shell records in museum collections (Johnson 1981). It has been described as scarce in a recent review of endemic freshwater molluscs of Cuba (Perrera and Valderrama 2010).
189134		threats	eng	There is no specific threat information available for this species, although it is likely that this species is being impacted upon by general freshwater threats within this region, which have been described as introduction of exotic species and habitat loss due to human activity (urban development and associated pollution, changes to water courses; Perrera and Valderrama 2010).
189135		conservation	eng	This species has a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G3 - Vulnerable. There are currently no known conservation actions in place for this species
189135		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the middle and upper peninsula of Florida (Hershler 2001) including the lower half of the St. Johns River system and Withlacoochee River system south to Tampa Bay and the Orlando area; and also farther south in Lake Okeechobee (Johnson 1973). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189135		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers in Florida, as well as in Lake Okeechobee (Johnson 1973).
189135		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189135		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species
189136		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009).
189136		distribution	eng	Hubendick (1951) describes this species as having a circum-Caribbean distribution, as well as being found in lower California. Although the type locality is Cuba, it is also distributed in the Antilles, Venezuela and the south of the United States (Pointier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), from Florida to southern Texas (Burch 1989). It also occurs in Mexico, Guatemala and the West Indies (Thompson 2008).
189136		habitat	eng	This amphibious species occurs typically in muddy soils, attached to the aquatic vegetation as well as to stones, dry leaves, etc. It is amphibious and can be found in grazing lands in high densities (Pointier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
189136		population	eng	This species can be found in high densities (Pointier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). There are likely millions of individuals worldwide.
189136		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, though it may be locally threatened by habitat degradation and loss, disease and competition.
189137		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - apparently secure (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (1 Jan 1993) (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>There are no species-specific global conservation measures in place for this species, however, on a local level there are some state-wide conservation projects, and in places its distribution coincides with protected areas (MN Department of Natural Resources 2009). In Kansas, this species is protected by the Kansas Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation Act (KDWP 2009). A ten-year statewide mussel survey initiated by the Minnesota DNR in 1999 resulted in a better understanding of this species' ecology and current status in Minnesota (MN Department of Natural Resources 2009). Protected areas designated within this species range, accompanied with appropriate national policies, will ensure the species long-term survival.
189137		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. NatureServe (2009) have classified it as Critically Imperilled in Kansas, Minnesota, South Dakota and Wisconsin, and Possibly Extirpated in Ohio.<br/><br/>The historical range of this species includes the Mississippi River and its tributaries, as well as Gulf coastal rivers from the Colorado River in Texas east to the Mobile River System in Alabama (Roe 2002).
189137		habitat	eng	Clarke (1981, quoting Baker 1928) found this species to occur in sand or mud substrate in large rivers with a rapid current and a depth of approximately one metre. However, Parmalee and Bogan (1998) found this species in mud and sand bottom pools in medium to large rivers in standing or slow flowing water, stating it to be a species typical of large lowland streams with little or no flow and a substrate of mud or fine sand .<br/><br/>Fuller (1974) gives the following fishes as hosts for this species: American Eel (<em>Anguilla rostrata</em>); Gizzard Shad (<em>Dorosoma cepedianum</em>); Rock Bass (<em>Ambloplites rupestris</em>); White Crappie (<em>Pomoxis annularis</em>); and Freshwater Drum (<em>Aplodinotus grunniens</em>).
189137		population	eng	No estimates of population size or abundance have been made for this species (NatureServe 2009).&#160;However, Roe (2002) states that this species appears to be maintaining stable populations, albeit with low numbers of individuals throughout its range. Although it has become extirpated from at least one state and may be declining in others, there is little data to show that it has markedly declined (>10%) throughout its wide range as other populations (Tennessee, Minnesota) have even shown some recent expansion (NatureServe 2009).
189137		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189138		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the population size and habitat preferences of this species.
189138		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amazon region, in Brazil, Peru and potentially in Colombia (Baker 1913, Haas 1969, Paredes <em>et al</em>. 1999, Borrero 2007), although the Colombian record is highly questionable (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,073,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Some specimens have been collected in the Rio Tapajoz (Baker 1913), while it is also known in the Amazon, Orinoco and Essequibo drainages (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010). It is also found in Venezuela and Guyana  (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011).
189138		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189138		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189138		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Mercury pollution from gold mining, untreated sewage and the diversion of waterways due to road and dam construction are potential threats to this species in the Amazon River and its tributaries (WWF 2009).
189139		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.  Further research into the population demographics and possible threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189139		distribution	eng	This species is present in most of Europe and across the Russian Federation, except the far north east (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009). The type locality for this species is in the Myshega River, Kaluga, Russian Federation (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009).
189139		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and rivers (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor<em> et al.</em> 2009).
189139		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189139		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting the global population of this species.
189140		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189140		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Philippines and Fiji (Systax 2009).
189140		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuarine to marine habitats.
189140		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189140		threats	eng	It is highly unlikely that this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189141		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the distribution, population demographics, habitat and threats is suggested as these data are lacking.
189141		distribution	eng	This species is known from China, including Mayang Miao Autonomous County and Jishou city in Hunan, Tongren city and Jiangkou county, Guizhou County and Songtao Miao Autonomous County (Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) 2009).
189141		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189141		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189141		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189142		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its distribution does coincide with Shikahogh State Reserve (Shikahogh State Reserve 2009), and Lake Sevan is on the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance (Jenderedjian 2004). Further research is recommended to determine to what extent this species is being impacted by threat processes, and to provide an estimation of abundance.
189142		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Armenia, occurring in the Lake Sevan Basin, the Araks basin and the lower Kura river (Kachvoryan <em>et al</em>. 2008, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189142		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and rivers in steppe grasslands (ECE 2000).
189142		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189142		threats	eng	Nearly all of the wetland areas of Armenia are under threat. Most are crossed with drainage canals or drainage pipes, and dams and reservoirs regulate the flow of many rivers. The estimated area of wetland loss in Armenia is 40,000 ha, and the main reason of draining the wetlands is land reclamation for agricultural and urban development. There is an increased sedimentation load from soil erosion and deforestation, and waterways suffer pollution due to the discharge of domestic sewage, agricultural run-off and industrial pollutants. This pollution increases the organic loading of the wetlands, which in turn leads to a decrease in the oxygen concentration of the water. There are many uncontrolled freshwater fisheries in Armenia, and invasive species such as the Crucian Carp and the Muskrat are having a negative impact on the endemic wildlife (Jenderedjian 2004). It is likely that some or all of these threats are having an impact on this species.
189143		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population trends and potential threats of this species.
189143		distribution	eng	This species is known from the river sediments near Lyaur village, Dangarinsky region, in Tajikistan, however it was only known from empty shells (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). This species is also known from the Aral Sea, but has not been collected since 1992 (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010).
189143		habitat	eng	This species was found on a range of substrates and has been recorded to a depth of 21 m in the Aral Sea (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010).
189143		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189143		threats	eng	In the Aral Sea, there have been a number of floristic and faunal changes owing to an increase in salinity as a result of reduced freshwater inflow. However, the extent of these impacts on the global population currently remains unknown.
189144		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Surveys are needed to establish the contemporary existence of this species, while subsequent reseach on its abundance, distribution, life history and ecology, and threats is recommended.
189144		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from Amboyna, Indonesia (Tenison-Woods 1888).
189144		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown freshwater habitat (Tenison-Woods 1888).
189144		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens collected in the 19th century (Tenison-Woods 1888).
189144		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189145		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size, distribution and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Also, the impacts of the potential threats to this species needs to be investigated.
189145		distribution	eng	This species has a small distribution and is known from several sites in Tasmania, in tributaries of the Gawler River (Ponder and Avern 2000). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189145		habitat	eng	This species has been found in rivers, on leaves and stones (Ponder and Avern 2000).
189145		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189145		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.&#160;However, it is likely that this species is being impacted to some degree by habitat degradation through land clearing for human development, and forestry and agricultural activities.
189146		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189146		distribution	eng	As the family of Baicaliidae is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation, it is inferred that this species is also endemic to this area (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2001).
189146		habitat	eng	This species is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
189146		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189146		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189147		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189147		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Puerto Rico, the Turks and Caicos Islands, Inagua, Cat, and Crooked Islands in the Bahamas, and the Virgin Islands. It has also been introduced to Canada and the US (Keller <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>In Brazil it is known from the states of Minas Gerais (de Souza <em>et al. </em>1998), Sao Paulo (Correa <em>et al. </em>1970), Bahia (Paraense 1986), Rio de Janeiro (Thiengo <em>et al. </em>2001, 2002, 2004), Santa Catarina Island, Acre, Amazonas, Brasilia Distrito Federal, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pará and Paraná (Paraense 1983).<br/><br/>In Argentina, it occurs in the states of Corrientes, Chaco, Misiones, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, and the Paraná River basin (which also runs through Brazil and Paraguay) (De Zozaya and Neiff 1991, Rumi <em>et al. </em>2002, Paraense 2005). It is also known from the Rio de la Plata river and Martin Garcia island (Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>In Venezuela, the species has been recorded from the Lake Valencia basin (Amarista <em>et al. </em>2001), while in Mexico, it was recorded in Quintana Roo state in the Yucatan Peninsula (Naranjo-Garcia 2003).<br/><br/>It is also known from ponds in the Grand-Terre region of Guadeloupe (Pointier and David 2003). In Haiti, it was recorded in Lake Miragoane in the southwest of the island (Eyerdam 1961).
189147		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, lakes and marshes, including human-modified habitats (e.g., drainage ditches). It preferes silty substrates with high temperatures and low pH (Amarista <em>et al. </em>2001). It associates with water plants, including <em>Paspalum </em>spp. and <em>Alternanthera philoxeroides</em>, and reaches highest population densities directly after the rainy season in Brazil (Bueno-Silva and Fischer 2005). In the Dique do Tororó, an urban lake in Salvador, Brazil, it has persisted since 1853 when it was first recorded (Paraense 1986).&#160;This species is an intermediate host of trematode worms (Bueno-Silva and Fischer 2005).
189147		population	eng	This species has declined in urban lakes in Brazil and Venezuela, due to modification, eutrophication, and the introduction of invasive predatory fish such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia</span> (Paraense 1986, Amarista <em>et al. </em>2001). It seems to be rare wherever it occurs, making up a small proportion of the overall mollusc diversity (e.g., De Zozaya and Neiff 1991, Pointier and David 2003). However, it is common and widespread elsewhere in Brazil, particularly in Paraná and Rio de Janeiro (Thiengo <em>et al. </em>2004, Bueno-Silva and Fischer 2005).
189147		threats	eng	This species is often found in human-influenced habitats and can tolerate a certain level of pollution; for example, it was recorded in healthy numbers in a pond in the city of Resistencia, Argentina, which is used for sewage dumping by the local residents (Rumi <em>et al. </em>2002).
189148		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the current population size and distribution of this species, as well as the potential impacts of threats such as siltation, pollution and introduced species.
189148		distribution	eng	This species is known from a number of sites across Victoria, Australia. These include the Yan Yean Reservoir, Port Fairy, Fall’s Creek Reservoir, Mount Baw Baw, Bangholme (Tarraville), Blackburn Lake and Studley Park (Gabriel 1939). It is also known from southern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Kangaroo Island and Tasmania (Korniushin 2000).
189148		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology data available for this species.
189148		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189148		threats	eng	Many streams and rivers in Australia are threatened by siltation and changes in water quality as a result of disturbance and land clearing for agriculture, mining, forestry and urban development (Ponder 1997). Pollution from urban, agricultural and mining activities is also a problem and dams and other forms of water management have the potential to seriously impact invertebrate populations (Ponder 1997). Introduced fishes including brown and rainbow trout, which feed on a wide variety of invertebrates, including molluscs, may also pose a threat (Ponder 1997). However, it is not known what effect any of these threats may be having on this species.
189149		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.The Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use programme (MWBCSP) attempted to coordinate the management of the Mekong river, as well as supporting sustainable livelihoods (MWBCSP 2005). Also the Mekong River Commission was created in 1995, bringing together the Cambodian, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thai and Vietnamese governments (MRC 2010). This was to promote poverty alleviation, highlight the need for sustainable development, enhance the economic potential of the river and co-operate in its management (MRC 2010). In 1996, China and Myanmar joined as 'Dialogue Partners' (MRC 2010). Goals of the MRC include impact assessments and environmental monitoring (MRC 2010). Further research is recommended into this species' population status and the impact of threats.
189149		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, Lao People's Republic and Viet Nam (Brandt 1974). Specifically, it is found in the Mekong river between Nakon Panom and Kratie, as well as many tributaries (Brandt 1974).
189149		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Brandt 1974).The current distribution of this species suggests that the species is adapted to certain river flow regimes, which will be affected by the damming near Champasak. This will affect the populations both upstream and downstream due to flooding, sedimentation and changes in flow (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189149		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189149		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189150		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research regarding population trends, habitat and the impact of threats is necessary.
189150		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Tilopozo, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 16,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189150		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189150		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189150		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189151		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is necessary to establish population size and ecology, and clarify the taxonomy of this species.
189151		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Amazon and Paraná Basins, from Columbia south to Uruguay including Peru (Simone 1997, Paredes <em>et al.</em> 1999, Callil and Mansur 2005).
189151		habitat	eng	This species has been found to inhabit lakes with slow currents (Simone 1997, Pimpão <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is found in the shallow waters near the surface of muddy and sandy substratum (Simone 1997).
189151		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however Simone (1997) considered it to be a rare species.
189151		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189152		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has only recently been described and further research is needed to establish its geographic range and population size, as well as the potential impact of threats such as siltation, pollution and introduced species.
189152		distribution	eng	This species occurs across the western slope of the Great Dividing Range, northeastern New South Wales, Australia (Korniushin 2000). It was recorded from five localities in New South Wales, with a total range of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189152		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks and is usually found in fast-flowing water with thick vegetation (Korniushin 2000).
189152		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189152		threats	eng	Many streams and rivers in Australia are threatened by siltation and changes in water quality as a result of disturbance and land clearing for agriculture, mining, forestry and urban development (Ponder 1997). Pollution from urban, agricultural and mining activities is also a problem, and dams and other forms of water management have the potential to seriously impact invertebrate populations (Ponder 1997). Introduced fishes including brown and rainbow trout, which feed on a wide variety of invertebrates including molluscs, may also pose a threat (Ponder 1997). However, it is not known what effect any of these threats are having on this species.
189153		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution of this species, as this basic information is currently not known for this species.
189153		distribution	eng	This species is reported from West Lake, Cape Sable, Florida, where it was described as a recent species from a bone specimen (Pilsbry 1950). At present, the species has not been recorded from live specimens in the region, although shells are common in a Pliocene road near the lake (Thompson 1968).
189153		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189153		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189153		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189154		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189154		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Irkutsk Region and the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189154		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of between 10 and 120 metres in the north basin of Lake Baikal, on sandy or silty substrata (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004, Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189154		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for this species, but it is considered to be widespread throughout the lake.
189154		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. However, at present the species is considered to be widespread and is not thought to be significantly affected by these threats<br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake from increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al</em>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189155		conservation	eng	The 'Ordinance for Appropriate Leisure Use of Lake Biwa' (2002) and the 'Mother Lake 21 Plan' (2000) were set in place by the Japanese government to tackle the threats to Lake Biwa (Kira<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). Further research is required on taxonomy, population trends and ecology, and threats to this species, in order to inform future Red List assessments, given its restricted range and the various threats this species may be facing. Population monitoring is suggested to prevent population changes going unnoticed.
189155		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the water system of Lake Biwa and tributaries (Kondo 2008). <br/><br/>Kihira (1984) collected this species in Lake Yogo, Lake Biwa and small ponds from the riverside of the Yodo River (so-called "Wando") and reported that this species is rare, except in two ponds in Kuzuha, Hirakata City, Osaka Prefecture. However, Kuroda and Habe (1987) state that these ponds have dried up completely, due to a decline in water level from dredging of the river and main stream of the Yodo River.
189155		habitat	eng	This species is listed to be present in 'Wando' (riverside pools) of Yodo-gawa, which is a key habitat for this species; pools called "Shirokita Wando-gun" are of particular importance (The Ministry of the Environment, Japan. 2002). Fukuhara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1987) suggested the species lives in deeper parts of ponds in  the riverbed of the Yodo River than do the much more common Sinanodonta woodiana.
189155		population	eng	This species has an estimated generation time of 6.3 years, based on the assumption of a stable age distribution (Kihira and Kondo 1999). Kondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1996) suggested that this species is semelparous. Kondo (1987) classified this species as a summer breeder, based on the release of glochidia when water temperature is either above or below 10° C; since water temperature usually exceeds 10° C in April, this qualifies this species as a summer breeder. In gravid females observed from February to August, glochidia was discharged from April to August, predominantly in May (Fukuhara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Kondo 2008). Females begin brooding eggs (76,000 to  1,210,000) in outer gills in February in Hirakata City, Osaka (type locality  pond). Host fish is the goby, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinogobius brunneus</span> (Kondo 2008).
189155		threats	eng	Dredging of riverside ponds is a threat to this species as stated by Kuroda and Habe (1987) in regards to this species' distribution on riverside ponds of the Yodo River. There is a history of water quality degradation and eutrophication in Lake Biwa from fisheries damage, agro-chemicals, as well as lake conversion to farmland (Kira <span style="font-style: italic;">et a</span>l. 2006). Current environmental issues in and around Lake Biwa include the problem of invasive species, improved accessibility (resulting in increasing human pressure on the lake ecosystem including littering, and fish lines etc.), increased noise pollution in and around the lake due to an increase in personal watercraft, water pollution (including gas emissions from watercraft) and environmental impacts on beaches of the lake (Kira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189156		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189156		distribution	eng	This species is present in the United States of America in Alabama, Arkansas, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin (NatureServe 2009). It is also present in Ontario, Canada and possibly into Mexico (NatureServe 2009). Its extent of occurrence is well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189156		habitat	eng	This species can tolerate most conditions, but prefers muddy sand in moderate current or in reservoirs (Heard 1979). It inhabits shallow banks, pools and drainage canals, where it can become numerous (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). The green sunfish<em> Lepomis cyanellus</em>, the creek chub <em>Semotilus atromaculatus</em>, western mosquitofish <em>Gambusia affinis</em>, warmouth <em>Lepomis gulosus</em>, blue-gill<em> Lepomis macrochirus</em> and dollar sunfish <em>Lepomis marginatus</em>, banded killifish <em>Fundulus diaphanus</em>, largemouth bass <em>Micropterus salmoides</em>, pumpkinseed <em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>, rockbass <em>Ambloplites rupestris</em> and yellow perch <em>Perca flavescens</em> are host fish (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189156		population	eng	This species is stable with no apparent decline in population (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Brim Box and Williams 2000). As it persists in large numbers, for example in groups of over 1,000 individuals, it is not thought to be in decline (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Brim Box and Williams 2000). It has even been thought to have increased due to impoundments and sport fishing (Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008).
189156		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting this species at a global level.
189157		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189157		distribution	eng	This species is known from east and west coast drainages of New Caledonia, where it is endemic (Haase and Bouchet 1998). It is known from twelve sites, however all recorded localities within the Goipin area are very close together (within the same km<sup>2</sup>; Haase and Bouchet 1998). We therefore assume the number of locations for this species to be less than ten. This species is reported to have an extent of occurrence of <5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of <10 km<sup>2</sup> (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189157		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from seepages, small creeks, and ditches (Haase and Bouchet 1998). It is inferred to be able to adapt to altered habitats because of its occurrence at two sites, a micro-dam and a plantation (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010)
189157		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189157		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, land clearance for agriculture, forest clearing, and trampling by cattle are thought to pose the main threats to this species (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). The drying of springs and creeks has been reported, and may be due to changes in vegetation cover due to land clearance and fires (Haase and Bouchet 1998). The restricted distribution of this species to New Caledonia island makes it more vulnerable to the above threat processes.
189158		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' population status, life history patterns and threats.
189158		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Hunan, China (Davis<em></em> 1992).
189158		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189158		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189158		threats	eng	The inland waters of China have been adversely effected by many threats including; habitat loss, modification and fragmentation; introduction of exotic species; overfishing; degradation of biodiversity through accelerated eutrophication (Xie and Chen 1999).
189159		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189159		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Baikal, Russian Federation (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189159		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes at depths of 3-20 m, and is mostly found on the shells of <span style="font-style: italic;">Benedictia</span> species (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189159		population	eng	This species is common in Lake Baikal, with up to 111 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Shirokaya 2004).
189159		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189160		conservation	eng	No widespread conservation actions have been undertaken for this species. Further research on taxonomy, population trends, ecology and threats will help elicit this species' status. National and site protection is needed for this species, including legislation to ensure enforcement.
189160		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Hopton, near Darien, Mclntosh Co., Georgia, on the Altamaha River drainage near the ocean. Davis and Mulvey (1993) cite only the Donora Station and Upper Three Runs sites on the Mill Creek in South Carolina.  Populations are also still extant in Canoochee Creek (Ogeechee River system) (four of eight sites surveyed), in Georgia (Sukkestad <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189160		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small freshwater creeks (Davis and Mulvey 1993).
189160		population	eng	Davis and Mulvey (1993) cite only the Donora Station and Upper Three Runs sites on the Mill Creek (Middle Savannah drainage) in South Carolina.&#160; Populations are still extant in Canoochee Creek (Ogeechee River system) (four of eight sites surveyed) (Sukkestad <em>et al.</em> 2006) and in the Altamaha River, Georgia (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010). No population data is available.
189160		threats	eng	Threats likely to be impacting this species include pollution to freshwater river systems from domestic, urban, industrial and agricultural sources (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
189161		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189161		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along much of Malaysia's west coast (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967); throughout the mangroves of Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005, Dumrongrojwattana <em>et al</em>. 2007, Printrakoon <em>et al</em>. 2008) and Hong Kong (Walthew 1995); and also in the Australian states of Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queensland (DEWHA 2009). This species is likely to also be distributed in other areas of southeast Asia and Indonesia.
189161		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove swamps, occupying the mud among tree roots and decaying vegetation about 1 m below the level of the highest tide. This species occasionally ventures further onto bare mud and the lower roots and stems of mangrove trees. The egg masses of this genus are found on moist, dead wood in the mangrove swamp (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967).
189161		population	eng	This species has been described as common and occurs in high numbers in both Thailand and Malaysia (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967, Sasekumar and Chong 1998, Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189161		threats	eng	Mangrove ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). <br/><br/>Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189162		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population size, ecology and distribution of  this species is suggested, as these data are currently lacking.  Investigations into the possible threats to this species are also  necessary.
189162		distribution	eng	This species is known from Ancud, Chiloe Island, Los Lagos, Chile (Sielfeld 2001). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 8,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189162		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189162		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189162		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189163		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Futher research is recommended regarding the population status, trends, life history and threat processes impacting this species.
189163		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from its type locality only; a spring near Vannovka village in Chimkent Region, Kazakhstan (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189163		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in springs (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189163		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189163		threats	eng	The waterways within the Chimkent region of Kazakhstan have been found to contain chemical fertilisers and high concentration of harmful components from heavy metals, carcinogens and harmful bacteria. These pollutants occur due to unrestrained use of mineral fertilisers on the soil, and have resulted in water that is unfit for domestic use (Lipovsky 1995). This species' habitat may possibly be affected by irrigation works in this arid zone of Southern Kazakhstan (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
189164		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is recommended into this species' taxonomy, current distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
189164		distribution	eng	This species was described by Deshayes and Julien 1876, from a specific locality in the Mekong, 'I'lle Ca-Lgniou' which is possibly an old French colonial name for an island in the river.
189164		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189164		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189164		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189165		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the relationship between this species and <em>H. musaensis </em>which will have implications for this species' range extent.
189165		distribution	eng	This species is known from Saudi Arabia (Al-safadi 1990). In the Arabian peninsula, it is not known south of Al-Hufuf (Krupp and Mahnert 1998). Brown (1994) suggested this species may be synonymous with <em>H. musaensis</em> (Montagu, 1803) which is distributed in lower Egypt and Sinai. Further work is needed to clarify the relationship between these two taxa.
189165		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent freshwater bodies (Al-safadi 1990, Brown 1994).
189165		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189165		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189167		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however in parts of its range its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into population status and trends of this species may be beneficial in establishing a baseline against which to evaluate any future population changes.
189167		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean and the tropical western Pacific, from Myanmar and the Andaman Sea to Papua New Guinea; including Thailand, southern Viet Nam, China, Indonesia and Singapore. The species may also occur in the Philippines, and the Australian states of Northern Territory and Queensland (FAO 1998, DEWHA 2009, Tan <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189167		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mud flats with vegetation, nipa palm and mangrove swamps and muddy banks of estuaries. The maximum shell length is 10 cm, but specimens are most commonly found at 7.5 cm (FAO 1998).<br/><br/>In Indonesia this species is traditionally used as food by villagers (FAO 1998).
189167		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189167		threats	eng	Mangrove and estuarine ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting this species, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189168		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, habitat and potential threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189168		distribution	eng	Due to the taxonomic difficulties  the distribution of this species is uncertain. Authors refer to the distribution as Hainan, China and the Philippines, but this remains uncertain (Golding <em>et al.</em> 2007, Hubendick 1945).
189168		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mud flats and mangroves (F. Kohler pers. comm. 2010).
189168		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189168		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189169		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Specifically, findings of live specimens will prove that this species is still extant.
189169		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Vakh River in Tajikistan (Izzatullaev 1973 and Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). The species is known from this type locality only. It is possible, however, that the species also occurs outside Tajikistan, in Afghanistan (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189169		habitat	eng	The true habitat of this species is unknown since only empty shells were found in the bank sediments of the Vakhsh River in Tajikistan. It is possible that the species also occurs outside Tajikistan, in Afghanistan (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189169		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189169		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189170		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' population abundance, exact distribution, ecology and threats.
189170		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across the Indo-west Pacific between the Indo-Malay archipelago and Japan (T. von Rintelen pers. comm. 2010). In absence of a modern, more comprehensive revision of this group, the precise distribution of this species is unknown.
189170		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown fluvial habitat (Goodrich 1936). The majority of this habitat is bordered by riparian vegetation in upper courses with limited anthropogenic modification in lower courses. Ontogenic shifts in morphology from near the source to mouth of the Lilimbon River have been observed (Goodrich 1936). This species has planktonic marine larvae (F. Koehler pers. comm. 2011).
189170		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189170		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189171		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is recommended that the spring in which the species occurs gains a level of protection and monitoring of population numbers is needed.
189171		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the type locality Vallée des Palmiers, Ouéhat, Koumac, in the north of New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km² and its area of occupancy is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
189171		habitat	eng	This species was collected in a spring (Haase and Bouchet 1998). There are very few springs in this area, so that it is unlikely that this species' distribution is wider than is currently known (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189171		population	eng	This species is rare at its type locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010)
189171		threats	eng	Bushfires are a very serious problem in the area where this species occurs (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2011). The regional forest cover is highly degraded in northern North Caledonia. Cattle trampling, land clearance for human development and habitat degradation are all plausible threats affecting this species (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189172		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number  of protected areas. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189172		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the West Indies and Central America (Thompson 1999).  In North America, it is distributed in parts of Florida, Louisiana and Texas, Arizona, and Mexico (Burch 1989). It is also known from Cuba, but only from Havana (Pointier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), Puerto Rico (Burch 1989) the Dominican Republic (Malek, 1969) and Venezuela (Yong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
189172		habitat	eng	&#160;This species occurs in freshwater river systems and lakes and shows tolerance to a broad range of habitats including commercial channel catfish ponds, (Yost <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) as a result of its ability to serve as an intermediate trematode host.
189172		population	eng	This species is abundant, particularly in the southern United States and Mexico (Yong et al. 2001).
189172		threats	eng	This species occurs in a number  of protected areas and shows tolerance to a broad range of habitats and  to a certain degree of habitat modification. There are no immediate threats and this species  is not declining in numbers or is unlikely to be declining at a fast  enough rate to impact the global population of this species.
189173		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, a National Status Rank for the US of N5 - Secure, a State/Province Status Rank of S5 - Secure for North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia, and has not yet been assessed for West Virginia and Georgia (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189173		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge mountains in the southeastern U.S., ranging from Virginia (north of the Roanoke River) through eastern Tennessee and the Carolinas to western Georgia (Dillon and Robinson 2008), on both sides of the eastern Continental Divide (Dillon and Keferl 2000).  Burch (1989), like Goodrich (1942), cites highlands of North and South Carolina but notes it may be a composite group with those in the Atlantic drainage having been derived from <span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetrica</span> and those in the Tennessee drainage from <span style="font-style: italic;">E. simplex</span>.  Dillon and Robinson (2008) argue that it represents a living fossil left relictually from the Paleozoic uplift of the Appalachians. Its estimated extent of occurrence is in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189173		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small, rapidly flowing streams (Dillon and Keferl 2000).
189173		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for this species, but it is currently considered to be stable (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
189173		threats	eng	There are no significant threats currently impacting the global population of this species.
189174		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to ascertain the population trends and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189174		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern and central Baikal, with a type locality of Kultuk (southern Baikal) (Sitnikova <em>et al.</em> 2004 <em>in</em> Kantor <em>et al.,</em> 2009). This species was originally collected in Kultuk in 1869, but there is only one sample of shells determined by Westerlund as <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata bathybia</span> from the nothern part of Western Siberia. This sample was collected in 1895 and to date is the only record for this species outside Lake Baikal. Most probably, this record is based on misidentification, however, the true identity of these shells should be checked (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189174		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lakes and rivers with oxygenated sandy-mud with small portion of pebbles or little stones at 50-400 m (Stiknikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189174		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189174		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189175		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding population trends and threats impacting this species.
189175		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is a lake on the Oblom Cape (eastern coast of Lake Baikal). This species is found in Cisbaikalia, south Central Siberia, and the Kolyma River basin (within the Arctic Circle) (Kantor<em> et al.</em>&#160;2009).
189175		habitat	eng	This species is reported from lakes in central and eastern Russia (Kantor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2009).
189175		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189175		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species. However, given the wide distribution of this species, it is unlikely  that its global population will be significantly affected by the  presence of more localised threat processes.
189176		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the correct taxonomy of this species, its abundance, distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189176		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Urao in Venezuela (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189176		habitat	eng	The type specimen of this species was collected from a freshwater lake (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). This genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers (G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010). This genus lays its eggs above the water line&#160;(G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010).
189176		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189176		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189177		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ distribution falls within Mount Cole State Forest (State of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2004). Further research is required to establish the species' population size and to identify potential threats.
189177		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Victoria, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from a single location, a few small streams on Mount Cole (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species' extent of occurrence is approximately 450 km².
189177		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and is usually found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189177		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be locally abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189177		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species’ distribution falls within Mount Cole State Forest (State of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2004), which might offer some protection to this species’ habitat. However, state-regulated timber harvesting activities take place throughout Victoria’s State forests (State of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009), although forest clearance rarely occurs up to the creek edge (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189178		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of population and habitat trends should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189178		distribution	eng	This species is found across the Indo-Pacific region (Haynes 1988). Specifically it is known from Peninsular Malaysia, in the Nagura Estuary, Ishigaki Island of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan, the Segara Anakan lagoon on Java, Indonesia and Dingo Beach, Nellie Bay and Champagne Bay, north of Prosperine, Queensland, Australia (Purchon and Purchon 1981, Gardner <em>et al.</em> 1995, Ohgaki and Kosuge 2005, Nordhaus <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is also recorded on Mindanao and Cebu Islands of the Philippines, Singapore, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Guam, Samoa, American Samoa, Cook Islands and Tahiti in French Polynesia (Haynes 1988, Haynes 1990, Smith 2003, Borra 2006, Tan and Clements 2008). Recently this species was noted on Lung Mei Beach, Hong Kong (Halcrow China Ltd. 2008). Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> (2005) have recorded this species from Klong Wat Ta-le, Ban Mae Nam and Ban La Mai, both of the Ko Samui district, Thailand.
189178		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters on sandy shores covered by a thin film of mud, muddy substrates or on mangroves, seagrass, rocks, coral and shells (Cowie 1998, Purchon and Purchon 1981, Gardner <em>et al.</em> 1995, Ohgaki and Kosuge 2005, Tan and Clements 2008). This species can also be found in drains and canals near the sea (Tan and Clements 2008). They were also found in streams and lagoons (Haynes 1990, Nordhaus <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189178		population	eng	This species is described as common in Thailand, Malaysia, Australia and Singapore (Dye and Lasiak 1987, Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tan and Kastoro 2004, Tan and Clements 2008).
189178		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however, the shell of this species is sold in an online shop at www.australiaseashells.com (Australianseashells.com 2009). It has been noted that this species is impacted by habitat degradation in Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005) and also could be affected by climate change in the future, as it is present on small Pacific island .
189179		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into this species' taxonomy, full distribution, population abundance and biology is recommended.
189179		distribution	eng	This species was described from the Cetina River in southern Croatia.&#160; <br/><br/>There are records in the literature from the Ukraine, Germany, Sweden and France (Jackiewicz and von Proschwitz 1991, Jackiewicz 1998, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009), however the identity of these records is uncertain, as the species is not currently recognised as existing in France (see Gargimony et al, 2011), Ukraine or Russia (Kantor et al, 2010).
189179		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species, but it has been found in the Cetina River in southern Croatia.
189179		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
189179		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189180		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance and threat processes.
189180		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is the Tibetan plateau or north side of Sikkim Himalaya, at 5,480 m elevation (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Its current distribution encompasses eastern Central Asia, Nepal, eastern Kazakhstan, southeast Russia, and northeast China. In Nepal, the species is known from the Mustang District, in the upper Kali Gandaki watershed. In Russia, it is known from Transbaikalia, the Altay region, the Amur drainage including Khanka Lake, and southern Primorski (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is likely to also occur in other regions across China and possibly India.
189180		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams, rivers and lakes (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).&#160;In Nepal, it inhabits the fine dark brown mud of slow-running stretches of streams within acidophilic <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncaceous</span> vegetation. It is often found along side <em>Galba truncatula</em> and <em>Pisidium kuiperi</em> at 2,700 m above sea level (Nesemann and Sharma 2005).
189180		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189180		threats	eng	Although not much is known about this species, it is unlikely that any major threats are significantly affecting it across its large range.
189181		conservation	eng	Lake Titicaca was made a Ramsar site in January 1997 for the Peruvian section and in August 1998 for the Bolivian section (Ramsar 2000). It covers 8,300 km<sup>2</sup> and was designated a UNESCO site in 2005 (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2010). Further research into the population status and threats to this species is recommended, and monitoring of the population and its habitat would be beneficial.
189181		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be endemic to Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia and Peru (Dejoux 1991), which has an area of approximately 8,300 km².
189181		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lakes, at between 5 and 13 m depth (Dejoux 1991).
189181		population	eng	This species is described as rare (Dejoux 1991).
189181		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by a globally invasive species, <em>Physa acuta</em>, which has recently been observed in Lake Titicaca (Albrecht <em>et al.</em> 2009). There is a suggestion that pollution may be degrading the water quality of Lake Titicaca. High mercury levels present in the fish in Lake Titicaca could be a result of gold mining in the tributary River Ramis' watershed (Gammons <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, it is not known what effect these threats are having on this species.
189182		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189182		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189182		habitat	eng	This species has been found at depths of 15 to 120 metres (as <span style="font-style: italic;">G. w. wrzesniowskii</span>), 15 to 25 metres (as<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. w. profunda</span>) and 20 to 40 metres (as<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. w. olchonensis</span>) in the south basin of Lake Baikal, on sandy substrata (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004, Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
189182		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189182		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al. </em>1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189183		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further work is needed on its population size and trends, and clarification of the distribution of this species would be useful.
189183		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Australia in the following drainage basins: Avon Wheatbelt (AW), Esperance Plains (ESP), Geraldton Sandplains (GS), Jarrah Forest (JF), Mallee (MAL), Swan Coastal Plain (SWA), Warren (WAR), Yalgoo (YAL) (ABRS 2009).
189183		habitat	eng	This species inhabits inland salt lakes (Davis 1979, S. Clark pers. comm. 2010), and can tolerate salinities of 45 to 75 %<sub>o</sub> (Hammer 1986).
189183		population	eng	This species' abundance was rated as "uncommon to moderately common" in three lakes in Western Australia (Halse 1981). This species is usually common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189183		threats	eng	This species may be negatively impacted by an increase in salinity levels of its preferred habitat (Jones <em>et al. </em>2009). This species may be positively affected by land clearance/rising water table which results in increased salinization of previously freshwater streams (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189184		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution falls within a national park. Further research is recommended in order to ascertain the distribution, ecology and possible threats to this species and to monitor the existing populations.
189184		distribution	eng	This species has been collected in the tributaries of Dismal Creek and the Olga River, Tasmania (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is likely to occur in other similar habitat nearby (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is approximately 600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189184		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in Dismal Creek and the Olga River, as well as small swampy streams within button grass and scrub (Ponder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).
189184		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189184		threats	eng	The locality of this species falls within a national park and therefore it is unlikely that it is being threatened at a global scale (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189186		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species and the possible threat processes affecting it.
189186		distribution	eng	This species is native to Patagonia. Its type locality is known as Cerro Observación near “Cañadón de las Vacas”, which is south of the mouth of the Santa Cruz River, in Santa Cruz Province, Argentina (Ituarte 1996). It has also been found in Isla Gable, Tierra del Fuego and Laguna Verde, Cerro Chapelco, San Martin de los Andes in the province of Neuquén (Ituarte 1995; 1996). Within Chile, this species is known from the Twelfth region, Magellanes (Parada and Peredo 2002).
189186		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lagoons and at the mouth of a river (Ituarte 1995).
189186		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189186		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threat processes. Within South America generally, freshwater ecosystems are heavily  affected by habitat degradation and destruction. Habitat alteration is  often a result of rapid population growth and urbanisation. A lot of  wetlands are currently being converted to rice fields, ground water is  being extracted, and coastal wetlands are being used for shrimp farming.  Dams and channelization are major threats facing freshwater systems in  the area. There are over 885 dams over 15 m high, resulting in dramatic  changes to the hydrological regime of surrounding water systems (Castro  and Parcells 1996).&#160;Without further information, it is not known which, if any, of these threats are affecting this species. Nothing is known of its tolerance to pollution, and alterations to its habitat. It is also possible that the areas this species inhabits are currently unaffected by the threat processes outlined above.
189187		conservation	eng	This species (under genus <em>Paludinella</em>) is listed as Vulnerable in the Japan Red Data Book (2007). Further work is needed on its taxonomy, population size, trend, distribution, ecology and threats before an accurate assessment can be made.
189187		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Japan (Japan Red Data Book 2007).
189187		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown.
189187		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
189187		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189188		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Barrington Tops, a forest reserve, was made a World Heritage Centre in 1986 (NSW Government 2009). The Alpine National Park was formed in 1989 (Mason 2009). The Blue Lake was made a Ramsar site in 1996 and is also part of the Kosciuzsko National Park (NSW Government 2009). Further research into the threats this species may face is suggested, as these data are lacking.
189188		distribution	eng	This species is known from many sites in upland areas of Australia in the states of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania (Ponder 1986, Hancock <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ponder and Avern 2000).&#160; Specifically it is known from Terrace Creek, Jenolan State Forest in the Great Dividing Range, west of Sydney in New South Wales (Ponder 1986). It is also found at Barrington Tops and Gloucester Tops, west of Taree in New South Wales (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species inhabits the Australian Alps, in the Albina, Blue, Club and Cootapatamba lakes (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2000). In southern central Victoria, this species was recorded in the Werribee and Lerderberg Rivers (Boulton and Smith 1985).
189188		habitat	eng	This species prefers littoral zones of lakes, small mountain and forest streams and swamp habitats (Boulton and Smith 1985, Ponder 1986, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2000). It can survive in intermittent rivers and streams (Ponder and Avern 2000). The water where the species has been found is 'slightly acidic' but still of 'high quality' (Ponder 1986).
189188		population	eng	This species is described as common (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2000).
189188		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189189		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding long-term population trends, the impact of threats and future surveys are recommended to monitor the status of this species.
189189		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Kravtsova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189189		habitat	eng	This species tends to inhabit the shallow terraces of the lake, mostly between 1.8-5.2 metres in depth, although a few individuals have been found at up to 8 metres deep (Kravstova <em>et al. </em>2004).
189189		population	eng	This species is described as 'common' (Ropstorf and Sitnikova 2006).
189189		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189190		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, life history and ecology, and threats.
189190		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Chekiang (Zhejiang) and Anhwei (Anhui) provinces, eastern China (Yen 1948).
189190		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown fluvial habitat (Yen 1948).
189190		population	eng	&#160;This species is known from a few specimens only and therefore population data is lacking.
189190		threats	eng	There exists large scale industrialisation in the area in combination with extensive conversion of land to intensive agriculture. <br/><br/>Recent reports of urban water shortages in local cities and decreasing water quality in surrounding rivers (Zhen 2005) may pose a serious threat for this species. As there has been no implicit search for this species, however, its presence in these highly perturbed waterways cannot be concluded. <br/><br/>Several large dams have been constructed in the Zhejiang and Anhui provinces. If this species is found to inhabit these watercourses, these dams and their effect on flow rate and sedimentation may severely impact populations of this species.
189191		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine this species' present distribution and population size.
189191		distribution	eng	This species is found in Viet Nam, in the areas around Hanoi and Habac.
189191		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat or ecology of this species.
189191		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189191		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189192		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.The Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable use Programme (MWBCSP) attempted to coordinate the management of the Mekong river, as well as supporting sustainable livelihoods (MWBCSP 2005). Also the Mekong River Commission was created in 1995, bringing together the Cambodian, Lao People's Republic, Thai and Vietnamese governments (MRC 2010). This was to promote poverty alleviation, highlight the need for sustainable development, enhance the economic potential of the river and co-operate in its management (MRC 2010). In 1996, China and Myanmar joined as 'Dialogue Partners' (MRC 2010). Goals of the MRC include impact assessments and environmental monitoring (MRC 2010). Further research is recommended into this species' population abundance and the impact of the threats.
189192		distribution	eng	This species is known from Nakon Panom, Thailand to Kratie, Cambodia on the Mekong river, along with many tributaries (Brandt 1974). It has also been recorded from the Lao People's Democratic Republic (UMMZ 2009).
189192		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Brandt 1974). The current distribution of this species suggests that it is adapted to certain river flow regimes, which will be affected by the damming near Champasak. This will affect the populations both upstream and downstream due to flooding, sedimentation and changes in flow (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189192		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189192		threats	eng	<p>A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/> <br/> A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong  River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/> <br/> The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of these threats on this species is unknown.</p>
189194		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Appendix A of Hawaii's 'Aquatic Wildlife Species of Greatest Conservation Need' (Hawaii CWCS 2005), and is a Federal Species of Concern (SOC) in Hawaii. Further work is needed to determine the present distribution and population status (size and trend) on the Hawaiian Islands. Targeted surveys should be established to find out precisely where the species still survives. Furthermore, it is critical that remaining viable populations - and suitable habitats - be adequately managed and protected to ensure survival of this endemic species. This may involve the control and eradication of invasive predators (see Kido <em>et al. </em>1999). In addition, further research is recommended in order to resolve taxonomic uncertainty in the genus <em>Erinna</em>.
189194		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is present on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii (Cowie <em>et al</em>. 1995).&#160;The range of the species in Maui is restricted to Maui Nui island only (Severns 2011). The species has an extent of occurence of&#160;14,461 km<sup>2</sup>. However, it is possible that the given range is incorrect and that it may actually represent more than one species, due to taxonomic uncertainty surrounding the genus <em>Erinna</em> in Hawaii (S. Clark pers. comm. 2012).
189194		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from streams, rivers and waterfalls, where it attaches to wet surface rocks (NatureServe 2009).
189194		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189194		threats	eng	This species is/was a major prey component (more than 20% of the diet) of the invasive rainbow trout <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> (Walbaum), introduced into the Waimea River on the island of Kauai in 1920 (Kido <em>et al. </em>1999). This appears to have driven this species to local extirpation on Kauai, and perhaps on other islands where the trout has since spread.
189195		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population abundance and threats that may be impacting the population.
189195		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Thailand (Brandt 1974). It is widely distributed along the Mekong river and in several of its tributaries in Lao People's Democratic Republic and Thailand (Mekong River Commission 2006).
189195		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Mekong River Commission 2006).
189195		population	eng	This species is widely distributed along the Mekong river (Mekong River Commission 2006).
189195		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>Many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, and upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebrate species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Reports exist of sand exploitation causing increased turbidity (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <br/></p><p>A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the main channel of the Mekong River, which was due for completion in 2010 (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet. It is not known to what extent these threats will impact this species. <br/></p><p></p><p>&#160;</p>
189196		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further taxonomic work is suggested as the taxonomy of this genus is uncertain (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Surveys are required to determine distribution and clarify the extent of threat impacts.
189196		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Australia (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189196		habitat	eng	This species is found in most water bodies including altered habitats, including ponds, channelized streams and areas of cleared habitat (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189196		population	eng	This species is common (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2002).
189196		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat processes across its wide distribution. On a local level, it may be affected by habitat loss via argiculture, ranching and urbanisation (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189197		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189197		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the coastal areas of South Africa (Gofas 2010).
189197		habitat	eng	This estuarine species is commonly found in coastal lagoons. It is regarded as a habitat generalist, feeding on bacteria and microalgae from the sediment surface and burrowing into the substrate during periods of high tide (Pillay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
189197		population	eng	This species has been described as common, and is known to occur at high population densities (200 per m<sup>2</sup>) (Pillay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
189197		threats	eng	The loss of lagoonal seagrass ecosystems in coastal areas as a result of pollution, eutrophication and sedimentation has resulted in major shifts in invertebrate community composition, and has resulted in declines in even generalist species such as this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Pillay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
189198		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further survey work is recommended to monitor the populations of this species and identify potential threats.
189198		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Victoria, Australia (Clark<em> <em>et al</em>. </em>2003). It is only known from several locations on Darlot Creek (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). Based on fieldwork in 2001, the species only occurs in Darlot Creek drainage which is tributary of the Fitzroy River. The species does  not occur in the Fitzroy River below where Darlot Creek enters the Fitzory (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 40 km<sup>2</sup>.
189198		habitat	eng	This species is only known from Darlot Creek and is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189198		population	eng	This species has been found to be very abundant in 2001 (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2003).
189198		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species' habitat does occur within agricultural areas, although it was reported to be abundant when surveyed in 2001 and so may be unaffected by this (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189199		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are limitations on the number of tourists allowed access to the hot springs in which this species occurs. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance, habitat preferences and the extent of threat impacts.
189199		distribution	eng	This species is found in southeastern Kamchatka, Russia, in the Tumrok Range (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009), where it is found in around ten hot spring locations (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is less than 750 km².
189199		habitat	eng	This species is found in hot springs (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189199		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189199		threats	eng	Because this species occurs in hot springs, tourism and recreation are major threats to this species (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). However, this threat will affect each hot spring population differently, accounting for the estimate of around ten locations in which the species is currently found (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). The number of tourists allowed to access the hot springs is being controlled.
189200		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is, however, contained within the Rakiura National Park on Stewart Island and as such is protected under its remit. Gazetted in 2002, it is the most recent addition to New Zealand National Parks, covering 85 % of Stewart Island (Department of Conservation 2006). It is recommended that future research monitors existing populations of this species.
189200		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from Stewart Island, New Zealand (where the new genus was described). Here, it was recorded from Golden Bay in the north to Little River and Maori beach to the east (Climo 1974, Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Haase 2008). It has an extent of occurrence of no more than 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>.
189200		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from springs and seepages among native forest on Stewart Island (Climo 1974, Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Haase 2008).
189200		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189200		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Given its distribution within the Rakiura National Park on Stewart Island, it is unlikely to be threatened in the near future by anthrogenic disturbance.
189201		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Near Threatened on the Japanese Regional Red List (Japan Red Data Book 2007). Further research is recommended to clarify whether this species is a Japanese endemic or if it has a wider distribution than is currently known. If this species occurs outside of Japan, then a new assessment of its global conservation status needs to be made.
189201		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Japan (The Ministry of the Environment, Japan 2002).
189201		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits estuaries and salt marshes (The Ministry of the Environment, Japan 2002).
189201		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189201		threats	eng	Estuarine and tidal flat habitats are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to these areas causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges may also impact this species' habitat. Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although it is unknown to what extent this species is being affected.<br/><br/>The Chugoku Electric Power Company (CEPC) has plans in place to construct a nuclear power plant on Nagashima Island in the Suo-nada Sea, the western-most portion of Seto Inland Sea National Park, Japan (Ankei and Fukuda 2003). If this development goes ahead then this species will most likely be strongly affected by the water pollution, habitat degradation and increase in water temperature that this will cause.
189202		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although some parts of its range fall within protected areas. Further research is recommended on this species current distribution, population status and threats.
189202		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mekong River between Pakse and the Khone Falls, Lao People's Democratic Republic (Temcharoen 1971). It is not known whether this species also occurs downstream in the Mekong in Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam.
189202		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers including waterfalls (Temcharoen 1971). Other members of the genus inhabit slow-flowing sections of rivers with sandy substrate and rocks in rapids (Brandt 1974).
189202		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189202		threats	eng	A 30 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009).
189203		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding this species' habitat, population trends and the threats which may be affecting it.
189203		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Rio Puelo, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 25 km<sup>2</sup>.
189203		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Valdovinos 2006).
189203		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189203		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189204		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further work is recommended on population size, trends, and distribution before an accurate assessment can be made.
189204		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Esperance region of southwest Western Australia (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is approximately 5,800 km<sup>2</sup>.
189204		habitat	eng	This species inhabits inland salt lakes (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189204		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189204		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected by habitat loss due to agriculture (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189205		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine if its distribution is larger than currently known, and assess its population status and the effects of major threats on the population.
189205		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, a small stream 3 km southeast of Golfito, Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica (Thompson 2008). Its known extent of occurrence is inferred to be no more than 90 km²<sup></sup>.
189205		habitat	eng	The type locality was a small stream flowing through pasture, partly dammed at the lower end to form a marshy area (Taylor 2003).
189205		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen.
189205		threats	eng	Golfito is a prime ecotourism destination in Costa Rica. However, a 1997 report from the Costa Rican Institute for Aquaducts and Sewage Systems – the Instituto Costarricense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados (AyA) – found it to be among the five most contaminated communities in the country (Gibson 1999). Urban and domestic waste water, solid waste disposal, road-cutting and deforestation (leading to soil erosion and sedimentation), and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gmelina</span> plantations are the primary threats facing freshwater ecosystems in Golfito (Gibson 1999).
189206		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine abundance, distribution, ecology and threats of this species.
189206		distribution	eng	This species is recorded in Colombia (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189206		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information avaliable for this species.
189206		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189206		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189207		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. In 1999, this species was assigened a&#160;NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank&#160;of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009), corresponding to an IUCN Red List status of Least Concern. It is not certain whether suitable habitat has been reduced since then for this species, or whether additional threats have emerged. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify whether there are any potential threats to this species.
189207		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from recently surveyed populations across the majority of west and northwestern North America, including Arkansas, California, Coloradao, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba and Seskatchewan (NatureServe 2009). Further investigation of bovine liver flukes has additionally found this species in Kansas (Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 1999). Its range is estimated to exceed 200,000 km<sup>2</sup> (NatureServe 2009).
189207		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from prairie freshwater habitat, mainly from mud and marsh areas (NatureServe 2009). Furthermore, this species has been identified as an intermediate host of the bovine liver fluke <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> (Zukowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991). This may lead to control measures of this species in the future.
189207		population	eng	Populations of this species are estimated to exceed one million individuals, although the basis of this claim is tenuous (NatureServe 2009).
189207		threats	eng	Given its large distribution and widely available habitat, this species is unlikely to be at risk from any major threats.
189208		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on population size, distribution, trends, and threats.
189208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, where it is restricted to the southwest of the country (Tainan to Pingtung), and Hsinchu in the northwest (Pace 1973).
189208		habitat	eng	This amphibious species inhabits the banks of rivers and streams (Pace 1973).
189208		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189208		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189210		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189210		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, Russia. The type locality for this species is Berhin on the west coast of central Lake Baikal, and it can also be found in Maloe More bay (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189210		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy substrate in freshwater lake habitat, at depths of 5-25 m (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189210		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189210		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due a lack of population information for this species. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189211		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to identify the habitat preferences of this species, estimate its population abundance, and determine whether it is being affected by threat processes.
189211		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in south Tajikistan, specifically in the southern spurs of the Vakhsh Ridge, the Danga-rinskij district, in the vicinity of Alimtaj, and southward from Nurek water reservoir (Izzatullaev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).
189211		habitat	eng	This species has been found in irrigation canals.
189211		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189211		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189212		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the threats to this species is recommended.
189212		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Segara Anakan lagoon on Java, Indonesia (Nordhaus <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189212		habitat	eng	This species is known from the mangrove area of lagoons (Nordhaus <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189212		population	eng	This is a common species (T. von Rintelen pers. comm. 2010).
189212		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189213		conservation	eng	This species currently has no official conservation status in Alabama or Florida, however commercial harvesting is forbidden and a bag limit has been put in place in Florida and Alabama (USFWS 2003). Conservation activities are limited to working with private landowners throughout much of its range to ensure the use of Best Management Practices to reduce effects of erosion and sedimentation (USFWS 2003). Williams <em>et al.</em> (1993) considered this species to be threatened throughout its range, while Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> (2002) suggest that is should be protected under the Endangered Species Act. It is now listed as G2G3 (vulnerable to imperiled) (Natureserve 2009). Furthermore, it was elevated to candidate status for protection under the US Endangered Species Act (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). The main reasons for this are its restricted distribution and low abundance. Furthermore, the species has been extirpated from approximately 31-41% of its historic range (USFWS, 2003) with even greater reductions since then (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>Williams<em> et al.</em> (in press) lists this species as endangered according to the AFS assessment.&#160;Currently there are no specific conservation measures in place to protect this species. Monitoring and conservation programs (site protection and policies) are necessary to ensure stabilisation of the population and its habitat.
189213		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Escambia River drainage in Alabama and the Yellow and Choctawhatchee River drainages in Alabama and Florida, USA (Roe and Hartfield 2005, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,000–5,000 km²<sup></sup> (Natureserve 2009).
189213		habitat	eng	This species is found in clear small creeks and rivers with slow to moderate current (Williams and Butler 1994, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). It occurs in sandy or mixtures of sand and fine gravel substrate (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008) with woody debris (Deyrup and Franz 1994).<br/><br/>This species is a long-term brooder, which is gravid from late summer or autumn to the following spring when a superconglutinate is released (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its fecundity was estimated at 61,200 to 122,400 glochidia (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is thought to have a low reproductive output, and no juveniles were recorded during a five-year survey of the population (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2002). It grows to a maximum length of 83 mm (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The maximum age observed for species of this genus is 15 years (Haag and Rypel 2011).
189213		population	eng	This species has an estimated population size of 10,000–100,000 individuals, however it is also predicted to be undergoing a decline of 10–50% in population numbers (Natureserve 2009). It is considered to be rare (only recorded at 9% of more than 350 sites surveyed throughout its range) and its relative abundance was found to be low throughout most of its range (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2002).
189213		threats	eng	This species is thought to be sensitive to habitat modification, siltation and water quality (Natureserve 2009). Habitat loss and degradation are the major threats to this species (Natureserve 2009). Siltation due to agricultural and silvicultural activities, nutrients from farming, gravel/sand mining, gas/oil exploration and industrial and urban pollution are further localised threats (Natureserve 2009). Highway and bridge constructions are present throughout this species range and may cause increased levels of erosion and sedimentation while reducing water quality (Natureserve 2009). Furthermore, numerous large and small dams have been constructed or are under construction within the Escambia, Yellow, and Choctawhatchee River drainages, which can directly impact mussels by habitat modification and loss and by jeopardizing survival and reproduction (Neves <em>et al.</em> 1997, USFWS 2003). It is thought that increased turbidity in river drainages might reduce the efficiency of this species superconglutinates to attract potential hosts which would affect its reproductive output (Blalock-Herod <em>et al.</em> 2002). Furthermore, this species is dependent on fish hosts for its parasitic glochidial stage. The specific hosts used are unknown, however the disappearance of potential hosts could have severe impacts on the reproductive output and survival of this species (USFWS 2003). The introduced clam <em>Corbicula fluminea</em> is found throughout the Escambia, Yellow, and Choctawhatchee river drainages and may affect this species directly or indirectly by competition for resources and by disturbing the sediment (USFWS 2003).
189214		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is ranked G5 (secure) by NatureServe (2009).
189214		distribution	eng	This species is widespread over North America. The southern extent of this species range includes California, Utah and Colorado at high elevations (Taylor 1981). This species is known to occur over much of Canada, excluding the northern parts of Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavet. The eastern extent of its range is southern Quebec, however, two small isolated populations exist, one in northern Quebec and one in Newfoundland (The Canadian Biodiversity Website 2001). It is relatively uncommon but generally distributed from Newfoundland and New Brunswick north and northwest to Ungava and the western Arctic coast of Canada, west to Alberta, across the northern states from Maine to Washington, and south in the Rocky Mountains to disjunct populations in California, Utah, Colorado, and Mexico (Mackie 2007).
189214		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lotic and lentic habitats (Burch 1972). This species occurs in perennial lakes, pools, rivers, and streams of all sizes (Clarke 1981). Taylor (1981) states this species inhabits marshes, pools and lakes that are subject to seasonal fluctuations, but do not dry entirely. This species was found to be abundant in the headwaters of small drainage basins in south-east Ontario, Canada.  Numbers generally increased in the upper sediment layers closer to sites of marl deposition (Yang et al. 2001). This study also found this species to be abundant in quiet, shallow waters with a vegetated bottom. Clarke (1981) stares that aquatic vegetation and muddy substrate characterize the typical habitat of this species.
189214		population	eng	This species is abundant in the headwaters of small drainage basins in south-east Ontario.
189214		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, however it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to changes in the hydrological regime of a number of aquatic habitats and pollution.
189215		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population status of this species and the impacts of potential threat processes.
189215		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the small rivers in the Amur basin and Sakhalin Island, Russia (Prozorova <em>et al</em>. 2004, Starobogatov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et a</span>l. 2004).
189215		habitat	eng	This is a riverine species. It lives in shallow zones of small rivers on vegetation (Bogatov &amp; Zatravkin 1990 [1992]). In Sakhalin, this species has been recorded from floodplain lakes (Prozorova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189215		population	eng	Prozorova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) mention 25 specimens from two localities in Sakhalin. No other population information is available.
189215		threats	eng	The Amur River basin covers three countries - China, Russia and Mongolia. Anthropogenic threats have drastically altered the landscape and the floristic and faunistic assemblage in the river basin. The wetland area of the Amur River basin covers 14.7 million hectares; approximately 2.4 million hectares of this has now been converted to arable land (Darman and Simonov 2003). Other major threats to the Amur River and its tributaries include: urbanisation; logging and mining; domestic, commercial and industrial wastewater; irrigation; dam building; excessive harvesting of natural resources including timber and freshwater wildlife. However, the exact impact of threat processes to this species is unknown.
189216		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed on this species' population size, distribution and trends, and the impact of threats.
189216		distribution	eng	This species is only known from localities in Papua New Guinea and West Papua: Collingwood Bay, the Fly River, the Lorentz River, Bivak Island and the Casuarina Coast (Van Benthem Jutting 1963).
189216		habitat	eng	Members of this genus live at or above the water mark in brackish or tidal freshwater habitats. They are “truly amphibious” according to Brandt (1974). This species has also been recorded in lotic environments.
189216		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189216		threats	eng	The introduction of exotic species of fish into some rivers in Papua New Guinea - for fisheries purposes - might adversely affect freshwater snails, either directly through predation or indirectly by altering benthic ecosystems (Dudgeon and Smith 2006). <br/><br/>Pollution is also a major problem facing many freshwater ecosystems in West Papua and Papua New Guinea. For example, the Porgera gold mine in Enga Province, Papua New Guinea: "dumps 40,000 tons of tailings and waste rock daily into the Strickland/Fly River catchment basin … levels of metals [are] as much as 3,000 times levels permitted by government regulations, which are not enforced". The Ok Tedi River, part of the Fly River ecosystem, was decimated in the late 1990s by mining-caused sediment loads. This resulted in 70 km of the river becoming "almost biologically dead", 130 km of riverbank being "severely degraded", and fish stocks declining by 50 to 80%, and up to 90% in the lower Ok Tedi (Johansen 2003). It is not known how these threats have affected this species.
189218		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution, population status and threats.
189218		distribution	eng	This species is known from some localities in a restricted part of the Mekong River in southern Lao PDR (Brandt 1974).
189218		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers (Brandt 1974).
189218		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189218		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189219		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ range might fall within the Douglas-Apsley National Park (Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment 2008), which may offer some protection to its habitat.&#160;Further research is required to establish species population size and identify potential threats.
189219		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia (May 1921, Smith 1992, <em>Clark et al.</em> 2003). It is only known from one location on the Apsley River, south of Bicheno (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003). It is likely to occur at other locations of this river (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 110 km<sup>2</sup>.
189219		habitat	eng	This species is only known from one locality on the Apsley River (Smith 1992, Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189219		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it was found to be locally abundant in 1995 (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189219		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189220		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and potential threats to the population.
189220		distribution	eng	There is very little information available for this species. The type locality is unknown, but notes accompanying the original specimen state that it is known from “Mesopotamia” (assumed to correspond to Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran). It was also stated to be “very common” in the Levant (assumed to include Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Jordan and Iraq), and was also known from “Rahalya Springs, Kani Sepi and Karsi" (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). Kani Sepi is a spring in the Mahabad Mountains in Kurdistan; Karsi may refer to a location in Turkmenistan.<br/><br/>This species is currently known from the Kazakh district of Azerbaijan (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009), but its distribution is likely to be much wider than is currently known.
189220		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small rivers (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189220		population	eng	This species is stated to be “very common” in the Levant (assumed to include Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Jordan and Iraq) (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189220		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189221		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine its abundance, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189221		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua; northwest Costa Rica in the Rio Saveyre at Boca Culebra; southwest Costa Rica in the Palmar south of the Rio Grande de Terraba; north Panama in Chiriqui (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189221		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189221		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189221		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189222		conservation	eng	This species is protected within Cuatro Cienegas National Wildlife Refuge in Mexico (The Nature Conservancy 2009).&#160;Further research regarding the extent of threats to the species is required and clarification of its distribution and life history will allow a more accurate assessment to made.
189222		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Mojarral West Laguna, Cuatro Cienegas basin, Coahuila, Mexico (Hershler <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189222		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in large springs with a surface area of over 900 m<sup>2 </sup>, and is said to prefer soft substrate (García 2003).
189222		population	eng	This species is said to be abundant in Cuatro Cienegas, Mexico (Garcia 2003).
189222		threats	eng	Cuatro Cienegas in Mexico faces increased extraction of surface and ground water for irrigation, with habitat conversion and invasive species also being listed as significant threats to the area. Livestock grazing, habitat destruction from the collection of firewood, poaching and unregulated tourism are also having a negative impact on this ecosystem (The Nature Conservancy 2009).
189223		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189223		distribution	eng	This species is confined to brackish marshes from Tampa Bay north and west to Mobile Bay, Alabama (Thompson 1999); and Mississippi marshes in St. Louis Bay (Bishop and Hackney 1987). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189223		habitat	eng	This species is vulnerable to saliniy changes and so is confined to brackish marshes (Thompson 1999).
189223		population	eng	Although limited by salinity, it is  likely to be somewhat common where it occurs.
189223		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189224		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine its distribution (historic and present), population status, ecology and threats.
189224		distribution	eng	There is no available information on the distribution of this species, although it likely occurs in Myanmar.
189224		habitat	eng	Although no information exists for this species, other members of the genus (e.g., <em>G. tigertti</em>) inhabit mainly brackish but also freshwater habitats (Brandt 1974).
189224		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189224		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189225		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on species abundance and the impact of possible threats.
189225		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amur River which forms the border between Russia and China (Bogatov and Starobogatov 1994). This species is also found in California in the San Francisco Bay-Delta, the Carquinez Strait, Suisun Bay and Mallard Island (Linville <em>et al.</em> 2002, Flegal <em>et al.</em> 2007). In the San Francisco Bay-Delta, the species has been collected at depths ranging from 8 m to 20 m (Flegal<em> et al.</em> 2007).
189225		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and estuaries (Bogatov and Starobogatov 1994, Linville <em>et al.</em> 2002, Flegal <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189225		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189225		threats	eng	The invasion of <em>Potamocorbula amurensis</em> in the San Francisco Bay-Delta has caused an increase in the selenium levels in the benthic food web (Linville <em>et al.</em> 2002). Bivalves are known to absorb selenium and retain it. However, it is not known whether this will have an adverse effect on sub-populations of this species in the area. Furthermore, silver levels in the sediment and biota have also increased in recent years within the delta (Flegal <em>et al.</em> 2007). Again, it is unknown how this could be affecting sub-populations of this species. Silver pollution is believed to disrupt reproduction in bivalves (Flegal <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Amur River is being impacted upon by anthropogenic processes. These include hydropower stations, nearby agricultural practices, siltation and pollution from sewage and heavy metals (Alexei 2004).
189226		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required in order to clarify the population trends, habitat, distribution and threats to this species.
189226		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Zapallar, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189226		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Valdovinos 2006).
189226		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189226		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189227		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the population size, ecology and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189227		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southeastern Primorye region, Russia. It is found in the Tumannaya and Gladkaya River basins and on the southern islands of the Peter the Great Bay (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
189227		habitat	eng	This species was collected from small rivers.
189227		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189227		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189228		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Lake Biwa has an IUCN Protected Area Category V ("protected area managed  mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation"). The Lake  is also a UNESCO Ramsar Wetland, and is managed under the Shiga  Prefecture Natural Parks Management Plan (Amako 2008). This species has been listed as Near Threatened by the Japanese Red  List, however there is no population information available and limited  information on the distribution of this species. Additional research on the distribution, population and ecology of this species is needed in order to fill current knowledge gaps.
189228		distribution	eng	This species is present in the outflow of Lake Biwa, Japan, and in the lake itself (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010). The area of the lake is 670 km², and the extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be around 3,990 km².
189228		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from Lake Biwa and the outlet stream (F. Köhler   pers. comm. 2010).
189228		population	eng	This species is not rare in Lake Biwa (F. Köhler   pers. comm. 2010).
189228		threats	eng	Fisheries damage due to agro-chemicals and inadequate wastewater treatment in the catchment area have altered the water quality of Lake Biwa. Conversion of 80% of lagoons to paddy fields, degradation of 50% of reed belts and development of the lake shore due to urbanization also pose a threat to this ecosystem.  Further, most of the rivers flowing into the lake have been straightened and concreted for flood control purposes, and during the month of June the water level is intentionally lowered, which has affected migration and breeding sites for many fish species. Global warming is also thought to be a possible threat (Kira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189229		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the Australian Government has implemented a number of action plans to ensure the recovery of the Murray-Darling Basin (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009). Similarly, the Lake Eyre Basin Intergovernmental Agreement is a joint undertaking by the Australian, Queensland, Northern Territory and South Australia Governments to ensure the sustainable use of the Lake Eyre Basin river systems (The Lake Eyre Basin Agreement 2009). Such site protection and the resulting habitat management stemming from binding regulations is needed to ensure the health of these basins. However, a recent report found that the rivers and catchments of the Lake Eyre Basin are generally in quite a good condition and that many important aquatic ecosystems remain intact (Lake Eyre Basin Scientific Advisory Panel 2009). Furthermore, this species’ distribution is also likely to overlap with a number of national parks and reserves. Further research is required to establish population size and ecology of this species.
189229		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory, Australia (Walker 1988, Smith 1992, Environmental Services Department 2007). It is found in the Murray-Darling and the Lake Eyre basins (Walker 1988, Smith 1992).
189229		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lotic systems in the Murray-Darling and Lake Eyre basins (Smith 1992).&#160;It is considered to be a good indicator species for healthy streams in southeastern Queensland (Haase and Nolte 2008), however it has also been shown to tolerate fairly high levels of pollution in other areas, such as western Queensland (unpublished data; L. Benson pers. comm. in Haase and Nolte 2008).
189229		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered a rare and locally significant species in the Pine Rivers Shire, Queensland (Environmental Services Department 2007).
189229		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however over-allocation of water resources, increased salinity, invasive pests and climate change have caused major degradation of this species’ habitat in the Murray-Darling and Lake Eyre basins (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009, Lake Eyre Basin Scientific Advisory Panel 2009).
189230		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further surveys are needed to determine the distribution and population status of this species.
189230		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Atéou, in the municipality of Koné, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Lack of resources and the minute size of species of this genus make  comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result,  defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species of  this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is known  about the species, it has a very restricted distribution with an  estimated extent of occurrence of less than 100 km²<sup></sup>, an estimated area of occupancy of less than 10 km², and is  currently known to occur in a single location. Although there  is some uncertainty about these estimates, the order of magnitude of  the documented extent of occurrence is considered to be correct (P.  Bouchet pers. comm. 2011).
189230		habitat	eng	The type specimens were recorded from a spring at an altitude of 390 m asl (Haase and Bouchet 1998). There are three endemic species of hydrobiids at this location (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189230		population	eng	This species is rare at its known locality (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189230		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, changes in vegetation cover from land clearance and  fires, and trampling by cattle are major threats to this species (P.  Bouchet pers. comm. 2010), as these are likely to be primarily  responsible for the drying up of springs and creeks (Haase and Bouchet  1998). This may have caused the restricted distribution of species of  this genus, so that it has therefore been suggested that this restriction  may be of quite recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). This restricted  distribution makes this species more vulnerable to the continued threat  processes of intensifying agriculture, land clearing, and bush fires (P.  Bouchet pers. comm. 2011). There has also been a reduction of native forest, which is now overgrown with the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark) (P.Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189231		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to clarify taxonomic issues surrounding this species and <em>Physa acuta.</em>
189231		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal Ecuador to central Peru (Taylor 2003).<br/><br/><br/><em></em>
189231		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swamps (Taylor 2003).
189231		population	eng	This species has rarely been found in repeated searches since the holotype was discovered and is considered rare (e.g., Paraense 2003).
189231		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
189232		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, ecology and habitat preferences, and the extent of threats impacting the population of this species.
189232		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Amur and the Central Primorye region, Russia (Kolpakov 2003, Prozorova 2003, Prozorova and Kolpakov 2004, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zasypkina 2008). The&#160;ZIN collection has specimens from northern Mongolia, a location in the vicinity of Chita town, and one location in the Kamchatka peninsula (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).&#160;On the basis of current information, this species' distribution is likely to extend across eastern Siberia and the far east (M. Vinarksi pers. comm. 2010).
189232		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent and semi-permanent water bodies (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
189232		population	eng	There is no population trend information available for this species, although it is reported to be fairly common in Asiatic Russia (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189232		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Hydrological developments, such as dams, water pollution and disruption to natural hydrological regimes are posing major threats to ecosystems in the Amur River basin (Simonov and Dahmer 2008). However, it is unclear in which river drainages this species occurs and how sensitive it is to changes in  habitat quality.
189233		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Near Threatened on the Japanese National Red List (Japanese Red Data Systems 2007). Lake Biwa has an IUCN Protected Area Category V ("protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation"). The Lake is also a UNESCO Ramsar Wetland, and is managed under the Shiga Prefecture Natural Parks Management Plan (Amako 2008). Various other management practices exist, including: creating reed communities; controlling invasive species; and promoting sustainable water use in irrigation (Amako 2008). Further work is needed on this species' population size and trend, and major threats.
189233		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Biwa, Shiga Prefecture, Japan (Nishino and Watanabe 2000). Specifically it only occurs around the two islands of Chikubujima and Takeshima (Watanabe 1984). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 650 km². Its area of occupancy is far less than 500 km², and is likely to be close to 10 km².
189233		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to rocky and gravel bottoms in Lake Biwa (Nishino and Watanabe 2000).
189233		population	eng	This species is rarer than other <em>Biwa/Semisulcospira </em>species as it only occurs in certain places within the lake (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189233		threats	eng	Since the 1990s populations of invasive predatory fish (e.g., Largemouth Bass <em>Micropterus salmoides</em> and Bluegills <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em>) have increased, with severe adverse impacts on native fish stocks (Amako 2008). It is not known how this is affecting this species.<br/><br/>Water from Lake Biwa is used for domestic use and agriculture (rice paddy irrigation). Other potential threats include: recreational impacts (46 million annual visitors: water sports, angling, boating etc.); modification of riparian landscape (Biwa-ko Total Development Project aims to control and utilize lake water); bottom-dredging; manipulating the water level; nutrient input from the catchment basin; and influx of turbid water from paddy fields (Amako 2008).
189234		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the species abundance, distribution, ecology and threats to the population are required before an accurate assessment of this species can be made.
189234		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Oceanic islands of Guam, the Fijian islands, Upolu and Samoa (Kabat and Finet 1992). It has an extent of occurrence of&#160;21,727&#160;km<sup>2</sup>.
189234		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189234		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189234		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189235		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, taxonomy, life history and ecology, and threats.
189235		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected in Kyushu and Tanegashima, Japan (Tyron <em>et al.</em> 1871, Miura <em>et al.</em> 2007, 2008).
189235		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from estuarine tidal flats in Japan (Miura <em>et al.</em> 2007, 2008).
189235		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
189235		threats	eng	Significant human settlements are located in close proximity to the tidal flats where this species can be found. Sensitivity of this species to pollution or anthropogenic disturbance is not known, however. This species is not exploited. There is a high level of deforestation on Tanegashima Island, possibly leading to pertubation of habitat quality further downstream.
189236		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Although there are indications of a fairly large range coupled with a rare population status (Dolgin 2001), too little is known to infer the effects of potential threats on this species, so that further research into the population demographics, distribution and threats is recommended.
189236		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower reaches of Siberian rivers in the Russian Federation (Dolgin 2001 and Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Specifically, it is from Khatanga in the Krasnoyarsk Krai region in the west, to the basin of Kolyma in the very far east of the Russian Federation, in the Chukchi Peninsula (Dolgin 2001 and Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Judging from Dolgin's (2001) data, the species is widely distributed throughout North Siberia in river basins from Khatanga to Kolyma, stretching north to 72°N. However, no exact localities are given in Dolgin's (2001) thesis.
189236		habitat	eng	This species inhabits 'shallow non-permanent waterbodies' (Dolgin 2001 and Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009) such as swamps and floodplains.
189236		population	eng	The species is rare and not abundant in North Siberia (Dolgin 2001). Dolgin (2001) estimates its abundance to vary from 10 to 20 ind/m<sup>2</sup>.
189236		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, a reservoir was built on the Kolyma River in 1986, which may be affecting the species (Woo and Thorne 2009).
189237		conservation	eng	This species is listed under the 'list of endangered and threatened species in Japan' as Rare, however this is not an IUCN confirmed classification (U.S. Forces in Japan, 1997). Further information is required in order to clarify the population status, habitat and threats of this species.
189237		distribution	eng	This species is present in the province of Oita, Japan (U.S. Forces in Japan 1997)
189237		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189237		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189237		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189238		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperiled (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it does occur within the Fort Tejon State Historical Park. In order to ensure that populations remain viable, future population surveys are suggested.
189238		distribution	eng	This species is narrowly endemic in the Grapevine Creek, Fort Tejon State Historical Park, California (Hershler 1995).
189238		habitat	eng	This species was found in mud and watercress in the medium-sized, moderately impacted freshwater stream of Grapevine Creek, Fort Tejon State Historical Park, California (Hershler 1995).
189238		population	eng	This species was reported to be commonly found (Hershler 1995).
189238		threats	eng	There were no recorded threats to the global population of this species at the time of its description (Hershler 1995). However, recent developments around the Tejon Mountain Village (2009) have been noted to change the water flow around the Lake and the outflowing Grapevine Creek, and hence, it may well have impacted this species. The report also notes the proposed plans for a golf-course and large residential development with requirements to take more groundwater for the supplies for these facilities which may also impact flow and water chemistry in the Creek.
189239		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Very little is known about this species and further research is needed to establish its population size, abundance, and the impact of threats such as water pollution. Population monitoring would be desirable.
189239		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Singkarak, and Lake Manindjau, western Sumatra in Indonesia (Glaubrecht <em>et al. </em>2003). This species has also been found in the Tiwi River, central Sumatra, Indonesia (Djajasasmita 1985). Prashad (1921) reported this species from a small stream in northeast Sumatra. Van Heurn and Paravicini (1922) reported this species from Peusang River and Lake Tawar, both of which are in northeast Sumatra. It is unknown if the sites surveyed in 1921 and 1922 still contain this species.
189239		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes and rivers. This species was found in stony and sandy substrates (Djajasasmita 1985).
189239		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189239		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Habitat degradation may be occurring in Lake Singkarak due to water abstraction for irrigation, a hydro-power electricity generation project, and recreation (World Agroforestry Centre 2003). Lake Manindjau is subject to excessive green algae, but the effects of this on this species are unknown.
189241		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. The nearby Dorrigo National Park most likely provides protection from upstream contamination and deforestation, and this species occurs in a State Forest Reserve. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189241		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from specimens collected from Moonmerri Creek near Dorrigo, northern New South Wales in Australia (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1999). The extent of occurrence is approximately 600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189241		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a creek bed, under large free stones (Miller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
189241		population	eng	There is insufficient population data for this species.
189241		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.&#160;As this species is currently found in only a small area, any large human perturbation or stochastic event may significantly impact this species' survival. However, as there have not been any directed searches for this species in nearby rivers and catchments, it cannot be assumed that the species' range is restricted to a single creek.&#160;Although this species occurs in a State Forest Reserve, clearing does not occur up to the creek edge and therefore this species is unlikely to be impacted by forestry processes (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189242		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place to protect this species. Further research is required to establish the abundance of this species, its distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any threats.
189242		distribution	eng	This species had previously been recorded in Mexico City (Pilsbry 1925), and the Valley of Mexico (Alcocer-Durand and Escobar-Briones 1992).
189242		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189242		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, it has been recorded that a subpopulation has been extirpated in the Mexico Basin (Bogan 1993) and Alcocer-Durand and Escobar-Briones (1992) failed to find any in the Lago Viejo, Valley of Mexico.
189242		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189243		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 - imperilled (NatureServe 2009). Its presence has been confirmed for one cave system in a state nature preserve (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Further research regarding this species population is required.
189243		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Missouri and a small portion of the Ozarks east of the Mississippi in Illinois (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). It occurs in eight caves in eastern Missouri (all in Perry County) and in one groundwater basin in St. Clair Co., Illinois (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011). Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1997) list nine caves in Perry Co., Missouri. Hershler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) lists Missouri (Perry Cape Girardeau, and St. Louis Cos.) and Illinois (St. Clair Co.). Pennsylvania records are likely misidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Fontigens orolibas</span> (Evans and Ray 2008). St Clair and Perry counties together make up an area of around 3,000 km², which is here used as an estimate of the species' extent of occurrence, but it has to be kept in mind that this cave species occurs much more localised within this area.
189243		habitat	eng	This is a troglobytic species which can be found in subterranean karst streams (NatureServe 2009).
189243		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It probably has never been widespread, being restricted to caves in eastern Missouri and adjacent Illinois (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
189243		threats	eng	Two of the caves in which this species is found (Running Bull and Mystery) are impacted by surrounding land use. Water quality has been affected by intensive agriculture in surrounding areas, as well as the city of Perryville (Burr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Some of the key water quality issues in the Perry County karst system include <span style="font-style: italic;">Escherichia coli</span>, chloride, atrazine, and turbidity (Pobst and Taylor 2007). The groundwater habitat in all or most of the caves in which this species occurs has been degraded by a variety of factors, notably nutrient enrichment from septic effluent. During recent surveys of caves and springs in Monroe and St. Clair counties in the southern Illinois karst region no addition localities for the hydrobiid cave snail were discovered. Its presence has been confirmed for one cave system in a state nature preserve (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
189244		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189244		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
189244		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish  waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of 25-120 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189244		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189244		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189245		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the full geographic range, abundance and possible threats to this species.The one known habitat for this species was opened to tourism in 1994 but is in the process of being identified under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance (Gujja <em>et al.</em> 2003). Monitoring programmes could aid quick detection of any future population reductions.
189245		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, which is Pangong Lake, Tibet.
189245		habitat	eng	This species is known only from Pangong Lake in Tibet. This lakes lies across the China-India border and is around 700 km<sup>2</sup> (Gujja <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is brackish, and is surrounded by marsh and wetlands (Gujja <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189245		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189245		threats	eng	It is unlikely there are any impacts threatening this species. The only known habitat of this species (Lake Pangong) is not currently threatened.
189246		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population size and distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189246		distribution	eng	This species is known from Iran (Mansoorian 2000).
189246		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species.
189246		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189246		threats	eng	Because there is virtually no information available on this species, the threats to this species are unknown.
189247		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189247		distribution	eng	As the family of Baicaliidae is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation, it is inferred that this species is also endemic to the lake (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2001).
189247		habitat	eng	This species is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2001).
189247		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189247		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189248		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on its population trends and ecology.
189248		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Alto Paraná in Argentina, Uruguay River in Argentina and Uruguay (Rumi <em>et al</em>. 2008), and the Rio Paraná at Puerto Bertoni, Paraguay (the type locality, Pilsbry 1911).
189248		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Pilsbry 1911).
189248		population	eng	This species is reported as being common in abundance (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
189248		threats	eng	On the Paraná   River, the Itaipu Dam, the largest in the world, flooded  approximately 100,000 ha of land and destroyed significant aquatic  habitat including Guaira Falls. The basin faces the second greatest  number of planned dams in the world (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007).&#160;The upper Paraná   basin is impacted by industrial, domestic,  and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of  river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe in  parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the  Upper Paraná. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have  the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay  region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the  Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic  life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species. Rio Negro Province in Patagonia is exposed to increasing threats  due to toxins from mining and oil extraction, deforestation leading to a  decrease in water quality and sedimentation, as well as hunting (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
189249		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population trends and ecology of this species is required.
189249		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Yunnan and Hunan, China (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1992).
189249		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189249		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189249		threats	eng	The inland waters of China have been adversely effected by many threats including; habitat loss, modification and fragmentation; introduction of exotic species; overfishing; degradation of biodiversity through accelerated eutrophication (Xie and Chen 1999).
189250		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into the species distribution, abundance, ecology and threats.
189250		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Nicobar Islands, India (Preston 1915).
189250		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology data available for this species.
189250		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
189250		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189251		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats of this species.
189251		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cuba (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). Pilsbry and Bequaert (1927) claim that this locality is an error. This has yet to be corroborated.
189251		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189251		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189251		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189252		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189252		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, Tahiti and Japan (Kano and Kase 2003).
189252		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing streams (Kano and Kase 2003).
189252		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189252		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189253		conservation	eng	This species is classed Data Deficient on Schedule 1 of the 'Conservation Status of Animals of the Northern Territory' (Northern Territory Government 2007).&#160;Further work is needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties within this species-group.
189253		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in Australia, from southeast New South Wales along the east and north coasts to Kalbarri, Western Australia, with a geographically isolated distribution in central Australia (Puslednik <em>et al. </em>2009). It is absent from southern Australia and Tasmania. This species has also been recorded in New Guinea (Puslednik <em>et al. </em>2009).
189253		habitat	eng	This generalist species inhabits ponds, lakes, swamps and slow-flowing creeks and streams (ABRS 2009). It also inhabits rice fields (Ricewild 2004). It appears to require vegetation in order to inhabit certain habitats (Kay <em>et al. </em>1999). Peak abundance was found to occur in temporary ponds in the late dry season (September to November) in the Ross River Reservoir system, Northern Territory (Hurley <em>et al. </em>1995).
189253		population	eng	This species is widespread in Australia, but some surveys have found declines in recent decades. Koch (2004) found reductions in distribution and abundance of this species between 1986 and 2000-2003 in the New England Tablelands, New South Wales. This is likely due to an extensive drought from January 2002 onwards, with higher livestock numbers and clearing of vegetation combining to reduce available habitat, lower water tables and increase agricultural pollution (Koch 2004).<br/><br/>However, high densities have been found in temporary ponds in the Ross River reservoir system (up to 45 ind. m<sup>-2</sup>, Kay <em>et al. </em>1999), and this species is common in New South Wales rice fields (Ricewild 2004). In the Coongie Lake system in South Australia, this species is found in abundance on water primose <em>Ludwigia peploides</em> (Timms 2001).
189253		threats	eng	This species may be threatened at a local level by waterdrawdown and habitat degradation from agriculture and urbanisation (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). However, it is not threatened globally.
189254		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended to provide a population estimate of this species, and to ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.
189254		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the East and West Baines Rivers, which are both western tributaries of the Victoria River in the western Northern Territory, Australia (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). The extent of occurrence is approximately 14,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189254		habitat	eng	This species inhabits billabongs, rivers and shallow pools with a substrate of fine mud (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). This species is often found alongside <em>Gabbia smithii</em> (Ponder 2003). There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and nothing on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
189254		population	eng	This species has only recently been described, and as such there is no population information available.
189254		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown. However, it is likely that this species is, to some degree, being affected by the current drought conditions in Australia as well as impacts of&#160; habitat degradation as a result of agricultural activities (namely cattle ranching) and mining.
189255		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species has been allocated a status of Critical / Endangered on the Japanese red list of threatened species, though this has yet to be corroborated.<br/><br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its life history and ecology, and threats.
189255		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Nanatsugama-shonyudo groundwater system of the Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan, which is the only known habitat for this species (MoI Japan 2002).
189255		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown freshwater habitat. Other species of this family in Japan can be found in mountainside creeks with clean water (Sasaki 2008).<br/><br/>This species is recognised as a first intermediate host of the lung fluke <em>Paragonimus miyazakii</em> (Nishisa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
189255		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Other species of this family, however, are recognised as being uncommon in Japan (Sasaki 2008).
189255		threats	eng	The threats to this speceis are unknown. Other species of this family are known to occupy old well pumps. The conversion of many of these to more modern versions has reduced habitat for members of this family in Japan (Sasaki 2008). Currently a dam is present along the course of the river in which this species is found, creating a reservoir in the upper catchment. This modification of flow may be affecting the quality of suitable habitat for this species.
189257		conservation	eng	Lake Titicaca was made a Ramsar site in January 1997 for the Peruvian section and in August 1998 for the Bolivian section&#160; (Ramsar 2000). The lake covers around 8,300 km²<sup></sup> and was designated a UNESCO site in 2005 (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2010). Further research regarding population trends and ecology of this species is necessary, as well as monitoring of population and habitat trends.
189257		distribution	eng	This species is thought to be endemic to Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia and Peru (Dejoux 1991). The lake has an area of approximately 8,300 km²<sup></sup>.
189257		habitat	eng	This species has been found in Lake Titicaca, at depths of between 0.5 and 11 m (Dejoux 1991).
189257		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189257		threats	eng	This species could be threatened by a globally invasive species, <em>Physa acuta</em>, which has recently been observed in Lake Titicaca (Albrecht 2009). There is a suggestion that pollution may be degrading the water quality of Lake Titicaca. High mercury levels present in the fish in Lake Titicaca could be a result of gold mining in the tributary River Ramis' watershed (Gammons <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, it is not known what affect these threats are having on this species.
189258		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics for this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189258		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across all of 'Europe, except the extreme north, northern Kazakhstan and probably in the Altai' (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997 and Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Specifically, it is found in the Irtysh River Basin, province of Irtyshian, Western Siberia, Russian Federation (Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189258		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers (Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189258		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189258		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, activites on the Irtysh River, such as the extraction of water for oil production, may pose a threat to this species in this area (Saidazimova 2006). Also, industrial effluent pollution in Kazakhstan from metal mining could flow downstream into this species' habitat (Valyaev <em>et al.</em> 2009). The construction of reservoirs on the river to supply 40% of Kazakhstan's power supply may have altered the fluvial regime and therefore could possibly negatively affect this species (Valyaev <em>et al.</em> 2009). There is no further information regarding the threats throughout the rest of Europe.
189259		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research to clarify this species' distribution, current population status and threats is needed.
189259		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Mekong River, more specifically in Thailand from Bandan, 9 km north of Bandan, and Cham Passak in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Brandt 1974).
189259		habitat	eng	This species was collected from rocks in the Mekong River (Brandt 1974).
189259		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189259		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow) (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).<br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet. It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
189260		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the distribution, abundance, habitat and threat processes for this species.
189260		distribution	eng	<p>  </p><p>This species is native to Russia (Kuril Islands to the south of the Strait Boussole, south Sakhalin) and Japan (Hokkaido). In Russia, it is located on the southern Kuril Islands (Prozorova 1996) and in the southeast of the island Moneron in small stream flood plains (Prozorova and Bogatov 2006). However, given the uncertainty about this species' taxonomy, the true distribution of this species remains unclear.<br/></p><span> <span></span>
189260		habitat	eng	This species is found in the coastal waters of lakes or in small permanent flowing waters. More specifically, small stream flood plains on a slope, with high <span>grasses, small shrubs and slaboprotochnye cereals (Prozorova and Bogatov 2006).
189260		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189260		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189261		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Monitoring of habitat and population trends should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189261		distribution	eng	This species is known from Fiji, Samoa, the islands of Melanesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and South-East Asia (Haynes 1988, Cowie 1998). Specifically, it has been found on the islands of Tanna, Pentecost and Espiritu of Vanuatu (Haynes 2000), and the island of Tutuila in Samoa (Cowie 1998). This species has been recorded from the Philippines, in particular the Ogasawara Islands and in Malaysia from the island of Borneo (Unknown 2009).
189261		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and rivers (Haynes 2000).
189261		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189261		threats	eng	It is highly unlikely that there is an imminent threat to this species, however it could be affected by climate change in the future, as it is present on small Pacific islands.
189262		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189262		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the Caspian Sea (Kantor et al. 2009) and the the lower courses of the Dnieper river (M. V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011). Furthermore, this species has been located in the Quaternary limestones of Dagestan, Russia.
189262		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters at depths of 0-120 m and rivers (depth measure only for Caspian part of its range) (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189262		population	eng	This species is not abundant in the collection record (Anistratenko & Stadnichenko 1994[1995])
189262		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).
189263		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed into this species' distribution, population, habitat and threats, as very little is currently known about this species.
189263		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Estero Dehesa, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 830 km<sup>2</sup>.
189263		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189263		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189263		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189264		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its range overlaps with nature reserves in parts of its range, e.g. Morwell National Park in Victoria, and the Warren Bioregion in Western Australia (Trayler <em>et al. </em>1996).
189264		distribution	eng	This widespread species occurs throughout coastal Australia, from South Australia and Victoria north through New South Wales and Queensland, and through the Northern Territory to the northern coast of Western Australia. Drainage basins include the Murray River in South Australia (Sheldon and Walker 1993), the Latrobe River, Victoria (Chessman 1985), and the Warren Bioregion, in southwest Western Australia (Trayler <em>et al. </em>1996). It is also recorded from the South Esk River, Tasmania (Norris <em>et al. </em>1982).
189264		habitat	eng	This habitat generalist occurs in lotic and lentic ecosystems (Trayler <em>et al. </em>1996), including creeks, rivers, natural pools, swamps, reed beds, irrigation channels, deep water, and algal mats (O'Connor 1993, NRETAS 2003), and is commonly found attached to aquatic plants. It can withstand ecosystem modification and the introduction of predators, and is moderately tolerant of freshwater pollution (Haase and Nolte 2008).
189264		population	eng	This species was common in patches of the Murray River near Adelaide, despite extensive habitat modification and the introduction of common carp (Sheldon and Walker 1993). Over 5,000 individuals were collected from streams in Victoria and South Australia (Rutherford and Kefford 2005). It was recorded in small numbers in the Lower Esk River, Tasmania (Norris <em>et al. </em>1982).
189264		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species at a global scale.
189265		conservation	eng	There a no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189265		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout northern Australia, including Western Australia, Northern Territories and Queensland (Stoddart 1982, Smith 1992). Specifically it has been found in the Kimberley region, including Parry Lagoons, Fitzroy, Kununurra and the Victoria Highway (Stoddart 1982).
189265		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lagoons, pools and creeks, but mostly prefers temporary swamps on muddy substrates (Stoddart 1982).
189265		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189265		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species at a global level.
189266		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189266		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from the middle and southern Caspian Sea (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
189266		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at a depth range of 70-126 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
189266		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Recent investigation of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna has found this species to be one of the most abundant in the area surveyed, with 40.48 % occurrence across 42 sampling stations (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189266		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189267		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' full distribution, population size and threats.
189267		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Thailand (Prasankok <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and has also been collected from the Sekong River above Stung Treng, Cambodia. Empty shells were also found on the banks of the Mekong between Takek (Lao PDR) and Nakon Panom (Thailand) and at Khong Island (Lao PDR) (Brandt 1970).
189267		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers (Brandt 1970).
189267		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189267		threats	eng	The Mekong is currently being developed in several areas for large hydropower projects (International Rivers 2009), however it is not known how such large-scale development will affect this species.
189268		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189268		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Europe and Siberia. The range extends from Lake Baikal in the Russian Federation to southern Sweden, which is the most westerly record of this species (at approximately 12°E) (Kuiper <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is rare in east Finland and south Sweden (Kuiper <em>et al.</em> 1989). The known areas in which this species is found include the Karelian Lakes in Russia and Finland (Holopainen and Kuiper 1982).
189268		habitat	eng	This species is found in oligotrophic (nutrient poor) lakes and pools (Finnish Environmental Institute 2003) in forest areas of the northern Temperate Zone, which are dominated by coniferous trees. It can be found at great depths in larger lakes (Kuiper <em>et al.</em> 1989).
189268		population	eng	This species is rare in east Finland and south Sweden (Kuiper <em>et al.</em> 1989).
189268		threats	eng	The Finnish Environmental Institute (2003) has listed this species as Near Threatened within Finland. This is due to the construction of waterways, hydro-engineering on water-courses, impoundment for power or mills, water-level regulation, dredging and channelization, and lake surface level reductions and usage of springs. Other threats listed include chemical disturbances such as environmental toxins, pesticides, oil and atmospheric pollution, and eutrophication.<br/>This species was found in Lake Kento, Russia (Aroviita <em>et al. </em>unpublished) which has undergone rising nitrate levels and considerable oxygen deficiency in the lake bottom layers in the winter period. These effects have not been observed until recent years (Kurennaya and Markkanen 2000). These threats are unlikely to be significantly impacting the global population of this wide ranging species as many of them are localised to certain habitats and catchments.
189269		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population size, distribution and trends is suggested as these data are lacking. Continued monitoring of populations and potential threatened habitat will be necessary to establish the impacts.
189269		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the colder regions of Japan and the Kuril Islands of the Russian Federation (Mori 1933,  Lee and Ó Foighil 2003). Lake Suwa is the southern limit of its distribution (Mori 1933). Specifically it is known from Nanae, Urup Island, Iturup and Hokkaido in Japan (The Ministry of the Environment Japan 2002, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189269		habitat	eng	This species is known from lakes and marshes (Mori 1933, The Ministry of the Environment Japan 2002).
189269		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189269		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189270		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the distribution of the species falls within Watarrka National Park, and the George Gill Range has been recognized by the Australian Government as a “Refuge for Biological Diversity in Arid and Semi-arid Australia”. The conservation status of its streams has been classed as extremely high. Further research is recommended to determine species abundance and threat levels. It is recommended that a species action plan is implemented and population and habitat trends are monitored.
189270		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two creeks in the George Gill Range, Northern Territory, central Australia (Korniushin 2000). The George Gill Range occupies an area of less than 1,000 km² (Morton <em>et al.</em> 1995). However this area is poorly studied, therefore the species may not be restricted to the area from which it is currently known (Korniushin 2000).
189270		habitat	eng	This species inhabits creeks (Korniushin 2000).
189270		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189270		threats	eng	Many streams and rivers in Australia are threatened by siltation and changes in water quality as a result of disturbance and land clearing for agriculture, mining, forestry and urban development (Ponder 1997). Pollution from urban, agricultural and mining activities is also a problem and dams and other forms of water management have the potential to seriously impact invertebrate populations (Ponder 1997). Introduced fishes including brown and rainbow trout, which feed on a wide variety of invertebrates, including molluscs, may also pose a threat (Ponder 1997). Due to the arid location of this species' habitat, it is likely that climate change poses future threats to the species. These potential threats will only become visible over approximately a decade, provided the distribution remains restricted (D. Van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
189271		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range falls within the Witjira National Park (Department for Environment and Heritage 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat. The Witjira-Dalhousie Springs are also listed on the National Heritage List, which offers this area protection under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).&#160;Further research is required to establish this species' population size, distribution and monitor potential threats.
189271		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Dalhousie Springs, Lake Eyre basin in South Australia (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1996).
189271		habitat	eng	This species is known from thermal springs (Ponder <em>et al</em>. 1996).
189271		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189271		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Some of the Dalhousie Springs are a popular tourist attraction. Threats associated with tourism include trampling and inappropriate bathing (i.e. soap, sunscreen and detergents) (Fensham <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the springs that this species are known from are very rarely visited by tourists, so most of the populations are probably not overly  affected by threats caused by tourism. Additionally, the Dalhousie Springs are considered to be well controlled and appropriately managed (Fensham <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189272		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine its abundance, distribution,&#160; ecology and threats, as there have not been any recent records of this species. Its taxonomy also requires further study to resolve whether or not this species is a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomacea lineata .<br/></span>
189272		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela (Pain 1956 cited in Cowie and Thiengo 2003). There have not been any recent records of this species.
189272		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189272		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189272		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any threats affecting this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189273		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the distribution, population demographics, habitat and effects of threat processes is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189273		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Xiang river in China (Yen 1939). It is possible that this species also inhabits the tributaries of this river.
189273		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers.
189273		population	eng	Yen (1939) states that this species is abundant in the Xiang river.
189273		threats	eng	It is unknown whether the species is currently affected by any threats. In the past, organic and inorganic pollution, channelisation, increased turbidity, and loss of macrophytes have been cited as potential threats (Yen 1948), however, it is unknown if these threats are still applicable today.
189274		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur within the Pha Taem National Park in Thailand, or the nearby Phou Xiang Thong National Protected Area across the Mekong River in Lao PDR. Further research is recommended into this species current distribution and population status, as the only known survey was undertaken in 1974 prior to the construction of the Pak Mun dam.
189274		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Mekong River in Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, between Ban Kum and Champasak (Brandt 1974).
189274		habitat	eng	Members of this genus inhabit slow-moving sections of rivers with sandy substrate and are also found on rocks in rapids (Brandt 1974).
189274		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189274		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow). According to a recent report by the Mekong River Commission, species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hubendickia</span> generally have a low tolerance (20-25 out of 100) to pollution and other forms of human disturbance (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189275		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189275		distribution	eng	This species is distributed along the entire Mississippi drainage from western New York to eastern Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota, south to Texas and Louisiana and Tombigbee River in Alabama (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Howells<em> et al.&#160;</em>1996).  In Canada, it occurs in the Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair, and Lake Erie drainage basins of Ontario, and in the Red River- Nelson River system of Manitoba (Clarke 1981).
189275		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river systems.
189275		population	eng	This species is generally considered stable throughout most of its range.
189275		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189276		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further surveys are needed to determine the extent of this species' range.
189276		distribution	eng	This species is known from Shikotan Island and the Sea of Japan coast of the Russian Federation (Ivanova <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2008).
189276		habitat	eng	This species largely lives in estuarine conditions near mangroves or in sea grass  beds (S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189276		population	eng	This is an abundant species and has been collected in the density range of 1,500-19,800 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Ivanova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
189276		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any threats affecting the global population of this species.
189277		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to investigate the potential synonymy of this species with <em>Paludomus conica</em> (Gray). Research is also recommended to clarify this species' population status, current distribution, ecology and threats.
189277		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected in Thailand from the Upper Menam Valley, Pu Kradeung in Kon Kaen Province, Ganchanaburi and the Mae Som River in Prae Province (Blanford 1903, GBIF 2009). Specimens of this species have also reportedly been collected from Pegu in Myanmar, and Cambodia (Blanford 1903).
189277		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rivers in Thailand, in some cases from waterfalls and cascades (Blanford 1903).
189277		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189277		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. As the distribution of this species is extemely limited, it may be vulnerable to any stochastic events which destroy suitable habitat or populations.
189278		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, ecology and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189278		distribution	eng	This species is found in the mountainous areas of eastern, central and western Asia (Baker 1945, Prosorova and Starobogatov 1996, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is known to occur in the Tuva Republic (Russia), in Yarkand (China) and Afghanistan (Solem 1979, Prosorova and Starobogatov 1996, Zasypkina 2004). This species has not been collected since the 1960s (ZIN collection).
189278		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent lakes, such as lake Tere-Hol, Russia (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004), and warm springs in Pamir (ZIN collection).
189278		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189278		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189279		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189279		distribution	eng	Clarke (1981) cites the range of this species as the Great Lakes drainage in the tributaries of Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair, and Lake Erie, and the Ohio-Mississippi drainage south to the Tennessee River system.  Strayer and Jirka (1997) list distribution as the Ohio River basin, and in the tributaries of Lake St. Clair, Lake Erie, southern Lake Huron, and southwestern Lake Ontario.  The only reproducing populations left in Canada are in Ontario on the Grand and Maitland Rivers (Metcalfe-Smith and Cudmore-Vokey 2004).  It probably still persists in the Upper, North, and Middle Thames River in Ontario but may no longer be successfully reproducing (Cudmore <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species has a large extent of occurrence in excess of 200,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189279		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river systems and has a generation length of 4 years (Jones 2009) using age at first  reproduction
189279		population	eng	Populations at the edge of the range (especially in Canada) have experienced slight declines in numbers, but otherwise populations appear to be stable.
189279		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting the global population of this species, although decreases have been observed at the fringes of its range (such as in Canada).
189280		conservation	eng	Currently, work is being carried out to assess the feasibility of designating large parts of the Volga delta as a world heritage site (NHPF 2008). If this was accepted, greater protection would be bestowed upon vital habitat for this species. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189280		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from the northern Caspian Sea and Volga delta (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189280		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters. Recently, two specimens of this species were found at a depth of 65 m (CBIS 2009).
189280		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189280		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189281		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended in order to clarify the population trends and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189281		distribution	eng	This species is found in Minnesota, USA, and in Manitoba and Ontario, Canada (Clarke 1981, Burch 1989, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/>Subspecies distributions are listed as follows: <span style="font-style: italic;">P. c. whiteaves</span>i occurs in Greenwater Lake and Lac des Mille Lacs, Thunder Bay District, Ontario (Clarke 1981, Burch 1989). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. c. corpulenta</span> is reported from northwest and west of Lake Superior in the Winnipeg, upper Albany and upper Severn River systems, and from the upper Mississippi River system in northern Minnesota (Clarke 1981). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. c. vermilionense</span> is reported from the Rainy River system in northern Minnesota and is likely to be also found in neighbouring Canada (Clarke 1981).
189281		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river drainages (NatureServe 2009).
189281		population	eng	This species has not been seen in any of the Ontario historical localities in over twenty years and it is reported to have a very limited distribution in northern Minnesota and Canada (NatureServe 2009). However, there is insufficient population information available to infer population trends for this species and further research is necessary.
189281		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189282		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Surveys are recommended at the type locality (Tampamolón, San Luís Potosí) to determine whether this species still occurs here.
189282		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in Mexico: Moctezuma River [Rio Panuco system], near Tampamolón, San Luís Potosí (Thompson 2008). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 1,400 km<sup>2</sup>.
189282		habitat	eng	This species was found on the rocky bottom of a river (Garcia and Meneses 2000). It is considered an unpolluted environmental indicator (Garcia and Meneses 2000).
189282		population	eng	This species is only known from the original specimen.
189282		threats	eng	A large dam at Zimapan in the upper Moctezuma River has been in operation since 1993, reducing water flow to areas downstream (such as Tampamolón) (Antonieta <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known what impact this has had on this species.
189283		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into this species' population status, ecology and threats is recommended.
189283		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Philippines and Indonesia (Springsteen and Leobrera 1986, Tan and Clements 2008).
189283		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189283		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189283		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189285		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance, habitat preferences and threats.
189285		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the flood lands of the Kurejka River, near the upper mouth of River Dipkun, in the northern part of Central Siberia (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is known from a single locality (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189285		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known.
189285		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189285		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any major threat is impacting this species.
189286		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish this species' population size, habitat and to identify potential threats.
189286		distribution	eng	This species is found from northern China to the Lower Amur in eastern Russia. Specifically, Yangtse and Qiantang basins, north through the Hai He in China to Korea, Primorye, and the Amur basin of Russia (Graf 2007, Graf and Cummings 2007). It can be found in the Ussuri River, Trosnikovoye Lake and is introduced in vicinities of Vladivostok (Zatrawkin and Bogatov 1987, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Kantor and Sysoev 2005). In the USSR it is found in the Ussuri and Suifun basins in Lake Khanka (Zhadin 1952).
189286		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in freshwater systems throughout the Palearctic region (Graf 2007, Graf and Cummings 2007).<br/></p>
189286		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189286		threats	eng	Although there is no information available on direct threats to this species, the water quality in much of its habitat is likely to be very poor as it is found in some of the most polluted rivers in China (Cann <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore, ill-planned hydrological engineering projects and water extraction for consumption, agriculture and industrial use have caused major ecosystem degradation in main Chinese rivers, such as the Yangtze and Huang River drainages (WWF 2009ab). Similarly, major hydrological developments, water pollution and disruption to natural hydrological regimes are posing major threats to ecosystems in the Amur River Basin (Simonov and Dahmer 2008). However, due to the uncertainty surrounding the exact location of populations the extent of these threats is unclear.
189287		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189287		distribution	eng	Burch (1989, based on Goodrich 1942) cites New York to North Carolina with potential in South Carolina for the nominal subspecies and Hot Springs in Bath Co., West Virginia for <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoxis carinata nickliniata </span>as well as other areas in West Virginia nearby (Miller-Way and Way, 1989).  Populations inhabiting the Kanawha River and its tributaries (i.e. South Fork New River, Knapp Creek) conventionally have been referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoxis dilatata </span>but Dillon and Robinson (2008) could find no significant difference, morphological or otherwise, to distinguish them from <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoxis carinata</span>.  Dillon and Robinson (2008) argue that it represents a living fossil left relictually from the Paleozoic uplift of the Appalachians.
189287		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and tributaries and hot springs.
189287		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for this species, but it is presumed to be fairly common due to its widespread distribution.
189287		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189288		conservation	eng	Pangong Tso is in the process of being designated under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance, the first such trans-boundary wetland in South Asia (Gujja <em>et al. </em>2003). Jammu and Kashmir's Leh District also has plans to create a high-altitude wildlife santuary which will include the lake (Morup 2007). There are no other species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to assess its present distribution and population status.
189288		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Jammu-Kashmir in India and Tibet, and is probably restricted to Pangong Lake ("Pangong Tso") (Germain 1922, Subba Rao 1989). This is a large (700 km<sup>2</sup>) brackish lake at an altitude of 4,250 m in the Himalayas (Gujja <em>et al. </em>2003).
189288		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from Pangong Lake, a high altitude brackish water lake (Gujja <em>et al. </em>2003).
189288		population	eng	"Very many examples" were collected from the type locality (Pangong Tso) and fewer from subsequent collections in Kashmir (Germain 1922). No further population information exists for this species.
189288		threats	eng	Pangong Tso is "seriously threatened by unorganized tourism" due to a "lack of facilities and clear regulations", according to WWF (Gujja <em>et al. </em>2003). Grazing pressure and degradation of the catchment area are also potential threats (Gujja 2007).
189289		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2Q - (NatureServe 2009). Further information regarding this species distribution and population status is required.
189289		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Ohio, United States of America. Further distributional information is needed, though it is thought to be found on the shores of Lake Erie (Burch 1989 cited in NatureServe 2009).
189289		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species (NatureServe 2009).
189289		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189289		threats	eng	There are a number of threats faced by the Lake Erie aquatic fauna. Unionid populations in the lake have been declining steadily since the 1960s as a result of declining water quality (Nalepa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1991). Eutrophication has been identified as one of the most serious threats to this lake; in the 1960s and 70s it was referred to as the 'Dead Sea' of North America (Di Toro and Connolly 1980). Declines in water quality are largely attributed to excessive municipal waste discharge; dam building on nearly all the streams entering the lake; domestic and industrial pollution sources; draining of marshes for land conversion to urban areas and agriculture.<br/><br/>Water quality at present is much improved compared to its state in the 1970s, however a number of threats still remain including: blue-green algal biomass, invasive species such as the zebra mussel, persistent organochlorine pesticides (Di Toro and Connolly 1980).
189290		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - Apparently Secure (NatureServe 2009).&#160;Williams<em> et al</em>. (2010) list this species as Currently Stable according to the American Fisheries Society (AFS) assessment.&#160;Monitoring of existing populations is recommended  in case declines increase in the future.
189290		distribution	eng	This species is found in North and South Carolina in the United States of America (Bogan and Alderman 2008).  In South Carolina, it can be found in the Savannah, Salkehatchee-Cumbahee, Edisto, Cooper-Santee, Pee Dee, and Waccamaw River basins (Bogan and Alderman 2008). Recently, this species was found in 18 (of 61) sites in Pee Dee River drainage in South Carolina, including the Waccamaw River, Black River, Pocotaligo River, Lynches River, and Great Pee Dee River (Catena Group 2006). This species is specifically found in the Catawba, Pee Dee, Waccamaw, and Cape Fear River basins of North Carolina (Bogan 2002). This species is found south to Georgia in the Ocmulgee River Drainage (Bogan and Alderman 2004).
189290		habitat	eng	This species is living in mud or soft sand, rich in vegetation, in small creeks and rivers (Bogan and Alderman 2008). Recently the Bluegill <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em>, Green sunfish <em>Lepomis cyanellus</em>, Redbreast sunfish <em>Lepomis auritus</em>, Redear sunfish <em>Lepomis microlophus</em> and Warmouth<em> Lepomis gulosus&#160;</em>have all been shown to serve as glochidial hosts for this species in laboratory trials (Bogan and Alderman 2008).
189290		population	eng	This species is 'currently stable' in North Carolina, but is proposed for a special concern status in South Carolina (Bogan and Alderman 2008).&#160;The status of the population in Georgia is unknown.
189290		threats	eng	There are no major threats affecting this species at a global level, but pine tree farming, dams, construction, point and non-point source pollution may be having localised effects (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
189291		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether any conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189291		distribution	eng	This species is found in Costa Rica (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189291		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information avaliable for this species.
189291		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189291		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189292		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance and habitat preferences, and identify emerging threat processes.
189292		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Russia, in the Altay region and the West Siberian Province of Irtyshian (Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189292		habitat	eng	This species is found in swamps, small lakes and pools (Vinarski 2008).
189292		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. However, the species is often recorded in suitable habitat in western Siberia and is therefore considered to have a stable population (M. Vinarksi pers. comm. 2010).
189292		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being affected by any major threat processes.
189293		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its distribution, population size and ecology, as well as the threats impacting this species.
189293		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in the vicinity of Lake Schamar in the district of Tadjikabad, Tajikistan (Prosorova and Starobogatov 1996). It is thought to be distributed throughout the mountainous parts of central Asia (Prosorova and Starobogatov 1996).
189293		habitat	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in the vicinity of Lake Schamar, Tajikistan (Prosorova and Starobogatov 1996).
189293		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189293		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189294		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed on the species' population status.
189294		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Uruguay river basin across Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189294		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and tributaries (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189294		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189294		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189295		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Additional research is needed on its population and threats in order to  assess whether localised threats may affect the species in parts of its  range.
189295		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the High Andean areas of Bolivia, Chile and Peru (Parada and Pereda 2002) and has also been found in Colombia (Kuiper and Hinz 1983) and north-western Argentina (Ituarte 1995). It has been found between 2,830 - 4,700 metres above sea level (Kuiper and Hinz 1984). <br/><br/>Specifically, this species has been reported in Cotacotani, Chile (Ituarte 1995). In Bolivia, it has been found in the river and lagoon Ulla Ulla, freshwater pools in Cordilleros de los Frailes, Pampa de Cheru, at 4,100 m above sea level, as well as in slow-flowing rivers in north-east La Paz and Lake Jhanko Khota, in the Cordillera Real mountain range (Kuiper and Hinz 1984). In Ischo-Kota, this species was found at 4,500 m above sea level&#160; (Kuiper and Hinz 1984). In Peru, this species has been found in a little lake near Carhuanmayo, Pampa de Junín, and also in Lake Titicaca, where it was recorded as a form called <em>excessiva</em> (with which it can be confused) and <em>Sphaerium laurichochae</em>. Additionally, this species has been found in the Lagun Alcacocha bei Junín, Lake Langui, and Capillacocha at 4,400 m above sea level (Kuiper and Hinz 1984). In Colombia, this species has been found in Alto Vallo de Launillas, Sierra Nevada del Cocuy, in valleys and meadows at 3,950 m above sea level, and Laguna de la Bersia, San Cayetano, Cundinamarca at 2,830 m above sea level (Kuiper and Hinz 1984).
189295		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from rivers, lakes and lagoons. It has a variable shell size, since there is much individual variation in shell morphology in this species (Kuiper and Hinz 1984).
189295		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189295		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is experiencing any major global threats. However, it may be subject to localised threats in parts of its range.
189296		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to clarify this species' population size, ecology and threats.
189296		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Bang Khon Kao near Nakon Chai Sri in Nakon Pathom Province, Thonburi, Bangkok and Surat Thani Provinces, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189296		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available on this species. This genus is known generally as a good coloniser, and can tolerate muddy waters and low oxygen levels that often occur after disturbances. This genus dominates its habitat by immigration rather than recruitment, is slow growing, and long lived (Attwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <p>&#160;</p>
189296		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189296		threats	eng	The mangroves and surrounding ecosystem of Surat Thani Province are threatened by over-exploitation for charcoal and wood chip production, unmanaged pole extraction, fuel wood harvesting and clear-felling for timber. Habitat degradation has also occurred due to conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds, housing and residential development. Further, wastewater from aquaculture and sewage from urban and industrial areas have altered the water quality (Plathong and Plathong 2004). However, with habitat and ecology information lacking, it is impossible to gauge the severity of these threats to this species.
189297		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189297		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ecuador (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189297		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189297		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189297		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and habitat degradation.
189298		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In Brazil, this species is listed as vulnerable in the states of Acre, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul (Ministério do Meio Ambiente 2004). Further research is required to establish this species' distribution, population size and habitat preferences.
189298		distribution	eng	This species is found in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Peru (Baker 1913, Fittkau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Rumi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is found in rivers throughout the Amazon system (Fittkau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1969).
189298		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent flowing rivers (Hass 1945).
189298		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189298		threats	eng	The precise nature of threats to this species is unknown. However, mercury pollution from gold mining, untreated sewage and the diversion of waterways due to road and dam construction are potential threats to this species in the Amazon River and its tributaries (WWF 2009).
189299		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on this species' distribution and population status.
189299		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is "the southern tip of Kunashir Island", north of Hokkaido, Japan (Prozorova 1996).
189299		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is not known.
189299		population	eng	This species is possibly only known from the type locality.
189299		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189300		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Some level of protection is recommended for the spring in which the species is known to occur. Monitoring of population numbers is also needed in order to detect in time any declines in population numbers.
189300		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality at Mt Nogouta, Paita, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and its area of occupancy is likely to be less than 10 km².
189300		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a seepage (spring) (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189300		population	eng	This species is common in the type locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189300		threats	eng	The occurrence of land clearance for human development and purpose-lit fires has increased, and this has sped up the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This species is known from a hill northwest of Noumea where the native forest is reduced and is overgrown with <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(Paper Bark) (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This invasive species may also cause a decline in habitat quality.
189301		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population size, trends and possible threats.
189301		distribution	eng	This species is known from Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand (Brandt 1974). In Thailand this species is most notably found in the Mekong and Thachin Rivers (Sripongpun 2003).
189301		habitat	eng	This species is found in large rivers, tributaries, ponds and streams (Morlet 1886, Brandt 1974).
189301		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189301		threats	eng	Pollution and other anthropogenic factors have caused the degradation of water quality in the Thachin and Mekong Rivers in recent years (Sripongpun 2003). However, it is unknown what impact this may be having on this species' population.
189302		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify its population abundance, exact distribution, ecology and threats.
189302		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected from the Andaman Islands (Kabat and Hershler 1993).
189302		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown freshwater habitat (Abbott 1945). This species adopts an ovoviviparous reproductive strategy (Haase 2005), and members of this genus have been implicated as an intermediate host of human blood flukes (Abbott 1945).
189302		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
189302		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Rivers on the Andaman Islands are predominantly non-perennial, rain-fed streams which dry up in summer (India Enviroment Portal 2010). This may limit habitable waterways for this species, making it more susceptible to anthropogenically driven perturbation during the dry season. Recent physico-chemical analysis of ground and surface water quality in the Andaman Islands surrounding the capital Port Blair has found that they lie within the accepted limits for Indian water quality. Heavy metals, however, were found to be present in excessive amounts. Furthermore, bacteriological analysis found contamination with faecal matter in ground water (Mahajan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). However, the sensitivity of this speceis to heavy metal and faecal contamination is not known.
189304		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population demographics and distribution of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
189304		distribution	eng	This species is known from Alagir in the Northern Ossetia-Alania Republic, Russian Federation (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is only known from two collections, from closely situated samples (ZIN collection).
189304		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary waterbodies, such as, for example, roadside puddles (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997, in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189304		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189304		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189305		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats, as currently very little is known about this species.
189305		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the southern and western part of the middle Caspian Sea, at depths of 36-120 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189305		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea.
189305		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens. Other species of this genus have been assessed in the southern Caspian, where significant widespread populations have been found (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189305		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>.  2006).
189306		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species population status.
189306		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand (Brandt 1974). Specifically it is recorded from Huai Tuai, Maenam Kham and Maenam Songkram rivers in the Nakon Panom Province (Brandt 1974). It is also found in the Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen, Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004). Not been widely recorded in recent years.
189306		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and reservoirs (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
189306		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189306		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189307		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed to confirm the range of this species, as it is possible that it is found on the continent of South America.  More information about its abundance, habitat requirements and the possible threats it may face would also be useful for future Red List assessments.
189307		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Cape Pembroke in the Falkland Islands (Ituarte 1996). It is also possible that this species is found on the South American continent (Sielfeld 2001), however Ituarte recorded it from the Malvinas only (2007).
189307		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189307		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189307		threats	eng	Because very little is known about this species, it is unknown if it is affected by any major threats.
189308		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to clarify the taxonomy of this species and others in the Pacific "<em>A. parvula </em>group" (Cowie and Robinson 2003).
189308		distribution	eng	This species was recorded from Rarotonga, Uvea, Tutuila, and 'Upolu in Samoa and American Samoa by Schmeltz (1874). Later surveys only recorded it from 'Upolu, Samoa (Cowie and Robinson 2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,350 km<sup>2</sup>.
189308		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information for this species, but the closely related (and possibly synonymous) <em>A. parvula</em> is found beneath decaying leaves, under stones and dead wood at the edge of brackish water (Cowie in prep.).
189308		population	eng	This species was known only from 'Upolu prior to 1965, but was not recorded on any island in surveys since then (1965 and 1992-94). Population trends are unknown (Cowie and Robinson 2003), but <em>A. parvula</em> - which some consider to be synonymous with this species - has declined in that time, appearing to go extinct on Savai'i (although this record was based on a single specimen; Cowie and Robinson 2003).
189308		threats	eng	Introduced alien snail species are the major threat to native snails in Samoa, with a trend of increasing aliens and declining native species (Cowie and Robinson 2003). Other potential threats to this species include: invasive plants and habitat modification; introduced rats and other similar species; and development by humans, for recreational, agricultural or urban causes (Cowie 2001).
189309		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is recommended to determine the effects that salmon fishing may be having on this species.
189309		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Tugur River valley, Khabarovsk Region, Russia (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is known from the type locality only.
189309		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). The only record of this species known to this date was made in 1936 (ZIN collection catalogue).
189309		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189309		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is experiencing any serious threat processes. The Tugur River flows through the Tuguro-Chumikanskiy region of Khabarovskyi krai and into the southwestern part of the Sea of Okhotsk. The Tugur River basin is practically unpopulated and has no roads except for winter snow roads, and no mining or logging activities. Most of the basin is in natural pristine condition and due to the low human population density and the absence of roads and industry, the conditions for freshwater species are very favorable. There are no specially protected areas in the Tugur watershed, but in 2001, the whole area of the basin was leased to the Kretchet Hunters Society to organize commercial and sportfishing for salmon (Melnik 2009).
189310		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population status and trends of this species is needed.
189310		distribution	eng	This species is known from north and west Nicaragua (Pérez and López 2003), Plan y Omoa in the Ulúa River valley in Honduras, and Yzabal, Guatemala (Martens 1901). However, the records from Honduras and Guatemala are very old and need confirmation.
189310		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lotic environments (Pérez and López 2003).
189310		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189310		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189311		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Research is needed to confirm the full range of this species, and gather additional information about its habitat and ecology, population status and tolerance to various pollutants etc. This will allow us to better evaluate the type of threats this species may be facing.
189311		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Salta and Jujuy provinces of Argentina. It is found between 1,400 m and 4,100 m above sea level (Ituarte 2005). The type locality is a watercourse that opens into Reyes River at Termas de Reyes in the Jujuy province, Argentina (Ituarte 2005). It is known from several places, including a stream between Yavi in Jujuy state and Santa Victoria in Salta state and a small pool by the side of the Rio Grande River (Ituarte 2005). It is also found in small springs near Huertas by the side of Manzanito Rivulet, in a small stream close to Yala, near Chachi in an unnamed brook on road No. 57 in Salta Province, and in Tumbaya (Ituarte 2005).
189311		habitat	eng	This species can be found in pools, streams, and highland springs surrounded by cushion plants (Ituarte 2005). It is also found in temporary pools caused by flooding of permanent water courses.
189311		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189311		threats	eng	The upper Juramento River has elevated levels of mercury caused by local industry, although it may also possibly be of volcanic origin (Lomniczi <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is possible that this species is impacted by these elevated mercury levels, as it is known from nearby localities. The nearby Salado River basin is also being impacted by heavy metal pollution and eutrophication (Gagneten<em> et al. </em>2007). However, until more is known about the environmental tolerances of this species, the significance of these threats cannot be determined.
189312		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding this species' abundance and population trends, as well as the impacts of threats, is required.
189312		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Salto do Iguzu and Uruqui stream in Misiones Province, Argentina (Rumi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). This species is endemic to the Plata basin and has a continuous, but restricted distribution (Rumi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).
189312		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189312		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189312		threats	eng	On the Paraná   River, the Itaipu Dam, the largest in the world, flooded  approximately 100,000 ha of land and destroyed significant aquatic  habitat including Guaira Falls. The basin faces the second greatest  number of planned dams in the world (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2007).&#160;The upper Paraná   basin is impacted by industrial, domestic,  and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of  river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe in  parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the  Upper Paraná. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have  the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay  region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the  Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic  life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species.
189313		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Site protection is needed and monitoring of the existing population and its remaining habitat is recommended.
189313		distribution	eng	The species is know from a single site in the middle of secondary bush (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2011), from one tiny seepage in a dry valley near Voh in New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy is likely to be less than 10 km².
189313		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a small seepage behind a micro-dam (Haase and Bouchet 1998) in a very dry valley (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). There is no other suitable habitat nearby.
189313		population	eng	This species is reported to be rare with only eleven specimens recently collected from the type locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189313		threats	eng	This species is threatened by unnatural bush fires (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2011). There is no virgin habitat left as the area is covered in <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>scrub (paper bark). The habitat is very degraded and the species is particularly vulnerable to threat processes as it is only found in one locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189314		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its range coincides with protected areas.
189314		distribution	eng	This species has a broad Indo-West Pacific distribution, occurring from southern Japan and the Ryukyu Islands south through the Philippines, Gulf of Thailand, and Indonesia to Australia and New Guinea, and east to Micronesia and the Marshall Islands (Palomares and Pauly 2009). In Australia it occurs from Shark Bay, Western Australia around the northern coast to Sydney, New South Wales (Beechey 2010).
189314		habitat	eng	This species inhabits estuaries, coastal lagoons, river mouths and mangroves where it is found on muddy sand (Houbrick 1992, Beechey 2010). It can also occur in aquaculture ponds, for example in Thailand (Fujioka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
189314		population	eng	This species is abundant and generally dominant in the tropics but uncommon in New South Wales, Australia (Beechey 2009). In Sulawesi it reaches densities of up to 153 individuals m<sup>-2</sup> (Barnes 2003).
189314		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. However, Houbrick (1992) stated that: "the presence of mangrove swamps is a critical factor in distribution". Despite its widespread distribution, the global decline in mangrove habitats may be a threat to this species (Alongi 2002).
189315		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' exact distribution, population abundance, habitat, ecology and threats.
189315		distribution	eng	This species is listed in the 'Species Red Data Book' for Indonesia in the proposed natural park Ogan Komering Lebaks, South Sumatra, Indonesia (Travelling Indonesia 2009).
189315		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189315		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189315		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189316		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify tis abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189316		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from Samoa and Fiji (Cowie 1998).
189316		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown freshwater habitat (Cowie 1998).
189316		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
189316		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.&#160;This species is not included in the environmental assessment of proposed hydroelectric energy schemes in Fiji (SKM 2005, 2007), although other species of the family Thiaridae have been recognised as important species for the islands and are, as such, included on the reports. Siltation of the water course as a result of dam and infrastructre construction is cited as a major risk factor (SKM 2007). Given this species occupies lower courses of streams, it would be highly vulnerable to changes in flow regime and associated deposition of sediment. However, the effects of this threat have yet to be characterised.
189317		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further survey work is needed on the ecology, distribution and threats impacting this species. The collection of a live specimen would also greatly elicit the knowledge on the life history of this species.
189317		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the coastal region of New South Wales, Australia (Houbrick 1984, S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189317		habitat	eng	This brackish species is likely to occur in estuaries and <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span> (seagrass) beds, although its exact habitat preferences are unknown (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189317		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. The only specimens are from empty shells (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189317		threats	eng	This species may be affected on a local scale by habitat degradation and loss, in addition to pollution. However, the impacts from threat processes are unknown.
189318		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out in order to detect significant future population declines in time.
189318		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities in north-east Taiwan (Komatsu 1986).
189318		habitat	eng	This species is known from rocks and stones in rivers (Wu 2009). Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Neritina</span> inhabit downstream sections of streams and have marine larval stages, so they are relatively tolerant to saline/brackish waters and therefore can survive in a variety of river systems (F. Kohler pers. comm. 2010).
189318		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189318		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189319		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Part of the lake in which this species is found is protected by the Titicaca National Reserve.
189319		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Lake Titicaca. The lake has a surface area of approximately 8,300 km² (Dejoux 1991).
189319		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species (Dejoux 1991).
189319		population	eng	This species can be found up to densities of 6,000 individuals per m² in some areas of the lake (Dejoux 1991).
189319		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to the gastropod fauna in Lake Titicaca. The globally invasive gastropod <span style="font-style: italic;">Physa acuta </span>has recently been documented in the lake and found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia andicola </span>(Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). There are also a number of non-native fish species which support a commercial fishery in the lake: Rainbow Trout (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmo gairdneri</span>) and Pejerrey (<span style="font-style: italic;">Basilichthyes bonariensis</span>) (Gammons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Other major threats to the lake's fauna include increased eutrophication and water diversion programs (Borre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Organic and bacteriological contamination from nearby Puno City are thought to be the main causes of increased rates of eutrohophication. The population of the city is thought to increase significantly in the next few years (Costantini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189320		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the taxonomy of this species. If it is a valid species, then surveys should be undertaken to determine its current distribution, abundance and threat processes, as the only information available on this species is outdated and vague.
189320		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is "Fort Simpson, British America" (Dall 1905, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). However, there is some confusion as to whether this meant Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie River in the Northwest Territories, or Fort Simpson, British Columbia (Dall 1905).&#160;Kantor <em>et al.</em> (2009) state the distribution of this species to be Anadyr in Chukotka, far eastern Russia.
189320		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Dall 1905).
189320		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189320		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189321		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to first and foremost determine the distribution of this species.
189321		distribution	eng	There is no distribution information available for this species, although it is thought to occur throughout the neotropics.
189321		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189321		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189321		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats affecting this species.
189322		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further surveys are needed to confirm the exact range of this species.
189322		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality - Méa-Mébara, Kouaoua, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Lack of resources and the minute size of species of this genus make    comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result,    defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species of    this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is known    about this species, it has a very restricted distribution in a single location, with an estimated extent of occurrence of around 80 km² and area of occupancy of less than 10 km²<sup></sup>. Although there  is  some  uncertainty about these estimates, the order of magnitude of  the   documented extent of occurrence is considered to be correct (P.  Bouchet   pers. comm. 2011).
189322		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a small creek (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189322		population	eng	This species was abundant at the only known locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189322		threats	eng	Major threats impacting this species are habitat loss and degradation as a result of extensive surface mining (nickel). Land clearance for human development and purpose-lit fires are increasing the drying out of nearby springs and seepages. This may have  caused the restricted distribution of species of  this  genus, so that  it has therefore been suggested that this restriction   may be of quite  recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its restricted   distribution  makes this species more vulnerable to the continued threat   processes  of intensifying agriculture, land clearing, and bush fires  (P.  Bouchet  pers. comm. 2011). There has also been a reduction of  native forest,  which is now overgrown with the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark), posing a significant threat to the species' global population (P.Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189323		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed on its distribution and population status.
189323		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens. It has been collected from the rapids of Butni, Rio Uruguay, between San Borja and Uruguayana, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Cowie and Thiengo 2003) and Argentina (Rumi <em>et al. </em>2008). It also extends into Uruguay in the same river (Simone 2006).
189323		habitat	eng	This species occurs in streaming, oxygen-rich rivers, and lays aquatic clutches of gelatinous eggs (Applesnail 2009).
189323		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189323		threats	eng	The upper Paraná   basin in Brazil is impacted by industrial, domestic and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe in parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the Upper Paraná. Gold mining causes heavy metal pollution in the Upper Paraguay and in the Brazilian Amazon. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species.
189324		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189324		distribution	eng	This species is found across the Indo-Pacific (Alexiel 2006) although its exact distribution is unknown.
189324		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters (Alexiel 2006).
189324		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189324		threats	eng	It is considered highly unlikely that there is an imminent threat to the global population of this species.
189325		conservation	eng	The Baikal basin was granted UNESCO World Heritage Area status in 1996 (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is necessary to determine population size and trends, and the impact of threats.
189325		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Baikal, Russia (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009) and the Angara River (Sitnikova&#160;2004).
189325		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 3 – 35 m in Lake Baikal (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009) on sandy and sandy-mud bottoms (Sitnikova 2004). It is also found in the Angara river.
189325		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189325		threats	eng	Anthropogenic influences in Lake Baikal are likely to have had negative impacts on this, and many other, species. Threats include: industrial pollution (waste products from the pulp and cellulose processing factories, thought to be in the order of 1.5 billion cubic metres since 1966); atmospheric deposition from factories and fossil fuel consumption; untreated sewage; agro-chemical input (e.g. elevated levels of DDTs and PCBs were recorded in the lake and southern tributaries); sedimentation and soil erosion from logging on the river tributaries; railway and road construction in the north; and increased urbanization around the lake (Mackay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<br/><br/>There have been efforts to resolve some of the environmental problems surrounding the lake in recent years, and diatom studies have shown that contamination levels may have decreased in the 1990s (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). In 2006, a popular campaign – both within Russia and internationally – succeeded in halting construction of an oil pipeline which would have threatened the Lake’s ecosystem (Yanitsky 2009). In 2008, the largest of the two paper factories on the lake’s shoreline, Baikalsk, closed down after pressure from environmentalists (The Guardian 2008).<br/><br/>However, due to a lack of information on population trends in this species, at present it is impossible to gauge the severity and impacts of these threats.
189326		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
189326		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Florida marshes and lakes in the central and southern part of the peninsula (Thompson 1999, Burch 1989).
189326		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to Florida marshes and lakes in the central and southern part of the peninsula (Thompson 1999, Burch 1989).
189326		population	eng	This species has an abundant and stable population.<em><br/></em>
189326		threats	eng	There are no immediate substantial threats impacting the global population of this species.
189327		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperiled (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding distribution and threats impacting this species is required.
189327		distribution	eng	This species is known from one spring in the Salton Sea Basin in Riverside County, California (Hershler 1994).<br/><br/>Hovingh (1993) has reported this genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrgulopsis </span>from Fish Springs Flat and Snake Valley in Utah, although the distribution at species level is unknown, suggesting that it is possible that this species may occur at this location.
189327		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a freshwater spring (Hershler 1994).
189327		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189327		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189328		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into the population size and ecology of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as habitat destruction and degradation.
189328		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Thailand (Prashad 1929), Malaysia, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (Habe 1964).
189328		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189328		population	eng	This species was described as very common in Thailand (Habe 1964).  However, due to the intensity of development within this country, particularly since this record, its current abundance is uncertain.
189328		threats	eng	In Thailand, this species is collected as a food source at the subsistence scale (Habe 1964). Due to the low intensity of harvest levels and broad distribution of this species, this is not considered to pose a significant threat to the global population of this species. This species may also be undergoing declines due to habitat degradation and destruction. Thailand has undergone wide-scale development and deforestation in recent years (Delang 2002).
189329		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further studies are recommended to resolve the taxonomic issues surrounding the genus placement. Furthermore it is necessary to know the exact distribution and abundance of this species.
189329		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the North Island of New Zealand. The type locality is Lake Waikare (Suter 1905). It has also been recorded from Inglewood (Powell 1979) as well as Auckland, Wellington and Taranaki (B. Marshall pers. comm. 2009).
189329		habitat	eng	This species is found under stones and leaves in lakes, streams and ponds (Winterbourn 1973, S.Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189329		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189329		threats	eng	On a local scale, Lake Waikare is severely degraded, suffering from regular algal blooms, high organic pollution, and a low water level (Stephens <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, this species has a wide distribution and therefore is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale.
189330		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine whether this species is still extant, as it is currently only known from fossil records. If it is found to still exist within Peru, data on its detailed distribution, abundance, ecology and threats are needed to aid future Red List assessments.
189330		distribution	eng	This species is found as a fossil record in Peru, in the Rio Nanay (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189330		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189330		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189330		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats.
189331		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding population trends, precise distribution and threats impacting this species.
189331		distribution	eng	This species is known from the lower reaches of the Dnieper river and Dnieper-Bug estuary in the Ukraine (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). Most probably, this species is known only from the type locality (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189331		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and estuaries (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It is possible that it is tolerant to increases in salinity.
189331		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189331		threats	eng	Due to uncertainty over the full range of this species, the threats to this species are unclear.
189332		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding potential threats to this species and conservation actions is required.
189332		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the southern part of the Russian Far East (Primorye) and adjacent parts of China and, probably, the Korean peninsula. In Russia, it inhabtis the Amur River basin (except of its upper course) and the upper and central parts of Zeya and Bureya basins (Starobogatov <em>et al. </em>2004 <em>in</em> Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species is also known from Heilongjiang, Jilin, China (Agency of Environmental Protection of Boading of Hebei 2009).
189332		habitat	eng	In Russia, this species is found in large and small rivers, floodplain  channels, and large lakes (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). This species is listed in China's list of wetlands for the area of Heilongjiang, Jilin district (Agency of Environmental Proitection of Boading of Hebei 2009).
189332		population	eng	For a study on Cercariae, Besprozvannykh and Ermolenko (2009) took 1,000 specimens of this species from the Arsenkevka River and surrounding basin; therefore it is assumed that this is not a rare species and is in fact reported to be abundant.
189332		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189333		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and distribution is suggested as these data are lacking.&#160; This would also help to establish if the species is extant, as it is currently only known from dead material.
189333		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality in Turkmenistan, specifically on the right bank of the Amudarja river in Kerkichi (Izzatullaev 1980 in Kantor<em> <em>et al</em>. </em>2009). It is only known from empty shells.
189333		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Izzatullaev 1980 in Kantor<em> et al. </em>2009).
189333		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189333		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189334		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its distribution is likely to coincide with national parks in certain areas. Further surveying is recommended in order to ascertain the population size and distribution.
189334		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Victoria and southern New South Wales, Australia (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003). The extent of occurrence is less than 40,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189334		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small coastal rivers and streams. It is generally found on leaves, roots, weeds and stones (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
189334		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be locally abundant (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
189334		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species has a fairly wide distribution and it is unlikely that any major threats are impacting the global population, although localised declines may be apparent as a result of habitat degradation and land clearance (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189335		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189335		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Baikal and is also found along the Angara River to Irkutsk, Russian Federation (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189335		habitat	eng	This species is known from a lake and river (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189335		population	eng	This species is common in the lake (Shirokaya 2004).
189335		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189336		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 (vulnerable) by NatureServe (2009). Some of the land on which this species is found, is within national park boundaries, however much of its range is contained within private land (Stagliano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). At least one location is within lands administered by the Nez Perce National Forest and another site is on the Payette National Forest (Stagliano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Future research regarding population trends is needed to accurately assess population status.
189336		distribution	eng	This species has a fairly wide distribution in the lower Columbia and Snake river basin in Washington, Idaho, California, and Oregon (Hershler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). Colonies are scattered through the Columbia and Snake River basins into western Idaho, and it can also be found in interior Oregon in the Deschutes, Umatilla, and John Day River basins; and also on the Rogue, Umpqua, and Smith River basins in southern Oregon and Del Norte Co. in northern California. It once occurred in Montana but recent surveys suggest it is now extirpated from this region (Richards <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189336		habitat	eng	This species is typically found inhabiting small springs, seeps, occasionally larger springs, spring outflow channels, and spring influenced stream reaches (Stagliano e<span style="font-style: italic;">t al. </span>2007). The springs in which it is found are usually in semi-arid areas where sagebrush is dominant on a basalt substrate though it has also been found in areas that are dominated by Douglas Fir's (Frest and Johannes 1997).
189336		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Populations at many sites contain hundreds of individuals, although numbers vary considerably from year to year due to environmental factors. Colony size also tends to be extremely variable from year to year, making it difficult to determine a population trend.
189336		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the primary threat to the species. According to Frest and Johannes (1997) grazing is a prevalent cause of habitat degradation. Other causes include road construction and maintenance, damming and water diversion, and campground construction. Increased nutrient load in groundwater is also a potential threat to some populations. Diversions and groundwater pumping for camp ground, hatchery stock and domestic water supplies can induce hydrologic changes affecting flow of the small seeps and springs which <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hemphelli</span> prefer. Additional damage has also been caused by urbanization, logging, road construction and maintenance, grazing, and flooding as a result of dam construction. At some sites in Grant County, Washington, excessive algae growth and loss of local populations has occurred due to nutrient-rich groundwater changing the water chemistry (WA NHP pers. comm. 2011).
189337		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.
189337		distribution	eng	This species is now extirpated from the Aral Sea where it has not been recorded since 1992 (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010). It is now only known from the southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189337		habitat	eng	This species is found in waters of 25- 40 m depth in the Caspian Sea and was found at depths of up to 21 m in the Aral Sea. It is found in brackish waters and in the Aral Sea was found on liqiud, mud and plant detritus (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010).
189337		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189337		threats	eng	Increased salinity in the Aral Sea has led to the extirpation of a number of <span style="font-style: italic;">Caspiohydrobia</span> species (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). It may also be impacted by invasive species; since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189338		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine whether this species is being impacted by threat processes.
189338		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coasts of southeast Asia, including Thailand, southern Viet Nam, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Borneo) (Brandt 1974). It has also been intercepted by quarantine officials in the US, although so far has been unable to establish itself in the wild (Campbell 2004).
189338		habitat	eng	This amphibious species inhabits tidal freshwater areas and river banks, including mangroves, where it lives on plants above the surface or slightly submerged. It feeds on fresh vegetation and decaying organic matter (Brandt 1974).
189338		population	eng	This species outnumbered other snails "by far" in sago (<span style="font-style: italic;">Metroxylon</span> spp.) forests along the banks of Sungai Selangor, Malaysia (Kirton <em>et al. </em>2006).
189338		threats	eng	The larvae of the parasitic firefly <em>Pteroptyx tener</em> prey on this species in Southeast Asia, by entering the shell and injecting a parasitic toxin (Nagelkerken <em>et al. </em>2008). Land conversion to agriculture and associated impacts on the habitat of this species (chemical runoff, sedimentation) are the greatest threats to this species (Kirton <em>et al. </em>2006).
189339		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine if there are any threats impacting this species and to gather more information on its abundance.
189339		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Florida peninsula, westward to the Suwannee and Choctawhatchee rivers, and in Cuba, Bolivia, Peru southward to the Paraguay river and into southeastern Brazil (Perera and Walls 1996, Ghesquiere 2007). It has recently spread to Hawaii (Ghesquiere 2007).
189339		habitat	eng	This is the largest snail in Florida and Cuba, reaching a maximum size of 70 mm (Perera and Walls 1996). This species is found in swamps and artificial lakes as well as the warm waters of rivers, lakes, ponds and roadside ditches (Perera and Walls 1996, Ghesquiere 2007). It is found in creeks in Cuba and slow flowing or stagnant waters in Florida (Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society 2004). This species is amphibious and is a critical food source for the endangered Snail Kite (<em>Rostrhamus sociabilis</em>) (Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society 2004). The eggs are white and are laid on emerging stems of vegetation in clutches of 10-80 eggs, roughly 3-6 mm in diameter (Ghesquiere 2007). Young begin to appear after two weeks and due to their large size when born, they are less sensitive to habitat desiccation (Ghesquiere 2007). It is also a voracious eater and can tolerate relatively acidic water conditions (Perera and Walls 1996). This species is also thought to be an intermediate host of a nematode called the rat lungworm (<em>Angiostrongylus cantonensis</em>) (Perera and Walls 1996).
189339		population	eng	This species is very common in artificial lakes (Perera and Walls 1996).
189339		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the habitat regime. This species is edible and is consumed in several local areas (Perera and Walls 1996).
189340		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' taxonomy, current distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
189340		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Lao PDR and Cambodia. In Lao PDR it was found in the Mekong River near Paksé, at Done Houat north of Khong, Ban Na, Phapheng Falls and Somphamit Falls and in Cambodia at Kas Lognieu, Sambor and Sandan (Brandt 1974).
189340		habitat	eng	This species lives on rocks and in shallows in rivers, pools and channels (Brandt 1974).
189340		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens (Brandt 1974).
189340		threats	eng	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5,000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in the Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction and for completion in 2012 and 2017 respectively. By 2030, there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China, the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ‘flood pulse’, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly, Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in these developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>
189341		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' distribution, taxonomy, ecology and threats.
189341		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed across the Indo-west Pacific between the Indo-Malay archipelago and Japan (T. von Rintelen pers comm. 2010). In absence of a modern, more comprehensive revision of this group, the precise distribution of this species is unknown.
189341		habitat	eng	This species has been collected form unknown riverine habitat in the Philippines (T. von Rintelen pers comm. 2010).
189341		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
189341		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189342		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on population trends and status.
189342		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Chengjiang in Yunnan, China. Species of this genus are located in the lower Mekong River, and this species has been collected in drainages not connected to the river and Lake Fuxian, which has a surface area of 211 km<sup>2</sup> (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1989).
189342		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers, lakes and river drainages (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989).
189342		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189342		threats	eng	The inland waters of China have been adversely affected by many threats including: habitat loss, modification and fragmentation; introduction of exotic species; overfishing; degradation of biodiversity through accelerated eutrophication. Lake Fujian has been effected by the natural invasion of 23 fish species including <em>Neosalanx taihuensis</em>, which directly competes with native species for prey (Xie and Chen 1999).<br/><br/>The Mekong River in particular is heavily impacted upon by over-fishing. Large-scale subsistence fishing, as well as illegal fishing through the use of small-mesh nets, electro fishing and over-harvesting with poison pose detrimental threats to this freshwater ecosystem. Furthermore, planned damming may cause changes in water flow (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
189343		conservation	eng	This species is currently included on the Republic of Uzbekistan Biodiversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan (Khabibalaev 1998), being part of the "List of Nonvertebrate Species Included into The Red Book of Uzbekistan". However, the remit of present or future protection bestowed by this classification is not known. As its distribution is solely contained within a small enclave of Uzbekistan completely surounded by Kazakhstan, much cross-border conservation cooperation is requried to ensure the continued survival of this species. Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189343		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from a few freshwater springs in Uzbekistan, between the villages of Vozadil and Shakhmardan in the Alai Mountains (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189343		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from freshwater springs.
189343		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189343		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189344		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, population size, ecology, and threats.
189344		distribution	eng	This species is known from China, where it occurs from Yuyao in the east, to Lanchi in central China, and north to Changchun (Yen 1948).
189344		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189344		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189344		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189345		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding this species' abundance, distribution, ecology and population trends, and the impacts of threats on its population.
189345		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Argentina (da Silva and Davis 1983) although the exact location is unclear, as well as in Brazil, in the localities of Nova Teutonia, the Dourandinho, Guaiba and Sinos Rivers, tributaries of the Santa Maria River and Porto Alegre (Lima and de Souza 1990). It has also been said to inhabit the whole course of the Paraná   river and La Plata (Pilsbry 1911, G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
189345		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rivers (Lima and de Souza 1990), and is known to occur on or under stones, at and below the water mark (Pilsbry 1911).
189345		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, though this species is stated as often occurring in copious numbers (Pilsbry 1911).
189345		threats	eng	On the Paraná   River, the Itaipu Dam, the largest in the world, flooded   approximately 100,000 ha of land and destroyed significant aquatic   habitat including Guaira Falls. The basin faces the second greatest   number of planned dams in the world (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.   2007).&#160;The upper Paraná   basin is impacted by industrial, domestic,   and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of   river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe  in  parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the   Upper Paraná. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have   the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay   region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the   Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic   life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species.
189347		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Considered as vulnerable in Japan by Kondo (2008). This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish if this species is experiencing a decline in population size.
189347		distribution	eng	This species is found in coastal areas in Japan and Sakhalin, Russia (Smith 2001) throughout Honshu, Hokkaido, Kunashiri, Sakhalin (Kondo & Kobayashi 2005; Kondo 2008).
189347		habitat	eng	This species is found in creeks and flowing rivers (Kondo <em>et al.</em> 2000; Bogatov <em>et al.</em> 2003; Akiyama and Iwakuma 2007). It is also found in lakes, such as lake Akan-ko, in Japan (Moriwake 2005). Recruitment in this species seems to be inhibited when exposed to warm water temperatures (Akiyama and Iwakuma 2007). It matures at eight years of age (Kondo 2008).
189347		population	eng	This species is widely distributed in Honshu and Hokkaido, Japan (Kondo and Kobayashi 2005). In the Chitose River and the Abira River, Japan, 37 and 0.13 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> were recorded respectively (Akiyama 2007). In the Abira River, juveniles were rare and populations were considered to be decreasing gradually (Akiyama 2007). The juveniles of this species may be particularly vulnerable when exposed to unsuitable environmental conditions for prolonged periods. They were found to have an even shorter lifespan than the critically endangered <span style="font-style: italic;">Margaritifera margaritifera</span> (Akiyama and Iwakuma 2009).<br/>&#160;<br/>A study conducted by Kurihara <em>et al.</em> (2003) showed that two morphological and genetic distinct groups exist that represent two different species.
189347		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189348		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine population size, distribution and trends.
189348		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yuyao and Zhongshan in Zhejiang province, and around Tai Hu and Shanghai in Jiangsu province, China (Yen 1950). Further attempts to collect from the type locality (Soochow, near Lake Tai) have been obstructed, so information on this species is sparse (Meier-Brook 1983).
189348		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes and canals (Yen 1950).
189348		population	eng	According to Yen (1950) this species "is not uncommonly found around the Tai-hu region [Lake Tai, Suzhou], and more frequently found near the bank of the Great Canal".
189348		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189349		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine this species population status, current distribution, ecology and the impact of threats.</p>
189349		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens found in the Mekong River, Lao PDR (Davis 1979).
189349		habitat	eng	This is a riverine species (Davis 1979).
189349		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189349		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189350		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding population trends and the full extent of threats on this species is required.
189350		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Argentina, and has been collected from the Somuncura plateau in Rio Negro Province, the Alto Parana (Rumi <em>et al</em>. 2007) and Uruguay Rivers in Entre Rios (Pilsbry 1911), and the Rio de la Plata estuary (Armengol <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
189350		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Rumi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), under stones in extremely shallow water (Pilsbry 1911).
189350		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189350		threats	eng	On the Paraná   River, the Itaipu Dam, the largest in the world, flooded approximately 100,000 ha of land and destroyed significant aquatic habitat including Guaira Falls. The basin faces the second greatest number of planned dams in the world (Wong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160;The upper Paraná   basin is impacted by industrial, domestic, and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe in parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the Upper Paraná. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic life. While the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this species. Rio Negro Province in Patagonia is exposed to increasing threats due to toxins from mining and oil extraction, deforestation leading to a decrease in water quality and sedimentation, as well as hunting (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).
189351		conservation	eng	This is an introduced species therefore no conservation actions are needed.
189351		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
189351		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) lists the distribution of the nominal subspecies as the Atlantic Coast and Mississippi River northward to Arctic Canada and Alaska and southward to Tennessee and Missouri; for <em>Planorbella trivolvis</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">intertextum </span>the distribution is listed as ranging from Long Pine Key in the southern Florida Everglades throughout peninsular Florida and north along the coast to Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina.
189351		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helisoma trivolvis</span> ranges the native range in North America, from arctic Canada to Florida. It has been introduced sporadically around the world, as this is the “ramshorn” snail is commonly sold for use in freshwater aquaria, and has doubtless been spread artificially by hobbyists and water gardeners.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Fauna Europea listed this species for the Azores, where it is found at a few localities on the island of <a href="http://www.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt/listagens.php?lang=en&start=1&end=40&sstr=7&id=M00109">Terceira</a> (A. Frias Martin, pers. comm, 2008)<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
189351		habitat	eng	In North America found primarily in lakes, ponds, swamps, and the calmest areas of coastal rivers.&#160; It thrives in rich, eutrophic environments, and does not occur in especially acidic waters.
189351		habitat	eng	This species is found in a broad range of habitats demonstrating a tolerance to habitat modification. It can be found in freshwater river drainages and tributaries, lakes and permanent artificial water bodies (NatureServe 2009).
189351		population	eng	No data on trends, but possibly expanding.
189351		population	eng	This species is considered stable throughout its range.
189351		threats	eng	No known threats to the species in Europe.
189351		threats	eng	This species demonstrates a tolerance to habitat modification and it is unlikely that there are any substantial immediate threats impacting the global population of this species.
189352		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether any conservation measures are in place to protect this species. Further research is required on its abundance, distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189352		distribution	eng	This trans-Andean species is found in South America, including the Amazon and Paraná Basins, Peru and Patagonia, as well as in Mesoamerica (Graf and Cummings 2007).
189352		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189352		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189352		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. It is possibly threatened with extinction in Rio Grande du Sul, Brazil, but it is unknown what is causing this decline (Castillo <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and laterations to the hydrological regime. This species has become extinct in Rio la Plata, due to similar conditions currently present in Rio Grande du Sul (G. Pastorino and G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
189353		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and habitat preference of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
189353		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of the Krasnoaleksandrovskaja cave, in the Caucasus (Starobogatov 1962 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189353		habitat	eng	This species is known from caves (Starobogatov 1962 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189353		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189353		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189354		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarifty its abundance, taxonomy, life history and ecology, and threats.
189354		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from Japan (Miura <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189354		habitat	eng	The species has been collected from unknown freshwater habitat in Japan (Miura <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189354		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
189354		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189355		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to determine the population status and trends, and to ascertain the threat processes that may be impacting this species.
189355		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected from the upper reaches of Sekib-Yab and Sherlok Rivers, Turkmenistan (Zhadin 1952).
189355		habitat	eng	This species probably occurs in small streams (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189355		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189355		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189356		conservation	eng	This species has a WWF ranking of 'Critical' within Japan (Japan Red Data Book 2007). Further work is needed on distribution, threats and magnitude of population declines before an accurate assessment be made.
189356		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Japan, in Honshu (west of Mikawa Bay), Shikoku, and Kyushu (Fukuoka, Kumamoto, and Oita Prefectures) (Japan Red Data Book 2007).
189356		habitat	eng	This species is found under stones in estuaries and brackish wetlands.
189356		population	eng	This species is undergoing population declines due to habitat loss and degradation (Japan Red Data Boko 2007).
189356		threats	eng	Water pollution, causing habitat degradation, and habitat loss from development are the major threats impacting this species. This has caused population declines and led to a high risk of extinction (Japan Red Data Book 2007).
189357		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although parts of its range coincide with protected areas.
189357		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Gulf of Mexico, where it is distributed in Florida, Alabama, Louisiana and Texas in the USA, and south along the Atlantic coast of Mexico and central America to Colombia and Venezuela. It also occurs in Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Haiti, and Colombian San Andres island (Rosenberg 2009).
189357		habitat	eng	This species lives at depths of 0 to 2 m on intertidal salt flats, marshes, and mangroves (Rosenberg 2009). It is usually found in mud at the bases of <em>Salicornia </em>(and less often <em>Spartina </em>and <em>Juncus</em>) stalks where it grazes on filamentous algae, rarely climbing vegetation (Martin 2003, Rothschild 2004). In Texas, this species is parasitized by several species of trematode worms (Rothschild 2004). It is tolerant to variations in salinity (Longoria <em>et al. </em>2009), and can withstand long periods of tidal submersion (Martin 2003).
189357		population	eng	This species is common on the Gulf Coast (Rothschild 2004), although at other sites it has been recorded in only low densities (e.g., Minello 2000). In the San Andres, La Mancha, Carmen Machona and Tampamachoco lagoons in Mexico this species is among the most abundant molluscs (Contreras and Castañeda 2004).
189357		threats	eng	This species is highly dependent on the presence of vegetation. Therefore, the maintenance of coastal marshes is necessary to ensure its survival (Martin 2003). There have been declines in salt marsh coverage in the Gulf of Mexico: for example in Florida around 10% of marshes have been degraded or lost, primarily through drainage for urban development or for mosquito control (University of Florida 2004). The largest impacts have been around major human population centres, and although the overall loss of coastal wetlands in North America has been 30 to 40% much of this is likely to have been near such urban areas (Greenberg <em>et al. </em>2006).
189358		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population status, ecology and the impact of threats.
189358		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Puthaisong and Pimai (Tesana <em>et al</em>. 2009) and Kaeng Hang Maeo District in Chanthaburi Province; Wiang Pa Pao District in Chiang Rai Province; Ngao District in Lumpang Province; Si Satchanalai District in Sukhothai Province; Nakhon Thai District in Phitsanulok Province; Mueang District in Nong Khai Province; Chonnabot District in Khon Khean Province; Kamalasai District in Kalasin Province; Nong Han District in Sakon Nakhon Province, Thailand (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and throughout all eastern and southeastern provinces of Thailand into Cambodia and Lao PDR (Brandt 1974).
189358		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189358		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189358		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189359		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the population size, ecology and threat processes impacting this species.
189359		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Tugur River basin, Russia (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov<em> et al.</em> 2004). It is only known from the type locality from four specimens (ZIN collection).
189359		habitat	eng	The precise habitat requirements of this species are unknown. However, the species has been collected from a river. Similar species (<em>Gyralus stroemi</em>)<em> </em>were collected from the surface of stones in mountain streams&#160;<em></em>(M.V. Vinarksi pers. comm. 2010).
189359		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, as it is only known from four specimens collected at the type locality.
189359		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189360		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information is required regarding population trends and distribution in order to accurately assess this species.
189360		distribution	eng	This species is found in Municipio las Pierdras, Puerto Rico, and probably had a former range on St. Croix, Virgin Islands (Taylor 2003). Taylor (2003) further cites museum material from St. Croix, St. Thomas, Guana Island, but since these were all represented by dry material, he could not confirm that they represented this species because soft tissue (mantle, reproductive system, spawn) is required for positive identification.
189360		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species. However, freshwater streams were visited in surveys attempting to find this species, yet since no specimens were discovered, this habitat cannot be inferred (Taylor 2003).
189360		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189360		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hurricane activity in the area of its distribution (Taylor 2003).
189361		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended on its life history, distribution and abundance, and potential threats to the species.
189361		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality ‘Dans les Sources de Mézérib, au N. O. de Deraa (Syrie méridionale)’. Deraa is a city in southern Syria near the border with Jordan; Mezerib is a small spring located 5 km north-west of the city (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
189361		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs (Heller <em>et al.</em> 2005).
189361		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189361		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189362		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the abundance, distribution, ecology and threats of this species.
189362		distribution	eng	This species is found in Chicoca, east of Chasuta, Rio Huallaga, San Martin, Peru (Boss and Parodiz 1977). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189362		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.&#160;This genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers (G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010). This genus lays its eggs above the water line (G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010).
189362		population	eng	This species is currently not found in any other location, but considerable numbers are recorded (Boss and Parodiz 1977).
189362		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189363		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, life history, ecology, and threats.
189363		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from specimens collected from the central Leichhardtian fluvifaunal province, restricted mainly to the Gulf of Carpentaria drainage (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It may also be possible that larger specimens collected from Howard Springs near Darwin, previously identifed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Melania carbonata</span>, could be an isolated group of this species. Thus it occurs in Queensland and Northern Territory.
189363		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from lotic freshwater habitat (Smith 1992). Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) posit, however, that this species prefers slightly brackish habitats, occupying lower courses of rivers and streams and areas of the upstream water course with unusually high saline conditions caused by dissolved sedimentary rock. This species is eu-viviparous, releasing fully shelled live juveniles (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189363		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
189363		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. In Rockhampton, this species has reportedly been collected from near a sewer outlet and wharf, suggesting it is tolerant of human disturbance and moderate levels of pollution.
189364		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009).&#160;There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189364		distribution	eng	This is mainly a western species found as far north as British Columbia and as far south as Arizona and New Mexico, but it is also disjunct from Prince Edward Island south to New York and Michigan; including Canada in British Columbia, Ontario, and Prince Edward Island; and in the U.S. in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Wyoming (Mackie 2007).
189364		habitat	eng	It occurs in lakes, ponds, bogs, and streams usually in mud or sand bottoms and is primarily lentic, but will occur in protected areas of small streams (e.g. pools and eddies) (Mackie 2007). In Wyoming it occurs in mud and plants from overflow of seeps and springs (Beetle 1989).
189364		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189364		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in North America are threatened by habitat loss and   degradation, the spread of exotic species, overexploitation, secondary   extinctions, chemical and organic pollution, and climate change (Allan   and Flecker 1993). Due to the widespread nature of this species, it is   unlikely that it is being threatened on a population level by any of   these threats.
189365		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.Further research is required regarding the population trends, distribution, ecology, life history and threats impacting this species.
189365		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yunnan, China (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986), however, the extent of the distribution of this species in China is unknown.
189365		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is unknown.
189365		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189365		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189366		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution falls within the Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park (Department of Environment, Parks, Heritage and the Arts 2009), which will offer some protection to its habitat. Further surveys are recommended to determine the extent of this species' distribution.
189366		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Gordon catchment, within the middle Gordon, Franklin, Denison and Maxwell Rivers, Tasmania (Davies and Cook 2001). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189366		habitat	eng	This species has been found to occur in rivers (Davies and Cook 2001) and small swampy streams (Ponder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993).
189366		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however, this species is said to be common and widespread within the catchment, and abundant in the Maxwell River (Davies and Cook 2001).
189366		threats	eng	The locality of this species occurs within a national park, and therefore it is unlikely that the species is being impacted upon by any serious threat processes.
189368		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, ecology and potential threats.
189368		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mongolia and the sourthern part of Central Siberia (Russia). It is found in northwestern Mongolia and southern Tuva, Russia (Prozorova and Starobogatov 1997, Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sitnikova <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189368		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large tectonic lakes within the shallow zone, generally found at depths of 0-15 m (Prozorova and Starobogatov 1997).
189368		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189368		threats	eng	Water pollution in these lakes is caused by the production of rocket fuel in the area (Zasypinka 2008, M. V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
189369		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to determine the population status of the brackish Caspian race of this species, <em>D. r. distincta.</em> Conversely, actions may need to be taken soon to limit the spread and population growth of the invasive form, <em>D. r. bugensis</em>, before the negative impacts on many ecosystems become irreversible.
189369		distribution	eng	This species is native to the middle and south Caspian Sea where it is found at depths of 20-80 m (Therriault <em>et al.</em> 2004). While it has never been reported outside this historical distribution, a freshwater 'race' (the Quagga Mussel, <em>D. r. bugensis </em>Andrusov, 1897) has spread from the Black Sea basin northeast along the Volga River into Russia, north along the Dnieper River into Ukraine, and west along the Danube canal and Rhine as far as the Netherlands (van der Velde and Platvoet 2007). The Quagga 'race' has also spread to North America, where it was first reported (from Lake Ontario) in 1991 (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004), and has since spread throughout the Great Lakes region and southwest to the Mississippi River, Nevada, Colorado, Arizona and California (Benson <em>et al. </em>2011).<br/><br/>Kantor <em>et al.</em> (2009) list several other subspecies, separated from one another by habitat zonation. <em>D. r. compressa </em>(Logvinenko & Starobogatov, 1966) is restricted to the Caspian Sea at depths of 70-300 m. <em>D. r. grimmi</em> (Andrusov, 1890) occurs in the Middle Caspian Sea from 45-80 m depth. Lastly, <em>D. r. pontocaspica</em> (Andrusov, 1897) is known from the southwestern and southeastern Caspian, at 20-80 m in depth.
189369		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mesohaline (12-13% salinity) lakes at depths of 20-80 m (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004). The freshwater 'race', <span style="font-style: italic;">D. r. bugensis</span>, occurs in freshwater or oligohaline (< 3%) habitats at depths of 0-28 m (Therriault <em>et al. </em>2004).
189369		population	eng	The brackish, deep water race of this species (<em>D. r. distincta</em>) is restricted to the Caspian Sea, and data on population size and trends are unavailable. The invasive freshwater 'Quagga' form (<em>D. r. bugensis</em>) has steadily increased its abundance in Europe and North America in the last 10-20 years, competitively displacing the closely related Zebra Mussel, <em>D. r. bugensis</em> (although declines were observed in parts of Europe after initial population increases; Zhulidov <em>et al. </em>2009).
189369		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species.
189370		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189370		distribution	eng	This recently described species has been recorded from four to five localities throughout Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189370		habitat	eng	This species was found on the surface of small to medium sized stones at a depth range of 4-15 m (Sitnikova<em> et al.</em> 2004).
189370		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189370		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby<em> et al</em>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189371		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1Q - Critically Imperilled, but with taxonomic uncertainty which may reduce its conservation priority (NatureServe 2009). No site at which this species occurs is adequately protected.  Further research is needed on this species' taxonomy, population trends, ecology and threats. Subsequent surveys would be suggested in order to carefully monitor this species' status. Site protection and management conservation policies are necessary to protect the remaining populations, and species recovery programmes through captive breeding and reintroductions would help re-establish declining populations. Appropriate laws and policies should accompany these conservation actions in order to provide adequate protection to this species.
189371		distribution	eng	<em>Alasmidonta triangulata</em> is restricted to the Apalachicola Basin where it is found in the Chattachoochee River system in Alabama and Georgia, the Flint River system in Georgia (see Athearn 1998), and the Apalachicola and lower Chipola rivers in Florida (43 historic records) (Brim Box and Williams 2000). It appears to be extirpated from the main channel of the Apalachicola and Chattahoochee Rivers (Brim Box and Williams 2000).  In Alabama, it was last reported from (and is still extant in) the Uchee and Little Uchee Creeks in Russell and Lee Cos (Mirarchi<em> et al</em>. 2004, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). In total, only four sites are known (one with dead shells only) (Brim Box and Williams 2000, Battle <em>et al.</em> 2003). Including uncertainties and unoccupied habitats, the estimated extent of occurrence is estimated at around 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup> </sup>Excluding discontinuities within the species' range, the extent of occurrence is more likely to be less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> and probably closer to 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/>Its area of occupancy is very restricted (somewhere between 4 and 20 km<sup>2</sup>).
189371		habitat	eng	This species is found in big rivers (e.g. mainstem Apalachicola) in muddy sand with moderate current (Heard 1979).  Historically, this species was found in larger creeks and river mainstems and seemed to prefer sandy mud, particularly in and around rock pools (Clench and Turner 1956).  In Chattahoochee River tributaries, it was found in sand bars, but was absent near rocks or in muddy sediments.  Brim Box and Williams (2000) found two live specimens in a sand and silt substrate.
189371		population	eng	This species once occurred in all four major rivers of the Appalachicola basin of Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, in 29 sites.  Today, it can only be found in three or four sites (one with dead shells only) in the Apalachicola Basin in Alabama and Georgia (Ichawaynochaway Creek- a Flint River tributary, Potato Creek- a Flint River tributary, Uchee Creek, and dead shells only from Lake Blackshear) (Brim Box and Williams 2000, Battle <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been extirpated from the main channel of the Chattahoochee River  and appears to be extirpated from the main channel of the Apalachicola  River.  The only recent record from the Flint River mainstem is from an  impoundment.  Athearn (1998) identified four specimens in his collection from a tributary of the Flint River, Thomaston, Upson Co., Georgia, that he attributed to <em>Alasmidonta wrightiana</em> based upon morphological features "which perfectly match the type figure") from Walker's (1901) original locality, but Johnson (1967) determined that Walker's specimens are actually <em>Alasmidonta triangulata; </em>Athearn's are likely this species also.  In Alabama, it was last reported (and is still extant) from the Uchee and Little Uchee Creeks in Russell and Lee Cos. (Mirarchi<em> et al.</em> 2004, Williams<em> et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The few remaining sites have only yielded a handful of specimens each (Brim Box and Williams 2000, Battle <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species was never abundant; in Florida only one live specimen has been found in the past 20 years (Deyrup and Franz 1994, Brim Box and Williams 2000). Clench and Turner (1956) reported that it "is rare throughout its range".  Brim Box and Williams (2000) found only two live specimens from a single location in Potato Creek, a tributary of the Flint River, Alabama.  Also in the Flint River basin, nine specimens of this species were found in a survey of six sites in the Elmodel Wildlife Management Area in Ichawaynochaway Creek in southwest Georgia (only two other specimens have been found in the Flint River basin since 1991) (Battle <em>et al.</em> 2003).  A single live specimen was also found in Uchee Creek, Alabama, in 1994 (Brim Box and Williams 2000).  No population remaining has any numbers that are of significance. Based on recent surveys during which they only found a few specimens, Brim Box and Williams (2000) suggest there are probably no more than a thousand individuals when extrapolated.<br/><br/>A 70% population decline has occurred over the last 10 to 25 years (Cordeiro pers.comm. 2011).
189371		threats	eng	This species is threatened by dredging activities in the Apalachicola River (Brim Box and Williams 2000).  Other potential threats have not been assessed.&#160;  However, the current fragmented range of this species leaves the isolated populations vulnerable to extirpation and genetic loss (Brim Box and Williams 2000).<br/><br/>It is likely that the species is impacted by more threats commonly affecting bivalves in river systems, such as pollution, siltation, channelisation, urban and agricultural run off, industrial pollution and irrigation.
189372		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, life history and ecology of this species as this information is lacking.
189372		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Coppename River basin, Suriname (Alonso and Haydi 2004),&#160;Martinique, Guadeloupe, St. Martin and St. Barthelemy, French Guiana, Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, Réunion, Mayotte (Conservation Nature 2009) and the rapids of the upper reaches of the Orinoco River, Venezuela (Pilsbry and Baker 1956). Simone (2006) lists distribution as Surinam; Guyana; and the Tapajós River, Pará, Brazil.
189372		habitat	eng	This species has been collectd from the Coppename River basin (Alonso and Haydi 2004). Pilsbry and Baker (1956) found this species to be associated with an aquatic plant of the family Podostemonaceae.
189372		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however, Pilsbry and Baker (1956) state that this species can be found in large numbers.
189372		threats	eng	Central and South American freshwaters, as well as Caribbean freshwater ecosystems, are adversely affected by pollution, siltation and changes to water quality caused by mining and deforestation.  Also, loss of habitat occurs due to conversion of freshwater and wetland habitats for intensive agriculture and livestock. Furthermore, increasing damming, water diversion and invasive species also pose threats (Olson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).&#160;Although this species is exposed to many threats, it has a very large distribution and so it is unlikely that the global population is significantly impacted.
189373		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
189373		distribution	eng	This species, with its various subspecies, occurs from Maine west to Alberta, and south to South Dakota and Indiana; with forms in New Brunswick in eastern Canada; Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; and Quebec and Maine west to Ontario and Minnesota (Burch 1989).  Burch (1989) cites <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata sincera sincera</span> from Maine west to Alberta and south to South Dakota and Indiana; <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata sincera </span>form danielsi of discontinuous distribution in New Brunswick in eastern Canada and Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota in north and central U.S.; <span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata sincera nylanderi</span> in Quebec and Maine west to Ontario and Minnesota. The species therefore has an extensive extent of occurrence.
189373		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river drainages and tributaries.
189373		population	eng	This species has a presumed large population (Burch 1989).
189373		threats	eng	There are no significant threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189374		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and potential threats to this species.
189374		distribution	eng	This species is known from several localities in northern Queensland near Cairns, Australia (Korniushin 2000). However, it is possible that it also occurs at other localities. It has an extent of occurrence of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189374		habitat	eng	This species occurs in well shaded springs and small creeks where leaves and vegetation cover the stream bed (Korniushin 2000).
189374		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189374		threats	eng	Many streams and rivers in Australia are threatened by siltation and changes in water quality as a result of disturbance and land clearing for agriculture, mining, forestry and urban development (Ponder 1997). Pollution from urban, agricultural and mining activities is also a problem and dams and other forms of water management have the potential to seriously impact invertebrate populations (Ponder 1997). Introduced fishes including brown and rainbow trout, which feed on a wide variety of invertebrates, including molluscs, may also pose a threat (Ponder 1997). However, it is not known what effect any of these threats may be having on this species.
189375		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Taxonomic revision is advised for this species.
189375		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand (Brandt 1974). Specifically, it has been found in the Maenam Chantaburi, Maenam Prasae and the Maenam Tapi, and is thought to occur in 'many more localities around Gulf of Thailand' (Brandt 1974).
189375		habitat	eng	This species has been found in creeks, trenches and estuaries (Brandt 1974). This species can tolerate a wide range of salinities (F. Köhler  pers. comm. 2010).
189375		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189375		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however untreated municipal and industrial wastewater, the conversion of coastal habitat to shrimp farms, and the eutrophication of coastal waters are major problems in the Gulf of Thailand and may potentially affect this species (Cheevaporn and Menasveta 2003).
189376		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range may coincide with a number of national parks. Further research on the range, abundance and threats of this species is needed.
189376		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is the Norfolk Falls, Warung State Forest, New South Wales (Korniushin 2000). It is found along the Great Dividing Range (including one locality on the nearby coast), in eastern New South Wales, and in the most southern part of Queensland (Korniushin 2000).
189376		habitat	eng	This species is found in small creeks and swamps (Korniushin 2000).
189376		population	eng	This is no population information available for this species.
189376		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting the global population of this species.
189377		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further taxonomic research is needed to determine whether this species belongs to the genus <em>Brotia</em>.
189377		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Vietnam and possibly ranges into China (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).  The type locality is Thanh Moi in Viet Nam, about 200 km northeast of Hanoi (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).
189377		habitat	eng	Member of this genus are usually found on hard substrates (pebbles and wood) in clear rivers and streams (Köhler 2008). This species occurs in all major river systems, including smaller streams (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189377		population	eng	This is an abundant species (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189377		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189378		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended to clarify the distribution of this species.
189378		distribution	eng	This species has an Indo-Pacific distribution in coastal zones only (S. Clark pers. comm. 2001), and has been specifically reported from eastern and southern Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland (Walthew 1995, Dumrongrojwattana <em>et al</em>. 2007, DEWHA 2009, S. Clark pers. comm. 2011). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
189378		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mangrove forests, estuaries and coastal salt marshes (DEWHA 2009).
189378		population	eng	This species has recently been described as common in some parts of its range (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189378		threats	eng	Mangrove and salty marsh ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture or agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189379		conservation	eng	This species is listed in the Kagawa Prefecture Red Data Book as Endangered/Critically Endangered (Japan Red Data Book 2007). Further work is recommended to determine present population size, distribution and trends for this species.
189379		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Kagawa Prefecture and Awaji Island, Japan (Mori 1938). There are unverified reports of specimens from Aomori Prefecture (Anon 2008).
189379		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189379		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189379		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189380		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on this species’ range, tolerance to environmental alterations and contaminants, and possible threats.
189380		distribution	eng	This species is present throughout the Lower Amur in the Russian Federation (Bogatov and StaroBogatov 1994).
189380		habitat	eng	This species is found in a large river (Bogatov and Starobogatov 1994).
189380		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189380		threats	eng	Alexei (2004) suggests the Lower Amur River is impacted by intensive changes to the hydrological regime caused by hydropower stations. The three largest developments are the Zeiskaya and Bureiskaya in Russian Federation, and Funmanskaya in China. Significant changes to the river run-off have occurred, causing significant transformation in the middle and lower Amur water regime. Pollution from sewage, siltation, heavy metals, and agricultural activities have impacted the lower Amur River. The report goes on to state that the Amur River ranks first in northeast Asia in terms of suspended sediment content, and substances of anthropogenic origin. It is not known what effect these threats are having on this species, as its tolerance to such environmental factors has not been documented.
189382		conservation	eng	This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Japanese Red Data Book (Ministry of the Environment 2007).
189382		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Kawachi-no Fuketsu cave, east of Lake Biwa, Shiga Prefecture, Japan (Ministry of the Environment Japan 2002).
189382		habitat	eng	This species is known from a subterranean karst system (Ministry of the Environment Japan 2002).
189382		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189382		threats	eng	A number of threats have been documented for Lake Biwa, including waste dumping as a result of leisure activities, invasive species such as Largemouth Bass and Bluegill, large-scale modification of riparian habitat by the Biwa-ko Total Development Project, manipulation of lake water level, dredging for gravel, influx of turbid water from surrounding paddy fields and non-point source pollution from nutrient salts (Amako 2008). These threats are likely to have a future impact on the cave system of Kawachi-no Fuketsu cave.
189383		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189383		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the headwaters of the Tennessee River system in Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina; and the Beaver Fork of the Bluestone River, which is a tributary of the Kanawha River in Mercer Co., West Virginia (Burch 1989). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but in excess of 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189383		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river systems.
189383		population	eng	This species is presumed to be abundant.
189383		threats	eng	There are no significant threats currently impacting the global population of this species.
189384		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to clarify this species' current distribution, population status, ecology and the impact of threats.
189384		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected in the Philippines and the Malay Peninsula (Tyron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1871, Kobelt 1886). Two specimens have also been collected from Hong Kong (Zilch 1942).
189384		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from an unknown freshwater habitat.
189384		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189384		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however extensive logging, deforestation and mining throughout peninsular Malaysia may impact this species through sedimentation and pollution of its freshwater habitat (Butler 2006).
189385		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history and ecology.
189385		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from the southern Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189385		habitat	eng	This species occurs at depths of 20-60 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968) within the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea.
189385		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. However, recent investigation of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna has found this species to be one of the most abundant in the area surveyed, with 52.38 % occurrence across 42 sampling stations (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
189385		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
189386		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history and ecology and threats. More specifically, live specimens must be collected to verify this species' present existence.
189386		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the western part of the southern Caspian Sea, near the mouth of the Kura River (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), although it must be noted that no live specimens were found.
189386		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea.
189386		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Other species of this genus have been assessed in the southern Caspian, where significant widespread populations have been found (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189386		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189387		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range is likely to coincide with some national parks and protected lands. This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size.
189387		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Australia. It has a disjunct distribution in Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania (Haas 1969, Walker<em> et al.</em> 2001). It is found in coastal rivers to the east of the Yarra River in Victoria, in the area of the Tamar River in Tasmania (Haas 1969) and in southeastern South Australia (Walker<em> et al.</em> 2001). Its range in Tasmania has recently been extended to the Boobyalla River in northeastern Tasmania (Davies <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Smith 2005).
189387		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal river systems (Lamprell and Healy 1998). In Victoria, it is found in the lowland and foothill areas of river systems, however it is absent from estuaries and wetlands (Drew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species was found to occupy rivers with sandy and gravely substrate and slower currents in Tasmania (Davies <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
189387		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Specimens of this species have often been confused with individuals of the endangered mussel <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyridella glenelgensis </span>(Playford and Walker 2008). Furthermore, the recent range extension in Tasmania raised the question if the populations in Tasmania and the populations in mainland Australia might actually be two distinct species (Davies <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
189387		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however the modification of flow regimes, water pollution from urban, industrial and agricultural sources, introduced species, habitat degradation due to mining and extraction of surface and groundwater are some of the potential threats affecting this species and its habitat (State of the Environment Advisory Council 1996).
189388		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution, population status, ecology, taxonomy and threats.
189388		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Guimaras, Philippines (Nevill 1884).
189388		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189388		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189388		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any threat processes.
189389		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is necessary to determine the distribution and population trends and if this species is being impacted by human activities in the region. It was listed as Data deficient in Verdu and Galante (2009)
189389		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is restricted to the provinces of Valencia and Alicante.&#160; It is recorded from at least 15 springs in at least&#160; six different locations: Lalacanti, La Marina Baixa, Foia du Bunyol, La Safor, La Vall d'Albaida and Plana d'Urtiel-Requena (Arconada and Ramos 2006)
189389		habitat	eng	This species inhabits non-polluted springs rich in aquatic vegetation (Arconada and Ramos 2006).
189389		population	eng	Arconada and Ramos (2006) recorded this species as declining, although most of the populations are not yet threatened.
189389		threats	eng	This species is threatened by groundwater extraction for engineering projects, as well as other human activities such as channelization and road construction. The majority of populations however, are not yet threatened (Arconada and Ramos 2006).
189390		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into population status and trends of this species may be  beneficial in establishing a baseline against which to evaluate any  future population changes.
189390		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand and Indian Ocean coastal regions (Brandt 1974). It is also reported from Myanmar, Philippines and Malaysia (Brandt 1974).
189390		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove swamps, occupying the mud among tree roots and decaying vegetation about 1 m below the level of the highest tide. This species occasionally ventures further onto bare mud and the lower roots and stems of mangrove trees. The egg masses of this genus are found on moist, dead wood in the mangrove swamp (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967).
189390		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189390		threats	eng	Mangrove and mud flat ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189391		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189391		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the Solomon Islands (Solem 1953).
189391		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater habitat (Solem 1953), but the specific habitat is unknown.&#160;Generally, species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara</span> occupy lotic and lentic freshwater preferring headwaters and middle reaches of rivers, with rarer instances of ranges stretching as far as brackish influence (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189391		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens, contained in the Fox Collection (Solem 1953) or described by Smith (1876).
189391		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189392		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its occurrence in other river basins throughout its range, its population size and habitat preferences.
189392		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Russia, from the Yenisei River basin to the Sea of Okhotsk and Kamchatka Peninsula, and south to the Amur River basin (Prozorova and Zasypkina 2005). It has been reported from the Kolyma, Indigirka, Yana and Lena rivers basins (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>This species is likely to be found in a number of other sites within this range, but further surveys are needed to verify this (M.Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189392		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent water bodies (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Prozorova and Zasypkina 2005).
189392		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189392		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189393		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Futher research on current distribution and population status is needed to assess the impact of large-scale hydro-electric projects, which have occurred since the last records of this species.
189393		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River in Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, between Champassak and Khone (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971).
189393		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rivers (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971).
189393		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189393		threats	eng	The Mekong River has seen extensive habitat modification recently from large hydroelectric developments. The Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand, was completed in 1994 and immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30 to 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet. The effects of these projects on this species is unknown, but is potentially severe as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrorissia</span> spp have a low tolerance to pollution and other forms of human disturbance (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189394		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, and a National Status Rank of N5 - Secure in both Canada and the US (NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/>It is listed in both Vermont's and Wyoming's "Species of Greatest Conservation Need" and is a species of Special Concern in Connecticut (Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department 2005, Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2005). Although presently secure in much of its range, monitoring is recommended at both the species and habitat level to determine whether this species is impacted by major threats. Habitat management is also essential to maintain littoral and ephemeral ecosystems and the species inhabiting them. Efforts should also be made to reintroduce or otherwise rehabilitate populations that have declined or been extirpated.
189394		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout Canada and the US.&#160;In Canada, it is found in the following Provinces: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and the Yukon Territory (NatureServe 2009). In the USA, it occurs in the following States: Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming (NatureServe 2009).
189394		habitat	eng	This "weedy" habitat generalist species occurs in lentic and intermittent ecosystems, including streams, ponds, lakes, reservoirs and marshes with areas of rooted aquatic vegetation (Miller 1970, Sharpe and Forrester 2008, Harrold and Guralnick 2009). It has an annual life cycle, showing a peak in biomass during August (Hann <em>et al. </em>2001).
189394		population	eng	This species is secure over much of its North American range (NatureServe 2009), and is common in the Midwest and Eastern USA and northern North America (Cushman 2005). For example, in a lacustrine wetland adjacent to Lake Manitoba it was the most abundant pulmonate present (Hann <em>et al. </em>2001). However, it is possibly extirpated in Connecticut and Indiana (Pyron <em>et al. </em>2008), and is rare to the west of its range.
189394		threats	eng	Declines in this species have been observed in some lakes (e.g., Lake Winnipeg) and may be due to increased human influence and associated declines in water quality; this species occurs in lacustrine and littoral habitats which are vulnerable to disturbance from, for example, recreation, nutrient input from agriculture, impoundment, and pollution caused by urbanization (Pip 2006). Acid rain may also be a threat to this low-pH intolerant species. However, across its large range, these threats are likely to only have localised impacts.
189395		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189395		distribution	eng	This species is known from Guam, New Caledonia and Fiji (Haynes 1988).
189395		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater streams (Haynes 1988).
189395		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189395		threats	eng	It is highly unlikely that there is an imminent threat to this species, however it could be affected by climate change, as it is present on small Pacific islands.
189396		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable using IUCN categories in the Brazilian states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and São Paulo (Ministério do Meio Ambiente 2004), however the reasons for this listing are unclear. This species has often been confused with other bivalve species such as <em>Anodontites soleniformis</em> (Mansur and Pereira 2006). This species’ taxonomy requires clarification and further research is necessary to establish its population size and ecology (Mansur and Pereira 2006).
189396		distribution	eng	This species is noted as being widely distributed, with widespread and disjunct distributions in Colombia, the upper Amazon, coastal streams of southern Brazil and the Paraná Basin  (K.Cummings pers. comm. 2010). It is found in Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Uruguay (Ramírez <em>et al.</em> 2003, Mansur and Pereira 2006, Scarabino and Mansur 2007, Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Brazil, it is reported from the states of Rio Grande do Sul, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Paraná (Ministerio do Meio Ambiente 2004, Mansur and Pereira 2006, Castillo <em>et al.</em> 2007, Agudo 2008, Troncon <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species was listed by Simone (2006) as occurring in "all South American basins, west of the Andes". Presumably he meant east of the Andes, but regardless his concept of this species seems lumped and biogeographically confusing (K.Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
189396		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing rivers with sandy and coarse substratum (Castellanos and Landoni 1990, Mansur and Pereira 2006, Troncon <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189396		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It was found to be very common in the Rio Uruguai in Brazil (Castellanos and Landoni 1990), but has since been listed as Vulnerable using IUCN categories in the Brazilian states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and São Paulo (Ministério do Meio Ambiente 2004).
189396		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. The introduced Asian mussel <em>Limnoperna fortunei </em>(Dunker, 1857) has been shown to outcompete some native freshwater mussels in South America (Darrigran and Ezeurra de Drago 2000). It is not known, however, how the introduction of <em>L. fortune</em>i affects this species.
189397		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189397		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Western Australia, in the following drainage basins:  Avon Wheatbelt (AW), Esperance Plains (ESP), Geraldton Sandplains (GS), Jarrah Forest (JF), Mallee (MAL), Swan Coastal Plain (SWA), Warren (WAR), Yalgoo (YAL) (ABRS 2009).
189397		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent and seasonal inland salt lakes.
189397		population	eng	This species is locally abundant, for example in Lake Clifton, Western Australia (Haig 2002), and in Lake Gore, where "large numbers blanket the north shore" (Water and Rivers Commission 2002).
189397		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by increasing salinisation of its natural habitat.
189398		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed into the distribution, habitats, ecology and threats of this species.
189398		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from Honduras, but no specific locality is given (Taylor 2003).
189398		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189398		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189398		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189399		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this speceis is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, ecology and threats.
189399		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected on the grassy margins of a tank in Anorajahpura, in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka (Subba Rao 1989).
189399		habitat	eng	This species is found in slow-flowing streams with soft bottoms of mud or sand (Starmuhlner 1977), although the type species was collected from the grassy margin of a tank in Anorajahpura (Subba Rao 1989). Furthermore, species of this genus in Sri Lanka are known to act as intermediate hosts to lung flukes of the genus <em>Paragonimus</em> (Iwagami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)
189399		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens
189399		threats	eng	Due to the uncertainty surrounding the distribution of this species, threats to this species are unknown. It may be vulnerable to any stochastic events which destroy suitable habitat or populations.
189400		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189400		distribution	eng	This species is recorded&#160; from throughout Thailand, from the provinces of Chiang Rai, Nong Kai, Ubon Ratchathani, Sakon Nakhon, Mae Hongson, Tak, Chiang Mai, Nakhon Ratchasima, Udorn, and Pitsanulok (Temcharoen 1992, Brandt 1974). It has also been recorded from Lao PDR and West Malaysia.
189400		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reservoirs (Temcharoen 1992).
189400		population	eng	This species has been described as 'common' (Temcharoen 1992).
189400		threats	eng	This species is threatened locally by consumption for food  in a small part of its range, however this is not considered a major threat to the species over its entire range.
189401		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189401		distribution	eng	This species was historically recorded from tributaries of the Black Warrior River, upper Cahaba River with some of its creeks, and upper Little Cahaba River in Alabama, and Coosa River basin from Whitfield County, Georgia to Elmore County, Alabama; all within the confines of the Alabama River drainage (Burch 1989, Goodrich 1934, 1941). Goodrich (1941) recorded it in Alabama throughout the Cahaba River in abundance, though decreasing downstream.  Bogan and Pierson (1993) found it still extant in the portions of the Coosa and Cahaba Rivers. The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189401		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river drainages.
189401		population	eng	This species has a presumed abundant population with a widespread distribution throughout three major river drainages.
189401		threats	eng	There are no major threats currently impacting the global population of this species.
189402		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Additionally, this species is exempt from export regulations (Australian Government 2009).
189402		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Northern Territory, Australia (Smith 1992). Specifically it is found in the Rapid Creek area, Darwin; Port Essington; Victoria River and Fitzroy River (Smith 1992).
189402		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reservoirs, rivers and pools (Kinhill 2000).
189402		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189402		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting the global population of this species.
189403		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in Hong Kong, the mangrove and swamp areas which are designated SSSIs include the Mai Po Marshes, Tsim Bei Tsui, Tai Tam Harbour, Lai Chi Wo Beach, Pak Nai, Ting Kok, Hoi Ha Wan, Kei Ling Ha and San Tau. This affords them legal protection from undue disturbance, and approval from the Town Planning Board is required for any developments within the SSSI boundaries. In addition, mangrove habitats are also included as one of the important habitats for designated projects under the Hong Kong Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (AFCD 2007). This species is recorded as Vulnerable on the Japanese Regional Red List. Further research is recommended&#160; into this species' population status and to determine how this species is being impacted upon by the threat processes affecting its mangrove and swamp habitats.
189403		distribution	eng	This species is found in Hong Kong and southern China (Walthew 1995, Yu <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species is also known from Japan.
189403		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits the bases of mangrove trees, but is most commonly found in salt grass meadows (Walthew 1995, Wei-dong <em>et al</em>. 2003)
189403		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189403		threats	eng	Mangrove ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban and industrial development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting this species, although the effects are not known.
189404		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189404		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected from the western part of the middle Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189404		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of&#160; 40 - 70 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2009).
189404		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189404		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
189405		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;This species occurs within national parks (e.g., Puelo Lake National Park, Argentina; Miserendino and Pizzolon 2004).
189405		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chile and Argentina. In Chile, it has been recorded from Puerto Montt and Isla de Chiloe, the Aysén River basin, and south to Isla Picton (Cárdenas <em>et al. </em>2008). In Argentina, it is known from the Azul-Quemquemtreu (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2003) and Futaleufu River systems (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2004). The species is also recorded from Malvinas Islands and Tierro del Fuego (Castallenos and Gaillard 1981).
189405		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater and estuarine ecosystems, and is often found in brackish water. It has been recorded in coastal waters up to 285 m depth (Cárdenas <em>et al. </em>2008). It appears to prefer streams or slow-flowing rivers with pebble or sand substrates and extensive patches of the macrophyte <em>Myriophyllum</em> (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2003). It is a 'scraper' feeder (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2003).
189405		population	eng	This species is most abundant in small streams (e.g., Golondrinas stream) in the Azul-Quemquemtreu river system in Argentina, where it can reach densities of 95 individuals m<sup>-2</sup> (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2003). It was uncommon in other habitats surveyed. In the Aysén River Basin, it can reach densities of 126 individuals m<sup>-2</sup>, but is only found in a few tributaries (Oyanedell <em>et al. </em>2008).
189405		threats	eng	This species was absent from organic-enriched streams in Patagonia (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2004), although an earlier study found strong relationships between abundance and water conductivity in the same area (Miserendino and Pizzolon 2000). This suggests only a moderate tolerance to environmental perturbation. However, pollution is unlikely to be a major threat across this species' range.
189406		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G5 - Secure; within Missouri it has a status of S4 - Apparently Secure, and in the other states it has not been ranked (NatureServe 2009).
189406		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Arkansas and Missouri with western limits in Oklahoma and Kansas, possibly extending south to Louisiana (Angelo <em>et al. </em>2002, Christian 2007). In Kansas, it is restricted to the Spring River north of Empire Lake and Shoal Creek near Galena (Angelo <em>et al.</em> 2002).
189406		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs, streams and rivers.
189406		population	eng	This species has a fragmented range but is considered one of the most widespread and abundant snails in drainage systems of the Ozark Plateau (Angelo <em>et al. </em>2002, Christian 2007).
189406		threats	eng	Habitat fragmentation has caused declines in the Kansas distribution of this species (Angelo <em>et al. </em>2002). Predation may also be a threat: this species makes up >90% of the food of the Common Map Turtle <em>Graptemys geographica</em> (White and Moll 1992).
189407		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work on the species' population size, trend and distribution is recommended.
189407		distribution	eng	This species is known from around Almaty, Zailijskij Alatau, spring Belbulak and vicinities of Talgar in Kazakhstan (Izzatullaev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).
189407		habitat	eng	This species was recorded in a spring (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
189407		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189407		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189408		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, ecology and its resilience to potential threats.
189408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Tarasov 1996). It is found in the central and southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Parr <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189408		habitat	eng	This species is endemic to the Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Tarasov 1996). This is a bathyal species with a depth range of approximately 30 to more than 500 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Tarasov 1996, Parr <em>et al.</em> 2007). A single shell has also been collected from 870 m (Tarasov 1996).
189408		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. In the southern Caspian Sea, an average of 3.1 individuals were recorded at a depth of 150 to 250 m (Parr <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189408		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is endemic to the Caspian Sea, which is experiencing major development due to commercial exploitation of hydrocarbon deposits (Caspian Environment Programme 2005). Oil and gas producing industries and associated transport activities are a major risk to water quality in the area. Furthermore, the Volga River, which flows into the Caspian Sea, is polluted with numerous chemical and biological contaminants which further reduce water quality (Caspian Environment Programme 2005). It is unclear how resilient this species is to changes in water quality.
189409		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species' exact distribution and population status is recommended.
189409		distribution	eng	Brandt (1974) listed this species' distribution as Thailand, Lao PDR and "probably Burma [Myanmar]". However, a revision by Köhler and Glaubrecht (2006) separated this species from another closely related species (<em>Brotia dautzenbergiana</em>) and found that it was restricted to just two localities "in the vicinity of Mae Sot", Kamphaeng Phet province, northern Thailand.  The two localities this species is known from are most likely forming an area of occupancy of less than 20 km<sup>2</sup> (F. Köhler  pers.comm. 2010).
189409		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cold, well oxygenated and fast-flowing rivers and streams and is usually found buried in sand or mud, or under rotten leaves or wood where it feeds on detritus (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006).This species is strictly associated with limestone substrates in creeks and streams of the Moei River system only (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189409		population	eng	This species is not common, and has an uneven distribution. However, where present it is abundant. (F. Köhler pers.comm. 2010).
189409		threats	eng	Pollution and habitat destruction are likely to affect nearly all rivers in Thailand, as human pressures on freshwater systems are intense (T. v. Rintelen pers. comm. 2011). It is plausible that the Moei river system will also be subject to such threats, particularly damming, and sedimentation and pollution as a result of agricultural effluents, even though specific threats to this species are currently not known.
189411		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution and abundance.
189411		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Arakhlei in eastern Transbaikalia, a mountainous area in the Chita Region to the east of Lake Baikal in Siberia (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is only known from the type locality (ZIN collection). Its extent of occurrence has been estimated as 50–100 km². The lake in which this species occurs contains a number of endemic species.
189411		habitat	eng	This species is known from Lake Arakhlei which has a sandy soil bottom and lots of aquatic vegetation (Bazarova and Itigilova 2006).
189411		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189411		threats	eng	Lake Arakhlei has experienced increased anthropogenic stresses in the past twenty years due to the development of numerous recreation centres on the lake shore and in the surrounding areas. Alternate periods of drought and flooding have caused increased siltation through soil run-off and eutrophication. A decrease in water clarity has been observed (Bazarova and Itigilova 2006). The effects of these threats on this species are unknown, but they are likely to have had a negative effect on the population size.
189412		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur within the Pha Taem National Park in Thailand, or the nearby Phou Xiang Thong National Protected Area across the Mekong River in Lao PDR. Further research is recommended on this species' current distribution and population status, as the only known survey was taken in 1974, prior to the construction of the Pak Mun dam.
189412		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong and Mun Rivers at Ban Dan, and Mekong at Ban Kum, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189412		habitat	eng	Members of this genus inhabit slow-moving sections of rivers with sandy substrate and are also found on rocks in rapids (Brandt 1974).
189412		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189412		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow). According to a recent report by the Mekong River Commission, species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hubendickia </span>generally have a low tolerance (20-25 out of 100) to pollution and other forms of human disturbance (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189413		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research of population trends and threats impacting this species is recommended.
189413		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is a lake on the former river bed, flood-lands, of the River Malyj Anjuj, northeast Siberia (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). This species is distributed through the Kolyma River basin, Kamchatka, in small permanent waterbodies (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004,&#160;Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). The species extent of occurrence is approximately 17,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189413		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small permanent waterbodies (Kantor<em> et al.</em>, 2009).
189413		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189413		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, given the wide distribution of this species, it is unlikely that its global population will be significantly affected by the presence of more localised threat processes.
189414		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish its range, population size and threats.
189414		distribution	eng	This species is known from South America (Bourguignat 1854).
189414		habitat	eng	This species is found in marshes and still waters (Bourguignat 1854).
189414		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189414		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Without a better knowledge of this species' range, it is impossible to infer potential threats.
189415		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range is likely to coincide with some national parks and protected lands. Since this species is likely to fall into at least a Near Threatened category once additional information becomes available, further research is urgently required to establish its population size, derive an estimate of its area of occupancy and assess its sensitivity to potential threats.
189415		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coastal river systems of New South Wales and Queensland, Australia (Haas 1969). It is found from the Hunter River in New South Wales north to the Burnett River in Queensland (McMichael and Hiscock 1958, Haas 1969). While the extent of occurrence of this species is estimated as approximately 97,000 km<sup>2</sup>, its area of occupancy is likely to be significantly smaller because its habitat is restricted to the coastal areas of the region where the riverine environment is currently undergoing many changes (D. van Damme pers. comm. 2011).
189415		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal river systems (Lamprell and Healy 1998). It is predominantly found in fast flowing rivers that have gravelly substrate. Its habitats are often dominated by large boulders and this species is often situated in the outer bends of streams or in glides at the bottom of riffles (Jones and Fellow 2007).<br/><br/>Spawning in this species occurs in autumn and is associated with the occurrence of floods (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Jones and Fellow 2007).
189415		population	eng	There is no precise population information available for this species. However, over the last years, the species seems to have disappeared from parts of the river, particularly those running through agricultural zones. Furthermore, as a group, freshwater mussels in New South Wales are reported to have decreased over the past 200 years, with declining populations recently reported from the Hunter and Hastings river systems (both within the range of this species, Office of Environment and Heritage 2011).
189415		threats	eng	The modification of flow regimes, water pollution from urban, industrial and agricultural sources, introduced species, habitat degradation due to mining and extraction of surface and groundwater are some of the potential threats affecting this species and its habitat (State of the Environment Advisory Council 1996). Damming, such as the proposed Tillegra Dam in the Williams Valley, may be particularly detrimental to this species, since its specific habitat requirements of highly stable bed sediments combined with strong stream flow are unlikely to be guaranteed both during and after dam construction (Dowling 2008).
189416		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189416		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan, in the Nagura Estuary, Ishigaki Island of the Ryukyu Islands; Lung Mei Beach, Hong Kong and Taiwan Province of China (Ohgaki and Kosuge 2005, Lee and Chao 2003, Halcrow China Ltd. 2008). In Thailand, this species is recorded from Samui Island, Ban Pak Nam Tha Krachai, Pak Krachai River, Tha Chana district and Klong Jau-ra-kay, Ban Na Thon; Klong Wat Ta-le, Ban Mae Nam, Ban Cha-waeng, Klong Cha-waeng and Ban La Mai, Marat subdistrict, all of Ko Samui district (Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been found in Singapore and Indonesia (Tan and Clements 2008).
189416		habitat	eng	This species is found in intertidal zones, rivers and estuaries, on muddy, sandy or stone substrates and in mangrove streams (Ohgaki and Kosuge 2005, Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tan and Clements 2008). This species can also be found in drains and canals near the sea (Tan and Clements 2008).
189416		population	eng	This species is noted as 'common' (i.e. more than 20 specimens collected in sampling) in Taiwan, Singapore and in Thailand (Lee and Chao 2003, Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tan and Clements 2008).
189416		threats	eng	The shell of this species is sold in an online shop at www.australiaseashells.com (Australianseashells.com 2009). It has been noted that this species is impacted by habitat degredation in Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
189417		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the full distribution of the species and to give an estimate of abundance.
189417		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific region, namely on Samoa, Tonga and Fiji Islands, and also New Caledonia and French Polynesia (specifically Tahiti and the Society Islands but likely to be found throughout) (Garrett 1887, Trondle and Boutet 2009). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
189417		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove swamps (Garrett 1887).
189417		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189417		threats	eng	Mangrove ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture or agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although it is not known to what extent it is being affected.
189418		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the Australian Government has implemented a number of action plans to ensure the recovery of the Murray-Darling Basin (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009). Furthermore, this species’ distribution is likely to overlap with a number of national parks and reserves, such as Coongie Lakes National Park. Further research is required to clarify taxonomy, and to establish population size and ecology of this species.
189418		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, Australia (Walker 1988, Smith 1992). It is found on the southeast coast and in the Murray-Darling Basin (Walker 1988, Smith 1992). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 757,080 km<sup>2</sup>.
189418		habitat	eng	This species is found in both lentic and lotic systems in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales (Walker 1988, Smith 1992). It is most commonly found in permanent water bodies and has been found to inhabit salt lakes and water bodies in arid zones (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990, Timms 1993, Sheldon <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is able to support salinities of up to 9 g/L (Timms 1993).
189418		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be widespread in inland waters of New South Wales (Timms 1993). In a survey of the Coongie Lakes region, South Australia, 75 individuals were recorded (Sheldon <em>et al.</em> 2002).
189418		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however over-allocation of water resources, increased salinity and climate change have caused major degradation of this species’ habitat in the Murray-Darling Basin (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009).
189419		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine whether this species exists in other locations, to provide an estimate of population size, and to ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes. Monitoring of the known population of this species and its habitat should be implemented.
189419		distribution	eng	This species is known from only one location, an unnamed spring in central Queensland (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are thus estimated as less than 20 km².
189419		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the mud at the base of an artesian spring (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and no information on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
189419		population	eng	This species has only recently been described, and as such there is no population information available.
189419		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown. However, it is likely that this species is being affected by the current drought conditions in Australia. Other potential threats include habitat degradation as a result of agricultural activities (namely cattle ranching) and the abstraction of groundwater. The only known location for this species occurs on a homestead and is thus more susceptible to these threats due to its restricted distribution.
189420		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics for this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189420		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across 'Europe (except for the north-east) and the south of Western Siberia' (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 and Karimov 2005 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Specifically, it is found in the Irtysh River Basin, province of Irtyshian, Western Siberia, Russian Federation (Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007). There are only four collections in the ZIN collection and one locality in northern Kazakhstan.
189420		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and 'shallow permanent waterbodies' (Vinarski <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189420		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189420		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, activites further up the Irtysh River where this species is found, such as the extraction of water for oil production, may pose a threat to this species (Saidazimova 2006). Also, industrial effluent pollution in Kazakhstan from metal mining could flow downstream into this species' habitat (Valyaev <em>et al.</em> 2009). The construction of reservoirs on the river to supply 40% of Kazakhstan's power supply may have altered the fluvial regime and therefore could possibly negatively affect this species (Valyaev <em>et al.</em> 2009). There is no further information regarding the threats throughout the rest of Europe.
189421		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Futher research on current distribution and population status is needed to assess the impact of large-scale hydro-electric projects, which have occurred since the last records of this species.
189421		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River between Kratie, Cambodia and Ban Dan, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189421		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and rapids (Brandt 1974).
189421		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189421		threats	eng	The Mekong River has seen extensive habitat modification recently from large hydroelectric developments. The Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand, was completed in 1994 and immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30 to 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The effects of these projects on this species is unknown, but is potentially severe as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrorissia </span>spp have a low tolerance to pollution and other forms of human disturbance (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189422		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended into this species' population size, current distribution, and potential threats.
189422		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Ping River drainage, from Northern Thailand in Chiang-Mai Province, south towards Bangkok (Attwood <em>et al. </em>2003, 2004). This species is also known from Loei Province, central Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189422		habitat	eng	Unlike many close relatives, this species does not transmit <em>Schistosoma </em>in nature (Attwood <em>et al. </em>2003). It inhabits stable mountain pools, as well as streams and rivers, and has been collected in caves (Attwood 1995, Attwood <em>et al. </em>2003).
189422		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189422		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
189423		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Dos Santos (2003) recommended further work on the taxonomy of this species as it is very similar to <em>Uncancylus concentricus.</em>
189423		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Llanquihue, southern Chile (Simone 2006) and Lago Blanco and Lago Esmeralda (dos Santos 2003). The extent of occurrence is estimated as 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189423		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes at elevations of up to 380 m in Chilean Patagonia (dos Santos 2003).
189423		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189423		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189424		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189424		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution loosely covering the area of 32.3°N to 35°S and 93.1°W to 34.9°W. This range encompasses Florida in the USA, Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Colombia, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, the Caribbean Islands, Venezuela, Bolivia, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, Brazil and Uruguay (Pilsbry 1891, Pilsbry and Brown 1914, Van Regteren Altena 1969, Swennen <em>et al</em>. 1982, De Frias Martins 1995, Borrero 2007, Rosenberg 2009).
189424		habitat	eng	This brackish species occurs in mangrove swamps, in rivers and estuaries, and can also be found on the roots of plants in lagoons and ditches just behind the shoreline (Van Regteren Altena 1969). This species forages for mangrove leaf litter at low tide and climbs tree trunks to avoid salt-water inundation during high tide (Proffitt and Devlin 2005).
189424		population	eng	This species is common (Proffitt and Devlin 2005).
189424		threats	eng	On a local scale, this species is likely to be affected by threats to mangrove ecosystems such as habitat degradation, conversion to aquaculture, agriculture and salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal (Aksornkoae 1995). It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species in various parts of its distribution, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that these are causing significant declines on a global scale.
189425		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population status and threats.
189425		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Samut Prakan, Rayong and Surat Thani Provinces, Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189425		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from brackish water and mangroves along the gulf of Thailand (Sri-aroon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
189425		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189425		threats	eng	The mangroves and surrounding ecosystem of Surat Thani Province are threatened by over-exploitation for charcoal and wood chip production, un-managed pole extraction and fuel wood harvesting and clear-felling for timber. Habitat degradation has also occurred due to conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds, housing and residential development.  Furthermore, wastewater from aquaculture and sewage from urban and industrial areas have altered the water quality (Plathong and Plathong 2004).
189426		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Very little is known about this species and further research is needed to establish its population size, abundance, and the impact of threats such as river pollution.
189426		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rio de la Plata in Argentina and Uruguay as well as been cited from South Brazil and Bolivia (Ituarte 2007).
189426		habitat	eng	This species can be found in the Don Carlos stream, which is a small urban stream that runs across the Pampean plain and flows into the Rio de la Plata estuary (Argentina) (Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189426		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189426		threats	eng	This species was only found at sites on the river that had not undergone habitat modification or degradation (Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species was absent from sites on the same river which had received continuous discharges from the textile industry affecting the transparency, colour, and odour of the water.
189427		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size, trends and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189427		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Baikal and the Angara River, in the Russian Federation (Shirokaya 2004).
189427		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes between 5 to 10 metres depth (Shirokaya 2004, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189427		population	eng	This species is common in Lake Baikal (Shirokaya 2004).
189427		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006) This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189428		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas. <br/>Conservation of the Sundarban mangrove started with its declaration as a reserve forest, under the Indian Forest Act in 1878. Lothian Island (3,800 ha) was then declared a Wildlife Sanctuary, and then in 1960, another 35,240 ha were brought under the Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary. In 1973 a Tiger Reserve was established in the Sundarbans covering 2,585 km² and another 241 km² were defined as a subsidiary wilderness area. The core area of 1,330 km² was later designated as a National Park, and another wildlife sanctuary was established in 1976 on Haliday Island (595 ha). In 1987, the Sundarban National Park in India was included on the World Heritage list. The entire Indian Sundarban area south of the inward limit of tidal influence, including 5,366 km² of reclaimed lands, has been designated as the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve. Within the Biosphere Reserve several distinct zones have been recognised: a Core Zone comprised of the National Park and the Tiger Reserve; a Manipulation Zone (2,400 km² of mangrove forests); a Restoration Zone that covers 240 km² of degraded forest and saline mud flats; and a Development Zone which includes mostly the reclaimed areas. Only the Core Zone is under strict conservation measures (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>Further research is recommended to determine how this species is being impacted upon by the threat processes affecting the Sundarban mangrove swamps. Management of the site and the protection and restoration of the species' mangrove habitat is also required.
189428		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Muriaganga mangrove swamp in the Sundarban area of the east coast of India (Shanmugam and Vairamani 1999).
189428		habitat	eng	Species of this genus live on mangrove mud among tree roots and decaying vegetation about 1 m below the level of the highest tides. Species of this genus produce long strings of eggs which are attached to dead wood, tree roots or even other snail shells (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967).
189428		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189428		threats	eng	The Sundarban mangrove swamps of the east Indian coastline face several threats. Human population expansion has led to an increase in the production of industrial and domestic waste. The dumping of waste in the breeding grounds of molluscs has led to mass mortality of molluscs in the past. Increased human activity in the mangroves causes habitat disturbance, and there are high levels of habitat destruction due to activities such as dam construction, factory building, highway expansion, and mining operations (Shanmugam and Vairamani 1999). <br/><br/>The regulation of river flows by a series of dams, barrages and embankments for diverting water for various human needs and for flood control has caused a large reduction in freshwater inflow and this has seriously affected mangrove biodiversity due to an increase in salinity and changes in sedimentation (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>The expansion of agricultural systems and the excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides has polluted the mangroves and coastal ecosystems (Shanmugam and Vairamani 1999). Large areas of the Sundarban mangroves have been converted into paddy fields and shrimp farms. Oil exploration in coastal areas is also emerging as a new threat (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>Molluscs are harvested for lime production and ornamental purposes and also to a certain extent for animal feed in aquaculture industry (Shanmugam and Vairamani 1999).<br/><br/>Natural disasters and extreme weather events such as sudden heavy downpours, floods, cyclones, drought and tsunamis, can cause the mass mortality of mollusc species. Molluscs in rivers and estuaries are carried by flood water into coastal water where they perish (Shanmugam and Vairamani 1999). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).
189429		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further surveys are needed to delineate this species' distribution.
189429		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Rodinha in the Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil (Silva 2003, Agudo-Padrón 2009), Entre Rios in Argentina and Cuzco in Peru (Silva 2003).
189429		habitat	eng	This species is found on the sediment or aquatic vegetation of lagoons (Silva 2003).
189429		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189429		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be globally threatened as it occupies a broad geographic range, however it may be undergoing localised declines.
189430		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish abundance and the impact of threats such as mercury pollution, salinization and over-fishing.
189430		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from the Mekong basin, with records from Cambodia (Somron Seng (Dautzenberg and Fischer 1905), the Tonle Sap River and the Tonle Sap Lake (Brandt 1974)), Thailand (the Ubolratana reservoir in Khon Kaen Province (Kittivorachat and Yangyuen 2004), Phu Phan National Park in Sakon Nakhon Province), and Viet Nam (Vietnam Inland Waterway Department 1996). Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) reported the species from Thailand (Chi River, at Wat Sritharararm, Yasothon, and from the Songkhram River, c.8 km from the river mouth), Cambodia (Por Sat (Pursat) River, at Prek Thot Village) and Viet Nam (Sre Pok River). Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) also recorded the speceis at three points aliong the Mekong where it forms the Thai-Lao PDR border in northeastern Thailand, and presence in Lao PDR can be assumed.
189430		habitat	eng	This species can be found in oxbow lakes, swamps, reservoirs, creeks, small rivers and large rivers (Jivaluck <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189430		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189430		threats	eng	This species was suggested as a biological indicator of mercury levels in the Ratanakirri province, northeastern Cambodia (Murphy <em>et al.</em> 2006). This suggests the habitat of this species suffers from mercury poisoning, which is due to gold mining in the area. This species is fished in the rainy season in the Tam Giang lagoon, Viet Nam, when the level of freshwater is sufficient to support this freshwater species. The use of illegal and destructive fishing apparatus such as electro-fishing has depleted a number of species within this lagoon (Lan 2005). However, the effects of these localised threats on this species are unknown.
189431		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended in order to establish the exact distribution of this species as well as establish population trends and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189431		distribution	eng	This species is found in the basin of the Baltic Sea, Western Bug basin (Ukraine), south of Western Siberia (Anistratenko 1998, Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Lazutkina 2004). This species distribution is unknown outside of the ex-USSR. Ten localities are known from Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189431		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lakes with clear water only in the Ukraine. In Siberia, the species may be more tolerant of polluted conditions. In Omsk, it is recorded from a highly polluted lake (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). It is a lacustrine species.
189431		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189431		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189432		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance and population trends, and the effects that the threat processes affecting Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189432		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, Russia. The type locality for this species is on the east coast of northern Lake Baikal in Ayaya and Dagarskaya bays (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is currently known from the northern part of Lake Baikal, on the eastern shore (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189432		habitat	eng	This species shows a preference for sandy substrate, at depths of 10-12 m, but sometimes deeper or shallower in Lake Baikal (Papusheva <em>et al.</em> 2003, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189432		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189432		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to a lack of population information. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189433		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine this species' distribution, population status&#160; and precise habitat requirements which will allow the assessment of potential threats affecting this species.
189433		distribution	eng	This species is known from Yishan, Luocheng and Rongshui counties, Guangxi Province, China (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1986).
189433		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected from the banks of an irrigation canal, near the water which was clear and slow-flowing (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1986).
189433		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189433		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189435		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population trends and distribution of this species as well as the threats impacting its global population.
189435		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is river sediments near Lyaur village, Dangarinsky region, Tajikistan. It has also been collected from the Aral Sea, however no specimens have been collected since 1999 (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010). In 1968-2002, four localities in Northern Kazakhstan were detected: Mnogosopochnoye Lake, Kushmurun Lake, Karasu-Shiderty River and Ubogan River (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010). In most of these locations only empty shells were found. In October 2009, a new locality of the species in Russia has been discovered, Salamatka Lake near Anfalovo settlement, Chelyabinsk Region, South Urals. This locality needs to be investigated in future to obtain exact estimates of the species' abundance and density (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189435		habitat	eng	This species is known from brackish water. It dwells in large permanent brackish waters and semi-desert rivers in Central Kazakhstan and south Urals (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189435		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189435		threats	eng	In the Aral Sea, there have been a number of floristic and faunal changes owing to an increase in salinity. This is due to reduced freshwater inflow caused by using river water for agricultural purposes. The drastic increase of salinity is the main cause of the species' possible extirpation in the Aral Sea (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010).
189437		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding the population trends, distribution and potential threats impacting this species.
189437		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, a stream above Anatou on Raivavae, French Polynesia (Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The extent of occurrence is approximately 2.0 km<sup>2</sup>.
189437		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from a freshwater stream.
189437		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189437		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, as it is only known from a few specimens taken at the type locality.
189438		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the abundance, distribution, ecology and threats of this species.
189438		distribution	eng	This species is found in Cuba and Colombia (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). The species was collected over a large time scale spanning over 150 years (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). Thus its distribution requires verification.
189438		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information for this species.&#160;This genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers (G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010). This genus lays its eggs above the water line&#160;(G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010).
189438		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
189438		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189439		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.
189439		distribution	eng	This species is now extirpated from the Aral Sea (N. I. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010). It is now only known from the northern, central, and southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189439		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish water of approximate depths of&#160; 0 - 50 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968). The Aral Sea, were this species was once found, has a sandy and shell covered substrate (N. Andreyev pers. comm. 2010).
189439		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189439		threats	eng	Increased salinity in the Aral Sea has led to the extirpation of a number of <span style="font-style: italic;">Caspiohydrobia</span> species (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). There is considerable oil mining activity in the northern and western Caspian Sea which is likely to be negatively impacting the numbers of this species (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010). It may also be impacted by invasive species: since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189440		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.
189440		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Japan and has been found at Wakaura Bay, Ariake Sound, Sea of Suou, Seto Inland Sea, Ise Bay and Mikawa Bay (Kobayashi and Wada 2004).
189440		habitat	eng	This species can be found in estuarine and coastal habitats (e.g., the lower course of rivers, coastal marshland, lagoons; F.<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong> Köhler pers. comm. 2011) under partially buried stones or hard material on mudflats (Kobayashi and Wada 2004).
189440		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant (Kobayashi and Wada 2004).
189440		threats	eng	This species may be locally threatened by coastal pollution from shipping, industrial and domestic sewage, however the global population is not thought to face any major threat at the present time.
189441		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further research is recommended to clarify the species’ abundance and the threat processes which may be affecting it.
189441		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Puna de Tarapaca and Puna de Atacama in the Andes, on the border between Argentina and Chile (Collado <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189441		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences for this species are unknown.
189441		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189441		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189442		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to confirm its extent of distribution, to establish its population size and ecology.
189442		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New South Wales, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from a few small tributaries of the Nepean River in western and south western Sydney (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is possible that additional populations found in northern Sydney also belong to this species (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its known extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 900 km²<sup></sup>.
189442		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and is generally found on leaves and roots (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189442		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it is reported to be reasonably common (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189442		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation due to urbanisation. This species is found in small streams west of Sydney, such as Cattai Creek, where urbanisation has caused degradation by increased sedimentation (Hawkesbury Nepean Catchment Management Authority 2008a). Furthermore, agriculture, mining, stormwater and water extraction are having adverse effects on the water quality of the Nepean River and its tributaries (Hawkesbury Nepean Catchment Management Authority 2008b). It is unknown how resilient this species is to such changes in habitat quality.
189443		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and distribution is suggested, as these data are currently lacking. Investigations into the possible threats to this species are also necessary. Monitoring should be carried out in order to indicate significant population declines if threat levels do increase in the future as a result of dam projects.
189443		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Guaiba, Paraná   and Uruguay Rivers in Brazil (Simone 2006, Gutiérrez Gregoric 2008). In Argentina, is it found on the island Martín García and in the Gualeguaychú River of Entre Rios province (Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2007, Gutiérrez Gregoric 2008). This species also inhabits Uruguay, as part of the lower reaches of the Uruguay River (Di Persia and Olazarri 1986, Simone 2006).
189443		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Simone 2006, Gutiérrez Gregoric 2008).
189443		population	eng	This species is described as fairly common throughout the Uruguay River (Di Persia and Olazarri 1986).
189443		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, areas that this species inhabits, for example the Paraná   River system, are part of a project to construct 27 dams, including the Itaipu Dam, which is the largest in the world (WWF 2009). This project will also divert and dredge the Uruguay and Paraná   rivers to increase navigation of these waterways, increasing the possible threats of invasive species and sedimentation (WWF 2009).
189444		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - Apparently Secure and G5 - Secure by NatureServe (2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189444		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern America, ranging from Iowa north to Manitoba in Canada, east to Quebec and south to Pennsylvania, although it is now thought to be extirpated from Vermont and New York (NatureServe 2009). This species occurs in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River drainage area, upper tributaries of the Mississippi drainage area, and parts of the Albany, Winnipeg and Nelson River systems in the Canadian Interior Basin (Burch 1989, Clarke 1981, Hubendick 1951). Baker (1911) included northern New England (in Vermont) west to Minnesota, Iowa and Manitoba; northern Ohio at a latitude of 41 degrees, northward to a latitude of 57 degrees.
189444		habitat	eng	This species is known from freshwater rivers (NatureServe 2009).
189444		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189444		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it is likely to be locally threatened by habitat degradation and loss.
189445		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to ascertain whether or not this species is still extant, as there have been no records of this species since 1975 due to a lack of surveys.
189445		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tutuila in American Samoa (Cowie 1998). It has only been recorded on the island once  pre-1975 (Cowie 2001), therefore further research is required. The extent of occurrence is less than 150 km<sup>2</sup>.
189445		habitat	eng	This was only recorded once, on a "dripping wet mossy cliff" (Hubendick 1952 cited in Cowie 1998).
189445		population	eng	This species was only recorded once, as noted in the original description.
189445		threats	eng	<p>As there is a lack of information on the distribution of this species, threats are unknown.</p>
189446		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ distribution might overlap with some national parks and state forests, which may offer some protection to its habitat. Further research is required to establish its population size and identify potential threats.
189446		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in small coastal rivers and streams in northern and western Tasmania and also on Hunter Island (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species’ range might also extend further to the south, however this needs clarifying (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 11,100 km<sup>2</sup>. <strong></strong>
189446		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small coastal rivers and streams and is generally found on leaves, roots, wood and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189446		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be abundant in parts of its range (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189446		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is widely distributed in northern and western Tasmania and  it is unlikely that any major threats are impacting its global  population. Its distribution might also overlap with some national parks and state forests, which may offer some protection to its habitat. However, state-regulated timber harvesting activities take place in Tasmania’s state forests (Forestry Tasmania 2008).
189447		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size, distribution and possible threats to this species is suggested, as these data are currently lacking.
189447		distribution	eng	This species is known from Rio Valdivia in the Los Lagos region of Chile (Zarges 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189447		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Zarges 2006).
189447		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189447		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189448		conservation	eng	<span style="">This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, due to it being "extremely wide ranging and is stable and secure throughout its range"</span>&#160;(NatureServe 2009).&#160;No wide ranging conservation actions have been undertaken for this species.
189448		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout the Mississippi River basin except for the Tennessee and Cumberland River basins.  The range extends from western New York to Minnesota and Montana (Gangloff and Gustafson 2000) and south to Arkansas and west into eastern Kansas and Nebraska (Hoke 2005).  It is found as far west as the eastern Colorado border and in Montana and is widespread throughout the interior of Canada, including the western Hudson Bay drainage (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189448		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river systems.
189448		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available, although this species is reported to be stable throughout its range (NatureServe 2009).
189448		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats impacting this species on a global scale.
189449		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further research is required into the distribution, habitat and threats of this species.
189449		distribution	eng	The type specimen for this species came from Dept. Petén, Aguada, Guatemala, northeast of La Libertad, at an approximate altitude of 200 m (Taylor 2003). This species is distributed through northern Guatemala, including Rio Sebol, the mouth of Rio San Simon, Rio Mabila, Rio El Subin, La Libertad and Rio San Pedro (Taylor 2003). This species has an extent of occurrence of 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189449		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189449		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189449		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189450		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, given the widespread distribution of this species across North America, it is likely that it occurs within a number of protected areas.
189450		distribution	eng	<strong></strong>This species is widespread across northern North America occurring in Canada in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Northwest Territories, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Yukon; and in the United States in Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming; with fossil occurrences in Kansas, Ohio, Ontario, Michigan, and Illinois (Mackie 2007).
189450		habitat	eng	It is found in large and small lakes, brooks, creeks and rivers and has no apparent preference for substrate type and seems to be equally common in mud, marly clay, sand, and gravel; reaching its greatest densities in water 1-4 m deep but down to about 25 m (Mackie 2007).
189450		population	eng	This species is reported to be common (Clarke 1981).
189450		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in North America are threatened by habitat loss and degradation, the spread of exotic species, overexploitation, secondary extinctions, chemical and organic pollution, and climate change (Allan and Flecker 1993). Due to the widespread nature of this species, it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a population level by any of these threats.
189451		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding the habitat and population trends of this species and the threats impacting it.
189451		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Rio Pedro in the Chillo Valley, Ecuador (Pilsbry 1911). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 2,550 km<sup>2</sup>.
189451		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Pilsbry 1911).
189451		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189451		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189452		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the taxonomy and population demographics of this species, as well as its ecology and threats, is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out in order to detect any significant population declines in the future.
189452		distribution	eng	This species is found in Yarkand, Tibetan province of China (Korniushin and Glaubrecht 2001).
189452		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189452		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189452		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189453		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and plausible threats to this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring of habitat and population trends should be carried out because if threat levels increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189453		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across the Pacific (Cowie 1998). It has been found on the islands of Pentecost and Efate, Vanuatu and the Nagura Estuary, Ishigaki Island of the Ryukyu Islands and the on Amami-oshima Island in the Nansei-shoto Islands of Japan (Haynes 2000, Kano <em>et al.</em> 2003, Ohgaki and Kosuge 2005). It has also been recorded on the Makatea Atoll and Tahiti, part of French Polynesia, Samoa and Taiwan Province of China (Montaggioni, 1987, Haynes 1988, Lee and Chao 2003). Recently it has been noted in Khao Bae Na and Laem Yong Lam, Thailand (Nakaoka <em>et al.</em> 2002).
189453		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and is also found in an intertidal zone where streams meet the beach, as well as reef flats (Montaggioni 1987, Haynes 2000, Kano <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189453		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189453		threats	eng	The shell of this species is sold in an online shop at www.australiaseashells.com (Australianseashells.com 2009). It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however this species could be affected by climate change in the future, as it is present on small Pacific islands.
189454		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. More specifically, live specimens must be collected to verify this species' present existence.
189454		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from the western part of the middle Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189454		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of up to 50 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189454		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. It must be noted that only dead shells have been recorded since the type description of this species (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968)  .Other species of this genus have been assessed in the southern Caspian, where significant widespread populations have been found (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
189454		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189455		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189455		distribution	eng	This species is known from New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria, Australia (Hastie and Smith 2006).
189455		habitat	eng	This species is known from a range of habitat types including brackish water creeks, lagoons, estuaries, mangroves, and rivers (Hastie and Smith 2006).
189455		population	eng	This species is locally abundant  (Hastie and Smith 2006).
189455		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting the global population of this species. It is widespread and occupies a range of habitat types.
189456		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine its distribution, abundance and ecology and assess whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189456		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ecuador (Simone 2006). It was described from  Santa Barbara, on the coast of Ecuador, about 272 km SE. of Quito (<em>Pain</em>, BMNH 1946.6.24.25 (one paratype NMW.Z.1981.118.00091; one paratype NMW.1955.158.02411)). Little is known of its current distribution.
189456		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.
189456		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189456		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189457		conservation	eng	'There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is recommended into this species' taxonomy, exact distribution, population size and threats.
189457		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Cambodia, between Battambang and Udong, south of the Tonle Sap (Brandt 1974). Given the taxonomic uncertainty with this species, the true extent of its range cannot be defined.
189457		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189457		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189457		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189458		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189458		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens collected from the western coast of the middle and southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
189458		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of 30-80 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov1968).
189458		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189458		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
189459		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its taxonomy, distribution, ecology and whether it is impacted by any threats.
189459		distribution	eng	This species is found in Venezuela (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189459		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. However, this genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers, where it lays its eggs above the water line  (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
189459		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189459		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189460		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.
189460		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout the United States of America and Canada (NatureServe 2009). It occurs throughout the St. Lawrence River system, south to Alabama in the Mississippi-Missouri river basins, north to the Hudson Bay lowlands in northern Ontario, and west to the Red River and Lake Winnipeg region in Minnesota and Manitoba (Burch 1989).
189460		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater habitats, including rivers, tributaries, streams and lakes. It lives among vegetation in protected areas of lakes and ponds, in backwater areas of rivers, in swamps, and in subarctic muskeg pools; it is usually found on mud strata (Clarke 1981).
189460		population	eng	This species is presumed to be abundant with stable populations.
189460		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation, and competitive pressures of invasive species.
189461		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the abundance, distribution, ecology and threats of this species.
189461		distribution	eng	This species is known from Bahia, Sao Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil as well as Paraguay (Simone 2006), although this has yet to be corroborated by direct surveys (G. Pastorino&#160;pers. comm 2010).
189461		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. However, this genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers (G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010). This genus lays its eggs above the water line&#160;(G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010)
189461		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189461		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any major threats affecting this species. However, it is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189462		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its life history and ecology and threats.
189462		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from St. Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent and St. John in the U.S. Vrigin Islands (Harrison 1984, Muchmore 1993, Smith and Brousseau 1996)
189462		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from pools and ponds of varying size, not in excess of 400 m<sup>2</sup>. Some of these have been known to exhibit extremely variable surface area and depth, while others are more permanent, at the base of waterfalls. Furthermore, this species is also found in marshlands of  lower coorses, although breeding does not seem to occur here. Rather, recruitment from upstream supports these downstream populations (McKillop and Harrison 1982). This species has also been associated with agricultural drainage and irrigation, including banana drains and dasheen/taro gutters (McKillop and Harrison 1980), partciuarly in heavy and normal rain when these systems are full. <br/>This species has been identified as a particulate feeder (McKillop and Harrison 1980). <br/><br/>Furthermore, specimens have been collected from brackish water in coastal coves with some bordering mangroves (Smith and Brousseau 1996).
189462		population	eng	Although insufficient population data is available for this species, reports have been made of significant populations on larger Caribbean islands. This includes collecting over 100 individuals in the space of one minute (Smith and Brousseau 1996).This has yet to be quantitatively analysed. It was further suggested that population density may be affecting morphology, by inducing the production of sculpture on the shell.
189462		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.<br/><br/>The aesthetic value of the islands for tourist revenue may ensure future conservation of forestde areas and riparian vegetation. In addition, this species has no record of utilisation, apart from limited shell collecting.
189463		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189463		distribution	eng	This species is known from coastal areas of Queensland, New South Wales, Western Australia, Victoria and Tasmania, Australia (Camilleri 1992, Cook<em> et al.</em> 2004, Chapman <em>et al. </em>2005).
189463		habitat	eng	This species is found on mud flats and mangroves (Camilleri 1992, Chapman <em>et al.</em> 2005).
189463		population	eng	This species is described as common (Roach and Lim 2000).
189463		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species at a global level.
189464		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish if this is a valid species and to define its native distribution. Research is also required regarding the species' population trends, life history patterns and threats impacting the global population.
189464		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physa moluccensis</span> was recorded from "freshwater lakes near Soesoek and Ainiba, central Timor" (Schepman 1892).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
189464		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189464		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189464		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189465		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to ascertain the full distribution of this species, as this is likely to be wider than is currently known.
189465		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mazandaran Province, north Iran (Mansoorian 2000); the Khuzestan Province, southwest Iran (Farahnak <em>et al</em>. 2006); and Jordan (Heller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
189465		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist and inhabits agriculture canals, pools, streams, swamps and ditches (Farahnak <em>et al</em>. 2006).
189465		population	eng	This species has been described as abundant in the agriculture canals of Khuzestan Province in southwest Iran (Farahnak <em>et al</em>. 2006).
189465		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.
189466		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species, followed by clarification of its population status and the effects of threats.
189466		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Krasnoaleksandrovskaja Cave, Caucasus, Russia (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is not  known where this cave is found.
189466		habitat	eng	This species was found in in the Krasnoaleksandrovskaja Cave, in a cave spring (Starobogatov 1962).
189466		population	eng	&#160;This species is described from two broken shells (Starobogatov 1962). There is no population information available for this species.
189466		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189467		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. More specifically, live specimens must be collected to verify this species' present existence.
189467		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens (empty shells) collected from the western part of the middle Caspian Sea (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189467		habitat	eng	This species is found in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea. Empty shells have been found at depths of 60 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968). <span style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:Arial; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue;mso-ansi-language:EN-US; mso-fareast-language:RU;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">
189467		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189467		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
189468		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Part of the lake in which this species is found is protected by the Titicaca National Reserve.
189468		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Titicaca, Peru (Hershler and Thompson 1992, Ramírez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dejoux (1993) reports a dead specimen from Laguna Verde in Bolivia, though this may have been transported by a bird. Lake Titicaca covers an area of approximately 8,300 km².
189468		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species (Hershler and Thompson 1992).
189468		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189468		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats to the gastropod fauna in Lake Titicaca. The globally invasive gastropod <span style="font-style: italic;">Physa acuta</span> has recently been documented in the lake and found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia andicola </span>(Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). There are also a number of non-native fish species which support a commercial fishery in the lake: Rainbow Trout (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salmo gairdneri</span>) and Pejerrey (<span style="font-style: italic;">Basilichthyes bonariensis</span>) (Gammons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Other major threats to the lake's fauna include increased eutrophication and water diversion programs (Borre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Organic and bacteriological contamination from nearby Puno City are thought to be the main causes of increased rates of eutrohophication. The population of the city is thought to increase significantly in the next few years (Costantini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189469		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is only known from fossil and subfossil specimens and further research is required to establish is taxonomy, full distribution, population status, ecology and habitat preferences.
189469		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern island of New Zealand (Cumber 1941). It is found in the moa swamp in Pyramid Valley, Waikari (Cumber 1941). The extent of occurrence is approximately 5,300 km<sup>2</sup>.
189469		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded from the moa swamp in Pyramid Valley, Waikari (Cumber 1941).
189469		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from fossil and subfossil specimens (Cumber 1941; Dell 1956). Further research is needed to clarify if living populations do exist.
189469		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189470		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189470		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the coastal regions of the following Australian states: Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland (Kelaher <em>et al</em>. 1998, Guest <em>et al</em>. 2004, DEWHA 2009, S. Clark pers. comm. 2011).
189470		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove swamps and salt marshes (Guest <em>et al</em>. 2004, DEWHA 2009).
189470		population	eng	This species is abundant (Mackey and Hodgkinson 1996, Ross <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189470		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is being impacted at a local level by threat processes such as habitat degradation and sea level rise, but due to the distribution of the species and its abundance, it is unlikely that it is being affected on a global scale.
189471		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protection of the spring in which this species occurs is recommneded alongside monitoring of population numbers and habitat trends. Further surveys are needed to try to relocate this species.
189471		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a single location, the type locality on the north east slope of Col d’Amoss, Pouébo, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). The site is now grassy, but formerly forested. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and its area of occupancy as less than 10 km²<sup></sup>.
189471		habitat	eng	This species was collected from seepage (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189471		population	eng	An attempt to resample the type locality in the mid 90s (originally collected in 1989) failed to locate the habitat/any specimens. This does not mean that this species is necessarily extinct (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189471		threats	eng	Land clearance for human development and purpose-lit fires have increased, and this has sped up the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). The native forest has also been reduced and is overgrown with <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark),<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>also negatively impacting the population (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189472		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status of G3 - Vulnerable (i.e. at moderate risk of extinction or elimination due to a  restricted range, relatively few populations or occurrences, recent and  widespread declines, or other factors) (NatureServe 2009). Further population and distribution data is required to inform a more accurate conservation assessment in future.
189472		distribution	eng	This species is found in freshwater marshes and ponds of Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, British Columbia and Saskatchewan (NatureServe 2009). This species' estimated extent of occurrence is approximatly 3,313,695 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><span class="copy">
189472		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in freshwater ponds, marshes and large perennial water bodies (Taylor 1988).The preferred substrate is characteristically a fine mud type (Frest and Johannes 1995).  This species can cope with seasonal fluctuations to the point of desification (Taylor 1988, NatureServe 2009).
189472		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species. However, populations were believed to be stable as recently as 1990 (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).
189472		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through urban encroachment, agricultural run-off or fertilisers and herbicides, and system modifications for draining, dredging and irrigation systems are the main threats to this species (NatureServe 2009).
189473		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Mount Mowbullan is located next to Bunya Mountains National Park (The State of Queensland 2007), which might offer some protection to this species’ habitat. Further research is required to establish its population size and identify potential threats.
189473		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southeastern Queensland, Australia (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is only known from small streams near the top of Mount Mowbullan, Bunya Mountains (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 4,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189473		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams near the top of Mount Mowbullan, where it lives under stones, on submerged vegetation and on dead leaves (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1999).
189473		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189473		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189474		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species distribution, population status and the impact of threats. It is possibly within a protected area but there is no a specific species action plan in place.
189474		distribution	eng	Although this species has been recorded from the Kaek, Pong (at Ban Pha Nok Khao) and Loei rivers in northeastern Thailand (Glaubrecht and Köhler 2004), the review of the material has shown that the species is only localized in the Pong River and that the record to the Kaek River is a misidentification. Its Area of Occupancy is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup> because it is only known from the type locality and about a 10 km stretch in the Pong River (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011).
189474		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rivers on gravel bottoms attached to stones and smaller rocks and in river sections with swift current (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2011). It requires water with a high content of oxygen.
189474		population	eng	This species locally abundant where it occurs (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189474		threats	eng	<p>There are some threats posed to this species from the effects of deforestation on the water quality of the river (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010). Sangsurasak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) note that the Pong River is highly polluted from diverse sources.<br/></p>
189475		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and distribution of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
189475		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kabardino-Balkaria, Russian Federation (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). Specifically, it is found near the village of Ekaterinogradskaya in the Malka River (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009) and is only known from one locality ( ZIN collection).
189475		habitat	eng	This species is known from small river inlets (ZIN collection).
189475		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189475		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189476		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Some general conservation measures are in place under the Ivano-Arakhley Lake Refuge, which was created in 1995, such as reducing the level of chemicals used in agriculture and the amount of arable land (Glazyrina and Strizhova 2000). Further research into the possible threats to this species, the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189476		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Arakhlej in Zabaikalje, which is in Siberia, Russian Federation (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189476		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189476		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189476		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, logging, fishing, agriculture and recreational activities are possibly having a negative effect on the health of the lake where this species is found (Glazyrina and Strizhova 2000). Around 50% of the forests in the area were subjected to industrial logging during the 1980s (Glazyrina and Strizhova 2000). The lake showed evidence of eutrophication, fishing declined and the shoreline was altered by unregulated recreation (Glazyrina and Strizhova 2000).
189477		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the Caspian Sea Environmental Programme (CEP) has many regional agreements in place including a Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP). The main aim of the CEP is to halt environmental degradation and promote sustainable development. In addition, there are many conservation initiatives in place in the Caspian Sea to protect the Endangered Caspian Seal (<em>Pusa caspica</em>), which may well be having a positive indirect impact on the habitat of this species (Härkönen 2008, CEP 2009).<br/><br/>The Caspian Sea borders with three major National Parks (Astrakhan, Gizil-Agac, and Khazar) and the Northern part of the Caspian Sea (Kazakhstan) is a Natural Protected Zone (WDPA 2009).<br/><br/>This species is only known from shells found at the type locality. Further research is recommended to determine the life history traits of this species and clarify its distribution, abundance and whether it is being affected by threat processes.
189477		distribution	eng	This species is a Caspian Sea endemic. It is only known from its type locality in Azerbaijan, in the western part of the southern Caspian (to the north of the Kurinsky Kamen Island) (Kijashko 2009).
189477		habitat	eng	Empty shells of this brackish species have been found at a depth of 81 m (Kijashko 2009, Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).<br/><span style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:Arial; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue;mso-ansi-language:EN-US; mso-fareast-language:RU;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">
189477		population	eng	This species is only known from empty shells found at the type locality (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189477		threats	eng	The Caspian Sea is a closed water body connected to the open sea through the Volga River: This makes it extremely vulnerable to the effects of industrial pollution. Oil exploration activities by the Caspian Sea littoral countries have increased in the past decade, and there are also international plans to transfer oil and gas through underwater pipelines in the Caspian Sea. These activities are likely to have an adverse effect on the biodiversity of the Caspian Sea (Gorgâni 2009).<br/><br/>The development of coastal communities increases the amount of untreated sewage which enters the coastal waters, and an ongoing population increase together with unemployment in the region has caused an increase in illegal fishing activities (Gorgâni 2009).<br/><br/>It is not known what effects these threats are having on this species.
189478		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006), and the species is found within Baikalo-Lensky Nature Reserve. However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189478		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal and is found along the western shore in the Maloe Morye region and northern Baikal (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). Based on the known range, the extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 1,650 km².
189478		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the sublittoral and transitional zones of Lake Baikal, on a substrate of silty-sand and gravel, with very clear water (Brooks 1950, Sitnikova 2004). This species is found at depths of between 2 and 20 m (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009) and sometimes deeper (Sitnikova<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>2004). Available habitat is discontinuous as much of the shoreline is rocky (E. Michel pers. comm. 2010).
189478		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189478		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to the lack of precise population information for this species. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189479		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any conservation measures in place. Further research is required regarding the population trends and threat processes impacting the population of this species.
189479		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known but is endemic to the Tennessee River system (Tennessee and Alabama) and known in Alabama from Jackson County possibly downstream to Madison County (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 1,000 km²<sup></sup>.
189479		habitat	eng	This species is found in the freshwater system of the Tennessee River.
189479		population	eng	Goodrich (1941) lists the main populations as occurring in the Tennessee River and Sequatchie River. There is no population information available for this species.
189479		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
189480		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but parts of its distribution are likely to coincide with protected areas.
189480		distribution	eng	This species has a wide distribution encompassing the coasts of the western Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean (Brandt 1974), including Australia and Hawaii. In Australia this species can be found in New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia (DEWHA 2009).
189480		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mud flats, nipa palm and mangrove forests (Brandt 1974).
189480		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189480		threats	eng	Mangrove and mud flat ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture or agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189481		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed on this species' population size, trends and distribution.
189481		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Baltic Sea basin and central Volga basin, from Kaliningrad towards (but not including) the Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). This species is only known from two or three localities near Moscow (ZIN 2011).
189481		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow permanent and semi-permanent waterbodies (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
189481		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189481		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, however, very little is known about this species at present.
189482		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and distribution is suggested, as these data are currently lacking. Also, investigations into the possible threats to this species are necessary. Monitoring of population and habitat should be carried out as significant population declines may occur in the future&#160;if threat levels increase.
189482		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Chico River, Chubut Province and Lake Posadas in the Santa Cruz Province, Argentina (Simone 2006, Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189482		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and lakes (Simone 2006, Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189482		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189482		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by mining in the area, althought this has yet to be characterised (G. Darrigran and G. Pastorino pers. comm.  2010).
189483		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 (Imperiled), a US national status of N2 (Imperilled) and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened. It is a Federal species of concern, and is listed as Endangered in the states of South Carolina (Bogan and Alderman 2004) and North Carolina (Hanlon and Levine 2004), and Threatened in Georgia (Wisniewski 2008).&#160;The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) was considering listing the species as Endangered nationally (Price 2005). However, due to incomplete knowledge about the number of viable populations such a listing is no longer being pursued (L. Zimmerman pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The species occurs in the Altamaha River in the Griffin Ridge Wildlife Management Area in Georgia. However, this does not eliminate habitat degradation as a possible threat because disturbances may occur upstream (Wisniewski 2008).<br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include: reintroduction of artificially propagated individuals into suitable locations within the species' historic range; management of water levels in small ponds and lakes to avoid high levels of predation (Hanlon and Levine 2004); minimizing disturbances due to all-terrain vehicles to prevent individuals from being crushed, as well as minimizing unnecessary erosion along waterways (Wisniewski 2008).
189483		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to three states in the US: South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia.<br/><br/>In South Carolina, it is known from the Savannah, Cooper-Santee, and Pee River basins (Bogan <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Georgia, it is found in the Savannah, Ogeechee, and Altamaha River basins (the southern-most extent of its range) (Wisniewski 2008).&#160;Although originally described from the Wateree River in South Carolina, an extensive survey in 2004 failed to find any individuals (J. Alderman pers. comm. cited in Price 2005). In North Carolina, it is believed to be extirpated from Lake Waccamaw (Bogan and Alderman 2004).<br/><br/>This species is thought to have an extent of occurrence of around 20,000 km²; throughout its range it is highly fragmented (NatureServe 2009).
189483		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lotic streams and ponds, where it prefers mud or sand near the banks (Johnson 1970). It is rarely found in deeper water, but usually in small colonies in less than six inches of water.<br/><br/>Little is known about the life history of this species (Adams <em>et al.</em> 1990). Studies in the one of the only known stable populations, at University Lake in North Carolina, found that the fish-host species is the hybrid bluegill (<em>Lepomis macrochirus <em>x</em> L. cyanellus</em>). Other <em>Lepomis</em> spp. are also considered likely hosts due to associations with congeneric species (Hanlon and Levine 2004). Also at the same location, the sex ratio was found to be not significantly different from 1:1, although without a thorough sub-sample survey the authors caution against generalising for all populations (Hanlon and Levine 2004). Age ranged from three to nine years (mean: 5.2 for males, 4.7 for females), with most individuals found (85%) aged four to six years (Hanlon and Levine 2004).
189483		population	eng	This species used to extend from the Altamaha River basin in Georgia to the Neuse River basin in North Carolina (Bogan and Alderman 2004). It is still thought to be fairly abundant, but only in a very small number of locations (NatureServe 2009), and has exhibited recent and continuing declines in both density and the number of populations. Despite this, new populations continue to be discovered, suggesting that understanding of this species is incomplete (L. Zimmerman pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>A survey by Alderman (1994) found just seven extant populations: Ohoopee River (Georgia); Savannah River (South Carolina, Georgia); Richardson Creek (Rocky River basin), Densons Creek and Little River (Pee Dee River basin), Lake Waccamaw, and University Lake (Haw River basin) in North Carolina. Recent surveys have also confirmed its presence in the Altamaha River in Georgia (Wiskiewski 2008). Only three of the populations listed by Alderman (1994) have shown recent evidence of reproduction (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>It is considered extirpated from several of its former locations, including: the Neuse and Waccamaw River basins (North Carolina) (Adams <em>et al.</em> 1990); Columbus County, North Carolina. (NatureServe 2009); the Wateree River, South Carolina. Only seven individuals were recently found in Lake Marion, S.C., and three in the Ogeechee River in Georgia (Price 2005).<br/><br/>The most stable populations appear to be at University Lake, North Carolina, an artificially-created lake which covers an area of 86 ha (0.86 square km) and in the Savannah River (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010). However, this population has also undergone recent declines (Price 2005).
189483		threats	eng	Being a shallow-water specialist with many small, fragmented populations, this species is highly susceptible to any form of water loss (for example from drainage or drought). It is also vulnerable to the effects of off-road vehicles, the suspected cause of declines in the Ohoopee River, Georgia (Price 2005, Wisniewski 2008). The species is also susceptible to pollution, and its dispersal is hindered by artificial structures such as dams.<br/><br/>Dredging work and modification of the Savannah River by the US Army Corps of Engineers has negatively impacted one of the largest populations of this species (Alderman 1994).<br/><br/>Anecdotal information suggests that entire populations may be at risk from episodes of water loss; for example the mass stranding that occurred at Lake Marion in January 2005, resulting in the loss of many individuals (T. Savidge pers. comm. cited in Price 2005).<br/><br/>This species has a fast life-history relative to other species of freshwater mussel (Hanlon and Levine 2004) which should be taken into account when considering the vulnerability of the University Lake population to predation. However the threat from predation by muskrats, for example, increases when water levels are low, with large or mature individuals most likely to be taken (Hanlon and Levine 2004). Females in particular are vulnerable due to conspicuous reproductive behaviour (Smith <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>Introduced Flathead Catfish (<em>Pylodictis olivaris</em>) are considered a potential threat due to direct consumption of mussels and indirect predation of their host fish species (Wisniewski 2008).<br/><br/>Excess sedimentation due to inadequate riparian buffer zones covers suitable habitat and could potentially suffocate mussels (Wisniewski 2008).
189484		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (Critically Imperiled) by NatureServe (2009). Further research is required to ascertain the population trends of this species.
189484		distribution	eng	This species is known from the vicinity of Goose Lake in Modoc County, California, as well as from Lake County, Oregon (NatureServe 2009). The estimated extent of occurrence for this species is no larger than 450 km<sup>2</sup>. Area of occupancy is likely to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. The species was first described in 1912 and still occurs in the same area (Hershler 1999, Hershler and Frest 1996), as well as some new springs in Lake County, Oregon (Frest and Johannes 2000). There are only three definite known locations at which the species exists - two sites in Modoc County, CA, and one in Lake County, Oregon (NatureServe 2009).
189484		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from freshwater springs (NatureServe 2009).
189484		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. There has so far been no evidence of a population decline, although surveys for this species have not been carried out for some time (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).
189484		threats	eng	A number of the springs in the area have been converted to land for livestock grazing, and there has also been abstraction of water for domestic use.&#160;Frest and Johannes (1995) indicate that springs in the area are grazed heavily, and that many of these are now dry due to grazing, diversion and capping for stock and domestic use, and some others have become eutrophified due to being integrated into irrigation systems. These threats are ongoing (NatureServe 2009).
189485		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G5 - secure to vulnerable (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, given its widespread distribution it is likely that it occurs within a number of protected areas. Further research is recommended to ascertain the United States distribution, and conservation measures implemented on habitat sites will ensure the species a degree of protection.
189485		distribution	eng	This species is found in Canada and the United States. Its range in Canada includes New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec; and Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Virginia in the United States. It is somewhat uncommon, found mainly in lakes and rivers of the Hudson Bay, Great Lakes, and St. Lawrence River drainages (Mackie 2007, Clarke 1981, NatureServe 2009). However, it is likely to also occur in other areas of Canada and the United States, but the species distribution is yet to be completely mapped.
189485		habitat	eng	This species occupies a range of habitat types including creeks, rivers and lakes (Clarke 1981). It appears to show a preference for fine, sandy sediments with vegetation. However, it has also been found on mud sediments (Burch 1975).
189485		population	eng	This species is described as uncommon in Canada (Clarke 1981). Its United States distribution is yet to be assessed, but although uncommon, it seems to be slowly invading waters in the Atlantic coastal drainage system in northeastern North America and is not at risk; except perhaps at range limits like Virginia or the Great Lakes.
189485		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in North America are threatened by habitat loss and degradation, overexploitation, chemical and organic pollution, and the spread of exotic species (Allan and Flecker 1993). It is not known what impact these processes may be having on this species, but given its widespread distribution it is likely that any threats are acting on a localised scale only and therefore do not represent major threats to the global population of this species.
189486		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the species’ distribution, abundance and threat processes.
189486		distribution	eng	This species is found in Peru (Ramirez <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189486		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences for this species are unknown.
189486		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189486		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189487		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5Q - secure, but with questionable taxonomy which could reduce the conservation status of this species (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Undetermined (NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/>This species currently receives no state or federal protection. The Xerces Society, in collaboration with members of the Pacific Northwest Native Freshwater Mussel Workgroup, is currently investigating the conservation status of this species (Schonberg 2009). Further research is recommended to clarify this species taxonomy.
189487		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in California, Nevada, Oregon and Washington and is possibly extirpated from Utah (Oliver and Bosworth 1999).<br/><br/>In Canada, this species occurs in British Columbia (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>The geographic range of this clade is in question because of the taxonomic uncertainty that has plagued the genus <em>Anodonta</em>. This species has been confused with <em>A. beringiana</em> in the northern part of its range and with <em>A. californiensis</em> in the southern part of its range (Nedeau <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189487		habitat	eng	This species is a fast-growing generalist, and is more tolerant of lower dissolved oxygen levels than other native mussel species. It prefers softer substrate, such as sand and silt, that is characteristic of permanently flooded wetlands, lakes and reservoirs. This species prefers low gradient and low elevation rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and often shares habitat with <em>Anodonta californiensis</em> (Schonberg 2009).<br/><br/>The fish host is the coho salmon <em>Oncorhynchus kisutch</em> (Schonberg 2009).
189487		population	eng	Although taxonomic uncertainty exists and recent evidence demonstrates a decline in the Pacific Northwest, this species is still likely to be the most widespread western <em>Anodonta</em> species (Mock <em>et al.</em> 2004, NatureServe 2009).
189487		threats	eng	This species is thought to be more tolerant of poor water quality than many of the other species of freshwater mussel native to the Pacific Northwest (Schonberg 2009). However, it is unclear whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, although typical&#160;freshwater threats may affect this species. Habitat destruction is thought to have an effect (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
189488		conservation	eng	In 1997, the Mongolian Long Term Ecological Research Network (MLTER) was established, with Lake Hovsgol as the first site for study (Goulden and Boldgiv 2002). Since 2001, the Mongolian Academy of Sciences has been investigating the biodiversity loss in Lake Hovsgol's watershed, the negative impacts from forest cutting and sustainable resource use (Goulden and Boldgiv 2002). This will include monitoring the melting of the permafrost and subsequent soil sequestration, which is a result of the local rise in temperatures (Goulden and Boldgiv 2002).<br/><br/>Further research into the population size, trends and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring of populations and habitat should be carried out to gauge the effect of climate change, because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189488		distribution	eng	This species is found in Lake Hovsgol, Mongolia (Slugina 2006).
189488		habitat	eng	This species is found in a lake (Slugina 2006).
189488		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species has een described too recently (2001) for any information to be available on generation length (D. V. Damme pers. comm. 2011).
189488		threats	eng	Lake Hovsgol is threatened by climate change, as the region has seen a recent increase of around 1.4 degrees Celsius in the last 35 years (Goulden and Boldgiv 2002). As this lake is underlain by permafrost, it is expected to be impacted by rising temperatures (Goulden and Boldgiv 2002). However, it is not known what specific impact climate change will have on this species.
189489		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the type locality is presumably located in Barguzinsy Nature Reserve. Further work is needed to determine current population size and trends for this species, and assess the impact of threats such as pollution.
189489		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Lake Baikal, Russia, at depths of 50 to 540 m (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). It is also found in Shegnanda Bay (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189489		habitat	eng	This lacustrine species is found in sand and soft sediments (Sitnikova 2000), and habitats with sandy bottoms and pebbles (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2004).
189489		population	eng	This species has only been collected in small numbers from Lake Baikal (Sitnikova 2000).
189489		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. However, because of a lack of information about the species' population and ecology, it is impossible to estimate the impacts of these threats on the species.<br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems, including litter, which jeopardize the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialized city near Lake Baikal. This could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189490		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189490		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in lakes and streams from southern Ontario north to Victoria island and the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and west to the Aleutian Islands (Uimak Island), British Columbia, Washington, Montana, Idaho, and California; including Canada in Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, and Yukon; and in the U.S. in California, Idaho, Indiana, Michigan, Montana, Virginia, and Wisconsin (Mackie 2007); and also Sweden (Clarke 1973) and Finland; plus Alaska and the Aleutian Islands (Herrington 1962, NatureServe 2009). This species also occurs in Sweden (Clarke 1981). However, it is not known whether this Swedish population is native or introduced.
189490		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in large, cold, arctic and mountain lakes at a depth of around 24 m (Herrington 1962, Clarke 1981). However, this species can also be found in small, relatively warm lakes in the southern parts of its range (Clarke 1981). This species occurs frequently in mesotrophic lakes and less frequently in oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes (Clarke 1979). This species is usually found on sandy substrate with vegetation (Clarke 1981).
189490		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189490		threats	eng	Freshwater systems in North America are threatened by habitat loss and  degradation, the spread of exotic species, overexploitation, secondary  extinctions, chemical and organic pollution, and climate change (Allan  and Flecker 1993). Due to the widespread nature of this species, it is  unlikely that it is being threatened on a population level by any of  these threats.
189491		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats to this species and the population  distribution, size and trends is suggested as these data are currently lacking.
189491		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Peru (SysTax 2009) and is known from the Amazon River basin (Simone 2006).
189491		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from freshwater rivers (Simone 2006).
189491		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189491		threats	eng	The upper Amazon basin is impacted by industrial, domestic, and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of river flows and introduced species. Gold mining causes heavy metal pollution in the Brazilian Amazon (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
189493		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189493		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from the middle and southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
189493		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at depths of 30-150 m (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968). Furthermore, recent Van Veen grab sampling in 2004 has found two examples of this species at a depth of 317 and 186 m (CBIS 2009).
189493		population	eng	There are insufficient population data available for this species.
189493		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardise the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose.&#160;Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160; </span>2006).
189495		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population trends, distribution, habitats, ecology and the threats impacting this species are required.
189495		distribution	eng	This species is known from Panama (Malek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span>1975).
189495		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information for this species.
189495		population	eng	There is no information on the population trends of this species.
189495		threats	eng	As there is a lack of information on the distribution of this species, threats are unknown.
189496		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 - Apparently Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189496		distribution	eng	This species ranges from the Nueces and Guadalupe rivers of southern Texas north to the Trinity River drainage of the Dallas area and the Red River (Howells <em>et al.</em> 1996), then eastward to western Mississippi (Vidrine 1993) with populations in southern Arkansas (Harris and Gordon 1990).  In Louisiana, this species is known from dozens of sites across the state with concentrations in western Louisiana where it is extremely common in creeks and medium sized streams (it is the most abundant species in the headwater creeks of the Calcasieu River system) (Vidrine 1993).  In Mississippi, it is only known from the Big Black River and Yazoo River drainages where it is a species of concern (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The taxonomic status of populations in southeastern Oklahoma remains unclear, but may include this species (Branson and Branson 1984).
189496		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and streams (Howells <em>et al</em>. 1996).
189496		population	eng	Populations are apparently stable throughout most of the range.
189496		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats negatively impacting this species at a global scale, although localised declines may occur in parts of its range.
189499		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its taxonomy, abundance and threat processes.
189499		distribution	eng	In southeast Asia this species has been found in Thailand, Nepal, China, Hong Kong, Japan, the Kuril Islands, Myanmar, the Republic of Korea, Papua and Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines, with the type species from Guam. This species has been accidentally introduced into Australia as contaminants of aquatic plants and fish, and can be found in Queensland, New South Wales, and West Australia (Boray 1978, Ruangpaen 1989, Monzon <em>et al.</em> 1994, Ponder and Waterhouse 1997, Macarthur 2006, DEWHA 2009, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189499		habitat	eng	This species is found in lentic habitats such as lakes, pools and marshes with clay soil bottoms, and also in channels, creeks and ditches. In Australia, it can also be found in garden ponds and aquaria (Kim 1972, Boray 1978, Lloyd <em>et al.</em> 2007, DEWHA 2009).<br/><br/>This species is a host for the parasites <em>Orientocreadium batrachoides</em> and the liver fluke <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> (Kim 1972, Ruangpaen 1989). <em>F. hepatica</em> can cause considerable economic loss to livestock industries and therefore the accidental introduction of <em>Lymnaea viridis</em> to Australia is a great cause for concern (Boray 1978).
189499		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189499		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189500		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine the abundance and threat processes of this species.
189500		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is the estuary of the Artemovka River, Primorski, Russia. The distribution of this species includes southeast Siberia, southern Primorski and 'the south of the Russian Far East' (Lindholm 1928, Bogatov and Starobogatov 1994, Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is also found in Korea (Graf and Kummings 2011).
189500		habitat	eng	This species inhabits brackish water bodies and estuaries (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189500		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189500		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189501		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas (e.g. Great Sandy Biosphere, Lakefield National Park).&#160;Further research to clarify the taxonomic confusion surrounding this species is recommended, and to determine its distribution and abundance.
189501		distribution	eng	This species is found along the east coast of Australia in New South Wales and Queensland (Australian Faunal Directory 2009). It occurs north to Lakefield National Park in Queensland, west to the Denison River, and south to Tamworth in New South Wales (GBIF 2009).
189501		habitat	eng	This species is an intermediate host of the schistosome <em>Trichobilharzia </em>spp. in Queensland (Hurley <em>et al. </em>1995). It is found in several habitat types, both lotic and lentic, including open bays, permanent creeks, and shallow ponds, and exhibits strong seasonal population fluctuations, peaking in the wet season (Hurley <em>et al. </em>1995). It associates with aquatic plants and macrophytes including <em>Nymphoides indica</em> and <em>Azolla pinnata</em>, and has a fairly high tolerance to pollution and habitat degradation (Haase and Nolte 2008).
189501		population	eng	This species has a population density ranging from 0.07 to 2.8 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in Ross Reservoir, Queensland (Hurley <em>et al. </em>1995). 629 specimens were collected at the same location over a two-year period (Hurley <em>et al. </em>1994).
189501		threats	eng	Rainfall is a major factor influencing population size in this species, with peak numbers found in the wet season (Hurley <em>et al. </em>1995). Thus the increasing frequency and severity of droughts in Australia, both past and predicted, is potentially a threat facing this species.&#160;However, this is not the first time that this species has experienced these conditions, and it has a wide distribution. Therefore it is unlikely that it is being impacted on a wide scale, and sufficiently to warrant a higher threat category.
189502		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189502		distribution	eng	As the family of Baicaliidae is reported to be endemic to Lake Baikal in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation, it is inferred that this species is also endemic to the area (Sitnikova <em>et al.</em> 2001).
189502		habitat	eng	This species is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al.</em> 2001).
189502		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189502		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189503		conservation	eng	This species was included on the Red List of Threatened Species for Russia, as <span style="font-style: italic;">Dahurica dahurica</span>, and is protected in Daursky, Zeya, Khingan, Komsomolsk, Bolshekhekhtsirsky and Khanka reserves. Action required include prevention of the contamination of rivers, over-fishing of the host fish species, impeding the migration of the host fish species.&#160; Further data is required on this species’ taxonomy and further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
189503		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Amur River system, Russia (Smith 2001). However Zyuganov (online sources, 2010: http://hunt.rin.ru/html/article2386-1.html) suggests that it is more widely distributed from North-East&#160;China and Russia.&#160;
189503		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species, however specimens have been found in flowing rivers (Smith 2001) and brooks (Zhadin 1952). This species prefers clear waterbodies and sand-silt substrates (Zhadin 1938).
189503		population	eng	In the 1930s, this species was very abundant in waterbodies and abundance estimates reached 180-400 individuals per square meter (Zhadin 1938).&#160; Fertilization and brooding glochidia in the gills of clams in July and August.&#160; Fertility over 20 million glochidia from a single female. &#160; List of fish host is not known, but probable host for the glochidia include the salmon genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvelinus, Oncorhynchus, Hucho, Brachymystax</span>. Data on life expectancy contradictory to 12 years or up to 80 years
189503		threats	eng	The threats to this species are contamination of rivers, over-fishing of the host fish species, impeding the migration of the host fish species. Major hydrological developments, such as dams, water pollution and disruption to natural hydrological regimes are posing major threats to ecosystems in the Amur River Basin (Simonov and Dahmer 2008). However, it is unclear current status for the catchments where the species occurs nor how sensitive it is to changes in its habitat. This species had been actively exploited before World War II as a source of commercial nacre (Zhadin 1938). It is thought that this trade no longer exists in the Russian Far East (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
189504		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (1 Jan 1993) (NatureServe 2009). It is unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed, however in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189504		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin. NatureServe (2009) have classified it as Critically Imperilled in Kansas, Mississippi, and New York, and Possibly Extirpated in Louisiana. <br/><br/>This species is widely distributed and found throughout the Mississippi River system, with exception of extreme southern and western reaches. It also occurs in the St. Lawrence River basin and tributaries of Lakes Erie, Michigan, and Ontario and is considered stable throughout much of its range (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).<br/><br/>In Canada, this species occurs in Ontario and and is Critically Imperilled in Quebec (NatureServe 2009).
189504		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 1 m or less in riffles with a strong current but also quiet water in streams. The preferred substrates range from cobble and gravel to sand or mud bottoms (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). Watters (1994) lists twelve different fish hosts for the glochidia of this species.
189504		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but it is considered stable throughout much of its range (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189504		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.
189505		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish the abundance of this species, and the impact of threats such as siltation as a result of deforestation.
189505		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand. It is known from the Ubolratana Reservoir, Khon Kaen, northeast Thailand (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), Maenam Loei at Loei in northern-central Thailand, and Phnom Penh, Mekong. (Brandt 1974).
189505		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in reservoirs (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004) and streams (Brandt 1974).
189505		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189505		threats	eng	This species has a very restricted range within Thailand and so is more vulnerable to threats within its range. Deforestation and changes in land use due to agriculture in northern Thailand (Enters 1996, Thanapakpawin <em>et al.</em> 2006) may result in siltation and changes to water quality.
189506		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the abundance and full range of this species, as well as the possible threats that may affect it.
189506		distribution	eng	This species is found in Ecuador between 2,000 m and 3,000 m above sea level. The type locality of this species is Chillogallo, in the Quito district (Kuiper and Hinz 1983).
189506		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in brooks, but the type locality was a pool with a large coverage of watercress (Kuiper and Hinz 1983).
189506		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189506		threats	eng	Within South America, freshwater ecosystems are heavily affected by habitat degradation and destruction. Habitat alteration is often a result of rapid population growth and urbanisation. A lot of wetlands are currently being converted to rice fields, ground water is being extracted, and coastal wetlands are being used for shrimp farming. Channelization and the construction of dams also pose a major threat. There are over 885 dams over 15 m high, resulting in dramatic changes to the hydrological regime of surrounding water systems (Castro and Parcells 1996).&#160;Without further information, it is not known which, if any, of these threats are affecting this species. Nothing is known of its tolerance to pollution or alterations to its habitat. It is also possible that the areas this species inhabits are currently unaffected by the threat processes outlined above.
189507		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is suggested regarding this species' habitat, population size, trends and distribution.
189507		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela (Cowie and Thiengo 2003). Simone (2006) also lists this species to occur in Cuba, Costa Rica, Panama, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay. However, Cowie and Thiengo (2003) believe specimens from south of the Amazon Basin were wrongly identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Marisa cornuarietis</span> by Ihering (1919). Therefore Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina are not part of this species' distribution.
189507		habitat	eng	This species commonly inhabits stagnant and slowly running freshwater ecosystems (Sawadee and Köhler 2009). It  mainly feeds on living and decaying aquatic plants, but also consumes eggs and newly hatched young, and possibly adults of other snail species (Aufderheide <em>et al.</em> 2006). They deposit gelatinous clutches of 20-80 eggs underwater, which stick to submerged objects (Sawadee and Köhler 2009). This species is also considered to be a good traveller and is often introduced with aquatic plants used by aquarists (Pointier 2001).
189507		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species has a wide distribution and has been introduced into many areas as a biological control agent (Pointier and Augustin 1999).
189507		threats	eng	In Central and South America, as well as the Caribbean, freshwater ecosystems are adversely affected by pollution, siltation and changes to water quality caused by mining and deforestation. Furthermore, loss of habitat occurs due to conversion of freshwater and wetland habitats for intensive agriculture and livestock. Increased damming, water diversion and invasive species also pose significant threats (Olson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). This species, although possibly impacted by many threats, has a wide distribution and has been introduced into many countries outside of Central and South America and the Caribbean as a biological control agent (Pointier and Augustin 1999).
189508		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189508		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the southern Caspian Sea (Logvinenko and Starobogatov 1968).
189508		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, with a depth range of 100-200 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).&#160; Furthermore, recent Van Veen grab sampling in 2000 has found two examples of this species (unverified and listed as the previous name for this species, <em>Turricaspia nossovi</em>) at a  depth of 65 m (CBIS 2009).
189508		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Recent investigation of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna has found this species to be less abundant than other gastropods surveyed in the area, with 9.52 % occurrence across 42 sampling stations (Parr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
189508		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
189509		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size, distribution and vital ecological data.
189509		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Queensland, Australia (Iredale 1943, Smith 1992). It is found along the coast of Queensland (Smith 1992).
189509		habitat	eng	This species inhabits freshwater rivers, streams and swamps along the coast of Queensland (Smith 1992).
189509		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution, but can be common in some localities (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010)
189509		threats	eng	Major threats to this species includes&#160;habitat degradation from agricultural activities, such as ranching, and urbanisation in some areas (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010)
189510		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189510		distribution	eng	The holotype of this species was labeled Hovsogöl Lake, Mongolia (51°N, 101 °E), although it has not been found there since (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). This may in fact be due to a mislabelled specimen (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004). Instead, this species is known to inhabit Lake Baikal (Sitnikova 1987). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>,&#160; and only occurs in  around five to ten locations based on the predominant threat of sedimentation and pollution, which is continuing to negatively impact this species' habitat  quality.
189510		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the littoral zone of Lake Baikal, on a substrate of pebbles, sand and silt, with very clear water (Brooks 1950). It can be found at depths between 3 and 30 m (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009) and on the lateral side of stones (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189510		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species. It has been reported to be a&#160; rare species (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
189510		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189511		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to clarify this species' population size, ecology and threats.
189511		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Mekong River at Ban Dan and Khemarat, Thailand, Chiang Saen Amphoe near the Myanmar border (Hoagland and Davis 1979) and Kratie in Cambodia (Brandt 1974).
189511		habitat	eng	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.This genus is known generally as a good coloniser, and can tolerate muddy waters and low oxygen levels that often occur after disturbances. This genus dominates its habitat by immigration rather than recruitment, is slow growing, and long lived (Attwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189511		population	eng	This species is known from less than 100 specimens, but reaches its greatest abundance in the islands at Ban Dan and Khemarat (Hoagland and Davis 1979).
189511		threats	eng	<p>A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/> <br/> A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong  River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/> <br/> The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.</p>
189512		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. This species is, for example, found in the Motu Manawa Marine Reserve in Auckland, New Zealand (Department of Conservation Auckland Conservancy 1997). This 500 hectare reserve is surrounded by residential areas and protects this species' habitat of mudflats as it is a strict 'no take' zone (Department of Conservation Auckland Conservancy 1997).
189512		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Zealand, where it can be found along the coastal margins (Little <em>et al.</em> 1984, Little <em>et al. </em>1985).
189512		habitat	eng	This brackish water species is found in shallow tidal estuaries, on mangroves and mud flats (Golding <em>et al.</em> 2007).
189512		population	eng	This species is common and abundant on the mudflats of New Zealand (Shumway 1981)
189512		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting the global population of this species.
189513		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189513		distribution	eng	This species is found in lagoons and estuaries in the Gulf of Thailand, and in Viet Nam from Thuận An district (Brandt 1974).
189513		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoons and estuaries (Brandt 1974).
189513		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189513		threats	eng	There are no major recorded threats to this species, however this species' coastal habitat is potentially at risk from land conversion, and agricultural and domestic pollution. Untreated municipal and industrial wastewater, the conversion of coastal habitat to shrimp farms, and the eutrophication of coastal waters are major problems in the Gulf of Thailand and may potentially affect this species (Cheevaporn and Menasveta 2003).
189515		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the species' population size and habitat preferences, in order to accurately assess if it is affected by any major threats.
189515		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Upper Amur, Primorye and Sakhalin regions, Russia (Kolpakov 2003, Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Potikha <em>et al</em>. 2008, Prozorova<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Zasypkin<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> 2008). Its extent of occurrence is estimated in excess of 600,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189515		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small semi-permanent and temporary ponds. It is recorded from pools, swamps, small lakes and other habitats of similar kind (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Potikha <em>et al.</em> 2008, Prozorova and Zasypkina 2008).
189515		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, but judging from the museum collections available, the species appears to be relatively common in the Far East of Russia (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2011).
189515		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189516		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research on this species population trends, distribution, life history and the threats impacting this species is needed.
189516		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Southern USA (Lea 1853) but the exact distribution is unclear.
189516		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown.
189516		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189516		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being affected by any threat processes.
189517		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protection of the spring in which the species occurs and further survey work to monitor the area are recommended.
189517		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Péyia in the community of Oua Oué, Bourail, New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of less 100 km², an estimated area of occupancy of less  than 10 km²<sup></sup> and is only found in one locality in very degraded habitat  with continuing threats of declining habitat quality impacting this  species.
189517		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a seep in a creek bed (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189517		population	eng	At the type locality this species is very rare, with only four specimens collected over two separate collecting trips (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189517		threats	eng	The tiny distribution makes this species very susceptible to threat processes. The locality of this species is situated in deforested area that is covered in <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(Paper Bark) scrub. As a result, this habitat is heavily degraded and no original habitat remains (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189518		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended on the extent of threat impacts and the population trends of this species.
189518		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species was recorded as Lake Orlinoye, 120 km from the mouth of the Arga River (upper Zeya basin) (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). This species is distributed in the upper and central parts of the Zeya and Bureya basins, the middle Amur basin and Ussuri basin, and in lakes of these areas (Moskvicheva 1979, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004<em> in</em> Kantor <em>et al, </em>2009, Zasypkina 2009).
189518		habitat	eng	This species is found in floodplains, lakes and rivers (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189518		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189518		threats	eng	Major threats to this species includes habitat modification and degradation from hydroelectric dams (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189519		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Recently, a monitoring and action plan has been established to highlight areas of pollution concern within the Caspian Sea (DHV 2005), further attempting to coordinate sampling and analysis efforts of four of the five nations bordering the sea (Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats.
189519		distribution	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens collected from the middle and southern Caspian Sea (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189519		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the brackish waters of the Caspian Sea, at a depth range of 20-150 m (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Furthermore, recent Van Veen grab sampling in 2000 and 2001 has found several examples of this species at depths of 20, 65, 112, 243, 245 and 260 m (CBIS 2009).
189519		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189519		threats	eng	The feasibility of oil exploration in the area is currently being assessed. If this proceeds, it has the potential to jeopardize the habitat of this species by disturbing sediment, as well as conceivable chemical contamination. Further information on the scale of this project and its actual progression are required to characterise the specific threats it may pose. Recent studies into the effects of drilling in the South Caspian Sea have found that no significant negative impact on benthic macrofauna is observed beyond 400 m from the well-head (Tait <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). <br/><br/>This species may be impacted by invasive species. Since the opening of the Volga-Don shipping channel in 1952, a number of invasive species have been documented in the Caspian Sea including intentional introduction of the bivalve <em>Abra ovata</em> for fish food (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). There have also been a number of accidental introductions due to increasing shipping activity (Riedel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
189520		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its taxonomic status, population size and habitat preferences, as little is currently known about this species.
189520		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout European Russia, except the far northern parts (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
189520		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent water bodies (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is probably a lentic species (M.V. Vinarksi pers. comm. 2010).
189520		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189520		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189521		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation methods in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, life history, ecology and threats.
189521		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from one location: a headwater in the Poya drainage on the island of New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 100 km²<sup></sup> and its area of occupancy is likely to be less than 10 km².
189521		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from one location which included a seepage, creek and seeping marsh, and two specimens were collected from the overflow of a micro-dam, although this is not considered its preferred habitat (Haase and Bouchet 1998). There was less than one kilometre between these sites (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189521		population	eng	This species is common in the type locality (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189521		threats	eng	Land clearance for human development and fires have increased in the area where this species occurs, and this has sped up the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This may be a potential threat to this species, particularly due to its restricted distribution.
189522		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the species’ taxonomy, and determine its distribution, life history traits, and any threat processes affecting it.
189522		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the ‘Zakaspijsk Region’ of Turkmenistan (Izzatullaev and Starobogatov 1984).
189522		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences for this species are unknown. However, most <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis </span>species live in brooks and small rivers (Izzatullaev and Starobogatov 1986), and it is likely that the same also applies to this species.
189522		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189522		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes
189523		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.
189523		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species, present in many parts of the United States of America including Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa , Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin (NatureServe 2009). It is also present in Ontario, Canada (NatureServe 2009).
189523		habitat	eng	This species has generalized habitat preferences and can maintain abundant and viable populations in shallow to deep sections of large reservoirs as well as in small to medium-sized free-flowing rivers (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). It is usually found in a substrate consisting of coarse gravel, sand, and silt (Parmalee and Bogan 1998). The Shovelnose Sturgeon (<em>Scaphirhynchus platorynchus</em>), Black Bullhead (<em>Ameriurus melas</em>), Brown Bullhead (<em>Ameriurus nebulosus</em>), Channel Catfish (<em>Pylodictis olivaris</em>), and White Crappie (<em>Pomoxis annularis</em>) are glochidial host fish for this species (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189523		population	eng	This is a common species and surveys such as Cummings and Berlocher (1990) indicate that this species is 'abundant' as it was collected at many sampling sites (Cummings and Berlocher 1990, NatureServe 2009).
189523		threats	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - secure (NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (NatureServe 2009). There are no major threats affecting this species throughout its large range.
189524		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify its abundance, taxonomy, ecology, and threats.
189524		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from only a few specimens collected from the Andaman Islands (Preston 1915).
189524		habitat	eng	This species was collected from unknown fluvial habitat (Preston 1915). Other members of this genus occupy a benthic fluvial habitat (Sripongpun 2003).
189524		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189524		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Rivers on the Andaman Islands are predominantly non-perennial, rain-fed streams which dry up in summer (India Enviroment Portal 2010). This may limit habitable waterways for this species, making it more susceptible to anthropogenically driven perturbation during the dry season. Recent physico-chemical analysis of ground and surface water quality in the Andaman Islands surrounding the capital Port Blair have found that they lie within the accepted limits for Indian water quality. Heavy metals, however, were found to be present in excessive amounts. Furthermore, bacteriological analysis found contamination with faecal matter in ground water (Mahajan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). However, the sensitivity of this speceis to heavy metal and faecal contamination is not known.
189525		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any species-specific conservation strategies implemented for this species. Further research is required to clarify the abundance, population trends, habitat type and threats impacting this species.
189525		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela (Simone 2006).
189525		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189525		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189525		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189526		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine its distribution and population status.
189526		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen, collected from Banos Morales near Santiago, Chile, in 1951 (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 800 km<sup>2</sup>.
189526		habitat	eng	The habitat or ecological preferences of this species are not known, although congeneric species inhabit streams with rushes, where they are found attached to rocks or on sandy substrates (Brown and Pullan 1987).
189526		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189526		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189527		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to resolve the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding this species before a reliable assessment can be made.
189527		distribution	eng	This species is known from Altai, southern and eastern Siberia, northwards to Yakutsk and the mouth of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). Only five localities of this species are known to date (ZIN collection information). Its range comprises Eastern Siberia, Mongolia and Trasnsbaicalia.
189527		habitat	eng	This species inhabits temporary waterbodies, including rivers and ponds (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189527		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189527		threats	eng	It is unknown if this speices is affected by any major threats.
189528		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189528		distribution	eng	This species is known from several scattered localities throughout Lake Baikal, Russian Federation (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009, Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189528		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It can be found on rocky substrates and also in large hollows on the sides of large submerged stones. Itr can be found at depths between 2 and 10 metres (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
189528		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189528		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006) This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189529		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189529		distribution	eng	As the family of Baicaliidae is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation, it is inferred that this species is also endemic to the lake (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2001).
189529		habitat	eng	This species is assumed to be endemic to Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2001).
189529		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189529		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189530		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to monitor the known populations and survey the area for possible additional populations.
189530		distribution	eng	This species is known from several sites at one locality in the region of Atéou (the highest village) in western central New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Lack of resources and the minute size of species in this genus make       comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result,       defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species in       this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is   known     about this species, it has a very restricted distribution in a few locations (maybe one, but unlikely to be more than ten), with an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 110  km² and an area of occupancy which is likely to be less than 10 km².    Although there  is  some  uncertainty about these estimates, the  order   of magnitude of  the   documented extent of occurrence is  considered to   be correct (P.  Bouchet   pers. comm. 2011).
189530		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from springs, seeps, creeks in rainforest, and marshes (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189530		population	eng	This species is found at a number of sites within the known locality and is generally thought to be abundant (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189530		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include land clearance for human development and purpose-lit  fires which have accelerated the drying out of nearby springs and seepages  (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This may have  caused the restricted distribution of species of  this     genus, so that  it has therefore been suggested that this restriction      may be of quite  recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its  restricted     distribution  makes this species more vulnerable to the  continued   threat   processes  of intensifying agriculture, land  clearing, and bush   fires  (P.  Bouchet  pers. comm. 2011).  Agricultural activities and the reduction of native forest which has  become overgrown with <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark) also poses threats of habitat degradation and loss to this species (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189531		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on population trends and the ecology of this species.
189531		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Europe 'except north and north-east' (Starobogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004 in Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009). Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009 lists this species as occurring in a river between 'Wladimir und Nischney-Nowgorod".
189531		habitat	eng	This species has been reported from rivers Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009).
189531		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189531		threats	eng	There is a perceived absence of threats impacting the global population of this species, but there is insufficient information available to verify this at present.
189533		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size, distribution and monitoring of population and habitat trends are suggested, as these data are currently lacking. Also, there is a need to identify the threats to this species and any conservation measures which may already be in place or are required to be put in place in the future.
189533		distribution	eng	This species has been found in the Damas River, Los Lagos Region and the Gibbs Channel, Temuco, Lo Araucanía Regio in Chile (Peredo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189533		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189533		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189533		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the agricutural practices in the drainage basin of the Damas River (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 2006). The use of fertilizers and pesticides, and discharges from intensive agriculture, dairy farming and cattle ranching affect the habitat of this species (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189534		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is needed on the distribution, population and threats of this species.
189534		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from China and originally described from the Anhwei Province (Faust 1924, Grove 1990), however its exact distribution is unclear.
189534		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown fluvial habitat . <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Semisulcospira </span>are generally known to feed on surfaces of stones or sediments (Shinagawa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Some other <em>Semisulcospira</em> species are known to act as intermediate hosts for medically-important lung and intestinal flukes (Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). This species is known to act as an intermediate host for <em>Clonchoris sinensis</em> around Shaohsing, China, but only infects cats (Grove 1990).
189534		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens only.
189534		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189535		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish population size, habitat preferences and threats impacting this species.
189535		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Baltic Sea basin, Russia (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov<em> et al.</em> 2004). The exact type locality is unknown.
189535		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from springs (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004).
189535		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189535		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189536		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Not much is known about this species, so that research is needed on the species distribution, population, ecology and potential threats before a more accurate assessment can be carried out.
189536		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Bogota (Pfeiffer and Kobelt 1873).
189536		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are unknown.
189536		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189536		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189538		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species exact distribution, population status, ecology and the possible impact of threats.
189538		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River (Vongsombath <em>et al</em>. 2009). From Ban Dan to Khong Island (Brandt, 1974). ANSP collections have records from Khemmaret.
189538		habitat	eng	This species has been found in the Mekong River, but no further specific habitat information is available for this species.
189538		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189538		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow) (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).<br/><br/>A 30 ? 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodia border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006).<br/>Many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). These threats are likely to increase as local human pressure increases.
189540		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further research is needed to determine more precisely its present distribution in New Caledonia and population status, as no recent records are known for this species. Furthermore, research is needed on the potential threats affecting this species.
189540		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia (Solem 1961). It is known from the mainland, Mare in the Loyalty Islands and Vao on Ile des Pins (Solem 1961, 1964). The extent of occurrence is approximately 18,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189540		habitat	eng	This genus occurs in streams, marshes, and swamps, although the specific habitat preferences for this species are unknown (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010)
189540		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189540		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. Invasive species and biotic homogenization are the primary threats to the non-marine molluscan fauna of the Pacific Islands (Cowie 2000, 2001). However, it is unknown how these factors are affecting this species.
189541		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution falls within the Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park (Department of Environment, Parks, Heritage and the Arts 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat.&#160;Further research is required to establish its population size, distribution and to identify potential threats.
189541		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Tasmania, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from several locations on the lower Franklin River (S.Clark pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is approximately 600 km<sup>2</sup>.
189541		habitat	eng	This species is known from the lower Franklin River and is generally found on leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189541		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be locally abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189541		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any threats are impacting upon this species at a global scale.
189542		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes affecting Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189542		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is near Cape Zavorotnyj in northern Lake Baikal. In total, it is only known from two localities (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is a Lake Baikal endemic and is distributed along the west coast of northern Lake Baikal, with&#160; three specimens taken from depths between 12-70 m&#160;(Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189542		habitat	eng	This species is known from Lake Baikal.
189542		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189542		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to the lack of information on the species population status.&#160;<br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;<br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;<br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189543		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research regarding the taxonomy, population trends, ecology and potential threats impacting this species is recommended.
189543		distribution	eng	This species is known from Queensland, Australia (Smith 1992).
189543		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189543		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189543		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189544		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.
189544		distribution	eng	This species is known from Cambodia, Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Brandt 1974). Specifically it is found from 'central Thailand in the south to Petburi Province and in the north to Tak and Chieng Mai' and Udon Thani province in Thailand (Brandt 1974, Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Lao People's Democratic Republic it has been recorded from Vientiane (Brandt 1974).
189544		habitat	eng	This species is found on water plants in streams and rivers (T. von Rintelen pers. comm. 2011), and was also found to&#160;inhabit irrigated land (Sri-aroon&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).
189544		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189544		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species' global population.
189545		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species current distribution, population status and threats.
189545		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong River between Ban Dan in Thailand and Sandan, north of Kratie, in central Cambodia. In Lao PDR, it is known from Pakse, Khong, Somphamit Falls. In Cambodia, the species is also reported from Samboc and Sambor (Brandt 1970).
189545		habitat	eng	This species has been found to occur in the Mekong River, under stones, on rocks and sticks, in moderate to swift flowing water at a depth of 0.5 m (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989), as well as on sandy substrate (Brandt 1974).
189545		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however, this species has been referred to as abundant within in the Mekong River (Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1989).
189545		threats	eng	The species may suffer locally from changes in flow regime with damming on the Mekong River.&#160;<br/>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ?flood pulse?, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
189546		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and habitat preference of this species is suggested as these data are currently lacking.
189546		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality of the Krasnoaleksandrovskaja cave, in the Caucasus (Starobogatov 1962 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189546		habitat	eng	This species is known from caves (Starobogatov 1962 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189546		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189546		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189547		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' distribution, population size, ecology and possible threats.
189547		distribution	eng	This species is known from Hunan Province, China (Davis and Kang 1995).
189547		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189547		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189547		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189548		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish the abundance of this species, and whether it is affected by any major threat processes.
189548		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Maldonado, Argitas and Florida regions of Uruguay (Ituarte 2007). It has also been reported in Argentina and Brazil, but Ituarte (1996, 2007) considered these reports to be unreliable. This species is often confused with other species so may be more common than officially stated.
189548		habitat	eng	In the Maldonado region of Uruguay, this species is found in reservoirs surrounded by sand dunes (Ituarte 1996). It is also known from artificial irrigation ponds in other parts of the country (Ituarte 2007).
189548		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189548		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.
189549		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to clarify this species' population size, distribution, ecology and impact of threats.
189549		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from a few localities in Indonesia: the Aru Islands, and Kobroor in the Moluccas (Van Benthem Jutting 1963).
189549		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189549		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189549		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species, although freshwater ecosystems throughout New Guinea and neighbouring islands (including Aru and the Moluccas) are under local threat from habitat degradation (i.e. logging, shifting cultivation, mining, dams, and oil palm plantations), and utilization of aquatic resources (harvesting for fish trade, introduced species). It is not known how these threats impact on this species (Polhemus <em>et al. </em>2004).
189550		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, certain areas of its distribution coincide with protected areas. Further research is recommended to clarify the exact distribution of this species.
189550		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in coastal areas from the area of 'the Red Sea over India to Australia, the Philippines, Thailand and the Pacific Islands’ (Brandt 1974).
189550		habitat	eng	This brackish species is known from mangrove and nipa-palm swamps (Brandt 1974).
189550		population	eng	This species is common in Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005). The exact distribution of this species is unclear.
189550		threats	eng	This species has a wide distribution and it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189551		conservation	eng	Although the species is listed on the Red List for the Russian Federation, there are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Suggested actions included: stablish a branch of the Kronotsky reserve or other protected area in the known locations of habitat. This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
189551		distribution	eng	This species is found in the coastal areas of the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia (Smith 2001) and southern Kamchatka, eastern Russia (Graf 2007). It is restricted to five river systems on the peninsula (Red Book for Russian Federation (1997), see also <a href="http://www.peterlife.ru/funoffice/redbook/mollusca-030.html">www.peterlife.ru/funoffice/redbook/mollusca-030.html</a>).
189551		habitat	eng	Found in small rivers and flowing lakes. However, it has been collected from Mekeshino Lake, southern Kamchatka Peninsula (Bogatov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).
189551		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189551		threats	eng	The Red List of the Russian Federation lists contamination of the rivers. The number and distribution of this species is limited by the purity and the water temperature, oxygen content, the nature of the soil. Pollution of rivers and regime change leads to a rapid population decline and local extinction of the total shellfish. Other threats include over-fishing of the host fish species and impeding the migration of the host fish species.
189553		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to ascertain the population trends, status, life history and threat process impacting this species.
189553		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lake Baikal, Russia (Sitnikova <em>et al. </em>2004 in Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). Its range is disjunct and it is distributed in several isolated depressions on the bottom of the lake (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
189553		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy-stony bottoms between 3-50 m of depth (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
189553		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189553		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any significant threats impacting the global population of this species, however threats of habitat degradation to Lake Baikal's ecosystem do exist (Minoura 2000). Some areas of the lake are protected by nature reserves and national parks. The main threats to the fauna of Lake Baikal arises from water pulp mill effluent from Baikalsk paper and pulp mill, the oil pipeline running to China, exploitation of resources in the Selenga delta, and illegal logging in surrounding protected areas (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Effluent from the pulp mill affects approximately 200 km2 of the lake with dioxins and and other poisons. Other sources of pollution include the Selenga River which drains a number of major cities in Russia and Mongolia, poorly treated waste water from the city of Severobaikalsk, and air and water pollution from the coal plants in Slyudyanka. Other air pollution sources include the sixteen towns and over 50 industries adjacent to the lake. Future potential threats include the proposal for oil extraction in the Selenga delta, the Irkutsk hydropower dam which would increase the level of the lake by a meter (UNEP-WCMC 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:Arial; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:blue;mso-ansi-language:EN-US; mso-fareast-language:RU;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">
189554		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution, population status, ecology, and the impact of threats.
189554		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities, the rapids of the Mun River near Pibun Mangsahan (type locality) and Tana Falls near Bandan, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189554		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189554		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189554		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow) (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189555		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size, ecology and distribution of this species is suggested, as these data are currently lacking. Investigations into the possible threats to this species are also necessary.
189555		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Santa Cruz River, Cañadón de las Vacas, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina (Simone 2006, Rumi <em>et al.</em> 2007). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189555		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189555		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189555		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189556		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and identify further potential threats and their effects on this species. Additional survey work is recommended to ascertain whether this species is found in similar habitats nearby.
189556		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northwestern Tasmania, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is only known from its type locality near Arthur River (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). As a result, its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>. It is likely that this species occurs in areas outside of this locality (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189556		habitat	eng	This species was found in a small creek and is generally found on leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189556		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be abundant within its type locality (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189556		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is habitat degradation as a result of forestry agriculture (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189557		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, for example the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve and many others throughout its distribution.
189557		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from India to Papua New Guinea; north to the Philippines and south to Australia (FAO 1998). In Australia this species is recorded from Queensland, and in Indonesia from Java (Sasekumar 1974). It is known from the west coast of Malaysia (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967), and from southern and eastern Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005, Dumrongrojwattana <em>et al</em>. 2007). In India this species occurs in the Bhitarkanika, Krishna, and Godavari mangrove forests in the Sundarban area (Shanmugam and Vairamani 1999).<br/><br/>This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
189557		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mangrove swamps, nipa palm forests and mud flats in coastal areas (FAO 1998). This species occurs within the pulp of decomposing dead wood in streams (Sasekumar 1974), and in leaf litter among mangrove roots (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). Species of this genus produce long strings of eggs which are attached to dead wood, tree roots or even other snail shells (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1967). <br/><br/>The maximum shell length for this species is 6 cm, but most commonly reaches 5 cm (FAO 1998). In Indonesia this species is traditionally used as food (FAO 1998).
189557		population	eng	This species has been described as common (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189557		threats	eng	This species may be affected on a local scale by habitat degradation and loss, in addition to pollution and impacts from extreme weather events. Specifically, mangrove and estuarine ecosystems are impacted upon by many different  threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove  swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be  due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion  to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels,  mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil  spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995).  Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges  also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further  threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise  (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).<br/><br/>However, it is unlikely that this species is being threatened on a global scale.
189558		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189558		distribution	eng	This species is found in Colombia and Venezuela (Simone 2006).
189558		habitat	eng	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. This genus is a common neotropical genus, found in low oxygen environments, usually lakes and rivers, and lays its eggs above the water line  (G. Darrigran pers. comm. 2010).
189558		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189558		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189559		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the known populations is recommended, and surveying of the local area is necessary to determine if this species inhabits other similar habitats nearby.
189559		distribution	eng	This species is known from three sites in central New Caledonia (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Lack of resources and the minute size of species of this genus make   comprehensive sampling for these species impossible; as a result,   defining the number of locations and extent of occurrence for species of   this genus is notoriously difficult. However, based on what is known   about this species, it has a very restricted distribution with an   estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20 km², and is  currently known to occur in three locations. Although there  is  some uncertainty about these estimates, the order of magnitude of  the  documented extent of occurence is considered to be correct (P.  Bouchet  pers. comm. 2011).
189559		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from trickles, seeping marshes, and seepage in rainforest (Haase and Bouchet 1998).
189559		population	eng	This species is common at the known locations (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189559		threats	eng	Land clearance and purpose-lit fires have increased the drying out of nearby springs and seepages (P. Bouchet pers. comm. 2010). This may have caused the restricted distribution of species of  this  genus, so that it has therefore been suggested that this restriction   may be of quite recent origin (Haase and Bouchet 1998). Its restricted   distribution makes this species more vulnerable to the continued threat   processes of intensifying agriculture, land clearing, and bush fires  (P.  Bouchet pers. comm. 2011). There has also been a reduction of  native forest, which is now overgrown with the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>(paper bark), posing a significant threat to the species' global population (P.Bouchet pers. comm. 2010).
189560		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 - Vulnerable, and a State/Province Status Rank of S3 - Vulnerable for North Carolina and Virginia, but a State/Province Status Rank of S1- Critically Imperiled in South Carolina (NatureServe2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research regarding population trends and threats, alongside future surveys of population trends will help monitor the status of this species.
189560		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the James River Basin in Virginia to the Catawba River Basin in North and South Carolina.  Bogan and Alderman (2004) list the South Carolina distribution as the Lower Pee Dee and Cooper-Santee River basins (at North Carolina border only). The extent of occurrence is limited to between 5,000 and 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189560		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river basins (Bogan and Alderman 2004). It normally occupies habitats within the Fall Line, Piedmont, and Mountains of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Usually, coarse substrates, including gravel, cobble, boulder, and bedrock, are found as macrohabitat features (Johnson 1970). However, individual Notched Rainbows may be found in diverse microhabitats, ranging from clay to silt to more coarse substrates. Usually, relief is sufficient to maintain relatively silt free habitats in the general creek or river reaches supporting populations of Notched Rainbows. Healthy populations of Notched Rainbow are usually associated with creeks and rivers with few significant point or nonpoint sources of pollution. In the Neuse River basin in North Carolina, Eads <em>et al</em>. (2007) found the species tended to occur in coarse sand and sand/gravel mixtures in areas with some current.
189560		population	eng	Despite a  somewhat limited range, this species appears to be maintaining secure  populations throughout its range extent, although the health of&#160;individual&#160;populations may be in decline.
189560		threats	eng	Typical threats to freshwater systems in North America include habitat degradation as a result of urbanisation, water abstraction, pollution and competition as a result of the introduction of non-native species. The extent to which this species is affected by any of these threats is unknown, but these processes may play a part in some localised declines.
189561		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. <br/><br/>Research is needed to establish what, if any, threats are impacting this species, and its abundance throughout Japan. Monitoring programmes could aid the quick detection of any significant population reductions.
189561		distribution	eng	This species is found in Japan, specifically Lake Biwa (Mori 1978), Ogura-no-ike, Yanagawa, and Tamadu-mura (Mori 1933).
189561		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes and prefers a muddy substrate, and eutrophic water (Mori 1978).
189561		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189561		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting on this species. However it is likely that it will be affected by some localized threats, which are not significantly impacting on the global population, such as habitat degradation and watercourse alteration.
189562		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ distribution falls within Bungonia State Conservation Area (Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water 2009). Further survey work is recommended to determine whether the species occurs in surrounding habitat.
189562		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern New South Wales, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from streams and springs flowing from the Bungonia Gorge Caves (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is likely that this species occurs in areas of similar habitats near to the type locality (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.
189562		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small streams and springs which flow from caves (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). This surface-dwelling species has not been recorded inside the caves (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is often found on leaves, weeds and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189562		population	eng	Although this species has a localised distribution, it is considered to be very abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189562		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species’ distribution falls within Bungonia State Conservation Area (Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water 2009) and it is unlikely that any major threats are impacting on its population or habitat. There is however, a large cement and limestone quarry near to the type locality, on the other side of the gorge which may potentially threaten the species (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189563		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;More research is required to establish this species' population size, distribution, ecology and threats.
189563		distribution	eng	This species is located in Chile (G. Pastorino pers. comm. 2011).<em></em>
189563		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189563		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189563		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189564		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189564		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from Aomori to Kyushu in Japan (Bishogai Database 2003). This area represents most of mainland Japan. This species has also been found in the Han, Nam, and Nakdong Rivers in the Republic of Korea (Hwang <em>et al.</em> 2004).
189564		habitat	eng	This species is found in the upper reaches of rivers in Japan and the Republic of Korea, in both sand and gravel (Bishogai Database 2003; Hwang <em>et al.</em> 2004). It can have dramatic effects both on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of phytoplankton communities, principally due to a very high filtering rate (Hwang <em>et al.</em> 2004). From its impact on phytoplankton communities, we can infer that this species is relatively abundant within its habitat.
189564		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189564		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The midgut gland and gonad of this species are known to accumulate pesticide residues in river water (Uno <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, this species is more tolerant of water pollution than other species of this genus (Lee and Kim 1997). Pollution is therefore unlikely to be a significant threat. This species is likely to be undergoing localised declines in areas of habitat destruction and degradation.
189565		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas.
189565		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southwestern Australia, where it inhabits the following drainage basins: Avon Wheatbelt (AW), Esperance Plains (ESP), Geraldton Sandplains (GS), Jarrah Forest (JF), Mallee (MAL), Swan Coastal Plain (SWA), Warren (WAR), Yalgoo (YAL) (ABRS 2009).
189565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits salt lakes and feeds on detritus (ABRS 2009).
189565		population	eng	This species is "particularly common" in coastal lakes in the southern Wheatbelt region of Western Australia (Pinder <em>et al. </em>2004).
189565		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189566		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4 - Vulnerable to Apparently Secure (NatureServe 2009) and the  American Fisheries Society Status is Currently Stable (NatureServe  2009).
189566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States of America and is found in the Cumberland and Tennessee River drainages in Alabama, Tennessee and Kentucky (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). Specifically, this species has been located at the Paint Rock River system and Cypress Creek, Lauderdale County (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).
189566		habitat	eng	This species is found in small rivers or creeks with good currents in less than three feet of water (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). A mixed sand and gravel substrate is preferred (Parmalee and Bogan 1998, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008). The rockbass fish, <em>Ambloplites rupestris,</em> is the glochildial host fish (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189566		population	eng	The Tennessee population is currently 'stable' (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189566		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
189567		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Surveys should be undertaken to assess whether the species still inhabits the type locality ("Nizhnjaja Shakuranskaja cave"), as it has not been recorded since 1962, and whether it occurs outside this area.
189567		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, "Nizhnjaja Shakuranskaja cave" in the Caucasus region, Russia (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
189567		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater, troglobytic species (Starobogatov 1962), but its precise habitat preferences remain unknown.
189567		population	eng	This species is only known from the type specimen (a single shell).
189567		threats	eng	If the species still occurs at the type locality, it may be impacted by threats such as habitat degradation and loss through tourism development, but proper population surveys are needed to first establish the range and population status of this species before the impacts of threat processes can be assessed.
189568		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size and precise habitat preferences.
189568		distribution	eng	As understood, this species is widely distributed in South America, with localities reported in Guyana, Brazil and northern Argentina (Haas 1969; Rumi <em>et al. </em>2008). However, ongoing studies are likely to show that this species is currently found in Guyana, eastern Venezuela (Rio Siapa, Caura and Essequibo drainage) and French Guiana (cayenne) (K.Cummings pers. comm. 2011).
189568		habitat	eng	This species occupies small to medium streams, with gravel, sand and mud substrate (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
189568		population	eng	Surveys in streams thought to support this species have turned up few live individuals (K.Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
189568		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, however pollution from mining, untreated sewage and the diversion of waterways due to road and dam construction are potential threats to this species (WWF 2009).
189569		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended in order to establish the population trends and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189569		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the lakes of southern Sakhalin, Russia (Starobogatov <em>et al</em>. 2004, in Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009), and is also reported from Hokkaido, Japan (Takahashi 1989).
189569		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species.
189569		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189569		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189570		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range falls into the Western Caucasus UNESCO World Heritage Site. This reserve extends over 275,000 hectares of undisturbed habitat and is also the site for reintroduction of European Bison (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bison bonasus</span>). As a consequence, this protection is likely to also have benefits for this species. Further research is required to establish the population trends and identify any emerging threat processes which may impact the global population of this species in future.
189570		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in Turkey (Yildirim <em>et al</em>., 2006 recorded it as <em>V. viviparus costae</em>) and Western Transcaucasia (Georgia, Russian Black Sea coast) (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em>&#160;2004, Kantor <em>et al</em>., 2009).</p>
189570		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, in Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189570		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189570		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting the global population of this species.
189571		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, ecology and threats of this species is suggested as hardly anything is known about this species at present.
189571		distribution	eng	This species is only known from its type locality, which is Akkurganskoye water reservoir, Balykchi, Tashkent Region, Uzbekistan (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). No living specimens have been recorded.
189571		habitat	eng	This species was collected from bank sediments of the channel (ZIN collection).
189571		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189571		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being affected by any major threat processes.
189572		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history, ecology and threats. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189572		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens collected in Samoa and Fiji (Cowie 1998, 2001), with annecdotal evidence of its presence in American Samoa (Cowie 2001).
189572		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from habitat among rocks and stones along the edges of middle reaches of streams. Furthermore, Haynes (1990) claims this species occupies habitats influenced by the tides.
189572		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
189572		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. This species is not included in the environmental assessment of proposed hydroelectric energy schemes in Fiji (SKM 2005, 2007), although other species of the family Thiaridae have been recognised as important species for the islands and are, as such, included in the reports. Siltation of the water course as a result of dam and infrastructre construction is cited as a major risk factor (SKM 2007). Given this species occupies lower courses of streams, it would be highly vulnerable to changes in flow regime and associated deposition of sediment. However, the effects of this threat have yet to be characterised.
189573		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with the Lower Glenelg National Park (Parks Victoria 2007), which may offer some protection to its habitat.&#160;This species’ taxonomy needs clarification and further research is required to establish its population size, to identify potential threats and survey the surrounding springs for additional populations.
189573		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Victoria, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from a few small springs and streams that flow into the lower part of the Glenelg River (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is likely to be found in other nearby springs (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is approximately 3,500 km².
189573		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small springs and streams and is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark<em> et al. </em>2003).
189573		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be locally abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189573		threats	eng	This species occurs in a National Park and as such is unlikely to be affected on a large scale by any major threats.
189574		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species current distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
189574		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Mauritius (Pfeiffer 1876), Buru, Seram, and Ambon Islands, Indonesia (Ponsonby and Syskes 1899).
189574		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189574		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189574		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189575		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution falls within the Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park (Department of Environment, Parks, Heritage and the Arts 2009), which might offer some protection to its habitat.&#160;Further research is required to establish the extent of its distribution and to monitor the effect of threats.
189575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Tasmania, Australia (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003). It is known from the lower parts of the Franklin River and the upper parts of the Gordon River (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
189575		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers and is generally found on weeds, leaves, roots and stones (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189575		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it has been found to be locally abundant (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2003).
189575		threats	eng	A dam was constructed on the Upper Gordon River flooding Lake Pedder and Lake Gordon (Hydro Tasmania 2009). The construction of the Gordon River Power Development has led to damping of seasonal flow variations (King and Tyler 1982). Consequently, the Gordon River experiences higher summer flows and lower winter flows than naturally expected (King and Tyler 1982). However, it is unlikely that this is having a negative effect on this species (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189576		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with protected areas. Lake Biwa was designated as a national park in 1950, a wildlife sanctuary in 1971 and a Ramsar site in 1993 (Lake Biwa Museum 2009). It is mainly used for recreation, commercial and sport fishing and as a source of drinking water for Osaka and Kyoto (Lake Biwa Museum 2009).<br/><br/>This species is also listed as Near Threatened on the Japanese Red List.
189576		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Biwa, Japan (Nishino and Watanabe 2000). The area of Lake Biwa is approximately 660 km²<sup> </sup>and this is considered as the species' extent of occurrence.
189576		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, at depths of 2–0 m (Lake Biwa Museum 2009). A large species with a shell reaching 70 mm in length, it has become rare in the south basin (Lake Biwa Museum 2009).
189576		population	eng	There is a significant decline in this species due to overharvesting, as individuals are discarded as bycatch when trawling for bivalves in Lake Biwa. They are considered very rare by the local people (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010).
189576		threats	eng	Lake Biwa is under threat from eutrophication as a result of the surrounding towns, cities and farmland increasing the nutrient loads through sewage and run-off entering the lake (Lake Biwa Museum 2009). The urbanisation of the shoreline and conversion of inflowing streams and rivers to concrete irrigation ditches has contributed to the additional sedimentation and pollution the lake recieves (Lake Biwa Museum 2009). Habitat loss, such as the conversion of adjacent lakes to paddy fields and reed bed reduction by over 50%, has compounded the ability of the lake to remove excess nutrients and added a new source of turbid water (Ramsar 2008, Lake Biwa Museum 2009). There are additional environmental imapcts resulting from recreational activites, such as rubbish and discarded fishhooks (Ramsar 2008). The Biwa-ko Total Development Project which is designed to control and utilise the lake's water has modified the landscape of the lake and changed the water levels (Ramsar 2008). Dredging the lake for bivalves is also a negative impact to this species (F. Köhler pers. comm. 2010), as individuals are discarded as by-catch.
189577		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine its abundance, life history and whether it is impacted by any major threats.
189577		distribution	eng	This species was found in a stream near Bogota, Colombia (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189577		habitat	eng	This species is found in fast flowing, permanent streams with rocky substrates (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).
189577		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189577		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, habitat degradation and alterations to the hydrological regime.
189578		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species has been listed with a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009). <br/>Future research is recommended to clarify population trends, determine the exact distribution and ascertain the true extent of threat processes impacting the global population of this species. Protection and management of the sites would ensure a level of security for the long-term survival of <em>P. oregonensi</em>s. Continued surveys are also necessary in order to monitor the status of this species.
189578		distribution	eng	The species occurs only in Oregon in Borax Lake (Furnish <em>et al</em>. 2002) and  is likely to be extirpated from Utah (Oliver and Bosworth 1999).&#160;There has only been one occurrence from Utah, but the identity has been questioned (Oliver and Bosworth 1999). Its extent of occurrence is estimated at 250-1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189578		habitat	eng	In Borax Lake, this species occurs along the lake shore on hard substrates or submerged  vegetation at depths of 3 to 9 m (cone-shaped vent at at southwestern portion  of lake- geothermal discharge area). Borax Lake is a geothermally heated lake at  the southern end of Alvord Desert; mostly 1-2 m deep.&#160; It has large salt  deposits and high concentrations of bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride; as well  as heavy metals like arsenic, cadmium, ceasium, copper, lead, and mercury  (Furnish <em>et al</em>. 2002).
189578		population	eng	The species is abundant and ubiquitous in Borax Lake (Furnish <em>et al</em>. 2002).&#160; It  is extirpated from Utah (Oliver and Bosworth 1999).
189578		threats	eng	Threats are largely unknown but major potential threats present in the region are habitat  loss and degradation as a result of human encroachment and pollution and  pressure from introduced fish and mollusc species (Oliver and  Bosworth 1999). Threats to Borax Lake are largely potential and not ongoing. Any potential lowering of the water table in Borax Lake would have adverse  effects on this species. A change in flow would affect temperatures in the lake  and an increase in temperature would likely cause extirpation.&#160; Physical damage  to the surrounding salt crust due to livestock trampling or human activities  could result in significant drop in lake level if this activity were to cause a  breech in the fragile sinter along the lake shore (Furnish <em>et al</em>. 2002). The habitat requirements of the species are highly specific, and it has little or no capability of dispersal denoting that it would be unable to escape the effects of potential threats to its habitat.
189579		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to determine this species population status, current distribution, ecology and the impact of threats.
189579		distribution	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens found in the Mekong River, from Khong Island and Papaeng Falls, Lao PDR (Davis 1979).
189579		habitat	eng	This is a riverine species (Davis 1979).
189579		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189579		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189580		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to determine its present distribution and population status. Targeted surveys should be carried out to determine if this species still persists in its known range, or elsewhere in the local area.
189580		distribution	eng	This species is regionally endemic to Turkey (Yildirim 1999). The type locality for the species is Tokat, in north central Anatolia (Nagele 1894). It was reported from Keçiborlu stream in Isparta (Schütt 1965), but this record is doubtful (Ü.&#160;Kebapçı pers. comm. 2011). At present, however, because of taxonomic uncertainty due to the species being described only by conchological information, the distribution (even at the type locality) of the species is in question. In addition, the rate of endemism in Turkish Mollusca is high and mostly hydrobiids do not have scattered or broad distributions, so it is quite likely that &#160;the species does not occur elsewhere in Turkey (Ü.&#160;Kebapçı pers. comm. 2011). The extent of occurrence is 40 km<sup>2</sup>. No collections have been made for the species from the type locality after its original description in 1894, so it is possible that the species is extinct in its former range (Ü.&#160;Kebapçı pers. comm. 2011).
189580		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams (Schütt 1965).
189580		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189580		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
189581		conservation	eng	There are no species conservation measures in place. Further research regarding taxonomy, population size and trends is recommended.
189581		distribution	eng	The allozyme study of Katoh and Foltz (1994) has suggested that populations referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus georgianus </span>in Florida may represent as many as three cryptic species: <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus goodrichi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus limi </span>in the panhandle and <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus georgianus </span>(s.s.) further east. This species is endemic to the Ochloconee River, however the type locality is Flint River, a tributary of the Apalachicola, near Albany, Georgia (Thompson 1999). Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 1,000 km²<sup></sup>.
189581		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater river systems.
189581		population	eng	Although the range extent is small (less than 1,000 km²<sup></sup>), it is often  abundant when found and appears not to be threatened.
189581		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189582		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and distribution of this species, as well as its threats, is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189582		distribution	eng	This species is known from Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Guam, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Palau, Caroline Islands, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji (Haynes 1988, Smith 2003, Kano 2006).
189582		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams, and brackish water intertidal areas, particularly associated with mangroves (Haynes 1988, Poutiers 1998).
189582		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189582		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes, however, it is collected locally for food and as ornaments in Indonesia (Poutiers 1998).
189583		conservation	eng	The conservation status of this species is being considered by the North Carolina Wildlife Resouces Commission (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Williams <em>et al.</em> (in press) list this species as vulnerable according to the AFS assessment. Populations are known to be declining locally and further survey work is needed in order to respond adequately to future changes to population status.&#160;Furthermore, research is required to ascertain the taxonomic issues that exist with this species. Conservation actions should be implemented via legislation to protect areas encompassing the species' habitat.
189583		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Potomac River and Chester River south to  the Neuse River, North Carolina as currently understood (Bogan <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species was not previously reported as part of South Carolina's fauna, but specimens resembling this species have recently been found in parts of the Pee Dee drainage in South Carolina and in Lake Marion in the Santee drainage. The identity of these specimens is not certain, as they resemble both <em>E. fisheriana</em> and<em> E. nasutilus </em>(possible synonyms (SC NHP pers. comm. 2006).  In Virginia, it occurs in the Southern Appalachian Piedmont to the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain region (VA NHP pers. comm. 2007).  Johnson (1970) lumped this species under the <em>Elliptio lanceolata</em> complex including Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina occurrence records (Potomac, Occoquan, Rappahannock, York, James, Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico, Neuse, Cape Fear, Waccamaw) but it is difficult to distinguish how to separate them out into the various <em>E. lanceolata</em> forms.<br/><br/>In the Delmarva peninsula, this species was found in  the Chester River system (Unicorn Community Lake) in Queen Anne's Co., Maryland; Choptank River system (Norwich Creek) in Queen Anne's Co., Maryland; Nanticoke River system (Trap Pond, Chipman Pond, Meadow Branch Nanticoke River, Barren Pond, Fleetwood Pond, Record Pond, Galestown Pond, Craigs Pond, Williams Pond) in Sussex Co., Delaware and Wicomico and Dorchester Cos., Maryland (Counts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991).  In Maryland, it is known from the Upper Potomac, Chester, Choptank, and Naticoke River drainages (Bogan and Proch 1995).  It occurs in Patterson Creek (North Branch Potomac drainage), West Virginia (Clayton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Taylor 1985, Taylor and Horn 1983).  This species was recently collected in the Opequon River (Potomac watershed) in West Virginia (Vila <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).  In Virginia, it occurs in the James River basin in Rockbridge (Burch 2002).
189583		habitat	eng	This species seems to be found primarily in soft sediments in shallow water less than two feet from stream and river banks that are highly stable with an intact riparian zone (T. Savidge pers. comm. 2005).
189583		population	eng	This species is declining throughout its range, however it may be locally abundant (A.&#160;Bogan pers. comm. 2010).
189583		threats	eng	Typical threats to freshwater systems in this region include habitat degradation as a result of water abstraction; development of roads and railroads; residential and commercial development; logging; wood and pulp plantations; and industrial, domestic and agricultural pollution&#160;(A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010), although none of these appear to be impacting the global population.
189584		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the species' abundance and its European distribution.
189584		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is in the Krasnodar Region of Russia, in the Kuban River.&#160;Its current distribution includes Southern European Russia and Ukraine. In Russia, it is found in the Ciscaucasia region at the northern foothills of the Greater Caucasus range (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is believed that further research would expose a much greater distribution (M. V. Vinarski pers. comm 2011).
189584		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189584		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189584		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being affected by any major threat processes.
189586		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189586		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths between 5 to 100 metres, in the south basin of Lake Baikal on sandy substrata (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189586		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189586		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby<em> et al.</em> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189587		conservation	eng	<span style="">This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 - Secure, a National Status Rank of N5 - Secure for the US, and N4N5 - Apparently Secure or Secure for Canada, a State/Province Status Rank of S4 - Apparently Secure for Ontario, Canada, and S3 - Vulnerable for Virginia, and has not been assessed in Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana and Wisconsin in the US and Manitoba and Quebec in Canada (NatureServe 2009). There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.</span>
189587		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the United States and Canada. The range of this species in the United States extends from the eastern coast, south to a disjunct population in the upper Mississippi drainage, Arizona (Guralnick 2005). In Canada, it is recorded from the north, towards the border with the United States (Guralnick 2005), and from New Brunswick northwest to Quebec and Labrador, and west to the Northwest Territories as far as Great Slave Lake (Mackie 2007). This species has a scattered distribution in subarctic eastern Canada, and in the United States from New Brunswick to Massachusetts, and Illinois (Clarke 1981, Guralnick 2005).
189587		habitat	eng	This species is found in permanent rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. Within the Colorado River this species was found to be abundant in clear water, and in the wide downstream areas, but absent in the backwaters (Stevens <em>et al. </em>1997). The study area encompassed a 367 km stretch from the Glen Canyon Dam to Diamond Creek, Arizona (Clarke 1981). This species is most frequently found among vegetation, and occurs on a variety of substrates (Clarke 1981).<br/> <br/>This species breeds twice a year, with recruitment of the first (over-wintering) generation beginning in July. The second generation of juveniles is recruited in October. The maximum life expectancy is ten months for the over-wintering adults, and four months for the summer adults (Burky and Burky 1976).
189587		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant although uncommon in certain parts of its range. This species is more frequently documented in eastern areas of the United States than the west (Guralnick 2005). On a global scale, this species is believed to be secure under present conditions (Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre 2008).
189587		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are major threats imapcting this species. This species is able to tolerate short-term habitat disturbance and is believed to be secure on a global scale (Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre 2008, Montana Field Guide 2008). However, this source states there is some cause for concern in the long-term due to declines resulting from habitat degradation and destruction.
189588		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species full distribution, population status and threats.
189588		distribution	eng	This species is known from two sites in the Mekong River, one in Cambodia (Kas Lognieu and Sambor in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mekong</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River) </st1:placetype></st1:place>and the other in southern Lao PDR (at Ban Na), which indicates that this may be more widely distributed in the Mekong (Brandt and Temcharoen 1971, Brandt 1974).
189588		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from the Mekong River; found on the shore and in the rapids (Brandt 1974).
189588		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
189588		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995).<br/><br/>A 30–32 meter high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189589		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work on distribution and population status is needed before a reliable assessment can be made.
189589		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan (Izzatullaev 1973, Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189589		habitat	eng	The type locality is a spring east of Almaty (Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009). There is no further habitat information available for this species.
189589		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189589		threats	eng	There are no known threats affecting the global population of this species.
189590		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish its population size and habitat preferences.
189590		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeast Russia, from the Yenisei River basin east to the Sea of Okhotsk and south to the Amur River basin (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Prozorova and Zasypkina 2005).
189590		habitat	eng	This species inhabits permanent water bodies such as small rivers, floodplain streams and channels, estuary, permanent lakes (Prozorova 2003, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004, Prozorova and Zasypkina 2005).
189590		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189590		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189591		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range coincides with protected areas in some parts of its distribution.
189591		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Australia in the following regions: the southeast coast, Southern Gulfs, Murray Darling basin, Northeast coast, in the States of Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania (Smith 1992). It has also been recorded on the Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, in the Garig Gunak Barlu National Park (GBIF 2009).
189591		habitat	eng	This species is an intermediate host for paramphistomid cercariae, which infect ruminants in Australia (Boray <em>et al. </em>1985). It is a lentic species (Smith 1992), occurring in lakes and lagoons on submerged wood where it is associated with aquatic plants. It is intolerant of disturbance to its habitat (Haase and Nolte 2008).
189591		population	eng	"Low numbers" were recorded at Berowra Valley Regional Park, New South Wales (Bushland Management Advisory Committee 2001).
189591		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting the global population of this species.
189592		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 (equivalent to IUCN vulnerable) (NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the rate at which populations are being extirpated and the exact distribution of this species.
189592		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Sacramento River system in California. It is thought to be now extirpated from the mainstem (Hershler and Frest 1996) but still exists in small tributaries. Records from the San Juaquin River and Klamanth basin are errors, as are specimens reported from Utah (Hershler 1999).
189592		habitat	eng	This species can be found in large streams and rivers. It prefers cool, clear waters with a gravel-cobble substrate. It is also occasionally found in large spring pools with soft-mud substrates (Frest and Johannes 1995).
189592		population	eng	This species is thought to be declining (NatureServe 2009). The species was still present in several localities, though absent from the mainstem Sacremento River, in the 1990s (Hershler and Frest 1996) with only tributary sites remaining. This species is patchily abundant, with densities reaching 2,000–3,000 m²<sup></sup> (Frest and Johannes 1995).
189592		threats	eng	This species is impacted by a number of threats. It is thought to now be extirpated from the Upper Sacramento River system as a result of the Cantara Bend herbicide spill (Furnish and Monthey 1998). Other threats to this species include: water pollution caused by livestock drinking in stream channels and springs, and sewage from domestic use; dam construction such as the Shasta Dam, Whiskeytown Reservoir, and Siskiyou Lake; sedimentation from a number of activities such as logging, mining, road and railroad construction (Furnish and Monthey 1998).
189593		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the habitat, population trends and threats of this species.
189593		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Río San Salvador in Calama, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
189593		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from rivers (Valdovinos 2006).
189593		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189593		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189594		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended to obtain some live specimens of this species and discover its life history traits. A population estimate would be useful, as would the extent to which this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.
189594		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Kimberley region in Western Australia (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009)
189594		habitat	eng	This species is known from only three samples of empty shells, all of which have been found in areas associated with limestone caves. It is unknown whether this species lives within the cave system or outside it (Ponder 2003). There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and nothing on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
189594		population	eng	This species is known from only three samples of empty shells (Ponder 2003).
189594		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown.
189595		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is recommended that the impact of invasive species and the degradation of the known habitats of this species is investigated further. Habitat protection and invasive species control may also be warranted to ensure the continued survival of this species.
189595		distribution	eng	This species is known from Brazil, as well as Uruguay and Argentina (Simone 2006). It is found in the Cuenca del Plata river basin, which feeds the Paraná and Uruguay rivers (Gutiérrez Gregoric 2008). In Brazil, it is known from the Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul Provinces (Simone 2006). In Argentina, it is also known from the Isla Martín García (Gutiérrez Gregoric 2008).
189595		habitat	eng	This species is known to inhabit rivers (Gutiérrez Gregoric 2008).
189595		population	eng	This species was common in 1986, but is now described as rare in some places as the population is negatively affected by the invasive <em>Limnoperna siamensis </em>(Golden Mussel; Di Persia and Olazarri 1986, Darrigran <em>et al.</em> 1998).
189595		threats	eng	The invasive species<em> Limnoperna fluminea</em> (Golden Mussel) is known to displace this species, and this invasive is present in Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil (Darrigran and Ezuerra de Drago 2000). The Río de la Plata, Paraná, Paraguay, Pilcomayo and Uruguay rivers have been affected by the Golden Mussel and therefore this may continue to negatively affect this species (Darrigran 2002). The many uses of the Rio de la Plata basin also pose many threats to this species. It is used as a port, for recreation, as a drinking water source and also for dumping waste sewage and industrial effluents (Darrigran and Lagreca 2005). These activities could affect this species, however the actual impact of these threats is unknown.
189596		conservation	eng	In 2006, an agreement of cooperation was signed between the Chinese-Russian working group on the ecology of the Argun River, with regard to the protection of water quality and approval of the ecological status of the river, and joint water quality monitoring (UNECE 2009). <br/><br/>Additionally, the Russian Federation recognised measures which needed to be implicated to achieve good status of watercourses. These included: stabilization of the riverbed, decreasing negative consequences of the erosion of riverbeds (specifically for the Amur in Amur Oblast), use of low-waste and non-waste technology, increasing capacities for wastewater treatment, legal measures to respect use restriction in water protection zones, and improving sanitary conditions in human settlements (including cities) by methods such as the collection and treatment of storm water run-off (UNECE 2009).
189596		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the central and lower Amur basin (Bogatov and Zatrawkin 1990, Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004) and has an extent of occurrence of less than 150,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189596		habitat	eng	This species is distributed in freshwater rivers, floodplain channels and large lakes (ZIN - handwritten records, Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
189596		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189596		threats	eng	Areas of the Amur river bassin are classified as 'polluted' or 'very polluted', with the concentrations of pollutants in the Argun River exceeding the maximum allowable limit (UNECE 2009). Extreme pollution events also occur in this area, caused primarily by industries, and causing fish kills and animal deaths in the areas close to the river (UNECE 2009).
189597		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a status of critically endangered for the Red Book of Nature of the Leningrad Region (Dedov 2009). Due to a change in agricultural practices, there has been a reduction in the anthropogenic activities in the area surrounding the lake and a fall in the level of phosphorus and pesticides entering the lake, plus less water is being used for industry (Viljanen <em>et al.</em> 2008). However, there are still sources of pollution, including toxic compounds, heavy metals, organic substances and oil hydrocarbons entering the lake (Viljanen <em>et al.</em> 2008)
189597		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality of Ladoga Lake, in the northwestern Russian Federation (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor 2009). The lake area is around 17,700 km<sup>2</sup>, giving a good estimate of this species extent of occurrence.
189597		habitat	eng	This species is known from lake habitat (Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor 2009).
189597		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189597		threats	eng	Lake Ladoga is affected by wood processing, agricultural practices, airborne pollution, and chemical industries along with municipal sewage effluents (Raspletina <em>et al.</em> 1987 in Holopainen <em>et al.</em> 1996). The addition of nutrients, heavy metals and organic waste has caused the lake to become mesotrophic (Raspletina <em>et al.</em> 1987 in Holopainen <em>et al.</em> 1996).
189598		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.Further research is required regarding population trends, distribution and threats impacting this species.
189598		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Domingo and Guayaquil River, Ecuador (Pilsbry 1911).
189598		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in rivers (Pilsbry 1911).
189598		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189598		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189599		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The company in charge of the Soroako nickel mine, PT INCO, has expressed a desire to minimize negative environmental impacts to the lakes, for example by establishing buffer zones between mining areas and rivers, and abandoning canal construction (Herder <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>It is recommended that Lake Mahalone is protected and further measures put in place to minimize the impacts of the nearby nickel mine, for example heavy metal deposition, and maintain the near-pristine state of this unique habitat.
189599		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Mahalona, Sulawesi in Indonesia (Von Rintelen and Glaubrecht 2003). The lake covers an area of 24.4 km². This species only occurs on rocks where there is wood and it is highly associated with the <em>Pandanus</em> species, so it is patchily distributed within the lake (von Rintelen pers. comm. 2010).
189599		habitat	eng	This lentic species is found on hard substrates such as rocks, sunken wood and <em>Pandanus </em>roots in Lake Mahalona, from the surface to a depth of several metres (Von Rintelen and Glaubrecht 2003).
189599		population	eng	This species is abundant in Lake Mahalona (Von Rintelen and Glaubrecht 2003).
189599		threats	eng	The major threat to this species, and the other endemic molluscs in the Malili Lakes region, comes from a large nickel mine at Soroako, located south of neighbouring Lake Matano. Substantial clearing of native forest has already occurred in the area. Logging, combined with increased land use and habitat modification (e.g., channel construction, impoundment projects) is causing soil erosion and sedimentation in the lakes. In extreme cases entire streams have disappeared or become ecologically 'dead' (Herder <em>et al. </em>2006). <br/><br/>A further threat is presented by contaminated effluents from the mine, which drain into Lake Matano and from there into Lake Mahalona, increasing sulphur levels in both lakes (Herder <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>Finally, the endemic fauna of the Malili Lakes is threatened by the introduction of exotic fish species, with unknown but potentially serious consequences (Herder <em>et al. </em>2006).
189600		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is recommended to ascertain to what extent this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.
189600		distribution	eng	This species occurs in many locations on the western side of Arnhem Land, in the far north of the Northern Territory, Australia (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). A group of specimens from Melville Island is tentatively attributed to this taxon (Ponder 2003). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 66,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189600		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist and occupies billabongs and other semi-permanent water bodies, including swamps, springs and creeks, living mainly on submerged macrophytes and in weed, tree roots and mud (Ponder 2003, DEWHA 2009). In the Darwin and Kakadu areas, this species is often found alongside <em>Gabbia smithii</em> (Ponder 2003). There is minimal data on spawn available for the Australian Bithyniidae, and nothing on fecundity or other aspects of the reproduction, growth rates or feeding (Ponder 2003).
189600		population	eng	This species has recently been described as abundant (Ponder 2003).
189600		threats	eng	The threats for this species are unknown. However, it is likely that this species is, to some degree, being affected by the current drought conditions in Australia as well as habitat degradation as as result of agricultural activities (namely cattle ranching) and mining.
189601		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is likely that parts of its range coincides with protected areas.
189601		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Saltwater Creek, Parro River, Daintree River and the lower courses of the rivers in the Johnstone drainage, North Queensland, Australia (Glaubrecht <em>et al</em>. 2009). This species may occur outside of Australia as it may prove to have a marine larval stage (F. Koehler pers. comm. 2010).
189601		habitat	eng	This species was found in creeks and streams with sandy or soft substrate bottom, among small stones and boulders and outside swift-flowing currents (Glaubrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
189601		population	eng	In the localities where it is known, this species is common (F. Koehler pers. comm. 2010).
189601		threats	eng	The wetlands of Queensland have been impacted by pollution from agricultural fertilisers and chemicals, invasive species, altered hydrology through land-use changes, flow regulation and extraction, stream bank stabilisation, ground water extraction and drainage scheme, as well as grazing (Lukacs 1995). Most of the rivers where this species occurs are rainforest rivers and as such are less affected by the above-mentioned threats (F. Koehler pers. comm. 2010).
189602		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189602		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southeastern shore of Lake Baikal only (Sitnikova <em>et al.</em> 2004). It may be more widely distributed, however this species is difficult to collect (M.V. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189602		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths between 2.5 to 10 metres on small stones and large pebbles in Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189602		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189602		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189603		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
189603		distribution	eng	This is a coastal plains species distributed from Nova Scotia to eastern Quebec and south to Virginia (Burch 1975, Clarke 1981, Nedeau <em>et al</em>. 2000) with disjunct populations in the Pee Dee (Bogan and Alderman 2004) and Chowan (Bogan 2002) basins in North Carolina.
189603		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater non migratory species found in coastal streams and lakes and <span class="copy">occurs in silt, sand, and gravel substrates (Clarke 1981, Nedeau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><br/><span class="copy">Host fish  for the <span class="copy">glochidial <span class="copy">include the <span class="copy">alewife (<em>Alosa pseudoharengus</em>) <span class="copy">(Clarke 1981)<span class="copy">, <span class="copy">white sucker (<em>Catostomus commersoni</em>), threespine stickleback (<em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>), pumpkinseed (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>), and white perch (<em>Morone americana</em>) (Davenport and Warmuth 1965, Wiles 1975).</span></span></span></span>
189603		population	eng	This species is largely stable throughout its range, however it was likely extirpated from a number of rivers in southern Maine that historically lost their alewife runs due to dam construction (Nedeau et al., 2000).&#160; In contrast, it has potentially experienced some range expansion in Rhode  Island (Raithel and Hartenstine, 2006) and Massachusetts and Connecticut (Smith, 1985) possibly due to restoration of clupeid fish runs in these states.&#160; In Canada, it is declining in Quebec but stable in eastern provinces (Metcalfe-Smith and Cudmore-Vokey, 2004).
189603		threats	eng	<p>There are no major threats and the species is not <span class="copy">intrinsically vulnerable. There have been <span lang="EN-GB">occurrences of the species being <span lang="EN-GB">extirpated from several rivers due to dam constructions (<span class="copy">Nedeau <em>et al</em>. 2000).</span></span></p>  <span class="copy"><span class="copy"><span class="copy"></span>
189605		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance, habitat preferences and threats.
189605		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Republic of Karelia (Baltic drainage area) in the Russian Federation (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is not known whether this species occurs outside of this area. The ZIN collection has a single specimen.
189605		habitat	eng	This species has been found in a 'shallow water body' (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). There is no further information on the habitat preferences of this species.
189605		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189605		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is affected by any major threat processes.
189606		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.&#160;Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history,&#160; ecology and threats.
189606		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from the Rio Quininde, Ecuador (Cowie and Thiengo 2003).&#160;Species of this genus are found throughout most of South and Central America as well as the Caribbean (Cowie and Thiengo 2003), with some members of the genus known as invasive agricultural pests in Pacific islands including Hawaii (Cowie 2001). This has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189606		habitat	eng	The habitat requirements for this freshwater species are unknown.
189606		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens.
189606		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.&#160;Construction of several large hydroelectricity generation dams in Ecuador may cause disruption to water flow regimes and increase sedimentation downstream, such as, for example, the recently approved 16.8 MW Palanda hydroelectric scheme, expected to be completed in 2009 (CORDELIM 2006).
189607		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2009). Further research is required regarding species population&#160; trends and threats impacting this species.
189607		distribution	eng	This species is only known in springs in the Blue Ridge Mountains, cave populations from the Potomac River basin, Pennsylvania south to Clinch and Holston river basins in Virginia, including the New and Roanoke river basins (Hubricht 1976, Hershler <em>et al</em>. 1990). The disjunct Maryland and Virginia records that originated from Hubricht (1976) who stated that snails found in springs and caves from north- western Virginia north to Maryland are not distinguishable from snails found in the eastern Ozarks of Missouri (citing Butler Cave in Bath Co., Virginia; Ogdens Cave in Frederick Co., Virginia; and a spring in Washington Co., Maryland), have been identified by Hershler<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (1990) as <span style="font-style: italic;">Fontigens orolibas</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fontigens morrisoni</span>.
189607		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from freshwater springs (Hershler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).
189607		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189607		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189608		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A golden lion fish exists in the same pool that this spring forms and is potentially being considered for protection. However, there is no indication that <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dianchiensis</span> will be conserved as a consequence or benefit in any way from protection of the golden lion fish (Aldrige pers.comm. 2010). There is a need for adequate habitat and site protection.
189608		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from a spring at the shore of Lake Dianchi in Yunnan Province, China (Davis <em>et al. </em>1986, Attwood <em>et al.</em> 2004). This spring is around 10 m²<sup></sup>, and there are probably less than 1,000 individuals (D. Aldridge pers.com. 2010).
189608		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a freshwater spring (Davis <em>et al.</em> 1986).
189608		population	eng	There are probably less than 1,000 individuals present in the spring (D. Aldridge pers.com. 2010).
189608		threats	eng	There are a number of potential threats in Lake Dianchi. Drastic changes to the fauna of the lake have been reported as a result of introduced species, water pollution, loss of macrophyte cover, and siltation (Du, Chen and Yang 2008). The watershed area for the lake supports some 1.5 million people of Kunming City. The lake is a huge water and fishery resource for the local area. It has become increasingly impacted by agricultural, industrial and domestic waste resulting in extensive cyanobacteria algal blooms (Liu<em> et al.</em> 2006). Both <span style="font-style: italic;">Margarya monodi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Margarya mansuyi </span>are molluscs known from Lake Dianchi which have recently been assessed as threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species for the reasons above. The spring where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dianchiensis </span>occurs is used by local people for clothes washing and the surrounding habitat has also been altered by concrete channelling (Aldridge pers.comm. 2010).
189609		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of GH - Possibly Extinct (NatureServe 2009). Survey work is necessary to determine the presence or absence of this species in Alaska. Coordinated efforts between US and Russian taxonomists is required to establish the validity of the Russian records (see Kantor <em>et al. </em>2009).
189609		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southwestern Alaska, but it is thought to be possibly extinct (NatureServe 2009). Historically, it is known from Nushagak in Bristol Bay. Dall (1905) believed&#160; "some young shells [collected] from Sonoma County, California … may belong to it", but Baker (1911) disputed this. Kantor <em>et al.</em> (2009) record this species (as a member of <em>Lymnaea</em>) as probably occurring in the eastern Chukchi Peninsula in Russia. Although this would make biogeographical sense, further research is necessary to validate Russian records as being of the same species.
189609		habitat	eng	The ecology or habitat preferences of this species is unknown.
189609		population	eng	This species has not been recorded for over a century in the U.S., but Kantor <em>et al.</em> (2009) list it as having an eastern Russian distribution.
189609		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189610		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189610		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189610		habitat	eng	This species is found between 10 and 100 metres in the north basin of Lake Baikal, on a sandy or silty substrata (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189610		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189610		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189611		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Lake Baikal has several conservation measures in place. In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created; in 1996, it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site; and in 2000 it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;Further research is recommended to determine the species' abundance, and the effects that the threat processes of Lake Baikal may be having on the population.
189611		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is Solzan on the east coast of southern Lake Baikal. This species is endemic to Lake Baikal and occurs at depths between 3 - 35 m (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189611		habitat	eng	This species is most commonly found on stones in shallow waters of Lake Baikal (ZIN 2011).
189611		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189611		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, although it is unknown if any or all of these are having an effect on this species due to the lack of information on the species population status. <br/><br/>Despite being surrounded by several nature reserves, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, there has been a rise in the erosion of the shoreline and associated sedimentation loads (Appleby <em>et al.</em> 1998). The Selenga River drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed are major sources of air pollution (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There is increasing use of agricultural chemicals in the watershed area, resulting in toxic run-off entering the Lake and its tributaries (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened. However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake. This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189612		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189612		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189612		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths between 15 and 100 metres in the north basin of Lake Baikal, on sandy or silty substrata (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189612		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189612		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189613		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas.
189613		distribution	eng	This species is found in Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina (Prashad 1932, Pilsbry 1933, Darwich <em>et al</em> 1989, Damborenea and Brusa 2008).
189613		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky riverbeds (Darwich <em>et al</em>. 1989)
189613		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189613		threats	eng	Due to the large distribution of this species, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any global-level threat process. There is a paper milling industry located further downstream on the Uruguayan side of the Paraná   River, but this is not thought to affect the majority of this species' habitat (G.&#160;Darrigran&#160;pers. comm. 2010).
189614		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' abundance, life history and ecology. Further research is also needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainties about the generic classification of this species.
189614		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from Upolu Island, Samoa (Haynes 1990). This species, along with <em>Melanoides paxa</em>, is believed to be endemic to this island (Haynes 1990). The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,150 km<sup>2</sup>.
189614		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from springs and upper reaches of mountain streams up to 300 m elevation. It is found at stream edges, usually in pools bordering waterfalls. Its preferred habitat is submerged mud or sand with plant debris and over-hanging vegetation (Cowie 1998).
189614		population	eng	This species is currently only known from a few specimens.
189614		threats	eng	As this species is located in the upper reaches of the island, with severly sloping terrain, it is unlikely to be impacted by human settlement in the near future. Furthermore, deforestation does not seem to be occurring on the island at present. A 20 m high 4 MW hydroelectric power dam on the upper Salani River, creating the Afulilo reservoir and created in the late 1980s (World Bank 2009), posed a potential risk to this species. Given this species prefers habitats associated with waterfalls, this dam is likely have perturbed its populations.
189615		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the taxonomy, population demographics and effects of threat processes is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189615		distribution	eng	This species is known from China (CSIS 2009). Specifically, it is known from Yongxiu County, Duchang County, Nanchang, Xingzi, Xinjian, Jinxian, Jiujiang, Hukou and De'an in Jiangxi, Tunxi District in Anhui, Jiangmen shi, Guangzhou and Foshan in Guangdong; Changsha city Hanshou Coutry, Dayong city, and Xiangtan city in Hunan (CSIS 2009). It is also present in Poyang Hu and Xijiao Shan protected areas (CSIS 2009). A subspecies is a invasive species to Australia (Shea 1994).
189615		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes and rivers (CSIS 2009).
189615		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189615		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However the China Red Book lists this species as a food source and also susceptible to water pollution (CSIS 2009).
189616		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required regarding this species' habitat, population trends and the threats affecting it.
189616		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Rio Puelo, Chile (Valdovinos 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 12 km<sup>2</sup>.
189616		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in freshwater rivers (Valdovinos 2006).
189616		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189616		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189617		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to ascertain whether this is a valid species, and to determine its distribution, life history traits and any threat processes that may be impacting this species.
189617		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species is unknown.
189617		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
189617		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189617		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189618		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it is likely that parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas.&#160; This species is recorded as Critically Endangered and Endangered on the Japanese Regional Red List.&#160;Further research is recommended to clarify the distribution of this species.
189618		distribution	eng	The exact range of this species is unknown, but its distribution includes Mauritius, Japan, Philippines, the Australian state of Queensland, and it is found throughout the Indo-Pacific region: Malaysia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (MAFTNR 2004, DEWHA 2009, S. Clark pers. comm. 2011). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently recorded.
189618		habitat	eng	This brackish species inhabits mangrove swamps and estuaries (DEWHA 2009, S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189618		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189618		threats	eng	Mangrove ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture or agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction of harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Natural stresses such as cyclones, tsunamis and freshwater discharges also impact upon mangroves to a lesser extent (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting upon this species, although due to its wide distribution, it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189619		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' population status and threats.
189619		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Surat Thani Province, Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
189619		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from brackish water and mangroves along the gulf of Thailand (Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> 2005).
189619		population	eng	Sri-aroon <em>et al.</em> (2005) state that this species is very rare, however, no population information is given.
189619		threats	eng	The mangroves and surrounding ecosystem of Surat Thani Province are threatened by over-exploitation for charcoal and wood chip production, un-managed pole extraction and fuel wood harvesting and clear-felling for timber. Habitat degradation has also occurred due to conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds, housing and residential development, as well as  Further, wastewater from aquaculture and sewage from urban and industrial areas have altered the water quality (Plathong and Plathong 2004).
189620		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with the Lower Glenelg National Park (Parks Victoria 2007), which might offer some protection to its habitat.&#160;Further research is required to establish its population size and ecology and identify potential threats. Further survey work may also find additional local populations.
189620		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Victoria, Australia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in small springs and streams that flow into the lower part of the Glenelg River (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). The extent of occurrence is approximately 250 km<sup>2</sup>.
189620		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small springs and streams (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is a generalist species that is found on most substrates (Clark<em> et al.</em> 2003).
189620		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be very abundant (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2003).
189620		threats	eng	Possible threats to this species include habitat degradation and loss due to urbanisation and development in addition to pollution; yet these are likely to be minor effects only as the species mostly occurs within a national park.
189621		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found in the Kedrovaya Reserve, which was established in 1916 (UNESCO 2007). The reserve became an UNESCO Heritage Site in 2004 (UNESCO 2007). There is a small population of around 11,000 people in residential areas around the reserve, but there is also a core area where scientific research is the only activity allowed (UNESCO 2007). In the surrounding buffer zone, controlled burning, hunting and logging are permitted (UNESCO 2007). Recently there have been financial and management problems which have threatened the future of the reserve (ZSL 2009). Further research into the population demographics for this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189621		distribution	eng	This species is still primarily known from the type series collected from the middle and lower parts of the Amur basin, Russian Federation (Zatrawkin 1985b and Starobogatov <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009). However, recently, it was also found&#160;in the Kedrovaya Reserve, Primorski District, Russian Federation (Prozorova and Astakhov 2008).
189621		habitat	eng	This species is found in floodplain pools (ZIN collection).
189621		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189621		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, there are possible threats due to 'pollution from oil products, mineral fertilisers from agricultural development and by-products of gold mining operations' (CITES 2000).
189622		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, distribution, life history and ecology and threats.
189622		distribution	eng	This species is known from several irrigation canals and reservoirs in Thailand, including the Lam ta Khong reservoir in Nakhon Ratchasima (Tesana, 2002) and paddy fields and canals of several locations in Chiang Mai Province (Ngern-klun 2006), Khon Kaen Province (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004). Further limited populations have also been found in Nakorn Sri Thammarat Province (Manning 1970), Surin Province, and Sriracha Province<em></em>. The species is also reported from close to the Myanmar and Cambodian borders, suggesting this species may also be found within these countries (Brandt 1974), and there is a record from Perlis State, northern Peninsular Malaysia (Malacology Collection, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia).
189622		habitat	eng	This species was collected from artificial reservoirs at a benthic depth range of  0.5 - 8 m (Kittivorachete 2004). It has been found in cargo shipments to the USA, but has not become established (Perez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). A general molluscan survey of Lam Ta Khong reservoir across three seasons found an extremely low density of this species (Tesana, 2002).
189622		population	eng	The family <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithyniidae</span>, including this species, was found to be the third most abundant mollusc in Khon Kane reservoir, with the highest populations occurring in June (Kittivorachate 2004). In addition, this species was found to be one of the dominant species of mollusc at depths of around 8 m (Kittivorachate 2004).<br/><br/>Further mollusc collections in Chiang Mai province found this species to be the second most abundant during the rainy season (Ngern-klun 2006).
189622		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189623		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and taxonomic classification is needed before an assessment can be made.
189623		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Hunan, China. It has been collected from Heng-shan-hsien and Xikou town (Davis<em> </em>1992).
189623		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear slow-flowing perennial streams, with pebble and mud substrates. It has been recorded up to altitudes of 550 m asl (Davis<em></em> 1992).
189623		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189623		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species.
189624		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' population size, current distribution and threats.
189624		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality, Waigeo in the West Papua province of eastern Indonesia (Van Benthem Jutting 1963).
189624		habitat	eng	This species was recorded "on limestone rock" in brackish or freshwater (Van Benthem Jutting 1963).
189624		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189624		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting this species, although freshwater ecosystems throughout New Guinea are under local threat from habitat degradation (i.e. logging, shifting cultivation, mining, dams, and oil palm plantations), and utilization of aquatic resources (harvesting for fish trade, introduced species). It is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species (Polhemus <em>et al. </em>2004).
189625		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to ascertain the population size, distribution and population trends.
189625		distribution	eng	This species has been described from Cambodia, southern China, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, India and Africa (Prime 1864, Nevill 1877, Prashad 1929, Counts 1980).<br/><br/>Specifically, it is known from Montes Laos in Cambodia (Prime 1864), and Lake Tali, Hotha and Momein, Yunnan province, China (Prashad 1929). It is also known from southeastern Russia (Prashad 1929) and Madalay (which may be a lake in western Russian Federation, but this is uncertain) (Nevill 1877). In India, it is known from Manipur (Nevill 1877). This species is inferred to be present in Myanmar. There is a lack of recent information on this species, and further information on the species distribution in Southeast Asia is required.
189625		habitat	eng	This species was collected at approximately 1,700 m above sea level, and was also collected from a stream, of which the altitude is unknown (Nevill 1877).
189625		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189625		threats	eng	It is unknown whether the species is affected by any major threats.
189626		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring of habitat and population trends should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189626		distribution	eng	This species is widespread across the Indo-Pacific, including Papua New Guinea, Guam, Caroline Islands, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Samoa, Taiwan Province of China and New Caledonia (Haynes 1988, Haynes 1990, Lee and Chao 2003). It has been found on the islands of Tanna, Pentecost and Efate of Vanuatu and on American Samoa and the Benoki and Ohura Rivers in Okinawa and Nagura Estuary, Ishigaki Island of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan (Haynes 2000, Wade <em>et al.</em> 2008, Ohgaki and Kosuge 2005, Velamaal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is also recorded on Mindanao Island and the Matutinao River, Cebu Island, Philippines (Bandel and Riedel 1998, Borra 2006)
189626		habitat	eng	This species is found in streams and intertidal zones (Haynes 2000).
189626		population	eng	This species is noted as 'rare' (i.e. less than five specimens collected in sampling) in Taiwan, but common in American Samoa and the Caroline Islands (Maciolek and Ford 1987, Lee and Chao 2003, The American Samoa Community College 2009).
189626		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however this species could be affected by climate change in the future, as it is present on small Pacific islands. The shell of this species is sold in an online shop at www.australiaseashells.com (Australianseashells.com 2009).
189627		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to clarify this species' population size and threats.
189627		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the Mekong River drainage, Songkram River, Wannoniwat, Thailand (Hoagland and Davis 1979). This species is also known from the Maenam Sangkram, Maenam Mun, Huai Tuai, Maenam Kham, Huai Dom Yai and all tributaries of the Mekong (Brandt 1974).
189627		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the Songkram River drainage. This genus is known generally as a good coloniser, and can tolerate muddy waters and low oxygen levels that often occur after disturbances. This genus dominates its habitat by immigration rather than recruitment, is slow growing, and long lived (Attwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189627		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189627		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.
189628		conservation	eng	Lake Baikal has had several conservation measures put in place, including in 1996, when it was designated as Natural World Heritage Site (UNEP-WCMC 2006). In 1986, the Lake Baikal Region Biosphere Reserve was created and it was declared a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2000 (UNEP-WCMC 2006). There are also several nature reserves, National Parks and management areas surrounding the lake, as well as local laws and regulations (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, as there are many different conservation measures in place, the IUCN has recommended one single management plan to create an integrated approach to better organise the reduction of environmental impacts (IUCN 2002 in UNEP-WCMC 2006).&#160;There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population size and trends is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189628		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Lake Baikal, which is in the Republic of Buryatia, in the Russian Federation (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189628		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of 20 to 100 metres in Lake Baikal, on a sandy or stone substrata (Ropstorf and Riedel 2004).
189628		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189628		threats	eng	There are many threats to Lake Baikal, and therefore this species is potentially affected by some or all of them. <br/><br/>Despite several nature reserves surrounding the lake, logging continues to threaten the lake via increased sediment loads (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Sedimentation has also increased since the building of the Angara River barrage in the 1950s, which has seen a rise in the erosion of the shoreline (Appleby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). One source of waterborne pollution that affected the lake came from a pulp and cellulose mill, although this has recently closed (The Guardian 2008). The Selenga River is another source of pollution, as it drains many cities in Russia and Mongolia, bringing poorly treated waste water into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006).  Major sources of air pollution are the coal fired power stations and other industrial factories in the watershed of rivers that drain into the lake (UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>The use of agricultural chemicals is on the rise and presents yet another hazard to this species’ survival (Mackay <em>et al. </em>1998). A plan to build an international oil and gas pipe within 800 m of the lake’s shore and through the lake’s watershed was re-sited after the Russian President intervened (UNEP-WCMC 2006). However, future oil and gas extraction in the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lake cannot be ruled out (UNEP-WCMC 2006). The construction of a railway and the development of new towns (both legal and illegal) and recreational facilities along the shore have contaminated the lake (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). This has caused problems including litter which jeopardizes the lake's water quality (Mackay <em>et al.</em> 1998, UNEP-WCMC 2006). <br/><br/>There have also been recent reports that a nuclear plant is to be built in Angarsk, a heavily industrialised city near Lake Baikal, which could potentially threaten the species (BBC 2007).
189629		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur within the Pha Taem National Park in Thailand, or the nearby Phou Xiang Thong National Protected Area across the Mekong River in Lao PDR. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution and population status, as the only known survey was undertaken in 1974 prior to the construction of the Pak Mun dam.
189629		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality from the Mekong River around Ban Dan, Thailand (Brandt 1974).
189629		habitat	eng	Members of this genus inhabit slow-moving sections of rivers with sandy substrate and are also found on rocks in rapids (Brandt 1974).
189629		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189629		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>Schistosomiasis-transmitting snails (e.g., <em>Neotricula aperta</em>) were predicted to thrive under the new conditions imposed by the dam (Attwood 1995). However, it is unknown how this species would have reacted. It is unlikely that it will have flourished, particularly as the construction project involved modification of its habitat (e.g., removal of bed material, changes in downstream flow). According to a recent report by the Mekong River Commission, species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hubendickia </span>generally have a low tolerance (20-25 out of 100) to pollution and other forms of human disturbance (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189630		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics and possible threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.  Monitoring of population and habitat trends should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future.
189630		distribution	eng	This species has been found on the islands of Tanna, Pentecost and Espiritu of Vanuatu, the Segara Anakan lagoon on Java in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia (Haynes 1988, Haynes 2000, Nordhaus <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189630		habitat	eng	This species inhabits streams and lagoons (Haynes 2000).
189630		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189630		threats	eng	It is considered highly unlikely that there is an imminent threat to the global population. However this species could be affected by climate change in the future, as it is present on small Pacific islands.
189631		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, habitat preferences and threat processes.
189631		distribution	eng	This species is found in Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan (Kijashko 2009).
189631		habitat	eng	This species is found on wet shores of permanent lakes and rivers in a variety of habitat types (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189631		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189631		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189632		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;Further research is needed on the population numbers and trends of this species.
189632		distribution	eng	This species is only known from central and northern Lake Baikal (Sitnikova <em>et al</em>. 2004).
189632		habitat	eng	This species is found in a freshwater lake with a sandy-mud bottom and on sandy pebbles, at depths of 2-40 m (Sitnikova <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
189632		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189632		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any significant threats impacting the global population of this species, however threats of habitat degradation to Lake Baikal's ecosystem do exist (Minoura 2000). Some areas of the lake are protected by nature reserves and national parks. The main threats to the fauna of Lake Baikal arises from water pulp mill effluent from Baikalsk paper and pulp mill, the oil pipeline running to China, exploitation of resources in the Selenga delta, and illegal logging in surrounding protected areas (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Effluent from the pulp mill affects approximately 200 km2 of the lake with dioxins and and other poisons. Other sources of pollution include the Selenga River which drains a number of major cities in Russia and Mongolia, poorly treated waste water from the city of Severobaikalsk, and air and water pollution from the coal plants in Slyudyanka. Other air pollution sources include the sixteen towns and over 50 industries adjacent to the lake. Future potential threats include the proposal for oil extraction in the Selenga delta, the Irkutsk hydropower dam which would increase the level of the lake by a meter (UNEP-WCMC 2006).
189633		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research into the population demographics, distribution and threats of this species is suggested as these data are lacking.
189633		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across 'Europe, except for the extreme north-east' (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189633		habitat	eng	This species inhabits 'shallow permanent waterbodies' (Kruglov and Soldatenko 1997 in Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009).
189633		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189633		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threat processes.
189634		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
189634		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the eastern U.S.A., occurring throughout much of the Mississippi River system, and portions of the Great Lakes drainage (Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its distribution includes the entire Mississippi River drainage from the St. Lawrence River and its tributaries south to northern Louisiana and west to the tributaries of the Red River, Oklahoma (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  In Canada, it is common in the Great Lakes and their tributaries from Lake Michigan to Lake Erie, and uncommon in Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River (Clarke 1981).
189634		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lakes (Clarke 1981) and river systems throughout north-eastern America&#160;(Mirarchi&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2004).
189634		population	eng	There is no specific population data available, although it is reported to&#160;be abundant at given sites (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
189634		threats	eng	It is unlikely that there are any threats impacting the global population.
189635		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed to establish the distribution of this species, so that further information can be gathered on this species' ecology and threats.
189635		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Lujan, in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Pilsbry 1911), although this record is from the fossils of the Pampean formation. This brings its present occurrence into question.
189635		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189635		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189635		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189641		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place to support this species. It is listed as G5 - Secure under NatureServe's Global Heritage Status Rank (NatureServe 2009).
189641		distribution	eng	Hubendick (1951) lists the North American range of <em>Lymnaea palustris </em>(now recognized as <em>Stagnicola elodes</em> and distinct from Eurasian forms) as occurring from western Newfoundland to Alaska with a likely isolated area of distribution in central Mexico and possibly northern Labrador.  Burch (1989) cites New England west to Oregon and California, and south to New Mexico; it is also widely distributed in the Canadian Interior Basin.   It also occurs south to central Mexico (Thompson 2008).<br/><br/><em>S. palustris</em> in Europe may be the same species, but this is uncertain (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). If this were the case, then the distribution would range over 3 million km<sup>2</sup>.
189641		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater lakes and rivers, and demonstrates tolerance to pollution (Thompson 2008, NatureServe 2009).&#160;It occurs principally in lakes, often at considerable depths; and occasionally in slow-moving rivers and pools (Clarke, 1981).
189641		population	eng	This species is abundant and widespread throughout its range (Thompson 2008).
189641		threats	eng	There are no major threats impacting the global population of this species.
189642		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this speecies. It is classified as G4 (apparently secure) on NatureServe (2009).
189642		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to  a 100 km stretch of the Ogeechee River and tributary Buckhead Creek in the Georgia Coastal Plain (Dillon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).  Hershler (1994) lists the lower portion of the Ogeechee River drainage in Georgia. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as between 100 - 250 km<sup>2</sup>.
189642		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater rivers and tributaries.
189642		population	eng	This species is locally abundant and its range is not fragmented but widespread throughout the stretch of river (Dillon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)
189642		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting the global population of this species.
189643		conservation	eng	Magnesia Springs is a private recreation area, although it has been under consideration for acquisition by the state of Florida (Lochloosa WMA CARL project). Site protection would undoubtedly help this species, however, given the land's recreational use, careful site management may be beneficial. Further research is recommended to ascertain the full extent of threats impacting this species and to determine the exact distribution, population size and life history of this species. Future surveys of this species would be recommended in order to monitor the health of the population.
189643		distribution	eng	This species is known from one locality: Magnesia Springs, Hawthorne, Alachua County, Florida, USA (Burgess and Franz 1978, Johnson 1973, Thompson 1999). This species has an extent of occurrence of 31 km²<sup></sup>.
189643		habitat	eng	This species is found on mats of floating filamentous algae in a spring pool.  The spring has been impounded by a large circular concrete wall and acts as a water source for a public swimming pool.  The impounded spring pool is about 10 feet deep, and has fine calcareous silty sand bottom, which supports thick patches and mats of filamentous algae.  Adjacent to the spring is a yellow rectangular cement outflow pool about six feet width by about 10 feet length and only a few inches deep with a bottom of fine calcareous ooze overlying the cement and large mats of <span style="font-style: italic;">Spirogyra</span> floating on the surface.  What remains, drains into a flatwood swamp that borders a small, sand-bottomed creek.  Thompson (1968) listed the species as abundant in the drainage pool by the spring and less common in the spring pool, although it was generally distributed over the cement wall, bottom silt, and vegetation, while the spring run, flatwood swamp, and the creek were devoid of hydrobiid snails.
189643		population	eng	Only one occurrence is known, at the pool and overflow pool of Magnesia Springs, Alachua County, Florida. Thompson (1968) listed the species as abundant in the drainage pool by the spring and less common in the spring pool, although it was generally distributed over the cement wall, bottom silt, and vegetation, while the spring run, flatwood swamp, and the creek were devoid of hydrobiid snails.
189643		threats	eng	Although specific threats are not outlined, any disturbance to this spring could cause extinction of this species. The spring is used as a public swimming pool and so could be vulnerable to human disturbance, for example from chemical treatment.
189644		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a Nature Serve status of G1G2Q - Critically Imperiled with questionable taxonomy, along with a regional status of S1 - Critically Imperiled in Washington State (NatureServe 2009). This species has recently been included in the revised Natural Heritage Plan for the State of Washington, in which its priority was upgraded from "No Priority" to "Priority 2" (NHP 2007). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify taxonomic issues, as this will have a major bearing on the extent of occurrence of this species and hence its conservation status.
189644		distribution	eng	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from Park Lake, Grand Coulee (Burch 1989) and the Columbia Basin, Washington State, USA. A further few specimens are reported to have been collected from California, although this species has not been found here since it was last collected in 1932 by Wendell Gregg. The range may thus be limited to a few sites in California and Washington, but  may extend to Alberta, where Lepitzky (2001) collected specimens from Fort McCloud and Little Bow River. However, there is still uncertainty about the validity of these records as being from  the same species (Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). <br/><br/>If the samples found in Alberta are valid, the extent of occurrence of this species is 108,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However due to the classification &#160;uncertainties&#160;it may be less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (NatureServe 2009) and may even be as low as 200 km<sup>2</sup>, though this figure has yet to be corroborated.
189644		habitat	eng	This amphibious species has been collected from irrigation canals of the Columbia Basin Irrigation Project (McNeil and Walter 1957). No summer habitat information is available. However, this species over-winters partly or wholy buried in mud, under stones, under vegetation and in weir boxes. Uniquely, this species has been known to survive fully exposed during winter months, with only snow as protection.
189644		population	eng	There are insufficient population data available for this species.
189644		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189645		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G5 (secure) (NatureServe 2009), although in Indiana it is classed as Critically Imperilled (Pyron <em>et al. </em>2008) and its status in Alberta is undetermined (Prescott and Curteanu 2004). It has a National Status of N5 (secure) in the US and N3N4 (vulnerable/apparently secure) in Canada (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further work is needed to resolve taxonomic issues before a reliable assessment can be made for this species.
189645		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the USA and Canada where it has a scattered distribution (Prescott and Curteanu 2004). In the US, it occurs from the Canadian border south to the upper Ohio-Mississippi drainage to about 37<sup>o</sup>N (Prescott and Curteanu 2004). It has been recorded from the following States: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin (NatureServe 2009). In Canada, it occurs across the south of the country from Quebec west to Alberta and the Rocky Mountain foothills (Prescott and Curteanu 2004).
189645		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rivers, ponds, lakes and ditches, with mud or silt substrates and submerged macrophytes, and is also found in temporary habitats (Prescott and Curteanu 2004, Pyron <em>et al. </em>2008).
189645		population	eng	Only two individuals from one site were collected in Indiana in 2006 - 2008 (Pyron <em>et al. </em>2008), where it is categorized as Critically Imperilled (Pyron <em>et al. </em>2008). This species was recorded at one location (out of 66 sampled) on the St. Croix River in Minnesota in 2004 (Malizio <em>et al. </em>2004). However, throughout Minnesota it is one of the most widely distributed snail species (Lepitzki <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>In Alberta it was found at 2.5% of sites surveyed, although only 0.5% of sites (one out of 197 surveyed) had at least one live individual (Prescott and Curteanu 2004). It was generally "rare" or "uncommon" at these sites (Prescott and Curteanu 2004).
189645		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
189646		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G5Q - Secure (NatureServe 2009). It is listed on Wyoming's Species of Greatest Conservation Need (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2005).<br/><br/>Further work is needed on the taxonomy of US and Mexican populations. If US populations are a separate species, <span style="font-style: italic;">V. humeralis </span>would still be classified as Least Concern. Surveys are also required to determine whether it has been extirpated from British Columbia.
189646		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the US and Canada, occurring from Arizona northwards through Colorado to Montana, and up the Pacific coast through California to British Columbia (NatureServe 2009). It also occurs in Mexico, although it is only known from three localities: one in Xochimilco Lake near Mexico City; one in the Valles River in San Luis Potosi; and one from Lake Patzcuaro in Michoacán (Thompson 2008). Hovingh (2004) disputes the classification of the Mexican and US/Canadian populations within a single species, based on morphology.<br/><br/><em></em>
189646		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, ponds, marshes, springs, and slow perennial streams on mud subtrates; it is commonly found in dense vegetation (Taylor 1981, Hovingh 2004). In the far north, it occupies glacial ponds which freeze solid in winter (Hovingh 2004).
189646		population	eng	This species was abundant and widespread in the western US, but in the past century showed declines. In Big Bear Lake, California, it was abundant from 1903 to 1956, but surveys in 1995 found no evidence. Likewise, Fish Lake in Utah contained this species, but it is not found there today (Hovingh 2004). Hovingh (2004) found it common in three lakes surveyed, but extirpated from seven others. <br/><br/>In British Columbia, Canada, this species is possibly extirpated (NatureServe 2009).
189646		threats	eng	This species has been extirpated from US lakes in which sports fish (including trout and crayfish) were introduced (Hovingh 2004).
189647		conservation	eng	Although there is no documented threat or population information, it appears that this species is not currently considered to be of conservation concern in either Kentucky or Tennessee. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3 - Imperilled to Vulnerable (NatureServe 2009).
189647		distribution	eng	This species is known from Kentucky and Tennessee in the United States. It has been found in the Cumberland River (several tributaries) and in Big Richland Creek of the Tennessee River (Burch 1989), and in the Harpeth River below the narrows (Florida Museum of Natural History Museum Records, cited in NatureServe 2009). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 14,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Although it has quite a localised distribution, the species occurs in many tributaries which are likely to equate to more than ten locations.
189647		habitat	eng	This species is known from rivers, creeks and springs (NatureServe 2009).
189647		population	eng	This species has a relatively localised distribution although it is known to occur in a number of areas. There is no population information available for this species.
189647		threats	eng	It is undocumented whether any threats are affecting this species. However, both the Tennessee and the Cumberland River have many dams and are used for transport, with barges and recreational boats frequently travelling up- and downstream. Both rivers are polluted which is also likely to be affecting this species, although it is unknown to what degree. It is found in many tributaries and so threats may be spread over several subpopulations.
189648		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2009). Further research is recommended to resolve taxonomic uncertainty and to establish population trends.
189648		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Choctawhatchee River and its tributaries, including Holmes Creek, from the region around Geneva, Alabama, south to Ebro, Florida (approximately a 45-mile stretch), USA.  In Alabama, it is found in tributaries of Choctawhatchee, Chipola, and Connecuh Rivers (Mirarchi 2004, Thompson 1999). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189648		habitat	eng	This species occurs in slow-moving streams on silty substrates.
189648		population	eng	This species is frequently found in quiet water (Thompson 1999).
189648		threats	eng	There are no known major threats currently impacting the global population of this species.
189649		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. NatureServe (2009) classify this species as a Global Heritage Status  Rank of G5Q - Secure, meaning that the species is widespread and common, but it has questionable taxonomy that may reduce conservation priority. Further research is recommended to clarify the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this genus, and to provide an abundance estimate for this species and identify the threats which may be having an impact upon its population size.
189649		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Maine, Michigan and Wisconsin (NatureServe 2010). This species also occurs in Canada (Palomares and Pauly 2009).
189649		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water bodies in vegetation, along lakeshores, and in marshes and mudflats (O'Neal and Soulliere 2006). Baker (1928) notes it occurs numerously in the rock pools of the middle beach (Lake Superior) and in a small creek on rocks in a rapid current and in small falls near Lake Superior; typically in rapid water or of shores where waves cause movement of the water.
189649		population	eng	Baker (1928) notes that this species is numerous in rock pools of middle beach, Lake Superior, Bayfield Co., Michigan. Global population trends for this species are unknown.
189649		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is being impacted upon by habitat degradation in some areas of its range, but it is unlikely that it is being impacted upon on a global scale.
189650		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine the distribution and population status of this species, and assess whether there are any potential threat processes affecting it.
189650		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Waushara County, Wisconsin, and also in Michigan (Organization for Tropical Studies 2009, Taylor 2003). No recent specimens are known, probably since the 1920s. This species was largely ignored until Taylor (2003) included it on the list of Physidae. It was previously not included in the species list by Turgeon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).
189650		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189650		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189650		threats	eng	There is no threat information available for this species.
189651		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures implemented on this species' behalf. It has been listed on various state lists, but there are no recent records. Surveys are needed to determine the present distribution, status and ecology of this species.
189651		distribution	eng	The distribution of this species includes Coosa River, Alabama River, and the Tennessee River drainages, extending irregularly northward to the southern borders of Illinois and Indiana (Burch 1989). The date this species was last recorded is unknown, but there are no recent records (since ca 1955). A recent targeted survey for members of this genus (Foighil <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011) uncovered a population of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. filosa</span>&#160;in the Alabama river basin, previously listed as extinct; but no evidence of this species&#160;was found.
189651		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater river systems (Burch 1989).
189651		population	eng	There are no recent records of this species in Alabama (Coosa and Alabama Rivers).
189651		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown due to the lack of current distribution information (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).
189652		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to ascertain the population trends,  ecology, life history and threat processes impacting this species.
189652		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Hawaii (Cowie 1998). It is an invasive species but the region of origin is unknown (Cowie 1998, Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
189652		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189652		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189652		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189653		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2010). Much of this species’ distribution occurs on or adjacent to privately owned land. However, some of the species’ range coincides with protected national forests (Stagliano <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species has a limited distribution, and most states within its range do not have comprehensive range or survey information. This species is believed to have been extirpated from Utah Little Bear River drainage (Stagliano <em>et al</em>. 2007). Further research would be beneficial to ascertain the current distribution and population of this species, and DNA analysis is recommended to clarify the taxonomic status of this species group.&#160;However, there have been some local declines and extirpations, and its specialised habitat requirements indicate that populations and habitat should be monitored.
189653		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Utah and Wyoming; in Canada, it occurs in Alberta. NatureServe (2009) have classified it as Imperiled in Montana, and Possibly Extirpated in Utah.
189653		habitat	eng	This species is found in small coldwater rivers or spring-fed tributaries to larger river systems. Vegetation and algae are usually absent and it is not found in areas with mud, sand or bedrock (Stagliano <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species is very sensitive to pollution, sedimentation, habitat disturbance, and is also vulnerable to grazing.
189653		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is believed to have been lost from parts of its range, although data do not indicate whether the decline was historical, or is ongoing (Stagliano <em>et al</em>. 2007).
189653		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the primary threat to this species, with the conversion of cold springs for stock and domestic usage frequently occurring. Degradation of water quality through erosion and runoff from roads or other construction which produces turbidity and siltation, renders the waterbody uninhabitable to this clear water species (Stagliano <em>et al</em>. 2007).
189654		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperiled (NatureServe 2009). It is a species of concern within Texas (endangered, imperiled, rare or recently extinct) (Ziser 2008). Further work is needed to determine this species' exact distribution, population size and trend, and the impacts of threats to its habitat.
189654		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the State of Texas, U.S.A. (NatureServe 2009), west of Houston (Johnson 2006). It is only known from two locations: the type locality: San Felipe spring in Del Rio city, Val Verde county, western Texas; and in 1934 it was collected from Phantom Lake, Reeves, Texas (Balmorhea spring system) (Illinois NHS collection, cited in NatureServe 2009). Both records are old, and there is no more current information available for this species. San Felipe spring and the associated spring run is located in a city park, and it is doubtful whether the species still exists there. The estimated extent of occurrence is no more than 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> (mainly due to the fact that the two locations are seperated by around 300 km), and the area of occupancy is very small, although it is difficult to define this, as the two known localities are not very specific.
189654		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs (Brune 2002).
189654		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. Both records for this species are very old, and it is not known whether the species still persists in the two known locations.
189654		threats	eng	Threats to this species' spring/headwater habitat include irrigation pumping of groundwater (lowering the water table), well construction, grazing, deforestation, drought and any other process that reduces water flow (Brune 2002).<br/><br/>San Felipe spring specifically is heavily impacted by invasive species (fish and molluscs), which have alerady caused declines in other hydrobiids and native fish; water abstraction, channelisation, urban development and other human impacts (K. Perez pers. comm. 2010). These threats also apply to the Balmorhea site.
189655		conservation	eng	This species has been classified as G2 - imperiled (NatureServe 2009) and S2 state listed in Florida. New surveys are needed to establish the population status and distribution of this species, as no recent surveys have been carried out.
189655		distribution	eng	This species occurs in a small area in north-central Florida in springs from the Suwannee River system (and tributary, Santa Fe River) west to small streams in Wakulla Co., Florida (Johnson 1973, Thompson 1968, 1999, Burch 1989). This species is documented to occur in six separate locations in four counties. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189655		habitat	eng	This species is only found in small springs and spring runs, with uniform temperature and high mineral content. It is a habitat specialist (Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011).
189655		population	eng	There is no population information available and the sites were surveyed many years ago (Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
189655		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to the global population of this species.
189656		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G2 - imperilled; it is ranked as S2 - imperilled within California and S1 - critically imperilled in Oregon (NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further work on this species' taxonomy is recommended to resolve uncertainties in the classification of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Juga</span>..
189656		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern California and Oregon. It is recorded from eight isolated localities in the Klamath and Pit River drainages. In Oregon, it occurs in Shoat Springs, Jackson County; in California, in Big Spring, Siskiyou County; Ash Creek, Lassen County; Fall River, Shasta County; Crystal Lake, Shasta County; headwaters of Willow Creek, Sellicks Springs and Tiptons Springs, all in Lassen County (Taylor 1981).<br/><br/>Strong and Frest (2007) list a local decline of this species: "Eagle Lake" (Stearns 1890). Taylor (1981) corrected this to the head of Willow Creek, Lassen Co., California. There are no populations in the Eagle Lake drainage which includes several small tributaries that flow into the lake during winter and the only outflow is through the remnants of the Bly Tunnel. Initiated during the 1920s, the Bly irrigation project diverted water from Eagle Lake to Willow Creek at Murrer's Meadows several kilometers away in the more arid Honey Lake drainage. Today, the tunnel is mostly blocked except for an 8"(~20 cm) pipe that still allows some outflow to Willow Creek. The headwaters of Willow Creek are regarded as springs along Murrer's Upper Meadow and Bly Tunnel (Moyle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). Graf (2001) lists the type locality as "Eagle Lake, [Lassen Co.,] California" (Strong and Frest 2007).<br/><br/>This species is reported to have been collected from streams in Oregon in the 1990s and found at 18 sites, but only three or four may actually be this species (T. Frest pers. comm. 2007). The uncertainty about some of these records means that estimating the number of locations for this species is very difficult; however, using the precautionary principle, we assume eight locations based on the presence of this species in the eight isolated localities listed above.<br/><br/>There is uncertainty regarding the taxonomic status of some of the northern Californian and Oregon records (NatureServe 2009). Richards and Rogers (2006) list this species as far north as Washington State. However, the true form may be restricted to Willow Creek, Lassen Co., California.<br/><br/>The known extent of occurrence is 22,000 km², but the range may be much bigger depending on the validity of uncertain records.
189656		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large springs and outflows, where it is restricted to cold, unpolluted, well-oxygenated water with gravel substrates at low to medium elevations (Furnish 2005).
189656		population	eng	The present population status of this species is unknown (Furnish 2005), although Taylor (1981) lists it as narrowly localized within California, with little likelihood of any populations being discovered. Population trends are unknown, but habitat is declining in Klamath due to irrigation projects, and in Pit for bird conservation.
189656		threats	eng	Irrigation projects and damming have extirpated populations of this species in the past (Strong and Frest 2007). Other threats include pollution, sedimentation, and reduced water flow (e.g., from groundwater abstraction) of spring habitats (Taylor 1981, Furnish 2005). In Klamath, water abstraction for irrigation remains the major threat (Frest and Johannes 1995).
189658		conservation	eng	This species has been listed as G4 (apparently secure) on NatureServe (2009).
189658		distribution	eng	This species is known from a narrow zone across the neck of the Florida peninsula (Thompson 1999) from the west side of the St. Johns River in Clay and Putnam Cos. (Johnson 1973) west to Dixie Co. (Burch 1989).
189658		habitat	eng	This species occurs in slow-flowing streams with sandy bottoms (Thompson 2004).
189658		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant (Thompson 2004).
189658		threats	eng	There are no specific documented threats impacting the global population of this species, but general development may affect this species' population in St Johns river.
189661		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is needed to determine this species' taxonomic status, distribution and threats.
189661		distribution	eng	Originally described as <span style="font-style: italic;">Gundlachia ancyliformis</span>, this species has been recorded in Cãdenas, Cuba (Pilsbry 1924) and Manatee, Florida (Simpson 1888). However, Burch (1982) discounts Simpson's (1888) record from Florida, and thus it is probable that the species only occurs in Cuba. It was not listed in Turgeon <span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span>. (1998), so may not actually be a North American species. It is not known from Mexico (Thompson 2011). There is taxonomic uncertainty regarding this species; Burch (1982) describes the species as a growth variant of <em>Ancylus radiates</em> (Guilding, 1828) and states that it is not known from continental U.S.A. or Canada.
189661		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from swamps (Basch 1959).
189661		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189661		threats	eng	There is no information available on the threats of this species.
189662		conservation	eng	This species is contained withn Jasper National Park and, as such, is protected under the remit of this park's conservation strategy. However, the extent of this protection has yet to be characterised for this assessment. Further work is needed to resolve taxonomic issues, to determine population size and trends, to extend knowledge on the life history and to clarify any potential threats to the global population of this species.
189662		distribution	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected from Brazeau Lake, Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada (NatureServe 2009).
189662		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from unknown lacustrine habitat (NatureServe 2009).
189662		population	eng	This species is only known from a few specimens.
189662		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.&#160;As this species is known from a single location in Jasper National Park, it is highly vulnerable to stochastic events or human disturbance. However, given the species' known range is contained within a national park, it is unlikely that there is a continued reduction in quality or extent of habitat. However, this needs further investigation.
189663		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
189663		distribution	eng	This species' range is restricted to streams and small rivers in the Tennessee River drainage in tributaries in Virginia, east Tennessee, and North Carolina (Burch 1989). The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189663		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater streams.
189663		population	eng	This species is very common and is recorded as accounting for ~95 % of invert biomass in streams where it is present (Mulholland <span style="font-style: italic;">et a</span>l. 2000). Its diet consists of diatoms.
189663		threats	eng	There are no known threats impacting the global population of this species.
189664		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.&#160;This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G4, indicating a range in possible status from imperiled to apparently secure (NatureServe 2010). Further research is recommended to provide an abundance estimate for this species and to identify the threats which may be having an impact upon the global population.
189664		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in Maine (Somerset Co. and Penobscot Co.). In Canada this species occurs in Ontario and Quebec (NatureServe 2010). There is evidence that the species occurs in Eastern Ontario (Burch 1989), but records are old (from the 1930s).
189664		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, rivers and streams (Martin 1999).
189664		population	eng	There is little population information available for this species. It has been suggested that this species may be rare or endangered in Maine (Martin 1999).
189664		threats	eng	It is likely that this species is being impacted upon by habitat degradation in some areas of its range, but it is unknown if it is affected at a global scale.
189665		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperilled; and S1 staus within California and Oregon (NatureServe 2009). In Oregon this species has a federal status of Bureau Sensitive (Bureau of Land Management 2008). Further work is needed on this species' distribution and population status, in order to assess the threats it may be facing.
189665		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to coastal regions of Oregon and California (van der Schalie and Dundee 1955, NatureServe 2009), from southwestern Oregon to northern San Mateo County, California (the 'coastal fog belt'; Taylor 1981). In western Oregon it is suspected to occur in Coos Bay and Salem districts (Bureau of Land Management 2008). However, there is a lack of recent records for this species.
189665		habitat	eng	This species is semiaquatic according to Taylor (1981), being characteristically found among wet leaf litter and other vegetation in humid, shaded places along banks of streams.
189665		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189665		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189666		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2009).
189666		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout north central California, northwestern Nevada, and southwestern Oregon (NatureServe 2009).
189666		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seepages, springs and creeks, in perennial flowing water (Taylor 1981).
189666		population	eng	This species is common in tributaries of the Sacramento River and interior drainages in northeastern California (Taylor 1981), but rare further east (Hawkins and Furnish 1987). The southernmost population in Salmon Creek, Sonoma County, is possibly extirpated (Taylor 1981).
189666		threats	eng	There are no known major threats affecting the global population of this species.
189667		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G3 - Vulnerable, and an S2 - Imperilled - status within Oregon (NatureServe 2009). Its range falls within protected areas, e.g., the Clearwater National Forest in Idaho. The subspecies <em>dalli </em>and <em>diagonalis</em> both have a Global Heritage Status of T1 - Critically Imperilled - and are restricted to a few vulnerable sites in Oregon (NatureServe 2009). Further research is recommended to clarify the taxonomic status of the endangered subspecies (ideally a molecular phylogenetic analysis), and adequate protection and management is essential to ensure continued viability of these vulnerable Lake Klamath populations.
189667		distribution	eng	This species occurs patchily in Pacific drainages in the USA, in the States of California, Oregon, Idaho and Washington (NatureServe 2009). Taylor (1981) lists its distribution as southern Washington to northern and east-central California, and east to the Snake River, southern Idaho. In California, it occurs in the Klamath, upper Sacramento and northeastern interior drainages, and Lake Tahoe. It is possibly extinct in the Owens Valley, Inyo County (Taylor 1981).<br/><br/>Various subspecies exist, although they may need revision (Frest 1999, cited in NatureServe 2009): <em>V. effusa effusa</em> is rare and declining in the Sacremento River system, but widespread in the Willamette River in Oregon, the lower Columbia River in Washington and Oregon, the Snake River and a few tributary springs in Idaho (NatureServe 2009). <em>V. e. dalli</em> (the Dall Rams-horn) and <em>diagonalis</em> (Lined Rams-horn) are restricted to, respectively, four and five sites in the Klamath Lake system, Oregon, where they are listed as species of conservation concern (Brown <em>et al. </em>2009).
189667		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs, large lakes, rivers and spring-fed streams (Taylor 1981, Richards and Rogers 2006), and is restricted to areas with perennial, well-oxygenated, cold water on stony substrate (Frest 1999). The subspecies <em>dalli</em> and <em>diagonalis </em>are groundwater-dependent and restricted to a few sites in the Klamath Lake, Oregon (Brown <em>et al. </em>2009). This species demonstrates a preference of undisturbed streams.
189667		population	eng	A total of 41 individuals were collected from the Crooked and Deschutes River springs, Oregon (Vinson 2008). No other population information is available for this species.
189667		threats	eng	This species is widespread and is not thought to be impacted by any major threats throughout its range. However, two subspecies restricted to Klamath Lake, Oregon, are vulnerable to groundwater abstraction (for agricultural, domestic or industrial uses), and contamination from a wide variety of pollutants (pesticides, nutrients, and other toxins) (Brown <em>et al. </em>2009).
189668		conservation	eng	This species has a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 - Imperiled (NatureServe 2009). The Florida Heritage Program considers this species as invalid and removed it from its species list. In North Carolina, this species is listed as SU Unknown - and it is uncertain if this is a valid species (Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). Further work is needed regarding this species' taxonomy.
189668		distribution	eng	This species comes with some taxonomic uncertainty. Burch (1989) cites Woodville, Alabama, as part of this species' distribution (under the possible synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromenetus brogniartianus</span>).  Thompson (1999) includes this species as a synonym of <em>Micromenetus brogniartianus</em> which he lists from marshy habitats within the Chipola River basin in Jackson County and the Wacissa River basin in Jefferson County, Florida.&#160;Dawley (1965) includes the locality of Lake Waccamaw in North Carolina.
189668		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater lakes and marshy habitats (Dawley 1965, Thompson 1999).
189668		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189668		threats	eng	Because of taxonomic uncertainty and resulting lack of precise information on distributions and populations of this species, the threats which may be affecting it are unknown.
189669		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to ascertain the population trends, ecology, life history and threat processes impacting this species.
189669		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Hawaii (Cowie 1998). It is thought to be an invasive species, with an unknown region of origin (Cowie 1998, Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)
189669		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189669		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189669		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threat processes.
189670		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperilled, due to its restricted range (NatureServe 2009). Its range is entirely within Death Valley National Park in California.<br/><br/>Further work on population size and trends, and potential threats which could affect this species in future, is recommended.
189670		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a few springs in Cottonball Marsh in Death Valley National Park, Inyo County, California (Burch 1989, Hershler 2001). It has an extent of occurrence of &lt;100 km<sup>2</sup>.
189670		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small, cool, brackish spring brooks in Death Valley (Hershler 1989). Salinity in the marsh can range to several times that of seawater (Ladd 2010).
189670		population	eng	This species is common "on large, actively growing tufa [porous calcareous rock] blocks" (Hershler 2001).
189670		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Although it is restricted to a few localities, these are in a highly remote area which is in a pristine condition.
189671		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas (eg N Talladega Nat Forest). This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3 - imperilled to vulnerable (NatureServe 2009). As this is fairly newly described species, it is recommended that future surveys should monitor population trends.
189671		distribution	eng	This newly described species is endemic to northeastern Alabama, and can be found in Calhoun, Talladega and St. Clair County (NatureServe 2010). It is found in the tributaries of the north-eastern Coosa drainage before the river meets Georgia and has an extent of occurrence across the three counties of approximately 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Thompson 2000).
189671		habitat	eng	This species inhabits slow-moving streams and shows preference for sand and gravel substrates (NatureServe 2010).
189671		population	eng	This species has been described as common in Calhoun and Talladega Counties, Alabama (NatureServe 2010).
189671		threats	eng	This species is newly described and therefore little is know about any potential threats which may be affecting it (NatureServe 2010).&#160;Pollution is likely to have some impact on this species, with water pollution in Alabama recognized to occur from: domestic and municipal sewage, animal enterprises, food processing industries, pulp and paper mills, other industrial enterprises, municipal refuse, and household garbage (Hairston 2010). Sod farms also pose threats of nutrient enrichment and eutrophication (K. Perez pers. comm. 2010). However, at present these threats are thought to be of minor importance given the species' common status in at least two of the counties in which it occurs.
189672		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - critically imperiled (NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the exact distribution of this species and the likelihood of possible threats in its range.
189672		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a single cave system in Perry County, Missouri, and in neighbouring Cape Gerrardo county, north of Perryville (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, Bogan pers. comm. cited in NatureServe 2009). It is found in Moore Caves (Berome and Tom Moore Caves, north of Perryville) (NatureServe 2010, J. Corderio pers. comm. 2010). This species has an extent of occurrence of 3,600 km²<sup></sup>.
189672		habitat	eng	This is a troglobytic species which is known from cave streams (NatureServe 2009).
189672		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189672		threats	eng	The threats to this species are generally unknown, but point source pollution downstream of Perryville is a potential threat to the cave habitat of this species (Burr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).
189673		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 - vulnerable (NatureServe 2009). It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its taxonomy, distribution, abundance and threats processes.
189673		distribution	eng	In the United States, this species occurs in California, Idaho, Montana, Washington and Wyoming, and is probably extirpated from Utah (Oliver and Bosworth 1999).&#160;In Canada, this species occurs in Alberta (NatureServe 2009), where it occurs from Valleyview south along the foothills and into the Rockies,  east towards Taber, and in Jasper National Park (Mozley 1928). The species may possibly also occur in Nevada, Oregon and British Columbia.
189673		habitat	eng	Mozley (1928) has recorded this species on the exposed stony shore of a large glacier-fed lake, and also in a shallow pond. Taylor (1981) found the species in a broad range of habitats including lakes, ponds, marshes, ditches and slow streams.
189673		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Lepitzki (2001, in NatureServe 2009) could not find a warm spring location in Banff National Park where the snail was collected in a previous 1965 study. It may be that the spring was destroyed by construction near the Banff Springs Hotel.
189673		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.
189674		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a global conservation status rank (G rank) of G4 - Apparently Secure (NatureServe 2009). It has been recorded from Everglades National Park. Further research is needed on the taxonomy of populations in Hispaniola, the threats, distribution and the population trends of this species, as currently very little is known about this species.
189674		distribution	eng	This species is known from <span class="copy">the coastal regions of the Florida peninsula and the Florida Keys in the USA (NatureServe 2009) and an area of Lago de Enriquillo and the Laguna del Rincon, Dominican Republic (Thompson 2002). It is found throughout Haiti and the Dominican Republic (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010) but the taxonomy of other Hispaniolan populations is not resolved (Thompson 2002). The type locality is a 9 mile pond, in Everglades National Park, Florida.
189674		habitat	eng	This species is found in brackish waters of coastal marshes (Davis and McKee 1989).&#160;It occurs in brackish marshes with Cl<sup>-</sup> concentrations of 1.14-19.98 ppt with the  most extensive colonies in less than 5 ppt; mostly in ponds in mangrove and  sedge marshes less than 2 feet deep and subject to tidal fluctuations (Thompson 1968).
189674		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189674		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189675		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperiled (NatureServe 2009). Few populations are protected, although restocking efforts are underway in some parts of its range (Goodwin 2006).<br/><br/>Surveys to establish population size, distribution and trends on all islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago are recommended. Stream restoration, management and protection are vital to ensure continued viability of most populations of this species.
189675		distribution	eng	This species is found in high quality streams on four Hawaiian islands. It was historically on all the islands of Kaui, Maui, Molokai, Hawaii and Oahu, restricted to high-quality streams (Hawaii Biological Survey 2010). It is likely now to be present in around six to ten locations, based on known stream occurrences (see population section), and is only confirmed from four of the Hawaiian islands, Maui, Hawaii, Kaui, and Oahu (Hodges 1992, Hodges and Allendorf 1998, Fitzsimons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Hau 2007, Hawaii Watershed Atlas 2008, Kido 2008, Hawaii Biological Survey 2010). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189675		habitat	eng	This amphidromous species (migrates between salt and freshwater for reproduction) inhabits relatively pristine, fast-flowing streams with boulders and gravel substrates (Hawaii Biological Survey 2010). Adults feed on algae in the benthic zone (Brooks 2009). It may also occur under waterfalls (Pyron and Covich 2003).
189675		population	eng	This species was formerly common in Hawaii, but has declined throughout its range and is now present in only a few relatively pristine streams (Brooks 2009). <br/><br/>Maui: Hodges (1992) and Hodges and Allendorf (1998) reported populations ranging from 70,000 to 350,000 individuals in  three streams on Maui and many other stream populations probably were of a  similar size, although some may have been larger. Monthly counts were from 576 in Ïao  Stream (1999-2004) while Honomanü Stream counts were from 67912 (Hau 2007). Known number of locations is at least three (three streams), but may be more.<br/><br/>Hawaii: Recent surveys on Kawainui stream, Hawaii island, found this species in  densities of 9.5 ind m-2 in the middle part of the stream (Hawaii Watershed  Atlas 2008). Known number of locations is at least one (Kawainui stream), but may be more.<br/><br/>Kaui: In a stream on  Kaui, this species extended from the stream mouth to 259 m asl (although  it has been recorded up to 400 m asl), being most abundant in the lower stretch.  Densities ranged from 0.01 to 0.02 ind. per sq. m (Kido 2008). Known number of locations is at least one (one stream on Kaui), but may be more.<br/> <br/>Oahu: Here, the species is uncommon (Hawaii Biological Survey 2010). A recent survey on a stream in  Oahu recorded only two individuals (Fitzsimons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2005). Known number of locations is at least one (one stream on Oahu).
189675		threats	eng	A variety of threats have caused past declines in this species. These include: impoundment; water diversion and changes in stream flow; urbanisation; and habitat alteration or shading brought about by non-native riparian vegetation (Brooks 2009). Further threats that may impact this species include siltation via erosion of disturbed watersheds, direct or indirect pollution of surface or groundwater, and introduction of invasive species that may predate on or compete with native species (Gon III 2006).<br/><br/>Impediments to natural flow and saline water encroachment are the  greatest threats, however natural flow restoration is possible (Hau 2007). Such diversions in Iao and Honomanu Streams on the island of Maui have reduced stream flow, and with it the reproductive success of this species (Hau 2007). This means the snails are unable to complete their migration upstream and are restricted to estuaries, where they are vulnerable to tidal action and desiccation (Hau 2007). They are limited in their upstream migration by low stream flows and  instream obstructions (HI NHP pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Amphidromous species are also vulnerable to deterioration in more than one habitat, such as freshwater, estuaries and the open sea (Hodges and Allendorf 1998). Reduced stream quality on Oahu island has meant that populations there have declined (Hawaii Biological Survey 2010). This large snail is also an important food item for Native Hawaiians (Hodges and Allendorf 1998). Flooding also results in overflowing sewage plants entering streams (Goodwin 2006).<br/><br/>Extensive flooding - resulting in high sedimentation, turbidity, nutrients, trash and other pollutants emptying into streams, rivers, estuaries, and oceans is also a major threat. The recent flooding event caused wastewater treatment plants to overflow - causing hundreds of thousands of gallons of raw and untreated sewage to enter streams inhabited by this species (Goodwin 2006).
189678		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - critically imperilled, and a Nevada State status of S1 (in California its status has not been ranked) (NatureServe 2009). Further work is needed to determine this species' present distribution, population status, and threats.
189678		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to California and Nevada in the U.S. Recent records exist only for Massacre Lake, northwest Nevada (NatureServe 2009). It is found in a spring west of Home Camp and in Boulder springs, both Long Valley, Nevada, and in California it is found in springs of Grasshopper valley, Lassen Co. (Goodrich 1944). Recently this species was hand collected in Mare Pasture spring, Washoe co. Nevada in Massacre  Lake drainage and reported to be common  (T. Frest pers. comm. 2000).
189678		habitat	eng	This species has been collected from springs, but only a few sites are known.
189678		population	eng	This species is described as 'common' in Massacre Lake drainage (T. Frest pers. comm. 2000).
189678		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189679		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended regarding the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
189679		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Ohio River, Campbell Co., Kentucky (Burch 1989).
189679		habitat	eng	This species is only known from the Ohio River, Campbell Co., Kentucky (Burch 1989).
189679		population	eng	This species is only known from the type locality in the Ohio River, Campbell Co., Kentucky (Burch 1989).  It has not been documented since.
189679		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189680		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G2G3, which was upgraded to G2 - Imperilled (NatureServe 2009). Further work is needed on the distribution, population size, population trends and threat processes impacting this species, as most available information pre-dates the 1930s.
189680		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the States of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois in the US. It occurs in the Ashippun, Bark and Crawfish Rivers, and Lake Michigan drainage, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Mukwonago River and Creek, Waukesha Co., Illinois (NatureServe 2009). Historically, this species was widespread but there are no recent records.
189680		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large rivers and rapids (e.g., the St. Croix River in Minnesota), where it is found on rocks (Dawley 1947).
189680		population	eng	There is no population information for this species.
189680		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189681		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009).&#160;Due to its highly restricted nature, protection of both this species and its habitat is essential to the continuing viability of the known population(s).
189681		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Seigler Creek drainage in the south end of the Clear Lake basin, in California (Hershler 1995). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 20 km<sup>2 </sup>and its area of occupancy is likely to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
189681		habitat	eng	This species inhabits springs and small spring-fed streams, where it is found on vegetation (Hershler 1995).
189681		population	eng	This species was commonly found in the stream where it is endemic, although historical records suggest as recently as 1970 it was more widespread in the Clear Lake region (Hershler 1995).
189681		threats	eng	The only locality of this species, a small spring-fed stream, has been diverted and additionally impacted by human activities (Hershler 1995). Due to its highly restricted distribution, this snail is in danger of extinction from even minor alterations to its habitat.
189682		conservation	eng	This species has no conservation measures implemented on its behalf. Further research is required regarding this species' distribution, ecology, threats and taxonomy.
189682		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) lists this species as being distributed throughout Illinois, Ozarks in Missouri, Kentucky and Arkansas. It is reported to occur in more than twenty locations (J.Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).
189682		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available. However, if this species is similar to other planorbids, it is likely to be found in marshy areas.
189682		population	eng	Although there is no population trend information available for this species, it is recorded in seven counties, with the centre of this species range in south Missouri and neighbouring Green River basin in Kentucky (J.Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).&#160;It occurs in a narrow Ozarkian band from Illinois south to Arkansas and into western Kentucky; and is considered rare throughout its range except in the Missouri Ozarks.
189682		threats	eng	There are no known threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189683		conservation	eng	This species is considered a candidate for protection by the State of Georgia. Further work is recommended to fully ascertain threats, population status and distribution of this species.
189683		distribution	eng	This species can be found in the Tennessee River system at springs in Monroe Co. (two locations); in an artificial reservoir near Cleveland, Bradley Co., Tennessee, and its outlets (Goodrich 1935, 1940); and in the Alabama River system at Coahulla Creek, Whitfield Co., Georgia (Goodrich 1941, Burch 1989). The largest population is found in Georgia, in Mills Creek in Whitfield Co., but it is known from other Conasauga River tributaries (GA NHP pers. comm. 2008). In total, the species occurs at less than ten sites and has a severely fragmented distribution.
189683		habitat	eng	This species occupies river systems and has been found in a reservoir (Goodrich 1940, Burch 1989).
189683		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189683		threats	eng	Impoundment and habitat degradation are threats to freshwater systems as a whole. However, there are no significant threats documented for this species.
189684		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is required to determine this species' native distribution, population status and threats to the global population.
189684		distribution	eng	This species is present in an artificial pond in Sonoma County, California, USA (Taylor 2003).&#160;Taylor (2003) thought it may have been carried from another locality in the state or elsewhere, maybe by birds or with plants. This species' native range is unknown.
189684		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a freshwater artificial pond (Taylor 2003).
189684		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This species was not present when Taylor revisited the artificial pond  site with A. Smith; he suspects that there is no other possibility than  that the snails were carried to the pond by insects or birds, or were  transported with plants, and that they are unlikely to have come from  any great distance (Taylor 2003).
189684		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189690		conservation	eng	This species was listed as federally endangered in the U.S. in 1976 and a recovery plan created (USFWS 1984).<br/><br/>The recovery plan (USFWS 1984) lists the following objectives: (1) preserve populations and presently used habitat with emphasis on the Duck, Elk, and Powell Rivers, (2) determine the feasibility of introducing the species back into rivers within its historic range and introduce where feasible, (3) determine the number of individuals required to maintain a viable population, (4) investigate the necessity for habitat improvement and, if feasible and desirable, identify techniques and sites for improvement to include implementation, (5) develop and implement a program to monitor population levels and habitat conditions of presently established populations as well as introduced and expanding populations, (6) assess overall success of recovery program and recommend action.<br/><br/>Listed Endangered throughout its range, except in the free-flowing reach of the Tennessee River from the base of Wilson Dam downstream to the backwaters of Pickwick Reservoir and the lower 5 RM of all tributaries to this reach in Colbert and Lauderdale Counties, Alabama (USFWS 2001).<br/><br/>The USFWS, in cooperation with the State of Tennessee and Conservation Fisheries, Inc., proposes to reintroduce this species into its historical habitat in the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox County Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>The Clinch and the Powell Rivers in Tennessee are protected by the state as mussel sanctuaries. Portions of the Duck River are also protected as a mussel sanctuary.  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been established in the Tennessee River below Wilson Dam, Colbert and Lauderdale Cos., Alabama, extending 13.4 km and including the lower 8 km of all tributaries that enter the Wilson Dam tailwaters (USFWS 2001).  Nonessessential Experimental Populations (NEPs) have been proposed for reintroduction into the free-flowing reach of the French Broad River below Douglas Dam (Knox and Sevier Cos., Tennessee) to its confluence with the Holston River, Knox Co., Tennessee, and in the free-flowing reach of the Holston River below Cherokee Dam to its confluence with the French Broad River (Knox, Grainger, and Jefferson Cos., Tennessee), where this species currently does not exist (USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>Williams <em>et al</em>. (2010) list this species as Endangered according to the American Fisheries Society assessment.
189690		distribution	eng	Historically, this species was widespread in the upper Tennessee River system (Tennessee, Elk, Duck, Holston, north and south fork Holston, Nolichucky, French Broad, Tellico, Clinch, Powell Rivers) (Simpson 1914, Ortmann 1918) in Tennessee, Alabama, and Virginia, and possibly in the Cumberland River system (Cumberland, Big South Fork Cumberland, Caney Fork) where its former occurrence remains uncertain because the closely related <em>Quadrula tuberosa</em> was also reported there (USFWS 1984). It is likely that Ortmann's 1918-1925 records for the Cumberland River system were probably <span style="font-style: italic;">Quadrula tuberosa</span>, here recognised as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quadrula intermedia </span>(USFWS 1984).  Since 1960, it has been found in large tributaries of the Tennessee River including the Duck, Clinch, Elk and Powell Rivers. Since 1970, it has been found only in the Clinch, Powell and Tellico Rivers (USFWS 1984).&#160;It was recently found alive in the Duck River in Tennessee (L. Levine pers. comm. 1997).  It appears to be extirpated from Alabama, although reintroduction efforts are underway (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at around 2,000-5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, with an area of occupancy (AOO) of around 500-2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
189690		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow riffle and shoal areas of headwater streams and bigger rivers. It prefers clean, fast-flowing water in shoal conditions, and has never been found in the ponded stretches of rivers, nor is it known from small streams (USFWS 1984). It has been found living in a sand and gravel substrate in six inches to two feet of water (Bogan and Parmalee 1983).
189690		population	eng	There are very few recent records for this species.  Surveys of the Duck River in the 1970s uncovered only about a dozen live specimens (rm 173, 171, 163) plus a few more in the early 1980s (rm 179); surveys of the Elk River in during the 1970s-1980s found a few live specimens (rm 106, 110); while Powell River surveys during the same time found lie specimens in a few locationis (rm 99, 106, 117, 130, 167) (USFWS 1984).  A 210 km survey of the Elk River from the Alabama border through Tennessee in 1980 found this species at a few sites in Lincoln Co., Tennessee (Ahlstedt 1983).  Evidence since 1984 (USFWS 1984) suggests populations from the Powell River (approximately 31 miles extending from Tennessee into Lee Co., Virginia) are declining significantly but represent the healthiest remaining population and the Duck River, Tennessee, has too few specimens to be viable.  Other historical sites in Tennessee including the Elk River, Lincoln and Franklin Cos., are likely extirpated (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).  An August 1997 survey of the Duck River population in Tennessee only found two very old individuals, previously one was found in 1995, and none in 1993 and 1994 surveys (Watson 1998).  No other surveys in other Tennessee rivers uncovered this species.<br/><br/>The only remaining viable population is likely that in the upper Powell River but that population is declining (Parmalee and Bogan, 1998).<br/><br/>Extant populations are scattered and have typically supported low numbers (Bogan and Parmalee 1983). An August 1997 survey of the Duck River population in Tennessee only found two very old individuals, previously one was found in 1995, and none in 1993 and 1994 surveys (Watson 1998).  A 210 km survey of the Elk River from the Alabama border through Tennessee in 1980 found this species at a few sites in Lincoln Co., Tennessee (only a few specimens total) (Ahlstedt 1983).<br/><br/>TRENDS:<br/>The range of this species was formerly restricted to the upper Tennessee River system but was never abundant (Simpson 1914, USFWS 1984).  It is extirpated from the Upper Clinch, and North and South Fork Holston Rivers (USFWS 1984) and has not been seen in Alabama in the Tennessee River downstream of Muscle Shoals since the river was impounded (Mirarchi 2004). It has declined significantly throughout its range and is now found in only 2 or 3 rivers (viability questionable).
189690		threats	eng	Threats include impoundment (for flood control, navigation, hydroelectric power production, and recreation) including Norris Dam and Columbia Dam, siltation (due to strip mining, coal washing, dredging, farming, logging, and road construction), and pollution (municipal, agricultural, and industrial) from sawdust (logging), coal mine acids, toxic wastes, gravel dredging, fertilisers, pesticides, chemical spills and discharges (USFWS 1984).
189691		conservation	eng	This species has a Global Heritage Status of G1 - Critically Imperilled (NatureServe 2009). The Amargosa River is designated as an Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC), and sections of the river are included in other management plans (e.g., the National Wild and Scenic River System (NWSRS)) (BLM 2007). Further work is needed to ensure protection and management of populations of this species along the Amargosa River and population studies are recommended.
189691		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the lower Amargosa Basin in California (Hershler 1990). It occurs in five locations in a single drainage in Death Valley, although the extent of occurrence may be up to 5,000 km²<sup></sup>.
189691		habitat	eng	This species is found in springs along the lower Amargosa River (Hershler 1989).
189691		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189691		threats	eng	The Amargosa River is under threat from future development in California and Nevada, which would further affect the already dwindling water resources (e.g., aquifers) that feed the springs crucial to the survival of this species (Bureau of Land Management 2007). The rapid growth of Las Vegas and Los Angeles is already causing significant groundwater loss, destroying or altering habitat, introducing invasive species, and encouraging recreational activities along the Amargosa River (Nature Conservancy 2009).
189692		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, although this species does occur within a number of protected areas.
189692		distribution	eng	Burch (1989) lists the distribution of this species as eastern United States, from Maine west to Iowa, and south to Texas and Florida. This species occurs throughout Ontario in Canada and is also found in California (NatureServe 2009). It has been introduced widely in Europe.
189692		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a broad range of freshwater habitats and demonstrates a tolerance to habitat modification.
189692		population	eng	This species is reported as being usually common.
189692		threats	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, and faces no substantial immediate threats. It also demonstrates a tolerance to habitat modification.
189693		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of populations and habitat is encouraged as current threats - particularly from large-scale impoundment of the Mekong River - may worsen in the future and begin to adversely affect this species.
189693		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong basin in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia (Brandt 1974). A recent survey of the Mekong found this species at several sites from Nam Kading (Lao PDR) in the north to the Se Kong mouth in Cambodia (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009). Known specimens from <span class="small">Thailand include Klong Sam Mo at Gaeng Kro, Ban Sam Mo, Chaiyaphum Province <span class="small">(Brandt 1974).</span>
189693		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lotic ecosystems. In the Mekong River it is found at elevations from 12 to 146 m asl, and at depths 0.3 to 9.5 m, in a variety of substrates including sand, clay, silt, vegetation, and detritus (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189693		population	eng	This species was widespread but found in small numbers in the Mekong River in Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009).
189693		threats	eng	Potential threats on the Mekong River include: dams, sedimentation, erosion, human washing and bathing, rubber plantations, wildstock grazing and waste, and boat traffic (Vongsombath <em>et al. </em>2009). However, it is unknown how any of these are affecting this species.
189694		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - Critically Imperiled (NatureServe 2009), and was listed as Vulnerable in the 1996 IUCN Red List (Bogan 1996). Within the USA, it has a National Status of N1 and a Utah State Conservation Status of S1 - Critically Imperiled. In 2004, one of the hanging gardens used by the snail was designated a Research Natural Area, protecting it from recreational use (Watson 2004). The range of this species is completely enclosed within Zion National Park. Research is needed on the population status, trends and distribution of this species as no new data has emerged in the past fifteen years, and continued monitoring is recommended. Similarly, potential threat processes need to be identified for this range-restricted species.
189694		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Zion National Park in Washington County, southwest Utah, USA (Taylor 2003). The species is restricted to two localities, Zion Canyon and Orderville Canyon along the north fork of the Virgin River, from two connected canyons in a linear stretch of 3.1 km (Oliver and Bosworth 1999). <br/>.
189694		habitat	eng	This species occurs only on steep rock faces with abundant vegetation in creeks along the Virgin River Narrows where seepage occurs, known as "hanging gardens" (Ng and Barnes 1986, Taylor 2003, Wethington and Lydeard 2007). The major factor constraining distribution appears to be water velocity, although in experiments snails were able to stay attached to rocks during high flows (Ng and Barnes 1986). This species has a low reproductive output -one to four eggs per capsule compared to 200 in congeneric species (Wethington and Lydeard 2007).
189694		population	eng	A distributional study in 1981-2 found that large populations (125 to 250 per m<sup>2</sup>) of this species were concentrated in a few areas of Zion National Park, including the Virgin River Narrows, Orderville Canyon, and seep-springs ca 1 km north of Scout Lookout. Populations at other localities had far lower densities, and snails were not found in all areas of suitable habitat (Ng and Barnes 1986). Population densities fluctuated annually, with highest numbers attained in the spring with the appearance of young snails (Ng and Barnes 1986).<br/><br/>Ng and Barnes (1986) conservatively estimated a minimum population of 3,000 snails in the Narrows region, and 2,000 to 6,000 in the Main Canyon. The total population is likely to be fragmented by the Virgin River, which is thought to be a barrier to snail movement between sub-populations, although conversely the river may aid dispersal if snails are able to survive being submerged for any length of time (Ng and Barnes 1986). A later study concluded that this species "is fairly common within its narrowly restricted range and has a wider distribution than previously thought, including three extensive populations within Orderville Canyon" (Whipple 1988 in Watson 2004). <br/><br/>The most recent available study was performed in 1990, and estimated population sizes of up to 250,000 snails in some parts of Zion NP (Digger Seep and Cattail Seep, which are contiguous) (Clarke 1991). Clarke (1991) also reported a "huge population of <em>P. zionis</em>, with about 5 to 10 million snails … along the south side of Orderville Canyon from its mouth to the third waterfall, a distance of about 0.8 miles", although this figure's accuracy was questioned by later reports (Oliver and Bosworth 1999). There have been no studies in the past 15 years and the status of the snail within Zion National Park was unknown in 2004 (Watson 2004). Oliver and Bosworth (1999) concluded that, although population trends for this species are unknown, they are probably stable.
189694		threats	eng	A major factor affecting this species' survival is mortality caused by dessication (Whipple 1988). Hence, the groundwater that creates the hanging gardens is extremely important to the future of this species, and available habitat area is threatened by groundwater drying (Cordeiro pers. comm. 2011); its protection in a water rights agreement is a key success (Watson 2004).&#160;<br/><br/>Other threats include unpredictable weather, which occasionally causes landslides in the Virgin River (Mentz <em>et al. </em>1997). Collecting at the mouth of the Narrows used to be a problem, but the bulk of the population is thought to occur at higher, more inaccessible, altitudes (Ng and Barnes 1986). However, heavy visitor use, particularly in the Gateway region of the Narrows, may still be a problem if unregulated (Ng and Barnes 1986). Habitat loss is a significant threat to the future of this species due to its already very narrow range and specific habitat.
189695		conservation	eng	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 - critically imperilled (NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on population trends and the threats to the spring in which this species is found.
189695		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Fenney Springs (into Lake Panasoffkee of the Withlacoochee River system), Sumter County, Florida (Thompson, 1999).
189695		habitat	eng	This species was collected from a spring, amongst the debris and vegetation (Thompson 1968).
189695		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189695		threats	eng	There is no major urban centre in the vicinity of this species. It is located on privately owned land used for rearing livestock. Despite there being no immediate threats currently impacting the population, the emergence of any threat would severely threaten the population due to its restricted range within one spring.
189696		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its distribution coincides with protected areas in some places. Further research is needed on its exact distribution, ecology and the possible threats affecting this species.
189696		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Barrow and Johnstone River systems, Queensland, Australia (DEWHA 2009). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 4,200 km<sup>2</sup>.
189696		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers and streams (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189696		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189696		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that this species is being threatened to some degree by land clearance, but it is unknown to what extent this may have an effect (S. Clark pers. comm. 2010).
189697		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, habitat preferences and threat processes.
189697		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Falkland Islands and Argentina, although the exact distribution is unclear, and it is possibly also found in other areas of South America (Ponder and Waterhouse 1997, Pugh and Scott 2002, Vinarski 2003, Mera y Sierra <em>et al.</em> 2009, NatureServe 2009).
189697		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences for this species are unknown.
189697		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189697		threats	eng	Given its wide distribution, this species is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats across its global range.
189700		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and it is not known to occur in any protected areas. Protection of its fragmented forest habitat is necessary. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
189700		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Amboli (at 720 m asl), Maharashtra state, in the Western Ghats of India (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Its AOO is presumed to be less than 10 km<sup>2 </sup>and its EOO less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).
189700		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species found near disturbed evergreen forest patches (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and plantations (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Egg clutch size varies between 30-35 eggs, and eggs are laid in temporary puddles on laterite rocks (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The species appears to be tolerant of some habitat modification since it occurs near disturbed forests; however, the extent of this tolerance is unknown.
189700		population	eng	This species is now considered to be rare compared to what it was in 2001 (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).
189700		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs is experiencing loss of forest cover and its habitat is considered to be severely fragmented (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Major threats to this species are large-scale agricultural activities, logging and tourism (S.D. Biju pers. comm. January 2011).
189702		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into the threats to this species.
189702		distribution	eng	The species has been collected from the Mekong River from Khemmarat, northeastern Thailand, down to Kratie, Cambodia, a distance of 480 km (Attwood 1995) and the tributaries of the Mekong River within the lower Mekong basin (Attwood 1999). It is also known from  the Mekong at Pakse, Cham Passak, Khong Island and the Sompamit Falls  near Khone and Xe-Bang-Fe River in southern Lao PDR (Attwood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, P. Sri-aroon pers.  comm. 2011 ).
189702		habitat	eng	This species is known to be almost exclusively epilithic and an indiscriminate grazer of aufwuchs. It is found in well-oxygenated fast-flowing waters at a depth range of 0.5 to 3 m. Furthermore, this species has extremely low dispersal ability, meaning individuals found in a given area probably arose in that area. This species is also the natural host of <em>Schistosoma mekongi </em> responsible for human schistosomiasis in the Lower Mekong Basin (Attwood 1995).
189702		population	eng	This species has been collected with an estimated density of 944 individuals per m<sup>-2</sup> (Attwood 1995).
189702		threats	eng	A potential threat to this species is the Pak Mun dam, 5.5 km west of the confluence of Mekong and Mun Rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Completed in 1994, it immediately flooded the land around the river. A World Bank report found that 50 fish species out of a total of 265 had completely disappeared, with many others declining. The Mun river upstream of the dam has also been extensively modified (widened and dammed) (Attwood 1995). <br/><br/>A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189705		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work is recommended to determine whether this is a true species or an invasive form of another taxon (Walther <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189705		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Thailand, specifically the provinces of Bangkok, Chon Buri and Nan (Brandt 1974). Brandt (1974) assumed it to be endemic to Southeast Asia, and the only species of its genus to occur there; however, Walther <em>et al</em>. (2006) believe it could represent an invasive population of a Philippines taxon, <em>Uncancylus</em>.
189705		habitat	eng	The type specimen of this species was collected from a canal in Bangkok (Brandt 1974).
189705		population	eng	There is no known population information for this species.
189705		threats	eng	There are no known major threats impacting this species.
189706		conservation	eng	This species (on basis of old distributional information), is listed as a protected species in France. Further research is required to confirm the distributional data, and hence the conservation status of the species.
189706		distribution	eng	This species was originally considered to be endemic to La Crouze in the Dordogne valley in France. The revised range for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bicarinata</span>, given that it is now considered to conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. moulinsi</span> (Perigord, Eyzie-de-Tayac, Mauzac-et-Grand, Saint-Cirq, Savignac-de-Miremont, Sourzac. Tremolat), <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pujolensis</span> (Sergeac, Dordogne) and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. lalindei</span> (Lalinde in the Dordogne valley) extends to more of the Dordogne Valley, with the number of locations according to the litterature (Bernasconi 2000 ; Bichain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) being 13.
189706		habitat	eng	This species is present in springs of the Dordogne valley.
189706		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. The species is collected in low numbers when present.
189706		threats	eng	The main threats remain common to many of the spring-snails in the region, overexploitation of the water source for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as pollution of the groundwater feeding the springs.
189707		conservation	eng	The species is currently protected by French law at all times against actions that would lead to the destruction or removal of eggs and destruction of animals. The regional nature conservation agencies have listed it on the Action Plan for Protected Species in Picardie.
189707		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, and is believed to be restricted to Department Aisne in the Picardie region, where it is known only from 4 localities, but some more localities should be added through extensive survey. There are recent records suggested for Basse-Normandie (at Rogerville), but the taxonomic status of the sub-populations in this region are still under review. (J.-M. Bichain in prep., 2009).
189707		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to freshwater springs.
189707		population	eng	No current data on the status of these populations.
189707		threats	eng	The major threats to this species lie in exploitation of the water source, either through extraction of groundwater feeding the spring, or capping (off-take) of water from the springs.&#160; There are a variety of purposes for water extraction in the region,such as use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies.&#160; A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.
189708		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species. Research on the threats of this species are recommended.</p>
189708		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, distributed in the north-east part of <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese</st1:place> (Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
189708		habitat	eng	<p><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</p>
189708		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated, appear to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). This species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.</p>
189708		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span></span></p>
189709		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189709		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, distributed in central <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> and in southern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese</st1:place> (Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).</p>
189709		habitat	eng	<p><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</p>
189709		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The population of the species, although the size cannot be accurately estimated, seems to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.</p>
189709		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span></span></p>
189710		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas&#160;included in various protection schemes, in which the species is present, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
189710		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, distributed in the central part of&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnese</st1:place> (Hadjicharalambous 1996, Subai 2005).</p>
189710		habitat	eng	<p><em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species are found at various&#160;altitudes, living in crevices on rocky terrain within maquis&#160;and coniferous (except pines) or mixed (deciduous–coniferous)&#160;forests (Hadjicharalambous 1996).</p>
189710		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The populations of the species, although their size cannot be accurately estimated appears to be in&#160;serious decline (Hadjicharalambous 1996). The species is&#160;generally&#160;considered as rare.</p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
189710		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species. Nevertheless,&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;has a quite unusual life cycle of&#160;or land snails of southern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, since it&#160;reproduces in spring.&#160;This uncommon life-history pattern is in disassociation with&#160;the prevailing climatic conditions in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hadjicharalambous 1996).&#160;This constitutes an important extinction&#160;threat, considering the current trends of climatic conditions&#160;and the human impact on vegetation cover in the preferred&#160;habitats of the&#160;<em>Codringtonia</em><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;species (Giokas&#160;<em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2007).</span></span></p>
189711		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">Evvoia included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
189711		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, restricted to the island of Evvoia (Parmakelis 2003).
189711		habitat	eng	This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Parmakelis 2003).
189711		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189711		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.
189712		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009). &#160;Although there are a number of areas in<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the &#160;islands the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no specific conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</span></p>
189712		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece, distributed in North Sporades (north Aegean Sea) (Triantis 2006).
189712		habitat	eng	This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Parmakelis 2003, Triantis 2006).
189712		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189712		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for this species now or in the near future.</p>
189713		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;Although there are a number of areas <span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">the islands that the species is distributed&#160;included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</span></p>
189713		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Greece and is present in&#160;Karpathos and Kasos and most probably in Rhodes (Aegean Sea) (Parmakelis <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189713		habitat	eng	This is a soil dwelling species, usually found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) (Parmakelis 2003).
189713		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189713		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species now or in the near future.</p>
189714		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189714		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudoxerophila oertzeni</em> is endemic to Crete,&#160;restricted to the western part of the island. Its main centre is around&#160;the Lefka Ori (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189714		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open, xeric shrublands.
189714		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189714		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
189715		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189715		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa franciscoi</em>&#160;is endemic to Crete, and is&#160;restricted to the southern slope of the western Asteroussia&#160;Mountains, south of Kapetaniana (central Crete) (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189715		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) mainly in limestone areas.&#160;</p>
189715		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189715		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
189716		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189716		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa grabusana</em>&#160;is endemic to north-western Crete (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189716		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) mainly in limestone areas.
189716		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189716		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
189717		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189717		distribution	eng	The range of&#160;<em>Xerocrassa heraklea</em>&#160;extends in northern Crete (from Tombrouk&#160;(east of Iraklion) in the west to the Lasithi Plateau in&#160;the east) (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189717		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) mainly in limestone areas.
189717		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189717		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
189718		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189718		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa kydonia </em>restricted to north-west Crete (from Platanos in the&#160;west to Kakopetros in the east, and the Rodopou&#160;Peninsula in the north)&#160;(Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189718		habitat	eng	Xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) mainly in limestone areas.
189718		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189718		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
189719		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189719		distribution	eng	<em><em><em>Xerocrassa lasithiensis</em>&#160;</em>is</em>&#160;restricted to the central-east part of Crete (the region north-east of the Dikti&#160;mountains, from Sisi to Agios Nikolaos) (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189719		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) mainly in limestone areas.
189719		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189719		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
189720		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Although there are a number of areas in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place> included in various protection schemes, there is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189720		distribution	eng	<em>Xerocrassa rhithymna</em> is endemic to Crete and is&#160;is restricted to the northern part of the island, between&#160;the Lefka Ori and the Psiloriti mountains (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).
189720		habitat	eng	This species is found in xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana) mainly in limestone areas.
189720		population	eng	The species is known from a significant number of locations (Hausdorf and Sauer 2009).&#160;There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;<p><span class="apple-style-span"></p>
189720		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.
189721		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is listed in the Greek Red Data Book as Least&#160;Concern&#160;(Legakis and Maraghou 2009).&#160;&#160;There is no conservation action regarding the species.</p>
189721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Greece, distributed in Cyclades (Mylonas 1982).
189721		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in open xeric shrublands (maquis and phrygana).
189721		population	eng	<p>There is no available information on the population trend of this species.&#160;</p>
189721		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;Grazing and fire can potentially restrict the populations of the species but currently there is no evidence for any direct threats for the species in the near future.</p>
189722		conservation	eng	No special conservation actions are needed, but more research on the population and the ecology of this species would be recommended.
189722		distribution	eng	This is an Iberian endemic species, that extend from Sierra Elvira and Sierra Harana in the Granada provinces to Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra de Segura in Jaén and Sierra de Alcaraz in the Albacete provinces. More localities will probably be discovered if its range is methodically&#160;sampled.
189722		habitat	eng	This species mainly lives on calcareous rock walls&#160;or in rock crevices. It is also found under stones in limestone mountains (Ruiz <em>et al</em>. 2006).
189722		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
189722		threats	eng	As most of its range occurs in protected places far from most human influences,&#160;threats to this species are linked to recreational activities and fires.
189728		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
189728		distribution	eng	This species is known only from New South Wales, Australia (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
189728		habitat	eng	Males grow up to 66 mm mantle length and females up to 82 mm mantle length (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is a coastal shelf species found between 2 and 84 m depth.
189728		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown but the species is common (A. Reid pers. comm.)
189728		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189729		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
189729		distribution	eng	This species is reported from the Indian Ocean along the southern Indian Coast and around Sri Lanka in depths to approximately 100 m (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). There may be some confusion with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sepia pharaonis</span> (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) and the taxonomy of these two species needs to be clarified before the true distribution of either can be elucidated.
189729		habitat	eng	The spawning season of this species is reported to extend from September to December (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Adults grow to 375 mm mantle length (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
189729		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189729		threats	eng	Unregulated fishing is a potential threat to this species. Currently there is no available information on the intensity of harvest or on population levels. Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189730		conservation	eng	Research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
189730		distribution	eng	This species is believed to occur in the Indian Ocean all around the coast of India and Sri Lanka (Reid<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2005).
189730		habitat	eng	No detailed information on habitat requirements and ecology is available for this species.
189730		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189730		threats	eng	Unregulated fishing is a potential threat to this species. Information is currently not available on the intensity at which this species is fished. Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189731		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place.
189731		distribution	eng	This species is known from the southern Indo-Pacific. It occurs in the Timor, Arafura and Coral Seas and along the northern coast of Australian from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Moreton Bay in Queensland (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
189731		habitat	eng	This species inhabits depths ranging from 33 to 138 m. It is demersal on sand and mud bottoms. At night, it has been observed lying on the seafloor or buried in sand, using skin colour and texture to camouflage itself. The observed lack of nocturnal activity suggests this species is active in the day (Reid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
189731		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189731		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189732		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
189732		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two stations on the banc Bayonnaise, near Wallis and Futuna Islands, in the southwest Pacific, one at 400-420 m depth, the other at 600 m depth.
189732		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species, which is known from only two specimens.
189732		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
189732		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189733		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sepia vecchioni</span> has been assessed as Data Deficient because very little is known about this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
189733		distribution	eng	This species is reported off the coast of India in the Arabian Sea in depths of 70-100 m and along the southeast coast of India in the Bay of Bengal in depths as shallow as 10 m (Neethiselvan and Venkataramani 2010).
189733		habitat	eng	No information on habitat requirements and ecology is available.
189733		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189733		threats	eng	Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189734		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics. Further research is required into trends in population size and the impacts of harvesting.
189734		distribution	eng	This species is known from the northeast of Taiwan.
189734		habitat	eng	This is a small to moderate-sized species attaining mantle length of&#160; up to about 55 mm in both males and females (Ho and Lu 2005).
189734		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189734		threats	eng	Unregulated fishing is a potential threat to this species. Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189735		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics. Future surveys are also recommended in order to monitor the status and harvesting of this species.
189735		distribution	eng	This species is known from the west and southwest of Taiwan, Province of China.
189735		habitat	eng	This is a small to moderate-sized species attaining mantle length of&#160; up  to about 55 mm in males and 58 mm in females (Ho and Lu 2005).
189735		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189735		threats	eng	Unregulated fishing is a potential threat to this species. Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO2 concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189736		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently needed for this species and none are in place. Further research is recommended regarding population trends, distribution, life history traits and threats impacting this species.
189736		distribution	eng	This species is known from Taiwan, from Hainan Island in the South China Sea and from the Gulf of Tonkin, Viet Nam. It occurs in depths from 34 to 95 m (Reid<em> et al.</em> 2005).
189736		habitat	eng	Males grow up to 62 mm, females up to 70 mm mantle length (Reid <em>et al</em>. 2005).
189736		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189736		threats	eng	Fishing pressure is a potential threat to this species but it is not currently of concern (A. Reid, pers. comm.). Ocean acidification caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere is potentially a threat to all cuttlefish. Studies have  shown that under high pCO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, cuttlefishes actually lay  down a denser cuttlebone which is likely to negatively affect buoyancy  regulation (Gutowska <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
189738		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
189738		distribution	eng	This species is known from four specimens captured off the west  coast of Africa in 1964. The capture localities are in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Tanzania (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
189738		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to live close to the bottom as specimens were apparently captured in a bottom trawl. Although it was captured at around 100 m depth, it is likely that this species also extends into deeper waters, as do many other species of this family (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
189738		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189738		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189740		conservation	eng	Basic research is required on this species to elucidate its distribution, population size and life history characteristics.
189740		distribution	eng	This species is known from three  specimens which were  taken in the vicinity of the Tonga Islands, South Pacific Ocean.
189740		habitat	eng	There is no information available as to the habitat of this species. The collection gear of the three known specimens is not stated, so although the depth of capture is known, it is not known whether specimens were taken pelagically, benthically or demersally.
189740		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189740		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189742		conservation	eng	Research is required to determine the population size and monitor trends       in this species. Further information on the life history of this species   is     also required.
189742		distribution	eng	This species occurs in relatively deep water (225-300 m) in the Arafura Sea north of Darwin, Australia, and south of the eastern Indonesian island of Kep, Tanimbar Islands (Reid 2009). It is likely that other specimens identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sepioloidea</span> and occurring at similar depths, from the Northwest Shelf, Scott Reef, and the Timor Sea, also belong to this species (Reid 2009).
189742		habitat	eng	Females reach a mantle length of approximately 60 mm (Reid 2009).
189742		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
189742		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189753		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population size, distribution and trends is suggested as these data are lacking. Also an investigation into the threats this species may be facing is recommended. Monitoring should be carried out because if threat levels do increase, significant population declines may occur in the future. Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(in press, from K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010) list this species as being currently stable according to the AFS assessment.
189753		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the United States of America and is found in Illinois, Ohio, Michigan and New York (Hoeh 1990, NatureServe 2009), as well as Indiana and Wisconsin (A. Bogan pers. comm. 2010). However, this species is likely to occur in the Great Lakes and into Canada, but the specific range has not been assessed (NatureServe 2009).
189753		habitat	eng	This species is rarely found in rivers and is predominantly a lake dweller, where it favours muddy bottom substrata (Hoeh and Burch 1989 in NatureServe 2009).
189753		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species (NatureServe 2009).
189753		threats	eng	There is no specific threat information available for this species; however, it is likely that this species is being impacted upon by general freshwater threats within this region.
189757		conservation	eng	Research is required on the species' distribution, threats, population trends, habitat and ecology.
189757		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong River where it is found in&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>150 km river stretch,&#160;in Thailand and Lao PDR.&#160;This species is known from Khong Island in Lao PDR and from several localities in the province of Ubon Ratchathani in Thailand, including from&#160;Khemarat (ANSP collections).
189757		habitat	eng	Found on rocks and shallows in the Mekong River (Brandt 1974).
189757		population	eng	Population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
189757		threats	eng	There are dams on both the Mekong and the Mun River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. <br/><p>Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).<br/></p>
189759		conservation	eng	Information is needed on the species' habitats, distribution, and current population trends.
189759		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mekong River between Ban Dan in Thailand and Khone Island, Champasak Province, Lao PDR (Brandt 1974; ANSP collections database). It has been recorded in Lao PDR at Muang Khong, Ban Na Village and Khong on Khong Island, Champasak Province (Brandt 1974).
189759		habitat	eng	It occurs on rocks in rapids.
189759		population	eng	Population size is not known and there is no recent survey data.
189759		threats	eng	There are proposed dams (Sambor, Stung Treng and Don Sahong dams may be built within 10 years; I. Baird pers. comm. 2011) on the Mekong River and these may change the flow regime, providing a potential threat to the species. Water pollution due to ongoing agricultural development may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the region (Temcharoen 1992).
189763		conservation	eng	Confirmation of the taxonomic position of the species is required, and research into the current distribution if valid.
189763		distribution	eng	The species was originally described by Heude from China, from Hainan and Guangdong. A record from Viettri Lake and Ninhphuc Port (Phutho Province) Viet Nam (Haskoning 2008) has been attributed to this species&#160;suggesting it is more widespread, however this needs to be confirmed, relative to Yen's suggestion that the taxon is conspecific with <em>Bellamya quadrata</em>.
189763		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater lakes.
189763		population	eng	No information available.
189763		threats	eng	In China, the threats are unknown, but are likely to include pollution from agriculture and other sources. In Viet Nam, the populations identified as this species are threatened by the construction of a flood relief dam on the Red River.
189765		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation action plans are in place, however the species requires survey work to determine range, taxonomic status and future threats.
189765		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from the Mekong River between Ban Khum, north  of Ban Dan in Thailand, and Kratie in central Cambodia (ANSP  Mollusc database; Brandt 1974), including from Ban Dan at the confluence of the Mun and Mekong rivers. The species has recently been recorded  from Bang-poo mangrove swamp, Samutprakan Province in central Thailand on the Gulf of Thailand (Kulabtong 2011); this range extension requires confirmation.
189765		habitat	eng	It was found on sandy or muddy ground in quiet parts of the Mekong  River. It occurs also on rocks in the rapids. Recently reported from  a mangrove swamp, however this record requires confirmation.
189765		population	eng	Population size is not known.
189765		threats	eng	<p>A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on  the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project  would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodian border,  and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern  Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced  of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will  potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as  well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted  to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown  ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The proposed Sambor dam at Kratie may also impact the species.<br/></p>  Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation and agricultural development within the region may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma region (Temcharoen 1992).
189766		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions known, but none are considered necessary.
189766		distribution	eng	This species has a revised distribution compared to earlier literature and is now thought to be restricted to central Thailand in Chiang Mai, Phrae, Phayao, Sukothai, Lampang, Uttaradith, and Kamphaeng Phet provinces (P. Sri-aroon and F. Köhler  pers. comm. 2011).
189766		habitat	eng	Fast flowing rivers and streams. Likes well oxygenated water and lives attached to rocks or hard substrates.
189766		population	eng	No information available, but it is believed to be abundant where present.
189766		threats	eng	<p>Although its range has been much reduced by the recent taxonomic revision (Köhler and Glaubrecht 2006), it is not believed to be threatened over the entire range, but may be locally threatened by deforestation causing sedimentation, impoundment of water by dams and pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.&#160;</p>
189767		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
189767		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from the Mekong River between from Thailand (Ban Dan (Mun River confluence) and Khemmarat, Ubon Ratchathani Province) and Sambor, north of Kratie, in Cambodia. Collection records (ANSP Malacology Collection) show it was recorded at Khone Island in Lao PDR.  It is currently known from a 150 km stretch of the river.
189767		habitat	eng	The species is found in freshwater rivers in rapids and on sandbars (Davis 1981).
189767		population	eng	The population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
189767		threats	eng	A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao PDR (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009).<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operations are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189770		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Conservation recommendations include the implementation of catchment management plans to keep the river water well oxygenated and clean.
189770		distribution	eng	The species was first recorded from northern Viet Nam in 1900 (Brandt 1974). It was described from That Khe (Song Ky Cung River), Lang Song Province (Malacology Collection, Academy of Natural Sciences), and there have been recent records from this river (Do Van Tu pers. comm. 2010). However, it is uncertain whether it is present in other suitable habitats in nearby rivers. It has also been recorded from the Gam River, Tuyen Quang Province (PARC 2002), however this record requires confirmation.
189770		habitat	eng	The species is found in fast-flowing well-oxygenated waters near waterfalls.
189770		population	eng	Population size is not known, nor trends.
189770		threats	eng	<p>The species is found in waterfalls and rapids. The Song Ky Cung River location is in an area with active mining ongoing both upstream and downstream of the site. The changing water quality as result of mining discharge is likely to impact this species, and may lead to significant decline in populations. The other known location on the Gam River is likely to be impacted by a proposed dam (the Tuyen Quang dam).<br/></p>
189773		conservation	eng	<p>Further surveys are required to determine the current range, population trend and ecological requirements of this species, and for a more accurate assessment of its conservation status.</p>
189773		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mekong River (Khong Island) and the Sedone River (north of Pakse) in Lao PDR&#160;(ANSP Collection, Brandt 1974), and from the Mekong at Sambor, Cambodia (Mahidol Collection, Brandt 1974).
189773		habitat	eng	It lives in freshwater rivers.
189773		population	eng	The population size is not known and there are no recent survey data.
189773		threats	eng	<p>A 30–32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than one kilometre north of the Lao PDR/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects proposed for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). Water pollution due to ongoing industrialisation may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma Region (Temcharoen 1992, Osborne 2009).</p>
189775		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species.&#160; Further research and monitoring regarding population trends, status, life history, us and threats is required.
189775		distribution	eng	This species is known from several provinces in Thailand (Lumpang, Yala, Ubon Ratchathani, Saraburi, Ayutthaya, Khon Kaen, Chiang Mai) (Brandt, 1974). It has been found also in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Mandalay), and India (Tamil Nadu) (Brandt 1974, Temcharoen 1992, Osborne 2009).
189775		habitat	eng	This species has been found in small freshwater streams, ponds, stagnant water, rice paddies and irrigation canals.
189775		population	eng	Although there is no population information available it is frequently found with other species, and this species tends to be lower abundance than other taxa (Sri-anoon, pers. comm., 2011).
189775		threats	eng	<p>It is not believed to be threatened over the entire range, but it is less abundant at sites than other species. &#160;However it should be considered as Least Concern.&#160;</p>
189776		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species has been given a Global Heritage Status of G4 - apparently secure (NatureServe 2009). Future surveys of population trends will ensure that the status of this species continues to be monitored.
189776		distribution	eng	This species is known from Montana, Idaho, Wyoming and Utah in the U.S. (Burch 1989, Frest and Johannes 1995, NatureServe 2009).
189776		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river drainages (Frest and Johannes 1995, NatureServe 2009).&#160;It occurs in cold permanent rivers, streams, and creeks. Spring habitat in Utah  includes rheocrenes, springs flowing from the ground as streams (Oliver and  Bosworth, 1999).
189776		population	eng	This species is reported to be fairly common throughout Idaho, although quite rare in Wyoming and Montana (Frest and Johannes 1995). Oliver and Bosworth (1999) list only two springs in Cache Co., Utah, where it is common. Hershler (1999) lists seven occurrences in Bannock, Bear Lake, Caribou, and Franklin Cos., Idaho; two in Cache Co., Utah; and three in Lincoln and Sublette Cos., Wyoming.
189776		threats	eng	The major threats impacting this species include habitat loss and degradation as a result of urban and agricultural development, and interaction with human activities. It is unlikely that these threats are significantly affecting the global population of this species.
189778		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further work to resolve taxonomic relationships between this and other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sibirenauta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aplexa</span> are needed before an accurate assessment can be made.
189778		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chukotka eastward to St. Lawrence Bay, Siberia; it is found in northern Alaska (including St. Matthew Island), Canada in the northern Yukon, and on the Arctic coast of the Northwest Territories to Banks and Victoria Islands (Taylor 2003, NatureServe 2009).
189778		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes, tundra ponds, and streams, and is sometimes found in brackish water. Some pools were frozen for up to nine months of the year (Taylor 2003). Most recorded habitats were in shallow water (less than one metre deep) with submerged vegetation, and snails often associated with other species of molluscs such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea </span>(Taylor 2003). It has one generation per year (Taylor 2003).
189778		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189778		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
189779		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population status and trends of this species as well as its distribution is suggested as these data are currently lacking. Also, the threats to this species and any conservation measures which may benefit its long-term survival should be investigated.
189779		distribution	eng	This species was known to inhabit Peru and Guyana, and potentially northern Brazil (Paredes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). This species is now found only in Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2011), with specimens having been collected from the Maroni and Essequibo drainages. This places uncertainty on the Peruvian record.
189779		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189779		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189779		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Perceived threats are those also seen to affect other mollusc species, such as possible impacts from mining (K. Cummings pers. comm. 2010).
189780		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is required regarding the impacts of threats on this species.
189780		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile (Durand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Duffy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Argentina, this species is specifically found in Patagonia, and Sarmiento in the Province of Chubut (Duffy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Chile, this species is specifically found in San Gregorio on the north coast of the Strait of Magellan, and in Laguna Blanquillos (Durand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Fjeldså 2004). Pilsbry (1911) records the species from the Magellanes including Tierra del Fuego and the Malvinas Islands.
189780		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cold-water lakes, pools, rivers, streams and drainage ditches (Pilsbry 1911, Paraense 1984). This species is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica </span>which causes Fasciolosis, an important livestock disease which is also increasingly occurring in humans (Duffy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is found in the foot of the plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Myriophyllum brasiliensis </span>(Castellanos and Landoni 1981.)
189780		population	eng	This species is recorded as being common in abundance (Castellanos and Landoni 1981).
189780		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189781		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Very little is known about this recently described species and further research is needed to establish its population size, habitat preferences and the impact that threats such as hydroelectric dams may be having on its population.
189781		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northwestern Argentina northwards to the sub-Andean region of Siberia, west of Comarapa, in central Bolivia (Ituarte 2005). It is found at altitudes of between 1,360 m and 2,400 m (Ituarte 2005).
189781		habitat	eng	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species.
189781		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189781		threats	eng	The building of hyrdoelectric dams across rivers in the area poses a potential threat (Grau and Brown 2000), but it is not known what impact this may have on this species.
189782		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measurs in place for this species. Further research is recommended regarding the population trends of this species.
189782		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from the upper Amazon and upper Paraná   basins, Brazil (Simone 2006).
189782		habitat	eng	This species has been collectd from <span style="font-style: italic;">Eichornia </span>and other aquatic plants wihtin lakes and slow-flowing rivers (Simone 2006).
189782		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189782		threats	eng	The upper Amazon and Paraná   basins in Brazil are impacted by industrial, domestic and agricultural pollution, deforestation, alteration and obstruction of river flows and introduced species. Pollution is particularly severe in parts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, with intense damming in the Upper Paraná. Gold mining causes heavy metal pollution in the Upper Paraguay and in the Brazilian Amazon. Large-scale works including dredging and pipelines have the potential for widespread habitat damage in the Paraná-Paraguay region. Pollution has left the Piracicaba River, which drains into the Paraná, biologically depleted and in some sections devoid of aquatic life. while the impacts of climate change on this species are not well understood, one  of the likely impacts of changing climate in this region is disruption to flow  regimes (Carolsfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), which could have a deleterious impact on this  species.
189783		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation strategies in place, or needed, for this species.
189783		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed throughout the Almada River, Bahia (Applesnail 2009) and is found throughout South and Southeast Asia as a result of introduction through the aquarium trade (Coler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
189783		habitat	eng	This is a freshwater species of the Almada River basin, Bahia.&#160; This genus shows a degree of tolerance to low-level salinities and can survive significant periods out of water (Barker 2002).
189783		population	eng	This species is described as "widely distributed throughout Bahia" (Applesnail 2009).
189783		threats	eng	There are no threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189784		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommnded to clarify the species' abundance and the threat processes which may be affecting it.
189784		distribution	eng	This species is found in Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile (Durand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In Argentina, this species is specifically found in Patagonia, and in Sarmiento in the Province of Chubut (Duffy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Chile, this species is specifically found in San Gregorio on the north coast of the strait of Magellan, and in Laguna Blanquillos (Durand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, Fjeldsa 2004). Pilsbry (1911) records the species from the Magellanes including Tierra del Fuego and the Malvinas Islands.
189784		habitat	eng	This species inhabits cold-water lakes, pools, rivers, streams and drainage ditches (Pilsbry 1911, Paraense 1984). This species is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica </span>which causes <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciolosis</span>, an important livestock disease which is also increasingly occurring in humans (Duffy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It can be found on the roots of the plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Myriophyllum brasiliensis </span>(Castellanos and Landoni 1981).
189784		population	eng	This species was reported to be very common in 1981 (Castellanos and Landoni 1981).
189784		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being significantly impacted by any major threat processes across its large distribution. The creation of the Florentino Ameghino Dam in the Chubut River Basin is unlikely to have had a negative effect on this species. The dam caused a decrease in suspended solids in the river below, which would have favoured colonization by primary producers (bryophytes, algae). This would have been an advantage to algal scrapers such as this species (Miserendino 2009). Fjeldsa (2004) found this species in Laguna Blanquillos, Chile, where it formed the diet of the Hooded Grebe (<span style="font-style: italic;">Podiceps gallardoi</span>). Fjeldsa (2004) reported that there were no longer adult snails in the lake due to predation by the grebes.
189786		conservation	eng	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (of least concern). In some parts of its range it coincides with protected areas.
189786		distribution	eng	This species is native to the Caribbean, eastern Costa Rica, Panama, Guyana, Corrientes, Patagonia, Buenos Aires provinces in Argentina, Venezuela and eastern Brazil (although presence is uncertain in these last two locations) (Capitulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001, NatureServe 2009). In the Caribbean, it is recorded from the Greater Antilles (Jamaica, Haiti, Domincan Republic and Puerto Rico); the Virgin Islands (St Thomas, Tortola and St. Croix); the Lesser Antilles (St. Martin, St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Martinique, St.Lucia, St. Vincent, Barbados, Grenada and Trinidad); and Aruba and Isla Providencia in the Western Caribbean (Taylor 2003).<br/><br/>This species has also been introduced widely outside its native range: to the U.S. (Texas) and Canada (Keller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Palomares and Pauly 2009), although it is thought to have failed to establish in Texas (Karateyev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009); to Israel (Roll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009); and throughout west Africa (where it was introduced pre-1990), including Cote d'Ivoire (in the La Me and Agneby basins), Benin, Togo, Ghana and Nigeria (Bony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Taylor (2003, 2004) thinks that specimens from Argentina may belong to a different species. Further work is needed to resolve this uncertainty in distribution.
189786		habitat	eng	This species is found in a variety of habitats, including ponds (natural and man-made), streams, rivers, dams, drainage ditches, marshes, temporary water bodies, and roadside pools (Taylor 2003). In Israel, it is found in 'human dominated habitats' (Roll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is tolerant to water pollution, being found in a polluted tributary of the Rio de la Plata in Argentina, the El Gato stream (Capitulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). This species is very sensitive to direct sunlight, lack of oxygen, desiccation and lack of food in captivity (Taylor 2003). It shows a positive association with the aquatic plants <span style="font-style: italic;">Ipomea aquatica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistia stratiodes</span> in Cote d'Ivoire, although it is unlikely to show similar associations in its native range (Bony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
189786		population	eng	This species was described as abundant in Brazil and was found throughout the region of Sao Paulo (Vaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1986).
189786		threats	eng	There are no known threats negatively impacting the global population of this species.
189787		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' exact distribution, population status and threats.
189787		distribution	eng	This species has a wide Euro-Siberian distribution. It is distributed throughout Eastern Europe and Russia, from southern Siberia eastward to Lake Baikal and northern Siberia near Norilsk (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It was described from Germany and is presently found in a large number of regions in Eastern Europe, Urals, and Siberia (M. V. Vinarski per. comm. 2011).
189787		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lakes (Yurlova and Vodyanitskaya 2005).
189787		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189787		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189789		conservation	eng	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population trends, threats and life history of this species.</p>
189789		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Madagascar, in a river near Hellville on the island of Nossi B<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">é, and it is known throughout Madagascar (Brown 1994).</span>
189789		habitat	eng	<p>The species inhabits various muddy substrates in rivers and standing waters all over Madagascar and Nossi Bé (Brown 1994).</p>
189789		population	eng	There are no data available on the population trends of this species.
189789		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>There are no known threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>
189790		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to determine the exact distribution, population trends and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189790		distribution	eng	This species is known from freshwater drainages in Queensland, Australia, although its exact distribution is unclear (GBIF 2010).
189790		habitat	eng	Other species within this genus are found on aquatic plants in freshwater habitats such as lakes and rivers, and this is likely to also be the case for this species.
189790		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189790		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189791		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended into this species' current distribution, population status, ecology, and threats, in particular the shell trade.
189791		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Wuchang, Hubei Province, China (Faust 1922).
189791		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species. This species is an intermediate host for larval flukes (Faust 1922).
189791		population	eng	There is no current population information available for this species. Fifty specimens were recorded in the last survey by Faust (1922).
189791		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189793		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Research into population status and trends of this species may be  beneficial in establishing a baseline against which to evaluate any  future population changes.
189793		distribution	eng	This species is found in Okinawa Island, southwest Japan; Negros, Masbate and Culion Islands in the Philippines; the coastal areas of Thailand (Fukuda 1994); and Java, Indonesia (Nordhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This species is likely to have a wider distribution than is currently known.
189793		habitat	eng	This estuarine species occurs in mud flats and nipa palm swamps in coastal areas (Brandt 1974). This species lives buried 5-20 cm deep between the spaces of wet clods, humus and the roots of mangrove trees (Fukuda 1994).
189793		population	eng	There is insufficient population information available for this species.
189793		threats	eng	Mangrove and mud flat ecosystems are impacted upon by many different threat processes. The increase in human populations adjacent to mangrove swamps causes the habitat to be degraded and overexploited. This can be due to conversion to aquaculture, conversion to agriculture, conversion to salt pans, urban development, construction or harbours and channels, mining, liquid waste disposal, solid waste and garbage disposal, oil spillage and spillage of other hazardous substances (Aksornkoae 1995). Further threats arise from global climate change, especially sea level rise (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). <br/><br/>It is likely that some or all of these threats are impacting this species, although due to its widespread distribution it is unlikely that it is being threatened on a global scale.
189794		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' current distribution, population status, ecology and threats.
189794		distribution	eng	This species has been collected from Sithandone Province, Khong Island, Ban Na, and Done Tane Island, Mekong River, Lao PDR, however has not been recorded since surveys between 1968 and 1973 (ANSP 2010).
189794		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers (ANSP 2010).
189794		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189794		threats	eng	A 30 – 32 m high hydroelectric dam is being planned at Don Sahong, on the mainstream of the Mekong River (Baran and Ratner 2007). The project would be less than 1 km north of the Lao People's Democratic Republic/Cambodian border, and will be constructed at Khone Falls in Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Baird 2009). This is the most advanced of eight hydropower projects mooted for the lower Mekong, and will potentially fragment populations of molluscs that inhabit the region, as well as altering water flow patterns downstream. It is also predicted to severely impact the migrations of many species of fish, with unknown ecosystem-level consequences (Baird 2009). The effects on fisheries are also likely to be serious, with the possible result that local people will switch from fish to other protein sources (e.g., molluscs) to supplement their diet.<br/><br/>The Mekong River Commission has agreed that future water quality threats exist, stemming mainly from upstream Chinese catchment areas. Presently, the water quality of the lower Mekong basin, is considered good. Although heavy metal contamination exists around cities, it disappears rapidly downstream. The toxicity of these sediments, however, was not conclusive (MRC 2006). Stretches of the Mekong are flanked by high density farmland and deforestation on both sides, leading to sedimentation and nutrient input. Furthermore, many large dams interrupt the flow of the Mekong along its length, while upstream mining operation are reported to have seriously perturbed macroinvertebratre species assemblages (Vongsombath <em>et al.</em> 2009). The impact of threats on this species is unknown.
189795		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify this species' population status and the potential impact of threats.
189795		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Java, Indonesia (Soemodinoto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).
189795		habitat	eng	This brackish water species is found in estuaries, coastal lagoons, mangrove swamps and intertidal mudflats (Soemodinoto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Nordhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
189795		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, however several specimens were recorded during a recent survey of the Segara Anakan Lagoon, central Java (Nordhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
189795		threats	eng	The lagoonal habitat where this species has been recorded has been affected by various human activities, including logging and illegal deforestation, fishing and pollution due to agriculture and industry (Nordhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is unknown to what extent these threats are impacting this species.
189796		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into this species' taxonomy, distribution and population size, ecology and threats.
189796		distribution	eng	This taxon has been described from the Upper Yangtze (Moellendorff 1902)
189796		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available for this species.
189796		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189796		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189802		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, habitat preferences and threats.
189802		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Ukraine, western and southern Europe, north and south Caucasus (inferred as Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Russia - Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adyghea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachai-Cherkessia, North Ossetia, Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai; note that this info is not found in the ZIN collection, so cannot be confirmed at present) (Kantor et al. 2009, Kijashko 2009). There is no recent information on this species; however, empty shells have been found in two localities in Armenia and Tajikistan (ZIN collection).
189802		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are not known.
189802		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189802		threats	eng	It is unknown if this species is affected by any major threat processes.
189803		conservation	eng	It is unlikely that there are any specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its distribution, abundance, habitate preferences and threats.
189803		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Baltic Sea basin (Kantor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It is only known from two collections (ZIN collection).
189803		habitat	eng	This species is found submerged on stones of the shoreline of a large tectonic lake, and is found in the wave-action zone (M. Vinarski pers. comm. 2010).
189803		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
189803		threats	eng	It is unknown whether any major threat is impacting this species.
189804		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is recommended to determine the population trends and threat processes impacting the global population of this species.
189804		distribution	eng	This species is found in the vicinities of Sretensk, Shilka River Valley, Chita Region (Kantor <em>et al.</em> 2009) and Khanka lake basin (southern Primorje) (Starobogatov <em>et al. </em>2004).
189804		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater river systems and lakes (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
189804		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
189804		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
189807		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is recommended in order to clarify the distribution, population trends and threats of this species.
189807		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in Japan, although its exact distribution is unclear (Japanese Red Data System 2007).
189807		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information available.
189807		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
189807		threats	eng	Due to the uncertainty of its distribution, threats to this species remain unknown.
189808		conservation	eng	No specific conservation action plan is in place.&#160;&#160;Research is essential on the population trends, harvesting trends and threats to the species.
189808		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus seengtee</span> is known from the Krishna and Cauvery river drainages in southern India and it is very likely to be found in most other river drainages south of the Krishna River drainage (Chakrabarty and Ng 2005). Pethiyagoda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) suspects the presence of some species closer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus seengtee </span>in Sri Lanka.<br/>Since<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. seengtee</span> was resurrected from its synonymy with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cavasius</span> only recently and because this taxonomic revision has not yet reached all the workers, records of  <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cavasius</span> from Maharashtra (Fraser 1942, Kalawar and Kelkar 1956, Tonapi and Mulherkar 1963, Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Wagh and Ghate 2003, Chandanshive <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Jadhav and Yadav 2009), Karnataka (Rao and Seshachar 1927, David 1956, Bhat 2004, Venkateshwarlu and Somashekar 2005, Sreekantha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Prasad <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009, Shahnawaz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Krishna river system of Andhra Pradesh (Chandrasekhar 2004), Tamil Nadu (Rajan 1955, Manimekalan 1998, Daniels and Rajagopal 2004) and Kerala (Silas 1949, 1951, Shaji <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Ajithkumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Bijukumar and Sushama 2001, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Raghavan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) should be considered as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. seengtee</span>. The species is probably present in Goa as well.
189808		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus seengtee</span> is found in large streams, rivers and wetlands.
189808		population	eng	Information on the population trends in <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus seengtee</span> is not available. However, it is common in Maharashtra (Kharat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Neelesh Dahanukar, pers. obs.) and Karnataka (Shahnawaz and Venkateshwarlu 2009), while it is relatively rare in Andhra Pradesh  (Chandrasekhar 2004), Tamil Nadu (Manimekalan 1998) and Kerala (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). &#160;Some reports indicate the species is common in Kerala (Kurup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
189808		threats	eng	No specific information is available on threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Mystus seengtee</span>.
189814		conservation	eng	This species is endemic from Anamundi and is found entirely within Eravikulam National Park (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
189814		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Anamudi summit (2,695 m asl), Idukki District, Eravikulam National Park, Kerala, India (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Intensive surveys in suitable habitat in the near vicinity of the type locality did not render any additional records of this species; thus, it is believed to have a genuinely restricted range of less than 3 km<sup>2</sup> and an EOO of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, S. Biju pers.comm. December 2010).
189814		habitat	eng	<p>This species is associated to forests, it is found on moss-covered rocks in bamboo thickets with temperatures ranging from 30ºC to -3ºC (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). Like other congeners, this species breeds by direct development (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.2010). About 24 eggs are burrowed under the moss-covered forest floor, deep inside the base of bamboo clumps (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.2010). Females are thought to mate with multiple males or may breed more than once in a single season due to contained mature embryos in a female’s oviduct after oviposition (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.2010).&#160;</p><p></p><p><br/></p> <p></p>
189814		population	eng	<p>This species is considered to be extremely rare as it has only been found at the type locality of Anamudi summit, and it is estimated that the population consists of less than 300 individuals with an apparent decline observed over the last six years (S.D. Biju pers. comm. December 2010). <br/></p>
189814		threats	eng	<p>It occurs in a highly protected national park, where there are no observable threats to this species (S. Biju pers.comm. December 2010). Screening for chytrid fungus has so far turned up negative (S. Biju pers.comm. January 2011), and the cause for observed declines remains unknown.<br/></p>
189818		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
189818		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, this species is present in tropical and subtropical waters, excluding the south-east Pacific (Figueiredo <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also present in the Red Sea: Gulf of Aqaba (Golani and Lerner 2007). In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from south Portugal to Morocco.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987), it is present along the coasts of Catalonia (Spain) (Sabates and Masò 1992) and Ligurian Sea (Siccardi and Montanari 1997). It is present in the Strait of Sicily (Costa 1991, Jennings 2000, Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is also found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
189818		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic species (larvae and juveniles are epipelagic to bathypelagic, from 50 m) (Figueiredo <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is found to more than 2,000 m (older young and adults) (Post 1986, Figueiredo <em>et al.</em> 2002).
189818		population	eng	This species is widespread but generally scarce.
189818		threats	eng	This species has only low commercial importance without any main catching methods.
189820		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
189820		distribution	eng	Globally, this is a widespread species occurring in the western and eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea, and the Indo-Pacific to the eastern central Pacific. <br/><br/>Three subspecies are recognised: <em>T. a. acus</em> (Lacepède 1803) in the west Atlantic (Massachusetts, USA to Brazil) and east Atlantic (off Morocco and the western Mediterranean Sea), <em>T. a. imperialis</em> (Rafinesque 1810) in the east Atlantic (Cape Verde and Morocco) and the Mediterranean Sea, and <em>T. a melanotus</em> (Bleeker 1850) in the Indo-Pacific (East Africa to the central and south Pacific) and the east central Pacific (oceanic islands such as the Revillagigedo, Clipperton and Cocos).<br/><br/>This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It is an active species and is likely to be even more widespread than currently recorded.
189820		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species, inhabiting offshore waters but also found in coastal waters. The species feeds mainly on small fishes (Collette 1981). It is oviparous and its eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils (Breder and Rosen 1966).
189820		population	eng	There are no specific population data available for this species. If caught, it is likely to be included in statistics for other species.
189820		threats	eng	Globally, there are no obvious major threats for this species. It is of minor commercial importance.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, surface pollution may affect the distribution of this species. As a surface species, any major pollution event is likely to affect it first. It is commercially fished in the region.
190064		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
190064		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic from the southeastern USA and the Gulf of Mexico to northern Central America. In the eastern Atlantic it is known from southwestern France, southern Spain and Portugal (Bay of Biscay), Azores, Madeira, and western Sahara to Senegal. Sicily is the only recorded site in the Mediterranean Sea (Ragonese and Giusto 1997).
190064		habitat	eng	One individual of this species of 18.3 cm LT (170 g) was collected on deep-sea red shrimp grounds near the Sentinelle Bank (central Mediterranean Sea) (Ragonese and Giusto 1997).
190064		population	eng	There is only a single record in the Mediterranean Sea for this species.
190064		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
190070		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. This species may occur in marine protected areas.
190070		distribution	eng	This species is a widely distributed antitropical reef fish, occurring on continental and island shelves across the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Indo-Pacific (Smith-Vaniz, 1999).  In the western Atlantic, it is present from  Bermuda, and North Carolina, USA south to southern Brazil.  It is also found in the Mediterranean Sea, Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Ascension and St. Helena Island.  In the Indo-Pacific its range extends from South Africa to Japan, Hawaii (Randall 1996), Australia, Lord Howe and Norfolk islands, New Zealand.  This species also has been reported from New Caledonia (Wantiez 1993). Its occurrence in Taiwan needs verification.
190070		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated. It occurs in bays and coastal waters, including estuaries (May and Maxwell 1996).  Juveniles usually inhabit estuaries, bays and shallow continental shelf waters, while adults form schools near the sea bed on the continental shelf (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Schools are found at the surface, in mid-water and on the bottom and are often associated with reefs and rough bottom (Annala 1994).  Schools are sometimes mixed with <em>Caranx koheru</em> and <em>Arripis trutta</em> (Annala 1994).  It feeds on plankton by ram-filtering and suction feeding and on bottom invertebrates (Annala 1994, Sazima 1998). They are usually partial spawners, releasing eggs in small batches at intervals over a period of several weeks (James 1978).
190070		population	eng	This species is present but always rare throughout most of the Mediterranean.
190070		threats	eng	This species is an important food source throughout its distribution range (Smith-Vaniz 1999, Rowling and Raines, 2000). It is caught by means of trawls. This species is used for commercial aquaculture in Japan and is rarely seen in the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, only rare incidental catches are reported, except in Lebanon and Israel.
190080		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
190080		distribution	eng	<em>Remora osteochir</em> occurs in warm and temperate seas of all oceans. In the eastern Pacific, it is known from southern California (USA) to Peru (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Massachusetts (USA) and the northern Gulf of Mexico to Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986).<br/><br/><em>R. osteochir</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean (Lachner 1986), primarily the southern half of the western basin. It has also been recorded in Italy in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Tortonese 1974, Psomadakis <em>et al.</em> 2006).
190080		habitat	eng	A pelagic, oceanic species with a strong preference for marlins and sailfish as hosts, but may occasionally cling to other large fishes. It attaches to the body or gill chamber of the host (Lachner and Post 1990).
190080		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population in the Mediterranean.
190080		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
190090		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
190090		distribution	eng	<em>Trichiurus lepturus</em> is distributed throughout tropical and temperate waters of the world. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>T. lepturus</em> occurs throughout the western and eastern basins (but is not present in the Sea of Marmara or the Black Sea). It is commonly caught in Lebanese waters (Bariche<em> et al.</em> 2007), but has not been recorded in Algerian waters (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007).
190090		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, amphidromous species that generally is found over muddy substrata of shallow coastal waters (Nakamura 1995). It often enters estuaries (Nakamura 1995). Juveniles feed mostly on euphausiids, small pelagic planktonic crustaceans and small fishes. Adults feed mainly on fishes and occasionally on squids and crustaceans (Nakamura and Parin 1993).<br/><br/>Adults and juveniles have opposing complementary vertical diurnal feeding migrations. Large adults usually feed near the surface during the daytime and migrate to the bottom at night. Juveniles and small adults form schools 100 m above the bottom during the daytime and form loose feeding aggregations at night near the surface. Eggs are pelagic (Muus and Nielsen 1999). The maximum weight of 1.5 kg given in Grove and Lavenberg (1997) seems too low.
190090		population	eng	In the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey, this species is very common (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, the population density is unknown. Food and Agriculture Organization landings figures are available from only two countries (Morocco and particularly Egypt). The figures are not useful to determine possible population trends in this case.<br/><br/>Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2007) collected 80 specimens in the coastal waters of Lebanon, along the northern side of Beirut, for four months starting from May 2001 with a sample in each week. 54 fishing operations were conducted with a purse seine.
190090		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance, mainly caught by trawl fisheries.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain)<span> and craft<span class="hps"><span>, with <span class="hps">purse seines<span class="">, <span class="hps">trawls and <span class="hps">longlines<span>. <span class="hps">Regularly present <span class="hps">on the markets of <span class="hps">Morocco, <span class="hps">rarely elsewhere<span class=""><span class="hps"> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
190100		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
190100		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Portugal to the Mauritanian upwelling region. It is also present in the west Atlantic in Canada and the USA. Its distribution may be related to the oceanographic boundaries of the north Atlantic gyral system.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the north-west part (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987, Olivar and Palomera 1994): along Spanish coasts (Sabates <em>et al.</em> 2001, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Adriatic Sea (Stegnar 1978, Costa 1991), Sicily Strait (Berdar and Cavaliere 1979, Scotto di Carlo <em>et al.</em> 1982, Costa 1991, Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1998, Potoschi <em>et al.</em> 2003), in Sardinia (Costa 1991), Turkey (Deval 2002), Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988) and Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu 2002).<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic, this species is found from Portugal to the Mauritanian upwelling region, including the Mediterranean. In the Western Atlantic it is found from Canada to the USA. Its distribution may be related to the oceanographic boundaries of the North Atlantic gyral system.
190100		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic and oceanic species, it is found below 700 m during the day and above 600 m during the night (maximum abundance between 50 and 100 m and 301 and 350 m at night, Hulley 1990). Juveniles and post-larvae are partial or non-migrants (Hulley 1990).
190100		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
190100		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
190101		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
190101		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic Ocean, this species is broadly distributed, from 50°N to 40°S. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987, Jennings 2000), this species is present in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Bello 1990, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), north and west Aegean Sea (Greece, Papaconstantinou<em> et al.</em> 1994), Anzio harbour (Latium, central Tyrrhenian Sea) (Psomadakis <em>et al.</em> 2006), Strait of Sicily (Costa 1991, 1999; Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2001), Libyan coasts (UNEP/FAO 1995), Gulf of Genoa (Siccardi  and  Montanari 1997) and Ionian Sea (Parenzan 1970).
190101		habitat	eng	This species is mesopelagic to bathypelagic. It is carnivorous. It probably spawns near the surface in temperate to tropical waters (Post 1984). It has been supposed to be one of the 'cable-biters' species, reconstructions from big teeth found in submarine cables suggests that it reachs at least 100 cm body-length (Post 1990). It can be found between 300-1500 m.
190101		population	eng	This species is generally very scarce. There are few records for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
190101		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
190116		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
190116		distribution	eng	This is primarily an Indo-Pacific species, with scattered records from the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (including Marmara Sea), where it is rare. <br/><br/>There are scattered records of <em>Luvarus imperialis</em> throughout the Mediterranean, including in the western basin (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987) and Greek sea waters (Kaspiris and Ondrias 1984). It is also present in the Aegean and Mediterranean coastal Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
190116		habitat	eng	This species is oceanic, mesopelagic and sometimes epipelagic near the coasts. It is apparently solitary. Reproduction occurs at the end of spring and during summer. It feeds on plankton (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
190116		population	eng	This species has a wide range in the Mediterranean but is only rarely encountered.
190116		threats	eng	This species is rarely found in markets (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).  There are no known major threats.
190133		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
190133		distribution	eng	This is a circumglobal species.  <br/><br/>In the Atlantic Ocean, this species is widely distributed throughout the area (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1990), including the Gulf of Mexico (Rass 1971).<br/><br/>In the Indian and Pacific Oceans, it is found in tropical and austral regions (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1990). <br/><br/>In the south Ocean, this species is probably circum-Antarctic between the Antarctic Polar Front and the Antarctic continental shelf (Gon 1990).<br/><br/>This species occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea.
190133		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, mesopelagic to bathypelagic species (Badcock 1984). The precise depth range of the species is dependent upon its developmental stage, latitude, and the season (Badcock 1984).  It does not exhibit diel vertical migrations (Badcock 1984). This species feeds mainly on copepods (Badcock 1984). It is protandrous, and sex reversal has been observed in the eastern North Atlantic (Gon 1990). Sex reversal occurs at 22-24 mm SL (Badcock 1984).
190133		population	eng	This is a very small deepwater species. No population information is available.
190133		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
190163		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
190163		distribution	eng	The oceanic two-wing flying fish, Exocoetus obtusirostris, has a very wide global distribution. It occurs in the South Pacific between 10°S and 32°S, from Australia to Ecuador (Chirichigno 1974) and Peru. In the east Atlantic, it has been recorded south of Azores and Madeira to Angola, with individual stragglers seen off Portugal. In the west Atlantic, it occurs off New Jersey and Florida to the north Gulf of Mexico and Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986). It is uncommon in the Antilles (Dennis <em>et al.</em> 2004). The conspecificity of the Atlantic and Pacific populations needs confirmation (Parin 1996).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is only known from one record in the Ligurian Sea.
190163		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It occurs in surface waters both near and far from the coast (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is capable of leaping out of the water and gliding for considerable distances above the surface.
190163		population	eng	There is no information available on the population in the Mediterranean Sea.
190163		threats	eng	This species has no commercial interest.<br/><br/>There is no information available on current or potential threats to the species within the Mediterranean Sea region.
190207		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species.  However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
190207		distribution	eng	Globally this is a widespread tropical and subtropical species.<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic this species is present from Madeira and the Canaries. <br/><br/>This is a widespread species in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is present in west Mediterranean Sea (Soljan 1948, Tortonese 1970, Bauchot 1987, Papaconstantinou 1988), in south-east Mediterranean Sea: in Gokova Bay (Turkey, Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2001) and in east Adriatic Sea (Brurnjak Islet, Dulcic and Soldo 2007). It is absent from the Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
190207		habitat	eng	This mesopelagic species occurs from 100-1000 m depth (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is probable that juveniles prefer shallower waters. Their eggs and larvae are pelagic. They feeds on anchovies and squids (Bauchot 1987). In Adriatic Sea, a male of 160 cm (10.1 kg) was caught (Dulcic and Soldo 2008).
190207		population	eng	This species is widespread but infrequently recorded as it is a mesopelagic species.
190207		threats	eng	This species is occasionally fished with trawls and drifting long-lines, but it is not a commercial target species.
190211		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea.<br/><br/>Driftnets have been banned in the Mediterranean Sea since 2002 for some species, including <em>S. saurus</em>.<br/><br/>This species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
190211		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east and west Atlantic. In the east Atlantic it has been recorded from Iceland, Norway and Denmark (rarely), along the British Isles and into the Baltic Sea. In the west Atlantic, it occurs from the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada) to North Carolina (USA) and Bermuda (Robins and Ray 1986). <br/><br/><em>Scomberesox saurus scombroides</em> occurs in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. This subspecies is generally circumglobal in temperate waters of the south hemisphere. It is more common between 30°S to 40°S, but it occurs more northerly to 15°S near Africa and to near the equator off Ecuador along South American west coast (particularly the young and juveniles).<br/><br/><em>S. saurus</em> is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea region, including in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas out to Israel, the coast of Tunisia and Morocco. Records from the east Mediterranean Sea for recent years need to be confirmed.
190211		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is a highly migratory species, forming schools and is gregarious. Occasionally schools can be found close to shore in large numbers (Frimodt 1995). The species feeds on zooplankton and fish larvae, and it is preyed upon by fish, including tunas, marlin bluefish and cod (Frimodt 1995). Individuals often leap out of the water when chased by predators (Muus and Nielsen 1999).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It is a highly migratory species, forming schools and is gregarious. Intra-Mediterranean migration occurs for spawning (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The species is more commonly present in late spring and summer in the north part of the Mediterranean Sea, and is more common in the south part in the winter.
190211		population	eng	Population size and trends in the Mediterranean Sea are unknown.
190211		threats	eng	Globally, there are no known major threats for this species. This is a minor commercial species in the Mediterranean Sea, except during several weeks in the spawning season when it commands a good price. The species is caught using lampara nets, surrounding nets, handlines, and small driftnets. It also fished using fish aggregating devices (FADs). Catch statistics, where they exist, are extremely poor.
190214		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
190214		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), this species exists in southern Aegean Sea, particularly in Marmaris coast (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is common in Ligurian sea, off Algerian and north Sicilian coasts, in the Strait of Messina, in southern Sardinian waters and in eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190214		habitat	eng	This species occurs from near the surface to depths down to 2,000 m (Nielsen 1984). Larger specimens up to 80 mm show diurnal migration (Castonguay and Mc Cleave 1987). Leptocephali (6-15 mm) are abundant between February and April and spawning occurs on both sides of thermal fronts throughout the west subtropical convergence zone of Sargasso Sea (Wippelhauser <em>et al.</em> 1996). It probably spawns around New Caledonia (Castle 1966).
190214		population	eng	This species is seldom collected, but as it is a deepwater species, it may be more common than the paucity of its records suggests.
190214		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
190279		conservation	eng	Conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean should include the creation of a fishery season (May to August), restriction of minimal legal size of capture (22 cm SL), fixation of a minimal mesh size and a minimal depth for every type of gear (Tunisia) (Bradai pers. comm. 2007). A fishery management plan that includes time limitation and quotas during migratory periods should be created.
190279		distribution	eng	<em>Pomatomus saltatrix</em> occurs in all oceans except the eastern Pacific (Fricke 1999). <br/><br/>In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Canada and Bermuda to Argentina (Robins and Ray 1986). In the Indian Ocean, it occurs along the coast of East Africa, Madagascar, southern Oman, southwest India, the Malay Peninsula, and Western Australia (Randall 1995). In the southwest Pacific, it occurs around Australia except the Northern Territory, and New Zealand (Randall 1995). It is absent from eastern Pacific and northwest Pacific. The species barely enters the western central Pacific region. Records from the Northern Territory (Australia) and from Indonesia appear to be erroneous (Collette 1999). Records from Taiwan (Shen 1993) and Hawaii (Hureau 1991) need verification. In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from Portugal to South Africa, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species has been recorded along the Catalan coast (Sabates and Martin 1993). It is also present in the Gulf of Genoa, the Ligurian Sea (where both adults (Molinari and Tunesi 2003) and juveniles (Tunesi <em>et al</em>. 2005) have been recorded), and in the northern Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006). <em>P. saltatrix</em> also occurs in the eastern Mediterranean, such as the Sea of Marmara and Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Turan <em>et al.</em> 2006).
190279		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that occurs in oceanic and coastal waters (Claro 1994). They are most common along surf beaches and rock headlands in clean, high energy waters, although adults can also be found in estuaries and in brackish water (Grant 1982). Small fish may be found in shallow coastal waters at least 2 m depth (May and Maxwell 1986), in schools pursuing and attacking small fishes (Cervigón 1993). <br/><br/>Individuals reach maturity at two years old, around 18 cm SL (23.5 TL). In the Mediterranean, spawning is limited to the warmest months, from July to September (Sabates and Martin 1993), while juveniles occur in shallow waters (< 10 m) between November and January (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005). In late spring (May to June) they enter the Turkish Straits moving towards the Black Sea and return back toward the Mediterranean in the early Autumn (Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). This appears to be a spawning migration since females are reproductively active in June and young-of-the-year appear in May (Bizsel and Yokes pers. comm. 2007). During migration they form schools but they are solitary during the summer.<br/><br/>This species migrates to warmer water during winter and to cooler water in summer (Frimodt 1995). Fecundity varies from 400,000 to 2,000,000 eggs depending on the size of the individual (ranging from 370,000 in a 31cm fish to 1,240,000 in a 54 cm fish). They are serial spawners (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/><em>P. saltatrix</em> is associated with sharks and billfishes (Claro 1994) and is a voracious and aggressive species (Cervigón 1993), reported to bite when handled. Adults form loose groups, often attacking shoals of mullets or other fishes and destroying numbers apparently far in excess of feeding requirements (Collette 1999). It feeds on other fish (Maigret and Ly 1986), crustaceans and cephalopods (Figueiredo <em>et al.</em> 2002).
190279		population	eng	The bluefish <em>P. saltatrix</em>, is quite abundant in the Gulf of Gabes, off the south eastern coast of Tunisia, where the species is named “Karradh”. It is commercially exploited by artisanal gears, trawlers, and purse seines. Catches of bluefish, in the period 1996 to 2004 fluctuated between 366 and 1,240t with an annual average of 805t (70% of the national production) (Nejmeddine pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization statistics for the Mediterranean show that the bulk of the catch comes from Turkey, and landings fluctuate between around 4,000 to 20,000mt from 1995 to 2006 with a recent increase over the previous three years. However, over this same period the average size of this fish decreased so that fish older than three years are uncommon, this size reduction has taken place over the past 30 years and has stabilized at a smaller size in recent years (Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is common and abundant around parts of Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007) but in Algeria it is not very common (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007) and apparently it is increasing in abundance in France in recent years (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Turan <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected 210 specimens by commercial fishing vessels from five fishing areas, comprising the Black, Marmara, Aegean and northeastern Mediterranean Seas at two consequent years (2003 to 2004), with mean standard length varying from 15.5 cm to 23.6 cm.<br/><br/>FAO (2004) report 1,000 t caught in 2003 in the Gulf of Gabes (55% by purse seine, 40% by gill nets, 5% by bottom trawls).<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected one specimen, with length 24.3 cm TL, from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 59 specimens (39.2 to 58.5 cm TL) using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three estuarine area of the River Mirna, northern Adriatic Sea).
190279		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance and is often taken as bycatch in the swordfish fishery. Landing data from Turkey, Egypt and Tunisia are from 10,000 to 50,000 tonnes. It is mainly caught through seines, but also by hand lines, trammel nets, and gill nets. This species is popular in game fish (Smith and Smith 1986).<br/><br/>35% of the landed individuals (in number) are juvenile (Bradai pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is very vulnerable to fishing during migrations into and out of the Black Sea and if overfished on migratory season this causes steep declines in subsequent years (C. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). The average size of this fish has decreased dramatically over the last few years and these smaller sizes are still readily consumed. The generalized euthrophication of the Black Sea (rising dead zone) may cause a serious threat to summer populations of this species.
190285		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
190285		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterranean Sea species (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is present in the Strait of Sicily (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004), in the Adriatic Sea (Bombace and Froglia 1973) and in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190285		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species. It does not exhibit diel vertical migrations (Badcock 1984). The occurrence of spawning is probably year-round, peaking from late spring to early summer (Badcock 1984). Photophore complement is complete at about 15-17 mm standard length (Badcock 1984). It occurs at 614 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190285		population	eng	This is a deepwater species and it is rarely recorded, but its distribution and abundance are probably more extensive than the paucity of records suggests.<br/><br/>In the strait of Sicily, the frequency of this species in ichtyplancton during July 2000, in hauls towed from 100 m to the surface, was 0.11% (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the east Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence was 1.9% (abundance = 0.1/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190285		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
190292		conservation	eng	There is no information on specific conservation measures. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
190292		distribution	eng	This species occurs worldwide in tropical waters. In the east Atlantic it is likely to occur throughout the tropical region, it is apparently uncommon in the Gulf of Guinea and is absent in the Benguela current (Parin and Gibbs 1990). In the west Atlantic, it occurs from north South America (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is uncommon in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico (Gibbs 1978). In the Indian Ocean, it is known from South Africa (Heemstra and Parin 1986), Mauritius, Rodriguez and Maldives (Fricke 1999) and the Chagos Archipelago (Winterbottom and Anderson 1997). In the west Pacific, it has been recorded from New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is probably absent in the inland seas of South-East Asia (Parin 1999). In the central Pacific, it is recorded from Hawaii (Tinker 1978), and in the east Pacific from El Salvador to Ecuador (Parin 1995). <br/><br/>The presence of this species in the Mediterranean Sea is questionable.
190292		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species that can be found in oceanic surface waters (Parin 1999). It spawns throughout the year in warm waters (Parin 1986).
190292		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
190292		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance.
190324		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
190324		distribution	eng	This species is found in warm and temperate parts of all oceans, but with several distributional gaps in the south central Atlantic, north Indian Ocean, east Pacific north of the equator, etc. It is also found in the western Mediterranean Sea (Gibbs 1984).<br/><br/>This species is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea.  Records include the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic 1998), Sicily Strait (Costa 1991, 1999; Mallefet and Shimomura 1995; Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1998), the Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou and Tsimenidis 1979), the north-west Mediterranean Sea (Massutì <em>et al.</em> 1998, Maurin 1962), the Balearic and Ionian Seas (Merella <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, D'onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou 2005), the Greek Ionian Sea (Politou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), the Tyrrhenian coast (Biagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), the Levantine Sea (Galil 2004), the Aegean and Mediterranean Turkish Seas (Bilecenoglu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).&#160;&#160;<i et="" al.<="" em=""></em>
190324		habitat	eng	This species is meso- and bathypelagic and epipelagic at night. It inhabits deep oceanic waters to more than 1,000 m depth and it migrates to near-surface waters at night (Gibbs 1984). It is found up to depth of 1,800 m (Figueiredo<em> et al.</em> 2002). Its depth range is 473-1,192 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species feeds on midwater fishes and crustaceans (Gibbs 1984). The lipid content is 2.4% in fresh body weight and wax ester is 7.2% in total lipids (Kayama and Ikeda 1975). This species is oviparous (Gibbs 1984).
190324		population	eng	This species is common.
190324		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
190335		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
190335		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Canary Islands south to Cape Verde and Senegal. In the west Central Atlantic, it is present in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>Within the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present along north African coasts, Israel, Cyprus, Greece, Tyrrhenian coasts, French and Spanish Mediterranean coasts (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987).
190335		habitat	eng	It is a demersal fish that can be found on the continental shelf and upper slope (Sulak 1984). It occurs from 100-1,000 m, typically between 200-300 m (FAO 1987).
190335		population	eng	In Italy, this species is quite rare except in the areas of Livorno and Messina where captures are more common (Costa 1991). It is generally a scarce species, but it is known to fisherman.
190335		threats	eng	This species is not important to the fishing industry and may be occasionally caught and discarded by bottom-trawlers. No major threats are known for this species.
190346		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
190346		distribution	eng	Widespread, mainly tropical and subtropical, distribution in Indian and Pacific Oceans, and western Atlantic (Bermuda, northeastern Gulf of Mexico and Cuba), in eastern Atlantic from Guinea to southern Africa, including Azores and Madeira, widespread in Mediterranean Sea, but not in Black Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, its distribution includes the Balearic Islands (Oliver 1980), Catalonian Sea (Roig and Demestre 1980), Sardinian Sea (Cau 1980), Ligurian Sea (Bottaro et al. 2005, Gavagnin 1976), central Tyrrhenian Sea (Bianco <em>et al.</em> 2006), Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Adriatic Sea (Jardas 1980).
190346		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic mesopelagic species (Claro 1994). The adults feed on small fishes and squids (Palmer 1986). Internal stomach melanism was observed in specimens from Ligurian sea (Bottaro <em>et al.</em> 2005), this aspect may help to prevent advertising the presence of this species after consumption of bioluminescent prey. This species is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae (Charter and Moser 1996). <em>Zu cristatus</em> swims with its head up (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).
190346		population	eng	This is a widespread but infrequently recorded species due to its mesopelagic habitat.
190346		threats	eng	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch, but is not a target species of any fishery.
190378		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
190378		distribution	eng	This species is cosmopolitan in all tropical and subtropical seas. In the Atlantic Ocean, it is widely distributed. It is also present in the Indian and Pacific oceans. In the east Pacific, it is present from Topanga Beach in south California, USA to Chile (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea it is widespread (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987) but absent from the Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006),  Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu<em> et al.</em> 2002), and Israel.
190378		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic pelagic solitary species. It can live at great depths (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983), but is occasionally cast up on beaches (May and Maxwell 1986). It feeds on euphausiid crustaceans, small fishes and squid (Palmer 1986). Spawning occurs between July and December and larvae are encountered near the surface (Bauchot 1995). It is present in the Guinness Book of Records as the longest bony fish (Foot 2000). Mating system and parental care are unknown.
190378		population	eng	This is a widespread species but it is infrequently recorded as it is a mesopelagic species.
190378		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. Its main catching method is trawls but can also caught with encircling nets (Bauchot 1995).
190422		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. <br/><br/>In the Balearic Islands, this species was assessed as Vulnerable because of low abundance and relatively frequent bycatch (Mayol <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is assessed as a "threatened migrant" in Turkey (threat may also occur outside the range in Turkey, Fricke 2007).<br/><br/>Further research should be conducted to determine the current population trend for this species.
190422		distribution	eng	This species occurs in warm and temperate zones of all oceans. In the east Pacific, it has been recorded from British Columbia (Canada) (Eschmeyer <em>et al. </em>1983) to Peru and Chile (Chirichigno 1974). In the east Atlantic, it has been recorded from Scandinavia to South Africa (and occasionally in the west Baltic Sea). In the west Atlantic, it is found from Newfoundland, Canada (Robins and Ray 1986) to Argentina (Figueiredo and Menezes 2000).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species has a very widespread range throughout the basin. It has been recorded from the west basin, from Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005) to the south-west Mediterranean Sea (Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002) and the Alboran Sea (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This is a worldwide, generally oceanic species in tropical to temperate waters. It is present from Newfoundland to Argentina in the western Atlantic, and from Scandinavia to South Africa in the eastern Atlantic, but is not found in the Baltic or North Seas. It is widespread but not common in the Mediterranean Sea.
190422		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, found on slopes adjacent to deep water. It is usually a shy species, but may become accustomed to divers in certain locations (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). This fish often drifts at the surface while lying on its side, or it swims upright and close to the surface, often with its dorsal fin projecting above the water. The species has been filmed in 480 m depth with the help of a camera equipped with baits (Maclaren pers. comm. 2007). It feeds on fishes, molluscs, zooplankton, jellyfish, crustaceans and brittle stars (Clemens and Wilby 1961, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). A live colony of goose barnacles (<em>Lepas anatifera</em>) were found attached to the anterior portion of the esophagus of an individual that was stranded in the south coast of Terceira Island, Azores Archipelago in 2004. This association has apparent advantages for the goose barnacles (e.g., regular intake of food and protection both from hydrodynamic hazards and from predators), but for the sunfish, it is not clear whether it is neutral association or if it causes feeding problems since the attachment may obstruct the sunfish's esophagus (Barreiros and Teves 2005). It is recorded as the heaviest bony fish, as well as the bony fish with the most eggs in the Guinness Book of World Records (Foot 2000). It produces very numerous and small eggs; 300 million eggs were found in a 1.5 m female (Tortonese 1986). Juveniles are preyed upon by California sea lions in Monterey Bay (Powell 2001).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this is a large, pelagic species (reaching over 3 m in diameter) occurs from sea level to 360 m (Fischer et al. 1987). It can come close to the coast in some areas in the summertime.
190422		population	eng	This is not a common species in the Mediterranean Sea. It can appear in large groups in some areas, mostly in late spring and summertime when it is found close to the surface. In Israel, it was very rare, but in recent years it has been caught more often (but is still considered rare) (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007). It is less present in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
190422		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance, caught mainly by seines. It is an important bycatch of driftnets. It is generally not eaten, but is considered by some as a delicacy (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is used in Chinese medicine (Tang 1987). It may contain the same toxin as puffers and porcupine fish (Parsons 1986). The species does not adapt well in captivity (Göthel 1992, Powell 2001).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there is a localized fishery for this species in the straight of Messina (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). It is caught by traps and harpoons and was a common bycatch in pelagic driftnets before they were banned in European countries in 2002, and in 2005 in other Mediterranean countries (ICCAT regulations). Purse seine bycatch may be a threat to the species in the region.
190425		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
190425		distribution	eng	For this species, there are scattered records in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987): in Adriatic Sea (Bombace and Froglia 1973) and Catalan Sea (Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984). <br/><br/>It is also found In the eastern Atlantic, southwest of Ireland and Bay of Biscay to Mauritania and from Gabon to Namibia.
190425		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic and mesopelagic species (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
190425		population	eng	This is a rare species in Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
190425		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. Major threats are unknown.
190431		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
190431		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), but is not endemic. Its range includes the Catalan Sea (Carrasson and Cartes 2002), the central and western Italian coasts (Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Balearic Islands (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Turkish waters (Basusta <em>et al.</em> 2001), Levantine basin, and the Ionian (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Aegean Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988).
190431		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It feeds of suprabenthos (mainly decapods, siphonophors, pyrosomids), infauna and planktonic preys (Carrasson and Cartes 2002).
190431		population	eng	This species is fairly common. The mean density for this species was of 14ind/h during 24h trawling in central and western Italian coasts (Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190431		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited.  No major threats are known.
190432		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
190432		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in all oceans. It is found in most of the Mediterranean Sea except for the southeastern Mediterranean near Egypt.
190432		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic species on the slope of the continental shelf from 100 to 800 m, sometimes oceanic. It swims near the bottom, solitary or by pairs and feeds on fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
190432		population	eng	A well known species, but not common in the Mediterranean.
190432		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is a bycatch of semi-industrial and artisanal fishery, it is mainly caught through bottom trawls and lines (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
190446		conservation	eng	There is no information available on conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
190446		distribution	eng	<em>Schedophilus ovalis</em> is an Atlantic species. In the eastern Atlantic, it has been recorded from Spain and throughout most of the Mediterranean. Although it has been reported to occur in South Africa (Haedrich 1990), Smith (1995, in Heemstra 1995) mentions that the species occurring in southern Africa is not <em>S. ovalis</em> but <em>Schedophilus velaini</em>. In the western central Atlantic, a small specimen was recorded from Bermuda.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>S. ovalis</em> is widespread from the western basin and most of the eastern basin to the southern Aegean Sea (it is not present in central or northern Aegean) and to the Levant. <em>S. ovalis</em> was recently reported around the Balearic Islands (Deudero 2001), in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007), and in the north Adriatic Sea. It is not present off coast of Algeria. In the northwest Mediterranean this species is not frequent and has been reported from the Balearic Islands, Corsica, the Ligurian Sea and the Adriatic. It is only occasionally observed in the north-western Mediterranean (Francour and Javel 2003).
190446		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that prefers deep water at the edge of continental shelves and around oceanic islands. Larger specimens occur near the bottom (Haedrich 1986). Young are epipelagic and associate with floating jellyfish, including <em>Physalia</em> (Haedrich 1986). Adults are caught on hooks baited with fish or squid.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurs mainly around Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs) (Deudero 2001, Andaloro 2007), feeding mainly on polychaetes and amphipoda (Deudero 2001).
190446		population	eng	This species occurs in north-western Mediterranean but is only occasionally observed or fished.  It is not a dominant species in fish assemblages; however, the number of records have increased steadily since 1995-2000. (Francour and Javel 2003)
190446		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that can be utilized as a food fish. However, it is not commercially fished in the Mediterranean Sea.
190452		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.
190452		distribution	eng	This circumtropical species is found from Nova Scotia, Canada to Argentina in the western Atlantic (Robins and Ray 1996), and from the British Isles (rare vagrant) and Bay of Biscay to Angola in the east, including the Mediterranean Sea and Canary Islands.  In the Mediterranean basin, <em>N. ductor</em> occurs in the Iberian waters (Deudero 2001, Deudero and Morales-Nin 2001) and in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is also found in the Eastern Pacific, from Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada) to the Galapagos Islands (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).  It is also common throughout the Indian Ocean (Smith-Vaniz 1986).
190452		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic species with a semi-obligate commensal relationship with sharks, rays, other bony fishes and turtles (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).  In the Mediterranean Sea, it is only sometimes associated with large nektonic organisms (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).  Young are usually associated with jellyfish and drifting seaweed (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983, May and Maxwell 1986). Often <em>N. ductor</em> is found associated with FADs (Deudero 2001, Deudero and Morales-Nin 2001, Andaloro et al. 2007).  It feeds on scraps of host's left over prey, parasites and excrement, and also on small fishes and invertebrates (Edwards 1990).
190452		population	eng	Deudero (2001) recorded 319 specimens (5.3 to 30.8 cm TL) collected fortnightly in two FAD stations from a commercial fishing boat by means of an experimental purse seine of 64 m length and 14 m height with a codend mesh of 2 mm. Data were collected from a total of 133 hauls carried out on 38 sampling dates from April 1995 to February 1997.<br/><br/>This species has been caught along with dolphinfish under FADS (using purse seiners) between September and December and highly fluctuates between 1-30 mt per year from 1991-1996 (Renones <em>et al. </em>1999).  In Italy catch is quite variable but it is commonly found in the market and the fishing season is from late summer to November (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).  It is uncommon in the eastern Mediterranean.
190452		threats	eng	This species is of minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and purse seines but can be captured also at the surface using hand nets (Weitkamp and Sullivan 2003). Its use for aquaculture is rare but it can be found in public aquariums. It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is caught by <span class="st">Fish Aggregating Device (FADS), gill nets, purse seiners, and hand lines (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).
190453		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
190453		distribution	eng	This species is present in east Atlantic, from the Mauritanian Upwelling Region (15°N-20°N) with isolates as far as 30°N. In the west Atlantic, it is present from Greenland to the USA.<br/><br/>This species is also present in the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987): in the Strait of Sicily (Scotto di Carlo 1982, Costa 1991, Mallefet and Shimomura 1995, Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1998, Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004), Catalan coasts (Moreno-Amich and Garcia-Berthou 1985, Sabates and Maso 1990), in the east Mediterranean Sea (Bello 1990, Deval 2002), north-west Mediterranean Sea (Torchio 1975, Lago de Lanzos 1981, Sabatés and Masò 1992, Sabatés and Saiz 2000, Cartes <em>et al.</em> 2002, Sabatés <em>et al.</em> 2003, Sabatés 2004, Mallol Martìnez 2005), Ionian Sea (Costa 1991, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Adriatic and Ligurian Gulf (Costa 1991), Catalan coast (Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984), Marmara Sea and Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu 2002).
190453		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic and mesopelagic species (Hulley 1990). It is found at the surface and down to 125 m and found between 225 and 750 m during the day (Hulley 1990). It feeds on copepods, euphausiids, zoea stages of Brachyura and fish fry (Hulley 1984). It is sexually mature when 5 cm long. Females produce 8-900 eggs (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
190453		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>They move in large schools and, in the Mediterranean area, are known to breed from April to July.
190453		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
190458		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.
190458		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from Portugal to Angola, including the western Mediterranean Sea.  In the western Atlantic, it is found from  Nova Scotia, Canada to the northern Gulf of Mexico and Uruguay (Robins and Ray 1986), including the Greater Antilles (Cervigón 1993).  It is absent from eastern Lesser Antilles (Smith 1997).  Indian Ocean records are probably misidentifications of <em>Caranx ignobilis</em>.  Reports from the Pacific refer to <em>Caranx caninus</em>, which may be a conspecific.
190458		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species that is oceanodromous. This species is found generally in neritic waters over the continental shelf (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).  It ascends rivers (Smith 1997).  Juveniles are abundant in brackish estuaries with muddy substrata, near sandy beaches and on seagrass beds (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).  It forms fast-moving schools, although larger fish may be solitary.  It feeds on smaller fish, shrimp, and other invertebrates (Böhlke and Chaplin 1993).  It often grunts or croaks when caught.
190458		population	eng	This species is present but not common.  It is very rare in museum collections from the Mediterranean (Smith-Vaniz and Carpenter 2007).
190458		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that could be caught with various gears. This species can be used in public aquariums.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean this species is sometimes caught under FADs (Fish Aggregating Devices), otherwise it is caught by bottom trawl, gill net, longlines, hand and troll lines and beach and boat seines.
190464		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species.
190464		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in tropical to temperate waters in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. In the western Atlantic it is found from Newfoundland to Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from Scotland to South Africa, including Azores and the Canary Islands. It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea, though rarer in the eastern region, with only one record from the Adriatic Sea and absent from Israel and Maramara and Black seas.<br/><br/>This species has been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (Tortonese 1986). It has a wide range in the Mediterranean Sea, but it is rare in the east part of the basin.  It has never been collected in Israel (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007). It is not present in the Marmara Sea. And there is only one report from the Adriatic Sea.
190464		habitat	eng	This species is benthopelagic, and primarily oceanic (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983, Schneider 1990), but it may enter estuaries (Smith and Heemstra 1986). It feeds on crustaceans and squids (Tortonese 1986).<br/><br/>There is no information on the depth range at which this species is found in the Mediterranean Sea, but all current reported catches are from surface waters (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).
190464		population	eng	This species is rare in the east Mediterranean Sea. There is no information on population size or trends throughout the region.
190464		threats	eng	It is taken as bycatch in longline and surface water fisheries.<br/><br/>There are no visible or known major threats for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
190466		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
190466		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Papconstantinou 1988, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006) but is not endemic.<br/><br/>In the west Atlantic Ocean, this species is found from the USA south to Brazil.  In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from the United Kingdom south to Morocco.
190466		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic and mesopelagic species. It occurs between 100 and 700-800 m in daytime and from 0-150 m during the night (mainly 0-45 m) (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>Lantern fish are considered a main diet of common terns and swordfish.
190466		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the west Mediterranean Sea.
190466		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
190471		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
190471		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from the British Isles to South Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the central Adriatic Sea (Regner 1981), in the Tuscany and Latium coasts (Biagi <em>et al.</em> 2002), in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), in the Sicily strait (Maurin 1962) and in Israeli waters (Golani 2005).
190471		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species that exhibits diel vertical migrations. Juveniles and adults live at 400-700 m by day and 100-200 m by night (Badcock 1984). Photophores develop in fishes over 18-35 mm SL (Badcock 1984).
190471		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trend.<br/><br/>In the east Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence of this species is 1.9 (abundance = 0.1/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190471		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
190492		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known or proposed for this species. This frog occurs in at least one protected area, APA da Margem Direita do Rio Negro (A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010), and known threats are thought to be localized within this species' range. More information is needed on this species' extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population  status, and the specific identity of subpopulations included in this assessment.</p>
190492		distribution	eng	This frog is known from the State of Amazonas, Brazil, where it occurs south of Manaus in the vicinity of large rivers, including the Rio Amazon and Rio Negro  (Lima <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010; A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010). It has been found between 40 and 60 m asl. Ongoing research in this  region may reveal this recently-described species to have a greater extent of  occurrence than is currently recognized (I. Kaefer pers. comm.  October 2010).
190492		habitat	eng	This frog occurs in old-growth lowland rainforest, and is apparently restricted to fragments which were formerly subject to seasonal flooding (<em>paleovárzea</em>) (A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010). The species is replaced by related forms in dry (<em>terra firme</em>) and seasonally flooded forest (Lima <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This leaf litter frog uses pools within both permanent and temporary forest streams for larval development (A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010).
190492		population	eng	This is a common species at known sites, and monitoring at two localities since its discovery suggests populations have been stable over a period of at least three years (A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010). At least one population is confined to fragments of suitable forest isolated by deforestation, but this fragmentation is thought to be a localized phenomenon (A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010).
190492		threats	eng	A population close to the city of Manaus may be at risk from deforestation resulting from road-building and consequent urban development (I. Kaefer pers. comm. December 2010). Logging and mining are also thought to represent localized threats to this species (A. Lima &amp; I. Kaefer pers. comm. October 2010).
190494		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It has, however, only recently been described, is known only  from a poorly-surveyed region, and there is still little known about its  area of occupancy, population status, ecological requirements and threats, suggesting that further research is needed into these aspects.<br/></p>
190494		distribution	eng	The species was described from a site 15 km from the town of Sinimbu, central Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil at 200–600 m asl (Kwet 2008), and has also been recorded from locations in the municipalities of Arvorezinha and Dois Lajeados, at distances of up to 100 km from the Sinimbu locality (A. Kwet pers. comm.<em></em> October 2010). It is likely that this species occurs throughout the central Rio Grande do Sul region (A. Kwet pers. comm. October 2010).
190494		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to steep, forested areas bordering small streams, both permanent and seasonal, at low to mid elevations. All known sites are confluents of the Rio Pardinho, Rio Forqueta and Rio Guaporé drainages (A. Kwet pers. comm.<em></em> October 2010). Frogs breed in both fast- and slow-flowing water, preferring streams without fish, and affix clutches of 150–350 eggs to foliage and submerged vegetation. In common with other species of the <em>Hypsiboas pulchellus</em> group, larval development is likely to take at least 3–4 months (A. Kwet pers. comm. October 2010).
190494		population	eng	<p>Population densities in this species are apparently low, with only 5–10 males observed at each known locality (A. Kwet pers. comm. October 2010).</p>
190494		threats	eng	This frog's hillside forest habitat is difficult to access and largely continuous throughout its range. Planned dam construction, including a proposed project likely to impact the known Arvorezinha site, may represent a localized threat to some populations; however, this species exhibits a preference for hilly areas at low risk of flooding (A. Kwet pers. comm. October 2010).
190495		conservation	eng	All known populations of this species occur within areas protected by the Brazilian Forest Code or within legal reserves (Nunes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and it may benefit from national programs to encourage sustainable development (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010). More information is needed on its distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
190495		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Brazilian states of Minais Gerais and Goiás, where it occurs in the Municipalities of Cabeceira Grande, Jaraguá and Santo Antônio do Descoberto. Confirmed sites are separated by a straight-line distance of approximately 250 km, and occur within the South American open habitats corridor. The species' known extent of occurrence is 2,329 km², but it is expected to occur more widely  and has been reported from other regions of the Cerrado (Nunes <em>et al.</em> 2010; I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010), although these reports were not available to us at the time of this assessment. It occurs on Brazil's central plateau at 400–800 m asl (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010), and has been recorded as high as 970 m asl  (Nunes <em>et al.</em> 2010).
190495		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species of open wetlands, and appears to preferentially occur in well-vegetated sites close to forest fragments (Nunes <em>et al.</em> 2010). It has been recorded from seasonal marshes during the October to March wet season, but in common with congeners is presumed to be active year-round around both temporary and permanent standing water (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010). The breeding mode is unknown, but frogs are presumed to breed in pond habitats.
190495		population	eng	<p>This is a common species at known sites (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010), but no information is available on population trends. In common with related species, this frog is likely to have strong dispersal abilities and so may be widespread throughout its range (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
190495		threats	eng	Known populations of this species are found among natural Cerrado vegetation within a landscape undergoing agro-industrial expansion for maize, soya and sorghum (Nunes <em>et al.</em> 2010). Animals may be reliant on the presence of nearby forest, which exists only in isolated fragments within the frog's range; however as this species' is able to tolerate at least some degree of habitat degradation, it is unclear to what extent agricultural development represents a threat (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010).
190496		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species, which is not known from any protected areas. Provisions already exist in Brazilian law that require a proportion of farmland to be retained as forest, and enforcement of these is recommended to ensure persistence of this species (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010). More information is needed on this species' distribution, including whether it occurs beyond the Serra, population status, natural history and threats. <br/></p>
190496		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Atlantic Forest in northeastern Brazil. It is known only from Serra da Jibóia in the Municipality of Santa Terezinha, Bahia State, and the only known individual was found at 850 m asl, the highest point of the Serra (Juncá and Nunes 2008).
190496		habitat	eng	The only known site where this frog occurs represents an ecological transition between humid Atlantic Forest and drier, more open woodland (Caatinga) (Juncá and Nunes 2008). This area retains the tall trees characteristic of the Atlantic Forest, but is less humid (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010). No life history information is available, but it is presumed this frog shares the reproductive habits of other Atlantic Forest marsupial frogs, which brood their young on the adult's body and lack a free-living larval stage.
190496		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen. No population status information is currently available for this species.
190496		threats	eng	Remaining forest habitat in this frog's known range is heavily fragmented and surrounded by small farms (Juncá and Nunes 2008). Agricultural disturbance in the range does not extend as high as 850 m, where the species has been found, but may represent a threat in the near future (I. Nunes pers. comm. December 2010). No information is available on the species' population density or ability to survive within disturbed landscapes. This species is only known to occur at the highest point of a mountain range, and may be susceptible to the effects of climate change.
190498		conservation	eng	The species is protected under the French law. However, there is no specific conservation plan for this species.
190498		distribution	eng	This French endemic occurs in the Aspe valley, in the Western Pyrenees (Pyrénées Atlantiques).
190498		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
190498		population	eng	There are no population data available.
190498		threats	eng	Quarrying and road enlargement might affect the few known localities.
190499		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
190499		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to France (Upper Garonne catchment in Ariège) and Andorra.
190499		habitat	eng	This species is a rock-dwelling species living on limestone.
190499		population	eng	There are no population data available, but the species is common where it occurs. Therefore the population trend is assumed to be stable.
190499		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species. Quarrying and road enlargement might affect part of its subpopulations.
190502		conservation	eng	<p>Large parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
190502		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the central and northwestern part of Fuerteventura.</p>
190502		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal). This is a ground dwelling species living under stones and in the soil.<br/></p>
190502		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
190502		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known, only small parts of the range can possibly be affected by agricultural activities.<br/></p>
190511		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. This snake occurs in two protected areas in Lao PDR, but is not known from protected areas in Viet Nam. Villages exist within the boundaries of the protected sites in Lao PDR, and so the level of effective protection this status affords the snake is unclear. Research is needed to clarify the distribution and population status of this rarely-encountered snake, and to establish its continued presence in Cambodia.
190511		distribution	eng	This snake is known from Viet Nam, where it has been recorded from Dong Tam Ve (Quang Tri Province), from Thua Thien-Hue Province, and from Cam Ly, Lac Duong and Da Lat in Lam Dong Province (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and from southern Lao PDR (Stuart and Heatwole 2008). It occurs as disjunct subpopulations due to the distribution of suitable highland regions. Smith (1943) reports this snake from Bokor in southwest Cambodia; however it has never since been reported from this country, and recent surveys throughout the Cardamom Mountains have failed to record it (Stuart and Emmet 2006, Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It occurs at high elevations, from 1,000 to 1,800 m asl. The snake's extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of its centres of distribution, is approximately 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
190511		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial snake associated with leaf litter and fallen logs, close to flowing streams in intact, closed-canopy evergreen forest. It is absent from even lightly-degraded habitats.
190511		population	eng	No population data are available. This is an infrequently encountered snake, but it is not clear whether this is because it is rare or because, as a small, secretive highland snake it is undersampled (B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011) It has not been recorded from the type locality since 1953, despite a number of intensive surveys at this site since 2008 (B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011). Smith (1943) reports that this snake is "Not uncommon at Bokor", but no recent work in this well-surveyed site has reported this species.
190511		threats	eng	Much of the Langbian Plateau has been converted to coffee plantations and agriculture, as this is the major coffee-producing region of Viet Nam. The type locality near Da Lat is not thought to fall within an existing protected area, and it is unknown whether the exact locality, likely to have been on or close to a high peak, has now been degraded. Subsistence-scale timber extraction and slash-and-burn agriculture by local villagers occur throughout the snake's range. The top of the Bolaven Plateau in Lao PDR, where this snake is also known to occur (Stuart and Heatwole 2008), has been almost completely cleared for coffee-growing, as this is the major coffee-growing region of Lao PDR.
190512		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This snake is only known from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park. Surveys are needed to identify additional records of this snake, and to obtain information on its distribution, population status and natural history, and on its exposure to and sensitivity to threats from logging and agricultural development.
190512		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the Annamite Mountains of central Viet Nam, where it has been recorded from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh Province, at 350 m asl.
190512		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests on limestone. The known specimen was found dead close to the edge of a cliff.
190512		population	eng	No population data is available for this recently-described species, which is known from a single specimen.
190512		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by habitat degradation and loss, as   deforestation is occurring within the Annamites. Illegal logging for   hardwoods and slash-and-burn agriculture are the major threats to this   area, but occur at only small scales.
190514		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place.
190514		distribution	eng	This species occurs from extreme southern Myanmar southward to Sundaland (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo). Its presence in Myanmar is marginal , where it is known only from an old record taken at Victoria Point (= Kawthaung) (Smith 1943), a border town at the southernmost tip of mainland Myanmar. There is one record from southern Thailand, from Sai Kao waterfall in Pattani reported by Taylor (1965), but there are no more recent records from this country. It is therefore considered rare ar the northern limit of its range (southern Myanmar and southern Thailand).
190514		habitat	eng	The species is found from sea level to up to 1,300 m elevation, but is most common between 500 and 1,100 m. It is semi-fossorial and occurs in damp areas near water, including forests, swamps, and marshes, and especially rice fields. It feeds only on frogs. The species is oviparous and lays 2-4 eggs (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996). In Peninsular Malaysia it is found in swampy areas and streams up to 400 metres above sea level.
190514		population	eng	The species is seldom encountered, although it is common in Java (David and Vogel 1996). As it frequents irrigated cultivated fields and rice fields (Smith 1943; David and Vogel 1996) it may be increasing in population size.
190514		threats	eng	No major threats are apparent to this semi-fossorial, secretive species that is tolerant of wet agricultural lands such as rice fields. The species and its frog prey may however be susceptible to agricultural pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides.
190562		conservation	eng	Further information on the population, distribution, and impact of current and future threats is required for this recently described species.
190562		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality on the Kaladan (Chimtuipui) River, Mizoram, India.
190562		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from clear freshwater streams with sandy and rocky beds.
190562		population	eng	No information available.
190562		threats	eng	Deforestation and siltation may cause habitat loss of the species since it has the habit of clinging to hard substrata with the help of its adhesive device. The proposed Kaladan multi-purpose project which involves waterway transport from Sittwe port in Myanmar to Mizoram (India) in future may also disturb the habitat of the fish. There are proposals for dam construction across Kaladan river.
190611		conservation	eng	Most populations in China are found within protected areas. There is a need for additional research into the distribution of this species.
190611		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from southern mountain regions of China  (Yunnan, Guangxi, Sichuan and Fujian provinces), northern and northwest  Viet Nam, northern Myanmar and probably northern Lao PDR at elevation  between 1,000 to 3,000 m asl. This species exhibits a highly disjunct distribution within its extent of occurrence.
190611		habitat	eng	This fossorial snake is found in leaf litter in forest at higher elevations. It can be encountered in secondary forest. It is oviparous and nocturnal and feeds on small vertebrates.
190611		population	eng	No population data are available, as this species is known from relatively few records and its occurrence within its wide distribution appears to be highly fragmentary.
190611		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
190620		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to determine this snake's true distribution, population status, its natural history, and the identity of any threats to which it may be exposed.
190620		distribution	eng	The species occurs in northeastern India (Assam) and northern Myanmar (Smith 1943). However, twelve years of recent surveys in Myanmar have found the species only once, in the Haka area in Chin state (G. Wogan 2011 pers. comm. August 2011). Therefore the true extent of its range in this area is unknown.
190620		habitat	eng	No ecological information is available,&#160; although it probably occurs in upland forest based on its known range.
190620		population	eng	No information is available on this snake's population size. It is believed to be very rare, recent surveys throughout Myanmar having reported it only once, in 2003.
190620		threats	eng	Given the absence of recent data on this snake, and on its habitat requirements, nothing is known about threats to this species.
190628		conservation	eng	Captive breeding to supply animals for the pet trade would take pressure of wild populations. It is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the status of this species in Viet Nam.
190628		distribution	eng	This species is found in China (Guangxi, Hainan Prov.) and Viet Nam (Tam Dao [Orlov et al., 2000]; Son La, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Ha Tinh, Ha Tay, Quang Ninh, Hai Phongm Ha Tinh [Nguyen et al., 2009]). It ranges from 300 to 1,500m asl.
190628		habitat	eng	This arboreal snake is associated with forests, where it can be found near to streams and lakes. Animals can persist in degraded forest. It is an oviparous species. The diet consists of small vertebrates.
190628		population	eng	There is little information available on the abundance or trends in population for this species. It appears to be an uncommon species.
190628		threats	eng	There is some threat to the species from habitat degradation, although much of its range is within protected areas.
190641		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats. There is a need to review the trade in this species, including monitoring of both local markets in China and of internet-based international trade (D-q. Rao pers. comm. March 2012) and possibly introduce regulations on exports. The species is not presently listed on CITES.
190641		distribution	eng	This snake is found in southern and central China, from western Yunnan and southern Shaanxi east to Zhejiang, south to Guangxi. It ranges into northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam (Zhao 1993). It has been found at elevations of 100 to 2,200 m asl.
190641		habitat	eng	This viper lives in mountainous areas, above altitudes of 2,000 feet (610 m). It is found in open areas, rocky areas, sometimes in villages, and also in forest or shrubland. The largest specimens are just under thirty inches in length. The diet in the wild is unknown, one captive specimen fed upon small pre-killed laboratory mice. They are reported to be oviparous, and lay about six eggs.
190641		population	eng	It is a uncommon species, but may be under-recorded due to its secretive habits and limited field surveys for this snake (D-q.&#160; Rao pers. comm. March 2012). It is described as being very rare in Vietnam (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. March 2012). Although some population decline is possible as a result of exploitation for the international pet trade, due to this snake's rarity and low overall levels of exploitation, this is not thought likely to approach 30% over a ten-year period (M. Lau pers. comm.&#160; March 2012).
190641		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species, which survives in degraded habitats and has a large range. As a cryptic and apparently rare snake, however, there is little information on threats generally (M. Lau pers. comm. March 2012). There is some exploitation of the species for the pet trade, where it is in high demand among hobbyists with an interest in rare and attractive vipers. This is however a minority interest among reptile keepers, and consequently the overall level demand for this snake is "rather small" (M. Lau pers. comm. March 2012). While the pet trade is only considered to be a minor threat at present due to the limited level of exploitation, this situation requires monitoring (D-q. Rao pers. comm. March 2012).
190646		conservation	eng	The area where this species occurs is included in two National Parks. There are no species-specific conservation actions in place for this species.
190646		distribution	eng	It is recorded from the forested area in Sabah, within the Kinabalu National Park, in Malaysia. It is known from two sites, G. Kinabalut and Crocker Range between 915 and 1,550 m asl (Das 2010).
190646		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the leaf litter of submontane forests. It is terrestrial and is more active at night.
190646		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is not rare in suitable habitats.
190646		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, the habitats where this species occurs are small and may shrink due to stochastic events.
190674		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190674		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia from north of Sydney, New South Wales to the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. It also occurs along the north and east coasts of Tasmania.
190674		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seagrass beds in estuaries and shallow coastal waters in depths to 15 m (Gomon<em> et al.</em> 2008). In estuarine habitats and sheltered waters it often forms large schools (Gomon and Paxton 1985). It is more abundant in <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> seagrass beds than <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> or <em>Posidonia coriacea</em> (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).<br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic, but little is known of its life history. Some females attain a maximum size equal to that of the largest males, and some males appear mature at a relatively small size (Gomon and Paxton 1985). It may exhibit size-related offshore movement from nearshore seagrass beds to offshore seagrass beds, where spawning is likely to occur (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).<br/><br/>Considered primarily as an opportunistic omnivore, feeding mainly on polychaetes; also gastropods, crustaceans (crab and amphipods), algae and seagrass (mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span>) are common; forams, bivalves, and ophiuroids were also found in the stomachs of individuals (Edgar and Shaw 1995, MacArthur and Hyndes 2007).
190674		population	eng	This species is extremely common in many parts of the southern coast of Australia (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Attained maximum density of about five individuals per 500 m²<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><sup><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></sup>in mid-estuary in the Port River-Barker Inlet Estuary, South Australia (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1996).
190674		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species at present time. Habitat destruction due to coastal development in New South Wales will likely impact this species in the future.
190675		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190675		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia, from Newcastle, New South Wales to Beacon Island, Western Australia. It is also found along the north and east coasts of Tasmania.
190675		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths down to about 25 m. It is mostly restricted to exposed coastlines with rocky reefs covered with brown macroalgae, and in offshore seagrass beds. Adults are much more common in beds of <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> than other seagrasses, while juveniles are equally abundant in <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001, Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 2003). It feeds on detritus, bivalves, gastropods, ascidians and bryozoans, with some seagrass and algae (Choat and Clements 1992, Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005, MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). While it is sexually dichromatic, little known of life history. It is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2010).
190675		population	eng	Densities of up to 3.8 individuals per 500 m² were recorded in a kelp forest at the Althorpe Islands, central South Australia (Shepherd <em>et al.</em> 2005). A mean density of about 4–5 individuals per 500 m² was recorded in <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em>seagrass beds off Fremantle, Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It occurs at lower densities in <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span> beds.
190675		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190676		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190676		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia from north of Sydney, New South Wales to Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. It occurs around the coast of Tasmania (Gomon and Paxton 1985).
190676		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths down to about 22 m. It is very common in Tasmania where it is found primarily in estuaries and inshore sheltered waters in depths to 15 m. In Victoria, it occurs in seagrass beds, and in S. Australia is commonly found around shallow rocky reefs (Gomon and Paxton 1985). It is more abundant in <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia sinuosa </span>than <span style="font-style: italic;">Amphibolis griffithii</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">P. coriacea s</span>eagrass beds in western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001), at depths of 3-10 m (Scott 1976). Diet consists mostly of benthic crustaceans (mainly gammarid amphipods), molluscs (gastropods and bivalves) and polychaetes (Scott 1976, Edgar and Shaw 1995, MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). It undertakes an ontogenetic shift in diet from predominantly gastropods in juveniles to predominantly amphipods in larger fish (MacArthur and Hyndes 2007).<br/><br/>Reaches about 16 cm SL (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Sexually dichromatic, but little known of its life history. Mature and ripe gonads were present in winter and spring in southwestern Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).
190676		population	eng	This species is most common over the southern part of its range, in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia.
190676		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species at the present time. In Victoria, populations could be affected if the seagrass beds are threatened in the future.
190677		conservation	eng	In the northern region of New Zealand, there is a daily recreational limit of 20 combined finfish, including Bluefinned Butterfish.
190677		distribution	eng	This species is confined to a 25 km coastline around the Three Kings Islands, north-west of the northern tip of New Zealand. Although some individuals have also been recorded at Cape Reinga and isolated specimens have been seen on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand at Cape Brett and at the Poor Knights Islands (Brook 2002).
190677		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow kelp forest, 1-20 m depth. It is exclusively herbivorous as adults, feeding on laminarian and fucoid macroalgae (Zemke-White and Clements 2004). Appears to prefer the laminarian <em>Ecklonia radiata</em>, but when this is displaced into deeper water by ENSO events, it will eat the fucoids <span style="font-style: italic;">Landsburgia quercifolia </span>and the endemic <em>Sargassum johnsonii</em>. Epiphytic rhodophytes can also comprise up to 20% of their diet. Juveniles are probably omnivorous (like <em>O. pullus</em>).<br/><br/>Maximum age 7 years. VBGF parameters of Linf and K are 325.243 and 0.492, respectively. Sexually dichromatic protogynous hermaphrodite. Females reproductively mature at about 200 mm (Ayling and Paxton 1983). Age and size of smallest male 2 years and 265 mm (FL), respectively. Ratio of terminal phase to initial phase fish very low, varying from 1:48 to 1:164 (Ayling and Paxton 1983).
190677		population	eng	There are few data available on abundance, but Choat and Ayling (1987) give mean densities of 8.2 ± 1.4 SE per 500 m<sup>2</sup> in Southeast Bay, Great King Island. This species is abundant only at the Three Kings Islands.
190677		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190678		conservation	eng	New Zealand's Butterfish fishery is managed by strict quotas, which allow only a set amount of Butterfish to be taken commercially each year. The Total Allowable Commercial Catch (TACC) was set at 162 metric tonnes for the 2008/09 fishing year. In northern New Zealand, Butterfish may not be collected smaller than 35 cm, and with a net with a mesh size below 108 mm. In the Northern Region there is a daily recreational limit of 20 combined finfish, including butterfish. This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas in parts of its range.
190678		distribution	eng	This species is found in New Zealand from Cape Reinga to Snares Islands, Chatham Islands, Antipodes Islands and Bounty Islands. It is absent from the Three Kings Islands, where it is replaced by the endemic <em>O. cyanoallix</em>.
190678		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow stands of kelp in exposed rocky areas, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpophyllum maschalocarpum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecklonia radiata</span> in the north, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrocystis pyrifera</span> in the south. It feeds on epiphytic red algae and crustaceans as juveniles; subadults and adults feed on brown algae. <br/><br/>Maximum size (FL) for northern, central and southern populations (respectively) are: Hauraki Gulf: 531 mm, D’Urville Island: 543 mm and Stewart Island: 545 mm. Reported up to 70 cm. Maximum weight 2.5 kg, 1.5 kg in north.<br/><br/>Maximum age for northern, central and southern populations (respectively) are: Hauraki Gulf: 11 years, D’Urville Island: 11 years and Stewart Island: 19 years. VBGF parameters of Linf and K are: Hauraki Gulf: 456.403 and 0.519, D’Urville Island: 522.743 and 0.361, and Stewart Island: 524.984 and 0.177, respectively. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, females release 2,000-6,000 eggs, several times over the mid-winter to mid-summer spawning season. Female age and size at first maturity is 1 year and 241 mm in the Hauraki Gulf (northern), and 3 years and 272 mm at Stewart island (southern), respectively. Age and size of smallest male (i.e. age and size at sex change) are Hauraki Gulf 3 years and 376 mm, D’Urville Island 5 years and 445 mm, and Stewart Island 5 years and 377 mm, respectively.
190678		population	eng	This species is locally abundant where there is suitable kelp habitat, but is more common in southern New Zealand. Mean abundance for northern, central and southern populations (respectively) are: Hauraki Gulf: 1.27 ± 0.29, D’Urville Island: 2.38 ± 0.87 and Stewart Island: 13.73 ± 3.11 individuals per 300 m<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>They are more restricted to sites with water movement in northern New Zealand, so northern populations are likely to be more fragmented. <br/><br/>Annual landings of 50 t or more have been recorded from 1935 onwards, mainly in Cook Strait but to a lesser extent around the Otago, Southland and Stewart Island coasts. The recreational catch is unknown, but is estimated to be greater than the commercial catch, and the total annual catch may be as much as 500 tonnes (Paul <em>et al.</em> 2000).
190678		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species at present time. Severe storm events may impact habitat in some areas. Climate change may have some impact on the species at the northern end of its range, as haemoglobin work suggests that Butterfish are near their thermal limit in northern New Zealand in summer (Brix <em>et al.</em> 1998).
190679		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190679		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia from Angourie Point, northern New South Wales to the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. It is also found around the coast of Tasmania.
190679		habitat	eng	This species occurs in kelp forest (mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecklonia radiata</span>) down to about 30m depth. It occurs along exposed rocky coasts usually with brown macroalgae (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Jones 1992) and less frequently in <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> seagrass beds (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). Herbivorous as adult: feeds almost exclusively on <em>Ecklonia radiata</em> (Andrew and Jones 1990), but in South Australia also takes the apical receptacles of the fucoids <em>Cystophora spp</em>. and <em>Sargassum spp</em>. (Shepherd and Baker 2008). <br/><br/>Females are known to feed on meristems and primary laminae of <em>E. radiata </em> (which decapitates plants), while males feed only on laminae (Andrew and Jones 1990, Jones and Andrew 1990). In New South Wales in August to October this feeding by females creates clear patches of substratum, which are then colonized by recruit <em>E. radiata </em> (Andrew and Jones 1990), but this clearing behaviour was not seen in South Australia (Shepherd and Baker 2008).  It is sexually dichromatic, but little is known of its life history. Possibly a protogynous hermaphrodite, but males are generally smaller than the largest females in collected samples.
190679		population	eng	This species was frequently encountered on the southern coast of Australia but usually in low numbers (Gomon in Gomon<em> et al.</em> 2008). Jones (1992) reports mean densities between 0-7.6 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> at 12 rocky reef locations near Melbourne, Victoria. Maximum recorded densities are 2.25, 5.2, 10 and 11.6 fish per 500 m<sup>2</sup> in Bunurong Marine National Park, Victoria, and at the Althorpe Islands, Haystack Islands, and Chinaman’s Hat Island, South Australia, respectively (Stewart <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). It is most abundant in Victoria at depths of 1.5-5 m (Jones 1992), and more abundant in 2-5 m than 10-15 m depth in South Australia (Shepherd <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190679		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190680		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.
190680		distribution	eng	This species is found the southern coast of Australia from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria to Rottnest Island, Western Australia and north-east Tasmania and Flinders Island. It is not recorded from the Great Australian Bight, but probably occurs there (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190680		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths from 5-35 m, but mainly deeper than 15 m. It is often found on rocky reefs and drop-offs near the bottom in fine brown and red algae zones or deeper areas with sparse seagrass (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is recorded from both <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> and <em>Posidonia coriacea</em> seagrass beds in Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It is sexually dimorphic, but there is no data available on life history.
190680		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190680		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190681		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.
190681		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia from Flinders Island, Bass Strait to Perth, Western Australia. It is not found around the island of Tasmania.
190681		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths down to about 40 m, but usually to 15 m, in sheltered waters and embayments, it appears restricted to areas of seagrass, mainly Posidonia sinuosa (Gomon and Paxton 1985, MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). There are no known colour differences between sexes and little is known of the species' life history.
190681		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190681		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190682		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.
190682		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria to Rottnest Island,Western Australia. It is found in the northeastern coast of Tasmania and Flinder's Island (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190682		habitat	eng	This species occurs in depths down to about 40 m, but more common in 15-20 m, where it congregates in small numbers. Juveniles are found as shallow as 5 m in sheltered bays, and juveniles and adults occur in small loose groups, whereas large adults (perhaps males) occur singly (R. Kuiter pers. comm. 2009). It is usually found at some distance from shore over sandy areas associated with seagrass and low rocky outcrops (Gomon and Paxton 1985). In Western Australia, it is almost entirely associated with patchy <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia coriacea</span> meadows (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). There is little information available on its life history characteristics.
190682		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190682		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190683		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190683		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia from Portland, Victoria to Fisherman Islands, Western Australia, northern Tasmania, including the Furneaux Group and Tamar River Estuary, Tasmania (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190683		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters with soft bottoms and seagrass in depths from 1-18 m (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Gomon<em>et al.</em> 2008, MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). In Western Australia, densities are greater in <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> than both <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> and <em>P. coriacea</em> in autumn and summer, but not in winter and spring (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It is most abundant in <em>P. sinuosa </em>(MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It is usually found in less than 10 m, and may be absent from most of Victorian coast because of lack of suitable shallow habitat (R. Kuiter pers comm. 2009). It is less abundant in nearshore than offshore <em>P. sinuosa</em> beds in Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on crustaceans and mollusks (Scott 1976), especially gammarid and caprellid amphipods, harpacticoid copepods, carid decapods, tanaids and mytilid bivalves (MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). Gastropods can be important dietary items in <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sinuosa </span>beds (MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). It is sexually dichromatic, but there is no available data on life history.
190683		population	eng	This species achieves densities of well over 50 fish per 500 m<sup>2</sup> in both <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> and <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> seagrass beds in Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).
190683		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190684		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.
190684		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia, from Wilsons Promontory and Portland Victoria to the Recherche Archipelago, Western Australia (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190684		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to moderately high-energy exposed coastal locations with dominant stands of brown macroalgae in depths to 19m (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008).  It is a poorly known species. It is cryptic.
190684		population	eng	This species is rarely observed. There is no other population information available.
190684		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species.
190685		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190685		distribution	eng	This species is found from Kenya to at least Delagoa Bay in Mozambique, and east to the Marshall and Tonga Islands.  The record from Somalia needs to be confirmed (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).
190685		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal bays and deep lagoons. It inhabits seagrass beds or dense beds of algae (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It feeds on these or the associated epiphytes (Bruce and Randall 1985). This species is well-camouflaged and easily overlooked (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning at Aldabra Atoll was observed during January, August, September and October occuring above grassflats on the falling tide. Spawning was preceded with the males shaking its head from side to side while attempting to sit on the female's back. During sexual activity the yellow pectorals and yellowish head of the terminal phase male was very prominent and the body turned pinkish with a sooty overlay. The spawning act was very rapid; a terminal phase fish and an initial phase fish would leave the surface of the grass, rush towards the surface of the water and drop rapidly back down to the grass beds. The two fish, which were side by side, rotated in a spiral during the upward rushes. On several occasions, terminal phase males participated as satellite males in the pair spawnings. This species is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite with both primary and secondary males occurring (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1982).
190685		population	eng	At Aldabra and coast of Kenya, this species is relatively abundant in seagrass beds (Robertson<em> et al.</em> 1982). It is common in preferred seagrass bed habitats (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190685		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, habitat loss particularly of seagrass beds will likely impact the species population.
190686		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fishery management in coastal areas in Japan is based on traditional local fishery rights: a group of fishermen (fishery cooperative associations) traditionally assume exclusive rights for operating certain fisheries and, thus, assume all the responsibility for long-term sustainability of resources (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development).This type of management appear to be stable (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).
190686		distribution	eng	This species is found from Taiwan and southern Japan, and at least as far as Tokyo, to Korea. The record from northwest Hawaii was an old record of mis-identified <span style="font-style: italic;">C. zonarcha</span> (R. Myers pers comm. 2010).
190686		habitat	eng	This species is confined to coastal waters in rocky areas with seaweed (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is sexually dichromatic. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. japonicus</span> is a protogynous hermaphrodite: male specimens have secondary testes but primary males are relatively rare, if they occur at all. The species has a weak size-sex relationship: males range from 265 to 345 mm SL, and are larger than the females (202 to 260 mm SL) on average, but a female of 305 mm SL has been  obtained (Kusen and Nakazano 1991).
190686		population	eng	This species is common over its range. It is a prominent member of reef fish communities from central Honshu to Kyoshu, Japan (Kusen and Nakazono 1991).
190686		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190687		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, 70% of the species range is in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument where it is afforded protection.
190687		distribution	eng	This species is found along the entire Hawaiian Island chain (Bruce and Randall 1985).
190687		habitat	eng	This species occurs in areas of coral or rubble, from the lower surge zone to at least 10 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is mostly found from 12-93 m (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009). Specimens from Laysan were taken in 150-170 m (Bruce and Randall 1985). It has been described as a protogynous hermaphrodite (DeMartini<em> et al.</em> 2005).
190687		population	eng	This species is apparently rare, and found only in deep water (Bruce and Randall 1985).
190687		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190688		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190688		distribution	eng	This species is the widest ranging member of the genus, and occurs from the east coast of Africa to the Galapagos and Revillagigedos islands. To the north it extends to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands and south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. The record from Somalia needs to be verified (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).
190688		habitat	eng	This species inhabits subtidal reef flats, and lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of at least 27 m (Myers 1991). It is found in coral, rubble, seagrass (Gell and Whittington 2002, Mundy 2005) and weedy areas (Lieske and Myers, 1994). It occurs singly or in small groups (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds on a variety of benthic encrusting algae, e.g., Padina (Myers 1999) and seagrasses. <br/><br/>Spawning was observed in January and July in Aldabra Atoll (Indian Ocean). Spawning commenced when the terminal phase male started rapidly circling an initial phase fish on the reef slope. In one observed spawning, the two fish came together and the terminal phase stayed on against the back of the initial phase during a short upward rush. In another case, the two were side by side with their cheeks in contact during the upward rush. The pair parted immediately after spawning. This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite which may be monandric in having only secondary males (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1982).
190688		population	eng	This species is cryptic and widespread but is rare throughout its range (Russell and Choat pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species was observed during underwater visual census in Bird's Head and Halmahera, Indonesia but was not recorded in large numbers (Lazuardi and Muljadi pers comm. 2009). It is rare in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190688		threats	eng	In the Coral Triangle region, this species is threatened by habitat destruction by mining in western Indonesia, coastal development, destructive fishing practices like dynamite fishing in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines.
190689		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190689		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Red Sea, ranging from the Gulf of Aqaba to Chagos Archipelago, and Maldives.
190689		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs and grass bed areas to depths of about 30 m. It occurs singly or in small groups (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds mainly on marine angiosperms and epiphytic algae (Bruce and Randall 1985).
190689		population	eng	Abundance estimates in the Red Sea record 2 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in reef environments (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190689		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190690		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190690		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea.
190690		habitat	eng	This is a large parrotfish at 45-50 cm for terminal phase adults. This species occurs in small haremic groups in reef fronts and passes. It inhabits rich coral areas of seaward and lagoon reefs (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). There is no data available on demography and reproductive biology.
190690		population	eng	This species has a restricted distribution but is reasonably common over coral reefs within the Red Sea. In the northern Red Sea, it is found on outer reef slopes with a mean density of 2.2 per 1000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190690		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190691		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190691		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from Somalia to South Africa, extending eastwards to the Tuamotos including eastern Australia and Middleton Reef, northwards to southern Japan and southwards to western Australia.
190691		habitat	eng	This species is a large excavating parrotfish with large males exceeding 55 cm with a maximum size >70 cm (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997) especially over the southern area of its range. It forms small haremic groups with a preferred habitat on reef fronts and slopes and reef passes to depths of 35 m. <br/><br/>The maximum age recorded for this species in the southern region of the Pacific at 25 years. The maximum age recorded was shorter in both the Solomons at 7-8 years and in the Western Indian Ocean at 11 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190691		population	eng	This species is a large parrotfish and is usually relatively rare (2-3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) over most of its range.<br/><br/>Pacific Ocean marine reserve sites average 2-3 individuals per 1000 m<sup>2</sup> or 20-30 individuals per hectare. In the Indian Ocean (Seychelles) abundances are slightly lower at 7-10 individuals per ha (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Abundance estimates in Indonesia record 60-80 individuals per hectare in Aceh, and in Karimunjawa 40-50 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009) and a catch rate of 1.6 kg/trip. It is moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).  <br/><br/>In Guam, only 65 individuals of this distinctive species was recorded in commercial catches from 1985 to 2007. There are no numerical trends observed in the catch rates (R. Myers pers comm. 2009). This species is one of the rarest parrotfish recorded in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190691		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. In the Coral Triangle region, this species is threatened by overfishing, habitat destruction and destructive fishing practices (i.e. dynamite fishing).
190692		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190692		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from East Africa (Kenya to Mozambique) and islands of southwestern Indian Ocean to East Andaman Sea (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It was recorded from Halmahera (Green and Muljadi 2009), however this record needs to be verified.
190692		habitat	eng	This species is a reef front and reef crest excavating species that occurs to 30 m depth. It has been observed to 60 cm (TL) in Christmas Island.
190692		population	eng	Abundance estimates of this species at Cocos Keeling recorded ~5-10 individuals per 300 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009) but it is rare at other sites. It has also been observed in Chagos, Maldives and Mauritius but always rare (Randall and Bruce 1983).
190692		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190693		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190693		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea including Gulf of Aqaba.
190693		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of open sand or rubble in lagoons, bays and on sheltered seaward reefs at depths of 1-25 m. It occurs in small slow-swimming groups near coral heads and patch reefs. It browses on filamentous algae growing on sand (Lieske and Myers 1994, 2004; Randall 1983).
190693		population	eng	This species is relatively rare in the Red Sea (A.M. Ayling pers comm. 2009).
190693		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190694		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190694		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific from eastern Africa to Rapa and Line Islands in Polynesia, northwards to Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan and southwards to Australia including: north of Ningaloo Reef and the southern Great Barrier Reef, Rowley Shoals, Sunda Shelf Reefs, Coral Sea territories and Elizabeth/Middleton Reefs. <br/><br/>Records of this species in Comoro Islands, Phoenix Islands and Hong Kong need to be confirmed. The latter record is based on a photograph of an initial phase specimen (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). It is reported to be moderately abundant and the second most common scarid in Hong Kong (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).
190694		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear outer reef flats and lagoons as well as outer reef slopes to 30 m. It is also found along reef crests and fronts (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It has been observed to spawn in groups or in pairs, usually on an outgoing tide. The initial phase sometimes form small aggregations. It is more common in outer reef habitats than in protected waters. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and diandric.
190694		population	eng	Guam fisheries data from 1985-2007 indicate that out of 22 parrotfishes identified, this species ranked 17th by weight and 13th by numbers harvested with a peak annual estimated take of only 113 kg (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is common in parts of its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190694		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190695		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190695		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Philippines to the southern Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, eastwards to Marshall and Caroline islands, southwards to Scott Reef off northwestern Australia.
190695		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal, sandy areas and lagoon reef slopes, occasionally as shallow as 2 m. It is found solitary or form groups (G. Allen pers comm.). The maximum age recorded was 5 years. It has rapid growth and high turn over rates. Juveniles recruit to shallow rubble areas.
190695		population	eng	In Indonesia, this species is dominant in Siribu Island (P. Rahardjo pers comm. 2009) and was recorded as the most abundant parrotfish in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). Catch rates of 0.2 kg/trip were recorded from Karimunjawa (Wildlife Conservation Society unpub. data). <br/><br/>There was a 40-50% difference in abundance in fished and non-fished zones in the central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009).
190695		threats	eng	This species is fished in parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190696		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range.
190696		distribution	eng	The species is only known from northern Venezuela.
190696		habitat	eng	This species is reef and seagrass associated.
190696		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190696		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any threats to this species.
190697		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190697		distribution	eng	This species is found from Kenya (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009) through Mauritius, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldive Islands, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and the Indian Ocean coast of Sumatra and Java.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Christmas and Cocos Islands, Ashmore Reef, east Timor and a market in Peng Hu, Taiwan (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is also found in Halmahera, Indonesia (Green and Muljadi 2009), Samboan and Sumilon Island, Cebu, Philippines (K. Carpenter pers comm. 2009).
190697		habitat	eng	This species is generally solitary or in small groups. It inhabits reef flats to outer reef slopes from sheltered to moderately exposed environments.
190697		population	eng	This species is widespread but with patchy distribution. It is not common in its range of distribution (Bellwood 2001, Randall and Bruce 1983).<br/><br/>More than 1 and less than 10 individuals were recorded in 1 hour of roving surveys in Sumilon and Samboan, Philippines (K. Carpenter pers comm. 2009).
190697		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is captured for food in parts of its range. However, its habitat on outer reef slopes and small size precludes systematic targeting especially at remote sites.
190698		conservation	eng	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190698		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190698		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated from 1-25 m. It is found in shallow, clear coral and rocky reefs. It feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is often seen in groups of one terminal male with several young adults, most of which are probably females. <br/><br/>In Bermuda, the maximum size recorded was 44 cm (TL) and the maximum age was 20 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190698		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190698		threats	eng	This species is caught in multi-species fisheries throughout its range. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in the population size (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).
190699		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190699		distribution	eng	This species is found in the east coast of Africa from Kenya to South Africa (Sodwana Bay), to Madagascar and east to Rodrigues.
190699		habitat	eng	This species inhabits reef front and outer slopes in depths from 1-25 m. The maximum length recorded was 36 cm (TL) (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).
190699		population	eng	This species is uncommon in most of its range and maybe abundant in Madagascar (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190699		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190700		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190700		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden to Natal, South Africa, eastwards to western Thailand and northwest Indonesia, southwards to Cocos-Keeling.
190700		habitat	eng	This species is small, solitary or forms small schools. It inhabits sheltered water environments (Randall and Bruce 1983).
190700		population	eng	This species is rare in most environments. It was common in the Seychelles with abundance estimates of 5-10 individuals per hectare. It is very rare in Cocos-Keeling and was not recorded from the Red Sea (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It was more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. russelli</span> in Pulau Weh, Aceh, Indonesia (Allen and Erdmann 2005).
190700		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190701		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this  species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected  areas within its range.
190701		distribution	eng	This species is found from Senegal to Annobon Island off Gabon.
190701		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seagrass and rocky reefs.
190701		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190701		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190702		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190702		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands to the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Guam.
190702		habitat	eng	This species is found in coastal to outer reef crests and along drop-offs, usually in small groups (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Randall and Myers 2000). It is found in steep outer reef slopes and offshore banks and outer banks from depths of 20 to at least 40 m.
190702		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190702		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. It is a deeper water species and is not targeted by any fishery.
190703		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected in parts of its range.
190703		distribution	eng	The species is known from Mauritania to Congo, including Cape Verde and Sao Tome archipelagos (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007).
190703		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs and seagrass associated from 3-30m. It feeds mainly on algae. It is found solitary or  in small groups (L. Rocha pers obs. 2009).
190703		population	eng	This species is common in Cape Verde and Sao Tome (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190703		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190704		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190704		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific: widespread in the Indian Ocean (Bellwood 2001), ranging from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa (Randall 1986) and east to Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, and Maldives through the eastern Indian Ocean to French Polynesia and Pitcairn. It is replaced by <em>Scarus forsteni </em>in most of the Pacific, with overlapping distributions in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia and Palau (Myers 1999). Recently reported from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).
190704		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, in areas with dense coral growth (Myers 1999) in depths from 10-40 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is usually solitary, sometimes in groups (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds on benthic algae (Bruce and Randall 1984). The maximum weight published was 2.5 kg (Bruce and Randall 1984).
190704		population	eng	This species is moderately common. It was rare in Cocos Keeling and Christmas Island. Abundance estimates in the Seychelles record 10 individuals per hectare. It is abundant in the central Pacific with estimates of 50-60 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, it was common but not abundant in Aceh (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009), and occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).<br/><br/>It is clearly impacted by fishing in the central Philippines with 40-50% reductions observed between fished and non-fished areas (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190704		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. For example, there are 40-50% reported reductions in the central Philipppines through fishing but elsewhere in the region it is not specifically targeted (Stockwell <em>et al. </em> 2009).
190705		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190705		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Mediterrean (Bariche and Saad 2005, Bariche and Bernardi 2009) where it has likely entered through the Red Sea. It is also found in the Red Sea, Oman, Persian Gulf, East Africa from Somalia to Algoa, South Africa and Madagascar eastwards to Cocos-Keeling, India, Sri Lanka, western Thailand and southwest Indonesia.
190705		habitat	eng	This species is fast growing with a maximum age of 13 years. As with <em>S. pyrrostethus</em>, it occurs in deeper waters and marginal reef habitats including southern Africa and the Arabian Gulf. It can occur in small schools.
190705		population	eng	This is a widespread species and is relatively rare in reef waters with an increase in abundance with depth. There has been a range expansion through invasion of the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal (Bariche and Saad 2005, Bariche and Bernardi 2009). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, there was an observed increase in abundance from 2006-2008 in Aceh. In Karimunjawa, there was a decrease in abundance from 2005-2007. However, this record from Karimunjawa maybe <em>S.pyrostethus</em> (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Bohol, Philippines, fishermen were reportedly getting zero catches of <em>S. ghobban</em> since the 1990s with previous catches in the 1970s-1980s estimated at 10 kg/day (Lavides <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, this may be <em>S. pyrostethus.</em>
190705		threats	eng	This species is caught in large number as bycatch from Malaysia and Indonesia (P. Rahardjo pers comm. 2009) and is common in markets but is not specifically targeted. However, these are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190706		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190706		distribution	eng	This species is found from Somalia to Sodwana Bay, eastwards to India, Sri Lanka, west Thailand and Cocos Keeling. It was recorded from Pulau Weh, Aceh, Indonesia (Allen and Erdmann 2005).
190706		habitat	eng	This species is a moderate sized <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus</span> with a maximum size recorded at  51 cm (TL) (Lieske and Myers 1994) but median size ~32 cm (Randall and Bruce 1983). It forms small schools in sheltered reef slopes and lagoonal environments.
190706		population	eng	This species is widely distributed within the western Indian Ocean but uncommon over most of its range. It is very rare in Cocos with abundance estimates less than one individual per hectare. In the Seychelles, abundance estimates record 20-30 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009)
190706		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190707		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190707		distribution	eng	This species is found from Ryukyu Islands, Japan to New South Wales and Western Australia south to the Abrolhos Islands and eastwards to Fiji.
190707		habitat	eng	This species is solitary and is characteristic of sheltered and lagoonal marine environments from 1-30 m depth (Choat and Randall 1986). It can quickly alter or intensify its body color (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190707		population	eng	This species is moderately common over an extensive Indo-Australian west and southern Pacific range. Average abundance estimates in Australian waters were recorded at 15.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (Choat and Bellwood 1985).<br/><br/>In Halmahera, Indonesia abundance estimates recorded 40 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).  Stockwell <em>et al. </em> (2009) only found it in one site in the central Philippines.
190707		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. In the Coral Triangle, increased fishing pressures and destructive fishing practices may be localized threats to this species. However, it is not commonly found in markets.
190708		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190708		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Maldives to Vanuatu, extending northwards to Ryukyu Islands, Japan and southwards to New Caledonia.
190708		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of outer channels and seaward coastal reefs including reef flats during high tides. It is known from depths of 1 to at least 18 m. It occurs singly or in small groups.
190708		population	eng	This species is heavily fished in the central Philippines with reported 60% reductions compared with adjacent marine protected area sites. It is abundant in marine reserves in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Indonesia, it is abundant in Karimunjawa (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009) and moderately common in Raja Ampat, usually on protected inshore reefs with increased turbidity (Allen 2003). It is a relatively small component of the parrotfish fishery in the Solomon Islands (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190708		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent.
190709		conservation	eng	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for all parrotfishes is permanently closed in Bermuda. It is protected and relatively abundant in Bonaire (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190709		distribution	eng	This species is found from Bermuda and Maryland (USA) to Venezuela.
190709		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated from 3-40 m (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It feeds on algae and small benthic invertebrates in the sand. It sometimes forms large spawning aggregations (Lieske and Myers 1994). Juveniles are found on seagrass beds and mangroves. It is also found in shallow sand and rubble flats.
190709		population	eng	Currently population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. This species is naturally uncommon (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190709		threats	eng	Even though fishery landings of these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean have been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densely populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).
190710		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in some marine protected areas.
190710		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190710		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic this species is present from Portugal to Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canaries and Cape Verdes. It is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the northwestern coast and most of the Adriatic Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>Sparisoma cretense</em> is more common in the eastern and southern coasts. It has been recorded from southeastern Italy (Guidetti 2001) and the Adriatic (Dulcic and Pallaoro 2001), and also around Sardinia.<br/><br/>It is the only parrotfish occurring in the whole Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic above 20<sup>◦</sup>N, including the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira. This species is usually observed inhabiting shallow rocky bottoms, especially vegetated reefs and seagrass beds (Guidetti and Boero, 2002).
190710		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canaries and Cape Verde Islands. It is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the north-western coast and most of the Adriatic Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, Sparisoma cretense is more common along the eastern and southern coasts. It has also been recorded from south-eastern Italy (Guidetti 2001) and the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Pallaoro 2001), and also around Sardinia.
190710		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species that generally occurs in shallow water along rocky shores. It feeds on algae and also small invertebrates (Quignard and Pras 1986, Abecasis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is primarily herbivorous, with specialized pharyngeal bones and muscles (Bullock and Monod 1997, Monod <em>et al.</em> 1994). Breeding occurs from July to September, with juveniles recruiting in the late summer (Abecasis <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190710		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species that occurs in shallow water along rocky shores. It feeds on algae and small invertebrates (Quignard and Pras 1986, Abecasis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is herbivorous with specialized pharyngeal bones and muscles (Monod <em>et al.</em> 1994, Bullock and Monod 1997). Breeding occurs from July to September, with juveniles recruiting in late summer (Abecasis <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190710		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is uncommon in the northern Aegean Sea but very common in the southern Aegean Sea (B. Yokes pers comm. 2007). It is also relatively uncommon in the north-western Mediterranean including Spain and France (P. Francour pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is common in the Canary Islands and in Cape Verde. It is considered one of the top two most common parrotfishes in Cape Verde (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190710		population	eng	This species is uncommon in the northern Aegean Sea but very common in the southern Aegean Sea (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). It is relatively uncommon in the northwestern Mediterranean (Spain, France) (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).
190710		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is caught as bycatch (trammel nets, gill nets and traps) but there are no target fisheries.<br/><br/>The distribution of this species may be expanding in Mediterranean Sea due to the warming of its waters (Domingues <em>et al.</em> 2008)
190710		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
190711		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. However, unlike its sister species <em>C. bleekeri</em>, its range does not include reef areas which are well protected by marine reserves and it generally does not exist in areas where it is not exploited.
190711		distribution	eng	This species is found in the central west Pacific from the Philippines to Indonesia: northwestern Java, Komodo (Beger and Turak 2008), Halmahera (Green and Muljadi 2009) and western Papua (Raja Ampat, Fak-Fak and Kaimana) (Allen and Erdmann 2009), northwards to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands and eastward to Chuuk, Micronesia. It was also recorded in Hong Kong as <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus </span>sp. 2 (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
190711		habitat	eng	This species is similar to sister species <em>Chlorurus bleekeri</em>. It inhabits sheltered to moderately exposed reef flats and fronts (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is a small, solitary excavating parrotfish generally found in pairs. It inhabits coral reefs and adjacent rubble bottoms (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Generation length justification: 14 (longevity) - 2 (age of maturity) = 7/2 = 3.5 or 4 years
190711		population	eng	This species is solitary and relatively rare in central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009). Abundance estimates record 0.5–1 kg per 500 m² (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).<br/><br/>There was a slight decrease observed in Karimunjawa, Indonesia from 2005–2007. In Karimunjawa this species was observed to be common but not abundant (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).
190711		threats	eng	This species is caught for food and is heavily fished throughout its range along with other parrotfishes. Increased fishing pressures and habitat disturbance are its major threats. Moreover, its rarity makes it susceptible to overfishing. In the Philippines, it is exploited to at least the same level as <em>C. bleekeri, </em> which has experienced 50–60% declines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009) over a period of approximately 20–30 years.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure has increased and will undoubtedly continue to increase throughout its range. Based on estimates in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al. </em> 2009), it is estimated that over the next 15 years, population declines will approach 30%.
190712		conservation	eng	This species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range. The quota for this species is 1000 individuals/company/year in Brazil for aquarium trade export.
190712		distribution	eng	This species is found from Florida, Bermuda, Bahamas, eastern Gulf of Mexico, including the Antilles, and Central America to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including Atol das Rocas and Archipelago de Fernando de Noronha (Smith 1997, Carvalho-Filho 1999, Smith-Vaniz <em>et al.</em> 1999, Moura <em>et al.</em> 2001).
190712		habitat	eng	This species is found in small schools, forming probable harems. Juveniles and adults inhabit sea grass beds, mangrove areas, and shallow waters to depths of 12 m among soft corals and macro algae, rarely on coral reefs (Humann and DeLoach 2002). In the Brazilian coast, it is more common in tropical and subtropical reefs, and algal beds.
190712		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range.<br/><br/>Densities in shallow rocky reefs in southeastern Brazil obtained with underwater visual census (UVC) are in the order of 0.8 to 0.11 individuals /40 m<sup>2</sup> (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2007), 0.66/40 m<sup>2</sup> in the Baixo-sul baiano in northeastern Brazil, and lower densities in its southern limit in Santa Catarina are 0.42/40 m<sup>2</sup> (A. Bertoncini and S. Sampaio pers comm. 2008).
190712		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. This species is not targeted by fisheries, and it is rare in the ornamental trade or artisanal fishery in Brazilian waters.
190713		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190713		distribution	eng	This species is found from Christmas Island to Fiji, Samoa and Caroline Islands, northwards to Ryukyu Islands, Japan and southwards to the Great Barrier Reef. It is found in Scott Reef off northwestern Australia (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190713		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of outer lagoon and seaward reefs in depths from 2 - 25 m (Lieske and Myers 1994), usually 2-15 m (Myers 1999). It is usually solitary (Lieske and Myers 1994). Females are usually in small groups with a male nearby; they may mix with females of similar species (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).
190713		population	eng	This species is widely distributed achieving only moderate densities but generally uncommon (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is an uncommon fish patchily distributed through much of its range. It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190713		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190714		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190714		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea (Randall 1986) and Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996) to the Arabian Gulf (Parenti and Randall 2000). It was recorded from Kuwait (Carpenter <em>et al.</em> 1997).
190714		habitat	eng	This species occurs in shallow water, in depths from 2-20 m, often over sand or weed bottoms with coral heads and is found in pairs or small groups (Lieske and Myers 1994).
190714		population	eng	Abundance estimates from the Red Sea record 20.8 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). There is no other population information available for this species.
190714		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190715		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190715		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea, to the Gulf of Aden, Oman, Persian Gulf, Pakistan and India. In East Africa it is found to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, eastwards to Madagascar, western Thailand, southwest Sumatra, Java, Cocos and Christmas Island.
190715		habitat	eng	This is a small species with an average length of ~15 cm TL over its range. The maximum size was recorded at 26 cm (TL) but achieves 39 cm (TL) in Musudam Peninsula, Oman. The maximum age recorded was 14 yrs (Oman). In the central Indian Ocean, the maximum age recorded was 8 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). Juveniles recruit into sheltered reef environments including seagrass beds (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004). It forms schools of 50 or more.
190715		population	eng	This species is abundant in all reef environments investigated (Randall and Bruce 1983). In the central Indian Ocean at the Seychelles and Cocos Island, densities range from 15-180 adults per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. In the Arabian Gulf, it extends to Bahrain. It may occur in the northern Gulf but is extremely rare. It is rare in the Musandum Peninsula and the Arabian Gulf, densities range from 2-8 adults per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190715		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190716		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its range of distribution is a designated marine protected area.
190716		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Ogasawara Islands, Japan.
190716		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky and coral-encrusted slopes from depths of 3-55 m, usually below 25 m. It feeds on benthic algae.
190716		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
190716		threats	eng	Major storm events could be a potential threat due to its limited distribution.
190717		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190717		distribution	eng	This species is found from Sri Lanka to Tonga, extending northwards to Kashiwajima, Japan, southwards to Australia including the Coral Sea territories, Elizabeth/Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. Ni and Kwok (1999) reported this species as occuring in Hong Kong. It was also recorded from Aceh, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).
190717		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal rocky and coral reefs including mangrove areas, turbid lagoons and the upper edges of clear seaward reefs from tidal pools to a depth of at least 20 m. It may form schools with 30 to 40 individuals, often mixed with other species. It often occurs in aggregations that may move onto reef flats at high tide for feeding (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It grazes on benthic algae and corals. Both group and pair spawning have been observed. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is a fast growing parrotfish with a maximum age recorded at 11-12 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996).
190717		population	eng	This species is common in inshore and sheltered areas in most parts of its range (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). <br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, Indonesia, there was a recorded decrease in abundance (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is heavily fished in the central Philippines with reductions of 60-70% through fishing compared to adjacent marine protected area sites (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190717		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. For example, this species is heavily fished in the Philippines and has been documented to experience 60-70% reductions through fishing compared with adjacent marine protected area sites (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is a very common market species in many localities in the Coral Triangle region.
190718		conservation	eng	This species is protected in over ~70% of its geographical range by the newly established Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. It is also protected in Johnston Atoll where there is limited access and no commercial fishing and in marine reserves within the main Hawaiian Islands.
190718		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Hawaiian Islands, Northwest Hawaiian Island chain and Johnston Atoll.
190718		habitat	eng	This excavating species is found solitary or in small schools. It inhabits reef fronts to 71 m depth. The major period of ovarian development is from  March to June; sexual maturity occurs at 20 cm (Hawaii Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit Final Report 2009).<br/><br/>This species forms a hybrid with <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus spilurus</span> (Randall 2005).
190718		population	eng	This species is moderately common over the Northwest Hawaiian Island chain.<br/><br/>Biomass was lower in the main Hawaiian chain where it is exposed to heavy recreational and commercial fishing by a factor of 14. In the main Hawaiian Islands biomass was recorded at 0.01 tonnes per hectare, Northwest Hawaiian Islands Marine Park at 0.14 tonnes per hectare (Friedlander and DeMartini 2002). <br/><br/>As a large parrotfish it achieves high abundances in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Park ranging from 100 to 215 individuals per hectare in Pearl and Hermes, Kure and Midway reefs (DeMartini<em>et al.</em> 2005). Abundance estimates in the French Frigate Shoals recorded 71 indivuduals per hectare (DeMartini<em>et al.</em> 2002).
190718		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished within the main Hawaiian Island group, representing about 30% of its range.
190719		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190719		distribution	eng	This species is found from Ryukyu Islands to eastern Indonesia and the Great Barrier Reef, east to Samoa, and Palau.
190719		habitat	eng	This species is a small excavating parrotfish. It is found solitary or in small groups on reef fronts and in sheltered seaward and lagoon reefs to 20 m.
190719		population	eng	This species is generally rare over most of its range but can be locally abundant. <br/><br/>Abundance estimates in Kavieng, Papua New Guinea record 7.8 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. In the northern Great Barrier Reef, the southern limit of this species' range, estimates record <.1 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190719		threats	eng	In some parts of its range in the Coral Triangle region, this species it locally threatened by fishing and habitat loss from from coastal development, pollution and climate change.
190720		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190720		distribution	eng	This species is found from Bermuda and South Florida to Venezuela.
190720		habitat	eng	This species is reef associated from 5-75 m. It feeds on algae and can be observed (and heard) using their beaks to crunch off pieces of corals and other substrates during the day. It is more abundant along in-shore reef flats.
190720		population	eng	Currently population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates, however, it is not abundant and anecdotal evidence suggests they may be decreasing in numbers.<br/><br/>Anecdotally, this species was present in the Antilles and Barbados but is not present there now. It is the most abundant large scarid at Las Rocas, Venezuela (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190720		threats	eng	A commercial fishery exists for some of the larger individuals. Exact population figures for this species are not known, however, anecdotal evidence suggests it is decreasing in numbers in parts of its range (i.e., in Antilles and Barbados).
190721		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190721		distribution	eng	This species is found from Massachusetts (USA) and Bermuda to Venezuela. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic, from Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea.
190721		habitat	eng	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 1-15 m. It occurs in shallow coral and rocky reefs, and seagrass beds. It prefers high energy areas of the reef. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It feeds on benthic algae and seagrass.
190721		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190721		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).
190722		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190722		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Indian Ocean from southern Oman to southern Mozambique, eastwards to Chagos Archipelago including Madagascar, Seychelles, Reunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues. The record from Somalia needs to be confirmed.
190722		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal reefs and steep seaward reef slopes in depths 6-20 m. It feeds on benthic algae. It is a fast growing species with a maximum recorded age of 10 years and maximum size of 50 cm (TL) in the Seychelles. It forms schools on reef fronts and crests (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190722		population	eng	This species forms large schools in the Seychelles averaging about 15-20 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190722		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190723		conservation	eng	There is a quota of 1000/specimens/year for export for the aquarium trade, but there are no havest limits for fisheries. This species occurs in several marine protected areas in Brazil within its range, where it is most abundant.<br/><br/>The effective implementation of the few marine protected areas in Brazil represent the most urgent conservation action to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum</span> and the other large-sized Brazilian-endemic parrotfishes. The creation of new protected areas also ranks within priority actions for reef fish conservation in Brazil. <br/><br/><em>Sparisoma amplum</em> (Ranzani, 1842) occurs throughout most of the Brazilian coast. Remarkable sites where it is recorded include:<br/><br/>1) Manoel Luis Reefs (Parcel Manoel Luís), a large reef complex near the Amazon River mouth (Moura <em>et al.</em> 1999) encompassed by a State Marine Park created in 1991 and recognized as a RAMSAR Site. Although legally protected, Manoel Luis represent a paper park with no protection and research incentives or infrastructure, being systematically exposed to illegal fisheries by fleets based in or near the city of São Luis, Maranhão State. <em>Sparisoma amplum </em>is also expected to occur in the nearby reefs Banco do Álvaro (included in the State Park) and Banco do Tarol.<br/><br/>2) Rocas Atoll (Atol das Rocas), the only atoll in the entire South Atlantic, this unique reef is encompassed by the first marine protected area created in Brazil (1979), the Reserva Biológica Marinha do Atol das Rocas. Although intermittently exposed to illegal fisheries by fleets based between Touros and Recife, but especially in Natal, the reserve has permanent staff and infrastructure to carry on enforcement and research activities. The area is recognized as an UNESCO World Heritage Site too. Quantitative information about <em>S. amplum</em> is available for Rocas Atol, where it was the eighth most abundant species recorded through visual censuses (Rosa and Moura 1997). Further recorded in the area by Ferreira and Maida (2006).<br/><br/>3) Fernando de Noronha, lying 80 miles off Rocas Atoll, this archipelago is encompassed by two protected areas (Parque Nacional Marinho de Fernando de Noronha, created in 1998 and Área de Proteção Ambiental de Fernando de Noronha, created in 1986). Although exposed to illegal fisheries by local inhabitants of the archipelago and uncontrolled tourism (including cruise ships), the National Park has permanent staff and infrastructure to carry on enforcement and support research activities. There are density estimates for <em>S. amplum</em> in several sites and areas within the archipelago (Moura 2003), as well as information about its behavior (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000), foraging activity and resource use (Bonaldo<em> et al.</em> 2005). It is further recorded in the area by Ferreira and Maida (2006).<br/><br/>4) João da Cunha Reef (Recifes João da Cunha), located in the border between Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte States, these reefs represent the second larger coralline formations in the northern coast of Brazil under influence of the west-flowing Equatorial current (the largest reef is Manoel Luis). Density estimates for <em>S. amplum</em> are available for a few sites and habitats within these reefs (Moura 2003), which were severely damaged by a seaport construction in the 1970s and chronic overfishing.<br/><br/>5) Maracajaú, a large complex of non-emerging coastal reefs off the Rio Grande do Norte State coast, included in the Área de Proteção Ambiental dos Recifes de Corais. Although legally established, this multiple-use protected area provides limited protection as it is not yet implemented and lacks no-take reserves. <em>Sparisoma amplum</em> was recorded in Maracajaú by Ferreira and Maida (2006), but there are no specific data on its density in the area.<br/><br/>6) Paraíba State, an important reefal area in the eastern coast of Brazil where <em>S. amplum</em> was recorded by Rocha <em>et al.</em> (1998). It is remarkable that coastal reefs in Paraíba State are already critically damaged by water quality decline, overfishing and mass tourism, and still lack no-take marine protected areas. Best preserved reefs are those in the mid and outer shelf (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2005), where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum</span> occurs in depths up to 54 m, but these are also nearly depleted of large sized commercially important reef fish species.<br/><br/>7) Pernambuco and Alagoas States (Corals Coast), a huge coastal area with coastal and mid/outer shelf reefs, encompassed by the largest Brazilian marine protected area (established in 1997), representing an important area where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum </span>occurs. Although bearing a few small no-take zones, this MPA still lacks zoning, management plan and enforcement in order to effectively protect <em>S. amplum</em> and other commercially-exploited parrotfish populations.<br/><br/>8) Abrolhos Bank, a wide portion of the continental shelf (42 000 km<sup>2</sup>) with depths rarely exceeding 30 m, the Bank<br/>encompasses the largest and richest coralline reefs in Brazil, where all 18 coral species recorded in Brazil co-occur. Within the Abrolhos Bank <em>S. amplum</em> is relatively rare in shallow coastal reefs, while abundant in deeper offshore areas (Moura and Francini-Filho 2006). The only exception is Timbebas Reef, which is a coastal reef within the National Marine Park where  <em>S. amplum</em> individuals are common. There are three main marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region, the “Área de Proteção Ambiental Ponta da Baleia-Abrolhos” (340,000 ha, created in 1993), a “paper park” with no implementation since its legal establishment by the State of Bahia government, the Corumbau Extractive Reserve (89, 500 ha, created in 2000), with management plan and zoning, but currently with deficient enforcement (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2007), and the Abrolhos National Marine Park (88, 200 ha, created in 1983), the first Brazilian National Marine Park, counting with management plan and zoning, but currently with a heavily deficient enforcement. Despite this MPA network, effectively protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum </span>and other commercially exploited parrotfish populations is not being provided.<br/><br/>9) Trindade and Martin Vaz archipelago, an oceanic archipelago located 1,160 km off the eastern Brazilian coast where <em>S. amplum </em>(recorded as <em>Sparisoma aff. viride</em>) was ranked as common by Gasparini and Floeter (2001). Although the archipelago is not protected the great distance to the shore keeps fishing effort low, especially reef fisheries (fisheries for large pelagics is common in the region).<br/><br/>10) Southeastern Brazil coastal islands. Significant groups of islands occur off the coast of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina states. <em>Sparisoma amplum</em> occurs in low densities throughout the region (e.g. Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2007, Luiz Jr. <em>et al.</em> 2008), being more common in islands than in the mainland coastlines, with numbers decreasing from the North to South. There are few MPAS in the southeastern region, and most existing ones are not implemented and lack management plans and enforcement.
190723		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from Maranhão State and Santa Catarina State. It is absent only from Sergipe State due to the freshwater discharge of the São Francisco River. It is present in the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll and Trindade, but absent from St. Paul’s Rocks.
190723		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral and rocky reef to depths of 30 m. It is predominantly herbivorous, ingesting algae and detritus, this latter item corresponding to up to 60% of its gut contents (Ferreira and Gonçalves 2006). When compared to its other Brazilian congeners, it prefers crustose coralline algae, a fact that contributes to the large amount of inorganic detritus find in its gut contents. It may be primarily recognized as an excavating species, as well as the most specialized parrotfish coral predator in Brazil (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2008). The coral species most frequently consumed is the Brazilian endemic brain coral <span style="font-style: italic;">Mussismilia braziliensis</span>.<br/><br/>It is known to form spawning aggregations, at least in one locality, Rocas Atoll (R.L. Moura, pers comm. 2008), but seasonality in reproductive cycles is unknown. There is no information on longevity and age of maturity for this species to estimate generation length. However, based on sister species <em>S. viride</em>, the age of maturity is estimated to be 2.5 to 3 years and longevity of 9 years, but varies by location up to 14 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2003). Generation length is estimated to be 5 to 6 years.
190723		population	eng	This species was recorded as having high densities in the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll and Trinidade Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). In Rocas Atoll, it was ranked among the ten most abundant visually accessible reef fishes (Rosa and Moura 1997). It is less common in most parts of its range. <br/><br/>In Manoel Luis Marine state park it is among the five most abundant fish where it was observed in 92% of visual underwater surveys between 1996-1999 (Rocha and Rosa 2001). In the Abrolhos Bank, a region with Brazil’s largest network of marine protected areas, biomass of <em>S. amplum</em> is highest in the older no-take reserve (National Marine Park of Abrolhos), followed by the no-take zone of Itacolomis Reef, established in 2001, and unprotected reefs respectively. Considering the Abrolhos Bank as a whole, there were no significant variations in the biomass of <em>S. amplum </em>between 2001 and 2005 (Francini-Filho and Moura 2008).<br/><br/><em>Sparisoma amplum </em>densities obtained with underwater visual census (UVC) (n=418 summer months at 6 areas) in shallow rocky reefs of less than 10 m depth in southeastern Brazil had a mean value of 0.001/m<sup>2</sup> (A. Bertoncini pers comm. 2008). In northeast of Brazil in Baixo-sul baiano, an Underwater Visual Census survey (n=713 at 5 reef areas) in shallow reefs from 10 to 25 m depth revealed mean density values of 0.003/m<sup>2</sup> (A. Bertoncini and C. Sampaio pers comm. 2008).
190723		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished because of its large size, and is the second largest Brazilian parrotfish. <em>Sparisoma amplum</em> is a preferred target by spearfishers, a fishing technique with increasing numbers of practitioners in the last decades, both recreational and professional.<br/><br/>In Trindade Island, this species is third most commonly caught species in spearfisheries (Pinheiro and Gasparini in press)<br/>In addition, entire multi-specific groups of scarids, including <em>S. amplum</em>, are captured with drive nets above the reefs, particularly in the Abrolhos Bank. In the Abrolhos Bank, data from both within and outside the protected area do not show any clear trend of decline (Francini-Filho 2005; Franicini-Filho and Moura 2008, 2008). However, in general this species is more abundant within protected areas with no-take zones. It is also collected for the aquarium trade, but targeting by fisheries is this species most important threat.
190724		conservation	eng	This species occurs in some Marine Protected Areas within its range. It is present in protected oceanic islands in Brazil such as Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Abrolhos reefs and in no-take areas in Costa dos Corais. There is a quota of 1000 individuals/company/year for collection for the aquarium trade in Brazil.<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species population trends and the impact of fisheries. Species-specific management plans, as well as sub-national legislation, and community resource management are needed because this species is used as both a commercial and subsistence resource.
190724		distribution	eng	This species is found in the southwestern Atlantic, in Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago, and Brazil from Manoel Luis Reefs to Santa Catarina. It also occurs at the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, St. Pauls Rocks and Trindade (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2001).
190724		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral reefs, algal reefs, seagrass beds and rocky reefs, at depths ranging from one to at least 54m (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2005). Juveniles have been recorded in seagrass beds and coral reefs in the northeast region. This species spawns all year around (Véras 2008). There is limited information on this species' life history characteristics. But based on a similar species, <em>S. chyrsopterum</em>, with an age of first maturity of 2-3 years and a longevity of 12 years, the generation length can be estimated to be 8 or 9 years.
190724		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Venezuela, but is common in Brazil. It is the second most common parrotfish in the Brazilian coast (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009). Abundances in protected areas are significantly greater than in areas open to fishing (Ferreira and Maida 2006). In southeast Brazil the terminal phase males are rare.
190724		threats	eng	This species is targeted in a variety of fisheries within its range, including spear fishing, trap fisheries, and drive nets. It may be threatened by the recent increase in commercial, large scale fisheries, with fish exported to the international market. It is the main scarid species caught in trap fisheries in northeastern Brazil. Both initial and terminal phase fish are caught by trap fisheries.The average catch size is 24 cm by trap fisheries (Evangelista pers comm. 2008). In the north region of Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte states trap catches on this species have increased in the last decade. <br/><br/>In 2003, in these two states, catches from 36 trap boats registered 36.14 tons of <em>Sparisoma spp</em>., mainly <em>S. axillare </em>at Pernambuco State and <em>S. frondosum</em> at Rio Grande do Norte State (Ribeiro 2004). It is also targeted in Venezuela by multispecies trap fisheries. The visual census in Abrolhos Bank indicates that this species population is stable outside and inside the no-take zone, but biomass is higher within the no-take zones (Francini-Filho 2005, Francini-Filho and Moura 2008). However, in southeastern Brazil, there is indication of possible overfishing as terminal phase males are increasingly rare. Analysis of official fisheries statistics show that there is a serious lack of data for this species. The annual catch of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Sparisoma</span> spp. is approximately 350 t/year in trap fisheries, but no species-specific catch data is available.
190725		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190725		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Pacific from Cocos-Keeling to the Ryukyus and Taiwan, southwards to Australia, eastwards to Palau, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190725		habitat	eng	This species is an uncommon inhabitant of clear lagoon and seaward reefs, usually seen along drop-offs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is most characteristic from 15-50 m depth. It is usually solitary.
190725		population	eng	This species is uncommon. There is virtually no population information for this species (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190725		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190726		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190726		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands and Kashiwa-jima, Japan to the Line and Ducie Islands including Lord Howe and Rapa Islands. It is not found in in Wake Atoll in Micronesia, Marquesas Islands, and US Equatorial Islands: Howland, Jarvis and Palmyra atolls (P. Mundy pers comm. 2009) in Polynesia.<br/><br/>It is likely also in eastern Philippines and eastern Indonesia where terminal phase individuals may be confused with terminal phase <em>S. xanthopleura</em> or <em> S. prasiognathos</em> (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).  Records of this species in this region need to be confirmed.
190726		habitat	eng	This species inhabits outer reef flats and clear lagoon and seaward reefs at depths of 1 to 50 m. Juveniles and subadults often occur on shallow protected reefs but large adults prefer seaward reefs. Adults and subadults form groups, juveniles are usually solitary. It forms large aggregations (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is common along the shallow seaward reef margin in relatively unexploited areas, but in heavily fished areas, large numbers are usually seen only along deep dropoffs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers 1999, Bellwood and Choat 1990).
190726		population	eng	Guam fisheries data from 1985-2007 indicate the following:<br/><br/>This species ranked 5th out of 22 scarid species identified in terms of weight harvested and 6th in terms of numbers harvested. The annual harvest closely matched that of the entire family, increasing to a peak of 2 mt in 1999, then fell precipitously to under 100 kg in 2006 and 2007 (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species is common in parts of its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It was the most abundant schooling parrotfish at Middleton Reef (Choat<em> et al.</em> 2006).
190726		threats	eng	In the Federal States of Micronesia to Guam, the commercial fishing for export is considered to be a localized threat.
190727		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190727		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific and the Eastern Indian Ocean from Western Australia northwards to southern Japan and southern China, eastwards to the Hawaiian Islands chain, southwards to eastern Australia to central New South Wales, all reef sites in French Polynesia, Marquesas, Rapa and Pitcain. It is present in all western and central Pacific reef sites.
190727		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef habitats with juveniles recruiting to lagoonal environments (Crook 1999).  It occurs in small schools up to 50 individuals. It forms large (up to 200) residential spawning groups (Colin and Bell 1991, Sancho <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>The maximum age recorded was 15 years in the Abrolhos Island, Western Australia. For most Pacific sites, the maximum age recorded was 8-10 years. The maximum size recorded for this species was 37 cm (TL) in the Abrolhos. For most Pacific sites, the maximum size recorded was 25-30 cm (TL) (Choat and Robertson 2002, DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005).
190727		population	eng	This species is highly abundant over most sites recorded over throughout its range (Leiske and Myers 1994, Randall<em> et al.</em> 1997). In northeastern Australia, densities of up to 350 per 1,000 m<sup>2 </sup>on reef crests and slopes, 100-200 per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in more sheltered sites were recorded (Gust<em> et al.</em> 2001, Gust <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In Aceh, Indonesia, catch rates indicate that it is below maximum sustainable yeild (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190727		threats	eng	This species is heavily fished at some sites, such as in the main Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit Final Report 2009). In the Coral Triangle Region, it is also heavily exploited. But it seems to be more resilient and is less obviously impacted by fishing than some of the larger species, such as <em>C. bleekeri</em> (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Guam, the mean weight of individual landed fish did not change from 1985 to 2007 (J. McIlwain pers comm. 2010).
190728		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. In Samoa, night spearfishing using SCUBA has been banned.
190728		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands to Indonesia and Australia, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia, and eastwards to Oceania (except Hawaiian Islands and Easter Island) (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). In the southerm hemisphere it extends south of coral reef formations. It is not found in Cocos Keeling Islands.
190728		habitat	eng	This is a large excavating parrotfishes reaching 80 cm (TL) and forming schools of up to 40 individuals on reef fronts and crests. It is a rapidly growing species with maximum age of 15 yrs (identified as <em>C. gibbus</em>) (Choat<em> et al.</em> 1996). It is found in a wide range of habitats from inshore reefs to exposed oceanic reef fronts (Russ 1984).
190728		population	eng	This species is one of the more abundant and widely distributed Indo-Pacific parrotfishes. It is moderately common especially at the southern limits of its range. This species is rare in the Philippines and is not commonly found in markets in the Coral Triangle region. There have been abundance declines in Indonesia but elsewhere it is locally abundant. It is unknown if its rarity in markets in the Coral Triangle is due to past overfishing or a natural phenomenon.<br/><br/>This species shows substantial changes in abundance over its distributional range. Numbers are mean abundance per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>:<br/><br/>Great Barrier Reef:                    9-12<br/>Middleton reef:                         3-13<br/>Coral Sea reefs:                        17-2.3<br/>West Australia (Rowley Shoals):  2.3<br/>Kavieng, Papua New Guinea:      1.7<br/>Samoa:                                    0.9<br/>Tuvalu:                                   5.5.<br/><br/>This species is heavily fished in Pacific Islands eg: Samoa but at Tuvalu this species is inedible due to ciguatera. The Great Barrier Reef has naturally very high densities 9-12 as opposed to the West Australia reefs at 2-3. Both areas sampled are marine reserves. High abundances are recorded at the southern limit of coral reef formation (Middleton Reef). Both fishing and natural processes modify abundances in <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microrhinos</span> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Indonesia<br/><br/>Abundance data from 2005-2007 showed a decrease from 800 individuals per hectare to 80 individuals per hectare  (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Underwater fish visual census in Kofiau, Raja Ampat in April 2009 recorded biomass estimates of 2,000 kg per hectare (M.E. Lazuardi and A. Muljadi pers comm. 2009). It is moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190728		threats	eng	As a large parrotfish, this species is targeted for food in at least half of its range. It is also commonly taken by spearfishing at night and also during daytime including the Great Barrier Reef. It is heavily fished at some locations in Guam with declines of 86% in numbers landed since 1985 (Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources unpub. data). It is present in most markets observed including Palau and the Society Islands where it is heavily targeted in the Tuamotos. Fishing pressure is increasing in parts of its range such as in the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). Destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent in parts of its range (Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines).
190729		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190729		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190729		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef and sea grass habitats from 2-20 m depth. It inhabits clear coral and algal-rich reefs. It is solitary or in small groups and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. Juveniles are often found in seagrass beds.
190729		population	eng	This species is common (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190729		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190730		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes some Marine Protected Areas within its range. More research is needed on population status and harvest levels.
190730		distribution	eng	This species is found in the western Atlantic, from New Jersey, USA and northern Gulf of Mexico to southeastern Brazil. It is absent in Bermuda, Bahamas and West Indies, except the Greater Antilles.
190730		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and inhabits seagrass beds, macroalgae, and sandy areas mostly in shallow water. Larger adults live in deeper water, and can be found to 73 m.
190730		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is rare except in a few locations where it can be locally common, such as in Venezuela.
190730		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
190731		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190731		distribution	eng	This species is found from the East coast of Africa to the Hawaiian and Line islands, French Polynesia (except Rapa and Austral Islands), northwards to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan, southwards to Australia and New Caledonia. It also occurs in the eastern tropical Pacific.
190731		habitat	eng	This species is a large<span style="font-style: italic;"> Scarus</span> (Robertson and Allen 2002) that may form dense schools (300-400 individuals). It is found solitary or in pairs (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It occurs on non-reefal rocky areas (Robertson and Allen 2002) and on coral reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It extends to deeper parts of the reef to 36 m (Humann and DeLoach 1993). It is a fast growing species with maximum age recorded at 15 years in Oman, 11 years in Seychelles and 12 years in the Great Barrier Reef (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190731		population	eng	This species is generally abundant, especially near its range limits, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, this species was recorded as common but not abundant in Aceh with estimates of 40-60 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009), moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003) and Kupang, west Timor (B. Russell pers comm. 2009). It was recorded in marine reserves in the central Philippines but not from fished areas (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>Over the Pacific, abundance estimates record 2-3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. In the Western Indian Ocean (Amirantes Seychelles), it was the most abundant large <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus </span>with abundance estimates of 10-20 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190731		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. It is heavily fished in the northern Solomon Islands with evidence of a decline in mean size and numbers of this species in the markets from 2004-2006. It is the second or third most important species in the parrotfish fishery in 2004, but by 2006 the importance of this species in the fishery had declined (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190732		conservation	eng	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190732		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190732		habitat	eng	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 3-30 m. It is found in shallow clear reefs and seagrass (Thalassia) beds. It forms schools and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, terminal males spawn individually with striped females, while sexually mature males in the striped phase spawn in aggregation. Juveniles are found on seagrass beds.
190732		population	eng	This species is the most abundant parrotfish in the Caribbean and is common throughout its range (J.H. Choat and L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190732		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190733		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190733		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea south to Mozambique Channel, including Madagascar and Seychelles and east to Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. It has also been recorded in Karimunjawa, Halmahera and Raja Ampat, Indonesia (A. Lazuardi, M.E. Muljadi and S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is likely to occur in Karimunjawa but not in Raja Ampat and Halmahera (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010). Records in the Coral Triangle region need to be verified.
190733		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coastal regions associated with coral reefs and reef flats. It forms groups consisting of a terminal phase individual and numerous initial phase individuals (Lieske and Myers 1994). It also forms large foraging schools (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It feeds on benthic algae (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). The maximum published weight is 2.3 kg (Bruce and Randall 1984).
190733		population	eng	This species is abundant in the Red Sea with recorded densities of 8 individuals per 1, 000 m<sup>2</sup>, where it is caught in the net fishery along the Egyptian coast. It is more abundant in the northern part of the Red Sea and less abundant in the Seychelles with densities recorded at 2-4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>It is rare in Aceh and Karimunjawa, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).
190733		threats	eng	&#160;There is some localized fishing in the Red Sea but this is not considered to affect the overall population of the species.
190734		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190734		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190734		habitat	eng	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 1-50 m. It inhabits coral reefs with clear water. It feeds mainly on soft algae, but has been observed to graze on live corals. It produces a significant amount of sediment through bioerosion using its strong beak-like jaws and constantly re-growing teeth (Gygi 1975). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is found solitary or small in small groups. Young may be found in seagrass beds and algae-rich areas of the reef.
190734		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190734		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).
190735		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps marine reserves in parts of its range.
190735		distribution	eng	This species is found in reefs of Surin Island and the Similan Islands of Thailand, and Mentawai Islands off the southwest coast of Sumatra. In addition, this species was illustrated in Allen <em>et al. </em>(2003) in a photo labeled<em> S. hypselopterus</em>, taken by Rudie Kuiter at Pulau Putri, off Jakarta, Indonesia in the Java Sea.
190735		habitat	eng	This species is not well-known. This species is solitary or found in small schools in shallow water crest and slope habitats (Westneat <em>et al.</em> 2007).
190735		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species, it was only recently described.
190735		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species.
190736		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (i.e., Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Great Barrier Reef).
190736		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from the Red Sea, Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Aden to Sodwana Bay, extending eastwards to Rapa and the Marquesas, northwards to southern Japan and southwards to Australia.
190736		habitat	eng	This species is abundant and characteristic of reef fronts and also sheltered reef environments and lagoons to depths of 30 m (Choat and Randall 1986). It forms groups (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is a fast growing species with a rapid turnover rate. The maximum age recorded was  5 years (Choat<em> et al.</em> 1996).
190736		population	eng	This species is common in many parts of its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). Abundance estimates in the Red Sea recorded 1.5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. It is more abundant on Pacific Reefs with estimates recorded at 5-10 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). In Karimunjawa, Indonesia abundance estimates record 900 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190736		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. In Guam, it is the 3rd most important species in numbers and 6th most important species by weight. Catch declined by 74% during 1985-2007 (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009). In most parts of its range, this species is not targeted and is mainly caught as bycatch. These threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190737		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in marine reserves in parts of its range.
190737		distribution	eng	This species is found in East Africa and the southwestern tropical Indian Ocean.
190737		habitat	eng	This species inhabits outer reef slopes (Randall and Bruce 1983), and rich coral areas in depths between about 3-30 m (G. Allen and R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).
190737		population	eng	This species is relatively rare. There are no abundance estimates or market records.
190737		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Localized threats in Madagascar include habitat destruction by sedimentation and coral bleaching events (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190738		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190738		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Bahamas and South Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190738		habitat	eng	This species is found in reef and seagrass habitats from 1-20 m depth. It occurs in coral and rocky reefs, and adjacent habitats, the young especially in seagrass beds. Juveniles or primary-phase adults rapidly assume a mottled pattern and blend with the substratum when they come to rest on the bottom. It feeds on benthic algae and seagrass.
190738		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190738		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).
190739		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.  Given that there are many localized threats to this species including habitat loss and overfishing, its population status should be monitored.
190739		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Ryukyu Islands south to the Great Barrier Reef, east to Samoa Islands and Micronesia, except the Mariana Islands (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190739		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral rich areas of protected reefs to a depth of over 12 m and also in shallow protected reefs of lagoons and bays. It is common on coastal reefs throughout much of its range, but rare at Guam where its presence may be intermittent (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).  initial phase fish often form small groups. It feeds mainly on algae.
190739		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). This is a dominant species on Philippine reefs. It is one of the more abundant parrotfish in central Philippines with a 30-40% difference between marine reserves and non-reserves (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>Data for Guam fisheries harvest from 1985-2007 indicate that this species was unknown from the island until 1995 and was otherwise reported only in 1996, 1997 and 2001 (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, Indonesia abundance estimates record 50-80 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190739		threats	eng	This species is fished in most parts of its range with indications of the percent of total catch increasing in the northern Solomons (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is a component of commercial spearfishing, particularly for export (Federal States of Micronesia to Guam). Destructive fishing practices, habitat destruction, pollution and sedimentation are prevalent in parts of its range, primarily in south east Asia.
190740		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several well-policed marine protected areas within its range.
190740		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Society Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago, northwards to Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan, southwards to the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia and Western Australia south to Shark Bay. It does not occur in Hawaii, Lines Islands and Marquesas.
190740		habitat	eng	This species is a small to moderate size reef Scarus (32-40 cm) (Randall and Bruce 1983, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is characteristic of reef fronts and crests to 30 m depth (Choat and Randall 1986, Lieske and Myers 1994). It has variable life spans with a maximum age recorded to 18 yrs (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is solitary except during courtship (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190740		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant on reef slopes and crests over most of its range. In the Red Sea, it achieves abundances of 176 individuals per hectare in some locations making it one of the most abundant parrotfish in this region. In the Western Pacific reefs abundance estimates were recorded at 5-10 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2 </sup>(J.H. Choat, pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). <br/><br/>This species is heavily fished in Aceh, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009) with catch rates recorded at 0.058 kg/trip. It is heavily impacted by fishing in the central Philippines, with reductions in the order of 50-60% compared with adjacent marine protected area sites (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190740		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190741		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190741		distribution	eng	This species is found from west Thailand to western and southern Indonesia to central Java and Cocos Keeling Island.
190741		habitat	eng	The maximum size recorded for this species is 40 cm (TL). It is found solitary or in pairs on reef slopes and lagoonal habitats (Bellwood 2001). It occurs in depths from 5-25 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).
190741		population	eng	This species is apparently rare over most of its range.
190741		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190742		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190742		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Aden (Socotra, Somalia, Southern Oman) through east Africa, southwards to Mozambique and Madagascar, eastwards to Cocos and Christmas Island, western and southern Sumatra, Java and western Thailand. <br/><br/>It was recorded from the Komodo National Park (Beger and Turak 2008). It has also been recorded from Halmahera, Indonesia, however, these records may likely be a misidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus microrhinos</span> (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010).
190742		habitat	eng	This species is most common on reef fronts and outer flats. It is found from 2-35 m on reef fronts (Bellwood 2001).  The maximum age recorded was 9 years (males) and 8 years (females). Age at first sexual maturity is 2.8-3.0 years. The maximum size recorded was 70 cm (TL). At Cocos and Seychelles, the maximum size recorded was 45 cm (TL) (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190742		population	eng	This species is highly patchy in terms of abundance. <br/><br/>Abundance estimates from Seychelles including the remote Amirantes reefs recorded 1.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>; Granitic reefs - 3.1 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>; in Cocos 11.8-19.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>; in Christmas Island 1.3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Aceh, estimates of exploitation rate indicate this species is being fished well below maximum sustainable yield (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).
190742		threats	eng	In Aceh, Indonesia estimates of exploitation rate indicate this species is being  fished well below maximum sustainable yield (S. Pardede pers comm.  2009).
190743		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190743		distribution	eng	This species is found in Southeast Asia from Hong Kong to southern Japan, northwards to the south Korea, southwards to northern Luzon, Philippines including Taiwan, southeastern China and the Ryukyu Islands.
190743		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky areas of coastal waters from depths of at least 8 to 25 m. It is found as solitary or in small groups.
190743		population	eng	This species is rare. In Hong Kong, it is known only from catch the of spearfishers who take small numbers of large fish during the summer months and a single initial phase fish seen on an exposed rocky reef (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).
190743		threats	eng	Industrial and agricultural pollution and sedimentation are a potential threat throughout much of its range.  It is harvested in most parts of its range,and spearfishing occurs in some areas where the species is rare (Hong Kong). Fishing pressure and habitat destruction are occuring and will likely increase in the future.
190744		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190744		distribution	eng	This species is found from western Indonesia, to the Philippines, extending eastwards to Vanuatu, including the Great Barrier Reef. It is absent from Christmas and Cocos-Keeling. It was recorded from Aceh, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It was recorded from Vietnam (Dung 2007, R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010).
190744		habitat	eng	This species is a moderately sized non-schooling species, characteristic of outer reef flats and slopes. It tends to inhabit sheltered to moderately exposed reef environments but rare on exposed ocean reef fronts. It is not recorded from exposed reefs in the Coral Sea. Large terminal phase males are usually between 30-40 cm (TL).<br/><br/>Generation length justification: 14(longevity) -2(age of maturity) = 7/2 = 3.5 or 4 years
190744		population	eng	This species is not abundant over most of its range. It achieves greatest abundance in the central Philippines with 2-4 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is considered to be the most abundant parrotfish in the Solomon Islands (Green <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Solomons, it makes up approximately 10% of the catch. Since 2005, the percentage represented in the catch is increasing. The percentage of the smaller parrotfish is also increasing (Sabetian 2009).<br/><br/>In Karimunjawa National Park, Java Sea, underwater visual census (UVC) show that this species has displayed a 10-fold decrease in numbers from 2005-2006. In 2007, there was a 2-fold increase in Karimunjawa and Aceh (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190744		threats	eng	Overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat degradation are the the major threats to this species in the Coral Triangle Region. In the Philippines, local fishing can reduce numbers of parrotfishes by 50-60% over a period of approximately 20-30 years (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190745		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190745		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Pacific Ocean from Cocos-Keeling Islands and Rowley Shoals in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and Tuamoto islands, northwards to the Ryukyu Islands, southwards to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. It is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Hipposcarus harid</span> in the Indian Ocean.
190745		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas around shallow lagoon reefs, but may also occur over seaward reef flats in 2-40 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is usually seen in aggregations; females usually in small groups (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Large adults may occur to depths of at least 40 m (Myers 1999). It is abundant in reefs and outer slopes in exposed continental reefs (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190745		population	eng	This species is moderately abundant with densities recorded at 3-4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in eastern Australia (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, Indonesia, this species was observed to have increased in population size inside the Marine Protected Area (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). In East Timor, it was seen occasionally in seaward reefs (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is moderately common at sites adjacent to sandy bottoms (Allen 2003).
190745		threats	eng	Even though this species is fished throughout most parts of its range, it is only perceived as a major threat in the Coral Triangle region where rates of harvesting are unknown.
190746		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190746		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands in the north, southwards to Sulawesi and Halmahera, Indonesia. It was recently recorded from Manus Island and East Timor. Records from the Indian Ocean and North West Australia may be <em>C. cyanescens</em> and <em> C. rhakoura</em> respectively.
190746		habitat	eng	This species is a small <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus</span> not exceeding 45 cm (TL). It is found solitary or in small groups on reef fronts (Bellwood 2001). It is found in a variety of reef habitats and can occupy inshore reef areas (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190746		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is a relatively rare species over its entire range (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190746		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190747		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190747		distribution	eng	This species is found from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands to Ducie Island, northwards to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan and southwards to Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs. It is not present in Marquesas, Pitcairn Group and Palmyra Atoll (P. Mundy pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>It has been recorded from Aceh and Karimunjawa, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is likely to be found in Karimunjawa. The record from Aceh needs to be verified by a photograph (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010).
190747		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear outer lagoon and exposed seaward reefs usually in rich coral habitats at depths of three to at least 30 m. It is generally solitary or in small groups. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is diandric.
190747		population	eng	Guam fisheries data from 1985-2007 indicate that out of 22 scarid species identified, this species ranked 12th in terms of weight harvested and 9th in terms of numbers harvested. The annual harvest trend closely matched that of the entire family, increasing to a peak of 490 kg in 1999, then fell precipitously (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). There was 50% difference observed between fished and and no-take areas in the central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009). In Indonesia, it was quite common in underwater visual surveys in 2006, 2008 and 2009 from Aceh, but not abundant with a catch rate of 0.03 kg/trip. In Karimunjawa, catch rate was 0.3 kg/trip (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).
190747		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190748		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Significant differences can be seen in this species abundance inside and outside protected no fishing areas (Ferreira and Maida 2006). For example, in a study of this species in a no-take zone, it was abundant and recovered within 3-4 years from previous levels when fishing was allowed (Francini-Filho and Moura 2008). <br/><br/>A few populations are currently protected by reserves by no-take reserves along the coast, including some reefs in Abrolhos, in Costa dos Corais, and others where there is effective enforcement. However, the number of protected areas within its range does not include a large porportion of this species population or habitat.
190748		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from Manoel Luiz Reefs on the northern Brazilian coast, to Santa Catarina on the southeastern Brazilian coast. It is absent from the oceanic islands.
190748		habitat	eng	This species is reef-associated and occurs in seagrass, coral reef, algal and rocky reefs and on algal beds at depths of one to 45 m. It exhibits a functional role in substrate use because it is an important excavator that often feeds on live coral.<br/><br/>There is no direct information on its life history to estimate generation length. However, based on sister species <em>S. guacamaia</em>, a generation of 7 to 10 years can be inferred.
190748		population	eng	In 1996–1998, this species was the second most abundant species in Manoel Luis State Marine Park; it was present in 69% of underwater visual census (UVC) samples and had a mean length of 30 cm (Rocha and Rosa 2001). On the Abrolhos Bank, the largest coral reef area in the south Atlantic, this species represents 28% of total fish biomass, and has shown 50% decline in the past five years (Francini-Filho 2005, Francini-Filho and Moura 2008).<br/><br/>In the southeastern part of its range (Arraial do Cabo), the biomass has declined by 60–70% over the last 15 years based on UVC and fishermen interviews (B. Ferreira pers comm. 2008). <em>Scarus trispinosus</em> densities obtained with UVC (n=418 summer months at six areas) in shallow rocky reefs of less than 10 m depth in southeastern Brazil had a mean value of 0.00018/m² (A. Bertoncini pers comm. 2008). In the northeast of Brazil in Baixo-sul baiano,  an UVC (n=713 at five reef areas) in shallow reefs from 10 to 25 m depth revealed mean density values of 0.0018/m² (A. Bertoncini and C. Sampaio pers comm. 2008).
190748		threats	eng	This species is threatened by spearfishing throughout its range and also by net and trap fishing. Based on measured declines in at least two signicant parts of its range (Abrolhos Bank and the Arraial do Cabo), along with observations that large individuals have become very rare, it is estimated that at least 50% of the global population has declined over the past 20 to 30 years.
190749		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190749		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean from western Australia to Indonesia, extending northwards to southern Japan and eastwards to the Gulf of California to Ecuador including Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo. It does not occur in Hawaii, Marquesas, Tuamotos, Rapa, and Pitcairn.
190749		habitat	eng	This species occupies deeper and non-reef sites. It was recorded to 100 m depth in the east Indian Ocean. It inhabits deeper sea grass beds and reef environments. It is a fast growing species with a maximum age of 14 years.
190749		population	eng	This species is widespread and abundant at some localized sites.  It is abundant at the southern limits of its range with estimates recorded of 4-5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> at Rottnest Island, Australia. <br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, <span style="font-style: italic;">S.ghobban</span> was observed to have had decreased in abundance from 2005-2007. However, this record from Karimunjawa maybe <em>S. pyrostethus</em> (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). <br/><br/>In Bohol, Philippines, fishermen were reportedly getting zero catches of<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. ghobban</span> since the 1990s with previous catches in the 1970s-1980s estimated at 10 kg/day (Lavides <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, this may be <em>S. pyrostethus</em>.<br/><br/>This species made up less than 5% of the fisheries catch in Guam over 1985-2007 (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).
190749		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. There have been some declines recorded in some sites (Guam, Philippines and Indonesia) due to capture in artisanal fisheries and bycatch by trawls, beach seines and traps (Lavides <em>et al.</em> 2010, S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190750		conservation	eng	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190750		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190750		habitat	eng	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 1-25m. It is found in shallow clear reefs and seagrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia</span>) beds. It forms schools and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. Juveniles are found on seagrass beds.
190750		population	eng	This species is common and locally abundant throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009). It is abundant in lagoonal habitats in Bermuda where it is protected (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190750		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190751		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas within its range. It is most abundant in oceanic islands where they are protected by no-take zones, such as in Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha Archipelago. It also occurs in other marine protected areas such as Abrolhos reefs and in no-take areas in Costa dos Corais.<br/><br/>There is a quota of 1000/individuals/company/year for collection for the aquarium trade. More data is needed on the effect of fisheries on this species population, especially population trends in areas outside of marine protected areas and no-take zones.
190751		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil and occurs from Manoel Luis Reefs in northern Brazil, to the Santa Catarina coast in southern Brazil. It also occurs at the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas and Trindade (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2001).
190751		habitat	eng	This species is found in coral reefs, algal reefs, seagrass beds and rocky reefs, at depths ranging from one to at least 54 m (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2005). Juveniles are found in seagrass beds and coral reefs in northeast region from 10 mm (TL) (Gaspar  2006). This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite but the size at sex change is unknown. Spawning occurs all year around (Véras 2008). Recruitment at Tamandaré is all year around, however higher rate of smaller individuals are recorded from September (Gaspar 2006). It was the most abundant scarid recruiting in sea grass beds in Tamandaré.
190751		population	eng	This species is the most abundant species of its genus in Brazil and is common throughout its range. However, large sized terminal males are relatively rare likely due to fishing pressure. Relative abundances in protected areas are significantly larger than in areas open to fishing (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>In Sebastian Gomes Reef which is unprotected from fishing pressures, a 50% decline in the last 5 years for this species was recorded (Francini-Filho 2005, Francini-Filho and Moura 2008). This is the primary site within the Abrolhos Bank where population is declining, but in other areas of the Abrolhos Bank the population may be more stable.
190751		threats	eng	This species is targeted by fisheries with different gears throughout its range, and fishing pressure may be increasing with reported increases in catch and fishing effort. Analysis of official fisheries statistics show that there is a serious lack of data for this species. The annual catch of all <em>Sparisoma spp</em>. is approximately 350 t/year, of which this species comprises the majority. But no species-specific catch data is widely available. In addition, the average size fish captured by hook and line is 23 cm, which is close to size of female maturation (B. Ferreira pers comm. 2008). Terminal phase individuals and older females of <em>S. axillare</em> are caught mainly by traps (Gaspar 2006). Important indicators of potential overfishing include the rarity of large sized and terminal phase males, as well as small averge body size of catches.<br/><br/><em>Sparisoma axillare </em>(especially initial phase) represented 29% of artisanal fisheries captures on coastal reefs at Tamandaré, south of Pernambuco state (Brazil), being a significant component of line and spear fisheries catches (Ferreira and Cava 2001). This fisheries was small scale and restricted to inshore reefs. In the north region of Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte states trap catches of this species have recently increased. In 2003, in these two states, catches from 36 trap boats registered 36.14 tons of <em>Sparisoma spp.</em>, mainly <em>S. axillare</em> at Pernambuco State and <em>S. frondosum </em>at Rio Grande do Norte State (Ribeiro 2004). The catches are for the international or export market. In 2005, the total catch of scarids in Pernambuco state was 280 t (150 boats) and in the following year it increased to 356 t.
190752		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas within its range.
190752		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the central to southern coast of Oman.
190752		habitat	eng	This species is a large scarid reaching 52 cm (TL). It is fast growing with a maximum age of 9 years. It inhabits rocky reefs and coral patches, especially on offshore islands in its range. It was observed on the coast at Muscat but was very rare (Randall and Hoover 1995).
190752		population	eng	This species is rare over most of its known range (Randall 1995).  Abundance estimates record less than one  individual per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. It is more abundant in offshore islands along the southern coast of Oman (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190752		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190753		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (i.e., Ras Muhammed Marine Protected Area).
190753		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba. It does not appear to occur in the Gulf of Aden. A survey done in the eastern Gulf of Aden in 2005 recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus strongylocephalus</span> (J.H. Choat pers comm 2009). The record from Socotra needs to be verified.
190753		habitat	eng	This species is a large excavating <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus</span> up to 70 cm (Lieske and Myers 2004). It inhabits shallow reefs and adjacent sand areas of lagoons and bays at depths between about 2-30 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It forms small schools. <br/><br/>There is limited information on its life history. The age record of 14 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996) refers to <em>C. microrhinos</em>.
190753		population	eng	This species is uncommon in the Red Sea. Mean density of 23.9 individuals per hectare was recorded at Duba, Saudi Arabia (A.M. Ayling pers comm 2009).
190753		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190754		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
190754		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Marquesas Islands.
190754		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky shore reefs in depths from 1-20 m (Randall and Choat 1980). It is solitary. There are no other data on the biology or life history of this species.
190754		population	eng	This species is locally rare to patches of moderate abundance at the Marquesas. Abundance estimates recorded 1-5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (A.M. Ayling pers comm. 2009).
190754		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190755		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190755		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea to the Line and Ducie islands, north to southern Japan, south to Shark Bay, Western Australia and Lord Howe and Rapa islands.  It is absent from the Hawaiian Islands (Randall 1986).
190755		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on exposed outer reefs, sometimes in very shallow water (Randall<em> et al.</em> 1990). Juveniles occur among coral and rubble of lagoon reefs. It grazes on benthic algae (Sommer<em> et al.</em> 1996). It is generally solitary (Myers 1991) but can often be seen in schools of mixed species when feeding (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Choat and Robertson 1975).<br/><br/>The maximum age recorded in the Indian Ocean is 8 years and 20 years in the Pacific Ocean (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is faster growing and has higher turn over rates in the Indian Ocean (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190755		population	eng	This species is abundant in the Indian (Seychelles) and Pacific Oceans on reef crests and outer reef slopes. It is rare in Cocos Keeling (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, it was only occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003) and in Aceh, exploitation rate of this species in the wild is under MSY (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It was only found in one marine reserve and is not included in any fishery catch data in the central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009).
190755		threats	eng	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.
190756		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190756		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the northern Red Sea and South Africa to Easter Island, northwards to southern Japan, southwards to Poor Knight's Island in New Zealand and Rottnest Island in Australia. In the Southeast Atlantic it is found from False Bay, South Africa.
190756		habitat	eng	This species is found in sheltered bays, harbors and lagoons (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It inhabits seagrass areas or hard substrates heavy with algal cover. It usually occurs in small groups. Unlike other parrotfishes, males and females look very similar and do not change sex (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Larvae of this species is associated with drifting algae (Ohta and Tachihara 2004). It feeds on seagrasses and algae (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is cryptic (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190756		population	eng	This species is relatively common (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is rare in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).
190756		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. However, in the Coral Triangle region, this species can be locally threatened by habitat destruction by dynamite fishing (Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines), sedimentation, and coral bleaching events (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).
190757		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.
190757		distribution	eng	This species is found from Bermuda, South Carolina (Smith 1997) to southern Florida (USA), Bahamas, Antilles to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including Atoll das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha.
190757		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seagrass beds, macroalgae, coral rubble or around stands of gorgonians and soft coral, or on coral and rocky reefs to depths of 30 m (Carvalho-Filho 1999).
190757		population	eng	This species is naturally uncommon. Densities in shallow rocky reefs in Southeast Brazil obtained with Underwater Visual Census are in the order of 0.3 to 0.56 individuals per 40 m<sup>2</sup> (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2007), 0.33 individuals per 40 m<sup>2</sup> Baixo-sul baiano. Lower densities occur along its southern limit, South Brazil (Santa Catarina) 0.1 individuals per 40 m<sup>2</sup> (Bertoncini and Sampaio pers comm 2008). Along the Brazilian coast, it is more common from Bahia to São Paulo and is considered rare in Santa Catarina state (Smith 1997, Hostim-Silva <em>et al.</em> 2006).
190757		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
190758		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190758		distribution	eng	This species is found only in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
190758		habitat	eng	This species is a small excavating parrot fish found on outer reef slopes. It inhabits coral reefs at depths between about 6-31 m, but most commonly encountered below 20 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It has been observed to be solitary or in small groups to depths of 30 m.
190758		population	eng	This endemic species is relatively rare in the Red Sea. In Duba, Saudi Arabia, an average of 33 individuals per hectare were recorded. It is more abundant in the northern Red Sea (Duba, Saudi Arabia as opposed to Jedda, Saudi Arabia) (A.M. Ayling pers comm. 2009).
190758		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190759		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190759		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden to Somalia and Socotra, Oman and Arabian Gulf, but it is not recorded from the northern Arabian Gulf (Randall and Bruce 1983).
190759		habitat	eng	This species inhabits coral reefs of the Red Sea and rocky shores of Oman and the Arabian Gulf in depths from 1-60 m<br/>(Lieske and Myers 1994, Bruce and Randall 1984). The maximum age was recorded at 15 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190759		population	eng	This species is abundant over most of its range. It is abundant in the Red Sea with estimates of 76 individuals per hectare and 30.6 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in northern Oman. It is also abundant along parts of the southern Arabian Gulf coast (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190759		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190760		conservation	eng	This species is present in marine protected areas along the Brazilian coast, such as Recifes de Corais MPA, Costa dos Corais MPA, Abrolhos National Park. There is a collection quota of 1000 individuals/company/year for the aquarium trade. The effective implementation of the few marine protected areas in Brazil represent the most urgent conservation action to protect S. zelindae and the other large-sized Brazilian-endemic parrotfishes. The creation of new protected areas also ranks within priority actions for reef fish conservation in Brazil. Brazilian reefs, highly threatened by the country’s explosive growth, represent a priority area for biodiversity conservation in the Atlantic, due to their small relative area (0.5% of the world’s reefs) and concentration of high levels of endemism (up to 30% in reef fishes). Of particular concern is the disproportionately low redundancy for large-bodied parrotfish.<br/><br/>Remarkable sites where it is recorded include:<br/>1) Manoel Luis Reefs (Parcel Manoel Luís), a large reef complex near the Amazon River mouth (Moura et al. 1999)<br/>encompassed by a State Marine Park created in 1991 and recognized as a RAMSAR Site. Although legally protected, Manoel Luis represent a paper park with no protection and research incentives or infrastructure, being systematically exposed to illegal fisheries by fleets based in or near the city of São Luis, Maranhão State.<br/><br/>2) João da Cunha Reef (Recifes João da Cunha), located in the border between Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte States, these reefs represent the second larger coralline formations in the Northern coast of Brazil (with and E-W orientation) under influence of the west-flowing Equatorial current (the largest reef is Manoel Luis). Density estimates for <em>S. zelindae </em>are available for a few sites and habitats within these reefs (Moura 2003), which were severely damaged by a seaport construction in the 1970s and chronic overfishing.<br/><br/>5) Maracajaú, a large complex of non-emerging coastal reefs off the Rio Grande do Norte State coast, included in the Área de Proteção Ambiental dos Recifes de Corais (established in 200X). Although legally established, this multiple-use protected area provides limited protection as it is not yet implemented and lacks no-take reserves. <em>Scarus zelindae</em> was recorded in Maracajaú by Ferreira and Maida (2006), but there are no specific data on its density in the area.<br/><br/>6) Paraíba State, an important reef area in the northeastern Brazilian coast where <em>S. zelindae</em> was recorded by Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998). It is remarkable that coastal reefs in Paraíba State are already critically damaged by water quality decline, overfishing and mass tourism, and still lack no-take marine protected areas. Best preserved reefs are those in the mid and outer shelf (Feitoza<em>et al.</em> 2005), where <em>S. zelindae</em> occurs in depths up to 54 m, but these are also nearly depleted of large sized commercially important reef fish species.<br/><br/>7) Pernambuco and Alagoas States (Corals Coast), a huge coastal area with coastal and mid/outer shelf reefs, encompassed by the largest Brazilian marine protected area (established in 1997), representing an important area where <em>S. zelindae </em>occurs. Although bearing a few small no-take zones, this MPA still lacks zoning, management plan and enforcement in order to effectively protect <em>S. zelindae</em> and other commercially-exploited parrotfish populations.<br/><br/>8) Abrolhos Bank, a wide portion of the continental shelf (42 000 km^2) with depths rarely exceeding 30 m, the Bank<br/>encompasses the largest and richest coralline reefs in Brazil, where all 18 coral species recorded in Brazil co-occur. Within the Abrolhos Bank <em>S. zelindae</em> is common in both shallow coastal reefs and deeper offshore areas (Moura and Francini-Filho, 2006). There are three main marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region, the “Área de Proteção Ambiental Ponta da Baleia-Abrolhos” (340,000 ha, created in 1993), a “paper park” with no implementation since its legal establishment by the State of Bahia government, the Corumbau Extractive Reserve (89,500 ha, created in 2000), with management plan and zoning, but currently with deficient enforcement (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2007), and the Abrolhos National Marine Park (88,200 ha, created in 1983), the first Brazilian National Marine Park, counting with management plan and zoning, but currently with a heavily deficient enforcement. Despite this MPA network, effectively protection of <em>S. zelindae</em> and other commercially exploited parrotfish populations is not being provided.<br/><br/>10) Southeastern Brazil coastal islands. Significant groups of islands occur off the coast of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina states. Scarus zelindae occurs in low densities throughout the region (e.g. Floeter<em> et al.</em> 2007, Luiz Jr.<em> et al.</em> 2008), being more common in islands than in the mainland coastlines, with numbers decreasing from the North to South. There are few MPAS in the southeastern region, and most existing ones are not implemented and lack management plans and enforcement.
190760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil and occurs from Manoel Luis Reefs in northeastern Brazil to the São Paulo coast in southeastern Brazil. It is absent from all Brazilian oceanic islands.
190760		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coralline areas and rocky reefs at depths of 1 to 60 m. <em>Scarus zelindae</em> is predominantly herbivorous, ingesting algae and detritus (Ferreira and Gonçalves 2006). When compared to its other Brazilian congeners, it prefers crustose coralline algae. This species life history is not known. Based on a sister species in Bermuda, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. taeniopterus</span>, longevity is estimated to be 12 years and average age of maturity would be 2 to 3 years. Therefore, the generation length is estimated to be 7.5 to 8 years.
190760		population	eng	This species is less common than other scarids in Brazil. <br/><br/>In the Abrolhos Bank, a region with Brazil’s largest network of marine protected areas, S. zelindae represents 0.9% of total reef fish biomass (Francini-Filho and Moura 2008), with highest values recorded within the no-take zone of Timbebas Reef (Francini-Filho 2005). Considering the entire Abrolhos Bank (i.e. both protected and unprotected reefs), there is no clear pattern of decreased abundance between 2001 and 2004 (Francini-Filho 2005). However, in one area open to fishing densities declined by 50% between 2001 and 2004 (Francini-Filho 2005).
190760		threats	eng	This species is fished in many areas of its range, especially by spearfishing in the southern portion of its range. Although data is limited, there does not appear to be any decline in the central and northern part of its range. However, in one area open to fishing near Abrolhos Bank, densities declined by 50% between 2001 and 2004 (Francini-Filho 2005). There is not enough data to estimate global population trends or decline.
190761		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Although there are numerous marine reserves in the Coral Triangle, most reserves are not very well managed. In well-managed marine protected areas,  parrotfishes tend to recover comparatively quickly and therefore increased management and enforcement in protected areas might offset the overexploitation of the species. Continued monitoring of harvest levels and habitat status is needed.
190761		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Gulf of Thailand to Indonesia from Anambas and Natuna Islands to West Papau, northwards to the Ryukyu Islands and Palau in Micronesia.
190761		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lagoon and coastal reefs, often in areas with abundant coral and coral rubble at depths of 10 to 30 m. Generation length is estimated to be approximately four years, based on an estimated longevity of at least 10 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996).
190761		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon and rare in some parts of its range. It was recorded as rare in Raja Ampat, Indonesia (Allen 2003). In the Java Sea, abundance estimates of 200 individuals per hectare were recorded by underwater visual census (P. Rahardjo pers comm. 2009).
190761		threats	eng	This species is captured for food in most parts of its range. Destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are occurring in over 90% of its range. In the Philippines, it is exploited at least at the same level as other species which have experienced 50–60% declines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009) over a period of approximately 20–30 years.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure has increased and will undoubtedly continue to increase throughout its range. Based on estimates in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al. </em> 2009), it is estimated that over the next 15 years, population declines will approach 30%.
190762		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190762		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands in the north to the Great Barrier Reef in the south, to Micronesia, Line Islands, Tuamotu Archipealago and Pitcairn Islands in the east (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It extends into marginal reef areas at the southern limits of its range: Middleton Reef, Rapa and Pitcairn. It was recorded from Nuie as the most abundant large parrotfish (R. Bonaldo pers comm. 2009) It has also been recorded from Halmahera, Indonesia (Green and Muljadi 2009).
190762		habitat	eng	This is a large excavating parrotfish (50 cm TL). It is characteristic of exposed reef crests and and seaward reefs to 40 m. It is usually seen in small schools.
190762		population	eng	This species is relatively rare over most of its range but fairly common in Middleton Reef, estimates of 2-8 individuals per hectare (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is abundant at Nuie. It achieves its highest densities on reefs at the southern limit of its range.<br/><br/>Catch records from Guam reported a total of 14,990 kg of <em>C. frontalis</em> landed over the period 1985-2007. It is the 7th most exploited species in Guam. From 1985-1989, an annual average of 669 kg was landed and from 2003-2007, 241 kg landed. The total landed weight of parrotfish in 1985 was 11,532 kg and in 2007 was 4,805 kg. The fishery follows a trend of reduced proportion of larger species (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009). Recent underwater visual survey (UVC) undertaken in 2008 at 28 sites around Guam reveal this species is only present inside marine reserves (J.  McIlwain pers comm. 2010). It is particularly vulnerable to spearfishing because of its preference for shallow habitat.
190762		threats	eng	This species is captured by artisanal and subsistence fisheries in parts of its range. It is heavily fished in Guam. However, localized declines through harvesting are not considered to be causing global population declines.
190763		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range.
190763		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the north Arabian Sea. In Oman, it was only recorded from the south coast. Records from Pakistan and Somalia need confirmation. It does not appear to occur north of Muscat (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190763		habitat	eng	This species achieves large size (more than 50 cm) and is solitary. The maximum age recorded was 25 years. It is a relatively long-lived parrotfish for an Indian Ocean species (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190763		population	eng	This species occurs in low abundances in central and southern Oman. It is most abundant in shallow coastal waters of southern Oman on rocky reefs. It is present on the offshore islands of Al Halaniyat but is relatively rare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). If present in other areas it will be exceedingly rare. It is considered rare by other authors (Randall and Bruce 1983, Randall 1983).
190763		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190764		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
190764		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to temperate China (Parenti and Randall 2000).
190764		habitat	eng	There is no information available on this species' biology or habitat preferences. There are no illustrations, nor recent descriptions (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190764		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from the type material from Ningpo, a set of rocky islands just south of Shanghai.
190764		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190765		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range.
190765		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Oman coast to the Arabian Gulf extending as far north as Kuwait (Carpenter<em> et al.</em> 1997,  Randall and Bruce 1983).
190765		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky reefs and coral patches in depths from 1-25m. It is a moderately sized<span style="font-style: italic;"> Scarus </span>with a maximum recorded size of 56 cm TL (male) and a mean size of 48 cm. Maximum age recorded was 22 years, with a mean age 14 years.
190765		population	eng	This species is common over most of its range except in the northern Arabian Gulf. It is abundant, forming small schools. Abundance estimates recorded 5.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in northern Oman and the Arabian Gulf. It is abundant on shallow coastal rocky reefs. In Southern Oman, abundance estimates recorded 1.5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).
190765		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190766		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190766		distribution	eng	This species is found from the Red Sea, east Africa to Sodwana Bay, Madagsacar, western Indian ocean, and east to the Maldives.
190766		habitat	eng	This species is a large solitary parrotfish (Randall 1986) associated with deeper reef environments on outer slopes (40 -50 m) (Randall and Bruce 1983).
190766		population	eng	This species is rare over most of its range (Randall and Bruce 1983).
190766		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Its rarity and depth depth distribution precludes targeting by fishermen.
190767		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in marine protected areas in Sri Lanka. The Dampier Archipelago is also a proposed marine park.
190767		distribution	eng	This species is found in Sri Lanka and North West Australia (Hutchins 2004). It was recorded for the first time at Ujung Pulau Cut, west Sumatra and on Simeulue, Indonesia (Herdiana <em>et al.</em> 2008).
190767		habitat	eng	This species is an inshore reef parrotfish (Randall and Anderson 1997). In Dampier Archipelago, an inshore environment, it occurs in areas of high coral cover (A. Halford pers comm. 2010). This species is found solitary or in small schools.
190767		population	eng	This species is rare at most sites.
190767		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190768		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.
190768		distribution	eng	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.
190768		habitat	eng	This species inhabits feef and sea grasses from 3-55 m. It is found in reefs with thick algal cover and seagrass, more common in deeper areas. It forms small groups and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite.
190768		population	eng	This species is common (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).
190768		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190769		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.
190769		distribution	eng	This species is confined to southwestern Pacific from eastern Australia, to Rapa, Pitcairn and Austral Island. It is also found in southern Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia in the Coral Sea.
190769		habitat	eng	This species inhabits clear outer slopes and atoll reefs in 10-55 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). A small <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus</span> with a maximum size recorded of 30 cm (TL) (Randall and Choat 1980) that forms small haremic groups. In the southern parts of the range it occurs in 1-20 m.  In northern areas it is confined to deeper water (to 50 m in the northern Great Barrier Reef). It is a fast growing species with high turn over rates. The maximum age recorded was 5-7 years.
190769		population	eng	This species is uncommon over most of its range but achieves high abundances 1-20 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in Coral Sea habitats (Ceccerelli <em>et al.</em> 2008).
190769		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190770		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.
190770		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from the state of Bahia (Abrolhos Archipelago National Marine Park) to the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil, and also in Trindade Island.
190770		habitat	eng	This species is found in rocky shore and rocky reef, algal reef, coral reef and macroalgal beds ranging from one to 15 m depth.
190770		population	eng	This species is considered common throughout its range, and populations on the southeastern coast are stable. Abundance estimates in Arraial do Cabo, Brazil show 0.3+0.3 SD individuals&#160; per 40 m<sup>2</sup> (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2001).
190770		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
190777		conservation	eng	More data on distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance are needed for this species, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
190777		distribution	eng	The species is found throughout Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia; there appears to be only one old record from Peninsular Malaysia, from Kuala Lumpur, but this species is likely to be widely distributed there (Wilson 2008). There are no records from Myanmar, but the species should be looked for there in suitable habitat.
190777		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Wilson (2008) states that the habitat where he recorded the species at Khao Phanom Bencha Forest National Park was “a small stony stream” and “well shaded with steep banks covered in shrubs”. Males were observed engaging in crepuscular flight.</p>
190777		population	eng	There is very little information available on populations of this species, but Wilson (2008) records seeing several males at Khao Phanom Bencha Forest National Park in Krabi Province, Thailand, suggesting that it can be quite common where it occurs. The fact that in some populations at least it has crepuscular habits (Wilson 2008) indicates that it is likely to be under-recorded.
190777		threats	eng	It is difficult to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without information on its tolerance to disturbance of its habitats, but it is present in at least one protected area and is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range. In Peninsular Malaysia some populations are likely to be threatened by plantation establishment (oil palm and biofuel crops).
190778		conservation	eng	It is known from a National Park. The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved, and more research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190778		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Khao Chong National Park near Trang, southern Thailand.
190778		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense upland forest. Other members of the genus occur in small streams and seepages.
190778		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
190778		threats	eng	<p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p>
190780		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution.
190780		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south China, including Taiwan, Viet Nam and one historical record from Japan.
190780		habitat	eng	It occurs in swamps, marshes, stream margins and ponds, including extensive aquaculture ponds.
190780		population	eng	Locally common.
190780		threats	eng	No major threats known.
190781		conservation	eng	Without further data on distribution, habitat and threats any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
190781		distribution	eng	<em>Protosticta robusta</em> is only known from the type location, Taweing (= Tavang?), Lao PDR.
190781		habitat	eng	Nothing was recorded about the habitat of this species, although it is very likely to be a species of forest streams.
190781		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen; nothing can be said about populations of this species from the available data.
190781		threats	eng	We do not have enough data to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.
190782		conservation	eng	The locations in Thailand are in protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190782		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand and Singapore.
190782		habitat	eng	It is known from lowland forest streams, including disturbed forest.
190782		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
190782		threats	eng	No specific information is available, however some locations are threatened by increased urbanization.
190784		conservation	eng	The issue of the relationship of this species to <em>Prodasineura auricolor</em>&#160;needs to be resolved&#160;(see Taxonomic Note); if it should prove to be distinct from <em>auricolor</em>, then further data on distribution, habitat requirements and threats will be needed.
190784		distribution	eng	<em>Prodasineura doisuthepensis</em> is known only from streams on Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand (Hoess 2007), and another in Nam Nao National Park in Petchabun Province (N. Makbun, pers. comm. 2010).
190784		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species appears to be rocky forest streams on hills and mountains.
190784		population	eng	We do not have enough data on this species to make definitive statements about populations.
190784		threats	eng	There is not enough information to assess any threats that might be faced by this species, but it should be noted that all known locations are in National Parks.
190785		conservation	eng	This species were recorded from protected areas in Thailand, however its habitat here has been severely compromised and desperately needs effective management. More research is needed on the distribution of this species, and its potential threats.
190785		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Thailand. It was found first from Huey Toe stream, Khao Phanom Bencha National Park, Krabi province, and is also known from Ranong Province and Khao Chong National Park in Trang province.
190785		habitat	eng	It is known from moderately fast-flowing forest streams.
190785		population	eng	No specific information. Population much reduced through forest clearance for development of oil palm plantations.
190785		threats	eng	The location in Khao Phanom Bencha was in a National Park, however this site has been compromised by stream-bed clearance inside the park to develop tourist facilities, and forest clearance for the establishment of oil palm plantation from the perimeter of the park. No information for the other locations of this species.
190786		conservation	eng	The records obtained from Guangdong and Guangxi were recorded from protected forested nature reserves. More research is needed on its distribution, habitats and potential threats.
190786		distribution	eng	The type locality is Sichuan, China, but no further site location details were provided (Needham 1930). Asahina (1997) recorded a&#160;further&#160;specimen from Baihualing (Kangding Xian), also in Sichuan. Hua (2000)&#160;also&#160;reported it from Heilongjiang, but this requires confirmation. It has also been recorded from Maoershan, Guangxi and Taiwan (Wilson 2005), Nanling, Guangdong (Wilson and Xu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.) and Lao Cao Province, northern Viet Nam, which is&#160;very close to the Yunnan border&#160;(Asahina 1997, Do and Dang 2007). There a record from Lai (1971) reporting a specimen from Hong Kong also requires confirmation.
190786		habitat	eng	Members of the genus, the largest in the Corduliidae, are predominantly&#160;Holarctic and they are found as far north as Odonata exist (Walker and Corbet 1975). When found in the subtropics this species has been usually found at high altitude&#160;in excess of 1,000 m up to 2,290 m. The&#160;possible record from Hong Kong (Lai 1971) is either a mistaken identity or a vagrant. Members of the genus&#160;usually&#160;frequent acidic marshes or pools.
190786		population	eng	This species has a fragmented distribution occurring over a wide range including southwest and southern China (Guangdong,&#160;Guangxi and&#160;Sichuan)&#160;and Viet Nam.
190786		threats	eng	No major threats known.
190788		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190788		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in northern, central and eastern Thailand.
190788		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in small forested upland streams.
190788		population	eng	Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.<p></p>
190788		threats	eng	<p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p>
190789		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190789		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia.
190789		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lowland forest streams.
190789		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
190789		threats	eng	It is not known if this species is under any threat.
190792		conservation	eng	The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190792		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and central Thailand and southern Lao PDR.
190792		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and sub-montane forest streams, including disturbed forest.
190792		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
190792		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown.
190793		conservation	eng	It is known from a National Park. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190793		distribution	eng	This species is known from Chu Yang Sin National Park, and Bao Loc, southern Viet Nam.
190793		habitat	eng	It occurs in small forest streams and seepages, including disturbed forest.
190793		population	eng	The population information of the species is not known.
190793		threats	eng	The population in Chu Yang Sin National Park is in a protected area, however the other population in Lam Dong Province is likely to be threatened due to deforestation.
190795		conservation	eng	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species without further data.
190795		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the incomplete holotype male from Ngai Cho, Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam (Fraser 1926, Kalkman and Wilson 2010). The species should be looked for in adjacent parts of Yunnan Province, China.
190795		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but it is likely to be a species of mountain streams and trickles.
190795		population	eng	Nothing can be inferred about populations of this species from the available information.
190795		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without more data.
190796		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution, population sizes and threats. In particular it should be determined if it is present in protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia, for instance from Taman Negara National Park, from where there are very few records of Odonata.
190796		distribution	eng	The species is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Yala in the extreme south of Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Most records from Peninsular Malaysia are from the Cameron Highlands in Pahang, and surrounding parts of Perak; however there is a record from Templar Park near Kuala Lumpur (Lieftinck 1984), two other records from Selangor, and another from Penang Island (Kitagawa 1997), as well as a vague record from Kelantan, which could be from close to the Cameron Highlands, or could be from much further away. It is likely to be more widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia than these records suggest; there are extensive areas of suitable hilly and mountainous habitat, but collecting appears to have been concentrated in the easily accessible Cameron Highlands area.
190796		habitat	eng	Small streams and springs in forest in steep terrain. It is tolerant of a degree of disturbance.
190796		population	eng	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, but can be quite common where it occurs.
190796		threats	eng	Some populations of this species may be threatened by deforestation, and forest clearance for agriculture is certainly a threat in the Cameron Highlands, but overall this species does not appear to be globally threatened.
190797		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190797		distribution	eng	This species is known from one location in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand.
190797		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat preference of this species.
190797		population	eng	No information is available on population size.
190797		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
190799		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The taxonomic issues need to be resolved and there is a need for fresh data from Java and Sumatra, from where there are no recent records, and for further data on distribution, habitat and ability to survive in plantation habitats. The chances of survival of this and other forest stream odonates in areas being converted to plantation would be greatly improved by the provision of adequate buffer zones of original vegetation around streams. Beyond this there does not appear to be a need for specific conservation measures at this time.</p>
190799		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Java (subspecies <em>thelyphonus</em>), Sumatra and Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), the Philippines (e.g. Hämäläinen and Müller 1997), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in Myanmar.
190799		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “Clear forest streams with sand or gravel bottom”. However larvae have been found in a turbid stream running through acacia plantation (however it is not clear if populations can survive in the long-term in acacia plantations), and in other disturbed forest streams (R. Dow pers. comm 2011); clearly it is tolerant of quite a high level of disturbance.
190799		population	eng	This species is probably common at many locations, but under-recorded because of its extremely fugitive behaviour. It is common to find many <em>Microgomphus</em> larvae in a stream but no or only one adult even over a long period of sampling.
190799		threats	eng	Individual populations are threatened by deforestation and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak, where many such projects are currently planned), and possibly plantation establishment However the species, as currently understood, does not appear to be globally threatened at this time.
190803		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species, to establish its distribution, habitat requirements, and potential threats.
190803		distribution	eng	This species is known from Than Muoi, and Mau Son, Lang Son Province, Viet Nam.
190803		habitat	eng	There is no information available regarding habitat preference for this species; however, other members of the genus are found near moderately fast flowing open aspect streams near forest.
190803		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
190803		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by deforestation.
190805		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for fresh data from Indonesia, and further distributional and habitat data, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.</p>
190805		distribution	eng	The species is widespread, with records from Sulawesi, Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Myanmar (Fraser 1936) and Lao PDR (e.g. Sasamoto and Honda 2003). It should be looked for in Yunnan (China), Viet Nam and Cambodia.
190805		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat as “medium sized, clear lowland forest streams, 0-900 m. Prefers slower water with a sandy bottom”. However it has been found on turbid streams in Sarawak, and on rocky and quite fast flowing streams on a number of occasions (R. Dow pers. comm 2011); possibly the idea of a preference for slower streams is an artefact of under sampling. It is certainly tolerant of quite a high degree of disturbance and in my experience it prefers an open canopy.
190805		population	eng	This fast flying species is fairly common across most of its range, and is fast flying, so likely to be under-recorded.
190805		threats	eng	Individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, large-scale hydroelectric projects and plantation establishment (however it may be able to survive in plantation habitats). However this is a disturbance tolerant species, and it is not likely to be seriously threatened across its entire range.
190806		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, though taxonomic research is required.
190806		distribution	eng	<p>The species<span lang="EN-GB"> is found on Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Sumatra including Belitung island (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and southern and western Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). However it appears to have become extinct in Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). If <em>D. walli </em>is a junior synonym of <em>D. dimidiata </em>(see Taxonomic Notes), then Myanmar can also be included in the distribution of this species.</p>
190806		habitat	eng	The species can be found on a wide variety of low gradient forest streams and rivers, including those in highly disturbed forest and in Sarawak it has been found to be common on a stream flowing through an acacia plantation (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011). It can be found up to an altitude of at least 1,100 m where suitable habitat occurs.
190806		population	eng	This is often a common species where it occurs, however populations have been lost from Singapore.
190806		threats	eng	This species does not appear to be under any serious threat at present, although individual populations are threatened by deforestation, and canalisation of streams. The latter threat is believed to be the reason for the extinction of the species in Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).
190809		conservation	eng	At present, it is thought there are no urgent research or conservation actions needed, although more information on its population size and trend would be useful.
190809		distribution	eng	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Lao PDR, Singapore, Thailand and Yunnan, China.
190809		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland open aspect forest streams, including disturbed forests and narrow corridors of forest running through agricultural land.
190809		population	eng	There is currently no detailed information available regarding its population numbers.
190809		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.
190811		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data from Sumatra and Myanmar, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
190811		distribution	eng	The species is known from Indonesia (Sumatra, Belitung, the Mentawei Islands (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), and Kalimantan (e.g. Orr 2003)), Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Malaysia (Peninsular (e.g. Orr 2005), Sabah, and Sarawak), southern Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and southern Myanmar (e.g. Lieftinck 1954).
190811		habitat	eng	<p>The species<span lang="EN-GB"> breeds in slow flowing lowland forest streams, including freshwater swamp forest. It has been found in logged forest in Sarawak and second growth forest in East Kalimantan (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011), and Choong (2009) has recorded it in oil palm; it appears to be tolerant of disturbance.</p>
190811		population	eng	This species is somewhat local in occurrence but often a common where it occurs.
190811		threats	eng	Although deforestation and plantation establishment, and possibly large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak), are threats to some populations of this species, it is tolerant of disturbance and does not appear to be globally threatened at this time.
190812		conservation	eng	The taxonomic issues need to be resolved, and there is a need for further distributional data, and for fresh data from Java and Sumba.
190812		distribution	eng	<a name="OLE_LINK2">Three subspecies are recognised; <em>Burmagomphus w. williamsoni</em> </a>is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and is likely to be present in Myanmar and has been reported from Yunnan (Zhou 1987). <em>B. w. javicus</em> is known from Java (Lieftinck 1964), and <em>B. w. austrosundanus</em> is known from Sumba in the Lesser Sunda Islands (Lieftinck 1964).
190812		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) states that the species is found at “sluggish lowland streams in open country”, however it is certainly present on forest streams as well, and it has been found on a fast flowing rocky stream in northwest Thailand (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011).
190812		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is possibly not uncommon where it occurs, but maybe somewhat local.</p>
190812		threats	eng	This species appears to be able to occupy a wide variety of lowland streams, and to not be, or to be less, dependent on forest than many other tropical gomphids; it may not be under any particular threat at this time.
190813		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its taxonomy, distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190813		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand (one record in Loei, and one from Chiang Rai), and from the Wang Pa Ta waterfall in northeastern Lao PDR.
190813		habitat	eng	No information is available on the habitat preference of this species.
190813		population	eng	No information is available on population size, but only three specimens have ever been found.
190813		threats	eng	Currently, no information is available regarding threats to this species.
190814		conservation	eng	The type locality is in a National Park. More information is needed on this species taxonomy, distribution and potential threats.
190814		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Phangnga province, Thailand.
190814		habitat	eng	It is known from a primary forested narrow stream, with rocky substrate, with dense vegetation either side.
190814		population	eng	No information is available on the size and trend of population for this species.
190814		threats	eng	There is no information available regarding potential threats to this species.
190816		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is further information on distribution and clarification of its taxonomy. Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
190816		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality in Fuijan, China (Xu 2006). There are possible records from Tam Dao National Park in north Viet Nam (Do Manh pers. comm. 2010), but it is not possible to be sure that these really refer to the same species at this time.
190816		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected at a small forest stream at 1,000 m.
190816		population	eng	The type series consists of a single male. A number of individuals have been collected at the location in Viet Nam, suggesting it is quite common there, if these specimens really belong to the same species.
190816		threats	eng	Without further information on distribution and confirmation of the records from Viet Nam it is difficult to assess any threats that this species might face, but the main threat is likely to be from deforestation.
190819		conservation	eng	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
190819		distribution	eng	The only record of this species is of the type, from “Ngai-Tio” in northern Viet Nam (Fraser 1926), however the exact whereabouts of this location is not known for certain (Do Manh and Hoa 2007). The location may be Ngai Thau (22<sup>o</sup> 40'N, 103<sup>o</sup>30'E; see p.1, Storz and Wozencraft 1999).
190819		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded of the habitat of this species, but it is almost certainly a species of streams.
190819		population	eng	Nothing can be said about of populations of this species from the available information.
190819		threats	eng	Without more information on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.
190821		conservation	eng	It is known from at least one protected area. More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190821		distribution	eng	This species is only recorded from Chanthaburi province, eastern Thailand.
190821		habitat	eng	It occurs in sub-montane forest. Other members of the genus occur in small streams and seepages.
190821		population	eng	Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.
190821		threats	eng	No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.
190823		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is for more data on its distribution and habitat requirements.
190823		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type series from King Island, Mergui, Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), and a more recent record from Khura Buri district of Phangnga province, Thailand (M. Hämäläinen, pers. comm. 2010).
190823		habitat	eng	The type series was collected alongside streams in rubber plantations, suggesting that it is tolerant of some disturbance to its habitats. Old rubber plantations bear little resemblance to most modern agro-industry plantations, so nothing can be reliably inferred on the ability of the species to survive in modern plantation habitats from this data. No other information has been recorded on the habitat of this species.
190823		population	eng	The type series consists of a number of individuals, suggesting that this species might be quite common where it occurs, but it appears to be very local in occurrence.
190823		threats	eng	Without further data on distribution and habitat requirements it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.
190824		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data from Sumatra and further distributional data from across the range of this species. Populations in areas being converted to plantation would benefit greatly by the provision of adequate buffer zones of original vegetation around streams. Beyond this there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures, although the species would certainly benefit from the protection of additional areas of lowland rainforest. The species is certainly present in some existing protected areas e.g. Endau Rompin and Taman Negara national parks in Peninsular Malaysia (Wilson and Gibert 2005) and Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (R. Dow unpublished 2011).
190824		distribution	eng	<p>The species <span lang="EN-GB">is known from northeastern Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), throughout Peninsular Malaysia, and Thailand as far north as Kanchanaburi (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is to be expected in Myanmar.</p>
190824		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) sums up the habitat of this species as “clear forest streams”. Most records are from pristine habitats, but I have found it on streams in logged forest in east Kalimantan and Sarawak, suggesting that it is tolerant of some disturbance.
190824		population	eng	This species appears to be quite local, but common where it occurs.
190824		threats	eng	Individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are underway or planned).
190825		conservation	eng	The priority for this species is for fresh searches in Myanmar and adjacent parts of Thailand. Until such searches are made any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
190825		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanosticta viridis</em> is only known from the type series from King Island, Mergui, Myanmar (Fraser 1922, 1933).
190825		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only information on the habitat of this species is from the original description (Fraser 1922): “Swamps and running streams in a three-year old rubber plantation”. From this it can be inferred that it is tolerant of some disturbance to its habitat. The habitat is very unusual for any member of the Platystictidae.</p>
190825		population	eng	The type series consists of two males and one female, not definitely associated with the males (Fraser 1922); no other population information is available.
190825		threats	eng	Without further information on distribution it is difficult to assess any threats faced by this species, although deforestation is likely to be the major threat.
190826		conservation	eng	The taxonomic issue needs to be resolved and further distributional data is needed, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed, although the species would certainly benefit from the provision of adequate buffer zones of original forest around streams in areas being converted to plantation.
190826		distribution	eng	Two subspecies are recognised. <em>Gomphidia a. abbotti</em> is known from Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1934), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2001), Guangxi in China (e.g. Wilson 2005) and Hainan Island (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is likely to occur in Cambodia and Viet Nam. <em>G. a. audax</em> is known only from south Sumatra; there is no recent information on this subspecies.
190826		habitat	eng	Orr (2005) gives the habitat as “Lowland forest streams; prefers slow flowing water with substrate of sand or mud”. It has been found in disturbed forest (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011).
190826		population	eng	This species can be common where it occurs.
190826		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects are threats to some populations, but overall this species does not appear to be threatened.</p>
190827		conservation	eng	More information on habitat and distribution is the priority for this species, but any conservation measures that might be needed will have to be based on the protection of additional areas of suitable habitat.
190827		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty from only a few scattered localities. The type series comes from King Island in Mergui in southern Myanmar (e.g., Fraser 1936). There are records from four localities in Kanchanaburi, Krabi and Tak provinces in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Hämäläinen pers. comm.). Records from Peninsular Malaysia may not actually refer to this species (see Taxonomic Note) and are not included here.
190827		habitat	eng	Very little appears to have been recorded about the habitat of this species, but this species appears to be present in small streams in lowland forest. It is probable that it can tolerate disturbed forest.
190827		population	eng	There is no information on populations of this species.
190827		threats	eng	Without more information on the habitat of this species it is difficult to do more than guess at any threats it might face. However it certainly appears to be very local in occurrence, and is therefore likely to be threatened by habitat loss from deforestation.
190828		conservation	eng	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species without further data.
190828		distribution	eng	<em>Lestes angularis </em>is only known from the type locality at Minbu in Myanmar.
190828		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat of this species.
190828		population	eng	Nothing can be inferred about populations of this species from the available information.
190828		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without more data.</p>
190829		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species (although possibly in the south of its range there might be a need to protect individual populations).</p>
190829		distribution	eng	The species is known from Myanmar (Schmidt 1964), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This species is local but common in Peninsular Malaysia; they are recorded in Bangi Selangor, Kuala Lumpur, and Pangkor Island (offshore from Perak State) (C.-Y. Choong pers comm. 2011).
190829		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in open ponds and similar habitats and is tolerant of disturbance.</p>
190829		population	eng	Orr (2005) states that in peninsular Malaysia this species is “rare and local”, however in Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand it has been found it to be rather common at times (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011). It appears that it is commoner in the north of its range, becoming scarcer to the south, but more data are needed to confirm this impression. Considered local but common in Peninsular Thailand (C.-Y. Choong pers. comm. 2011).
190829		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>
190830		conservation	eng	There is a need for fresh data from Sumatra and further distributional data, no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
190830		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Sumatra and satellite islands (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and is likely to be found in southern Myanmar.
190830		habitat	eng	Typically found in marshy areas and low gradient seepages in forest. It is commonest in the lowlands, but it has been found it above 1,000 m in the upper Baram area of Miri Division in Sarawak (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011). It is tolerant of some disturbance to its forest habitats.
190830		population	eng	This species is somewhat local in occurrence, but often common where it occurs.
190830		threats	eng	Individual populations are threatened by deforestation, plantation establishment and large-scale hydroelectric projects. However populations occur in many protected areas in Malaysia at least, and this species is tolerant of at least some disturbance and capable of surviving in fairly small pockets of forest; it does not appear to be globally threatened.
190832		conservation	eng	It occurs in several protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190832		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and western Thailand, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Yunnan, China.
190832		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest streams, including disturbed forest.
190832		population	eng	Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.<p></p>
190832		threats	eng	No major threats have been found to affect the species.
190833		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, though research is recommended into the species ecology, distribution, and threats.
190833		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (e.g. Tang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and southern Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in southern Myanmar.
190833		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swampy forest (but is uncommon in true swamp forest) and at forest pools. It is most common in the lowlands, but it has been found&#160; at 1,000 m in the Tama Abu range in Sarawak (R.Dow pers. comm. 2011). It is tolerant of at least some disturbance to its habitats, and has been found in oil palm plantation in Peninsular Malaysia (C.-Y. Choong pers. comm. 2011).
190833		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species in lowland forest across much of its range.</p>
190833		threats	eng	Deforestation and plantation establishment are threats to some populations, but this species is not globally threatened.
190834		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas although more research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190834		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and eastern Thailand, as well as from Nakhon Sawan and Nakhon Nayok provinces, and from southern Viet Nam.
190834		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest streams, including disturbed forest and plantations.
190834		population	eng	Population information on size and trend is currently not known.
190834		threats	eng	No major threats are presently known to affect this species.
190836		conservation	eng	Further data on the distribution of this species, especially in Cambodia, is a priority. If it does have a restricted range then conservation measures must be based around the protection of additional areas of suitable habitat.
190836		distribution	eng	This species is known from about eight sites in southeastern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010, N. Makbun pers. comm. 2010) and from four locations in Cambodia (Asahina 1984, O. Kosterin pers. comm. 2010). Very little sampling of Odonata has ever taken place in Cambodia; this species is&#160;possibly&#160;more widely distributed in this country than the present records show.
190836		habitat	eng	Few details of the habitat of this species have been recorded, but it is a species of forest streams and trickles. At present, there is no evidence of tolerance to disturbance (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011).
190836		population	eng	There are not many records of this species, suggesting that it is both scarce and local.
190836		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to be the main threat to this species. However it is present in a number of protected areas in Thailand and Cambodia, and does not appear to be threatened at this time.
190837		conservation	eng	<p>Further data on habitat, distribution and threats must be obtained before any conservation measures are planned.</p>
190837		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known only from the type series (two male and four female specimens), collected in Jiangcheng County in southern Yunnan on 26 May 1993. The localization of&#160; the exact site is unknown. The site is close to the borders of Lao PDR (north of Phongsaly Province) and Viet Nam; therefore the species could be expected also to be found from these countries.</p>
190837		habitat	eng	<p>Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species. However, as with the other species in the genus, it is expected to occur on small mountain streams in forested environment in mountains.</p>
190837		population	eng	There are no data available on populations of this species.
190837		threats	eng	<p>Without further information on distribution it is difficult to assess any threats that this species might face, but the main threat is likely to be deforestation of mountain slopes.</p>
190838		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.
190838		distribution	eng	<p>The species<span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo and many of their satellite islands (e.g. Lieftinck 1954)), the Philippines (eg. Hämäläinen<span lang="EN-GB"> and Müller 1997), Singapore (e.g.Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It is recorded from Tatai, Koh Kong Province in Cambodia <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> and might occur in Myanmar, and should be looked for in southern parts of Lao PDR. </span></span></p>
190838		habitat	eng	This species occupies a broad range of swamp and swampy forest habitats. It is most common at low altitudes but it has been found at above 1,000 m in the Tama Abu Range in Sarawak (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011). It occurs in highly disturbed forest and it has been found on a stream in mature oil palm in eastern Kalimantan (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011) and in Peninsular Malaysia (C.-Y. Choong, pers. comm. 2011).
190838		population	eng	This is a very common species in swampy lowland forest across much of its range.
190838		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>
190839		conservation	eng	This species lives in protected areas. The taxonomic status of this species needs to be resolved. If it is a valid species, more research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190839		distribution	eng	This species has been found in good forests in northern Viet Nam, with the normal form found in Cuc Phuong National Park and the dark form found in Tam Dao National Park.
190839		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and montane forest streams, including disturbed forest.
190839		population	eng	<p>Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.</p>
190839		threats	eng	This species lives in protected areas, both Tam Dao and Cuc Phuong are national parks. At the site where this species was recorded in Tam Dao there is an increased threat from tourist development, however there are still pristine areas in the park.
190840		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are needed for this widely distributed species, however research is clearly needed to confirm the species full range.
190840		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, with records from Sri Lanka and India to Thailand. It is not known if the species is present in other countries (e.g., Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Lao PDR etc.), and further research is required to confirm the full range of the species.
190840		habitat	eng	This species breeds in ponds. In Chiang Mai in Thailand a population was found at a pond that was polluted with large amounts of domestic waste (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011), indicating that this species is tolerant of some pollution.
190840		population	eng	This species is locally common and almost certainly under-recorded.
190840		threats	eng	This species is not threatened.
190842		conservation	eng	Management plans should be formulated and implemented so that they ensure stream ecosystems are fully protected from development activities, such as the construction and operation of small-scale hydro-electric facilities, within nature reserves in southern and southwestern&#160;China. More research is needed on the distribution of this species.
190842		distribution	eng	Restricted to just five locations in southwestern and southern China. Originally described from Guizhou (Chao 1990) and subsequently recorded from Maoershan and Dayaoshan, Guangxi (Wilson 2005), Nanling, Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2009) and Sichuan (Yang and Davies 1996).
190842		habitat	eng	This species is&#160;restricted&#160;to protected forest areas in montane locations from southwestern and southern China. Members of the genus frequent either forested or open aspect montane streams with substrates ranging from boulders and bedrock with pockets of gravel at higher altitude to boulder and gravel substrates at lower altitudes.
190842		population	eng	No information available.<em><br/></em>
190842		threats	eng	Since the sites this species has been recorded from in Guangxi, Guangdong and Sichuan comprise protected forest nature reserves, a high degree of protection already exists but extensive&#160;development&#160;of small-scale hydro-electric facilities in southern Chinese nature reserves has the potential to&#160;deleteriously&#160;impact stream dependant communities.
190845		conservation	eng	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
190845		distribution	eng	<em> </em>The species is known from two males from Lao PDR, one from Pak Muang at approximately&#160;600 m, and one from Hat Kam, Vientiane (Fraser 1933); both were collected more than 70 years ago.<em></em>
190845		habitat	eng	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, however it is likely to breed in rocky streams in forested areas.
190845		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing can be said about of populations of this species from the available information.</p>
190845		threats	eng	Without more information on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.
190846		conservation	eng	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.
190846		distribution	eng	The only certain records of this species are from southern Viet Nam, although Martin (1904), an unreliable authority, recorded it from northern Viet Nam.
190846		habitat	eng	In Khan Hoa Province it was found to breed in lowland forest stream with moderate flow (M. Hämäläinen&#160; pers. comm. 2011).
190846		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing can be said about of populations of this species from the available information.</p>
190846		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without more information on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.</p>
190848		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further data on distribution is the priority for this species. If any specific conservation measures are needed, they will be based around the protection of further areas of suitable habitat.</p>
190848		distribution	eng	<p>The species<span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Thailand, with records from a number of locations in Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai (e.g. Asahina 1984, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and from northern Lao PDR (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Viet Nam and Yunnan.</p>
190848		habitat	eng	This is a montane species, it breeds in small forest streams. It appears to possess some degree of tolerance to disturbance to its habitats; a population at one stream on Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai has survived the damming of the stream, which resulted in reduced flow and intermittent drying up downstream of the dam, and one individual has been recorded (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011) in second growth forest in Chiang Rai.
190848		population	eng	Although this has been regarded as a “rare” species, it is often quite common where it occurs.
190848		threats	eng	Deforestation is the main threat to this species. However it is represented in a number of protected areas, and appears to be fairly widely distributed, so it is not likely to be globally threatened.
190849		conservation	eng	Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, more data on the distribution and the tolerance (or not) to habitat disturbance of this species must be obtained.
190849		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type location in Yala Province in the extreme south of Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and two locations in Peninsular Malaysia; Pangkor Island, Perak (4°13'38.55"N 100°33'34.38"E), and Gunung Angsi Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan (2°39'34.07"N 102° 3'14.25"E) (C.-Y. Choong pers. comm. 2010).
190849		habitat	eng	Nothing was recorded about the habitat at the type locality, but at both locations in Peninsular Malaysia the habitat was a small rocky forest stream in hilly terrain. We do not know if this species is at all tolerant of disturbance to its habitats.
190849		population	eng	There is insufficient information available to make definitive statements about populations of this species; however it seems to be extremely local in occurrence.
190849		threats	eng	We do not have enough data to assess the threats faced by this species, although deforestation is clearly a threat.
190850		conservation	eng	Further data on distribution and tolerance to disturbance is needed. The negative impacts of plantation establishment could be mitigated by the provision of adequate buffer zones of original vegetation around streams in land being converted to plantation
190850		distribution	eng	The species is known from Sumatra including Belitung (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Borneo (e.g. Orr 2003), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Trang in southern Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
190850		habitat	eng	This species breeds in lowland forest streams, at present there is little evidence of tolerance to disturbance.
190850		population	eng	This species appears to be local in occurrence, but can be common where it occurs. It is encountered with some regularity at locations within Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (e.g. Matsuki & Kitagawa 1992, Dow and Reels 2008). It may be under-recorded; larvae have been found at various locations in Sarawak without finding adults (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011), unfortunately it is not possible to identify Bornean <em>Gomphidia</em> larva to species at present without rearing them to adulthood.
190850		threats	eng	Deforestation, large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak where many such projects are currently planned) and plantation establishment are all threats to this species.
190851		conservation	eng	More information is needed on its distribution, particularly in Myanmar and Kalimantan.
190851		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore.
190851		habitat	eng	It occurs in lentic bodies and slow flowing rivers.
190851		population	eng	This is a locally common species over much of its range, becoming scarcer in Borneo.
190851		threats	eng	No major threats have been found to affect the species.
190852		conservation	eng	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, though research is recommended into the species ecology, distribution, and threats.
190852		distribution	eng	The species is known from Indonesia (the Lesser Sunda Islands, Bali, Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1954)), Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak (e.g. Orr 2005), and the extreme south of Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).
190852		habitat	eng	This species breeds in rocky forest streams, typically in hilly and mountainous terrain. It is tolerant of some disturbance to its habitats.
190852		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is typically fairly common where it occurs, but under-recorded.</p>
190852		threats	eng	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, large-scale hydroelectric projects and possibly by plantation establishment, but overall this species is not threatened.
190853		conservation	eng	There is a need for further distributional data and the species should be looked for in Myanmar. Beyond this no specific measures appear to be needed at this time.
190853		distribution	eng	The species is known from Singapore (e.g. Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and southern and western Thailand, where it extends as far north as Tak province (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is very likely to occur in Myanmar. It is present in totally protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia at least, e.g. Endau Rompin National Park (e.g. Wilson and Gibert 2005).
190853		habitat	eng	Found at small forest streams and seepages; it is tolerant of at least some disturbance to its habitats.
190853		population	eng	This is often a common species where it occurs.
190853		threats	eng	The only threats likely to be faced by this species are from deforestation and plantation establishment.
190854		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution, particularly for its range outside of China.
190854		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, northeastern Thailand, Taiwan, southern China (the provinces of Fujian (Shaowu), Guangdong (Dadongshan, Dinghushan, Heishiding, Liuxihe,   Luofushan, Nankunshan, Nanling), Guangxi (Dayaoshan, Maoershan),  Hainan (Wuzhishan), and Zhejiang (Hangzhou, Ningbo)), Taiwan  (Province of China), and central Lao PDR.
190854		habitat	eng	The species occurs in well vegetated narrow lowland forest streams, including secondary forest.
190854		population	eng	It is locally common in protected forest areas in southern China.
190854		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
190855		conservation	eng	It is known from at least two protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190855		distribution	eng	This species is known from Doi Suthep and Doi Inthanon mountains in Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand, and Oudom Xay in Lao PDR.
190855		habitat	eng	It is found in mountain forest streams, including disturbed forests.
190855		population	eng	The population status of the species is not known.
190855		threats	eng	There is a lack of knowledge regarding potential threats that this species may be under.
190856		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species' distribution.
190856		distribution	eng	<p>This species was found into Chu Yang Sin National Park, Dac Lak Province, southern Viet Nam, where it was described by Jan van Tol in 2008. <br/></p>
190856		habitat	eng	Occurs in small forested streams, including secondary forest.
190856		population	eng	There is no detailed information available on population, however the species appears to be common in the known locations.
190856		threats	eng	This species occurs throughout a national park. One site is threatened by the construction of a hydro-electric dam, but no threats are known to the rest of population.
190857		conservation	eng	More research is needed to establish the distribution of this species, and any potential threats.
190857		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the type locality near Bao Loc, Lam Dong Province, Viet Nam.
190857		habitat	eng	It is known from a slightly disturbed forested stream.
190857		population	eng	This species appears to be common at the type locality although the population trend is not known.
190857		threats	eng	<p>No information is available regarding potential threats to this species.</p>
190858		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats to this species. A priority is to search other localities within Doi Inthanon. Searches for this species are hampered by current legislation in Thailand.
190858		distribution	eng	This species was recorded from Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand.
190858		habitat	eng	It is found in open forest streams.
190858		population	eng	This species has been in decline and is now rare.
190858		threats	eng	The only known locality has been severely compromised by touristic development and agriculture.
190859		conservation	eng	It occurs in protected areas in northern Thailand. More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190859		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Asahina 1985). It has also been reported from Manipur and Assam in India. Presence in between these known locations is likely and the species should be looked for in Myanmar.
190859		habitat	eng	This species occurs in densely vegetated montane streams and man-made channels, with overhanging woody vegetation.
190859		population	eng	The species can be locally abundant where it is found.
190859		threats	eng	No major threats are currently known to affect this species.
190860		conservation	eng	Fresh data is needed from Indonesia on this species, and more data from across its entire range, and it should be searched for in adjacent regions. Without further data it is difficult know if specific conservation measures are needed, but if they are they will centre around the protection of suitable habitat, and the proper enforcement of protected status. The species is certainly present in at least one protected area in Sarawak (Gunung Mulu National Park, R. Dow unpublished).
190860		distribution	eng	The species is quite widespread, with records from Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), Sarawak (e.g. Lieftinck 1953) and Sabah (Laidlaw 1931) in Borneo, Java and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), and Sumba in the Lesser Sunda Islands (e.g. Lieftinck 1953). There do not seem to be any published records from Kalimantan or Brunei, although it must be present in the former and is likely to be present in the latter. It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Yunnan, Cambodia and Lao PDR and might occur in Viet Nam.
190860		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Orr (2005) summarises the habitats of this species as follows: “Forest understorey, especially in vicinity of bamboo, 0-800+ m, preferring higher altitudes; breeds in water filled treeholes, bamboo stumps and small leafy ground ponds.” Nothing can be added to this with our present knowledge, but the upper altitude given is likely to be an under-estimate. There is no information on its ability to tolerate disturbance.</p>
190860		population	eng	Although this species is quite widespread, there are not many records and they are scattered. However this is as likely to be due under-recording as it is to genuine rarity, as phytotelmata breeders are difficult to find and usually only taken by chance. Thus it is extremely difficult to know whether this is a widespread but scarce species, or a widespread and under-recorded species.
190860		threats	eng	Individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, large-scale hydroelectric projects (e.g. in Sarawak) and plantation establishment. Without more data on the ability of the species to tolerate disturbance, and on distribution and population sizes, it is difficult to judge whether it is threatened across its range.
190861		conservation	eng	Further data on the distribution of this species, and confirmation (or not) of its status as a species distinct from <em>C. kazukoae </em>(see Taxonomic Note), are the priorities for this species. If it is a distinct species and its range is as restricted as the present information suggests then conservation measures must be based around the identification and protection of additional areas of suitable habitat within that range.
190861		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species<span lang="EN-GB"> appears to be known only from three locations in the southeastern corner of Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, N. Makbun 2010 pers. comm.). It should be looked for in Cambodia.</span></p>
190861		habitat	eng	Few details of the habitat of this species have been recorded, but it is a species of small forest streams. At present, there is no evidence of tolerance to disturbance (R. Dow pers. comm. 2011).
190861		population	eng	There are not many records of this species, suggesting that it is both scarce and local.
190861		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to be the main threat to this species. It is present in protected areas in Thailand, but its known range is restricted, suggesting that it might be threatened.
190862		conservation	eng	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species without further data. The priority is for extensive expert sampling of Odonata in Myanmar, a country where little collecting of Odonata has ever taken place, and virtually none sine the end of the colonial era.
190862		distribution	eng	The species<em>&#160;</em><em></em>is known only from the female type from between Moolai and Morlut in the Tennasserim (Tanintharyi) area of Myanmar (Selys 1878).
190862		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat of this species.
190862		population	eng	Nothing can be inferred about populations of this species from the available information.
190862		threats	eng	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without more data.
190865		conservation	eng	This species is found in protected areas in Thailand. More research is needed on its distribution, habitat requirements and potential threats.
190865		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Myanmar and northern and north-eastern Thailand.
190865		habitat	eng	It occurs in small densely forested montane streams. Other members of the genus can tolerate disturbed and secondary forest.
190865		population	eng	No information available.
190865		threats	eng	No information available. There is habitat degradation due to deforestation in parts of its range, however it is not known what the habitat requirements for this species are.
190866		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
190866		distribution	eng	The species is known from Lao PDR (Yokoi and Kano 2002), Viet Nam (Do Manh and Hoa 2007) and Hainan in China (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2008).
190866		habitat	eng	This species is found at small forest streams and seepages, especially in upland areas.
190866		population	eng	Although more data is needed, this appears to be a common species.
190866		threats	eng	Although individual populations may be threatened by deforestation, this species is not globally threatened.
190867		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas. More research is needed on its distribution, in particular to establish its presence in Lao PDR and Myanmar.
190867		distribution	eng	This species is known from northern and western Thailand, and Viet Nam (Hamalainen and Pinratana 1999;&#160;Asahina 1984, 1985). Van Tol (2008) also mentions Lao PDR and Myanmar, without giving location details and with some doubt on the identification of the specimens.
190867		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane densely forested small streams and seepages.
190867		population	eng	Population size and trend is not currently known for this species.
190867		threats	eng	No major threats have been found to affect the species.
190868		conservation	eng	More research is needed on its distribution and potential threats.
190868		distribution	eng	This species is found from southern and southwestern China including Hainan, Guizhou and Guangxi, and also northern Viet Nam (Bac Can town in Bac Can Province; Do Manh and Karube 2011).
190868		habitat	eng	It is found in open but clear boulder streams in sub-montane areas.
190868		population	eng	It is common in Hainan, but there is insufficient information elsewhere in its range.
190868		threats	eng	No major threats are known, but hydro-electric facilities are likely to impact some populations.
190869		conservation	eng	There is a need for further data on distribution, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.
190869		distribution	eng	The species is known from sites in Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai and Tak in northern Thailand, and Trang in southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and the type locality at Pu Tat in Lao PDR (Fraser 1933). It is likely to occur in Myanmar and Yunnan and might occur in the north of West Malaysia.
190869		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found at small forest streams.</p>
190869		population	eng	This species appears to be quite local in occurrence, but can be quite common where it occurs.
190869		threats	eng	Individual populations may be threatened by deforestation, but this species is found in several national parks in Thailand and does not appear to be globally threatened.
190871		conservation	eng	<p><em>Sotalia fluviatilis</em> is listed in Appendix I of CITES and in Appendix II of CMS. The species is legally protected in most of the range countries.</p>
190871		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Tucuxis are found in the Amazon drainage as far inland as southern Peru, eastern Ecuador, and southeastern Colombia. They occur in the main tributaries of the Amazon/Solimões River basin and they cross international boundaries in areas such as Leticia, between Brazil and Colombia. The species does not occur in the Beni/Mamoré river basin in Bolivia nor in the upper Rio Negro. Its putative presence in the Orinoco is controversial because of a stretch of rapids and waterfalls that are suspected to block the species movements to this area (Flores and da Silva 2009). <span lang="EN-US">During the flood season, Tucuxis may move into smaller tributaries, but apparently they do not move into the inundated forest to feed (as botos, <em>Inia geoffrensis</em>, often do), staying mainly in the main river channels, tributaries and lakes (da Silva and Best 1996). Tucuxis are largely sympatric with the Boto in the Amazon and Orinoco systems but generally do not interact with that species.</span></p>
190871		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Tucuxis inhabit all three types of water of the Amazon basin: white water, clear water, and black water. Therefore, physical factors such as visibility and acidity appear not to affect their distribution directly.&#160; They seem to prefer the main channels of rivers and larger lakes where access is not limited by a narrow or shallow channel, while rapids and fast-moving turbulent water are avoided. Tucuxis also generally do not enter the flooded forest. They are mostly found within 50 m of the edges of rivers and channels (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). Similarly to the sympatric boto, the tucuxi shows a distinct preference for junctions of rivers and channels (da Silva and Best 1996, Leatherwood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The most preferred habitat is where a sediment-rich whitewater channel meets the low pH- carrying black water. The resultant mixing produces productive and obviously attractive conditions for dolphins (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). The large seasonal fluctuation in river levels (10m) influences the distribution of tucuxis. They enter lake systems during periods of high water but leave these environments as the waters recede, thus avoiding entrapment. In the Peruvian Amazon, tucuxis were not found in waters <3m depth in rivers or <1.8 m depth in lakes. </p>  <p>Individuals may occur in the same area year-round. Two tagged individuals in the Amazon were found within 5 km of the tagging site up to 1 year later (da Silva and Best 1994). A long-term photo-identification study revealed a maximum range for individuals of 130 km in Peru's Pacaya-Samiria Reserve (McGuire and Henningsen 2007). This relatively small range is probably due to limiting features such as small channels and seasonally shallow waters. According to McGuire (2002), encounter rates were highest in confluences, intermediate in lakes, and lowest in rivers and did not differ among seasons in the latter two. During the dry season, tucuxis persisted longer in the confluences and occurred in higher densities than in any rainy or intermediate season; the reverse pattern was observed during high water.&#160; </p>  <p><em>S. fluviatilis</em> occurs most often in groups of one to six individuals. Groups of more than nine animals are rarely observed (da Silva and Best 1994, Faustino and da Silva 2006). The composition of groups is unknown. Vidal <em>et al.</em> (1997) reported overall mean group size of 3.9 in the upper Amazon. Tucuxis were most frequently seen as singles or pairs in rivers and lakes of Peru's Pacaya-Samiria Reserve; seasonal differences in group size were non-significant (McGuire 2002). </p>  <p>Information on reproduction is sparse. Males attain sexual maturity at approximately 140cm and females at between 132 and 137cm (da Silva and Best 1996). In Brazil, gestation lasts about 11 months and calves are about 80 cm long at birth, which occurs primarily from September to November during the low-water period (da Silva and Best 1996, Flores and da Silva 2009).&#160; Neonate tucuxi were observed in all seasons in the Peruvian Amazon, with a slight peak in encounter rates during high water (McGuire and Aliaga 2007).</p>  <p>At least 28 species of <span lang="EN-US">mostly small schooling fish belonging to 11 families are preyed upon by tucuxis in the Amazon region. The characoid family Curimatidae was represented in 52%, Sciaenidae in 39% and siluriforms in 54% of stomachs analysed (n = 29) (da Silva and Best 1994). During the dry season, fish concentrate in the main water bodies and thus are more vulnerable to predation. During the flood season, many species enter the floodplain and are largely out of reach of tucuxis.</span></p>
190871		population	eng	To date, there is no information on the population structure of <em>S. fluviatilis</em>. The only data available suggest that the species has moderate to high genetic diversity, since 12 individuals from the same location in the central Brazilian Amazon had five different control region haplotypes (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), and 21 dolphins from the Peruvian, Colombian and Brazilian Amazon had 13 haplotypes (combining the control region and ND2, Caballero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Microsatellite variation is also larger in <em>S. fluviatilis </em>(H = 0.531) than in <em>S. guianensis </em>(H = 0.364; Cunha and Watts 2007). The reason for a higher level of genetic variation in <em>S. fluviatilis</em>, in spite of its probably smaller population size, remains to be determined. <span lang="EN-US">There are no estimates of the total population size for <em>S. fluviatilis</em>, though it appears to be relatively abundant throughout most of its range (Flores and da Silva 2009). Local estimates of relative abundance exist for some areas. <span lang="EN-US">In the Amazon drainage, an average density (encounter rate) of approximately 1.1 dolphins/km of river was estimated between Manaus and Tefé in the Solimões River (Magnusson <em>et al.</em> 1980). Four boat surveys of about 1,525 km each, from <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manaus</st1:place></st1:city> to Letícia, resulted in a mean estimate of 768 (± 104.7 SD) dolphins per trip or 1.02 individuals/km² (da Silva and Best 1994). More recently, mean density along the margins of main rivers in the central <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Amazon</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Brazil</st1:country-region></st1:place> (1,320 km of strip survey) was estimated at 3.2 individuals/km². About 54% of the individuals were found within 50 m of the edge of rivers and channels (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). Faustino and da Silva (2006) recorded on average 24 Tucuxis/km in the Mamirauá System, Central Amazon. Higher densities were found in deeper channels with high turbulence and productivity.<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>About 350 Tucuxis were estimated to inhabit the Samiria River system in Peru (Leatherwood 1996). Recent studies indicate that encounter rates in this area were within the range for these dolphins elsewhere in South America and that population numbers were stable over 10 years between 1991 and 2000 (McGuire 2002). Mean encounter rates in the Peruvian Amazon were 0.01-080 individuals/km in rivers and 0.05-2.17 individuals/km² in lakes (28 surveys over a four-year time period; McGuire 2002). The species is reportedly common in Colombia in the Loretoyacu River, in the Tarapoto River and in the El Correo Lake system (da Silva and Best 1994). Vidal <em>et al.</em> (1997) estimated that in 1993 there were 409 Tucuxis (CV=13%) along 120 km of the Amazon River bordering Colombia, Peru, and Brazil. Density (dolphins/km²) was highest in lakes (8.6), followed by areas along main banks (2.8) and around islands (2.0)<span lang="EN-US">. Those estimates of density or abundance in small portions of the range are of limited use for assessment of the conservation status of the species as a whole. </span></span>
190871		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-US">There are no records of past or recent commercial fisheries for <em>Sotalia</em> spp. (IWC 2001). River dolphins in the Amazon region are threatened primarily by incidental mortality in fishing gear (IWC 2001). <em>S. fluviatilis</em> consumes 14 of the 30 species of commercially exploited fish in the Amazon, and thus incidental captures during fishing are frequent (da Silva and Best 1994, 1996; Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). In one study in the central Amazon of Brazil, 74% of 34 tucuxis examined had been killed in gill nets and 15% in seine nets (da Silva and Best 1985). By-catch in fishing gear, caused by the proliferation of gill nets, and some evidence of poisoning by commercial fishermen, seem to be the main conservation threats to tucuxis in Peru (Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Other potentially important threats are oil spills, boat strikes, chemical and noise pollution, overfishing of prey, and damming of rivers for hydroelectric projects (da Silva and Best 1994, Denkinger 2001, McGuire 2002). Dams can interrupt gene flow and create isolated groups of dolphins with reduced genetic variability and lowered demographic resilience. <span lang="EN-US">The use of pesticides banned in many countries continues to be common in some parts of South America (PNUMA 2002). Mercury is used to refine fluvial gold and then, like the pesticides, enters aquatic food webs. Dams, in addition to fragmenting dolphin populations, can have serious effects on migratory fish populations on which tucuxis feed (such as some siluriform fishes) (da Silva and Best 1994). The increased use of outboard engines and illegal fishing with explosives are also sources of concern in parts of these dolphins' range (e.g. Utreras <em>et al.</em> 2001, Zapata-Rios and Utreras 2004).<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Although freshwater dolphins have been protected by superstitions in parts of Amazonia (Leatherwood and Reeves 1997), in Colombia and Brazil there was and may still be a small market for the eyes, teeth and reproductive organs of dolphins, used as love charms or aphrodisiacs when prepared in a special manner (da Silva and Best 1994, 1996; Trujillo and Diazgranados 2002; Alves and Rosa 2008). According to V. da Silva (pers. comm.), this market is no longer a significant threat in the Brazilian Amazon, although according to M. Borobia (in IWC 2007) the practice of selling dolphin parts continues in at least some local areas. However, according toV. Da Silva (pers. comm.), fishermen in the central Amazon do not kill tucuxi deliberately or use parts of its body as love charm.&#160; Teeth, eyes and body parts are from <em>S. guianensis</em>, most captured accidentally in the Para coast. Eyes of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guianensis</span>, killed in the nets at the Amazon estuary are often sold in the markets as Boto eyes. Recent molecular analyses have shown that a high proportion of dolphin products sold as amulets and love charms are derived from Guiana dolphins (<em>S. guianensis</em>), even in the Amazon region (Cunha and Solé- Cava 2007, Gravena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Sholl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Recently, Loch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) found two Tucuxis and one Boto wounded by perforating and cutting objects, probably harpoons and machetes. Such kills indicate potential conflicts with locals using tucuxi and boto as bait in a catfish fishery (V. da Silva, pers. comm.). Trujillo and Diazgranados (2002) reported one death by harpooning in the Colombian Amazon, in a ten-year monitoring period.</span></span>
190872		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Lilium rubrum</span>. It is classified as Endangered in the Italian Red List. It occurs in regional parks and Natura 2000 sites. Maintaining traditional pastoral systems would be important to preserve the habitat of this species. Collection of this species should be controlled.
190872		distribution	eng	This species is native to France and Italy. In France, it is found in the Massif Central, Var, Basses-Alpes, and the Alpes-Maritimes. In Italy, it occurs in Liguria and has a small area of occupancy of only 32 km². <br/>The Euro+Med Plantbase (2006-2010) lists this species as occurring in Spain, but this seems to be a confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pyrenaicum </span>forma<span style="font-style: italic;"> rubrum</span>.
190872		habitat	eng	This species occurs in sunny rocky pastures.<br/><br/>It is found in the following Habitats Directive habitats:<br/><ul><li>6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands</li><li>5210 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>4090 Endemic oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse</li><li>5110 Stable xerothermophilous formations with <span style="font-style: italic;">Buxus sempervirens</span> on rock slopes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Berberidion</span> p.p.)</li><li>8130 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous scree</li></ul>
190872		population	eng	This species has been recorded in at least 20 localities    in Italy (S. Peccenini pers. comm. 2010) and 152 in France (N. Juillet pers. comm. 2010). In France, there is only one locality in the Massif Central, all the others are more in the south.
190872		threats	eng	<p>Threats for this species are grazing, abandonment of pastoral systems, forest planting and taking or removal of flora   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  <span class="tooltip"></p>
190883		conservation	eng	No information is available.
190883		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocaulon thwaitesii</em>&#160;is an Indo-Sri Lankan species. In India it is distributed in the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Ansari and Balakrishnan 2009) and in Sri Lanka it is distributed in Kandy, Matle, Nuwara  Eliya and Ratnapura districts (Phillips 1997).
190883		habitat	eng	It grows in wet patches on rock pavement, often among moss,  and on marshy localities (Phillips 1997).
190883		population	eng	No information is available.
190883		threats	eng	No information is available.
190884		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place.
190884		distribution	eng	It is an Indosrilankan species. In &#160;India it is distributed in Andhra  Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh (Jhaba), Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Cramer (1981) states that  this species is also distributed in Burma (Myanmar). But it is not included by  Kress & al. (2003) in A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and  Climbers of Myanmar published in Smithsonian Contributions to Botany Series. Hence it is treated here as restricted to  India and Sri Lanka.
190884		habitat	eng	<p>It grows in seasonally  inundated places, such as natural depressions, river<strong> </strong>flood plains and the edges of pools and tanks and in rice fields  and often associated with species of <em>Eriocaulon</em> and <em>Utricularia</em> (Cook, 1996). It  grows in association with annual species such as <em>Mitrasacme alsinodes,  Geniosporum tenuifolium,</em> <em>Burmannia pusilla</em> and <em>Dopatrium junceum&#160;</em> in Sri Lanka (Cramer, 1981).</p>
190884		population	eng	<p>This species is common in its range.</p>
190884		threats	eng	No information is available.
190886		conservation	eng	This subspecies is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive under the synonym<span style="font-style: italic;"> N. ferndandesii</span>. It is protected under the legislation of three Spanish regions: Andalucia, Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha.
190886		distribution	eng	This subspecies is found near Lisbon and in the Tejo river basin in Portugal and in southwest Spain (Anthos 2009). It is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
190886		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in damp places, moist clayey soils and sandy-clayey soils beside rock fissures   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
190886		population	eng	In Spain, this subspecies has been recorded in 29 to 45 localities, where it is locally abundant   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In Portugal, there are only two known localities: one in the Tejo river basin and one   in Alto Alentejo and it is considered likely to become extinct in Portugal (ICNB 2006).
190886		threats	eng	The main threats to this subspecies are grazing, modification of agriculture practices and collecting.
190909		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further distributional data is needed for this species, and data on its ability to survive in the long-term in plantation habitats. It appears to be a strictly lowland species, preferring swampy habitats that are being lost with great rapidity across its range; the protection of additional areas of lowland swamp forest is clearly desirable. The provision of adequate buffer zones of original vegetation around streams and of well planned conservation areas in plantations should greatly reduce the negative impact of plantation establishment on this species.</p>
190909		distribution	eng	The species is known from Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Orr 2003) with records from Sarawak, Brunei and Kalimantan, Bangka and Belitung Islands off the coast of Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Singapore (Tang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and southern Thailand (Pinratana 2003).
190909		habitat	eng	This  species occurs around pools and streams in lowland swamp forest. It is tolerant of some disturbance to its habitats and and it has been repeatedly found it on a stream  in acacia plantation in Bintulu Division, Sarawak (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011). However it appears to be  absent from many areas of apparently suitable habitat suggesting that we do not  fully understand its habitat requirements. In the acacia plantations in  Bintulu division, the undergrowth is allowed to grow, which is likely to be a significant factor in the survival of the species there; we do not know  if it will be able to survive in this habitat over repeated cycles of  cutting and planting.
190909		population	eng	This species appears to be local in occurrence, but it can be common where it occurs.
190909		threats	eng	This species is locally threatened by deforestation and large-scale hydro-electric projects&#160; (e.g. in Sarawak). Although it has been found on a stream in acacia plantation, there is no evidence at present that it can survive in oil palm, or that it can survive repeated cycles of cutting and replanting in acacia plantations; in Malaysia and Indonesia much lowland habitat is being lost to both acacia and oil palm plantations.
190910		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further distributional data on this species, and up-to-date information from Sumatra and Myanmar, and more information on its tolerance to disturbance and potential threats. However it is fairly widely distributed and occurs in totally protected areas in Thailand at least. The most urgent need is for fresh data from Sumatra and Myanmar, and for data on tolerance to disturbance. As with all forest stream species, the conservation of this species would be greatly assisted by the provision of adequate buffers of original forest around streams in areas being converted to plantation.</p>
190910		distribution	eng	<p>The species<em><span lang="EN-GB"> </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known from Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933), and western Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). There are recent records from Kanchanaburi in Thailand, but a lack of recent information from Sumatra and Myanmar.</span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">In Peninsular Malaysia the species is reported from pristine lowland forest (e.g., Royal Belum Forest Reserve; C.-Y. Choong, pers. comm.2011) and the Endau Rompin National Park.<br/></p>
190910		habitat	eng	This species breeds in lowland forest streams.
190910		population	eng	This species appears to be local in occurrence, but little more than this can be said from the available information.
190910		threats	eng	This species is certainly threatened by deforestation; from the available data it is not clear if it is tolerant or not of less drastic disturbance to its forest habitats. In Sumatra it is likely to be more severely threatened than elsewhere in its range due to severe loss of lowland forest and compromise to at least some protected areas.
190911		conservation	eng	<p>Further data on distribution of this species must be obtained before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.</p>
190911		distribution	eng	<p>Known only from the type locality, Khaew Neua Pass area in Bolikhamsay Province in Lao PDR (18°22’43’’N, 105°09’20’’E). The type locality is close to the border of Viet Nam. It is expected that this species occurs also in Viet Nam.</p>
190911		habitat	eng	<p>The type locality is a 4-6 m wide tributary of the Nam Phao River (see photo in Yokoi and Kano 2002, Fig. 5) along Route 8 at an altitude of circa 650 m. This area, close to the Vietnamese border, is at the northern edge of Nakai-Nam Theun national protected area and is still largely covered by dense primary forests.</p>
190911		population	eng	<p>In the type locality only a few specimens were seen on April 29 and May 3 in 2001, and April 28, 29 in 2002. There is no other information on the populations of this species.</p>
190911		threats	eng	<p>Without further information on distribution, it is difficult to assess any threats that this species might face, but the main threat is likely to be habitat loss. However, the type locality is inside the Nakai-Nam Theun national protected area, where the species is expected to have several populations.&#160; </p>
190912		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The range of this species does fall within protected areas in western Thailand. More information on the distribution and habitat of this species is urgently needed, until such information is available it will be difficult to plan any conservation measures that might be needed. However if specific conservation measures are needed, then they will have to be based on the protection of suitable habitat.</p>
190912		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality in Myanmar (east Mergui (Myeik); Fraser 1934)), and from five records in Tak and Kanchanaburi provinces in Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; M. Hämäläinen 2010 pers. comm.). Only the records from Thailand are relatively recent. However there has been little sampling of Odonata in Myanmar, and this species is likely to be under-recorded.
190912		habitat	eng	Little has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is found at forest steams (M. Hämäläinen, pers. comm., 2010).
190912		population	eng	This species appears to be both localised and scarce; however it may merely be under-recorded.
190912		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to be the major threat faced by this species, but more data are needed before threats can be reliably assessed.
190914		conservation	eng	<p>The frog is known from at least one national protected area, Anamalazoatra/Mantadia National Park, in which it has been recorded from sites separated by ca 5 km (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010). It has also been reported from the Mitsinjo private reserve near Andasibe Village (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010). No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats. <br/></p>
190914		distribution	eng	This species is known from northeast Madagascar, where four subpopulations have been recorded between Toamasina and Tanaramé, including Anamalazoatra/Mantadia National Park (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The species has a known extent of occurrence of 745 km<sup>2</sup>, but the precise limits of its range are poorly-assessed (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is currently known from sites between 770 and 1,000 m asl  (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).
190914		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal frog of mid-elevation rainforest, which has been recorded from around 935 m above sea level. It is thought to breed by larval development in small water bodies. Calling males have been found in water-filled tree holes, which may represent reproductive habitat as they do for <em>A. boulengerii</em> (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010).
190914		population	eng	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).</p>
190914		threats	eng	<p>There is no information on major threats to this species. Its ability to tolerate habitat modification is poorly understood (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010). This frog is known from too few records to establish whether agricultural encroachment into Anamalazoatra or ongoing rural development represent threats to this species (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
190942		conservation	eng	<p>The species is known exclusively from a protected area. No species-specific conservation actions are known to be in place. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history, and and its tolerance of threatening processes.</p>
190942		distribution	eng	The frog is known from Andohahela National Park, southeast Madagascar, where it has been recorded from a single site at 1,548 m asl (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010).
190942		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal frog associated with bamboo, and is known only from high-elevation forest (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010). The extent and connectivity of this habitat within Andohahela is unknown (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010). Based on information from congeners, it is presumed to breed by larval  development in small bodies of water, but no breeding or calling activity has ever been observed (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010).
190942		population	eng	This species appears to be common at its single known site (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010).
190942		threats	eng	<p>The highland forest where this species occurs is remote and difficult to access, but is subject to extensive cattle grazing (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010). Small-scale timber extraction occurs at low intensities, and may represent a threat to this species in the long term (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).<br/></p>
190943		conservation	eng	The only known population of this species occurs within a protected area. No species-specific conservation measures are known for this species. More research is needed into extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population trends, threats and its ability to tolerate disturbance to its habitat.
190943		distribution	eng	This species is known from Manombo Special Reserve, in the Fianarantsoa Province of southeast Madagascar. The two known sites are separated by a straight-line distance of approximately 1 km. This is a poorly-surveyed region, so it is not known whether the species is more widespread or not. It is a lowland species, having only been recorded below 50 m asl (M. Vences pers. comm. 2010).
190943		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal frog known from lowland rainforest, but little is known about its ecology and habitat requirements. As with other congeners, it is presumed to breed by larval development in water-filled tree holes.
190943		population	eng	This frog appears to be very common within its small range (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010).
190943		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. Primary forest is continuous within its small range, although it is subject to regular disturbance from cyclones and can appear degraded (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010). It is unknown whether this frog is tolerant of anthropogenic habitat modification or degradation.
190944		conservation	eng	This species is known only from a protected area, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, which is however small, isolated and heavily threatened by human activities (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010). Improved management of this reserve and conservation of the remaining patches of forest is urgently required to ensure the persistence of this and other threatened species (Vallan &amp; Raxworthy 2008). No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. Research is needed into this frog's distribution and population trends, life history, ecology and threats.
190944		distribution	eng	The only reliable record of this species comes from a single locality within Ambohitantely Special Reserve (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010), where it was found at an altitude of 1,580 m asl. This reserve encompasses the remaining forest fragments in this area of Madagascar, and it is likely that this species is genuinely confined to the protected area (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).
190944		habitat	eng	This is a species of high-altitude forest. Animals have been found on tree trunks several metres above the ground, and are active in drier conditions than many other frogs (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010). As with other congeners, it is presumed to breed by larval development in water-filled tree holes.
190944		population	eng	Based on reports of calling activity (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2010), this species appears common and widespread within its small range. Subpopulations are, however, likely to be small and isolated as a result of fragmentation of its forest habitat, and studies are needed to confirm this and quantify the degree of isolation (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).
190944		threats	eng	This species has a small range and is apparently restricted to high-elevation habitats. Surrounding savannah is subject to continuous, uncontrolled burning, and the forest fragments where this species is found are shrinking as a result (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010). Small-scale timber extraction has also been recorded from these forests (M. Vences pers. comm. December 2010).
190951		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but currently there is no evidence that specific conservation measures are required.
190951		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from southern Japan (Ryukyu Islands) northwards along the Russian coast and across the Berring Straits and down the coast of Canada and the United States as far south as California   (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its distribution includes the Aleutian Islands   (Reid and Jereb 2005).
190951		habitat	eng	This small species occurs over a wide geographic range     (Reid and Jereb 2005). It buries in sandy and muddy substrates during the day emerging at night and it feeds on crustaceans, small fish and cephalopods (Reid and Jereb 2005). <br/>Females attain a larger body size (up to 90 mm in mantle length) compared to males (up to 5 mm in mantle length) which is probably due to faster growth rates in females (Reid and Jereb 2005). Mature males have enlarged suckers along their second, third and fourth arms (Norman 2003). <br/>The ovarian oocytes of females develop in groups and spawning occurs intermittently over a long period (Reid and Jereb 2005). Eggs are laid in clusters or singly onto seaweed, hard rocky surfaces and other substrates (Reid and Jereb 2005). The small eggs (1mm in diameter) are typically laid in shallow water (15-30 m in depth) but sometimes to 250 m in depth (Reid and Jereb 2005). In captivity eggs took 5 months to develop at 10ºC   (Reid and Jereb 2005). The timing of embryo development has been linked to a lunar cycle (Reid and Jereb 2005). The young develop directly without a planktonic stage (Reid and Jereb 2005). Life span from hatching is approximately 18 to 19 months, although growth increments in statoliths suggest a lifespan of only 4 to 5 months (Reid and Jereb 2005).
190951		population	eng	The population size of this species is unknown.
190951		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is caught commercially off northern Japan (Hokkaido coast) and other subarctic Pacific regions (Reid and Jereb 2005). Its flesh is of low economic value (Reid and Jereb 2005).
190978		conservation	eng	There is a large population of this species within the protected area of Parque Nacional El Tamá (C.L. Barrio- Amorós pers. comm. August 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
190978		distribution	eng	This frog is known at four sites in Estado Táchira close to the eastern border of Venezuela, and is found in the foothills of both the Cordillera Oriental de Colombia and the southwestern portion of the Cordillera de Mérida. Known sites occur within the municipalities of Cordoba and Uribante, where it has been found at localities along the Río Negro, Rio Doradas and Río Doradas-Uribante (Barrio-Amorós and Santos 2009). It is known from an area of approximately 543 km<sup>2</sup>, and may also occur in neighbouring parts of Colombia (Barrio-Amorós and Santos 2009). Its elevation range is 400-1,000 m asl&#160;(Barrio-Amorós and Santos 2009).
190978		habitat	eng	Males have been reported calling from primary and secondary forest floor habitats, often in dense vegetation (Barrio-Amorós and Santos 2009). Individuals have been found in both intact lowland rainforest along the Río Negro, as well as in disturbed but shaded roadside habitats nearby secondary forest (Barrio-Amorós and Santos 2009). This species is presumed to to have a high tolerance threshold to habitat degradation since it has been found abundantly in highly disturbed habitats (Barrio- Amorós pers. comm. August 2011). As with other congeners, it is presumed to breed in water via larval development.
190978		population	eng	It is abundant within its known distribution range (C.L. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. August 2011).
190978		threats	eng	There are no major threats reported for this species.
190979		conservation	eng	This species' two known populations lie within the Valle de Tucavaca protected area. No species-specific conservation actions are known to be in place. Research is needed into this species' distribution and population trends. Monitoring may be required in future to determine the effects of increased fire frequency on populations.
190979		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Chiquitanía region of Bolivia (Provincia San José de Chiquitos, Departmento Santa Cruz), where it is confined to the sandstone massifs of Serranías de Santiago and Chochis (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2009). Populations have been found between 720 and 1,200 m asl.
190979		habitat	eng	The sandstone massifs where this diurnal frog occurs are hot and arid (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2009 report 50% humidity and temperatures of 30ºC between March and April). Frogs are associated with rocky areas of open grassland; they commonly occur close to running water, but have been found up to 50 m from a waterbody (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2009). Reproduction appears to take place during the November-April wet season. Eggs are presumably laid on land, and adults transport tadpoles to shallow pools and temporary puddles where they complete development (S. Lötters and S. Reichle pers. comm. November 2010).
190979		population	eng	This species is abundant at some sites within the Serrania de Santiago (S. Lötters and S. Reichle pers. comm. November 2010). No population data is available for the Chochis population.
190979		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. Some land-use alteration has been observed in semi-deciduous forest within the massifs; however, this frog is apparently absent from forested areas and its savannah habitat is described as being "safe and in good shape" (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2009). Climate change may pose some risk if fires become more frequent. This frog may be buffered against more severe climate impacts by the availability of cool, humid habitats within its range (Lötters and Reichle pers. comm. November 2010).
190982		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place. Part of Mt. Manengouba falls within a proposed national park, the creation and enforcement of which is recommended to guarantee this species' survival (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). More research is needed into this frog's extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population status and ecological requirements.
190982		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mt. Manengouba in southwestern Cameroon (Littoral and Southwest Provinces), where it is widespread at elevations of 1,393 - 2,200 m asl. Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 283 km<sup>2</sup>. Populations may also occur on the nearby peaks Mt. Nlonako and Mt. Kupe, and in the Rumphi Hills (Blackburn <em>et al.</em> 2009).
190982		habitat	eng	Perret's Squeaker Frog is a species of montane forest, where it is active during the day in moist leaf litter (Blackburn <em>et al.</em> 2009). It has been found in both primary and degraded forest, but is restricted to areas with dense canopy cover (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). It is presumed to breed by terrestrial direct development, in common with the related variable squeaker frog (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 2004).
190982		population	eng	This is a very common species at higher elevations on Mt. Manengouba, on all slopes of the mountain (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). No information is available on population trends.
190982		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is loss and degradation of its forest habitat, resulting from timber extraction and trampling by cattle (Blackburn <em>et al.</em> 2009; M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010). In some cases, these activities have resulted in the near or complete clearance of forest (M.O. Rödel pers. comm. December 2010).
190983		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place. The Wandammen Peninsula has been described as a protected area in some publications, but there is practically no enforcement (R. Günther pers. comm. December 2010).
190983		distribution	eng	This frog occurs on the main ridge and on the adjacent eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, on the island of New Guinea (Günther 2009). Along the main ridge it has been recorded from a 500 x 50 m transect (R. Günther pers. comm. December 2010). The two known sites are approximately 3 km apart (R. Günther pers. comm. December 2010). The mountains lie on the border between the Nabire and Manokwari Districts of Papua Province, Indonesia. The species has been reported at elevations of 700 and 920 m asl.
190983		habitat	eng	This small frog has been found beneath leaf litter in primary mossy rainforest, where it is active in late afternoon and evening (Günther 2009). <em>Austrochaperina</em> species reproduce by terrestrial direct development, without a free-living tadpole stage.
190983		population	eng	The pygmy land frog is common where it has been found along the ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at 920 m asl. (Günther 2009). This area has been surveyed four times between 1998 and 2003, and the species has been recorded on every occasion (R. Günther pers. comm. December 2010). No changes in its abundance have been observed over this period (R. Günther pers. comm. December 2010). A single individual has been recorded from a lower elevation site.
190983		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present (R. Günther pers. comm. December 2010). The pygmy land frog is apparently confined to high elevations, including mountain summits, and so may potentially be at risk if future climate change renders its existing habitats unsuitable.
190984		conservation	eng	This species occurs within the 10.53 km<sup>2</sup> Abra Malaga private reserve, which was established in 2007 (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
190984		distribution	eng	This species is known from San Luis in the upper Huayopata river drainage, near Abra Malaga in the Cusco Region of Peru (Provincia de La Convención). It occurs at elevations of 3,272-3,354 m asl (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). All known individuals were recorded along a 400 x 2 m transect (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009), but as no other areas of this site have been surveyed for amphibians, it might occur more widely (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011).
190984		habitat	eng	This species is known from high montane cloud forest, where it has been found during the day under moss, leaf litter, logs and rocks. The species breeds by terrestrial direct development; the one known clutch contained 19 eggs (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009).
190984		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant, but exhibits a patchy distribution across its small known range (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009).
190984		threats	eng	A road passes through the valley where this frog occurs, and there is evidence of past logging and agricultural activities (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). These are thought to have declined following the creation of a protected area, and are unlikely to have impacted the steep cloud forest where this species has been found (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). The pathogenic chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been recorded at nearby sites, and has been found to infect individuals of the related species <em>Bryophryne cophites</em> (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is, however, unclear whether this disease, which has been held responsible for severe declines and extinctions among stream-breeding Andean frogs (Whittaker and Vredenberg 2010), represents a threat to this direct-developing species, and it has not been found at elevations where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gymnotis</span> has been recorded (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011).
190985		conservation	eng	The known population of this species occurs within a national protected area, Manu National Park. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
190985		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the vicinity of Acjanaco in Peru's Manu  National Park (Provincia de Paucartambo, Región Cusco). It has been  found at elevations between 3,100-3,700 m asl (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). Its known extent of occurrence is 28.8 km².
190985		habitat	eng	This leaf litter species occurs at the edge of montane forest, in the transition zone between this habitat and high-Andean <em>puna</em> grassland (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). It has been found both during the wet season and at the end of the dry season (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). Eggs are laid on land where they are attended by the female (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). There is no free-living larval stage. The two known clutches contained 19 and 16 eggs (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009; A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011).
190985		population	eng	This appears to be a rare frog, as indicated by its recent discovery in a heavily-surveyed region, but can be locally abundant (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). There is no evidence of recent decline in this species, but there is considerable annual variation in numbers of individuals recorded in leaf litter plots (Catenazzi <em>et al.<em></em> </em>2011). This has been attributed to the patchy nature of the species' distribution and presumed localized differences in population dynamics (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><br/></em>
190985		threats	eng	This species may be affected by uncontrolled burning of areas outside Manu National Park, as fires often spread into the protected area (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). The frog is likely to be buffered against the effects of fire by its preference for permanently wet cloud forest, which is widespread within Manu (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). Fire may, however, be a threat in particularly dry years (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). The pathogenic chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been recorded at nearby sites, and has been found to infect individuals of the related species <em>Bryophryne cophites</em> (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is unclear whether this disease, which has been held responsible for severe declines and extinctions among stream-breeding Andean frogs (Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010), including those in Manu National Park (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> 2011), represents a threat to this direct-developing species. There is however no evidence of decline in this species in an area where sympatric species (including <span style="font-style: italic;">B. cophites</span>) have been infected by the fungus, no individuals of this species have tested positive for chytrid infection (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011), and there is little evidence more generally that direct-developing frogs are at risk from this disease (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> 2011; A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011).
190986		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected areas, although the inaccessibility of its habitat may afford it some protection from planned road construction (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). More research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, life history and threats. This species is known to be susceptible to infection by chytrid fungus, and populations should be monitored to establish whether this disease poses a threat to this frog.
190986		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two sites in the upper Marcapata Valley, Provincia de Quipicanchis, in the Cusco Region of Peru. It has been found between 3,129 and 3,285 m asl (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). A subsequent visit to this area following the species' original discovery relocated the frog at its type locality, but searches of the surrounding area revealed no new records (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. March 2011). It therefore seems likely to be genuinely restricted to the vicinity of the known sites, with an extent of occurrence of around 14.8 km²<sup></sup><span style="font-weight: bold;">.</span>
190986		habitat	eng	This species is apparently confined to fragments of montane cloud and elfin forest along streams, where animals have been found under rock and moss (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). A single clutch of terrestrial eggs was found in the same area as this presumed direct-developing frog, and may be attributable to it (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011).
190986		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
190986		threats	eng	Natural habitats in the upper Marcapata Valley have been heavily modified through deforestation, cattle grazing and cultivation, and this frog appears to be confined to remnant forest patches (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). The surviving forest is difficult to access, and it is unknown whether agricultural development represents a continuing threat; however most evidence of agricultural disturbance is historical (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). A road runs through the valley and is due to be paved, but planned rerouting of the main road away from this area may lessen the impact of future construction and improvement work (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011). The pathogenic chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been detected in one juvenile of this species (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> in press). The one documented case of infection was a living, apparently healthy specimen (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. February 2011) and it is unknown whether the disease, which has been held responsible for severe declines and disappearances of stream-breeding frogs elsewhere in Peru (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> in press; Whittaker and Vredenburg 2010),&#160; represents a threat to this direct-developing species.
190987		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas in Azerbaijan, including Hirkan National Park where high rates of forest degradation have been observed (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010), and may be present in Iran's protected Hyrcanian forests. It appears to have been lost from Kyzyl-Agach Nature Reserve (Sara Island peninsula, Azerbaijan) following fires (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010). No species-specific conservation measures are known to be in place, although it has been recommended that Eichwald's Toad be included within the <em>Red Data Book</em> for Azerbaijan (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008). Control of invasive species, particularly raccoons, is recommended, as  are measures to limit deforestation (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November  2010). It has been proposed that an artificial breeding colony of this species be established, either <em>ex situ</em> in Baku Zoo or within Kyzyl-Agach Nature Reserve (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010).&#160; Further research is needed into the taxonomy of the <em>Bufo bufo</em> species group as a whole, and into this species' distribution, population status and natural history.
190987		distribution	eng	Eichwald's toad is found in the Talysh mountains and adjoining Lenkaran Lowland in southeastern Azerbaijan (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008). It may occur in the Iranian portion of the mountain range, and also in the Elburz Mountains of northern Iran (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species' elevational range is 0–1,200 m asl (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008), and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 17,184 km².
190987		habitat	eng	Eichwald's toad is mainly associated with relict broad-leaved forest. Individuals have sometimes been found in lowland swamps, irrigation ditches in tea plantations, and gardens, but these appear to be marginal habitats (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008; S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010). Larval development takes place in mountain springs, or in still or flowing water in lowland areas (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008; S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. December 2010). Individuals reach reproductive maturity at 3-4 years old, when they measure 6-7 cm in length. Generation length is taken to be 5-8 years, the estimated age of 75-80% of male toads in a subpopulation studied in Lenkoran based on their body length of 8-12 cm (Iskanderov 2009). Although this is a rather rough estimate, it is a common method of estimating age in amphibians and reptiles (T. Iskanderov pers. comm. February 2011).
190987		population	eng	This species is uncommon throughout the region; despite a long history of collection in the area, toads were first encountered in 1907 and have been recorded only occasionally since (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008). Population densities average 10–15 animals/ha in Azerbaijan (20 around one fishery), but are lower (3–5 animals/ha) in heavily modified landscapes (Iskanderov 2009). As known threatening processes are widespread throughout the toad's  range, it is likely that these densities are representative of the global population. Based on the rate of habitat loss and the impacts of exotic species,  populations may have declined by as much as 30% over the past 25 years  (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010), and potentially by as much as  50% based on changes in population density at known sites (from 30–40  animals/ha in 1989 to 10–20/ha in 2006 - T. Iskanderov pers. comm.  February 2011). <br/><br/>The population is considered to be severely fragmented, as most suitable  forest-edge habitat within the toad's range is surrounded by human-modified habitats and these  toads are highly philopatric (T. Iskanderov pers. comm. February  2011). It is therefore thought that over 50% of the global population occurs as small, isolated subpopulations. Although there is no evidence that fragmented subpopulations are  genetically isolated, their geographic isolation and pressures on  remaining habitat fragments indicate that these are at strong risk of  extinction (T. Iskanderov pers. comm. February 2011). The species may have been lost from at least two localities between 1991 and 2001, apparently as a result of deforestation and fire (Litvinchuk <em>et al</em> 2008; S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010). Known subpopulations in Azerbaijan have a low proportion of adult females (41–42% of the population), which may limit the species' ability to recover following declines (Iskanderov 2009).
190987		threats	eng	Deforestation, both for fuel and for agricultural conversion into fruit plantations, is extensive throughout this toad's range (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010), and it may be threatened by coastal development in Iran. Destruction of undergrowth by goats may also negatively impact this species, both within and outside protected areas (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010). Although its presence in gardens and plantations suggests tolerance of some degree of habitat modification it may not be able to persist in these habitats, and it is likely to be threatened by clear-cutting (Litvinchuk <em>et al.</em> 2008). Breeding populations may be heavily threatened by introduced mosquitofish (<em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) that consume small larvae, and by invasive racoons (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) that prey on adult toads (S. Litvinchuk pers. comm. November 2010), and these are likely to represent the greatest threats to the survival of subpopulations (T. Iskanderov pers. comm. February 2011). Water pollution around settlements and industrial facilities, and from cattle grazing, represents a localized threat outside protected areas (T. Iskanderov pers. comm. November 2010).
190988		conservation	eng	One of this species' known localities lies within the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, and it is likely to occur more widely within this protected area (Vásquez -Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009; C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). More research is needed into this species' distribution, population status, ecological requirements, and threats; in particular, studies are needed to establish whether ongoing climate change represents a threat to this salamander.
190988		distribution	eng	The Sierra de las Minas Hidden Salamander is known from the southern slope of the Sierra de las Minas in the Department of Zacapa, eastern Guatemala (Vásquez- Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009). It has been found between 1,700 and 2,200 m asl (Vásquez-Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009). The known sites are separated by a straight-line distance of 18.7 km. It is likely that the species occurs further into Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, where extensive forest habitat exists (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). Studies outside this region have revealed that <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptotriton</span> outside this area represent distinct species (C.&#160;Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). While <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sierraminensis</span> is likely to occur at other sites on the southern slope of the Sierra (Vásquez-Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009), it is probably confined to the mountain range (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). The species has an extent of occurrence of 89.2 km², but it has so far been recorded from only a small number of sites and its area of occupancy is unknown.
190988		habitat	eng	The Sierra de las Minas Hidden Salamander is an arboreal species of cloud forests (Vásquez-Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009), and is absent from disturbed or secondary forests (Rovito 2009; C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). All known individuals have been found within bromeliads. The forest habitat is characterized by a mixture of broadleaved trees, pines and tree ferns (Vásquez-Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009). Eggs are laid terrestrially in bromeliads, with 9 and 50 eggs in the two known clutches, and there is no free-living larval stage (Vásquez-Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009). Uncommonly for plethodontid salamanders, adults do not exhibit parental care (García-París and Wake 2000).
190988		population	eng	This rare species is so far known from only 23 individuals, most of which were collected in 1978 (Vásquez-Almazán <em>et al.</em> 2009; C.Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011); recent exhaustive surveys of bromeliads in patches where the salamander has been found (more than 70 bromeliads searched over 5-6 hours on each occasion - C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011) have recorded only 1-2 individuals per survey, although Rovito (2009) reports that the salamander is "not an uncommon species within areas of appropriate habitat". Exact information on rates of capture is unavailable for the older specimens, but there appears to have been no decline in abundance since the 1970s (Rovito 2009).
190988		threats	eng	It is thought that timber extraction, land clearance for agriculture and fires may threaten the species in this region (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011; Rovito, 2009); however these are likely to be localized impacts and may not be imminent, as the landowners do not require the land for subsistence (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). Within the biosphere reserve this species is likely to be well-protected, and not subject to imminent major threats (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). The pathogenic amphibian chytrid fungus has been detected in areas occupied by the related <em>C. veraepacis</em> (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011), but its occurrence within the Sierra and its effects on these direct-developing salamanders are unknown. It has been reported that weather patterns in the region are already changing, with a higher incidence of warm days, an absence of days with continuous light rain, and less morning and afternoon mist (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). The effects of these changes in temperature and humidity on the Sierra de las Minas Hidden Salamander are unknown, and there is currently no evidence that climate change is affecting this species (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). However, it appears more difficult to find in the drier years that have become more frequent, and due to its dependence on cloud forest it will be in danger of imminent extinction if climate change threatens this habitat.
190990		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known to occur in any protected areas and there are no conservation actions currently known for this species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats, and in general more field surveys and research on the caecilian fauna of northeast India would be advisable (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). Raising awareness and educating the local population that caecilians are harmless would be very helpful in assisting the persistence of this and other caecilians (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). </p>
190990		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from the type locality, Khumhzi village (320 m asl), and a site 15 km away (454 m asl; S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012), in Tamenglong district, state of Manipur, northeast India. It is possible that the species may occur more widely, although targeted soil surveys over the last six years have not rendered any new records (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers comm. February 2012).
190990		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species occurring in secondary forests near banana plantations and marshy areas near agricultural fields (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Its occurrence near agricultural areas suggest that it could be potentially tolerant to moderate habitat disturbance, although no individuals have as yet been recorded in plantations or fields. As with other congeners, it is presumed to breed via terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
190990		population	eng	The type series comprises three specimens, all collected on the same day (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). No additional information is currently available on this species' relative abundance or population status, and there have been no new records since it was described (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). It was last seen in 2007 (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012).
190990		threats	eng	Jhum cultivation (rice, turmeric, plantain, vegetables, etc.) and the widespread practice of subsistence farming leading to forest clearance and subsequent habitat fragmentation and destruction may pose a potential threat to this species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012).  Political instability and the frequent economic blockades that this region faces, as well as a lack of awareness among locals that caecilians are harmless (there is a widespread belief that caecilians are venomous), may constitute indirect threats to the species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). The type locality is about 1 km away from National Highway 53 (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), although it is not known to what extent it might comprise a threat to this caecilian.
190991		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas and there are no conservation actions currently known for this species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats, and in general more field surveys and research on the caecilian fauna of northeast India would be advisable (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). Raising awareness and educating the local population that caecilians are harmless would be very helpful in assisting the persistence of this and other caecilians (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012).
190991		distribution	eng	This species is known from the villages of Aziuram, Nswanram, Nriangluang, and Bamgaizaeng in Tamenglong district, state of Manipur, northeast India, and its elevational range varies from 300 to 1,100 m asl (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Based on its area polygon its current extent of occurrence is estimated to be 81.6 km<sup>2</sup>. It is, however, possible that it may occur more widely  (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers comm. February 2012).
190991		habitat	eng	It is a fossorial species that occurs under rocks and in soil in secondary forests and in disturbed environments, i.e. all individuals from the type series were obtained from perennially wet soil in the centre of the village (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). As with other congeners, it is presumed to breed via terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae. Clutch size varies from 9-19 eggs, and the species is believed to be a relatively early breeder (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The fact that the species has been collected from a village centre suggests that it could be tolerant to habitat alteration.
190991		population	eng	Preliminary field observations suggest that it is uncommon in likely habitats in all of the known localities excepting two, in and around Aziuram village centre, where no more than five individuals were recorded in the breeding season (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). It was last observed in 2008 (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). It is currently unknown whether the population is severely fragmented.
190991		threats	eng	Jhum cultivation (rice, turmeric, plantain, vegetables, etc.) and the widespread practice of subsistence farming leading to forest clearance and subsequent habitat fragmentation and destruction may pose a potential threat to this species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). Political instability and the frequent economic blockades that this region faces, as well as a lack of awareness among locals that caecilians are harmless (there is a widespread belief that caecilians are venomous), may constitute indirect threats to the species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012).
190992		conservation	eng	<p>It is not known to occur in any protected areas and there are no  conservation actions currently known for this species (S.D. Biju and  R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). More information is needed on  this species' distribution, population status, natural history and  threats, and in general more field surveys and research on the caecilian  fauna of northeast India would be advisable (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei  pers. comm. February 2012). Raising awareness and educating the local  population that caecilians are harmless would be very helpful in  assisting the persistence of this and other caecilians (S.D. Biju and  R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). </p>
190992		distribution	eng	This species is known only from its type locality, Dhyütere (782 m asl), New Sendenyu village, Tseminyu sub-division, Kohima District, state of Nagaland, northeast India (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is possible that the species may occur more widely  (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers comm. February 2012).
190992		habitat	eng	The type series was found in a banana plantation on the edge of a paddy field, near a secondary forest (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), which suggests that this species may be able to tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance. As with other congeners, it is presumed to breed via terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.
190992		population	eng	The type series comprises five specimens, all collected on the same day (Kamei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has been found to be relatively abundant (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). It was last observed in 2007 (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012). No additional records are available, although additional surveys have yielded other ichthyophiids that could potentially belong to this species. This, however, requires further confirmation (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012).
190992		threats	eng	Jhum cultivation (rice, vegetables, etc.) and the  widespread practice of subsistence farming leading to forest clearance  and subsequent habitat fragmentation and destruction may pose a  potential threat to this species (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm.  February 2012). A lack of awareness among  locals that caecilians are harmless (there is a widespread belief that  caecilians are venomous) may constitute an indirect threat to the species  (S.D. Biju and R.G. Kamei pers. comm. February 2012).
190996		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species occurs within Manu National Park and the Wayqecha Biological Station (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. August 2011). &#160;More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and life history.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>
190996		distribution	eng	This species is known from two localities in the&#160;<span lang="EN-US">upper Kosñipata Valley in southern Peru (Cusco Region),&#160;<span lang="EN-US">at elevations of 2,380–3,485 m asl (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). A gravid female was found at the type locality of Quebraba Toqoryuoc,<span lang="EN-US">&#160;within the Wayqecha Biological Station (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009).&#160;Individuals were also found near and approximately 3 km northwest of the type&#160;locality, on the eastern ridge of Cerro Macho Cruz, along&#160;the Ericson trail connecting Acjanaco to Pillahuata, within Manu National Park&#160;(Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). This species&#160;is presumed to occur more widely, but areas surrounding the type locality are very difficult to access (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. August 2011).</span>
190996		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-Andean puna grasslands, the&#160;montane scrub and cloud forest habitats near the transition with the puna&#160;<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">(Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). Individuals were collected from<span lang="EN-US">&#160;cloud forest leaf litter in forest with large cover of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo and abundant ground moss cover, and from <span lang="EN-US">shrubs and herbaceous vegetation in montane scrub along the edge of the ridge&#160;<span lang="EN-US">of Cerro Macho Cruz, which separates&#160;<span lang="EN-US">the drainage basins of the Toqohuayqo and&#160;Pillahuata streams&#160;<span lang="EN-US">(Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). The gravid female found at the type locality contained&#160;<span lang="EN-US">four unpigmented&#160;ovarian eggs (two in each ovary) (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). Like other congeners, it is presumed to breed by direct development. Because this species occurs in such a wide variety of habitats, it is likely to be moderately tolerant to disturbance (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. August 2011).<p>  </p><p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p><p></p></span></span></span></span>
190996		population	eng	Where populations occur, relative abundances estimated by leaf litter quadrat sampling vary&#160;between 30 and 75 frogs/ ha, therefore this species is considered to be relatively rare (Lehr and Catenazzi 2009). There is no indication of population declines from 1996 until the time of this assessment (Catenazzi <em>et al.</em> 2011).
190996		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Collected specimens were tested for chytridiomycosis (an amphibian fungal infection causing amphibian population declines and extinctions in the area) but no infection&#160;was detected in this species in 2007&#160;(Lehr and Catenazzi 2009), 2008 or 2009 (Catenazzi<em> et al. </em>2011). Major threats to this species are frequent human-induced fires to turn grasslands into cattle pastures or potato fields near Manu National Park&#160;(A. Catenazzi pers.comm. August 2011).&#160;These fires occasionally cross over the park's boundaries and burn the puna and montane scrub within the park (A. Catenazzi pers.comm. August 2011).&#160;</p>&#160;<br/><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
191004		conservation	eng	It occurs within a forest reserve (Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), which is currently well-managed (A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and size, natural history and threats.  <br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
191004		distribution	eng	This species is known from the 41 km<sup>2</sup> Chilapata Forest Reserve, district of Jalpaiguri, state of West Bengal, India (Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The Reserve is found between Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary and Buxa Tiger Reserve, both in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, and it is flanked by the Torsa and Kaljani Rivers (Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This frog could potentially be found in the plains of northern West Bengal in the duars area, wherever there may be good forest cover with leaf litter and temporary rain pools in the monsoon season (A.Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). Areas adjoining the Chilapata Forest Reserve have not been systematically surveyed given the dangers associated with local wildlife, making it difficult to undertake night surveys. However, these are potential areas for the occurrence of this species (K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). It is currently known from 50-100 m asl (A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
191004		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species known to occur in moist deciduous forests (Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It can be encountered on the ground around rainwater pools near the forest road, under low shrubs near ditches, on ferns and leaves about 20 cm from the ground, and in grassy areas (Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Males have been observed to call in close proximity (10-30 cm) of water (Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).  There is no information on its breeding biology, although the fact that individuals have been observed close to water suggests that reproduction is by free-living larvae. It does appear to breed only for a short period, as calls were herd from mid-July to end of August (A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). It is unknown whether it can tolerate habitat disturbance, although destruction of canopy cover could potentially affect its population given the possibility of desiccation of its suspected breeding habitat (small rain pools)(A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012).
191004		population	eng	<p>It was first found in Chilapata Forest Reserve in 2007 and then again in subsequent short surveys in 2009 and 2010 (A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). It is considered to be a common species (20-30 individuals per survey session along a 6 km forest road from Bania River to Mendabari inside the Reserve), although difficult to detect given its small size (A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). No specific information is available on the population trend of the species (A. Ohler and K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012), and the population is not currently considered to be severely fragmented.<br/></p><p>  </p><p><br/></p>    <p> </p>
191004		threats	eng	<p>Loss of canopy cover due to illegal logging would likely be the major threat to this species, as it could affect desiccation of small rain pools, suspected to be used for breeding (K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). However, compared to the illegal logging that takes place in neighbouring Buxa Tiger Reserve, the Chilapata Reserve is comparatively well protected (K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012). There is some farming pressure for paddy cultivation and tea gardens in the duars area of North Bengal, but the protected forest lands tend to be less encroached (K. Deuti pers. comm. January 2012).</p><p> <br/> </p>
191416		conservation	eng	Although this species is thought to be extinct at its only known locality, it is likely to be found in other montane habitats; therefore surveys need to be undertaken to find such populations. The species' life history, population size and potential threats also need to be investigated.
191416		distribution	eng	The species<em> </em>is known only from the type locality in Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam. It is considered that the species is "probably more widely distributed in high mountain areas in Indochina and further expanded into souther China." (Karube 2007).
191416		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The habitat at the type locality is described as a reservoir (implicitly with its outflow blocked) covered with water plants and fed by a small mountain stream (Karube 2007). After the reservoir was repaired the species disappeared from the site, suggesting that the presence of floating water plants and/or low flow conditions is important for the species. Presumably it favours ponds and ponded sections of streams with abundant floating vegetation at high altitudes in forested areas; such habitat is probably not uncommon in northern Viet Nam and adjacent regions.</p>
191416		population	eng	The species has only been collected from the type locality (collected between 1990 and 1994). The species was "abundant" at the type locality when the type series was collected, but the species was not found "a few years later" following repair of the reservoir where the species had been collected (Karube 2007).
191416		threats	eng	This species has apparently become extinct at the only known locality. However the habitat at that locality was artificial (see under habitat) and the conditions described there are likely to be reproduced at many montane sites, so it is not likely that the species is seriously threatened.
191418		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs in protected areas in Thailand and Malaysia. However there is a need for fresh data from Myanmar, and more data on tolerance to disturbance, and ability to survive on streams in plantations. As with all forest stream species, the conservation of this species would be greatly assisted by the provision of adequate buffers of original forest around streams in areas being converted to plantation.</p>
191418		distribution	eng	The species<em> </em>is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1938), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005 as <em>R. mima</em>) and Thailand except for the northwest (Kalkman and Villaneuva 2011). In Myanmar it is only known from the type locality in the south of the country.
191418		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in lowland forest streams. In Pahang <span lang="EN-GB">(R. Dow, pers. comm. 2011) and Perak <span lang="EN-GB">(C.-Y.&#160; Choong, pers. comm. 2011)<span lang="EN-GB">, Peninsular Malaysia, it has been found it on streams in disturbed forest and at low densities on a stream in a rubber plantation.<br/></span></span></p>
191418		population	eng	This species appears to be fairly local, but quite common where it occurs.
191418		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is certainly threatened by deforestation; from the available data it is not clear if it is tolerant or not of less drastic disturbance to its forest habitats. In parts of its range populations may be threatened by large-scale hydroelectric projects. In Malaysia probably the most severe threat is from plantation establishment; there is a need for data on the ability of this species to survive on streams in plantations, but it has been found in rubber plantations.</p>
191446		conservation	eng	Many of the remaining stands are now within National Parks or other  protected areas. Logging on state owned land is prohibited and clearance  of native vegetation outside of protected areas is greatly reduced.  Weed and feral animal control programmes have been initiated in some  areas.
191446		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii </span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> cunninghamii </span>occurs  from near Cape York in northern Queensland, south to the Dorrigo Plateau  in northern New South Wales. Its altitudinal range is from near sea  level up to 600 m inland.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The overall extent of occurrence is well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy would be greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> calculated using the standard IUCN method of presence within a 4 km<sup>2</sup> grid cell.
191446		habitat	eng	<p>In Australia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">cunninghamii</span>  mainly occurs in the ‘dry vine forest’ and thickets that occur on the  eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range at moderate elevations. It  also occurs on some of the larger islands off the Queensland coast. Its  range partially overlaps with that of <em>Araucaria bidwillii</em>, and  in such localities the species are frequently co-dominant emergents. The  two species have different periods of seed ripening and dispersal; <em>A. cunninghamii </em>is wind dispersed and the seeds ripen in the period overlapping the two monsoons whereas <em>A. bidwillii </em>produces ripe seed between December and April which is both the hottest and the wettest period in the Bunya Mountains. <em>Argyrodendron</em>  is the commonest angiosperm dominant; numerous other trees and lianas  are found in these forests where they are left undisturbed.</p>
191446		population	eng	<p>In northern Queensland stands are usually  relatively small and sporadic. In southeastern Queensland and northern  New South Wales there were extensive forests prior to the arrival of  Europeans and the advent of intensive exploitation in the 19th Century.</p>  <h1><br/></h1>
191446		threats	eng	The intense historic exploitation of this species in southeast  Queensland and northern New South Wales has resulted in considerable  fragmentation of the original forests. This has been amplified by the  extensive conversion of forests for agriculture and pastoralism. In some  areas, these fragments are at greater risk from inappropriate fire  regimes, invasion by exotic weeds such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span>  and disturbance from domestic and feral animals. Fragmented stands are  also more at risk from localised climate events such as cyclones. Some  of the remaining natural subpopulations are surrounded by Hoop pine  plantations that are of uncertain provenance raising the possibility of  future outbreeding depression in populations that genetic studies  indicate are strongly differentiated (Pye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
191447		conservation	eng	In Papua and New Guinea and Indonesia few stands are within effectively  protected areas. However, many stands are in remote areas and are not  currently exploited.
191447		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">cunninghamii </span>var.<span style="font-style: italic;"> papuana</span>  occurs in the highlands of New Guinea from the Owen Stanley Range to  the Vogelkop (Bird’s Head) Peninsula, but is especially abundant in the  central highlands. It also occurs on Ferguson and Japen Islands. It  has a wide altitudinal range, from 500 m up to 3,355 m although most  stands occur between 1,000 and 2,500 m.<br/><br/>The overall extent of occurrence is well in excess of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy would be greater than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> calculated using the standard IUCN method of presence within a 4 km<sup>2</sup> grid cell.
191447		habitat	eng	In New   Guinea, <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">papuana</span>  occurs most commonly in montane and high montane forests above 1,000 m  altitude as an emergent (up to 70 m) rising well above a closed canopy  of angiosperm trees. Commonly associated tree genera include <em>Castanopsis</em>, <em>Lithocarpus</em>, <em>Cinnamomum</em>, <em>Calophyllum</em> and <em>Schizomeria</em> (Enright and Hill 1995). It often occurs with <em>Araucaria hunsteinii</em>.<h2><br/></h2>
191447		population	eng	In Papua and New Guinea it is relatively abundant in the Central Highlands. It is less frequent in Indonesia.
191447		threats	eng	In Papua and New Guinea wildfires associated with El Niño droughts have decimated major stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cunninghamii</span><sup> </sup>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">papuana</span>  in McAdam National Park and surrounding areas (Orsak and Balun 1999).  Logging and deforestation associated with agricultural expansion and  plantation establishment has also reduced the area occupied by this  variety in both Papua and New Guinea and in Indonesia. This is ongoing.
191523		conservation	eng	Conservation measures required for this species include prevention of damming its natural habitat of fast flowing rivers and streams, protection of remnants of rainforests in Viet Nam, and prevention of pollution of water. Further research into the species' distribution is required.
191523		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species have relatively small distributions in general. This recently described species,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">B. annamita</span> is probably also endemic to a relatively small area, but is only known from two specimens from the type locality on the Ka River (Nghe An Province, Tam Quang, Vietnam). The real extent of its distribution is unknown. It was found in the foot hills of the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam close to the Lao PDR border in a small creek.
191523		habitat	eng	Only found in streams at intermediate elevation in&#160;fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not found in polluted or stagnant water.
191523		population	eng	Population size is not known.
191523		threats	eng	The main threats are caused by deforestation, which leads to changes in water flow regime and increased sedimentation. Also there are potential threats from water pollution relating to mining activity in the region.
191524		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Conservation requirements include preventing the pollution of water, protecting the&#160;natural habitat of fast flowing rivers and streams from damming, and protecting the natural vegetation along rivers.
191524		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species have relatively small distributions in general. This recently described species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is probably also restricted to a relatively small area, and is currently known only from the type locality, a stream in Muong Khen, Hoa Binh Province, northern Viet Nam (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
191524		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not found in polluted or stagnant water.
191524		population	eng	Population trend is not known, but the species was found to be abundant when present.
191524		threats	eng	The main threatening factor is water pollution from domestic sources. Future threats may include&#160;damming of rivers, and siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation as the species is believed to be sensitive to changes in water quality.
191525		conservation	eng	Protect the natural habitat, fast flowing rivers and streams from damming, protect gallery forests, prevent pollution of water. A species management plan is recommended to mitigate possible impacts during dam construction and during operation of the dam.
191525		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species have relatively small distributions in general. This recently described species is apparently endemic to&#160;a very short segment of&#160;the Khiao River, in Bolikhamxay Province, southern Lao PDR.
191525		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not found in polluted or stagnant water.
191525		population	eng	<p>The population size is not known. It may be comparatively small for an invertebrate taxon. Also, population trends are unknown but given the biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia </span>species and the progressive degradation of their habitats, it is very probable that this species is in decline.</p>
191525		threats	eng	Threatening factors are damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation. A dam has been constructed on Nam Theun river, of which the known locality river is a tributary. It is uncertain whether the dam construction will impact this site. Possible threats include inundation, change in flow regime, changing water quality (temperature and oxygenation) and impact through construction works.
191526		conservation	eng	Conservation required for this species includes: protecting natural habitat, fast flowing rivers and streams from damming, protecting gallery forests, and preventing pollution of water. Actions required include species monitoring to establish impact of future threats.
191526		distribution	eng	Most <em>Brotia</em> species generally have relatively small distributions. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. mariae</span> is considered to probably be endemic to the Nam Ngum drainage, central Lao PDR and at present it is not known from outside this range. It was collected at four locations within the catchment, so it is possibly present within the tributary streams where there is suitable habitat.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
191526		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
191526		population	eng	The population size is not known, but is surely large enough to prevent extinction in the wild due to local events. Population trends are unknown but given the impacts of dams and general disturbances of river habitats it is plausible to assume this species is in decline.
191526		threats	eng	Threatening factors are damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation. There is a dam on the river Ngum, downstream of all of the sites, and the species will not survive in a lacustrine environment hence construction of further dams upstream of the first dam may impact this species.
191527		conservation	eng	Conservation actions required include: protecting natural habitat, fast flowing rivers and streams from damming, protecting natural vegetation along rivers, and preventing pollution of water. In addition, further research is required to confirm the species' full distribution.
191527		distribution	eng	This species was found at two localities in Hoa Binh Province (Cao Phong District, Binh Thanh community, creek in Giang village), Viet Nam, and probably occurs also in other places within river drainages in this region. <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
191527		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
191527		population	eng	Population size is not known, trends may reflect the increasing economic activities in that region, which may lead to disturbances of the habitat. Research is needed.
191527		threats	eng	Threatening factors are damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation.
191528		conservation	eng	Conservation actions required include protecting natural habitat (fast flowing rivers and streams) from damming, protecting natural vegetation along rivers, and preventing pollution of water.
191528		distribution	eng	This species appears to be fairly widespread in central Viet Nam and neighbouring regions of Lao PDR, and was found at a number of locations in rivers and creeks (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
191528		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
191528		population	eng	Population size is not known, but given the occurrence in the undeveloped border region between Laos and Vietnam, its considered to be rather stable at present.
191528		threats	eng	Threatening factors are the damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation.
191529		conservation	eng	Prevent natural habitat, fast flowing rivers and streams from damming, protect natural vegetation along rivers, prevent pollution of water.
191529		distribution	eng	This species was found at two distant localities and may be more widespread in central Viet Nam (Quang Tri Province), perhaps even in neighbouring regions of Lao PDR.
191529		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
191529		population	eng	Population size is not known, but given the occurrence in the undeveloped border region between Lao PDR and Viet Nam, its considered to be rather stable at the present.
191529		threats	eng	Threatening factors are damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation.
191530		conservation	eng	Conservation actions which would benefit this species include preventing damming of natural habitat (fast flowing rivers and streams), protecting natural vegetation along rivers, and preventing pollution of water.
191530		distribution	eng	The species appears to be fairly widespread in the southern part of central Viet Nam (Quang Nam, Gia Lai and Hue Provinces possibly extending into the provinces of Gia Lai and Dak Lak; Cai River drainage, Rao Lac River drainage, Han River drainage) and was found at a number of locations in rivers and creeks. It probably does not occur in the lower parts of rivers (including the Han River), and is not found in estuarine parts of the river at the type locality close to Da Nang (Köhler and Dames 2009), who considered it likely that the species description was based on specimens washed downstream or brought to Da Nang as a source of food.
191530		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
191530		population	eng	Population size is not known, but given the generally low tolerances of pachychilids with regard to degradation of their habitats and the economical development in Viet Nam, it is more likely to be decreasing than stable.
191530		threats	eng	Threatening factors are damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation.
191531		conservation	eng	Conservation actions which would benefit this species include preventing damming of natural habitat (fast flowing rivers and streams), protecting natural vegetation along rivers, and preventing pollution of water.
191531		distribution	eng	This species was found at two localities in the larger drainage of the Ca River, a major river in central Viet Nam (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">e</span><span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;">t al. </span>2009). It is probably more widespread within this region of central Viet Nam, and should be looked for within the same catchment in Lao PDR.
191531		habitat	eng	Fast flowing, well oxygenated water, on hard substrates like rocks, not on sandy or muddy substrates. Not in polluted or stagnant water.
191531		population	eng	Population size is not known, but given its occurrence in the undeveloped border region between Lao PDR and Viet Nam, it is considered to be rather stable at the present.
191531		threats	eng	Threatening factors are damming of rivers, siltation due to erosion as caused by deforestation, water pollution, and river degradation.
191541		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park Monitoring and search for unknown individuals needed. Ex-situ conservation actions are also required.
191541		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mahé and Silhouette, Seychelles (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994). The EOO on Mahé is 13 km². The EOO on  Silhouette was not determined, but the total area of the island is 20 km². The total EOO must therefore be less than 33 km².<br/><br/>Carlström  (1996) made the  only record of this species in the Mt Sébert  area in 1994. In a field  search in June 2006 on Mt.  Sébert this  occurrence could  not be verified. Confirmation of former records is urgently needed.
191541		habitat	eng	Understory shrub or small tree in the wet high altitude forest (500-830 m) (Carlström 1996).
191541		population	eng	Fewer than 50 mature individuals are known (RDLP workshop 2006). Only one individual tree is know from Silhouette (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006). Historically, this species was said to be common in the woods of Mahé (Horne 1871 or 1874 in Baker 1877). A decline in population size in the past can therefore be inferred. No  exact quantification of this reduction is possible. It can be assumed  that this decline exceeded 80% in the last 100 years because it is unlikely that a  population size of less than 250 mature individuals would have been  stated as “common” at the end of the 19th century.<br/><br/>Successful  reproduction cannot be observed (there is only one young   plant known on  Mahé, Congo Rouge) and no propagule units   are exchanged  between the different sites. The population is therefore severely fragmented. As there is nearly no   reproduction occurring one has to suspect that the population size is   declining.
191541		threats	eng	Mainly intrinsic factors of which the low reproduction success might be the most severe. The effect of invasive species is not known, but as invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span>) are spreading in its habitat. Habitat quality is also reduced hindering a recovery in future.
191542		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park and in the Praslin National Park.
191542		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species occurs on Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Aldabra (Robertson 1989, Friedmann 1994). It was last recorded on Aldabra in 1975 (Friedmann 1994). The extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO) have not been further determined but are  less than 5,000 km²&#160; and 500 km² respectively (the total area of these  islands is 371 km²) (National Statistics Bureau 2005).<br/><br/>In a  survey in 1994, it was found in 29  out of 73 areas of special   conservation value (Carlström 1996). It is  most probable, that the   species still occurs in these areas. This  indicates its rather wide   intra-island distribution.
191542		habitat	eng	Understory shrub in the intermediate and wet high altitude forest or in tall scrub, but also on exposed rocky outcrops, frequently found at mountain summits. From about 150 m to the highest altitudes (Carlström 1996). The fruits appear to be suitable for frugivore dispersal, but there is no sign of successful long distance dispersal from one island to another.
191542		population	eng	Historically, the species was abundant (Schimper in Diels 1922). It occurs mainly in mid altitude and high (only up to 905 m) altitude wet forests, where it is still rather wide spread. There is no  continuing decline observable but the population trend is uncertain.  The fruits appear to be suitable  for frugivore dispersal, but the present inter island distribution  indicates that there is no sign of successful long distance dispersal  from one island to another.
191542		threats	eng	The species does not seem to be obviously threatened. It seems to regenerate sufficiently. Different sizes are observed even in heavily invaded sites. It is of medicinal use, for which it is still collected. It is not known how much this harvesting affects the species but it seems to be on a low level (subsistence level). In 1975, Renovize notes that the subpopulation in one area on Aldabra was devastated by scale insects (<span style="font-style: italic;">Icerya seychellarum</span>) (in Friedmann 1994). Since then the species was no more recorded on Aldabra (Friedmann 1994).
191543		conservation	eng	More extensive surveys are needed to establish if this species is more common.
191543		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Silhouette Island, Seychelles. The only population is known from one very small area (approximately 0.48 ha) within the Pisonia  forest in the Anse Mondon valley (Friedmann 1994, J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006).
191543		habitat	eng	This species grows as an understory shrub in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pisonia sechellarum</span> forest, at 450-500 m altitude.
191543		population	eng	With the extremely small number of six known individuals (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2006) one can assume that totally less than 50 mature individuals exist. The species was only described in 1985 and there is not enough information to infer any past or future declines. Continuing decline or extreme fluctuation in population size cannot be measured because there are only few individuals existing.
191543		threats	eng	Confined to a single locality and thus at high risk of accidental extinction. With the small number of individuals intrinsic factors are the major threat. It might be affected by the invasive alien plants present within its range.
191545		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, in the Praslin National Park and Curieuse Marine National Park.
191545		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. It is only known from Mahé, Praslin and Curieuse (Friedmann 1994). The EOO on Mahé is estimated to be 1 km²<sup></sup> (Mont Sébert) or at maximum 6.7 km² (if one counts the record from Casse Dent, where the species could not be found in recent years). The EOO on Praslin and Curieuse was not determined. The total area of Praslin is only 38 km² and the area of Curieuse is 2.7 km²<sup> </sup>(National Statistics Bureau 2005). The total estimated EOO and AOO are therefore both less than 100 km².
191545		habitat	eng	The species occurs in scrub and rocky areas between 50 and 500 m altitude. The seeds are wind dispersed, a rather uncommon phenomenon in small island ecosystem where the seeds area easily blown to the sea (Carlström 1996). The chance that propagules are exchanged successfully between the islands is extremely unlikely.
191545		population	eng	Estimates of the population size have to be interpreted cautiously because the species mainly reproduces vegetative. The effective number of genotypes could be extremely low. On Praslin (Fond Diable towards Anse Gouvernment) the best-developed subpopulation consists of 500 to 1,000 individuals. The other two known sites on Praslin consist of five and two plants respectively. On Curieuse, small patches of plants can be found consisting of fewer than 15 plants. The total population on Curieuse must be smaller than 100 individuals (L. Chong Seng pers. comm. 2006). The only written record about the subpopulation on Curieuse stated that in1990 approximately 40 individuals were recorded and that poor reproduction was observed (Carlström 1996).<br/><br/>On Mahé, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. schimperiana</span> is close to extinction and at the present stage only two sites with a few individuals are known (Mt. Sébert). Several searching efforts in the Casse Dent area could not confirm former records made in this area (F. Fleischer-Dogley pers. comm. 2006). On Mont Sébert, fewer than 50 individuals are thought to occur and if the species still occurs in the Casse Dent area there must be fewer than 10 individuals (L. Chong Seng pers. comm. 2006). The population size is therefore estimated to be between 600 and 1,200 mature individuals.<br/><br/>Historical records are only known from Mahé (Summerhayes 1931). In 1974,  the species was thought to be extinct on Mahé (Procter 1974). In 1994,  the species was recorded at six sites on Mahé, Praslin and Curieuse.  Based on these records no future or past decline can be quantified.
191545		threats	eng	Invasion of alien species, low densities and restricted range are the main threats to this species. On Praslin, fires have to be regarded as an additional main threat. The scrub habitat  at low and  intermediate altitude, where this species occurs, is heavily invaded by introduced  species (e.g.,  <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysobalanus icaco</span>). Additionally, the low land habitats  are strongly  affected by development for housing and tourism.
191546		conservation	eng	No conservation actions needed.
191546		distribution	eng	This species was only collected once; on Mahé by Horne 1874 (Baker 1877). It is thought to be extinct (Friedmann 1994).
191546		habitat	eng	This species inhabited primary forest on Mahé.
191546		population	eng	This species is thought to be extinct (Friedmann 1994). The date of extinction can not be determined. The reason for the extinction of this species is without doubt the extensive clear cutting of Mahé at the beginning of the 20th century, which led to the destruction of nearly all of primary forest (Vesey-Fitzgerald 1940). Several botanists made collections and surveys in the Seychelles since this species was last collected. The most important were: Schimper 1899, Thomasset 1905, Gardinier 1905 and1908, Vesey-Fitzgerald 1936-39, Jeffrey 1960 -61, Procter 1970, 1972 and1973, Fosberg 1970, Sauer 1967, 1989 Robertson, Friedman 1981-1987, Wise 1985-1990s and Carlström 1994-1996. It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Vernonia sechellensis</span> would have been overseen all this years. The details of the several surveys are not known.
191546		threats	eng	Extensive clear cutting of Mahé at the beginning of the 20th  century has destroyed nearly the entire primary forest  (Vesey-Fitzgerald  1940).
191547		conservation	eng	It is a recently described species, and not protected in Romania at national level.
191547		distribution	eng	According to the original description (Deli 2010), the species is known from a narrow range between Valcele and Parvulesti, situated in the southern limestone region of the Valcan Mountains, Southwestern Romania.
191547		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks, in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
191547		population	eng	<p>Due to the hidden (subterranean) life of this species, there are no data on population trend, but there is no reason to suppose that number of subpopulations or the number or mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.</p>
191547		threats	eng	<p>This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (mostly limestone) habitats. It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the total destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this threat is mostly „hypothetical”.</p>
191552		conservation	eng	This subspecies is known from some protected areas. The Chinese Government has recently imposed a logging ban on old growth forest in western China.
191552		distribution	eng	Occurs in southwestern China in W Yunnan and SE Xizang [Tibet]; and in northeastern India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.
191552		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs in high mountain ranges of the SW Plateau of China and neighbouring India between 2,100 and 3,500 m asl, on grey-brown mountain podzols, brown earth or lithosols, but predominantly in the lower altitude warm-temperate zone. The climate is cold and moist, with annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,000 mm. It is a rare subspecies, usually mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies fargesii</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">sutchuenensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga chinensis</span>,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix potaninii</span> at high elevations, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>spp. at lower elevations.
191552		population	eng	Very scattered, does not form pure forests.
191552		threats	eng	Logging and deforestation have depleted this most common and widespread subspecies. Logging was mostly in the past<br/><br/>The area is fairly remote and not under threat at least in the Indian parts of its range, but it may have been subject to logging in the Chinese part of its range.
191553		conservation	eng	The Government of China has recently imposed a ban on logging in western China.
191553		distribution	eng	Has a wide range occurring in southwestern China (W  Yunnan, SE Xizang [Tibet]), and in northern  Myanmar.
191553		habitat	eng	This is a subspecies of high elevations in the great mountain ranges of SW China, occurring between 2,400 m up to the treeline, usually between 3,000 m and 4,000 m, but not on south facing slopes. The soil is a grey brown mountain podzol. The climate is extremely wet, with cool summers and cold, snowy winters (annual precipitation ranges from 1,000 mm to 3,000 mm and more but predominantly during the growing season). It grows in pure forests or with <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga dumosa</span> at the bottom of its  range. Broadleaved associated may include<span style="font-style: italic;"> Betula utilis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus</span>,  <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron</span>, Araliaceae and similar woody species of the cool temperate  forest.
191553		population	eng	Subpopulation on the type locality of the Cang Shan stable; subpopulations further west, such as on the northern Nujiang Shan (Ziben Shan, near Caojian) have suffered severe logging.
191553		threats	eng	Extensive logging has officially ceased over the China part of the range. No information for the situation in Myanmar.
191554		conservation	eng	Protected in part of the range in Tibet. In Arunachal Pradesh, in some protected areas but extensive natural forest remains with no current logging activity.
191554		distribution	eng	This species is known from SE Xizang [Tibet] (Motuo), China, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
191554		habitat	eng	Dominant forest canopy tree in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> zone at <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 3,000-3,800 m forming extensive forests, but more fragmented at extremes of range or on more isolated peaks/ridges. Associated trees include <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus</span>, Araliaceae, <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron</span> and similar woody temperate trees and shrubs.
191554		population	eng	This variety has a vast population.
191554		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified.
191555		conservation	eng	The Government of China has recently imposed a logging ban in western China.
191555		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Nukiang River area in the northwestern Yunnan province, and Yongde shan, Wu Mu Long township, China. In Myanmar, it is known from Kachin state, Tama Bum.
191555		habitat	eng	Occurs on high montane settings and isolated peaks (such as Tama Bum in Myanmar) where it is the dominant species, occurring with <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus</span> species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhododendron</span> and similar woody temperate trees/shrubs including bamboo.
191555		population	eng	Logging has occurred within the range in China but officially ceased in <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 2000, with significant populations remaining in China. The situation in Myanmar is uncertain but it is highly likely that logging is occurring. Inferred population reduction of perhaps 25-50% within the last three generations (150 years).
191555		threats	eng	Logging is the most serious threat.
191574		conservation	eng	This subspecies is likely to occur in some protected areas.
191574		distribution	eng	This taxon occurs across N Russia, from Archangel'sk eastward to the Amur River, southward to the mountains along the Sino-Russian border.
191574		habitat	eng	The 'typical' subspecies of Siberian Fir (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies sibirica</span>) is widespread across the Siberian taiga, where it occurs from near sea level on the northern plains to 2,000 m asl in the mountains. It remains well south of the arctic tree limit in Siberia, in fact it is more common in W Siberia and the Altai Mountains, which have a less severe climate. The soils are usually of alluvial origin, podzolic, and in the mountains also calcareous, well drained and free of permafrost. The climate is cold continental, but not extreme in most parts of the range of the species. There are pure forests, but more often it is mixed with other conifers, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea obovata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix gmelinii</span>, in the mountains also <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sibirica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sibirica</span>; common broad-leaved trees or shrubs are <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula pendula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus aucuparia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum opulus</span>. In the southwestern part of its range other broad leaved trees are mixed in: <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia cordata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus scabra</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer platanoides</span>.
191574		population	eng	This subspecies forms extensive forests in areas where there is sufficient summer heat, across a vast area of northern Asia.
191574		threats	eng	Logging could cause a decline but current evidence suggest that this is not a serious threat at present. Air pollution from mining and other industrial activities will affect this subspecies in parts of its range.
191575		conservation	eng	It is known from several protected areas.
191575		distribution	eng	This variety is only known from Honshu, Japan.
191575		habitat	eng	The 'typical' variety of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies veitchii</span>  grows on high mountains at elevations between 1,200 m and 2,800 m asl [reported from as low as 1,050 m (Wilson 1916)]. The soils are usually of volcanic origin, podzolic and well drained. The climate is cool and wet, with annual precipitation between 1,000 mm and 2,500 mm, and with cold, snowy winters; frequent typhoons cause destruction of the forest in most places before it reaches an age of 250 to 300 years (Franklin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979). This variety is usually mixed with other conifers, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies mariesii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea jezoensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">hondoensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix kaempferi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thuja standishii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus parviflora</span>, at the highest elevations <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pumila</span>, and the ubiquitous <span style="font-style: italic;">Tsuga diversifolia</span>. The most common broad-leaved trees are <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula ermanii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorbus commixta</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus nipponica</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> spp. at lower elevations, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula corylifolia</span> near the tree limit.
191575		population	eng	It makes pure forest on high mountains with large individuals and wide distribution at the core area in Central Honshu. But, in some low altitude mountains such as Ohdaigahara, the population size is small and decreasing.
191575		threats	eng	No specific threats have been identified for this variety.
191587		conservation	eng	There are no formal conservation actions in place specifically for this species. At the site of the single Lao PDR population, one local man was so concerned by this decline that he has transplanted several clumps to his small-holding; these are thriving and were the source of the recently collected material. Extraction for handicrafts is regulated by forestry services.
191587		distribution	eng	The species is considered restricted to the Lower Mekong basin and the Vientiane Plain in Lao PDR and northeastern Thailand. It has been recorded at several locations along the Mekong mainstream in flood prone locations not far outside the main channel, from Neak Loung in Cambodia (including from Siam Reap on the Tonle Sap Lake) through Kampong Cham to the Vientiane Plain in Lao PDR (Henderson 2009, RBG Kew 2011). The species has also been recorded from Viet Nam.
191587		habitat	eng	The species appears to favour seasonally flooded forest and scrub which experiences quite deep and prolonged flooding. It is the <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamus </span>species which occurs most widely in the inner floodplain of the Tonle Sap Lake, which is flooded for several months under several metres of water and along the Mekong mainstream at flood prone locations not far outside the main channel; 0-200 m
191587		population	eng	At the single known Lao PDR location, it was reportedly historically very abundant (the local name of the site translates as 'rattan lake'), however the area is used for dry season rice but floods too deeply to be used in the rainy season, at which time the paddies are rapidly re-occupied by sedges. Much of the marsh was probably once wooded but only scattered trees now remain, as well as degraded forest and bamboo scrub on the surrounding higher ground. The species now occurs as scattered clumps along banks and ditches in the marsh, with more plants in the surrounding scrub. In 2000 seedlings were common but few adult plants were found (T. Evans pers. comm. 2011).
191587		threats	eng	The species occupies a habitat which is particularly vulnerable to clearance, it appears to be most severely threatened in sites in the Vientiane Plan, where the main threat is conversion of its habitat to seasonal rice fields. However, it is likely to be directly or indirectly threatened by most actions affecting Tonle Sap and the Mekong River, including uncontrolled logging and dam construction.
191663		distribution	eng	Recorded from the Japanese islands of Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Yakushima.
191892		conservation	eng	This plant is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula zoysii</span>.<br/><br/>In Slovenia, it is not listed on the Red List but protected to prevent its collection. Slovenia suggested that it should be added to the Natura 2000 species listed which was accepted. It is norotected in Italy, but is found in a regional natural park and Natura 2000 site. In Austria, it is also found in a Natura 2000 site.<br/><br/>No conservation measures are needed.
191892		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Favratia zoysii</span> has been described from Austria, Italy and Slovenia   (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It is found in the southern part of Austria along the boarder to Slovenia at two locati<span style="background-color: white;">ons (</span>Fischer <em>et al.</em> 2008<span style="background-color: white;">).</span><br/><br/>This species is limited to the northern exposed slopes of limestone and the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km². It is widespread within its range and is found at an altitude from 1,500 to 2,500 m but can grow down to 500 m.
191892		habitat	eng	This species is limited to the northern exposed slopes of limestone and can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8210 "Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
191892		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Favratia zoysii</span> has been described in 108 localities   and its population is considered to be stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). It is widespread and common in its habitat.
191892		threats	eng	The main threat is posed by tourists frequenting the areas where it grows by mountaineering, rock climbing, or building access path. A potential future threat could come from climate change.
191906		conservation	eng	This species is present in many conservation areas.
191906		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Indonesia (Batu, Bangka, Mentawai, Nias, Simalur = Simeulue, Sumatra),<span class="Apple-converted-space"> Peninsular Malaysia and southernmost Thailand (Uetz and Hallerman 2010). In Peninsular Malaysia it occurs at elevations from 100 to 300 m.<span class="Apple-converted-space"></span>
191906		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist lowland forests, primary and secondary. It is nocturnal, arboreal and feeds on lizards and amphibians.
191906		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species. In Peninsular Malaysia, this species is rare.
191906		threats	eng	Although this species is occasionally seen in the pet trade, it is unlikely that its population is affected by this threat.
191909		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
191909		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs above 2,000 m asl.
191909		habitat	eng	This largely diurnal species lives at the bottom layer of forests, or in umbrella bamboos, meadows, near streams, or near trail in middle and high altitude mountains higher than 2000m asl. It feeds on salamanders, frogs, lizards and rodents. It is ovoviviparous and gives birth with 3-8 young in fall (Zhao 2006). <br/><br/>The prey-predator mass ratios ranged 0.08-0.81, only ectotherms (lizards, 91.7% and amphibians, 8.3%) were found in the guts of yearlings, whereas mammals (rodents and shrews) represented 68.1% of gut contents of adults. Consistent with the gut content analysis, in feeding trials, neonates preferred lizards and frogs whereas adults preferred mice (Lin et al. 2008). <br/><br/>Huang et al (2007) measured and compared the acute thermal tolerances of this species, with that of its lowland congeners, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mucrosquamatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. s. stejnegeri</span>. They did not find a clear relationship between acute thermal tolerances and altitudinal distributions of these 3 <span style="font-style: italic;">Trimeresurus</span> species, then concluded their acute thermal tolerances should not be limiting factors in determining their altitudinal distributions.
191909		population	eng	This is a common species.
191909		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to the species.
191911		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although this snake is known only from Hoang Lien National Park. Surveys are needed to rediscover this snake, although this is an already well-surveyed area, and to obtain information on its distribution, population status and natural history, and on its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
191911		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from northern Viet Nam. The type locality of Sa Pa in Lao Cai Province, where it has been recorded in Hoang Lien National Park (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011). It may also occur in the adjacent Chinese province of Yunnan (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
191911		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane forest at 1,500 m asl.&#160; It is presumed to be aquatic or semiaquatic, but no ecological data is available for this species.
191911		population	eng	No population data are available for this species, which is known only from historical records (Bourret 1934). Recent surveys have not recorded the species.
191911		threats	eng	This species is only known from Hoang Lien National Park, where it is not exposed to major threats.
191912		conservation	eng	Research is needed to rediscover this species and determine its taxonomy, distribution, natural history, population status, and exposure and sensitivity to any threats.
191912		distribution	eng	The species is only known from two specimens found in Indonesia, where it was described in 1893 and has not since been confirmed. One specimen was mentioned as being from Cibodas, although this specimen cannot be relocated. Another specimen was identified as coming from  Sumatra (V. Wallach pers comm.), but this too requires confirmation. Due to the uncertainty surrounding both this species' taxonomy and its provenance, its distribution needs to be verified (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. August 2011).
191912		habitat	eng	The habitat of this species is unknown as locality records are unreliable.
191912		population	eng	No information on this snake's population status is available, as it is known from a very small number of specimens with unreliable locality data, and has not been recorded since its original description.
191912		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
191913		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas. Research is needed into the distribution, ecology and possible threats to the species.
191913		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from China (Yunnan) and Viet Nam (Cao Bang [Nguyen Binh], Lao Cai [Sa Pa], Tuyen Quang [Sinh  Long], Bac Kan [Ngan Son, Cho Don], Lang Son [Mau Son], Vinh Phuc [Tam  Dao], [Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2009]). It occurs at 500 to 1,500 m asl.
191913		habitat	eng	This aquatic species is associated with stream habitats. It has been recorded both within and outside of forest habitats. It is an oviparous species. The diet consists of fishes, frogs, tadpoles, freshwater shrimp and earthworms.
191913		population	eng	In Yunnan it is a very rare species.
191913		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
191914		conservation	eng	This species occurs in protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand. There are no species-specific conservation measures or actions in place.
191914		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Java, and has also recently been recorded from Jambi Province, Sumatra (Miralles and David 2010).&#160; It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level up to 350 m.
191914		habitat	eng	This arboreal and diurnal species occurs in forested foothills, where it feeds on amphibians and reptiles (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It can also occur in disturbed, secondary forests.
191914		population	eng	This species is poorly known (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998; Taylor 1965). Nothing is known on its population size.
191914		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191916		conservation	eng	Two adjacent protected areas occur around the known locality: Khao Bantad Wildlife Sanctuary and the Khao-Pu-Khao Ya National Park. Research is needed to clarify this snake's distribution, population status, natural history, and exposure and sensitivity to any threats.
191916		distribution	eng	The type locality is Khao Chong Forest Experimental Station, Trang Province, Thailand. This snake probably occurs in the adjacent Khao Bantad Wildlife Sanctuary and Kha Pu-Khao Ya National Park, but is so far known only from the type locality.
191916		habitat	eng	The type locality contains moist primary lowland forest. No additional natural history information is available.
191916		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, which is known only from the holotype.
191916		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species.
191918		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Both Cambodian specimens have been recorded from protected areas. More surveys are needed to obtain more data on this species' ecology, distribution and population status.
191918		distribution	eng	This snake is known from Cambodia's Cardamom Mountains (Stuart and Emmet 2006), and from north and southeast Thailand (Uthai Thani, Tak and Chon Buri). It is absent from Peninsular Thailand (Cox 1991, David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It has been recorded from 400 and 570 m asl. in Cambodia. Its extent of occurrence in Thailand, based on the combined area of its known centres of distribution, is approximately 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>; the extent of its range in Cambodia cannot be meaningfully estimated given the paucity of records, and so the snake's global extent of occurrence is unknown.
191918		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake has been found in both primary and secondary forest in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). In Cambodia, one of the recent records was from disturbed lowland evergreen forest along a river, the other from dry dipterocarp forest at 570 m asl. (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).
191918		population	eng	There are only two recent records of this snake from Cambodia (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011). It is reportedly common in Uthai Thani, but there is no information on the population status in southeast Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). David <em>et al.</em> (2004) describe this as a rare species. This species' distribution is apparently fragmentary, however it occurs over a relatively wide area in Uthai Thani and it is possible that it is more widespread than is known within the Cardamom Mountains, so it is not clear whether it occurs as a severely fragmented population.
191918		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is exposed to any threats in Thailand. It is not thought to be threatened in Cambodia, as species of dry forest are generally tolerant of disturbance and this habitat is not subject to heavy exploitation (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).
191919		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. This snake is known from many protected areas in all three countries within its range.
191919		distribution	eng	This snake has been reported from many locations between 400 and 1,500 m asl. in central Viet Nam's Truong Son Mountains&#160; In Lao PDR the species has been reported from Phou Hin Poun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Nakai District, Khammouan Province, and from Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Kaleum District, Xe Kong Province (Stuart and Heatwole 2008). There is a recent record from Virachey National Park in northeastern Cambodia (Mondolkiri Province) (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
191919		habitat	eng	Das (2010) reports that this snake is associated with both lowland and montane evergreen monsoon forests, although it is primarily an upland species. It has been recorded near streams in mixed dipterocarp and pine forests (Stuart and Heatwole 2008). It has been found in secondary forest, but is less common here than in primary habitat, and it is absent from non-forested areas (Q.T. Nguyen and B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
191919		population	eng	This snake is often found within its range in central Viet Nam (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011), and is locally abundant in Lao PDR (B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
191919		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution include logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming. Upland forest in this region is however at less risk than lowland forest, and so these processes probably don't represent major threats to this snake.
191920		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is needed to determine if the western and eastern populations of this species are conspecific. Additional survey work is also recommended to understand the distribution and ecology of this species, and to establish whether major threats to this snake exist.
191920		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northeastern India (Sikkim, Darjeeling District, Naga Hills in Assam), Myanmar (Karin Hills), and then very disjunctly in central Lao PDR and eastern Cambodia (Smith 1943, Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Stuart and Heatwole 2008). Its extent of occurrence in India and Myanmar is around 67,000 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the combined area of its known distribution centres; as it is known from only two specimens in Indochina, its full extent of occurrence cannot be established.
191920		habitat	eng	The sole Cambodian specimen was found during the day (12:00 h) climbing on bamboo two metres above the ground at the edge of a road through deciduous forest with grassy understory, at 700 meters elevation (Stuart <em>et al.</em> 2006). The sole Lao specimen was found dead on a road in an area with disturbed semi-evergreen forest at about 900 m elevation (Stuart and Heatwole 2008).
191920		population	eng	The species is known only from seven specimens (Smith 1943, Stuart <em>et al.</em> 2006, Stuart and Heatwole 2008). It is considered a very rare species (Smith 1943).
191920		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by forest loss resulting from agricultural development, although its occurrence in disturbed forest suggests that it may be tolerant of some human disturbance. No major threats can be confirmed.
191921		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place, although the species has been recorded from protected areas in both China and Thailand. Further surveys are needed to better determine the range of this species.
191921		distribution	eng	Opisthotropis maculosa is currently known only from four localities: the type locality in the Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary (18° 14' 31.0'' N, 103° 57' 44.5'' E, 190 m asl.) on the Khorat Plateau of Thailand, near the Mekong River and border with Lao PDR; Shiwanshan National Forest Park, Shangsi County, Guangxi, China; Wuhuangling Forest Park, Pubei County, Guangxi, China; and Dawuling Nature Reserve, southwestern Guangdong, China. This unusual distribution suggests the species is likely to occur in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, but it has not been recorded from either country. It is known from 150 to 1190 m asl.
191921		habitat	eng	The holotype was swimming at night (1930 h) during heavy rainfall in 5 cm of rainwater flowing swiftly through a temporary streambed in disturbed bamboo mixed with evergreen forest. The snake was very active and thrashed vigorously when restrained (Stuart and Chuaynkern 2007), as has also been reported from one Chinese specimen (Yang <em>et al.</em> 2011). In China it has been found in hill streams in deciduous forest 190–1,150 m asl.
191921		population	eng	It is very rare and known from only one specimen in Thailand and three in China, each from a different locality.
191921		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unclear, as all known localities fall within protected areas.
191922		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas throughout its range. Research is needed to more adequately determine its precise distribution.
191922		distribution	eng	The species occurs from south of the Isthmus of Kra in Thailand to Sundaland (Smith 1930, Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996). A report from Lao PDR (David and Vogel 1996) is likely to be in error. It occurs at elevations up to 650 m in Peninsular Malaysia.
191922		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland forests near streams (David and Vogel 1996). Smith (1930) reported it from mountains in southern Thailand.
191922		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is considered to be rare (David and Vogel 1996).
191922		threats	eng	It is likely that local subpopulations of this species are being negatively affected by forest destruction from agricultural activities and plantations.
191923		conservation	eng	The species occurs in numerous protected areas along the Barisan Mountainous range as the Kerinci Seblat National Park.
191923		distribution	eng	This species, which is endemic to Indonesia, has been recorded from the Mentawai Archipelago, Sumatra, Sumatera Barat, Riau and Bengkulu, and perhaps also Sipora and Siberut Islands. The type locality is“Solok, Sumatra” in the Barat Province, Sumatra Island, Indonesia (Uetz and Hallerman 2010).
191923		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from lowland to montane forested areas&#160; It is a tree-dwelling species (G. Vogel, pers comm. September 2011).
191923		population	eng	The species is considered as rare to uncommon.
191923		threats	eng	Habitat conversion and illegal logging are the main concerns for the species, although it is not known how these affect its population.
191925		conservation	eng	This species is found in some protected areas in Cameron Highlands. Research is needed to better establish the distribution of this species as well as its population size and trends.
191925		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cameron Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia. It is known from only this locality, although it likely occurs throughout the Titiwangsa Mountain range. It has been collected at 1,450 m.
191925		habitat	eng	The species is found in upland forest. As for other snakes in this family, it  should be found close to water bodies such as marshes, lakes or  streams.
191925		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. It is an uncommon species.
191925		threats	eng	The area where this species occurs has undergone agricultural activities. However, because this is a riparian species, this activities may not heavily impact this species' population.
191926		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are required. This species is presumed to be present in protected areas.
191926		distribution	eng	This wide-ranging species occurs from Nepal and northeastern India across China (east to Fujian Province, north to Shaanxi and Henan Provinces) and southward to Peninsular (West) Malaysia (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, Zhao and Adler 1993, Stuart and Heatwole 2008, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
191926		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forested uplands. In has been collected from subtropical/tropical wet forest and montaine deciduous forest.
191926		population	eng	No population information is available, although this snake is known to be locally abundant.
191926		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction, particularly from shifting agriculture. The species is harmless to humans but it mimics a cobra (genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Naja</span>) when threatened, and so it is probably killed by humans when encountered.
191927		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The known localities are outside protected areas.&#160; More surveys are needed to identify additional records and obtain information on this snake's distribution, population status, natural history and exposure to threats.
191927		distribution	eng	This snake is only known from two localities in the Central Highlands of Viet Nam, in the Annamite Mountains (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), at 750 and 1,100 m asl. If the known localities represent the limits of this snake's distribution, its extent of occurrence will be 4,460 km<sup>2</sup>.
191927		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from streams in montane rainforest, where it has been found under rocks.
191927		population	eng	No population data are available for this species, which is known from only two specimens. This species' aquatic habits may make it difficult to detect (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011).
191927		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation for slash and burn agriculture, and selective logging for timber, may threaten this species, although these are limited at the elevations where this snake is found. (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011).
191928		conservation	eng	The species occur in Mt Murud and Kinabalu National Park, and Gunung Mulu National Park. It also known to be present in an unprotected area: Trus Madi (Das pers. comm.).
191928		distribution	eng	The species was described from Mt Murud in Sarawak, and it is known from East Sarawak and Sabah. It has not yet been found in Kalimantan or Brunei Darussalam (Iskandar pers. comm.). In Kinabalu is was recorded at 1,500 m. asl. Its altitudinal distribution ranges from 919 to 2,500 m. asl. in Borneo (Igner pers. obs.,Das pers. obs.). It probaly occurs in many mountain tops of northern Borneo.
191928		habitat	eng	This is a submontane to montane forest species (1000-1700 m. asl.), rarely encountered at lowlands. It feeds chiefly on frogs. It has a large rear fang and venom on the back of the neck, and consequently should be handle with care.
191928		population	eng	The species is considered locally common (Das pers. comm.).
191928		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by deforestation, although this is not considered a major threat at the population level.
191931		conservation	eng	The species occurs in several protected areas.
191931		distribution	eng	This species occurs in extreme southern Thailand, Malaysia (both Peninsular and East Malaysia), Indonesia (Sumatra and Borneo) and Brunei Darassulam. It has not been recorded from Myanmar.
191931		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest at low and mid-elevations, and can be found as high as 1000 m above sea level (Stuebing and Inger 1999). In Thailand it has been recorded up to 400 meters above sea level.
191931		population	eng	The species appear to be common both in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia.
191931		threats	eng	There are no threats reported for this common species.
191932		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. This snake occurs in some protected areas within its range. Surveys are needed to establish whether this snake occurs in Cambodia and Lao PDR.
191932		distribution	eng	This snake is known from northern Viet Nam, and from two disjunct areas of southern China (Guangxi and Fujian). Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) also include Myanmar in the distribution, however the basis of this record is uncertain as this species has not been reported in recent surveys and is apparently not known from historical records from this country (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). It has been reported from Cambodia, but this record is thought to be in error (E. Golynsky pers. comm. August 2011) and no precise locality data are available. It is thought to occur in northern Lao PDR, but there are no confirmed records for this country (E. Golynsky pers. comm. August 2011). Records in Viet Nam include the Tam Dao mountain ridge (Orlov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000), Fan Si Pan (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2010), and the provinces of Lai Chau, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Vinh  Phuc, Son La and Ha Tay (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It has been recorded between 900 and 1,000 m asl. (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000).
191932		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, oviparous snake is found in montane forest (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), in both found primary and secondary forest. It is found near streams in Tam Dao (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).
191932		population	eng	This is an uncommon snake. The small number of records for the Vietnamese portion of its range indicates that it may occur as a severely fragmented population within at least this portion of its range, rather than being widespread within its extent of occurrence. The overall population of this snake is presumed to be stable as threats appear to be localized.
191932		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution are varied and include illegal logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
191933		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in many protected areas. More information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and threats.
191933		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, where it has been recorded from Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Yunnan, and Zhejiang (Zhao 2006). It is found between 600 and 2,650m asl.
191933		habitat	eng	Montane areas. Found in meadows, riparian area of brooks, valleys, road side, shrubs or rock piles. Feeds on frogs, toads, lizards. Ovoviviparous. Gives birth of more than 30 young snakes (Zhao 2006).
191933		population	eng	This is a common species.
191933		threats	eng	It is possible that exploitation by human is a local threat to it although the impact needs further analysis.
191934		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The snake has been found in some protected areas. Although widespread, this species is known from few records and more surveys are needed to establish its true distribution within its extent of occurrence.
191934		distribution	eng	This snake is known from eastern Thailand, south Viet Nam, Cambodia, and southern Lao PDR (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Das 2010). In Thailand the snake has been reported from Chon Buri and Rayong Provinces in the southeast, and from Saraburi Province in the Central Region (Cox 1991). It is known from Champasak in Lao PDR (Teynie 2004), and from the following provinces in Viet Nam: Cao Bang, Thua Thien-Hue, Khanh Hoa, Binh Duong and Dong Nai.  It has also been recorded from Viet Nam's Con Dao islands (L. Grismer  pers. comm. August 2011). The species has been recorded from 300 - 1,000  m asl. Records from Chi Linh (Hai Duong Province) and Ca Bang, both in northern Viet Nam, are thought to be misidentifications (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
191934		habitat	eng	This is an oviparous and terrestrial snake, active both at day and night. It is found in both primary and secondary lowland forest (T. Chan-ard, Q.T. Nguyen and T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011). It probably feeds mainly on reptile eggs, including those of small skinks (T. Neang, T. Chan-ard and G. Vogel pers. comm. August 2011).
191934		population	eng	No population information is available, although the overall population of this species is expected to be stable in the absence of major threats. Although widespread, this is an uncommon snake.
191934		threats	eng	There are no known or suspected threats to this snake,
191935		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. It is present in many protected areas.
191935		distribution	eng	This species is found southern China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang) and northern Viet Nam (Lao Cai, Bac Kan, Long Son, Vinh Phuc, Quang Ninh, Hai Phong Hai Duong, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Gia Lai [Nguyen et al., 2009]; Fan Si Pan in Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province,&#160; Tam Dao [Orlov et al. 2000]). It is found between 100 and 1,500m asl.
191935		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, terrestrial snake is a generalist that inhabits plains, hills, forests, agricultural fields and rural villages. It is an oviparous species. Its diet consists largely of small vertebrates and eggs.
191935		population	eng	No population data is available, although the overall population of this widespread snake is presumed to be stable.
191935		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.
191936		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, although  some of its range area is in nature reserves. More information is needed  on this species' population status, natural history and threats.
191936		distribution	eng	This species only ranges in western Sichuan Province (Anxian County, Baoxing County, Emei Mountain, Meigu County, Pingshan County, Washan Mountain of Hongya County, Wenchuan County, Wolong) and northeastern Yunnan Province (Shuifu County) of China (Gao 1991, Zhao and Adler 1993, Liu et al. 2002, Kou and Wang 2003). It is a montane species found between 1,200-2,520 m asl.
191936		habitat	eng	Lives underground in evergreen broad-leaf forest. Often collected from wet and loose mud of forests or grasslands. It is an oviparous species. The diet largely consists of earthworms.
191936		population	eng	It can be a common species at times.
191936		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
191937		conservation	eng	This species is present in a protected area (Brinchang). There are no conservation actions or measures in place for this species.
191937		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia . It is known from Tanah Rata and Gunung Brinchang, Cameron Highlands, and appears to be common but secretive. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,510 m.
191937		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane rainforest. It is a secretive, semi-fossorial species and only known from  relatively high altitude.
191937		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It appears to be relatively common but secretive.
191937		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191941		conservation	eng	More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats. It has been recorded from several protected areas.
191941		distribution	eng	This rare species is recorded in several far separated places in China - its type locality: Longsheng Co., Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Regions; Yong-le, Leishan Co., Guizhou Prov. (Zhao and Adler 1993); Shuishi, Qianjiang District, Chongqing (Luo <em>et al.</em> 2010); Mangshan Mt. in&#160; Hunan Prov., Chishui and Leishan in Guizhou Prov.&#160; (Yuan <em>et al.</em> 2010). It occurs from 900 to 1,500 m asl.
191941		habitat	eng	It is associated with grassy areas within forest. It feeds on the eggs of reptiles, and it is oviparous.
191941		population	eng	This species is known from just a few specimens.
191941		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to the species. Most known populations are within protected areas.
191943		conservation	eng	The species is widespread in Borneo and occurs in non-protected and protected areas.
191943		distribution	eng	It is widespread in Borneo and the Indonesian island of Natuna, having been recorded between 25 to 1,130 m. asl.
191943		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland to submontane forested areas. It feeds on rodents and small birds. The species is often present on low vegetation, shrubs and can be found up to about 3 meters from ground (Stuebing and Inger 1999).
191943		population	eng	The species is considered common.
191943		threats	eng	The main activity that may be affecting the species is deforestation, which is very extensive all over Borneo, although as substantial areas of forest remain and this snake is known to occur in protected areas, this activity is not believed to be threatening the species at present.
191944		conservation	eng	The two known localities are in protected areas (National Parks).
191944		distribution	eng	The Malaysian species is known from Mt Kinabalu, Sabah and one locality in Sarawak (Pulong Tau National Park in the Kelabit Highlands), with most records being from the former site (Inger and Marx 1965). Its known from altitudes of 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.&#160; Both known sites are within protected areas. .
191944		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in submontane forest.
191944		population	eng	Considering the frequently with which this species is found it can be considered reasonably abundant.
191944		threats	eng	Almost certainly there is logging in parts of the area where the species have been recorded; selective logging has been observed in the Kelabit Plateau. The species' ability to tolerate this level of disturbance is unclear, however as it is principally known from the well-managed Kinabalu National Park, logging is not considered a major threat at this time.
191945		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
191945		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Indonesia (Sumatra), Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah (Borneo). In Peninsular Malaysia it is only known from two mountain ranges and Tioman Island (Grismer 2011), ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 m.<span class="Apple-converted-space">
191945		habitat	eng	The species occurs from medium lowland (Tapanuli, Sumatra) to higher altitudes in the mountains of Peninsular Malaysia in montane forests.
191945		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. In Peninsular Malaysia, it can be locally abundant.
191945		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191946		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
191946		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southernmost Thailand, a few scattered localities in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, Nias, Sumatra, Bangka and Kalimantan. It occurs at elevations from sea level up to 400 m.
191946		habitat	eng	The species is known from lowland and marshy areas, and never recorded from highlands. It is a bad tempered snake and can inflate its neck as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudoxenodon </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Naja</span>. It is known to feed on toads.
191946		population	eng	There are no available data on population size and trends for this species. It is a relatively uncommon to rare snake, but known to be widespread from Thailand to Sumatra and Borneo.
191946		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191947		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for  this species, however, it is only known from a protected area. Villages  exist around the boundary of Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, and the forest habitat within the reserve is under pressure from logging and agriculture. The pet trade should be closely monitored to identify any records of this snake. More surveys are needed to clarify the extent of this snake's range in Vietnam and adjacent karst areas of Laos.
191947		distribution	eng	This snake is known with certainty only from the type locality, Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh province, in the Annamite Mountains of central Vietnam. According to the results of questioning hunters these snakes are distributed more widely in Quang Binh Province, and southwards to Quang Tri Province (Orlov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004), an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,340 km²<sup></sup>. The snake may occur in Laos, but no records exist. In Phong Nha-Ke Bang it has been found between 500 and 600 m asl.
191947		habitat	eng	This species inhabits evergreen tropical forest. Most records are of animals encountered basking following strong rains. Basking pit vipers were found on mossy karst blocks in sunny patches under the branches of trees and bushes; animals appear to avoid open sun and high temperatures. They rarely emerge on the ground, spending most of the time deep in the holes and tunnels in karst massifs. Reduced activity was recorded between July and August, during the dry season. Vipers are very secretive and timorous, and escape to the karst crevices when exposed to any sign of danger (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
191947		population	eng	This snake is rare, and has not been recorded in recent surveys.
191947		threats	eng	This species may be impacted by habitat degradation and loss as  deforestation is occurring within the Annamites. Illegal logging for  hardwoods and slash-and-burn agriculture are the major threats to this  area, but occur at only small scales. If this snake is targeted for the pet trade, overharvesting is likely to become a significant threat very rapidly as a result of its restricted distribution and apparent rarity.
191948		conservation	eng	This species is found in many protected areas. Protection of additional forests within its range, and efforts to limit deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures, and will benefit this species.
191948		distribution	eng	This species is known from certain only from northern Viet Nam and southern China. The species' type locality is Ch'unganhisen (Wuyishan City), Fujian, China. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Lao Cai (Sa Pa), Bac Kan (Ngan Son), Vinh Phuc (Tam Dao),  Bac Giang  (Yen Tu Mountain), Hoa Binh (Ngoc Lau) (Orlov, Ryabov,  2004;Orlov et  al., 2000, 2010;&#160; Nguyen et al., 2009). A record of <em>Dinodon</em> cf. <em>flavozonatum</em> from Myanmar (Putao, Kachin State) may represent a different species. It is found from 400 to 1,200m asl.
191948		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and semiarboreal snake is associated with forest habitats. The habitat in Tam Dao, Viet Nam, is described as karst outcrops and rocks in forest; 400 – 1100 m (Orlov et al., 2000). Its diet consists mainly of amphibians and reptiles. It is an oviparous species.
191948		population	eng	This relatively widespread snake occurs at low densities but is presumed to be stable.
191948		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
191949		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species is present in a protected area. There are no specific conservation measures in place.
191949		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cameron Highlands, Peninsular Malaysia. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,510 m.
191949		habitat	eng	This species occurs in&#160; montane rainforest. It is a secretive, semi-fossorial species and only known from  relatively high altitude.
191949		population	eng	This species is not locally common and is secretive.
191949		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191950		conservation	eng	&#160;It is not known to be present in protected areas. Additional surveys  are needed to establish its real distribution.
191950		distribution	eng	<span lang="EN-GB">The species is known only from two sites in Sumatra, Indonesia: one of them the type locality at Mt Talakmau, Ophir district,  (1,300 m asl), and another from Padang Highlands, where nine specimens were collected. The precise site for Padang Highlands is unspecified.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"></span>
191950		habitat	eng	&#160;The habitat for this species is tropical lower montane forest.
191950		population	eng	There is no information about this snake's population.
191950		threats	eng	The area from where it was recorded in the forest of Mt Talakmau&#160; is now highly disturbed by human activities, particularly by conversion to agricultural land for vegetable production.
191951		conservation	eng	As the species might occurs in Leuser National Park and at a relative high altitude (2,080 m asl), it is believed that the species will survive within the National Park. Research on  current threats and the real distribution for this species is needed to clarify the current status for this species.
191951		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the two specimens: the type locality at 40 km far from the city of Blangkejeren where the species was described from one single specimen, and a second specimen recorded from Payatungkalan, Aceh Province, Indonesia., not far from the type locality at 2,070 m. asl.  (one location). No additional information has been provided except that the species was collected from Blangkejeren at 2,070 m. asl. Aceh&#160; All known records are considerably old, the most recent one dating from 50 years ago and the original description being from 1940.
191951		habitat	eng	The species inhabits upper montane forests.
191951		population	eng	The species is only known from two specimens, and population data does not exist orcan be inferred with the available information.
191951		threats	eng	According to Lilley pers comm.there area where the species has been recorded is a large transmigration site, and the former type locality is now subject of road development and likely to be threatened by land conversion and deforestation.The surrounding Mt. Leuser National Park is also facing major threat from land conversion.
191952		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam and Kirirom National Park in Cambodia.
191952		distribution	eng	The striped kukri snake is widespread in Viet Nam, Thailand and Cambodia between sea level and 1,100 m in elevation, and has also been recorded from Paksé, Champasak Province, in southern Lao PDR. In Thailand it is found in the east, south and southeast of the country, with records from the following provinces: Ayuthaya&#160; Bangkok, Chaiyaphum, Chachoengsao, Chonburi, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nonthaburi, Prachinburi, Sa Kaew, Saraburi, Si Sa Ket, and Ubon Ratchathani (Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2003, David <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/><br/>In Viet Nam it is known from sites throughout the country, including the provinces of An Giang, Bac Kan, Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Cao Bang, District of Ho Chí Minh, Dong Nai, Hai Duong, Khanh Hoa, Lam Dong, Minh Hai, Nghe An, Ninh Binh, Soc Trang, Tay Ninh, Tien Giang, Vinh Long, and Vinh Phuc (David <em>et al.</em> 2008, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). <br/><br/>The species has been reported from southern and central Cambodia, in Kirirom (Koh Song Province), Trapeang Chan (Kompong Chhnang Province), Phnom Penh, and Angkor (Siem Reap Province). It probably occurs country-wide, however records are lacking for this poorly-surveyed area.
191952		habitat	eng	This secretive, semi-fossorial snake inhabits dry and moist forest, and is also known from agricultural land (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011), and from gardens in both urban and rural areas. It is nocturnal and feeds on small vertebrates (mainly frogs, lizards and their eggs). It is an egg-laying species.
191952		population	eng	This species is common.
191952		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
191953		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. There are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species.
191953		distribution	eng	It is known from Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia from Sumatra to Borneo and Java including some islands in between, and within the Sunda shelf. In Thailand it occurs in two localities. One in southeastern Thailand and the other one in the south, near the Malaysian border. It occurs at elevations between 100 and 600 m.
191953		habitat	eng	It is a small species foraging on forest floor, from lowland to about 600 m asl.
191953		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. It appears to be uncommon.
191953		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191955		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, population status, natural history and threats. In Myanmar it has been collected from protected areas, including Hkakabo Razi National Park.
191955		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Yunnan Province in China (Jingdong, Menglian, Jinggu, Yongde and Lufeng Counties), Chiang Rai Province in Thailand (Pauwels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and Kachin State, Myanmar (Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
191955		habitat	eng	This is an upland species which occurs up to 1,000 m asl. in Thailand. In Myanmar it has been recorded mainly from montane subtropical forest, and also from disturbed areas such as agricultural land and near villages.&#160; This mostly aquatic snake is always found near streams.
191955		population	eng	This species is not common in either Myanmar or Thailand. No population information is available for China.
191955		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been reported.
191956		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
191956		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Thailand, south of Isthmus of Kra, through Sundaland (Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996). David and Vogel (1996) also report it from Cambodia, but no records are known there (Saint Girons 1972). Taylor (1965) reported it from Myanmar, but no records are known there (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It occurs at elevations between 100 and 1,100 m.
191956		habitat	eng	This species is semi-fossorial and lives in primary and secondary forest up to about 1,100 m elevation (Stuebing and Inger 1999, Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It feeds on other snakes (Stuebing and Inger 1999).
191956		population	eng	This secretive species is rarely seen, but it might be common in some areas (David and Vogel 1996).
191956		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191957		conservation	eng	This species presumably occurs in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the impact of trade in this species.
191957		distribution	eng	This wide-ranging species is distributed in Myanmar, Lao PDR, North Viet Nam, south China (Hainan, Anhui, Chongqing, Sichuan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Hunan, Hubei, Yunnan, Guizhou, Jianjxi, Zhejiang, Fujian and Taiwan Provinces). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,500 m asl.
191957		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits humid environments on mountain slopes and in agricultural areas. It can be found in a diverse habitats, from bamboo stands in coastal rainforest to streams in forest. Sometimes it can be encountered in degraded habitats near villages and along roads (Leviton <em>et al.</em>&#160;2003). Activity is nocturnal. It feeds on frogs, lizards, fish, mice, snakes or snake eggs. Females produced 3-20 eggs per clutch in late spring and summer. Hatchlings measure about 25 cm in total length.
191957		population	eng	This is a common species, but it is considered to be decreasing.
191957		threats	eng	It may be threatened by general deforestation in parts of its range, and overcollection of animals for medicinal use in other parts of its range.
191958		conservation	eng	Wawushan Nature Reserve was established in the species' range in 1993. However the habitat of the species is under disturbance by tourism activities. No species specific conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
191958		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China, where it is known only from Wa Shan (= Mount Wa), Hongya County, and Pingshan County, Sichuan Province. It has been recorded at 1,200 to 1,470 m asl (Zhao and Adler 1993). The known localities fall within two disjunct centres of distribution, each treated here as a separate location.
191958		habitat	eng	This species inhabits needle-leaf forests or needle-leaf and broad-leaf mixture forests. It does not appear to be found in modified habitats. Five to seven eggs have been reported from the oviducts of female specimens (Zhao 2006).
191958		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens.
191958		threats	eng	The habitat of this species is under threat because of the development of tourism activities in the area.
191959		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Research is needed into its taxonomy (it may be a synonym of &#160;<em>T. diardii</em>) as well as its distribution, and population size and trends.
191959		distribution	eng	This species is apparently endemic to southern Viet Nam, where it may be known only from the type locality Giadinh (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Uetz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
191959		habitat	eng	Nothing specific is known of this snake's natural history. Blind snakes are oviparous and fossorial, and the diet probably consists of arthropods and worms (Das 2010).
191959		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species.
191959		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
191960		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although this species is known from protected areas. Additional research is needed into the population trend of this species.
191960		distribution	eng	This species is known from Viet Nam (Orlov et al., 2000; Nguyen et al., 2010), northern Lao PDR and China. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Lai Chau, Cao Bang, Lang Son, Vinh Phuc, Hai Duong, Son La (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). In China it is known from Chongqing, Guangdong, Hunan, Guizhou, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, Hainan, and Guangxi.&#160; It is found between 300 to 1,128m asl.
191960		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, terrestrial snake is associated with montane forested areas. It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. It is oviparous and the diet consists of small vertebrates.
191960		population	eng	This is a rare species.
191960		threats	eng	There is no information available on the significant threats to this species.
191961		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to determine the distribution and natural history of this species. The species occurs in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and in Hlawga Wildlife Park.
191961		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Myanmar between 16 and 24 degrees north (Smith 1943, Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
191961		habitat	eng	Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998) reported the species from c. 200 m elevation in secondary deciduous dipterocarp forest, with about two thirds of the forest consisting of 8-10 m tall trees and the remainder of 10-15 m tall trees, with 30-70% canopy cover, and a forest floor consisting of a mixture of forbs, grass, and shrubs.
191961		population	eng	Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998) state that this species is uncommon. Three individuals where captured in the forest after three years of weekly or monthly surveys in the Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Myanmar.
191961		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by forest loss and degradation driven by agricultural expansion and logging, but this is not considered a major threat to this species due to its wide distribution.
191962		conservation	eng	Museum collections have to be reviewed to search for other specimens of this species. Research is needed to establish the current distribution, habitat preferences and conservation status of this species. There are no records from protected areas.
191962		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. underwoodi</span> is considered to be endemic to Java, all three specimens known being from West Java, Indonesia. One of the specimens was recorded from Tjikadjang (now spelled Cikajang). The holotype is from Rajamandala in West Java (van Rooijen &amp; Vogel 2008). It ranges from 335 m. asl. up to 900 m. asl.&#160; It is very likely that the species is better represented in museum collections, but the necessary research has not been conducted to compare other records with the type series. The extent of its distribution may therefore be larger than is currently known.
191962		habitat	eng	All the known specimens have been found in plantations (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011). It is likely to live in montane forests, although it has not been recorded outside of man-made systems so far.
191962		population	eng	It is impossible to evaluate the population trend of this species.
191962		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known, and it has been recorded from plantations making it unclear whether land use change poses a risk.
191963		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. Field surveys for the species should be conducted in Surat Thani and Krabi Provinces, Thailand, where it probably also occurs (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
191963		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Phang-Nga, Ranong, and Chumphon Provinces, southern Thailand (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This species may be more widely distributed (Vogel pers. comm. 2011). It occurs at low elevations between sea level and up to 200 m.
191963		habitat	eng	All known records were obtained at night in dense wet forest along streams. The holotype laid seven eggs.
191963		population	eng	The species is thought to be uncommon (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
191963		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
191964		conservation	eng	In Mt Murud, this species is present in Pulong Tau National Park. There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Further research is needed to better determine this species' distribution as well as population size and trends.
191964		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities in Sarawak, Malaysia. One is Mt Murud at 610 m asl, and the other one is in Labang, Bintulu (Stuebing 1991). This is a very rare snake as up to present not more than a handful  specimens have been collected. Surveys have been conducted in Labang, but have not found this species.
191964		habitat	eng	The sites where the species was collected correspond to dipterocarp forests and, may be, montane forest. It is well known that snakes in this family are always found near water, streams or marshy area. However one of the known specimens was collected from under a log.
191964		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trends for this species. It is only from two specimens.
191964		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
191965		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It&#160; may occur within nature reserves due to its wide distribution. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution, population status and natural history.
191965		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from the Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Xizang (Tibet) and Yunnan, and ranges into northeastern Myanmar (Zhao 2006), where its range extends almost as far south as the northern Thai border. It is confined to elevations between 1,250 and 2,850 m asl.
191965		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane grassland and cropland at mid-elevations. It can be found near trails. This snake feeds on earthworms and slugs. Females are oviparous; three reported specimens contained 9, 11 and 19 eggs. (Zhao 2006).
191965		population	eng	This is a common species.
191965		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
191966		conservation	eng	The species occurs in the following protected areas: Lembah Anai Nature Reserve, Rimbo Panti Nature Reserve, Kerinci Seblat National Park and Batang Gadis National Park.
191966		distribution	eng	The lowland&#160; species (from 100 up to 600 m asl.) occurs in the western part of Barisan range, from North Sumatra, West Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands (Nias and Siberut). In West Sumatra, the species has been recorded from Maninjau (de Rooij 1917) and from Anai Nature Reserve (D.T. Iskandar pers. obs. 1995). A specimen was recently collected from Mt. Dempo in South Sumatra (D.T. Iskandar unpublished data 2011).
191966		habitat	eng	The species has been collected in areas of primary and secondary forest alongside banks of slow moving streams.
191966		population	eng	Less than 10 specimens are known and, therefore, no enough information is currently available on the abundance or trends of this species' population.
191966		threats	eng	Forest degradation in West and North Sumatra is widespread and severe in the area and therefore a potential threat to the species. The most recent records collected by D. Iskandar from 2011 shown that the species appears to be capable to tolerate moderate human disturbance.
191967		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is likely present in some nature reserves due to its wide distribution. It is a protected species in Taiwan. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, population status, natural history and threats.
191967		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan (Zhao and Adler 1993). It occurs between 313 and 1,818 m asl.
191967		habitat	eng	This snake lives in moist environments such as the forest floor, shrubland and gardens. It is nocturnal and feeds on snails and slugs. It is an oviparous species; Zhao (2006) reports that members of the presumed "<em>P. formosensis</em>-<em>P. chinensis</em> complex" lay 2-9 eggs in a clutch.
191967		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
191967		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
191969		conservation	eng	The Gyobyu reservoir was created in 1940 by damming the Gyobyu Chaung River and is one of the main sources of water for Rangoon.  The area is managed by the Forestry Department and is within the Bago  Yoma Forest. Logging, extraction of canes and firewood, and burning has  degraded much of the forest around the reservoir. Field surveys are needed to obtain adult specimens for taxonomic purposes (comparison with <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laoensis</span>) and to determine the distribution and natural history of this species.
191969		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the single juvenile type specimen collected at Gyobyu, Taikkyi Township, Pegu (=Bago) District, Myanmar (Smith 1943). This area has been intensively surveyed recently but the species has not been recovered (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
191969		habitat	eng	Gyobyu is a reservoir at about 30 m elevation and surrounded by steeply sloping hills that are covered in mixed deciduous forest, with evergreen forest in the moister valley bottoms.
191969		population	eng	The species is known only by the single juvenile type specimen (Smith 1943). Nothing is known on its population size.
191969		threats	eng	No threats are known to this species.
191970		conservation	eng	This species is found in several protected areas in Thailand and Myanmar, and its its range coincides with protected areas in Indochina. Surveys are needed to establish whether this species does in fact occur in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
191970		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Myanmar across Yunnan, China, throughout Indochina and southward to Chumphon in southern Thailand. There is a disjunct subpopulation in Java, Indonesia (Smith 194, Zhao and Adler 1993, Cox<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1998, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, van Rooijen and Vogel 2010). It is curiously absent from Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
191970		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forested plains and hills (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).
191970		population	eng	This is not a very common species, and no other information is available on its population status.
191970		threats	eng	This species may be threatened from the loss and degradation of forest as there is extensive deforestation throughout its range, driven mainly by land conversion to agriculture. However, there is no data to corroborate this, and the degree to which this snake can tolerate forest degradation is unknown.
191971		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it occurs in several protected areas. Surveys are needed to relocate this species in Cambodia and to establish whether it occurs in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
191971		distribution	eng	This snake is known to occur in eastern Thailand (David <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are several records from northern peninsular Thailand, around Phetchaburi (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). It appears to have been accidentally introduced to Songlehla in southern Thailand, close to the Malaysian border, perhaps through transport in plant pots (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Its occurrence in Viet Nam is questionable due to confusion in the historical literature (David et al 2008). A recent checklist still lists Dak Nong and Binh Dong in Viet Nam as localities where this snake occurs (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however these are now considered to represent <em>O. taeniatus</em> (David<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). The same checklist also indicates that this species is found in Lao PDR (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), however this cannot be confirmed. Although Cambodia has been fixed as the type locality based on the specimen depicted by Günther (1864) and identified by David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008), no locality data is available and records from Cambodia require confirmation (B. Stuart and T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011), as true <em>O. taeniatus</em> is known from this country. The snake has been recorded from 400 to 600 m asl.
191971		habitat	eng	&#160;In Thailand this snake is found in both primary and secondary humid tropical forest (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).
191971		population	eng	The species is common in Thailand, and the population is presumed to be stable in the absence of major threats (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). The snake is known only from historical records in Cambodia, and its presence in the other Indochinese countries requires confirmation.
191971		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this species, which is tolerant of some forest degradation and is known from several protected areas.
191972		conservation	eng	This species is not present in protected areas. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed to better determine the distribution and natural history of this species.
191972		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Myanmar (Smith 1943). It is known only from two historic (Smith 1943) and one recent specimen (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
191972		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on the natural history of this species. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenochrophis</span>, it is probably semi-aquatic. The known localities are in the lower Irrawaddy River floodplain and so the species probably occurs at low elevation.
191972		population	eng	There is no information on the population size and trends for this species as it is known from only three specimens. It is a very rare snake as it was only found once in 12 years of survey (G. Wogan pers.comm. 2011).
191972		threats	eng	The area where this species is found has been undergoing intensive deforestation and land conversion for agriculture. Although it is very likely that these threats are impacting this species, it is not known.
191973		conservation	eng	Most of the known records for this species are from just outside the border of Kerinci Seblat National Park, and therefore it is believed that it should occur within the Park too (D. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011). Research is needed to estimate the distribution of this species.
191973		distribution	eng	The species is known from about a dozen specimens from four provinces in Sumatra: Ampat-Lavang, Kepahiang and Redjang in Bengkulu Province, Rimbo Pengdang and Siolak Daras (West Sumatra). All the known records are from the 1940s. It lives up to 500-1,000 m. asl.
191973		habitat	eng	<p>The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland forest floor. It inhabits lowland dipterocarp forest.   </p>
191973		population	eng	Based on the representative specimens, the species is (or was) locally common in Bengkulu, but rare in the three other provinces of Sumatra
191973		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to this species, although deforestation is a main potential threat.
191974		conservation	eng	&#160;It is in the following protected areas: Kinabalu and Crocker Range National Park, Kubah National Park (Sarawak) and Temburong National Park (Brunei).
191974		distribution	eng	This snake occurs in Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia and is also known to occur in Brunei Darussalam. 50 - 600 m
191974		habitat	eng	The semi-fossorial species is known from lowland forest. The species lives in leaf litter and has an small slender body and  a pointed head.
191974		population	eng	No information available.
191974		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat to the species, however as the snake occurs in protected areas and has a broad distribution, this does not currently represent a major threat.
191975		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The snake was found in Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve. Research is needed to clarify its distribution.
191975		distribution	eng	This snake is only known from a single series collected in Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Pak Thong Chai District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand. Due to its similarity to other blind snakes in the region, it may be underrecorded (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).
191975		habitat	eng	This snake was found in dry evergreen forest, where it was associated with termite mounds.
191975		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and from five additional specimens from the same locality (V. Wallach pers. comm. November 2011).
191975		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is subject to any threats, however the snake is found in a well-protected biosphere reserve.
191976		conservation	eng	Gunung Benom, where this species occurs, is classified as conservation area.
191976		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Gunung Benom, Peninsular Malaysia. It is described based on two specimens. It occurs at elevations between 1,768 and 1,981 m.
191976		habitat	eng	The type locality where this species was collected from corresponds to montane rainforest. It is a semi-fossorial species only known from  relatively high altitude.
191976		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
191976		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
191978		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Kinabalu National Park, which is a well-protected area. Monitoring the impact that any future exploitation for the pet trade may have on the  species is recommended. In addition, research surveys are needed to estimate the  distribution, ecology and threats.
191978		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. malcolmi i</span>s currently known from Gunung Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia, between 1,000 and 1,700 m asl.
191978		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is montane forest. It has been reported to be exclusively terrestrial on the forest floor (Steubing and Inger 1999), but J.M. Dehling (unpubl. data) reports finding specimens up to 2.5 m in vegetation near the park headquarters.
191978		population	eng	The species is occasionally encountered (I. Das pers. comm. September 2011) but nothing else is known about the population.
191978		threats	eng	The international pet trade is a potential threat to the species, as it is a charismatic snake and is known from an easily-accessible tourist site.
191979		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
191979		distribution	eng	This species is currently only known from southwestern Yunnan Province of China (Zhao 2006), however it is possibly present in adjacent parts of Myanmar. It is found between 800 and 1,400 m asl.
191979		habitat	eng	This species lives in tropical or subtropical areas, it is often found in rice fields, ponds and marshes of valleys, basins, and subalpine areas. It feeds on frogs, fish and rodents.
191979		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
191979		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
191981		conservation	eng	The species is present in the Bukit -Baka National Park (Indonesia) and Ulu Temburong National Park (Brunei).
191981		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. annulifer</span> is endemic to Borneo, where it has been recorded from five localities scattered across the entire island. D.T. Iskandar (pers comm.) has recorded one specimen from 100 m. asl. at Bukit-Baka National Park; a recent specimen from Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre (Brunei) was collected at around 80 m asl (Tillack and Günther 2009).
191981		habitat	eng	It is well known to feed on reptile eggs, and occasionally small bird eggs. Its teeth are sharply edged to slit eggs. It has been recorded from primary lowland forest, where it is found on the ground.
191981		population	eng	Specimens of this species have been recorded from widely separated localities across Borneo but they appear not to be abundant (R Inger pers. comm. September 2011), and most localities are represented by a single specimen. The species has been reported twice from Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre in Brunei (Das 1995, Tillack and Günther 2009), including the first record of an adult specimen (J-M. Dehling pers. comm.).
191981		threats	eng	This species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation from  threats such as agricultural expansion and logging and mining, as it inhabits  lowland rainforests which are being rapidly converted&#160; to  plantations in many areas, particularly for palm oil. However, the impact of these human activities on the species are not clear yet.
191983		conservation	eng	At present, the species is known with certainty from one conservation area: Kinabalu National Park, Malaysia, which is also a World Heritage Site. Surveys in other mountains of Borneo are needed.
191983		distribution	eng	Currently the species is known from Gunung Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Its distribution ranges from 1,450&#160; to1,513 meters of altitude
191983		habitat	eng	The species inhabits disturbed montane forest but nothing is known about its habitat or ecology, and presumably it is present in primary forests (Das 2008).
191983		population	eng	No information on this species' population is available. It is only known with certainty from the holotype and two paratypes.
191983		threats	eng	The current threats affecting this species are known.
191986		conservation	eng	Further research is needed into the impact of commercial exploitation on the population of this species.
191986		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Bali and Java in Indonesia. Records from Borneo and Sulawesi are uncertain (David and  Vogel 1996, Iskandar and Colijn 2002, de Lang and Vogel 2005).
191986		habitat	eng	This snake is most commonly encountered in rice fields, but is also found near waterbodies such as lakes or rivers/streams, also in marshes and grassland.
191986		population	eng	The species is considered to be common in Java, and recent surveys indicate that it is also common in Bali (R. Lilley pers. comm. August 2011).
191986		threats	eng	The main potential threat to this adaptable and largely human-associated snake is overharvesting for its skin. However, no work has been conducted to estimate the effects of harvests on the wild population, and so it is unclear whether the species is presently subject to overexploitation.
191989		conservation	eng	The area where the species was described from is a National Park. Further research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status and to better determine its population size and trends.
191989		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the holotype, collected 120 years ago at Mt. Kinabalu, Malaysia around 1,200 m asl.  It has never been found at the type locality despite of intensive work all these years.
191989		habitat	eng	The original description does not give any information on the habitat of this species, except that it was collected at Mt. Kinabalu, which is a forested region above 1,200 m asl.
191989		population	eng	This species is only known from a single specimen, hence nothing is known about its&#160; population size and trends.
191989		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
191990		conservation	eng	This widespread snake is found in protected areas, and no conservation measures are required.
191990		distribution	eng	The species is well known from upland areas of Peninsular Malaysia and from all over Singapore, Sumatra, Java and Bali, as well as a number of other islands. It is found from lowlands to high altitudes (around 1,000 m asl. on Mt Kinabalu).
191990		habitat	eng	In common with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, this is a semi-fossorial snake of both lowland and highland forest. It also found in road cuts and agricultural fields (L. Grismer pers. comm. October 2011), and has been recorded from gardens and paths (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011).
191990		population	eng	This species is considered to be common.
191990		threats	eng	No major threats have been recorded.
191991		conservation	eng	Not known
191991		distribution	eng	Only known from the type locality in Bangkok, Thailand. The known specimen was found along a road near an international school.
191991		habitat	eng	The holotype was found in school graden, hence human or disturbed habitat.
191991		population	eng	only known from the holotype.
191991		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
191993		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The species has been recorded from a protected area in Myanmar, Taninthari Nature Reserve, and is likely found in other reserves across its wide range. Museum records attributed to other members of the genus should be reexamined to clarify whether additional records of this species exist (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011)
191993		distribution	eng	The species is widespread across the Sunda Shelf, the area comprising the Malay Peninsula and island Southeast Asia east to Borneo and Java. It is found in Sumatra, Nias, the Mentawai Archipelago, Belitung, Java and Borneo. On the Malay Peninsula it is known with certainty from Malaysia (including Pulau Tioman), where it is widespread, and from a recent record in Tanintharyi Division, southern Myanmar (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). Its presence in southern Thailand has not been confirmed (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). It probably occurs throughout Borneo (L. Grismer pers. comm. October 2011).
191993		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found in primary and secondary lowland forest  but can also be encountered in gardens in villages. Specimens from the type series are all from lowlands close to sea level. It mainly feeds on lizards but also on frogs. In Myanmar it has been collected from a tropical moist forest near a stream.
191993		population	eng	No population information is available for the majority of this snake's range, however it is common in lowland Peninsular Malaysia and in the absence of major threats the population is likely to be stable.
191993		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any threats to this widespread and at least somewhat adaptable species. Any threats that exist are likely to be localized.
191994		conservation	eng	Part of the range of this species is within the Wuliang Mountain protected area. Further studies are needed into the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.
191994		distribution	eng	This species is only known&#160;from the middle section of Wuliang Mountain which belongs to Jingdong County and Nanjian County, Yunnan Province, China. It was recorded at 1,100-1,200 m asl (Zhao and Adler 1993).
191994		habitat	eng	This species lives in mid-level mountains and hills. It has been found at the edge of montane forest along the side of a road in the evening (Rao Ding-qi pers. comm. 2011). There is no information available on its diet or reproduction (Zhao 2006).
191994		population	eng	It is known from only a few specimens.
191994		threats	eng	There is a decline in the habitat of this species outside of protected areas owing to conversion of land to agricultural use (cropland).
191995		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats. It has been recorded from a Forest Park. It is a Class 1 protected species in Taiwan.
191995		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central and northern part of Taiwan island, China (Zhao and Adler 1993). It occurs up to around 1,000 m asl.
191995		habitat	eng	This species is found in low montane environments. It is usually encountered in wet habitats within forests. It probably does not occur in modified habitats and is more of a forest specialist. It feeds on frogs and tadpoles. It is an oviparous species.
191995		population	eng	The population appears to be decreasing in some places, in part because of mortality on roads.
191995		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range through habitat degradation such as road building, and the conversion of habitat to agricultural use.
191998		conservation	eng	The record in Penang Hill, Malaysia correspond to a protected area. Research is needed to better determine the distribution of this species as well as its population size and trends.
191998		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from southernmost Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Singapore. There is one old record from Sumatra. In Peninsular Malaysia it is only known from Penang Island, and was recorded at an elevation of 700 m.
191998		habitat	eng	The area where the species has been collected correspond to lowland and montane forests. This species is semi-fossorial that lives in soft soil, leaf litter, and rotten logs.
191998		population	eng	Apparently, all records of this species are based on old collection, so nothing is known about the current population size and trends.
191998		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
191999		conservation	eng	This species is not present in protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population status and trends.
191999		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Table Island, Myanmar - a tiny, uninhabited (but previously housed a 19th Century lighthouse) island in the Cocos Group of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. No recent surveys have been conducted in this area.
191999		habitat	eng	The species is fossorial and presumably lays eggs like other members of its genus. No information on habitat and ecology is available.
191999		population	eng	No population information is available. The species is known only from the three type specimens (Smith 1943).
191999		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192000		conservation	eng	This snake is found in several protected areas across its range, including Khao Luang National Park in Thailand. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify species boundaries and distributional limits in this snake following the recognition of <em>T. diardi</em> as a full species.
192000		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam south of 14ºN, southward to Sumatra and Borneo (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996). The record from Myanmar is from the western part of the country, and this snake's presence has not been confirmed elsewhere in Myanmar.
192000		habitat	eng	This fossorial and nocturnal species occurs in lowland and hilly areas in forest, plantations, and wet cultivated areas (David and Vogel 1996). Stuart and Emmett (2006) reported a specimen from Cambodia that they obtained at night, which was active on the surface of hard soil in grassland with open pine forest at 700 m elevation. The maximum known elevation for this snake is 1,400 m asl.
192000		population	eng	The species is considered relatively uncommon (David and Vogel 1996). Its is rare in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
192000		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species.
192001		conservation	eng	This snake is known only from the Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve. No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The international pet trade should be monitored for the presence of this snake.
192001		distribution	eng	Currently, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptelytrops honsonensis</span> is known only from the small island of Hon Son in Rach Gia Bay (61.2 km southeast of the Rach Gia city of Rach Gia Province), Kien Hai District, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam. It is endemic to this site, and has not been found in surveys of numerous other islands in the archipelago (L. Grismer pers. comm. September 2011). Hon Son is a very small island (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 22 km²<sup></sup>) with a maximum elevation of 405 m asl. The island is composed of large granitic boulders that extend from the shoreline to its peaks, and there is little to no primary vegetation remaining (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
192001		habitat	eng	Animals have been found  in the afternoon or evening, on rocks and among bamboo growing from rocky outcrops, usually following rain. The snake is presumed to be ovoviviparous and to prey on vertebrates, particularly geckos.
192001		population	eng	This species is apparently common on the island, having been recorded in both recent surveys of Hon Son.
192001		threats	eng	As this snake appears to use mostly rocky habitats, it is unknown whether it is exposed to major threats. If this species becomes a target for collectors it could be at risk from over-collecting, given its apparently very limited distribution.
192003		conservation	eng	The area where this species was described from is not protected. Further research is needed to better ascertain the extent of the distribution of this species and population status.
192003		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the holotype from Koh Pai, near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
192003		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial species occurring in lowland rainforest.
192003		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species.
192003		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192005		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to determine the habitat requirements and distribution of this species, particularly to determine if it occurs in "French Indo-China" (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam) as suggested to by Smith (1943). In Myanmar this species has been recorded in a protected area.
192005		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Myanmar to Peninsular (West) Malaysia, including Pulau Tioman (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965). Smith (1943) also reported a specimen from "French Indo-China" of unknown locality; a record from Chanthaburi Province, Thailand (Taylor 1965) is near the Cambodian border. Zhao and Adler (1993) reported that this species occurs in Singapore, but this was apparently in error and the species has never been confirmed from this island (Wallach and Pauwels 2004). The species is also known to occur in Hong Kong (Lazell and Lu 1990, Wallach and Pauwels 2004). Although Hong Kong lies well outside this snake's core range, its rarity suggests that it may in fact be native to this island (M. Lau pers. comm. October 2011).
192005		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary and secondary lowland forest in Thailand and Myanmar. In Myanmar it occurs in dry forest (G. Wogan pers. comm. February 2012).In Hong Kong it is known only from low altitude forest. A record from Bangkok (Taylor 1965) suggests that the species can tolerate human-modified habitat. The species is fossorial. It presumably lays eggs.
192005		population	eng	The species is rare in Thailand (Taylor 1965) and not easily found. It is known from few specimens in Hong Kong, and is considered to be rare throughout its range (M. Lau pers. comm. October 2011).
192005		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species at present across its range as a whole; however if field studies determine that this snake is an obligate forest-dweller this conclusion may need to be reevaluated. In Hong Kong this snake may be at risk, as the few known records are from lowland forest which has already largely been developed, and remaining lowland forest habitats on this island are under heavy pressure (M. Lau pers. comm. October 2011).
192007		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. The Vietnamese localities are found within national parks, and it is found in protected areas in Hong Kong. Research on the exact distribution of this species in Hong Kong is required to evaluate the extent of its exposure to threats, and taxonomic study is necessary to verify the identity of mainland Chinese and island Vietnamese subpopulations.
192007		distribution	eng	This species is only known from Hong Kong, Shenzhen in mainland China, and the islands of Cat Ba (Hai Phong) and Ba Mun in Viet Nam (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The identity of the Vietnamese and mainland Chinese specimens is in need of confirmation (Q.T. Nguyen and M. Lau pers. comm. 2011) The snake's elevational range is from ca 300 - 900 m asl. Its extent of occurrence is taken to be approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
192007		habitat	eng	This oviparous, nocturnal snake inhabits flowing streams in broadleaf evergreen forest, where it is a specialist in earthworms found on the streambed. No primary forest exists on Hong Kong, and the snake is therefore known only from secondary and disturbed forest areas.
192007		population	eng	This is a locally common snake, but with evidence of decline due to habitat loss and degradation.
192007		threats	eng	Forest loss and habitat degradation threaten this snake through development, and through the channelisation of and use of pesticides in streams for mosquito control. These threats occur throughout the islands where this snake is known, but are small-scale and localised.
192008		conservation	eng	&#160;It is known to be present in a protected areas. More extensive survey work is needed to establish its real distribution.
192008		distribution	eng	The species has been reported from Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia, and  Nunukan Island and Mt Tibang (Kalimantan) in Indonesia. It is known from one protected area, the Crocker Range National Park. Records of this species come from close to sea level up to about 1,500 m asl&#160; (Manthey and Grossmann 1997). The type locality is Senah River in Sarawak, Malaysia.
192008		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland forest floor.
192008		population	eng	No information is available on populations.
192008		threats	eng	Nunukan island has been deforested and the local subpopulation is believed to have disappeared. This is also a potential threat for other localities except the one in the protected area. No additional information is available on threats to this species.
192009		conservation	eng	This snake occurs in protected areas within its range, although no species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192009		distribution	eng	This snake reportedly occurs in western, northern and northeastern Thailand, although its presence in western Thailand has not been confirmed. The type series is from further south, near Bangkok. The species also occurs in southern and central Lao PDR, and in northern Cambodia. The range may extend to Vietnam, but there are no confirmed records from that country so far, following the removal from this species of southern Vietnamese records now assigned to <em>C. rubeus</em>. This species has been recorded up to elevations of 600 m.
192009		habitat	eng	This ovoviviparous snake occurs in hilly areas, mainly in semi-evergreen forest, sometimes mixed with bamboo forest, and also in agricultural land in very low densities (Inger and Colwell 1977). In occurs in gardens in central Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). This viper is largely arboreal, with most animals being found a couple of metres off the ground, but usually near water. Its prey includes small vertebrates.
192009		population	eng	This is a common species in evergreen forest, and was recorded at much lower densities in agricultural land during a survey conducted in and around Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Thailand (Inger and Colwell 1977, where due to taxonomic difficulties animals were reported as <em>Trimeresurus albolabris</em> and/or <em>T. popeiorum</em>). It is common in gardens in central Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). There are no reports of population declines.
192009		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range, as it is considerably less abundant in agricultural land than in native forest, although it is known to occur in protected areas (e.g. Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand - Inger and Colwell 1977, as <em>Trimeresurus albolabris</em> and/or <em>T. popeiorum</em>). Although it can survive in disturbed forest and urban gardens, it is unlikely to withstand complete forest loss. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development. Nevertheless, threats to this widespread snake are likely to be limited and localized.
192011		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192011		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southernmost Thailand to Borneo and Sumatra (Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is a lowland species ranging from sea level up to 300 m.
192011		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forests and rural disturbed areas where it occurs under logs, dead leaves, and at the base of tree buttresses in lowland forest (Stuebing and Inger 1999). It has also been reported from bamboo forest, plantations, and cultivated areas (David and Vogel 1996). The species is diurnal and prefers to feed on grasshoppers, but also eats lizards and frogs (David and Vogel 1996). It lays up to six eggs (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It has the curious habit of breaking off portion of its tail when threatened (Grismer 2011).
192011		population	eng	This species is common in Sumatra and Borneo (David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999), but uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
192011		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192013		conservation	eng	This species in known from protected areas and is listed on Appendix II of CITES. No trade of wild harvested snakes is allowed from Sarawak. Annual harvests of this species in Indonesia are limited by capture and export quotas. The current conservation measures in place do not correspond with the necessary enforcement, which needs to be more effective.
192013		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Python breitensteini</span> is a lowland species that has not yet been recorded from altitudes higher than 1,000 m asl. Based on both historical and relatively recent records the species is  likely to be present throughout the entire island of Borneo in both the Malaysian and Indonesia territories, as well as Brunei (one record from Brunei; specimen number from Museum of Brunei BM 142.1974), with the exception of the central  highlands above its maximum upper altitude. Records are known from scattered sites across the entire island.
192013		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist areas with soft soils, where this nocturnal snake hides in rodent burrows during the day. In wetter habitats, the python prefers to use slightly elevated burrows (M. Auliya pers. comm. March 2012). It is found in lowland forest, but due to its nocturnal habits and choice of shelter sites is uncommonly encountered in these habitats. The snake is most frequently encountered in agricultural lands, both croplands and plantations (including oil palm, coconut and cocoa), adjacent to forested areas (M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011). A strong swimmer, the snake may use irrigation canals and other water-bodies to move, and there are historical reports of this python from wetlands (M. Auliya pers. comm. March 2012). The Bornean short-tailed Python is, however, a fully terrestrial snake and so requires areas with some land to persist as a viable population (M. Auliya pers. comm. March 2012).
192013		population	eng	The species is often considered as rare or uncommon throughout its pristine habitat, and it is always associated to various degrees with extensive agricultural lands.
192013		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the hunting pressure for skins and the pet trade. Meat is also a by-product that is sold on the local market. Although trade is extensive, nearly all recently-collected specimens have been taken from anthropogenic habitats, and so there is currently little pressure on this species in the natural forested areas. As deforestation is extensive throughout Borneo, however, the replacement of natural habitats with plantations and farmland may increase the pressures on this snake, which adapts well to habitat conversion.
192014		conservation	eng	More research is needed to be performed in the Borneo  to see if the  species is still present in the  island and could even have a wider  distribution.
192014		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. lorenzi </span>has only been recorded from the island of Pulau, Miang Besar, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Since its description in 1909 the species could not been re-confirmed.
192014		habitat	eng	No information about its habitat is available.
192014		population	eng	There is not information available on population of this species.
192014		threats	eng	Pulau Miang Besar is a touristic area and has the main barges terminal for transportation of coal in East Kalimantan (Iskandar pers. comm.), also subject to the risk of floodings (being at the mouth of Mahakam River) and coal mining activities.
192015		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in at least one protected area, Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, and others exist within its range.
192015		distribution	eng	This species is represented by specimens from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra. It has also been recorded from Borneo, from which it was excluded in the original description due to historical confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. formosus</span> (Vogel and van Rooijen 2007). The species has, however, been illustrated in field guides to Borneo (e.g. Brunei - Das, 2007), and has recently been confirmed from Gunung Mulu National Park in eastern Sarawak at around 60 m asl. (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data). It is likely that it occurs throughout Borneo (G. Vogel pers. comm. September 2011). Its occurrence in Myanmar has not been confirmed, although it is found in adjacent areas of Thailand (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011).
192015		habitat	eng	In common with some other species in the genus, this snake is commonly found in primary and secondary lowland forest  but can also be encountered in gardens in villages. The elevational  range is from sea level to about 620 m asl. It mainly feeds on lizards but also on frogs.
192015		population	eng	The species appears to be common, as images were included in several books before it was even described (Chan-ard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, Cox 1991, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).
192015		threats	eng	It is unknown whether there are any threats to this widespread and at  least somewhat adaptable species. Any threats that exist are likely to  be localized.
192016		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Kinabalu National Park, hence its continued persistence is expected to be highly likely, although not guaranteed.
192016		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">C schmidti</span> was described based on two specimens from Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah, Borneo at 1,370 m asl. The species is known from both the mountain and around the headquarters of Kinabalu National Park, and has been recorded up to 1,700 m asl</p>
192016		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lower montane forest and most likely semi-fossorial. It is thought to feed on earthworms as one was found in its stomach.
192016		population	eng	A recent observation shows that the species is very abundant around Kinabalu National Park. A recent pit fall survey revealed that more than 260 individuals were counted within 35 days of observation with pit traps (S.D. Howard pers comm. May 2011).
192016		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species, which is well-protected within the national park. There may be some minor mortality from vehicle traffic.
192017		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are in place, although it occurs in protected areas within its range. The subspecies <em>P. m. tamdaoensis</em> is known only from Tam Dao National Park in northern Viet Nam.
192017		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Myanmar to China in the east, and south to northern Peninsular Malaysia, occurring in Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. An apparently disjunct population exists in far northern Myanmar, and surveys between this and the snake's main distribution range in this country have failed to record it (G. Wogan pers. comm. August 2011). In China it occurs in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, as well as the islands of Hainan and Hong Kong. It has been recorded between 100 and 1,400 m asl.
192017		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake is arboreal in montane forest (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000), and in lowland forest in Peninsular Malaysia (L. Grismer pers. comm. August 2011). It is nocturnal and feeds on gastropods. It can tolerate some forest degradation, but is not found outside forested areas.
192017		population	eng	This common species is regularly recorded in surveys. There is no known evidence of decline and, with limited major threats, the population is presumed to be stable.
192017		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include illegal timber logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming.
192018		conservation	eng	This widespread snake is not in need of specific conservation actions because it occurs in a number of protected areas.
192018		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Thailand, south of the Isthmus of Kra; West Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah; Singapore; Penang Island; Indonesia (Nias, Mentawai Islands, Sumatra, Bangka, Borneo, Java). (Taylor, 1965; Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 1998; Stuebing and Inger, 1999; Orlov and Ryabov, 2002; Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2003). In Viet Nam, it has been only known from Lam Dong (Bao Lam). The recent record from Dong Nai Province represents only the second record of the species from Viet Nam (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2003; Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2010). It has been found between 600 and 1,100 m asl.
192018		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland to upland rainforests, is nocturnal and it feeds on frogs and lizards. It is an egg-laying species.
192018		population	eng	No population data are available for this species. It is uncommon.
192018		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192020		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, and it occurs in a number of protected areas.
192020		distribution	eng	This widespread snake occurs in southern Thailand, south of the Isthmus of Kra, and Peninsular Malaysia on the Asian mainland, and from Singapore through Indonesia to the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines. On the island of Borneo it occurs in the Indonesian territory of Kalimantan, in East Malaysia (including recent records from Gunung Kinabalu, Sabah, and Gunung Gading, Sarawak - J.M. Dehling unpubl. data), and in Brunei Darussalam. In Indonesia it has also been reported from Java (the type locality), Sumatra, the Mentawai and Natuna archipelagos, and may occur on Ambon in the Moluccas. There is a single record from Gia Lai, Southern Annam, Viet Nam (Orlov <em>et al. </em>2003). It has been recorded from 80-900 m asl.
192020		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake has been recorded from mid-altitude forest,  where it is arboreal and nocturnal. It feeds on small frogs and lizards.
192020		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. It may be common in some parts of its range (e.g., protected areas in Thailand).
192020		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192021		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is found in protected areas. It is protected by legislation in Taiwan (Class III). More information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and threats.
192021		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan Province of China (Zhao and Adler 1993).
192021		habitat	eng	This diurnal species inhabits middle or lower mountainous regions. Found in forest, shrubbery, streams or near trails. Animals are also found in agricultural fields. It feeds on frogs. This species is oviparous.
192021		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
192021		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
192022		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Kinabalu National Park.
192022		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah, where it has been recorded from three separated localities in Peninsular Malaysia (Gunung Brinchang, Cameron Highland), Sarawak (Kelabit Plateau) and Sabah (Mount Kinabalu and Mendolong), Borneo at altitudes between 1,100 and 1,700 m. asl.
192022		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial species that lives in submontane and montane forests, among leaf litter, and reported to feed on earthworms.
192022		population	eng	This species is rarely encountered and therefore no information can be provided on its current population status.
192022		threats	eng	Deforestation is potentially a local threat to this species within its global range.
192023		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192023		distribution	eng	The species is common and known from Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan. It is also reported from two sites in Peninsular Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia it occurs at elevations between 200 and 1,450 m and up to 1,675 m in Borneo.
192023		habitat	eng	The species ranges from lowland to montane forests. It is found close to water bodies such as marshes, lakes and   streams.
192023		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is stated as common in Sarawak and Sabah, and is rare in Kalimantan and Peninsular Malaysia.
192023		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192024		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. It is known from protected areas within its wide range.
192024		distribution	eng	This snake occurs from Myanmar to Yunnan in China, including much of Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and northwestern Viet Nam within its range (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It occurs between 600 and 1,000 m asl.
192024		habitat	eng	This is a semi-aquatic, diurnal snake associated with water, often found near streams. It occurs in lowland evergreen forest, and can be found resting on low vegetation at night.
192024		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Viet Nam, and has few records from Cambodia (Q.T. Nguyen and T. Neang pers. comm. September 2011). It is common in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011), and appears to be locally abundant in Myanmar (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011).
192024		threats	eng	This snake may be threatened by habitat loss, as forest outside protected areas is under pressure throughout its range. Logging and slash-and-burn agriculture are the major threats.
192027		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Field surveys are needed to determine the distribution, population status and natural history of this species, and hence its exposure and sensitivity to any threats.
192027		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Sandoway (=Thandwe) and the Gwa region, both in Rakhine State, Myanmar (Smith 1943; Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
192027		habitat	eng	Its two known localities are near the coast and between sea level and 125 m in elevation. The records form the Gwa region are from very intact tropical/subtropical lowland forest.
192027		population	eng	The species is known only from three specimens (Smith 1943; Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). No information is available on its population. This snake is rare and no additional specimens have been found despite recent surveys in similar habitats.
192027		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this snake.
192029		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from some protected areas. More research is required on the taxonomy of this species to establish the identity of older records, and to clarify its distribution and population status.
192029		distribution	eng	This species is known from Viet Nam, Lao PDR (Xieng-Khouang) and China. It has also been collected from Khao Sebab, Chantaburi Province, Thailand, and from near Muang Khong in southern Lao PDR (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011), and is presumed to occur in intervening areas of the Cardamom Mountains in southern Cambodia (T. Neang and T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).&#160; <br/><br/>Confirmed localities in Viet Nam are from the provinces of Ngàn-Son, Tonkin, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Lang Son, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Bac Giang, Hai Duong, Son La, Ninh Binh, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Thua Thien-Hue and  Quang Nam&#160; (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, Ziegler and Vogel  1999, Ziegler<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Due to historical confusion about the identity of other records, additional localities may require confirmation (G. Vogel pers. comm. August 2011). It occurs from 100 to 1,500 m asl. (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192029		habitat	eng	This oviparous, arboreal species has been reported from primary and secondary forest, where it is thought to be diurnal and to feed on small vertebrates.
192029		population	eng	No population data are available, although the population is presumed to be stable. It is readily found in forested areas, but is not particularly common (Q.T. Nguyen and G. Vogel pers. comm. August 2011). It appears not to be common in China, however due to difficulties in preservation and the similarity between this and closely-related species, it is not possible to confirm many records from this country (G. Vogel pers. comm. August 2011).
192029		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution are varied and include illegal logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
192030		conservation	eng	The species is not known to exist in protected areas. More extensive survey work is needed to establish its true distribution and to establish its ecological requirements and sensitivity to threats, especially its ability to survive within oil palm plantations.
192030		distribution	eng	The species is known from four specimens from two widely separated localities. It has been recorded from Deli, Deli Serdang District, the east coast of North Sumatra and from Nias Island. west of North Sumatra Province. Both localities are in the lowlands (less than 100 m asl.)
192030		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland forest, and therefore requires forest habitat with some degree of canopy cover. It is unknown whether it can survive in tree plantations (e.g. rubber) where some canopy remains.
192030		population	eng	As the species was described based on four specimens and not recorded afterwards, the status of the population remains unknown. It is likely to have declined or been lost from historical localities due to deforestation for plantations. As most of the primary forest was lost prior to the 1940s, and the full distribution of this species in Sumatra is unclear, the timing and rate of declines are unknown.
192030		threats	eng	Forest conversion to oil palm plantation is extensive in North Sumatra, while the known site in Deli is now a tobacco plantation (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. March 2012). On Nias, the forest is practically gone  (D.T. Iskandar pers obs. March 2012), due to conversion to rubber plantation that predates 1941 (i.e. during the Dutch colonial period). It is not clear whether this snake can survive in the plantation habitat, however these plantations themselves are now under pressure from the development of more profitable crops including oil palm and banana (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. March 2012), which potentially pose a risk to any remaining subpopulation on Nias.
192031		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It has been recorded from the Niubeiliang Protected Area. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192031		distribution	eng	It is known only from the type locality of Huoditang, Ningshaan Co., Shaanxi Prov., China. 1650m&#160; (Zhao &amp; Alder 1993).
192031		habitat	eng	Found in shrubbery at the edge of needle and broad-leaf mixture forest. It is oviparous (Zhao 2006).
192031		population	eng	It is known only from the type series.
192031		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
192032		conservation	eng	It occurs in the protected area of Gede-Pangerango National Park in West Java.
192032		distribution	eng	The species is known from South Sumatra and Java, although records from Sumatra require confirmation. Records from Borneo are considered as erroneous and the record from Sumbawa needs reconfirmation. The species has been recorded from Rajamandala in West Java (M. Auliya pers. obs). Its attitudinal distribution ranges from 300 to 1,200 m. asl.
192032		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. bitorquatus</span> has been collected from altitudes between 300 to 1,200 m. asl. in primary, secondary lowland to submontane forests and a number of plantations. It occurs also in disturbed areas (e.g., in town gardens). It feeds primarily on reptile eggs, but also tadpoles. Juveniles have been reported as feeding on insects. The species lays three to four eggs. <span style="font-style: italic;">Oligodon </span>species are terrestrial and crepuscular.
192032		population	eng	The species is considered as common.
192032		threats	eng	&#160;There are no major threats to this species.
192033		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one protected area (Kubah National Park). Research is needed to better determine the distribution as well as population size and trends for this species.
192033		distribution	eng	The species is only known from four specimens, from two localities, Matang and Tegora in Sarawak, Malaysia (Inger and Marx 1965, Stuebing 1991).
192033		habitat	eng	As for other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, it is assumed that the species lives in forests and is semi-fossorial. The locality where the species was found is a forested region at 800 m asl.
192033		population	eng	As the species is only known from four specimens, nothing is known about its population.
192033		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192034		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Field surveys are needed to clarify this snake's geographic distribution in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
192034		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the Nicobar Islands (India), Myanmar and Thailand southward through island Southeast Asia as far east as Ternate, Indonesia. It occurs disjunctly in southern and central Viet Nam, and in western Cambodia (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999, Stuart and Emmett 2006, Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). A record from Tam Dao, northern Viet Nam (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000) seems unlikely&#160; and has not been confirmed (Q. T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
192034		habitat	eng	This species occurs around small streams, ponds, and swamps in primary forest, the edges of wet fields, and villages. It occurs from lowlands up to 1,350 m elevation. The snake feeds on frogs, tadpoles, and frogspawn. Females lay 5-8 eggs (Stuebing and Inger 1999). In Myanmar it has been collected from coastal rainforest at approximately 178 meters above sea level.
192034		population	eng	This snake is common in riparian habitats in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia between 200 and 700 m asl., and is also common in Sumatra and Borneo (David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999). It thrives in rice fields and so the global population may be increasing.
192034		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species, as it is tolerant of and indeed thrives in human-modified environments, especially rice fields.
192035		conservation	eng	The species is present in two National Park (Matang in Malaysia and Kayan Mentarang in Indonesia). Research is needed to better determine the distribution and population size and trends for this species.
192035		distribution	eng	This species is known from only three localities, Matang and Pangkalan Ampat, in extreme western Sarawak, Malaysia (Das 2010) and one in Kayan Mantarang in east Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is very likely that this species occurs in the intervening area where appropriate habitat. The type locality was recorded in Singapore, but it is almost certainly an error (Stuebing 1991). It occurs at elevations around 500 m.
192035		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland dipterocarp forests. The habitat and ecology remain unknown, although pipe snakes are supposed to be fossorial.
192035		population	eng	There are no available data on population size and trends for this species. It is likely a rare species as many surveys have been conducted in the area, and only one specimen has been collected.
192035		threats	eng	The area where the species occurs is suffering from human encroachment and non-commercial logging, but it is not known whether these threats are affecting this species.
192036		conservation	eng	It has been reported from Crocker Range National Park (Sabah), in Kubah National Park and Niah Nat Park (Sarawak), and in Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data). No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192036		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Borneo, where it was recorded&#160; between 25 and 350 m. asl. (R. Inger pers obs.). Records of this species are known from much of Sarawak, and from areas close to the coast of Sabah and Kalimantan, indicating that it is likely to be widespread throughout the island. Although there are no records from Brunei (Das 2007), it has been recorded at sites in Sarawak close to the Brunei border, including Gunung Mulu National Park (J-M. Dehling unpubl. data), and so is likely to occur in the sultanate.
192036		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in peat swamp in lowland forest (R. Inger pers. comm. August 2011). A recent record from Gunung Mulu reported it from alluvial forest in the reserve at around 70 m asl. (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data).
192036		population	eng	The species is considered to be rare and only few specimens have been collected, from localities scattered across Borneo.
192036		threats	eng	Deforestation is a potential threat, however although rare this snake appears to be widespread, related species exhibit some ability to tolerate habitat modification, and it is known from several protected areas, and so it is probably not at immediate risk.
192037		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas. Research is needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.
192037		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from China (Fujian, Guangdong, Hong Kong) and from Viet Nam (Vin Puh, Bắc Kạn [Ngan-Son], Lào Cai, Hà Tĩnh, Quang Binh (Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park). Found at elevations of 200 to 1,200m asl.
192037		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal, terrestrial species associated with tropical moist forest habitat. It is oviparous. The diet consists of small vertebrates (mainly lizards).
192037		population	eng	No population data is available, but the overall population of this widespread snake is presumed to be stable.
192037		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
192038		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas. Research is underway to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex.
192038		distribution	eng	This snake ranges from southeastern Myanmar to Viet Nam, being found throughout Lao PDR and Cambodia, and throughout Thailand south to Nakhon Si Thammarat (Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2002, Stuart and Emmett 2006, Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2008, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009, T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). In Viet Nam it has been reported from the provinces of Lai Cau, Cao Bang, Vinh Phuc, Hai Duong, Son La, Ha Tay, Nghe  An, Ha Tinh, Quang Tri, Da Nang, Gia Lai, Dak Lac, Lam Dong, Dong Nai,  Ba Ria-Vung Tau, An Giang, Kien Giang and Ca Mau, and from Ho Chi Minh District (Ngueyn <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> 2009).
192038		habitat	eng	This oviparous, terrestrial snake has been found in both open, disturbed habitats and lowland evergreen forest, including both primary and secondary forest (T. Chan-ard and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011); in the latter it is sometimes found along streams (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). It is active both by day and at night.
192038		population	eng	This snake is common in Thailand, but known from few specimens in Indochina. The population is thought to be stable in the absence of major threats.
192038		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, which adapts well to open and degraded habitats.
192039		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192039		distribution	eng	This snake has been recorded from China's Yunnan Province, and from Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Lao Cai and Son La Provinces (Orlov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000; Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The type locality is Kutkai, North Shan State, Myanmar but this record has never been confirmed. It has been found between 1,829 and 2,377 m asl. (Das 2010).
192039		habitat	eng	Das (2010) describes this species as occurring in montane forests. It is an egg-laying species that exhibits mixed diurnal and nocturnal activity. It feeds on mainly amphibians and sometimes fishes.
192039		population	eng	No population data are available.
192039		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
192040		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. There is a need to regulate the trade in this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and threats.
192040		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern Viet Nam, and from Guangdong, Guangxi and Yunnan, China (Zhao and Alder 1993; State Forestry Administration of China 2009). It is found at elevations of 30 to 300 m asl.
192040		habitat	eng	It appears to be mostly found in limestone areas where it often lives in caves. Habitats are rocky, forested hillsides, meadows and bamboo thickets. It is oviparous. The female deposits 7-10 eggs in July (Zhao 2006). Captive animals have deposited eggs in the autumn of the year, these hatched after an incubation of two months. Adults feed on bats, rodents and birds, lizards and frogs (Mehrtens 1987).
192040		population	eng	In 1950s, the population of this species was about 600,000 (Zhao 1998). The survey taken from 1995-2004 found that the population decreased to 350,000 with a decreasing trend (State Forest Administration of China, 2009). It is now considered to be a rare species.
192040		threats	eng	Overexploitation is the main threat to this species. Its meat is used for food, medicinal liquor, and the skin is used for making bags, shoes etc.
192041		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is found in several protected areas. More information is needed on this species' population status, natural history and the extent of threats.
192041		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in eastern China, where it has been recorded from the provinces of Anhui, Chongqin, Gansu, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiling, Jiangxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Shanghai, Sichuan and Zhejiang (Zhao 2006). There is also a recent record is reported in Saihanwula Nature Reserve, Chifeng, Inner Mongolia, China (Nasendelger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This snake has a very wide elevational range, being found from coastal areas to 2,240 m asl. (Zhao 2006).
192041		habitat	eng	This temperate zone species is found in shrubland, meadows and disturbed areas such as the edges of trails, agricultural land under traditional cultivation, and areas close to villages. It occurs in plains, hills and low mountains. This snake is oviparous, laying eggs in July, and feeds on mice and lizards.
192041		population	eng	No population information is available.
192041		threats	eng	This snake is threatened by habitat loss resulting from the expansion of intensive agriculture, replacing meadowland and traditional cultivation. As this snake is very wide-ranging in eastern China, threats from agricultural intensification are localized.
192042		conservation	eng	The species is present in protected areas.
192042		distribution	eng	It is endemic to Borneo, where it has been recorded from the Crocker Range National Park and Mendolong in Sabah and in Bukit Kana, Gunumg Gading and Gunumg Penrissen in Sarawak, from 225 to 1,450 m. asl. (R. Inger pers. comm.). There is a recent record from Batu Lawi in the Kelabit Highlands of eastern Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data), and it is likely that it occurs widely throughout North Borneo (including Brunei).
192042		habitat	eng	The species lives in lowland to montane forest. It reaches the submontane limit (Das 2010).
192042		population	eng	This species is considered common within the Crocker Range National Park (Das pers. com.). No information is available at the level of population.
192042		threats	eng	It is unknown whether this species is exposed to any major threats. Deforestation is a potential threat.
192043		conservation	eng	The species was collected in the Kinabalu National Park. Research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192043		distribution	eng	The species is known based on three specimens, two from Mt Kinabalu  (above 1,000 m asl) in Malaysian Borneo, and one additional specimen from "Java" without exact  provenance (doubtful).
192043		habitat	eng	The specimens from Mt Kinabalu indicate that this is a montane species living in forest and most probably semi-fossorial.
192043		population	eng	As only two specimens have been recorded from Mt. Kinabalu, it is considered as rare.
192043		threats	eng	The species is well protected in the Kinabalu National Park; there is no information on threats more generally due to the absence of information on this snake's distribution.
192044		conservation	eng	In Kalimantan, the species is present from protected area and Crocker Range National Park. Monitoring the trade of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. margaritatus</span> is highly recommended as it may be more more highly demanded on the international pet trade in the future.
192044		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;G. margaritatus</span> is known from Indonesia and Malaysia in Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, and has been recorded up to 700 m. asl.
192044		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. margaritatus</span> is principally arboreal, occurring in primary forest at low altitude up to 700 m. asl.. Specimens were also captured in fish nets (Iskandar pers. obs.).
192044		population	eng	The species is hardly captured and this might indicate that it is a rare species.
192044		threats	eng	Habitat destruction due to deforestation is the major threat to this species, that is also potentially threatened by trade for the international pet market.
192045		conservation	eng	The species is commonly observed in the vicinity of forest and gardens, including several protected areas.
192045		distribution	eng	The species is definitively known from Java. Several localities outside Java such as Bangka, Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Singapore have never been reconfirmed. Inger and Marx (1965) could not find the type locality of <em>Calamaria linnaei </em>var. <em>multilineata</em> Werner, 1909, which is actually not Fjiloewar but Tjiloewar or Ciluar in current spelling, a suburb outside Bogor.
192045		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. linnaei </span>is found in leaf litter in lowland forest floor. The species is considered as common from lowlands to highlands of Java  and found in forests as well as in some tree plantations. It also occurs  in coffee and tea plantations. It is more frequently observed in forested areas of high altitude (around 900 and 1,200 m asl)., but it is presence in lowlands is not exceptional, having been recorded from as low as 200 m asl. Most specimens have been observed after dawn and many specimens have been caught or observed after heavy rain, indicating its crepuscular and fossorial habit.
192045		population	eng	The species may be very abundant local.
192045		threats	eng	No major threats are known to affect to this species that is frequently encountered in forested areas as well in gardens and plantations.
192046		conservation	eng	<p>While there are no direct conservation measures for this species in place at present, most of Tioman was declared a 'state wildlife reserve' in 1972 (Ng <em>et al</em>. 1999). According to I. Das (pers. comm. 2011), this is not part of the protected area system and is currently under of the management of private hands. </p><p>Twenty additional lizards and snakes are endemic to the same forest patch, making this a priority area for conservation in Malaysia (I. Das and G. Vogel pers. comm. 2011). Conservation measures should be undertaken, along with further research into the trends in abundance, and the impact of altered habitat status on this species. Due to the number of endemic species known to be present in the island, the distribution should be included within the national protected area system.<br/></p><p> Further research into the abundance, habitat requirements and ecology of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.</p>
192046		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Seribuat Archipelago in West Malaysia, where it is only known to occur on Tioman island (Grismer <em>et al</em>. 2006). The maximum area in which this species is known to be distributed is the area of forest on the island, which is less than 100 km².</p>
192046		habitat	eng	<p>This fossorial species is found on leaf litter in lowland forest.</p>
192046		population	eng	Two specimens were recorded at 98 m. asl. in one pitfall trap (I. Das pers. comm. 2011). Only three specimens are known and were used to describe the species. There are no population data available for this species. Due to the rate of deforestation on Tioman, which may result in the complete loss of forest from the island within the next 10 years, the species is likely to be already declining or to decline in the near future, and is likely to become extinct within the same time period without preventative action to preserve its forest habitat.
192046		threats	eng	<p>The forests of Tioman are not protected and are currently subject to private management. The island is a well-known tourist destination and development for both residential and tourist areas is both ongoing and expanding, which is degrading and removing this species' forest habitat at a rate which may result in the complete loss of forest from the island within ten years. </p>
192047		conservation	eng	The species occurs in at least three protected areas on Hainan. Protection. Efforts to limit deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures, and will benefit this species.
192047		distribution	eng	<p>This species has been recorded from China, where it is restricted to the mountains of Hainan, and to Viet Nam where it has been recorded from (Quang Tri, Quang Binh), Ha Tinh,&#160; Nhge Anh Provinces. It ranges between 200 and 1,000 m asl.<br/></p>
192047		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species, associated with forest and forest edge habitats. It feeds on small vertebrates, mainly amphibians and reptiles. It is an oviparous species.
192047		population	eng	This is a rare species.
192047		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
192048		conservation	eng	The Genting highland, where this species occurs, is categorized as a conservation area.
192048		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Genting Highlands, Peninsular Malaysia. The site where the species has been found is at 1,000 m.
192048		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane rainforest. It is very common in agricultural fields where the soil is soft. It is a semi-fossorial species and only known from  relatively high altitude.
192048		population	eng	The species can be very common in agricultural areas, where the soil is tilled, and the individuals are frequently found above ground following rains.
192048		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. Its population densities may be increased due to agricultural activities.
192050		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, although it does occur in some nature reserves. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192050		distribution	eng	Found in its type locality: Mount Yao (Dayao Shan), Jinxiu, Guangxi Zhuang Automonous Region, China (Zhao and Adler 1993). It has also been recorded from Guangdong (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden, 2004). Zhao (2006) also mentioned Hunan which has no reference and might be an error. It is found at elevations of 950 to 1,220 m asl.
192050		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded living near streams in both forest and open areas. It might feed on semi-aquatic annelids. There is no information on reproduction (Zhao 2006).
192050		population	eng	This is a rare species.
192050		threats	eng	The construction of hydroelectric plants in areas where this species occurs is a threat.
192051		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the habitat and ecology of this species.
192051		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern China (Yunnan and southwestern Sichuan), where it is found at elevations of up to 2,845 m asl (Zhao and Adler 1993).
192051		habitat	eng	This nocturnal snake is usually found on trees or among shrubs in montane areas. The diet consists of small vertebrates mainly mammals.
192051		population	eng	No population data is available.
192051		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192053		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, although it has been reported from a nature reserve in Vietnam and its forest habitat in Thailand is not thought to be at risk. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and exposure to threats.
192053		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Chiang Mai and U Than Thani in northern Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011), and from Cao Bang and Tuyen Quang (Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). The species has also been reported from Yunnan and Guizhou in China (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)
192053		habitat	eng	Das (2010) indicates that this species is found in lowland forests at around 300 m asl, where it is associated with forest streams. It has been found in moist evergreen forest (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011), and in forest on limestone in Vietnam (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
192053		population	eng	Only two specimens are known from Vietnam, along with three from China (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species is locally common in Thailand where it occurs.
192053		threats	eng	The encroachment of agricultural activities into forest, logging and dam construction may threaten this species in Vietnam and China. In Thailand the species is not considered to be at risk (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011), as forests are mostly under conservation management.
192055		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required, and this snake is known from a protected area in Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve.
192055		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand, where it occurs in Nakhon Ratchasima and Saraburi Provinces, and in Bangkok (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In Nakhon Ratchasima it is known from Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve.
192055		habitat	eng	Inger and Colwell (1977) reported this species (as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. quadrilineatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. taeniatus</span>) to be terrestrial and diurnal in deciduous dipterocarp forest and agricultural land, such as cassava, at approximately 200 m elevation.
192055		population	eng	Inger and Colwell (1977) obtained eight individuals of this species (as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. quadrilineatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. taeniatus</span>) out of a  total of 4,404 individuals of amphibians and reptiles sampled during an  approximately 10 month period in Sakaerat, on the western edge of the Khorat Plateau. Current population trends in this species, which has only been distinguished from related species based on museum records, are unknown, however as Sakaerat is a protected area and the snake is not subject to major threats, it is presumed to occur as a stable population, at least at this site.
192055		threats	eng	There are no apparent major threats to this species. Although it is tolerant of human-modified habitats, such as agricultural land, it has probably been extirpated from highly urbanized areas in Bangkok.
192056		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
192056		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southern Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular and East Malaysia), Singapore and the Indonesian territories of Sumatra, Bangka, Kalimantan and Java. Records from Malaysia include three from eastern Sabah and three from central and eastern Sarawak, and the species presumably occurs throughout Borneo (R. Inger pers. comm. October 2011).
192056		habitat	eng	This species is only known from lowland forest near riparian areas. In Peninsular Malaysia it is found in low-lying wet areas&#160; up to 200 m asl. (L. Grismer pers. comm. September 2011). Although this snake can expand its neck as a threat display, it is considered less aggressive than the related <em>Macropisthodon flaviceps</em>. The species has been reported to lay up to 27 eggs (Manthey and Grossmann 1997, Stuebing and Inger 1999). It is active both by day and nocturnally (R. Inger pers. comm. October 2011).
192056		population	eng	The species is uncommon in much of its range. It is not a rarely-seen snake in Borneo (R. Inger pers. comm. October 2011).
192056		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been described.
192057		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. This snake is known from protected areas within its range.
192057		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the southern portion of the Indochinese peninsula, from the western Dongraek Mountains of eastern Thailand through southern Laos, central and southern Vietnam, and Cambodia (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)
192057		habitat	eng	This species occurs in hilly areas from 200-1,200 m elevation (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It primarily occurs in evergreen forest, but also in vegetated grasslands on high elevation plateaus (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is usually found near water and within a couple of meters off the ground, where it feeds on frogs, small mammals, skinks, and even insects (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
192057		population	eng	The species is locally abundant.
192057		threats	eng	This species is associated with primary forest, which is threatened by illegal timber logging and slash-and-burn agriculture even at the high elevations where it is known.
192058		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is needed to determine if the Myanmar and Indian populations are conspecific. The disjunct distribution and different ecologies (lowland coastal mangroves in Myanmar, inland upland habitat in India) suggests that they are not conspecific. Wall (in Smith 1943) commented on this unusual distribution. The species has been recorded for some protected areas in Southern Myanmar.
192058		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded disjunctly in northeastern India (Darjeeling and Assam) and in Myanmar (Smith 1943, Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It may also occur in Bangladesh. The snake's presence in India is doubtful, and recent surveys in the area have not recorded it (Chettri and Bhupathy 2007). The snake's occurrence in Myanmar's Rakhine state is uncertain as it is based from an old record and has not been confirmed in recent surveys (Theobald 1882, G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
192058		habitat	eng	This species is found on bushes along the banks of tidal rivers in Myanmar, including mangroves in brackish water (Wogan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), and is reported to dive into the water when threatened (Smith 1943). This snake is a mangrove specialist and, unusually for an arboreal snake, feeds only on fish. It can occur in somewhat degraded habitat, however as it requires a large enough area of mangrove habitat to support fish populations, it will not persist in sites where the mangrove zone is only a few trees thick (G. Wogan pers. comm. February 2012).
192058		population	eng	The species was reported to be abundant on bushes along the banks of tidal rivers in Myanmar (Smith 1943). More recent research confirms that the species is common where present (R. Lucas, unpubl. thesis, J. Slowinski pers. comm. to I. Das 2000), suggesting a population that is stable where suitable habitat is present. The snake's habitat requirements are however highly specific, making it potentially highly susceptible to the loss of its mangrove habitat.
192058		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by loss of mangrove forest, as people within its range rely heavily on mangrove resources and this may be reducing suitable habitat for this snake. Mangroves are among the most threatened habitat types in Southeast Asia, and are at risk within this snake's range primarily from firewood collection, which may leave remaining mangrove stands too small to support populations of this snake (G. Wogan pers. comm. February 2012).
192059		conservation	eng	The species is common in human-made habitats and therefore no conservation measures are proposed.
192059		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Java and Sumatra (Indonesia), including some islands such as Bangka and Weh Island. Its occurrence in the Malaysian Peninsula is uncertain. A subpopulation from Singapore needs further study, to establish whether it represents an introduction (Lim and Lim 1992). It occurs from lowland up to 1,200 metres (David and Vogel 1996).
192059		habitat	eng	The species is common in ricefields, in stagnant water ecosystems such as ponds and small lakes, marsh areas and some small streams, mainly feeding on frogs and fish. It is recorded from sea level to about 1,200 m asl. Its original habitat is thought to be open wetlands.
192059		population	eng	The species is currently considered common in many rice field areas of West Java and Lampung, South Sumatra, but uncommon in other areas (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011).
192059		threats	eng	Trade is currently not considered as as a threat to the species. It is not known to be affected by other threats.
192060		conservation	eng	It has being found within the protected area of the Crocker Range National Park.
192060		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. longicauda</span> is known to occur in Borneo Sumatra, Java and the Malay Peninsula,  near sea level to 600 metres asl., .and it has not been reported on small islands. The type locality is from Sarawak, (David and Vogel 1996).
192060		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. longicauda</span> is present in primary and secondary lowland forest. As for other species, it is a forest floor dweller and known to feed on spiders.
192060		population	eng	No information is available on the status of its population.
192060		threats	eng	There are not known threats to this species.
192061		conservation	eng	The sites where the species has been collected from are not under protection. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192061		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Bunyu Island,  East Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak, Malaysia (FMNH 71579).
192061		habitat	eng	There is no information on habitat and ecology for this species. However, as other blind snakes, it is likely fossorial and nocturnal.
192061		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species.
192061		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192062		conservation	eng	&#160;It is found in the protected areas of Kinabalu and Niah National Park. No species-specific conservation measures in place are known.
192062		distribution	eng	The type locality for this species is the Sebruang Valley in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is known from numerous localities in Sabah, Sarawak, Kalimantan and Brunei&#160; Darussalam.
192062		habitat	eng	This semi-fossorial species is known from lowland forest, living on the leaf litter, and has an small slender body and  a pointed head. .
192062		population	eng	The species may be locally abundant (R. Inger pers. comm. September 2011).
192062		threats	eng	&#160;Deforestation is a potential threat to the species, which is however widespread and present in protected areas, so this is not currently considered a major threat.
192064		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. Research is needed to clarify the distribution of this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. aulicus. </span>
192064		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and across southern China to Fujian, southward through the Malay Peninsula and Indochina to the Philippines and Indonesia as far east as the Babar Archipelago (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, Zhao and Adler 1993, David and Vogel 1996). Historical records exist for Myanmar south of 24º latitude, but have not been confirmed in recent surveys (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011).
192064		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland tropical forest and especially in disturbed habitat such as plantations, cultivated areas, villages, and urban areas (David and Vogel 1996, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). The species is nocturnal and is both terrestrial and arboreal. It feeds mostly on lizards (David and Vogel 1996).
192064		population	eng	This species is common throughout much of its range. It is a very common snake in Peninsular Malaysia (L. Grismer and M. Auliya pers. comm. October 2011), and is probably the most frequently-encountered snake in Kuala Lumpur (M. Auliya pers. comm. October 2011).
192064		threats	eng	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and highly  adaptable species. It is often killed on sight by people who mistake it  for a venomous snake.<span style=""></span>
192066		conservation	eng	It is known to be present in Kinabalu National Park and Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park.
192066		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Borneo, where it is known from three localities widely dispersed: two in Sabah, one in Sarawak and one in Central Kalimantan. It ranges from 150&#160; up to 1,800 m. asl.(head of Silau Silau stream).
192066		habitat	eng	The species is stated as terrestrial and live in a forested region from 150 to1,800 m. asl. It seems to be a a generalist species living in lowland and montane forest. Iskandar (pers. comm.) encountered two individuals in West-Central Kalimantan not far from a medium sized river with strong current within a forested area, where the species was found foraging at night along river banks. Inger (pers. comm.) found it foraging on forest floor.&#160; According to Das pers. comm.. the species can be found at day and night in forest openings.
192066		population	eng	Although the species is rarely encountered, it is present is some isolated localities far apart from each other in Borneo.
192066		threats	eng	Habitat conversion due to forest logging is common and extensive in Borneo, although its present impact on the species&#160; is not known.
192067		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas throughout its range. There are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species.
192067		distribution	eng	This species is known from Thailand, south of the Isthmus of Kra, to Malaysia, Sumatra (Nias), Borneo and Brunei Darussalam. It occurs at elevations up to 600 m.
192067		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland rainforest up to lower hill forest. Specimens have been collected from forest floor and near streams, probably searching for frogs as a prey.
192067		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. It appears to be uncommon.
192067		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192068		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are in place, although it is known from several protected areas.
192068		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Cambodia, Lao PDR and southern Viet Nam. In Cambodia it has been reported from Kirirom in the southwest (Stuart and Emmett 2006), Virachey National Park (Stuart<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006) in the north, and Kampong Cham (N. Ananjeva pers. comm. August 2011).&#160; In Viet Nam it apparently occurs as several disjunct subpopulations in Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Dac Lac, Lam Dong, Tay Ninh and Dong Nai Provinces. It has also been recorded from Champasak in Lao PDR (Teynie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It has been reported from between sea level and 300 m asl. elevation.
192068		habitat	eng	This terrestrial snake has been recorded from both primary and logged evergreen lowland forest (T. Neang and L. Grismer pers. comm. August 2011), and also occurs in grassland and secondary forest (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011)
192068		population	eng	No population data are available for this uncommon snake.
192068		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species, mainly as a result of smallholder farming. However most known sites are remote and under limited pressure, and this species can make use of some open habitats that are not threatened. This snake is tolerant of at least light logging disturbance.
192069		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. One of its known sites, Wuzhishan in Hainan, is a nature reserve, and it has been recorded from two sites in Viet Nam that are currently national parks. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history, and on its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
192069		distribution	eng	This species has been found in Tonkin in Viet Nam, and in Wuzhishan, on the Chinese island of Hainan (Smith 1943). It has been reported from 400 to 1,000 m asl. in Viet Nam.
192069		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded from rainforest, and is presumably semi-aquatic.
192069		population	eng	No population data is available for this species, for which all known records are historical (Bourret 1934, Smith 1943).
192069		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
192070		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Research is needed to quantify the impacts of harvesting on this snake, as well as to investigate its ecological tolerances. The taxonomy of the <em>B. multicinctus-B. wanghaotingi</em> species complex is in need of resolution.
192070		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in southwest Yunnan Province in China, and from Myanmar, northern Viet Nam, and Lao PDR (Zhao 2006). In Viet Nam records have traditionally been referred to as <em>B. multicinctus </em>(Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).<em></em>
192070		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake is found in high altitude forested and riparian areas up to 1,300 m asl. (Zhao 2006). The diet includes fish, frogs, lizards, snakes and rats.
192070		population	eng	About 30,000 individuals are estimated to occur in China, which forms the majority of this snake's range, and the population is thought to be declining (State Forestry Administration of China 2009). Rates of decline are unclear; the China Species Red List estimates declines of more than 30% over 10 years in <em>B. multicinctus</em>, but does not treat <em>B. wanghaotingi</em> separately (Wang and Xie 2009). Population trends in other countries within this snake's range are unknown.
192070		threats	eng	Overexploitation is the main threat to this species and is thought to be responsible for population declines over the majority of this snake's range, however the impacts of harvesting have not been quantified.
192071		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are required. This snake occurs in protected areas throughout its range.
192071		distribution	eng	<p>  </p>This species has been recorded from Indonesia (Sumatra, Belitung, Natuna, Riau and Kalimantan), from Malaysian Borneo and from Brunei Darussalam. It has been reported in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand, but its presence in both requires confirmation. Its occurrence on the Malay Peninsula is therefore uncertain (L. Grismer and T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011).
192071		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Like other Southeast Asian keelbacks, this snake exhibits a preference for shallow streams and swampy areas where it hunts for  frogs, its main source of food. This snake is most commonly encountered near water  bodies such as rivers and streams, as well as in marshes in lowland forest.
192071		population	eng	The species is considered to be uncommon.
192071		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been reported.
192072		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. There are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species.
192072		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Thailand, south of the Isthmus of Kra, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (including Nias) and Borneo. It occurs at elevations from sea level to 400 m.
192072		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland primary and disturbed forest.
192072		population	eng	There are no population data for this species. It appears to be rare.
192072		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192074		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species.
192074		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from 3 localities in the Sunda islands, Sumatra (David and Vogel 1996), Java and Borneo. It is uncertain whether it occurs in Sabah. It is known to live between altitudes of 800 to 1,800 m. asl. (Manthey and Grossmann 1997). The type locality is "Java", although the exact site where it was found wasn't recorded.
192074		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. fusca</span> is a terrestrial and sub fossorial species that lives in submontane to montane forests. The species was recorded from a forested region between 800 and 1,800 m asl. (Manthey and Grossmann 1997).
192074		population	eng	Due to its secretive habitats this small blackish snake is not commonly encountered.
192074		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
192075		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. No species-specific measures are required.
192075		distribution	eng	The species occurs disjunctly in southern Viet Nam and from western Thailand to Borneo (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). There are no confirmed records from intervening Cambodia (Saint Girons 1972). In Borneo, it occurs from sea level up to 750 m elevation (Stuebing and Inger 1999), and in Peninsular Malaysia it occurs at elevations from near sea level up to 1,100 m (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
192075		habitat	eng	Little is known on the biology of this terrestrial and nocturnal species. It occurs in lowland and hilly tropical wet forest and&#160; feeds on snakes and lizards (David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999).
192075		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is rare throughout its range (David and Vogel 1996).
192075		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192076		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are required.
192076		distribution	eng	The species occurs in China (Guizhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan Provinces), Myanmar (Kachin and Shan States), and Thailand (Chiang Mai Province) (Smith 1943, Zhao and Adler 1993, Tillack<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). The species is known only marginally in Thailand, as the sole Thai record was obtained near the border with Myanmar (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
192076		habitat	eng	The species occurs between 1,300 and 2,200 metres in elevation (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The record in Thailand was obtained at 2,000 m asl. while basking on a dirt road through evergreen alpine mist forest dominated by trees in the family Fagaceae (genera <em>Quercus</em>, <em>Castanopsis</em>, and <em>Lithocarpus</em>), many of which were densely overgrown with epiphytes (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
192076		population	eng	No population information is available, although it is a rare species in Myanmar and Thailand.
192076		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is loss of forest to upland shifting agriculture, which is extensive in some valleys in northeastern Myanmar. This is however a wide-ranging species in both Myanmar and China, and threats are therefore expected to be localized.
192077		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. This snake is known from protected areas in Myanmar and Viet Nam, and the Laotian locality is a proposed protected area. It is likely that this species is widespread in Cambodia, where suitable habitats are extensive, and surveys are needed to verify its occurrence and population status in this country. The effects of agricultural conversion on this snake in Myanmar should be investigated.
192077		distribution	eng	This species is found at low elevations in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia.
192077		habitat	eng	This diurnal snake is associated with dry dipterocarp and teak savannah, open forest with grassy understorey, and <em>Acacia</em>-dominated semi-desert in Myanmar's dry zone (G. Wogan pers. comm. August 2011). In Viet Nam, specimens were found in a grassy coastal area. In Thailand it is only known from agricultural areas (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).
192077		population	eng	This snake is infrequently encountered in Indochina; there are only two records from each of Cambodia and Viet Nam, and one from Lao PDR; however surveys in regions where it has been recorded have been limited. There are numerous records from Myanmar (as <em>P. condanarus</em>), particularly from the central dry zone, where the population presently appears to be stable (G. Wogan pers. comm. August 2011). It is common in agricultural areas in Thailand.
192077		threats	eng	The central dry zone in Myanmar, where this species is most abundant, has been heavily converted to agricultural land, where this snake has not been recorded (G. Wogan pers. comm. August 2011). In Thailand it is known from agricultural land and is exploited for the domestic pet trade only in low numbers, and so is probably not threatened (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Suitable habitat in Lao PDR is very restricted, and conversion of grasslands to agricultural use may represent a threat in Cambodia.
192078		conservation	eng	Twenty additional lizards and snakes are endemic to the same forest patch, making this a priority area for conservation in Malaysia (I. Das and G. Vogel pers. comm. 2011). Conservation measures should be undertaken, along with further research into trends in abundance and impact of altered habitat on this species. Due to the number of endemic species known to be present in the island, the distribution should be included within the national protected area system.
192078		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Tioman Island in Malaysia.&#160;Despite being known only from the type specimen, it is reasonable to assume that this species is confined to Tioman since the island is&#160;a defined biogeographic area with its own endemic fauna.
192078		habitat	eng	Although information is limited, the species is known to be a forest floor dweller and thought to feed on  spiders. The habitat where the species was recorded is lowland forest.
192078		population	eng	Population status is not known as all the information available is based on the type specimen. However, it is presumed that this species is dependent on forest habitat, and it is therefore likely that the species is or will soon be in decline. Due to the current rate of forest loss, which may result in the removal of all forest on the island within the next ten years (and therefore also within the longer of ten years or three generations), this species is likely to become extinct without preventative action to preserve its habitat.
192078		threats	eng	The forests of Tioman are not protected and are currently subject to private management. The island is a well-known tourist destination and development for both residential and tourist areas is both ongoing and expanding, which is degrading and removing this species' forest habitat.
192080		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is required to assess whether populations across this large geographic area are truly conspecific. Trade at Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, should be curbed during the breeding season (Brooks<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007a).
192080		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Myanmar through southern China as far east as Xiamen, and southward to Indonesia as far east as Sulawesi and the adjacent islands of Batjan and Sangihe (Adler et al. 1992). It appears to be absent from much of Laos and from northern Vietnam.
192080		habitat	eng	These secretive snakes thrive in wet, open, lowland habitats, include rice fields, gardens, road-side ditches, canals, ponds, and lakes.
192080		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range, where it occurs in a wide range of habitats, and may benefit from land conversion into open habitats and artificial wetlands. It appears to be suffering localized declines due to overharvesting in Tonle Sap, Cambodia, but the global population is more likely to be increasing than declining.
192080		threats	eng	The massive scale of the aquatic snake trade in Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) may threaten the persistence of that population. The species is perceived to be declining at Tonle Sap, although it was predicted to be the least susceptible to decline among the studied species of aquatic snakes at Tonle Sap, probably because it is the most terrestrial and therefore least susceptible to capture by gill nets (Brooks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007a). The species is subject to mortality from vehicles due to its abundance in road-side ditches.
192081		conservation	eng	Research is needed to establish the current distribution of this species and obtain data on its population status, natural history and threats.
192081		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. javanica</span> is only known from four specimens in Indonesia, one of them from the original description in "Java", which has not been confirmed as there is not enough precise information about its exact location. The three other specimens are old records reported were collected from 1891 from Belitung Island, Bangka Belitung Province.
192081		habitat	eng	Although there is no information about the precise site where the species was described (the type locality in "Java" is undetermined),the locality in Belitung is supposed to be lowland forest, and the species it is expected to live in leaf litter of lowland forest.
192081		population	eng	The species is known based on four specimens and one of them is from doubtful provenance. From three other specimens it is difficult to justify its population status.
192081		threats	eng	Much of the forest in Belitung has been destroyed by tin mining.
192082		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. It is found within protected areas.
192082		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northeastern India across southern China, southward to Peninsular Malaysia (Smith 1943, Zhao and Adler 1993, Stuart and Heatwole 2008, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
192082		habitat	eng	This diurnal species occurs near water in forest from 500 to 1,640 meters elevation (Cox <em>et al.</em> 1998). Females lay 5-8 eggs (Cox <em>et al.</em> 1998).
192082		population	eng	Smith (1943) stated that this snake was rare throughout its range south of 20 degrees latitude. No recent population data are available.
192082		threats	eng	This forest-restricted species may be threatened by forest loss and degradation throughout its range, but as a widespread snake this is unlikely to represent a major threat.
192083		conservation	eng	As this species is rather common and widespread, it is very likely to occur in protected areas in Borneo as well as in Sumatra. There are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species.
192083		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Sumatra, Borneo and Malaysia. In Sumatra, the species has been recorded from Ampat Lawang, South Sumatra and from Deli, North Sumatra. In Borneo the species has been recorded from Sarawak and Sabah, as well as from East and Central Kalimantan. Its presence in southern Thailand is uncertain. There is one doubtful record from Java, considered to be in error. It occurs at elevations between 300 and 1,200 m.
192083		habitat	eng	In common with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, it is assumed that this species is fossorial and occurs in forests. Most records are from lowlands around 300-600 m asl, but there are two records from Mt. Kinabalu (900-1,200 m asl)
192083		population	eng	Numerous records of this species exist from Sarawak and Sabah, suggesting that this species is common.
192083		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species, which is common and widespread.
192084		conservation	eng	The species was found in the protected areas of Siberut island and Lembah Anai Nature Reserve in West Sumatra (Iskandar pers. comm.).
192084		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. eiselti </span>was originally recorded from Padang in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Subsequently, it was also found in Nias Island and Mentawai Islands.
192084		habitat	eng	The semi-fossorial species is known from lowland forest, where it lives on the leaf litter.
192084		population	eng	Although the number of known specimens is low, this species has been collected several times (D.T. Iskandar pers. obs.).
192084		threats	eng	Habitat conversion for urban development and agriculture are the current threats in the area that may affect the species, but as it is moderately widespread and is known from protected areas these are not considered major threats.
192085		conservation	eng	The species occurs near or within Kerinci Seblat National Park. Additional surveys are needed to establish its real distribution and better document its habitat requirements.
192085		distribution	eng	This&#160; species is endemic to Indonesia. It is known from four specimens collected on three occasions.The species is known from Bengkulu (2 specimens) and West Sumatra (2 specimens) Province (Inger &amp; Marx, 1965), probably also occurring in Kerinci Seblat National Park. The species has been recorded up to 100 meters of altitude.
192085		habitat	eng	It is found in leaf litter in lowland forest floor. As the type locality is within or very close to Kerinci Seblat National Park, so that it is safe to conclude that the main habitat must be lowland forested area.
192085		population	eng	No information is currently available about population of this species. Only four specimens have been collected, representing two separate populations. As the intervening region is the Kerinci Seblat National Park, it is believed that the species occurs within this large protected area.
192085		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation is the main potential threat to this species. In addition, the species can be impacted by habitat fragmentation and subsequent stochastic (e.g. tsunamis, volcanic eruptions) events that may cause loss of genetic variation and reduction in reproduction potential.
192086		conservation	eng	The species is in a protected area. Although it is legally protected, better enforcement of the law is needed to prevent illegal collection of specimens.
192086		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tioman Island, Peninsular Malaysia. It occurs at elevations between 300 and 810 m. The extent of occurrence for this species is estimated to be approximately 230 km² (the area of the island where it occurs).
192086		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland and montane forests. It is nocturnal and arboreal and can be found on branches from 1 m to 15 m above the ground. It feeds on frogs and lizards.
192086		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is a rare species.
192086		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the illegal pet trade.
192087		conservation	eng	This species is not known from any protected area. Protection of forests where this species occurs is required to ensure its persistence, and efforts should be made to prevent further deforestation within its range. More information is needed to clarify this snake's distribution and population status.
192087		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. bengkuluensis</span> is present in the Indonesian island of Sumatra, where it has been recorded from the the Rejang region around Curup and Kapahiang Towns, and Rejanglebong Prefecture, Bengkulu Province, at 500 m. above sea level. The recorded coordinates for the type locality are 3º28' S 102º32' E. In the original description Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) reported the presence of this species also in southern Thailand.
192087		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake was found in dense thickets of secondary evergreen polydominant lowland forest. It is nocturnal and arboreal, and feeds on small vertebrates.
192087		population	eng	No information is available on population trends of this species.
192087		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat in Bengkulu, Indonesia.
192088		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. The type locality in Cambodia falls within a protected area, the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary. Surveys are needed to identify additional records of this species, to clarify its distribution, population status and natural history, and research is needed to establish whether it is at risk from forest degradation in the Cardamom Mountains.
192088		distribution	eng	This species is known from Pursat Province, in southwest Cambodia (Daltry and Wüster 2002), and from two sites in Chantaburi, eastern Thailand (T. Chan-ard and G. Vogel pers. comm. August 2011, Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2005). It was erroneously included in a checklist of snakes from the Central Highlands of Viet Nam (Orlov 2005) based on the record from Daltry and Wüster (2002), however these authors list only the Cambodian type locality for this species, with the Vietnamese record referring to <em>Lycodon subcinctus</em>. Orlov (2005) also reports a new, unpublished collection from Viet Nam's  Central Highlands, although this needs to be confirmed as specimen data  is not provided. The species is therefore considered to be endemic to the Cardamom Mountains of southwest Cambodia and southeast Thailand. The snake has been recorded from 500-700 m asl.
192088		habitat	eng	This snake is terrestrial in lowland monsoon forest, in both primary and secondary forest (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). The type specimen was collected from a boulder near a stream in disturbed forest. It is nocturnal (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011).
192088		population	eng	No population data are available on this species, which is known from a single specimen in Cambodia and four from Thailand (T. Neang and T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011)
192088		threats	eng	Selective logging is increasingly degrading forests in the Cardamom Mountains, and this species may also be persecuted by local people who mistake it for a venomous Malayan krait. There is not enough information to judge whether this species is at serious risk from either threat.
192090		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some Chinese protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192090		distribution	eng	This species is found in northeastern India, southern China and upper Myanmar. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,400 m asl (Whitaker and Captain, 2004). In China it is distributed in Medog County, Xizang (= Tibet) (Herpetological Department, Sichuan Biological Research Institute, 1977).
192090		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species inhabits wet montane forests. It may often be found resting by day in bamboo thickets. It is primarily an arboreal snake, though sometimes seen at night on the ground looking for frogs and mice. Chinese specimens were found on a path during the day. Females bear live young (Whitaker and Captain 2004).
192090		population	eng	This is a rare species. In China it is known only from two specimens.
192090		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known in China.
192091		conservation	eng	The area where this species has been reported from is a protected area. No conservation actions have been applied for this species. Research is needed to better establish its distribution as well as its population size and trends.
192091		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality: Templer Park, Near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Peninsula).
192091		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of the species. However, its occurrence in Templar Park indicate that it is a primary lowland forest species.
192091		population	eng	The species is currently known from the holotype alone. Therefore, there are no available data on population size or trends.
192091		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192092		conservation	eng	The areas where the species has been collected from may not be protected. There are no species-specific conservation actions in place for this species. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192092		distribution	eng	The species was described from the southern end of Riau Province, Sumatra, but records include North and West Sumatra. All known localities are lowland below 400 m asl.
192092		habitat	eng	As for other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, it is assumed that the species inhabits forests and is semi-fossorial.
192092		population	eng	All known localities are represented by a single specimen, hence the species should be regarded as rare.
192092		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192093		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It can be found in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, population status, natural history and threats.
192093		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Lijiang, Zhongdian and Deqing of Yunnan Province, China (Jiang 1993). It is found from 3,100 to 3,963 m asl.
192093		habitat	eng	This species is found in alpine rocky areas, and temperate high altitude forest. It is presumably ovoviviparous, female contains 8–9 eggs.
192093		population	eng	This is a rare species.
192093		threats	eng	There is no information on significant threats to this species.
192094		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Tam Dao National Park and occurs in many other protected areas within its large range. Although this widespread snake is not in need of specific conservation  actions, protection  of additional forests within its range, and efforts to limit  deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures, and  will benefit this species.
192094		distribution	eng	According to Nguyen et al. (2009), <span style="font-style: italic;">Boiga kraepelini</span> is known from China, Viet Nam and Lao PDR. In Viet Nam, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. kraepelini</span> has been reported from Cao Bang (Nguyen Binh), Lang Son (Mau Son), Vinh Phuc (Tam Dao), Nghe An (Pu Mat), Ha Tinh (Ky Anh), and Thua Thien-Hue (Hai Van Mt.), see Nguyen et al. (2009). Some new records for Bac Giang Province (Tay Yen Tu Nature Reserve) and for Hoa Binh Province (Thuong Tien Nature Reserve) were reported by Ziegler et al. (2010). In China the species occurs in the south, including Hainan westward to Sichuan and Guizhou. It is found in the north of Taiwan. It has been reported from 100 to 2,000 m asl.
192094		habitat	eng	This is a nocturnal species that is associated with both primary and secondary forest habitats, being found close to villages in nearby forest. It is an oviparous species, The diet consists of small vertebrates.
192094		population	eng	This is a common widespread snake that is presumed to occur as a largely stable population.
192094		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of    its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide    distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging,    slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and    urban development.
192095		conservation	eng	It occurs in the Gunumg Leuseur National Park.
192095		distribution	eng	The species is known from Aceh Province, North Sumatra and from West Sumatra, Indonesia, and so although few specimens are known it is likely to be widespread on this island. It has been recorded at an altitude from 500 to 1,130 metres asl.
192095		habitat	eng	It is likely to be a typical inhabitant of wet montane forest (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
192095		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. andalasensis</span> is known from 7 specimens but no more information is available.
192095		threats	eng	Deforestation is extensive in the area where the species has been recorded, although as the species is likely to be more widespread in Sumatra based on the distribution of known records, this is not believe to be a impacting the population as a whole at present.
192096		conservation	eng	Survey work&#160; in the&#160; Weh Island to determine the existence of this species is urgently needed.
192096		distribution	eng	At present, it has only been recorded from Weh Island, Aceh, in the north of Sumatra, Indonesia.
192096		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology.
192096		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population.
192096		threats	eng	There is no information about threats to this species.
192098		conservation	eng	This species is found in at least two protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia (Bintang Mountain Range). Additional research is needed to determine its precise distribution and establish its population dynamics.
192098		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Sarawak, Sabah, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra (Indonesia). All records comprised of about five specimens. It is found in lowland swampy areas up to upland forests, ranging from 200 to 1,100 m.
192098		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland swampy areas and upland forests. As it is a large species of about 2 meters long, it probably feeds on small vertebrates.
192098		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is considered as very rare.
192098		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
192099		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Present in many protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192099		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from northern Viet Nam and southern China. In China, it has been reported from Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Hong Kong and Zhejiang (Zhao 2006). It is found from 370-1,500 m asl.
192099		habitat	eng	Lives in forest on plains, low hills or in mountains. Found amongst leaf litter, and rotten logs. This species is oviparous. It feeds on earthworms (Zhao 2006).
192099		population	eng	This species is uncommon but widespread.
192099		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. It may facing habitat loss in some areas of its range, as parts of the range have a high human population.
192100		conservation	eng	A nature reserve was established in the island in the 1980's, which covers the whole range of this species (National Natural Reserve of Liaoning Snake island ). There is a need to monitor populations of this restricted range species.
192100		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality: Shedao (Snake Island), 24 nautical miles northwest of Lüshun (Port Arthur), Liaoning Province, China; Below 215 meters. (Zhao &amp; Alder 1993).&#160; Shedao is 0.73 km<sup>2</sup>, and 7 sea miles away from the nearest continent. It has coordinates of east longitude 120°59′, north latitude 38°57′ (Zhao 2006, Tian and Zhang 2002).
192100		habitat	eng	This species mainly inhibits in bushes and meadows, while also found in the edge of forest, ponds, roads and rocks. Feed on small birds and rats. Ovoviviparous. Gives birth every two years, with 2-7 young in August and September.
192100		population	eng	Surveys indicate that the population is about 18,000 individuals in 2000 (Sun et al 2000, Tian et al. 2002). According to Liu (2008), the population in 2006 is of this species is 20,281±590 individuals. This species is vulnerable to climate fluctuation, e.g., about 3,000 individuals died in typhoons in 1984.
192100		threats	eng	Before creation of the nature reserve, mowing, firewood collecting, hunting and natural fire were the main threats to this species. Additional problems include drought and vegetation succession (Tian et al. 2002).
192101		conservation	eng	The species occurs in three protected areas.
192101		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from numerous locations (at least 21 records) throughout Borneo (Stuebing 1991), predominantly from mountains up to 1,500 m asl, but also from lowlands. It occurs in all political territories on the island. It has been recorded from secondary and primary forest and found in two protected areas in Sabah. In Brunei it is also in a protected area.
192101		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland and submontane forest.
192101		population	eng	No information about populations.
192101		threats	eng	It is not known to be affected by major threats.
192102		conservation	eng	In Lao PDR, this species occurs within Xe Sap National Protected Area (=National Biodiversity Conservation Area) (Stuart 2006). It is known from protected areas in Viet Nam (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011). Taxonomic study to determine the generic assignment of this species is underway. Field surveys are needed to determine if the species also occurs in northeastern Cambodia, as well as to obtain further records to clarify its distribution in Viet Nam and Lao PDR, its population status, natural history and exposure to threats.
192102		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in Da Nang and Kon Tum Provinces in central Viet Nam, and Xe Kong Province in southeastern Lao PDR (Stuart 2006, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It presumably also occurs in intervening Quang Nam Province, also in central Viet Nam.
192102		habitat	eng	A Lao specimen was found at night in a small, swift, rocky stream in steep terrain covered in wet evergreen forest between 1,280–1,500 m elevation (Stuart 2006). The snake has a lower elevational limit of 1,000 m asl in Viet Nam&#160; (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
192102		population	eng	The species is known from fewer than six specimens, and so no population data are available (Q.T. Nguyen and B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
192102		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by logging in Viet Nam, as the Vietnamese sites are readily accessible by road (Q.T. Nguyen and B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011). The known locality in Lao PDR is in a very remote protected area in steep terrain, and the species is likely to be secure at this site (B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
192103		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
192103		distribution	eng	This species is known from Malaysia (both Peninsular and East Malaysia) and Indonesia (Sumatra, the Riau Islands, Natuna and Kalimantan). It presumably also occurs in Brunei, and potentially also in Singapore (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011). Its presence in southern Thailand is uncertain (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011).
192103		habitat	eng	The species is generally found in small streams in forested habitats 150 - 800 metres above sea level. In some cases the species can be found far from water bodies.
192103		population	eng	The species is common and can be abundant in some places. It is among the most commonly-observed snakes in Kalimantan (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011). It is, however, not abundant in Peninsular Malaysia.
192103		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been recorded.
192106		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in any protected areas. Field surveys in the region have not found the species. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution as well as population size and trends.
192106		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Mogok (Sagaing Division) and Sinlangaba (Kachin State, Bhamo District) in northern Myanmar (Smith 1943). Its two known localities are at 400-580 m elevation.
192106		habitat	eng	No information is available on its natural history.
192106		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size and trends for this species.
192106		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. However, the northernmost area where this species has been reported from is heavily mined for gems and gold.
192107		conservation	eng	The apparent historical distribution of this snake differs substantially from modern records, and field surveys are needed to determine the full distribution and ecology of this species, and to determine whether historical records from India represent misidentifications. The species has been recorded from several protected areas, including Shwesettaw and Minsontaung Wildlife Sanctuaries, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park and Popa Mountain Park.
192107		distribution	eng	Recent surveys have detected this species only in central Myanmar in dry forest, over an area of slightly more than 16,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Historical records for this species describe a range from Assam northeastern  India through Myanmar from Myitkyina (Kachin State) as far south as  Mergui (Smith 1943). However,&#160; most of these records are likely to be misidentifications, and the snake's presence in India is uncertain.
192107		habitat	eng	Smith (1943) reported only that the species occurs in the plains and in the hills, with no more detailed habitat information. In recent surveys of Myanmar the species has been recorded mainly from tropical dry forests between 220 and 680 meters above sea level.
192107		population	eng	Smith (1943), citing Wall, stated that this snake is common in Mandalay, Myanmar, and recent surveys indicate that this species is common throughout its range in Myanmar. It may however be experiencing localized declines as a result of human pressures on its dry forest habitat.
192107		threats	eng	Forests in this region are under increased pressure from logging as well as from agricultural expansion, and while areas of forest habitat remain this species is likely to be experiencing local population declines.
192108		conservation	eng	This snake is found in a number of protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192108		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from the Petchabun mountain range in Thailand (where its type locality, Phu Luang Wildlife Research Station in Loei Province, is located), central Laos, China (Yunnan) and Vietnam (Guo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Vietnam it is known from Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province), Lai Chau Province and Pu Mat (Nghe An Province), although the exact limits of its distribution in Vietnam's northern mountains are unclear due to potential confusion with <em>V. stejnegeri</em> or <em>Cryptelytrops albolabris</em> (Q.T. Nguyen and E. Golynsky pers. comm. September 2011). In Thailand it has been recorded from Loei, Phitsanulok, Phetchabun and Chaiyaphum Provinces (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002; Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Records from northeastern Myanmar are uncertain due to possible taxonomic confusion with <em>V. yunnanensis</em>, however there is an additional record of this species from Chin State in this country, close to 2,000 m asl., that may represent this species (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). This snake has been recorded from 300 m (in Pu Mat) to at least 1,570 m asl (in Sa Pa); higher elevational records in Thailand are uncertain.
192108		habitat	eng	This snake is confined to evergreen hill and moist forest. It is arboreal and is typically found among bamboo near water (T. Chan-ard and B. Stuart pers. comm. September 2011).
192108		population	eng	This is a common snake in forested areas in both Thailand and Vietnam. It is known from only two localities in Laos, and so although it is presumed to be widespread in this country no information on its population status here is available.
192108		threats	eng	This forest specialist is likely to be at risk from deforestation and habitat degradation resulting from timber logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.
192110		conservation	eng	The area where the species has been collected from is not protected. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192110		distribution	eng	This species is known from several specimens from the Padang area in Sumatra, Indonesia.
192110		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known. It possibly occurs in lowland forests and probably feeds on reptile eggs and small lizards as for other species within the genus.
192110		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is uncommon.
192110		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
192111		conservation	eng	The area where this species has been described from is not under protection. No conservation measures exist for this species. Further research is needed to better establish its distribution and population size and trends.
192111		distribution	eng	This snake is apparently endemic to Viet Nam. It is known from only two historic specimens (Leviton 1953, 1960), from Bao Loc and B'Lao, Lam Dang Province (Leviton 1953, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
192111		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of this species' natural history, although it is presumably terrestrial in forested areas. Species of <em>Oligodon</em> are oviparous and nocturnal, and feed on small vertebrates.
192111		population	eng	This species is known only from two historical specimens, one of which is very small (P. David pers. comm. 2011) and so no population data is available.
192111		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species. Human pressures at the type locality are unknown, but include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development are all leading to deforestation in Viet Nam.
192114		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in many protected areas. More information is needed on this species' population status and natural history.
192114		distribution	eng	This snake is widespread in southern China, where it is known from the provinces of Anhui, Chongqing, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan, as well as from Taiwan and Hong Kong. It was recently reported in Guangshui, Hubei Province (Dai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008). Its range extends into North Viet Nam (Zhao 2006). It occurs from 580 to 1,400 m asl.
192114		habitat	eng	This snake lives in meadows, shrubland and forest near streams or rivers. It feeds on earthworms, slugs and tadpoles. This is an oviparous snake (Zhao 2006).
192114		population	eng	It appears to be an uncommon species.
192114		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192116		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. This snake has been recorded from protected areas.
192116		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Nepal and northeastern India across southern China, and southward through Indochina and Sundaland as far east as Borneo (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996). Its presence in Singapore is uncertain.
192116		habitat	eng	This species ranges from sea level to up to 1,200 m elevation (David and Vogel 1996). The species is always found near water, especially the banks of streams, rivers, and ponds. It occurs in forest, but is usually found in forest clearings, open scrublands, marshes, swamps, wet grasslands, and cultivated areas, particularly rice fields. The species is diurnal and semi-aquatic and feeds on amphibians and fish. Females lay up to 14 eggs (David and Vogel 1996).
192116		population	eng	This species is common. It thrives in rice fields.
192116		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species. It is tolerant of human-modified environments.
192118		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to rediscover this species in the wild, and obtain data on its distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192118		distribution	eng	This species is presently known only from the type locality, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa Province, South Viet Nam&#160; (David<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
192118		habitat	eng	No ecological data is available for this species, which was described based on a museum specimen.
192118		population	eng	No population data are available for this recently-described species, which is known only from the holotype.
192118		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, as nothing is known of its natural history.
192119		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in Tawau Hills Park and Kinabalu National Parks in Sabah (Inger pers. obs.). More recently the species has been reported from Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park (Iskandar, unpublished record). Additional surveys are needed to establish its real distribution and better document its habitat requirements.
192119		distribution	eng	Based on limited data, the species occurs all over Borneo. Its occurrence in Java remains uncertain as it has not been collected recently. It has been recorded at altitudes between 200 and 600 m asl, except for a record from the Kelabit Plateau at 1,100 m asl.
192119		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland forest floor.<span style=""></span><span style=""><span style=""></span>
192119		population	eng	Judging from literature records, the species is believed to be uncommon, having been recorded only from very widely separated localities in Borneo. However, there is no accurate data on the population status of this species.
192119		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a potential threat to this species.
192120		conservation	eng	Taxonomic study is needed to clarify species limits of <span style="font-style: italic;">X. flavipunctatus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">X. piscator </span>in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. This need is made more acute since this includes the portion of the range where <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenochrophis</span> is commercially traded. Trade at Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, should be curbed during the breeding season (Brooks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).
192120		distribution	eng	This species occurs over a wide geographical range from Myanmar eastward to Taiwan, and southward to Thailand (Vogel and David 2006, Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is absent from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (L. Grismer pers. comm. August 2011).
192120		habitat	eng	This semi-aquatic species occurs in slow rivers and streams, marshes, swamps, flooded rice fields, ponds, lakes, and ditches. It feeds on fish and frogs.
192120		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant, and is very common in paddy fields in China (G. Vogel pers. comm. August 2011). In Cambodia it is abundant around Tonle Sap, but it is rarely caught along the Mekong or in the Cardamom Mountains (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011). It thrives in wet human-modified habitats, including rice fields. It is less common in Vietnam than in the past as a result of increased pesticide use and overharvesting to support snake farms and pigs, and exploitation for use in snake wine (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), but across its wide range the overall population is likely to be stable as it occurs very widely and benefits from many forms of habitat modification.
192120		threats	eng	Populations in Vietnam and especially at Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, may be threatened by overexploitation. The massive scale of the aquatic snake trade at Tonle Sap (Stuart<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2000) may threaten the persistence of that  subpopulation, and the species is perceived to be declining at this site (Brooks et al 2007a). In the rest of its range there are no apparent threats to this highly adaptable and abundant species.
192122		conservation	eng	The species is known to occur in several conservation areas.
192122		distribution	eng	The species is known from Java and the southern part of Sumatra (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) in Indonesia. There is a possible record from Bali pending confirmation (R. Lilley pers. comm. September 2011). It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,450 m. asl.
192122		habitat	eng	The species is confined to primary and secondary forest, from lowland up to about 1,200 m. asl. As with most pit vipers, it feeds on rodents and small birds. On Tinjil island, it is found to feed on lizards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphenomorphus florensis</span>), the only other vertebrate species abundant on the island.
192122		population	eng	The species appears to be uncommon, although it occurs in high numbers on Tinjil Island, a small island south of West Java.
192122		threats	eng	Over-collection for pet trade is a potential threat. On Tinjil Island, it is known to have been impacted by the introduction of the long tailed macaque, <span style="font-style: italic;">Macaca fascicularis</span>. In other areas the main possible threat is habitat conversion due to deforestation, but this is not presently considered significant.
192123		conservation	eng	It is known from one protected area, Gunung Gading National Park, in Sarawak, Malaysia.  Research is needed to establish the current distribution of this species, as well as its ecological requirements.
192123		distribution	eng	&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersii</span> was described from Sarawak (Malaysia), from where there are multiple records, and is also known from Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and historical specimens from Singapore. D.T. Iskandar has found the species approximately up to 50 m. asl. in Lampung (Sumatra), and estimated that it ranges up to altitudes of 100 m. asl.
192123		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland forests, where it has been reported from water bodies (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011).
192123		population	eng	The most recent record is from 1977 from Lampung (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm.). Approximately 15 specimens have been recorded from disparate localities.
192123		threats	eng	Major threats are not currently known for this species, although five of the known localities (Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Tanjung Balai, Medan and Kuching) are now cities and the original habitat may not exist.
192125		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192125		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Tanjung, a name which may refer to a village in either East or South Kalimantan or in the west of Melawi Watershed, Sokan River, also in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo).
192125		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology for this species.
192125		population	eng	There is no population information for this species as it is known from a single specimen.
192125		threats	eng	The area where this species has been reported from is under pressure  from mining and logging activities. However, it is not known it these threats are affecting this species.
192127		conservation	eng	This species is present in three protected areas.
192127		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia where it is only known from only three upland sites. It occurs at elevations between 700 and 1,400 m.
192127		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, terrestrial species occurs in closed, primary forest. It feeds on small mammals and frogs.
192127		population	eng	There is no information available on population size for this species. It is uncommon.
192127		threats	eng	The only known threat to this species is the harvest for pet trade, although is minimal.
192130		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is present in a number of protected areas. Some research is needed into the habitat and ecology of this species.
192130		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from southeastern China (Hong Kong, Hainan, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Guangxi westward to Yunnan and Guizhou); northern Viet Nam (Vinh Phuc ,Thua Thien-hue, Dak Lak, Lam Dong [Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2000; Nguyen <em>et al</em>., 2009]), Cambodia (northwestern Cardamom Mountains). The species occurs between 80 and 1,300 m asl.
192130		habitat	eng	This species lives in rice fields and nearby small streams, and can also be found in temperate, tropical and sub-tropical  mid-altitude forest, where it is associated with "damp forest floor". It is an oviparous species. The diet consists largely of amphibians and some fishes.
192130		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
192130		threats	eng	It is&#160;threatened&#160;in parts of its range by deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural use.
192132		conservation	eng	This species is listed as the key protected species of Sichuan Prov., China (Hu <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from some protected areas.
192132		distribution	eng	This species is only found in Wenchuan, Baoxing, Luding, Yaan and Shimian of Sichuan Province, China (Hu <em>et al.</em> 2002). It ranges between 2,000 and 2,500 m asl.
192132		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist mountain habitats. It lives in broad-leaf forest, it has been found also in mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest, roadsides, and riparian areas. It may be oviparous (Zhao 2006).
192132		population	eng	This is a difficult species to find and the population trend is not well known, although this is presumed to be declining with habitat loss.
192132		threats	eng	This is a species with a very narrow distribution. There is a decline in the quality of habitat outside of protected areas, through new development of housing and deforestation (logging). There is some poaching of this species (Wang and Xie 2009).
192133		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Present in many protected areas.
192133		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern China and throughout much of Viet Nam. In China it has been recorded from Zhejiang, Fujian, Hunan, Hainan, Jiangxi, Guangdong and Guangxi. In Viet Nam, there are records from Yen Bai (Van Yen: Na Hau), Cao Bang, Lang Son, Vinh Phuc (Tam  Dao), Hai Duong (Chi Linh), Ha Tinh (Rao An) (Orlov et al.,  2000; Nguyen et al. 2009) . It is found from sea level to around 1,200 m asl.
192133		habitat	eng	This is a fossorial snake, typically inhabiting forested slopes (Orlov et al., 2000). It has been recorded from villages where it is often found in the morning hiding under bamboo baskets or in grass baskets. It is an oviparous species, The diet consists of earthworms and small vertebrates.
192133		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
192133		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species. In parts of its range habitat loss due to general deforestation, including conversion to agriculture, remains a threat.
192134		conservation	eng	Field surveys are needed to understand this snake's ecology and hence susceptibility to potential threats from agricultural development and logging. The species occurs in Chatthin, Shwesettaw and Minsontaung Wildlife  Sanctuaries.
192134		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the Irrawaddy (=Ayeyarwady) and Chinwin (=Chindwin) river valleys in Myanmar, between 20 and 24 degrees latitude (Smith 1943, Zug et al. 1998).
192134		habitat	eng	Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) reported the species from c. 200 m elevation in  secondary deciduous dipterocarp forest, with about two-thirds of the forest  consisting of 8-10 m tall trees and the remainder 10-15 m tall trees, 30-70% canopy cover, and a forest floor consisting of a mixture of  forbs, grass, and shrubs.
192134		population	eng	Smith (1943), citing Wall, stated that this snake is not uncommon, but Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998) found that it was rare, based on monthly surveys over the course of a year in Chattin Wildlife Sanctuary. It is unknown whether this represents regional differences in abundance, differences in survey methodology or season, or a genuine decline over the intervening 55 years.
192134		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by forest loss driven by logging and agricultural expansion, but this cannot be confirmed given limited information on its ecological requirements. As it has been recorded from secondary forest, it may be tolerant of some level of disturbance.
192135		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
192135		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and southern Thailand, south of the Isthmus of Kra. In Peninsular Malaysia, it occurs at elevations from sea level to 500 m and from lowland to about 1,300 m asl elsewhere.
192135		habitat	eng	This species is a habitat generalist and can be found in disturbed areas as well as primary and secondary forests. It is often seen at night, sleeping on the branches of trees. It feeds on birds and some reptiles and probably also small mammals. It is able to climb trees and resting individuals can be found as high as 10 meters above the ground at night.
192135		population	eng	There are no available data on population size and trends for this species. It is rarely encountered in Sumatra, but reported as common to uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo.
192135		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192136		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. This species is found in many protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192136		distribution	eng	Southern China, including Taiwan and Hainan, and from Yunnan north to southeastern Gansu and east to Jiangsu. Possibly recorded from Jilin, China. It is also known from India (Darjeeling, Assam) and Burma, Laos, and Cambodia to Viet Nam (Zhao and Adler 1993). It ranges from sea level to around 2,000 m asl.
192136		habitat	eng	Nocturnal and semi-arboreal, inhabiting montane forests where it is often found resting or foraging near mountain streams. It can also be found close to paddy fields. Frogs may be their primary prey, but also small mammals, birds and lizards. Litters of 3-10 are born, newborns resemble adults (Cox et al. 1998).
192136		population	eng	This is a common species in China.
192136		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to the species. In some localities it is declining in response to general localised habitat degradation.
192137		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. It may not be present in protected areas. Research is needed to better determine the distribution of this species, as well as population size and trends.
192137		distribution	eng	This species is known from only one locality in Southern Thailand, Krabi Province. The snake's extent of occurrence is unclear, but the province has an area of 4,705 km<sup>2</sup> and the species' distributional extent is presumed to be less than this.
192137		habitat	eng	This species has been found in lowland moist monsoon forests. It is a nocturnal and arboreal species.
192137		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species.
192137		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is likely to be forest degradation from agricultural activities, mainly oil palm plantations, which is ongoing within Krabi Province.
192138		conservation	eng	This species has been successfully bred in captivity in low numbers. It is present in many protected areas. Further research is needed into the use and trade of this species.
192138		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in northern Myanmar; China (Anhui, Beijing, Chongqing, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin, Xizang, Yunnan, Hainan, Taiwan, and Zhejiang), Lao PDR, India (Arunachal Pradesh); Viet Nam. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Lao Cai (Sa Pa), Lang Son (Mau Son), Vinh Phuc (Tam Dao), Ha Tinh (Huong Son) (Orlov et al., 2000; Nguyen et al., 2009). It has been recorded from 200 to 1,600m asl.
192138		habitat	eng	This species is largely associated with forest habitats both tropical and temperate forests. It can also be found in grasslands and shrubland. In Tam Dao species found in northern part of mountain range in the karst  area; 1400 –1500 m (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000, Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is generally not found in rural areas. It is an oviparous species. Diet largely consists of small vertebrates.
192138		population	eng	This is a relatively rare species. There are estimated to be 3,100,000 individuals in China (State Forestry Administration of China, 2009). Wang and Xie (2009) indicate that this species has declined by 30% over the previous ten years, but further details are needed to confirm this decline.
192138		threats	eng	Habitat destruction may represent a threat to this species over parts of its wide range; although it is very widespread, its distribution within this area might be fragmented. There may be localized threats from overharvesting for food or the pet trade.
192139		conservation	eng	The area where the species was collected from is not protected. There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192139		distribution	eng	The species is only recorded from Padang area (Capital of West Sumatra Province), Indonesia. It was described based on six specimens originating from a single site.
192139		habitat	eng	As for other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, it is assumed that the species inhabits forests and is fossorial.
192139		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends as this species is known from only six specimens.
192139		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192140		conservation	eng	It is present in the Mangshan Natural Nature Reserve. Captive breeding has been successful in Germany, China and the US. Captive breeding started in 1994; by 2010, about 100 individuals had been born in captivity (Chen 2010).
192140		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality of Pingkeng, Mangshan (= Mount Mang), Hunan Province and Ruyuan, Guangdong Province, China (Zhao and Adler 1993), with an estimated extent of occurrence of 300 km². It has been recorded between 800 and 1,300 m asl.
192140		habitat	eng	This species lives in subtropical needle-leaf and broad-leaf mixture forest. Its diet consists of birds and rodents. It is an oviparous species, laying 20–27 eggs in June and July.
192140		population	eng	State Forestry Administration of China (2009) reported that the population of this rare species has only about 500 individuals.
192140		threats	eng	Illegal collection for the pet trade remains a threat to this species. Between the 1950s and the 1980s, deforestation within the species range significantly reduced its distribution.
192142		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine this species' true geographical distribution, natural history and sensitivity to threats from forest degradation.
192142		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northeastern India and northern Myanmar to western Yunnan Province in China (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In India it has been recorded in Meghalaya and Assam and probably also  occurs in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh (P. David pers. comm. September  2011). In India, the snake's range extends to the Khasi Hills in the country's northeast. While it is not expected to occur in the adjacent lowlands of northern Bangladesh it is possible that the species occurs in hill country in eastern Bangladesh (P. David pers. comm. September 2011), and this is in need of confirmation.
192142		habitat	eng	Smith (1943) reported this species to occur in hills from about 700 to 1,700 m elevation; due the recent change in the taxonomic concept of this species, it is unclear whether this represents the true elevational range of the species as now recognized. In Myanmar it has been found to be terrestrial in montane forest where it lives on the ground.
192142		population	eng	Nothing is known about this snake's population status.
192142		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known, but if it is restricted to forest then it may be threatened by forest loss and degradation. Even with the range reduction resulting from changes to the taxonomic concept for <em>A. modestum</em> it is a rather widespread snake, and so it is unclear whether it is at any significant risk.
192143		conservation	eng	The area where the species was collected from is not protected. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution as well as population size and trends.
192143		distribution	eng	The species is found in Langkat, North Sumatra, Indonesia. It is known from a single specimen collected about 110 years ago.
192143		habitat	eng	As for other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, it is assumed that it is a fossorial species. Langkat is well known as a lowland area with much agriculture and now covered with oil palm plantation.
192143		population	eng	There are no data available on the population size and trends for this species as it is known from only one specimen.
192143		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, the area where it was collected from has been converted to agriculture and oil palm plantation.
192144		conservation	eng	The species is present in a protected area. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution and population size and trends.
192144		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sumatra, Indonesia and is only known from the holotype collected from Mt Kerinci.
192144		habitat	eng	The area where the species was found correspond to montane forest or bamboo forest.
192144		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species as it is known only from one specimen.
192144		threats	eng	As the type locality is in Kerinci Seblat National Park, the population in this area is relatively safe.
192146		conservation	eng	It occurs in three protected areas in Sabah, Malaysia (Kinabalu, Crocker Range, Tawau Hills) and one in East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Kayan Mentarang National Park).
192146		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded&#160; in Sabah (Danum Valley, Malutut, Purulon, Tawau Hills and the foothills of Kinabalu), Malaysian Borneo The record from Kinabalu is from Manthey (1983). It has also been recorded in northern and central Kalimantan (Banjaran and Tanjung) (De Rooij 1917). It ranges from lowlands up to 1,000 m. asl.
192146		habitat	eng	The species is terrestrial and can be found mostly in lowland primary forest. It was reported to feed on lizards and reptile eggs (Stuebing &amp; Inger 1999, I. Das pers. obs.).
192146		population	eng	No information is currently available on abundance or population trends.
192146		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat to this species in some parts of its range, although it is not considered to be significantly affecting the entire population.
192147		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Recent records of this species include one from Bako National Park and one from Gunung Mulu National Park, both in Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data).
192147		distribution	eng	This snake has been reported from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Sarawak and Sabah.  Its occurrence in Singapore, the type locality, needs reconfirmation, and its presence in Brunei and Kalimatan needs to be confirmed.
192147		habitat	eng	This snake has been recorded from both lowlands and, in Peninsular Malaysia, uplands, although it is rare in the latter. Most known localities are characterized by gardens and disturbed lowland forest.
192147		population	eng	The species is well represented in North Sumatra. Only a few specimens have been reported from Borneo (Stuebing and Inger 1999). It is considered as rare in Peninsular Malaysia (David and Vogel 1996).
192147		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, which is however known mostly from degraded habitats.
192148		conservation	eng	This species is present within some protected areas. More research on ecology and threats is recommended.
192148		distribution	eng	This species ranges in Taiwan Province of China and Japan (southern Ryukyu Islands). There is an elevational record of 1,000 m asl.
192148		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits montane humid forests, where it has been found in dark, wet environments such as the forest floor, rotten wood and leaf litter. It is not clear whether it occurs in degraded or disturbed forests, but it is not found in cleared or unshaded areas. Ovoviviparous, feeds on earthworms etc. (Zhao 2006).
192148		population	eng	There is no information on population trends in this snake.
192148		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this high altitude snake.
192149		conservation	eng	All known localities where this species has been found fall within protected areas in Sabah, Kalimantan and Sarawak.
192149		distribution	eng	This Bornean endemic is known from scattered localities throughout the Malaysian part of the island. Most records are from Sarawak, where it has been found from Gunung Penrissen, on the eastern border with Kalimantan, to Gunumg Murud, near the border with Brunei.&#160;&#160;In Sabah records exist from Mt. Trusmadi and Mt. Kinabalu; in the latter, records exist both from high elevations (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002) and from 800 m (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data). It was recently found in Central Kalimantan, and in Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park in West Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. It is known from altitudes from 700 up to 1,800 m
192149		habitat	eng	The species has been recoded from mid hills to submontane forest and is found near mountain streams.
192149		population	eng	Although this species is only known from sixteen specimens in Malaysia and two specimens from Kalimantan, it is considered locally abundant where it has been recorded in Sarawak.
192149		threats	eng	At present, most localities where the species has been recorded include national parks and protected areas at relatively high altitude, and so is not expected to be immediately subject to any threats.
192150		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several conservation areas. There are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species.
192150		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from numerous localities in Peninsular Malaysia and Aur Island. The species has also been recorded from Durian and Galang Island, Riau Archipelago, Indonesia. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 1,500 m.
192150		habitat	eng	As for other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>species, it is assumed that the species is fossorial and occurs in forests. It has been recorded from near sea level to high altitude (Fraser Hill, Gunung Pulai, Bukit Lagong) up to about 1,500 m asl.
192150		population	eng	The species has been collected from many places in Peninsular Malaysia, but all records are represented by a single specimen. For this reason, the species is considered to be secretive.
192150		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192151		conservation	eng	Part of its habitat is within the Gaoligong Mountains National Nature Reserve. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the full extent of the species range.
192151		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from its type locality of Xiaohei Hill, Gaoligong Mountains National Nature Reserve (24.83671°N, 98.76185°E) (2,067 m asl), Longling County, Baoshan District, Yunnan Province, China.
192151		habitat	eng	Inhabits in evergreen broadleaf forest (Guo et al. 2009). Can be arboreal but also found on the forest floor. It is an egg-laying species.
192151		population	eng	Known only from the type series.
192151		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
192152		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. It is found in many protected areas.
192152		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in China (Guangxi, Guizhou, Hunan, Hong Kong) and Viet Nam (Cao Bang [Nguyen Binh], Lang Son [Mau Son], Vinh Phuc [Tam Dao], Hoa Binh [Thuong Tien], Quang Ninh [Ban Sen, Lam Ca, Nam Son], Hai Duong [Chi Linh] [Nguyen et al., 2009]). This species is found at elevations of 100 to 800m asl.
192152		habitat	eng	It is associated with streams and can be found in habitats ranging from forest to traditional agricultural fields. It is an oviparous species. The diet includes freshwater shrimps.
192152		population	eng	This is a fairly common species.
192152		threats	eng	It may be impacted by habitat degradation such as the development of hydroelectric dams.
192154		conservation	eng	Portions of the range of this species are present in a protected area in  Cameron Highlands. Although this species is legally protected, better  enforcement of the law is needed to prevent illegal collecting.
192154		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Cameron Highlands, Peninsular Malaysia, an area covering approximately 6,600 km². It occurs at elevations between 1,200 and 1,500 m.
192154		habitat	eng	This species is found in low vegetation in montane forests. It is nocturnal and feeds on frogs, lizards and small mammals.
192154		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is a common species.
192154		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is illegal collection for pet trade.
192155		conservation	eng	This species does not occur in protected areas. No conservation actions are known for the species. Research is needed to better determine its distribution as well as its population size and trends.
192155		distribution	eng	The Indonesian species has been recorded from Kayu Tanam (Padang Pariaman District) and from Mt Talakmau (Ophir District), both in West Sumatra, where it is known from a single specimen at each site. Kayu Tanam lies at around 300 m elevation, while Mt Talakman is 1,000 m asl. The species is also present in Kutai, in Borneo (Brongersma and Helle 1951, Das <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
192155		habitat	eng	From the localities where this species has been recorded, it is assumed that it inhabits lowland dipterocarp forests. Nothing is known about the ecology of the species, but the little that is known about other members of the genus suggests that it may be semi-fossorial in forested areas. The only female specimen had four eggs in its oviduct.
192155		population	eng	Nothing is known about its population as only two specimens are known.
192155		threats	eng	The type locality (Kayu Tanam) has essentially only patchy forested area and gardens, and is not protected. The closest conservation area is Lembah Anai Protected Forest. However, this is a very touristic area and is easily accessed from the main roads. Illegal small-scale logging occurs all the time. However, it is unknown whether this threat has any effect on this species.
192156		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192156		distribution	eng	This snake occurs in India, Myanmar and China (Whitaker and Captain 2004). In China, this species is found in Yunnan Province of China (Zhao 2006), and has also been recorded from western Guangxi recently (M. Lau pers. comm September 2011). Although it covers a wide range, this species is very localized and rarely recorded despite many  surveys in areas of suitable habitat. It is consequently believed to have a rather restricted area of occupancy. It has been recorded between 900 and 1,786 m asl.
192156		habitat	eng	This nocturnal, oviparous snake is found near hill streams in highland areas, close to disturbed evergreen montane forest. It feeds on tadpoles and frogs (Whitaker and Captain 2004). Females contain 6 mature eggs (Zhao 2006).
192156		population	eng	No population information is currently available. It considered a very rare species in Myanmar (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011)
192156		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. However, there is substantial timber trade between northern Myanmar, Assam and China and the forest habitat of this species is presumably being degraded or destroyed. Due to the highly localized occurrence of this snake and limited information on its distribution, it is unclear whether this represents a major threat.
192157		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species, although it occurs close to a protected area. More surveys are needed to rediscover this snake and to establish whether it occurs in Lao PDR, and to clarify its distribution, population status, natural history and exposure to threats.
192157		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a locality adjacent to Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Thuong Hoa commune, Minh Hoa district, Quang Binh Province, Viet Nam, at an elevation of 450 m. (Ziegler and Le 2006). This area of central Viet Nam is adjacent to Lao PDR, and records for this country are likely in the future (Ziegler and Le 2006).
192157		habitat	eng	The single, male, specimen was found during the late afternoon on the forest floor of a large limestone valley near a stream (Ziegler and Le 2006). <em>Amphiesma</em> species are mostly associated with water, but nothing is known of this species' natural history.
192157		population	eng	No population data is available for this recently-described snake, which is known only from a single specimen. A recent survey at the type locality failed to record this species (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
192157		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species, however this snake occurs in an area of extensive forest close to the Lao border and so its exposure to and the magnitude of any threats are unknown.
192158		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required. It is present in many protected areas.
192158		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern Myanmar across southern China to Taiwan, including the islands of Hainan and Hong Kong. It is also known from northern Thailand and from much of Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Pope 1935, Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, Zhao and Adler 1993, Stuart and Heatwole 2008, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It probably occurs in northeastern Cambodia, but it has not been documented there.
192158		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forested hill streams from 100 to 2,000 m elevation (Pope 1935). Pope (1935) also reported it to occur in "swarms in the few irrigated fields" at the edge of forest at Kuatun, China. It feeds on frogs, tadpoles, fish, and crayfish (Pope 1935). Females lay 4-13 eggs (Pope 1935).
192158		population	eng	This species can be locally abundant (Pope 1935). It is a very common species in China.
192158		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192159		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The species is found in protected areas.
192159		distribution	eng	This snake is known to be widespread from extreme southern Thailand through Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra east to Borneo, and also occurs on a number of smaller islands within this range.
192159		habitat	eng	The species is typically associated with lowland forests but is also known from road cuts and agricultural land (L. Grismer pers. comm. October 2011). It has been found in both primary and secondary forest, and is presumed also to occur in plantations (D. Iskandar pers. comm. October 2011). Judging from the small slender body and  pointed head, it is a semi-fossorial species.
192159		population	eng	The species appear to be common everywhere.
192159		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species, however as it is common and widespread it is not thought to be subject to any major threats.
192161		conservation	eng	This species undoubtedly occurs in protected areas within its wide range, and no species-specific measures are required.
192161		distribution	eng	The species occurs from southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia south across the islands of the Sunda Shelf, including numerous small islands as well as the Sumatra, Java and Borneo. It is usually found in lowlands. In Sarawak recent records exist for Gunung Mulu National Park, a site where the snake had never previously been recorded, at elevations of 70 and 200 m asl. (J.M. Dehing unpubl. data).
192161		habitat	eng	The species is commonly found in primary and secondary lowland forest, including alluvial forest and, on Borneo, kerangas (heath forest) (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data), but can also be encountered in gardens within villages. The elevational range is between sea level to about 600 m asl., although it is occasionally found at higher altitude. It mainly feeds on lizards but also on frogs.
192161		population	eng	The species is considered as common everywhere within its range.
192161		threats	eng	As this is a common, adaptable and widely distributed snake, it is not subject to any threats.
192164		conservation	eng	There is at least one subpopulation for this species that occurs in a National Park, and several small areas within the distribution of the species where forest is well preserved. Survey work is needed to determine if the species will  become threatened in the future.
192164		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. monticola</span> is known from the South Kalimantan Province and Sarawak. Inger &amp; Marx (1965) might have misidentified the record from Kuala Kapuas which is not the estuary of the big Kapuas River at West Kalimantan, because there is another Kapuas river in Central Kalimantan where Kuala Kapuas is situated. Hence the species is mainly distributed along Barito and Kapuas River, south of Schwanner Mts. in central Kalimantan. It is known to occur at elevations around 200 m. asl.
192164		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forests and has been recorded in forested areas close to rivers.
192164		population	eng	No information is available about population.
192164		threats	eng	Logging for timber is the major threat to this species in South and Central Kalimantan. Coal mining is also a potential associated threat.
192166		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. More information is needed on its distribution, population status and its sensitivity to threats.
192166		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Viet Nam, where records exist from Dalat and Bao Loc in Lam Dong Province, and from Huong Son in Ha Tinh Province. It has an estimated extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of the known sites, of around 5,250 km<sup>2</sup>.
192166		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake is fossorial in forest leaf litter, and has only been found in evergreen forest (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011). Forest in Ha Tinh is pristine, and so this snake may rely on good-quality forest (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011) It is nocturnal (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003)
192166		population	eng	No population data is available for this rare snake. Despite numerous surveys in Lam Dong and Ha Tinh, this species has very rarely been found since its original description, although other species of <em>Calamaria</em> have been commonly reported from the same region (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192166		threats	eng	In Ha Tinh and Lam Dong the main pressure on forest comes from selective logging (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011); the extent to which this activity threatens the snake is unknown.
192167		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the limits of this snake's distribution, clarify its natural history and population status, and to determine its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
192167		distribution	eng	This snake is known from southern Viet Nam, where records exist for Dong Nai Province, Bien Hoa and the District of Ho Chi Minh City, and from Cambodia, where no locality data are available.
192167		habitat	eng	The known localities are characterized by open habitats (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), but the particular habitat preferences of this snake are unknown. Nothing is known of this species' natural history,  although it is presumably terrestrial.
192167		population	eng	No population data is available for this species, which has rarely been recorded, even in areas where surveys have reported numerous specimens of other <em>Oligodon</em> species (B. Stuart, T. Neang and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192167		threats	eng	Historical forest destruction around Ho Chi Minh City has been extensive, however the impacts of this activity on this snake are unknown as records from this area are historical and the snake's habitat preferences are unclear. As no precise locality data is available for Cambodia, it is unclear whether this snake is exposed to any threatening processes in this part of its range.
192168		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
192168		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, southern Lao PDR, extreme northwest of Peninsular Malaysia, and Java in Indonesia. It occurs from sea level up to 700 m.
192168		habitat	eng	Das (2010) describes this species as occurring in lowland and  submontane forest and plantations, where it is associated with both  dense undergrowth and rocky areas. It is a nocturnal, terrestrial, egg-laying species, feeding on vertebrates, mainly mammals.
192168		population	eng	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It is a common species throughout its range.
192168		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming. These threats may be affect only local sub-populations of this species.
192169		conservation	eng	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II. More studies on harvest levels and biological attributes of this species are needed to determine if harvest levels are sustainable in the long-term (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Keogh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). This species occurs in several protected areas in Thailand and Malaysia.
192169		distribution	eng	The species occurs from southern Thailand north to Kanchanaburi Province in Central Thailand (M. Cota in litt. to M. Auliya), Peninsular (West) Malaysia and eastern Sumatra (Indonesia) (Taylor 1965, Keogh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The snake's range throughout this area is disjunct; however, due to extensive national and international transport of these animals within the region, and a policy in Thailand of releasing animals confiscated from wildlife traders in the closest national park, the exact native range of this species within these countries cannot be established with certainty (Zug <em>et al.</em> 2011). Records from elsewhere, including Viet Nam, may represent introductions or a false report of the origin of imported specimens (Zug <em>et al.</em> 2011). Photographs of a juvenile or subadult specimen taken in October 2011 confirm the presence of this snake in Lo Go Xa Mat National Park in southern Viet Nam, close to the Cambodian border (T.M. Phung unpubl. data), and indicate that a breeding population is likely to occur here (M. Auliya pers. comm. October 2011). If this record reflects an extension to the python's known native range, it must be hypothesized that the snake also occurs in intervening areas of southern Myanmar (M. Auliya pers. comm. October 2011). There is a record of this species from Singapore based on a single specimen recorded in 1881, leading subsequent authors to assume the species was historically native to the island (Groombridge and Luxmore 1991). This is, however, unclear, and the species is no longer found in Singapore (M. Auliya pers. comm. March 2012). This species occurs at elevations between sea level and 650 m.
192169		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of this species in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand is lowland swampy habitats. In northern Sumatra, the species thrives in human-modified areas, particularly oil palm plantations where it may be more abundant than in natural habitat (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Keogh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Auliya 2006). Diet, growth, and reproductive biology of the species was studied by Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1999) based on examination of commercially harvested specimens in Sumatra, Indonesia. Females grow larger than males, mature at larger sizes, and reproduce biennially, producing 12 to 16 eggs (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The species feeds on human commensal rodents in oil palm plantations (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
192169		population	eng	This snake is generally uncommon throughout its range, though it is more abundant in Peninsular Malaysia than in Thailand (Zug <em>et al.</em> 2011). The species is thought to be increasing in population size due to it benefiting from the establishment of oil-palm plantations, where it is more abundant than in natural forests and where it thrives on human commensal rodents (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Keogh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Auliya 2006). The species is able to tolerate high levels of harvest for the leather trade, but it is uncertain if current levels of exploitation are sustainable in the long-term (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
192169		threats	eng	The species is threatened from possible overexploitation for the leather and international pet trades. Its range and that of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. curtus </span>may be modified due to escapes, as snakes of both species collected for commercial trade are moved long distances in Sumatra to slaughterhouses (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Keogh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Sumatra, if the legal harvest quota is reached before the end of the year, harvesting continues and skins are stockpiled and smuggled out of the country (M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011). It remains uncertain whether this additional off-take contributes to a severe decline of local populations.
192173		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species'&#160; population status and natural history. It is legally protected in Taiwan. It is found in some national parks.
192173		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south and central Taiwan, China. It is found at elevations of 500 to 1,500 m asl.
192173		habitat	eng	This species lives in forests or meadows in mountainous area of lower or middle altitude. Often nocturnal, but sometimes also appears in daytime. Oviparous, no information on its food (Zhao 2006).
192173		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
192173		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192174		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192174		distribution	eng	This species occurs disjunctly in Ca Mau and Binh Duong Provinces of southern Viet Nam (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and from southern Thailand to Sumatra, Indonesia (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The records from Viet Nam are unconfirmed.
192174		habitat	eng	This arboreal species occurs from sea level to 400 m elevation, usually in wet lowland forests, swamps, marshes, mangroves, and coastal swamps. It is almost always found near water. In Sumatra, juveniles are more terrestrial than adults. It gives birth to about 15 young (David and Vogel 1996).
192174		population	eng	The species is abundant in parts of its range (David and Vogel 1996). It is uncommon in Thailand.
192174		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is illegal collecting for the international pet trade. However, because this species is so abundant, it does not appear to be affecting its population.
192175		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Batang Gadis National Park in North Sumatra, and in the close vicinity of Lembah Anai Nature Reserve.
192175		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. rugosa </span>was described from a single specimen from Kayu Tanam in West Sumatra, Indonesia, and recently another  specimen has been reported in literature (Iskandar &amp; Kamsi 2009). A second historical record is from Aek Nangali, Batang Toru, Batang Gadis National Park, in North Sumatra. Following 120 years with no reports of this species, it has recently been recorded on at least three occasions by local students (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011), and two additional specimens are now known, all records being from West Sumatra (G. Vogel pers. comm. September 2011).
192175		habitat	eng	O. rugosa lives in streams in primary lowland forests. The type locality was previously forested areas at an altitude of about 300 m. asl. The second locality is Toru River in Aek Nangali, Batang, within a forested area at about 600 m. asl. Reports from local students indicate that the species inhabits along medium sized rivers. Contrary to the previous information, the water where the species was found is not necessary fast flowing (Iskandar pers. comm.).
192175		population	eng	Despite having been known from only two specimens over a period of 120 years, a larger number of recent sightings suggest that the species may not be not extremely rare, as was previously thought (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011), but it cannot be described as common.
192175		threats	eng	A potential threat to the species is deforestation.
192176		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area that includes human settlements. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species.
192176		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two nearby localities in northern Kachin State, Myanmar (Smith 1940, 1943). This site is adjacent to the border with the Chinese province of Yunnan, but it is not certain whether it occurs in China. The species has been recently found in the type locality and appears to be very localised as surveys in the area have not documented it elsewhere (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011). It occurs at elevations up to 995 m.
192176		habitat	eng	This species occurs in riparian areas and streams of high mountain forests. Of the historical specimens, "most of them were caught in small mountain streams" (Smith 1943). The recent specimens were caught under rocks near streams (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
192176		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is known only from 10 historical specimens (Smith 1943) and two recent ones (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
192176		threats	eng	There is illegal timber extraction in the area where this species occurs that might affect its habitat. However, there is no information on whether this or any other activities represent threats to this species.
192177		conservation	eng	This snake is known from several protected areas in Viet Nam and China. Protection of additional forests within its range, and efforts to limit deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures, and will benefit this species.
192177		distribution	eng	This snake is found in southern China, northern Lao PDR (Xieng Khuang), and in North Viet Nam. In China this snake is known from southern Guangxi Province and from Lao Jun Shan Provincial Nature Reserve, Malipo county, Wenshan, southeastern Yunnan (Zhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, as <em>D. flavozonatum</em>). In Viet Nam it is found from from the border with China south to Thanh Hoa province (Orlov and Ryabov 2004). It has been recorded between 300 and 1,700 m asl.
192177		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake is found in evergreen forest, including disturbed and secondary forest as well as pristine forest (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm August 2010) It is nocturnal and terrestrial, and is normally found near streams.
192177		population	eng	No population data are available for this uncommon snake, although the population is presumed to be stable.
192177		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution are varied and include illegal logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development. Exploitation occurs at very low levels and does not represent a threat to this snake (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192178		conservation	eng	This species is only known from Tam Dao National Park, Viet Nam. No species-specific conservation measures are in place. More surveys are needed to identify additional records and obtain  information on this snake's distribution, population status, natural  history and exposure to threats.
192178		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Tam Dao National Park, Vinh Phuc Province, North Viet Nam, ca. 750 m elevation.
192178		habitat	eng	Species of <em>Opisthotropis</em> live in small streams, where they are found beneath rocks. The habitat in Tam Dao consists of montane evergreen forest.
192178		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this recently-described species, which is known from only two specimens. <em>Opisthotropis</em> species are secretive snakes that live under rocks in streams, and as they are infrequently encountered by herpetologists they are either naturally rare or underrecorded. <em></em>
192178		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. Species of <em>Opisthotropis</em> are found in forest streams and so may be at risk from deforestation, however the only known locality for this species is within Tam Dao National Park. Tourism may result in water pollution and forest degradation within the national park, but too little is known about any <em>Opisthotropis</em> species to gauge this snake's likely sensitivity to these threats.
192179		conservation	eng	This widespread viper is known from many protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192179		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern China (Guangxi, Guanngdong and Hainan) to Vietnam south to the Da Lat Plateau (Malhotra<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). It probably occurs in eastern Laos and northeastern Cambodia, although it was not recorded in recent surveys of northeast Cambodia's Mondolkiri Province (B. Stuart and T. Neang pers. comm. September 2011). It has been recorded from 800 to 1,600 m asl.
192179		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial snake of forest leaf litter at high elevations. It is associated with montane evergreen forest.
192179		population	eng	This secretive forest floor snake is infrequently encountered, although in the absence of major threats the population is expected to be stable.
192179		threats	eng	This species is confined to high elevations where its forest habitat is under little pressure from humans, and no major threats are known.
192180		conservation	eng	Protection of additional forests within its range, and efforts to limit deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures, and will benefit this species. In Yunnan and Xizang, China, it is present in some protected areas.
192180		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh (Namdapha – Changlang district), Myanmar (= Burma),&#160; Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and China (Xizang, Yunnan) (Zhao and Adler 1993, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2003, Ziegler<em> et al.</em> 2007). It has been recorded from south Viet Nam from Danang, Quang Nam, Soklang and Gia Lai provinces, and collected in the northwest at Nam Xe Commune, Van Ban district, Lao Cai province (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2003, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). It ranges from 300 to 1,900m asl.
192180		habitat	eng	This is largely a diurnal snake associated with montane forests. It is oviparous. The diet consists mainly of small vertebrates.
192180		population	eng	In China this is a very rare species.
192180		threats	eng	This species is threatened in parts of its range by limited deforestation (logging, conversion of land to crops etc.).
192181		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area. Field surveys are needed to determine its natural history and extent of its geographic range (including its presence in adjacent Myanmar). The species is legally protected from export from Thailand for the pet trade. All international trade is illegal, therefore compliance of the law should be enforced.
192181		distribution	eng	This species is known with certainty only from Kanchanaburi (=Kanburi) Province in western Thailand, on the border with Myanmar, where it is known only from Sai Yak and Thong Pha Phum districts (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). It also likely occurs in adjacent Kayin State, Myanmar, but it has not yet been documented there (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It occurs at elevations of up to 600 m. Its known extent of occurrence is around 3,000 km²<sup></sup>.
192181		habitat	eng	Smith (1943) obtained the holotype in limestone hills (= limestone karst). This species occurs in bamboo forests up to 600 m of elevation.
192181		population	eng	There is no information on its population size. The species is known only from a few specimens (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Malhotra and Thorpe 2004). It is uncommon.
192181		threats	eng	This rare and beautiful species is targeted by the illegal international pet trade.
192183		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. No conservation measures are required.
192183		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Thailand from south of the Isthmus of Kra through Sundaland (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) (Taylor 1965, Saint Girons 1972, Inger and Voris 2001). The species was reported from Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam by David and Vogel (1996) without basis. In Peninsular Malaysia it occurs at elevations up to 600 m. Outside Peninsular Malaysia, it has been reported from sea level up to 1,420 m elevation (David and Vogel 1996).
192183		habitat	eng	This fossorial species occurs in underground burrows or among decaying vegetation in all kinds of forests and plantations (David and Vogel 1996).
192183		population	eng	Taylor (1965) reported the species from Thailand only from two specimens. The species is uncommon throughout its range (Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996).
192183		threats	eng	The species is probably negatively affected by forest destruction, although it is able to live in plantations (David and Vogel 1996) and so can apparently tolerate some human-modified habitat.
192184		conservation	eng	This species is not known from protected areas. Surveys are needed to relocate this species and obtain information on its distribution, population status, natural history, exposure and response to threats.
192184		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhabdophis chrysargoides </span>is poorly known and restricted to Java (Iskandar &amp; Colijn 2001), where it was collected from Ujung Kulon in West Java in 1993 (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. 2011). The only other known specimens indicate only "Java" as the collection locality (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. 2012), making this snake's true distribution on the island unclear.
192184		habitat	eng	No information is available on this species' habitats and ecology. It is expected to live near water.
192184		population	eng	&#160;Very few specimens of this species are known. No recent information is available on population trends.
192184		threats	eng	No information on threats to this snake is available.
192185		conservation	eng	The area where this species was collected from is not protected. Research is needed to determine whether it should be assigned to a different genus, as well as on its distribution and population size and trends.
192185		distribution	eng	The species is described based on a specimen from Indragiri southern Riau Province, Indonesia. It is described based on a single specimen and never found again after 110 years.
192185		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland forest and marshy areas. It is probably a water snake.
192185		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species.
192185		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
192186		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present within protected areas in Gansu. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192186		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Luding County of Western Sichuan and Tianshui, Kangxian of southeastern Gansu, China (Zhao 2006). It is found at elevations of 1,000 to 1,400m asl.
192186		habitat	eng	This species is associated with hills and mountainous areas. Animals are often found in meadows, forests or open hilly fields. Feeds on the eggs of reptiles. It is an oviparous species (Zhao 2006).
192186		population	eng	This appears to be a rare species.
192186		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species.
192187		conservation	eng	The species does not require any conservation measures and it is found in protected areas.
192187		distribution	eng	This species is known from a wide area from near sea level to about 1,200 m above sea level from southern Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Indonesia. In Indonesia it is found as far east as Kangean Island, having also been recorded from Sumatra (including the Mentawai Islands, Nias and Riau), Kalimantan (including Karimata), Java and Bali.
192187		habitat	eng	The species is most frequently found in primary and secondary forest, including forests in coastal areas. The species forages on forest floor and the main prey is reptile eggs.
192187		population	eng	This is a common species and well represented in museum collections.
192187		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been reported.
192188		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192188		distribution	eng	This species occurs in coastal areas from southern Myanmar to Sumatra, Indonesia (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996, Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), occurring no higher than 10 m asl.
192188		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and arboreal species occurs in mangroves, coastal wet forests and coastal swamps and marshes, as well as along canals, river banks and in thick vegetation near the coastline (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, David and Vogel 1996).
192188		population	eng	There are no data available on population trends for this species. It can be locally highly abundant.
192188		threats	eng	The only recognized potential threat to this species is harvest for the pet trade, although as it can be abundant and exploitation is at a low level, this is unlikely to be a major threat to its population.
192189		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas.
192189		distribution	eng	This snake has been recorded from China (Hainan, Guizhou and Yunnan); Myanmar (where the type locality, Mogok, is found); eastern Thailand;&#160; Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northeastern Cambodia. It is widespread in Viet Nam except the far south, and records exist for the provinces of Lao Cai, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Thua Thien-Hue, Da   Nang, Kon Tum, Lam Dong and Dong Nai (Orlov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
192189		habitat	eng	This is an egg-laying snake with mixed diurnal and nocturnal activity. It is arboreal in montane forests near streams, where it feeds on slugs. It can be found from 600 to 1,500 meters of altitude.
192189		population	eng	No population data are available, although it is not a very common species.
192189		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development. However, none of these can be considered major threats to this species at present, as it has a wide range and these processes are localized.
192190		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is possible that some populations are within protected areas. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
192190		distribution	eng	This species ranges is endemic to China where it is known from several far separated areas, e.g. Longquan of Zhejiang Province; Leishan of Guizhou Province; Nanjing, Chongan, Pucheng, and Shaowu of&#160; Fujian Province;&#160; Liujiang Town, Hongya of&#160; Sichuan Province; Mount. Jinggangshan of Jiangxi Province (Guo and Zhao 2004). Yang et al. (2008) reported a new record in Jiangxi Qiyunshan Nature Reserve. Zhao (2006) mentioned Hunan, but its distribution is unclear and it is not mapped here. It occurs between 700 and 1,100m asl.
192190		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from forest, hilly areas and plantations. It feeds on snails. The species is oviparous laying 6-12 eggs in August (Zhao 2006).
192190		population	eng	It is a uncommon species.
192190		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
192191		conservation	eng	No conservation action is known to date. The species occurs in a conservation area. Further research is needed to better determine the distribution and population size and trends of this species.
192191		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single specimen collected from Engkari River  in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. The locality from where it was described is at 245 m of elevation.
192191		habitat	eng	The only specimen was collected on mixed dipterocarp secondary forest on the floor among leaf litter not far from a river.
192191		population	eng	As the species is known from a single specimen, nothing is known about its population.
192191		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known. However, the area where the species was collected is an intact forest, most likely within a protected area.
192192		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan.
192192		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan, China (Zhao &amp; Alder 1993). It occurs at 1,000 to 3,000m asl.
192192		habitat	eng	This species lives in forests, but has also been recorded from the caves of Alishan Mountains. It is often found in dark and wet environment, such as leaf litter, rotten woods, and occasionally found in trails. As with other members of the genus it may be oviparous. The diet consists largely of&#160; slugs.
192192		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
192192		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192193		conservation	eng	Research is needed to determine the current distribution, population status and natural history of, and any threats to, this species.
192193		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. baramensis</span> was described from the headwaters of the Baram River and Nanga Tekalit, Gunung Murud, Gunung Dulit, in Sarawak, Malaysia (R. Inger&#160; pers. comm.). It has been recorded between 150 and 1,000 m. asl., but only few specimens are known. It is believed to be more widespread, as apparently suitable habitat is common on mountains in the region, but this requires confirmation.
192193		habitat	eng	Only a few specimens of this species have been collected, all of them from lowland and montane forested areas.
192193		population	eng	There is no information about the population size or trends.
192193		threats	eng	&#160;Deforestation is a potential threat to the species, but nothing is known about its exposure to or tolerance to specific pressures on its forest habitat.
192194		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, population status, natural history and threats.
192194		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted range, but is present in China, India and Myanmar. In China it has been recorded from Linzhi County, Chayu County and Motuo County, in Xizang (= Tibet) (Herpetological Department, Sichuan Biological Research Institute 1977; Zhao 2006). It occurs at elevations of 1,000 to 2,200 m asl.
192194		habitat	eng	This species generally inhabits in broad-leaf forests, but can be found at the edge of agricultural fields and close to villages. It is an oviparous species. There is no information available on diet (Zhao 2006).
192194		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
192194		threats	eng	There is no information on major threats to this species. Animals are generally persecuted on sight as with many snakes.
192195		conservation	eng	No conservation area is established on Enggano. Research is needed to relocate this species, although it has not been found in recent surveys of this area, and to obtain information on its population status, natural history and the identity of any threats.
192195		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Enggano Island, a very distant and isolated island  west of Sumatra. It was collected in 1930 by Kopstein, but has not been found since despite repeated surveys in the area (D. Iskandar pers. comm. 2011).
192195		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about this snake's habitat, although most members of the genus are semi-arboreal, and are frequently found in shrubland areas at low elevations.
192195		population	eng	The species is considered to be rare, as it is only known from three historical specimens (Schmidt 2000).
192195		threats	eng	Nothing is known about threats to this species, which is known only from historical records. The human population on Enggano Island is small and unlikely to expand, as the island is very remote from the Sumatran mainland on which its population relies for food and other supplies. As a result natural habitats are practically intact, and there is little disturbance from logging activities.
192196		conservation	eng	Portions of this species' range is within protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192196		distribution	eng	This species occurs from southern Thailand, south of the Isthmus of Kra to Sumatra and Borneo (David and Vogel 1996, Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It occurs at low elevations, from sea level to 1,000 m.
192196		habitat	eng	This arboreal and diurnal species occurs in primary and secondary rainforest from sea level to about 1,000 m elevation (Stuebing and Inger 1999). It also occurs in rubber plantations. It feeds on lizards and frogs and is ovoviviparous (David and Vogel 1996).
192196		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is considered uncommon (David and Vogel 1996).
192196		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It has been reported in rubber plantations.
192197		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures have been applied to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. sputatrix</span> although CITES regulates this species, which is listed on Appendix II. On the recommendation of the CITES Animals Committee in 2011 this species was included in the next phase of the Review of Significant Trade, the first stage in the process that could lead to a reevaluation of its trade status, aimed at establishing whether CITES needs to collect further information on levels of exploitation and trade management practices. Indonesia establishes an annual harvest and export quota. Studies must be conducted for this highly traded species. There is not adapted management of the trade of this species and therefore regular field studies need to be conducted.
192197		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. sputatrix</span> has been recorded from Indonesia in Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Padar, Rinca, Komodo, Flores, Adonara, Lomblen and Alor. It is not certain whether it occurs in Sumatra.
192197		habitat	eng	This Indonesian species occurs on lowlands up to about 600 m. asl. It is  frequently found in rice fields or savanna, but occasionally in secondary  forest. It is known from open agro-ecosystems associated to human settlements. All known localities are rice fields or human made habitat, grassland, swamp, savanna and plantations, in the lowlands up to about 600 m. asl. (Boeadi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Auliya unpublished).
192197		population	eng	The species is very common, especially in human made habitats such as rice fields and grassland, as well as in savanna.
192197		threats	eng	Most specimens from the trade were collected from man made habitats and the in-trade does not seem to have declined after observations during multiple days (Mumpuni<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002, Sugarjito <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>1998). The extent to which these harvests have impacted the population over time is not known, however, some local traders have reported declining numbers of skins, and therefore there are concerns that these harvests are resulting in locally depleted numbers (Auliya unpublished). Buyers in Bali now import cobras for human consumption from Java (local trade) because these are no longer available in sufficient numbers from Bali. (Lilley pers comm. 2011).
192198		conservation	eng	Survey work is needed to confirm if the species is still present in the area where it was found or in nearby forest.
192198		distribution	eng	The species is only known from Sandakan Bay, Sabah, Malaysia, from an area close to sea level.
192198		habitat	eng	It was presumably recorded in some lowland forest, either pristine or artificial plantations, as <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria</span> species inhabit leaf litter.
192198		population	eng	There is no information about the population of this species.  However, population decline and possible extinction has been inferred from the observed  decline in the amount of suitable habitat left for the species to survive  due to human activities.
192198		threats	eng	Deforestation of lowland forest for urbanisation and tourist development is known to have completely wiped out the forest from where this species was recorded; only one nearby, small fragment remains where this species might persist (I. Das pers. obs. 2011). Survey work conducted by R. Inger in this area failed to locate the species (R. Inger pers. comm. 2011).
192199		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192199		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Andaman Islands across southern Myanmar to central Viet Nam, southward through Sundaland (Smith 1943, David and Vogel 1996, Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).
192199		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest clearings and edges, savannas, scrub, grasslands, cultivated areas, rice fields, and suburban areas from sea level to 900 m elevation (David and Vogel 1996). It is often found near human habitation (David and Vogel 1996).
192199		population	eng	This species is common and abundant in Sumatra (David and Vogel 1996). It is rare in the northeastern part of its range (Cambodia and Viet Nam).
192199		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species.
192200		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. It is found in protected areas in both China and Viet Nam.
192200		distribution	eng	This snake is very widespread in central and southern China north to Gansu and Shaanxi, and also ranges into Japan, northern Viet Nam and Lao PDR. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province), Ky Phu (Thai Nguyen Province) and Tam Dao (Vinh Phuc Province) (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). It has been recorded between 500 and 1,500 m asl.
192200		habitat	eng	In Tam Dao, this fossorial species has been found in hill and montane forest at low and mid-elevations (300-900 m asl.). It is oviparous and feeds on invertebrates.
192200		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
192200		threats	eng	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this  species, which has a very wide range in China.
192201		conservation	eng	This snake has been recorded in several national parks in Viet Nam, and may occur in other protected areas within its range. Protection of additional forests within its range, and efforts to limit  deforestation, are recommended as general conservation measures, and  will benefit this species. Surveys are required to establish whether this species also occurs in adjacent areas of southeast Cambodia (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).
192201		distribution	eng	This snake occurs in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of southern China, in Viet Nam south to the Tay-Nguyen Plateau in Gai Lai province, and in the central part of eastern Lao PDR (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Viet Nam it is found in the northern Tonkin and Annamite Mountains, and in Kon Tum and Gia Lai provinces, apparently as disjunct subpopulations. It has been reported between 200 and 1,500 m in elevation.
192201		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake has been recorded from both primary and secondary  evergreen forest,  where  it is arboreal and nocturnal. It feeds on  small vertebrates.
192201		population	eng	This snake is common in the Tonkin and Amman mountains of north Viet Nam, but is much rarer in the country's southern provinces (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is no information on population changes, however the overall population of this snake is thought to be stable.
192201		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of  its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' distribution include  slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and  urban development.
192202		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192202		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Riouw Archipelago and Aor Island, Java, Borneo, and disjunctly at a single locality in central Viet Nam (Gia Lai Province, Buon Luoi District) (Inger and Marx 1965; Darevsky and Orlov 1992).<em></em> It was reported in peninsular Malaysia as the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gimletti</span>. However, that subspecies is now considered a full species (Das 2010).
192202		habitat	eng	This secretive nocturnal species occurs in rainforest in hilly and flat terrain where it burrows through soil or lives under dead leaves. In Borneo it has also been documented in a pepper garden (Stuebing and Inger 1999). The two Sundaic subspecies occur at low elevation but the Vietnamese subspecies occurs at 750 m elevation (Darevsky and Orlov 1992). The snake is oviparous.
192202		population	eng	No information is available on population size, but they are probably locally abundant (yet remain undetected to human observers). Populations may be declining due to loss of rainforest.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
192202		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of rainforest in much of its range, mainly due to conversion to plantations and agriculture.
192203		conservation	eng	No species-species conservation measures are required. Field surveys are needed to determine if it occurs in Myanmar. It has been found in protected areas in Indochina (Q.T. Nguyen and T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).
192203		distribution	eng	This species occurs widely from northern Peninsular Malaysia through Thailand, southern China (Yunnan), Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, Zhao and Adler 1993, Cox et al. 1998, Nguyen et al. 2009). It probably also occurs in Myanmar. The snake occurs up to 900 m asl. (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192203		habitat	eng	In Thailand and Indochina this species occurs in open habitats from grassland and dipterocarp savannah to open and disturbed forest (T. Neang and T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). It is known from primary lowland forest in Peninsular Malaysia (L. Grismer pers. comm August 2011). This species hides under debris during the day and hunts frogs and lizards at night (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Taylor (1965) reports collecting an individual under loose bark on a tree 10 m above the ground.
192203		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Indochina (T. Neang and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), but common in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Only two specimens have been reported from Peninsular Malaysia, at the  southern limit of the snake's range (L. Grismer pers. comm. August  2011). As threats to this snake are limited, it is thought to occur as a stable population (T. Neang and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192203		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, which is not associated with threatened habitat types in most of its range. There may be some persecution by local people, but this is not considered a serious threat (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).
192205		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species, although it is likely to occur in some nature reserves due to its wide distribution. More information is needed on this species' population status and natural history.
192205		distribution	eng	This snake is widespread in southeastern China, where it has been reported from Jiugongshan Provincial Nature Reserve, Hubei Province (Yang <em>et al.</em> 1999) as well as from the provinces of Anhui, Chongqin, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hunan, Jiangxi and Zhejiang (Zhao 2006). It also occurs in Hong Kong. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 920,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It occurs from 600 to 1,424 m asl.
192205		habitat	eng	This species is often found in streams, either in water or under stones. It also inhabits ditches and rice paddies. It feeds on aquatic worms. It is oviparous, and in Fujian it has been reported to lay eggs in August (Zhao 2006).
192205		population	eng	This is a very common species.
192205		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. Small hydroelectric powerplants, and the associated dams, may represent localized threats (M. Lau pers. comm. September 2011).
192206		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas. Surveys should be conducted to establish whether this species occurs in eastern Cambodia.
192206		distribution	eng	This species is known from China (Hainan, Guangxi, S Yunnan, Guangdong), Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It is expected to occur in Cambodia, but has never been reported there (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011) The species is known from many areas in Viet Nam, from Lao Cai in the country's north as far south as Lam Dong Province (Nguyen et al., 2009). It occurs between 100 and 1,500 m asl.&#160; (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011)<br/>.
192206		habitat	eng	This oviparous snake is terrestrial and semi-arboreal in evergreen forest in both lowlands and montane regions (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011), and has frequently been found in trees overhanging streams in Tam Dao and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Parks (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011, Orlov et al., 2000). It is both diurnal and nocturnal, and feeds on worms.
192206		population	eng	No population data are available, although the overall population of this widespread snake is presumed to be stable. It is quite common in forested areas (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192206		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this semi-arboreal species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include selective logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
192207		conservation	eng	The only possible conservation area for this species in Sumatra is Bukit Tigapuluh National Park, but there are no herpetological records from this site. All other areas in eastern Sumatra are already converted to oil palm plantations. In Malaysia, the species occurs in Penang and Larut Hill, both of which are protected areas.
192207		distribution	eng	The species is widespread in Malaysian Peninsula, Penang Island, Singapore (uncertain) and east central Sumatra (Inger and Marx 1965, David and Vogel 1996, Iskandar and Colijn 2002). This species occurs at elevations from sea level to up to 1,410 m.
192207		habitat	eng	This species occur in lowland forest (Sumatra) up to highland forest (Penang and Larut Hill, up to 1,410 m asl). It is a leaf-litter microhabitat specialist that is seldom seen.
192207		population	eng	There are no available data on population size and trends for this species. The species is definitively known from only about a dozen specimens. It is considered to be secretive.
192207		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to factors including  logging, expansion of agriculture and the conversion of forest to  plantation estates. The forest cover of Sumatra declined by 61% between  1985 and 1997 (Achmaliadi <em>et al</em>. 2002). The habitat of this species is "fragmented" (CBSG 2003). Most of the forest in Sumatra is already converted to oil palm plantations. In Malaysia, the known localities are in the highlands and have considerable remaining forest cover. <br/><br/>In Peninsular Malaysia the upland areas are generally protected, and the species is not currently thought to be seriously threatened in this part of its range.
192208		conservation	eng	There exist two protected areas in Krabi Province, where this species has been described from, but it is not known whether it occurs in any of these. Further research is needed to better establish this species' distribution as well as its population size and trends.
192208		distribution	eng	The species is known from the holotype alone, collected from Krabi Province, southern Peninsular Thailand.
192208		habitat	eng	Although not noted on label or specimen entry, Krabi Province is largely covered with forest, justifying it is a lowland forest species like other members of the genus.
192208		population	eng	The are no data available on population size and trends for this species.
192208		threats	eng	The province where the species has been described is undergoing habitat conversion, mainly for oil palm plantations, but it is unknown whether this activities are threatening this species.
192209		conservation	eng	There are two protected areas within the range of this species. However, the species has not been collected there. No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine its taxonomic status relative to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. ochracea</span> and to clarify their distributions, particularly within Myanmar.
192209		distribution	eng	This snake is present in central coastal Myanmar and was historically recorded from southern Myanmar, where it has been reported from Tenassarim in Tanintharyi Division. However, recent surveys have not recovered the species from the southern portion of the country (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011). It is also found in the Andaman Islands (Das 2010). It occurs at elevations between sea level and 300 m. The correct assignment of several records from Myanmar north of the known distribution (to either <span style="font-style: italic;">B. ochracea</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">B. walli</span>) is uncertain (G. Wogan pers. comm. 2011).
192209		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species is found in lowland to mid-altitude forest. It is arboreal but exhibits some terrestrial activity. Nothing is known of its diet or reproductive biology (Das 2010).
192209		population	eng	There are no data available on population size and trends for this species. It is not uncommon.
192209		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
192210		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although the area where this snake was recorded is now a protected area. Surveys are needed to rediscover this snake, although this is an already  well-surveyed area, and to obtain information on its distribution,  population status and natural history.
192210		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from northern Viet Nam, where it has been reported from Ky Phu in Thai Nguyen Province and from Tam Dao in Vinh Phuc Province (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
192210		habitat	eng	Tam Dao is characterised by montane evergreen forest, where the snake is presumably semi-aquatic.
192210		population	eng	No population data is available for this species, which is known only from historical records (Bourret 1934), despite numerous surveys in Tam Dao.
192210		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species, which appears to have a restricted range, however one of the known sites falls within a national park and as the species has never been rediscovered, its current exposure to threats is unknown.
192211		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, although it has been recorded from protected areas.
192211		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Assam in India, and from southern China (including Taiwan), Myanmar, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (including Pulau Tioman and Pulau Langkawi), Indonesia (Java and Sumatra), and Japan's Ryuku Islands (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has been recorded between 200 and 2,500 m asl., but is strictly associated with hilly areas. Records from Viet Nam include sites in the provinces Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Cao Bang, Vinh Phuc, Quang Ninh, Hai Duong, Son La, Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Da Nang, Quang Nam, and Lam Dong (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2010, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009).
192211		habitat	eng	This is an egg-laying, nocturnal, fossorial snake (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, 2010, Ziegler 2002, Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is found mainly in mountainous forested areas.
192211		population	eng	No population data are available. Although it is a widespread species it is not very common in its habitat.
192211		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species in parts of its range. Human pressures on forest within this species' wide distribution are varied and include industrial-scale logging, slash-and-burn agriculture and smallholder farming, road-building and urban development.
192212		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192212		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southernmost Thailand,&#160; Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java (David and Vogel 1996; Stuebing and Inger 1999; Grismer and Pan 2008). Records reported in the 19th Century from near Rangoon (= Yangon), Myanmar, and Saigon (= Ho Chi Minh City), Viet Nam (Smith 1943, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) have not been duplicated and are doubtful. It occurs at elevations from near sea level up to 200 m.
192212		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species that occurs at low elevations in wet forest, peat swamps, and especially disturbed areas such as plantations and rice paddies (David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999). The species is an efficient predator on rats but also eats birds, frogs and fish (David and Vogel 1996, Stuebing and Inger 1999).
192212		population	eng	This species is common (David and Vogel 1996). Its population may be increasing because it thrives in disturbed habitat and is an efficient predator on rats which are commensalist with humans. In Peninsular Malaysia this species is less common than it is in Singapore and Sumatra.
192212		threats	eng	There are no apparent threats to this species.
192215		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in a protected area. There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Field surveys are needed to better determine its distribution, population status and natural history.
192215		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the single type specimen from Mogok (22°55’16”N 96°30’20”E), northern Myanmar (Smith 1943).
192215		habitat	eng	Nothing is known on the natural history of this species. The type locality is at approximately 1,150 m elevation.
192215		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends for this species as it is known from the single type specimen.
192215		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. However, the area where it was described from is heavily mined for gems and gold, so the habitat is very degraded.
192217		conservation	eng	As the species is known from lowland forest all over Borneo, it definitively occurs in Kinabalu and Crocker Range National Parks (Sabah), Kubah National Park (Sarawak) and Temburong National Park (Brunei).
192217		distribution	eng	&#160;It is known from Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), Brunei and Indonesia (Landak&#160; in West Kalimatan) (Stuebing 1991).
192217		habitat	eng	The species is generally found in small streams in lowland to submontane forest between 150 and 750 m. asl. It was found swimming in streams on the day time.
192217		population	eng	The species is known to be widespread.
192217		threats	eng	A potential threat is habitat conversion due to logging of lowland forest, which is extensive in Borneo.
192218		conservation	eng	The species is known from Sibolangit Botanical Garden. Its wide distribution in Sumatra coincides with at least one national protected area, Rimbo Panti Nature Reserve (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. March 2012). More research on the distribution of this species is recommended.
192218		distribution	eng	The species is known from North and South Sumatra, Lampung and Bengkulu. In South Sumatra and Lampung it is known from a single locality. In North Sumatra and&#160; Bengkulu (southwest Sumatra) it has been found at several localities close to each other. The distribution of known localities indicates that the species is widely distributed in north and West Sumatra and in Riau Province (D.T. Iskandar pers. comm. March 2012). It has been recorded from near the sea level up to 300 m. asl.
192218		habitat	eng	The localities in North and South Sumatra are all in the lowlands. It is found in leaf litter in lowland forest floor.
192218		population	eng	The species is present in various sites in North and West Sumatra. Based on the collections in museums, the species is rare.
192218		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat conversion to oil palm plantation. Oil palm plantations now cover most of the known localities of the species except in Bengkulu, where it has been recorded at the border of a national park, however the species is expected to be widespread within the area between known sites.
192219		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas. Research is needed to determine whether the sub-populations from the two mountain ranges are different species.
192219		distribution	eng	Only known from the highland of Peninsular Malaysia, comprising Tanah Rata, Cameron Highland, Fraser Hill (Pahang) and Larut Hill (Perak). It occurs at elevations between 1,100 and 1,550 m. It is very likely that this species is more widely distributed along the entire Titiwangsa Mountain Range.
192219		habitat	eng	Judging from the type locality, the species occurs in mountainous areaS, hence montane rainforest. This is a semi-fossorial, secretive species, only known from relatively high altitude.
192219		population	eng	The species is only known from four specimens. Although numerous specimens have been sighted in the hand of commercial dealers in the heights of Cameron Highlands (L. Grismer, pers. comm. 2011).
192219		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
192220		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
192220		distribution	eng	The species is widely distributed in the Sundaland (Bali, Bangka, Belitung, Java, Kalimantan, Nias, Riau Archipelago, Sumatra), Brunei, East and West Malaysia, and Singapore (Westermann 1942, De Haas 1950, Mertens 1969, Manthey and Grossmann 1997, Iskandar and Colijn, 2002, McKay 2006, Das 2006, 2007). There are records from Sulawesi and Sibutu (Philippines), but they need reconfirmation. It has been recorded from sea-level to medium highland (1,000 m asl) all over Sundaland.
192220		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland wet areas to dipterocarp forest. It is sometimes found around human habitat up to forested area.
192220		population	eng	The species is considered as uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia.
192220		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192221		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Its range in central Viet Nam coincides with protected areas. Surveys are needed to locate additional records of this species, to obtain more information on its distribution, population status and exposure to threats.
192221		distribution	eng	This snake is known only from Viet Nam, where it has been recorded from Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Quang Tri and Quang Nam Provinces (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It is suspected to occur in adjacent areas of Lao PDR, but has never been recorded there (B. Stuart and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011). The snake's extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known sites, is approximately 18,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has been found from 400 - 700 m asl.
192221		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial, oviparous snake of mountain regions, which has only been found in or near streams in secondary or primary evergreen forest. It is nocturnal and secretive.
192221		population	eng	No population data are available for this very rare snake, which is known only from four specimens from some of the best-surveyed areas of Viet Nam.
192221		threats	eng	This snake is known from a heavily-modified area in the Red River Valley in the north of the snake's range, which has a long history of human habitation and habitat modification. It is unclear whether it is threatened in central Viet Nam, as the forest in this area is protected. If it occurs in adjacent areas of Lao PDR, the snake may be able to persist in the extensive areas of remaining forest in this region (B. Stuart and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011). However, road-building and encroachment of slash-and-burn agriculture into forested areas may still pose a threat to this species in these areas (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm.2011). While this very rare snake has never been reported in trade, other species of Krait are exploited for use in rice wine and for traditional Chinese medicine, and this might also represent a risk to this snake.
192222		conservation	eng	The species occurs within the Bromo-Tengger-Semeru National Park
192222		distribution	eng	The species is only known from a location confined to Mt. Semeru in Tengger Mts. (East Java) at about 1,000 m. asl., in a touristic area.
192222		habitat	eng	The habitat for this species is montane forest. It is believed that this is a semi-fossorial species. The specimens were caught at early night, suggesting that it is a crepuscular or nocturnal species (Iskandar pers. obs. 2011).
192222		population	eng	The species has been collected only three times (the most recent record dating from 1978) and it is only known from four specimens (Iskandsar pers.comm. 2011).
192222		threats	eng	As the species is only known from a location on an area with two very active volcanoes, the main plausible threat is volcanic eruption that if occurs will cause the rapid extinction of the species (Iskandar pers. comm. 2011).
192223		conservation	eng	This species is present in protected areas both in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. There are no conservation measures in place for this species.
192223		distribution	eng	It is definitively known from Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. It is not clear if the species has a much wider distribution. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 1,200 m.
192223		habitat	eng	In Thailand this species is present in lowland forests, including swampy forests, whereas in Peninsular Malaysia is present in lowland and upland forests. It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species that feeds on small vertebrates.
192223		population	eng	There is no information available on population size and trends for this species. It is considered as rare or uncommon.
192223		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192224		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area (Gunung Tahan). No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192224		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Malaysia. It is known only from the type locality: “Camp Padang, Gunong Tahan, Pahang, Malaysia, elevation 5.400-5.700 ft” (Uetz and Hallerman 2010).
192224		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane rainforest. It is a secretive, semi-fossorial species and only known from  relatively high altitude.
192224		population	eng	This species is probably common, but secretive.
192224		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192225		conservation	eng	This species is present in several protected areas. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
192225		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southern Thailand (Krabi Province; Nutphand 1985) and Peninsular Malaysia (Banjaran Bintang, Cameron Highlands, and Fraser's Hill) (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It occurs at elevations between 1,100 and 1,500 m.
192225		habitat	eng	This is a terrestrial species occurring in montane forests.
192225		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. It is relatively common.
192225		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192226		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are required.
192226		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Viet Nam to northern Peninsular Malaysia (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, Deuve 1970, Saint Girons 1972, Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).
192226		habitat	eng	This secretive, nocturnal species is found in stumps, wood debris, termite mounds, or underground vegetation in forested areas (Saint Girons 1972). The species occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m elevation (Cox<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1998).&#160; A female from Cambodia contained five eggs (Saint Girons 1972). It probably feeds on small snakes and lizards (Saint Girons 1972). It has also been recorded near plantations close to coastal and evergreen forest (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 2003).
192226		population	eng	This species is secretive and infrequently encountered. No information is available on its population.
192226		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by forest loss driven by agricultural conversion, but as it is a very wide-ranging snake this is unlikely to represent a major threat at present.
192227		conservation	eng	The genus <em>Naja</em> is listed in CITES Appendix II. Further information is needed on the distribution and population trends of, and harvesting levels in, this species.
192227		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the central dry zone of Myanmar, spanning the Mandalay, Magwe, and Sagaing Divisions (Slowinski and Wüster 2000). The central dry zone is a well defined area with a characteristic climate, and an extent of less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The few known records of this recently-described snake have been taken from areas throughout this region, and it has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 18,500 km<sup>2</sup> based on known records.
192227		habitat	eng	This species' range corresponds to the central dry zone of Myanmar, an area that receives less than 1,000 mm of annual rainfall and is characterised by acacia and stunted dipterocarp savannas (Slowinski and Wüster 2000). The species has been collected in dry forests and dry acacia habitat.
192227		population	eng	The species is known from only 20 specimens (Slowinski and Wüster 2000), some of which were obtained by commercial snake collectors. Population information is therefore lacking, although it is not a very common species. Pressure from harvesting is thought likely to be resulting in population declines, but the scale of decline cannot presently be quantified.
192227		threats	eng	The genus <em>Naja</em> is in high demand in China for medicinal purposes, and evidence of this species in trade indicates that it may be at risk from collectors. This species' limited extent of occurrence within Myanmar's central dry zone and its apparently low population density suggests that it may well be vulnerable to overharvesting. Much of the habitat in the species' range has been converted to agricultural land; while the species appears tolerant of this modification (Slowinski and Wüster 2000) these activities may represent a decline in habitat quality. The whole dry zone is considered to represent one location due to the extensive network of trade and collection for this species throughout the area.
192229		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, and the only known specimen was found outside a protected area. Surveys are needed to locate more records of this recently-described    snake, to obtain data on its distribution, population status and natural    history, and its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
192229		distribution	eng	This snake has so far only been recorded from Viet Nam, at a site adjacent to Phong Na-Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh province.
192229		habitat	eng	The known specimen was found in high montane primary evergreen forest on limestone (Ziegler and Le 2005). <em>Calamaria</em> are generally fossorial snakes in forest leaf litter, which are oviparous and nocturnally active.
192229		population	eng	No population data are available, as this species is known from only a single specimen. Recent surveys in the same area have never recorded this species (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192229		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. As this species has only been recorded from the high mountains bordering Vietnam and Laos, which are difficult to access, it may not be at risk from habitat disturbance, although local people often persecute snakes on sight (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
192230		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although it has been recorded from protected areas. Research is needed into population status.
192230		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in China, Lao PDR, Viet Nam.(Orlov et al., 2000; Nguyen et al., 2009). In China it has been reported from much of the south of the country. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Ha Giang (Du Gia), Cao Bang (Nguyen Binh), Tuyen Quang (Sinh Long), Bac Kan (Xuan Lac), Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc (Tam Dao), Ha Tay (Ba Vi), Bac Giang (Luc Son). It has been recorded from 300 to 1,500m asl.
192230		habitat	eng	This species is associated with forests, also being found at the forest edge. Animals can be found close to streams. In Tam Dao this species lives in mountain forests (bamboo forest); 300 – 1500 m altitude (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is an oviparous species. It feeds mostly on amphibians.
192230		population	eng	This is a common species.
192230		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192231		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place.
192231		distribution	eng	The type locality is in Thailand, but without an exact locality. It has been reported from fruit plantations near Bangkok (Niyomwam 1999). McDiarmid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1999) &#160;listed Lao PDR (probably).
192231		habitat	eng	This snake is only known from within termite mounds in fruit plantations. No other natural history data is available.
192231		population	eng	No population information is available. Only two or three specimens are known aside from the holotype (Niyomwam 1999).
192231		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. The only records with confirmed localities are from fruit plantations.
192232		conservation	eng	Research is needed to clarify the effects of exploitation on this snake, and to investigate population trends.
192232		distribution	eng	This species is presently understood to be endemic to Myanmar (Smith 1943, Leviton <em>et al.</em> 2008). It may also occur in adjacent areas of Yunnan Province in China, Thailand, Lao PDR, Bangladesh and/or northeastern India, but it is currently unknown from those areas.
192232		habitat	eng	This nocturnal and terrestrial snake occurs dry tropical lowland forest and disturbed habitats close to plantations and villages (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
192232		population	eng	No information is available on this snake's population. Although it is not rare, it has not been encountered with sufficient frequency to estimate population trends (G. Wogan pers. comm. February 2012).
192232		threats	eng	The extensive exploitation of kraits within this snake's range is believed to be a threat to this species' population, as much of this species' range coincides with the area of Myanmar subject to the highest levels of harvesting for the snake trade (G. Wogan pers. comm. February 2012). The impact of this use needs to be quantified, and it is not presently clear whether this snake is in decline.
192233		conservation	eng	The species is present within Kerinci Seblat National Park. Research is needed to study the current distribution, ecology and threats of this species.
192233		distribution	eng	It has been recorded from the Kerinci Seblat National Park, Jambi, Sumatra, Indonesia.
192233		habitat	eng	The species was found in submontane forest in a mountain stream (collected by ichthyologist). The specimen was collected from relatively high altitude above 1,200 m asl. in the forest The specimen was feeding on tadpoles (David & Das 2003).
192233		population	eng	The population status of this species, which is known from only one specimen, is unknown.
192233		threats	eng	The species was collected in Kerinci Seblat National Park and, as the situation is within other national parks in Indonesia, common threats as deforestation encroachment occur.
192235		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are required. It probably occurs in a number of protected areas within its range and has been observed in Kep National Park, Cambodia (P. Bowles, unpubl. data), although evidence of illegal logging is widespread in this reserve. The generic status of this species warrants reexamination.
192235		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Yunnan Province, China westward to Myanmar, throughout Indochina, and southward to Indonesia as far east as Lombok.
192235		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest, usually in wet areas such as near streams. It is also found in plantations and villages adjacent to forest (David and Vogel 1996). The species is nocturnal and mostly arboreal, feeding exclusively on snails and slugs. It is oviparous, laying up to eight eggs (David and Vogel 1996).
192235		population	eng	The species is relatively common within appropriate habitat. The population is probably decreasing because it is closely associated with forest.
192235		threats	eng	The species is likely to be negatively affected by forest destruction resulting from infrastructure development and agricultural expansion. It is however very widespread throughout Southeast Asia, and so impacts are likely to be localized.
192236		conservation	eng	It is known from the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre, within Ulu Temburong National Park in Brunei, but has not been recorded from protected areas in either Malaysia or Indonesia. Additional surveys are needed to establish its real distribution and clarify the extent of threats from deforestation.
192236		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Borneo. The type locality is Sintang in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. It has also been  recorded from Sarawak, Malaysia, and recently from the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre, in the Temburong District of Brunei (this latter J.M. Dehling, unpubl. data). It is uncertain whether historical records referring to the occurence of this species in Kuching, Sarawak, indicate the ability of this species to inhabit urban areas. It has been recorded at altitudes from near sea level to 1,100 m asl.
192236		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded living in leaf litter in lowland forest floor.
192236		population	eng	The Long Mujan series comprises five specimens. All other known sites have one specimen. No information is available about local abundance or trends.
192236		threats	eng	The species lives in humid forested areas always with closed canopy cover. Therefore, habitat loss due to deforestation is a major potential threat to the species. It is not known if the species can survive in man made habitats with the adequate canopy cover and humidity.
192237		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas, including Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data).
192237		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Malay Peninsula, in both Thailand and Malaysia, and in Indonesia (Borneo, Mentawai Archipelago, Nias, Simeulue, Sumatra). It is also known from East Malaysia (Borneo) (Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Manthey and Grossmann 1997). It occurs at elevations between sea level and 600 m.
192237		habitat	eng	This is an arboreal and nocturnal snake, found in primary and secondary forests, as well as gardens, feeding mostly on frogs and lizards. It is an egg-laying species.
192237		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species. This is a common species on the Thai-Malay Peninsula.
192237		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
192238		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law in Viet Nam by the Decree No 32/2006/ND-CP published in March 2006, which limits but does not prohibit commercial trade in this snake. Further research is needed to determine both whether harvesting pressures are impacting this snake throughout its range and whether local levels of exploitation, e.g. in Viet Nam, are sustainable.
192238		distribution	eng	This species occurs from central Viet Nam through Thailand, southward to Bali, Indonesia (Smith 1943, Taylor 1965, David and Vogel 1996, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). Its presence in Myanmar and Singapore is unverified but likely. Fifty-year old records from Peninsular Malaysia have not been confirmed recently (L. Grismer pers. comm. August 2011), although the snake has been recorded from the offshore island Pulau Langkawi.
192238		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland and hill forests, and in plantations, up to 1,200 m elevation (David and Vogel 1996). The species is secretive, nocturnal, and feeds on snakes, lizards, and amphibians. It lays up to 10 eggs in a clutch (David and Vogel 1996).
192238		population	eng	No information is available on population trends. This nocturnal and secretive species is infrequently encountered. Although this snake is commonly harvested in parts of its range, especially in Viet Nam, no data is available on whether this is impacting the population and the species is not listed in Viet Nam's national Red Data Book (Dang <em>et al.</em> 2007).
192238		threats	eng	The species may be at local risk from harvesting for medicinal purposes and food, particularly in Indochina. The scale of exploitation in other countries needs to be further studied.
192239		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. rebentischi</span> is not known to occur in any protected area. Research work to determine if the species is still in the area is needed as it could be already extinct.
192239		distribution	eng	The species is only known from a single specimen from Singkawang, West Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) recorded in 1860.
192239		habitat	eng	The species is thought to occur in leaf litter in lowland forest floor and probably freshwater swamp forest.
192239		population	eng	There is no enough information about the population of this species, which is known from only one specimen.
192239		threats	eng	Singkawang (type locality) is a fast growing city and land conversion for agriculture and urban development is extensive; most forest habitat around the type locality no longer exists.
192240		conservation	eng	This snake is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to clarify this snake's distribution in Borneo, particularly in heath forest (which is not presently included within the protected area network in Kalimantan) and to understand its natural history, particularly its ability to survive in degraded forest and in plantations. Logging and mining organizations should reserve a potion of their concession areas for the preservation of this snake and other species.
192240		distribution	eng	The species is only known from three specimens from three widely separated locations in Borneo: from Maruwai at the head of Barito River, Central Kalimantan; from Sungai Merah in East Kalimantan; and from Pa'umor, in the Kelabit Highlands in Sarawak. It has been recorded from near sea level up to1,000 m asl. As these sites are very distant from one another, this snake is presumably more widespread in Borneo than is presently known, but it is unclear whether its occurrence is highly localized or whether this leaf litter snake is simply cryptic or neglected in surveys.
192240		habitat	eng	The species has been reported from from heath forest (kerangas) and dipterocarp forest, where it is present in leaf litter. In Maruwa, the soil is highly acidic due to the presence of underlying coal deposits.
192240		population	eng	As only three specimens are known, there is no information about the population of this species.  Population decline or extinction at the known sites has been inferred from the observed  decline in the amount suitable habitat left for the species to survive  due to human activities, and deforestation is widespread in Borneo. Knowledge of this snake's distribution on the island is very incomplete and so it is unclear to what extent this reflects trends throughout its range, and neither the rate nor the timing of any declines can be quantified.
192240		threats	eng	The sites in Kalimantan fall within logging and mining concessions, where less than 10% of the original area is free from these forms of disturbance. Those are usually slopes  and poor-quality forest that are very difficult for exploitation and not  economically important. In Maruwai, the main threat to the species is coal mining and that also  extensive land conversion, especially related to forest logging. The site in the Kelabit Highlands has largely been converted to a palm oil plantation, and it is unknown whether the snake is able to survive in this habitat. Up to 85% of the forest within the snake's apparent distribution is likely to be lost or heavily degraded within the next ten years. Due to its very poorly-known distribution, however, it is not clear whether this species is at major risk throughout its range, and it may be able to persist in forest left intact, or which is degraded rather than completely destroyed, at the known sites.
192241		conservation	eng	The species is widespread, including in protected areas. Further research is needed to clarify this snake's taxonomy and the identity of historical records.
192241		distribution	eng	The species is known from Brunei (Das 2007), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), Indonesia and the Philippines. In Indonesia it is known from Kalimantan (including Karimata Island), Sulawesi, Buton and Sangihe (Stuebing &amp; Inger 1999; Malkmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002; Umilaela<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). In the Philippines, it has been recorded from Balabac, Basilan, Bohol, Dinagat, Jolo, Leyte, Luzon, Negros, Mindanao, Palawan, Panay, Samar, Sibutu, and Tumindao (Alcala 1986), as well as Tawi-Tawi (occurence uncertain). It has been reported from 20 up to 1,400 m. asl. over much of its range, although it has been found as low as 3 m. asl. in Bako National Park, Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data)
192241		habitat	eng	Specimens have been recorded from a wide range of habitats, including lowland and lower montane tropical moist forest, secondary and degraded forest, shrubland and plantations. It is an arboreal species.
192241		population	eng	It is the most commonly-encountered viper in many localities on Borneo, including Bako and Kubah National Parks, and the alluvial forest of Gunung Mulu National Park, all in Sarawak (J.M. Dehling unpubl. data).
192241		threats	eng	This species is present in some areas where deforestation is intense, generally resulting on conversion of the land to agricultural and other uses. The species is however tolerant of some degree of habitat modification and may persist in areas subject to logging. Some animals are collected for the international pet trade, however this collection is limited and unlikely to present a significant threat to the species at present.
192243		conservation	eng	&#160;No species-specific conservation measures are required for this widespread species.
192243		distribution	eng	The species occurs from northeastern India across northern Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It probably also occurs in Yunnan Province, China (Vogel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and Bhutan, but no recent records exist to confirm this.
192243		habitat	eng	This nocturnal species occurs in montaine and coastal rainforests and wet forests. Individuals can often be found over hanging streams and in bushes. It is not clear whether it can persist in degraded habitats (I. Das pers. comm. February 2012).
192243		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
192243		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is forest loss, which is likely to have varied causes within its range. In northeast India, forest is being lost to slash-and-burn agriculture (I. Das pers. comm. February 2012). Due to the snake's wide distribution, threats are however localized.
192246		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species, although records exist from several protected areas in Viet Nam. There is a need for additional research into the distribution, population, habitats and ecology and threats to this species. There is also a need to maintain areas of suitable habitat within the species range.
192246		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Viet Nam and China. In Viet Nam it <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is  currently known from several localities in the provinces (from north to south) of Bac Giang (Tay Yen Tu Nature Reserve), Hoa Binh (Thuong Tien  Nature Reserve: photographic record), and Nghe An (Pu Hoat Nature  Reserve (Nguyen et al., 2010). In China, it has been recorded from the provinces of Fujian (Nanjing,  or Shanchengzhen, Nanjing County), Hainan Island (“Nodoa”, now Dan Xian  or Nada, Zhan County; Jianfengling; Dabiancun, Limu Ling Mts., Yinggen  County; Linshui, Ledong County), and Guangxi Autonomous Region  (“Loshiang”, now Louxiang, Jinxiu County) (Nguyen et al. 2010). It has  been recorded between 150 and 720 m asl.
192246		habitat	eng	Animals have been recorded near to small streams in mixed secondary forest of small  trees and bamboo, and in shrubs near a track. It is an oviparous species. It feeds on amphibians and occasionally fish.
192246		population	eng	No population data is available. It is presumably declining with habitat loss.
192246		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat degradation and loss resulting from conversion of forest to agricultural use and plantations (Nguyen 2010, Nguyen pers. comm. September 28th 2011), and possibly the construction of hydroelectric power plants.
192248		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is present in some protected areas. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.
192248		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in China, where it has been recorded from Anhui, Fujian, Guangxi, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Zhejiang (Zhao 2006). There are disjunct records from the Nanling Nature Reserve, Guangdong&#160; Province, China (Gong and He, 2008). In Sichuan Province this species is found in Miyi and Panzhihua (Zhao 2003). It also occurs on the island of Taiwan. It is found at elevations of 600 to 1,200m asl.
192248		habitat	eng	This snake inhabits montane forests and tea plantation, and has also been reported from cornfields. It is oviparous (Zhao 2006) and feeds on reptile eggs.
192248		population	eng	This is an uncommon species.
192248		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
192260		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats (impacts of port development) before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the area surrounding Namibe (Moçâmedes) in the far south of Angola with Praia das Conchas to the north and Praia de Noronha to the south (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Namibe is situated in Moçâmedes Bay with a coast of approximately 50-60 km to which the species is restricted.
192260		habitat	eng	This species has been found buried in sand under rocks at shallow depths (Filmer 2001, amended 2009). It occurs in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. filmeri</span>. Adults reach approximately 20 mm length.
192260		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192260		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Angola where it is restricted to a 50-60 km stretch of coastline. A major redevelopment of the Port of Namibe has been agreed, financed by the Government of Japan (www.dredgingtoday.com) that will entail large scale dredging of the area. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).<br/></p><p><br/></p>
192283		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192283		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coast of Angola from Benguela in the north to just north of Lucira, a distance of approximately 400 km following the coast (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; The species is common within the range (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2004), with many locations along the coast. The extent of its range is probably more than 400 km, with new populations found in central and south Angola (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192283		habitat	eng	This species has been found in sand in shallow water (Poppe and Poppe 2011) and down to 10 m in mud (Filmer 2001).
192283		population	eng	There are no data on the population levels for this species, but it is commonly available for sale. The maximum size of specimen is 31 mm. Together with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aemulus</span>, this is the most common <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span> species in Angola (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192283		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at the present time. It occurs in central and south Angola and hence away from the capital, so that pollution is not a&#160; problem for this species (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192286		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and extremely scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance, level of off-take and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192286		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found only off the north shore of the island of São Vicente including  Baía de Salamansa east to Ponta Marigou and Ponta de Fragata, a coastline of approx 9 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192286		habitat	eng	<p>This species has been recorded from rocky habitats along the north coast, where the species may well have been associated with sea-urchin holes in shallow waters. The majority of habitats along this part of the coast have been  disturbed, and the populations are thought to have been lost, and there  have been no specimens collected since the 1980s (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Adults of the species typically grow 20 mm in length.&#160; <br/></p>
192286		population	eng	The majority of habitats along this part of the coast have been disturbed, and the populations are thought to have been lost, and there have been no specimens collected since the 1980s (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192286		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of São Vicente, Cape Verde, where it is restricted to a 9 km stretch of coast.&#160; <br/></p>  <p>The Cape Verde islands are experiencing a major increase in tourism.&#160; The island of São Vicente to which this species is restricted is similarly affected with the centre of its small distribution coinciding with the town of Salamansa.&#160; <br/></p><p>An international airport was opened on the island in 2009 to assist in the tourism development. <br/></p><p><br/></p>
192287		conservation	eng	Although this species is highly restricted in its range and currently relatively scarce in the market, there are no known threats and hence there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192287		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found off the east coast of the island of Sal&#160; from Serra Negra to Pedra Lume (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).
192287		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand, under algae covered rocks at depths of between 0.2 and 2 m (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).&#160; Examples of shells being offered for sale indicate adult sizes of approx 25 mm. The shell is quite variable in colour and size.
192287		population	eng	The species is fairly common in the area but was unrecorded as it is very similar to the other species from the site (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192287		threats	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sal, Cape Verde where it is restricted to a 5 km stretch of coast. However, there is no current threat from any developments in the region and little tourism, so the species is not at present considered to be threatened and the site is stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192288		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192288		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found on the island of Maio off the west coast at Baia de Pau Seco (Tenorio and Afonso 2004), and further populations have been found to the north of the type locality, giving 16 km of coast.
192288		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks in sand at between 2 and 4 m depth (Tenorio and Afonso 2004).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to approx 30 mm in length.
192288		population	eng	The number of subpopulations known has increased with survey work over the last six years (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). The populations are considered to have been stable over the last 10 years and the species is occasionally taken from suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192288		threats	eng	This is a recently described species and further populations have been found to the north of the original discovery. There are no known threats as this area is quite remote, and with little tourist or fishing activity in the area the species is considered to be at low risk.
192293		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192293		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is found along the coast towards the south of the country from Benguela south to Baía da Lucira (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a rocky coastline with many bays of approx 220 km in length.<p><br/></p>
192293		habitat	eng	This species is found on rocks and in sand at shallow depths down to approx 6 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 25 mm in length.
192293		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. There are currently two known populations, one in the north (Benguela), and one in south (previously known range); the species is likely to be also found in betweeen these sites following further surveys (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192293		threats	eng	This shallow water species is endemic to Angola where it is restricted to a 220 km stretch of coast.&#160; Most of the range of this species lies off largely uninhabited shores, so that there are no real current threats to this species. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192306		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192306		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde islands and is restricted to the westerly island of Boavista where it is found at almost all suitable sites around the island, in particular Morro de Areia and Rife de Chaves in the west (20 km<sup>2</sup>), Praia da Cruz and Baía Teodora in the north-west (24 km<sup>2</sup>), Derrubado in the north (10 km<sup>2</sup>) and Baía das Gatas in the north-east (10 km<sup>2</sup>),&#160;    (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is known from many small sites around the coastline on the northern half of the island over a distance of 65 km.
192306		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow waters just below low-tide in rocky regions, at around 1 m depth. It is a small species with adults typically reaching 18 mm in length.
192306		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season.&#160; It can be confused for other species, so trend data maybe more difficult to obtain.&#160; The species is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192306		threats	eng	Almost all the development is taking place south of Sal-Rei on Boavista with a new international airport recently opened and large hotels and other tourist infrastructure, especially around the capital Sal Rei, however as the population occurs in the northern part of the island, it is not perceived to be a threat to the species on the basis of  current plans.
192329		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192329		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where its known distribution is restricted to the northernmost points of the small island of Maio in the vicinity of Baía do Navio Quebrado, Porto Cais and Praia Real (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), occupying just two small habitats within a coastline of approx 9 km mainly along the western sides of these promontories. There are at least 2 or 3 subpopulations with different colour patterns, and these are connected by an outer reef (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192329		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand, in crevices and on rock platforms living in shallow water typically at 1 m, but can be found to 4 m in depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 30-35 mm in length.
192329		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes in the populations have been seen during monitoring over the last 8 years, so it is considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192329		threats	eng	This species is endemic to a 9 km length of shoreline on a single island in the Cape Verde group. There are no plans for tourist development, no small harbours, nor any roads to the region, so there are no current threats for this species. The off-take for the shell trade is limited, and as such is not considered a threat.
192331		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192331		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west coast of Africa from south of Dakar, Senegal in the north to the northern border region of Guinea-Bissau with Senegal in the south and including Gambia (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), a coast of approx 700 km. Monnier and Tenorio (2011 pers.comm.) considered that the species has a range that is disjunct with records from Gabon and Angola.&#160; It is a deeper water species, recorded from trawling (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192331		habitat	eng	This species has been found and reported on specimen shell websites as having been dredged from under rocks at around 3 m depth, although it can be found in deeper water (30 m).&#160; This mollusc will grow to typically 50 mm and can reach 65 mm in length.
192331		population	eng	It is not an abundant species, but off-take is not impacting the species and there is no known decline (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192331		threats	eng	<p>In common with many species of marine mollusc of restricted range they may be at risk from over-gathering for specimen shells and by visiting tourists.</p>
192336		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192336		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found along the southeast of the island of Sal from Serra Negra south to Santa Maria at the southern extremity (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a coastal distance of approx 9 km.
192336		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand at shallow depths from 0.5 to 5 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; Adults of the species are small and typically grow to 18 mm in length.
192336		population	eng	This species is usually quite common in the range during the breeding season (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes have been seen in the populations during monitoring over the last 10 years, so it is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192336		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to a 9 km length of shoreline on a single island in the Cape Verde group. There is a hotel in the south of the range but the species has not been affected by this activity. There are no plans to further develop this area at present, and so there are no known threats.&#160; There is little collecting activity for this species (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm 2011).</p><p><br/></p>
192343		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192343		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Senegal where it has been found off the coast of the city of Dakar at Les Almadies in deep water and at present it is only known from one sampling point (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192343		habitat	eng	This species lives in rocky habitats where it occurs at a depth of 20-30 m with powerful tidal currents making sampling difficult (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011)
192343		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192343		threats	eng	There are insufficient data available from which to make an assessment. It is less threatened from pollution, as the strong currents draw the pollution away from the site, however a major pollution event such as a ship wreck or oil spill is a possible threat.
192348		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is restricted in its range to the south-west coast of the island of Santa Luzia, for a distance of approx 9 km only (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192348		habitat	eng	This species is found beneath rocks at 1 to 3 m depths (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 30 mm in length.
192348		population	eng	This species is never common in the range during the breeding season (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). There are limited data as this island is rarely visited. (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192348		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range (12 km<sup>2</sup>) although the location where it is found is undeveloped.&#160; Off-take is not considered to be threatening the species. In common with all small <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span>  spp., the shells of this species are only traded for the specialist  collector.&#160; The lack of visiting collectors to the island and its  protected status means that is little take of this species, hence it is  rarely traded.
192350		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and is scarce. The smaller of the two islands, Santa Luzia, is  barren and uninhabited, and is a protected area.
192350		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is restricted to the island of São Vicente and the neighbouring island of Santa Luzia. On São Vicente it has been found on two sites: Matiota, north of Salamansa in the north along approximately 2 km of coast (now extinct) and on the east coast from Calhau south to Saragasa along approx 12 km of coast.<br/><br/>On the smaller island of Santa Luzia it is only found along a stretch of coast in the south-west (Curral) for approximately 3 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192350		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water below low tide at approx 1 to 3 m.&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 30 mm in length.
192350		population	eng	There are two populations for this species on São Vicente, the one which was restricted  to site at Matiota is now extinct following development of the town and construction of the harbour that caused the loss. The populations in the east are scarce within the range (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>On the smaller island of S Luzia it is only found along a stretch of coast in the south-west (Curral) for approximately 3 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The populations have not been surveyed often, but are considered to be scarce within the range (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192350		threats	eng	This species is only now found in two small areas as one site was lost near Mindalo, the largest city in the Cape Verde islands. The other site on Sao Vicente is subject to limited recreational activity as it lies close to the large town, so is subject to low levels of threat. Although the species is collected by shell  collectors, there is limited off-take as it is scarce.
192354		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species. <br/>In common with all small <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus </span>spp., the shells of this species are only traded for the specialist collector. When recently collected the shells are almost black.&#160; Their small size (typically 22 mm) and superficial damage makes them less appealing than larger shells.
192354		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found at Tarrafal off the southwest coast of the island of São Nicolau (Filmer 2001, amended 2009). There are several scattered records of the species from around the island.
192354		habitat	eng	This species has been found on algae covered rocks and crevices at 1 to 3 m (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).&#160; Sizes of this species reported on a shell auction website have typically measured 22-24 mm (www.shellauction.net).
192354		population	eng	The populations are considered to have been stable over the last 10 years but the species is scarce in suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192354		threats	eng	The centre of distribution lies off a small town with a harbour, with low level of pollution (sewage, runoff and oil spills). The other sites are less accessible as there is no road linking to the main town.
192358		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and lies within a protected area. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192358		distribution	eng	This species has only recently been described, and is endemic to Senegal where it has been found off the Cape Vert Peninsula (Dakar) at the west coast of Medeleine Island (Monnier and Limpaläer 2010). It may well be present elsewhere on the island, but there are limited survey data, as the island is a reserve (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192358		habitat	eng	The species is found on rocky areas, 10-15 m depth, where it occurs in sandy pockets amongst the rocks. This species is approx 25-45 mm in length.
192358		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature, as it is a recently described species.
192358		threats	eng	This species is only known from a  single site and it lies close to Dakar, so there is the possibility of  pollution events with oil tanker traffic. The island lies in a protected area, south of the major port, and is unlikely to suffer pollution from land-based industry due to the currents along the coast, and as such this species must be considered at low risk of extinction. There is no diving permitted, so there is no off-take of specimens for the shell trade (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192381		conservation	eng	This species has a restricted&#160; range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place.
192381		distribution	eng	This shallow water species is endemic to the east coast of Sal Island in the Cape Verde Islands, from point approximately 6 km north to 8 km south of Pedra Lume (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), with a projected range along 30 km of coastline.
192381		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks at shallow depths of less than a metre (Filmer 2001, M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011) with a lower depth of 5 m. Adults will grow to around 10-22 mm in length.
192381		population	eng	The populations are considered stable over the last 10 years and the species is a common species in suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192381		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to a 30 km length of shoreline on a single island in the Cape Verde group. There is a small harbour but the species is not impacted by the fishing activity from this harbour. There are no plans to develop this area at present, and so there are no known threats from it (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). <br/></p>
192390		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192390		distribution	eng	This species is found along the entire coast of the Mediterranean including its Atlantic approaches from the Algarve, Portugal to Huelva and Cadiz, Spain, and from Rabat, Morocco towards Gibraltar (Monteiro <em>et al</em> 2004).
192390		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow waters in many differing habitats including mud, sand, seagrass and rocks between 0.5 and 5 m depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160;  Adults of the species typically grow to 45 mm in length.
192390		population	eng	Although the species is abundant, the size of individuals taken has been reducing (G. Raybaudi-Massilia pers. comm. 2011)
192390		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species, however the sizes of individuals have been reducing but the cause is uncertain. There may be some issues in the future as other species from the Red Sea enter the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal.
192403		conservation	eng	The species is not the subject of any conservation actions at present, however some action is required, as population levels have been in declining over the last 10 years. Future developments should include some mitigation plans.
192403		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sal in the Cape Verde group where it is restricted to the south-west of the island from the northerly point of  Baía da Mordeira to the most southerly point of Baía da Santa Maria, including Baía do Algodoeiro midway along its range, being approx 30 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) to Santa Maria in the south, although there is no evidence that they fragment the species populations.
192403		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks from 1 to 5 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 35 mm in length (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192403		population	eng	This shell is small (35 mm). Although there are no records of population levels for this species in the literature, the species was once one of most common species in the region, but decline has been observed in the last 10 years. It is now considered to be rare (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192403		threats	eng	The Cape Verde islands are experiencing a major increase in  tourism.&#160;  The island of Sal to which this species is restricted is now  subject to  major development including a 5 billion euro construction of 425  hectares at Mordeira Bay, consisting of 5,000 residential units, 5 star  hotels, two  golf courses and a marina  (http://www.capeverdedevelopment.com) coincides with the type locality   of the species and must be considered the major threat as the populations levels of the species are already observed to be declining (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192418		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192418		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coast of Angola where it was thought to be restricted to two separate groups, the first along approximately 50 km of coastline from Chituca to Equimina, and the second approximately 30 km further south from Santa Maria to Lucira, a distance of approximately 100 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is actually found continuously along the stretch of coast where it occurs, giving a range extent of 150 km; it has recently been found further along coast to the south (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). The area is mainly undeveloped with little in the way of large towns.
192418		habitat	eng	This species has been found on rocks in shallow water at low tide and at depths to 8 m (www.shellauction.net).&#160; Adults will typically grow to around 30 mm in length.
192418		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. However, it is likely to be stable and abundant (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192418		threats	eng	There are no known specific threats to this species at this time. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192438		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192438		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it has only been found on the island of Sal and where it is restricted to just a 4 km stretch of coastline on the western side of the island on the north shore of Baía de Mordeira (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004, M J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192438		habitat	eng	This species lives under rocks in shallow water to 1 to 2 m in depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species are one of the smallest of the Conidae and typically grow to just 12 mm in length.
192438		population	eng	The area where this species occurs is at present stable, however the threats of development may impact the species in the future.
192438		threats	eng	<p>The Cape Verde islands are experiencing a major increase in tourism which must be considered the major threat. The island of Sal to which this species is restricted is now subject to  major development including a 5 bn euro construction of 425 hectares at  Mordeira Bay, consisting of 5,000 residential units, 5 star hotels, two  golf courses and a marina (http://www.capeverdedevelopment.com). This  location is currently planned for future expansion of the resort area with road construction to this headland, with the timescale likely to occur in the next 10 years. <br/></p><p>This species has a very small shell, typically less than 13 mm, which may make it less attractive; however, it is of interest to specialist shell collectors.<br/></p><p><br/></p>
192455		conservation	eng	This species has a restricted&#160; range and would benefit from further research into abundance and threats. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.&#160; There are already studies of the population genetics for this group (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
192455		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found on the islands of Boavista, Santiago and Maio.&#160; Its widest distribution is off Boavista where it is found in multiple locations around the coastline, with an area occupied of approx 20 km within a total stretch of approx 40km of coast.&#160; It is also present along the northern coast (both east and west) of Maio, 100 km to the south of Boavista, at Baía de Navio Quebrado, Porto Cais and Praia Real in the north for approx 7 km and 12 km to the south at Baía de Pau Seco off the western shores for 4 km (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2004).&#160; There are also several subpopulations in Santiago.&#160; In total this species is known from three islands and one islet across multiple locations.<br/><br/>The reports of this species on Sal are now considered to be a different species: <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus ateralbus </span>(Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2008).
192455		habitat	eng	This species is found buried in sand under rocks and on rock platforms at depths of between 2 and 15 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 30-60 mm in length.&#160; During the breeding season, this species is commonly encountered in shallow waters.&#160; It is inferred from protoconch morphology that this species has non-planktotrophic larval development.
192455		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes have been seen in the populations during monitoring over the last 10 years so it is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192455		threats	eng	<p>This species is common within its restricted&#160; range. It is gathered by shell collectors, however, it is also larger than many other endemic species of Cape Verde <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span>.&#160; Although there are potential threats from coastal development it is not likely that this will significantly affect the population status in the near future.<br/></p>
192461		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192461		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is restricted to three locations on the the north and west coast of the island of Maio (Tenorio and Afonso 2004).&#160; The species is restricted to 3 bays separated by headlands, and at present it has not been found in the intervening regions (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192461		habitat	eng	This species lives in shallow water at depths of between 1 and 2 m.&#160; Adults will typically grow to 20 mm.
192461		population	eng	The populations are considered to have been stable for the last 10 years and the species is an occasional species in the suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192461		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range, being found only along a  short stretch of coast on the island of Maio. However, there are no  specific incidences of threats caused by its limited EOO and there is little collecting at present. At present there is no tourism, nor any road access and no likelihood of pollution incidents.
192467		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192467		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it has been found in an area&#160;  between the towns of Benguela and Namibe bounded by São Nicolau to the  north and Baía do Chapéu Armado to the south  (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The range is approximately 70 km (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192467		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water to 3 m where it lives in sand.&#160; It is a small species, with adults typically growing to 30 mm in length.
192467		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192467		threats	eng	Although this species is restricted in its distribution, it has only  been found in an area remote from any large towns and of low human  habitation. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast,  but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is  not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the  future if oil drilling commences (M.J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192472		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192472		distribution	eng	This tiny species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found on the northwest coast of the island of Sal, from Ponte Norte, Palhona south to Regona, a distance of approx 12 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is a species that is adapted to heavy surf conditions along the rocky coasts.
192472		habitat	eng	It is only possible to sample this species at low tide, where it is present in intertidal pools. It is a species that is adapted to heavy surf conditions along the rocky coasts (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). This species is found in shallow water just below low tide on rocks and algae (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species are very small and typically grow to only 12 mm in length.
192472		population	eng	The populations are considered stable in the last 10 years and the species is common in suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192472		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>This species is highly restricted in its range being found only along a single stretch of coastline of just 12 km. The inaccessible habitats and the remoteness of the site, as well as the very small size offer it&#160; protection from casual collectors, and hence the species is not considered to be impacted by current collecting levels.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
192475		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192475		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found along the western flank off the island of Boavista from Ponto do Rincão in the north to  Sal-Rei and continuing south to Morro de Areía, a coastline of approx 26 km in  length. A further population is found on the island of Maio, approx  100 km to the SSW along the most northerly point at Navio Quebrado to Baia do Galeão, a  coastline of approx 7 km in  length (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192475		habitat	eng	This small species is found in sand under rocks in shallow water of 1 to 5 m depth. Adults of the species typically grow to 28 mm in length.
192475		population	eng	In Boavista the populations are declining whereas the populations on Maio are stable.&#160; The species was frequent in collecting samples in the Sal-Rei 20 years ago whereas now it is rare in samples (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm 2011).<br/><br/>In Boavista there are 3 subpopulations, of which one has declined, and on Maio there are 3-4 populations, usually indicated by the different colour forms (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm 2011).
192475		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the islands of Boavista and Maio, Cape  Verde, where it is restricted to less than 33 km coast. The populations on Boavista around the Sal-Rei  harbour area have shown past declines, and these regions were where some of the greatest abundance of this species used be  found. The other two populations on Boavista are not in decline.</p><p>The populations around Sal-Rei remain vulnerable to pollution events around the harbour, and from fishing vessels and oil tankers moving in and out of the harbour.<br/></p><p>The populations on Maio are considered secure.<br/></p>
192486		conservation	eng	This species has a restricted range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species and none considered necessary. The beach is a marine turtle nesting beach with monitoring during the breeding season.
192486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found off the northwestern shores of the island of Boavista between Baíadas Gatas and Porto Ferreira (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a distance of approx 13 km of coast.
192486		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water to 5 m depth (Röckel <em>et al.</em> 1995). Adults of the species typically grow to 20 mm in length.
192486		population	eng	The populations are considered to have been stable for the last 10 years and this inconspicuous species is found occasionally in suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192486		threats	eng	<p>This species is highly restricted in its range being found along a single 13 km stretch of coastline on the island of Boavista in remote area with limited road access, and so there are no threats other than small population size and range.<br/><br/></p>  <p>  </p><p><br/></p>
192487		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Senegal where it has been found only around the peninsular of Dakar from Fann north of the city and continuing south for approx 100 km to Somone (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004); however, as this species lives at shallow depths and co-exists alongside a major industrial and commercial port and residential area with accompanying marine pollution, it would be reasonable to suppose that the populations are fragmented.
192487		habitat	eng	This species has been found on rocks in strong currents and in sea urchin crevices at between 1 to 2 m depths (Poppe and Poppe 2011). The species is one of the smallest in Senegal, and adults typically grow to 10-12 mm, occasionally up to 20 mm in length (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192487		population	eng	The populations in the north of the coast where there is pollution have smaller specimens than the sites disturbed by recreational activities in the south.
192487		threats	eng	Threats to this species may arise as a result of industrial and commercial pollution from the proximity of Dakar along its short geographical range.&#160; It is also vulnerable from pollutants associated with shipping entering and leaving port.<br/><br/>Marine pollution along the whole of this coastline, in particular around  the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges  including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem  to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).
192492		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in  the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance,  level of off-take and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192492		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is found from a position 30 km north of Luanda to Santiago Beach, a coastal distance of approx 35 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; This species is found over the range and is less frequent in samples than other species.
192492		habitat	eng	This species is found on sand and rocks (Filmer 2001) living close to the mouth of rivers and so may prefer a lower salinity environment.&#160; This exposes it to pollution, sedimentation and developments in its restricted habitats. Adults of this species grow to approx 30 mm (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192492		population	eng	This species occurs less frequently than other mollusc species including <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus </span>spp.&#160;that live in the same habitats (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192492		threats	eng	This species occurs north of Luanda and should be considered at risk from marine pollution spreading from industrial, commercial and residential areas of the city.
192494		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. With the suggested port development at one particular location, specific conservation measures may need to be drawn up to safeguard the population found in the affected location. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192494		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it has been found 2 km north of the town of Namibe (Moçâmedes) around the town of Saco Mar (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) for a distance of approx 8 km of coast. Since then, it has been recorded from other locations along the coast, probably giving it a range of approximately 150 km (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192494		habitat	eng	This species has been found buried in fine sand at shallow depths of 2 to 3 m (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 30 mm in length.
192494		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192494		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted.&#160; It is a shallow water species and therefore more highly exposed to pollution and other anthropogenic disturbances, although its small size makes it of less interest to a casual shell gatherer.<br/><br/>This species was originally found in an area just 6 kms north of the town of Namibe which is scheduled for  development of a new deep-water port to serve West Africa, financed by  the Government of Japan (www.dredgingtoday.com), with the added risk of oil spills and other industrial effluents. However, it is now known from other locations along the coastline. Any planned port development is likely to have a localized effect around the area in question (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192495		conservation	eng	The species may benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192495		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is found from Limagens at its northern extent to Baía da Lucira in the south (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a coastal distance of approx 100 km along a coastline with many bays and promontories that result in a habitat length of 210 km.
192495		habitat	eng	This species is found buried in sand under rocks (Filmer 2001, amended 2009), at depths of 1-3 m.&#160; It is found in calm waters (no wave action). Adults of the species typically grow to 40 mm in length.
192495		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192495		threats	eng	This species lives along a coastline much of which is characterised by bays and inlets with rocky shores and few human settlements. There are currently no perceived threats to this species. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192497		conservation	eng	Two populations are found on off-shore islands, which are more isolated from pollution events and collecting. One island is protected from diving and access to the island. However there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192497		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Senegal where it is found only along the  western edge of the Cap Vert Peninsula of the capital Dakar, from the  districts of Yoff in the north to Dakar-Fann on the southern tip  including Goreé Island, a total coastline of approx 22 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em>  2004).&#160; The whole of the adjacent land is highly developed and  industrialized with associated problems including discharge of  pollutants into the marine environment (UNEP 2009) which will probably result in fragmentation of the population. This species is  described as most abundant from the districts of Almadies on the  north-western tip to Ouakam approx 4 km to the south (Monteiro <em>et al.&#160;</em>2004).
192497		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water typically at 3 m depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 45 mm in length.
192497		population	eng	This species is abundant within the range but there is some decline in the sizes of the individuals taken (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192497		threats	eng	<p>The major threat to the species is marine pollution, which impacts the whole of this coastline, in particular around the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).</p><p>There is a minor threat from shell-collecting by locals.<br/> <br/> </p>
192499		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192499		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast of Casamance in Southern Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Guinea (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). Owing to freshwater plumes from major rivers in the northern extent of its range, especially Guinea-Bissau, there is a likelihood of major fragmentation of populations.
192499		habitat	eng	<p>This species can be found at low-tide in gravel and sandy habitats, near mangroves but not rocks and usually in shallow waters during the breeding period. Adults of the species typically grow to 35 mm in length.</p>
192499		population	eng	The populations of the species are very variable in colour forms.&#160; This is a scarce species in suitable habitats during the breeding season in the region.&#160; It can tolerate pollution under certain conditions (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192499		threats	eng	This species although living along a coastline of nearly 1,000 km, is subject to population fragmentation resulting from freshwater plumes draining from major rivers in the region.&#160; The status of the mangroves is declining in the region, and hence the species may be vulnerable to future developments.<br/><br/>The market for specimen shells shows little availability reflecting difficulty in gathering and scarcity in abundance.
192500		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance, level of off-take and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192500		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cape Verde islands, on the island of Boavista where it is restricted to a single stretch of coast some 50 km in length in the NE of the island, from Derrubado in the north to Porto Ferreira in the east (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; It is one of the most widespread species on Boavista. There are many small sub-populations in suitable habitats along the coast.
192500		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks and dead coral at depths of 1 to 5 m. Adults will typically grow to 35 mm in length.
192500		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season and so is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192500		threats	eng	<p>This species is highly restricted in its range, being found only along the northern coast of Boa Vista Island.&#160; However there are no known threats in this part of the island  (M. J. Tenorio, pers. comm. 2011).</p>
192501		conservation	eng	This species has only recently been described and would benefit from further research.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192501		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to southern Angola where it is found from Benguela at its northernmost extent to Santa Maria in the south (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a coastal distance of approx 150 - 160 km along a shoreline with many bays and promontories. There is a possible population of the species in the south, in Namib province, but this needs confirmation; if validated, this would extend its known range (see original description - Rolán &amp; Röckel 2000).
192501		habitat	eng	<p>Adults of the species typically grow to 25 mm in length. It is found in shallow water at depths of 1-3 m buried in sand and pebbles (Rolán &amp; Röckel 2000).<br/></p>
192501		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature, which has only recently been described.
192501		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192514		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and present on a small offshore islet where no development is permitted.&#160; The island is not protected and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192514		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Senegal where it has been found off the island of Gorée, approx 2 km offshore from the city of Dakar (http://biology.burke.washington.edu).
192514		habitat	eng	Along rocky coastlines this species has been found at depths of 0-7 m and also at 35-40 m in sandy pockets. From shell collectors' websites this species has been found at sizes up to 27 mm (www.shellauction.net).
192514		population	eng	This recently described species has insufficient data to establish population trends.
192514		threats	eng	This recently described species is found on a small offshore island, hence the level of pollution is not high.&#160; There is some limited disturbance from recreational activities as the island is very rocky with no beaches and it is not permitted to construct new buildings on the island.<br/><br/>There are very few specimens known and little trade in shells at present (E. Monnier pers. com. 2011).
192516		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192516		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is found from Limagens at its  northern extent to Baía da Lucira in the south (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a coastal distance of approx 100 km along a coastline with many bays and promontories that reduce the habitat area to 140 km<sup>2</sup>.
192516		habitat	eng	This species is found buried in sand under rocks (Filmer 2001, amended  2009), at depths of 1-3 m.&#160; It is found in calm waters (no wave action).  Adults of the species typically grow to 40 mm in length.
192516		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192516		threats	eng	Although most of the range of this species lies off largely uninhabited shores, it is a collectible shell. It is also a shallow-water species and therefore more easily gathered. However, there is no real collection happening in Angola at present apart from a few specialist collectors. The species is therefore considered to not currently be facing any threats. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192522		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192522		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Senegal where it is described as inhabiting the north coast of the Cap Vert peninsula (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; Specialist shell websites record specimens from Ile de Goree to the south of the peninsula (www.conidae.info), which are considered to be likely records whereas the shells listed from further south (approx 80 km) off Popenguine, on the Petit Cote (www.coneshell.net) require further confirmation.
192522		habitat	eng	This species has been found at depths ranging from shallow water to 3-7 m at Ile de Goree, possibly getting to 12 m in sand, pebbles and on rocks (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults typically grow to 35-40 mm in length. The populations from different sites differ in their colour form (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192522		population	eng	The size of the specimens taken has been reducing. Although there are no records of population levels for this species in the literature, the species is probably decreasing as the habitats are declining in quality.
192522		threats	eng	<p>This species is highly restricted in its range, found along a short stretch of coast around the Cap Verde peninsula. The capital city of Dakar lies in the centre of its range and it is therefore subject to high levels of pollution and possible fragmentation of populations. As with all <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span> spp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it is subject to shell gathering which could place pressure on populations.</p><p>Marine pollution along the whole of this coastline, in particular around   the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges   including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem   to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).</p>
192523		conservation	eng	This seamount has other species that are highly restricted in its range.&#160; The species may benefit from further research into  abundance, level of off-take and threats. There are no known conservation measures for the sea-mount currently in place for this species.<br/><br/> The likelihood of impact from shell collectors is currently low, as the  fishing activities are unlikely to obtain the species as bycatch.
192523		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands and is found only on a single submerged seamount, Banco João Valente, midway between the islands of Boa Vista and Maio (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is a recent record of an additional site somewhere offshore of Maio, but the locality is uncertain (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160; The type locality is a seamount that links the two islands, and this sampling point is where the water is very shallow (4 m), so the Area Of Occupancy is currently regarded as less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
192523		habitat	eng	This species has been found at depths of between 23 and 38 m buried in sand among small rocks and pink coralline algae on a single submerged seamount which is subject to strong currents (Filmer 2002 amended 2009). Adults grow to approximately 44 mm.
192523		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192523		threats	eng	This species is found on a single seamount,  Banco João Valente, midway between the islands of Boavista and Maio in the Cape Verde archipelago. The habitat is only visited by lobster fisherman and it is too far from the mainland to be utilized for recreational diving.<br/><br/>The likelihood of impact from shell collectors is currently low, as the fishing activities are unlikely to obtain the species as bycatch. <br/><br/>The species would need to be collected by diving.<br/><br/>Future threats may be changes to the impact of fishing activities on the site.
192530		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and scarce in  the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance,  level of offtake and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192530		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found only off the northwest coast of Boavista Island at Baía Teodora and Sal Rei (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) along a coast of approx 4.5 km in length. There are possible populations around the northernmost peninsula of the island.<br/></p>
192530		habitat	eng	This species is found on stones and rocks at depths of 0.5 to 6 m (Monnier 2001)
192530		population	eng	The species is scarce in samples with a restricted range.
192530		threats	eng	<p>This species is only found in a single small bay. It is only under pressure in the southern part of the range around Sal-Rei. As such, much of the population is secure and there is limited offtake impacting the species.<br/></p>
192534		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192534		distribution	eng	This species is found widely along the coast of West Africa.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pulcher pulcher</span>&#160;is found from Senegal to Angola including the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe but not the Cape Verde Islands; <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pulcher byssinus</span> from Western Sahara to the Mauritania-Sengal border; and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pulcher siamensis</span> is found in the Canary Islands and Madeira.<br/><br/>There are separate maps for each subspecies.
192534		habitat	eng	This species lives in varied habitats including sand and mud in a range from 1 m to 50 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; This is the largest species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span> with adults typically growing to 250 mm in length (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192534		population	eng	This is the largest cone species in the world. It is a species which is widely distributed and common although there are limited population trend data for this species.
192534		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. The level of off-take is not threatening as the level of sales is low and the area which they are taken from is large.&#160; There are localized pollution events that may impact the species but not throughout the range.
192544		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and habitat requirements, and is threatened by future changes to these. All proposed developments within this habitat should include Environmental Impact Studies for this species, to include&#160;mitigation&#160;plans during the construction phase to prevent damage to the rocky reef habitats along the beaches. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192544		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Boavista Island within the Cape Verde island group where it is restricted to the south-west in an area bounded by a position approximately 10 km south of Sal Rei and it is found along approximately 20 km of coast to Santa Monica (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) on isolated rocky reefs scattered along the sandy bays. The type locality is where the species is currently most abundant (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192544		habitat	eng	The species is found on isolated rocky reefs scattered along the sandy bays.&#160; This species has been found in sand and on rocks at depths of 1 to 5 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). The juveniles are more easily found than the adults of the species which typically grow to 30 mm in length.
192544		population	eng	During the breeding season only, this species is commonly encountered in its appropriate habitats (rocky reefs) in shallow waters (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160; There are at least 4-5 subpopulations of this species.
192544		threats	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Boavista, Cape Verde, where it is restricted to a 27 km stretch of coast.&#160; <br/><br/>Boavista Island is subject to major tourism development according to <span class="postbody">The Integrated Tourism Development Corporation of Boa Vista  and Mai, where it is reported that following the new airport a paved road will join towns and fishing vllages along the coast from Sal Rei.&#160; <br/><br/>The type locality is where the species is currently most abundant, where the  species is found on isolated rocky reefs scattered along the sandy bays. It lies close to a major planned tourist complex, with golf complexes, marina, roads and other recreational activities planned for this beach. The development is likely to lead to degradation of the habitat quality during the construction phase, and possibly thereafter.<br/><br/>Although the shells of this species are not exceptional in their price in the collector market, trade is not considered to be impacting the population levels of the species (M. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011)<span class="postbody">.</span>
192546		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into abundance, level of off-take and threats before any action plan can be formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192546		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola and only known between Cacuaco to the north of Luanda and Mussulo Bay (Monteiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), a distance of approx 40 km. Samples of <em>C. aemulus</em> gathered by fishermen and sold for the collector market are the only source of information on the depth range for this species, indicated as 1 to 2 m in dealers lists of shells for sale (Poppe and Poppe 2011). The species is present in very shallow waters to 5 m depth (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192546		habitat	eng	This species has been found on sand and rocks, from 1 to 2 m depth but possibly to 5 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011; M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192546		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species, but recent records suggest it is very abundant (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192546		threats	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is restricted to 40 km of coastline. There is hardly any tourism in Angola at this moment and the species is only collected by a few specialist collectors; it is not collected by fishermen (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). The only current threat is its proximity to the city of Luanda, so development and pollution from there may be of some concern, however this is currently regarded to be a minor threat (M. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192548		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and extremely scarce in  the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192548		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is found along the coastal waters from Limagens south to Santa Maria, a distance of approx 30-35 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192548		habitat	eng	<p>Adults of the species typically grow to 30 mm in length.. It occurs in shallow waters, buried in sand, at 2-3 m depths, and under rocks (Röckel and Rolán 2000).</p>
192548		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. It is similar to other Angolan <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span> spp.&#160;in that it is neither common nor rare (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192548		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range being found only along a coastline of 30-35 km. It is currently not affected by any major threats. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192556		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species. The population in the waters off the island of Madeleine lies within a protected area and with no inhabitatants, however it lies close to Dakar.
192556		distribution	eng	This species has only be found along the bays adjoining the eastern shores of the capital Dakar, Senegal, namely Baie de Hann to the north of the capital and Rade de Dakar to the south.&#160; It is thought that marine pollution has extirpated the species at the Pointe de Bel-Air which is at the midpoint of the range and after which the species is named.&#160; There is a second population in the waters off the island of Madeleine to the south of the peninsula (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) .
192556		habitat	eng	This species has been found living in shallow waters to depths of 17 m on the island of Madeline extending to 50 m from the mainland shore (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).&#160; Adults typically grow to around 30 mm in length.
192556		population	eng	<p>There is a known population decline due to loss of sites since the 1990s.<br/></p>
192556		threats	eng	<p>This species is highly restricted in its range, occurring along a short coastline in a highly developed area of Dakar, the capital of Senegal.&#160; The decline of the species has been known for over 15 years, and the region is subject to residential, commercial and industrial pollution commensurate with urban areas within developing countries.&#160; There is a population associated with the island of Madeleine to the south, which is also a national park and therefore a possible source of protection.&#160; <br/></p><p> Marine pollution along the whole of this coastline, in particular  around the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges  including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem  to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).</p><p>As with all <em>Conus </em>spp.&#160;there is a limited off-take for trade.<br/></p>
192571		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192571		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde islands where it is found around the northern side of Maio, mainly on the rocky parts of the island, as the southern coasts are sandy.&#160; There are records from Pau Seco, Calheta, Ponta Rica, Ponta Pipa, Baía do Navio and Baíado Galeão. This is a coastline of approx 34 km in length (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/><p><br/></p>
192571		habitat	eng	This small species is found in shallow water at depths of 1 to 2 m. Adults of the species typically grow to typically less than 20 mm in length, occasionally larger.
192571		population	eng	This species is usually scattered but frequent in the range during the breeding season (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes have been seen in the populations during monitoring over the last 8 years so it is considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). There has been an increase in the numbers of sites, but it is believed to be a reflection of sampling effort not expansion of the range.
192571		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to a 34 km length of shoreline on a single island in the Cape Verde group. There are no plans for tourist development and no small harbours, nor any roads to the region, so there are no current threats for this species. The off-take for the shell trade is limited, and as such is not considered a threat.<br/><br/></p>
192572		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192572		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it has been found only off the north-western coast of the island of Sal. The range is from Regona in the north to Petinha in the south and encompassing Fontona Bay after which this species has been named (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is a coastline length of approx 15 km and the species is typically found on rocky coastlines (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192572		habitat	eng	This species has been found within rock crevices at depths of 3 to 5 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 20 mm in length.
192572		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes have been seen in the populations during monitoring over last 10 years, so it is considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192572		threats	eng	The risk to this species comes from the movements of fishing boats and oil tanker traffic in and out of the harbour with the potential of small oil-spills causing pollution events that impact both the species and the quality of habitats.
192577		conservation	eng	This species has a restricted&#160; range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found in multiple locations around Boavista.&#160; The consolidated coastline occupied is approx 20 km within a total stretch of approx 40 km of coast.&#160; It is also present along the northern coast (both east and west) of Maio, 100 km to the south of Boavista, at Baía de Navio Quebrado, Porto Cais and Praia Real in the north for approx 7 km and 12 km to the south at Baía de Pau Seco off the western shores for 4 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; There are also several subpopulations in the southeastern part of Santiago.
192577		habitat	eng	This species is found buried in sand under rocks and on rock platforms at depths of between 2 and 15 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 30-50 mm in length.&#160;  During the breeding season, this species is commonly encountered in shallow waters.&#160; It is inferred from protoconch morphology that this species has non-planktotrophic larval development (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192577		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.&#160;  During the breeding season only, this species is commonly encountered in shallow waters.&#160; There are at least 10-12 subpopulations of this species (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192577		threats	eng	This species is common within its restricted&#160; range. It is gathered by shell collectors, however, it is also larger than many other endemic species of Cape Verde <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span>.&#160; Although there are potential threats from coastal development, it is not likely that this will significantly affect the population status in the near future.
192584		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further  research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be   formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place  for this species.
192584		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it has been found at two sites along the western coast of Boavista, being approx 14 km of coastline around Baía de Sal Rei and an adjoining small off-shore island, and approx 10 km further south for a similar sized location around Morro da Areia (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The small size of the species is such that it may be overlooked in sampling on the western coast. [see digital map]
192584		habitat	eng	This species has been found on rocky reefs within crevices, just below low tide at approx 1 m depth.&#160; The habitats require specialist searching. The shell of the species is small typically measuring between 10-18 mm in an adult. There is some decline in quality around the harbour, with possibilities of localised oils spills, however the other sites are in good condition (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192584		population	eng	This species is usually frequent in samples using appropriate techniques for small species within the range during the breeding season. In the Sal-Rei region, the species has become less abundant, however on the islands it seems to have become more abundant, so it is considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192584		threats	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Boavista, Cape Verde, where it is restricted to a 38km stretch of coast. The main threats lie for the population around Sal-Rei, coinciding with the harbour where there is some decline in quality, with future possibilities  of localised oil spills, however the other parts of the range are in good condition. <br/><br/>There is only limited off-take for the species, reflecting the low demand from specialist collectors.
192594		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into its distribution (i.e. whether it occurs in additional localities) and threats (effects of pollution on the species) before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192594		distribution	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Angola. The type locality is San Antonio Bay, 30 km south of Benguela, along a length of coast estimated as 30 km.&#160; Shell specimens offered for sale at internet websites all indicate having been gathered within the region of Benguela.
192594		habitat	eng	This recently described species has been found at between 3 and 5 m depth (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).
192594		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species
192594		threats	eng	This recently described species is endemic to Angola where it is restricted to a short area of coastline or possibly a single bay. Benguela is a relatively large city so that pollution from the city may be a real threat to this species. With increased development in the area and potentially rising population numbers, pollution is likely to increase. At present very little is known about the effects of pollution on the species (it is unknown whether it can withstand pollution up to a certain level), so that more research is required. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192596		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192596		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found off the island of Boavista.&#160; It is known from the north and east coasts from Derrubado to Porto Ferreira (Tenorio and Afonso 2004). The distribution of this recently described species is not fully researched.
192596		habitat	eng	This species occurs between 1 and 5 m depth.&#160; Adults of this species grow to 15-30 mm .
192596		population	eng	This species is recently described and uncommon (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192596		threats	eng	Although this species has a restricted range, it has no known threats. With poor access to the area and no roads, there are no plans for development (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192602		conservation	eng	This species has a restricted&#160; range and would benefit from further research into abundance and threats. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192602		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found only off the northwest coast of Boavista Island at Baía Teodora and Sal Rei (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) along a coast of approx 6 km including a small island. It is restricted to a single bay where it was originally more abundant around the harbour side of the bay and is now more frequent on the islet in the bay (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192602		habitat	eng	This species lives on rocky shores with patches of sand.&#160; The species is found at depths of between 1 and 15 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 25 mm in length. Recently, the temperature of the water has increased with colonization by corals.
192602		population	eng	The populations around Sal-Rei have been declining but those on the other side of the islet are considered to have been stable over the last 10 years. The species is scarce in suitable habitats during the breeding season in the region (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160; The harbour construction 10 years ago impacted the populations.
192602		threats	eng	This species is only found in a single small bay where there was a major harbour development 10 years ago that impacted the species in the main part of its range. There is a low level of risk from pollution.
192608		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species and none are considered necessary.
192608		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed along the coast of West Africa from Senegal in the north to Angola in the south, including the Cape Verde islands and São Tomé<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>e<em></em> Príncipe islands off the coast of Gabon. Further specimens have been found in the Canary Islands although in small numbers (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; The coast along which this species lives is in excess of 8,500 kms length.
192608		habitat	eng	This species has been found in mud and sand at depths ranging from 1 m down to 20 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species can grow to 80 mm in length, but typically are less than 50 mm.
192608		population	eng	This species is commonly found in suitable habitats at the right time of the year.
192608		threats	eng	The threats are very localised from pollution and harbour extensions, and are not impacting the species (M.J. Tenorio per. comm. 2011).
192610		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce. The smaller of the  two islands, Santa Luzia, is  barren and uninhabited and is a protected  area.
192610		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found off the extreme west coast of São Vicente between Calhau and Baía de Saragassa for a distance of 5 km, and also off the southern coast of the neighbouring island of Santa Luzia in the vicinty of Água Doce and Curral for a distance of 2 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192610		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water of 1 to 10 m depth. Adults of the species typically grow to 20–32 mm in length.
192610		population	eng	This species is scarce in samples but it is not in decline.
192610		threats	eng	This species is restricted to two small locations totally no more than 7 km of coastline.   <p>The sites on Sao Vicente are subject to limited recreational activity as they lie close to a large town and thereby subject to low levels of threat.&#160; Although this species is gathered by shell collectors there is limited off-take as it is scarce.<br/></p>
192613		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192613		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Senegal from Dakar south to Mbour a coastal distance of approx 95 km. Estimated AOO is based on headlands and rocky areas, not in the intervening regions with sandy patches, as the species is not present there, however, as the major threat is pollution, the number of locations is estimated as 4-6.&#160; There is no information on the fragmentation of this species.&#160; However, much of the land adjoining the entire length of this coast has been developed.&#160; Dakar at the northern end of its range is a large metropolis (pop 2.5m) with resultant industrial and commercial pollution risk and Mbour (pop 0.2m) at the southern end is also source of serious marine pollution (UNEP 2009).<br/><br/>A separate and distinct population occurs off Gorée Island at the southern tip of the Dakar peninsular (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192613		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky areas and headlands where it is found in shallow water down to approx 5 m. Adults of the species typically grow to 50 mm in length.
192613		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. There have been declining populations in the north due to pollution, &#160;and in the south due to recreational activities disturbing habitats (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192613		threats	eng	There have been declining populations in the north, due to pollution.&#160; Its limited distribution along a highly developed coastline including the port facilities of Dakar indicates that there will be stresses arising from effluent and industrial and marine pollution along most of this species' range.&#160; <br/><br/>Marine pollutants along the whole of this coastline, in particular around   the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges   including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem   to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).<br/><br/>In the south, the population is impacted by recreational activities disturbing habitats.
192626		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192626		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found only in the Baía da Mordeira in the southwest of the island of Sal (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The bay has 11 km of coast.
192626		habitat	eng	This species is found at 1 to 5 m depth on rocks (Poppe and Poppe 2011, M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 35 mm in length.
192626		population	eng	This shell is small (35 mm). There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. The species was once one of most abundant species in the region but decline has been observed in the last 10 years. It is now considered to be rare (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192626		threats	eng	The Cape Verde islands are experiencing a major increase in tourism. The island of Sal to which this species is restricted is now subject to major development including a five billion Euro construction of 425 hectares at Mordeira Bay, consisting of 5,000 residential units, five-star hotels, two golf courses and a marina (<a href="http://www.capeverdedevelopment.com">http://www.capeverdedevelopment.com</a>). This development coincides with the location of the species and must be considered the major threat.
192631		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192631		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands. There are currently two subspecies, one found on Boavista and the other on Maio Island.&#160; The two subspecies are considered separately, pending further information on their taxonomic status.<br/><br/>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">damottai</span> is only found in the north-east of Boavista Island around the area of Baía das Gatas (5 km of coast) and also in the north around Derrubado (1 km of coast), a total Area of Occupancy (12 km<sup>2</sup>). There are additional records from 3 localities from Boavista. [See Digital Map for <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai damottai</span>]<br/><br/>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai galeao </span>is only found on the north coast of Maio Island at Baíado Navio Quebrado and the adjoining Baíado Galeão which together include approx 9 km (Monteiro <em>et al</em> 2004). Therefore records from 3-4 subpopulations in the bays and is associated with soft anthrozoa from Maio Island&#160;(M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160;[See Digital Map for <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai&#160;</span><span style="font-style: italic;">galeao</span>]
192631		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai </span><span style="font-style: italic;">damottai </span>is found under rocks and on platforms, also buried in gravel at 0.5 to 5 m depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 26 mm in length.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai galeao</span> is associated  with soft anthrozoa from Maio Island 0.5 to 5 m depth. &#160;[See Digital Map for <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus </span><span style="font-style: italic;">galeao</span>]
192631		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season for <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus damottai</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">damottai</span> and is usually abundant in the range during the breeding season for <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus </span><span style="font-style: italic;">damottai </span><span style="font-style: italic;">galeao</span> (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192631		threats	eng	There are two subspecies, the first of which is restricted to the island  of Boavista, approximately 6 km stretch of coast over two sites, and the other to  12 km of coast on the island of Maio. The threats to this species derive entirely from their highly  restricted range, as the species on Boavista lies outside the main areas  with threats from developing tourism industry and there is no development in the range on Maio.&#160; <br/><br/>In common with all small <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus</span> spp., the shells of this species are only traded for the specialist collector.&#160; Their small size makes them less appealing than larger shells.&#160; The market with specialist collectors means there is a very limited take (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192651		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species and none are considered necessary.
192651		distribution	eng	This species is found along the central West African coast from Dakar, Senegal in the north to Angola in the South.&#160; It is also found off the shores of the Cape Verde Islands, and the islands of São Tomé and Principe (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; The EOO/AOO together with the number of locations exceed the thresholds for vulnerability with criteria B1 and B2.
192651		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths of between 1 and 30 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 30–40 mm and can be up to 50 mm in length.
192651		population	eng	The populations are considered to have been stable over the last 10 years and the species is common in suitable habitats in the breeding season in the region (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192651		threats	eng	There are localized threats to the species where there are harbour developments and cities (with pollution from industrial sources and sewage).
192669		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192669		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it has been found only at Baía das Pipas approx 40 kms north of Namibe (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) along a coast of approx.10 km in length. It is a recently described species.
192669		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks in shallow water at depths of 2 to 3 m (Filmer 2001 amended 2009). Adults of the species typically grow to 20 mm in length.
192669		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. It is less abundant than other cone snails in the area (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192669		threats	eng	Owing to the isolation of the site which this species inhabits, there is unlikely to be any great direct threat from gathering for the specimen shell trade. However, its limited distribution makes this species vulnerable to a major catastrophic event such as an oil spill from vessels passing close to the port of Namibe to the south. The port of Namibe is scheduled for  development of a new deep-water port  to serve West Africa, financed by  the Government of Japan  (www.dredgingtoday.com), with the added risk of oil spills and other  industrial effluents. Any planned port development is likely to have a  localized effect around the area in question, but the species does not occur directly in the port vicinity (unlike other cones, e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. filmeri</span>; M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan  coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so  this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in  the future if oil drilling commences (M.J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers.  comm. 2011).
192687		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192687		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coast of Senegal where it is restricted to an area around Dakar, from Ile de Yoff north of the city and south around the Cap Vert Peninsular with its centre at the districts of Ouakam and Anse Bernard. Further populations are reported around Popenguine further south along the coast and around Gorée Island off the SE coast of the peninsular (Monteiro et al 2004).&#160; The total coast along which this species occurs is projected at approx 80-90 kms, with 5 subpopulations recognised over the area.
192687		habitat	eng	This species has been found under rocks at 0.5 m (http://www.seashell-collector.com) to 15 m depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; Adults will grow to typically 30 mm in length.
192687		population	eng	The species is normally scarce in samples, whereas the several species that live in the same habitats are more frequent (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cacao</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. taslei</span>).&#160; At some sites there is a decrease in the population size.&#160; It should be noted that, in terms of microhabits, the species is always found on its own, and not with other species that are found at the same site (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192687		threats	eng	This species is largely found along the coast of the Cap Vert peninsular which is dominated by the city of Dakar, highly urbanized and with extensive port facilities and commercial development.&#160; In common with many developing countries there is the danger of inadequate control over the release of pollutants into the marine environment.&#160; Further populations of this species are found on Gorée Island off the peninsular and therefore are subject to similar threats.&#160; A separate population 50 km SE of Dakar at Popenguine is in a region where there is tourism and recreational activities, however these are less impacted than the northern populations.<br/><br/>Marine pollution along the whole of this coastline, in particular around  the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges  including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem  to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).
192702		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range, occurs at a remote site and is not taken in large numbers. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192702		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is only found along the northern coast of the island of Maio from Praía do Santana to Baíado Galeão, a coastline of approx 12 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192702		habitat	eng	This species is found at shallow depths of 1 to 2 m under rocks, but can be found to 3 m in depth (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 36 mm in length.
192702		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the range during the breeding season (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes in the populations have been seen during monitoring over the last 8 years, so it is considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192702		threats	eng	<p>The remote sites with difficult access and a small market with specialist  collectors means there is a very limited take (M.J. Tenorio pers.  comm. 2011). Although this species has a highly restricted range of just 12 km of coastline there are few threats to the species.</p>
192703		conservation	eng	This species has a restricted range and would benefit from further research into abundance and threats. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.&#160; There are already studies of the population genetics for this group (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2008).
192703		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is only found off the western shores of the island of Boavista at  Baía Teodora and Baía de Sal-Rei  (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) extending to Curral Velho, a coastline of approx 21 km in length. It is not found on the northern or eastern coasts.&#160; The distribution is usually related to the habitats so only present with rocky and sandy habitats (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192703		habitat	eng	<p>Adults of the species typically grow to 35-50 mm in length&#160; (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160; The species is usually common in the rocky habitats with sandy patches where it sits half-buried in the sand with the white coloration of the shell camouflaging the species. In the breeding season the species is found in shallow waters of 0.4 m to 15 m.<br/></p>
192703		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192703		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range, being found along a single 21 km coastline on the island of Boavista.&#160; In common with other islands in the Cape Verde archipelago, Boavista is scheduled for major tourism development including close by the area which the species inhabits. However the major developments are scheduled for the areas with the sandy beaches. The region around has a small harbour at Vila de Sal Rei where this species was affected during the development of the harbour. &#160;This species is only locally impacted by pollution and possibly in the future by oil spills.<br/>  <p>The shells of this species are not exceptional in their price in the collector market, i.e. there is reasonable availability indicated. At present, although there are threats associated with beach tourism and it is a shallow water species, it is not considered to be affecting the population levels.</p>
192709		conservation	eng	The population on the island lies in a protected area, although there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192709		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Senegal where it is found only along the western edge of the Cap Vert Peninsula of the capital Dakar, from the districts of Yoff in the north to Dakar-Fann on the southern tip including Madeleine Island, a total coastline of approx 37 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; The whole of the adjacent land is highly developed and industrialised with associated problems including discharge of pollutants into the marine environment (UNEP 2009).&#160; This species is described as being at its most abundant from the headland in the districts of Almadies on the north-western tip to Ouakam approx 4 km to the south (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).
192709		habitat	eng	This species has been found in rocky habitats at depths between 1 and 12 m, with adults of the species typically growing to 50 mm in length (www.seashell-collector.com).
192709		population	eng	The population has been declining in the region of Dakar (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192709		threats	eng	Marine pollution along the whole of this coastline, in particular around   the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges   including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem   to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009).
192717		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance, level of off-take and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192717		distribution	eng	This species is highly restricted in its distribution and has only be found on two islands in the Cape Verde: on the eastern coast of Sao Vicente along a 5 km stretch of coast and on the south west coast of Santa Luzia along approx 3 km of coast (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; The smaller of the two islands, Santa Luzia is barren and uninhabited.&#160; Sao Vicente, the larger island, is 8 km NW of Santa Luzia.
192717		habitat	eng	This species was found in shallow water immediately below low tide at around 0.5 m where it has been found on rocks. The species is small with adults typically growing to around 17 mm.&#160; There is no new information since the 1970s (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192717		population	eng	This species has very rarely been taken, and no live specimens have been known, hence the species is considered to be scarce (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192717		threats	eng	This species has only been found in two small areas of approx 8 km<sup>2</sup> in total, possibly less. The smaller of the two islands, Santa Luzia is barren and uninhabited.&#160; Sao Vicente, the larger island, is 8 km NW of Santa Luzia.&#160;&#160; However, this species is naturally rare, and has not been recently recorded hence the threats are not known.
192720		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192720		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the coast of Angola from Equimina in the north to Lucira: a distance of approx 380 km following the coast (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>
192720		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water of 1 to 3 m in depth (<a href="http://www.shellauction.net">www.shellauction.net</a>). Adults of the species typically grow to 25 mm in length.
192720		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192720		threats	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it is restricted to a 380 km stretch of coast, much of it devoid of human habitation. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M.J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192721		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found only in  the north of the island of Boavista around Derrubado, a  coastline of approx 4.5 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004)
192721		habitat	eng	This species is found under rocks in shallow water of 0.5 to 3 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 28 mm in length.
192721		population	eng	During the breeding season only, this species is commonly encountered in shallow waters. There are at least 5-6 subpopulations of this species (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192721		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range, being found along a  single 4.5 km stretch of coastline on the island of Boavista. However, it is far from any developments with no road access, and hence there are no threats.
192726		conservation	eng	As all the major tourist developments are on other islands, the threats  are unlikely to accelerate under current plans, however should this  change then a conservation assessment would need to be reviewed. <br/><br/>There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. verdensis&#160;</span> is found off the northwest coast of the island of Santiago from Tarrafal in the north then south for approx 32 km of coastline where it is found in all suitable areas of habitat (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160;<p><br/></p>
192726		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow waters on rocky headlands and reefs at depths between 1 and 5 m (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Adults of the species are small and typically grow to 18-20 mm, occasionally larger.
192726		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season.&#160; No changes in the populations have been seen during monitoring over the last 8 years, so it is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192726		threats	eng	<p>The species lives in a region used by local residents as a recreational area on a beach with various piers, but there is limited boat access and at present it does not seem to be under threat from current level of activity.<br/></p><p>Although the shells of this species are not exceptional in their price in the collector market and the species is common in trade, levels of off-take are low as plenty of current supply.</p>
192736		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192736		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to a region from Baia do Bapa to Baia das Pipas 30 km north of Namibe (Moçâmedes) in the south of Angola (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), along a coast of approximately 30 km in length.
192736		habitat	eng	This species has been found in sand under rocks (Filmer 2001, amended 2009). It occurs in shallow water, similar to other Conus in Angola, and in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. flabusalbus </span>(M. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Adults will grow to approximately 35 mm in length.
192736		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature.
192736		threats	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range, occurring along a short coastline in southern Angola. Although there are no specific incidences of threats caused by its limited EOO, this could make it vulnerable to unexpected marine pollution events such as a major oilspill. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192742		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192742		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde islands where it is found  around the northern side of Maio, mainly on the rocky parts of the  island, as the southern coasts are sandy.&#160; There are records from Pau  Seco, Baía do Navio Quebrado, Porto Cais.&#160; This is a coastline of approx 34 km in length (M. J.  Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192742		habitat	eng	At Calheta this species is found in crevices under stones and on the rocky platforms. Elsewhere this species lives under stones from shallow water to 4 m depth. Adults of the species typically grow to 15-25 mm in length.
192742		population	eng	This species is usually common especially at Calheta during the breeding season. There have been no changes in the populations during monitoring over the last 8 years, so it is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192742		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Maio, Cape Verde where it is restricted to 34 kms of coast. <br/></p>
192744		conservation	eng	There is a long-term interest  in gathering specimen shells, but at present it is not viewed as  impacting the population levels of the species, and it is currently  providing data for long-term monitoring of the populations.<br/><br/>There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species. Long-term development plans should incorporate some conservation actions to protect the type locality of this species, as disturbance of the habitats may impact the species.
192744		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-west of the island of Sal, Cape Verde in the Calheta region from and including Baía da Mordeira to Baía do Algodoeiro (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), a coast of a projected length of 30 km. The second population (formerly known as <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus venulatus</span>) is on the south-eastern coast of the island.
192744		habitat	eng	This species has been found among rubble and sand at depths of between 2 and 15 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults grow to approximately 45 mm in length.
192744		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. It is common within the range during the breeding season, and is usually found at exposed sites, so the population is easy to estimate. Over the last 10 years the populations have remained stable, however future trends in the western habitats may be declining (M. J. Tenorio, pers. comm. 2011).<br/>.
192744		threats	eng	<p>The Cape Verde islands are experiencing a major increase in tourism.&#160;  The island of Sal where this species lives is now subject to major  development including a 5 bn euro development of 425 hectares at Mordeira  Bay, consisting of 5,000 residential units, 5 star hotels, two golf  courses and a marina (http://www.capeverdedevelopment.com). This development coincides with the location of the species and must be considered the major threat to the populations.&#160;</p><p>This species is endemic to the island of Sal, Cape Verde where it is  restricted to a 30 km stretch of coastline. In common with many species  of marine mollusc of restricted range there maybe a long-term interest in gathering specimen shells, but at present it is not viewed as impacting the population levels of the species, and it is currently providing data for long-term monitoring of the populations.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
192748		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192748		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Senegal where it is found from Oukham in the Cap Vert Peninsular (Dakar) to Pointe Sarène in the south; a coastal distance of approx 117 km.&#160; A separate and distinct population  occurs off Gorée Island at the southern tip of the Dakar peninsular  (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is more frequent in the southern part of the range than some other species. <br/><br/>There is no information on the  fragmentation of this species.&#160; However, much of the land adjoining the  entire length of this coast has been developed.&#160; Dakar at the northern  end of its range is a large metropolis (pop 2.5 m) with resultant  industrial and commercial pollution risk and Mbour (pop 0.2 m) near the  southern end is also source of serious marine pollution (UNEP 2009).
192748		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow water below low tide as well as on rocky reefs (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 40-45 mm in length.
192748		population	eng	There are no data on population levels for this species, but decline is inferred as it occurs in exposed habitats within polluted areas. The size of the specimens taken has been reducing over the last 15 years  and the population of the species is probably decreasing (E. Monnier pers. comm. 2011).
192748		threats	eng	Marine pollution along the whole of this coastline, in particular around    the Cap Vert Peninsular, from industrial and domestic discharges    including sewage, chemicals and other toxins, presents a severe problem    to marine creatures living in the area (UNEP 2009). In southern part of the range there is disturbance due to tourism activities.<br/><br/>There is a low level of trade in specimen shells for sale, as the market is quite specialist.
192771		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192771		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found off the north coast of Maio in the area of Praia Real as well as the adjacent bays (Tenorio and Afonso 2004, Filmer 2001, amended 2009).
192771		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand, in crevices and on rock platforms living in shallow water typically 0.5 m, but it can be found to 3 m in depth (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).&#160;  Adults of the species typically grow to 35 mm in length.
192771		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). No changes have been seen in the populations during monitoring over last 8 years, so it is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192771		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to an 8 km length of shoreline on a single island in the Cape Verde group. There are no plans for tourist development, and no small harbours, nor any roads to the region, so there are no current threats to this species. The off-take for the shell trade is limited, and as such is not considered a threat (M. J. Tenorio, pers. comm., 2011).<br/><br/></p>
192785		conservation	eng	This species is highly restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated.  There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this  species.
192785		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sal in the Cape Verde Islands.&#160; It is restricted to the north of the island, where it is found from north of Pedro Lume to north of the Ponta de Rabo de Junco (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011), a coastline of approx 33 km.
192785		habitat	eng	This species is found at depths between 2 and 5 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 20 mm (range 15-25 mm) in length. The species is adapted to heavy surf environments and so shells are frequently damaged (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192785		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season. No changes in the populations have been seen during monitoring over the last 10 years, so it is considered stable (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192785		threats	eng	There is a large harbour in the west part of the range with fuel depots that are supplied by tankers entering the harbour, as well as fishing boats bringing their catches into the port. There is therefore a possible threat from pollution incidents that are most likely to threaten the populations in the western part of the range (Baie de Palmeria).
192808		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and there are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192808		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">C grahami grahami </span>is found only off the eastern extremity of the island of São Vicente at Calhau for a distance of approx 4 km;<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;C grahami luziensis</span> is found only off the south-eastern extremity off the neighbouring island of Santa Luzia at Priai Francisca for a distance of approx 5 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The two populations are on either side of a channel.
192808		habitat	eng	This species has been found beneath rocks at shallow depths of between 1 and 2 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 28 mm in length.
192808		population	eng	This species is scarce in samples from both populations (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192808		threats	eng	This species is known to live along shorelines of two neighbouring islands totalling 9 km but possibly just 3 km, in shallow water, with low level recreational use off the beaches, however this is not impacting the population levels.
192823		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and scarce in the market and would benefit from further research into  abundance, level of off-take and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192823		distribution	eng	This  recently described species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it has been found at Santo Antão Island off the south coast at Porto Novo (the type locality), with a length of 1 km of coast (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192823		habitat	eng	This species has been found in algae, in crevices and under stones from 2 to 4 m in depth (Filmer 2001, amended 2009).
192823		population	eng	This species is usually scarce in the range during the breeding season with shells usually in poor condition, it the inhabitats south coast of the island where there is very heavy ferry traffic (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192823		threats	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Santo Antão, Cape Verde where it has only been found along 1 km of coast with very heavy ferry traffic transporting people from island to island.&#160; The island has a outdoor adventure activity based tourist trade, so the major threats are pollution and oil spills affecting the quality of habitats.<br/><br/>There is very limited off-take of this species, which is very scarce.
192830		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192830		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the coast of Angola and was initially thought to be restricted to an approximately 200 km length of shoreline from Limagens in the north to Baia da Lucira in the south (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is now also found in the southern province of Angola, Namib province, which almost doubles the previously known range (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). The area is sparsely populated.
192830		habitat	eng	This species has been found at between 5 and 8 m depth under rocks (www.shellauction.net).&#160; Adults will grow to typically around 55 mm in length.
192830		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. The species is not very common and is hence very scarce in collections (M. J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192830		threats	eng	The locality in which this species occurs is remote from large urban settlements and it is not exposed to any particular risk. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. J. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
192841		conservation	eng	This species is restricted and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192841		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it is found across the entire northern half of the island of Boavista from Morro de Arei in the west to Rife Baluarte in the east including  Baía de Sal-Rei, Derrubado and Baía das Gatas, a coastline of approx 69 km in length.&#160; <br/><br/>A further population is found on the island of Maio, approx 100 km to the SSW along the most northerly point at Navio Quebrado, a coastline of approx 4 km in length (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004), although it is possible that these populations could be separated as a distinct species.
192841		habitat	eng	This species has been found in very shallow water, on sand and beneath rocks at depths of 0.5 to 15 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011). In some areas it can be found in intertidal pools. Adults of the species typically grow to 40 mm in length.
192841		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season.&#160; No changes have been seen in the populations during monitoring over the last 8 years, so it is considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192841		threats	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the islands of Boavista and Maio, Cape Verde, where it is restricted to less than 73 km coast.&#160; <br/></p>
192845		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192845		distribution	eng	This species is found on the Canary Islands, with presence at Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Tenerife, Gran Canaria and the small island of Graciosa off the northern coast of Lanzarote and the islet of Los Lobos off the northern coast of Fuerteventura.&#160; There are no populations among the islands of the Western Canaries.&#160; Further populations are found off the southern shore of Morocco (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011) as well as the southern shores of Western Sahara for approx 170 km and northern Mauritania for approx 230 km (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). Populations occurring in the Canary Islands can be found along approx 900 km of coast. Populations occurring in Northern Mauritania are found in the waters of the Banc Darguin National Park marine reserve.
192845		habitat	eng	This species is found in sand and on rocks at depths between the inter-tidal and 1 m (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011). Adults of the species typically grow to 25 to 40 mm and occasionally 50 mm in length.
192845		population	eng	This species is abundant in suitable habitats during the breeding season (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192845		threats	eng	This species is wide-ranging and occurs across many islands providing some degree of protection.&#160; It is also found in the waters of a marine protected area within the  Banc Darguin National Park of northern Mauritania.
192854		conservation	eng	This species requires survey work, as there are very limited data on range, habitat, population status or threats and the species has not been recorded since the 1980s.&#160; There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192854		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of St Helena (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004) where it has been found at Lot's Wife Pond (Filmer 2001). The species was described in 1984, from a single site, Lot's Wife Pond, a rocky pool on the edge of the rocky coastline. It is only known from 'beach collected material', and hence the habitat and exact locality may differ from the place of collecting.<br/><br/>There is a recent report of a shell from Ascension Island, labelled as <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus jourdani</span>, however the record has not been confirmed (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192854		habitat	eng	The species is only known from the material collected in 1980s, with adults of the species typically found up to 30 mm in length.&#160; The habitat is uncertain, possibly rocky coastlines (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192854		population	eng	No live specimens have ever been collected for this species (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192854		threats	eng	There are insufficient data on which to determine the degree of threats confronted by this species.
192858		conservation	eng	This species is restricted in its range and would benefit from further research into  abundance and threats before any action plan can be  formulated. There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192858		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands where it has been found along the northern and north-western coast of Boavista from Derrubado at the eastern extremity of its range to Sal Rei in the west, a coastline of approx 25 km in length.&#160; A separate population has been found some 12 km further south in the area around Morro de Areia on the extreme west of the island, a coastline of approx 5 km in length (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is known from two sites, but with 8-10 subpopulations, along the coast, in suitable habitats.
192858		habitat	eng	This species has been found buried in sand under rocks at shallow depths down to 4 m (Poppe and Poppe 2011).&#160; Adults of the species typically grow to 25 mm in length.
192858		population	eng	This species is usually common in the range during the breeding season so considered stable (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192858		threats	eng	<p>This species is highly restricted in its range being found at two sites of 25 km and 5 km stretches of coastline respectively on the island of Boavista.&#160; Although Boavista is scheduled for major tourist infrastructure projects including a paved road radiating from Sal Rei, the species' range does not fall in the area.&#160; There is a small resort near one site at Derrubado, however it is not considered to be a threat at present. <br/></p><p>The shell of this species is small and unremarkable; in common with all small <span style="font-style: italic;">Conus </span>spp., the shells of this species are only traded for the specialist collector which means there is a very limited take (M.J. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/></p>
192877		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species.
192877		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Angola where it has been found in an area between the towns of Benguela and Namibe bounded by São Nicolau to the north and Baía do Chapéu Armado to the south (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2004). The range is approximately 70 km (M. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192877		habitat	eng	This species has been found buried in sand among stones (Filmer 2001, amended 2009) in shallow water to 3 m below low tide. Adults of the species typically grow to 30 mm in length.
192877		population	eng	There are no records of population levels for this species in the literature. The species is not very common, but also not rare (M. Tenorio pers. comm. 2011).
192877		threats	eng	Although this species is restricted in its distribution, it has only been found in an area remote from any large towns and of low human habitation. Oil prospection has been going on along the Angolan coast, but there is no further development on this at the moment, so this is not considered a current threat; it may be more significant in the future if oil drilling commences (M. Tenorio and S. Veldsman pers. comm. 2011).
193262		conservation	eng	This species occurs in two sites that are under conservation management,  at Parc National d'Andohahela and Manantantely Private Reserve.  The other known fragments where this species occurs fall within new protected areas. Additional surveys in the region would be useful because these sites are  located within larger blocks of forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. roavolana</span> may have a larger distribution than is currently known.
193262		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has been  collected from several low elevation sites in the southeast: at  Manantantely and Andohahela (Puente <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and from three additional forest fragments on the southeast coast, Ambatotsirongorongo, Petriky and Mandena (J.-B. Ramanamanjato pers. comm. January 2011). It has a known extent of occurrence of 672 km², but may occur more  widely. It occurs from sea level to 100 m asl.
193262		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in the late afternoon, active about one metre above the ground on a tree trunk  in disturbed low-altitude rainforest (Puente  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Other records are from similar littoral forest habitats, where it has been found both on trees and on rocks.
193262		population	eng	This species is regularly found. Due to pressure on the littoral forest where this small gecko occurs and the distribution of remaining fragments, the population is likely to be both severely fragmented and declining.
193262		threats	eng	This species is likely to be  negatively impacted by the loss and degradation of lowland humid forest resulting from agricultural conversion and mining, although no threats specifically affecting this gecko have been recorded. Charcoal production may also represent a threat.  Actual threats might be quite low because the sites from  which it has been collected are subject to some form of conservation  management, although any subpopulations outside protected areas are likely to be at risk.
193263		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Bemaraha National Park where threat levels are relatively low. Research should be carried out to confirm the presence of this species in Ankarafantsika National Park, where Ampijiroa is located, and in other western localities. More information is needed on the lizard's ecology, population status and threats.
193263		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to western Madagascar, where it known from a single specimen from Bemaraha at 177 m asl. In addition, published photographs indicate that the species may also occur around the Ampijoroa forestry station in Ankarafantsika (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Based on these records the species has a presumed extent of occurrence of approximately 2,900 km² in western Madagascar, although historical confusion with <em>P. mutabilis</em> makes its exact range impossible to establish.
193263		habitat	eng	This day gecko inhabits relatively dry deciduous forest where it might live in the canopy (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
193263		population	eng	This species is known with certainty only from the holotype, and no population information is available.
193263		threats	eng	Threats to this species are poorly known but the illegal removal of trees from within the two protected areas, and bush fires, pose potential threats.
193402		conservation	eng	Present in the Silhouette National Park. Attempts should be made to re-establish the species on Mahé.
193402		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. Historically recorded from Mahé and Silhouette islands, but it is now restricted to Silhouette. The EOO and AOO are estimated to be approximately&#160; 5 km² and 1 km²<sup></sup> respectively.
193402		habitat	eng	Found in high forest, especially in sheltered valleys with high humidity at 390-500 m asl.
193402		population	eng	The total population in 2007 was estimated to consist of fewer than 700 plants (Anse Mondon valley - 680 plants; Mon Plaisr - 2 plants; Gratte Fesse - 0 (2 plants in 1990), Trilepisium site - 10 plants).
193402		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat deterioration due to invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Plants grown experimentally on Mahé have not survived due to predation by the introduced giant African snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Achatina fulica</span>. This is a low altitude species which does not occur in the present range of the species. Reports of damage from the sap-sucking insect <span style="font-style: italic;">Icerya seychellarum</span> and fulgoroids have not been substantiated.
193403		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette and Praslin National Parks.
193403		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species has been recorded from Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and La Digue islands. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy were estimated to be 2,000 km² and 200 km² respectively.
193403		habitat	eng	Recorded from palm, mid-altitude and high forest.
193403		population	eng	No population information is available for this species. the current population trend is unknown.
193403		threats	eng	No major threats are affecting this species at the moment. There are a number of processes that might be impacting on the habitat, but this species seems to be tolerant of the current levels of habitat deterioration.
193404		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks, but no species based conservation measures in place
193404		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, where this species is restricted to the high forests of Mahé and Silhouette. The estimated EOO is 1,500 km² and the is AOO is 20 km²<sup></sup>.
193404		habitat	eng	Restricted to damp high forest, from 390 m asl but mostly over 500 m asl.
193404		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193404		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat degradation due to invasion by alien plants (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).
193405		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks.
193405		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is restricted to Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Fregate islands. The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are 2,000 km²<sup></sup> and 50 km²<sup></sup> respectively.
193405		habitat	eng	Occurs in dry rocky areas, usually at mid- or high-altitudes. It is rarely found as a forest understory plant.
193405		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
193405		threats	eng	Threatened by fires in the dry habitats it favours. Intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal are other potential threats to this species.
193406		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
193406		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is restricted to high forests on Mahé and Silhouette. The extent of occurrence is 1,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 1 km².
193406		habitat	eng	Restricted to high forest above 400 m asl.
193406		population	eng	Only six plants are known and no recruitment has been observed.
193406		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat deterioration due to invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). The high cloud forest it is associated with is vulnerable to climate change. Additionally, a number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, poor recruitment, low density and its restricted range, threaten the survival of this species.
193407		conservation	eng	Present in Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Park. Research into reproductive biology, fertility and population genetics should be carried out.
193407		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species occurs on Mahé and Silhouette. The EOO and AOO are 1,200 km² and 10 km² respectively.
193407		habitat	eng	Found in high forest above 400 m asl and in hygrophylic habitats in rocky areas. May exceptionally occur near sea-level.
193407		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193407		threats	eng	Threatened by ongoing habitat deterioration caused by invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) and poor reproduction. Seed fertility on Mahé island appears to be very low, possibly caused by inbreeding depression in isolated subpopulations or a lack of pollination. Seed set is higher on Silhouette island.
193408		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
193408		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> and 10 km<sup>2</sup> respectively.
193408		habitat	eng	Found in high forest above 400 m asl. A climbing epiphyte found on large forest trees.
193408		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193408		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat degradation caused by invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) and the cloud forest habitats, where this species occurs, may be vulnerable to reduction in humidity caused by climate change. Furthermore, intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, poor recruitment, low densities and restricted range, are potential threats to the survival of this species.
193409		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions. More research is needed on the distribution and population of this species.
193409		distribution	eng	This species is described from Gran Canaria without any further specification.
193409		habitat	eng	There is no information available.
193409		population	eng	<p>There is no information available on on the population size of this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
193409		threats	eng	There is no information available.
193410		conservation	eng	<p>Parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
193410		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Fuerteventura and probably to Lanzarote. On Fuerteventura, it occurs in a quite large range in the central part of the island. The species is common and widespread in its area of distribution. </p>
193410		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal and Piso infracanario).</p>
193410		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population trend.</p>
193410		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
193411		conservation	eng	<p>Little parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes (northern Jandia Peninsula). The major part of the distribution are is not covered by any conservation measure. Monitoring of the subpopulations is recommended.</p>
193411		distribution	eng	<p>This species is widespread on Fuerteventura. However, the area of distribution is quite fragmented, the only larger continuous area is found on the Jandia Peninsula.<br/></p>
193411		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
193411		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
193411		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are touristic and agricultural activities, urbanisation, and road construction. However, it affects only some subpopulations of the species; the destruction of its entire habitat is not very likely.</p>
193413		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193413		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera, and very likely a (sub)fossil species. There are no precise locality data known.
193413		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193413		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193413		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193414		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193414		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro. It was described after a submature shell without precise locality data.  This species has probably not been found again since its description, there are no published records.
193414		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193414		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193414		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193415		conservation	eng	<p>Small parts of the subpopulations are under local conservation schemes. The subpopulations need to be surveyed, and any decline in habitat quantity and quality requires a re-evaluation of its conservation status.<br/></p>
193415		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the western parts of the island of La Gomera. This species is recorded from six locations and 11 sites.<br/></p>
193415		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
193415		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend.</p>
193415		threats	eng	<p>The centre of distribution of this species is around or in Valle Gran Rey. This municipality is steadily increasing in size, so destruction of habitat is foreseeable.<br/></p>
193416		conservation	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193416		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera, it was described from San Sebastian. According to Bank <em>et al</em>. (2002) it is an unclarified taxon, never recollected, and with no information available.
193416		habitat	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193416		population	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193416		threats	eng	There is no information available for this species.
193417		conservation	eng	<p>The complete distribution area of this species is under local conservation schemes.</p>
193417		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife in the Anaga Mountains. This species is recorded from three locations and three isolated sites.<br/></p>
193417		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
193417		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population trend. The data provided by Yanes <em>et al</em>. (2009) suggest that the population size is quite small.<br/></p>
193417		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to this species known.</p>
193418		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. Protection of its habitat is urgently needed.</p>
193418		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It is recorded from a very small area near Candelaria on the southeastern coast of Tenerife.<br/></p>
193418		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
193418		population	eng	<p>There are no data on the population size or trend of this species; the population size is probably very small.<br/></p>
193418		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species include the destruction of its habitat by the expansion of the urban area of Candelaria including road construction. The destruction of the entire habitat is very likely in the foreseeable future.<br/></p>
193419		conservation	eng	<p>The eastern subpopulations are under local conservation schemes.</p>
193419		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife and lives on the northern slopes of the Anaga Mountains. This species is recorded from 6 locations and 11 sites.<br/></p>
193419		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal), exceptionally in pine forests.<br/></p>
193419		population	eng	<p>The size and trend within the subpopulations are stable.</p>
193419		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by the increase of the urban area of Bajamar and subsequent road construction.</p>
193420		conservation	eng	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.</p>
193420		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the island of Tenerife. It is only known from a small area east of Bajamar in the north-east of the island, the extent of occurrence (EOO) is 4 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is also 4 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>
193420		habitat	eng	<p>This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).</p>
193420		population	eng	<p>There are no population data available.</p>
193420		threats	eng	<p>Potential threats to this species are destruction of the habitat by the increasing urbanisation of Bajamar, which might seriously affect the very small population of this species.<br/></p>
193421		conservation	eng	Large parts of the population occur within a protected area. No conservation actions are currently required.
193421		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tenerife where it lives in the Pinar on the slopes of the Caldera between 800 and 1,200 m asl. There are several locations with even more sites known. There is little data but the extent of occurrence is estimated to be around 200 km² and area of occupancy is 50 km².
193421		habitat	eng	The species is found in the Pinar on the slopes of the caldera.
193421		population	eng	The population is thought to be stable.
193421		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
193422		conservation	eng	The species occurs within La Gomera's protected areas. No further conservation actions are required.
193422		distribution	eng	This species, described in 2007 by Alonso, M. and Ibanez, M., is endemic to the central and northern parts of La Gomera, between 700 and 1,280 m asl. There are eight known locations with 14 sites. The extent of occurrence is 125 km² and the area of occupancy is thought to be less than 20 km².
193422		habitat	eng	The species is found in Laurisilva forests.
193422		population	eng	The population is stable.
193422		threats	eng	Any threats to this species are unknown.
193423		conservation	eng	The entire distribution of the species is within a protected area.
193423		distribution	eng	This species was described in 2007 (Alonso & Ibanez 2007). It is endemic to the north-east of Tenerife, where it is found at altitudes of&#160;650-980 m in the Anaga mountains. It is known from 15 sites and five locations. Its&#160;AOO is estimated at 50 km² and EOO at 20 km².
193423		habitat	eng	It is found in temperate forest (Laurisilva).
193423		population	eng	The population trend is stable.
193423		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
193425		conservation	eng	The only recent records of this species are from within a proposed nature reserve, Mkingu Nature  Reserve, which comprises the previously named Nguru South and Mkindo  Forest Reserves (S. Loader pers. comm. April 2012). Currently, enforcement of this protection is limited (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). The protected status of this reserve is likely to be improved by designating it a Nature Reserve, and the site needs to be managed to enforce the new protection and limit the impacts of human activities on remaining primary forest (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). Further research is needed, to establish whether this frog occurs at lower elevations than is currently known, and to clarify its ecological requirements and exposure to threats.
193425		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the western side of the Nguru Mountains, in the Morogoro Region of Tanzania (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Most records are from the Maskati side of the Nguru South Forest Reserve (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). There is a single historical record from a site near Maskati Mission, which was found in forest, probably close to where later collections were made (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010); it is unclear whether this site is also within the protected area . The recent description of numerous distinct species of <em>Callulina</em>, each with very restricted distributions on particular mountain ranges (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010) suggests that it is unlikely to be much more widespread. This species has been recorded at elevations of 1,790 and 1,900 m asl. This frog appears to form part of an upper montane Nguru fauna characterized by endemic species that are not found at lower elevations (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2011). If it is genuinely confined to this elevational band the frog's extent of occurrence will be below 100 km<sup>2</sup>, but no more precise estimate is currently possible.
193425		habitat	eng	This frog has only been found in primary montane rainforest (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The species appears to be mostly arboreal, with the majority of records from branches, and it has been observed from near ground level up to ca. 10 m above ground (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Animals have, however, been found on bare rock, and there is a single historical record from within a rotting log (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The frog's reproductive mode is unknown, however phylogenetic analysis has been used to predict that all brevicipitid frogs reproduce by terrestrial direct development (Müller <em>et al.</em> 2007).
193425		population	eng	In addition to a single historical record from 1982 this frog has been recorded in two surveys, one in 2004 and the other in 2008 (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). It was relatively common in both survey periods (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). There is otherwise no information on population densities in this species (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010), and the population trend is unknown.
193425		threats	eng	This species is likely to be dependent on primary forest. Cardamom and yams are cultivated at high elevations in the Nguru Mountains, and cardamom production is widespread within Nguru South Forest Reserve (Menegon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Although there is no evidence of major disturbances such as slash-and-burn agriculture, there is continuing pressure on the forest resulting from growth of the surrounding human population (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011), and this is particularly intense around the borders of Nguru South Forest Reserve, with forests outside the reserve boundary having declined by over 60% between 1975 and 2003 (Doggart and Loserian 2007). The extent and impacts of forest decline in areas inhabited by this frog are difficult to evaluate (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011), but its restricted distribution puts it at high risk from even small changes in forest cover.
193426		conservation	eng	This species appears to be confined to Kanga Forest Reserve.  This site needs to be managed to  enforce its protected status and limit the impacts of human activities on  remaining primary forest (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). More information is needed on its population status, ecological requirements and the impacts of threats.
193426		distribution	eng	This frog is known only from two mid-altitude sites within the Kanga Forest Reserve within the Nguru Mountains, Morogoro Region, Tanzania (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010), at 760 and 1,140 m asl. Intensive searches at other sites within the reserve and at other elevations, totalling a month of survey time, failed to obtain additional records, and the species may be restricted to a narrow elevational band within Kanga (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The recent description of numerous distinct species of <em>Callulina</em>, each with very restricted distributions on particular mountain ranges (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010) suggests that it is unlikely to be much more widespread. Even if it occurred throughout the reserve, at all elevations, it would have a total extent of occurrence no greater than 66.64 km<sup>2</sup>, the area of the reserve (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010, Menegon <em>et al.</em> 2008), and its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy may in fact be lower than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Doggart and Loserian 2007).
193426		habitat	eng	This frog appears to be wholly arboreal in primary submontane humid forest; one of the two collected specimens was found on a branch above head height, the other hidden in leaf axils (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Individuals were heard calling from branches but never from the ground (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The frog's reproductive mode is unknown, however phylogenetic analysis  has been used to predict that all brevicipitid frogs reproduce by  terrestrial direct development (Müller <em>et al.</em> 2007).
193426		population	eng	No information is available on population density, as only two specimens are known (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Many frogs were heard calling at the known localities (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010).
193426		threats	eng	Although there is no evidence of major  disturbances to this frog's primary forest habitat such as slash-and-burn agriculture, there is continuing  pressure on this forest within Kanga resulting from growth of the surrounding human  population, which is particularly acute at the elevations where this species occurs (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). Consequently Kanga is considered a single threat-defined location. The extent and impacts of  forest decline in areas inhabited by this frog are difficult to evaluate  (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011), but its restricted distribution puts  it at high risk from even small changes in forest cover.
193427		conservation	eng	This frog is known from a proposed nature reserve, currently the Chome Forest Reserve (S. Loader pers. comm. April 2012, Loader <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), a 140 km<sup>2</sup>  protected area (WDPA 2010). However, it is unclear whether the  protection currently afforded is effective (S. Loader pers. comm.  November 2011). It is unlikely to occur outside reserves due to historical clearance of forest elsewhere in the North Pare. Conservation management may be required to safeguard this species in the long term and to limit the impacts of human encroachment, and more information is needed to clarify its population status and exposure to threats.
193427		distribution	eng	This frog is apparently confined to the Kindoroko and Minja Forest  Reserves in the North Pare Mountains, in Tanzania's Kilamanjaro region  close to the Kenyan border (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). It has been found between 1,730 and 2,000 m asl (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2011). The forested area of both reserves at suitable elevations is around 16.5 km², which is considered to be this species' likely maximum extent of occurrence (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2011). The known localities are considered to represent a single threat-defined location, due to their close proximity and exposure to common threats from forest clearance.
193427		habitat	eng	This appears to be a species of mature humid montane forest, where it is sometimes associated with streams but is also found on drier ridges (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Animals have been found beneath rocks during the day, and perched on bushes and low branches at heights of up to 1.5 m (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The frog's reproductive mode is unknown, however phylogenetic analysis    has been used to predict that all brevicipitid frogs reproduce by    terrestrial direct development (Müller <em>et al.</em> 2007).
193427		population	eng	According to the original description, "currently the population density does not appear to be low" (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The species' habitat is highly fragmented (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010), indicating that this frog may occur as a severely fragmented population.
193427		threats	eng	There has been an observed decline in the extent and quality of forest habitat within the North Pare Mountains, with the almost complete loss of submontane forest outside reserves due to the suitability of the high plateaus for human settlement and subsistence agriculture (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2009). The little unprotected forest that remains is subject to ongoing clearance for smallholder farming outside reserves (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2009). Although this frog is only known to occur within protected areas, enforcement is limited and there is ongoing pressure on forest within the reserves due to human encroachment and small-scale logging (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011), and this frog's restricted range puts it at risk from even small changes in forest cover.
193428		conservation	eng	It occurs in a proposed nature reserve, currently the Chome Forest Reserve (S. Loader pers. comm. April 2012, Loader <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), a 140 km<sup>2</sup>  protected area (WDPA 2010). However, it is unclear whether the  protection currently afforded is effective (S. Loader pers. comm.  November 2011). No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This reserve needs to be managed to limit the impacts of logging on remaining forest, as this frog appears to be highly intolerant of disturbance. Research is needed to clarify this frog's population status and ecological requirements.
193428		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from a very restricted area on Shengena in the South Pare Mountains, Tanzania, having only been found at two sites within Chome Forest Reserve (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010); as these localities are in close proximity to one another and subject to the same pressures on the forest habitat, the reserve is treated as a single threat-defined location for the purposes of this assessment. It has been found between 1,920 and 2,100 m asl (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). <em>Callulina</em> species exhibit a high degree of microendemism (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010), and so it is not expected to be more widespread. Its estimated extent of occurrence, considering the availability of suitable forest habitat at elevations where this frog occurs, is thought to be around 35 km<sup>2</sup> (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2011). The area of occupancy may be as low as 3 km<sup>2</sup> if it is only found at the two known localities (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010).
193428		habitat	eng	This arboreal frog is only known from montane forest dominated by <em>Ocotaea usambarensis</em> trees (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). All known specimens were collected in forest pitfall traps, and so its ecology is poorly-known; however individuals have been observed at night on bushes, bark and small tree branches between 1 and 2.2 m high (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2011). The frog's reproductive mode is unknown, however phylogenetic analysis    has been used to predict that all brevicipitid frogs reproduce by    terrestrial direct development (Müller <em>et al.</em> 2007).
193428		population	eng	This species is common in the small area where it has been found (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The population trend is unknown.
193428		threats	eng	The montane forest to which this frog is confined is being degraded by "persistent and large-scale logging" for <em>Ocotaea usambarensis</em> (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010), and logging is ongoing within the Chome protected area (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011). Timber extraction causes considerable damage to the surrounding habitat, and much of the remaining forest appears to be heavily-logged (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). This frog has never been recorded in logged forest (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011).
193429		conservation	eng	This frog is restricted to Chome Forest Reserve, and is unlikely to occur in unprotected parts of the South Pare due to the historical loss of submontane forest from these areas. The reserve should be managed to limit the encroachment of smallholder farms, and the extent and impacts of existing agricultural development on the population are unknown. Research is needed to clarify this species' population status, its distribution within Chome, and its ecological requirements.
193429		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the South Pare Mountains in Tanzania, where it has been recorded at three sites within Chome Forest Reserve (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). It is known only from submontane forest between 1,100 and 1,300 m asl, which is restricted to the eastern border of the park (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Due to the availability of this habitat within the South Pare at these elevations, its extent of occurrence may be only 9.7 km<sup>2</sup> (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010); however even this may be an overestimate as it assumes the species may occur throughout the submontane belt in suitable forest, which extends up to 1,600 m asl. (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). All three known sites lie along the reserve's eastern border where they face a shared threat from agricultural encroachment, and the eastern border of Chome is therefore treated as a single threat-defined location for the purposes of this assessment.
193429		habitat	eng	This species is apparently restricted to submontane humid forest (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010), although it is apparently able to use forest edges as it has been recorded along a forest road as well as within deeper forest (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). It has been observed perching on low bushes at night, while the holotype was collected from a rotten log (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). The frog's reproductive mode is unknown, however phylogenetic analysis    has been used to predict that all brevicipitid frogs reproduce by    terrestrial direct development (Müller <em>et al.</em> 2007).
193429		population	eng	Population densities in this species are not presently low (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010).
193429		threats	eng	There has been an observed decline in the extent and quality of forest  habitat within the South Pare Mountains, with the almost complete loss  of submontane forest outside reserves due to the suitability of the high  plateaus for human settlement and subsistence agriculture (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2009). The little unprotected forest that remains is subject to ongoing clearance for smallholder farming (Hall <em>et al.</em>  2009). This frog is only known to occur within a protected area, however this species is only known to occur along the eastern boundary of Chome, which is bordered by farmland along its length (Loader <em>et al.</em> 2010). Any future encroachment of agricultural activity into the reserve will therefore immediately threaten this frog. Moreover, low rates of forest loss and degradation have been observed within reserves in these mountains due to encroachment by growing human populations (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011), logging is ongoing within Chome Forest Reserve (S. Loader pers. comm. June 2011), and this frog's highly restricted range puts it at high risk from even small-scale changes in forest cover.
193430		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, although given its proximity to Cordillera Azul it could potentially occur there. More information is needed on this species' population status and level of trade, and legislation and enforcement of legislation is needed to address the issue of illegal trade. Given the degree of ongoing habitat loss occurring throughout its range, habitat protection is urgently needed. CITES does not recognize <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranitomeya benedicta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. summersi</span> as separate species, so they are treated as subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrobates fantasticus</span> in Appendix II of CITES.
193430		distribution	eng	This frog is known from seven geographical localities in the central Huallaga Canyon and surrounding semiarid valleys, including both sides of the Rio Huallaga, into the southernmost edge of the Cordillera Escalera and to the northwestern edge of the Cordillera Azul, in the Region of San Martín, northern Peru (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011). It can be found from 180–700 m asl (J. L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011). Its extent of occurrence, taking into account both known and projected sites, is estimated to be 500 km²or less (but note that the depicted range refers to known sites), although it has a spotty distribution within this realm, most of which is comprised of unsuitable habitat (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, J. L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011).<br/>  <p> </p>
193430		habitat	eng	It occurs in dry, primary and secondary rocky premontane forests (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), characterized by an open canopy and rocky substrates (J. L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011). It is a diurnal, terrestrial species, and breeding takes place in the humid leaf litter, with clutch sizes ranging from 4–9 eggs, and tadpoles are later transported into tree holes and phytotelm (water-holding plants) axils with small water pools, where they complete metamorphosis (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Captive breeding efforts suggest that when conditions are adequate females may lay multiple clutches a year  (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This frog does not appear to be tolerant to habitat disturbance associated to agricultural activities (J.L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011).
193430		population	eng	In the last three decades the subpopulation in the locality of Chazuta,  where smuggling operations have typically taken place, appears to have  experienced a dramatic decline. Subpopulations in other areas that seem  to be overlooked by illegal collectors appear to flourishing (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The global population is considered to be severely fragmented given that its habitat is in fragmented patches, more than half of the individuals are in small and isolated patches, and the species' biology is not conducive to dispersal in between habitat patches (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011).
193430		threats	eng	In addition to the illegal trade, this frog is threatened by habitat loss given that much if its habitat is near human settlements, and the constant encroachment by small-holder farmers and agroindustry seeking to expand their farmland is  causing rapid deforestation, comprising thus a major threat to this species (Brown<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
193431		conservation	eng	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and given  land use change and habitat loss, habitat protection is needed. More information is needed on this species' population status and level  of trade, and legislation and enforcement of legislation are needed to  address the issue of illegal trade. CITES does not recognize <span style="font-style: italic;">Ranitomeya benedicta</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. summersi</span> as separate species, so they are treated as subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrobates fantasticus</span> in Appendix II of CITES.
193431		distribution	eng	This species is distributed throughout the&#160;lowland forests of Pampas del Sacramento, in San Martín and Loreto Regions, northeastern Peru (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The Pampas del Sacramento are bound by the Cordillera Azul and Río Huallaga to the west, Río Ucayali to the east, and the flooded forests of Pacaya-Samiria to the north (J. L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011). Its extent of occurrence, taking into account both known and projected sites, is estimated to be 19,000 km² <sup></sup>(but note that the depicted range refers to known sites), and it is known to occur in six threat-defined locations (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011). It can be found at elevations between 150–405 m asl (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
193431		habitat	eng	It inhabits only older secondary and primary lowland rainforests (J.L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011). It is often found around fallen trees and tangled branches  (J.L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011), and anecdotal reports have suggested that this species may be highly arboreal: farmers and loggers report this species leaping from bromeliads when trees are felled (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is a diurnal, at least partially terrestrial species, where reproduction (clutches of 4–6 eggs) has been observed within the humid leaf litter. Tadpoles are then transported to bromeliads, where they complete development (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is not found in areas disturbed by human activity (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
193431		population	eng	This species appears to be widely distributed yet difficult to find in the lowland forests of the Pampas del Sacramento (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It seems to have a patchy distribution, but in some areas it is locally abundant (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). At the time of this assessment it was not possible to determine whether the population is severely fragmented.
193431		threats	eng	It occurs in areas that are actively being farmed and logged, primarily for subsistence farming, logging and agroindustry (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011), which will reduce the amount of suitable habitat substantially over the coming years (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). While it appears that much of its habitat is undisturbed, it is estimated that between 5–15% of subpopulations are currently being impacted by human-induced deforestation, possibly leading to slow declines (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011). In addition, it has recently (2007) been illegally exported for the  international pet trade, with legally-acquired individuals recorded in  2009 (J. L. Brown and E. Twomey pers. comm. July 2011). The projection that there will be a high demand for this species in the pet trade  (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) seems to be confirmed in the area surrounding Shucushuyacu, where smuggling pressure has increased considerably, to such an extent that no individuals have been seen in the wild in this area since the species was described (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011). It is suspected that local inhabitants may be felling trees to collect these frogs for the black market, impacting not only this species but others that share the same environment (J. L. Brown pers. comm. July 2011).
193432		conservation	eng	Present in Morne Seychellois, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse National Parks.
193432		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, where it occurs on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse and La Digue. The EOO and AOO are 1,700 km² and 100 km² respectively.
193432		habitat	eng	Found in mid- and high-forests, occasionally near sea-level.
193432		population	eng	The current population size is not known, but the population is thought to be stable.
193432		threats	eng	Threatened by ongoing habitat deterioration caused by invasive plants (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal and its restricted range, are additional threats to this species.
193433		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. Grown in the Eden Centre and Seychelles Biodiversity Centre.
193433		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mahé, the Seychelles. The EOO and AOO are 50 km² and 10 km² respectively.
193433		habitat	eng	Found in high forest (above 600 m asl), especially cloud forest.
193433		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193433		threats	eng	Threatened by ongoing habitat deterioration caused by invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verm</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span>). The high forest may be threatened by changes in humidity caused by climate change. A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal and restricted range, may also be a threat to this species.
193434		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse National Parks.
193434		distribution	eng	This species is known from Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse, the Seychelles. The extent of occurrence is 1,625 km² and the area of occupancy is 50 km².
193434		habitat	eng	Found in the understory of mid- and high-forest.
193434		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193434		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. Fires and invasive alien species are potential threats to the species and its habitat.
193435		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks. Like most orchids this species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
193435		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found in the high forests of Mahé and Silhouette. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO is 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
193435		habitat	eng	Found in the dampest areas of high forest above 400 m asl.
193435		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193435		threats	eng	Threatened by ongoing habitat deterioration caused by invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum veurm</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span>). The cloud forest habitat may be threatened by humidity reductions caused by climate change. A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, low densities and restricted range, are also potential threats.
193436		conservation	eng	Present in the Praslin National Park.
193436		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles where it has only been recorded from the Vallée de Mai on Praslin. The EOO and AOO are both approximately 1 km²<sup></sup>.
193436		habitat	eng	Restricted to <span style="font-style: italic;">Lodoicea maldivica</span> palm forest.
193436		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193436		threats	eng	Vulnerable to fire in this dry habitat.
193437		conservation	eng	Present in Morne Seychellois, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse National Parks.
193437		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Curieuse and Félicité. The extent of occurrence is 1,700 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy is 100 km².
193437		habitat	eng	Widespread in forests.
193437		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193437		threats	eng	No major threats to this species have been identified. Fires are a potential threat to the habitat in parts of its range.
193438		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in-place. It was grown at Kew in 1902.
193438		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to the Seychelles. It is only known from a specimen collected at Cascade Estate, Mahé in 1902.
193438		habitat	eng	It was recorded from forests at about 350 m asl.
193438		population	eng	This species is believed to be extinct.
193438		threats	eng	May have been threatened by habitat deterioration in the past.
193439		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette and Praslin National Parks.
193439		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin. The EOO is 1,625 km² and the AOO is 20 km².
193439		habitat	eng	Grows in shaded high forest, mainly above 400 m asl.
193439		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193439		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat degradation caused by invasion by alien plants (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Reductions in cloud forest cover caused by climate change may be a threat in the future. A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, poor recruitment, low densities and restricted range, might also threaten the species.
193440		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette and Praslin National Parks.
193440		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin islands. The EOO is 1,625 km²<sup></sup> and the AOO is 10 km². Seven separate subpopulations are known.
193440		habitat	eng	A saprophyte growing in deep leaf litter under indigenous forest trees from 150-550 m asl.
193440		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193440		threats	eng	Threatened by ongoing habitat deterioration caused by invasive species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span>). One subpopulation was lost by the cutting of a fire-break. A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, low densities and restricted range, are also a potential threat to this species.
193441		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette and Praslin National Parks.
193441		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette and Félicité islands. The extent of occurrence is 1,700 km<sup>2</sup> and the area of occupancy is 300 km<sup>2</sup>.
193441		habitat	eng	Found in rocky areas of forest from sea level to 400 m asl.
193441		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
193441		threats	eng	There are currently no major threats to this species. A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, low densities and restricted range, are potentially threats to this species.
193443		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. The Ngoc Linh Mountains where the species was found is a protected area. Research is needed into this snake's distribution, population status, natural history, and its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
193443		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam's Central Highlands. Both known specimens were collected on a forested slope of Mount Ngoc Linh, at elevations of 1,550 – 1,700 m asl., above Mang Xang village (Orlov 2009).
193443		habitat	eng	An adult female was collected&#160; from the leaf litter in the flood pain of  a forest stream during the rain in September on a night excursion. The  second specimen was collected in the end of the dry season in March, in  leaf litter covering a forest path.
193443		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, which is known from only two specimens.
193443		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown. As this species has so far only been found from high elevations (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011) it may not be at risk from habitat degradation, however its true elevational range is unknown and it may be at risk if it occurs at lower elevations.
193444		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from Bach Ma National Park. Surveys are needed to locate more records of this recently-described snake, to obtain data on its distribution, population status and natural history, and its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
193444		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien-Hue Province, Viet Nam, where it has been recorded at an elevation 1,400 m asl. (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2010).
193444		habitat	eng	The known specimen of this species was found on a path in evergreen rainforest.
193444		population	eng	This species is known from a single specimen, and therefore no population information is available.
193444		threats	eng	As the only known specimen of this snake was taken in a national park, it is unknown whether it is likely to be at risk from any major threats, particularly as it is only known from the summit of a mountain. This specimen was found close to a trail, and the species may be at some risk from tourist activity, however the snake's sensitivity to this is unknown (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
193445		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, which is however only known from a specimen taken in a national park. Surveys are needed to locate more records of this recently-described   snake, to obtain data on its distribution, population status and natural   history, and its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
193445		distribution	eng	This snake has only been recorded from Kon Ka Kinh National Park, Ke Bang District, Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam, at 1,300 m asl. (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
193445		habitat	eng	This species is presumed to be fossorial in forest leaf litter, and nocturnally active. The known specimen was taken from broadleaf evergreen forest (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
193445		population	eng	No population data is available for this recently-described species, which is known from a single specimen. It was not found in a 2011 survey of the national park, the first survey of the area since the holotype was collected in 1999 (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011)
193445		threats	eng	As the only known specimen of this snake was taken in a national park,  it is unknown whether it is likely to be at risk from any major threats,  particularly as it is only known from the summit of a mountain (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
193446		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species, which is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to locate more records of this recently-described   snake, to obtain data on its distribution, population status and natural   history, and its sensitivity to threats.
193446		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from Mang Canh Commune and Xa Hieu Commune, both in Kon Plong District, Kon Tum Province, Viet Nam (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009, Ziegler and Nguyen 2010).
193446		habitat	eng	Both specimens were found dead on the forest floor near streams at 1,000 and 1,200 m asl. The habitat consisted of mixed secondary deciduous and bamboo forest (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011).
193446		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, which is known from only two specimens collected in 2001 and 2006.
193446		threats	eng	Selective logging for timber, and slash-and-burn forest clearance for cultivation, are ongoing in the sites where this snake was found, as the areas are unprotected. It is unknown whether these processes represent threats to this snake.
193447		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. This snake has been found in protected areas in Cambodia and Viet Nam. Research is needed to clarify the distribution and population status of this snake, and to determine whether it it is likely to be at risk from land clearance.
193447		distribution	eng	This snake has been recorded from isolated localities in Cambodia, southern Viet Nam and Lao PDR, and is expected also to occur in northeastern Thailand (David <em>et al.</em> 2008, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Viet Nam it is known from Dong Province, Ho Chi Minh District and Cat Tien National Park (Geissler <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is known in Cambodia from a single specimen collected from Che Teal Chrum Village, Pursat Province. In Lao PDR it has been recorded only from Vientiane Prefecture, where it is known from the vicinity of Vientiane, Tha Ngon and Wattai. This species has historically been confused with related forms <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>and its true distribution is in need of clarification.
193447		habitat	eng	This is a small, secretive terrestrial snake. Deuve (1970) encountered his specimens of “<span style="font-style: italic;">Oligodon taeniatus</span>”, which turned out to be mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Oligodon deuvei</span>, during all seasons. Juvenile specimens appeared during the rainy season (July to October). According to Deuve (1985), specimens were collected at day time on the ground, under various pieces of vegetation, or in gardens. It is predominantly crepuscular, but has been observed actively foraging during daytime (Geissler <em>et al.</em> 2011). In Cat Tien, animals have been found along river banks neighbouring rural areas, in disturbed lowland forest. Stomach contents include frogs and tadpoles, suggesting that this species is semi-aquatic (Geissler<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011). The one known Cambodian specimen was collected from villagers near disturbed lowland forest; the precise details of the habitat where the animal was taken are uncertain (T. Neang pers. comm. 2011).
193447		population	eng	No population data are available. The original description includes 17 specimens collected over a period since 1932 (David <em>et al.</em> 2008); due to historical confusion over the taxonomic identity of this species no inferences can be made regarding the abundance of this snake. Since the original description only three additional specimens, all from Cat Tien National Park, have been taken (Geissler<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011).
193447		threats	eng	As this snake has been found in artificial habitats such as gardens and disturbed forest, and in open areas, it is uncertain whether it is likely to be threatened. Forest clearance to make room for villages may impact this species, but it is not clear whether this represents a major threat (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).
193449		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although this snake has been reported from a national park. Further research is required to clarify this snake's distribution, population status and sensitivity to threats from timber extraction (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011). Surveys should be conducted in Cambodia's adjacent Mondolkiri Province to establish whether it occurs in this area, which includes a protected forest managed by the the Cambodian forestry administration and the Wildlife Conservation Society (T. Neang pers. comm. 2011).
193449		distribution	eng	This snake is known only from two records, both in southern Viet Nam: Loc Bac Forest Enterprise, Lam Dong Province, and Bu Gia Map National Park, Binh Phuoc Province. The known sites are at 500 and 720 m asl.
193449		habitat	eng	The type specimen was found at an altitude of 720 m asl. in the end of dry season (May) under leaf-litter in secondary evergreen forest, which however had some remaining rare large trees. No information is available on the second specimen, but Bu Gia Map consists of lowland secondary forest dominated by Fabaceae, with a maximum elevation of 700 m asl. (E. Golynsky and Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2011).
193449		population	eng	No population data are available for this snake, which is only known from one specimen from each of the two known localities.
193449		threats	eng	Illegal timber extraction is the major threat to forest biodiversity in Bu Gia Map National Park (BirdLife International 2004). As this apparently terrestrial snake is so poorly-known, and it has been found in secondary forest, it is unknown whether this activity represents a threat. There is no information on other potential threats.
193450		conservation	eng	It is not known whether this species occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine its distribution as well as its population size and trends.
193450		distribution	eng	This species is described based on a single specimen from a museum collection, probably from West Kalimantan.
193450		habitat	eng	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.
193450		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species.
193450		threats	eng	As the precise distribution of this species is unclear, it is unknown whether it is exposed to major threats, however deforestation is ongoing throughout Kalimantan.
193451		conservation	eng	Curbing harvesting of this species throughout its range is needed if populations are to persist outside Thailand. The biology of the species is being extensively studied in its introduced range in southern Florida (e.g. Snow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Dorcas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, Dorcas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012)<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>due to probable negative impacts on the ecosystem and fear by the U.S. public, and more is now known about the species in its introduced range than its native range. More research is required on native populations throughout its range, including those in Indonesia, China, Viet Nam and Cambodia, particularly to establish the effects of trade on this python (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011). It is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is a protected species in Viet Nam, China, Thailand and Indonesia, and is known from protected areas (Q.T. Nguyen, M. Lau and M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011). It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Vietnam Red Data Book (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and in the Chinese national Red List (Wang and Xie 2009).
193451		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs from India, where it has a very disjunct distribution and is known from only two small, isolated areas in the northeast, through Nepal to Indonesia and China (including Hainan). It is absent from Peninsular Malaysia, with a southern limit to its distribution in mainland Asia of Surat Thani in Thailand (M. Auliya and T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). This snake is absent from Borneo and Sumatra; Borneo has traditionally been included (erroneously) in the species' distribution based on a record of skins from a port in East Kalimantan (M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011). In Indonesia it has only been confirmed from Java, Nusa Barung, Bali, Sumbawa, and possibly also Lombok, as well as in south Sulawesi (M. Auliya September 2011). It is absent from the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Whitaker and Captain (2004) report it from Nepal and Bangladesh. As <em>Python molurus</em>, the species has been reported from between 10 and 4,050 m asl.<br/><br/>The species is also introduced and established in the wild in southern Florida, USA via the pet trade (Snow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), where it has had detrimental impacts on native fauna, and has recently been blamed for localized declines of up to 99% in encounter rates of several common native mammal species since 2000 in some parts of the Everglades National Park, as well as the apparent loss of introduced rabbits and foxes from these sites (Dorcas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012).
193451		habitat	eng	The Burmese Python is mostly found  in forested areas, including mangrove forests and rainforests,  but is also found in grasslands, marshes, streams and rivers, including the Tonle Sap wetland in Cambodia. It is found in wet rocky areas  near streams and pools, large rotting logs, large burrows, caves,  crevices and old and ruined structures. It has been found inside villages, outside houses, in Cambodia (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011). It is a good climber and an expert  swimmer. It is more nocturnal than diurnal. It feeds on small to  large mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, preferring to mostly feed  on mammals. Breeding occurs in India between December to February after which larger females  lay between 80-100 eggs in the months of March and June (Daniel 2002,  Whitaker and Captain 2004). Gestation in captivity lasts four months, and eggs have an incubation period of 60 days (Reed and Rodda 2009). In common with almost all snakes, the species reproduces sexually. Exceptionally, however, a female in captivity isolated from males produced viable eggs in five consecutive years; genetic evidence confirmed that the offspring were genetically identical to the mother, making the Burmese Python the only boid snake known to exhibit parthenogenesis (Groot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). The snake is unusually cold-tolerant for a python, including subtropical areas of China within its native range, and hibernates to survive the winter (B. Stuart and M. Auliya pers. comm. August 2011).<br/><br/>Observations from Indonesia suggest that this species prefers more arid environments than the Reticulated Python (<em>Broghammerus reticulatus</em>), with which it is sympatric through most of its range. This ecological niche partitioning allows the two species to exist in syntopy, although the Burmese Python is the rarer of the two around human habitations (M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011).<br/><br/>Captive animals reach sexual maturity at 2-3 years of age with a regular food source (Reed and Rodda 2009), with males maturing earlier than females; generation length in the wild is unknown, but is expected to be at least as long and likely longer. <br/><br/>The introduced population in Florida thrives in the wet habitat of the Everglades.
193451		population	eng	This species has declined across its native range through harvesting for the skin, traditional medicine and pet trade, as well as habitat degradation. Zug<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2011) stated that pythons are rare in Myanmar. It is reported to be rare in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nnam (Q.T. Nguyen and T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011). The Vietnam Red Data Book estimates a decline in this species of more than 80% over 10 years in this country (Dang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This snake is now very rare in mainland China, as it is heavily exploited for food and skins, with population declines estimated at 90% over ten years (Wang and Xie 2009), although it remains common in Hong Kong where it is a protected species. No population data is available for this species in any part of its Indonesian range (M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011), however, it is now very rare in Indonesia, and is difficult for even traders to find (M. Auliya and D. Iskandar pers. comm. September 2011). It is common in Thailand, where its protected status is well-enforced (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. August 2011). Although rates of decline are not available for many areas of this snake's range, the observation that it is declining throughout its native range and the scale of declines reported from China and Viet Nam justify a conservative estimate of population declines over the past 10 years in excess of 30%, and potentially close to or exceeding 50% over the preceding ten years, with declines ongoing due to heavy exploitation and, to a lesser degree, habitat loss.
193451		threats	eng	This species is under threat due to illegal trade; in China it has been heavily impacted by overexploitation for food and skins, the latter for use both in leather and in traditional musical instruments such as Erheen, Sanxian and hand drums (CITES 2011) and Vietnamese populations are under pressure from a combination of use in food and leather production, export to supply the pet trade, and consumption in snake wine. Similar pressures are presumed to account for the rarity of this species throughout the remainder of its range, for which no quantitative data is available. The subspecies <em>P. b. progschai</em>, which has a restricted range in southern Sulawesi, is of some interest in the commercial international pet trade, and may be vulnerable to exploitation, the type specimen having been recorded in a trader's collection (M. Auliya pers. comm. September 2011, Jacobs <em>et al.</em> 2009). Despite its designation as a protected species in this country, populations in China exhibit no evidence of recovery, and illegal harvesting is ongoing (M. Lau pers. comm. September 2011). <br/><br/>Habitat degradation through slash and burn agriculture in upland areas (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. August 2011) may pose a risk by eliminating this snake's prey and making it more vulnerable to exploitation by humans (T. Neang pers. comm. August 2011).<br/><br/>Ironically, this is an invasive species that is firmly established in southern Florida, USA, and poses a threat to the ecosystem there by consuming native wildlife (Snow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Dorcas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012).
193452		conservation	eng	As the specimens are very old and it is unknown what's the actual status of the population, research to establish the current distribution of this species and threats is needed.
193452		distribution	eng	It has only been recorded from Sirambe, Tarutung and Balige, in the Province of North Sumatra , Indonesia. It is probably above 600 m. asl. (David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2009). Most of the specimens are from more than 100 years ago.
193452		habitat	eng	It was found in montane forest.
193452		population	eng	The species is known from old collections and its population status is not known.
193452		threats	eng	Threats are unknown, but deforestation for plantations to produce paper is a potential threat to the species.
193453		conservation	eng	This species is known only from a protected area, although there is degradation of forest within the reserve boundaries. No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Surveys are needed to obtain more information on the distribution, population status and natural history of this species, and to establish whether it is found in adjacent regions of both China and Vietnam.
193453		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, Trung Khanh Nature Reserve in Cao Bang province, Vietnam, at elevations of 500 and 700 m. The snake may occur in adjacent regions of China. Its estimated extent of occurrence is only 615 km²<sup></sup>.
193453		habitat	eng	This species inhabits evergreen and deciduous monsoon limestone tropical forest. It is closely associated with karst outcrops in this region. It is probably nocturnal; as no records were taken during the day. Snakes were found in the first half of September during the night excursions on karst under closed canopy (air temperature +22–24°C) (Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
193453		population	eng	This recently-described species is known from only two specimens.
193453		threats	eng	Karst forest around the type locality is being degraded as a result of illegal timber extraction, and slash-and-burn agriculture encroaching within the borders of the nature reserve (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
193482		conservation	eng	This species has not been found inside Madagascar's existing protected area network. One of the forests from where it was collected, at Ambatofotsy, is currently being established as a new protected area. Additional efforts are needed at this site, and near Tarzanville, to conserve the remaining forest. There is the possibility that the species may be shown to occur more  widely to the&#160;east and south of the Anosibe An'ala District in forests  lower than 910 elevation, and these are a priority for further survey  work; additional surveys are also needed in the forests around Tarzanville to establish whether this species occurs there.
193482		distribution	eng	This chameleon is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has been confirmed from two localities in the east, both in the Anosibe An'ala District in the Alaoatra Mangoro Region. The type locality is a small and degraded forest fragment of about 1.5 km in length and less than 0.3 km in width, just less than one kilometre north of Tarzanville, and the second is Ambatofotsy (19°32'35.2 S, 48°18'59.5 E, 907 m a.s.l.), a forest fragment (of ca. 6 km in length and 1.5 km in width). Recorded elevation range is 800-910m.&#160;Several areas around the known distribution range of <em>C. tarzan</em>&#160;have been surveyed but did not reveal additional localities for the new species.&#160;The forest remnants between the Manambolo and Mangoro river valleys are mostly above 900 m altitude and therefore are probably not populated by the new species. The same is true for the forests west of the Mangoro River, including an area east of Tsinjoarivo surveyed in 2010, in which <em>C. tarzan</em> was not recorded. Surveys in forest fragments of littoral forests in an area between Vatomandry, Mahanoro, and the estuary of the Mangoro River did not yield any <em>C. tarzan.&#160;</em>The species&#160;may occur in other forest fragments to the east and south of the Anosibe An'ala District in forests lower than 910 elevation (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Even if it occurred throughout the area between known sites it would have a distributional extent of only around 91 km²<sup></sup>, but based on current knowledge and survey work the actual range is much smaller (perhaps as small as 9-10 km²<sup></sup>, the approximate combined area of known localities) and this lizard has a very limited area of occupancy.
193482		habitat	eng	This species has only been recorded from lowland moist forest. This species roosts in forest vegetation at night, 1-4 m above ground (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In April the population consisted mostly of hatched juveniles and one female was gravid (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
193482		population	eng	This species was locally abundant during April (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Do to ongoing land clearance at and between the known sites, it is presumed that the population is both declining and severely fragmented.
193482		threats	eng	There is ongoing clearance of humid forest at both of the sites from where <span style="font-style: italic;">C.&#160; tarzan</span> was collected in 2009. The main threat is from slash and burn farming at the forest edges, but selective logging also occurs in some areas of the forests. There is some evidence of a recent increase in illegal artisanal gold mining in the area.
193484		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Parc National Montagne d'Ambre. The origin of the chameleons photographed in the pet trade is unknown but collection within national parks is prohibited and export of this species is also prohibited. As a canopy-dwelling species priority action is the conservation of intact areas of humid forest. Research is needed to confirm the identity of chameleons in Marojejy that may represent this species, and to clarify its distribution between these sites.
193484		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is only known from the Montagne d'Ambre National Park, between 750 and 900 m altitude (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species may also occur in Marojejy National Park based on photographic records (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but this requires confirmation (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011) and is not considered part of its distribution here. The chameleon has a presumed extent of occurrence of 385 km².
193484		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mid-elevation, relatively intact humid forest, where it lives predominantly in the canopy (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It descends to the lower vegetation layers in the forest during the egg-laying period when both sexes have been observed roosting less than three metres from the ground (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Females with 10, 13 and 14 eggs have been collected in February (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
193484		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population of this species. It is a cryptic, canopy-dwelling species and so easily overlooked. In the absence of ongoing threats, the population is presumed to be stable.<br/></p>
193484		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There are no main threats to this species at present, but Montagne d'Ambre is under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and L. Durkin pers. comms. 2011).&#160;There is photographic evidence of<span style="font-style: italic;"> F. timoni</span> from the pet trade (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). However, as a canopy-dweller it is unlikely that collection levels will be very high, and collection is probably not a threat at present (R. Jenkins pers. comm. June 2011).</p>
193485		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Masoala National Park, the Makira Forest Protected Area, Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve and probably Ambatovaky Special Reserve. Further research is needed into this species' ecological requirements, its population status and its distribution, and the possible record from Ranomafana requires verification. While this snake can be found in secondary forest, it is unclear whether it can tolerate forest loss and so efforts should be made to improve protection of remaining forest within reserves.
193485		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it occurs along the western flank of the Makira forest and the Masoala Peninsula in the north, an estimated area of 7,993 km<a name="OLE_LINK12">²</a>. It has recently been reported from the nearby Anjaharibe-Sud Special Reserve (Miinala 2011). Known sites lie between sea level and 1,000 m asl (Vietes <em>et al.</em> 2010, Miinala 2011). It may also be found in Ranomafana in the southeast, although its occurrence here is unconfirmed and needs verification (Vieites <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
193485		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected in relatively intact humid forest around 1,000 m altitude (Vieites <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has been recorded from secondary forest, and the record from Anjaharibe-Sud is of an animal found crossing a small road near both primary forest and secondary vegetation (Miinala 2011), on a sunny day in the wet season (air temperature 27ºC). This species preys on small vertebrates on the forest floor (Vieites <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
193485		population	eng	This snake can be regularly encountered in some areas.
193485		threats	eng	As a forest dependent species, the loss of habitat from expanding agriculture and logging pose a threat, particularly in lowland forests of the Masoala Peninsula (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
193486		conservation	eng	This lizard has not been found in protected areas but may occur in three parks in the east, Zahamena, Marotondrano or Ambatovaky, as well as potentially at Marojejy in the north (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Research is needed to confirm whether this species is widespread in the remaining eastern forests, and to investigate its population trends, ecological requirements and sensitivity to threats. Remaining forest patches around Lac Alaotra, if they exist, should be protected to ensure the persistence of this and other species.
193486		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it has been collected from a single locality in the east at 1,032 m asl., near Lake Alaotra (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It probably occurs in other forests at similar elevations in the east, and molecular data suggest it may occur as far north as Marojejy (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), an overall extent of occurrence of over 16,300 km²<sup></sup>.
193486		habitat	eng	This skink has been recorded from heavily degraded mid-elevation humid forest (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). At the time of collection forest in this area was still being logged, and this disturbance was too recent to have affected populations of forest specialists (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). As this species is presumed to be dependent on leaf litter, it will not be able to persist in severely-degraded forest in the long term (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
193486		population	eng	The recently-described species has only been collected twice. As forest at the type locality was being removed for slash-and-burn agriculture, and may no longer exist, the population may be undergoing at least localized declines. As forest within this lizard's presumed range occurs as typically small, isolated remnants, the population is presumed to be severely fragmented.
193486		threats	eng	Humid forest is being or has been cleared for slash and burn agriculture at the only confirmed locality (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and destruction of remaining forest at this site is extensive (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011). Logging of the larger timber trees within its range may also impact this species. The extent to which logging represents a threat is unknown, however this activity is often a precursor to more extensive land clearance for agricultural use which this species will be unable to survive (M. Vences pers. comm. May 2011).
193487		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Orangea, which is being developed as a new protected area. More information is needed on this species' ecological requirements, population status and sensitivity to threatening processes.
193487		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to far north Madagascar, where it is only known from a single locality 10 m above sea level at Forêt d'Orangea (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is not expected to be much more widespread (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011), and is presumed to have an extent of occurrence below 100 km²<sup></sup>.
193487		habitat	eng	This legless skink inhabits shrubby areas on sandy soil, where it appears to be a surface-dweller in contrast to other species of <em>Paracontias</em> at the same site, which are burrowers (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
193487		population	eng	There is little information on this species, which is only known from a single specimen (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It was therefore less abundant than related and apparently ecologically similar species in the collection site (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is thought to be similarly susceptible to the ongoing degradation of Forêt d'Orangea, and so its population is presumed to be declining.
193487		threats	eng	Logging for charcoal production and conversion of the habitat to agricultural lands are impacting forested areas; as this lizard is confined to scrubby vegetation within the forested, and already degraded, site Forêt d'Orangea, these processes are expected to represent major threats to this species (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
193488		conservation	eng	This species has been confirmed as occurring within the Réserve Spéciale d'Ankarana (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). Further research is needed into this species' extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, as well as its susceptibility to threats including potential risks from commercial collection.
193488		distribution	eng	This day gecko is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known from the Ankarana massif in the north (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has been found at a single locality 128 m above sea level. It has not been found in moderately intensive surveys of the nearby Analamera massif by Hery Rakotondravony (H. Rakotondravony pers. comm. January 2011), and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be as low as 147 km². The lizard's area of occupancy cannot presently be quantified, but is likely to be considerably more restricted as a result of this species' apparently highly specific habitat requirements.
193488		habitat	eng	All recorded individuals of this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>were captured in large stands of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>screw pines within a disturbed, semi-open deciduous dry forest on loose limestone blocks (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). One individual was also observed in a more humid location near a stream. The species is apparently absent from more humid forest (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
193488		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series. No population information is available.
193488		threats	eng	This species appears to have a genuinely small area of occupancy that is related to its reliance on screw palms. The forest where it occurs is threatened by expanding farmland, bush fires and sapphire mining, and the screw palms may be harvested by local people. Collection for the pet trade is also a potential threat (Glaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), although no trade in this species is known.
193489		conservation	eng	This day gecko is not known from any protected areas, and conservation of this species is apparently not needed.
193489		distribution	eng	This gecko is known from a number of areas in coastal eastern Madagascar, including sites near and within the town of Mananjary (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Tamatave (Toamasina) (Glaw and Vences 2007), Brickaville (Berghof and Trautman 2009), and the island of Nosy Boraha (Glaw and Vences 2007). All known sites are below 50 m asl. The lizard's extent of occurrence is estimated to be 3,573 km².
193489		habitat	eng	Individuals of this species have been collected on trunks and leaves of traveller's palm<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in both agricultural and urban settings in Mananjary (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Brickaville it was found on these plants and on coconut trees (Berghof and Trautman 2009). It has never been found away from anthropogenic sites.
193489		population	eng	This gecko is locally abundant on traveller's palms (<em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>) throughout its range, and there is no evidence of decline. In Brickaville, it is more abundant than the sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hoeschi</span> (Berghof and Trautmann 2009).
193489		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species at the moment, and it appears highly tolerant of habitat modification.
193490		conservation	eng	This species occurs in anthropogenic habitats as well as native forest, including protected forests in Montagne d'Ambre National Park and the new protected area at Montagne des Français. The taxon was recently elevated to a full species and it is now important to update its distribution, biological and ecological information. Updates to the CITES database and national legislation are needed in light of the taxonomic changes.
193490		distribution	eng	This large day gecko is naturally restricted to Madagascar, where it has been confirmed from the northeast and from the Sambirano region of the island's northwest (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007; Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, 2010), as well as from the island of Nosy Be. The lizard may be more widespread in northern Madagascar, and further research is needed to establish its occurrence within this range and the exact limits of its distribution. A population has been introduced to Mauritius, where it is widespread (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011), and it has also become established on Réunion (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011). This species occurs from sea level, and has been recorded as high as 900 m asl. in Montagne d'Ambre. In its native range the species has an estimated extent of occurrence, based on the extent of known sites, of 9,235 km². As several records at the margins of the known distribution areas are very recent (Labanowski and Lowin 2011, Durkin <em>et al.</em> 2011), the gecko may be more widespread between known sites than is presently recognized.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
193490		habitat	eng	Although this species occurs in both intact and degraded native forests it is also found in other habitats, including orchards, where there is a good range of perches and an ample food supply (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It is common on large trees and on the walls of buildings in towns and villages.
193490		population	eng	This is a common species where it occurs, but is apparently local. It was by far the most abundant lizard encountered during a 20 day survey of Montagne des Français, constituting 91 of 172 lizard records, 78 of which were taken in orchards (D'Cruze and Kumar 2011). There is no information on population trends.
193490		threats	eng	This species is highly tolerant of habitat modification. It may be subject to locally high levels of collection for the pet trade (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
193491		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a number of national parks, including Bemaraha and Ankarafantsika. CITES management procedures and national legislation should be updated to reflect the recent taxonomic change to this species, and trade monitored to ensure it does not threaten this gecko.
193491		distribution	eng	This day gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from many areas in the west, including the protected areas of Bemaraha and Ankarafantsika (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Mori <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 66,270 km²<sup></sup>. it is a low-altitude species.
193491		habitat	eng	These geckos use tree trunks for perching and actively select wide trunks, including beaches near forest and shrubland as well as those in urban areas (Ikeuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Animals are infrequently encountered within forest, but can be abundant in open areas. Single males occupy and defend each tree trunk. In a three-month mark-recapture study in dry forest around Ampijiroa, home range size varied between 42 and 516 m² and was larger for males than females (Ikeuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Observed patterns of habitat use were probably influenced by detectability, as the species uses the canopy during certain months and was most commonly observed in the dry season (Ikeuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Males are larger than females (Ikeuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Gravid females have been seen in October, December and January, and may be adapted to lay eggs in the dry season despite the scarcity of insect prey (Ikeuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
193491		population	eng	There is little information on the population, although animals are regularly found within the species' range. Although this is a species of open areas, it is likely that the  population is declining as large trees within its range are cleared. The rate of any decline is unknown. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
193491		threats	eng	Commercial collection may threaten this species but there is currently insufficient information available to assess this. The loss of large trees, including the effects of slash-and-burn agriculture, is probably a major threat.
193492		conservation	eng	This species is not subject to any particular conservation measures, and is not known to occur in any protected areas. Although it uses human-impacted landscapes, additional surveys in eastern Madagascar are needed to determine the true extent of occurrence, the nature of its native habitat, and the identity of of and its susceptibility to any threatening processes. The distinction between this species and <em>P. pusilla</em> requires further study.
193492		distribution	eng	This day gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it has so far only been recorded from the type locality in Brickaville (Ampasimanaolotra) (Berghof and Trautmann 2009) and from Anosibe An'Ala (Gehring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) in the east. Additional subpopulations are likely to occur between Ampasimanolotra and Vatomandry along the east coast. The species has been found from sites at 12 and 594 m asl, and has an extent of occurrence between the two known sites of 1,726 km²<sup></sup>.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
193492		habitat	eng	This species is so far known only from artificial habitats, having been observed on tropical almond (<span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia catappa</span>) trees and wooden cattle fences near a beach (Berghof and Trautmann 2009), and in secondary vegetation outside villages (Gehring <em>et al.</em> 2010). It is active in early morning and late evening. It is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma lineata lineata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ravenala</span>. Eggs are laid in knotholes of small trees. Females are well camouflaged.
193492		population	eng	There is no population information on this species.
193492		threats	eng	Tree clearance around villages resulting from construction and agriculture may threaten this species, and it has been found in secondary vegetation at risk from these processes (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011) but the extent and impact of any threat on this lizard's population uncertain. It is unclear what other processes may pose a risk to this gecko, which has so far only been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.
193493		conservation	eng	This species is known from Montagne d'Ambre National Park, where pressure from human activities is limited, and from Forêt d'Ambre Special Reserve, which is heavily degraded and subject to heavy pressure. There are no protected areas in or around Vohemar. More information is needed on this species' sensitivity to potentially threatening processes, and on population trends.<em> Phelsuma</em> species are included on CITES Appendix II, and changes to both CITES and national legislation are needed to account for the change in the taxonomic status of this gecko.
193493		distribution	eng	This day gecko is endemic to northern Madagascar, where it has been recorded around Iharana (Vohemar), and in Montagne d'Ambre (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and the adjacent Forêt d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). A genetically divergent, morphologically unstudied population from Marojejy probably represents a separate species (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, 2010). The species is estimated to occur from near sea level to 1,100 m asl, and has an extent of occurrence of 970 km².<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
193493		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low elevation humid forest and drier transitional forest, where it can be found in open areas and on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus</span> screw palms (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is unlikely to occur in dry forest between the known sites. The species occurs in both intact and degraded habitats, and can be found in agricultural land and on the walls of human habitations, although it is likely to require the presence of trees in these areas.
193493		population	eng	This species is common at Montagne d'Ambre. No information is available on the subpopulation from Vohemar. Due to the distance between the two known subpopulations and the absence of apparently suitable forest within the intervening area, the population is considered to be severely fragmented.
193493		threats	eng	Slash and burn agriculture, burning and logging threaten the region around Vohemar, and are widespread in Forêt d'Ambre. It is unclear whether these activities pose a threat to this species given its ability to persist in a range of anthropogenic habitats, including agricultural land, although it may not be able to withstand the complete removal of forest vegetation (Glaw and Vences 2007).&#160;<em></em>
193494		conservation	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">This gecko occurs in protected forest fragments around Sainte Luce, but it is unknown whether it occurs in any other protected areas. Research is needed into the nature of threats affecting this species and its tolerance of these processes. CITES and national legislation need to be updated to account for the recent taxonomic change.<br/></span>
193494		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to eastern and southeastern Madagascar where it has been recorded from a coastal area between Tamatave (Toamasina) in the east and Nahampoana in the southeast, and inland to Ifanadiana (Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is estimated to occur from sea level to around 500 m asl. The gecko's extent of occurrence is at least 39,113 km².
193494		habitat	eng	This is a species of coastal forest and lowland rainforests, that is also able to persist in disturbed forest to a limited degree.
193494		population	eng	This species is regularly encountered, and can be abundant in <em>Pandanus</em> screw palms in the southeast. Due to the ongoing loss of forest habitat throughout this gecko's range, the population is likely to be declining.
193494		threats	eng	Deforestation is likely to represent a threat to this species, which is unlikely to be able to tolerate complete removal of forest vegetation, but the causes are not well-known. Coastal forest around Sainte Luce is threatened by conversion to agriculture, and may potentially be at risk from future mineral sand mining. The species is not thought to be at risk from commercial collection (F. Glaw pers. comm. May 2011).
193496		conservation	eng	This species occurs in several national parks. Research into population trends is recommended, and its taxonomic status requires clarification.
193496		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar. The exact distributional extent requires clarification, but the species  as originally defined extends throughout western Madagascar from Tulear in the southwest north to  Ankarafantsika (Nagy <em>et al.</em> 2010). It is also thought to be widespread in the south of the island (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Its extent of occurrence may be as high as 145,244 km². All records are from localities below 500 m asl.
193496		habitat	eng	This arboreal snake is associated with dry deciduous forest (Nagy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and dry littoral forest. It can be found in degraded forest habitat (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).
193496		population	eng	This is a locally common species within forest. Due to human pressure on this habitat throughout its range, the population is likely to be declining, as although it is known from degraded forest this arboreal snake is unlikely to survive in deforested land. Due to the patchy distribution of remaining forest within its range, the population of this arboreal snake is presumed to be fragmented.
193496		threats	eng	Threats include conversion of land to agricultural use, logging for construction and charcoal production.
193498		conservation	eng	Further research is required to determine the taxonomic identity and true distribution of this taxon. If relocated, it will be necessary to obtain data on its ecological requirements, population status, exposure to and sensitivity to threats.
193498		distribution	eng	It is not certain if this species occurs on Madagascar or not; if it does it has not be seen in over 100 years. If it is not Madagascan, its distribution within mainland Africa is unknown.
193498		habitat	eng	There is no information on this species' habitat requirements or ecology.
193498		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, which is known from only one specimen.
193498		threats	eng	As there is no information on the precise locality where this species was collected, or even whether it is in Madagascar, it is not possible to identify possible threats.
193499		conservation	eng	There are no records for this species inside protected areas but it has been collected near to the Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra and may occur within this reserve. More information is needed on this blindsnake's distribution, population status, ecological requirements, and exposure to any threats. The taxonomy of this and other Madagascan blindsnakes is in need of revision.
193499		distribution	eng	This snake species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it is only known from a site 900 m above sea level in Andasibe (Wallach and Glaw 2009). It could range more widely but it is poorly known.
193499		habitat	eng	This species  is known to occur in mid-elevation humid forest, and is apparently able to use heavily-degraded habitats (Wallach and Glaw 2009). It lives below the leaf-litter and only occasionally appears above ground, usually during the peak of the wet season (Wallach and Glaw 2009).
193499		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species. Although only three specimens are known to science, Wallach and Glaw (2009) consider <span style="font-style: italic;">T. andasibensis</span> to be common in the collecting locality.
193499		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown, and it appears to exist in heavily modified habitats (Wallach and Glaw 2009).
193500		conservation	eng	This snake has been recorded from Zombitse National Park and the Mandena Conservation Area (Wallach and Glaw 2009). No conservation actions are apparently needed.
193500		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Madagascar where it is found over much of the south and southwest (Wallach and Glaw 2009), an estimated area of  51,421 km²<sup></sup>.All records are from sites between sea level and 200 m asl.
193500		habitat	eng	This blindsnake occurs mainly in dry and arid areas but has also been recorded from more humid sites such as Mandena (Wallach and Glaw 2009). It has been recorded from degraded habitats.
193500		population	eng	Specimens belonging to the <span style="font-style: italic;">T. arenarius/boettgeri </span>complex have been regularly collected (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011)
193500		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
193501		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded near Ranomafana National Park (Renoult and Raselimanana 2009) and may occur within the reserve. Further surveys of Ranomafana and the surrounding area targeted at locating blind snakes are necessary to obtain information on this species' distribution, population status, ecological requirements, exposure to and sensitivity to any threats. Additional specimens are required in order to include this species in a future taxonomic revision of Madagascan <em>Typhlops</em>.
193501		distribution	eng	This blind snake is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is only known from Ranomafana National Park in the east (Renoult and Raselimanana 2009). The single known specimen was found at 918 m asl. (Renoult and Raselimanana 2009). It might have a wider range than is currently known, as its recent discovery close to a well-used research station highlights need for further surveys within this region (Renoult and Raselimanana 2009).
193501		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected after heavy rain on a tarmac road near secondary humid forest in a steep-sided valley (Renoult and Raselimanana 2009). This burrowing snake probably lives in the leaf litter of degraded humid forest.
193501		population	eng	This snake is known only from a single specimen.
193501		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
193502		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded in three protected areas, at Zahamena, Ambodiriana and Betampona. There has been a deliberate policy decision not to separate export quotas for this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sikorae</span>, for fear that this would lead to overexploitation of the more accessible lowland species <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sameiti</span>. More research is needed to establish the precise area of occupancy of  this species, and to establish whether the assumed division between  higher-elevation <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sikorae</span> and lowland <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sameiti</span> accurately reflects  this species' distribution.
193502		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it occurs in the northeast at low elevations (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Known localities include Zahamena, Anlalalava, Betampona, Ambodiriana and Andakibe (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and it is likely to occur throughout the eastern coastal lowlands as far south as Andohahela, where it has been reported by F. Ratsoavina (pers. comm. January 2011). The subpopulation currently assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sikorae</span> that occurs on Nosy Mangabe in the northeast is also likely to represent this species (F. Glaw pers. comm. January 2011). It occurs from sea level in littoral forest to as high as 677 m in Andohahela (F. Ratsoavina pers. comm. January 2011). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 52,955 km²<sup></sup>.
193502		habitat	eng	This species inhabits low elevation humid forest in eastern Madagascar. It can survive in small forest fragments and is able to persist in forest suffering from some degree of habitat degradation.
193502		population	eng	There is no information on the population of this species, which is difficult to distinguish from <span style="font-style: italic;">U. sikorae</span> without close morphological examination, and which has only recently been recognized as a distinct species.
193502		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the different human activities that are damaging Madagascar's eastern forests, including slash and burn agriculture, bush fires, mining and selective logging for charcoal, construction and hardwoods for export. This appears to be the least sensitive species of leaf-tailed gecko to habitat degradation, and so overall levels of threat may be comparatively low. Monitoring of trade levels is recommended to ensure that the current levels of harvest and export are sustainable.
193505		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Taxonomic clarification of its status is urgently needed.
193505		distribution	eng	The distribution range is difficult to define for inconsistent taxonomic treatment of this subspecies.
193505		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
193505		population	eng	There is no information available.
193505		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
193509		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. All native reptile species are protected by law on Mayotte.<br/><br/>Conservation actions which may benefit<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. sanctijohannis</span> are the creation of nature reserves and development of sustainable agricultural practices. To reduce the killing of snakes, education in the local communities may be effective.<br/><br/>Reliable statements on the population development of this species can only be made if intensive monitoring is implemented. Monitoring of reptiles and other taxa in Anjouan is currently being implemented by the Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation’s project ‘Engagement Communautaire pour le Developpement Durable’ (<a href="http://www.bscf.org.uk/comoros">www.bscf.org.uk/comoros</a>). However, for such an elusive species, additional specific research and monitoring is required.
193509		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Comoros archipelago. It is widespread on all four major islands and has also been recorded on smaller islets (Meirte 1999, Meirte 2004, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.), where it occurs from close to sea level to approximately 700 m asl. For extent of occurrence, we assume the entire terrestrial area of the Comoros archipelago (2,026.6 km²). For area of occupancy, we use the area of suitable habitat classes, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing analysis (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). This excludes areas of volcanic rock with scarce or absent vegetation and montane vegetation, leaving a total area of occupancy of 1,737.4 km².
193509		habitat	eng	This species is found in natural humid and mangrove forests, but also in degraded forests, plantations and plantings in urban areas. Mainly arboreal, crepuscular or nocturnal, rarely seen during the day. This snake preys on lizards and geckos (Meirte 2004, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data). Viviparous according to Meirte (2004).
193509		population	eng	Observations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sanctijohannis</span> in the field are rather uncommon. Considering the crepuscular and mostly tree dwelling habits of this snake, the low number of observations does not necessarily point to a small population size or general rareness (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). Locals are said to observe, on average, about one snake per day per village (O. Hawlitschek pers. comm.). Thus, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sanctijohannis</span> may be relatively abundant.
193509		threats	eng	The major threat posed to this species is the ongoing extension of the infrastructure in settlements and intensification of horticulture. Currently, these are suitable habitats for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sanctijohannis</span> since plantations are rather extensive, and fertilizers and insecticides are applied scarcely. With urban population growth, the extent of plantings in urban areas will probably diminish. This will decrease the suitability of these habitats for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sanctijohannis</span>. In addition, villagers are scared of this species and regularly kill snakes. The extension of settlements and agriculture will also increase this threat. The remaining natural habitats are subject to ongoing decline in extent and quality due to deforestation (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
193513		conservation	eng	A taxonomic revision of Malagasy species of this genus has been recommended (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011). Further research is needed into the population status, distribution, ecology, and threats to this species. It is present in several protected areas, but specific conservation actions appear to be unnecessary.
193513		distribution	eng	This species is widely distributed in the west and south of Madagascar. Most confirmed records are in the very arid area around Toliara and Morombe, all of the northern localities require confirmation.
193513		habitat	eng	This blindsnake can be found in dry forest, degraded areas, and dunes (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011).
193513		population	eng	Specimens belonging to the <span style="font-style: italic;">T. arenarius/boettgeri</span> complex have been regularly collected (M. Vences pers. comm. January 2011)
193513		threats	eng	There are not considered to be any threats to this widespread and adaptable species.
193560		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia lambii</span>. It is also listed<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia bourgaeana</span> as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. lambii </span>under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threat<span style="background-color: white;">ened species, and in the regional catalogue of protected species. </span>It will be included as species VU D2 in the Spanish Red List (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). <br/><br/>In Tenerife it occurs within the protected area Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI) and Parque Natural de la Corona Forestal (SCI). In La Gomera most of the subpopulations occur within the protected area Parque Nacional de Garajonay and their state of conservation is generally good. Plant material is stored in the germplasm banks of the Servicio Biodiversidad Viceconsejería Medio Ambiente Gobierno de Canarias.<br/><br/>Proposed measures include population trend monitoring, storage of plant material in germplasm banks and development of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> plant production and population reinforcement plans. In some areas exotic pine plantations should be removed.
193560		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia bourgeauana </span>is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain, where it can be found in the islands of Tenerife and La Gomera (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007, Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), growing between 600 and 1,050 m asl. Its area of occupancy is 17 km² (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In La Gomera it can be found distributed into 13 subpopulations, throughout four locations. In Tenerife it is present in three locations: Ladera de Güímar, Afur and Teno (O. Rodríguez, A. García Gallo and G. Cruz pers. comm. 2011).
193560		habitat	eng	In La Gomera, this shrub grows near the lower distribution range limit of the communities of laurel-like evergreen forests known as "monteverde", in areas with different degree of humidity and exposure to winds, within associations of scrublands or forests, as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Visneo mocanerae-Arbuto canariensis sigmetum, Lauro- Perseo indicae sigmetum, Ilici canariensis-Ericeto platycodonis sigmetum, Pericallido murrayi-Myrico fayae sigmetum, Brachypodio arbusculae- Junipero canariensis sigmetum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cisto gomerae-Pino canariensis sigmetum.<br/></span>In Tenerife it grows on crags and foothills within the potential distribution range of "monteverde", in associations such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ixantho-Laurion azoricae </span>or along with more thermophile vegetation <span style="font-style: italic;">Mayteno-Juniperion canariensis</span>, or heterogeneous shrublands <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno crenulatae-Hypericetum canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Telinetum canariensis</span>.<br/><br/>Frequent accompanying species are, among others: <span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrica faya</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus novocanariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus inermis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum tinus</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">rigidum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex lunaria</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Visnea mocanera</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span><span class="def_header"><span class="def">It is a monoecious plant that may present asexual propagation by cuttings.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span>
193560		population	eng	In Tenerife 199 individuals were recorded (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and 1,341 in La Gomera (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Population trends have been reported to be stable in Tenerife (Gobierno de Canarias 2004) and increasing in La Gomera (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
193560		threats	eng	Main threats are landslides, droughts, fires, natural competition with more aggressive species and anthropization (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
193619		conservation	eng	The species is currently protected by French law at all time against  actions that would lead to the destruction or removal of eggs and  destruction of animals. Research on population status and habitat  monitoring is recommended for this species.
193619		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to France, where it was originally considered to  be endemic to the Doubs and Saone Basins. Currently the species is  now thought to be endemic to the Doubs Basin only.
193619		habitat	eng	This species lives in freshwater springs.
193619		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
193619		threats	eng	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for  stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted  over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The  pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient  loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the  springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the  species.
193758		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. Further studies on the population trend of this species are needed.
193758		distribution	eng	This is an east Atlantic species, recorded from Gibraltar southward along the entire west coast of Africa to Angola, near Benguela.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it has been recorded around Gibraltar and in the extreme west Mediterranean Sea.
193758		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, common in shallow coastal waters, also in estuaries (Schneider 1990), bays and lagoons, as well as in offshore trawling stations. It feeds on crabs, echinoids, and molluscs (Tortonese 1986). It occurs over hard substrata (Maigret and Ly 1986).
193758		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
193758		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, caught with trawls.
193870		conservation	eng	This species is not protected in France. However, its known subpopulation is within a protected area, the Alpes Maritimes National Park. This species is distinguished only by shell morphology. This should be reinforced by genital anatomy and molecular markers too before we can be sure if this is really a distinct species. Research activity should therefore focus on this point. Secondly, if this is really a narrow range endemic species, the only known subpopulation should be regularly monitored.
193870		distribution	eng	This is a French endemic. The type locality is "Habite entre la Giandola et Fontan" (Caziot 1908) [in France, Alpes Maritimes, Roya valley between la Giandola and Fontan]. According to Gargominy and Ripken (2006) it is restricted to "vallon de la Bendola" in the Valle da la Roya. The area of occupancy is thought to be 4 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is 12 km<sup>2</sup>.
193870		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
193870		population	eng	<p>Only one subpopulation is known. However, there might be further undiscovered subpopulations nearby. The only known subpopulation seemed to be stable according to Gargominy and Ripken (2006).<br/></p>
193870		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species is not very sensitive to ecosystem modification or any other realistic threats. Only one sub-population is known, which lives within a protected area, so it is not threatened by complete or severe destruction of that rocky habitat (e.g. construction works, quarrying, etc.), only by disturbance from tourist activity, However, this does not seem to be a realistic threat now.</p>
193871		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Albania and its known site is outside of protected areas. The geographic range and number of sub-populations are not exactly known. Research activity should focus on the monitoring of the only known habitat and the exploration of the species' range. If no other sites are discovered the only known site should be protected.<br/></p>
193871		distribution	eng	This species is only found in one location, at the Byshek Spring in Central Albania. But regarding that Albania is relatively poorly explored, we can suppose that there might be further undiscovered locations nearby.
193871		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.</p>
193871		population	eng	Only one population is known, however, it can be supposed that there are further undiscovered sub-populations nearby. The only known population seemed to be stable at the time of the last visit in 2003.
193871		threats	eng	<p>Only one population is known, and is located in a touristic site, so it might be affected by the complete or severe destruction of that rocky habitat in the future (e.g. construction works, quarrying, etc.).</p>
193892		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
193892		distribution	eng	The species is known from the lower Mekong River in Cambodia (Ng and Rainboth 2005), from Stung Treng southwards.
193892		habitat	eng	This species was collected from amongst roots in a stream flowing through an island in the Mekong River (Ng and Rainboth 2005). From the biology of congeners, it is likely that this species would be restricted to small streams draining into the Mekong River, or the shallower littoral portions of the Mekong River, rather than in the main channel of the river.
193892		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
193892		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
193893		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
193893		distribution	eng	This species is known from Stung Chhay, which&#160;is a river on the western slope of the Cardamom mountains in southwest Cambodia and draining westwards to the Gulf of Thailand. It is likely to be found in neighbouring river systems that drain the western slope of the Cardamom mountains.
193893		habitat	eng	This species inhabits small, vegetated streams with a moderate current and a sandy substrate.
193893		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
193893		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
193895		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
193895		distribution	eng	This species is known from rivers draining southeastern Thailand. Its presence in rivers flowing through adjoining southwestern Cambodia is expected, but awaits verification.
193895		habitat	eng	This species inhabits fast-flowing streams with a substrate of sand and gravel.
193895		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
193895		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. The effects of harvesting for the ornamental fish trade are thought to have a negligible effect on the population of this species.
193971		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
193971		distribution	eng	The species is known from the main channel of the Mekong River just downstream of the Khone Falls in southern Lao PDR. It is expected to be present in the Mekong River in northern Cambodia, although this awaits verification.
193971		habitat	eng	This species is known from the main channel of large rivers with swift current and a substrate of sand and rocks.
193971		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
193971		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. The impact of the proposed hydropower dam at the Khone falls also requires investigation.
193972		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
193972		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the type locality in the central Chao Phraya River drainage in central Thailand (Ng and Sabaj 2005, Ferraris 2007). Its presence in other parts of the Chao Phraya River drainage is expected.
193972		habitat	eng	This species is found in the main channels of large, turbid rivers with a moderate flow and muddy substrate
193972		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, as it is only known from the type series (consisting of six specimens).
193972		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
193973		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
193973		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the Tonlé Sap and the lower Mekong River drainage to the delta in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
193973		habitat	eng	This species is found in the main channels of large, turbid rivers with a moderate flow and sandy or muddy substrate.
193973		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Vidthayanon (2008) records it as uncommon, but its apparent rarity is more likely an artefact of poor sampling.
193973		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
193974		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The effect of collection for the ornamental fish trade on the populations requires further study, although the collections are sporadic and only relatively small quantities are collected.
193974		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Sittaung River drainage in south-central Myanmar (Ng 2009).
193974		habitat	eng	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description, but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing hillstreams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate.
193974		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Although this species is collected for the ornamental fish trade, collection levels are unlikely to have a significant effect on the population.
193974		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. The effects of harvesting for the ornamental fish trade is thought to have a negligible effect of the population of this species.
194021		conservation	eng	Further studies are needed to confirm the distribution range of this species and actual threats.
194021		distribution	eng	This species is native to central and south Viet Nam. It has been recorded Quang Tri (Cu bi), Thua Thien-Hue, Quang Nam (Tra My), Kon Tum, Gia Lai, and Khanh Hoa (Nha Trang). Only three localities have been provided, as there is no information on where it has been recorded in the other three provinces.
194021		habitat	eng	Specimens were collected in slow watercourses in rain forests and in sandy rice fields at low altitudes.
194021		population	eng	There is no information on population and population trends.
194021		threats	eng	Some of the areas where this species has been found are threatened by deforestation and logging. However, this is not certain as the actual range of this species is not clear.
194022		conservation	eng	There is very little information available. More research on distribution, population trends, and threats to this species is recommended.
194022		distribution	eng	<p>This species is found in China, where it has been recorded in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Jiangxi, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang (Longquan). Also in Cambodia, India (Assam), Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. <br/></p><p>In Thailand recorded from Chiang Mai and Bangkok provinces. Also recorded from Stung Treng in Cambodia and Phu Khanh in Viet Nam. It has been recorded from Lao PDR in several areas near the Mekong river.</p>
194022		habitat	eng	This aquatic plant grows in slow flowing watercourses, in paddy fields, streams and ponds.
194022		population	eng	<p>It is more or less abundant depending on the site but no specific data is available.</p>
194022		threats	eng	There is no information available on the threats to this species.
194023		conservation	eng	More research is need as there is very little information about population trends and true distribution of this species. No conservation measures are in place.
194023		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, Sumatra), Papua New Guinea (Idei 2010), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia (Johor, Kedah, Malacca, Pahang, Perak and Terengganu), and Sarawak (including recent records from Gunung Gaharu; Lok <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), and Thailand. It is likely to have a wider distribution within the region. In Thailand the locality is not clear, the plant was recorded somewhere in the Narathiwat area (southern peninsular Thailand) (Bastmeijer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Idei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The number of locations is therefore uncertain although it has been recorded in at least five distant places. The species has been recorded from Singapore, however Lok <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) suggest that records from Singapore may refer to another species.
194023		habitat	eng	The species grows in shallow streams with silt or sandy substrates in rainforest, although it is most often found in clear streams it will persist in streams flowing through rubber plantations or even urban situations.
194023		population	eng	The species is known from a single site in Thailand (where it has not been recorded since 1933), Singapore, from a number of states in Malaysia, islands in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea; most records appear to involve single records from each area. Without evidence to suggest that the species still occurs widely in the region, it must be considered scarce throughout its range.
194023		threats	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by construction of dams, lowland forest clearance for agriculture or development, and pollution, some populations may also be threatened by collecting pressure.
194024		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. More research in how threats are affecting existing wild populations is recommended.
194024		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from Myanmar, eastern Malaysia, eastern and southern Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. In Viet Nam it has been recorded from Phuquoc, an island south of Viet Nam mainland. In Lao it is found in Champasak. <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Myanmar it has been found in Pegu near Rangoon (type locality) and Tenasserim. Only recorded from Kedah in Malaysia. At least eight localities have been recorded in Thailand.<br/></span>
194024		habitat	eng	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Barclaya </span>is endemic to southeast Asia. These plants are restricted to pristine natural tropical  rain forests where they grow in or along  the edges of muddy slow streams.
194024		population	eng	There is no information available.
194024		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barclaya </span>spp. habitats are generally affected in the area by dams and land reclamation for agriculture.
194025		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place. More research is needed to determine its actual distribution and threats.
194025		distribution	eng	This species is native to Myanmar, Lao PDR and Thailand. In Thailand, it has been recorded in Loei (Pu Kradueng) and in Phangnga provinces. In Lao, it has been found in Champasak province.
194025		habitat	eng	It occurs in pools and small streams from sea level to 1,500 m of altitude.
194025		population	eng	There is no information available.
194025		threats	eng	No threats have been recorded.
194026		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. The current location of this species needs to be confirmed and its existing population studied.
194026		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from the Dak Lak Province, southern Viet Nam. Although the exact locality has not been provided, the total area of this province is 13,062 km<sup>2</sup>.<sup><br/></sup>
194026		habitat	eng	It was found submerged in water. It occurs in ponds, rice fields and river pools.
194026		population	eng	<p>There current population size or trend is unknown.<br/></p>
194026		threats	eng	The area where this species has been recorded from is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and deforestation as highlighted in the threats maps developed for the region during an IUCN workshop in Cambodia in November 2009.
194027		conservation	eng	The subpopulation in Thailand has been recorded in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, in Chanthaburi province. Actual threats and population status need to be further studied.
194027		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from one locality southern Viet Nam and another one in southeastern Thailand.
194027		habitat	eng	It grows attached to rocks in fast-flowing rivers and waterfalls.
194027		population	eng	No information available.
194027		threats	eng	No threats to the known populations have been identified.
194028		conservation	eng	At least one population recorded in Bajiang National Park, in Champasak Lao. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194028		distribution	eng	Endemic to central and southern Lao PDR and southern Viet Nam. In Viet Nam, the species has only been recorded in Massif du Lang Biang, between Klou and Da Nhim, Tuyên Doc. In Lao it has been recorded from numerous localities in Savannakhet, Champasak, Sekong, and Attapeu provinces.
194028		habitat	eng	<p>This epilithic aquatic plant occurs only on seasonally submerged rocks in waterfalls and rapids in open places.</p>
194028		population	eng	<p>The known population include one river in central Lao, nineteen rivers in southern Lao, and one river in southern Viet Nam.<br/></p>
194028		threats	eng	At least two rivers where the species was found presented symptoms of pollution although the cause has no been determined.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194029		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Its distribution, threats, and population trends need to be determined.<span class="datatitle1"></p>
194029		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Dalat in Lam Dong Province, southern Viet Nam (Ho 1999, Kato 2011).
194029		habitat	eng	The species grows in fast-flowing rivers and near waterfalls.
194029		population	eng	<p>No information is available regarding this species' population.</p>
194029		threats	eng	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, although the only known locality is a scenic area.<br/></p>
194030		conservation	eng	None required.
194030		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of east and southeast Asia, from the Russian far east south through India to Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka and through Japan, the Korean Peninsula and China to Indochina, as well as in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Wilson and Johnson 2001, Kirschner 2002, eFloras 2011). It is apparently naturalised on Mauritius.<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
194030		habitat	eng	The species grows in swamps, along the margins of small streams and field ditches and in roadside ditches. From 1,500 to 2,900 m alt.
194030		population	eng	No information available.
194030		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
194031		conservation	eng	None required.
194031		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of east Asia from eastern India east to China, Japan and the Russian Far East, south through Thailand, Lao PDR and the Philippines to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Kirschner 2002).
194031		habitat	eng	The species occurs in damp habitats, such as the margins of pools, wet flushes and disturbed habitats in many wetland types, from low to very high altitude.
194031		population	eng	No information available.
194031		threats	eng	None known.
194032		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
194032		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from southern Myanmar, Thailand, India, southern Viet Nam, Malaysia (Peninsular), Indonesia (Sumatera) and northern Australia. It is considered to be extirpated from Singapore. In Viet Nam it has been recorded in Dong Nai (Tri An). It should be looked for in suitable habitat in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and other countries within the species range.
194032		habitat	eng	It occurs in oligo to mesotrophic still and shaded waters. In Thailand it is common in places shaded by <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>trees.
194032		population	eng	There is no information on population trends.
194032		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
194034		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place, information on the distribution and status of this species in Viet Nam and Lao PDR, and perhaps presence elsewhere within the Indo-Burma region would be useful.</p>
194034		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and throughout much of northern Australia, it is considered to be native in both areas (Aston 1973, Ho 1999, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Research is required to confirm this disjunct distribution.
194034		habitat	eng	The species grows in permanent water bodies, also perhaps occurring in the draw-down zones of lakes and rivers, in rice fields and possibly in ephemeral wetlands.
194034		population	eng	There is no information available.
194034		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
194035		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place or needed. Research in actual locations and existing threats to this species is recommended.
194035		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from Hainan (China), Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar (Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, eFloras 2010, WCSPF 2010, and Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). </p>
194035		habitat	eng	The species is found in lakes, ponds, channels and slow-flowing rivers.
194035		population	eng	Although global population is unknown, a number of subpopulations have been recorded. No specific numeric figures are available.
194035		threats	eng	No threats to this species have been identified.
194036		conservation	eng	Research into the species distribution is needed.
194036		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southern China<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang)<span id="lblTaxonDesc">, Peninsular Malaysia (Batu Caves, outside Kuala Lumpur, and considered extirpated; Kiew 2005) and Viet Nam (Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Quingfeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, eFloras 2011). <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Quingfeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) also report the species from India, without giving details.<br/><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/><span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span></span></span></span></span>
194036		habitat	eng	The species is described as occurring in muddy places in lowland forest and in marshes.
194036		population	eng	The plant is described as 'very rare' in southern China (eFloras 2011)and as having been recorded from a single site in Malaysia, from where is has been reported to have been extirpated (Kiew 2005), and there is no readily available information on its status in Viet Nam.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194036		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not known.
194037		conservation	eng	None required for this species.
194037		distribution	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">The species has a wide distribution from eastern Russia, Korean peninsular, eastern China (Yunnan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning), and Japan (eFloras 2011), to New Guinea, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">New Zealand (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">present throughout the North Island; uncommon in the South Island, records from Nelson, Marlborough,&#160;north&#160;Westland&#160;and&#160;from&#160;the&#160;Canterbury&#160;Plains; (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Clarkson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, <span id="lblTaxonDesc">NZPCN 2011), Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria). There is also a record from India (Assam), though it is not listed by Cook (1996) or Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003), but van Steenis (1948) records the species from India ('Khasia' (Meghalaya), Viet Nam to 'Manchuria' (northeastern China and eastern Russia), to Japan (Okinawa), Australia, New Zealand, and 'Malesia' (Papua  New Guinea).</span></span>
194037		habitat	eng	<p>Typically grows in shallow water on the margins of lakes, swamps, and streams. In New Zealand the species has been found in peatland margins, in&#160; swamp forest and shrubland (Clarkson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), from coastal areas to lowland (up to 400 m asl), usually emergent from shallow water in ponds, lake margins, and slow streams, and in fens and bogs (NZPCN 2011).</p>
194037		population	eng	No information available.
194037		threats	eng	The species is not thought likely to be impacted across its range.
194038		conservation	eng	None required.
194038		distribution	eng	The sepcies occurs from China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Fujian, Guizhou, Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan and the Korean Peninsula south through Taiwan and Indonesia to Papua New Guinea (Sun and Simpson 2010); it has been reported from India and Myanmar (eFlora 2011, NMNH 2011), but is not listed by Cook (1996) or Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
194038		habitat	eng	The species occurs in shallow water in the margins of lakes, in ponds and streams.
194038		population	eng	No information is available.
194038		threats	eng	The species occurs in habitats which, although threatened by drainage, conversion to agriculture and development, are widespread.
194046		conservation	eng	The distribution concurs with Mangshan Mount Nature Reserve and Nanling Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.
194046		distribution	eng	This species is found in its type locality: Mount Mang, Yizhang Co., Hunan Province Of China (Zhao 1999; Zhao 2006). It is also recorded in Nanling National Nature Reserve of Guangdong Province, China (Guo <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is recorded in Xinhui, Guangdong Province (Wang pers. comm. 2011). It is found at elevations of 200 to 1,300 m asl.
194046		habitat	eng	This species lives inside forest where it is associated with mountainous streams and seepages. It can also be found in streams close to agricultural fields. During the day it hides in stones, rocky holes, grass, or sand (Zhao 2005).
194046		population	eng	It appears to be locally common within its known restricted distribution.
194046		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.
194054		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. The known site falls within Chu Mom Ray National Park. Surveys are needed to locate additional records of this species, to establish its distribution, population status and natural history, and its exposure and sensitivity to threats.
194054		distribution	eng	This recently described species (David<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011) is known only from the type locality on Kun Tum Plateau, in the Kon Tum Province of south-central Viet Nam. This is a mountainous region on the eastern fringe of the Truong Son (Ammanite) Range. A number of new species have been described from this region in recent years, indicating that past surveys of this area have been insufficient to fully document the distribution of its fauna, so this species may be more widespread than current records indicate.
194054		habitat	eng	The holotype was collected at night underwater in a rocky stream, in secondary evergreen forest at 740 m asl.
194054		population	eng	No population data is available for this recently-described species, which is known from a single specimen.
194054		threats	eng	Habitat loss through deforestation may threaten this species, due to illegal timber logging and smallholder farming. As this snake has been recorded from secondary forest, its sensitivity to these processes is unknown.
194064		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. This snake is known from protected areas. Research is needed to establish the identity of animals from Phu Quoc in Vietnam, and to clarify the distribution of this species.
194064		distribution	eng	This recently described species (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) is known from Koh Kong Province in southwestern Cambodia and Chantaburi Province in southeastern Thailand. The species may occur more widely in suitable habitat throughout the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia and adjacent southeastern Thailand, and may extend to off-shore islands (e.g. Koh Chang).&#160; It has been recorded from sea level up to 800 m.
194064		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in low-lying coastal areas in semi-evergreen, evergreen and mangrove/<span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca</span> swamp forest (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It appears to be mostly arboreal as all specimens were found a couple of metres above the ground and mostly within 10 m of water. The diet of the species is unknown. In common with other species of <em>Cryptelytrops</em>, this snake is expected to be ovoviviparous, nocturnal, and to feed on vertebrates (mainly mammals).
194064		population	eng	This is a common species, and the population is likely to be stable since threats appear to be limited and localized.
194064		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be subject to major threats in Thailand, where forest loss is limited and it is likely to be exploited in very low numbers if at all (T. Chan-ard pers. comm. September 2011). In Cambodia, this species may be at risk from clearance of forest at higher elevations for cardamom plantations (T. Neang pers. comm. September 2011).
194065		conservation	eng	This species has been recorded from protected areas in Vietnam and Cambodia, with only one of the known localities (in Vietnam) being unprotected (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Geissler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Surveys of degraded habitat, including plantations, are recommended to establish the limits of this snake's habitat tolerances and hence its susceptibility to threats. Taxonomic study is needed to establish the identity of animals from Phu Quoc.
194065		distribution	eng	This recently described species (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) has been recorded from southern Vietnam in the vicinity of Ho Chi Minh City, and also from the low-elevation hills on the southern and western edges of the Langbian (Da Lat) Plateau in southern Vietnam and eastern Cambodía's Mondolkiri Province. It was recently confirmed in Cat Tien National Park, Dong Nai Province, Vietnam (Geissler<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011), from which it was known previously only from photographs (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It has been found between 450 and 500 m asl. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 19,570 km²<sup></sup>.
194065		habitat	eng	This snake occurs in evergreen forest, including lightly disturbed forest. Specimens from Cambodia have all been reported from sites near fast-flowing stream, often close to waterfalls, and the snake was recorded in Cat Tien near a pool. All animals have been recorded at night in dense vegetation (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). In common with other species of <em>Cryptelytrops</em>, this snake is ovoviviparous.
194065		population	eng	There are many records of this recently-described species from Mondolkiri Province in Cambodia, and it is thought to be common in Vietnam. In Vietnam, the population may be experiencing localized declines as a result of overharvesting for food and snake wine (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011).
194065		threats	eng	This species has only been found in evergreen forest, and Cambodian sites are at risk from the development of rubber and cassava plantations, despite nominal protected status (T. Neang pers. comm. September 2011). There are no records of the snake from these habitats, although they have not yet been subjected to targeted surveys (T. Neang pers. comm. September 2011). There may be localized declines from exploitation for food and snake wine, however this is only a threat in southern Vietnam (Q.T. Nguyen pers. comm. September 2011). As a venomous snake, this species is subject to persecution by humans, and may be at greater risk in degraded, more accessible habitats.
194082		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species.
194082		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Teno Peninsula in the far north-west of the island of Tenerife.
194082		habitat	eng	This species lives in the dry temperate shrub vegetation (Piso basal).
194082		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
194082		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
194140		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or needed for this widespread species.
194140		distribution	eng	<em>Acmella paniculata</em> is reported from south and southeast Asia, and southern China, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Papua New Guinea, Peru and Solomon Islands. In India it is distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala, Karnataka, Megalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996).
194140		habitat	eng	It is an annual plant. It is not confined to wetlands but is frequently found in boggy ground, margins of ponds, marshes, along water courses and in rice fields. In the south it is mostly found at higher elevations (Cook 1996).
194140		population	eng	It is a commonly distributed species.
194140		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
194141		conservation	eng	Detailed surveys and monitoring of populations and habitats are urgently required for this endemic taxon. &#160;Impacts of harvest and use by nurseries needs to be studied and appropriate conservation action employed.
194141		distribution	eng	<p><em>Alsophila nilgirensis</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">is endemic to southern India (Chandra<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2008). &#160;It occurs in Tamil Nadu (Palni Hills, Tirunelveli Hills, Anamalai Hills, Kolli Hills, Sirumalai Hills, Nilgiris; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003), in Kerala (Wayanad, Agastyakoodam ,Thiruvananthapuram, New Amarambalam, Malappuram) (K.P. Rajesh, S. Jeeva pers. obs.), in Karnataka (Kudremukh National Park) (G.K. Bhat pers. comm.), and Andhra Pradesh (Chandra<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 2008) between 600 and 2700m.</span></span></span></span></p>
194141		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It occurs in fully shaded streams and stream banks, shaded roadsides nearby streams (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003).</p>
194141		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species occurs very uniformly in the southern Western Ghats and southern Eastern Ghats in high elevations between 600 and 2700m (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm.). In Kerala it is sparse (K.P. Rajesh pers. comm.).</p>
194141		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Use of this plant by nurseries is a threat to&#160;<em>Alsophila nilgirensis</em><span class="apple-style-span">. Natural herbivoral damage by a hairy caterpillar in the population in Kakachi in 2006 (Tirunelveli Hills) (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm.).</span>
194143		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. But detailed conservation action and&#160;management and research in life history and threats&#160;is essential to protect the species. And also&#160;monitoring&#160;of population and habitat trends is required.
194143		distribution	eng	<em>Aspidium ochthodes</em> is a fern, commonly seen in Palani hills and rare in Anamalai hills (Tamil Nadu, India). It has also been collected from Kolli hills, Shevaroy hills (Tamil Nadu) and a few places on the Kerala Ghats (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
194143		habitat	eng	It grows along partially or fully exposed stream banks, road sides and clearings between 1,000 to 2,400 m altitude (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
194143		population	eng	It is common in Palani hills and rare in Anamalai hills (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
194143		threats	eng	Continuous change of ecosystem due to pollution by vehicles, residential development, tourism and forest degradation in Palani, Anamalai, Shevroy and other hills.
194144		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
194144		distribution	eng	<p><em>Athyrium solenopteris</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka. &#160;In India it is restricted to only Tamil Nadu part of the Western Ghats in Palni Hills, Anamalai Hills, Tirunelveli Hills, Shevroy Hills and Nilgiris (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003).</span></p>
194144		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows in fully shaded stream banks and fully exposed marshes (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003). &#160;In Berijam Lake it is found intermixed with the rare<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>Thelypteris confluens</em><span class="apple-style-span">.</span></p>
194144		population	eng	<p>Very common all over.</p>
194144		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
194145		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place.
194145		distribution	eng	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><em>Burmannia pusilla</em> is reported from&#160;India</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Indo-China. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India is known to occur in</st1:country-region>&#160;Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Maharashtra</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region></st1:place>, Meghalaya and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996).
194145		habitat	eng	It is a annual herb, found in&#160;damp and wet places, on wet rock ledges and around drying pools (Cook 1996).
194145		population	eng	This species is locally common in Karnataka (G.K. Bhat pers. comm. 2011) and it might be locally common in other hilly areas of its global distribution (<st1:place w:st="on">S. Karuppusamy</st1:place> pers. comm. 2011).
194145		threats	eng	No threats ha been reported for the species.
194146		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place.
194146		distribution	eng	<em>Burmannia disticha </em>is distributed in<em> S</em>outh and Southeast Asia to tropical <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India it is foind in</st1:country-region><st1:city w:st="on"> Andhra Pradesh</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, Meghalaya and <st1:place w:st="on">West Bengal</st1:place>. Occurs at an altitude of 1,500 to 2,600 m (Cook 1996).<p></p>
194146		habitat	eng	<p>It found in shallow water but usually in swamps, wet flushes, boggy ground or on wet rocks (Cook 1996).</p>
194146		population	eng	This species is rare in Andhra Pradesh (Gamble 1928) and it could be found occasionally in other areas of its global distribution.
194146		threats	eng	<p>Threats are not known. In Andhra Pradesh the habitat of the species could be threatened because of tourism and mining (bauxite) (B. Sadasivaiah pers. obs.). &#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
194147		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or needed.
194147		distribution	eng	<em>Burmannia coelestis </em>is reported from&#160;South and <st1:place w:st="on">Southeast Asia</st1:place> (Cook 1996). In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India it is known to occur in</st1:country-region>&#160;Bihar, <st1:city w:st="on">Orissa</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sikkim</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, <st1:place w:st="on">West Bengal</st1:place> and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). Kerala (S. Karuppusamy pers. Obvs.).<p></p>
194147		habitat	eng	It is a annual herb found in&#160;swampy places, springs, wet fields and sometimes in shallow water and at the edges of pools (Cook 1996).<p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
194147		population	eng	This species is locally common.
194147		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for the species.
194148		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. &#160;Detailed surveys and monitoring of population and habitat are essential.
194148		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichomanes intramarginale</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a very rare species, reported from only three different locations in the Western Ghats (Ponmudi hills, Kurusumalai and Sholayar Dam- Chalakudi road) (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003). Beddome (1883) reports the species distribution as Sivagiri       (Tirunelli), Malabar hills and Coorg (Karnataka) in southern India. It is also reported from Sri Lanka.
194148		habitat	eng	It is a filmy fern, growing in evergreen and       semi-evergreen forest streams of the Western Ghats, as thick patches on       half submerged boulders, even at an altitude below 100 m (P.V. Madhusoodanan pers. obs.). It grows as epiphytes or lithophytes along shaded stream banks between 400–1200 m (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
194148		population	eng	This       species was earlier known only by a few collections from Sri Lanka and southern India made during 1827-1830, until recently Manickam and Irudayaraj       (1992) rediscovered it from the forests of Kerala. They       commented that the species seems to be very rare. However, it is found growing in almost all the evergreen and       semi-evergreen forest streams of the Western Ghats, as thick patches on       half submerged boulders, even at an altitude below 100 m (P.V. Madhusoodanan pers obs).
194148		threats	eng	Tourism is a major threat to the hills and to the species. Recreational and commercial development is on the increase in the Ponmudi and Sholayar dam areas.
194149		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Detailed surveys are needed to understand the current distribution of this species as most available information on its distribution are more than 20 years old. Monitoring of habitats and the population are recommended as well as quick and effective conservation measures. Ex-situ cultivation protocol has been established for the species by Sara and Manickam (in-vitro culture) and by the Gurukula Botanical Sanctuary (spore culture). An ex-situ population has been established at the Shembaganur Fernery (Sacred Heart College) in Kodaikanal, and in the Gurukula Botanical Sanctuary in Wayanad.</p>
194149		distribution	eng	<p><em>Cyathea crinita</em>&#160;is endemic to the southern Western Ghats and Sri Lanka (Chandra <em>et al</em>. 2008).&#160;In Kerala it occurs in Munnar, Devikulam, Umayamala, Rajamalay, Kanthallur, Mannavan shola (Idukki); Chandanathode, Kannoth (Wayanad); Dam site area of Silent Valley, Lower Walakkad (Palakkad) (Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>et al.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em>1992, Kumar 1998, Kumar<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>et al.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em>1998); Tamil Nadu in Avalanche (Nilgiris), Palni Hills (Dindigul), Anamalai Hills (Coimbatore) (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003).</span></span></p>
194149		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows under shaded or open streams and stream sides in evergreen and shola forests <span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span">(forested and shaded areas with high altitude streams)<span class="apple-style-span"> between 1,500 and 2,200 m asl.</span></span></p>
194149		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is very rare, known only from a few localities. The number of individuals are very few and populations are declining due harvesting for ornamental purposes and isolation caused by heavy fragmentation.<br/></p>
194149		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span">New tribal&#160; practices that consist in using the entire tree  fern for ornamental purposes have resulted in loss of some  populations<span class="apple-style-span"> in Kerala. Road construction through sholas (<span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span">forested and shaded areas with high altitude streams)<span class="apple-style-span"> in Kerala has already resulted in the destruction of a sub-population of this species and area of suitable habitat. Also, heavy fragmentation due to loss of sub-populations and road construction is isolating sub-populations which causes a decline in number of individuals and habitat quality.<br/></span></span></span></p>
194150		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
194150		distribution	eng	<p><em>Diplazium esculentum</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">is pantropical in distribution and occurs widely and commonly throughout India, China, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam and Malesia.</span></p>
194150		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows in gregarious colonies in open marshy areas, stream banks and canals from sea level to 2,300 m (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003)</p>
194150		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It is a very common and widespread fern.</p>
194150		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The species is not under threat.</p>
194152		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Detailed surveys and monitoring of the population and habitats are urgently required. Only one of the four locations where this species is known from the literature was observed by V. Irudayaraj in 2007 in Kolli Hills. There is no current information about this species from any other location.</p>
194152		distribution	eng	<p><em>Lindsaea malabarica</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">is restricted to central and southern India with a discontinuous distribution. In southern India it is found in Silent Valley (Palakkad) in Kerala (Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 1992), Kolli Hills and Tirunelveli Hills in Tamil Nadu (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992) and in Madhya Pradesh (Dixit 1984).</span></span></p>
194152		habitat	eng	<p><em>Lindsaea malabarica</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">is found inside evergreen forests in fully shaded streams and banks at high altitude above 1,000 m (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">.1992).</span></span></p>
194152		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It is discontinuous in distribution, found as few individuals in each population (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).</p>
194152		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No <span class="apple-style-span">threats have been<span class="apple-style-span"> observed. However, there are only three or four subpopulations and there are some potential risks to the species in terms of future developmental activities in the species' known habitat habitat.</span></p>
194153		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
194153		distribution	eng	<p><em>Lygodium microphyllum</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em> </em>has a <span class="apple-converted-space">pantropical in distribution.&#160;In India it is widely distributed.</span></p>
194153		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Grows in open marshy or semi marshy areas and disturbed forests from plains to high altitudes as climber. It is thicket forming.</p>
194153		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Widely distributed and commonly occurring species.</p>
194153		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">The threats to the species are unknown.
194155		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or required for the species.
194155		distribution	eng	<p><em>Myriophyllum oliganthum</em> is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Cook 1996). Kerala,&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Byaba</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest in</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;Hassan in&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Karnataka</st1:city>,&#160;</st1:place>Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Cook 1996). <st1:place w:st="on">Maharashtra</st1:place> (Singh and Karthikeyan 2000), and Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah and Karuppusamy 2008).</p>
194155		habitat	eng	<p><em>Myriophyllum oliganthum</em> is an annual herb, grows in stagnant, permanent freshwater water, lakes, tanks, often gregarious (Cook 1996, B. Sadasivaiah pers. comm.).</p>
194155		population	eng	The species is common in Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah and Karuppusamy 2008) and <st1:place w:st="on">Maharashtra</st1:place> (Singh and Karthikeyan 2000), and may be common in other states as well.
194155		threats	eng	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>
194156		conservation	eng	<p>Studies on distribution, population status, ecology and threats to the species are essential. However this species can be easily propagated by vegetative runners (Joseph 1991), so it can be it can be introduced elsewhere.</p>
194156		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Nymphoides sivarajanii</em> is&#160;endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">India</st1:country-region> (<st1:place w:st="on" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kerala</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Malappuram District, Chettipadi) (Joseph&#160;1991). It is known only from its type locality.
194156		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial herb, which was fairly abundant in the flooded lowlands during rainy season (Joseph 1991).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
194156		population	eng	<p>This species was recorded as abundant from type locality during the description (Joseph 1991), however the species has not been recorded since its description.</p>
194156		threats	eng	<p>Most of the paddy fields in this area have been converted to coconut, areca nut and rubber plantations. It is a major threat for this species. Hence, there is ongoing habitat loss and degradation.<br/></p>
194157		conservation	eng	Monitoring&#160;of distribution, population status, ecology and threats to the species is essential.
194157		distribution	eng	<p><em>Nymphoides krishnakesara </em>is&#160;endemic to a single location in northern Kerala (Kannur District) (Cook 1996).</p>
194157		habitat	eng	<em>Nymphoides krishnakesara</em> is a annual herb, grows in shallow temporary pools on laterite, deeply rooted in soil (Cook 1996).
194157		population	eng	<p>This is a rare species. Known only from its type locality.&#160;</p>
194157		threats	eng	<p>Habitat modifications due to developmental activities, urbanization and mining are the major threats to this species.&#160;</p>
194158		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place or needed.
194158		distribution	eng	<p><em>Nymphoides hydrophylla</em> is reported from tropical Asia. In India it is reported throughout (Cook 1996).</p>
194158		habitat	eng	It is a annual sometimes perennial. Deeply rooted in soil. Shallow freshwater ponds and slowly flowing water (Cook 1996).
194158		population	eng	<p>Common species throughout the range.</p>
194158		threats	eng	No specific threats reported.
194159		conservation	eng	Research on population and ecology is essential. Monitoring&#160;of population is also required to&#160;conserve&#160;this species.
194159		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Nymphoides macrospermum</em>&#160;is endemic to coastal Kerala (Alwaye) (Vasudevan 1968). It is known only from its type locality.
194159		habitat	eng	<p>It is a annual herb, grows in paddy-fields at sea-level (Vasudevan 1968). Lagoons and slowly flowing streams (Cook 1996).</p>
194159		population	eng	<p>Recorded as abundant at the time of description. Not been recorded for last the four decades (Sivarajan and Joseph 1993).</p>
194159		threats	eng	<p>Habitat modifications due to developmental activities, urbanization, mining. In this area the paddy fields have been modified into urban areas.</p>
194160		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Monitoring of populations and habitats recommended.</p>
194160		distribution	eng	<p><em>Ophioglossum reticulatum</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em>is pantropical in distribution. In India it is found throughout.&#160;<strong></strong>It is known from Tamil Nadu (Kodayar, Kanikatti Hills, Marunduvalmalai, Alamparai Hills, Kolli Hills, Shevroy Hills; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, S. Jeeva pers. comm. 2011) and in Kerala (Chembra Hills in Wayanad, Kanjoor in Ernakulam, Ponmudi in Thiruvananthapuram, Thangacherry in Kollam; Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>et al</em>. 1988, Nayar and Geevarghese 1993).</span></p><p></p>
194160		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows fully exposed sandy soil along the river (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992) and in laterite areas during the wet season (K.P. Rajesh pers. comm. 2011).</p>
194160		population	eng	No population information for the species.
194160		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for the species.
194161		conservation	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Monitoring of populations and habitats is recommended.
194161		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>Ophioglossum lusitanicum</em>&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">is pantropical in distribution found in Africa and India. In India it occurs throughout.&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">In southern India it occurs in Kerala (Kozhikode, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Idukki; Nayar and Geevarghese 1993; Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em>. 1988; Nair and Ghosh 1973) and Tamil Nadu (Karayar Hills near Papanasam; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003).</span></span></p>
194161		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows fully exposed sandy soil along the river (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992) and in laterite areas during the wet season (K.P. Rajesh pers. comm.).</p>
194161		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no information about population of this species globally. In southern India it is very rare in Kerala and Tamil Nadu limited to laterite habitats.</p>
194161		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">Habitat destruction, reclamation of wetlands, laterite mining are the major threats to the species in southern India.
194163		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
194163		distribution	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span"><em>Ophioglossum nudicaule</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">occurs pantropical intermingled with<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>O. gramineum</em><span class="apple-style-span">. In India, it occurs throughout.&#160;In southern India it occurs in Kerala (Kozhikode, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Idukki; Nair and Ghosh 1973, <span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-style-span">Nair&#160;<em>et al</em>. 1988, </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-style-span">Nayar and Geevarghese 1993</span><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-style-span">) and Tamil Nadu (Karayar Hills near Papanasam; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992, 2003).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
194163		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows fully exposed sandy soil along the river (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992) and in laterite areas during the wet season (K.P. Rajesh pers. comm. 2011).</p>
194163		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no information about population of this species.</p>
194163		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No threats have been reported for this species.</p>
194164		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Monitoring of populations and habitats recommended.</p>
194164		distribution	eng	<p><em>Osmunda huegeliana</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em>is endemic to India occurring in central and southern India. The northeastern report is in error (Chandra<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2008).&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">In Tamil Nadu it is found in the Anamalai Hills and Palni Hills (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992), and Kerala in Kakkayam (Kozhikode), Munnar and Devikolam (Idukki), Ponmudi (Thirvanathapuram), Chandanathode (Wayanad), Vagamon (Kottayam), Silent Valley (Pallakad), Tirunelli and Vythiri (Wayanad), Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (Kannur) (Nair<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al</em><span class="apple-style-span">. 1992, Nayar and Geevarghese 1993, K.P. Rajesh pers. obs.).</span></span></span></p><p> </p>
194164		habitat	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">It grows gregariously on rocky banks of streams and rivers and exposed marshy areas at high altitude, above 700 m.
194164		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The populations are very patchy and few.</p>
194164		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There are no threats to the species.</p>
194165		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No conservation actions are known or needed for this species.</p>
194165		distribution	eng	<p><em>Pseudophegopteris pyrrhorhachis</em><span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">is pantropical in distribution, commonly occurring in India.</span></p>
194165		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It is common along streams, stream banks and marshes in high altitudes (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).</p>
194165		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There is no information about population of this species. But it is a common species in India.</p>
194165		threats	eng	<span class="apple-style-span">There are no threats to the species.
194167		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place. Detailed surveys and monitoring of habitats and population trends are essential.
194167		distribution	eng	This species is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Eastern Himalayas (Pullaiah et al. 2003). In Tamil Nadu it is reported from Palni, Anamalai and Tirunelveli hills (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992). It is also reported from Sri Lanka (www.zipcodezoo.com).
194167		habitat	eng	It is a fern growing on partially exposed stream banks, wet places of roadsides and clearings between 800 to 2300m (Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992).
194167		population	eng	It is common in Palni hills, occasional in Anamalai hills and rare in Tirunelveli hills (V. Irudayaraj pers. comm.).
194167		threats	eng	Pilgrimage tourism is a major threat to the hill areas of Palni, Anamalai and Tirunelveli hills. Pollution (vehicular, plastics and fecal contamination in river eco system in the Thamiraparani River). In Tirunelveli forest area the species is under severe threat by deforestation and recreational activities.
194168		conservation	eng	<p>Studies on distribution, population status, ecology and threats, especially from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>, are required.</p>
194168		distribution	eng	<em>&#160;Xyris capensis</em> is south and southe<st1:city w:st="on">ast Asia</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, <st1:place w:st="on">and South America</st1:place>. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Assam</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Meghalaya (Cook 1996) and Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Gamble 1931). It is restricted to high elevations at an altitude of 1,600-2,000 m (eFlora of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>).
194168		habitat	eng	<p>It is a perennial herb, grows in open and wet places in hills (Cook 1996) and swamps (eFlora of China).</p>
194168		population	eng	The species is probably rare in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> and its global population status is unknown even though it is widespread.
194168		threats	eng	The threats to the species are unknown.
194169		conservation	eng	No conservation action in place or needed.
194169		distribution	eng	<p><em>Xyris pauciflora</em> is reported from&#160;South and South <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">East   Asia</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">and Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, <st1:place w:st="on">West  Bengal</st1:place> (Cook 1996), and Madhya Pradesh (Singh <em>et al</em>. 2001).</p>
194169		habitat	eng	It is a annual herb, grows in open wet places, swamps, pools and rice fields (Cook 1996).<p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
194169		population	eng	This is a common and abundant species.
194169		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
194170		conservation	eng	Studies on distribution, population status, ecology and threats, especially from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, are required
194170		distribution	eng	<em>Xyris complanata</em> is reported from&#160;South and South <st1:place w:st="on" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"><st1:city w:st="on">East Asia</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Cook 1996). In <st1:country-region w:st="on" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> reported only from Kerala (Malabar, Wynad at Muthanga and Quolone) (Gamble 1928, 1934).
194170		habitat	eng	It is a perennial herb, &#160;grows in marshes, moist&#160;depressions, drainage, ditches along streams and other wet places (Cook 1996).
194170		population	eng	<p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place> the species is restricted to Kerala. It was previously reported by Gamble (1928) but the exact population density in Kerala and in remaining global distribution is not known.&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
194170		threats	eng	No threats have been reported for the species.
194171		conservation	eng	No conservation actions in place or needed.
194171		distribution	eng	<em>Xyris indica</em> is distributed in south and southeast Asia and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In India, Assam, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Manipur, Sikkim (Cook 1996).
194171		habitat	eng	<p><em>Xyris indica</em> is a perennial herb, grows in swamps, moist localities, streams, pools, ponds, rice fields (Cook 1996).</p>
194171		population	eng	This is a common and abundant species.
194171		threats	eng	No known threats to the species.
194193		conservation	eng	<p>Detailed surveys and monitoring of populations and habitats needed.</p>
194193		distribution	eng	<p><em>Oreogrammitis pilifera</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">is endemic to southern India (Chandra<span class="apple-converted-space">&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><em>et al.</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">2008) restricted to southernmost Western Ghats in Tirunelveli Hills (Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu), Ponmudi Hills (Thiruvananthapuram), Eravikulam National Park, Munnar, Periyar Tiger Reserve (Idukki), Chembra Hills, Ambalappara (Wayanad).</span></span></span></p>
194193		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It grows along partially exposed rocks in streams, rarely epiphytic.</p>
194193		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">It is a very rare lithophyte or epiphyte along the stream.</p>
194193		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">There are no known threats to the species.</p>
194194		conservation	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">A thorough survey is needed to establish the existence of this species.</p>
194194		distribution	eng	<p><em>Oreogrammitis austroindica</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><em>&#160;</em><span class="apple-style-span">was collected in the mid 1800s, described by Parris based on Beddome's collection, and has since not been found. It was described from Nilgiri Hills although the exact locality is not provided. Subsequent surveys in the area have not succeeded in recording this species (C. Manju pers. comm. 2011).</span></p>
194194		habitat	eng	<p>Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.</p>
194194		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No populations have been recorded. The only known specimen is known from an an herbarium collection.</p>
194194		threats	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Nilgiris underwent severe destruction of habitat in the 1800s when primary forests were converted to tea and eucalyptus plantations. It is likely that the species might have been eliminated during that period (C. Manju pers. comm. 2011).</p>
194247		conservation	eng	Research is required for this species.
194247		distribution	eng	The species was described from the Nam Luang in Sop Lao, Myanmar and is known from the Mekong River drainage in Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR. It is not known from the lower Salween River drainage, as erroneously indicated in the literature (e.g. Ferraris 2007).
194247		habitat	eng	This species inhabits swift-flowing stretches of rivers.
194247		population	eng	The species is relatively common in the middle stretches of the Mekong, and is almost always misidentified in the literature as<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">G. macromaculatus.</span>
194247		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information   on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential   threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.
194258		conservation	eng	Chatham Bay protects the most important watershed on Union Island, and measures are needed to preserve and manage the forest to ensure the integrity of both this and the area’s biodiversity, including the Union Island gecko<em></em>. This species' habitat has been identified by local non-government conservation organizations (NGOs) and the national Forestry Department as a site of conservation importance, but these groups currently lack the means to enforce its protection. In the long term, this site should probably be preserved as a national protected area.&#160; As the minimum measures necessary to safeguard this species and its habitat in the immediate future, resort construction should be confined to the beach and road construction diverted to lower elevations where it will not threaten critical habitat for this species (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). Control of feral mammals should be implemented to mitigate their adverse impacts. Further surveys are needed to establish whether this species occurs in forested areas elsewhere in the Grenadines, and additional research is needed into the distribution, population status, life history, trade in and threats to this species on Union Island. The Union Island gecko is not protected by any international legislation, and CITES listing is recommended to prevent potential commercial exploitation from threatening this species.
194258		distribution	eng	The species is currently known only from the slopes above Chatham Bay on Union Island, St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Powell and Henderson 2005, Daudin and de Silva 2007, Henderson and Powell 2009, Quinn <em>et al.</em> 2010). Animals have been found at elevations up to 300 m asl (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011); although geckos have been recorded close to sea level, they are most abundant at higher elevations. Searches on other islands have to date revealed no evidence of other populations. The possibility exists that the species may occur in suitable forested habitat on nearby islands, the most likely of which are Carriacou and Grenada (although the Grenada fauna is relatively well-known). The extent of occurrence on Union Island is approximately 1 km²<sup></sup>, the area of Chatham Bay. The area of occupancy, based on the amount of suitable habitat considered capable of supporting this species on the island, is 0.523 km²<sup></sup>.
194258		habitat	eng	This species occupies one of the few relatively intact secondary forests in the Grenadine chain, which is characterized by tropical dry forest with rocky areas (Powell and Henderson 2005, Henderson and Powell 2009, Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). Some introduced vegetation, including annual grasses along the road as well as mango trees, is present. These miniature geckos reach their highest population densities in rocky outcroppings of large boulders, where they are often associated with small crevices (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). Individuals recorded away from these areas have typically been found in association with such insulating cover as leaf litter, rock piles and other surface debris, and termite mounds (Powell and Henderson 2005, Henderson and Powell 2009, Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011).<br/><br/>Animals are most active during early morning, when temperatures under cover are higher than ambient air temperatures (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). These small geckos are exceedingly vulnerable to desiccation (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011), and consequently rely on mesic habitats with moisture-retaining cover and shade. On Union Island, suitable conditions are confined to the slopes above Chatham Bay.
194258		population	eng	This species has an estimated total population of 6,562 individuals (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). This estimate is derived from extrapolating the sampled density of lizards in Chatham Bay (0.0087-0.0218 individuals/m²) to the available area of suitable leaf litter and rocky outcrop habitat (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). This approach may overestimate the actual population size if some of this area is unoccupied. The population is currently assumed to be stable, as there has been little or no impact on this species' critical habitat since a road was constructed in 2005, but there is no ongoing monitoring and the impacts on the population of other threats, especially predation by introduced cats, are unknown. The population is likely to be highly susceptible to any future loss of habitat.
194258		threats	eng	This species occurs in a small area of forest that was protected from agricultural development by its historical inaccessibility. The construction of a road in 2005 has, however, opened up this area, which is at imminent risk from further development. There are plans to extend the road through the heart of the Chatham Bay site, which would destroy much of the rock and litter cover that represents critical habitat for this gecko. Land clearance along the slope for housing and agriculture is already underway in the northeast of the bay (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011), and the construction and upslope expansion of tourist facilities threatens to place additional pressure on this area. <em></em>The introduction of exotic mammals, particularly feral goats which destroy understorey vegetation and cats which are known to prey on small reptiles, also represents a severe threat to this species (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). The import of building materials to the area from South America also has the potential to introduce other exotic animals, such as snakes, which may prey on the lizards. Only one instance of illegal collection for the pet trade has been documented, but additional pressure on this rare and attractive gecko from commercial exploitation could have a dramatic effect on the population.
194266		conservation	eng	The subpopulation in Bequia is largely restricted to steep slopes that are not currently included in any development plans, but subpopulations on other islands are primarily coastal and exceedingly vulnerable to development. Chatham Bay protects the most important watershed on Union Island, and measures are needed to protect and manage the forest to ensure the integrity of both this and the area’s biodiversity, including the Grenadines sphaero. In the long term, this site should probably be preserved as a national protected area.&#160; As the minimum measures necessary to safeguard this species and its habitat on Union in the immediate future, resort construction should be confined to the beach and road construction diverted to lower elevations where it will not threaten critical habitat for this species (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). On all islands, further development should be regulated to preserve the remaining forested areas. Control of feral mammals should be implemented where they occur to mitigate their adverse impacts. Further surveys are needed to establish whether this species occurs in dry coastal and upland forested areas elsewhere in the Grenadines, and additional research is needed into the distribution, population status, life history and threats to this species on Union Island.
194266		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species was known only from the island of Bequia (Lazell 1994), but it is now known from Mustique (Powell and Henderson 2006), Petit Nevis and Mayreau (Daudin and de Silva 2007, Hite <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Henderson and Powell 2009), Union Island (Quinn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Rivera Rodríguez <em>et al.</em> 2011, Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), and Carriacou (D.P. Scantlebury and J. Boone, unpubl. data). All are within the Grenadine Archipelago, and all but Carriacou are part of St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Carriacou is one of the Grenada Grenadines). Although searches have been conducted on other islands, they have to date revealed no evidence of other populations. The possibility exists that undiscovered populations might occur on other Grenadine islands or even Grenada (although the Grenada fauna is relatively well known). All known sites are between 0 and 300 m in elevation (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011).<br/><br/>If no populations exist on other islands, the extent of occurrence (EOO) (taken here to exclude the sea and terrestrial areas unable to support the population) is 26.74 km²<sup></sup>. Based on the extent of suitable forest habitat within the EOO, the area of occupancy is considered to be 7.7 km²<sup></sup>.
194266		habitat	eng	This species inhabits tropical dry forests with rocky areas, and most known sites are on or close to the coast. The forest where the species is known to occur on Union Island does contain some introduced vegetation (mango trees, annual grasses along the road), but remains one of the very few relatively intact secondary dry forests on the island and in the entire Grenadine chain.<br/><br/>These minute geckos apparently reach their greatest population densities in the deep litter of coastal <span style="font-style: italic;">Coccoloba uvifera</span> forests on Mustique, and in leaf litter and associated surface debris like small rocks, logs, and termite mounds on Union (Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Geckos appear to be active in litter throughout the day (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Rivera Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), but these geckos are exceedingly vulnerable to desiccation (Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Consequently, suitably mesic habitats must include moisture-retaining cover and shade. On Union Island, these conditions exist only on the slopes above Chatham Bay, the preservation of which should be of the highest conservation priority.
194266		population	eng	Little is known about subpopulations on Bequia, Petit Nevis, Mayreau, and Carriacou, which are documented by only a few voucher specimens. Animals have been reported from the first three of these islands as recently as 2008 (M. de Silva pers. comm. to R. Powell); the Carriacou and Union populations were discovered in 2010. On Mustique, these geckos are relatively abundant in the leaf litter of coastal sea grape (<em>Coccoloba uvifera</em>) scrub (Daudin and de Silva 2007, Henderson and Powell 2009). Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) estimated the size of the population on the slopes above Chatham Bay on Union Island as 3,170 individuals of all age classes. However, this is a very crude estimate based on a small number of samples extrapolated to the total area of apparently suitable habitat. The subpopulation on Union is currently assumed to be stable, as there has been  little or no impact on this species' critical habitat since a road was  constructed in 2005, but there is no ongoing monitoring and the impacts  on this subpopulation of other threats, especially predation by introduced  cats, are unknown. No information is available on population trends on other islands where this species occurs, but its habitat is susceptible to a number of threats that are likely to be exacerbated in the immediate future.
194266		threats	eng	Historical agricultural clearance has destroyed much of the forest throughout the Grenadines. The small extent of remaining suitable habitat is under severe and imminent threat, specifically from exotic mammals and development. Due to the stochastic nature of colonization events it is very unlikely that, should this species become extinct on one or more islands, those subpopulations can be naturally re-established. Developments in the Grenadines attributable to the burgeoning tourist trade, and facilities catering to both yacht- and land-based visitors, are increasing in number and size throughout the region. Coastal areas are increasingly vulnerable to construction or expansion of new resorts, restaurants, anchorages, and the necessary infrastructure (e.g., roads and housing for service personnel) to support them. This represents an imminent danger to the subpopulations on Bequia, Mustique and Mayreau, all of which appear to be confined to coastal areas. Mustique is characterized by upscale development which is carefully controlled by the owners, which may mitigate the more severe impacts of development on this subpopulation; however habitat clearance resulting from routine maintenance may represent a threat even here.<br/><br/>The remaining subpopulations occur in upland areas less likely to be impacted by coastal development, and Petit Nevis remains completely undeveloped. On Union Island, however, this species occurs only in forested areas on the slopes above Chatham Bay. This area has been opened up by the construction of a road in 2005, putting it at imminent risk from further development. There are plans to extend the road through the heart of the Chatham Bay site, which would destroy much of the rock and litter cover that represents critical habitat for this gecko. Land clearance along the slope for housing and agriculture is already underway, and the construction and expansion of tourist facilities threatens to place additional pressure on this area. <br/><br/> On all islands, uncontrolled browsing by feral goats is destroying the understorey vegetation that stabilizes the substrate. Feral cats,  which are proficient predators of small reptiles, are encountered  frequently. Both groups of animals represent severe threats to this species and need to be controlled. In the long term, rising sea levels from climate change may also affect the low-lying islands where this species occurs.
194268		conservation	eng	Chatham Bay protects the most important watershed on Union Island, and  measures are needed to preserve and manage the forest to ensure the  integrity of both this and the area’s biodiversity, including the Grenada Bank Blindsnake<em></em>. This species' habitat on the island has been identified by  local NGOs and the national Forestry Department as a site of  conservation importance, but these groups currently lack the means to  enforce its protection. In the long term, this site should probably be  preserved as a national protected area. As the minimum measures  necessary to safeguard this species and its habitat in the immediate  future, resort construction should be confined to the beach and road  construction diverted to lower elevations where it will not threaten  critical habitat for this species (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011).  Control of feral mammals should be implemented to mitigate their adverse  impacts. <br/><br/>Research is needed as a matter of urgency to establish whether this species survives on Grenada, and if so whether it occurs more widely than historical records suggest. Other stands of forest and forest/mixed plantation agriculture on Grenada and in the  Grenadines should continue to be surveyed for the presence of these  snakes (Johnson 1988, Henderson and Powell 2009). Research is needed into the population size, distribution and natural history of the Union Island population, and into this snake's sensitivity to threatening processes. Unless new data reveals that this snake is more abundant and widely-distributed than is currently recognized, it should be the target of species-specific legislation aimed at its preservation.
194268		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species was known only from two specimens, collected at St. David Parish and St. Andrew Parish, Grenada in 1968. These sites are less than 20 km apart. The snake was rediscovered in 2010 on the slopes above Chatham Bay on Union Island, St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Quinn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Rivera Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Although searches have been conducted on other islands, they have to date revealed no evidence of other populations. The species has been reported from sea level to 179 m asl.<br/><br/>It is unlikely that more than 50% of the land area on Grenada supports suitable habitat for this species, and it is expected to be restricted to the vicinity of Chatham Bay on Union Island. Based on this, the species has an estimated maximum extent of occurrence of 156 km²<sup></sup>. Its area of occupancy is unknown, although the extent of habitat believed to be capable of supporting this species in Chatham Bay is as small as 0.523 km²<sup></sup> (see Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
194268		habitat	eng	On Union Island these minute snakes inhabit leaf litter in subtropical/tropical dry forests with rocky areas (Rivera Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, Bentz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011); some introduced vegetation (mango trees, annual grasses along the road) is present but this area remains one of the very few relatively intact secondary dry forests on the island and in the entire Grenadine chain. The two individuals from Grenada were found in areas then characterized by moist lowland and hillside forest, and in mixed plantations (cacao, mango and nutmeg) (Wallach 2000, Yorks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Thomas 1974). While the known habitats are varied and the species exhibits some ability to tolerate agricultural disturbance, all recorded individuals have been found in shaded habitats with trees and thick leaf litter. In captive experiments individuals preferentially burrowed into the  substrate to avoid extremes of temperature, suggesting that they are reliant on a deep litter layer. When near the surface, they have been found beneath moisture-retaining cover objects such as rocks and a termite mound (Rivera Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2011, Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011). In common with other leaf litter-associated blindsnakes, this species is unlikely to survive in unshaded, deforested or intensively-cultivated areas where soil is exposed.
194268		population	eng	This species is known from two specimens collected from Grenada in 1968, and from five individuals recently found on Union Island (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011, Rivera Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2011). The status of these subpopulations is difficult to assess as a result of the small number of captures, reflecting the difficulty of finding fossorial blindsnakes. Extensive surveys and interviews with local inhabitants targeted at relocating this species in Grenada have been unsuccessful. Due to high rates of deforestation on this island and pressure on and between the two known sites where this species was known to occur, the Grenada subpopulation is at least severely fragmented, and is possibly extinct.
194268		threats	eng	By 2001, 70% of Grenada's forests had been lost, and both sites where this species was found are subject to intensive human use. The shaded habitats that existed at these localities when the species was recorded were destroyed by Hurricane Ivan in 2004, and have since been converted to cropland. When this species was discovered, an airport and active archaeological  digs were in operation at one site, and while these activities have  since ceased the associated infrastructure provides ready access to this  area, facilitating human settlement. The creation and expansion of villages and their associated agriculture have increased dramatically since the 1990s. Although orchards in some parts of its presumed Grenada range may provide refuges for this species, any surviving subpopulations in this part of Grenada will be isolated from one another by intensively-farmed cropland. The vulnerability of these snakes to agricultural effluents (herbicides and pesticides) is unknown.<br/><br/>On Union Island, this species occurs in a small area of forest that was protected from  agricultural development by its historical inaccessibility. The  construction of a road in 2005 has, however, opened up this area, which  is at imminent risk from further development. There are plans to extend  the road through the heart of the Chatham Bay site, which would destroy  much of the litter cover that represents critical habitat for  this snake. Land clearance along the slope for housing and agriculture  is already underway in the northeast of the bay (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011), and the construction and upslope expansion of tourist  facilities threatens to place additional pressure on this area. <em></em>The  introduction of exotic mammals, particularly feral goats which destroy  understorey vegetation and cats which are known to prey on small  reptiles, also represents a severe threat to this species (Bentz <em>et al.</em> 2011).
194300		conservation	eng	<p>Given the three Fiordland local units are subject to different types and levels of impact, they require different management interventions specific to each location.</p>  <p>The Doubtful-Thompson local unit shows behavioural and demographic evidence of impacts associated with interactions with tour boats and freshwater discharge from a hydroelectric power station (Lusseau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b). These impacts are present throughout much of the range of this local unit. Reducing and effectively regulating freshwater discharge and tour boat activity, especially at times and in locations where the local unit is most susceptible to disturbance would help to reduce these impacts (Lusseau and Higham 2004, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b).</p>  <p>The Northern Fiordland local unit is subject to intense tour boat activity in part of its range (Milford Sound) and apparently responds by vacating the fiord over the hours of the day and seasons of the year when tour boat activity reaches its peak (Lusseau 2005). Minimising tour boat interactions in Milford Sound in combination with an assessment of impacts outside the fiord would help to reduce risk for this local unit.</p>  <p>The Dusky-Breaksea local unit is presently exposed to fewer tour boat interactions than neighbouring local units, however this is changing. Increasing tourism activity (Lusseau and Higham 2004), coupled with possible historical effects of prey depletion (Beentjes and Carbines 2005), suggest that this local unit may be vulnerable in the future. Precautionary management of tourism and further assessment to ascertain any additional sources of impact are appropriate actions for this local unit. </p>  <p>While is it important to identify the issues faced by each local unit, it is also vital to consider the cumulative effects of these impacts and the resulting consequences for each local unit. Potential impacts have the potential to interact, with effects that may either mitigate or exacerbate overall impacts. This has two key consequences for subpopulation management: increasing ambiguity as to which particular activities are impacting on the subpopulation and potentially increasing the risk to the subpopulation (Thompson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Management of the Fiordland bottlenose dolphins should consider all potential sources of impact when deciding on the appropriate management regime for each separate impact. A comprehensive management approach that addresses the conservation requirements of each individual local unit should provide the best chance of ensuring the survival of the Fiordland bottlenose dolphins.</p>
194300		distribution	eng	<p>The Fiordland Bottlenose Dolphins comprise a regional subpopulation inhabiting the coastal fiords and bays of Fiordland, a mountainous, rainforest-covered World Heritage Area in the southwest of New Zealand’s South Island. The subpopulation is located at the southern limit of the species’ worldwide range and is genetically and geographically isolated from other coastal New Zealand subpopulations (Tezanos-Pinto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The nearest subpopulation seen regularly in coastal waters is located more than 500 km north in the Marlborough Sounds. Sightings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tursiops </span>in other South Island areas are uncommon and sporadic.</p>  <p>The subpopulation is subdivided into three discrete local units: one local unit ranges among the smaller fiords and bays of the northern Fiordland coast while two local units reside within the complexes formed by Doubtful and Thompson Sounds, and Dusky and Breaksea Sounds (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Bräger and Schneider 1998, Lusseau and Slooten 2002, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a). These local units are largely isolated from each other, but there have been records of exchange between units (Lusseau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), suggesting the units require management as a collective subpopulation.</p>  <p>The Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit has exhibited a consistent, high degree of site fidelity since 1990 (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b). The Dusky-Breaksea Sound local unit has also shown a high degree of site fidelity in the three years of study to date (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a). Members of the Northern Fiordland local unit have a larger distribution, having been photo-identified in Milford Sound, Sutherland Sound, Bligh Sound, George Sound, Caswell Sound, Charles Sound and Lake McKerrow, which connects to the sea (Bräger and Schneider 1998, Lusseau and Slooten 2002, Lusseau 2003b, Boisseau 2004, Currey 2006, Currey 2009).</p>  <p>The minimum extent of occurrence (EOO) of the subpopulation is approximately 450 km², representing the sum of the established home ranges of the local units. A reasonable upper estimate of EOO for the subpopulation is approximately 2,400 km², encompassing the inshore waters of Fiordland and a coastal range that extends 325 km from Puysegur Point, just south of Dusky Sound to Jackson Bay, north of Lake McKerrow and offshore for 5 km.<br/></p>
194300		habitat	eng	<p>The Fiordland bottlenose dolphins exhibit many characteristics that appear to reflect constraints imposed by their cold-water habitat. They are physically larger than coastal conspecifics found in warmer waters, with rotund bodies and comparatively shorter flukes, fins and rostrum (Schneider 1999). The dolphins are found in large groups, sometimes comprising an entire local unit, and show strong, long-lasting associations within and between sexes (Lusseau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), unlike the&#160; fission-fusion societies typical of many other bottlenose dolphin subpopulations (Connor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).</p>  <p>The Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit’s habitat use changes seasonally in apparent response to water temperature (Schneider 1999). Water temperatures in the inner parts of the fiords are cooler than open coast in winter and warmer in summer. In winter, the dolphins avoid the inner regions of the fiord, remaining closer to the open ocean, while in summer the dolphins are found in the inner sections of the fiord where they calve in the warmer waters (Schneider 1999, Haase and Schneider 2001). Seasonal patterns in bottlenose dolphin distribution relating to water temperature are unusual and are typically only observed in subpopulations in cool-temperate latitudes (e.g. Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Ingram and Rogan 2002).</p>  <p>Stable isotope studies of exfoliated skin show that the dolphins are reliant on local productivity, feeding primarily on sub-tidal reef fish (Lusseau and Wing 2006). The dolphins have been shown to dive beyond 200m in the deep waters (max depth 434m) of Doubtful Sound (Schneider 1999).</p>
194300		population	eng	<p>In 2008, the Fiordland subpopulation was estimated to contain 205 individuals (95% CI: 192–219) of which 123 (95% CI: 108–140) were estimated to be mature (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). These estimates were derived using abundance estimates for the three discrete local units that comprise the Fiordland subpopulation’s range:</p><ul><li>Northern Fiordland local unit - 47 individuals (95% CI: 35–63) in 2003 (Boisseau 2003).</li></ul>  <ul><li>Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit - 56 individuals (95% CI: 55–57) in 2008 (Currey & Rowe 2008);</li></ul>  <ul><li>Dusky-Breaksea Sound local unit - 102 individuals (95% CI: 100–104) in 2008 (Currey et al. 2008a);</li></ul>  <p>All estimates were produced using similar capture-recapture analyses of photo-identification data (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In the case of Doubtful-Thompson Sound and Dusky-Breaksea Sound, capture-recapture analyses were complemented with a complete photo-identification census, yielding identical abundance estimates. A stochastic simulation approach was employed to account for temporal variability since abundance was last directly estimated in Northern Fiordland (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The number of mature individuals was estimated via simulation using the abundance estimate for Fiordland and an estimate that the 60% of the subpopulation was mature (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p><p>  </p><p>  </p><p>Dolphin abundance has declined by an estimated 34–39% over the 12 years to 2007 for the Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The key demographic cause of this decline was a reduction in the survival of calves in the first year of life since 2002 (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b), coupled with a reduction in recruitment that reflected both reduced calf survival (less than one year old) and a separate reduction in juvenile survival (1–3 years old) prior to 2002 (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> submitted). The present level of calf survival (0.3750; 95% CI: 0.2080–0.5782) is thought to be the lowest recorded for Bottlenose Dolphins. Further, the reduction in calf survival since 2002 has resulted in a more than 100-fold increase in the risk of extirpation in Doubtful Sound over the next 50 years (from 0.3% of model runs to 41.5%; Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b).</p>  <p>Population trends have been estimated for the Fiordland subpopulation via population viability analysis (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Stochastic Leslie matrix models were constructed using Fiordland-specific demographic rates (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b), accounting for parameter uncertainty as well as demographic and environmental stochasticity (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The results of the models were pooled across four different scenarios that reflected differing levels of calf survival and movement across the local units (see Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009 for details). More than 80% of model runs resulted in subpopulation decline over one generation (88.4%), three generations (84.6%) or five generations (83.2%).</p>      <p>On average, the Fiordland subpopulation was projected to decline by 31.4% over one generation, with the majority of model runs (67.6%) exceeding a decline of 25% (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The Fiordland subpopulation was projected to decline by an average of up to 81.2% over three generations, depending on the level of movement between local units and survival rates of calves and sub-adults (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Across all scenarios, 36.2% of model runs exceeded a decline of 80% and the most frequent model outcomes were within this range (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The average risk of extinction for the Fiordland Bottlenose Dolphin subpopulation was estimated at 10.1% over five generations, and as much as 22.5% depending on the level of movement between local units and survival rates of calves and sub-adults (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/></p>  <p></p>
194300		threats	eng	<p>The Fiordland Bottlenose Dolphins are known to be exposed to: <br/></p><ol><li>disturbance and boat strikes associated with boat-based tourism in Milford and Doubtful Sounds; <br/></li><li>increased freshwater discharge into Doubtful Sound from hydroelectric power generation;</li><li>reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing throughout Fiordland.<br/></li></ol><p>Given that the effects of these threats are largely indirect, their influence on population trends is technically challenging to quantify. However, the cumulative impact appears likely to result in ongoing population declines within the Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b, Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p>  <p>Tourism in Fiordland is increasing (Lusseau and Higham 2004). Tour boats have been demonstrated to have direct impacts on the behaviour of dolphins in Doubtful Sound, increasing the dive interval of both males and females (Lusseau 2003c), as well as disturbing resting and socialising behaviours, resulting in increased travelling (Lusseau 2003a). Tourism also appears to have influenced the residency patterns of the northern Fiordland Bottlenose Dolphins, with the dolphins avoiding the fiord entirely when tour boat activity is at its peak (Lusseau 2005). In both Milford and Doubtful Sounds, dolphins have been observed with scars from boat strikes and in one case, a calf was killed by a boat strike (Lusseau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Boisseau 2003). This evidence led the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee to issue a consensus statement that whale watching and vessel traffic have a significant impact on this subpopulation (IWC Scientific Committee report 2006).</p>  <p>In response to these observed impacts, in 2006 a voluntary code of practice was established for tour boats in Milford and Doubtful Sounds to improve boat behaviour around the dolphins. This was formalised into a Code of Management for Doubtful Sound in January 2008, including Dolphin Protection Zones (DPZs) in which vessel activity is limited. These zones extend 200m out from shore in regions of the fiord that include some of the local unit’s most frequently used habitats (Lusseau and Higham 2004, Lusseau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The Code of Management is voluntary at present, and of unknown efficacy. Non-compliance with the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 (i.e. excessive boat speeds, unsafe approaches to dolphin groups) has been frequently observed in Fiordland in the past (Lusseau 2003a, 2006), and voluntary codes of practice appear to be of limited effectiveness in other locations (Scarpaci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Scarpaci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Whitt and Read 2006, Wiley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Given these factors, the negative effects of boat-based tourism are therefore likely to continue in Milford and Doubtful Sounds.</p>  <p>The isolation of the Dusky-Breaksea local unit ensures that these dolphins are presently exposed to fewer tour boat interactions than neighbouring local units. However, as tourism activities have increased in the most accessible parts of Fiordland, they have begun to spill over to more remote regions, such as Dusky Sound. Large vessels and helicopters now regularly visit for multi-day hunting, fishing and sightseeing trips. The impacts (if any) from these activities are presently unclear, although the effects observed elsewhere in Fiordland suggest impacts are likely to occur, or may already be occurring.</p>  <p>In addition to tour boat activity, the Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit is subject to the effects of freshwater discharge from the Lake  Manapouri hydroelectric power station tailrace. The tailrace discharge into Deep Cove, Doubtful Sound, is c. 450-510 cumecs (cubic metres per second), two to three times larger than the mean inflow from precipitation, and results in a distinct low-salinity layer significantly deeper than found in neighbouring fiords (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Gibbs 2001). The low-salinity layer shows significant seasonal temperature variation, from 14–16°C in summer to 8-10°C in winter at a depth of 1 m (and occasionally freezing over in winter), while the underlying marine waters maintain a relatively constant 13–15°C year round at 25 m (Gibbs 2001, Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). </p>  <p>A marked reduction in calf survival observed in the Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit, from 0.8621 (95% CI: 0.6851–0.9473) to 0.3750 (95% CI: 0.2080–0.5782) coincided with the opening of a second tailrace tunnel for the hydroelectric power station (Currey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008b). That the second tailrace increased the mean discharge only marginally (9.7% greater between 2002 and 2007 than between 1969 and 2001, but only 2.7% greater than between 1972 and 2001; Merdian Energy unpublished data) has been used to argue that it was not the cause (DuFresne and Mattlin 2009). Circumstantial evidence suggesting an impact of increased freshwater input includes four times higher severity of skin lesions in the Doubtful-Thompson Sound local unit than in the Dusky-Breaksea Sound local unit, smaller calves and more restricted calving season in Doubtful-Thompson Sound, and a less clear seasonal pattern of habitat use in Dusky-Breaksea sound (Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), all of which are consistent with increased exposure to cold fresh water. The additional freshwater has had other ecological effects, altering sub-tidal community structure within Doubtful Sound, resulting in declines in species richness (Boyle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Tallis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Rutger and Wing 2006).</p>  <p>Historical fishing practices have also affected Fiordland’s marine environment, resulting in significant declines in fish abundance throughout Fiordland (Beentjes and Carbines 2005). This was one of the main reasons for the establishment of eight new marine reserves in Fiordland in 2005, with two of the new reserves created in Doubtful-Thompson Sound and a further two in Dusky-Breaksea Sound. The cumulative effects of historical fishing practices and altered community structure on the resident dolphins may be significant, given that they rely on productivity from within the fiord (Lusseau and Wing 2006).</p>  <p>In addition to anthropogenic threats, the Fiordland Bottlenose Dolphins face the inherent risks associated with small subpopulation size and residing at the edge of the species’ range. Small subpopulation size increases vulnerability to stochastic effects such as demographic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity, catastrophes and genetic deterioration (Caughley 1994, Hedrick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), all of which can result in increased extinction risk, even in the absence of further human impacts. Residing at the southern-most limit of the species’ range may also have significant implications for subpopulation viability. If the habitat is marginal, it may result in increased energetic costs – a factor that may help to explain the apparent energy limitation observed among females in Doubtful-Thompson Sound (Lusseau 2003c). Further, there is the risk that in time, the subpopulation’s existing range may be rendered suboptimal by climate change.</p>
194310		conservation	eng	The community of San Mateo Ixtatán owns a patch of forest where this species is found, and community authorities are currently interested in the preservation of this area (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. February 2011).An ongoing project focusing on the threatened amphibians of Guatemala  spearheaded by Toledo Zoo and University of California at Berkeley, with  the participation of&#160; the  Museum of Natural History of the University  of San Carlos, is recording temperatures at the site near San Mateo, to assess temperature fluctuations and variation (C.  Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011).&#160; The Museum and non-governmental organization FUNDAECO are seeking to promote the inclusion of the site into a System of Conservation Areas in the north of Huehuetenango (C. Vásquez- Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). Preservation of the only known remaining habitat is a priority for this salamander's conservation. Further research is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.
194310		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from three sites (separated by 7.5 km) in the northern region of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, ranging from 2,652 to 2,799 m asl (Campbell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, T. Papenfuss pers. comm. February 2011, S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011), although the elevational limits are not known with accuracy (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). While its range is almost certainly larger than that covered by the known sites, given reasonably large areas of forest in the vicinity of the type locality, it is unlikely to occur outside a small portion of the northern Sierra de los Cuchumatanes (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). The known sites are in a straight line along a road, and are at similar elevations in similar habitats, presumably connected by continuous forest in the past, although no longer connected (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). Its extent of occurrence, though unquantified, is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><strong></strong>
194310		habitat	eng	It occurs on mountain slopes covered by small remnants of primarily hardwood (pine-oak) forest, which is drier than the forest at higher elevations or on opposing slopes of the mountain range (Campbell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, T. Papenfuss pers. comm. February 2011). Individuals can be found in bromeliads 3-10 m above the ground (Campbell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This salamander is believed to be restricted to these pine-oak forests (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. February 2011). It is presumed to breed by direct development.
194310		population	eng	Six specimens were found in approximately two hours of search effort, which would suggest that the species may be common within its small range (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). It  was last seen January 2009 (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011).
194310		threats	eng	The habitat at the type locality is now degraded, being primarily impacted by small-holder farming (mostly corn fields), timber and firewood harvest by local people (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. February 2011, S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011); habitat destruction was ongoing as of January 2009 (S.Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). <br/><strong></strong>
194311		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and habitat preservation is an urgent priority for this salamander's conservation. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.</p>
194311		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two localities separated by <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 40 km in the vicinity of Uspantán, El Quiché, Cuchumatanes Mountains, Guatemala, between 2,100-2,690 m asl (Campbell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). The areas of large patches of good quality forest that surround the known localities total approximately 150 km<sup>2</sup> (S. Rovito pers. comm.March 2011). It is possible that this species may occur in additional localities in the general area of the two known localities and further to the west in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes in areas that have been poorly explored, but there are currently no data to confirm this (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). <br/><br/><br/> <strong></strong>
194311		habitat	eng	It is found in montane cloud forests. One specimen was found during a rainy evening on a fern at about 1 m from the ground (Campell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is believed to breed by direct development.
194311		population	eng	It is currently known from five specimens, four of them collected in 1977-78 and one in 1996 (Campbell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). More recent surveys (four days of intensive searching under ideal conditions) have not produced any new individuals, suggesting that this species may be rare (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011).
194311		threats	eng	<p>Small-holder agriculture and timber extraction are encroaching on this species' habitat, although there seems to be more forest left in its range than in the case of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrotriton chujorum</span> (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011). There is at least one large area of well-preserved forest habitat near Laj Chimel, Quiché, where the species is known to occur (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011), but  the recent opening of a large road has facilitated access to forest resources and increased pressure on the existing forest habitat (C. Vásquez-Almazán pers. comm. March 2011). Other areas of its presumed range are severely degraded and fragmented (S. Rovito pers. comm. March 2011).</p>
194327		conservation	eng	<p>The species is not protected at the national level in Albania and its known sites are outside of protected areas. The geographic range and number of sub-populations are not exactly known. There is ongoing research on the molecular phylogeny of the species group where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pinteri</span> belongs to. Further research activity should focus on the exploration of the range and further sub-populations of this species.</p>
194327		distribution	eng	This species is known from Central Albania. There are two known <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pinteri erossi </span>locations near Lunik, two known <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pinteri pinteri</span> locations around the Shtylles pass, and a further one in the gorge of Guize Stream (Fehér 2004, the latter is an unpublished record). Only five locations are known, but that part of Albania is relatively unexplored, so there might be further undiscovered sub-populations. There is no reason to suppose that the area of occupancy (20 km<sup>2</sup>), extent of occurrence (220 km<sup>2</sup>) or the number of locations are declining or extremely fluctuating.
194327		habitat	eng	<p>This is an obligate rock-dwelling species, associated with limestone areas. It is usually found on the bare rock surface, in crevices or at the base of rocks.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>
194327		population	eng	<p>The species is far from being well explored and there is no specific information on population trend. However, being a rock-dwelling species it is known that potential habitats are not really sensitive, therefore, there is no reason to suppose that the number of sub-populations or the number of mature individuals are declining or extremely fluctuating.<br/></p>
194327		threats	eng	<p>Due to its habitat preference, this species does not seem to be very sensitive to ecosystem modification or other realistic threats. Considering that this species inhabits inaccessible locations, drastic and wide-scale ecosystem modification is only a hypothetical threat and local events do not affect the whole population significantly.<br/></p>
194328		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' current population trends and distribution, and into the impact of the upstream dam and other potential threats.
194328		distribution	eng	The species was described from specimens collected from the confluence of two streams, the Nam Leuk (a tributary of the Mekong) and the Nam Gnong, in central Lao PDR, within the Mekong floodplain, and the species could be expected elsewhere within the floodplain in central Lao PDR and adjacent areas of northeastern Thailand (Britz and Kottelat 2010).
194328		habitat	eng	The species was collected from the pool at the confluence of two small streams with a substrate of leaf litter (in which the fish was found) and sand. The Nam Leuk at this point was a small stream a few metres wide, usually shallow, and with a sandy substrate with occasional rocks and gravel.
194328		population	eng	No information available, and additional survey is required to understand the current population and distribution of the species.
194328		threats	eng	The type location is downstream of the Nam Leuk dam, which was constructed after the collection of the type series, and the present condition of the type locality and the Nam Leuk is not known. In addition, at least two dams are planned on the Nam Mang, which may impact the Nam Gnong (International Rivers 2004).
194329		conservation	eng	Local custom forbids fishing at the entrance of the underground stretch of the Xe Bangfai. The cave system occurs within a protected area (M. Kottelat pers. comm. 2011).
194329		distribution	eng	Known only from one cave system in the karst formation in which the underground course of the Xe Bangfai is located in Lao PDR.
194329		habitat	eng	This is a cavefish species.
194329		population	eng	This species is known from a few specimens collected in 2007 and 2008 (Kottelat and Steiner 2011).
194329		threats	eng	Habitat disturbance through tourism activities taking place in the cave system and interest from the international aquarium trade could become threats in the future.
194428		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
194428		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Namibia, including Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and Sao Tome Principe. In the Mediterranean Sea it is present in the Alboran Sea and along the southwestern coast to Tunisia.
194428		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs in shallow waters from the shoreline to about 50 m on sand or rocky substrata. It feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986). It occurs at depths of 2 to 180 m, mostly between 10 and 30 m (Louisy 2002).
194428		population	eng	There is no population information available for the Mediterranean. The species is apparently rare in the region.
194428		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that can be caught with various gears.
194433		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
194433		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Angola, including the Canary Islands, and Sao Tome Principe, but not in Madeira or Cape Verdes. In the Mediterranean it is found in the Alboran Sea and along the southwestern coast to Tunisia, and also in the Adriatic Sea. It is may also present in Greece and Egypt, though this is doubtful. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>Plectorhinchus mediterraneus</em> has been recorded from the Adriatic Sea (Llpej <em>et al.</em> 1996, Dulcic and Grbec 2000). Doubtful records also exist from Greek waters (Papaconstantinou 1988) and from Egypt (Fatas <em>et al.</em> 1988, Fatas 1997).  These records may be misidentifications of the Lessepsian migrant <em>Pomadasys stridens</em>, therefore it is necessary to reassess the distribution of this species.
194433		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, inhabiting sandy and muddy substrata. In the north Adriatic Sea this species was found associated with artificial reefs (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 1996). It feeds on zoobenthos and zooplankton (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986). It occurs at depths of 1 to 180 m (Ben-Tuvia and McKay 1986), though it is most common at 5 to 50 m, on rocky sand and seagrass (Louisy 2002).
194433		population	eng	There is no population information for this species in the Mediterranean. It is apparently rare or uncommon.<br/><br/><em>Plectorhinchus mediterraneus</em> annual landings in the Mediterranean (2001 to 2005), obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): in the Balearic Sea, Spain from 2 t (2001), 13 t (2002), 13 t (2003), 19 t (2004), 15 t (2005).
194433		threats	eng	This is a commercial species in the Balearic Sea, caught mainly with trawls. However, fishing is not currently considered a threat, given that it is only caught in very low numbers.
194471		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known actions in place for this species, but further investigations in the distribution and threats to the species are urgently needed as it maybe a candidate for listing as Critically Endangered. </p>
194471		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Spain, where it was recently described from Pola de Somiedo, in the district La Malva, near the Espacio Natural de La Malva, in front of the Central Hidráulica de La Malva, Province Asturias (Rolan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). </p>
194471		habitat	eng	This species is known only from a freshwater spring at its type locality in northwestern Asturias. The animals live under fallen leaves on humid surfaces and also on rocks in the same habitat (Rolan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
194471		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, as this is a recently described species.
194471		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are uncertain, but believed to lie in exploitation of the freshwater spring for off-take of water for domestic supplies and hydroelectric generation, and until other sites are known for the species, the locality is considered at risk.</p>
194485		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known actions in place for this species, but further investigations in the distribution and threats to the species are urgently needed as it maybe a candidate for listing at Critically Endangered. </p>
194485		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from a single site in central Portugal, where it is found in the spring of Alcabideque (NE4539), near a small village 3 km east of Condeixa-a- Nova, 10 km to the south of Coimbra (and of Quinta das Lágrimas, type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. lusitanica</span>), province of Beira Litoral, Portugal. This spring is historically related to the old Roman town of Conímbriga, about 2 km to the west; the Romans built an aqueduct in order to carry the water into town. Later the Suevan people destroyed it. Presently, the water of this spring is carried to Ribeira de Bruscos and down the stream to the Ega River, a tributary of the Mondego River on its left margin.</p>
194485		habitat	eng	<p>This species is known only from a freshwater spring at its type locality in Beira Litoral, Portugal. </p>
194485		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, as this is a recently described species.
194485		threats	eng	<p>The main threats are uncertain, but the source has been exploited for over 2000 years, however modern trends to concrete and cap freshwater springs are leading to habitat degradation, hence until other sites are known for the species, the locality is considered at risk.</p>
194491		conservation	eng	<p>There are no known actions in place for this species, but further investigations in the distribution and threats to the species are needed to confirm the status as Least Concern (LC).<br/></p>
194491		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to Spain, where it is known from the type locality and 10 other sites, all of which lie in the Basque country (Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007): </p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Olaeta, Province Alava, (UTM grid square WN36), running water near spring</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Mondragon, Province Alava, (UTM grid square WN36), springs</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Santa Agueda, Arriola, Province Alava, (UTM grid square WN36), springs (Type locality)</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Mendionda, Arriola, Province Vizcaya, (UTM grid square WP00)</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Artigas, (site 4 km west), Province Vizcaya, (UTM grid square WP10), springs and running water nearby</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Artigas (site 2 km south-west), Province Vizcaya, (UTM grid square WP20), wet rock face</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Alday (site 2 km north-east), Province Vizcaya, (UTM grid square WP19), wet rock face (Arconada<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Ereno, near Arieta, Province Vizcaya, (UTM grid square WP30), springs</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Garin (site 3 km west), Province Guipuzcoa, (UTM grid square WP66), emergent spring</p>  <p>•&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Azpeitia (site 4 km south-south-east), Province Guipuzcoa, (UTM grid square WP68), waterfall with pools.</p>
194491		habitat	eng	<p>This species is found in springs and brooks, and can be found on wet rock faces beside springs, as well as in waterfalls with pools. </p>
194491		population	eng	The population trend is unknown, as this is a recently described species.
194491		threats	eng	The main threats are uncertain, but some sites may be threatened due to current trend to concrete and cap freshwater springs leading to habitat degradation, however as other sites are likely to be found, this is considered to be a localised threat.
194492		conservation	eng	<p>There is no known actions in place for this species, but further investigations in the distribution and threats to the species are urgently needed as the levels of exploitation may have already lead to a decline in abundance of the species.&#160;</p>
194492		distribution	eng	<p>The species is endemic to central Portugal, where it is only known from the springs at the head of Alcoa River down to the village of Chiqueda de Cima, 2 km east of Alcobaca; these springs lie on the western slope of Maciço Calcário Estremenho, Province Estremadura, Portugal (Rolan and Oliveira 2009). Although Boettger (1963) described the taxon as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. heussi</span>, which is present in the Alcoa River, which has its springs in the western slope of Maciço Calcário Estremenho, and after joining the Baça River, has its mouth about 35 km south of the Lis River, in the centre of Portugal. Rolan and Oliveira (2009) confirm it is restricted to the headwaters.&#160;</p>
194492		habitat	eng	This species is known only from a freshwater springs adjacent to the head of the Rio Alcoa, where it is found under stones (limestone) lying on a coarse sandy bottom of the river bed always on surfaces devoid of vegetation.
194492		population	eng	<p>The trend is declining. Although this is a recently described species, it was more abundant in past surveys compared to recent surveys (February 2008) when very few specimens were located.</p>
194492		threats	eng	<p>Recently, the risk was increased by human intervention on the bed of the Alcoa River, from near its spring down the stream 2 km to the centre of the village of Chiqueda de Cima. In the course of the last sampling in the site (February 2008), very few specimens were located.&#160;</p>
194493		conservation	eng	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.
194493		distribution	eng	The species is known from the upper Tapi River drainage and hillstreams flowing into the Andaman Sea on the western half of the Isthmus of Kra on the western coastline of the Isthmus of Kra, southern (peninsular) Thailand.
194493		habitat	eng	This species was collected in a stream with riffles and a substrate of gravel and large rocks.
194493		population	eng	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.
194493		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.
194505		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species.
194505		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Songkhram and Mekong river basins in northeast Thailand (Nong Khai Province) and central Lao PDR (Magtoon 2010).
194505		habitat	eng	This species has been found in clear water ditches and paddy fields with sand, detritus or mud substrate (Magtoon 2010); also found in swamps and shallow pools
194505		population	eng	This species was described from a total of 52 type specimens collected in Thailand. It has been collected from a total of five separate localities in Thailand and Lao PDR and is known from a total of 74 specimens (Magtoon 2010). No other information on population is available.
194505		threats	eng	Currently, the most important threat to this species is the possible cessation of irrigation of paddy fields or water flow to drainage channels causing the known habitats of this species to dry up (L. Parenti pers. comm. 2011).
194691		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. pedunculatus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">pedunculatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pedunculatus</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">villosus</span> are classified as Least Concern (LC) in Denmark (Den Danske Rødliste 2010).<br/><br/>    <p>EURISCO reports 134 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 21 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 17 originate from within Europe. These 17 wild accessions originate from the following European countries: Bulgaria (one), Czech Republic (three), France (two), Germany (four), Poland (four) and Spain (three) (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
194691		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. pedunculatus</span> is native to northern, middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, and to northern Africa (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010). According to USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2010) it is also native to Madeira and the Canary Islands. However, although Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) also record it as native to Madeira, according to ILDIS World Database of Legumes (2010) it is not native to Macaronesia and according to Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), it is not native to the Canary Islands.<br/><br/> In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus pedunculatus</span> is widespread, occurring in the majority of departments; however, it is not recorded in Paris or the three southeastern departments of   Rhône, Vaucluse and Alpes-Maritimes (Association Tela Botanica 2010). In the UK,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it is widespread throughout the whole of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, although in the far north of Scotland its distribution becomes patchier (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In Ireland, it is widespread in the south of the country but patchier in its distribution in the central and northern parts of the country (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194691		habitat	eng	In UK and Ireland <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pedunculatus</span> is usually a lowland species which appears more frequently on acidic soils than calcareous soils  (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). It grows in rushy pastures, wet meadows, marshes, ditches, the margins of lakes, ponds, rivers, wet road verges and various other marshy places (Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).
194691		population	eng	This species is common and widespread throughout its range and its population appears to be stable. In the UK and Ireland, according to Preston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002), the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. pedunculatus</span> has remained unchanged since the intial British plant atlas (Perring and Walters 1962).
194691		threats	eng	This is a common species and there appear to be no major threats. It is  found several habitats which are not threatened within its region.
194692		conservation	eng	<p>EURISCO reports 54 germplasm accessions held in European genebanks, 38 of which are reported to be of wild or weedy origin. Of the wild accessions, 25 originate from within Europe (EURISCO Catalogue 2010).</p>
194692		distribution	eng	Native to middle, east, southeastern and southwestern Europe, western and middle Asia, the Caucasus and Siberia (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/><br/>In France <span style="font-style: italic;">Securigera varia</span> is widespread, occurs in all departments with the exceptions of four departments to the northwest (Morbihan, Manche,   Seine-Maritime and   Hauts-de-Seine) and one department to the far south (Pyrénées Orientales), also absent from Corsica (Association Tela Botanica 2010).
194692		habitat	eng	Stony slopes and in deciduous woods and scrub. Cultivated ground as a weed. Adapted to a range of soils, but prefers neutral to high pH with a range of 4.8 to 7.8 (Bennett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194692		population	eng	The exact population size is unknown, but the species is considered relatively common throughout its range and populations are believed to be stable.
194692		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
194693		conservation	eng	<p>No known actions in place for this species, but further investigations in the distribution, population, ecology and threats to the species are urgently needed as it maybe a candidate for listing given the presence of agriculture with extraction of water for irrigation within the region.&#160;&#160;As the habitats are under human utilisation as a source of water, as well a recreational activities, these habitats should be monitored and populations should be re-surveyed in the future. &#160;</p>
194693		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to Turkey. It is known from three locations (the type locality, Soysallı, 1,075 m),&#160;Ambar (a small stream in a recreational park)&#160;and a third site some distance west at Karpuzsekisi near Gülbula village, all in the province Kayseri, south-east of Turkey.&#160;</p>
194693		habitat	eng	This snail is found in small streams, but little is known of the detailed ecology, although Glöer and Yildrim (2007) noted that the shells were very thin suggesting a calcium deficiency.
194693		population	eng	This is a recently collected species, known only from type specimens, so the population trends are unknown.
194693		threats	eng	<p>No known threats are documented for this species, but general threat lies in the presence of agriculture with ongoing extraction of water for irrigation within the region. As the one, possibly two locations are used as a source of water, as well lying in an area for recreational activities, these habitats may decline in the future.</p>
194695		conservation	eng	One of the seven known localities for this species belongs to&#160;Sierra de las Nieves&#160;Natural Park. Four are placed in well preserved sites, even though they are situated outside natural protected sites (Atajate and&#160;surroundings).&#160;Only three localities are threatened by human action (Cerro San Anton near Málaga city and two near Marbella city). This species is included in the "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Andalusian Snails Program" promoted by the Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment (Junta de Andalucía). The species is not included in the Spanish Atlas of Threatened Invertebrates (Verdú and Galante 2009) nor in the Red book of Andalusian Invertebrates (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
194695		distribution	eng	This is an Spanish endemic species only known from the province of Malaga (Andalusia). Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2008) compiled six localities where the species is cited in literature. J.S. Torres has also found it in Cerro de San Anton (Málaga) (pers. comm. 2010) where other species live (see <em>R. dupotetii</em>).
194695		habitat	eng	This species mainly lives at thermo-meso Mediterranean levels of the oceanic Mediterranean medium mountain region (rainfall: 500-800 mm/year). It is found in both silicicolous (with <em>Quercus suber</em> L.) and basophilous (with <em>Q. rotundifolia</em> Lam.) vegetation, in localities with abundant shrub, with or without calcareous rocky outcrops. Although it seems generally to prefer crevices in calcareous rocks, it has also been found sheltered under "esparto" grass (<em>Stipa tenacissima</em> L.) and even in the vegetation growing near riverbanks in slate substrates and clayey soils (Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
194695		population	eng	There are no population data about this species.
194695		threats	eng	In the sites situated in Atajate and Sierra de las Nieves Natural Park, threats are less likely. Fires, some stochastic episodes, etc. are potential threats. However, in the locations near Marbella and Cerro San Antón, threats are related to human activity and habitat destruction by human urbanization.
194721		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyacinthoides vicentina</span>. It is legally protected in Portugal. It is recommended to monitor the populations, study the threats, and appropriately manage the sites (ICN 2006).
194721		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is endemic to Morocco and central and south Portugal<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>, where it occurs in the Alentejo Litoral, Estremadura, and Alto Ribatejo (ICN 2006). The area of occupancy is 600 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
194721		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyacinthoides mauritanica</span> is a geophyte that occurs in clay or sandy soils, clearings in woodland, or on temporarily flooded land (ICN 2006). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>5140 <span style="font-style: italic;">Cistus palhinhae</span> formations on maritime wet heaths</li><li>5210 Arborescent matorral with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub</li></ul>
194721		population	eng	<p>There is no information on the population size or trend. The species seems generally not very threatened, but the subpopulations are severely fragmented (ICN 2006).<br/></p>
194721		threats	eng	The main threats for this species are use of herbicides and deep ploughing or removal of soil   (ICN 2006).
194745		conservation	eng	This plant is listed on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Scilla beirana</span>. Information on the population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed for this species.
194745		distribution	eng	<p>This plant is a western Mediterranean endemic, native to Portugal<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> and Morocco (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010). Its area of occupancy in northern Portugal is around 500 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Its occurrence in Spain has not been confirmed and was probably reported in error.<br/></p>
194745		habitat	eng	This species occurs in humid grasslands   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
194745		population	eng	<p>There is no population data available for this species.</p>
194745		threats	eng	There is no information on potential threats available.
194749		conservation	eng	Research required into the species threats and current distribution.
194749		distribution	eng	The species has been reliably recorded from hilly areas in Kachin State in northern Myanmar, mainly in the last century, but also in 2005 by J. Murata (Bastmeijer 2006), and reported in tropical evergreen forests north of Myitkyina (Rhind 2010). There are reports of this species from Lao PDR and speculation that it could occur in southern China, but these appear to be unfounded (Merrill 1941, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Bastmeijer 2006, Tanaka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<em></em>
194749		habitat	eng	The species was described as forming small, dense grass-like stands on sand in slow-flowing reaches and in ponded sections in rivers in tropical evergreen and deciduous Dipterocarpus forest, but growing where sunlight can reach the channel, with rhizomes making a solid mat below the surface of the substrate, in areas where stands would be exposed and flower in periods of low flow.
194749		population	eng	The species is common in Sagain Division and Kachin State, northern Myanmar (N. Tanaka pers. comm. 2011).
194749		threats	eng	No direct threats are known, but the species must be extremely vulnerable to deforestation resulting in flashier flows, increased turbidity and reduced humidity along water courses.
194751		conservation	eng	At least one subpopulation is in Phu Chong Nayoi National Park. As the area where the species is found in Huay Luang waterfalls is very small (around 25 m<sup>2</sup> ), this subpopulation needs  to be closely monitored. Hence, more research is needed to determine global population trends and future or potential threats to this species
194751		distribution	eng	Recorded from eastern Thailand in Huay Luang&#160; waterfalls (Phu Chong Nayoi National Park in Ubon Ratchathani) and in Phoolaor waterfalls (in Si Sa Ket province). Hence, only two localities which are in different river sub-basins.
194751		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194751		population	eng	There is no information available.
194751		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194752		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine actual distribution, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194752		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Ubon Ratchathani in eastern Thailand, but it had been recorded from Lao PDR in the past. It has not been collected since 1876-1877.
194752		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194752		population	eng	There is no information available.
194752		threats	eng	Probably impacted by water pollution, but this needs to be studied further.
194753		conservation	eng	The species occurs in a protected area (Phuu Khao Khouay National Park). More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194753		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in Tad Leuk waterfall, Tad Xai waterfall and Tad Nampa waterfall in Bolikhamsai province, Lao PDR.
194753		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194753		population	eng	There is no information available.
194753		threats	eng	The species is found in a scenic areas therefore human disturbance is a potential threat. However, no threats have been reported yet. More research is needed to confirm whether this is impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.
194754		conservation	eng	None required.
194754		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India and Sri Lanka east to southern China and south through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Australia (Daconto 2001, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Kwek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Maxwell 2009).
194754		habitat	eng	The species grows in shallow water by streams, rice fields and wet grassland, particularly in seasonally dry areas in the floodplains of large rivers such as the Mekong River; it also occurs in also found in ponds in deciduous dipterocarp forest. 0-400 m alt.
194754		population	eng	No information available.
194754		threats	eng	No information.
194755		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine whether this species still exist. Also, should it be found again, its ecology, populations and possible threats need to be studied.
194755		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from one site in Fang, Chang Mai in northern Thailand in 1959. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span> The species has never been collected in the original locality and has not been found in Chiang Mai province despite recent surveys (M. Kato<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>pers. comm. 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194755		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194755		population	eng	There is no information available.
194755		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194756		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded within a protected area (Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary). More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194756		distribution	eng	Only recorded from one waterfall in Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary in northeastern Thailand.
194756		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194756		population	eng	There is no information available.
194756		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194757		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and ongoing threats to this species.
194757		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in one river in south-eastern Thailand in Trat province.
194757		habitat	eng	The species has been found attached to rocky substrates in waterfalls.
194757		population	eng	There only known population is small.
194757		threats	eng	Human disturbance is a potential threat as the species is found in a small river and the site is a picnic area. However, more research is needed to confirm whether this is impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.
194758		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Tung Saleng Luang National Park. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194758		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Tung Saleng Luang National Park in northern Thailand and Phu Luang, Udanwn in northeastern Thailand.
194758		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194758		population	eng	There is no information available.
194758		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified although the species occurs in a popular scenic area.
194759		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Khao Yai National Park. More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194759		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from one waterfall in Khao Yai National Park, central Thailand.
194759		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194759		population	eng	There is no information available, only recorded from one site.
194759		threats	eng	Human disturbance is a potential threat as the locality is located in a  scenic area. However, more research is needed to confirm whether this is  impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.
194760		conservation	eng	Recorded from Inthanon National Park and Bajiang National Park in Lao. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.. More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194760		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in northern Thailand, in Mae Wang stream north of Inthanon National Park in Chiang Mai, and in southern Lao, in Tad Lo waterfall and Huay Taphung river in Salavan province and Tad Phya Suam waterfall in Bajiang National Park, Houay Pa Lai river, Bajiang, Huay Ka Pheu river, Houay Champy river in Champasak province. It also occurs in southern Viet Nam (S.-W. Chung pers. comm. 2011).
194760		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194760		population	eng	There is no information available.
194760		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The locality at Mae Wang stream, Thailand (which is the type  locality for this species) is a scenic spot, and a narrow area. Hence,  the impact of tourism needs to be monitored in this site as it may affect the species  in the future.</p>
194761		conservation	eng	<p>More research is needed to determine ecology and population trends and the effect of human pressures the known populations.<br/></p>
194761		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded near Haew Lom waterfalls in Chumphon, peninsular Thailand.
194761		habitat	eng	The species has been found attached to rocky substrates in waterfalls.
194761		population	eng	There is no information available.
194761		threats	eng	The place where the known population is found is a picnic site visited by tourists and local people. It is therefore potentially threatened by habitat degradation and water pollution (M. Kato pers. comm. 2011).<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194762		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Doi Inthanon National Park. More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194762		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from several waterfalls in Doi Inthanon National Park in Chiang Mai Province and in one waterfall in Mai Ai, also in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand.
194762		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194762		population	eng	There is no information available.
194762		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.
194763		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary. More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194763		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from one waterfall in Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary&#160; in northeastern Thailand. The area of occupancy is very small as it only grows attached to rocks.
194763		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194763		population	eng	There is no information available.
194763		threats	eng	The locality at Cha Naen waterfalls (type locality for this species) is a potential scenic spot. It is very likely that the area will develop for tourism in the near future (M. Kato pers. comm. 2011) and this may impact the only known population if human pressures are not correctly managed. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194765		conservation	eng	More reach is needed to determine population trends and the impact of known threats in the only populations recorded so far.
194765		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in southeastern Thailand in Klong Yai and Phya Kampoochi near the villages, Pong Nam Ron District, Chanthabury province.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194765		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194765		population	eng	There is no information available.
194765		threats	eng	This hydrophyte occurs in a river near human settlement and a bridge, which potentially threatens the habitat of the only known populations. Also, there is a dam downstream of the known location which is not impacting directly the species but may affect the natural seasonal flow changes. Hence, this plant needs careful monitoring and is vulnerable to any of these two factors.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194766		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded within a protected area (Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary) in Thailand. More reach is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194766		distribution	eng	It has only been recorded in one waterfall in Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary in northeastern Thailand.
194766		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194766		population	eng	There is no information available.
194766		threats	eng	The locality at Cha Naen waterfalls (type locality for this species) is a potential scenic spot. It is very likely that the area will develop for tourism in the near future (M. Kato pers. comm. 2011) and this may impact the only known population if human pressures are not correctly managed. <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194767		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded within a protected areas (Phu Chong Nayoi and Pha Taem National Parks). More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194767		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in Huay Luang waterfall (Phu Chong Nayoi National Park), Klong Phloo, in Ko Chang island, and in Soi Sawan waterfall (Pha Taem National Park), Thailand.
194767		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194767		population	eng	There is no information available.
194767		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194768		conservation	eng	A few populations are within national parks.
194768		distribution	eng	The species has a relatively restricted distribution along the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, from Moulmein, in the north of Mon State, Myanmar south to Phangnga Province in Peninsula Thailand, and also with a few localities on the east coast of the Thai Peninsula (Rataj 1975; Jacobsen 1980, 1986). The species has more recently been recorded from Lao PDR (from Tad Leuk, east of Vientiane; Andersen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
194768		habitat	eng	The species grows in sand and gravel among larger stones in the channel and margins of small streams with fast flow arising in coastal hills.
194768		population	eng	Around ten presently known locations (rivers), of which some are extensive.
194768		threats	eng	There is no information on direct threats, however it is threatened by coastal development, river pollution, watershed deforestation and possibly by collecting for trade.
194769		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194769		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded in northern Thailand. Recorded from two waterfalls in Doi Inthanon, and in Mae Wang stream. All localities are located in Chiang Mai province.
194769		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194769		population	eng	There is no information available.
194769		threats	eng	<span lang="EN-US"> The locality at Mae Wang stream (which is the type locality for this species) is a scenic spot and a narrow area. Hence, the impact of tourism in this site needs to be monitored as it may affect the species in the future.<a name="_GoBack"></a>
194770		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194770		distribution	eng	Only recorded from one waterfall in Na Dee district in Prachingburi Province, Thailand.
194770		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194770		population	eng	There is no information available.
194770		threats	eng	The population is located in a scenic spot visited by tourist and villagers. Hence, human disturbance is a potential threat. However, more research is needed to confirm whether this is impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194772		conservation	eng	Part of the species global population is found within Thung&#160; Salaeng Luang National Park. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194772		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from two waterfalls in a river in northern Thailand and from San stream in Kaeng Samsawan, Phu Rua, Loei&#160; (northeastern Thailand).
194772		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194772		population	eng	The global population is small but number of individuals or trends are not known.
194772		threats	eng	San stream, where one of the two known subpopulations is found, flows in agricultural land (M. Kato pers. comm.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2011). Hence, any harmful activity (i.e., pesticide spraying) is very likely to affect the known subpopulation in this particular site.
194773		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. This species needs to be further surveyed and studied in order to inform a complete assessment.
194773		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Cambodia and Lao PDR and has not been collected since 1875-1877. The exact locations are not known.
194773		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194773		population	eng	There is no information available.
194773		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.
194774		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Threats to the species and their impact on known populations need to be studied.
194774		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand. It has been recorded in northern, northeastern and central areas of the country. It has only been found in five localities in Chiang Mai, Nakhon Nayok, and Chaiyaphum provinces.
194774		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194774		population	eng	The species forms small populations where it occurs.
194774		threats	eng	Human disturbance is a potential threat as the Nakhon Nayok locality is a picnic area within Khao Yai National Park. However, more research is needed to confirm this is impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194775		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded within three protected areas. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194775		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from three localities in Thailand: Klong Khamphuan stream in Kong Nakha Wildlife Sanctuary (peninsular),&#160; Haew Narok waterfalls in Khao Yai National Park (central), and Kaeng Lamduam stream, Yoddome Wildlife Sanctuary (eastern).
194775		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194775		population	eng	There is no information available.
194775		threats	eng	The population is located in a scenic spot visited by tourist and villagers. Hence, human disturbance is a potential threat. However, more research is needed to confirm whether this is impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194776		conservation	eng	It is extremely important that the distribution, habitat and status of  the varieties are documented as they are likely to be much more  vulnerable than the parent species.
194776		distribution	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in the broad sense occurs from Thailand and south through Peninsular Malaysia to Borneo and Indonesia.
194776		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a range of habitats, from peat swamp forest at elevations slightly above sea level limestone streams (Thailand) and pools in forest<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
194776		population	eng	No information is available on its population.
194776		threats	eng	There is no information on direct threats, however many of the typical habitats of the species, particularly lowland peat swamp forest, are highly threatened.
194777		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species. The only known site has to be studied and the source of pollution understood and controlled.
194777		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded at one site in the Moon <span lang="EN-GB">(Mum) River in eastern Thailand. The area of suitable habitat is approximately 5,000 m<sup>2</sup>.
194777		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194777		population	eng	There is no information available.
194777		threats	eng	This plant has only been recorded from one site in Moon River. In the upper course of the river lies a large city (Ubon Ratchathani). Habitat degradation due to pollution coming from this city is threatening the species' survival.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194778		conservation	eng	The whole population occurs within the Yoddome Wildlife Sanctuary located in eastern Thailand. More research is needed to determine population trends and detect possible threats to this species.
194778		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded from Kaeng Lamduan stream in Yoddome Wildlife Sanctuary in eastern Thailand.
194778		habitat	eng	The species has been found attached to rocky substrates in waterfalls.
194778		population	eng	The only known population is small.
194778		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified, although, as the species habitat is a scenic area, the population needs to be closely monitored to detect any negative trend.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194780		conservation	eng	Research is need to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and impact of known threats.
194780		distribution	eng	<p>Originally collected near Hue, Da Nang, coastal central Viet Nam, in 1927, then found in the same region in 1991, and another place in the same region in 2007; and yet another recent photographic record of undisclosed location (most likely the same region).</p>
194780		habitat	eng	Apparently found in a small stream.
194780		population	eng	No information available on the species' population.
194780		threats	eng	The species is likely to be extremely vulnerable to local and even very small-scale actions which affect the water bodies in which it grows, such as logging of catchments, development or pollution.
194781		conservation	eng	None required.
194781		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of south and southeast Asia, from India north and east to China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula, south through Bangladesh, Myanmar and Viet Nam to Borneo (Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Haig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Heng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><p><br/></p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>                          </p><p>                         </p>                          <p>                           <span id="lblLowerTaxonList"></p>                         <br/>                         <p>&#160;</p>                                                                                                 &#160;</span>
194781		habitat	eng	The species occurs along the margins of rivers and in swamps in primary and secondary tropical rain forests and bamboo thickets.
194781		population	eng	No population information.
194781		threats	eng	No information available.
194782		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Phu Langka National Park. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194782		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from two waterfalls in different rivers belonging to the same river system in Phu Langka National Park Thailand.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194782		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194782		population	eng	There is no information available.
194782		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified although the population occurs in scenic and popular touristic areas.
194783		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded within two protected areas namely Bala Hala Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Luang National Park. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and actual threats to this species.
194783		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded in at least seven sites in southern Thailand and Malaysia.
194783		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194783		population	eng	There is no information available.
194783		threats	eng	One of the known subpopulations (Lom waterfalls in southern Thailand) is found in a picnic site visited  by tourists and local people and may be threatened by  habitat degradation and water pollution (M. Kato pers. comm. 2011).
194784		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Khao Yai National Park. More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194784		distribution	eng	This species is native to Thailand.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hydrobryum micrantherum </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">micrantherum </span>has been found in southeastern Thailand from Khao Soi Dao, Chanthaburi province. Also recorded in northern Thailand from Fang in Chiang Mai province. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobruym micrantherum </span>var. <span style="font-style: italic;">crassum </span>has been recorded from central Thailand in Khao Yai National Park
194784		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194784		population	eng	There is no information available.
194784		threats	eng	The subpopulations are located in scenic and popular areas although no threats have been identified so far.
194785		conservation	eng	The species occurs within Tardtone National Park. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194785		distribution	eng	This species has only been recorded in one waterfall in Chaiyaphum province in northeastern Thailand.
194785		habitat	eng	The species has been found attached to rocky substrates in waterfalls.
194785		population	eng	The only known population is small.
194785		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified. However, the place where the species was recorded is a picnic area visited by tourists and villagers. Hence, human disturbance is a potential threat.
194786		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Na Haew National Park, Thailand and in a waterfall in Lao. More research is needed to understand ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194786		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from one waterfall in Na Haew National Park in northeastern Thailand and one waterfall in Khammouan province in northern central Lao.
194786		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194786		population	eng	There is no information available.
194786		threats	eng	Although the populations are within areas of potential tourist interest, no threats&#160; have been reported.
194787		conservation	eng	Monitoring of species habitats and population trends is required.
194787		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from north-eastern India through Bangladesh and Myanmar to Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam to south-western and south-eastern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan)<span id="lblTaxonDesc"> (<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">Rataj 1975, Jacobsen 1986, Idei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, RBG Kew 1011, <span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc">eFloras 2011).<br/></span></span></span>
194787		habitat	eng	The species usually grows gravel or sand, within which it may be partly buried, in flowing water, from large river systems such as the Mekong, to small, shaded forest streams and from fast-flowing mountain streams to lowland and coastal rivers, usually in some shade although it appears to tolerate full sun. It typically grows in sites where it will be submerged during high flows, becoming exposed and flowering as water levels drop during the dry season. It will grow channel in slower flowing reaches, but in backwaters, among tree roots or in the lea of rocks and banks where flow is greater and even in the margins in turbid reaches. At Muak Lek northeast of Bangkok, the calcium content of the river is high enough result in formation of a travertine dam across the river, creating waterfalls and pools with large, submerged growths of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. crispatula. </span>0-600 m alt. (Idei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, eFloras 2011).
194787		population	eng	This species is common but not dominant; however in suitable habitats it can be abundant.
194787		threats	eng	The only record of a direct threat is of a site in the downstream reaches of a river, where forest clearance had been extensive, run-off was immense and as a result the riverbeds were completely washed out, devoid of any vegetation and even large stones were dislodged (J. Maxwell pers. comm. 2011). It is almost certainly also threatened by riverine development, river pollution, watershed deforestation and for some varieties possibly by collecting for trade.<br/><br/>The species may be threatened by dam construction and any other actions which modify the flow character of the River Mekong and its larger tributaries, as well as logging or clear-felling the banks or floodplain of the river. This species, as with all of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocoryne</span> species which occur on the Mekong River, is potentially severely threatened by over-grazing during the dry season.
194788		conservation	eng	The only known population has been found in Tung Salaeng Luang National Park. More research is needed to determine whole distribution, population trends and whether tourism is impacting the known population.
194788		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from one waterfall in Tung Salaeng Luang National Park in northern Thailand.
194788		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194788		population	eng	There is no information available.
194788		threats	eng	Human disturbance is a potential threat as the locality is located in a scenic area. However, more research is needed to confirm whether this is impacting the species population or degrading the habitat.
194789		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine population trends and other potential threats to this species.
194789		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from one waterfall in Udon Thani in northeastern Thailand. The site is considered as one location and it covers a very narrow area with an area of occupancy of of less than 100 m<sup>2&#160; </sup>(M. Kato pers. comm 2011).
194789		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194789		population	eng	There are three subpopulations covering a small area covering of around 25 m<sup>2</sup> each (M. Kato pers. comm. 2011).
194789		threats	eng	<p>The only known location is found in a scenic spot visited by many tourists and very close (about 200 m) to a road running in a picnic and scenic area. <span lang="EN-US">Hence,  the impact of tourism needs to be monitored in this site as it is very likely future development may affect the species  in the future.</p>
194790		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Na Haew National Park and in Nam Nao National Park. More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194790		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from five localities in northeastern Thailand. Four sites in Na Haew district in Loei province and one in Phechabun province.
194790		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194790		population	eng	There is no information available.
194790		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified although the species is present in few localities.
194791		conservation	eng	This plant occurs within Doi Inthanon National Park,<a name="_GoBack"></a> Mae Nam Fang National Park and Phu Luang Wildlife Reserve. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194791		distribution	eng	<p>The species has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Japan and China (Yunnan).</p><p>In China it has been recorded in the province of Yunnan. In Japan, in Senokuchi in Kimotsuki District south of Kyushu Island. In Thailand, it has been found in Chiang Mai, Nan, Mae Hong son (north); Chaiyaphum district and Loei province (northeast). In Myanmar, it occurs in Tawa Hka river, Kachin State, and in Viet Nam it occurs in Lao Kay, near Chapa (= Sapa).</p>
194791		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194791		population	eng	There is no information available.
194791		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.
194792		conservation	eng	None required.
194792		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of east and southeast Asia, from China (southwest Yunnan), south through eastern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and the Philippines <span id="lblTaxonDesc">(Palawan) to Sulawesi and the Moluccas in Indonesia. Also recorded from <span id="lblTaxonDesc">India (Nicobar Islands; eFloras 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span></span>
194792		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense valley wet forests and swamps.
194792		population	eng	No information available.
194792		threats	eng	The species habitat, dense lowland forest valleys, have been impacted across the species range by logging, and clearance for agriculture.
194793		conservation	eng	There is an urgent need for surveys to locate and document extant populations. If populations appear to be as limited as available information would suggest, then they need to be protected and collaboration established with the aquarium trade to prevent further collection from the wild.
194793		distribution	eng	Known only from one record from the Province of Quang Nam – Da Nang in central Viet Nam (the Mt. Bana, 1927 collection is now referred to&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocoryne vietnamensis</span>) (Serebryanyi 1991), and one recent photographic record of undisclosed location.
194793		habitat	eng	Collected from a small river.
194793		population	eng	No information available.
194793		threats	eng	The species is likely to be extremely vulnerable to local and even very small-scale actions which affect the water bodies in which it grows, such as logging of catchments, development or pollution.
194794		conservation	eng	Research into species threats and distributions required.
194794		distribution	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">The species is recorded from southern China (southeast Xizang (Mêdog), and southern and western Yunnan), northern Bangladesh, Bhutan, northeastern  India, Nepal, Thailand and Viet Nam (Heng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Presence in Myanmar can be expected.
194794		habitat	eng	<span id="lblTaxonDesc">The species grows attached to rocks in fast-flowing rivers, in dense forests, humid forest margins, moist mossy  rock faces in forests, valley scrub, moist shaded places along streams;  700-1,400 m.
194794		population	eng	No information available.
194794		threats	eng	No information available.
194795		conservation	eng	This species needs to be looked for and recollected. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
194795		distribution	eng	Only recorded from Ubon in eastern Thailand between 1866 and 1868.
194795		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194795		population	eng	There is no information available.
194795		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
194796		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
194796		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from southeastern and central Thailand, in Klong Sarlakpet and in Tharn Mayom waterfall in Koh Chang, and also in Saphan Hin waterfall southwest of Trat and Ko Chang. The record in Klong Sarlakpet was taken many years ago and the species has not been found in the site in recent expeditions. Also collected from northern Central Lao in a waterfall Bolikhamsai province and from south west Cambodia in Koh kong district.
194796		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
194796		population	eng	There is no information available.
194796		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
194799		distribution	eng	A species restricted to mountainous areas on the south to west fringe of the Sichuan basin and Lichuan in western Hubei.
194799		habitat	eng	It occurs in moist broadleaved forest between 700 and 1,600 m.
194799		threats	eng	Uncontrolled logging and habitat clearance are believed to have caused considerable population declines.
194803		conservation	eng	Cerro Las Antenas is unprotected but the southernmost  localities of this species in the Tokuko river basin lie inside the Parque Nacional Sierra de Perijá&#160;(Barrio-Amorós&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010). Improved protected area management and additional habitat protection are priorities for this species given the high rate of habitat loss experienced throughout its geographic range in the Tokuko river basin (including localities in Parque Nacional Sierra de Perijá) and most of its elevational range&#160;by small and large-scale agricultural activities in that area. Regulation of&#160;malanga cultivation is urgently needed within and surrounding&#160;Parque Nacional Sierra de Perijá&#160;(F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011).&#160;Also,&#160;switching from malanga cultivation to less destructive and suitable crops would be strongly recommended&#160;(F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011). Further survey efforts are needed to fully understand this species' distribution&#160;(F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011).
194803		distribution	eng	This species is known from six geographic localities within&#160;Sierra de Perijá, Venezuela&#160;(F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. April 2011). Three of them are concentrated in the surroundings of&#160;Cerro Las Antenas,&#160;municipality of Rosario de Perijá,&#160;between 1,438 and 1,933 m asl, and the remaining three are within the Tokuko river basin,&#160;municipality of Machiques de Perijá,&#160;between 1,389 and 1,670 m asl, both in Zulia State (Barrio-Amorós <em>et al.</em> 2010). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) was calculated from a polygon area including all the localities where this species was found and it is estimated to be 2,284 km².&#160;Despite survey efforts throughout suitable neighbouring areas, this species has only been found in these six localities (arranged into two threat-defined locations), but is expected to occur more widely across Sierra de Perijá; specifically,&#160; from&#160;1,400 to 1,950 m asl&#160;in between the 60 km between the furthermost known&#160;localities (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011).<br/><br/><span style=""><br/><br/></span>
194803		habitat	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US">This species occurs in premontane and montane forest, suitable areas for ombrophilous submontane evergreen forest vegetation&#160;(Barrio-Amorós <span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US">2010).<span lang="EN-US"> It <span class="apple-style-span">was collected in rocky creeks&#160;surrounded by dense primary cloud forest, secondary and short forest between antennas at the summit of Cerro Las Antenas, and plantations and&#160;surroundings of the Yukpa village named Yurumuto and Pishikakao, both at the Tukuko River basin (Barrio-Amorós <em>et al</em>. 2010<span class="apple-style-span">). Males have been found vocalizing actively in choruses&#160;on leaves of bushes and palms, and from forest leaf litter level up to four metres<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>above the ground&#160;at night time at the end of the dry season (Barrio-Amorós <em>et al.</em>&#160;<span class="apple-style-span">2010). This species is presumed to breed by direct development.&#160;Since it has been found in secondary forest near antennas in Cerro las Antenas and in coffee plantations within the Tokuko river basin, it is presumed to tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, although it is not thought to survive within malanga (eddoe) plantations given that these areas are being completely cleared (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011).</span></span></span></span></p>
194803		population	eng	<p>It is considered to be abundant in a third of the total number of localities, whereas it is rare in the rest of the localities&#160;where it was found&#160;(F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011). Its population is not considered to be severely fragmented.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>
194803		threats	eng	Within&#160;the altitudinal range occupied by this species in the Tokuko river basin, there is intense habitat fragmentation due to intrusive agricultural activities by&#160;Yukpa indigenous people and&#160;persistent deforestation activities by criollo inhabitants, who cultivate malanga using a highly destructive procedure&#160;(Barrio-Amorós&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010). In Cerro Las Antenas,&#160;the areas where this species occurs are still pristine habitat patches, but in lower altitudes, between 400 and 1,400 m asl,&#160;there is infrastructure development for radio and TV antennas as well as&#160;moderate to strong intrusion into the forest by peasants that cultivate malanga; extensive cultivation of this and other crops have eliminated many hectares of the natural forest&#160;(Barrio-Amorós&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010). Although this species occurs in unaltered habitat patches above 1,400 m asl, its current range is not protected, and could be potentially disturbed in the future&#160;and&#160;rapidly destroyed by extensive cultivation (Barrio-Amorós&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010;&#160;F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011). Also, in Cerro Las Antenas there is currently civil unrest&#160;(Barrio-Amorós&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010).&#160;Overall, since there is intense habitat loss in the three localities lying along&#160;the Tokuko river basin, it is considered that agriculture is currently affecting 50% of the areas where this species occurs and the rate could be increasing in the future due to the possible expansion of agriculture towards<span style="font-weight: bold;">&#160;</span>higher elevations<span style="font-weight: bold;">&#160;</span>in Cerro Las Antenas (F. Rojas-Runjaic pers. comm. March 2011).<br/><br/><strong><br/></strong>
194814		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194814		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea where it is known from the holotype taken from Israel, and a record from the north Aegean Sea (Economidis and Bauchot 1976).
194814		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. Holotypes were taken between 25-55 m depth (Eschmeyer 2006).
194814		population	eng	There are only few records of this species, but it may be under-reported as it would readily escape from nets because of its long, thin shape.
194814		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194815		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194815		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is widespread (including the Balearic Islands; Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984).
194815		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It can be found on the shelf, on mud bottoms (Bauchot 1987).
194815		population	eng	This is a common species. Casadevall <em>et al.</em> (2001) mention that 679 specimens were caught using professional trawlers in the Catalan Sea, near Blanes between 1985 and 1987.
194815		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited and no major threats are known.
194816		conservation	eng	Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters in the Mediterranean Sea. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194816		distribution	eng	Current records suggest that this species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is widespread. It is present in the Ligurian Sea (Tortonese 1971, Barletta and Torchio 1986), Balearic Islands (D'onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Ionian Sea (D'onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Catalan Sea (west Mediterranean; Sardà <em>et al.</em> 1994, Carrasson and Cartes 2002, Carrasson and Matallanas 2001), south Adriatic (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 2002), Levantine basin, and east Mediterranean Sea basin (Klausewit 1989, Goren and Galil 2006).
194816		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species, it is found on continental slope and rise between temperatures of 4-12°C (Merrett 1990). It is usually solitary, but it probably forms occasional aggregates.<br/><br/>Within the northwestern sector of the Mediterranean Sea, this species appeared starting below 700 m, its relative abundance and biomass increased progressively going deeper. It reaches his maximum between 1,500-2,000m (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>It feeds on mysids and benthopelagic copepods. The most important food items are benthopelagic planktonic calanoid copepods. In the Catalan Sea, juveniles are found between 1,800-2,250 m, and are recorded to feed secondary on benthic tanaidaceans, whereas for the adults, mysids are secondary. At other depths, calanoid copepods are consumed almost exclusively. Adults ingest larger amounts and sizes of prey than juveniles (Carrasson and Matallanas 2001). It is synchronously hermaphroditic (Sulak 1984).<br/><br/>In the Ionian Sea, this species is found between 800-3,300 m (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004).
194816		population	eng	This species is widespread and very abundant.
194816		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194818		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194818		distribution	eng	This Mediterranean endemic species (Quignard and Tomasini 2000) is present in the west (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Levantine basin, and east Ionian Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It also present in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Golani 2006). There are scattered records from all across the Mediterranean Sea.
194818		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It occurs between 600-800 m depth (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
194818		population	eng	This species is generally scarce. One specimen of 9 g was found in the western Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004). One other specimen of 4 g was found in east Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), where its frequency of occurrence was 1.9% (0.1 ind/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
194818		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194819		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. Currently there is a GFCM recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m.  However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
194819		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in the Catalan Sea, Ligurian Sea, Adriatic Sea (Iwamoto and Ungaro 2002) and east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
194819		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species, preferring deep-water.
194819		population	eng	This is one of the more abundant species in areas deeper than 1,000 m in the southern Adriatic and Catalan Seas (Iwamoto and Ungaro 2002).<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with mean of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 800-1,200 m (13 hauls).
194819		threats	eng	There is no information on current threats to this species.
194821		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
194821		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurs in the Ligurian sea, Tyrrhenian Sea and strait of Messina. It possibly also occurs in the north subtropical Atlantic.
194821		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It is perhaps the early stage of a known species of Moridae or else neotenic (Cohen 1986).
194821		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown for this species
194821		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest.
194838		conservation	eng	Currently there is a GFCM recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
194838		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is found in northwest areas, including Catalan Sea (Carrasson <em>et al.</em> 1997, Cartes and Carrasson 2004, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the Tyrrhenian Sea. It also occurs in the Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004).
194838		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic species, mostly abundant in waters deeper than 750 m on soft bottoms. Its diet included a broad range of benthic and pelagic prey, the planktonic prey are most abundant at 100-1,400 m and are almost entirely absent at 1,800-2,200 m while suprabenthos preys increases with depth (Carrasson <em>et al.</em> 1997).
194838		population	eng	Cartes and Carrasson (2004) mentioned that 323 specimens were collected in a series of bottom trawl cruises performed in June, July and October 1987-1989, between 984 and 2,251 m in the Catalano-Balearic basin (Catalan Sea, western Mediterranean Sea).    <br/><br/>According to Carrasson <em>et al.</em> (1997), 617 specimens were collected from the continental slope of the Catalan Sea during a cruises using a semi balloon otter trawl, headline length 13.7 m on a single warp, within depths varied from 970 and 2,256 m.
194838		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance, that can be caught mainly by means of trawls. It rarely occurs in markets.
194840		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
194840		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, it is known from the Gulf of Naples and Messina. It has also been recorded from the Balearics (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2004). It may have a wider range than currently known.
194840		habitat	eng	This is a rare pelagic species. It is a benthopelagic species.
194840		population	eng	This species is rarely caught. Nothing is known about population range, size or trends.
194840		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. No other threats are known at present.
194843		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
194843		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, two specimens were caught off the coast of Malaga (Reina-Hervas and Nunez Vergara 1985). It is present in Spain (Cardona and Guerao 1992, Hofrichter and Patzner 2000), Algeria (Dieuzeide <em>et al.</em> 1955, Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> 2005), Cyprus ( Hofrichter and Patzner 2000, Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> 2005), France (Hofrichter and Patzner 2000, Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> 2005, Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), Sicily (Vizzini and Scilipoti 1999, Vizzini <em>et al.</em> 2001, Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> 2005), and southern Portugal (Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can also be found in Stfax, Tunisia (Bradai pers. comm. 2007).
194843		habitat	eng	This species lives only in <em>Posidonia spp.</em> seagrass beds.  Although generation length is not known, given its small body size, it does not likely live beyond a few years.
194843		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
194843		threats	eng	A major threat is habitat reduction due to the destruction of <em>Posidonia</em> spp. seagrass areas. It is estimated that there has been at least a 30% decline in seagrass area over the past 10 years (at least 3% per year) due to removal, sedimentation and pollution (Short pers. comm. 2008, Waycott <em>et al</em>. 2009).
194844		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194844		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987): Adriatic Sea (Bombace and Froglia 1973), Catalonian coasts (Sabates and Maso 1992), Balearic Islands and Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998), Aegean Sea (Keskin pers. obs.), Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), and Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988).
194844		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic and mesopelagic species. It occurs between 375 and 1,000 m during daytime and between 45 and 150 m in night (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs from winter to spring. Considered the most important prey of <em>Plesionika gigliolii</em> and <em>Plesionika edwardsii</em> in the western Mediterranean.
194844		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the west Mediterranean Sea although scarce in east parts. On Catalonian coasts, the frequency of occurrence of this species in the ichthyoplancton is 1% (Sabates and Maso 1992).
194844		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
194845		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194845		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it occurs from the Balearic Islands to the Adriatic. It was inventoried under the name&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Oligopus</span><em> ater</em> in Risso (1810), and was recorded in Algeria under the name&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Grammonus</span><em> armatus</em> Dodelein (Dieuziede and Roland 1958).
194845		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species that inhabits shallow rocky areas (Nielsen 1986). It is likely to be a deep dweller that migrates to coastal areas in August (Göthel 1992). It is nocturnal and hides in caves during the day (Göthel 1992).
194845		population	eng	There is no population information.
194845		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It is caught as bycatch.
194846		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194846		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic Sea (Trott and Olney 1986) and along the Atlantic coast of Morocco, west of Gibraltar.
194846		habitat	eng	This is an uncommon demersal species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999). Adults are benthic, juveniles are free-swimming (Wheeler 1979).
194846		population	eng	There is no population information, it seems rather uncommon.
194846		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It is caught as bycatch by trawls.
194847		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194847		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the west and north regions. It is also known from the Black and Marmar seas (Louisy 2002) and the Atlantic. This species is often confused with <em>O. barbatum</em>.
194847		habitat	eng	This is a demersal uncommon species that is found in the shallows to 150 m depth (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001).
194847		population	eng	There is no population information.<br/><br/>According to Letourneur <em>et al.</em> (2001), this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France) a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River, using a small beam trawl with opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size. Mean density of 8.12 ± 5.28 individuals ha<sup>-1</sup> was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: two knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m² at depth of 5-8 m.
194847		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It is caught as bycatch.
194848		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194848		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the west and north parts of the basin and in west Atlantic Gibraltar.
194848		habitat	eng	This is a demersal uncommon species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999) that is mainly found on the deeper parts of the continental shelf (Nielsen 1986), but also in shallower waters (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2008).
194848		population	eng	This is a rare species. According to Deudero <em>et al.</em> (2008), this species was sampled in July, September, October and December 2002 (respectively with mean abundance and standard error 0.11±0.15, 0.21±0.20, 0.39±0.45, 0.45±0.23, and size 16.5-16.5cm, 11.8-14.7, 8.7-8.7, 4-7-9.5), over <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl (1.8 m wide and 0.8 m high, with a body of 8 m, 12 mm square mesh at its first half and 9 mm at the back, and a 2 m long cod end, 6 mm square mesh) during daytime (10:00-13:00 h).
194848		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It might be caught as bycatch.
194850		conservation	eng	There is no information about conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194850		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west Mediterranean Sea (Matallanas <em>et al.</em> 1985, Quignard and Tomasini 2000).
194850		habitat	eng	This species is mesopelagic. Only three specimens are known (two  females, one damaged; Matallanas <em>et al.</em> 1985).
194850		population	eng	This species is probably rare, and is only known from three specimens.
194850		threats	eng	There is no information about threats concerning this species.
194851		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194851		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. It has also been observed in the  Golf of Genova (in the Ligurian Sea this species was found in the coastal waters of the Gallinaria Island, ICRAM 2005) and in Turkey. It is also known from the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.
194851		habitat	eng	This species lives in shallow rocky areas, and occurs on filamentous algae-covered rocks in brackish water, in crevices,  in mollusc and crustacean shells, and in holes.<br/><br/>This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Several females spawn at hole guarded by a resident male (Zander 1986). Males guard the eggs (Zander 1986).
194851		population	eng	This species is probably widespread in the Mediterranean Sea but there is no known population information. More studies on the distribution of this species are recommended.
194851		threats	eng	Major threats include habitat loss due to pollution and coastal development.
194853		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194853		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mediterranean Sea, although it is absent from the Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species distribution is fragmented, probably due to the lack of records as it is not a commercial species and it is difficult to study. There is one record of this species off the south coast of Portugal.
194853		habitat	eng	This species lives in shallow rocky areas, on filamentous algae-covered rocks in brackish water, in crevices, in mollusc and crustacean shells, and in holes.<br/><br/>This species is predominantly active during sunlight, otherwise it can be found in piddock holes or barnacle shells (Zander 1986). It feeds on benthic meiofauna, especially harpacticoids, and also on algae (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous with demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).
194853		population	eng	This species is probably widespread in the Mediterranean Sea but there is no known population information. More studies on the distribution of this species are recommended.
194853		threats	eng	Given this species' very shallow depth habitat, major threats include habitat loss due to pollution and coastal development. However, the impact of these threats on its population is not known.
194854		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
194854		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
194854		habitat	eng	This cryptic species occurs in rocky caves and crevices in shaded areas, and also in coralligenous habitats. It is a touristic attraction in some areas.<br/><br/>This fish is active during daytime. It mainly feeds on small sessile invertebrates and algae, and to a lesser extent on harpacticoids (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).
194854		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This species is restricted to a particular habitat, but is common within this habitat.
194854		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194855		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194855		distribution	eng	This species is present in the north Mediterranean Sea, and along the coast of Israel, Lebanon and Syria (Golani <em>et al</em>. 2006, Bariche pers. comm. 2007). There are also records of this species along the south coast of Portugal.
194855		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the shallow littoral zone to the zone beyond the influence of water movements, over light rocks or pebbles without algal cover and on secondary hard bottoms of coralligenous origin.  <br/><br/>This species feeds on periphyton, harpacticoids, and algae. Males inhabit narrow piddock holes, they court by nodding, jumping out of hole and back again, and swimming in a vertical position. Rivals are threatened by yawning, lateral display and circling, and are attacked by ramming and biting. It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Reproduction takes place from May to July. Attracted females spawn in resident hole of a male which guards eggs from several families (Zander 1986).<br/><br/>In the Ligurian Sea (Italy) this species was found also in the 0-3 m depth range.
194855		population	eng	This is a common species. There is no specific population information for this species.
194855		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194856		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194856		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the Adriatic Sea, Tunisia (Gharred <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Turkey (Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). It is absent from the Levant Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
194856		habitat	eng	This species inhabits mainly soft bottoms and can be found in seagrass beds.  <br/><br/>Eggs produced by several females are guarded by the male. Individuals develop first into females then change to males (Zander 1986). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966). Paternal care is the usual behaviour (Zander 1986).
194856		population	eng	There is no population information about this species. This species is locally common.
194856		threats	eng	This species doesn't have any commercial value. There are no known major threats.
194857		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194857		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It has been recorded from the Gulf of Genoa to the western Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and from the southern and eastern Black Sea. The species is absent from the Levant (Golan <em>et al.</em> 2006), and apparently absent from the southern Mediterranean.
194857		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, occurring on sandy substrata. In the Black Sea it prefers sandy substrata, but in the Sea of Marmara it prefers fragmented shells and sand. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans (Fricke 1986). It occurs in shallow inshore waters.
194857		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population in the Mediterranean. It is common in the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).
194857		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is not a commercial species.
194859		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean
194859		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. This species is known from the western Ionian Sea to the north and south Strait of Messina (Sicily), and in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also in the Aegean Sea (Mater <em>et al.</em> 1988).
194859		habitat	eng	This is a small, mid-water pelagic species.
194859		population	eng	Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) collected this species in the northeastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700 m.<br/><br/>No other information about population density or trends is available.
194859		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It is a very small fish (grows to 3 cm) and is unlikely to be caught even as bycatch.
194860		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
194860		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean. It is known only from the Strait of Messina (Sicily).
194860		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species.
194860		population	eng	Nothing is known of population size or trends for this species
194860		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. There are no known threats.
194862		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194862		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the west basin. It is recorded in Adriatic (Kovačić 2002), in Monaco (Francour 2007) and in Italy (Tunesi pers. comm. 2007). Tortonese (1975) also indicates the presence of <em>Buenia affinis</em> at two localities in Italy (Palermo and Napoli) and one further record in the Dalmatian coast (east Adriatic Sea).
194862		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy areas covered with cobbles (6-20 cm) and boulders (>20 cm). Average sand particle sizes are coarse (0.7-0.8 mm) and medium (0.2-0.4 mm). Sediments are mostly coarse biogenous fragments (calcite skeleton remains) mixed with finer lithogenous material (Kovačić 2002).
194862		population	eng	There is no specific population information available for this species. It is locally abundant in the Adriatic, but outside the Adriatic it is generally rare.
194862		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194863		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194863		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northwestern and eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic Sea. There are records from Catalonia (Mercader 1994), Lavezzi Island, France (Bouchereau and Tomasini 1989) and Gulluk Bay in Turkey (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007).
194863		habitat	eng	This is a cryptic species. It occurs in shallow inshore waters, under stones, in caves, and in mid-tide pools.
194863		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species.
194863		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
194865		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194865		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Mediterranean Sea in the Adriatic Sea (Ahnelt <em>et al.</em> 1994), the Balearic Island of Ibiza and the northern Tyrrhenian Sea (Ahnelt <em>et al.</em> 1998). The full range is unknown as it is a difficult fish to see due to its cryptic nature.
194865		habitat	eng	This is a cryptic species and has a very restricted habitat type. It occurs only in caves and is reported to settle on cave walls (Ahnelt and Patzner 1995).
194865		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This is a very rare species, but probably locally abundant.
194865		threats	eng	A major threat could be coastal mismanagement that could damage the particular habitat that this species requires.
194867		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194867		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is only known from the holotype from Israel (Golani 2005).
194867		habitat	eng	This species is found offshore on muddy sand substrate.
194867		population	eng	This is a very rare species, only known from one specimen collected in Israel.
194867		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194868		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194868		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the Adriatic Sea and near Marseille and Banyul in France (Ballesta <em>et al.</em> 1998, Louisy 2001, Francour pers. comm. 2007). There are new record of this species in Liguria, Italy (Patzner 2007).
194868		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky substrata between pebbles and seagrass beds. They are more active during the night.
194868		population	eng	This species is very rare, there are only a small number of specimens recorded. There is no specific population information for this species.
194868		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194869		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194869		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean where this species it is present in the south of Spain, Ibiza, northeast Sardinia, Lampedusa, Bodrum (Turkey), Croatia and southeastern France (Francour <em>et al.</em> 2007). The full range is unknown as it is a difficult fish to see due to its cryptic nature.
194869		habitat	eng	This is a cryptic species and has a very restricted habitat type. It is found in small crevices in caves, with sandy substrata sometimes associated with <em>Corcyrogobius liechtensteini</em> (Ahnelt and Patzner 1995, Herler and Patzner 2002).
194869		population	eng	There is no specific information for this species. It is locally abundant.
194869		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194871		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194871		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the west basin near Marseilles (Bath 1971), Port-Cros and Corsica (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), in Adriatic (Croatia, Kovacic 1999), north Tyrrhenian Sea (Ahnelt <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Ibiza, Spain (Patzner 1999).
194871		habitat	eng	This is a cryptic species which inhabit crevices in caves.
194871		population	eng	This is a rare species and there are only very few specimens. It may be locally common in caves.
194871		threats	eng	Anthropogenic impact near caves where it occurs might threaten this species.
194872		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194872		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present from the Balearic Islands and Gulf of Lions to Nice and the east basins, including Sardinia, and in the Aegean Sea.
194872		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore and in lagoons, among seagrass (Miller 1990).
194872		population	eng	This is a rare species (Louisy 2002) and is only known from a few records. There is no specific population information for this species.
194872		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194873		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194873		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Mediterranean Sea and most of the Black Sea. There are also records of this species in southern Portugal and in a small portion of Morocco.
194873		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore on sand patches near rocks and pebbles covered with photophilic algae. It sometimes takes refuge among tentacles of snakelocks sea anemone (<em>Anemonia sulcata</em>). It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans (mainly amphipods) molluscs, and algae. It is sexually mature at one year, 3.4-3.8 cm (Miller 1986).
194873		population	eng	This is a very common and abundant species.
194873		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194874		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194874		distribution	eng	This species is present in the west and northeast Mediterranean Sea.
194874		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore, on rocky and pebbly areas and sand or mud near seagrass (Miller 1986).
194874		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is abundant and common.
194874		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194875		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194875		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found between Marseille, Monaco and Corsica (France). It is also present in north Adriatic Sea in Croatia (Francour and Mangialajo 2007). The distribution may be wider than reported here.
194875		habitat	eng	<em>Gobius kolombatovici</em> is a bottom-dwelling and secretive species. It inhabits localities with a combination of coarse sand and rock, close to coralligenous areas.
194875		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This species is only known from a small number of records and has been only recently described (Kovačić and Miller 2000).
194875		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is found only in deeper waters where there are few anthropogenic activities.
194876		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194876		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been recorded from Majorca, Morocco and the Adriatic Sea (Korcula, Croatia).
194876		habitat	eng	This species occurs offshore, on coralligenous habitat (Miller 1979).
194876		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species.
194876		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194877		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194877		distribution	eng	This species is present in the west and northeast Mediterranean Sea, including Israel.
194877		habitat	eng	This species occurs offshore on coralligenous areas and coarse sand, and lives in crevices. It feeds on harpacticoids and other crustaceans (including plankton), polychaetes, algae and poriferans. It is rarely captured in fisheries (Miller 1986).
194877		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. The population is stable, and it is thought that the population may be increasing due to an increased depth range, becoming more able to live in shallower waters (Francour pers. comm. 2007).
194877		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194879		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194879		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is found in the west basin: Mar Minor and Ibiza (Spain; Ramos Espla and Perez-Ruzafa 1987), Lavezzi Islands (Bouchereau and Tomasini 1989), Monaco, Tremiti isles (Italy, Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), Adriatic, Levant and Aegean Seas.
194879		habitat	eng	This species occurs in inshore sandy shallows and lagoons, among and under stones (Miller 1986).
194879		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This is a relatively rare species.
194879		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194881		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194881		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is present in the Adriatic (Ahnelt <em>et al.</em> 1994), in Les Embiez (France, Escoubet <em>et al.</em> 1981), in Corsica (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), in northeast Sardinia, Ionian Sea, Croatia, Aegean Sea, Ibiza and Cyprus.
194881		habitat	eng	This species occurs offshore over coralligenous areas (Miller 1979) and in crevices and small caves. It is restricted to this type of habitat.
194881		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species.
194881		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194882		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194882		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northwest Mediterranean Sea, in the Gulf of Trieste (Bonaca and Lipej 2005), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Lavezzi Islands (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007) and eastward into the Sea of Marmara. Its distribution may be wider than currently reported.
194882		habitat	eng	This species is found on coarse sand and gravel (Miller 1986) and also near estuaries.
194882		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
194882		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
194883		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194883		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea in the west basin (Isola Giglio, Italy) and the Adriatic Sea.
194883		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft substrata close to rocky areas and seagrass beds.
194883		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from two locations.
194883		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194884		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194884		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is present in the northwest basin, including the Adriatic Sea and south Aegean Sea coast (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007).
194884		habitat	eng	This species is an epibenthic fish living above soft substrata and seagrass beds.
194884		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is locally abundant.
194884		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194885		conservation	eng	This species occurs in a protected area in Marsala Lagoon and Lake Faro. It is listed in appendix II in the Barcelona Convention and Annex II of the Berne Convention for the Mediterranean Sea.
194885		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It only known from a few sites in Marsala, Sicily, Farwah Lagoon, and west Libya. Its distribution is fragmented, and based on its specific <em>Zostera</em> seagrass habitat, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km².
194885		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that is restricted to lagoons, brackish to slightly hypersaline, in shallows on sand near seagrass prairie. This species is restricted to a particularly to <em>Zostera</em> seagrass beds. It feeds on small crustaceans and gastropods.
194885		population	eng	There are very few records of this species. There is no population information available for this species. Some research in the 1970s showed no change in population, but this information is too out of date to be included in this assessment.
194885		threats	eng	This species is threatened by loss of seagrass habitat from removal, sedimentation and pollution throughout its fragmented and restricted range.
194887		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194887		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Mediterranean Sea in the west basin including the Balearic islands, and the whole Adriatic Sea.
194887		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore over sand (Miller 1979) typically between 2-5 m depth.
194887		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is locally abundant.
194887		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194889		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is present in some Marine Protected Areas.
194889		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Mediterranean Sea where is known from the holotype collected in the Grotto of Banjole, near Rovinj, Croatia (Zander and Jelinek 1976). It is also known from the Adriatic islands of Krk, Prvic, and Hvar (Kovacic 1994). This species is also present in France: Banyuls, Port-Cros and Ajaccio (Francour pers. comm. 2007).
194889		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to deep coralligenous areas and rock crevices.
194889		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is cryptic species, very small and very difficult to observe. It may be naturally rare.
194889		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
194891		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is present in some Marine Protected Areas.
194891		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, in the west basin. It is present in the southeast part of France, west part of Corsica (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also recorded in the south part of Italy (Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ibiza and north and south Adriatic Sea (Ahnelt and Kovacic 1997). There are also records for Turkey between Bodrum and Fethiye (Francour <em>et al.</em> 2007).
194891		habitat	eng	This species lives in deep water on coarse sand close to rocky and coralligenous areas. It is a relatively shy species.
194891		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. It is locally abundant, especially in the south of France.
194891		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194893		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194893		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found in the northwest and northeast regions.
194893		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lagoons and intertidal pools, under stones, among algae and seagrass (Miller 1986). This is a shallow water species that occurs mostly between 1 and 5 m depth.
194893		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. This is a rare and infrequent species.
194893		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194894		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean
194894		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean, known only off the west coast of Italy in the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas.
194894		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species.
194894		population	eng	There is no information available about population trends or density.
194894		threats	eng	This species has no commercial importance. It is never or rarely used for aquaculture and the aquarium trade.
194895		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures. However this species is found in Marine Protected Areas.
194895		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It has been recorded from the Balearic Islands (Spain), southern Sardinia, Tunisia, Israel, Lebanon, Cyprus, and southern Turkey. It is also in the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005).
194895		habitat	eng	A demersal species that inhabits dimly-lit areas, clinging to walls or ceilings (Zander 1986). It feeds on small invertebrates, especially harpacticoids (Zander 1986). Several females lay eggs on substrate of males' territory, often on sponges, eggs are guarded by the male (Zander 1986).
194895		population	eng	This species is not very common in Levant, but is common in Aegean and northwestern Mediterranean.
194895		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It does not have any commercial interest and is not caught by any fishing techniques.
194896		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
194896		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean and Black Sea in western, northern and eastern Mediterranean (including Algeria), and also around border of Egypt and Libya in the southeastern region, and in the northwestern Black Sea. It has been recorded in the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005). Record from Libya (Jonge 1989).
194896		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999) found in shallow rocky shores to 6 m. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.
194896		population	eng	This species is common throughout its range in the Mediterranean, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.
194896		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It does not have any commercial interest and is not caught by any fishing techniques
194897		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
194897		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean. It is present all through the Mediterranean Sea coast, except for Morocco and Algeria (Nielsen 1986). Recently it was found off the Iberian coast (Raventos <em>et al.</em> 2006). It also exists in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea (Unsal and Oral 1993), including the Crimean peninsula and the Sea of Azov (Nielsen 1986, Salekhova <em>et al.</em> 2007).
194897		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that can be found on the upper part of the continental shelf, at depths ranging from 10 to 200 m. It lives on muddy and sandy substrata, migrating to deeper waters during the winter. The species feeds on small fishes and invertebrates. Its reproduction period is from May to August.
194897		population	eng	This is an uncommon species in the Mediterranean Sea, but abundant populations were once recorded from Black Sea. It was commercially exploited in the northern Black Sea until the mid 1970s, but significant population decline was noted due to eutrophication and changes in benthic conditions (Shiganova 1998). Georgian coast population is also noted to be rare (Komakhidze <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries are recorded in Cyprus (trawls, trammel nets and beach seine (Bauchot 1987)). It is not a target fish in the rest of the Mediterranean Sea but it is sometimes captured as bycatch and is discarded. There is no fisheries information on this species. Adriatic Sea population is rare according to Jardas and Pallaoro (1987), and very rare according to Bello and Rizzi (1988).<br/><br/>Unsal and Oral (1993) mention that only one specimen (8.2 cm total length) was captured from Sea of Marmara, during the period between August 1990 and April 1994. Collection depth was 38 m.<br/><br/>According to Cakir <em>et al.</em> (2003) a total of 32 specimens were captured during bottom trawls conducted at Edremit Bay (north Aegean Sea), during September 1999 and September 2000. Specimens had total lengths ranging from 5.2 cm to 8.9 cm.
194897		threats	eng	A possible major threat could be bycatch in trawlers. There could also be potential predation with invasive species from the Red Sea.
194898		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measures for this species. Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of <em>S. solea</em> and <em>S. aegyptica</em>.
194898		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present from Tunisia to Egypt, Suez Canal (Fouda 1995) and the south extremity of the Adriatic Sea. It is recorded from Lake Quarum in Egypt. The records of Gulf of Lion are questionable.
194898		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on soft substrata in coastal waters. It feeds on benthic invertebrates, e.g., cnidarians, polychaete worms, and bivalves.
194898		population	eng	According to Mehanna (2007), 640 specimens with total lengths ranging from 9.5 to 28.9 cm were examined in Egyptian waters, during February 2005 and May 2005 (monthly intervals).
194898		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, which is densely fished by bottom trawls especially along Egyptian coasts. The exploitation rate was found as 0.71, which is above the optimum fisheries exploitation rate of 0.50 (indicating fishing pressure, Mehanna 2007).
194900		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194900		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west Mediterranean Sea.
194900		habitat	eng	This is a demersal and also mesopelagic species (benthopelagic). It apparently occurs peripherally at bathyal depths around the west basin of the Mediterranean Sea (Stein and Able 1986). In the Ligurian Sea this species was caught until 750 m (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986).
194900		population	eng	This is a small deepwater species that is seldom recorded, it is very uncommon (although likely not to be recorded even where present).
194900		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
194901		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194901		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the west Mediterranean Sea where it is found around Spain and the Balearic Islands.
194901		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species.
194901		population	eng	This is a small deepwater species that is seldom recorded. It is very uncommon (although likely not to be recorded even where present).
194901		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
194902		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194902		distribution	eng	This is an endemic species in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is widespread and records include the Strait of Sicily (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 2003) and the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998).
194902		habitat	eng	This species lives between 200 and 1,800 m in the Balearic Islands (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 2003) and between 200 and 800 m in the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its planktonic stage occurs at 100 m depth (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004).
194902		population	eng	This is a very small, deepwater species. No general information is available on population size or trends.<br/><br/>In the Sicily strait, the frequency of this species in ichthyplancton during July 2000, in hauls towed from 100 m to the surface, was 1.07% (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Algerian basin, 14 individuals of 0.01 kg were caught in seven hauls of one hour each (Moranta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998).
194902		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194903		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194903		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus taenionotus </span>is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Bombace 1993), where it is present in the Adriatic Sea (Franzoi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993), along the French coast (Louisy 2002), and the Greek seas (Ondrias 1971, Papaconstantinou 1988).
194903		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in brackish coastal lagoons, mostly amongst detritus or vegetation over shallow muddy substrata (Dawson 1986), in areas with&#160; macroalgae (Franzoi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993), seagrass beds, sparsely vegetated habitats, bare sand habitats, mudflats, or salt marshes (Franco<em> et al.</em> 2006). It is an estuarine resident (Franco<em> et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/> It is ovoviviparous; the male broods the embryos in a pouch found under his tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).
194903		population	eng	There is a documented population along the Italian coast, where individuals are found in high abundance (Franzoi<em> et al.</em> 1993), and this species was found at mean annual abundances between 0.14–0.59 in the Venice Lagoon in 2002 (Franco<em> et al.</em> 2006). Individuals have also been found along the French coast (Louisy 2002) and in the Greek seas (Ondrias 1971, Papaconstantinou 1988), but population sizes are unknown.
194903		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus taenionotus</span> is threatened by degradation of shallow-water habitats. Habitat loss is caused by land reclamation and coastal development, and habitat quality has decreased as a result of sedimentation, pollution, and eutrophication (see reviews in Lotze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Perez-Ruzafa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
194904		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
194904		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in the Adriatic Sea (Matic-Skoko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea (Economidis and Bauchot 1976, Gürkan 2008), Tyrrhenian Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), the Sea of Azov (Movchan Yu 1988), Black Sea, Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), and perhaps extends past the Marmara to Lake Sapanca (Rahe, R. and Worthmann, H. (1986) in Özuluğ<em> et al.</em> 2007).
194904		habitat	eng	<p>This is a demersal species that inhabits estuaries with rocky, sandy, and muddy substrates, and associates with <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera </span>seagrass beds and sparsely vegetated habitats (Malavasi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Franco<em> et al.</em> 2006, Matic-Skoko<em> et al.</em> 2007). <br/></p>  It is ovoviviparous; the male broods the embryos in a pouch found under his tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).
194904		population	eng	There is limited information regarding population estimates for this species. It was found at mean annual abundances of 0.02 to 0.09 in the Venice Lagoon in 2002 (Franco<em> et al.</em> 2006).
194904		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by degradation of shallow-water habitats. Habitat loss is caused by land reclamation and coastal development, and habitat quality has decreased as a result of sedimentation, pollution, and eutrophication (see reviews in Lotze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Perez-Ruzafa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
194918		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum microcarpum</em> is known from two protected areas on the Malay Peninsula, the extensive Taman Negara National Park and the smaller Gunung Jerai Forest Reserve. On Sumatra it was found in an area in the north that is part of the Leuser Ecosystem and the Lembah Harau Protection forests in the middle of the island.<br/><br/>The species has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. The Leuser Ecosystem on Sumatra is managed by the Leuser International Foundation, a non-governmental organisation that was originally funded by the European Commission and the Government of Indonesia and is now funded by the Exxon Mobil Foundation and multi-lateral grants. The WWF project "Strengthening the Protected Areas System of Peninsular Malaysia" for three years (2005-2008) and was aimed at the establishment of new protected areas and an improvement of the management of existing protected areas in Malaysia. New protected areas in focus are in the north of the Peninsula close to the border to Thailand. <em>Gnetum microcarpum</em> has not been reported from these areas and therefore this project might not affect the species.
194918		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum microcarpum</em> is reported from western Indochina (Thailand, Myanmar) and Malaya Peninsula to Sumatra and the nearby archipelagos Lingga Islands, Riau Islands and Anambas Islands. Possibly the species occurs on Borneo as indicated in the World Checklist of Seed Plants Database (Govaerts 2003), but no specimen data were found to support this.
194918		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum microcarpum</em> has been found in open margins and canopy of secondary forest, on hill slopes and in heath forest. Specimen label information suggests that the species tolerates open sunlight. It occurs in altitudes from close to sea level to up to 2,000 m as it was reported from Gunong Tahan, the highest mountain of the Malay Peninsula.
194918		population	eng	In Thailand, Songkla Province (Maxwell 2006) <em>G. microcarpum </em>is described as occasional. No further information on frequency of the species is available and total number of individuals is not known.
194918		threats	eng	The major threat for <em>G. microcarpum</em> is habitat loss through conversion of forests to cash crop plantations such as rubber and oil palm. Degradation after forest clearance, logging for timber, shifting agriculture and fire are further major threats to the habitats of the species (Loucks 2001, Loucks and Whitten 2001, Srikosmatara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Than and Wikramanayake 2001). Also at lower mountain slopes logging can be intensive and resort development can cause additional degradation in some popular montane areas on the Malaya Peninsula (Loucks 2001).
194919		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum pendulum</em> has been collected in the Nonggang Nature Reserve in Guangxi/China and in the Tanguar Haor Nature Reserve in Bangladesh. It has also been found in the Dafla Hills (India, Arunachal Pradesh) where three wildlife sanctuaries are established (Pakhui, Sessa orchid and Eagle nest). Generally there are only few and small protected areas established in the distribution area of the species. The species has not been assessed previously and no species specific measures exist.
194919		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum pendulum</em> is known from India (Arunachal Pradesh), Bangladesh and southern China (SE Tibet, Guangxi, SE Guizhou and S Yunnan).
194919		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum pendulum </em>is reported from forested mountain slopes and valleys between 200 m to 2,100 m in altitude.
194919		population	eng	There is no information available on population data and frequency of <em>G. pendulum</em> and no recent collection data could be located for this assessment.
194919		threats	eng	<em> Gnetum pendulum</em> is threatened by habitat loss through logging, clearing for plantations and shifting cultivation. Forests have been and still are cleared at a rapid rate in the Northern Indochina subtropical area. Moist deciduous forest habitats in the Lower Gangetic Plains are threatened with extinction due to industrialisation, urbanisation and agriculture (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Gopal and Wikramanayake 2001, Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). No species specific threats are known.
194920		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemonoides</em> has been found throughout its distribution area in several protected areas. In Singapore (Central Catchment Nature Reserve), in Malaysia (Bukit Larut Forest Reserve and on Borneo in the Batang Ai National Park, Mulu National Park, Klias Protection Forest Reserve, Kinabalu National Park, Danum Valley), in Indonesia (on Bornew in Betung Kerihun, on Sulawesi in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, on the Maluku in Manusela National Park, and on New Guinea in Tamrau Utara Nature Reserve, Wondi Boy Nature Reserve, Foja Game Reserve), in Brunei Darussalam (Ulu Temburong National Park), on the Philippines (Basilan Natural Biotic Area) and in Papua New Guinea (Yakopi Nalenk Mts).<em> Gnetum gnemonoides </em>has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. In all countries where the species was found national and sometimes international projects exist with the aim to protect remaining forest habitats and biodiversity.
194920		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemonoides</em> is known from tropical southeast Asia. It can be found on the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Maluku, Philippines, Bismarck Archipelago and New Guinea.
194920		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemonoides</em> is a forest species that occurs in primary and disturbed tropical lowland and hill rainforest. It prefers sites close to a river, but can also be found at moderate slopes and ridges. Clayey as well as sandy soil is suitable.
194920		population	eng	Evidence from herbarium specimen data suggests<span style="font-style: italic;"> G. gnemonoides</span> is relatively common, although there is no specific population data available.
194920		threats	eng	The major threat for <em>G. gnemonoides</em> is habitat loss caused by logging and conversion of forests to arable land. Several of the ecoregions the species occurs in are classified as critical/endangered (Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests, Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests, Vogelkop-Aru lowland rain forests, New Britain New Ireland lowland rain forests, Southern New Guinea lowland forests, Luzon rain forests) and further areas are vulnerable. Major threats are commercial and illegal logging and conversion of forest into commercial crop plantations (for example, Lamoureux 2001, 2001; Morrision 2001, 2001, 2001).
194921		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas across its range. No seeds have been collected for the Millennium Seed Bank project.
194921		distribution	eng	This species is known from Venezuela (Amazonas) to northern Brazil.
194921		habitat	eng	Slender vine found in moist forest along rivers, occasionally on sandy or clay soils and at the base of rocky outcrops (Stevenson 1999 and specimen data). Its range coincides with the following ecoregions: Purus varzea, Negro- Branco moist forest, Eastern Cordillera real montane forest, Pantepui, Guianan moist forest and Chiquitano dry forest.
194921		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
194921		threats	eng	Although the Guianan moist forests remain relatively stable/intact, logging and gold mining operations are allowing penetration into pristine rainforest. Regions where this species grows which are more vulnerable include the Negro- Branco moist forest where river traffic brings in loggers and plant collectors. More endangered than this are the dry tropical forests such as the Chiquitano.  Energy focused projects, road building and agricultural expansion are all causing the loss of many trees.
194922		conservation	eng	The type locality of<em> G. luofuense</em> is Luofushan or Mt. Luofu in the province of Guangdong. Luofushan is today protected within the in 2004 established Luofushan National Park. In Hong Kong, <em>G. luofuense</em> was found in or close by some protected areas which are designated as country parks and are popular recreation sites. The species has not been assessed previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. There are some further nature reserves in southern China within the extent of occurrence (EOO), but those are scattered, relatively small and the level of protection is unknown.
194922		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum luofuense</em> is restricted to the southeast of China (Gujian, Southern Jiangxi, Guangdong) and to Hong Kong.
194922		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum luofuense</em> is a forest species of the lowland subtropical forests and lower montane forests. No further information of ecological requirements is known for the species.
194922		population	eng	There is no population data or information on frequency available for <em>G. luofuense</em>.
194922		threats	eng	Major threat to <em>G. luofuense</em> is certainly habitat loss caused by conversion of forests into arable land. Nearly all the original forests have been removed already a long time ago, there are only small patches of forests on steep inaccessible hillsides especially in limestone areas poorly suited to agriculture. Both ecoregions in which the species has been found are listed as Critical/Endangered (Carpenter 2001, Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194923		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum costatum</em> has been collected in three now protected areas (Morobe, Mt Suckling and Mt Bosavi National Park). It was also found near the reserve Mts Albert-Edward and Victoria. The species was mostly collected in the Papua region (Southeastern Papuan rain forest ecoregion) were 6% of the area is protected. The region itself is classified as relatively stable.<br/><br/>No indication has been found that <em>G. costatum</em> was previously rated and no species specific conservation measures exist. In 2005, the government of Papua New Guinea (PNG) announced twelve new protected areas covering some of the country’s most biologically diverse forests, wetlands and coral reefs. A new larger area is put under protection in 2009 (YUS Conservation Area, 760 km<sup>2</sup>), which stretches from the northern coast to interior mountains. The national NGO organisations Research and Conservation Foundation (RCF) is active in promoting preservation of fauna and flora, education and encouraging and assisting research in PNG.
194923		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum costatum</em> is reported from New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands.
194923		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum costatum</em> grows in lowland up to lower montane primary and secondary rainforests. According to specimen labels the species can be found in riparian and swamp forests, in hill forests as well as in valley bottom forests.
194923		population	eng	No specific information could be found on population data for <em>G. costatum</em>. Inferring from specimen data the species seems to be not rare or even common in southeastern New Guinea, the Papua region of Papua New Guinea. Rather few specimens were collected from western New Guinea (Indonesia).
194923		threats	eng	The habitat of<em> G. costatum </em>is threatened by logging, road construction, shifting cultivation and agricultural expansion especially in lowland areas. Compared to other regions of Southeast Asia, New Guinea still retains some very large areas of undisturbed forest. However, this can change quickly, hence these lowland and montane forest regions have been listed as endangered (Morrison 2001, 2001). The lowland forest in New Britain is largely logged and replaced by forest plantations as the island is an important timber, copra and palm oil producer. The montane forests of the islands are threatened by logging, but are still largely intact (Lamoreux 2001). The Solomon Islands are also threatened by logging and large areas have been logged (Morrison 2001).
194924		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum raya</em> was found on Sumatra in the Gunung Sago/Malintang/Karas protected forests and the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. It was also collected in the Batang Ai National Park in Sarawak, Borneo. The species has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. The Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park on Sumatra represents a part of the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra listed by the UNESCO World Heritage since 2004. On Borneo the WWF is active to engage the protection of the "Heart of Borneo", a continuous mostly montane area of about 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> that also includes some lowland rainforest. The project is in collaboration with the governments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.
194924		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum raya</em> is known from the islands Sumatra and Borneo (Sarawak, Brunei Darussalam, Kalimantan).
194924		habitat	eng	Specimen label information indicates that <em>G. raya </em>grows in primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forests. It is mostly reported from hillsides and ridges at lower altitudes and can be found up to 1,100 m asl. It can grow on rhydacite derived soil and yellow sandy clay soil.
194924		population	eng	No population data and information on frequency is available for<em> G. raya</em>. There are some fairly recent collections from different localities within the known distribution of the species.
194924		threats	eng	Specific threats to<em> G. raya</em> are not known. However, the natural habitat of the species, forests in lower and medium elevations, are severely threatened by commercial logging and the conversion of forests to oil palm, rubber and industrial timber plantations. On Borneo fires especially during the El Niño years have destroyed large areas of secondary forests, which are more vulnerable to fire than the now rare pristine forests. Nature reserves are often small and several are still only proposed. There is inadequate enforcement of reserves in Indonesia and also preserved areas are threatened by destruction. Formerly extensive swamp forests have become rare in recent years due to logging and conversion to plantations. On Sumatra parts of montane forests are still intact but are threatened by logging. Illegal logging and agriculture, like coffee plantations, threaten protected areas of higher altitude forest on Sumatra.
194925		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum formosum</em> has been found in or very close by to two nature reserves (Ho Ke Go and Ngoc Linh). In Ho Ke Go the majority of the forest is heavily disturbed as result of selective logging, whereas the forest in Ngoc Linh nature reserve is in better condition (Birdlife International Vietnam Programme and MARD 2001). Also Tam Dao National Park is within the areal of the species and could provide suitable habitat. No known conservation measures have been done specifically for the species. It might, however, profit from domestic and partly international funded primate conservation measures, as primates are highly depended on intact forests. Research programs like the Sustainable Utilisation of Non-Timber Forest Products could help to decrease exploitation of the forests.
194925		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum formosum</em> is thought to be restricted to Vietnam. Records from China/Hainan Island are apparently female specimens of <em>G. parvifolium</em> (Liguo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999)
194925		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum formosum </em>grows in subtropical shady humid forests. It was found on rocky soil on granit (Hiêp and Vidal 1996). In central Viet Nam it is reported from altitudes up to 2,000 m.
194925		population	eng	No information on the frequency of occurrence has been found.
194925		threats	eng	Major threat to <em>Gnetum formosum</em> is the decline of suitable habitat. Two of the ecoregions the species occurs in are classified as vulnerable (Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests, Carpenter 2001) and critical/endangered (Red River freshwater swamp forests, Wikramanayake and Boonratana 2001). In the Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests protected areas are small and scattered in Viet Nam and threatened by shifting cultivation, poppy cultivation, and logging. In Red River freshwater swamp forests ecoregion hardly any forest is left and no protected area exist. Only the Northern Annamites rain forests are classified as relatively stable and intact. Also in this region submontane forests are deforested because of shifting cultivation and logging. In the future hydropower schemes can have a big impact in this area (Boonratana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194926		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum montanum</em> has been found in several protected areas throughout its distribution range: Sikkim: Khangchendzonga National Park, Bhutan: Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand: Lum Nam Pai Wildlife Sanctuary, Mai Ta Khai National Park, Khao Laem National Park and close to Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Lao PDR: Phou Khao Khoay National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Viet Nam: Ba Na-Nui Nature Reserve, China: Guangxi, Chuandoghe Nature Reserve. The species is listed in Nepal as Endangered (EN) (Shrestha and Joshi 1996), but was not yet assessed on a global level. It is CITES listed for Nepal. No other species specific conservation measures are known.<br/><br/>In Nepal, WWF Nepal is active to support biodiversity conservation and community development programmes in collaboration with governmental departments of forestry and conservation. In northeast India the Khangchendzonga National Park, where <em>G. montanum </em>has been collected, is part of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, which contains nearly 40 % of the area of Sikkim. In Guangxi/China the World Bank financed Guangxi Integreated Forestry Development and Conservation Project was approved in 2006 until 2012 with one of the aims to improve the conservation of the globally significant biodiversity. This is should be achieved by strengthening the management of nature reserves, by increasing management capacity and knowledge of biodiversity resources and by strengthening the cooperation between local communities and nature reserve staff to address areas of mutual interest.
194926		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum montanum</em> is known from northeast India, Bhutan, Nepal to southern China and Indo-China (Markgraf 1930, Sahni 1990, Hiêp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996, Liguo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
194926		habitat	eng	Specimen label information suggests that <em>G. montanum </em>occurs in subtropical broadleaf rainforests often at river side locations, in evergreen and mixed deciduous forest in elevations often above 1,000 m. It has been found on sandy loam soil and in association with bamboo.
194926		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or individual number of <em>G. montanum</em>. On a herbarium sheet of a specimen from Assam collected in 1967 it was reported that already at that time the species was less abundant than before as fire and clearing destroyed many vines. Hiêp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1996) however described the species as fairly common.
194926		threats	eng	Habitat loss caused by deforestation is the severest threat to the species. <em>Gnetum montanum</em> is mostly found in hilly and mountainous areas, where in all countries shifting cultivation is a major problem and causes most of the deforestation and degradation. Fire and extensive grazing are further threats, followed by logging (Carpenter 2001, 2001; Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001; Han and Khaing 2001; Rawat and Wikramanayake 2001, 2001; Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Most of the ecoregions the species occurs in are classified as vulnerable and some are critical/endangered. <em>Gnetum montanum</em> is CITES listed in Nepal, which indicates that human use threatens the population of the species. The species is used for food, to make medical remedies and for rope construction in further countries of its occurrence for example in China (Liguo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and Indochina area (Hiêp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). The extent of use is not reported. The CITES listing indicates that the species was traded in Nepal. It is unknown whether this is the case in other countries of its occurrence.
194927		conservation	eng	One of the few available collections of <em>G. globosum</em> indicates that the species can be found in the Taman Negara National Park with an area of 4,343 km<sup>2</sup>. No conservation measures specifically for the species exist and it has not been rated previously. There are further protected areas within the range of the species for example the Krau Wildlife Reserve. The WWF project "Strengthening the Protected Areas System of Peninsular Malaysia" was running for three years (2005-2008) with the main goals: to facilitate the establishment of new protected areas and to improve the management of existing protected areas in Malaysia. New protected areas in focus are three areas in the North of the Peninsula close to the border to Thailand. <em>G. globosum</em> has not been found in these areas and therefore this project might not affect the species.
194927		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum globosum</em> is only known form the Malaya Peninsula and occurs in the provinces Pahang, Negeri Semnilan and Terengganu.
194927		habitat	eng	The type specimen of <em>G. globosum </em>was found on an alluvial flat close to a river at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>120 m altitude (Markgraf 1971). It can be deduced from these notes and the region that the species occurs in lowland tropical rain forests, possibly close to rivers and streams. It is unknown whether the species can also be found in higher altitudes.
194927		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> globosum</em> has been rarely collected and no information on population data and frequency of occurrence has been found.
194927		threats	eng	The major threats for <em>G. globosum</em> are its limited distribution and almost certainly habitat loss. Only about a fifth of the original lowland forest cover on the Malaya Peninsula is left and the remaining is scattered in fragments throughout the ecoregion. The major cause of forest conversion in peninsular Malaysia is large-scale clearing for plantations, especially of rubber, coconut, and oil palm for export production (Loucks 2001). Lower montane forest slopes are threatened by intensive logging. Resort development and road building have also caused environmental degradation in some popular montane areas (Loucks 2001).
194928		conservation	eng	About 47 % (1,905 km<sup>2</sup>) of Siberut Island is protected as Siberut National Park. It is unknown whether the species has been found in this park, but it is not unlikely. The protection of forest and biodiversity are of national and international importance as the level of endemism is high on the island; there are for example four endemic primates and more than 60 % of all mammals are endemic as are many species of other groups. Siberut was recognized as a Biosphere Reserve in 1981.
194928		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> oxycarpum</em> is known from Siberut Island of the Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
194928		habitat	eng	The natural habitat of<em> G. oxycarpum</em> is tropical lowland rainforest.
194928		population	eng	There is no information available on the frequency of <em>G. oxycarpum</em> and the total number of individuals is not known.
194928		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>G. oxycarpum</em> is its restricted range and habitat loss through clearing of forest for cash crops and through logging. The ecoregion “Mentawai Islands rain forests” is classified as Critical/Endangered.
194929		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum catasphaericum</em> is reported from Shangsi and the collection point is relatively close to the Shiwandashan Nature reserve, which contains patches of secondary forest. In the biodiversity report (Fellowes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) three species of <em>Gnetum</em> are reported to grow in the park, but <em>G. catasphaericum</em> is not one of them.<br/><br/>No species specific conservation measures exist for <em>G. catasphaericum </em>and it has not been assessed previously.
194929		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum catasphaericum</em> is reported from southern China, specifically from southern Guangxi (Shangsi Xian) and Yunnan province (Liguo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
194929		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum catasphaericum</em> occurs in tropical humid forests and is possibly restricted to lowland forests, but more detailed information on the species ecology and its habitats is not known.
194929		population	eng	There is no population data available for <em>G. catasphaericum</em>.
194929		threats	eng	The ecoregion where <em> G. catasphaericum</em> was collected is classified as Critical/Endangered and most of the natural habitats have been cleared and transformed for centuries. Habitat loss caused by logging and shifting cultivation is the major threat to the species.
194930		conservation	eng	Specimen collections have been made within protected area and large parts of the range overlap with the existing protected area network. It is not known to have been collected for ex-situ conservation and its conservation status does not appear to have been rated previously.
194930		distribution	eng	Reported to be restricted to southern Venzuela (Govaerts 2003), although recent specimens of this species have been recorded from Guyana and northern Brazil in the state of Roraima.
194930		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum camporum</em> is found in dry habitats, typically above 1,000 m elevation.  This means it is isolated from <em>G. urens</em> (a species with which it can be confused) which reaches a maximum elevation of 500 m in mesic environments. No intermediates are known between <em>G. camporum</em> and <em>G. urens</em> (Stevenson and Zanoni 1991). Occurs in the Guianan highlands moist forests ecoregion (NT0124, Olson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194930		population	eng	Population size and abundance is not known.
194930		threats	eng	Guianan highlands moist forests (NT0124) are classes as being ‘stable/intact’ (Sears 2001). Although much of the forest is intact there is impending pressure from the agriculture and mining sectors. Other threats which may possibly become an issue are logging and hydroelectric plants.
194931		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum bosavicum</em> occurs in an area that is largely protected as Mt Bosavi National Park. No indication was found that <em>G. bosavicum</em> has been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. Part of Mt Bosavi is included in the Sulamesi Wildlife Management Area established in 2006. It also forms part of the proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site Kikori River Basin/Great Papuan Plateau.
194931		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum bosavicum</em> is found in Papua New Guinea and probably is endemic to the area around Mt Bosavi.
194931		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum bosavicum</em> has been collected in montane moist mixed primary forest, on old well-drained volcanic soil, mostly on ridges.
194931		population	eng	No information was found on population data or frequency of occurrence of <em>G. bosavicum</em>.
194931		threats	eng	<em>Gnetum bosavicum</em> is reported from an area that is bordering two ecoregions, the Central Range montane rain forests, which are a largely intact ecosystem and the Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests, which face potential severe threats by logging, and several large timber concessions (Morrison 2001). The higher altitudes above 1,000 m where the species was collected are probably not threatened. Whether the species also occurs in lower, more threatened altitudes is unknown but likely.
194932		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum hainanense</em> has been found in or very close to the protected areas Jianfengling Nature Reserve and the Danxianbaidiebei Nature Reserve on Hainan Island. Several nature reserves are found on Hainan Island, SE Yunnan and S Guangxi. On Hainan Island many small nature reserves have been designated in the drier, interior parts. These tend to be degraded and lack connectivity with other nature reserves. The management and conservation status in the reserves on the mainland is unknown. The species almost certainly has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194932		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum hainanense </em>occurs in southern China. Thought to be endemic to Hainan Island, but collections from southern Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan and southern Fujian have be assigned to the species as well.
194932		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum hainanense</em> is a forest species and occurs in moist monsoon-dominated lowland and lower montane forests. No further information on habitat and ecology is known.
194932		population	eng	Li-kuo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(1999) described <em>G. hainanense</em> as moderately common.
194932		threats	eng	The biggest threat to <em>G. hainanense</em> is its shrinking habitat. All ecoregions the species occurs in (Hainan Island monsoon rain forest, South China/Viet Nam subtropical evergreen forest, Yunnan Plateau subtropical evergreen forest and Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forest) are classified as critical/endangered. The major threats are conversion of forest land to agricultural land, especially to rubber, oil palm and coffee plantations. Most of the forest has been already cleared a longer time ago (MacKinnon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996; Carpenter 2001, 2001, 2002; Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194933		conservation	eng	It is unknown whether <em>G. gracilipes </em>occurs in a protected area as there are no precise locality data available. The species has almost certainly not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. In the area of distribution of the species a large nature reserve (Shiwandashanshuiyuanlian, 1,745 km<sup>2</sup>) and some smaller reserves with each less than 700 km<sup>2</sup> are established. The level of protection is unknown. In the province Guangxi a Worldbank financed project (Guangxi Integrated Forestry Development and Conservation Project) could launch in 2006. Forest conservation is also an imported aim of primate conservation programmes in that area.
194933		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum gracilipes</em> is known from the Chinese provinces southern Guangxi (Shangsi Xian), southeastern Yunnan (Xichou Xian) and Guangdong.
194933		habitat	eng	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly known. <em>Gnetum gracilipes</em> has been found on mountain slopes and it is certainly a forest species that requires moist denser forest. The species probably occurs in altitudes of 200-1,500 m.
194933		population	eng	No information on population data and frequency of occurrence for <em>G. gracilipes </em>is known.
194933		threats	eng	The major threat of <em>G. gracilipes</em> is habitat loss caused by conversion of forests to arable land and by logging. The ecoregions in its range of known distribution are listed as critical/endangered. Very large forest areas were cleared already a long time ago and few of the natural habitats remain and are fragmented. Lower montane forest slopes have been and are still deforested to provide timber and to clear the way for agriculture (Carpenter 2001, Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194934		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum ridleyi</em> occurs in the Foja and the Mamberamo-Pegunungan Foja Reserves in Irian Jaya (New Guinea). It is uncertain whether the species can be found in one of the protected areas on the Malay Peninsula. The species has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194934		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum ridleyi</span> is known from the Malay Peninsula (prov. Kedah and Pahang) and from New Guinea (Irian Jaya).
194934		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum ridleyi</span> has been collected close to the coast in tropical climate. No further details on habitat preferences and ecology of the species are reported.
194934		population	eng	No population data and information on frequency is available for<em> G. ridleyi,</em> and no recent collections are known.
194934		threats	eng	Specific threats to<em> G. ridleyi</em> are not known. However, on the Malay Peninsula the natural habitat of the species, forests in lower and medium elevations, are threatened by logging and the conversion of forests to oil palm, rubber, industrial timber plantations and to rice fields (Loucks 2001, Loucks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). On New Guinea the threats to the species habitat are still limited, but could get more severe in the future mainly through commercial and illegal logging and forest clearing for agriculture and plantations (Morrison 2001).
194935		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> acutum</em> has not been found in any protected area.
194935		distribution	eng	Endemic to the island of Borneo and found in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei.
194935		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> acutum</em> is a woody climber found on hill slopes or at lower altitudes in primary and secondary forests. In the former case soils consist of clay rich alluvium and in the latter predominantly sand-clays.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> acutum</em> occurs in the Borneo lowland rainforest ecoregion (WWF Ecoregions). This is a region of subtropical, moist broadleaf forest.
194935		population	eng	Population size is not known.
194935		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are not known, however, the habitat is threatened by commercial logging and the conversion of land to oil palm and rubber plantations as well as an increased rate of forest fires.
194936		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum macrostachyum</em> has been found in protected areas throughout its distribution range, for example in Lao PDR (Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation area), in Cambodia (Phnom Kulen National Park), Thailand (Namtok Phlew National Park, Namtok Ngao National Park), Malaysia (Taman Negara National Park), Indonesia (Sumatra: Wan Abdul Rachman Park, Java: Gunung Burangrang Nature Reserve, New Guinea: Foja Game Reserve) and in Papua New Guinea (close to the Mts Albert-Edward and Victoria region). The species has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194936		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum macrostachyum </em>is known from Indochina, Thailand to Sumatra, Java and Borneo to New Guinea.
194936		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum macrostachym</em> grows in dense humid forests close to rivers on clayey-sandy red and black soils. In Thailand, Songkla Province it was found in secondary forests and overgrown <em>Hevea</em> rubber estates (Maxwell 2006). It is a lowland forest species, but could also be found in lower montane forests.
194936		population	eng	There is no exact population data available for <em>G. macrostachyum</em>. In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species is described as relatively common (Hiêp and Vidal 1996). In the Flora of Ko Hong Hill, Songkla prov., Thailand it is reported as occasional (Maxwell 2006).
194936		threats	eng	The major threat for <em>G. macrostachyum</em> is through habitat loss. Many of the ecoregions the species occurs are threatened and classified as either vulnerable or critical/endangered. Original lowland forests in Indochina and Thailand have been largely deforested, in Myanmar larger blocks of intact forest remains, but its future is insecure due to the lack of protected areas. Timber exploitation of Thai companies in Myanmar are the biggest threats there. Coastal and near mangrove forests, where the species also was found are threatened by various human impacts. <em>Gnetum macrostachyum</em> has also been reported from dry forests ecoregions, which are  threatened as well by deforestation and the lack of protected areas. Montane forests tend to be more intact, but lower montane habitats on the Islands of Sumatra and Java are critically endangered by shifting cultivation and degradation (Loucks 2001, 2001, 2001; Loucks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001; Loucks and Whitten 2001; Than and Wikramanayake 2001; Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194937		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum oblongum</em> has not been found in a protected area. The collection locality details are not very precise, but especially in Myanmar no protected areas are established in the surrounding area where the species was reported from. <em>Gnetum oblongum</em> has not been assessed previously and no species specific conservation measures are taken. In Myanmar effective conservation faces often severe difficulties due to the military regime and the poverty of the country. Local conservation activities are supported by e.g., US-American institutions like the Smithsonian Institution, Conservation International and California Academy of Sciences. The projects aim for a thorough investigation of fauna and flora of Myanmar as well as to secure the protection of protected areas and the improvement of their management. The main focus is the protection of larger mammals, like tiger, elephant, but certainly also <em>G. oblongum</em> could profit from these protection efforts. In Bangladesh the forest department created a “Protected Areas Management Program” that aims for a better management and effective protection for the threatened country’s protected areas. Also international associations like the IUCN with their “Species Conservation and Protected Areas" program are active in Bangladesh.
194937		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum oblongum</em> is known from Bangladesh and Myanmar.
194937		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum oblongum</em> can be found in tropical moist lowland forests. There is however no specific habitat or ecology information available for this species.
194937		population	eng	No recent information is known on population size and frequency. Markgraf (1930) mentioned that <em>G. oblogum</em> is fairly common in Chittagong (Bangladesh).
194937		threats	eng	There are indications that the stem of <em>G. oblongum</em> is used for tying purposes, but it is unknown whether this threatens the population. Habitat loss caused by deforestation is probably the major threat to the species. The lowland forests in Myanmar are endangered by conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations. Most forests have been cleared and the degradation is very severe (Than and Wikramanayake 2001, Loucks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). In Bangladesh the growing population is a major threat to the environment. Protected areas are vulnerable and are inadequate to conserve the ecoregions biodiversity. Until the beginning of the 20th century much forest still remained (all collections at hand of <em>G. oblongum</em> are from the early 20th century). Since then deforestation has accelerated and now the natural habitat is close to extinction (Rawat and Wikramanayake 2001).
194938		conservation	eng	No detailed specimen data are available for <em>G. giganteum</em>, it is therefore unknown, whether the species occurs in protected areas or not. The species has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. There are some designated nature reserves in Guangxi, for example the large Shiwandashanshuiyuanlian Nature Reserve, the Fangchengshangyuejinhuacha, the Xidamingshanshuiyuanlin Nature Reserve and some others. In 2006, financial aid was approved from the Worldbank to China for the Guangxi Integrated Forestry Development and Conservation Project. Forest conservation is also an imported aim of primate conservation programmes.
194938		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum giganteum</em> is reported from the Guangxi province in China. Exact distribution is uncertain.
194938		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum giganteum</em> is a forest species, but no further information is known. The province of Guangxi is described as mountainous with the highest peak being 2,100 m but major parts of the province are below 600 m. The native forest vegetation is subtropical moist broadleaf forest.
194938		population	eng	There is no information on population data and frequency of <em>G. giganteum</em> available.
194938		threats	eng	No detailed specimen data are available for <em>G. giganteum</em>. A major threat for the species is probably habitat loss mostly caused by logging, agricultural expansion and slash-and-burn cultivation. Two ecoregions fall into the area of Guangxi, the subtropical evergreen forests of South China-Viet Nam and the Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests. Both are classified as critical/endangered and very large areas of forest have been cleared leaving natural habitat to inaccessible slope forests (Carpenter 2001, Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
194939		conservation	eng	In Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia and on Borneo, <em>G. leptostachyum</em> has been found in protected areas. Several other protected areas are found in the range of the species. On Java the few and small protected areas mostly do not have national park status and the reserves have no puffer zones and are threatened. The species almost certainly has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194939		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum leptostachyum</em> is found in Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, Lao PDR and Borneo, possibly on Java. The four varieties of the species have different ranges: <em>G. leptostachyum</em> var. <em>elongatum</em> has been found in lower montane forests in Lao PDR and Viet Nam. In lowland forests of eastern Borneo var. <em>robustum</em> was reported and from montane forests near Mt. Kinabalu, Borneo var. <em>abbreviatum</em>. <em>Gnetum leptostachyum</em> var. <em>leptostachyum</em> probably has a wider distribution, but this is not recorded with certainty, since most of the specimens are determined only to species level.
194939		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum leptostachyum</em> was found in mixed dipterocarp forests mostly near a river or on hill sides, steep slopes and ridges. The montane varieties are described from dense humid forests in altitudes from 900-1,500 m on the mainland and 1,200-1,800 m on Borneo. <em>Gnetum leptostachyum</em> was collected on clayey-rocky or medium schistose as well as over limestone. <em>Gnetum leptostachyum</em> var. <em>abbreviatum</em>, which is endemic to Mt Kinabalu (Borneo) where it grows on ultramafic substrate.
194939		population	eng	No population data is available for <em>G. leptostachyum</em>.
194939		threats	eng	The majority of the ecoregions where <em>G. leptostachyum</em> occurs are listed as Vulnerable. On the mainland the few remaining habitats of the species are threatened by logging, shifting agriculture and conversion of forest land to plantations. Especially in the lowland habitats are scattered and fragmented. Some of the varieties of the species occur in montane forests, which are generally in better condition, but regular burning and shifting cultivation also affect the less steep slopes (Round <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001; Wikramanayake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2001). On Java the natural habitat is scattered on isolated mountains and farmers are continually being forced into steeper land and even montane rain forests are listed as critical/endangered (Morrison 2001). On Borneo montane forests is still relatively intact but threatened by similar causes, however, less severely. The clearance of forest at Sundaland heath forest through illegal logging and burning has transformed this heath land into a sparse scattering of shrubs in open savannah which will take a long time to return to forests (Loucks 2001, 2001, 2001).
194940		conservation	eng	Some populations are known to occur within protected areas, but large portions of the range of this species are under no formal protection. In Orissa state Conservation, Assessment, Management and Proritisation (CAMP) workshops have taken place and have identified <span style="font-style: italic;">G. ula</span> as being Vulnerable based on A2c criterion (FRLHT 2009). No seeds have been collected for the Millennium Seed Bank.
194940		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum ula</span> is known from southwest and southeastern India (Western Ghats, Nilgiris, hills at Coromandel coast). It has also been reported from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The calculation for extent of occurrence (EOO) excluded these outlying localities.
194940		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum ula</em> is a large woody climber. It has been found on trees in the hill forests of the Nilgiris (Western Ghats). New leaves appear in March, flowers in March - April and fruits from April onwards, ripening yellow in November. Its distribution coincides with the following ecoregions: Karakoram- West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe, North Western Ghats montane rain forest, South  Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forest and Malabar Coast moist forest (Sahni 1990).
194940		population	eng	No population data and information on frequency is available for<em> G. ula</em>. Chittibabu and Parthasarathy (2005) report <em>G. ula</em> to be dominant at study sites in the Kolli Hills of the Eastern Ghats, although elsewhere it is reported as rare in the Orissa state.
194940		threats	eng	Large parts of the range of this species have suffered from habitat loss for a variety of reasons including conversion of land for agriculture and plantations, encroachment of human settlements and flooding as a consequence of hydro-electric projects (Rawat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
194941		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum loerzingii </em>was found in or close by the Gunung Leuser National Park. Since 2004 the area was largely extended to the “Leuser Ecosystem”. The Leuser Ecosystem is managed by the Leuser International Foundation, a nongovernmental organisation that was originally funded by the European Commission and the Government of Indonesia and now by the Exxon Mobil Foundation and multi-lateral grants. Also since 2004 this area together with the Kerinci Seblat National Park and the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park is inscribed as a World Heritage Area to protect and preserve the biodiversity of the Sumatran rainforests. Indications have been found that the management of at least the biggest national parks has been improved since 2006 (UNESCO World Heritage 2007).The species almost certainly has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194941		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum loerzingii</em> is endemic to north and west Sumatra.
194941		habitat	eng	Very little is known about the ecological preferences of <em>G. loerzingii.</em> It has been collected in tropical lowland rainforests of north and west Sumatra. Whether the species can grow in lower montane or montane forests is unknown.
194941		population	eng	There is no population data available for <em>G. loerzingii</em>. Apparently it was not common when Markgraf described it as a new species (Markgraf 1930).
194941		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>G. loerzingii</em> is habitat loss caused by mainly logging and by conversion of forests to arable land. The species is probably not common and maybe even rare. The conservation status of the Sumatran tropical lowland rainforst is critical due to years of very high deforestation rates. About nine percent of the ecoregion area is protected, but widespread illegal logging and fires in protected areas are a severe problem (Loucks and Whitten 2001).
194942		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but its range does coincide with several protected areas. Suggested conservation measures needed include further research on potential threats as well as monitoring existing populations.
194942		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern South America from north Brazil including French Guiana, Guyana to Venezuela.
194942		habitat	eng	Robust woody vine found on river margins and flooded forests from 200-1,100 m (Stevenson 1999).
194942		population	eng	Population size is not known.
194942		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species. Although the Guianan moist forests remain relatively stable/intact, logging and gold mining operations are allowing penetration into pristine rainforest and these potential threats should be monitored.
194943		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemon</em> has been found in several protected areas throughout its range: Tanintharyi National Park (Myanmar), Bang Lang National Park (Thailand), Taman Negara National Park, Bukit Larut Forest Reserve, Gunung Ledang Forsts Reserve, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve, Pulau Tioman Wildlife Reserve, Pulau Pemanggil Marine Park, Batang Ai National Park on Borneo/Sarawak (Malaysia), Mount Apo Natural Park, Palompon Watershed Forest Reserve, Palawan Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary, Taal Volcano National Park, Sibuyan Island Mangrove Forests Reserve, Bicol National Park, (Philippines), Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park on Sulawesi, Mamberamo-Pergungungan Foja Wildlife Reserve, Foja Game Reserve on Irian Jaya (Indonesia), Tonda Wildlife Mangagement Area (Papua New Guinea). The species was not assessed previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194943		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemon</em> is known from NE India, Tibet and southcentral China, Myanmar, Viet Nam, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sulawesi, Maluku, Philippines, Lesser Sunda Islands, New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, to Fiji and Samoa.
194943		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemon</em> grows in tropical rainforest climate with bimodal or uniform rainfall patterns between 750-5,000 mm/yr and thrives best where rainfall is between 3,000-5,000 mm/yr. It can also tolerate drought for some months assuming some soil moisture retention or irrigation during dry season. The species occurs at elevations between 0-1,700 m and can tolerant shade as well as full sun, a fairly large temperature range and probably infertile soil. It also fairs well in heavy winds, but does not tolerate salt spray and is therefore not a coastal species. The species has been found in flat areas and more often at hillsides in primary and secondary forests. Preferable substrate conditions are slightly acid to neutral soils, but the tree can also grow on calcareous rocks. The substrate can be high in clay or sand, and should be well drained (Manner and Elevitch 2006). <em>Gnetum gnemon</em> is cultivated in orchards and private gardens within its distribution range. In Papua New Guinea this species can be found growing alongside breadfruit (<span style="font-style: italic;">Artocarpus</span> spp.), <em>Pandanus conoideus </em>and other food and fiber species (Kennedy and Clarke 2004). It is intercropped with several species like <em>Arctocarpus camansi</em>, <em>Pandanus</em> spp., <em>Durio</em> spp., <em>Nephelium lappaceum</em> (rambutan) and <em>Parkia</em> sp.
194943		population	eng	<em>Gnetum gnemon</em> has been described as common to very common at low elevations in most of its distribution range (Manner and Elevitch 2006). There is no detailed population data known.
194943		threats	eng	The primary threat to<em> G. gnemon </em>is habitat loss through conversion of forests into crop plantations, commercial logging, expansion of urban areas and shifting agriculture at hillside locations. It is cultivated, but also wild specimens are harvested for fruits, leaves, and bark. It is unknown whether this threatens the wild population.
194944		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum buchholzianum</em> was found in the Szanga-Ndoki National Park. This national park is connected with further national parks in Congo and the Central African Republic. Several other national parks and forests reserves are found within the area of distribution of the species (Blom 2001).<br/>The species has not been rated previously.<br/><em><br/>Gnetum buchholzianum</em> and <em>G. africanum</em> (Eru) are hardly cultivated at all at present, but there is massive exploitation of the remaining natural stands, which have almost disappeared in Nigeria and are becoming scarce in Cameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic (Schippers 2004). With sustainability in mind research is being carried out on the selection, genetic improvement, vegetative propagation of vine cuttings and ex-situ management of two <em>Gnetum</em> species. Trials are being undertaken to establish appropriate cultivation and harvesting techniques to allow for the quick sprouting of vines (Ndam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/>A small collection (whether of seeds or of plants is not indicated) is currently held at the Limbe Botanic Garden, Limbe, Cameroon (Schippers 2004).
194944		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum buchholzianum</em> is known from tropical West Africa, ranging from Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon and the Congo.
194944		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum buchholzianum</em> can be found in rainforest from sea-level up to 1,200 m altitude, and prefers an annual rainfall of about 3,000 mm. It is usually found with other climbers on middle- and under-storey trees, frequently forming thickets. It can also be found in riverine forest in areas that would otherwise be too dry for the species. <em>Gnetum buchholzianum</em> is mainly found in primary forest, especially near openings created by fallen trees, and is today less common than <em>G. africanum</em> which mostly occurs at the periphery of primary forest and in secondary forest (Schippers 2004). It has been reported from volcanic, sandy and even clayey soils, but not in marshy areas.
194944		population	eng	There is no information on population size for specifically this taxon. Originally <em>G. buchholzianum</em> was not uncommon in Cameroon and possibly in adjacent countries. It has however been reported that <em>G. buchholzianum</em> and <em>G. africanum </em> (the two species are traded together under the local name Eru) nearly disappeared in Nigeria and becoming scarce in Cameroon. <em>Gnetum buchholzianum</em> has generally a smaller distribution area than <em> G. africanum</em> and might be more affected by this development (Schippers 2004).
194944		threats	eng	Present and future threats for <em>G. buchholzianum</em> are over-harvesting of the leaves due to its economic use and increase in trade. Unsustainable harvesting practices are common such as felling of trees upon which<em> G. buchholzianum</em> climbs in order to retrieve all the leaves, and the complete uprooting of the plant so that it is no longer able to reproduce.<br/><br/>The ecoregions in which this species occurs are labelled as vulnerable and the natural habitat of the species is threatened by commercial logging, expanding agriculture and anthropogenic fire. The original forests are often extensive fragmented and fragmentation is expected to increase.
194945		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum neglectum</em> was found in Kinabalu National Park, in Pin-Supu Virgin Jungle Reserve, Tawau Hill Park and the Bukit Taviu Protection Forest Reserve, all in the Malaysian part of Borneo and close to the Labi Hills Forest Reserves in Brunei Darussalam. The species has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. Several national parks, nature/forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries are established on Borneo and the WWF is active to engage the protection of the "Heart of Borneo", a continuous mostly montane area of about 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> that also includes some lowland rainforest. The project is in collaboration with the governments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.
194945		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum neglectum</em> is endemic to the island of Borneo, and has been mostly collected in the northeast.
194945		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum neglectum</em> is found in shady lowland and hill rainforests up to about 1,000 m. It has been reported from mixed dipterocarp and <em>Agathis</em> forests on hill sides, but mostly along rivers in primary and secondary forests. The species grows over sandstone and shale, and on podsolised white sand terraces.
194945		population	eng	There is no population data available for <em>G. neglectum</em>. There are several recent collections of the species, which might be an indication that it is not rare, especially in the north of the island.
194945		threats	eng	Specific threats to<em> G. neglectum</em> are not known. However, the natural habitat of the species, forests in lower and medium elevations, are severely threatened by commercial logging and the conversion of forests to oil palm and rubber plantations as well as by an increased rate of forest fires.
194946		conservation	eng	Known to occur in several protected areas across its range. The species is not known to have been collected as part of any<em> ex situ</em> conservation measure and has not previously been assessed.
194946		distribution	eng	Distributed from Costa Rica to southern Tropical America including Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and northern Brazil. A collection from Aspulnd (#18638) cites 1,200 m as the elevation although the Rio Pastaza location in Ecuador appears to be much lower <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 300-400 m.
194946		habitat	eng	A liana found along river margins, in wet evergreen forests and also swampy igapo forest (Markgraf 1965).  Reported in one site to be associated with <em>Bertholletia excelsa</em> and <em>Hevea</em> spp. (Nee 34584).
194946		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species, although it was reported to be common and frequent at some localities.
194946		threats	eng	Habitats where this species is found range from being stable in some areas to vulnerable in others as a result of threats including deforestation caused by conversion of land for cattle ranching or plantations e.g., coca (Sears <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001)
194947		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum klossii</em> has been found in several protected areas in different regions of Borneo (northwest: Gunung Gading National Park (NP) and Kubah NP; northeast: Mulu NP, Ulu Temburong NP, Kinabalu NP and Sepilok Virgin Jungle Reserve; southeast: Bukit Soehartu Nature Recreation Reserve). The species almost certainly has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. The WWF is active to engage the protection of the "Heart of Borneo", a continuous mostly montane area of about 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> that also includes some lowland rainforest. The project is in collaboration with the governments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.
194947		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum klossii</em> is endemic to Borneo where it has been mostly collected in the north of the island.
194947		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum klossii</em> is a strong woody climber that can be found from lowland dipterocarp forests up to lower montane forests. Mostly it has been found in primary forests on ridges and hill slopes. According to specimen labels the species grows on sandy to clayey soil and has been found in forests on limestone, but also on mor soil over sandstone base rock.
194947		population	eng	There is no population data available for <em>G. klossii</em>. The species has been repeatedly collected in the past and also in the 1990s suggesting that it is probably not rare.
194947		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>G. klossii</em> is that its distribution is limited to one island (Borneo) and that the preferred habitats of the species, lowland and lower montane forests, are threatened by a combination of commercial logging, conversion of primary rainforest to agricultural land and plantations (rubber and oil palm), hydro projects, mining and expansion of urban areas (Loucks 2001, 2001, 2001).
194948		conservation	eng	The species occurs in some protected areas across its range. No seeds have been collected for the Millennium Seed Bank project.
194948		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in tropical South America including French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and northern Brazil.
194948		habitat	eng	Woody vine/liana known to occur within primary rainforest of the Amazon basin, occasionally along river banks. Some collections recorded from savannas and disturbed areas. It occurs within the following ecoregions: Napo moist forest, Madeira- Tapajos moist forest, Iquitos varzea, Guianan piedmont and lowland moist forest, Guianan moist forest, Purus- Madeira moist forest.
194948		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
194948		threats	eng	There are general threats across the range of this species including extensive deforestation, selected harvesting of trees and disturbance as a result of mining operations.
194949		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> contractum</em> has been collected near or in the Mudumalai Sanctuary, which is connected to the Bandipur National Park and the Wayanad Sanctuary. No indication was found that <em>G. contractum</em> has been previously rated and no species specific conservation measures exist. Several national parks and sanctuaries are established in the area, but some sanctuaries are still threatened by commercial plantations within the boundaries of the protected area. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) is considered as a representative area of the Western Ghats and covers 5,670 km<sup>2</sup>. It was set up in 1986 as the first Biosphere Reserve in India. A report (Daniels 1996) on the conservation status points out some management problems mostly concerning cattle grazing, fire, human encroachment, and habitat management problems. The Western Ghats including the Nilgiri Sub-Cluster are in the tentative list of becoming UNESCO World Heritage. From 2000 to 2004 the Kerala BSAP established a framework for Conservation and Sustainable Development with a strong focus at the province Kerala.
194949		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum contractum</em> is known from southern India where it is endemic to Kerala and the Nilgiris.
194949		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span> <em>contractum</em> grows in forests. Forests in its area of distribution are moist deciduous forests and montane rainforests.
194949		population	eng	No information about population data and abundance of <em>G. contractum </em>is available. The species is known from very few specimens only, also the Indian Gymnosperm Flora (Sahni 1990) lists only old collections. It is probably not very common even in its natural habitat.
194949		threats	eng	Major threats to <em>G. contractum </em>are deforestation and fragmentation of the habitats. Most of the forest in the region has been cleared (three-quarters of lowland forests and two-thirds of the montane forest) and the remaining habitat is fragmented. The ecoregions in which the species occurs (South Western Ghats moist deciduous forest and montane forest) are both classified as critical/endangered (Rawat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2001). The threats to these ecoregion's natural habitats and biodiversity are manifold. Some of the major threats include conversion of forests into tea, coffee, potato, teak, Eucalyptus, and cardamom plantations, also road construction, tourism pressures, and livestock grazing have high impact on the ecosystems (Rodgers and Panwar 1988, WII 1999).
194950		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum latifolium</em> occurs in protected areas on Sumatra, Java, Borneo, different islands of the Philippines, and Sulawesi. Protected areas are established in all countries and ecoregions where <em>G. latifolium</em> occurs. The species almost certainly has not been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist.
194950		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum latifolium</em> is known from tropical SE Asia ranging from India (Nicobar and Andaman Islands), Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Malaysia (Peninsula Malaysia, Borneo), Indonesia (incl. Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Celebes, Maluku, Papua), Philippines, to Papua New Guinea (New Guinea, Bismarck archipelago) and Solomon Islands. It is possible that the species also occurs in southern China and in mainland India (Assam).
194950		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum latifolium</em> has mostly been found in well drained primary and secondary forest on hill ridges and slopes, but also repeatedly in peat swamp and riverine forests. It was recorded to climb on<em> Ficus </em>and <em>Shorea albida</em> trees. Specimen labels indicate that it can grow on yellow clayish and sandy soil of volcanic tuff and on dark brown soil.
194950		population	eng	No population data are available for <em>G. latifolium</em>, but according to Hiêp and Vidal (1996) the species is relatively common at least in Indochina.
194950		threats	eng	Parts of wild growing <em>G. latifolium</em> are harvested for either food (seeds and leaves) or gaining fibre (bark) and in some regions that might influence the population. However, the use does not seem to be very substantial and for example no indication of trade of <em>G. latifolium</em> products could be found. The major threat to this species is therefore certainly habitat loss. The species is restricted to moist tropical/subtropical lowland and lower montane forests of SE Asia. Most of the ecoregions with this habitat type are listed as threatened and very often they are critical/endangered. The threats may vary from region to region, however, logging and conversion of forest land to cash crop plantations (for example, oil palm, rubber, coffee) are the biggest and very widespread threats. Shifting agriculture, road building and burning also affect previously less accessible lower slope forests.
194951		conservation	eng	There are several nature reserves on Hainan and <em>G. parvifolium</em> has been collected in or near Wenlanjiang Nature Reserve. Forests in the montanous region of the island are still in good condition and rich in natural vegetation (M.G. Gilbert pers. comm.).  In Viet Nam, <em>G. parvifolium</em> was found close to the Ba Ba-Nui Chua Nature Reserve and in Lao PDR in the Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area. The species has not been assessed previously and no species specific conservations measures exist. The remaining forests in the ecoregions are habitat of not only <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span>, but also of threatened primates and other flag-ship species. National and international programs are therefore active in forest conservation and improvement of management of existing forest reserves.
194951		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum parvifolium</em> is known from southcentral China, Hainan and southeast China to Indo-China, including Laos and Viet Nam.
194951		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum parvifolium </em>grows in moist, shady tropical and subtropical forests up to 1,000 m altitude. It has been found in thicket on sandy soil and also along streams.
194951		population	eng	In the 1930s, <em>G. parvifolium</em> was reported to be fairly common on Hainan. The forests on the island have been greatly reduced since, but the species should still exist in the intact slope forests that are found in the mountainous south of the island. The species is not uncommon today in the Hong Kong area according to M.G. Gilbert (pers. comm.). There are no further details on population data known.
194951		threats	eng	The major threat of <em>G. parvifolium</em> is habitat loss caused by deforestation. The ecoregions where the species has been found are all classified as critical/endangered or vulnerable. The regions are quite densely populated and the natural forest habitats have been cleared to a great extent. Plantations cover most of the land and valuable hardwood trees and other plant resources are exploited from remaining forests. Protected areas are mostly small and forests habitats are therefore quite fragmented (Carpenter 2001, 2001; Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001; Wikramanayake and Rundel 2001; Wikramanayake<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001). Hiêp and Vidal (1996) report that the fibre of the bark of <em>G. parvifolium</em> is used to make ropes in Guangdong and the seeds yield edible oil and are eaten fried. It is not predictable from this information alone whether the human use is a threat to the population of the species.
194952		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum tenuifolium</em> was once collected in the Si Phang Nga National Park (Thailand). Si Phang Nga NP is one of several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in southern Thailand that form a large continuous aggregation of about 5,600 km<sup>2</sup> protected forest land. All other reported specimens originate from unprotected areas. The species has not been assessed previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. The WWF is active in Thailand and Malaysia to provide assistance in management and community work of protected forests. Several endangered charismatic mammals in Indochina and Sumatra are dependent on primary or old grown secondary lowland forests. Protection efforts focused on these species and their habitat could be beneficial for the population of <em>G. tenuifolium</em> as well.
194952		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum tenuifolium</em> occurs in southern Thailand, Malay Peninsula and on Sumatra.
194952		habitat	eng	Specimen label information indicates<em> G. tenuifolium</em> is present in dense evergreen lowland forests and has been found repeatedly in rocky forests. In the Flora of Ko Hong Hill, Songkla prov., Thailand it is reported from secondary forest and overgrown <em>Hevea </em>rubber estates, where it grows mostly in shaded places (Maxwell 2006).
194952		population	eng	There are no exact population data available for <em>G. tenuifolium</em>. In the Flora of Ko Hong Hill, Songkla prov., Thailand the species is reported as occasional (Maxwell 2006). All other reports are mainly from old collections, with only a few specimens collected between 1970 to 1990 from Thailand and the Malay Peninsula.
194952		threats	eng	The major threat to <em>G. tenuifolium </em>is habitat loss through forest clearing for conversion mainly to rubber and oil palm plantations and rice fields. Especially on the Malay Peninsula lowland forests are highly threatened and only a fifth of the original forest remains and is scattered in fragments over the country (Loucks 2001). On Sumatra the habitat of <em>G. tenuifolium</em>, peat swamp forest, is highly threatened by draining for transmigration and development projects and the conversion of forest land to plantations e.g. pineapple plantations. Logging concessions cover almost 80% of the remaining Sumatra peat swamp forests and pose a serious threat to habitat integrity and conservation (Loucks and Whitten 2001).
194953		conservation	eng	The area where <em>G. arboreum</em> was collected has been recognized as a key biodiversity area recently (the area is inhabited by the Philippine Eagle) and should be protected area (Mts. Irid, Angilo and Binuang area) in the near future. According to BirdLife IBA information the montane forests of Mts. Irid, Angilo and Binuang (the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. arboreum</span>) are still in good conditions and no major threat could be detected in a recent forest mapping survey (BirdLife International 2009). The "Golden Forest Project" launched in 2005 is a five-year project grant awarded from the European Commission to the Haribon Foundation. One aim of the project is to reduce deforestation rates in Mts. Irid-Angelo in the provinces of Quezon, Aurora, Bulacan and Rizal. This will further help to protect the habitat of <em>G. arboreum</em>. No species specific conservation measures exist.
194953		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum arboreum</em> is reported only from the Sierra Madre Mountains on Luzon Island, Philippines (Markgraf 1930). The type was found at Mt. Binuang in the province Quezon (Foxworthy 1911). Merrill (1925) lists additional findings from the same mountain range with localities further north in the provinces Rizal and Nueva Ecija. He also reports that these collections by Ramos and Edaño are climbers and not trees, as it was reported for <em>G. arboreum</em>. It might therefore be necessary to evaluate the taxonomic identity of these collections since other species of <em>Gnetum</em> occur on Luzon Island.
194953		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum arboreum</em> is reported growing in mossy montane rainforest at 900 m altitude.
194953		population	eng	<em>Gnetum arboreum</em> is apparently rare and restricted to one mountain range.
194953		threats	eng	<em>Gnetum arboreum</em> is known from a very limited area in close vicinity to the town Infanta and not far from the capital Manila. Habitat conversion due to mainly commercial legal and illegal logging and degradation caused by the logging are major threats in the area. Conversion of highland areas to "large-scale plantations is expanding and causing both displacement of subsistence farmers (who then move further upslope) and increased erosion, which is already a serious problem. New roads, and in some areas mining projects, directly threaten forests but also make forests more susceptible exploitation as a result of increased accessibility. Subsistence hunting and capture of species for a growing wildlife pet trade adversely affect many of the ecoregion's species.
194954		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum diminutum</em> was found in several protected areas as the Kubah National park, Talang Satang National Park, Lungmanis Virgin Jungle Reserve, and the Bidu-Bidu Protection Forest Reserve in the Malayan part, the Labi Hills Forests Reserve in Brunei and the Gunung Palung National Park and Bukit Soeharto Nature Recreation Reserve in the Indonesian part of Borneo. No indication was found that <em>G. diminutum</em> has been rated previously and no species specific conservation measures exist. Several national parks, nature/forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries are established on Borneo and the WWF is active to engage the protection of the "Heart of Borneo", a continuous mostly montane area of about 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> that also includes some lowland rainforest. The project is in collaboration with the goverments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.
194954		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum diminutum</em> is endemic to Borneo.
194954		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum diminutum</em> occurs in primary lowland to lower montane dipterocarp forest, often on ridges, slopes and hill tops, commonly also near river banks. It can be found on sandy as well as on rocky soil.
194954		population	eng	There is no population data available for <em>G. diminutum</em>. The species was collected several times from different locations in the 1980s and 1990s, which might be an indication that it is not uncommon, especially in the north of the island.
194954		threats	eng	The major threats to <em>G. diminutum</em> is that its distribution is limited to one island (Borneo) and that the preferred habitats of the species are threatened among others by large scale commercial logging, illegal logging and the conversion to oil palm, tee and rubber plantations. Additional threats are mining activities and at smaller scale slash and burn techniques to acquire agricultural land (Loucks 2001). Some montane forests are still intact on Borneo, but may face significant threats in the future from planned mining operations, large dams, and conversion to agriculture and high-altitude timber plantations (Loucks 2001).
194955		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in some protected areas. There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
194955		distribution	eng	Originally thought to be restricted to lower and middle Amazon (Markgraf 1965), now reported to occur more widely in Bolivar province of Venezuela (Hokche <em>et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2008) and Peru (J.G. Graham 389, B. Wallnofer 251088).
194955		habitat	eng	Occurs in primary lowland rainforest, often near rivers or flooded areas.
194955		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
194955		threats	eng	Although large areas of the Amazon basin remain intact, there is significant pressure on the moist forests across the range of this species. Development along roads, deforestation for timber or cattle ranching and mining developments all pose threats.
194956		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place, but populations are known to occur within the protected areas network.
194956		distribution	eng	Distributed across tropical South America including French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, Peru and northern Brazil.
194956		habitat	eng	Slender vine found in river basins in flooded forests, black water swamps and tepuis (Stevenson 1999).
194956		population	eng	Widespread in Bolívar and Amazonas (Stevenson 1999) and reported as relatively common in forest canopy (Stevenson 1997).
194956		threats	eng	Large parts of the range include intact moist forest and many collections have been made within protected areas. Aside from general threats of deforestation, mining and expansion of urban areas, there are no major threats at present.
194957		conservation	eng	<em>Gnetum cuspidatum </em>was repeatedly found in what are now protected areas all over its range of distribution for example in Viet Nam (Ba Na-Nui Chua Nature Reserve (NR)), Cambodia (Preah Monivong National Park (NP)), Malaya Peninsula (Taman Negara NP, Endau Rompin (Johor) NP), Sumatra (Bukit Raja Mandara Protection Forest, border of Leuser Ecosystem), Java (in close vicinity of or in Gunung Gede Pangrango NP and Depok NR), Borneo (Ulu Temburong NP, Sungai Imbak Virgin Jungle Reserve, Kinabalu NP, Kepulauan Karimata NR) and in western New Guinea (Foja Game Reserve). No indication has been found that <em>G. cuspidatum</em> was previously rated and no species specific conservation measures exist.<br/><br/>In all countries within the range of <em>G. cuspidatum </em>there are national and international initiatives for preserving tropical forests. Many projects are primary species orientated, but some are also focused on establishing new protective areas and to enhance management for such areas to ensure preservation of biodiversity. For Indonesia a debt-for-nature swap of money from for example the US government and other countries for tropical forest conservation was initiated.
194957		distribution	eng	<em>Gnetum cuspidatum</em> is known throughout tropical Southeast Asia from Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo to the Maluku, Sulawesi and New Guinea.
194957		habitat	eng	<em>Gnetum cuspidatum</em> was repeatedly found on forested slopes and in alluvial forests with clayey to dry soil. Occasionally it has been found on limestone. Mainly thriving in shady areas it has been noted to grow in open bamboo forests and in open forests on the Talaud-Islands. On Borneo it was collected on Mt Kinabalu in altitudes of 500-1,700 m, at other areas it was mainly found at altitudes below 1,000 m.
194957		population	eng	There are many collections of<em> G. cuspidatum</em> from the Malay Peninsula, indicating that it was, at least at the beginning of the 20th century, a common species in that area. Markgraf (1929) reports that the species was at that time not uncommon on Sumatra and on the Talaud-Islands of North Sulawesi. Little is known about the situation today, only in the flora of Cambodia, Laos and Viet Nam (Hiep and Vidal 1996) <em>G. cuspidatum</em> is described as relatively common.
194957		threats	eng	The biggest threat to the integrity of the habitat of <em>G. cuspidatum</em> are legal and illegal logging. In Borneo this has been due to commercial logging and the conversion of pristine forest to rubber and oil palm plantations. These threats are also prominent on Peninsula Malaysia with the additional issues of hydroelectric projects, mining, road building and urban expansion. Montane forests are in better condition than lowland forests, but tourism is also expanding in the mountains and with that comes the issue of road building which threatens to remove and fragment primary rainforest. The situation has been and will be exacerbated by lack of authority and implementation of existing environmental laws in major areas of the species distribution. Several ecoregions the species occurs in are classified as vulnerable or critical/endangered, for example southern Viet Nam lowland dry forests, Red River swamp forests, Peninsula Malaysia Rainforests, Borneo Lowland rainforests and freshwater and peat swamp forests, Sumatran lowland rainforests and peat swamp forests (Loucks 2001, 2001, 2011; Loucks and Whitten 2001; Morrison 2001; Wikramanayake and Boonratana 2001).
194958		conservation	eng	Domestication programmes to alleviate harvesting pressure on wild populations are being developed. <em>Gnetum africanum</em> has been recorded from several protected areas across its range and is likely to be found in many more.
194958		distribution	eng	This species is found from west central tropical Africa to Angola including Central African Republic, Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola.
194958		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnetum</span><em> africanum</em> has been recorded in both primary and secondary semi-deciduous, humid forests, in some cases where the forest had been degraded substantially. The species tolerates both dense forests and the transition of anthropogenous grass savanna to forest at exposed, sunny locations. In most cases however <em>G. africanum</em> is a shade tolerant plant and doesn't like direct sunlight.  It has also been collected from riverine forest environments that were seasonally flooded and had soils of sandy composition.
194958		population	eng	The population size is not known.
194958		threats	eng	Over-harvesting for local, national and international trade is the main threat to this species.
194960		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
194960		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present from Syria along the north coast to Alicante, Spain, including Balearic islands, Cyprus, Lebanon and north of Israel.
194960		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow waters (Briggs 1979). It can live out of water and lives exclusively amongst pebbles.
194960		population	eng	There is no population information.
194960		threats	eng	Coastal development could be a major threat to this species.
194961		conservation	eng	Additional survey work is required to circumscribe the distribution of this species, which is known to date only from the type locality.
194961		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality on the Pani Chaung (Ayeyarwaddy River drainage), near Gokkyi village, eastern slopes of the Rakhine Yoma, Myanmar.
194961		habitat	eng	The Pani Chaung is a swift-flowing stream with dense banks and overhanging vegetation, and a substrate of sand, gravel and small boulders (Conway and Britz 2010).
194961		population	eng	No information is available on this species' population. The species is only known from the type series, which is composed of 13 specimens.
194961		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
194962		conservation	eng	Additional survey work is required to circumscribe the distribution of this species, which is known to date only from the type locality.
194962		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the headwaters of the Ann Chaung drainage, western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, in Myanmar.
194962		habitat	eng	Precise habitat information is not yet available for the type locality of this species.
194962		population	eng	No information is available. The species is known only from the type series, which is composed of four specimens.
194962		threats	eng	No information on threats is available.
194963		conservation	eng	Additional survey work is required to circumscribe the distribution of this species, which is known to date only from the type locality.
194963		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the headwaters of the Ann Chaung drainage, western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, Myanmar (Conway and Kottelat 2010).
194963		habitat	eng	Precise habitat information is not yet available for the type locality of this species, though it has been collected from the (presumably fast-flowing) headwaters of a stream.
194963		population	eng	No information is available. This species is known only from the type series, which is composed of seven specimens.
194963		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
194964		conservation	eng	Additional survey work is required to circumscribe the distribution of this species, which is known to date only from the type locality.
194964		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single locality on the Man Chaung (Ayeyarwaddy River drainage), 0.5 miles from Zinpyone village, eastern slopes of the Rakhine Yoma, Myanmar (Conway and Britz 2010).
194964		habitat	eng	The Man Chaung is a swift-flowing river, with dense riparian vegetation and a substrate of sand, gravel and small boulders (Conway and Britz 2010).
194964		population	eng	No information is available. This species is known only from the type series, which is composed of two specimens, collected at a single locality.
194964		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
194965		conservation	eng	Additional survey work is required to circumscribe the distribution of this species, which is known to date only from a few localities in the vicinity of Putao, northern Myanmar.
194965		distribution	eng	This species is known to date only from a few localities in the upper Ayeyarwaddy River drainage, in the vicinity of Putao, Myanmar.
194965		habitat	eng	The type locality (at the confluence of the Ma Kyaww Wa Chaung and its tributary the Nan Hto Chaung) is a small rapidly flowing hill stream. It is described in detail by Kullander and Britz (2002) and Kullander and Fang (2005).
194965		population	eng	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. It is known only from a few specimens (two collected in 1938, 19 collected in 1998).
194965		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
194966		conservation	eng	More research on species distribution and life cycle.
194966		distribution	eng	The species is found in the Mekong basin (Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand) and Viet Nam (in the Srepok not the delta, and the Dong Nai basin).
194966		habitat	eng	The species is migratory as it is known from certain areas at certain times (March/April), but it is unknown where the species goes to at other times of year (Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
194966		population	eng	Seasonally and locally common. Commonly caught in March and April (e.g. below the Khone Falls, southern Lao PDR; Attapeu, Lao PDR; Srepok in Viet Nam. It is unknown where the species goes to outside of this time of year. The species is believed to be going through a slow steady decline due to over harvesting.
194966		threats	eng	The major current threat to the species is over-harvesting, which is causing slow substantial declines. The species will be seriously impacted by dams (as it is migratory) that are currently proposed on the Mekong within and above the species range.
194967		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194967		distribution	eng	In the western Atlantic, this species is present from southern Florida and Mexico to southern Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Morocco to Mauritania.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present along the Iberian coast (Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984, Lloris <em>et al. </em> 1998), Balearic Islands, Algerian coast (E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007), Anatolian coast (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), Adriatic Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea.
194967		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs on the shelf and upper slope, burrowing on muddy bottoms (Saldanha 1986). In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is mainly caught by trawlers during the night (Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its typical depth range in the western Mediterranean Sea is from 200-400 m (E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007).
194967		population	eng	This species is probably fairly common but under-recorded.
194967		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194968		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194968		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from southern Portugal to Angola. In the western Atlantic, it is present in North Carolina, USA and from north Gulf of Mexico to north South America (Robins and Ray 1986). It is also present in the western Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea.<br/><br/>It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (Tyrrhenian Sea) (IREPA 2003), but is not found in the Marmara Sea.
194968		habitat	eng	This benthic species is found on the littoral shelf, burrowing in galleries on sandy and muddy bottoms in the Mediterranean Sea. It is carnivorous (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986).
194968		population	eng	This species is very common.
194968		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194969		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194969		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway and Iceland to Senegal.<br/><br/>It is widespread in the whole Mediterranean Sea, including the Aegean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984, Golani <strong style="font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;">et al.</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2006), the Marmara Sea and the western part of the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
194969		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with a wide bathymetric range (0-1200 m). It is found on rocky and sandy bottoms (Göthel 1992). Its depth ranges from 0 to 500 m (Smith 1990) and from 305 to 1200 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). Young individuals stay near the coast and move toward deeper waters upon reaching adulthood (Maigret and Ly 1986). <br/><br/>It is a nocturnal predator (Göthel 1992), on fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). Like other species of this taxonomic group, it reproduces only once in its life (Maigret and Ly 1986). Individuals are sexually mature at an age from 5 to 15 years. They spawn during summer in the Atlantic off Portugal and in the Mediterranean Sea. Females produces between 3 to 8 million eggs (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Eggs are deposited in the open sea, at depths between 2,000-3,000 m (Göthel 1992).
194969		population	eng	It is a common species.<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) mention that ten specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), ranging from 37.2 cm to 49.5 cm TL.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) mention that eight specimens, with lengths ranging from 20.9 to 62.5 cm TL, were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) mention that 106 specimens were seasonally obtained during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>According to FAO-GFCM, 8,210 kg were fished from Barcelona fleet in 2005.<br/><br/>Filiz and Bilge (2004) mention that 22 specimens, with lengths ranging from 32.2 and 65.4 cm TL, were collected during March and July 2003 by commercial fisherman from the Sıgacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea) at depths between 70 and 378 m.
194969		threats	eng	This species is commercially fished, but it is not a target species. According to landing data from Europe (FAO Area 37 Mediterranean and Black Seas), <em> Conger conger</em> were caught mainly by hooks and lines, but also by trawls, trammel-nets and traps. This species can also be used in public aquariums.<br/><br/>The following<em> Conger conger</em> annual landings in the Mediterranean Sea (between 1996 and 2005, in tons) were obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 2,610 (1996), 1,669 (1997), 1,572 (1998), 2,423 (1999), 2,303 (2000), 2,387 (2001), 21,136 (2002), 1,642 (2003), 1,755 (2004), 2,448 (2005).
194970		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194970		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from south Portugal to Morocco.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>Gnathophis mystax</em> is widespread, its range includes the Catalan Sea (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), Tyrrhenian Sea (IREPA 2003, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005) and around the Balearic Islands (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007).
194970		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is found on muddy or sandy bottoms of the continental slope. It is a burrowing species that feeds on benthic invertebrates and probably small fishes.
194970		population	eng	It is a fairly common species.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (230 individuals/h), November 2001 (36 individuals/h), March 2002 (14 individuals/h) and May 2002 (26 individuals/h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24 hours period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end, respectively.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that this species was collected in the northeastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 total hauls).
194970		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited (when caught it is discarded). No major threats are known.
194971		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194971		distribution	eng	This species is known from Gibraltar to Angola.  It has been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), but is not endemic. There are only two records, both in Italy: bay of Naples and Island of Elba (Portoferraio) (Blache and Tortonese 1968).
194971		habitat	eng	This species is found on the shelf on sand and muddy bottoms. Larger individuals of this species are caught mainly between 10-100 m depth (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
194971		population	eng	There is no species-specific population information available.
194971		threats	eng	There are currently no known major threats for this species.
194972		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194972		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Azores to the offshore islands in the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there is only one single record from France (off Nice) (Whitehead 1984).
194972		habitat	eng	It is a demersal species that can be found on rough sand or rocks (Smith and Böhlke 1990).
194972		population	eng	There is only one record of this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
194972		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194973		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It has been reported from the Cabrera Archipelago National Park (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1980). This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194973		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from south Portugal to Cape Verde, including the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands.<br/> <br/>It is widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Balearic Islands (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1980).
194973		habitat	eng	It is a demersal species that can be found on the continental shelf, on rocky coasts, rough sand, gravel, crevices, small caves, and shadowed zones (Bauchot 1986). It feeds on small crabs and gastropods (Böhlke 1981). This species occurs to at least 85 m.
194973		population	eng	This species is widespread but rare.
194973		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species, but it lives in coastal habitats where it may be vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts. It is occasionally caught as bycatch.
194974		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in Turkey (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194974		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from south of the British Isles to Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, and Cape Verde. It is also found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Balearic islands (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1980) and the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
194974		habitat	eng	This is a territorial species (Göthel 1992), commonly found  in holes, and in crevices under rocks or corals. It feeds on fish, crabs and squids (Göthel 1992). It seldom attacks unless provoked (Bauchot 1986).
194974		population	eng	This species is moderately common. However, in at least some parts of its range (e.g., Turkey), there are signs of population decline (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007).
194974		threats	eng	This species has only minor commercial importance. The skin can be used for leather (Frimodt 1995). In some parts of its range it is a popular target species for spear-fishing (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Spear fishing from sport fishing might have reduced populations in some areas (Frau <em>et al.</em> 2003).
194976		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194976		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasin 2000) and off the coasts of Portugal and Morocco. There are only records from the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas (Saldanha 1984) and the Bay of Antalya (Turkey) (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
194976		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabiting depths of 30-730 m (Smith 1990).
194976		population	eng	This species is presumably not rare, but there is very little data.
194976		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194979		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194979		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present off River Congo.  There is a single record in the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead 1984, Quignard and Tomasini 2000).
194979		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species.
194979		population	eng	There is only a single record in the Mediterranean Sea.  No population information is available for this species.
194979		threats	eng	This species is not commercially fished in the Mediterranean Sea.
194980		conservation	eng	In the Balearic islands, this species is listed as Near Threatened by Mayol<em> et al.</em> (2000), but with no rationale. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194980		distribution	eng	In eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Morocco to Cape Verde islands.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the western Mediterranean Sea (including Balearics) (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1995) and also occurs in parts of the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
194980		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that burrows in sand or mud on the continental shelf (Leiby 1990).
194980		population	eng	This species is presumably common in the western Mediterranean Sea and less common in the east. It is nocturnal and consequently under-reported.
194980		threats	eng	This is not a commercially exploited species. Its burrowing habit affords some protection from fisheries. Beach replenishment (dredging sand from moderate depths to supplement sand on beach) may be a local threat (e.g., in the Balearic islands) (Mayol <em>et al.</em> 2000).
194981		conservation	eng	In the Balearic islands, this species is listed as Near Threatened by Mayol <em>et al. </em>(2000), but with no rationale. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194981		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the western Mediterranean Sea, including the Balearic islands (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1995). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, there are records from the coasts of Turkey (Fricke<em> et al.</em> 2007) and Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It also occurs in the Atlantic: records include Morocco, Azores and Gulf of Guinea, the latter is only based on one adult and a larvae (Leiby 1990). This species may extend southwards to South Africa (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
194981		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that burrows in sand or mud on the continental shelf (Leiby 1990). <br/><br/>Carlier<em> et al. </em>(2007) mention that two specimens were collected in the Bay of Banyuls-sur-Mer during March 2004 between 5-35 m depth using trawler. There are records down to 150 m on the Iberian coast (Lloris and Rucabado 1998).
194981		population	eng	This species is fairly common in the western Mediterranean Sea (it is more common than its congener <em>A. anguiformis</em>). There are only two records in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
194981		threats	eng	It is not a commercially exploited species. Its burrowing habit affords it some protection from fisheries. Beach replenishment (dredging sand from moderate depths to supplement sand on beach) may be a local threat (e.g., in the Balearic islands) (Mayol <em>et al. </em>2000).
194982		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194982		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Spain to Mauritania. It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (including Balearic islands) (Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984).
194982		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species with burrowing behaviour in sand or mud.
194982		population	eng	It is a common species.
194982		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194984		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194984		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Bay of Biscay to Pointe Noire, Congo.<br/><br/>It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (including the Balearic Islands) (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007 ).
194984		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species, found on mud and sand bottom, mainly in estuaries and coastal lagoons. It burrows in sand with only the head protruding (Schneider 1990). This species occurs from 5-350 m depth (Lloris and Rucabado 1998).
194984		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>Cicek <em>et al.</em> (2006) mention that 310 specimens, with lengths ranging from 4.4 and 49.5cm TL, were collected in the Babadillimani Bight, located at the west entrance of Mersin Bay (Turkey, north-east Mediterranean Sea), from May 1999 to April 2000.  Fish were caught at depths between 20 to 100 m, using a commercial bottom trawl net (6 mm cod-end mesh size - tow duration restricted to 1h - 36 hauls).
194984		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194986		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194986		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the north coast of Iberian peninsula to South Africa, including Madeira. In the western Indian Ocean, it is present from southern Mozambique to South Africa. In the western Pacific, it occurs in Japan and Australasia (although this may be a separate species).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea this species is widespread in the western part (including the Balearic Islands) (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007) and extends eastwards to the Aegean and Marmara Seas (Fricke 2007).
194986		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the continental shelf on sand or mud bottoms (Leiby 1990). It buried with only its head exposed (Bianchi <em>et al. </em>1993). It is also found in estuaries (May and Maxwell 1986).
194986		population	eng	It is a fairly common cryptic species.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) mention that two specimens with length of 15.8-16.9 cm TL, were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.
194986		threats	eng	This species is rarely commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194987		conservation	eng	<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">   <p>On the mainland in the Valle de Aguán, a subpopulation occurs within Pico Bonito National Park South, although limited protection or enforcement against collecting is allotted in this area.&#160; Within the Valle de Aguán, locals are working to create a research and breeding station similar to the one established on Utila for the protection and management of the Utila Spiny-tailed Iguana (<em>Ctenosaura bakeri</em>).&#160; The board of directors for the Utila Station will advise the Aguán station.</p>    In an effort to reduce illegal trade and over-harvesting, the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana was recently listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;<br/>Research needs for this iguana include further population size surveys and monitoring of harvest level trends. Conservation actions recommended include creation of a species action plan and area-based management plan focusing on habitat management, monitoring, and protection, educational awareness, and trade and harvesting regulation and enforcement.</span></span></span></span>
194987		distribution	eng	The Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is known only from the Valle de Aguán in northern Honduras and the Cayos Cochinos Archipelago off the Caribbean coast of Honduras. The extent of occurrence for the subpopulation within the Aguán Valley is estimated to be 1,316 km². This subpopulation occurs up to 250 m above sea level.
194987		habitat	eng	<p>The Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana inhabits tropical and subtropical dry forest and scrubland up to 250 meters above sea level (Holdridge 1967, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).&#160; It is semi-arboreal and diurnal, taking refuge in hollow logs and rock crevices at night.&#160; Within the Valle de Aguán it is found most often in undisturbed tropical scrub forests consisting of abundant <em>Acacia</em> and cacti, where it retreats in the hollows of these dominant species.&#160; This iguana<em> </em>is omnivorous, consuming fruit, flowers, leafy vegetation, arthropods, a variety of lizards, birds (especially fledglings), and carrion. </p>    <p>In captivity, the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana lives from 10 to 15 years and reaches sexual maturity at two to three years.&#160; They lay eggs twice a year in February/March and August/September. &#160;Clutch sizes range from 11 to 41 eggs.&#160; The incubation period ranges from 85 to 90 days.&#160; Hatchlings have a snout-vent length of 41-52 mm, a total length of 114-149 mm, and average weight of 4 grams (E. Henningheim pers. comm. 2009).</p>
194987		population	eng	<p>The total population size is not known, but is estimated to be less than 5,000 mature individuals within the two range areas (Aguán Valley and Cayos Cochinos). &#160;Although the geographic range of this iguana is substantially greater for the Valle de Aguán subpopulation than for the Cayos Cochinos, the density of individuals throughout the Valle is extremely low, making this species very rare within this part of its range and seldom observed (S.A. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2011). &#160;Because the number of iguanas has declined in recent decades as threats have increased, the mainland is no longer considered a stronghold for this species and it is believed their numbers are fewer than on Cayos Cochinos. &#160;The subpopulation is decreasing rapidly, primarily due to habitat destruction and exploitation.&#160; Although there are no proper estimates for the past and current population size within this area, interviews with local people indicate there has been a dramatic decrease in iguana numbers over the last 20 years (S.A. Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). &#160;The&#160;Valle de Aguán&#160;subpopulation is genetically distinct from the&#160;Cayos Cochinos iguanas&#160;and has been described as a separate evolutionarily significant unit (Pasachnik&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2011).</p>
194987		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is habitat destruction and fragmentation.&#160; The amount of destruction within the Valle de Aguán poses a much larger threat than on Cayos Cochinos.&#160; Land conversion for agriculture began in the 1970s in this region.&#160; Dole Fruit Company has a large and expanding banana plantation, causing optimal habitat to be continually cleared and pesticides to be spread throughout the area. &#160;Smaller scale destruction also occurs as land is being cleared for cattle.&#160; Cattle are permitted to graze within Pico Bonito National Park South, which is the only protected area where this iguana occurs within the Valle de Aguán.&#160; The exact amount of land conversion is unknown, but it appears that more than 50% has been affected to some degree (S.A. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2009). &#160;Additionally, abundant feral dogs, cats, and rats are predators of iguanas and their eggs and their impact on the iguana population is severe.<br/></p><p>Adult iguanas and eggs are sought for both immediate consumption and sale.&#160; On Cayos Mayor, individuals are collected for consumption, but this threat is much more extreme within the Valle de Aguán.&#160; In Olanchito, Valle de Aguán, a festival exists in which the consumption of these iguanas is celebrated and is culturally significant. &#160;<span lang="EN-GB">From surveys conducted over the last three years in the Valle de Aguán, locals feel there has been a significant decline in the numbers of iguanas seen. &#160;These interviews showed that 84% of the interviewees consume this type of iguana meat of a regular basis, and 60% prefer to eat gravid females. &#160;Further calculations show that approximately 12 iguanas are consumed per person per year (S.A. Pasachnik <em>et al.</em> unpublished data).   <br/></p><br/>Illegal exportation for the international pet trade has also been documented for this iguana. &#160;Though individuals may be taken from Cayos Cochinos, all documented cases of excessive exploitation and exportation for the pet trade are from the Valle de Aguán. &#160;The exact number of animals being exported is difficult to determine because declaration of the species name is not necessary for importation and the exportation is illegal, thus undocumented. &#160;Exportation is largely to the United States and Europe.&#160; The cost of an individual iguana in the Valle de Aguán varies from $1–90 USD, depending on size and sex.
194988		conservation	eng	Cayos Cochinos is located within a Marine Natural Monument, and within the cays the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is offered protection from exploitation (although the level of protection and enforcement varies between islands). In an effort to reduce illegal trade and over-harvesting, the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">was recently listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).<span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Research is needed on&#160;this iguana's&#160;life history and ecology. Conservation actions recommended include educational awareness and trade and harvesting regulation and enforcement at both the national and local level.</span></span></span></span>
194988		distribution	eng	The Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is known only from the Valle de Aguán in northern Honduras and the Cayos Cochinos Archipelago off the Caribbean coast of Honduras, where it occurs primarily on the two largest islands: Cayo Mayor (Grande) and Cayo Menor (Pequeño). These two cays are approximately one kilometre distant from each other. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 2.2 km² for the Cayos Cochinos subpopulation. This subpopulation occurs  from sea level up to 140 m.
194988		habitat	eng	<p>The Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana inhabits tropical and subtropical dry forest and scrubland from 0 to 140 meters above sea level (Holdridge 1967, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).&#160; It is semi-arboreal and diurnal, taking refuge in hollow logs and rock crevices at night.&#160; On Cayos Cochinos, iguanas utilize forest edge habitat consisting of sandy beach strand vegetation and rocky cliffs, as well as areas of open forest, including tree fall gaps. &#160;This iguana<em> </em>is omnivorous, consuming fruit, flowers, leafy vegetation, arthropods, a variety of lizards, birds (especially fledglings), and carrion. </p>    <p>On Cayo Menor, marked sexual dimorphism in size has been observed with males being larger. &#160;Males are territorial, with multiple females and juveniles residing within the territory.&#160; Nesting takes place in sandy substrates from April through July, with 7-18 eggs laid per nest.&#160; Hatchlings emerge from June through September (C. Montgomery pers. comm. 2009).</p>    <p>In captivity, the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana lives from 10 to 15 years and reaches sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years.&#160; They lay eggs twice a year in February/March and August/September.&#160; Clutch sizes range from 11 to 41 eggs.&#160; The incubation period ranges from 85 to 90 days.&#160; Hatchlings have a snout-vent length of 41-52 mm, a total length of 114-149 mm, and average weight of 4 grams (E. Henningheim pers. comm.&#160;2009).</p>
194988		population	eng	<p>The total population size is not known, but is estimated to be less than 3,000 mature individuals within the Cayos Cochinos. Although the geographic range of the Cayos Cochinos subpopulation is substantially smaller than for the Valle de Aguán subpopulation, the density of individuals throughout the Valle is extremely low, and it is believed iguana numbers are greatest on Cayos Cochinos (S.A. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2011). The population trend is currently stable on Cayo Menor (Pequeño), but recent increases in the population density of Common Green Iguana (<em>Iguana iguana</em>) may result in increased competition for resources. The population on Cayo Mayor (Grande) seems to be at low density, most likely due to hunting and predation by feral dogs. Hunting pressure has been seen to increase on Cayo Menor as local villagers from Cayo Mayor visit the island for additional resources. The&#160;Cayos Cochinos&#160;subpopulation is genetically distinct from the&#160;Valle de Aguán iguanas and has been described as a separate evolutionarily significant unit (Pasachnik&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2011).</p>
194988		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to the Black-chested Spiny-tailed Iguana is habitat destruction and fragmentation. Limited habitat destruction occurs on both islands of the Cayos Cochinos as palm trees are harvested for thatch roofs (Wilson and Cruz-Nieto 1993). Additionally, feral dogs, cats, and rats exist on both Cayo Mayor and Cayo Menor and are predators of iguanas and their eggs. Increases in the <span lang="EN-GB">Common Green Iguana (<em>Iguana iguana</em>) population may also pose a threat to the Cayos Cochinos population.</p><p>   </p><p>Adult iguanas and eggs are sought for both immediate consumption and sale. On Cayo Mayor, individuals are increasingly collected for consumption, but this threat is much more extreme within the Valle de Aguán. Illegal exportation for the international pet trade has also been documented for this iguana. Though individuals may be taken from Cayos Cochinos, all documented cases of excessive exploitation and exportation for the pet trade are from the Valle de Aguán. The exact number of animals being exported is difficult to determine because declaration of the species name is not necessary for importation and the exportation is illegal, thus undocumented. Exportation is largely to the United States and Europe. The cost of an individual iguana in the Valle de Aguán varies from $1 to 90 USD, depending on size and sex.</p><p></p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><p></p></span></span>
194989		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194989		distribution	eng	This species has a disjunct global distribution. It is recorded in the Mediterranean Sea, Florida and Hawaii. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, its distribution includes the Catalan Sea, Balearic Islands (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2004) and probably also Algeria (Massuti pers. comm.). It is also recorded from the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984-1986) and one specimen was recorded from the Israel coast (Golani 1996).
194989		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs on upper continental slope on soft bottoms.
194989		population	eng	This is an infrequent species. There are only few records.<br/><br/>In the Balearic Islands, one individual (46 g) was caught in 46 trawl hauls of 30-60mn each (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 2001).
194989		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194990		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194990		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from northern Portugal to northern Morocco, as well as Madeira and Canaries and all of the Mediterranean Sea except southern Levant.  It also is present in all but the northeastern portion of the Black Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present from the Spanish coasts (Garcia-Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002, Perez-Ruzafa <em>et al.</em> 2004), Balearic Islands (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1995), south of France (Dumay <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mouillot<em> et al.</em> 2007), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tunesi and Molinari 2005), south Tyrrhenian Sea (Sinopoli <em>et al.</em> 2004), north Adriatic Sea (Lipej <strong style="font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;">et al.</strong><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"> </span>2003, Bonaca and Lipej 2005), central east Adriatic Sea (Pallaoro <em>et al.</em> 2007, Dulcic <em>et al.</em> 1997, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006, Santic <strong style="font-weight: normal; font-style: italic;">et al.</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2003) and Aegean Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Canli and Atli 2003, Karakulak<em> et al.</em> 2006). It is also present in the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is found in northern Israel (Goren pers. comm. 2007).
194990		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, littoral/nearshore species. It is a gregarious species, occurring in large schools. It sometimes occurs in marine lagoons (France) and estuaries (Portugal). It feeds on pelagic copepods and benthic crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is a prey species for young <em>Trachurus thynnus</em> (Sinopoli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) and <em>T. trachurus</em> (Santic <em>et al.</em> 2003).
194990		population	eng	This is a very common species. Combined catch statistics for Atherinidae in the Mediterranean and Black Seas show no evidence of population decline (Food and Agriculture Organization Fishstat).<br/><br/>Pallaoro <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that 1,547 females and 1,258 males with lengths ranging from 3.8 to 8.9 cm TL were caught in the middle east Adriatic Sea during reproductive period (Feb-Apr 2002) using small beach seines.<br/><br/>According to Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003), 54 specimens with length ranging from 4.3 to 11.0 cm TL, were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (north-east Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>Dulcic <em>et al.</em> (1997) mentioned that 18,435 specimens were collected using a 50 m long beach seine, from January to December 1992 from Kornati Archipelago.<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), one sample (11.6 cm TL) was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) reported that 396 specimens with lengths ranging from 4.0 and 9.4 cm TL, were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).<br/><br/>According to Perez-Ruzafa <em>et al.</em> (2004), 130 fish larvae were collected in the Mar Menor (south Spain).<br/><br/>Dumay <em>et al.</em> (2004) reported that 19 specimens were collected from coastal brackish lagoons in south France.<br/><br/>According to Canli and Atli (2003), 12 specimens were collected in order to estimate contaminants.
194990		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. As a coastal species, it may be vulnerable to various anthropogenic activities that may affect its habitat.
194991		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194991		distribution	eng	This is a mainly an eastern Atlantic species: it is present from Kattegat (rare) and British Isles to Canary Islands, Mauritania and Cape Verde. This species is not found in the Baltic Sea. <br/><br/>This species also occurs in the western Mediterranean Sea: its distribution includes Bay of Calvi (Pinnegar and Polunin 2004) and Catalan coast (Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984). There are scattered records from the northwestern Mediterranean Sea, southern Spain and Tunisia.<br/><br/>It occurs along the European and African coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, from the Kattegat (rare) and Scotland to Mauritania, and around Madeira, Canaries and Cape Verde Islands. It is rare in the Mediterranean, found off Gibraltar, France and Tunisia (Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1986, Lorenzo and Pajuelo 1999, Pajuelo and Lorenzo 2001).
194991		habitat	eng	This is a small pelagic, oceanodromous species that can be found in coastal areas and estuaries. Its schools and has seasonal migrations in the Atlantic. It feeds on carnivorous small crustaceans and fish larvae (Quignard and Pras 1986). It reproduces in spring and summer (Billard 1997). Spawning occurs in midsummer in English Channel and North Sea.<br/><br/><em>Atherina presbyter</em> is described as a marine juvenile migrant species, which uses estuaries and coastal lagoons primarily as a nursery ground. Much of its adult life is spent at sea, but it often returns seasonally to the estuary (Elliott and Dewailly 1995). <br/><br/>The information about this species is scarce and mainly focuses on biological aspects such as age, growth and mortality (Pombo <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>A. boyer</em>, <em>A. hepsetus</em> and <em>A. presbyter</em> are sympatric species that might occur at the same space and in the same time so fisheries data might be mixed. In some regions this species is used as bait in tuna fisheries.
194991		population	eng	This species has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean Sea, there are only occasional records.<br/><br/>This species probably remains unidentified in mixed atherinid catches when it does occur, and thus may be more abundant in the Mediterranean Sea than records of it may indicate.
194991		threats	eng	This is a commercially exploited species in the Atlantic, but not a target species in the Mediterranean Sea. In the long term, climate change could be a problem for this temperate Atlantic species.
194992		conservation	eng	Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters in the Mediterranean Sea. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194992		distribution	eng	This species has only a few scattered records in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Carrasson and Matallanas 2001). Its presence in the Mediterranean Sea was suggested by Sulak (1984).<br/><br/>It is also present in the Atlantic Ocean, from the East Coast of the United States, south to Guyana.  In the eastern Atlantic, <em>Bathypterois grallator</em> it is found off the coast of Morocco and Western Sahara, and has been reported from  Nigeria, and Cameroon. It is also present in the Indian Ocean, in South Africa and Madagascar.
194992		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species (Carasson and Matallanas 2001).
194992		population	eng	There are only few records in the Mediterranean Sea.
194992		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
194993		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194993		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal in temperate and tropical regions. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Spain to at least 19°S, including the Canary Islands and Cape Verde. In the western Atlantic, it is present from south New England, USA and north Gulf of Mexico to north South America (Robins and Ray 1986). It is also present in western Australia (Paxton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989).<br/><br/>It is a widespread species in the Mediterranean Sea. In Spain, it occurs in the Balearic Islands (Guijarro and Massuti 2006, Massutì and Reñones 2005). In Italy, it is present in Sardinia, Messina strait, Ionian Sea, central and south Tyrrhenian Sea and Adriatic Sea (Costa 1991, Campagnuolo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Gristina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Madurell and Cartes 2001, D'Onghia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Specchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). In Turkey, this species is present in the north-east Aegean Sea (Kabasakal 1999, Filiz and Bilge 2004). In Greece, it is present in the Ionian Sea (Petrakis 1998, Anastasopoulou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
194993		habitat	eng	It is a bathydemersal species that can be found on the continental shelf and upper slope over mud and clay bottom.  Catch data indicate a schooling habit. It mainly feeds on bottom or pelagic-living invertebrates. It is also known to feed on pelagic crustaceans like euphausiids, decapods, and mysids (Macpherson and Roel 1987). This is a hermaphroditic species. Young are pelagic, living near the surface, the adults are demersal, living between 50-1000 m depth, typically from 300-600 m (Figueiredo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
194993		population	eng	This is a common species.
194993		threats	eng	This species has only minor commercial importance. It is caught by trawling (Sulak 1984).
194995		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that occur within its distribution.
194995		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal and Azores to Congo, and from Namibia to South Africa. In the western Indian Ocean, it is present off Natal, South Africa (Johnson 1986). In the south-west Pacific, it occurs in New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989). In the south-east Pacific, it is present in Chile (Pequeño 1989). It is presumed as circumglobal in the south transition region.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. In Italy, it is present in the Ligurian sea, Messina strait (Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1975), and in 1948 it was also found into the Adriatic Sea (Costa 1991, 1999). It was also present Anzio harbour (Latium, Central Tyrrhenian Sea) (Psomadakis <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Greece, it is found in Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea and around Crete (Papakonstantinou 1988). It is also present on Iberian coast and around Balearic Islands (Lloris and Rucabado 1998).
194995		habitat	eng	This is a meso- and bathypelagic and oceanodromous species. Most adults are found between 400-1,000 m (Johnson 1990). It feeds on midwater fishes (Johnson 1984).
194995		population	eng	This species is widespread but it is rare and infrequently caught.
194995		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194997		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194997		distribution	eng	This species has a worldwide distribution from the Arctic to the Antarctic. In the eastern Pacific, it is present from British Columbia (55°N) to at least north central Baja California (28°N) (Ambrose 1996). In the north-west Pacific, it is present in the Bering Sea, Kamchatka, Kuril Islands (Il'inskiy<em> et al.</em> 1995). In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs in Portugal and Morocco.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea, always few abundant (also in the east part) (Papakonstantinou 1988, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is present in the south-west coasts (from Morocco to Tunisia), Tyrrhenian Sea: Gulf of Naples, Messina Strait, low Adriatic Sea, Balearic Islands, Ionian Sea, Aegean Sea (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987; Costa 1991, 1999).
194997		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic, pseudoceanic and mesopelagic species, occurring singly or in small schools (Post 1984). It mainly feeds on fishes and shrimps (Post 1984). It spawns in continental slopes and in oceanic banks from northern through tropical to southern temperate waters. It is oviparous, with planktonic larvae (Ambrose 1996).<br/><br/>Within the Mediterranean Sea, this species is epipelagic to mesopelagic, found between 200 and 1,000 m depth (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). Larvae and juveniles are fished from 400 m to few meters of depth. In the shallow waters of the Messina strait, larvae became abundant from November to March (Costa 1991).
194997		population	eng	This species is widespread but generally scarce and seldom caught.
194997		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194998		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194998		distribution	eng	This is a widespread Mediterranean species (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Papakonstantinou 1988, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005, Mallol-Martinez 2005, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
194998		habitat	eng	This species is epipelagic to mesopelagic (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It occurs between 200 and 400 m, but is most abundant during winter (Mallol-Martinez 2005). It can be found to around 500 m deep (Mytilineou<em> et al.</em> 2005).
194998		population	eng	It is an occasional species in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Gulf of Lion, 0.09 ind./h (biomass = 0.0007kg/h, % occurrence = 1.47) were caught (Mallol-Martinez 2005). In the east Ionian Sea, 0.1 ind/h were caught in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each one (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
194998		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
194999		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
194999		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic Ocean, this species is restricted to the north Atlantic and adjacent seas.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987), it is present in the Strait of Sicily ( Costa 1991, Cuttita<em> et al.</em> 2004), Gulf of Genoa, Corsica and coasts of Provence (France, Maurin 1962), Tuscany and Latium coasts (Biagi <em>et al.</em> 2002), Gulf of Lion (Mallol-Martìnez 2005) and east Mediterranean Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, Golani 2006).
194999		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic. Its depth ranges from 50-1,050 m (Post 1990, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and occasionally planktonic organisms (Post 1984). It spawns from March to September, larvae are found near the surface (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
194999		population	eng	This species is widespread but generally scarce and rarely caught.
194999		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
195001		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
195001		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal between 50°N and 20°S, except in the tropical eastern Pacific. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present in north Ireland and from Morocco to Gabon.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there is only one single record (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986) in the north-west part of the basin.
195001		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species. It is found on the continental rise and the abyss, commonly below 2,000 m, in water colder than 4°C. Larvae are probably pelagic in near-surface midwaters. It is a solitary, lurking bottom feeder, probably piscivorous (Sulak 1984). Contrary to Thresher (1984) this species is an hermaphrodite (Nelson 1994).
195001		population	eng	There is only one record from the Mediterranean Sea.
195001		threats	eng	There is no threat information in the Mediterranean Sea for this species.
195003		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
195003		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from south Bay of Biscay to Ghana. It is also reported from the Gambia River (Diouf 1996).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it mainly occurs in the western part, but it is also recorded in the west Ionian Sea (Argyriou <em>et al.</em> 2006).
195003		habitat	eng	This is a benthic, sedentary species that occurs on soft sand or mud, often partly buried or concealed in rock crevices. It is solitary in shallow water. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs and small fishes (Roux 1986). The female lays eggs which are large enough and which are turned over to the males who guard them (Maigret and Ly 1986).
195003		population	eng	This species is infrequently recorded.
195003		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance.
195005		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine whether the species is till extant, and if so population trends and threats to this species. If rediscovered, a habitat management plan will be required if the species still has a restricted range.</p>
195005		distribution	eng	<p>This newly described species is endemic to Euboea island, in Greece, where it was first collected in 1985 near Marmaris. The type locality lies in small pools and stream running from a freshwater spring in a damp meadow at the coast.</p>
195005		habitat	eng	<p>The species is found in a small freshwater pools running from a spring in a damp meadow at the coast.</p>
195005		population	eng	<p>There are no population data available as the species has recently been described. However the habitats have degraded suggesting the populations have declined as well.</p>
195005		threats	eng	<p>The main threat to this species is over-abstraction of water from the spring for domestic supplies. This threat has been ongoing and Gloer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) report that the spring and the meadow was lost in 2003, so the species may also have disappeared..</p>
195038		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
195038		distribution	eng	In the west Atlantic, this species is present from Grand Banks and Nova Scotia (Canada) to Florida (USA), including Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies (Robins and Ray 1986) up to Argentina (Figueiredo <em>et al.</em> 2002). In the east Atlantic, it is present from Norway and Greenland to Senegal (Palmer 1986) and south of Angola (Quéro and Gayet 1990). In the Indian Ocean, it is present in temperate waters. In the east Pacific, it is present from the Gulf of Alaska to south of southern California (Matarese <em>et al.</em> 1989).  It is also present in the west central Pacific (Olney 2000). A single capture in South Georgia marks an incidental occurrence in Southern Ocean.<br/><br/>It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea (except for Levant), where it is widespread eastwards to the Aegean Sea at least.
195038		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species. It is oceanic and apparently solitary (Palmer 1986). It feeds on midwater fishes and invertebrates, mainly squids (Palmer 1986). It probably spawns in the spring (Hart 1973). It swims by flapping the pectoral fins (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).
195038		population	eng	This is a widespread but infrequently recorded species as it is a mesopelagic.
195038		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is occasionally taken as a bycatch of tuna fisheries.
195060		conservation	eng	There is a need to generate baseline data on the distribution, population status, habitat and ecology and threats to the species.
195060		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolaguvia austrina</span>&#160;is endemic to the southern Western Ghats and currently it is known only from its type locality in the Kunthi River (tributary of the Bharathapuzha River) at Mannarkkad, Kerala in India (Radhakrishnan, Sureshkumar and Ng 2010). Note that the publication mentions latitude longitude for the type locality as&#160; 11°21' N and 76°53' E, but the correct latitude longitude is 10°59' 20.39'' N and 76°26' 33.51'' E (K.V. Radhakrishnan pers. comm.). The Bharathapuza River drains the western face of the Western Ghats and debouches into the Lakshadweep Sea.<br/>Based on the current information the species is found in the hydrobasin with area 1000 km<sup>2</sup>, However it is expected to be found in adjoining basins as well. So the EOO for the species is around 5000 km<sup>2</sup> with only one location. Nevertheless, this information may get updated with further studies on the distribution of the species.
195060		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolaguvia&#160; austrina&#160;</span> has been collected from riffle-pool type habitat and clayey area with clumps of leaf litter. It was collected from small&#160; crevices&#160; of&#160; a&#160; sand&#160; barrier built across the river with a moderate water depth (ca. 15 cm), current velocity of 0.25-0.40 m/s, dissolved oxygen 7-8ppm and a pH of 7.5-8.0 (Radhakrishnan, Sureshkumar and Ng 2010).
195060		population	eng	No information is available on the population status of this species.
195060		threats	eng	Threats to the species are unknown.
195062		conservation	eng	No information available.
195062		distribution	eng	This species is known from Lakes Ohrid (Macedonia, Albania) and Skadar (Montenegro, Albania).
195062		habitat	eng	It is found in deep pools and canals in swampy areas along lake shores or in floodplain. It spawns in April-May.
195062		population	eng	No information available.
195062		threats	eng	Introduction and invasion of alien species, especially alien <span style="font-style: italic;">Scardinius</span> are a serious threat as stocking is de facto unregulated. Also, plans to connect the Drin catchment with the Danube are still under discussion and if this happens, the invasion of alien species will most likely eradicate most Drin endemics.
195063		conservation	eng	No information available.
195063		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Lake Trasimeno basin, Italy.
195063		habitat	eng	This is a lacustrine species, found in open water.
195063		population	eng	No information available.
195063		threats	eng	Introduction and invasion of alien species, especially alien <span style="font-style: italic;">Squalius</span>, are a serious threat as stocking is de facto unregulated.
195091		conservation	eng	No known conservation measures in place.
195091		distribution	eng	<em>Brama brama</em> occurs in the Atlantic, Indian and South Pacific Oceans (Figueiredo <em>et al. </em>2002). In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Nova Scotia (Canada) and Bermuda (Robins and Ray 1986) to Belize and the Antilles (Claro 1994). In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from central Norway (Haedrich 1986) southward to Algoa Bay (South Africa) (Smith 1986). It is a highly migratory species, included in Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (Food and Agriculture Organization Fisheries Department 1994).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean it is not very common, and specially rare in the eastern Mediterranean.  <em>B. brama</em> was recorded recently for the first time in the middle Adriatic Sea. It has also been collected in Syria (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007), and in the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
195091		habitat	eng	This oceanic and epipelagic species can be found to 1,000 m depth (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). It occasionally comes close to the shore (May and Maxwell 1986). The species is a seasonal migrant occurring in small schools, with movements apparently temperature-related. It is an opportunistic feeder on small fishes, cephalopods, amphipods, and euphausiids.
195091		population	eng	This is an uncommon, open water species. <br/><br/><em>B. brama</em> annual landings (tonnes) in the Mediterranean between 1996 and 2005 (obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database 2007) were: 26 (1996), 157 (1997), 87 (1998), 113 (1999), 27 (2000), 104 (2001), 47 (2002), 36 (2003), 32 (2004), 19 (2005).
195091		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, utilized as food fish. Landings range from 1,000 to 10,000 tonnes, caught mainly by hooks and lines.<br/><br/>This is a "worldwide" species, which is cosmopolitan in most oceans but rare or at least not particularly abundant in the Mediterranean Sea, and under no particular threat there. It is a commercial species in the north-eastern Atlantic, where it occasionally undergoes "population explosions" for unknown (probably temperature related) reasons (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
195093		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
195093		distribution	eng	This species is present in the west Atlantic, from Nova Scotia, Canada to Venezuela. In the east Atlantic, it is present from Iceland (Jonsson 1992) and Norway to the Gulf of Guinea, including Madeira, the Azores and the Canary Islands, it is also present in Walvis Bay, Namibia to Natal, South Africa (Eschmeyer 1986). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs throughout the area. Records include the Alboran Sea, Balearic Sea (Ribas <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian Sea (Pierano and Tunesi 1986), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999), Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Madurell and Cartes 2005, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), north Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species is absent from the Black Sea (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2000, Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005)
195093		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species that can be found in soft bottom areas of the continental shelf and upper slope. It feeds on both benthic and pelagic organisms (crustaceans, fishes, cephalopods and echinoderms (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). It is viviparous and breeds between March and July (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Larvae and juveniles are pelagic (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). <br/><br/>Eggs, covered with gelatinous material, are fertilised in the ovary. They are released into the seabed at various stages of development and larvae assumes a planktonic existence once the gelatinous covering dissolves (Kelly <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Tyrrhenian Sea, <em>H. dactylopterus</em> is present in the shelf break (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>The species is commercially exploited in the Mediterranean Sea and is commonly caught as a bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries. Other threats include wastes from naval traffic and global warming. A study along the Spanish coast observed dispersion of individuals with a gradual progression in size with depth.
195093		population	eng	This species is widespread and very common.<br/><br/>According to Massuti <em>et al.</em> (2000), 3,093 specimens (3 to 36 cm TL) were collected on 15 bottom trawl cruises carried out from 1991 to 1997 off the Iberian peninsula (584 hauls from a depth range of 25-1,713 m), between Alboran sea and Balearic Sea.<br/><br/>Ribas <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that 1,696 males and 1,699 females (8.0 to 36.1 cm TL for males and 7.6 to 33.0 cm TL for females) were collected from MEDITS research cruises using bottom trawls fisheries operations (1,253 hauls) carried out along the entire Iberian Mediterranean Sea coast, between “Punta Europa” in the south, and “Port de la Selva” in the north, for a whole area of 45,300 km<sup>2</sup>. This study underlined a clear decrease in density, mean total length, biomass, and recruitment level moving south to north in the Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) reported that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (0 ind/24h), November 2001 (6 ind/24h), March 2002 (2 ind/24h) and May 2002 (72 ind/24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40mm head rope, a 40mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>According to Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values from 70 to 1,923 specimens/km<sup>2</sup>, from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>Madurell and Cartes (2005) mentioned that 523 specimens (8.6 to 30.3 cm TL) were collected in April 1999, July-August, 1999, November 1999 and February 2000 with an otter trawl equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 14mm stretched mesh size in the Ionian Sea at depth ranging from 473 to 603 m.<br/> <br/>Filiz and Bilge (2004) reported that 178 specimens (5.5 to 13.5 cm TL) were collected from March and July 2003 by commercial fisherman from the Sıgacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea), at depths between 70 and 378 m.
195093		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, it is often taken as bycatch in the hake fishery in some parts of the Mediterranean Sea. Its main catching method is trawling (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993).
195114		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Leucojum nicaeense.</span><br/>In France, it is protected at national level. Two localities are owned by the Conservatoire du Littoral.
195114		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acis nicaeensis</span> is found in France and in the northwest of Italy's border (Association Tela Botanica 2009,   Commission of the European Communities 2009). The geographic range estimated for both countries is 409 km², from which only 1 km² belongs to Italy   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The area of occupancy in France is less than 20 km².
195114		habitat	eng	<p>This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitats 6220 "Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Thero-Brachypodietea</span>" and 5330 "Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).  </p>
195114		population	eng	This species has been recorded in two to three localities in Italy   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). In France, it occurs in 17 localities with a total of 10,000 individuals estimated. The populations are declining and are severely fragmented due to urbanisation.
195114		threats	eng	The main threat to the species' habitat is urbanisation. It is also affected by forest plantings, vegetation change due to changes of agricultural practice, eutrophication, and invasive species. Locally collection of this plant poses a threat.
195172		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in river rapids near village in Khao Yai National Park. More research and monitoring is needed to determine population trends and possible threats to this species.
195172		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand. It occurs in several waterfalls in Trat province, Chanthaburi province, in&#160; southeastern Thailand, and Haew Narok waterfalls in Khao Yai National  Park in Nakhon Ratchasima, central Thailand.
195172		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
195172		population	eng	This species is rare although there is no specific information available on population trends.
195172		threats	eng	There is a small dam downstream that is not currently affecting this species. However, this is scenic and tourist site and therefore careful monitoring of the species popualtion trend is recommended.
195173		conservation	eng	The species has been recorded in river rapids near a village and above a dam. More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
195173		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand. It has been recorded only at one site in Chanthaburi province in southeastern Thailand. The known site covers an area of less than 500 m<sup>2</sup>.
195173		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls. These plants grow submerged during the rainy season and are  exposed and flower in the dry season when the water level decreases.
195173		population	eng	Only one part of the population is able to flower during the dry season as a nearby dam is affecting the natural river flow cycle.
195173		threats	eng	There is a small dam downstream but very close to the only known population. As a result, the lower part of this population, the one nearer to the dam, is permanently submerged and the upper part is  seasonally submerged. Hence only the population that benefits from natural flow alteration is able to flower during the dry season as this species needs to be exposed to be able flower during the dry season (M. Kato pers. comm.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2011). This has an important influence on the population and also affects the river's natural cycle which is vital for the species survival.<br/><p>  </p><p><br/></p>    <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
195174		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
195174		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Thailand. It has been recorded only in one waterfall in Si Sa Ket province in eastern Thailand.
195174		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
195174		population	eng	There is no information available.
195174		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
195175		conservation	eng	More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
195175		distribution	eng	Only recorded from river rapids and waterfalls in the islands of Ko Chang and Ko Kut, Prachingburi Province, Thailand.
195175		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
195175		population	eng	There is no information available.
195175		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
195177		conservation	eng	Reported from a protected area (Nam Nao National Park). More research is needed to determine ecology, population trends and possible threats to this species.
195177		distribution	eng	Only recorded from Thadphramba waterfall in Phetchabun Province, Thailand.
195177		habitat	eng	The species only occurs attached to rocky substrates in river rapids and waterfalls.
195177		population	eng	There is no information available.
195177		threats	eng	Threats to this species have not been identified.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
195277		conservation	eng	<p>The range of the northern population of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallacei</span> includes Gunung Sojol Nature Reserve.</p>
195277		distribution	eng	<p>This species occupies a discontinuous range in the province of Central   Sulawesi. Northern and southern populations are isolated from each other by the Palu Bay, the city of Palu, and the southern parts of the Isthmus of Palu, an area now inhabited by the parapatric species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dentatus</span>. The current evidence indicates that the northern population occurs within the following geographic limits: an unknown line just west of the village of Tomini to the northeast (about 120º30'E), the coastlines of the Isthmus of Palu to the east and tho the west, and an unknown line between the village of Ampibabo and Marantale to the south (about 0º30'S). Along its northern border, this population borders the “Sejoli form” sensu Shekelle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1997). At its southern limit, this population borders <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dentatus</span> (Merker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).</p>  <p>The southern population occurs southwest to west of Palu, it is definitely known from the type locality Uwemanje only and probably occurs in a very small area from Uwemanje to the west. Approximately 9 km to the south <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dentatus </span>is found, and 24 km to the northwest, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. lariang </span>(Merker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p>  <p>The two populations are distinguished as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallacei</span> Tinombo form (northern) and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallacei</span> Uwemanje form (southern).</p>
195277		habitat	eng	<p>The species occurs in primary, secondary, and degraded forest habitats. So far, little is known on the ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallacei</span>. Given the morphological and ecological similarity of the species to other Sulawesi lowland tarsiers, this nocturnal primate is expected to feed on live animal prey with insects as the main component of its prey and to spend daylight hours in holes or crevices of strangling figs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> spp.).    </p>
195277		population	eng	<p>The isolated southern population of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallacei</span> occurs in a very small area of probably no more than 5x10 km (Merker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Satellite images suggest an even much smaller area of occupancy in this region and thus, although population estimates are still lacking, a critical status of this stock is conceivable.</p>
195277		threats	eng	<p>As other tarsier species, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. wallacei</span> faces habitat loss and degradation effected by conversion of rainforest to cash crop plantations. In light of a very small range of the Uwemanje form, local policy-making in one or a few villages may be of high impact on this stock.</p>
195288		conservation	eng	<p>The site is traditionally owned by the Akim Abuakwa Traditional Area but, as a Forest Reserve, it is under the administration of the Forestry Department.&#160;Larsen (1994) and others have recommended that the Atewa Range Forest Reserve should be made part of the formal protected areas system in Ghana.&#160;The Forestry Division reclassified the forest a Globally Significant Biodiversity Area (GSBA) where in principle no exploitation should take place, but the true protection level is not really increased by this status since extra resources are not made available.&#160;The local community wishes to conserve the forest, a point made frequently by the local paramount chief and the local community committee for the GSBA.&#160;</p>
195288		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to eastern Ghana, where it only occurs in upland evergreen forest on the Atewa Range near Kibi and Sagamase (Segyimaase) above 600 m elevation.&#160;The&#160;Atewa Range Forest Reserve has a total area of 24 km²<sup></sup>, but only those parts of the reserve classified as Upland Evergreen Forest are suitable habitat for this species, therefore its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at approximately 17.4 km² (Birdlife International 2011).&#160;There remains a slight possibility that a population also occurs in the neighbouring Tano Ofin Forest Reserve, but this is small in extent and in much poorer condition. So far the species has not been observed there despite attempts to find it between 2000 and 2007.<br/></p>
195288		habitat	eng	<p>The species is only known from 600 m to the top of the Atewa Range (830 m) in the largest of the very limited small patches of Upland Evergreen Forest in Ghana.</p>
195288		population	eng	Detailed information on population sizes and trends is not available for this species,&#160;but it is recorded on every two to three visits to suitable areas of habitat.
195288		threats	eng	<p>Bauxite mining threatens to remove virtually the entire area of upland evergreen forest which would effectively drive this species to extinction. To exploit bauxite, the forest would probably be clear-felled and all the topsoil and overburden covering the bauxite would be removed.&#160;Illegal logging has occurred during the past 40 years but much of the area is still in reasonable condition.&#160;The total habitat extent is very limited, making the species vulnerable to further human habitat destruction and modification. There is no commercial demand from collectors for specimens from this genus.</p>
195289		conservation	eng	<p>This butterfly’s distribution is entirely within the St Katherine Protectorate with the rangers continuing to monitor the species by carrying out 9–14 survey days each year (Gilbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Recent conservation efforts are mainly focused on the endangered host plant. The thyme was previously threatened by over-collection due to its high medicinal value in Cairo. The Protectorate has recently banned collection with enforced fines for anyone caught. A fence has recently been erected around a patch found to contain a large butterfly population to prevent public access to stop further plant collection and to control grazing. Two dams were also built in this patch to hold more water in the soil to improve the condition of the thyme. The rangers have also tried to increase public awareness for this butterfly, considered as a flagship species for the Protectorate (El-Deen 2010).&#160;</p>
195289		distribution	eng	<p>The Sinai Baton Blue is endemic to Egypt, occurring only at altitudes above 1,800 m within the Ring Dyke of St Katherine Protectorate, with its stronghold on Gebel Safsafa, the massif of Mt Sinai. The entire known extent of occurrence (EOO) is about 7 km²; its area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 2 km².</p>
195289		habitat	eng	<p>The larvae feed exclusively on the flowers of Sinai Thyme (<em>Thymus decussatus</em>) Benth., 1834 (Labiatae), which is a near-endemic to the Ring Dyke and the nearby Asir Mountains of Saudi Arabia. The caterpillar has a facultative relationship with the ant <em>Lepisiota</em> which it appeases with sugar solution, and which in return protects the caterpillar from predatory ants such as <em>Crematogaster</em>. Adults are observed in a single generation during April–July but are poor dispersers due to their small size (James 2006a,b).</p>
195289		population	eng	<p>The butterfly has been found to live on 25 of the 39 discrete patches of the host plant, existing in a classic metapopulation. Because of the small area and the prevailing threats, this makes up a single location. In 2001, the total global population size was estimated at approximately 2,300 adults.</p><p>From surveys conducted over consecutive years in a single patch, the species has been inferred to undergo severe fluctuations. This is based on observed tenfold population increases between 2009–2010, and ninefold decreases observed in the 2002–2003 season. It is likely that fluctuations such as these are characteristic of the population as a whole, since they reflect environmental stochasticity acting at a range-wide scale rather than deterministic local habitat changes or demographic stochasticity within a patch.<br/></p>
195289		threats	eng	<p>Anthropogenic climate change&#160;is a current threat to this species: with the host plant already restricted to mountain tops, any increase in temperature is likely to lead to a reduction in available habitat for this butterfly (Hoyle and James 2005). Climate change around the Mediterranean basin is likely to result in a 2ºC temperature rise along with an additional month of drought each year, resulting in a reduction in available resources for the butterfly and larvae.&#160;The butterfly exists in a metapopulation and is threatened by increasing fragmentation/habitat isolation, whilst small population size also increases its extinction risk. Other threats include yearly environmental variation in this butterfly's host plant (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus decussatus</span>), with a 40% reduction in the number of inflorescences noted between years. This would have a direct impact on the survival of the species (Hoyle and James 2005).&#160;Its host plant has been threatened by over-collection for medicinal purposes, and is currently listed as Endangered in the 1997 IUCN plants Red List (Walter and Gillett 1998).&#160;Hoyle and James (2005) also include overgrazing as a threat, but this is now not thought to be a significant threat; on the contrary, grazing might actually be required to maintain plant vigour.</p>
195290		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action plan currently directed towards this species. Research is needed on the distribution, population status, ecology and threats to this species.
195290		distribution	eng	This species is currently known only from its type locality in west flowing river Seethanathi at Thuttinjet, Karnataka State, India (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2009). The projected extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species, based on the current information, is 1,500 km².
195290		habitat	eng	The type locality of the species is a small west-flowing river at the elevation of 199 m above sea level with many cascades and waterfalls in the upstream portion. The habitat is dominated by the presence of pebbles and boulders, less gravels and sand constituting about 5% of the total substrate, with riparian cover about 20% and gradient of 3% and the banks highly stable, left bank with thick vegetation while right bank sparsely vegetated (Arunachalam and Muralidharan 2009).
195290		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species.
195290		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to this species.
195291		conservation	eng	In South Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. chabaudi </span>is  part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of  this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no  limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10  individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.<br/><br/>Only 225 km<sup>2</sup> of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007); these areas are mostly located in shallow waters and it is not clear how much compliance there is. Most of the northern KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa is protected by a 145 km long Marine Protected Area (MPA) in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and which is strictly enforced. The record of at least one individual being caught in this area suggests that some degree of protection is afforded to this species in South Africa. This MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo have been incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. The Pondoland MPA in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, some 500 km further south, also provides protection.    <p><br/></p>
195291		distribution	eng	<p><em>Epinephelus chabaudi</em> is distributed in the western Indian Ocean from the Western Cape Province (Knysna) and Kwazulu-Natal Province in South Africa, southern Mozambique, Kenya (Malindi), Seychelles and off Kerala province in southwest India (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The unpublished records from northern KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa, southern Mozambique and from the Seychelles are more recent, with a larger specimen from Seychelles donated to the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity and identified by P.C. Heemstra (J. Robinson unpubl. data). </p><p> <br/></p>
195291		habitat	eng	<em>Epinephelus chabaudi </em>is found on reefs at depths of 9-55 m on the South African coast south of Durban  (Smith 1958), and also at depths from 300-400 m. It was caught  at depths from 125-200 m off Kenya (Morgans  1982); off Kerala in India it has been recorded between 250 and 300 m  (Talwar and Kacker 1984). Its occurrence off the coasts of Kenya and  India appears to be an example of 'tropical submergence' by which  temperate species are able to live in the cooler deep-water zone at  tropical latitudes (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  <br/><br/>Morgans (1964) reported four large (104-137 cm, up to 41 kg) reproductively inactive female fish caught off the Malindi Banks in Kenya in November and December. There are anecdotal reports&#160;  of catches of large (~100 cm), reproductively active females from deep water (300-400 m) off the coast about 70 km south of Durban, South Africa (S. Fennessy unpubl. data); the cooccurrence of several reproductively active individuals at these depths suggests the possibility of shelf-edge spawning. Smaller (1-4 kg) fish are caught from line boats (depths unknown but probably around 20-50 m) further south in the Eastern Cape province (Fennessy <em>et al</em>. 2003), suggesting that there is southward drift of larvae in this region.<br/>           <p>A total of 35 individuals (probably juveniles, lengths between 310 and 560 mm) have been tagged from boats in South African waters, mostly in the Eastern Cape province (B. Mann unpubl. data); six individuals have been recaptured, one of which was recaptured 1,200 km to the north in southern Mozambique (there is doubt about the validity of this distance but there is some confidence that the fish swam at least 600-700 km to the north over a period of 8.2 years, growing 320 mm during this time). Another individual was at liberty for 6.8 years but was recaptured 13 km from where it was tagged, and grew 340 mm in this time. This suggests growth is slow in this species.</p>  <p>There is no feeding data are available; Morgans (1982) reported that gut mesenteries contained nematodes and cestodes.</p>
195291		population	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus chabaudi</span> is seldom recorded in catches in its range, probably because it is not common and also because it is a deep-water species. It was not observed in commercial boat line catches from the central region of the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province in South Africa from 2002-2006, although skippers reported that it was caught occasionally in deep (> 150 m) water (S. Fennessy unpubl. data). Historically, Smith (1958) reported that it was not uncommon in boat line catches in 9-55 m south of Durban, South Africa; more recently, it was recorded as contributing between 1.6% and 1.8% (by number) to overall commercial and recreational boat line catches from southern KZN and the Eastern Cape provinces from 1997-1999 (Fennessy <em>et al</em>. 2003). Juveniles (< ~400 m) occur in surf-zone catches on the southeast coast of South Africa (Brouwer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).    <p>This species was not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994) – probably because the fishery initially concentrated on shallower depths. It is reported annually in subsequent port monitoring of this fishery from 2000-2005 (D. Gove pers. comm. 2011), but not in sufficient numbers to warrant separate recording of numbers and weights. Only three individuals were caught in the experimental commercial trap fishery in central Mozambique from 1997-1999 (Abdula<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000). </p>    <p>Morgans (1982) recorded only four individuals of this species at depths of 125-175 m in line catches from several research cruises from 1954-1959 on Kenya’s Malindi Banks. On the west coast of India, this species was known from the Kerala (south-west) coast of India, and was said to be quite common in trawl catches from 250-300m (Talwar and Kacker 1984). It is not mentioned by James <em>et al</em>. (1996) in a more recent review of catches on the Indian coast. Also more recently reported as not being very common in catches from southwest India (G. Mathew pers. comm. 2011). It is also reported in catches from the Topaze Bank in the Seychelles, but no additional information is available as they are not separated from other species (J. Robinson unpubl. data).</p>
195291		threats	eng	Fishing - most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006). The majority of the effort is concentrated on shallower reefs, so the deeper regions of this species’ habitat are less exploited, particularly by small-scale fishers. Deeper, offshore reefs are mainly accessed by commercial/semi-industrial vessels. With declining catches of reef fishes in South Africa, fishers are increasingly attempting to fish in deeper waters, made possible by improvements to fishing gear. Since 2000, commercial fishing in Mozambique has increased on deeper reefs – up to 190 m (Torres <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003); fishing on deeper reefs is probably increasing throughout the region as shallower reefs are depleted.
195292		conservation	eng	<p>The species' range includes some marine protected areas. In Mexico, serranid fishes (which includes the Epinephelidae by their definition) have recently been assigned a specific management category separate from other finfishes. However, no specific management plan or conservation regulations exist for this species in Mexico.</p>
195292		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus quinquefasciatus</span> is known from the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Pacific coast of Baja California from Bahia Almejas south to Cabo San Lucas, and the Revillagegedo Islands.
195292		habitat	eng	<p>Juveniles and subadults inhabit bays, lagoons, and estuaries. Adults typically inhabit offshore reefs although may also be present in habitat similar to juveniles.</p><p>Life history characteristics are unknown for this species. However, it is suspected that it may share similar life history characters to its sister species, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. itajara</span>, in the Atlantic. That species does not mature until it is ~1 m long and is known to form spawning aggregations. The known size composition of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. itajara</span> in the Atlantic is similar to the modest landings observed for <span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinquefasciatus</span> in the Pacific and is dominated by specimens below 50 cm total length. This results in a large proportion of immature fish being removed from the standing stock.</p>
195292		population	eng	<p>There is little direct information available for population sizes of<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. quinquefasciatus</span>, however it is known from fisherman interviews and observed landings (in Mexico and Panama) that large adults (20-200 lbs) are almost never landed, whereas 20-30 years ago they were commonly taken (M.T. Craig, B. Erisman, D.R. Robertson pers. obs. 2000-present). In addition, small individuals are landed only occasionally where they fetch high market price (M.T. Craig, B. Erisman, D.R. Robertson pers. obs. 2000-present).<br/></p>    <p>Sala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) presented annual landings and Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) data for this species from commercial fisheries in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Their data showed a rapid increase in catch and CPUE between 1960 and 1980, which was followed by a rapid decline in both parameters. According to the same study, both landings and CPUE have been close to zero in this region since the 1990s.</p>    <p>A recent study by Vasquez-Hurtado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) indicated that 88 t of Goliath Grouper were landed by artisanal fishers in La Paz Bay, Gulf of California, Mexico between 1998 and 2005. However, that report has been strongly contested, and it has been argued that this is a case of a misidentified species (B. Erisman and M.T. Craig pers. comm. 2011). The species reported was likely <span style="font-style: italic;">Mycteroperca jordani</span>, another large grouper that is known to be more abundant and provides small landings in this region. La Paz Bay is also currently being studied (B. Erisman and M.A. Aburto pers. comm. 2011) &#160;and there have never been any observed or recorded any landings of Goliath Grouper (2003-2011).</p>    <p>Fishery Independent: Annual underwater surveys conducted by Enric Sala, Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, and others on rocky reefs throughout the Gulf of California from 1999 to the present (2011; 50-100 reefs per year) and have never observed <span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinquefasciatus</span> on any dives (B. Erisman pers. comm. 2011).</p>
195292		threats	eng	<p>Fishing pressure is the main threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. quinquefasciatus </span>throughout its range. Any large, approachable, edible fish on the shorelines throughout the species range is vulnerable to the heavily populated areas lining its distribution with a high abundance of subsistence fishers. Thus, this species inevitably represents a highly desirable target, whether directly targeted or taken opportunistically. This species was reported to be a prime target of commercial and recreational spearfishers in the Gulf of California during the 1970s-1990s, which is believed to have contributed to its demise in the region (Sala<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004, B. Erisman pers obs.).</p>
195294		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysanthemum zawadskii</span>.<br/>    <p><span style="background-color: white;">It is listed in the Red Data Book of the Czech and Slovak Republic (</span>Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999<span style="background-color: white;">) as Vulnerable, and in the Red Data Book of the Polish Carpathians </span>(Mirek and Piękoś-Mirkowa 2008)<span style="background-color: white;"> as low risk. </span>In Poland it is also strictly protected at the national level (Piękoś-Mirkowa and Mirek 2006).<span style="background-color: white;"> The Polish and Slovak populations are under protection in the Pieninskij natural park.</span></p><p>This species is included in the Red Data Book of the Komi Republic (1998) as declining in numbers and in the Red Data Book of the Archangelsk region (2009) as rare. It is included in protected areas in Russia.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span></p>
195294		distribution	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This is a Eurasiatic species with a large disjunctive area, distributed from the Carpathian Mountains across the Russian upland, low Volga river basin, southern Siberia, Mongolia, China to Korea, Japan and the Russian Far East. There is a single small and isolated Carpathian population situated in Pieniny Mountains in the territories of Poland and Slovakia. In Slovakia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chrysanthemum zawadskii</span> occurs in Klostorna Gora, Holica, in the lower part of Lesnicki Potok river valley, in Haligowski Skaly near Aksamitka (Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">). In the Polish part of the Pieniny Mountains it grows from the foot of&#160; the mountains in the valley of Dunajec river (430 m) to the top of Trzy Korony mountain (982 m); from Bystryk to Podkalna Gora; in Macelowa Gora.<br/>In some floras, this plant is reported from the<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Ukrainian Carpathians. However, absence of specimens in Ukrainian herbaria and absence of description of concrete sites of this species in Ukraine, prevents this species being considered as native to the Ukrainian Carpathians.<br/>In European Russia it grows in Pechora Don, Oskol river basins and in Ural Mountains (Tzvelev 1994).</span></span>
195294		habitat	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This perennial plant flowers from July to October. </span><span style="background-color: white;">It grows in rocky and sunny places on humus-carbonate soils. It is a component of plant communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendranthemno-Seslerietum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Origano-Brachopodietum</span> alliances in Polish Pieniny and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerio-Asterion alpini, Pulsatilla slavicae – Pinion </span>alliances<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in Slovak Pieniny Mountains. It occurs also in mountain grasslands on calcareous substratum (<span style="font-style: italic;">Seslerietea variae</span>). <span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">This plant grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 6170 “Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands”. </span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">In Russia, it has been reported from rock slopes, limestone and red soils.<br/><br/><br/></span></span></span>
195294		population	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The Slovakian populations consist of 55 small localities. Five localities are extinct (</span>Čeřovský <em>et al.</em> 1999<span style="background-color: white;">). Two localities in the Polish part of the Pieniny Mountains (near Szafranowska and Lazne Skoly) are extinct but now the Polish populations are stable. There are 1-8% of seedlings in Polish populations (Mirek 2008).<br/>In Russia, the populations are usually small.<br/></span>
195294		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">There are no threats reported from Poland. This species is sensitive to anthropogenic changes to ecosystems. In Russia, the main threats are habitat destruction due to the extraction of minerals, recreational activities and landslides.</span>
195319		conservation	eng	<p><a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">The Freshwater Whipray is poorly known, and a priority is to conduct further field research to ascertain the full extent of its distribution across northern Australia (and verify if it occurs in New Guinea), its habitat use and requirements, its biological parameters, its migration and movement patterns or residency, and the extent to which it is impacted upon by various potentially threatening processes (particularly artificial barriers, fishing activities, land use, and the future potential alteration of flow regimes). </a></p>    <p>Within the Northern Territory, commercial fishing is prohibited in the Roper (since 1988) and Daly (since 1989) Rivers (Handley 2010). However, this is not a conservation action to aid in the protection of the river’s fauna or habitats, but rather it is to enhance recreational fishing and tourism opportunities. Recreational fishing pressure is high in some parts of the Daly River, particularly during the peak of the Barramundi season. Some other parts of the species’ range are more remote, and this may benefit the species by limiting access for fishing. However, a growing population, improvements in technology, larger recreational boats, greater access to the coast and an increase in fishing tour operators <a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">(Handley 2010)</a> means that remote areas are now becoming more accessible.</p>    <p>Areas closed to both commercial and recreational fishing should be considered as a management tool for limiting pressure on the species (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003). Even though the species occurs in some protected areas, such as Kakadu National Park (where it has been documented in the South Alligator River), recreational fishing is still permitted there. Education on the safe release of all freshwater elasmobranchs caught by recreational fishers, like that which has been conducted for sawfish and <em>Glyphis</em> species in parts of northern Australia, should be conducted through community engagement programs.</p>    <p>The Freshwater Whipray shares its habitat (large northern Australian tropical rivers) with other freshwater elasmobranchs (namely Freshwater Sawfish<em> </em>and Speartooth Shark <em>Glyphis glyphis</em>) which are considered to be threatened. These two species are protected where they occur in Australia. Many of the pressures identified for these species are likely to also impact upon the Freshwater Whipray and therefore, consideration should be given to offering this species the same level of protection (i.e. make it a protected or ‘no-take’ species in all jurisdictions where it occurs). </p>    <p>The middle reaches of the Daly River, in which Freshwater Whipray occurs, is considered to be a site of national conservation significance by the Northern Territory Government, recognizing the special biodiversity values of the area (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 2009). This does not translate to actual regulatory or legislative protection of the river, but should theoretically guide management towards the conservation of biodiversity.</p>    <p>Compagno and Cook (2005) considered <em>H. chaophraya</em> to be globally Vulnerable A1bcde+2ce, but commented that its status in Australia is ‘probably favourable’. Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) stated ‘[Freshwater Whipray (<em>H. dalyensis)</em>] should be assigned the conservation status of Vulnerable in Australian waters. It has been and will continue to be affected by the complex and synergistic effects of the restrictions of its obligate freshwater habitat, fishing pressure and habitat alternation/destruction.’ While considerable declines in <em>H. polylepis</em> (the valid name for what was previously referred to as Southeast Asian <em>H. chaophraya</em>) have occurred throughout its Asian range (Compagno and Cook 2005), there is no data to support a Vulnerable listing in Australia for the Freshwater Whipray. While the inherent vulnerability of the species due to it probable life history characteristics, and the restrictions of its habitat, imply that it is of conservation concern, data are rapidly needed to accurately assess the species’ conservation status. Data may show that it meets criteria for a threatened category, or meets Near Threatened, but it would be remiss to carry the global assessment of Vulnerable for ‘<em>H. chaophraya</em>’ from Compagno and Cook (2005) across to the Australian ‘<em>H. dalyensis</em>’. Information on threats and how these are impacting the species need to be urgently gathered.</p>    <p>Under the <em>Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000</em>, Freshwater Whipray (<em>H. dalyensis)</em> is listed as Data Deficient in the Northern Territory.</p>
195319		distribution	eng	The<em> </em>Freshwater Whipray is possibly endemic to estuarine and freshwater environments of northern Australia, although it may also occur in the Fly River Basin of Papua New Guinea (Last and Manjaji-Matsumoto 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). In northern Australia it has been recorded from the Ord, Fitzroy and Pentecost Rivers in Western Australia, the Daly, Roper and South Alligator Rivers in the Northern Territory and the Mitchell, Gilbert, Normanby and Wenlock Rivers in Queensland (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003, Last and Manjaji-Matsumoto 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). However, its distribution is not fully mapped, and it has been suggested that it may occur in most large tropical rivers of northern Australia (Last and Stevens 2009). The Daly River (Northern Territory) and Normanby River (Queensland) systems have been identified as sites of significance for the species, given abundances relative to other systems (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003).
195319		habitat	eng	<p>The Freshwater Whipray occurs in freshwater and estuarine habitats. It has been recorded in both tidal and non-tidal reaches of rivers in waters of <30 ppt salinity (usually <10 ppt) and frequents both turbid and clear waters (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has not been recorded from euhaline marine waters (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Last and Manjaji-Matsumoto 2008). Thorburn <em>et al.</em> (2003) documented the species on sparsely covered finer substrates (sand and silt) in the main channel of rivers, to a maximum depth of 3.5 m, although it generally occurred in shallow waters of 0.3–1.0 m. Maximum depth of occurrence is certainly deeper than 3.5 m given the depths that some northern Australian rivers can reach during the wet season (15 m +). Maximum recorded size is 124 cm disc width (DW), but most specimens have been <100 cm DW; an 88 cm DW male was adolescent, but exact sizes at maturity are not known for either sex (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003, Last and Manjaji-Matsumoto 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Thorburn <em>et al.</em> (2003) noted that several individuals are often encountered together, suggesting some sort of aggregation behaviour or concentration in suitable habitat. Most aspects of the species’ ecology and biology are unknown, including reproductive biology (although it is known to be viviparous). There is a lack of knowledge regarding its full habitat requirements and its residency and/or movement patterns.</p>
195319		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trends for the Freshwater Whipray. It is possible that separate subpopulations exist in each of the different river systems in which the species occurs, particularly given that some of these are widely separated, and so exchange between them would be minimal. Although its exact status is unknown, it was considered to be uncommon by Larson <em>et al.</em> (2004).
195319		threats	eng	<p>There is little concrete information available on threats facing the Freshwater Whipray. Freshwater elasmobranchs are generally of conservation concern given the coupling of the usual biological limitations of the group with the physical constraints of their environment which limits their ability to evade both habitat alteration/degradation and exploitation (Compagno and Cook 1995). Broader-scale catchment practices may also impact upon the species’ habitat through such activities as overgrazing, land clearing and mining. The restricted geographical distribution of the Freshwater Whipray, the fact that it is not particularly common and the presumed limited interchange between rivers increases the species’ inherent vulnerability.</p>    <p>Impoundments and artificial barriers on rivers may have caused reductions in habitat available for the Freshwater Whipray, thus possibly altering the species’ distribution. Although poorly known, migrations and movement patterns have certainly been impacted by these barriers which can limit or completely restrict movements. Thorburn <em>et al.</em> (2004) noted a concentration of Freshwater Sawfish (<em>Pristis microdon</em>) and Bull Shark (<em>Carcharhinus leucas</em>) below Camballin Weir on the Fitzroy River, which acted as an obstacle to upstream movement during the lower water levels of the dry season. Similarly, Freshwater Whiprays are easily observed immediately downstream of Beeboom Crossing on the Daly River, which is impassable to upstream moving elasmobranchs for much of the year (pers. obs.).</p>    <p>During the dry season, when water levels are at their seasonal low, some freshwater elasmobranchs become isolated in disconnected pools, and this may make them more susceptible to capture as they are concentrated in or restricted to smaller areas. Any human-induced reduction in dry season water levels (i.e., through water extraction for agriculture or other purposes) may increase this susceptibility to capture as well as reduce available habitat. </p>    <p>It is not known how fishing activities, both recreational and commercial, have impacted upon this species both historically and presently. Parts of the species’ range are extremely popular recreational fishing locations, such as the Daly and Fitzroy Rivers, and elasmobranchs are a bycatch of recreational fishing for Barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>) (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some areas of these rivers (for example the Douglas-Daly Region of the Daly River which is close to Darwin and is easily accessible) recreational fishing activity is considerable. Given the general difficulty and danger of handling stingrays, some fishers who do unintentionally hook this species may cut their line to release the animal. Post-release stress and injuries caused by the remaining line and hook may result in subsequent mortality. Thorburn <em>et al.</em> (2003) observed discarded Freshwater Whipray &#160;at a site on the Fitzroy River, a result of unwanted catch from recreational fishing (Freshwater Sawfish and Bull Sharks were also found at the site). Discarded elasmobranchs have been observed at other popular fishing spots on other rivers (pers. obs.), and this highlights that mortality (without utilization) is occurring from recreational fishing.</p>    <p>Given the morphology of the species, it is not as susceptible to capture in gillnets (which are used across northern Australia to target commercial species such as Barramundi) as other elasmobranchs such as sawfishes or sharks; it is however susceptible to capture by longline and handline (Thorburn <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004). The extent of interactions with commercial fisheries targeting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Barramundi is largely unknown. Given that the Freshwater Whipray has not been recorded in euhaline marine waters, there are likely no interactions where these fisheries operate in coastal marine waters. These fisheries do operate in some river and rivers mouths, for example the NT Barramundi Fishery can operate within a restricted number of rivers. However, as these fisheries use monofilament gillnets, interactions with this species are likely to be minimal. Field <em>et al.</em> (2008) did not record the species in the NT Barramundi Fishery, but gear considerations aside, they largely sampled outside known rivers of Freshwater Whipray occurrence.</p>    <p>Chin <em>et al.</em> (2010) classified the Freshwater Whipray as one of the most vulnerable chondrichthyans to the impacts of climate change in the Great Barrier Reef and adjacent regions of the Queensland east coast (where the Freshwater Whipray occurs in the Normanby River). This assessment was a result of a high exposure to climate change factors (rising sea levels, rising temperature, changing freshwater input etc.) within its riverine/estuarine habitat; and the species’ high sensitivity and low adaptive capacity given its relative rarity, habitat specificity and restricted range (Chin <em>et al.</em> 2010).</p>
195320		conservation	eng	The precipitous decline of riverine stingrays in Thai fresh waters led the Thai government to implement an experimental programme for captive propagation to try to stabilise populations while they attempt to improve river habitats. The authors of the 2005 assessment observed the project at Chai Nat, Suppraya Province, Central Thailand in December 1993, where healthy individuals of <em>H. chaophraya</em> ranging in size from 0.45-1.6 m DW and ranging from an estimated 50-500 kg were observed. There is ongoing work in Thailand to tag individuals the Mekong and Bangpakong rivers (C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Further research and survey work is very much needed to ascertain the presence, taxonomic status, population trends, and possible threats to this species in other portions of its known and potential range (e.g., India, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Indonesia). Combining population assessments from known river basin populations would allow a more accurate global estimate of population size and trends to be made.<br/><br/>  Movement patterns are      unknown and require research. A significant gap in our knowledge of this species      is its habitat use and requirements, movement patterns, and migrations or      residency patterns (W. White, pers. comm., 2011).
195320		distribution	eng	The species is known from several disjunct freshwater localities in south and southeast Asia, from India to eastern Indonesia (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), although the presence and taxonomic status of some of the reported populations requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In Thailand it is known from the Chao Phraya, Nan, Mekong, Bangpakong (Bang Pakong), Tachin and Tapi (Tapee) rivers. It is recorded from the mainstream of the Mekong in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia.<span style="background-color: white;"></span> It is possibly present as far upstream on the Mekong as Chiang Khong in northern Thailand, where unidentified stingrays have been seen (Z. Hogan, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Indonesia it is recorded from the Mahakam basin in Kalimantan (Monkolprasit and Roberts 1990), and from Java (the holotype locality; given as "Jakarta [Batavia]", most likely from the Ciliwung River drainage). C. Leh (pers. comm.) reported anecdotal records of the species being collected by locals in the Kapuas River at Pontianak, Kalimantan, and the Kapuas was connected to the Lupar River in Sarawak in geological times, however extensive survey along the length of the Kapuas River in 1997 (C. Lim. pers. comm.) did not record the species. There are no recent records of the species from Java and recent surveys of both the Ciliwung and Cisidane drainages (R.K. Hadiaty, pers. comm.) have reported a very high level of decline in fish diversity; further survey in coastal areas is required to confirm the species presence.<br/><br/>While this species was reported from Sarawak by Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al. </span>(1993) and by Roberts (1989), it is largely unknown in Sarawak, and the species has not been recorded there in the last 25 years (C. Leh pers. comm. 2011). Extensive recent survey in the Rajang River in Sarawak by Parenti and Lim (2005) did not report the species. Specimens have been collected from the Kinabatangan (Fyler and Caira 2006) and Buket (in 1997; Yano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) rivers in Sabah. Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) consider it to be probably common in the Kinabatangan&#160; River, but rarely caught, and found in coastal and marine and brackish habitats in other parts of Indonesia. No specimens of the species are held by the Sarawak Museum, and the conclusion by C. Leh (pers. comm.) is that the status of the species in Sabah and Sarawak is largely unknown and that there is insufficient data the species. There do not appear to be records from Brunei&#160;Darussalam&#160;(a survey in the&#160;Belalong River in the early 1990's in the&#160;Temburong National Park by the Earl of Cranbrook did not report the species) or from Singapore (Chong Ving Ching, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It was reported to be present in Myanmar, but there is no information is available on its distribution there; its presence in Myanmar rivers requires confirmation, and R. Britz (pers. comm.) has not seen nor is aware of any records from Myanmar. It is also recorded as present in India (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Trygon fluviatilis</span> Annandale, 1909) but there appear to be no recent records. The identification of the records from the Ganges and the Bay of Bengal require confirmation (Last and Manjaji-Matsumoto 2008). Sezaki<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1999) compared specimens from India and Thailand and found significant molecular differences.<br/><br/>Records from Australia pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. dalyensis</span> (Last and Manjaji-Matsumoto 2008), which may also occur in most of the large rivers of tropical Australia; records from New Guinea (Fly River) most likely also refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">dalyensis</span>, but this requires study of material to confirm. Records of the species from Papua New Guinea also require taxonomic confirmation, and are probably also <span style="font-style: italic;">dalyensis</span> (P. Last pers. comm. 2011).<br/><br/>The species has also been recorded in estuarine waters. Despite records of this species from estuarine waters, there is only a possibility that it may be able to transit marine waters between riverine systems, most of its populations are thought likely to be geographically isolated.
195320		habitat	eng	This is mainly a freshwater species found in large rivers with a muddy or sandy bottom. There have been records of the species from estuarine waters. Martin (2005) considered it an obligate freshwater species, though Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) report records from coastal and marine and brackish habitats in parts of  Indonesia. Based on catch data and tagging work, the species does appear to occur in both brackish and freshwater, but it is considered unlikely that that the species needs to move between brackish and freshwater to complete its life cycle (Z. Hogan pers. comm. 2011), however large numbers of&#160; pregnant females are seen in brackish waters, so estuaries could be a pupping ground at least for some populations.<br/><br/>It is possible that it may be able to transit marine waters between riverine systems. The movement pattern of the species within and between river systems is not known and requires further research.<br/><br/>It reaches a size of up to 200 cm disc width (DW) and 600 kg in weight (Thailand). Males mature by 110 cm DW. Young (a single pup) are born at about 30 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994); recruitment is likely to be limited. Other life history parameters (age at maturity, average generation period and maximum lifespan in the wild) are unknown. Ovoviviparous, the fish gives birth to live young measuring 30 cm wide.<br/><br/>It is often observed at the water margin where it is thought to be feeding on earthworms (I. Baird, pers comm.; C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm.).
195320		population	eng	The population has generally declined as a result of pollution and fishing pressure, and is locally uncommon. In some parts of the range (e.g., Mae Khlong in Thailand, Stung Treng in Cambodia (C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm.) the species occurs in fish markets occasionally. WWF (2010) report that populations of the species are suffering less than other very large fish in the Mekong from overfishing and pollution, possibly because of the depth of the river these species inhabit as well as the fact that they are difficult to catch.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The species is taken by fishermen  on the rivers in Central Thailand and the Mekong. In 1992, Thai  fishermen reported 25 individuals of this species in their catch, but by  1993 the reported landings had dropped to three specimens, a decline of  88% in one year (Cook and Compagno 1994).&#160;</span><span style="background-color: white;"> However C. Vidthayanon (pers. comm.) observed  numerous specimens in markets in Stung Treng (Cambodia) in 2006.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> Population trends in other parts of the species range (e.g., India, Malaysia and Indonesia) are not known, but there are very few recent records from Malaysia and Indonesia.<br/><br/>In the Maeklong and Bangpakong rivers in central Thailand, fishing pressure is increasing due to capture for aquariums and sportfishing. Anecdotal information from fishermen suggest that catches have gone from a catch of 2-3 fish per day to one fish every 2-3 days, a significant decline (N. Chansue pers. comm.). In Cambodia, fishers (age 40 years an older, n = 36) report a 62% decline in the catch of this species since 1980 (Z. Hogan, unpublished data). The average size of an individual fish has dropped from 23.2kg in 1980 to 6.9kg in 2006. At the same time, the maximum size of a fish reported in an average season dropped from 175kg in the 1980’s to 60kg in recent times. Average catch per fish has dropped from 306.2kg per season to 27.6kg per season in 2006. Seven fishers report that they can no longer catch stingray in their area (Z. Hogan, unpublished data). <br/><br/>Populations appear to be healthier in the upper Cambodia Mekong (where fishers regularly catch the species and report population declines of 30-50%) and less healthy in the Tonle Sap Lake/Kampong Cham/Prey Veng areas where fishermen report declines of 50-95%. Although the species is still harvested in significant numbers in many areas where it occurs, catch data and local knowledge indicates a significant decline over the past 20-30 years. Past and future harvest, habitat degradation, and future habitat modification due to dam building are likely to continue to negatively impact this large-bodied, long-lived species.<br/></span>
195320		threats	eng	<span style="background-color: white;">The species is taken by fishermen on the rivers in Central Thailand and the Mekong.&#160; The species is similarly occasionally caught incidentally in artisanal fisheries on the Kinabatangan River (Sabah, Malaysia) and presumably elsewhere over much of its range</span>. <span style="background-color: white;">In the Maeklong and Bangpakong  Rivers in central Thailand, fishing pressure is increasing due to  capture for aquariums and sportfishing.&#160; Harvest for aquariums is a  potential problem because survival in captivity is low (N. Chansue,  pers. comm.). When a display animal dies, a new animal is harvested  from the wild population. Sportfishing may also be a serious threat:  sport anglers now have the equipment necessary to catch very large  stingrays and sport anglers do not always practice catch and release  (N. Chansue, pers. comm.).&#160; Moreover, mortality from catch-and-release  angling is not known. Some catch and release anglers use very invasive  techniques such as gaffing and hanging for display. Harvest for  aquariums and sportfishing has lead to a decline in populations.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Factors causing degradation of riverine environments in Thailand and elsewhere in Southeast Asia include forest loss and degradation leading to drought upstream and flooding downstream during monsoon conditions; dam construction for hydropower and&#160; flood control (which again leads to siltation and retention of agrochemicals and other pollutants behind impoundments); and the development of land adjoining riverine habitats, which leads to the degradation of water quality through the the movement of sediment and pollution (domestic, agricultural, and industrial).<br/><br/>On Java, Indonesia, the Ciliwung River, the likely type locality, has been very heavily impacted by urban and industrial development (R.K. Hadiaty, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In addition, dams effectively isolate portions of the reproductive populations of the species.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> Proposed mainstream dams on the Mekong in Lao PDR and in Cambodia would severely the impact the species, by further fragmenting their habitat and populations, however the time frame of the construction of these dams is uncertain.<br/><br/></span><span style="background-color: white;">Pollution impacts the species in the Thai parts of its range especially (C. Vidthayanon, pers. comm.); in the Bangpakong River, 30 specimens were found dead in one day in 2008-9 as a result of a pollution incident.</span><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
195343		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus moesiacus</span> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed as Near Threatened in the Bulgarian Red List &#160;(Petrova and Vladimirov 2009). The localities are in one national park and some protected areas and in Natura 2000 sites.<br/><br/>Research on the distribution and on the populations of this species is recommended.
195343		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria and Serbia. In Bulgaria, it is found in the Eastern Stara Planina, Thracian plain, Znepole, Vitosha mountains and Slavyanka mountains.
195343		habitat	eng	This perennial herb is found in dry grassland mostly on limestone from 300 to 1,500 m asl.
195343		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
195343		threats	eng	Intensive grazing as well as the abandonment of pastures are potential threats to this species.
195345		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
195345		distribution	eng	This species has a broad distribution ranging from the Red Sea, south to Madagascar, east to the Ryukyu Islands, the Philippines, Indonesia and New Caledonia (Holthuis 2002).
195345		habitat	eng	This species has been found on sand, coral, green mud, hard bottoms with corals, rocks, soft bottoms though it is said to prefer a hard coralligenous substrate. It has been found at a depth range of 12 to 57 m. Observations of habitat preferences are still based on limited samples (Holthuis 2002).
195345		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
195345		threats	eng	There is no known targeted fishery for this species, and no other known major threats.
195347		conservation	eng	There is no conservation action in place for this species. The taxonomy, distribution pattern, and population size and trends need urgently to be investigated.
195347		distribution	eng	This species is recorded from France and Italy, and is endemic for Europe. This is a species which is only known from the south-western alpine arc and the northernmost mountains in Tuscany. In France, only the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. f. liguricum</span> is recorded from the Alpes Maritimes (Gargominy and Ripken 2006).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
195347		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky areas, where it lives in crevices of (preferably) limestone boulders.
195347		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
195347		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species known.
195348		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Serratula lycopifolia</span>.<br/><br/>In France, it is protected at national level and legally protected in Romania. In Austria, it is protected in Niederösterreich and found in a conservation area. It is also protected in Slovenia and classed as Endangered. In Slovakia and the Czech Republic, it is listed as Critically Endangered, protected, and found in protected areas. All the Hungarian sites are protected and in Natura 2000 areas, and the species is listed as Endangered. Croatia lists it as Data Deficient and it is classed Vulnerable in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In Slovakia, all localities are protected in a Natura 2000 site (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011). It is categorized as Least Concern in Russia (I. Illarionova pers. comm. 2010). <p>It is recommended to manage the species sites, for example, the timing of mowing as this is important for the reproduction.</p>
195348		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to mountain ranges in Europe (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010). It extends from the southern Alps in France to central, eastern and southern European Russia southwards into the Balkans.
195348		habitat	eng	This species is found in semi-dry grassland, forest edges, scrubs, dry oak woods, alpine meadows. It often grows on calcareous sand stone. In Slovakia the species is turning sometimes to wet habitats of fen character, on loess or calcareous sandstones, in lowland to hilly areas (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
195348		population	eng	In France, it is found in 15 communes, with more than 50,000 individuals estimated in half the populations. The populations are declining.<br/><br/>In Slovenia, there are small populations. In Hungary, it is found in the lower mountains at no more than ten localities. The populations are assumed to be stable.<br/><br/>The Czech Republic counts with roughly 10,000 individuals, between 50 and several thousand individuals at a locality. In Austria, there are four to five localities some of which at least host stable populations (e.g. Unsheimerberg).<br/><br/>In Moldova, there are only few populations in the northern part of the Prut river basin (Gejdeman 1986). In Ukraine, it grows mainly in the eastern part of the lesosteppe (forest steppe) and steppe zones (Charkivska, Donecka Luganska regions) and is rare in the central part of these&#160; zones (Vinnicka, Odeska, Kirovogradska, Sumska, Chernigivska, Poltavska regions). There are a few small isolated populations in the Rogatinskij district, Ivano-Frankivska regions (Podolian upland).<br/><br/>From the middle of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century  the species was found in the surroundings of Bratislava, Slovakia in the  Záhorie region (meadows in the Morava floodplain area, Gbely), in the  Biele Karpaty Mts (Žalostiná hill near Vrbovce) and in the surroundings  of Nitra (Zobor hill, Veľký Lapáš, Komjatice). Since then the occurrence  on these localities has not been confirmed and the species was  considered absent from Slovakia. In 1999, a rather small Hungarian  Saw-wort population was rediscovered on Žalostiná hill in the Biele  Karpaty Mts, not far from the border with the Czech Republic. This  occurrence is related to recent sites on the Moravian side of the  mountain in the vicinity of the villages Radějov, Malá Vrbka and Suchov  (nowadays there are nine sites in southern Moravia). In Slovakia  the population size ranges from c. 50 to 500 individuals (Mereďa and Hodálová 2011).
195348		threats	eng	The main threats are abandonment of grassland and subsequent vegetation succession and habitat closure, intensification of agriculture and cultivation (including the use of fertilisers), overgrazing, and modification of agricultural practices such as mowing too early in the season. Urbanisation has been noted as a local threat.
195349		conservation	eng	This species is protected by law at the regional level, but it is recommended that it receives national and international protection. Some habitat maintenance and protection is carried out but further action is recommended. It is present in protected areas, but these should be expanded. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is also recommended. Some formal educational programmes are undertaken but these should be expanded.
195349		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Bellevalia webbiana</span> is an  Italian endemic found in northeastern Tuscany and southwestern  Emilia-Romagna. In Tuscany it is found in Firenze province in the hills  located immediately north and south of Florence and in Emilia-Romagna  it is found in the province of Ravenna in the hills near Faenza.<br/><br/>The  Check List of the Italian Vascular Flora (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), as well  as Pignatti, 1982 reported a dubious record of this species for the  Umbria Region.<br/><br/>Despite the relatively good conservation status of  the confirmed  localities, a decreasing trend is evident in the extent  of occurrence,  from 1,259 km² (in the period 1890-1930) to the present 467.5 km². The area of occupancy is 68 km².<br/><br/>A  generation, on the basis of the observation of similar geophytes  cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Pisa, is assumed to be about 40  years. This implies an extent of occurrence reduction of 62% in the last  three generations.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>
195349		habitat	eng	The plant grows at the margins of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>woods and, above all, in fields and olive groves. <span style="font-style: italic;">Bellevalia webbiana</span> flowers in March-April, occasionally in May, and fruits in summer.
195349		population	eng	There is evidence of a reduction in the area of occupancy and the current population trend is declining. The species lacks precise population data.
195349		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellevalia webbiana</span> is threatened by loss of habitat due to changes in land use (abandonment of  cultivation, spontaneous reforestation, building and infrastructure development). Moreover, the bulbs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bellevalia webbiana</span> are eaten by wild boar<span style="font-style: italic;"> (Sus scrofa</span>) and other ungulates.
195350		conservation	eng	<p>This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Genista tetragona</span> is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine (Diduch 2009) as Endangered, in the Red Data Book of Moldova (Dectiu 2002) as Endangered, and in the Red Data Book of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (Kalakin 2009) as Endangered. It is protected in the Jagorlyk reserve in Moldova. It is necessary to organize protection of all the subpopulations, especially the two in Ukraine.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
195350		distribution	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Genista tetragona</span> is a narrow endemic of the Dnister river basin, native to Moldova and Ukraine. In Moldova it grows in Dubosari, Grigoriopol and Ribnica districts in the valley of the Dnister and its tributaries Reut, Okna, Rybnica, and Jagorlyk. In Ukraine it occurs in the valley of the Jagorlyk river near Artyrivka and Razivka villages in Krasnooknjanskij district in the Odeska region.</p><p>The species has an EOO of less than 20,000 km², and possibly less than 5,000 km².</p>
195350		habitat	eng	<p>This shrub is calciphilous and xerophilous. It grows on calcareous slopes, where plant cover is very thin. <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista tetragona</span> flowers in May, and seeds ripen in July-August.</p>
195350		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations are local and isolated. In Ukraine there are only two subpopulations with few individuals and these are mostly <span class="apple-style-span">adults. The plants are found at a density of 1-3 individuals/m². There are eight subpopulations in Moldova. Some Moldavian subpopulations (near Molochisul Mare, Strobesti, Haraba and Plopi villages) differ greatly in the number of ind<span style="background-color: white;">ividuals. </span></p>
195350		threats	eng	<p>The main threats to this plant are afforestation of the calcareous slopes, grazing and quarrying.</p>
195351		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine the distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
195351		distribution	eng	This newly described species is endemic to Lake Ambrakia, where it was first collected in 1985. The lake lies in Epirus, Greece (38°48'North, 21°12'East).
195351		habitat	eng	The species is found in a small freshwater lake.
195351		population	eng	As this species has been recently described, the population status is unknown.
195351		threats	eng	The specific threats to this species are not known.<br/><br/>According to the Natura 2000 Standard Data Form for the site GR2310007-Limni Amvrakia "the main problem that confronts Lake Amvrakia is the reduction of its surface area. The balance of the lake shows a negative tendency because of the continuous irrigation of the surrounding fields. This results in the degradation of the littoral ecosystem especially in its northern part. The eutrophication of the littoral zones is a consequence of their loading with fertilizers and pesticides from the surrounding cultivated fields, but this does not seem to have reached a critical level yet. The village of Rivio pollutes the lake with unprocessed sewage. Overgrazing is also observed in this site, as well as at the drained northern part of the lake. The vegetation of Amvrakia has been strongly influenced by human activities".
195353		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine the distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
195353		distribution	eng	This species was originally described from Lepanto [=Nafpaktos], Greece, and Kobelt (1892) also reports the presence on the Greece Islands. Glöer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) note that specimens which resemble this species were taken from Lake Taka (10 km south of Tripolis, Peloponnes).
195353		habitat	eng	This species is found in a small freshwater lake.
195353		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown, as the species has been overlooked until recent taxonomic reviews, which suggest that it is not conspecific with other taxa.
195353		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
195354		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for this species. Proposed conservation actions would include further surveys to determine the distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
195354		distribution	eng	This newly described species is endemic to Greece, where it has been found in Peloponnisos, Evia island, Epeirus and Macedonia (Glöer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
195354		habitat	eng	This species is found in the emergent vegetation in the littoral zones of freshwater ponds on Evia Island as well as large canals and lowland rivers on the mainland.
195354		population	eng	The population trend of this species is unknown as it has only recently been described.
195354		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
195356		conservation	eng	This taxon <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Silene furcata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">angustifolia</span>.<br/><br/>In Sweden, it is classed as Near Threatened in the Swedish Red List <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Gärdenfors 2010) and is protected. Most localities are included in protected areas. In Finland, it is listed as Critically Endangered B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); C2a(i,ii); D1 <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). <span style="background-color: white;">The subspecies is  protected by law and named as a taxon under strict protection (Nature  Conservation Decree 913/2005). The only site is in Oulanka National  Park.<br/></span>In Norway, it is listed as Critically Endangered C1; D1 <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Artsdatabanken 2010).
195356		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silene involucrata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">tenella</span> is a plant with a dispersed distribution ranging from Norway to Arctic Russia. In the European Union, it occurs only in the mountain and forest regions of northern Sweden and Finland.  In both countries the subspecies is rare. The extent of occurrence in Sweden is 3,724 km² and the area of occupancy is 36 km² (ArtDatabanken 2010). The area of occupancy in Finland is less than 10 km² (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><br/>In Norway, it is known from two rivers: Reisa and the Alta/Kautokeino watercourse (Fi Alta and Kautokeino) (Artsdatabanken 2010).
195356		habitat	eng	This subspecies grows in calcareous alpine and subalpine grassland, temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes, and basic and ultra-basic inland cliffs   (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Both sites within the southernmost Swedish locality group are situated in rocky canyons among boreal forest (Artsdatabanken 2010).
195356		population	eng	In Sweden, the population is of 3,500 individuals with a stable population trend and it is found in four locality groups (ArtDatabanken 2010)<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>. <br/><span style="background-color: white;">In Finland, the plant is found at only one site with c. 300 individuals (tufts), of which c. 40 are flowering. The population has been somewhat declining during the last 15 years, and it is probably extinct at two former localities. </span><br/>It is rare in Norway where only a few individuals (less than 50 mature individuals) remain after a serious decline in the past. In Nordreisa it has been known from four occurrences, but has only been found in two after 1960. In the Alta, it was last seen in 1974 and thorough searches 2006 were without success of finding the subspecies. In Kautokeino, five localities were discovered in 1982-83 in an area that was under development and those localities are probably all lost now. It is possible that the subspecies is found downstream of the river Alta (Artsdatabanken 2010).<br/><br/>There is no information for Russia.
195356		threats	eng	There are no threats to this subspecies in Sweden. The threats in Finland are random factors (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2010). In Norway, river regulation seems to have posed a threat in the past (Artsdatabanken 2010).
195364		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are known at present. There is a need to understand in detail the taxonomy, distribution and threats to this species to inform species specific conservation plans.
195364		distribution	eng	<p><em>Puntius assimilis</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats, known from Nethravati River in Coorg (Karnataka), Bhavani River near Mettupalayam (Tamil Nadu), Chalakudy River near Vettilapara and Kallada River near Thenmala in Kerala (Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 2005). </p>
195364		habitat	eng	Inhabits both marginal areas of rivers with sluggish flow and muddy substrates, as well as clear, rocky, fast-flowing streams (Pethiyagoda and Kottelat 2005). Like many barbs <em>P. assimilis</em> is a generalized omnivore in nature feeding on a variety of worms, insects, crustaceans, plant matter and other organic debris (Seriously Fish 2007-2010).
195364		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. assimilis</span>.
195364		threats	eng	Species specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. assimils</span> are not known. However, the habitats of this barb in the Bhavani River near Mettupalayam and Chalakudy River near Vettilapara are threatened by pollution from domestic and agricultural sources. There is also a plausible future threat to the habitats at Vettilapara as a result of the proposed hydroelectric power project at Athirapally. Due to its restricted distribution, unamanged collection for the aquarium pet trade may also pose a threat to the local populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. assimilis</span>.
195365		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania, but some of the sub-populations may inhabit protected areas.
195365		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the south-west of Romania, and is mainly recorded between both shores of river Mureş between Deva and Arad, and between the Danube and the Reşiţa (Subai 2011).
195365		habitat	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle.
195365		population	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle. We have no information on population trends, but there is no reason to assume that the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
195365		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not affected directly by human activity and therefore the species is not thought to be facing any specific threat.
195366		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Bulgaria.
195366		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bulgaria. Until now, it is only recorded from the Iskar valley between Lakatnik and Ljutibrod (ca. 50 km north of Sofia) (Subai 2011).
195366		habitat	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle. We have no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
195366		population	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle. We have no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
195366		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not effected directly by human activity.
195367		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Serbia, but some of the subpopulations may inhabit protected areas.
195367		distribution	eng	This species is known from the south-eastern part of Serbia in the vicinity of the city of Pirot. From North-West Bulgaria, this species is recorded from river debris (Subai 2011).
195367		habitat	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle. We have no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
195367		population	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle. We have no   information on population trends, but there is no reason to assume that   the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
195367		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not affected directly by human activity.
195368		conservation	eng	The species is not protedted at national level in Serbia, but some of the subpopuations may inhabit protected areas.
195368		distribution	eng	This specie is known from northeast Serbia south of the Danube towards the Rtanj Mts. (= between Paraćin and Zaječar). The hitherto known western boundary of this species may be defined by a line between Ćuprija and Golubac.
195368		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks, in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
195368		population	eng	The species has a very hidden (subterranean) lifestyle. We have no  information on population trends, but there is no reason to assume that  the population is unstable or extremely fluctuating.
195368		threats	eng	The habitat of the species is not effected directly by human activity.
195369		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea vicentina</span>.
195369		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea fraylensis </span>is endemic to southwest Portugal   where it has a geographic range of 2,967-4,500 km². The available habitat has been estimated to be 42 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195369		habitat	eng	This plant is found in dry heaths, coastal dune heaths and coastal dune scrub. This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/> <ul><li>2150 Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Calluno-Ulicetea</span>)</li><li> 2250 Coastal dunes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> spp.</li><li>4030 European dry heaths</li></ul>
195369		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
195369		threats	eng	Forest replanting and removal of forest have been described as threats   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195371		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Murbeckiella pinnatifida</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">herminii</span>. It is not included in the Spanish Red List.
195371		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Murbeckiella pinnatifida</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">herminii</span> as included in the EC Habitats Directive has been reported to be synonym to <span style="font-style: italic;">Murbeckiella boryi</span> (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993, Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2010) in which case its distribution ranges from the Iberian Peninsula to North Africa. In Portugal, this species has an area of occupancy of 700 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/>In Spain it has been reported from 16 provinces (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
195371		habitat	eng	This species is characteristic of acid siliceous inland cliffs preferably facing north and between 850 to 1,900 m asl. It grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 8220 "Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation"   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195371		population	eng	Population in Portugal is 10,000 individuals   but the trend is unknown (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195371		threats	eng	Main threats for this species are the construction of skiing complex and mountaineering or rock climbing activities   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195373		conservation	eng	This species was not protected by any national legislation. It is now considered Extinct.
195373		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to the Katangan Copperbelt area in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was known from only one location (Dikuluwe, 10°43'312 25°22'833) with a very restricted range (extent of occurrence was estimated to be 1 km², and area of occupancy was estimated as 0.1 km²). It is now thought to be Extinct.
195373		habitat	eng	This plant was strictly endemic to copper-rich soil (i.e., it was an  absolute metallophyte). Its natural habitat was steppe  savanna, where it was found growing in copper outcrops. This habitat, which is naturally enriched with copper, is of rare occurrence.<br/> <br/> In the Katangan Copper Belt area, mineralised rocks appear as rounded  hills, typically a few tenths of meters above the level of the  surrounding non-mineralised areas, and most are typically a few tenths  of hectares in area, rarely exceeding 1 km² (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The distance between nearby hills varies from less than a few hundred meters to more than 20 km (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195373		population	eng	This species is now believed to be Extinct.
195373		threats	eng	This species' extinction was caused by habitat destruction as a result of mining activities, particularly by extraction surface mining.
195374		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
195374		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Katangan Copperbelt area in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Considering the Katangese populations known so far, the extent of occurrence is estimated to be 2,500 km² and area of occupancy is estimated as 0.5 km². The species has been found in four sites.
195374		habitat	eng	This plant is strictly endemic to copper-rich soil (i.e., it is an  absolute metallophyte). Its natural habitat is restricted to steppe  savanna, where it is found growing in copper outcrops. This habitat,  which is naturally enriched with copper, is of rare occurrence.<br/>  <br/>  In the Katangan Copper Belt area, mineralised rocks appear as rounded  hills, typically a few tenths of meters above the level of the  surrounding non-mineralised areas, and most are typically a few tenths  of hectares in area, rarely exceeding 1 km² (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The distance between nearby hills varies from less than a few hundred meters to more than 20 km (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195374		population	eng	The subpopulation sizes and abundance are often small (less than 100 individuals).
195374		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation through mining activities, particularly by extraction surface mining.
195376		conservation	eng	This species was not protected by any national legislation. It is now believed to be Extinct.
195376		distribution	eng	This species was endemic to the Katangan copperbelt area in the  Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was found at only one location (Mine de l’Etoile) and it is now believed to be Extinct.
195376		habitat	eng	This plant was strictly endemic to copper-rich soil (i.e., it was an  absolute metallophyte). Its natural habitat was restricted to steppe  savanna, where it was found growing in copper outcrops. This habitat,  which is naturally enriched with copper, is of rare occurrence.<br/><br/>In the Katangan Copper Belt area, mineralised rocks appear as rounded  hills, typically a few tenths of meters above the level of the  surrounding non-mineralised areas, and most are typically a few tenths  of hectares in area, rarely exceeding 1 km² (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The distance between nearby hills varies from less than a few hundred meters to more than 20 km (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195376		population	eng	This species is now believed to be Extinct.
195376		threats	eng	<p>This species was lost as its habitat was destroyed by surface mining. </p>
195377		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. It is not protected by any national legislation at present.
195377		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to copper-rich soil of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Considering the Katangese populations known so far, its extent of occurrence cannot be calculated. Although the area of occupancy for this species (using a 2x2 km grid overlay on the species' range map) is estimated to be 8 km², the actual area of habitat occupied by this plant is 0.4 km². The species is known from three mining sites (two locations).
195377		habitat	eng	This plant is strictly endemic to copper-rich soil (i.e., it is an absolute metallophyte). Its natural habitat is restricted to steppe savanna, growing in copper outcrops. This species is also able to colonise secondary metalliferous habitat such as substrate (often mine debris) disturbed by the mining industry (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>In the Katangan Copper Belt area, mineralised rocks appear as rounded  hills, typically a few tenths of meters above the level of the  surrounding non-mineralised areas, and most are typically a few tenths  of hectares in area, rarely exceeding 1 km² (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The distance between nearby hills varies from less than a few hundred meters to more than 20 km (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195377		population	eng	<p>The subpopulations size and abundance are often great (more than 1,000 individuals matures). However, the population is considered to be severely fragmented due to the limited dispersability of the seeds. </p>
195377		threats	eng	Although this species is able to colonize secondary metalliferous habitats, such as substrate (often mine debris) disturbed and reworked by mining industry, the main threat to the species is direct destruction of populations by mining activities.
195378		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. It is not protected by any national legislation at present.
195378		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Katangan Copperbelt area in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it has been found at only two sites. Although its area of occupancy (using a 2x2 km grid overlay on the  species' range map) is estimated to be 8 km², the actual area of  habitat occupied by this species is only 0.2 km².
195378		habitat	eng	This plant is strictly endemic to copper-rich soil (i.e., it is an  absolute metallophyte). Its natural habitat is restricted to steppe  savanna, where it is found growing in copper outcrops. This habitat,  which is naturally enriched with copper, is of rare occurrence.<br/><br/>In the Katangan Copper Belt area, mineralised rocks appear as rounded  hills, typically a few tenths of meters above the level of the  surrounding non-mineralised areas, and most are typically a few tenths  of hectares in area, rarely exceeding 1 km² (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The distance between nearby hills varies from less than a few hundred meters to more than 20 km (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195378		population	eng	The subpopulations size and abundance are often small (fewer than 100 individuals). The population is considered to be severely fragmented due to the limited dispersability of the seeds.
195378		threats	eng	Habitat is directly threatened by mining activities, particularly by extraction surface mining.
195379		conservation	eng	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.
195379		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Katangan Copper Belt area in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.&#160;Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 1,302 km². Although its area of occupancy (using a 2x2 km grid overlay on the species' range map) is estimated to be 20 km², the actual area of habitat occupied by this species is 0.6 km². The species is known from only&#160;five sites (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195379		habitat	eng	This plant is strictly endemic to copper-rich soil (i.e., it is an  absolute metallophyte). Its natural habitat is restricted to steppe  savanna, growing in copper outcrops. It is possible that this plant also occurs in secondary metalliferous habitat such as substrate (often mine  debris) disturbed by the mining industry (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>In the Katangan Copper Belt area, mineralised rocks appear as rounded  hills, typically a few tenths of meters above the level of the  surrounding non-mineralised areas, and most are typically a few tenths  of hectares in area, rarely exceeding 1 km² (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The distance between nearby hills varies from less than a few hundred meters to more than 20 km (Faucon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
195379		population	eng	Subpopulation size and abundance for this species are often small (fewer than 100 individuals). The&#160;population is considered to be severely fragmented due to the limited dispersability of the seeds.
195379		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is surface mining, which is destroying its habitat.
195409		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus</span><em> itajara</em> was listed as a candidate species on the US Endangered Species List in 1999 (Federal Register, 23 June 1999) (www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Epinephelus+itajara accessed on 4th Jan 2006), and since 1991 has been referred to as a Species of Concern throughout its geographic range in US waters and the population off the coast of the southeastern US is listed as a Species of Concern by the NMFS (Federal Register 15 April 2004). All harvesting of the <span style="font-style: italic;">E. itajara</span> in federal waters of the southeastern United States (including the Gulf of Mexico) has been prohibited since 1990 by the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council and the Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council and in the Caribbean since 1993 by Caribbean Fishery Management Council. However, a recent status review (not a full status review) has had the species removed from this category (M. Nammack, NOAA, pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>The NMFS, under the authority of the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act, lists the <em>E. itajara</em> as overfished in Reports to Congress on the Status of Fisheries (www.sefsc.noaa.gov/redtidegrouper.jsp  accessed on 4th Jan 2006, Porch <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The American Fisheries Society classified <em>E. itajara</em> as being conservation dependent. Due to the fish's life history, it is vulnerable to become threatened, but can be kept from threatened status with appropriate protective measures (www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2000-07-20-jewfish-update.htm, accessed on 31st Dec 2005). <br/> <br/>Classified as endangered by US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) under the concept of District Population Segments (DPS) but regarded as recovering under Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>A 5-year-protection was granted by the IBAMA (Brazilian Environmental Agency) on 20th September 2002 (www.vidamar.org.br/meros/english/index.php accessed on 3rd Jan 2006). <br/> <br/>According to the regulations for <em>E. itajara</em> fishing in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, fishing in any form for this species is totally prohibited all year around (www.caribbeanfmc.com; accessed on 4th Jan 2006). <br/> <br/>It was indicated that the ban on spear-fishing in the upper Florida Keys has significantly and beneficially influenced the average size of groupers, although their populations in this region have not reached stable levels (Sluka and Sullivan 1998).
195409		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus itajara</span> is found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, the species ranges from North Carolina (USA) to southeast Brazil (Francesconi and Schwartz 2000), and is caught widely in the Gulf of Mexico and throughout most of the Caribbean. It is reported in the eastern Atlantic from Senegal to Congo.
195409		habitat	eng	<strong>General Ecology</strong> <br/>Found from inshore to about 100 m in reef, mangrove, seagrass, and estuarine habitats (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/>Juveniles live in shallow bays, holes, below undercut ledges in swift tidal creeks draining mangrove swamp, rivers and estuaries while adults live around structures in, near, and offshore (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992, Gerber <em>et al</em>. 2005, Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2007). Juveniles exhibit high site fidelity to mangrove habitat for 5-6 years, then emigrate to offshore reefs at body length of about 1 m TL (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Juvenile distribution in mangroves depends on local water quality,  particularly dissolved oxygen content (>4 ppm) and mid-range  salinities (>10 ppt)  (www.bio.fsu.edu/coleman_lab/goliath_grouper.html, accessed on 31st Dec  2005). <br/> <br/>During a survey of the freshwater fish of southern Florida from 1976 to 1983, no <em>E. itajara</em> was collected although the salinity-tolerant juveniles could be found in shallow, costal waters (Loftus and Kushlan 1987). In 181 sites, presence of mangrove areas appears to be important for juveniles (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). Koenig <em>et al</em>. (2007) demonstrated the high nursery value of mangrove to juveniles.<br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong> <br/>The species feeds on a wide diversity of fishes and invertebrates (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). It is a classic apex predator, large, rare and only a few individuals occur on any given reef unit (Huntsman <em>et al</em>. 1999) <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction</strong> <br/>Up to 100, sometimes more, individuals aggregate to spawn at specific times and locations. The aggregations last only a few weeks each year and represent most of the total annual reproductive effort (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). Its reproductive season occurs between June and December, with peak activity indicated from July through September in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992).  The species is one of the few groupers that aggregate in relatively shallow (10-50 m) water (Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Possible courtship activities (without spawning) were observed on a wreck in the eastern Gulf of Mexico at 33 m depth in August 1990 (Colin 1994). Wrecks are often noted to be spawning areas for this species. <br/> <br/>A study indicated that a 1,322 mm standard length (SL) and a 1,397 mm SL female had a batch fecundity of 38,922,168 ±1,518,283 and 56,599,306 ±1,866,130 oocytes, respectively (Bullock and Smith 1991). <br/> <br/>According to a conceptual model for the role of dispersal in a simple life history model of <em>E. itajara</em>, such groupers exhibit a positive response to the establishment of a marine reserve. Apart from inducing an increase in population growth rate, implementation of a reserve could increase population recovery rates by increasing reproductive output (Gerber <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Age, growth and longevity</strong> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus</span> <em>itajara</em> grow slowly relative to their potential maximum size. Growth rates for male and female are similar, averaging >100 mm per year through age 6, then slowing to about 30 mm per year by age 15, and finally declining to <10 mm per year after age 25. Von Bertalanffy growth model was found to be TL (mm) = 206[1-e<sup>(-0.126(Age+0.49)</sup>] (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Maximum size and age recorded were 2,000-2,500 mm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993), 37 years (female) and 26 years (male) (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992), respectively. <strong></strong>
195409		population	eng	Global or regional abundance of adults is unknown. Abundance is now rare where formerly it was abundant (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). The species, in general, was noted to be uncommon or rare in the mid 1990s, but juveniles appear to be recovering in some parts of its range where fishing moratoria were introduced (e.g., Florida). It is a large, rare and only a few individuals occur on any given reef unit (Huntsman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).<br/> <br/>Female-to-male sex ratio was 1.75:1 in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from 1977 to 1990 (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Distribution densities of juveniles around mangrove islands (22-61 juveniles per km of mangrove shoreline) in the Ten Thousand Islands were found to be higher and less variable than the densities in rivers (0-46 juveniles per km) (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/> <br/>Sexual pattern has not been confirmed (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992, Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/>Most individuals collected from the eastern Gulf of Mexico were between nine and 15 years (with female and male ages overlapping), few exceeded 30 years (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Estimated average length and fishing mortality in the exploited stock were found to be 1,161 mm total length (TL) and 0.04 per year in the Florida Keys, respectively (Ault <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Based on the distribution of age classes (Bullock <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992) and a maturity age of six years (Sadovy and Eklund 1999), the generation time for Atlantic Goliath Grouper is estimated at 13.5 years (Note: Generation time is defined here as the mean age of reproductive individuals in a population). Therefore, measures of declines and/or recovery over three generations covers a time span of 40.5 years.
195409		threats	eng	Life history characteristics of <em>E. itajara</em> make this species highly vulnerable to overfishing (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus</span><em> itajara</em> is of significant commercial and recreational interest. Since the 1970s, landings, mean sizes, and catch per unit effort (CPUE) have fallen sharply in regional fisheries, and growth and recruitment are suspected to be in severe decline in some locations due to overfishing. Loss of critical juvenile habitat (i.e., mangroves) would also threaten this species (Sadovy and Eklund 1999;&#160; www.bio.fsu.edu/coleman_lab/goliath_grouper.html, accessed on 31st Dec 2005).<br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus</span><em> itajara</em> is apparently vulnerable to stresses caused by cold water (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1978) or red tide — it was recorded that populations of <em>E. itajara</em> were much reduced during a red tide in 1971 and dead individuals over 45 kg were often observed (Smith 1976). During an outbreak of red tide in Florida in March 2003, eleven large dead Goliath Grouper (sized 305 mm to 2,057 mm) washed up near the Sanibel Island Causeway (www.sefsc.noaa.gov/redtidegrouper.jsp, accessed on 4th Jan 2006).
195410		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus humilis</span>. It is included as species with “Protección Especial” in the national list of species in regime of special protection of Spain, and as species "de interés especial" in the regional catalogue of threatened species of Extremadura.
195410		distribution	eng	This species is native and endemic to the Morocco, Portugal and Spain (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). In Spain, it is found in Sierra de Grazalema, Sierra de Lijar, Los Alcornocales, Doñana, and La Serena.<br/>In Extremadura its area of occupancy has been estimated in 8 grid cells of 10x10 km (Palacios<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010).
195410		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Narcissus humilis</span> grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>6310 Dehesas with evergreen<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus spp.</span></li><li>6420 Mediterranean tall humid grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Molinio-Holoschoenion</span></li><li>92D0 Southern riparian galleries and thickets (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nerio-Tamaricetea and Securinegion tinctoriae</span>)</li></ul><br/>In Extremadura it can be found between 300 and 600 m asl.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
195410		population	eng	In Spain, this species has been recorded in six localities. In Portugal, the population has 13,500 individuals   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195410		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Modification of cultivation practices, use of pesticides, grazing, removal of hedges and copses, animal breeding, open cast mining, outdoor sports and leisure activities, motorised vehicles and trampling and overuse have bee cited as threats to ths species in Spain (Commission of the European Communities 2009). <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/>Outdoor sports and leisure activities and trampling, overuse have been reported as threats in Portugal.
195411		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in the coutries where it occurs, but some of the subpopulations inhabit protected areas.
195411		distribution	eng	According to Subai (2011)<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. armata </span>is known from south-western Romania, eastern Serbia, and the northern parts of Bulgaria and the FYROM.
195411		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks,  in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
195411		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living  specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and  trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of  individuals declines or fluctuates extremely.
195411		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.  It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by  quarrying, by road constructions or by other reasons. However the total  destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this  threat is mostly "hypothetical".
195412		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in the countries where it  occurs, but some of the subpopulations inhabit protected areas.
195412		distribution	eng	According to Subai (2008) the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. biarmata </span>reaches the Island of Korcula, the peninsula Peljesac and the Croatian coast south-east of the Neretva valley. Additionally, it has been found in the mountains of the south-eastern part of Bosnia and Hercegovina and in western coastal parts of Montenegro.
195412		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks,  in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
195412		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living   specimens is impossible), there are no data on population size and   trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of   individuals declines or fluctuates extremely.
195412		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.  It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by  quarrying, by road constructions or by other reasons. However the total  destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this  threat is mostly "hypothetical".
195413		conservation	eng	&#160;The species is not protected at national level in Romania and in Bulgaria, but some of the subpopulations may inhabit protected areas.
195413		distribution	eng	According to Subai (2011), this species is known from south-western Romania in the southern Carpathians between Petrila and Baia de Aramă, and from a single record in the north-west of Bulgaria.
195413		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks,   in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
195413		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living    specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and    trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of    individuals declines or fluctuates extremely.
195413		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.   It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by   quarrying, by road constructions or by other reasons. However the total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore this   threat is mostly "hypothetical".
195414		conservation	eng	The species is not protected at national level in Romania and in Serbia, however most  of the locations can be found within protected areas. More research is  needed on the population and distribution of this species.
195414		distribution	eng	According to Subai (2011), this species is known from the south-west of Romania and the north-east of Serbia, at both river shores of the Danube from Moldova Veche to Porţile de Fier. It was also recorded from the Nera Canyon close to Potoc.
195414		habitat	eng	This is a subterranean species, living in the cracks of limestone rocks,  in the soil, between small pieces of stones, among roots.
195414		population	eng	Due to the extremely hidden life of the species (finding a living    specimens is impossible),&#160; there are no data on population size and    trends. However, there is no reason to suppose that the number of    individuals declines or fluctuates.
195414		threats	eng	This species occurs in subterranean part of rocky (limestone) habitats.    It is a potential threat to this species if the rocks are destroyed by    quarrying, by road construction or by other reasons. However the  total   destruction of the whole habitat is not very likely, therefore  this   threat is mostly "hypothetical".
195417		conservation	eng	Arconada and Ramos (2006) considered the species as Conservation Dependent, a category that is no longer used in the IUCN Red List assessment system. Proposed research actions include further surveys to determine distribution, population trends and threats to this species.
195417		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Spain, where it is restricted to Andalucia (Arconada and Ramos 2006). It is known from 15-23 locations: Almeria (eight locations); Grenada (nine locations); Cadiz (one location); Malaga (four locations); and Jaen (one location).
195417		habitat	eng	This species occurs in freshwater springs.
195417		population	eng	In recent decades the region has witnessed the disappearance of species from ca. 30% of the springs because of the drying out of groundwater supplying these springs.
195417		threats	eng	This species is considered to be threatened due to over-abstraction of water for domestic supplies and for agricultural use. There is also ongoing decline in groundwater recharges with increased frequency of droughts.
195419		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachelium asperuloides</span> Boiss. & Orph.
195419		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula asperuloides</span> is endemic to Greece (The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2010).
195419		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown.
195419		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trend available.
195419		threats	eng	There is no information on actual or potential threats.
195420		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.
195420		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">This species is found in the South Pacific from New Caledonia, Chesterfield Islands, and probably Fiji (Yang, Chen and Chan, <span style="font-style: italic;">in press</span>).<br/></p>
195420		habitat	eng	There is no habitat information for this species.
195420		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
195420		threats	eng	This species faces no major threats.
195421		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation actions in place for the Starry  Catshark but commercial fishing is forbidden on the seamounts of New  Caledonia (Monts sous-marins du Grand Sud) where it occurs.
195421		distribution	eng	<p>The Starry Catshark<em> </em>(<em>Asymbolus galacticus</em>)<em> </em>is known from the  slopes of the seamounts Monts Jumeaux off southern New Caledonia, in  the northern sector of the Norfolk Ridge, Western Central Pacific.<br/>  </p>
195421		habitat	eng	<p>The Starry Catshark<em> </em>is a benthic shark, living on or close  to the sea floor, on the slopes of seamounts between 235 and 550 m  depth. Its maximum size is 47.7 cm total length (TL) (biggest mature  male); males mature at about 44 cm TL. This species is oviparous, but  nothing is known regarding its reproductive biology.</p>
195421		population	eng	The Starry Catshark, is so far known only by the  19 specimens listed in the original description (Séret and Last 2008)  and a few additional specimens collected during exploratory cruises in  southern New Caledonia.
195421		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to the Starry Catshark because no commercial  bottom-trawling fishery occurs in its range. It has only been  caught by scientific research vessels.</p>
195422		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Reticulate Swellshark.
195422		distribution	eng	<p>The Reticulate Swellshark is endemic to northwestern Australia, from west of Leander Point to southwest of Rowley Shoals (White and Ebert 2008).</p>
195422		habitat	eng	<p>The deepwater benthic Reticulate Swellshark has been recorded from the upper continental slope at depths of 294–420 m (White and Ebert 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum size of this small species is at least 52 cm total length (TL), with males mature at ~46 cm TL (White and Ebert 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Nothing else is known of the biology of the species, except that it is oviparous (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195422		population	eng	There is no population information on the Reticulate Swellshark.
195422		threats	eng	<p>The range of<em> </em>Reticulate Swellshark <span lang="EN-AU">off Western Australia is only subject to low fishing effort through the Australian Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fisheries.</p>
195423		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Spotted Swellshark. In order for any actions to be taken more must be known about this species (i.e., distribution, population trends, growth cycles, ecology, threats, and human uses).
195423		distribution	eng	The Spotted Swellshark is found off eastern Taiwan in the pelagic-neritic zone (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195423		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology are currently unknown for the Spotted Swellshark. It likely occurs from near shore to about 100 m in the pelagic-neritic zone (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195423		population	eng	Population status of the Spotted Swellshark is unknown (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195423		threats	eng	There is a possible threat to the Spotted Swellshark as a bycatch from trawling within its range. Areas with directed fisheries for this group have sparsely recorded catch information (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195424		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for the Leopard-spotted Swellshark. In order for any actions to be taken more must be known about this species (i.e. distribution, population trends, growth cycles, ecology, threats, and human uses).
195424		distribution	eng	The Leopard-spotted Swellshark is found off eastern Taiwan in the pelagic-neritic zone (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195424		habitat	eng	Habitat and ecology are currently unknown for the Leopard-spotted Swellshark. It likely occurs from near shore to about 100 m in the pelagic-neritic zone (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195424		population	eng	Population information is unknown for the Leopard-spotted Swellshark (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195424		threats	eng	There is a possible threat to the Leopard-spotted Swellshark as bycatch from trawling within its range. Areas with directed fisheries for this group have sparsely recorded catch information (Schaaf-Da Silva and Ebert 2008).
195425		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the Phallic Catshark. However, commercial fishing is prohibited on the seamounts of southern New Caledonia.
195425		distribution	eng	The Phallic Catshark (<em>Galeus priapus</em>) is known from the marginal slopes off southern New Caledonia, south of the Loyalty Islands Ridge and north of the Norfolk Ridge and off Espiritu Santo Island (Vanuatu) (Séret and Last 2008).
195425		habitat	eng	The Phallic Catshark is a benthic shark, living on or close to the sea floor, on the slopes of oceanic islands and seamounts between 262 and 830 m depth. Its maximum size is 45.5 cm TL (biggest known female), with males maturing at about 38 cm TL. This species is oviparous, but nothing is known of its reproductive biology.
195425		population	eng	The Phallic Catshark is so far known only by the 11 specimens listed in the original description (Séret and Last 2008) and a few additional specimens collected during exploratory cruises in the EEZ of New Caledonia. It is considered to be uncommon.
195425		threats	eng	<p>There are no threats to the Phallic Catshark as there is no commercial bottom trawling fisheries in the areas where it occurs. Commercial fishing is prohibited on the seamounts of southern New Caledonia (Monts sous-marins du Grand Sud). It has only been caught by scientific research vessels.</p>
195426		conservation	eng	<p>Research is required to estimate the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark’s abundance, accurately determine both its northern and southern extents of occurrence, and to examine its life history traits and its interactions with fisheries which occur within its range. In general, sharks caught within fisheries such as the Queensland Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery need to be recorded to species level (rather than ‘unspecified’) in order to obtain species-specific catch and trend data.</p>    <p>Both the Queensland Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery and the Commonwealth Coral Sea Fishery are limited entry fisheries, with overall low effort. Management arrangements for sharks came into effect in the Queensland Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery in July 2009 which included a total allowable commercial catch and a quota reporting system (DEEDI 2009).</p>    <p>The use of Turtle Exclusion Devices in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery is compulsory and this may reduce the bycatch of larger sharks, although smaller sharks are still likely to be caught (Kyne 2008). </p>  <p>The Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark may be afforded some protection in deeper areas of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Fishing is completely prohibited in about ⅓ of this large reserve.</p>    <p>Once the level of interactions with all commercial fisheries operating within its range is understood and stock assessments are undertaken, it is suggested that the conservation status of this species be reassessed.</p>
195426		distribution	eng	<p>The Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific, where it occurs from off Hinchinbrook Island (17°55′S) to Moreton Island (27°18′S), Queensland (White and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). However, the exact southern and northern extents of its range are both uncertain, and at the southern end there are unconfirmed reports off Coffs Harbour, New South Wales (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195426		habitat	eng	<p>The<em> </em>Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark<em> </em>occurs on the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 52–403 m (White and Last 2008). Little is known about its life history characteristics. Males >75 cm total length (TL) examined by Kyne (2008) were mature, and the species reaches a maximum size of about 112 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). Based on the biology of other members of the genus <em>Mustelus</em>, this is likely to be a relatively productive species of shark.</p>
195426		population	eng	No information is available on population size or trends of the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark.
195426		threats	eng	<p>Several commercial fisheries operate across the range of the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark.</p>    <p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery overlaps with the distribution of the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark, operating east of the 200 m depth contour. This is a limited entry, small-scale commercial fishery with only four licences accessing the fishery in 2008–09 (DEEDI 2009). Although the management area of the fishery is extensive, current operators are based mainly in southern Queensland (DEEDI 2009). This fishery utilizes multi-hook line fishing gear targeting mainly benthopelagic species and ‘Gummy Sharks’ are a component of the ‘shark (unspecified)’ catch, which was a significant component of the overall catch of the fishery in 2008–09 (DEEDI 2009). The 2008–09 commercial harvest of the fishery (all species) was 171 tonnes, but the size of the ‘shark (unspecified)’ catch within that amount is not available due to confidentially policies (DEEDI 2009).</p>    <p>The Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery operates within the range of this species. Within a broad-scale study of the bycatch of several different sectors of that fishery, the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark was recorded as negligible bycatch only in the eastern king prawn sector, which operates in the south of the species’ range (Kyne 2008). It possibly occurs as negligible bycatch in other sectors of the fishery also, but it is generally only off southern Queensland that the fishery operates into deeper outer continental shelf and upper slope waters. As such, the species may have some refuge from this fishery at depths beyond those regularly fished.</p>    <p>The Queensland managed East Coast Inshore Finfish Fishery is a large, multi-gear, multi-sector fishery operating across Queensland’s east coast, with shark a target component of the fishery. Sharks however are targeted in shallower waters than that occupied by this species and therefore the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark is not likely to be taken in this fishery.</p>    <p>The management area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery mostly lies to the east of the distribution of the Eastern Spotted Gummy Shark, overlapping only partially with the species’ range. This is a relatively small-scale fishery with only four active vessels in the Line and Trap, and Trap and Trawl Sectors of the fishery in the 2008–09 fishing season (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010</a>). There was no trawl activity in the fishery during the 2007–08 and 2008–09 fishing seasons (Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010), but the extent to which line fishing interacts with this species is unclear. However, much of the fishery area is outside the range of this species.</p>
195427		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Whitefin Chimaera and information regarding the biology of the this species<em> </em>is urgently required. There is no regular monitoring of bycatch in commercial fisheries and so catch and trend information, which is vital to inform management, are lacking. It is recommended that this species be monitored with regard to deepwater fisheries that might target this species for human consumption in the future. Specifically, it is recommended that species-specific catch data are collected, recorded and reported. </p>
195427		distribution	eng	The     Whitefin Chimaera (­­<span style="font-style: italic;">Chimaera argiloba</span>) is known off Western Australia and has a relatively confined distribution from northwest of Geraldton (280°116'S, 113°17'E) to the Rowley Shoals (18°02'S, 118°14 E) (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Possible conspecific specimens have been collected off of eastern Indonesia and New Caledonia, but further analysis is needed to confirm species identification (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).­­
195427		habitat	eng	<p>The Whitefin Chimaera occurs on the continental slope at depths of 370–520 m (Last <em>et al</em>. 2008). The upper limit was extended from the previously reported depth of minimum depth of 440 m (Last and Stevens 1994) after formal description. There are no specific details on habitat. Little is known of the biology of this species, however the<em> </em>Whitefin Chimaera<em> </em>reaches a maximum size, including the caudal filament, of at least 90 cm total length (TL), 40 cm body length (BDL) (Last <em>et al</em>. 2008). Size at birth is unknown. Like other members of this family, the Whitefin Chimaera<em> </em>is most likely oviparous.</p>
195427		population	eng	The Whitefin Chimaera<em> </em>is abundant within its range (Last and Stevens 2009), however there are no details of population size, structure or trends.
195427		threats	eng	<p>The Whitefin Chimaera<em> </em>is not known to be commercially targeted; however a potential threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls targeting prawns and teleost fish off the coast of northwestern Australia. The Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery and the North West Slope Trawl Fishery overlap with the distribution of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>to the south and north, respectively. &#160;Both fisheries use trawl gear operating at depths greater than 200 m that may potentially capture this species, however fishing effort in both fisheries is relatively low (less than three active vessels) and they are unlikely to be severely impacting the Whitefin Chimaera<em> </em>(Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2010). Individuals caught in these fisheries may potentially be released alive, although post-release survival rate is unknown. There have been no records of this species being caught in any Western Australia State managed fisheries (R. McAuley pers. comm.).</p>
195428		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions in the range of the Bahamas Ghost Shark. Data are needed to better assess the population and its life history traits to better assess the species.
195428		distribution	eng	The Bahamas Ghost Shark is only known from its collection site east of Andros Island in the Bahamas. It is likely more widespread in the Western Central Atlantic, and may also occur in the Caribbean Sea and off the United States (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2010).
195428		habitat	eng	The Bahamas Ghost Shark is virtually unknown, but inhabits the deep sea, likely near the bottom on the continental slope similar to other chimaera species. Depth range reported from 1,483 to 1,506 m (Kemper <em>et al.</em> 2010).
195428		population	eng	Nothing is known of population structure, size or trends of the Bahamas Ghost Shark. This species appears to be rare as it is only recently discovered and known from only one specimen.
195428		threats	eng	<p>The Bahamas Ghost Shark is not targeted or caught as bycatch in commercial or recreational fisheries.</p>
195429		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Southern Chimaera and information regarding the biology of of this species<em> </em>is urgently required. There is no regular monitoring of bycatch in commercial fisheries and so catch and trend information, which is vital to inform management, are lacking. The species receives some refuge in the deeper portions of its range due to bottom trawl fishery closures by the SESSF that currently prohibits trawling below 750 m. It is recommended that this species be monitored with regard to deepwater fisheries that might target this species for human consumption in the future. </p>
195429		distribution	eng	The Southern Chimaera is found in temperate waters from Broken Bay, New South Wales (33°33'S, 152°09'E), to Shoal Point, WA (28°00'S, 112°41'E), including the waters surrounding southern Tasmania. After formal description, the northern distribution limit off the east coast of Australia has been extended from that reported in Last and Stevens (1994).
195429		habitat	eng	<p>Early reports of depth ranges for Southern Chimaera<em> </em>were from 300–850 m along the upper continental slope, whereas Didier <em>et al</em>. (2008) and Last and Stevens (2009) amended this range to 780–1,095 m along the mid-continental shelf. However, records from commercial bycatch surveys confirm that this species is being caught on the upper slope from 200–599 m. Detailed habitat information is not available.<br/></p><p>Maximum total length (TL) for this species is to at least 110 cm (including caudal filament) and body length (BDL) to 66 cm (Didier <em>et al</em>. 2008). Last and Stevens (2009) reported males maturing around 66 cm (not including the caudal filament) and females around 72 cm. Growth parameters for this species, based on growth bands from the first dorsal spine (assumed to be annually deposited), estimate a maximum age of 35 years, which is classed as low ( >16 years) biological productivity (unpublished data reported in Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p><p>Like other members of this family, the Southern Chimaera<em> </em>is oviparous and lays egg cases approximately 3.5 cm wide and 22 cm long (Last and Stevens 2009). Size-at-birth is unknown. The diet of this species appears to consist primarily of benthic, shelled invertebrates (crustaceans and molluscs) and cephalopods (unpublished data reported in Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
195429		population	eng	Although the Southern Chimaera has been recorded as bycatch in commercial fisheries (Anderson and Clark 2003, Walker and Gason 2007, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008), there are no specific details of abundance, population size, structure or trends.
195429		threats	eng	<p>The Southern Chimaera<em> </em>is not commercially targeted; however the major threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls and automatic long-line fisheries targeting teleost fish off the southern coast of Australia. More specifically, commercial fisheries operating in the shallower parts of this species’ depth range would cause the most impact. Southern Chimaera<em> </em>&#160;(listed as <em>Chimaera</em> sp. A) has been recorded as bycatch along the upper continental slope (200–599 m) from the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), although its abundance as bycatch in this fishery is sparse (i.e., 1–19 t) (Walker and Gason 2007, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008). and further bycatch data shows reduced numbers caught in depths <600 m over the past few decades (K. Graham unpublished data). There appears to be no specific catch per unit effort trend for this species (e.g., no increase or decline) (Walker and Gason 2007). The SESSF is currently prohibited from trawling below 750 m in order to protect Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>) and deepwater sharks (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2010), and this closure provides a deepwater refuge fo<em></em><em></em>r the Southern Chimaera throughout most of its distribution. Unidentified chimaerid species have also been reported as bycatch in the automatic long-line sub-fishery of the SESSF, which most likely includes the Southern Chimaera<em></em>, but difficulties with identification have impacted on the quality of the fisheries bycatch data (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p><p>Anderson and Clark (2003) reported negligible bycatch of <em>Chimaera</em> spp. from the Southern Tasman Rise Fishery, which would probably have included the Southern Chimaera t<em></em>ogether with Giant Chimaera (<em>C</em><em>.</em> <em>lignaria</em>)<em>,</em> both of which are known from the area of the fishery. The estimated catch of <em>Chimaera</em> spp. in 545 tows was 0.1 t, representing <0.1% of the total catch (Anderson and Clark 2003). The current closure of this fishery to protect Orange Roughy would also serve to protect and provide refuge for the Southern Chimaera. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em><em></em>This species has also been reported to be frequently caught as bycatch by commercial trawlers fishing for Blue Grenadier (<em>Macruronus novaezelandie</em>), however a diet consisting primarily of shelled invertebrates is indicative of a close association with the benthos, whereas Blue Grenadier are a bentho-pelagic (i.e., mid-water) species (R. Daley pers. comm.).</p>
195430		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Longspine Chimaera and information regarding the biology of this species<em> </em>is required. There is no regular monitoring of bycatch in commercial fisheries and so catch and trend information, which is vital to inform management, are lacking. However, this species is most commonly found in depths greater than 800 m, which provides it with a refuge from trawlers operating at shallower depths. It is recommended that catches of this species be monitored with regard to deepwater fisheries that might target this species for human consumption in the future.</p>
195430		distribution	eng	The Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>is found off Western Australia between Cape Naturaliste (33⁰20'S, 114⁰30'E), and North West Cape (19⁰39'S, 113⁰12'E), and off eastern Australia from Brush Island, New South Wales (35⁰32'S, 150⁰52'E) north to the Queensland Plateau, Queensland (16⁰54'S, 151⁰30'E) (Didier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Since formal description, the northern distribution limit off the east coast of Australia has been extended from that reported in Last and Stevens (1994).
195430		habitat	eng	<p>The Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>occurs along the mid-continental slope of warm temperate and tropical Australia with a depth range of 435–1,300 m (Didier <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). The distribution of the Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>partially overlaps with the closely-related Southern Chimaera (<em>C</em>. <em>fulva</em>) and Shortspine Chimaera (<em>C</em>. <em>obscura</em>), however this species is more commonly found at deeper depths (i.e. below 800 m) (Last and Stevens 2009). There are no specific details on habitat. <br/></p><p>Very little information is available on the biology of this species. Maximum size, including the caudal filament, is to at least 75 cm total length (TL), 53 cm body length (BDL), with mature males examined being 60 cm BDL (Didier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Size-at-birth is unknown. Like other members of this family, the Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>is most likely oviparous.</p>
195430		population	eng	Two populations appear to exist for the Longspine Chimaera, however there are no details of relative abundance, connectivity, population size, structure or trends for either of these groups.
195430		threats	eng	<p>The Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>is not commercially targeted; however a potential threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls targeting teleost fish off the coast of northwestern and eastern Australia. Both the Australian Commonwealth-managed Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (Western Australia), operating in waters exceeding 200 m, and Coral Sea Fishery (Trap and Trawl Sector - Queensland), operating in depths from only a few metres down to 1,500 m, coincide with areas where this species is known to occur (Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2010). While trawl and trap gear has the potential to capture this species, fishing effort is low for both fisheries (≤4 active vessels in recent years and with no Coral Sea trawling in the last 2 years) (Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2010) and the Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>is most commonly found in depths greater than 800 m (Last and Stevens 2009) which may allow refuge from fisheries operating at shallower depths. Similarly, the distribution of the Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>overlaps with the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery, however this fishery currently prohibits trawling below 750 m (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2010).</p><p>Two Queensland State-managed commercial fisheries, the Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery and the East Coast Otter Trawl fishery, also overlap in distribution with the Longspine Chimaera. Most of the fishing effort in the Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery is low, with only 4 active licenses, and occurs mainly in areas where the 200 m depth contour is relatively close to the coast (DEEDI 2010), whereas the deepwater eastern king prawn sector of the East Coast Otter Trawl Fishery, which is a much larger fishery, operates at depths down to 300 m (Courtney and Prossser 2009). Due to its deep water preferences, it is unlikely that the Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>is captured in either of these fisheries. Individuals caught in commercial fisheries may potentially be released alive, although post-release survival rate is unknown.</p>
195431		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for the Cape Chimaera. It is recommended that more data on the population and life history of this species is collected.
195431		distribution	eng	The Cape Chimaera is known from the southeastern Atlantic Ocean from off Lüderitz, Namibia, around the Cape of Good Hope, eastward to Algoa Bay, South Africa (Kemper <em>et al.</em> 2010).
195431		habitat	eng	The habitat is generally unknown for the Cape Chimaera, but it likely lives on or near the bottom along the continental slope from a reported depth range of 680 to 1,000 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1991).
195431		population	eng	<p>No information exists on the size, structure or trend of the population of the Cape Chimaera. The species appears to be relatively uncommon. Further information needs to be gathered to assess population size and trend.</p>
195431		threats	eng	The Cape Chimaera is not known to be commercially targeted. Deepwater trawl fisheries, typically for hake, and other fisheries are known to occur in southern Africa. The deeper hake fishery overlaps within this species’ depth range. However, most fishing effort occurs at the minimum depth range (680 m) with minimal effort deeper than 700 m, where most individuals are likely to occur. This species is seldom caught in the hake fishery (R. Leslie pers. comm. 2011) and bycatch in other fisheries is unknown. Thus, this species is likely not currently facing fishing pressures. Since this species is only known for a narrow range along the west and east coast of southern Africa, the potential for exploitation is greater if this species becomes a portion of bycatch in future fisheries. Further information on catches of this species is needed.
195432		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Shortspine Chimaera and information regarding the biology of this species<em> </em>is urgently required. There is no regular monitoring of bycatch in commercial fisheries and so catch and trend information, which is vital to inform management, are lacking. However, bottom trawl fisheries operating within its known range are currently prohibited from operating below 750 m, which would provide a natural refuge for this species, as it is found in deeper waters below 1,000 m. Although relatively small and beyond the current range of fisheries, it is recommended that this species is monitored with regard to any deepwater fisheries that might take this species as directed catch or bycatch in the future.</p>
195432		distribution	eng	The Shortspine Chimaera is known from only three specimens caught in east Australian waters off Tuncurry, New South Wales (32⁰06'S, 153⁰09'E) (K. Graham unpublished data), but has been reported from Ulladulla (New South Wales) north to Townsville (Queensland) (Last and Stevens 1994). The latter records require validation as they are most likely a different species.
195432		habitat	eng	<p>The Shortspine Chimaera is found along the continental slope at depths of 1,025–1,080 m (Didier <em>et al.</em> 2008, K. Graham unpublished data), however unconfirmed records place this species at depths as shallow as 450 m (Last and Stevens 1994). There are no specific details on habitat.</p><p>Nothing is known about the biology of the Shortspine Chimaera. Maximum total length (TL), including the caudal filament, is reported to reach at least 95 cm, 53 cm body length (BDL) (Didier <em>et al</em>. 2008). The smallest mature males were recorded as 54 cm BDL, however both the holotype and paratype (Didier <em>et al.</em> 2008), as well as a further 3<sup>rd</sup> specimen lodged with the Australian Museum, Sydney, are female, and thus information concerning male specimens should be treated with caution. Size-at-birth is unknown and like other members of this family, the Shortspine Chimaera<em> </em>is most likely oviparous.</p>
195432		population	eng	There are no details of relative abundance, population size, structure or trends of the Shortspine Chimaera.
195432		threats	eng	The Shortspine Chimaera is currently not exposed to any anthropogenic threat. This species<em> </em>is not targeted commercially however a possible threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls targeting teleost fishes and prawns off the east coast of Australia. Commercial trawl fisheries operating within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery are currently prohibited from trawling below 750 m (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2010), which provides a refuge for the Shortspine Chimaera, as it is found in deeper waters (1,025–1,080 m). Possible confusion with other species, such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the Southern Chimaera<em></em> and the Longspine Chimaera<em> </em>(<em>C</em>. <em>macrospina</em>), and lack of fisheries bycatch data make it difficult to identify more specific threats to this species in regards to current fisheries practices.
195433		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for this species and information regarding the biology of the Black Ghostshark is urgently required. There is no regular monitoring of bycatch in commercial fisheries and so catch and trend information, which is vital to inform management, are lacking. It is recommended that this species be monitored with regard to deepwater fisheries that might target this species for human consumption in the future. Restrictions on trawling below 750 m in the SESSF and the closure of the STRF has in effect provided a deepwater refuge for this species. </p>
195433		distribution	eng	The Black Ghostshark occurs off the southern coast of Australia from Portland, Victoria (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 38°53'S, 141°56'E) to Ulladulla, New South Wales (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 35°21'S, 150°28'E), including the waters surrounding Tasmania and its southern seamounts (Didier 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). This species is also known from deepwater commercial fishing areas off New Zealand and is most likely widespread throughout the deep waters of New Zealand (Didier 2008).
195433		habitat	eng	<p>The Black Ghostshark is found along the continental slope and seamounts off Australia at depths of 870–1,450 m, and has been reported from depths of 500–1,400 m in New Zealand waters (Didier 2008, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). There are no specific details on habitat. </p>  <p>There is little information available on the biology of this species. The Black Ghostshark reaches a maximum total length (TL), including the caudal filament, of at least 108 cm and 66 cm body length (BDL), with males maturing at about 55 cm BDL and females around 60 cm BDL (Didier 2008). Like other members of this family, the<em> </em>Black Ghostshark is oviparous (unpublished data reported in Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008) but size-at-birth is unknown. The diet of this species appears to consist primarily of benthic, shelled invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans and molluscs) and teleost fishes (unpublished data reported in Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
195433		population	eng	The Black Ghostshark is apparently common (Last and Stevens 2009), however there are no details on population size, structure or trends.
195433		threats	eng	<p>The Black Ghostshark is not commercially targeted, however the major threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls in both Australian and New Zealand waters. It was once commonly caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries targeting Orange Roughy off Tasmania (Last and Stevens 2009), most probably in the South Tasman Rise Fishery (STRF). This species has also been reported as (rare) bycatch from the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008). The current closure of the STRF, and SESSF restrictions on trawling below 750 m (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2010) provide some deepwater refuge for the Black Ghostshark.</p>  <p>Information regarding New Zealand fisheries bycatch is scarce, but the Black Ghostshark has been recorded from deepwater commercial fishing grounds at locations such as the Chatham Rise and Lord Howe Rise (Didier 2008).</p>
195434		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Marbled Ghostshark and information regarding the biology of this species is urgently required. There is no regular monitoring of bycatch in commercial fisheries and so catch and trend information, which is vital to inform management, are lacking. Although relatively small, it is recommended that this species be monitored with regard to deepwater fisheries that might target this species for human consumption in the future.</p>
195434		distribution	eng	The Marbled Ghostshark has a relatively restricted distribution along the east coast of Australia spanning from Bulli, New South Wales (34°15'S, 151°31'E) north to the Whitsunday Group, Queensland (18°58'S, 150°29'E) (Didier 2008).
195434		habitat	eng	<p>The Marbled Ghostshark is found along the continental slope in depths of 550–995 m (Didier 2008). Last and Stevens (1994) originally reported its depth range as 450–850 m, but the depth range was later revised after being formally described and with improved information. There are no specific details on habitat.</p>    <p>Little information is available regarding the biology of the Marbled Ghostshark. This species is relatively small, reaching a maximum size, including the caudal filament, of at least 80 cm total length (TL), 40 cm body length (BDL), and with both males and females maturing around this size (Didier 2008). Size-at-birth is unknown and like other members of this family, the Marbled Ghostshark is oviparous.</p>
195434		population	eng	There are no details of abundance, population size, structure or trends for the Marbled Ghostshark.
195434		threats	eng	The Marbled Ghostshark is not known to be commercially targeted, however the major threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls targeting teleost fishes and prawns off the east coast of Australia. In particular, the Coral Sea Fishery operates commercial trawls in areas that overlap with the distribution and depth of the species (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2010), however the impact of these fisheries on this species is most likely minimal, as the Marbled Ghostshark inhabits depths that are very seldom fished within its geographical range. Individuals caught in this fishery may potentially be released alive, although post-release survival rate is unknown.
195435		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Eastern Pacific Black Ghostshark. Increased documentation of records will assist in further describing this species and its conservation needs.
195435		distribution	eng	The Eastern Pacific Black Ghostshark is originally known from southern California off San Diego to the southern tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California (James <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species has recently been found to occur in the Pacific off mainland Mexico (Aguirre-Villasensor<em></em> pers. comm. 2010), Ecuador (J. Martinez pers. comm. 2010), and possibly Chile (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2010).
195435		habitat	eng	<p>The Eastern Pacific Black Ghostshark is considered a deepsea species with 13 of 14 documentations between 565 and 1,667 m depth (James <em>et al.</em> 2009). There is ROV video footage from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute displaying individuals over soft-bottom habitats or cobble patches with minimal vertical relief (James <em>et al.</em> 2009). The species had a close association with the sea floor, within a few metres, but were not resting on the bottom (James <em>et al.</em> 2009). Individuals were observed with conspecifics and Pacific Longnose Chimaera<em> </em>(<em>Harriotta raleighana</em>). This species has been caught on hook and line on at least two occasions, as shallow as 30.5 m depth.<br/></p><p>The largest size known, an adult male, is 120 cm total length (TL) (James <em>et al.</em> 2009). One juvenile female specimen is known at 37.3 cm TL (Aguirre-Villasenor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2011). All life history characteristics are unknown. It is assumed, like all chimaeras, to be oviparous.</p>
195435		population	eng	There is no information on population size or structure of the Eastern Pacific Black Ghostshark. The species is currently considered rare.
195435		threats	eng	<p>                  There are no known significant threats to the Eastern Pacific Black Ghostshark. Collections are few, but there are increasing reports of collection from Central and South America from scientific collecting expeditions (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2010). There are no known deepsea fisheries occurring in its current range therefore the threat from bycatch is believed to be minimal.&#160; <br/></p>
195436		conservation	eng	There are no current conservation actions in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemiscyllium galei</span>. This species needs scientific investigation into its biology, ecology, distribution and demography as well as threats to assess what conservation measures may be needed. The known samples were collected from within the Teluk Cendrawasih National Park (Allen and Erdmann 2008) and therefore this species is likely to receive refuge in this area. It is unknown whether the range of this species extends outside of the national park protection area.
195436		distribution	eng	<em>Hemiscyllium galei</em> is apparently confined to Cenderawasih Bay, Papua Barat Province, Indonesia (Allen and Erdmann 2008). Currently, it is known&#160; known from only a few specimens. This species is likely to be nocturnal but extensive nocturnal surveys of the region have not yet been conducted and so its occurrence may be greater than presently known (G. Allen pers. comm. 2011).
195436		habitat	eng	<em>Hemiscyllium galei </em>is known from three specimens that were found in 2–4 m depth in shoreline fringing reefs and shallow patch reefs. These individuals were observed at night and were usually seen resting on the bottom, but occasionally were observed slowly swimming or “walking” over the bottom with the pectoral and pelvic fins. This species is likely to be nocturnal; presumably it is sedentary during daylight hours, sheltering under rocky outcrops or tabular corals, which is typical for other members of the family Hemiscyllidae (Compagno 2002, Allen and Erdmann 2008). Although the maximum size of <em>H</em>. <em>galei</em> is unknown, it is likely to be slightly smaller than congeneric species as indicated by larger clasper to body size ratio (Allen and Erdmann 2008). The largest mature male measured was 57 cm total length (TL) (Allen and Erdmann 2008). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
195436		population	eng	<p>Little is known about the population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemiscyllium galei</span> and no scientific data are currently available. </p>
195436		threats	eng	<p>Specific threats to <em>Hemiscyllium galei </em>are unknown. As for other hemiscyllid species occurring in Indonesian waters, it may be threatened by intensive fishing activities, both legal and illegal, and by habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs from dynamite fishing, trawling and pollution (Kyne and Heupel 2011). However, Cenderawasih Bay is a relatively pristine environment and the western side of the bay comprises 90% of the 14,500 km² Teluk Cendrawasih National Park (Ministry of Forestry: Teluk Cenderawasih NP 2012). Therefore, habitat degradation from dynamite and trawl fishing and sedimentation run-off from land clearing is likely to be minimal, although illegal fishing is an ongoing issue in Indonesian waters. Ecotourism is popular in Cenderawasih Bay but it is unknown if there are any effects on the species or its habitat from these activities.</p>
195437		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation processes in place for Henry's Epaulette Shark. Triton Bay where Henry’s Epaulette Shark has been observed is a marine reserve. This species needs scientific investigation into its biology, ecology, distribution and demography, as well as threats, in order to assess what conservation measures may be needed.</p>
195437		distribution	eng	Henry’s Epaulette Shark is known only from Papua Barat Province, western New Guinea, Indonesia, in the vicinity of Triton Bay in the southern Bird’s Head region. It has been observed/collected both in the bay and at nearby Selat Iris, a narrow channel between the mainland and Aiduma Island (Allen and Erdmann 2008). This species is likely to be nocturnal but extensive nocturnal surveys of the region have not yet been conducted (G. Allen pers. comm. 2011). Additional investigations may show it has a much more extensive range, probably including the west coast of Bomberai Peninsula as far north as the southern edge of Fakfak Peninsula (G. Allen pers. comm. 2011).
195437		habitat	eng	Unlike other parts of the Bird’s Head Peninsula such as Cenderawasih Bay and the Raja Ampat Islands, the fringing reef habitat in Triton Bay (Papua Barat Province) is found in deeper water extending to 30 m (Allen and Erdmann 2008). The typical habitat for Henry’s Epaulette Shark extends into deeper water than recorded for other <em>Hemiscyllium</em> species (at least 30 m), although it has also been sighted in depths less than 4 m. It is usually seen resting on the bottom, but is occasionally observed slowly swimming or “walking” over the bottom with the pectoral and pelvic fins (Allen and Erdmann 2008). It is likely to be nocturnally active as for other congeners (Compagno 2002) and during the day it is generally sedentary, sheltering under rocky outcrops or tabular corals (Allen and Erdmann 2008). Henry’s Epaulette Shark is possibly the largest species of the genus with a maximum known size of 82 cm total length (Allen and Erdmann 2008). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.
195437		population	eng	<p>Little is known about the population size of Henry's Epaulette Shark and no scientific data are currently available.</p>
195437		threats	eng	Threats due to habitat destruction and pollution at known or suspected locations of occurrence for this species are likely to be minimal. Triton Bay where Henry’s Epaulette Shark has been observed is a marine reserve and the surrounding mountains are too steep for large-scale commercial logging or oil palm plantations. This may limit run-off from land-clearing. Ecotourism is popular in the Papua Barat Province but it is unknown whether there are any threats to the species from these activities.<br/><br/>Other locations where this species may possibly occur (Bomberai and Fakfak Peninsulas) are remote areas with little human activity (G. Allen pers. comm. 2011). However, fishing pressure in shallow inshore environments, including coral reefs where this species is found can be significant in eastern Indonesia, and includes illegal fishing, dynamite fishing and trawling which may affect this species through habitat destruction and capture as bycatch (Kyne and Heupel 2011).
195438		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for Michael's Epaulette Shark. Given the very restricted inshore distribution of the species in an area subjected to a number of threatening processes (including dynamite fishing, pollution and sedimentation from logging and oil palm plantations and previous gold mining activities in the region) that are suspected to be reducing the quality of habitat of inshore coral reefs, it is inferred that the species is facing a decline in its population which may result in it meeting a threatened category if data become available. Data collection to accurately assess the species’ status is needed. In particular, surveys should be undertaken to determine its full distribution, habitat preferences, basic aspects of its biology, and its occurrence in the aquarium trade. An examination of other potentially threatening processes is also needed.</p>
195438		distribution	eng	<p>Michael’s Epaulette Shark<em> </em>is only known from eastern Papua New Guinea with observation and collecting records from Samarai Island, Milne Bay (vicinity of Alotau and Sullivan Patches), vicinity of Harvey Bay (Oro Province), and the Trobriand Islands. Reports from tourist divers suggest that it is more widely scattered around the large Milne Bay Province (G. Allen pers. comm. 2011).</p>
195438		habitat	eng	Michael’s Epaulette Shark is typically encountered on coastal fringing reefs and patch reefs in depths of 2–20 m. This species is nocturnal and individuals are found while diving at night, though are sometimes observed during the day sheltering under rocky outcrops or tabular corals. The largest measured specimen was a mature female of 69 cm total length (TL) and a mature male was recorded at 60 cm TL (Allen and Dudgeon 2010). An immature male was recorded at 26 cm TL and the smallest free-living individual measured was 20 cm TL (Allen and Dudgeon 2010). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.<br/><br/>While age data are not available for Michael’s Epaulette Shark, female age at maturity (4.5 years) and maximum age (7 years) from the Whitespotted Bamboo Shark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) (Hemiscyllidae) (Chen et al. 2007) can be used as a proxy for calculating generation length (5.75 years).
195438		population	eng	Little is known about the population size and the population trend of Michael's Epaulette Shark and no scientific data are currently available.
195438		threats	eng	Specific threats to Michael’s Epaulette Shark are unknown. However, as for other hemiscyillid species occurring around New Guinea, it is likely to be potentially threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs from dynamite fishing and pollution (Kyne and Heupel 2011). In particular, there is extensive logging and palm oil plantations in the Milne Bay Province that likely cause siltation and subsequent habitat degradation in the surrounding coastal waters where Michael’s Epaulette Shark is found (G. Allen pers. comm. 2011). Gold mining operations ran from 1989 to 2004 on Misima Island in Milne Bay Province (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misima_Island">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misima_Island</a>; Placer Dome Asia Pacific 2008). This mining resulted in extensive sedimentation from river run-off and direct dumping of soft waste (soil and highly friable rock) on adjacent reefs which is likely to have caused long-term habitat damage (Fallon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). One large-scale cyanide poisoning event from this mining occurred in the Port Maika area resulting in fish kills as reported by local media.<br/><br/>Ecotourism is also a large component of the economy of the Milne Bay Province; however, it is unknown whether there are any negative impacts on Michael’s Epaulette Shark or its habitat due to these activities.
195439		conservation	eng	<p>All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State’s managed shark fishery. Similar restrictions apply for the Timor Reef, Demersal and Finfish Trawl fisheries off northern Australia.<br/> <br/> The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30’S to 120°E off the north coast, which may include the northern extent of the species’ range.<br/> <br/> The use of metal snoods (ganglions) is commercially prohibited throughout northwestern Australian waters. <br/> <br/> Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/> <br/> This species is potentially protected in the Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and the Cartier Island Marine Reserve.</p>  <p>We recommend that all fisheries are required to release all wobbegongs.</p>
195439		distribution	eng	The Network Wobbegong is a micro-endemic Australian shark known from only four individuals collected from very shallow water in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia between Louis Island (Napier Broome Bay, 14°01′S, 126°32′E) and Long Reef (13°48′S, 125°47′E) and one specimen (holotype) from Darwin Harbour (12°29′S, 130°54′E) in the Northern Territory. All specimens were collected on the inner continental shelf in depths less than 20 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008).
195439		habitat	eng	<p>The Network Wobbegong is known only from four specimens, thus its biology and ecology are largely unknown. All known specimens were taken by hook and line or rotenone in shallow waters (less than 20 m depth) of the inner continental shelf. No known specimens have been presented from trawls. These observations suggest that the critical habitat for the Network Wobbegong may be caves and ledges on rocky or coral reefs. Divers have indeed observed members of the ‘<em>wardi-</em>complex’ occupying these habitats in central and northern Western Australia. These habitats have not been well-sampled in northern Australia however, and more specimens are required from throughout the species’ range to confirm this. The dentition of the Network Wobbegong is similar to the Northern Wobbegong and suggests a diet predominantly of small fishes and bottom invertebrates (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p><p>The reproductive mode and periodicity, average litter size, size-at-birth, size- and age-at-maturity, growth rate, and maximum size of the Network Wobbegong are unknown. However, since the reproductive mode of all other <em>Orectolobus</em> species is aplacental viviparity, it is likely that the Network Wobbegong has a similar reproductive mode. From known specimens, the Network Wobbegong attains at least 52 cm total length (TL); a 50 cm TL male was an early adolescent (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008). Growth rates are unknown.</p>
195439		population	eng	The Network Wobbegong is a little known inshore demersal shark of the northern Australian continental shelf. Ultimately, resolution of the taxonomy of the ‘<em>wardi-</em>complex’ and further sampling is needed to determine species constituents and their relative abundances and ranges. At the present time, the population trend for the Network Wobbegong thus remains unknown.
195439		threats	eng	<p>Although most fisheries do not record catch to species level, the small size and reef associated habits of the Network Wobbegong probably prevents it from coming in contact with most gear types. Threat from fisheries interaction is therefore thought to be minimal. The Network Wobbegong occurs within the Western Australian (WA) northern shark fisheries area. The ‘northern shark fisheries’ comprise the state managed WA North Coast Shark Fishery (WANCSF) in the Pilbara and western Kimberley, and the Joint Authority Northern Shark Fishery (JANSF) in the eastern Kimberley. The primary fishing method employed in these fisheries is demersal longline, with a relatively small amount of pelagic gillnetting occurring in the JANSF. Although these fisheries overlap the species range, no wobbegongs have been reported in the catch. </p>      <p>Smaller orectolobids may occur in commercial rock lobster pots in Western Australian waters (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). Observers of the Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery recorded two wobbegongs from the ‘<em>wardi</em>-complex’ collected between February and June 2002 (McAuley <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, state managed commercial fishing vessels cannot generally retain wobbegongs, unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery. Incidental bycatch is therefore, expected to be discarded with good potential for post-release survival.</p><p>The Northern Territory Offshore Net and Line Fishery accounts for 95% of the territory’s shark take, and does not record wobbegongs. Possession of sharks and shark product is prohibited for the Timor Reef, Demersal and Finfish Trawl fisheries. Incidental bycatch is again expected to be infrequent in this jurisdiction (Handley 2010).</p>    <p>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals per year (Sumner and Williamson 1999). Assuming recreational and commercial wobbegong catches have a similar species composition, the Network Wobbegong is also likely to be a minor component of recreational catches.</p>
195440		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place for the Elongate Carpetshark.
195440		distribution	eng	The distribution of the Elongate Carpetshark is known only from a single specimen collected from the stomach of a School Shark caught near Chatham Island, Western Australia (35°02’S, 116°28’E) (Last and Stevens 2008).
195440		habitat	eng	<p>The depth range of the Elongate Carpetshark is unknown as only recorded from a single specimen collected from the stomach of a School Shark caught at 50 m depth (Last and Stevens 2008, 2009). Little is known about the biology of the family Parascyllidae other than that they are oviparous (Last and Stevens 2009). There is no further information on the habitat or ecology of this species. </p>
195440		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population structure or trends of the Elongate Cartpetshark.
195440		threats	eng	<p>Threats to the Elongate Carpetshark are largely unknown due to the lack of knowledge on its range and population size.</p>
195442		conservation	eng	<p>Further clarification on distribution and habitat preferences of the Dwarf Black Stingray is required to evaluate threats. Market surveys through Southeast Asia would help to clarify the relative abundance of this species<em> </em>in catches.</p>
195442		distribution	eng	The Dwarf Black Stingray is known only from northwestern Australia, Indonesia and Malaysia; possibly also West Papua and the Philippines (Last <em>et al</em>. 2010). This may suggest a wider range through the Western Central Pacific (Last and White 2008).
195442		habitat	eng	<p>The Dwarf Black Stingray is demersal on insular and continental shelves in 60–125 m depth in Borneo (Last <em>et al</em>. 2010) and 125–185 m depth in northwestern Australia (Last and Stevens 2009). Attains a disc width (DW) of at least 52 cm; males mature at 35 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Last <em>et al.</em> 2010).</p>
195442		population	eng	<p>The Dwarf Black Stingray is known from a small number of specimens. No information available on population size or trend. The Dwarf Black Stingray<em> </em>is a small (<0.1% of catch by number and biomass, respectively) component of batoid catches in eastern Indonesia (White and Dharmadi 2007).</p>
195442		threats	eng	<p>Threats to the<em> </em>Dwarf Black Stingray<em> </em>are insufficiently known. Caught only from trawl surveys in Australian waters (Last and Stevens 2009). Caught incidentally by the demersal trawl and trammel-net fisheries operating in Borneo shelf waters (Last <em>et al</em>. 2010) and rarely in gillnet fisheries in eastern Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Large target fisheries for batoids exist through much of this species' range in southeast Asia (White and Dharmadi 2007), although the species has seldom been reported from catches. </p>
195443		conservation	eng	<p>South Australian prawn trawl fisheries are managed by traditional methods of limited licences, vessel and gear restrictions as well as seasonal closures and rotation of trawling grounds. Other measures including bycatch reduction devices such as crab bags (separate cod-end is enclosed within the main cod-end) and crab racks (grates used to sort prawns from larger bycatch) have lead to reduced sorting times. Post release survival of skate species is largely unknown and requires further investigation to gauge the impact of prawn fisheries on the Pygmy Thornback Skate.<br/></p>
195443		distribution	eng	The Pygmy Thornback Skate is endemic to South Australian waters and is only known from the Investigator Strait and Backstairs Passage, off Kangaroo Island. However, the distribution map in Last and Stevens (2009) includes Gulf St Vincent for this species – presence here is uncertain (Last and Gledhill 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195443		habitat	eng	<p>The Pygmy Thornback Skate occurs in waters adjacent to the gulfs of South Australia at depths of 27–54 m (Last and Stevens 2009) There are no specific details on habitat. Maximum size of this species is about 33 cm total length (TL); males mature at about 29 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). There is no information on neonatal juveniles or egg cases (Last and Gledhill 2008) and no further information on the ecology or life history of this species.</p>
195443		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown for the Pygmy Thornback Skate.
195443		threats	eng	<p>The Pygmy Thornback Skate is a potential bycatch of the Gillnet, Hook and Trap Sectors (GHATS), part of the Commonwealth managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF). No fishing effort takes place within the South Australian Gulfs, while fishing effort in Backstairs Passage and Investigator Strait is virtually nonexistent and relatively small, respectively (Goldsworthy <em>et al.</em> 2010). Fishing effort off the south and southwest of Kangaroo Island is higher and more likely to impact the Pygmy Thornback Skate if the distribution of the species extends to that area. However, encounterability, post-capture mortality, and catch susceptibility of the Pygmy Thornback Skate were assessed as low for the gillnet fishery of the SESSF (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2008). The actual bycatch level for the species is unknown.</p>    <p>The Pygmy Thornback Skate is also a potential bycatch of South Australian prawn trawl fisheries which operate over a portion of the range of this species. The species has a high encounterability, a high selectivity and a medium post-capture mortality to otter trawl gear. The fishery operates in waters greater than 10 m with demersal, otter-trawl rigged gear. Prawn fishing in the Investigator Strait was closed in 1987 with the buyback of licences for the Investigator Strait prawn fishery. While trawling can still be undertaken by licensees from other areas, fishing effort within Investigator Strait is minimal. No prawn trawling is being undertaken in Backstairs Passage due to unsuitable grounds, effectively providing a refuge area for the Pygmy Thornback Skate (G. Hooper pers. comm. 2011). Similar to Commonwealth catches, no information is currently available on State catches of this species. While the occurrence of the Pygmy Thornback Skate in the South Australian Gulfs is uncertain, Currie <em>et al.</em> (2009) did not report Pygmy Thornback Skate as bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery in 119 trawls (mostly of 30 minutes duration) possibly indicating the apparent rarity of the species.</p>    <p>No species-specific catch data is available for rays and skates caught by the recreational fishing industry. However, a survey of the South Australian recreational fishery estimated 18,082 rays and skates caught in 2007/08 with 97% of them released (Jones 2009). As such, the South Australian recreational fishery is unlikely to have a strong impact on the Pygmy Thornback Skate. </p>
195444		conservation	eng	<p>No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place for the Deepwater Skate. Given the vulnerability of large skates to overfishing, bycatch levels need to be monitored.&#160; &#160;</p>
195444		distribution	eng	The Deepwater Skate is endemic to Australia and is found on the continental slope off southern Australia from east of Crowdy Head, New South Wales to the Great Australian Bight, Western Australia, including Tasmania. However, the full extent of its distribution, particularly to the west, is uncertain (Last and Stevens 2009) with the western extent of its range likely to increase through additional thorough surveys of the continental slope off southwestern Australia.
195444		habitat	eng	<p>The Deepwater Skate is demersal and occurs in a depth range of 446–1,328 m although mainly in 800–1,000 m (Last and Stevens 2009). There are no species-specific details available on habitat. The Deepwater Skate attains at least 137 cm total length (TL); adolescent males range 77.6–85.5 cm TL; males reach maturity at 89–95 cm TL; smallest juvenile 20.2 cm TL (Last <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are no other details available regarding its ecology or life history.</p>
195444		population	eng	The Deepwater Skate is apparently common throughout its range (Last and Stevens 2009), however details of population size, structure, or trends is currently unavailable.
195444		threats	eng	The Deepwater Skate<em> </em>might be taken as bycatch within three of the four sectors of the Commonwealth managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) (that is, the East Coast Deepwater Trawl, Great Australian Bight Trawl (GABTS), and Commonwealth Trawl sectors). The current known distribution of this species overlaps entirely with these fisheries. The mean annual catch rate of the Deepwater Skate<em> </em>in the SESSF between 2000 and 2006 of 16 tonnes included 13 tonnes from the 200–599 depth range (Walker and Gason 2007). The GABTS upper continental slope sub-fishery operates in waters 200–700 m depth, so only in the shallower regions of this species’ known range. The GABTS deepwater slope sub-fishery operates in waters from 700–1,000 m. However, waters deeper than 750 m are currently closed to protect stocks of Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>) in both the GABTS and the Commonwealth Trawl Sector. Since the Deepwater Skate is most commonly found in waters 800–1,000 m, the impact of these fisheries on it is likely to be small. However, considering the bycatch level within the 200–599 m depth range and that the Deepwater Skate mainly occurs at deeper depths, the deepwater trawl fisheries are likely to be of concern to this species should the deep water be reopened in the future. Fishing effort in the East Coast Deepwater Trawl sector over recent years has been extremely low and is therefore of little concern, but should be monitored for increases in the future.
195445		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species. Research is needed on its life history characteristics and further survey work would be beneficial to confirm the limits of this species’ known distribution.</p><p>The Australian Commonwealth Government recognize that the line and trawl sectors of the CSF may pose a risk to chondrichthyans that occur deeper than 200 m. Though catches of chondrichthyans are extremely low and infrequent in the CSF, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority has taken a precautionary and proactive approach in recognition that they may be more susceptible than others to overfishing due to their low rates of reproduction. All deepwater sharks brought aboard live must be released alive, while a very small quantity of any dead animals may be retained by way of trip limits introduced in July 2010 to facilitate the collection of information on species occurrence. These trip limits do not currently include skates and rays as these are incidental to the catch and are released (AFMA 2010).</p>
195445		distribution	eng	The Pale Tropical Skate is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific with a distribution restricted to off the Queensland coast; from Hinchinbrook Island, Cardwell to east of the Bunker Group, Gladstone (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195445		habitat	eng	<p>The Pale Tropical Skate is demersal on the upper continental slope, in depths of 195–605 m, though it occurs mainly in 300–500 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). This skate attains at least 77 cm total length (TL) with adult females larger than males. The males mature from 55–66 cm TL and this species is born at about 15–17 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195445		population	eng	The Pale Tropical Skate occurs commonly throughout its range and is one of the most abundant rays on the upper continental slope off central Queensland (Last and Stevens 2009). There is no other information about the population trends or structure.
195445		threats	eng	<p>The main threat that may affect the Pale Tropical Skate is fishing which has the potential to cause direct and indirect mortality and habitat modification. However, the current demersal fishing pressure across this species’ range is generally very low. The area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (CSF) lies mostly to the east of the distribution of the Pale Tropical Skate, overlapping only marginally with the species’ range. It is possible but unlikely that this skate is taken as bycatch in the Line and Trap Sector, and Trawl and Trap Sector of this fishery. While line, trawl and trap gear could capture this species as it fishes at the depths this species occurs, they are relatively small-scale fisheries with only a small number of vessels operating across both sectors in recent years and with no trawl fishing effort over the last two years (Furlani <em>et al.</em> 2007a,b; Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010). The management area of the fishery is far greater than the range of the Pale Tropical Skate, with the majority of fishing effort outside of the species’ occurrence.</p><p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery operates in all Queensland east coast waters east of the 200 m bathymetric line and does overlap this species’ distribution. However it uses benthopelagic rather than truly demersal gear, and most of the fishing effort, which is low with only four active licences, is in areas where the 200 m depth contour is relatively close to the coast. In recent years the majority of the effort has been much further south than the range of this skate (DEEDI 2009). The deepwater eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery that operates to depths of 300–350 m could possibly take this species as bycatch at the southern limit of its distribution though the majority of effort in this fishery sector is further south (Courtney and Posser 2009). This species has not been recorded in the commercial and research surveys of the bycatch of this fishery sector (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
195446		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the Endeavour Skate. Due to their small size, turtle exclusion devices, used in the Queensland trawl fishery, are not effective at limiting catches (Kyne 2008). Elasmobranchs that are taken as bycatch in the Queensland trawl fishery cannot be retained.
195446		distribution	eng	The Endeavour Skate is endemic to eastern Australia in the Western Central and Southwest Pacific with a relatively restricted distribution from off Fraser Island, Queensland (25°27’S) south to near Crowdy Head, New South Wales <a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">(32°20’S)</a> (Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009, K. Graham, pers. comm. 2010).
195446		habitat	eng	<p>The Endeavour Skate occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 110–370 m (K. Graham pers. comm. 2010). Although Last and Stevens (2009) suggested that the species may occur to a depth of 500 m, this is based on erroneous information and it has not been recorded deeper than 370 m (K. Graham pers. comm. 2010). There are no specific details on habitat.<br/></p><p>The following information is from Kyne <em>et al. </em>(2008). Maximum size is about 37 cm total length (TL), and size at 50% maturity (LT<sub>50 </sub>and 95% CI) is 32.1 (30.5–33.2) and 30.0 (28.5–30.6) cm TL for females and males, respectively. Size at first maturity corresponds to 87.7% of observed maximum size in females (36.6 cm TL) and 87.5% in males (34.3 cm TL). Size at birth is estimated at about 10–11 cm TL and size at first feeding at about 10.5–11.0 cm TL. Like other skates, this species is oviparous, but little is known regarding reproductive output or seasonality, although it has been observed carrying egg cases during Austral winter months.</p>
195446		population	eng	The Endeavour Skate is apparently common (Last and Stevens 1994), however there are no details on population size, structure or trends.
195446		threats	eng	<p>The eastern king prawn sector (deepwater component) of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery operates on the outer continental shelf and upper slope to depths of 300–350 m off southern Queensland (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In surveys of this fishery on the outer continental shelf, the Endeavour Skate was found to be the most common elasmobranch bycatch species comprising 36% of the elasmobranch catch by number (Kyne 2008). While the overall catch rate was low (0.029±0.007 individuals ha<sup>-1</sup>),on deck mortality was high (79% of individuals landed on deck were dead) (it should be noted that these observations were made with fishery-independent sampling employing short shots of about one hour trawl time, whereas regular commercial trawls are far longer in duration) (Kyne 2008). This fishery operates over much of the Queensland geographic distribution of the species, but is highly seasonal, with the vast majority of effort generally occurring during the months of May to August (outside of these months, vessels fish in shallower waters where skates do not occur).</p><p>Similarly in northern New South Wales, outer shelf depths (~100–200 m) are trawled only for a short season targeting king prawns, and generally on fairly restricted fishing grounds (K. Graham pers. comm. 2010). Information on the bycatch of skates is lacking, but it is most probable that the Endeavour Skate<em> </em>&#160;is a component of bycatch since its range overlaps with that of the fishery. Northern New South Wales, in the area of occurrence of the Endeavour Skate<em> </em>on the upper continental slope, receives little trawling effort (K. Graham pers. comm. 2010), and as such this species may have some refuge there, at the deeper extent of its bathymetric range.</p>
195447		conservation	eng	There are currently no conservation actions in place for the False Argus Skate. Additional information on biology, ecology, and population structure is needed to better assess and determine whether conservation measures need to be implemented.
195447		distribution	eng	The False Argus Skate is distributed along the continental shelf off northwestern Australia between Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia and Melville Island, Northern Territory (Last and Stevens 2009).
195447		habitat	eng	The habitat of the False Argus Skate is generally unknown, but it occupies the outer continental shelf and near the shelf break at depths of 122–256 m (Last 2008). Maximum reported total length (TL) is 49 cm (female); adult males have been observed at 41.4  to 45 cm TL and adolescent males at 32.5 to 37.5 cm TL (Last 2008).  Smallest juvenile measured at 21.9 cm TL (Last 2008).
195447		population	eng	<p>No information is available on population size or trends for the False Argus Skate but it appears to be a relatively uncommon species. <br/></p>
195447		threats	eng	<p>The False Argus Skate is not commercially targeted or known to be caught as bycatch in fisheries. Several fisheries exist in the area of Western Australia for prawns and fish species using trawls, gillnets, and traps, which may overlap with the distribution of this species. However, these fisheries are rather restricted to small areas and may not overlap with the depth distribution of this species. Currently, there is the Rowley Shoals Marine Park and Mermaid Reef Marine National Nature Reserve present within this species distribution. Given the current conditions, it is likely that this species is not experiencing any major threats.</p>
195448		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for Graham’s Skate. Research is required to better define its northern distribution, estimate abundance and determine life history traits.</p>
195448		distribution	eng	Graham's Skate is endemic to eastern Australia. It has been recorded from the outer continental shelf and upper slope from southern Queensland (~26°S) to southern New South Wales (~37°S) (Last and Stevens 2009), although it may extend further north than ~26°S.
195448		habitat	eng	Graham’s Skate is caught on trawlable (soft sediment) seabed in outer continental shelf and upper slope depths (100–500 m), being most abundant in the 200–400 m depth range (K. Graham unpublished data). Maximum size is at least 64 cm total length (TL) with males mature from about 54 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). The species is oviparous but there is no other information regarding its ecology or biology.
195448		population	eng	Graham’s Skate (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus grahami</span>) is not commercially exploited but is caught as bycatch by demersal trawlers. A fishery-independent trawl survey on the upper slope (200–650 m depth) off New South Wales (NSW) between the Sydney area (33°30’S) and the Eden-Gabo Island area (38°20’S) in 1996–97 found a &gt;80% decline in relative abundance of skates (all species combined) in the 20 years since the initial survey in 1976–77 (Andrew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997; Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, 2001). Graham’s Skate was among the skates recorded during those surveys but was mainly caught in the 200–400 m depth range and appeared to have been impacted less by trawling than those skate species caught mainly in depths greater than 400 m.<br/><br/>During the initial trawl survey in 1976–77, Graham’s Skate was unknown taxonomically, and was not reliably separated from similar species in some early survey data. However, good data that was recorded for the species suggests that the frequency of capture and numbers per trawl on the Sydney-Newcastle survey ground did not diminish over the 20 years between surveys. Trawl data (K. Graham unpublished data) indicates that Graham’s Skate is most abundant in depths near the top of the slope (200–400 m) off central NSW, and in the 1996–97 repeat survey between 40 and 60 individuals were caught in each of several trawls on the grounds between Sydney and Newcastle. This continuing abundance can be attributed to its preferred depth range of 200–400 m which, off Sydney, is relatively unproductive commercially and consequently is much less intensively trawled than greater depths.<br/><br/>Relatively few specimens were caught on grounds off southern NSW (Jervis Bay-Cape Howe) in the 1976–77 initial survey, but similarly small numbers were caught in later scientific trawling, including the 1996–97 repeat survey and trawls off Bermagui (36°S) in the year 2000.<br/><br/>There has been no systematic sampling off northern NSW and southern NSW in depths appropriate for Graham’s Skate so there is no relative abundance data available for those areas. However, in the northern half of its range, there is little to no commercial trawling in the main depth range (200–400 m) inhabited by this species. Three records of single, very small juveniles from outer shelf depths (100–200 m) off northern NSW (K. Graham unpublished data) suggest the young of the species also inhabit shallower depths than adults. Some areas of the outer shelf off northern NSW and southern Queensland are seasonally fished by prawn trawlers but they probably have relatively minor impact on the overall population.<br/><br/>In summary, the small amount of information available on population size and trends suggests that currently the overall population of Graham’s Skate is stable through most of its range although it has probably been a little reduced off southern NSW (~20% of its range) where there is more trawling in the 200–400 m depth range.
195448		threats	eng	Commercial trawling is the only threat to Graham’s Skate and vessels in several trawl fisheries could potentially impact on the species. Even though species such as Graham’s Skate are discarded by trawlers, the trawling process results in almost total mortality of most skates. Prawn trawlers in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery and the NSW Ocean Trawl Fishery seasonally operate in outer shelf depths (100–200 m) off southern Queensland and northern NSW. Off central and southern NSW, fish trawlers operate in the NSW Ocean Trawl Fishery and the Trawl Sector of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF). Fishing effort in the depths inhabited by Graham’s Skate is greatest on grounds south of Sydney and trawling has probably reduced the population of Graham’s Skate off southern NSW where trawlers in the SESSF operate (see Population section for survey trends). However, through most of its geographic range (southern Queensland to central NSW) there is little or no demersal trawling in the main depths inhabited by the species. Unless current fishing patterns change, interaction between Graham’s Skate and the fishing industry will remain low.
195449		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for Heald’s Skate. Increased documentation of specimens will assist in further describing this species' occurrence and ecology, and its conservation needs. There is a need to determine bycatch levels in the NWSTF. There was 0% observer coverage in the fishery during the 2008-2009 fishing season, and only 2.6% coverage in the 2007-2008 fishing season (Sampaklis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Observer coverage clearly needs to be increased in order to document bycatch levels.
195449		distribution	eng	Heald’s Skate is known from Western Australia on the upper continental shelf from Monte Bello Islands (19º18’S, 115º42’E) to south of Scott Reef (14º12’S, 122º32’E) (Last <em>et al. </em>2008).
195449		habitat	eng	Heald’s Skate is known from the upper continental shelf from 304 to 520 m. It is a medium-sized skate up to 72 cm total length (TL), with the smallest documented juvenile measuring 13.8 cm TL. Adolescent males ranged from 38 to 50 cm TL while mature males ranged from 50 to 59 cm TL (Last <em>et al. </em>2008).
195449		population	eng	There is no information on population size or structure for Heald's Skate, although it is reportedly common (Last and Stevens 2009).
195449		threats	eng	The distribution of Heald's Skate overlaps nearly entirely with the management area of the Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF) and it is likely that it forms a minor component of the bycatch of that fishery, although specific details are lacking. The NWSTF is a limited entry demersal trawl fishery with relatively small effort (only two active vessels in the 2008–2009 fishing season) (Sampaklis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). With the low effort of the fishery, it is likely not having any significant impacts on this skate, which may find refuge in unfished or only lightly fished areas.
195450		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for Blacktip Skate. Bycatch levels in commercial fisheries across the range of the species need assessing.
195450		distribution	eng	The Blacktip Skate is found off eastern Australia along the upper continental slope from Broken Bay (New South Wales) to the Marion Plateau (Queensland) (Last and Stevens 2009).
195450		habitat	eng	<span class="sheader2">The Blacktip Skate is a deepwater species of the upper continental slope, recorded from depths of 240–<span class="sheader2">695 m (Last and Stevens 2009). It reaches a maximum size of at least 78 cm total length (TL) with males mature by 63 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). Its biology is poorly known, although like other skate it is presumed to be oviparous.</span>
195450		population	eng	There is no population information on the Blacktip Skate.
195450		threats	eng	The distribution and depth range of the Blacktip Skate overlaps with the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (which operates over a large area with low effort) and possibly with Queensland managed trawl fisheries where they operate in deeper waters. However, there is no information available on bycatch of this skate in these fisheries.
195451		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Increased documentation of specimens will assist in further describing this species and its conservation needs. The WDTF, which operates within the range of the Ocellate Skate, is managed under a precautionary approach with limited entry and low fishing effort (Rodgers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
195451		distribution	eng	The Ocellate Skate is known from Western Australia between Shark Bay (27º01’S, 112º48’E) and Bunbury (33º22’S, 114º31’E) (Last 2008).
195451		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs primarily near the shelf break and on the upper continental slope from 200 to 389 m. The largest specimen is a female, 55.7 cm total length (TL) with adolescent males ranging from 32.8<span class="sheader2">–48.4 mm TL (Last 2008). No adult males or small juveniles have been collected and it is assumed to be oviparous (Last 2008). </p>
195451		population	eng	There is no information on population size or structure for the Ocellate Skate.
195451		threats	eng	The Ocellate Skate is likely a component of the bycatch of the Australian Commonwealth managed Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDTF). This is a limited entry demersal trawl fishery with only a single active vessel in the 2008-2009 fishing season (Rodgers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Furthermore, most effort in that fishing season was at the northern extent of the range of the Ocellate Skate (Rodgers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Therefore, the WDTF is not a significant threat to the Ocellate Skate.
195452		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the Queensland Deepwater Skate. Research is required to better define its full distribution, estimate abundance and examine life history traits.
195452		distribution	eng	The Queensland Deepwater Skate is known only from the Saumarez Plateau off Queensland (22°36′S, 154°14′E to 23°12′S, 153°33′E). It was once thought to occur slightly further north (19°02′S, 150°43′E), but these records appear to be of another closely related undescribed species (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008).
195452		habitat	eng	The Queensland Deepwater Skate is known only off Queensland in depths of  399–606 m (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). There are no specific details on the habitat of this species. This species attains at least 76 cm total length (TL); males mature by 63 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). There is no information on the life cycle, growth or behaviour.
195452		population	eng	There are no details on population size, structure or trends of the Queensland Deepwater Skate.
195452		threats	eng	There are no documented threats to the Queensland Deepwater Skate. However, given the narrow depth range of this species, any demersal fishing in the area could adversely affect their presumably small populations.
195453		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place at this time for Weng’s Skate. It may have some refuge in spatial closures on the southeastern Australian continental slope (although these represent only a very small area of available habitat). Bycatch levels of this, and other skates should be monitored in commercial fisheries which overlap with the distribution of the species. Furthermore, research is required into the life history and ecology of the species.
195453		distribution	eng	Weng’s Skate is a wide-ranging species distributed along the continental slope off eastern Australia from west of Lihou Reef and Cays, Queensland (16º54’S, 151º30’E) and southward to Bicheno, Tasmania (<em>ca</em> 42ºS, 148ºE). It has been found off Queensland, New South Wales, and eastern Tasmania, but has not been confirmed in the Great Australian Bight or off Western Australia. It likely occurs off western Tasmania, but populations off Western Australia (between Albany and Rowley Shoals) may be a closely related species (Séret and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195453		habitat	eng	Weng’s Skate<em> </em>occurs most commonly along the continental slope in the tropical waters of Queensland and more rarely in cool temperate waters, in depths of 485–1,165 m, but mostly between 600–1,000 m (Séret and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). It reaches at least 128 cm total length (TL) with a size-at-birth of about 20 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009), but its biology is poorly known.
195453		population	eng	There are no population estimates for Weng’s Skate. It is however more common in the north of its range (in the tropical zone) and rarer in the south (in the cool temperate zone) (Last and Stevens 2009).
195453		threats	eng	The distribution of Weng’s Skate overlaps with a number of commercial fisheries along the east coast of Australia. Most notably, fishing pressure has been historically high on the upper continental slope off southeastern Australia. The Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Commonwealth managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish Fishery (SESSF) operates in the southern portion of the range of Weng's Skate. In trawl surveys within this region at depths of 200–650 m over a 20 year period, Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001) demonstrated a decline in slope skate species of >83%. Weng's Skate (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Raja</span> sp. I) was a small component of catches in the deeper depth zone and has no doubt been impacted by the level of fishing pressure on the slope off southeastern Australia. However, some spatial closures and deeper depths may represent refuges for the species, although this requires investigation.<br/><br/>The northern part of the range of Weng's Skate, where it is apparently more common (Last and Stevens 2009) overlaps with the Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery. This is a relatively small-scale fishery with only four active vessels  in the Line and Trap, and Trap and Trawl Sectors of the fishery in the  2008–09 fishing season (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Woodhams <em>et al.</em>  2010</a>). There was no trawl activity in the fishery during the 2007–08  and 2008–09 fishing seasons (Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010), but the  extent to which line fishing interacts with this species is unclear.  Given that there is no trawling at present in the fishery, and the overall low effort of the fishery, it is not likely to be having any significant impact upon this species.
195454		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for Wu’s Skate at present.
195454		distribution	eng	Wu’s Skate was described based only on the holotype and a paratype, which were collected from the southern East China Sea (holotype) and the South China Sea (paratype). However, in addition to its reported distribution in the southern East China and South China seas, the assessors (H. Ishihara and D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2011) have seen this species at fish markets in Keelung and Ta-shi in northeastern Taiwan confirming its distribution in this region.
195454		habitat	eng	The ecology and habitat of Wu’s Skate is unclear, but it possibly occurs in deepwater below 200 m. It has been observed at fish markets supplied by bottom trawl fisheries over soft muddy or sandy seabed. This appears to be a large <em>Dipturus</em> species reaching more than 100 cm total length, but its maximum size is not known (D.A. Ebert unpub. data 2011, H. Ishihara unpub. data 2011).
195454		population	eng	There is no indication of population status, since records of Wu’s Skate is limited to only two specimens together with observations at fish markets in northeastern Taiwan (H. Ishihara and D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2011).
195454		threats	eng	The main population of Wu’s Skate is thought to range in depths below 200 m, so the present fisheries effort (bottom trawl) by China, Taiwan and Japan would rarely reach the minimum depth range of the species; threats are not known at the present time for this species. However, as fishing effort changes and species targeted in waters below 200 m, bottom trawlers operating at these depths might catch the species more frequently.
195455		conservation	eng	In Queensland, Australia there is a recreational fishing limit per trip of one ray of 1.5 metres maximum total length; this limit is not species-specific and includes all rays. Otherwise there are no conservation actions currently in place for this species. It is a commonly captured bycatch species and research is required to improve knowledge of its life history characteristics and to assess catches and monitor population trends in the waters of the Arafura Sea outside the Australian Fishing Zone.
195455		distribution	eng	<p>The Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>(<em>Himantura astra</em>) occurs across northern Australia, southern West Papua (Indonesia) and southern Papua New Guinea. Throughout tropical Australia it is widely distributed and occurs between Shark Bay (Western Australia) and Moreton Bay (Queensland) including the Arafura Sea and near the Timor Sea (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195455		habitat	eng	<p>The Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>is demersal and occurs on soft substrates on the continental shelf from inshore to 140 m depth (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). It is more common offshore in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia than the closely related Brown Whipray (<em>H. toshi</em>)<em> </em>(Last <em>et al.</em> 2008). The Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>attains at least 180 cm total length (TL) and 80 cm disc width (DW) with females generally larger than males; reports of individuals larger than 100 cm DW are probably incorrect. Both sexes mature at 40–47 cm DW and an estimated 8–10 years; birth size is about 17–21 cm DW (Jacobsen 2007, Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Maximum age estimates range from 19–24 years for males and 28–31 years for females (Jacobsen 2007).</p>  <p>Reproduction is viviparous with 1–3 pups. This species is a major predator of prawns in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia; its diet also includes fishes and polychaetes (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Jacobsen 2007, Last and Stevens 2009). There are ontogenetic changes in diet; with increasing body size, similar prey items are consumed but the dominance of the prey items shifts and the diversity of the diet increases. Smaller animals rely heavily on carid shrimps while larger animals prey on a variety of crustaceans and polychaetes (Jacobsen 2007).</p>
195455		population	eng	<p>The Blackspotted Whipray is very common and abundant in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Last and Stevens 1994, 2009). There is no information on population trends.</p>
195455		threats	eng	<p>The threats previously reported for <em>Himantura toshi</em> in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (PNG) (Manjaji and White 2004) are likely to be threats for <em>H. astra</em> as the recent taxonomic revision places <em>H. astra</em> not <em>H. toshi</em> in Indonesia and PNG. In the Arafura Sea, the Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>is utilized bycatch of beach seine and bottom trawl fisheries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007). In 2004, it was reported that large numbers (~650) of trawlers operated in the Arafura Sea, from the port of Merauke in West Papua, and presumably took large quantities of the Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>(Manjaji and White 2004). Although the numbers of trawlers currently operating is unclear, this intensive fishing pressure still continues; high levels of Indonesian trawl fishing in the Arafura Sea adjacent to the Australian Fishing Zone have recently been reported (Heazle and Butcher 2007, Northern Territory Government 2009). It was also previously stated that low numbers of juveniles were caught by beach seine fishermen targeting penaeid prawns in southern Papua (Manjaji and White 2004).</p>  <p>In Australia, the Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>was one of the most commonly caught elasmobranchs in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), however it was considered to be among the NPF bycatch species most likely to be able to sustain capture due partly to a high capacity to recover after depletion from trawling (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002). The introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) in 2000 and other bycatch reduction devices has significantly reduced the bycatch of this species, particularly those individuals >1 m DW (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 2004). The Blackspotted Whipray<em> </em>has also been recorded in research surveys of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery. It was a minor component of the bycatch in the banana prawn and scallop sectors (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2001, Courtney <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although also a minor component of the tiger/Endeavour prawn sectors of this fishery, it was one of the most abundant elasmobranchs captured (Kyne 2008).</p>
195456		conservation	eng	Research is required to assess catches of the Leopard Whipray throughout its range, and to examine its habitat, ecology and life history parameters including confirmation of its distributional range. Except in Australian waters, the fisheries that capture this species are largely unregulated (licenses are issued but catches and landings are not properly monitored), and presently there are no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem. In Australia, management measures have been introduced over the last decade that have significantly reduced the threat to this species and it is now considered at low risk from fishing pressures in northern Australian waters.
195456		distribution	eng	<p>The Leopard Whipray is possibly widespread in the Indo-West Pacific. Its distributional range is based on current knowledge, however there are ongoing taxonomic issues that are being investigated and the outcomes of these may affect the known distributional range. It is currently known to range from Malaysia to the Japanese Archipelago and south to northern Australia (where it occurs from Coral Bay, Western Australia to the Torres Strait, Queensland) (Manjaji-Matsumoto and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). It is currently thought to be absent from the western Indian Ocean.</p>
195456		habitat	eng	<p>The Leopard Whipray is demersal on soft substrates and is mainly inshore and coastal though it also occurs on the continental shelf to at least 70 m depth (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Manjaji and Last 2008). The biology of this species is poorly known, partly due to confusion with other species of the ‘<em>uarnak</em>’<em> </em>species-complex; attains about 140 cm disc width (DW); born at about 20 cm DW. Males mature at 70–94 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007, Last and Stevens 2009). Reproduction is viviparous and the diet is unknown but likely comprises small fishes and crustaceans (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).</p>    <p>As there is no information on this species’ maximum age and age at maturity, generation length was inferred as 20 years based on data for the congener, the Blackspotted Whipray (<em>Himantura astra</em>)<em>. </em>Female Blackspotted Whiprays are reported to have a maximum age of 29 years and an age at maturity of nine years (Jacobsen and Bennett 2011). These were used to calculate a generation length of 19 years based on the equation: generation length = (((29-9)/2)+9). The maximum size of the Leopard Whipray is considerably larger (~140 cm DW) than that of the Blackspotted Whipray (80 cm DW) so it is possible the generation length of the Leopard Whipray could be greater than 20 years.</p>
195456		population	eng	<p>There is no species-specific information about populations or trends for the Leopard Whipray, however in a large part of its range there is heavy fishing pressure and extensive habitat degradation and it is suspected that significant population declines have occurred and are ongoing. It is not possible to estimate the proportion of the global population occurring within the Australian region as there is little information on the population structure of this species, however an estimated 15% of the Leopard Whipray’s known distributional range is in the Australian region.</p>
195456		threats	eng	<p>The threats to the Leopard Whipray are many of those faced by other <span style="font-style: italic;">Himantura</span> species within its range. However, the Leopard Whipray may be more vulnerable than some of its congeners due to its large size at maturity and maximum size and its preference for inshore coastal waters that are heavily fished and degraded in many parts of its range outside Australian waters (Manjaji and White 2004). <em><br/> </em><br/> In Indonesia and across large parts of its distribution, the Leopard Whipray is caught by demersal trawl and tangle/gill nets, dropline and longline fishing, Danish seine fishing gear, and coastal artisanal fisheries (Manjaji and White 2004, White <em>et al</em><em>.</em> 2006). In Southeast Asia, this species is commercially valuable, with most specimens caught as bycatch landed and sold. The Leopard Whipray is important in the gill and tangle net fisheries in Indonesian waters, which likely also includes adjacent waters. These fisheries, along with trawl fishing are particularly intensive in the Arafura Sea region (W. White pers. comm. 2010). In 2004, it was reported that more than 600 trawlers operated in the Arafura Sea and that catches in inshore waters had declined with vessels travelling further south to maintain catches (Manjaji and White 2004). Although the numbers of trawlers currently operating is unclear, this intensive fishing pressure still continues; high levels of Indonesian trawl fishing in the Arafura Sea adjacent to the Australian Fishing Zone have recently been reported (Heazle and Butcher 2007, Northern Territory Government 2009) and thus the level of exploitation of this species could be extremely high.</p>  <p>In recent decades, demersal fishing pressure has increased in both capacity and effort in many areas of this species’ inshore range. For example, demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand went from being lightly exploited to severely over-exploited between 1973 and 1994 (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). On standardized trawl surveys conducted over this 20 year period in the Gulf of Thailand, the abundance (biomass) of the major trawl bycatch groups was recorded. The group ‘rays’ showed a large reduction in biomass over this period and an ecosystem model fitted to the bycatch data indicated that ‘rays’ were one of the groups most severely impacted by the initial increase in fishing pressure (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Species-specific catch data are not available, but Indonesian landings of ‘Rays, stingrays, mantas, nei’ (nei = not elsewhere included) increased from ~10,000 t in 1975 to 58,000 t in 2004 (FAO 2009).</p><p>This species’ preference for inshore coastal waters means it is also threatened by extensive habitat degradation, including pollution and clearing, and destructive fishing practices. Large coastal areas, in particular mangroves, have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through land conversion for urban development, shrimp farms and agriculture. Across Indonesia and Malaysia from 1980 to 2005, the area of mangroves was reduced by &gt;30% (FAO 2007).<br/> <br/> Although data are available mostly only for grouped ‘rays’ and not specifically for the<em> </em>Leopard Whipray and/or other <em>Himantura </em>species, given that the Leopard Whipray is a large species with a preference for shallow waters where threats from coastal fisheries and habitat degradation are highest, significant declines are suspected to have occurred in Southeast Asia. </p>  Conversely, this species has refuge from fishing pressure across its range in northern Australia where there is much less fishing pressure and bycatch mitigation measures are enacted. Large specimens were previously occasionally caught as bycatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), a trawl fishery across northern Australia, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) in 2000 significantly reduced the bycatch of this species, particularly those individuals &gt;1 m DW (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the NPF, this species was considered to have a moderate to high sustainability to the impacts of trawling (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, Zhou and Griffiths 2008). It has also been recorded as a minor component of the bycatch in the banana prawn and scallop sectors of the Queensland East Coast Otter Trawl Fishery (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2001, Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2007), but again the use of TEDs in this fishery should limit bycatch (particularly of larger specimens).
195457		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the Western Round Skate. Research is required to better define its full distribution, estimate abundance and examine life history traits.
195457		distribution	eng	<p>The Western Round Skate is endemic to Western Australia with a restricted distribution, known only from the outer continental shelf between Exmouth Gulf (21°33′S, 114°05′E) and Imperieuse Reef (18°24′S, 118°29′E) (Last and Gledhill 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195457		habitat	eng	<p>The Western Round Skate occurs on the outer continental shelf&#160; in depths of 140–210 m (Last and Stevens 2009). There are no specific details on habitat. It reaches at least 43 cm total length (TL); adult males mature at about 34–35 cm TL (Last and Gledhill 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195457		population	eng	There are no details of population size, structure or trends of the Western Round Skate.
195457		threats	eng	<p>The Western Round Skate is not known to be taken in fisheries but, considering the restricted known distribution, any possible catch or bycatch of this species has to be carefully managed.</p>
195458		conservation	eng	&#160;There are no conservation actions for the Sawback Skate. In order for any actions to be taken more must be known about this species (i.e. population trends, growth cycles, ecology and threats).
195458		distribution	eng	The Sawback Skate is found on the upper continental slope off Western Australia between Ashmore Reef and Shoal Point (one specimen collected from Shoal Point) (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195458		habitat	eng	The Sawback Skate occurs in deepwater benthopelagic zones from depths of 200–505 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). It reaches about 40 cm total length (TL) with males mature from about 35 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). Size-at-birth is about 9 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009).
195458		population	eng	&#160;There is no population information on the Sawback Skate.
195458		threats	eng	Fishing activity within most of the Sawback Skate’s known range is minimal and it is unlikely that major threats exist.
195459		conservation	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">United States</span>:&#160; In 2009, the Governor of Hawaii signed House Bill 366 creating Act 092(09) establishing criminal penalties and administrative fines for knowingly killing or capturing manta rays within State waters. This makes Hawaii the first state in the US union to protect manta rays. There have never been fisheries for manta rays in Hawaii, but this Bill will protect all Manta species living in or passing through the island group from future fishing pressure.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;">Republic of Maldives</span>:&#160; Since June 1995, there has been an export ban on all ray species and their body parts, effectively preventing any commercial fisheries from arising in this country which has never targeted manta rays for local use in significant numbers. Furthermore, in June 2009 the Maldivian Government announced the creation of two new marine protected areas (MPAs), specifically identified for protection because of their importance as areas of critical habitats for the Maldives population of Reef Manta Ray and the occasional transient Giant Manta Ray.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>:&#160; Fishing of manta rays was banned in 1998, but this ban was lifted in 1999 due to pressure from fishermen and lack of data on the fishery. During a year-long survey, from March 2002 to March 2003, 156 manta rays (the Giant Manta Ray) were caught, mostly in the months from November to January. Since the study, the ban has been re-established for manta rays, which would offer protection to both species. Mantas are now reported to be rare in the Philippines, especially around the Bohol Sea where the fishery was focused.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Yap</span>:&#160; A MPA for manta rays has been created in Yap under the approval of Governor Sebastian Anefal. The sanctuary, which covers 8,234 square miles, taking in 16 islands and 145 islets and atolls, out to 12 miles offshore, will protect the Reef Manta Ray from being targeted by fishermen.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;">Western Australia</span>: Manta rays whilst not targeted, are protected from any fishing (Fisheries Act) and disturbance or harassment (DEC Act) within marine parks only.
195459		distribution	eng	This species has a circumglobal range in tropical and sub-tropical waters. This species is widespread in the Indian Ocean, with images and sightings of the Reef Manta Ray from the Sinai Peninsula in the Red Sea to Durban, South Africa in the Western Indian Ocean, and from Thailand to waters off Perth, Western Australia in the Eastern Indian Ocean. In the eastern and south Pacific, the Reef Manta Ray occurs from southern Honshu and islands on Ryukyu Arc, Japan in the north to the Solitary Islands (New South Wales), Australia in the south and is sighted as far east as French Polynesia south of the equator and the Hawaiian Islands north of the equator. Two verified reports and photographs of the Reef Manta Ray from the North Atlantic off the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands, and historical reports and photos of the Reef Manta Ray off the coast of Senegal in northwest Africa (Cadenat 1958) are the only evidence of populations of the Reef Manta Ray in Atlantic waters.<br/><br/>The Reef Manta Ray is often resident in or along productive near-shore environments, such as island groups, atolls or continental coastlines. This species tends to inhabit warm tropical or sub-tropical waters. Passive and active acoustic tracking in several areas, including Japan, Indonesia, Mozambique, the Maldives, Australia and Hawaii, suggest that individual Reef Manta Rays do not commonly venture from coastal waters, often moving between inshore cleaning stations and feeding areas (Homma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Dewar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Deakos 2010a, M. Bennett unpubl. data 2011, T. Clark pers. obs. 2008, G. Stevens unpubl. data 2011).
195459		habitat	eng	Commonly sighted inshore, but also found around offshore coral reefs, rocky reefs and seamounts. Long-term sighting records of the Reef Manta Ray at established aggregation sites suggest that this species is more resident to tropical waters and may exhibit smaller home ranges, philopatric movement patterns and shorter seasonal migrations than the Giant Manta Ray (Homma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Dewar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Kitchen-Wheeler 2010, Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Residency is thought to be related to areas of high primary productivity (e.g., upwelling events), which may vary in time and space. Site fidelity to specific areas may also vary by sex and age-class. Seasonal migrations in this species likely correspond with cycles in productivity (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Couturier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Individuals in Australia, Japan, the Maldives and Mozambique have been documented making seasonal migrations of several hundred kilometres between well-established aggregation sites, directional movements of up to 500 km, or daily migrations of 70 km (Homma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Kitchen-Wheeler 2010, Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Couturier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, A. Marshall unpubl. data 2010). While evidence is still being gathered, this is likely to include cross border migration in areas such as Mozambique and South Africa; Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Sudan; and, Australia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. Satellite tagging results from northeastern Australia have tracked the Reef Manta Ray for periods of up to 110 days, during which individuals moved up to 780 km in total. During these tracks, individual rays moved into offshore waters up to 190 km from the coast, travelling over waters more than 1,000 m deep. During these tracks individual rays were making periodic dives of up to 300 m (F. Jaine et al. pers. comm. 2011). However, in Hawaii, the Reef Manta Ray exhibits more limited movements, with no documented movement between islands 48 km apart despite extensive photo-identification and acoustic telemetry research (Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>The Reef Manta Ray appears to be a relatively long-lived species. Although the actual longevity of the species remains unknown, photographic databases have re-sighted individuals up to a 30 year period (Ito 2000, Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, G. Stevens unpubl. data 2010, T. Kashiwagi and T. Ito unpubl. data 2011). Natural mortality is thought to be low (other than in juveniles), although limited predation from large sharks and Orcas does occur (Visser and Bonoccorso 2003, Marshall and Bennett 2010b).<br/><br/>Generation time is suspected to be 25 years based on conservative estimates of life history parameters. Female mantas are thought to mature at 8–10 years of age and longevity is estimated to be at least 40 years. Generation time is the average age of adults which can be approximated as halfway between age at first maturity and maximum age. Thus female mantas may be actively breeding for 30 years and the age at which 50% of total reproductive output is achieved would be approximately 24–25 years.<br/><br/>The Reef Manta Ray has very low fecundity. The production of a single pup appears to be the normal situation for these rays, although two pups are conceived on occasion (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Marshall and Bennett 2010a). In southern Mozambique, the Reef Manta Ray gives birth in the austral summer period after a gestation period of approximately one year (Marshall and Bennett 2010a). Reproductive periodicity in the Reef Manta Ray is commonly biennial (Deakos 2010a, Kitchen-Wheeler 2010, Marshall and Bennett 2010a) or longer (Ito 2000, G. Stevens unpubl. data) in the wild, but this species has an annual ovulatory cycle (Marshall and Bennett 2010a) and individuals can and have reproduced annually in the wild (Marshall and Bennett 2010a, M. De Rosemont pers. comm. 2009) and in captivity.<br/><br/>Four captive breeding events and births in consecutive years (2007–2010) have been reported from a pair of Reef Manta Rays in Churaumi Aquarium, Japan. A mating by a male (350 cm disc width (DW), in captivity since May 1992) and a female (420 cm DW, in captivity since August 1998) was observed in a display tank (34 m x 27 m x 10 m) on 8 June 2006. Chasing behaviour by the male started in March and peaked between May and September. This period was reported as “unnaturally” long (Matsumoto et al. 2008). A female (190 cm DW, 68.5 kg) was born 374 days later on 16 June 2007 but died four days later. Attack by the father was suspected as a cause of death. The same couple mated immediately after giving birth and produced a male (182 cm DW) 366 days later on 17 June 2008. The baby was transferred to an open-sea pen. The couple mated on a same day and produced a female (192 cm DW, 70 kg) 372 days later on 24 June 2009. They again mated on the same day and produced a pup (182 cm DW, 66 kg) 367 days later on 26 June 2010 (Anon 2007).<br/><br/>The Reef Manta Ray reaches disc widths of at least 500 cm (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however, in most populations the average disc widths of mature individuals do not exceed 400 cm. Physical and sexual maturity appear to vary according to region. Males in southern Mozambique mature at approximately 300 cm DW, while females appear to mature at slightly less than 400 cm DW (Marshall and Bennett 2010a). However, males in the Republic of Maldives mature at sizes of 250 cm DW, while the females mature at 300 cm DW (G. Stevens unpubl. data 2011). In Hawaii, the largest female and male were reported at 362 and 303 cm DW, respectively, and size at sexual maturity was estimated at 335 cm DW for females and 280 cm DW for males (Deakos 2010b). Males have been observed mating as early as six years of age (T. Clark unpubl. data 2010). Age at maturity in females is unknown, but is likely to be over eight years of age.
195459		population	eng	The Reef Manta Ray is often encountered in large numbers when feeding and individuals are sometimes seen travelling in schools. Overall, divers encounter the Reef Manta Ray with far greater frequency than the Giant Manta Ray. Due to the global nature of their individual distributions, absolute population sizes will always be difficult to assess. Currently, the overall total global population sizes of both these species are unknown, but some regional populations have been estimated.<br/><br/>Subpopulations of the Reef Manta Ray appear, in most cases, to be small (less than 1,000 individuals). The degree of interchange of individuals between subpopulations is unclear but is assumed to be low, as there are currently no data that support such interchange, despite active research efforts to investigate this (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data 2011). Photo-identification studies at aggregation sites in Hawaii (Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), Yap (B. Acker pers. comm. 2009), Japan (Ito 1987, Homma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Ito 2000, Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008b), and the east coast of Australia (M. Bennett and F. McGregor pers. obs. 2011) have produced sighting records of approximately 85 to 400 individuals, despite some being active for many decades. A semi-exhaustive study of Japan-wide photographic records confirmed that the known main aggregation in Yaeyama Islands (300 known individuals since 1977) represents a part of a fairly isolated population (Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Only monitoring programs in Tofo Beach, southern Mozambique (n=630 in April 2011) the Maldivian Islands (n1,500 in early 2010) and Ningaloo in Western Australia (n=530 in early 2010) have registered sightings of more than 500 individuals from a single aggregation site (Kitchen-Wheeler 2010, A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011, F. McGregor unpubl. data 2011, G. Stevens unpubl. data 2011). A mark-recapture population study in southern Mozambique over four years from 2003 to 2007 estimated the local population during that time to be about 800 individuals (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Preliminary studies at major aggregation sites suggest resident population sizes are generally small, with some areas having large seasonal influxes. There appears to be a tendency for rays to visit/occupy specific sites of restricted geographical extent, in part for interactions with cleaner organisms, for social and reproductive behaviours, and for feeding (O’Shea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Results also suggest a high degree of separation between subpopulations.<br/><br/>Movement patterns are likely site-specific and correlated with cycles in productivity. Individuals have been documented to make seasonal migrations of several hundred kilometres as well as daily migrations of almost 70 km (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data 2011). The annual migration range in Japan has been documented to be up to 400 km (Homma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and up to 270 km in the Maldives (Kitchen-Wheeler 2010, Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, G. Stevens unpubl. data 2011), while along the east coast of Australia, Reef Manta Rays have been documented to travel distances of up to 500 km (Couturier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Populations are likely to be stable in locations where they receive some level of protection, such as Australia, Hawaii, Japan, the Maldives and Yap, but are likely to be in decline in areas where they are fished, or are under threat from anthropogenic influences e.g., Indonesia (Dewar 2002), Thailand (A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011) and Mozambique (A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011) where encounter rates have dropped significantly over the last five years or anthropogenic mortality has been elevated.<br/><br/>Overall, the rate of population reduction appears to be high in several regions, up to as much as 80% over the last three generations (approximately 75 years), and globally a decline of 30% is strongly suspected.<br/><br/>Historical fisheries data and reported declines in population numbers:<br/><br/>In the Alor region of eastern Indonesia (Lamalera and Lamakera), it is reported that up to 2,400 rays, particularly manta rays and a few species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula</span>, were historically harvested per year. Once a traditional fishery that did not focus primarily on manta rays, in the 1990s demand for manta ray products created a strong export industry in these small islands. As a result, fishing effort increased and the techniques and the equipment improved. Populations of the Reef Manta Ray began to decline in this region suggesting serial depletions. As catches began to decrease, fishermen began to go further afield to find rays to harvest (Dewar 2002).<br/><br/>Barnes (2005) reports that manta rays, including the Reef Manta Ray, have historically been fished by Indigenous villagers in East Flores and Lembata, Indonesia. Catches of mantas were found to vary substantially with 249 individuals being caught in 1959, and only 29 the following year. The highest catch recorded was in 1969 when 360 mantas were caught (this is described as an exceptional year) and the lowest being 10 in 1985. After 1995 the mantas became scarcer and in 1996 no mantas were recorded to be caught. The Indigenous villagers attribute the decline in catch to competition from the Taiwanese commercial fishing vessels that began operating out of the village in the 1990s.<br/><br/>Although there is no solid indication of a total population decrease, observations at an aggregation site at Yaeyama Island, Japan, noted that the number of feeding animals sited at the surface decreased from 50 to 30 in 1970s to at most 15 in 1990s (Homma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).
195459		threats	eng	The main threat to both <span style="font-style: italic;">Manta</span> species is fishing, whether targeted or incidental. Manta rays are currently killed or captured by a variety of methods including harpooning, netting and trawling. These rays are easy to target because of their large size, slow swimming speed, aggregative behaviour, predictable habitat use, and lack of human avoidance.<br/><br/>Manta ray products have a high value in international trade markets. Their gill rakers are particularly sought after and are used in Asian medicinal products. This market has resulted in directed fisheries for manta rays, which are currently targeting these rays in unsustainable numbers. Over 1,000 manta rays are caught per year in some areas (Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Dewar 2002, White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Artisanal fisheries also target both species for food and local products (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Aside from directed fisheries, manta rays are also incidentally caught as bycatch in both large-scale fisheries and small netting programs such as shark control bather protection nets (Young 2001, C. Rose pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>As a result of sustained pressure from fishing (both directed and bycatch) certain monitored subpopulations appear to have been rapidly depleted (e.g., Indonesia and the Philippines; Anon 1997, Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Targeting either species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Manta</span> at critical habitats or aggregation sites, where individuals can be caught in large numbers in a short time frame, is a particular threat. Regional populations of both species appear to be small, and localized declines are unlikely to be mitigated by immigration. This situation is exacerbated by the conservative life history of these rays, which constrain their ability to recover from a depleted state.<br/><br/>Cryptic threats such as mooring line entanglement and boat strikes can also wound manta rays, decrease fitness or contribute to unnatural mortality (Marshall and Bennett 2010b, Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, F. McGregor pers. obs. 2010). In Maui, Hawaii, 10% of the population has amputated or non-functioning cephalic fins, most likely caused from entanglement in monofilament fishing line (Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Many other threats have been postulated and identified such as habitat degradation, climate change, pollution (from oil spills), ingestion of micro plastics and irresponsible tourism practices.<br/><br/>Dive tourism involving this species is a growing industry and it has been demonstrated that sustainable tourism significantly enhances the economic value of such species in comparison to short-term returns from fishing (Anderson 2002, Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). However, rapidly growing tourism (including in-water interactions and recreational boating traffic) if unmanaged, is likely to affect localised use of and visitation rates to critical cleaning and feeding habitats (Osada 2010, Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Their natural behaviour can also be affected by excessive ecotourism (F. McGregor unpubl. data 2010, A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/>Known directed fisheries:<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Reported World Catch</span><br/>Manta and devil ray catch increased from 900 tonnes to over 3,300 tonnes between 2000 and 2007 (FAO 2009, Lack and Sant 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">Trade-driven Fisheries</span><br/>Manta rays, including the Reef Manta Ray, are currently taken in fisheries that have transitioned from bycatch fisheries into directed fisheries, with the birth of a market for manta ray products in Asia.<br/><br/>Mobulid rays are directly fished in large trap nets set in important migratory channels such as in the Tangkoko Nature Reserve in the Manado region of North Sulawesi, Indonesia (Anon 1997). A study of the catch composition in a single year between March 1996 and February 1997 included 1,424 manta rays (unspecified species but likely Reef Manta Ray). While this practice was banned for a while, it started back up illegally in late 1997 and fishing efforts have moved to new unmonitored locations (Anon 1997).<br/><br/>Directed fisheries for manta rays exist in the Alor region of eastern Indonesia. A study of this fishery in 2002 (during the fishing season from May-October) revealed that the traditional whale shark fishery had shifted its focus to manta rays (predominately Reef Manta Ray), which were being harvested for trade to Asian markets, specifically Hong Kong. Estimated annual catch was thought to be 1,500 individuals (range 1,050–2,400 mantas). This was a considerable increase from the traditional 200–300 manta rays taken annually in historical fisheries in the area (Dewar 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">Artisanal Fisheries</span><br/>Reef Manta Rays are caught in artisanal fisheries in southern Mozambique for consumption. Manta rays are typically harpooned but also caught in nets with motorized boats. Approximately 50 individuals are taken per annum from a 50 km stretch of coastline (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">Bycatch fisheries</span><br/>Manta rays are caught in gillnet and purse seine fisheries as well as netting programs throughout their distribution. Specific cases are outlined below:<br/><br/>Unspecified manta rays, likely Reef Manta Ray, caught as non-target species in purse seiners from associated sets in the waters of Papua New Guinea. Catch rates monitored from 1995 until 2006 showed a distinct and significant rise in the number of manta rays caught (both tonnes per annum and kilos per day) in these fisheries in 2001, which steadily rose until 2005/2006, when sharp declines were noticed in the catch (C. Rose pers. comm. 2008). On average, from 1994 until 2006, manta rays comprised 1.8% of non-target catch from the surveyed purse seiners in the waters of Papua New Guinea (C. Rose pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Manta rays, including Reef Manta Ray, are regularly caught as bycatch in drift nets in Malabuhan, Siatian Negro Island, Philippines (Dolar 1994).<br/><br/>Incidental catches of manta rays in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, peak in the summer months (49% of the total annual catch), although the species is caught throughout the year (Young 2001). Manta rays comprised 16.9% of the total historical batoid catches from these nets, with a mean annual catch of 60 individuals and an overall 33.7% mortality rate (Young 2001).
195460		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions currently in place for the Eastern Numbfish. Research is needed on its life history characteristics and further survey work would be beneficial to confirm the occurrence of this species’ in the full distributional range.</p>    <p>The Australian Commonwealth Government recognize that the line and trawl sectors of the Coral Sea Fishery (CSF) may pose a risk to chondrichthyans that occur deeper than 200 m. Though catches of chondrichthyans are extremely low and infrequent in the CSF, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority has taken a precautionary and proactive approach in recognition that they may be more susceptible than others to overfishing due to their low rates of reproduction. All deepwater sharks brought aboard live must be released alive, while a very small quantity of any dead animals may be retained by way of trip limits introduced in July 2010 to facilitate the collection of information on species occurrence. These trip limits do not currently include skates and rays as these are incidental to the catch and are released (AFMA 2010).</p>
195460		distribution	eng	<p>The Eastern Numbfish is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific with a distribution restricted to off the Queensland coast, from Dunk Island to Rockhampton. This species has been collected in two main areas: east of Dunk Island and further south off Swain and Saumarez Reefs and has not yet been recorded in between these two areas, though it is expected to occur in relative abundance between these two distributional locations (Carvalho 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195460		habitat	eng	<p>The Eastern Numbfish is demersal on the outer continental shelf and upper slope and has been recorded mainly in depths of 140–540 m&#160; Little is known of its biology; it reaches at least 35 cm total length (TL) with both sexes maturing at 20–25 cm TL (Carvalho 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). </p>
195460		population	eng	<p> In the areas from which the Eastern Numbfish has been recorded, many specimens have been collected together (Carvalho 2008). There is no other information about the population trends or structure.</p>
195460		threats	eng	<p>The main threat that may affect the Eastern Numbfish is fishing which has the potential to cause direct and indirect mortality and habitat modification. However, the current demersal fishing pressure across this species’ range is generally very low. The area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery lies mostly to the east of the distribution of the Eastern Numbfish, overlapping only marginally with the species’ range. It is possible but unlikely that this numbfish is taken as bycatch in the Line and Trap Sector, and Trawl and Trap Sector of this fishery. While line, trawl and trap gear could capture this species as it fishes at depths this species occurs, they are relatively small-scale fisheries with effort less than seven vessels across both sectors in recent years and with no trawl fishing effort over the last two years (Furlani <em>et al.</em> 2007a,b; Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010). The management area of the fishery is far greater than the range of the Eastern Numbfish, with the majority of fishing effort outside of the species’ occurrence.&#160; </p>  <p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery operates in all Queensland east coast waters east of the 200 m bathymetric line and does overlap this species’ distribution. However, this fishery uses benthopelagic rather than truly demersal gear, and most of the fishing effort, which is low with only four active licences, is in areas where the 200 m depth contour is relatively close to the coast. In recent&#160;years, the majority of the effort has been&#160;much further south than the range of this numbfish (DEEDI 2009). The deepwater eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery that operates to depths of 300–350 m could possibly take this species as bycatch at the southern limit of its distribution, though the majority of effort in this fishery sector is further south (Courtney and Posser 2009). This species has not been recorded in the commercial and research surveys of the bycatch of this fishery sector (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
195462		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions currently in place for the Ornate Numbfish. It is a potential bycatch species and research is required to improve knowledge of its life history characteristics and the full distributional range.
195462		distribution	eng	<p>The Ornate Numbfish is endemic to northern Australia with a distribution from Cape Londonderry (Western Australia) to western Cape York (Queensland). It occurs in the Timor and Arafura Seas, Torres Strait and (primarily) the Gulf of Carpentaria (Carvalho 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).<br/></p>
195462		habitat	eng	<p>The Ornate Numbfish is demersal on the continental shelf in depths of 48–132 m (Carvalho 2008). Little is known of its biology; it attains about 24 cm total length (TL), males mature at about 17–18 cm TL, females probably mature at the same size as males (Carvalho 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).<br/></p>
195462		population	eng	<p>The population size and number and size of subpopulations of the Ornate Numbfish are unknown.<br/></p>
195462		threats	eng	<p>The main threat that may affect the Ornate Numbfish is fishing which has the potential to cause direct and indirect mortality and habitat modification. This species is known to occur in the region of the largest prawn trawl fishery in Australia, the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), however it has not been recorded in the extensive bycatch surveys of this fishery (Stobutzki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). This may be as it occurs at depths greater than 50 m and the majority of trawling in the NPF is in waters less than 40 m. A recent risk assessment for the NPF (Zhou and Griffiths 2008) identified this species as having very low levels of risk from prawn trawling as it occurred mostly outside of the fished area. At times, fishers from the NPF operate at greater depths (down to 300 m) targeting scampi in the Arafura Sea. However, the level of effort is very minimal and highly sporadic (C. Rigby pers. obs. 2010). <br/></p>
195463		conservation	eng	The Ningaloo Maskray’s extent of occurrence partly overlaps with Ningaloo Marine Park (NMP), which stretches for over 300 km along the Western Australian coastline. Hence some populations benefit from a protection regime in these areas since 1987 when the park was established. Another population occurs within the remote World Heritage Area of Shark Bay.
195463		distribution	eng	<p>The Ningaloo Maskray was described from Ningaloo Marine Park, in particular near Five Fingers Reef, south of Coral Bay (23°10’S, 113°45’E), further north at Lakeside (22°39’S, 113°55’E) and near Bundegi Reef, in Exmouth Gulf (21°49’S, 114°10’E). Additionally, this species possibly occurs from Shark Bay, Western Australia (25°46’S, 113°41’E), to near Gove, Northern Territory (Last <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, see comments in the taxonomic notes section regarding taxonomic issues. It appears that this species occurs in only very shallow waters (<5 m) on soft sediments close to reef. However, the actual area of occupancy could be much smaller as the species distribution could be quite patchy and fragmented. The Ningaloo Maskray’s distribution is possibly related to its habitat preferences (Last <em>et al.</em> 2010).</p>
195463		habitat	eng	<p>The Ningaloo Maskray is a shallow water demersal species inhabiting bottoms with soft sediments adjacent to reef areas. Depth range appears to be very narrow (<5 m) based on the records known to date. The species can hide burying itself into bottom sediments. Its protrusible eyes can give the Ningaloo Maskray a selective advantage relative to other similar species, as they allow the species to bury deeper than congeners, and thus to observe its surroundings, be camouflaged, and avoid predators more effectively than other species. Maximum known size is 30.2 cm disc width (Last <em>et al.</em> 2010).</p>
195463		population	eng	<p>The Ningaloo Maskray is a recently described species whose identification is based on only a few records, thus not much information on population size and structure is currently available. The Shark Bay specimens appear to be genetically distinct from those collected at Ningaloo Marine Park, but they show no obvious differences in morphometrics or meristics (Last <em>et al.</em> 2010). This species might be misidentified with other congeners, but it is quite distinctive and the reason for its only recent discovery is probably mostly a result of the very shallow habitat of this species.</p>
195463		threats	eng	Since the Ningaloo Maskray occurs in very shallow water, it is unlikely that the majority of fisheries occurring within its range adversely affect it (for example, the species has never been recorded in trawls; Last <em>et al. </em>2010). However, due to this shallow water nature, it is susceptible to habitat modifications, damage or removal. In its definite known range, Ningaloo Marine Park, there are a large number of protected areas, which will protect this species from such threats. Likewise, the Shark Bay populations are also offered protection from the fact that it&#160;is a World Heritage Area in a remote region. Coastal activities such as salt mining, marina developments and other habitat disturbances would be a substantial threat to this species in other areas.
195464		conservation	eng	<p>The Speckled Maskray is protected over some of its east coast range within no-fishing areas of the Great Barrier Reef system. Although Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) are mandatory within all Australian prawn trawl fisheries, this small species is unlikely to be effectively excluded by current devices. The Speckled Maskray would benefit from a careful evaluation of alternative or additional TED options. Generally, evaluation of the species' conservation status would be facilitated by improved monitoring of bycatch, in terms of both the absolute numbers caught and trends in abundance. </p>
195464		distribution	eng	The Speckled Maskray is found in northeastern Australia (possibly also New Guinea) from the Wessel Islands (Northern Territory) to Hervey Bay (Queensland). The western limit of distribution has still not been well defined (Last and Stevens 2009).
195464		habitat	eng	<p>The Speckled Maskray is most common in shallow water less than 25 m depth but probably to about 100 m (Last and Stevens 2009, I.P. Jacobsen pers. obs. 2010). It is a small maskray species, attaining disc widths (DW) of up to around 32 cm (Jacobsen and Bennett 2010). The most comprehensive analysis of the species' biology was performed by Jacobsen and Bennett (2010) based on prawn trawl bycatch specimens from northeastern Australia. Size at 50% maturity in females was 18.1 cm DW, and age at maturity was 3–4 years. The smallest gravid female was 17.2 cm DW (Jacobsen and Bennett 2010). The species has a low fecundity per litter of 1–3 embryos (Jacobsen and Bennett 2010). Preliminary investigation (Jacobsen 2008) suggested that the Speckled Maskray undergoes a single reproductive event annually. </p>    <p>The species is a demersal feeder, feeding predominantly on crustacean prey items; although the contribution annelids (polychaete worms) make to the overall diet increases with increasing disc width (Jacobsen 2008). Teleosts and molluscs are also ingested by the species on occasion (Barratt 2003, Jacobsen 2008). </p>
195464		population	eng	<p>The Speckled Maskray is a highly abundant species within some parts of its distribution; commonly caught as trawl bycatch within the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Zhou and Griffiths 2008). On the east coast, common on Queensland scallop trawling grounds between Yeppoon and Hervey Bay (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005), but not commonly encountered on east coast prawn trawl grounds north of Cairns (Kyne 2008). Also a prominent species in the Torres Strait (Pitcher <em>et al</em>. 2007) and a likely component of elasmobranch bycatch in the Torres Strait Prawn Fishery (I.P. Jacobsen pers. obs. 2010).</p>    <p>There is some evidence for long-term decline in the mean abundance of <em>Neotrygon </em>spp. in the Gulf of Carpentaria, from mean (± s.e.) of 0.99 ± 0.36 fish ha<sup>-1</sup> in 1964 to 0.35 ± 0.08 fish ha<sup>-1</sup> in 1986 (Harris and Poiner 1991). While this difference was non-significant, trawl surveys generally lack statistical power (Heales <em>et al.</em> 2007). </p>    <p>The grouping of <em>Neotrygon</em> species, and recent split of the Speckled Maskray from the Painted Maskray, has obscured species-specific population trends.</p>
195464		threats	eng	<p>As with many other small demersal stingrays, the Speckled Maskray is highly susceptible to capture in trawl fisheries. It is a common<strong> </strong>component of prawn trawl bycatch (which is discarded) within its range. Survivorship is generally unknown, and probably dependent on the method of capture. Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2002) reports that 27% of females and 95% of males (57% total) captured in the NPF died within the trawl net. This species does not appear to be robust in heavy trawl gear with scallop catch, where it is often crushed, resulting in reasonable mortality (Kyne 2008).</p>    <p>There is particularly high pressure on this species in the Gulf of Carpentaria. In the area of the NPF it is caught in about 15% of trawls and accounts for about 4.5% of the total catch (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, a more recent evaluation of NPF bycatch found that a low proportion of the species' total abundance in the region occurred in fished areas, and consequently fishing mortality is likely to be much lower than the maximum sustainable mortality (Zhou and Griffiths 2008). The species' western limit remains poorly known and thus it is unclear whether <em>N. picta</em> is affected by fishing pressures within the Arafura Sea. Additional information is also required on catch rates in the Torres Strait Prawn Fishery (TSPF). </p>    <p>In the scallop sector of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, fishery-independent surveys between Yeppoon and Hervey Bay revealed that the Speckled Maskray was the third most common elasmobranch species by number in the bycatch (15.6% of elasmobranch bycatch) (Kyne 2008). Also, the effect of trawl fishing on the macrobenthos, which is the primary habitat of this species, is another concern.</p>    <p><span class="apple-style-span">Current (2011) fishing pressure on the Speckled Maskray <span class="apple-style-span">in the Torres Strait and northern Queensland is likely to have reduced in intensity relative to historical records as increasing fuel prices have reduced fishing effort in both areas. The TSPF is using around 20–25% of the effort allocation or ~2,000 days of a 9,200 day Total Allowable Effort. In comparison, the TSPF regularly fished 9,500–12,000 days per season between 1990 and 2001. While the drop off in effort in northern Queensland has not been as dramatic, this section of the East Coast Trawl Fishery has also experienced a fairly significant decline in effort usage. This once again is due primarily to external factors like the remoteness of the fishery and fuel prices.</span></p>
195465		conservation	eng	The Blue Skate is protected mostly by the ban on fishing below 750 m in the region. Its geographic range also overlaps several marine protected areas in southern Australia including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park and the South-east Commonwealth Marine Reserve Network.
195465		distribution	eng	The Blue Skate is recognized from along the southern coast of Australia from Perth, Western Australia (<em>ca</em> 32ºS, 116ºE) to the Solitary Islands, New South Wales (<em>ca</em> 30ºS, 153ºE) and in Tasmanian waters (McEachran and Last 2008).
195465		habitat	eng	<p>The Blue Skate is known from 840 to 1,120 m off southern continental Australia and 765 to 1,440 m off Tasmania. Largest observed size was a female at 64.5 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Last 2008). Smallest mature male observed at 53.5 cm TL and smallest free-swimming individual at 19.3 cm TL (McEachran and Last 2008). Most life history characteristics are unknown. Assumed to be oviparous.</p>
195465		population	eng	There is no information on population size or structure of the Blue Skate. The species is widely distributed through temperate Australia (Last and Stevens 2009).
195465		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the Blue Skate given that it lives below the maximum allowed depth of fishing in this region.
195466		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions for the Broken Ridge Skate. In order for any actions to be taken, more must be known about this species (i.e. population trends, growth cycles, ecology and threats).
195466		distribution	eng	The Broken Ridge Skate is known only from the southeastern sector of the Indian Ocean, from Broken Ridge (31°36’S, 95°02’E) (McEachran and Last 2008).
195466		habitat	eng	The Broken Ridge Skate occurs in the deepwater benthopelagic zone to at least 1,050 m in depth (McEachran and Last 2008). The species is known from only a single juvenile male (the holotype) of 41.5 cm total length (McEachran and Last 2008).
195466		population	eng	Populations are unknown for the Broken Ridge Skate; it is currently known from only a single specimen (McEachran and Last 2008).
195466		threats	eng	There are no known threats to the Broken Ridge Skate (McEachran and Last 2008).
195467		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Sapphire Skate. Additional information on biology, ecology, population structure, behavior and fisheries developments within its range are needed to better assess and determine whether conservation actions need to be implemented for this species.
195467		distribution	eng	The Sapphire Skate is known from the Norfolk Ridge (Coral Sea and Tasman Sea) in the western Pacific Ocean from 25°41’S to 34°17’S (Séret and Last 2009).
195467		habitat	eng	Habitat of the Sapphire Skate is generally unknown, but it is collected on insular slopes from 1,195 to 1,313 m depth (Séret and Last 2009). The species reaches at least 41.3 cm total length (TL); smallest mature male known to be 36 cm TL (Séret and Last 2009).
195467		population	eng	There is no known information on population size or trends of the Sapphire Skate. The species seems to be relatively uncommon.
195467		threats	eng	The Sapphire Skate is not known to be commercially targeted or caught as bycatch. The depth range of this species likely keeps it out of the operating depths of most trawl fisheries.
195468		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Blotched Skate. Given that its depth range is 820–1,200 m, with the closure of waters >750 m, there is no need for further mitigation measures at this time. </p>
195468		distribution	eng	The Blotched Skate (<em>Notoraja sticta</em>) is known only from the mid-continental slope of the Great Australian Bight, South Australia (33°30′ S, 130°24′ E to 35°10′ S, 133°46′ E) (McEachran and Last 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195468		habitat	eng	The Blotched Skate occurs on continental slope areas in a depth range of approximately 820–1,200 m. However, the benthic habitats of Australasia below 1,400 m depth have not been adequately sampled and new depth records will doubtless emerge when the deepwater ichthyofauna is surveyed (Last and Yearsley 2002). The Blotched Skate attains at least 63 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 52 cm TL (McEachran and Last 2008).
195468		population	eng	<p>The Blotched Skate is known from a handful of specimens but probably occurs more widely across southern Australia<em>. </em>There are no details available on population size, structure, or trends.</p>
195468		threats	eng	<p>The Blotched Skate was previously taken as bycatch within the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS), one of the four sectors of the Commonwealth managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF). The GABTS covers an extensive area of southern Australian waters, from Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia to Cape Jervis in South Australia, and out to the edge of the Australian Fishing Zone (AFZ). It includes a continental shelf fishery, operating in depths of 200 m or less and an upper slope fishery operating at depths of 200–1,000 m. However, in most shelf waters, the trawlers operate at 120–160 m depth, mainly targeting Bight Redfish (<em>Centroberyx gerrardi</em>) and Deepwater Flathead (<em>Neoplatycephalus conatus</em>). </p>    <p>Previously, there was a seasonal deepwater slope fishery operating at depths greater than 750 m targeting Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>) (Knuckey and Brown 2002). However, this fishery was closed in 2007 due to the unsustainability of Orange Roughy stocks. Bycatch in the Orange Roughy fishery has been reported as less than in many other trawl fisheries since aggregations around seamounts are primarily targeted (Lack <em>et al.</em> 2003). This is indicated by the <span lang="EN-AU">results of a bycatch survey in the deepwater trawl fishery in the Great Australian Bight Far West Zone with up to 99.6% being the target species of Orange Roughy (Knuckey and Brown 2002).</p>  <p>The continental shelf fishery appears to have no interaction with this species as a majority of trawling takes place between 120–160 m depth, not overlapping with the depth range of the Blotched Skate which is 820–1,200 m. The previously existing Orange Roughy fishery, which targeted depths greater than 750 m may have had interactions with the Blotched Skate, however as indicated there were low levels of bycatch reported in this fishery.</p>
195469		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the Arafura Skate. Research is required to estimate abundance and examine life history traits.
195469		distribution	eng	<p>The Arafura Skate is found in northwestern Australia from southwest of Scott Reef, Western Australia (14°49′S, 121°34′E), and north to the Arafura Sea, off the Northern Territory (09°00′S, 133°19′E) (Last and Stevens 2009). This is a relatively restricted known distribution.</p>
195469		habitat	eng	<p>The Arafura Skate occurs off northwestern Australia in depths of 179–298 m (Last and Gledhill 2008). There are no specific details on habitat. The species attains about 50 cm total length (TL); males mature at 38–41 cm TL; adult females are larger than males (Last and Stevens 2009). This species is oviparous though there is no information on egg cases.</p>
195469		population	eng	There are no details on population size, structure or trends for the Arafura Skate.
195469		threats	eng	The Arafura Skate is not known to be taken in fisheries or under threat but, taking into account the restricted known distribution, any possible threats on this species need to be carefully managed.
195470		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are currently in place for the Thintail Skate. Catch levels need to be monitored and further surveys conducted to determine abundance and population trends. Further research on the life history of the species is also required.
195470		distribution	eng	The Thintail Skate is wide ranging in Western Australia and is found on the continental slope in two disjunct populations, from Bunbury to Shark Bay, and from the Monte Bello Islands to Ashmore Reef. The species possibly also occurs in the Arafura Sea (Northern Territory/eastern Indonesia) (Last and Gledhill 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195470		habitat	eng	<p>The Thintail Skate is mostly found in the bentho-pelagic zone at a depth range of 202–735 m (Last and Stevens 2009). It<em> </em>reaches at least 55.5 cm total length (TL). Males mature at 39.4–48.6 cm TL and the smallest juvenile 14.7 cm TL. There is no information on egg cases (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195470		population	eng	There are no details of population size, structure or trends for the Thintail Skate; however, it does occur in two disjunct populations.
195470		threats	eng	The Thintail Skate is a potential bycatch of the Commonwealth managed Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDTF) and the North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF). The WDTF targets Orange Roughy and other species below 700 m depth off southwestern Australia and operates from the 200 m isobath to the edge of the Australian Fishing Zone (AFZ)), which is over much of the known range of the southern population. This relatively small fishery takes some elasmobranch bycatch but its composition has not been determined.<br/><br/>The NWSTF, which operates between the 200 m isobath and the outer limit of the Australian Fishing Zone, covers much of the known range of the northern population of this species. Information on bycatch of skates in this fishery is lacking, but it is most probable that the Thintail Skate is a component of the bycatch since its range overlaps with that of the fishery.&#160; Although no specific data is available for this species, other studies have shown the post-release survival rates of other skate species caught in demersal trawls to only be around 50% (Enever <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>The WDTF and NWSTF are however low effort fisheries, with only three active fishing vessels in the WDTF, and two active vessels in the NWSTF in 2009–10 (Woodhams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>This species is not targeted within the Western Australian State-managed fisheries. Additionally, any potential bycatch is likely to have reduced since shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26º30'S) in 1993, and that sharks and batoids became commercially protected in November 2006. This essentially restricts the possession of sharks and batoids by commercial fishers to four target fisheries and results in any catch of the Thintail Skate to be released.
195471		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently in place for the Sandy Skate. It is difficult to implement management strategies for a specific species if there is no accurate, detailed information on catch, trend and population.</p>    <p>The WA Demersal Gillnet and Longline Fishery is managed via input controls in the form of time/gear effort units, restricted mesh/hook sizes, net height and maximum net length restrictions. The impact on stocks of bycatch from this fishery is determined to be low (McAuley 2008). </p>    <p>A better understanding of the biology, life histories and population dynamics of skate species in general is required so that each individual species can be properly managed. Conservation measures are essential to protect the future of chondrichthyan species such as the Sandy Skate. The following is a list of recommended actions that could be implemented to mitigate major threats to this species (DAFF 2004):</p>  <ul><li>Improve the reporting of discarded bycatch and the associated mortality rates in trawl and demersal longline fisheries through improved data collection and species identification by fisheries observers, as well as through compulsory reporting of all bycatch for the commercial and recreational fishing industry;</li></ul>  <ul><li>Raise awareness among commercial and recreational fishers and other resource users about the status and threats of chondrichthyan species and encourage conservation-based release practices to decrease discard mortality;</li></ul>  <ul><li>Evaluate existing practices in all commercial and recreational fisheries and implement, where practicable, new regulations or technologies with the potential to decrease both the bycatch of chondrichthyans and associated mortality; and,</li></ul><ul><li>  Increase the level of support and funding for research in order to obtain critical information about chondrichthyan species which are either threatened or data deficient. Data that is required about individual species includes: spatial distribution, critical habitats, fecundity, growth rates, age and population dynamics.</li></ul>
195471		distribution	eng	<p>The Sandy Skate is known from the Great Australian Bight between Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (34°59’S, 114°53’E) and Portland, Victoria (34°42’S, 141°20’E) (Last and Stevens 2009). </p>  <p>The Sandy Skate belongs to the Southern marine biogeographic province of Australia (IMCRA Technical Group 1998) where it is mainly found in the upper slope biome (Last <em>et al</em>. 2005).</p>
195471		habitat	eng	The Sandy Skate is a demersal species occurring on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 190–710 m, although it is mostly found between depths of 300–400 m (Last and Stevens 2009). However, no specific information regarding the habitat of this species is currently available. The Sandy Skate reaches at least 34.3 cm total length (TL) and approximately 18 cm disc width (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008). Males mature at around 29–33 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). Like other skates, this species is assumed to be oviparous, yet little is known about reproductive output, seasonality, or other aspects of the biology of this species (Last and Stevens 2009).
195471		population	eng	There are no details of population size, structure, or trends within the current literature on the Sandy Skate.
195471		threats	eng	<p>Other than natural predators, trawling and demersal longline fishing are most likely to be the main threats to the Sandy Skate (AFMA 2008). The Sandy Skate, along with seven other skate species have been identified as being directly impacted by commercial trawling, due to having narrow distribution ranges and fisheries across the majority of their ranges (WWF 2008). The main fisheries that could pose a threat to this species are the Commonwealth-managed Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS) which is part of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDTF) and the Western Australian (WA) managed Demersal Gillnet and Longline Fishery (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>    <p>The GABTS is primarily a demersal trawl fishery, but provision exists for mid-water trawling. The GABTS is based on demersal catches from three distinct depth regions: the shelf/upper slope sub-fishery, the deepwater slope sub-fishery (Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>)), and the developing slope sub-fishery (Blue Grenadier, gemfish etc.) (AFMA 2008). The GABTS shelf sub-fishery extends approximately out to the 250 m depth, the upper continental slope sub-fishery operates in waters 300–750 m depth, whereas the deepwater slope sub-fishery operates in waters from 750–1,000 m. However, waters deeper than 750 m are currently closed to protect stocks of Orange Roughy. Therefore, the deepwater sub-fishery is no longer a threat to the Sandy Skate, yet they may still be threatened by the shelf/upper slope and developing slope sub-fisheries (AFMA 2008). Considering that the depth range of the Sandy Skate overlaps with the upper slope sub-fishery, it is possible that this species is a component of the bycatch of this fishery. Although post-release survival rate of the species is unknown, 100% of the skates and rays caught within the SESSF are reported to be discarded (Bergh <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>    <p>The 2008 report from the WA Demersal Gillnet and Longline Fishery states that the total catch of sharks and rays from 2005-06 was 1,357 tonnes (McAuley 2008). Direct information on bycatch in the fishery is limited, however the WA Status of the Fisheries Report 2003-2004 states that ‘there is some discarded bycatch of unsaleable species of sharks, rays, and scalefish.’ </p>  <p>The report further states that in the Ecological Risk Assessment carried out for the fishery in 2002, all impacts on bycatch species are considered to be low (McAuley and Simpfendorfer 2003). Additionally, in WA State waters, all sharks and rays were listed as commercially protected species since November 2006. This regulation essentially restricts the possession of sharks and rays by commercial fishers to four target fisheries in which shark catches are well understood and pose little risk to stock sustainability (McAuley 2008). As a result, reported shark and ray catches by vessels operating in non-target fisheries between North West Cape and the South Australian border declined to 5 tonnes in 2006/07 and 3.4 tonnes in 2007/08 (McAuley 2008). Despite the commercial protection, 47 tonnes of sharks were taken by vessels using ‘wetline’ methods in the region during 2006/07, although this declined to 3.8 tonnes in 2007/08 (McAuley 2008). While some of the fisheries bycatch reports mention that rays and skates are caught as bycatch, yet they do not record the species name or how much (tonnes) of these animals are actually being caught.</p>
195472		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions currently in place for Mosaic Skate. More specimens are required with research needed on its life history characteristics and to better define its occurrence and distribution, given that it is only known from a few specimens.</p>    <p>The Australian Commonwealth Government recognize that the line and trawl sectors of the Coral Sea Fishery (CSF) may pose a risk to chondrichthyans that occur deeper than 200 m. Though catches of chondrichthyans are extremely low and infrequent in the CSF, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority has taken a precautionary and proactive approach in recognition that they may be more susceptible than others to overfishing due to their low rates of reproduction. All deepwater sharks brought aboard live must be released alive, while a very small quantity of any dead animals may be retained by way of trip limits introduced in July 2010 to facilitate the collection of information on species occurrence. These trip limits do not currently include skates and rays as these are incidental to the catch and are released (AFMA 2010).</p>
195472		distribution	eng	<p>The Mosaic Skate is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific with a distribution restricted to off the Queensland coast, from Ingham to Yeppoon (Last and Stevens 2009). It has an Extent of Occurrence of 36,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, given that it is known from only a few specimens, its full distribution may be greater than currently known.</p>
195472		habitat	eng	<p>The Mosaic Skate is demersal on the upper continental slope, and has been recorded mostly in depths of 300–405 m. It reaches at least 28 cm total length (TL) and 16 cm disc width; smallest mature male examined was 27 cm TL and the smallest post-natal juvenile was 8 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195472		population	eng	There is no information on population size and trends on the Mosaic Skate; this species is known from only a few specimens (Last and Stevens 2009).
195472		threats	eng	<p>The main threat that may affect the Mosaic Skate is fishing which has the potential to cause direct and indirect mortality and habitat modification. However, the current demersal fishing pressure across this species’ range is generally very low. The area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery lies mostly to the east of the distribution of the Mosaic Skate, overlapping only marginally with the species’ range. It is possible but unlikely that this softnose skate is taken as bycatch in the Line and Trap Sector, and Trawl and Trap Sector of this fishery. While line, trawl and trap gear could capture this species as it fishes at the depths this species’ occurs, they are relatively small-scale fisheries with effort less than seven vessels across both sectors in recent years and with no trawl fishing effort over the last two years (Furlani <em>et al.</em> 2007a, b; Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010). The management area of the fishery is far greater than the currently known range of the Mosaic Skate, with the majority of fishing effort outside of the species’ occurrence. Some of the specimens used in the taxonomic description of this species were taken as bycatch in the trawl fishery sector in the mid 1980s (Last and Stevens 2009), when there was targeting of deepwater champagne lobsters (<em>Linuparus trigonus</em>).</p>  <p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery operates in all Queensland east coast waters east of the 200 m bathymetric line and does overlap this species’ distribution. However it uses benthopelagic rather than truly demersal gear, and most of the fishing effort, which is low with only four active licences, is in areas where the 200 m depth contour is relatively close to the coast. In recent&#160;years the majority of the effort has been&#160;much further south than the range of this softnose skate (DEEDI 2009). The deepwater eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery that operates in depths down to 350 m could possibly take this species as bycatch at the southern limit of its distribution though the majority of effort in this fishery sector is further south (Courtney and Posser 2009). This species has not been recorded in the commercial and research surveys of the bycatch of this fishery sector (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
195473		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions currently in place for the False Peacock Skate. Research is needed on its life history characteristics and further survey work would be beneficial to confirm the limits of this species’ known distribution.</p>    <p>The Australian Commonwealth Government recognize that the line and trawl sectors of the CSF may pose a risk to chondrichthyans that occur deeper than 200 m. Though catches of chondrichthyans are extremely low and infrequent in the CSF, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority has taken a precautionary and proactive approach in recognition that they may be more susceptible than others to overfishing due to their low rates of reproduction. All deepwater sharks brought aboard live must be released alive, while a very small quantity of any dead animals may be retained by way of trip limits introduced in July 2010 to facilitate the collection of information on species occurrence. These trip limits do not currently include skates and rays as these are incidental to the catch and are released (AFMA 2010).</p>
195473		distribution	eng	<p>The False Peacock Skate is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific with a distribution restricted to off the Queensland coast, from the outer Great Barrier Reef north of Townsville to south of Saumarez Reef off Rockhampton (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195473		habitat	eng	The False Peacock Skate is demersal on the upper continental slope, mainly in depths of 210–510 m (Last <em>et al.</em> 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). Little is known of its biology; it attains at least 37 cm total length (TL) and about 21 cm disc width. Males mature at around 32–34 cm TL; free-swimming by 15 cm TL (Last and Compagno 1999, Last and Steven 2009).
195473		population	eng	The False Peacock Skate is probably the most abundant skate on the upper continental slope of northeastern Australia (Last and Stevens 2009). There is no other information about the population trends or structure.
195473		threats	eng	<p>The main threat that may affect the False Peacock Skate is fishing which has the potential to cause direct and indirect mortality and habitat modification. However, the current demersal fishing pressure across this species’ range is generally very low. The area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (CSF) lies mostly to the east of the distribution of the False Peacock Skate, overlapping only marginally with the species’ range. It is possible but unlikely that this softnose skate is taken as bycatch in the Line and Trap Sector, and Trawl and Trap Sector of this fishery. While line, trawl and trap gear could capture this species as it fishes at the depths this species’ occurs, they are relatively small-scale fisheries with only a small number of vessels operating across both sectors in recent years and with no trawl fishing effort over the last two years (Furlani <em>et al.</em> 2007a,b; Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010). The management area of the fishery is far greater than the range of the False Peacock Skate<em>,</em> with the majority of fishing effort outside of the species’ occurrence. Some of the specimens used in the taxonomic description of this species were taken as bycatch in the trawl fishery sector in the mid 1980s (Last and Stevens 2009), when there was targeting of deepwater Champagne Lobsters (<em>Linuparus trigonus</em>).</p>  <p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery operates in all Queensland east coast waters east of the 200 m bathymetric line and does overlap this species’ distribution. However it uses benthopelagic rather than truly demersal gear, and most of the fishing effort, which is low with only four active licences, is in areas where the 200 m depth contour is relatively close to the coast. In recent years the majority of the effort has been much further south than the range of this softnose skate (DEEDI 2009). The deepwater eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery that operates in depths down to 350 m could possibly take this species as bycatch at the southern limit of its distribution though the majority of effort in this fishery sector is further south (Courtney and Posser 2009). This species has not been recorded in the commercial and research surveys of the bycatch of this fishery sector (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>
195477		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place to protect the Western Legskate.
195477		distribution	eng	The Western Legskate is found off Western Australia from west of Gantheaume Bay (27°49'S, 113°01'E), northwards to Ashmore Terrace (13°25'S, 122°54'E), and off Tanimbar Island, eastern Indonesia (07°46'–08°00'S, 132°31–58'E) (<span class="sheader6">Last and Séret 2008).
195477		habitat	eng	The Western Legskate is a deep water dweller of the outer continental shelf and upper to mid slope. Off Western Australia it occurs at depths of 150–1,125 m (mostly 400–800 m) and in eastern Indonesia in 215–470 m (Last and Stevens 2009).
195477		population	eng	The Western Legskate is moderately common off northwestern Australia. Little is known of the population biology of this species.
195477		threats	eng	The Western Legskate is moderately common off northwestern Australia where it has been taken as trawl bycatch (Last and Stevens 2009). However, the two deepwater trawl fisheries in the species’ area of occurrence off Western Australia (North West Slope Trawl Fishery and Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery) are currently characterized by low fishing effort, resulting in much of the species’ range receiving little or no trawling (Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2011).
195478		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place to protect the Blue Legskate.
195478		distribution	eng	The Blue Legskate is distributed on the upper to mid continental slope of Western Australia from west of Dirk Hartog Island (25°41'S, 111°30'E) northwards to west of North West Cape (21°51'S, 113°41'E), in depths of 482–1,168 m. It is possibly more widespread that currently known.
195478		habitat	eng	<p>                      </p><p>The Blue Legskate is present in deep waters of the upper to mid continental slope and is found in depths of 482–1,168 m (Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195478		population	eng	Nothing is known of the population biology of the Blue Legskate.
195478		threats	eng	There are no threats to the Blue Legskate; it lives below the depth where any fisheries are currently occurring.
195479		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions currently in place for the Eastern Leg Skate. More specimens are required with research needed on its life history characteristics and its distribution outside the currently known range. Presently, knowledge of this species is limited to six individuals captured during 1985. </p>    <p>The Australian Commonwealth Government recognize that the line and trawl sectors of the CSF may pose a risk to chondrichthyans that occur deeper than 200 m. Though catches of chondrichthyans are extremely low and infrequent in the CSF, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority has taken a precautionary and proactive approach in recognition that they may be more susceptible than others to overfishing due to their low rates of reproduction. All deepwater sharks brought aboard live must be released alive, while a very small quantity of any dead animals may be retained by way of trip limits introduced in July 2010 to facilitate the collection of information on species occurrence. These trip limits do not currently include skates and rays as these are incidental to the catch and are released (AFMA 2010).</p>
195479		distribution	eng	The Eastern Leg Skate is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific. This species is known from two areas off the Queensland coast: the Queensland Plateau off Cairns and the southeastern sector of the Saumarez Plateau off Rockhampton (Last and Séret 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). This species occurs across a relatively small area of 15,405 km²<sup></sup>. The holotype is from the Saumarez Plateau (22°56'S, 154°24'E) and was collected in 1985 (Last and Séret 2008). Five additional paratypes were recorded from four locations on the Queensland Plateau in 1985: 17°02'S, 151°03'E; 17°06'S, 150°52'E; 17°01'S, 151°20'E and 16°55'S, 151°34'E. The full distribution may be greater than currently known, given that it is known from so few specimens.
195479		habitat	eng	<p>The Eastern Leg Skate is demersal on the upper continental slope and has been recorded in depths of 606–880 m (Last and Séret 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). The habitat of this species is restricted in area as the depth range in which it occurs is not widespread across the geographic range. Little is known of its biology; attains least 55 cm total length (TL) and 37 cm disc width (DW); males mature by 55 cm TL; free-swimming by 10 cm TL and 3.5 cm DW (Last and Séret 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).</p>
195479		population	eng	<p>There is no information on population size and trends of the Eastern Leg Skate; this species is known from only six specimens (Last and Stevens 2009, P.R. Last pers. comm. 2010).</p>
195479		threats	eng	<p>The main threat that may affect the Eastern Leg Skate is fishing which has the potential to cause direct and indirect mortality and habitat modification. However, the current demersal fishing pressure across this species’ range is generally very low. The Eastern Leg Skate occurs in the area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (CSF). It is possible but unlikely that this leg skate is taken as bycatch in the Line and Trap Sector, and Trawl and Trap Sector of this fishery. The line sector does sometimes fish to depths greater than 600 m, though not commonly, while trawl gear currently does not fish beyond 600 m so is unlikely to interact with this species (Furlani <em>et al.</em> 2007a,b). These are relatively small-scale fisheries with only a small number of vessels operating across both sectors in recent years and with no trawl fishing effort over the last two years (Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010). The management area of the fishery is much larger than the range of the Eastern Leg Skate.</p>  <p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery operates in all Queensland east coast waters east of the 200 m bathymetric line and may marginally overlap this species’ distribution. It generally operates in 200–250 m, at times over 500 m which is still above the depth range of this species and as such the fishery is unlikely to interact with this species. Benthopelagic rather than truly demersal gear is used, and most of the fishing effort, which is low with only four active licences, is in areas where the 200 m depth contour is relatively close to the coast. In recent years the majority of the effort has been much further south than the range of this leg skate (DEEDI 2009). This species occurs too deep to be impacted by the deepwater eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery which does not operate in waters greater than 350 m (Courtney and Posser 2009).</p>
195480		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed on Annex IV of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Androcymbium europaeum</span>. It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the regional catalogue of threatened wild flora of Andalucía. It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/></p><p>Some subpopulations occur within the protected areas Parque Natural del Cabo de Gata-Níjar and Paraje Natural Punta Entinas-Sabinar. <br/></p>
195480		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula and in northwestern Africa, in a coastal area between Rabat and Safi in Morocco (Pedrola-Monfort and Caujapé-Castells 1996).</p>  <p>In the Iberian Peninsula, <em>Androcymbium gramineum </em>can be found on the south coastline of Almería, between Punta del Sabinar and Sierra de Cabrera (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). It is distributed in ten locations, with an area of occupancy of around 40 km²<sup></sup>. Regressive patterns have been reported for its geographic range.</p>
195480		habitat	eng	This geophyte grows in grasslands on skeletal stony or sandy soils. It occurs within communities of <em>Ziziphus lotus</em><span style="background-color: white;">. F</span>requent accompanying species are<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ononis ornithopodioides, Crassula tillaea, Trifolium</span> spp.<span style="font-style: italic;">, Sedum caespitosum, Bellis microcephala, Sagina apetala, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Gynandriris sisyrinchium, Reichardia tingitana, Eryngium ilicifolium, Plantago ovata, Ajuga iva, Medicago littoralis, Schismus barbatus, Ammochloa palaestina, Ifloga spicata, Lobularia maritima </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Arisarum vulgare.</span>
195480		population	eng	<p><span style="background-color: white;">Population size has been estimated in </span>1,296,000 (Jardín Botánico El Albardinal, Cabo de Gata, Almería, pers. comm. 2011). Regressive patterns have been identified in the number of subpopulations where the species occurs. There are important fluctuations in population size depending on climatic conditions.<br/></p>
195480		threats	eng	This species is under strong anthropic pressure due to the construction of greenhouses, roads, tourism related infrastructures and urban expansion (Blanca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
195482		conservation	eng	This species is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Senecio hermosae</span> Pit.<br/>It is listed as <em>Canariothamnus hermosae </em>in the Spanish Red List 2008 and is categorized VU D2 (Moreno 2008). It appears as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the regional catalogue of threatened species. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">In vitro</span> propagation has been developed and stable populations occur in the Jardín Botánico Viera y Clavijo. Research about its use in ecological agriculture as bioplaguicide is being developed by the CSIC, in a project called BIOPLAG.
195482		distribution	eng	This plant is endemic to the island of La Gomera, the Canary Islands, Spain. It is present in two locations, distributed throughout nine subpopulations (Gobierno de Canarias 2009), in the basin of Vallehermoso and the central-eastern part of the island. No sign of continuing decline in its distribution has been observed. Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 6.25 km<sup>2</sup>, and reported to be lower than 20 km<sup>2</sup> (Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal del MARM 2007).
195482		habitat	eng	This shrub grows on cracks and phonolitic outcrops, preferably in cool areas under the influence of fogs, although occasionally it can be found in semi-exposed sites (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
195482		population	eng	Population size was estimated in 787 specimen in 2003 (Gobierno de Canarias 2009). A very low number of juvenile individuals was recorded. Population trend seems to be slightly positive for the location of Vallehermoso and more or less stable for the central-eastern subpopulations.
195482		threats	eng	This species tends to shelter in inaccessible areas within its potential habitat, for accessible areas are affected by human influences that increases competition with exotic species, and grazing pressure (Gobierno de Canarias 2009).
195483		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis arbuscula</span>. It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81. All of its distribution area lies within the NATURA 2000 site GR4120004 and it was included in the Red Data Book (Phitos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1995).
195483		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to the Greek East Aegean Islands of Ikaria. There is one subpopulation, at one location in the west part of Atheras Mt (Pounta cliff system south of Papa Filippou Kampia 2-3 km north of Plagia). The plant occurs on a single cliff at approximately 200 m up and 2 km long (Snogerup 1995), providing an extent of occurence of about 0.4 km<sup>2</sup>.
195483		habitat	eng	It grows on a single south-facing limestone cliff at 600-800 m altitude   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195483		population	eng	<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>The size of the population of the plant is not known since it is very difficult to access any part of the cliff system and only few plants have ever been seen. According to Snogerup (1995): “only a handful of specimens were observed”.
195483		threats	eng	The cliff system where the plant grows is highly inaccessible and there are no human activities, not even grazing. The possibility of road construction or quarry establishment at this cliff is scant.
195484		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria glomerata</span><span style="background-color: white;"> is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species and as species "de interés para los ecosistemas canarios" in the regional catalogue of protected species.</span> In the Spanish Red List it is listed with the category CR B2ac(iii)  (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>It grows within the protected area Parque Rural de Anaga (SCI) (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Proposed measures include collection and storage of plant material in germplasm banks, eradication of grazing activities in the area and research to clarify the presence of more subpopulations.
195484		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria glomerata</span> is endemic to the island of Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain, where it occurs between 300 and 485 m asl near Taganana (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Its area of occupancy has been estimated in 2 km². It occurs in one location, comprising two subpopulations. One more site was reported in the past, but it has not been recently confirmed.
195484		habitat	eng	This small woody plant grows in cracks on steep slopes facing north and northwest within communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Soncho-Aeonietum tabulaeformis</span> (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). At higher altitude it occurs within the potential distribution range of communities <span style="font-style: italic;">Junipero-Oleetum cerasiformis</span> subass. <span style="font-style: italic;">ericetosum arboreae</span>. Frequent accompanying species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum reflexum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocephalus virens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sonchus radicatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeonium tabulaeforme</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline pallida</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pallida</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Paronychia canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum broussonetii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus turbinata</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Monanthes laxiflora</span>.
195484		population	eng	Its total population size has been reported to be 494 individuals (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), with good levels of recruitment observed. Increasing population trends have been described (Gobierno de Canarias 2004).
195484		threats	eng	Accessible individuals are preyed upon by rabbits and goats (González González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Hybridisation phenomena with <span style="font-style: italic;">Micromeria varia</span> has been as well reported as a threat to the species, but it does not occur frequently.
195485		conservation	eng	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for the Western Gulper Shark. If a fishery in this area arises in the future, the conservation actions will need to be re-evaluated, as this species is highly vulnerable to overexploitation due to its limited distribution and depth range, and its low intrinsic rate of population increase. </p>
195485		distribution	eng	The Western Gulper Shark is endemic to the western coast of Australia, specifically having been taken in trawl surveys from Shark Bay to Cape Leeuwin (White <em>et al</em>. 2008, Last and Stevens 2009).
195485		habitat	eng	<p>This is a demersal species that inhabits the continental slopes from  depths of 616–750 m. Little is known of the ecology of the Western Gulper Shark. The reproductive mode is yolk-sac viviparous, with a size-at-birth of about 30 cm total length (TL). The known size range is 414–919 mm TL for females, and a single immature male is known to be 371 mm TL. This species attains a size of at least 91 cm TL (White <em>et al</em>. 2008, Last and Stevens 2009). </p>
195485		population	eng	There are no known population estimates or trends for the Western Gulper Shark.
195485		threats	eng	<p>Threats to the Western Gulper Shark include a limited distribution and depth range, likely combined with a very low intrinsic rate of population increase and hence vulnerability to over-exploitation. There is not a significant level of fishing in the range of this species (Rodgers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p>
195486		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the Chinese Longnose Dogfish, and none can be recommended on the basis of current information. However, in the first instance, taxonomic clarification is required (Last <em>et al.</em> 2010).
195486		distribution	eng	<p>The Chinese Longnose Dogfish is known only from the South China Sea (holotype was collected at 18°51–47'N, 112°41–33'E) and possibly northwards to Japan, but confirmation is required to determine the full extent of its range (Chu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984). </p>
195486		habitat	eng	The only known specimens of the Chinese Longnose Dogfish were taken at depths between 394 and 525 m. The ecology of the species is virtually unknown.
195486		population	eng	There are no known population estimates or trends for the Chinese Longnose Dogfish. The only known specimens were taken April 13–21 1982 (Chu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984).
195486		threats	eng	<p>The specific collection locations of Chinese Longnose Dogfish specimens only include a general region and depth. The threats to this species cannot be identified at this time despite extensive fishing effort in the South China Sea.</p>
195487		conservation	eng	No commercial catch limits have been set for the Northern Spiny Dogfish.
195487		distribution	eng	The Northern Spiny Dogfish is distributed on the New Zealand continental shelf north of the Subtropical Front, including Chatham Rise and Challenger Plateau. Also occurs north of New Zealand on Wanganella Bank and Norfolk Ridge (to at least Norfolk Island), Kermadec Ridge (to at least Raoul Island, 29<sup>°</sup>S) and the Louisville Ridge.
195487		habitat	eng	<p>The Northern Spiny Dogfish is common on the outer shelf and upper slope, occurring close to the bottom over reefs and soft sediments from 15 m to at least 700 m depth; generally most abundant at 50 to 300 m depth. Nominal records from greater than 700 m depth require confirmation as below 400 m depth this species’ distribution overlaps that of a larger, undescribed species. </p>    <p>Females reach at least 110 cm total length (TL) and males at least 89.8 cm TL. Males mature between 69–76 cm TL; smallest pregnant female 86.5 cm TL, largest immature female 90 cm TL. Size at birth about 27 cm TL. Litter size 6–11, usually 7–8. Gestation period unknown. Age and growth unknown. Life history traits are likely to be similar to those of other <em>mitsukurii</em>-group dogfishes (Taniuchi and Tachikawa 1999, Obara <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>    <p>Diet includes demersal fishes, cephalopods and decapod crustaceans. </p>
195487		population	eng	<p>The Chatham Islands population of the Northern Spiny Dogfish appears to be isolated, as may be some populations occurring on ridges and seamounts but population structure in this species is unstudied. </p>  <p>Un-standardised annual catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) in the main commercial set net fisheries is stable, whereas bottom longline CPUE in the same areas suggests local depletion may be occurring. Large parts of the species’ distribution are unfished or only lightly commercially fished. Research trawl surveys off the west coast of South Island show no trends in relative biomass (Cavanagh and Lisney 2003).</p>
195487		threats	eng	<p>Dogfishes of the <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em> species complex have proved to be particularly vulnerable to overfishing (Wilson and Seki 1994, Cavanagh and Lisney 2003). Catch-effort data for the fishing years 1992/93 (first year of reliable data) to 2008/09 indicate 97% of the commercial catch of Northern Spiny Dogfish is taken by set net (59%), bottom longline (33%) and bottom trawl (5%). Directed fishing for this species accounts for only 4.6% of the total estimated commercial catch recorded on Catch Effort Landing Return (CELR) forms since 1989/90, and no directed take has been reported since the end of the 1998/99 fishing year.&#160; </p>    <p>Unstandardised annual CPUE in the main set net (SN) fisheries shows no trend from 1992/93 to 2008/09, although a 68% decline in bottom longline (BLL) CPUE since 2000/01 in the same areas suggests local depletion (probably on deepwater reef habitats) may be occurring.</p>    <p>Most (68%) of the estimated commercial SN and BLL catch reported on CELR forms comes from the west coast of the North Island and northwest South Island (Statistical Areas 036, 037, 040, 041, 042), suggesting this species does not form a major component of the catch elsewhere within its range. The extent of non-reporting and discarding is unknown. The proportion of the catch misreported as Spiny Dogfish (<em>S. acanthias</em>) is unknown. </p>    <p>No bottom trawling, set netting or bottom longlining occurs on the Kermadec and Colville Ridges. Trawling on other ridges and seamounts located north of North Island New Zealand is predominantly conducted in mid-water for Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>) and generally occurs below the preferred depth range of this species.&#160; </p>    <p><em>Catch-effort data were provided by the Data Management Group, NZ Ministry of Fisheries –&#160; Rep. Log 7957, 7983A.</em></p>
195496		conservation	eng	This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Chionodoxa lochiae</span> Meikle. It has been classed as Vulnerable D2 on the Cyprus Red List (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Almost all population patches are included in the protected National  Forest Park (Commission of the European Communities, 2009), a proposed Natura 2000 site.
195496		distribution	eng	This species native to Cyprus and confined to the area of Troodos. It can be found at ten locations, growing from 900 to 1,500 m asl altitude (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its extent of occurrence was established at 31 km²   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195496		habitat	eng	Bulbous, perennial herb that can be found on organic, moist soils (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Commission of the European Communities 2009). This plant grows in the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>9530 (Sub-) Mediterranean pine forests with endemic black pines</li><li>9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines</li></ul>
195496		population	eng	The total population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Scilla lochiae </span>has been estimated at 3,000 individuals (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) or between 2,500 and 4,292 individuals (Commission of the European Communities 2009). The population size was monitored for three consecutive years and the data indicates inter-annual population size variation but a general population trend could not be established. The minimum viable population (MVP) of the species is 250-500 mature individuals per subpopulation (Commission of the European Communities 2009).&#160;<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>
195496		threats	eng	Main pressures and threats are climate change, fruit and seed predation   by insect larvae and reduced fecundity (Commission of the European  Communities 2009). Most of the population may be also threatened, to a  small  extent, by overcollection and by intrinsic factors such as poor   reproduction and three of the ten subpopulations may be also threatened  by  habitat loss due to expansion of built-up areas (Tsintides <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
195497		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petagnia saniculifolia</span> is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention).<br/>Some localities are included in protected areas.
195497		distribution	eng	This plant is native to Sicily, Italy. It is found at 21 localities, with an extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km² and an area of occupancy of 25 km².
195497		habitat	eng	This species grows in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 3120 "Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals generally on sandy soils of the West Mediterranean, with <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes</span> spp." (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195497		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the populations are believed to be stable.
195497		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to woody plantations, livestock or fires are an important threat. Groundwater extraction and modification of water courses or management of water levels are further leading to habitat decline   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195499		conservation	eng	<p>This taxon is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitat Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea balearica</span>. It is included as species "En peligro de extinción" in the national catalogue of threatened species of Spain. It is listed as Vulnerable A1e; B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); D2 under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Femeniasa balearica</span> in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008).</p><p>Seeds are stored in the germplasm banks of E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Madrid and Jardín Botánico de Sóller (Mallorca). The species is cultivated in the latter and in the Jardín Botánico de Valencia.<br/></p>
195499		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Menorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. Its extent of occurrence is 25 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy is 6 km<sup>2</sup>. It is distributed into five known locations.
195499		habitat	eng	This small shrub grows in open scrublands close to the sea, on sandy or clayey soils.
195499		population	eng	The population has been reported to have 2,200 individuals and a stable trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
195499		threats	eng	Threats to this species are habitat degradation and destruction due to urban development, presence of paths and tracks and roads, presence of motorised vehicles and natural fires (Commission of the European Communities 2009). Competition is also a threat, <span class="clickable"><span class="hw">strengthened by habitat alteration.</span>
195500		conservation	eng	Although this frog occurs inside a well protected area (State Park of Forno Grande) this area is quite small (730 ha = 7.3 km²<sup></sup>), so the enlargement of this reserve as well as the creation of new ones would help safeguard this species <em></em>(R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). <em>Scinax belloni</em> occurs in an intensely fragmented region which should have a restoration programme to connect forest fragments to guarantee the contact of isolated populations  <em></em>(R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011)<em></em>. An outreach programme aiming to educate local farmers about the importance of bromeliads and the negative consequence of bromeliad collection for the native fauna is also recommended  <em></em>(R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.<em></em>
195500		distribution	eng	<p>This species is known from only two localities (and threat-defined locations) 50 km apart from each other, in the mountainous region of Espírito Santo state, southeastern Brazil. The type locality is the State Park of Forno Grande (800–1,128 m asl), municipality of Castelo (Faivovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Another population was recently detected from “Serra das Torres”, municipality of Mimoso do Sul (600 m asl)(material collected by Jane C.F. de Oliveira; R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). Its extent of occurrence is currently estimated to be 3,025 km²<sup></sup> (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). It is likely that <em>S. belloni</em> may occur a little more widely and also between the known localities, although this requires confirmation (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). Should it occur in forests, it could be undergoing a reduction in its extent of  occurrence, given a reduction in forested areas over the last decades in  this region of the Atlantic rainforest; however, its occupation of this habitat is so far unverified (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares  pers. comm. April 2011).</p>
195500		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open inselberg areas in a montane region.  It is found inside bromeliads and is likely to spend its entire life associated with them (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). Silva-Soares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) found adults and tadpoles in terrestrial bromeliads, either on soil, grass or rock outcrops.  It <em></em>uses the water stored within the bromeliad axils as a reproductive site to lay eggs, and metamorphosis from tadpole to adult also occurs inside these plants (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). It is not known whether this species is tolerant to habitat disturbance.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
195500		population	eng	This frog appears to be abundant at the type locality (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). However, as it was described recently it is not possible to determine its population trend. Its population is considered to be severely fragmented given that its habitat is patchy and fragmented, its dispersal capacity is believed to be low due to its habitat specialization and over half of the known population is found in small isolated habitat patches.
195500		threats	eng	The bromeliads that this species uses for reproduction are intensely over-exploited in the gardening industry (Faivovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), but are not collected inside the state park (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011).  There has also been a reduction of forest habitats in the Atlantic forest over the last decades, which could also impact this species' distribution if it were to occur in bromeliads within forested areas  (R. Ferreira and T. Silva-Soares pers. comm. April 2011). <br/><em></em>
195506		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. vaginatus</span> is listed as Near Threatened in Sweden. Research on the life history and ecology as well as potential threats to the species are needed.
195506		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. vaginatus</span> is apparently a pan-Arctic species, with populations in Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia and western Siberia. In Europe, it appears to be limited to scattered sites around the Gulf of Bothnia and Norway.
195506		habitat	eng	C.D. Preston in texts prepared for Flora Nordica says "In the Gulf of Bothnia <em>P</em>.<em> vaginatus </em>usually grows offshore in water at least 1.5 m deep, where it may occur in quantity in <u>+</u> pure stands or with <em>P</em>. <em>perfoliatus</em>. It appears to favour a degree of shelter, growing for example on the sheltered sides of islands. Sometimes colonies are found by the shore in water as shallow as 40 cm in periods of low water level; it is not known whether these plants are short-lived colonists from deeper water or permanently established populations." (Preston 2010).
195506		population	eng	There is little information on the status of or trends in populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. vaginatus</span> but the overall impression is one of decline in Europe.
195506		threats	eng	The threats to this plant are not known.
195507		conservation	eng	<p>All related to the maintenance of optimal conditions of their habitat. It is therefore necessary to protect the springs from over-exploitation, locate potential sources of contamination directly or indirectly (on the aquifers). Is necessary to also inform the population about the importance of conservation of these freshwater habitats.</p>
195507		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to the north-east of Spain and was described from Sot de Can Parés, Gava, Barcelona (U.T.M.: 31TDF120720) and thought to be restricted to the Sierra de Can Parés and Sierra Gaves (Arconada and Ramos 2006).</p>
195507		habitat	eng	<p>This species occurs in springs, sinkholes with low water flow, sources of small streams, caves, etc. It always requires clean and oxygenated water with vegetation and organic matter for food. Its biology is unknown (Arconada and Ramos, pers. comm, 2009).</p>
195507		population	eng	<p>The number of specimens found at each site was low, suggesting the species is rare. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia henrici</span> specimens studied lack eyes and have a completely unpigmented body. This may be related to living in an interstitial or underground water habitat (Arconada and Ramos 2006). </p>
195507		threats	eng	<p>The main threats include contamination of the aquifers feeding these springs (direct discharges of organic and inorganic pollutants from agricultural sources, urban and industrial) and the alteration of natural flow of these springs capturing through pipelines for domestic water.</p>
195508		conservation	eng	It was considered as Critically Endangered by Arconada and Ramos (2006). There are no known conservation actions for this species, however research is need on&#160; population trends and habitat monitoring is required to establish whether the water quality is declining.&#160; The canalisation of springs for water supply needs to be undertaken in hand with plans for protection for habitats of the species.
195508		distribution	eng	<p>This newly described species is known from central Spain, where it was described from a spring in Patones, Patones de Abajo, Madrid, [UTM.: 30TVL603241]. Other sites for this species include Spring in Jarama River, Patones, Madrid, La Parra channel, Patones, Madrid. </p>
195508		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs, however all <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pallida </span>specimens studied lack eyes and have a completely unpigmented body. This may be related to living in an interstitial or underground water habitat (Arconada and Ramos 2006). Decline in habitat quality has been noted in at least one site, due to exploitation of the spring for domestic water supplied.
195508		population	eng	<p>All<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. pallida</span> specimens studied lack eyes and have a completely unpigmented body. This may be related to living in an interstitial or underground water habitat (Arconada and Ramos 2006).<br/></p>  <p>Population trend is uncertain, as the species was recently described, but Arconada and Ramos (2006) note that specimens are rare in samples from these sites.</p>
195508		threats	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pallida</span> is rare in the springs where they were discovered. Spring channelization for domestic supplies are the main issue, with secondary problems of declining water recharge due to increased frequency of drought. The species has very narrow distribution and are highly threatened by human activities. The populations have been declining since they were first found (Arconada and Ramos 2006).<br/></p>
195509		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation actions for this species, however research is need on&#160; population trends and habitat monitoring is required to establish whether the water quality is declining.&#160; The canalisation of springs for water supply needs to be undertaken in hand with plans for protection for habitats of the species.
195509		distribution	eng	The two subspecies have a disjunct distribution:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia henrici henrici </span>is known from two locations: a tributary of the Guadalora River in Parque Natural de Hornachuelos, Córdoba (U.TM.: 30STG9788) and La Almarja spring, Parque Natural de Hornachuelos, Córdoba (U.T.M.: 30SUG014869). <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Islamia henrici giennensis</span> is known from five locations: Spring facing the hotel "Sierra Cazorla ";&#160;&#160; &#160;La Iruela, Cazorla mountains, Jaén, (UTM: 30SWG005969); La Toba spring. Jaén, (U.T.M 30SWH3826); Madera River, La Fresnedilla, Segura mountains, Jaén, (UTM.30SWH3644); La Nava de San Pedro, Cazorla, Jaén, (UTM; 30SWG094948).
195509		habitat	eng	This species is found in freshwater springs, however all <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia henrici </span>specimens studied lack eyes and have a completely unpigmented body. This may be related to living in an interstitial or underground water habitat (Arconada and Ramos 2006).
195509		population	eng	The number of specimens found at each site was low, suggesting the species is rare. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia henrici </span>specimens studied lack eyes and have a completely unpigmented body. This may be related to living in an interstitial or underground water habitat (Arconada and Ramos 2006).&#160; Population trends are unknown, but are assumed to be declining, as the number of locations is declining.
195509		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia henrici henrici </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia henrici giennensis </span>are both rare in the springs where they were discovered. Both subspecies have a very narrow distribution and are highly threatened by human activities. The populations of the these two subspecies have been declining since they were first found (Arconada and Ramos 2006). Spring channelization has dried out many of the natural habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. h. giennensis</span>. The species has disappeared from some of the springs that previously held many of the better-conserved populations.
195510		conservation	eng	This species is listed on the Spanish and Andalusian Red Lists of Invertebrates.&#160; - Spanish Red List of Invertebrates: Near threatened&#160; (Verdu and Galante 2009). Andalusian Red List of Invertebrates: Vulnerable A4ce;B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) (Barea-Azcón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) . Water catchment management schemes and pollution monitoring are required to improve the conditions in the rivers, as well as restocking host fish populations and ex-situ breeding to provide juveniles for restocking populations in the rivers that are declining.
195510		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain), where it is found in the&#160; rivers draining Spain and Portugal, towards the Atlantic Ocean (Araujo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). It is present in at least a hundred 10 x 10 km<sup>2</sup> in the region.
195510		habitat	eng	The species is found in all kind of rivers and streams with permanent water, in sandy, gravel or muddy substrate at the shores and slopes under the tree shadow, but also in sunny sandy beaches. It can live in lakes (Ruidera lakes). In the dry seasons, specimens survive in isolated populations which take refuge in pools together with the fish.
195510		population	eng	There is little data prior to 2000 to establish population trends, but the species is believed to be declining. 20-30% loss of populations over the last three generations (30-45 years, based on a generation length of 10-15 years).
195510		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by changes of hydrologic regime of the streams due to dams and impoundments. The loss of host fish populations is also impacting the species, as well as the water pollution resulting from nitrate run-off from intensive farming and some water pollution from industry.
195515		conservation	eng	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and is listed <a name="OLE_LINK9">under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus centralpinus</span></a>. It is protected at the national level in France (Annex I) and by regional law in Italy. It is classified as Lower Risk in the Italian Red List but was classed as Vulnerable in the French Red List (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). In Bulgaria, it is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v) in the national red list (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).
195515		distribution	eng	This species is native to France, Italy, and Bulgaria and extends its range into Russia, China, the Caucasus and Turkey (ILDIS 2010). In France, this species is known from 27 sites in the regions Hautes Alpes, Alpes de Haute-Provence and in Corsica. In Italy, it is very localised in Vale de Aosta.
195515		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry mountainous grasslands on sunny slopes. It has been reported from the following Habitats Directive listed habitats (Commission of the European Communities 2009):<br/><ul><li>4060 Alpine and Boreal heaths</li><li>5130 <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus communis</span> formations on heaths or calcareous grasslands</li><li>6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuco-Brometalia</span>)<br/></li><li>6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands</li><li>9430 Subalpine and montane <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus uncinata</span> forests</li></ul><p><br/></p>
195515		population	eng	In France, there are 27 localities in 28 communes but the number of individuals has not been estimated. There is one population in Corsica. In Italy, it exists nowadays in two localities, in one it is quite frequent and in the other  one, it is rather rare.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>In both countries the populations are stable (Commission of the European Communities 2009). There is no information for Bulgaria or European Russia available.<br/><p><br/></p>
195515		threats	eng	<p>    </p><p>The main threats are collecting, abandonment of mountain pastures leading to growth of shrub, building of infrastructure, forest planting and overgrazing (especially in Corsica) (Commission of the European Communities 2009).</p>  <br/><p></p>
195627		conservation	eng	No conservation actions reported. Parts of its range are in a protected area.
195627		distribution	eng	The species was described from streams draining to the Andaman Sea in southern Thailand between Takua Pa and Ranong, Ranong and Phang Nga provinces (Bohlen and Šlechtová 2009). The currently known Extent of Occurrence is estimated as c.1,200 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>The species has not been found in streams between the two locations from where it was described, but these streams are short and do not contain suitable habitat, and the species has not been found in the streams to the immediate north and south of the two localities The species is considered to not be present in other river systems within Ranong and Phang Nga provinces, but to the north there are large forested hills that have not been surveyed extensively, and the species should be looked for there and in suitable habitat in adjacent areas of southern Myanmar.
195627		habitat	eng	Inhabits riffle sections of small streams with gravel to stone substrate in clear streams.
195627		population	eng	The species has been collected on very few occasions and very locally, only. Therefore no detailed knowledge about distribution area, distribution within river basins, natural abundance etc. available. At the type locality, the species was the most abundant fish species in a small riffle section. No information about population trend known.
195627		threats	eng	The inhabited streams seem to be only little affected by human activities. The water quality was good and fish diversity high at the collecting points of the species. No specific threats known. Like everywhere, habitat destruction by logging is a potential threat.
195851		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters. This species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
195851		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northeastern Atlantic from western Greenland, Faeroe Islands, and southwestern Ireland. <br/><br/>This species is found in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is present in the Balearic Islands and Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998), Catalan and Iberian coast (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2004), French coasts (Rochet <em>et al.</em> 2005), Balearic Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Corsica and east Algeria (Maurin 1962), Ionian Sea (Kaspiris 1973, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Levantine basin, and in the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is not present in the Black Sea.
195851		habitat	eng	The depth range of this bathydemersal species is 400-1,400 m in Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998). It was found at 1,200 m in the Balearic Sea and at 600-1,500 m in the Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the east Ionian Sea,<em> N. bonapartei</em> has been found at 487 and 1,034 m (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), and In east Algeria, at 500-650 m (Maurin 1962).
195851		population	eng	This species is more common in the west Mediterranean Sea than in the east of the basin. In some parts of the west Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the majority of trawls at appropriate depths (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>In the Algerian basin, the abundance of this species was 14 individuals (biomass = 0.51) in nine trawl hauls (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998). In the east Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence of this species was 1.9-15.4% (abundance = 0.1-0.2/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
195851		threats	eng	This species has no commercial importance. There are no known major threats.
195856		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters. This species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
195856		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northwestern Atlantic from Canada and the USA and in the northeastern Atlantic from northern Europe and Azores. It is also present in Namibia and southern Africa. <br/><br/>This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), including the Catalan Sea (Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992), Corsica (Maurin 1962), Balearic Islands (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998), Algerian coast (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007) and east Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004).
195856		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species. In Catalan Sea, the total length of this species was reported to be 3.7-7 cm between 1,225 and 2,251 m depth (Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992). In Corsica, they are fished at 300-850 m (Maurin 1962) and at 2,200-2,600 m in east Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004).
195856		population	eng	This species is fairly common below 800 m.<br/><br/>Two individuals of this species (total weight = 5 g) were fished in east Ionian Sea in 2 hauls (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Balearic Islands, the abundance of this species was 17 individuals (biomass = 0.21 kg) in 8 hauls (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1992).
195856		threats	eng	This species has no commercial importance. There are no known major threats.
195886		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for <em>A. imberbis</em>. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
195886		distribution	eng	<em>Apogon imberbis</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea, from Portugal to Nigeria, Canaries, Madeira and the Azores. Elsewhere, it occurs southward to the Gulf of Guinea (Tortonese 1986). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean <em>Apogon imberbis</em> is widespread throughout the region. It is recorded from the Sea of Marmara but only from one old record (Ninni 1923). It does not occur in the Black Sea.
195886		habitat	eng	A reef-associated, non-migratory species that occasionally forms schools, but is sometimes solitary. It inhabits muddy or rocky bottoms and caves. It feeds on small invertebrates and fishes (Tortonese 1986). Fertilization occurs internally and males incubate eggs in the buccal cavity (Tortonese 1986). Embryos do not feed externally in the buccal cavity. There is distinct pairing during courtship and spawning (Breder and Rosen 1966, Thresher 1984).<br/><br/>Marine caves represent important nurseries for recruiting of <em>A. imberbis</em>, as well as the preferred habitat for adults (Bussotti <em>et al.</em> 2003).
195886		population	eng	Widespread and common in the Mediterranean.
195886		threats	eng	There are no visible major threats for this species. A potential threat comes from competition with other Lessepsian species (immigrants from the Red Sea, e.g., <em>Pempheris vanicolensis</em> and other apogonids) (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).
196001		conservation	eng	The Montenegran portion of the Prokletije massif was gazetted as a national park (Prokletije National Park) in 2009. Research is needed to clarify the specific identity of the Albanian population, and information is needed on life history, population trends and any threats to which this lizard may be exposed.
196001		distribution	eng	The Prokletije Rock Lizard appears to be endemic to the Prokletije mountain massif in Montenegro where it is thought to occur along the humid southern slope (J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic pers. comm. April 2011), although it may range into the Bridash Mountains along the Albanian flank of this massif, some 25 km south of the type locality (Petrov 2006, Ljubisavljević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Genetic analysis indicates that this population is clearly distinct from rock lizards elsewhere in the Balkans (Ljubisavljević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is therefore likely to have a genuinely restricted distribution, although the limits of this range are not well-known, and it may be found elsewhere in the Dinardic Alps where suitable habitat is present (Ljubisavljević et al. 2007). It has been reported from 1,550 to 1,600 m asl. in Montenegro (Ljubisavljević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Biogeographic comparisons with other preglacial relict species in the region suggest that this lizard may never have been more widespread than its current distribution implies, with the Morača river canyon acting as a natural barrier to dispersal (Ljubisavljević<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).
196001		habitat	eng	This high-montane lizard has been recorded from debris fields and large rock outcrops on Debeza Mountain, both on and beneath cliffs, where it is associated with glacial lakes within cirques (Ljubisavljević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is confined to rocky areas, with a preference for moist habitats (J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic pers. comm. April 2011). The vegetation at the type locality is characterized by open Heldreich’s pine forest described as containing “Mediterranean floristic elements” (Ljubisavljević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its life history is unknown, but females of this presumed egg-laying lizard were found to be gravid at the start of June, suggesting that reproduction may take place in May (Džukić <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). At elevations of up to 1,660 m, the lizard occurs alongside the Common Wall Lizard (<em>Podarcis</em> <em>muralis</em>).
196001		population	eng	This lizard occurs in “dense populations” on cliffs on the northeastern slope of Debeza Mountain (Ljubisavljević <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Collection dates for known specimens range from 1996 to 2005, but no information on population trends is available (J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic pers. comm. April 2011). Although it is likely that this species has a fragmented distribution limited by the availability of rocky habitat within a matrix of pastureland (J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic pers. comm. March 2009), as this is a natural consequence of its specific microhabitat requirements it is unclear whether the population is severely fragmented and it is unknown whether this species can disperse between patches through the intervening grassland.
196001		threats	eng	Although the known Montenegro site is accessible by car and lizards may be subject to low levels of collection (J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic pers. comm. March 2009), there are no known threats to the area or the species’ habitat. As a high-montane specialist which is associated with humid areas, this lizard might be at some risk from future climate change if this results in its habitat becoming too hot or dry for its persistence (J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic pers. comm. April 2011).
196004		conservation	eng	The only known records of this species are from the Makira protected area; however the known localities are close to the western border of this reserve and are subject to ongoing degradation from human activities, and it is unknown whether the species occurs in better-protected lowland forests further inside the protected area (F. Glaw pers. comm. June 2011). It is unclear whether additional conservation measures are necessary, or indeed whether the existing protection is effective at preserving this species. Almost nothing is known of the distribution, population status or ecology of any <em>Paracontias</em> species (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). Research is also needed to investigate this lizard's exposure to and sensitivity to threats. The relationship between this skink and <em>P. hafa</em> requires clarification once additional specimens of the latter are identified.
196004		distribution	eng	This skink is only known from the Makira Reserve in northern Madagascar. It is known from two localities at the western edge of the reserve, named Angozongahy and Ampofoko, at elevations of 1,009 and 1,034 m asl. (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). The known sites are close to one another in rainforest. The lizard's known extent of occurrence is approximately 34 km²; it is unclear whether it is more widespread.
196004		habitat	eng	In both known localities, this skink was collected in somewhat degraded rainforest; both records were taken within 50 m of streams (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). Traces of cattle were reported from Ampofoko (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). The microhabitat requirements of this species are unclear; one specimen was found in a pitfall trap, the other "while actively searching under fallen logs and leaf litter" (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). No information is available on reproductive strategies in <em>Paracontias</em> skinks (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011).
196004		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens, and so no population data is available. It is not clear whether the small number of specimens reflects genuine rarity or simply inadequate knowledge of <em>Paracontias</em> ecology and thus undersampling (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011).
196004		threats	eng	Cattle are known to occur in at least one site where this species is found, but it is unknown whether cattle grazing is likely to represent a threat. Ongoing forest degradation at the western edge of Makira is likely to represent a significant risk to this species (F. Glaw pers. comm. June 2011), but as this species is known only from somewhat degraded forest in a protected area the extent and severity of this threat is unknown.
196008		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species'taxonomy, distribution, population status, natural history and threats. It has been collected from the Gongshan Nature Preserve.
196008		distribution	eng	This newly described species is presently only known from the Gongshan County and Longling County, Yunnan Province, China (Vogel and Luo 2011). The elevation of collection is not known.
196008		habitat	eng	Lives in tropical evergreen forest of Hengduan Mountains. No further information available for this species (Vogel and Luo 2011).
196008		population	eng	This species is known only from the type series.
196008		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
196009		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, population status, natural history and threats. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.
196009		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Dongchuan County, Yunnan Province, China (Vogel and David 2010).
196009		habitat	eng	There is no information on the biology or habitat of this species.
196009		population	eng	No population status information is currently available for this species.
196009		threats	eng	The threats to this species are not known.
196010		conservation	eng	It is present in some protected areas. Research is needed into the taxonomy and exact distribution of this species.
196010		distribution	eng	It is broadly distributed in China from Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces in the west to Taiwan in the east, and also present in northern Viet Nam (Malhotra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It is found 500 to 2,200 m asl.
196010		habitat	eng	This species is associated with leaf litter and fallen logs in montane tropical moist forest. It is oviparous.
196010		population	eng	It is an uncommon species.
196010		threats	eng	It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging for timber. It is additionally threatened by overgrazing of its habitat within the forest.
196012		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).
196012		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to central Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.
196012		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sand substrate adjacent to reefs, and also enters brackish estuaries.  It may occur in small aggregations (Randall and Vergara, 1978).
196012		population	eng	This species is common in Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Mexico.
196012		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
196013		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine this species' population size, distribution and trends, life history and ecology.
196013		distribution	eng	This species is known only to occur in Western Australia, from off Collier Bay to off Gantheaume Bay at depths of 380 to 350 m.  A single specimen was also collected from Queensland, at 500 m depth (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010).
196013		habitat	eng	This species is primarily known from collection in trawls. Although its biology and ecology is not well known, it likely occurs in sandy or muddy substrate at depths from 380 to 500 m.
196013		population	eng	This species is known only from a few collections (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010). There is no population information available.
196013		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species. Hagfishes are not targeted in Australian waters. Based on survey efforts, they are almost never taken by bottom trawls (M. Gomon and D. Bray pers. comm., 14 October 2010).
196014		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is need on this species' population size, distribution and trends, life history and ecology.
196014		distribution	eng	This species is known only from a single specimen collected from Astrolabe Bay, Papua New Guinea at a depth of 500 m (Fernholm and Mincarone 2010).
196014		habitat	eng	There is no biology or ecology information for this species. It was collected over silty-mud bottom at a depth of 500 m.
196014		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype (a single female specimen). There is no population information available for this species.
196014		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
196015		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of bycatch activities.
196015		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern South Pacific, along the coast of Chile between about 27°S and 42°S (Caldera to Puerto Montt) (Wisner and McMillan 1988).
196015		habitat	eng	This species usually lives on muddy bottoms and also among rocks in shallow coastal waters, at depths from 6-50 m. On two occasions <em>E. bischoffii</em> was taken with <em>E. polytrema</em>: off Valparaiso Harbour in traps at 30 m and in Bahía Ingles in traps at 20 m depth (Wisner and McMillan 1988).<br/><br/>The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphrodites being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196015		population	eng	There is little or no information on population levels and trends for this species. Population information cannot be derived from fishery statistics or bycatch data.
196015		threats	eng	This species is incidentally captured as bycatch using different kinds of trawls and traps. It is also collected with hook and line by artisanal fishermen. The species is potentially targeted by fishermen due to its non-charismatic nature and its detrimental effect on other fisheries (this species eats other target species in nets or on bottom long lines. The lines are therefore cut and hooks left to specimen's mouth). It is also threatened by habitat loss from extensive trawling throughout its restricted range and shallow water habitat.
196016		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place but more research is needed on species population size and fisheries impact.
196016		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western North Pacific off the coast of southern Japan, South Korea, northern and northwestern Taiwan. It probably also occurs in all of the Yellow Sea.
196016		habitat	eng	This is a shallow waters species living at depths from 5-270 m. It is a nocturnally active animal, with about 70% of the observed individuals uncovered and out of the burrows as compared to about 3% by day (Fernholm 1974). It is, so far, the only species of hagfish that has been found to have a certain spawning time at the population level and an annual migration to spawning grounds (Dean 1904, Kobayashi <em>et al.</em> 1972, Fernholm 1974, Nozaki <em>et al.</em> 2000). A population living at 6-10 m depth on a muddy bottom in Koajiro Bay, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, was not found from July to September in the shallow waters of the bay. In this period, individuals from the same population were caught in deeper waters of 50 m and 100 m, where they presumably spawn (Fernholm 1974 Nozaki <em>et al.</em> 2000). Tsuneki <em>et al.</em> (1983) described the same behaviour for specimens from Kamo Bay (about 20 m depth), south end of Dogo Island, Japan, which migrate to adjacent deepest waters (50 m) outside the bay for breeding in September. According to Tsuneki <em>et al.</em> (1983), of 362 specimens collected, 167 (46%) were males, 188 (52%) were females, and seven (2%) were hermaphrodites. The mean length was 50.8 cm for males and 48.9 cm for females. There were 44 mature eggs per female on average. For detailed information on the seasonal development of gonads for males and females see Conel (1931) and Nozaki <em>et al.</em> (2000).<br><br>This species is found in the sub-littoral zone (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995). It usually buries itself in bottom mud (Fernholm 1991). This species migrates into deeper water to spawn (Patzner 1998, Kobayashi <em>et al.</em> 1972). This is the only member of the family having a seasonal reproductive cycle (Patzner 1998). This species is a food fish in Japan. Its hide is processed into leather and exported worldwide, usually as 'eel' leather. The copulatory organ is absent in this animal. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).<br><br>The longevity of this hagfish is suggested to be 17 years from specimens in aquariums, so generation length is conservatively estimated to be eight years.
196016		population	eng	This species is very common but there is little information on actual population levels and trends.  In the East China Sea, although catch data is mixed and reported as aggregate for Hagfish species, the hag fishery has declined both in terms of numbers of boats and in size of catch (Gorbman <em>et al.</em> 1990, Honma 1998) but has increased in value. According to Honma (1998), significant decreases in the hagfish landed at Izumozaki are considered to be the result of overfishing, and represent at least one third of its range. Catch data in this area shows a 70% decline between 1980 and 1995 (Gorbman <em>et al.</em> 1990, Honma 1998) and effort has remained low through this period, likely as a result of low abundance levels. Fish size has also declined.
196016		threats	eng	This species is of economic importance due to the demand for the eel-skin leather industry in Korea. It is also targeted as it causes damage to other fishes in nets, and it is used as food in Taiwan, China, and Japan. It has been intensively fished off Korea and Japan and there has been greatly reduced catches in fish size and number over the last 20 years (McMillan and Wisner 2004).
196017		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts of fisheries.
196017		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Caribbean Sea from Honduras to Panama (Fernholm 1982).
196017		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but has been found in the upper continental slope, at depths from 365-500 m (Fernholm 1982).
196017		population	eng	This species is known from only five sexually immature specimens (Fernholm 1982).
196017		threats	eng	There is no information on type and scale of threats for this species.
196018		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but more research needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and fisheries impacts.
196018		distribution	eng	This species is known from North Pacific islands and sea mounts, including Hawaii, Wake, and Tinian (Northern Mariana Islands) (McMillan and Wisner 1984)..
196018		habitat	eng	This species is located on the slopes, at depths from 481-1,574 m (McMillan and Wisner 1984). It is among the largest species of the hagfish.<br><br>The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196018		population	eng	This species is known only from a few museum specimens.
196018		threats	eng	There is no information on type and scale of threats for this species.
196019		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, but regulations are in the process of being implemented to manage fishing effort.
196019		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern North Pacific, from southern Alaska, USA to near Guadalupe Island, Mexico (Wisner and McMillan 1990).
196019		habitat	eng	This species is found on muddy bottoms on continental shelf, slope, and deep-sea floor at depths from 107-2,743 m (Wisner and McMillan 1990).<br><br>Based on Oregon hagfish fishery, Barss (1993) sampled 897 black hagfish from commercial and research catches, from 1988 through 1989. The mean length of fish sampled from commercial landings was 34.5 cm. Fifty percent maturity for males and females was 34 cm and 38 cm, respectively. Examination of gonads indicates that spawning occurs throughout the year. Mature black hagfish females averaged 14 eggs over 5 mm in length.<br><br>Of a total of 480 specimens sexed by Wisner and McMillan (1990), 74% were female and 26% were male. The largest egg measured 52.3 x 10.5 mm and was among 14 large eggs in a 500 mm female. Very few eggs mature at the same time from the many hundreds of tiny, round to slightly ovoid eggs. No more than 15 or fewer than eight large eggs (30 mm and longer) were present in any female. Anchor filaments were visible on all eggs of 35 mm length or more.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).<br><br>The longevity of this species is estimated at 40 years (King and McFarlane 2003).
196019		population	eng	This species is known to be abundant across its range.
196019		threats	eng	This species is targeted in trap fisheries along the west coast of North America for the Asian leather market. Whole frozen fish are shipped to South Korea for the eel-skin leather market.<br/><br/>In 1988, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife began sampling and monitoring the development of a new fishery for Pacific Hagfish (<em>Eptatretus stoutii</em>) and Black Hagfish (<em>E. deani</em>) (Barss 1993). Hagfish landings by Oregon trap vessels ranged from 11 metric tonnes in 1988 to a peak of 340 metric tonnes in 1992. In the 1988 catch, about 35% (4,165kg) was <em>E. deani</em>, the rest was <em>E. stoutii</em>. The estimate of catch per trap using “Korean traps” was 1.4 kg.<br/><br/>In 1989, three vessels landed 156 tonnes of hagfish at Newport and Astoria, with a decreased CPUE catch of about 0.8 kg of hagfish per trap. In 1990, the catch dropped with 11 vessels landing 75 tonnes of hagfish from 102 trips (0.73 tonnes/trip) but since then there has been an increase in total hagfish landings and CPUE but the catch has mostly been comprised of <em>E. stoutii</em>. In 1991, 12 vessels landed 124 metric tonnes from 131 trips (0.94 tonnes/trip), and in 1992, 15 vessels landed 340 metric tonnes of hagfish from 310 trips (1.09 tonnes/trip) (Barss 1993). Mixed catch reported from the US to the FAO, also shows a variable but increasing trend in landings from a low of 100 tonnes in 2000 to a peak of 600 tonnes in 2005 (FishSTAT 2009). However,  is not known how much of the current catch is <em>E. deani</em>.<br/><br/>Catch data from British Columbia is very low, but suggests that there has been a decline in effort along with decline in metric tonnes landed. However it is not known how much of this decline was due to the poor quality of skins that were produced, or a decline in abundance of the hagfish, or to competition from the east coast fisheries. There are only minor landings of this species in the northern part of its range (Alaska).
196020		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
196020		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in the Tasman Sea, west of New Zealand, 39°47.7-50.3'S, 167°15.7-13.5'E.
196020		habitat	eng	This species' habitat is probably on hard-coral reef bottoms, at depths from 991-1,013 m (Fernholm 1991, Fernholm and Quattrini 2008). The unique specimen known (665 mm total length (TL)) was collected in the trawl fishery for the holacanthid <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> on Westpack bank, Western Challenger Plateau, Tasman Sea. According to Fernholm (1991), an alert was put out to scientists and fisheries observers in the area to try to acquire more specimens, but after more than one year no additional material was collected.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196020		population	eng	Only the holotype is known.
196020		threats	eng	There is no information known on type and scale of threats.
196021		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more specimen collection to validate species existence is needed. More research is also needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts
196021		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality in Luzon Island, Philippines (McMillan and Wisner 2004).
196021		habitat	eng	The holotype (373 mm total length (TL)) was found on a slope at 563 m depth (McMillan and Wisner 2004). Its life history is unknown.
196021		population	eng	The species is known from one possibly lost museum specimen
196021		threats	eng	There is no known information on type and scale of threats.
196022		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but more research is needed on its biology, population size, distribution and impacts. This species may be endemic to Guadalupe Island but more research is necessary to verify this.
196022		distribution	eng	This species is found in the vicinity of Guadalupe Island, Mexico (Wisner and McMillan 1990).
196022		habitat	eng	This species is found on the slopes and deep-sea floor at depths from 183-2,743 m. According to Wisner and McMillan (1990), of 358 specimens for which sex could be reliably determined, 60% were female and 40% male. The largest egg, 33.8 x 8.5 mm, occurred among 14 eggs in a 386 mm female. No more than 16 and as few as 10 almost fully developed eggs were found in any female. No eggs had free anchor filaments. <em>Eptatretus fritzi</em> and E. deani occur sympatrically near Guadalupe Island, where they were taken in the same trap on two occasions (Wisner and McMillan 1990).<br><br>It is an insular rather than a coastal species. The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196022		population	eng	The population is only known from 358 museum specimens.
196022		threats	eng	There is no information known on type and scale of threats.
196023		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
196023		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality off New Zealand, northeastern North Island, 35°27'54''S, 175°36'08''E (Mincarone and Stewart 2006).
196023		habitat	eng	The only specimen was found at the head of the Hauraki Canyon, at 811 m depth. The single specimen measured 1,275 mm (TL) and is therefore the largest hagfish yet known (Mincarone and Stewart 2006). This is a benthopelagic species.
196023		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype, but it is likely endemic to New Zealand as no other surveys have collected additional specimens. This region has been comprehensively surveyed.
196023		threats	eng	There is no known information on type and scale of threats. It may be threatened by deep-sea trawling within its likely restricted range.
196024		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is need on this species' population size, distribution and trends, life history and ecology.
196024		distribution	eng	<em>Eptatretus gomoni</em> is known only from two locations in Western Australia, off Exmouth and off Cape Leveque at depths of 260 m and 705 m respectively (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010).
196024		habitat	eng	This species is known only from collection in trawls. Although its biology and ecology is not well known, it likely occurs in sandy or muddy substrate at depths from 260-705 m.
196024		population	eng	This species is only known from two collections. There is no population information available for this species.
196024		threats	eng	There are no major threats known for this species.
196025		conservation	eng	This species is found within Galápagos Marine Reserve so it is potentially safeguarded through enforcement activities. More research is needed on this species' biology, population size, and distribution.
196025		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two locations in Galápagos Archipelago: Fernandina Island and Seymour Island (McMillan 1999, Mincarone and McCosker 2004).
196025		habitat	eng	This species is found on the steep, sediment-laden slopes at depths from 648-722 m (Mincarone and McCosker 2004). The 378 mm holotype has tiny round eggs less than one mm in diameter with no ellipsoidal developing eggs and no tissue indicating previous large eggs (McMillan 1999).<br><br>This is a deep water insular species. The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196025		population	eng	This species is known only from four museum specimens, but is very likely endemic to Galápagos Archipelago.
196025		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to the species.
196026		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size and the impact of the Hake fishery on population levels and habitat.
196026		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Africa, from Walvis Bay (Namibia) to Durban (Natal).
196026		habitat	eng	This species is located on muddy bottoms of the continental shelf and slope at depths from 12-400 m. <br><br>This species commonly burrows in muddy bottoms. It feeds mostly by scavenging on dead or disabled fish (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196026		population	eng	This species is known to be a common species but there is little understanding of its population levels. This is likely to be the most abundant species of Hagfish along the South Africa coast.
196026		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species, but full species' distribution range directly overlaps with hake trawling activities. The fishery extends well into Namibia on the west coast and is destructive to this species' habitat as well as it being incidentally caught as by-catch. This species is also exposed to coastal pressures as its depth range extends up to 12 meters.
196027		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measurements in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
196027		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Andaman Sea, Thailand (Wongratana 1983).
196027		habitat	eng	This species is known only from 11 specimens, of which four were caught from Nagasaki-maru deep-sea shrimp station 3 (7°37'02''N, 97°52'00''E), on 10 November 1981, in the third and final overnight catch experiment in a series of 80 shrimp traps. The experiments were randomly distributed on the continental slope of 45-60°, at depths of about 267-400 m, and bottom temperature 12.2-11.1°C, respectively. The bottom was recorded as sandy mud with patches of rocks or possibly boulders. Each specimen was caught in a separate trap without accompanying fauna (Wongratana 1983).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196027		population	eng	The population of this species is known from only 11 type specimens. This could be a restricted range species but more surveys are necessary to verify this.
196027		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to offshore bottom trawling.
196028		conservation	eng	This species is found within the Galápagos Marine Reserve so it is potentially safeguarded through enforcement activities. More research is needed on the species' distribution, biology, population size, distribution and potential major threats.
196028		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality off Cabo Douglas, NW Fernandina Island, Galápagos Archipelago (Mincarone and McCosker 2004).
196028		habitat	eng	The only known specimen was collected from Cabo Douglas which is located along the NW corner of Fernandina Island and drops steeply into deep water (more than 1,000 m depth at a distance less that 2 km from shore). The bottom is nearly flat with a slight downward slope (<10°) and covered with fine gray sediment and occasional lava boulders (~0.5 m in diameter) in the vicinity of other large lava reefs. The temperature at depth (762 m) was 8°C and there was a current of ~0.3 knots at the moment of capture of the specimen (Mincarone and McCosker 2004).<br><br>The size of 27.5 cm total length (TL) is that of an immature female.
196028		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype, but is likely endemic to Galápagos Archipelago.
196028		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species.
196029		conservation	eng	Chile has recently passed a bill to ban bottom trawling in vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as deep seamounts, including those around Juan Fernández Island. More research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and potential threats.
196029		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Juan Fernández Island, Chile (33°31'S, 78°50'W) (McMillan and Wisner 1984).
196029		habitat	eng	This is deep-sea species was collected at 2,400 m depth.<br><br>This is an insular species. The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196029		population	eng	The population is known only by eight specimens and may be endemic to Juan Fernández Island, Chile.
196029		threats	eng	There is no information on type and scale of threats.
196030		conservation	eng	The south coast of Australia is managed for conservation and fishing through the Southern Marine Regional Plan. Marine Protected Areas in close proximity to the species' range include Aldinga Reef and Port Philips Head. More research is needed on the species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
196030		distribution	eng	This species is found off the southeast coast of South Australia, between Robe and Port MacDonnell (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010). The species is endemic to this region. The south coast of Australia has been surveyed and no records have been found east or west of its currently known geographic range.
196030		habitat	eng	This species is known from specimens collected in shallow waters, at depths from 14-40 m. It occurs on soft bottoms of the continental shelf (Paxton <em>et al.</em> 1989, Mincarone and Fernholm 2010). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196030		population	eng	The population is known only from eight museum specimens collected from through scientific and commercial trawling and no records have been found extending west and east of its current distribution range. The coast of South Australia has been extensively scientifically surveyed (H. Larson pers. comm. 2009).
196030		threats	eng	This species is not known to be targeted in fisheries, but it is reportedly part of the discarded bycatch in the gillnet, hook and trap fishery (Bromhead and Bolton 2005) and has occasionally been recorded as bycatch in rock lobster pots (OZCAM database 2007). Prawn bottom trawling is occurring within the distribution and known depth range of this species, and is likely having a negative impact on habitat quality.
196031		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but more research is needed on its biology, population size, distribution and impact of deep-sea trawling activities.
196031		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Western North Atlantic, off North Carolina. Video observations also indicated a distribution off South Carolina (Fernholm and Quattrini 2008).
196031		habitat	eng	This species is found on deep coral bank areas, approximately 75 km off Cape Lookout, North Carolina, at depths from 382-442 m. This series of deep corals banks, are the northernmost banks along the southeastern United States slope. Topographic highs rise 80-100 m above the seafloor, are topped with bushes (up to 3-5 m in height) of live and dead cold-water coral, <em>Lophelia pertusa</em>, and are surrounded at the bases by soft substrate mixed with coral or rock rubble. Mean bottom temperatures in the Cape Lookout coral areas ranged from 5.8-11.0°C and mean bottom salinities from 35.0-35.4 ppt. Video observations in the Stetson area (560-700 m depth), off South Carolina, also indicate association with solitary cup corals, soft corals, sponges, and <em>Enallopsammia profunda</em> (Fernholm and Quattrini, 2008). All captured and observed specimens were small in size and sexual maturity is reached at about 200 mm total length (TL).
196031		population	eng	The population information is known only from three type specimens and video observations.
196031		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. However given the species' strong association with cold water corals, deep sea trawling could potentially have significant impacts. A number of trawling fisheries operate within its distribution.
196032		conservation	eng	This species is found in the upper depth limit within the Gulf of California which will be protected by the network of coastal Marine Protected Areas. More research is needed on this species' distribution, biology, population size and impact of fishing activities.
196032		distribution	eng	According to Wisner and McMillan (1990) <em>E. mcconnaugheyi</em> appears to consist of two disjunctive populations, one from Santa Monica Bay, California, to the Cedros and San Benito Islands, Baja, Mexico, and the other apparently restricted to the lower portion of the Gulf of California. Collecting efforts between the Cedros and San Benito Islands and the mouth of the Gulf  of California have failed to record the species.
196032		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental shelf and slope at depths from 42-384 m off Baja California and from 177-415 m in the Gulf of California. According to Wisner and McMillan (1990), of 58 specimens for which sex could be reliably determined, 64% were female and 36% male. The largest egg found in any female is 26x8 mm. The smallest female with round or slightly ovoid eggs is 267 mm total length (TL). It is possible that females from the Gulf of California population mature at a smaller size than do those from southern California. In the Gulf of California, females measuring from 267-352 mm TL had eggs ranging in size from 15.8 to 20.8 mm. In contrast, in the southern California population, eggs larger than 15 mm occur only in females larger than 400 mm TL. The holotype contains 18 mature eggs, the largest 25.2 x 9.0 mm, all linked in rows by anchor filaments (Wisner and McMillan 1990). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196032		population	eng	This population is known from 58 museum specimens but the population is known to be disjunct. There is not enough information to assess abundance levels.
196032		threats	eng	This species' distribution is disjunct and overlaps with extensive trawling activities, particularly within the Gulf of California.
196033		conservation	eng	This species is found within Galápagos Marine Reserve so potentially safeguarded through enforcement activities. More research is needed on the species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
196033		distribution	eng	This species is known only from four specimens collected southeast of San Cristobal Island, on the eastern edge of the Galápagos Archipelago (McMillan 1999).
196033		habitat	eng	The only known specimens were taken from a minnow trap set on sand bottom at the top of a seamount at about 201 m depth. This is an insular, endemic species (McMillan 1999). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196033		population	eng	The population information for this species is only known from four specimens.
196033		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to the species.
196034		conservation	eng	More research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts of deep-water bottom trawling.
196034		distribution	eng	This species is located off southeastern and southern Brazil, from Cabo Frio (Rio de Janeiro) to Barra do Chuí (Rio Grande do Sul). It is probable that it also occurs off northern Uruguay (Mincarone 2000, 2003).
196034		habitat	eng	This species is found on irregular bottoms of the continental slope, covered with mud, corals, and rock reefs, at depths from 250-600 m. Females larger than 550 mm present dozens of large eggs. A 737 mm female contained 44 encapsulated eggs without anchor filaments, the largest measuring 41x11 mm (Mincarone 2000). <em>Eptatretus menezesi</em> has been incidentally collected by bottom trawlers and trappers. During eight research cruises conducted by the REVIZEE Program (Program for Assessment of the Sustainable Yield of Living Resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone) off southern Brazil, it was the second most abundant species trapped (Vieira <em>et al.</em> 1997). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196034		population	eng	The population information is known from 30 type specimens and further scientific sampling. This species was known to be the most abundant of Brazilian hagfishes.
196034		threats	eng	There are no known targeted threats but the species is incidentally caught by bottom trawlers and trappers. There is a limited number of fishing vessels that operate at the depths where species occurs so pressure is apparent across species habitat.
196035		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of bycatch from deep-sea trawling activities, in particular pressure from Red Rock Shrimp fishery.
196035		distribution	eng	This species is found in the northern Gulf of Mexico, from Louisiana to Florida. The area has been extensively surveyed and distribution range does not appear to extend further east or west.
196035		habitat	eng	This species is found on the upper continental slope at depths from 300-472 m. According to Fernholm and Hubbs (1981), the bottom temperature in the distribution area is about 8.9-11.5°C, and the bottom type includes mud, sand, gravel, and corals. The northernmost records indicate an overlap in distribution of <em>E. minor</em> and <em>Paramyxine springeri</em> in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, however it appears that <em>E. minor</em> lives at shallower depths (300-472 m) than <em>P. springeri</em> (400-730m). <em>Eptatretus minor</em> is a relatively short and stout species, maturing at a small size. The shortest known specimens are two mature males, 223 mm each, and a ripe female, 310 mm, with 12 eggs measuring about 31x10 mm. Some females contained ripe eggs (25-33 mm) in April, June, July, September, October, and November, suggesting that population spawned throughout the year (Fernholm and Hubbs 1981).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196035		population	eng	This species is known from a few museum specimens. Additional specimens have been recorded from trawling activities and scientific sampling efforts.
196035		threats	eng	There are no known targeted threats to this species, but it is incidentally caught by bottom trawlers and possibly trappers. There are three deep-sea fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico for Rock Shrimp, Royal Red Shrimp and Calico Scallops and these operate at the depths where species occurs. The Royal Red Shrimp fishery directly overlaps with the currently known distribution range of the species and 250-475 m depth range (Stiles <em>et al.</em> 2007).
196036		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of bottom trawling activities.
196036		distribution	eng	This species is found along the north and east coast of South America, including Venezuela, French Guiana, and northeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Norte to Alagoas) (Fernholm and Hubbs 1981, Mincarone and Sampaio 2004). It was also more recently collected from southeastern Brazil, off Espírito Santo (west Vitória-Trindade Seamounts Chain). Its distribution range is known from scientific surveys at two locations in Venezuela, two in French Guyana, and seven locations in Brazil (Mincarone unpubl. data).
196036		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slope at depths from 239-770 m off north and east coast of South America, and at 676 m depth in the west Vitória-Trindade Seamounts Chain. (Mincarone and Sampaio 2004, Mincarone unpubl. Data).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196036		population	eng	The population is known from only 16 specimens collected from scientific surveys at two locations in Venezuela, two in French Guyana, and seven locations in Brazil. The size of the population is unknown but this is likely a contiguous population.
196036		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species. The population is likely affected by bottom trawling activity because some specimens were collected and recorded as bycatch. Due to its body size, this species is vulnerable to net fishing gear. At present, deep-bottom trawling is currently not a well developed fishery in the distribution range of the species. In some areas they are beginning to test the potential of these areas for fisheries.
196037		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and the historical impact of bottom trawling activities along the continental shelf.
196037		distribution	eng	This species is found off Chile, from about 28°S to 36°S (Wisner and McMillan 1988).
196037		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on muddy bottoms on the outer shelf and upper slope at depths from 100-470 m. Six females (561-664 mm total length (TL)) examined by Wisner and McMillan (1988) had 22-38 well developed eggs, ranging in size from 16x3.5-27x6.5 mm. No eggs have protruding anchor filaments, although polar caps were well developed on many.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196037		population	eng	The population for this species is only known from a few museum specimens. No records of this species have been published since the species was described in 1988.
196037		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats and bottom trawling activities along the continental slope have almost ceased, likely due to a collapse of the shallow water fisheries. While this species prefers deeper water it was likely vulnerable to historical bottom-trawling activities.  Mid-water fishing continues but this is not a threat to this species (R. Melendez pers. comm. 2009).  While the fishing threat has ceased, past activities may have significantly reduced the population through bycatch incidences and habitat destruction. It is slightly concerning that no specimens are currently being picked up in scientific surveys.
196038		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but more research needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts. Given no specimen has been collected since 1900, further surveys should be regarded as a high research priority to confirm presence of species in the area.
196038		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, off Cape Saint Blaize, South Africa, but this dates back to 1900.
196038		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental shelf, at depths from 49-66 m.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196038		population	eng	The population information is only known from two type specimens collected in 1899 and 1900. Since then, only one unconfirmed specimen has been recorded in the past 110 years (Hollemon pers. comm. 2010), despite extensive and systematic scientific surveying (using fine mesh nets) that is conducted twice a year in the area. There are three other deep-water species of hagfish in this area that have been significantly recorded during these surveys.
196038		threats	eng	Hake (<em>Merluccius</em> spp.) trawling is extensive in the area where specimens have been previously recorded and is causing a continual decline in the quality of the habitat. Other trawling activities such as shrimp fisheries also exist in the area (S. Fennessy pers. comm.). Given this species' shallow water habitat, it is also likely to be vulnerable to coastal development, dredging, etc.
196039		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but more research is needed on the species' biology, population size, distribution and impact bottom trawling activities along the east coast of Japan.
196039		distribution	eng	This species is found off of eastern and southern Honshu Island (Japan), Okinawa Trough, and northeast Taiwan.
196039		habitat	eng	This species occurs on slopes at depths from 300-1,020 m. On the Okinawa Trough it was reported among rocks on the Iheya Ridge, near a hydrothermal vent (Ohta and Kim 2001). An 800 mm female reported by Dean (1904) had 44 well-developed eggs, with an average size of 32x12 mm.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196039		population	eng	The population data for this species is based on recordings this are currently assumed to be wide ranging species, but population abundance levels are unknown. The sampling size is still insufficient to understand abundance and distribution.
196039		threats	eng	This species is not targeted for food or leather markets but its depth and 80% of its distribution range overlaps with bottom trawling activities so is susceptible, with its large body size, to incidental bycatch.
196040		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and the historical impact of bottom trawling activities along the continental shelf.
196040		distribution	eng	This species is found off the coast of Chile, from Bahía Inglesa to Talcahuano (about 27° to 37°S). One specimen reported from the O’Higgins seamount group, eastern Juan Fernandez Islands, at 33°27'S, 77°52'W.
196040		habitat	eng	This species is usually living on muddy and rocky bottoms from shallow coastal waters to upper slope and seamounts at depths from 10-350 m. Of the 19 specimens examined by Wisner and McMillan (1988), 13 were mature females with developing eggs. Four females (385-447 mm total length (TL)) had from 24-40 well developed eggs ranging from 16-27.5 mm in length and about 4.5-7 mm in diameter. One 289 mm female was considered immature.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196040		population	eng	The population of this species is known from only a few museum specimens. Last records date back to 1988 and no specimens have been reported since then.
196040		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species and bottom trawling activities along the continental slope have almost ceased, likely due to a collapse of the shallow water fisheries. Mid-water fishing continues but this is not a threat to the species (Roberto Melendez pers. comm.).
196041		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impacts.
196041		distribution	eng	This species is found off the coast of South Africa, from off Lambert’s Bay to Cape Agulhas (Mincarone, unpubl. data).
196041		habitat	eng	This species is located on the continental slope at depths from 490-1,150 m.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196041		population	eng	This species' population is only known by a few specimens so abundance levels are unknown. It has been known by the holotype for many years but more specimens have been recorded in museums more recently (Mincarone, unpubl. data).
196041		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species, but its limited range may be vulnerable to deep-sea trawling in this highly productive coastal region.
196042		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distribution, population, biology and impact of potential major threats.
196042		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the northeast coast of Taiwan (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 2010).
196042		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known. It was trawled at 800 m.
196042		population	eng	It is only known from a single specimen taken from a trawl off of northeastern Taiwan (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 2010). There is no other population information.
196042		threats	eng	It is not known if there are any threats to this species.
196043		conservation	eng	There is a large network of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California but 80% of the coverage falls outside of the species' distribution and depth range. MPAs are predominantly coastal so do not protect the deep water habitat of this species.
196043		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Gulf of California, Mexico, between the islands Ángel de la Guarda and San José. This species is endemic to the Gulf of California.
196043		habitat	eng	This species is known from shallow waters to deep channels in the mid-riff area of the gulf, at depths from 198-1,330 m. <em>Eptatretus sinus</em> matures at a short total length, 130 mm for males and 142 for females, when compared to other congeners. Of the total 424 specimens for which sex was reliably determined, 35% were male and 65% female. Encapsulated anchor filaments are visible on eggs of 20 mm. The largest egg found (among 21 large ones) was 32x7.5 in a female of 371 mm TL (Wisner and McMillan 1990). <br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196043		population	eng	The population information for this species is known from 424 specimens and is therefore likely to be an abundant species. There is no information on population trends however and the sampling size is too small.  No landing records for this species exist.
196043		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species. Although extensive shrimp trawling is known to operate in the Gulf of California, trawling activities are generally no deeper than 150 m.
196044		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place, but regulations are in the process of being implemented to manage fishing effort.
196044		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Eastern North Pacific, from Nootka Bay, Vancouver, Canada to Pt. San Pablo, Baja California, Mexico. Hart (1973) and Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported that Alaskan records have not been confirmed.
196044		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental shelves and upper slopes at depths from 16-966 m. Environmental information from Mayne Bay on Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, indicates that <em>Eptatretus stoutii</em> occurs on substrates consisting mainly by silt and in waters characterized by high near-bottom salinity (31-32‰) but low surface salinity (24‰) into which they occasionally swim (McInerney and Evans 1970).<br/><br/>Based on Oregon hagfish fishery, Barss (1993) sampled 924 Pacific hagfish from commercial and research catches, from 1988 through 1989. Mean length of fish sampled from commercial landings was 39.6cm. Fifty percent maturity for male and female was 35 cm and 42 cm, respectively. Examination of gonads indicates that spawning occurs throughout the year. Mature Pacific hagfish females averaged 28 eggs over 5 mm in length.<br/><br/>Of 309 specimens examined by Howard Ayres, 182 (59%) were males, 121 (39%) females, and six (2%) hermaphrodites (Conel, 1931). Also, of 870 specimens examined by Wisner and McMillan (1990), in which the sex was reliably determined, 51% were male and 49% female. These ratios contrast notably with other eastern Pacific hagfishes, in which females dominated by 60-74%. The largest egg found measured 28.6 x 7.5 mm, obtained from a 435 mm female. The number of developed eggs (20mm or longer) varies from 11 (23 x 7 mm) in a 330 mm female to 48 (20 x 6 mm) in one of 515 mm TL.<br/><br/>This species inhabits fine silt and clay bottoms. It enters large fishes by way of the mouth and anus and feed on its viscera and muscles and may greatly diminish catches taken with fixed gears. This species produces mucilaginous slime when harassed (Hart 1973). The copulatory organ is absent in this species (Patzner 1998).
196044		population	eng	This species is known to be abundant across its distribution range. It is known to be most abundant off the coast of Northern California and Oregon.
196044		threats	eng	This species is targeted in trap fisheries along the west coast of North America for the Asian leather market. Whole frozen fish are shipped to South Korea for the eel skin leather market.<br/><br/>In 1988, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife began sampling and monitoring the development of a new fishery for Pacific Hagfish (<em>Eptatretus stoutii</em>) and Black Hagfish (<em>E. deani</em>) (Barss 1993). Hagfish landings by Oregon trap vessels ranged from 11 metric tonnes in 1988 to a peak of 340 metric tonnes in 1992. In the 1988 catch, about 35% (4,165kg) was <em>E. deani</em>, the rest was <em>E. stoutii</em>. The estimate of catch per trap using “Korean traps” was 1.4 kg.  <br/><br/>In 1989, three vessels landed 156 tonnes of hagfish at Newport and Astoria, with a decreased CPUE catch of about 0.8 kg of hagfish per trap. In 1990, the catch dropped with 11 vessels landing 75 tonnes of hagfish from 102 trips (0.73 tonnes/trip) but since then there has been an increase in total hagfish landings and CPUE but the catch has mostly been comprised of <em>E. stoutii</em>. In 1991, 12 vessels landed 124 metric tonnes from 131 trips (0.94 tonnes/trip), and in 1992, 15 vessels landed 340 metric tonnes of hagfish from 310 trips (1.09 tonnes/trip) (Barss 1993). Mixed catch reported from the US to the FAO, also shows a variable but increasing trend in landings from a low of 100 tonnes in 2000 to a peak of 600 tonnes in 2005 (FishSTAT 2009). <br/><br/>Catch data from British Columbia is very low, but suggests that there has been a decline in effort along with decline in metric tonnes landed. However it is not known how much of this decline was due to the poor quality of skins that were produced, or a decline in abundance of the hagfish, or to competition from the east coast fisheries.
196045		conservation	eng	Only small locally managed marine areas exist but these are insufficient for safeguarding deeper water habitat. More research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of fishing.
196045		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, off northwestern Lubang Islands, Philippines, and two additional specimens recently identified off western Australia (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010).
196045		habitat	eng	This species is found in relatively shallow waters (189 m) off Philippines, and on the upper slope (405-430 m) off western Australia.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196045		population	eng	This species is only known from five type specimens collected off northwestern Lubang Islands, Philippines, and two specimens from off western Australia (Mincarone and Fernholm 2010).
196045		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but it was found in a relatively shallow location threatened by destructive fishing activities, including blast fishing. Little is known about the species' depth and distribution range so the extent of impact of potential threats on the species' habitat cannot be determined.
196046		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution, depth range and potential impacts.
196046		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, East Pacific Rise, 37°47.363'S, 110°54.905'W. It is found in the eastern South Pacific along the East Pacific Rise vent site. There is a possible wider distribution 30° northward at a depth range down to 2,900 m if the individuals filmed at Grommit, Oasis, and Yaquina vent sites are the same species (Møller and Jones 2007).
196046		habitat	eng	The single known specimen (314 mm total length (TL)) was collected from a hydrothermal vent site, at 2,211 m depth.<br/><br/>This specimen is the first record of a hagfish species in a hydrothermal vent and the fourth record of a hagfish species below 2,000 m.
196046		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype.
196046		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species; it is found in very deep waters.
196047		conservation	eng	This species is found within Galápagos Marine Reserve so it is potentially safeguarded through enforcement activities. More research needed on its biology, population size, distribution and potential threats.
196047		distribution	eng	This species is found within the Galápagos Archipelago, west of Fernandina Island (McMillan 1999).
196047		habitat	eng	This species is found on the slope at depths from 512-563 m. The holotype is a 356 mm juvenile female with round eggs of less than 1 mm, with no ellipsoidal oocytes. The paratype is a 328 mm male with well-developed testes (McMillan 1999).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196047		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from two type specimens.
196047		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
196049		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures taken to protect this species. More research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of fishing activities.
196049		distribution	eng	This species is found along the southern coasts of Chile and Argentina within and adjacent to the Straits of Magellan, Beagle Channel, and other channel systems around Tierra del Fuego, including Isla de los Estados and Cape Horn (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196049		habitat	eng	This species is usually found on muddy and sandy bottoms in shallow coastal waters, at depths from 3-146 m. Of 256 specimens examined by Wisner and McMillan (1995), 171 (67%) were female, 48 (19%) male and 37 (14%) hermaphroditic. Numbers and sizes of large eggs range from 36 (20 x 6 mm) in a female of 550 mm to 17 (26 x 9mm) in one of 475 mm.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196049		population	eng	The population is likely to be abundant for this species but this is based on 256 specimens collected by Wisner and McMillan (1995) through scientific surveys. No specimens have been recorded as bycatch but it is highly possible they are incidentally caught. There are no indications of population trends.
196049		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species. A crustacean trap fishery has recently opened up in the Straits of Magellan but the extent and severity of its activities are not yet known (R. Meléndez pers. comm.). Very little fishing occurs in the Beagle Channel due to the volatile nature of the area. Fishing activity is only occurring within 20% of its currently known distribution range.
196050		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of fisheries activities.
196050		distribution	eng	This species is located off the southern coast of South America, from southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) to southern Chile (Golfo de Corcovado, Chiloé Island), including Tierra del Fuego and Strait of Magellan (Mincarone and Soto 2001). It was also reported from the South Shetland Islands based on a single 230 mm specimen (Norman 1937, Hureau and Fischer 1985, Fernholm 1990).
196050		habitat	eng	This species is usually taken on muddy bottoms in shallow coastal waters at depths from 4-146 m. The Brazilian record is based on only two females, 250-292 mm, taken on the continental shelf at 30-45m depth (Mincarone and Soto 2001, Mincarone 2003). Of 86 specimens examined by Wisner and McMillan (1995), 71 (82%) were female, 12 (14%) male, and three (4%) hermaphroditic. Numbers and sizes of large eggs range from 9 (24 x 8 mm) in a female of 330 mm to 16 (21 x 7 mm) in one of 345 mm. <br><br>The biology of this species is unknown and its copulatory organ is absent. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196050		population	eng	This species is known to be common, particularly along the coast of Argentina. However there are no data to interpret population levels and rates of decline.
196050		threats	eng	The species' distribution and habitat overlaps with an area that is extensively impacted by trawl fisheries.
196051		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on the species' biology, population size and impact of Hake fishery. Further scientific surveying is necessary along the eastern coastline of South Africa to verify the extent of its distribution range.
196051		distribution	eng	This species is located in southern Africa, most common from Walvis Bay (Namibia) to Cape Infanta (South Africa). A single specimen was recently trawled off Mozambique, from 25°52.9'S, 34°42.7'E to 25°54.1'S, 34.41.0'E, 557-564 m depth (Mincarone and Mwale, in press). <br/><br/>It is possible that the distribution range stretches further east from Cape Infanta up to Mozambique where a specimen has recently been recorded from a scientific survey. Little scientific surveys are conducted on the east coast of South Africa due to limited fishing activity. There is only a localized and small-scale crustacean fishery south of the Mozambique and South Africa border. As a result, no specimens have been collected between current eastward extent of distribution range and record collected off Mozambique.
196051		habitat	eng	This species is usually taken on muddy bottoms on the continental shelves and slopes at depths from 88-675 m. This species has its females maturing at 320-330 mm totall length (TL) (Fernholm 1981). According to Villanueva (1993), <em>Myxine capensis</em> accounted for 14.4% of the diet of 90 specimens of <em>Octopus magnificus</em> (Cephalopoda) caught off Namibia and South Africa; prey ranging in size from 21-31.5 cm TL.<br/><br/>This species burrows in muddy bottoms (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). It feeds mostly by scavenging on dead or disabled fish (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196051		population	eng	This is known to be a common species but little is understood about its population levels.
196051		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species, but the western part of the species' distribution range directly overlaps with hake trawling activities. Fishery is destructive to this species' habitat and it is incidentally caught as by-catch. There are minimal threats in possible eastern part of range.
196052		conservation	eng	Marine Protected Areas in Southern California, Gulf of California and along the coast of Central America protect only very small parts of the species' range (<10%). More research needed on species' biology, population size and impact of deep-sea fishery.
196052		distribution	eng	This species is located in the eastern Pacific, from San Francisco (California, USA) to San Antonio (central Chile) (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196052		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slopes at depths from 700-1,860 m (Wisner and McMillan 1995). The syntypes were collected in the Gulf of Panama at 1,334 m depth in water of 3.6°C on rocky bottom (Garman 1899). The sex ratio in the material analyzed by Wisner and McMillan (1995) was equal off southern California (n=220) but unequal near the mouth of the Gulf of California (n=136), 66% females and 34% males, and Costa Rica to northern Chile (n=54), 59% female to 41% male; no hermaphroditism was found in 320 specimens examined.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196052		population	eng	The population for this species is known from many specimens collected from Southern California, Gulf of California, Costa Rica and Chile. There are also numerous records housed in museums. This species is known to be common, particularly along the northern part of its range but this is likely a sampling bias as this part of the distribution range has been heavily surveyed. Records are unreported along the western coast of South America.
196052		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but it is exposed to deep-sea bottom trawling throughout its distribution range.
196053		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of small-scale fishing and shipping activity.
196053		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, northeast of Dawson Island, Strait of Magellan (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196053		habitat	eng	The only two specimens known were taken at mid-channel waters, from 300-302 m depth (Wisner and McMillan 1995).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196053		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype and paratype. The last collected record dates back to 1970 but this is not a heavily surveyed area.
196053		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species, but indirect threats from shipping activity and localized fishing likely exist.
196054		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of finfish trawling activities.
196054		distribution	eng	This species is located around the Falkland Islands and Burdwood Bank. One specimen (SIO 90-139) was collected off San Antonio (central Chile), at 33°39'S, 72°09.5'W (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196054		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper slopes at depths from 135-400 m (Falkland Islands), and also at bathyal zone from 1,170-1,480 m depth (off San Antonio). Maximum size: 846 mm total length (TL) (Wisner and McMillan 1995).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196054		population	eng	The population is only known from 4 specimens for this species: three specimens are from around the Falklands Islands and only one specimen is from San Antonio in Central Chile (Wisner and McMillan 1995).<br><br>It is worth noting that during a deep-sea investigation on the scavenging fauna of the Patagonian slope (900-1,750 m), east of Falkland Islands, high density of hagfishes were recorded by Collins <em>et al.</em> (1999). Using a deep-sea camera, hagfish were seen during six of the 10 experiments, between depths from 900-1,212 m. The absolute number of specimens was hard to determine, but over 200 were visible in single frames (45 m²). According to Collins <em>et al.</em> (1999), species identification was not possible, though it is likely that they were <em>Myxine fernholmi</em>, distinguished by a prominent ventral finfold that was clearly visible in the photographs; <em>Myxine knappi</em>, also reported from Falkland Islands, has a very small ventral finfold. However, it is possible that more than one species has been sampled.<br><br>According to the footage, it is suggested that this species is common.
196054		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species. However, bottom finfish trawlers that trawl from 200-1,500 m depth (Moore 1999) are operating around the Falklands Islands, but the majority of demersal trawlers in the region are restricted to operating over shelf waters (<200m depth), and the number of boats operating within the 200 nautical mile Falklands Conservation Zone is limited to about 200 vessels per year (Coggan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
196055		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of trap fishery operating across the species' distribution range.
196055		distribution	eng	This species is located off southwestern Taiwan but its actual distribution range is not known due to insufficient sampling.
196055		habitat	eng	This species is located on slopes at depths from 588-1,500 m (Mok and Kuo 2001). The size range appears to be stratified by depth. According to Mok and Kuo (2001), 120 specimens ranging in length from 102-380 mm were collected in three different sites off southwestern Taiwan at depths of 588, 753, and 843 m, whereas 271 specimens ranging from 131-768 mm were also collected off southwestern Taiwan at deeper waters (1,000-1,500 m). This species is caught using shrimp traps (Mok and Kuo 2001).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196055		population	eng	The population information for this species is known from many specimens collected through surveys and from fish markets. Historically this species was previously large enough to support a small fishery (before 1997). The population has likely declined due to over-exploitation from fishery.
196055		threats	eng	Before 1997, <em>Myxine formosana</em> was captured with plastic shrimp traps (365 cm length, 16 cm diameter) off southwestern Taiwan by the fishermen from Tong-Kung (Mok and Kuo, 2001). It was a small fishery but activity was intensive across the species' currently known distribution range. It is not known exactly how many vessels were operating within the fishery. It should be noted that since the late 1990's, the fishery has ceased, likely due to major decline in population abundance levels.
196056		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fisheries.
196056		distribution	eng	This species is located on the east, southeast, and south coasts of Japan, including Okinawa Trough.
196056		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slope at depths from 200-1,100 m (Nakabo 2002).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).<br/><br/>The longevity of this species is estimated to be 17 from specimens in aquariums (M. Mincarone pers. comm.). The generation length is therefore conservatively estimated to be eight years.
196056		population	eng	This is a very common deeper water species but there is little or no information on actual population levels and trends for this species.
196056		threats	eng	This species is an important commercial species that is targeted along the southeastern coast of Japan. Because of the paucity of the local source of roast hagfish, <em>Paramyxine atami</em> sold in Teradomari near Niigata, a large amount of <em>M. garmani</em> were imported from Onahama (eastern Japan) to Teradomari  (western Japan) until 1994 in order to supplement the <em>Paramyxine</em> catch. However, the hagfish catch off Onahama declined rapidly, perhaps due to overfishing by Japanese and Korean boats off the coast of Fukushima Prefecture (Honma 1998). While catch data is mixed and reported as aggregate for Hagfish, the hag fishery in this region has declined both in terms of numbers of boats and in size of catch (Gorbman <em>et al</em>. 1990, Honma 1998), but has increased in value.<br/><br/>Mixed hagfish landings data in this region between 1980 and 1995 shows a 70% decline in total hagfish catch (Gorbman <em>et al.</em> 1990; Honma 1998) and effort has remained consistent through this period, likely as a result of low abundance levels. The fishery has not ceased despite low population levels.
196057		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
196057		conservation	eng	While not actively managed, the Gulf of Maine Hagfish fishery is in the process of being regulated. A data collection program has been proposed for the species by NMFS requiring seafood dealers to acquire permits and report on the purchase of hagfish made from commercial fishing vessels to aid in the future management of this species. Furthermore, given its commercial importance, current and future fisheries for this species should be carefully monitored.
196057		distribution	eng	There are two populations from the North Atlantic Ocean of this species. In the eastern North Atlantic, from Murmansk (Russia) to northern Morocco, and the western Mediterranean Sea (north Morocco, Algeria, and northern Adriatic Sea, but probably occurs along all coastal regions of western Mediterranean). In the western North Atlantic, from Greenland to Florida, including a few records in the Gulf of Mexico (off Yucatán and Florida).
196057		distribution	eng	This species is present in the northeastern Atlantic from Murmansk, Russia to southwestern Sweden, including western Ireland and eastern UK but not in most of the Baltic and North Seas.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea (Jennings 2000, FAO 1987), records include Algerian coast (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007). It is apparently restricted to waters off the coast of north-west Africa. It is absent in the Black Sea.
196057		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory species that can be found on muddy bottoms, where it hides in the mud. Its slime is used for defence. It feeds chiefly on dead and dying fish of varying species by boring into the body and consuming the viscera and musculature. It is mainly nocturnal. It was caught off the Algerian coast at depths of around 600 m (E. Massuti pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Its eggs are few in number (19-30) and large (20-25 mm). The horny shell has a cluster of anchor-tipped filaments at each end. A copulatory organ is absent. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196057		habitat	eng	This species is found on shelves and slopes at depths from 40-1,100 m (eastern North Atlantic) and from 75-742 m depth (western North Atlantic). The maximum depth record (1,006 m) given by Wisner and McMillan (1995) for western North Atlantic population was based on a single specimen (ISH 431-1986) recently reidentified as <em>Myxine jespersenae</em>, which was in fact collected off southeastern Iceland (Møller <em>et al.</em> 2005). The sex ratio of females and males in the samples analyzed by Martini <em>et al.</em> (1997) was highly skewed, at 9.8:1, which is typical for the species as a whole. The paucity of males in population on both sides of the Atlantic has long been recognized, but it remains unexplained.<br/><br/>This species is found on muddy bottoms where they hide in the mud. Slime is utilized for defence and it feeds chiefly on dead and dying fish of varying species by boring into the body and consuming viscera and musculature. The species is chiefly nocturnal.  Its eggs are few in number about 19-30 mm and large (20-25 mm), the horny shell has a cluster of anchor-tipped filaments at each end. The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196057		population	eng	There are only a few records of this species from the Mediterranean Sea.
196057		population	eng	This species is known to be very abundant and has a large distribution.
196057		threats	eng	Data on the developing fishery on the western Atlantic population of <em>M. glutinosa</em> has been collected by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and by the New England Fisheries Development Association (NEFDA) (Martini and Flescher 2002). In 1991, two boats made 32 trips over an 8-month period. During 1993, some 890,000 lb of hagfish were landed at Gloucester, Sandwich, Hampton, and Stonington. During 1994, five boats were involved in full-time hag fishing and made a total of 796 trips. Catches rose during 1997-1999, totalling 11.5 million lb and generating approximately US $3.3 million. Over the period 1991-1996, roughly 50 million hagfish were processed and shipped overseas; during 1997-1999, that number grew to roughly 212 million. Hagfish shorter than 500 mm, the minimum length suitable for leather, are discarded into the surface waters, where they quickly become moribund. On some trips, over 50% of the catch was discarded as unmarketable. Under these conditions the number of individuals removed from the environment would be more than twice the number landed ashore.  It is not known what effects such a decline will have on the benthic ecology. However, from a regulatory perspective it is obviously difficult to set defensible quotas or guidelines for a fishery when virtually nothing definitive is known about the size of the population, their reproductive potential, their individual growth rates, or their longevity.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Maine (GOM), Atlantic hagfish are caught using modified 55-gallon plastic barrels, called hagfish pots, attached to sinking line and buoys. Typically 20-40 traps are deployed in a string for a small commercial vessel and 80-200 traps for larger vessels (NEFSC 2003). A series of funnelled holes in the side of the barrel allow hagfish to enter the baited pot but doesn’t allow them to escape. Several rows of 3/8” holes allow smaller animals to escape the traps.<br/><br/>Reporting of Atlantic hagfish landings is presently not required by law and fishery data are therefore incomplete. Atlantic hagfish landings first appear in the NEFSC commercial database in 1993 with a reported landing of approximately 500 metric tons. Annual reported landings during 1994-2000 ranged between 1,100 and 3,000 metric tons with a peak in 2000 (Keith 2006). <br/><br/>Reported commercial hagfish trips ranged from 94 trips in 1994 to 863 trips in 1996 and averaged slightly above 400 trips per year during 1994-2000. Landings during 2001 to 2005 have ranged from 700-1,300 metric tons per year. Trips targeting Atlantic hagfish declined after 2001, averaging 253 per year (Keith 2006) NMFS Logbook database indicated that the number of vessels in the hagfish fishery peaked at 23 vessels in 1996 and 22 vessels in 2000 (Keith 2006). Since 2000 there has been a steady decline of vessels reporting landings, with only six vessels reporting in 2005.<br/><br/>A data collection program has been proposed for Atlantic Hagfish by NMFS requiring seafood dealers to acquire permits and report on the purchase of hagfish made from commercial fishing vessels to aid in the future management of this species (Federal Register 2006, Keith 2006).
196057		threats	eng	This species is not commercially fished. There are no known major threats.
196058		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of deep-sea trawling activities on the species (bycatch) and its habitats.
196058		distribution	eng	This species is located in the eastern Pacific, from 33°N to 22°S. It can be found off North America, from San Diego (USA) to Baja California Sur (Mexico); off Central America, south of Nicoya Peninsula (Costa Rica); and off South America, from Talara (Peru) to about Tocopilla (Chile).
196058		habitat	eng	This is a deep-sea species living on the lower slopes and abyssal plains at depths from 1,100-2,440 m (Wisner and McMillan 1995). The sex ratio of the specimens examined by Wisner and McMillan (1995) was extremely unbalanced. Of 150 specimens sexed 114 (76%) were females, 35 (23%) hermaphroditic and six (0.4%) males. From 7-15 large eggs, ranging between 17 x 6 mm and 24 x 8 mm, occur in eight females (415-450 mm); all other females have small eggs. The largest number of eggs (15) was in a female of 440 mm.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196058		population	eng	This species is a deep-water species that is abundant across a wide range. Actual population levels are known from 150 museum specimens.
196058		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but it is potentially vulnerable to deep sea trawling activity in same parts of its depth and distributional range.
196059		conservation	eng	Chile has recently passed a bill to ban bottom trawling in vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as deep seamounts, but it is not likely that this ban covers the known distribution of this species. More research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and potential threats.
196059		distribution	eng	This species is known only off central Chile, between Navidad and Punta Topocalma (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196059		habitat	eng	This species is found on the lower continental slope at depths from 735-820 m.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196059		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from three type specimens taken off the central coast of Chile (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196059		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats and bottom trawling activities along the continental slope in Chile have almost ceased, likely due to a collapse of the shallow water fisheries. While this species prefers deeper water it was likely vulnerable to historical bottom trawling activities.  Mid-water fishing continues but this is not a threat to this species (R. Melendez pers. comm.).  While the fishing threat has ceased, past activities may have significantly reduced the population through bycatch incidences and habitat destruction.
196060		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of deep-sea trawling activities.
196060		distribution	eng	This species is known from two populations as defined by Fernholm (1981). The Irish population is mainly known from Porcupine Seabight, southwestern Ireland. The West African population is known off Western Sahara, from Cap Boujdour to Cap Blanc. Two specimens were recently trawled off Angolan waters and they present the same characters as those from Western Sahara (Tweddle and Anderson 2008, Mincarone unpublished data).
196060		habitat	eng	The Irish specimens were caught in semi-balloon otter trawls on the Porcupine Seabight, an amphitheatre-shaped embayment in the continental margin to the southwest of Ireland, at depths from 985-1,650 m (Merrett <em>et al.</em> 1991, Massutí <em>et al.</em> 2004). The bottom water temperatures from two Irish capture localities were 4.7°C and 6.2-6.4°C, and the associated fauna and collection data suggest that the bottom substrate was soft mud. A list of 118 species of fishes taken from Porcupine Seabight (including <em>M. ios</em>) was provided by Merrett <em>et al.</em> (1991).<br><br>The West African specimens were collected in baited traps on the lower slope at depths from 614-976 m (Fernholm 1981). Angolan specimens were trawled on the lower slope at depths from 703-734m.<br><br>All the West African material was caught in March and contains no ripe individuals (largest maturing eggs found are 5-9 mm) and the Irish material contains a recently spawned female captured in July and males appearing ripe in June and July (Fernholm 1981). <br><br>This species consists of scavengers which are found on muddy bottoms and feed largely on dead or disabled fish by boring into its skin. Its eggs are few and large (20-30 mm). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196060		population	eng	This population is only know from a few museum specimens collected from locations along the Eastern Atlantic from Ireland and the coast of Angola.
196060		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but its currently known distribution range overlaps with areas where deep-sea trawling occurs (Ireland and West Africa).
196061		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of deep-water trawling activities.
196061		distribution	eng	This species is known from the North Atlantic, eastern Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, Reykjanes Ridge, and southeast of Iceland. The disjunctive distribution is a result of a very limited sampling effort in the waters around southern Greenland (Møller <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br><br>It occurs sympatrically with <em>Myxine glutinosa</em>, although with a rather limited overlap in vertical distribution (752-1556 vs. 64-782 m) and no documented capture of both species in the same haul or trap exists.
196061		habitat	eng	This species is usually taken from muddy bottoms and cold waters (3.7-4.7°C) on the lower slope at depths from 752-1,556 m. According to Møller <em>et al.</em> (2005), the eggs of a single damaged female were in various stages of maturation, elliptical, up to 23.6 x 8.5 mm. All eggs were in mesenteries and no anchor filaments were found (Moller <em>et al.</em> 2005).
196061		population	eng	This population is only known from a few type specimens collected at 17 locations.
196061		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this deep water species. There are deep water fisheries active within the currently known distribution range but no records are being reporting from by-catch incidences. This is likely due to this species being lumped with <em>Myxine glutinosa</em> as by-catch since the species was only described in 2005.
196062		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of finfish trawling activities.
196062		distribution	eng	This species is known from southern Argentina, from Falkland Islands to Cape Horn, including the Burdwood Bank.
196062		habitat	eng	This species is usually taken from shallow waters of Falkland Sound to upper slopes (to 650 m).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196062		population	eng	The population information for this species is known only from 11 museum specimens collected from five locations.
196062		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but bottom finfish trawlers operate extensively around the Falklands Islands and within the depth range of this species. Bottom finfish trawlers that trawl from 200-1,500 m depth (Moore 1999) are operating around the Falklands Islands, and the majority of demersal trawlers in the region are restricted to operating over shelf waters (<200 m depth), and the number of boats operating within the 200 nautical mile Falklands Conservation Zone is limited to about 200 vessels per year (Coggan <em>et al.</em> 1996).
196063		conservation	eng	None in place, but more research needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of by-catch activities from trawling and trapping.
196063		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, off southwestern Taiwan (Mok 2002). Little is currently known about the species' distribution range.
196063		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slope at 595 m depth. <em>Myxine kuoi</em> is known from only six specimens ranging from 123-410 mm total length (TL). The biggest one is a mature female with eggs reaching 12 mm. The sex of remaining specimens (123-187 mm) was not determined (Mok 2002).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196063		population	eng	The population information for this species is only known from the holotype and five paratypes. The holotype and four paratypes were collected from a research cruise and one paratype was collected from a fish market. The specimen is presumed to have been collected off the southwestern coast of Taiwan.
196063		threats	eng	No known direct threats but species is vulnerable to by-catch incidences from trawlers and trappers. Specimen that was collected from the fish market was likely targeted but no known fishery for this species exists. There is a market for hagfish as a food source.
196064		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fishing activities.
196064		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimens from the southern Caribbean Sea, off Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. There has been a probable record off Suriname reported by Shimizu (1983).
196064		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slopes at depths from 439-1,174 m. According to Wisner and McMillan (1995), a 264 mm female contained only four large eggs, each about 18 x 7 mm; two other females, 218-222 mm, contained four and five eggs, about 15 x 5 mm. It is considered a dwarf species because of the short length of females with such large eggs.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196064		population	eng	The population information for this species is known from a few type specimens collected from field stations throughout the southern Caribbean Sea.
196064		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this species. However, deep-sea trawling activities are known to exist across distribution.
196065		conservation	eng	None in place, but more research needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of bottom trawling activities in the Gulf of Mexico.
196065		distribution	eng	This species is located off the west and southwest coast of Puerto Rico (off Mona Island and Aguadilla), and St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands (Hensley 1991). It has been also reported from the northeastern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998) and from south of the Mississippi River Delta (Mincarone unpublished data). It is probable that it also occurs off other Antillean islands.
196065		habitat	eng	This species is located on the slope at depths from 603 m to approx. 1,500 m. According to Hensley (1991), one 455 mm female had eggs in various stages of maturation. Many eggs were large and elliptical measuring from 15.7 x 5.4 mm to 17.0 x 5.1 mm, and no anchor filaments were visible.<br><br>This species is found burrowing in mud in very deep water (Smith 1997). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patner 1998).
196065		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from a few specimens.
196065		threats	eng	There are no know threats to his species. However, this species' distribution and shallower part of its depth range may partially overlap with extensive deep-sea trawling for Red Rock Shrimp along the continental slope in the Gulf of Mexico.
196066		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of deep-sea trawling activities. Given no specimen has been collected since 1972, further surveys should be regarded as a high research priority to confirm presence of species in the area.
196066		distribution	eng	This species is known from the type locality, Hyalonema ground, and from Sagami Nada, Honshu, Japan.  It is possibly endemic in this region which is very small.
196066		habitat	eng	This species is found on the slope at depths from 450-631 m. <em>Myxine paucidens</em> is known from only five specimens, all taken from Hyalonema ground, except one, taken from Sagami Bay.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196066		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from five museum specimens. The last record dates back to 1972. No records have been picked up as bycatch or in scientific surveys in this heavily studied area (Mincarone unpub. data).
196066		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species, but the location of specimens is within the extent of extensive trawling activity. The quality of this species' habitat is continuing to decline due to trawling activities in Sagami Bay.
196067		conservation	eng	None in place, but more research needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of deep-sea trawling activities.
196067		distribution	eng	This species is located off Région de Los Lagos, Chile (Wisner and McMillan 1995).
196067		habitat	eng	This species is found on the upper slope at depths from 185-251 m. Wisner and McMillan (1995) regarded this species as a dwarf hagfish because of the advanced sexual development of the two known small specimens. The holotype is a 183 mm female with 10 maturing eggs with 10 x 4 mm, and the paratype is a 175 mm male with well-developed testes.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196067		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from two type specimens dating back to 1978. The most recent specimen was collected from a crab trap. This species is likely not showing up in fishing nets due to its small size.
196067		threats	eng	No known direct threats are known but location of type specimens overlaps with distribution and shallow depth range of deep-sea trawling off the Chilean coastline.
196068		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and potential impact of trawling activities.
196068		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type specimens collected off Golfo de Morrosquillo (Colombia) and northern Trinidad and Tobago (Wisner and McMillan 1995). This sampling size is not sufficient enough to determine whether this species is distributed throughout the southern Caribbean Sea.
196068		habitat	eng	This is a deep-sea species living on the lower slope at depths from 783-1,768 m.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196068		population	eng	The population information for this species is only known from four type specimens.
196068		threats	eng	There is no information on the scale of threats to this species.
196069		conservation	eng	Deep-sea bottom trawling effort is now regulated to only eight or nine licensed vessels. Further research is needed on species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of bottom trawling activities.
196069		distribution	eng	This species is located off southeastern and southern Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states.
196069		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slope at depths from 690-810 m. Of 30 specimens examined by Mincarone (2001), there were 26 females, three males, and one hermaphrodite. Only four females had large eggs measuring approximately 20 x 6 mm that were without encapsulated anchor filaments.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998). This species prefers deep-water and is known to be associated with scleractinian corals (Mincarone unpub. data).
196069		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from 30 specimens collected from scientific surveys. More specimens have been recorded but these have yet to be published. Scientific surveys have been conducted extensively along the continental shelf and sampling to date indicates that this species has a limited range.
196069		threats	eng	Deep-sea bottom trawling occurs on the continental slope but effort is now limited to eight or nine legal vessels, which is therefore less intensive than in the past. Threat from deep-sea bottom trawling to species and its habitat still exists however. Species are being caught as by-catch and only effort is being government regulated, not catch or fishing gear type which remains very destructive to Scleractinian corals and other deep-water habitats.
196071		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fishing activities.
196071		distribution	eng	This species is known only from two museum specimens but is considered to be insular and endemic to New Zealand (Mincarone and Stewart 2006).
196071		habitat	eng	The two known specimens were collected from very different sites in New Zealand. The holotype was obtained from a white-baiter fishing 150 yards (137 m) upstream from the mouth of the Kaituna River, Bay of Plenty, North Island. The Kaituna is a small river that widens into an estuary near its mouth and is strongly under tidal influence (Richardson 1958, McMillan and Wisner 1982). The second specimen (NMNZ P.37198) was recently trawled by a fishing vessel at 44°20.3'S, 172°00.5'E, 132 m depth, on the outer shelf off north Canterbury Bight, South Island (Mincarone and Stewart 2006).<br><br>This is an insular species, endemic to New Zealand. It is an extremely elongated, black-pigmented species. The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196071		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from two museum specimens.
196071		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species. Fishing activity is present at the locations where specimens were recorded.
196072		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of shallow water trawling activities.
196072		distribution	eng	This species is located in the western South Atlantic, from southern Brazil (off Rio Grande do Sul) to northern Argentina (off the La Plata River). Only two specimens were collected off Brazil and the remainder have been collected further south off of Uruguay and Argentina (Mincarone 2001).
196072		habitat	eng	This species is usually taken on muddy and sandy bottoms of the continental shelf and slope at depths from 80-800 m. All known specimens were caught in winter months, between May and August, a period of lower water temperature in the western South Atlantic, mainly due to the Malvinas Current influence (Mincarone 2001). The species is known only from seven specimens (279-493 mm total length (TL)), of which three are immature females, two males, and two were not possible to determine the sex. The holotype is a young female 366mm with very small eggs ranging in length from 0.1-1.5 mm. The other two females measuring 350 and 376 mm have several small eggs in initial stage of development ranging from 0.4-2.5 mm in length. Of the two males (292-493 mm), only the largest one is mature.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196072		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from seven specimens. Half of these specimens were caught as by-catch and half were caught by research vessels. The last record specimen dates back to 1995 and the area has been extensively surveyed and therefore it can be presumed that the species is uncommon.
196072		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and direct capture from extensive shallow water trawlers that target multiple species as well as hake and shrimp, and are active within the species' distribution and depth range.
196074		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fishing activities. In 2001, New Zealand closed 19 seamounts within its EEZ to bottom trawling, including in the Chatham Rise, sub-Antarctic waters, and off the east and west coasts of the North Island, and draft agreement was drafted in 2006 to ban bottom trawling in 30 percent of New Zealand's EEZ, an area of about 1.2 million km² reaching from sub-Antarctic waters to sub-tropical ones.
196074		distribution	eng	This species is located around New Zealand, including the Cook Strait and western Chatham Rise. It is endemic to New Zealand but has a long depth and wide distribution range within New Zealand's jurisdiction.
196074		habitat	eng	This species is known from shallow to deep waters, at depths from 6-1,095 m (Mincarone and Stewart 2006).<br><br>This is an insular and endemic species. Its copulatory organ is absent. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196074		population	eng	This species is known only from a few museum specimens, but it is also recorded in trawling by-catch.
196074		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but it is potentially vulnerable to coastal and deep-water fishing activities with New Zealand's jurisdiction.
196076		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of trawling activities along the continental shelf.
196076		distribution	eng	This species is located off the south coast of South America, from northern Argentina (off Buenos Aires) to southern Chile, including the Strait of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego.
196076		habitat	eng	This species is found on muddy bottoms of the continental shelf at depths from 6-143 m. Of 11 females (405-575 mm total length (TL)) examined by Nani and Gneri (1951), those longer than 500 mm were mature. A 507 mm female contained eggs ranging in size from 24.5 x 6.6 to 28 x 8 mm.<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196076		population	eng	The population information for this species is only known from a few specimens. The last museum record dates back to 1968. This seems to have been an abundant species in the past but is not being recorded in more recent surveys and/or in bycatch incidences.
196076		threats	eng	The currently known distribution range for this species is wide ranging but overlaps with areas on the continental shelf that are extensively trawled for multiple fisheries.
196078		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of fishing activity.
196078		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality, off La Punta de los Remedios, Colombia, Caribbean Sea.
196078		habitat	eng	This species is found on the upper continental slope at depths from 470-488 m. It is known only from the holotype, 220 mm total length (TL) (Mok <em>et al. </em>2001).<br><br>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196078		population	eng	This species is only known from the holotype.
196078		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species. Trawling occurs off the coast of Colombia but no bycatch data is known.
196079		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fishing activity.
196079		distribution	eng	This species is found off southeastern Japan, from Sagami Bay to Tosa Bay.
196079		habitat	eng	This species is found on slopes at depths from 300-536 m.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196079		population	eng	The population information for this species is not known due to multiple misidentifications since it was described in 1904. Therefore its population abundance levels and distribution range cannot be accurately determined.
196079		threats	eng	This species distribution and depth range may overlap with extensive bottom trawling fishing grounds that target hagfish, some of which have shown significant declines in catch since the 1970s (Gorbman <em>et al.</em> 1990, Honma 1998).
196080		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of bycatch incidences.
196080		distribution	eng	This species is only known from the southwest coast of Taiwan.
196080		habitat	eng	This species is found on shelf break at depths from 156-268 m. According to McMillan and Wisner (2004) a 333 mm male had developing testes and a 313 mm female had eggs to 4 mm.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196080		population	eng	The population information for this species is based on approximately 200 specimens taken across the distribution area from scientific surveys. This species is restricted to southwest Taiwan and is known to be common.
196080		threats	eng	This species is not targeted as a fishery but is a large species and is therefore potentially harvestable. This relatively shallow hagfish species is regularly caught in bycatch incidences, including both trawling and trapping. This species often appears in the Tungkang market. Furthermore its habitat is likely degraded by extensive bottom trawling activities.
196081		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact for fishery on population levels.
196081		distribution	eng	This species is located between east Hainan Island (19°37'N, 113°14'E) and southwest Taiwan (Kuo and Mok 1994, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2005).
196081		habitat	eng	This species is found on the slopes at depths from 500-600 m.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent for this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196081		population	eng	The population for this species is only known from 33 museum specimens, but it is also being recorded from the Tungkang market in Taiwan. Population levels are unknown.
196081		threats	eng	There is currently a targeted fishery for this species. It is directly harvested for food, but the impact of fisheries on this species population is unknown.
196082		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of trapping and trawling fishing activities in the region.
196082		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to southwestern Taiwan. No survey has picked up records off the northern coast of Taiwan.
196082		habitat	eng	This species is found on the upper slope, at depths from 200-412 m. According to Kuo <em>et al.</em> (1994), 12.2% of the specimens from the southeast region carried eggs in February, the largest one was 28.3 mm, taken from a 357 mm female. The smallest adult female with eggs was 275 mm total length (TL).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196082		population	eng	This species is known from approximately 150 specimens.
196082		threats	eng	This species is not targeted as a fishery but is a large species and is therefore potentially harvestable. This relatively shallow hagfish species is regularly caught in bycatch incidences, including both trawling and trapping. This species often appears in the Tungkang market. Furthermore its habitat is likely degraded by extensive bottom trawling activities.
196083		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of deep-sea trawling activities. Given no specimen has been collected since 1972, further surveys should be regarded as a high research priority to confirm presence of this species in the area. Further review of distribution and identification of hagfish in Japan is critically needed.
196083		distribution	eng	This species is known only from Misaki, Sagami Bay, Japan, but its distribution range may be wider (McMillan and Wisner 2004).
196083		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow waters at 100 m depth. It is known only from the type specimens.
196083		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from nine type specimens. The last record dates back to 1972. No specimens have been published since this date so the species may be very restricted and rare. Former records belonging to this species may have been mis-identified as <em>Paramyxine</em> spp. so true distribution is currently unknown.
196083		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but its location is within the extent of shallow water trawling activity and trawling activities that degrade the species' habitat.
196084		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and impact of by-catch incidences.
196084		distribution	eng	This species is found off the coast of southwest Taiwan (Kuo and Mok 1999).
196084		habitat	eng	This species is found on the shelf and upper slope, at depths from 50-250 m. <em>Paramyxine nelsoni</em> is a dwarf species, with females maturing at about 190 mm. In 277 specimens examined by Kuo and Mok (1999) no hermaphroditism was noted, and the sex ratio (male/female) was 1:36. McMillan and Wisner (2004) examined one 244 mm female with 11 eggs of about 15 mm long with polar caps already forming. Length-weight equations are given by Kuo and Mok (1999) for specimens from southwestern Taiwan: females, W = 0.0084 x TL2.707 (r² = 0.792); males, W = 0.0152 x TL2.452 (r² = 0.678).<br/><br/>Males develop testes at about 200 mm and a 224 mm female had elongated eggs; a 268 mm specimen had eggs 24 mm long; and a 244 mm specimen had 11 eggs about 15 mm long with polar caps already forming (McMillan and Wisner 2004). The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196084		population	eng	The species is known from 309 specimens.
196084		threats	eng	This species is not targeted as a fishery likely due to its small size. This relatively shallow hagfish species is regularly caught in bycatch incidences, including both trawling and trapping and its habitat is degraded by extensive bottom trawling activities.
196085		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution along the east coast of Taiwan and the impact of trapping and trawling fishing activities in the region.
196085		distribution	eng	This species is located off northern, northeastern, and southwestern Taiwan.
196085		habitat	eng	This species is found on slopes at depths from 200-800 m. According to Kuo <em>et al.</em> (1994), the reproductive season of <em>P. sheni</em> in Taiwanese waters ranges from January to March. In February, 12.5% of the specimens collected from the southwest region carried eggs. The largest egg was 38.8 mm. The smallest female with eggs, most in round or slightly ovoid stages was 355 mm total length (TL). Stomach contents of <em>P. sheni</em> contained shrimp, crab, mollusc, and fish.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196085		population	eng	This species has been picked up in surveys in abundance and is considered common, more so in northeast than southwest Taiwan (Mok and Chen 2001). This is a deep water species.
196085		threats	eng	This species is a deep water species and is not directly harvested. However the species may be vulnerable to bycatch incidences from deep water trawling and trapping within its range.
196086		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of bycatch from deep-sea trawling activities, in particular pressure from royal red shrimp fishery.
196086		distribution	eng	This species is located in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico (Fernholm and Hubbs 1981, McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).
196086		habitat	eng	This species is found on the continental slope at depths from 400-730 m depth. <br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196086		population	eng	The population of this species is known from only a few museum specimens.
196086		threats	eng	There are no known targeted threats to this species but it is incidentally caught by bottom trawlers and possibly trappers. There are three deep-sea fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico for Rock Shrimp, Royal Red Shrimp and calico scallops and these operate at the shallower depths where species occurs. For example, the Royal Red Shrimp fishery operates from 250-475 m depth range within the distribution of the species (Stiles <em>et al.</em> 2007).
196087		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size and the impact of trapping and trawling fishing activities across the limited distribution range.
196087		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to northeastern Taiwan. Extensive surveys have confirmed that it is not found in southwestern Taiwan nor along the east coast.
196087		habitat	eng	This species is found on the shelf and upper slope, at depths from 120-427 m. <em>Paramyxine taiwanae</em> is a dwarf species maturing at less than 300mm TL (McMillan and Wisner 2004). About 12% of specimens from the southwestern Taiwan examined by Kuo <em>et al.</em> (1994) had eggs in February, the largest one found in a 295 mm female measured 20.6 mm long.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196087		population	eng	The population information for this species is known from approximately 150 specimens.
196087		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to capture as bycatch and habitat loss from extensive deep sea trawling and trapping within its restricted distribution and depth range. It's relatively large body-size also makes it vulnerable to future collection for food and the leather industry.
196088		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on the species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of fishing activities. Further review of distribution and identification of hagfish in Japan is critically needed.
196088		distribution	eng	This species is known from Choshi Point, eastern Honshu Island, and from Izumosaki to Niigata, on the west coast of Honshu Island, Japan (McMillan and Wisner 2004).
196088		habitat	eng	This species is found in shallow waters from 75-120 m depth.
196088		population	eng	The population for this species is only known from 10 type specimens collected from two locations in Japan. Former records belonging to this species have been misidentified as <em>Paramyxine atami</em> so the true distribution is not known.
196088		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species but locations where specimens were recorded are subject to fishing activity.
196090		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of any deep-sea trawling activities in the future.
196090		distribution	eng	This species is located off the southeast coast of Taiwan (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 1994).
196090		habitat	eng	This species is found on upper slope at depths from 330-412 m.<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196090		population	eng	The population of this species is only known from six type specimens.
196090		threats	eng	There are no known direct threats to this species as very little trawling occurs along the east coast of Taiwan due to very deep water and steep continental slope.
196091		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place, but more research is needed on this species' biology, population size, distribution and the impact of trapping and trawling fishing activities in the region.
196091		distribution	eng	This species is found from northeastern to southwestern Taiwan, and in the northern South China Sea.
196091		habitat	eng	This species is found on shelves, from 120-261 m (Taiwan), and upper slope, at 547 m depth (northern South China Sea). <em>Paramyxine yangi</em> is a dwarf species, with females maturing at about 210 mm. In 256 specimens examined by Kuo and Mok (1999) no hermaphroditism was noted, and the sex ratio (male/female) was 0.68. It is the most abundant hagfish species in shallower Taiwanese waters (Mok and Chen 2001). It is sometimes taken with <em>P. taiwanae</em>, <em>P. nelsoni</em>, and <em>E. burgeri</em> (McMillan and Wisner 2004).<br/><br/>The copulatory organ is absent in this species. The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the testis is found in the posterior part. The animal becomes female if the cranial part of the gonad develops or male if the caudal part undergoes differentiation. If none develops, then the animal becomes sterile. If both anterior and posterior parts develop, then the animal becomes a functional hermaphrodite. However, hermaphroditism being characterised as functional needs to be validated by more reproduction studies (Patzner 1998).
196091		population	eng	This species has been recorded in surveys in abundance. This species is considered to be the most common hagfish species in shallower Taiwanese waters (Mok and Chen 2001).
196091		threats	eng	This species is relatively small-bodied, so it is not directly harvested. Additionally, very little trawling occurs along the east coast of Taiwan due to very deep water and steep continental slope. However, the species may be vulnerable to bycatch incidences from trawling and trapping within the southwestern portion of its distribution.
196095		conservation	eng	The species is protected in some parts of its range, but threats occur within protected areas as well (fishing).
196095		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Channa&#160;</span><span style="font-style: italic;">diplogramma,</span>&#160;a Western Ghats endemic has a distribution in some rivers of southcentral Kerala (Meenachil, Manimala, Pamba-Achankovil and Kallada), and further south in the Chittar river in southwestern Tamil Nadu (Ebanasar & Jayaprakas 2003, Jayaram 2010).
196095		habitat	eng	The species is a top level aquatic predator but, is itself not preyed upon by many other species. Hence, it occupies the top rung of the trophic ladder. It is a gregarious species, with the young often following both parents&#160;(R. Abraham<em>&#160;</em>pers. obs.&#160;December 2009).
196095		population	eng	Population data is available for the Pamba River where it is harvested at one tonne per annum (Kurup and Ranjith 2009). The species' population seems to be stable in protected areas with them seeking refuge in dam reservoirs during the day and hunting in the draining streams in the night (R. Abraham pers. obs.<em> </em>December 2009).
196095		threats	eng	Overfishing for consumption and habitat degradation due to pollution and sand mining are the biggest threats to this species.
196098		conservation	eng	This species is known from several protected areas.
196098		distribution	eng	The distribution is mainly confined to the mountains adjacent to  southern and eastern Black Sea area. There is a concentration of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> forest (<span style="font-style: italic;">A.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">nordmanniana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">nordmanniana) </span>in  west Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Russia) and  northeast Anatolia (Turkey) and another concentration in northwest  Anatolia. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not known but will exceed the threshold for being threatened.
196098		habitat	eng	High montane zones of mountains on deep fertile soils derived from  igneous and granite rocks. It forms both pure stands and mixed with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea orientalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span>.  In the Caucasus it occurs between 1,200-2,200 asl but on damper  northern slopes it can grow between 600-800 m asl and in Turkey its  altitudinal range is between 200-1,900 m (Browicz 1982).
196098		population	eng	It occurs in two subpopulations. 1. West Caucasus and northeast  Anatolia (Turkey); 2. Turkey - Northwest Anatolia (the latter sometimes  referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. bornmuelleriana</span>)
196098		threats	eng	Even though the wood is highly prized, logging has not had an significantly detrimental impact on the population.
196117		conservation	eng	This species is considered Critically Endangered in Poland (Pokrsyko:<a href="http://www.iop.krakow.pl/pckz/opis.asp?id=236&je=en"> Polish Red Data Book</a>, last visit May 2011) and Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). The size of populations and population trend are unknown, more research is  needed to gain reliable data on the biology of the species.
196117		distribution	eng	This is a boreo-alpine species. It is widespread in Europe and recorded from the following countries: Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Poland, Great Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Slovakia, Italy, Andorra, Spain, Moldovia, and Belarus. The distribution range falls in two regions: A more or less compact and dense distribution in the Arctic areas, particularly in Norway and north-western Sweden, but very scattered in Central Europe (Kerney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983, Proschwitz 2003).
196117		habitat	eng	This species is mountain dwelling, predominantly on calcareous substrata. In Scandinavia, it lives in subarctic woodlands, valley slopes and fens. In the Tatra Mts. it also lives on calcareous rocks. In the western distribution area it is found in isolated localities in the French and Spanish Pyrenees and in Andorra (Proschwitz 2004).
196117		population	eng	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.
196117		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is exploitation of habitats for tourism. Tourist activities like skiing, hiking, and climbing lead to a serious decline of habitat quality; this threat is ongoing or even increasing in the last 10 years.
196452		conservation	eng	Sarisariñama tepui is within the Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park (C.L. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. May 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population size and threats.
196452		distribution	eng	It is known from three different campsites within the Sarisariñama tepui in Bolivar State, southeastern Venezuela&#160;(Barrio-Amorós 2010). Its altitudinal range is between 1,100 - 1,375 m asl and based on its area polygon its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be approximately 546 km<sup>2 </sup>(C.L. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. May 2011).&#160;Further survey efforts are needed to fully understand this species' distribution, including areas in between known sites, although it is presumed to occur in Jaua and Guanacoco, two neighbouring tepuis&#160;(C.L. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. May 2011).
196452		habitat	eng	This species occurs in small montane primary forests completely covered by moss and other epiphytic plants (Barrio-Amorós 2010). Individuals were difficult to locate as they were calling&#160;from concealed sites under the ground or hidden inside roots and holes of trees&#160;after rain during daytime&#160;(Barrio-Amorós 2010). As with other congeners, this species is presumed to breed by direct development (C.L. Barrio-Amorós pers.comm. May 2011).
196452		population	eng	This species&#160;is abundant in the Sarisariñama tepui&#160;(Barrio-Amorós 2010).<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>
196452		threats	eng	<p>There have been no major threats observed to this species&#160;(C.L. Barrio-Amorós pers.comm. May 2011).&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
197088		conservation	eng	A critical point in all conservation efforts related to the lakes described here is public awareness of the uniqueness of these ecosystems. This is unfortunately not the case at present. Water management plans must assure controlled water extraction. These regulations must be supervised and enforced. Sewage treatment systems should be installed along the actual lakes and all tributary systems. Agricultural practices should be more sustainable with reduction of fertilizer and pesticide use as ultimate goals. All these practices can only be effective if a concerted action plan can be implemented very soon in order to preserve this limnic fauna that is of continental importance.
197088		distribution	eng	This species is known from confirmed records from the two southern European Lakes; Lake Trichonis and Lake Amvrakia. In addition, <span style="font-style: italic;">D.blanci </span>also occurred sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">D.presbensis</span> in the two northern Lakes Pamvotis and Prespa. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) noted that it is possible that these maybe lone "migrant" specimens, as no juveniles were found in the surveys of the northern lakes, however, it may also be a factor related to the timing of collection of samples (Spring as opposed to Autumn). Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) point out that due to the confusion in the literature, where these shells may have been regarded as a variety of <span style="font-style: italic;">D.polymorpha</span>, it is under-recorded, and hence they believe that <span style="font-style: italic;">D.blanci</span> maybe dominant in the southern part of mainland Europe, in Greece.
197088		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes and possibly other man-made water bodies with slow flowing waters (e.g. canals and ponds).
197088		population	eng	The population trends of this species are unknown as it maybe under recorded.
197088		threats	eng	Changes to the water quality in the lakes may impact the species, as well as repeated lowering of water levels due to use of the lake-waters. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) commented that even this species had suffered losses in the lake as the lake’s littoral zone has been damaged because of repeated massive recent water extractions. In 2005, there were almost no live molluscs from the lake proper, while common opportunistic species could be found only at the margins.
197089		conservation	eng	Water management plans must assure controlled water extraction. These regulations must be supervised and enforced. Sewage treatment systems should be installed along the actual lakes and all tributary systems. Agricultural practices should be more sustainable with reduction of fertilizer and pesticide use as ultimate goals. All these practices can only be effective if a concerted action plan can be implemented very soon in order to preserve this limnic fauna that is of continental importance.
197089		distribution	eng	The species is currently only known on the basis of confirmed records using molecular data from&#160; Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa, Lake Skutari, Lake Dojran, Lake Pamvotis and Lake Vegoritis. However Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) point out that due to the confusion in the literature, where these shells may have been regarded as a variety of <span style="font-style: italic;">D.polymorpha</span>, it is under-recorded, and hence they believe that <span style="font-style: italic;">D.presbensis </span>appears to be dominant in the west-central part of the Balkan Peninsula. Most records of <span style="font-style: italic;">D.polymorpha </span>in the region will require review, as result of this work, to determine whether they are <span style="font-style: italic;">D.polymorpha</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">D.blanci</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">D.presbensis</span>, as Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) noted that no specimens collected from the Balkan lakes were confirmed as <span style="font-style: italic;">D.polymorpha</span>, so in their view it is not found there.
197089		habitat	eng	This species is found in lakes and possibly other man-made water bodies with slow flowing waters (e.g. canals and ponds).
197089		population	eng	There is no information on population trends of this species, and it may be under-recorded.
197089		threats	eng	Changes to the water quality in the lakes may impact the species, as well as repeated lowering of water levels due to use of the lake-waters.
197165		conservation	eng	Further survey is required to confirm the species destruction and population trends.
197165		distribution	eng	The species was described from Huu Lien Nature Reserve, Long Son Province, northern Viet Nam, and at present has only been recorded from there (Do Manh and Karube 2011).
197165		habitat	eng	The known specimens were found on a rather open lowland stream in a region with secondary forests, at an elevation of about 250 m. The stream beds have some vegetation. The stream is about 4–6 m wide with a muddy and sandy bottom. The water was quite clean and the flow moderate.
197165		population	eng	No information available.
197165		threats	eng	Threats to the species are not certain. Urbanization and forest clearance are perhaps the main threats to the species, however, it has been recorded from disturbed forest.
197457		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the abundance, range and threats facing  this species and continued monitoring of the populations and habitat  will ensure that the species' status is surveyed on a long-term basis.
197457		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It has been found in two rivers in  North Queensland; the Burdekin River and Barron River (Iredale 1943) and Coopers Creek, Innamincka, South Australia (Smith 1992). Its extent of occurrence, taking into account its disjunct distribution, has been estimated as less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.
197457		habitat	eng	This species is known to live in creeks (Allan 1959) and inhabit rivers (Iredale 1943).
197457		population	eng	This species has been described as common in Coopers Creek (Allan 1959).
197457		threats	eng	Much of the catchment of the Burdekin river is used for cattle grazing  and other forms of agriculture, as well as for coal and gold mining.   Also, in 1987, the construction of the Burdekin Falls Dam dramatically  altered the watercourse.  However, it is unknown what impact these  threats may be having on this species. The recent droughts experienced in Australia are also likely to be having a negative impact upon this species.
198395		conservation	eng	More research is needed on the taxonomy and on the distribution and population of this species.
198395		distribution	eng	<p>This species is restricted to a few localities in the Herault valley, in France. <br/></p>
198395		habitat	eng	This species lives in springs.
198395		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
198395		threats	eng	This species is sensitive to water pollution and groundwater absorption (it needs permanent springs).
198546		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198546		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from the south coast of Portugal to Mauritania.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea this species is widespread. Specific records include the Cretan shelf (Labropoulou and Machias 1998), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 1997, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006),  Aegean Sea (Tserpes <em>et al.</em> 1999, Kallianiotis <strong style="font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;">et al.</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"> </span>2000, Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is also found in the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), but it is not found in the Black Sea.
198546		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It mainly feeds on benthic invertebrates (Labropoulou and Machias 1998). Juveniles migrate deeper from the coastal nursery at the end of the first year of life while adults move toward the spawning grounds at 60-100 m depth (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 1997). A large biomasses of benthopelagic fishes, such as <em>Lepidotrigla cavillone</em>, were found associated with shelf-break areas containing <em>Leptometra phalangium</em> (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is found between 30 and 400 m, usually on soft substrata (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198546		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>According to <em>Ozaydin et al.</em> (2007), 1,517 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with FL ranging from 3.8 and 15.7 cm.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values ranged from 2 to 88 specimens/km<sup>2</sup>, from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> (2003) mentioned that 262 specimens (4.4 to 13.0 cm TL) were collected in the Thracian Sea during 1996-1998 using two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365 m.<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (304 ind/24h), November 2001 (1736 ind/24h), March 2002 (484 ind/24h) and May 2002 (1370 ind/24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout a 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.
198546		threats	eng	This species is caught with trawls but is usually discarded because of its small size.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain and <span class="hps">Cyprus) and <span class="hps">craftsmanship. <span class="hps">It is caught with <span class="hps">trawls and <span class="hps">bottom gillnets<span>, <span class="hps">beach seines and <span class="hps">hand lines (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987)<span>.</span></span></span></span></span></span>
198547		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198547		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from south Ireland to Angola. <br/><br/>It penetrated the Strait of Gibraltar without establishing widespread or abundant populations in the Mediterranean Sea. It is reported from the Canary Islands (Desoutter 1990), Sicily and Corsica (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986).
198547		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that occurs on muddy bottoms of the continental slope (Schneider 1990). It mainly feeds on polychaetes and some amphipods (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986).
198547		population	eng	Knowledge on the population of the species is scarce. Hureau and Monod (1979) reported its rare occurrence in the west Mediterranean Sea. There is a gradient of abundance from west to east.<br/><br/>According to Abad <em>et al.</em> (2007), a total of 28 hauls were carried out at depths ranging from 50 to 640 m in the Alboran sea (during the fishing season between August 2000 and June 2001). An otter trawl net was used for sampling purposes. Abundance was 0.03 kg/h (at 50-150 m depth), 0.26 kg/h (at 151-275 m depth), 0.03 kg/h (at 276-350 m depth), 0.05 kg/h (at 351-460 m depth).
198547		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is typically caught with trawls.
198548		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific Mediterranean Sea conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198548		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from south Norway, around the west shores of the British Isles to the south-west and south coasts of Europe and on the north-west African coast. <br/><br/>It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea: in the Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), north Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Sea of Marmara (Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species occurs also in the Ligurian Sea where its depth range of distribution is 65-700 m (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). It also occurs in the Black Sea.
198548		habitat	eng	This is a demersal and oceanodromous species that lives generally at shallow depths near the shores on rocky bottom with aquatic vegetation to 450 m depth. It feeds on fish, crustaceans, worms, and algae.
198548		population	eng	No specific data on population size or trends are available.
198548		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It can be sold fresh in markets, and is also used for fish meal (Yunokawa 1951). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is not extensively exploited. It is mainly caught as bycatch by various fishing gears (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198549		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198549		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from north Norway to West Sahara including south Iceland, Faroe Islands, Shetlands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea this species is widespread; records include the Catalan Sea (Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Blanchard and Boucher 2001), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, Tserpes <strong>et al.</strong> 1999, Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Thracian sea (Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> 2003), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), and east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198549		habitat	eng	This demersal species is relatively common on the continental shelf and upper slope, it probably schools near the bottom. Its depth ranges from 50-500 m (Muus and Nielsen 1999) and from 288-700 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the central Tyrrhenian Sea, this species typified a fish assemblage associated with shelf-break areas with <em>Leptometra phalangium</em> (Echinodermata: Crinoidea) (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds on benthic polychaetes, molluscs, crustaceans and also pelagic invertebrates and fishes. It spawns from winter to spring in the Mediterranean Sea and from March to July off the British coasts. Its eggs and larvae are pelagic (Cohen 1984). They become sexually mature at a length of 12-13 cm. It smells like cucumber (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198549		population	eng	This species is common and very abundant.<br/><br/>According to Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> (2003), it was collected in the Thracian Sea during 1996-1998 using two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365 m. 327 specimens were caught in 1996-1997 with TL ranging from 5 to 15.6 cm and 766 specimens were caught in 1997-1008 with TL ranging from 4.8 to 18.2 cm.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 760.6 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls) and 2.9 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls).<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001, November 2001, March 2002 and May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively; 2,026 specimens per hour were caught in July, 1,610 in November, 708 in March and 2,910 in May.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod-end mesh opening. Mean density values of 5,918±3,457, 20,371±11,672 and 237±166 were reported from the three fishing areas in 1997, while mean density values of 12,076±7,790, 17,2861±8,217 and 187±122 were reported for the same areas in 1998.
198549		threats	eng	This species has only minor commercial importance. No major threats are known.
198550		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198550		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Norway (Trondheim fjord) to Spain including the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea it is present in the Gulf of Lion (Bouchereau <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Adriatic Sea and the Sea of Marmara.
198550		habitat	eng	This species inhabits areas of gravel, sand and mud. Juveniles may occur in shore pools. It feeds on crustaceans, mostly copepods and amphipods (Miller 1986).
198550		population	eng	This species is only known from a small number of records. There is no population information available for this species.
198550		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198551		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It occurs in marine protected areas.
198551		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the English Channel to the Cape of Good Hope, and northwards to Natal, in South Africa, including Sao Tome Principe. It is present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
198551		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found on the shelf and upper slope on rocks, <em>Posidonia</em> beds, sand and mud substrata (Tortonese 1986). It feeds on fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). It is found to a depth of 600 m but is most common from 5-90 m (Louisy 2002).
198551		population	eng	This species is very common in Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007), and in the Mediterranean and Aegean parts of Turkey (B. Yokes and C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007), common in Algeria (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007), common but not so abundant in Morocco (O. Kada pers. comm. 2007), and common but with some declines in France (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This species has lower abundance and biomass in Mallorca than in protected areas due to fishing pressure. (Ordines <em>et al.</em> 2005)
198551		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species. It is of minor commercial importance, with landings of up to 1,000 tons/year. It is mainly caught by hooks and lines, and trammel nets, mainly caught by trawl as bycatch.
198552		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198552		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Lofoten to the west English Channel.<br/><br/>It is also known from several locations in the Mediterranean Sea and the Adriatic Sea (Stefanni 2000).
198552		habitat	eng	This species is found offshore on mud and coarse sand and shell deposits.  <br/><br/>This species has been known to hybridize with <em>Pomatoschistus lozanoi</em> (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198552		population	eng	There are very few records for this species in the Mediterranean Sea and it is thought to be rare. There is no population information available for this species.
198552		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198553		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of<em> P. impar</em> and <em>P. lascaris</em>.
198553		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from southern part of the North Sea and southward from Scotland to Gulf of Guinea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea it occurs all through the coastline, including Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006), Sea of Marmara, Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), Sea of Azov (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986), east Levant (including Cyprus) (Demetropoulous and Neocleous 1969, Golani 1996). Quéro <em>et al.</em> (1986) and Bauchot (1987) did not mention it from Egypt and Libyan coast but it is now reported from Egyptian waters (Mehanna 2007). It is also reported from Suez Canal (Ben-Tuvia 1990).
198553		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species, found on gravel, sand or mud. It feeds on a wide range of small marine bivalves, mainly on crustaceans such as amphipods, mysids, shrimps and decapods, bivalves and polychaetes (Quero <em>et al.</em> 1986).
198553		population	eng	This species is often confused with <em>P. impar</em>. As a consequence, its distribution and population trends are difficult to estimate. In France, all the specimens were later identified as <em>P. impar</em>. In the Levant coasts, it is not thought to be a rare species. It seems even to be the most common sole in shallow waters in the Levant coasts (mainly juveniles and sub-adults) (D. Golani pers. com.).<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), one sample was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. <br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) report that 15 specimens (9.8 to 30.6 cm TL) were collected using various fishing gears, in three estuaries systems in the central east Adriatic Sea.<br/><br/>Mehanna (2007) mention that 640 specimens (9.5 to 28.9 cm) were examined in Egyptian waters, during February 2005 and May 2005 (monthly intervals).
198553		threats	eng	In some areas, this is a commercial species that is densely fished by bottom trawls, especially along Egyptian coasts. The exploitation rate was found as 0.71, which is above the optimum fisheries exploitation rate of 0.50 (indicating fishing pressure, Mehanna 2007).
198554		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198554		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus reticulatus</em> occurs in the northeastern Atlantic, from the southern North Sea, Irish Sea, and southwestern Ireland to Portugal. It has also been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>C. reticulatus</em> has been recorded from at least Málaga (Spain). It possibly occurs further into the western basin of the Mediterranean.
198554		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs in inshore waters, even intertidally, on sandy shores (Wheeler 1979). Its preferred habitat is shallow, soft substrata within estuaries. Eggs and larvae pelagic.
198554		population	eng	There is currently no specific information on the population of this species.
198554		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198555		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198555		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Morocco to Senegal, and from Angola to South Africa, and includes Madeira and the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean there are few records of Epigonus constanciae, from southwestern Sardinia, and southeastern Sicily. It has also recently been recorded in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198555		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species that occurs chiefly on the upper portion of the continental slope. Depth ranges from 200 to 600 m (Maugé and Mayer 1990) and from 351 to 742 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a mesobenthic-pelagic species living mainly above the bottom (Abramov 1992). Adults are strongly associated with the substrate (Tortonese 1986).
198555		population	eng	Population size and trends are not known.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) collected this species in the northern eastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300 to 500 m, 0.3 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700 m, and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range 700 to 900 m.
198555		threats	eng	No direct threats are known. <br/><br/>The species may live outside the depth range of many trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean.
198556		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198556		distribution	eng	This species is found in eastern Atlantic, from Ireland (Nielsen 1986) to Sierra Leone and Cape Verde.  <br/><br/>It also known from the  Mediterranean and Black Seas. In the Mediterranean Sea basin, this species occurred along the Iberian coast (Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Blanchard and Boucher 2001, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), south Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999) and in the Aegean Sea (Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also found on the Turkish coast and in Cyprus.
198556		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that can be mostly found on the upper 100 m of the continental shelf on sandy and muddy substrata. It feeds on small fishes and invertebrates (Nielsen 1986). The reproduction period is from April to July.
198556		population	eng	This species occurs occasionally in the west Mediterranean Sea and is rare in the Levantine coasts.<br/><br/>According to Valle <em>et al.</em> (2003), 37 specimens (5.2 to 9.5 cm TL) were collected in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa), with 108 samples at a 20–22 m depth range, using a beam trawl of 1.8 m width and 0.8 m height.<br/><br/>Ungaro <em>et al.</em> (1999) report that this species was sampled from trawl surveys carried out in the south Adriatic Sea (mean abundance value of 1 specimens in 224 hauls), during summer 1996 and 1997 inside 112 stations (1 haul/60 square nautical miles) with 72 hauls in the Italian area and 40 hauls in the Albanian area each year, using an otter trawl net (length 40 m, wing spread 8 m) with a 10 mm mesh size at the cod-end. <br/><br/>Ozaydin<em> et al.</em> (2007) mention that 20 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 6.1 and 7.9 cm.<br/><br/>Eight specimens (8.5 to 11.2 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005 (Karakuilak <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Letourneur <em>et al.</em> (2001) report that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River. A small beam trawl with opening of 1.5 x 0.5m with 8mm net mesh size. Mean density of 1.86 ± 1.35 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: 2 knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m<sup>2</sup> at depth of 5-8 m.<br/><br/>Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> (2003) mention that this species was collected in the Thracian sea during 1996-1998 using two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365m. 572 specimens were caught in 1996-1997 with TL ranging from 3.8 to 12.6 cm.
198556		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls. It is sold locally (Nouar pers. comm. 2007), but totally discarded in the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001).
198557		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are in place.
198557		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from western Norway, Skagerrak, the Shetlands and western Scotland to Senegal.<br/><br/>It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea, where it is widespread and very common. In this basin, records include the Catalan Sea, Gulf of Lion, Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Strait of Sicily, Adriatic Sea, Aegean and Ionian Seas and around Crete (Papaconstantinou 1988), it is also present in the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002) and in east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 1999).
198557		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species with depth range from 40-600 m (Muus and Nielsen 1999) and from 288-700 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is gregarious and forms schools. It is found over rock or coral, but it is also fished over sandy substrata. A large biomass of benthopelagic fishes, including <em>Capros aper</em>, were found associated with shelf-break areas with <em>Leptometra phalangium</em> (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is mainly caught during daylight (Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on crustaceans, worms and molluscs (Quéro 1986). Males are smaller than females (Maigret and Ly 1986).
198557		population	eng	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (202 ind/24h), November 2001 (126 ind/24h), March 2002 (182 ind/24h) and May 2002 (490 ind/24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every three hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod-end mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 80 to 16,144 specimens/km<sup><em>2</em></sup>, from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>According to Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> (2003), this species was collected in the Thracian Sea during 1996-1998 using two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depth ranging from 19 to 365 m. 203 specimens were caught in 1996-1997 with TL ranging from 2.9 to 12.2 cm.<br/><br/>Filiz and Bilge (2004) reported that 455 specimens, with length from 2.9 to 10.1 cm TL, were collected during a field studies in March and July 2003 using a commercial fisherman from the Sıgacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea) at depths between 70 and 378 m.
198557		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It is common as bycatch of trawl fisheries but is always discarded.
198558		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
198558		distribution	eng	<em>Priacanthus arenatus</em> occurs in the tropical and tropically influenced areas of the Atlantic Ocean. In the western Atlantic, it is reported from Bermuda and at least to North Carolina (USA) (Starnes 1988), and southward to northern Argentina (Randall 1978). In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from Madeira to northern Angola. It has also been recorded from the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). Reports from the Indo-Pacific are misidentifications.
198558		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species found on coral reefs and rocky substrata (Randall 1978). It forms small aggregations near the bottom (Hureau 1990). The species is a nocturnal feeder (Böhlke and Chaplin 1993), feeding mainly on small fishes, crustaceans and polychaetes (Randall 1978). Most of its prey are larvae.
198558		population	eng	There is no species specific population information.
198558		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance, mainly caught by hooks and lines. It is sometimes used for commercial aquarium.
198559		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. It is unlikely to be any conservation measures in place. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198559		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present in Madeira, Great Meteor Bank and south along the African coast to about 25°N.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species occurs in the Ligurian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea and the east Ionian Sea.
198559		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that occurs on the continental slope (Cohen 1990). In the Mediterranean Sea it occurs between 100-800 m (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198559		population	eng	This species is quite uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea.
198559		threats	eng	This species is important for subsistence fisheries, but has only marginal importance. It is also often taken as bycatch with trawls.
198560		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198560		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from Morocco to off north Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993, Adib 2005, Golanni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ionian Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Machias 2004), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca<em> et al.</em> 2004), east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), coasts of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Balearic islands (Massuti and Renones 2005).
198560		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, sedentary species which occurs in rocky areas (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990) and on soft substrata (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other benthic invertebrates (Maigret and Ly 1986).
198560		population	eng	This species is fairly common and certainly not rare.<br/><br/>According to Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 1 to 13 specimens/km<sup>2</sup>, from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>Mytilineou<em> et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.9 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range 700-900 m (36 hauls).
198560		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest. The main catching method are trawls.<br/><br/>Some results (Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> 2008) indicate that trawling in the north Aegean Sea removes species of higher trophic levels, including <em>Scorpaena elongata</em>, from the ecosystem, thus contributing to the fishing down of its populations.
198561		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
198561		distribution	eng	This species is present in the western Atlantic from east central USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, Bermuda, Saint Helena and the Ascension Islands, and Saint Paul Rocks. In the eastern Atlantic there are scattered records from southwestern France, Portugal and northern Morocco, though it is more common along the western African coast from southern Morocco to Nigeria, including Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is rare in the Mediterranean Sea and is only found in the western Basin and Adriatic Sea. <br/><br/><em>Kyphosus sectator</em> is rarely found in the Mediterranean (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987, Costa 1991) and off Madeira (Tortonese 1968, Merella <em>et al.</em>1998). This species has been caught in Saint-Tropez, France, Trieste, the Gulf of Genoa, Mallorca Island, and Algeria (Francour and Mouine 2008).
198561		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated species, inhabiting shallow waters, over turtle grass, sand or rocky substrata and around coral reefs (Sgano 1978). Juveniles are commonly found among floating <em>Sargassum</em> weeds (Sgano 1978). It feeds on plants, mainly on benthic algae, as well as on small crabs and molluscs (Tortonese 1964).<br/><br/>One adult female was caught by spearfishing at a depth of 8m off the coast of Saint Tropez (western Mediterranean) in November 2006 (Domingues <em>et al.</em> 2007, Francour and Mouine 2008).
198561		population	eng	This species is very rare in the Mediterranean.
198561		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance, and is mainly caught by hooks and lines.
198562		conservation	eng	<em>Merluccius merluccius</em> is a priority species for the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM). It is regulated through fishing effort controls, selectivity, fishing closures, minimum landing size, etc. in the GSAs. There are also some national regulations regarding minimum landing size (e.g., in Turkey, minimum landing size is 25 cm, in Morocco minimum size is 20 cm) and an EC regulation for minimum landing size of 20 cm. It occurs in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommendations for this species are: implementation of GFCM recommendations (fishing effort controls, selectivity, fishing closures, minimum landing size, etc.) and improved enforcement of fishing controls in the Mediterranean Sea.
198562		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the east Atlantic from Norway and Iceland, south to Mauritania. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs from Gulf of Alicante (Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catalan Sea (Martin <em>et al.</em> 1999, Olivar <em>et al.</em> 2003,&#160; Morales-Nin and Moranta 2004, Sardà <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005, Sardà <em>et al.</em> 2005, Bahamon <em>et al.</em> 2006, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006, Maynon <em>et al.</em> 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007), Balearic Islands (Alemany and Alvarez 2003), Gulf of Lion (Morales-Nin and Aldebert 1997, Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), Ligurian Sea (Abella <em>et al.</em> 1999, Dremiere <em>et al.</em> 1999, Martin <em>et al.</em> 1999, Pietrapiana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), Tyrrhenian Sea (Abella <em>et al.</em> 1999; Badalamenti <em>et al.</em> 2002; IREPA 2003; Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004; Abella <em>et al.</em> 2005; Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005; Belcari <em>et al.</em> 2006;  FAO-GFCM 2007; Sbrana <em>et al.</em> 2007), Strait of Sicily (Fiorentino <em>et al.</em> 2003, Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Maltese waters (FAO-GFCM 2007), Adriatic Sea (Dremiere <em>et al.</em> 1999, Fiorentini <em>et al</em>. 1999, Perugini <em>et al.</em> 2007), Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005, Maravelias and Papaconstantinou 2006), Cretan sea (Tsimenides <em>et al.</em> 1991, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Sea of Marmara (Deval <em>et al.</em> 2007), Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004,  Celik and Oehlenschlager 2005, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak <em>et al. </em>2006, Kontas 2006, Maravelias and Papaconstantinou 2006, Maravelias <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also present along the south coast of the Black Sea.
198562		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, that is found usually between 70 and 370 m depth. In the Mediterranean Sea, it has been found from 30 to 1,000 m. In the Ligurian Sea the species was caught starting from 18 m depth (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). It lives close to the bottom during day-time, but moves off-bottom at night. Adults feed mainly on fish (small hakes, anchovies, pilchard, herrings, cod fishes, sardines and gadoid species) and squids. The young feed on crustaceans (especially euphausiids and amphipods).<br/><br/>Size at maturity is between 26 and 27 cm for the males and 26 and 40 cm for the females (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Tyrrhenian sea, size at maturity is 35 cm for the females (Sbrana <em>et al.</em> 2007). Bouaziz (2002) found the size at maturity to be females = 30.6 cm, males = 21.3 cm. Generation length is estimated at around 3 to 3.5 years, depending on the area (Bouaziz <em>et al.</em> 1992).
198562		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean Sea. This species is commercially exploited in the region. Muus and Nielsen (1999) reported that the stocks of this species appeared to be over-fished. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean has also concluded that stocks are declining and it has been stated that the stocks are over-exploited in some regions.<br/><br/>The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings statistics for the Mediterranean indicate that there have been declines in landings of 10-40% between 1996 and 2005 (40% decline between 1996 and 2005; 10% decline between 1997 and 2005). Although landings statistics do not take into consideration fishing effort and cannot always be directly translated into population declines, it is likely that fishing effort for this species has remained the same if not increased over this time period. <br/><br/>Annual landings (in tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 43,816 (1996), 29,956 (1997), 26,545 (1998), 24,144 (1999), 22,558 (2000), 23,322 (2001), 21,680 (2002), 21,305 (2003), 21,872 (2004), 27,430 (2005).<br/><br/>Other records for this species in the Mediterranean include:<br/>According to Belcari <em>et al.</em> (2006), 32,767 specimens, with length from 4.0 to 84.5cm TL were collected by trawling in the north Tyrrhenian sea, in February, April, July and September 2001.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997, Autumn 1998) carried out in the strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values from 247 to 300 specimens from 62 hauls (trawls), with mean abundance varied from 225 to 994 specimens per km2.<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (286 ind./24h), November 2001 (282 ind./24h), March 2002 (92 ind./24h) and May 2002 (2,508 ind./24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>Bozzano <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that 494 specimens were collected during two consecutive 24h pelagic trawl cycles and diurnal bottom trawls conducted for 3 days in September 1999 on the Catalan Sea shelf at a depth of 100-200m. The opening of the pelagic net was 9x6m and a lifter of 12mm stretch mesh covered the codend, while the benthic net had a 12x1.8m opening.<br/><br/>Morales-Nin and Aldebert (1997) mentioned that 17,190 specimens, with lengths ranging from 8.0 to 30.9 cm were collected at the Sete auction market in the period of January 1990 to March 1991.<br/><br/>According to Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007), 2,711 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 2.7 to 48.8 cm.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that 22 specimens (19.7 to 41.1cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted from selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. <br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 35.3 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500m (44 hauls), and 2.8 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700m (52 hauls).<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stegiou (2002) mentioned that 168 specimens were collected during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long lines during 1997-98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades).<br/><br/>According to Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003), 90 specimens (16.3 to 41.7 cm TL) were collected from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, east Mediterranean Sea) with: (a) gillnets of mesh-sizes 22, 24, 26 and 28 mm (bar length) and longlines of hook sizes no. 11, 12, 13 and 15 (Mustad brand), during October 1997 to October 1998, (b) trammel nets of inner mesh-sizes 20, 24 and 28 mm (bar length), during October 1999 to September 2000. Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90 m. <br/><br/>According to Gokce and Metin (2007), 7 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/>Badalamenti <em>et al.</em> (2002) mentioned that a study carried out in the Gulf of Castellammare (southern Tyrrhenian sea), where most trawling was banned from 1989 onwards was conducted in order to compare data from spring trawl surveys in terms of abundance data, before (1987 and 1989) and after (1994 and 1998) the trawling ban. Mean abundance data (number of specimens per hauls - number of hauls = 10) was 4.3 in 1984, 6.4 in 1988, 40.4 in 1994 and 70.2 in 1998.<br/><br/>According to Sardà <em>et al.</em> (2004), 30,494 specimens (7 to 30 cm TL) were collected at depth between 50 and 300 m in the fishing ground off the port of Vilanova and Glentru (Catalan Sea), in June 2002, from 25 hauls with trawls.<br/><br/>Morales-Nin and Moranta (2004) mentioned that 3,815 specimens (3 to 49 cm TL), were collected by trawling at depths between 50 and 350 m off the Catalan Sea. The trawling net used had a cod-end mesh size of 40 mm and a cod-end linear mesh size of 6 mm.
198562		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance in the Mediterranean. There is evidence to support that this species is over-exploited and that over-fishing is a major threat to the populations. <br/><br/>The main fishing methods used catch this fish are trawls, fixed nets and seines. Bottom longline and set-net fisheries are targeting adults of this species in some areas (not in Turkish waters at present). Details of this fishing effort are only rarely available.
198563		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198563		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from the west Mediterranean Sea south to Mauritania, and from Angola to South Africa. In the south-west Atlantic, this species is found from Brazil to Argentina. In the south-east Pacific, this species is also found in Chile (Pequeño 1989). <em>Stomias boa</em> is also found in the sub-Antarctic region of the Indian Ocean sector south to Heard Island.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found throughout the basin. Records include the Adriatic Sea (Regner 1981), the Iberian Peninsula coast (Montserrat <em>et al.</em> 2000, Vidal Peñas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sabates and Masò 1992, Cartés<em> et al.</em> 2002, Carrassón <em>et al.</em> 1992), Sardinia (Sabatini <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Algerian Basin, the Balearic islands (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998, Polunin 2001, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), the north Tyrrhenian Sea (Sartor <em>et al.</em> 2001), the Levantine Sea (Deval 2002, Galil 2004), the Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Sicily Strait (Costa 1991, 1999), the Gulf of Lion (Mallol Martìnez 2005) and the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198563		habitat	eng	This is a meso- and bathypelagic species. It is found in deep oceanic waters to more than 1,000 m depth and may migrate to near-surface waters at night (Gibbs 1984). It feeds on midwater fishes and crustaceans (Gibbs 1984). This species is oviparous (Gibbs 1984).
198563		population	eng	This species is common.
198563		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited (it is sometimes caught by commercial trawlers, but is discarded). No major threats are known.
198564		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198564		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, from France to Portugal and Spain.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea: it is found in the Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002), in north-west Mediterranean Sea (Morales-Nin 1990; Carrasson and Matallanas 1990, 1994, 2002; Matallanas 1983; Cartes <em>et al.</em> 2004; Lombarte and Cruz 2007; Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992; Carrasson and Cartes 2002).
198564		habitat	eng	This is a demersal viviparous species.
198564		population	eng	There is no population information.
198564		threats	eng	This species has low commercial importance. There are no major known threats.
198565		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, it is likely to occur in some marine protected areas (it is a mobile species).
198565		distribution	eng	<em>Sphyraena sphyraena</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay to Mossamedes, Angola, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Madeira, Canary Islands, and Azores. It is also present in the western Atlantic, recorded from Bermuda and Brazil.<br/><br/><em>S. sphyraena</em> is widespread throughout the Mediterranean and rare in the Black Sea.
198565		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species, found in coastal and offshore waters (Schneider 1990). It feeds mostly on fish, less often on cephalopods and crustaceans (Ben-Tuvia 1986). This species may be found to 100 m depth. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is recorded to 50 m depth (Louisy 2005), and grows to perhaps up to 70 to 80 cm length.
198565		population	eng	This species is relatively common throughout most of the Mediterranean, but there is likely to have been a confusion between this species and <em>S. viridensis</em> (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007). It is rare in the Black Sea, common in the Sea of Marmara, and more common in the Aegean (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings figures are available from ten countries, but not specifically for this species (all barracuda are lumped into the statistics). Overall there is an increasing trend to these figures. However, this may be due to increasing recording from different countries and also increases in other species (including in the catch figures for <em>S. chrysotaenia</em> and <em>S. flavicauda</em>, both immigrant species from the Red Sea).
198565		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Artisanal fishing<span class="hps"><span> with&#160;<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps">purse seines<span>, <span class="hps">gillnets<span>, <span class="hps">handlines, <span class="hps">trolling lines<span>. <span class="hps">Appears regularly <span class="hps">in the markets of <span class="hps">Algeria and Morocco<span class="">, where it <span class="hps">is highly regarded<span>, and occasionally <span class="hps">on <span class="hps">other markets <span class="hps">in the area. <span class="hps">Marketed <span class="hps">fresh (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987).<br/><br/></span></span></span></span>In Turkey, Israel and Tunisia (FAO Area 37), up to 1,000 tons are landed per year. There are no known major threats for this species, although it is commercially fished.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198566		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198566		distribution	eng	The two-wing flying fish Exocoetus volitans is widespread in tropical and subtropical zones of all oceans including the Mediterranean Sea and part of the Caribbean Sea (Gibbs 1978). It is probably absent from the inland seas of south-east Asia (Sulawesi Sea, Sulu Sea, Flores, Banda, Ceram and Halmahera seas) (Parin 1996), and the Benguela Current (Parin and Gibbs 1990). In the east Pacific, it ranges from Mexico to central Chile and is also recorded around the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands. In the west Pacific, it has been recorded from Japan, Marshall Islands, Philippines, Australia (Chirichigno 1974), and Tahiti.<br/><br/>This species is known from only three specimens collected in the west Mediterranean Sea. It has been reported as common off the Tunisian coast (Bradai 2000).
198566		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic, oceanodromous species. Adults occur in surface waters both near and far from the coast (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species forms schools and individuals are capable of leaping out of the water and gliding for long distances above the surface. It feeds mostly on crustaceans and other planktonic animals, and it is preyed upon by swordfish, tunas, and many other larger pelagic fishes (Frimodt 1995).
198566		population	eng	There is no information available on the population in the Mediterranean Sea region.
198566		threats	eng	Generally, this is a species with commercial importance, it is mainly valued for its roe.<br/><br/>Specific current or potential threats in the Mediterranean Sea are unknown.<br/><br/>Not known to be a commercial species in the Mediterranean
198567		conservation	eng	There is no information about conservation measures in the Mediterranean Sea. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198567		distribution	eng	This species is present in the north-east Atlantic, also in the south-west Atlantic and west Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>It also occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea to the Tyrrhenian Sea.
198567		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species that inhabits continental slopes (Meléndez and Markle 1997).
198567		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trends.
198567		threats	eng	There is no information about threats from the Mediterranean Sea.
198568		conservation	eng	In the Black Sea and Azov Sea, there are minimum catch sizes: 6.5 cm (Georgia and Ukraine), 7 cm (Romania), 8 cm (Bulgaria) and 9 cm (Turkey). In the Black Sea, minimum catch size is 10 cm (Unsal 1989).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, the<span class="st"> minimum catch size set by  the G<span class="st">eneral Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM)&#160; is 9 cm.<br/><br/>This species occurs in Marine Protected Area, but it is a very mobile species. In some cases there are national efforts to control the fisheries (e.g., time and area closures).</span>
198568		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Bergen, Norway to East London, South Africa (perhaps reaching Durban) (Whitehead, 1990). In the west Indian Ocean, it is present in Mauritius, Seychelles and upwelling areas around Somalia (Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1988). <br/><br/>It is also widespread in all the Mediterranean, Black and Azov Seas. In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurs in the Alboran sea (Agostini and Bakun 2002, Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007), Mar Menor (Perez-Ruzafa <em>et al.</em> 2004, Verdiel-Cubedo <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catalan Sea (Palomera and Lleonart 1989, Pertierra <em>et al.</em> 1997, Tudela <em>et al.</em> 1999, Agostini and Bakun 2002, Soria <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lloret <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sabates <em>et al.</em> 2007), Gulf of Lion (Tudela 1999, Plounevez and Champalbert 2000, Agostini and Bakur 2002, Sabates <em>et al.</em> 2007), Ligurian sea (Tudela 1999, Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), Tyrrhenian sea (Tudela 1999, Gulf of Salerno: Romanelli et al. 2002, Carpentieri et al. 2005), Strait of Sicily (Agostini and Bakun 2002, Basilone <em>et al.</em> 2004), Adriatic Sea (Venice lagoon: Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004, north Adriatic Sea: Dulcic 1997, Agostini and Bakun 2002, Soria <em>et al.</em> 2003,Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006,&#160; Novigrad Sea: Sinovcic and Zorica 2006, north and central Adriatic Sea: Santojanni <em>et al.</em> 2003), Aegean Sea (Agostini and Bakun 2002, Turkish waters: Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Giannoulaki <em>et al.</em> 2005,  Somarakis 2005, Ayaz <em>et al.</em> 2006, Cicek <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007), Lebanese waters (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2006, 2007) and Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002). There are some individuals in the Suez Canal and Gulf of Suez. It is also recorded from St. Helena (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988).
198568		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic and oceanodromous species, that occurs mainly along coastal warers, forming large schools. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occupies nearly all the water column, with the core of the population occurring in less then 50 m depth. In winter months it moves deeper in the water column (to around 200 m). Depth range in Mediterranean Sea is from sea level to 285 m, it is common over the continental shelf. Spawning occurs in very shallow water. <br/><br/>It tolerates salinities of 5-41 ppt and in some areas, enters lagoons, estuaries and lakes, especially during spawning. A study of Lloret <em>et al.</em> (2004) provide evidence of the influence of riverine inputs and wind mixing on the productivity of small pelagic fish such as <em>Engraulis encrasicolus</em> in the Mediterranean Sea. It tends to move further north and into surface waters in summer, retreating and descending in winter. It feeds on planktonic organisms (Plounevez and Champalbert 2000). <br/><br/>It spawns from April to November with peaks usually in the warmest months. In the central Adriatic Sea the main reproductive activities occurs between April and September (Sinovcic and Zorica 2006). In the Adriatic, age at maturity is reported as 8.2cm (males and females) (Sinovcic and Zorica 2006). Eggs are ellipsoidal to oval, floating in the upper 50 m and hatching during 24 to 65 hours. In the Ligurian sea juvenile and post larvae occur in shallow waters from September to January (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005). The limits of the spawning season is dependent on temperature and is therefore more restricted in north areas. The sex ratio is 45% female (Koranteng 1993). <br/><br/>A study on the genetic of E. encrasicolus in the Mediterranean Sea (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 1999) underline that in this basin there is a single population with different spawning grounds. Individuals in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Israel) are smaller than individuals further west.
198568		population	eng	This is a very common and abundant species in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>According to Pertierra <em>et al.</em> (1997), data on commercial landings at eight ports in the Mediterranean Sea part of the peninsula Iberica from 1988 to 1992: 14,682t (88-89), 15,111t (89-90), 10,444t (90-91), 10,180t (91-92).<br/><br/>Tudela (1999) mentions that samples of this species were collected from Tarragona (97 specimens with lengths ranging from 10.6 to 12.6 cm), Gulf of Roses (89 specimens with lengths ranging from 8.5 to 15.8 cm TL, Gulf of Lion (79 specimens with lengths ranging from 10.5 to 14.7 cm), Ligurian Sea (94 specimens with lengths ranging from 8.5 to 11.2 cm), Elba island (94 specimens with lengths ranging from 9.8 to 13.3 cm), Tyrrhenian sea (97 specimens with lengths ranging from 9.9 to 13.4 cm).<br/><br/>According to Plounevez and Champalbert (2000), 354 specimens in the period 31/7 - 1/9 1995 and 503 specimens in the period 28/6 - 31/7 1996, were caught in the Gulf of Lion using amid-water trawl towed for about one hour.<br/><br/>Basilone <em>et al.</em> (2004) mentioned that 11,769 specimens with lengths ranging from 6 to 16.5 cm TL were collected from May 2000 to October 2001 in the Strait of Sicily on market landings in the Port of Sciacca, from two different fishing gears (purse seine and mid-water pair trawl).<br/><br/>According to Lloret <em>et al.</em> (2004), landing of anchovies from 0.1t (May 2000) to 344t (June 1999) were registered in the fishing area of the Ebro River (Spain).<br/><br/>Akin <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that mean density values from 0.36 (mouth of the Dalyan river) to 6.27 (mouth of the channel opening to Lake Sultaniye) were obtained from October 1993 and September 1994 in the east Aegean Sea (Turkey), using a trammel nets with inner nets consisting of five 100 m long panels of 17, 20, 25, 28 and 32 mm mesh. The nets of inner panel were sandwiched by two 500 m nets having 110 mm mesh.<br/><br/>According to Sinovcic and Zorica (2006), 1,477 specimens with lengths ranging from 4.5 to 14.5 cm were collected in the Novigrad Sea (Adriatic Sea) in the estuary of Zrmanja river.<br/><br/>Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2006), mentioned that 4,666 specimens with lengths ranging from 3.6 to 11.5 cm TL were collected along Lebanese coasts from May to August 2003 with a purse seine (34 hauls). These specimens were obtained from a sampling on board by removing randomly a 31 bucket of fishes each time seines were taken out.<br/><br/>According to Romanelli <em>et al.</em> (2002), a total of 5,403 specimens (juvenile and larvae) were caught by means of seines (76 in the east Ligurian sea from 16 hauls, 5,140 in the west Ligurian sea 15 hauls, 187 in the Gulf of Salerno 43 hauls).<br/> <br/>Cicek <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that 640 specimens were collected from May 1999 to April 2000 using a bottom trawl nets of 6mm cod-end mesh size, in the Mersin bay (Turkey) in a depth range from 20 to 100 m.<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 200 specimens with lengths ranging from 5.5 to 12.7 cm TL were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).<br/><br/>Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) mentioned that 26 specimens with lengths ranging from 7.7 to 14.7 cm TL were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (north-east Aegean Sea), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled in July (304 ind/h) and May (58 ind/h), during a four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001, November 2001, March 2002 and May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) mentioned that 851 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100m long and 1.30m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/>According to Abdallah (2002), 156 specimens with length from 4.8 to 10.9 cm TL were collected after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30-200 m.<br/><br/>According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM)&#160; (FAO-GFCM, 2007), 410,971 kg were landed form Barcelona fleet in 2005.
198568		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Landing data are between 100,000 to 500,000t. This species can be caught with various gears. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it shows strong spatio-temporal variability related to environmental conditions. There is an important fishery of frys (very young individuals) in some areas in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Its annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 83,412 (1996), 102,203 (1997) 86,708 (1998), 87,149 (1999), 104,159 (2000), 110,768 (2001), 104,748 (2002), 100,738 (2003), 109,449 (2004), 107,909 (2005).<br/><br/>Landings figures show a sharp decline around 1990 in the Black Sea (it apparently disappeared from the Azov Sea then but has since recovered). Figures in the Mediterranean Sea show strong fluctuations.<br/><br/>Some stocks have been assessed by FAO-G<span class="st">eneral Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) SAC (Scientific Advisory Committee) and <span class="st">Sub-Committee on Stock Assessment (SCSA). GSA areas assessed were: GSA1, GSA3, GSA6, GSA7, GSA16, GSA17, GSA18, GSA22. In general these stocks showed a high variability and only in a few cases are showing decreasing trends in recent years.</span>
198570		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198570		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from Cape Blanc, Mauritania northwards to Trondheim (Norway) and Baltic Sea.  <br/><br/>It is also present throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Seas (Wongsomnuk and Manevonk 1973).
198570		habitat	eng	This species is found in estuaries, lagoons and inshore waters over sand or mud, in seagrass or on algae. It feeds on crustaceans (larger amphipods, isopods, shrimps, mysids, small crabs), bivalves, gastropods, polychaetes, chironomid larvae, and sometimes small fish (Miller 1986).
198570		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is a very common and abundant species.
198570		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.  Some specimens are taken for the aquarium trade, but it is not thought to be a threat.
198571		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198571		distribution	eng	<em>Centrolophus niger</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from Nova Scotia and Grand Banks (Canada) to Massachusetts (USA) (Robins and Ray 1986), in the eastern Atlantic (including the Mediterranean) from northern Europe (Barents Sea) southwards to South Africa, and northwards in the Indian Ocean to the western coast of India. It also occurs in eastern Australia (including NSW), New Zealand and the southwestern Pacific (possibly a separate species).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>C. niger</em> occurs through the western basin, and recently was recorded in the northern Adriatic Sea and in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198571		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, epipelagic or mesopelagic species (Haedrich 1990). Juveniles occur in surface waters (Haedrich 1986) and are associated with pelagic medusas and salps (Haedrich 1986). Adults are found in deeper waters (Haedrich 1986). The species may form small schools. It appears to feed on whatever is available, including small fish, squid, large pelagic crustaceans, and other plankton (Haedrich 1986).
198571		population	eng	It is more frequent in the south than in the north in the western Mediterranean (Maurin 1962). It is not a commonly caught species.
198571		threats	eng	This is a tasty fish with market potential. It is mainly caught in trawls. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean there are no FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) landings figures available for this species. It may have commercial potential in the region.
198573		conservation	eng	At the global level, there are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution. <br/><br/>In Bulgaria, the minimum legal landing size is set at 35cm. No other national minimum landing sizes are in place. The species is very mobile and occurs in many marine protected areas in the region. No other specific conservation measures are in place.
198573		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-east Atlantic where its range extends from Norway and Iceland to south to Madeira, Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde. <br/><br/>This species is also widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. It is likely to be even more widespread than current fisheries records show.
198573		habitat	eng	This epipelagic species is found in surface waters and has a migratory pattern similar to that of the mackerel (Muus and Nielsen 1999). It feeds on small fishes, particularly in the families Clupeidae and Engraulidae (in the Black Sea). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966) and eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils (Breder and Rosen 1966).
198573		population	eng	This species is seasonally common in the Mediterranean Sea. There is no specific information available on recent or current population trends.
198573		threats	eng	Globally, there are no visible major threats for this species. It is utilized for food, and is mainly caught in seine nets.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, surface pollution may affect the distribution of the garpike. It is a very mobile fish and as a surface species, any major pollution event is likely to affect it first. There do not appear to be any marked trends for this species in Mediterranean Sea fisheries. It is a commercial species and is caught mainly by beach and boat seines, pelagic trawls, purseines, set nets, small driftnets, fish traps, handlines and trawl lines. It is sometimes a target species in sport and recreational fisheries. There is a good market for garpike in the Mediterranean Sea. It does not appear to be under serious threat at present.
198574		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures in the Mediterranean Sea for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
198574		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic, with a range including south Ireland, Spain and Portugal. Previously it was confused with <em>Belone belone</em>.<br/><br/>This species has also a widespread range throughout the Mediterranean Sea, there are scattered records throughout the region.
198574		habitat	eng	This epipelagic species is found in surface waters. It is oviparous and its eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils (Breder and Rosen 1966).
198574		population	eng	The population trend for this species in the Mediterranean Sea is not known. It is rarer than <em>Belone belone</em>, but fisheries statistics include this in landings figures for other species.
198574		threats	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, surface pollution may affect the distribution of this species. It is a very mobile fish and as a surface species, any major pollution event is likely to affect it first. Total catch and trends are not known. It is a commercial species and is caught mainly by beach and boat seines, pelagic trawls, purse seines, set nets, small driftnets, fish traps, handlines and trawl lines.
198575		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
198575		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the western Atlantic (Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA, Bermuda and north Gulf of Mexico to Brazil), although it is absent from the Caribbean (Smith 1997). There are also records of the species from the north-east Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000).<br/><br/>This species has been found in the west Mediterranean Sea and the far east Mediterranean Sea. The species has been recorded in Israel (Golani 1996, 1997).
198575		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species, mainly found in oceanic surface waters, but occasionally recorded near the coast (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is a very mobile species and is capable of leaping out of the water and gliding for long distances above the surface (Gibbs 1978).
198575		population	eng	This species is only known from only a few records in the Mediterranean Sea.
198575		threats	eng	This is an important species in subsistence fisheries.<br/><br/>As an epipelagic species, any surface pollution event is likely to affect it first. Sometimes it is caught in the Mediterranean Sea, but it is not targeted by any fisheries in the region.
198576		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. This species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution.
198576		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic, ranging from south Norway and Denmark (where it is rare) to Gibraltar. In the western Atlantic, the species occurs around Bermuda (Smith 1997). It has also been recorded in the eastern Indian Ocean (Western Australia) (Hutchins 2003) and Victoria, Australia (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 1994), and throughout subtropical waters of the Pacific Ocean (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>This species occurs in the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), where it has been recorded in the western Mediterranean Sea, including the Ligurian Sea (Moravec and Garibaldi 2003), and also been in the eastern Mediterranean Sea around Israel.
198576		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species found in coastal areas. It is very mobile and can glide above the surface over long distances. It is thought that this behaviour is a means to escape danger. The species spawns during the summer months in Italian waters. It produces eggs with filaments over the entire surface area (Parin 1986).
198576		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species in the Mediterranean Sea region.
198576		threats	eng	This flying fish is not commercially exploited (Maigret and Ly 1986).<br/><br/>As an epipelagic species, any surface pollution event is likely to affect it first. Sometimes this fish is caught in the Mediterranean Sea, but it is not targeted by any fisheries in the region.
198577		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198577		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic from Morocco and Dakar, Senegal to Luanda, and Angola. It also occurs west of Gibraltar.<br/><br/>This species is found in the south Mediterranean Sea including Lebanon and Israel, and off the coast of Tunisia. It has also been recorded in the Bardawil Lagoon in the north part of Sinai.
198577		habitat	eng	Generally this is a benthopelagic species, occurring in coastal waters. It often enters estuaries (Schneider 1990). The species lives on or near the bottom where it feeds on algae and organic debris which it gathers from the surface of the sediment (Dawson 1981). It forms schools and is attracted to lights at night. Its eggs are attached to aquatic vegetation by sticky threads (Collette and Parin 1986).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this is an epipelagic species, living in shallow coastal waters. This species was recorded in the Bardawil Lagoon in the north part of Sinai. It sometimes lives in large schools.
198577		population	eng	This species is not very common in the Mediterranean Sea nor is it rare.
198577		threats	eng	Generally this is a commercial species that is mainly caught by means of trawls.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species has minor and local commercial importance. It is caught by beach seine or purse seine.
198578		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198578		distribution	eng	This is a circumtropical deepwater species, that is present in west Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984-1986, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000).<br/><br/>This species distribution is irregular but widespread, mainly tropical and sub-tropical globally, especially in the western Indian Ocean, and around various island groups elsewhere (including the southwestern Pacific and western Atlantic). Eastern Atlantic distribution includes Azores, Madeira and Canaries, in the Mediterranean Sea this species is only found in the western portion.
198578		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species which occurs on upper continental shelf at 200-800 m. It feeds on crustaceans, fishes, and cephalopods (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198578		population	eng	Very little information is available regarding populations in the Mediterranean Sea. As a deepwater species, it is likely to be under-recorded even where it is present.
198578		threats	eng	This species is incidentally caught in shrimp fisheries (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). When caught it is eaten, although it is not a target species. It is fished with lines and deep trawls (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198579		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. Trawling is banned below 1,000m in EU waters. As a benthopelagic species, it may be less vulnerable that true benthic species to bottom-trawling (although increased midwater trawling would presumably impact this species). This species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198579		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species. In the east Atlantic, it is present from Ireland to Senegal, including Canary Islands, the Gulf of Guinea and also Namibia and South Africa (Heemstra 1986). It is reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992). In the west Indian Ocean, it is present in the Red Sea (Klausewitz 1994) and South Africa (Heemstra 1986), it is not present in the Black and Marmara seas. In the west Atlantic, it occurs from Georges Bank to north Gulf of Mexico, Great Antilles and from Venezuela to south Brazil (Moore pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Within the Mediterranean Sea, it is widespread in deep water: it is present in the Balearic area (Polunin 2001, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Strait of Sicily (Costa 1991, Vitale <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Ionian Sea (D'onghia<em> et al.</em> 1995, 1998; Petrakis 1998; Petrakis <em>et al.</em> 1998; Madurell and Labropoulou 2000; Terrats and Petrakis 2000;  Madurell and Cartes 2001; Mytilineou. <em>et al.</em> 2001;  Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2003; Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004;&#160; Madurell and Cartes 2005; Conisma 2007), the Adriatic Sea (Soljan 1975), the Aegean Sea (Kabasakal 2000, Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), Levantine basin, and the east Mediterranean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198579		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. Maul (1990) states that this species is pelagic but Schneider (1990) indicates that it is demersal. It can be found over muddy bottoms (Sanches 1991). It mainly preys on decapod crustaceans. Its fecundity is high. It occurs between 100 and 1300 m (maximum abundance is around 400-600 m)  (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 1998, Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198579		population	eng	This is a common species.
198579		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Caught <span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">with <span class="hps">bottom trawls (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).<br/><br/>This is not a commercially important species, but it is frequently taken and discarded because of its small size by deepwater fisheries. No other major threats known.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"> <span class="hps"><span class=""></span></span></span></span>
198580		conservation	eng	Some national measures are in place. In Morocco fishing effort controls are in place, there has also been a freeze on investment in canning factories and fishing gear in Morocco. There is no minimum length in place, but a maximum number of individuals per kg (50 per kg) in Morocco.<br/><br/>EU has a minimum landing size adopted by EC countries in the Mediterranean Sea: 11 cm, or EC member states can convert this measure into 55 specimens per kg. There are no minimum landing sizes in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>This species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198580		distribution	eng	This species is present in north-east Atlantic from Iceland (rare) and North Sea, southward to Bay de Gorée, Senegal.<br/><br/>This is a very common and widespread species in the Mediterranean Sea. Gaps in the distribution map are likely due to a lack of data rather than the species not being present in these areas.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs from Alboran Sea (Vargas-Yanez <em>et al.</em> 2007), Iberian coasts from Cape Cervera to Cape Oropesa (Iglesias <em>et al.</em> 2003), Mar Menor (Perez-Ruzafa <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catalan Sea and Balearic islands (Alvarez and Morales-Nin 1992, Olivar <em>et al.</em> 2003, Soria <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lloret <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sabates <em>et al</em>. 2004, Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005, FAO-GFCM 2007), Gulf de Fos (Rasoanarivo <strong style="font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;">et al.</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"> </span>1991), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur<em> et al.</em> 2001), Ligurian sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tunesi and Molinari 2005), Tyrrhenian sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, IREPA 2003, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), Adriatic Sea (Soria <em>et al.</em> 2003, Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sinovcic <em>et al</em>. 2004, Santojanni <em>et al.</em> 2005, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Aegean Sea (Giannoulaki <em>et al</em>. 1999; Tserpes <em>et al.</em> 1999; Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003; Ganias <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004; Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004; Somarakis <em>et al.</em> 2004; Giannoulaki <em>et al.</em> 2005; Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2005; Somarakis <em>et al.</em> 2006), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis et al. 2000), Turkish waters (Canli <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sever <em>et al.</em> 2005, Ayaz <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007), Sea of Marmara (Tarkan <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yuksek<em> et al.</em> 2006), Levantine basin (Goren and Galil 2005), Lebanese waters (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2007), Tunisian waters (Joiris <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also  present in the Black Sea.
198580		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous, littoral species (Brito 1991). The spawning season differs for populations in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Black Sea: in the Mediterranean Sea the species spawns in September-June, with a peak in autumn, in the Black Sea it spawns from June to August. It spawns in the open sea or near the coast, producing 50,000-60,000 eggs with a diameter of 1.5 mm (Muus and Nielsen 1999). This species forms schools, usually at depths between 25 to 55 or even 100 m by day, rising to 10 to 35 m at night. It mainly feeds on planktonic crustaceans and  also on larger organisms. It breeds between 20 to 25 m, near the shore or as much as 100 km out to sea.
198580		population	eng	Fluctuations in recruitment in some areas have been reported in recent years, this results in fluctuations in populations and fishery statistics. However, this is not considered a problem for this species at present.<br/><br/>According to Joiris <em>et al. </em>(1999), 87 specimens were collected in Tunisian waters from small and large seines in the period of August and September 1994.<br/><br/>Romanelli <em>et al.</em> (2002) mentioned that samples were collected in the east and west Ligurian Sea and Gulf of Salerno in the fishing season of 1997, using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m): 70 juvenile were caught in the east Ligurian Sea from 10 hauls conducted in February, 50,000 juvenile were caught in the west Ligurian sea from 17 hauls conducted in January, and 141 juvenile were caught in the Gulf of Salerno from 52 hauls conducted in January, February and March.<br/><br/>According to Ganias <em>et al.</em> (2003), 445 adult sardines were collected during the night from coastal locations of the central Aegean Sea during November and December 1999 and 2000. Sampling was carried out on board the commercial purse seine fleet, as well as on the R.V. ‘‘Philia", by means of a small pelagic trawl (mouth opening: 10m, cod-end mesh size: 10mm) towed near the surface (5-40 m) during 45-60 min, in a stepped oblique manner, at 3-4 knots. A total of 23 purse seine samples and 5 trawl samples were collected in 1999, and 19 purse seine and 11 trawl samples were collected in 2000.<br/><br/>Somarakis <em>et al.</em> (2004) mentioned that 134 samples of adult sardines were collected on a monthly basis from coastal locations of central Greece, from September 1999 to August 2000. Sampling was carried out on board the commercial fleet of Chalkis and Piraeus, operating in the central Aegean Sea, and Patras, operating in the central Ionian Sea.<br/><br/>According to Lloret <em>et al.</em> (2004), landing figures of sardine from Ebro delta (Catalan Sea) varied from 0.1t (for December 2000 and January 2001) to 1,500t (from October 1995).<br/><br/>Sever <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that 365 specimens, with lengths ranging from 9.6 to 14.9 cm FL, were collected on a monthly basis from commercial catches (70% purse net fishing and 30% beach seine) at various sites in Izmir bay from January 1997 to December 1997.<br/><br/>According to Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2006), 3,098 specimens with lengths ranging from 4.4 to 13.0 cm TL, were collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, in the Daoura region, north of Beirut, for 4 months starting from May 2003 with a weekly sample. Fishing activities were conducted with a purse seine (5 mm mesh, 170 m long and 40 m deep).<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) mentioned that 148 specimens (5.5 to 15.0 cm TL) were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary, sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).<br/><br/>According to Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> (2005), 108 specimens were collected in March 1990 and 677 specimens in May in the Porto-Lagos Lagoon from April 1989 to August 1990. Fishes were collected using a nylon centre-bag seine net (3 mm bar mesh size) of 10 m length and 1.2 m height. Sampling was conducted at the end of each month, at the same time of the day. Each haul covered an area of 250 m<sup>2</sup> approximately. The bag seine was hauled inside the small channels of the lagoon, covering the channel from bank to bank at fixed distances.<br/><br/>Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) mentioned that 106 specimen with length varied from 1.9 and 18.4 cm TL were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (North-east Aegean Sea), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990<br/><br/>According to Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> (2004), 7,374 specimens (5.5 to 19.3 cm TL) were caught by purse seine and beach seine throughout the period from January 1998 to February 2003 in the east Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea.<br/><br/>Tarkan et al. (2006) mentioned that 11 specimens (9 to 15.3 cm TL) were collected from six locations in the Marmara Region, Turkey using various type of fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets and electrofishing).<br/><br/>According to FAO-GFCM (2007), 579,370 kg of <em>Sardina pilchardus</em> were caught by the entire Barcelona fleet in 2005.
198580		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Its main catching methods are purse seines, set nets, lampara nets, small drift nets. <br/><em>Sardina pilchardus</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): <br/>224,546 (1996), 209,851 (1997), 204,094 (1998), 212,244 (1999), 215,932 (2000), 199,927 (2001), 189,128 (2002), 179,178 (2003), 181,738 (2004), 203,541 (2005).<br/><br/>In Morocco, this is the main target species (70% of total small pelagic catch) (O. Kada pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Several stocks have been recently assessed by SCSA GFCM (Subcommittee of Stock Assessment for GFCM): stocks in GSA areas: GSA1, GSA3, GSA6, GSA7, GSA16, GSA17, GSA18, GSA22. In most cases, these stocks were considered fully exploited.<br/><br/>Recruitment fluctuations in some areas have been reported in recent years, this results in fluctuations in populations and fishery statistics. However, this is not considered a problem for this species at present. It does not have a particularly high value, it is eaten but often used as bait or fish food.
198581		conservation	eng	There is no information about conservation measures in place for this species.  However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198581		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Gibraltar to Saldanha Bay, South Africa. In the west Atlantic, it is present from Cape Cod, USA to Argentina. It is also present in the Bahamas, Antilles, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean coast (Smith 1997). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this widespread species occurs from Iberian waters (Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002, Iglesias <em>et al.</em> 2003, Sabates <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catalan Sea (Soria <em>et al. </em>2003, FAO-GFCM 2007), Ligurian sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002), Tyrrhenian sea (IREPA 2003), Adriatic Sea (Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> 2004, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Aegean Sea (Moutoupoulou and Stergiou 2002, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tsikliras <em>et al.</em> 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Tsikliras <em>et al.</em> 2007), Levantine basin (Goren and Galil 2005), Lebanes waters (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Tunisian waters (Joiris <em>et al.</em> 1999).
198581		habitat	eng	This is a reef-associated, oceanodromous species. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is an epipelagic species mostly distributed along coastal areas. It forms schools in coastal waters from inshore to edge of shelf. It prefers clear saline water with a minimum temperature below 24°C.  Juveniles tend to stay in nursery areas, but upon maturity they rejoin adult stocks offshore. This species is strongly migratory, often rising to surface at night and dispersing. It mainly feeds on zooplankton, especially copepods. Juveniles take phytoplankton (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993).  It perhaps breeds throughout the year (from June to September for the Mediterranean Sea, the season starts earlier in the east areas), but with distinct peaks. In some areas there are two main spawning periods. The breeding pattern is extremely complex, with two principal spawning periods in some areas (linked with upwelling regimes off west Africa). Trematodes were found in intestinal tract (Bigelow <em>et al. </em>1963). Its preferred climate and habitats are subtropical neritic marine.
198581		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, there is a stock assessment for <em>Sardinella aurita</em> in GSA3 (in 2003) indicating it as stable (O. Kada. pers comm. 2007). Otherwise, there is no data. It is locally abundant in some areas, but never common in markets because of low demand for the species. It is often used for bait and fish food.<br/><br/>According to Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> (2004), 644 juvenile specimens were caught by purse seine and beach seine throughout the period January 1998 to February 2003 in the Zrmanja River estuary, located in the east Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea.<br/><br/>Akin <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that 3.45 specimens per hour were collected from October 1993 to September 1994 in the east Aegean Sea (Turkey waters), using two trammel nets consisting of five 100 m long panels of 17, 20, 25, 28 and 32 mm mesh. The nets of inner panel were sandwiched by two 500 m nets having 110 mm mesh. These nets were deployed over three consecutive days, and remained in place at a given site from 20:00 to 08:00 hour.<br/><br/>According to Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2006) 2,384 specimens (4.8 to 16.4 cm TL), were collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, in the Daoura region, north of Beirut, for 4 months starting from May 2003 with a sample in each week. Fishing activities were conducted with a purse seine (5 mm mesh, 170 m long and 40 m deep).<br/><br/>Sabates <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that in the west Mediterranean Sea, at a basin scale, an overall increase in round sardinella landings was observed over the last 20 years in the period 1950-2003. Landings remained below 5,000 tonnes per year until the early 1980s, and then started an increasing trend that was more apparent in the 1990s. <br/><br/>According to Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003), 19 specimens (2.6 and 20.0 cm TL) were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (north-east Aegean Sea), a shallow coastal lagoon, was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>Tsikliras <em>et al. </em>(2007) mentioned that a sample of 112 female of round <em>Sardinella</em> sp. was collected onboard a commercial purse-seiner in the north-east Mediterranean Sea (Greek Aegean Sea), in early June.<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), 50 specimens (16.4 to 26.2 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted fro selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) mentioned that 21 specimens were obtained seasonally during experimental fishing <br/>trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997-98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 22 specimens (6.6 to 17.0cm TL) were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary, sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).<br/><br/>Tsikliras <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that 8,499 specimens (8.4 to 24.8cm TL) were sampled monthly from commercial purse seine (mesh size 9mm, bar length) for two complete year cycles (September 2000 - August 2002) in the Kavala Gulf (north Aegean Sea).
198581		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. In the Mediterranean Sea, it had a commercial importance up to around the 1970s, but then demand for this species declined (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). Its main catching method is seines.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Sardinella aurita</span> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 174 (1996), 355 (1997), 183 (1998), 114 (1999), 63 (2000), 70 (2001), 62 (2002), 131 (2003), 176 (2004), 162 (2005).<br/><br/>The landing statistics are incomplete and do not indicate population trend, they can be influenced by changing fishery strategies, changes in market demands, etc.
198582		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. There are unlikely to be any specific measures in place. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198582		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Gibraltar to Angola. There is a single specimen recorded from Walvis Bay, Namibia.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in south and east parts. It also penetrates the Suez Canal. It occurs in the Aegean Sea and Turkish coast (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002). It also may be present in the French coast.
198582		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that forms schools in coastal waters, preferring waters of 24°C. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is inshore pelagic and semi-pelagic, it occurs along the coastlines and estuaries. In shallow waters it occurs near the bottom. This species feeds on a variety of small planktonic invertebrates, fish larvae and phytoplankton. It breeds during the warm season (July-September). Juveniles and adults show clear north-south migrations in the Gabon-Congo-Angola sector of their range and also in the Sierra Leone-Mauritania sector, each area having nurseries. The movements are correlated with the seasonal upwelling. Its preferred climate and habitat are subtropical neritic, marine, and estuaries.
198582		population	eng	This species rarely appears in purseines and trammel nets in the east Mediterranean Sea, where it does not appear to occur in large schools (D. Golani pers. comm.). The population density varies across the Mediterranean Sea, it is more abundant in the central and west areas. There are no specific data available to indicate population size or trend.
198582		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Its main catching method is seines. <br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it has only low economic importance. It is also used as bait. It is a coastal species that also occurs in estuarine areas, river pollution may affect certain life stages of this species (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).
198583		conservation	eng	In the Black Sea, this species has some minimum size regulations: 6 cm (Bulgaria, Ukraine) and 7 cm (Romania). No other specific conservation measures are known to be in place. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198583		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from North Sea and Baltic south to Morocco.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in Adriatic (Dulcic 1998), Sea of Marmara (Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Black sea. It does not occur around Israel (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007). It is more common in some areas.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. sprattus balticus</em> ranges from southern Skagerrak, and Mecklenburg and Kiel Bays to Kvarken in the Gulf of Bothnia, and to Kornstadt in the Gulf of Finland.<br/><br/>With a highly variable biomass, the sprat stock shows wide fluctuations but supported intensive fishing by the former Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1970s. More recent increases in exploitation rate are associated with declines in catches, that are linked to the explosion of the predatory ctenophore<em> Mnemiopsis leydei </em>which has been dominant in the pelagic ecosystem since the late 1980s. The stocks of sprat and several other species in the Northern Black Sea may not now be overexploited. The apparent decrease of sprat (boreal) can indicate a global warming process. In other parts of the eastern Mediterranean, new inshore fisheries have developed for very small pelagic species (FAO 2005). There is little scientific information on this species in the Mediterranean.<br/><br/>This species is present in the Northeast Atlantic, North Sea and Baltic south to Morocco, it also occurs in the Mediterranean, Adriatic and Black Seas.
198583		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that usually forms large school near the coast and sometimes entering estuaries (especially the juveniles) (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007), tolerating salinities as low as 4 ppt. This species shows strong migrations between winter feeding and summer spawning grounds. It moves to the surface at night. It feeds on planktonic crustaceans (Flintegård 1987). It spawns at depths of 10-20 m producing 6,000-14,000 pelagic eggs (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Some individuals spawn almost throughout the year, mainly in spring and summer, near the coast or up to 100km out to sea, the young drifting inshore. It spawns from May to June in the Black Sea and from December to April in the Mediterranean Sea, but spawning can occur all year round in both areas (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Its preferred climate and habitats are temperate, neritic, marine and estuaries.
198583		population	eng	This species is common in some areas. It has disappeared recently from the Gulf of Lion (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007), the reasons are unknown. The overall population in the Mediterranean and Black Seas shows strong fluctuations.<br/><br/>According to Sinovcic <em>et al.</em> (2004), 208 specimens were caught by purse seine and beach seine throughout the period January 1998 to February 2003 in the east Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea.
198583		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Juveniles are used as bait and it is also sold as 'brislings' to canneries. Sprat are used in the production of fish meal and as mink food, less for human consumption (Flintegård 1987). <br/><br/><em>Sprattus sprattus</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 28,075 (1996), 28,158 (1997), 38,309 (1998), 39,351 (1999), 42,007 (2000), 63,095 (2001), 70,126 (2002), 63,046 (2003), 49,615 (2004), 53,926 (2005).<br/><br/>Recent figures appear to show an increase in landings (in the Mediterranean and Black Seas) over the last ten years (there was a highly significant decline in the 1990s in the Black Sea (Volovik and Agapov 2003). It is reported to be fished by several types of fishing gear but mostly from trawlers. It is used for food and for industrial purposes (e.g., fishmeal).<br/><br/>Coastal and riverine pollution may be a threat to this species at certain stages in its life history.
198584		conservation	eng	There is no information about specific national management measures in place for this subspecies (A. Srour pers. comm. 2007). It is not known to be listed in any current conventions for the Mediterranean Sea region. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198584		distribution	eng	<em>Gadiculus argenteus</em> is found in the north-east Atlantic around the Strait of Gibraltar and to the south along the Moroccan coast.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this subspecies occurred in the Catalan Sea (Cartes <em>et al.</em> 1994, Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004; Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Cretan Sea (Tsimenides<em> et al.</em> 1991), north Aegean Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em>2004, Filiz and Bilge 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005).
198584		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, sedentary subspecies that occurs over mud, muddy sand, gravel, and rock bottoms. It feeds on small crustaceans and maybe worms and is preyed upon by other fish (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). It spawns during the winter in the west Mediterranean Sea and in the spring further north (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Some major spawning grounds have been found in the west part of the Mediterranean Sea, on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, in deep water.
198584		population	eng	This subspecies often occurs in trawl bycatch, it is not a target species. It does not have a high market value.<br/><br/>According to Gristina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006): this subspecies was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening (62 hauls). Mean density values from unexploited site were 1,536 in 1997 and 1,966 in 1998, from moderately exploited site were 9,050 in 1997 and 6,093 in 1998 and from heavily exploited site were 3,496 in 1997 and 3,201 in 1998.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) mentioned that this subspecies was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), with of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 647 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300 to 500 m (44 hauls) and 0.4 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500 to 700 m (52 hauls).<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this subspecies was sampled during 24h surveys conducted in May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. Eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every three hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30 to 40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively. Eighteen specimens per hour were caught.<br/><br/>Filiz and Bilge (2004) mentioned that 110 specimens with lengths ranging from 6.4 to 10.5 cm TL were collected during March and July 2003 in Sigacik Bay (North Aegean Sea), using a bottom trawl.
198584		threats	eng	This is a subspecies with minor commercial importance. It is mainly and commonly caught through trawls as bycatch in commercial fisheries (A. Srour pers. comm. 2007). When landed in the Atlantic, it is utilized as fish meal, in the Mediterranean Sea when caught it is sold in local food trade only.
198585		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific Mediterranean Sea conservation measures for this species (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007). In Turkey, management measures are in place limiting minimum size of individuals caught in the Mediterranean and Black Seas to 25 cm. There are also area limitations in place (maximum of three nautical miles from the coastline). In Bulgaria and Ukraine minimum size limits are also in place (12 cm). However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198585		distribution	eng	This is a north-east Atlantic species that occurs in the south-east Barents sea and from Iceland to Portugal.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>M. merlangus</em> occurs in the Black Sea, Aegean Sea (Celik and Oehlenschlager 2005, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005,&#160; Kontas 2006, Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007), Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006) and adjacent areas. It is rare in the north-west Mediterranean Sea.
198585		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous species that is more commonly found from 30 to 100 m, mainly on mud and gravel bottoms but also on sand and rock. This species feeds on shrimps, crabs, molluscs, small fish, polychaetes, and cephalopods. The fish migrates to the open sea only after its first year of life. Eggs and juveniles are associated with jellyfish. Upon maturity, small chin barbel which are juveniles characteristics disappear (Prévost 2005).<br/><br/>There are insufficient data available to be able to determine generation length.
198585		population	eng	This is a highly commercial species, mostly in the Black Sea. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) FishStat figures show a declining trend in landings data since 1996.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) mentioned that 1,134 specimens with TL ranging from 14.7 and 33.4 cm were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).
198585		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Landing data from UK, France, Ireland, Netherlands - from 100,000 to 500,000t. It is mainly caught with trawls. Annual landings of Merlangius merlangus (in metric tons) in the Mediterranean and Black Seas show a declining trend between 1996 and 2005 (FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database 2007: Total production 1950-2005): <br/>22,059 (1996), 16,038 (1997), 14,030 (1998), 14,643 (1999), 18,661 (2000), 11,045 (2001), 9,775 (2002), 8,609 (2003), 8,616 (2004), 10,723 (2005).<br/><br/>However, approximately 20% of the landings figures above are based on Mediterranean Sea landing, with 80% based on catch from the Black Sea. The declines of >50% since 1996 are based on Black Sea landings rather than catches in the Mediterranean Sea. Landings from the Mediterranean Sea are increasing.<br/><br/>The landing statistics indicate that the highest landings are recorded for Turkey, the population of this species in the Turkish region of the Black Sea is declining.<br/><br/>Sometimes this species is used in public aquariums. Analysis of level of mercury concentrations in the muscle tissue of this species, caught in Izmir bay (east Aegean Sea) indicate higher concentration values that exceed the limit accepted by World Health Organization (Kontas 2006).
198586		conservation	eng	There is no minimum size in place on catches for this species in many areas, but some nations have minimum size restrictions in place (e.g., minimum size 15 cm for Spain). It is not known to occur in any marine protected areas, it generally occurs in deeper waters.
198586		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from the Barents sea south through the east Norwegian sea, around Iceland, and south along the African coast to Cape Bojador. In the north-west Atlantic, it is present in south Greenland and off south-east Canada and the north-east coast of the USA.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the Alicante Gulf (Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catalan Sea (Calderon-Aguileira 1991, Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005, Bahamon <em>et al.</em> 2006, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007), Gulf of Lion (Lloret <em>et al.</em> 2001), Ligurian Sea (Minganti <em>et al.</em> 1996), Tyrrhenian Sea (Dremiere <em>et al.</em> 1999, Sbrana <em>et al.</em> 2003, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Adriatic Sea (Dremiere <em>et al.</em> 1999, Perugini <em>et al.</em> 2007), east Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou<em> et al.</em> 2005), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), north Aegean Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005) including Turkish waters.
198586		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, that occurs over the continental slope and shelf to more than 1,000 m but more common between 300 to 400 m. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is a mesopelagic and benthopelagic species occurring over muddy and sandy substrate extending out to the edge of the continental slope.<br/><br/>It is possible that the Mediterranean holds a separate population from the Atlantic populations, Atlantic populations show different sizes (A. Di Natale, pers. comm. 2007). There are no current genetic studies known to be in place for this.<br/><br/>This species feeds mostly on small crustaceans, but large individuals also prey on small fish and cephalopods. It makes daily vertical migrations, preferring surface waters at night and the bottom during the day.
198586		population	eng	This species is reported as commonly caught, but is sometimes not landed in some areas because of its low economic value.<br/><br/>Calderon-Aguileira (1991) mentioned that 145,685 specimens were collected from landing ports of Catalan Sea (Barcelona and Blanes) in the period 1950 to 1987. A subsample of 4,767 specimens were used in order to study the growth of this species by means of otolith: a correlation between higher SST and growth was underline.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 14.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300 to 500 m (44 hauls) and 1.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500 to 700 m (52 hauls).<br/><br/>According to FAO-<span class="def2">General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (2007), 69,990 kg were landed in the Catalan Sea from Barcelona fleet in 2005.
198586		threats	eng	In the Atlantic ocean, it is an important commercial species. Landing data coming from Norway, USSR, Denmark and Spain are between 100,000 and 500,000 tons. The main catching methods used were trawls. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, its commercial importance is variable from place to place. Fishing gear used is always trawlers. Annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean and Black Seas (1996 to 2005), obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007) show fluctuations: <br/><br/>18,854 (1996), 20,965 (1997), 32,278 (1998), 23,530 (1999), 26,317 (2000), 27,933 (2001), 14,906 (2002), 11,909 (2003), 9,664 (2004), 10,969 (2005).<br/><br/>The species is mixed with <em>Merluccius merlucciu</em>s landings in some fish auctions. It is likely that fisheries targeting this species will increase in future as they reach greater depths.
198587		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198587		distribution	eng	In east Atlantic, this species is present from the British Isles and Skagerrak to the African coast, including offshore islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species seems to be present in the west part of the basin, but it is not reported in the east basin. It appears to be more of an Atlantic species. There are some old references for Sicily, Naples, the Adriatic Sea, Nice, Algeria and Spanish Mediterranean Sea, but there are no recent records.
198587		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous gregarious fish. Immature fish often occur in large schools. It mostly lives on the outer shelf, but moves inshore to depths of 50 m or less for spawning. This species feeds on benthic crustaceans but also on small fish, molluscs, and polychaetes (Svetovidov 1986).
198587		population	eng	There is no information about this species in the Mediterranean Sea. Some landings statistics are available from Morocco and Spain (FAO FishStat 2007), but no other details.
198587		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. Landing data from France, Spain, Portugal (27) and Morocco (34) are between 10,000 and 50,000t. This species is mainly caught as bycatch, used as food fish (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Sometimes this species is used in public aquariums.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, annual landings statistics (tons) for this species (1996 to 2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007) show an apparent decline: <br/><br/>313 (1996), 388 (1997), 402 (1998), 380 (1999), 275 (2000), 194 (2001), 58 (2002), 142 (2003), 159 (2004), 155 (2005).<br/><br/>The above figures are based on landings in Spain and Morocco. However records for <em>Trisopterus luscus</em> are often mixed with other species and some records from Tangers (Morocco) could be from the Atlantic (A. Srour pers. comm. 2007). It is impossible to determine population trends for this species in the Mediterranean Sea (if the species really occurs there) only based on these figures.
198588		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Currently there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) recommendation (2005/1) forbidding fishing below 1,000 m depth in the Mediterranean Sea. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198588		distribution	eng	In east and central Atlantic, this species is present from Spain and Portugal to Morocco and Madeira.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present west and north of the central basin (including east Ionian Sea) (Mytilineou 2005).
198588		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic, non-migratory species. It can be found in offshore waters on mud, shell and coral bottoms. This species feeds on crustaceans. Its spawning occurs in February.
198588		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is rare in fisheries catches throughout its range, it may occur in deeper areas out of the range of fisheries.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with mean of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range between 500-700 m (52 hauls).
198588		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It can be taken as bycatch and occasionally sold in markets.
198589		conservation	eng	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.  However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198589		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present in the Canary Islands and the Azores.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, the presence of this species has been recently recorded in Sardinian waters (Mura and Cau 2003). This paper gives information about previous records of this species in the Mediterranean Sea, and in particular in the Aegean Sea, in the Ligurian Sea (Orsi-Relini pers. comm.) and in the south Adriatic Sea (Bello pers. comm.). There are no information about the presence of this species in Sicily.
198589		habitat	eng	This is a rare demersal species. It feeds on palaemonid prawns. Its preferred climate is tropical.
198589		population	eng	No data are available on population size or trends in the Mediterranean Sea.
198589		threats	eng	This is a commercial species.
198590		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas that fall within its distribution.
198590		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from the central Norwegian coast and the Faeroe Islands southwards through the North Sea and around the British Isles to the region around the Straits of Gibraltar. It has been reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992).<br/><br/>It also occurs in the west and north coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, extending to east Greece.
198590		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is found on rocky bottoms from 10-120 m but also on mud, sand and gravel. This species feeds on shrimps, crabs, isopods, small fish, molluscs, and polychaetes (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). It spawns during spring and summer in the Mediterranean Sea.
198590		population	eng	No specific data are available to determine population trends or size. It is reported as rarely present in markets (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987).
198590		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. The main catching method is trawlers and bottom longline fishery.
198591		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific Mediterranean Sea conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198591		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from the south-west Barents Sea, sometimes north to Spitsbergen, south-east Greenland, south coast of Iceland, around the British Isles and south to Morocco. It is also present in the north-west Atlantic: Newfoundland.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, the subspecies <em>Molva dypterygia macrophthalma</em> (Rafinesque 1810) is common. It occurs in the Catalan Sea (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006) and in the Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is present everywhere in the west and central Mediterranean Sea.
198591		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is mostly found from 150 to 1,000 m depth on muddy bottoms. This species feeds on crustaceans and fish (flatfishes, gobies, rocklings) (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Maximum size in the Mediterranean Sea is less than 130cm, males are smaller than females, reaching a maximum of 115 cm.<br/><br/>Reproduction occurs from February to March between 500 and 600 m.
198591		population	eng	No data are available to determine population trends or size in the Mediterranean Sea.
198591		threats	eng	This is a commercial species also used as fishmeal. Landing data from France, Faeroe Isles, Norway are between 10,000 to 50,000t. The main catching method is trawlers.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is mainly fished by artisan fisheries. It is marketed frozen and as fresh fillet, but also reduced to fishmeal (FAO 1992, FIGIS 2005). <br/><br/>The annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007) are: 1 (1996), 1 (1997), 1 (1998), - (1999), - (2000), - (2001), - (2002), - (2003), - (2004), 42 (2005). Landing statistics are likely underestimates, nevertheless, catches of this species are low.
198592		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific Mediterranean Sea conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198592		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Irish Atlantic slope south to the Mediterranean Sea, where it is present in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198592		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs on the upper slope (Cohen 1990). Depth range from 388-754 in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198592		population	eng	Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end. The density of the catch was 0.3 individuals per hauls in the depth range between 300-500 m (44 hauls), 0.4 individuals per hauls in the depth range between 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range between 700-900 m (36 hauls).
198592		threats	eng	This is a species without any commercial interest.
198593		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198593		distribution	eng	In the north-west Atlantic, this species is present off south Greenland and Canada. In the north-east Atlantic, it is present in the Barents Sea, Iceland to Morocco.<br/><br/>This species is rare in the Mediterranean Sea. It occurs in the north-west Mediterranean Sea and the Ionian Sea, between 15 to 600 m. It is only known from four official records and may be marginal in the Mediterranean Sea.
198593		habitat	eng	This is a demersal and oceanodromous species. It mainly occurs on rocky bottoms in fairly deep water (Frimodt 1995).  It is more commonly found between 100 to 400 m. Juveniles are found in more littoral waters. This species feeds on fish (cod, herring, flatfish), lobsters, cephalopods, and starfishes. Principal spawning areas are Biscay, slopes west of the British Isles and off the Faeroes and south Iceland (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Its major spawning grounds are located at 200 m depth from the Bay of Biscay to the Gulf of Norway between 100 to 300 m off south Iceland, and between 50 to 300 m in the Mediterranean Sea. Its fecundity may reach 20 to 60 million eggs per female (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).
198593		population	eng	Only four official records are known in the Mediterranean Sea. There are no data on population size or trends.
198593		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. Landing data from Norway, France, Spain, UK, Iceland are between 50,000 to 100,000t. The main catching method for this species is bottom trawl.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is rarely caught. It is not specifically targeted because it is rare in the region.
198594		conservation	eng	Currently there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m.  However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution range.
198594		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic ocean, this species is present from Faroe-Shetland channel to the Canary Islands, including Iceland and Denmark Strait. It is recorded from Levantine basin. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs between 1,200 and 2,600 m. It is present in the west, central and east Mediterranean Sea (Geistdoerfer 1990, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cartes and Carrasson 2004).
198594		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal, non-migratory species. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates (annelids, isopods and mysids) (Geistdoerfer 1986).
198594		population	eng	There is no information on population size or trends. This species is expected to be common in deeper areas.<br/><br/>Cartes and Carrasson (2004) mentioned that 418 specimens were collected with a bottom trawl, during a series of cruises performed in June, July and October 1987-1989 in the Catalano-Balearic basin between 1,308 and 2,251 m depth.
198594		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest.
198595		conservation	eng	Currently there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198595		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from the Azores to west Scotland. It is also reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992). It is also present in west Central Atlantic in the Gulf of Mexico.
198595		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic species. Its depth range is reported at 1,000 to 3,000 m. This species feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Geistdoerfer 1986).
198595		population	eng	There is no information available to determine population trends or size in the Mediterranean Sea.
198595		threats	eng	This species occurs outside the range of fisheries.
198596		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198596		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic (from Portugal to Angola). In the west Atlantic, it is present from Florida straits through the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea to north Brazil. In the Indian Ocean, it is present in the Gulf of Aden, Zanzibar and Maldives (Weitkamp and Sullivan 2003).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the Catalan Sea (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 1995, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), Alboran sea and Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2007), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003), strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2000, Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005, Madurell and Cartes 2006), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Thracian sea and Thermaikos Gulf (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005).
198596		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is most common at depths less than 500 m (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is usually found between 200-800 m. This species have a day-night change in the diet and feeding intensity, preying mainly on mobile suprabenthic prey (Madurell and Cartes 2006). It mainly feeds on pelagic copepods, to a lesser extent on euphausiids and gammarian amphipods, and to a minor extent on shrimps, ostracods, cumaceans and other small crustaceans and small fish (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).
198596		population	eng	This species is abundant in many places.<br/><br/>According to Massuti <em>et al.</em> (1995), 1,001 specimens were obtained from 76 bottom trawls in the Catalan Sea at depths between 147 and 1290 m, using two different semi-balloon otter-trawls. <br/><br/>Madurell <em>et al.</em> (2004) mentioned that a total of 29 hauls were taken during four experimental trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis (April 1999, July-August 1999, November 1999, and February 2000) in the Ionian Sea at two stations between 473 and 603 m depth, using an otter trawl equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 14mm stretched mesh size. 89 specimens per hour were caught during Spring, 619 during Summer and 633 during Winter.<br/><br/>According to Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006), 88 specimens were sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997, Autumn 1998) carried out in the strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 321.5 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 70.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 2.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls).<br/><br/>D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> (2000) mentioned that 6,351 specimens were sampled during eight seasonal trawl surveys from April 1996 to March 1998 in the north-west Ionian Sea (Roccella Ionica Bank). The depth range examined was between 250 and 750m. The surface of the study area was around 754 km<sup>2</sup>. During each survey 12 hauls of 3h duration were carried out from dawn to dusk. The locations of the tows were generally the same for each survey. The final data set comprised 96 hauls for a total of 288h sampling. A professional 75t gross tonnage motor powered vessel, with 360hp engine and equipped with nylon otter trawl net, with stretched mesh of 40 mm in the cod-end, was hired. A cover with stretched mesh of 20 mm was employed on the cod-end to sample small specimens.<br/><br/>According to Moranta <em>et al.</em> (2007), 650 specimens were collected with a research bottom trawl (710 hauls at depths between 27 and 795 m) carried out along the Iberian coast covering a distance of approximately 1,200 km (Alboran sea, Algerian basin and Balearic basin), during spring and for seven consecutive years (i.e., between 1994 and 2000). The average towing speed was 2.8knots. The average horizontal and vertical openings were estimated on 16.4 and 2.8 m respectively. Their lengths ranged from 1 to 5cm (PAL, pre-anal length).
198596		threats	eng	Due to its small size, it is not of significant interest to fisheries (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). This species is mainly caught with trawls.
198597		conservation	eng	Currently there is a GFCM recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198597		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Faroe Bank to north Angola. In the west Atlantic, it is present from the Davis straits to north Brazil.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs along the whole Spanish coast from Catalan Sea (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 1995, Cartes and Carrasson 2004) but also in the Alboran sea and in the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2007). It occurs throughout Mediterranean Sea except in the Adriatic Sea.
198597		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is more demersal and lives on  muddy bottoms between 200-2,320 m. It feeds on benthic as well as pelagic animals like mysids, amphipods, small shrimps, copepods, isopods, ostracods, and polychaete worms (Geistdoerfer 1986). In the Catalan Sea this species preys on benthopelagic resources such as copepods and suprabenthic peracarid crustaceans (Cartes and Carrasson 2004). In the Catalan Sea ripe females were found all year round (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 1995).
198597		population	eng	This is a common species in the Mediterranean Sea, but there are no specific data available to determine population trends at present.<br/><br/>According to Massuti <em>et al.</em> (1995), 995 specimens of <em>Nezumia aequalis</em> were obtained from 76 bottom trawls in the Catalan Sea at depths between 147 and 1290 m using two different semi-balloon otter-trawls. <br/><br/>Cartes and Carrasson (2004) mentioned that 22 specimens were collected with a bottom trawl, during a series of cruises performed in June, July and October 1987-1989 in the Catalano-Balearic basin between 862 and 2261 m depth. <br/><br/>According to Moranta <em>et al.</em> (2007), 14,353 specimens were collected with a research bottom trawl carried out down to 800 m depth along the Iberian coast covering a distance of approximately 1200 km (Alboran sea, Algerian basin and Balearic basin), during spring and for seven consecutive years (i.e., between 1994 and 2000), for a total of 710 hauls at depths between 27 and 795 m. The average towing speed was 2.8knots. The average horizontal and vertical openings were estimated on 16.4 and 2.8 m. Lengths (PAL pre-anal length) varied from 0.5 to 8 cm.
198597		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance, it is mainly used as fish meal and oil source. Its main catching method is trawls. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is rarely marketed.
198598		conservation	eng	Currently there is a GFCM recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198598		distribution	eng	In the Atlantic ocean, this species is present from north Atlantic south to the north part of the Gulf of Guinea in the east into the Mediterranean Sea, and north of Straits of Florida in the west. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea basin this species occurs in the Alboran sea (Rannou 1976), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Levantine basin, and Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2000, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2000, Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilienou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has a wide range in the Mediterranean Sea, including eastern areas.
198598		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs between 500-3,200 m, but it is more abundant between 450 to 730 m in the open Atlantic and between 500 to 800 m in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Ionian Sea its abundance increased with depth and a seasonal pattern was shown in the depth distribution of juveniles (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2000). This opportunistic species has a day-night change in the diet and in feeding intensity, preying mainly on mobile suprabenthic preys (Madurell and Cartes 2006) such as small crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, decapods, mysids, etc.) and polychaetes (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).
198598		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2000) mentioned that 3,948 individuals were collected during 12 experimental trawl surveys carried out monthly between December 1996 and November 1997 in Ionian Sea (Greece), with an otter trawl with a cod-end liner of 16 mm stretched mesh size, within a depth range from 350 to 1,000 m in a total of 76 stations. Higher mean abundances were gathered at 500-550 m depth (116 individuals/h). Size ranged from 0.8 to 6.0 cm.<br/><br/>According to Madurell <em>et al.</em> (2004), a total of 29 hauls was taken during four experimental trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis (April 1999, July-August 1999, November 1999 and February 2000) in the Ionian Sea at two stations between 473 and 603m depth, using an otter trawl equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 14mm stretched mesh size. During these cruises, 251 individuals/h were caught during spring, 696 during summer, 39 during autumn and 478 during winter.<br/><br/>D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> (2000) mentioned that 9331 specimens were sampled during eight seasonal trawl surveys from April 1996 to March 1998 in the north-west Ionian Sea (Roccella Ionica Bank). The depth range examined was between 250 and 750 m. The surface of the study area was 754 km<sup>2</sup>. During each survey 12 hauls of 3h duration were carried out from dawn to dusk. The locations of the tows were generally the same for each survey. The final data set comprised 96 hauls for a total of 288h sampling. A professional 75t gross tonnage motor powered vessel, with 360hp engine and equipped with nylon otter trawl net, with stretched mesh of 40 mm in the cod-end, was hired. A cover with stretched mesh of 20 mm was employed on the cod-end to sample small specimens. The population was generally made up of small individuals the year round, and a maximum age were around nine years.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.2 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 46.5 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls), 35.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls) and 18.5 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 900-1200 m (13 hauls).
198598		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance and is taken as bycatch with trawls and is usually discarded.
198599		conservation	eng	Currently there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198599		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Irish slope to Cape Verde. Its occurrence in south Africa is only based on specimens from off Namibia and not 'west coast of South Africa' as reported by Iwamoto 1986 (in FishBase).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in Catalan Sea (Coll <em>et al</em>. 2006), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005) and also in the Ligurian Sea (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea.
198599		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal, non-migratory species occurring at 400-1,500 m on soft substrates. It feeds primarily on pelagic copepods but also takes mysids, shrimps, cephalopods, fish, polychaetes and gastropods (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Its spawning season is in winter. Maximum size in the Mediterranean Sea is 50 cm.
198599		population	eng	This is a common to abundant species. There are no data on population trends.
198599		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest. It is considered a bycatch, mainly caught with trawlers. It is mainly used for fishmeal and oil (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).
198600		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198600		distribution	eng	In east Atlantic, this species is present off Portugal, Madeira, the Azores and the Great Meteor Bank. Its southern distribution along the west coast of Africa is not clear.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea this species occurred in the central Tyrrhenian sea (IREPA, 2003) and in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs from the west Mediterranean Sea to the Aegean Sea and the east Mediterranean Sea.
198600		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that occurs on the upper slope, over hard bottom (Cohen 1986, 1990). Depth range from 150-700 m (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990) and from 368-748m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is possibly a spring spawner with pelagic larvae (Cohen 1986).
198600		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is not commonly caught. Nothing else about population size or trends are known.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls).
198600		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. This species is taken as bycatch with trawls.
198601		conservation	eng	Currently there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198601		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present in the Azores, Madeira, Portugal and west coast of Spain.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the Catalan Sea (Carrasson <em>et al.</em> 1997, Cartes and Carrasson 2004).
198601		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. This species is an active predator of suprabenthic and epibenthic fauna (Carrasson <em>et al.</em>1997).
198601		population	eng	No specific data are available to be able to determine population size or trends in the Mediterranean Sea.
198601		threats	eng	No threat are known in the Mediterranean Sea. The species occurs at depths greater than the range of fisheries in the area. It also occurs marginally within the Mediterranean Sea.
198602		conservation	eng	Currently there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198602		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Iceland and Faeroes to Cape Bojador, west Africa and including Azores and Madeira. It is reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005). In the west Indian ocean, this species is present south of Madagascar. In the Pacific ocean, it is present in temperate Australia, New Zealand and between Valparaiso, Chile and the Juan Fernandez Islands.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the Catalan Sea (Carrasson <em>et al.</em> 1997, Cartes and Carrasson 2004), in the Gulf of Lion (Solé <em>et al.</em> 2001), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000) and east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species occurs also in the Ligurian Sea (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is also known from the Walvis and Vavilov ridges (Trunov 1991). It is also recorded from around Malta and Greece (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).
198602		habitat	eng	This bathypelagic species is mainly recorded from the upper continental slope (May and Maxwell 1986). It is occasionally found at 50 m. This species is an active predators of suprabenthic and epibenthic fauna (Carrasson et al. 1997). It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and other invertebrates as well as food of terrestrial origin, including garbage. It is probably a winter and early spring spawner (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Its maximum size reach 50cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987), 52cm long individuals have been found (Rotllant <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198602		population	eng	It is not considered as a rare species but is not particularly common.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental survey (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 3.5 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700m (52 hauls), 9.3 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls) and 13.3  individuals per hauls in the depth range of 900-1,200 m (13 hauls).<br/><br/>Cartes and Carrasson (2004) mentioned that 13 specimens were collected in a series of bottom trawl cruises performed in June, July and October 1987-1989, between 984 and 1,589 m in the Catalano-Balearic basin (Catalan Sea, west Mediterranean Sea).<br/>    <br/>According to Carrasson <em>et al.</em> (1997), 93 specimens were collected from the continental slope of the Catalan Sea during a cruises using a semi balloon otter trawl, headline length 13.7 m on a single warp within depths varied from 970 and 1,357 m.
198602		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. The main catching method is trawls. The concentrations of hydrocarbons, PCBs and DDT followed the trend muscle < gills = digestive tube << liver, according to the lipid content of the organs (Solé <em>et al.</em> 2001).
198603		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. For deeper parts of the species' range there is a General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean recommendation (GFCM/2005/1) forbidding trawl and dredge fishing below 1,000 m. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198603		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species in present from Norway and Iceland to Cape Blanc, West Africa.<br/><br/>In the  Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the Catalan Sea (Cartes and Carrasson 2004, Bahamon <em>et al.</em> 2006, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), in the Gulf of Valencia (Salomé Morte <em>et al.</em> 2002), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner<em> et al.</em> 1998), Tyrrhenian sea (Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), Strait of Sicily (Fiorentino <em>et al.</em> 2003, Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Adriatic Sea (Dremiere <em>et al.</em> 1999), east Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Levantine basin, Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005).<br/><br/>It is also known from the east Mediterranean Sea around north-east coast of Egypt, Israel, Lebanon and Syria (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198603		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, oceanodromous species. It is found over sand and mud bottoms (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Its depth range in the Mediterranean Sea is between 50 and 1,047 m. Juveniles are more coastal and found on the continental shelf while adults migrate along the slope (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). It feeds mainly on crustaceans and fishes (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). It is usually less than 45 cm TL (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Sizes at maturity are 18 cm for the males and 33 cm for the females. Lifespan is 20 years.
198603		population	eng	This species is commonly caught, but not abundant.<br/><br/>According to Gristina<em> et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod-end mesh opening. From a whole of 62 hauls, mean density value varied from 3 to 120 specimens per km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>Madurell <em>et al.</em> (2004) mentioned that a mean density of 53 and 135 individuals per hour were collected respectively during Autumn and Winter in the framework of four experimental trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis (April 1999, July-August 1999, November 1999 and February 2000) in the Ionian Sea at two stations between 473 and 603 m depth, using an otter trawl equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 14 mm stretched mesh size.<br/><br/>According to Fiorentino <em>et al.</em> (2003), 883, 1,561, 2,554, 776, 2,399 and 1,943 specimens were collected respectively from 1994 to 1999 within the framework of the MEDITS programme (six surveys carried out once a year): sampling was carried out in June, with the exception of 1998 and 1999 when the trawl surveys lasted from late May to early June. Surveys included trawlable areas from a depth of 10 to 800 m, covering about 44,500 km<sup>2</sup>. A total of 56 hauls were conducted on the same site during each survey: the sampling gear was a bottom trawl with stretched mesh size of 20 mm in the cod-end (GOC 73) and a vertical opening between 2.0 and 2.5 m.<br/><br/>Salomé Morte <em>et al.</em> (2002) mentioned that a total of 3,514 specimens were taken from diurnal commercial catches landed at the port of Valencia (Spain) between October 1991 and October 1994. Monthly samples were caught at depths ranging from 50 to 175 m depth in the Gulf of Valencia.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al</em>. (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end. Densities were 10.6 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 29.0 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls), 7.3 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls) and 0.8 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 900-1200 m (13 hauls).<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001, November 2001, March 2002 and May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea, respectively with densities of 14, 30, 12 and 142 specimens per day. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>According to Filiz and Bilge (2004), 12 specimens (12.3 to 15.0 cm TL) were sampled from March and July 2003 by commercial fisherman from the Sigacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea) at depth between 70 and 378 m.
198603		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. Landing data from Spain and France are between 1,000 to 10,000t. Its main catching method is trawls, trammel nets, set nets, bottom longlines and handlines. <br/><br/>Annual landings in tons in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2005), obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): Total production (1950-2005) in the Mediterranean and Black Seas were: 226 (1996), 241 (1997), 346 (1998), 209 (1999), 129 (2000), 89 (2001), 406 (2002), 417 (2003), 418 (2004), 473 (2005).
198604		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. The species can also be found in marine protected areas.
198604		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present from the Bay of Biscay to Morocco, south to Cape Verde including off-lying islands.<br/><br/>This species is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It occurs in the Alboran sea (Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2004), Iberian coast and Balearic islands (Macpherson <em>et al.</em> 2002, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006, Moranta<em> et al.</em> 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007), Ligurian sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006), Tyrrhenian sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), south Adriatic Sea (Bussotti <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198604		habitat	eng	This benthopelagic, non-migratory species can be found on hard and sandy-muddy bottoms near rocks between 100-650 m, but can sometimes be taken at greater depths (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).It is nocturnal, hiding between rocks during the day (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). It feeds on small fishes and various invertebrates (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). It can sometimes be found in coastal waters, particularly in marine caves. Spawning season is during winter and early spring, generally in May.  Its preferred climate is subtropical.
198604		population	eng	The species has not been assessed by General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. No data are available on population size or trends. Fishery statistics are not specific to this species; it appears to be included with other forkbeard species.<br/><br/>According to Karakulak<em> et al.</em> (2006),  59 specimens (13.7 and 44.5 cm TL) were collected from a survey by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/> <br/>According to FAO-GFCM (2007), 13,344 kg were landed by the Barcelona fishing fleet in 2005.
198604		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. Its main catching methods are trawls, trammel nets, set nets, bottom longlines and handlines. Current catch statistics are not reliable to indicate population trends because it is reported with other species of the same genus.
198605		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198605		distribution	eng	This species is known from the Mediterranean Sea. It is present in Rovinj and Premantura (Istria, north Adriatic Sea), the Italian coast, Ibiza (Baleares), Banyuls-sur-Mer (south France). There are other records of this species in France (Francour and Seytre 2006). It is also present in Antalya Bay (Turkey) (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There are records of this species in the Azores and the Canary Islands (Fricke <em>et al.</em>2010, Hofrichter and Patzner 1997).
198605		habitat	eng	Juveniles, about 1-2 cm (SL), are often observed in association with Sea Urchins and in beds of <em>Posidonia oceanica</em>.  Adults are found hidden under stones covered with red calcareous algae and empty shells of mussels near <em>Posidonia</em> and <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> beds. Among <em>Posidonia</em>, this species is often sympatric with <em>Opeatogenys gracilis</em> (Hofrichter and Patzner 1997).
198605		population	eng	This is an occasional species, which can be locally abundant (Louisy 2001).
198605		threats	eng	A major threat to this species is the destruction of <em>Posidonia</em> seagrass beds.
198606		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198606		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Norway and the Faeroes to Gibraltar.  In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the west part (including the Balearic Islands) and Adriatic Sea. One specimen was recorded from Libya (Zava and Marino 1999). It is also present in the west part of Corsica (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), west Greece and Turkey.
198606		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow water to depths of 200 m on rocky bottoms and bivalve banks. It mainly feeds on benthic organisms (Gibson and Ezzi 1987). It spawns in June-July, eggs measure 1.5 mm. Larvae are pelagic (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198606		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. This is a locally common species.
198606		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198608		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198608		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Morocco to Namibia, it is also present off Table Bay, South Africa (Heemstra 1986). In the west Pacific, it is present in Japan and New Zealand. In the south-east Pacific, it occurs in Chile (Nakamura <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>It is uncommon but widespread in the Mediterranean Sea, including Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Shiganova, 2004), Marmara Sea, Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002), and Israel.
198608		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species. It feeds on squid and midwater fishes (Palmer 1986). It swims with head up (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).
198608		population	eng	This is a widespread but infrequently recorded species due to its mesopelagic habitat.
198608		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest.
198609		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. A preliminary stock assessment for the west Mediterranean Sea has been carried out by the GFCM (GSA No. 6). This species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198609		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from British Isles to Senegal.<br/><br/>This species is also widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. Records include the Gulf of Alicante (Charrier <em>et al.</em> 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Charrier <em>et al</em>. 2006), Ligurian sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002), central Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), south Tyrrhenian sea (Badalamenti <em>et al.</em> 2002), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), east Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), east Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Aegean Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Maravelias and Papaconstantinou 2006), east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Marmara Sea and the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198609		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species, that is found from shallow, inshore waters to 700 m depth. Depth range from 300-1000 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is present in the whole Adriatic Sea, the whole Black Sea, and the Azov Sea. It feeds on nekton, mainly fishes (Caruso 1986).
198609		population	eng	This is a common species. Fisheries landing data (assuming <em>L. piscatorius</em> records refer to<em> L. budegassa</em> as well) show stable catches around 3,000-8,000mt per annum over the last 25 years (FAO Fishstat).<br/><br/>According to Badalamenti <em>et al.</em> (2002), this species was collected from Gulf of Castellammare (south Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1987 and 1988 and between 1994 and 1998 before the trawling ban, by means of trawl hauls of 60min (during the first two years) and 30min (during the second period). The differences between vessels and gear used was corrected using conversion factors. The mean abundance (n. of fish / hauls) were 1.9±0.4, 0.6±0.1, 3.7±0.7 and 9.4±2.7 for 1987,1988,1994 and 1998 respectively.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) mentioned that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001, November 2001, March 2002 and May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every three hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively. Four specimens per hour were caught in July, four in November, two in March and none in May.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), with trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end.  Reported densities were 2.8 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 0.5 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls), 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range 900-1200 m (13 hauls).<br/><br/>Maravelias and Papaconstantinou (2006) reported that this species was found only in the central and north part of the Aegean sea, with the highest mean densities in the Thermaikos Gulf and in the intermediate water depths between 101 and 200 m.<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 15 specimens were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps), with TL ranging from 28.1 to 66.1 cm.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values of 2, 4±6 and 13±10 were available from the three fishing areas in 1997, while mean density values of 5±5, 2 and 20±18 were available for the same areas in 1998.<br/><br/>According to Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> (2005), 1,301 specimens were collected from 9 bottom trawls cruises (each May-June from 1994 to 2002), in an area from Gibraltar to Cape Creus, including Ibiza island, with depth ranges of 10 to 800 m, employing an experimental fishing gear (GOC 73). Sizes varied from 4.0 to 86.5 cm (TL). <em>L. budegassa</em> appeared from depth of 15 m to 757 m but its greater abundance was between 100 and 500 m.<br/><br/>According to Food and Agriculture Organization-General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (FAO-GFCM 2007), 11,864 kg were landed in 2005 by Barcelona fleet.
198609		threats	eng	This is a species with commercial interest. The main catching method is by trawls.<br/><br/>It grows up to 100 cm in body length, but most fish in the Mediterranean Sea that were caught by ground trawling were smaller than 60 cm in length. This may mean that individuals are caught before they are capable of reproducing, as the average length at maturity is 66 cm (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 2002), but more research is required to confirm this.
198610		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198610		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from south-west Barents Sea to Strait of Gibraltar. It was also reported from Iceland (Caruso 1986) and Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986). North Atlantic specimens reach larger sizes than those collected off west Africa and they also occur in shallower depths.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found in all parts, records include the Gulf of Alicante (Charrier <em>et al.</em> 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Charrier <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), east Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), east Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Turkish waters including Marmara Sea and Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198610		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species that occurs on sandy and muddy bottoms from the coast (below 20 m) (Göthel 1992) down to depths of 1,000 m. It may also be found on rocky bottoms (Göthel 1992). Juveniles were collected in the Ligurian sea in soft bottom between 20 and 30 m depth (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005). It lies half-buried in the sediment waiting for its prey. It attracts prey by means of its fishing filament (Maigret and Ly 1986). It mainly feeds on fishes, but occasionally on sea-birds.
198610		population	eng	This is a common species. Fisheries landing data (labelled <em>Lophius piscatorius</em> but in fact referring to the genus as a whole in the Mediterranean Sea) show stable catches in the region of 3,000-8,000mt per annum over the last 25 years (Food and Agriculture Organization Fishstat).<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) mentioned that 15 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 22.3 and 67.0 cm.<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), four specimens were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005, with TL ranging from 28.4 to 48.2 cm.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) reported that this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40 mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls).<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 13 samples were collected from three east Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps), with TL ranging from 32.5 to 68.5 cm.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density of 4±3 and 4±10 number of specimens per km<sup>2</sup> were caught respectively in 1997 and 1998 in the north fishing area.
198610		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial value. Landing data from France, Spain and UK (Frimodt 1995) are between 50,000 to 100,000t. The main catching methods are seines and trawls. <br/><br/><em>L. piscatorius</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007, these data are labelled "piscatorius" but they refers to the genus as a whole in the Mediterranean Sea): 3,558 (1996), 7,810 (1997), 3,869 (1998), 3,715 (1999), 4,035 (2000), 3,924 (2001), 3,338 (2002), 3,487 (2003), 4,211 (2004), 4,235 (2005).<br/><br/>It ranges up to at least 100cm in body length (up to 200cm) (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), but most fish in the Mediterranean Sea trawling grounds are of smaller than 60-70 cm in length, this may mean that fish are typically caught before the age of first maturity (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 2002), but more research is required to confirm this.
198611		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198611		distribution	eng	This is a widespread Mediterranean Sea species (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is present in Murcia (Vidal-Penas <em>et al.</em> 2001), Alboran sea (Sabates <em>et al.</em> 2003, Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007), Ionian Sea (Papakonstantinou 1988, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), north-west Africa (Badcock 1981), east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Seasonally present from Morocco to Mauritania along the edge of the continental shelf. Also known from the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic: Norway and Greenland south to Morocco, and from Mauritania to Guinea (Mauritanian Upwelling Region). Seasonally present from Morocco to Mauritania along the edge of the continental shelf. Also known from the Mediterranean Sea. Western Atlantic: Baffin Bay to northern edge of Gulf Stream. Northwest Atlantic: Canada
198611		habitat	eng	This species occurs between 550 and 1,100 m depth in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is an oceanic mesopelagic species. It is present between 375 and 800 m during the daytime (mainly 500 m) and between 10 and 200, 600 and 800 m at night (mainly 45-70 m, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The mean depth of the fish larvae is 44-97 m (Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007). The preflexion larvae mainly feed on copepod eggs and nauplii, while postflexion larvae consum calanoid copepodites (Sabates <em>et al.</em> 2003).
198611		population	eng	This is a common species. In Alboran sea, the abundance of fish larvae for this species is 3,000-180,000/m<sup>3</sup> (Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007). Its frequency of occurrence in east Ionian Sea is 2.6-9.6 (abundance = 0.1-0.4/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each one (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198611		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats, although it is of potential interest for the fishing industry.
198612		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198612		distribution	eng	This is a Mediterranean Sea species (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is found in the Catalan Sea (Sabates and Saiz 2000), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Sartor <em>et al.</em> 2001), the Alboran Sea (Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007), in north-west Africa (Zelck and Klein 1995) and in the Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988).<br/><br/>This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from France to Mauritania, including the Mediterranean. In the western Atlantic, it can be found from Canada south to the state of Georgia in the United States.  This species has also reported from Iceland, but this needs to be verified.
198612		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, mesopelagic species. During daytime, it occurs between 100 and 1,000 m (mainly 700-800) and during the night between 12 and 300 m (mainly 10-150) and 600 and 800 m (mainly 700-800, Fischer<em> et al.</em> 1987). It occurs between 460 and 1,100 m in east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). The mean depth of fish larvae is 19-84 m (Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007).
198612		population	eng	This is a very common species. In Alboran sea, the abundance of the larvae of this species is 6,000-95,000/m<sup>3</sup> (Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007). In east Ionian Sea, its frequency of occurrence is 1.9-7.7 (abundance = 0.1 - 0.2/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198612		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198613		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198613		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from the British Isles to Mauritania, but there are only isolated specimens in Liberia and South Africa. In the west Atlantic, it is present in the USA up to 22°N, and from Brazil to Argentina. In the west Indian ocean, it is spread between 0° and 30°S. In the west Pacific, it is present between 6°N and 39°N, in New South Wales, in Australia (Paxton <em>et al.</em> 1989) and in New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989).<br/><br/>It is also present in the Mediterranean Sea (FAO 1987): in the Adriatic Sea (Fabiano and Fabiano 1977, Dulcic 2001), strait of Sicily (Tortonese 1970, Bauchot 1987, Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2001), along Algerian coasts, Sicilian and Galician districts (Maurin 1962, Costa 1991), north Tyrrhenian Sea (Sartor <em>et al.</em> 2001, Biagi <em>et al.</em> 2002), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Sinis and Koukouras 1995, Papaconstantinou <em>et al.</em> 1997), Turkish sea and the east Mediterranean Sea (Kaya and Bilecenoglu 2000).  It is a rare migrant in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><br/>In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is found in the British Isles to Mauritania including western Mediterranean, but isolated specimens to Liberia and South Africa. In the Western Atlantic, it is reported from the USA to 22°N, and from Brazil to Argentina. In the Western Indian Ocean it can be found between 0° and 30°S, in the Western Pacific is has been reported between 6°N and 39°N, in New South Wales, Australia and New Zealand.
198613		habitat	eng	This is a meso- and bathypelagic non-migratory species. It is found between 375 and 850 m during the day and between 90 and 850 m during the night (Hulley 1986). Its depth range from 500 to 1,100 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It reaches sexual maturity at a length of 4.8 cm.
198613		population	eng	This is a common species.
198613		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198614		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198614		distribution	eng	This species is globally broadly distributed in tropical and subtropical waters. There is a single record in the Mediterranean Sea (Taning 1918, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984-1986) but it is not included in Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1987).
198614		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, epipelagic to mesopelagic species (Hulley 1986, Mundy 2005), found between 400-930 m during the day and between 18-1,050 m at night - with maximum abundance at 50-100 m and 500-700 m at night (Hulley 1990). Larvae and juveniles are non-migratory at least near the Canary Islands  (Hulley 1990). This species is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae (Moser and Ahlstrom 1996).<br/><br/>During the daytime, this species can be found at depths between 500 and 700 m, during the night it can be found in the upper 100-m layer, but does not reach surface.
198614		population	eng	There is only a single record for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
198614		threats	eng	Major threats are unknown for this species.
198615		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198615		distribution	eng	This is a widespread, nearly pandemic species.  It is found throughout the  Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead 1984-1986, Food and Agriculture Organization 1987,Quignard and Tomasini 2000).
198615		habitat	eng	This species is oceanic and mesopelagic (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It occurs between 700-750 m in daytime and between 150-200 m and 400-700 m at night (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It has been recorded at 614 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al. </em>2005).
198615		population	eng	This species is fairly common. In east Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence for this species is 1.9% (abundance = 0.1/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198615		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198617		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198617		distribution	eng	This species is present in east Atlantic from Portugal to Mauritania and from Angola to South Africa. In the west Atlantic, it is present in Canada to 20°N and from Brazil to Subtropical Convergence. It is also present in the Indian (between 24°S and 40°S) and Pacific (between 15°S and 20°S) Oceans (Hulley 1986).<br/><br/>This species is also present in the Mediterranean Sea (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987), along the south Spanish coasts (Vidal Peñas <em>et al.</em> 2001), Adriatic Sea (Pallarolo and Jardas 1996), Sicily Strait (Berdar and Cavaliere 1979; Costa 1991, 1999), north-west Mediterranean Sea (Sabatés and Masò 1992, Olivar and Palomera 1994), Turkey (Deval 2002), Levantine basin, and east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198617		habitat	eng	This is a meso- and bathypelagic species (Hulley 1986), it is found between 600 and 1,000 m during the day and is nyctoepipelagic near surface and down to 300 m (Hulley 1990). It reaches its sexual maturity at 5.8 cm (Figueiredo <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198617		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
198617		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198618		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198618		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is found in Catalan Sea (Sabates and Maso 1992), in Balearic Islands (Morey <em>et al.</em> 2003), in the Gulf of Lion, Corsica, Gulf of Genova, Algerian coasts, Strait of Sicily, Island of Galite (Maurin 1962) and in Greek Ionian Sea (Politou <em>et al.</em> 2001, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), Levantine basin, Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu 2002). <br/><br/>It also occurs in the Atlantic Ocean, where it has a north temperate pattern (boreal subpattern) and is found between about 33° and 65° N, but with a marked decrease in abundance south of 54° N.
198618		habitat	eng	Juveniles are mesopelagic and adults are benthopelagic (Stefanescu and Cartes 1992). During daytime, it occurs at 100-200 m and 700-1,000 m (mainly 700-800 m), during night, it occurs at 45-150 m and 400-1,000 m (mainly 45-100 m) (Fischer et al. 1987). In west Mediterranean Sea, its length is 8-14.8cm (2-13.1 g) and the length-weight relationship has the following parameters: a = 0.003, b = 3.1562, SE(b) = 0.078, r2 = 0.967 (Morey <em>et al.</em> 2003).
198618		population	eng	This species is very common. In east Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence of this species is 4.4-100.1 (abundance = 0.1-14.4/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Catalan Sea, the frequency of occurrence of this species is 20.3% (Sabates and Maso 1992) and the abundance is 0.03-0.29 kg/h (Politou <em>et al.</em> 2003).
198618		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198619		conservation	eng	Larvae of this species have been found in the Cape Palos-Hormigas Islands marine reserve (Vidal-Penas <em>et al.</em> 2001). No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198619		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead 1984-1986, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), where it is widespread (excluding Adriatic, Aegean and Marmara Seas).<br/><br/>This is an oceanic species found between 425-850 m depth during the day and between 40-125 m at night.
198619		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic mesopelagic species. During daytime, it occurs between 500 and 1,000 m (mainly 600-700 m) and between 50 and 150 m and 325 m (mainly between 70 and 100 m) during the night (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>This oceanic species can be found between 425-850 m during the day and between 40-125 m at night.
198619		population	eng	This is a fairly common species, but not as common as<em>L. crocodilus</em>. Its frequency in ichtyoplankton in Cape Palos-Hormigas Islands marine reserve is 3.47% (Vidal-Penas <em>et al.</em> 2001), and <em>L. pusillus</em> represents 2-20% of the ichtyoplankton in Catalan Sea (Sabates 1990).
198619		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198620		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198620		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984-1986, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), including the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou 2005), Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Iberian coast (Lloris <em>et al.</em> 1984, Massuti 1996). <br/><br/>This species is a circumglobal in the Southern Hemisphere, and it is also found further north in the Atlantic Ocean, between 50°N and 40°S but with a distributional gap between 8°S and 13°S.  It is absent from the South Sargasso Sea.
198620		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, mesopelagic species. During daytime, it occurs between 375 and 600 m (mainly between 375 and 500) and between 25 and 400 m (mainly between 40 and 150 m) at night (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It was recorded at 320 m in east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198620		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species in the east Ionian Sea was 2.2% (abundance = 0.2/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198620		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198621		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198621		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984 -1986, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198621		habitat	eng	This is an oceanic, mesopelagic species. It occurs to 1,000 m in daytime and between 10 and 200 m at night (mainly 45-50 m). Its maximum length is 8.7 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198621		population	eng	This species is fairly common.
198621		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198622		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198622		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Saronikos Gulf (Papaconstantinou <em>et al.</em> 1977), in the Adriatic Sea (Jardas 1979), in the Gulf of Naples (Giglioli 1883), in the Ligurian Sea (Relini-Orsi 1976), in the Strait of Messina (Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1977), in Tyrrhenian sea (Biagi <em>et al.</em> 2002) and in the Strait of Sicily (Castriota <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species has also been reported from Southern France (Sardón 1980) and Barcelona (Allué 1984), but more recent information is needed.
198622		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. In Adriatic Sea, this species is fished at 120-200 m on oozy bottoms (clay, loam) with a standard length from 4.1 to 5.7 cm (Jardas 1979). It was taken at 30 m on bottoms overgrown by seaweed (<em>Posidonia oceanica</em>) in the Gulf of Naples (Giglioli 1883) and at 200 and 420 m in the Ligurian Sea (Relini-Orsi 1976).
198622		population	eng	The frequency of occurrence of this species in east Ionian Sea is 2.2-3.8% (abundance = 0,1 ind/h) in 145 trawl hauls of one hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198622		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
198623		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. The <span class="def2">FAO-General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) ban on trawling below 1000 m may act as a protection for this species. This species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198623		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic. There are scattered localities around the British Isles, Azores and France. It is found along the coast of West Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. It is also reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992) and from the Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998), but these records need to be verified.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea: this species occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea (Geistdoerfer and Rannou 1970, 1972; Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1990; Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992; Goren and Galil 2002; D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004; Lombarte and Cruz 2007), Ionian and Balearic Seas (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998, D'onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004), Liguirian sea (Relini-Orsi 1976), Levantine basin. Two records were done in deep-waters of Israeli coasts (Fishelson <em>et al.</em> 2000, Goren and Galil 2002).
198623		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is viviparous (Nielsen 1986).
198623		population	eng	There is no population information.
198623		threats	eng	There are no known major threats.
198624		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198624		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the Eastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean, probably south to Ascension Island. In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs throughout the basin and off North Africa (Markle and Olney 1990) including in the Tyrrhenian sea (Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Corse waters (Parmentier <em>et al.</em> 2000) and in the Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Louisy 2002).
198624		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999). Adults typically live as commensals in the gut of shallow-water holothurians, <em>Holothuria tubulosa</em> and <em>Stichopus regalis</em> (although some deep-water records exist, see Markle and Olney 1990). Prejuveniles (tenuis larvae) probably inhabit the same host species while the vexillifer and egg-rafts are planktonic. The fish may partly protrude or entirely leave its host at night to feed on small fish and benthic invertebrates. Reproduction occurs in July-September (Trott and Olney 1986). It is not yet established whether spawning is seasonal or sporadic in carapids. Eggs are elliptical and planktonic (Trott 1981). This species mainly feeds on crustaceans (Arnold 1956).
198624		population	eng	This is a rather common species.<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001, November 2001, March 2002 and May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every three hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end. 18 specimens per hour were caught in July, 40 in November, 16 in March and 70 in May.<br/><br/>Ungaro <em>et al.</em> (1999) mention that this species was sampled from trawl surveys carried out in the south Adriatic Sea, during summer 1996 and 1997 inside 112 stations (one haul/60 square nautical miles) with 72 hauls in the Italian area and 40 hauls in the Albanian area each year. Using an otter trawl net (length 40 m, wing spread 8 m) with a 10 mm mesh size at the cod-end, three specimens were caught in the Albanian area, one in the 51-100, 101-200 and 201-500 bathymetric ranges, respectively.
198624		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. It is caught as bycatch by trawls. If the host is threatened, this would have damaging consequences for <em>C. acus</em>.
198625		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198625		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic, from south England to Senegal. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs throughout the basin, including in the Catalan Sea (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), Levantine basin, and in the Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006). An unusually deep record of <em>Ophidion barbatum</em> from Israel was from a  of 1,456 m (Goren and Galil 2002).
198625		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).This species is found from 5-400 m, but has a single record from 1456 m.
198625		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), nine specimens were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005, with TL ranging from 19.7 to 25.4 cm.<br/><br/>Letourneur <em>et al.</em> (2001) mention that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed, soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River.  Here, a small beam trawl was used with opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size, and a mean density of 0.18 ± 0.36 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30min of trawling (mean speed: two knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m<sup>2</sup>, at depths of 5-8 m.
198625		threats	eng	This is a species with no commercial interest. This species is caught by trawls and mostly discarded.
198626		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Trawling is banned below 1,000 m in European waters. This species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198626		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Namibia including southwestern Ireland and the Bay of Biscay. In the Mediterranean Sea it is found only on the northwestern coast, and the Alboran Sea eastwards to Algeria. It occurs in Catalan Sea (Maurin 1962, Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992), Gulf of Lion and Corsica (Maurin 1962), Catalan and Balearic basin (Demestre and Cartes 2001) and south-west Balearic Island (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198626		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. In Catalan Sea, the dominant size class of this species is 24-28 cm (4-6 years old) with a complete absence of 0-1 years old individuals (<17cm) at depths below 1,400 m (Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992). It lives in depths of 984-2,133 m with a probable reproductive migration to shallower water (1,000-1,200 m) (Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is fished at depths greater than 600 m in Catalan Sea, at 1,000-1,140 m in Lion gulf, at 300-850 m in Corsica (Maurin 1962) and at 700-1,714 m in south-west Balearic Island (Moranta <em>et al</em>. 2004).
198626		population	eng	This species is very common and abundant in the west Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>In the south-west Balearic Island, the frequency of appearance of this species is 66.67% (mean abundance = 15.03-16.65) in 39 trawl hauls (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2004). Sexual maturity occurs at 23.6 cm for males and at 27.7 cm for females.  They live up to 32 years. This species is a typical K strategist (Morales-Nin <em>et al.</em> 1996).
198626		threats	eng	This species has no commercial interest.  There are no known major threats.
198627		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198627		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from south Spain to Cape Blanc in Mauritania. It is widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea but is not found in the Black Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is fairly widespread, records include the Catalan Sea (Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005), Balearic islands (Mayol <em>et al.</em> 2000), Tyrrhenian sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001), Aegean Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007), Turkish Anatolian coast (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007) and east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198627		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, it is found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope, probably near the bottom. In the central Tyrrhenian Sea, this species typified a fish assemblage associated with shelf-break areas with <em>Leptometra phalangium</em> (Echinodermata: Crinoidea) (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds on pelagic crustaceans. It spawns from winter to spring in the Mediterranean Sea (Cohen 1984). It is found at depths of 150-500 m (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198627		population	eng	This species is common and abundant.<br/><br/>According to Ungaro <em>et al.</em> (1999), this species was sampled from trawl surveys carried out in the south Adriatic Sea, during summer 1996 and 1997. There were 112 stations (1 haul/60 square nautical miles) with 72 hauls in the Italian area and 40 hauls in the Albanian area each year, using an otter trawl net (length 40 m, wing spread 8 m) with a 10 mm mesh size at the cod-end. Two specimens were caught in the Albanian area at depths of 101-200 m and 201-500 m respectively, and one specimen was caught in the Italian area at the 201-500 m depth range.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) reported that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001, November 2001, March 2002 and May 2002 in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end, respectively. 288 specimens per hour were caught in July, 412 in November, 870 in March and 836 in May.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28mm cod-end mesh opening. Mean densities of 3,113±1,297 and 1,515±833 were recorded from the south fishing area in 1997 and 1998, respectively.
198627		threats	eng	This species has no commercial interest.
198628		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198628		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). There are scattered records throughout the basin including the Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Turkish seas (Aegean and Anatolian) (Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007) and east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198628		habitat	eng	This species is mesopelagic and solitary (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198628		population	eng	This is a widely distributed but solitary species, probably more common than the paucity of records suggests.
198628		threats	eng	This species has no commercial interest. There are no known major threats.
198629		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198629		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southern Ireland to western Sahara. It is rare but widespread in eastern and western Mediterranean Sea.  <br/><br/>This species is widespread in the west Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984-1986), records for this region include Aegean Sea, Libyan sea (Papaconstantinou 1988), Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coasts of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Fricke <em>et al.</em> 2007), east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198629		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198629		population	eng	This species has been rarely recorded, it is presumably scarce.
198629		threats	eng	This species is not commercially utilized.
198630		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution range.
198630		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnammodytes cicerelus</em> occurs in the northern Mediterranean, including Catalan Sea (Sardà <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Adriatic, the Aegean (Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006, only as ichthyoplankton), the Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea. It has been recorded from Portugal, southern Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, and Angola (Quéro 1990).
198630		habitat	eng	It is a demersal, burrowing species, found over sand substrata (Wheeler 1979).
198630		population	eng	No specific population information is available on this species.<br/><br/>In the Catalan Sea the landing data for this species was 265.1 tons/year (Sardà <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198630		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. <br/><br/>Inside the Mediterranean it is mainly caught by beach seine. No serious threats are known.
198632		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198632		distribution	eng	In the west Atlantic, this species is present in Bermuda, Florida (USA), and north Gulf of Mexico to Brazil. In the east Atlantic, it is present from Mauritania to Möwe Bay, Namibia including the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>This species also ranges throughout the north Mediterranean Sea, including the following most south localities of the northern coast: Torremolinos and Taramay near Motril (Spain), Sicily, Kyra Island (Gulf of Aigina) and near Palaea Epidavros, Peloponnes (Greece) (Bath 1990). It is very common along the coast of Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>It is also found along the Ligurian sea (Nieder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).
198632		habitat	eng	This species inhabit shallow rocky areas and tide pools. It hides in empty <em>Strombus gigas</em> shells (Cervigón 1994), holes or between rocks or algae (Zander 1986).  <br/><br/>This species is herbivorous (Randall 1996). It has an unusual erectile nuchal crest (Nieder 1996). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).
198632		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is common throughout the range in the Mediterranean Sea.
198632		threats	eng	Pollution is a major threat to this species.
198633		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198633		distribution	eng	<em>Callanthias ruber</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic from the English Channel (occasional occurrences) to Mauritania, including Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary Islands. It also occurs throughout the Mediterranean.
198633		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found on rocks and muddy substrata at depths of 50 to 500 m. It is most frequently caught in trawls between 300 and 500 m in Turkey (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
198633		population	eng	This is a small, deepwater species that has very little population-relevant information and no fishery statistics available.
198633		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It has no commercial value and is mainly caught as bycatch in trawls.
198634		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198634		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus lyra</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, recorded from southern Iceland and Norway south to Mauritania, and Azores and the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>This species occurs in the western and northern Mediterranean, including Morocco and Algeria, Tunisia, Adriatic Sea, Aegean, and the Sea of Marmara. It also occurs in the western Black Sea.
198634		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, occurring on sand and muddy substrata from the sublittoral zone to 200 m (Wheeler 1979) and to 400 m or more (Flintegård 1987). It feeds on small invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans. It is a territorial species and males are aggressive to each other. The species has a complex courtship behaviour consisting of four phases: courtship, pairing, ascending, and releasing eggs and milt. Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Fricke 1986).
198634		population	eng	In the Mediterranean it is an uncommon species. It occasionally appears in trawl catches, and is sometimes seen in shallow waters (20 to 25 m) around Istanbul. Nothing else is known about population size or trends.
198634		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. <br/><br/>This species is not commercially fished in the Mediterranean, it is usually discarded when caught. However, it regularly appears in Moroccan markets (Food and Agriculture Organization identification guide 1987).
198635		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198635		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus maculatus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, recorded from southern and western Iceland and Norway south to Senegal. <br/><br/> This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean, including the Adriatic and Aegean and Sea of Marmara, but it does not occur in the Black Sea. This species occurs also in the Ligurian Sea (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986).
198635		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, benthic species occurring on sandy substrata. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms, snails and crustaceans. Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Fricke 1986). The species is caught from 100 to 400 m depth in Algeria (Maurin 1962).
198635		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
198635		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is probably discarded when caught in trawl catches.
198636		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198636		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus pusillus</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. It has been recorded from the Portuguese coast as far north as Lisbon.<br/><br/>This species occurs throughout the western Mediterranean basin and the northern shore of the eastern Mediterranean basin, including the Adriatic and Aegean, as well as Lebanon and Israel. It is also present in the Black Sea but not in the Sea of Azov.
198636		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, inhabiting shallow waters with sandy substrata, but reported to be occasionally found at a depth of 100 m (Food and Agriculture Organization 1987). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans (Fricke 1986).
198636		population	eng	The species is rare in Israel and Lebanon, probably due to competition from Red Sea immigrant species.
198636		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. <br/><br/>This species is not commercially fished in the Mediterranean. There is a potential threat from competition from Red Sea immigrant species (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).
198637		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198637		distribution	eng	<em>Callionymus risso</em> is an eastern Atlantic species. It is a near-endemic to the Mediterranean, occurring in the northern Mediterranean from Gibraltar to the coast of Israel, including the Adriatic, Aegean and western and northern Black Sea, also Tunisia. The species is rarely seen off Portugal.
198637		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found on sandy substrata in shallow coastal waters. It feeds on small bottom invertebrates, mainly worms and crustaceans. Oviparous, eggs and larvae are pelagic.
198637		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>C. risso</em> was relatively common in the past but since the late 1970s it has become rare in Israel and the Lebanon, possibly because of competition with Red Sea immigrant species (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007). No information is available from elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
198637		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. <br/><br/>The only potential threat known to this species in the Mediterranean region is from competition with Red Sea immigrant species in the eastern Mediterranean (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007).
198638		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198638		distribution	eng	<em>Synchiropus phaeton</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal and the Azores to Gabon, including the Mediterranean Sea, where it occurs from the Alboran Sea across the northern coast to the Levant, including the Adriatic. It has also been recorded along the eastern Algerian coast. It is not present in the northern Aegean.
198638		habitat	eng	A demersal species, occurring at depths of 80 to 650 m (Davis and Fricke 1990), and from 302 to 848 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou<em> et al.</em> 2005). It is found on sand or mud substrata. The species is territorial and males are aggressive to each other. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly worms, snails and crustaceans. Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Fricke 1986).
198638		population	eng	There is currently no specific population information available for this species.
198638		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is not commercially fished.
198640		conservation	eng	This species may occur in marine protected areas.
198640		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the British Isles to Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands.  It is also in western and central Mediterranean Sea.
198640		habitat	eng	Adults are pelagic or demersal (Smith-Vaniz <em>et al.</em> 1990) and are found mostly in shallow waters.  This species feeds mainly on schooling fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1986).<br/><br/>This is a widespread Atlantic-Mediterranean inshore-pelagic schooling species, about which little is known in the Mediterranean Sea.
198640		population	eng	It is only occasionally caught.  No information on population abundance or size.
198640		threats	eng	This species is very rare in fisheries and is caught with bottom and pelagic trawls.
198641		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.
198641		distribution	eng	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is found from Morocco to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Gabes) (Ben Souissi <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Its range is reported to extend south to Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). It is found also along the Alboran Sea.
198641		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic and near-bottom species that form schools.  It occurs frequently near the bottom, mostly in depths of 30-50 m, but can be found to 200 m.  It is also pelagic and found near the surface at times.  It feeds on small fish and invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz and Berry 1981).  Spawning grounds are located in shallow waters (Overko 1979). It is a partial spawner (Overko 1979).
198641		population	eng	This species was reported for the first time in 1994 in the Balearic Islands and subsequently the abundance has increased (Grau and Riera 2001).  The population appears to be stable in eastern Mediterranean (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007), and it is relatively common in small sizes in Lebanon (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007).  It is caught in the Strait of Italy but is very rare there (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).
198641		threats	eng	This is a commercial species that could be caught with trawls and purse seines.  Landings in Ghana and Romania area 34 range from 10,000 to 50,000t.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean it is caught as purse seine bycatch seasonally.  It is also caught in beach and boat seines, and hand and troll lines.
198642		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.  There is a minimum size requirement of 20 cm TL in Turkey.
198642		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from southern Bay of Biscay to South Africa, including the Mediterranean. In this basin <em>Lichia amia</em> occurs in the Iberian waters (Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002), in the southern Tunisia (Ben Souissi <em>et al.</em> 2005), in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002), in the central Adriatic Sea (Duclic and Glamuzina 2006), and in the Aegean waters (Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198642		habitat	eng	This species is pelagic and oceanodromous. It occasionally enters the lower reaches of Kunene and Orange Rivers (Okeyo 2003). It is found in coastal waters including estuaries.  It feeds mainly on fish, juveniles prefer crustaceans (Van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 68 specimens (33.6 to 49.5 cm TL) were collected from three eastern Adriatic estuarine systems (Tar cove, sampled between September 1999 and September 2000, Duce-Glava, sampled between October 1998 and October 1999, River Neretva estuary sampled between December 2002 and December 2003), using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps).<br/><br/>Romanelli <em>et al.</em> (2002) states that 15 juvenile specimens was collected in the Gulf of Salerno in the fishing season of 1997, with 52 hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m).
198642		population	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, this fish is widespread but not common and abundant only seasonally in certain areas.  The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings for this species show dramatic declines.  However, it is obvious that these statistics are an aggregation of at least two species.  Under Leerfish in Turkey, are often included as Greater Amberjack since the local common name is the same.  In 2000, the Leerfish and Greater Amberjack were separated apart in the statistics in Turkey and therefore it appears as if the dramatic declines are due to a statistical anomaly.
198642		threats	eng	<em>Lichia amia</em> is a commercial species that is caught with hook and line and is a popular game fish.  Landings from area 34 (Atlantinc, Easter Central) and 37 (Mediterranean and Balck Sea) range from 1,000 to 10,000t.
198643		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.  In the Balearic Islands there are seasonal bans between May and September on individuals smaller than 35 cm (E. Massuti pers. comm.).
198643		distribution	eng	This species is circumglobal.  In the Indo-West Pacific, it is found in South Africa, the Persian Gulf, southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, south to New Caledonia, Mariana and Caroline islands in Micronesia.  In the western Atlantic, it is found in Bermuda (Smith 1997) and Nova Scotia, Canada to Brazil, and is also from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea (Cervigón 1993).  In the eastern Atlantic, it is found along the  British coast (vagrant) to Morocco and the Mediterranean Sea.  Its distribution in eastern central Atlantic along the African coast is not well established due to past confusion with <em>Seriola carpenteri</em>.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin, <em>S. dumerili</em> occurred along the Iberian coasts (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2001, Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002, Valle <em>et al.</em> 2007), Gulf of Lions (Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005), central and southern Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007, Sinopoli <em>et al.</em> 2007), south-eastern Adriatic Sea (Kozul <em>et al.</em> 2001), Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Lebanese waters (Barcihe <em>et al.</em> 2007).
198643		habitat	eng	This species is mainly reef-associated and oceanodromous. It inhabits deep seaward reefs, occasionally entering coastal bays.  It feeds primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad and also feeds on invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz 1986).  Small juveniles associate with floating plants or debris in oceanic and offshore waters. The utilization of FADs occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Deudero 2001, Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002, Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007, Sinopoli <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also associated with sea cages located in open waters for maricultiure (Valle <em>et al.</em> 2007). Juveniles form small schools or are solitary (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It is reported to cause ciguatera in some areas (Smith 1997). Spawning happens during the summer, in areas near the coast. Embryo development lasts about 40 hours at 23° and larval development lasts 31-36 days. Egg size is 1.9mm, larval size at hatching is 2.9 mm.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is found on rocky areas and on wrecks but also in open areas.
198643		population	eng	<em>Seriola dumerili</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007) were as follows: 799 (1996), 416 (1997), 331 (1998), 954 (1999), 591 (2000), 862 (2001), 677 (2002), 664 (2003), 868 (2004), and 1645 (2005).<br/><br/>Deudero (2001) collected 180 specimens (5.4 to 28.6 cm TL) fortnightly in two FAD (Fish Aggregation Device)stations from a commercial fishing boat by means of an experimental purse seine of 64 m length and 14 m height with a codend mesh of 2 mm. Data were collected from a total of 133 hauls carried out on 38 sampling dates from April 1995 to February 1997.<br/><br/>Kozul <em>et al.</em> (2001) found 298 specimens (2 to 160 cm TL) in spring (from 17 May to 26 June 1997) as a part of the commercial landings in Donji Molunat Bay in the southern-most part of the Croatian coast, 40 km south-east of Dubrovnik. When amberjack entered the bay and arrived at the shallowest part, fishermen closed in using a beach seine with bag (stretched mesh size 5-8 cm), with a total length of 350 m and depth of 5 m. <br/><br/>Additional samples were collected by means of a modified purse seine with a cod-end mesh size of 2 mm from January 2000 to January 2001 with fortnightly periodicity, obtaining 26 sampling dates, for a total of 156 hauls, conducted within an experimental field of 170 FADs (Fish Aggregating Devices) between Capo D'Orlando and the Eolian Islands (southern Tyrrhenian Sea)(Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected two specimens (32.8 and 34 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. <br/><br/>One specimen was collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, along the northern side of Beirut.  Fishing activities were conducted with a purse seine (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>One specimen was also found at juvenile stage in the Gulf of Salerno in the fishing season of 1997, after 52 hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>FAO statistics for this species are confused with other carangids such as the Leerfish in some countries.  However the catch statistics show steadily increasing landings from 1950 to the present.  This species is commonly present in the market throughout the Mediterranean.  A very large number of juveniles are caught every year.
198643		threats	eng	This species has a minor commercial importance. It is mainly caught by means of purse seines, fixed nets, hooks and lines. This species is used for commercial aquaculture and can be found in public aquariums.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, juveniles are frequently caught as bycatch to the dolphin fishery and both juveniles and adults are also targeted by purse seines, beach seines, spear fishing and trolling.  In Balearic Islands and elsewhere this species is targeted in recreational and sport fishing.
198644		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas.
198644		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from the  Bay of Biscay, British and Scandinavian waters (rare vagrant) to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea and offshore islands. In the Mediterranean basin <em>T. ovatus</em> occurs in Spanish waters (Dempster <em>et al.</em> 2002), Ligurian sea (Tunesi <em>et al</em>. 2002, Molinari 2005), southern Tyrrhenian sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea (Celik and Oehlenshlager 2005), and Egyptian waters (Adbullah 2002).<br/><br/>This species is apparently absent from the northern Adriatic Sea.
198644		habitat	eng	<em>Trachinotus ovatus</em> is a pelagic species, moderately common in shallow water in areas of surge. It is generally found in clear waters (Ly <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996), over sand or mud substrata (Reiner 1996).  It forms schools (Ly <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Small specimens are regularly caught at night from steep rocky shores.  It feeds on small crustaceans, molluscs and fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1986).
198644		population	eng	Abdallah (2002) surveyed the Egyptian waters, during eighteen cruises using commercial bottom trawlers in 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30-200m between 29° 30' and 30° 22' E. 45 specimens were caught from a total of 162 fishing hours, ranging from 3.4 to 23.3 cm TL.<br/><br/>This species is common but not abundant throughout most of its range.  Its population is stable in Turkey, at least during the last 10 years (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007).  It is found in experimental aquaculture in the Adriatic Sea.
198644		threats	eng	This species is of minor commercial importance. It is used for aquaculture and is found in public aquariums.<br/><br/>It is usually caught by gill nets, surrounding nets, hand lines, beach seines, and bottom long lines.<br/><br/>This Atlanto-Mediterranean species is fished commercially. Individuals will aggregate to feed upon food pellets lost through the cages of fish farms (Demspter <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198645		conservation	eng	Minimum length for the EU is 15 cm TL, 13 cm in Turkey, 10 cm in Ukraine, and 12 cm in Bulgaria and Romania.
198645		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from the Bay of Biscay to Mauritania including the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean basin, <em>T. mediterraneus</em> occurs from Iberian coasts (Garcia-Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, FAO-GFCM 2007, Valle <em>et al.</em> 2007), Balearic islands (Deudero 2001), Gulf of Lions (Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000, Letoruneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), Ligurian Sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), central Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003 Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005) southern Tyrrhenian sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006, Santic <em>et al.</em> 2006), Cretan sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Aegean Sea (Karlou-Riga 2000, Moutopoulou and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Stergiou <em>et al.</em> 2004, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007, Tzikas <em>et al.</em> 2007) and Lebanese coasts (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2006, 2007). The subspecies <em>Trachurus mediterraneus ponticus</em> occurs in the Marmara and Black seas, southern and western parts of the Azov Sea.
198645		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species, that can usually be found near the bottom, at times also in surface waters. It is a migratory species that forms large schools.  In the northwestern Mediterranean (Ligurian sea), juveniles of <em>T. mediterraneus</em> occur in shallow waters (< 30 m) during summer (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on other fishes especially sardines, anchovies, etc. and small crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1986).
198645		population	eng	Karlou-Riga (2000) collected 4612 specimens (5.6 to 39.3 cm TL) from commercial purse seines, beach seines, and gill nets in the Gulf of Saronikos, from August 1989 to November 1991.<br/><br/>Santic et al. (2006) reported 1245 specimens (14.8 to 39.1 cm TL) were collected from 12 localities in the eastern Adriatic Sea along the continental shelf.  Specimens were collected at depths from 60 to 175 m, with bottom trawls (stretched cod-end mesh size of 22-24 mm), from January to December 2003.<br/><br/>1728 specimens, with TL from (14.0 to 30.0 cm TL) were collected from November 2001 to November 2005 in coastal waters of Chalkidiki Peninsula (Northern Greece) by commercial purse seiners (Tzikas <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) collected 12 specimens from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 6.8 and 16.3 cm.<br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006 collected 31 specimens (14.2 to 26.6 cm TL) from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. <br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) caught 154 specimens with gill nets and long-lines during 1997 -1998 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades).<br/><br/>158 specimens (20.5 to 33.3cm TL) were collected from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean) (Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003).  Samples were collected with: (a) gillnets of mesh-sizes 22, 24, 26 and 28mm (bar length) and longlines of hook sizes no. 11, 12, 13 and 15 (Mustad brand), during October 1997 to October 1998, and (b) trammel nets of inner mesh-sizes 20, 24 and 28 mm (bar length), during October 1999 to September 2000. Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90 m. <br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 15 specimens, (11.5 to 25.9cm TL) with various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three eastern Adriatic estuarine systems between 1998 to 2003.<br/><br/>Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) reported 21 specimens (11.7 to 25.7 cm TL) were collected using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets) in the Porto-Lagos (NE Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon, between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>Deudero (2001) collected 103 specimens (3.6 to 9.8 cm TL) by means of an experimental purse seine of 64m length and 14 m height with a cod-end mesh of 2 mm, from a total of 133 hauls carried out from April 1995 to February 1997 in the oceanic waters off the eastern Majorcan coast, around fish aggregating devices.<br/><br/>Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported 21 specimens (11.7 to 25.7 cm TL), collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, along the northern side of Beirut, with a purse seine (5 mm mesh, 170 m long and 40 m deep).<br/><br/>102 specimens were collected in the Ligurian Sea and in the Gulf of Salerno, in the fishing season of 1997, using a hand hauled commercial seine(Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/><br/>In 2005 the Barcelona fleet caught 259,479kg of <em>T. mediterraneus</em>(FAO-GFCM 2007).  Stergiou <em>et al.</em> (2004) reported 1438 specimens (12.4 to 34.1 cm TL), which were collected using various fishing gears (purse-seine, trawls, trammel nets, gill nets) in Cyclades (Aegean Sea) during 1995-2000.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is widespread, very common and abundant throughout most of its range.  Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics for this species are largely incomplete and show a dramatic increase in catch, primarily from Turkey, up to around 130,000 mt in the mid-1980s.  In the early 1990s, these landings decreased to around 18,000 mt and have been stable for over 10 years (generation length = 1 year for this species).
198645		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It can be caught by various gears such as seines and fixed nets.<br/><br/>The contribution of <em>Trachurus mediterraneus</em> to local fisheries differs in each sea.  In the Black Sea, this species makes up 54% of the total catch (2919 t), whereas it makes up 39% in the Marmara Sea (562 t), 4% in the Aegean Sea (247 t) and 3% in the northeastern Mediterranean Sea (272 t) (DIE, 2001). The total landings of <em>T. mediterraneus</em> drastically declined to nearly zero in the Black and Marmara Seas in 1988 due to overfishing in previous years (DIE, 2001). There is currently no knowledge of horse mackerel stock structure among fishing areas of the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
198646		conservation	eng	A minimum length requirement of 15 cm was established by EU in 2007.
198646		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic this species is found from the southern Bay of Biscay to southern Morocco including Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Tristan de Cunha and Gough Islands.  It is reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005) and also is known from the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. In this basin <em>T. picturatus</em> occurs from Iberian coasts and islands (Deudero 2001, FAO-GFCM 2007), Gulf of Lions (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2001), central and southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005, Andaloro <em>et al.</em> 2007) and also in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <strong style="font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;">et al.</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2005).
198646		habitat	eng	This is a demersal and pelagic, oceanodromous species. Its depth range is from 305-368m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Others have found it to a depth of 370 m (Smith-Vaniz 1986). It is confined to neritic zones of island shelves, banks and sea mounts. This is a species with schooling behaviour (Smith-Vaniz 1986).  It is known to migrate between the coast of Sahara and the offshore seamounts, possibly reaching the Cape Verde Islands (FAO Fisheries Department 1994).  It feeds mainly on crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1986) such as copepods (Deudero 2001).
198646		population	eng	614 specimens were caught by means of purse seine (133 hauls) around FADs, with TL ranging from 3.5 to 13.5 cm (Deudero 2001).<br/><br/>This species is uncommon but populations are stable in Turkey (M. Bilecenoglu and C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).  In the western and central Mediterranean Sea it is common in bottom trawls (A. Di Natale and E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007), and juveniles are very common in FADS (Fish Aggregating Device) in western Mediterranean (E. Massuti pers. comm. 2007).
198646		threats	eng	This is a commercial species mostly caught by bottom trawls in deep water.  Juveniles are caught by <span class="st">Fish Aggregating Device (FADS).
198647		conservation	eng	The EU minimum size 15 cm TL. Turkey has a closed season from the end of April to the beginning of September and also minimum size limit of 13 cm TL.
198647		distribution	eng	The is species is found in the Atlantic (Smith-Vaniz 1986), including the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas (Smith-Vaniz 1986) and the Black Sea.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin, <em>T. trachurus</em> occurs from the Alboran Sea (FAO 2003, Vargas-Yanez and Sabates 2007), Spanish coasts (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2001), Gulf of Lions (Carlier <em>et al.</em> 2007), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi et al. 2005), Central Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Eastern Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea (Jardas <em>et al.</em> 2004, Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Santic <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Karlou-Riga and Sinis 1997, Moutopoulou and Stergiou 2002, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), Lebanese coasts (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2006), Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002) and Tunisian waters (Bensoussi <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, this species is found from Norway to South Africa, around the coast to Maputo (Mozambique). Although the southern limit of the Atlanto-Iberian stock is currently set at the Gulf of Cadiz, the distribution range of horse mackerel in the Northeast Atlantic includes the Mediterranean Sea and part of the African coast (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea the catches of <em>T. trachurus</em> are much smaller than in Atlantic waters, particularly in north African Atlantic waters where an important horse mackerel fishery appears to take place (FAO 1995).
198647		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. It forms large schools in coastal areas with sandy substrate.  It feeds on fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods. In the Adriatic Sea <em>T. trachurus</em> feeds mainly on crustaceans, cephalopods and fishes (Jardas <em>et al.</em> 2004). Juveniles of this species were caught in very shallow waters (< 10 m depth) in the Ligurian Sea during November by means of purse seines (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is divided into two stocks:  the West stock and North Sea stock.  The West stock spawns in a belt from the Biscay to Ireland in early spring, migrates north and eastwards to southern Norway and northern North Sea.  The North Sea stock spawns in the southern North Sea in summer, migrates to central North Sea, Skagerrak and Kattegat.  Females lays 140,000 eggs which hatch into 5 mm long larvae (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198647		population	eng	45 specimens were collected by means of an experimental purse seine of 64 m length and 14 m height with a cod-end mesh of 2 mm, from a total of 133 hauls carried out from April 1995 to February 1997 in the oceanic waters off the eastern Majorcan coast, around fish aggregating devices (Deudero 2001).<br/><br/>Abdallah (2002) collected 38 specimens (7.4 to 21.5 cm TL) after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30-200 m.<br/><br/>Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2006)  reported that 20 specimens were collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, along the northern side of Beirut, with a purse seine (5 mm mesh, 170 m long and 40 m deep).<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) collected 12 specimens using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part was formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, were hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that 501 specimens (6.1 to 16.9 cm FL) were collected from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 22.3 and 67.0 cm.<br/><br/>478 specimens (10.5 to 24.3 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005 (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006), while 1200 specimens were collected at five locations in the eastern Adriatic along the continental shelf at depths between 60 and 175 m, using a commercial bottom trawler equipped with a 22 mm stretched mesh size cod-end from January to December 1996 (Jardas <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Karlou-Riga and Sinis (1997) reported that 6791 specimens (6.5 to 33.9 cm TL) were collected from commercial trawlers in the Gulf of Saronikos from October to May each year from 1989 to 1991.<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics for this species are incomplete from the Mediterranean and are most probably mixed with <em>T. mediterraneus</em>.  The bulk of the catches come from Turkey, the Sea of Marmara and western Black Sea.  The landings appear to be stable.  This a widespread, common and abundant species throughout most of its range.  In Turkey, however, it is overfished as evidenced by only younger age classes appearing in the catch (0-1 year age class) (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007)
198647		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and seines. <br/><br/>FAO (2003) reported that in the southern part of the Alboran Sea the stock status of <em>T. trachurus</em> was fully exploited.  In the Mediterranean Sea it is caught mostly by purse seine and bottom trawl but also by hand line. This species is also targeted by the recreational fishery.<br/><br/>According to an assessment review by FAO (2005) this species is fully exploited in the Mediterranean and is also heavily exploited in the Black Sea.
198648		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198648		distribution	eng	<em>Schedophilus medusophagus</em> is an Atlantic species, recorded from Ireland to southern Morocco, including the Azores and Madeira. In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Grand Banks (Canada) to North Carolina (USA) (Robins and Ray 1986). There is also a record from Iceland (Jonsson 1992) that needs to be verified. It possibly also occurs off Australia (Robins and Ray 1986). <br/><br/><em>S. medusophagus</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean, but it also occurs rarely in the northern Adriatic Sea.
198648		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic species that feeds on medusae and ctenophores (Macpherson and Roel 1987).
198648		population	eng	In the Mediterranean, population trends and size are unknown.
198648		threats	eng	This is a species of no commercial interest.
198649		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean Sea.
198649		distribution	eng	<em>Cepola macrophthalma</em> is an eastern Atlantic species. It has been recorded from the British Isles to north of Senegal, including the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>C. macrophthalma</em> occurs in the Catalan Sea (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Gulf of Lions (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), the Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Cretan Sea (Kallionitis <em>et al.</em> 2000) and the Aegean Sea (Stergiou 1999, Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Kallionitis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007). It also occurs in the Levantine Sea and along the North African coast. It does not occur in the Black Sea.
198649		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that can be found on sand and mud substrata (Sanches 1991). It typically lives in vertical burrows but may be found swimming in midwater. Occurs singly or in groups, and feeds mainly on small crustaceans and chaetognaths (Tortonese 1986). Its eggs are pelagic.
198649		population	eng	This species is apparently common in the Mediterranean. FAO landings figures are only from recent years, and are mainly from Spain (Spanish figures: 190 mt (2004), 287 mt (2005)).<br/><br/>881 specimens were collected by Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005, with TL ranging from 16.2 and 50.9 cm.<br/><br/>Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> (2003) caught 1,021 specimens Thracian Sea during 1996 to 1998 at depth ranging from 19 to 365 m. Total length (TL) ranged from 10.3 cm and 53.2 cm.<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) caught only one specimen over 39 artisanal fishing operations between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. <br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected one specimen from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.
198649		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest. It is mainly caught in trawls, seines, fixed nets. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, FAO figures are only available from recent years and are insufficient to show trends. No serious threats are known at present.
198650		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198650		distribution	eng	Remora australis has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm waters. In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Texas (USA) to Brazil. In the eastern Pacific, it occurs from Vancouver Island in British Columbia (Canada) to Chile (Eschmeyer et al. 1983). It also occurs in the eastern Atlantic.<br/><br/>Mediterranean:<br/>Remora australis has doubtful presence in the Mediterranean (Lachner 1986), although it has been reported in Italy (Tortonese 1974), and more recently in the Aegean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and off the Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007).
198650		habitat	eng	A pelagic, oceanic species, mostly occurring in warm seas. This species attaches itself only to whales and porpoises (Robins and Ray 1986). One adult couple was recorded attached to the same individual spinner dolphin for a period of about three months (Silva-Jr. and Sazima 2003). It is a common associate of spinner dolphins at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, southeast Atlantic, where it occurs year-round.
198650		population	eng	In the Mediterranean it is apparently uncommon. There are few records of the species there.
198650		threats	eng	The species is been recorded in the Mediterranean, but threats to the species here are unknown.
198651		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198651		distribution	eng	<em>Remora remora</em> has a cosmopolitan distribution in warm waters.  In the western Pacific, it has been recorded from Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984) to New Zealand and Norfolk Island (Francis 1993). In the eastern Pacific, it occurs from San Francisco in California (USA) to Chile (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). In the western Atlantic, it has been recorded from Nova Scotia (Canada) to Argentina (Robins and Ray 1986). In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs in the North Sea to the Canary Islands, and has also been recorded from Iceland (Lachner 1986) and between Sweden and Denmark (Appleby 1999). <br/><br/> It is widespread throughout the Mediterranean, including the western basin, Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, and the Levantine Sea. It also has been recorded in Italy (Tortonese 1974). It is not found in the Black Sea.
198651		habitat	eng	This species is usually associated with sharks but also attaches itself to other large fishes, sea turtles and even ships. Sometimes it is free-swimming (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). Younger individuals are more active as parasite pickers (Smith 1997). It feeds on parasitic copepods (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198651		population	eng	The species is uncommon in the Mediterranean.  Its occurrence is dependent on the occurrence of suitable host species.
198651		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198652		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198652		distribution	eng	This species is relatively widespread, in coastal waters of southern Australia, eastern New Zealand, Japan and Hawaiian Ridge in Pacific Ocean, Reunion in Indian Ocean, USA to Venezuela in the western Atlantic, and Morocco to South Africa in eastern Atlantic. It is found in the western and northern Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin <em>Epigonus denticulatus</em> occurs in the western basin, including the Catalan Sea (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is present in the northern half of the eastern basin, including the Adriatic Sea, eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), and there is also a record from the Aegean Sea (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198652		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species. Adults are benthic, occurring on the continental slope (Maugé and Mayer 1990). Juveniles are pelagic in depths of 130 to 145 m and 350 to 425 m (May and Maxwell 1986). The species feeds on small fishes and planktonic invertebrates (Webb 1975).
198652		population	eng	No specific population information is available for the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) collected this species in the northern eastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with a density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300 to 500m, and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700m.
198652		threats	eng	This species may be collected in bottom trawls as bycatch. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean there are no known threats.
198653		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198653		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the British Isles and Portugal to western Sahara, including Madeira and the Canary Islands, and from the Gulf of Guinea to South Africa. It is present in the western and northern Mediterranean Sea, including the Ionian and Aegean Seas. It is also present in Australia and New Zealand in the southwestern Pacific, and one record from North America. <br/><br/>Mediterranean:<br/>Epigonus telescopus is present in the Mediterranean where it occurs in the western basin, and in the eastern basin in the Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005) and the Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198653		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species. Adults benthic or benthopelagic on the continental slopes, juveniles are pelagic (Maugé and Mayer 1990). It is found on soft substrata (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993) and is a non-territorial species. It feeds on small fishes and planktonic invertebrates.
198653		population	eng	Overall in the Mediterranean, population densities and trends are not known.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) collected this species in the northern eastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000) by means of trawls, with density of 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300 to 500 m, 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500 to 700 m, and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth range 700 to 900 m.
198653		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, taken as bycatch in the deep-water fishery.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is not commercially fished. If caught it may appear on the market.
198654		conservation	eng	The fisheries are well regulated. The species occurs in marine protected areas.
198654		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the Lofotens, Norway to Gibraltar.<br/><br/>It is also present in the north-west and central Mediterranean Sea. There are reports from the Ligurian Sea (Orsi and Fanciulli 1977).
198654		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal waters over sandy or muddy substrata adjacent to rocky areas.<br/><br/>It feeds on zooplankton (Wheeler 1992). Spawning takes place at one year old, and adults die after spawning. Eggs are laid in the empty worm's tubes and are guarded by the male (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198654		population	eng	In Italy, this species is fished by beach-seine (artisanal fishery) and locally sold (as “bianchetto di fondo”) only in the Ligurian Sea and specifically by the fishing fleet of Camogli and Sestri Levante. Data are available for two periods (1993-1994 and 1994-1995), showing a total catch of about 115 kg during January (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999). Data for this species are too poor and incomplete for any reliable analysis. It seems that this species is also sold in Barcelona (General Fisheries for the Mediterranean, GFCM 2007). There are no declines in the population.
198654		threats	eng	There are some traditional fisheries targeting this species in the Mediterranean Sea. The fisheries are thought to be well managed (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2007).
198655		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198655		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present along the south-west Portugal coast. It is also present in the north-west part of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Adriatic Sea, and there are records from Turkey, Israel and Cyprus.
198655		habitat	eng	This species inhabits soft substrata and seagrass beds and gets down to about 120 m depth.
198655		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This species is very rarely caught as bycatch.
198655		threats	eng	There are no major threats for this species.
198656		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198656		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the north coast of Spain to south of west Sahara. <br/><br/>It is present in the west Mediterranean Sea to the Levantine coast, including the Marmara Sea.
198656		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species living over sand or muddy sand to depth of 90 m (Miller 1990) but it can be collected up to depth of 333 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198656		population	eng	This species is locally abundant and is commonly captured as bycatch. There is no specific population species for this species.
198656		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. This species does get captured as bycatch in trawlers, but is not a target species.
198657		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198657		distribution	eng	This species primarily occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, where it is present in the north-west and north-east parts.  It can also be found just outside of the Mediterranean, in north Spain to Madeira including the Canary Islands.
198657		habitat	eng	This species occurs in deeper inshore waters over rocky substrates with algae and gorgonians (Miller 1986). It lives in crevices and small cavities and also steep rock faces and coralligenous areas.
198657		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This species is perhaps more abundant than previously thought due to increased studies (M. Bilecenoglu. pers. comm. 2007). The population is stable.
198657		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198658		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198658		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from south-west England to Agadir, Morocco.<br/><br/>It is also present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
198658		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the intertidal zones, among rocks, weeds and pools in brackish water (Miller 1986, Miller 1990).  It feeds on green algae (Enteromorpha), crustaceans (amphipods, crabs), polychaetes, and insects (Miller 1986). It is a benthic spawner.
198658		population	eng	This is a common and locally abundant species. There is no specific population information for this species.
198658		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198659		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198659		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species has been reported from south Cornwall (Helford) and Lough Ine, Co. Cork (Eire), and also from Mulroy Bay, Co. Donegal, Eire, Ireland. <br/><br/>Very few specimens have been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (Louisy 2002): it was recorded in Naples (Stefanni and Mazzoldi 1999), Croatia in the Adriatic Sea (Kovacic 2001), Cyprus and Israel (Kovacic and Golani 2007).
198659		habitat	eng	This species is found inshore and intertidal, under stones on sheltered muddy sand. It feeds on polychaetes, algae, crustaceans and bivalves.
198659		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. This species is only known from a few records.
198659		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198660		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198660		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present in south-west Ireland and on the corner of France and Spain. <br/><br/>It is also found throughout the west and north-east Mediterranean Sea, including Israel, the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Trabzon in the Black Sea.
198660		habitat	eng	This species is found inshore on sand patches amongst rocks and seagrass beds.
198660		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is common and abundant.
198660		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198662		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198662		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from west Scotland to the south coast of Morocco. <br/><br/>It is also present throughout the Mediterranean and in the Black Seas. It is also recorded in the Red Sea (Miller 1990).
198662		habitat	eng	This species is predominantly marine, but may enter brackish waters areas. It occurs inshore in intertidal waters, under stones and in pools on sheltered rocky shores with abundant weed cover. <br/><br/>Adults feed on crustaceans (larger amphipods, isopods, small crabs) and polychaetes, juveniles eat harpacticoid copepods, amphipods, polychaetes and mites (Miller 1986). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male guards the eggs deposited by the female under rocks or inside empty bivalve shells until they hatch (Azevedo and Simas 2000). Larvae remain near the substrate until they assume the cryptobenthic behaviour of the adults (Azevedo and Simas 2000).
198662		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is a common species. There is a targeted fishery for this species in Venice, Italy (L. Tunesi, pers. comm. 2007). The population is most likely stable.
198662		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It has minor commercial value in small-scale fisheries in Italy.
198663		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198663		distribution	eng	This species is recorded in the east Atlantic in Portugal (Louisy 2002).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it has been recorded in Minorca (Spain), Sardinia (Italy), Croatia (Kovacic 1995), and Cyprus (Kovacic and Golani 2006). This species' distribution may be wider than what has been reported.
198663		habitat	eng	This species occurs inshore on sand patches near rocks and pebbles covered with photophilic algae.
198663		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is only known from five locations. This may be due to misidentification as <em>Gobius bucchichi</em>.
198663		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198664		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198664		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in the eastern Atlantic in the Kattegat and Belt Seas. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is known from the Golfe du Lion but this record needs to be confirmed (Louisy 2002). It is also recorded from the north Adriatic (Herler and Kovacic 2002).
198664		habitat	eng	This species is found inshore on coarse ground, including coralligenous habitat (Miller 1986).
198664		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species. It is known from very few records.
198664		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198665		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198665		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from the north of Scotland to the south of Spain.<br/><br/>It is present in the north-west and north-east Mediterranean Sea and Sea of Marmara.
198665		habitat	eng	This species is cryptobenthic and inhabits muddy sand or mud where it can burrow. It is often associated with a decapod crustacean: Nephrops norvegicus (Miller 1990). It feeds on polychaetes, small crustaceans and molluscs (Miller 1986). This species is one of the major prey items for the Mediterranean horse mackerel.
198665		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species.
198665		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198666		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198666		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present in Morocco and Canary Islands.<br/><br/>It is also present in north-west and east-west Mediterranean Sea to the Levant coast.
198666		habitat	eng	This species inhabits sandy muddy substrata. It is found to a depth of 230 m (Miller 1986) but down to 322-337 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This is one of the major fish prey for gadiformes in the Aegean and Marmara Seas.
198666		population	eng	There is no specific population information for this species.
198666		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198667		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198667		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic, from the Iberian Peninsula northwards to Bay of Biscay (Maugé 1986). It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Azov. It has also been reported from the Suez Canal (Fouda <em>et al.</em> 1993).
198667		habitat	eng	This species is found inshore, over sandy areas. It is capable of living in areas of high or low salinities and it often enters brackish and hyper-saline waters. <br/><br/>It feeds on small crustaceans and chironomid larvae (Maugé 1986). Males clean the insides of bivalve shells and cover the outside with sand in preparation for the eggs that will be deposited by the female (Mazzoldi and Rasotto 2001). Nesting males exhibit breeding colouration with four dark bars sidelong, a blue spot on the first dorsal fin and dark coloration on pelvic fins and edge of anal fin (Miller 1986). Males defend the nest, cleaning and fanning the eggs until hatching (Gandolfi <em>et al.</em> 1991).
198667		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species. Possible decline in some parts of Turkey may be due to pollution and habitat destruction (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007). However, the population is thought to be stable overall.
198667		threats	eng	In the shallow waters and lagoons, major threats are pollution and habitat destruction.
198668		conservation	eng	This species is listed in Annex III of the Bern Convention.
198668		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Norway to Spain (Rochard and Elie 1994). <br/><br/>It is also found in the Mediterranean Sea (Rochard and Elie 1994), including Monaco and the Lavezzi Islands, the north Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.
198668		habitat	eng	This occasionally schooling species is found in inshore sandy and muddy areas. Juveniles are found in lower estuaries. The main depth range is 1-20 m although it has been found down to 200 m. Mainly diurnal, this species feeds on small polychaetes, amphipods (corophiids, caprellids), cumaceans and mysids (Miller 1986). It spawns in summer in shallow waters. The male lures the female into an empty bivalve shell where she lays a portion of eggs. The eggs are guarded by the male for 10 days until larvae about 3 mm long. Larvae are pelagic at first. Young fish only start to live at the bottom when 17-18 mm (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198668		population	eng	This is a relict species that is has suffered serious declines in the Mediterranean Sea due to temperature increases related to climate change (Lejeusne <em>et al. </em>2010), as it is a colder water species. Based on surveys, there is an estimated population decline of at least 80% over the past 10 years in the Gulf of Lion, France and the Gulf of Genova, Italy (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007), where it is estimated that at least 50% of the Mediterranean population may occur. This species is not abundant in the Black Sea and Sea of Marmara, and there is no information on the population in the Aegean Sea or Adriatic Sea.
198668		threats	eng	This species is captured as bycatch in fixed nets and trap nets in most of its range. Climate change resulting in warmer waters and loss of habitat in the Mediterranean Sea is also a major threat.
198669		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198669		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Skagerrak to Madeira, including the Salvage and Canary Islands. <br/><br/>It is also present in the north-west and north-east Mediterranean Sea (Escoubet and Murgia 1981, Vacchi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lousiy 2002).
198669		habitat	eng	This species is found in or near crevices in vertical rock cliffs to a depth of 40 m, usually between 10-13 m. It feeds on crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, decapods), polychaetes, gastropods and algae (Miller 1986). It spawns up to 12,000 eggs (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198669		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.  It is locally abundant in areas of the Mediterranean Sea.
198669		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198670		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198670		distribution	eng	This species has a circumglobal distribution in most tropical to warm temperate waters (except for the eastern Pacific), and in the eastern Atlantic from Azores and western Sahara to the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><em>Lobotes surinamensis</em> is widespread throughout the Mediterranean (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), including the Algerian coasts (Hemida et al. 2003) and the Balearic Islands (Riera <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has not been recorded in the Sea of Marmara (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).
198670		habitat	eng	This fish swims on its side, near the surface together with floating objects. It can enter estuaries (enters harbours, bays, etc.). Juveniles tend to look like leaves (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).  This species is found in coastal waters near muddy or rocky substrata. Adults are solitary and juveniles form small schools.
198670		population	eng	This species is uncommon in Mediterranean (Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987).
198670		threats	eng	This is a species with some commercial importance. It is caught by sliding seines and bottom trawl nets (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>There is no specific information on threats in the Mediterranean. It may appear as bycatch, and may be affected by pollution in shallow inshore waters but no data are available to support this.
198671		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198671		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from southeastern UK and northwestern France (English Channel) to Senegal, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea except the northern coastline of the western basin, northern Adriatic and northern Aegean seas. It is not found in the Black Sea. This species is present in the Gulf of Suez (Allegrucci <em>et al.</em> 1997) via the Suez Canal. It also occurs in the northeastern Mediterranean into the Adriatic and Aegean Seas.
198671		habitat	eng	This is a pelagic and coastal species (Daget and Smith 1986), that occurs on various substrata. Occasionally it is found in rivers. It feeds mainly on shrimps and molluscs, also fishes (Tortonese 1986).<br/><br/><em>D. punctatus</em>  regularly visit estuaries to hunt, but mainly juveniles occur in these brackish-fresh waters.
198671		population	eng	This species is common where it occurs in the Mediterranean. In Algeria it is more common in western areas (M. Kara Hichem pers. comm. 2007).
198671		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is mainly caught by seines. In the Mediterranean, landings figures are mainly available only from Egypt (with minor contribution from Morocco). The figures from Egypt show an apparent sharp increase in landings in 1989-90, but this may be an error.  There are no other threats to this species.
198672		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species in much of its range. In Turkey the minimum size limit is 20 cm for the commercial fishery, and for sports fishing it is 20 cm and a maximum of 5 kg per person per day.
198672		distribution	eng	This is nearly a Mediterranean Sea endemic but is also found in adjacent eastern Atlantic waters in Morocco. It is found throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea but not in the southwestern basin or in the Black Sea.
198672		habitat	eng	A benthopelagic, neritic species found inshore, at mouths of rivers and sewage effluents but not entering brackish and freshwater (Trewavas 1979).
198672		population	eng	This species is uncommon compared to other mugilids in the Mediterranean.
198672		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It may appear in bycatch. This is a commercial species.
198673		conservation	eng	In Turkey, minimum size limitations are in place: 13 cm for commercial landings, and for sport fishing 13 cm and a maximum of 5 kg per person per day.
198673		distribution	eng	<em>Mullus barbatus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, recorded from the British Isles (occasionally Scandinavia) to Senegal, including Azores, the Canary Islands, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. It is also present around the Azores (Hureau 1986).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>M. barbatus</em> has been reported from the Alboran Sea (Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2004), Iberian waters (Martin <em>et al.</em> 1999, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006, Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006, Valle <em>et al.</em> 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007, Lloret <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Gulf of Lions (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001, Carlier <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Ligurian Sea (Abella <em>et al.</em> 1999, Fabi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Pietrapiana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Molinari 2005, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Abella <em>et al.</em> 1999; La Mesa and Vacchi 1999; Martin <em>et al.</em> 1999; Badalamenti <em>et al.</em> 2002; IREPA 2003; Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004; Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005; FAO-GFCM 2007), the Strait of Sicily (Levi <em>et al.</em> 2003, Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Maltese waters (FAO-GFCM 2007), the Adriatic Sea (Fabi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006, Perugini <em>et al.</em> 2007), the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou<em> et al.</em> 2005, Maravelias and Papaconstantinou 2006), the Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000, Machias and Labropoulou 2002), the Aegean Sea (Petrakis and Stergiou 1996, Karpouzi and Stergiuo 2003, Kallianiotis<em> et al.</em> 2004, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2004, Ozbilgin <em>et al.</em> 2004, Stergiou <em>et al.</em> 2004, Tokac <em>et al.</em> 2004, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Celik and Ohelenshlager 2005, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Maravelias and Papaconstantinou 2006, Maravelias <em>et al.</em> 2006,&#160;Turan 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Sea of Marmara (Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Israeli coast (Goren and Galil 2005), and Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>M. b. pontica</em> is restricted to the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov only.
198673		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found on gravel, sand and mud substrata of the continental shelf at depths of 10 to 300 m (Ben-Tuvia 1990). It occurs down to depths of 328 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on small benthic crustaceans, worms and molluscs (Hureau 1986).<br/><br/>The average size of marketed individuals has been reduced to approximately the minimum legal length in Turkey.
198673		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean and especially in the Black Sea. <br/><br/>Maravelias and Papaconstantinou (2006) reported the species as distributed in shallow water depths (< 100 m) throughout the Greek seas, particularly in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. Its abundance steadily decreased with increasing depth.<br/><br/>Ozbilgin <em>et al.</em> (2004) collected 110,891 specimens, with length varying from 5.0 to 23.0 cm TL, during 2002 in monthly intervals at Izmir Bay, by using a conventional bottom trawl. Depth range of the fishing ground was 25 to 30 m.<br/><br/>Badalamenti <em>et al.</em> (2002) carried out a study in the Gulf of Castellammare (southern Tyrrhenian Sea), where most trawling was banned from 1989 onwards, in order to compare abundance data from spring trawl surveys before (1987 and 1989) and after (1994 and 1998) the trawling ban. Mean abundance data (number of specimens per haul, number of hauls = 10) was 3.2 in 1984, 6.9 in 1988, 368.1 in 1994 and 393.5 in 1998.<br/><br/>Maravelias <em> et al.</em> (2006) conducted a study in the northern Aegean Sea highlighting that mean red mullet abundance was consistently highest in areas with warmer bottom waters in the east and west than in the centre, these areas having shallower depths (35 to 60m) and bottom temperatures around 19°C. The red mullet appeared to avoid the cold bottom waters (<16°C).<br/><br/>Gristina<em> et al.</em> (2006) sampled this species during two trawl surveys (in autumn 1997 and 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl. From a total of 62 hauls, mean density value varied from 1 to 407 specimens per km².<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) sampled this species during four seasonal 24 hr surveys conducted in July 2001 (292 individuals per 24 hrs), November 2001 (532 individuals per 24 hrs), March 2002 (888 individuals per 24 hrs) and May 2002 (334 individuals per 24 hrs), in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. <br/><br/>Metin <em>et al.</em> (2004) collected 1,275 specimens in the central area of Izmir Bay between 1 and 7 September 2001 at a depth of 30m using a conventional commercial bottom trawl.<br/><br/>Fabi <em>et al.</em> (2002) carried out a study in two areas (Ancona - Adriatic Sea, and Leghorn - Ligurian Sea), with fixed nets and a bottom trawl. In the Adriatic Sea 8,275 specimens were collected with trawl and 504 with fixed nets, while in the Ligurian Sea 13,648 specimens were collected with trawl and 581 with fixed nets.<br/><br/>Petrakis and Stergiou (1996) collected 1,134 specimens per 1,000 fathoms in 15 stations in the South Euboikos Gulf (Aegean Sea) in 1992 and 1993. <br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) collected 1,910 specimens from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls, with TL ranging from 5.4 and 21.2 cm.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected 141 specimens, with length varying from 12.5 to 22.3 cm TL, from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2004) obtained 15 specimens seasonally during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997 to 1998 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades).<br/><br/>Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003) collected 127 specimens, with length varying from 15.0 to 22.5 cm TL, from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean). Using gillnets (Oct. 1997 to Oct. 1998) and trammel nets (Oct. 1999 to Sept. 2000). Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90m.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 277 specimens, with length varying from 9.1 to 24.1 cm TL, from three eastern Adriatic estuarine systems using various fishing gear (beach seine, fyke-net, gill nets, fish traps), between October 1998 and December 2003.<br/><br/>The Barcelona fleet landed 1,3042 kg of this species in 2005 (FAO-GFCM 2007). This report highlights higher yields in the period 2001 and 2005 in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and provides data of monthly landing data from Maltese waters, with higher landings data in July and August (200 and 384 kg, respectively)<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) collected 177 specimens using three artisanal fishing boats comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. <br/><br/>Abdullah (2002) collected 512 specimens, with length varying from 3.6 to 15.7 cm TL, after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30 to 200m.<br/><br/>Valle <em>et al. </em>(2003) collected 60 specimens (7.4 to 12.4 cm TL) in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa), after 108 samples taken up to a 20 to 22m depth, using a beam trawl.<br/><br/>Tokac <em>et al.</em> (2004) collected 27,807 specimens through a series of experimental trawl surveys, between 4 February and 22 March 2002 in Izmir Bay, at depth 25 to 30m.<br/><br/>Machias and Labropoulou (2002) collected 1,237 specimens (5.5 to 28.5 cm TL) during three years of experimental bottom trawl sampling on the Cretan Shelf from August 1988 to April 1991.<br/><br/>IREPA (2003) recorded mean abundances of 49.86, 351.25, and 23.00 individuals per hour, respectively in 1996, 1997 and 1998 during the GRUND survey campaigns in the Gulf of Salerno.<br/><br/>Stergiou <em>et al.</em> (2004) collected 1,035 specimens (10.7 to 23.1 cm TL) using various fishing gears (trawls, trammel nets, gill nets) in Cyclades (Aegean Sea) during 1995 to 2000.<br/><br/>Lloret <em>et al.</em> (2007) captured 99 specimens (13 to 22.5 cm TL) in May to June 2004 on the muddy bottoms of three areas of the Catalan Sea's continental shelf (Blanes, Ebre, Valencia), by mean of commercial trawlers at depths from 61 to 133m.
198673		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. <em>M. barbatus</em> can be caught by means of trawlers and fixed net and is marketed mainly fresh (Frimodt 1995).<br/><br/><em>M. barbatus</em> and <em>Mullus surmuletus</em> annual landings (tonnes) in the Mediterranean between 1996 and 2005 (obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database 2007) were: 5,331 (1996), 4,531 (1997), 4,878 (1998), 5,618 (1999), 4,433 (2000), 5,667 (2001), 5,159 (2002), 5,391 (2003), 5,149 (2004), 15,289 (2005). The increase in landings in 2005 is due to Italian landings figures being included for the first time that year. <br/><br/>FAO landings figures are available from seven countries, although Turkish landings dominate the total landings.  Following an apparent decline that begin in 1989 and continued until 2004, catches have stabilised at around 5,000 to 6,000 tonnes.
198674		conservation	eng	In Turkey, the minimum size limits in place are 11 cm for commercial landings, and 13 cm for sports fishing with a maximum of 5 kg per person per day.
198674		distribution	eng	<em>Mullus surmuletus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, recorded from eastern UK to Senegal, including the Canary Islands, Cape Verdes and the Mediterranean and Black Seas.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it occurs in the Alboran Sea (Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Gulf of Alicante (Garcia-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Catalan Sea (Martin <em>et al.</em> 1999, Macpherson <em>et al.</em> 2002, Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003, Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005, FAO-GFCM 2007, Stelzenmuller <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Balearic Islands (Deudero 2002, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deudero <em>et al</em>. 2008), the Gulf of Lions (Geartner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000, Claudet <em>et al.</em> 2006, Carlier <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Ligurian Sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002; Molinari and Tunesi 2003; Molinari 2005; Tunesi and Molinari 2005; Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005; Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2006; Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006a,b), Sardinian waters (Guidetti and Bussotti 2002), the northern and central Tyrrhenian Sea (IREPA 2003, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005, FAO-GFCM 2007), the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Mazzola <em>et al.</em> 1999, Vega Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Maltese waters (FAO-GFCM 2007), the Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003, Bonaca and Lipej 2004,Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004,  Dulcic and Gliamuzina 2006, Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2006), the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Cretan Sea (Labropoulou <em>et al.</em> 1997, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), the Aegean Sea (Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2004, Ayaz <em>et al.</em> 2006, Karaulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Turan 2006, FAO-GFCM 2007, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), Lebanese waters (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005), and Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002).
198674		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, oceanodromous species that occurs on broken and rough grounds but also found over sand and soft substrata at depths less than 100 m. Depth ranges are reported as 5 to 60 m (Ben-Tuvia 1990), 15 to 175 m in the central Tyrrhenian Sea (IREPA 2003) and 305 to 409 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou et al. 2005). It feeds on benthic organisms such as shrimps and amphipods (which are the predominant prey) (Labropoulou <em>et al.</em> 1997), polychaetes, molluscs, and benthic fishes. Spawning occurs from May to July, eggs and larvae are pelagic (Hureau 1986). Juvenile were observed in the depth range from 0.5 to 3 min the Ligurian sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198674		population	eng	This species is common in the Mediterranean, however it is less common than <em>M. barbatus</em> in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>Mazzola <em>et al.</em> (1999) collected 435 specimens in July 1995 near the southern mouth of the Stagnone di Marsala (Sicily), using a beach seine every 4h over a 24h cycle.<br/><br/>Labropoulou <em>et al.</em> (1997) collected 446 specimens, with length varying from 6.2 to 23.0 cm total length (TL), during four seasonal bottom trawl survey cruises over the Cretan shelf, between 30 and 110 m depth, using a demersal trawl.<br/><br/>Deudero (2002) collected 2,601 specimens (juveniles of 2–6 cm) with an experimental purse seine during the night of 9 July 1997 using light aggregation devices in the oceanic waters off south-east Majorca (north-west Mediterranean), above the continental shelf and slope (with depths ranging from 700–800 m).<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) sampled this species during two trawl surveys (in autumn 1997 and 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl. From a total of 62 hauls, mean density value varied from 1–289 specimens per km².<br/><br/>Deudero<em> et al.</em> (2008) sampled this species in July, September, October and December 2002, with higher mean abundance obtained in July (5.25 ± 2.44), and size varying from 6.5 to 8.5 cm TL, over P<em>osidonia oceanica</em> beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl. <br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) collected 117 specimens from Izmir Bay (Central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) collected 943 specimens, with length varying from 10.9 to 29.9 cm TL, from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stegiou (2004) collected 139 specimens during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long lines during 1997 to 1998 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades).<br/><br/>Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003) collected 110 specimens, with length varying from 14.8 and 29.3 cm TL, from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean). The collections were made using gillnets (during October 1997 to October 1998), and trammel nets (during October 1999 to September 2000). Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90 m. <br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 47 specimens, with length varying from 12.5 to 28.5 cm TL, using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three estuarine area of the River Mirna, northern Adriatic Sea).<br/><br/>Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) sampled 48 specimens (4.4 to 9.7 cm TL) using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in Porto-Lagos (NE Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon, between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) sampled this species during four seasonal 24 hr surveys conducted in July 2001 (10 individuals per 24 hrs), November 2001 (0 individuals per 24 hrs), March 2002 (4 individuals per 24 hrs), and May 2002 (0 individuals per 24 hrs) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. <br/><br/>FAO-GFCM (2007) reported 14,818 kg of this species landed from Barcelona fleet, operating in the Catalan Sea in 2005.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) collected this species in the northern eastern Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, and Sept. 2000), by means of trawls, with density of 2.8 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300 500 m.<br/><br/>Abdallah (2002) collected 122 specimens (5.4 to 20.8 cm TL) after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30 to 200 m.<br/><br/>Valle <em>et al.</em> (2003) collected 146 specimens  (7.7 to 25.4 cm TL) in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa), after 108 samples taken up to 22 m depth.<br/><br/>Romanelli <em>et al.</em> (2002) collected 10 specimens in the eastern Ligurian Sea in the fishing season of 1997, with 16 hauls using a hand-hauled commercial seine.
198674		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, caught through trawls, fixed nets, and seines.<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization figures are available for at least eight countries. Over the past ten years landings figures appear to be stable.
198675		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
198675		distribution	eng	This is a worldwide epi- to mesopelagic oceanodromous species in tropical to warm temperate waters, it is present in far western Mediterranean Sea only.<br/><br/><em>Cubiceps capensis</em> has been reported from the Mediterranean (Heemstra 1995).
198675		habitat	eng	A pelagic, oceanodromous species, epipelagic or mesopelagic in tropical waters. It feeds mainly on salps (Gorelova 1994). The species occurs near the surface at night but depth at daytime is not known.
198675		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
198675		threats	eng	This species is of minor commercial importance. <br/><br/>There is no information available on threats within Mediterranean.
198676		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198676		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic from Ireland, France, Spain, and Portugal to Mauritania, including the Azores, Madeira and Canaries. It is present in the western and northern Mediterranean Sea including the Adriatic and Aegean but not Marmara or the Black Sea. <br/><br/><em>Cubiceps gracilis</em> is present in the western Mediterranean and in south-eastern Mediterranean (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is also present in the Adriatic Sea (Tortonese 1970, Dulcic 2002), in Greek sea waters (Kaspiris and Ondrias 1984) and in Bay of Antalya (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198676		habitat	eng	This species is oceanic, epipelagic or mesopelagic. Young individuals gather in shoals, often around jellyfish in surface waters. Adults are generally solitary, occurring in deeper waters (3 to 239 m) (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). The sexual maturity of this species occurs at 20 cm. It feeds on zooplancton, Coelenterata and small fishes (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198676		population	eng	Nothing is known about this species from the Mediterranean Sea.
198676		threats	eng	This species is occasionally captured by means of purse seines and bottom trawl nets (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198706		conservation	eng	In the Mediterranean, this species occurs in marine protected areas. The size limit for commercial fisheries is 25 cm TL in Turkey. <br/><br/>Due to its large size and insufficient information available, a targeted management program is needed that includes size limitation based on size at maturity.  It is also recommended that an inventory or register of large live specimens (> 2 m) held in aquaria within the region be collected to understand biology of the species.
198706		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Iceland to Gabon, including the Canary Islands and Sao Tome Principe. It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, in the western Black Sea, and has migrated into the Red Sea.<br/><br/>This species cultivated in land and sea cages, mostly in France and Italy (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2006-2008).<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, it is present from Norway to Gibraltar and Congo, the Mediterranean (less common around Italy and Greece) and the Black Sea.  It has migrated to the Red Sea via the Suez Canal (an anti-lessepsian migrant).
198706		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, oceanodromous species. It occurs in inshore and shelf waters, close to the bottom as well as in surface and mid-waters, pursuing shoals of clupeids and mugilids. Adults congregate inshore to spawn during spring and summer. Juveniles and subadults enter estuaries and coastal lagoons, and recruitment success may be dependent on these habitats (Chao and Trewavas 1990). Both adults and juveniles are migratory, moving along shore or offshore-onshore in response to temperature change (Penrith 1978). The species feeds on fishes and swimming crustaceans and mostly occurs over sand, close to rocks, at 1-200 m max, but commonly found at 15-100 m (Louisy 2002).<br/><br/>The Nile delta, Levrier Bay, and Gironde estuary are the three main spawning sites in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea, with large numbers of adults aggregating between May and July (Lagardere and Mariani 2006).
198706		population	eng	Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics for the Mediterranean show a steady but fluctuating increase in landings since 1990, probably due to increased effort, with fluctuations between 1,000 t and 3,000 t from 1995 to 2006 (FAO 2006).<br/><br/>It is rare to not uncommon throughout most of its range in the Mediterranean. Landings in eastern Turkey have declined along with its size distribution.
198706		threats	eng	This is a commercial species, mainly caught by trawls, long lines, and hand lines.  Species utilization can include recreational and educational use for public exhibits and it is caught alive for this purpose. It is also a target in sport fishing.<br/><br/>Experimental aquaculture exists for this species in the Mediterranean (Cognetti <em>et al.</em> 2006, Aguado-Gimenez <em>et al.</em> 2007). Habitat destruction of estuarine environments is a particular threat because juveniles depend on these areas for nursery grounds.<br/><br/>Threats also include pollution of rivers, the transfer of disease from cultivated animals to wild populations, and overfishing.
198707		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas with in the Mediterranean region. There was a moratorium of spear fishing in Corsica for this species. It is also mentioned in Appendix III of Bern and Barcelona conventions. From 2003 to 2006 there was a ban placed on capturing this species for both commercial and sport fishing in Turkey.<br/><br/>More data is needed from the unaccounted populations and areas in the Mediterranean region.
198707		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic, from the English Channel to Mauritania, including the Canary Islands, occasionally in Senegal, and questionably as far south as Ghana or Gabon. It is found throughout the Mediterranean and Black seas. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>Sciaena umbra</em> has been recorded from the Spanish coasts (Sala 1997, Garcia Charton and Perez-Ruzafa 1999, Macpherson <em>et al.</em> 2002, Cruz and Lombarte 2004), the Balearic Islands (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2004, 2008), the Gulf of Lions (Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000), the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi<em> et al.</em> 2005, Tunesi <em>et al</em>. 2006), the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (LaMesa and Vacchi 1999), the northern Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003, Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the southern Adriatic Sea (Bussotti <em>et al</em>. 2002), the Aegean Sea (Koutrakis and Tsikliros 2003, Ayaz <em>et al.</em> 2006, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Lebanese coasts (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005),and some main islands (Sicily and Sardinia). This species is also present in Libya and Morocco, possibly in all North African coasts including Egypt (Bini 1968, Collignon and Aloncle 1973). It is also present in the Black Sea.
198707		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs in shallow coastal waters mainly on rocky and adjacent sandy substrata. The young often enter estuaries and become more active at night. The brown meagre is a nocturnal fish but it can sometimes be encountered during the day among seagrass beds, on rocky bottoms close to caves or large crevices in which it can shelter. It lives in small groups. The reproductive period for this species is May-July and it feeds on crustaceans, fish and algae. The maximum size for this species is 75 cm (Dieuzeide <em>et al.</em> 1955).<br/><br/>It is found from 5 m to 200 m deep, in the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel and the Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Chao 1986). SCUBA diving observations suggest this to be a very calm fish with remarkable buoyancy control and an ability to move without much apparent effort (Chauvet 1991). Spawning occurs near estuaries.
198707		population	eng	The species is common around northern parts of Turkey and uncommon in southern Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). In Algeria, this is an important food fish with most catch in summer and currently stable populations (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007). There has been decline in population recorded in Lebanon due to spear fishing and it is thought to be rare in both Lebanon and along the Syrian coast (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). This species used to be relatively common in many areas in the Mediterranean 1970s compared to the present (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch statistics are only reported from Turkey, Tunisia, and Cyprus. These statistics indicate an increase in landings from a peak of 735 t in 1988, followed by steady fluctuating declines to 161 t in 2005, with an average of 148 t in the period 2001 to 2005. This indicates an approximate 70% decline in landings over 25 years (1980-2005), and this can be used for a proxy for a decline in population size, assuming that there was no reduction of fishing effort during this time. <br/><br/>Other records from the Mediterranean Sea include:<br/>Deudero <em>et al.</em> (2008) sampled this species in July, September, October and December 2002 (respectively with mean abundance from 0.1 to 0.5), with length varying from 9 to 13 cm, over<em> Posidonia oceanica</em> beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) sampled 24 specimens (13.9 to 29.8 cm TL) from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 39 specimens (18.1 to 41.4 cm TL) using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three estuarine area of the River Mirna, northern Adriatic Sea).<br/><br/>Cruz and Lombarte (2004) collected 15 specimens (15 to 49 cm TL) during sampling cruises in the Catalonian Sea and around the Balearic Islands (north-west Mediterranean Sea) between 1995 and 2003.<br/><br/>Deudero <em>et al.</em> (2004) collected 13 specimens, with length varying from 28.7 to 44.5 cm TL, from three islands, Mallorca, Formentera and Menorca, (NW Mediterranean) during May, June and July 2000 and 2001. The Mallorca samples were taken with a gill-net, the Formentera samples were collected with an experimental beam-trawl and the Menorca samples with a long-line and gill-net. Sampling depth ranged from 15 to 35 m.
198707		threats	eng	This is a commercial species throughout the Mediterranean region. Over exploitation by fishing practices is a major threat to this species. This species is fished mainly by spear fishing, trammel nets, and gill nets. The species is heavily exposed to fisheries during spawning aggregations in front of estuaries. Degradation of estuaries from coastal development threatens the nursery areas of this species. <br/><br/>As well as exploitation from fishing, this species may also have been disturbed by divers and spear fishermen, forcing the animals to be less concentrated and much more dispersed in small coastal caves and below rocks (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is currently being researched for potential use in aquaculture (Chatzifotis <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198708		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198708		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to South Africa, and northwards into the western Indian Ocean as far as Natal. It is also in the northwestern Indian Ocean from Somalia to the Arabian Sea, possibly as far east as Pakistan and India. It is found in the western Mediterranean Sea, in the Balearic, Catalonian, Ligurian, and Tyrrhenian seas and as far east as the Strait of Sicily. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>Umbrina canariensis</em> were caught in the Balearic Sea (Cruz and Lombarte 2004), in the Catalonian Sea, and around the Balearic Islands (northwest Mediterranean) between 1995 and 2003. The species occurs in the western Mediterranean to the straits of Sicily, and in the north in the Ligurian and north Tyrrhenian Sea.
198708		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found in mud and sandy substrata of the shelf and upper slope (Chao 1986), in temperatures from 14-15° C (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). It feeds on small shrimps, worms and other benthic invertebrates (Chao 1986).
198708		population	eng	There are only&#160; FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) landings figures from Morocco, based on very recent catches (19 individuals in 2004, 4 individuals in 2005).<br/><br/>Cruz and Lombarte (2004) collected 14 specimens, with length varying from 14-54 cm TL during sampling cruises in the Catalonian Sea and around the Balearic Islands (north-west Mediterranean Sea) between 1995 and 2003.
198708		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is caught in trawl fisheries.
198709		conservation	eng	This species occurs in marine protected areas in the Mediterranean. Improved fisheries management is recommended and better control of spearfishing activities. Protection of estuarine juvenile nursery habitat is also important.<br/><br/>Further studies should be conducted in the Black Sea and the western Mediterranean Sea to determine the population trends for the entire region.
198709		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to southern Morocco. It is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea but is not found around the main islands. It is also found throughout the Black Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <em>Umbrina cirrosa</em> occurs in the Aegean Sea (Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003), the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), and in Iberian waters (Cruz and Lombarte 2006) including the Balearic Islands. This species is also present in Libya and Morocco, possibly in all North African coasts including Egypt (Bini 1968, Collignon and Aloncle 1973).
198709		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that can be found over rocky and sandy substrata in coastal waters. Juveniles enter estuaries. The reproduction period for this species begins in May, with a peak in June. Food preys include molluscs and worms. The maximum size is 100 cm and maximum weight is 12 kg (Dieuzeide <em>et al.</em> 1955). It matures at around 35 cm (3 years), and is estimated to have a generation length of 5 years. This species feeds on Clupeids (sardines, anchovies), mackerels, cuttlefish, shellfishes and worms.
198709		population	eng	The population of <em>Umbrina cirrosa</em> in the Mediterranean Sea is thought to be declining overall. <br/><br/>FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) landings figures show records from seven countries in the Mediterranean Sea. The main nations landing the species are Turkey and Italy. Sharp declines in landings from these two countries have been seen over the last ten years. Average landings figures for 1986 to 1990 (1,393 metric tons) have declined by 80% compared with average figures for 2001 to 2005 (278 metric tons). <br/><br/>This species was very common in Lebanon in the past, but a sharp decline has occurred in recent years, most likely due to spearfishing. It is now considered to be rare (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007). There are records of sharp declines in this species observed around the Aegean and Mediterranean coast of Turkey in recent years (C. Bizsel and B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007) as well as in Israel (M. Goren pers. comm. 2007). This species used to be relatively common in many areas in the Mediterranean 1970s compared to the present (A. Di Natale, pers. comm. 2007). In Algeria and some of the other northern African coast, populations are currently stable (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007). <br/><br/>Other records from the Mediterranean Sea include:<br/>Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) sampled nine specimens, with length varying from 6.5 to 24.7 cm TL, using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three northern Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (NE Aegean), a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) collected 44 specimens, with length varying from 33.1 to 47.0 cm TL, using various fishing gears (beach seine, fyke net, gill nets, fish traps) in three estuarine area of the River Mirna, northern Adriatic Sea).<br/><br/>Cruz and Lombarte (2004) captured ten specimens (11 cm to 54 cm TL) during sampling cruises in the Catalonian Sea and around the Balearic Islands (north-west Mediterranean Sea) between 1995 and 2003.
198709		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. In the Mediterranean the most important fishery is in Turkey and Italy and in the past, Greece. It is typically caught with fixed nets, seine, fyke-net, and traps. It is also targeted by recreational spearfishing.<br/><br/>Estuarine habitats are important for the juvenile stage of the life cycle therefore development and pollution of these areas causing habitat loss and degradation is a major threat.<br/><br/>As well as exploitation from fishing, this species may also have been disturbed by divers and spear fishermen forcing the animals to be less concentrated and much more dispersed in small coastal caves and below rocks (A. Di Natale, pers. comm. 2007).
198710		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198710		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from southern Portugal to Angola, including the Canaries and Sao Tome Principe. It is found in the western Mediterranean Sea. There is also a record from the southern Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Italy.
198710		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, coastal species (Reiner 1996). It inhabits rocky and sandy substrata (Schneider 1990). Juveniles may occur in littoral areas, but not in estuaries. It feeds on shrimps, worms and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates (Chao 1986).
198710		population	eng	In the Mediterranean, there is no information about the population. There are no FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) landings figures specific to this species.
198710		threats	eng	This is a commercial species.<br/><br/>It is fished artisanally at least on the Moroccan coast, but it is not clear whether this is in the Mediterranean and/or the Atlantic coasts.
198711		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It has been recorded in marine protected areas.
198711		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Angola including the Azores, Madeira, Canaries, Cape Verdes, and the Sao Tome Principe. It is found throughout the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas but not in the Black Sea.
198711		habitat	eng	This species lives amongst rocks, gravel, coral (Schneider 1990) and in marine caves on the continental shelf and upper slope. It is nocturnal and feeds on crustaceans and small fishes. It occurs from 15 to 200 m, typically at 30 to 80 m on rocks and soft substrata. Adult males typically occur in deeper waters (Louisy 2002).
198711		population	eng	This species is not uncommon in suitable habitats. <br/><br/>In some areas of the Mediterranean this species is very abundant, and it occurs in large schools in Turkey (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).
198711		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198712		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It occurs in marine protected areas.
198712		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Senegal, including the Canary Islands. It is found throughout the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas but not in the Black Sea.
198712		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found over seagrass, <em>Posidonia</em> beds, sand, mud and rocks (Smith 1981). It is most common on rocky habitat at 20 to 30 m (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). It is carnivorous, and is a synchronous hermaphrodite (Bruslé 1983). This species adapts well in an aquarium (Göthel 1992).
198712		population	eng	This species is common in most of its range, locally abundant in suitable habitat, typically in deeper water than <em>Serranus cabrilla</em>.
198712		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It has minor commercial importance and is caught by hand lines, and as bycatch in trawls.
198713		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It occurs in marine protected areas. Restrictions on spear fishing of this species are recommended.
198713		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel to Mauritania, including Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. It is present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
198713		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, sedentary species found on rocky substrata and on seagrass beds. It feeds on fishes and crustaceans. Depth range is recorded as 2 to 150 m, but mostly it occurs above 40 m (mainly from 5 to 30 m) (Louisy 2002).
198713		population	eng	This species is common but not abundant throughout most of its range.<br/><br/>This species has lower abundance and biomass in Mallorca than in protected areas due to fishing pressure (Ordines <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198713		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It has minor commercial importance and is mainly caught by hooks and lines, spear fishing, trammel nets, gill nets, bottom long line, and traps.
198714		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species, although it is present in marine protected areas.
198714		distribution	eng	<em>Sphyraena viridensis</em> occurs in the eastern central Atlantic, recorded from Cape Verde and the Canary Islands, and from the Azores (Barreiros <em>et al.</em> 2002). It also occurs in the northwestern Mediterranean (not the Adriatic Sea) and western Turkey and Syria, with one record from Algeria. It is not in the Black Sea<br/><br/><em>S. viridensis</em> is reported from Lebanon in the eastern Mediterranean, Turkey (Bizsel and Cihangir 1996), Rhodes (Corsini and Economidis 1999), Sicily (Ustica Island, Vacchi <em>et al.</em> 1999), the Balearic Islands (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2001), Algeria (Kara and Bourehain 2003), and the Adriatic (Kozul <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is probably present in the southern Adriatic (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).
198714		habitat	eng	This is an epipelagic species, whose habits are probably similar to those of the phylogenetically closely related <em>Sphyraena sphyraena</em> (De Sylva 1990). It feeds on cephalopods, crustaceans and fishes.
198714		population	eng	In western part of the Mediterranean the population is increasing, it is possible to now see very large schools, but was considered uncommon to rare around ten years ago (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007). This may be due to warming sea temperatures. In the southwestern coast of Turkey it is common (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007). An important population occurs in Algeria (M. H. Kara pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>It has recently become possible to observe juvenile barracuda in the northwestern part of the Mediterranean (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) landings figures are available from ten countries, but not specifically for this species (all barracuda are lumped into the statistics). Overall there is an increasing trend to these figures. However, this may be due to increasing recording from different countries and also increases in other species (including in the catch figures for <em>S. chrysotaenia</em> and <em>S. flavicauda</em>, both immigrant species from the Red Sea).
198714		threats	eng	It is commercially important in the Mediterranean. It is found in markets in Turkey. It is caught as bycatch in trammel nets and as bycatch in Algeria. No particular commercial importance in the northwestern areas at present (it is a recent occurrence there).
198715		conservation	eng	No information is available for this species.
198715		distribution	eng	<em>Stromateus fiatola</em> is an eastern Atlantic species recorded from the Bay of Biscay where it is rare (Haedrich 1986) and the Mediterranean, southward to the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa).<br/><br/>There are various records of <em>S. fiatola</em> in the Mediterranean (various authors 2001), including in the Aegean Sea and Turkish waters (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2002).
198715		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species that can be found over continental shelves (Haedrich 1986). Young are often found associated with pelagic medusae (Haedrich 1986). This species forms large schools (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993) and  feeds on small fishes and zooplankton, also medusae (Haedrich 1986).
198715		population	eng	No information is available for this species; it is only known from a few records in the region.
198715		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Occasionally caught by <span class="hps">the <span class="hps">semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain, <span class="hps">Sicily) <span class="hps">and <span class="hps">fishing. It is caught with <span class="hps">purse seines<span>, <span class="hps">pelagic <span class="hps">and <span class="hps">bottom trawls<span>, dredges, <span class="hps">bottom gillnets <span class="hps">and trammel nets<span>, <span class="hps">hand lines<span>. <span class="hps">Appears <span class="hps">regularly on the <span class="hps">Moroccan <span class="hps">market<span class="">, occasionally<span class="">, even <span class="hps">rarely, <span class="hps">elsewhere<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987)<span>. <br/><br/>No information is available from within the Mediterranean.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198716		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the Mediterranean.
198716		distribution	eng	This is an oceanic species in southwestern, northwestern and northeastern Pacific.  It is also present in the western Atlantic, from USA to Argentina, and across the Atlantic to the British Isles and southwards to South Africa. It is present in the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/><em>Tetragonurus cuvieri</em> occurs in the Mediterranean Sea (Haedrich 1986, Quignard and Tomasini 2000), including the Strait of Sicily (Ragonese and Giusto 2003).
198716		habitat	eng	There is no specific habitat information available for this species.
198716		population	eng	The population in the Mediterranean is unknown.
198716		threats	eng	No major threats are known for this species.  In the Mediterranean Sea, it is likely to occur below the depth range of most fisheries.
198717		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198717		distribution	eng	This species is found In eastern Atlantic, from British Isles and Norway to Morocco, including Madeira and the Canaries.  It is widespread in all of Mediterranean and Marmara Seas, but does not occur in the Black Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean <em>Echiichthys vipera</em> is widespread, including in the Sea of Marmara.
198717		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, littoral, and benthic species, occurring on sandy substrata, from a few meters to about 150 m (in winter). It rests on the bottom, often buried with its eyes and the tip of first dorsal fin exposed.<em> E. vipera </em>is considered as the most dangerous of the European weevers, both for its poison and for its frequent occurrence very near to beaches. There are venom glands on the first dorsal fin, which is totally black, and on the gill cover (Roux 1990).
198717		population	eng	In the Mediterranean it is relatively common in suitable habitat.
198717		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain<span class="">, Sicily <span class="hps">and Cyprus) and <span class="hps">artisanal. The species is caught<span class="hps"> with<span class="hps"><span></span> <span class="hps">beach seines<span>, <span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gill nets and <span class="hps">longlines<span>, <span class="hps">dredges, <span class="hps">traps and</span> <span class="hps">hand lines<span class="">. Ity is r<span class="hps">egularly present <span class="hps">in the markets of <span class="hps">Italy, Spain<span>, Morocco, <span class="hps">Tunisia and <span class="hps">Cyprus,</span> <span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">or rarely elsewhere<span class="hps"><span class="hps">&#160; (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). <br/><br/>There are no known major threats for this species.<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198718		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198718		distribution	eng	<em>Trachinus araneus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species recorded from Portugal to Angola. It is also common in the Mediterranean, including the Sea of Marmara. It is not present in the Black Sea.
198718		habitat	eng	This species is demersal and inhabits shallow waters to about 100 m depth, burrowing in the bottom. In the Ligurian Sea this species was caught until 150 m of depth (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Roux 1990).
198718		population	eng	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. In Turkish waters it is more common than <em>Echiichthys vipera</em> (B. Yokes pers. comm. 2007).
198718		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain and <span class="hps">Sicily)<span>, craft and sport.<span class="hps"><span> <span class="hps">The species is caught with <span class="hps">beach seines<span>, <span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gill nets and <span class="hps">longlines<span>, <span class="hps">traps and <span class="hps">hand lines<span>. <span class="hps">Regularly present <span class="hps">in the markets of <span class="hps">Italy, Sicily, <span class="hps">Spain, Morocco and <span class="hps">Tunisia, <span class="hps"><span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">in other places,&#160; <span class="hps">rarely <span class="hps">in France and <span class="hps">Egypt<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).<br/><br/>In the eastern Mediterranean it is often caught in trammel nets. <br/><br/>There are no known major threats for this species.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198719		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198719		distribution	eng	<em>Trachinus draco</em> is recorded from the northeastern Atlantic, from Norway to Morocco, Madeira and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Roux 1990). It has also been reported from Mauritania (Fernández and de Pinna 2005).<br/><br/><em>T. draco</em> is very widespread in the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
198719		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, occurring on sand, mud or gravel substrata, from a few meters to about 300 m. It is mainly found in shallow water between 5 and 20 m. It rests on the bottom, often buried with eyes and tip of first dorsal fin exposed (Frimodt 1995). At night they swim around freely, even pelagically (Muus and Nielsen 1999), feeding on small invertebrates and fishes. It is oviparous, and eggs and larval stages are pelagic. There are dark markings along the scales, the anterior dorsal fin is black and contains venomous spines. Spawning takes place in June and August; pelagic eggs are 1 mm (Muus and Nielsen 1999).
198719		population	eng	This species is very common in the Mediterranean.
198719		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain<span>, Sicily <span class="hps">and Cyprus) and <span class="hps">artisanal<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span>. It is caught with<span class="hps"><span> <span class="hps">beach seines<span>, <span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gill nets and <span class="hps">longlines<span>, <span class="hps">handlines<span>. <span class="hps">Regularly present <span class="hps">in the markets of <span class="hps">Italy, Spain<span class="">, Morocco and Turkey<span>, <span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">or rarely elsewhere<span>.</span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps atn"><span><span><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class=""> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987).<br/><br/>When caught in bycatch it is killed. In France (FAO fishing area 37), up  to 1,000 tons are landed per year. <br/><br/>There are no known major threats for this species.<br/><br/></span></span></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198720		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.
198720		distribution	eng	<em>Trachinus radiatus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species, recorded from Gibraltar to the Gulf of Guinea, and probably occurring further south. <br/><br/><em>T. radiatus</em> occurs in the Mediterranean (Fischer<em> et al.</em> 1987), where it is distributed throughout, including the Sea of Marmara. It is not present in the Black Sea.
198720		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species, found on sand and mud substrata on the continental shelf from shoreline to a depth of about 150 m (Roux 1990).
198720		population	eng	There is no population information available from the Mediterranean for this species. It is a deeper water species (mainly between 30 and 60 m).
198720		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain and <span class="hps">Sicily)<span> and craft <span class="hps"><span class="hps">with <span class="hps">beach seines<span>, trawls<span>, nets <span class="hps">mails and <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines<span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). <br/><br/>There are no known major threats for this species.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198721		conservation	eng	It is likely a long-lived species. Some research is necessary to determine the effects of fishing pressure on this species, catch statistics should be carefully monitored to determine whether there is a decreasing trend for this fish.
198721		distribution	eng	In all oceans, and in the eastern Atlantic from France to Senegal (and possibly South Africa), including Azores, Madeira and Canaries. It is widespread in the western Mediterranean. It is found in Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, UK and Ireland. This wide distribution may actually be comprised of more than one species (D. Pollard pers. com.).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea,<em> Lepidopus caudatus </em>occurs in Iberian waters (Bozzano <em>et al.</em> 2005, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), the Ligurian Sea (Minganti <em>et al.</em> 1996, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005, Reale and Sbrana 2007), the Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), eastern Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004), the Adriatic Sea (Santic <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004), and Turkish waters.
198721		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal, oceanodromous species that occurs on continental shelf, along its edge and upper slope down to 400 m (600 m in Australia), usually over sandy and muddy substrata from 100 to 250 m (over 300 m in Australia). Its depth range is from 333 to 620 m in the eastern Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It migrates into midwater at night. The species forms schools, and occasionally it is found inshore in upwellings of deep water when it appears at surface. It feeds on crustaceans, small squid and fish (Parin 1986).
198721		population	eng	It is apparently relatively uncommon in surface waters in the Mediterranean, the population in deeper waters is unknown.<br/><br/>Filiz and Bilge (2004) caught 40 specimens (21.9 to 81.5 cm TL) with trawls in March and July 2003, in the Sıgacik trawl area (north Aegean Sea) at depths between 70 and 378 m.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) sampled this species during four seasonal 24 hr surveys conducted in July 2001 (18 individuals per 24 hrs), November 2001 (4 individuals per 24 hrs) and May 2002 (64 individuals per 24 hrs) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea.<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) sampled this species during two trawl surveys (in autumn 1997 and 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily. Mean density values varied from 4 to 42 per km².
198721		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial importance. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain and <span class="hps">Sicily)<span class="">, craft<span class="hps"><span class="">. <span class="hps">It is mainly caught with <span class="hps">purse seines<span class="">, nets <span class="hps">lamparos<span class="">, <span class="hps">trawls and <span class="hps">longlines<span class="">. <span class="hps">Regularly present <span class="hps">in the markets <span class="hps">of Morocco, <span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">rarely elsewhere<span class="">, is marketed <span class="hps">fresh or chilled (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1987).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean,<em> L. caudatus</em> are landed in the northern and central Tyrrhenian Sea in large quantities, bringing in a high revenue (Reale and Sbrana 2007).<br/><br/>Annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean between 1996 and 2005 (obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database 2007) were: 1,619 (1996), 1,365 (1997), 1,713 (1998), 1,830 (1999), 707 (2000), 3,421 (2001), 1,053 (2002), 1,201 (2003), 524 (2004), 412 (2005).<br/><br/>FAO statistics figures are available from four countries. The figures show no useful trends.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198722		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.
198722		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic, from northern Spain to Senegal (but not around the islands), and is common throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas (but not the Sea of Azov).<br/><br/><em>Uranoscopus scaber</em> is very common in Mediterranean and Black Sea.
198722		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that is usually found buried in the sand or mud. In the Ligurian Sea this species lives in the range of depth 18-91 m (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). Its shoulder spines can inflict painful stings.
198722		population	eng	This species is common in suitable habitat and widespread in the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
198722		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">In the Mediterranean Sea this species is caught with trawls as bycatch and has limited commercial value. <br/><br/></span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain<span>, Sicily, <span class="hps">Adriatic and <span class="hps">Cyprus), <span class="hps">artisanal and <span class="hps">sport. <span class="hps">The species is r<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">egularly present <span class="hps">in the markets <span class="hps">of Spain<span class="">, Italy, Sicily<span class="">, Adriatic, <span class="hps">Morocco and <span class="hps">Cyprus, <span class="hps">also <span class="hps">occasionally<span class="">, rarely <span class="hps">in the Black Sea<span><span class="hps"><span class="hps">. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">It is caught with <span><span class="hps">beach seines<span>, <span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gill nets and <span class="hps">longlines<span>, <span class="hps">traps, <span class="hps">hand lines<span> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). <br/><br/>There are no known major threats for this species. <br/><br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198723		conservation	eng	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.
198723		distribution	eng	<em>Melanostigma atlanticum</em> occurs mainly in the western Atlantic off of northeastern USA, but has also been recorded in the eastern Atlantic off N Ireland and Canary Islands.<br/><br/><em>M. atlanticum</em> has been recorded in the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is present in the Gulf of Genoa (Andriashev 1986) and in the Balearic basin (Massuti <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198723		habitat	eng	No specific information on habitat is available.
198723		population	eng	No population information is available for this species.
198723		threats	eng	There is not enough information available about this species to determine whether there are major threats.
198724		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198724		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Norway to Angola.  It is also found throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the Gulf of Lions (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), Ligurian Sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004; Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Santic <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Aegean Sea (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004), Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Lebanese waters (Bariche <em>et al.</em> 2007).
198724		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on sandy or muddy substrata. It feeds on small fishes and invertebrates (Nielsen 1986, De Morais and Bodiou 1984).<br/><br/>The species undergoes a metamorphosis when it is between 16 and 230 mm. The maximum length is 25 cm, but the usual length is between 8 and 15 cm.
198724		population	eng	This is a common species found throughout the Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>According to Gristina<em> et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 4 to 39/km<sup>2</sup>, from 62 hauls.<br/><br/>Letorureur <em>et al.</em> (2001) mention that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River.  A small beam trawl with opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size was used.   Mean densities were 23.68 ± 8.24 individuals ha-1 from 31 hauls conducted in a first site, and 89.33 ± 30.29 from 26 hauls conducted in a second site, for a total surface area of 2,778 m<sup>2</sup> at depth of 5-8 m.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that eight specimens (7.6 to 18.3 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets (inner mesh sizes 16, 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30 and 32 mm bar length) in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005. <br/><br/>According to Bariche <em>et al.</em> (2007), three specimens were collected in the coastal waters of Lebanon, along the north side of Beirut, for 4 months starting from May 2001, with one sample taken each week.  Fishing activities were conducted with a purse seine (5 mm mesh, 170 m long and 40 m deep).<br/><br/>Romanelli <em>et al.</em> (2002) mention that 22 samples were collected in the east Ligurian Sea in the fishing season of 1997, with 15 hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m).<br/><br/>Ungaro <em>et al.</em> (1999) report that this species was sampled from trawl surveys carried out in the south Adriatic Sea (mean abundance value of 23 specimens in 224 hauls), during summer 1996 and 1997 inside 112 stations (1 haul/60 square nautical miles) with 72 hauls in the Italian area and 40 hauls in the Albanian area each year, using an otter trawl net (length 40 m, wing spread 8 m) with a 10 mm mesh size at the cod-end.<br/><br/>According to Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (6 ind/24h), November 2001 (10 ind/24h), March 2002 (2 ind/24h) and May 2002 (34 ind/24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40mm head rope, a 40mm ground chain and 30-40mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) mention that 117 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that 1,078 specimens (4.5 to 14.9 cm TL) were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 22.3 and 67.0 cm.<br/><br/>According to Darnaude <em>et al.</em> (2004), 741 specimens (2.0 to 13.2 cm TL) were collected in the Gulf of Lion, seawards of the Rhone River from March 2000 to November 2001.
198724		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial importance and is only sold in local markets. It is generally discarded from bottom trawl catches of the north-east Mediterranean Sea (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001).
198725		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198725		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from Mauritania to Angola, including Madeira, Cape Verde and the Canary Islands (Aldebert <em>et al.</em> 1990). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea it occurs throughout the basin, including in the Alboran Sea (Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2004), Iberian coast (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Raventos<em> et al.</em> 2006), Balearic islands (Deudero et al. 2008, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001, Carlier <em>et al.</em> 2007), Ligurian Sea (Romanelli <em>et al.</em> 2002, Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Akin <em>et al.</em> 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), Lebanese coasts (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Egyptian waters (Abdallah 2002).
198725		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that can be found in shallow waters, over sandy substrata of the continental plateau (Maigret and Ly 1986, Göthel 1992). There is an important sexual dimorphism. It feeds on benthic small fishes and invertebrates.  Reproduction occurs between May and August. Small individuals adapt well in aquaria but require sufficient bottom areas (Göthel 1992).
198725		population	eng	It is a common species. Mediterranean Sea populations seem to be stable with no clear evidence of decline.<br/><br/>According to Sangun <em>et al.</em> (2007) 90 specimens with lengths ranging from 6.2-15.7 cm were collected from the north-east Mediterranean Sea (Turkey) during 2001-2003, from depths of 5 to 100 m.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2004) mention that 17 specimens were obtained seasonally during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>Abdullah (2002) reports that 310 specimens (5.5 to 13.6 cm TL) were collected after eighteen cruises conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. 162 fishing hours of fishing operations with trawls at depths of 30-200 m.<br/><br/>According to Carlier <em>et al.</em> (2007), 17 specimens were collected with trawls during March 2004 between 5 and 35 m depth, in the Bay of Banyuls-sur-Mer (Gulf of Lion).<br/><br/>Letourneur <em>et al.</em> (2001) mention that this species was sampled during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France) a shallow semi-enclosed soft-bottom zone located near the delta of the Rhone River, using a small beam trawl with opening of 1.5 x 0.5m with 8mm net mesh size.  A mean density of 7.01 ± 3.94 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: 2 knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m<sup>2 </sup>at depth of 5-8 m.<br/><br/>Deudero<em> et al.</em> (2008) report that this species was sampled in July, September, October and December 2002, with mean abundance and standard error that ranged from 0.11±0.15 to 0.43±0.34.  Lengths ranged from 5.5 to 13.5 cm TL).  Individuals were caught over <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m using a beam trawl (1.8 m wide and 0.8 m high, with a body of 8 m, 12 mm square mesh at its first half and 9 mm at the back, and a 2 m long cod end, 6 mm square mesh) during daytime (10:00-13:00 h).<br/><br/>According to Karakulak<em> et al.</em> (2006), one specimen (11.9 cm TL) was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/> <br/>Romanelli <em>et al.</em> (2002) mention that one sample was collected in the east Ligurian Sea in the fishing season of 1997, with six hauls using a hand hauled commercial seine (wings: 70 m each, mouth width: 8 m).
198725		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is caught with trawls, seine, gill and trammel nets.
198726		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198726		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal to Morocco. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurred along the entire Mediterranean Sea coast (Nielsen 1986), from the Gulf of Valencia (Redon <em>et al.</em> 1994), in the Catalan Sea (Bahamon <em>et al.</em> 2006), in the Gulf of Lion (Darnaude <em>et al.</em> 2004), in Corsica (Miniconi 1994), in the north Tyrrhenian Sea (Bargagli <em>et al.</em> 1986), in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), in the Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198726		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits soft bottoms from the coastline to about 300 m depth, but it is rarely caught at depths greater than 200 m (Nielsen 1981). It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Redon <em>et al.</em> 1984).
198726		population	eng	This is an abundant species, commonly observed in bottom trawls. There are no indications of population decline throughout its distribution range.<br/><br/>According to Darnaude <em>et al.</em> (2004), 174 specimens (6.3 to 23.7cm TL) were collected in the Gulf of Lion, seawards of the Rhone River from March 2000 to November 2001.<br/><br/>Barghigiani <em>et al.</em> (1986) report that 101 specimens (7.0 to 22.0 cm TL) were collected from April to September 1985 in the area of the north Tyrrhenian Sea.<br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2004) mention that 20 specimens were obtained seasonally during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), eight specimens, (15.1 to 18.9 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Sangun <em>et al.</em> (2007) report that 338 specimens (6.5 to 21.3 cm) were collected from the north-east Mediterranean Sea (Turkey) during 2001-2003, from depths of 5 to 100 m.<br/><br/>Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2004) mention that a total of 501 hauls were taken during 16 experimental bottom trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis from standard depth stations between 16-500m, at the north Aegean Sea (1990–1993). An otter trawl with 16mm mesh size was used. Density of the species was 0.11% of all fish specimens captured at depths ranging 25-32 m. At depths of 100–195 m, its density was 1.89%.<br/><br/>According to Cakir <em>et al.</em> (2005), 1,096 specimens (6.9 mm to 22.2 cm) were caught in Edremit Bay (north Aegean Sea) from September 1998 to September 2000.<br/><br/>Sartor <em>et al.</em> (2002) mention that 6,336 bottom trawling hauls were carried out during 1994-1999, at depths from 10 to 800 m, using an experimental trawl with a mesh size of 10mm at the cod-end. Mean biomass of <em>C. linguatula</em> was 3.651 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Spain and France, 0.947 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Sardinian and Tyrrhenian seas, 0.821 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Adriatic Sea, 0.451 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Ionian Sea and 8.622 kg/km<sup>2 </sup>for Aegean Sea. Mean abundance according to depth are as follows: 10-50 m (2.107 kg/km<sup>2</sup>), 50-100 m (4.829 kg/km2), 100-200 m (1.760 kg/km2).
198726		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls, gill and trammel nets. On the Moroccan Mediterranean Sea coast, <em>C. linguatula</em> is the second most important commercial flatfish species after <em>S. solea</em> (O. Kada pers. comm. 2007).
198727		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198727		distribution	eng	In the west Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in south Adriatic Sea (Gulf of Taranto, Naples, Sicily and Gulf of Genoa) (Quero <em>et al.</em> 1986). In the east Mediterranean Sea, it is only reported from Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea coast of Greece (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005) and Israel (Goren <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is also found in the eastern Atlantic, from Western Sahara to Namibia.
198727		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that occurs on muddy bottoms of the continental shelf (Schneider 1990), generally at depths of 20-800 m (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986). It was recently found at a depth of 1,480 m in the Levant sea (off Haifa, Israel, Goren et al. 2006). In Algeria, it is found generally under 400 m (Nouar pers. com. 2007). In the Thracian Sea, <em>S. ligulatus</em> occurred in shallower depth range (30-90 m).
198727		population	eng	There is no population information.<br/><br/>According to D’Onghia <em>et al.</em> (2003), two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off the west Greece), at depth ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting 1 hour, were made. The average density was 0.214 individuals/h and 0.001 kg/h.<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that sampling was carried out in the deep waters of the north part of the east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (September 1999, April 2000, July 2000 and September 2000). Two hired commercial trawlers equipped with trawls of 40 mm (stretched) mesh size in the cod-end were used for sampling. In total, 148 hauls were carried out during the four surveys. Abundance was 0.4 individuals/h (at depths of 500-700 m) and 0.1 individuals/h (at depths of 700-900 m).<br/><br/>Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2004) mention that a total of 501 hauls were taken during 16 experimental bottom trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis from standard depth stations between 16-500 m, at the north Aegean Sea (1990-1993). An otter trawl with 16mm mesh size was used. Density was 0.30% of all fish specimens captured at depths ranging 44-98 m.<br/><br/>According to Moranta <em>et al.</em> (1998), a total of 32 bottom trawls were made between depths of 200 and 1,800m, during October 1996 at the Algerian basin (Balearic islands). 90 specimens (0.21 kg) were obtained from nine trawl hauls.
198727		threats	eng	Due to its small size, the species does not have any commercial value. It is a totally discarded species in Aegean and Ionian Seas (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Semi-industrial fishing in Sicily, artisanal fishing in the Tyrrhenian Sea with bottom trawls. Rarely present in the market. It is sold fresh (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).
198728		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198728		distribution	eng	This species is found in the east Atlantic from Angola, St. Helena and Ascension islands northwards to Portugal (including Azores). <br/><br/>It occurs throughout the Mediterranean, including the Aegean Sea (Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000), Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in the Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), except for north Adriatic and Cyprus (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986, Bauchot 1987).
198728		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that occurs on mud substrata of the continental slope and shelf (Schneider 1990).
198728		population	eng	There is no population information for this species. It is rarely caught by trawls, as trawls are generally not operating so deep.<br/><br/>According to Lamprakis <em>et al.</em> (2003), 406 specimens (4.7 to 13.0 cm TL) were caught from 1996 to 1998 in the Thracian Sea by two commercial trawlers (diamond cod-end mesh size: 14 mm, nominal bar length) at depths ranging from 19 to 365 m.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (48 ind./24h), November 2001 (8 ind./24h), March 2002 (2 ind./24h) and May 2002 (14 ind./24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>D’Onghia <em> et al.</em> (2003) mention that two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off west Greece), at depth ranging from 300 to 750m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting one hour, were made. Average density was 0.143 individuals/h and 0.001 kg/h (off the Italian coast).<br/><br/>According to Abad <em>et al.</em> (2007), a total of 28 hauls were carried out at depths ranging from 50 to 640m, in the Alboran Sea (during the fishing season between August 2000 and June 2001). An otter trawl net was used for sampling purposes. Density of the species was 0.97kg/h (at 276-350m depth), and 0.01kg/h (at 351-460m depth).<br/><br/>Moranta<em> et al.</em> (1998) report that a total of 32 bottom trawls were made between depths of 200 and 1,800m, during October 1996 at the Algerian basin (Balearic islands). 86 specimens (0.38kg in weight) were obtained from ten trawl hauls.
198728		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. <br/> <br/>This is a locally commercial species in Aegean and Ionian Seas, incidentally caught with bottom trawls (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is generally discarded in the east Mediterranean Sea (M. Bilecenoglu pers. obs. 2007).
198729		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198729		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-east Atlantic, from British Isles south to Cape Bojador and West Sahara. <br/><br/>It occurs along all the Mediterranean Sea coast, from Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), Ligurian Sea (Pietrapiana <em>et al.</em> 2002), Tyrrhenian sea (Pellegrini and Barghigani 1989, Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Madurell and Cartes 2005), Aegean Sea (Kallionitis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Celik and Oehlenschlager 2005, Vassillopoulou 2006), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis<em> et al.</em> 2000), and the Tracian Sea (Labropoulous and Papacostantinou 2005). It is not found in north Adriatic, Egypt or Cyprus (Nielsen 1986, Bauchot 1987). It is also known from the Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198729		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits muddy substrata (Nielsen 1990).
198729		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>According to Madurell and Cartes (2005), 155 specimens (12.9 to 37.7 cm TL) were caught in August 1999 in the east Ionian Sea. Samples were collected with an otter trawl equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 14 mm stretched mesh size.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) mention that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (16 ind./24h), November 2001 (28 ind./24h), March 2002 (20 ind./24h) and May 2002 (36 ind./24h) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.<br/><br/>D’Onghia <em>et al.</em> (2003) report that two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off the west Greece), at depths ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting 1 hour, were made. Abundance was 9.5 individuals/h and 0.877 kg/h (Greece), 2.5 individuals/h and 0.076 kg/h (Italy).<br/><br/>According to Politou <em>et al.</em> (2003), samplings were made at the Greek Ionian Sea during spring, summer and autumn of 2000 at depths from 300 to 900 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm mesh size at the cod-end) and a total of 107 hauls were carried out. CPUE (kg/h) was 2.04 (spring), 3.40 (summer) and 6.75 (autumn), for depths of 300 to 500 m. At greater depths (500-700m), CPUE (kg/h) was 0.13 (spring), 1.01 (summer) and 1.20 (autumn). At 700-900 m, CPUE was 0.11 kg/h (autumn).<br/><br/>Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005) sampled deep waters of the north part of the east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (September 1999, April 2000, July 2000 and September 2000). Two hired commercial trawlers equipped with trawls of 40 mm (stretched) mesh size in the cod-end were used for sampling. In total, 148 hauls were carried out during the four surveys. Abundance was 18.0 individuals/h (at 300-500 m), 10.1 individuals/h (at 500-700 m) and 0.1 individuals/h (at 700-900 m).<br/><br/>Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou (2004) mention that a total of 501 hauls were taken during 16 experimental bottom trawl survey cruises on a seasonal basis from standard depth stations between 16-500 m, at the north Aegean Sea (1990–1993). An otter trawl with 16mm mesh size was used.<em> L. boscii</em> comprised 2.38% of all fish specimens captured at depths ranging 100-195 m (north Aegean Sea). At 215-490 m, it comprised 5.71% of the total catch.<br/><br/>According to Vassilopoulou (2000), 15, 323 specimens of this species were collected during eight experimental seasonal fishing cruises, from June 1990 to March 1992. Samplings were carried out in a grid of 33 stations in the north Aegean Sea, at depths of 200 to 400 m. A bottom trawl with a mesh size of 14 mm at the cod-end was used. Mean abundance of the species was 60.3 specimens per hour of trawling. <br/><br/>Sartor <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported that 6,336 bottom trawling hauls were carried out during 1994-1999, at depths from 10 to 800 m, using an experimental trawl with a mesh size of 10mm at the cod-end. Mean biomass was 4.000 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Spain-France, 1.685 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Sardinian-Tyrrhenian, 2.080 kg/km<sup>2 </sup>for Adriatic Sea, 0.930 kg/km<sup>2</sup> for Ionian Sea and 3.969 kg/km<sup>2 </sup>for Aegean Sea. Mean abundance according to depth were as follows: 50-100 m (0.298 kg/km<sup>2</sup>), 100-200 m (2.528 kg/km2), 200-500 m (6.138 kg/km<sup>2</sup>), 500-800 m (1.169 kg/km<sup>2</sup>).
198729		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest, but it can be locally important for fisheries.
198730		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198730		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the north-east Atlantic, from Iceland southward to Cape Bojador (26°N) and West Sahara. <br/><br/>It occurs throughout out the Mediterranean Sea, except for Cyprus (Nielsen 1986, Bauchot 1987). It is also present in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004) and  the Ionian Sea (Madurell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198730		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that occurs on muddy substrata. It usually lives at depth range of 100-400 m (Muus and Dahlstrøm 1989) and has been found from 288-700 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It feeds on small benthic fishes as well as on squids and crustaceans (Nielsen 1986).
198730		population	eng	This is not a rare species.<br/><br/>According to D’Onghia <em>et al.</em> (2003), two trawl surveys (July and August 2000) were carried out in two areas of the Ionian Sea (one off the south-east Italian coast, the other off the western Greece), at depths ranging from 300 to 750 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm stretched mesh size at the cod-end). A total of 14 trawl hauls, each lasting one hour, were made. Density was 1.202  individuals/h (Italy) and 0.315 kg/h (Greece)<br/><br/>Politou <em>et al.</em> (2003) sampled the Greek Ionian Sea during spring, summer and autumn 2000 at depths from 300 to 900 m. An Italian type bottom trawl was used (20 mm mesh size at the cod-end) and a total of 107 hauls were carried out. CPUE (kg/h) was 1.24 (spring), 0.79 (summer) and 0.75 (autumn), for depths of 300 to 500 m. At larger depths (500-700 m), CPUE (kg/h) was 0.27 (summer) and 0.65 (autumn). At 700-900 m, CPUE was 0.11 kg/h (autumn).<br/><br/>This species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end, with density of 3.7 individuals per haul in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 1.2 individuals per haul in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls) and 0.1 individuals per haul in the depth 700-900 m (35 hauls) (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198730		threats	eng	This is a species of commercial interest and it is caught with trawls.
198731		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198731		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-east Atlantic, along the European coasts to the Arctic Circle.  It is also found in most of the Baltic Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it distributes especially in the west and central part, in the Adriatic Sea (Arneri <em>et al.</em> 2001) and in the Gulf of Lion (Carlier <em>et al.</em> 2007). Previous records from the east Levant basin (Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey) are apparently erroneous (Golani 1996).
198731		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on sandy, rocky or mixed substrata, it is rather common in brackish waters. It feeds mainly on other bottom-living fishes (sand-eels, gobies, etc.), and also, to a lesser extent, on larger crustaceans and bivalves. <br/><br/>Spawning season is between April and August, eggs are pelagic. It may reach 25 kg (Frimodt 1995). Spawning usually happens between the months of February and April in the Mediterranean Sea and from May to July in the Atlantic. Sequenced spawning occurs every 2-4 days. Eggs have a single fat drop. Larvae are initially symmetric but, at the end of the metamorphosis (day 40-50, 25 mm), the right eye moves to the left side, losing its initial bilateral symmetry. Egg size is 0.9-1.2 mm, larval length at hatching is 2.7-3.1 mm.
198731		population	eng	The FAO Fishery Statistics (2007) indicate that reported captures for this species have clearly decreased during the last decade, particularly in Gulf of Lion, Balearic Islands, Aegean Sea, and Ionian Sea. Although there are no population estimates, there is an obvious historical population decline of the species in the Mediterranean Sea. Catches for Turbot declined from a high of 5000 t in the early 1980s to 1000 t in the early 1990s, with some evidence of recovery in the mid 1990s before another drop to 1000 t in the early 2000s. Although data is likely for mixed catch and not all countries are reporting, it is estimated that there has been at least a 20-30% decline in this species population since the early 1980s.<br/><br/><em>Psetta maxima</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 118 (1996), 210 (1997), 191 (1998), 89 (1999), 92 (2000), 106 (2001), 100 (2002), 103 (2003), 85 (2004), 96 (2005).
198731		threats	eng	This is a highly commercial species. It is caught with seines, trammel nets, longlines and trawls. It is highly esteemed food fish (Frimodt 1995).
198732		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198732		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic, from 64°N to Morocco. It is also reported from Iceland (Jonsson 1992). <br/><br/>It is also known throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in the Adriatic Sea (Arneri <em>et al.</em> 2001, Pranovi <em>et al.</em> 2001, Duclic and Glamuzina 2006) and in the Gulf of Lion (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001, Dumay <em>et al.</em> 2004). Previous records from the east Levant basin (Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey) are apparently erroneous (Golani 1996).
198732		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that lives on sandy or mixed substrata.  It feeds on bottom-living fishes and larger crustaceans. It is also found in lagoons.
198732		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>According to Franco <em>et al.</em> (2006), samples were collected in each season of 2002, at five sampling stations at Venice lagoon (north Adriatic). Fish were collected with fine mesh (2 mm inter-knot) and small beach seine (10 m long and 2 m high). Annual mean abundance was 0.15 individuals over bare sand habitat.<br/><br/>Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006) report that 31 specimens (31.7 to 44.6 cm TL) were collected with various fishing gear in three estuaries in the central east Adriatic Sea.
198732		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is caught with beach seines, trammel nets, longlines and trawls. <br/><br/><em>Scophthalmus rhombus</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 18 (1996), 20 (1997), 22 (1998), 24 (1999), 26 (2000), 26 (2001), 30 (2002), 27 (2003), 59 (2004), 55 (2005).
198733		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198733		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the east Atlantic, from British Isles to Morocco (Nielsen 1986). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is found throughout the north-west coast, including the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. It is known also from the Aegean Sea and Sea of Marmara, but absent in the Levant basin (Golani 1996, Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002). No records are available from Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia.
198733		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that occurs over rocky or muddy substrata, and less frequently on sandy substrata (Göthel 1992). It feeds on small fish and invertebrates. Reproduction occurs between February and August.
198733		population	eng	This is a rare species, but can be locally abundant. There is no population estimates.
198733		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest.
198734		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198734		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic, from Portugal southward to Senegal.  A single record is mentioned from south-west of the British Isles.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in Spain, Morocco and Algeria. Turkish records may be erroneous (D. Golani pers. comm. 2007).
198734		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species, found on mud and sand of the continental shelf, from the shore down to 250 m (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly amphipods and polychaetes (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986).
198734		population	eng	There is no population information, but it appears to be a rare species.
198734		threats	eng	There are no known major threats to this species.
198735		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198735		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east central Atlantic, from south-west of Iberian peninsula to Sierra Leone. It also occurs in west Indian Ocean (Heemstra and Gon 1986).<br/><br/>It occurs all through the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987), including the Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2006; Molinari and Tunesi 2003), Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters (Abdallah 2002).
198735		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata.
198735		population	eng	There is no population information for this species but it is not rare.<br/><br/>According to Abdallah (2002), 40 specimens (9.3 to 16.6 cm TL) were collected after 18 cruises at depths of 30-200 m were conducted in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea waters using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) mention that five specimens (12.9 to 15.2 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.
198735		threats	eng	This species has minor commercial interest. It is caught with trawls, seines, gills and trammel nets.
198736		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198736		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the north-east Atlantic, from the British Isles south to Senegal (baie du Lévrier). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs throughout the basin, including in the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2002) and in the Aegean Sea (Yuksek <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007), except the Levant coasts (Golani 2005).
198736		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits mud or sand substrata, but prefers coarse sand substrata. It feeds on a wide range of small bottom-living organisms, mainly crustaceans (amphipods, shrimps) and also polychaete worms and bivalve molluscs (Quéro <em>et al.</em> 1986).
198736		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>According to Gokce and Metin (2007), 75 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.
198736		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is caught with trawls, gill and trammel nets.
198737		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.
198737		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the east Atlantic, from Portugal to Ghana. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present along all the coastline, except in Egypt (Bauchot 1987). Its presence is suggested in the north Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003) and in the north Aegean Sea (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198737		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species found on sand and mud substrata (Schneider 1990), and is frequently found near plant growth (Göthel 1992).
198737		population	eng	This is not a rare species.<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), three specimens (9.9 and 14.5 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.
198737		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. It is typically caught with trawls.
198738		conservation	eng	There is no specific conservation measures for this species. Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status and the real distribution and population trends of <em>P. impar</em> and <em>P. lascaris</em>.
198738		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the east Atlantic from Gibraltar southward to Senegal. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea it occurs throughout the western basin, including Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), the Ionian Sea and the east Levant, but is not known from Aegean Sea (Quero <em>et al.</em> 1986)
198738		habitat	eng	This is a coastal benthic species, generally found at depths ranging 5-100 m (Quérot <em>et al.</em> 1986, Bauchot 1987).
198738		population	eng	This species can be confused with <em>P. lascaris</em>. It is therefore difficult to estimate population trends. <br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 12 specimens (25.1 to 30.3 cm TL) were collected using various fishing gears, in three estuaries systems in the central eastern Adriatic Sea.
198738		threats	eng	This is a commercial species.
198739		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place.  More research is need regarding this species' taxonomy and population information.
198739		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic, southward from Trondheim Fjord (including North Sea and western Baltic) to Senegal, including Cape Verde (Desoutter 1990). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present throughout the basin, including the Adriatic Sea (Fiorentini <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001, Salen-Picard <em>et al.</em> 2002, Darnaude <em>et al.</em> 2004, Darnaude 2005, Merigot <em>et al.</em> 2007), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003), Ionian Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea (Guarniero <em>et al.</em> 2002), Aegean Sea (Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also present in Bosphorus and the south-west Black Sea.
198739		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that occurs at a temperature range of 8.0-24.0°C (Moreira <em>et al.</em> 1992). It burrows into sandy and muddy substrata. It retreats to deeper water during winter (Frimodt 1995). It feeds on worms, molluscs and small crustaceans at night. In the Gulf of Lion, polychaetes represent the 80% of the diet (Salen-Picard <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is frequently present in coastal lagoons in the south of France (Mouillot <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Reproduction starts after 3-5 years of age, when they reach 25-30 cm. Spawning happens mainly during the months of February to May (off the coasts of Galicia, for example), although in warmer areas (such as the Mediterranean Sea), it can occur at the beginning of the winter.
198739		population	eng	This is a common and abundant species throughout its range.<br/><br/>According to Mouillot <em>et al.</em> (2007), one specimen was caught in 13 stations of two coastal brackish lagoons of south France in November 2002 (Saint-Nazaire and Salse-Leucate) by means of a beach seine.<br/><br/>Rolland <em>et al.</em> (2007) report that 60 specimens from the Gulf of Lion, 29 from the Adriatic Sea and 27 from the Aegean Sea were collected from 2000 to 2002,<br/><br/>450 specimens (5.1 cm to 37.1 cm TL) were collected from ten sites in the Gulf of Lion, by local fishermen using gill nets and trawls, from 1989 and 2004 (Merigot et al. 2007).<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), one specimen with TL = 35.2 was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>Koutrakis and Tsikiras (2003) report that 21 specimens (11.0 to 22.1 cm TL) were sampled using various fishing gear (beach-seine, fyke-net, gill nets) in three north Aegean estuarine systems. Porto-Lagos (NE Aegean) and a shallow coastal lagoon were sampled between December 1988 and September 1990.<br/><br/>Gokce and Metin (2007) mention that 92 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/><em>Solea solea</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 5,178 (1996), 4,138 (1997), 2,684 (1998), 2,530 (1999), 3,445 (2000), 3,182 (2001), 3,776 (2002), 4,377 (2003), 3,878 (2004), 3,807 (2005).
198739		threats	eng	This is a species with high commercial interest. It is typically caught with trawls and seines. <br/><br/><em>S. senegalensis</em> is now extending its range to the west Mediterranean Sea and is thought to be competing with <em>S. solea</em>, at least in the north-west part of the basin.
198740		conservation	eng	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.
198740		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the east Atlantic, from Spain south to Durban, South Africa, and is also present in the west Indian Ocean. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present throughout the basin, including north Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Glamuzina 2006), Gulf of Lion (J.P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007) and the Levantine Coast (Golani 2005).
198740		habitat	eng	This is a benthic species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata, mainly in shallow water (Heemstra and Gon 1986).
198740		population	eng	This is a naturally rare species.<br/><br/>According to Dulcic and Glamuzina (2006), 117 specimens (17.2 to 25.1 cm TL) were collected with various fishing gears in three estuarine systems in the central east Adriatic Sea..
198740		threats	eng	This species is caught as bycatch, but has minor commercial interest.
198741		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198741		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from Iceland and Norway southward to Portugal.  It is also present in the Baltic Sea, northward to Gulf of Finland.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present along the northern coasts eastward to Gulf of Genova.
198741		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999) that inhabits tide pools and inshore waters on rocky bottoms or among algae at 0-30 m. It can leave tide pools when conditions become inhospitable (Martin and Bridges 1999). It feeds on mysids, amphipods (gammarids), decapods, polychaetes, molluscs, ophiuroids and fishes. It can breathe air when it is out of water (Martin and Bridges 1999). Its preferred climate and habitat are temperate marine and intertidal.
198741		population	eng	This is a predominantly Atlantic species. There are only a few records from the Mediterranean Sea.
198741		threats	eng	In the Atlantic, this species has minor commercial importance. In the Mediterranean Sea, it may possibly be taken and eaten but it is a very infrequent species.
198742		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198742		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, but is not endemic (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is found in all parts of the basin: records include north-east Mediterranean Sea (Machias <em>et al.</em> 2001), Italian and Greek coasts (D'Onghia<em> et al.</em> 2003), north Aegean Sea (Filiz and Bilge 2004), Balearic Islands (Moranta<em> et al.</em> 1998), Corsica, Sicily Strait, Algerian coasts and coasts of Morocco (Maurin 1962), Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), and Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198742		habitat	eng	This species is present between 300 and 850 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005) and between 300 and 700 m in the Greek Ionian Sea (Politou <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is gregarious and it occurs on muddy or rocky bottoms of the shelf. It digs into the mud with its rostrum, searching for prey, and stands and walks on the bottom with its free pectoral rays.  Juveniles live in coastal waters before migrating to deeper waters (Hureau 1986). It is found on various bottom surfaces, where it feeds on small benthic invertebrates, mainly gastropods and other molluscs, as well as crustaceans (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987).
198742		population	eng	This species is very common.<br/><br/>The average density of this species was reported as 37.19 individuals/h (biomass = 0.859kg/h) (D'Onghia et al. 2003). Its biomass is 0.07-3.28 kg/h (Politou <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Its frequency of occurrence was 2.6- 91.1% (abundance = 0.1-141.9) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198742		threats	eng	This species is a by-catch of semi industrial and artisanal fisheries (almost always discarded). It is caught by bottom trawl nets.
198743		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198743		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from in Portugal, Madeira, and the Azores south to 8°30'S including Canary Islands and Cape Verde. It has been reported from São Tomé Island (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in Sicily and from the Spanish coasts (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). It has been recently caught in Sardinian waters (Pais <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic species, distributed from Madeira, the Azores, Portugal and Morocco to Mauritania and Cape Verde Island (Hureau and Litvineko, 1986) The presence of this species in the Mediterranean has been controversial.
198743		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs on hard substrata (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990). It feeds on fishes and shrimps (Maigret and Ly 1986). Females appear to remain smaller, up to 38.4cm TL in the Canary Islands (López Abellán <em>et al.</em> 2001). Males are heavier and larger (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>This species seems relatively abundant in the Atlantic where it is fished, and the scarcity of records of <em>Pontinus kuhlii</em> in the Mediterranean is probably due to its rarity in the region (Merella <em>et al.</em> 1998).
198743		population	eng	This is a predominantly Atlantic species. It is seldom recorded in the Mediterranean Sea where it has a patchy distribution.
198743		threats	eng	This is a commercial species in the Atlantic, it may occasionally be caught in the Mediterranean Sea. It is typically caught with trawls.
198744		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198744		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present in France to Mauritania. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is common and widespread in the west, including the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It is rarer in the east (Keskin and Eryilmaz 2008), with records from the Aegean and Ionian Seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), Cyprus and Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198744		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that usually measures less than 10 cm TL (Eschmeyer and Dempster 1990). It occurs on muddy sand and gravel. It mainly feeds on crustaceans (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986).
198744		population	eng	This species is common in the west Mediterranean Sea and rarer in the east.
198744		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198745		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198745		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the Azores, Madeira and Morocco to the Canary Islands, Cape Verde and Senegal.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is also known from several localities, including the Lebanese coast (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005), Ligurian Sea (Tunesi and Molinari 2005), and it is also well known in the south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2004, La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also present along the Iberian coast (Macpherson <em>et al.</em> 2002), Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988), French coasts and Algerian coasts (Louisy 2002), Balearic islands (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species prefers the warmest areas of the Mediterranean, including the southern parts of the occidental basin and the oriental basin (la Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198745		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits shallow coastal waters (Schneider 1990). It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986, La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2007). It prefers rocky substrata.
198745		population	eng	In this region, this species is the most common scorpaenid fish in shallow water above rocky substrata.<br/><br/>Studies conducted in Sicily, Italy found 182 specimens (4.8 cm to 10.9 cm TL) (La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2007) and 353 specimens, (3.8 cm to 13.1 cm TL) (La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males generally reach larger sizes than females.
198745		threats	eng	This is a not a commercial species, though it may be fished locally.  It may be affected by general threats to shallow-water coastal habitats.
198746		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198746		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from Bay of Biscay to Senegal, Madeira, Azores and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found almost everywhere in suitable habitats.  Records include Iberian coasts (Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003, Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), Balearic Sea (Herler <em>et al.</em> 1999, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007), French coasts (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Ruitton <em>et al.</em> 2000, Claudet <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006), south Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Bussotti <em>et al.</em> 2002), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999) and Aegean Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007).  It is rare in the north Adriatic Sea but does occur there.  It is also present in the Black Sea (as<em> Scorpaena notata afimbria</em>).
198746		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It is common in rocky littoral habitats although it may also be found at greater depths and above soft substrata. It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986).
198746		population	eng	This is a widespread and moderately common species. Aggregated catch statistics for all scorpaenid species show a more or less stable catch of 1,500 to 3,000mt per year since the 1960s (FAO Fishstat).<br/><br/>According to Valle <em>et al.</em> (2003), 318 specimens (1.3 to 15.3 cm TL) were collected in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa). 108 fishing operations were taken up to a 20-22 m depth, with an approximated duration of 10 min by means of a beam trawl of 1.8 m width and 0.8 m height.<br/> <br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) mentioned that 565 specimens (8.4 to 17.0 cm TL) were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end).<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that 108 specimens (8.1 to 15.1 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.
198746		threats	eng	This is a commercial species.
198747		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198747		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic, from the British Isles to the Azores, and the Canary Islands, including Morocco, and the Black Sea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in suitable habitats throughout the basin.  Specific records include the Balearic Sea (Herler <em>et al.</em> 1999, Moranta <em> et al.</em> 2006, Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007), Iberian coast (Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003), Gulf of Lion (Letourneur<em> et al.</em> 2001, Claudet <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006), north Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2003), south Adriatic Sea (Bussotti <em>et al.</em> 2002), Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin et al. 2007), south Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999, Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina<em> et al.</em> 2006) and Lebanon coast (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2005).
198747		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory, solitary and sedentary species. It is common among rocks and algae, but has a broad habitat tolerance, occurring on soft and hard substrata, in vegetation and in open areas. It feeds on small fishes (gobies, blennies), crustaceans and other invertebrates (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986). <br/><br/>The presence of eggs of <em>S. porcus</em> in spring and summer was underlined by Satilmis <em>et al.</em> (2003) in the south Black Sea, while it was found among ichthyoplankton in the Marmara Sea by Yuksek <em>et al.</em> (2006). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>S. porcus</em> was found associated to <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> beds (Macpherson<em> et al.</em> 2002, Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007) and inside marine caves (Herler <em>et al.</em> 1999).
198747		population	eng	This species is widespread and moderately common, it is very common in some parts of its range. Aggregated catch statistics for all scorpaenid species show a more or less stable catch of 1,500 to 3,000mt per year since the 1960s (FAO Fishstat).<br/><br/>According to Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled with  a mean value of 4 specimens/km<sup>2</sup>, during one of two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28mm codend mesh opening.<br/><br/>Ozaydin<em> et al.</em> (2007) mentioned that 86 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 8.6 and 27.2 cm.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that 225 specimens (8.0 to 27.3 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>320 specimens (2.2 to 27.0 cm TL) were collected in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa). 108 fishing operations were taken up to a 20-22 m depth, with an approximated duration of 10 min by means of a beam trawl of 1.8 m width and 0.8 m height (Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/> <br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) mentioned that 195 specimens were collected seasonally during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003) reported that 127 specimens (11.0 to 30.2cm TL) were collected seasonally, from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, east Mediterranean Sea). They were using both gillnets of mesh-sizes 22, 24, 26 and 28mm (bar length), longlines of hook sizes no. 11, 12, 13 and 15 (Mustad brand) and trammel nets of inner mesh-sizes 20, 24 and 28mm (bar length). Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90m.
198747		threats	eng	This is a species with significant commercial interest. Its main catching method is trammel nets.
198748		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198748		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from the British Isles (rare) to Senegal including Madeira, the Canary Islands, and Cape Verde. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is widely distributed.  Records include Iberian coast (Macpherson<em> et al.</em> 2002, Valle <em>et al.</em> 2003), Balearic Sea (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2004, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007), Gulf of Lion (Claudet <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ligurian Sea (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006), Tyrrhenian Sea (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999), Adriatic Sea (Bussotti <em>et al.</em> 2002), Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Ayaz <em>et al.</em> 2006, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Gokce and Metin 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007) and all other Greek seas (Papaconstantinou 1988).
198748		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, non-migratory, solitary and sedentary species that lives over rocky, sandy, or muddy substrata. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is often associated with <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> meadows (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007). It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, and molluscs (Hureau and Litvinenko 1986).
198748		population	eng	This species is widespread and common in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>According to Gokce and Metin (2007), 7 specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats (6.7 and 10 m long) comprising 39 fishing operations. The trials took place between May and October 2003 in Izmir Bay, Turkey. The fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part. Each part is formed of three layers: the inner layer with a small mesh size (40 mm stretched mesh), the outer layers with a larger mesh size (220 mm stretched mesh). These nets, each 100 m long and 1.30 m deep, are hung to a common float line and lead line.<br/><br/>Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007) mentioned that 12 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 10.5 and 28.3 cm.<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that 15 specimens (12.3 to 39.1 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/><br/>According to Valle <em>et al.</em> (2003), 23 specimens (7.2 to 29.4 cm TL) were collected in November 1995 at six locations along the east coast of Spain (Tabarca, Santa Pola, Postiguet, San Juan, Campello and Villajoyosa). 108 samples were taken up to a 20-22 m depth, with an approximated duration of 10 min by means of a beam trawl of 1.8 m width and 0.8 m height. <br/><br/>Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) mentioned that 37 specimens were collected seasonally during experimental fishing trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997-98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).
198748		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. Its main catching method are trawls, gill nets, trammel nets, and long-lines.
198749		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198749		distribution	eng	In the north-east Atlantic, this species is present in the Azores (Santos <em>et al.</em> 1997). In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the Strait of Messina (Italy). It is known to be very rare in the Mediterranean Sea.
198749		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species which has been observed and captured in rocky caves (Azevedo pers. comm. 2007).
198749		population	eng	There are only a few records of this species.
198749		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198750		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198750		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the British Isles (occasionally in Norway) to Mauritania (including Madeira and Azores).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is found throughout the basin. Specific records include Spain (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), France (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), Italy (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999; Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004; Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005; Gristina<em> et al.</em> 2006), Greece (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005). It is also present in the Black Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198750		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species. It occasionally forms schools. It is found over sand, gravel, crag and rocks in the continental shelf (Blanc and Hureau 1979). It feeds on benthic crustaceans and other invertebrates and bottom-dwelling fishes (Hureau 1986).
198750		population	eng	This species is widespread but has a patchy distribution. It is common in some parts of the Mediterranean Sea but less common in others.<br/><br/>According to <em>Gristina et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28 mm codend mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 1 to 3 specimens/km<sup>2</sup>, from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) reported that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (4 ind/24h), November 2001 (12 ind/24h), March 2002 (4 ind/24h) and May 2002 (0) in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, eight hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.
198750		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial interest. It is typically caught with trawls.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Sicily, <span class="hps">Adriatic Sea<span>, Cyprus and <span class="hps">Egypt)<span> and craft&#160;<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"> with <span class="hps"><span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gillnets and <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines <span class="hps">and <span class="hps">sometimes <span class="hps">beach seines. <span class="hps">There are also occasional catches. Regularly present <span class="hps">in the markets <span class="hps">of Spain, <span class="hps">Morocco, <span class="hps">Tyrrhenian<span>, <span class="hps">Adriatic<span>, Sicily<span>, Cyprus <span class="hps">and Egypt, <span class="hps">occasionally in France<span>, Greece and Turkey<span>, rarely <span class="hps">in Tunisia (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).</span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198751		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198751		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Norway continuously south around Cape of Good Hope to Mozambique. Heemstra (1982) recognizes two valid subspecies: <em>Chelidonichthys lastoviza lastoviza</em> which ranges south to Angola and <em>Chelidonichthys lastoviza africana</em> occurring in South Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>C. lastoviza</em> is found throughout the area in suitable habitats. Specific records include Spain (Coll <em>et al.</em> 2006), France (Gaertner<em> et al.</em> 1998), Italy (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), Greece (Labropoulou and Machias 1998,  Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000, Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Machias <em>et al.</em> 2004, Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2005), Turkey (Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), Egypt (Abdallah 2002) and Tunisia (Boudaya <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also present in Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).  It is absent from the Black Sea.
198751		habitat	eng	This demersal species is found in open areas over gravel and sand from the coast down to a depth of about 150 m  (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). In the Ligurian Sea this species was caught until 225 m (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on crustaceans (Göthel 1992).
198751		population	eng	This species is widespread and very common in at least parts of its Mediterranean Sea range.<br/><br/>According to Moutopoulou and Stergiou (2002), 24 specimens were obtained seasonally during experimental fishing <br/>trials conducted with gill nets and long-lines during 1997–98 in the Aegean Sea (Cyclades, coastal waters off Naxos Island, Greece).<br/><br/>Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported that 7 specimens (15.2 to 19.5 cm TL) were collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/> <br/>366 specimens (22.3 to 67.0 cm TL) were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end) (Ozaydin<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>According to Abdallah (2002), 220 specimens (5.2 to 14.4 cm TL) were collected after 18 cruises conducted in  Egyptian waters in the Mediterranean, using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30-200 m.<br/><br/>Boudaya <em>et al.</em> (2007) mentioned that 860 <em>Chelidonichthys lastoviza</em> were taken by commercial vessels at the port of Sfax, the most important port in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia). Specimens were caught in the period between February 2000 and July 2002 at depths ranging from 80 to 150 meters in the Gulf of Gabes using trawls equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 40 mm stretched mesh size.
198751		threats	eng	This species is often caught in trawls but all except the largest specimens are discarded.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Sicily, <span class="hps">Adriatic Sea<span>, Cyprus and <span class="hps">Egypt) and <span class="hps">craftsmanship. <span class="hps">The species is caught with <span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gillnets and <span class="hps">longlines<span>, <span class="hps">beach seines and <span class="hps">hand lines<span>. It is <span class="hps">regularly present in the&#160;<span class="hps">markets <span class="hps">in the western Mediterranean<span>, Adriatic <span class="hps">and Cyprus, <span class="hps">occasionally in other places<span class="hps"><span class="hps"> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198752		conservation	eng	No specific measures are in place for this species.  It has been listed as Vulnerable in Turkish waters by Fricke <em>et al.</em> (2007).
198752		distribution	eng	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway to Mauritania.  It has not been recorded in Madeira or the Azores.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is found throughout the basin in suitable habitats.  Specific records include Spain (Raventos <em>et al.</em> 2006), France (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), Italy (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004,  Malavasi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Greece (Labropoulous and Papaconstantinou 2005), Turkey (Ayaz <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deval <em>et al.</em> 2007) and Egypt (Abdallah 2002). It is also present in the Black Sea.
198752		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that occurs at temperatures ranging from 8.0-24.0°C (Moreira <em>et al.</em> 1992). It inhabits sand, muddy sand, or gravel substrata. It is found to a depth of 320 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on fish, crustaceans, and molluscs. It has three isolated rays on the pectoral fin which function as legs on which the fish rests (Frimodt 1995).
198752		population	eng	This is a common species.<br/><br/>According to Abdullah (2002), 196 specimens (4.7 to 24.9 cm TL) were collected after 18 cruises conducted in  Egyptian waters in the Mediterranean Sea using a commercial bottom trawler during the period January to December 1998. Fishing was carried out at depths of 30-200 m.<br/><br/>Deval <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that 857 specimens were collected from a research cruise conducted between March and April 2004.  A total of 42 hauls were carried out by the commercial trawler, between Yenic ̧iftlik and Kocaburun in the north Sea of Marmara, on commercial fishing grounds at depths ranging from 50 to 80 m.
198752		threats	eng	This is a commercial species. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain<span>, Sicily<span>, Egypt, <span class="hps">Cyprus) <span class="hps">and artisanal <span class="hps">(316 <span class="hps">t <span class="hps">in Turkey <span class="hps">in 1984 <span class="hps">for all <span class="hps">species of the family<span>). This species is typically caught with&#160;<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gillnets and <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines <span class="hps">and <span class="hps">beach seines<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class="hps"><span> <span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">(Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198753		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species in the Mediterranean Sea. It is considered as Vulnerable in Turkey by Fricke <em>et al.</em> (2007).
198753		distribution	eng	This species is present in the eastern Atlantic: from south coasts of the British Isles to Mauritania, including the Azores and Madeira. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this is a very common gurnard species in the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia (Boudaya <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also found in the upper part of the Cretan Shelf (Kallianiotis <em>at al.</em> 2000), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), Catalan Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998, Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2001), and Aegean Sea (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005). It is absent in the Black Sea and also absent from the east Levant Sea (Golani 2005, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198753		habitat	eng	This is a demersal, benthic species which is present on the continental shelf and inhabits soft substrata and fallen rocks (Hureau 1986). This species mainly feeds on crustaceans. It can be found in the shelf-break associated to <em>Lepotmetra</em> habitat (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198753		population	eng	This species is relatively uncommon.<br/><br/>According to Letorureur <em>et al.</em> (2001), it was collected during summer 1984, winter 1984 and summer 1985 in the Gulf of Fos (France), a shallow semi-enclosed, soft-substrate zone located near the delta of the Rhone River.  A small beam trawl was used with an opening of 1.5 x 0.5 m with 8 mm net mesh size. A mean density of 5.88 ± 4.98 individuals ha-1 was collected after 30 min of trawling (mean speed: 2 knots) in a surface area of 2,778 m<sup>2</sup> at depth of 5-8 m.<br/><br/>Boudaya <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that 555 specimens (265 males and 290 females), with lengths ranging from 2.4 to 29.8 cm SL, were taken by commercial catches landed at the port of Sfax, the most important port in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia). Specimens were caught in the period between February 2000 and July 2002 at depths ranging from 80 to 150 meters in the Gulf of Gabes using trawls equipped with a cod-end bag liner of 40 mm stretched mesh size.
198753		threats	eng	This species has only minor commercial importance. No other major threats are known. Fricke <em>et al.</em> (2007) list habitat degradation, eutrophication and fishing as threats in Turkish waters.<br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Sicily <span class="hps">and Cyprus) <span class="hps">and crafts<span class="">. <span class="hps">beach seines<span class="">, <span class="hps">trawls, <span class="hps">gill nets and <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines<span class="">. <span class="hps">Regularly present <span class="hps">in the markets of <span class="hps">the <span class="hps">Tyrrhenian<span class=""> Sea, Sicily <span class="hps">and Morocco <span class="hps">occasionally <span class="hps">in France, <span class="hps">Adriatic<span class="">, Greece, Turkey <span class="hps">and Cyprus<span class="">, rarely <span class="hps">in Tunisia<span class="hps"><span class="hps"> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987)<span class="">.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198754		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198754		distribution	eng	This species is present in the east Atlantic from Norway to Morocco, including Madeira and Iceland.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs from Catalan Sea (Bahamon <strong style="font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;">et al.</strong> 2006), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> 2005), Adriatic Sea (D. Golani pers. obs. 2007), Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Aegean Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ozaydun <em>et al.</em> 2007), Mediterranean Sea coast of Turkey (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also known from the Black Sea (Hureau 1986), but it is absent from the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).
198754		habitat	eng	This is a common demersal species on sandy, muddy, sometimes rocky, substrata.  It can be found up to depth of 340 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on crustaceans (mostly shrimps and shore crabs) and fishes (mostly gobies, flatfish, young herring and sand eels).The young are pelagic until reaching a length of 3cm. The presence of juveniles in the coastal waters of the north-west Mediterranean Sea coastal waters occurs between November and January (Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2005). It makes croaking sounds (Frimodt 1995).
198754		population	eng	This species is widespread and common.<br/><br/>According to Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> (2007), 23 specimens were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005 using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end), with TL ranging from 11.2 to 20.3 cm.<br/><br/>Carpentieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) reported that this species was sampled during four seasonal 24h surveys conducted in July 2001 (4 ind/24h), November 2001 (4 ind/24h), in the shelf break off the central Tyrrhenian Sea. In each survey, 8 hauls of 30 minutes each were performed every 3 hours throughout the 24h period with an otter trawl mounted into a 40 mm head rope, a 40 mm ground chain and 30-40 mm stretched mesh in the wing and cod-end respectively.
198754		threats	eng	This is a minor commercial species. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain, <span class="hps">Cyprus <span class="hps">and <span class="hps">Adriatic<span>) <span class="hps">and crafts <span class="hps">(12 t <span class="hps">annually <span class="hps">in Cyprus). The species is mainly caught with trawls<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"> gillnets and <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines<span>. <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Regularly <span class="hps">present on <span class="hps">markets in <span class="hps">the western Mediterranean <span class="hps">and Turkey<span class="">, and occasionally <span class="hps">elsewhere. It<span class="hps"> is marketed&#160;<span class="hps">fresh (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987).<br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198755		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198755		distribution	eng	This species is present in east Atlantic, from Portugal to Mauritania.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present in the Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also present in the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean coasts of Turkey and the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002).
198755		habitat	eng	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata (Richards 1981). Its depth ranges from 60-250 m (Hureau 1986) and from 300-600 m in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on crustaceans, mainly amphipods (Hureau 1986).
198755		population	eng	This species is less common than<em> L. cavillone</em> but is often confused with this species, so its distribution and abundance may be underestimated.<br/><br/>According to Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily using an otter trawl with a 28mm cod end mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 6 to 628 specimens/km<sup>2</sup> from 62 hauls (trawls).
198755		threats	eng	This species is caught with trawls but generally discarded due to its small size.<br/>In the Mediterranean, artisanal fishing, using beach seines, trawls and gillnets (Fischer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1987)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>
198756		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198756		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from north of British Isles and North Sea to Walvis Bay, Namibia, including Madeira.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in suitable habitats throughout the region.  Specific records include the south Adriatic Sea (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1999), Tyrrhenian Sea (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2004), Turkish lagoons (Aikin <em>et al.</em> 2005), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Tracian Sea (Labropoulou and Papaconstantinou 2005), Catalan Sea (Colloca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), Gulf of Lion (Gaertner <em>et al.</em> 1998), Cretan Sea (Kallianiotis <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Egyptian coasts (Abdallah 2002).
198756		habitat	eng	This is a bathydemersal species, found on sand and mud substrata (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Ligurian Sea this species was recorded in depth ranging from 30 to 350 m (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1986), elsewhere it has been recorded to 700 m.  It feeds on shrimps and crabs (Macpherson and Roel 1987).
198756		population	eng	This species is moderately common. Aggregated catch statistics for all Triglidae show a more or less stable catch of 3,000-8,000mt per year since the 1970s (FAO Fishstat).<br/><br/>According to Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily, using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod-end mesh opening. Mean density values ranged from 3 to 115 specimens/km<sup>2</sup>, from 62 hauls (trawls).
198756		threats	eng	This is a species with major commercial interest. <br/><br/><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Semi-industrial fishing <span class="hps">(Spain<span>, Sicily<span>, Yugoslavia, <span class="hps">Cyprus and <span class="hps">Egypt) and <span class="hps">craftsmanship. It is mainly caught with trawls, <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span class="hps">beach seines<span>,&#160;<span class="hps"><span class="hps">gill nets and <span class="hps">longlines, <span class="hps">handlines<span> (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987).<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">&#160;<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class=""><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span><span><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class=""><span class=""><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span> <span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span><br/> <span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198757		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198757		distribution	eng	This is a global cosmopolitan species.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present throughout the basin. Specific records include the Strait of Sicily (Cuttita <em>et al.</em> 2004), the south-east Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Lipej 2002), the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas (Andersen <em>et al. </em>1998), the Balearic and west Ionian Sea (D'Onghia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998).
198757		habitat	eng	This is a bathypelagic and oceanic species. Its depth range is dependent upon the developmental stage, latitude and the season (Badcock 1984). It occurs from 650 to 2,800 m in the Balearic Sea, at 1,200 m in west Ionian Sea and between 200 and 1800 m in the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998, D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198757		population	eng	There is no information regarding how common or uncommon this species is. It is generally a deepwater species hence under-recorded.<br/><br/>In the Strait of Sicily, the frequency of this species in ichtyplancton during July 2000, in hauls towed from 100 m to the surface, was 91.3% (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas, the abundance in ichtyplancton was 40.2-48.3 ind/m<sup>2</sup> (on 700m depth, Andersen <em>et al.</em> 1998). In the Balearic Sea, two individuals of 1 g were caught in 2 hauls of 1 hour each (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the western Ionian Sea, three individuals of 1 g were caught in 1 haul of 1 hour in length (D'Onghia <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Algerian basin, 25 individuals of 0.02 kg were caught in 7 hauls of 1 hour each (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998).
198757		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
198758		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198758		distribution	eng	This species has a broad global distribution.<br/><br/>This is a widespread species in the Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). The records include the west Aegean Sea (Stergiou <em>et al.</em> 1997), the Strait of Sicily (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004) and the Adriatic (Regner 1981).
198758		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species found between 250 and 600 m during the day and between 100 and 500 m at night (Badcock 1984). Both juveniles and adults make short diel vertical migrations (Badcock 1984). It feeds on small crustaceans (Badcock 1984). The adult photophore complement is attained at about 20 mm standard length (Badcock 1984).
198758		population	eng	This is a very small deepwater species and so it is seldom recorded.<br/><br/>The frequency of this species in ichthyoplankton in the Strait of Sicily in July 2000 is 1.93% in hauls towed from 100 m to the surface (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198758		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
198759		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198759		distribution	eng	This is a cosmopolitan species. <br/><br/>It is probably found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but there are no records from some areas (this species is often confused with the more common <em>V. attenuata</em>). Records include the Strait of Sicily (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004) and Israel (Golani 2005).
198759		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species. Both juveniles and adults of this species make diel vertical migrations (Badcock 1984). It feeds on small crustaceans (Badcock 1984). The adult photophore complement is attained at about 19 mm SL (Badcock 1984).
198759		population	eng	This is a very small deepwater species and is therefore seldom recorded.<br/><br/>The frequency of this species in ichthyoplankton in the Strait of Sicily was 2.79% in July 2000 from hauls towed from 100 m to the surface (Cuttitta <em>et al.</em> 2004).
198759		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
198760		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198760		distribution	eng	This species has a large global distribution.<br/><br/>This is a Mediterranean Sea species (Quignard and Tomasini 2000), it is present in the central Adriatic Sea (Santic <em>et al.</em> 2003), at Gibraltar (Cartes <em>et al.</em> 2002), in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>at al.</em> 2005), the Algerian basin (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998), the Aegean Sea, the Marmara Sea (Bilecenoglu <em>et al.</em> 2002) and the east Mediterranean Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also found in the north Red Sea (D. Golanı pers. comm. 2007).
198760		habitat	eng	This is an epi-, meso- and bathypelagic species, found from the surface to depths of at least 1,500 m. It is a cyclic selective feeder of copepods and euphausiids (Badcock 1984).
198760		population	eng	This species is probably quite common, but it is a small deepwater species so there is little available information.<br/><br/>In the east Ionian Sea, the frequency of occurrence of this species was 6.7% (abundance = 4.8/h) in 145 trawl hauls of 1 hour each at 318-351 m (Mytilineou <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the Algerian basin, 2 individuals of this species were caught in 2 trawl hauls (Moranta <em>et al.</em> 1998).
198760		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
198761		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198761		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is found off of Gibraltar and from Western Sahara south to Gabon and off South Africa. In the west Atlantic, it is found between 20°N and 27°N, from Brazil to Argentina. It is also found in the Indian and Pacific oceans.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found off the Israel Coast (Golani and Levy 2005), Sicily Strait ( Berdar 1970, Cavaliere and Berdar 1976, Costa 1991, Berdar <em>et al.</em> 1998), the Ionian Sea (Parenzan 1970) and the coast of Turkey (D. Golani pers. comm.).
198761		habitat	eng	This is a mesopelagic species (Masuda<em> et al.</em> 1984). This species has been collected around 400 m (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is often near the surface during the night, but under 500 m during the day (J. P. Quignard pers. comm. 2007).
198761		population	eng	This is a small deepwater species and is rarely recorded.
198761		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. No major threats are known.
198762		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198762		distribution	eng	This is an Atlantic species that is found off Greenland and Iceland.  It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, including the Ligurian Sea and the Gulf of Lion (Quignard and Tomasini 2000).
198762		habitat	eng	This mesopelagic species is below 400-500 m during the day. During the night, small individuals often migrate near the surface.
198762		population	eng	There is no population information available for this species.
198762		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited in the Mediterranean Sea. No major threats are known.
198769		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198769		distribution	eng	This species is present in the western and northern Indian Ocean and western Pacific (including around all of Australia and New Zealand), and in the eastern Atlantic from Norway, including Ireland, UK, Azores and Madeira, to southern Africa, throughout Mediterranean Sea and southwestern Black Sea.<br/><br/>This species is found throughout the entire Mediterranean Sea. Records include the Aegean Sea (Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2002, Karpouzi and Stergiou 2003, Cicek <em>et al.</em> 2006, Karakulak <em>et al.</em> 2006, Maravelias <em>et al.</em> 2007, Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007), Strait of Sicily (Gristina <em>et al.</em> 2006), Ionian Sea (Papaconstantinou 1988, Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Adriatic Sea (Vrgoc <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the Iberian coast (Deudero <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also present in the Black Sea.
198769		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic species. It can be found in areas close to the sea bed (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Mediterranean Sea,<em> Zeus faber</em> is found associated with deep <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> beds (Deudero<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). It is generally solitary. Maravelias<em> et al.</em> (2007) found three aspects that seems to be determinants for the spatial aggregation of this species: water depth, sea bottom temperature and latitude. It mainly feeds on schooling bony fishes, occasionally on cephalopods and crustaceans (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/>Reproduction takes place at the end of winter and at the start of spring in the north-east Atlantic, earlier in the Mediterranean Sea. Eggs are pelagic (Muus and Nielsen 1999) and maturity is reached at four years old (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). No studies of their reproductive development or early life history have been undertaken in Australia (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993).
198769		population	eng	This species is common. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) catch statistic from the Mediterranean and Black Seas have been more or less stable at between 200 and 600mt/year since the mid-1980s (FAO Fishstat).<br/><br/>According to Karakulak <em>et al.</em> (2006), one specimen (23.4 cm TL) was collected from a survey conducted for selectivity by gill and trammel nets in the coastal waters of Turkey from March 2004 to February 2005.<br/> <br/>Deudero <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported that this species was sampled in December 2002 (with mean abundance and standard error 0.16±0.16 and size 22 cm), over <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> beds at depths ranging from 11 to 38 m.   A beam trawl was used (1.8 m wide and 0.8 m high, with a body of 8 m, 12 mm square mesh at its first half and 9 mm at the back, and a 2 m long cod end, 6 mm square mesh) during daytime (10:00-13:00h).<br/><br/>Gristina <em>et al.</em> (2006) mentioned that this species was sampled during two trawl surveys (Autumn 1997 and Autumn 1998) carried out in the Strait of Sicily, using an otter trawl with a 28 mm cod-end mesh opening. Mean density values varied from 1 to 7 specimens/km<sup>2</sup> from 62 hauls (trawls).<br/><br/>According to Cicek <em>et al.</em> (2006), a study was carried out in the Babadillimani Bight located at the west entrance of Mersin Bay (north-east Mediterranean Sea). The monthly sampling interval from May 1999 to April 2000 was done using a commercial bottom trawl net.  261 specimens, from 2.1 to 20.8 cm TL, were caught from depths of 20 to 100 m using a typical Mediterranean Sea deep trawl net of 6mm cod-end mesh size and a tow duration restricted to one hour. A total of 36 hauls were analyzed during the sampling period.<br/><br/>Karpouzi and Stergiou (2003) mentioned that 41 specimens (11.1 to 37.9 cm TL) were collected seasonally, from October 1997 to September 2000, with a small fishing vessel, in the waters off Naxos Island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea, east Mediterranean Sea). Gillnets of mesh-sizes 22, 24, 26 and 28 mm (bar length) and longlines of hook sizes no. 11, 12, 13 and 15 (Mustad brand) were used from October 1997 to October 1998 and trammel nets of inner mesh-sizes 20, 24 and 28 mm (bar length) were used from October 1999 to September 2000. Fishing took place at depths ranging from 4 to 90 m.<br/><br/>22 specimens (10.4 to 44.5 cm TL) were collected from Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) between February and December 2005, using bottom trawls (mesh size 24 mm at stretched cod-end) (Ozaydin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>According to Vrgoc <em>et al.</em> (2005), a recent study comparing data from 1948-1949 and 1998-1999 provides evidence of overfishing of this species in the Adriatic Sea. The average abundance index was 43.12 kg/km<sup>2</sup> in 1948-1948 and 3.52 kg/km<sup>2</sup> in 1998-1999, and 72.5% of the catch in 1948-1949 had a total body length of >30 cm, while in 1998-1999 only 15.5% had a total body length of > 30 cm.<br/><br/><em>Zeus faber</em> annual landings (tons) in the Mediterranean Sea (1996-2005), obtained from the FAO FISHSTAT Fisheries Statistical Database (2007): 493 (1996), 339 (1997), 301 (1998), 223 (1999), 227 (2000), 327 (2001), 278 (2002), 264 (2003), 262 (2004), 287 (2005).
198769		threats	eng	This is a commercial species.<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps">  <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><br/><br/>Semi-industrial <span class="hps">and artisanal<span class=""><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"> fishing <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="">, typically <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="">with <span class="hps">bottom trawls (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
198770		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range.
198770		distribution	eng	This species is present in the Mediterranean Sea, from Sicily eastwards (Hulley 1984, Fischer<em> et al.</em> 1987, Papaconstantinou 1988, Quignard and Tomasini 2000, Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), including the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic 2001).  It also occurs outside the Mediterranean Sea, throughout most of the Atlantic Ocean.
198770		habitat	eng	This species is oceanic, mesopelagic in daytime (500-675 m) and epipelagic (0-135 m) during the night (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is found at 30 m depth in the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic 2001). Its maximum total length is 6 cm (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). An adult of 3.94 cm total length was caught in the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic 2001).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is found during the day at 500-675 m and during the night it is found at the surface and down to 135 m.
198770		population	eng	This species is relatively rare.
198770		threats	eng	This species is not commercially exploited. There are no known major threats.
198772		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species.  It possibly occurs in marine protected areas.
198772		distribution	eng	<em>Alectis alexandrinus</em> is a widespread Atlanto-Mediterranean bentho-pelagic carangid species.  In the eastern Atlantic, it is found off Morocco to Angola, including southern parts of the Mediterranean. It is present in the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic 2005), Israel (Golani e<em>t al.</em> 2002), Egypt, Lebanon and Syria (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007).  Specimens also have been reported from Italy (Torchio and Torelli 1988).
198772		habitat	eng	Adults are solitary in coastal water near the bottom to at least 50 m and are strong swimmers.  Juveniles are usually pelagic and drifting, sometimes occurring in brackish water (Daget and Smith-Vaniz 1986).  It feeds on squid and other fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1986). It is found on sandy substrata typically in midwater.  Spawning occurs in the summer (Smith-Vaniz 1987).
198772		population	eng	This species is present but not common in the Mediterranean Sea.  Large specimens have been observed in Turkey (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007).
198772		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species. It is a minor commercial species caught with various gears. <br/><br/>In Lebanon, only juveniles of around 20 cm TL are caught (M. Bariche pers. comm. 2007).
198773		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198773		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the British Isles to the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>It is also present in the west and north-east Mediterranean Sea (including Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, Turkey and Levant coast) and the Black Sea.
198773		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower intertidal zone with the algae Himanthalia and Laminaria (Briggs 1990). It is also found under stones in rocky habitat.
198773		population	eng	There is no population information available. This is a common species. The population is stable.
198773		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species
198774		conservation	eng	No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.
198774		distribution	eng	In the south-west Atlantic, this species is present in Brazil, Patagonia and Argentina (Springer 1986). In the west Indian Ocean, it is present from Natal to Knysna in South Africa. In the east Atlantic, this species is present from Spain and Portugal to Möwe Bay in Namibia. <br/><br/>This species is found in the Mediterranean Sea along the coast of Morocco, Algeria, Spain, Tunisia and in the Ligurian Sea (Balma <em>et al.</em> 1989). This species is also found in France: Port-Cros (Dufour <em>et al.</em> 2007), Saint-Raphael and Monaco (Francour and Seytre 2006, Francour 2007). There are also records now in Italy (L. Tunesi pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>It is also found also in Apulia (Italy), in the marine protected areas of Porto Cesareo (Ionian Sea), Tremiti Islands and Torre Guaceto (Southern Adriatic Sea) (Guidetti pers. comm. 2007).
198774		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky shores, often at steep walls of surf-exposed sites (Zander 1986).  <br/><br/>This species is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen 1966).  <br/><br/>In Monaco, this species is very abundant between 2 and 10 m depth and recorded up to 25 m depth. All the records in Port-Cros and Saint-Raphael have been done in shallow waters (5-10 m) (Francour and Seytre 2006, Francour 2007).
198774		population	eng	The range of this species appears to be expanding the Mediterranean Sea. Where it is present it is very common. This species is an example of a range expansion due to the human modification of the Rhone River flow in France. There is no specific population information for this species.
198774		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this species.
198775		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine what impact harvesting is having upon population numbers.
198775		conservation	eng	There is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198775		distribution	eng	This species is known from both the western and eastern central Atlantic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">at al.</span> 1990).
198775		distribution	eng	This species is present in the north-east Atlantic. The southern limit for <em>Caelorinchus caelorhincus caelorhincus</em> is probably around Cape Verde, most specimens south and east into the Gulf of Guinea are likely to be <em>Caelorinchus caelorhincus geronimoi</em> (Iwamoto pers. comm. 1997).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species occurs in the Spanish waters (Morey<em> et al.</em> 2003, Moranta <em>et al.</em> 2007), in the east Ionian Sea (Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> 2005), Levantine basin, and in the north Aegean Sea (Filiz <strong style="font-weight: normal; font-style: italic;">et al.</strong> 2006). It occurs across the whole Mediterranean Sea, but is absent from the north Adriatic Sea.
198775		habitat	eng	This<em> </em>is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 200-510 m, but may be taken at 90 m or as deep as 850 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).
198775		habitat	eng	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species, that it is found at depth ranges of 90-1250 m (minimum depth range comes from Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990) but most commonly at 200-500 m (Filitz <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Mediterranean Sea, its depth range is between 100 and 900 m. It feeds on a variety of benthic organisms, such as polychaetes, gastropods, cephalopods, numerous crustacean groups (copepods, gammarians, isopods, cumaceans, Natantia) and fish.
198775		population	eng	According to Filiz <em>et al.</em> (2006), 411 specimens (9 to 21.6 cm TL) were collected during 2003-2004 at seasonal intervals in Sigacik Bay (north Aegean Sea), using a conventional bottom trawl with a cod-end mesh size of 24 mm. Depth range of the fishing ground was 150-473 m.<br/><br/>Moranta <em>et al.</em> (2007) mentioned that 8239 specimens (1 to 13 cm TL) were collected with a research bottom trawl carried out along the Iberian Mediterranean Sea coast covering a distance of approximately 1,200km (Alboran sea, Algerian basin and Balearic basin), during spring and for seven consecutive years (i.e., between 1994 and 2000) for a total of 710 hauls at depths between 27 and 795 m. The average towing speed was 2.8 knots. The average horizontal and vertical openings were estimated on 16.4 and 2.8 m.<br/><br/>According to Mytilineou <em>et al.</em> (2005), this species was collected in the north-east Ionian Sea during four experimental surveys (Sept. 1999, Apr. 2000, Jul. 2000, Sept. 2000), by means of trawls of 40mm stretched mesh size in the cod-end.  Densities reported were 175.7 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 300-500 m (44 hauls), 22.5 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 500-700 m (52 hauls), 0.2 individuals per hauls in the depth range of 700-900 m (36 hauls).
198775		population	eng	This species is reported as abundant in parts of its range (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).
198775		threats	eng	This is a common by-catch species in trawl fisheries operating between 200-400 m, however separate catch statistics are not available (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).
198775		threats	eng	This is a species with minor commercial importance that can be utilized as fish meal and oil. The main catching method for <em>Caelorinchus caelorhincus</em> is trawls. <br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is commonly caught by trawlers but never marketed, it is discarded.
198776		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this subspecies. However, it may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198776		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this subspecies is present from Dakar to the Canary Islands, including Shetland Islands in the north. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present west of Genova including the Baleares.
198776		habitat	eng	This subspecies occurs on rocky, seaweed covered shores, particularly among small boulders. It is most common in the intertidal zone amongst the algae <em>Himanthalia spp.</em> and <em>Laminaria spp.</em> (Briggs 1990).
198776		population	eng	There is no population information for this subspecies. It is abundant.
198776		threats	eng	Coastal development could be a major threat to this subspecies.
198777		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this subspecies. However, it may be present in marine protected areas found within its distribution.
198777		distribution	eng	In the east Atlantic, this subspecies is present from the west coast of Scotland, south-west England and north France.<br/><br/>It is also present in the north-west Mediterranean Sea, down to the south of Italy. It has also been recorded in the Marmara Sea.
198777		habitat	eng	It inhabits algae covered rocks and is found in crevices. It is also found in seagrass beds, especially the roots of <em>Posidonia</em>.
198777		population	eng	This is a very rare subspecies (Hofrichter and Patzner 1999) and is very difficult to observe.
198777		threats	eng	There are no known major threats for this subspecies.
198778		conservation	eng	This subspecies occurs in some marine protected areas. Conservation measures should include spear fishing limitations. More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.
198778		distribution	eng	This subspecies is present in the eastern Atlantic from southwestern France (Bay of Biscay) to Mauritania, including Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is found in the western, southern, and eastern Mediterranean Sea (not in the Adriatic Sea) and is not found in Marmara or the Black Sea.
198778		habitat	eng	It is a benthopelagic subspecies on the shelf over rocky bottoms from 30 to 80 m depth, but it may also occur down to 300 m on muddy bottoms. It forms schools of four or five individuals of different sizes. It is omnivorous and feeds on small invertebrates and seaweeds (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>On the west Algerian coast, this species has a longevity of 13 years. The parameters of the Von Berthalanffy growth model are: Linf = 68.83 cm, K = 0.105, to = 0.747. The allometric coefficient of the length-weight relationship is 2.744. This species is gonochoric with a few cases of hermaphrodism (2%). Reproduction is between March and August and the first sexual maturity occurs at 25 cm total length (Derbal 2007). The maximum total length of this species is 55 cm (Fischer<em> et al.</em> 1987).
198778		population	eng	This subspecies is not very frequent, at least in parts of its range. It has been very abundant on the east coast of Turkey but now it is rare, and it  is now uncommon elsewhere around Turkey (B. Yokes and C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).
198778		threats	eng	This subspecies is targeted by artisanal and sport fishing activities. It is caught with trawl nets, bottom long lines, gill and trammel nets, and handlines. It is very susceptible to spear fishing. It is regularly present in the markets of Morocco, occasionally or rarely elsewhere.
198920		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p>The species (which presently also includes <span style="font-style: italic;">N. asiaeorientalis</span>) is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). Management measures are needed to address the threats, especially bycatch in fisheries.</p>
198920		distribution	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">The type specimen is supposed to have come from the Cape of Good Hope, but this location is believed to be erroneous; it is now generally accepted that the type locality is the Malabar coast of India (Rice 1998, Jefferson and Hung 2004).<br/> <br/> In general, Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises occur in a narrow strip of shallow (usually <50 m deep) coastal marine waters (as well as some river mouths and estuaries) around the northern rim of the Indian and western Pacific Oceans from the Arabian (Persian) Gulf (Preen 2004, Collins <em>et al.</em> 2005) eastwards around the rim of the Indian Ocean to the Indo-Malay region and to Java, Indonesia (but apparently not the Philippines) and northwards to the Taiwan Strait and central Chinese waters (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). This is the more tropical and wide-ranging of the two currently recognized species of finless porpoises. A record of the species from northern Chinese waters (Wang 1992) probably represents a rare or extralimital event. Finless porpoises are seen regularly (when sea conditions are favourable) in Sarawak, East Malaysia (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), in at least parts of Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. they are the most frequently seen cetaceans in Langkawi according to Louisa Ponnampalam, Reeves<span lang="EN-US"> pers. comm.<span lang="EN-US"> 2011), at least seasonally in Hong Kong (Jefferson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002a), and in parts of the western Taiwan Strait (Wang unpublished data). They are also present along the East Kalimantan coastline of Borneo (D. Kreb pers. comm. 2011).</span></p>
198920		habitat	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises are found mainly in coastal waters, including shallow bays, mangrove swamps, and estuaries. They can also occur quite far from shore (up to 240 km) in waters < 200 m deep. It is uncertain which of the two currently recognized species of finless porpoises (possibly both) occurs farther offshore, especially in areas of sympatry.<br/></p><p>Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises appear to have a strong preference for waters with a sandy or soft bottom (Jefferson and Hung 2004).<br/></p><span lang="EN-US"> Small fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans (mainly demersal species) form the diet of finless porpoises (see Jefferson and Hung 2004).</span>
198920		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Finless porpoises are small and cryptic and therefore difficult to survey. Estimates of abundance have been made for only a few areas (Jefferson and Hung 2004, IWC 2006) but mostly in regions where the Narrow-ridged species (<em>N. asiaeorientalis</em>) dominates, if not exists solely.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Numbers of Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoises in Hong Kong and adjacent waters were estimated to be at least 217 (CV= 21-150%) (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002a). An estimate for the coastal waters of Bangladesh was 1,382 (CV=55%) but the density was very low compared to reported densities of Narrow-ridged Finless Porpoises in Japanese waters (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).</p>
198920		threats	eng	<p><span lang="EN-US">Finless porpoises, like other phocoenids (Jefferson and Curry 1994), are extremely susceptible to entanglement in gillnets, and large numbers have been, and continue to be, killed in many parts of their range (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002b).<span lang="EN-US"> Finless porpoises are caught in nets in Iranian, Indian, Pakistani and Malaysian coastal waters, although there are no good estimates of the magnitude of such catches (e.g., see Collins <em>et al.</em> 2005, Jaaman et al. 2009, Braulik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In East Malaysia, finless porpoises are caught as bycatch in ‘fish stakes’ in Sabah (Jaaman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and one individual was found entangled in the line of a crab trap in Sarawak (G. Minton pers. comm. 2011). Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that finless porpoises were the most frequently captured cetaceans in fishing gear along the Chinese coast and estimated that more than 2,000 were taken in 1994, mainly in trawl, gill, and stow nets. In the waters of western Taiwan (where the two species of finless porpoises are sympatric), a considerable number of both species are taken in trammel nets, trawl nets, stow nets, and other gear (Wang unpublished data). In Hong Kong waters, porpoises are caught regularly by trawl nets and gillnets, but there are no estimates of bycatch levels (Parsons and Jefferson 2000, Jefferson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002b). Given the numbers and types of net fisheries in Chinese coastal waters, the apparently high bycatch of finless porpoises (<em>e.g.</em> Zhou and Wang 1994, Yang <em>et al</em>. 1999) is a serious concern. No large-scale direct hunting of this species is known to occur. In some parts of their range, people apparently are averse to eating finless porpoises (Kasuya 1999, Wang unpublished data) but in other areas they are consumed.<br/></span></p><p><span lang="EN-US"> As a coastal species, the Indo-Pacific Finless Porpoise is also affected by habitat loss and degradation, boat traffic, and pollution. The extensive modification of coastlines for shrimp farming, causeways and harbor (and other) development throughout Asia (including the Arabian Gulf) means that there is less habitat for finless porpoises (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003, Braulik<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). Although pathology related to contaminant exposure has not been reported in finless porpoises, pollution is considered a potentially serious threat (Kasuya 1999, Iwata <em>et al</em>. 1994, Parsons and Chan 1998, Minh <em>et al</em>. 1999, Parsons 1999, Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002b, Ramu <em>et al.</em> 2005). The number of reported small cetacean strandings in Hong Kong has increased in recent years, partly due to increasing public awareness of local cetaceans, but also possibly due to escalating levels of human disturbance and pollution (T.A. Jefferson pers. comm. 2007). In the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman/Sea of Oman, chemicals from recent wars exacerbate total pollution loads in coastal waters from the usual sources such as industry, agriculture and households (Braulik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Vessel collisions, especially involving high-speed ferries, may be a particular problem for porpoises in Hong Kong (Parsons and Jefferson 2000).</p><p>  </p><p>The following summary of examples illustrates the problems faced by this species:</p>  <p>In Chinese waters (excluding the considerable fisheries operating in Taiwanese waters), more than 3.5 million gillnets were estimated to be in use in the early 1990s (Zhou and Wang 1994).&#160; In India, the use of gillnets reportedly had increased from about 18,000 in 1950 to more than 216,000 by 1980 and gillnets were also being used extensively in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Mohan 1994). Since the time of those reports, gillnetting effort certainly would have increased considerably in these and other regions because there are few (if any) restrictions on this kind of fishing gear anywhere in the range of the species. Porpoise habitat in Myanmar is heavily fished with gillnets and other types of gear capable of taking small cetaceans incidentally (Smith and Than Tun 2008). A drift gillnet fishery for elasmobranchs is of concern in the Bangladesh Sundarbans (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In East Malaysia, Finless Porpoise numbers are thought to have ‘greatly declined’ due to bycatch in fisheries (Jaaman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), and commercial fishing (gillnetting, trawling, purse-seining) is intensive off Langkawi, Peninsular Malaysia, where bycatch of&#160; Finless Porpoises is known to occur even though it is not monitored regularly (L. Ponnampalam pers. comm. 2011). Surveys in the coastal waters of Vietnam resulted in very few sightings of cetaceans; none of the sightings were of Finless Porpoises yet local whale temples contained numerous cetacean skulls, including many from finless porpoises (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The impacts of war several decades ago, compounded by intense fishing (especially the use of gillnets) in recent years and ongoing, are likely at least partly responsible for the near absence of cetaceans from these waters. In Iran (Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman/Sea of Oman), bycatch in fisheries appears to be the greatest threat to marine mammals and takes from apparently small, localized populations of Finless Porpoises may be unsustainable (Braulik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Two major marine mammal die-offs occurred in the Arabian Gulf in the 1980s and 1990s, possibly related to major oil spills (Collins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Even in the 1970s, Finless Porpoise sightings in Pakistani coastal waters around the Indus Delta region were apparently decreasing (Pilleri and Gihr 1972, Pilleri and Pilleri 1979) and by the 1990s the species may have virtually disappeared from this badly degraded area (see Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).&#160; The Finless Porpoise was one of several cetacean species thought to have disappeared from large parts of their previous ranges in Thailand, largely as a result of coastal habitat degradation and fisheries (IWC 1994). </p>  <p>Direct killing or capture of Finless Porpoises appears to be relatively rare (Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997) but development of intentional fisheries for marine mammals from incidental captures (and economic benefits from subsequent consumption and marketing) may have increased in parts of Southeast Asia as preferred marine resources have been over-fished (see Perrin 2002).</p>
198921		conservation	eng	<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">United States</span>:&#160; In 2009, the Governor of Hawaii signed House Bill 366 creating Act 092(09) establishing criminal penalties and administrative fines for knowingly killing or capturing manta rays within State waters. This makes Hawaii the first state in the US union to protect manta rays. There have never been fisheries for manta rays in Hawaii, but this bill will protect all Manta species living in or passing through the island group from future fishing pressure.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Republic of Maldives</span>:&#160; Since June 1995 there has been an export ban on all ray species and their body parts, effectively preventing any commercial fisheries from arising in this country, which has never targeted manta rays for local use in significant numbers. Furthermore, in June 2009 the Maldivian Government announced the creation of two new marine protected areas (MPAs), specifically identified for protection because of their importance as areas of critical habitats for the Maldives population of Reef Manta Ray and the occasional transient Giant Manta Ray.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>:&#160; Fishing of manta rays was banned in 1998, but this ban was lifted in 1999 due to pressure from fishermen and lack of data on the fishery. During a year-long survey, from March 2002 to March 2003, 156 manta rays (the Giant Manta Ray) were caught, mostly in the months from November to January. Since the study, the ban has been re-established for manta rays. Mantas are now reported to be rare in the Philippines, especially around the Bohol Sea where the fishery was focused.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>:&#160; Fishing was banned in Mexico in 2007, when the Mexican Government issued “NOM-029 - PESCA RESPONSABLE DE TIBURONES Y RAYAS. ESPECIFICACIONES PARA SU APROVECHAMIENTO” (The Mexican Official Standard Rules that Regulate the Shark and Ray Fisheries in Mexican Waters). This made it illegal to capture or kill Giant Manta Rays in Mexican waters. NOM 029 provides specific protection for mantas and mobulids in all Mexican waters and prohibits their possession and trade (Norma Oficial Mexicana Nom-029-Pesc-2006, pesca responsable de tiburones y rayas. Especificaciones para su aprovechamiento, 2005). Mantas are protected in MPAs within Mexican waters, primarily in the Revillagigedo biosphere, following enforcement of a fishing closure, which began in early 2002. Enforcement for this protection has been somewhat suspect as many fishing boats have been observed and caught deploying longlines, gillnets and seines within the biosphere, which extends as a 12 mile buffer around each of the islands in the archipelago. Meanwhile, since 2004, in the Yum Balam protected area (Isla Holbox, Mexico) manta rays have been protected under strict no fishing laws. The Giant Manta Ray is only used here for tourism purposes, although this new activity could also be affecting the population, with many individuals exhibiting boat injuries.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>:&#160; There is no legal action concerning manta ray captures in Brazil. The local population is benefited by the fact that their best-known aggregation site happens to be inside an established MPA. However, it is a tiny fraction of the range of this species, as they migrate during most of the year and other unprotected aggregation sites are likely to exist. The rise of a local NGO (Instituto Laje Viva), dedicated to protect them, had eventually culminated in the first efforts to gather formal scientific data from Brazilian manta rays. The manta ray is a highly promoted flagship species for dive tourism in the region and best practices for responsible tourism have been largely advocated.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>:&#160; On 26 August 2010, the Subsecretaria de Recursos Pesqueros declared “Acuerdo 093”, a new law prohibiting all fishing of Manta and Mobula in Ecuador, that states 1). directed fishing for the Giant Manta Ray, and several mobulid species is now illegal via any form of fishing method whatsoever; 2). in the event of incidental capture any individuals must be returned immediately to their natural environment; 3). the species mentioned cannot be retained alive or dead, whole or in part, nor can they be kept for human consumption or owned, sold or transported. The law came in response to pressure to close a newly created directed fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula</span> that had arisen in a very short period via Peruvian buyers who were ordering the product for export.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">Western Australia</span>:&#160; Manta rays whilst not targeted, are protected from any fishing (Fisheries Act) and disturbance or harassment (DEC Act) within marine parks only.<br/><br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span>:&#160; Absolutely protected under the Wildlife Act 1953.
198921		distribution	eng	Circumglobal in tropical and temperate waters, this species has a widespread distribution. The Giant Manta Ray has been documented to occur as far north as southern California and New Jersey on the United States west and east coasts, respectively, Mutsu Bay, Aomori, Japan, the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt and the Azores Islands in the Northern Hemisphere and as far south as Peru, Uruguay, South Africa and New Zealand in the Southern Hemisphere.<br/><br/>In a few locations, including Mozambique, the Giant Manta Ray is sympatric with the Reef Manta Ray. When they occur together these species typically exhibit different habitat use and movement patterns (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>The Giant Manta Ray appears to be a seasonal visitor to coastal or offshore sites. While this species seems more solitary than the Reef Manta Ray, Giant Manta Rays are often seen aggregating in large numbers to feed, mate, or clean. Sightings of these giant rays are often seasonal or sporadic but in a few locations their presence is a more common occurrence. Observations of the Giant Manta Ray at aggregation sites such as the Similan Islands, Thailand; northeast North Island, New Zealand; Laje de Santos Marine Park, Brazil; Isla de la Plata, Ecuador; and Isla Holbox, Mexico, indicate that this species is a regular seasonal visitor, with sightings only during specific, predictable times of the year (Duffy and Abbott 2003, Luiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, A. Marshall pers. obs. 2011).<br/><br/>Observations of the Giant Manta Ray frequenting remote seamounts in Isla Socorro, Mexico, Malpelo, Columbia and off some remote islands (Cocos Island, Costa Rica; Galápagos, Ecuador; Laje de Santos, Brazil) show a degree of philopatry to these sites but also indicate that these mantas make migrations away from these areas during parts of the year (Rubin 2002, Luiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011). In other areas, such as southern Mozambique, the Giant Manta Ray is seen sporadically throughout the year although individuals are not commonly re-sighted over time (Marshall 2009).
198921		habitat	eng	The Giant Manta Ray occurs in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Commonly sighted along productive coastlines with regular upwelling, oceanic island groups and particularly offshore pinnacles and seamounts. The Giant Manta Ray is commonly encountered on shallow reefs while being cleaned or is sighted feeding at the surface inshore and offshore. It is also occasionally observed in sandy bottom areas and seagrass beds.<br/><br/>A global investigation of major aggregation sites revealed that the Giant Manta Ray may be a more oceanic and a more migratory species than the Reef Manta Ray (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data). Rare or seasonal sightings of the Giant Manta Ray at locations such as northern New Zealand (Duffy and Abbott 2003), southern Brazil (Luiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) and Uruguay (Milessi and Oddone 2003), the Azores Islands, the Similan Islands, Thailand (A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011) and the eastern coast of the United States (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), suggests that this species undergoes significant seasonal migrations.<br/><br/>Despite these data, preliminary satellite tracking studies and international photo-identification matching projects have suggested a high degree of fragmentation between regional populations of this species, suggesting that movements across ocean basins may be rare. Satellite tracking results have been able to reveal that the Giant Manta Ray is capable of large migrations (over 1,100 km straight line distance) and have monitored individual movements across international borders, across large bodies of water, and into international waters (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data 2011, R. Rubin pers. comm. 2009). Satellite tracking studies using archival PAT tags have registered movements of the Giant Manta Ray from Mozambique to South Africa (a distance of 1,100 km), from Ecuador to Peru (190 km), from the Yucatan, Mexico into the Gulf of Mexico (448 km). This species is capable of deep dives and has been both seen at depth and tracked down to depths exceeding 1,000 metres (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/>The Giant Manta Ray reaches disc widths (DW) of at least 700 cm, with anecdotal reports up to 910 cm DW (Compagno 1999, Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Size at maturity for the Giant Manta Ray may vary slightly throughout its range, but males in southern Mozambique mature at approximately 400 cm DW while females appear to mature well over 400 cm DW (Marshall 2009). In Indonesia, data from fisheries dissections suggest that in that region male Giant Manta Rays mature at 375 cm DW, while females may mature by approximately 410 cm DW (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>The Giant Manta Ray appears to be a relatively long-lived species. Although the actual longevity of the species remains unknown, photographic databases have re-sighted individuals up to a 20 year period (Rubin 2002, G. Kodja unpubl. data 2010). Natural mortality is thought to be low (other than in juveniles), although limited predation from large sharks does occur (Marshall 2009).<br/><br/>Generation time is suspected to be 25 years based on conservative estimates of life history parameters from the Reef Manta Ray. Female mantas are thought to mature at 8–10 years of age and longevity is estimated to be at least 40 years. Generation time is the average age of adults which can be approximated as halfway between age at first maturity and maximum age. Thus female mantas may be actively breeding for 30 years and the age at which 50% of total reproductive output is achieved would be approximately 24–25 years.<br/><br/>Copulation has been documented off the Ogasawara Islands, Japan and is believed to occur in the summer months (Yano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999b). Two pregnant individuals have been registered and photographed in southern Mozambique although a breeding season at this location has not been established (Marshall 2009). There is little information on the reproductive biology or ecology of this species although reports of litter size are consistently of a single offspring (Coles 1916, Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953).
198921		population	eng	This species is not regularly encountered in large numbers and, unlike the Reef Manta Ray do not often appear in large schools (>30 individuals) when feeding. Overall they are encountered with far less frequency than the smaller <span style="font-style: italic;">Manta</span> species, the Reef Manta Ray, despite having a larger distribution across the globe.<br/><br/>Due to the global nature of their individual distributions, absolute population sizes will always be difficult to assess. Currently, the overall total global population sizes of both these species are unknown, but subpopulations appear, in most cases, to be small (less than 1,000 individuals). The degree of interchange of individuals between subpopulations is unclear but is assumed to be low, as there are currently no data that support such interchange, despite active efforts to do so (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/>Photo-identification studies at major aggregation sites in southern Mozambique (Marshall 2009); southern Brazil (Luiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009); Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Rubin 2002); the Ogasawara Islands, Japan (Yano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999a, Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010); the Maldives (G. Stevens unpubl. data 2011); Isla Holbox, Mexico (S. Hinojosa-Alvarez unpubl. data 2010); Isla de la Plata, Ecuador (M. Harding unpubl. data 2010) have databases of less than 300 individuals, with many of these studies having been underway for the last 10–20 years. A semi-exhaustive study of Japan-wide photographic records confirmed that the known main aggregation in Ogasawara Islands (42 known individuals during 1995–1998 study) represents a part of a fairly isolated population (Kashiwagi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>A mark-recapture population study in southern Mozambique over five years from 2003 to 2008 estimated the local population during that time to be 600 individuals (Marshall 2009). Flight surveys and re-sightings data of individuals at Isla Holbox, Mexico have estimated that roughly 100 manta rays use this area during every season (S. Hinojosa-Alvarez unpubl. data 2010).<br/><br/>While the Giant Manta Ray is widely distributed and appears to be a migratory species, regional populations appear to be small considering the scale of their habitat. Individuals most commonly show a degree of site fidelity to specific regions, as well as critical habitats within them, such as cleaning stations and feeding sites. Preliminary satellite tracking studies and international photo-identification matching projects have suggested a low degree of interchange between populations.<br/><br/>While there is a distinct paucity of information on population numbers or trends, local populations are likely to be in decline in areas where they are fished, or are under threat from anthropogenic influences e.g., India/Sri Lanka (Pillai 1998, Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Indonesia (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), Philippines (Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and the west coast of Mexico where encounter rates have dropped significantly over the last five years or anthropogenic mortality has been elevated.<br/><br/>Overall, the rate of population reduction appears to be high in several regions, up to as much as 80% over the last three generations (approximately 75 years), and globally a decline of >30% is strongly suspected.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Historical fisheries data and reported declines in population numbers</span>:<br/><br/>A study in the Pamilacan Island, Philippines reported that up to 1,000 rays, particularly manta rays (Giant Manta Ray) and a few species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula</span>, were harvested per year in directed fisheries. Over 35 villages reportedly participated in this fishery. Seasons that started in September and went through until May or June the following year, peaked in the November and December months. Manta rays were fished with gaff hooks, hand spears, harpoons, and gillnets. Although these targeted fisheries were reported to have been active for generations (some claiming since the 1800s and others since the mid 1950s), interviewed fishermen noted that the catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) and overall number of rays in the area has declined significantly in recent times. Record landings were reported in the 1960s (Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/>Japanese sports divers suggest that the population of manta rays at one site in the Sulu Sea, Philippines (probably part of the same population fished at Pamilacan Island, Philippines) fell by one half to two-thirds in seven years from the end of the 1980s (M. Nishitani pers. comm.). Fishermen from this region reported a decrease in their CPUE and number of landings since the 1960s.<br/><br/>The Giant Manta Ray once occurred in large numbers along the west coast of Mexico and Baja California. The species appears to be rare after several decades of fishing. Manta rays were commonly used as shark bait, for local consumption and for export as ‘fake scallops’ (Booda 1984, Rubin 2002). A specific study of the fisheries (predominately gillnets, harpoons and baited hooks from engine powered fibreglass boats) in La Paz from 1981–1984 targeting rays in waters from 10–200 m revealed that 94% of the catch were mobulid rays, including manta rays in small numbers (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987).<br/><br/>In the Yucatan Peninsula, Central America, manta rays were used as bait for shark fisheries, but recent legislation has prohibited this use. These actions have seemingly prevented the continued decrease of the species in Mexican Caribbean waters.
198921		threats	eng	The main threat to both <span style="font-style: italic;">Manta</span> species is fishing, whether targeted or incidental. Manta rays are currently killed or captured by a variety of methods including harpooning, netting and trawling. These rays are easy to target because of their large size, slow swimming speed, aggregative behaviour, predictable habitat use, and lack of human avoidance.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Manta</span> species have a high value in international trade markets. Their gill rakers are particularly sought after and are used in Asian medicinal products. This market has resulted in directed fisheries for manta rays which are currently targeting these rays in unsustainable numbers. Over 1,000 manta rays are caught per year in some areas (Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Dewar 2002, White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, C. Anderson and G. Stevens pers. obs.). Artisanal fisheries also target both species for food and local products (Essumang 2010, Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/>Aside from directed fisheries, manta rays are also incidentally caught as bycatch in both large-scale fisheries and small netting programs such as shark control bather protection nets (Carlson and Lee 2000, Young 2001). In some populations, such as the ones identified at Isla de la Plata, Ecuador, Laje de Santos, Brazil, and the Similan Islands, Thailand, high percentages of all individuals encountered or identified have evidence of entanglement or are dragging lines or nets (A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/>As a result of sustained pressure from fishing (both directed and bycatch) certain monitored subpopulations appear to have been rapidly depleted (e.g., Gulf of California, Mexico; Indonesia; and, Philippines (Anon 1997, Alava <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)). Targeting either species of Manta at critical habitats or aggregation sites, where individuals can be caught in large numbers in a short time frame, is a particular threat. Regional populations of both species appear to be small, and localized declines are unlikely to be mitigated by immigration. This situation is exacerbated by the conservative life history of these rays, which constrain their ability to recover from a depleted state.<br/><br/>Cryptic threats such as mooring line entanglement and boat strikes can also wound manta rays, decrease fitness or contribute to non-natural mortality (Deakos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Many other threats have been postulated and identified such as habitat degradation, climate change, pollution (e.g., from oil spills), ingestion of micro plastics and irresponsible tourism practices.<br/><br/>Known directed fisheries:<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Reported World Catch</span><br/>Manta and devil ray catches increased from 900 tonnes to over 3,300 tonnes between 2000–2007 (FAO 2009, Lack and Sant 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Trade-driven Fisheries</span><br/>Manta rays, predominately the Giant Manta Ray, are currently taken in fisheries that have transitioned from bycatch fisheries to directed fisheries, with the birth of a market for manta ray products in Asia.<br/><br/>Chondrichthyan landings from drift gillnets were examined at four different sites (a total of 263 sampling days) in Indonesia from 2001 until 2005. Mobulid rays including manta rays were commonly represented in the catch, which was estimated to be approximately 4,110 individuals annually, a biomass of approximately 544 tonnes of which manta rays (Giant Manta Ray) comprised 13.7% (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Individual manta rays were worth up to $200 in the early 2000s. Dried filter plates were being exported to Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore (for up to US$30 per dry kilo) (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>Manta rays (predominately the Giant Manta Ray) are taken in significant numbers as bycatch in the Pakistani, Indian and Sri Lankan gillnet fisheries, where they are used as shark bait, for human consumption and their branchial filaments are sold to Asian buyers (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, P. Hilton pers. comm. 2011, G. Stevens unpubl. data 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Artisanal Fisheries</span><br/>Manta rays are caught in artisanal fisheries in Tanzania on longlines and in trawls. The meat is typically dried and consumed (Bianchi 1985, Iddawi and Stanley 1999, N. Iddawi, S. Yahya and S. Semesi pers. comm. 2010, A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/>Both species of Manta (but predominately the Reef Manta Ray) are caught in artisanal fisheries in southern Mozambique for consumption. Manta rays are typically harpooned but also caught in nets with motorized boats. Approximately 50 individuals are taken per annum from a 50 km stretch of coastline (A. Marshall unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Isolated reports of fishing for mantas have continued in the Gulf of California. Artisanal pelagic gillnet fishermen throughout the Gulf of California have been observed to retain mantas as bait as well as utilize landed specimens for personal consumption and sale.<br/><br/>There is a seasonal fishery for manta rays along the Ghanaian coastline, particularly in Dixcove. Manta rays are targeted in this region for local food (Essumang 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Bycatch fisheries</span><br/>Manta rays are caught in gillnet and purse seine fisheries as well as netting programs throughout their distribution. Specific cases are outlined below:<br/><br/>Giant Manta Rays are caught in small numbers as bycatch in the European purse seine tuna fishery operating in the Atlantic Ocean. Observer data from 2003-2007, which corresponded to 2.9% coverage, recorded 11 individuals landed, a number that represented 17.8% of the total ray bycatch (Amande <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>Incidental catches of manta rays in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, peak in the summer months (49% of the total annual catch), although manta rays are caught throughout the year (Young 2001). Manta rays (both species but predominately the Reef Manta Ray) comprised 16.9% of the total historical batoid catches from these nets, with a mean annual catch of 60 individuals and an overall 33.7% mortality rate (Young 2001).<br/><br/>Giant Manta Rays are caught as bycatch or are killed in fisheries along the west coast of Thailand and Myanmar, including within the Similans National Park where evidence suggests that a high proportion of individuals visiting the area have been entangled by fishing line or nets. Incidental kills have also been reported in fishing nets, tackle and ghost nets (A. Marshall unpubl. data 2011).<br/><br/>Giant Manta Rays are not generally directly targeted in Ecuador, although shark and ray catch data collected by the Subsecretaria de Recursos Pesqueros show occasional incidental capture and one small directed fishery since the mid-eighties. Many manta rays in the aggregation site around Isla de la Plata show damage received from fishing equipment, which occurs when artisanal fishermen use trawling tackle illegally within the Machalillia National Park boundaries to fish for seasonal aggregations of Wahoo (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthocybium solandri</span>) which coincide with the seasonal aggregation of Giant Manta Rays (M. Harding unpubl. data 2010).<br/><br/>Although manta rays are not directly targeted by fisheries in southeastern Brazil, several reports of Giant Manta Rays being captured as bycatch show that local fishing poses a threat to manta rays (Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The Brazilian government is currently promoting a policy to boost commercial fisheries in the area, through financial incentives, raising concerns on the future of that manta ray population. Reports of individuals entangled within discarded fishing gear (e.g., ‘ghost nets’) are not uncommon (G. Kodja unpubl. data 2010). The main aggregation site for the Giant Manta Ray is located close to the Port of Santos, Latin America’s largest seaport, increasing the risk of ship strikes.<br/><br/>Surveys made of the bycatch from 52 sets from the shark drift net fishery off Georgia and east Florida, USA from 1992–1995 included 148 rays, 14 of which were recorded as being the Giant Manta Ray (Trent <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Another study of the bycatch in the directed shark drift gillnet fishery off the east coast of Florida and Georgia, which was set 4.8 km offshore in EEZ waters from 1998–1999, revealed that manta rays are still occasionally caught in this fishery (Carlson and Lee 2000).<br/><br/>Fisheries bycatch data collected from the U.S. tuna purse seine fishery in the central-western Pacific in 1999 listed the Giant Manta Ray amongst the species caught with a set frequency of 1.5%. A total of 18 mantas were caught (1.14 t) during the observed period, 100% of which was discarded (Coan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).
199500		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199500		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199500		habitat	eng	Occurs in damp woodland.
199500		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199500		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species.
199501		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199501		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Mahé, Felicite, Bird and Poivre islands).
199501		habitat	eng	A coastal species found on coastal shrubs and trees.
199501		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199501		threats	eng	Part of the historical range of the species has been cleared for coconut plantations and development; much of the range is vulnerable to rises in sea level.
199502		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks and the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199502		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette, Coetivy, Farquhar, Assumption and Aldabra).
199502		habitat	eng	An arboreal predator recorded in woodland and scrub habitats.
199502		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199502		threats	eng	The habitats occupied by the species are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species.
199504		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
199504		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue and Felicite).
199504		habitat	eng	A woodland species feeding on ferns (<em>Nephrolepis biserrata</em> and <em>Dicranopteris linearis</em>).
199504		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199504		threats	eng	Although the woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants this does not affect this species or its food plants.
199505		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
199505		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Mahé island, Seychelles; only recorded from the area of Cascade.
199505		habitat	eng	A woodland species found in damp habitats.
199505		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. The species has not been recorded since 1909.
199505		threats	eng	The woodland habitat is deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>); the only recorded locality has been extensively modified by agriculture and invasion since the species was last recorded.
199506		conservation	eng	Present in the Cousin and probably Aride special reserves.
199506		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Cousin and probably Aride and Fregate islands).
199506		habitat	eng	Found in coastal woodland.
199506		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199506		threats	eng	The woodland habitats have largely been cleared for agriculture and development; the remaining habitat in the recorded range is relatively secure. The area may be reduced by any future sea level rise.
199510		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199510		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the coral islands of Seychelles (Assumption and Aldabra).
199510		habitat	eng	Present in open coastal woodland and scrub habitat.
199510		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199510		threats	eng	The entire range of this species is less than 1 m above sea level and is therefore vulnerable to sea level rise.
199511		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199511		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the Seychelles islands (Mahé, Cerf,  Silhouette and Praslin).
199511		habitat	eng	A woodland species, found at low frequencies, usually in secondary habitats.
199511		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199511		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are degraded due to invasion by alien plants, this species feeds mainly on introduced species and the impacts of invasion are not known. It has been speculated that introduced myna birds (<em>Acridotheres tristis</em>) prey on leaf insects but this has not been substantiated. The causes of its scarcity are not understood.
199512		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
199512		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199512		habitat	eng	Found in damp forest habitats.
199512		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. The species has not been recorded since 1908.
199512		threats	eng	The forest habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>).  One of the historical localities has been extensively modified by agriculture and invasion since the species was last recorded.
199513		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
199513		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles. Currently it has only been recorded from one locality on Mahé island (Anse Nord-Est) but it is probably more widespread than this.
199513		habitat	eng	A myrmecophilous species associated with <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> and <em>Paratrechina longipes</em> in coastal habitat.
199513		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199513		threats	eng	The only locality currently known is at sea level and vulnerable to sea-level rise, however the species is probably more widespread than has been recorded.
199514		conservation	eng	Present in the Cousine Special Reserve.
199514		distribution	eng	This species is recorded in the granitic islands of Seychelles (Felicite and Cousine) and possibly also occurs in the Comoros (identification not certain). This assessment is for the Seychelles population only; the identity of the Comoros population needs re-examination.
199514		habitat	eng	A myrmecophilous species found in nests of ants (<em>Pheidole cf. punctulata</em> and possibly other species) in coastal open woodland.
199514		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199514		threats	eng	Much of the identified range of this species is at sea level and vulnerable to any rises in sea level.
199516		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199516		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette, La Digue, Felicite and Dennis islands).
199516		habitat	eng	This species is found on vegetation in woodland habitat. It occurs in both primary and secondary habitat, including gardens.
199516		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199516		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating but this species appears to be tolerant of habitat change.
199519		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199519		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199519		habitat	eng	Found in leaf litter and in moss on trees in cloud forest.
199519		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199519		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).  This is a cloud forest associated species vulnerable to climate change.
199521		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199521		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the coral islands of Seychelles (Assumption and Aldabra).
199521		habitat	eng	Found in coastal scrub habitats
199521		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199521		threats	eng	The entire range of this species is below 1 m above sea level and is therefore vulnerable to sea level rise.
199522		conservation	eng	The entire range is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199522		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Aldabra atoll, Seychelles.
199522		habitat	eng	Present in open woodland and scrub habitat at sea level.
199522		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199522		threats	eng	The entire range of this species is less than 1 m above sea level and is therefore vulnerable to sea level rise.
199523		conservation	eng	Present in the Silhouette National Park.
199523		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Silhouette and Praslin).
199523		habitat	eng	Found in rotten wood and in beetle tunnels in trees.
199523		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199523		threats	eng	The woodland habitats where the species has been recorded are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species.
199524		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199524		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199524		habitat	eng	Found in leaf litter and in moss on trees in cloud forest.
199524		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199524		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>). This is a cloud forest associated species vulnerable to climate change.
199526		conservation	eng	The entire range of the species is within the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199526		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Mahé Island, Seychelles, where it is restricted to the area of Morne Blanc.
199526		habitat	eng	Found in leaf litter in damp forest.
199526		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199526		threats	eng	The locality where the species is present is dominated by introduced plants, habitat degradation is occurring rapidly, due to invasion by <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Syzygium jambos</em>.
199529		conservation	eng	No information available.
199529		distribution	eng	Occurs on Sumatra and the Seychelles with two subspecies. The type subspecies is found on the Seychelles.
199529		habitat	eng	On the Seychelles it is found in damp woodland, very active on shrubs and trees. The habitat on Sumatra is unknown.
199529		population	eng	Nothing is known about population trends and status
199529		threats	eng	On the Seychelles, the woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span>). Nothing is known regarding the status of the Sumatran populations.
199531		conservation	eng	Present in the Silhouette National Park
199531		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Silhouette Island, Seychelles.
199531		habitat	eng	A woodland species found in damp leaf litter, typically in <em>Dillenia ferruginea</em> and <em>Northea hornei</em> litter.
199531		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199531		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>); a significant part of the range of this species was converted to agriculture and subsequently abandoned, this area is currently of marginal suitability.
199533		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
199533		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Anonyme and Silhouette isands).
199533		habitat	eng	Recorded from coastal habitat without precise details.
199533		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. The species was last recorded in 1909.
199533		threats	eng	The coastal habitats have been extensively modified by clearance for coconut plantations.
199534		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks
199534		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé,  Silhouette and Praslin).
199534		habitat	eng	A woodland species associated with endemic palms on which it feeds (in order of frequency): <em>Nephrosperma vanhouetteana</em>, <em>Phoenicophorium borsigianum</em>, <em>Roscheria melanochaetes</em>, <em>Deceknia nobilis</em> and <em>Verschaffeltia splendida</em>. It has been observed on <em>Cocos nucifera</em> but feeding on this species has not been confirmed.
199534		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199534		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are degraded by invasive plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
199535		conservation	eng	Present in the Praslin National Park although it has not been recorded there since 1908, present in the Silhouette National Park.
199535		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Silhouette and Praslin). Its area of occupancy (AOO) historically was 15 km²; it has now been reduced to 5 km² on Silhouette only.
199535		habitat	eng	Found in leaf litter in damp forest habitats.
199535		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199535		threats	eng	The forest habitats occupied by the species are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
199536		conservation	eng	Part of the range is within the Morne Seychellois National Park, however the species has not been recorded there since 1909, present in the Silhouette National Park
199536		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette). Historically its area of occupancy (AOO) was 15 km²; it is currently restricted to an AOO of 5 km² on Silhouette.
199536		habitat	eng	Found in damp woodland; a specialist species found in the axils of <em>Verschaffeltia splendida</em> palms.
199536		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199536		threats	eng	The woodland habitats where the species is found are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
199537		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
199537		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette, La Digue and&#160;Curieuse).
199537		habitat	eng	A woodland species feeding on leaves of trees, especially the introduced <em>Tabebuia pallida</em>.
199537		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199537		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants but the species appears to be adaptable and feeds on some introduced species.
199539		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199539		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the coral atolls of Seychelles (Cosmoledo and Aldabra).
199539		habitat	eng	Present in coastal scrub haitat.
199539		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199539		threats	eng	The entire range of this species is less than 1 m above sea level and is therefore vulnerable to sea level rise.
199540		conservation	eng	The historical Mahé population was present in the Morne Seychellois Natioanl Park, this may not survive. Present in the Silhouette National Park.
199540		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199540		habitat	eng	A woodland species found on palm leaves in native forest.
199540		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199540		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>). This species is locally abundant on Silhouette but not located on Mahé since 1909.
199541		conservation	eng	Historically recorded in the Morne Seychellois National Park but not recorded there since 1909, present in the Praslin and Silhouette National Parks.
199541		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and La Digue).
199541		habitat	eng	This is a predatory species which is found on vegetation in native forest.
199541		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199541		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>), recently this species has only been located in areas with low levels of invasion.
199542		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199542		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Mahé Island, Seychelles. It is known only from the area of Morne Pilot.&#160;The species has not been located since 1909 and may now be extinct.
199542		habitat	eng	Restricted to cloud forest.
199542		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199542		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>). This is a cloud forest associated species, vulnerable to climate change.
199543		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199543		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Aldabra atoll, Seychelles.
199543		habitat	eng	Found in coastal scrub habitat.
199543		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199543		threats	eng	The only significant threat is sea level rise, the species is found only below 1 m above sea level, so is vulnerable to any rise in sea level.
199545		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199545		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Praslin islands).
199545		habitat	eng	A woodland species found in damp native forest.
199545		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. It has not been recorded since 1909 despite searches in suitable habitat.
199545		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>).
199546		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199546		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Assumption and Aldabra).
199546		habitat	eng	Found in short grass habitats near the coast.
199546		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199546		threats	eng	The entire range of the species is less than 8 m above sea level, the area above 1 m is too small to support a viable population so the species will be threatened by any significant rise in sea level. Sea level rise and changing climate patterns are likely to lead to deterioration of habitat for this species.
199548		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse National Parks.
199548		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse).
199548		habitat	eng	A specialist feeder on palms and <em>Pandanus</em>, found in native woodland.
199548		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199548		threats	eng	Present in woodland that is deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>), this species is particularly vulnerable as it is a specialist associated with palms and <em>Pandanus</em>.
199549		conservation	eng	Present in the Silhouette National Park
199549		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Silhouette Island, Seychelles. It is restricted to high forest areas.
199549		habitat	eng	Found in leaf litter in damp primary forest.
199549		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199549		threats	eng	The forest habitat is deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
199551		conservation	eng	Present in the Praslin and Silhouette National Parks.
199551		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Silhouette and Praslin islands).
199551		habitat	eng	This is a woodland species found in litter in high forest.
199551		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199551		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
199552		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199552		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette islands). Historically it was present above 500 m on two islands (extent of occurrence (EOO) 300 km², area of occupancy (AOO) 45 km²). It is now restricted to a single locality above 800 m on Mahé.
199552		habitat	eng	A terrestrial species found in leaf litter and moss of the cloud forest.
199552		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199552		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>), the range is restricted to the small area of cloud forest which is highly vulnerable to climate change.  Found in all cloud forest areas in 1908-9 but now restricted to the highest cloud forest habitat (800 m).
199553		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
199553		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette islands).
199553		habitat	eng	Occurs at low densities in woodland habitat but abundant in open areas; has benefitted from the spread of invasive scrub vegetaion in burnt areas and in gardens.
199553		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends, however it is abundant in many areas.
199553		threats	eng	Mainly associated with scrub vegetation which has spread as a result of fires, development and invasion. It is highly adaptable and is only threatened by intrinsic factors.
199554		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199554		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199554		habitat	eng	Found in primary woodland.
199554		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. The species has not been recorded since 1909.
199554		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>).
199556		conservation	eng	Histroically present in the Morne Seychellois National Park but presence has not been confirmed since 1909, present in the Silhouette National Park.
199556		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199556		habitat	eng	Found in deep leaf litter in primary forest.
199556		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199556		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plant species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>).
199557		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199557		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the coral islands of Seychelles (Dennis, Farquhar, Astove, Cosmoledo and Aldabra).
199557		habitat	eng	Present in coastal scrub habitats.
199557		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199557		threats	eng	The entire range of this species is below 2 m above sea level&#160; (with 95% of the AOO less than 1 m above sea level)&#160;and is therefore vulnerable to sea level rise.
199558		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199558		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles, recorded on Mahé island and Aldabra atoll.
199558		habitat	eng	Recorded from secondary woodland on Mahé island and in scrub habitats on Aldabra.
199558		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199558		threats	eng	The Aldabra population is at sea level and vulnerable to any sea level rise. The Mahé population is in habitat that is deteriorating due to invasive plant species, but occurs in secondary habitats.
199560		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species. Assumption should receive protection.
199560		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Assumption island, Seychelles.
199560		habitat	eng	Present in scrub habitat at sea level.
199560		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199560		threats	eng	The range of the species is all less than 2 m above sea level and is vulnerable to any sea level rise.  All habitat on the island has been extensively modified but the species appears to be tolerant of this disturbance.
199561		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park and the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.
199561		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Mahé, Long, Anonyme, Silhouette, North, Praslin, Curieuse, Cousin, Cousine, Aride, Booby, La Digue and Fregate islands).
199561		habitat	eng	Present on coastal shrubs, occurs at lower densities on forest trees.
199561		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends. Locally it is highly abundant.
199561		threats	eng	Part of the historical range of the species has been cleared for coconut plantations and development; much of the range is vulnerable to rises in sea level.
199562		conservation	eng	Present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.
199562		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the coral atolls of Seychelles (Astove, Cosmoledo and Aldabra).
199562		habitat	eng	Occurs in scrub habitat and open woodland at sea level.
199562		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199562		threats	eng	The entire range of this species is less than 1 m above sea level and is therefore vulnerable to sea level rise.
199563		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.
199563		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Seychelles (Mahé, Long, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Felicite, Bird, D'Arros, Desroches, Poivre and Denis islands).
199563		habitat	eng	Occurs on vegetation, mainly on coastal shrubs.
199563		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199563		threats	eng	Much of the range of this species has been modified by coconut plantations and development but the species remains abundant in coastal habitat. A large part of this range will be vulnerable to sea level rise.
199564		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
199564		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199564		habitat	eng	A woodland species feeding on ferns (especially <em>Nephrolepis biserrata</em>).
199564		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199564		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants but the food plants of this species are abundant and not affected by habitat change.
199565		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette and Praslin National Parks.
199565		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Marianne and possibly Fregate islands).
199565		habitat	eng	A woodland species found on palm leaves and on boulders.
199565		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199565		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>).
199566		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place for this species.
199566		distribution	eng	Currently this species is only known from the Seychelles (Mahé and Fregate islands), although it has been suggested to be an introduced species due to its association with suburban habitats.
199566		habitat	eng	Only recorded in suburban garden habitat.
199566		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199566		threats	eng	None identified other than intrinsic factors associated with its small range.
199567		conservation	eng	Present in the Silhouette National Park
199567		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Silhouette Island, Seychelles.
199567		habitat	eng	A woodland species. It feeds mainly on ferns (<em>Asplenium nidus</em>, also on <em>Phymatodes scolopendria</em> and <em>Nephrolepis biserrata</em>) during the day. Old leaves of <em>A. nidus</em> are the main food and the species is only common where this fern is abundant. Eggs take three months to hatch.
199567		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199567		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by introduced plants (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).
199568		conservation	eng	Historically present in the Morne Seychellois National Park but not recorded there since 1909, present in the Silhouette National Park.
199568		distribution	eng	This subspecies is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé and Silhouette).
199568		habitat	eng	Found in damp woodland, very active on shrubs and trees.
199568		population	eng	There is no information available on population size or trends.
199568		threats	eng	The woodland habitats are deteriorating due to invasion by alien plants species (especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> and <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>).
199574		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
199574		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the granitic islands of Seychelles (Mahé, Silhouette and La Digue). Three subspecies have been described: <span style="font-style: italic;">P. s. sechellensis</span> (Mahé); <span style="font-style: italic;">P. s. fuliginata</span> (La Digue); and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. s. silhouettensis</span> (Silhouette).
199574		habitat	eng	This is a predatory species found on shrubs and trees in woodland and in gardens.
199574		population	eng	There is no information&#160;available&#160;regarding this species' population.
199574		threats	eng	The habitats it occupies are deteriorating due to invasion by alien species, but it occurs in secondary habitats and gardens and is not significantly threatened.
199617		conservation	eng	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is listed as Vulnerable on the Bulgarian Red List (Petrova and Vladimirov 2009).<br/><a name="OLE_LINK8"><br/>The following actions are recommended to protect <em>Dactylorhiza romana</em>;</a> <br/><ul><li>Protection of the habitat from agricultural use and land melioration. </li><li>Fencing the vulnerable sites to protect the habitat from trampling.</li><li>Control and management of the salep production from the tubers.</li><li>Raise public awareness.</li><li>Protection of the living individuals through legislation which bans the species from being picked or dug up.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation: Artificial propagation, re-introduction, seed collections.</li><li>Monitoring and surveillance of the existing populations and sites.</li><li>Estimate the population size and study their dynamics. </li></ul>
199617		distribution	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza romana</em> is a central and eastern Mediterranean species. <a name="OLE_LINK1">The species can be found up to 2,000 m altitude </a>(Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
199617		habitat	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza romana</em> is primarily found in guarrigue, scrub and open woodland. It&#160;<em></em>prefers dry to moist, alkaline to acidic soils. This species grows in full sunlight to shade and flowers from March to June. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
199617		population	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza romana </em><span class="species">is rather local and the sites usually hold a few plants but in some places larger dense populations occur. T<span class="species">he trend of the population is unknown. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</span></p>
199617		threats	eng	<p><em>Dactylorhiza romana </em><span class="species">is threatened by trampling, land melioration, agricultural use, collection of the tuber for the production of salep, urbanisation and tourism. (Delforge 1995, GIROS 2009, Rossi 2002, Vakhrameeva <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>
199630		conservation	eng	Present in the Silhouette National Park.
199630		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is restricted to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisonia sechellarum</span> forest on Silhouette Island. The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both less than 1 km². There is an historical record from Mahe island from 1874.
199630		habitat	eng	A species of high forest, currently known only from one individual growing on a rock in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisonia sechellarum</span> forest.
199630		population	eng	It is currently only known from a single individual.
199630		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asplenium complanatum</span> is vulnerable to any disturbance of its habitat. It is probably at risk from habitat deterioration due to invasive plant species. The high forest is vulnerable to reduction in humidity due to climate change.
199631		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. The Silhouette population should also be protected.
199631		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species has been recorded from Mahé and Silhouette islands. The EOO is 1,000 km² and the AOO is 20 km².
199631		habitat	eng	Known only from cloud forests above 500 m.
199631		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
199631		threats	eng	Vulnerable to habitat degradation caused by invasive plants and the reduction in cloud forest resulting from climate change. Intrinsic factors, such as its small range and limited dispersal, are other potential threats to this species.
199632		conservation	eng	No species specific conservation measures are currently in-place. The main population on Silhouette is within the Silhouette National Park.
199632		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is restricted to Mahé and Silhouette. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 1,500 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 20 km².
199632		habitat	eng	Occurs in high forest, above 350 m asl.
199632		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
199632		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species have been identified. Habitat degradation due to invasive alien species is a potential threat. Furthermore, intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, low densities, and restricted range, potentially threaten the survival of this species.
199633		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois and Silhouette National Parks.
199633		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this species has been recorded from Mahé and Silhouette. It is known from five localities. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 1,000 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 20 km².
199633		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moss forests at 450-900 m asl.
199633		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
199633		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat deterioration caused by invasive plants (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). It is also associated with high forests which are vulnerable to reduction in humidity caused by climate change. Furthermore, intrinsic factors, such as its limited dispersal and restricted range, pose a potential threat to the survival of this species.
199636		conservation	eng	Present in the Morne Seychellois, Silhouette and Praslin National Parks.
199636		distribution	eng	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is known from the islands of Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin. The extent of occurrence is 1,625 km² and the area of occupancy is 200 km²<sup></sup>.
199636		habitat	eng	Occurs in all forest areas.
199636		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
199636		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species. It is adaptable to existing levels of habitat invasion. Its restricted range might be a potential threat.
199647		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place. The only known locality should receive legal protection.
199647		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Seychelles, this species is found only at Jardin Marron on Silhouette island. Both the EOO and AOO are less than 1 km²<sup></sup>. Historically (1874) recorded on Mahé island.
199647		habitat	eng	A high-altitude forest species recorded at 390-400 m asl.
199647		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
199647		threats	eng	Threatened by habitat deterioration caused by invasive plants. The only known site is vulnerable to land-slides. A number of intrinsic factors, such as limited dispersal, low densities and restricted range, are also potential threats to this species.
199677		conservation	eng	None required.
199677		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of the tropics, including much of Africa south of the Sahara, parts of Central America and Uruguay in South America, as well as from India south and east through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia to Fiji and Vanuatu.
199677		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rocky stream valleys at moderate altitudes in the mountains and on wet slopes in forest at higher altitudes.
199677		population	eng	No information available.
199677		threats	eng	The species is impacted by forest clearance and degradation.
199678		conservation	eng	None required at present.
199678		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. ciliatus</span> occurs from India and Sri Lanka east through Nepal to southern China and south through Indochina to Indonesia.
199678		habitat	eng	The species occurs on rocks in stream beds or on stream banks in mountain forests. Plants are frequently submerged when the streams are in spate by firmly attached to the rocks by strong black roots. 160-900 m
199678		population	eng	No information available.
199678		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted by sedimentation and deforestation.
199679		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and impact of threats.
199679		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Viet Nam (Cát Tiên National Park and from Thua Thien Hue Province; Averyanov 2006), Thailand and south through Peninsular Malaysia to Indonesia. The species is likely to occur in other countries within the species range, and further survey is required.
199679		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rocky stream beds and in the flood zones of rivers in the lowlands.
199679		population	eng	No information available.
199679		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199680		conservation	eng	None required.
199680		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India east through Nepal and Myanmar to southern China (Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan), Taiwan (Province of China), Viet Nam and the Philippines.
199680		habitat	eng	The species occurs in rocky stream beds in the mountains.
199680		population	eng	No information available.
199680		threats	eng	The species habitat is impacted by logging and forest clearance.
199681		conservation	eng	None required at present, though habitat trends should be monitored.
199681		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India east to southern China, Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, south through the Nicobar Islands, Indochina and Peninsular Malaysia to Indonesia, the Austral Islands, New Caledonia, Society Islands and Western Samoa (Pigot 1988, Smitinand and Larsen 1989, Hassler and Schmidt 2011).
199681		habitat	eng	The species occurs on wet rocks by streams in shady hill and mountain forest.
199681		population	eng	No information available.
199681		threats	eng	The species will be impacted by forest degradation and clearance.
199682		conservation	eng	None required.
199682		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Sri Lanka, India (with records including Arunachal Pradesh, Kerala, Meghalaya, Sikkim, and Tamil Nadu, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands; GRIN 2011), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal to southern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan; GRIN 2011), Taiwan, Province of China) and Japan (Ryukyu Islands), and south to Indochina (Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam), Malaysia (including Sarawak), Indonesia and the Philippines. Also recorded from Papua New Guinea.
199682		habitat	eng	The species grows in the flood zone of shaded streams or on wet rocks, usually in the spray zone, in stream beds in dense forests in situations where the whole plant is immersed during high flows, 0-800 m alt., usually in spraying water, not so rare throughout the country. It is dependent upon clean water and intolerant of pollution.
199682		population	eng	No information available.
199682		threats	eng	The species is a species which cannot tolerate stabilisation of water levels or intense scour and consequently is severely threatened by check dams and changes in flow regime.
199683		conservation	eng	Research into the species current distribution, population trends, and threats is required.
199683		distribution	eng	The species is currently only known from Chiang Khan, Loei Province, northeastern Thailand, on the Mekong River. It is assumed to have a wider distribution along the Mekong River system (Bastmeijer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
199683		habitat	eng	The species grows on river banks that are exposed during the dry season partly in full sun between rocks and big stones or in leeward places in the winding riverbed, and in sheltered places it can also be found growing in sand and gravel and more or less covered in mud. During the high water season the leaves become small, but when the plants become emergent full-sized leaves and spathes develop. The species is easily cultivated (Bastmeijer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010).
199683		population	eng	<p>No information. Only currently known from a single site, but may be inferred to be present in suitable habitat elsewhere.</p>
199683		threats	eng	No information on direct threats, but the species is likely to be threatened by dam construction and any other actions which modify the flow character of the Mekong River, as well as logging or clear-felling the banks or floodplain of the river. It is also likely to be threatened by over-grazing during the dry season.
199684		conservation	eng	Research is need to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and impact of known threats.
199684		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Don Khon, Champasak Province, Lao PDR, from Kratie Province in Cambodia, and from Ubon Ratchathani Province in Thailand. The species may be expected to have a wider distribution and further survey is required.
199684		habitat	eng	The species grows on river margins which are exposed during the dry season, but submerged throughout most of the year, it usually grows in backwaters, or in the lea of large boulders and bedrock outcrops as well as downstream of sand and gravel banks and bars.
199684		population	eng	No information available.
199684		threats	eng	No information on direct threats, but the species is likely to be threatened by dam construction and any other actions  which modify the flow character of the River Mekong, as well as logging  or clear-felling the banks or floodplain of the river. It is also likely  to be threatened by over-grazing during the dry season.
199685		conservation	eng	None required at present.
199685		distribution	eng	The species has been recorded from Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and through most of Australia, it is considered likely to occur in India (Cook 1996), however only one record (from Kolkata) is known (Flora of Pakistan, eFloras 2011) and is present in Thailand (Landolt 2001).<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
199685		habitat	eng	The species typically occurs in ponds and standing water in marshes, usually in fairly eutrophic waters.
199685		population	eng	No information available.
199685		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199686		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
199686		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to the lower part of the lower Mekong, from the Tonle Sap basin into southern Viet Nam. In Cambodia it is widespread on the central plains, especially around the Tonle Sap Great Lake and in southeastern parts of the country (Khou 2008).
199686		habitat	eng	The species is a non-forest species, climbing on itself if nothing else is present, thriving in grasslands, scrub, roadside verges, rice field bunds, periurban wastelands, typically in floodplain areas that have seasonal shallow flooding (although it is also in grasslands that flood quite deeply in the middle Tonle Sap floodplain). In Cambodia, it is confined to rice fields and severely degraded bush land of lowland areas (Khou 2008).
199686		population	eng	The species is very common within a small area from the Tonle Sap Lake along the Mekong floodplain into southern Viet Nam.
199686		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
199687		conservation	eng	None required.
199687		distribution	eng	The species occurs over a fairly wide area, from eastern tributaries of the Mekong River in Lao PDR and Cambodia, west throughout southern Thailand and south to Narathiwat Province in southern and Perlis State in Malaysia.
199687		habitat	eng	The species grows in scrub, thickets and forests in the floodplains and along the banks of streams and rivers, often with periodic or seasonal flooding (Khou 2008), although typically in higher and more intact forest than other riparian <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamus </span>species. The Khmer name of the species comes from its habitat, i.e., close to the water.
199687		population	eng	No information is available.
199687		threats	eng	None known, although it must be threatened by unrestricted logging and conversion of forest to agriculture along major rivers, as well as the construction of dams.
199688		conservation	eng	None required.
199688		distribution	eng	The species occurs from northeast and northern central India east through Bangladesh and Myanmar to Thailand, Cambodia and Lao PDR, as well as in Indonesia (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, RBG Kew 2011).
199688		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest within the active floodplain of rivers, including very degraded habitats and fairly scrubby stands.
199688		population	eng	Populations are considered stable.
199688		threats	eng	The species is severely threatened in Java by habitat degradation, otherwise no specific threats known.
199689		conservation	eng	None required.
199689		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Indochina, occurring from Myanmar (but not reported by Kress (2003)), through Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia to Viet Nam (Hansen 1987, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
199689		habitat	eng	The species typically grows in low-lying wet areas on sandy ground, often in grassland. 0-200 m alt.
199689		population	eng	No information available.
199689		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199690		conservation	eng	None required.
199690		distribution	eng	The species has only been recorded from Indochina, occurring in Myanmar (but not reported by Kress (2003)), Thailand (Maxwell 2008), Lao PDR (Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), and Viet Nam (Hansen 1987, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
199690		habitat	eng	The species is described as occurring in wet places in open grassy forest, 1,000-2,150 m alt. (Hansen 1987).
199690		population	eng	No information available.
199690		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199691		conservation	eng	None required.
199691		distribution	eng	The species occurs from northeastern India (records from Assam and Meghalaya) through Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand (Maxwell 2008), Lao PDR (Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Cambodia (Maxwell 2009) and Viet Nam to Malaysia (Hansen 1987, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
199691		habitat	eng	The species occurs on seepages and wet, mossy places on rocks; 1,200-1,400 m alt.
199691		population	eng	No information is available.
199691		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199692		conservation	eng	None required.
199692		distribution	eng	A plant of the Equatorial tropics. The species is recorded from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Singapore, and the Philippines south through Malaysia and Indonesia to Papua New Guinea, Australia and Micronesia.
199692		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a wide range of wetland and terrestrial habitats, from swamps, marshes, river and stream margins and ditches to pools. 0-700m.
199692		population	eng	No information available.
199692		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199693		conservation	eng	None required.
199693		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from India, east through Nepal to southern China and Japan, and south through Indochina and the Philippines to Indonesia.
199693		habitat	eng	The species typically grows in wet, low-lying habitats around pools and streams and in rice fields after they have been drained. 0-1,000 m alt.
199693		population	eng	No information available.
199693		threats	eng	No threats are known.
199694		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.
199694		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution from northeastern Africa to southwestern Asia. The species is recorded from Egypt, east through Iraq, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Nepal to southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong,  Guangxi, Yunnan) and south through Indochina and the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia.<span id="lblTaxonDesc"><br/></span>
199694		habitat	eng	The species grows in marshy areas, on the margins of open water in swamps, ponds and lakes, often rooting in the water and scrambling over emergent vegetation.
199694		population	eng	No information available.
199694		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
199695		conservation	eng	None required.
199695		distribution	eng	The species appears to have a restricted distribution from south-eastern India, through Bangladesh to Myanmar, but is not listed by Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003).
199695		habitat	eng	The species occurs in moist places, such as the banks of rivers, ponds and ditches.
199695		population	eng	No information available.
199695		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199696		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and presence and impact of threats.
199696		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from northern India (Khasia H<span class="st">ills and Garo <span class="st">Hills (Meghalaya, Assam, and Orissa (Sambalpur)), Bangladesh (Chittagong) (Bhatti and Ingrouille 2007) from Myanmar, and also from southern India (Kerala (Malabar, Godavari District). In eastern Bangladesh it grows on sandy soils (Khanam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Bhatti and Ingrouille 2007).</span>
199696		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from moist soil along river banks, usually on seasonally flooded ground.
199696		population	eng	No information available.
199696		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199699		conservation	eng	In Bangladesh, efforts should be made to relocate the species in its known and adjoining areas and initiate conservation through <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> methods (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
199699		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India east through Bangladesh to Myanmar, central Thailand and Viet Nam.
199699		habitat	eng	The species typically grows on the margins, rooted in shallow water or floating in ponds, marshes, ditches and rice fields; it often grows in estuaries and lagoons by the coast (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
199699		population	eng	No information available.
199699		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is considered to be a threat in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however the causes are not given.
199700		conservation	eng	None required.
199700		distribution	eng	The species occurs in south and southeast Asia, from northeastern India through Bangladesh and Myanmar east to the Philippines and south through Peninsular Malaysia to Indonesia. It is recorded from southern China (Hong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Kwek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, eFloras 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc">
199700		habitat	eng	This species is found in open sandy places, margins of paddy fields and wet lowlands (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <span id="lblTaxonDesc">It also inhabits barren lands, dry mountain sides, along streams,  fields at low elevations (eFloras 2011).
199700		population	eng	No information available.
199700		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199701		conservation	eng	None required.
199701		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout most of Asia south to Australasia, from Sri Lanka east through India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Nepal to southern China and south through Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia to Australia, Micronesia and Polynesia (Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Kwek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
199701		habitat	eng	The species typically occurs along river banks, on the margins of pools, marshy habitats and rice fields, especially on saline soil.
199701		population	eng	Common throughout most of its range.
199701		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199702		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation measures in place or needed.</p>
199702		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India and Sri Lanka through Nepal, Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh to southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan,  Taiwan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), east to Japan, and south through Indochina and the Philippines to Indonesia (Kress<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Kwek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009, Yadav and Lee 2006, Tao and Taylor 2011, eFloras 2011).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
199702		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open, seasonally damp, often sandy habitats, including waste ground, wet low-lying areas and rice fields.
199702		population	eng	No information available.
199702		threats	eng	There are no known past, ongoing or future threats to this species.
199703		conservation	eng	It is recommended that in Bangladesh, an intensive search is undertaken to relocate populations and if found, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> conservation measures undertaken (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
199703		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India, east through Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java and Sulawesi), the Philippines, and southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong,  Guangxi, Guizhou, southern Yunnan (eFloras 2011).
199703		habitat	eng	The species is found in open forests, fields, moist places and low-lying areas.
199703		population	eng	There is no information from most of its range, it is considered rare in Bangladesh.
199703		threats	eng	The species is threatened by loss of habitat.
199704		conservation	eng	None required, however the taxonomic status requires resolution.
199704		distribution	eng	The species occurs in a fairly restricted area from Myanmar to eastern Thailand and Cambodia.
199704		habitat	eng	Typically occurs in swamps and in the margins of rice fields at low altitudes.
199704		population	eng	No information available.
199704		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199705		conservation	eng	Habitat protection is proposed for Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Research is needed into the species current distribution, and the causes of habitat decline.
199705		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to countries bordering the eastern Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, from India (West Bengal) to Bangladesh and Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) Province in southern peninsular Myanmar (Biswas and Calder 1954, Philcox 1970, Kress<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003).
199705		habitat	eng	The species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> occurs in low-lying wet, marshy ground, including disturbed habitats.
199705		population	eng	The species is considered uncommon and threatened in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It appears likely that the centre of distribution of the species is in Tanintharyi Province in Myanmar, but no recent information is available on its population status from the Province.
199705		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is considered to be a threat in Bangladesh (Ahmed<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009), however the causes of the loss are not known.
199706		conservation	eng	In Bangladesh, a thorough search should be undertaken to relocate this species and suitable ex-situ conservation measures undertaken as well as measures to preserve it natural habitats (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
199706		distribution	eng	The species is known from southeast Asia: southern China (<span id="lblTaxonDesc">Guangdong, Yunnan), from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR (Naples 2005) and Viet Nam, and south through Malaysia to Indonesia (Philcox 1970, Turner 1995, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, eFlora 2011). It formerly occurred in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<span id="lblTaxonDesc"></span>
199706		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the margins of streams, pools and in low-lying grassy areas. In Malaysia it is described as a rice field weed.
199706		population	eng	The species is reported to be extinct in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
199706		threats	eng	Habitat degradation is described as a threat in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however the causes are not given.
199707		conservation	eng	Not required.
199707		distribution	eng	The species occurs in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam (Philcox 1970, Yamazaki 1990, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
199707		habitat	eng	The species grows in the margins of ponds, marshes and rice fields, as well as in floating mats of vegetation on large open water bodies such as the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia. 0-200 m alt.
199707		population	eng	No information available.
199707		threats	eng	No information available.
199708		conservation	eng	Research is need to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and threats. The species has been assessed as having an 'R' conservation status (ONEP undated).
199708		distribution	eng	The species is considered endemic to north and southwestern Thailand, although it probably occurs throughout the country in suitable habitats. However it has only been reported from three areas (Doi Suket in Chiang Mai (northern), Phu Miang in Phitsanulok (central), and Prachuap Khiri Khan (northern Peninsular) provinces) (ONEP undated).
199708		habitat	eng	The species occurs in ponds and marshes at low altitude (Yamazaki 1990).
199708		population	eng	No information available.
199708		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199709		conservation	eng	Little is known of this species, and research is required.
199709		distribution	eng	The species is known from a single collection from Taninthayi (Tenasserim) Province in Myanmar (Philcox 1970).
199709		habitat	eng	A submerged hydrophyte, but no information is available on specific habitats.
199709		population	eng	No information available.
199709		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199710		conservation	eng	Research is need to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and impact of known threats.
199710		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from a very restricted area defined by Vientiane in Lao PDR and Nong Han, Udonthani Province a short way over the border in Thailand, south to Savannakhet in Lao PDR and west to Nakhon Ratchasima Province in Thailand, with most of its distribution in Thailand.
199710		habitat	eng	The species grows in swamps, low-lying marshy ground, on the margins of pools and in rice fields. 0-200 m alt.
199710		population	eng	No information available.
199710		threats	eng	No information available.
199711		conservation	eng	Research into impact and extent of threats.
199711		distribution	eng	The species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>occurs in Sri Lanka, from Myanmar east to Viet Nam and south through Thailand (Pattarakulpisutti and Sridith undated) to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. Presence in India is not known.
199711		habitat	eng	The species grows on the margins of ponds, lakes and rivers, as well as in damps areas on disturbed ground, sometimes in deciduous dipterocarp forest, sometimes in brackish water. 0-800 m (Yamazaki 1990).
199711		population	eng	No information available.
199711		threats	eng	Clearance of lowland wetlands and forest is a potential threat to the species and requires research.
199712		conservation	eng	The following measures are proposed for Bangladesh: Intensive field survey, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> conservation, protection of any populations found (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
199712		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Pakistan east through India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal to southern and eastern China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Yunnan, Zhejiang) and south through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam to Peninsular Malaysia. It is apparently extinct in Bangladesh (Ahmed<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009, eFloras 2011).
199712		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open seasonally inundated habitats, such as low-lying wet areas, marshland, the margins of pools and rice fields. 0-1,400 m alt.
199712		population	eng	No information available.
199712		threats	eng	Its extinction in Bangladesh is attributed to habitat loss (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009); the causes of the habitat loss are not known.
199713		conservation	eng	No information available.
199713		distribution	eng	The species occurs within a restricted area in Sikkim and West Bengal in eastern India, Myanmar and north-eastern Thailand (Kress<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003, Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).
199713		habitat	eng	The species is more strictly aquatic than most members of the genus, typically occurring in ponds or lakes, where it grows as an emergent or floating on the water. 1,200-1,300 m alt.
199713		population	eng	No information available.
199713		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199714		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and threats.
199714		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Thailand and is apparently known only from two records (Yamazaki 1990) ONEP (undated) records the species from Kamphaeng Phet Province (west-central Thailand) and Nakhon Nayok Province, northeast of Bangkok. The distribution of the species requires research.
199714		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded from small ponds and cultivated ground at low altitude.
199714		population	eng	No information available.
199714		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199715		conservation	eng	Research is need to confirm the species taxonomy, current distribution, population trends, and threats.
199715		distribution	eng	The species distribution appears to be restricted to north-eastern (Nakhon Ratchasima and Yaso Thon   Provinces (Yamazaki 1990, ONEP undated), Thailand.
199715		habitat	eng	The species grows in swamps, marshes, pools and rice fields in full sun at low altitudes (ONEP undated), drains and moist habitats and sometimes in flooded rice fields.<em></em>
199715		population	eng	<strong><em></em></strong>The species is considered to be a "common  aquatic weed" (JIRCAS 2010).
199715		threats	eng	Specific threats are not known and research is required.
199716		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and threats.
199716		distribution	eng	The species is recorded from Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand (Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son, lowlands and up to 1,100 m. altitude) and from Tak, Prachuap Khirikhan, Surathani Provinces (ONEP undated), south through Peninsular Malaysia to Indonesia (Yamazaki 1990, ONEP undated). It has also been reported from Savannakhet Province in Lao PDR as a common rice field weed (Yasyuki 2006), and should be looked for in Cambodia.
199716		habitat	eng	The species is found in wet grassland, low-lying wet areas and in flooded rice fields.
199716		population	eng	No information available.
199716		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199717		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and the presence and impact of threats.
199717		distribution	eng	The species is apparently restricted to two known locations in central (Lop Buri (Sub Champa) province) and southwestern (Kanchanaburi (Sai Yok) province), Thailand (Yamazaki 1990, ONEP undated).
199717		habitat	eng	Occurs in shallow streams, half floating, at low altitudes.
199717		population	eng	No information available.
199717		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199718		conservation	eng	None required.
199718		distribution	eng	The species is thought to be restricted to a small region including central western Thailand (Phakchee Khok (Nakhon Ratchasima Province) and 'Sakon' (present day Sakon Nakhon Province) north into Lao PDR (Yamazaki 1990).
199718		habitat	eng	The species grows in open marshy ground at low altitudes.
199718		population	eng	No information available.
199718		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199719		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species taxonomic status, current distribution, population trends, and impact of known threats.
199719		distribution	eng	The species is apparently restricted to central and eastern Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia (including Kratie and Stung Treng provinces along the Mekong) and Viet Nam. Yamazaki (1990) reports that it occurs in Taiwan but the Flora of China questions this (Nguyen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Maxwell 2009, eFloras 2011).
199719		habitat	eng	Pools, and shallow, rain-fed ephemeral seepages and flushes over rock in forest, including deciduous dipterocarp forest
199719		population	eng	No information available.
199719		threats	eng	Forest clearance and wetland conversion would impact the species.
199722		conservation	eng	Further surveys are required to determine the population size and to understand more about the relationship between this species of gecko and the <em>Dracaena cynnabari</em> tree. At present the only conservation action that can be applied is the conservation of the tree which is threatened by goats grazing all the young <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaeana </span>trees thus preventing the regeneration of population.
199722		distribution	eng	The species is apparently an endemic of the Diksam Plateau, in Socotra island in Yemen, and is thought to be linked to the Dragon’s blood Tree (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena cinnabari</span>), an endemic Socotran species. This recently described species is known from the type series and from five others localities that have been both collected at Diksam at an altitude of about 760 -1,000 m (Rösler and Wranik, 1999, 2004; Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The overall area of the plateau is less than 25 km²<sup></sup>.
199722		habitat	eng	The species is thought to be linked to the Dragon’s Blood tree, a threatened endemic species (Adolt and Pavlis 2004, Attorre <em>et al.</em> 2007) on limestone substrate. Species distribution is not coincident with <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena</span>; the lizard seems to be absent in the crystalline basement of the plateau (Hahjir mountains, where it seems to be replaced by the close relative <em>Hemidactylus granti<em></em></em>), as well as in the only <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena</span> forest (Firmihin).<br/><br/>Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) found the species under stones at the base of Dragon's Blood trees during the day and at night active on the trunk. Just one specimen was observed at night active on the ground.
199722		population	eng	Population size and trends are unknown; however, as the tree on which it depends is in decline, a decline in the population of this gecko can be inferred. The species was found only in the Diksam Plateau and seems to be linked to the <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em> trees, locally it seems to be rather frequent. Razzetti <em>et al.</em> (2011) recorded many individuals in six localities of the Diksam Plateau, the most distant locations were within 8.5 km of each other.
199722		threats	eng	Data collected confirm that the distribution of this species is limited to the Diksam Plateau where <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena cynnabari</span> trees are still present, a species that had a strong decline in the past years and that faces the risk of extinction due to the loss of its seedlings and seeds to grazing by introduced goats, hence the populations has no renewal (Adolt and Pavlis 2004, Attorre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <em>Hemidactylus dracaenacolus</em> is strongly connected with the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena</span> trees, the conservation of the trees will help ensure the survival of this gecko. Although mainly a historical threat, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena</span> resin extraction is still practised on the Diksam Plateau and threatens the tree by increasing its vulnerability to parasites; although not the primary threat to the gecko, this practice represents an indirect risk to the species.
199723		conservation	eng	No conservation action is needed at present. Further studies on its distribution and life history are mandatory.
199723		distribution	eng	Abd al Kuri island, Socotra archipelago (an area of 133 Km<sup>2</sup>). It occurs at sea level, but its upper elevational limit is unknown. It has an estimated area of occupancy of 20 km<sup>2</sup>.
199723		habitat	eng	Razzetti et al (2011) report that the species can be found in rocks, piles of stones or corals close to the sea on sandy ground, among debris. Eggs are laid in cracks of rocks and under stones
199723		population	eng	Size and trend of population is unknown. In places where it is present, it is rather numerous (Boulenger, 1903; Razzetti et al. 2011).
199723		threats	eng	At present no threats are known for the species, living in an arid and remote island. The severe climate makes it unlikely that this island will be heavily threatened in future, e.g. by development or the introduction of exotic predators.
199724		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place, although future monitoring of its populations is recommended.
199724		distribution	eng	A highland endemic, whose distribution is limited to the Hajhir massif of Socotra island at elevations between 970 and 1,463 m. The lizard's extent of occurrence is 36 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of occupancy calculated as 11 km<sup>2</sup>.
199724		habitat	eng	A rock dwelling species linked to crystalline rocks, and apparently entirely absent from limestone, which may partly explain its highly restricted distribution on Socotra. This species has been found in fissured rock, under bark and especially under stones. Females lays eggs in common clutches, where even 80 eggs were found, under stones and in fissures (Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011); in March were observed eggs with almost fully developed embryos (S. Carranza pers. com.).
199724		population	eng	No data on populations trend and size are currently known. The species seems not be rare within its restricted range, but appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years. This is however a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified..
199724		threats	eng	The main potential threat to this highland endemic is raise of temperature due to global warming. The reasons this species is restricted to high elevations are under study, but it may be limited both by natural climatic factors (as the climate below 8-900 m asl is different), and by competitive exclusion from limestone habitats at both similar and lower altitudes by the related <em>H. inintellectus</em> and <em>H. dracaenicolus</em>. Climate change may therefore pose a real threat to this species if the climate becomes unsuitable to sustain this lizard, or if warming promotes the invasion of <em>H. inintellectus</em> from lower altitudes. In the present no threats can be highlighted.
199725		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently necessary.
199725		distribution	eng	This species is endemic of Socotra island, which has an area of 3,625 km<sup>2</sup> here taken as the lizard's extent of occurrence. The area of occupancy based on known sites has been calculated as 80 km<sup>2</sup>. It occurs from near sea level to 762 m asl.
199725		habitat	eng	This species is a nocturnal rock dwelling gecko. Individuals were observed usually climbing on cliffs, deep crevices, large boulders, rarely on tree trunks (including palms and occasionally <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenium</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena</span>), generally on limestone rocks, but sometimes on granite.
199725		population	eng	The populations size and trend are unknown, although the species is widely distributed in most of the habitats of Socotra island, and locally numerous.
199725		threats	eng	No threats are known to this species.
199726		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are suggested at present. Further studies on its distribution and life history are mandatory.
199726		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Abd al-Kuri Island, Socotra archipelago (Yemen). It has been found at sea level; its upper elevational limit is unknown. The island's area (133 km<sup>2</sup>) is taken as the gecko's extent of occurrence; its area of occupancy is estimated as 24 km<sup>2</sup>.
199726		habitat	eng	It is a ground dwelling gecko found on stony and sandy places on the island, often close to dwarf bushes.
199726		population	eng	This poorly known gecko is quite numerous, at least locally.
199726		threats	eng	At present no threats are known for the species, living in an arid and  remote island. The severe climate makes it unlikely that this island  will be heavily threatened in future, e.g. by development or the  introduction of exotic predators.
199727		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are presently needed. This species is widespread on Socotra, 72% of which falls within protected areas; however, protection is nominal and there is no practical difference in conservation status between protected and unprotected sections of the island.
199727		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra island, where it is widespread. It has been recorded from between 5 and 995 m asl. The gecko's extent of occurrence is taken as the area of the island (3,625 km²<sup></sup>) and its area of occupancy has been calculated as 228 km²<sup></sup>.
199727		habitat	eng	A nocturnal, ground dwelling gecko observed active on the soil or inactive under stones; mostly observed under scattered stones in flat, generally barren habitats with hardened soils. Females with fully developed eggs were observed in December-January.
199727		population	eng	This species occurs in most of the habitats on the island and is locally common. While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified.
199727		threats	eng	No data is available on current threats to this species, although it is probably among the species least affected by widespread overgrazing due to its preference for habitats with no vegetation cover.
199728		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are suggested at present. Introduced subpopulations of this lizard are confined to coastal areas and do not represent a threat to the closely-related Socotran native <em>P. sokotranus</em>. The demography of these introduced subpopulations should, however, be monitored.
199728		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Abd al Kuri Island, Yemen. Scattered introduced subpopulations are established in a few coastal areas on Socotra Island (Yemen). Its extent of occurrence is treated as the area of its native island, 133 km². Occurs from sea level up to 50 m asl.
199728		habitat	eng	On Abd al-Kuri the species occurs on rocks, piles of stones, hardened ground with stones or corals. On Socotra the species was observed only in coastal areas, on rocks, sandy and gravel beaches, with presence of fossil corals and scattered vegetation, dead trunks and other debris.
199728		population	eng	On Abd al Kuri the species is abundant, while on Socotra its patchy distribution in coastal areas is represented by small subpopulations, thought to be stable or increasing.
199728		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known.
199729		conservation	eng	No conservation action is needed at present. The species occurs in protected areas, although this status is nominal on Socotra and there is no practical difference in conservation status between protected and unprotected land.
199729		distribution	eng	Distribution of this Socotran (Yemen) endemic species is not well known, due to possible confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. obsti</span>. It seems mostly present on the Hajhir Massif. The extent of occurrence is treated as the area of Socotra (3,625 km²<sup></sup>); area of occupancy is not calculated as, although an estimate could be derived from locations where the genetic identity of <em>P. guichardi</em> has been confirmed, it is unlikely that this would accurately reflect the species' true area of occupancy due to limited genetic sampling. It has been recorded from 90 to 1,030 m asl.
199729		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. guichardi </span>is strictly arboreal, living on branches and tree trunks and medium size shrubs; it occurs in woods and forests on highlands, bushes and on palms and trees along the wadis (Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).
199729		population	eng	Population size and trend are unknown.
199729		threats	eng	No threats are currently affecting this species. It is not at risk from the overgrazing that is common on the island, as the bushes and palms which it uses are not attractive to goats.
199733		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are presently needed for this species, apart from ongoing monitoring.
199733		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to the higher mountains of Socotra Island  (Yemen), where it has been recorded from 800 to 1,473 m asl. Its extent  of occurrence and area of occupancy are both estimated at 28 km².
199733		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. insignoides </span>inhabits the montane forests, where several individuals were observed on tree trunks, branches, small rocks and stone walls in the glades (Razzetti et al. 2011). Although <span style="font-style: italic;">P. insignoides</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. insignis</span> occur in contiguous areas, until recently they have never been observed together. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. insignoides</span> is found in higher, more vegetated, cooler and moister habitats, while <span style="font-style: italic;">P. insignis</span> occurs in drier, more open and warmer habitats.
199733		population	eng	It is a locally frequent species.While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified.
199733		threats	eng	No threats are, at present or in the near future, affecting or expected to affect this species. The main potential longer-term threat to this highland endemic is rising temperature due to global warming. The reasons this species is  restricted to high elevations are under study, but it may be limited  both by natural climatic factors (as the climate below 8-900 m asl is  different), and by competitive exclusion at lower altitudes by the related <em>P. insignis</em><em></em>.  Climate change may therefore pose a real threat to this species if the  climate becomes unsuitable to sustain this lizard, or if warming  promotes the invasion of <em>P. insignis</em><em></em> from lower altitudes.
199735		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are presently needed.
199735		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra Island, Yemen. Its extent of occurrence is taken to be 3,625 km²<sup></sup>, the area of the island, and its area of occupancy is estimated as 204 km². It occurs from near sea level to 1,170 m asl.
199735		habitat	eng	This species is associated with rocks and cliffs, it is frequent on large rocks of extensive geological complexes, whereas small and isolated rocks seemed unsuitable for the species.&#160; It is also rather frequent along wadis; in this habitat it was observed also on large boulders and stone walls in palm groves (Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
199735		population	eng	Recent surveys (Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011) and other bibliographic data show that the species is widespread and locally common, although more common in the eastern part of the island.
199735		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
199736		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed for this species.
199736		distribution	eng	Distribution of this Socotran (Yemen) endemic species is not well known, due to possible confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guichardi.</span> It seems to be more distributed in the western and southern part of the island and absent in the Hajhir Massif. The extent of occurrence is treated as the area of Socotra (3,625 km²<sup></sup>); area of occupancy is not calculated as, although an estimate could be derived from locations where the genetic identity of <em>P. obsti</em>  has been confirmed, it is unlikely that this would accurately reflect  the species' true area of occupancy due to limited genetic sampling. Confirmed sites for this species are between 5 and 700 m asl.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>
199736		habitat	eng	This diurnal gecko is purely arboreal, where it was observed on branches and trunks of trees and medium size shrubs; it occurs on palms, trees along the wadis, on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Tamarix</span> bushes, on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Croton</span> trunks and on mangroves (<span style="font-style: italic;">Avicennia marina</span>) (Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
199736		population	eng	This species is locally abundant.
199736		threats	eng	No threats are known to this species. It is not at risk from the overgrazing that is common on the island, as  the bushes and trees which it uses are not attractive to goats.
199737		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are needed at present.
199737		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Samha and Darsa islands (Socotra Archipelago), Yemen. It was dubiously reported from Socotra by Rösler and Wranik (2004), where it has been recorded up to 250 m asl. It has an extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of these islands, of 56 km²<sup></sup>, and an area of occupancy of 28 km².
199737		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocks and on the ground in stony places.
199737		population	eng	The species was found to be numerous on the two small island of the archipelago (Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
199737		threats	eng	No current or near-future threats are believed to affect this species.
199738		conservation	eng	No conservation action is needed for this species, and as 72% of Socotra is included within protected areas, the lizard is&#160; present within reserves. However, the protection afforded is nominal, as there is no practical difference in the conservation status of protected and unprotected parts of the island.
199738		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to Socotra Island, the largest island of the Socotran Archipelago (Yemen), with an area of 3.625 km² which is treated here as the lizard's extent of occurrence. It has been recorded from sea level to almost 1,300 m asl.
199738		habitat	eng	The species has extremely catholic habitat requirements; Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) observed it from coastal sand dunes to mountain habitats, including tree trunks, barks, barren terrains and villages.
199738		population	eng	Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) state that the species is the commonest diurnal reptile of the island. It is present almost everywhere and usually with high numbers of individuals.
199738		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known given its high level of ecological adaptability.
199739		conservation	eng	At present, no conservation action is needed for this species. This species is widespread on Socotra, 72% of which falls within  protected areas; however, protection is nominal and there is no practical  difference in conservation status between protected and unprotected  sections of the island.
199739		distribution	eng	&#160;Endemic to Socotra (3,625 km²<sup></sup>), Samha (40 km²<sup></sup>) and Darsa (16 km²<sup></sup>) islands of the Socotra Archipelago (Yemen); a total extent of occurrence of 3,681 km².
199739		habitat	eng	On Socotra Island, Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2011) recorded it from coastal plains and shores up to 1,045 m; this species is particularly common in open sandy areas with scattered vegetation, gravel and rock substrates, but it can be observed also in areas with good vegetation cover. On Darsa it is frequent in flat areas with dwarf bushes, while on Samha, Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>(2011) found it on a stony hill.
199739		population	eng	Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2011) found that this lacertid lizard is one of the most common diurnal reptiles observed in Socotra. While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified.
199739		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
199740		conservation	eng	No conservation action is needed at present.
199740		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Abd al-Kuri Island, Socotra archipelago  (Yemen). It has been found at sea level; its upper elevational limit is  unknown. The island's area (133 km²<sup></sup>) is taken as the gecko's extent of occurrence; its area of occupancy is estimated as 28 km²<sup></sup>.
199740		habitat	eng	This lizard is common in flat areas on sandy or hardened grounds with more or less dense scrublands, replacing <span style="font-style: italic;">M. balfouri </span>on Abd al-Kuri.
199740		population	eng	Population trend is unknown. Is locally&#160; frequent in vegetated areas.
199740		threats	eng	At present no threats are known for this species,as it lives on an arid and remote island. The severe climate makes it unlikely that this island will be heavily threatened in future, e.g. by development or the introduction of exotic predators.
199743		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist at present. Further research is required in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population. Creation of fenced areas would help to protect this species' habitat.
199743		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra Island in Yemen. The island's area of 3,625 km² is used as the extent of occurrence, and the area of occupancy is calculated as 64 km²<sup></sup>. It has been found between 20 and 700 m asl.
199743		habitat	eng	It can be observed under stones, beneath rotten vegetation in habitats with rather deep soils (forested valleys, palm grooves along wadis, bushlands); it was reported also among droppings of goats (Schätti and Desvoignes 1999). Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) collected it from 20 meters of altitude at Wadi Qishn to 380 meters south of Rokeb, but the species has been collected up to 700 m (Rösler and Wranik, 2004, Schätti and Desvoignes, 1999).
199743		population	eng	Being a burrowing species (it is rarely detected because of its mainly fossorial habits) the population status is unknown, although it appears to be fairly common.While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified.
199743		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pachycalamus brevis</span> was found frequently inside fenced areas with preserved soil and grass vegetation (home gardens) while outside those areas the soil was completely eroded by overgrazing from introduced goats. It is possible to state that overgrazing is a direct threat to the species, degrading its habitat.
199744		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist at present. Further research is required in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population. Creation of fenced areas would help to protect the species' habitat.
199744		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Socotra Island (Yemen), with an area of 3,625 km²<sup></sup> (taken here as the extent of occurrence). It is known from only six localities.
199744		habitat	eng	This is a very poorly known fossorial thread snake. Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2011) found two specimens under palm leaves on rough soil in a palm grove. Nothing is known about its reproduction, but other members of the family are known to be oviparous.
199744		population	eng	The population size and trend are unknown, as this species is known from fewer than 10 specimens from six different localities.
199744		threats	eng	A possible threat is the reduction of vegetation cover and the loss of soil caused by overgrazing by goats.
199745		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist at present. Further research is required in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population. Creation of fenced areas would help to protect this species' habitat. Although this species is known to occur in protected areas, this status on Socotra is nominal, and there is no difference in the practical conservation status of protected and unprotected land.
199745		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra Island (Yemen), where it is known only from 15 localities (Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The island's area (3,625 km²) is treated here as the snake's extent of occurrence; its area of occupancy is estimated to be 68 km²<sup></sup>. It has been recorded between 20 and 995 m asl.
199745		habitat	eng	Very poorly known due to its fossorial habits. Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2011) recorded the species in palm groves, open sandy areas with rocks, sparse shrubs with scattered stones, stony hills with or without vegetation, and along wadis with deep substrate and scattered stones. It was found in high numbers in woodlands with deep soil during the rainy season. Nothing is known about its reproduction, but other members of the family are known to be oviparous.
199745		population	eng	Overall population size is unknown. At least locally and in favourable habitats (particularly woodland at 900-1,000 m asl., which is rare on the island) this species occurs at high densities. While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified.
199745		threats	eng	A possible threat is the reduction of vegetation cover and the loss of soil caused by overgrazing by goats.
199746		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist at present. Further research is required in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population. Creation of fenced areas would help to protect this species' habitat.
199746		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Socotra Island (Yemen) with an area of 3,625 km²<sup></sup> (treated here as the extent of occurrence), where the species is known only from 11 localities (Razzetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011) between sea level and 995 m asl. It has an estimated area of occupancy of 40 km²<sup></sup>.
199746		habitat	eng	This fossorial species is found below stones in sparse and dense <span style="font-style: italic;">Croton</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Buxus</span> shrublands with scattered trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Boswellia</span>), forested areas, palm groves, and along wadis. Nothing is known about its reproduction, but other members of the family are known to be oviparous.
199746		population	eng	While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified. The population size is unknown.
199746		threats	eng	A possible threat is the reduction of vegetation cover and the loss of soil caused by overgrazing by introduced goats, as this species avoids barren areas where the soil is subject to erosion and desiccation.
199747		conservation	eng	No conservation actions exist at present. Further research is required in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population. The species occurs in protected areas, however, in Socotra the protection offered is nominal as there is no practical difference in conservation status between protected and unprotected parts of the island.
199747		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra Island, Yemen, where it has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,391 km²<sup></sup> and an area of occupancy of 28 km²<sup></sup>. It has been recorded from 30-550 m asl.
199747		habitat	eng	Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011) collected this fossorial species in stony highlands with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Croton</span> bushes, sparse shrubs with scattered stones, dense vegetated areas with deep soil, and palm groves. Rösler and Wranik (2004) report that the species “inhabits areas with little moisture and vegetation”.
199747		population	eng	This species is known from only a few specimens. Population trend and status is unknown.
199747		threats	eng	A possible threat is the reduction of vegetation cover and the loss of soil caused by overgrazing; although at least in western Socotra this snake was found in rocky barren habitats.
199748		conservation	eng	No conservation action is needed for this species apart from research into the possible impact of invasive species as a threat.
199748		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Socotra Island in Yemen, where it has been found at 29 localities between 10 and 870 m asl. The island's area of 3,625 km²<sup></sup> is treated here as being the extent of occurrence; the area of occupancy has been calculated as 112 km²<sup></sup>.
199748		habitat	eng	This nocturnal snake was observed in sparse <em>Croton</em> and <em>Jatropha</em> bushlands, stone walls in date palm groves, stony slopes (Razzetti <em>et al.</em> 2011). Inactive individuals were recorded during day, resting under stones. Nothing is known about its reproductive biology.
199748		population	eng	Population size is unknown, although the species is rather common. While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20 years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be verified.
199748		threats	eng	No threats to this species are known. It is suggested that studies are undertaken to establish how this species is affected by introduced species such as civets and rats; however, the continued abundance of this snake on the island suggests these animals are not having a serious impact on the population. The snake's nocturnal habits largely protect it from human activity; it has not been recorded as road kill, and since human encounters with snakes are rare at night, any persecution is at a very low level.
199750		conservation	eng	Research is needed into population trends of this species.
199750		distribution	eng	Endemic to Socotra archipelago (Yemen): Socotra, Samha and Darsa Islands. The combined land area of these islands is 3,680 km²<sup></sup>, taken here as the snake's extent of occurrence, and it has an estimated area of occupancy of 152 km²<sup></sup>. In Socotra this snake is known from several localities scattered on the whole island, from sea level to about 900 m at Dihaal Pass in upper Wadi Qishn (Schätti and Desvoignes 1999).
199750		habitat	eng	The species was observed in sparse shrublands (<em>Limonium</em>, <em>Suaeda</em><em>, <em>Croton</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>) </em>on sandy and stony ground, inside the sinkhole near Gubbah, from near sea level up to 696 m a.s.l on the Ma’alah Plateau.
199750		population	eng	While the population appears to have been stable over the past 10-20  years, this is a subjective estimate based on comparisons with three  years of recent survey work, and so the population trend cannot be  verified. This snake seems to be uncommon, but the population size is unknown.
199750		threats	eng	As for other diurnal snakes, this harmless species is killed by local people due to prejudice, although this is probably not a threat to its long-term survival. The development of paved road network causes some habitat degradation and an increase of road-kills. Roads are, however, limited in their extent across the island and many areas where this species occurs are remote. Although associated with shrubland, this snake has been recorded in most habitat types on the island at suitable elevations, and habitat loss is not considered a major threat.
199756		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, although Shek Kwu Chau has been proposed as a site of special scientific interest (Lazell 2002). Research is needed to determine if this is a valid species. Efforts are needed to relocate this species, in order to obtain information on its distribution, population status, natural history and threats.
199756		distribution	eng	This snake is presumed endemic to the small island of Shek Kwu Chau in the South China Sea (Lazell 2002), a Chinese territory that forms part of the Islands District of Hong Kong.
199756		habitat	eng	No ecological information is available for this species, although it is presumed to resemble <em>D. pictus</em> in making use of a wide range of native and artificial habitats, including secondary forest and rice fields (Lazell 2002). There is a report of an individual from the island possibly attributable to this species that was found on a road (Lazell 2002), however its identity cannot be verified.
199756		population	eng	There are no data on population size and trends for this species. It is only known from one specimen. In recent years, there have been surveys in the island and no specimens have been found.
199756		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species. To the extent that this species shares the broad adaptability of <em>D. pictus<em>, </em></em>Lazell (2002) suggests that "it should not be habitat or resource limited" on Shek Kwu Chau.
199758		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is protected by law on Mayotte. All members of the genus <em>Furcifer</em> are listed in appendix II of the CITES regulation.
199758		distribution	eng	This species is naturally endemic to the island of Mayotte (Meirte <em>et al.</em> 2004, Carretero <em>et al.</em> 2005, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2005). An introduced population exists on the Comoran island of Anjouan and occupies a small area in the town of Hombo. As extent of occurrence, we assume the entire terrestrial area of Mayotte (376.5 km<sup>²</sup>). As area of occupancy, we assume the area of suitable habitat classes, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing analysis (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.), a total area of 371.5 km²<sup></sup>. This excludes mangrove forests, where this species was never observed. It has been recorded between 27 and 459 m asl.
199758		habitat	eng	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats ranging from pristine humid forests to plantations and gardens (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.).
199758		population	eng	This species is commonly observed in natural and anthropogenic habitats (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Population trends are unknown.
199758		threats	eng	This species is common even in town gardens and in intensively exploited agricultural areas. It seems hardly affected by the ongoing degradation of natural habitats on Mayotte. Since it was also observed in rather intensive plantations and in flower gardens, even the intensification of agricultural and horticultural practices is expected to have little effect (Hawlitschek <em>et al.</em>, in prep.).
199759		conservation	eng	This gecko is only known with certainty from Ankarafantsika National Park (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011); <em>Blaesodactylus</em> records from the national parks Sahamalaza and Namoroka (Raselimanana 2008) may also represent this species. Research is needed to clarify the specific identity of these and other <em>Blaesodactylus</em> records that may be referable to <em>B. ambonihazo</em>, to establish the limits of its distribution, its population status, and its exposure to threatening processes.
199759		distribution	eng	This gecko is so far known only from Ankarafantsika National Park in northwest Madagascar. The type series was collected around Lac Ravelobe, close to the Ampijiroa forest station (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011), and other records from Ampijiroa forest within the reserve (Mori <em>et al.</em> 2006) are presumed to represent this species (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011). Although the area around Ankarafantsika is largely deforested, the lizard is expected to occur in other remnant dry forests within this region (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011). Several recent records of <em>Blaesodactylus</em> geckos between Ankarana and Tsingy de Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008) may be referable to this species, but this requires further investigation (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011). The lizard has been collected 173 m asl., but no other elevational information is available.
199759		habitat	eng	This gecko has been collected on large tree trunks in dry deciduous forest (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011). Animals probably attributable to this species have been recorded on buildings in Ampijiroa forest station (Mori <em>et al.</em> 2006). Although the lizard is expected to be nocturnal, Mori <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported finding seven individuals on trees early in the morning, when they were inactive and partially concealed within crevices and other shelters offering shade. The extent to which this gecko can withstand forest degradation is unclear, but it is unlikely to survive in the absence of large trees and so can probably only tolerate low levels of disturbance (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011).
199759		population	eng	No population information is available for this species, due to uncertainty about the specific identity of many <em>Blaesodactylus</em> records. As the species will probably only persist in areas with at least some large trees, and remaining dry forest within its apparent range is highly fragmented and under continuing pressure (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 2011), any subpopulations outside well-managed protected areas are likely to be declining and the population severely fragmented. This cannot be established with certainty until the gecko’s presence outside Ankarafantsika is confirmed.
199759		threats	eng	Madagascar’s western dry forests are under intense pressure from land clearance for slash-and-burn agriculture and the removal of large trees for charcoal production, and remaining forest is highly fragmented; although these do not represent major threats within Ankarafantsika, any subpopulations of this species outside the reserve are likely to be at risk. The area around Ampijiroa is subject to regular and widespread burning, but the impacts of this activity on the gecko are unknown.
199760		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. All native gecko species are protected by law on the Comoros. All native reptile species are protected by law on Mayotte. Populations in Mayotte were found exclusively in areas already protected.<br/><br/>Conservation actions which may benefit <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sanctijohannis</span> are the strict conservation of the remaining forest areas, possibly by the creation of nature reserves. This appears particularly important on the islands of the Union of the Comoros, where this species is strictly dependent on such areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of reptiles and other taxa in Anjouan is currently being implemented by the Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation’s project ‘Engagement Communautaire pour le Developpement Durable’ (<a href="http://www.bscf.org.uk/comoros">www.bscf.org.uk/comoros</a>). This project may yield additional information on the population structure and biology of this species.
199760		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Comoros archipelago. It was recorded on all four major islands, but is restricted to small areas of high elevation on all islands but Mayotte (Meirte 2004, Carretero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., in prep.). As extent of occurrence, we assume the entire terrestrial area of the Comoros archipelago (2,026.6 km²). As area of occupancy, we assume the area of suitable habitat classes, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing analysis (Hawlitschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span>, in prep.), a total of 60.8 km². This consists of all areas of closed forest in which <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sanctijohannis</span> was observed, plus the dry forest of the Saziley peninsula on Mayotte. Occurs from sea level up to 1,042 m.
199760		habitat	eng	"Core populations" of this species have only been detected in pristine humid forest on all islands but Mayotte, where populations are also known in mesic and dry forests. Semi-arboreal, but mostly found climbing on trees. All populations, excluding the sea level population of the Saziley dry forest, appear restricted to areas which have not been colonized by the otherwise ubiquitous introduced gecko <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus platycephalus</span>. In Saziley, all specimens were found on the ground. This supports the view that<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. sanctijohannis</span> partly relies on areas where competition with introduced species of similar ecology is absent or low (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
199760		population	eng	Where present, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sanctijohannis</span> is relatively easy to observe despite its rather strict nocturnal habits. However, few of these "core populations" have been detected so far. On Grande Comore (one subpopulation), Anjouan (two subpopulations) and Mohéli (one subpopulation), all are restricted to pristine humid forest on mountain summits or slopes of about 650 to 1,050 meters asl. On Mayotte, each one of the three known subpopulations was also detected in mesic and dry forests, down to sea level.<br/><br/>Presumably errant or migrating animals have also been detected in degraded forests or plantations, mostly adjacent to "core population areas", which may indicate that seemingly isolated subpopulations, as on Anjouan and Mayotte, are indeed connected. A genetic study by Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(in prep) has revealed significant genetic differences between populations on different islands, but not between presumed "core populations" of single islands. Therefore, these "core populations" are probably not clearly isolated from each other, and consequently island populations cannot be considered severely fragmented.
199760		threats	eng	This species depends heavily on natural, undisturbed forests. In its extent of occurrence, this habitat is severely fragmented and continuously declining in extent and quality. Degradation of its habitats often also makes way for colonization by the introduced gecko <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus platycephalus</span>, which has, however, not yet invaded areas at higher elevation. Although deforestation is most pronounced at lower elevations, it is also ongoing at the altitudes where this species occurs, with the prime drivers being logging for firewood near villages, plantation agriculture (which extends into remote areas), and the replacement of native vegetation with exotic species on cleared land, preventing the recovery of natural forest. Climate warming may also allow <span style="font-style: italic;">H. platycephalus</span> to invade higher-elevation habitats and further reduce the area available to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sanctijohannis</span> by upslope displacement (Raxworthy<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
199761		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. All native reptile species are protected by law on Mayotte. All members of the genus<span style="font-style: italic;"> Phelsuma</span> are listed in appendix II of the CITES regulations. Most observations of this species have been made in forest reserves.<br/><br/>Conservation actions which may benefit <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nigristriata </span>are the maintenance and extension of forest reserves on Mayotte.
199761		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mayotte, a French territory in the Comoros archipelago. It has almost exclusively been observed in pristine humid forests 100 m asl or above. Only a few juvenile specimens were observed in areas of degraded forest or plantations adjacent to natural forests (Meirte 1999, Meirte 2004, Hawlitschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in prep.). For extent of occurrence, we assume the area of Mayotte (376.5 km²<sup></sup>). As area of occupancy, we assume the area of closed forest above 100 m asl, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing analysis (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.), a total area of 24.8 km²<sup></sup>.
199761		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. nigistriata </span>is found in pristine humid forests. Specimens are often found in pairs inhabiting <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plants.
199761		population	eng	The species can be readily observed in natural forests on Mayotte (Meirte 1999, 2004; Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.)
199761		threats	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. nigristriata</span> is a species of pristine humid forests. In its extent of occurrence, this habitat is severely fragmented and restricted to isolated areas on mountain summits. Although most remaining forest areas on Mayotte are protected, further decreases in extent and quality are expected due to the effects that ongoing population growth and intensive land use on this island have on sensitive habitats (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
199762		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. All native reptile species are protected by law on Mayotte. All members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma</span> are listed in appendix II of the CITES regulation.<br/><br/>Conservation actions which may benefit to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pasteuri</span> are the maintenance and extension of forest reserves on Mayotte and the development and implementation of sustainable agricultural practices.
199762		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mayotte and can be found in suitable habitats throughout the island (Meirte 1999, Meirte 2004, Carretero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). As extent of occurrence, we assume the area of Mayotte (376.5 km²). As area of occupancy, we assume the area of suitable habitats, including natural and degraded forests, mangroves and plantations, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing analysis (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.), a total area of 127 km². Occurs from 34 up to 603 m asl.
199762		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pasteuri</span> inhabits pristine forests, but also degraded forests and plantations. Observations in mangrove forests also exist. However, the species was most commonly found in pristine forests. Mostly observed on tree trunks, unlike the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus</span>-inhabiting <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nigristriata</span>. In plantations, it is exposed to competition by the abundant introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">P. laticauda</span> (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
199762		population	eng	This species can rather commonly be observed in undisturbed habitats. It is rarer in degraded areas, where competing introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">P. laticauda</span> are present (Meirte 1999, 2004; Carretero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). The population trend is unknown.
199762		threats	eng	Although not restricted to pristine forests, this habitat seems to be of high importance for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pasteuri</span>. In its extent of occurrence, this habitat is severely fragmented and restricted to isolated areas on mountain summits. Although most remaining forest areas on Mayotte are protected, further decreases in extent and quality are expected due to the effects ongoing population growth and intensive land use on this island have on sensitive habitats. This will also affect other already degraded or exploited habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pasteuri</span>. In these habitats, the species is also exposed to competition from the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">P. laticauda</span> (Hawlitschek et al. in prep.).
199763		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. All native reptile species are protected by law on Mayotte. All members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma</span> are listed in appendix II of the CITES regulations.<br/><br/>Conservation actions which may benefit to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. robertmertensi</span> are the intensive protection of the Choungui mesic forest, the maintenance and extension of mangrove forest reserves and the development and implementation of sustainable agricultural practices, particularly in coastal regions.
199763		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mayotte, a French territory in the Comoros archipelago. It is most commonly found close to sea level. Only a subpopulation at Choungui exists at higher elevations - up to 564 m (Meirte 1999, Meirte 2004, Carretero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). For extent of occurrence, we use the area of Mayotte (376.5 km²). For area of occupancy, we assume this to be the area of suitable habitats, including natural and degraded forests, coastal dry vegetation, mangroves and plantations, as based on field surveys and a remote sensing analysis (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.), a total area of 98.9 km².
199763		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. robertmertensi</span> seems to prefer drier habitats than the other endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma </span>species of Mayotte. It has never been observed in pristine humid forest, which represents the largest proportion of non-degraded habitats on Mayotte. This means that throughout most of its area of occupancy, it is exposed to competition by the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">P. laticauda,</span> which is abundant in almost all kinds of degraded habitats (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). <em>P. laticauda</em> appears to be most abundant in plantations and around human settlements, while <em>P. robertmertensi</em> is mainly associated with pristine coastal vegetation and degraded forest.
199763		population	eng	This species is generally not easy to observe. It is common at the mesic forest of Choungui, where competition by introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Phelsuma laticauda</span> is absent. In other areas, the population density appears to be lower (Meirte 1999, 2004, Carretero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Hawlitschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in prep.). The overall population trend is unknown.
199763		threats	eng	Throughout most of its area of occupancy, this species is threatened by fragmentation and degradations of its habitats. This is promoted by the intensive agricultural use of coastal areas. As this species survives in degraded habitats, the direct impacts of this activity are unclear, however intensification of agriculture, and particularly plantation agriculture, further promotes the introduced<span style="font-style: italic;"> Phelsuma laticauda</span>, a strong competitor of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. robertmertensi</span> (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
199765		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Since all observations of this species were based on accident, effective population monitoring is nearly impossible and even focused searches have poor chances of yielding additional records unless implemented with great effort.
199765		distribution	eng	This species has so far been recorded on Grande Comore and, with a single specimen, on Anjouan (Carretero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.), both in the Comoros Islands. Known localities are in plantations and degraded forests. We treat the entire terrestrial area of Grande Comore and Anjouan as the extent of occurrence, a total area of 1,433.5 km²<sup></sup>. Due to the difficulty in observing this rare and burrowing species, we did not attempt to calculate the area of occupancy. No elevational information is available.
199765		habitat	eng	This strictly burrowing species has been recorded in plantations and degraded forests (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).
199765		population	eng	Only a few specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. comorensis</span> are known. Due to the difficulty in observing this species, no statements on its population status can be made. The fact that the introduced worm snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Ramphotyphlops braminus</span> is found much more commonly indicates that <span style="font-style: italic;">T. comorensis</span> is a rare species, either for natural reasons or due to competition with the introduced species (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.).
199765		threats	eng	No reliable statements on possible threats of this species can be made. The ongoing degradation of natural habitats on the Comoros poses a threat to many native reptile species and may also affect <span style="font-style: italic;">T. comorensis</span>. The fact that the introduced worm snake<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ramphotyphlops braminus</span> is found much more commonly than <span style="font-style: italic;">T. comorensis</span> may indicate competition between these species (Hawlitschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.).
199766		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. This species is known only from Maolan National Nature Reserve. General research is required into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species.
199766		distribution	eng	This recently-described species is so far known only from Maolan National Nature Reserve, Libo County, Ghizhou, China (Yang <em>et al.</em> 2011), close to the border with Guangxi. Surveys of this karst region have only recently begun (Yang <em>et al.</em> 2011), and so it may be more widespread. Individuals have been found between 550 and 600 m asl.
199766		habitat	eng	This small pit viper is apparently adapted to life in karst habitats, possessing grey colouration which is likely to render it cryptic among limestone and an exclusively terrestrial lifestyle (Yang <em>et al.</em> 2011). It may use caves for shelter (Yang <em>et al.</em> 2011). All known individuals were collected beneath scrub in subtropical evergreen forest at night (Yang <em>et al.</em> 2011).
199766		population	eng	It appears to be quite common in its limited known range.
199766		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown. All known individuals were found in a protected area, and it is not clear how dependent this terrestrial snake is on sensitive habitats, such as forest.
199768		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. Surveys are needed to establish the limits of this snake's distribution within Myanmar, and to investigate its ecology and exposure to threats.
199768		distribution	eng	This species appears to be confined to the valleys and adjacent mountains of southern and west Myanmar. It exhibits an apparently disjunct distribution with <em>D. biloreatus </em>(within which, as <em>D. gorei</em>, it was formerly included), suggesting that the central dry zone of Myanmar may represent a natural barrier (Vogel and van Rooijen 2011).
199768		habitat	eng	Vogel and van Rooijen (2011) provide no natural history information on this newly-distinguished species, which is found in forested areas and valleys. It is not found in mangroves. <em>Dendrelaphis biloreatus</em> is known from forest and scrub, where it is arboreal, and is found in disturbed and secondary habitats, even close to villages; it is uncertain whether this is also true of <em>D. walli</em>.
199768		population	eng	No population data is available, although it is believed to be a rare species (Vogel and van Rooijen 2011).
199768		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to this species.
199769		conservation	eng	This gecko is so far known only from Anja Reserve. Forest within the reserve exists only as fragments and deforestation is widespread outside the park boundary (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011), however habitat protection presently appears to be effective within Anja itself. Research is needed to establish the full distribution of this lizard and the identity of central Madagascan records that may represent this species (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011), and to clarify its natural history and sensitivity to potential threats from human activity. All species of <em>Phelsuma</em> are listed on CITES Appendix II.
199769		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to central Madagascar (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011). This recently-described gecko is so far known with certainty only from Anja Reserve, 13 km south of Ambalavao, Fianarantsoa Province, in south-central Madagascar (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011), at 949 m asl. It is not clear whether it is more widespread within this region. H-P. Berghoff (pers. comm. to A. Crottini <em>et al.</em>)  reported an observation of <em>P. mutabilis</em> from a site  near Betroka, between the Horombe Plateau and the Andringitra massif,  around 160 km southwest of Anja, above 1,000 m in elevation, which might instead represent <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gouldi</span>. Photographs from lower elevations in Isalo, however, suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mutabili</span>s-like individuals from that nearby reserve do not represent <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gouldi</span>, and the species may therefore be confined to a relatively narrow geographic range at higher altitudes on the western slopes of the Central Plateau (F. Glaw pers. comm. March 2012). Research is required to verify whether the Betroka and other records of <em>P. mutabilis</em> from central Madagascar represent <em>P. mutabilis</em> or <em>P. gouldi</em>.
199769		habitat	eng	The known specimen was found about 2.5 m above ground level, on a tree trunk within a forest fragment (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011). It was recorded from an open, sun-exposed area within the forest. No other <em>Phelsuma</em> species have been confirmed from Anja. Unpublished records of <em>P. mutabilis</em> from granite rocks in the reserve (Böhle, pers. comm. to A. Crottini) are likely to refer to this species (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011). As records from the partially granitic Isalo massif appear not to represent this species, however, the occurrence of this lizard in granite formations still requires confirmation (A. Crottini pers. comm. March 2012).
199769		population	eng	This species is known only from the holotype and photographs, including one additional individual photographed at the same locality in a survey following its description and a recent report in a reptile hobbyists' journal (A. Crottini pers. comm. March 2012), and so no population information is available. A survey of the type locality in 2010 failed to record this species, and as only two individuals have been recorded since its original description, it is presumed to be rare (A. Crottini pers. comm. March 2012).
199769		threats	eng	Forest within Anja is fragmented, and forest clearance for agriculture, logging and cattle grazing is widespread throughout the surrounding area (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011). If it occurs beyond Anja it may also be exposed to mining activities, however, no evidence of mineral or precious stone extraction was found within the reserve itself (Crottini <em>et al.</em> 2011). As both the distributional extent and ecological requirements of this gecko are unclear, its exposure and sensitivity to these processes are not known.
199770		conservation	eng	This species is currently known only from the Makira new protected area, and the Réserves Spéciale de Ambohijanahary and Marotandro (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). A management plan has not been proposed for Ambohijanahary, and increased protection is needed for Marotandro and the lowlands of eastern Makira, where pressure on the forest is intense (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). While the conservation status of areas where this species is known, particularly in Makira (where no evidence of habitat disturbance or human settlement was found at the type locality in 2009, despite some cattle grazing), appears to be stable, efforts are needed to maintain this situation and to limit deforestation at other sites within the reserves. Research is needed to clarify the distribution and population status of this recently-described species and to establish its exposure to and sensitivity to threats from habitat loss. The specific identity of records from Ambohijanahary requires confirmation using molecular data.
199770		distribution	eng	This lizard is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been found at widely-separated sites in the island's northeast at Makira, Marotandrano and Ambohijanahary. In Makira it has been found at the western edge of Madagascar's Central Plateau. In Marotandrano, it is known from transitional rainforest in Riamalandy (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). All known sites are at mid-elevations, with the skink having been recorded between 800 and 1,150 m asl.
199770		habitat	eng	All animals recorded in Makira and Riamalandy were found in valleys in closed-canopy rainforest, where they were encountered sheltering beneath or within partially-rotten logs that maintained a humid micro-climate (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Specimens from Makira were found close to streams in the dry season, in areas that are likely to experience inundation in the wet season. Animals have been found in association with termites, beetle larvae and other insects, and may prey on these arthropods (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The two individuals attributed to this species from Ambohijanahary were collected in pitfall traps close to a stream, also in a valley characterized by mid-elevation rainforest (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Despite typically being found close to streams, the new species has never been found in water in contrast to other large <span style="font-style: italic;">Amphiglossus</span> species (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Animals were not recorded from other rainforest habitats within Makira, or in the drier forests at the plateau's western edge, nor has the species been recorded in surveys in northern Madagascar that have recorded other burrowing skinks (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). This suggests that the species has high ecological specificity (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
199770		population	eng	This species was described based on 11 specimens collected between 2004 and 2009 and is consequently described as "not rare", although its apparent habitat specificity suggests that subpopulations are likely to be highly localized (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Forests in Marotandro and Ambohijanahary are "extensively fragmented" (Miralles<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011), and the combination of fragmentation and high habitat specificity suggests the population is likely to be severely fragmented. Pressures at the specific localities where the species has been recorded are presently low, however, there is extensive habitat loss around and between the known sites and there is insufficient information to establish whether the population as a whole is likely to be stable or declining.
199770		threats	eng	Remaining forests at Ambohijanahary and Marotandrano are heavily fragmented, particularly in Ambohijanahary, and habitat loss through slash-and-burn agriculture, bush fires and logging is ongoing (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). All known sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">Amphiglossus meva </span>has been found are within protected areas. Western Makira, where this species has been found, is currently well-protected, and there is some conservation management of Marotandrano (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). While there is no official enforcement of the reserve status in Ambohijanahary, surviving forests in this reserve are used by cattle thieves to hide stolen stock, which provides some degree of protection (Miralles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
199771		conservation	eng	This species occurs in Orangea, which is being developed as a new  protected area. More information is needed on this species' ecological  requirements, population status and sensitivity to threatening  processes.
199771		distribution	eng	This skink is known only from a small area of northern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Baie des Sakalava and Baie des Dunes in the Forêt d'Orangea region, and at an unnamed research site in the Ampombofofo region, all within Antsiranana Province (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). The lizard's extent of occurrence based on these records is approximately 60 km²<sup></sup>. The three known sites are at 25 (Forêt d'Orangea) and 28 m (Ampombofofo) asl. It is probably somewhat more widespread to the south along the coast (F. Glaw pers. comm. March 2012).
199771		habitat	eng	This species has never been observed in natural situations, as all  records are from animals captured in pitfall traps set in sandy soil,  where animals were captured overnight. From this it has been inferred  that the species is fossorial or semi-fossorial during the day, but  active on the surface nocturnally and so prone to falling into traps  (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). The assumption of diurnal fossoriality  is supported by the observation that these skinks have an "excellent  ability to quickly entrench themselves into the sand" (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). All records are from disturbed secondary forest or scrub (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011). It occurs sympatrically with several other fossorial reptiles, including <em>Madascincus polleni</em>.
199771		population	eng	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a small number of captures in pitfall traps. The known localities are very small and at opposite sides of a bay from one another, and the population is therefore considered to be severely fragmented.
199771		threats	eng	Forest and shrubland in both Forêt d'Orangea and Ampombofofo is under pressure due to  charcoal production and agricultural conversion, as well as (in Forêt d'Orangea) the  harvesting of tubers. Although members of the <em>M. polleni</em> complex are tolerant of habitat modification, and this lizard is known from degraded areas, this species may not be tolerant of the complete loss of vegetation from these sites.
199772		conservation	eng	This skink is known from several protected areas, including Montagne d'Ambre (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), Montagne des Français, and Marojejy (Miralles <em>et al.</em> 2011) on the mainland, and Lokobe Special Reserve on Nosy Be (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007). More information is needed to clarify its distribution and exposure to threats, and to verify the taxonomic status of the two recognized morphs.
199772		distribution	eng	This skink has been reported from northern Madagascar, where it is found on the island of Nosy Be and adjacent areas of the mainland from Antambao (close to Maevatanana) to Montagne des Français. There are isolated records from northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy and Mananara. A specimen from Marojejy was included in the molecular study by Miralles <em>et al.</em> (2011), confirming its assignment to this taxon; records from this site had previously been attributed to <em>M. intermedius</em> (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species has an apparent extent of occurrence, based on the combined area of known localities, of 11,168 km²<sup></sup>. It occurs between 130-210 m asl in northwest Madagascar (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2001, D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007), and has been reported as high as 650 m in Montagne d'Ambre (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994).
199772		habitat	eng	This species is associated with lowland humid forest transitioning into drier, deciduous forest in northwest Madagascar (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2001, Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994, D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007); it has not been recorded outside forested habitats (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2001, D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marojejy in the east is characterized by humid forest. This fossorial skink is mainly or exclusively active during the wet season (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007).
199772		population	eng	<em>M. polleni</em> has been described as abundant; due to taxonomic ambiguity about the status of <em>M. stumpfii</em> no recent population data is available for this form, although it is reported to be infrequent at Montagne des Français (D'Cruze <em>et al</em> 2007). Ten specimens assigned to <em>Amphiglossus stumpffi</em> were recorded in a survey of Berara forest (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2001), where it was the most common skink. As a forest species, it is probably experiencing declines in areas where forest is being cleared.
199772		threats	eng	As a forest specialist, this skink is at risk from the numerous pressures on humid and deciduous forest in western Madagascar. Montagne des Français is under particular pressure from land clearance for rice and maize, logging for charcoal production and timber, and selective logging or forest clearance for cattle grazing (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007), and lowland forests throughout the region are at risk from the same pressures. As the distribution of this skink within the region is unclear due to past taxonomic uncertainty, there is a need to establish whether these processes represent widespread or localized threats to this animal.
199774		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures exist for this species. It has been recorded from a Forest Park
199774		distribution	eng	This Chinese pit viper has only been recorded from Hejiang County, southern Sichuan, at 1,000 m asl. It is also expected to occur in western Chonquing and northwestern Ghizhou (Guo and Wang 2011).
199774		habitat	eng	Both known individuals were collected by a stream in forest at 1,000 m asl. Nothing else is known of this snake's natural history (Guo and Wang 2011).
199774		population	eng	This species is known from only two specimens, both collected by the same farmer, taken in 2003 and 2007. (Guo and Wang 2011)
199774		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
199776		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are in place. There is a need for further surveys in Yunnan to locate additional specimens of this species.
199776		distribution	eng	This snake is known from its type locality in 'Yunnan', China (Zhao and Adler 1993). No more precise locality data is available, and it is not mapped here.
199776		habitat	eng	No ecological data is available for this species.
199776		population	eng	Known from the type specimen only.
199776		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
199777		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures are known, although the species has been recorded from protected areas.
199777		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Hainan Island in China. It is widespread throughout the island from 82 to 1,000 m asl (Lau pers. comm. 2011).
199777		habitat	eng	Zhao (1997) reports that this species inhabits plains, hills and mountains throughout Hainan, where it is associated with grasslands, dry areas between rice fields in agricultural land, and forest edges. A survey of Diaoluoshan National Forest Park in the southwest of the island recorded this snake from both forest and forest edge habitats (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Gardens 2002). It is active diurnally, mainly in the mornings, and feeds on fish and frogs (Zhao 1997).
199777		population	eng	Numerous specimens have been reported (Zhao 1997). This species is quite common (Lau pers. comm. 2011).
199777		threats	eng	There appear to be no significant threats to this species; as it occurs in disturbed areas, it may not be at risk from habitat loss.
199780		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation measures exist to protect this species.&#160; The known localities of this species are not in protected areas. Surveys are needed to better determine its distribution as well as its population status. If the species is rediscovered, protected areas should be established to ensure its viability and long-term persistence.
199780		distribution	eng	This species is apparently endemic to the main island of Hong Kong, where the known specimens were found among leaf litter in a drainage ditch (Wallach and Pauwels 2004). Its apparent absence from smaller islands in the archipelago may be attributable to the loss of most forest from these islands (Wallach and Pauwels 2004). It occurs at elevations between 100 to 200 m. Although this species was not targeted, territory-wide surveys in the island did not find this species.
199780		habitat	eng	One of the known specimens was recovered from leaf litter in a drainage ditch, presumably having been washed down from forested slopes (Wallach and Pauwels 2004). Its apparent absence from other islands within Hong Kong, or from the New Territories of the Chinese mainland, suggests that it may be a forest specialist, since only this island retains substantial areas of native forest (Wallach and Pauwels 2004). As most of Hong Kong's higher elevations are wooded, and forests are protected in order to provide a watershed for the island's reservoirs (Wallach and Pauwels 2002), it is not clear how restricted the species is on this island by its habitat preferences.
199780		population	eng	This species is known only from two specimens, the first collected in 1988 and the second in 1992 (Wallach and Pauwels 2004). Therefore, no information is available on population. The habitat of one of the known sites has been impacted by development, possibly causing the population to decline.
199780		threats	eng	One of the sites where the species was collected from was built upon, causing the species to disappear from the area. In addition, the lowland forests surrounding the city are under pressure from development that can potentially have an impact on this species.
199818		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species taxonomic status, current distribution, and to determine the impact of threats.
199818		distribution	eng	The species is only known from the area of the Tatai waterfalls on the Tatai River, Koh Kong Province, southwestern Cambodia.
199818		habitat	eng	This species grows as a rheophyte in a wet, vegetated rocky river bank at elevation less than 20 m above sea level, downstream of the falls and outside the splash zone, but below the peak flood level.
199818		population	eng	The species is not uncommon but occurs over a very limited area.
199818		threats	eng	No information on direct threats, but the species is likely to be threatened by dam construction and other actions which modify the flow character of the river, as well as logging or clear-felling the banks or floodplain of the river. The Tatai waterfalls are a popular tourist site.
199823		conservation	eng	None required.
199823		distribution	eng	The species occurs throughout much of Indochina and the Malay Peninsula into Indonesia.
199823		habitat	eng	The species grows in the margins of shallow ponds, pools and low-lying areas. 0-400 m alt.
199823		population	eng	No information available.
199823		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199824		conservation	eng	Research is needed to confirm the species current distribution, population trends, and threats. The taxonomic status of the species requires confirmation.
199824		distribution	eng	The species is apparently restricted to Bangladesh, Myanmar and India (West Bengal) (Cook 1996). The species is also reported from Thailand (Pitsanulok, Ban Jang, 120 m., lower northern Thailand) by Craib (1991), who also lists the species from Sikkim (India) and 'Malaya'.            Ridley (1906) reported the species to be a "common weed[...]", in (probably Peninsular) Malaysia. The species is also reported (as synonym            <span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophila conferta</span> Benth.) from 'Ceylon' Sri Lanka (Jayaweera 1982).
199824		habitat	eng	There is little information on the habitats or ecology of this species. It is considered likely to be found in marshes by Cook (1996), and in 'wet places' by Jayaweera (1982).
199824		population	eng	No information available.
199824		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199825		conservation	eng	There is no information on conservation undertaken for the species. There is an urgent need for, as a minimum, clarification of the distribution and population trends of the species, through surveys. Previously assessed by the IUCN Red List (1997) as 'Indeterminate', and has been assessed as 'R' conservation status in Thailand.
199825		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to Lao PDR and northeastern (Mukdahan Province, on the border with Lao PDR) and central (Nakhon Ratchasima Province) Thailand (Yamazaki 1990, ONEP undated). Described from Khao Yai National Park, and recorded from the Dong Rak (Dângrêk) mountains on the border between Thailand and Cambodia, it is probably widespread but under-recorded.
199825		habitat	eng	The species occurs in marshy and boggy places in deciduous dipterocarp forest and dry evergreen forest, 1,200 m    although this probably refers to flushes and seepages over bedrock, it has been recorded at 1,200 m in Khao Yai and at 600 m in the Dongrak Range (J.F. Maxwell pers. comm. 2011).
199825		population	eng	No information available.
199825		threats	eng	The site from which it has been recorded in Khao Yai National Park is now a radar installation (J.F. Maxwell, pers. comm. 2011).
199826		conservation	eng	Proposed intensive field survey should be undertaken to find the species, if found efforts should be made to bulk up seeds using <span style="font-style: italic;">in-situ</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> methods in Bangladesh (Ahmed et al. 2009).
199826		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Pakistan east through India to southern China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi, southern Yunnan) and south through Indochina to Malaysia and Indonesia (Cook 1996, Hong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998, Kress <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Newman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It was considered to be extinct in Bangladesh (Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however Rahman (2006) reported the species from Sylhet.
199826		habitat	eng	The species grows on marshy or seasonally inundated ground on clay soils, in the open or in thickets. 400-1,200 m alt.            Fields, scrub on sunny mountain slopes, forest edges, along streams (eFloras 2011).
199826		population	eng	No information available.
199826		threats	eng	Extinction in Bangladesh is attributed to direct habitat destruction (Ahmed<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009), thought the causes are not known.
199827		conservation	eng	None required at present.
199827		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Thailand, south through Indonesia <span lang="EN-GB">(<span lang="EN-GB">Bali</span><span lang="EN-GB">, <span lang="EN-GB">Buru</span><span lang="EN-GB">, Java, <span lang="EN-GB">Sumatra</span><span lang="EN-GB">, and Sulawesi) and the Philippines to Australia, and present in New Caledonia (de Wilde 1962). It is known in China only from ponds on Chung Chi Campus, Hong Kong, and may be as a result of an introduction (Quingfeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
199827		habitat	eng	The species occurs mainly in fresh but occasionally brackish, still or slow-flowing waters to depths of 60 cm and probably more.
199827		population	eng	No information available.
199827		threats	eng	Likely to be impacted locally by habitat loss and degradation caused by conversion and pollution.
199828		conservation	eng	None required at present.
199828		distribution	eng	The species occurs from India, Sri Lanka and the Maldives east to southern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan Hong Kong (GRIN 2011), although this is not recognised by the Flora of China; eFloras 2011) and south through Indochina and the Philippines to Indonesia. The species has been introduced elsewhere, including eastern Africa.
199828		habitat	eng	The species grows in fresh and brackish waters, usually still or slow-flowing, in ponds, lakes and marshes.
199828		population	eng	No information available.
199828		threats	eng	No information is available on threats to the species or its habitats.
199832		conservation	eng	It probably occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro, but at the moment it was not collected in those protected areas in Bolivia. It was categorized as Data Deficient in a recent evaluation in the Libro Rojo de la Fauna Silvestre de Vertebrados de Bolivia (Tarifa and Aguirre 2009).
199832		distribution	eng	This species is only known from two localities in Bolivia, in Beni and Santa Cruz Departments (Flores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The record from Perú was redefined as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. opossum</span> (Pacheco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
199832		habitat	eng	The species in lowland humid forests (Flores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Present in Amazonian forest of Beni and Santa Cruz and humid Savannas. Altitude range between 150-250 m (Rocha and Rumiz 2010).
199832		population	eng	There are only a few known individuals, all from old records, so it is not possible to evaluate the population (Flores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>. 2008).
199832		threats	eng	Probably, the expansion of agriculture is causing habitat loss in lowland forests of Bolivia.
199833		conservation	eng	This species occurs in one protected area (Solari 2007).
199833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Peru. It is known only from the type locality on the east bank of Rio Ucayali, Requena Province, Department of Loreto (Solari 2007). The type locality of<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. handley</span>i lies between the Ucayali and Yavari rivers.
199833		habitat	eng	<p>Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. handleyi</span> were trapped in terrestrial habitats within both swampy and well-drained forests bordering primary and secondary forests, usually with some degree of selective logging and exploitation (Solari 2007).</p>
199833		population	eng	Probably occurs at low densities, although not rare (Solari 2007).
199833		threats	eng	This species is probably threatened by selective logging and exploitation in its extremely reduced range.
199834		conservation	eng	The range of this species overlaps few protected areas (e.g. Copo National Park in Argentina). More research is necessary to determine its range, extent of possible threats and habitat use of this species.
199834		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern Central and northern Argentina (Teta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
199834		habitat	eng	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">T. pulchellus</span> is endemic to the Dry Chaco eco-region of central and nothern Argentina, with a mixture of grasslands and xerophytic woodlands. Their distributional boundaries are unclear at the southern and eastern bondaries.</p>
199834		population	eng	Little is known of populations of this species.
199834		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species although some populations are declining due to deforestation, conversion of most areas from native grassland, shrubland and xerophytic chacoan forests to agricultural lands.
199835		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. citellus</span> is known from at least one protected area in Argentina.
199835		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. citellus</span> is found in the Southern Cone Mesopotamian Savanna and the Mesopotamian sector of the Humid Pampas eco-regions in the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes provinces (Teta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The known distributional range of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. citellus </span>is limited by the Paraná River to the north and west, and by the Uruguay River and the flooded grasslands of the Iberá wetlands to the east.
199835		habitat	eng	This species inhabits seasonally flooded forests and grasslands. The species seems to be adaptable to disturbed habitats.
199835		population	eng	This species is relatively common in appropriate habitat.
199835		threats	eng	There are not currently any major threats to the species, although deforestation in Entre Ríos Province and conversion of large areas to rice plantations in Corrientes Province could threaten the species.
199836		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to establish the distrbution and natural history of this species.
199836		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in central Argentina, from west of Buenos Aires Province to southern Cordoba and La Pampa provinces (Martin 2009). It is typical of Espinal and Pampean ecoregions.<span lang="DE"></p>
199836		habitat	eng	This species inhabits in dry forests and pampean areas from central Argentina.
199836		population	eng	The population trend is apparently stable.
199836		threats	eng	No major threats are known for the species, however, some populations are threatened by habitat conversion.
199838		conservation	eng	This species is Extinct.
199838		distribution	eng	The Nevis Rice Rat formerly occurred on the three main islands of the Saint Kitts Bank (Nevis, Saint Kitts and Saint Eustatius). It has been recorded from numerous pre-Columbian zooarchaeological sites, as it constituted a major component of the diet of prehistoric Amerindians.
199838		habitat	eng	Nothing is known about this species’ habitat or ecology. This island rice rat was about the same size as a black rat, and therefore much smaller than <span style="font-style: italic;">Megalomys</span>, the other recently extinct endemic insular Caribbean rice rat genus.
199838		population	eng	This species is now extinct.
199838		threats	eng	The cause of extinction of the Nevis Rice Rat is unknown. However, its survival until the European historical era suggests that its extinction may have been driven by predation or competition with invasive mammals, probably introduced black rats or mongoose.
199851		conservation	eng	It can be found within <span lang="EN-US">Reserva Mazar (Arteaga-Navarro and Guayasamin 2011), an effectively managed protected area (A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011). However, additional protection is required outside the reserve. More information is needed on this species' distribution and life history.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-US"></span>
199851		distribution	eng	This species is known from <span lang="EN-US">a geographical locality in<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> the Province of Cañar (<span lang="EN-US">Reserva Mazar<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> and a nearby site<span lang="EN-US">) and another locality in the<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"> Province of Azuay<span lang="EN-US">, south of Cuenca, in the <span lang="EN-US">Andes of southeastern Ecuador, at elevations between 2,876–2,989 m asl (Arteaga-Navarro and Guayasamin 2011; A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011). The two known localities are separated by about 95 km in a straight line; however, the general area where it occurs requires additional surveys in suitable habitats to determine whether the distribution of this species is as patchy as these records suggest or whether it may occur in intervening areas and beyond (<span lang="EN-US">A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
199851		habitat	eng	<p></p><p>This frog can be found  within regenerated montane forest where bamboo (<em>Chusquea </em>sp.) is dominant&#160;(Arteaga-Navarro and Guayasamin 2011); it has not been found within primary forest, so it appears to be closely associated with secondary forest where canopy cover is not complete, a habitat composed mainly of small trees, shrubs and bamboo&#160;(Arteaga-Navarro and Guayasamin 2011). Only once has it been found far from the forest, in a pasture environment; however, this appears to be an isolated event, possibly the result of transportation of individuals concealed within vegetation (A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011). Otherwise it is not considered to tolerate completely treeless environments (A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011). Individuals were seen active during cloudy rainy nights and early morning near rivers, on leaf litter and vegetation (20-155 cm above the ground), hidden under piled up eucalyptus lumber and dead leaves (Arteaga-Navarro and Guayasamin 2011). As with other congeners, it is thought to breed by direct development. <br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p></p>
199851		population	eng	<p><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US">It is considered to be the most locally abundant anuran where it is known to occur, and there appear to be no indications of population declines (A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011).<br/></span></p>  <p><span class="apple-style-span">&#160;</p><p><br/><span class="apple-style-span"></span></p><p>  </p><p><br/></p>
199851		threats	eng	<p></p><p><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US">Ongoing habitat loss due to small-scale agriculture and cattle ranching is considered to be the main threat to this species outside of&#160; Mazar Reserve (A. Arteaga-Navarro pers. comm. December 2011). <br/></span></p><p><br/> <br/> </p>  <p></p>
199854		conservation	eng	The species occurs in Kyaiktyiyo Wildlife Sanctuary, Mon State, Myanmar (Zug<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). As with all pythons (except the Indian Python <span style="font-style: italic;">Python molurus</span>), the species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Proactive efforts should be made immediately to curb possible exploitation for the international pet trade, which can have a devastating effect on newly-described, charismatic, rare species of herpetofauna (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Exporting snakes from Myanmar is forbidden so any international trade in this species would be through illegal means. Research is needed to obtain further records of this snake, to clarify its distribution, population status, natural history and to identify whether it is exposed to any other threats.
199854		distribution	eng	The species is known only from the holotype, from Kyaiktiyo Wildlife Sanctuary at Yetagon Myaung, along the western face of the Tenghyo Range, Mon State, Myanmar (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
199854		habitat	eng	The known specimen was found in a small dry streambed in an area of low secondary scrub near a small betel palm plantation, at approximately 390 m elevation (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Six flexibly shelled eggs were contained in her oviducts (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
199854		population	eng	The species is known only from the holotype female, which was collected in 2003 (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). No information is available on its population, and despite repeated surveys in the area the species has not been recorded again (G. Wogan pers. comm. August 2011).
199854		threats	eng	This species may be threatened in the future by harvesting for food, leather, and traditional medicine purposes. Given the value of pythons in the international pet trade, and the  beauty and rarity of this newly described species, it is very likely to  be in high demand for the international pet trade. The species appears to be tolerant of some forest disturbance based on the locality of the holotype (and only known) specimen.
199856		conservation	eng	Although as a species Sumatran Elephants are protected under Indonesia law, 85% of their habitats which are located outside of protected areas, are outside of the protection system and likely to be converted to agricultural and other purposes.
199856		distribution	eng	Home to the Sumatran Elephant subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;">E. m. sumatranus</span>), Sumatra is thought to hold some of the most significant Asian Elephant populations outside of India. Yet, within the Asian Elephant’s range, Sumatra has experienced one of the most rapid deforestation rates (Uryu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
199856		habitat	eng	<p>Elephants largely use lowland forests and gentle hills below an altitude of 300 m. While the elephants in Sumatra may have habitat use patterns that differ, it is generally known from long-term studies of elephants across Asia that lowland forests are a preferred habitat (Alfred<span style="font-style: italic;"> el. al. </span>2005, Williams 2010). Forest loss in the lowlands is higher than forest loss at all altitudes and including habitats such as peat forests, where elephants are not present.</p><p>Follow the link below for further&#160;information about national loss of natural forest in Sumatra.</p>
199856		population	eng	<p>In mid 1980s, when about 50% of natural forest remained on the island, elephant populations persisted in 44 discrete populations on all of the island’s eight provinces (Hedges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <br/></p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">1985</span>: An island-wide rapid survey suggested that between 2,800 and 4,800 elephants lived in the wild in 44 ranges in all eight mainland provinces of Sumatra (Blouch and Haryanto 1984). Riau Province was believed to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra.</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">2002</span>: Sumatra was still thought to contain some of the largest populations of Asian elephants outside of India and Sri Lanka. Rigorous dung density based surveys in Lampung Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI=[373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI=[144, 225]) elephants, respectively. But province-wide surveys at the same time also showed that by 2002 elephants had gone locally extinct in nine of 12 elephant ranges recorded in Lampung in the early 1980s (Hedges <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al. </span>2005).</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">2007</span>: Guesstimates suggested that between 2,400 and 2,800 elephants live in the wild (Soehartono <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Given the very high number of elephants brought into captivity since 1985 (Mikota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003), the high mortality experienced during these government capture-and-translocation operations, and the high numbers of elephants lost to retaliatory killing after human–elephant conflict (WWF 2008) and poaching (based on local newspaper reports), it is highly likely that Sumatra’s total elephant population size in 1985 might actually have been greater than even that year’s high estimate of 4,800 elephants suggests. In any case, in only one generation (between 1985 and 2007) Sumatra may have lost up to 50% of its elephants.</p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">2008</span>: By 2008, elephants had become locally extinct in 23 of the 43 ranges identified in Sumatra in 1985, indicating a very significant decline of the Sumatran elephant population up to that time. By 2008, the elephant was locally extinct in one of Sumatra’s eight mainland provinces (West Sumatra) and at risk of being lost from North Sumatra Province too. Only ca. 350 elephants survived across nine separate ranges in Riau Province, which in 1985 was considered to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra with over 1,600 individuals.</p>  <span style="font-weight: bold;">Post-2008</span>: Simple extrapolations from past population history suggests that Riau’s last surviving elephants may soon disappear if the current trend of forest loss continues (Uryu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Indeed, a 2009 survey of nine forest blocks in Riau that had elephant herds in 2007 revealed that six herds had gone extinct (Desai and Samsuardi 2009).<br/>  <p>Systematic study on the population of Sumatran Elephants is lacking from most of the elephant’s distributional range. Province-wide assessments have been conducted in Riau (Desai and Samsuardi 2009) and Lampung (Hedges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). However, rigorous population estimates are only available from two protected areas in Lampung, namely Way Kambas National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (Hedges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Soehartono <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/></p>  <ul><li>Riau. Harboring extensive flat lowland forest that is a prime habitat for elephant, Riau province was one of the strongholds for elephant conservation. However, elephant numbers in this province dropped by 84% in less than 25 years (Uryu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160; The population declined from <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 1,342 in 1984 to ca. 210 in 2007. Due to habitat fragmentation, the number of fragmented elephant populations (“pockets”) increased from nine in 1984 to 16 in 1999. By 2007, mainly due to removal and killings related to conflicts, elephants were completely extirpated in several “pockets” including Rokan Hilir, Kerumutan, Koto Panjang, Bukit Rimbang Baling, Tanjung Pauh and Bukit Suligi. Thorough population estimates are not yet available&#160; the latest assessment indicates that all&#160; but two of these fragmented elephant populations are unlikely to survive over the long term. <br/></li><li>West Sumatra. Elephants have been completely extirpated from this province.</li><li>Lampung. Twelve of the 44 Sumatran elephant populations identified in the mid-1989s occurred in Lampung Province. But, according to surveys conducted in 2001 and 2002 only three were still extant in 2002, and one of those was not considered viable (Hedges<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005). Surveys in the early 2000s using dung density based methods in Lampung Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI=[373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI=[144, 225]) elephants, respectively (Hedges <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). New field surveys using fecal DNA based capture–recapture methods are currently underway in the two national parks (S. Hedges pers comm). </li></ul>
199856		threats	eng	Due to conversions of forests into human settlement and agricultural  areas, many of the Sumatran Elephant populations have come into serious  conflicts with human. As the results, many wild elephants have been  removed from the wild, or directly killed. In addition to killing  related to conflicts, elephants are also targets of illegal killing for  their ivory. Now, Sumatran Elephant lives only in seven provinces, many  of which are under increased pressure of habitat loss and imminent  conflicts with human.
199857		conservation	eng	Cocos Island has no conservation area. It is not known if the island is well populated or not.
199857		distribution	eng	This snake is endemic to Cocos Island, an Indonesian territory off the coast of Sumatra. It was described based on five specimens, two from Simeulue and  three from Cocos Island, north of Simeulue. The specimens from Simeulue are  considered as <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria modesta</span>, so only the three specimens from Cocos Island are assigned to this species.Up to the present there is no new collection performed from the Cocos island.
199857		habitat	eng	No notes are associated with specimens, and so no ecological information is available.
199857		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population of this species.
199857		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
199858		conservation	eng	International: Listed under Appendix II of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITIES).<br/><br/>Australian Government Legislation: Marine Listed under the Federal <span style="font-style: italic;">Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</span>, which ensures a government permit to export this species (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2000).
199858		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus alatus</span> is found in northern Australia from the Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia, throughout the Gulf of Carpentaria, to the tip of Cape York (Kuiter 2001), as well as south Papua New Guinea, Indonesia (northern Sulawesi) and southern Philippines (Kuiter 2009).
199858		habitat	eng	<p><em>Hippocampus alatus</em> is a benthic species often found on soft bottom habitats (Kuiter 2001). In Papua New Guinea, specimens were found on deep, open sand slopes with few sponges and gorgonian corals in an area that is influenced by strong tidal currents (Kuiter 2001) between reefs and islands (Thompson and Bray 2009). <em>H. alatus</em> is found on remote reefs, on outcrops, slopes with rubble or corals that provide shelter and for a hold, and usually in the deeper current prone channels between reefs or islands (Kuiter 2009).<br/></p>  <p>Like all seahorses the females transfer eggs to the male’s brood pouch (Breder and Rosen 1966). All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (e.g. Perante<em> et al.</em> 2002), highly structured social behaviour (e.g. Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie<em> et al.</em> 1999).</p>
199858		population	eng	No information is currently available on population size or trends.
199858		threats	eng	<em>H. alatus</em> are caught and discarded as bycatch by the prawn trawl fishery (Kuiter 2001, Thompson and Bray 2009).
199869		conservation	eng	The species is included in the Red Data Book of Turkish Plants (Ekim et al. 2000). Population monitoring is needed.
199869		distribution	eng	Turkey <br>Type: A7 G?m??hane: in montibus arenosis supra Aghakoei (c. 6 km SE. of G?m??hane), 20 vi and 14 vii 18 4, Sintenis 5934.<br>A8 Erzurum: ?spir-Maden road, Sar??i?ek Da., 2350 m, steppe, 27 viii 1994, H. Duman 5673. <br><br>Irano-Thuranian element. <br>Endemic to NE Anatolia.
199869		habitat	eng	Occurs on stony slopes, alpine meadows, between 1000- 2350 m a.s.l.
199869		population	eng	Rare.<br>Number of subpopulations - 2.
199869		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation caused by overgrazing, mining; erosion.
199932		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions currently in place for the Indonesian Speckled Carpet Shark. The development of ecotourism activities centered on the exceptional diversity of marine life in Papua Barat may provide impetus for the protection of this species’ habitat. Based on the restricted distribution of this species and its poorly known status, there is an urgent need to obtain the data required to accurately assess the species’ conservation status. In particular, surveys should be undertaken to determine its full distribution, habitat preferences, basic aspects of its biology, and its occurrence in the aquarium trade. An examination of other potentially threatening processes is also needed.</p>
199932		distribution	eng	The Indonesian Speckled Carpet Shark<em> </em>(<em>Hemiscyllium freycineti</em>)<em> </em>appears to be restricted to the Indonesian province of Papua Barat (West Papua), around the western peninsula of the island of New Guinea in the Western Central Pacific. Previous to the description of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. michaeli</span> it was considered to occur more widely around New Guinea, but <em>H. freycineti</em> is now considered to be restricted to western New Guinea, and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. michaeli</span> to eastern New Guinea (Allen and Dudgeon 2010).
199932		habitat	eng	<p>The Indonesian Speckled Carpet Shark occurs in shallow waters on coral reefs, and sandy and grassy substrates, but its exact depth range is unknown. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown, although like other <em>Hemiscyllium</em> species, it is certainly oviparous. The smallest juvenile specimen known measures 21.4 cm total length (TL), and so size at birth is below this figure. The largest specimen examined by Allen and Dudgeon (2010) was 66.3 cm TL, but maximum size is unknown; a maximum size of 72 cm TL reported by Compagno (2001) may be for either <em>H. freycineti</em> or <em>H. michaeli</em>.</p>
199932		population	eng	Little is known about the population size of the Indonesian Speckled Carpet Shark and no scientific data are currently available.
199932		threats	eng	<p>Threats currently affecting the Indonesian Speckled Carpet Shark are unclear. Given that it is a very attractive and hardy species it may be sought for the aquarium trade. This species is very susceptible to habitat destruction via dynamite fishing practices. However, there is a lack of information on the extent of habitat degradation within its range (not only from destructive fishing methods, but also from pollution; heavy pollutant loads from mining activities are an issue within the region). The impacts of fishing activities on this species are also unknown, but fishing pressure in shallow inshore environments (including shallow reefs where this species occurs) can be significant in eastern Indonesia. Illegal fishing activities also pose a threat within the habitat of this species, and illegal fishing (which includes trawling) is an on-going issue within Indonesian waters.</p>
199972		conservation	eng	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species, and it is not known to occur in any protected areas (M. Lundberg pers. comm. August 2011). More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p>
199972		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the type locality:  Cillapata, at 2,900 m asl, district of Paucartambo, province of Pasco, Pasco Region, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Extensive surveys conducted both at the type locality and neighbouring areas did not turn up any additional records, suggesting that it either has a very localized distribution, that it is very rare, or that it is difficult to find (M. Lundberg pers. comm. August 2011). Other congeners are known to have restricted ranges  (M. Lundberg pers. comm. August 2011). While its extent of occurrence is not currently quantified, it is expected to be much less than 100 km² given that it is known only from the type locality.
199972		habitat	eng	It is known from montane forests or the yungas ecoregion (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The holotype was found in a pasture area surrounded by secondary and primary forest (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The sheep, alpaca and/or llama pasture area seemed to be either abandoned or seldom used (M. Lundberg pers. comm. August 2011). It is not known to what degree this species may be tolerant of habitat modification. As with other congeners, it is suspected to reproduce by direct development.
199972		population	eng	The species is currently known only from the holotype, which was collected in March 2002 (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
199972		threats	eng	Agriculture and cattle farming are identified as threats in some regions of Paucartambo de Pasco (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and small-scale potato farming and grazing of sheep, alpacas and llamas have been observed at/near the area where this frog was found (M. Lundberg pers. comm. August 2011). However, the extent and impact of these potential threats on this frog are currently unknown.
200014		conservation	eng	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for the Reticulated Swellshark. The level of exploitation requires examination. It is suggested that species-specific landings are reported and monitored where possible.</p>
200014		distribution	eng	<p>                    </p><p>The Reticulated Swellshark has a patchy occurrence in the western Pacific around Viet Nam and China (Hainan Island), and probably also the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2008). References to the species off northwestern Australia are attributable to <em>C. hiscosellum</em> White &amp; Ebert, 2008.</p>   <p></p>
200014		habitat	eng	<p>The Reticulated Swellshark, a tropical catshark, is found on muddy substrates on or near the bottom on the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope, at depths of 219–450 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2008). Oviparous; the hatchlings are ~12 cm total length (TL). Maximum size at least 42 cm TL (adolescent or adult female); size at maturity ~36 cm TL (males) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2008). Biology is very poorly known.</p>
200014		population	eng	<p>There is no population information on the Reticulated Swellshark.</p>
200014		threats	eng	<p>The Reticulated Swellshark is of minor interest to fisheries where it is caught by commercial demersal trawlers as bycatch and possibly utilized for fishmeal in Asia. Actual level of exploitation is unknown.</p>
200147		conservation	eng	No species-specific conservation actions are in place or required for this species at present.
200147		distribution	eng	This is a little-known butterfly from southeastern parts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region>, northestern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place> (from Isiolo to the coast) and Somalia. Subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">janna</span> is recorded from Somalia and the Ogaden territory.
200147		habitat	eng	<p>This species inhabits dry savannah habitats, which are robust and widespread across its distribution, thus giving rise to a large area of occupancy.<br/></p>
200147		population	eng	The species seems to be very localized and/or difficult to find, despite its large extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.
200147		threats	eng	This species appears to be rare, but its habitat is widespread and robust across its large area of occupancy, therefore it does not appear to face any major threats.
200602		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place for this subspecies. However, this it may be present in Marine Protected Areas found within its distribution.
200602		distribution	eng	This subspecies (<em>L. lepadogaster lepadogaster) </em>is present in the eastern and central Mediterranean Sea, including Italy and in the Black Sea. Its real distribution is unclear due to a recent revision of the genus. It is also found also in the Balearic Islands (Fischer <em>et al. </em>2007).
200602		habitat	eng	This subspecies inhabits shallow water, under rocks and pebbles.
200602		population	eng	There is no population information for this subspecies, although it is considered abundant.
200602		threats	eng	There are no major threats known to this subspecies. In some areas, however, coastal development could be a local threat.
200633		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in a number of protected areas. Further research into its range and population status is needed.<br/><p><br/></p>
200633		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to China (Sichuan and Yunnan). It is found at elevations of 1,200 to 3,200 m asl.
200633		habitat	eng	This species is an inhabitant of high altitude habitats with small shrubs and rocks. It may also be found in agricultural land and open habitats.
200633		population	eng	It is a common species.<br/><p></p>
200633		threats	eng	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.
201319		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' taxonomy, threats, current distribution and population trends, as well as its ecology.
201319		distribution	eng	The species was described from 'Cochin China' (southern Viet Nam) (Prime 1864). The species is known from the Mekong basin in Thailand and Viet Nam. Recorded from Thailand in Khon Kaen provice (Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), and from other rivers in northeastern and eastern rivers (DoF 2007). In Viet Nam it is present widely in the Mekong delta (Pham 2002), in the Saigon River and Saigon city canals (ADB 2010), and in the Se San River and Pursat Rivers (Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>It is most likely to also be present in the Mekong basin in Cambodia and Lao PDR, and should be looked for there.
201319		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers (probably slow flowing), canals, drainage channels, and reservoirs. The species is possibly tolerant of pollution, as it was one of the few molluscs found in polluted canals in Ho Chi Minh City (CDM 2000).
201319		population	eng	No information available.
201319		threats	eng	Without greater information on the species' distribution and ecology, nothing can be inferred of its threats.
201320		conservation	eng	Research into the species' threats and distributions is required, as well as comparison of specimens to confirm the species' taxonomic placement.
201320		distribution	eng	The species is present widely in southeast Asia, known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam. In Viet Nam the species is known from tributaries of the Mekong in central to southern, and from south-central Viet Nam (North Carolina State Museum of Natural Sciences  Invertebrate Collection) and from Khanh Hoa, Ho Chi Minh City. In Thailand it is found in the Chao Praya and all its tributaries, in the Phetburi River, the Maeklong and in many tributaries to the Mekong and in the Bang Prakon River; other records include the Lopburi River (Lopburi Province; Biologiezentrum Linz Oberoesterreich), Bangkok and Chantaburi River (Suvatti 1950), Ubolratana Reservoir (Khon Kaen Province; Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
201320		habitat	eng	This species is found in rivers, including tributaries. No other details are available.
201320		population	eng	No information available.
201320		threats	eng	Industrial development, pollution, and over-exploitation impact the species and its habitats, however the scale of impact is not known.
201428		conservation	eng	Research is needed into the species' distribution, and the extent and impact of known threats, as well as the taxonomic relationship of possible synonyms.
201428		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to the Mekong, Red and Black river basins and several of their tributaries (Brandt 1974). In Thailand this species was found in the provinces of Nong Kai (a small Klong near the provincial town), Khon Kaen (Ubolratana reservoir; Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004), in the Mekong near Nakon Panom, in the Pao River near Kalasin and in the Keak River in Phitsanuloke Province. In Viet Nam this species was found in most parts of the Red and Black rivers and their tributaries (Dang 1980, Haskoning 2008). As the synonym, the species is recorded from northern China ('Che-Fou River'; Prime 1864); this synonomy and the Chinese distribution requires confirmation, but the species should be looked for in Chinese parts of the Red and Black rivers in southern China.
201428		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers and tributaries.
201428		population	eng	The species is common.
201428		threats	eng	Industrial development, pollution, and overexploitation impact the species.
201429		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201429		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201429		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201429		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201429		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201429		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201430		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201430		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201430		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201430		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201430		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201430		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201431		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201431		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201431		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201431		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201431		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201431		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201432		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201432		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201432		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201432		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201432		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201432		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201433		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201433		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201433		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201433		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201433		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201433		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201434		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201434		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201434		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201434		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201434		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201434		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201435		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201435		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201435		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201435		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201435		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201435		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201436		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201436		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201436		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201436		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201436		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201436		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201437		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201437		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201437		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201437		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201437		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201437		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201438		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201438		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201438		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201438		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201438		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201438		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201439		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there.
201439		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201439		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201439		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201439		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201439		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201440		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201440		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201440		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201440		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201440		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201440		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201441		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201441		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201441		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201441		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201441		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201441		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201442		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201442		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201442		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201442		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201442		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201442		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201444		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201444		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201444		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201444		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201444		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201444		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201445		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201445		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201445		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201445		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201445		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201446		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201446		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201446		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201446		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201446		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201447		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201447		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201447		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201447		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201447		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201447		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201448		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201448		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201448		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201448		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201448		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201448		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201449		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201449		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201449		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201449		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201449		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201449		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201450		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201450		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201450		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201450		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201450		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201450		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201451		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201451		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201451		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201451		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201451		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201452		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201452		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201452		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201452		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201452		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201452		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201453		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201453		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201453		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201453		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201453		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201453		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201454		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201454		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201454		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201454		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201454		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201454		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201455		conservation	eng	Taxonomic revision of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula </span>is required.
201455		distribution	eng	The species has a wide distribution in southeast Asia (Brandt 1974). The species is known from the Mekong and associated tributaries in Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Lao PDR. In Viet Nam it is found in the central area (Dang 1980). In Thailand it is found in the Mekong and in several of its tributaries (e.g. the Maenam Yam at Phrae and in the Phetburi River) (Brandt 1974, Kittivorachate and Yangyuen 2004).
201455		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers and their tributaries.
201455		population	eng	A common species.
201455		threats	eng	Industrial development, pollution, and overexploitation impact the species.
201456		conservation	eng	Threat research and confirmation of the species' taxonomic status is needed.
201456		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in the Mekong basin in Viet Nam (central and southern areas, including in the region of Ho Chi Minh City; Viet Nam Expressway Corporation 2010), Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. Brandt (1974) found the species in abundance between Nakon Phanom in Thailand and Kratie in Cambodia. Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) recorded the species throughout the Lower Mekong in the Mekong mainstream and numerous tributaries; Lao PDR (Mekong mainstream above Luang Prabang and at Pakse, and the Nam Ngum and Nam Ou rivers), Thailand (Songkhram River), and Cambodia (Tonle Sap River at Phnom Penh and at Prek Kdam, Sre Pok River, the Mekong at Kampi (upstream of Kratie)), and Viet Nam (Sre Pok River and the Se San River).
201456		habitat	eng	Found in mainstream rivers and in tributaries. Feeds primarily on phytoplankton (algae), which they filter from the sandy or muddy bottom of streams, lakes, or canals
201456		population	eng	Common and widespread.
201456		threats	eng	Industrial development, pollution, and overexploitation impact the species, though the scale of impact requires research.
201499		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201499		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201499		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201499		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201499		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201499		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201500		conservation	eng	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>
201500		distribution	eng	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 98 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201500		habitat	eng	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).
201500		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201500		population	eng	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulation size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.
201500		threats	eng	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.
201501		conservation	eng	This snake is found in a number of protected areas, including Minsontaung Wildlife Sanctuary and Popa Mountain National Park in Myanmar. It is not protected in any country within its range, and although export from Thailand and Myanmar is illegal, this has not prevented high levels of collection in these areas. The impact of exploitation on both the global population and national subpopulations needs to be further studied, with the snake's population status being of interest in both Myanmar and Indonesia, and research is needed to establish whether harvests are unsustainable.
201501		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. siamensis</span> is found in Central Myanmar, central Thailand, eastern China (Guangxi, Guangdong and Fujian Provinces, and Taiwan) and Indonesia, where it has been recorded from Surabaya in east Java in the Greater Sundas, from Komodo, Flores Solor, Andonara and Lembata in the Lesser Sundas (Thorpe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and recently from east Sumbawa (McKay and Lilley in review<em></em>). It has an apparently very marginal occurrence in Cambodia; Thorpe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) sampled a specimen from Poi Pet, adjacent to the Thai border, but do not include Cambodia in their distribution map for this species.
201501		habitat	eng	This species is not restricted to any particular habitat, and while it is mostly found in open, grassy or bushy areas it may also occur in secondary forests (scrub jungles), forested plantations and farmland. It avoids dense forests and is most common in plains, coastal lowlands and hills. This species is often found in highly urbanized areas and settlements in the countryside, where it feeds on rodents commensal with humans. In Myanmar and Thailand it is commonly collected from paddy fields and other agricultural land. The species is terrestrial and active primarily as a nocturnal forager. However, during cool weather it can be found during the daytime. Adults are reported to be persistently slow and sluggish unless highly agitated, after which they become very aggressive. Juveniles are generally more active and will bite with minimal provocation. While the species feeds primarily on rodents, especially mice, shrews, squirrels, domestic cats, land crabs, scorpions and other arthropods may also be consumed. This species is ovoviviparous. Mating generally occurs early in the year, although gravid females may be found at any time. The gestation period is more than six months. Young are produced from May to November, but mostly in June and July. It is a prolific breeder. Litters of 20-40 neonates are common.
201501		population	eng	This widespread species has been reported to be common in some areas. This snake is, however, subject to high levels of both exploitation and persecution in some areas, including its entire range within Myanmar's central dry zone, and so is likely to be undergoing at least localized population declines (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). No quantitative information is available on rates of any declines. In Indonesia, recent records of this species exist only for the islands of Komodo, Flores and Sumbawa; the snake is known from only a single historical record in Java (R.P.H. Lilley pers. comm. October 2011).
201501		threats	eng	This snake's range in Myanmar coincides with a regionally extensive network of illegal collection and trade in snakes, within which there is a high demand for this species. Levels of exploitation are probably high enough to represent a major threat to this snake, at least nationally (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). As this snake is also heavily persecuted throughout its range, animals which are not collected and sold are typically killed on sight (G. Wogan pers. comm. September 2011). Collection for international trade may also threaten the Thai subpopulation, and while this snake occurs over wide areas in both countries, its disjunct distribution puts national subpopulations at particular risk of local extirpation if harvesting levels are not sustainable. This snake is subject to both collection (for food and skins) and persecution in China (Wang and Xie 2009), but it is not clear whether the snake is under particular pressure in this country.
201502		conservation	eng	Research into the species' full distribution and the impact of threats is required.
201502		distribution	eng	The species is is known from central and northern Viet Nam in Mekong basins and also recorded from the Gam River and the environs on Ha Noi (Red River system) (PARC 2002, Haskoning 2008), northeastern Thailand, and northern Lao PDR. The species should be looked for in adjacent parts of the Red River system in southern China.
201502		habitat	eng	The species feeds primarily on phytoplankton (algae), which they filter from the sandy or muddy bottom of streams, lakes, or canals.
201502		population	eng	A very common species.
201502		threats	eng	Industrial development and pollution, agricultural pollution, and possibly overexploitation impact the species.
201626		conservation	eng	<em>E. fedtschenkoae</em> is known to occur in two botanic gardens, but no collections are known to have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation purposes. The occurrences intersect numerous protected areas across the range.
201626		distribution	eng	Occurs in southwest Siberia and Central Asia. Occurs from 1,900 m up to 3,800 m.
201626		habitat	eng	Shrub or subshrub found in middle and upper mountain zones. Occurs in rocky areas, rocky steppe and alpine meadows.
201626		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201626		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201627		conservation	eng	The Office of National Environmental Policy and Planning in Thailand (ONEPP) has declared this species as nationally endangered (<a href="http://www.onep.go.th/">http://www.onep.go.th/</a>). Local conservation groups in the Ranong province have also initiated the conservation of this species in its wild habitats (Youth group and Plern Prai Sri Na Ca Conservation Group established by Klong Na Ca Wildlife Sanctuary). The youth group is involved in awareness campaigns, <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> propagation of Water Onion in nurseries, rescue of dislodged Water Onion deposited on river banks and subsequent re-planting in the wild. The Pleun Prai Sri Na Kha Conservation Group, together with the local authority organizes tourist visits (in dinghy paddle boats) along Na Kha river to observe <span style="font-style: italic;">Crinum thaianum</span> during its flowering period (October-December) every year. About 600 Thai tourists visited the area in 2007. A fee of 450 Thai Baht (ca. 15 US$) is charged to each visitor.
201627		distribution	eng	Originally found on the coastal plain of southern Thailand (Leeratiwong and Jornead 2005), but is now confined to isolated patches on a few rivers and streams in Phang Nga and Ranong provinces. Phang Nga province: Khlong Khura Buri/ Nang Yon, Khlong Banglu, Khlong Tam Nung, Khlong Ban Krung, Khlong Bang Pao Moo and Ranong province: Khlong Nakha; Khlong Kapoe, Khlong Bangpong, Khlong Suan Mai, Khlong Ta Pud (<a href="http://http://www.dnp.go.th">http://www.dnp.go.th</a>; IUCN survey). Occurs at low elevations below 150 m.
201627		habitat	eng	This geophytic plant grows in clear running fresh water, usually in wide and open streams and rivers a few centimetres to two meters in depth depending on the seasonal water level. The soil is usually a sandy loam or mixed gravel. Some streams are shaded, however, in all their sites <span style="font-style: italic;">Crinum</span> receive sunlight at least temporarily (<a href="http://www.amaryllidaceae.org">http://www.amaryllidaceae.org</a>). It prefers water temperatures of 22-30°C. <br/><br/>Mature bulbs reach 7 cm in diameter and about 15 cm high. The elongated (up to two metres long) float in the direction of the current, or in stiller water are piled in loops. Flowering occurs mainly during the monsoon season (August-October). The inflorescence comprises five to eight flowers. The plant also reproduces vegetatively through the production of bulblets.  <p><br/></p><p>The data on the phenology of water onion and water depth in Nakha river,&#160; maintained by Mrs. Oy Onkhow (co-leader of a local community based organization – ‘Pleun Prai Sri Naka’ -&#160; involved in conservation work in Ranong Province, highlights the following:</p>    <p>January (average water depth of 3-4 m): germination from seeds and leaf production from bulbs starts</p><p>February - July (average water depth starts at 1-2 m in March and increases to 5-6 m by July): leaf growth</p><p>August (average water depth 6-8 m): flowering is initiated</p><p>September (average water depth 8-9 m): peak flowering</p><p>October (average water depth 6-9 m): seed formation</p><p>November to December (average water depth drops from 6 m down to 4 m): seed is dispersed and laves die back<br/></p>  <br/>Preliminary observations on the mid areas of the Nakha River, by a team of IUCN scientists on the 3rd of June 2008 revealed the following: The speed of water flow in mid areas of Nakha River ranged from 0.25-3 m/s. The main population is restricted to a 600 m stretch (width – 30 m; depth 1-2.5 m), which has a muddy substrate. The growth was very dense towards the edge of the river. The water flow in this stretch was below 0.3 m/s. The area received ample sunlight. The length of the leaves ranged from 1-3 m, with each bulb having 20-40 leaves. Several fish were observed in this stretch, beneath the thick growth of this plant, which provided an ideal refuge to them. A thin layer of sediment was clearly visible on the leaf surface. Clumps of washed out Water Onion were observed on either side of the river bank, these had been removed by the fast flow of the water.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/><br/>The Water Onion is a very important aquatic plant that functions as a keystone species in its aquatic habitats. It provides important habitat for native freshwater fish species such as the Soro Brook Carp (Tor soro), which use it as a habitat to lay eggs.&#160; Other aquatic species such as water snails and frogs also use it as breeding habitat. Other native fish eat the young leaves of Water Onion.
201627		population	eng	The population is very fragmented and declining.
201627		threats	eng	<p>A major threat to the habitat of this species is the dredging of rivers and streams for removal of sediment and rock for construction and land reclamation purposes (this has also increased the speed of water flow in habitats of the Water Onion, where entire subpopulations have been dislodged). Also threatened by diversion of the rivers and streams for agricultural purposes. There is also extensive changes in the ecology of the streams and rivers due to land use changes in the adjoining areas (e.g., clearing of forest for agriculture) and resultant land-based erosion and river bank erosion (the substrate of the Nakha and Kuraburi rivers has changed drastically over the past 10 years, due to erosion. The muddy substrate that facilitates the growth of Water Onion has been replaced by pebbles, rock and gravel, in large areas of these rivers. Collection of bulbs from the wild for sale to the international trade for home fish ponds and aquaria is also a threat which needs closer monitoring.<br/></p>
201646		conservation	eng	The entire confirmed extent of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> is contained within the Cliffs of Bandiagara (Land of the Dogons) World Heritage Site which was established in 1989. The government is conserving the site because of its exceptional architectural structures and the interaction between man and the natural environment. One of the key management aims is the maintenance of the Dogon culture and associated houses, granaries, ritual sanctuaries and "toguna". Also of importance are the surrounding natural features and landscape and a fauna and flora survey is currently being undertaken on behalf of the "cantonnements forestiers" (Diakite 1988). However, insufficient funding means that the site is inadequately patrolled (UNEP-WCMC 1995).<br/><br/>The importance of protecting species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> was highlighted during a GEO expedition to the Bandiagara cliffs and escarpment, when discussions between scientists, experts on traditional knowledge and local communities were held (GTZ-GEO 2005). <span style="font-style: italic;">Acridocarpus monodii</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet as plants found in the October 2006 collecting trip where not fruiting. Plans are to collect seed in March/April 2008.
201646		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acridocarpus monodii</span> is endemic to the Dogon plateau in central Mali. It is found along the base of the escarpment “Falaise de Bandiagara” with the southernmost population being located near and in the village of Yabatalou. Although collections from near Douentza and Kikara (north of the escarpment) exist from 1958, no plants were found in these areas when re-visited by Birnbaum in 2004. On the other hand, the first collection of this species was in 1935 near/in the village of Sangha and Birnbaum has found <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> a few kilometres south west of Sangha in recent years. Maximum EOO and AOO were calculated using all known records and minimum EOO and AOO using only those along the southern part of the Bandiagara cliffs as confirmed by Birnbaum (2005).<br/><br/>The minimum EOO value is based on the ellipse drawn on a map,  containing the area where the species was found by Birnbaum in 2004, and  the maximum is calculated from the convex hull drawn around all known  previous locations. The ellipse size drawn here agrees with the species’  100 km perimeter and latitude range according to Birnbaum (2005).  Minimum and maximum AOOs are based on three or five grid cells of 9 km²,  three for the southern population only and five for all known previous  locations. 3 km² is considered an appropriate cell size for this species  due to its extreme abundance in the localities where it is known to  exist (e.g. Yabatalu).
201646		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acridocarpus monodii</span> is a chasmophyte branching sarmentose shrub found in shady areas on cliff faces and scree, which are reasonably humid for at least some of the dry season. It displays two forms depending on the growing conditions, namely “bushy” lianescent in more shady forested habitats and cascading when on sharp inaccessible cliff faces. It flowers and fruits throughout the dry season, from September to May. Flowering and fruiting is asynchronous between plants and individuals can often be seen with young flowers and mature fruits on different branches. Maturing of the fruit is believed to bring about dormancy of the embryo, with Birnbaum (2004) having been unable to germinate mature seeds, even after scarification or soaking. On the contrary, seeds from immature fruits (pale yellow flesh) have been found to germinate without difficulty on a moist base. <span style="font-style: italic;">Acridicarpus chevalieri </span>collected from the Manding Hills appears to share the same properties.<br/><br/>The Bandiagara plateau is comprised of sandstone, with rock slabs covered in holes, faults and caves that link together via springs along the base of the cliffs. The escarpment has been shaped into numerous irregularities, indentations, and promontories, and is pierced by thalweg ravines, gorges, and rocky passages connecting the plain and plateau (UNEP-WCMC 1995). At low levels the ravines are blocked by immense detached blocks of rock and thalwegs support a humid and shaded microclimate with dense vegetation. Water is also retained in rock fissures, resulting in seasonally boggy areas on horizontal or gently sloping rock strata. The Bandiagara cliff and ravine vegetation is in patches very diverse and dense; the chasmophytic flora includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Cissus quadrangularis, Ficus lecardii, Boscia angustifolia, Euphorbia sudanica, Lannea microcarpa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum lecardii</span> (Jaeger and Winkoun 1962). Average rainfall for 1994 was 600 mm, with 849.4 mm falling in 59 days at Bandiagara and 715.4 mm in 54 days at Sangha. Droughts last for up to eight months of the year. Rain falls irregularly mainly from June to September. Shade temperatures in May are reported to be some of the highest in the Sahel region (Pern 1985). <br/><br/>A<span style="font-style: italic;">cridocarpus monodii </span>populations are found at the border between two ecoregions, namely the West Sudanian Savanna and Sahelian Acacia Savanna. GLCC 2000 data suggests the species is found in two main habitats, namely “Herbaceous Cover, closed-open” and “Cultivated and managed areas”.
201646		population	eng	Birnbaum (2005) found <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> in numerous localities between the latitudes 14°13’07” and 14°31’47”, along the base of the Bandiagara cliffs from the road linking Bankass and Somadougou to the village of Idielina. He describes the plant as abundant in the valleys and on the cliffs in this region, with the village of Yabatalu being without a doubt the area where this plant is the most frequent. Here it is the dominant species in some locations (so dominant that it appears to be an invasive, Birnbaum (2007)), being notably abundant where the scree meets the cliff face. <span style="font-style: italic;">Acridocarpus monodii</span> is believed to flourish in Yabatalu due to the underground water supply which flows all year round and more specifically very close to where the species has proliferated. In this area the plant is entirely of the “bushy” (not cascading) form. <br/><br/>Jaeger and Winkoun (1962) described the species as “less frequent” at the bottom of the Kikara ravine, in comparison to the number of plants found on the boulders near Djimé. Due to not managing to relocate these populations in 2004, Birnbaum (2005) believes that the populations to the north of the cliffs sampled by Jaeger in 1958 are likely to have been wiped out by the severe droughts in 1973/74 and 1983/84. In addition, it has been suggested that the disappearance of the <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> (and the inhabitants) from Kikara village was caused by the interruption in the 1980s of the permanent water source that used to flow from the top of the Gandamia Cliff (Birnbaum, 2008).
201646		threats	eng	The greatest threats to the area and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii </span>in particular, include drought and desertification. Birnbaum (2005) has suggested that the northern populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> may have been wiped out by the severe droughts of 1973-74 and 1983-84, with this region being at the most risk of desiccation due to the strong “Harmattan” wind blowing from the northeast. <br/><br/>Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Sahelian Acacia Savanna ecoregions, where this species is found. The savanna vegetation has been profoundly degraded by fire and scrub clearance, most notably in the vicinity of village communities (Jaeger and Winkoun 1962). However, due to the inaccessibility of many of the areas where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii </span>grows, these processes are unlikely to threaten the species. Furthermore, the abundance of this species around and in the village of Yabatalu suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii</span> is not seriously threatened by general anthropogenic pressures, which have played a very important role in shaping the Dogon landscape over the last few thousand years. Damming of water sources for agricultural purposes however is likely to be a significant threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodii </span>populations. The creation of these small “dams” have been know to dry out valleys, including that near Kikara in the 1980s.
201647		conservation	eng	Many specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. chevalieri</span> have been collected from Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal, which has also been a World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve since 1981. However, there has been a serious deterioration in its state of conservation over the last few years with widespread cattle grazing, commercial timber exploitation and poaching occurring within the park.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon chevalieri</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201647		distribution	eng	Found in Mali, Senegal, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, possibly also in Togo and the Ivory Coast.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Andropogon</span> species are commonly adventive (locally or temporally naturalized) and therefore it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. chevalieri</span> be found in other neighbouring countries.
201647		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon chevalieri</span> is a tall annual grass, with culms reaching over 2.5 m in height. Leaf surfaces are scabrous (rough) and the leaf margins are fringed with short hairs.<br/><br/>Generally found on dry, stony soils, the species has been collected from various habitats within two ecoregions (West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna mosaic):<br/>- Steep rocky slopes between waterfall and plateau, along trail<br/>- Woodland<br/>- Grassland on surrounding plateau<br/>- Tall gallery forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceiba pentandra</span> bordering stream and a small waterfall<br/>- Plateau without trees<br/>- Savanna woodlands<br/>- Plateau with laterite soils<br/>- Gallery forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogeissus</span><br/><br/>Altitude range, derived from specimen labels, is 50 m to 450 m.<br/><br/>It is known to be abundant during the rainy season, especially in the Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal. During the beginning of the rainy season, on July 22, 2002, a chimpanzee fecal sample was collected that was made up almost entirely of wadded <span style="font-style: italic;">A.</span> grass leaves. Over two months later, near the end of the rainy season, on Sept. 27, Oct. 25, and on Nov. 14, more samples were found that also contained large amounts of unchewed grass leaves.
201647		population	eng	Many <span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon</span> species are considered weeds and are extremely hardy and it is likely that this species is relatively abundant throughout its range, being found in a variety of habitats. The presence of extensive subpopulations within the Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal can be inferred from the number of specimens which have been collected there and the fact that Fongoli chimpanzees are known to swallow large amounts of this grass, presumably for medicinal properties.
201647		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna Mosaic ecoregions. Both ecoregions are considered critical/endangered. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons/km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although many protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon chevalieri</span>, being a widespread and hardy grass, is unlikely to be seriously threatened by these processes, however. Many other <span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon</span> species are considered weeds, again indicating that this species can adapt to significant disturbance and possibly even thrive under these conditions.
201648		conservation	eng	No collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tourana</span> have been made from protected areas, and as so little is known of its habitat or true area of occupancy, its presence in any reserves in the region cannot be inferred. Collections have been made, though, in the vicinity of several forest reserves in the Ivory Coast and Nigeria and near to the Mont Sangbe National Park in Ivory Coast, suggesting that some natural habitat remains in the areas where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. tourana</span> was collected in the past. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia tourana</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201648		distribution	eng	This species is known from a total of five specimens collected in Ivory Coast (three collections), Mali and Nigeria. The Mali Vascular Plant Catalogue (Boudet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986) also refers to another specimen collected in Guinea by Chevalier (collector number 15,015), however the location and details of this specimen could not be confirmed.
201648		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia tourana</span> is a slender erect/climbing herb probably derived from a tuber for which very little information on habitat and ecology is available. Specimens have been collected from three different ecoregions, namely the Guinean montane forests, Guinean forest-savanna mosaic and West Sudanian savanna regions. Two habitat descriptions derived from specimen labels are available: in dense undergrowth of western gallery forest margin (Mali), and in savanna herbaceous layer (Ivory Coast).<br/><br/>Altitude range, estimated using GIS, is 159 m to 914 m, however there is only one specimen which actually includes altitude information, namely the type collected by Chevalier in the Ivory Coast from the mountainous regions of the Toura people at 800 to 900 m asl.
201648		population	eng	The species has been described as rare (Boudet<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1986). No other population data is available.
201648		threats	eng	No specific threats to this species are known. The tubers of several <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia</span> species are used as a food/water source, especially during times of famine and all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia</span> were previously listed on Appendix II. However, they were all removed in 2000 due to the realisation that the majority of species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia</span> is not in trade. The threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia </span>species are believed to be caused by habitat destruction or local use of edible tubers, not by international trade and most <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia</span> plants found in trade are not collected from the wild but traded as artificially propagated specimens.<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceropegia tourana</span> was included in the list for deletion from CITES Appendix II and accompanying notes stated that there was no trade or threat to the species.<br/><br/>General threats to the three ecoregions where the species is found include mining, unsustainable agricultural activities, fires and deforestation. Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna Mosaic ecoregions. Both ecoregions are considered critical/endangered. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons per km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although several protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. The current status of the Guinean montane forest ecoregion is poorly known because of continuing civil war in the region. Some mountain zones remain largely untouched and others have been severely degraded and fragmented.
201649		conservation	eng	Several collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. jaegeri</span> have been made from the Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal, where a reasonable sized subpopulation is likely to exist.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecrista jaegeri </span>is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201649		distribution	eng	Known from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Mali. Its distribution and general habitat requirements suggest that it is likely to occur in Guinea also; however there is no specimen data available for this country.
201649		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecrista jaegeri</span> is a slender subwoody herb (not known if annual or perennial) reaching heights of just under 2 m. It grows on rocky and sandy soils or soil with ferrugineous fine gravels and does not appear to be habitat specific as collections have been made from various habitats within the West Sudanian savanna and the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregions: <br/>- Dry open forest on massif slopes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Butyrospermum parkii, Khaya senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa</span>, etc.<br/>- Woody savanna<br/>- Grassfield<br/>- Forest<br/>- Roadsides<br/>- Woodland<br/>- Dry plateau<br/>- In dense bamboo stands at the base of plateau<br/>- With <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidagathis anobrya, Tephrosia platycarpa</span>, etc.<br/><br/>Altitude range, estimated using GIS, is 4 to 560 m. Only the most recent specimens collected from the Niokolo Koba National Park include any specific altitude data: all four specimens were collected from an area 50-80 m asl.
201649		population	eng	There is no specific population data for this species. The following comment by Madsen on where the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chamaecrista</span> is found in the Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal, suggests that there are at least several plants: “mainly on the dry plateau”.
201649		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna Mosaic ecoregions. Both ecoregions are considered critical/endangered. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons per km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although many protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. It is not known, however, if or how these threats are affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">C. jaegeri</span> specifically. As it appears to be widespread and found in a variety of habitats, threats specific to certain habitats are not likely to affect the population as a whole.
201650		conservation	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cissus doeringii</span> is known to be growing in several protected areas in the region including the Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal, the Loma Mountains in Sierra Leone, the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, and the Comoé and Marahoue National Parks in the Ivory Coast. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cissus doeringii</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201650		distribution	eng	Found throughout West Tropical Africa with collections from Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Benin and Togo. Also believed to extend through northern Nigeria and into Gabon.
201650		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cissus doeringii</span> is a subshrub with erect, stout stems about 1 m high. It grows in savanna habitats across two main ecoregions: the West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna Mosaic, in dry and marshy areas, mainly on gravelly and rocky soils. It is also found at higher altitudes within the Guinean montane forest ecoregion. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cissus doeringii</span> was found in two parcels of fallow land in Booro-Borotou in Ivory Coast, which had been burnt for agriculture five and 10 years previously, suggesting the species’ ability to colonise disturbed land, and in fact benefit from regular fire disturbance, considering the fact that it was not found in parcels which had been burnt over 40 years ago. It was also found in regularly burnt savanna on Mount Nimba (Guinea/Liberia/Ivory Coast). Altitude range, estimated using GIS, is 49 to 1,191 m, however literature resources suggests that species is found at even higher altitudes, specifically up to 1,400 m on the Loma mountains in Sierra Leone.
201650		population	eng	Several specimens have been collected from the Lamto Reserve in Ivory Coast, nine <span style="font-style: italic;">C. doeringii</span> plants were counted in four transect releves during a Lamto vegetation study in the 1970s and the species is referred to in a paper on the structure and primary productivity of the Lamto savannas, all three factors suggesting the presence of a reasonable <span style="font-style: italic;">C. doeringii </span>subpopulation in this area. It was also found in two study plots in Booro-Borotou (Ivory Coast) in 1989, five and ten years after burning of the land for agriculture. <br/><br/>Adomou (2005) listed this species as present in three of the ten phytogeographical districts of Benin, being found in Borgou-Sud, Borgou-Nord and Mékrou-Pendjari, also suggesting a reasonable level of frequency in this country. In Klela, Mali it was described as common by Demange in 1965. Jaeger collected four specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cissus rufescens</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">doeringii </span>from the Loma Mountains in Sierra Leone in the 1950s and 60s, and noted that this species was to found across the mountain range between 500 and 1,400 m above sea level and in a diversity of habitats.
201650		threats	eng	General threats to the three ecoregions where the species is found include mining, unsustainable agricultural activities, fires and deforestation. Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna Mosaic ecoregions. Both ecoregions are considered critical/endangered. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons per km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although several protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. The current status of the Guinean montane forest ecoregion is poorly known because of continuing civil war in the region. Some mountain zones remain largely untouched and others have been severely degraded and fragmented.<br/><br/>Considering the facts that slash and burn farming and the ensuing wild fires are believed to be the main threats to the savanna habitats in the region and that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. doeringii</span> appears to be fire tolerant and respond well to a regular burning cycle, this widespread population is not likely to be affected by these threats. Harvesting of its roots and fruits appears to occur on a localised scale and is not likely to be a threat to the species.
201651		conservation	eng	Throughout its range <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile</span> is represented in only one protected area, namely the Caldera de Luba Scientific Reserve on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. Specimens have also been collected from several proposed reserves in Cameroon (Etinde, Mont Manengouba and Mount Oku), however on writing these do not appear to have been designated despite much work over the last decade to gazette these reserves.<br/><br/>Note: The Ivory Coast specimen was collected from the Lamto Reserve and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile </span>has been listed as present in the Lake Mburo National Park in Uganda (Pomeroy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The latter is very unlikely, considering the fact that the species is not found as far east as Uganda (several Ugandan <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassocephalum </span>specimens kept at Missouri Botanical Garden were determined by the collector as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile</span>, however these have now been re-determined as <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassocephalum</span> x <span style="font-style: italic;">picridifolium</span> (DC.) S.Moore). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Crassocephalum gracile</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201651		distribution	eng	Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Crassocephalum gracile</span> have been collected from Guinea (three), Ivory Coast (one), Mali (one), Burkina Faso (one), Equatorial Guinea (one), Nigeria (one) and Cameroon (32)*, mostly from altitudes above 1,000 m. *Numbers in brackets refer to number of specimens for each country.<br/><br/>Determination of the specimen from Ivory Coast is yet to be confirmed, and is therefore excluded from range analysis. The specimen from Burkina Faso (collected from close to Safane [12º8’N, 03º13’ W] in 1957 by Winkoun and kept in the CNRST Herbarium in Burkina Faso) was only located after this assessment was completed and is therefore not shown on the map or included in the analysis. <br/><br/>Note on EOO and AOO calculations:<br/><br/>EOO was calculated using the alpha hull method as it was considered more  appropriate than the convex hull for this species due to the apparent  marked gap between the two main subpopulations (being separated by over  1,600 km). AOO was calculated using grid cell sizes estimated from alpha hull lengths, which resulted in a value larger than EOO. Having been described as common in a variety of habitats, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile</span> is likely to be present in many areas where it has not been collected and therefore this high value of AOO was considered an appropriate estimate.
201651		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crassocephalum gracile</span> is a straggling or erect herb up to 1 m high. It grows in marshland, along rivers, in grassland and forests, rising to altitudes of over 2,500 m. This species is found in several ecoregions, predominantly in mountain regions and adjoining savanna:<br/>- Cameroonian Highlands forests (11)*<br/>- Guinean Montane Forests (two)<br/>- Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests (18)<br/>- Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic (one)<br/>- Northwestern Congolian lowland forests (two)<br/>- West Sudanian savanna (two)<br/>*Numbers in brackets refer to number of specimens within each ecoregion.<br/><br/>The Ivory Coast specimen was collected from the Eastern Guinean forest ecoregion, further increasing the number of ecoregions represented, if presence can be confirmed.<br/><br/>Altitude range, estimated using GIS, is 363 to 3,393 m asl (this does not include the specimen from Ivory Coast which was collected from the Lamto Reserve at 75 m and from lowland savanna habitat) and habitats derived from specimen labels including the following:<br/>- Grove in moist savanna<br/>- Grassland on lava deposits<br/>- Montane Forest<br/>- Montane grassland<br/>- At forest edge<br/>- Marshy Ground<br/>- Roadside<br/>- On edge of crater<br/>- Among bush with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteridium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aframomum</span> spp.<br/>- Margin of mist forest where long grass grows, also in unburned grassland outside<br/>- Swamp with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Juncus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Epilobium</span>, Cyperaceae, <span style="font-style: italic;">Smithia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocotyle</span>, Commelinaceae, Melast. (sterile). About 30 x   <br/>  100 m. No open water. Dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus-Epilobium</span> complex and Compositae.<br/>- Rock outcrop. 80% cover boulders strewn. Light vegetation cover with no trees. Slope variable. Young volcanic soils.<br/>- Montane grassland; growing in ash deposits at either side of lava flow. In association with other Compositae and <br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypericum lanceolatum</span>. Open, exposed site. <br/><br/>All the above habitats refer to Cameroon apart from the first two, which refer to Mali and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) respectively.<br/><br/>Two cytological studies have been carried out on this species using material collected from the Manengouba Mountains in Cameroon (1972) and Mount Cameroon (1993), both concluding that for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile</span> 2n = 20.
201651		population	eng	Excluding the data from Uganda and Ivory Coast, five subpopulations of this species appear to exist. One in Guinea, one in Mali and three in Cameroon (one each in Western Cameroon (including Bioko Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria), Southern Cameroon and Eastern Cameroon). Those in Mali and Guinea are separated from the Cameroon subpopulations by over 1,600 km. Information on abundance is restricted to collectors comments from Cameroon, namely “locally common mid swamp”, Cheek (1998) and “common in montane grassland habitat”, Upson (1990).
201651		threats	eng	Although subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile</span> appear to be spread over many ecoregions, ranging from lowland forests and savanna to highland forests, where threats include mining, unsustainable agricultural activities, fires and deforestation, the majority of known localities are found within three montane ecoregions and threats specific to these are outlined  below. No threats specific to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. gracile</span> are known.<br/><br/>The Cameroonian highland forests are specifically threatened by extensive forest loss due to firewood collection and unsustainable timber production. The area’s rich, volcanic soils have also made the land a target for farmland conversion and cultivation. In addition, this is one of the least well-protected ecoregions in Africa. No part of this ecoregion is under formal protected status in Cameroon, although local traditional rulers still exert considerable authority over land use.<br/><br/>Overgrazing, fire damage, unsustainable exploitation of firewood and agricultural encroachment all put pressure on the Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests. The areas that receive slightly lower rainfall, and hence have better agricultural potential, are in the most demand and are the most likely to be converted into agricultural lands. In some areas of Mount Cameroon, up to half the forest cover has already been lost. While there are some areas of protected forest in Bioko, Mount Cameroon is very poorly protected. Oil palm, rubber and banana plantations are found across much of the Mount Cameroon foothills. Environmental impact studies carried out by the Mount Cameroon Project, a collaboration between the Government of Cameroon, DFID, GTZ and GEF, may impose constraints on further plantation creation, but some expansion is inevitable. The fact that none of this ecoregion is found within a National Park on the mainland is a major concern and a threat to the future of this important area. <br/><br/>The current status of the Guinean montane forest ecoregion is poorly known because of continuing civil war in the region. Some mountain zones remain largely untouched and others have been severely degraded and fragmented.
201652		conservation	eng	The species is not known to be represented in any protected areas. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis ake-assi</span>i is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201652		distribution	eng	Known from only three specimens in Mali and one in Ivory Coast.
201652		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis ake-assii </span>is a perennial herb growing in the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion. The only habitat information available for the species is derived from specimen labels. The northernmost collections in Mali were from “shaded undergrowth” and “dry woodland” habitats. Altitude range, estimated using GIS, is 304 to 481 m.
201652		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
201652		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion. As an ecoregion it is considered critical/endangered. The human population density is high over much of the ecoregion. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons/km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although many protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground.<br/><br/>It is unknown to what extent these threats are affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyanotis ake-assii</span> and a study of satellite images combined with specimen localities suggests that present habitat conditions in the four previous collecting localities are reasonable, and therefore that these subpopulations are likely to be extant despite the collections having been made over 50 years ago. The species is known to grow on “bowals” which are considered unsuitable for agriculture and are common throughout southern Mali, further suggesting that suitable habitat for this species remains to the present day.
201653		conservation	eng	Three specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">J. niokolo-kobae</span> have been collected from Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal, which has also been a World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve since 1981. However, there has been a serious deterioration in its state of conservation over the last few years with widespread cattle grazing, commercial timber exploitation and poaching occurring within the park. It was inscribed on the List of World Heritage Sites in Danger in 2007.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Justicia niokolo-kobae</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201653		distribution	eng	This species was previously only known from the Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal (collected by Berhaut and Madsen), however there are now also collections from Mali (Jaeger) and Benin (Houngnon and Krohmer).
201653		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Justicia niokolo-kobae</span> is an annual herb having been collected from a variety of habitats, namely moist gallery forest in Senegal, a ravine in Mali and on the margin on lowland grass savanna in Benin. In 2001 in Benin, it was collected from the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhytachne gracilis</span> community, growing on clay soils and “developing with” <span style="font-style: italic;">Monechma ciliatum</span>.<br/><br/>Further information derived from GIS includes an altitude range of 82 to 402 m and presence of the species in two different global land cover habitats - Shrub Cover, closed-open, deciduous (with or without sparse tree layer) cover and Mosaic: Cropland / Shrub and/or Herbaceous cover; and one ecoregion – the West Sudanian Savanna.
201653		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
201653		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion, which is considered critical/endangered. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons per km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although many protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. <br/><br/>Several <span style="font-style: italic;">Justicia</span> species in are listed as weeds in the Global Compendium of Weeds, including three species found in West Africa, namely<span style="font-style: italic;"> J. betonica, J. flava.</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">J. schimperi</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Justicia niokolo-kobae</span> may also be of a hardy/weed-like nature and therefore not be significantly affected by any of the afore-mentioned threats. It has been listed, however as a species threatened within Senegal in a government document on biodiversity (Gouvernement du Sénégal 2004).
201654		conservation	eng	No collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. de-waillyi</span> have been made from reserves or national parks. Protected areas along the Niger River in Mali include the Ansongo Ménaka Partial Faunal Reserve and three Ramsar sites created in 1987, namely Lac Horo, Lac Debo and the Séri floodplain complex. <span style="font-style: italic;">M. de-waillyi </span>is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201654		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua de-waillyi</span> is known from only three collections in Mali along or near to the Niger river. The first of these is the type specimen collected by De Wailly in 1937 from the islands of the Niger rapids between Gao and Ansogo, and the other two were collected by Breman in 1978 (Wageningen Herbarium); to the east of Diabali (in the vicinity of the Fala de Molodo channel?) and from Ras el Ma (near the Lac Faguibine?). <br/><br/>Boudet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1986) mention a second specimen found between Gao and Bouren, however this refers to a note made by Aubréville and Pellegrin (1950) under their brief description of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. de-waillyi</span> which actually states: “we have recently found a form of the same group [is group referring to <span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua</span> as also having discussed <span style="font-style: italic;">M. crassifolia</span>?] in very dry steppe (sub-Saharan vegetation, between Gao and Bouren); we will come back to these plants later”. There has not been any confirmation as to the determination of “these plants”.
201654		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua de-waillyi</span> is a shrub with rigid branches. Its fruit is unknown. The original specimen which was collected from “islands in the Niger rapids” and the African Flowering Plants Database lists “Sand-banks and rocks in river beds (rapids), as <span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis barteri</span>” as habitat type for the species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis barteri</span> is a common grass in the Niger Delta found on sandy alluvia flooded from 30 to 50 cm for approximately three months. The two specimens collected by Breman also appear to have been collected close to water, namely the channel and lake noted under distribution, however this has been inferred from locality only and there is no additional habitat information available for these collections. Further information derived from GIS includes an altitude range of 265 to 372 m and presence of the species in two ecoregions – Sahelian Acacia Savanna and West Sudanian Savanna.
201654		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
201654		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Sahelian Acacia Savanna ecoregions, the former being considered critical/endangered. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Soil erosion and consequent desertification is a significant problem in the Sahelian Acacia Savanna ecoregion. Although many protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. <br/><br/>Changes in flood regime due to an increase in crop irrigation, particularly in the drier regions of the Sahelian Acacia Savanna, are likely to have a direct affect on <span style="font-style: italic;">M. de-waillyi</span>. A strong retrogression of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis barteri</span> in response to the lessened flood intensity has already been observed in the Niger Delta.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua crassifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Maerua</span> species in general are listed as weeds in the Global Compendium of Weeds suggesting that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. de-waillyi</span> may also be of a hardy/weed-like nature and therefore not be affected by any of the afore-mentioned threats.
201655		conservation	eng	The species is known to exist in the following protected areas: Mole National Park and World Heritage Site and Kani Kani Forest Reserve (Ghana); Razinga Ranch Protected Zone (Burkina Faso). Presence in the Bosumtwi Range Forest Reserve in Ghana needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/>According to UNESCO, “the Mole National Park represents a fairly undisturbed guinea Savannah ecosystem dominated by open savannah woodland” – suggesting that<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. obscura</span> populations within this national park are likely to be well protected. <span style="font-style: italic;">Marsdenia obscura</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201655		distribution	eng	Known from thirteen specimens collected from Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Benin. Several data sources claim this species is endemic to Ghana, however this is not the case. Specimen data was used to create the distribution map and carry out range calculations, however online references also refer to the presence of this species in the Mole National Park and the Bosumtwi Range Forest Reserve, both in Ghana (The Virtual Field Herbarium 2007). If presence of the species in the Bosumtwi Reserve is confirmed both AOO and EOO values would increase.
201655		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marsdenia obscura</span> is a small woody lacteous climber/creeper growing in the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion of Mali, Burkina Faso and Ghana and in the Guinean Forest Savanna Mosaic ecoregion in Benin. If presence in the Bosumtwi Range Forest Reserve in Ghana is confirmed, the species will also be represented in the Eastern Guinean Forests ecoregion. Habitat descriptions accompanying specimens include: <br/><br/>- wet area of savanna<br/>- in savanna forest<br/>- among grasses<br/>- open savanna woodland<br/><br/>Altitude range, estimated using GIS, is 67 to 459 m.
201655		population	eng	There is no population data available for this species.
201655		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the West Sudanian Savanna and Guinean Forest-savanna Mosaic ecoregions. Both ecoregions are considered critical/endangered. Population densities of 50 to 100 persons per km² are found widely. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Although many protected areas exist, most are under-resourced "paper parks" with little active enforcement on the ground. It is unknown to what extent these threats are affecting <span style="font-style: italic;">M. obscura</span>, however.
201656		conservation	eng	No collections of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. sclerophylla </span>have been made from reserves or national parks. Protected areas along the Niger River in Mali include the Ansongo Ménaka Partial Faunal Reserve and three Ramsar sites created in 1987, namely Lac Horo, Lac Debo and the Séri floodplain complex. The collection in 1956 by Davey appears to have been made near to Lac Debo. <span style="font-style: italic;">Oldenlandia sclerophylla</span> is on the target species list for the Millennium Seed Bank Project and was included in the Mali Collection Guide compiled by the Species Targeting Team. Seed for banking (in Mali and the UK), however, has not been collected as yet.
201656		distribution	eng	This species is known for certain from only three collections in Mali. The first of these is the type specimen collected by Hagerup in 1927 from Timbuktu. De Wailly collected another from between Gao and Berra and Davey collected a specimen from Gorinnta near Dogo in 1956. It is unclear where the latter was collected as Gorinnta cannot be found on any map and there are two Dogos in Mali. The Dogo nearest to Timbuktu has been chosen as the likely locality.<br/> <br/>Boudet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1986) noted: "We have seen samples deriving from Senegal, Niger and Chad that correspond to this "species", however only a detailed study will enable us to judge their worth; it is very similar to  <span style="font-style: italic;">O. capensis</span> which is variable and has a wide distribution". <br/><br/>There does not appear to have been any confirmation as to the determination of these “samples”. Bremekamp (1952) also mentions “to this species probably belong[s] the very small specimen[s]…collected by Collin (n.167) somewhere in Senegal”. The publication stored in the Kew library has a note on this page, crossing out the Senegal and replacing it with French Niger. Furthermore in FWTA, the Collin 167 specimen is listed under French Sudan. There therefore appears to be much confusion as to the actual distribution of this species.
201656		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oldenlandia sclerophylla</span> is a small branching herb for which no habitat data is available. It is very similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. capensis</span> which is found on river banks and wet places. This corresponds to the localities where this species has been collected, namely all along the Niger River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Oldenlandia capensis</span> is a weed of padi-fields.<br/><br/>Further information derived from GIS includes an altitude range of 227 to 270 m and presence of the species in three different global land cover habitats - herbaceous cover, bare areas and water bodies; and two ecoregions – Sahelian Acacia savanna and Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna. This information has been inferred from locality information alone and therefore relies on assumed accuracy of the collection points.
201656		population	eng	There is no population data for this species.
201656		threats	eng	Human activities have reduced, degraded, and fragmented both the Inner Niger Delta Flooded Savanna and Sahelian Acacia Savanna ecoregions. There are considerable pressures on the land from seasonal farming, grazing animals, cutting trees and bushes for wood, burning woody material for charcoal, and from wild fires. Climatic desiccation is a further threat, exacerbating human pressures, as the ability of the ecosystem to recover from overuse is reduced when there is little rainfall. Soil erosion and consequent desertification is a significant problem in the Sahelian Acacia Savanna ecoregion. More than 500,000 people live in the Inner Delta of the Niger River, herding millions of sheep and goats and using the floodplains for dry-season grazing and growing many crops on the wetland's productive soils. These activities have caused some habitat loss in the region, but damming and irrigation projects pose even more serious threats. In recent times, a combination of low river floods, limited rains, increasing human populations and changing administrative practices has increased pressure on the delta. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Oldenlandia capensis</span> and several other <span style="font-style: italic;">Oldenlandia</span> species in are listed as weeds in the Global Compendium of Weeds suggesting that<span style="font-style: italic;"> O. sclerophylla</span> may also be of a hardy/weed-like nature and therefore not be significantly affected by any of the afore-mentioned threats. Changes in flood regime are likely to have a direct affect on <span style="font-style: italic;">O. sclerophylla</span>, however, especially if it is restricted to flooded/moist areas along the Niger River as the specimen and locality data suggests.
201659		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
201659		distribution	eng	This species is found in the states of Mato Grosso, Pará, and on the Pará-Tocantins boarder, Brazil. <span style="font-style: italic;">Castelnavia fluitans</span> is common in the rivers; the plants produce a dense carpet-like growth on many of the rock outcrops.
201659		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201659		population	eng	There is no information on current population trends or size.
201659		threats	eng	Construction of hydroelectric dams is the main threat to this species. Secondary threats are from sedimentation (construction, deforestation) and pollution (domestic, industrial).
201660		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place.
201660		distribution	eng	This species is only found in the Araguaia River (in a region reaching from 5°17’1.82” S, 48°57’0.0” W, upstream to 5°21’46.5” S, 48°45’8.05” W), between the states of Pará and Tocantins, Brazil. It is common; plants occur on many of the outcrops along this region of the river.
201660		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201660		population	eng	There is no information on the current population trend or size.
201660		threats	eng	Construction of hydroelectric dams is the main threat to this species. Secondary threats are from sedimentation (construction, deforestation) and pollution (domestic, industrial).
201661		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place.
201661		distribution	eng	This species is found in Bolivia and Brazil. It is common in the northern region of the state of Mato Grosso and southern Pará, Brazil. It is occasional found in northern part of the state of Goiás. In Bolivia, it is known from a single location in northeastern Bolivia in the department of Santa Cruz. <span style="font-style: italic;">Castelnavia multipartita</span> is thought to be common; plants produce a dense carpet-like growth on many of the rock outcrops.
201661		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201661		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
201661		threats	eng	Construction of hydroelectric dams is the main threat to this species. Secondary threats are from sedimentation (construction, deforestation) and pollution (domestic, industrial).
201662		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place. Further field surveys are needed in the region to determine if other subpopulations exist.
201662		distribution	eng	This species occurs along an approximately 2 km length of the Taquarussu River just to the east of the town of Taquarussu state of Tocantins, Brazil.
201662		habitat	eng	Plants are attached to exposed rock outcrops and occur in dense clusters. General observations indicate that essentially all plants flower when exposed as the water level in the river drops during the dry season. The river flows through a disturbed (partially deforested) woodland.
201662		population	eng	This species is common along the stretch of the river where it is found.
201662		threats	eng	Siltation (construction, deforestation), and pollution (domestic) are likely at this location. Modest (not yet threatening) amounts of siltation and pollution (domestic sources) are apparent.
201663		conservation	eng	The large range overlaps several protected areas and reserves and it is known to occur in 11 botanic gardens. Collection of seed for <em>ex situ</em> preservation is recommended.
201663		distribution	eng	Endemic to China and occurs in the high mountains of Quinghai and Sichuan. Found at elevations ranging from 2,000 m to 4,800 m.
201663		habitat	eng	Small subshrubs growing in grassland, shrubland and rocky areas. Pollination occurs between May and July and seeds mature from August to September.
201663		population	eng	The population size is unknown.
201663		threats	eng	No major threats are known. This species has medicinal properties, but it is not known whether harvest for this purpose is a significant threat.
201664		conservation	eng	Samples have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project and collections are known to occur in more than 20 botanic gardens and numerous subpopulations occur within the protected area network. Monitoring of wild harvesting is recommended to better understand how this is affecting population size.
201664		distribution	eng	Occurs from southwestern Siberia (Russian Federation) to Iran and Himalayas and eastern China. Has a wide altitudinal range occurring from 100 m up to 4,600 m.
201664		habitat	eng	A shrub growing in grasslands, deserts, river valleys, flood plains, sandy beaches, cliffs, other dry, sandy or rocky places (Fu <em>et al</em>. 2010). Often found on mountain slopes in gravelly and sandy soil; normally in arid areas. Associated with <em>Juniper</em> and<em> Berberis</em>. Flowering is from March to July and fruiting from July to August.
201664		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is known from a large number of subpopulations, so is presumably fairly common.
201664		threats	eng	The plants are harvested from the wild in Pakistan for local and international use. The species contains a relatively high proportion (ca. 0.7%) of ephedrine alkaloids, although <em>E. gerardiana</em> is favoured in this region due to an even higher ephedrine content (1 - 2.5 %). The risk of over-harvesting should be investigated.
201665		conservation	eng	Samples have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project and two collections are known from botanic gardens. Across its range, <em>E. przewalskii</em> occurs in many protected areas.
201665		distribution	eng	Distributed across Central Asia from Mongolia to Pakistan. Recorded from 300 m up to 3,800 m.
201665		habitat	eng	Shrub, found in dry, sandy places, stabilized sand, gravelly plains and stony slopes. In lowland parts of the range it can be associated with xerohalophytes and gypsophytes such as <em>Salsola arbusculiformis</em>, <em>Anabasis truncata</em>, <em>Arthrophytum betpakdalense</em>, <em>Nanophytum erinaceum</em> and <em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>. In sandy areas it can be associated with <em>Haloxylon persicum</em> (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 1994).
201665		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is recorded as sub-dominant or dominant in areas (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 1994).
201665		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
201666		conservation	eng	Although it has a large range it does not appear to be well represented within the protected areas network. There are no known samples collected for <em>ex situ</em> seed banks and there is one known collection within a botanic garden.
201666		distribution	eng	Endemic to Argentina, occurring from Catamarca province in the north to Santa Cruz province in the south. Recorded from sea level up to 2,100 m.
201666		habitat	eng	A spreading shrub to 1 m tall Found growing on slopes, in sandy or gravelly soil; often on dunes. Flowers in December.
201666		population	eng	Population size is not known, but recorded as common and abundant.
201666		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species at present.
201667		conservation	eng	A single collection has been recorded from the Hormod National Protected Area. There are no known specimens in botanic gardens and no known <em>ex situ</em> collections e.g. samples in seed banks.
201667		distribution	eng	Endemic to Iran. Occurs from 400 m to 1,200 m.
201667		habitat	eng	A shrub, up to 0.6 m tall, found growing in dry wadi beds and rocky slopes. Flowers in March.
201667		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201667		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201668		conservation	eng	Rated by NatureServe as G3 G4 (rounded to G3) indicating a vulnerable species, although this has not been reviewed since 1998. No samples are known to occur in <em>ex situ</em> seed banks, although at least 12 records of this plant have been recorded from botanic gardens.
201668		distribution	eng	Occurs from California in the USA to Baja California in Mexico. Recorded to occur from sea level up to 1,350 m.
201668		habitat	eng	Erect shrub found growing in brush grassland, arid desert and valley grasslands. Often found on dry slopes on sandy soil. Associated with <em>Aesculus parryi</em>, <em>Agave shawii</em>, <em>Ambrosia dumosa</em>, <em>Dudleya</em>, <em>Eriogonum fasciculatum</em>, <em>Euphorbia misera</em>, <em>Franseria</em>, <em>Galvesia juncea</em>, <em>Haplopappus occidentalis</em>, <em>Hymenoclea salsoa</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Larea tribentata</em>, <em>Lycium</em>, <em>Machaerocereus gummosus</em>, <em>Mamillaria dioica</em>, <em>Opuntia</em>,  <em>Rhus integrifolia</em>, <em>Simmondsia</em>, <em>Solanum</em>, <em>Yucca</em>. Flowers from February to May, coning from March to April. Seed are likely to be dispersed by seed caching rodents (Hollander <em>et al</em>. 2010).
201668		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is reported to occur in scattered populations.
201668		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present.
201669		conservation	eng	There are no known occurrences reported from protected areas, although collections have been made close to the Jebel Samhan National Nature Reserve in Oman. There are no known collections for botanic gardens or for <em>ex situ</em> storage in seed/gene banks.
201669		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southern edge of the Arabian Peninsula in Oman and Yemen. Occurs from 600 m up to 1,200 m.
201669		habitat	eng	A shrub which occurs in semi-arid zones and shrubland on dry limestone slopes. Associated with <em>Boswellia</em> and <em>Euphorbia</em> and <em>Acacia</em>-<em>Commiphora</em> woodland.
201669		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is reported as not common. Initially it was thought to be restricted to Dhofar (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 1992), but has recently also been reported from Al Mahrah, Yemen (Kilian <em>et al</em> .2002).
201669		threats	eng	Under no present or perceived threat (S. Ghazanfar pers. comm. 2011). Overgrazing may be a problem in some areas.
201670		conservation	eng	Despite the wide range the known collections are not well covered by the protected area network. Seeds have yet to be collected as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure. It is represented in three botanic gardens worldwide. Further surveys are required to better understand the status of the population.
201670		distribution	eng	Has a large range stretching from Bolivia to southern Argentina. Also has a wide altitudinal range occurring from 300 m up to 3,000 m.
201670		habitat	eng	A shrub to 2 m tall, or climbing. Leaves in twos at the nodes. Found growing in semi-arid areas, often in disturbed areas, in sandy soil on rocky hillsides, in gulches and on clay bluffs. Flowers from November to January.
201670		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201670		threats	eng	Considered a weed and under no major threat at present, although it has been reported to be eaten by livestock.
201671		conservation	eng	Not reported to occur in any protected areas and no reported seed bank collection, although it does grow in two botanic gardens. Seed (strobili) collection is a recommended <em>ex situ</em> conservation action as well as further research to understand threats and population size and status.
201671		distribution	eng	Distributed from northwest Argentina through to Chile and Bolivia. Also reported from southeastern Peru, although no recent specimen records were found. Recorded from 500 m up to 4,300 m.
201671		habitat	eng	Often found in areas of low vegetation with small shrubs such as Puna grassland with cushion shrubs and <em>Cereus</em>. Able to tolerate arid areas with full exposure. Also found on rocky outcrops in dry areas. Prefers calcium-rich soil. Flowers from October to November and fruits from January to February.
201671		population	eng	Reported as locally common, although the exact population size is not known.
201671		threats	eng	Although this plant is known to be grazed by animals there is no indication as to whether this is sustainable or not.
201672		conservation	eng	Seed has yet to be collected as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.
201672		distribution	eng	Occurs in North Africa in Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia, also found on Malta and on the Canary Islands (to Spain). Occurs from 10 m to 700 m.
201672		habitat	eng	A shrub often found on rocky calcareous slopes. Flowering time is between February-May. Fruiting time is between April-May. The ripe female cone is eaten by animals.
201672		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201672		threats	eng	There are general threats to the habitat across the range of this species, but no specific major threats.
201673		conservation	eng	<em>E. pachyclada</em> is known to occur in at least one botanic garden and seeds have been collected and stored as an <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measure as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project. Some collections are found within protected areas.
201673		distribution	eng	Distributed from Sinai to Pakistan including the Zagros range in Iran and extending south to Yemen and Oman.
201673		habitat	eng	Small dense shrub, normally found in the montane to alpine zones of dry areas, but can also be associated with shrublands and woodlands. Associated with <em>Pistacia khinjuk</em>, <em>Artemisia</em> and<em> Juniperus</em>/<em>Olea</em> woodlands. Flowers from May to June.
201673		population	eng	Exact population size is not known and abundance is variable across the range; considered common in some regions and less frequent in others.
201673		threats	eng	No major threats known.
201674		conservation	eng	Rated by NatureServe as G5 - Globally Secure, indicating a species that is common, widespread and abundant. Occurs within numerous protected areas, a collection has been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project and it is known to occur in several botanic gardens.
201674		distribution	eng	Recorded from southeastern California to Texas, USA and northern Mexico. Occurs from 500 m up to 2,000 m.
201674		habitat	eng	A shrub, growing in arid, rocky areas, on sandy or gravelly soil. Associated with desert grassland or shrubland and the following plants: <em>Acacia greggii</em>, <em>Acacia neovernicosa</em>, <em>Ambrosia dumosa</em>, <em>Atriplex</em>, <em>Cleome</em>, <em>Flourensia cernua</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Larrea</em>, <em>Opuntia macrocentra</em>, <em>Prosopsis</em>, <em>Sporobolus</em>,<em> Yucca elata</em>. Seed cone with reddish-brown or yellow-brown wing-like bracts, thought to be wind-dispersed. Flowers from February to May and coning is in late winter to early spring.
201674		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is reported as frequent.
201674		threats	eng	Utilized as a tea and for medicinal purposes.
201675		conservation	eng	Rated in NatureServe as T4 - Apparently Secure under<em> Ephedra viridis</em> var. <em>viscida</em> - (H.C.Cutler) L.D.Benson, which is treated as a synonym of <em>E. cutleri</em> here. There are no known <em>ex situ</em> seed collections, although there is one collection known from a botanic garden. Occurs in multiple protected areas across its range including the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah.
201675		distribution	eng	Distributed in the USA through Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah. Occurs from 500 m up to 3,000 m.
201675		habitat	eng	A clump forming shrub, grows in arid areas on sandy soil and sandstone, occasionally on rocky slopes. Found on sand dunes and in canyon walls in mixed desert shrub community, growing with <em>Chrysanthamnus</em>, <em>Yucca</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Artemisia tridentata</em>, <em>Coleogyne</em> and grasses. Coning is from March to May.
201675		population	eng	Exact population size is not known, but is reported as common and often the dominant species in places, forming dense colonies.
201675		threats	eng	The stems are grazed by animals in winter, it is not clear whether this constitutes a major threat at present.
201676		conservation	eng	There are no known collections in botanic gardens and no samples collected for <em>ex situ</em> storage in seed banks. The protected area network is patchy in this region, and the known records of this species do not fall within any protected reserve. <em>Ex situ</em> collections are recommended and further investigation of the threat from grazing is needed.
201676		distribution	eng	Endemic to the northern escarpment of Somalia and the high mountains of Eritrea. Based on the presence of similar habitat, <em>E. somalensis</em> is also likely to occur on the eastern escarpment of the Ethiopian Plateau and the mountains of Djibouti although no records are known at present (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 2003). Has been recorded from 1,200 m up to 2,700 m.
201676		habitat	eng	A shrub, to 1.5 m tall. Found in xerophytic evergreen afromontane forests and bushlands on soils derived from gnieiss, schist and limestone. Associated with <em>Buxus hildebrandtii</em>, <em>Dracaena ombet</em>, <em>Monetheca buxifolia</em>, <em>Euryops arabicus</em>, <em>Teucrium polium</em>, <em>Olea</em>, <em>Juniperus procera</em>, <em>Tarchonanthus</em>, <em>Cadia</em>, <em>Pistacia aethiopica</em> and <em>Dodonaea viscosa</em>. Flowers in March. Freitag and Maier-Stolte (2003).
201676		population	eng	Abundant in the Juniper belt (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 2003).
201676		threats	eng	Noted as being grazed by goats, although this is not considered a major threat.
201677		conservation	eng	Rated by NatureServe as G5 - Globally Secure, indicating a species that is common, widespread and abundant. Occurs within numerous protected areas, samples have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project and it is known to occur in several botanic gardens.
201677		distribution	eng	Ranges from western central USA to northern Mexico.Occurs from 500 m up to 2,000 m.
201677		habitat	eng	A shrub found in arid and rocky areas growing on limestone outcrops or in sandy to gravelly soil on slopes. Commonly found in desert scrub/shrub community with associated species such as <em>Dasylirion, Juniperus, Larrea, Opuntia</em>, Pinyon  Pine, <em>Sphaeralacea</em>, and <em>Yucca</em>. Flowers from April to June, coning in spring. Exhibits a <1% mortality rate when the surroundings are burned.
201677		population	eng	Common or occasional depending on area; the population size not known.
201677		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
201678		conservation	eng	Some specimens are known to have been collected from protected areas such as the Wadi El Gemal - Hamata National Park in Egypt. <em>E. aphylla</em> is represented in at least three botanic gardens, but no seed collections have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation purposes.
201678		distribution	eng	The range of <em>E. aphylla</em> extends across the eastern Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula. Occurs from 700 m up to 2,000 m.
201678		habitat	eng	A tall shrub, found hanging from cracks in limestone cliffs or near wadis in sand. Often found growing in Juniper forest with <em>Pistacia</em>, <em>Opuntia</em>, <em>Daphne linearifolia</em>, <em>Artemesia</em> and <em>Thymelaea hirsuta</em>. Flowers and fruits March-June. This species is considered a weed in Egypt.
201678		population	eng	Reported as being locally common in some areas, but rare in the extreme north of Saudi Arabia (Miller and Cope 1996).
201678		threats	eng	There are no specific uses for this plant and no major threats are known.
201679		conservation	eng	Samples have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project. Some collections of this species are known to have been made in protected areas.
201679		distribution	eng	Occurs across Central Asia from southwestern Siberia (Russian Federation) to Pakistan and west to Afghanistan and Kazakhstan. Recorded from 700 m up to 4,000 m.
201679		habitat	eng	A shrub, found growing in semi-desert and steppe habitat, on mountain slopes, rocky, gravelly areas, amongst pebbles of dried river beds and sandy areas. Flowers from June to July.
201679		population	eng	Reported as common.
201679		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201680		conservation	eng	Numerous collections of <em>E. distachya</em> are known from botanic gardens and a sample is known to have been collected as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project. It has previously been assessed on a national scale in Hungary as part of the Red List of Hungary (Király <em>et al</em>. 2007), where it was rated as Near Threatened. The wide range of <em>E. distachya</em> intersects numerous protected areas.
201680		distribution	eng	Occurs across southern Europe (Spain, France) to central Asia (Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Iran). Occurs from sea level up to 1,400 m.
201680		habitat	eng	A dwarf shrub, found growing in a wide range of arid habitats including steppe communities, sandy areas (dunes or seaside), rocky ledges, gravelly plains, slopes. Tolerates areas where other plants are virtually non-existent. Also grows alongside grasses (<em>Stipa</em>, <em>Festuca</em>) and <em>Artemesia</em> communities. Flowers from April to July and fruits September to October.
201680		population	eng	Depending on country, it can be rare, frequent or locally dominant.
201680		threats	eng	Reported to have been overgrazed in some areas. It is known to be a valuable fodder plant, grazed by sheep and goats.
201681		conservation	eng	The distribution of this species intersects several protected areas including the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve. Seeds have yet to be collected as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure, although it is known to be represented in two botanic gardens. Further research on threats and population status would aid future assessments.
201681		distribution	eng	Has a wide range extending through the Andes from Ecuador to northern Argentina. Occurs from 1,900 m up to 4,600 m.
201681		habitat	eng	A dwarf shrub to 0.6 m tall, prostrate, forming dense cushions. Found in grassy páramo with rocky outcrops in windswept areas, growing in gravelly or sandy soil. Also found in grassy areas and associated with cushion plants, bunch grass, cactus, lichen and composites. Flowers from March to May.
201681		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201681		threats	eng	Only small scale grazing is likely to affect this species due to its distribution at high elevations. As with other <em>Ephedra</em> species it may be harvested for medicinal uses, but there is no specific reference about this species being utilized.
201682		conservation	eng	There are no known collections in <em>ex situ</em> conservation such as botanic gardens or seed banks. The range of the species overlaps some protected areas. Further surveys across the range are suggested to better understand the status of populations.
201682		distribution	eng	Occurs from Central Asia to Iran (Irano-Turanian distribution) and is recorded from 700 m up to 2,500 m.
201682		habitat	eng	A shrub which grows in arid, desert areas on sandy slopes. Seeds are likely to be wind-dispersed. Flowers from April to May.
201682		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is sometimes reported as abundant.
201682		threats	eng	There are no major threats known at present.
201683		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in several protected areas including the Itapuã State Park and Reserva Biológica do Lami in Brazil. Recorded from nineteen botanic gardens, but there is no known seed collection for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
201683		distribution	eng	Occurs from southern Brazil to central and northern Argentina and Uruguay. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m.
201683		habitat	eng	A climbing shrub often found in moist forests (including Mata Atlântica) and woods, generally in wetter conditions than other <em>Ephedra</em> in this region. Reported from hygrophilic woodland in the Esteros del Ibera region of Corrientes, Argentina.
201683		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201683		threats	eng	Known to be of ornamental value and cultivated for the horticultural trade. A significant process of aforestation is occurring in Uruguay at a rate of 50,000 hectares per year (FAO 2004) causing a threat to natural forest. Conversion of land for agriculture in the region is also a significant problem.
201684		conservation	eng	There are numerous protected areas across the range of this species. Due to collection locality uncertainty it is not clear whether the species occurs within a natural reserve or any other protected area. No collections are known to have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation. Further surveys are needed to help understand the status of the population.
201684		distribution	eng	<em>Ephedra kardangensis</em> is known from the western Himalayas (Himachal Pradesh) in India and Pakistan. Occurs between 3,000 m and 3,300 m.
201684		habitat	eng	A shrub, found on gentle slopes. Associated with pines in Kardang (District Lahaul) in the northwest Himalayas. Flowering from July to August and producing seeds from August to September (Sharma <em>et al</em>. 2010).
201684		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201684		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201685		conservation	eng	Listed in NatureServe under <em>Ephedra nevadensis</em> var. <em>aspera </em>(Engelm. ex S.Wats.) L.Benson as T4 - Apparently Secure. The distribution of this species intersects numerous protected areas including the California Desert National Conservation Area, USA and Valle de los Cirios, Mexico. Seeds are not known to have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> storage.
201685		distribution	eng	Distributed across southwestern USA to northern and central Mexico. Occurs from 20 m up to 1,800 m.
201685		habitat	eng	Grows in arid desert scrub often among loose rocks, dry, rocky hillsides, wash bottoms, often in dense clumps. Also found on limestone and sandstone in sandy or gravelly soil. Associated with <em>Yucca brevifolia</em>, <em>Larrea</em>, <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Lycium</em>, <em>Agave</em>, <em>Dasylirion</em>, <em>Opuntia</em> and <em>Ambrosia</em>. Flowers from February to June, coning from March to June.
201685		population	eng	Reported as common in parts of its range.
201685		threats	eng	Although this plant is utilized for medicines, materials and is grazed by animals there is no published data indicating whether this is sustainable. The plant is used for the following: the aerial parts are grazed by animals, the stems are used for their tannins, which are used as dyes and it has various medicinal uses for humans. The stem is used for kidney disorders, venereal diseases, wounds, dressings, burns, pneumonia and gastric ulcers.
201686		conservation	eng	Global Status rated as G2 - Imperilled (NatureServe 2009) indicating a species at high risk of extinction. In the <em>Flora of North America</em> it has also been listed as a species of conservation concern. No samples have been collected as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure and one record is known from a botanic garden. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range including the California Desert National Conservation Area and Death Valley National Park.
201686		distribution	eng	Endemic to southwestern USA occurring in California, southern Nevada and western Arizona. Occurs from 300 m up to 1,700 m.
201686		habitat	eng	A shrub, found growing in desert scrub, on rocky slopes with gravelly or sandy soil in arid areas, sometimes on stabilized dunes. Associated with limestone mountain ranges in Nevada. Associated vegetation includes mixed scrub such as <em>Larrea</em> sp. and <em>Ambrosia</em> sp. Coning is from March to April and seed is reported to be dispersed by seed-caching rodents.
201686		population	eng	Variously described as scarce to abundant: common and abundant (Baker 13971) in Arizona; fairly common (Sanders 9049) - Mojave desert; uncommon, but widespread on rocky slopes and wash edges (Sanders 28019) - Mojave desert; uncommon (Sanders 24258) - south-central Mojave desert and scarce (Elvin 3798) - southern Mojave.
201686		threats	eng	General threats include expansion of urban areas such as Las Vegas, increased fragmentation of habitat with road building and use of off-road vehicles as well as overgrazing in some areas. Collections have been made recently (2008) indicating the species is still extant.
201687		conservation	eng	Global status rated by NatureServe as G4 - Apparently Secure, indicating a species uncommon but not rare with some cause for long-term concern due to declines or other factors. Also listed as a species of conservation concern in the Flora of North America (Stevenson 1993). There are no known <em>ex situ</em> seed collections and no known collections from botanic gardens. However, there is some coverage of the distribution in known protected areas such as the Don Martín Natural Resources Protection Area, Mexico. A survey of known collection sites is recommended to better understand the status of this species.
201687		distribution	eng	The range of this species extends from southern Texas, USA to northeastern Mexico. Occurs from 800 m to 2,500 m.
201687		habitat	eng	A climbing shrub, found growing in calcareous gravelly soil in dry, rocky areas, often associated with <em>Acacia roemericana</em>, <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>, <em>Aniscanthus</em>, <em>Asociafa</em>, <em>Celtis reticulata</em>, <em>Chilopsis</em>, <em>Fouquieria splendens</em>, <em>Larrea</em>, <em>Lycium berlandieri</em>, <em>Prosopsis</em>,<em> </em>and <em>Rhus microphylla</em>. Flowers in April, coning midwinter to early spring.
201687		population	eng	The population size is not known and there have been few collections in recent years, with the exception of a specimen from 2008 in Nuevo León province, Mexico (Hinton 17905).
201687		threats	eng	There is a threat from over-grazing in some parts of its range.
201688		conservation	eng	Seed has been collected and stored as part of the Millennium Seed Bank Project and the distribution intersects some protected areas. Monitoring of its many uses is suggested as it is unknown whether this is sustainable at present.
201688		distribution	eng	Recorded from North Africa to the Arabian Peninsula, and also in Mauritania. Occurs from 50 m up to 1,200 m.
201688		habitat	eng	A robust xerophytic shrub forming dense clumps. Found on sandy calcareous soil, gravely/rocky soil or clay soil in arid environments often near Wadis, in Wadi-beds,  or on shifting sand dunes. Often with <em>Haloxylon</em> association. Sometimes a dominant component of the "végétation contractée". Diaspores are dispersed by the wind as it has wing-like bracts. Flowering/fruiting time is from March to May.
201688		population	eng	Reported as frequent and locally common. Considered a weed in Egypt (Arasi Lawrence Company cited in the Global Compendium of Weeds).
201688		threats	eng	The plant is known to be used as animal food, for medicine and for materials e.g. string and cord, however, it is unknown whether this is done in a sustainable manor or whether it is causing a major threat to the species.
201689		conservation	eng	There are many occurrences of this species in botanic gardens and an <em>ex situ</em> seed collection has been made as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project. It has previously been noted in the Red List of Malta and rated as Near Threatened in the Croatian Red list under subsp. <em>campylopoda</em>, however, this subspecies is now recognized as a synonym of <em>E. foeminea</em> Forssk. The distribution range intersects several protected areas.
201689		distribution	eng	<em>E. fragilis</em> has a Macaronesian and Mediterranean distribution. It occurs from sea level up to 300 m.
201689		habitat	eng	A shrub, found growing in rocky arid areas, limestone cliffs, coastal dunes, rocky slopes, sandy areas, near sea or roadside. Flowers from March to May. Seeds are thought to be dispersed by animal consumption.
201689		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it has been reported as being very common on the Balearic islands.
201689		threats	eng	There are no major threats at present aside from general disturbance from human activities.
201690		conservation	eng	Most specimens occurrences are from outside protected areas, but a single specimen collection is thought to have been made in the Quomolangma Nature Preserve. No collections are known to have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
201690		distribution	eng	Distributed across the Tibetan Plateau at altitudes ranging from 3,200 m to 4,600 m.
201690		habitat	eng	A shrub with strong, well-developed woody stems. Found growing in slightly divergent habitats including dry sandy river beaches, in crevices of rocks, sand dunes, or dried gravel river beaches. Possibly prefers moist conditions since most specimens were collected near a river or lake (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).
201690		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201690		threats	eng	There are no major threats in this region.
201691		conservation	eng	Several collections are reported from the region of Mount Helan, China, which is a national nature reserve. No<span style="font-style: italic;"> ex situ</span> collections are known to have been made.
201691		distribution	eng	Occurs in Mongolia and northern China.
201691		habitat	eng	A shrub growing on dry rocky slopes and flood plains; below 1,500 m. Pollination occurs in May and seeds mature in June (Fu <em>et al</em>. 2010).
201691		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201691		threats	eng	No major threats.
201692		conservation	eng	Previously rated by NatureServe as G3 - Vulnerable. Populations are not known to occur within the protected area network. No seed collections are known to have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation although at least one specimen occurs within a botanical garden.
201692		distribution	eng	Mostly distributed in the western plains of Texas, with a subpopulation in the Oscura Mountains, New Mexico, USA. Occurs from 500 m up to 2,300 m.
201692		habitat	eng	A rhizomatous shrub found in sandy soils, dunes, prairies, semi-arid areas or rocky hills. Grows among native grasses and scrub oak. Coning from March to April.
201692		population	eng	Population size is not known, but forms large colonies.
201692		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present.
201693		conservation	eng	This species is not known to occur in any protected area or botanic garden and no known seed collection for <em>ex situ</em> conservation. Further surveys in the region are needed to determine if this species is still extant.
201693		distribution	eng	Endemic to Chile and the commune of Valparaíso. Has a narrow altitudinal range occurring between 200 m and 300 m.
201693		habitat	eng	A shrub to 2 m tall. Likely to be found in dry shrub or scrub at low elevation.
201693		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201693		threats	eng	This species occurs at low altitudes and within proximity of a large urban area and holiday resort. Expansion of the urban area and conversion of land for agriculture on the lower slopes within this region are potential threats.
201694		conservation	eng	Rated as G3 - Vulnerable by NatureServe (2009), indicating a species at moderate risk of extinction. No samples are known to have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation purposes, but several collections are known from botanic gardens. Many collections are known from with the protected area network.
201694		distribution	eng	Endemic to the southwestern USA occurring in the states of Arizona, California, Nevada and Utah. Occurs from 350 m up to 1,200 m.
201694		habitat	eng	A shrub, growing in arid areas on sandy, rocky or gravelly soil. Often recorded from rocky slopes. Associated with <em>Opuntia</em>, <em>Larrea</em>, <em>Acacia</em>. Flowering in April and coning March to April.
201694		population	eng	Uncommon to common depending on locality. Variety <em>fasciculata</em> is considered occasional in southern California, with var. <em>clokeyi</em> apparently considered more common (Natureserve 2009). Collections or observations of this species have been made in recent years across its range.
201694		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present. Possibly grazed in some parts of its range.
201695		conservation	eng	Despite the wide range, the known collections are not well covered by the protected areas network. Two samples of <em>E. chilensis</em> have been collected for the Millennium Seed Bank project and plants are recorded from 20 botanic gardens. Further surveys in the region should aim to gather more information on population size and any potential future threats.
201695		distribution	eng	Primarily found in central Chile and western Argentina, although some records have been reported in northern Chile and Bolivia. Recorded from 300 m up to 3,850 m.
201695		habitat	eng	A shrub 0.25 - 1.5 m tall. Grows on hot, steep, dry slopes amongst pumice rocks, and in alpine zones. Flowers from December to February.
201695		population	eng	The exact population size is not known, but it is often reported as common where found.
201695		threats	eng	Not thought to be under any major threats at present.
201696		conservation	eng	Occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. Collections are known from at least five botanical gardens and seed has been collected for <em>ex situ</em> storage as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project.
201696		distribution	eng	Distributed in northwest and eastern Africa and widespread across the Arabian Peninsula, extending east to India (Saharo-Sindian/Irano-Turanian distribution; Freitag and Maier-Stolte 2003). Occurs from sea level up to 1,700 m.
201696		habitat	eng	A shrub, climbing/scrambling, occurring on rocky slopes and wadi-sides. Noted as a typical component of different types of thorn savanna in semi-arid and arid climates (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 2003). Flowers from February to May.
201696		population	eng	Is common to uncommon depending on the area. It has been recorded in low numbers in protected areas in Iran.
201696		threats	eng	Used medicinally and fruit is eaten as a dessert or as famine food, although these are not considered to be major threats.
201697		conservation	eng	No conservation measures known to be in place. Surveys in the region of the type collection are encouraged to determine whether this species is still extant.
201697		distribution	eng	Only known from a single collection in Sistran, Iran.
201697		habitat	eng	Reported from the type specimen to occur in a dry, sunny place on bare alluvium. Likely to occur in the Registan-North Pakistan sandy desert ecoregion, although the exact location cannot be determined.
201697		population	eng	Population size and trend is not known.
201697		threats	eng	No major threats known.
201698		conservation	eng	Rated in NatureServe (2009) as G5 - Secure, indicating a common, widespread and abundant species. Samples are not known to have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation, but many collections are known from botanic gardens. Across the wide range, occurrences intersect numerous protected areas.
201698		distribution	eng	Occurs from southeastern Oregon, USA to northwestern Mexico including Baja California. Recorded from 700 m up to 2,200 m.
201698		habitat	eng	A shrub, occurring on dry rocky slopes and sandy washes. Associated with the following vegetation: sage scrub, piñon juniper, shrubland, creosote bush; and species: <em>Juniperus, Larrea, Ambrosia, Yucca</em> and <em>Chrysothamnus</em>. Flowers from April to May, and coning is in late winter to mid-spring.
201698		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it has been reported as being fairly common (White 9392; Sander 16457).
201698		threats	eng	The plant is utilized for food and for various medicinal purposes, but the population is believed to be stable at present.
201699		conservation	eng	Some specimens are known to have been collected within protected areas such as the Laguna Brava Reserve, Argentina. Seed (strobili) collections are suggested as a conservation measure as well as further surveys to determine population size and to better understand threats in the region.
201699		distribution	eng	Distributed from Chile (Antofagasta) to Argentina (Catamarca to Neuquén). Occurs from 1,000m&#160; up to 4,000 m.
201699		habitat	eng	A shrub up to 2 m tall. Grows in arid areas with few other plants, often in rocky areas, in gravelly soil or on sand dunes.
201699		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201699		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
201700		conservation	eng	Known to occur in the Telteca Flora and Fauna Reserve, Mendoza province and within or close to periphery of the Valle Fértil Nature Park, San Juan province. Not known to occur in any botanical gardens and no reported seed collections for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
201700		distribution	eng	Endemic to the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan, Argentina. Recorded from 490 m up to 1,470 m.
201700		habitat	eng	Only known from a small number of roadside collections, often near sand dunes or on steep banks.
201700		population	eng	Population size is not known.
201700		threats	eng	No major threats known at present.
201701		conservation	eng	Known to be represented in one botanic garden, but no collections are known to have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation purposes. It is only known from a small number of collections with imprecise location information so it is not certain whether populations occur within protected areas.
201701		distribution	eng	Distributed across Mongolia and southern Siberia including Tuva, Buryatia and Chita provinces in the Russian Federation.
201701		habitat	eng	A shrub, found in the mountain steppes, the foot of slopes, rocky screes, among the thickets of elm and on the tops of hills (Peschkova 2005).
201701		population	eng	Very rare on the west coast of Lake Baikal, more common in the south of Buryatia (Peschkova 2005).
201701		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201702		conservation	eng	Known to occur in numerous botanic gardens, although no seed is known to have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation purposes. Its wide range intersects numerous protected areas.
201702		distribution	eng	Distributed across southern Siberia (Russian Federation), Mongolia and China. Recorded from 400 m up to 1,600 m.
201702		habitat	eng	A shrub, found in arid areas and highlands, occurring on slopes, dry river beds, sandy places, or fields on mountain sides. In the Russian Federation it is found in <em>Stipa</em> steppe habitat and occasionally in birch forests. Flowering is from April to June, and fruiting is from July.
201702		population	eng	The population size is not known, but it is recorded as dominant in some areas. Reported as occasional in Chita and rare in Buryatia, Russian Federation (Peschkova 2005).
201702		threats	eng	Widely used in Chinese herbal medicine, known as Ma Huang. Ma huang is cultivated in China, but wild populations may also be harvested.
201703		conservation	eng	Occurrences intersect some protected areas across the range. Living collections of this species are known to occur in at least 11 botanic gardens. No <em>ex situ</em> seed collections are known to have been made.
201703		distribution	eng	Distributed across south central China. Occurs from 2,300 m to 4,200 m.
201703		habitat	eng	A shrub which is wide spreading, mostly from underground stems. Found in rocky landscapes often on slopes at the base of mountains. Flowers from May to June with mature seeds from July to September.
201703		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201703		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201704		conservation	eng	<em>E. monosperma</em> is known to occur in numerous botanic gardens. Its range overlaps many protected areas.
201704		distribution	eng	Distributed in Central Asia from Siberia (Russian Federation) to China. Occurs from 2,600 m to 4,200 m.
201704		habitat	eng	A small shrub, found growing in crevices of limestone, rocky slopes and cliffs, sometimes on slopes of river valleys among rocks, often with sparse <em>Juniperus</em> and shrub vegetation or dry pine forest. Flowers from May.
201704		population	eng	Common in the northeastern and eastern regions: Yakutia, Chita, Buryatia, Krasnoyarsk and the northern part of Tuva, but absent from Altai and very rare in the south of Tuva (Peschkova 2005).
201704		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201705		conservation	eng	This species is not included on CITES, but it occurs in protected areas: Indian Reservations (Hualapai - site code: 21497; Southern Ute - site code: 21470) and Wilderness Study Areas (Fish Creek Mountains - site code: 76474; Nopah Range - site code: 76391). Rated by NatureServe as G5 - Globally Secure, indicating a species that is common, widespread and abundant (NatureServe 2008). Collections have been made for the Millennium Seed Bank project as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure.
201705		distribution	eng	Green Ephedra is closely associated with the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau provinces of western North America (Anderson 2001). Its range extends from California and Oregon, east and south to western Texas and Chihuahua, Mexico. In Utah and California its elevational range varies from 900 m to 3,000 m (Welsh <em>et al</em>. 1987, Anderson 2001). Elsewhere it occurs as low as 400 m asl.
201705		habitat	eng	<strong>Habit</strong><br/><em>Ephedra viridis </em>is a a spreading to erect, coniferous shrub, 0.3 to 2m tall and with a crown 1 to 3 m wide at maturity. Branches yellow, bright green when young. Cones pale green or cream, 2-5 pollen cones per node, 2-6 seed cones per node. Seeds 2 per cone. Seed cones are green when mature. <br/><br/><strong>Habitat</strong><br/>Found on sedimentary, volcanic, and metamorphic substrates in sandy, gravelly, or rocky, well-drained, underdeveloped soils (Anderson 2001). Populations are found on a variety of landforms including: plains, alluvial fans, mesa tops, washes, and canyon walls on all aspects. Salt tolerance is limited. Plants tolerate partial shade but do best in full sun (Anderson 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Associated species</strong><br/>Although rarely considered a dominant, Green Ephedra is associated with a wide variety of plant community types including: big sagebrush-bunchgrass, black sagebrush, blackbrush, desert grassland, pinyon-juniper, mountain mahogany, oak woodland, mountain shrub, mixed conifer, and Ponderosa Pine (Anderson, 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Dispersal/pollination information</strong><br/>Rodents probably play an important role in seed dispersal. Plants are wind-pollinated. Timing of cone maturation, or coning, and seed maturation is dependent upon variation in weather, elevation, aspect, and geography. Coning and pollination occur for approximately two weeks, usually between April and June. Seeds mature between June and September. Cones are not produced each year, and good seed crops may be several years apart. <br/><br/><strong>Ecosystem services</strong><br/><em>E. viridis</em> is valuable for restoring vegetation structure and diversity and for erosion control on disturbed lands, including roadsides, minelands, and degraded rangelands, in areas in which it is adapted. When competition is controlled, it establishes well from seed and persists after wilfire. It provides important winter forage for wildlife and domestic livestock.
201705		population	eng	The number of individuals per subpopulation varies widely from a few plants to several hundred individuals. It is often reported as abundant and it is also common to find individuals every 3-5 m in contiguous habitat. There are an estimated 81 to >300 element occurrences (NatureServe 2009). There is no evidence to suggest significant recent loss of populations. Further details of population size are noted in the 1999 assessment from NatureServe (accessed 2009).
201705		threats	eng	Green Ephedra are generally robust shrubs that can grow under arid and often disturbed conditions and they are excellent exploiters of limiting resources such as water.<br/><br/>There is direct evidence of plant collecting from wild populations for the plant trade. It is also collected because it is a popular landscaping plant. <em>E. viridis</em> is used by Native Americans to make tea, medicine and dyes although collection for these purposes is not expected to be causing a significant decline.<br/><br/>The plant may be out-competed by invasive species such as the South African shrub <em>Euryops multifidus</em> (NatureServe 2008).<br/><br/>There may be some risk from overgrazing although this is not thought to be significant.<br/><br/>Reported survival following fire is variable (Anderson 2001). Green Ephedra is found in communities for which a wide range of fire frequencies is known. It also establishes on disturbed sites from seed (Koniak 1985).
201706		conservation	eng	Although it has a large range across southern Chile and Argentina it is not well represented within the protected areas network. Is found in ten botanical garden collections, but there is no known seed collection for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
201706		distribution	eng	The range extends from central and southern Chile to southern Argentina. Occurs from sea level up to 1,900 m.
201706		habitat	eng	A shrub up to 1 m tall. Grows in arid areas in sandy soil, sand dunes or on rocks, in full sun.
201706		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201706		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
201707		conservation	eng	The majority of known collections are not from within protected areas, but some populations do occur in reserves such as the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. There are no reported <em>ex situ</em> seed bank or botanical gardens collections.
201707		distribution	eng	Endemic to Mexico. Mostly distributed in the central regions, but also more recently reported from a single record in Baja California (Reina 2002-226). Occurs from 250 m to 2,800 m.
201707		habitat	eng	A shrub found in mattoral, scrub, grassy plains, rocky slopes often on calcareous substrate or gravelly soil. Associated with <em>Juniper</em>, <em>Nolina</em>, <em>Larrea tridentata</em>, <em>Flourencia cernue</em>, <em>Yucca decipiens</em>, <em>Berberis trifoliolata</em>, <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, <em>Lycium</em> sp.<em> Lesquerella fendler</em>I, <em>Verbena</em> sp., <em>Cylindropuntia imbricta</em>, <em>C. leptocaulis</em>, <em>Opuntia neochrysacantha</em>, <em>O. rastrera</em>, <em>Agave lechuguilla</em> and <em>Koeberlinia</em>.
201707		population	eng	Population size is not known but has been reported as scattered and abundant.
201707		threats	eng	The stems of this plant are grazed by goats.
201708		conservation	eng	There are no known <em>ex situ</em> collections or occurrences within protected areas.
201708		distribution	eng	<em>E. transitoria</em> has a Mesopotamian distribution with occurrence in the following countries: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria and Jordan. Occurs from 100 m to 600 m.
201708		habitat	eng	A shrub, occurring in dry desert, often on gravelly plains. Associated with <em>Artemisia sieberi</em>, <em>Achillea fragrantissima</em>, <em>Noaea mucronata</em>, <em>Haloxylon articulatum</em>, <em>Helianthemum lippii</em> and <em>Poa sinaica</em> (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 1994).
201708		population	eng	The population size is not known. Recorded as a rare plant in sandy runnels on limestone (Miller and Cope 1996).
201708		threats	eng	Reported to be grazed by livestock and used by the Bedouin for fuel (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 1994), but these are not thought to be major threats at present.
201709		conservation	eng	Despite the wide range the known collections are not well covered by the protected areas network. Seeds have yet to be collected as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure. It is represented in 20 botanic gardens worldwide.
201709		distribution	eng	Occurs in western South America from Ecuador to northwestern Argentina. Recorded at high elevations (1,500 - 4,100 m).
201709		habitat	eng	Found in shrubby grasslands or scrub to semi-desert. Often associated with cacti on dry rocky slopes and hills or on sandy/clayey soils.
201709		population	eng	The exact population size is not known, although it is often reported as common and abundant. Most recently collected in 2008 (Peru).
201709		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species.
201710		conservation	eng	Throughout its range it overlaps numerous protected areas. Samples can be found growing in at least ten botanic gardens and samples have been collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project.
201710		distribution	eng	Distributed across the southeastern Mediterranean from Italy and Greece to Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. Extends further south to Sinai, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. More recently it has been reported from northeast Africa in Eritrea and Djibouti (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 2003). A disjunct population from Libya was also reported in Browicz (1991). Occurs from sea level up to 2,600 m.
201710		habitat	eng	A climbing or scrambling shrub, found in a variety of habitats from sparse maquis, phrygana to Mediterranean woodlands (including <em>Juniperus phoenicea</em>). Occurs on cliffs, in ravines and on bare rocks. Flowers from March to November and fruits August to January.
201710		population	eng	Is rare to abundant across its range.
201710		threats	eng	There are no major threats known at present.
201711		conservation	eng	Neither of the two known sites are within the protected area network. No <em>ex situ</em> collections are known. Further surveys are needed in the region to determine the status of the population.
201711		distribution	eng	Endemic to Sichuan province, China. Occurs between 3,600 m and 4,000 m.
201711		habitat	eng	Woody shrub to 0.5 m tall. Found on slopes in temperate grassland or shrubland.
201711		population	eng	The population size is not known. <em>E. dawuensis</em> has only been recorded from two sites, Garze Xian and Dawu Xian. Reported to be common in Garze Xian (Hu 13049 - recorded in 1951).
201711		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201712		conservation	eng	Global threat status was rated by NatureServe (2009) as G3 Vulnerable, which is equivalent to an IUCN rating of Near Threatened. Seed is not known to have been collected as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure although it is known to occur in four botanic gardens. Although collections have not been reported specifically from protected areas, it is likely that the scattered populations overlap with the existing protected area network. Further surveys and monitoring are suggested to better understand population status and trends.
201712		distribution	eng	Recorded from the USA including Oklahoma and Texas, south to northeast Mexico. Occurs from 40 m up to 1,400 m.
201712		habitat	eng	An erect shrub growing on rocky hills often in calcareous (limestone) soil that is sandy or clayey. Also reported from canyons and dry river plains, rocky slopes, arid areas such as scrubland, scrub woodland or waste ground growing alongside plant species such as <em>Opuntia</em>, <em>Berberis</em>, <em>Yucca</em>, <em>Condalia</em>, <em>Mesquite</em>, <em>Zanthoxylum</em>, <em>Celtis</em>, <em>Zizyphus</em>, <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Leucophyllum</em> and grasses. Flowers and fruits from March to early May and the cone bracts of this species are succulent and eaten by birds. Coning is in March - April.
201712		population	eng	Known to range from less than ten plants to more than 100 at a site. Plants are generally scattered and seldom dominant in a community (NatureServe 2009). It has been recorded as common, although the exact population size is not known. Mexican populations of <em>E. antisyphilitica</em> are disjunct from those in Texas.
201712		threats	eng	Main threats include harvesting for local use (e.g. various medicinal uses, but also for landscaping), grazing (it is thought to be palatable to livestock and deer) and wild fires, although these are all minor threats at present.
201713		conservation	eng	There are no known collections in botanic gardens or <em>ex situ</em> seed banks. The range intersects numerous protected areas, but due to imprecise locality information for specimen collections, it is not certain whether collections have been made from inside protected areas.
201713		distribution	eng	Occurs from Kazakhstan to southwest Siberia in the Russian Federation. Occurs from 500 m to 700 m.
201713		habitat	eng	A shrub found growing on slopes and sandy places. Fruits from June.
201713		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201713		threats	eng	No major threats are known.
201714		conservation	eng	There are no known occurrences in protected areas or botanic gardens and no <em>ex situ</em> seed collections have been made.
201714		distribution	eng	Distributed through the Irano-Turanian floristic region from central and southern Afghanistan to southwest Pakistan and central Iran (Freitag and Maier-Stolte 1994). Occurs from 800 m up to 1,850 m.
201714		habitat	eng	A shrub, found in semi-desert shrublands on dry plains and alluvial fans.  Associated with <em>Zygophyllum atriplicioides</em>, <em>Salsola tomentosa</em>, <em>Artemisia meyeri</em> and <em>Astragalus</em> sp.
201714		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201714		threats	eng	Grazed by camels, but this is not considered a major threat.
201715		conservation	eng	The known occurrence of <em>E. khurikensis</em> is in close proximity to several protected areas including the Pin Valley National Park. No collections are known to have been made for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.
201715		distribution	eng	<em>Ephedra khurikensis</em> is found in the western Himalayas (Himachal Pradesh), India.
201715		habitat	eng	A shrub, found growing in open ground in dry gravel soil of Khurik (District Spiti) above 2,800 m. Flowering is from July to August and it produces seeds from August to September (Sharma <em>et al</em>. 2010).
201715		population	eng	The population size is not known.
201715		threats	eng	No major threats are known at present.
201716		conservation	eng	Occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. Seed has been banked as part of the Millennium Seed Bank project. <em>E. major</em> has been listed in the Red Data Books of Cyprus and Croatia as Vulnerable and Near Threatened respectively (Tsintides <em>et al</em>. 2007, Nikolic <em>et al</em>. 2007).
201716		distribution	eng	Widespread from the Canary Islands (to Spain) through the Mediterranean and extending eastwards to Pakistan. Occurs from 50 m to 2,500 m.
201716		habitat	eng	A shrub to 1 m high, growing in rocky arid areas, stony slopes, often on exposed areas between limestone rocks. Flowers from March to July and fruits from May to October.
201716		population	eng	Common in some localities, rare in others.
201716		threats	eng	There are no major threats.
201717		conservation	eng	The Tibetsi mountains are under no formal protection. No seed has been collected for this species and no collections are known from botanic gardens. Surveys in the area are needed to see if the plant is still extant and to gather collections so that identification can be determined as it may be an outlying population of <em>E. distachya</em>.
201717		distribution	eng	Thought to be endemic to Emi-Koussi volcano in the Tibetsi mountain chain of Chad. Occurs at 2,000 m to 2,600 m.
201717		habitat	eng	A shrub found growing on mountain summits.
201717		population	eng	Possibly restricted to a single population on the mountain slopes. Has been collected on several occasions at this locality, although not recently.
201717		threats	eng	The plant is grazed by camels and goats, its fruits are eaten by jackals (Maire 1932), but these are not considered to be major threats.
201718		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
201718		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Castelnavia princeps</span> is widespread in central Brazil in the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais and Pará. Plants can be extremely abundant, forming dense carpet-like growth on many of the rock outcrops.
201718		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201718		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
201718		threats	eng	Construction of hydroelectric dams is the main threat to this species. Secondary threats are from sedimentation (construction, deforestation) and pollution (domestic, industrial).
201719		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
201719		distribution	eng	This species is found in the state of Minas Gerias, Brazil. It is often abundant where it occurs.
201719		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201719		population	eng	The current population trend and size are unknown.
201719		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to this species.
201721		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
201721		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Minas Gerais, Brazil. It is often abundant where it occurs.
201721		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201721		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
201721		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to this species.
201723		conservation	eng	A section of the Rio Preto where <span style="font-style: italic;">Diamantina lombardii</span> occurs is within a state park (Parque Estadual do rio Preto).
201723		distribution	eng	Known from the town of Serro (Rio do Peixe) and São Gonçalo do Rio Preto, Parque Estadual do Rio Preto (rio Preto), Minas Gerais, Brazil. Parque Estadual do Rio Preto (rio Preto) is an important location for this species. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not known.
201723		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water, while flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants.
201723		population	eng	The current population size and trend are unknown.
201723		threats	eng	Human recreation is evidently having impact on the species at the Rio do Peixe location.
201724		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are currently in place. Further field surveys are needed in the region to determine if other populations exist.
201724		distribution	eng	The exact location from which the species was collected is not known. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) reported the location as in the Tocantins River, near the town of Porto Imperiale (currently known as Porto Nactional), Tocantins, Brazil. Field studies in 2005 and 2006 failed to locate plants of this species. While it is not possible to estimate the exact extent of occurrence (EOO) or area of occupancy, it is likely that the EOO is less than 100 km².
201724		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water, while flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants.
201724		population	eng	The current population trend and size are unknown.
201724		threats	eng	Construction of the hydroelectric dam at Lajeado presents a severe threat to this species.
201725		conservation	eng	No conervation measures are in place. The species occurs in Serra dos Órgãos National Park, which provides a degree of protection.
201725		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Podostemum ovatum</span> occurs in the Brazil states of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It can be common where it occurs. This species occurs in Serra doa Órgãos National Park (state of Rio de Janeiro).
201725		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201725		population	eng	No information on population size or trend is available.
201725		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to this species.
201727		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
201727		distribution	eng	Known from two rivers in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil:<br/>1. Nova Friburgo, Bengala River, waterfall called “Cascatinha.” 22°18’36.16”S, 42°33’19.45”W.&#160; Basin of the Paraiba River.<br/>2.&#160; City of Lumiar, location called Poço Feio, Basin of the Macaé River. 22°22’2.26”S, 42°11’57.44” W.<br/>The extent of the species in these rivers remains uncertain.
201727		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201727		population	eng	No information on population size or trend is available.
201727		threats	eng	Recreation and tourism are the two main threats to the species. These impacts on not yet severe.
201728		conservation	eng	No conservation measures are in place.
201728		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Podostemum scaturiginum</span> occurs in the Brazilian states of Espírito Santo, Goiás, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro.It is often abundant where it occurs. Plants can produce a dense growth.
201728		habitat	eng	Plants of all members of this flowering plant family (Podostemaceae) grow attached to rocks in swift river currents. Plants are vegetative when immersed by high water. Flowering occurs as water levels recede, and capsules mature on dry rocks. Subsequently seeds are dispersed. Seasonal water level fluctuations are central to the ecology of these plants. Philbrick and Novelo (2004) present a review of the published literature regarding the life cycle of these plants.
201728		population	eng	No information on current population size and trend is available.
201728		threats	eng	There are currently no threats to this species, however, the construction of dams is a potential future threat.
201752		conservation	eng	The species requires taxonomic study to confirm its status and distribution. Surveys are required in the north of Viet Nam and in southern China to gain recent data on the status of this species (populations and distribution areas, host fishes, etc). Protection of important mussel habitats from direct and indirect impacts is needed, and control of exploitation. The host bitterling fish species may also require conservation.
201752		distribution	eng	<p>The species is known from northern Viet Nam (including Ha Noi, Hoa Binh (Muong Khuong district), Vinh Phuc (Huong Canh district), Lang Son (That Khe), Bac Giang (Luc Nam district), Ninh Binh (Van Long), Quang Binh provinces), and from central-southern Viet Nam. MUSSELp (Graf and Cummings 2011) provides records (for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. grayana</span>, but which are considered to pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. grayii</span>) for Viet Nam (Than Moi, Muong Khuong River, Ha Noi, That Khe (Lang Son Province), and Bac Giang (Phuc Son and Song Luc Nam) Province in northern Viet Nam, and Minh Le in central Viet Nam (Quang Binh Province). The species is known from the Bang Giang-Ky Cung River basin, the Hong (Red River) basin, and the Ma River and Ca (Lam) River basins, and from rivers in central Viet Nam.</p><p>The species is found in the lower Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) basins (Guangxi and Guangdong, and probably also in Hunan and Fujian provinces), and is possibly present in Jiangxi Province, southern China, and should be looked for in northwestern Lao PDR (in the Ma and Ca rivers drainages), in parts of the Red River drainage in Yunnan, southern China, and adjacent parts of drainages in eastern Cambodia. Further work is required to confirm the species' current distribution and its delimitation with reference to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. grayana</span>, especially within southern China (Yangtze and Huang He (Yellow River) basins).<br/> </p>
201752		habitat	eng	The species is found in streams and rivers.
201752		population	eng	There is little information on the status of the species’ population. From surveys (Do pers. comm. 2011), populations of this species are declining in Viet Nam, and are inferred to have declined by nearly 30%.
201752		threats	eng	The species is likely to be impacted by high levels of pollution, changes in flow regimes arising from dams, and overexploitation.
201755		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further surveys are required to determine the range of this species, the population size and trends.
201755		distribution	eng	Recorded from Viet Nam (Sapa district, Lao Cai province) and in southeastern China (Yunnan).
201755		habitat	eng	The plant grows in shade of evergreen forest on mountains. In China it was recorded from secondary forest below 1,100 m.
201755		population	eng	Very small population. Each subpopulation comprises just a few individuals.
201755		threats	eng	The species is hard to find at present and has probably declined due to forest clearance for agricultural expansion.
201756		conservation	eng	Does not occur in any protected areas.
201756		distribution	eng	The type locality was at Kien Khe, Ninh Binh but the species has probably disappeared from there. The distribution of the species is narrow with about 2 km diameter. It was found again around Bich Dong pegoda of Ninh Binh. It therefore occurs at one location with an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 4 km².
201756		habitat	eng	The plant grows on limestone in a lowland area.
201756		population	eng	The population is small, about 100 plants have been observed.
201756		threats	eng	There is exploitation of the limestone in this area which destroys the habitat of this species.
201757		conservation	eng	The area is not protected at all.
201757		distribution	eng	A Vietnamese endemic known only from Hon Tre island in Khanh Hoa province. It occurs at one location with an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 4 km².
201757		habitat	eng	Grows out of cracks in the rocks in coastal shrubland.
201757		population	eng	Population is very patchy comprising about three hundred individuals in a very narrow area.
201757		threats	eng	The island has become a popular tourist place and the habitat has been impacted by expanding tourist developments.
201758		conservation	eng	The whole population occurs in the Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park.
201758		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam where it is recorded from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Quang  Binh province. Might also occur in Lao PDR, but this has not yet been  confirmed.
201758		habitat	eng	The plant grows under shade of evergreen forest on limestone mountain.
201758		population	eng	Population is fairly common comprising over a 1,000 plants, but is very scattered.
201758		threats	eng	No threats are known at present. The whole population is within a national park.
201759		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected areas.
201759		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam where it is recorded from Ninh Thuận, Tuy Phong, Cà Ná. It occurs at one location with an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 4 km².
201759		habitat	eng	The plant grows mixed with shrubs in open places on sandy soil along the sea shore, a couple of metres above sea level.
201759		population	eng	The population of this plant is very small. It occurs in an area of less then 1 km² and is located near the main road from Khanh Hoa to HCM city.
201759		threats	eng	Because the habitat of the plant is close to a national road, it is easily damaged by any expansion of the road. The species was probably impacted when the road was originally built.
201760		conservation	eng	Occurs in the Cuc Phuong National Park.
201760		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam where it is found in Cuc Phuong, Ninh Binh.
201760		habitat	eng	Grows from the gaps in limestone under shade of lowland evergreen forest.
201760		population	eng	This species has a small population with about 500 mature individuals and is not common.
201760		threats	eng	There are no threats at present to this species as the whole population is in a national park. However, plants could be removed illegally by specialist collectors.
201762		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in a protected area.
201762		distribution	eng	Endemic to Viet Nam where it is known only from the type locality at Tay Con Linh, Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen district, Ha Giang province. Occurs at 1,300 to 1,500 m asl. The area of occupancy is 4 km².
201762		habitat	eng	Grows in evergreen montane forest.
201762		population	eng	Very few individuals have been found; the population only numbers tens of plants.
201762		threats	eng	The very small and restricted population may be easily impacted by any human activities, especially any expansion in agricultural activities like the cultivation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Amomum</span>.
201764		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected area.
201764		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality in Van Ban district, Lao Cai province, Viet Nam. Occurs between 400 and 700 m asl. The area of occupancy is 4 km².
201764		habitat	eng	Grows on a much disturbed hill in evergreen broadleaved&#160; forest.
201764		population	eng	Has a very small population comprising only several tens of individuals.
201764		threats	eng	The habitat is under threat from logging and the species could become extinct very soon if the threat continues.
201765		conservation	eng	Recorded from the Khao Chamao National Park in Thailand and probably occurs in other protected areas across its range.
201765		distribution	eng	Occurs in central, eastern and southeastern Thailand, southern Cambodia and in southwestern Viet Nam. Occurs from sea level up to 450 m asl (Nguyen and Boyce 2011). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 34,168 km².
201765		habitat	eng	Grows in sandy soils in open places in dry semi-evergreen coastal forest and in seasonally dry bamboo forest (Nguyen and Boyce 2011).
201765		population	eng	A widespread, but scattered species and never common.
201765		threats	eng	The Cambodian locality is in an area being altered by tourist developments. Threats in the Thai part of its range are not known. Collection of the tubers for cultivation may pose a threat in Thailand.
201766		conservation	eng	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas in Viet Nam, the situation in China is not known.
201766		distribution	eng	Recorded from Hainan and Yunnan in China and from Viet Nam in Binh Lu district, Lai Chau province and in Bac Yen district, Son La province. Occurs at 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.
201766		habitat	eng	The plant is a climber, growing on medium and large trees in montane evergreen forest and also in disturbed forest. In China also recorded to grow on walls in dense forests.
201766		population	eng	Has a very small population (in Viet Nam) and plants are very scattered.
201766		threats	eng	The species is threatened by logging activities in Viet Nam.
201767		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected area.
201767		distribution	eng	Recorded from near Bou Sra waterfall in Pich Chinda district, Mondul Kiri province in Cambodia and Dac Lac in Viet Nam. Occurs at 600 m. It occurs at two location with an area of occupancy of 8 km².
201767		habitat	eng	Occurs in wet places in the shade of evergreen broadleaved forest.
201767		population	eng	Has a very small population. Each subpopulation comprises only several tens of individuals.
201767		threats	eng	In Kirirom, Cambodia, few plants were found near a stream in an area used by tourists. Tourism activities may pose a threat.
201768		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected area.
201768		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality at Ca Na, Ninh Thuan province, Viet Nam. Occurs very near to sea level between 3 to 5 m asl. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 4 km².
201768		habitat	eng	Grows in the shade of shrubs, on well-drained sandy soil .
201768		population	eng	Has a very small and restricted population.
201768		threats	eng	The population occurs near a major road, and any expansion in the road would impact this species. The area is very flat and could be used for future urban expansion.
201769		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected area.
201769		distribution	eng	Known only from Ca Na, Ninh Thuan province, Viet Nam. Occurs very near to sea level between 3 to 5 m asl. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 4 km².
201769		habitat	eng	Grows in the shade of shrubs, on well-drained sandy soil .
201769		population	eng	Has a very small and restricted population.
201769		threats	eng	The population occurs near a major road, and any expansion in the road would impact this species. The area is also flat so vulnerable to other future construction activities.
201770		conservation	eng	The species does not occur in any protected area. Surveys are required to relocate this species and to determine its full range, population size and trends.
201770		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality at Phong Nha-Ke Bang, Quang Binh province, Viet Nam. Occurs at 200 m asl (Nguyen and Croat 2010). The area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are 4 km².
201770		habitat	eng	Grows under shade of evergreen forest, at the base of a limestone mountain (Nguyen and Croat 2010). The plant grows in the gaps between layers of stone.
201770		population	eng	Known only from a single plant which was collected.
201770		threats	eng	The main threat is logging of the forest habitat.
201882		conservation	eng	In Thac Mai, Tan Phu forest, Viet Nam, a botanical trail was established along the river, where a large population of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. xiphostachya</span> is growing. Along this trail, conservation messages are provided to help tourists to understand the importance of protecting forests.
201882		distribution	eng	This species has distribution in southeastern to high central Viet Nam (H.D. Tran pers. obs.), and in northeastern Thailand (Sirirugsa 1992). Also recorded from Lao PDR. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 64,125 km².
201882		habitat	eng	Growing in deciduous or semi-deciduous dipterocarp forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Vietnamosasa</span>, sometimes among rocks. Deciduous herb.
201882		population	eng	This species is rare.
201882		threats	eng	In Viet Nam, several localities are near areas with tourism projects, which causes decline in quality of habitat.
201884		conservation	eng	Occurs in numerous protected areas, e.g. Doi Suthep National Park.
201884		distribution	eng	Known only from three provinces in northern Thailand (Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai and Mae Hong Son). The extent of occurrence is estimated between 4,300 and 5,000 km².
201884		habitat	eng	Found in deciduous and dry evergreen forests, from 400 to 1,300 m asl (Maknoi 2006).
201884		population	eng	It is very abundant where it occurs.
201884		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat degradation due to agricultural activities.
201885		conservation	eng	Given its wide range, this species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Cardamom Mountains Protected Area, Cambodia).
201885		distribution	eng	So far known to occur only in eastern, southeastern and central Thailand and Cambodia (Pursat and Kampong Spoe). The extent of occurrence is 31,624 km².
201885		habitat	eng	Grows in deciduous and dry evergreen forests at altitudes ranging from c. 100 to 500 m (Maknoi 2006).
201885		population	eng	Data on global population size and trends are not available. The species is fairly rare requiring primary habitat to thrive.
201885		threats	eng	Habitat degradation through agricultural expansion is the main threat to this species.
201886		conservation	eng	In Lao PDR it is known to occur in Phou Xiang Thong National Protected Area.
201886		distribution	eng	So far known from eastern Thailand (close to the Lao border), Cambodia and southern Lao PDR. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 44,557 km² and the area of occupancy is certainly less than 500 km². It is known from more than five locations but fewer than ten.
201886		habitat	eng	Grows in deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, near streams (Maknoi 2006).
201886		population	eng	Locally common but in decline due to over-collection.
201886		threats	eng	Habitat degradation through agricultural expansion and over-collection of rhizomes from the wild populations are the two main threats to this species.
201889		conservation	eng	Neither of the localities is in a Nature  Reserve or Nature Park.
201889		distribution	eng	So far known only from two localities (Bao Loc Pass and Pongour Waterfall) in Lam Dong province, Viet Nam.
201889		habitat	eng	Growing among rocks at the margins of sparse semi-deciduous forest.
201889		population	eng	While there are no detailed data, the populations are likely to be decreasing. The overall population consists of probably less  than 100 mature individuals, comprised of two  subpopulations neither of which is larger than 50 mature individuals.
201889		threats	eng	Populations are likely to be decreasing as habitats in both current  localities are declining in quality due to agriculture, tourism, erosion  and other human activities. The type locality is downstream of a hydro-electric dam built in 2004 which has resulted in a degradation of the habitat (the river bed is now dry).
201891		conservation	eng	A number of subpopulations are recorded from protected areas in each of the countries of distribution.
201891		distribution	eng	Recorded from most of Thailand, except the deforested central area, Cambodia, southern Viet Nam, less commonly recorded in Lao PDR (Vientiane province), Peninsular Malaysia and on Sumatra (Indonesia). Recorded to occur from sea level up to 1,350 m asl.<br/><br/>Two varieties are recognized, var. <span style="font-style: italic;">aurea </span>and the typical variety. Some old collections cannot be identified to this variety or to var. <span style="font-style: italic;">aurea</span>.
201891		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland and lower montane evergreen forest, often near watercourses.
201891		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
201891		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation for agricultural purposes.
201894		conservation	eng	The species may occur in an area (Khao Khieo) which is due to be declared a protected area in the near future.
201894		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in Chonburi province, Thailand. A record from Phitsanulok province remains to be confirmed. Recorded from 25 up to 850 m asl. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 300 km² and the species occurs at three to five locations.
201894		habitat	eng	Grows on low coastal hills in semi-deciduous forest.
201894		population	eng	This species has a restricted range which is probably shrinking. It has not been collected since 1975.
201894		threats	eng	Change in land use due to urban development is the main threat.
201895		conservation	eng	It is known to occur in some protected areas within part of its range.
201895		distribution	eng	Most records are from Mae Hong Son and Chiang Mai provinces of northern Thailand. Records from Chainat (central) and Kanchanaburi (southwestern) provinces need to be verified. May even occur further west into Myanmar. Recorded from 450 up to 1,100 m asl.&#160; The area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km² and the extent of occurrence is estimated at 14,000 km² within the known range in Thailand. The species is known from nine localities.
201895		habitat	eng	Grows in deciduous and semi-deciduous forest.
201895		population	eng	A scattered species along the Thai-Burmese border. Not common where it occurs.
201895		threats	eng	The main threat is loss of forest habitat due to expanding agriculture.
201896		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its range (e.g. Khao Luang National Park, Nakhon Sri Thammarat province, Thailand).
201896		distribution	eng	Found in Phangnga, Surat Thani, Krabi, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Trang, Prachuap Khiri Khan and Satun provinces of Thailand and Kedah (Pulau Langkawi) in Peninsular Malaysia. Recorded from 30 up to 300 m asl.
201896		habitat	eng	Grows in damp soil in shade of tropical lowland evergreen forest, always near watercourses.
201896		population	eng	Is a rare and very restricted species.
201896		threats	eng	In the past logging (subsistence and commercial) was a major threat, currently the species is mainly restricted to protected areas, so the only threat is disturbance of the habitat by tourists.
201901		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range. Taxonomic work is required.
201901		distribution	eng	Widespread in continental southeast Asia and on the Sunda Shelf, especially in Peninsular Thailand. Occurs from sea level up to at least 1,000 m asl.<br/><br/>The list of countries of occurrence may be incomplete.
201901		habitat	eng	Found in primary and secondary evergreen forest.
201901		population	eng	Widespread and common.
201901		threats	eng	Change in land use for expanding agriculture is the main threat.
201902		conservation	eng	The whole known population is within a protected area, Thong Pha Phum National Park, Sai Yok District. Further field surveys are required to determine if this species occurs elsewhere, especially in Myanmar.
201902		distribution	eng	Has a restricted distribution range in Kanchanaburi province, Thailand. Occurs very close to the border with Myanmar, so may occur in that country too, but there is no evidence for this as yet. Occurs from 380 to 480 m asl. The area of occupancy is 8 km².
201902		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen forest.
201902		population	eng	There are two subpopulations at Tao Dam forest. The population size is estimated to be less than 500 mature individuals.
201902		threats	eng	There are no threats at present. There was tin mining in the area in the past, but the mining has stopped, but this may have had some impact on the species in the past.
201903		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range (e.g. Mae Moei National Park, Thailand).
201903		distribution	eng	Recorded from India to Viet Nam. Not yet recorded from Lao PDR though it is likely to occur there. Has a very wide elevational range occurring from 300 up to 2,150 m asl.
201903		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland and montane evergreen forest.
201903		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
201903		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats.
201904		conservation	eng	At least one subpopulation occurs in a protected area, the Mae Moei National Park.
201904		distribution	eng	Common in south-central Myanmar and the Western Ghats of India. In Thailand, only known from a few localities in Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces. Recorded to occur from 200 to 375 m asl in Thailand.
201904		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen forest.
201904		population	eng	A very scattered species.
201904		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats.
201905		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Phou Xiang Thong National Protected Area, Lao PDR). Surveys are required to determine the range and status of this species in Cambodia.
201905		distribution	eng	Thai and Lao PDR subpopulations are usually found relatively close to the Mekong River (and its tributaries) while the Cambodian subpopulations are in the western central part of the country (Kampong Chhnang and Pursat provinces). Occurs between 200 and 600 m asl.
201905		habitat	eng	Grows in sandy soil in lowland deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, often near watercourses.
201905		population	eng	Common in the right kind of habitat. All collections from Cambodia are old (none from the 20th or 21st centuries).
201905		threats	eng	Excessive fire in the early rainy season and forest clearance for agricultural expansion are the main threats.
201906		conservation	eng	At least two subpopulations are known from protected areas, Thung Yai Naresuan National Park and Sai Yok National Park.<br/><br/>Surveys for this species in Myanmar are required.
201906		distribution	eng	Recorded from Arakan and Tenasserim (Myanmar) and Kanchanaburi province in Thailand. Recorded from 150 to 200 m asl.
201906		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, sometimes along water courses.
201906		population	eng	Collections have been made in several districts of Kanchanaburi, indicating a number of subpopulations. There are two widely separated subpopulations recorded from Myanmar, but there have been no new collections since the 19th Century. The species has a very short flowering period (just two weeks) so it is easily missed.
201906		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats in Myanmar, in Thailand all the known sites of occurrence are in protected areas.
201907		conservation	eng	All the subpopulations appear to be in protected areas (e.g. Om Koi National Park). The type locality still has good quality forest.
201907		distribution	eng	Fewer than a dozen wild collections are known, from one district each in Chiang Mai, Lamphun and Tak provinces in northwestern Thailand. The most secure sites are probably in Umphang District, Tak. May also occur in Myanmar and Lao PDR, but this requires confirmation. Has a wide elevation range occurring from 420 up to 1,250 m asl.
201907		habitat	eng	Occurs in lowland and montane deciduous forest.
201907		population	eng	All subpopulations are apparently in decline. Plants are scattered, but it is sometimes locally common.
201907		threats	eng	Excessive fire in the early rainy season and over-collection are the main threats.
201908		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas (e.g. Mae Wong National Park). Surveys are required to determine if the species also occurs in Myanmar. Further work on the taxonomy is required.
201908		distribution	eng	Occurs in various provinces of central, western and northern Thailand. May also occur in Myanmar. Occurs from 100 up to 900 m.
201908		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland semi-deciduous forest.
201908		population	eng	Uncommon but widespread.
201908		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture is the main threat.
201910		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its range (e.g. Kon Ka Kinh National Park, Viet Nam; Phu Phan National Park, Thailand).
201910		distribution	eng	This taxon is widely distributed being reported from southern China, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Recorded from 500 up to 1,000 m asl.
201910		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen forest.
201910		population	eng	This is a common and widespread species.
201910		threats	eng	Most of the known subpopulations are from protected areas, hence this species is not considered to have any significant threats.
201911		conservation	eng	Occurs in protected areas (e.g. Binh Chau-Phuoc Buu Nature Reserve, Viet Nam).
201911		distribution	eng	This species is distributed from central Thailand, central Cambodia, Lao PDR to southeast and high central Viet Nam. Recorded from 100 up to 400 m asl. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 157,768 km².
201911		habitat	eng	Occurs mainly in deciduous dipterocarp forest.
201911		population	eng	This is a rare species.
201911		threats	eng	The subpopulation in Dak Lak will be affected by the development of tourism related projects.
201912		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas in Thailand e.g. Phu Hin Rong Khla National Park in Phit Sa Nulok and Phet Cha Bun provinces, Phu Ruea National Park in Loei Province.
201912		distribution	eng	This species is distributed in Thailand, south China (Yunnan) and extends to high central Viet Nam. Recorded from 500 up to 1,200 m asl.
201912		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland and montane evergreen forest.
201912		population	eng	It is fairly common in Thailand but probably declining outside of Thailand.
201912		threats	eng	Loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion is the main threat. Logging is also a threat in some parts of the range.
201913		conservation	eng	Occurs in Cuc Phuong National Park and Ba Vi National Park.
201913		distribution	eng	So far this taxon is recorded only in northern Viet Nam. The habitat at the syntype locality (Kien Khe) has been destroyed by agricultural activity. Recorded from 150 up to 600 m asl. It occurs at two locations with an area of occupancy of 75 km².
201913		habitat	eng	Grows in shady undergrowth of evergreen broadleaved mixed forest.
201913		population	eng	A locally common species.
201913		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and illegal collection are the main threats to this taxon. The two extant subpopulations are both in protected areas.
201914		conservation	eng	Occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Phu Phan National Park, Thailand).
201914		distribution	eng	This is a widespread species occurring in northeast Thailand (Triboun 2006), southern Lao PDR, central Cambodia and high central Viet Nam (H.D. Tran pers. obs. 2011). Occurs from 50 up to 300 m asl.
201914		habitat	eng	Grows in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forest.
201914		population	eng	This taxon is widespread and common.
201914		threats	eng	As it grows in dipterocarp forest on flat land in Viet Nam, its habitat has high potential to become an urban area in the near future. In Thailand, all the subpopulations are from protected areas and therefore secure.
201919		conservation	eng	Both of the known subpopulations are in protected areas, namely Bidoup Nui Ba National Park and Hon Ba Nature Reserve.
201919		distribution	eng	This species was described based on a collection from Bidoup Nui Ba National Park in Lam Dong Province, Viet Nam. It also occurs in Hon Ba Nature Reserve (J. Leong-Skornickova pers. obs.). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be smaller than 1,500 km². It occurs at two locations.
201919		habitat	eng	Grows in the moist and shady understorey of coniferous and broadleaved mixed forest at elevations between 1,500 and 1,800 m asl.
201919		population	eng	Is locally common at the newly found site (over 1,000 mature individuals, whereas the plants at the type locality numbered less than 50 mature individuals).
201919		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the only threat. The species requires primary habitat and in spite of one location being within a national park and the second in a nature reserve, a recently constructed road and agricultural activity by local ethnic groups in Bidoup Nui Ba National Park pose a threat to this species.
201926		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas.
201926		distribution	eng	So far known to occur in a limited area at the type locality (Myanmar, Amherst and Moulmein) and in southwestern Thailand (Kanchanaburi) and northern Thailand (Tak). The report of this species from Cambodia by Gagnepain (1908) remains unconfirmed.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is 19,128 km² and it occurs at four to five locations.
201926		habitat	eng	Grows in deciduous bamboo forest (subject to fires), deciduous dipterocarp forest and teak plantations.
201926		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population size or trends.
201926		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through agricultural expansion and logging activities are the most likely threats to this species. The collection of inflorescences for food also pose a local threat as it reduces the seed production.
201936		conservation	eng	Surveys are needed to establish range and natural history.
201936		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Argentina, southern central Bolivia, and Central and Western Paraguay (Gardner 2007, Teta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
201936		habitat	eng	The species is found in dry places with thorny, chaparral vegetation in the dry chaco of Paraguay, Northern Argentina (Formosa Province) and eastern Bolivia.
201936		population	eng	This species is not abundant.
201936		threats	eng	There are no major threats to the species although some populations are affected by deforestation.
202053		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are currently in place for the Argus Skate. Research is required to better define its full distribution, estimate abundance and examine life history traits.
202053		distribution	eng	The Argus Skate<em> </em>is endemic to northeastern Australia in the Western Central Pacific with a relatively restricted distribution from off Townsville to Rockhampton, Queensland (Last and Stevens 2009). However, the full extent of its distribution is uncertain, particularly to the north and it may extend slightly further north and south in Queensland waters (Last and Stevens 2009).
202053		habitat	eng	<p>The Argus Skate occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 135–320 m (Last and Stevens 2009). There are no specific details available on habitat.</p>    <p>Maximum size is about 38 cm total length (TL), and size at maturity is about 32 cm TL (females) and 30 cm TL (males) (Last and Stevens 2009). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, but there are no other details available regarding its ecology or life history.</p>
202053		population	eng	There are no details of population size, structure or trends for the Argus Skate.
202053		threats	eng	<p>Demersal fishing pressure across the Argus Skate’s range is generally very low. The management area of the Australian Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery mostly lies to the east of the distribution of the Argus Skate<em></em>, overlapping only marginally with the species’ range. This is a relatively small-scale fishery with only two fishing licenses in the Trawl and Trap Sector of the fishery (<a name="OLE_LINK1">Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010</a>). In fact, there was no trawl activity in the fishery during the 2007–08 and 2008–09 fishing seasons (Woodhams <em>et al.</em> 2010). Other sectors of the fishery utilise gear unlikely to interact with skates. Trawling in the past within this fishery has been low effort, and while it is possible that this skate was a bycatch of trawling, the management area of the fishery is far greater than the range of this skate, with the majority of fishing effort outside of the species’ occurrence.</p>    <p>The Queensland managed Deep Water Fin Fish Fishery also overlaps partially with the distribution of the Argus Skate, operating east of the 200 m depth contour. But again, the majority of fishing effort is outside of the species’ occurrence. Furthermore, this is a small-scale commercial fishery (four licenses accessing the fishery in 2008–09) utilising multi-hook line fishing gear targeting mainly benthopelagic species (DEEDI 2009). As such, interactions with demersal skates are likely to be minimal.</p>    <p>The very southern edge of the species’ range also overlaps with the eastern king prawn sector (deepwater component) of the Queensland managed East Coast Trawl Fishery. This fishery operates to depths of 300–350 m, so the Argus Skate is a potential bycatch, although the majority of effort in this fishery sector is further south (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2007, Courtney and Posser 2009).</p>
202198		conservation	eng	The whole population is in the Phou Hin Nam No National Protected Area.
202198		distribution	eng	Known only from the type locality at Hin Boun district, Khammouan province, Lao PDR.&#160;The area of occupancy and extent of occurrence do not exceed 4 km².
202198		habitat	eng	Grows in evergreen forest on limestone.
202198		population	eng	A scarce species. It is estimated that there are about 20 plants per 20 m², with a total population size of less than 1,000 mature individuals.
202198		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
202199		conservation	eng	All the sites are in protected areas - Dong Houa Sao National Protected Area,&#160; Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area and Phou Hin Nam No National Protected Area.<br/><br/>Further field surveys are required to determine if this species occurs elsewhere and also to determine the population size and trends.
202199		distribution	eng	Recorded from two provinces in Lao PDR - Champasak and Khammouan.  The extent of occurrence is 15,244 km².
202199		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland and montane evergreen forest on limestone.
202199		population	eng	A scarce species. One of the three known subpopulations is declining.
202199		threats	eng	One locality is being impacted by tourist activity (visitors to a waterfall which cause trampling).
202200		conservation	eng	Both of the Lao localities are protected in the Dong Ampham National Protected Area.
202200		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Lao PDR (Attapeu province) and southern Viet Nam (Kon Tum province). There is an old record from Savannakhet province in Lao which cannot be located. The extent of occurrence is 314 km² and the species occurs at two locations.
202200		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest.
202200		population	eng	Locally common in Lao PDR, the Vietnamese collection dates from 1941 and it has not been collected there again (the area where it was collected is not protected).
202200		threats	eng	The Vietnamese locality has probably been lost to expanding agriculture. One of the Lao localities is right next to a road and is susceptible to road-side logging.
202201		conservation	eng	At least two of the localities fall within protected areas - Ba Vi National Park and Ba Na Nature Reserve. Information about the population size, extent and trend, habitat and ecology, and potential threats is required.
202201		distribution	eng	Occurs in four provinces of central and northern Viet Nam. The most recent collection dates from 1923.
202201		habitat	eng	Presumably grows in evergreen montane forest.
202201		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population size or trends.
202201		threats	eng	Threats to this species are unknown.
202202		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Kirirom National Park, Cambodia and Phou Khao Khouay National Protected Area, Lao PDR).
202202		distribution	eng	Occurs in China (Hainan), westwards to Thailand, including Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia.
202202		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland deciduous forest on many soil types.
202202		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
202202		threats	eng	There is loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture in parts of the range.
202203		conservation	eng	All the known localities are in protected areas e.g. Phou Hin Nam No National Protected Area and Nam Chad-Nam Pan National Protected Area.
202203		distribution	eng	Occurs in two provinces of central Lao PDR. The extent of occurrence is 220 km².
202203		habitat	eng	Grows in evergreen forest on limestone among rocks in the shade.
202203		population	eng	A locally common species.
202203		threats	eng	There are no known threats to this species.
202204		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range. Taxonomic research is required to resolve this species complex.
202204		distribution	eng	A widespread species occurring from northeast India eastwards to Viet Nam.
202204		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland deciduous and evergreen forest and in montane evergreen forest, sometimes on limestone.
202204		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
202204		threats	eng	Unknown until the taxonomy is reassessed.
202205		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range. Taxonomic research is required to resolve this species complex.
202205		distribution	eng	A widespread taxon recorded from Sri Lanka eastwards to New Guinea.
202205		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland deciduous and evergreen forest and in montane evergreen forest.
202205		population	eng	Widespread and common.
202205		threats	eng	Unknown until the taxonomy is reassessed.
202206		conservation	eng	In Cambodia and Lao mostly occurs in protected areas e.g. Xepiane National Protected Area, Lao PDR.
202206		distribution	eng	Occurs in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.
202206		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland deciduous and evergreen forest in shady conditions.
202206		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
202206		threats	eng	Deforestation for expanding agriculture is the main threat to this species outside of protected areas.
202207		conservation	eng	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Attempts are required to relocate this species in Viet Nam and to find out more about its range and population size, trends and any threats in China.
202207		distribution	eng	Recorded from northern Viet Nam and southern China (Guangxi province). The elevation range is unknown.
202207		habitat	eng	Said to grow in dense forest, but the type of forest is unknown.
202207		population	eng	Has not been seen since 1884 in the type locality in Viet Nam and nothing is known about the population in China.
202207		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown.
202208		conservation	eng	All the known localities are within protected areas (e.g. Phou Ngou Protected Area and Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area).
202208		distribution	eng	Recorded from two provinces in Lao PDR (Bolikhamxai and Khammouan). The extent of occurrence is 1,351 km².
202208		habitat	eng	Grows in deciduous lowland forest over limestone, usually along watercourses in shady conditions.
202208		population	eng	Common where it occurs.
202208		threats	eng	There are no threats to this species.
202209		conservation	eng	All the Lao localities are in protected areas (e.g. Nam Ha National Protected Area). More research on the status of this species in China is needed.
202209		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Yunnan (China) and northern Lao PDR (Louangnamtha, Phongsali and Oudomxai provinces). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 13,062 km².
202209		habitat	eng	Grows in mid-elevation and montane evergreen forest in shady conditions.
202209		population	eng	Common in northern Lao but there is no information on the Chinese population. The population is stable in Lao.
202209		threats	eng	All the Lao localities are in protected areas, hence there are no threats in this part of the range. The situation in China is unknown, but the habitat may have been lost to rubber plantations.
202212		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas in Lao and Viet Nam (e.g. Xepiane National Protected Area, Lao and Tan Phu Protected Forest, Viet Nam).
202212		distribution	eng	Occurs in central and southern Lao PDR, the central highlands and southern Viet Nam, Thailand and in China (Hainan).<br/><br/>The Thai specimens may be confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracile</span> from Java.
202212		habitat	eng	Grows in many forest types on fertile soil. Spreads by long rhizomes forming extensive patches.
202212		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
202212		threats	eng	Wild plants collected for cultivation and deforestation for expanding agriculture are the main threats.
202213		conservation	eng	One Vietnamese locality is in the Huu Lien National Park. Information on the population size, extent, trend, the species' ecology and potential threats is needed.
202213		distribution	eng	Recorded from China (Guangxi and Hainan) and northern Viet Nam (Lang Son province). The extent of occurrence cannot be estimated.
202213		habitat	eng	Grows in inundated forest, sometimes at field edges or extending on to adjacent limestone hills.
202213		population	eng	There is no information on the population size or trends.
202213		threats	eng	The forest in Lang Son province, Viet Nam has been logged, but it is not known if this poses a major threat to this species as it may be able to persist under disturbance. The situation in China is not known.
202214		conservation	eng	It occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area, Lao).
202214		distribution	eng	Occurs in China (Guangxi), Viet Nam (central highlands and southern) and Lao PDR.
202214		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest on a variety of soil types. It is a creeping species with long rhizomes, so it spreads to make extensive colonies.
202214		population	eng	A widespread and common species.
202214		threats	eng	The loss of habitat through deforestation for agricultural expansion is a threat. The collection of seeds for medicinal purposes may affect the long-term reproductive success of this species.
202216		conservation	eng	Occurs in one protected area in Lao, Phou Thaleng Protected Area. In Viet Nam it is not in any protected area. The situation in China is unknown and information about the population size and trend as well as potential threats is needed.
202216		distribution	eng	Occurs in China (Guangxi), northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam. The extent of occurrence is 94,412 km² but it has a restricted area of occupancy that is well under 500 km² and  possibly as low as 28 km². The species is known from about seven locations.
202216		habitat	eng	Grows in montane evergreen forest, sometimes on limestone.
202216		population	eng	Uncommon in Lao and Viet Nam. The situation in China is not known.
202216		threats	eng	There is deforestation in parts of the range for firewood (in Viet Nam) and in Lao there is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activity. Threats in China are not known, but the habitat may well have been replaced by rubber plantations.
202218		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Bokor National Park, Cambodia and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand).
202218		distribution	eng	Occurs in central and eastern Thailand to southwestern Cambodia. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 183,359 km².
202218		habitat	eng	Grows in evergreen sub-montane to montane forest on steep slopes over sandstone.
202218		population	eng	A locally common species.
202218		threats	eng	All the recent collections are from protected areas, so there are no significant threats at present.
202219		conservation	eng	All the known subpopulations are in protected areas, namely Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area and Dong Ampham National Protected Area. The occurrence in Viet Nam, if confirmed, is also within a protected area.
202219		distribution	eng	Endemic to Lao PDR where it is found in two provinces, Attapeu and Khammouan. May occur in Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam, not yet confirmed. The extent of occurrence is therefore estimated between 3,700 km² (for Lao only) and 39,000 km² (for Lao and Viet Nam).
202219		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen forest on limestone hills, often near watercourses.
202219		population	eng	A locally common species.
202219		threats	eng	There are no significant threats as all the known subpopulations are in protected areas.
202220		conservation	eng	All the known subpopulations are in protected areas, namely Nakai-Nam  Theun National Protected Area and Nam Et-Phou Loei National Protected Area.
202220		distribution	eng	Endemic to two provinces of Lao PDR, namely Bolikhamxai and Houaphan. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 8,429 km².
202220		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen forest.
202220		population	eng	Locally common species.
202220		threats	eng	There are no significant threats as all the known subpopulations are in protected areas.
202221		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area, Lao and Pang Sida National Park, Thailand).
202221		distribution	eng	Recorded from east and northeast Thailand, southwestern Cambodia, central to southern Lao PDR and southern Viet Nam.
202221		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest, also occurs in disturbed forest.
202221		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
202221		threats	eng	There is deforestation in parts of its range for agricultural expansion.
202222		conservation	eng	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range. Taxonomic research is required to resolve this species complex.
202222		distribution	eng	Recorded from India (Assam) eastwards to Viet Nam and also from China (Yunnan and Hainan).
202222		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest and in montane evergreen forest.
202222		population	eng	A common and widespread taxon.
202222		threats	eng	Unknown until the taxonomy is reassessed.
202223		conservation	eng	Both of the known subpopulations are in protected areas, namely Bidoup Nui Ba National Park and Hon Ba Nature Reserve.
202223		distribution	eng	This species was described based on a collection from Bidoup Nui Ba National Park in Lam Dong Province, Viet Nam. It also occurs in Hon Ba Nature Reserve (J. Leong-Skornickova pers. obs.). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 159 km².
202223		habitat	eng	Grows in the moist and shady understorey of coniferous and broadleaved mixed forest at elevations between 1,200 and 1,900 m asl.
202223		population	eng	A locally common species.
202223		threats	eng	Both of the known subpopulations are within protected areas and there are no significant threats.
202225		conservation	eng	The whole population is in the Phou Ngou Protected Area.
202225		distribution	eng	Has a very restricted range, known only from the type locality in Phou Ngou Protected Area, Bolikhamxai province, Lao PDR. The area of occupancy is 4 km².<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
202225		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland semi-deciduous forest on steep slopes.
202225		population	eng	The population is estimated to number less than 250 mature individuals (70 plants per 20x20 m plot).
202225		threats	eng	There are no significant threats.
202226		conservation	eng	It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Lao-China Border Protected Area, Lao).
202226		distribution	eng	Recorded from China (Yingjiang Xian in west Yunnan), four provinces of northern Lao PDR, high central Viet Nam (a record from southern Viet Nam needs confirmation) and one province of northern Thailand.
202226		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and semi-deciduous forest and evergreen montane forest.
202226		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
202226		threats	eng	There is some loss of habitat through deforestation for agricultural expansion.
202227		conservation	eng	The Lao localities are within the Dong Ampham National Protected Area. In Viet Nam occurs in the Bu Gia Map National Park.
202227		distribution	eng	Occurs in one province of southern Lao PDR (Attapeu) and two provinces of southern Viet Nam (Lam Dong and Binh Phuoc). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 11,804 km².
202227		habitat	eng	Grows on steep slopes in lowland evergreen forest.
202227		population	eng	Locally common at two of the known localities.
202227		threats	eng	The Lao localities are within a protected area and one of the Vietnamese localities is not formally protected, but is not considered to be threatened. The second locality in Viet Nam is in a national park.
202228		conservation	eng	The Lao locality is in a protected area (Say Phou Thaleng Protected Area).<br/><br/>Research is required to distinguish the wild from cultivated plants in order to conduct a better assessment of this species.
202228		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern China (Yunnan), one province in northern Lao PDR and one province in northern Viet Nam. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 7,989 km² and it occurs at four locations.
202228		habitat	eng	Grows in evergreen montane forest.
202228		population	eng	Seems to be common, but in China and Viet Nam it is not always clear which plants are wild and which are cultivated.
202228		threats	eng	The collection of the fruits may pose a future threat to the genetic viability of this species.
202230		conservation	eng	Occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Cardamom Mountains Protected Forest, Cambodia and Khlong Yai National Park, Thailand).<br/><br/>Taxonomic research is required to resolve this species complex.
202230		distribution	eng	Recorded from southwest Cambodia, Peninsular Thailand and Sumatra (to Indonesia). There is an unconfirmed record from China (Hainan) but this is probably from a cultivated source.
202230		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and semi-deciduous forest.
202230		population	eng	A common species in southwestern Cambodia and peninsular Thailand.
202230		threats	eng	Unknown until the taxonomy is reassessed.
202231		conservation	eng	The type collection locality is in a protected area - Mount Ba Vi National Park. None of the other subpopulations is protected.
202231		distribution	eng	Occurs in northern Viet Nam, but there is one unconfirmed collection from Louang Phrabang, Lao PDR in 1953. The species is found at four locations and has an extent of occurrence of 7,959 km².
202231		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland dry evergreen forest on steep slopes on hard highly eroded marble-like limestone in rocky soil.
202231		population	eng	Occurs in three provinces in north Viet Nam, the possible site in Lao has been completely cleared. Seems to be a very scarce species as it is seldom collected.
202231		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation for expanding agriculture. Gold mining is also a threat at one locality.
202232		conservation	eng	The typical variety occurs in a few protected areas (e.g. Chang Riec Protected Forest, Viet  Nam). None of the Lao PDR localities are protected, hence some  monitoring is required to detect any future declines as that could  impact the current assessment of this taxon.<br/><br/>Variety <span style="font-style: italic;">stenophyllum</span> is known from four collections - three from Cambodia (two localities) and  one from southern Viet Nam. This taxon has not been seen since 1870, so  it is not known if it is still extant. There is no information on the  altitudinal range, but it is likely to have been collected at low  elevations.
202232		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Lao PDR, western Cambodia and southern Viet Nam. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 124,703 km².
202232		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest, often in disturbed areas.
202232		population	eng	A common and widespread species.
202232		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation for expanding agriculture.
202233		conservation	eng	Occurs in a few protected areas (e.g. Chang Riec Protected Forest, Viet Nam). None of the Lao PDR localities are protected, hence some monitoring is required to detect any future declines as that could impact the current assessment of this taxon.
202233		distribution	eng	Recorded from southern Lao PDR, western Cambodia and southern Viet Nam. The extent of occurrence is estimated at 124,703 km².
202233		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest, often in disturbed areas.
202233		population	eng	A common and widespread taxon.
202233		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation for expanding agriculture.
202234		conservation	eng	One of the recorded localities is within protected areas, namely Angkor Wat World Heritage Site, Cambodia. There is a protected area near to the Vietnamese locality (Binh Chau-Phuoc Buu Nature Reserve at Ba Ria) but it is not known if this is the area where the plant was collected.
202234		distribution	eng	Known from four collections - three from Cambodia (two localities) and one from southern Viet Nam. This taxon has not been seen since 1870, so it is not known if it is still extant. There is no information on the altitudinal range, but it is likely to have been collected at low elevations.
202234		habitat	eng	The habitat is presumably lowland semi-deciduous forest.
202234		population	eng	Nothing is known about the population size and trends  as the species has not been seen since 1870.
202234		threats	eng	There is still intact forest habitat at one of the Cambodian localities and at the Viet Nam locality. Both of these sites are protected.
202235		conservation	eng	Occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Xepiane National Protected Area, Lao and Bi Doup-Nui Ba National Park, Viet Nam).<br/><br/>Research is required to determine the true wild range, population size and trends, and threats, especially for var. <span style="font-style: italic;">xanthioides</span>.
202235		distribution	eng	Reported to occur in India,  Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Thailand and China (Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong, Yunnan). But it is not clear how much of this range  is native and how much is naturalized or cultivated.
202235		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen and deciduous forest, usually in clearings and in evergreen montane forest.
202235		population	eng	A common and widespread taxon.
202235		threats	eng	There are no significant threats to the species as a whole.
202237		conservation	eng	It is not known if the wild taxon occurs in any protected areas.<br/><br/>Research is required to determine the true wild range, population size and trends, and threats to this taxon.
202237		distribution	eng	Known from old collections in Myanmar, two provinces in northern Lao PDR (introduced) and from China (Yunnan and Guangxi). The Flora of China also reports this species as occurring in India, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam. It is not clear how much of this range is native and how much is naturalized or cultivated.
202237		habitat	eng	Grows in lowland evergreen forest, sometimes in disturbed areas.
202237		population	eng	Is a common taxon, but many of the records may be of naturalized or cultivated plants.
202237		threats	eng	The threats are unknown as it is difficult to distinguish wild from naturalized/cultivated plants.
202239		conservation	eng	Occurs in at least two protected areas (Ba Vi National Park and Tam Dao National Park both in Viet Nam). Further surveys are required to determine the full range and population size of this species and to see if there are any threats that might be causing declines.
202239		distribution	eng	Recorded from Hainan in China and from Viet Nam at Tam Dao, Vinh Phuc province and at Ba Vi, Hanoi. Occurs from 1,000 up to 1,500 m asl. The extent of occurrence is 12,500 km².
202239		habitat	eng	Occurs as either a creeping herb on the ground or as an epiphytic climber on medium trees in evergreen forest on high mountains.
202239		population	eng	Has a very small population. Each subpopulation comprises several tens of individuals. However, given that this species is an epiphytic climber it may be easily over-looked and so might be more widespread and commoner than current records indicate.
202239		threats	eng	Threats are unknown. At Tam Dao it was growing in a disturbed area with secondary habitat so may be tolerant of some disturbance or is able to persist after trees have been cut down.
202267		conservation	eng	No conservation actions are in place. Further research is required to determine the species full distribution, threats, and population trends.
202267		distribution	eng	Known only from two geographically proximate localities in the Xe Kong drainage (Attapeu Province), a major sub-drainage of the Mekong River in southern Lao PDR. Considered present in lower Xe Kong in Cambodia because one of the known locality is about at the point where the Xe Kong starts being the boundary between Lao PDR and Cambodia.
202267		habitat	eng	Observed in streams and rivers, on sandy to muddy bottom with submerged vegetation and/or debris.
202267		population	eng	No information.
202267		threats	eng	No identified threat.
203564		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. As very little is known about this species, it would benefit from research into its precise distribution and abundance levels in order to assess whether or not it is being impacted by threat processes.
203564		distribution	eng	This species is distributed across the mountainous part of Central Asia and probably the inner Altai mountain range (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
203564		habitat	eng	This species is known to occur in freshwater pools in mountainous regions of Central Asia (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009).
203564		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
203564		threats	eng	The threats to this species are unknown, as insufficient information exists on its precise distribution, abundance and ecology.
203566		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the section of the Franklin River that this species inhabits was protected from being drowned by the damming of the nearby Gordon River in 1983, following a successful conservation campaign (Ponder and Waterhouse 1997).
203566		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Tasmania, where it is only known from the lower section of the Franklin River in the south-west (Ponder and Waterhouse 1997). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.
203566		habitat	eng	This species is only known from the lower section of the Franklin River in southwestern Tasmania. It lives attached to submerged, smooth or algal and liverwort-covered vertical or near-vertical limestone rocks, or rock faces on the edges of the river (Ponder and Waterhouse 1997).
203566		population	eng	There are no population data available for this species.
203566		threats	eng	The 2000-2002 National Land and Water Resources Audit theme assessments found that freshwater snails in Tasmania were being impacted by many threat processes including: changes in water quality due to pesticides and fertilisers; increased sediment loads; loss of riparian vegetation; destruction of small seepages; gravel and rock extraction; and damming of streams especially in headwaters (ANRA 2009). However, it is unknown to what extent these threats are currently impacting upon this species. The localised distribution of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threat processes, so if these threats do arise in the future, this species may be experiencing significant declines over a relatively short time period.
203723		conservation	eng	This species has been assigned a NatureServe Global Heritage ranking of G5 - Secure. It has also been given State/Province Conservation status rankings of S5 - Secure for Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, New York and&#160;Massachusetts, and S4 - Apparently Secure for Conneticut (NatureServe 2009).
203723		distribution	eng	This species ranges from Vermont west to North Dakota, south to Ohio and Illinois and northward to Great Slave Lake (Burch 1989).&#160;In Pennsylvania, it occurs in the Delaware and Ohio basins (Evans and Ray 2010). In Indiana, Pyron <em>et al</em>. (2008) found it at only one site (Lake Wawasee) of 123 surveyed, though it was historically documented in Indiana Sand Dunes National Seashore.&#160;It has an extent of occurrence of  2,500,000 km<sup>2</sup> (NatureServe 2009).
203723		habitat	eng	Habitat includes lakes and ponds and quiet portions of streams. In Indiana it was found in sand and riprap substrate and submerged macrophytes, and is mostly limited to the lakes area of Indiana (Pyron <em>et al</em>. 2008).
203723		population	eng	The species is common in New York (Jokinen 1992). Populations are considered to be stable throughout most of this species' range, although it is imperiled in some parts, such as Indiana (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012).
203723		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, and populations are stable throughout most of its range except for a few regions where it is imperiled, such as Indiana (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2012).
203724		conservation	eng	<p>The species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage ranking of G5 – Secure (NatureServe 2009). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.</p>
203724		distribution	eng	<p>This species is endemic to North America. It is distributed from the coastal plain portion of the Gulf of Mexico drainages from the Escambia River in Florida west to Texas and north into the Mississippi River drainage (Mulvey <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is also known from the St. Lawrence River drainage, but it is absent from Lake Superior and its drainages (Burch 1975). Butler (1989) lists the distribution as throughout the Interior Basin and from the San Antonio River, Texas, east to the Choctawhatchee River, but it is not known from the Yellow River. In Michigan the species is found mainly in rivers in the lower peninsula from the Saginaw and Grand River drainages to the south. However, there are some records from the Sturgeon River in the upper peninsula (Burch 1975). In Canada, the species’ range is restricted to southern Ontario, southern Manitoba and southeastern Saskatchewan. It is widely distributed and often abundant in Canada. It is restricted to the Lake Erie drainage in Ontario (Metcalfe-Smith and Cadmore-Vokey 2004). Its northern range includes the Red River of the North, Winnipeg River and Nelson River (Burch 1975). It extends into the Niagara River drainage in western New York State (Strayer and Jirka 1997).&#160;</p>
203724		habitat	eng	<p>This species is a generalist and is known from a variety of habitats, ranging from small streams to big rivers, as well as lakes. It is known to occur in habitats with little or no current, and also from habitats where there is a very fast current. It is also known to occur on a variety of substrates, including clay, mud, sand and gravel. It is however most common on substrates composed of sand and gravel at depths of one to three feet, though it has been found at depths of up to 30 feet (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).</p>  <p>The age of sexual maturity for this species is not known. It is, as a unionid, gonochoristic and viviparous. The glochidia (larval stage) are released as live offspring from the female after they are fully developed. The species is a short-term brooder and breeds once annually in the spring. In the Huron River, the species is gravid from early June to mid-July and it probably spawns in May (Lefevre and Curtis 1912, van der Schalie 1938, Watters 1995).</p>
203724		population	eng	<p>In Canada, the species is often abundant (Metcalfe-Smith and Cadmore-Vokey 2004). In the United States, the species is widespread and common throughout most of its range but is apparently declining in some smaller streams (Illinois Natural History Survey 2009). Overall, it is considered to be stable, and in some cases expanding, throughout its range (NatureServe 2009).</p>
203724		threats	eng	<p>The species is harvested and utilised by the pearl industry (Oesch 1984, Watters 1995), but other threats to the species throughout its range are not known. It is considered stable throughout its range and is therefore unlikely to be significantly affected by any major threats.<br/></p>
13160676		conservation	eng	None of the three subpopulations are included in protected areas or benefit from conservation actions. A pilot <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding program was initiated in July 2010.
13160676		distribution	eng	This species occurs only in restricted areas of three small tributaries in the terminal portion of the Tagus (Tejo) River Basin in Portugal. These are Rio Trancão, Rio Maior and Ribeira de Muge (Gante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, 2010). Material available in museum collections confirms its presence in historical times in two additional tributaries in which present day populations have not been found (Ribeira de Ulme and Ribeira de Magos) (Gante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This suggests that the species’ areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely regressing. Many other tributaries of the Tagus (Tejo) River have been sampled over the years but no additional subpopulations have been found. Further sampling effort in the tributaries where the species occurs was unsuccessful in finding more individuals, indicating a very restricted area of occupancy.<br/><br/>Conservative area calculations of the extent of occurrence (i.e., assuming that the species can be found in all of the extent of the basins where it was found) indicate an area below 10 km². The area of occupancy, based on proven occurrence or the presence of adequate habitat, is <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 3 km².
13160676		habitat	eng	The species has been found in small order tributaries (creeks and streams) and marginal marshes/pools subject to seasonal flooding. Very little is known about its breeding ecology, except that it occurs in spring.
13160676		population	eng	The exact size of subpopulations is unknown. However, since only few (one to five) individuals are collected at a given time from any locality, it is suspected the species is very rare. Only in extremely low water level conditions, when individuals were forced into isolated pools, have up to 20 individuals been collected at one time. Furthermore, the three subpopulations identified are most likely isolated from one another by the Tagus River main channel. Genetic data available for the known subpopulations reveal the existence of private alleles for both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, supporting their low exchange of migrants in evolutionary times (Gante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
13160676		threats	eng	The three subpopulations identified occur in an area of high human pressure on water resources, through water extraction for agriculture (especially in years of severe drought). It is also threatened by the presence of exotic species; industrial, domestic and agricultural sources of pollution; and land reclamation, which pose serious risks to the species’ long-term survival. Furthermore, the species was found to hybridize with a critically endangered sympatric relative (<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberochondrostoma lusitanicum</span>) (Gante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Continued introgression from this relatively more abundant species could lead to its genetic dilution.
13167913		conservation	eng	This species is listed under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Avenula hackelii</span> on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It has been listed as Vulnerable on the national Red List (Ramos Lopes and Carvalho 1990).<br/><br/>The sites as well as the habitat of the species need to be protected and restored.
13167913		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helictotrichon hackelii </span>is an endemic species from the southwest coast of Portugal. The area of occupancy is between 395 to 700 km² (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
13167913		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Helictotrichon</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> hackelii</span> grows in coastal sandy soils of different types (ICN 2006). It can be found in the Habitats Directive listed habitat 5330 "Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub" (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
13167913		population	eng	<span class="tooltip">The populations are fragmented into subpopulations which are on average separated by 10 km from each other. The subpopulations can be from less than ten individuals to several hundreds (ICN 2006). The total number of individuals is unknown but the populations have a decreasing trend (Commission of the European Communities 2009).
13167913		threats	eng	The main threats are posed by infrastructure development for tourism and urban expansion. Further threats noted are the illegal quarrying of sand and an expansion of irrigation agriculture (ICN 2006).
13198125		conservation	eng	Research into potential threats is required, as well as a better understanding of the species distribution.
13198125		distribution	eng	The species has been recently described (Ng and Rainboth 2011) from the Mekong River delta in southern Viet Nam.<br/>&#160;<br/>The type material was collected from the Song Hau Giang (Bassac River), An Giang Province, 4 km downstream from Long Xuyen (10°20'N 105°29'E), with additional specimens collected from Vinh Long Province (Kinh Thuy Cai canal, 10 km east of Vinh Long; fish market at Vinh Long; Song Co Chien, 3–4 km downstream from Vinh Long, 10°15'N 106°7'E), An Giang Province (Song Hau Giang, 3 km downstream from Chau Doc; Mekong River at Long Xuyen; west side of Mekong River, 2 km south of Tan My; Song Chau Doc 3 km upstream from Chau Doc, 10°45'N 105°7'E), and Can Tho Province (Song Hau Giang, in canal heading northwest from the Can Tho ferry crossing; Mekong River from Can Tho ferry to town of Can Tho, along southern bank; Song Hau Giang, side channel downstream from Can Tho, 10°1'N 105°47'E; Song Hau Giang, 3 km downstream from Can Tho, 10°1'34"N 105°48'8"E (Ng and Rainboth 2011).<br/>&#160;<br/>The species should be looked for in adjacent parts of southern Cambodia.
13198125		habitat	eng	The type locality is a wide, fairly clear, slow-flowing tributary of the Mekong, with a sand and silt bottom (Ng and Rainboth 2011). Found in both fresh and brackish waters. Although the type locality of the species has a sandy/silty substrate, many of the main river channels in the Mekong delta undergo heavy tidal flushing, and the substrate is frequently hardpan (hard-packed clay) (Ng and Rainboth 2011).
13198125		population	eng	No information available.
13198125		threats	eng	There are no known threats at present. Pollution (from agricultural sources) and changes in flow and sedimentation patterns arising from upstream dams may impact the species and its habitat, however further research is required.
13295364		conservation	eng	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is recommended to clarify the species’ distribution, abundance and whether there are any unidentified threat processes affecting it, as well as the taxonomic status of the genus <em>Corbicula</em>.
13295364		distribution	eng	The type locality of this species is Keumgang bei Kongju, Provinz Chhungchhöngdo, and it is distributed in southern Primorje (Razdolnaya River and other rivers of the Japan Sea basin (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009). The type locality for the synonym <em>C. ferghanensis</em> is Ferghana in Uzbekistan, where it was found in a large irrigation canal. Izzatullaez and Boimurodov (2007) found this synonym species in the Zarafshon River Basin in Uzbekistan. The current distribution here is 'Central Asia' (Kantor <em>et al</em>. 2009), and is inferred to include Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
13295364		habitat	eng	This species inhabits irrigation canals, rivers, large and small creeks, ponds, lakes and reservoirs (Izzatullaez and Boimurodov 2007, Kantor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2009). Izzatullaez and Boimurodov (2007) found this species in silty-sand soil at a depth of 0.5–1.5 m. They also found the species to be common in the muddy bottoms of aquaculture ponds.
13295364		population	eng	There is insufficient population data available for this species.
13295364		threats	eng	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, as it has been found in a wide variety of habitats, including artificial ones.
13508501		conservation	eng	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The area is not yet under Myanmar government control (it is within the ceasefire area with the National Democratic Army of Kachin), there are no border controls, no presence of enforcement agencies, and no rule of law. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is an urgent need to maintain areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.
13508501		distribution	eng	The trapping locality of the holotype was determined as 26.431011°N, 98.388941°E (elevation 2,815 m) in the Maw River area, northeastern Kachin state, northeastern Myanmar. Preliminary surveys and notes on habitat associations indicate that the range of the new species encompasses the mountain forests in the watershed area of the Maw River, a tributary to the N'mai Hka River, and forests across the range to the east above the village of Chichitago. The species therefore appears to be limited in distribution to a small area of the Salween-N'mai Hka divide in northeastern Kachin state, northeastern Myanmar. The coordinates of the distribution area are 26.31°–26.51°N and 98.34°–98.61°E.
13508501		habitat	eng	The distribution area is mountainous, and slopes are very steep in most places. The main forest types in the range of the Snub-nosed Monkeys are cool temperate rain forest and mixed temperate forest. Silver fir forest occurs at elevations of 2,745-3,660 m (conifer zone). There is no information how high up the mountains the monkeys go, but the highest mountain in this range is 3,660 m. According to local hunters, Snub-nosed Monkeys spend the summer (i.e. the snow-free times from May to October) mostly at higher altitudes, in mixed temperate forests and conifer forests. In winter, however, when snowfall probably restricts the availability of food, the monkeys descend to lower elevations and may be found closer to villages.
13508501		population	eng	Geissmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) estimated that there are approximately three to four groups of Burmese Snub-nosed Monkeys, which occur in three distinct parts of the distribution area around Maw River. The first group, distributed north of the Maw River, contains approximately 60-80 individuals; the second group, south of the river has about 80-100 individuals; and a group of about 150 animals appears at the foothills of the snow-capped mountains above the Chichitago village. The total population size was estimated at 260-330 individuals. The generation length of Snub-nosed Monkeys is unknown, however, Geissmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) used the age at first reproduction as a minimum estimate of generation length. In other species of Snub-nosed Monkeys, the average age at first reproduction is 4–6 years in females and 6.5–7 years in males (Li <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003; Liang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000; Quan and Xie 2002, cited in Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009; Zou 2002, cited in Cui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This gives an average of about six years for the age at first reproduction.<br/><br/>After two years of field work in this area the only direct encounters  with this species were by local support staff (twice) and not by any  scientists and the presence of the species in the wild was only  confirmed through camera traps (one group of eleven including three  mothers with infants, and two individual animals on three camera traps  in total) over a nine month period (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012). Given the lack of direct evidence, the population size estimates given above are treated as being highly uncertain and as a result, these numbers are not used in the assessment of this species to see if it would qualify as Critically Endangered under criterion C. The lower population estimate of 260 is very close to the required threshold of less than 250 mature individuals; the species would most certainly qualify as Endangered under criterion C1 and C2.
13508501		threats	eng	Snub-nosed Monkeys are threatened by direct and indirect hunting pressures. Animals are hunted and trapped for their bones and heads, but most often monkeys are unintentionally trapped in iron traps that are set to trap deer or wild pigs to supply the local bush meat trade (this has been confirmed by local hunters and there is camera trap evidence of the monkeys travelling on the ground where traps have been set) (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012). Already with the still limited construction work camps, commercial bush meat demand  has increased sharply over the last two years (2010-2011) and is set to accelerate (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012). Monkeys may also be caught in traps set for bears (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2012).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation, due to the creation of roads and other infrastructure is rapidly becoming a major threat. Logging roads have now been built into all the areas occupied by this species since 2009 (some are within 200 m of the camera traps) (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012). With the increased access, the influx of Chinese workers to the area as part of the logging and dam building operations is accelerating and it is expected that when the dams reach the full construction stage there will be at least 10,000 workers employed in this area (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012).<br/><br/>Habitat loss due the impacts of logging is very serious due to large scale mechanical logging (blasting of logging roads, use of heavy equipment and winches, reaching ridges and even peaks) taking place, especially as the largest part of the range area is conifer forest and during the snow-covered winter months the Snub-nosed Monkeys (just as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. bieti</span>) depend on lichens for food (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012). As the logging is effecting most mature conifer trees, food sources especially in winter are becoming scarce. The logging practices are causing serious destruction because logging takes place at high altitudes and even on slopes with more than 70 degrees slope inclination (these areas are accessed using winches and roads are blasted through cliffs). Land slides are becoming increasingly common as a result of the loss of tree cover. The&#160; lower mountain broad leaf forest is also impacted by logging (targeting hardwoods) and landslides caused by logging roads. Shifting cultivation reaches from the N'mai Hka river valley up to 2,000 meters, flooding following dam construction will displace shifting cultivation areas in the valley bottom to higher areas, increasing the pressures on the Snub-nosed Monkey habitat (F. Momberg pers. comm. 2012).
13593322		conservation	eng	There are no conservation measures in place. Research on population numbers and range is needed; habitat maintenance and conservation are recommended.
13593322		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. In Tunisia, the species is found between La Maison Forestière of Jbel Rorra and Ghardimaou in Kroumiria, in Maktar, Ellez and Bou Driès in the Tunisian Dorsale; in Algeria it occurs in the Tell; and in Morocco in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Rif, and the North Atlantic plains. The area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².
13593322		habitat	eng	This species occurs in marshes, on the edges of streams and in moist places, often in mountainous areas.
13593322		population	eng	This species is reported as common in Morocco and Algeria in an old flora, but is probably rare now. It is rare in Tunisia.
13593322		threats	eng	No major threats to the species are known in the mountainous areas. In the plains, drainage, agriculture and in-filling are affecting the species' habitat. Pollution might affect it in some parts of its range.
14134429		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions in place for the California Butterfly Ray in United States (i.e., California) waters, but there are also no major threats. Nearshore trawl and gillnet fisheries that may negatively impact this species have been curtailed or severely reduced in California as a result of bycatch issues and substantial population declines in traditionally targeted teleost groundfishes.<br/><br/>There also are no conservation actions specific to the California Butterfly Ray in Mexico. However, details of the recent national management plan for sharks and rays provides for the cessation of fishing activities in important nursery regions, including Bahía Almejas, during the peak summer breeding season. This management strategy could prove to be highly effective in maintaining sustainable populations of the California Butterfly Ray and other coastal sharks and rays. However, efforts to implement and enforce seasonal fishing bans have been largely unsuccessful.
14134429		distribution	eng	The California Butterfly Ray has been reported from Point Conception, southern California (United States) to Point Lobos de Afuera, Peru (Beebe and TeeVan 1941, Miller and Lea 1972). However, recent evidence suggests that the Longsnout Butterfly Ray replaces the California Butterfly Ray in tropical regions, implying a largely warm-temperate distribution for the California Butterfly Ray (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2009a). The confirmed range of the California Butterfly Ray is therefore much more restricted that previously specified, and extends continuously from Point Conception to central Sonora, Mexico (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2009a). Only the Longsnout Butterfly Ray has been observed during recent collection efforts off Mazatlan, Sinaloa (Mexico) and all tropically-derived specimens of the California Butterfly Ray examined among regional museum collections are actually misidentified the Longsnout Butterfly Ray (J.J. Bizzarro and W.D. Smith pers. obs.). These findings suggest that the transition zone for the California Butterfly Ray and the Longsnout Butterfly Ray occurs between central Sonora and northern Sinaloa in the eastern Gulf of California. Further investigation is necessary to confirm these conclusions and to reliably establish the southern extent of this species’ range.
14134429		habitat	eng	The California Butterfly Ray is a common nearshore species that has been reported to occur from intertidal regions (Carlisle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1960) to depths of at least 94 m (Amezcua-Linares 1996). Warm-temperate in distribution, the California Butterfly Ray is associated with sandy bays and beaches as well as silty or muddy tidal channels and estuaries (Beltrán-Félix <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). Along the Pacific coast of Mexico’s Baja Peninsula, the abundance of this ray increases notably in shallow embayments during April and May (Beltrán-Félix et al. 1986, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). In Bahía Almejas, gravid females typically immigrate during April followed by adult males in May (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Davila-Ortiz, 2002). Courtship and fertilization are thought to occur from May through August in this region, with near-term embryos observed from April through September (Davila-Ortiz 2002, J.J. Bizzarro and W.D. Smith pers. obs.). By late August, mature individuals are less common in shallow embayments (Beltrán-Félix <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993) but early life stages seem to utilize these areas for nursery functions (Bizzarro 2005). Although this general reproductive pattern seems valid, gravid females with near-term embryos also have been observed during winter months in Bahía Almejas, and it is possible that there is either a smaller reproductive peak at this time, or else that the population is capable of reproducing throughout the year (Bizzarro 2005). Since pupping, mating, and nursery functions occur in inshore regions, these habitats are essential to the propagation of the species. However, artisanal fisheries in Mexico target reproductive aggregations of the California Butterfly Ray and other ray species on their breeding grounds, which may have considerable negative implications for the long-term sustainability of exploited populations (Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Some additional life history and ecological information is available for this species, with the majority derived from a single region (Bahía Almejas, Mexico). The California Butterfly Ray, like other gymnurids, bears live young but lacks a placental attachment to its embryos (aplacental viviparity). Instead, embryos are nourished by means of small yolk-sacs and protein-rich uterine secretions delivered by specialized villi (Wourms 1977). Unlike many myliobatoid rays, both ovaries of the California Butterfly Ray are functional (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). Reported litter sizes range from 4–16 pups per female with the observed sex ratio perhaps slightly favouring males at birth (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Davila-Ortiz 2002). Size at birth ranges from 21–26 cm disc width (DW) (Davila-Ortiz 2002). The observed size at first maturity is 62 cm DW for females and 41 cm DW for males (Davila-Ortiz 2002). Females attain greater sizes than males, with a maximum reported disc width of 150 cm (Castro-Aguire 1965). However, this size is generalized, and the largest measured specimen was 125 cm DW (Bizzarro 2005). Like other gymnurids, the California Butterfly Ray feeds almost exclusively on teleost fishes (Bizzarro 2005). Other ecological considerations (for example; thermal tolerance, diel behavior) are largely unknown.
14134429		population	eng	No quantitative information is available on the size or trends of the California Butterfly Ray populations but this species appears to be common in nearshore and inshore waters of the Pacific coast of the Baja Peninsula and in the northern Gulf of California. It is often landed in mixed species demersal fisheries in both regions, and is one of the most common species taken in the Bahía Almejas (Baja California Sur) ray fishery (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Gymnurd rays are also among the most common species taken in the Gulf of California artisanal elasmobranch fishery. However, the relative contribution of the California Butterfly Ray to these landings cannot be determined because of a lack of species-specific fisheries data and the historic taxonomic uncertainty between the California Butterfly Ray and the Longsnout Butterfly Ray (Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b).<br/><br/>The Gulf of California population (or populations) of the California Butterfly Ray was determined to be reproductively isolated from the population off the Pacific coast of Mexico (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a). This finding led Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009a) to conclude that the Pacific and Gulf of California the California Butterfly Ray populations should be considered as separate stocks for conservation and management purposes.
14134429		threats	eng	The California Butterfly Ray is susceptible to a variety of fishing gears and is commonly taken in inshore and nearshore fisheries. In Mexico it is caught incidentally in shrimp trawl fisheries, and directly or indirectly caught with longlines, beach seines, and gillnets. Whether retained or discarded, mortality is inferred to be high in these fisheries, especially in the Gulf of California shrimp trawl fishery (Márquez-Farías 2002). Furthermore, it is subjected to directed, mixed-species artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in Mexico where it is a primary component of landings off the southern Pacific coast of the Baja California Peninsula and in the northern Gulf of California (Villavicenico-Garayzar 1995, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The California Butterfly Ray is landed in Mexican artisanal fisheries throughout the year, but catches are greatest from late spring to early fall (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). These rays are most often targeted with bottom set gillnets but beach seines are also used in some locations.&#160; The Mexican fisheries that exploit the California Butterfly Ray are largely unregulated. A national elasmobranch management plan was recently enacted in Mexico, including a moratorium on fishing in important nursery habitats during summer months, when many elasmobranchs utilize nearshore regions for reproductive purposes.&#160; However, most regulations, including the seasonal fishing ban, have not been enforced.<br/><br/>Threats are comparatively minor in the United States, where this species is typically only abundant during warm water periods. Winter residents appear largely restricted to individuals occurring in association with areas of elevated temperature due to discharge from power plants. U.S. gillnet and trawl fisheries that would typically catch the California Butterfly Ray have been largely curtailed or moved to deeper waters beyond its depth range, and recreational landings are trivial.<br/><br/>In addition to threats from fisheries, habitat degradation may be impacting this species, especially throughout its primary range in Mexico. Several embayments are being modified for mariculture (especially shrimp farming) or desalinization operations in northwestern Mexico, and those in more urban areas are subject to pollution.&#160; Pollution may also impact habitat quality for the fringe population that occurs off southern California.<br/><br/>It should not be assumed, however, that current and historic levels of fishing activity have negatively impacted this species.&#160; Severe declines in the landings of large, predatory sharks and upper trophic level teleosts have been noted in Mexican waters (Sala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Bizzarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and predation pressure on the California Butterfly Ray may therefore be lower than historic levels.<span><span></span>
14134431		conservation	eng	There are no conservation actions specific to the Longsnout Butterfly Ray in Mexico. However, details of the recent national management plan for sharks and rays provides for the cessation of fishing activities in important nursery regions during the breeding season. Assuming that the Longsnout Butterfly Ray utilizes these regions like other coastal rays, including the California Butterfly Ray, this management strategy could prove to be highly effective in maintaining sustainable populations. However, efforts to implement and enforce seasonal fishing bans have been largely unsuccessful. No specific conservation actions have been established for this species in other portions of its range.
14134431		distribution	eng	<p>The Longsnout Butterfly Ray has been reported from Mexico, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru but the range of this poorly known species probably extends continuously from the Gulf of California (Mexico) to Peruvian waters. Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa-Pérez (1996) hypothesized that the Longsnout Butterfly Ray replaces the California Butterfly Ray in more tropical, southern latitudes. Similar patterns of replacement by congeneric species are exemplified in the eastern Pacific for other ray genera (for example <em>Narcine</em>, <em>Myliobatis</em>, <em>Rhinobatos</em>, <em>Zapteryx</em>) and the results of Smith <em>et al.</em> (2009) and the personal observations of the authors support this notion.</p>
14134431		habitat	eng	Limited, largely anecdotal information is available on the biology of the Longsnout Butterfly Ray. The Longsnout Butterfly Ray has been reported to occur on sandy and muddy substrates of estuaries (Robertson and Allen 2002), and has been observed in nearshore shrimp trawls occurring over similar substrates (J.J. Bizzarro and W.D. Smith pers. obs.). The depth range is reported from intertidal depths to 30 m (Robertson and Allen 2002). No life history information is available for this species, but it appears to feed mainly on teleosts (J.J. Bizzarro pers. obs.). Maximum female and male size have been reliably reported at 81.2 cm disc width (DW) in females, and 46.3 cm DW in males (Smith <em>et al. </em>2009). Like the California Butterfly Ray, this species may utilize inshore regions for breeding and nursery functions.
14134431		population	eng	No quantitative information is available on the size and trends of the Longsnout Butterfly Ray populations. This species is virtually unknown throughout the primary extent of its range and historic taxonomic confusion has precluded a comparison of the relative abundance of the California Butterfly Ray and the Longsnout Butterfly Ray in Mexican fishery landings (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). The great majority of information available on this species is from the northern extent of its range in Mexican waters, and is largely restricted to descriptive information from field guides.
14134431		threats	eng	The Longsnout Butterfly Ray is susceptible to a variety of fishing gears and is commonly taken in inshore and nearshore fisheries in Mexico. In the Gulf of California, it is caught incidentally in shrimp trawl fisheries, and directly or indirectly caught with longlines and gillnets. The California Butterfly Ray is occasionally captured with beach seines, and though this practice may also be applied to the Longsnout Butterfly Ray, it has not been observed or reported. Whether retained or discarded, mortality is considered to be high in these fisheries, especially in the shrimp trawl fishery (Márquez-Farías 2002). Off Mazatlan, this species was commonly observed among shrimp trawl catches and typically discarded dead (J.J. Bizzarro and W.D. Smith pers. obs.). The Mexican fisheries that exploit the Longsnout Butterfly Ray are largely unregulated. Although a national elasmobranch management plan was recently enacted in Mexico, including a moratorium on fishing in important nursery habitats during the breeding season, these regulations have not been widely or effectively enforced. Threats from fisheries are probably less substantial in the southern portion of its range, but are unreported.<br/><br/>In addition to threats from fisheries, habitat degradation may be impacting this species. In Mexico, some embayments are being modified for mariculture (especially shrimp farming) or desalinization operations, and those in more urban regions may be subject to pollution. It is unclear how these practices affect Longsnout Butterfly Ray populations over the majority of its range.
14665363		conservation	eng	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although it does occur inside Kimboza Forest Reserve and Ruvu Forest Reserve, neither of these reserves is well-protected at present. There is an urgent need to control trade in this species, and CITES listing on either Appendix I or II is strongly recommended (M. Flecks pers. comm. March 2012). Lack of habitat protection represents a major threat to this lizard, and improved monitoring is required to ensure the security of the reserves from which the gecko is known (M. Flecks pers. comm. March 2012). The species is in need of special consideration in Tanzania's national wildlife and forestry management plans (M. Flecks pers. comm. March 2012). Research is needed to estimate the size and status of the population in Ruvu Forest Reserve, and to better-understand the effects of habitat fragmentation on this microhabitat specialist (M. Flecks pers. comm. March 2012).
14665363		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Tanzania and is found within the Forest Reserves of Kimboza and Ruvu. It is also known from two localities in the vicinity of these forests (Flecks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Its extent of occurrence is approximately 20 km²<sup></sup>, and within this area it has an estimated area of occupancy of 8 km²<sup></sup>.
14665363		habitat	eng	This diurnal gecko species inhabits tropical forest at the eastern foothills of the Uluguru Mountains (Doggart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Spawls <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), where it exclusively dwells on Screwpine, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus rabaiensis </span>(Lambert 1985, Weinsheimer and Flecks 2010). This tree is associated with swampy areas or limestone substrata within the forest area. Usually, one male, one or more females and several juveniles inhabit one <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plant (Bayliss 1994, Flecks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012).
14665363		population	eng	The subpopulation in Kimboza Forest Reserve was estimated to comprise approximately 150,000 adult individuals in 2009, based on the number of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus</span> plants in the reserve and the number of lizards per plant sampled (Flecks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). This subpopulation is estimated to have declined by one third of its original size since 2004, based on a similar calculation of abundance derived in part from pre-collection literature (Flecks<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2012). Although population turnover is likely to replenish some of the losses due to off-take, both these estimates and the testimony of interviewees from the region indicate that the population is still in decline (Flecks<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2012). The status of the subpopulation at Ruvu Forest Reserve needs quantification. <br/><br/>Two further subpopulations outside of these forests occupy very small areas and do not contribute significantly to the total population. The four known subpopulations are not connected due to lack of suitable habitat in between (Flecks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012), and the population is consequently considered to be severely fragmented.
14665363		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation due to ongoing deforestation (illegal logging of timber, pole cutting, firewood collection, hunting activities, clearing for agriculture, and the increasing frequency of fires). The limestone formations on which the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plants grow<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are mined (Hymas 2000). Collection for the international pet trade directly affects the species at a scale likely to threaten the population (Flecks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012).
14665504		conservation	eng	This species is essentially confined to Montagne d'Ambre National Park, which is presently well-managed, although Madagascar is a very poor country with a volatile political situation, and as such no protected area can be guaranteed to offer long-term protection. Research is needed to clarify the identity of records of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ebenaui</span> from other forest blocks in northern Madagascar to establish whether this <span style="font-style: italic;">U. finiavana</span> is genuinely endemic to this reserve. This species is included on CITES Appendix II.
14665504		distribution	eng	This gecko is endemic to Madagascar, where it is widespread within Montagne d'Ambre National Park, and has also been reported from secondary forest fragments near the adjacent town of Joffreville (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It is likely also to occur in the nearby Forêt d'Ambre, from where it was reported by D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008), but further investigation is required to clarify that this record is attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. finiavana </span>rather than <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ebenaui </span>(Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Further work is required to clarify whether any records of <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ebenaui</span> from other forest blocks in northern Madagascar, including Anjanaharibe-Sud, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Tsaratanana and Makira, refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">U. finiavana</span> (Ratsoavina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). A number of reptiles are, however, known to be endemic to Montagne d'Ambre, and it may well be that this species is genuinely confined to this forest. It has been recorded between 700 and 1,300 m asl. in Montagne d'Ambre. The park has an area of 182 km²<sup></sup> (Nicoll and Langrand 1989), which is provisionally taken to be this lizard's extent of occurrence.
14665504		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded both in primary forest within Montagne d'Ambre and in secondary forest at the park edge, just outside the protected area (Ratsoavina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). In the latter habitat, it was only observed in 2009 and only in areas without much degraded vegetation (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is nocturnal and arboreal and feeds on arthropods, with one individual having been observed eating a cockroach (Ratsoavina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). It is most common at elevations between 800 and 900 m asl. Unusually, most individuals encountered do not have original or regrown tails (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011; F. Glaw pers. comm. March 2012). At the lower limit of its elevational range (around 700 m) it occurs together with <span style="font-style: italic;">U. ebenaui</span>, with no genetic evidence of hybridization between these forms (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
14665504		population	eng	The original description indicates that this lizard is "remarkably common within the national park", where up to 10 individuals can be found during night walks at 800-900 m asl. on particular forest trails (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It was frequently encountered in field surveys prior to its formal description, having been recorded in surveys of the park conducted in 1994, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2006 and 2009 (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Although detectability is influenced by weather conditions that may differ between surveys, F. Glaw (pers. comm. March 2012) reports that there appears to be no evidence of any change in abundance since its original detection in 1994.
14665504		threats	eng	There are no major threats to this species, which is thought to have "a rather high short-term probability of survival" due to its wide distribution within a currently well-managed protected area (Ratsoavina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), but Montagne d'Ambre is  under immediate future threat of several activities expanding into the  park, including logging (charcoal), cattle grazing, agricultural  clearance for rice production, and rosewood collection (N. D'Cruze and  L. Durkin pers. comms. January 2011).
14699281		conservation	eng	<p>So far, no populations have been found in protected areas. Guerilla activity has made it difficult to work in the zone, although J. García has found ways to successfully gather data that rely on local participation and advice. Although there are no large blocks of forest in the area confirmed as the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. caquetensis</span>, there are still possible small reserves for this species and the possibilities will be investigated and studied over the next few years (García <em>et al</em>. 2010). A two year study plan including field studies and genetical studies for this species has been funded by an oil company and is about to begin (May, 2012).<br/></p>
14699281		distribution	eng	<p>This species occurs in eastern Colombia in the south of Caquetá department between the Orteguaza and Caquetá rivers near the base of the Cordillera Oriental de los Andes. It is separated from <span style="font-style: italic;">Callicebus ornatus</span> by 230 km and by <span style="font-style: italic;">Callicebus discolor</span> to the south by 140 km. The limited known range may prove to be larger when more field work is done (Defler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).</p>
14699281		habitat	eng	<p>Caquetá Titi Monkeys have been observed in disturbed humid tropical lowland forest fragments on terra firme (Defler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) often surrounded by pasturelands and in low swampy land (Moynihan 1976). The entire known distribution is severely fragmented by human activities.</p>
14699281		population	eng	During the surveys conducted during 2008–2010 (García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), 82 animals were seen (including the holotype and the paratype).
14699281		threats	eng	This species occurs in an area subject to intense human colonization that has caused widespread habitat destruction and fragmentation. The habitat is in an advanced state of fragmentation caused by extensive ranching and illegal crop cultivation. In 2001, more than 50% of the territory of nine municipalities of Caquetá had been converted to grassland (García <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In addition, continuing fumigation of illegal crops with glyphosate causes environmental pollution and has never been evaluated in terms of its damage to arboreal fauna (García<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). Socioeconomic conditions in southern Caquetá are difficult, and the rural population suffers from the lack of basic necessities. These conditions threaten the species in as much as many people use the forest fragments to satisfy basic needs, notably hunting for food.
14707309		distribution	eng	Confined to Trelawny, this species has a localised distribution.
14707309		habitat	eng	Wooded limestone hilltop.
14870997		conservation	eng	<p>At least the locations at Pamvotida Lake and in Paramythia Lake belong to the Natura 2000 network. This has in no way prevented the habitat degradation due to drainage, agricultural conversions and urbanization. Restoring wet grasslands, protecting them from further urbanization and drainage, and monitoring species population are the main measures proposed for its conservation.</p>
14870997		distribution	eng	<p>Confined to the Ipiros, north western Greece. It has been reported from five locations. </p>
14870997		habitat	eng	<p><em>Chorthippus lacustris</em>&#160; is strongly dependent on wet grasslands, flooded on a seasonal basis. The greatest population density is recorded in the site with the greatest diversity of dominant plant species. <em>Chorthippus lacustris</em> is estimated to have lost 85–99% of its habitat during the last 50 years due to wetland drainage. </p>
14870997		population	eng	<p>The species has a restricted and fragmented distribution pattern. It is only found and known from wetland area in Ipiros, in particular around the Pamvotida Lake basin (Ioannina), Lake Paramythia, and Lake Morfo (Parga). The total surface area where the species is found covers a total of 0.10–0.15 km².</p>
14870997		threats	eng	<p><em>Chorthippus lacustris</em> is estimated to have lost 85–99% of its habitat during the last 50 years due to wetland drainage. The main threat is further habitat loss by urbanisation around Pamvotida Lake and by land conversion to agriculture in Paramythia Lake, even though both sites belong to the Natura 2000 network. <br/></p>
14914835		conservation	eng	This species occurs in the settlement zone of the Manu Biosphere Reserve and perhaps in other areas. No realistic statement of conservation actions to mitigate threats is possible.
14914835		distribution	eng	This species is known only from cloud forest on the eastern versant of the Andes at 1,900 m along the Paucartambo-Shintuya Road, Manu Biosphere Reserve.
14914835		habitat	eng	The habitat preferences and ecological requirements of this species are unknown, although cloud forest extends several hundred meters above and below the single record. It is known to inhabit steep slopes and roadside habitats.
14914835		population	eng	The population status of this species is unknown.
14914835		threats	eng	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.
16208224		conservation	eng	A large international protected area (approx. 90,000 km²), the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals, was recently established and listed among Special Areas of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMIs) (Barcelona Convention SPA Protocol) and encompasses a key Fin Whale feeding area in portions of the Provençal, Corsican, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian and northern Sardinian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2008). Whale-watching regulations are likely to be incorporated into national legislation in the near future.<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of CMS, in Appendix II of the Bern Convention, in Appendix I of CITES, and in Annex 2 of the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and the Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean of the Barcelona Convention. For the present at least, Mediterranean Fin Whales are protected by the International Whaling Commission’s moratorium on commercial whaling that came into force in 1986.
16208224		distribution	eng	Fin Whales are regularly encountered throughout the western and central  Mediterranean basins, with seasonal summer concentrations in highly productive  portions of the Corsican, Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas, where they  apparently feed on a single euphausiid species, <em>Meganyctiphanes norvegica</em> (Orsi Relini <em>et al</em>. 1998). Limited evidence exists of similar feeding activities in the eastern Ionian  Sea (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em>  2003). Seasonal (late winter) feeding aggregations of Fin Whales have  also been observed recently in the Sicily Channel (Canese <em>et al.</em> 2006). Photo-identification data imply a high degree of site fidelity in fin whales summering in the Ligurian Sea (Zanardelli <em>et al.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1998). Breeding and calving grounds have yet to be identified (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2003). Fin Whales are extremely rare in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas and in the Levantine Basin.
16208224		habitat	eng	Fin Whales in the Mediterranean are most common in deep waters (400–2,500 m), but they can occur in slope and shelf waters as well, depending on the distribution of their prey (Gannier <em>et al.</em> 2002; Laran and Gannier 2008; Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em> 2003; Panigada <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2008). They favour upwelling and frontal zones with high zooplankton concentrations, their main prey in the region. Habitat-use results show that cetacean distribution in the western Ligurian Sea may change in response to climate variability, with fin whales avoiding areas with extreme sea-surface temperature (SST) values (different from the monthly average) (Azzellino <em>et al. </em>2008).
16208224		population	eng	Forcada <em>et al</em>. (1996) estimated 3,583 fin whales (S.E. 967, 95% C.I. 2,130–6,027) in a large portion of the western Mediterranean in 1991, and Forcada <em>et al</em>. (1995) estimated 901 individuals (S.E. 196.1, %CV 21.77, 95% C.I. 591–1,374) in the Corsican-Ligurian-Provençal  Basin in 1992. A survey carried out in the entire Pelagos Sanctuary area yielded an estimate of 715 individuals (%CV 31.2, 95% C.I. 421–1,215), with highest values in the Ligurian-Provencal area (Gannier 2006). Two aerial surveys organized in winter and summer 2009 in the whole Pelagos Sanctuary area yielded 0 and 17 fin whale sightings respectively, resulting in an estimate of Fin Whale abundance for the summer of 147 individuals (%CV=27.04; 95% CI=86–250) (Panigada and Lauriano, pers. comm.). This indicates that Fin Whales in this area may be less abundant than previously reported (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gannier 2006).<br/><br/>A sharp decrease in fin whale abundance has been observed in the Pelagos Sanctuary over the last decade, with estimates of 900 individuals reported from the western Ligurian Sea in 1992 (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1995), declining to significantly lower numbers (N=147; CV=27.04%; 95% CI=86–250) in 2009 (Panigada and Lauriano pers. comm.). While the sharp decrease of Fin Whales in the Pelagos Sanctuary may be due to whales relocating elsewhere within the Mediterranean, their decrease in prime Fin Whale habitat must be addressed with precaution, and a population decline in the Mediterranean cannot be discounted at this time.<br/><br/>Genetic analyses based on both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA indicated  differences between the Mediterranean population, which is thought to be  resident, and Fin Whales in Atlantic coastal waters of Canada,  Greenland, Iceland and Spain (Bérubé <em>et al</em>. 1998). Further genetic analyses (Palsbøll <em>et al.</em>  2004) predicted that Mediterranean Fin Whales would prove to be largely  resident in the basin, although limited but recurrent gene flow was  detected in the data. Palsbøll <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated the  effective number of female migrants between the Mediterranean Sea and  the Eastern North Atlantic to be 0.33 migrant/year, a value that is  consistent with the IUCN definition for subpopulation (i.e., IUCN 2001) and  fatty acid analysis, suggesting that Fin Whales summering in the Ligurian Sea may spend the winter in Spanish Atlantic waters, returning  during spring and summer to the Mediterranean Sea (Ruchonnet <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>No population estimates exist for the entire region. However, line-transect surveys yielded estimates of 3,583 Fin Whales (S.E. 967, 95% C.I. 2,130–6,027) over a large portion of the western Mediterranean in 1991 (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1996) and 901 (S.E. 196.1, 95% C.I. 591–1,374) in the Corsican-Ligurian-Provençal Basin in 1992 (Forcada <em>et al</em>.<em> </em>1995). Further line-transect survey effort in the same area yielded a strikingly consistent density estimate of 0.015 individuals km<sup>-2</sup> (Gannier 1997).
16208224		threats	eng	Although each impacting factor may not be seen as a major threat when considered alone, the cumulative effects of these in a semi-enclosed basin heavily affected by human presence (such as the Mediterranean) is interpreted in a precautionary manner to amount to potentially large and detrimental effects on both birth and death rates and might explain the observed localized decline.<br/><br/>Incidental mortality of Fin Whales in fishing gear (pelagic driftnets) is uncommon (Podestà and Magnaghi 1989) and its effect on the population is therefore considered low but not negligible (International Whaling Commission 1994).<br/><br/>Ship strikes also cause mortality and are a concern particularly in areas of heavy vessel traffic (Cagnolaro and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1992, Panigada <em>et al.</em> 2006, Weinrich <em>et al.</em> 2006). The increasing use of high-speed ferries requires further investigation in this regard.<br/><br/>Shipping noise and vessel disturbance, particularly from the unregulated whale watching that has recently begun in the area (Airoldi <em>et al</em>. 1999), is another source of concern. Other vessel traffic may cause additional acoustic stress. Seismic airguns can deter Fin Whales from feeding or breeding grounds (Castellote <em>et al.</em> 2009), with potential detrimental effects on the population.<br/><br/>There is no competition between Fin Whales and fisheries in the Mediterranean because in this region fin whales are almost exclusively planktophagous (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2002, 2003) described high levels of contamination by organochlorines, trace elements and DDT metabolite values in Mediterranean Fin Whales, and suggested that their estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects may negatively influence the population. Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2007) presented evidence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in Fin Whale biopsy samples from the western Ligurian Sea, which may adversely affect the reproductive functions of these whales.<br/><br/>This subpopulation is largely dependent on euphausiids species, such as <em>M. norvegica, N. couchii</em>, for food (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2003), which possibly are susceptible to climate changes. Therefore the potential effects of global climate change or ocean acidification on Fin Whales in the Mediterranean currently are unknown, but cannot be neglected and need further investigation.
16285718		conservation	eng	Both Federal Legislation and State of Hawaii law protect the Hawaiian Green Turtle. The Green Turtle was listed in 1974 under State Division of Fish and Game Regulation 36 (Balazs 1976, Bennett and Keuper-Bennett 2008), and under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1978. Under Hawaii State law, the Green Turtle received full legal protection consistent to Federal ESA listing, when it was added to the protected list of wildlife of the State of Hawaii under Chapter 194 (Balazs 1983). The primary nesting habitat, French Frigate Shoals, receives protection because it is located within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument (NWHIMNM, also called Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument). NWHIMNM received World Heritage status in 2010. The marine protected area is managed by both State and Federal agencies. The Federally managed Hawaii-based longline fishery operates under a number of regulatory measures to reduce turtle bycatch. These measures include mandatory uses of circle hooks and mackerel-type bait, mandatory annual attendance of a protected species workshop by longline vessel operators, mandatory turtle handling measures to dehook and revive comatose turtles, and annual interaction limits for Loggerhead and Leatherback turtles. These bycatch reduction measures have significantly reduced bycatch by up to 90% (Gilman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), with 100% coverage in the shallow-set fishery and 20% observer coverage in the deep-set sector of the longline fishery. Internationally, the Hawaiian population is part of the listing of <span style="font-style: italic;">Chelonia mydas</span> in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), prohibiting all forms of international trade in the species or its parts or derivatives for commercial purposes; the United States is a party to CITES and to the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC).
16285718		distribution	eng	The distribution for this subpopulation comprises only the Hawaiian Archipelago. While the Green Turtle is distributed circumglobally and nests in over 80 countries, the Hawaiian Green Turtle comprises a discrete and genetically distinct population segment, which is endemic to the Hawaiian archipelago (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has also been identified recently as a Regional Management Unit, and so fits the definition of a subpopulation for IUCN Red List assessment purposes (Wallace <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/>The isolated Hawaiian archipelago stretches approximately 2,400 km from Hawaii Island (Big Island) in the southeast to Kure Atoll in the northwest. Hawaiian Green Turtles are found throughout the entire island chain (see range map and Figure. 1 in the attached PDF). Like other Green Turtle populations, they are migratory, but in this case the population is limited to the Hawaiian island chain. The entire Hawaiian archipelago can be considered one large rookery comprising 54 discreet sites on 17 islands (Parker and Balazs 2011). French Frigate Shoals (FFS), in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, is the primary rookery, located in the centre of the 2,400 km island chain. FFS accounts for &gt;90% of all nesting activity with approximately 50% occurring on East Island (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004a). There are numerous foraging grounds found throughout the archipelago. Adult female turtles resident in these foraging grounds migrate every 3-4 years to their preferred nesting grounds at FFS (Chaloupka and Balazs 2004a). <br/><br/>Stock mixture analysis shows that the Hawaiian foraging ground populations comprise one distinct genetic stock derived from the nesting population at French Frigate Shoals (FFS) (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Only three turtles with haplotypes not found at FFS have been identified, indicating that Hawaiian foraging grounds might occasionally, albeit rarely, be visited by animals from rookeries outside the Hawaiian Archipelago. While a small number of Hawaiian turtles have been recorded outside of Hawaii (e.g. one in Japan, one in the Philippines, one in the Marshall Islands), there is no evidence that the normal range of Hawaiian Green Turtles extends beyond the central Pacific region. These findings indicate that the numerous foraging aggregations around the Hawaiian Islands can be considered part of a distinct regional population for management. The finding that turtles in foraging grounds scattered across over 2,000 km belong to one genetic stock allows Hawaiian Green Turtles to be assessed separately from other Pacific stocks with respect to risk (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The total amount of area of occupancy (excluding the open ocean post-hatchling phase) is estimated to be about 1,400 km², which represents the near-shore waters and reef habitats around the islands, although this is very likely an underestimate given the range of habitats sea turtles inhabit (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF).
16285718		habitat	eng	Green Turtles are the largest of the hard-shelled sea turtles, reaching lengths of 100 cm in carapace length (straight and curved carapace length) and weighting 150 kg. Juvenile Green Turtles (10 years and older) exhibit a relatively constant growth rate until about 28 to 30 years or approximately 80 cm straight carapace length (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Balazs and  Chaloupka 2004b). Hatchlings emerge from nesting beaches and enter a post-hatchling oceanic phase. It is estimated that the oceanic developmental phase is approximately six years, but ranges from four to ten years (Zug<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002). Following the oceanic phase, juveniles recruit to coastal or neritic habitats mostly around the islands in the southeastern part of the archipelago (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Nesting females average 92 cm SCL (Balazs 1980, Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Females can lay up to six clutches and an average of 1.8 clutches / season, with an average of 100 eggs per clutch, during a nesting season (Balazs 1980, NMFS 1998). The eggs incubate for 54 to 88 days, with an average of 66 days (Niethammer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997), after which hatchlings emerge (Balazs 1980). Adult Hawaiian Green Turtles live and forage in the Main Hawaiian Islands. Every three or four years, females migrate to French Frigate Shoals to nest (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004a). There is direct evidence of non-random dispersal and habitat use, with Hawaiian Green Turtles returning to natal beaches as they mature, as evidenced through their genetic isolation. The extent to which Hawaiian Green Turtles disperse to foraging areas in either the eastern or western Pacific is unknown (only a small number of Hawaiian turtles have been recorded outside of the islands) and there is no evidence from limited studies to date that the range of Hawaiian Green Turtles extends beyond the central Pacific region (Dethmers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Foraging grounds range from coral reefs to seagrass beds to algal-dominated hard substrates throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004a). <br/><br/>Long-term studies of Green Turtles in near-shore waters of the Hawaiian Islands have been underway to obtain comprehensive information on growth rates, food sources, habitat use, developmental and reproductive migrations, underwater behaviour, health status, and population trends. Pelagic juveniles recruit to Hawaiian neritic foraging grounds from ca. 35 cm SCL or 5 kg (~6 years of age), and grow at foraging-ground specific rates resulting in different size- and age-specific growth rates of 0-2.5 cm/yr. Based on this, expected age-at-maturity was estimated to be ca. 35–40 years for four southeastern populations, and possibly &gt;50 years for the northern population at Midway (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004b). Skeletochronological data supported these findings, with mean growth rates of Hawaiian Green Turtles are four to five cm/yr in early juveniles, declining to about two cm/yr by age 10 yr, then again to less than one cm/yr as turtles neared age 30 yr (Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Based on long-term mark-recapture data, Hawaiian Green Turtles mature at 14-32 years of age (Hargrove and Balazs 2011). In one study in Kiholo Bay several hundred turtles have provided growth increments ranging from three months to 14.4 years and an overall mean growth rate of 1.7 cm/yr (Balazs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Sex ratios of immature turtles at captured in-water at three sites in the Hawaiian islands did not differ statistically from a 1:1 ratio and was homogeneous relative to location and turtle size (Wibbels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). <br/><br/>Similarly, much has been learnt of reproductive biology of turtles on land. Turtles deposit a mean of 104 eggs per clutch with a range of 38 to 145 eggs, and larger females lay more eggs per clutch (Balazs 1980). Mean incubation periods are recorded as 54-88 days with a ~70% emergence rate (Balazs 1980). Niethammer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1997) has since determined that the nesting peaked between mid-June and early August and hatchling emergence peaked between mid-August and early October. Mean incubation period was 66.0 days, with a mean clutch size of 92.4 eggs and a mean hatching success of 78.6% when averaged over success of individual nests and 81.1% when calculated as percentage of total number of eggs. <br/><br/>Hawaiian Green Turtles feed on native and introduced algae that commonly occur throughout the Hawaiian Islands in roughly equal amounts (Russell and Balazs 2009), with an active selection for non-native species in many cases even when native species are present (Arthur and Balazs 2009). Turtle growth rates are similar amongst forage habitat types (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004b) even with the introduction of an alien species of algae (Arthur and Balazs 2009, Russel and Balazs 1994). Of approximately 400 species of algae present in the Hawaiian archipelago, nine species account for the majority of Green Turtle diet, including invasive algae species in Kaneohe Bay, for example, which have stifled reef growth for many years (Arthur and Balazs 2009, Russell and Balazs 2009). The transition in choice over native species is a process that takes ten to twenty years, but the choice of the nutritionally-rich non-native species appears to be an important contributing factor to the recovery of the Hawaiian Green Turtle stock (Russell and Balazs 2009) as well as a potential link to aetiology of Fibropapillomatosis (FP; see details under Threats) (Arthur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Van Houtan 2010).
16285718		population	eng	The geographic isolation of the Hawaiian Island chain has led to a distinct genetic stock derived from a single nesting population at French Frigate Shoals (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis identify FFS as an Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU) and demographically discreet Management Unit (Bowen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Bowen and Avise 1995, Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recent analysis using nuclear DNA corroborates this (Roden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). mtDNA analysis shows that Green Turtles found foraging throughout the Hawaiian Islands originate from the FFS rookery and indicates that juvenile and adult Green Turtles foraging and breeding throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago comprise a singe stock (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Turtles from outside the archipelago infrequently stray to the Hawaiian Islands, as three turtles have been recorded with haplotypes not associated with Hawaii turtles. Two of these were foraging turtles and one was a turtle which had lost both front flippers, and which may have drifted to Hawaii from the Eastern Tropical Pacific (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is unknown of there is any interbreeding, but these rare haplotypes have not been recorded at the nesting site (Dutton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
16285718		threats	eng	Green Turtles were a source of food for some native Hawaiians but consumption was limited by a kapu, or prohibition system, that controlled when, where, and by whom sea turtles could be harvested and consumed (Balazs 1980, Rudrud 2010). Turtle shell was used as an instrument for scraping bark, hair combs, and jewellery (Malo 1951). Human exploitation was once the greatest threat to the Hawaiian Green Turtle. Hawaiian Green Turtles were exploited in the 19th century during the expeditions to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Amerson 1971). Turtles were also taken at foraging grounds from the mid-1800s. Commercial exploitation began in the mid-1940s (Amerson 1971) and due to restaurant demand and tourism, and concomitant affluence and presence of turtles in markets had increased significantly in the 1960s and early 1970s (Witzell 1994, Chaloupka and Balazs 2007). Take of nesting females and their eggs ceased in the early 1960s because US Fish and Wildlife Service had a permanent presence at FFS and commercial take of Green Turtles in Hawaii was prohibited in 1974 under a regulation passed by the Hawaii State Division of Fish and Game (Balazs 1976, Niethammer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Despite the cessation of legal take and protection under State and Federal laws, occasional illegal take of Green Turtles still occurs in Hawaii (Balazs 1980). <br/><br/>Modification of coastal waterways has caused shallow water coral reefs to degrade (Wolanski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Foraging habitats are particularly vulnerable to the effects of coastal development and urbanization. Nesting habitats in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands face no direct anthropogenic threat, as they are protected. Disturbance of basking, swimming or foraging turtles occurs. Turtles are also subject to fishing line ingestion or entanglement from recreational shore based fisheries (Nitta and Henderson 1993, Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and miscellaneous hazards such as spear wounds. Human activity may alter the natural behaviour of Green Turtles.<br/><br/>A prominent and highly regulated pelagic longline fishery industry exists in Hawaii. The majority of sea turtles landed dead in this fishery are immature Loggerheads, Leatherback, and Olive Ridleys (Work and Balazs 2002, Work and Balazs 2010), with more turtles caught in shallow fisheries than deep-set fisheries (Gilman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Sea turtle bycatch in Hawaii-based longline fisheries have been reduced by nearly 90% in recent years due to additional regulatory measures implemented in 2004. The National Marine Fisheries Service has recorded very low levels of Hawaiian Green Turtles as bycatch (6 out of 14 Green Turtles; NMFS 2005), and Hawaiian Green Turtles are generally at low risk of incidental capture in pelagic longline fisheries operating in the North Pacific (Work and Balazs 2010). <br/><br/>Recreational fishing also poses a threat to Hawaiian Green Turtles, especially interaction with inshore fisheries (Nitta and Henderson 1993). Hook-and-line fishing gear induced trauma accounts for roughly 7% (n=261 of 3,732 Green Turtle strandings between 1982 and 2003) of turtle stranding in Hawaii and gillnet fishing gear-induced trauma causes about 5% of stranding (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). There is a high mortality rate (&gt;50%) associated with strandings caused by fishing gear (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Green Turtles also face the threat of vessel collisions. Small boat collisions account for 2.5% of strandings or approximately 10 to 14 turtles per year (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Boat strikes often result in a dead stranded turtle (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). With increased tourism, it is likely there will be elevated threats to turtles through vessel collisions and potential behavioural impacts as humans and turtles interact. At present, however, human/turtle interactions do not appear to drive any substantial behavioural changes.<br/>&#160;<br/>Marine pollution abrades and scours living coral polyps and destroys coral skeletons, which affects reef structure (Donohue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Significant amounts of marine pollution are deposited in the Hawaiian Archipelago due to oceanic circulation patterns (Donohue <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). While ingestion of marine debris has been documented to impact to marine turtles elsewhere (Stamper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), death or debilitation due to marine debris ingestion is not a major threat in Hawaii. Less than 0.5% of the 3,732 turtles which were examined by as part of the stranding work by NOAA Fisheries in Hawaii were deemed to have stranded due to marine debris (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). <br/><br/>Increases in sea surface temperature and intensity and number of severe storms are potential climate change-induced threats facing sea turtles. Migratory patterns and life history of sea turtles correlate with ocean temperatures (Weishampel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Ambient temperatures may lead to changes in the initiation and duration of nesting (Weishampel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Green Turtles may initiate nesting earlier and increase nesting season length with warmer sea surface temperature (SST) (Weishampel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Sea level rise threatens to erode coastal habitat, including nesting habitat. The majority of nesting occurs on French Frigate Shoals, a low-lying atoll vulnerable to increases in sea level (Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). However, there is evidence of long term accretion of islands, so that this effect may be somewhat mitigated (Webb and Kench 2010). Warming temperatures may lead to a skewed sex-ratio with far greater number of females than males (Davenport 1997, Hays <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), although recent work suggests warming temperatures may also lead to more clutches being produced, with the additional clutches incubating at sub-optimal or male-producing temperatures, leading to a proportional increase in male production (documented for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys scripta</span>: Tucker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). <br/><br/>Fibropapillomatosis (FP) causes debilitating tumours of the skin and internal organs (Work <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). FP is the most significant cause of stranding and mortality in Green Turtles in&#160; Hawaii, accounting for 28% (1,044 of 3,732 Green Turtle strandings between 1982 and 2003) of strandings. Stranded turtles with FP show a 88% mortality rate (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Despite the high incidence of death, Hawaiian Green Turtles have the capacity to recover from the disease as evidenced by steady declines in prevalence of disease (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The disease was nearly absent in the early 1980s, but increased rapidly following a late 1980s outbreak, peaking during the mid-1990s with a prevalence rate of nearly 50%, and has declined steadily ever since, The prevalence of FP has been linked to land use practices (van Houtan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), who demonstrated strong epidemiological links between disease rates, nitrogen-footprints, and invasive macroalgae. In 2007 prevalence of FP was estimated to have dropped be around 9.4% (Chaloupka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and the population continues to increase despite presence of the disease (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004a, Chaloupka and Balazs 2005).
16369383		conservation	eng	Several of the existing laws and treaties in force today (reviewed in Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) could provide a potentially solid framework for the conservation of Bottlenose Dolphins and for the protection of their habitat in the Mediterranean region. Unfortunately, implementation and enforcement of those instruments have not been consistently effective. Actions taken to date have not been adequate to maintain a ‘favourable’ status of Bottlenose Dolphin populations (as advocated by the EU Habitats Directive) or to prevent further population decline. Tangible actions to protect Bottlenose Dolphins and other Mediterranean cetaceans have been surprisingly few, especially if one considers the large number of existing laws, regulations and agreements that have been in place for years and even decades (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>About a hundred national Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) of different types, sizes and purposes have been established in Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey, but specific measures for cetacean conservation are rarely included in their management plans. A notable exception is the 87,000 km² cetacean sanctuary created in 1999 by France, Italy, and the Monaco Principality in the Corso-Ligurian-Provençal Basin (the ‘Pelagos Sanctuary’; Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In addition, three years of provisional protection (from July 26th, 2006) were granted to the waters east of the islands of Losinj and Cres (Croatia) following a proposal for the creation of a special zoological reserve for dolphins. However, that period has expired and so far no protection measures have been enforced. If appropriately managed, MPAs could contribute to Bottlenose Dolphin conservation by preserving their prey and habitat, reducing the risks of mortality in fishing gear, providing refuge from noise and other types of disturbance, raising awareness, stimulating research and facilitating exchange of information (Hoyt 2005). However, levels of enforcement are often low and many of the existing Mediterranean MPAs merely represent ‘paper parks’ (Bearzi 2007, Guidetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Other types of action that can provide direct or indirect benefits to Bottlenose Dolphins include area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, changes to fishing gear or fishing practices to reduce incidental mortality, curtailment of inputs of toxic pollutants, and boating regulations.
16369383		distribution	eng	Bottlenose Dolphins are widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea. Although historically their distribution may have been continuous, at least in coastal waters, it is now marked by gaps with low densities that may be either natural or the result of anthropogenic effects (e.g., intensive exploitation, whether deliberate or indirect; habitat degradation or loss). Range includes inshore, coastal and offshore waters to near the continental slope.<br/>  <p>Bottlenose Dolphins occur in most coastal waters of the basin and have been reliably reported in the waters of Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Gibraltar (U.K.), Greece, Israel, Italy, Montenegro, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey.&#160; They occur regularly around many of the region’s offshore islands and archipelagos (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Many of the Mediterranean areas inhabited by these dolphins are subject to intensive human use, e.g. the straits of Gibraltar, Bonifacio, and Messina, and the gulfs of Lion, Genoa, and Trieste. Within their overall range, gaps with very low densities of animals have been documented, e.g., in the north-western Ligurian Sea (France and Italy) and in the north-western Gulf of Vera (Spain). Variation in density is likely related to several factors, including a) habitat characteristics and b) local availability of suitable prey. The effects of past extermination campaigns (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004) and a variety of ongoing threats probably have contributed to the patchiness of the current distribution of Bottlenose Dolphins across the region. </p>
16369383		habitat	eng	<p>Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are often regarded as predominantly ‘coastal’ or ‘inshore’ animals but this designation may be misleading as they can be encountered in continental shelf and shallow plateaux waters at any distance from the coast (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). They inhabit a wide variety of habitats including continental shelf waters, lagoons and enclosed seas, and the waters surrounding islands and archipelagos (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). In the Alborán and Balearic Seas they occur across the entire shelf, along the shelf edge and in deep waters of the continental slope, and in productive waters 200–500 m deep (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005, Forcada <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Strait of Gibraltar, at or near the western limits of what is defined here as the Mediterranean region, Bottlenose Dolphins occur mainly in water 200–600 m deep, over steep slopes (de Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Greek waters they are found in coastal areas, straits, gulfs, semi-closed eutrophic waters, and steep coasts with no continental shelf (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008).<br/></p><p>  </p><p>The size of Bottlenose Dolphin groups varies according to biogeographic region, prey availability, activity and other factors. Most encounters have been with groups of fewer than ten individuals (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Associations with other cetacean species are uncommon, although in some areas mixed aggregations with Short-beaked Common Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Delphinus delphis</span>) and Long-finned Pilot Whales (<span style="font-style: italic;">Globicephala melas</span>) have been observed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  <p>In Mediterranean coastal waters Bottlenose Dolphins target primarily demersal prey during feeding sessions characterized by dives lasting 3–5 min and occasionally up to 8 min, depending on water depth (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Reported prey items include demersal species such as European Hake (<span style="font-style: italic;">Merluccius merluccius</span>), European Conger (<span style="font-style: italic;">Conger conger</span>), Red Mullet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mullus barbatus</span>), Striped Red Mullet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mullus surmuletus</span>), Common Cuttlefish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sepia officinalis</span>), Common Octopus (<span style="font-style: italic;">Octopus vulgaris</span>) and a variety of other bony fishes and molluscs (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). As most studies have relied on stomach contents from stranded animals, inferences may be subject to bias (Barros and Clarke 2002). In some Mediterranean areas Bottlenose Dolphins also feed on Clupeidae or other epipelagic prey (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  In the Mediterranean Sea, predation is regarded as a minor cause of mortality. Bottlenose Dolphins, as well as other small Mediterranean delphinids, are preyed upon occasionally by sharks, principally Great White Sharks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharodon carcharias</span>) but also several other species (Fergusson 1994, Morey <em>et al</em>. 2003). The numbers of large sharks have declined drastically in Mediterranean waters over the past century (Ferretti <em>et al</em>. 2008) and this may have reduced predation pressure considerably.&#160; Other potential dolphin predators<em>,</em> such as the Killer Whale (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orcinus orca</span>) and the False Killer Whale (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudorca crassidens</span>), are rare in the Mediterranean (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
16369383		population	eng	Total population size is unknown but may be in the low 10,000s based on observed densities in areas that have been surveyed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Further subpopulation structure exists and may require future assessments at a finer geographical scale. Further genetic analysis with samples from areas not yet included are strongly recommended. <br/><br/>A declining trend is inferred, refering specifically to the time since the early 1940s (i.e., over the last three generations). It is uncertain whether the subpopulation is still declining and if so, at what rate.<br/><br/>Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins are genetically differentiated from those inhabiting the contiguous eastern North Atlantic Ocean and Scottish waters.&#160; Based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses, distinct populations have been identified across the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). The genetic analysis of 145 samples along a continuous distributional range from the Black Sea to the eastern North Atlantic (16 samples from the Black Sea, 74 from the Mediterranean Sea, 35 from the eastern North Atlantic and 20 from Scotland) found population structure with boundaries that coincided with the transitions between different types of habitat. The different zones can be characterized by ocean floor topography and by features such as surface salinity, productivity and temperature. Five populations were identified: Black Sea, eastern Mediterranean, western Mediterranean, eastern North Atlantic and Scottish. The Black Sea population showed the highest differentiation from other populations. Significant genetic differentiation was observed between populations from the eastern and the western Mediterranean. The boundary between the western Mediterranean and the eastern North Atlantic was the weakest observed, although the two populations still showed significant genetic differentiation.&#160; Despite the lack of obvious physical barriers, the eastern North Atlantic and the Scottish populations also showed genetic differences. There was genetic evidence of directional emigration of females at the extreme of the range although neither sex showed a strong bias for greater dispersal (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population structure of Bottlenose Dolphins around the Iberian Peninsula was investigated through isotopic signatures and organochlorine pollutant loads in tissues of stranded animals from Catalonia, Valencia and the Balearic Islands and adjacent Atlantic waters (Huelva and Portugal; Borrell <em>et al.</em> 2006). Significant differences in stable isotopes of carbon (<sup>13</sup>C/<sup>12</sup>C) and in PCB congener profiles indicated that dolphins from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean do not intermingle.&#160; In the Mediterranean, dolphins from Catalonia and Valencia were indistinguishable, suggesting a common distribution area. However, dolphins from the Balearic Islands differed from those of mainland Spain in their DDT/PCB ratio and from all the other sample groups in their PCB congener profiles, suggesting that the deep waters between the Balearic Islands and the Peninsula represent an effective barrier for the species (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2006). Evidence of population structure also has been found in other Mediterranean delphinids, including Short-beaked Common Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Delphinus delphis</span><em>) </em>(Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2008), Striped Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenella coeruleoalba</span>) (Fossi <em>et al</em>. 2004, Gaspari <em>et al</em>. 2007b) and Risso’s Dolphins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Grampus griseus</span>) (Gaspari <em>et al.</em> 2007). These findings suggest not only that the more obvious physical boundaries such as the Strait of Gibraltar (minimum width about 45 km and sill depths less than 145 m) and the Turkish Straits system (Dardanelles minimum width about 450 m and sill depths less than 55 m) represent barriers to the movement of individuals, but also that the much wider Sicily Channel (143 km and sill depths less than 200 m), oceanic features such as the Almería-Orán front (Tintoré <em>et al</em>. 1988) and more generally differences in habitat characteristics tend to limit the movements of Bottlenose Dolphins (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><p>There is no basin-wide estimate of numbers and the most reliable information comes from a few local studies&#160; (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Useful information on past and present occurrence also comes from stranding records from Algeria, Croatia, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and Tunisia (however, a stranded carcass is not necessarily indicative of the dead animal’s having lived nearby). Virtually nothing is known for large portions of the south-eastern part of the basin (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008c). Most studies in coastal waters are limited to areas of 400 to 1,000 km² and probably do not even cover the entire ranges of the groups under study.&#160; Relatively recent, broad-scale shipboard surveys (4,000–80,000 km²) showed that in some Mediterranean areas Bottlenose Dolphins are present both near shore and offshore, and densities can range between four and 20 animals per 100 km²<sup></sup> (Ben Naceur <em>et al</em>. 2004, Forcada <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cañadas and Hammond 2006, Gómez de Segura <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008c). Studies tend to focus on areas of relatively high dolphin density, although study site preferences also may depend on logistical and other considerations. Although the total population size in the Mediterranean remains uncertain, it unquestionably exceeds the threshold level for red listing as Vulnerable under the D criterion.</p><p>  </p><p>Indirect but convincing evidence of dolphin abundance in historical times can be found in early accounts describing interactions with fisheries and systematic attempts to exterminate dolphins (including Bottlenose Dolphins) in Mediterranean coastal waters (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  The only Mediterranean area with quantitative historical information that can be used to infer population trends over time scales of more than a couple of decades is the northern Adriatic Sea. There, Bottlenose Dolphin numbers likely declined by at least 50% in the second half of the 20th century, largely as a consequence of deliberate killing initially, followed by habitat degradation and overfishing of prey species (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2004). For some other parts of the northern Mediterranean, e.g. Italy and southern France, the available information is less precise but suggests similar trends (Blanco and González 1992, Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2000). In an area off southern Spain where the species has been studied intensively, abundance estimates have shown variability but no trend since the early 1990s (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2006).
16369383		threats	eng	Owing to their occurrence in coastal waters, Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are exposed to a wide variety of human activities. Whilst intentional killing was likely the most important cause of mortality until the 1960s (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, 2008), important ongoing threats include incidental mortality in fishing gear and the reduced availability of key prey caused by region-wide overfishing and environmental degradation. Additional potential or likely threats include the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals, epizootic outbreaks, direct disturbance from boating and shipping, noise, and the consequences of climate change. It is worth noting that this same array of known and potential threats applies to riverine, estuarine and coastal cetaceans in many other parts of the world as well (e.g., Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Fishery-related mortality</span><br/>Due to their opportunistic behaviour and predominantly coastal occurrence, Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are at risk of entanglement in many types of fishing gear. In addition to incidental mortality, depredation and damage caused by dolphins to fishing gear may result in animals being shot or harassed in retaliation (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). Incidental mortality of Bottlenose Dolphins has been reported from Algeria, Croatia, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Bycatch in set nets reportedly is frequent in coastal waters throughout the basin (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994, Díaz López 2006, Brotons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Significant mortality also was reported in pelagic driftnets off Morocco, Spain, Malta, Italy and Turkey (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994, Di Natale 1995). Few attempts have been made to assess the impact of fishery-related mortality on local populations of Bottlenose Dolphins, and the actual magnitude of bycatch and retaliation events is unknown in most cases (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). However, the available studies and circumstantial evidence for local populations raise serious concern, suggesting that annual fishery-induced mortality is locally unsustainable in at least some cases (e.g. Brotons <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Data from strandings can be informative with regard to the occurrence and relative scale of bycatch. Along the Italian coasts in the years 1986–2005, Bottlenose Dolphins were the second most numerous species classified as bycaught after the Striped Dolphin (301 and 71 records, respectively; Podestà 2007). Of 694 Bottlenose Dolphins stranded in Italy during the same period, 71 (11%) showed signs of bycatch (Podestà 2007). Of a total of 21 Bottlenose Dolphins stranded in France in 2003, eight reportedly had been bycaught (Dhermain 2003). Signs included specimens gutted, missing peduncles or fins, obvious net scars, and/or ropes tied to the tails. These percentages are likely underestimates, considering that the majority of the remaining carcasses were in an advanced state of decomposition and therefore signs, if present, would not necessarily have been observable. Bycatch in trawl nets appears to be infrequent in most Mediterranean areas, but may be locally significant. For instance, of 67 Bottlenose Dolphins found dead stranded or adrift along the coasts of Israel between 1993 and 2004, 26 (39%) were judged to have been taken in trawl nets (Feingold <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Bottlenose Dolphins have not been reported entangled in fish farm gear in the Mediterranean, except when anti-predator nets (mesh size 15 cm) are deployed (Díaz López and Bernal Shirai 2007). The overall frequency of intentional killing (see ‘Past culling campaigns’) has drastically declined over the years, due in part to protective legislation in most Mediterranean countries. However, targeted kills still occur in certain areas (e.g. Tudela 2004, Gazo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In addition to killing in retaliation for damage to fisheries, killing with harpoons or guns for local consumption of meat was reported as recently as the early 1990s in the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas, notwithstanding legal protection (Di Natale 1991, Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). Such occurrences seem to have become rare in more recent times. The illegal use of dynamite for fishing in several Mediterranean areas (e.g. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Tudela 2004) represents another fishery-related threat to Bottlenose Dolphins. Though impact at the basin level is probably low, it may be significant locally and a few Bottlenose Dolphin deaths suspected to have been caused by explosives have been reported.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Prey depletion</span><br/>Overfishing is having profound direct and indirect impacts on Mediterranean ecosystems (Sala 2004) and it has contributed significantly to dramatic ecological changes, including decline of dolphins and other megafauna (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and caused the decline of many fish stocks (Caddy and Griffiths 1990, De Walle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Stanners and Bourdeau 1995, Garcia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Some of the Mediterranean fish stocks that have been either ‘overexploited’ or ‘fully exploited’ include important bottlenose dolphin prey (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, 2010). Reduced carrying capacity (i.e., fewer prey available) due to overfishing was proposed as one explanation for the low densities of Bottlenose Dolphins in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Conversely, Bottlenose Dolphin densities tend to be high in areas where prey is still abundant (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Contamination by xenobiotics</span><br/>Contaminant levels, particularly of organochlorine compounds, in Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins are very high compared to the levels reported for Bottlenose Dolphins in some other areas (Corsolini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Marsili and Focardi 1997, Aguilar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Fossi and Marsili 2003, Wafo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Borrell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Borrell and Aguilar 2007, Storelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). At concentrations similar to or lower than those documented for Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins, compounds such as PCBs or PAHs have been associated with reproductive disorders, immune-system suppression and neoplasia (Lahvis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Reddy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Schwacke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Jaber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Although organochlorine contamination is decreasing in some areas, levels in Mediterranean Bottlenose Dolphins remain high (Tolosa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Aguilar and Borrell 2004, Borrell and Aguilar 2007, Storelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Monitoring of toxic chemicals, risk assessment and intervention protocols therefore represent important precautionary measures (Schwacke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Fossi and Marsili 2003, Jaber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Porte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Various and sometimes high levels of heavy metals have been found in stranded bottlenose dolphins from the Mediterranean (e.g. Leonzio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Frodello <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Roditi-Elasar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Lahaye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160; The effects of these metals at the population level are unknown.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Epizootic outbreaks</span><br/>Epizootic outbreaks appear to have affected Bottlenose Dolphins to a lesser extent than other Mediterranean delphinids, such as the Striped Dolphin (Aguilar and Raga 1993, Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). Morbillivirus infections have been reported in a Bottlenose Dolphin stranded on the Mediterranean coast of Israel in 1994 (Tsur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and another stranded in Mauritania (Atlantic coast of West Africa) in 1988 (Van de Bildt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Bottlenose Dolphins elsewhere have experienced mass mortality from such outbreaks, e.g. in Black Sea waters (Birkun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Birkun, 2006) and on the Atlantic coast of the United States, where more than half of one local population may have died (Lipscomb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Duignan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Schulman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).&#160; As epizootic phenomena may be related to immune-system compromise induced by exposure to xenobiotics and/or by stress from poor nutrition (Aguilar and Borrell 1994, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, O’Shea and Aguilar 2001), the risk of disease outbreaks in Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean may be considerable.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Boat traffic and acoustic disturbance</span><br/>There has been a great expansion of recreational boat traffic and shipping in the Mediterranean in recent decades (Dobler 2002) but the potential for resultant behavioural disruption and habitat loss has been investigated only to a limited extent. Permanent or temporary avoidance of one Mediterranean area by Bottlenose Dolphins as a consequence of a large seasonal increase in boat traffic was reported in coastal waters of Croatia (Fortuna 2006). Similar negative effects have been reported from other places around the world (Allen and Read 2000; Lusseau 2004, 2005; Bejder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The noise from various human activities in addition to boating/shipping - e.g. seismic surveys, dredging, drilling, underwater explosions, and the use of military or other sonars – is also a cause for concern (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Nowacek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Climate change</span><br/>Some of the effects of global warming have become dramatically apparent in recent years (IPCC 2007). Climate change has the potential to affect a range of biological processes and cause significant shifts in marine and other biota (e.g., Peñuelas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Parmesan and Yohe 2003, Diaz-Almela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Increased seawater temperature has been observed in Mediterranean deep (Bethoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990) and surface waters (Metaxas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991, Bethoux and Gentili 1996) and there is increasing evidence of biological responses to such warming (e.g., Francour <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Diaz-Almela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Effects of climate change on cetaceans, often mediated via changes in prey abundance and distribution, have become apparent in several non-Mediterranean areas (Learmonth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Simmonds and Isaac 2007) and similar effects may be occurring in Mediterranean waters (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Cañadas and Hammond 2006). At present, however, it is impossible to predict the net effect of climate change on Bottlenose Dolphins – either in the Mediterranean Sea or elsewhere.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Live capture</span><br/>The removal of live cetaceans from the wild – whether for captive display, for ‘dolphin-assisted therapy’ (Marino and Lilienfeld 2007) or for research purposes – is equivalent to incidental or deliberate killing, as the animals brought into captivity or killed during capture operations are no longer available to help maintain their wild populations (Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). ‘Takes’ of Bottlenose Dolphins are prohibited in most Mediterranean riverine States by national legislation or international agreements (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). However, live captures (and any mortality and social disruption associated with capture operations) still occur occasionally (Bearzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).
16370739		conservation	eng	<p>An international sanctuary for the conservation of Mediterranean cetaceans, where driftnet fishing was progressively phased out, was established in 1999, encompassing key cetacean habitat in portions of the Provençal, Corsican, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian and northern Sardinian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, large portions of what is likely critical habitat for Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean region fall outside any type of protective regime. Sperm Whales are listed by the Bonn Convention - CMS (Appendix I), the Bern Convention (Appendix II), CITES (Appendix I), the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic Area (a priority species for conservation action) and the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and the Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean of the Barcelona Convention (Annex II). The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling confers full protection from commercial whaling on sperm whales under the moratorium on commercial whaling that took effect from 1986. <br/></p>  For the specific purpose of reducing the risk of collisions between Sperm Whales and vessels, the only management measure currently taken in the Mediterranean Sea is the “Notice to Mariners to protect cetaceans from the risk of ship collisions in the Strait of Gibraltar”, published in January 2007 by the “Instituto Hidrográfico de la Marina” (Ministry of Defense, Spain). This Notice establishes a security area characterized by high densities of Sperm Whales, where crossing ships are urged to limit their speed to 13 knots or slower (following the suggestions by Laist <em>et al</em>. 2001) and to navigate with particular caution. The same notice is broadcast regularly by VHF radio from April to August and it is included in the Nautical Charts (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2008).
16370739		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean Sea, Sperm Whales are widely distributed from the Gibraltar Strait area in the west to the Levant Basin in the east. The species was known in the past to have been predictably present in parts of the Gibraltar Strait area, around the Balearic Islands, in the Algerian-Ligurian Basin, in the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the deep waters to the north, east and southeast of Sicily, in the Ionian Sea and in parts of the Aegean Sea. It is still fairly predictable in the Gibraltar Strait, near the Balearic Islands and along the Hellenic Trench from the NE Ionian Sea to the NW Levant Basin. The species is rare in the Strait of Sicily, and vagrant in the northern and central Adriatic Sea. It is absent from the Black and Marmara seas.
16370739		habitat	eng	Preferred Sperm Whale habitat in the Mediterranean consists mostly of deep continental slope waters where mesopelagic cephalopods, the species’ preferred prey, are most abundant (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Praca and Gannier 2008).&#160; Deeper offshore waters are also inhabited, but perhaps to a lesser degree (Praca and Gannier 2008).<br/><br/>Adult males of oceanic populations are known to segregate from social units of females and immatures as they reach sexual maturity. Males live separately from the social units in higher latitudes, some reaching as far as the ice edge. Some of the larger adult males migrate latitudinally to join social units, which remain in warmer waters year-round. These males rove between social groups, associating with a given social group for only a few hours at a time, presumably just long enough to breed (Whitehead 2003). A generally similar social system may occur in parts of the western and central Mediterranean, with males segregating during summer in the northern part (roughly north of 41°N), while social units remain in the south (Drouot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004b), although the latter may be found occasionally in the north as well (Moulins and Würtz 2005, Di Meglio and David 2008, Pierantonio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In some parts of the eastern basin, social groups of females with immatures and solitary mature males are both found in the same area year-round (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, 2003), although in the northern part of the Hellenic Trench only social groups are present and large males are rarely seen. When large males are present, it is almost always in a reproductive context. Social groups typically consist of 10–12 individuals including at least 1–2 calves (Gannier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/>Based on a combination of photo-identification and acoustic data, Drouot-Dulau and Gannier (2007) observed north–south movements of sexually mature males between the northern Mediterranean and social groups off the Balearic Islands, ranging in excess of 500 km and lasting seven days or less. Laran and Drouot-Dulau (2007) observed the highest abundance of sperm whales in the Ligurian Sea between August and October, which is indicative of the species’ movement within a wider area. In the eastern Mediterranean, both solitary males and social groups may remain in a limited area for more than a month, or may visit that area repeatedly during the same summer season, indicating that they stay in neighbouring waters (A. Frantzis, unpublished data). Some solitary males and several social units have been re-sighted in the same area for up to three and six consecutive years, respectively, during ongoing long-term studies (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; A. Frantzis, unpublished data). Information on the reproductive behaviour and ecology of sperm whales in the Mediterranean remains sparse. Both solitary males and social groups of sperm whales are thought to feed throughout their range; short, apparently reproductive associations of mature males with social units have been observed in the Ionian Sea, as well as very young newborns and a birth (A. Frantzis, unpublished data).
16370739		population	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Population size</span><br/>Genetic data suggest that Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean constitute a separate subpopulation. Drouot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), comparing eastern North Atlantic specimens with 13 individuals sampled in the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ionian Sea, northwestern Mediterranean basin and Balearic Sea, found significant differences in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype frequencies, suggesting that the Sperm Whales in the Atlantic and Mediterranean belong to separate matrilineal complexes. Engelhaupt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) compared a sample of 44 male Sperm Whales from the Mediterranean with a much larger sample from the North Atlantic using the mtDNA control region and 16 microsatellite DNA loci. The Mediterranean sample had only one mtDNA haplotype, compared to haplotypic diversity of 0.65 in the North Atlantic, and the Mediterranean sample also exhibited lower microsatellite diversity. The Mediterranean animals were significantly differentiated from the North Atlantic animals at both the mtDNA control region and the microsatellite DNA loci, although the effect was much stronger for mtDNA, suggesting that the Mediterranean is home to a philopatric population of matrifocal social groups, from which males disperse (Engelhaupt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). This is consistent with the frequent observations of the same groups of Sperm Whales in the Gibraltar Strait (Fernandez-Casado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, de Stephanis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), which could be primarily mature males. Other types of observations are suggestive of geographic isolation. All age classes of Sperm Whales are found within the Mediterranean, and the occurrence of neonates (Gannier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Moulins and Würtz 2005) confirms that calving takes place there. In the eastern Mediterranean, both social groups and solitary adult males are present year-round. In other parts of the basin social groups with calves seem to be rather infrequent, with the exception of the Balearic Islands (Rendell and Cañadas 2005), and the Strait of Messina historically. Moreover, Mediterranean Sperm Whales seem to have a particular repertoire of codas, the stereotyped patterns of clicks that Sperm Whales use for communication. Repertoire differences among populations have been interpreted as indicative of cultural differences (Whitehead 2003).&#160; Although more than 25 coda types have been recorded in the Mediterranean (Drouot and Gannier 1999), the coda repertoire is dominated by a pattern (the “3+1” coda) that is not common in adjacent waters of the Atlantic (Borsani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). More than 50% of codas produced by Mediterranean solitary males are “3+1” codas (Frantzis and Alexiadou 2008).<br/><br/>No estimate of population size exists for the region. Gannier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) provided Sperm Whale visual and acoustic encounter rates for a large portion of the Mediterranean Sea, however no absolute abundance estimates can be derived from their data. Estimated abundance for the Ionian Sea in 2003, based on surveys combining visual and acoustic techniques, was 62 individuals (95% CI = 24–165; Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). These results are consistent with the number of Sperm Whales photo-identified along the Hellenic Trench (see below), which lies in part within the area surveyed by Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007), and in part further to the east. Ssperm Whales were detected on-transect during a survey of the Strait of Sicily (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Results from a survey of a large portion of the western basin (from Gibraltar to Sicily and bounded on the north by a line from the Balearics east to Sardinia) in summer 2003 indicate a Sperm Whale detection rate roughly eight times that in the Ionian Sea (Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This suggests that Sperm Whale numbers are higher in the western basin than in the Ionian Sea; however, considering that the overall surveyed area by Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) is a large portion of the Sperm Whale habitat in the Mediterranean, and that recent surveys made in the remaining portion have not revealed the existence of very high concentrations of Sperm Whales there (Song of the Whale Team – IFAW 2007), it is suggested that overall Sperm Whale numbers in the Mediterranean are likely to be only in the low to mid hundreds. About 50 individuals have been photo-identified in the western Mediterranean Sea up to 2004 (NAMSC 2004). About 170 individuals (28 solitary males and 15 social units) have been photo-identified along the Hellenic Trench during 12 years of intense research effort (1998–2009). In this particular area the first estimates by capture-recapture models indicate about 200 Sperm Whales (A. Frantzis, unpublished data). This number refers to the population that uses the Hellenic Trench, including animals that are regularly observed there and animals that are occasional visitors (especially males). In the Ligurian Sea, known to contain one of the most productive pelagic areas in the Mediterranean, 70 Sperm Whales have been photo-identified across 14 years (1995–2008) of intensive research, suggesting that density there is low. In the Strait of Gibraltar 21 individuals were identified (de Stephanis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Based on all of the above information, the total number of Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean region is more likely in the hundreds than the thousands. No evidence exists of population fragmentation across the region (D. Engelhaupt, pers. comm. to GNS).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population trend</span><br/>There is evidence that Sperm Whales were formerly common in portions of the Mediterranean, such as in the Strait of Messina and the waters adjacent to the Eolian Islands (e.g., Bolognari 1949, 1950, 1951, 1957), at least until the 1950s. Bolognari (1949, 1950, 1951, 1957) reported the frequent occurrence of large “aggregations” or “clusters” (<span style="font-style: italic;">sensu</span> Whitehead 2003), consisting of as many as 30 individuals, in the area of the Strait of Messina during winter in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Such large groups have not been recorded in more recent times in that area or anywhere else in the Mediterranean. When data on Sperm Whale encounter rates started to become available in the mid-1990s (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), they were inconsistent with the impression given by historical records (Bolognari 1949, 1950, 1951, 1957). For example, in the waters adjacent to the northern and eastern coasts of Sicily, an intensive year-long programme of dedicated surveys in the Strait of Messina and surrounding waters, based on a combination of visual and acoustic techniques (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), produced 11 Sperm Whale sightings (totalling 15 individuals), all of them in winter, during 125 survey days spanning 12 months. <br/><br/>Sperm Whales have declined considerably in the stranding records of Italy in the last decade, in stark contrast with the large numbers of individuals in the records in the 1987–1998 period (see also the “Threats” section), and in spite of the fact that efficiency of discovery and reporting of strandings has greatly improved over time in Italy (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In those years Italy had the largest driftnet fleet in the Mediterranean (in excess of 700 vessels) operating throughout a significant portion of the central basin (Scovazzi 1998). An organised nation-wide effort to document stranded, floating dead and entangled cetaceans began in Italy in mid-1986 (for a complete list of the annual stranding reports, see Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). The first full year in which such data were collected (1987) coincides with the highest value of sperm whale findings, 19 (Fig. 1), at least 13 of which involved capture in driftnets. Findings sharply decreased in the following years, stabilising at a mean of 4.6 animals/year between 1990 and 2003 (range: 1–9). This decrease did not coincide with a decrease in fishing effort, which started declining appreciably only after 1996 (Scovazzi 1998). Although a number of alternative explanations can be offered to account for the observed trend (such as movement of sperm whales out of the area, fluctuations in fishing effort, changes in area of fishing operations, etc.), the abrupt decline in the number of records, which corresponds with increased stranding detection and reporting, can also be interpreted as a possible sign of decreased availability of animals to become entangled in that area.<br/><br/>Mass strandings (i.e., ≥2 individuals) of Sperm Whales are known in the Mediterranean, but infrequent. These include a stranding of 12 individuals near Mazara del Vallo, Sicily, in 1734, reported by Antonino Mongitore in 1743 (Parona, 1897); a group of three in the harbour of Sant’Elpidio, northern Adriatic Sea, in 1805 (Parona, 1897); five juveniles stranded near Pozzallo, south-eastern Sicily, in 1873 (Parona, 1897); six near Novigrad, northern Adriatic Sea, in 1853 (Heckel, 1853); seven near Ugento, Ionian Sea, in 1887 (Parona, 1897); seven reported from Marsala, Sicily, by Giuseppe Riggio in 1892 (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bearzi 2004); seven near Marzocca di Senigallia, northern Adriatic Sea, in 1938 (unpublished); and seven near Foce Varano, southern Adriatic Sea, in 2009 (unpublished data).
16370739		threats	eng	<p>The most likely threat to Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean is entanglement in high-seas swordfish and tuna driftnets, which has caused considerable and likely unsustainable mortality since the mid-1980s, when this type of fishery started to be used on a large scale (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1990; International Whaling Commission 1994). Such mortality is ongoing (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2003, ACCOBAMS 2003, Pace <em>et al.</em> 2005, Italian Cetacean Stranding Database). The recorded number of Sperm Whales found dead or entangled between 1971 and 2004 in Spain, France and Italy (combined) was 229, only 22 of which (10%) occurred between 1971 and 1986, when the Italian stranding program started, and there is no reason to believe that documentation was anywhere near complete. Most of the strandings in Italy and Mediterranean Spain were caused by entanglement in driftnets, as evident from the reported presence of net fragments or characteristic marks on the whales’ bodies (Podestà and Magnaghi 1989, Lazaro and Martin 1999). Cagnolaro and Notarbartolo di Sciara (1992) reported that for 83% of 347 cetaceans stranded in Italy from 1986 to 1990 (inclusive), which included 56 Sperm Whales, the likely cause of death was related to entanglement. Despite international and national regulations banning driftnets from the Mediterranean, illegal or quasi-legal driftnetting has been continuing in Sperm Whale habitat, not only in the western Mediterranean (e.g., in France, Italy, and Morocco; Oceana 2007) but recently also in the eastern basin (e.g., Greece and Turkey; Akyol <em>et al</em>. 2005), thereby continuing to threaten the species’ survival in the region.<br/></p>  Although the continuation of driftnet fishing by non-EU Mediterranean fleets and illegal EU operations represent the most important ongoing threat to Sperm Whales in the Mediterranean Sea, disturbance from intense marine traffic (e.g., the development of ‘highways of the sea’) and collisions with large vessels (e.g. cargo ships, tankers, hydrofoils and high-speed ferries; de Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2005), may be a significant source of mortality. More than 6% of 111 Sperm Whales stranded in Italy (1986–1999) and Greece (1982–2001) have died after being struck by a vessel, and 6% of 61 photo-identified individuals (39 in Greece and 22 in Italy) bore wounds or scars caused by a vessel strike (Pesante <em>et al.</em> 2002). Underwater noise from oil and gas prospecting (seismic airguns), military operations, and illegal dynamite fishing are other sources of concern (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Gordon 1997). At least in summer, seismic surveys have occurred along the Hellenic Trench since 2004 and on a daily basis since 2007 (A. Frantzis, unpublished data). Dynamite fishing is still a common activity in large portions of the eastern and southern Mediterranean, where feeding and socialising Sperm Whales are present year-round (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003).
16376479		conservation	eng	<p>One of the areas with regular confirmed presence of Long-finned Pilot Whales in the Mediterranean, the western section of the Ligurian Sea, is included within the marine Sanctuary dedicated to cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, created by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco (Pelagos Sanctuary, SPAMI). No management or conservation measures have been taken as yet specifically for the conservation of this species.<br/></p>  <p>A SPAMI (Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance) under the Barcelona Convention has been proposed for the northern half of the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera in southern Spain (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005), but it has not yet been designated or even evaluated by the Spanish administration. This proposed area includes the “hot-spots” for Long-finned Pilot Whales in the Mediterranean.<br/></p>  In 2009 the Long-finned Pilot Whale was proposed as "Vulnerable" for the Spanish National Catalogue of Endangered Species, but evaluation and acceptance by the authorities is still pending.
16376479		distribution	eng	In the Mediterranean region, Long-finned Pilot Whales occur in the western Mediterranean Sea, including Strait  of Gibraltar.<br/>  <p>There are no confirmed records of Long-finned Pilot Whales from the eastern Mediterranean basin (Marchessaux and Duguy 1978, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003) other than a floating carcass reported from the Gulf of Taranto off eastern Italy (Centro Studi Cetacei 1998), but a few unconfirmed sightings have been reported from Turkish waters (A. Oztürk pers. comm.) and other unspecified areas (three sightings; McBrearty <em>et al</em>. 1986). The species therefore is considered to occur regularly only in the western Mediterranean Sea. No information exists about its possible former presence in the eastern basin.<br/></p>  <p>Confirmed records are from: Morocco (rare except in the Straits of Gibraltar; Bayed 1996; Verborgh 2005; de Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005; Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, although recent inquiries suggest a larger presence in Moroccan waters according to the stranding records; Belcaid, pers. comm.), Algeria (scarce; Boutiba 1994), Tunisia (rare; Lotfi <em>et al</em>. 1997), Spain (abundant in the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera but scarce northwards; Raga and Pantoja 2004, Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005), France (scarce; UNEP-RAC/SPA 1998, Gannier 2005) and Italy (regular to scarce; e.g. Podestá <em>et al</em>. 1997, Azzelino <em>et al</em>. 2008).</p><br/><p>  </p><p><br/></p>
16376479		habitat	eng	<p>The Long-finned Pilot Whale is a predominantly offshore species with a preference for deep waters seaward of the continental shelf and slope in all areas of occurrence in the Mediterranean (Gannier 1995, Raga and Pantoja 2004, Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005, Azzelino <em>et al</em>. 2008). Preferred habitats are generally deeper than 500 m (mean of 849 m, SD = 281, range 207–1,800 m) with intermediate slopes in the Alborán Sea (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002, Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2005). They are even deeper in the central and northwestern Mediterranean: range 2,000–2,500 m in the Ligurian Sea (S. Airoldi, pers. comm.), mean of 2,063 m (SD = 875, range = 750–2,500) in the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1993) and mean of 2,056 m (SD = 403) in the Provença-Liguria area (Gannier 2005).<br/></p>  <p>The species is regarded as predominantly a squid-eater, but whales also feed at least occasionally on pelagic fish (Relini and Garibaldi 1992, Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002 and references therein, Olson and Reilly 2002).<br/></p>  Long-finned Pilot Whales are highly social, with a social structure similar to that of Killer Whales (Olson and Reilly 2002, de Stephanis 2007). Average group sizes in the Alborán Sea (30.3, SE = 2.19; Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005) and the Ligurian Sea (30.6, SE = 4.34, S. Airoldi, pers. comm.) are much larger than in other surveyed parts of the Mediterranean: 14 for the Strait of Gibraltar (de Stephanis 2007), 12 for the Tyrrhenian Sea (Di Natale 1982), 10 for the central and northwestern Mediterranean (SE = 1.33; Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1993) and 11 for the east coast of Spain (Raga and Pantoja 2004). Opportunistic sightings gave the highest average group size for the Alborán Sea in summer (23.4) compared to the rest of the Mediterranean and the NE Atlantic (9.5) (McBrearty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986).
16376479		population	eng	<p>  </p><p>The species is common in the Alborán Sea and adjacent waters (Cañadas and Sagarminaga  2000), and relatively common to scarce in the rest of the western  Mediterranean, but it is not recorded in the eastern basin. Relative density  is unknown for most areas.</p><p>Estimates of abundance are available for the Strait of Gibraltar and the northern Alborán Sea. In the Strait of Gibraltar mark-recapture analysis on well-marked animals gives estimates ranging from 249 to 270 animals (Verborgh 2005, Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, De Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005, De Stephanis 2007). New estimates are available for 2006 (350, 95% CI of 314–386) and 2007 (297, 95% CI of 289–306) (CNEA 2009). In the Alborán Sea a preliminary abundance estimate was obtained through spatial modelling of line transect data, yielding an estimate of 1,890 animals, uncorrected for animals missed on the track line (therefore, this is considered an underestimate), with a 95% CI of 1,483–1,915 and CV = 0.07 (Jewell <em>et al</em>. 2007). Encounter rates are much higher in the Alborán Sea than in any other part of the Mediterranean (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000). Pilot whales are increasingly scarce in Spanish waters northwards from the Gulf  of Vera, comprising only 2.1–2.5% of cetacean sightings recorded there (Raga and Pantoja 2004). The percentages are also low in other areas of the Mediterranean (e.g., 0.9 % for the Central Mediterranean, 2% for the NW Mediterranean, 3.6% for North African waters and 7.9% south of the Balearic Islands, as compared to 18.3% for the Alborán Sea) (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000).</p><p>Strandings have been recorded in Morocco, Algeria, Italy, France and Spain (Boutiba 1994, <a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">Podestá <em>et al</em>. 1997,</a> UNEP-RAC/SPA 1998; Raga and Pantoja 2004, Belcaid pers. comm.). One animal (a floating carcass) was found in Greece (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003).</p>      <p>  </p><p>Recent genetic analyses suggest differentiation between Long-finned Pilot Whales in the Mediterranean (n=173) and the Atlantic (n=78). One haplotype is unique to the Mediterranean, being the only one recorded in the Alboran Sea (n=45) and shared by the Strait of Gibraltar (n=92) and other Mediterranean areas (n=36) together with two other haplotypes. These results also suggest the existence of two subpopulations in the Mediterranean Sea: the Strait of Gibraltar and the rest of the Mediterranean, but with some mixing (Verborgh, in prep).</p>  <p>Most Long-finned Pilot Whales are “resident” in the Strait of Gibraltar according to a photo-identification study (Verborgh 2005, Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, De Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005), although some individuals that have been seen only once in the last seven years are considered “transient” (Verborgh 2005, Verborgh <em>et al.</em> in press, De Stephanis <em>et al.</em> 2005).</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population Trend</span><br/></p>A reduction in abundance of around 15% is suspected to have occurred in the Strait of Gibraltar between 2006 and 2007 as a result of epizootics (CNEA 2009), but there is no suggestion of a longer-term decline in the abundance estimates since 1999 (Gauffier 2008). On the contrary, an overall positive trend is apparent, although this has not yet been quantified.<p>No trend in encounter rate has been recorded in the northern Alboran Sea. However, encounter rates in the two most recent years are the highest observed since 1992 (Cañadas, unpublished).</p>  There is no information on abundance in the rest of the Mediterranean.
16376479		threats	eng	Owing to their occurrence in offshore waters and their feeding habits targeting mainly deep-sea squids, Long-finned Pilot Whales are probably not often exposed to human activities that occur in coastal waters (tourism, many types of fisheries, etc.). No serious threats have been identified in the Mediterranean as yet, except for a recent morbillivirus epizootic (see below). However, potential threats include by-catch (between 1978 and 1982, 26 pilot whales were reported caught in fishing and other gear in the western Mediterranean, at least three of them in tuna nets; Northridge 1984); collisions with ships (at least two in the Straits of Gibraltar – R. <a name="OLE_LINK9"></a><a name="OLE_LINK8">de Stephanis, pers. comm.; two in the Tyrrhenian Sea – Di Natale 1982; one in the NW Mediterranean – Pesante <em>et al.</em> 2002); </a>man-made noise (interaction but no clear results reported in the Ligurian Sea; Rendell and Gordon 1999); harassment during whale watching; and toxic pollution (high levels of organochlorine contaminants such as DDT and PCBs in the Atlantic – Olson and Reilly 2002; high levels of cadmium in the Faeroe Islands – Caurant <em>et al</em>. 1993, Olson and Reilly 2002).&#160; <br/><br/>An epizootic in 2006–2007 caused high mortality among the pilot whales of the Strait  of Gibraltar (follow the link below to see Table 1, extracted from Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2008). The epizootic started off the southern coasts of Spain in October 2006, first in the Strait of Gibraltar and expanding soon to the east to Almeria and the Balearic Islands and the region of Murcia. The last cases were detected in Valencia and the Balearic Islands in April 2007. This kind of epizootic could happen again.
16378423		conservation	eng	<p>To date, no specific conservation measures have been taken for Risso’s Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea.</p><p>The existence of a Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco, has proved to be of great value for the study of Risso’s Dolphins. Most of the detailed studies of Risso’s Dolphins within the Mediterranean have taken place there. Research on Risso’s Dolphin within the Pelagos Sanctuary should be expanded, and additional areas in the region should be identified where protective measures would benefit the species. The first step toward this has taken place in southern Spanish waters, where habitat preference modelling has been undertaken to define Areas of Special Interest for the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Spanish Mediterranean (Cañadas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).</p>
16378423		distribution	eng	<p>Risso’s Dolphins occur in much of the Mediterranean Sea although most reported sightings have been in the western basin. The greatest concentration is in the Ligurian-Corso-Provençal basin, where the species is present all year-round. In general, Risso’s Dolphins prefer deep offshore waters and continental slope areas. The Ligurian-Corso-Provençal basin is one of the few areas in the Mediterranean Sea where the continental shelf is close to the coast, giving especially good opportunities to observe and study this species. In this Area, Azzellino<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2008) suggested a transient use of the habitat. Risso’s Dolphins also occur seasonally in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea off the west coast of Ischia and between the island of Ustica and the Aeolian islands. They are observed regularly in the Balearic Sea and in the eastern half of the Alborán Sea (mainly from Seco de los Olivos to the Gulf of Vera) all year-round.<br/></p>  <p>The apparent scarcity of Risso’s Dolphins in the eastern Mediterranean may be partly due to the paucity of observational effort there. A few strandings have been recorded in the northern Adriatic Sea and few sightings and strandings have been recorded along the coast of Israel and in the western Ionian Sea (Sicily). Risso’s Dolphin has been observed in the eastern Ionian Sea (Greece), around the western side of Crete and in the Aegean Sea (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). No data are available for the southern Mediterranean Sea.</p>
16378423		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat preferences</span><br/>Risso’s Dolphins show a preference for deep pelagic waters, in particular over steep shelf slopes and submarine canyons (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Gaspari 2004, Cañadas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Individual Associations and Kinship</span><br/>Risso’s Dolphins in the Ligurian Sea (1990–2000) were encountered in groups of variable size, with mostly weak inter-individual associations but also some consistent relationships between individuals over periods of months and, in a few cases, years (Gaspari 2004). Limited evidence on genetic similarity among individuals within and among groups (n = 30) in the northwestern Mediterranean suggests that Risso’s Dolphins have a fluid social structure (Gaspari 2004).
16378423		population	eng	Although Risso’s Dolphins are regularly sighted in the western Mediterranean, no population estimates exist for the species in this region. They are generally considered scarce. Population identity and structure&#160;Risso’s Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea are genetically differentiated from those in the eastern Atlantic. This implies that gene flow between the two areas is limited or negligible and that the Mediterranean animals constitute a distinct subpopulation (Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). There is also some evidence of structuring within the Mediterranean. Most of the samples analysed were from the Ligurian Sea, so it is possible that multiple populations use this area as a foraging ground (Gaspari <em>et al</em> 2007).<br/><br/>    Abundance and TrendLine-transect abundance estimates exist only for the western central Mediterranean, where aerial surveys from 2001–2003 resulted in an estimate of 493 Risso’s Dolphins (95% C.I. 162–1,498) in an area of 32,270 km² (Gómez de Segura <em>et al</em>. 2006).&#160; In all surveyed areas, encounter rates have been low (i.e., Ligurian-Corso-Provençal basin, 0.098 per km – Tethys Research Institute; southern Tyrrhenian Sea, 0.2 per nmi – B. Mussi, pers. comm.; Alborán Sea, 0.0032 per km - Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><p>There is no baseline information on abundance and therefore it is not possible to assess trends for the Mediterranean population.</p>
16378423		threats	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Bycatch</span><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, Risso’s Dolphins are among the cetacean species frequently found entangled in fishing nets. Bycatches in longlines and gillnets have been reported in Spain (Valeiras <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and Italy (Notarbartolo di Siara 1990).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Noise</span><br/>Sound pollution is a threat to deep-diving pelagic cetaceans, including Risso’s Dolphins. Although there are no records of Risso’s Dolphin strandings in the Mediterranean Sea directly attributable to noise, evidence consistent with a syndrome related to exposure to high-intensity sonar has been described in this species in the UK (Jepson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Contaminants  </span><br/>Like other odontocetes, Risso’s Dolphins in the Mediterranean carry substantial contaminant burdens (Kim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Marsili and Focardi 1997, Shoham-Frider <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Fossi and Marsili 2003).
16381144		conservation	eng	<p><span lang="EN-GB">One probable hot-spot for Cuvier’s Beaked Whales in the Mediterranean, the eastern section of the Ligurian Sea, is included within the Pelagos Sanctuary created by Italy, France and Monaco. However, no management or conservation measures have been taken as yet specifically for this species.<br/></p>  <p>A SPAMI (Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance) under the Barcelona Convention has been proposed for the northern half of the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera in southern Spain (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005), but it has not yet been designated or even evaluated by the Spanish administration. This proposed area includes another of the probable hot-spots for Cuvier’s beaked whales: the deep waters off southern Almería. The Hydrographic Office of the Spanish Navy has agreed not to use active sonar in that area (C. Gamundi, Subdirector of the Hydrographic Office of the Spanish Navy, pers. comm.).<br/></p>  The Second Meeting of the Parties to ACCOBAMS adopted Resolution 2.16 on ‘Assessment and Impact Assessment of Man-made Noise’ (ACCOBAMS 2004). In this Resolution, and by recommendation of the Scientific Committee of ACCOBAMS, Parties are urged to ‘to take a special care and, if appropriate, to avoid any use of man made noise in habitat of vulnerable species and in areas where marine mammals or endangered species may be concentrated, and undertake only with special caution and transparency any use of man made noise in or nearby areas believed to contain habitat of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales (<em>Ziphius cavirostris</em>), within the ACCOBAMS area’. Parties are also urged to facilitate national and international research on this subject, to provide protocols/guidelines developed by military authorities with respect to use of sonar in the context of threats to cetaceans, and to consult with any profession conducting activities known to produce underwater sound with the potential to cause adverse effects on cetaceans, recommending that extreme caution be exercised in the ACCOBAMS area. Resolution 2.16 also encourages ‘the development of alternative technologies and require the use of best available control technologies and other mitigation measures in order to reduce the impacts of man-made noise sources in the Agreement area’. The Scientific Committee of ACCOBAMS therefore has been charged to develop a common set of guidelines for conducting activities known to produce underwater sound with the potential to cause adverse effects on cetaceans. These guidelines are expected to be presented to the Third Meeting of the Parties in 2007.
16381144		distribution	eng	Cuvier’s Beaked Whales inhabit both the western and eastern basins of the Mediterranean (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). Much of the current knowledge of this species in the Mediterranean has come from stranding data. Strandings have been reported in Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Spain and Turkey (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Appropriate data on distribution in the Mediterranean basin are lacking, except for a very limited areas.
16381144		habitat	eng	<p>Cuvier’s Beaked Whale is a predominantly oceanic species often associated with steep slope habitat and a marked preference for submarine canyons and escarpments (D’Amico <em>et al</em>. 2003, MacLeod 2005, Podestá <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Alborán Sea, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are encountered in areas of 600 m depth and 40 m km<sup>-1</sup> of slope, especially around the 1,000 m isobath in an area of steep canyons off southern Almería, SE Spain (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2002, Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Hellenic Trench, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are sighted in areas of between 500 and 1,500 m depth; it is not known if they are also present farther offshore over the abyssal plain (Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). They seem to be present over all steep topographic features of the Aegean Plateau (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the eastern Ligurian Sea (Gulf  of Genoa) they are especially abundant around canyons (D’Amico <em>et al</em>. 2003). In this area, Scalise <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported a mean depth at encounters of 1,358 m (range = 641–2545, se = 514) and a mean slope of 77.1 m km<sup>-1</sup> (range = 3–256.5, se = 57). In the same area, cruises organised by SACLANTCEN encountered Cuvier’s Beaked Whales in waters 500–2,600 m deep, with a peak encounter rate in waters 1,000–1,500 m deep over steep slopes (M. Carron, pers. comm.). In the western Ligurian Sea, sightings have been in waters of an average of 1,722 m deep (range = 795–2,500, se = 276) (Azzellino <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/></p>  <p>Mean group size is fairly constant across the whole basin where data have been collected, ranging from 2.2 to 2.6 individuals (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005, Ballardini <em>et al</em>. 2005, Scalise <em>et al</em>. 2005), except in the western Ligurian Sea with a mean of four (sd = 2) (Azzellino <em>et al</em>. 2008). Social organization is unknown, although the intermediate levels of mtDNA diversity observed in Cuvier’s Beaked Whales suggest that social groups are unlikely to be strongly matrifocal (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/></p>  Cuvier’s Beaked Whale is mainly teuthophagic. The most common prey species in the Mediterranean are from the family Histioteuthidae (MacLeod 2005 and references therein), which are oceanic and meso- or bathypelagic, inhabiting depths of around 1000 m, with a preference for escarpments. Fish may also be an important component of their diet (MacLeod 2005).
16381144		population	eng	<p>Strandings have been reported in Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Spain and Turkey, totalling 316 animals (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Twenty-six percent of the total animals recorded stranded in the Mediterranean have been in mass strandings involving three or more animals (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Strandings have been particularly numerous along the Ligurian and Ionian coasts, but it is important not to infer too much about species distribution or relative abundance from strandings data alone. Strandings data are subject to a variety of types of bias.<br/></p><p>Cuvier’s Beaked Whales seem to be relatively abundant in the eastern Ligurian Sea, off southwestern Crete and the Alboran Sea, especially over and around canyons (D’Amico <em>et al</em>. 2003, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ballardini <em>et al</em>. 2005, Scalise <em>et al</em>. 2005). They appear to be regular although less abundant inhabitants of the western Ligurian Sea (41 sightings in 16 years, Tethys Research Institute, unpublished data; 4.2% of 814 sightings during 10,000 km on effort from 1996–2000, Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Cuvier’s beaked whales have been described as regular inhabitants of the Hellenic Trench (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003), the southern Adriatic Sea based on frequency of strandings (Holcer <em>et al</em>. 2003) and the eastern section of the Alborán Sea (Cañadas <em>et al</em>. 2005). They also occur in the central Tyrrhenian Sea (Marini <em>et al</em>. 1992) and in Spanish Mediterranean waters (Gannier 1999, Raga and Pantoja 2004, M. Castellote pers. comm.). They have been reported both from strandings and sightings in Israeli, Palestinian and Syrian waters (Aharoni 1944; Saad and Othman 2008; D. Kerem, pers. comm.). No information is available for the remaining areas of the Mediterranean.</p>  <p>There are two abundance estimates for this species in small portions of the Mediterranean  Sea. In the Gulf of Genova (eastern Ligurian Sea) mark-recapture analysis (2002–2008) yielded an estimate of 96–100 animals (left and right side identifications respectively) from an open population (Rosso <em>et al</em>. 2009). In the northern Alboran Sea, spatial modelling of line transect data (1992–2007) yields an abundance estimate of 102 animals with a CV=32.1% (corrected for availability bias from a D-tagged animal in the Alboran  Sea) (Oedekoven <em>et al</em>. 2009). Abundance estimates for the whole Alboran Sea and the northern Tyrrhenian  Sea will be available in 2010 after analysis of the Sirena08 and MED09 survey cruises. Therefore, much better information will be available, and a reassessment is recommended for then. Preliminary inspection of the data highlights a relatively high density (compared to other areas of the world) of Cuvier´s Beaked Whales in the Alboran Sea (44 groups, 89 individuals in 846 km on survey effort, for an encounter rate of 19.5 individuals per 100 km of effort; unpublished data).<br/></p>  <p>There are no data on trends for this species in the Mediterranean. <br/></p>  <p>There are areas, especially in the southern portions of the basin, where Cuvier’s Beaked Whales have not been recorded from either strandings or sightings. However, it must be borne in mind that their long dive times, usually inconspicuous appearance at the surface and typical avoidance of vessels make them difficult to spot (Heyning 1989). In addition, sighting effort and the efficiency of stranding networks vary throughout the Mediterranean: many areas have little or no effort to make and record sightings or to detect strandings. Therefore, a comprehensive basin-wide survey and an efficient basin-wide stranding network are needed before reaching firm conclusions about presence and absence. It is nevertheless possible, based&#160; on available data, to identify at least some areas as good habitat, and probably hot-spots, for Cuvier’s Beaked Whales, such as the eastern Ligurian Sea, the eastern Alborán  Sea and the Hellenic Trench. The species is probably also common in several other unexplored areas. <br/></p>  Only two haplotypes were found in the Mediterranean (n = 12) and those haplotypes were found nowhere else (Dalebout <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Because samples from this species are relatively rare, there are no samples from the area in the Atlantic closest to the Mediterranean. Until such sample are gathered and show otherwise, the current best evidence suggests that the low haplotypic diversity together with haplotypes found only in the Mediterranean meet the subpopulation definition of less than a migrant per year (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2005). There have been 23,004 km of effort from 1999 to 2006 (all seasons) in the Straits of Gilbraltar in conditions where <em>Ziphius</em> could be sighted (Beaufort three or less) with no sightings (de Stephanis <em>et al</em>. 2007). This is consistent with little movement through this area. The current best available data, genetic and lack of sightings, suggests that the definition for subpopulation is met. Future acoustic monitoring in the Straits could better resolve this question.
16381144		threats	eng	<p>Owing to their offshore occurrence and tendency to feed on deep-sea squid, Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are probably little exposed to human activities that occur in coastal waters (tourism, many types of fisheries, etc.). However, the few studies carried out on this species highlight one main threat: certain forms of man-made underwater noise. This threat affects the species world-wide and it has been responsible for some of the observed mortality in the Mediterranean. Military sonars and possibly high-energy sounds from other anthropogenic sources have repeatedly resulted in the stranding and death of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales. The implications of this mortality at the population level are uncertain. Two other concerns are bycatch in drift gillnets and the ingestion of plastic debris (e.g. Kovacic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <br/></p>  <p>Recent atypical mass strandings of beaked whales have been linked to high-powered navy sonar and seismic exploration (e.g. Frantzis 1998, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Deployment of military sonar has led to strandings of beaked whales suffering from chronic and acute tissue damage due to the <em>in vivo</em> formation of gas bubbles, possibly the result of decompression sickness (Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Cuvier’s Beaked Whale is the species most commonly involved in these atypical mass strandings (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 2005). Of 224 recorded stranding events of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales in the Mediterranean, 15 involved two animals (9.8% of the total) and 12 involved three or more animals (totalling 80 animals; 26.1% of the total) (Podestà <em>et al</em>. 2006). Four of these strandings were definitely associated with naval activity so far: 1) Valencia, Spain in February 1996 (Filadelfo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), 2) Kyparissiakos  Gulf, Greece in May 1996 (Frantzis 1998), 3) Ionian Islands, Greece in October 1997 (Frantzis 2004, Filadelfo 2009), 4) Algerian coasts, in 2001 (Filadelfo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In the other cases, either no appropriate data were collected or the analyses were inadequate for assessing the potential association (Podestà <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). An atypical mass stranding of four Cuvier’s Beaked Whales occurred in SE Spain in January 2006. This event was coincident in time and space with military manoeuvres of NATO (Draft EIS/OEIS 2007), and necropsies of the animals showed “Gas and Fat Embolic Syndrome”, previously associated with anthropogenic acoustic activities, most probably anti-submarine active mid-frequency sonar used during the military naval exercises (Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2005; Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Mediterranean  Sea is a militarily strategic area and is also of increasing interest for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation. All military or geological or oceanographic activities involving high-intensity noise carried out in the proximity of Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are of concern.<br/></p>  <p>Although the population-level implications of the use of military sonar are uncertain, there is evidence suggesting that they could be at least locally significant. A photo-identification study that preceded and followed the Bahamas mass stranding showed that previously photo-identified, resident beaked whales either left the area or died, since they were never re-captured (photographically) after the event (Balcomb and Claridge 2001). In the Mediterranean Sea, no surveys had been conducted in the Kyparissiakos Gulf before the mass stranding following a naval military sonar exercise (Frantzis 1998). However, strandings of Cuvier´s beaked whales had been common in that area (average rate of one per semester) and have become extremely rare (none or only one) in the nine years since the event. Two international surveys that covered the Kyparissiakos  Gulf (IFAW 2003 and MVO in 2004) as well as a survey that has crossed the same area twice yearly since 2002 have failed to record any sightings of Cuvier´s Beaked Whales. <br/></p>  <p>Cuvier’s Beaked Whales are occasionally taken incidentally in driftnets in the Mediterranean  Sea. DUring the MED09 survey in the Alboran Sea, a Cuvier´s Beaked Whale was found alive recently (probably) entangled in a driftnet (and two Moroccan driftnetters were spotted a few miles away). After several hours of attempts, it was not possible to approach the animal close enough to release it from the net.</p><p>In a study of cetacean by-catch by the Spanish Mediterranean long-lining fleet, only one unidentified beaked whale was found entangled (released alive) out of 798 sets (CPUE).</p>  <p>Fourteen Cuvier’s Beaked Whales were reported as having been captured intentionally between 1972 and 1982 – 11 in French and three in Spanish waters, all shot and one also harpooned (Northridge 1994). No pingers are in use in this area to avoid beaked whales bycatch. <br/></p>  <p>With regard to plastic debris, two stranded animals in Greece had stomachs full of pieces of plastic bags (A. Frantzis, pers. comm.), as did a stranded animal in Croatia (Holcer <em>et al</em>. 2003). Poncelet <em>et al</em>. (1999) described a considerable amount of plastic debris in the stomach of a Cuvier’s Beaked Whale washed ashore on the French Atlantic coast. Together with pilot whales (and some other teuthophagous species), Cuvier’s Beaked Whale seems to be attracted by plastic debris that may be mistaken for squid.<br/></p>  Climate change effects on prey might be a potential threat but we don't know whether the net effects will be positive or negative. No competition with fisheries is reported in the Mediterranean, where cephalopods fisheries are not very important (e.g. squids represent less than 1% of the catches in the Spanish waters of the Alboran Sea, http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/agriculturaypesca/agraria/estagric.html)
16674437		conservation	eng	<p>No specific measures have been taken for the conservation of Striped Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea, although this species benefits from the generic protection laws existing in many range states for cetaceans.<br/></p>  <p>One area where the species is more abundant is protected (in principle at least) under the Marine Sanctuary for Cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Apart from this, because the Striped Dolphin is an oceanic species, most currently existing protected areas are of no use for its conservation. Development of offshore protected areas through international agreements similar to the case in the Ligurian sea should be encouraged. In Spain there was a governmental initiative to identify areas of special interest for the conservation of cetaceans, but the recommendations put forward have not materialized. Effective protection of these areas should be enforced and similar initiatives should be undertaken in other Mediterranean countries.<br/></p>  <p>Pelagic driftnets have been forbidden in Spain and are limited by UE regulations. However, an Italian fleet of significant size (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 100 vessels) still fishes with driftnets in an unregulated manner. To this is should be added a large Moroccan fleet and the French thonnaille vessels, all know to be responsible for significant cetacean mortality. Drift nets should be eliminated from the region or, at a minimum, the existing regulations on that gear should be strictly enforced. <br/></p>  <p>Most Mediterranean countries have regulations prohibiting direct takes, but enforcement is sometimes poor. This should be corrected and deliberate killing stopped. <br/></p>  <p>Control of pollution, particularly that by organochlorine compounds, has become more effective in the last two decades and the levels of those pollutants are decreasing. However, existing laws and control should be further enforced and Striped Dolphin populations should be monitored to assess trends and geographical variation of known pollutants in tissue levels. <br/></p>  <p>The population size was estimated in the western Mediterranean immediately after the 1990 die-off. Abundance should be monitored, particularly to assess recovery from the die-off(s). <br/></p>  <p>Occurrence of ovarian cysts should be monitored in the population and their potential impact on reproduction should be investigated. <br/></p>  <p>Diet should be studied through stomach content and isotopic analyses to assess overlap with commercial fisheries. <br/></p>  <p>Stranded dolphins should be examined for viral, bacterial and <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> infection and for the presence of antibodies against these agents.</p>
16674437		distribution	eng	This species occurs in temperate and subtropical waters of all oceans. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea but has not been recorded in the Black Sea.
16674437		habitat	eng	The Striped Dolphin is an oceanic species. It shows a preference for highly productive, open waters beyond the continental shelf. It is particularly abundant in the Ligurian Sea, the Gulf of Lions, the waters between the Balearic Islands and the Iberian Peninsula, and the Alborán Sea. In the Ligurian Sea, this species showed no preference for any specific physiographic features, but was almost homogeneously distributed (Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Life History Parameters</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Age at maturity</span>:<br/>Females: 12 years (western Mediterranean population) (Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996)<br/>Males: 11.3 years (western Mediterranean population) (Calzada 1996)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Longevity</span>:<br/>Females: 32 years (Di Mèglio and Romero-Álvarez 1996, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997)<br/>Males: 28 years (Di Mèglio and Romero-Álvarez 1996, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Percentage of living population that is reproductively mature</span>:<br/>Unknown<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Average age of parents in the population</span>:<br/>Females: 22 years (Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997)<br/>Males: 20 years (Calzada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Gestation time</span>:<br/>Slightly over 12 months (Aguilar 1991)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Average interbirth interval</span>:<br/>2.7 years (in Japan) (Kasuya 1985)<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Maximum potential annual rate of population increase</span>:<br/>0.09 (Schmitz and Lavigne 1984)
16674437		population	eng	<p>  </p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population structure</span><br/>Morphological and genetic studies strongly suggest that the Mediterranean and eastern North Atlantic populations are genetically differentiated, with little or no gene flow across the Straits of Gibraltar. Maximum body length of eastern North Atlantic striped dolphins is 5-8 cm longer than that of Mediterranean individuals (Calzada and Aguilar 1995). Skull size is also smaller in Mediterranean specimens than in their neighbouring Atlantic counterparts (Archer 1997). Mitochondrial DNA analysis, from Gibraltar to Greece, yielded 59 haplotypes (n=166), none of which was shared between the two areas, thus supporting strong differentiation; analyses of nuclear DNA support this result (Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Subpopulation structure </span><br/>Genetic analyses of Striped Dolphins from Gibraltar to the coast of Israel, both at nuclear and mitochondrial levels, show that this species is genetically structured within the Mediterranean with low gene flow across the basin. Furthermore, there is evidence for sex-biased dispersal (Gaspari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep). On a smaller geographic level, Gaspari (2004) found evidence of genetic differentiation between inshore and offshore populations in the Ligurian Sea. Moreover, inside the Mediterranean there is some clinal variation in body size suggestive of population structure and/or restriction in gene flow between areas (Calzada and Aguilar 1995). This appears to be confirmed by significant differences in tissue pollutant levels between Spain and Italy (Monaci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Range and population</span><br/>Although overall the Striped Dolphin is the most abundant cetacean in the Mediterranean, both in the eastern and the western basins, it is not found at uniform densities. It typically shows a preference for highly productive, open waters beyond the continental shelf (Notarbartolo di Sciara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994, Frantzis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Gannier 2005). A small number of Striped Dolphins may be resident in the eastern portion of the Gulf of Corinth (Greece) (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Two strandings were recorded in the Marmara Sea in 1990s (Öztürk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).<br/><br/>Reliable abundance estimates are only available for the western basin and most of them refer to the period immediately or soon after the 1990–1992 die-off. There is no available estimate for the eastern Mediterranean Sea:<br/><ul><li>Western Mediterranean excluding the Tyrrhenian Sea (1991): 117,880&#160; [95% CI = 68,379–214,800] (Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994).</li><li>Balearic Sea (1991): 5,826 [95% CI = 2,193–15,476] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Gulf of Lions (1991): 30,774 [95% CI = 17,433-54,323] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Ligurian Sea (1992): 14,003 [95% CI = 6,305–31,101] (Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).</li><li>South Balearic area (1991): 18,810 [95% CI = 8,825–35,940] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Alboran Sea (1991): 17,728 [95% CI = 9,507–33,059] (Forcada and Hammond 1998).</li><li>Central coast of Spain (2000–2002): 15,778 [95% CI = 10,940–22,756] (Gómez de Segura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population trend</span><br/>the population declined in the early 1990s. Current population trend is unknown, although the population may have recovered to pre-1990 levels, at least in some areas (Gómez de Segura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
16674437		threats	eng	<p>In 1990–1992 a die-off devastated much of, if not the entire, Mediterranean population;  1,000 carcasses were examined in Spain, Italy and France alone, but the toll was undoubtedly much higher because these countries represent only a fraction of the Mediterranean coastline known to have been affected by the process (Bortolotto<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). Immediately after the event, the mean school size was found to be less than one third of original levels, which may be taken as an indication, but not as a proof, for a proportional reduction in overall population size (Forcada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990, Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). The epidemic started in regions containing unusually large numbers of inbred dolphins that were possibly more susceptible to diseases (Valsecchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for causing immunosuppressive effects were suggested to have enhanced its lethality because the individuals that succumbed to the disease were those carrying the highest PCB tissue concentrations (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). </p>  <p>A second outbreak occurred in 2006–2007 affecting the coasts of Spain (Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Raga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), France and the Italian Ligurian Sea (Garibaldi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The mortality associated with that event was moderate, with only about 200 carcasses reported, probably because older dolphins were still protected by the immunity developed during the 1990–1992 epidemic (Raga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Moreover, differently to the previous outbreak, PCB levels in the individuals that succumbed to this event were not significantly different from those in the surviving population, which suggests that pollutants were of no relevance to the 2006–2007 event (Castrillon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). Recurrent epidemics may have profound cumulative effects on the population dynamics of Mediterranean Striped Dolphins (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009a).<br/></p>  <p>Poxviruses with the potential to cause mortality of neonates and young calves are also circulating in this population (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). Marine <span style="font-style: italic;">brucellae</span> also infect Mediterranean Striped Dolphins (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). These bacteria may limit recruitment by compromising the normal functioning of male and female reproductive systems, inducing abortions and killing neonates and sexually mature individuals (Van Bressem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a). Finally, infection by the protozoan<em> Toxoplasma gondii </em>seems to be common in Mediterranean striped dolphins (Domingo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Cabezon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and has been suggested as another factor contributing to the death toll during morbillivirus epidemics.<br/></p>  <p>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals, selenium and possibly other pollutants such as the brominated flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and perfluorinated compounds are high and often exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Aguilar 2000, Marsili <em>et al</em>. 2001, Kannan <em>et al</em>. 2002, Pettersson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Blubber concentrations of DDT and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, show a slowly declining trend in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are currently still high. Besides the alleged immunodepressive effect (see above), high PCB levels may have been implicated in the development of unusual luteinized cysts in the ovaries of four of 56 (7.1%) Mediterranean Striped Dolphins (Munson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988), although other factors like the morbillivirus infection, stress and food depletion could have contributed to the abnormal surge or release of luteinizing hormone. <br/></p>  The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alboran Sea reportedly killed 148–170 dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,500–2,000 Striped Dolphins per year (Tudela <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). The Italian driftnet fishery (<em>spadare </em>fishery) has been claimed to kill 5,000–15,000 dolphins, mostly Striped Dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992); although fishing effort is declining, current catch levels are thought to be still high. The French <em>thonaille </em>driftnet fishery has been estimated to kill 180–472 Striped Dolphins per season (Imbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Reports from other fisheries are sparse and bycatch data are not collected systematically, but what evidence there is suggests that incidental catches of Striped Dolphins are widespread and likely to represent a significant toll at least in pelagic purse-seines, drifting long-lines and gill nets (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). To this should be added a certain number of direct catches for human consumption or for use as bait, which still continue in several Mediterranean countries (SGFEN 2001).    <p>The diet of Striped Dolphins includes commercial fish and cephalopod species (Pulcini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992, Blanco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), so the widespread depletion of fishery resources in the Mediterranean has the potential to affect Striped Dolphin numbers.</p>Global warming may have significant direct and indirect effects on cetacean populations in the Mediterranean (Gambaiani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Climate variability and change affect biomass in a number of ways, including shifts in species distribution. Azzellino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008b) showed a direct effect of sea surface temperature on striped dolphin distribution in the Ligurian Sea.
16725902		conservation	eng	A number of measures have already been taken to protect this species.  Careful monitoring by members of the Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks  Authority (MTPA), the South African National Biodiversity Institute  (SANBI) and the Mpumalanga Plant Specialist Group,  has found that its  numbers are declining at an alarming rate, so that urgent measures to  promote  its sustainable use and conservation have been called for. The  area in which the species grows is not yet protected, but is monitored  by the local tribal authority in collaboration with the MTPA in an  attempt to prevent unscrupulous and illegal collection of plant  material.  Conservation measures by means of propagation in cultivation have been put in place (Hurter 2003). An attempt to set up a community-run nursery in the area to  provide cultivated plants for the medicinal and horticultural trade has  so far not proved successful, but collections of seed-grown individuals  have been successfully established in two of SANBI’s National Botanical  Gardens (NBGs). Seed collections have been banked at Kew's Millennium Seed Bank.
16725902		distribution	eng	This recently described species is known only from the Oshoek area in Mpumalanga, South Africa, where it has been recorded at 1,100 - 1,150 m above sea level.
16725902		habitat	eng	This is a non-typical yam, as it is more shrub-like, but it has the typical woody tuber. It grows in exposed, open savanna grassland, in serpentine soils on steep, southeast-facing slopes.
16725902		population	eng	The population of about 250 plants has been monitored annually since 2007. Harvesting damage has been noted in 91% of tagged individuals, and 32% of monitored individuals have died due to over-harvesting since 2008.
16725902		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is harvesting of tubers for traditional medicine, which monitoring has shown to be unsustainable as the population is very small and plants are extremely slow growing. The species is also potentially threatened by collection for horticultural purposes, as it has an attractive pachycaul growth form, but being very slow growing it is likely to be difficult to establish in cultivation, which may put pressure on the wild population to meet commercial demand. Mining is another minor potential future threat.
16726345		conservation	eng	There is <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the species at Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Small number of individuals have been documented on land leased to the Turks and Caicos National Trust. Important Plant Areas have been identified and recommended for consideration. Is included on CITES Appendix II.
16726345		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Turks and Caicos Islands.  Recorded locations: North Caicos, Middle Caicos, and Little Ambergris Cay.  Also reported in the literature as occurring on Leeward Cays, North Caicos and Bay Islands, Middle Caicos and Joe Grant Cays, Ambergris Cays, Bush and Seal Cays. Occurs just above sea level up to about 10 m.
16726345		habitat	eng	Restricted to coastal habitats, predominantly on sandy substrates.
16726345		population	eng	Locally abundant but found in a very restricted area thus highlighting the importance of protecting these populations. Estimated to occur in six subpopulations.
16726345		threats	eng	The species is most threatened by development. A significant proportion of the population is growing on land earmarked for development. Other threats include sea level rise and invasive species (e.g. <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em>).
16726348		conservation	eng	There are currently no <em>in situ</em> conservation measures in place but seed has been collected for <em>ex situ</em> storage.
16726348		distribution	eng	Recorded from North Caicos and Middle Caicos, Turks and Caicos Islands. Occurs from just above sea level up to about 15 m.
16726348		habitat	eng	Found on rocky limestone outcrops and steep ridges in cracks between the rocks, and under a canopy of broadleaf tree species. Reported in Correll and Correll (1996) as occurring in sandy open soils, especially where water has drained from dirt roadways; mostly July to October.<br/><br/>Occurs in the rocky area used as a car park of a cafe and view point. This situation most likely arose due to the persistence of <em>S. carolinae</em> when the broadleaf limestone scrub vegetation that originally existed at the site was cleared to build the cafe and gazebo now present.
16726348		population	eng	The population is estimated to number between 859 and 975 mature individuals.<br/><br/>Estimates of population size were based on the adaptive cluster sample method. A transect length of 300 metres with assessment points every 50 metres was used. This provided six assessment points per transect; each assessment point was a quadrat of 10x10 metres. Upon discovery of <em>S. carolinae</em> along a transect, adaptive cluster sampling was conducted in a cross pattern with units of 10x10 metres. If an individual of <em>S. carolina</em>e was discovered in an adjacent quadrat, the adaptive sampling was extended. The criterion for cessation of adaptive sampling was the absence of any individuals of <em>S. carolinae</em>. Occurs in four subpopulations.
16726348		threats	eng	The main threat is loss of habitat due to continuing development on both North and Middle Caicos. Expanding invasive species (e.g. <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em>, <em>Scaevola taccada</em>/<span style="font-style: italic;">sericea</span>) are causing declines in habitat quality. In the future, the low-lying habitat may be threatened by storm surge and ground water salinification due to rising sea levels.
16726350		conservation	eng	There is an <em>ex situ</em> conservation collection held at the Montserrat National Trust Botanic Garden (nursery stock and demonstration hedge planting) and at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew's Tropical Nursery. Seed collection made in May 2006 is stored in the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew's Millennium Seed Bank.  There is <em>in situ</em> conservation for a small proportion of the Centre Hills subpopulations which within the Centre Hills Forest Reserve. A species action plan is being developed.
16726350		distribution	eng	Endemic to Montserrat where it occurs from 50 to 450 m asl.
16726350		habitat	eng	This species prefers forest margins of the tropical dry forest and tropical dry to mesic transition forest (Centre Hills subpopulation) and more open habitat of tropical dry shrubland (Silver Hills subpopulation).
16726350		population	eng	The population size is not known but there are three subpopulations based on the grid adjacency method.
16726350		threats	eng	Development and grazing are the greatest threats to the survival of this species in the wild. Volcanic activity only impacts one subpopulation with relatively minimal observed effects.
16726353		conservation	eng	This species is in <em>ex situ</em> conservation at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and the North Caicos Government Farm. The subpopulation on Middle Caicos falls within the Caicos Islands RAMSAR site.
16726353		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Turks and Caicos Islands.  Recorded locations: Middle Caicos, Grand Turk, South Caicos,  Big Ambergris Cay, and Salt Cay.  Also reported in the literature as occurring on Middle Caicos and Joe Grant Cays, South Caicos, Ambergris Cays, Bush and Seal Cays, Grand Turk and Grand Turk Cays, Salt Cay and Great Sand Cay. Recorded from sea level up to 10 m.
16726353		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to salinas and adjacent arid habitat influenced by salt spray. Also found growing on abandoned salt mining sites, predominantly along the retaining walls. On the island of Salt Cay where salt spray is experienced across the island, the species is found growing in a dwarf shrubland.
16726353		population	eng	The population size is not known but it is estimated that there are 5-7 subpopulations depending on whether the Grid Adjacency method is used (the higher number), or the number of islands the species occurs on (the lower number).
16726353		threats	eng	The species is threatened by development. A significant proportion of the population is growing on land earmarked for housing and mining. Other threats include sea level rise and invasive species (e.g. <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em>).
16726356		conservation	eng	There are <em>ex situ</em> conservation collections of mature individuals  at the Montserrat National Trust Botanic Garden (largely plant rescues from mango trees killed by volcanic activity, this an ongoing source of plants).  There are also <em>ex situ</em> conservation collections at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew's Conservation Biotechnology Unit in Micropropagation. Seed collected in May 2006 is stored in the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew's Millennium Seed Bank. A small proportion of the Centre Hills subpopulation falls within the Centre Hills Forest Reserve.  A species action plan is being developed. The species is included on CITES Appendix II.
16726356		distribution	eng	Recorded only from the Leeward Is. (Montserrat). Recorded from 5 up to 400 m asl.
16726356		habitat	eng	An epiphytic or lithophytic orchid found predominantly in tropical dry forest and tropical dry/mesic forest transition with occasional occurrences in tropical wet forest. Most frequently recorded growing on <em>Mangifera indica</em> L. (introduced) and <em>Tabebuia pallida</em> (Lindl.) Miers<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(native). Also recorded growing on other species of native trees and on abandoned sugar mills.
16726356		population	eng	The number of subpopulations (three) is based on the Grid Adjacency method. The population size is not known.
16726356		threats	eng	Loss and fragmentation of habitat due to human development and volcanic activity are the main threats. There is also loss of host plants and mature individuals of <em>E. montserratense</em> due to uncontrolled grazing (mostly goats).
16726358		conservation	eng	There is <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the species happening at Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and the North Caicos Government Farm.
16726358		distribution	eng	Endemic to the Turks and Caicos Islands.  Recorded locations include: Big Ambergris Cay, South Caicos, and Grand Turk.  Also reported as occurring on Little Water Cay. Occurs from just above sea level to about 20 m.
16726358		habitat	eng	Found in dry sandy pockets and on rocky hillsides and in scrublands.
16726358		population	eng	Thought to occur in four subpopulations.
16726358		threats	eng	The species is most threatened by development.  A significant proportion of the population is growing on land earmarked for development.  Other threats include sea level rise and invasive species (e.g. <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em>).
100006001		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Struthio camelus</span> occurs throughout much of Africa, with a range encompassing <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mauritania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mali</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niger</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chad</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Eritrea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Somalia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uganda</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tanzania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Angola</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Namibia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Africa</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Botswana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zambia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zimbabwe </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mozambique</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">syriacus</span> of the Middle East is extinct, probably since around 1966 (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100006001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to abundant throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100006002		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor levels of illegal domestic and international trade. Effectively enforce restrictions on hunting and trade (Bellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Include pastures and grasslands in agricultural ecosystems (Bellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Preserve remaining natural habitat (Bellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Giordano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<p></p>
100006002		distribution	eng	<em>Rhea americana</em> has a large range in north-east and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong>, <strong>Uruguay</strong> and north-east and east <strong>Argentina</strong> south to 40°S<strong> </strong>(Folch 1992). It has declined markedly and the healthiest populations are now believed to be in parts of the Chaco region<strong> </strong>(Folch 1992).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100006002		habitat	eng	It typically occurs in pampas, campo cerrado and open chaco woodland, normally in areas with some tall grassland and other vegetation, but also in open grassland and cultivated fields, at elevations up to 1,200 m&#160;<strong></strong><strong></strong>(Canevari <em> et al.</em> 1991, Folch 1992, Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). Population densities in grassland are several times that in agricultural areas, and birds were found to occupy 51% of a grassland area, but less than 5% of an agricultural locality (Giordano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; For breeding, it prefers areas adjacent to rivers, lakes and marshes<strong> </strong>(Folch 1992). <p></p>
100006002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100006002		threats	eng	Its status is obfuscated by the presence of feral birds<strong> </strong> (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996), but it has declined markedly partly owing to hunting for meat and the colossal export of skins. Over 50,000 skins were traded in 1980, most apparently originating in Paraguay, with Japan and USA leading consumers<strong> </strong>(Folch 1992). In recent years, the large-scale conversion of central South American grasslands for agriculture and cattle-ranching (da Silva 1995) has considerably reduced and fragmented its available habitat, particularly in the pampas and cerrado strongholds. <p></p>
100006003		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I (except nominate race, which is on Appendix II). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop campaigns to raise awareness and reduce hunting, egg-collecting and the domestication of wild immature birds. Prevent illegal hunting and egg-collecting, while developing alternative sustainable harvesting programmes (Barri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008b). Harvest "orphan eggs" (eggs sporadically laid outside nests) for use in captive breeding and reintroduction programmes (Barri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a). Maintain "mallín" (meadow) habitats in adequate condition as nesting sites (Bellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Barri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008b, Barri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).&#160;Monitor remaining populations of <em>tarapacensis</em> and <em>garleppi</em>. <p></p>
100006003		distribution	eng	<em>Rhea pennata</em> occurs in three subspecies: <em>pennata</em> in south <strong>Chile</strong>, west-central and south <strong>Argentina</strong>, with an introduced population in north Tierra del Fuego; <em>tarapacensis</em> in north Chile; and <em>garleppi</em> in south <strong>Peru</strong>, south-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> and north-west Argentina. All populations have declined markedly and the northern subspecies are in serious danger of extinction<strong></strong> (Folch 1992). The combined population of <em>tarapacensis</em> and <em>garleppi</em> is estimated at several hundred birds, with the healthiest populations in Argentina (densities at two sites of 2-5 birds/km<sup>2</sup>) (Chebez 1994). In 1983, the Peruvian population was estimated at 18 individuals, with very low numbers in north Chile (principally in Lauca National Park [A. Jaramillo <em>in litt. </em>1999]) and on the altiplano in Bolivia.<em> <p></p></em>
100006003		habitat	eng	The nominate subspecies inhabits steppe, shrubland, shrub-steppe and mallines (successional wetlands with bog, meadows and ponds)<strong> </strong>(Bellis <em>et al. </em>2006), up to 1,500 m, generally breeding in upland areas with bunch-grass. The northern subspecies are found in desertic salt puna, pumice flats, upland bogs and tola (<em>Lepidophyllum</em>) heath in altiplano at 3,000-4,500 m, down to 1,500 m in the south<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100006003		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100006004		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan for the species in Australia was published in 2002 (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service 2002) and updated in 2007 (Latch 2007). In Australia, programmes have been aimed at community education, localised habitat management, protection and revegetation, management plans for populations and high-risk individuals, surveys, survey and translocation methods, and habitat use. Temporary feeding stations have been installed in damaged areas following cyclones in Australia. Most remaining habitat is within protected areas (Westcott 1999,<strong></strong> D. Westcott <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. A village based survey has been conducted in Papua New Guinea investigating sustainability of wildlife capture and trade (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style="">Quantify forest loss in New Guinea. Determine population densities, sizes and demographic trends throughout its range. In Indonesia and Papua New Guinea: Monitor populations in protected areas. Quantify the effects of hunting and logging. Promote community-based hunting restrictions. In Australia: Revise monitoring techniques and monitor key sites. Research population dynamics. Research&#160; impact of cyclones, dogs, traffic, disease and fragmentation on persistence of small populations and on survivorship and demography. Prevent habitat clearance. Minimise cassowary road deaths and dog attacks, and assess impact of pigs. Undertake dog and pig control areas of in dense populations (Garnett</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al. </span><span style="">2011)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Investigate the feasibility and merits and, if appropriate, implement a translocation plan as part of rescue, rehabilitation and release. Identify areas and corridors to protect, restore, manage, develop and implement Cassowary Conservation Local Area Plans as part of local planning </span><p></p>
100006004		distribution	eng	<em>Casuarius casuarius</em> is found in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>), including the islands of Seram (where probably introduced) and Aru, and north-eastern <strong>Australia</strong>. It occurs throughout the lowlands of New Guinea except for the northern watershed from the Vogelkop to the Huon Peninsula (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. In Papua and adjacent islands, its status is unclear, but it may be more common than in Papua New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea, it has declined, and is now absent in some locations, including remote areas (Coates 1985, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In Australia, there are 3 subpopulations in Queensland. The southern and largest population ranges from the Paluma Range north of Townsville to Mt Amos. Two populations occur further north on Cape York Peninsula: one in the McIlwraith Range and north to the Pascoe River, the other in the Jardine River National Park and Heathland Resources Reserve (Kofron and Chapman 2006)<strong></strong>. The Australian population was estimated to number c. 2,500 birds in 2010, but it is declining (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100006004		habitat	eng	It is a solitary and sedentary inhabitant of rainforest, occasionally using adjacent savannah forests, mangroves and fruit plantations. Its diet largely comprises fallen fruit, although it is fairly undiscriminating (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. It ranges between 0 m and at least 500 m in Papua New Guinea (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, and has been recorded up to 1,400 m in Australia.<br/><p></p>
100006004		population	eng	No data are available for New Guinea. Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) estimated the Australian population to number 2,500 mature individuals. As such,  the total population is best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100006004		threats	eng	In Australia, it was historically threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. In Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, the species is heavily hunted, captured and traded close to populated areas, being of high cultural importance, and constituting a major food source for subsistence communities (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. This hunting and trade is not sustainable in many areas and has led to its extirpation from some sites, as the species is traded at a sub-national level to supply markets in more densely populated areas (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Increasing human populations and the spread of shotguns used for hunting exacerbate hunting pressure on the species. However, although birds appear to be more common in unpopulated areas (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1994, Burrows 1995)<strong></strong>, they can apparently survive in some hunted areas (Beehler 1985), probably those where traditional hunting techniques predominate. Industrial logging is threatening large areas of suitable habitat in New Guinea, with unknown but potentially significant impact on the species, and clearance for oil-palm plantations is a significant but unquantified threat. Cyclones are considered a threat to the species in Australia, with cyclones severely affecting Cassowary habitat in 2006 and 2011. In 2006, Cyclone Larry hit Queensland, affecting fruit production in tropical rain forests and causing the death of some cassowaries, either directly or as a result of starvation and exposure to other threats following the cyclone. In addition, following the cyclone some individuals could have ventured beyond forest fragments and may have suffered higher mortality through collisions with motor vehicles or attacks by dogs (L. A. Moore &amp; N. J. Moore unpub. data to Bellingham 2008). Increased susceptibility to disease (e.g. tuberculosis) following such events may pose a threat to the species (Cooper 2008), although this is yet to be confirmed. Climate change could increase the severity of cyclones in the future. It should be noted, however, that even large cyclones have a severe effect on only a small proportion of cassowary habitat.  <p></p>
100006005		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations in protected areas. Quantify the effects of hunting, logging and predation by pigs and dogs. Promote community-based hunting restrictions, particularly regarding the use of guns. Research population dynamics. Prevent habitat clearance. <p></p>
100006005		distribution	eng	<em>Casuarius bennetti</em> occurs in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and, presumably as a long-established introduction, on New Britain. It is judged to have a substantial population and to be declining more slowly than the other larger and more lowland cassowaries <em>Casuarius</em> spp.  <p></p>
100006005		habitat	eng	It is a forest species occurring into the mountains and occasionally to the treeline at 3,600 m. It possibly undertakes altitudinal migrations in some parts of its range (A. Mack <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
100006005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common in north-eastern New Guinea (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100006005		threats	eng	Although probably tolerant of moderate habitat degradation, logging opens up previously inaccessible areas to hunters, with hunting thought to be unsustainable in some parts of the species's range (Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Road and airstrip construction similarly increases the penetration of the hunting market (A. Mack <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Predation by pigs and dogs may be a threat to this species, but this has not yet been quantified. Despite suffering from heavy hunting pressure, it remains relatively common over a wide altitudinal range<strong><sup></sup></strong> (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986,<strong></strong> A. Mack <em>in litt.</em> 1999, B.&#160;Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100006006		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         A village based survey has been connducted in Papua New Guinea         investigating sustainability of wildlife capture and trade (Johnson <em>et         al</em>. 2004). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Survey distribution of this and <em>C. casuarius</em> in Vogelkop using camera-trapping methods. Gather         demographic data on the species to inform sustainable harvest         calculations. Research and quantify the effects of hunting, and use         this information to inform community-based wildlife management         providing local communities with sustainable catch quotas.         Research and quantify the effects of logging. Survey extensive areas         through discussion with local hunters. Develop a repeatable monitoring         technique in protected areas. Monitor populations in protected areas.         Campaign for non-hunting protected areas in Papua New Guinea such as         April-Saulemei or Ramu lowlands. Use this species as a figurehead for         establishing ecotourism-funded protected areas. Liaise with Australian         research and action on <em>C. casuarius</em>.
100006006		distribution	eng	<em>Casuarius unappendiculatus</em> is restricted to the northern lowlands of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). Its distribution on the Vogelkop is poorly known, but it is known from Yapen, Batanta and Salawati islands (Coates 1985, <strong></strong>Eastwood 1996, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. There are few records as this region is seldom visited. There are recent records from Batanta, Salawati and Waigeo in north-west Papua, but several other surveys in Papua have failed to find it (Eastwood 1996, <strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em> in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Mack and Alonso 2000). It is usually less common where hunted (K. D. Bishop <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but large areas of its range are remote with few hunters and it is suspected to be fairly common in the foothills of the Foja Mountains of western New Guinea (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Beyond these scattered records, there are no data on population or trends.<br/><p></p>
100006006		habitat	eng	It         inhabits lowland forest, including swamp-forest, to 700 m (Coates 1985.         Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986). Its ecology is poorly known but presumed         to be similar to that of <em>C. casuarius</em> and it is reported to be         an obligate frugivore with a critical ecological role as a seed         disperser in New Guinea.
100006006		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100006006		threats	eng	All cassowaries <em>Casuarius</em> spp. are heavily hunted close to populated areas and this species may be particularly vulnerable as it has a preference for river floodplains which are highly populated (B. Whitney <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As well as constituting a major food source for subsistence communities, it has a major cultural importance, including use as gifts in pay-back ceremonies, the feathers and bones as decoration and bones as tools (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986,&#160;K. D. Bishop <em> in litt.</em> 1999). Chicks captured on hunts are reared in villages for trade and consumption, but there is no breeding of domesticated birds (I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This hunting and trade is not sustainable in many areas and has led to its extirpation from some sites, as the species is traded at a sub-national level to supply markets in more densely populated areas (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Increasing human populations and the spread of shotguns increasingly being used for hunting exacerbate hunting pressure on the species. It can probably survive in selectively logged forest, but logging roads open up previously inaccessible forests to hunting<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(K. D. Bishop <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although cassowaries appear to survive in some hunted areas, this is dependent on the local culture and the availability of weapons and alternative meat-sources (Beehler 1985,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>K. D. Bishop <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100006007		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dromaius novaehollandiae</span> is distributed throughout mainland <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). The Tasmanian subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">diemenensis</span> is extinct, with the last wild record dating from 1845 (Dove 1924).
100006008		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Monitoring is nationally coordinated, and uses call-counts, specially-trained dogs searching for banded birds, and radio-tracking (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Intensive management involving predator control and&#160;removing and incubating eggs and returning subadults once  large enough to fend off predators is taking place within the Haast population.  The latter approach has been funded  by the Bank of New Zealand programme since 1995 under the name Operation  Nest Egg (ONE) (Colbourne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), and is succeeding in increasing the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. australis</span> 'Haast' (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2010). Research has focused on the Haast, Clinton valley, Murchison Mountains and Stewart Island populations, and involves taxonomy, investigating the effects of predators and their management, ecology and the social structure of populations (H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <strong></strong>Many national and overseas captive populations are held (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey populations in Fiordland and undertake population modelling of all taxa. Clarify the taxonomy of the species. Research reasons for low productivity in the Haast population. Evaluate the success of translocations. Intensively manage the Haast population and at least one other mainland population using the ONE  programme with the goal of doubling the population (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Investigate landscape-scale remote monitoring techniques for sparse populations (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Maintain the mustelid-free status of Stewart Island (H. A. Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Promote legislative and policy changes to protect populations and   encourage high-quality advocacy at all levels (Robertson 1998, Holzapfel   <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Educate and inform the public and encourage community involvement in Kiwi conservation (Robertson 2003, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100006008		distribution	eng	<em>Apteryx australis</em> is restricted to Fiordland and Stewart Island, with an isolated population near Haast, <strong>New Zealand</strong>.&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>&#160;<p></p>
100006008		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats ranging from coastal sand dunes on Stewart Island to forest, subalpine scrub and tussock grasslands in Fiordland. It feeds primarily on invertebrates but fallen fruit and leaves are also taken. It lays just one egg, usually in a burrow (Marchant and Higgins 1990, H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The incubation period is amongst the longest for any bird at between 74 and 84 days (Calder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1978). Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It is long-lived, with generation time taken to be 30-50 years (H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100006008		population	eng	The 2008 total population was estimated at 29,800 birds (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, H. Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012),  similar to the estimate of 27,225 (± c.25%) birds in 1996 (Robertson  2003). The species is common on Stewart Island but is thought to be  declining (from c.20,000 birds in 1996 [Robertson 2003] to 15,000 in  2008 [Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008])  and in localised areas in northern Fiordland (10,000 birds) and southern  Fiordland (4,500 birds) (Heather and Robertson 1997, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. The Haast population was reported as 300 individuals by Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2008). The estimate of c.29,800 birds suggests that there are c.19,900 mature individuals, on the basis that they account for around 2/3 of the population.
100006008		threats	eng	The impact of introduced predators is the greatest threat: brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> and stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> eat eggs, <em>M. erminea</em> and cats eat chicks and juveniles up to c.1,200 g, and dogs, ferrets <em>M. furo</em>, and <em>T. vulpecula</em> kill juveniles and adults (McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996, McLennan 2004)<strong></strong>. Predation pressure is possibly lower on Stewart Island where mustelids are absent, and dogs are prohibited from most of the island (H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. However, cats are widespread and common (H. A. Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The rate of  loss of native habitat has declined markedly and this is not currently  considered a driver for population reductions (Robertson 2010)<strong></strong>.  New avian diseases and pathogens are a potential threat, particularly  with the importation of non-native but closely related ratites to New  Zealand (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The Haast population is at risk from stochastic events due to the small population size and isolation and suffers from low fecundity (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). <br/><p></p>
100006009		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Translocations to predator-free offshore islands have done much to secure the survival of <em>A. owenii</em>. More islands have been examined for further introductions, but given the health of the present island populations, and their geographical spread, there is limited need for additional island populations. The genetic diversity of the species is being assesed to determine if they are severely bottlenecked and whether it might be possible to increase their genetic diversity by introducing new blood lines from Long Island, since currently all reintroduction birds are sourced from Kapiti Island (which may have had only five founders) (H. A. Robertson <em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. A small captive-breeding population is held, primarily for public education purposes (Heather and Robertson 1997, Robertson in prep)<strong></strong>. All populations are monitored using call-counts, and specially-trained dogs are used to track banded birds (H. A. Robertson <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue regular monitoring of all island populations. Enforce measures to prevent the introduction of non-native mammals to occupied islands.   <p></p>
100006009		distribution	eng	<em>Apteryx owenii</em> occurred in forested areas throughout <strong>New Zealand</strong> prior to European settlement, but is now restricted to seven offshore islands to which it has been introduced, and one mainland site where it has been reintroduced (H. A. Robertson <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The stronghold is Kapiti Island (20 km<sup>2</sup>), where birds are believed to have been introduced in the early 1900s. In the 1980s, birds were released on Red Mercury (2 km<sup>2</sup>), Hen (5 km<sup>2</sup>) and Long Islands (2 km<sup>2</sup>), and to Tiritiri Matangi Island (2 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1993 and 1995 (Colbourne and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Recently birds have also been released on Motuihe Island in 2009 (Anon. 2009) and Chalky Island in 2008 and 2009 (Edmonds 2010). The population was estimated at 1,500 individuals in 2008 (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), with 1,200 on Kapiti and 300 spread amongst the other populations. This is an increase from 2000, when&#160; the population was estimated at 1,150 individuals (2000) (Robertson and Colbourne 2004)<strong></strong>. On Kapiti the species is considered to be at carrying capacity and annual survivorship is estimated at 97.5% (Robertson and Colbourne 2004)<strong></strong>. This population is being used to increase populations on other islands or to establish new populations (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). At the same time more recently established populations are increasing.&#160;<p></p>
100006009		habitat	eng	It is present in all available habitats on Kapiti, including mature broadleaf forest, regenerating forest and grassland (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It eats invertebrates, but also fallen fruits and leaves (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays just one egg, usually in a burrow. Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It normally begins to breed at around three years of age (H. A. Robertson <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mean life expectancy is estimated at 45 (27-83) years (Robertson and Colbourne 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100006009		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1,200 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 800 mature individuals.
100006009		threats	eng	Introduced predators are absent from all the islands except Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em>, which was introduced to Kapiti prior to <em>A. owenii</em>. There are conflicting reports as to the extent and effect of predation (Jolly 1989, Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the <em>A. owenii</em> population appears very healthy (H. A. Robertson <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The island populations remain susceptible to accidental or deliberate introduction of mammalian predators. <p></p>
100060010		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Monitoring is intensive and nationally coordinated, and uses call-counts, specially-trained dogs searching for banded birds, and radio-tracking. One small population in the eastern Southern Alps is managed intensively by controlling predators (H. A. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and also by removing and  incubating eggs and returning the subadults once  they are large enough to fend off  predators (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).  The latter  approach has been funded  by the Bank of New Zealand programme since  1995 under the name Operation  Nest Egg (ONE, or BNZONE) (Colbourne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005)<strong></strong>. Populations from northwest Nelson have been introduced onto Rotoiti Island in Nelson Lakes National Park (BNZ Save the Kiwi 2011). Leg-hold traps for predators are routinely raised above the ground in kiwi areas to prevent accidental trapping (H.A. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> (1999). <em></em><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out large-scale predator control at all sites where the population is greater than 200 pairs, and incorporate sites with populations of 50-200 pairs into the BNZONE programme (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Undertake population modelling to determine regional variation in population dynamics and management needs in the Southern Alps. Investigate landscape-scale remote monitoring techniques for sparse populations (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Evaluate islands for possible translocations. Intensively manage at least one, preferably two, populations to secure a minimum of 500 pairs within a managed population and potentially create a source for introductions into other areas (Holzapfel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). Promote legislative and policy changes to protect populations and    encourage high-quality advocacy at all levels (Robertson 1998, Holzapfel    <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Educate and inform the public and encourage community involvement in Kiwi conservation (Robertson 2003, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
100060010		distribution	eng	<em>Apteryx haastii</em> has always been confined to the South Island of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, but its range has contracted and been fragmented significantly since European settlement, and several populations have disappeared. The three main populations are: north-western Nelson to Buller River, Paparoa Range, and Hurunui River to Arthur's Pass (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1996, the population was estimated at 22,000 (± c.25%) birds (Robertson 2003), but by 2008 this had declined to an estimated 16,000 (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. It was assumed to be declining at a rate of 5.8% per year like its congener, Brown Kiwi <em>A. australis </em>(McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, but more recent monitoring indicates that wet, upland areas (which hold approximately half the population) may be stable or perhaps only declining slowly (H. A. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Robertson <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Also the decline of 5.8% is now thought to have been too pessimistic and the actual figure is closer to 2.5% per year (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), which is still unsustainable.&#160; <p></p>
100060010		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat</span> It lives in forested mountains from sea-level to 1,500 m, but mainly in the subalpine zone of 700-1,100 m. It uses a wide variety of habitats including tussock grasslands, beech forests, podocarp/hardwood forests, scrub and pasture. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span> It feeds primarily on invertebrates but fallen fruit and leaves are also taken (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Breeding</span> A single egg is layed, usually in a burrow (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. Incubation is amongst the longest of any bird, between 75-85 days (Calder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978). Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It is long-lived, with generation time taken to be 15 years (H. A. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100060010		population	eng	This species is little known, but its population is estimated to number c.8,000 individuals split across two or three isolated populations. This is roughly equivalent to 5,300-5,400 mature individuals.
100060010		threats	eng	Introduced predators are the greatest threat, in particular, mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em>, cats, dogs and pigs. As a result, chick survival is likely to be very low like its congener, Brown Kiwi <em>A. mantelli</em>, with at least 94% of chicks not surviving to maturity, except in very wet highland area, perhaps because here rodent prey density means predators are scarce (McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong> </strong>Robertson <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. <em>A.&#160;haasti</em> is the only kiwi species that has no secure populations on islands (Robertson 2003, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
100060011		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
100060011		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tinamus tao</span> occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>'s "cerrado" (dry savanna woodland). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">larensis</span> occurs in central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">kleei</span> is distributed from south-central Colombia and east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>to east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>and west Brazil. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis</span> occurs in north-west Venezuela, and possibly in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> although it has not been recorded there in recent times (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The nominate subspecies is endemic to north-central Brazil (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060011		habitat	eng	The species is found in a range of forest types, including rainforest in the Andes, dense secondary forest throughout, cerrado in Brazil and cloud forest in Venezuela (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). It is known from 50-1,900 m (Hilty 2003). The species breeds from January to March in Colombia and in June in Venezuela, usually nesting in small depressions at the foot of large trees. It feeds on the forest floor, mainly on fruit, with some seeds, invertebrates and occasionally small vertebrates (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
100060011		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060011		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species, as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It requires pristine forest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992) and so is especially sensitive to fragmentation and disturbance, particularly as its distribution is already patchy. Hunting by locals is also known to reduce numbers (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
100060012		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify taxonomic validity of race <em>pernambucensis</em>. Survey known sites. Effectively protect remaining Atlantic forest sites. <p></p>
100060012		distribution	eng	<em>Tinamus solitarius</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul and inland to south Mato Grosso), south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and extreme north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) (Cabot <em>et al.</em> 1992, Sick 1993)<strong></strong>. There are two subspecies, with the north-east Brazil race <em>pernambucensis</em> having suffered a marked range contraction: not more than 100 individuals were estimated in 1971 (Cabot <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>; however a recent study suggests this may not be a valid taxon<strong> </strong>(Amaral and Silveira 2004). The nominate race is rare throughout its range owing to hunting pressure and habitat loss, although it is still relatively common in several protected areas <strong></strong>(Cabot <em>et al.</em> 1992, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100060012		habitat	eng	It is mostly found in lowland humid forest up to 1,200 m, preferring intact closed-canopy forest with little undergrowth<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cabot <em>et al.</em> 1992, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is supposedly susceptible to forest fragmentation (each bird apparently requiring c.30 ha of primary forest), but there is a notable Paraguayan population in a small area of degraded forest, and it is seen regularly in secondary forest at one site in Argentina<strong></strong> (Chebez 1990, <strong></strong>Cabot <em>et al.</em> 1992, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><p></p>
100060012		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060012		threats	eng	Current key threats are illegal hunting, urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).  <p></p>
100060013		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded in several protected areas, across all three range states. There are several records from in and around Manu National Park<strong> </strong>(P. Champlin <em>in litt</em> 1998). Subspecies <em>hershkovitzi</em> has been recorded in Cueva de los Guácharos National Park, Huila<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986). Sira Mountains are included in Sira Communal Reserve but this does not provide effective protection against hunting<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Gastañaga <em>et al. </em>2007).The recently created Megantoni Reserved Zone may be a "main population centre" for this species, since it is "remarkably abundant" here (Vriesendorp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for additional populations, especially in areas unknown to science (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Investigate the taxonomy of the disjunct populations<strong> </strong>(A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong>. </strong>Incorporate the Tavara-Candamo area into Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Control tourism in the foothills of south-east Peru<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Support conservation education programmes<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 1999), particularly to prevent hunting in the Cerro del Sira. <p></p>
100060013		distribution	eng	<em>Tinamus osgoodi</em> has an apparently highly disjunct range in the Andes of northern and central South America. Subspecies <em>hershkovitzi</em> occurs on the western slope of the East Andes, in Huila, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where its current status is unknown (last seen in 1976<strong>,</strong> according to Hilty and Brown 1986). Records from the northern Central Andes of Antioquia, Colombia, in 1999-2000<strong> </strong>(A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2008) are considered hypothetical (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011)<strong></strong>. In August 2001, a bird was reported from Shishicho, just north of Puerto Libre, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, near the border with Colombia<strong> </strong>(T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt</em>. 2001, Pitman <em>et al</em>.  2002), representing the first sight record for the country, following a  recording of a bird at the Loreto Road, Napo, in June 1998<strong></strong> (Brinkhuizen and Córdova Saeteros 2011, D. M. Brinkhuizen <em>in litt</em>.  2011). In December 2008, an individual of this species was photographed  in the Cordillera de Huacamayos, Napo, providing evidence that the  birds found in Ecuador belong to subspecies <em>hershkovitzi</em>  (Brinkhuizen and Córdova Saeteros 2011). There are reports that the  species was photographed by camera traps near the Loreto Road in the  relatively new Narupa Reserve during 2009, and there are undocumented  reports that this species has been heard and photographed using camera  traps at the base of Sumaco Volcano<strong></strong> (Brinkhuizen and Córdova Saeteros 2011, D. M. Brinkhuizen <em>in litt</em>.  2011). The increasing number of records from Ecuador suggest that the  species's range is more extensive and less disjunct than previously  thought (Brinkhuizen and Córdova Saeteros 2011). The nominate form occurs on the eastern slope of the Andes in Cuzco, Puno and Madre de Dios, south-eastern <strong>Peru</strong>, where it has been described as common (at least until 1958), fairly common and uncommon at three known locations<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Clements and Shany 2001). A sizeable population may exist in Manu National Park, Madre de Dios and Cuzco. It was found to be "remarkably abundant" in the Megantoni Reserved Zone (Vriesendorp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It was more recently found in a fourth area, the isolated Cerros del Sira in Huanaco, central Peru, where at least five birds were seen and further individuals were heard during biological inventories in 2005-2006 (Gastañaga <em>et al. </em>2007). A report from 2007 concerns a single bird at 419 m in Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park<strong> </strong> (O. Gonzalez <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In addition, unpublished records exist from Parque Nacional Madidi in La Paz Department, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(T. Valqui, pers. comm. <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Vriesendorp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<p></p>
100060013		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species of premontane and montane humid forest, including "valley cloud-forest" (stunted, moss-enshrouded trees) in Madre de Dios<strong> </strong>(P. Champlin <em>in litt</em> 1998), and may require primary forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The northern subspecies is known from 1,400-2,100 m, whereas the nominate subspecies is generally found at 600-1,650 m. In Peru, breeding-condition specimens have been taken in March-November and a quarter-grown chick was collected in February. One specimen had its stomach and crop full of nuts<br/><p></p>
100060013		population	eng	This species's population size has not been formally estimated and, in the absence of sufficient data, it is preliminary estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals; however, detailed research is required. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100060013		threats	eng	Most intermontane foothill forest in Colombia has been cleared for agriculture and human settlement, and the rate of habitat loss has increased recently with improvements to the road network in Huila<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Opium plantations are spreading, even within Cueva de los Guácharos National Park, Huila<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Wege and Long 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In its Peruvian range, human settlement and agricultural development of forests occurs largely below c.900 m. However, oil exploration is taking place in the foothills of south-east Peru, and roads built to facilitate this are being settled<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It is hunted for food<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and is a favourite target for hunters in the Sira Mountains, some of whom enter the area exclusively to hunt the species<strong></strong> (Gastañaga <em>et al. </em>2007). Observations suggest that the species is uncommon or absent in areas frequented by hunters, and hunters themselves report having to go ever higher into the mountains to find the species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(R. MacLeod and M. Gastañaga<em> in litt</em>. 2011). The rate of habitat loss in north-eastern Ecuador is increasing rapidly, driven by logging and conversion to cattle pastures and cultivation (D. M. Brinkhuizen <em>in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
100060014		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100060014		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tinamus major</span> has a wide distribution within the Neotropics, with 12 recognised subspecies. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">robustus</span> occurs in south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, overlapping with <span style="font-style: italic;">percautus</span>, also occuring in south-east Mexico as well as north Guatemala and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">fuscipennis</span> ranges from north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua </span>through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> to west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span>, overlapping with <span style="font-style: italic;">castaneiceps</span> which occurs in south-west Costa Rica and west Panama. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">brunneiventris</span> is endemic to south-central Panama. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">saturatus</span> occurs in east Panama and north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">latifrons</span> is distributed in south-west Colombia and west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, where it is uncommon to rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">zuliensis</span> occurs in north-east Colombia and north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">peruvianus</span> ranges from south-east Colombia and east Ecuador through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>to north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>and extreme west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">serratus</span> is endemic to north-west Brazil. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">major</span> ranges from east Venezuela through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> to north-east Brazil (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992); this taxon is abundant where forest is intact (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">olivascens</span> occurs in Amazonian Brazil (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060014		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense rainforest of both "terra firme" (no flooding) and "várzea" (seasonally-flooded) types, up to 1,500 m. It feeds on the forest floor, predominantly on berries, fruits and seeds, but will also take nuts and small animals. Breeding is generally between January and July, but perhaps all year round in Suriname where it has been recorded breeding in September. The nest is made between the buttress roots of large trees (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060014		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008).
100060014		threats	eng	The species's main threat comes from habitat loss across its large range, in particulr accelerating deforestation in Amazonia: despite its large range it is predicted to lose over 15% of its available habitat in the next three generations (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is likely to be sensitive to degradation (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011) especially given its preference for tall, undisturbed forest. In addition to this it is prized as a dish (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992) and heavily hunted (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
100060015		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
100060015		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tinamus guttatus</span> occurs in northern South America. It is locally abundant in south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, from which its range extends south through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, and east to north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
100060015		habitat	eng	This species is occurs in primary tropical rainforest, generally "terra firme" (without flooding), up to altitudes of 500 m. In the upper Orinoco, the species breeds in March and April. Two stomachs found in Brazil mainly contained ants and seeds (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060015		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060015		threats	eng	This species is mainly threatened by accelerating deforestation in Amazonia as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). While it is thought likely to be tolerant of secondary growth forest, it is also susceptible to hunting, which could cause local extinctions (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).  Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
100060016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060018		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100060018		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nothocercus nigrocapillus</span> is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes in north-central South America. The range of the nominate subspecies extends from central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, with the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cadwaladeri</span> restricted to north-west Peru (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060018		habitat	eng	This is a little-known species of mainly subtropical, but also temperate, humid forests of the east Andes. It occurs from 2,000-3,000 m. It is thought to be omnivorous, and has been seen feeding on fallen bamboo seeds (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060018		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060018		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Past clearance has been known to cause severe erosion and landslides in its montane range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992), and so it is likely these events will increase in frequency.
100060019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060020		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060021		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100060022		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The known range is entirely within protected areas and the species has been legally protected from hunting since 1996 (C. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez in litt. 1999).<strong></strong>
100060022		distribution	eng	This species was only known from six specimens taken on cerros Ptari-tepu&iacute; and Sororop&aacute;n-tepu&iacute;, in south-east Bol&iacute;var, Venezuela, but is now thought to have a much wider distribution in the east Pantepu&iacute; (Barrowclough et al. 1997). In 1994, it was frequently encountered (and four specimens taken) on Auy&aacute;n-tepu&iacute;, in the more humid northern tepu&iacute;, c.50 km distant from the original sites (Barrowclough et al. 1997), and vocalisations of an unknown tinamou on Chimant&aacute;-tepu&iacute; have also been tentatively assigned to this species (Medina Cuervo 1992). It is believed that the small number of records is more related to low observer coverage and limited awareness of vocalisations than to genuine scarcity (C. Sharpe in litt. 2007).  </P>
100060022		habitat	eng	On Ptari-tepuí and Sororopán-tepuí, it was recorded as inhabiting cloud forests at 1,350-1,800 m. More recent observations on Auyán-tepuí have been at c.1,500-1,700 m in forested and more scrubby areas (Barrowclough et al. 1997).
100060022		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common at high elevations on Auyan-Tepui and probably more numerous than the small number of record suggest in other parts of its range (Hilty 2003).
100060022		threats	eng	Fire, subsistence agriculture and hunting may present some threat (D. Ascanio in litt. 2007).
100060023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060024		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100060025		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060026		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable tropical dry forest. Assess extent to which the species can tolerate habitat degradation. Effectively protect known sites. Develop awareness-raising campaigns aimed at reducing hunting. <p></p>
100060026		distribution	eng	<em>Crypturellus transfasciatus</em><strong> </strong>occurs in arid regions of west <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (on the Pacific slope to Lambayeque) at elevations up to 1,500 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Best and Clarke 1991, Best and Kessler 1995, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Clements and Shany 2001). It is relatively common in suitable habitat<strong> </strong>(Parker and Carr 1992, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995, Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999), with the population in the Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) estimated to be in the thousands<strong> </strong>(Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100060026		habitat	eng	Although a specialist of tropical dry forest (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1982),<strong></strong> it appears tolerant of a certain level of habitat degradation<strong> </strong>(Best 1992). Generally, it keeps to denser undergrowth where it forages in the leaf-litter<strong> </strong>(Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999, Clements and Shany 2001). <p></p>
100060026		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060026		threats	eng	The principal threats are widespread deforestation throughout its range, understorey degradation by grazing goats and cattle, and hunting for food<strong> </strong>(Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999). <p></p>
100060027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060028		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100060029		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Darién National Park, Panama, and Ensenada de Utría National Park, Colombia, are important areas<strong> </strong>(Porteous and Acevedo 1996). Los Katíos National Park, Colombia, protects c.720 km<sup>2</sup> of apparently suitable habitat in the Chocó region, but the species has yet to be recorded in the reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas between known localities where feasible (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Study the ecology to provide an improved understanding of its status and distribution. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce hunting pressure. Grant the species legal protection in Colombia and Panama.  <p></p>
100060029		distribution	eng	<em>Crypturellus kerriae</em> is a poorly-known species occurring in the southern part of Darién province, <strong>Panama</strong>, and Chocó department, <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has rarely been recorded, and only a small number of sites are known. The population size is unknown, but it is heard regularly near Cana, Serranía de Pirre, Panama<strong></strong> (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998, B. Porteous <em>in litt</em>. 1999, C.J. Sharpe, pers comm. 2011) and Ensenada de Utría National Park, Colombia, with 10-15 birds heard from 3 km of trails in the latter (Porteous and Acevedo 1996)<strong></strong>. There were single records of individuals in the Serranía de Jungurundó, Panama in 1995 and 1997<strong> </strong>(Angehr <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><p></p>
100060029		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid primary forest. The known sites include steep coastal forest in west Colombia<strong> </strong>(Porteous and Acevedo 1996), and from humid premontane forest at 500m at Cana, Darién (C.J. Sharpe, pers comm. 2011), up to ridge-top forest at 1,400-1,500&#160;m in Panama<strong> </strong>(Robbins <em>et al.</em> 1985), with other records at intermediate altitudes.<p></p>
100060029		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100060029		threats	eng	Vast areas of seemingly suitable habitat remain, but road construction, human settlement, timber extraction and mining are causing gradual reductions. The recent completion of a new road-bridge has made unprotected areas of coastal plain forest adjacent to Ensenada de Utría National Park accessible to settlement and associated threats (Strewe 1999). The Atrato valley, Colombia, is relatively accessible and, if the species occurs there, that population would probably be the most threatened owing to human settlement, and conversion to farmland and banana plantations (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It is presumably hunted wherever humans are present. The completion of the Pan-American highway through Darién and the canalisation of the Truandó and lower Atrato rivers, to make an inter-oceanic fairway, are currently on hold, but could have serious effects on the species<strong> </strong>(Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994, WWF and IUCN 1997, B. Porteous <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<br/><p></p>
100060033		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100060033		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crypturellus duidae</span> is a little-known species occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. It exists in two disjunct populations. The population in east-central Colombia is uncommon to very rare;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>that in south Venezuela can be locally abundant (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
100060033		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dense tropical rainforest, as well as in open woodland. It is known from up to 200 m in Venezuela and up to 500 m in Colombia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060033		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are known.
100060033		threats	eng	Accelerating deforestation rates in the Amazon provide the major threat within its restricted range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The species is also susceptible to hunting and trapping (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
100060034		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect remaining habitat. Raise awareness about the species's rarity and encourage local people to reduce hunting pressure. Continue monitoring populations and assess the impacts of hunting. <p></p>
100060034		distribution	eng	<em>Crypterellus noctivagus</em> is rare to locally common in the caatinga and Atlantic forests of east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The nominate race occurs from south Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul, with an apparent stronghold in south São Paulo and east Paraná<strong> </strong>(Aleixo and Galetti 1997). It is now restricted to only a few Atlantic forest sites<strong> </strong>(Cabot 1992), but appears to have always been scarce or rare in the south of its range<strong></strong> (Hellmayr 1929, Belton 1984<strong></strong>). The race <em>zabele</em> occurs from Minas Gerais (common in the north according to G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999<strong></strong>) to Piauí and Pernambuco<strong> </strong>(Sick 1993).<em> <p></p></em>
100060034		habitat	eng	It occurs in caatinga and Atlantic forest, particularly remnant lowland forest from 0-300 m. It can apparently survive in degraded and secondary forest.  <p></p>
100060034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060034		threats	eng	It suffers from widespread and continuing habitat destruction and hunting pressure throughout its range, but can survive in degraded and secondary forest<strong> </strong>(Aleixo and Galetti 1997). <p></p>
100060035		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
100060035		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crypturellus atrocapillus</span> is a little-known species of western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> and north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060035		habitat	eng	The species occurs in deciduous tropical forest as well as "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest). It is also known from secondary forest, in areas with shrubs and grasses (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100060035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060035		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
100060036		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060040		population	eng	Next to nothing is known about the species's population size, although it is described as locally frequent.
100060041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060043		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been surveys of its high-altitude habitats, and measures have been proposed for their conservation<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). It has been found in Ampay Forest National Sanctuary<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996), and the recent Bolivian records were in Apolobamba National Integrated Management Reserve<strong> </strong>(Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2001, Vogel 2002). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey appropriate habitat near the historical Junín locality and the humid slope/dry basin transition zone around the "Río Mantaro bend" (Junín, Huancavelica and Ayacucho)<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). Surveys for the species on semi-humid slopes at the treeline ecotone in western Bolivia<strong> </strong>(Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2001). Research the species's ecological requirements, including the effects of burning of high elevation pastures<strong></strong> (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2001). Regulate the use of fire<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Reintroduce old high-yielding agricultural techniques<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Restrict grazing<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Facilitate low-impact ecotourism and associated trades that generate income for local people<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Make social and political reforms to deal with existing land-right conflicts, and encourage sustainable use on a large-scale<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
100060043		distribution	eng	<em>Nothoprocta taczanowskii</em> is uncommon and probably local on the eastern massifs of the Andes (in the upper parts of deep valleys intersecting the Cordillera Oriental and in intermontane basins in the Cordillera Central) in <strong>Peru</strong>, and the adjacent La Paz department, <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2001). In Peru, there are recent records from several sites in Apurímac, Cuzco and Puno<strong> </strong>(Clements and Shany 2001), but it has not been recorded in the Chincheros/Pampa Valley area, north-west Apurímac, since 1970. The Cordillera de Huanzo, southern Apurímac, has produced only one specimen (collected in 1977) and those from the northern Cordillera de Carabaya, Cuzco, were taken in 1871. It has been recorded from the Maraynioc area, Junín, but there have probably not been any surveys since the last records in 1939<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). The species was recorded for the first time in Bolivia in 1999, when one male was collected and three to four juveniles observed in Apolobamba National Integrated Management Reserve, La Paz<strong></strong> (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2001). Three further records were obtained at an additional locality within the reserve in 2000<strong></strong> (Vogel 2002).<em> <p></p></em>
100060043		habitat	eng	It inhabits mosaics of cloud forest (<em>Podocarpus, Eugenia, Escallonia, Polylepis</em>), scrub, pastures, fields, open rocky or grassy areas, mainly in humid or semi-humid montane areas, but has also been recorded at or just above the treeline<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Scrub or woodland habitats are probably a requisite<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007), and it probably does not nest in cultivated or pastoral land. Its known elevational range is 2,700-4,000 m. It frequently feeds on tuber crops, especially potatoes. Eggs and chicks have been collected in April and May (Junín) and October (Puno) (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).<br/><p></p>
100060043		population	eng	The species is described as uncommon, with a population estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100060043		threats	eng	Temperate woodlands and shrubby grasslands in the Andes have been diminishing for centuries because of human activities, such as frequent burning of grassland, and cutting, burning and livestock-grazing in high-altitude copses and shrubby patches<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). It is also hunted for food.<strong></strong><p></p>
100060045		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060046		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060048		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060049		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060051		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
100060052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060053		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Brasília, Emas, Serra da Canastra (Silveira 1998) and Chapada dos Veadeiros<strong></strong> (L. F. Silveira <em> in litt.</em> 1999, 2007) National Parks, IBGE Roncador Biological Reserve and Itapetininga Experimental Station. It is protected under Paraguayan law, being considered Critically Endangered at the national level (H. del Castillo <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Its occurs in one patch of <span style="font-style: italic;">cerrado</span>, the IBA Laguna Blanca, in San Pedro department, in low numbers on private properties (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat in Serra do Cipó and Chapada dos Veadeiros National Parks, using tape-playback<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira <em> in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). Identify unprotected areas of suitable habitat in north and west Minas Gerais and Goiás and survey for this and other threatened Cerrado species<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira <em> in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). Conduct surveys in remaining areas of suitable habitat in north-eastern Paraguay to clarify status and range. Investigate habitat requirements and ecology<strong></strong> (L. F. Silveira <em> in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). Purchase and protect occupied areas of unprotected habitat. &#160;Review the plans for the expansion of farming within the Reserva Natural Privada Laguna Blanca and secure other private properties inside the Cerrado de Laguna Blanca IBA, Paraguay (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
100060053		distribution	eng	<em>Nothura minor</em> has been recently recorded from very few sites over a large range in south-central <strong>Brazil</strong>, and one site, recently discovered in north-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2004.). There are post-1980 records from Brasília, Emas and Serra da Canastra National Parks (Distrito Federal, Goiás and Minas Gerais) (Silveira 1998), IBGE Roncador Biological Reserve and Taguatinga (both Distrito Federal)<strong> </strong>(Silveira and Silveira 1998), Itapetininga Experimental Station and Itirapina Experimental Station (both São Paulo; it has not been recorded subsequently at Itirapina<strong>) </strong>(L. F. Silveira <em> in litt.</em> 1999, 2007), and a 1970s record from Luziânia (Goías). In Paraguay, the species was discovered in November 2001 at Laguna Blanca, San Pedro department, and subsequent surveys have revealed a minimum of 14 calling birds in three different areas (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2004, H. del Castillo <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong></strong>. Even at these known sites, it occurs at relatively low densities (e.g. three calling birds in c.20 ha in Brasília National Park) and is absent from much apparently suitable habitat. There are no recent records from Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul or a number of sites in the states mentioned above, indicating a potentially large contraction in range.<em> <p></p></em>
100060053		habitat	eng	In Brazil it favours 'campo limpo' grassland at 700-1,000 m  (Parker<em> et al.</em> 1996, L. F. Silveira <em> in litt.</em> 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>although the Paraguayan site is considerably lower (about 200 m a.s.l.), generally preferring scrubbier areas (campo sujo) than <em>N. maculosa</em>. It appears to prefer areas with a continuous cover of tall grasses and sedges, and has not been seen in recently burnt vegetation. Breeding is probably October-February.<br/><p></p>
100060053		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100060053		threats	eng	Suitable grasslands have been rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation with non-native trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span>, planting of exotic grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong> </strong>(Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997, H. del Castillo <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007). By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered<strong> </strong>(Conservation International 1999), with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong> </strong>(Cavalcanti 1999). In Paraguay, the Reserva Natural Privada Laguna Blanca, San Pedro is failing to protect the species since its natural grasslands are being converted to pastures with exotic grass species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>plantations. The population of this species has reduced to a few calling birds in a neighboring property which is now a <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>plantation (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Most of the known population is now in protected areas, and it is extremely rare outside them (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
100060054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060055		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from a number of protected areas (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), including Serra da Canastra National Park, Itapetininga Experimental Station and the IBGE Roncador Biological Reserve. Several areas adjacent to the río Bermejo, Argentina, have been surveyed with the aid of tape-playback, but the species has not been found<strong> </strong>(J. C. Chebez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999, J. Mazar Barnett <em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Serra do Cipó, Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas national parks specifically for this species with the aid of tape-playback (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2007). Conduct further surveys in Argentina and Paraguay in the areas where it was collected<strong> </strong>(M. Pearman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Assess abundance in protected areas. Assess precise ecological requirements. Determine best management practices for existing protected areas. Control the burning of cerrado habitats<strong> </strong>(Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998). Consider captive breeding and reintroduction at suitable sites (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
100060055		distribution	eng	<em>Taoniscus nanus</em> is currently restricted to the "cerrado" (tropical savanna) of central and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> in Distrito Federal, Goiás, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, Tocantin<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>, São Paulo and formerly Paraná (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In 2008, it was found in relatively degraded but extensive cerrado south of Araguainha, Mato Grosso (Kirwan 2009). A specimen is known from Misiones, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>, and two were taken in <strong>Argentina</strong> in the early 1900s<strong> </strong>(M. Pearman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999), from near the río Bermejo in either Chaco or Formosa, but there have been no further records from the country. Recent records are few and scattered, but up to four calling birds have been found in c.2 ha<strong></strong> (Silveira and Silveira 1998) and, with knowledge of its voice, it may prove to be more widespread.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
100060055		habitat	eng	It inhabits "campo sujo" (shrubby fields) and <strong></strong>  "campo limpo" (clean grass fields) with scattered shrubs (Silveira and Silveira 1998). The specimens from Paraguay and Argentina were collected in scrub grasslands<strong> </strong>(M. Pearman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). It has been reported taking invertebrate prey, including termites, and feeding on Graminae seeds<strong></strong>. A pair in captivity laid three eggs<strong></strong> (Silveira and Silveira 1998). <p></p>
100060055		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100060055		threats	eng	High-quality cerrado grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong></strong> (Stotz <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997). By 1993, two-thirds of the cerrado had been heavily or moderately altered<strong></strong> (Conservation International 1999), with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong> </strong>(Cavalcanti 1999). Since the species can only cover c.50 m in flight<strong></strong> (Silveira and Silveira 1998), it is presumably susceptible to fast-moving fires, and is unlikely to disperse between isolated habitat fragments. <p></p>
100060056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060058		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060060		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100060061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060062		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060063		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060064		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant populations occur in Machalilla National Park (Guayas/Manabí) and the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve (Tumbes and Piura), but these are affected by illegal settling, hunting, livestock-grazing and habitat clearance (Parker and Carr 1992). Several other protected areas in Ecuador hold populations<strong> </strong>(Parker and Carr 1992, Best and Kessler 1995, <strong></strong>Pople <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997, <strong></strong>Barrio and Begazo 1998, <strong></strong>Isherwood and Willis 1998, <strong></strong><strong></strong>J. F. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, and it may occur in the lower parts of the Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007) and the large Chongón-Colonche Protection Forest, which is the nucleus of a reforestation project (E. Horstman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). A breeding programme is being carried out by Crax Peru at a breeding centre in Olmos<strong> </strong>(V. R. Díaz Montes <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations. Research and manage limiting factors. Conduct research into its biology (Strahl <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1994). Map the forest patches of the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche to identify further sites for protection (E. Horstman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). Improve the effectiveness of protected areas in west Ecuador (Parker and Carr 1992). Designate the Awá Reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the río Santiago, Cayapas, Onzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (Jahn in press, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Consolidate protection of the Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonisation inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in its buffer zone (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Increase effective protection (improving capacity and infrastructure) throughout the Northwestern Peru Biosphere Reserve (encompassing Amotapes National Park and El Angolo Hunting Reserve<strong></strong>). Reintroduce the species at suitable sites (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Initiate an education programme for communities adjoining Northwestern Peru Biosphere Reserve<strong></strong>. Continue the captive breeding programme<strong> </strong>(V. R. Díaz Montes <em>in litt.</em> 2007).   <p></p>
100060064		distribution	eng	<em>Ortalis erythroptera</em> is largely confined to the Tumbesian region of west <strong>Ecuador</strong>, in Esmeraldas, Manabí, Guayas, Los Ríos, Chimborazo, Azuay<strong> </strong>(P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1998), El Oro and Loja; extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, in Tumbes and Piura<strong> </strong>(Barrio and Begazo 1998), and extreme south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, in Nariño (Strewe 2001). In the last decade, a new population was discovered in humid and wet areas of eastern Esmeraldas, mostly along the major river systems where forest cover is severely fragmented (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007<strong>,</strong> P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). At this moment, it is unclear whether this population was previously overlooked or if it represents a recent expansion of the species's range. Although it is possible that the chachalaca temporarily benefits from forest fragmentation in that area, deforestation rates in Esmeraldas are so high that almost total deforestation might occur within one or two decades (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007<strong></strong>).<br/><p></p>
100060064		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry, deciduous woodland, lowland riparian forest, humid lowland forest, lower montane cloud-forest, forest edge, degraded forest habitats, scrub, and occasionally agricultural land at elevations up to 1,850 m, although there are few recent Peruvian records below 1,000 m<strong> </strong>(Pople <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997, <strong></strong>Barrio and Begazo 1998, Isherwood and Willis 1998, Strewe 2001). It has been observed eating leaves, coffee berries and banana fruits<strong> </strong>(Isherwood and Willis 1998, Barrio and Díaz 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is supposedly monogamous and breeding probably occurs during the wet season (between December and May). Clutch sizes average three chicks (Barrio and Díaz 2006).<br/><p></p>
100060064		population	eng	A new population has been discovered in eastern Esmeraldas, Ecuador, which, judging by the area of potentially available habitat, may hold one of the world's largest subpopulations. However, population densities are usually low, and the population there is currently estimated at only 500-1,000 birds (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Its historical range to the south is now extremely fragmented, with viable populations restricted to only a few locations and probably maintaining less than 5,000 individuals. The population is thought to be best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, based on density estimates and the species's Extent of Occurrence. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100060064		threats	eng	In west Ecuador, forest cover below 900 m was reduced from 63% (of 1938 cover) in 1958, to less than 8% in 1988 (Dodson and Gentry 1991). In higher parts of its range, deforestation has been slower, and a greater proportion of forest remains<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Best and Kessler 1995, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). In Esmeraldas, annual deforestation rates of lowland evergreen forest were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest 38% in the last decade (Cárdenas 2007). The Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve is increasingly affected by illegal logging, hunting, and other activities (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007<strong></strong>). Colonisation and land development are progressing through infrastructural improvement, particularly the expansion of road networks, and in turn are increasing the impact of logging, cattle-ranching, oil palm planting, and in drier areas also understorey-grazing by goats and cattle<strong> </strong>(Best and Kessler 1995, Jahn in press, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Continuing habitat loss will soon remove almost all remaining unprotected forest if effective action is not taken urgently<strong> </strong>(Best and Kessler 1995, Jahn in press, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Degradation of forest fragments through intensive grazing perhaps explains the paucity of recent records at low elevations in Peru. It is hunted in Ecuador and Peru, even within designated protected areas in the latter (Barrio and Begazo 1998, F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
100060065		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A new Biosphere Reserve, Chamela-Cuixmala (covering 131 km²), was decreed in 1994 to help safeguard dry forest habitats (Stattersfield et al. 1998).<strong></strong>
100060065		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south Sonora, Sinaloa, north-west Durango, west Nayarit and north-west Jalisco, in north-west Mexico (Sibley and Monroe 1990).
100060065		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of habitats, included some severely altered by humans (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It is most common in tropical dry deciduous thorn forest, but also occurs in semi-deciduous forest, secondary growth, palm plantations and dense mangroves (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Stattersfield et al. 1998). Although seldom found at elevations above 1,300 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994), it occasionally occurs at up to 2,000 m. In south Sinaloa nesting apparently peaks in June, with laying also in May and July. One nest was 1 m above ground in a small spiny tree c.3-5 m tall, and three eggs are usually laid. It feeds on the fruits of trees (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060065		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100060065		threats	eng	Much of the west Mexican coastal plain is densely populated and consequently its lower elevational dry forests have been heavily degraded and fragmented (Strahl et al. 1994, Stattersfield et al. 1998). However, its tolerance of a variety of habitats (including those that have been degraded) suggests that it is not of immediate conservation concern (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It is also hunted for food (Strahl et al. 1994), a threat that is presumably compounded by the continued fragmentation of its habitat. The dry forests of western Mexico have been largely ignored as a key habitat for biodiversity conservation, with no comprehensive plan to conserve them (Ceballos and García 1995). There are few protected areas within its range.
100060066		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100060067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060068		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100060069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).  </P>
100060070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060071		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known sites and monitor population trends. <p></p>
100060071		distribution	eng	<em>Ortalis superciliaris</em> is found in north-east Pará, north Tocantins, Maranhão and west Piauí, south of the Amazon in north <strong>Brazil</strong><strong> </strong>(del Hoyo 1994,  Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994, Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is relatively common around Belém (Pará), where it occurs in secondary forest, eucalyptus and palm oil plantations (A. Lees and L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011), and in heavily disturbed gallery forest along the <span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps">Araguaia and Tocantins rivers, northern Tocantins (T. Dornas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It is not commonly sought by poachers due to its small size, and the level of deforestation around Paragominas has probably increased the amount of suitable habitat for the species (A. Lees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, L. F. Silveira and T. Dornas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Given its very large range, the total population is thus suspected to be much larger than previously suspected.<br/><em> <p></p></em></span>
100060071		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland deciduous forest, humid forest edge and scrub thickets. Breeding is from December-February. <p></p>
100060071		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 100,000 mature individuals, given its extensive range.
100060071		threats	eng	<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"> It is not  commonly sought by poachers due to its small size, and occurs in secondary forest, eucalyptus and palm oil plantations, and in the matrix of selectively logged gallery forest and pasture, therefore is not thought to be subject to any significant threats.<span id="result_box" class="" lang="en"><span class="hps"><p></p></span></span>
100060072		distribution	eng	This taxon comprises three subspecies, two of which are restricted to single mountain ranges (Strahl et al. 1994). The nominate race is uncommon to fairly common in north Colombia, although there are few recent records (P. G. W. Salaman in litt. 1999), and north and west Venezuela. This subspecies has a population of less than 50,000 individuals, divided into several subpopulations, of which at least two are declining (Hilty and Brown 1986, Strahl et al. 1994, Strahl and Silva 1997). The race albicauda has a population of less than 10,000 individuals in the Sierra de Perijá in north-east Colombia and north-west Venezuela (Strahl et al. 1994). The race colombiana also has a population of less than 10,000 individuals and occurs in the Santa Marta mountains, north Colombia (Strahl et al. 1994).
100060072		habitat	eng	The species primarily inhabits dense montane evergreen forest in subtropical and upper tropical zones, often nesting in Rubraceae tree species, but is occasionally observed in tall secondary growth, coffee plantations and the upper edges of drier forest, at elevations of 800-2,400 m, and locally from 350-3,050 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060072		population	eng	Strahl et al. (1994)
100060072		threats	eng	Populations in the Sierra de Perijá in north-east Colombia and north-west Venezuela (race albicauda) are threatened through deforested for cattle-ranching and narcotics cultivation (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Populations in the Santa Marta mountains, north Colombia (race colombiana) are threatened by agricultural expansion, logging, burning, illegal agriculture and retaliatory herbicide spraying by the government (Dinerstein et al. 1995, Stattersfield et al. 1998). Most subpopulations are threatened by hunting for food and habitat loss, with the nominate race hunted for sport, despite virtually all occurring within national parks or forest preserves (Strahl et al. 1994, Strahl and Silva 1997). Only 15% of the sierra's original vegetation remains unaltered, suggesting that the formal designation of protected areas has not provided effective protection (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
100060073		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law in Peru and Ecuador.<strong> </strong>It is protected within Podocarpus National Park, Tapichalaca Reserve, Huashapamba Forest Reserve, Bosque Protector Colambo-Yacuri<strong></strong><strong></strong> and Angashcola Community Reserve in Ecuador<strong></strong><strong></strong>; and Laquipampa Wildlife refuge (ex-Zona Reservada)<strong> </strong>(J. Flanagan <em>in litt.</em> 2001, F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary, Piura/Cajamarca (J. P. O'Neill <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong> and Bosque de Protección Pagaibamba<strong> </strong>(F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007) in Peru. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research habitat requirements and basic natural history (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Encourage the protection of more forested areas in the Andes of southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Support the establishment of private reserves like Tapichalaca. Ensure adequate protection of Podocarpus National Park and increase capacity and infrastructure for park staff.  Support the reserves of Angashcola and Huashapamba (Ecuador), expand protected habitat network in montane areas of Lambayeque, Piura and Cajamarca, including the "Cerro Chinguela" area.  Implement proposals that help support communities to establish private reserves, such as the reserve at "Bosque de Cuyas".  Ayabaca and increase capacity and infrastructure for Park Staff at Laquipampa (Peru)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>. Determine the effect of hunting on the population (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Campaigns to stop hunting (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).   Conduct educational campaigns highlighting the importance of the species for montane forests and produce a participative conservation strategy for the species, search for further sites where the species can be found and estimate its density<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   <p><br/></p>  <p></p>
100060073		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope barbata</em> has a relatively restricted range in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Azuay, El Oro, Loja) and northwest <strong>Peru</strong> in Piura (Huancabamba, Ayabaca, including Aypate, El Toldo, Bosque de Cuyas and Cerro Huamingas, Maray<strong></strong><strong> </strong>[Flanagan <em>et al.</em> 2000] and Cerro Chinguela<strong> </strong>[Begazo and Valqui 2000]), Lambayeque (Laquipampa Wildlife refuge<strong> </strong><strong></strong>[Angulo and Aleman 2006]) and Cajamarca (Saña valley, Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary [Amanzo <em>et al. </em>2003]) departments.   (Piura, Lambayeque, Cajamarca, Ayabaca, Huancabamba and Ferrenafe). Suitable habitat within its range is estimated at 2,637 km<sup>2</sup> in Ecuador<strong> </strong>(Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 1998), and probably a larger area in Peru. In 1989, the population in Ecuador was estimated at c.3,000 individuals (1,000-6,000) occurring at c.2-4 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, although surveys have produced much higher density estimates in the Cordillera de Chilla<strong> </strong>(Jacobs and Walker 1999), and recently at two sites in Loja province where 33 birds/km<sup>2</sup> were recorded at Cajanuma (a relatively well-protected area) and 17 birds/km<sup>2</sup> were estimated at Curishiro (a mining area)<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Medina <em>et al. </em>1994). Montane forest in Podocarpus National Park possibly holds up to 1,000 pairs<strong> </strong>(I. Franke <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Since 1989, other populations have been found in Ecuador, notably on Lomo Angashcola, Loma del Oro, Mamanunga and Santiago; Loja<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Best <em>et al.</em> 1996,<strong> </strong>Flanagan <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Peru the species it is relatively common in the upper Saña valley, Cajamarca<strong> </strong>(I. Franke <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and has recently been discovered at several sites in Ayabaca and Cajamarca<strong> </strong>(J. P. O'Neill <em>in litt</em>. 1999).    It has also been found in “La Palizada” at 3100 m in upper Chancay Valley and in several localities along the east side of the western cordillera in Lambayeque and Cajamarca, between Kañaris and Boque de Proteccion Pagaibamba (F. Angulo<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
100060073		habitat	eng	This large frugivore inhabits humid montane forest and cloud-forest at 1,500-3,200 m, and regularly to 1,200 m in Lambayeque. It is usually seen in pairs, or small groups of up to six. Its breeding ecology is poorly known, but adults with chicks have been recorded in February<strong></strong><strong></strong>-July (Angulo and Aleman 2006), and juveniles have been observed on May, June and August in Bosque de Cuyas, Ayabaca<strong> </strong>(N. Krabbe <em>in litt. </em>2007). A nest found in Laquipampa was situated in gallery forest in a tree c3 m above ground<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007).  It feeds on many plant species, especially <em>Ficus spp. </em>on Laquipampa<strong> </strong>(F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007) and a recent study found that its diet consists largely of fruits from the families Lauraceae (39%), Myrtaceae (20.3%) and Meliaceae (14%)<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Gomez 2006).<br/><p></p>
100060073		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100060073		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation due to clearance for pasture, agriculture and increased mining activity, both legal and illegal. Legal mining is particularly a threat in Peru, with many concessions having been granted throughout the species range. Several of these legal concessions will impact protected areas including Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary.  Within Podocarpus National Park illegal gold mining and forest clearance by colonists take place within the park boundary, although large areas of undisturbed forest remain<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995). Hunting may be a threat in key areas such as Loma Angashcola and Podocarpus National Park<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995), and in Peru (feathers of two hunted birds were found at Salas in 2004<strong> </strong>[F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007]) .  The expansion of mining in the region and the creation of new roads improve access and may locally increase hunting<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  Habitat destruction is also fragmenting the species range and promoting long-term isolation of small, non-viable populations. <p></p>
100060074		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Esmeraldas) (Jahn and Mena 2002, O. Jahn&#160; <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, Awacachi Corridor (Esmeraldas) (P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, Canandé Reserve (Esmeraldas)  (Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<strong></strong>, Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest (Pichincha)<strong> </strong>(Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), Farallones de Cali (Valle de Cauca) and Ensenada de Utría (Chocó) National Parks<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Velasco-Abad 1997, B. López-Lanús <em>in litt</em>. 2000<strong></strong>), and in the small El Pangán Nature Reserve (Nariño)<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Historical specimens from the vicinity of Munchique National Park, Colombia, suggest that fieldwork at appropriate altitudes would probably find the species<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador the species is protected by law (Jahn and Mena 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement population monitoring programs<strong> </strong>(Jahn and Mena 2002). Survey appropriate habitats, especially in poorly-known areas. Extend and improve the network of protected areas in Nariño and Esmeraldas<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Salaman 1994,<strong></strong> Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, Sharpe 1999, Jahn and Mena 2002, Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Designate the Awá reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (Jahn and Mena 2002, Jahn in press)<strong></strong>. Sustainably manage the buffer zones of the Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Jahn and Mena 2002, Jahn in press)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100060074		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope ortoni</em> has been recorded locally along the west Andean foothills and slopes throughout west <strong>Colombia</strong> and in <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south to Naranjal, Guayas (Vaurie 1968, Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong></strong>, and possibly to Buenaventura, El Oro<strong></strong> (P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998). In Colombia, recent reports are from Chocó <strong></strong>(B. López-Lanús <em>in litt</em>. 2000), Valle del Cauca (N. Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, A. Cortés <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>E. Fierro <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and Nariño<strong> </strong>(Hellmayr and Conover 1942<strong>, </strong>Salaman and Giles 1995)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador, there are no confirmed recent records south of Pichincha, where it occurs in the Mindo-Nambillo area, but the majority of modern records are from Esmeraldas (Best <em>et al</em>. 1996,<strong> </strong>Velasco-Abad 1997, Sharpe 1999, Jahn and Mena 2002, Jahn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Jahn in press, Jahn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press<strong></strong>). Its range and population have undoubtedly contracted greatly.<br/><p></p>
100060074		habitat	eng	It inhabits early to late successional stage humid and wet forest from the tropical to the temperate zone, mostly between 70-1,500m (Hellmayr and Conover 1942, Delacour and Amadon 1973, Hilty and Brown 1986, Jahn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, with wanderers recorded up to 3,100 m  (Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, O. Jahn&#160; <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Esmeraldas and Azuay, it has been recorded on the coastal plain and in rolling lowland hills, but only near the base of the Andes (Delacour and Amadon 1973<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span> (Hellmayr and Conover 1942, Paynter 1993, Jahn 2001, Jahn in press)<strong></strong>. However, due to hunting pressure it is now usually restricted to steep slopes adjacent to level ground and mountain ridges  (Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, O. Jahn&#160; <em>in litt.</em> 2007,<strong></strong> P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The guan's daily activities include all forest strata  (Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, O. Jahn&#160; <em>in litt.</em> 2007,<strong></strong> P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>: at dawn it vocalizes and performs courtship displays from the canopy; around noon it tends to stay at medium levels, hiding from predators such as eagles, and it feeds on fruits and seeds from the ground level up to the canopy. Breeding pairs are territorial, and post-breeding birds live in family groups, usually numbering around four individuals, exceptionally more<strong></strong> (Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Available data suggest this species breeds between July and September, with the clutch numbering two eggs<strong> </strong>(Haffer 1968, Salaman 1994, Salaman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Jahn and Mena 2002, Jahn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Jahn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). <p></p>
100060074		population	eng	The Ecuadorian population was estimated at 2,500-7,500 mature individuals in 2002. On the basis of extensive visual and auditory transect-mapping samples (1997-2006) in Esmeraldas, Ecuador, extrapolated global population size was estimated at 7,000-21,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 10,000-32,000 individuals in total. In remote premontane forest, about 0.5-1.5 territories were counted per transect kilometre. However, the species is usually extirpated within about 2-5km around human settlements (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Transects in Ensenada de Utria in 2010 estimated a total density of 0.56 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> (O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
100060074		threats	eng	This species is extremely sensitive to habitat modification and hunting (Jahn 2001, P. Salaman<em> in litt. </em>2003<strong></strong>, O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It usually does not flee if approached by humans, making it an easy bag for hunters (Jahn and Mena 2002)<strong></strong>. Large parts of its range have long since been deforested and plans to colonise and develop more remote regions are progressing through the rapid expansion of the road network (Dodson and Gentry 1991<strong>, </strong>Salaman 1994, Salaman and Stiles 1996, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Jahn in press)<strong></strong>. Colonisation is in turn increasing the impact of small-scale agriculture, illegal coca plantations, selective logging, hunting for food and gold mining<strong> </strong>(Salaman 1994<strong>, </strong>Salaman and Giles 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996, <strong></strong> WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, which is already affecting some key protected areas (Jahn and Mena 2002, Idrobo-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Jahn in press, O. Jahn&#160; <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  Industrial-scale logging and intensive agriculture, especially oil palm and banana plantations and cattle-farming are major threats<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Salaman 1994, Salaman and Stiles 1996, P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998<strong></strong>, Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sharpe 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000), and have already transformed over 90% of the Ecuadorian landscape below 900 m (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Large tracts of its western Ecuadorian range are being purchased from local communities, denuded of forest and converted to industrial oil palm plantations (Sharpe 1999). New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong> </strong>(Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong>,</strong><strong></strong> P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). The construction of pipelines and hydroelectric dams is also a potential threat<strong> </strong>(E. Gallo-Cajiao <em>in litt. </em>2007). Despite the existence of protected areas within its range, some threats may operate even inside of such areas and their buffer zones (Jahn and Mena 2002)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100060075		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060076		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060077		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060078		distribution	eng	This species is found in the East Andes of south Bolivia (south Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija) and north-west Argentina (Jujuy and Salta) (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1994, Strahl et al. 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). Recent surveys estimated the population in Montes Chapeados, Chuquisaca, at 6,000 adults, with a similar sized population projected to occur in the Río Pilcomayo area, Chuquisaca (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996). Other large populations occur east of Padilla, Chuquisaca, and in Serranía Iñao, and a population was recently discovered in south Santa Cruz, extending its known range northwards (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996). In Argentina, it is locally common in Calilegua National Park, Jujuy, and Baritú National Park, Salta (Chebez et al. 1998), and intermediate records indicate these populations are possibly connected.
100060078		habitat	eng	The species is found in large tracts of montane evergreen forest. It is particularly associated with forests of Alnus, Tabebuia and Podocarpus, at 1,500-2,500 m, and occasionally 800-2,700 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Strahl et al. 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996, Rocha and Quiroga 1996, J. Mazar Barnett in litt. 1999).
100060078		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common in Argentina. The population in Chuquisaca, Bolivia, is estimated as 3,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060078		threats	eng	The species is primarily threatened by hunting for food, especially outside protected areas (Strahl et al. 1994). In Argentina it suffers from the fragmentation of its habitat, with as much as 60% of Argentinian yungas forest having disappeared by the 1970s (Vervoorst 1979, Strahl et al. 1994), largely as a result of logging, conversion to agriculture and plantations of exotic pines Pinus. Road building and human colonisation have further increased habitat destruction (WWF/IUCN 1997), and a new road between Santa Victoria and Baritú, Salta, is likely to increase hunting pressure (J. Mazar Barnett in litt. 1999). A considerable reduction in its habitat has been reported in Tarija and Chuquisaca, and habitat destruction and hunting pressures appear to be quite high in Alnus-Podocarpus forests throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). However, large populations in Jujuy and Chuquisaca are considerably less threatened, owing to their inaccessibility and isolation (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060079		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100060080		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Ucumarí is contiguous with Los Nevados National Park, and it also occurs in the adjacent Otún-Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary (Renjifo 1997-1998). Yotoco and Bremen (Quindío) Forest Reserves hold small populations (Renjifo 1997-1998). It has not been found in Munchique area since its detection just outside the national park (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and estimate population sizes, especially in Ucumarí (Silva Arias 1996, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000<strong></strong>). Develop and implement an action plan for the species and its habitat<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(N. Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Provide posters and resources for an educational programme about cracids, particularly aimed at limiting hunting (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). <p></p>
100060080		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope perspicax</em> occurs on the west slopes of the West and Central Andes (Risaralda, Quindío, Valle del Cauca and Cauca), <strong>Colombia</strong>. Its current distribution is only 5% of its former range (Kattan <em>et al</em>. 2006). It was formerly considered mostly an east slope species in the West Andes (Hilty and Brown 1986), but the only records on this slope are apparently from Yotoco Forest Reserve (Silva Arias 1996)<strong></strong> and Río Lima (both near low passes in Valle del Cauca), the south-east slope of Cerro Munchique, Cauca, and possibly those collected above Patía, Cauca, and at Clementina (an untraced locality). There are recent records from just four confirmed areas: Otún-Quindío , La Sirena, Yotoco and Chorro de Plata (Kattan <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Otún-Quindío Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, together with the Ucumarí Regional Park, constitute the global stronghold for the species, with the largest cluster of habitat blocks (Renjifo 1997-1998, Kattan <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is thought that historical factors or other non-autecological mechanisms (e.g. competition with other Penelopinae species) explain its restricted occurrence (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p>
100060080		habitat	eng	At 1,600-2,150&#160;m, it appears mostly dependent on large, humid, primary forest fragments (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000), but most recent records at 900-1,600&#160;m have been from plantations of exotic broadleaf trees, secondary forest and forest edge (Silva Arias 1996). Breeding has been recorded in forest borders, mature secondary forest and in a <em>Pinus</em> plantation, and, in the north of its range, coincides with rainy periods of the year, September-October and February-March (Silva Arias 1996). The Cauca Guan is a generalist in habitat, diet and nest placement (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has a generalist frugivorous diet consisting of a wide variety of fruits, as well as insects, foliage and flowers. During periods of low fruit availability, guans relied on the young leaves of the exotic Chinese Ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus chinensis</span>, congregating in large groups of up to 30 individuals during November and December (Muñoz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This artificial habitat was used by guans for more than a quarter of the year (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p>
100060080		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
100060080		threats	eng	It has suffered from severe loss of suitable habitat (almost total in the middle Cauca valley) over the period of human colonisation. Many of the localities, at least historical ones, are near the Buenaventura-Buga and Buenaventura-Cali roads, and are thus severely threatened by colonisation and associated deforestation (Salaman and Stiles 1996). Munchique National Park is subject to the same threats, as well as dam construction. The species is also hunted for food, even in some protected areas, although apparently not in Ucumarí (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). If it does occur in the relatively intact forests of the Pacific slope of Valle del Cauca and Cauca, then logging is a key threat (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). It is not clear which factors limit the distribution and population of this species but habitat fragmentation and hunting are likely to be the major threats (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<p></p>
100060081		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Surveys have been conducted over a wide area of north-west Peru<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Díaz-Montes and del Solar-Rojas 1997). <strong></strong> The species and its habitat are legally protected in the Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge, which was established specifically to protect the guan, and supports 22 individuals as well as 8 re-introduced adults, four of which have bred, and the species appears to be reasonably secure at this site (Angulo <em>verbally to the Neotropical Ornithological Congress</em> 2007<strong></strong>, F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). The Chaparri Private Conservation Area nominated by Santa Catalina village community also supports a successfully reintroduced population, with c.54 individuals currently present, including 9 breeding pairs (F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). There has been a training workshop for park guards involving members of the Laquipampa and Santa Catalina communities (Flanagan and Williams 2001).  Reintroductions have contributed c.50 individuals to the current wild population, with successful breeding by captive-raised parents recorded<strong></strong> (Angulo 2004<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Angulo <em>verbally to the Neotropical Ornithological Congress</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Efforts are continuing to identify additional sites across its former range to host reintroductions. El Angolo Hunting Reserve was identified in 2004 as a suitable reintroduction site capable of holding c.6 pairs owing to its favourable protection status and floristic composition (Angulo and Barrio 2004). It lies near the centre of the guan's projected former range (Angulo and Barrio 2004). An education/awareness raising campaign has been designed and was implemented in 2008, with a further awareness campaign planned for 2010 (F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010, BirdLife International, unpublished data). Local people provide a level of protection for a site known as 'Limon', stimulated by ecotourism, which holds 25 individuals. A local NGO is working towards formal protection for the site (F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). There are formal proposals to create a protected area in the northern part of its range (F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor natural and reintroduced populations<strong> </strong>(Pautrat <em>et al.</em> 2000). Continue and expand local awareness campaigns (Ortiz-Tejada and O'Neill 1997,&#160;<strong></strong>Pautrat <em>et al.</em> 2000, Flanagan and Williams 2001)<strong></strong>. Improve <em>de facto</em> protection of Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge (Flanagan and Williams 2001). Continue to develop the potential for ecotourism&#160;<strong> </strong>(Pautrat <em>et al.</em> 2000, Flanagan and Williams 2001)<strong></strong>. Asses the genetic status of the species. Create a protected area north of the species's known distribution<strong></strong> (Angulo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Prepare a national conservation strategy<strong></strong> (Angulo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Involve local communities in the conservation strategy for the species<strong></strong> (Angulo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Establish the identity of the isolated population of guans in the upper Marañon valley (Mark 2011). <p></p>
100060081		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope albipennis</em> survives in Lambayeque, Piura<strong> </strong>(Díaz-Montes and del Solar-Rojas 1997) <strong></strong> and Cajamarca departments in north-west <strong>Peru</strong>. Historically, the species was probably well distributed across the Tumbesian dry forest (Angulo and Barrio 2004). Recent surveys have found guans in 22 localities in a band 200 km long with an average of 1 individual/10 km<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Díaz-Montes and del Solar-Rojas 1997, Angulo <em>verbally to the Neotropical Ornithological Congress</em> 2007). It was initially discovered in Tumbes in 1876, but there have been no subsequent records<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Díaz-Montes and del Solar-Rojas 1997, J. Flanagan <em>in litt.</em> 2000). An isolated population of "a guan with white in its wings" exists in the upper Marañon valley (Mark 2011). The population is estimated to number 150-250 individuals, comprising of a northern and southern population separated by up to 30 km<strong></strong> (Angulo 2008, F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). A captive-breeding programme is underway, comprising 70 birds in 2007 (F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). Individuals have been reintroduced to several areas, however a population of c.50 individuals in the Chaparri Private Conservation Area may not be sustainable as it occurs in habitat which may not be suitable for the species, thus the population may require ongoing management to survive (Alcalde <em>et al.</em> 2009, F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><br/><br/><p></p>
100060081		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry wooded slopes and ravines at elevations of 300-1,300 m, and may have formerly occurred in lowland carob (<em>Prosopis </em>spp.) forest. It favours valleys with small permanent streams or waterholes, and dry deciduous forest with dense cover and little human disturbance. Some seasonal movements appear to take place, but the exact nature of these is unclear<strong></strong> (Ortiz-Tejada and Díaz-Montes 1997). It feeds on fruit, flowers, leaves, buds and seeds. It has also been observed in agricultural land, feeding on the leaves of maize, beans and sweet potatoes, and the fruit of coffee plants<strong></strong> (Ortiz-Tejada and Díaz-Montes 1997). <em>Eriotheca ruizii </em>has been identified as a key plant species for foraging and cover, present at the majority of sites that hold the guan<strong></strong> (Servan and Angulo 2006). Breeding occurs in January-August, and two or three eggs are laid<strong></strong> (Ortiz-Tejada and Díaz-Montes 1997).<br/><p></p>
100060081		population	eng	The number of birds recorded in 2008 was 135 individuals. However the complete range was not surveyed, and not all birds will have been counted. A recent estimate places the population nearer to 250 individuals (F. Angulo <em>in litt.</em> 2010) hence a population of 150-249 individuals, roughly equivalent to 100-170 mature individuals, seems appropriate.
100060081		threats	eng	It declined partly as a result of overhunting, which remains a threat<strong></strong> (Angulo 2008) and has hampered reintroduction efforts. Habitat destruction, through clearance for agriculture and cutting for timber, artisanal woodcrafts, charcoal and firewood, is another serious threat, but the species seems to tolerate some habitat modification<strong></strong> (Angulo <em>verbally to the Neotropical Ornithological Congress</em> 2007, Angulo 2008)<strong></strong>. Mining concessions were granted in the northern part of the species's range in 2008. Should minerals be found and exploited suitable habitat will no doubt be destroyed (F. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). <p></p>
100060082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060083		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060084		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Amazônia (Tapajós) National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Organise campaigns to raise awareness and reduce hunting and trapping for trade. Effectively protect Amazônia (Tapajós) National Park and designate further protected areas within its lowland forest range. Monitor population trends at known sites. <p></p>
100060084		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope pileata</em> occurs exclusively in dense lowland humid forest south of the Amazon, from lower rio Madeira to the rio Xingú (Gorotire and Altamira), as far as east Pará (Ourém and Serra dos Carajas) and Maranhão (rio Grajaú, and the Mearim-Pindare river system), in north-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Sick 1993, Roth 1997, J. F. Pacheco <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Surveys in the late 1980s and early 1990s almost doubled the known range of this species, and it is relatively common in Amazônia (Tapajós) National Park, but scarce around Santarém, Pará<strong> </strong>(Sick 1993, del Hoyo 1994, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. However, the total population is not considered to be large, and forest destruction has been fairly widespread, especially in Maranhão and Pará (Cleary 1991, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100060084		habitat	eng	It is apparently restricted to dense lowland forest. <p></p>
100060084		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
100060084		threats	eng	Forest destruction has been fairly widespread, especially in Maranhão and Pará (Cleary 1991, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999), as conversion to pasture and settlement of landless agriculturists are part of government-sponsored land reform<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and is expected to accelerate as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). There are additional pressures from hunting for food and its status as a prized aviary bird (Delacour and Amadon 1973, Sick 1993, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).<p></p>
100060085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and has been recorded around the periphery of Pantanal National Park and Araguaia National Park. It is found in Cantão State Park and is fully protected within the SESC Pantanal Private Natural Heritage Reserve (P. de T. Z. Antas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the species's current range and ascertain its occurrence in Araguaia National Park, where there has not been comprehensive recent work and there is a record of an unidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Penelope</span> species dating from the late 1990s. Protect populations in Poconé from further habitat loss. Consider the development of sustainable forestry practices to supply materials for bridge repairs on the Transpantaneira road. Encourage sustainable forestry practices among the cattle-grazing community. Support the proposal for a national park in the Rio Paraguaizinho Basin (P. de T. Z. Antas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160; <p></p>
100060085		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope ochrogaster</em> occurs in the "cerrado" (tropical savanna) and northern Pantanal of <strong>Brazil</strong> (P. de T. Z. Antas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There are three disjunct populations, one occurring in the Pantanal, another in central Brazil and the third along the São Francisco River (Antas 2006). The largest population is that in the Pantanal (P. de T. Z. Antas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There had been no records from the São Francisco River since 1913, until the species was observed twice on one of its tributaries in a 1998-2007 survey (Faria <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is moderately common in Poconé, Mato Grosso, including the SESC Pantanal Private Natural Heritage Reserve (P. de T. Z. Antas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012); along the Araguaia north of Ilha do Bananal, and along the Paranã, Tocantins (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007), where it has been rediscovered within the Cantão State Park. However, the extraordinary paucity of historical and recent records suggests that elsewhere it is highly localised. Moreover, the concentration of recent records suggests that it may have been extirpated throughout much of its formerly large range.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100060085		habitat	eng	In the north Pantanal, it inhabits "cordilheira" (high-ground) forest, and particularly semi-deciduous gallery forest with a continuous canopy of 15-20&#160;m. These forests are rich in woody lianas (mainly Sapindaceae and Bignoniaceae) along the edges, with a relatively open undergrowth except for occasional dense patches of terrestrial bromeliads. It presumably feeds mostly on fruit, but during the dry season (between May and September) is possibly heavily dependent on the flowers of <em>Tabebuia </em>trees (Olmos 1998).<br/><p></p>
100060085		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
100060085		threats	eng	Habitat loss for new cattle pastures and small-scale agriculture is the major threat in Poconé, where hunting is rare or non-existent. <em>Tabebuia</em> trees are cut to rebuild bridges along the Transpantaneira road each year after the floods (Olmos 1998). Elsewhere, it has presumably suffered from massive habitat loss and hunting for food. Large areas of central Brazil have been converted to plantations of eucalyptus, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>. Much of this destruction has occurred since 1950, and has been encouraged by government land reform initiatives<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Parker and Willis 1997).<strong></strong><p></p>
100060086		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent records from a number of protected areas including Raso da Catarina Ecological Station (Bahia),  Serra da Capivara National Park (Piauí), Serra das Confusões National Park, Sete Cidades National Park, Parque Ambiental de Teresina and Pernambuco (Serra Negra Biological Reserve [Roda and Carlos 2004], Mauricio Dantas Private Reserve).  In Ceará state it has recently been found at a site in Itapagé municipality where a private reserve is being created<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  An action plan being developed by IBAMA for Cracidae will include this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Conduct research into the extent and level of hunting pressure on the species. Develop and implement an action plan for the species and its habitat. Improve <em>de facto</em> protection of protected areas within its range. Initiate local awareness campaigns to combat hunting in protected areas. <p></p>
100060086		distribution	eng	<em>Penelope jacucaca</em> is a <span style="font-style: italic;">caatinga </span>endemic confined to Piauí, Ceará, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Bahia and north-east Minas Gerais, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong><strong></strong> (Sick 1993, G. M Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2000). There are apparently three distinct subpopulations: south of the rio São Francisco; north-east of the rio São Francisco; and south-east Piauí to west Ceará<strong></strong> (Sick 1993<em></em>). There are recent records from north-western Minas Gerais (Mocambinho<strong> </strong>[Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 2001], Jatobá<strong> </strong>[Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 2004], Lagoa dos Patos [de Vasconcelos 2006]), Bahia (Raso da Catarina Ecological Station [P. Lima <em>in litt. </em>2003], Curaçá [Freitas and Barros 2002], Chapada Diamantina [Parrini et al. 1999]) and southern Piauí (Serra de Uruçuí<strong></strong> [Santos (2001a], Serra da Capivara National Park [Olmos 1993], Serra das Confusões National Park<strong></strong> [L. F. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>2003], Sete Cidades National Park<strong> </strong>[Santos 2001b], Parque Ambiental de Teresina [Rodrigues and Santos 2001]), Pernambuco (Serra Negra Biological Reserve [Roda and Carlos 2004], Mauricio Dantas Private Reserve [Farias <em>et al.</em> 2001]<strong></strong>) and <span class="tl"><span class="l">Ceará (in the Itapagé municipality<strong> </strong>[P. Develey <em>in litt.</em> 2007] and </span>Serra de Baturité [Roberto Otoch <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>D. Willis <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009]<span class="tl">). There are no recent records from near coastal areas of Alagoas or Paraíba, as claimed in the past, and the species is considered extinct there.<p></p></span>
100060086		habitat	eng	It is a poorly known and scarce resident of dry, lowland stunted forest and caatinga (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994, <strong></strong>Sick 1993).<p></p>
100060086		population	eng	Delacour & Amadon (2004) estimated the population size to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, thus the population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded to 3,500-15,000 individuals here.
100060086		threats	eng	North-eastern Brazil is the poorest region in the country and has a strong hunting culture. This large and attractive species is considered either locally extinct or very rare over much of its distribution and is under intensive pressure from hunting even in "protected" areas. Additionally, both Raso da Catarina and Serra Negra are intensively exploited by Indian groups, who have also cut much of the latter forest<strong> </strong>(Santos 2001b). Degradation of dry forests and arboreal caatinga, apparently its favoured habitats, has also been intensive.  <p></p>
100060087		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It has been legally protected since 1963. There were conservation and education campaigns in the 1980s, but new initiatives in 1997-1998 appear to be finally changing attitudes (F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008<strong></strong>, S. Poon <em>in litt.</em> 1998). Much of the present range is within forest reserves and state forests, but the laws protecting both species and areas are generally not enforced. Matura National Park protects a large area of suitable forest but there is limited law enforcement at the site. There are plans to use radio-telemetry to learn more about the species' biology<strong> </strong>(R. Ffrench <em>in litt.</em> 1998, F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008), and genetic studies are ongoing<strong></strong> (Naranjit 2010). Species-specific ecotourism is having a positive effect in the Grande Riviere, providing financial support for local communities and developing a sense of collective responsibility<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (R. Ffrench <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. A recent questionnaire survey supported the idea that ecotourism was boosting awareness and attitudes towards conserving wildlife, although hunting behaviour remains unchanged (Waylen <em>et al.</em> 2009). The Pawi Study Group may begin a captive breeding programme in the future (S. Poon <em>in litt.</em> 1998). A two-year field study of the ecology and behaviour of the species was recently completed<strong></strong> (Naranjit 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of historic occurrence to determine its status in these areas. Monitor the population in areas of known occupancy. Determine ecological requirements and breeding biology. Enforce the protection of current forest reserves. Formally establish the Matura National Park. Develop further education/public awareness campaigns, in particular working with hunters, to ensure the success of site protection. Study its ecological requirements using radio telemetry. Investigate the potential risk to the remaining population from disease/parasites<strong> </strong>(Hirschfeld 2008). Assess feasibility of captive breeding and begin a programme  if appropriate<strong> </strong>(Hirschfeld 2008). <p></p>
100060087		distribution	eng	<em>Pipile pipile</em> is endemic to Trinidad (<strong>Trinidad and Tobago</strong>), where it was once abundant throughout the Northern Range and the southern Trinity Hills, and also occurred in lowland areas such as the Nariva Swamp and Aripo Savannas<strong></strong>. It is now extinct in the lowlands, and almost certainly extinct in the Trinity Hills (surveys have failed to find the species since 1994, although there is one credible report from Victoria Mayaro reserve in 2000) and the western end of the Northern Range, east to the Arima-Blanchisseuse road<strong></strong>. The only extant population is in the eastern portion of the Northern Range, where 150-350 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat remains. The population is estimated at 77-231 individuals and unlikely to exceed 200 in total (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><p></p>
100060087		habitat	eng	It feeds in the canopy of remote lower and upper montane rainforest, preferring steep, hilly areas with numerous streams, sparse ground-cover, a closed canopy and abundant lianas and epiphytes (F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008), and is known from elevations of 10-925 m<strong></strong> (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 2009, F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008). It is known from secondary vegetation and cultivated land near to primary forest, and formerly occurred in semi-evergreen forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (R. Ffrench <em>in litt.</em> 1998, F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008); it seems to tolerate humans as long as canopy trees are available and it is not hunted (F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008). The species can thrive when hunting pressure is reduced and canopy trees are left intact within small-scale agricultural plantations: these are the two main requisites for conservation (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 2009). Very little is known about its breeding, but breeding seems to take place in most months and two eggs are laid. It feeds mainly on fruits, but also eats flowers and leaves (F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008).<br/><p></p>
100060087		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 70-200 individuals, though it is probably closer to the higher end of this estimate (R. Ffrench <em>in litt.</em> 1998, F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998,<em></em> 1999) and so is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
100060087		threats	eng	Illegal hunting and, to a lesser extent, habitat destruction through timber extraction and conversion to plantation agriculture are the chief causes of this species's decline (F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2008). The threat from hunting in Grande Riviere remains despite ecotourism boosting general awareness for conservation issues (Waylen <em>et al.</em> 2009). It does not appear to be overly susceptible to human disturbance <em>per se</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Alexander 2002, Hayes <em>et al.</em> 2009). <br/><p></p>
100060088		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.</p>
100060088		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pipile cumanensis</span> has a wide range in northern South America. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cumanensis</span> occupies the northern part of its range. It was considered not uncommon in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>in 1968 (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994), and is still locally abundant there and in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>(Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2006), but in <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> it is rare and very local. Its abundance is described as local in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and Amazonas, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>the taxon was estimated to occur at densities of over 20 birds/km<sup>2 </sup>in its preferred habitat in 1994 (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1994), but is now considered uncommon (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, it remains common in the south, but is rare and in some danger of local extinction in the north-east. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, the taxon is common in north Roraima, but it is scarce around cities (Tefé, Manaus) and there have been no recent records from the state of Amapá.<span class="st"><em></em><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. Subspecies grayi occurs in south-east Peru, Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay </span>and south-west Brazil, where it is common across the Pantanal region of south Mato Grosso (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1994)<span class="st">.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span class="st"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span></span></span>
100060088		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both terra firme (without flooding) and várzea (seasonally flooded) tropical rainforest types, as well as semi-deciduous forest, gallery forest and cerrado (dry savanna woodland). It reaches coastal lowlands in the north of its range. A strong preference is noted for strips of forest within 100 m of rivers, both in Amazonia and French Guiana, although it appears to mainly occur on the wooded slopes of conical hills in Paraguay. It has been recorded up to 500 m in Colombia, 1,000 m in Venezuela and over 2,000 m in Bolivia; the latter is likely to refer to birds searching for fruiting trees. Palm fruits are its preferred food, and it is also known to feed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Tababuia </span>flowers, figs and snails. The species generally breeds during the rainy season, starting in August and September in Peru, with eggs having been found in February and May in Colombia. Its nest is built of twigs in dense canopy vegetation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100060088		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Ecuador and southern Peru to rare in French Guiana and north-eastern Peru (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060088		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is a projected acceleration in Amazonian deforestation rates (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), with habitat having been historically deforested for agriculture within its range. It is hunted both locally and commercially for food (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994), increasing its vulnerability to future decline (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). In Brazil, proposed changes to the Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
100060089		distribution	eng	This taxon occurs as two subspecies: the nominate race in north-central Brazil, south of the Rio Amazon from the lower Rio Madeira to north Pará; and the race nattereri in south and west Amazonia and Mato Grosso, west Brazil, to the border with Bolivia. The nominate race is fairly common in Amazônia National Park, Amazonas, and in parts of Rondônia, but has not been recorded around Belém and Santerém since at least 1960. The race nattereri is fairly common to uncommon in north Mato Grosso and probably throughout most of its range.
100060089		habitat	eng	The species inhabits river-edge and lowland evergreen forest. Flocks of up to 30 have been recorded, but no information on diet or breeding is available.
100060089		population	eng	The two subspecies have populations of less than 5,000 individuals (nominate) and 10,000-20,000 individuals (nattereri) (Strahl et al. 1994). The population thus totals 15,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 10,000-17,000 mature individuals.
100060089		threats	eng	The species is threatened by hunting for food, human interference and disturbance, and habitat loss. Although deforestation has been largely restricted to highway corridors in Amazonia, this has impacted severely on the habitat of this species in Mato Grosso and Rondônia. Almost a quarter of the land mass of these two states had been cleared by 1988, principally due to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining, hydroelectric development and urban growth (Cleary 1991, del Hoyo et al. 1994, Strahl et al. 1994, Stotz et al. 1996).
100060090		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in Intervales State Park and surrounding reserves (Galetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997a), Serra do Tabuleiro State Park (Brazil) (do Rosário 1996), Iguazú National Park, Urugua-í Provincial Park (Bodrati and Cockle 2006), Esmeralda Provincial Park, Caa Yarí Provincial Park, Moconá Provincial Park, and Yabotí Biosphere Reserve (Argentina) (Cockle and Bodrati 2011), and Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve (Paraguay) (Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). There are several captive-breeding programmes (Taibel, undated, L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). A management plan for the species is being developed in the San Rafael Reserve (López <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species is included in the conservation education program of Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná in Argentina.<strong></strong> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Increase staffing and mobility of park rangers to improve patrols of all areas with existing populations (Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, Cockle and Bodrati 2011). Survey Sierra Morena, Arroyo Piray Miní, Arroyos Alegría y Piray Guazú, Valle del Cuña Pirú (Argentina) (Cockle and Bodrati 2011), Limoy Biological Reserve, the Sierra de San Joaquín, and forests in San Pedro department (Paraguay) (Clay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in press). Monitor populations in the Serra do Mar and Mbaracayú. Ensure protection of key areas in the Serra do Mar (Galetti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997a). Ensure legal protection of Establecimiento San Jorge (Misiones, Argentina) (Bodrati and Cockle 2006). Enforce anti-poaching measures (Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press), especially along the western edge of the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve, which forms part of the border between Argentina and Brazil (Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Bodrati and Cockle 2006). Expand awareness campaigns. Purchase unprotected land within the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve (Cockle and Bodrati 2011).<br/><p></p>
100060090		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Pipile jacutinga</span> populations have declined very steeply in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span>, and virtually to extinction in the north and south of its range. Most remaining populations are concentrated in Misiones, Argentina; and São Paulo and Paraná (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997a, Guix 1997), Brazil, with some in Santa Catarina, Brazil (do Rosário 1996). Since 2000, the species has been recorded at 18 localities in Argentina and currently has two strongholds: the Iguazú-Urugua-í complex (especially Establecimiento San Jorge) and Yabotí Biosphere Reserve (especially Esmeralda Provincial Park), where birds can be observed daily (Cockle and Bodrati 2011). Although numbers remain relatively high in Argentina, the species has disappeared from southern Misiones, and from nearly all sites without frequent patrols by park rangers (Bodrati and Cockle 2006, Cockle and Bodrati 2011). It is extinct in Corrientes. In São Paulo, it is thinly scattered over the eastern mountains of Serra do Mar, and its stronghold lies in the contiguous Intervales, Carlos Botelho and Alto Ribeira State Parks (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Bernardo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011), where the population is estimated at over 2,000 individuals (Sánchez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). A recent study in São Paulo estimated the highest densities (13 individuals / km<sup>2</sup>) in Ilhabela State Park, compared to zero to 4.4 individuals / km<sup>2 </sup>in different parts of the Paranacicaba massif, and zero to 0.5 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> in different parts of the Serra do Mar massif (Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The species was thought to be extirpated from Ilha do Cardoso (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997), but a population was recently rediscovered with an estimated density of 3 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> (Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Isolated populations may remain in Minas Gerais where there are old records from Rio Doce State Park (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007), but there are no post-1979 records from Bahia, Espírito Santo or Rio de Janeiro. A small population has recently been found in 17,491 ha Turvo State Park, Rio Grande do Sul (Bencke and Mauricio 2002), which is contiguous with the 253,000 ha Yabotí Biosphere Reserve in Argentina. It was widespread in Paraguay, but the population is now estimated at 870-1,515 birds, with c.600 at Mbaracayú and the remainder at seven additional sites (Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). In San Rafael National Park, for example, it was not detected during extensive ornithological surveys between 2000 and 2006 (Esquivel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and indigenous people indicated that the species had declined rapidly in recent years (Lopez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
100060090		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland humid forest (in Argentina it is more common in riverine forest (Benstead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Bodrati and Cockle 2006) but, in Brazil, it occurs in coastal mountains to 900 m (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997a, Guix 1997), perhaps with some altitudinal and latitudinal movements (Sick 1993). It inhabits both primary forest and disturbed forest, and has been recorded in selectively logged forest, young forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia </span>spp., and a monoculture of Pinus (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997a, Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Cockle and Bodrati 2011). A strong association with the forest palm <span style="font-style: italic;">Euterpe edulis</span> has been postulated but, in São Paulo, it feeds on the fruit of 41 species (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997a) and both in Brazil and in Argentina it occurs where <span style="font-style: italic;">E. edulis</span> is absent (Galetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997a, Bodrati and Cockle 2006, J. C. Chebez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999, Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press) (in fact <span style="font-style: italic;">E. edulis</span> is absent in most of its range in Argentina). In Paraguay, the palm <span style="font-style: italic;">Syagrus romanzoffiana</span> may form a seasonal staple (Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). In Misiones, birds have been observed feeding on flowers and fruits of many trees and vines (A. Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007), and they may supplement their diet by feeding on invertebrates along watercourses (Benstead and Hearn 1994).<br/><p></p>
100060090		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals in total, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100060090		threats	eng	The main immediate threat is hunting, followed by forest clearance (Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Cockle and Bodrati 2011). In Misiones (Argentina) and eastern Paraguay, its meat is the most prized among the game birds. Its unwary behaviour makes it an easy target for hunters, leading to its rapid extirpation from areas without effective protection from poaching. In São Paulo, hunting, continued dam construction and conversion to plantation agriculture have brought it to the brink of extinction<strong> </strong>(Galetti <em>et al.</em> 1997a). At Tabuleiro State Park, Santa Catarina, poaching levels are extremely high (Tomim-Borges <em>et al.</em> 2001). Intervales State Park has been invaded by Mbyá Indians who hunt and have cleared primary forest formerly used by guans (Olmos <em>et al.</em> 2001). Other localities such as Serra do Mar and Ilhabela state parks suffer from increased poaching because of the dwindling number of park guards (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003). In Paraguay, populations are isolated and easily hunted because there are few park rangers. In Argentina, the species is threatened by poachers in all areas not patrolled frequently by park rangers, even in parks<strong> </strong>(Bodrati and Cockle 2006). In particular, the population in the Yaboti Biosphere Reserve is threatened by poachers from adjacent Brazil and Argentina<strong></strong> (Bodrati <em>et al</em>. 2005).   <p></p>
100060091		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain basic ecological information such as habitat use and requirements, home range size, population dynamics and seasonal movements (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Determine population status (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Assess the impact of fragmentation on populations (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Control hunting more effectively (Rios <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Organise campaigns to raise awareness and reduce hunting for food and sport (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Monitor population trends at known sites. Consider establishing captive breeding programmes (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p>
100060091		distribution	eng	<em>Aburria aburri</em> is found on the slopes of the north and central Andes, from north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (where it is now very rare<strong> </strong>[Silva 1999]) through <strong>Colombia</strong> (locally common but generally scarce) and <strong>Ecuador</strong> to southern <strong>Peru</strong> (del Hoyo 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Donegan<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em><strong> </strong>2001); it is almost certainly extinct on the west slope of the Andes (del Hoyo 1994<strong>, </strong>Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994). In most areas it is described by local hunters as extremely rare (Strahl and Brooks 2000). Its range has decreased by 50% in Venezuela (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), and perhaps even more in Colombia where 70% of its habitat has been lost <strong></strong>(Ríos <em>et al</em>. 2006).<em> <p></p></em>
100060091		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet montane forest, forest edge and and tall secondary growth adjacent to primary forest, and has been recorded at elevations of 500-2,500 m. It may undertake some seasonal altitudinal movements, but the exact nature of these is still unclear (del Hoyo 1994). It feeds on fruit, usually in pairs or groups of three. An estimate of 0.87 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in 489 ha of the Central Cordillera of Colombia in 2002-2003<strong> </strong>(Ríos <em>et al</em>. 2005) suggests the species occurs at low population densities.<br/><p></p>
100060091		population	eng	The population was estimated to number 12,500-15,000 individuals in 1994, and has presumably declined since. It is now estimated at 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals.
100060091		threats	eng	Deforestation has been most prevalent in the Andes within this altitudinal range. Habitat destruction, mainly through clearance for agriculture, remains the major threat (del Hoyo 1994), but its noisy habits and tendency to stay high in the branches make it particularly vulnerable to hunting for food and sport (del Hoyo 1994, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994). In Venezuela hunting is the main threat and it is only relatively  frequent in remote, newly-opened forests in regions like Perijá (Sharpe,  pers. comm. 2011). In parts of Colombia hunting restrictions enforced by guerrilla groups, and the use of land mines in forested areas, provide a certain amount of protection<strong> </strong>(Donegan<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em><strong> </strong>2001). In addition to hunting, logging is a major threat in Ecuador<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> and Peru </strong>(Ríos <em>et al</em>. 2006).<p></p>
100060092		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in numerous protected areas, including private reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Assess whether hunting is still a serious threat, and in which areas it is most severe. Protect remaining substantial tracts of cloud forest. Encourage the restoration of cloud forests, especially to link remaining fragments.  <p></p>
100060092		distribution	eng	<em>Chamaepetes unicolor</em> is rare to locally fairly common throughout the highlands of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and in Chiriquí, Bocas del Toro, Veraguas (Calovévora and Sante Fe) and west Coclé, west <strong>Panama</strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989). It is common (estimated density of 7.4 birds/km<sup>2</sup>) in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, Costa Rica (D. Brooks <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and large areas of suitable habitat are protected in La Amistad International Park and the Cordillera de Guanacaste (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). This suggests that the 1994 population estimate of 800-1,000 birds in Costa Rica (Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994) is too low. In Panama, it was reported as locally common in the 1930s, uncommon and local in 1971 (del Hoyo 1994)<strong></strong>, and rare to locally fairly common (e.g. in Fortuna Forest Reserve) in the 1980s (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). The species was found to be fairly common at Cerro Pena Blanca, west of El Cope, in 2001 (G. Angehr <em>in litt.</em> 2005). <p></p>
100060092		habitat	eng	This frugivore inhabits montane cloud forest, preferring steep terrain with ridges and ravines (Wheelwright <em>et al.</em> 1984, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989). It typically occurs at elevations of 900-2,250 m but has been recorded to 450 m (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). In Panama, young birds have been seen in February and June, and pairing has been observed to begin in March in Costa Rica, with both very young chicks and almost full-grown young seen in July (del Hoyo 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays 2-3 eggs (del Hoyo 1994)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100060092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060092		threats	eng	This species is much hunted for food (del Hoyo 1994)<strong></strong>. Highland forests have suffered burning, logging and conversion to intensive agriculture (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in east Chiriquí only isolated patches of forest remain above 1,000 m (W. J. Adsett <em>in litt.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the extent of fragmentation is less than in lowland areas and, where not hunted for food, it persists in forest edge and secondary growth adjacent to undisturbed forest (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Panama a belt of nearly continuous forest remains along the cordillera from the Costa Rican border to just east of El Cope, although continuity may be lost in future. <p></p>
100060093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060094		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>At several private reserves in Guatemala, the species's stronghold, habitat is protected and hunting is prevented<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Alta Verapaz, fire-protection zones adjacent to primary cloud forest were established by planting fruit trees, reducing the risk of forest fires from corn plots (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Short-term habitat protection is achieved by providing incentives for forest conservation and reforestation (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Hunting of the guan is prohibited by law in Mexico, Guatemala and El Salvador<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006, O. Komar<em> in litt</em>. 2007, K. Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the rates of habitat loss and degradation. Model population trends using data from habitat trends. Carry out research into whether the species is, in part, an altitudinal migrant (Eisermann 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect remaining forest habitat in existing reserves and by establishing new ones. Encourage local people to exploit sustainable alternative food sources. Promote habitat restoration both within and outside reserves across the species's range (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve the management of protected areas (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
100060094		distribution	eng	<em>Penelopina nigra</em> inhabits wet premontane and montane broad-leaved forests of subtropical and temperate zones on Pacific and Caribbean slopes of south <strong>Mexico</strong> (uncommon and local<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> [</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006], but moderate numbers in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve [Gómez de Silva <em>et al.</em> 1999]), <strong>Guatemala</strong> (still locally common), <strong>Honduras</strong>, north-central <strong>Nicaragua</strong> (uncommon and rather local in both) and <strong>El Salvador</strong> (local [Howell and Webb 1995a,&#160;del Hoyo 1994,&#160;Vannini and Rockstroh 1997, K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007])&#160;<strong></strong>. It can occur at densities of 30 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and is probably more common than sightings suggest (del Hoyo 1994, Vannini and Rockstroh 1997)<strong></strong>. Suitable habitat in Guatemala, the apparent global stronghold, has been reduced to under c.10,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which is less than half its original extent (Vannini and Rockstroh 1997). Since 1990, it has been confirmed from 53 sites throughout its range<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006). <p></p>
100060094		habitat	eng	It inhabits the most humid and densely forested slopes of Chiapas Montane Forest, Chimalapas Montane Forest, Central America Montane Forest and Central America Pine-Oak Forest<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006). Although it is mainly restricted to cloud forest and pine-oak forests, it has also been recorded in mature cypress plantations and low canopy secondary forest<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006). It forages singly, in pairs or small groups, often at twilight, on berries and other fruits&#160;from the upper forest canopy to the forest floor <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>K. Eisermann <em>in litt.</em> 2012).  <p></p>
100060094		population	eng	A recent extrapolation estimates that all remaining habitat could  support a total population of c. 91,000 individuals, although this  figure is declining rapidly and this trend is likely to continue (Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100060094		threats	eng	Habitat alteration and hunting pressure are the principal threats. The human population is growing rapidly within the species's range<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2006). Forest is cleared for agriculture, particularly coffee plantations and maize fields, but also for plantations of leather leaf ferns (<em>Rumohra adiantiformis</em>) and ponytail (<em>Beaucarnea</em> spp.) (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007), and to a lesser extent for mining (O. Komar<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, in Guatemala about 50% of the species range are used or planned for exploration and opencast mining (K. Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Climate change may threaten the species in the future (O. Komar<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, probably through altitudinal shifts in habitat.  <p></p>
100060095		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and legally protected in Mexico and Guatemala. In 2010 Mexico named the Horned Guan a one of the Conservation Priority Species (Semarnat 2011). An environmental education programme around El Triunfo has been in progress since 2010 (F. González-García <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The issues covered include strengthening local participation actions in the conservation of the Horned Guan,&#160;pasture management for local cattle ranchers and sustainable harvesting of dwarf 'shate' palm (F. González-García <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Another project at El Triunfo is concerned with the production of shade-grown coffee. Many coffee farmers are signing up for organic certification, with almost 121.4 km<sup>2</sup> (30,000 acres) within the reserve certified by 2004 (Streiffert 2004). In Guatemala, most sites with recent records have protected status (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  However, deficiencies in management that allow illegal hunting and  illegal logging within protected areas are a serious issue for the  species's conservation (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  It has also been stated that there may not be enough suitable habitat  incorporated in the national system of protected areas in Guatemala to  ensure its survival in these reserves (Cóbar Carranza and Rivas Romero  2006)<strong></strong>. In Guatemala, communities at Sibinal, San Marcos (Department of San Marcos) and Tecpán (Department of Chimaltenango), at known sites for the species, have formally designated their forests as Municipal Protected Areas (Anon. 2006, A. J. Cóbar Carranza<em> in litt</em>. 2007), and at least one of these has a reforestation programme (Anon. 2006)<strong></strong>. In Guatemala, Cerro Yaxcalamte, Cerro Cruz Maltín, Municipal Forest of San Marcos and Volcán de Tajumulco have been identified as potential areas for further studies and conservation measures (Cóbar Carranza and Rivas Romero 2006)<strong></strong>. Horned Guan is a 'flagship species' for the development of local tourism at several sites in Guatemala, fostering local interest and initiatives to protect guan habitat, at Atitlán volcano, San Pedro volcano, and in Sibinal (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 2002 a Population and Habitat Viability Analysis of the Horned Guan was held in Guatemala. This resulted in an action plan (CBSG, 2002) and the establishment of the International Committee for the Conservation of <em>Oreophasis derbianus</em> and its Habitat, which is active in Mexico and Guatemala, and has organised four symposiums in which advances in conservation have been presented and the action plan reviewed (J. Rivas<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Secaira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, J. Cornejo<em> in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The Cloud Ambassadors Program was established in 2007 by Africam Safari to support <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation efforts and create an international <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation network via the loaning of captive bred animals from Mexico (Cornejo 2008). The program manages a fund to support <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation projects (J. Cornejo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The captive husbandry of the species has improved in the last years (Cornejo 2008, Cornejo 2009). According to the international studbook of the species, at the end of 2010 the captive population &#160;numbered 88 individuals, held by eleven institutions in six countries (J. Cornejo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>An detailed conservation action plan for the species has been drawn up by the Mexican federal government (SEMARNAT 2011). Conduct surveys to obtain an estimate of local population densities and the total population size. Survey potential sites, especially in the Chimalapas area (F. González-García <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999)<strong></strong> and Honduras. Study the species's movements and role in seed dispersal (F. González-García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Conduct further research and conservation action in key areas in Guatemala (Cóbar Carranza and Rivas Romero 2006)<strong></strong>. In Guatemala, identify areas where reforestation with native species can be carried out (Cóbar Carranza and Rivas Romero 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Monitor local populations. Monitor rates of cloud-forest destruction and degradation in the species's range. Attempt to quantify the levels of hunting and trapping of this species. Create an international reserve at Volcán Tacaná. Enforce existing laws. Carry out research into its breeding biology using captive birds (Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Assess the impact of ecotourism on the species and its habitat (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Improve the managment of existing protected areas across the species's range. Designate further areas at keys sites and ensure effective management (A. J. Cóbar Carranza<em> in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
100060095		distribution	eng	<em>Oreophasis derbianus</em> occurs in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, <strong>Mexico</strong>, and throughout west-central <strong>Guatemala</strong>. In Mexico, there are recent records from El Triunfo, Cerro Venado, Cerro Cebu, Cerro Quetzal and Volcán Tacaná (Cerro Toquián Grande, Chiquihuite, Agua Caliente, Benito Juárez El Plan), and birds have been purportedly collected, and a tail feather found, in the Chimalapas area of Oaxaca  (J. Estudillo López <em>in litt</em>. 1994, González-García 1997, F. González-García <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Its occurrence in the Chimalapas, Oaxaca zone, has always been suspected, but never completely confirmed (F. González-García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Fieldwork in 2005 and interviews with local people at San Antonio and Benito Juarez in the municipalities of San Miguel and Santa María, Chimalapas, suggest the presence of the species (F. González-García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Verbal evidence suggests the Horned Guan is present in the areas known as Cordón El Retén y Sierra Tres Picos (González-García 2006). In Guatemala, it has been reported in at least 39 localities and its range has been estimated at 1,139.4 km<sup>2</sup> (Rivas Romero and Cóbar Carranza 2007). The most recent Guatemalan records are from Cerro Cruz Maltín, Huehuetenango (Cotí 2010) and Chuamazán, Totonicapán (J. L. López <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>A. J. Cobar<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012)<a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="http://birds.iucnsis.org/apps/org.iucn.sis.server/SIS/index.html#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>. It was found nesting at Volcán Atitlán in 2005, 2007 and 2011 (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and at Volcan Tolimán in 2000 (Méndez 2010).  In September 2007, two juveniles were observed at Volcán San Pedro, and in August 2009, another two juveniles were observed in Albores, Sierra de las Minas, confirming breeding at both sites (J. Rivas<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Quiñonez 2010). Fieldwork and interviews have recently identified new localities, including San Marcos and Sibinal in San Marcos department, and Chiantla and Santa Eulalia in Huehuetenango department (Anon. 2006<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Cóbar Carranza and Rivas Romero 2006). Local people report the species from Cerro Tecpán, Chimaltenango, and Cerro El Amay, Quiché (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, although specific surveys at the latter in 2008, 2010 and 2011 failed to find the species (P. Tanimoto <em>in litt</em>. 2008, Tanimoto 2008,  Eisermann &amp; Avendaño 2011, González Madrid 2011,  Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There are unconfirmed reports from Cerro Volcán Pacayita, Honduras. Unsuccessful searches for the species and interviews with local people in El Trifinio protected area suggest it is absent from this region and does not occur in Honduras (J. Rivas<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Numbers decreased severely during the 20th century and nowhere is it better than uncommon.<p></p>
100060095		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud-forest at 2,000-3,500 m in Guatemala, with exceptional low-elevation records down to 1,200-1,500 m (Escobar-Ortíz 1997, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>, and 1,400-2,700 m in Mexico. The lack of records from June-August at El Triunfo suggests that it may undertake some altitudinal migration (Gómez de Silva <em>et al</em>. 1999). Breeding generally occurs in January-June, when two eggs are laid (González-García 1995, González-García 2008)<strong></strong>. At Volcán Atitlán, a bird was found incubating in January 2005 on a nest that was apparently later predated, however an adult and immature were seen together there in November 2005 and January 2006. In November 2005, the immature bird was aged at 6-7 months, suggesting that hatching took place between early April and early May (Eisermann <em>et al.</em> 2007). At Volcán Tolimán two nests were found in March and April (Méndez 2010). Its diet comprises fruit, flowers and leaves (González-García 1994, González-García 2005, F. González-García<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Cóbar Carranza 2006, Rivas Romero and Cóbar Carranza 2008, Quiñonez &#160;2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and rarely invertebrates (González-García 1994)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100060095		population	eng	The population is thought to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, based on an estimate of 1,000 in late 1970s and more recent information that some areas such as El Triunfo may be secure and hold relatively high densities. The core of this biosphere reserve alone could hold a population of 2,475-3,685 birds, but the band of 1,000-2,499 individuals is precautionarily retained here. This estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. Population density estimates for El Triunfo are 2.6-5.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (González-García 1992, 1994), 4.5-7.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Gomez de Silva<em> et al.</em> 1999) and 3.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Abundis 2006), equivalent to a population of 2,475-3,685 birds for the core of the biosphere reserve (González-García 2005, SEMARNAT 2011). &#160;In Guatemala, at Volcán San Pedro the estimates are 10.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Rivas Romero and Cóbar Carranza 2008) and for Sierra de las Minas the estimates are 1.6 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>(Quiñonez 2010).  <p></p>
100060095		threats	eng	Since the 1960s, logging, firewood-gathering and agricultural expansion have caused extensive deforestation. Forest is presently threatened by clearance for subsistence agriculture, coffee plantations, selective logging and wood extraction (J. Rivas<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2009 a forest fire affected more than 330 hectares of cloud forest in Volcán Santo Tomás (A. J. Cóbar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The loss and degradation of cloud-forest has caused the disappearance of the species from Cuilco, San Sebastian Coatan and the municipal area of San Pedro Soloma, in Guatemala (Cóbar Carranza and Rivas Romero 2006)<strong></strong>. Areas of forest have been cleared for agriculture in the core and buffer zones of El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve (V. Emanuel <em>per </em>Streiffert 2004, F. González-García <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Forest patches along the Zunil-Retalhuleu road, Guatemala, may be threatened, as they fall within the optimum altitudinal band for coffee-growing (Brooks and Gee 2006)<strong></strong>. If it is an altitudinal migrant, it will have especially suffered from the replacement of lower montane forests with sun coffee. New roads are opening up areas for exploitation. Disturbance and forest degradation may be caused by roaming cattle (Andrle undated)<strong></strong>. Hunting is mostly for subsistence (González-García 1993, F. González-García <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999): live birds are no longer taken for trade and private collections (J. Cornejo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  The isolation of disjunct subpopulations makes this species especially vulnerable to further local extirpation (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
100060096		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100060097		conservation	eng	<p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.</p>
100060097		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mitu tomentosum </span>is endemic to north-central South America. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span> it is considered locally common (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006); it was observed frequently at the base of Cerro de la Neblina in 1991. However, it has not been recorded from adjacent Pico da Neblina National Park, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, since before 1960. Elsewhere in north-west Brazil it is fairly common in north Roraima and scarce around Manaus (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, it is reported to be locally abundant north of río Caquetá (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is uncommon and local in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>(Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is a known captive population in Mexico (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100060097		habitat	eng	This is a forest species, inhabiting humid "terra firme" (with no flooding) forest in Colombia as well as gallery forest in the southern "llanos" (plains) of Colombia and Venezuela, and "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest) where its range overlaps with Black Curassow <span style="font-style: italic;">Crax alector </span>(Hilty 2003). It is restricted to lowlands up to 500 m in Colombia and 600 m in Venezuela (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). Its diet consists of fruits and seeds, and occasionally small vertebrates or insects (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Breeding begins with the arrival of the rains, with the nest placed low in trees (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100060097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100060097		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is made additionally vulnerable as it is subject to significant hunting pressure (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).  <p>&#160;</p>
100060098		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-central Colombia, east Ecuador and north-east Peru (Strahl et al. 1994). There are few records from Colombia, although it is found regularly in areas well away from human settlements and is fairly common in Macarena National Park. It is present throughout Amazonian Ecuador but in low numbers: a density of 3.8 birds/km2 has been estimated in terre firme forest with low hunting pressure, whereas in forest with moderate hunting levels a density of only 1.6 birds/km2 was calculated. In Peru, it has declined around human settlements and is reported to be rare near Iquitos but fairly common in other areas (Ortiz-Tejada and O'Neill 1997). It is found in Macarena National Park, Colombia, and Yasuni National Park and Jatun Sacha Reserve, Ecuador.
100060098		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid terre firme forest, apparently avoiding flooded areas (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It is usually found in primary forest with flat or slightly undulating relief at elevations of up to 600 m in Colombia (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Hilty and Brown 1986). In a study in the Macarena Mountains birds associated in pairs all year round, and appeared to have overlapping home ranges with loose territoriality. Two eggs are laid (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It feeds mainly on fallen fruit and seeds, but apparently has a rather diverse diet (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060098		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be approaching 50,000 individuals (Strahl et al. 1994).
100060098		threats	eng	The species suffers from heavy hunting pressure, mainly for local food consumption, and has been recorded for sale at a market in Iquitos (Strahl et al. 1994, del Hoyo et al. 1994). Habitat destruction and fragmentation is only locally significant (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100060099		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600100		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. A private captive population, supplemented from the wild, was established in 1977, and divided between two well known aviculturists in 1999 when it numbered 44, with 10 eggs in artificial incubation<strong> </strong>(<em>Atualidades Ornitológicas</em> 93: 11). A 30 km<sup>2</sup> forest remnant in Alagoas, Usina Serra Grande and Usina Leão and another site, Fazenda Petropolis, in Usina Santo Antonio have been identified for potential reintroduction attempts<strong> </strong>(<em>Atualidades Ornitológicas</em> 93: 11<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span><strong></strong>Grau <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Other efforts, in 1983-1985, to capture wild individuals for a captive-breeding population failed. Searches of remaining forest fragments in 2001 failed to find any trace of the species<strong> </strong>(Silveira <em>et al. </em>2003). The genetic composition of the captive population has been studied by Mercival Francisco and a studbook created (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue with the captive-breeding programme in order to reintroduce the species. Ensure the integrity of forest at Usina Serra Grande and Usina Leão. Engender pride in the species to lower the risk of hunting once reintroduction is begun.<a name="_GoBack"></a>  <p></p>
100600100		distribution	eng	<em>Mitu mitu</em> has been almost certainly extirpated from Alagoas and Pernambuco, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. A report from north Bahia is unreliable. It went unreported between the mid-17th century, when found in Pernambuco, and 1951, when rediscovered around São Miguel dos Campos, Alagoas. Since the early 1970s, there are records from four forests in this region. Numbers were probably as few as 20, even in the 1960s (del Hoyo 1994). The most recent reports were of hunted individuals in 1984 and perhaps 1987 or 1988.&#160;<p></p>
100600100		habitat	eng	It was apparently confined to lowland primary forest, where it was known to take fruit of <em>Phyllanthus</em>, <em>Eugenia</em> and "mangabeira". It lays two or three eggs in captivity, with one female breeding for the first time when she was two years old (del Hoyo 1994). <p></p>
100600100		population	eng	A captive population, initially established in Rio de Janeiro in 1977, numbered 44 in 2000. There were 130 birds in two aviaries in 2008, some 35% of which are hybrids with <i>M. tuberosum</i>.
100600100		threats	eng	The extinction of this species was forecast almost as long ago as its discovery. Ceaseless clearance of its lowland forests, chiefly for sugarcane, and poaching have brought it to the verge of extinction. Sugarcane demand increased dramatically in the late 1970s, owing to a government programme to increase fuel alcohol production, hastening the destruction of remaining habitat. Pesticide-use in cane fields surrounding extant forest may also have had a detrimental effect. The last remaining area of reasonably extensive lowland forest in the region was virtually entirely cleared within six months in the late 1980s, while continued hunting served only to exacerbate the species's decline.  <p></p>
100600101		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In northern Venezuela, almost all remaining forests are now legally protected (Silva 1999), but this has not averted threats. There are records from 18 Venezuelan national parks and the ineffectively protected El Cocuy National Park, Arauca, Colombia<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995). Captive breeding and reintroduction in Venezuela has been proposed. In Venezuela, it is legally protected (República de Venezuela. 1996a, b) and an education programme draws attention to the species and its habitat<strong> </strong>(Strahl <em>et al</em>. 1997). A new reseve, appropriately named Pauxi pauxi Bird Reseve has been established in the Cerro de la Paz to protect the species<strong> </strong>(P. Salaman <em>in litt. </em>2007).<br/>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its status in the Colombian East Andes. Enforce existing laws on hunting and habitat protection<strong></strong> (Strahl and Silva 1997). Develop educational programmes to combat hunting<strong></strong> (Strahl and Silva 1997). <p></p>
100600101		distribution	eng	<em>Pauxi pauxi</em> occurs in west <strong>Venezuela</strong> and north <strong>Colombia</strong>. Nominate <em>pauxi</em> was formerly common from the Cordillera de la Costa west to the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela, and on the north-eastern slopes of the East Andes in Colombia (Norte de Santander, Boyacá and Arauca) and adjacent Venezuela (south-west Táchira). It is also known from three mountain ranges in Falcón, Venezuela, but may have recently disappeared from one (in Morrocoy National Park) (Silva 1999). It might once have occurred as far east as Monagas (Silva 1999). The population has declined considerably, and the species is now generally rare and occurs at low densities (Silva 1999, <strong> </strong>Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. In Venezuela, there is a strong correlation between its current distribution and national parks (Silva 1999). Race <em>gilliardi</em> from the Sierra de Perijá on the Colombian-Venezuelan border is also believed to be declining. <p></p>
100600101		habitat	eng	It is restricted to subtropical cloud-forest in steep, mountainous regions at 500 to 2,200&#160;m (mostly 1,000-1,500&#160;m), where it favours humid gorges with dense undergrowth. It tends to avoid forest edges. Nests are built in March, and young hatch around mid-May. Pairs or family parties forage, mainly terrestrially, for fallen fruit, seeds, tender leaves, grasses and buds (Schäfer 1953, Silva 1999). Five <span class="hps">nests <span class="hps">in Yacambú National Park were located between <span class="hps"><span class="hps"> 5.5 and <span class="hps">15 metres up in trees (J. Ortega <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span class="hps">. It may make some seasonal altitudinal movements<strong> </strong>(Strahl <em>et al</em>. 1997).<p></p></span></span>
100600101		population	eng	Comments from P. Salaman (<em>in litt.</em> undated) and C. Sharpe (<em>in litt.</em> undated) indicate that the population fell below 2,500 individuals during 2007. It is thus placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals. Population density in Venezuela has been estimated to be 2 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> in Aragua, 8 individuals / km<sup>2 </sup>in Yaracuy, and 5 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> in Lara state. In Colombia 4.8 individuals / km<sup>2 </sup>were found in Tamá National Park.
100600101		threats	eng	Its decline results from hunting and long-term destruction, fragmentation and modification of its habitat. The Sierra de Perijá is being progressively deforested in both countries for cattle-ranching at lower altitudes and for narcotics cultivation higher up (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997). Hunting continues (even in long-established, and relatively well-resourced protected areas such as Henri Pittier National Park [C. J. Sharpe. J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999]) and is probably even increasing in the wake of infrastructure development. Birds are hunted for food and, at least formerly, for traditional jewellery; for instance in the buffer zone of Tamá National Park (Colombia) each household had at least five skulls and eggs as hunting trophies<strong> </strong>(V. Setina <em>in litt. </em>2007), and thirty skulls and an egg were found in one home (Setina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).Within the Tamá National Park itself, all of 45 inhabitants interviewed in 2006-2007 had eaten Cracids, stating that they preferred Helmeted Curassows to Wattled Guans (Setina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In the same area, the U’wa indians hunt the species for food, for sale at local markets and for the "helmet", which is used to make aphrodisiacs (Setina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It was considered Endangered in a recent global assessment  published by  the IUCN-SSC Cracid Specialist Group (Naveda-Rodríguez and Strahl 2006), and  is classified as Vulnerable and Endangered in Colombia and  Venezuela respectively (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Sharpe 2008). It is one of the four top priority species for bird conservation in Venezuela (Rodríguez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004) <br/><p></p>
100600102		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Large parts of its range are theoretically protected by Amboró and Carrasco National Parks and TIPNIS (although these protected areas are seriously threatened and have suffered from recent invasions [MacLeod <em>et al. </em>2006]), and it was recorded within the El Sira Communal Reserve although hunting still takes place here (<strong></strong>Gastañaga and Hennessey 2005, <strong></strong>Gastañaga <em>in litt. </em>2007,<strong><sup></sup></strong> Graham 2009). Extensive surveys have been conducted in recent years but have met with little success in locating the species in many areas (Mee <em>et al.</em> 2002, R. MacLeod <em>in litt.</em> 2003,<strong></strong> <strong></strong>Hennessey 2004a, A. Maccormack <em>in litt.</em> 2004, R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. An education project to combat hunting and raise awareness was carried out in the Sira mountains in 2005 (Gastañaga 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Nominate <em>unicornis </em>(Bolivia): Conduct field studies to locate and estimate the size of the surviving population and to determine its conservation requirements and vulnerability to human encroachment. Work with the Carrasco and Amboro National Parks and local communities to develop and implement conservation management plans for the species and its habitat.  Develop work with local educators and schools to inform local people about the conservation importance and uniqueness of the species and its habitat to their area.  Work with local communities to promote a community based hunting ban for the species and to reduce human pressure on its habitat.  Identify and implement measures that will measurably improve the livelihoods of the local communities in return for their assistance in conserving the species.  Taxon <em>koepckae </em>(Peru): Continue working with communities around Cerros del Sira in conducting local knowledge surveys about the distribution of the species and in raising awareness of its unique status. Identify and implement measures that will measurably improve the livelihoods of the local indigenous communities in return for their essential assistance in conserving the species through a community enforced hunting ban.  Obtain a series of sound recordings and behavioural observations to be used in combination with the known physical differences to determine if the Peruvian taxon is a unique species.  Conduct field studies of the ecology of the Peruvian taxon in order to estimate the size of the surviving population, determine its conservation requirements and vulnerability to human encroachment.  Work with INRENA (the protected areas authority) to develop and implement a conservation management plan for the species and its habitat (MacLeod <em>et al. </em>2006).<strong><sup></sup></strong>  <p></p>
100600102		distribution	eng	<em>Pauxi</em> <em>unicornis </em>is known from two disjunct populations in central <strong>Bolivia</strong> and central <strong>Peru</strong>. The nominate subspecies is known from the adjacent Amboró and Carrasco National Parks (Cox <em>et al.</em> 1997, <strong></strong>Herzog and Kessler 1998, Mee 1999, R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and has recently been found in Isiboro-Secure Indigenous Territory and National Park (TIPNIS) and along the outer edge of the Cordillera Mosetenes, Cochabamba, Bolivia (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It was formerly found along the length of Carrasco's northern boundary (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but recent surveys found it in very few locations here (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Despite the apparently large gap in its range (<strong></strong>B. Hennessey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, extensive searches over several years have failed to locate the species in Madidi National Park, La Paz, Bolivia (R. MacLeod <em>in litt.</em> 2003, Hennessey 2004a, A. Maccormack <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in the rio Tambopata area near the Peru/Bolivia border (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2004, Gastañaga and Hennessey 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and in the Cordillera Cocapata and along the inner edge of Cordillera Mosetenes in Cochabamba (R. MacLeod <em>in litt.</em> 2003, R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>koepckeae</em> , known only from the Cerros del Sira in Huánuco, Peru, had gone unrecorded since its description in 1969 but its continued presence was established by local knowledge surveys in 2003 and observations in 2005 (Gastañaga 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Previous field surveys, including one in 2004, found no birds and local reports suggest that it is very rare here (Mee <em>et al.</em> 2002, A. Maccormack <em>in litt.</em> 2004, R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total population for the subspecies in Peru is estimated to be less than 400 individuals in Cerros del Sira (Gastañaga <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>,with evidence that its numbers are declining (Gastañaga and Hennessey 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em>  </em>The species occurs at densities of up to 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, although this appears to be exceptional and at most sites only one or two individuals have been found (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
100600102		habitat	eng	The nominate taxon inhabits dense, humid, lower montane forest and adjacent lowland evergreen forest at 450-1,400 m (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2000, Gastañaga 2006, Maillard 2006)<strong></strong>. For much of the year it stays above 550 m, but descends in the dry season (Renjifo and Renjifo 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At any one part of its range the species tends to be restricted to an altitudinal band of c.500 m but the upper and lower limits of this vary from location to location.  The Peruvian taxon inhabits cloud forest which in Cerros del Sira is found at altitudes of around 1100-1450 m and above, although in the dry season individuals have also occasionally been found somewhat lower (down to 950 m) along the upper edge adjacent montane forest.  Its diet consists of fruit, seeds, soft plants, larvae and insects. Display songs and pairing have been noted from August (<strong></strong>R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with a nest found during October (<strong></strong>Cox <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The clutch-size is probably two (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as in other Cracidae, although in the only nest over found there was only one egg) and consequently it has a low reproductive rate (Cox <em>et al.</em> 1997, Renjifo and Renjifo 1997, Banks 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  In Peru the peak singing (and presumably breeding) period appears to be in February and March (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600102		population	eng	This species is poorly known; the total population is estimated to number 1,000-4,999 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,500-7,500 individuals in total.
100600102		threats	eng	In Bolivia, forests within its altitudinal range are being cleared for the cultivation of staple and export crops by recent colonists from the altiplano (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Maillard 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Road-building and associated rural development have a negative impact and inhibit dispersal (<strong></strong>Herzog and Kessler 1998, Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting for its meat seems to be the biggest threat in both Bolivia and Peru and is likely to be having a serious negative impact in all parts of its range (Gastañaga 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Peru, subsistence agriculture threatens its habitat (R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as does opening up the foothills to colonisation and hunting. Mining, oil exploration and illegal logging are potential future threats in El Sira as well as forest clearance by colonists. <p></p>
100600103		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES III in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras and Colombia (del Hoyo 1994). It occurs in a number of protected areas including Santa Rosa, Rincón de la Vieja and Corcovado National Parks in Costa Rica (del Hoyo 1994). A captive breeding and reintroduction project is taking place in secondary forest on the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica with 94 birds released between 2000-2004<strong> </strong>(Zepeda 2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey populations and ascertain trends at known sites. Research land-use effects on the species and its habitat. Effectively protect national parks where the species occurs. Enforce hunting restrictions (and ban hunting in Belize), and introduce educational campaigns to reduce hunting pressure. <p></p>
100600103		distribution	eng	<em>Crax rubra</em> has a wide but now highly fragmented distribution from San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Querétaro, Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas and the Yucatán peninsula, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Howell and Webb 1995a, F. González-García <em>in litt</em>. 1998, M. Martínez-Morales <em>in litt</em>. 1998), south through <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong> to west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Pacific lowlands east to the Gulf of Urabá and the upper Sinú valley) and, very rarely, west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Sibley and Monroe 1990, R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt.</em> 1998). The distinctive race <em>griscomi</em> is restricted to Cozumel Island off Mexico, where an estimated 300 individuals remain (Martínez-Morales 1996) and it is thought to have declined<strong> </strong>(Caballero and Martínez-Morales 2006). It has undergone a considerable (and continuing) decline, becoming uncommon to rare or locally extinct throughout much of its range. In Ecuador there are perhaps fewer than 100 individuals<strong> </strong>occurring in three protected areas (J. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2009), with very few recent reports of the species (J. Freile <em>in litt.</em> 2012). Healthy populations occurred in the Chimalapas region of Oaxaca, but the effects of extensive fires in 1998 on the species are unknown (A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998). However, it has recovered or remains relatively common in areas with legal protection or where it is not hunted, and populations are still stable in isolated and well protected parts of Guatemala and Nicaragua (del Hoyo 1994).<em> <p></p></em>
100600103		habitat	eng	It is restricted to undisturbed humid evergreen forest (also seasonally dry forest in some areas) and mangroves although there are reports that it tolerates limited disturbance (Radachowsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). It is primarily a lowland species but has been recorded at altitudes of up to 1,900 m in Panama and on the northern slope of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala (E. H. Baur <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<br/><p></p>
100600103		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 10,000-60,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700-40,000 mature individuals (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2009).
100600103		threats	eng	It is widely hunted for food (legally in Belize [Miller and Miller 1997]<strong> </strong>), and further threatened by severe habitat loss and fragmentation (del Hoyo 1994, Arguedas <em>et al.</em> 1997, Radachowsky and Ramos 2004, Radachowsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)<strong></strong> in Ecuador (annual deforestation rate of 3.8% within the breeding range), Honduras (3.1% per year nationally), El Salvador (1.7%), Colombia (unprecedented deforestation rates in the Colombian Chocó), Guatemala (1.3% annual deforestation) and Nicaragua (1.3%)<strong> </strong>(O. Jahn <em>in litt. </em>2009). It rapidly disappears when logging roads are built into previously inaccessible forests (del Hoyo 1994). Extensive fires, such as those in Oaxaca, Mexico in 1998, may be a threat to habitat quality, and some birds are captured as pets. Additional potential threats to race <em>griscomi </em>include hurricanes and the introduction of invasive species<strong> </strong>(Caballero and Martínez-Morales 2006). <p></p>
100600104		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>El Paujíl Bird Reserve was established in 2004, covering 848 ha in the Magdelena Valley, Serranía de las Quinchas, and local authorities have introduced penalties for shooting or trapping the species (R. S. R. Williams<em> in litt.</em> 1999). Fundación ProAves continue to purchase land to expand the reserve and are also engaging in habitat restoration within its boundaries<strong></strong> (D. Caro <em>in litt. </em>2009). ProAves aims to expand the reserve to c.6,000 ha in the next two years<strong></strong> Machado and Salaman 2008/2009). Paramillo National Park is vast and holds this species, but no protective measures have been implemented (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). The large Bajo Cauca-Nechí Regional Reserve probably holds the species (A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Los Colorados Sanctuary protects part of the Serranía de San Jacinto (R. S. R. Williams<em> in litt.</em> 1999). It occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Tayrona National Parks<strong> </strong>(Fundación ProAves 2009), and potentially in the Cañon del Río Alicante and Los Besotes reserves (Quevedo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Of all of the reserves listed above, only El Paujíl Bird Reserve is thought to receive adequate protection to safeguard this species (Quevedo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Since 2006, ProAves has been engaged in a variety of awareness-raising initiatives in three villages within the Serranía de las Quinchas buffer zone, including training courses on bird monitoring and for park rangers<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Urueña <em>et al</em>. undated). Studies of population density and structure, as well as habitat use and behaviour of the species have been ongoing at the El Paujíl Bird Reserve since 2004<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Urueña <em>et al</em>. undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong><em>.</em> Further surveys are planned in the south-western limits of the species's range in order to delimit additional IBAs for its conservation. Fundación ALPEC is working to create a habitat corridor to connect protected areas in the lowlands to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta through a network of private reserves<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Strewe <em>et al</em>. 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its population and distribution more accurately and confirm its persistence in the serranías de San Jacinto and de las Quinchas, and the upper Sinú drainage (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, Stiles <em>et al.</em> 1999, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000<strong></strong>. Protect forests on the serranías de San Lucas and de las Quinchas  (Stiles <em>et al.</em> 1999, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Implement effective conservation measures in existing protected areas (L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Initiate educational campaigns to limit hunting, and provide resources to replace the need for habitat conversion (A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
100600104		distribution	eng	This species historically occurred in northern <strong>Colombia</strong>, from the base of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta west to the Sinú valley and south in the Magdalena valley to northern Tolima. Two of the few large lowland forest areas remaining in its range have produced recent records: two sites on the west slope of the Serranía de San Lucas, Antioquia (Cuervo and Salaman 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong> and the Serranía de las Quinchas, Boyacá<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (Stiles <em>et al.</em> 1999). Few individuals are thought to remain at Serranía de San Lucas<strong></strong> (D. Caro <em>in litt. </em>2009), and surveys conducted in 2003 suggest that the latter area holds the population stronghold of this species which contributed to the establishment of El Paujíl Bird Reserve (Quevedo <em>et al.</em> 2005). Numbers within this reserve have increased and the density of individuals has increased from 2.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> to 4.7 individuals/km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 2009<strong></strong> (D. Caro <em>in litt. </em>2009) but remains far below the projected carrying capacity of 1 in 10 acres. Anecdotal observations in 2009 are also indicative of a continued localised increase<strong> </strong>(Fundación ProAves 2009). Additional records have been made in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in recent years where the species has been confirmed at 17 sites (Strewe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), and a density of 1.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> was found in the Besotes Eco-Park, on the southeastern slope,  in 2006-2007 (Mendoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In 1993, sightings were reported at La Terretera near Alto Sinú and in the Serranía de San Jacinto, Bolívar (R. S. R. Williams<em> in litt.</em> 1999). Records were also obtained in 2009 from the northern end of the Western Cordillera on the Serranía de San Jerónimo, within the buffer zone of the Paramillo National Park (Mayorquin 2010). The population in the El Paujíl Bird Reserve was estimated at 254 individuals in 2009, and based on the same density estimate the population in the surrounding area (including the reserve) is thought to be 509 individuals<strong></strong> (D. Caro <em>in litt. </em>2009). Local reports indicate that there has been a recent and rapid decline throughout its range (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, <strong></strong> D. Caro <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600104		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid forest up to 1,200 m, but there is at least one record from tropical dry forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Strewe <em>et al</em>. 2010). It breeds in the dry season, nesting in December-March, with parties of adults and chicks observed in March-August (Cuervo and Salaman 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Two breeding seasons have been recorded in the El Paujíl Bird Reserve, one from December to March and another from July to September<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Urueña 2008b). It feeds on fruit, shoots, invertebrates, and perhaps even carrion<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<em></em>Cuervo and Salaman 1999, Quevedo <em>et al.</em> 2005, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. One recent survey recorded the consumption of seeds from a total of 15 different plant species. A terrestrial crab was also consumed.  The species forages directly on the forest floor, and has never been observed foraging in a tree<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Urueña 2008a). Roost sites, situated in foliage in trees, are near feeding areas and are used for several days<strong> </strong>(Hirschfeld 2008). <p></p>
100600104		population	eng	The population in the El Paujíl Bird Reserve was estimated a maximum of 254 individuals in 2009, whilst surrounding area (including the reserve) may hold up to 509 individuals. There are several populations elsewhere, but these are thought to be severely declining or already locally extinct (D. Caro <em>in litt.</em> 2010), hence a populations band of 250-999 individuals is appropriate. This equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
100600104		threats	eng	This species may be tolerant of low levels of habitat degradation (Strewe <em>et al</em>. 2010); however, its range is affected by outright habitat loss and severe degradation. Vast areas of forest have been cleared since the 17th century, and are used for livestock-farming, arable cultivation, cotton and illegal drug plantations, oil extraction and mining<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Cuervo and Salaman 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Stiles <em>et al.</em> 1999, Strewe <em>et al</em>. 2010, L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993, L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, <strong></strong>J. D. González <em>in litt.</em> 2005, <strong></strong>J. M. Ochoa <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Deforestation outside of the El Paujíl Bird Reserve is accelerating at an annual rate of 2.1-7%<strong></strong> Machado and Salaman 2008/2009). Cultivation (notably of coffee), logging and marijuana-plantation expansion and subsequent government spraying with non-specific herbicides affect the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Strewe <em>et al</em>. 2010, L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Colonisation and deforestation for coca farming are the principal threats acting around the El Paujíl Bird Reserve (Quevedo <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 1996, there was a gold rush in the Serranía de San Lucas and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted to agriculture and coca production (A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Few individuals are thought to remain in this area due to hunting<strong></strong> (D. Caro <em>in litt. </em>2009). Hunting and egg-collecting for food have contributed to past and present declines, and a recent survey of villages surrounding the Paramillo National Park suggests these activities will continue into the future unless the economic situation of the villagers improves<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong> </strong>(Cabarcas <em>et al.</em> 2008, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is also threatened by infrastructure development, as exemplified by the Santa Marta-Riohacha Highway, which acts as a barrier between populations in Tayrona National Park and the foothills of the Sierra Marta de Santa Marta (Strewe <em>et al</em>. 2010).  <p></p>
100600105		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively enforce hunting restrictions in protected areas. Survey known and historical sites to determine the size of each of the remaining subpopulations. Conduct satellite photograph analysis of forest cover changes to identify suitably large and connected habitat patches. Establish educational programmes for hunters, modelled on those used successfully in Venezuela. Conduct a long-term demographic study of a protected population (e.g. at Hato Piñero) so that fecundity, mortality and dispersal data can be collected for population viability analysis  (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006). <br/><p></p>
100600105		distribution	eng	<em>Crax daubentoni</em> occurs in north <strong>Venezuela</strong> (north of the río Orinoco), and at a few scattered localities in north-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (west foothills of Sierra de Perijá from Montes de Oca south to Fonseca, and east of the Andes from east Norte de Santander south to north-west Arauca (Hilty and Brown 1986, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994). In Venezuela it currently occupies less than 50% of its historical distribution, and as little as 30% and 40% in the Cordillera de la Costa and Llanos respectively (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006).&#160;<em> <p></p></em>
100600105		habitat	eng	It is primarily restricted to gallery forests in the llanos, but also lowland deciduous and evergreen forest, and foothills up to 800 m in Venezuela and 500-1,500 m in Colombia (del Hoyo 1994, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994, Strahl and Silva 1997, Bertsch &amp; Barreto 2008). It rarely strays more than 250m from forest cover (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006). <p></p>
100600105		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-40,000 individuals, divided into more than five subpopulations, each of which is fragmented and declining. This range roughly equates to 6,600-27,000 mature individuals. Estimates of population density in the Venezuelan llanos vary, with 80-160.7 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> in riparian forest and 2.7-43.7 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> in dry forest, both in the dry season.
100600105		threats	eng	Subsistence hunting is thought to be the major cause of its continuing decline in Colombia (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006), although studies are lacking (Franco-Maya and Renjifo 2002). It is heavily hunted for both food and sport in Venezuela, where parks and reserves are often focal points for local hunters (Silva and Strahl 1991, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994, Strahl and Silva 1997)<strong></strong>, and is included in the Venezuelan sport-hunting calendar by the Venezuelan government  (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006). In areas where hunting is eliminated, populations recover slowly but can grow large (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Agricultural development has fragmented gallery forests and, in many parts of the llanos, there has been extensive conversion to rice fields <strong></strong>(del Hoyo 1994, Strahl <em>et al.</em> 1994). A study of land cover changes from 1990-1999 shows that the Venezuelan Llanos continue to be deforested or degraded, leaving few large or medium sized patches of critical  habitat for the species  (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006). The recent change in the management objectives of former private nature reserves such as Hato Piñero, Hato El Frío and Hato El Cedral (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) jeopardises the future of some of the most important sub-populations in Venezuela (Polisar 2000, Bertsch &amp; Barreto 2008). It was considered Vulnerable in a recent global assessment  published by the IUCN-SSC Cracid Specialist Group (Buchholz &amp; Bertsch 2006), and is classified as Vulnerable and Near Threatened in Colombia and Venezuela respectively (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Sharpe 2008). <p></p>
100600106		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
100600106		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crax alector</span> is found in north-central South America. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">erythrognatha</span> occurs to the west. In east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span> it is locally abundant along the east Andes and Macarena Mountains,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>where it has been considered the most common large bird at an estimated density of 1/1.25 ha of forest. It also occurs in southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">alector</span> is found in the east. At its westernmost point, in Cerro de la Neblina, east Venezuela, it was considered much less common than another cracid, Razor-billed Curassow <span style="font-style: italic;">Mitu tuberosum</span>, in 1991. Its range extends from there eastwards through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, where it is common only where there is intact habitat and no hunting,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and beyond. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>it was considered common in 1968, but is only locally so now (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006); in <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> it is subject to heavy hunting pressure and in danger of extirpation. It has already been driven from areas around human settlement, but does exist at optimal density (8/100 ha) in areas in the south of the country. The taxon's range also extends to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, where it is fairly common in Amapá, northern Roraima, around Manaus and in Pico de Neblina National Park (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100600106		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid "terra firme" (without flooding) and gallery forest, often being seen in open habitats such as old plantations, but preferring thickets along rivers or forest borders. It appears limited to primary forest in French Guiana. The species is generally restricted to lowlands and foothills up to 1,700 m. It feeds predominantly (c.95%) on fruits, most importantly of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Eugenia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Guarea</span>, but will also take leaves, buds, shoots, invertebrates, flowers and mushrooms. Breeding times are variable, tending to be limited to the rainy season (December to April) in Suriname, but young have been recorded in March and September in French Guiana, and a breeding-condition female in January in Colombia. The nest is a small platform made of sticks, built in trees c.5 m above the ground (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100600106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600106		threats	eng	Accelerating deforestation in the Amazon constitutes the primary threat to this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting and trapping, particularly in French Guiana (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
100600107		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, Amazonas, Brazil (Santos 1997-1998), where it nevertheless continues to be hunted<strong></strong> (B. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 2005), and Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto, Peru<strong> </strong>(Begazo and Valqui 1998).  It has also been recorded very close to the newly decreed Piagacu-Purus Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil  (T. Haugaasen and C. A. Peres <em>in litt. </em>2005).  In Bolivia, a temporary hunting ban to secure the future of local hunting stocks has reportedly contributed to population recovery<strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999). A public education project has focused on conservation presentations to the local Tacuna communities<strong> </strong>(Hennessey 2004) and the local community in San Marcos now protect an area for ecotourism and research where hunting and resource extraction are banned<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure active protection of known populations by working with local communities to reduce or eliminate hunting pressure. Interview local hunters to refine the known distribution and relate this to human and environmental variables<strong> </strong> (Santos 1997-1998, Hennessey 1999)<strong></strong>. Survey and monitor the species's strongholds<strong> </strong> (Santos 1997-1998, Hennessey 1999)<strong></strong> and carry out detailed population surveys in Brazil and Peru to allow accurate estimations of the remaining national populations. Research its ecology<strong></strong> (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>1999). Designate protected sites and promote ecotourism<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999, <strong></strong> L. F. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>1999, Bennett 2000)<strong></strong>. Extend education programmes to encourage further uptake of sustainable hunting practices<strong>&#160;</strong><strong></strong><strong> </strong>(J. Alvarez Alonso <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Hennessey 1999, Bennett 2000)<strong></strong>. Conduct a regional analysis of population genetics<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
100600107		distribution	eng	<em>Crax globulosa </em>was formerly widespread in upper Amazonia (west <strong>Brazil</strong>, south <strong>Colombia</strong>, east <strong>Ecuador</strong>, east <strong>Peru </strong>and north <strong>Bolivia</strong>). South Colombia remains remote and poorly known<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt. </em>1999), but it occurs at Isla Mocagua on the río Amazonas (Bennett 2000, Bennett and Franco-Maya 2002)<strong></strong>, and on several islands the río Caquetá, near the Brazilian border<strong> </strong>(Bennett 2000, Alarcón-Nieto and Palacios 2005)<strong></strong>. It was reportedly fairly common on the río Apaporis near Chiriquibete National Park<strong> </strong>(J. Estudillo López verbally 1994), but recent surveys have not found the species (P. von Hildebrand verbally 1999). A few sites are known near the confluence of the ríos Javari and Amazonas in Colombia, Peru and Brazil<strong> </strong>(A. Whittaker <em>in litt. </em>1999, Bennett 2000)<strong></strong>. In Peru, it occurs on the middle río Napo, the río Yavari (untraced site) and part of the lower río Marañón<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Begazo and Valqui 1998, J. Alvarez Alonso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, as well as the río Pastaza, and lower río Ucayali close to the confluence with the Marañon (Yahuarcani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).  In Brazil, it additionally occurs at three disjunct sites in the río Juruá drainage<strong></strong> (F. L. Silveira<em> in litt.</em> 2000), in Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Santos 1997-1998), and in the juncture between río Solimoes and río Purus  (T. Haugaasen and C. A. Peres <em>in litt. </em>2005), where the species was locally abundant within a small area of várzea forest, with an extrapolated density of 0.56 individuals/km<strong> </strong>(Begazo and Valqui 1998). In Bolivia the only known surviving population is along a tributary of the río Beni, where it has been in decline since the 1940s but persists along the río Negro (c. 25 km from the nearest settlement, San Marcos)<strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999). In 2003 surveys of várzea habitat along the río Negro produced an encounter rate of 0.36 individuals per hour, suggesting that there is a reasonably good population in this region<strong> </strong>(Aranibar-Rojas <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its range has contracted greatly, and it has probably been extirpated from Ecuador<strong> </strong>(Cracid Newsletter 1991) and Rondônia, Brazil (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It has been speculated that c. 100 individuals may persist in Bolivia, and &lt;300 individuals in Peru (B. Hennessey <em>in litt.</em> 2005).  Likewise it is speculated that the Colombian population could be  &lt;100, divided into two completely isolated subpopulations (G. Alarcón-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2005, B. Hennessey <em>in litt.</em> 2005).  The most important site for the species globally is Mamirauá (Brazil), which was estimated in 2005 to hold a population of well over 250 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(B. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 2005<strong>, </strong>P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Throughout its range the species has undergone dramatic population declines - at Isla Mocagua alone, the population numbered c. 1000 individuals as recently as the 1950s, but now fewer than 50 remain (Bennett 2000). New information showing a close tie to water edge habitat in the dry season suggests that its Extent of Occurrence, and therefore population, may have been seriously overestimated<strong> </strong>(Hill <em>et al. </em>2008, Chand <em>et al. </em>in review, <strong></strong>R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
100600107		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland, riverine, humid forest. Small groups forage on inundated ground for small fish, insects, aquatic crustaceans, other small animals and fruit<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999, Bennett 2000, J. Alvarez Alonso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In the dry season, birds congregate around rivers<strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999) and studies from Bolivia indicate that in the dry season this species is closely linked to water; no individuals have ever been found more than 300 m from the river edge, despite detailed surveys extending to 3 km from the river<strong> </strong>(Hill <em>et al. </em>2008, Chand <em>et al. </em>in review,<strong> </strong>R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested that it is similarly tied to water in Colombia and Brazil, and this would imply that its population is far smaller than previous estimates based on the total remaining area of varzea forest<strong> </strong>(R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010). In the wet season, birds possibly migrate from várzea to terra firme forest<strong></strong> (F. L. Silveira<em> in litt.</em> 2000) to feed on canopy fruit and seeds<strong> </strong>(Bennett 2000). It nests in June with chicks observed in July<strong> </strong>(Bennett 2000).  <p></p>
100600107		population	eng	Currently, there are estimated to be 320 individuals in Colombia, 100-150 in Bolivia, less than 300 in Peru, and at least 250, maybe as many as 1,000 individuals in Brazil (R. MacLeod <i>in litt.</i> 2008). This is consistent with recorded population density estimates across its Area of Occurrence, taken as 366 km<sup>2</sup> (H. Aranibar-Rojas <i>in litt.</i> 2008, R. MacLeod <i>in litt.</i> 2008), hence the population is precautionarily estimated at 250-999 mature individuals (equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals), though the true population size may be greater.
100600107		threats	eng	Amazonian rivers are the routes for colonisation, development, hunting and transport in the region. Hunting, whether commercial, subsistence (Santos 1997-1998) or by loggers<strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999)<strong> </strong>is the main threat, with habitat loss contributory. It is more vulnerable to hunting than other cracids as it is restricted to water edge habitats that are easily reached by the human population who use rivers for transport<strong> </strong>(R. MacLeod <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010). On the río Beni, it was heavily hunted by fur traders during the 1960s, but the prohibition of fur-hunting by CITES in 1971 slowed declines<strong> </strong>(Hennessey 1999).<br/><p></p>
100600108		distribution	eng	This taxon consists of three subspecies: pinima of north-east Brazil, grayi in east Bolivia and the nominate in central and south-west Brazil, Paraguay and north Argentina. The race pinima is extinct around Belem, Pará (Novaes and Lima 1998), and may survive only in western Maranhão at Gurupi Biological Reserve and adjoining territories. The species was not found during extensive fieldwork around Paragominas, eastern Pará (A. Aleixo per. F. Olmos in litt. 2003). Although the nominate race survives in Brazil from Minas Gerais, Goiás and Mato Grosso do Sul north to Pará and Mato Grosso, and can be locally common (as in the northern Pantanal and Serra dos Carajás), it is extinct, or nearly so, in Sao Paulo and Paraná (del Hoyo 1994, F. Olmos in litt. 2003). It is considered rare and threatened in Argentina. In Paraguay, the species has been extirpated, or is close to disappearing, from much of its range, although in 1999 the species was still relatively numerous in northern Concepción Department (Clay 2001). In Bolivia the species is widely distributed throughout the llanos de moxos (savannas), with many areas holding protected populations (B. Hennessey in litt. 2003).
100600108		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid, semi-deciduous and gallery forests, and is often recorded in woodland edges (del Hoyo 1994).
100600108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600108		threats	eng	Although the species occupies a relatively large range, it has disappeared from parts of its former range as a result of habitat destruction and hunting (del Hoyo 1994). Hunting pressure is an issue in Goiás, Tocantins and southern Pará, but the nominate form is not considered to be particularly threatened in Brazil (F. Olmos in litt. 2003). The species remains relatively numerous in northern Concepción Department (Paraguay), however, human presence in this area has increased considerably over the past few years, and hunting pressure may now be high (Clay 2001). The species is listed as being of "High conservation priority" in the IUCN Cracid Action Plan, and more information on population size, trends and habitat loss are needed, especially for the core range in Brazil.
100600109		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. It is largely restricted to reserves, with Sooretama and Linhares the most effectively protected. Over 600 birds are present in captivity at at least 15 locations (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005). Since the first releases in 1991 four reintroduction projects have taken place in Minas Gerais (at Fazenda Macedônia Private Reserve, Fechos Reserve and Peti Environmental Station) (Scheres 1993<strong>, </strong>Simpson <em>et al. </em>1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, where introduced birds are periodically monitored, have a high survival rate, and there are now second generation offspring<strong> </strong>(Simpson <em>et al. </em>1997, Brooks and Strahl 2000). In Rio de Janeiro state reintroductions began in 2006 at the REGUA reserve in the Guapi Assu basin<strong> </strong>(Bernardo 2007).  Birds here are radio-tagged and their survival and movements are monitored (Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Post-release survival probability is high (75%), though lower (60%) when taking into account deaths before release  (Bernardo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). A long-term monitoring programme is established in the Michelin Ecological Reserve, along with an environmental education programme featuring the Red-billed Curassow as one of the flagship species (K. M. Flesher <em>in litt. </em>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Monte Pascoal, Rio Doce and other localities where the species has been recorded in the past to assess its current status at these sites, and conduct ground surveys of areas identified as potential localities from which the species is not yet recorded. Survey known populations to obtain population estimates and more information on ecology and habitat use patterns. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of all reserves with known populations. Patrol reserves to prevent hunting and trapping. Create private reserves protecting forest remnants within the species's range. Continue the reintroduction programme, managing captive stocks to avoid loss of genetic diversity, increasing the number of institutions breeding the species and integrating all captive populations within a common management and breeding protocol. Identify further potential reintroduction sites, continue long-term monitoring of released individuals and ensure effective protection of localities selected for reintroduction. Establish environmental education programmes in communities living around protected areas, focusing these on the issue of hunting. Lobby for the unauthorised killing, capture or trade of C<em>.blumenbachii </em>to be made offences subject to prison without bail. <p></p>
100600109		distribution	eng	<em>Crax blumenbachii</em> was formerly widespread in east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Bahia south through Espírito Santo and east Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. Wild populations are currently known from eight reserves, with strongholds of considerably more than 60 birds in Sooretama Biological Reserve, over 100 birds in the adjacent Vale do Rio Doce Natural Reserve (formerly Linhares Forest Reserve) in Espírito Santo, and 35-40 birds (in 2003) in Descobrimento National Park, Bahia (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005). It may be extinct in Monte Pascoal National Park, Bahia, and Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais where it has not been reported since the 1970s (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other recent records come from Ituberá, Serra do Conduru State Park, Pau-Brasil National Park, Una Biological Reserve and Serra das Lontras, all in Bahia (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are perhaps 20 individuals in the Michelin Ecological Reserve, Bahia (K. M. Flesher <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). A census of Una Biological Reserve and the nearby private reserve of Fazenda Capitão in 2005-2006 found only five individuals in 430 hours of observation along 329 km of transects<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  There have been no confirmed records of wild birds from Rio de Janeiro since 1963 and none from Minas Gerais since the 1970s, however birds have now been reintroduced at sites in both states (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005). A successful captive-breeding and reintroduction programme has boosted numbers in the wild<strong> </strong>(Scheres 1993<strong>, </strong>Brooks and Strahl 2000<strong></strong>, Bernardo 2007), including 28 released and radio-tracked between August 2006 and September 2007 at REGUA, Rio de Janeiro (of which 9 had died by September 2007)<strong> </strong>(Bernardo 2007). The total population remains extremely small.<em> <p></p></em>
100600109		habitat	eng	It is largely terrestrial in tall, lowland humid forest, although recent records from Serra das Lontras suggest it may also occur in montane forest above 500 m (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been suggested that the species may utilise disturbed and agricultural habitats in the Michelin Ecological Reserve including old secondary regenerating forest and possibly rubber and cacao plantations (K. M. Flesher <em>in litt. </em>2012). The diet consists of fruit, buds, seeds and arthropods. It may be polygamous, but this observation may result from differential hunting pressure between the sexes. Males boom mainly in September-October with young hatching in the next couple of months. Typically two (range 1-4) eggs are laid. <p></p>
100600109		population	eng	Minimum estimates of the species's population are 60 birds in Sooretama Biological Reserve, 100 in Rio Doce State Park and 35 in Descobrimento National Park, and c.20 individuals in the Michelin Ecological Reserve, Bahia (K. M. Flesher <em>in litt. </em>2011) with recent sightings of small numbers at five other sites in 2003. It is likely to number 200-249 individuals in total, roughly equating to 130-170 mature individuals.
100600109		threats	eng	The species has suffered chronic habitat loss and hunting pressure. Virtually all lowland forest north of Rio de Janeiro is within actively protected reserves or has been completely converted to plantations and pastureland. Even in Monte Pascoal National Park, habitat loss continues as a result of conflicts over the land rights of local people. Hunting and capture for the bird trade persist in reserves and are likely to have a severe impact on such fragmented populations (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005).<sup></sup> <p></p>
100600112		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cagar Alam Waigeo Barat Nature Reserve was established in the late 1980s, covering 1,530 km<sup>2</sup>, slightly less than half the island <strong></strong>(Holmes 1989, Dekker and McGowan 1995). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Convert Waigeo's 'paper parks' into a single integrated, properly demarcated, meaningful protected area with national park status and multiple-usage zonations demarcated following consultation with local communities. Set up an island-wide awareness campaign to prevent future wild fires. Declare the species's core locations as strictly no hunting areas. Conduct additional field work in order to establish with absolute certainty that populations are present at all inferred sites. Establish beyond reasonable doubt whether the species is indeed absent from Batanta. Study nesting site philopatry and the extent of gene flow across locations, preferably using a non-invasive molecular technique. Study the impact of ENSO-induced drought events and invasive species, such as pigs, on the species's reproductive success.    <p></p>
100600112		distribution	eng	<em>Aepypodius bruijnii</em> is endemic to Waigeo, West Papuan Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where until recently it was known only from 21 specimens (most recently collected in 1938) <strong></strong>(Holmes 1989, Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995, Voisin <em>et al.</em> 2000) with the only specified locality being Jeimon, on the east side of Majalibit Bay. Despite more than 15 ornithological expeditions and reconnaissance visits actively searching for this bird it was not relocated until 2002, when one was seen in hill ridgetop forest on Mount Nok near Majalibit Bay <strong></strong>(Mauro 2002, <strong> </strong>Mauro 2005); a subsequent two-month survey revealed 28 incubation mounds in a relatively small area <strong></strong>(R. W. R. J. Dekker <em>in litt.</em> 2003, <strong> </strong>Mauro 2005). Ten sites at appropriate elevation are known, not all of which have confirmed records of the species <strong></strong>(Mauro 2006). However, only three were considered large enough to potentially hold viable populations: Mt Danai (36.2 km<sup>2</sup>, 600-950 m), Mnier Hills (10.7 km<sup>2</sup>, 600-870 m) and Mt Sau Lal (8 km<sup>2</sup>, 600-970 m). In April 2007, an adult male was photographed on Mt Danai, displaying and tending a nest-mound, representing the first photograph of the species in the wild (C. Davies and I. Mauro <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.). Subsequently, it has been summised that Mt Danai could hold up to 65% of the species's global population (Anon. 2007), but further study is required. The currently known population totals 47 mound-owning males or 84 mature individuals<strong> </strong>(Mauro 2006) and its global population is estimated at 349 mound-owning males or 977 mature individuals <strong></strong>(Mauro 2006). The large number of historical specimens suggests a serious historical decline. <p></p>
100600112		habitat	eng	It is a low density inhabitant of mountain forests above 620 m <strong></strong>(Mauro 2006), including the extremely rugged karst interior of the island. Its habitat is characterised as structurally distinctive, wind-sheared and possibly locally edaphically controlled stunted cloud-forest (Mauro 2008). Males appear to be sedentary, although females may wander into the lowlands in years of drought <strong></strong>(Mauro 2006). There may be some resource partitioning with <em>M. freycinet</em>, which occurs widely in coastal areas and on the slopes up to 400 m <strong></strong>(Dekker and Argeloo 1993). Like other brush-turkeys, males build mounds for the incubation of the eggs (<strong></strong><strong></strong>Mauro 2005). There is very little information on diet or foraging behaviour <strong></strong>(Mauro 2002), although a wandering immature male, observed and photographed in August 2010, appeared to be attracted to seeds in a Wilson's Bird-of-paradise <span style="font-style: italic;">Cicinnurus respublica </span>court (Plantema 2011).&#160; <p></p>
100600112		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number at least 980 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to over 1,400 individuals in total.
100600112		threats	eng	Waigeo's rugged relief, lack of infrastructure and apparently entirely intact forest suggest that there are no current threats to the species from logging or agriculture <strong></strong>(Holmes 1989, Dekker and McGowan 1995, Mauro 2002). A proposed reduction in the size of the existing reserve on Waigeo and the prospect of cobalt or nickel mining in the Mnier Hills and the Mt Sau Lal region has been a concern since the late 1980s, and is apparently still being actively pursued <strong></strong>(Dekker and McGowan 1995, Hermanto <em>in litt.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2007, Mauro 2008). Selective logging and subsequent burning is known to be taking place at a rapid pace in the lowlands, rendering montane subpopulations isolated <strong></strong>(Mauro 2006). Hunting is speculated to be a problem<strong> </strong>(Dekker and McGowan 1995), but may be of only negligible effect <strong></strong>(Mauro 2006). The south-east corner of the island was ravaged by fire in 1982, perhaps rendering it unsuitable for the species<strong> </strong>(Dekker and Argeloo 1993). The introduction of predators, such as feral dogs, represents a potential threat, especially since rogue dogs are currently thought to be a problem at least locally <strong></strong>(Dekker 1989; Mauro 2002, 2006). Although the species has coexisted with wild pigs for several thousand years, anecdotal observations suggest that they impact the Mt Danai population at least (Davies 2008). <p></p>
100600116		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. The species was included in a status survey and 2000-2004 conservation action plan for megapodes. Nesting ground surveys were made in North Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi and South-East Sulawesi between 1990 and 2000. Over 50% of known nesting grounds (chiefly inland sites) are located inside protected areas, the most important being Lore Lindu National Park, Morowali Nature Reserve, and Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park.  Effective conservation programmes have been implemented at the Tambun and Hungayono nesting grounds, where hatchery projects and improved guard patrolling have led to greatly increased hatching rates, at Taima (Libuun) near Tompotika in Central Sulawesi, and at the Pakuli/Saluki complex at Lore Lindu and the Tanjung Matop near Toli-toli <strong></strong>(D. Neville <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Summers <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006).  After a consultation process from late 2005 until July 2006, the Alliance for Tompotika Conservation (Aliansi Konservasi Tompotika: AITo), a partnership including Yayasan Pemerhati Lingkungan (a small environmental NGO based in Luwuk, Central Sulawesi), Iguana Tompotika (a Luwuk-based student group) and the egg-diggers' organisation of Desa Taima, agreed to a complete moratorium on the harvesting of Maleo eggs at the beachside nesting ground at Taima (Summers 2007). The moratorium was launched with a ceremony on 1 August 2006, and is facilitated by a team of guards who also collect data on the birds. Payments to the local community for each egg laid and to former egg-diggers for their work as guards have helped with the popularity of the moratorium, such that the Taima villagers elected to continue the moratorium for another three years beyond the initial one-year trial period. In 2007, the plan was to continue the moratorium indefinitely. However, this work is not considered completely sustainable as it relies on continual fundraising by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), who coordinate the project. Sustainable methods of habitat management, that can produce some revenue (from small-scale agriculture, non-timber forest products and ecotourism) for local people, are now being explored at the important site at Binerean (Clements 2009). AITo has also been promoting forest conservation in other parts of Sulawesi (Summers 2007). Another project in the Tangkoko-DuaSaudara Nature Reserve is run by the Tangkoko Ecotourism Guides Club, and involves the clearing of dense secondary growth, replanting of trees, and the re-establishment and monitoring of a viable nesting population (van As 2007). By 2012, work by WCS and Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park on the management of three nesting grounds had overseen the facilitated hatching and release of over 7,000 chicks (Tasirin 2007, Clements 2009, WCS 2009, J. Tasirin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In 2009, it was reported that a 14 ha stretch of beach had been purchased by Pelestari Alam Liar dan Satwa (PALS: Wildlife and Wildlands Conservation), with the assistance of WCS and external donors, to protect a nesting area for the species (WCS 2009, www.wildlifeextra.com). A number of field studies and conservation programmes have also been initiated in Central Sulawesi, North Sulawesi and South-East Sulawesi<strong> </strong>(Baker 2002). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Strengthen the capacity of conservation agencies and government to prevent illegal activities in formally protected areas and establish new management plans to realistically address conservation issues in national parks and nature reserves. Prioritise the protection of active and threatened nesting grounds over translocation of eggs to recolonise abandoned nesting grounds, which has been successfully implemented at some sites and should remain a tool for the future. Keep nesting grounds free from predators, human disturbance and invasive vegetation, and reforest adjacent areas <strong></strong>(Gorog <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005). Extend protected area status to forest corridors connecting nesting grounds and non-breeding areas. Expand management activities in protected areas, particularly scrub clearance at nesting sites. Initiate Maleo-based conservation activities in Paluki and Saluki, Central Sulawesi. Renew community-based protection initiatives. Monitor the effectiveness of hatcheries and other conservation measures and optimize egg protection strategies. Monitor daily numbers of birds laying at as many colonies as possible. Conduct more intensive research to establish its distribution and the extent of gene flow between nesting grounds. Conduct a Sulawesi-wide awareness-raising campaign to discourage Maleo egg consumption and use the species as a flagship for forest conservation. <p></p>
100600116		distribution	eng	<em>Macrocephalon maleo</em> is endemic to Sulawesi and Buton Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Dekker <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, BirdLife International 2001). Of the 142 known nesting grounds, 48 have been abandoned, 51 are severely threatened, 32 are threatened, 7 are of unknown status, and only 4 are not yet threatened<strong> </strong>(Baker 2002). The global population has been estimated to be in the region of 4,000-7,000 breeding pairs, and declining rapidly, in places by up to 90% since 1950 (Butchart and Baker 2000). Available evidence indicates that as the number of eggs laid at a communal nesting site declines, so too does the efficacy of communal nesting as a predator satiation strategy, hence the viability of many smaller populations is becoming increasingly threatened <strong></strong>(Gorog <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2005). <p></p>
100600116		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and hill rainforest, up to at least 1,065 m, and man-modified habitats when travelling to coastal nesting grounds. It nests communally, which is hypothesised to be an evolutionary strategy for satiating natural egg predators <strong></strong>(Gorog <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2005), at traditional sites, typically sandy beaches, lakeshores and riverbanks. Females lay 8-12 eggs in pits, heated by solar and/or geothermal radiation, over a 2-3 month period, peaking markedly at some localities during the regionally variable dry season.  The eggs (averaging 16% of adult female body weight) comprise 61-64% yolk, and when laid are left to incubate (for 2-3 months) and hatch with no further parental support.  The young take up to c.2 days to tunnel to the surface after hatching, emerging ready to fly. <p></p>
100600116		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 4,000-7,000 breeding pairs, equivalent to 8,000-14,000 mature individuals or 12,000-21,000 individuals in total.
100600116		threats	eng	Unsustainable harvesting of eggs combined with human disturbance of nesting grounds has caused the abandonment of many nesting colonies (particularly coastal) and remains the major threat to those remaining. Forest destruction and fragmentation increasingly threaten surviving populations; there is a strong relationship between connectivity of nesting grounds and forests, with an increase in abandonment associated with decreased connectivity <strong></strong>(Gorog <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005). In 2000, and again in 2004, forest fires impacted the Tangkoko DuaSaudara Nature Reserve, damaging 180 ha and 130 ha respectively, and resulted in areas of dense regrowth impenetrable to Maleo (van As 2007). Logging and agricultural, urban and road developments have isolated virtually all coastal nesting grounds from non-breeding habitats, significantly elevating the risk of mortality and natural predation of chicks. In the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park and surrounding area habitats continue to be degraded, the major threats being rattan and timber collection, conversion of forest to agricultural land, gold-mining <strong></strong>(M. Argeloo <em>in litt.</em> 2005), hunting of adult birds for sport <strong></strong>(G. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2004), and the spread of invasive vegetation. An increase in the human population has exacerbated many of the threatening processes above and leads to the introduction of invasive predators such as dogs and rats. Nest site abandonment is highest in coastal and non-protected areas: this, the level of awareness raised about this species and the wealth of information now available suggest there is considerable scope for protecting Maleo. <p></p>
100600117		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). It occurs in Campbell Bay and Galathea National Parks on Great Nicobar (a Biosphere Reserve), and three wildlife reserves on uninhabited islands. Designation of most of the Nicobars as tribal areas legally prohibits commercial exploitation of natural resources and settlement or ownership of land by non-tribal peoples. Detailed status surveys and ecological studies are on-going <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Permanent monitoring plots have been established to determine population trends<strong> </strong>(Sivakumar 2007). Surveys of this species, and other taxa, were conducted between January 2009 and August 2011 as part of the project 'Monitoring post-tsunami coastal ecosystem recovery in the Nicobar Islands' (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species is one of 15 threatened species prioritised by the Government of India for the preparation of a ‘Species Recovery Plan’ under its ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’ programme (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor inland and coastal populations following the 2004 tsunami; with the aim of reassessing the medium-term impacts after 10 years. Monitor the regeneration of littoral forests. Initiate a conservation awareness programme to reduce hunting. Empower indigenous people to follow alternative livelihood options such as fishing, handicrafts etc. Eradicate and manage invasive species. Include coastal forests free from human settlement in the existing Protected Areas networks and strictly implement the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Continue to lobby for expansion of the existing protected areas system to encompass wider tracts of coastal forest on Great Nicobar, the Nancowry island group and Little Nicobar. Carry out habitat restoration work on the west coast of Great Nicobar (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Review the immunity of indigenous people to hunting regulations, given their changing lifestyles (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Conduct surveys for the species in interior forests (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Carry out further studies on its breeding biology and habitat use (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Study the impacts of changes in land-use patterns and the lifestyles of indigenous peoples (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Formulate a management plan (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Following losses to the tsunami, restore the infrastructure of the state forest department (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600117		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius nicobariensis</em> is endemic to the Nicobar Islands, <strong>India </strong>(BirdLife International 2001), where it occurs as two races on 14 islands: <em>M. n. abbotti</em> on Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Kondul, Menchal, Treis, Meroe, and <em>M. n. nicobariensis</em> on Camorta, Trinkat, Nancowry, Katchall, Teressa, Bompoka and Tillanchong islands <strong></strong>(Sivakumar 2007), with the apparent sighting of a pair on Cubra Island in May 2009, and records from Pilo Milo in May 2011 (A. P. Zaibin<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  It is thought to be extinct on Pilo Milo. Historical reports from Little Andaman, India, and the Cocos Islands, Myanmar, lack substantiating evidence. In 1994, there were estimated to be 2,318-4,056 breeding pairs, but following the tsunami in December 2004 populations disappeared completely from two islands, Trax and Megapode Island, and the total number of breeding pairs was estimated at 395-790 following surveys in 2006, with the majority on Great Nicobar (203-406) and Little Nicobar (82-164) <strong></strong>(Sivakumar 2010). Preliminary assessments since 2006 indicate that although a major interruption to breeding occurred in 2005 and 2006, a natural recovery was underway and breeding success had improved <strong></strong>(R. Sankaran <em>in litt</em>. 2008); however, some threats, such as the encroachment of plantations, appear to have worsened since the tsunami (Sivakumar 2010). Surveys conducted in 2009-2011 have resulted in a population estimate of 376-752 breeding pairs, suggesting that the population has remained stable since 2006 (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600117		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests and secondary growth, with the greatest concentrations in coastal forests. It incubates its eggs in nest-mounds close to the shore which are built from sand, loam and humus. The species is primarily monogamous, although extra-pair copulations have been observed. In a pair, both the male and female contribute to the mound maintenance. Unpaired mature males build and defend mounds to attract a partner <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2004). Several pairs often share nest-mounds, with a strong hierarchy apparent during egg-laying. Larger mounds tend to have more stable incubation temperatures and the shortest incubation period (c.72 days). Annual hatching success fluctuates widely (e.g. 87% in 1996 cf. 37% in 1997). <p></p>
100600117		population	eng	The population fell to 788 pairs in 2006 following the 2004 tsunami, however, numbers since appeared to be recovering. Surveys conducted in 2009-2011 have resulted in an estimate of 376-752 breeding pairs, suggesting that the population has been stable since 2006 (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and indicating that there are c.750-1,500 mature individuals.
100600117		threats	eng	The key threat is the loss of coastal forest through conversion to agriculture (coconut, banana and cashew plantations and rice-paddy cultivation), road development projects, which threaten to fragment habitat blocks, particularly on Great Nicobar, and settlement expansion. The devastating tsunami of 26th December 2004 is thought to have affected c.40% of its breeding habitat <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2005), and the aftermath of the tsunami has exacerbated the existing pressures on the species and its habitat, with displaced people raising plantation crops to generate revenue and building houses in littoral forests <strong></strong>(Sivakumar 2007, 2010). Megapode Island has been completely submerged by the tsunami and no longer exists (M. Chandi <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Large areas of primary and secondary forest have been cleared to make way for coconut and rubber plantations, and habitat has also been lost to the development of airstrips and defence installations (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Surveys in 2006 found that, following the tsunami, the distribution of nest-mounds had shifted closer to shores, potentially increasing the risk posed by abnormally high tides and perhaps negatively affecting incubation temperature (Sivakumar 2010). Snaring and shooting for food, and egg-collecting are localised problems, but are also likely to have increased in frequency following the 2004 tsunami (Sivakumar 2010). Hunting by visitors from the mainland has decreased due to strict law enforcement; however, the increasing ownership of air guns amongst the indigenous populations has exacerbated this threat (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species is likely to be impacted by sand mining in coastal areas, as driven by the demand for cement for construction, and which is difficult to control resulting in some illicit collection (Islam and Rahmani 2010). Invasive species including cats, dogs and domestic fowl are a potential threat <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The provision of domestic fowl by the government could bring the threat of avian cholera and other diseases (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The proposal to develop Great Nicobar as a free-trade port, including a dry dock and re-fueling terminal at the mouth of the Galathea river (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), is a potentially major threat, but appears unlikely to be realised in the near future <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2005).<br/><p></p>
100600119		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reassess the population size, including a survey of offshore islets. Quantify the impact of hunting and the taking of eggs<em>. </em>Quantify the impact of introduced and feral predators and competitors. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Research its relative abundance in different habitats. Implement control measures against introduced animals if deemed appropriate. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce hunting and nest-robbing.    <p></p>
100600119		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius bernsteini</em> is restricted to the Banggai and Sula Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. There were thought to be some 7,000 birds in the Banggai Islands, mostly on Peleng, and as many as 38,000 (22,500-54,000) on Taliabu<strong> </strong>(BirdLife International 2001),  but these populations are suspected to be undergoing rapid declines. The results of fieldwork on Taliabu in 2009 <strong></strong>(Rheindt 2010) indicate that encounter rates had fallen substantially since fieldwork conducted in 1991 <strong></strong>(Davidson <em>et al</em>. 1991),  and dramatic declines over the last decade have been reported from eastern Peleng <strong></strong>(M. Indrawan <em>per</em> Rheindt 2010). <p></p>
100600119		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, particularly in coastal areas, and dense lowland scrub fringing farmland. Nesting mounds are visited daily by monogamous pairs.   <p></p>
100600119		population	eng	There were thought to be some 7,000 birds in the Banggai Islands, mostly  on Peleng, and as many as 38,000 (22,500-54,000) individuals on Taliabu, but these populations are suspected to be undergoing rapid declines, thus its total population is conservatively placed in the band for 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
100600119		threats	eng	This species is experiencing declines and local extinctions owing to habitat loss (through logging and clearance for land conversion), exploitation (collection of eggs and hunting of adults) and introduced animals (cats and dogs as predators, and feral domestic chickens as competitors) (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2001, Rheindt 2010).  Since the 1990s, there has been extensive logging on Taliabu, leading to further clearance for agriculture and habitat degradation along logging roads <strong></strong>(Rheindt 2010). In 2009, new areas were reportedly being assessed for conversion to agriculture. Undisturbed habitat within the species's preferred elevation range on Taliabu has been reduced to tiny fragments; however, observations also suggest that the species can persist in degraded habitats (<strong></strong>Rheindt 2010, C. Gooddie<em> in litt</em>. 2011). During fieldwork on Taliabu in 2009, it was found that the species and its eggs are still intensively targeted for consumption <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>(Rheindt 2010); likewise it is also hunted on Peleng (<strong></strong>C. Gooddie<em> in litt</em>. 2011). The species may be more secure on many of the small, rarely-visited offshore islets that it inhabits (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2001); however, fishermen from northern Taliabu, interviewed in 2009, report that the species has declined steeply on its tiny nesting islands off the north coast (e.g., Samada Besar), where it was formerly common<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Rheindt 2010).  <p></p>
100600121		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at 10,000-100,000 individuals or, alternatively, under 5,000 birds. The species is described as common on Halmahera but scare elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600124		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant contributions have been made recently towards the protection and awareness of this species. On Ambrym, several workshops lead to a 4-month annual taboo on egg-collection in the north and west and a 5 year complete ban in the southeast, controlled by local communities. Wan Smol Bag Theatre and the Vanuatu Protected Areas Initiative have continued to raise awareness in support of the taboos through community theatre, workshops and other initiatives. Protocols for monitoring have been tested, and baseline population data gathered for some areas providing the basis for long term monitoring (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. On Santo the species breeds in the Big Bay and Loru protected areas and is legally protected from hunting between 1 July and 31 March (Dekker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey little-known islands to establish its distribution, status and threats, leading to the production of a national conservation strategy. Regularly review the effectiveness of existing conservation efforts on Ambrym and repeat surveys and awareness measures as appropriate. Produce a comprehensive management plan for Ambrym Investigate the effects of the existing taboo system on population numbers. Assess the scale of egg-collection in more areas and encourage the adoption of sustainable harvesting regimes where appropriate, focussing on Tongoa where there is a dense human population density and a high number of megapodes. Repeat the successful workshop format for future education and awareness campaigns. Conduct ecological research focussing on productivity, dispersal and survival at nesting grounds. <p></p>
100600124		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius layardi</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, being recorded from most islands north of Efate (Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong>. In 1995, it was surveyed on north-west Ambrym where 148 burrows were counted in three breeding grounds - local villagers reported a decline in numbers (Bowen 1996)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2001 estimated the population density to be c.7 birds per km<sup>2</sup> around Lake Fantang (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2003). The population density was estimated at c.10 birds per km<sup>2</sup> in the Loru Protected Area on Espiritu Santo (Bowen 1997, O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2003), but birds appear less common in other forests on the island (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. There are 1970s records from Vanua Lava, Aoba, Malo, Malakula, Lopevi, Paama, Epi, Tongoa and Emae islands and records from 2000 onwards from Vanbirds has recent records from the Torres Islands (Loh), Reef Islands (coral atoll between Ureparapara and Mota Lava), Mota Lava, Vanua Lava, Mere Lava, Santo, Ambae, Pentecost, Ambrym, (up to about 500 m above sea level), Malekula, Epi, Tongoa (breeding at geothermal sites near sea level), Nguna and Emau islands (north Efate); it is also probably still present on Gaua (J. Diamond <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160; S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007). On Tanna, its status is uncertain, it may never have occurred on the island (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007) or it may be extinct there (Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. The species varies in abundance, usually uncommon and localised but may be abundant close to communal nesting grounds (Dutson 2011). <p></p>
100600124		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland hill forest and has been recorded up to c. 800m on Ambrym (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2003). It rarely occurs in logged forest and is absent from other habitats except coastal vegetation adjacent to coastal nesting grounds. Singles, pairs and small groups forage on forest floor, sometimes alongside Red Junglefowl <span style="font-style: italic;">Gallus gallus</span><strong style="font-style: italic;"></strong>, from sea-level to c.800 m, at higher higher altitudes often in valleys. It nests in volcanically heated areas, on beaches and in decomposing vegetation such as around rotting trees. As with other congeners, it is believed to be a dispersive species, flying to nesting and roosting sites, and not is therefore at risk from population fragmentation. It forages by scratching in the leaf-litter on the forest floor (Bregulla 1992, Bowen 1996). <br/><p></p>
100600124		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600124		threats	eng	Egg-collection on Ambrym is now restricted by a locally controlled system of taboos, which may have significantly reduced human disturbance (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2003), although these bans are difficult to enforce (R. Hills <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is hunted by rural communities and killed by feral dogs. Large areas of lowland forest across its range are scheduled for logging or have been cleared for agriculture and the forest understory is degraded by cattle-grazing (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007). Coastal forests, where some communal nesting grounds are located, are particularly threatened. Fires and cyclones degrade foraging and nesting grounds (Bregulla 1992<strong>, </strong>S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Bowen 1996,&#160;Foster 1999). <p></p>
100600125		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the Marianas, a&#160; recovery plan exists and the species is protected by federal and local laws (USFWS 1998)<strong></strong>. More surveys are planned (USFWS 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 1998 and 1999, feral goats and pigs were removed from Sarigan (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. The uninhabited islands of Asuncion, Maug, Uracus and Guguan are wildlife sanctuaries (USFWS 1998)<strong></strong>. One important conservation action was the re-introduction of this species to Saipan in the 1960s and 1970s by local islanders (USFWS 1998).   In Palau, the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Reserve protects 50-80 birds (Wiles and Conry 1990)<strong></strong>. There are plans to eradicate rats from the atoll of Kayangel<strong> </strong>(J. Millet <em> in litt. </em>2007, A. Gupta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011<strong></strong>). The status of the species in Palau&#160;is under active review by Belau National Museum (A. Olsen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed censuses (including mapping nesting sites).  Develop a long-term monitoring programme.  Continue ecological research.  In Palau, determine the risk of human disturbance to nest sites.  In the Marianas, preserve remnant forest from development and feral ungulates. Throughout its range, selectively control cats, rats, and monitor lizards, and protect all islands from the introduction of the brown tree-snake.  Implement an education programme to discourage hunting of the species. Eradicate rats from Kayangel.   <p></p>
100600125		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius laperouse</em> occurs on <strong>Palau</strong> and the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, and is extirpated from Guam (to USA). In Palau, rac<span style="">e </span><em style="">senex</em><span style=""> is generally uncommon to rare and locally distributed (VanderWerf 2007), although 'hundreds' were recently reported on Kayangel Atoll  (J. Millet </span><em style=""> in litt. </em><span style="">2007, </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">G. Wiles </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012). In 1991, the population was estimated at 497 birds, excluding Kayangel (Engbring and Pratt 1985, Engbring 1992).  In</span> 2005, a repeat survey found stable numbers on Peleliu and Babeldaob, but evidence of declines in the Rock Islands and on Anguar (VanderWerf 2007). Kayangel Atoll was not included in this survey. In the Marianas, nominate <em>laperouse</em> is mainly restricted to the islands north of Saipan (including Farallon de Medinilla [Lusk <em>et al.</em> 2000]<strong></strong>). In 1997, the population was estimated at 1,440-1,975 birds (the largest subpopulation being 545-810 on Sarigan) (USFWS 1998<span style="">). A remnant population of a few birds may persist on Tinian (Wiles </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 1987, USFWS 1998,  J. Lepson </span><em style="">in litt. </em><span style="">1999), although no individuals were detected during a survey in 2008 (Camp </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009). Aguiguan supports a small population (USFWS 1998)</span>, and&#160; equal numbers of birds were detected during surveys in 1982 and 2008 (14 and 15 birds, respectively [Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009]). A small population (14 birds) was reintroduced on Saipan (Craig 1996)<strong></strong>; however, during a survey of bird species on Saipan in 2007, the species was not reported (R. Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). A significant population on Anatahan, estimated at 200-300 birds (USFWS 1998) was lost in the early 2000s when all habitat on the island was destroyed by a m<span style="">ajor volcanic eruption.</span><p></p>
100600125		habitat	eng	Most remaining populations in the Marianas inhabit areas of volcanic forest and coconut groves on volcanic islands, whereas those present on the limestone islands of Saipan, Tinian, and Aguiguan prefer limestone forest and secondary forest (U<span style="">SFWS 1998)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In Palau, most birds inhabit limestone and beach strand forests, with smaller numbers present in upland volcanic forests (Engbring 1992, VanderWerf 2007). The species is omnivorous, taking a wide variety of foods from the forest floor including insects, crabs and plant matter (Engbring 1988, USFWS 1998)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Nominate </span><em style="">laperouse</em><span style=""> nests in burrows in sun-warmed cinder fields or geothermally-heated areas (USFWS 1998)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Race </span><em style="">senex</em><span style=""> nests in large mounds located primarily in narrow beach strand forests; these are constructed of sand and plant material (Wiles and Conry 2001). </span>A few mounds are also built in upland forest and are made of decayed wood and other plant material.<p></p>
100600125		population	eng	There are estimated to be hundreds of birds in Kayangel (J. Millet <em>in litt. </em>2007), 497 birds in the rest of Palau (<span style="">Engbring and Pratt 1985, Engbring 1992</span>), and 1,440-1,975 birds in the Marianas (USFWS 1998<span style="">)</span>. These estimates total 2,000-2,500 individuals, roughly equating to 1,300-1,700 mature individuals.
100600125		threats	eng	In the Marianas, forests are periodically degraded by t<span style="">yphoons and damaged by feral herbivores, sometimes resulting in the loss of topsoil, and consequent reduction of food and nesting sites. A volcanic eruption destroyed the entire megapode population on Anatahan in the early 2000s. Volcanic activity is an ongoing threat on other islands as well, and can bury vegetation and nesting areas (USFWS 1998). Birds were hunted, and eggs were collected in the past (USFWS 1998), but the current extent of these problems is unknown. In Palau, increased tourist use of beaches has resulted in disturbance to nest sites (Engbring 1992). Birds are infrequently hunted in Palau, but the eggs are still regularly collected illegally from nest mounds (</span><span style=""><span style="">Engbring 1992, Pratt and Etpison 2008). On all islands, predation on megapodes by introduced predators, e.g. monitor lizard </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Varanus indicus</span><span style="">, rats </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Rattus spp</span><span style="">., and feral cats, dogs and pigs is a threat (USFWS 1998, Pratt and Etpison 2008). The accidental introduction of the brown tree snake </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Boiga irregularis</span><span style=""> from Guam to other islands in the Marianas and to Palau is a serious threat (USFWS 1998).         </span><p></p>
100600126		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected, although in practice there is no enforcement. From 1991 to 1993, 60 eggs were buried at volcanically heated sites on Late (Göth and Vogel 1995)<strong></strong>, and an additional 35 eggs and chicks were transferred to Fonualei<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Rinke 1994)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>, both uninhabited and rarely visited by humans. Breeding was successful on Fonualei and the population appears to be established (R. W. R. J. Dekker <em>in litt. </em>2003,&#160;C. Matevalea verbally 1999, Watling 2004), but surveys suggest the translocation failed on Late (R. Dekker <em>in litt.</em> 2004, A. Göth <em>in litt.</em> 2004). A Conservation Strategy for the species was published in 2011 by the World Pheasant Association and the  Tonga Community Development Trust (Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) which includes a series of community-based conservation initiatives.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue long-term monitoring of the nesting grounds on N<span style="">iuafo'ou.  Examine soil temperature and geothermal activity on Niuafo'ou</span>. Protect the three crater lake islets as nature reserves, minimise disturbance and regularly survey for introduced predators.  On Niuafo'ou, enforce the ban on hunting and egg-collecting or restrict it, preferably through a council of residents endowed with necessary powers.  Assess the feasibility of eradicating feral cats and dogs from Niuafo'ou.  Investigate obtaining Reserve status for Fonualei. <p></p>
100600126		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius pritchardii</em> is endemic to <strong>Tonga</strong> where although fossil evidence indicates it was once widespread, there is now only a remnant population on the island of Niuafo'ou and a re-introduced population on Fonualei. On Niuafo'ou it is concentrated around the inner slopes of the caldera (a large sunken water- and forest-filled crater  formed after volcanic activity) and on two cat-free islets in the crater lake. In 1979, the population was estimated at 820 adults (Todd 1983)<strong></strong> and, in 1991-1993, at 188-235 pairs occupying 641 ha of 719 ha of suitable habitat (Göth and Vogel 1995)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This represents 52-65% of possible carrying capacity, assuming an average of 0.5 pairs per ha (Göth and Vogel 1995)<strong></strong>. Comparisons between individual sites and interviews with local people had strongly suggested an overall decline (Göth and Vogel 1995)<strong></strong>. Introductions to the islands of Late and Fonualei have been carried out. A 2003 survey on Fonualei found the species to be common, comprising an estimated 300-500 adult individuals (Watling 2004)<strong></strong>, but there is no evidence of its continued existence on Late (R. W. R. J. Dekker <em>in litt. </em>2003, R. Dekker <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. A survey in September 2010 revealed that the population on Niuafo'ou has undergone a dramatic decline in the number of nests at all known nesting grounds, and is now confined to small  areas within the caldera. Historically, 27 nests were known from 13 different sites  across Niuafo'ou (Goeth unpublished data, in Tilmouth 2010), but during the September  2010 survey only 10 active nests at 7 sites were found (Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011. The 2010 survey also failed to uncover any new nesting grounds since the research of Göth and Vogel (1995, 1997).<br/><p></p>
100600126		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaved forest ranging from secondary to mature (Göth and Vogel 1995)<strong></strong>, but needs areas with little ground cover where it can forage in leaf-litter and top soil; mainly for insects and worms, but also small reptiles, seeds and small fruit (Rinke <em>et al.</em> 1993). It uses hot volcanic ash to incubate its eggs, a habit which confines its nesting sites to areas of loose soil close to vents, either in forest or in open ash, or beaches of crater lakes (Todd 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600126		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 450-650 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 680-970 individuals in total (R. Dekker<em> in litt. </em>2003).
100600126		threats	eng	A study in 1993 reve<span style="">aled that all nesting sites on Niuafo'ou were harvested with at least 50% of all eggs laid being collected or destroyed (Göth and Vogel 1995)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. However, egg collecting appears to have decline markedly since 1993 (Lloyd 2011) and so the  reason for the recent decline in the number of nest sites is currently unknown.  One possibility is that natural shifts in geothermal activity  may have caused changes in soil temperature profiles that would inhibit  successful incubation of eggs (Tilmouth 2010). Adults are also hunted on a small scale, and both adults and chicks are predated by feral cats and dogs, while pigs almost certainly destroy suitable foraging habitat for  young birds (Lloyd 2011) and may compete for food (Göth and Vogel 1995)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Fonualei is uninhabited so the threats of hunting and human disturbance are less immediate for the reintroduced population there (R. Dekker </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2004)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.</span><br/><p></p>
100600127		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been legally protected since 1979. Traditional management regimes for sustainable egg-harvesting have been observed for at least 80 years at the two main nesting grounds, reputedly without serious detriment to the species. Surveys of nesting grounds on all Moluccan islands and Misool took place between 1994 and 1997, including a biological study at the Kailolo nesting ground on Haruku island. Translocation of eggs from this site to the nearby Desa Haruku nesting ground helped to replenish the number of nesting adults returning in subsequent years<strong> </strong>(Heij 2005a). Kailolo nesting ground has been monitored continuously since 1994, involving local people<strong> </strong>(Heij 2005b). In 2006, it was to be proposed that one of the four nesting grounds in Kailolo be left untouched (Heij 2005c). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the impact of recent civil unrest on population status, particularly at Haruku Campaign for full legal protection of nesting habitats and corridors at and around viable nesting grounds, particularly at Galela and Haruku.  Conduct education programmes and work closely with local people to achieve and maintain sustainable egg-harvest regimes. Monitor breeding success at selected key nesting grounds.  Determine the dispersal, range and movement of adults and chicks through the use of radio-tracking and genetic studies.  <p></p>
100600127		distribution	eng	<em>Eulipoa wallacei</em> is endemic to the Moluccan Islands of Buru, Seram, Haruku, Ambon, Bacan, Halmahera, Ternate, and Misool off Irian Jaya (from where there is only one old record), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Dekker <em>et al.</em> 2000, BirdLife International 2001). The vast majority of the population nests at two sites: Galela on Halmahera (c.26,000-28,000 individuals in 1997) and on Haruku Island (c.8,600 individuals in 1997)<strong> </strong>(Heij <em>et al</em>. 1997). The coastal strip of North Seram held c.3,000-5,000 individuals in 1997<strong> </strong>(Heij <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is probably extinct on Ambon, Ternate, Bacan and Kasiruta, while the situation on Obi is unclear. Buru still has nesting grounds, but numbers have been greatly reduced since the beginning of the 20th century. <p></p>
100600127		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, evergreen rainforest, also occurring in degraded forest and coastal scrub, from sea-level to 2,000 m although perhaps more typically above 750 m, except when nesting. It lays and buries its eggs (which average at least 20% of adult body weight) nocturnally at communal nesting-grounds, chiefly on solar-radiated sandy beaches or other loose, unvegetated substrates. Egg-laying occurs year-round, but timing, spacing and depth of burrows and behaviour at nesting sites are influenced by lunar cycles<strong> </strong>(Baker and Dekker 2000). The birds have been recorded switching to new nesting sites when traditional sites are unsuitable<strong> </strong>(Heij 2005a). <p></p>
100600127		population	eng	Heij <I>et al</I>. (1997) established the total egg-laying population that nests on Haruku Island at 4200 females. 13,000-14,000 egg-laying females were estimated at Galela on Halmahera in 1995 (Heij <I>et al</I>. 1997). Also the coastal strip of North Seram holds c.1500-2500 egg laying females, and several other islands hold small populations. These estimates total c.18,000-20,000 females or 36,000-40,000 mature individuals, hence the total population is perhaps best placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
100600127		threats	eng	Over-harvesting of its highly nutritious eggs is the main reason for its decline, even in some areas where traditional regulatory management is practiced. Civil unrest in the Moluccas has prevented conservation efforts over the past five years.  However, on Haruku nesting success increased from the late 1990s onwards apparently because egg-collection virtually ceased owing to political unrest<strong> </strong>(Heij 2001a, Heij 2005a). Since 2003, the political situation has stabilised and uncontrolled harvesting has resumed<strong> </strong>(Heij 2005a,c), although in 2005 harvest levels had still not recovered to levels observed in the mid-1990s (Heij 2005c). Natural predation of eggs and chicks by <em>Varanus</em> lizards, snakes and birds of prey poses an increasing threat as colonies decline. Predation by introduced cats<strong> </strong>(Heij 2001b), dogs and pigs has also served to reduce the number of egg-laying birds<strong> </strong>(Heij 2005a). Sand extraction for local road construction and a number of development projects threaten nesting grounds, as does pollution from litter (Heij 2005b,c). Deforestation (through logging and agricultural encroachment) is presumed to be a threat in its non-breeding habitats. Severe droughts linked to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) probably cause reductions in egg production (Heij 2001a).<br/><p></p>
100600128		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's rapid decline has prompted the production of a national research plan (Orsini &amp; Hall 1995) and recovery plan (Benshemesh 2007). The species is the focus of many non-government conservation groups (e.g. the Victorian Malleefowl Recovery Group and the Malleefowl Preservation Group) (Bode and Brennan 2011). National monitoring standards have been established and annual counts of active mounds are carried out at over 60 sites (Benshemesh 2004). Reserves have been declared, some on private lands, and some habitats have been fenced to exclude stock. Goats, rabbits and foxes have been partially controlled at some sites. Further habitat has been secured, protecting links between isolated populations, and wildfire response plans prepared. Community initiatives have been a major force in identifying and supporting research opportunities, and on-the-ground project implementation and management have been successful (S. Dennings<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2004). Captive breeding is allowing population supplementation (G. Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2005).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain or establish habitat corridors between fragments (Benshemesh 2000). Carry out further research into the threat of predation by foxes and the effectiveness of baiting (Benshemesh 2000, Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Continue efforts to control foxes, goats and rabbits (Benshemesh 2000). Establish long term conservation covenant agreements to secure privately owned natural vegetation (Benshemesh 2000). Encourage adoption of suitable fire regimes (Benshemesh 2000). In reserves, close or fence off artificial water supplies and remove livestock (Benshemesh 2000). Foster communication with graziers and farmers about malleefowl requirements (Benshemesh 2000). Minimise the amount of grain spilt on roadsides that pass through suitable habitat and erect warning signs where fatalities are likely to occur (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Monitor populations in at least 10 sites in each state and assess the size and distribution of populations in fragments and remote regions (Benshemesh 2000). Carry out further research into the species's ecology and demography (Benshemesh 2000), especially the minimum population size for subpopulation persistence (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Conduct genetic analysis to detect areas of disjunction between subpopulations (Benshemesh 2000). Investigate the effect of agrochemicals on fertility (Benshemesh 2000).<br/><p></p>
100600128		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Leipoa ocellata</span> was formerly widespread in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, but its range appears to have contracted by about 50% during the 20th Century (Benshemesh 2000). It now occurs at scattered locations throughout southern Australian, with the largest contiguous expanse of habitat stretching east from the Western Australian wheatbelt (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Estimates in the 1980s suggested there were only 750 pairs in New South Wales and less than 1,000 pairs in Victoria. Numbers in South Australia are probably higher, perhaps several thousand pairs. However, data from protected areas suggests that densities in this state have typically declined by 75% since 1989-1990, with populations in New South Wales probably declining at about the same rate (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species' population in Western Australia is believed to exceed the total in all other states, although records from this state generally represent less than 40% of all current and past records, despite efforts since the 1990s to encourage reports of sightings (J. Benshemesh <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). By 1989, the range and abundance of this species was judged to have contracted dramatically in the arid areas of South and Western Australia (Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990), but since then it has been found at numerous sites in these states (J. Benshemesh<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). The species is judged to be in a continuing decline across its range (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It has not been recorded for several decades (and is probably extinct) in the Northern Territory (Benshemesh 2000). Despite the availability of survey data from sites across its range (J. Benshemesh <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007), an accurate recent estimate of the total population size is lacking. Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size at around 100,000 based on a density of 1–2 pairs per km<sup>2</sup> over an AOO of 40,000 km<sup>2</sup>. There is some evidence that over the last decade there has been a general increase across south-west New South Wales and Victoria and that numbers may have levelled out in South Australia (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). For instance, at 34 sites in Victoria, counts in 2010 were higher than they had been for 15 years (J. Benshemesh <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
100600128		habitat	eng	It is found principally in semi-arid to arid shrubland and woodland dominated by mallee eucalypts <em>Eucalyptus </em>and/or wattles <em>Acacia</em>. It requires a sandy substrate and abundance of leaf-litter for breeding. It occurs in higher breeding densities on better soils with higher rainfall and prefers habitat that has been unburnt for several decades. It feeds opportunistically on locally or seasonally abundant food (Harlen &amp; Priddel 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, taking herbs, seeds, flowers, fruit, fungi, tubers and invertebrates, and also in stubble on adjoining agricultural land. Its "nest" is a mound, comprising an inner core of leaf-litter buried under a thick layer of sand. It may lay over 30 eggs in a season but, on average, each breeding pair produces 8-10 chicks each year (Frith 1959)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600128		population	eng	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the total population at 100,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to 150,000 total individuals.
100600128		threats	eng	Clearance for agriculture has eliminated much habitat and some patches are affected by raised salinity levels, resulting in fragmented populations and a higher risk of localised extinction from starvation and bushfires (Frith 1962, Benshemesh 2000, S. Dennings <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004). The survival rate of young birds is low, mainly owing to predation by the introduced red fox <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes</span> (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Small-scale experiments suggest that the level of predation is significant in both disturbed and relatively undisturbed habitats, but is higher in habitats affected by fire, introduced herbivores and plant harvesting, compared to protected areas, and decreases with increasing levels of fox control (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). However, fox control measures can have little impact on reversing declines (Benshemesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span> also prey on chicks (Wheeler &amp; Priddel, 2009) and their numbers can increase after fox baiting (Short 2004). It is highly sensitive to grazing by introduced herbivores such as goats (S. Dennings<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2004) and sheep (Frith 1962), large-scale wildfire (Benshemesh 1990), and may suffer predation by wild dogs (Frith 1962, Priddel and Wheeler 1997). Introduced weed species may also affect habitat quality (S. Dennings <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004). Other threats include infertility, possibly attributable to agricultural chemicals, and road-kills where birds feed on spilt roadside grain (Benshemesh 1999).<br/><p></p>
100600130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000-2100 breeding pairs, equating to 3000-6300 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
100600131		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600132		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 32,000-67,000 breeding pairs, equating to 96,000-201,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
100600133		population	eng	del Hoyo et al. (1994) estimated the global population to number 8,400-11,200 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,500-9,000 breeding pairs, equating to 7,500-27,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 10,000-50,000 individuals (roughly equating to 6,700-33,000 mature individuals), although further validation of this estimate is needed.
100600137		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600138		distribution	eng	This species is poorly known because its remote habitat is rarely visited. It is considered generally uncommon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1994), and very rare and local in India (Grimmett <I>et al</I>. 1998), but it is thought to remain widespread in the Chinese part of its range (He Fenqi <I>et al</I>. 1995).  </P>
100600138		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon. It is considered generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994), and very rare and local in India (Grimmett et al. 1998), but it is thought to remain widespread in the Chinese part of its range (He Fenqi et al. 1995). The population in eastern Tibet is estimated as 25,000-40,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600139		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation measures underway<br/></strong>EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is classified as Threatened or Near  Threatened in Red Data Books in Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Greece, Italy and Switzerland.<strong></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation measures proposed</strong> <br/>Conduct surveys to determine population size and trends across the species's range. Improve knowledge on the effects of hunting on the species. Implement measures to reduce abandonment of traditional agro-pastoral activities. Safeguard the species's habitat. Improve legislation and enforcement to reduce unsustainable hunting and poaching. Investigate hybridisation with captive-bred <em>A. chukar</em> and <em>A. rufa</em> and pathogen and parasite transfer from these species.
100600139		distribution	eng	<em>Alectoris graeca</em> is endemic to Europe, occurring only in the Alps, the Apennines, Sicily and the Balkans. It is suspected to be declining moderately rapidly, particularly in the Balkans which hold a substantial proportion of the species's population and range, based on a balanced assessment of the available evidence (e.g. Griffin 2011, A. Bernard-Laurent <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Within the Balkans, it breeds in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span> (strong decline is suspected since c.1995), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span> (c.10,000 pairs and thought  to have declined strongly in the last few decades [Sucic 2008]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span> (declining numbers and distribution since the 1960s [Iankov 2007]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span> (6,000-10,000 pairs [Tutis <em>et al.</em>  in press] and considered to be declining with several local  extinctions reported [Budinski <em>et al.</em> 2010]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span> (apparently stable population in 2005-2011 [Bontzorlos <em>et al</em>. 2011] although the national Red List reports on-going declines and local  extirpations in its range [Handrinos and Katsadorakis  2009]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Macedonia FYR </span>(2,000–5,000 pairs [Velevski <em>et al.</em> in press], no current evidence for a  decline), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span> (declined from 3,000–4,000 pairs [Puzovic <em>et al. </em>2003] to c.1,300 pairs in 2010-2011 [Saveljic <em>et al</em>. 2011]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia</span> (declined by c. 20-30% in the 1990s to c. 1,000–1,500 pairs [Puzovic <em>et al</em>. 2009]). Elsewhere in the species's range, declines have been reported in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span> (common but declining [Z. Dedej and A. Postoli <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span> (R. Lentner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span> (a range reduction in the Apennine Mountains in the last 10-15 years and a decline of 11% in the last 20 years in Sicily [Lo Valvo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1993, M. Lo Valvo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012]) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span> (long-term fluctuations followed by recent declines [V. Keller and N. Zbinden <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012])<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. Population monitoring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span> from 1981 to 2011 has shown the population to be fluctuating (A. Bernard-Laurent <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A small population persists in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span> where current trend is unknown. The global population is estimated at c.80,000–150,000 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
100600139		habitat	eng	The species utilises a variety of habitats and different altitudes, up to 3000m in the Alps and almost down to sea level in Sicily and Greece. Generally they prefer open, mountain habitats with grassy patches, low scrub or scattered conifers (Griffin 2011).
100600139		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 40,000-78,000 breeding pairs, equating to 120,000-230,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
100600139		threats	eng	Studies in different parts of the species’s range (summarised in Griffin  2011) indicate that it is affected by a wide variety of threats,  including habitat loss and degradation (Bernard-Laurent and de  Franceschi 1994), abandonment of traditional agro-pastoral activities (Budinski <em>et al.</em> 2010, Rippa <em>et al.</em> 2011), reduced connectivity between metapopulations  (Cattadori <em>et al.</em> 2003), disturbance, poaching, unsustainable hunting, extreme climatic events (Bernard-Laurent and Leonard<span class="says"> 2000),<span style=""> hybridisation with released captive-bred Chukar </span><em style="">A. chukar</em><span style=""> and Red-legged Partridge </span><em style="">A. rufa</em><span style=""> (Barilani </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2007, Randi 2008), and the transfer of pathogens and parasites from these species (Manios </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2002, Rosà</span><em style=""> et al.</em><span style=""> 2011). Additional threats include the increase of tourism in mountain areas, predominantly in the French and Austria</span>n Alps (A. Bernard-Laurent<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<span class="says"><span class="says"><span class="says"></span></span>
100600140		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) have estimated the global population to number c.2,000,000 individuals, while in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number c.660,000-1,900,000 breeding pairs, equating to c.1,980,000-5,700,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is c.2,000,000-10,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600143		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7,500-20,000 breeding pairs, equating to 22,500-60,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
100600144		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 2,000,000-4,500,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,000,000-13,500,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
100600145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6,000-18,000 breeding pairs, equating to 18,000-54,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
100600147		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common across much of large range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to quite common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1994). Brazil (2009) estimates the population size in China at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
100600149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600150		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is legally protected in India and Nepal. It is currently known from at least 14 protected areas in India, the largest populations surviving in North Pilibhit Wildlife Sanctuary, Dudwa National Park and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary, in Uttar Pradesh; Valmikinagar Tiger Reserve, in Bihar, and Kaziranga, Orang, Dibru-Saikhowa  and Manas national parks, in Assam (A. Choudhury <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Important populations occur in two protected areas in Nepal. Ecological studies have been conducted in northern India <strong></strong>(Iqubal <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2003) and are underway in Nepal <strong></strong>(S. Javed <em>in litt.</em> 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine impact of grass harvesting and burning on its habitat. Urgently develop appropriate management recommendations for protected area managers in India and Nepal. Map and protect suitable habitat for the species, focusing on sites close to protected areas and Important Bird Areas as a matter of priority. Develop a management regime that is compatible with the species's survival in anthropogenic habitats and farming techniques. Establish site support groups at Koshi Tappu and Royal Sukla Phanta wildlife reserves in Nepal and key sites in India. Control poaching and trapping, and if possible provide alternative livelihood options for trappers. Conduct awareness programmes of the plight of this species and the importance of its habitat at key sites. Train local people in monitoring the species. Produce range-wide management plan for the species to address fragmentation of its habitat. Explore the possibility of reintroduction to restored habitats (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
100600150		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus gularis</em> is endemic to the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins, from the Terai of western <strong>Nepal</strong> to Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, northern <strong>India</strong>. It formerly occurred abundantly in Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Sundarbans, Bangladesh (BirdLife International 2001), but there have been no recent records from the country and the species is considered extirpated (Siddiqui and Islam 2008). In India, populations have been found in all well-protected Terai grasslands, suggesting it exists in greater numbers than previously thought. In Nepal, where its range covers c.2,400 km<sup>2</sup> with an area of occupancy of 330 km<sup>2</sup>, the population is estimated at fewer than 500 birds and perhaps gradually declining. There are no recent records from Sikkim or Meghalaya <strong></strong>(A. Choudhury <em>in litt.</em> 2004).<p></p>
100600150		habitat	eng	It is resident in tall, wet, natural grasslands, particularly those dominated by <em>Phragmites</em>,<em> Arundo</em>, <em>Saccharum</em> and <em>Narenga</em>, and also occurs (at lower densities) in wet agricultural areas dominated by sugarcane and paddy interspersed with natural vegetation. Surveys in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, recorded seasonal shifts  in habitat preference, with woodland-grassland and wet grassland  favoured in the breeding season and summer, and dry grassland and  woodland preferred in the monsoon season (Dahal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is predominantly known from the lowlands (generally below 250 m), but moves to slightly higher altitudes during periods of high flood. Its range size is small compared with other Galliformes, offering hope for the species's conservation. A matrix of habitat including some agricultural areas is capable of supporting the species; however, in human-modified areas retention of some natural grassland habitat associated with wet areas appears to be critical <strong></strong>(Iqubal <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003).<br/><p></p>
100600150		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
100600150		threats	eng	Most remaining habitat within its range is subject to intense pressures from drainage for agriculture, human encroachment, fire, grass harvesting, grazing by domestic stock (especially during chick rearing), commercial forestry plantations and dam and irrigation schemes. Significant populations reported from outside the protected areas in Assam in the 1990s (Choudhury 2000) have virtually vanished in recent years due to conversion of habitat into farmland (A. Choudhury<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Hunting and trapping for sport (cock fighting), food and the aviculture trade also occur (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Agricultural pesticides may be affecting its numbers, either through direct mortality or the reduction in potential food sources (invertebrates), and poisoning of wetlands for fishing is a threat reported from Nepal <strong></strong>(Singh 2004). The drying out of swampy areas during the breeding season represents a threat that may become more severe owing to climate change. In August 2008, the Koshi River breached its eastern bank, resulting in the flooding of 3-4 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Work to repair the breach brought construction traffic and labourers into the reserve, with a subsequent increase in hunting levels. A decrease in sightings of this species in the affected area suggests that birds had shifted to alternative habitat elsewhere (Dahal 2009). A negative correlation between numbers of this species and numbers of people present in part of Koshi Tappu suggests that disturbance and/or habitat alteration may significantly impact the species; however, the same effect was not found for the presence of livestock (Dahal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600151		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to rare throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600153		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600155		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600156		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda and Ruvubu National Park in Burundi.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys, including playback, to determine the current population and distribution. Identify the threats that have caused its apparent decline. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
100600156		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Francolinus</em></span><em> <span class="SpellE">streptophorus</span></em> has a <span class="SpellE">disjunct         distribution, with populations in <strong>Burundi, Cameroon, Kenya, Rwanda,         Tanzania</strong> and <strong>Uganda</strong>. The stronghold was assumed to be in         Uganda, where the species was thought to be common in suitable habitat.         However, a paucity of recent records has raised suspicions that it is         not common or widespread there. Recent records from Uganda all come         from the west (<span class="SpellE">Carswell</span><em> et al</em>. 2005), where it is regularly recorded from         Murchison Falls National Park (M. Mills <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</em> 2006, D. Pomeroy <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2006).         It is recorded sporadically in western Kenya (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989) and is         reportedly fairly common in Tanzania. There are no recent records from         Cameroon and recent attempts to locate it failed (<span class="SpellE">Languy in prep.). It         is recorded from <span class="SpellE">Ruvubu</span> National Park in         Burundi (G. <span class="SpellE">Citegetse <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2006) and has apparently been recorded in Rwanda (Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002).
100600156		habitat	eng	This species inhabits stony hillsides with sparse grass and shrub cover, and wooded grasslands at 600-1,800 m. It is very shy, flushes reluctantly, usually encountered in pairs or small parties, and is most active at dawn.  <p></p>
100600156		population	eng	The global population has not been quantified, but given the paucity of recent records it is thought to be moderately small. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600156		threats	eng	Previously thought to be common, the reasons for its apparent decline are not known, but habitat modification is the most likely cause. <p></p>
100600157		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in optimal habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to locally rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600163		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the DRC, the population in the Semliki Valley is within the Virunga National Park (McGowan 1994)<strong></strong>. In Uganda, it occurs in the Bugoma and Mabira Forest Reserves, as well as the Budongo Forest Reserve, which has been sustainably managed for timber since the 1920s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> (</span>Plumptre 1996)<strong></strong>. A cycle of monitoring in Budongo Forest has been arranged for 2008 so that data continues to be collected every five years, whilst it is anticipated that the species will be monitored across its global range every 10 years (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Settlers encroaching on Bugoma Forest Reserve have been removed by the authorities but may attempt to return (C. Dranzoa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ability to disperse between forest patches (R. Fuller <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Use developed playback survey methods, carry out surveys in Uganda before 2015, especially in Mabira Forest, and continue surveys across the species's range at 10 year intervals (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extend surveys for the bird in eastern DRC (lowland sectors of Maiko National Park, lowland sectors of Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, Ituri Forest, and Tayna Forest; Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey forest patches between Bugoma forest and Kibale National Park, Uganda, and within Kibale and Semliki National Parks. Study genetic variation within and among isolated populations. Investigate the impact of the paper mulberry <em>Broussonetia papyrifera</em> invasion in Mabira Forest Reserve and ways of controlling it. Carry out radio-tracking studies on the use of (introduced) <em>Lantana</em> <em>camara</em> thickets by the species (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In DRC, extend Virunga National Park to include the eastern Ituri Forest. Initiate projects to alleviate meat shortages and start income generation projects, targeting them particularly at those that still regularly hunt galliformes (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage ecotourism projects run by community groups (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage villagers to hunt in areas closer to their homes, rather than in forests, and initiate conservation awareness programmes in parallel with the falling popularity of hunting (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce existing government forestry policies in Uganda, especially in Mabira Forest (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600163		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus nahani</em> is known from a few localities in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) from Yangambi eastwards, and in central and western <strong>Uganda</strong> in Budongo, Bugoma (401 km<sup>2</sup>) and Mabira (210 km<sup>2</sup>) Forests (Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999; McGowan 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent surveys estimated the population in Uganda to be 44,038 (95% CI: 32,827-59,079) individuals (Fuller <em>et al.</em> (2004a;<em></em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its reported presence in Bwamba (= Semliki) and Kibale (560 km<sup>2</sup>) Forests (Uganda) has never been confirmed and is best discounted (M. Carswell <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999; D. Pomeroy <em>in litt.</em> 1999; E. Sande <em>per</em> R. Ssemmanda<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is known to be uncommon in the still extensive Ituri Forest, DRC, and fairly common in Budongo Forest, Uganda (Plumptre 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in the DRC took place in 2005, and call playback methods were used to successfully locate 12 groups in Irangi Forest over one month (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This population may not be viable in the long-term due to the small size and isolation of this patch of forest. Surveys in the lowland sector of Virunga National Park were unsuccessful in finding any birds (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's range is in decline throughout its highly fragmented distribution  (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600163		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland primary forest, preferring riverine or swampy areas (Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999; McGowan 1994)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Uganda, it occurs in both unlogged and logged forest (Sande 2001)<strong></strong>, including mixed forest subject to moderate logging and/or disturbance, or where natural gaps occur (Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Records from forest edge and non-forest habitats may refer to dispersing or feeding birds (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004a, 2004b)<strong></strong>. It prefers to forage in areas of dense understorey with a tall, dense canopy and sparse ground vegetation  (Sande 2001; Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Dense canopy cover indicates mature forest containing suitable breeding and roosting sites (Sande <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), and a dense understorey indicates the presence of preferred feeding habitat; two habitat characteristics that rarely coincide  (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. It searches the leaf-litter for invertebrates, shoots, seeds and bulbs (McGowan 1994)<strong></strong> and probably picks invertebrates from low vegetation (Sande 2001)<strong></strong>. It is highly territorial and breeds throughout the year, though mainly towards the beginning of the rainy season (Sande 2001)<strong></strong>. Most nests are placed on the ground between the buttresses of large trees (Sande 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600163		population	eng	Fuller et al. (2004a, 2004b) estimated a population of 44,038 (95% CI: 32,827-59,079) individuals in Uganda. However, the species's distribution also includes localities in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the inclusion of which may double the known population size (R. Fuller in litt. 2007), therefore the population is placed in the range 50,000-99,999 individuals.
100600163		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is thought to be habitat loss through logging and clearance of forest for charcoal burning and agriculture  (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Fragmentation alone probably does not adversely affect the species, but it does appear to be affected by habitat changes associated with human-induced fragmentation, such as the extensive removal of large trees  (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Its habitat in Mabira Forest is highly degraded (Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and the rapid loss of forest here suggests that the francolin population may be declining (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004a, 2004b)<strong></strong>, making this the most threatened population in Uganda<strong></strong>. Plans to raze 7,100 ha of Mabira and sell off the land for sugar production have been suspended (Anon. 2007). While logging in Bugoma Forest may not directly threaten the species, increased disturbance and poaching by pit-sawyers may reduce its population (J. Lindsell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>-<strong><sup> </sup></strong>both forests are surrounded by agricultural settlements, industrial development and urban areas (Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A new wave of invasion by  veterans and refugees (arriving from DR Congo) is claiming the remaining chunks of Bugoma and  Budongo forests, with an estimated 5,000 ha of Bugoma forest subject to  encroachment by about 1,000 families and pit-sawyers for settlement in  2011-2012 (C. Dranzoa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.&#160;</span>2012). In Uganda, it is hunted for food, and eggs are collected and eaten or used in traditional practices although this appears to be on a small scale (Dranzoa <em>et al.</em> 1999; Dranzoa 2002; Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004a, 2004b)<strong></strong>. Hunting in DRC has not yet been investigated but may be a more serious problem (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong></strong>. The exotic tree species <em>Broussonetia papyfera</em> has invaded the eastern part of Mabira Forest and very few francolins were found in this habitat (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
100600164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and locally distributed (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600165		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant in most parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600168		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although four or five Game Reserves in the Blue Nile basin have been proposed, none have been established (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to assess its distribution (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study its habitat requirements (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the importance of different threats (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. With the full involvement of all concerned stakeholders, develop a comprehensive species action plan to address the conservation of the species and its habitat (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop an area-based action plan and create a conservation task force (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct an environmental education campaign to help relieve hunting pressure and promote sustainable harvesting (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Raise awareness in government and local communities of this Ethiopian endemic (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage the development of legal structures to prohibit the unsustainable exploitation of the species (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Complete population surveys to the north and north-west of the species's currently known range. Protect key areas in collaboration with local communities, in order to allow habitat regeneration (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, possibly concentrating on the Mid-Abbay (Blue Nile) River Basin IBA. Consider the promotion of ecotourism for the benefit of local communities (Wondafrash 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600168		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus harwoodi</em> is restricted to the highlands of central <strong>Ethiopia</strong> around the Abbay (Blue Nile) river and its tributaries (McGowan 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. According to local reports its range extends northwards into Southern Wello and north-west into Eastern Gojam Administrative Zones (Wondafrash 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research in 1996 found it locally abundant in the Jemma and Jara valleys and the adjacent valleys and river catchments of North Showa Zone, with an estimated maximum density of 92 birds per km<sup>2</sup> at Jemma valley (McGowan 1994, Wondafrash 1998)<strong></strong>. It is not known if birds move between adjacent valleys but, if not, it is probable that some subpopulations number more than 1,000 individuals (P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 1998 found it at a number of new sites within its known range (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is now believed to occupy a range of 200,000 km<sup>2</sup> within the Abbay Basin, and is most abundant in the high and middle courses of the river (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Interviews with local people suggest that the species has declined, although it is not clear what the magnitude of this decline has been (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600168		habitat	eng	The species was believed to be almost entirely restricted to <em>Typha</em> (bulrush) beds growing along small, shallow watercourses and <em>Acacia</em> thorn-scrub (EWNHS 1996, Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, studies in 1996 found it at a site with no permanent river or <em>Typha,</em> with evidence of birds roosting in extensive thorn-scrub on hillsides (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is now known to occur in a variety of suitable habitats from 1,200 to 2,600 m asl, including slopes, scrub, river banks, thickets, rocky areas, dense woodland, cropland and at the base of cliffs (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is reported to be from August to December and the clutch-size as 3-10 (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Observations suggest that it may be polygamous (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1997, Wondafrash 1998, 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on seeds and takes those sown by farmers in May-June, but is not considered a pest (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also takes worms, crops, fruit and leaves (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600168		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600168		threats	eng	There is intense pressure on resources within the species's range and consequently even marginal scrubland (favoured by the species for cover) is being cleared for agriculture and timber for fuel and construction (<strong></strong>EWNHS 1996, Wondafrash 1998, 2005)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1998 found that areas between localities had thin and patchy vegetation (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Scrubland and woodland act as refuges for the species, and their loss potentially makes it more susceptible to predation (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Typha</em> beds are burnt annually, so that farmers can plant cotton, and are also cut for thatching (<strong></strong>EWNHS 1996, Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1997, Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Habitat clearance, and burning to encourage new grass growth and reduce populations of ticks and crop pests, reportedly forces birds to seek refuge around human habitations, where they are easily hunted (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite its significance in local culture (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the species is heavily hunted for food and is sometimes also caught for sale at local markets (<strong></strong>EWNHS 1996, Wondafrash 1998, 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, by hand or with the use of snares (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is considered a delicacy and is believed to have medicinal properties (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's habit of associating with domestic poultry also increases the threat from hunting (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs are taken for food (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1997, A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and captive-rearing, although most chicks escape captivity (Wondafrash 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600169		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600170		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very locally distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally abundant to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600175		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A sizeable population was discovered in Quiçama National Park in 2000 (Dean 2001, P. Vaz Pinto<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. A protected area of c.20 km<sup>2</sup> at Chongoroi, in Benguela Province, was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not yet been established (Huntley 1974,<strong></strong> Huntley and Matos 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and to identify potential areas of suitable habitat. Design and evaluate a robust survey technique, perhaps based on playback of vocalisations. Assess the impact of hunting on populations. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, including the area proposed for protection at Chongoroi.  <p></p>
100600175		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus griseostriatus</em> is found throughout the escarpment zone and widely in the northern coastal plain of western <strong>Angola</strong> (Collar and Stuart 1985, Keane <em>et al</em>. in press b, P. Vaz Pinto <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Mills 2010). It was first collected in 1957 and was recorded on only a few occasions until recently, when observers have been more easily able to enter the country (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It appears to be common in some areas (P. Vaz Pinto <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2012; Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600175		habitat	eng	It is found in secondary and gallery forest, occurring in thickets and weed-covered areas in the north of its range and in the extensive dry dense forest and thickets that are typical of the northern coastal plain (P. Vaz Pinto <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Reports suggest that it may be more abundant in the latter habitat and it appears to make use of secondary forest, as long as dense cover is present (P. Vaz Pinto <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is not uncommon in heavily cultivated areas (M. Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It feeds, in both early morning and late afternoon, in grassland and abandoned cotton fields adjacent to the forest  on small arthropods, shoots and seeds (McGowan 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600175		population	eng	The population was previously estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. However, the species's estimated range size has since increased by a factor of five, suggesting that there may be 7,500-35,000 mature individuals.
100600175		threats	eng	Previous civil unrest in the species's range has now abated (M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2004, P. Vaz Pinto <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, but this has facilitated the growth of agricultural activities. Forest on the escarpment is threatened by clearance for subsistence agriculture and charcoal production, although the latter only occurs at sites at c.300 m elevation (Mills 2010). Forest habitats were previously thought to be decreasing at a slow, but steady rate (M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005); however, clearance of the forest understorey and ring-barking of large canopy trees to allow the cultivation of crops such as bananas, maize, beans and cassava, is reportedly taking place at an alarming but unknown rate (Mills 2010). The species appears to show substantial tolerance of heavy habitat modification and occurs in cultivated areas (M. Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), thus agricultural expansion is currently not thought to be driving a rapid decline in this species's population. Urban development also poses a threat to the species's habitat (P. Vaz Pinto <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There is little information on the extent of hunting or the threat it might pose, but it appears not to be serious (P. Vaz Pinto <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.&#160; <p></p>
100600176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600177		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600180		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600181		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Part of Forêt du Day was apparently declared a national park in 1939, but the designation is no longer valid (Magin 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> - work is now underway to advance the implementation of full protected area status for Forêt du Day and Mabla (Rayaleh 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research to clarify the species's range and population numbers is ongoing, including preliminary planning for surveys in other ranges between the two known locations. Meetings have been held with local communities to discuss the establishment of Site Support Groups (SSGs) for Forêt du Day and Mabla (Rayaleh 2008)<strong></strong>, and by early 2010 a small SSG had been formed for Forêt du Day and was already active (H. Rayaleh<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Brochures on the Djibouti Francolin and its habitat have been produced and distributed widely including within schools, tourist centres and government departments; meetings have been held with education authorities to discuss the integration of environmental teaching within primary schools,  and a pilot environmental education programme has been trialled at five local schools (Rayaleh 2008)<strong></strong>. Seminars have been held at Djibouti University to discuss the species's status and establishment of a Djibouti Francolin Working Group, and more conferences were planned for 2010 (H. Rayaleh<em> in litt</em>. 2010). Plans for a community-based juniper forest restoration project are underway, and in May 2008 an area near Day village was set aside for a tree nursery (Rayaleh 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Hirschfeld 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. By early 2009, funding had been secured for the maintanence and expansion of exclosures as well as development of the juniper nursery at Day village (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and by early 2010 installation of necessary structures at the nursery had started (H. Rayaleh<em> in litt</em>. 2010). An international workshop took place in February 2010 to prepare and agree a Species Action Plan for <em>F. ochropectus</em> (H. Rayaleh<em> in litt</em>. 2010, P. K. Ndang'ang'a <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Immediate implementation of protected status of the "Forêts de Day et de Mabla" as recently decreed by government. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat limits and reproductive ecology, especially whether there is seasonal dependence upon juniper forest. These will be aided by the use of radio-tagging which requires development of suitable catching techniques. Community-based juniper forest restoration through planting and assisted regeneration, and the maintenance of local plant nurseries. Limit grazing in areas of juniper regeneration and high abundance of <em>E. ochropectus</em> (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2009). Expand awareness-raising programmes to ensure local people are aware of the value of the species and its habitat to improve participation in other conservation actions. Involve local stakeholders by convening a Protected Area Management Group in the Goda and Mabla areas. Create a working group within Djibouti to promote conservation of the species and its habitat. Develop a long-term integrated management project for the Goda massif, involving socio-economic and agro-pastoral surveys and a conservation education programme (currently being trialled in five local schools by Djibouti Nature). <p></p>
100600181		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus ochropectus</em> is endemic to <strong>Djibouti</strong>, where it is known from only two sites: Forêt du Day in the Goda Massif (c.14-15 km<sup>2</sup> [McGowan<em> et al.</em> 1995]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and the nearby Mabla Mountains. Available habitat at Forêt du Day was halved between 1977 and 1983 (McGowan 1994), with a corresponding decline in the population from 5,600 to 1,500 birds between 1978 and 1985 (McGowan<em> et al.</em> 1995). The population at Forêt du Day was estimated at c.500-1,000 in 1998 (G. R. and H. J. Welch <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Figures released in 2006 indicate that 95% of plateau juniper (the preferred habitat) was either dead or dying (Bealey and Rayaleh 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nevertheless, immature birds continue to be seen and the ability of dead juniper woodland and woodland largely devoid of juniper to support the species remains poorly understood. Survey work by the World Pheasant Association in collaboration with Djibouti Nature led to a population estimate of the Forêt du Day population of 612-723 adults (Bealey and Rayaleh 2006)<strong></strong>. This was followed by a detailed survey in 2007 from which the same population was estimated at 450 individuals (95% CI: 285-705 individuals) (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2009). A 2009 survey estimated the size of the Mabla population at 108 individuals (Welch <em>et al. </em>2009a, 2009b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600181		habitat	eng	It is found in juniper and other woodland (with records between 700 and 1,500 m) but forest at Forêt du Day now only occurs above c.950 m  (Magin 2001). It has been found in secondary woodland and occurs in degraded woodland (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, including dead juniper habitat. It is shy, elusive and occurs in small parties in dense vegetation (Madge and McGowan 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, hence it is not recorded in dead or dying juniper habitats which are more open (Bealey and Rayaleh 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The presence of a population in the Mabla Mountains where juniper is effectively absent may indicate that habitat structure rather than species composition of woodland may a key ecological factor (Welch <em>et al. </em>2009a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A detailed survey in the Forêt du Day suggested that the presence of closed-canopy forest may be more important to the species than juniper health (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2009). It feeds on seeds, berries and termites, and also figs from the forest edge (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is from December to February (McGowan 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is probably monogamous, laying a clutch of 5-7 eggs; the only known nest was a shallow grass-lined depression on an inaccessible mountain ledge (Madge and McGowan 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600181		population	eng	Following a detailed survey of the Forêt du Day in 2007 the population there was estimated at 450 individuals, with 95% confidence intervals giving a range of 285-705 individuals, including juveniles. Potential limitations of that study might mean that the population lies in the lower half of the range estimate, i.e. 285-450 individuals. A 2009 survey estimated the size of the Mabla population at 108 individuals. Taking these survey results into account, the entire population is estimated at fewer than 500 mature individuals (likely 200-500). This roughly equates to 300-750 individuals in total.
100600181		threats	eng	At Forêt du Day, juniper woodland is in poor condition with virtually all trees now dead or dying. The reasons for this are unclear, but the high level of grazing by cattle, camels and goats is certainly a problem in much of the woodland, possibly exacerbated by acid rain, climate change and fungal disease (Magin 2001). Most local people (57%) interviewed in the Forêt du Day attribute high juniper mortality to drought (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2009). A survey in 2007 showed that in areas of high tree cover or poor juniper condition, the presence of <em>F. ochropectus</em> was negatively correlated with grazing intensity, especially that of cattle (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2009). Within 18 months of the restoration of an exclosure juniper seedlings which were non-existent elsewhere were found to be frequent under living juniper trees, suggesting grazing has indeed been the main cause of the decline of the forest (Ford 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other concerns include collection of firewood on lower slopes (Magin 2001), hunting and human disturbance (G. R. and H. J. Welch <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Mabla, there are signs of significant human disturbance in the remaining stands of woodland, which have been heavily exploited for firewood and grazing (Magin 2001). Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600185		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is an internationally-funded conservation and development project on Mt Cameroon, though efforts to date have mainly concentrated on lowland areas threatened with clearance for plantation agriculture (J. Acworth <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. With the technical and financial support of international partner organisations, the Mount Cameroon National Park was created by the Government of Cameroon in December 2009, covering approximately 58,178 hectares (WWF 2010).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Design and evaluate a robust survey technique, perhaps based on playback of vocalisations. Collect detailed distributional information including any evidence of fragmentation. Determine its habitat use more precisely. Control/regulate human-induced burning of grasslands. Investigate the effects of threats (e.g. grassfires, hunting) within the Mount Cameroon and Mokoko-Onge IBA. <p></p>
100600185		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus camerunensis</em> is found on Mt Cameroon, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where it is restricted to the south-east and north-east slopes. During survey work in 1984, it was found to be common, especially on the southern slopes of the mountain. Recent sightings have been irregular and are usually of single pairs (J. Acworth <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is judged to have been scarce since 1996 at least, and it has been noted that some records could relate to the Scaly Francolin <em>F. squamatus </em>(F. Njie<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600185		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth in primary forest and clearings between 850-2,100&#160;m. It appears able to tolerate secondary forest and has been observed in savanna-scrub habitat following forest burning (J. Acworth <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on berries, grass seeds and insects and breeds during the dry season, with birds laying between October and December.<p></p>
100600185		population	eng	The population is estimated at 648-1,134 individuals (4-7 individuals/km<SUP>2</SUP> x 162 km<SUP>2</SUP> [85% of EOO]), but it is likely to be at upper end of this range as it was described as 'common' during fieldwork in 1984, and hence is best placed in the range 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. Density range from lower to upper quartile of five estimates for four forest-dwelling congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet.
100600185		threats	eng	While fire is a naturally occurring phenomenon on Mt Cameroon and lava-flows occur about every 20 years, it is the regular burning of grassland by hunters that is probably the greatest threat to the species, causing the destruction of both eggs and young birds (J. Acworth <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recurrent bush fires destroy forest, particularly on the south-east slopes (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance is an additional problem, notably on the east side of the mountain where it is extensive and could become more serious, with hunting posing a relatively insignificant (but continuing) threat. The species and its eggs may be targeted by hunters and other people (F. Njie<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600186		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area of c.60 km<sup>2</sup> at Mt Moco was proposed in the 1970s, but has not yet been established (Huntley and Matos 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and, if possible, identify potential areas of suitable habitat. Design and evaluate a robust survey technique, perhaps based on playback of vocalisations. Conduct surveys to determine the species's distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements.  Initiate long-term conservation at Mt Moco IBA, perhaps though a Site Support Group. <p></p>
100600186		distribution	eng	<em>Francolinus swierstrai</em> is uncommon in western <strong>Angola</strong> and is found from Tundavala in Huila District north to Cariango in Cuanza Sul District, on inselbergs in Huambo District and in the Bailundu Highlands (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Mt Moco in the Bailundu Highlands (the area with the most forest remaining) only c.15 patches of true Afromontane forest survive (1-15 ha), all in deep ravines (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although there are other more extensive patches of sub-montane forest in western Angola (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There were no records of this species between 1971 and 2005, when c.10 individuals were recorded (seven birds were seen and another pair or group were heard)<strong></strong> at Mts Moco and Soque (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010; Mills and Dean in prep)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population estimates are hampered by a lack of data, however it has been estimated at between 465-1,052 pairs and 1,040-2,080 pairs depending on the amount of forest cover left in Angola and how tolerant the species is of non-forest habitats (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600186		habitat	eng	It is found in montane areas where it is known mainly from forest and forest edge, but it is also recorded from rocky and grassy mountain sides, tall grass savannas on mountain tops and gullies. In August 2005, the seven birds that were seen were in rank growth and bracken (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In forest, it stays within the dense undergrowth of bushes, shrubs, grasses and large ferns. It feeds on grass and legume seeds and insects picked from the leaf-litter. Its breeding ecology is virtually unknown, but juvenile specimens collected in August suggest a breeding season in May or June. <p></p>
100600186		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at between 465-1,052 pairs and 1,040-2,080 pairs. The latter is an over-estimate unless the species is tolerant of a wider range of habitats than is currently known, hence the global population is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2010).
100600186		threats	eng	On Mt Moco, it is threatened by clearing and burning for subsistence farming and the remaining forest patches are disappearing rapidly (Dean 2001; M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting may also be a serious problem in this area, although in August 2005 birds were recorded very near to the largest village (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600187		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Ndundulu and Nyumbanitu Mountains lie within Kilombero Nature Reserve. Half of the Ndundulu forest, including Mt Luhombero, is inside the Udzungwa Mountains National Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. From 2007-2011, a PhD project assessing the effectiveness of the Joint Forest Management programme in the villages of Udekwa and Ifuwa as a model for future resource stewardship schemes was carried out (L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007, N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Evaluate the effects of human disturbance<strong></strong>. Determine whether existing ecotourism schemes generate significant revenues, and investigate their effects upon the level of exploitation. Determine the population size, distribution and threats to the Rubeho population. Support implementation of management plans in the Udzungwa Mountains and Udzungwa National Park IBAs. Establish the precise altitudinal range and breadth of habitat-types used, ensuring that disturbance is minimised. Where possible, attempt to halt the clearance of permanent tourist trails through forests, and consider feasibility of establishing buffer zones around forests to protect them from fire (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600187		distribution	eng	<em>Xenoperdix udzungwensis</em> is endemic to <strong>Tanzania</strong>, being known only from parts of the Udzungwa highlands (Ndundulu Mountains [Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1994]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including Mt Luhombero [Butynski and Ehardt 2003; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2004]<strong></strong> and Nyumbanitu) and the forest covered top of Chugu Hill in the northern Rubeho Mountains (a northern outlier of Mafwomero Forest [Fjeldså and Kiure 2003; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2004]<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, c.150 km to the north of the type locality. It seems genuinely absent from the rest of the Udzungwa highlands, despite intensive surveys (Fjeldså and Kiure 2003; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2004; L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Genetic analysis suggests that there is no gene flow between the two populations (Bowie and Fjeldså 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and their taxonomy is uncertain. Its area of occupancy has been estimated at 190 km<sup>2</sup>, within which it is locally common, with an estimated density of 15-25 birds/km<sup>2</sup>; following these estimations the total population has been put at c.3,700 individuals (<strong></strong>Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>.  However, a study in Luhombero Forest indicated that the density there may be lower (Butynski and Ehardt 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population may be best estimated in the range of 3,000-4,000 individuals (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although annual population fluctuations make assessing trends difficult, the population is thought to be stable (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600187		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature montane and submontane evergreen forest, from 1,300 to 2,400 m (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occurring on forested ridges, steep rocky slopes with forest cover and flatter ground, especially where the understorey is open with scattered <em>Cyperus</em> sedges and ferns (Fjeldså and Kiure 2003; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All locations known for this species are forest with <em>Podocarpus </em>trees (Fjeldså and Kiure 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it does occur in mature forest dominated by other forest tree species (e.g. <em>Hagenia abyssinica</em>)<strong></strong> (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Otherwise its habitat requirements and disjunct distribution remain unclear<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Kiure 2003). It feeds in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, on invertebrates such as beetles (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and seeds (McGowan 1994)<strong></strong>. It forages in groups, which are probably families, with 3-13 observed together (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The main breeding period starts with the onset of the rains in November to March (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Adults have been seen with chicks in late November, early December and early January (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and immatures are seen almost throughout the year, with a main peak in February to at least July<strong></strong> (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The species roosts in trees, in groups of over 10, four to eight metres above the ground<strong></strong> (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600187		population	eng	Dinesen <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimate the population to be 3,700 individuals based on the species's range and density in the Ndundulu forest. Butynski and Ehardt (2003) have suggested that this estimate may be too high as in other parts of its range it appears significantly less common. The population may be best estimated in the range 3,000-4,000 individuals (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007),  roughly equating to 2,000-2,700 mature individuals.
100600187		threats	eng	The species appears more susceptible to hunting, especially snaring, than once thought (D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999; L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2003; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, and although hunting pressure is comparatively low, its demographic effects may be large (Fjeldså and Kiure 2003; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. It has been observed on several occasions that local people are efficient at catching the species with snares (L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Disturbance and hunting (pole cutting, honey collection, traps and snares) are believed to have increased markedly; at least 25 traps and snares were found during surveys for the species conducted in 2002-03 in the Nyumbanitu Forest (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2003; L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. The species is probably not hunted in the more remote parts of the Udzungwa highlands (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2003; J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Many highland forests are severely disturbed by humans and elephants, and large, mostly human-induced, wildfires sometimes occur (Fjeldså and Kiure 2003)<strong></strong>. As forests decrease in size owing to logging and fires, the species becomes increasingly susceptible to human activities such as hunting (L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Wide tourist trails have been cut deep into Nyumbanitu forest that are used by lions, hyenas and a non-forest genet <em>Genetta</em> sp., which has been observed predating birds including <em>X. udzungwensis</em> on one occasion (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong>. The relatively fast growing human population in Udekwa is increasing the pressure for farmland and meat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong>. Payments on new farmland are made only once an income is secured, and farmers prefer areas close to the forest edge. The vicinity to the forest makes it easier for the farmer to get poles and other tools for farming, and wildlife meat and medicine from the trees. The farmers commonly clear land by burning, and control of fires is often lost, as was the case in 2003 (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100600188		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Perdix perdix</span> occurs throughout much of the western Palearctic, with a native range encompassing <span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ireland</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">United Kingdom</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Luxembourg</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Poland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Latvia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lithuania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovakia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liechtenstein</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Hungary</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Romania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Moldova</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Armenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Georgia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Azerbaijan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iran</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kazakhstan </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">italica</span>, endemic to parts of Italy, has been extinct since the 1980s as a result of hybridisation with introduced individuals of the nominate subspecies (Liukkonen-Anttila <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600188		population	eng	Rich <i>et al.</i> (2004) estimated the global population to number 4,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,600,000-3,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 4,800,000-9,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 5,000,000-10,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
100600189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but Brazil (2009) has estimated national population sizes at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia.
100600190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600191		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Taman Negara National  Park and Gunung Leuser National Park.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the population size. Protect large areas of primary and old secondary forest within its range. Investigate the taxonomic status of the race <em>dulitensis</em>.  <p></p>
100600191		distribution	eng	<em>Rhizothera longirostris</em> occurs as two quite distinct races, the nominate inhabits the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, East (Sabah) and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon, and <em>dulitensis</em> has a very restricted range, being confined to Mt Dulit and Mt Batu Song, Sarawak, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). No population estimates are available, but it is thought to be declining rapidly owing to habitat loss and degradation. <em> <p></p></em>
100600191		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and old secondary lowland and hill forest and bamboo, up to 1,500 m in some regions, although not above 1,000 in others (BirdLife International 2001). The race <em>dulitensis </em>is a highland bird of forest on limestone hills.  <p></p>
100600191		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; according to del Hoyo <i>et al.</i> (1994) it is never widely encountered.
100600191		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry (BirdLife International 2001).  However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
100600193		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known to occur in at least six protected areas: Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Peninsular Malaysia), Kinabalu National Park (Sabah), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Tanjung Puting National Park and Gunung Palung Nature Reserve (Kalimantan), and Berbak Game Reserve (Sumatra). It also occurs in Pasoh Reserve Forest in Peninsular Malaysia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Afford the species full protection under Indonesian and Malaysian law. Conduct research into its ecology and habitat requirements. Identify and record its vocalisations to aid field surveys. Identify remaining suitable habitat tracts, and conduct extensive field surveys and village interviews within these areas to clarify its current distribution and population status. Following surveys, review whether key populations are adequately represented within the existing protected areas network, and advocate protection of further areas if necessary. Develop support mechanisms for key Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Peninsular Malaysia. <p></p>
100600193		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoperdix niger</em> is known from Peninsular and East <strong>Malaysia</strong> (including both Sabah and Sarawak), and Kalimantan and south Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is described as local and sparse to uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia, and there are recent records from at least three sites in Kalimantan and one in Sumatra. It seems scarce and patchy in distribution, although it is easily overlooked owing to a previous lack of information on vocalisations and its elusive behaviour (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). As a result, its distribution and population status are generally very poorly known across its entire range. It is presumably declining because of rapid on-going reductions in its habitat.<br/><p></p>
100600193		habitat	eng	In Peninsular Malaysia, it is judged to be a lowland specialist, where it has a proclivity for primary or mature, regenerated, closed-canopy evergreen forest on alluvial soils. In Indonesia, it has been recorded in peatswamp forest, and historically was described as inhabiting brushwood and high bamboo-jungle. Recent evidence from Borneo suggests that it probably extends up to at least 900 m, perhaps 1,200 m. <p></p>
100600193		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
100600193		threats	eng	The overriding threats are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, which targets all remaining stands of valuable timber, even within protected areas, and the widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm. Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover). Furthermore, the full impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 has still to be fully assessed, but drought fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity on Sumatra and Borneo. Hunting for food may pose an additional, more localised, threat. <p></p>
100600194		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,800,000-4,700,000 breeding pairs, equating to 8,400,000-14,100,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 35,000,000-300,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
100600195		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are plans to introduce a ban on the hunting of the species in Japan<strong> </strong>(M. Okuyama <em>in litt.</em> 2010).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Develop a monitoring scheme to establish population trends. Identify and assess the impacts of known and potential threats throughout its range. <p></p>
100600195		distribution	eng	<em>Coturnix japonica</em> breeds in eastern Asia, including northern <strong>Mongolia</strong>, Sakhalin Island and the Baikal and Vitim regions of <strong>Russia</strong>, north-eastern <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>. Some populations in Japan are resident, but most birds migrate south, wintering in southern China, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong> and north-eastern <strong>India </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994). There are also introduced populations in <strong>Italy </strong>and Hawaii (<strong>USA</strong>). No reliable population estimate exists, and although the species was previously considered to be fairly common in China <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994), declines appear to have occurred in Laos <strong></strong>(Duckworth 2009) and Japan <strong></strong>(Okuyama 2004, <strong></strong>H. Nagata <em>in litt.</em> 2009), and there are fears that the species has undergone a significant decline overall <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994, Duckworth 2009).<strong> <p></p></strong>
100600195		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is an annual migrant, although some populations in Japan are resident <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994). Egg-laying occurs from late April to early August in Russia, and late May to August in Japan<strong></strong><em></em>.  Clutch size is varied, with larger clutches in Russia (nine to ten) than in Japan (five to eight)<strong></strong>.  The female is the sole incubator of the eggs<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994).  <strong>Habitat </strong>Little is known about the preferred habitat of this species, although it is thought to prefer open habitats such as meadows, steppes, and dry mountain slopes near water. It has also been recorded in grassland and cultivated land<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994).  <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is thought to include a wide variety of plant matter, and it will also take terrestrial invertebrates in summer<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994).   <p></p>
100600195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species was has been reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1994; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, owing to recent suspected declines, the species is likely to be less common than previously thought. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600195		threats	eng	Specific threats to the species are unknown, although it may be threatened by agricultural change in Asia<strong> </strong>(Duckworth 2009). Hunting is a threat in Japan <strong></strong>(Okuyama 2004), and is likely to be a threat elsewhere in its range. <p></p>
100600196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common in Victoria and New South Wales (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600197		distribution	eng	<em>Coturnix novaezelandiae</em> was endemic to North, South and Great Barrier Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong> (Marchant and Higgins 1993). It was considered fairly common until the mid-19th century, but declined rapidly to extinction by 1875<strong> </strong>(Holdaway 1999). Recent suggestions that a quail population on Tiritiri Matangi Island may be a surviving form of this species were disproven by genetic testing, showing them to be Brown Quail <span style="font-style: italic;">C. ypsilophora</span> (Seabrook-Davison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600197		habitat	eng	It inhabited open habitats, especially grass-covered downs.   <p></p>
100600197		threats	eng	Extinction was initially thought to have been caused by large-scale burning, predation by dogs, cats and rats, and grazing by sheep<strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1993). More recently, diseases spread by introduced gamebirds have been hypothesised to account for its rapid extinction<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994). <p></p>
100600198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600203		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of sub-populations. Conduct searches in suitable habitat to discover additional sub-populations. Control hunting in accessible areas. Restrict operations which might destroy habitat within the species's range.  <p></p>
100600203		distribution	eng	<em>Anurophasis monorthonyx</em> is endemic to the highest peaks of the Snow and Star Mountains of Papua, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, K. D. Bishop and J. M. Diamond <em>in litt</em>. 2000). It has long been known only from the northern slopes of Mounts Jaya (Carstensz) and Trikora (Wilhelmina), where it appears to be uncommon <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Gibbs 1993, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt</em>. 2000). There are recent records from Lake Habbema, below Mount Trikora <strong></strong>(Gibbs 1993, Eastwood 1996b, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Davies 2008), and from close to the Freeport mine <strong></strong>(S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000). However, its recent discovery in the Star Mountains <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop and J. M. Diamond <em>in litt</em>. 2000) suggests that it may be much more widespread in the little-known high mountains of Papua. It has a small and naturally fragmented range, and its population appears to be naturally low. <em> </em><p></p>
100600203		habitat	eng	It inhabits high grassland plateaux and the edge of heavy alpine scrub with trees, between c.3,000 and 4,200 m.  <p></p>
100600203		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, and there is a need for survey work in its habitat.
100600203		threats	eng	Its relatively inaccessible habitats are generally not threatened, but some habitat has been lost around the Freeport mine <strong></strong>(S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000). However, it is actively hunted in accessible areas and the Trans-Irian Highway from Jayapura to Wamena will open up a large area of previously inaccessible habitat to hunters <strong></strong>(N. Bostock <em>in litt</em>. 1993, D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Davies 2008).  <p></p>
100600204		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600205		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over a wide range (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600207		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Manas National Park, Assam <strong></strong>(Anon. 2006).  Surveys for it in the border regions of Manipur, Nagaland and the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been delayed by security problems. Some survey work, including using mist nets, was conducted in the area in 2009-2010, but the species remained elusive (Choudhury 2010, A. Choudhury <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Thoroughly assess its status in Manas National Park and other possible sites, including in northern West Bengal. Determine the threats to this species and develop management strategies to minimise them rapidly and effectively. Identify and survey (particularly listening for its distinctive call) any remaining suitable habitat in or near known localities in the eastern hills of Manipur, the south Manipur Basin, areas around Palel and Imphal in Assam. Afford protection to any areas of grassland found to support populations at the earliest opportunity. Investigate its occurrence in Bangladesh. Study the pressure exerted by hunting on the species. Upgrade its protection status in India (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600207		distribution	eng	<em>Perdicula manipurensis</em> is occurs in northern West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya in north-eastern <strong>India</strong>, with its range at least historically extending into Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet districts, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh</span>. It was described historically as local, but not very rare, although even by the 1930s it was documented as declining in Manipur. There was a gap in records after 1932 punctuated by just one unconfirmed report, from Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, India, in March 1998, until it was rediscovered in Manas National Park, Assam, where one bird was seen in 2006 <strong></strong>(Anon. 2006).  If it does survive in Bangladesh, any remaining populations must be small. <p></p>
100600207		habitat	eng	A probable resident, it inhabits damp grassland, particularly stands of tall grass, and sometimes bogs and swamps, and is recorded in vegetation up to 3 m (but potentially up to 5 m) tall <strong></strong>(A. Choudhury <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006), from the foothills up to c.1,000 m. Historical records indicate that it was generally encountered in small groups of 4-12, and was shy, reluctant to fly and extremely difficult to observe, although coveys were occasionally seen feeding in the open on recently burnt ground. The little available data indicate that it breeds between January and May. <p></p>
100600207		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600207		threats	eng	Drainage and destruction of tall grasslands to meet the demands of an expanding human population have been extensive in Manipur and Bangladesh at least, presumably greatly reducing and fragmenting available habitat. Any extensive patches of tall grass that might remain in Bangladesh are inundated for two-thirds of the year and are thus unlikely to support significant populations. Livestock grazing poses a threat throughout its range. An inappropriate fire regime coincides with the species's breeding season (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Its habit of running in tightly-knit groups when fleeing disturbance made it easy to kill several birds with a single shot, a factor likely to have contributed to its decline, in conjunction with a dramatic rise in hunting levels across its range (particularly in Bangladesh) during the 20th century. Its habitat at Mornoi, Assam, which was a major site of specimen collection in the past, has now been replaced by tea plantations (A. Choudhury <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160; <p></p>
100600208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in many places (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600210		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the population size. Conduct searches in suitable habitat to confirm the persistence of all sub-populations. Control hunting where possible. Protect large areas of primary and old secondary forest within its range.   <p></p>
100600210		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila atrogularis </em>is resident in north-eastern <strong>India</strong> (locally common in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura) <strong></strong>(Birand and Pawar 2004), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (very local in the north-east, could still occur in the Chittagong Hill Tracts), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (widespread, uncommon to common resident) and <strong>China</strong> (local in Yingjiang area of west Yunnan to west of Salween river) (BirdLife International 2001). However, given the size of its range and the paucity of fieldwork conducted within it, the species is likely to be more abundant than records suggest. <em> <p></p></em>
100600210		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth in broadleaved primary and secondary evergreen forest, and sometimes adjacent scrub, bamboo, grassland and cultivation, most frequently below 750 m in India, but usually at 610-1,220 m in South-East Asia.  <p></p>
100600210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Yunnan, China, widespread in north-east India and formerly common, although poorly known, in Myanmar (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600210		threats	eng	It is principally threatened by habitat loss and persecution. Within its range, hill forests are diminishing rapidly in extent and becoming fragmented because of shifting agriculture and logging. Hunting and snaring of galliformes is common and on-going within its range.  <p></p>
100600211		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some 11% of Taiwan is protected, in six national parks and in nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries, and the species is well represented in these protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess its population size. Monitor populations both inside and outside protected areas. Enforce the protection afforded to the species by the national parks.  <p></p>
100600211		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila crudigularis</em> is confined to the mountains of central <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), where it occurs in broadleaved forest at 700-2,300 m. It was formerly widespread but there have been no surveys and few records in recent years, and its population could now be below 10,000 individuals. Although it is probably secure inside protected areas, it is likely to be declining elsewhere.  <p></p>
100600211		habitat	eng	It favours thickets and damp undergrowth in broadleaved evergreen forest, principally at 1,500-2,000 m, but ranges from 700 to 3,000 m.  <p></p>
100600211		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated at c.&lt;10,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994), and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. Brazil (2009) estimates the population size in Taiwan at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
100600211		threats	eng	It is suspected to be declining because of forest loss for timber production and conversion to agricultural land, and possibly also because of the use of pesticides. <p></p>
100600212		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from at least three protected areas, Singalila National Park (West Bengal), Thrumshing La National Park (Bhutan) and Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (Bhutan), and has been reported recently from Mehao and Dibang Valley Wildlife Sanctuaries (Arunachal Pradesh). A recent ban has been placed on timber export from forests in Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutan's national policy to maintain forests over 60% of the country potentially goes a long way to ensuring a safe long-term future for this species there, and c. 35% of the country is designated as a Protected Area (26%) or Biological Corridor (9%) <strong></strong>(P. Spierenberg <em>in litt.</em> 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys in promising forested areas throughout its range to determine distribution. Conduct intensive studies at key sites to provide detailed information on habitat use, population sizes and threats. Identify key areas and develop conservation management recommendations for them. Assess the threat posed by trapping and hunting pressure (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Conduct awareness programmes to reduce trapping and hunting pressure (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
100600212		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila mandellii</em> is endemic to the eastern Himalayas north of the Brahmaputra, and is known from <strong>Bhutan</strong>, West Bengal (Darjeeling only), Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern <strong>India</strong>, and south-eastern Tibet, <strong>China</strong>. There are recent records from several sites in the central and eastern valleys of Bhutan <strong></strong>(Spierenberg 2005), including the Thrumshing La National Park and Shemgang Dzongkhag, but it may also be found in western Bhutan, which has barely been surveyed <strong></strong>(P. Spierenberg <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  It is locally common in the remaining forests of Arunachal Pradesh and perhaps also in parts of West Bengal, suggesting it may be evenly distributed right across its range, wherever suitable habitat occurs. <p></p>
100600212		habitat	eng	It is resident in the undergrowth of evergreen forest, including bamboo, often close to streams, from perhaps as low as 350 m up to 2,500 m, but invariably at 1,700-2,000 m based on recent records <strong></strong>(Spierenberg 2005). In Bhutan, its known distribution is almost entirely confined to areas with extensive old-growth forest suggesting that the species may be sensitive to habitat degradation <strong></strong>(P. Spierenberg <em>in litt.</em> 2004). Calling birds are heard from mid-March to June <strong></strong>(Spierenberg 2005).<p></p>
100600212		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600212		threats	eng	Forest degradation and fragmentation as a result of shifting cultivation, timber harvesting and clearance for tea plantations is an increasing problem in north-eastern India. Hunting in the Mishmi Hills (including within protected areas) is apparently severe. Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim have large hydroelectric development projects underway that are expected to directly impact suitable habitat and have brought secondary impacts such as influxes of workers (with an expected increase in trapping and hunting pressure), road construction, residential development and facilitation of timber smuggling (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Snares set for mammals are also responsible for the deaths of many galliformes. Singalila National Park suffers high incursion rates from visitors coming to hunt, collect forest products and graze livestock. Extensive grazing across much of its range is a further threat. As Bhutan's population increases, shifting agriculture and grazing are likely to become problems within the species's altitudinal range, despite the country's admirable forestry policy<strong></strong> (P. Spierenberg <em>in litt.</em> 2004). <p></p>
100600213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or localised throughout its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600214		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is a nationally-protected species in China. In 1998, it was recorded in Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve, where there was estimated to be 192 km<sup>2</sup> of potentially suitable habitat. Several recent surveys and a radio telemetry study have greatly improved knowledge of its distribution, population density, and ecological and conservation requirements <strong></strong>(S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a, 2008b, Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Some forestry practices may be of benefit to its conservation, notably leaving strips of primary forest along ridge tops and replanting with native broadleaved trees. In 2001, Laojunshan Nature Reserve (35 km<sup>2</sup>) in Pingshan County was established specifically to protect Sichuan Partridge and this reserve now contains the highest known population densities of this species. The site was gazetted as a national nature reserve in 2011 (S. Dowell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  Two further reserves were subsequently established within the range of the partridge, at Mamize (380 km<sup>2</sup>) in Leibo County in 2002 and at Heizhugou (over 300 km<sup>2</sup>) in E'bian County <strong></strong>(S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) in 2004.  Both these reserves contain substantial areas of suitable broadleaved forest and Sichuan Partridge has been recorded in both, although at much lower densities than at Laojunshan.  All three reserves have received support to train and equip staff and engage with the local community to provide alternative livelihoods and encourage sustainable forest resource management practices, and annual monitoring is undertaken at each.  This support has been provided by the Sichuan Forest Biodiversity Project which is a collaboration between the Sichuan Forest Department, and Chester Zoo (who provide funding) and Liverpool John Moores University in the U.K.&#160; As part of the project, a further reserve is being supported at Ma'anshan, which is contiguous with Heizhugou. Environmental education has greatly improved local awareness of the species throughout this region (S. Dowell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Expand protected area network by extending Laojunshan and Mabian Dafending, proposing and establishing new reserves, connecting reserves using habitat corridors and assisting existing reserves to attain national nature reserve status. Incorporate knowledge of the habitat requirements of roosting birds into management practices (Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a). Create habitat corridors by planting fast-growing native broadleaved tree species. Enhance management capacity at protected areas, including removing fast-growing alien tree species where possible and policing the collection of bamboo shoots (Dowell 2011). Enforce tighter controls on hunting (Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Develop sustainable wood-cutting, bamboo and medicinal plant collection and alternative livelihoods to provide economic benefits for local people. Encourage controlled ecotourism in selected areas in line with tourism plan for region. Monitor populations to establish the population size and density in all reserves, and to determine the effects of management. Conduct education programmes for local schools about forests and wildlife using Sichuan Partridge as an ambassador. Develop a range-wide management plan to guide conservation actions in the future. Revise the species's population size estimate. <br/><p></p>
100600214		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila rufipectus</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from south-central Sichuan, with probable records from north-east Yunnan (BirdLife International 2001). Surveys in 1996 and 1997 estimated densities of 0.48 and 0.24 calling males per km<sup>2</sup>, respectively. The total area of suitable habitat within its known range was then estimated at 1,793 km<sup>2</sup>, and on the basis of densities recorded, and the assumption that each calling male represents one pair, the total population was estimated at 860-1,722 birds. However, it has since been recorded at several new sites and more recent surveys in Laojunshan Nature Reserve recorded densities of 3.64-4.84 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting the presence there of over 100 pairs (Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), so this population estimate is likely to be too low <strong></strong>(S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007), although population densities across its range appear to be highly variable. <p></p>
100600214		habitat	eng	It is found in temperate broadleaved cloud forest, mainly mixed evergreen and deciduous, at 1,100-2,250 m, perhaps mostly at 1,400-1,800 m (Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008b). Radio telemetry studies have shown that, when foraging, it favours undisturbed, closed-canopy forest with sparse bamboo growth and a thick layer of damp leaf-litter (Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a, 2008b, Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007) and probably also an open forest floor (Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007) <span style="font-style: italic;">contra </span>Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008b), although it seems to prefer areas of dense shrub cover for roosting (Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a). Although it prefers shallow slopes, most of the remaining areas of forest within its range are on steep slopes. It occurs in secondary forest at similar densities, but usually within 1 km of primary forest (S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  Birds show a preference for primary and mature planted broadleaved forest over degraded forest and scrub (Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Research has also shown that it occurs in broadleaved plantations after about 15 years of growth provided that native broadleaved species are used in the replanting <strong></strong>(S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <p></p>
100600214		population	eng	Surveys in 1996 and 1997 estimated densities of 0.48 and 0.24 calling males per km<sup>2</sup>, respectively. The total area of suitable habitat within its known range was then estimated at 1,793 km<sup>2</sup>, and on the basis of densities recorded, and the assumption that each calling male represents one pair, the total population was estimated at 860-1,722 birds. However, it was recorded at several new sites between 1998  and 2002 and more recent surveys at Laojunshan Nature Reserve at the eastern edge of its range recorded densities of 4.24 ±1.77; 0.6  calling males per km<sup>2</sup>. Although reliable, this is the highest density recorded for this species and it is known to occur at much lower densities further west, so it is probable that Laojunshan represents optimal habitat within the bird's preferred altitudinal range (about 1000 to 2000 m).  Nevertheless, the 1996/7  population estimate is likely to be too low, hence it is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
100600214		threats	eng	Until recently the main threat was habitat destruction through commercial clear-felling of primary forest, as most remaining primary broadleaved forest within its known range was at risk from logging within 20-25 years. In 1998, a government-imposed ban on logging in the upper Yangtze Basin led to a complete halt in deforestation throughout its range <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Liao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a, 2008b, Dai Bo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). There is now a major forest plantation scheme in operation aiming to re-forest ridges and steeper slopes <strong></strong>(S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  In general though, habitat is still declining (S. Dowell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In some areas, forest is still being cleared for agriculture or illegally logged, although this is on a small scale. Many people enter the forest to collect bamboo shoots, firewood and medicinal plants in spring and early autumn, which creates substantial disturbance during the breeding season, and additional disturbance is caused by livestock either grazing in, or moving through, the forest. It is also illegally hunted. Hydroelectric schemes and the resulting reservoirs in the valleys below its mountain forest habitat cause indirect future threats as the people they displace will be moved to higher locations in close proximity to the remaining forest, putting it under increased pressure <strong></strong>(S. Dowell <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
100600215		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A game reserve (perhaps embracing 15 km<sup>2</sup> of forest) has existed in the Yang Highlands since 1962, although this has proved an ineffective designation. It also occurs in Meru Betiri National Park and the Kawah Ijen Ungup-ungup Nature Reserve. There is a small captive population (c.20 birds) in Belgium. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct fieldwork to determine the range, altitudinal distribution, population density and ecological requirements of the species; in particular, carry out searches in the Gunung Raung and Gunung Maelang complexes and in the Yang Highlands. Establish the protection of the remaining forest on the Yang Highlands. <p></p>
100600215		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila orientalis</em> is apparently restricted to the eastern part of East Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, from the Yang Highlands eastwards, and thus occupies a range which historically covered only c.7,000 km<sup>2</sup> and which today covers less than 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>. Its population was initially estimated at 1,000-10,000 individuals, but it has subsequently been found at several more sites and may considerably exceed this upper limit. The remaining area of suitable habitat suggests that a total of 11,000-28,000 pairs might still be present, but hunting pressure and variable habitat quality could mean that numbers are much lower than this (B. van Balen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Its population is conservatively estimated to include 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.<br/><p></p>
100600215		habitat	eng	While data on this species are extremely scant, current information suggests that it is similar to its close congeners in that it frequents the interior of montane evergreen forest, from 500 m (but usually above 1,000 m) on mountains whose summits tend to be higher than 1,700 m. It is also probably relatively resilient to habitat degradation and hunting pressure, although this remains to be confirmed. <p></p>
100600215		population	eng	Its population was initially estimated at 1,000-10,000 individuals, but  it has subsequently been found at several more sites and may  considerably exceed this upper limit. It is restricted to two or three  forest blocks, that total an absolute maximum of 225,000 ha of suitable  habitat, which, considering home range sizes of c.8-20 ha found in other  tropical partridges, suggests that a total of 11,000-28,000 pairs might  still be present, but hunting pressure and variable habitat quality  could mean that numbers are much lower than this (B. van Balen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).  On the basis of this information, its population is conservatively estimated to include 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.<p></p>
100600215		threats	eng	Most forest in the Yang Highlands has been cleared, while elsewhere in the range of this species degradation occurs along the edges of remaining blocks and clearance of fragments remains commonplace (owing to logging and agricultural encroachment), steadily reducing its habitat. Furthermore, partridges are frequently caught and eaten or traded by local people on Java<strong> </strong>(Nijman 2003).  The combination of these factors is likely to be reducing its population quite rapidly. <p></p>
100600216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in some parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in some parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600218		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are many protected areas in or near to its range, but most of these reserves are relatively small and isolated, and it is not clear how many of them contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support viable populations. Furthermore, conservation management is often weak within these protected areas (J. Fellowes <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The large Wuyishan Nature Reserve in Fujian (565 km<sup>2</sup>) and Jiangxi (160 km<sup>2</sup>) is likely to be especially important for its long-term survival (Liang Wei <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Advocate listing as a nationally protected species in China. Conduct studies of its habitat requirements. Conduct surveys in protected areas throughout its range, to determine which of them support significant populations. Help develop appropriate management practices in protected areas to better protect closed-canopy forest and enforce the hunting ban. If required, propose the designation of new protected areas. <p></p>
100600218		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila gingica</em> is endemic to south-eastern <strong>China</strong>, having been recorded in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi and Guangdong. There have been a limited number of studies of its population size and distribution, but available data reveal considerable variation in population densities in different parts of its range: from 0.31 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in parts of Guangdong and Zhejiang (Zheng Guangmei and Wang Qishan 1998)<strong></strong> to 8-10 individuals<strong>/</strong>km<sup>2</sup> at 900-1200 m in Longqishan (Mt. Longqi) at Jiangle in Fujian (He <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. This variation can partly be explained by altitudinal variation, but also likely differences in habitat and observer effort. It is considered rare in parts of its range, and remaining populations are severely fragmented as most forest cover has been lost, with on-going declines likely; however, it is still locally common in Fujian (He <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600218		habitat	eng	Its typical habitats are broadleaf, mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest, bamboo and scrub, probably ranging from 150 m to 1,900 m (He Fen-qi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is confined to densely forested areas, where it stays on the ground in thick undergrowth during the day, but roosts communally in trees. <p></p>
100600218		population	eng	Brazil (2009) estimated the population density at 2 to 8-10/km<sup>2</sup> in different parts of this species's range. A precautionary population estimate of c.2,500-10,000 individuals was derived from this, assuming suspected low densities in large parts of its range and an estimated Area of Occupancy of less than 10% of the known range size (i.e. formerly c.30,000 km<sup>2</sup>), owing to severe habitat fragmentation. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. However, the species's known range has since increased markedly, thus it is now placed in the band for 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.
100600218		threats	eng	This species is threatened mainly as a result of the continuing loss and fragmentation of its habitat, as most forest has been cleared or modified as a result of the demands for agricultural land and timber. Road construction and mining projects also result in habitat loss and fragmentation (Zhou Fang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Illegal hunting for food and market trading is also a major threat. In addition, it is thought to be negatively affected by disturbance caused through the gathering of non-timber forest products. Increased tourist traffic at nature reserves has also resulted in greater disturbance and necessitated the construction of more infrastructure for visitors (Zhou Fang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600219		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In May 1998, a five-year project began in Cat Tien National Park and Cat Loc Nature Reserve (now administratively integrated), focusing on research, developing a conservation management plan, capacity building, community development and conservation education. The Orange-necked Partridge is one of the project's flagship species, and featured on a national stamp in 2000. Extensive surveys have also been carried out in Bu Gia Map National Park<strong> </strong>(S. Browne <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The known Cambodian population is within the SBCA, a former logging concession which is being managed to promote biodiversity conservation since 2002, primarily by controlling illegal hunting, encroachment and land conversion <strong></strong>(Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2003, C. Samnang <em>in litt.</em> 2004, Le Manh Hung <em>et al</em>. 2006). Snuol Wildlife Sanctuary presumably also holds a population, but receives limited protection, with no external support to the Ministry of Environment<strong> </strong>(T. Evans <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Following surveys in Binh Phouc Province, Vietnam, the ecological requirements of the species have been refined and recommendations made to extend the boundaries of Bu Gia Map National Park and to create a 'species habitat protection area' for the benefit of Orange-necked Partridge and Germain's Peacock-pheasant <em>Polyplectron germaini</em> within Nghia Trung and Bu Dang State Forest Enterprises<strong> </strong>(Le Manh Hung <em>et al</em>. 2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and implement management requirements for the species within protected areas in Cambodia and Vietnam. Initiate a conservation education programme for the local people who live around selected protected areas. Quantitatively monitor the populations in Cat Tien and Cat Loc. Conduct surveys for further populations in the largest patches of suitable habitat, such as those in southern Lam Dong, Dong Nai and Binh Duong provinces. Conserve any further sites found to support populations, and follow recommendations to extend the boundaries of Bu Gia Map NP. Continue conservation management improvements in Cat Tien National Park. Carry out ecological studies to determine seasonal habitat use and response to disturbance. Assess the threat posed by hunting to this species and determine what levels of hunting pressure it can withstand. Support the conservation management of SBCA and Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia and Cat Loc, Nam Cat Tien and Bu Gia Map in Vietnam. Survey the Cambodian population to assess its size and global importance. Improve training and resources for forest rangers. <p></p>
100600219		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila davidi</em> is known from southern <strong>Vietnam </strong>and eastern <strong>Cambodia</strong>. Recent surveys have expanded its known range in Vietnam: it has now been recorded from Cat Tien National Park (NP), Dong Nai Protected Forest Management Board<strong> </strong>(T. Evans <em>in litt.</em> 2007), Vinh An State Forest Enterprise (SFE), Nghia Trung SFE, Bu Gia Map NP, Bu Dop SFE, Vinh Cu Natural and Historical Reserve and Tan Phu SFE<strong> </strong>(Nguyen Tran Vy 2006), Da Teh SFE<strong> </strong>(Nguyen Xuan Dang <em>et al</em>. 2004), Binh Phouc SFE<strong> </strong>(Nguyen Xuan Dang and Osborn 2004) and Dak O SFE. It is predicted to occur in a number of other sites and may be widespread in southern Lam Dong, Dong Nai, Binh Duong and Binh Phuoc provinces, where suitable habitat remains<strong> </strong>(Pilgrim <em>et al</em>. in prep.). A single bird was camera-trapped in Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (SBCA), Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia in 2002<strong> </strong>(Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species has been recorded subsequently from the same very locality, but it remains enigmatic in the area, with an inexplicably patchy distribution<strong> </strong>(E. Pollard <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Based on current evidence, the area of suitable habitat in Cambodia may be as small as 70 km<sup>2</sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(E. Pollard <em>in litt</em>. 2009). The species is apparently rare (or perhaps just elusive) in some areas. A slow decline is suspected owing to on-going pressures placed on forest habitats, but the apparent ability of this species (as well as many congeners) to tolerate degraded habitats suggests that current forestry operations are unlikely to represent a major threat. <p></p>
100600219		habitat	eng	It is resident in evergreen forest in lowlands and foothills, from 120 m to at least 600 m, particularly hills covered with non-thorny bamboo. It also thrives in a variety of secondary habitats including tall scrub, bamboo, <em>Acacia</em>, logged evergreen and semi-evergreen forest plantations, perhaps preferring bamboo-covered slopes with a thick leaf-litter layer. Thus it appears to be able to tolerate considerable habitat disturbance and modification. Pairs call in duet. Calling reportedly peaks in March but has been recorded in November in Cambodia. <p></p>
100600219		population	eng	The species is now known from many sites in southern Vietnam and one in Cambodia. The area of suitable habitat has been found to be more extensive than was previously thought and given the population densities recorded in several congeners and their ability to persist in degraded habitats it seems likely that the population approaches 10,000 individuals, and it is thus placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600219		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation, particularly from herbicide spraying during the Vietnam war, presumably triggered a historic decline. Habitat loss through commercial logging, unofficial timber collection and clearance of land for cultivation (including cashew nut, cassava, rubber and other crop plantations), compounded by high hunting levels across its restricted range, now represent the main threats. Until recently these factors operated in the Cat Loc and Cat Tien protected areas as a result of ineffective management and regulation enforcement, stemming from lack of resources and staff. Illegal forest clearance by settlers has been prevalent in Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia in recent years and 120 km<sup>2</sup> of the protected area are in the process of being degazetted to allow further clearance. There is currently extensive legal collection of bamboo in the SBCA, although the impact of this on the species is unknown<strong> </strong>(Le Manh Hung <em>et al</em>. 2006). <p></p>
100600220		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is afforded full legal protection in both Thailand and Cambodia. It occurs within Namtok Phliu National Park and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. In the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia, the species is protected in the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary, Central Cardamom Protected Forest, Southwest Elephant Corridor and the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary <strong><sup></sup></strong>(S. Browne <em>in litt. </em>2004, C. Samnang <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It also occurs in Bokor and probably Kirirom National Parks, Cambodia. Political instability and uncleared landmines in Cambodia have made conservation difficult, but surveys have been carried out and further research is planned. The World Pheasant Association and Forestry Administration of the Cambodian Government have established a Cambodian Galliformes Conservation Programme<strong> </strong>(S. Browne <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Bird tours and individuals regularly visit Bokor National Park to search for this species, generating revenue for the species's conservation.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Promote public awareness of the species's conservation and protected status in Thailand and Cambodia. Lobby for a moratorium on logging throughout the Cardamom Range, including Bokor and Kirirom National Parks, Cambodia. Identify and implement management requirements for the species within protected areas in Cambodia, especially Bokor National park and Phnom Aural. Encourage community-based conservation groups at key sites. Monitor the Khao Soi Dao population. Monitor, potentially using remote satellite technologies, forest cover in the Cardamon Mountains. Investigate the species's ecology, in particular sensitivity to habitat degradation and disturbance, and altitudinal distribution. <p></p>
100600220		distribution	eng	<I>Arborophila cambodiana</I> is endemic to south-east <B>Thailand</B> (subspecies <I>diversa</I>) and the Cardamom mountains of south-west <B>Cambodia</B> (subspecies <I>cambodiana</I> and the recently described <I>chandamonyi</I> (Eames <I>et al. </I>2002)). In Thailand, it is known from Khao Sabap, within the Namtok Phliu National Park, and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, with just three confirmed recent records, all from Khao Soi Dao (the last in 2000 (Carroll 2001)). In Cambodia <I>cambodiana</I> appears to be relatively common above 200-300 m throughout the Cardamon Mountains (C. Samnang <I>in litt.</I> 2004). The newly described sub-species <I>chamdamonyi</I> is known only from the Samkos Range of the Cardamom Mountains. The Thailand population is thought to number 100-200 individuals, but in Cambodia it occurs at relatively high densities in several thousand km<SUP>2</SUP> of essentially unfragmented habitat above the 200 m contour (S. Browne <I>in litt</I>. 2007, T. Evans <I>in litt</I>. 2007). Hence its global population likely falls within the band 20,000-50,000 individuals.
100600220		habitat	eng	It is presumed resident in evergreen forest on slopes and plateaus, and has also been recorded in open areas. It is generally found in mountains from 700-1,400 m in Thailand, and on plateaux (up to 1,000 m) in Cambodia, although it has been recorded down to 300 m and 400 m in both countries, and 200 m in Cambodia (S. Browne <I>in litt. </I>2004, C. Samnang <I>in litt.</I> 2004). It commonly forms groups of 5-6, although up to 30 individuals have been observed together. The diet includes ants, termites and other invertebrates which are obtained by scratching in the leaf-litter (C. Samnang <I>in litt.</I> 2004). It has been observed feeding in rice-paddies in the foothills between November and January (C. Samnang <I>in litt.</I> 2004).
100600220		population	eng	An increase in ornithological surveys within Cambodia has revealed that extensive areas of suitable habitat appear to support this species at relatively high densities. Hence its population estimate has been revised upwards considerably and is probably best placed within the band 20,000-50,000 individuals.
100600220		threats	eng	In Cambodia, logging and hunting are probably the most significant threats. Both Bokor and Kirirom National Parks are subject to heavy (mostly clandestine) logging, which has affected an estimated 80% of Bokor. However, the species is unlikely to be adversely affected by selective logging and large areas of suitable habitat remain essentially unfragmented (S. Browne <I>in litt</I>. 2007, T. Evans <I>in litt</I>. 2007). In Thailand, selective logging and small-scale forest encroachment are minor threats. Levels of hunting are high in areas where the species occurs but this may have neglible impact on species with high breeding productivity like <I>Arborophila</I> partridges (P. Davidson <I>in litt.</I> 2003). The use of poisons for fishing in forest streams (C. Samnang <I>in litt.</I> 2004), disturbance through occasional dry-season fires and perhaps the local avicultural trade may be additional threats. Although most forest within the species's range has escaped severe fragmentation to date, there is potential for relatively rapid clearance in the future and this will remain a potential threat (S. Browne <I>in litt</I>. 2007).
100600221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably locally quite numerous (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600222		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is a nationally-protected species in China. Suitable forest habitat is estimated to cover a total of c.660 km<sup>2</sup>, of which c.410 km<sup>2</sup> is in reserves. There are populations in Bawangling, Jianfengling, Wuzhishan, Diaoluoshan Limushan and Nanweiling Nature Reserves<strong> </strong>(Wei Liang <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  Recommendations to protect the forests holding the recently discovered partridge populations have been adopted by the Forestry Department of Hainan Province in their entirety, and the Yinggeling Nature Reserve has now become the largest nature reserve on Hainan<strong> </strong>(Wei <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006). The Hainan government has enforced a ban on the logging of primary forest since January 1994, which should have lessened the pressure on its habitats. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct public awareness programmes on the plight of the threatened and endemic forest wildlife of Hainan, and attempt to reduce hunting through public education and the enforcement of relevant legislation. Assess the ability of the protected area system to safeguard the species in the long term, and add new forests where necessary.  Enhance the protection status of existing protected areas (e.g. from county to provincial level) wherever possible, and establish corridors between blocks of suitable habitat. <p></p>
100600222		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila ardens</em> is thought to be endemic to Hainan Island, off the south coast of <strong>China</strong>; reports from the mainland province of Guangxi in the late 1970s were never substantiated (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160; In 1997, a preliminary survey of the core area of Bawangling Nature Reserve tentatively estimated a population density of 6-8 birds per km<sup>2</sup>. The total area of suitable habitat on Hainan is estimated at c.660 km<sup>2</sup>, and extrapolating this density estimate to the extent of remaining forest gives a possible population of 3,900-5,200 birds. Further surveys between November 2002 and July 2005 identified a number of new localities; importantly Yinggeling in central-west Hainan has a strong population of this species and primary forest in good condition<strong> </strong>(Wei <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006).<p></p>
100600222		habitat	eng	It may be mainly restricted to primary, tropical evergreen forest, both broadleaved and mixed coniferous-broadleaved, usually between 600 m and 1,600 m <strong></strong>(Wei Liang <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  It is also found in some evergreen forests which have been previously logged, but are now well recovered. <p></p>
100600222		population	eng	A population estimate of 3,900-5,200 individuals has been derived from analyses of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This is roughly equivalent to 2,600-3,500 mature individuals. However, following surveys in 2002-2005 which located a number of new populations, which have been incorporated within newly established protected areas, this figure may be an underestimate.
100600222		threats	eng	Forest-cover has been lost and fragmented very rapidly on Hainan in the past 50 years. In the 1940s, the area of natural forest was estimated at up to 17,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but this had declined to below 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> by the 1990s, mainly as a result of excessive timber extraction, the replacement of forest by rubber plantations, shifting agriculture and the unrestricted cutting of wood. Clearance has occurred despite the fact that few local people benefit. Illegal hunting carried out for the market trade rather than local consumption is also a threat <strong></strong>(Wei <em>et</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> al.</span> 2006). The effect of projected climate change on the extent and distribution of habitats is a potential long-term threat.<br/><p></p>
100600225		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of all sub-populations. Monitor trends in all sub-populations. Research the species's tolerance of logged forest. Protect large areas of primary and old secondary forest within its range.   <p></p>
100600225		distribution	eng	<em>Arborophila charltoni</em> has a disjunct, mainly Sundaic distribution ranging (race <em>charltoni</em>) from southern <strong>Myanmar</strong> and southern <strong>Thailand</strong> into Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and is present (race <em>atjenensis</em>) in two isolated areas (Aceh and South Sumatra) of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and occupies a wide area of Sabah (Borneo), Malaysia (race <em>graydoni</em>) (BirdLife International 2001). An outlying population (race <em>tonkinensis</em>, formerly treated under Green-legged Hill-partridge <em>A. chloropus</em>) occurs in east Tonkin and north Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>. Estimates of numbers are of possibly under 10,000 (100-10,000) (<em>charltoni</em>), 10-100 (<em>atjenensis</em>), 100 (<em>graydoni</em>), with <em>tonkinensis</em> locally quite common and in three protected areas. <em>Graydoni</em> is now known to be quite common in Danum Valley, Sabah. <em> </em><p></p>
100600225		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forest to 500 m.  It is noted to be scarcer in logged forest.  <p></p>
100600225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare in Sumatra and almost extinct in Thailand. The nominate race is thought to number 1,000 individuals (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1994).
100600225		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). Declines caused by habitat loss are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird trade. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
100600226		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of all sub-populations. Regularly monitor trends in all sub-populations. Asses the effect of hunting on populations. Protect large areas of forest in areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
100600226		distribution	eng	<em>Caloperdix oculeus</em> ranges from south-eastern <strong>Myanmar</strong> and south-western <strong>Thailand</strong> through Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> onto Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with isolated populations in Borneo in northern Sarawak and eastern Sabah, Malaysia. It is generally scarce throughout its range, although it can be locally moderately common, e.g. in the Kandang River area, Jambi, Sumatra <strong></strong>(I. Mauro <em>in litt. </em>2003), and is likely to be declining overall. <em> </em><p></p>
100600226		habitat	eng	This species inhabits evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforests, including swampy areas, dry hill forest and secondary forest with sufficient bamboo.  It has been recorded to 1,200 m.  <p></p>
100600226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare in southern Thailand (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600226		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). Declines driven by habitat loss and degradation are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
100600227		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
100600228		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting on populations. Protect large areas of forest in areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
100600228		distribution	eng	<em>Rollulus rouloul</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>The species remains common in several areas, is able to persist in selectively logged forest and can utilise early-stage regenerating forest, and although it has undoubtedly declined, it is likely to be secure at present.    <p></p>
100600228		habitat	eng	It occurs in broadleaved evergreen and dense primary lowland and hill forests and bamboo up to 1,550 m. <p></p>
100600228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the most commonly seen South-East Asian galliformes (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600228		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird trade. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
100600229		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).
100600230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1994; Fuller <I>et al</I>. 2000). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
100600233		population	eng	The global population has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent (Grimmett et al. 1998).
100600234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600235		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been a number of official and unofficial attempts to rediscover the species, covering some of the most suitable areas around Mussoorie and Naini Tal. However, none has yet been successful. In 2002 and 2010, surveys used posters, interviews with locals and habitat analyses to direct field searches, but failed to find definitive evidence of the species<strong> </strong>(Kalsi 2004, H. S. Baral <em>in litt. </em>2010). Further surveys involving local communities are planned<strong> </strong>(M. M. Ghate <em>in litt. </em>2010).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in areas supporting Cheer Pheasant <em>Catreus wallichi</em>, which has similar habitat requirements. Conduct interviews with local hunters, involving the state Forest Department, about possible locations for the species. Based on these interviews, continue a comprehensive series of field surveys, including in the vicinity of old sites (Budraj, Benog, Jharipani and Sher-ka-danda), over several seasons and following up recent local reports near Naini Tal. Provide posters and cash incentives to local people to stimulate search for the species (Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).<br/><p></p>
100600235		distribution	eng	<em>Ophrysia superciliosa</em> is known only from the western Himalayas in Uttaranchal, north-western <strong>India</strong>, where about a dozen specimens were collected near Mussooree and Naini Tal prior to 1877. Field observations during the mid-19th century suggest that it may have been relatively common, but it was certainly rare by the late 1800s, potentially indicating a population decline. The lack of confirmed records since then suggests that the species may now be extinct. However, there have been few well-organised searches, there were possible sightings near Suwakholi in 1984<strong> </strong>(Negi 2006) and around Naini Tal in 2003, and a female was reported by a hunter in 2010<strong> </strong>(H. S. Baral <em>in litt. </em>2010). There is still reason to hope that a small population survives in remoter areas of the lower or middle Himalayan range, especially given the difficulty in detecting similar species. <p></p>
100600235		habitat	eng	It was recorded in long grass and scrub on steep hillsides, particularly south-facing slope crests, between 1,650 m and 2,400 m. Generally encountered in coveys of 6-12 birds, it was extremely elusive, never flying except when almost stepped on. It was unclear whether it is sedentary or a short-distance migrant. It was only recorded around Mussoorie and Naini Tal hill stations during the winter months, suggesting it may breed at higher altitudes. A recent possible sighting by a local man was made in a wheat field near riparian pine forest (Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).<br/><p></p>
100600235		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on a paucity of specimens, and a failure of recent surveys searching for this species
100600235		threats	eng	The species was last seen 60 years before independence, indicating that hunting levels during the colonial period contributed significantly to its decline. Widespread land-use changes thereafter, particularly open cast mining for limestone and related disturbance, are other likely contributory factors to its decline. Its contact call was apparently heard frequently in November and appears to have aided hunters to locate them. It is also hypothesised that habitat changes at lower elevations during the post-Pleistocene glaciation might have pushed subpopulations to suboptimal higher elevations, causing local extinctions.<strong></strong><p></p>
100600236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread in some areas and scarce in others (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600237		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is afforded legal protection in both India and Pakistan. It occurs in national parks in both Pakistan and India, as well as in 10 wildlife sanctuaries. Discovery of the large Palas population triggered a major conservation initiative in the region for which this bird is the flagship species. A galliform monitoring and conservation project within the valley ended in 2010 (F. Buner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Surveys have been conducted recently across most of its presumed range in Pakistan, and in Himachal Pradesh, where, in 2005, c.3,000 forest guards and officers were involved in a coordinated week long state-wide survey <strong></strong>(L. Mohan <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). It is currently the subject of a conservation breeding programme in Himachal Pradesh <strong></strong>(J. Corder <em>in litt.</em> 2004), involving fewer than 10 pairs, which produce fewer than three broods each year (F. Buner<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), with the long-term possibility of future releases of parent-reared offspring to augment/restock local wild populations <strong></strong>(K. Ramesh <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). Awareness-raising activities, field officer training and population surveys were conducted recently in Salkhala Game Reserve, Pakistan (Awan 2010). Surveys in Himachal Pradesh were initiated by the state wildlife department in 2011, and state-wide surveys were started there in 2012 (F. Buner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to increase knowledge of its current distribution and abundance, especially in Pakistani and Indian Kashmir, where very few data exist (F. Buner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Initiate public awareness campaigns in and around known sites, highlighting its flagship status for the conservation of moist temperate forests and other pheasant species. Develop monitoring methods and then monitor key populations regularly. Study the ecology of radio-tagged birds (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Improve management in key protected areas. Extend the boundaries of Salkhala Game Reserve and implement a monitoring programme (Awan 2010). <br/><p></p>
100600237		distribution	eng	<em>Tragopan melanocephalus</em> has a disjunct distribution in the western Himalayas (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), occurring from Indus-Kohistan district, north <strong>Pakistan</strong>, east through Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh to Uttarakhand, north-west <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Although historically described as scarce and local, a mid-1980s population estimate of 1,600-4,800 birds was revised in the mid-1990s to c.5,000 birds following the discovery of several significant populations in north Pakistan, the largest of which (tentatively estimated at 325 pairs) is in Palas Valley. Recent reports of additional populations in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan) and Himachal Pradesh (India) as well as new data confirming its occurrence in Uttarakhand suggest that the population may require further upward revision in the future <strong></strong>(K. Ramesh <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). However, there is also recent evidence suggesting that call count methodologies overestimate true population densities as many calls may refer to unpaired males and hence simply doubling the number of calling birds is unlikely to accurately reflect the size of a breeding population. Along with declines since the 1990s, this may mean the population size is significantly lower than 5,000 individuals. The prevalence of threats also implies that the population is now lower than this, and it has been suggested that there are now only 2,500-3,500 individuals remaining in the wild (S. Pandey <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012); however, surveys should be carried out to confirm this. <br/><p></p>
100600237		habitat	eng	During the breeding season (April-June), it inhabits little-disturbed temperate coniferous and deciduous forests, from 2,400-3,600 m. In winter, it makes very local altitudinal or lateral movements, to grassy or shrubby gulleys with less snow cover, between 1,750 m and 3,000 m. <p></p>
100600237		population	eng	A population estimate of at least 5,000 individuals is derived from Gaston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1981b) and McGowan and Garson (1995). This is roughly equivalent to 3,300 mature individuals. Recent reports of additional populations in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan and Himachal Pradesh may lead to an increase in the estimated global population size in the future, although conversely it has been suggested that the world population in the wild has been reduced to 2,500-3,500 individuals (S. Pandey <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), prompting the need for wider surveys.
100600237		threats	eng	Threats to the species are thought to have intensified in recent years (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Habitat degradation and fragmentation through subsistence farming, browsing of understorey shrubs by livestock, tree-lopping for animal fodder and fuelwood-collection are the main threats. Disturbance by grazers and particularly collectors of edible fungi and medicinal plants may seriously interfere with nesting. Hunting and trapping for its meat (especially in winter) and its decorative plumage pose additional threats, throughout Pakistan <strong></strong>(R. Nawaz <em>in litt.</em> 2004), Himachal Pradesh and Chamba (India). <p></p>
100600238		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting on populations. Conduct local education programmes to discourage hunting. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
100600238		distribution	eng	<em>Tragopan satyra </em>occurs in the Himalayas of <strong>Nepal</strong> (uncommon), <strong>India</strong> (uncommon), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (fairly common) and <strong>China</strong> (local, with a limited range in south and south-east Tibet) (BirdLife International 2001). Its distribution is now fragmented in the Indian Subcontinent. It is probably most secure in Bhutan, where Buddhist beliefs mean that it is not hunted. Call counts conducted at Pipar and Santel, Nepal, in 2005 suggest that the species has not declined there, with numbers actually higher than in the last surveys in those areas in 1998 and 2001 respectively (Poudyal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), although the species is suspected to be in decline overall.<em> </em><p></p>
100600238		habitat	eng	It is resident in moist oak and rhododendron forest with dense undergrowth and bamboo clumps, mixed forest, scrub and densely vegetated ravines, usually between 2,200 m and 4,250 m in the breeding season, sometimes moving down to 1,800 m in winter.  <p></p>
100600238		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated as fewer than 20,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002). It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600238		threats	eng	Major threats include excessive hunting - it is occasionally snared by local people for food <strong></strong>(Choudhury 2003), as well as habitat clearance and degradation due to timber harvesting, unplanned fires, fuelwood and fodder collection, and livestock grazing (BirdLife International 2001, Poudyal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Some areas, such as the Pipar-Santel area of Nepal, might be opened up for the commercial extraction of medicinal and culinary plants (Poudyal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <p></p>
100600239		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species is legally protected in all countries. It occurs in several protected areas, including: two small wildlife sanctuaries and a community reserve in Nagaland; the Blue Mountain National Park in Mizoram; Mouling National Park <strong></strong>(A. Choudhury <em>in litt.</em> 2004), Sessa Orchid Sanctuary <strong></strong>(Choudhury 2003), and Eaglenest Mehao and Dibang wildlife sanctuaries in Arunachal Pradesh; Thrumsing La National Park in Bhutan; Gaoligongshan National Park in China <strong></strong>(Han Lianxian <em>in litt.</em> 2004), and Natma Taung National Park in Myanmar. Surveys for the species have been conducted in many areas in north-east India. An international studbook exists documenting the captive population held at locations in North America and Europe; however, recent analysis found the captive population is declining, ageing and highly inbred and requires new founders if it is not to be lost as a conservation resource for the species <strong></strong>(St Jalme and Chavanne 2005). Work has since begun to move all of the captive birds in Europe to one location, and plans were in place to exchange birds between Europe and North America in an effort to introduce new blood lines to both populations (Jacken 2009).&#160; <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Design and implement monitoring projects in Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Initiate a conservation awareness programme with communities in range areas, focusing on the effects of over-exploitation, and encourage local tourism initiatives. Continue (or initiate) surveys to establish its distribution, status and habitat requirements in Myanmar, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Yunnan and south-east Tibet. Use modern methods to study its ecology. Research the taxonomic status of the separate populations. Review the adequacy of the current protected areas system, to evaluate whether new areas in Myanmar, north-east India and south-east Tibet could be feasibly and usefully protected. Promote the careful management of existing captive populations and introduce new founders. Enforce laws preventing poaching and trade of the species (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600239		distribution	eng	<em>Tragopan blythii </em>occurs from <strong>Bhutan</strong>, through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur in north-east <strong>India</strong>, and north <strong>Myanmar</strong>, to south-east Tibet and north-west Yunnan, <strong>China</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It has not been recorded since the early 1970s in Bhutan (S. Sherub <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Recent information suggests it is rare in most of India, though locally common at a few sites in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is uncommon or rare in the Chin Hills-Mt Victoria region of west Myanmar <strong></strong>(T. Htin Hla <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007), where although it may have declined good evidence is lacking <strong></strong>(J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004). It is also locally uncommon on Mt Majed and Mt Emawbon in eastern Kachin State, Myanmar <strong></strong>(T. Htin Hla <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). Call counts detected 14 pairs in the 50 km<sup>2</sup> Blue Mountain National Park, Mizoram. <p></p>
100600239		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical and temperate, evergreen oak and rhododendron forests, generally preferring a dense understorey, often dominated by bamboos or ferns, in steep or rocky terrain. Its documented altitudinal range is from 1,400&#160;m (winter) up to 3,300&#160;m (summer), but the majority of records come from a rather narrower band (1,800-2,400&#160;m).<p></p>
100600239		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600239		threats	eng	In north-east India, deforestation is a significant threat, primarily as a result of shifting cultivation. Together with fuelwood-collection and commercial timber extraction, this is rapidly fragmenting suitable habitat, even within protected areas, where enforcement of regulations is often absent or impossible. Hunting for food is the other major threat, particularly in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, where large-scale snaring of pheasants and partridges by local people is an increasing problem. The population in Arunachal Pradesh is under threat from hydroelectric project developments, and associated road-building and residential expansion (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Little data on the exploitation of this species is available from Myanmar, making it difficult to assess the severity of the threat there <strong></strong>(J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004). Even in Bhutan, high levels of grazing and slash-and-burn agriculture are potentially significant problems. <p></p>
100600240		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated as over 100,000 individuals. The species is described as widespread and common (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600241		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China. Its biology and conservation will be intensively studied during a forthcoming four-year project. There are many protected areas in or near to its range, but these reserves tend to be relatively small and isolated, and it is not clear how many of them contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support viable populations. There is evidence that the establishment of protected areas has been effective in preventing forest clearance and hunting within its range and an estimated 60% of the population now occurs within protected areas <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The species is the subject of an on-going long-term monitoring programme which has included radio-tagging 23 Cabot's Tragopan and providing artificial nest sites in Wuyanling National Nature Reserve <strong></strong>(Wen-hong Deng <em>et al</em>. 2005, Zhang Yanyun and Zheng Guangmei 2006). A recent study found that the captive population of the species shows relatively high genetic diversity (Zhang Yanyun 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>In degraded areas, promote habitat management such as replanting of conifer plantations with appropriate deciduous tree species (e.g. <em>D. macropodum</em>). Ensure that the species's needs are fully reflected in management plans for key protected areas and that staff are adequately trained. Conduct surveys in protected areas throughout its range to determine where significant populations are found and whether additional protected areas are required. Monitor populations annually in selected protected areas. Promote the careful management of existing captive populations through the use of an international studbook. Assess the long-term benefits of experimental provision of artificial nests and promote their use more widely if beneficial. <p></p>
100600241		distribution	eng	<em>Tragopan caboti</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from many widely scattered localities in the mountain ranges in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong (BirdLife International 2001). A survey in 1985-1986 estimated c.4,000 individuals in the core of its range in Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang and Guangxi and the national wildlife survey of China (1995-2000) estimated the population at 9,300 individuals. However, it may number fewer than 5,000 mature individuals (Zhang Zhengwang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Numbers are believed to be relatively stable inside protected areas, but generally declining elsewhere. Population viability analysis (PVA) conducted for the population in Wuyanling National Nature Reserve, southern Zhejiang, predicts a 7.3% probability of extinction in 100 years and indicates that nest loss and reduction in the extent of habitat are the most important factors affecting the species's population size and risk of extinction (Zhang Yanyun and Zheng Guangmei 2007, Zhang Yanyun 2010).<br/><p></p>
100600241		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical, evergreen broadleaved forest and mixed deciduous-coniferous forest at 600-1,800 m, and open areas above the tree-line. Its distribution is closely associated with the tree <em>Daphniphyllum macropodum</em>, which is often used for roosting in, and its leaves and fruit represent an important food source. Forests occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">T. caboti</span> tend to be dominated by plant species of the families Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Theaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Symplocaceae, Rosaceae and Ericaceae (Zhang Yanyun 2010). Unlike many congeners, this species does not move to lower elevations in winter (Zhang Yanyun 2010). The species nests in large trees found near ridge tops <strong></strong>(Zhang Yanyun and Zheng Guangmei 2006, Zhang Yanyun 2010), at between 2.4 and 10 m above the ground (Zhang Yanyun 2010). Home range size, determined from radio-tagged birds, varies between 0.029 km<sup>2</sup> and 0.39 km<sup>2</sup>, with maximum recorded movements of 3 km in adults <strong></strong>(Zhang Yanyun and Zheng Guangmei 2006). Broadleaved forests are preferred for nesting, although since 1990 an increasing number of nests have been located in coniferous forests (Zhang Yanyun 2010). The number of natural nest sites has been identified as a factor potentially limiting the population size, but it will use artificial nest sites when these are provided <strong></strong>(Wen-hong Deng <em>et al</em>. 2005). <p></p>
100600241		population	eng	A population   estimate of c.9,300 individuals has been derived from analysis of records and   surveys by BirdLife International (2001) and the national wildlife survey of   China (1995-2000), although Brazil (2009) estimated far fewer: &lt;100   breeding pairs. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals,   equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000   individuals. However, it may number fewer than 5,000 mature individuals (Zhang Zhengwang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
100600241		threats	eng	The main threat is habitat loss and modification, particularly where this leads to habitat fragmentation. Its recorded limited ability to disperse across gaps in forest cover greater than 500 m means the species is highly susceptible to fragmentation <strong></strong>(Zhang Yanyun and Zheng Guangmei 2006). Most natural forest has been cleared or modified as a result of the demands for agricultural land and timber, as well as the development of urban areas, roads and railways (Zhang Yanyun 2010). The impact of roads may be limited to hard-surfaced and busy routes, as a study in Wuyishan National Nature Reserve, Jiangxi, found that the relatively quiet clay road that bisects the reserve does not represent a barrier to the species, and even appears to present opportunities for feeding, grit collection and courtship, although traffic volume and thus disturbance are important factors (Yue Sun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The progressive replacement of natural evergreen broadleaved forests with conifer plantations and bamboo is now a major problem for this species, in part because the species nests on natural platforms such as forks between branches, which are lacking in most conifer species: provision of artificial nesting platforms may allow the species to persist in conifer habitats <strong></strong>(Wen-hong Deng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Illegal hunting for food still occurs in some places, especially outside protected areas. Since 1983, 48% of known nests have been destroyed by natural predators, in particular Eurasian Jay <em>Garrulus glandarius</em>, Yellow-throated Marten <em>Charronia flavigula</em> and Leopard Cat <em>Felis bengalensis</em>.  <p></p>
100600242		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and reasonably common. Sub species <I>joretiana</I> and <I>darwini</I> may number fewer than c.10,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002). The population size in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in suitable habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600244		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in India (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It occurs in the Gaoligong Shan National Nature Reserve in Yunnan, China, although it appears to be rare here and numbers are probably small<strong> </strong>(Han Lianxian <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  The creation of Dehang-Debang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh, which encompasses the Dibang Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, Mouling National Park and unclassified state forests, offers further protection<strong> </strong>(S. Kumar <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The remote nature of its habitats and range, to an extent, lessen the level of threat it faces from hunting. A new subspecies was recently described and its conservation status has been reviewed<strong> </strong>(Suresh and Singh 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in Yunnan, south-east Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh to determine its population status and range. Carry out detailed studies to assess its habitat preferences and principal threats. Campaign for protected areas in Towang, West Kameng, East Kameng and Lower Subansiri districts, Arunachal Pradesh. Assess the contribution of the protected area network to its conservation and develop appropriate management/policy recommendations. Monitor poaching and survey wildlife markets throughout its range to determine the scale and socioeconomic importance of hunting; appoint security personnel to control this threat, and carefully control the issuing of gun licences. Begin a conservation education programme in Arunachal Pradesh (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
100600244		distribution	eng	<em>Lophophorus sclateri</em> is endemic to the eastern Himalayas, from Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>, east through northern <strong>Myanmar</strong> and south-eastern Tibet to western Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>. There are recent records from Arunachal Pradesh, where it is locally fairly common, Yunnan, where numbers are thought to be stable, and Myanmar<strong> </strong>(J. C. Eames verbally 2003),  where it was historically described as local and uncommon. <p></p>
100600244		habitat	eng	It inhabits alpine meadows, subalpine rhododendron scrub and rocky precipitous slopes from 3,000-4,200 m, occurring down to the edge of oak-rhododendron <strong></strong>(S. Kumar <em>in litt.</em> 2004) and coniferous forest with a bamboo understorey, azalea forest, and areas of juniper and cotoneaster, descending to temperate forest at 2,000-3,000 m in October<strong> </strong>(Suresh and Singh 2004). Where its range overlaps with <em>L. impejanus</em>, it generally occurs at higher altitudes although some local reports have described them occurring together <strong></strong>(S. Kumar <em>in litt.</em> 2004). It is solitary during the breeding season (spring), but gregarious in winter. It feeds on roots, tubers, seeds, bark and leaf parts<strong> </strong>(Suresh and Singh 2004). <p></p>
100600244		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600244		threats	eng	Hunting for food is the single main threat across the species's range. In addition, hunting for feathers (to make ornaments and fans) is a localised problem in India. In the Arbor Hills<strong> </strong>(S. Kumar <em>in litt.</em> 2004) and Mishmi Hills, India, hunting intensity has significantly reduced population densities. Habitat degradation as a result of logging is a more localised threat. The habitats of the newly discovered taxon in Arunachal Pradesh appear to be little threatened, owing to their inaccessibility. <p></p>
100600245		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China. It has been recorded in several nature reserves in the Qionglai Shan and Min Shan ranges, most of which were established for the conservation of the giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em>, including Baihe, Tangjiahe, Wanglang, Wolong, Jiuzhaigou and Fengtongzhai in Sichuan, and Baishuijang in Gansu, but the areas of suitable habitat within some of these are probably relatively limited and there are no protected areas in the western part of its range. There have been no surveys for the species for many years and current knowledge of distribution, population numbers and trends is poor <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the impacts of human exploitation (including livestock grazing and herb collection) on its subalpine and alpine habitats. Conduct intensive ecological studies focusing on habitat preference and altitudinal migrations. Conduct further surveys to assess the adequacy of the existing protected area network, particularly in the west of its range. Enforce the existing laws on wildlife protection, with particular attention to hunting. <p></p>
100600245		distribution	eng	<em>Lophophorus lhuysii</em> is endemic to south-west <strong>China</strong>, where it is recorded from the mountains of west Sichuan, and adjacent parts of east Tibet, south-east Qinghai, south Gansu and possibly north-west Yunnan (BirdLife International 2001). Its total population was estimated to number 12,000 individuals during the National Wildlife Survey of China (1995-2000), which failed to record any in Qinghai or Yunnan <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008).  It is believed to be declining, although there have been no surveys for the species for several years <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008)  and current trends are not quantified. <p></p>
100600245		habitat	eng	It inhabits subalpine rhododendron scrub and subalpine and alpine meadows with exposed cliffs and crags above the treeline, but sometimes moves down into subalpine coniferous forest. It has been recorded between 2,800 m and 4,900 m, but is normally found between 3,300 and 4,500 m. Surveys at Baoxing in Sichuan suggests that this species may take several years to reach maturity and may not breed every year. <p></p>
100600245		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals by He Fenqi. Given the uncertainty within this population estimate, the total number of mature individuals is precautionarily assumed to fall below 10,000, in the population band 2,500-9,999.
100600245		threats	eng	Its subalpine and alpine meadow habitats have been degraded in some areas by an increase in the grazing of wild yaks. The large-scale collection of <em>Fritillaria</em> spp. (a known food source for this species) and other herbs for Chinese medicine causes local disturbance, and nests are sometimes destroyed by these activities. Illegal hunting is also considered to be a localised threat, and appeared to be the cause of a substantial decline at Baoxing where this species was surveyed in 1983-1986, and again in 1988. Reports suggest that hunting pressure on the species has increased in recent years <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008). The forests in west Sichuan have been rapidly exploited in recent decades, which has directly affected its subalpine habitats, and logging roads have improved access to alpine habitats for local people. <p></p>
100600246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally plentiful (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in suitable habitat throughout its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and seemingly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1994). The population size in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600253		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Surveys for the species were conducted in 1988, 1991 and 2011. The localities from which the most recent records derive have been incorporated within two proposed nature reserves, Phong Dien and Dakrong, for which a management feasibility study has been completed. A Site Support Group has been established for Dakrong IBA (Quang Tri province) and there are plans for one at Huong Hoa IBA (Quang Tri province) (<strong></strong>J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, where Bach Huong Hoa Nature Reserve was proposed. Bach Ma National Park lies within the historical range of the species, and a poster campaign to obtain local information was conducted there in 1996, although as yet there have been no confirmed records from this park. In December 2003, the captive population numbered 1,033 individuals (A. Hennache <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The maternal line has been screened and hybrids purged from the captive stock (A. Hennache <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Further camera-trapping surveys were planned to take place at Truong Son forest enterprise and Phong Dien NR (and an adjacent area in Hai Lang district), Quang Tri, in early 2012 (Tuan Anh Pham <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Use remote sensing to classify forest according to humidity in order to identify potentially suitable areas for the species within the remaining forest matrix (Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep.). Conduct further surveys of remaining forest fragments within and to the north of its historical range using camera trapping and specially trained dogs (Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep.)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, particularly at Dakrong and in Thua Thien Hue province, to clarify its status and ecological requirements. Establish the proposed Phong Dien and Dakrong Nature Reserves and enhance Site Support Groups Promote careful management of captive Vietnamese <em>Lophura</em> pheasants through the ISB system, and regularly review ex-situ measures until their taxonomic relationships are clarified. Prepare a landscape level management plan to redress genetic problems caused by habitat fragmentation and establish effective habitat protection. Assess the level and impact of hunting and campaign for its control, starting with complete cessation in protected areas holding the species. Conduct research to establish the feasibility and effects of using forest corridors to connect forest fragments.<br/><p></p>
100600253		distribution	eng	<em></em><em></em><p><em>Lophura edwardsi</em> is endemic to central <strong>Vietnam</strong>. Known historically &#160;from four provinces (Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue), it was described as locally fairly common. There were no confirmed records between 1930 and 1996, when individuals were recorded near to the Phong My Commune, Thua Thien Hue, and also near the Huong Hiep Commune, Quang Tri (Le Trong Trai <em>et al. </em>1999). Since then several other individuals were found in the Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue Provinces, but the last confirmed recent record was in 2000, where one male was confiscated from a hunter and held in captivity in the Hai Lang District Forest Protection Department, Quang Tri. In 2009 a possible female was recorded near Hai Van Pass, but there are doubts about the identification (A. Hennache <em>in litt. </em>2012). In 2011 dedicated camera-trap surveys for the species in two relatively undisturbed sites, Khe Nuoc Trong Watershed Protection Forest, Quang Binh and Dakrong Nature Reserve, Quang Tri failed to record the species (Le Trong Trai <em>in litt. </em>2012). It appears highly likely that <em>L. hatinhensis </em>is conspecific with <em>L. edwardsi </em>(the similarity of DNA analysed to date suggests a close relationship [conspecificity] between the two forms, Hennache in prep., W. Duckworth and S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), and that <em>hatinhensis </em>may in fact be a mutation, which occurs in small, isolated and inbred <em>edwardsi</em> populations ( Hennache in prep., S. Mahood &amp; J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2012). If this is the case, the appearance of <em>‘hatinhensis’-</em>type birds since the 1960s is a further indication that remaining populations of <em>edwardsi </em>are extremely small, fragmented and declining.  </p><p></p>
100600253		habitat	eng	It was said to inhabit exceedingly damp mountain forests up to an estimated 600 m, favouring thick underbrush and lianas. However, all early collecting localities were in the forested level lowlands, and there is no evidence that it can live above 300 m. It is most abundant in areas with thick undergrowth and liana covered hillsides (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Records in the 1990s came from lowland areas which have been selectively logged (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600253		population	eng	The complete lack of records since 2000 suggests that any remaining wild population is now tiny (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), and it has even been suggested that the species may already be extinct in the wild. In the absence of better data the population is placed here in the band 50-249 mature individuals. Any remaining subpopulations are likely to be extremely small and declining.
100600253		threats	eng	Its historical range is now almost completely denuded of primary forest through a combination of herbicide spraying during the Vietnam war, logging and clearance for agriculture. The last forest areas known to support the species are subject to continuing degradation by wood-cutters. Small patches of very humid forest embedded in a matrix of unsuitable forest are only likely to maintain their high humidity values when large areas of forest remain intact. Forest fragmentation in the hills above the now deforested coastal plain has been more intense than forest loss, but is likely to have caused an overall drying of the forest which might have rendered formerly suitable patches of forest unsuitable (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Whilst the species has been recorded in degraded habitats, it is uncertain whether the species is able to persist in such conditions the long term (W. Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Hunting pressure from various forest-product collectors poses a major threat and the species may be affected by indiscriminate snaring (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Although galliformes can withstand extremely high levels of trapping (Brickle <em>et al.</em> 2008), they can be locally eliminated. Because trapping is indiscriminate and targeted at more resilient species of ground-dwelling birds such as Red Junglefowl <em>Gallus gallus</em> it continues when numbers of other species such as Edwards’s Pheasant are severely reduced and uneconomically viable as a single species harvest. Through this mechanism populations can be trapped to local extinction (BirdLife International 2001).  <br/><p></p>
100600254		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent surveys for the species between 1988 and 1994, in part, led to the drafting of a management plan for the Ke Go Nature Reserve, which was gazetted in 1996. A larger project planned for 2000 was cancelled <strong></strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The captive population, established at Hanoi Zoo, has now provided individuals to several European collections, including Chester Zoo, UK, where breeding activity first produced a chick in 2001 (Wilkinson 2002). A Site Support Group has been established at Khe Net IBA (Quang Binh province) and another is planned for Truong Son IBA (Quang Binh province) <strong></strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004). In December 2003, the known captive population numbered 177 individuals <strong></strong>(A. Hennache <em>in litt.</em> 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its status and habitat requirements. Support full establishment of a protected area and Site Support Group at Khe Net and enhance the existing Site Support Group at Ke Go Promote food security projects in the communes within Ke Go Nature Reserve that are most dependent on natural resources. Promote the careful separate management of captive Vietnamese <em>Lophura</em> pheasants through the ISB system, and regularly review ex-situ measures until their taxonomic relationships are clarified <p></p>
100600254		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura hatinhensis</em> is endemic to central <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it was discovered in 1964 (BirdLife International 2001). There are recent records from localities in Ha Tinh and Quang Binh provinces, most of which are within the Ke Go Nature Reserve. The continued existence of a population in the Net river watershed, where several birds were seen in 1994, may be in doubt because of extensive logging and other degradation of suitable habitat there. Its global population has been estimated at fewer than 2,500 individuals.  <p></p>
100600254		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary (including logged) evergreen forest in lowlands and hills from sea-level (at least historically) to c.300 m. It may tolerate habitat degradation, but is apparently far more common in closed-canopy forest, and has been trapped in dense streamside vegetation.  <p></p>
100600254		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
100600254		threats	eng	Most of the coastal lowlands of Ha Tinh and Quang Binh provinces have been completely deforested by expanding human populations clearing land for wet-rice cultivation. Pressure from hunting may still be significant within Ke Go Nature Reserve, particularly from illegal loggers and various forest-product collectors. Shortfalls in household rice production render certain local communities seasonally dependent on forest products to generate income. <p></p>
100600255		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting outside of protected areas. Enforce the protection afforded to the species by the national parks. Control logging outside protected areas to ensure connectivity between habitat patches.  <p></p>
100600255		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura swinhoii</em> is endemic to the mountains of central <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China). Intensive fieldwork in the early 1970s suggested that there might be 5,000-10,000 individuals, although a recent estimate of c.6,500 in Yushan National Park alone indicates that its total population is likely to exceed 10,000 birds. The species became extinct at several localities in the 1960s and 1970s, but it apparently remains common in suitable habitat, and it has populations in several protected areas. Its numbers are probably stable where it is protected, but may be declining elsewhere because of a variety of pressures on its habitat. <p></p>
100600255		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary broadleaved forest and mature secondary forest at 200-2,300 m. <p></p>
100600255		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.5,000-10,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2001), roughly equivalent to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals. The population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
100600255		threats	eng	Heavy hunting pressure was a problem for it in the past, but is no longer a serious threat. Deforestation is still a threat outside protected areas, there is the risk that sub-populations will become isolated in the future.  <p></p>
100600256		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the Gunung Leuser National Park, which covers 9,460&#160;km<sup>2</sup> from sea-level to almost 3,500&#160;m. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its taxonomic relationship with <em>L. inornata</em> using DNA-sequencing techniques. If taxonomically distinct, advocate full protection for the species under Indonesian law. Conduct extensive surveys (including Gunung Leuser National Park, adjacent regions, e.g. the Batak highlands, and other possible locations) to establish the species's range, altitudinal distribution and habitat requirements. Assess the nature and scale of key threats affecting Gunung Leuser National Park and advocate the control of illegal tree-felling and illegal bird trapping. Encourage Indonesian authorities to monitor and take enforcement action against traders selling the species in markets (C. Shepherd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600256		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura hoogerwerfi</em> is endemic to northern Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is known historically from two females (both collected) and a male (glimpsed), in the Gayo Highlands, Aceh province, within what is now the Gunung Leuser National Park. In 1979, there were several sightings of family parties in the Mamas Valley of this park and, in 1998, a female was observed above the River Jagong in the Beutong region, just north of Leuser. In 1998-1999, five individuals of each sex were recovered from a bird market in Medan, northern Sumatra. All are said to have originated from Gunung Leuser National Park, Aceh province. A female was observed on a nest with eggs in the Batang Toru Forest in October 2008 (Peters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). In July 2010, a family group (at least a pair and one chick) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophura</span> pheasants, likely to be this species, were reported from the Toba Highlands, North Sumatra province (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). Also in July 2010, a pair, thought to be of this species, were found for sale in Tele (north of Toba Lake), North Sumatra, and the species was reported to be common in Eucalyptus woodlands and agricultural land in the area (van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). On-going contraction of suitable forest habitat must be having an adverse effect on the population. There are birds (of wild origin) in captivity on Java.<br/><br/><p></p>
100600256		habitat	eng	The type-specimen was shot in forest (reasonably assumed to be tropical, lower montane rainforest) adjacent to the mountain lake Telaga Meluwak at 1,200-1,400 m. The general area was described as hilly ground covered with heavy primary jungle, but with little undergrowth. The other female was collected at 600 m. The observations in the Mamas Valley were of birds feeding on sparsely vegetated, open forest floor on relatively dry mountain slopes, at 1,200-2,000 m. The possible sighting in the Toba Highlands was described as being in a timber plantation planted with eucalyptus species at c.1,500 m, and it has reportedly been trapped at the edge of forest in this region, suggesting some tolerance of habitat modification  (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). The incubating female recorded at Batang Toru Forest in 2008 was found at 1,021 m (Peters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. in prep.).<br/><p></p>
100600256		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600256		threats	eng	Apparently suitable habitat within its putative range has been reduced and fragmented below c.1,000-1,500 m, owing to agricultural encroachment, large-scale timber extraction and the attendant risk of wildfires, even within Gunung Leuser National Park. Hunting presumably also poses a threat, with the species recorded in a bird market in Medan, North Sumatra, for the first time in 1999<strong> </strong>(Shepherd <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and subsequently in following years, with a total of 20 individuals observed (Shepherd 2006, Shepherd and Nijman 2009). When questioned, traders in Medan claimed that the birds were taken from Gunung Leuser National Park via illegal logging roads (C. Shepherd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In addition, the trapping of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophura</span> pheasants by the use of snares has been recorded in the Toba Highlands (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
100600257		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is known to occur in at least two protected areas, the large Kerinci-Seblat National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan <strong></strong>(N. Winarni <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  It also occurs in two other areas currently designated as protection forest, but proposed for upgrading to wildlife reserves, Gunung Singgalang and Bukit Dingin/Gunung Dempu. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its taxonomic relationship with <em>L. hoogerwerfi</em> using DNA-sequencing techniques. Advocate full protection under Indonesian law. Analyse the data collected on this species in Kerinci-Seblat and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks to improve understanding of its threat status. Review the effectiveness of the protected areas system through surveys and advocate establishment of new, or gazette proposed, protected areas accordingly. Quantify the threat from hunting and associated disturbance. <p></p>
100600257		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura inornata</em> is endemic to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from at least ten localities in the central and south Barisan mountain range. There are recent records from at least three of these sites, Gunung Kaba and Gunung Kerinci, both within Kerinci-Seblat National Park, where it remained relatively common during surveys in the late 1990s and early 2000s<strong> </strong>(F. Lambert <em>in litt</em>. 2008) and was camera trapped multiple times (31 records) in 2004-2006 (Yoan Dinata<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008), and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (where it has also been camera trapped [<strong></strong>N. Winarni <em>in litt.</em> 2004]).  It was described as fairly common around Kerinci in the early 1900s. <p></p>
100600257		habitat	eng	It is a resident of lower (and possibly upper) montane humid forest from c.650-2,200 m, most observations coming from c.800m and above. It appears to prefer primary, unlogged forest, but also frequents disturbed and degraded habitats in close proximity to primary forest. <p></p>
100600257		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600257		threats	eng	Hunting pressure is thought to have caused declines in parts of the species's range, but it still occurs close to heavily settled areas, and thus appears to be resilient to a degree of trapping<strong> </strong>(F. Lambert <em>in litt</em>. 2008).  In 1999, a congener <em>L. hoogerwerfi</em> was recorded in bird markets in Medan, northern Sumatra for the first time; the extent to which <em>Lophura </em>pheasants feature in national or international trade is not known<strong><sup></sup></strong> (Shepherd 2000). Much of the forest within the lower part of the species's altitudinal range around Kerinci has already been cleared for shifting cultivation, and is vulnerable to further illegal agricultural encroachment and increasingly frequent drought fires. The range is becoming increasingly fragmented, a trend which is likely to continue<strong> </strong>(Brickle 2005).<br/><p></p>
100600258		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak) and Tanjung Puting National Park (Kalimantan). At the end of 2002 there were 49 individuals in captivity in Europe and a further 43 in Malaysia<strong> </strong>(A. Hennache <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  The European captive population is not thought to be currently viable in the long term due to diminishing genetic diversity<strong> </strong>(A. Hennache <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Advocate full protection under Indonesian and Malaysian law. Conduct further research into its ecological requirements, including its relationship with <em>L. ignita</em>. Conduct extensive field surveys to establish its distribution and population status in Sumatra and assess its use of recently burned areas Following surveys and GIS analysis, review whether key populations are adequately represented within the existing protected areas network, and advocate protection of further areas if necessary. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah (99-year concessions of great size). Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in Peninsular Malaysia. Promote the careful management of captive stocks including the establishment of a studbook. <p></p>
100600258		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura erythrophthalma</em> occurs in Peninsular and East <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Sumatra and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. There are few recent records from Borneo, where it appears to be scarce and localised, mainly in the south and west. There are just a handful of recent records from Sumatra, all from Riau and Jambi provinces. At select sites it has been recorded at densities of up to six birds per km<sup>2</sup>. However, it is not a widespread species and appears to be localised suggesting the total population is moderately small, although it is probably under-recorded owing to its occurrence in less accessible peat forest and karst forest (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Continuing forest clearance throughout the Indonesian lowlands must be causing a rapid decline, which is also likely to be the case outside well-protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia.  <p></p>
100600258		habitat	eng	It is an extreme lowland specialist, inhabiting primary and well-regenerated, closed canopy, evergreen forest. Birds in Malaysia are tolerant of logged forest, and it has been recorded in lightly logged forest on Sumatra. However, precise details of its habitat preferences, and its ecological interactions with its congener <em>L.&#160;ignita</em>, are lacking. Where <em>L.&#160;ignita</em> is present, <em>L.&#160;erythrophthalma</em> appears to avoid valley-bottom habitats.<p></p>
100600258		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, although it is now likely to be at the lower end of this range (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). An estimate of 10,000-19,999 mature individuals equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
100600258		threats	eng	The overriding threats are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, even within some protected areas, and widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm. Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion. A significant issue currently is selective logging in an array of forest reserves (not protected areas per se) that results in habitat degradation, including degradation of any unknown features that influence habitat selection by this species, and opens the forest to fire risk, reduced value, and conversion to agriculture in future. Hunting for food may pose an additional, more localised threat. <p></p>
100600259		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Krau Wildlife Reserve, Taman Negara National Park, Way Kambas National Park, Tanjung Putting National Park and Khao Luang National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting across its range. Enforce the protection afforded to the species by protected areas. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs. Asses the taxonomic status of the highly distinctive races.  <p></p>
100600259		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura ignita</em> is known from extreme southern Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular and East <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Bangka, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is now rare in peninsular Thailand, and despite there being recent records from protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia, its current distribution there is rather poorly known (BirdLife International 2001). It is apparently still locally common in Sabah, Kalimantan and on Sumatra, but probably close to extinction on Bangka. There are no recent records from Myanmar. Based on rates of forest loss, it must be declining in lowland Indonesia, and probably also outside well-protected areas in the Thai-Malay peninsula.<em> </em><p></p>
100600259		habitat	eng	It is a lowland forest specialist, rarely occurring up to 1,000 m. It has been recorded in logged forest, although its tolerance of this habitat type is unknown. <p></p>
100600259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and sparse to reasonably common (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600259		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover) because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird trade. However, the species's use of secondary growth implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
100600260		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas, however they often provide only limited protection against hunting and logging activities (S. Mahood <em>in litt</em>. 2011, F. Goes <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Increase the existing protected area network. Support governments in their efforts to control illegal logging in South-East Asia. Determine the current global population size and trend. Support efforts to tackle the issue of hunting inside protected areas.   <p></p>
100600260		distribution	eng	<I>Lophura diardi</I> is found in <B>Thailand </B>(uncommon to locally common resident, principally in the north-east and south-east, c.5,000 individuals estimated), <B>Laos </B>(widespread and locally abundant, but heavily snared), <B>Cambodia</B> (locally common and widespread) and <B>Vietnam</B> (locally common and widespread in central and southern regions). Its total population size has not been recently estimated, although the population in Cambodia may be conservatively estimated at c.2,000 individuals (F. Goes <I>in litt</I>. 2011). The species is suspected to be undergoing a slow to moderate decline owing to continued habitat loss and hunting pressure.
100600260		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen, semi-evergreen and bamboo forest, secondary growth and scrub, often near roads and tracks through the forest, chiefly in the plains and foothills to 500 m, but occasionally up to 800 m, and perhaps 1,150 m. It seems able to tolerate considerable degradation of its forest habitat. The species occurs in small groups which are presumed to be family parties. <p></p>
100600260		population	eng	The total population is suspected to number 20,000-49,999 individuals based on a conservative estimate of c.2,000 individuals in Cambodia (F. Goes <em>in litt.</em> 2011) and an estimate of c.5,000 individuals in Thailand.
100600260		threats	eng	This species is threatened by continuing extensive lowland forest destruction within its range and, perhaps more severely, by hunting and snaring. However, recent evidence suggests that the species may be able to tolerate a higher level of hunting pressure than was previously thought (P. Round <I>in litt.</I> 2006). In Cambodia, the species is still targeted by hunters for food and trade (Samnang Chhum<I> in litt</I>. 2010). Hunting occurs in some protected areas, such as Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam, where hunting pressure with snares is high (S. Mahood <I>in litt</I>. 2011). Evidence suggests that, when caught, this species is commonly consumed by hunters as subsistence during searches for higher value species, although the comparatively rapid local extinction of high value species typically results in the departure of hunters before local populations of <I>L. diardi </I>are decimated, allowing the species to recover (S. Mahood <I>in litt</I>. 2011). Observations from Laos also indicate that the species persists in areas of high hunting pressure, from which other species are lost (W. Duckworth<I> in litt</I>. 2011). Its apparent resilience to hunting pressure may be due to some aspect of the species's behaviour or morphology (J. Pilgrim <I>in litt</I>. 2011). It also persists in degraded and secondary habitat, such as logged forest and areas affected by mining operations (W. Duckworth<I> in litt</I>. 2011), suggesting a high tolerance to habitat alteration and disturbance. In Laos, forest is being lost through conversion to plantations of <I>Eucalyptus</I>, <I>Acacia</I>, rubber, fruiting trees and cassava, for example, and it is unknown whether the species is able to survive in such areas (W. Duckworth<I> in litt</I>. 2011). It is thought to be declining in Cambodia, given current rates of forest loss, and although the majority of the population occurs in protected areas it may still be affected by  illegal logging (F. Goes <I>in litt</I>. 2011).
100600261		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is afforded protection under Indonesian law and is a protected species in Sarawak, Malaysia. It has recently been recorded in at least six protected areas including Kayan Mentarang National Park <strong></strong>(Rowden 2001),  Bukit Raya National Park (Kalimantan), Gunung Mulu and Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary  (Sarawak) and the Danum Valley Conservation Area (Sabah). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and record its vocalisations to aid field surveys. Conduct extensive field surveys to assess its distribution, status and ecological requirements (focussing particularly on whether it is nomadic and reliant on masting events). Promote prohibition of hunting by those living or working within logging concessions. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah (99-year concessions of great size). Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Support the proposed extension of Bukit Raya National Park, and establishment of further protected areas found to hold populations. <p></p>
100600261		distribution	eng	<em>Lophura bulweri</em> is endemic to Borneo, where it is known from Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. Although apparently rather patchily distributed, it was once described as very common in undisturbed parts of interior Borneo. In 1995, it was estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals. Despite there being no reason to believe that the species was threatened a decade ago, the paucity of recent records, combined with anecdotal information regarding its habits and alarming current rates of habitat loss, indicate that it may be declining rapidly. <p></p>
100600261		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary hill and lower montane forest, from c.300 m up to at least 1,500&#160;m, and at least occasionally down to c.150&#160;m. Limited field evidence suggests that the species is nomadic. It may rely on lowland forest masting events, resulting in feeding concentrations, after which it breeds, later moving back up into the hills. It may not appear again in the same area for years.<p></p>
100600261		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals by McGowan and Garson (1995). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals here, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600261		threats	eng	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, through large-scale commercial logging, widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm, and extensive recent fires pose the primary threats, compounded more locally by hunting for food. If, as suggested, it is dependent on lowland masting events, highways and clearings through mountains and across the lowlands may have cut off potential access routes to important feeding areas, which in turn may be undermining its breeding capacity.<strong></strong><p></p>
100600262		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting across its range. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs. <p></p>
100600262		distribution	eng	<em>Crossoptilon harmani</em> has been recorded in south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, and at least one locality in extreme northern Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). <strong></strong>It is locally common, and adaptable to disturbed habitats.<br/><p></p>
100600262		habitat	eng	It occurs in tall dense scrub in dry river valleys, the borders of mixed broadleaved and coniferous forest, and grassy hill slopes, from 3,000 to 5,000 m (and rarely down to 2,400 m). In the breeding season, adult males and females form monogamous pair bonds, and each pair produces one brood per year (Xin Lu 2007). Egg-laying takes place from mid-April to early June, and only females incubate the eggs (Xin Lu 2007).&#160; <br/><p></p>
100600262		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably locally numerous, although little known (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600262		threats	eng	Deforestation and hunting may be significant threats in Tibet, and it is probably declining. One mechanism through which habitat loss is likely to be impacting the species is the loss of roosting habitat, which may interact with the species's social hierarchy and resulting spatial segregation of roosting birds (Xin Lu and Guangmei Zheng 2007) to cause an increase in density-dependent mortality.<br/><p></p>
100600263		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Recent records from several protected areas. This bird is traditionally protected under the umbrella of Buddhist culture. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to obtain a more accurate global population estimate. Consider using the species as a potential flagship for promoting pheasant conservation within Sichuan. <p></p>
100600263		distribution	eng	<em>Crossoptilon crossoptilon</em><strong> </strong>is found in <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.  It has been estimated to number only 10,000-50,000 individuals and to be declining, but given the extent of its range it is unlikely that numbers fall at the lower end of this band.  <p></p>
100600263		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous and mixed forests near the treeline, plus subalpine birch and rhododendron scrub, at 3,000-4,300 m. Its distribution appears to be determined primarily by water, foraging sites and predation<strong> </strong>(Fei Jia <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can be common around Buddhist monasteries where it receives cultural protection, but it generally occurs at very low densities in small groups<strong> </strong>(A. Pack-Blumenau <em>in litt</em>. 2006).  The species is monogamous during the breeding season<strong> </strong>(Wu Yi and Peng Jitai 1996), but it can occasionally be found in groups of up to 30 individuals in winter. It feeds by pecking at the ground and digging for bulbs. Natural predators include crows and buzzards<strong> </strong>(Wu Yi and Peng Jitai 1996). <p></p>
100600263		population	eng	This species's population is estimated at 10,000-50,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 6,700-33,000 mature individuals.
100600263		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation and hunting for food, but the high-altitude forests that it inhabits are not currently suffering rapid rates of deforestation. Completion of a rail link to Tibet is imminent and will lead to increased tourism in the area. It is feared that knock-on effects of this will increase the rate of habitat loss<strong> </strong>(Wang Nan <em>in litt</em>. 2006).  <p></p>
100600264		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China. It has been the subject of on-going research since the early 1980s. Four nature reserves (Luyashan, Pangquangou, Wulushan and Xiaowutai Shan) are crucial for the protection of this species and its habitats, and there is evidence that numbers have increased in Luyashan and Pangquangou since the reserves were established. In 2001, Huanglongshan Provincial Nature Reserve was established in Huanglong county (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The tree-planting and forest management programmes since the 1980s are likely to have benefited this species in some other areas. Plans were in place for a further three nature reserves to be established by 2009<strong> </strong>(Zhang Zhengwang 2006).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the impact of the logging ban and promote measures to prevent further deforestation within its range. Implement the recently completed management plans for the four critical reserves holding this species and develop a plan for the new Wulushan National Nature Reserve Develop population monitoring programmes in the four critical reserves. Conduct additional surveys in Shaanxi and elsewhere in its range, with the aim of identifying suitable sites for the designation of new protected areas. Research habitat preferences to inform protected area forest management Support the establishment of a new reserve at Donlingshan. Conduct a feasibility study for translocation into Taiyue Shan (Shanxi), where its habitat has been restored. Ensure the three additional protected areas proposed are established by 2009<strong> </strong>(Zhang Zhengwang 2006). <p></p>
100600264		distribution	eng	<em>Crossoptilon mantchuricum</em> is endemic to northern central <strong>China</strong>, where it is now confined to scattered localities in the Luliang Shan of western Shanxi, and the mountains of north-western Hebei, towards western Beijing, and also found in 1998 in a small area in central-eastern Shaanxi (no fewer than 1,500 individuals in the counties of Yichuan, Huanglong and Hancheng), which may represent an isolated population (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Its population within protected areas was recently estimated at c.5,000 birds, but on the basis of potential habitat available for this species both inside and outside protected areas, and assuming the mean population density within protected areas is twice that in unprotected areas, it has been tentatively estimated to number up to c.17,000 birds. Recent evidence from the Forest Department of Hebei Province has enlarged the species known range, confirming that it also occurs in Laiyuan and Laishui counties, and that it may be more numerous than previously thought (<strong></strong>Zhang Zhengwang 2006).<br/><p></p>
100600264		habitat	eng	It breeds in coniferous forest or mixed conifer-broadleaf forest at up to 2,600 m. In winter, it moves to lower altitudes (minimum 1,100 m), to scrub at the forest edge on south-facing slopes. During surveys in western Beijing, the species could not be found lower than 1,000 m (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600264		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.5,000-17,000 individuals, equivalent to c.3,300-11,000 mature individuals (Li Xiangtao and Liu Rusan 1993; Zhang Zhengwang 1998b; Zhang Zhengwang (verbally) 1999). The population in China has been estimated at &lt;c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600264		threats	eng	Its range has been fragmented by habitat loss and isolated populations are at risk from further forest loss and other pressures. Outside nature reserves, the threats include deforestation for agriculture and urban development, and habitat degradation due to logging and livestock-grazing. Local people collecting fungi may be the cause of high nest failure rates at Pangquangou National Nature Reserve. <p></p>
100600265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600266		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species is legally protected in Nepal and India and occurs in a number of protected areas in those countries. Many status surveys have now been conducted in Himachal Pradesh, principally a week-long intensive survey involving 3,000 Forest Department staff in 2005, which was scheduled for repeat in 2008 (L. Mohan <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007<strong></strong>), and Uttarakhand, India (Bish <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and in Nepal using a standardised call count methodology along with research into population ecology and habitat preferences (Subedi 2003, Garson and Baral 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys have been undertaken in Rara National Park, mid-western Nepal, in 2006 and 2008 (Singh 2009). An awareness-raising project was carried out in the Kali Gandaki Valley by the Annapurna Conservation Area Project, the World Pheasant Association and Bird Conservation Nepal in 2004. Reintroduction in Pakistan has been unsuccessful. A workshop was held in Kathmandu in April 2006 to share information gathered in five separate studies within the species's range (Garson and Baral 2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas where populations have been identified but not yet studied, particularly in western Nepal. Monitor populations at as many key sites as possible, and manage habitat at these sites, using moderate burning and grazing to maintain optimal conditions. Develop a species management plan to cover habitat prescriptions, public awareness and the enforcement of hunting bans. Study burning and grazing regimes at known sites to monitor their impact. Use it as a flagship species in producing and promoting habitat management recommendations based on these studies. Control poaching using legal enforcement and public awareness programmes. Initiate ecotourism projects to generate income at Cheer Pheasant sites (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Assess the effects of villagers upon the species and its habitat. Conduct further research into its ecology. Conserve key sites and habitats.  <p></p>
100600266		distribution	eng	<em>Catreus wallichi</em> occurs in the western Himalayas from north <strong>Pakistan</strong>, through Kashmir into Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, <strong>India</strong>, and east to central <strong>Nepal</strong> (BirdLife International 2001,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong> </strong>Keane <em>et al.</em> in press). It has always been reported as uncommon with a patchy distribution owing to its specialised habitat requirements, which often bring it into close proximity to human populations (K. Ramesh <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Many subpopulations are thought to number fewer than 10 individuals, living in small pockets of suitable habitat. In Pakistan, it may now only persist in the Jhelum Valley. In India, it has declined, with most known populations now confined to Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The area in and around Majathal Wildlife Sanctuary appears to be important with densities of 24 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> recorded during 1983 and recent reports confirming the notion that a sizeable population remains  (Subedi 2003). The population in the Kai-i-nag area of Kashmir is also thought to be sizeable (R. Kaul <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Nepal, it appears to be localised, occurring from the Baitadi district in the west, east to the Kali Gandaki River. The most important area in the country is Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Surveys conducted here in 1981 and 2003 revealed a slight decline, with a corrected population estimate of 127-212 birds in the valley, but this trend was not statistically significant  (Subedi 2003). Areas surrounding Dhorpatan have also been found to support populations at similar densities of 5-10 birds/km<sup>2</sup> with corrected population estimates of 56-71 individuals in the Bobang area, 19-22 individuals in Adlikari area and 61-127 individuals in the Muri area, all just outside the reserve (Singh <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. Small populations were identified at Trikuta and within Rara National Park in 2005 and local reports during that survey indicated that the species occurs more widely within Mugu and Jumla districts (Bhudathapa 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys in Rara National Park in 2006 and 2008 indicate that the population there is no longer viable, while anecdotal evidence from local shepherds suggests that the species is in decline (Singh 2009) and visiting birdwatchers are finding it more difficult to locate the species (C. Inskipp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). Apparent declines at Ghansa suggest it may have declined overall in Nepal, but the level of threat remains low in parts of its range (Acharya and Thapa 2003); the total Nepalese population is thought likely to number fewer than 1,500 individuals (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The increasing number of new locations following an increase in survey effort indicates that further areas will be found to support the species in suitable habitat. <p></p>
100600266		habitat	eng	It is resident in precipitous, rocky terrain dominated by scrub, tall grass and scattered clumps of trees, most frequently from 1,445-3,050 m, but occasionally down to 950 m at least (Bisht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Occupied sites are characterised by a combination of low shrubs subject to regular browsing and cutting, with grass growing through spring and summer harvested for livestock fodder in the autumn. It has been recorded in regenerating coniferous and broadleaved forests, as well as juniper and rhododendron on grassy slopes  (Subedi 2003). Its preference for early successional habitats, often created by traditional grass cutting and burning regimes, has led to an association with human settlements (and therefore high susceptibility to hunting). It digs for roots and tubers, and also eats seeds, berries, insects and grubs (Ali and Ripley 1987). It has been recorded breeding in India in May, June and September with clutch sizes of 6-12 eggs (Bisht <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100600266		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 4,000-6,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,700-4,000 mature individuals (R. Kaul <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
100600266		threats	eng	Having been widely shot for sport in the early 20th century, it is still hunted for food and trade, and its eggs are collected for local consumption. Indeed, hunters in Nepal claim that they can trap up to 50 birds in one session through the use of snares and live decoys (Singh 2009), methods that are widespread in the species's range (P. Garson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). Hunting pressure in Nepal may be exacerbated by increased gun-ownership following the Maoist insurgency, especially in the west of the country (C. Inskipp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). The patchy nature of its specialised habitat may render the smallest isolated populations vulnerable to extinctions, and higher levels of disturbance, grazing and the felling of wooded ravines now pose a substantial threat. In particular, hunting pressure and habitat destruction by fire and overgrazing have been implicated in its decline in Pakistan  (Subedi 2003)<strong></strong>, however, these human controlled practices are also important in maintaining moderately disturbed habitats which the species favours. Similarly, disturbance from understorey grass collection, fires, overgrazing and fuelwood collection are cited as threats to the species in cheer pine and mixed pine forest in Uttarakhand district (Bisht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). The threats of hunting pressure, uncontrolled forest fires, livestock grazing and the collection of non-timber forest products are also said to have likely become more prevalent in the protected areas of Nepal during the insurgency period of 1996-2006 when, for example, Rara National Park effectively lost its boundary owing to the abandonment of its buffer zone management plan (Singh 2009, C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Conversion of grassland to permanent arable terraces is reducing available habitat, as are schemes to plant mid-altitude grasslands with forest. A key requirement for the long-term survival of this species will be to strike a balance between maintaining the low intensity human practices on which the species relies (as they maintain plagioclimax habitats), while limiting hunting pressure. This balance appears to be possible, as in parts of its Indian range the species is reportedly not hunted regularly because it is not considered good to eat. <p></p>
100600267		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China and is listed as Near Threatened on the China Species Red List. There are many protected areas in or near to its range, but most of these are relatively small and isolated, and it is not clear how many contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support viable populations. Guanshan Nature Reserve (Jiangxi) appears to support a significant population. Other protected areas where it has been recorded include Fanjing Shan, Leigong Shan, Qingliangfeng, Wuyanling, Wuyishan, Gutianshan and Jinggangshan Nature Reserves. Guizhou has recently set up two nature reserves in areas where the species is known to occur; one in Rongjiang county and another in Congjiang county <strong></strong>(Liang Wei <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The genetic structure of populations in five provinces was recently studied (Jiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a robust population monitoring methodology to allow monitoring of key protected areas. Promote conservation education and better law enforcement to prevent illegal logging and poaching in protected areas. Ensure that the species's needs are fully reflected in management plans for key protected areas and that staff are adequately trained. Conduct research to assess its tolerance to disturbance. Consider focussing some research and management resources on the relatively isolated population in Guizhou province (Jiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
100600267		distribution	eng	<em>Syrmaticus ellioti</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>China</strong>, where it has been recorded from Guizhou, Hubei, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong (BirdLife International 2001). It was believed to be declining rapidly within its highly fragmented habitat and to no longer occur at many former localities <strong></strong>(Ding Ping <em>in litt. </em>2005, Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt. </em>2005). However, in recent years its known range has been greatly extended to the west <strong></strong>(Ding Ping <em>in litt. </em>2005, Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt. </em>2005) and there have been reports that it is locally common. Surveys in Guangxi and Guandong failed to record the species in or Guandong, and a 2004 survey estimated the population density in Guanshan Nature Reserve, Jiangxi to be 0.063 individuals/ha<strong></strong>(Ding Ping <em>in litt. </em>2005), but other reports suggest it occurs at densities of up to 6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> <strong></strong>(Ding Ping <em>in litt. </em>2005, J. Fellowes <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Considerable survey effort over 20 years in China suggests that the species is relatively widespread and given recent records that have extended the known range and estimated population densities the global population size may exceed 100,000 (even approaching 200,000) individuals <strong></strong>(J. Fellowes <em>in litt</em>. 2007; He Fen-qi <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2010). Furthermore, there appears to be no evidence indicating that the population has undergone dramatic declines <strong></strong>(He Fen-qi <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2010). <p></p>
100600267		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of subtropical forest-types, and sometimes in scrub vegetation between 200 m and 1,900 m. The most important habitats are broadleaf forest (both evergreen and deciduous) and mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest. Its preferred breeding habitat is forest with a tree cover of more than 90%. <p></p>
100600267		population	eng	Ongoing and extensive survey efforts have led to a global population estimate of c.100,000-200,000 individuals (Fellowes, J. <em>in litt</em>. 2007; He Fen-qi <em>in litt</em>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at  &lt;c.10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600267		threats	eng	Most of the natural forest within its range has been cleared or modified as a result of the demands for agricultural land and timber, but natural forest clearance has been illegal since 1998. Current threats include the burning of forest by man-made hill fires, collection of firewood, and illegal hunting <strong></strong>(Liang Wei <em>in litt.</em> 2004). <p></p>
100600268		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species is legally protected in India, Thailand, Myanmar and China. Populations persist in several protected areas, including: Tongbiguan, Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan Nature Reserves (China); Murlen and Blue Mountain National Parks, Lengteng and Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuarys (India); and Doi Inthanon, Doi Suthep-Pui <strong></strong>(Iamsiri and Gale 2004) and Mae Fang National Parks <strong></strong>(A. Iamsiri <em>in litt.</em> 2005) and Doi Chang Dao and Mae Lao Mae Sae Wildlife Sanctuaries <strong></strong>(Iamsiri and Gale 2004) (Thailand). A community-based conservation project is planned for one site in Thailand beginning in 2007. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey sites in east Yunnan (China), Myanmar and the border states of north-east India for additional populations. Conduct research into its habitat use and tolerance of habitat degradation. Campaign for improved protected status for sites supporting populations, particularly in north-west Thailand, Myanmar and north-east India. Promote stricter control over hunting and habitat encroachment in protected areas supporting significant populations. Designate new protected areas, including Saramati-Fakim, Mt Ziphu, Shiroi and Anko Range in north-eastern India (Choudhury 2009). Set-up small sanctuaries for the species with the help of local communities (Choudhury 2009). Extend existing protected areas, including Murlen, Lengteng, and Phawngpui in Mizoram (Choudhury 2009). Implement controls on slash-and-burn cultivation and fires (Choudhury 2009). Carry out awareness campaigns amongst rural communities (Choudhury 2009). Promote ecotourism within the species's range (Choudhury 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600268		distribution	eng	<em>Syrmaticus humiae</em> occurs in Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and perhaps Arunachal Pradesh <strong></strong>(Choudhury 2005, 2009) in north-east <strong>India</strong> (c.4,000 individuals <strong></strong>[Choudhury 2002]) through west, north and east <strong>Myanmar</strong> (c.6,000 individuals <strong></strong>[G. Gale and A. Iamsiri <em>in litt.</em> 2005])<strong>,</strong> where it has been described as common in Bwe Pa, Chin State <strong></strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004), to Yunnan and Guangxi in south <strong>China</strong> (population unknown but thought to number in the thousands), and north-west <strong>Thailand </strong>(Iamsiri and Gale 2004, A. Iamsiri <em>in litt.</em> 2005) (200-500 individuals) (BirdLife International 2001). In India, it appears to be rare, although a recent survey in the north-east confirmed 20 new sites, and 24 others remain unconfirmed <strong></strong>(Choudhury 2002). In Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram the area of suitable habitat for the species is estimated at c.1,600 km<sup>2</sup>, c.1,700 km<sup>2</sup> and c.1,300 km<sup>2</sup> respectively (Choudhury 2009). In Myanmar, there is no evidence of any recent declines, and the species may have undergone a range extension <strong></strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004). In China, populations are apparently relatively stable inside protected areas, although remaining rare and difficult to see <strong></strong>(Han Lianxian <em>in litt.</em> 2004), but declining rapidly elsewhere. In Thailand, the population is probably declining slowly. <p></p>
100600268		habitat	eng	It inhabits open, dry, subtropical evergreen (mainly oak), coniferous (chiefly pine) or mixed conifer-broadleaf forests on steep, often rocky hillsides interrupted by scrub and grassy clearings. It appears to favour broken or successional habitats, with adjacent patches of dense forest, and fire may play an important role <strong></strong>(G. Gale <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Although in Ailaoshan Nature Reserve the species prefers broadleaved evergreen forest (Liu Zhao<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2008). It is also described as inhabiting secondary and degraded jungle, and frequents the edges of abandoned slash-and-burn cultivation (Choudhury 2009). On Dazhong Mountain.Yunnan, the species's foraging habitats have been shown to be very similar in spring and autumn (Wei Zhou<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010). Roosts are often located along ridges, and in other relatively open areas <strong></strong>(Iamsiri and Gale 2004). The species has been observed to feed on oak nuts and termites <strong></strong>(Iamsiri and Gale 2004). A recent microscopic analysis of fecal samples collected in Dazhongshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan, found the species's winter diet there to include at least 18 plant species of 12 families, with a clear preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Athyrium guangnanense</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudocystopteris spinulosa</span> (Li Ning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). <br/><p></p>
100600268		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals (G. Gale <I>in litt.</I> 2005). This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600268		threats	eng	The ease with which it can be trapped has been a major cause of its continuing decline across much of its range, including populations within protected areas. The species is caught by snares set for galliformes, and is usually killed for consumption, or traded for consumption, although many trapped birds will be lost to predators (Choudhury 2009). However, the persistence of the species in northern India and in Thailand suggests that it is resilient in the face of heavy exploitation <strong></strong>(Choudhury 2005, P. Garson <em>in litt.</em> 2005, A. Iamsiri <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Extensive shifting cultivation and uncontrolled annual burning has resulted in substantial fragmentation and loss of suitable habitat in Myanmar, China and India. In north Thailand, it has suffered from agricultural intensification and habitat fragmentation resulting from development projects (such as the construction of roads [Choudhury 2009]), and reforestation of large areas with dense conifer plantations may also pose a threat. In parts of north-eastern India, the majority of the rural population practice slash-and-burn cultivation as their main occupation, thus very rapid human population growth and expansion threaten to worsen its impacts (Choudhury 2009). Road construction also facilitates increases in the prevalence of hunting and logging (Choudhury 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600269		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting both inside and outside protected areas. Conduct local education programmes to discourage hunting. Enforce the protection afforded to the species by protected areas. <p></p>
100600269		distribution	eng	<em>Syrmaticus mikado</em> is found in the mountains of central <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China).  Yushan National Park was recently estimated to hold c.10,000 individuals, and the species is also known from several other protected areas. There may be some decline in its numbers outside protected areas but its high-altitude habitats are relatively secure and it is tolerant of secondary growth.<em> </em><p></p>
100600269		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest with dense undergrowth and bamboo on steep mountain slopes between 1,800 and 3,300 m and possibly higher. <p></p>
100600269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common (Madge and McGowan 2002). The population in Yushan National Park is estimated as c.10,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002), representing a significant proportion of the species' global population. The global population estimate has has therefore been placed in the range of c.10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. Brazil (2009) estimates the population of Taiwan at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
100600269		threats	eng	Heavy hunting pressure was a problem for it in the past, and appears to be returning at some sites, even within protected areas<strong> </strong>(C. Lin Bridgeman <em>in litt.</em> 2003).  It has undoubtedly declined because of habitat loss, as driven by infrastructure development and landslides, and, in the long term, sub-populations may become isolated in protected areas. <p></p>
100600270		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish the status of all of the subspecies. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Regulate sport hunting to ensure that it is made sustainable. Protect large areas of forest in areas where it occurs. Prevent hybridisation by the regulation of releases. Research the effects of feral introduced predators.  <p></p>
100600270		distribution	eng	<em>Syrmaticus soemmerringii</em> is found on the islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu in <strong>Japan.  </strong>It was once very common, but it appears to have declined substantially because of large-scale hunting and is now considered to be uncommon and difficult to find. During the 1970s, the number of birds shot by hunters declined rapidly from c.800,000 to c.300,000 per year, but appeared to stabilise at c.100,000 per year during the 1990s.  <p></p>
100600270		habitat	eng	It is found in coniferous, broadleaved and mixed forest from sea-level to 1,800 m. <p></p>
100600270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600270		threats	eng	The initial, and perhaps the current, decline was due to hunting; however, the shooting of females has been illegal since 1976. In addition to the effects of hunting and habitat loss, feral cats and dogs may be causing a reduction in breeding success, and hybridisation (of the five subspecies) between wild and captive-reared stock may also be a problem.  <p></p>
100600271		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is a nationally-protected species in China. Habitat preferences have been intensively studied in Dongzhai National Nature Reserve <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt. </em>2005, Ji-Liang Xu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Qiu Yang and Zhang Zhengwang 2010). Continuing research will address its biology and conservation requirements <strong></strong>(Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt. </em>2005). It occurs in several nature reserves, including Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Baotianman and Jigongshan (Henan), Badagongshan (Hunan), Taibaishan, Foping and Zhouzhi (Shaanxi) and Shennongjia (Hubei). In 1992, Tuoda Forest in Guizhou was established as a local nature reserve specifically for this species, but illegal felling has since occurred. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct an awareness campaign, promoting the species as a flagship for forest conservation.  Continue to assess the adequacy of the protected area network, focussing on Guizhou, Chongqing, Shaanxi, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan and Gansu Provinces. Assess the ecology of the species in broadleaf/mixed forests. Develop appropriate habitat management practices in protected areas. Reduce hunting through education campaigns. Promote balanced forest management, with logging prohibited in parts of its range and artificial plantations promoted where they can provide additional habitat. Advocate increasing its legal protection in China by elevating it to first class protected species status. <p></p>
100600271		distribution	eng	<em>Syrmaticus reevesii</em> is endemic to central <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Anhui and Hunan (BirdLife International 2001). It was formerly reported to be very common, but its range is now highly fragmented, and it has apparently been extirpated from Shanxi and Hebei. More recent evidence indicates that its population must be declining further because of habitat loss. Surveys in Dongzhai National Nature Reserve during the springs of 2008 and 2009 yielded estimated densities of 0.125 individuals/ha and 0.126 individuals/ha respectively, lower than in 2005, and a population estimate in 2008-2009 for the reserve of c.1,000 individuals (Qiu Yang and Zhang Zhengwang 2010). The species has been introduced to Hawaii and various parts of Europe. The global population is currently put at a maximum of 15,000 individuals; however, the population in China alone could number c.23,000 individuals (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Xu Jiliang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600271		habitat	eng	It is found in a variety of forest-types in the zone where the temperate forests of north-east China intergrade with the subtropical forests of south China. It is found chiefly in broadleaf forests dominated by oaks, usually with a dense canopy and sparse undergrowth, but also in conifer forest and scrub. The radio-tracking of males in Dongzhai National Nature Reserve found that they preferred mixed conifer-broadleaf forest, as well as favouring mature fir plantations and shrubby vegetation. They may thus need a mosaic of habitats to meet their needs throughout the year (Ji-Liang Xu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species also utilises farmland adjacent to forest edge. Recent research in Dongzhai National Nature Reserve has shown that egg-laying takes place from late March onwards, with females incubating the eggs alone and caring for the fledglings for several weeks (Qiu Yang and Zhang Zhengwang 2010). <br/><p></p>
100600271		population	eng	The population size has been estimated at c.3,000 and c.5,000 individuals, but it may be more numerous than this. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600271		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the continuing deforestation within its range, which is reducing and fragmenting its habitat. Hunting for food is believed to be an important threat, and its eggs are collected. It was hunted in the past for its long tail feathers, which were used as a decoration in the Peking opera costumes, but plastic feathers are increasingly being used for this purpose. <p></p>
100600272		population	eng	In Europe, the population is estimated to number c.3,400,000-4,700,000 breeding pairs, equating to c.10,200,000-14,100,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is c.45,000,000-300,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600273		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in suitable habitat. The species has been introduced to the UK where it now numbers approximately 1,000-2,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in places (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600276		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in at least three protected areas, Taman Negara (which encompasses Gunung Tahan, and various other peaks where it could occur), Krau Wildlife Reserve (which incorporates one-third of the flanks of Gunung Benom) and the very small Fraser's Hill Wildlife Sanctuary. PERHILITAN is embarking on a captive breeding and release programme having captured three males and two females from the Cameron Highlands for this purpose<strong> </strong>(Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a robust monitoring protocol and monitor populations at known sites. Conduct surveys to assess its habitat preferences, clarify its distribution and population status within its known range, and to establish whether it occurs to the north of this range. Use as a flagship species to lobby for a substantial new protected area in the Main Range. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in Peninsular Malaysia. <p></p>
100600276		distribution	eng	<em>Polyplectron inopinatum</em> is currently only known from central Peninsular <strong>Malaysia, </strong>although there is growing evidence of its presence in extreme southern Thailand<strong>.</strong> In Malaysia it is found in the Main Range from the Cameron Highlands south to the Genting Highlands, in the Larut Range to the north-west, and on eastern outlying peaks Gunung Tahan and Gunung Benom. There are recent records from at least 12 localities, at two of which it has been described as common. Total numbers are likely to be small, owing to its highly restricted range and general relative scarcity within it. At present, the population is believed to be declining slowly. <p></p>
100600276		habitat	eng	It is sedentary in lower and upper montane evergreen forest, including elfin forest, from c.820&#160;m to at least 1,600&#160;m, and was once found at 1,800&#160;m. It is usually found in steep areas or along ridges with exposed corestones, some bamboo and climbing palms. It is less vocal than other members of the genus, and is hence less easily detectable.<p></p>
100600276		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600276		threats	eng	Conversion of forest for agriculture around its lower altitudinal limits may be causing some declines. Tourist developments continue to drive the fragmentation and degradation of forest in the Cameron Highlands (J. Taylor pers. obs. 2011). There is a considerable danger that a proposed north-south road linking the hill stations of Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Cameron Highlands will result in the further fragmentation and degradation of a substantial area of its montane habitat. These plans have been shelved, but should they be raised again, the species may warrant uplisting.  <p></p>
100600277		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Populations survive in several protected areas in Vietnam, including: Cat Tien, Lo Go-Xa Mat, Yok Don, Nui Chua (<strong></strong>N. Tran Vy <em>in litt.</em> 2004) and Bu Gia Map<strong> </strong>(N. Tran Vy <em>in litt.</em> 2004). National Parks; Cat Loc and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserves; Nghia Trung, Bao Lam, Loc Bac, De Te and La Nga state forest enterprises<strong> </strong>(N. Tran Vy <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  In Cambodia there are several records from the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and one from Virachey National Park<strong> </strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  A five-year project, started in 1998, in Cat Loc Nature Reserve and Cat Tien National Park (the two areas are now administratively integrated) is now complete<strong> </strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2004). It focused on research towards a conservation management plan, capacity building, community development and conservation education. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat blocks in Vietnam, including Bui Gia Map Nature Reserve. Conduct further searches for the species in east Cambodia to clarify its distribution and status there, establishing a protected area if possible. Determine its tolerance of forest degradation and secondary habitats. Establish a protected area in south-west Lam Dong province, where the species occurs in good numbers. Promote more effective control of encroachment and hunting in protected areas supporting populations. <p></p>
100600277		distribution	eng	<em>Polyplectron germaini</em> is endemic to southern Indo-China, where it is known only from south Annam and Cochinchina, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and southern and eastern Mondulkiri province and Ratanakiri province, <strong>Cambodia</strong> (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  The largest known populations are found in tracts of forest retained within protected areas <strong></strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2004, N. Tran Vy <em>in litt.</em> 2004, T. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2005). There are recent records from numerous localities, including Cat Tien National Park and Cat Loc Nature Reserve, where it is fairly common, the lower slopes of the Da Lat and Di Linh Plateaus and Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Cambodia<strong> </strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  In 1998, it was also frequently heard and seen at six sites in Dak Lak province during surveys.  <p></p>
100600277		habitat	eng	It appears to occupy a range of forest types from montane, dipterocarp-dominated evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, including logged secondary forest and thorny bamboo brakes<strong> </strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  It is found in both damp and dry areas, from sea-level up to at least 1,400 m. <p></p>
100600277		population	eng	N. Brickle (<I>in litt.</I> 2004) estimated the global population to number up to 10,000 individuals, with single populations numbering over 1,000 individuals each. T. Evans (<I>in litt.</I> 2005) estimated that the subpopulation in southern Mondulkiri province, north-east Cambodia, numbers  at least 1,000 individuals, and estimated the global population to number at least 10,000 individuals. In light of this latter estimate the population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600277		threats	eng	Historically it has suffered major declines owing to forest loss and fragmentation resulting from commercial logging and resettlement programmes. These activities have exacerbated clearance of land for subsistence cultivation and localised commercial cropping of coffee and cashew nuts. However, in recent times habitat loss has slowed in Indochina<strong> </strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004, J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2004).  Hunting with guns and snares, even within protected areas, also represents a threat to the species<strong> </strong>(T. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2005). Shortage of staff and resources in protected areas results in ineffective control of illegal activities, especially hunting, disturbance and small-scale logging. <p></p>
100600279		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Important populations occur in at least two protected areas, Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve, and further populations have been reported at Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve (Selangor) and a number of Forest Reserves that do not qualify as protected areas under wildlife legislation, including Pasoh (Negeri Sembilan). PERHILITAN is embarking on a captive breeding and release programme with plans to release birds in parts of its historic range<strong> </strong>(Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its precise habitat requirements and response to habitat alterations. Conduct surveys to clarify current distribution patterns and subpopulation status for all known populations, particularly in and around Taman Negara and Krau Support proposals for heightened status and stricter management guidelines and protection measures at Krau Wildlife Reserve. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in peninsular Malaysia. <p></p>
100600279		distribution	eng	<em>Polyplectron malacense</em> is endemic to Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and possibly southern peninsular Thailand. Reports of its occurrence in Sumatra have been refuted, and evidence for its occurrence in Myanmar is flawed. It is possibly already extinct in Thailand, and its range in Malaysia has contracted dramatically - in 1997, it remained in just 54% of localities known before 1970. Remaining subpopulations are now restricted to a few forest blocks in which they are unevenly distributed, although it is apparently still common in several protected areas. <p></p>
100600279		habitat	eng	It is an extreme lowland specialist, resident in tall primary and secondary (including lightly logged) lowland dipterocarp forest, usually from just 15 to 80&#160;m, and never above c.300&#160;m, on level or gently sloping ground. Studies have found increased calling levels and numbers of display scrapes in mast fruiting years, when there are higher invertebrate densities, suggesting that distribution and reproductive output may be limited by food supply.<p></p>
100600279		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600279		threats	eng	Lowland forest clearance and modification for cultivation remain the major threats. Only 25% of suitable habitat that was available for the species prior to 1970 remains today. Hunting for food, sport and the bird trade presumably contributed to its probable extinction in Thailand. Whilst it is susceptible to snaring targeted at all ground foraging animals, there is no evidence to indicate it is particularly sought after in Malaysia. <p></p>
100600280		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A questionnaire survey was conducted in Central Kalimantan in 1996. It has been recorded in Sungai Wain Nature Reserve, Danau Sentarum National Park and near (if not within) Bukit Raya National Park, all in Kalimantan. An increase in the area of protected lowland forest encompassed by the Bukit Raya National Park has been proposed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah (99-year concessions of great size). Promote prohibition of hunting by logging company employees and others. Determine major population centres, optimal habitat and response to habitat alteration Recommend protected area status or other appropriate management responses for any sites found to support the species. Support the proposed extension of Bukit Raya National Park, Central Kalimantan. Promote the careful management of captive populations including the creation of a studbook if appropriate<strong> </strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<p></p>
100600280		distribution	eng	<em>Polyplectron schleiermacheri</em> is endemic to Borneo, where it is known from Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. A 1996 questionnaire survey of 97 villages across central Kalimantan found that two-thirds of these communities described it as rare or very rare, whilst one-third considered that it was fairly common. Feathers of the species were produced at four locations. Eighty-five percent of individual interviewees felt that it had declined. There are recent reports from Danum Valley, Deramakot Forest Reserve<strong> </strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007) and Ulu Tongod (Sabah), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Nangatayap (near Gunung Palung National Park, west Kalimantan), Muarakarum/Palangkaraya, central Kalimantan, Sungai Wain, south-eastern Kalimantan and reports from Sukau (Sabah). Records are sporadic (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), hindering a more robust assessment of its status.<br/><p></p>
100600280		habitat	eng	Its ecological needs are poorly understood. Analyses using geographical information systems (GIS) indicate that it inhabits lowland plain and lowland dipterocarp forest on moderately fertile soils, probably avoiding wetter substrates in swamp-forest or near water-bodies. A recent study further confirmed the use of closed dry lowland dipterocarp forest habitats<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Fredriksson and Nijman 2004). The species has been recorded in areas of forest that were burned in the 1997-1998 fires, but its tolerance for regenerating habitats has not yet been properly assessed<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Fredriksson and Nijman 2004). Available records and reports of the species imply that it occurs between 0-1,000 m<strong> </strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
100600280		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, based on a detailed analysis of recent records by BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
100600280		threats	eng	In central Kalimantan, habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging (deliberately targeting all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas), widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm, and hunting with snares, are the main threats. Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997. The impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 was patchy, with many small alluvial areas escaping damage<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Fredriksson and Nijman 2004). However, such fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity. In central Kalimantan, most remaining lowland forest is granted to logging concessions, with a negligible area currently afforded any protected status. The species was recorded in trade by TRAFFIC in 1998 when six birds were taken out of Kalimantan to Singapore<strong> </strong>(Shepherd 2000). <p></p>
100600281		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> CITES Appendix I. The whole of Palawan is classed as a game reserve, where hunting is illegal. In 1990, the entire island was designated as a Biosphere Reserve, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is extremely difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in two protected areas: El Nido Marine Reserve and Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (the latter, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and part of the National Integrated Protected Areas System, has been extended to the east, where the species is also known to occur and is under effective management by the local Government of Puerto Princesa city). It was recently used as a flagship species behind efforts to galvanise conservation efforts under the project - Managing threats to key birds in the Palawan corridor: capacity building through applied research <strong></strong>(Aldrin <em>et al</em>. 2006). It also featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Allocate greater resources towards more effective control of hunting in Palawan forests and initiate conservation awareness campaigns amongst forest product collectors. Continue surveys to assess distribution, status and habitat requirements in remaining lowland forests and secondary habitats, particularly south of Brooke's Point, on the slopes of Mt Victoria and in remaining forests in the north. Formally protect forests at Iwahig. Support the proposed extension of Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park. <p></p>
100600281		distribution	eng	<em>Polyplectron napoleonis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Palawan (BirdLife International 2001). It is known from c.20 localities throughout the island, with records from at least 11 since 1980. Local reports suggest that it has a wider distribution. In the early 1970s, despite local extinctions, it was not considered particularly rare. In 1995, its fragmented population was estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (McGowan and Garson 1995); however, more recent density estimates from Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) suggest that this was an underestimate. As a result of the latest density estimates (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), the population is conservatively estimated at fewer than 50,000 mature individuals. The species, however, is still thought to be declining. <p></p>
100600281		habitat	eng	It mainly inhabits primary and secondary forest on flat and rolling terrain, up to c.800 m, occasionally occurring almost up to mossy forest and in <em>Casuarina</em>-dominated dwarf forest on serpentine rock. Surveys in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park found evidence that the species shows a strong preference for old growth forest over advanced secondary growth, which in turn appears to be preferred over early secondary growth, with none recorded in cultivation (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The species's population density is thus positively correlated with the density of large trees (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
100600281		population	eng	This species's population was previously estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals by McGowan and Garson (1995). Densities recently calculated in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park suggest that the figure given by McGowan and Garson (1995) is likely to be an underestimate, based on estimated forest coverage on Palawan. However, the latest density estimates are unlikely be representative of the whole island. With this in mind, the species's population is conservatively placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
100600281		threats	eng	Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive, and reached a rate of 11% between 2000 and 2005 (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Logging and mining concessions have been granted for almost all remaining forest on the island. As of December 2008, nine Small Scale Mining Permits had already been issued and there were 354 mining applications pending, covering 6,510 km<sup>2</sup> of land within Palawan province (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Illegal logging is thought to persist in the remaining extensive forest of the south. Forest at Iwahig Penal Colony, regarded as a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. By the late 1960s, the species was being extensively hunted and trapped in large numbers for live trade, but exports were much reduced by the late 1980s. In the mid-1990s, it was heavily hunted adjacent to Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, and this protected area is still subjected to pressures on habitats, including agricultural encroachment and the harvesting of non-timber forest products (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). <p></p>
100600282		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in numerous protected areas, including Bach Ma National Park and at least 10 nature reserves in Vietnam, at least two designated and two proposed National Biodiversity Conservation Areas in Laos, and Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat in Laos and Vietnam to clarify its current distribution and assess its abundance in relation to habitat degradation. Regularly monitor the Malaysian population and selected populations in Laos and Vietnam. Promote strict enforcement of hunting regulations in protected areas supporting populations, in combination with locally-targeted conservation awareness initiatives. Conduct taxonomic research into the relationship between the Malaysian and Indo-Chinese populations. <p></p>
100600282		distribution	eng	<em>Rheinardia ocellata</em> is endemic to South-East Asia. The nominate subspecies occurs along the Annamite mountain chain in central and southern <strong>Vietnam</strong> and neighbouring eastern <strong>Laos</strong>, south to the Da Lat Plateau in southern Vietnam. The range of subspecies <em>nigrescens</em> is wider than once thought, including the eastern flank of the East Coast Range of Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, although it is restricted to a narrow altitudinal band<strong> </strong>(D. Wells <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Previously it had been known only from eight sites within, or very close to, Taman Negara National Park. Although the species's range and habitat have been reduced and fragmented in Laos and Vietnam, and a substantial population decline has occurred there in the past century, the nominate subspecies is still relatively widespread and locally common.<em> </em><p></p>
100600282		habitat	eng	In Laos and Vietnam, it is resident in primary and secondary evergreen forest from sea-level up to 1,500 m, and from 1,700-1,900 m on the Da Lat Plateau. It has been frequently recorded from degraded forest habitats, including active logging concessions<strong> </strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2004). It occurs at its highest densities in moist primary forest in lowlands up to c.900 m. In Malaysia, it inhabits tall hill dipterocarp/lower montane transitional forest, generally from c.800-1,100 m.  <p></p>
100600282		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600282		threats	eng	The Indo-Chinese population is probably most at risk from continuing forest loss and degradation, both within and outside protected areas. The greatest problems stem from commercial logging, illegal timber extraction, clearance for agricultural plantations, encroachment by shifting cultivators and road-building. Disturbance and snaring at display arenas are more significant threats than deforestation in some areas. The Malaysian population is less threatened, with the main documented threat being limited habitat loss on the periphery of Taman Negara, although its narrow altitudinal range in this country lies mostly outside protected areas, exposing it to disturbance from logging<strong> </strong>(D. Wells <em>in litt.</em> 2005). <p></p>
100600284		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been studied in detail at Antwerp Zoo (Belgium) since the start of a breeding programme there in 1962 (Van Bocxstaele undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including considerable research into its taxonomy (Lovel undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Captive breeding has also taken place or been attempted at other zoos, although all such efforts have been limited by difficulties such as the species's susceptibility to disease (Lovel undated)<strong></strong>. The successful conservation of this species may depend on populations in protected areas where there is some possibility that hunting can be limited or banned (Hart and Upoki 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Currently, important populations exist in the Maiko and probably also Salonga National Parks, where there is potential for long-term conservation (Hart and Upoki 1997, E.  Mulotwa <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It also occurs in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (Hart and Upoki 1997). Several new conservation projects concerning forests within the species range are under development (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and ecological research is being conducted in Salonga National Park (E.  Mulotwa <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to assess its distribution and habitat requirements, focusing on the Maiko, Kahuzi-Biega and Salonga National Parks, the Lomako Yekokala reserve, and the southern part of the species's range in the Kasaï Provinces and Opala locality in Kisangani region. Conduct research to assess the socio-economic importance of bushmeat hunting, and evaluate the potential for sustainable use and livelihood alternatives. Continue education campaigns designed to mitigate bushmeat hunting within the region. Improve the protection of nature reserves and national parks where the species occurs. Build capacity in the number of staff at nature reserves and national parks where the species occurs to allow surveys to be carried out (E. Mulotwa <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600284		distribution	eng	<em>Afropavo congensis</em> occurs in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>(DRC). Research in 1993-1995 confirmed its presence in 13 out of 20 survey areas, although it was not abundant in any.&#160; This work also identified new sites that significantly extend the species's range north-east into the Ituri Forest (Hart and Upoki 1997). Subsequently, it was also located north of the Lomako river and along the Yekokora river (Dupain and van Krunkelsven 1996)<strong></strong>, as well as further south between the Lukenie and Sankuru rivers (Thompson 1996)<strong></strong>. Forest between the Lomami and Congo rivers may also hold significant concentrations, but information from that area remains limited (Hart and Upoki 1997).&#160;<p></p>
100600284		habitat	eng	It occurs in many different forest types but is often associated with slopes between watersheds with shallow soils supporting dry forest with an open understorey (Hart and Upoki 1997). The species appears to prefer high canopy and litter cover (E. Mulotwa <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Its sparse and irregular distribution may correspond in part to the limited availability of this habitat type (Hart and Upoki 1997). The species is not restricted solely to primary forest, old secondary forest adjacent to primary forest is heavily used at least for foraging (Mulotwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It does not appear to have a specialised diet, and has been recorded eating fruit from common tree species throughout the region (Hart and Upoki 1997), as well as insects and other invertebrates (McGowan 1994,<strong> </strong>Mulotwa <em>et al.</em> 2006). The breeding season may depend on local rainfall conditions (McGowan 1994). The species occurs at low density; in Salonga National Park a sighting rate of one individual every 9.03km was recorded during 2004/5 (Mulotwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<p></p>
100600284		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. In 2004-2005, fieldwork in Salonga National Park gave a sighting rate of one individual every 9.03 km.
100600284		threats	eng	Historically, its population was probably reduced by forest clearance and hunting (Lovel undated)<strong></strong>. Presently, habitat is being lost to mining, subsistence agriculture and logging at several locations (Hart and Upoki 1997). Mining and associated human settlement result in the opening up of remote areas (Hart 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with a corresponding increase in subsistence and commercial hunting (Hart and Upoki 1997). Surveys and questionnaires have revealed high hunting pressure in the Kisangani region and around Salonga National Park (E.  Mulotwa <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The capture rate of the species for each village in and around the Salonga National Park is around 20 birds per year, and it is usually targeted with wire snares, which are sometimes baited<strong> </strong>(Mulotwa <em>et al.</em> 2006). Capture in snares set for small mammals and antelope is probably widespread (Hart and Upoki 1997). In addition, the species's eggs are collected (Mulotwa <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The presence of guerrilla fighters and huge numbers of Rwandan refugees in the eastern DRC since 1994 also poses a significant threat (Hart and Upoki 1997, P. Garson <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> because of increased hunting and habitat loss (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> P. Garson <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally very common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1994). National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600286		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species is protected in China, although this is difficult to enforce in remote mountainous areas (Han<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). It is known from many protected areas, including important populations in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and Indonesia (J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004, W. Meckvichai <em>in litt.</em> 2004). These include: Huai Kha Kheng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand; Ujung Kulon and Baluran National Parks, Indonesia; Yok Don National Park, Vietnam; Lomphat, Phnom Prich and Kulen Promtep wildlife sanctuaries, Chhep and Eastern Mondulkiri protected forests and Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Cambodia; Xe Pian National Protected Area, Laos (Brickle 2002), and Shuangbai Konglonghe Nature Reserve, China (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. The core zone of Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area has recently been extended (T. Evans <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong> and increased education and patrolling is likely to improve the prospects for this important population, now known to number several hundred individuals. Extensive public awareness campaigns have been carried out in China and Laos. A captive breeding programme has been initiated in collaboration with the World Pheasant Association as a first step towards reintroducing birds into Peninsular Malaysia. The Cambodian Galliformes Conservation Programme through the Forestry Administration and the World Pheasant Association have conducted status surveys at a number of sites within north-west Cambodia. A model was developed to predict peafowl distribution and abundance at the landscape scale based upon distance to and from water and villages (Brickle 2002). In 2008, authorities in Java confiscated at least 17 individuals of this species from animal markets and residences (ProFauna Indonesia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue research into its range, status, habitat requirements and interactions with people to inform management within protected areas. Clarify its status in India. Initiate additional conservation awareness campaigns in Myanmar and Cambodia, while continuing existing ones. Develop landscape-level management recommendations for key areas, including the establishment of new protected areas where appropriate. Promote strict enforcement of regulations relating to hunting and pesticide use within protected areas supporting populations in Indochina. Encourage a total ban on trade in live birds and train feathers in all range countries.<br/><br/><p></p>
100600286		distribution	eng	<em>Pavo muticus</em> has a large ancestral range, across which it was once common and widespread  (BirdLife International 2001)<em></em>. It has undergone a serious decline and the only sizeable remaining populations are found in dry forests in <strong>Cambodia</strong> (Evans and Clements 2004, S. Browne <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008) and west-central <strong>Vietnam</strong> (Brickle 2002). Outside of this region populations persist in western and northern <strong>Thailand</strong> (W. Meckvichai <em>in litt.</em> 2004), the southern portion of <strong>Laos</strong>, Annam in Vietnam, Yunnan in <strong>China</strong> (Han <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and on Java in<strong> Indonesia</strong>. In <strong>India</strong>, individuals are occasionally encountered in Manipur (A. Choudhury <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, and one was recorded in southern Mizoram in 2007 (Choudhury 2009), but it may be extinct elsewhere in north-east India and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh</span>, and is extinct in Malaysia and peninsular Thailand. The population evidently declined dramatically during the 20th century, leading to range contraction and local extinctions; current pressures remain intense, with very rapid and on-going declines suspected based on rates of disturbance and habitat conversion across South-East Asia. However, where protected areas are effectively managed, such as Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, populations are increasing (T. Clements <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. The development of an effective survey methodology and increased survey effort within its range has led to an increase in records, especially from Cambodia, Thailand (Mekvichai <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>in prep).<strong></strong> and China, and hence the conservative population estimate of 5,000-10,000 individuals generated in 1995 has been revised to 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. <p></p>
100600286		habitat	eng	Historically it has been reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including a range of primary and secondary, tropical and subtropical, evergreen and deciduous forest-types, mixed coniferous forest, swamp forest, open woodland, forest edge, bamboo, grasslands, savannas, scrub and farmland edge, from sea-level to at least 2,100 m. Contemporary records are mostly limited to dry deciduous forests, with the highest densities occurring near undisturbed rivers and wetlands (Brickle 2002); access to water and human disturbance have a strong influence on the species's abundance and distribution (Brickle 2002, J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2004). It has been hypothesized that the species favours open deciduous forest as it may allow large clutches to be laid to coincide with a seasonal flush of fallen fruit (Brickle 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600286		population	eng	Although rare compared with historic numbers, improved survey methodology and increased effort has led to an increase in the reporting rate and thus the population estimate has been revised upwards to 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, to reflect this improved knowledge. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. Nevertheless this remains a coarse estimate and warrants refinement.
100600286		threats	eng	Widespread hunting for meat and feathers, and collection of eggs and chicks, combined with habitat modification and human disturbance, has caused a catastrophic decline throughout much of the species's range. Fragmentation has isolated many small populations, increasing their susceptibility to local extinction, but selective logging appears to have no adverse effects on peafowl distribution (Brickle 2002)<strong></strong>. Other threats may include trade in the male's spectacular train feathers. In 2008, individuals of this species were reportedly being sold illegally for IDR200,000 (at the time around US$22) in the animal markets of Java (ProFauna Indonesia<span style="font-style: italic;"> in<span style="font-style: italic;"> litt</span><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008). It is regarded as a crop-pest by farmers in China and Thailand (W. Meckvichai <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004), and is consequently poisoned (Han <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The spread of human settlement presents the greatest threat, directly through hunting pressure and habitat loss, but also indirectly by preventing access to otherwise suitable habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;"><p></p></span>
100600287		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the population size. Protect large areas of primary forest within its range.  Quantify the extent of logging within its range. Quantify the impact of hunting on populations. Protect the species against hunting.  <p></p>
100600287		distribution	eng	<em>Dendragapus falcipennis</em> occurs in far eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, from c.120°E to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk and Sakhalin Island, north to c.60°N and south to the lower Amur region and the Sikhote-Alin mountains, and at least formerly to the Xiao Hinggan Ling mountains in Heilongjiang, <strong>China</strong>. It has apparently been extirpated from China (<strong></strong>Madge and McGowen 2002). It occurs at low densities of between six and 25 birds per 100 km<sup>2</sup> within this relatively small range, although these densities may be under-estimated because of its elusive behaviour.  <em> <p></p></em>
100600287		habitat	eng	It inhabits coniferous forest, mainly of spruce, e.g. <em>Picea jezoensis</em> and fir <em>Abies nephrolepis</em>, and although it uses secondary forest, it avoids open areas and the youngest stages of forest succession. <p></p>
100600287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not described as common within any part of its small range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1994). Brazil (2009) has estimated national population sizes at &lt;c.100   breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia.
100600287		threats	eng	It is assumed to be declining because of large-scale clear-cutting for timber, forest fires and hunting for food, and has been reported to disappear rapidly from colonised areas, apparently because it does not fear man and is therefore easily shot. <p></p>
100600290		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.40,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in China and c.100,000-1 million   breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600291		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.8,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population estimates include: &lt;c.100 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and   c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600293		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number c.2,500,000-3,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to c.7,500,000-9,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is c.15,000,000-40,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. In addition, national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600294		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Large scale research and conservation projects are underway in Georgia and Turkey to improve understanding of the species' biology, develop monitoring and management activities and promote public awareness, and a project to survey the species in Azerbaijan has been carried out (IUCN/SSC/BirdLife/WPA Grouse Specialist Group 2002; R. Gokhelashvili <em>in litt.</em> 2005; E. Sultanov <em>in litt.</em> 2005; Azniashvili 2004; Sultanov 2006)<strong></strong>. Future work to develop a conservation strategy and create a potential distribution map for all range countries is planned. A captive breeding program is being developed in Armenia.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue research into its population status, ecological requirements and interactions with different farming and forestry methods. Encourage the development and implementation of national species action plans. Develop a framework for grouse-friendly farming practice, including control of dogs and regulation of hunting. Develop public awareness campaigns. Prevent road construction and inappropriate development in key areas for the species. Review the adequacy of the existing protected area network. Monitor populations at a number of sites throughout its range, especially close to sites which are being developed.  <p></p>
100600294		distribution	eng	<em>Tetrao mlokosiewiczi</em> is endemic to the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains, where there are thought to be some 68,000-84,300 individuals spread between <strong>Russia</strong> (15,000-50,000 individuals), <strong>Georgia</strong> (40,000-50,000 individuals), <strong>Turkey</strong> (3,000-4,500 individuals), <strong>Armenia</strong> (400-800 individuals), <strong>Azerbaijan</strong> (1,000-1,500 breeding individuals) and <strong>Iran</strong> (less than 500 individuals)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Gokhelashvili <em>et al.</em> 2003; T. Sviridova <em>in litt</em>. 2000;&#160; BirdLife International 2004; S. Klaus <em>in litt.</em> 2005; Khosravifard <em>in litt. </em>2007; Sultanov 2006; Storch in press)<strong></strong>. Population estimates have been very variable and data are patchy, partially due to political unrest which has hampered data collection on populations, trends and threats. Spatial modelling has led to considerably lower population estimates: the global population has recently been estimated at 30,203-63,034 individuals based on  extent of suitable habitat in range countries (Gavashelishvili and Javakhishvili 2010); conversely, in Turkey the population was thought to perhaps be as low as 1,000 individuals, but based on spatial modelling, may comprise over 4,800 individuals (Gottschalk <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Where trend estimates for 1990-2000 are available they tend to show that the population is in decline (Armenia, 10-19%, Azerbaijan, 20-29% and Turkey, 0-19%) and although in Russia the population is apparently stable, rates of decline are widely predicted to increase.  <p></p>
100600294		habitat	eng	It is found in subalpine and alpine meadows, on north-facing slopes with <em>Rhododendron</em> and juniper <em>Juniperus</em>, and on the edge of birch forest in spring and winter, at elevations of 1,300-3,000 m (Gavashelishvili and Javakhishvili 2010). Meadows used for hay production are important for breeding birds (Klaus <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Lek sites are found above the timber line not far from winter food resources such as birch<span style="font-style: italic;"> Betula litwinowii</span>, oak<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus macranthera</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus orientalis</span>, juniper <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> and rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa spp </span>(Klaus and Vitovich 2006).<br/><p></p>
100600294		population	eng	In Europe (which covers more than 95% of the breeding range), the population is estimated to number 60,000-108,000 individuals.
100600294		threats	eng	Ongoing road building for the construction of holiday homes in the mountains is currently the major threat and is likely to significantly increase the rate of decline by fragmenting habitat, causing disturbance and allowing increased access for hunters and herdsmen (G. Welch <em>in litt.</em> 2005; Isfendiyaroglu <em>et al. </em>2007; BaÞkaya 2003; <strong></strong>Ýsfendiyaroðlu <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Construction of summer homes and wood-cutting for fuel reduces the availability of winter foraging habitat. Habitat loss and deterioration are also likely to be major threats with 40% of subalpine meadows within its range suffering from intensive grazing (WWF/IUCN 1994)<strong></strong>. The density of birds in grazed areas is low. Grazing livestock disturb and trample nests and birds are killed by herders' dogs (S. Klaus <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Illegal hunting is an increasing threat, particularly in the Lesser Caucasus and in Turkey, both by local residents and occasionally by tourists (E. Ménoni <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Dam building and subsequent re-settlement of displaced people is likely to cause significant declines in Turkey (BaÞkaya 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600295		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 0.76-1 million breeding pairs, equating to 2.28-3 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 5-10 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
100600296		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be formerly very common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1994). Brazil (2009) has estimated national population sizes at &lt;c.100 breeding pairs in China   and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Russia.
100600297		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number c.2,500,000-3,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to c.7,500,000-9,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is c.15,000,000-40,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. In addition, national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600298		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Quantify the impact of hunting and the taking of eggs in different parts of its range. Regulate egg collecting through local networks. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Research its seasonal habitat requirements and the impact of habitat fragmentation.  <p></p>
100600298		distribution	eng	<em>Bonasa sewerzowi</em> is found in the mountains of south-west <strong>China</strong>, in eastern Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu and western Sichuan (BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>Its known range was recently extended to the western edge of the forest zone in Tibet (at c.93°30'E), suggesting that it may occur much more widely in the vast and continuous forests of south-east Tibet than was previously documented. It is common in suitable forest, and recent studies in Gansu found extraordinarily high densities of up to 15 occupied territories per km<sup>2</sup>. However, it is believed to have disappeared from eastern Qinghai and central Gansu because of deforestation, and it has also suffered intensive habitat loss in south-west Gansu.<em> </em><p></p>
100600298		habitat	eng	It occurs in birch and coniferous forest, generally above 1,000 m (BirdLife International 2001), and up to 4,200 m (Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). Its typical habitat is characterised as sparse coniferous forest with a pronounced herbaceous layer and broken glades rich in shrubbery and/or bamboo (Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). In winter, flocks of this otherwise territorial species form in valley bottoms, typically numbering 4-20 individuals (BirdLife International 2001, Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). The species feeds mainly on buds, leaves and shoots taken from willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>shrubs throughout the year (Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). They also feed on mosses, herbs and tree seeds collected from the forest floor, and take berries in autumn. Males establish territories in mid-April, although a second peak in territorial activity in the autumn, before winter flocks are formed, may provide advantages when territories are re-established in the spring (Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a). The nest is placed at the foot of a tree or rarely in a rotten stump, and egg-laying begins in mid- to late May. Clutches, rarely numbering more than six eggs, are incubated for 25-29 days, and hatching in early to mid-July coincides with the intense rainfall of the monsoon season (Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). <br/><p></p>
100600298		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable forest (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
100600298		threats	eng	Its habitat has been greatly reduced and fragmented by large-scale forest clearance and intensive livestock grazing (BirdLife International 2001, Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). Illegal hunting and egg-collecting may also be problems in parts of its range (BirdLife International 2001). A population studied in Lianhuashan Natural Reserve (Gansu Province) between 1995 and 2000 was stable despite egg-collecting by local people at 10-29% of nests each year <strong></strong>(Sun <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although large-scale forest clearance is thought to be detrimental, limited evidence suggests that lower levels of timber extraction that result in a lush shrub layer with an abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> spp. allow the species to exist at higher densities (Klaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). <br/><p></p>
100600300		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within a number of protected areas and has been the focus of extensive ecological study. Management recommendations have been made to minimise the impacts of natural gas exploitation in sagebrush habitat (Holloran and Anderson 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the Western Governor's Association are developing a strategy to minimise the impacts of development on sage grouse populations. A total of 63 Sage Grouse Local Working Groups have been established within its range, bringing stakeholders together to plan and implement local level conservation actions. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Adopt best practice methods when developing gas fields. Continue to monitor population trends. Manage the sage-brush ecosystem in a way that is beneficial to other habitat specialists and restores natural food-webs. <p></p>
100600300		distribution	eng	<em>Centrocercus urophasianus</em> inhabits the shrubland ecosystems of south-eastern <strong>Canada</strong> (Alberta and Saskatchewan) and western <strong>USA</strong> (Washington, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah and Colorado) (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994, Schroeder <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the accurate estimation of trends is difficult, the range-wide breeding population was estimated as 142,000 individuals in 1998, clearly lower than historic levels (Braun 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and decline rates have been estimated at 50% or higher since 1966 (J. Wells and K. Rosenberg <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600300		habitat	eng	It is closely associated with sagebrush <em>Artemesia</em> habitats during the breeding and non-breeding seasons, although some populations do undergo seasonal movements (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994, Schroeder <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a lekking species. It may act as an umbrella to other sage-brush specialists when conserved. <p></p>
100600300		population	eng	There are estimated to be c.150,000 mature individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <p></p>
100600300		threats	eng	Immense areas of its habitat have been cleared or degraded due to cultivation (for wheat, potatoes and other crops), burning and overgrazing, and the species has been extirpated from various parts of its former range (British Columbia, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Arizona) (Schroeder <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continuing development of natural gas resources is causing reduced lek attendance and overall population (Holloran and Anderson 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Coyote <em>Canis latrans</em> control is likely to have a detrimental impact on sage grouse owing to the loss of beneficial indirect interactions (Mezquida <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2003, about 25% of the radio-marked sage-grouse in the Powder River Basin died from West Nile virus. That number dropped to 10% in 2004 and 2% in 2005 in response to cool summer temperatures, but the long-term impacts require further study. There have been large-scale losses of sagebrush habitat owing to changes in fire frequencies resulting from cheatgrass proliferation (Holloran <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600301		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tympanuchus phasianellus</span> has a wide distribution in central, northern and northwestern North America, occurring in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">hueyi</span> of New Mexico was last recorded in 1952, and is now extinct (Merrill 1967).
100600302		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most management effort has been directed toward improvement of habitat. Effective strategies have included manipulation of grazing pressure, control of burning, provision of thick vegetation for protective cover and establishment of reserves. Population reintroduction may be necessary to expand its distribution, particularly where there are no dispersal corridors between occupied and unoccupied habitats, but so far it has had mixed success (Schroeder and Robb 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting legislation has frequently been used to protect populations, with mixed success - both <em>T. c. cupido </em>and <em>attwateri</em> were protected. Legislation has been more effective with <em>T. c. pinnatus</em>, perhaps because of its large and diverse distribution (<strong></strong>Schroeder and Robb 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Removal of Ring-necked Pheasants <em>Phasianus colchicus</em> may reduce interspecific competition (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Fence areas of habitat to remove grazing pressure from sheep, or reduce the number of grazing animals to maintain habitat. Strictly control hunting, and if survival is confirmed to be higher in unhunted populations consider banning hunting of the species. Retain/restore corridors of suitable habitat between populations to facilitate dispersal and reduce the stresses associated with a loss of genetic variation. <p></p>
100600302		distribution	eng	<em>Tympanuchus cupido</em> is restricted to prairie intermixed with cropland, primarily in the mid-western states of the <strong>USA</strong>. The three recognised subspecies vary dramatically in status: the Heath Hen <em>T. c. cupido</em> is extinct, and the Attwater's Prairie Hen <em>T. c. attwateri</em> is restricted to small portions of south-east Texas (numbering under 1,000 in the mid-1990s [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) (Schroeder and Robb 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Greater Prairie-chicken (<em>T. c. pinnatus</em>) is extinct or in danger of extinction in 15 states, but numerous enough to be legally hunted in four states (Schroeder and Robb 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the largest remaining populations in Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been in long-term decline for the last 80 years (G. Butcher<em> in litt.</em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with recent figures suggesting a steep population decline in the period 1989-1997 (Westemeier and Gough 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600302		habitat	eng	Although once abundant in native prairie intermixed with oak <em>Quercus</em> spp. woodland, as prairie and woodland habitats were converted to cropland it had to adapt to agricultural habitats (Schroeder and Robb 1993, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Areas of native vegetation are still required for roosting and breeding, and for displaying males which usually select lek sites with short grass, usually on elevated ground. Most nest sites are in open, grassy habitats such as ungrazed meadows or hayfields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600302		population	eng	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the population size to number 700,000 individuals.
100600302		threats	eng	Loss of prairie habitat through conversion to cropland was primarily responsible for the extinction of <em>T. c. cupido</em> and declines in the other two subspecies. Grazing pressure from sheep and the increase in cropland throughout areas of native prairie is threatening the remaining population of <em>T. c. attwateri</em> in Texas. Habitat fragmentation leading to isolated populations and a loss of genetic variance and subsequent decreases in fertility will reduce fitness and reinforce negative demographic trends (Westemeier <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In certain states hunting continues (Schroeder and Robb 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may suffer from competition with Ring-necked Pheasant <em>Phasianus colchicus </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600303		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in all range states, and is being considered for listing under the Federal Endangered Species Act (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Numbers of leks and attending males are monitored (Hagen 2005)<strong></strong>. Reintroduction programs have failed in Texas and Colorado (Hagen 2005, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, primarily because of habitat shortages (Hagen 2005)<strong></strong>. Some grazing regimes have been successfully manipulated, and croplands have reverted to roughly 2 million acres of grassland under Conservation Reserve Program and other private land management schemes which have benefited several populations (Hagen <em>et al</em>. 2002, <strong></strong>Hagen 2005)<strong></strong>. Large areas of habitat have been purchased by some states and the Nature Conservancy and Candidate Conservation Agreements with Assurances are being implemented in Texas. Research has been conducted on its ecology and conservation which will facilitate the production of recovery plans. Over 900 birds have been radio-tracked between 1999 and 2010. Miles of unneeded fences have been removed in parts of Oklahoma and Texas and a method has been developed to mark remaining fences to reduce mortality (Rogers 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Allow habitat regeneration, manage grazing to provide adequate cover and forage for prairie chickens. Continue to manage occupied habitats on private lands, and hasten progress towards effective management on public lands. Protect occupied habitats. Develop and promote effective incentives for land-owners to maintain populations.  Continue monitoring leks and develop statistically robust methods of estimating populations from lek data. Regulate the construction of tall structures in or near lesser prairie-chicken habitats. Ensure effective evaluation and mitigation of the impacts of wind turbine and other tall structure installation on the species.<p></p>
100600303		distribution	eng	<em>Tympanuchus pallidicinctus</em> occurs in west-central and south-west Kansas, south-east Colorado, the Oklahoma panhandle, southwest Texas panhandle (Permian Basin) and eastern New Mexico, <strong>USA</strong>, and historically perhaps southern Nebraska (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The current occupied range is a fragmented c. 64,000 km<sup>2</sup>, only c.14% of the original (Rogers 1997, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Recent population estimates are 20,000-40,000 in 2007, most occurring in Kansas (Rogers 1997, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600303		habitat	eng	It originally inhabited mid-grass prairie with or without interspersed shinnery oak <em>Quercus havardii</em> or sand sagebrush <em>Artemisia filifolia</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hagen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is now most common in dwarf shrub-mixed grass vegetation, sometimes interspersed with short grass and, optimally, with some portion (&lt;25%) of the landscape in row grains as supplemental winter forage. Successful nests tend to be in areas with greater shrub cover and visual obstructions (Davis 2009). Leks are usually on elevated areas with short vegetation (Hagen 2005, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs from mid-March to late May (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Food comprises foliage, seeds, grain, insects in the warmer months and acorns in the south (Hagen 2005, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Birds flock in late autumn and early winter, and feed in croplands (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600303		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number 20,000-40,000 individuals (H. Whitlaw <I>in litt.</I> 2007).
100600303		threats	eng	Croplands have expanded since the late 19th century and complete conversion is now the principal threat (Hagen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, as areas with more than 37% cultivated land are probably unsustainable (Hagen <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Intensive grazing reduces food and cover, and herbicides reduce shrub cover and acorn production (Hagen 2005, Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Market hunting greatly reduced populations in the early 20th century (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Numbers declined more severely in the dust bowl of the late 1930s<strong></strong>, and significantly with droughts in the 1950s and early 1990s (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Today, recreational hunting is limited to Kansas and Texas and the conservative seasons produce an annual harvest of fewer than 1,000 birds (Wolfe <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Oklahoma 39.5% of the prairie-chicken mortality recorded was due to fence collisions, while in New Mexico, this figure was 26.5 percent. The species has also been found to avoid power lines and so it is likely that the erection of other tall structures (including wind turbines) will lead to increased habitat fragmentation and reduced home range sizes (Pruett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009a, b) as well as reduced reproductive success (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Wind-energy facilities are increasing in the Great Plains, particularly in states with Lesser Prairie-chickens as these have the highest potential for wind energy development. <br/><p></p>
100600305		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix III in Guatemala (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. It is well protected in Tikal National Park, and a reserve has been created to protect this species in Petén (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. There is also a sizeable contiguous block of private protected land in western Belize, including the 105,000 ha Rio Bravo conservation area and Gallon Jug/Chan Chich lodge lands, where the species is relatively common (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor populations through regular surveys. Monitor hunting pressure. Record trade levels for this species. Track rates of habitat loss and degradation. Investigate the potential threat of chicken-born diseases. Discourage hunting through awareness campaigns. Increase the number of known sites that are protected. <p></p>
100600305		distribution	eng	<em>Meleagris ocellata</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Mexico</strong> (Yucatán peninsula), north <strong>Guatemala</strong> (north Petén) and north-west and west-central <strong>Belize</strong> (Miller and Miller 1997, AOU 1998). It is probably most common in Belize, where there are several quite large populations in protected areas and it is locally abundant (Miller and Miller 1997, BBIS 1998, B. W. Miller <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it has been extirpated from north Yucatán, west Campeche, east Tabasco and north-east Chiapas, Mexico (E. M. F. Esquivel and S. Colmé <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>, and numbers and habitat quality are presumably declining elsewhere (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although common in some reserves, it is generally rare (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and breeding season survival rates for females (60-75%) and poults (15%) are low in Tikal National Park, Guatemala (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong> 1998).  <p></p>
100600305		habitat	eng	It occupies non-flooded mature forest, but associates with seasonally flooded habitat and open areas when breeding (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1996,<em></em> 1998). This species is omnivorous and feeds on the ground, taking grass seeds and leaves, fruits and insects, and corn where available (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Breeding begins in March, with nesting taking place from April. It lays 8-15 eggs (average of 12) in a shallow scrape on the ground. The incubation period is 28 days (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600305		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600305		threats	eng	There is heavy hunting for food and trade (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong> (and occasionally sport [E. M. F. Esquivel and S. Colmé <em>in litt</em>. 1998]<strong></strong>), even within reserves (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Large-scale clear-cutting and agricultural conversion is fragmenting habitat, increasing its susceptibility to hunting (A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are local reports that chicken-born diseases have spread to populations in contact with domestic poultry<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Weyer 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but this has never been substantiated (B. W. Miller <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600306		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Sierra Leone, the species is restricted to Gola Forest, which is now well-protected<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>, and surrounding areas (J. Lindsell <em>in litt.</em> 2007, 2012). In Côte d'Ivoire, Taï National Park is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest. Plans are underway to establish a trans-boundary reserve across the Sierra Leone-Liberia border. The park will link the 72,000 ha Gola Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone with the proposed 98,000 ha Gola National Rainforest National Park in Liberia via cross-border forest corridors potentially covering a further 50,000 ha. Work has begun to build national capacity (both government and civil society) to manage the trans-boundary protected area and ensure that local forest communities will benefit from future management (BirdLife International 2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>In Liberia, conduct surveys and identify key sites (P. Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1998). In Ghana, carry out population surveys to ascertain its status (Holbech 1992, 1996). Where possible, conduct education campaigns (Martinez 1994, H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007) in part to address hunting pressure (Martinez 1994). In Taï National Park and Gola Forest, ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park (Gartshore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, H. S. Thompson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999). Promote community participation in conservation planning and other activities (H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). Enforce laws for protected areas (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Ensure de facto protection of protected areas in and around the Taï forest (H. S. Thompson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 1999, H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007), such as Haute Dodo, Cavally, Goin-Debe and Nzo Fauna Reserve (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). At Taï National Park the main priority is to control poaching more effectively through stronger legal protection and community-based programmes that find alternatives to bushmeat (Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). <br/><p></p>
100600306		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Agelastes meleagrides </span>is endemic to the Upper Guinea Forest ecosystem, which once covered a large part of West Africa, but is now severely reduced and highly fragmented. It now occurs in remnant forest patches in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sierra Leone</span> (Gola Forest region only; the population has been put at c.5,700-8,700 [Allport <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989], although this was probably an over-estimate [J. Lindsell<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liberia </span>(population estimated at more than 10,000 in 1985 [Gatter 1997]), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Côte d'Ivoire</span> (notably in the Taï region, where the population was estimated at 42,400 to 119,800 in 2000/01 [Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010], but also at Haute Dodo, where it is rare, and Cavally Forest Reserves, where it may be fairly common [H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007]) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ghana </span>(population estimated at 1,000 birds, although with the possible exception of Ankasa, these could be remnant populations that are not viable given the level of hunting pressure in the country [Allport 1991, B. Phalan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2009]). Its scarcity in Ghana is confirmed by a lack of records from surveys and interviews with local hunters in Draw River, Boi-Tano and Krokosua forest reserves in 2003 (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). In 1995, the total population was estimated at 85,000-115,000 individuals (Gartshore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). This estimate was thought to be optimistic (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007); however, more recent surveys in southwestern Côte d'Ivoire suggest that it may be reasonably accurate (Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Although recent observations suggest that the species is more tolerant of habitat degradation than previously thought (Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), logging, forest clearance for agriculture and hunting are believed to be driving on-going declines  across the region (H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007, Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). However, this species is shy and difficult to observe, and could consequently be under-recorded (E. Klop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
100600306		habitat	eng	Ecology poorly known. Lives in small groups of typically 15-20 individuals, although the largest flock recorded consisted of 38 birds (Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Surveys conducted in the Taï region of Côte d'Ivoire suggest a preference for drier forest (Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has been suggested that population density is much lower in secondary forest (Urban <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Allport <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007); however, surveys conducted by Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010) show that it can occurs at high densities in areas of past disturbance and is not confined to unlogged primary forest. It has been reported in old secondary forest in Ghana (Holbech 1992, 1996) and Sierra Leone (E. Klop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007) and in cocoa plantations along the Kwadi river, south of Gola North (E. Klop<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). It feeds on insects, small molluscs, berries and fallen seeds of forest trees (Urban <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986). The breeding season is October-May, possibly year-round (Martinez 1994). The species joins groups of sooty mangabeys <span style="font-style: italic;">Cercocebus atys </span>and other terrestrial mammals to forage in Taï National Park (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
100600306		population	eng	In 1995, the world population was estimated at 85,000-115,000 individuals (Gartshore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). Although this numbers was thought to be optimistic (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007), surveys carried out at the species stronghold in the Taï region of Côte d'Ivoire, (which suggest a local population of between 42,400 and 119,800 individuals [Waltert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010]), indicate that it may be a reasonable estimate.
100600306		threats	eng	Its habitat is rapidly receding and where it still occurs in large numbers it is heavily poached. During the recent conflict, forest in Côte d'Ivoire was logged illegally and opportunistically (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). Logging and forest clearance for agriculture may increase in Liberia with the return of peace (H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). Increased hunting in logged areas may push the species beyond recovery at some sites (Allport <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Holbech 1992, 1996). In the Taï region, levels of poaching are thought to be increasing and the species is now almost absent from the southeast of Taï National Park where hunting is most prolific (Waltert<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). In Gola forest, the trapping of Crested Guineafowl <span style="font-style: italic;">Guttera pucherani</span> using snares may be a threat (E. Klop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. meleagrides</span> may be especially susceptible to poaching since groups are reported to be easily shot by imitating their grouping call which causes individuals to assemble rather than spread as in <span style="font-style: italic;">G. pucherani</span> (Bechinger 1964, Waltert et al. 2010). Interspecific competition with the larger <span style="font-style: italic;">G. pucherani</span> may exclude the species from some logged forest (Gartshore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Gatter 1997).<br/><p></p>
100600308		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Numida meleagris</span> has a native range covering much of Africa, encompassing <span style="font-weight: bold;">Senegal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Gambia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea-Bissau</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sierra</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Leone</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mali</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Côte d'Ivoire</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Burkina Faso</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ghana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Togo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Benin</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niger</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nigeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chad</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cameroon</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Gabon</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Congo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">The Democratic Republic of the Congo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Angola</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Eritrea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uganda</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Somalia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tanzania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zambia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malawi</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mozambique</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zimbabwe</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Botswana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Namibia </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sabyi</span> is probably now extinct in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Morocco</span>, although there is a possibility that it survives in the Middle Atlas (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100600312		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve (Eitniear <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and near Pico Orizaba National Park (Montejo and Tejeda 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are historical records from areas now within Cofre de Perote and Cañon del Río Blanco National Parks, but the species's current status in these reserves is unknown. Environmental education in Veracruz has included the development of posters and roadway signs (J. Carroll <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date total population estimate. Monitor the rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Implement a conservation awareness programme for the Sierra Gorda, targeting villages near known populations. Document habitat requirements, especially within the Sierra Gorda. Survey for additional populations in San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Veracruz and Oaxaca. Conduct research to determine the level of gene flow between the northern and southern parts of the species's range. <p></p>
100600312		distribution	eng	<em>Dendrortyx barbatus</em> is confined to the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre de Oaxaca in east <strong>Mexico</strong>. Surveys in 1994-1998 confirmed its presence in several areas. The total population probably comprises fewer than 5,400 individuals (Eitniear <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. The largest populations are thought to be found in Veracruz (&lt;2,000 individuals), where it occurs from Coatepec west through the Metlac Basin to Orizaba (Howell and Webb 1992, Eitniear <em>et al. </em>2000, J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt.</em> 2004), and in Querétaro in the Sierra Gorda and adjacent areas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Eitniear <em>et al.</em> 1999,&#160;Eitniear <em>et al.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Rojas-Soto <em>et al.</em> 2001, Eitniear and Baccus 2002) (&lt;3,000 individuals), although the extent of suitable habitat here is not known precisely. The species has recently been found at up to 20 new sites in Querétaro, suggesting that it is even more widespread in the state than previously thought (R. Pedraza <em>per</em> J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Small numbers are thought to occur in Hildago (Howell and Webb 1992, Gómez de Silva and Aguilar Rodríguez 1994, J. Eitniear <em>in litt.</em> 2004) <strong></strong><strong></strong> (&lt;100 individuals), San Luis Potosi in the Sierra Gorda (J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Eitniear <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong> (&lt;200 individuals) and Puebla (Aguilar-Rodrigues 2000) (&lt;100 individuals). There are also records from the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca (Aguilar Rodríguez 1999)<strong></strong>. The spate of recent records suggests that it is more numerous than previously thought, but remaining populations are fragmented and, perhaps with the exception of those in the remote Sierra Gorda, continuing to decline. <p></p>
100600312		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane and pine-oak forest at elevations of 900-3,100 m, but has been recorded in older, second-growth forest, and edge and disturbed habitats associated with agriculture including shade coffee<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Montejo and Tejeda 1996, Eitniear <em>et al.</em> 1999, Eitniear and Baccus 2002)<strong></strong>. Many fragmented populations are restricted to vegetation along creeks and rivers (J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Observations of birds breeding in captivity indicate that egg-laying takes place in February-April (Cornejo 2007)<strong></strong>. The clutch size ranges from four to eight, but normally numbers six, and the incubation period is normally 28-32 days (Cornejo 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600312		population	eng	The total population probably comprises fewer than 5,400 individuals (J. Eitniear <I>in litt.</I> 2000), roughly equivalent to 3,600 mature individuals.
100600312		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and fragmentation are the result of logging, clearance for agriculture, road-building, tourist developments, intensive urbanisation, sheep-ranching and grazing (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Conversion from shade to sun coffee is a serious threat to some areas of habitat (Eitniear and Baccus 2002, J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt.</em> 2004). Fragmented populations are susceptible to subsistence hunting, predators, genetic retrogression and further human encroachment (J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 1999). In Veracruz, there is widespread conversion of habitat to monoculture crops, human settlement and livestock-grazing<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Eitniear <em>et al.</em> 1999) and there have been reports of hunting with dogs with little discrimination between species (Eitniear and Baccus 2002, J. C. Eitniear <em>in litt.</em> 2004). In Hidalgo, there is little remaining habitat. <p></p>
100600313		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600314		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600317		population	eng	Partners in Flight placed the estimate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).
100600320		population	eng	Partners in Flight placed the estimate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).
100600322		population	eng	Partners in Flight placed the estimate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).
100600324		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100600324		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontophorus gujanensis</span> is restricted to the Neotropics. It has a disjunct range, and eight recognised subspecies. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">castigatus</span> is likely to have been extirpated from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span>, and is now found only in a restricted area of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">marmoratus</span> ranges from east Panama, where it can be locally common away from human settlements, to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">gujanensis </span>is uncommon in south-east Venezuela; from there its range spreads east through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana </span>(it is frequent in both of these countries), and south through parts of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>to extreme northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">medius </span>occurs in south Venezuela and north-west Brazil. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">buckleyi</span> occurs at the base of Colombia's east Andes, in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>and in north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">rufogularis</span> is endemic to north-east Peru. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">pachyrhynchus</span> is known from east Peru, where it is common, and may also occur in west Bolivia. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">simonsi</span> is endemic to east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100600324		habitat	eng	This is a forest floor species of lowland tropical forest up to 1,800 m. It appears tolerant of secondary growth. It has been recorded feeding on berries and myriapods in Suriname, other invertebrates and starchy seeds in Panama, and dried bananas in Costa Rica. Breeding times appear to be variable: nests have been found in January, April and June, and a breeding condition female collected in August. The nest is a roofed chamber built at the base of trees (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100600324		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
100600328		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although it occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve, Colombia, and Sierra de Perijá National Park, Venezuela, neither of these formal designations provide adequate protection<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995,<strong> </strong>C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000). It is legally protected from hunting in Venezuela.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine more accurately the range, abundance and habitat preferences of this species, particularly in the southern section of Perijá National Park. Use satellite imagery to assess the extent and rate of habitat loss. Produce and promote management recommendations for Sierra de Perijá National Park. Determine the population (Franco-Maya, and Maya Espinel 2002).<p></p>
100600328		distribution	eng	<em>Odontophorus atrifrons</em> has three disjunct populations: the nominate subspecies in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, north-east <strong>Colombia</strong>, subspecies <em>navai</em> in the Sierra de Perijá on the Colombia-<strong>Venezuela </strong>border, and subspecies <em>variegatus</em> in the northern East Andes of Colombia (Norte de Santander and Santander)<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). The only recent records in Colombia are of the nominate subspecies (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999), possibly owing to a lack of fieldwork in the other areas, but <em>navai</em> has been recorded in recent years in the Sierra de Perijá in Venezuela (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It appears to be declining, with total numbers likely to be below 10,000 individuals<strong> </strong>(McGowan <em>et al</em>. 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<br/><p></p>
100600328		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane humid forests at elevations of 1,200-3,100&#160;m<strong> </strong>(McGowan <em>et al</em>. 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Half of its original habitat has been lost in Venezuela (Sharpe and Lentino 2008). It is wary and secretive, foraging in dense undergrowth (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). However subspecies <em>atrifrons</em> has been recorded in forest fragments and shade coffee plantations (Strewe &amp; Navarro 2004, Strewe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) as well as primary forest. Two breeding-condition males and one laying female have been found in August, with an immature in July (Hilty and Brown 1986).<p></p>
100600328		population	eng	The population estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals is derived from P. G. W. Salaman in litt. (1997, 2000). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600328		threats	eng	The Colombian East Andes have been subject to four centuries of extensive degradation, with progressive deforestation of the lower montane slopes<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>Forero 1989, Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Boyacá and Santander, however, where forest loss was gradual until the 1960s and 1970s, some sizeable tracts remain, and habitat is beginning to regenerate owing to land abandonment (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is threatened by agricultural expansion, logging and burning<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995). On the west slopes, marijuana plantations expanded widely in the 1980s, and were sprayed by the government with herbicides in the early 1990s (L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993,<strong> </strong>L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993). The Sierra de Perijá is heavily deforested up to 2,000&#160;m, by cattle-ranching at lower elevations and narcotics cultivation higher up<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000). It is hunted at least in some parts of its range<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000). It is considered Vulnerable in both Colombia and   Venezuela (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
100600329		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research taxonomic status of sub-populations. Monitor population at known sites. Search for the species in suitable habitat. Effectively protect remaining areas of forest. Begin educational campaigns to reduce hunting pressure. <p></p>
100600329		distribution	eng	<em>Odontophorus hyperythrus</em> occurs on both slopes of the West and Central Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>, south to Cauca and the head of the Magdalena valley in Huila (Hilty and Brown 1986). It is uncommon and local, and the population is likely to be fewer than 10,000 in three sub-populations, each of which requires taxonomic validation (McGowan <em>et al.</em> 1995).<em> <p></p></em>
100600329		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane evergreen forest, forest edge, older secondary growth, and there is some evidence that it frequents coffee plantations with shade trees, at 1,600-2,700 m <strong></strong> <strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Carroll 1994)<strong></strong>. Family groups of up to nine individuals (usually a breeding pair and their offspring) feed on fruits, seeds and invertebrates in the leaf-litter and among tree roots<strong> </strong>(Franco <em>et al. </em>2006). Surveys from the Central Cordillera estimated densities of 0.3-0.4 groups per ha, with a group home range size of 2.6 to 9.0 ha<strong> </strong>(Franco <em>et al. </em>2006), while studies in the Western Andes detected 0.13-0.18 groups per ha (Fierro-Calderón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <p></p>
100600329		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600329		threats	eng	Its forest habitats have suffered widespread and severe deforestation over centuries of human colonisation<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995), particularly in the Central Andes, with resultant fragmentation and isolation of populations. Further degradation owing to agricultural expansion is projected in the Central Andes, and the slopes of the Cauca and Magdalena valleys are now characterised by remnant (often secondary) forest patches, pasture, coffee, banana and sugarcane plantations<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995). There is also evidence of hunting pressure (McGowan <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
100600330		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         It occurs in Río Ñambí and La Planada Nature Reserves, Colombia, and         Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Los Cedros Biological Reserve, Cerro         Golondrinas Reserve, Rio Guajalito Reserve, La Otonga Reserve,         Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Mashpi Protection Forest, Las         Tangaras and Maquipucuna reserves, Ecuador (Best <em>et al</em>. 1996<strong>, </strong>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2000, D. F. Cisneros-Heredia <em>in litt. </em>2003).         Both of the protected areas in Colombia suffer severe illegal logging         within their boundaries and have significant unresolved land disputes,         encompassing over one-third of La Planada and half of Río Ñambí (R.         Strewe verbally 1998). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Map remaining habitat and assess the extent and rate of habitat loss.         Conduct a complete distributional survey to determine its range and         numbers more accurately. Improve active protection of Río Ñambí and La         Planada Nature Reserves in Colombia, and attempt to resolve land         disputes. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to         reduce hunting pressure.
100600330		distribution	eng	<em>Odontophorus         melanonotus</em> has a small range in the Chocó (West Andes)         of north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha         and Cotopaxi) and south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño) (Hilty         and Brown 1986, McGowan <em>et al</em>. 1995, Best <em>et al</em>. 1996<strong>,         </strong>N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The population is estimated at         10,000-20,000 individuals and declining (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>.         1999). In the wet season (March-June), it is considered that 1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>         supports c.2-3 groups (probably a minimum of 2-3 pairs in total)<strong> </strong>(P.         G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It seems to be fairly common along         its whole range in Ecuador (J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2000), and remains common in         Río Ñambí and La Planada Nature Reserves, Colombia (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in         litt</em>. 1999).
100600330		habitat	eng	This         wet subtropical forest specialist occurs exclusively in undisturbed, closed-canopy         forest at 1,100-1,900&#160;m. It is apparently able to leave dense         forest to forage, and has also being recorded in secondary forest with         dense and tangled understorey and fairly open canopy on steep slopes (J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2000, D. F. Cisneros-Heredia <em>in litt. </em>2003). It is typically found in groups of         2-10 individuals, which are particularly vocal at dawn during the wet         season. Recent hatchlings have been recorded in July and August. It         feeds on terrestrial invertebrates and fruit<strong> </strong>(N. Krabbe <em>in         litt</em>. 1999).
100600330		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-20,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 6,700-13,000 mature individuals (P. G. W. Salaman <I>in litt.</I> 1999).
100600330		threats	eng	Deforestation and hunting for food are the major threats to this species (McGowan <em>et al</em>. 1995). Unplanned colonisation, following the completion of roads, and extensive logging concessions have been the primary causes of habitat loss. Deforestation rates are accelerating within its range, primarily because of intensive logging, human settlement and cattle-grazing. Forests at upper elevations are less threatened than those in the lowland Chocó region, but habitat loss is occurring below 2,000 m, especially along the Cali-Buenaventura, Pasto-Tumaco highways and new roads (Salaman and Stiles 1996). <p></p>
100600331		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/></p><p>None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100600331		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontophorus speciosus</span> is endemic to the east Andes. Three subspecies are recognised. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">soederstroemii</span> occurs in south and east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, being described as fairly common at Podocarpus National Park, but rare elsewhere (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species is uncommon in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, where the nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">speciosus</span> is restricted to the east-central region and subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">loricatus</span> occurs in the south-east, ranging from there to east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
100600331		habitat	eng	This is a forest floor species of tropical lowland forest under 1,700 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994). It prefers dense, tangled undergrowth (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
100600331		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<br/></p>
100600332		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Darién National Park, Panama, protects all but the small Colombian part of its range<strong></strong> (Wege 1996). However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at lower altitudes<strong></strong> (Wege 1996). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Map remaining habitat and assess the extent and rate of encroaching habitat loss. When the security situation permits, conduct a complete population and distributional survey to assess its status. Study the species's habitat preferences. Assess the impact of completion of the Pan-American highway. Improve active protection of Darién National Park. Protect occupied habitat in Colombia.  <p></p>
100600332		distribution	eng	<em>Odontophorus dialeucos</em> was discovered in 1963, and is only known from Cerros Mali and Tacarcuna on the Tacarcuna ridge in Darién, extreme east <strong>Panama</strong> and adjacent Chocó, north-west <strong>Colombia</strong><strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989,<strong></strong> Wege 1996). Its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> <strong></strong> (Wege 1996). It is fairly common in suitable habitat in Panama<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). <p></p>
100600332		habitat	eng	This is a very poorly-known, terrestrial bird of humid forests, found at elevations of 1,050-1,450 m<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996). <p></p>
100600332		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600332		threats	eng	Hunting for food, and habitat clearance and degradation resulting from mining, agriculture, cultivation of coca and subsistence affect birds in this region<strong></strong> (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994). However, these threats are probably not yet factors within this species's altitudinal range. Completion of the Pan-American highway link through Darién could lead to severe, long-term damage to forest on the Tacarcuna ridge<strong></strong> (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong> Wege 1996)<strong></strong>, but this appears to be unlikely to happen in the near future. <p></p>
100600333		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, protecting 100 km<sup>2</sup> of forest extending from 1,950-2,200 to 3,000-3,900 m, was gazetted in November 1993 (Andrade and Repizzo 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. The species is also protected by the adjacent Cachalu Biological Reserve, with frequent sightings there since 1999 (J. Velasquez and N. Silva <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The declaration of the Yariguíes National Park (which comprises a substantial 200,000 ha primary forest fragment, almost all of which is at suitable elevations for this species) and ProAves reserves were a major step forwards for the conservation of this species (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure effective protection for the Serrania de los Yariguíes National Park. Identify and survey remnant forests elsewhere in Santander, outside Cachalú and Yariguíes (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Develop initiatives to protect any additional sites discovered, including targeted land acquisition where appropriate. <p></p>
100600333		distribution	eng	<em>Odontophorus strophium</em> occurs on the west slope of the east Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has not been reported in Cundinamarca since 1954 (Wege and Long 1995), when it was known from a few sites to the west of and around Bogotá. It has since been recorded in Santander, on the Cuchilla del Ramo in 1970,  in Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary from 1979 onwards, in Cachalu Biological Reserve from 1999, and in the Serranía de los Yariguíes in 2003<strong></strong> <strong> </strong>(Donegan <em>et al. </em>2005, P. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In 2004 it was found in the oak forests of Charalá, at Vereda Virolín; Onzaga, at Vereda Chaguata; Mogotes, at Vereda San Jose, Vereda Vega Grande and Vereda Cabecera, and Coromoro, at Vereda Laguna and Vereda Mina<strong> </strong>(Velasquez <em>et al. </em>2005). Overall, it appears to be restricted to the larger oak forest remnants in the eastern Cordillera: Serrania de Yariguies and NorAndino Oak Forest Corridor. Both remnants have decreased considerably in size in the last two decades (J. Velasquez and N. Silva <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The total population is thought to be very small and is presumably declining. Its stronghold is in the Yariguíes National Park and adjacent ProAves Reinta Cerulea Reserve, which probably support a few thousand individuals (Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Turner 2006). <strong> <p></p></strong>
100600333		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid subtropical and temperate forests dominated by oak and laurel. It is only known to occur at 1,750-2,050 m, but may have an elevational range of 1,500-2,500 m. Although probably dependent on primary forest for at least part of its life-cycle, it has been recorded in degraded habitats and secondary forest. It forages for fruit, seeds and arthropods. The breeding season appears to coincide with peaks in annual rainfall between March and May, and between September and November. <p></p>
100600333		population	eng	Turner (2006) estimates the population in the Yariguíes Mts to be c.1,800-3,300 individuals, there are perhaps 200-1,000 elsewhere. This gives a total population estimate of 2,000-4,300 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,300-2,900 mature individuals.
100600333		threats	eng	Since the 17th century, the west slope of the east Andes has been extensively logged and converted to agriculture, including pastures and, at lower altitudes, coffee, plantain and sugarcane plantations<strong> </strong>(Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Forest loss below 2,500 m has been almost complete (Stattersfield <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998), with habitat in many areas reduced to tiny, isolated relicts on steep slopes and along streams<strong></strong>. These landscape changes accelerated during the 20th century, especially after 1960, although in some areas, habitat regeneration is beginning following the abandonment of marginal land<strong> </strong>(Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Selective logging and hunting affects birds in the lower part of Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce, but the forest is largely intact above 1,950-2,200 m.  <p></p>
100600334		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Much of its distribution falls within well-established protected areas: El Tama, San Esteban, Henri Pittier, Macarao and El Avila National Parks, and Pico Codazzi Nature Monument (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey populations at known sites. Search for the species in areas of potentially suitable habitat. Effectively protect national parks where the species occurs. <p></p>
100600334		distribution	eng	<em>Odontophorus columbianus</em> is endemic to north and west-central <strong>Venezuela</strong> (south-west Táchira along the río Chiquito and the Cordillera de la Costa from Carabobo to west Miranda). There is little information on its population but it could number under 10,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994).<em> <p></p></em>
100600334		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid, montane forest and edge at elevations of 800-2,400 m (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Carroll 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Foraging birds appear to favour areas with a high frequency of non-palm monocotyledons, high vertical foliage density, and a low frequency of palms (<em>Bactris</em> spp.) (Bonaccorso and Barreto 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600334		population	eng	The population may number under 10,000 birds, and so is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600334		threats	eng	There is still extensive forest cover within its range in parts of the Cordillera de la Costa Central, but habitat loss has been severe around Caracas, and many other areas have been extensively degraded (Huber and Alarcón 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Táchira, there is pristine forest along the río Chiquito, but deforestation for intensive crop cultivation and pastureland is progressing in adjacent areas (M. Pearman <em>in litt.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by hunting (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994). <p></p>
100600338		population	eng	Partners in Flight   estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in   litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.   Previously, Fuller et al. 2000 estimated 500,000 individuals.
100600339		population	eng	Partners in Flight placed the esimtate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).
100600341		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Investigate the extent of hunting and take appropriate measures, including the use of awareness campaigns, to address these issues. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Study the species's biology in the field. Protect significant areas of suitable habitat in a network of private and public reserves. Investigate the possibility of conservation on land with a lower stock density. Engage local communities at known sites in Honduras, using presentations and workshops (R. Gallardo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
100600341		distribution	eng	<em>Cyrtonyx ocellatus</em> occurs from south <strong>Mexico</strong> through <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong> and <strong>Honduras</strong> to north <strong>Nicaragua </strong>(Carroll 1994). Guatemala has been identified as a stronghold for this species, and it has been sighted at 11 different sites since 2000. It is considered to be rare at all of these sites and there have been few additional recent records from Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua. Considering this, and given that there have been no recent records from El Salvador, the total global population is now thought to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (Eitniear and Eisermann 2009, <strong></strong>K. Eisermann <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. It is thought to have once been widespread and fairly common across its range (R. Gallardo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), implying it has undergone a significant decline.<em> <p></p></em>
100600341		habitat	eng	It inhabits the grassy understorey of open pine-oak woodland and brushy fields at elevations of 750-3,050 m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994), feeding on fruits, seeds, small invertebrates and wood sorrell (R. Gallardo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
100600341		population	eng	Although a full population census is yet to be completed, the species is thought to be rare at all known sites in Guatemala, there are few recent records from Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua, and no recent records from El Salvador. Considering this, the population is thought to hold fewer than 10,000 individuals (K. Eisermann <i>in litt.</i> 2010), hence is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
100600341		threats	eng	It is declining as a result of deforestation and habitat degradation (McGowan <em>et al.</em> 1995, P. Escalante <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, the rate of which is set to continue or even increase over the next decade because of a rapidly growing human population and opencast mining concessions, which cover c.25% of current highland forest in Guatemala (Eitniear and Eisermann 2009, <strong></strong>K. Eisermann <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Intensive grazing and extensive burning for grazing is also a serious and pervasive threat because of its severe impact on the species's subterranean food supplies (Johnsgard 1988b, M. Bonta <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Hunting pressures almost certainly occur throughout much of its range (Carroll 1994)<strong></strong>, but birds are not often kept as pets in south Mexico (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998) <span style="font-style: italic;">contra </span>Carroll (1994)<strong></strong>, and the overall impact of exploitation is unknown (P. Escalante <em>in litt.</em> 2005),<strong></strong> although it is suspected that it will increase in the future (K. Eisermann <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The dense human population in the Guatemalan highlands, consisting mainly of small-scale farmers, causes extensive disturbance in the forest understorey (including in protected areas) by extensive collection of firewood, collection of leaf litter as organic fertilizer, and straying dogs; hence low reproductive success can be suspected (K. Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There appears to be little suitable habitat for the species within protected areas in its range (P. Escalante <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600344		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Salamanca National Park and Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, Magdalena, Colombia, but these areas have now lost sizeable areas of habitat (Callaghan in prep., Wege and Long 1995). Other less damaged protected areas include Los Katios National Park, Chocó, Colombia (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Ciénagas de Juan Manuel, Aguas Blancas y Aguas Negras Faunal Reserve, Zulia, Venezuela (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C. J. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census and monitor populations to assess the global population and demographic trends and to refine the distribution and locate strongholds (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, <strong></strong><strong></strong>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong> C. J. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate its ecology, threats and conservation requirements (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C. J. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve the management of protected areas that are suffering encroachment and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Control pollution in the species's habitats. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce persecution.  <p></p>
100600344		distribution	eng	<em>Chauna chavaria</em> occurs in north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (around Lago Maracaibo in Zuila, Mérida and Trujillo) (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and north <strong>Colombia</strong> (from the lower Atrato valley east to the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and the Cesar valley, and south in the middle Magdalena valley to south Bolívar) (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The upper Cauca valley holds a tiny, isolated and apparently declining population (Naranjo 1986). Numbers have been estimated at c.2,000 individuals in Venezuela which, with a similar sized population in Colombia, suggests a total population of 3,000-5,000 (Callaghan in prep.). However, this may under-estimate the Colombian population, with c.5,000 or more birds perhaps a more accurate guess (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995). The global population is estimated to be 2,500-9,999 individuals.<em> <p></p></em>
100600344		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to lowland marshes, swamps, lagoons, the banks of slow-flowing rivers and seasonally flooded alluvial plains, often in areas surrounded by forest (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is exclusively vegetarian, grazing the green parts of succulent aquatic plants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), although digging for unknown food items is regular (Naranjo 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a large mass of marsh vegetation built up from the water, and 2-7 eggs are laid mostly in October to November, but breeding continues throughout the year (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Home ranges of pairs and family groups in Valle del Cauca averaged 0.11 km<sup>2</sup> on the edge of a lagoon (Naranjo 1986)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600344		population	eng	The population estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals is derived from P. G. W. Salaman in litt. (1999). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600344		threats	eng	Loss of habitat owing to drainage of wetlands for cattle and agriculture is probably resulting in slow population declines (Callaghan in prep., Naranjo 1986), but is unlikely to affect seasonally flooded and deeper wetlands in the near future (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Collection of eggs (A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, capture as pets (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and possibly illegal hunting in some areas, are unquantified threats (Callaghan in prep.). Construction of a pipeline and road through the wetlands of the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Isla de Salamanca in the mid-1970s obstructed tidal flow and caused extensive mangrove die-back, continuing until at least 1992 (Wege and Long 1995). In the same area, there is domestic and industrial pollution and sewage, urbanisation and mangrove cutting. <p></p>
100600346		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
100600347		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
100600349		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species makes irregular local movements within Africa, the periodic appearance of huge numbers in some areas suggesting that it is highly mobile and apt to undertake long-distance movements in search of suitable habitat (Scott and Rose 1996). Populations in Madagascar appear to be sedentary, but it is known to be locally migratory in East and West Africa, distributions in these areas varying highly between years according to the water regime (in Cameroon the presence of the species is related to flooding) (Scott and Rose 1996). The timing of the breeding season is largely determined by water availability (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1992): populations north of the Zambezi River breed during months of low rainfall, while those in the south breed in the wet season (Scott and Rose 1996). This species breeds in single pairs or loose groups and remains in dispersed pairs or small groups whilst undergoing the post-breeding moult (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). During the non-breeding season congregations of 20-30, several hundreds or even thousands may occur in feeding areas (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), foraging mainly during the first two hours after dawn and last two hours before sunset (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat </B>This species inhabits shallow freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall grass (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Such habitats include freshwater lakes, seasonal freshwater pools, slow-flowing streams, marshy areas, swamps in open flat terrain and flooded grasslands (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Kear 2005a). It also very frequently occurs in areas of wet rice cultivation (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Kear 2005a), and seeks the cover of densely vegetated wetlands while it is vulnerable and flightless during its moulting period (Kear 2005a). <B>Diet </B>The species is predominantly vegetarian, feeding on aquatic seeds and fruits, bulbs, leaf shoots, buds and the structural parts of aquatic plants such as grasses and rushes, although it does occasionally take small aquatic insects (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It is also shows a preference for cultivated rice grains (Hohman <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nests of this species are predominantly mounds of plant material, often floating on water and well concealed amidst vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). In India however, the species is primarily tree-nesting, utilising hollow trees and even disused stick nests of large birds such as kites or crows (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>
100600349		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,300,000-1,500,000 individuals.
100600349		threats	eng	This species is persecuted through hunting in many rice growing areas (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and there has been a marked decline in numbers due to shooting anf trapping at Lake Alaotra in Madagascar (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1992, Scott and Rose 1996). The species is also often exposed to pesticides used on rice crops, is suceptible to lead poisoning, and suffers mortality through collision with powerlines (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The damming of the Senegal river has markedly decreased the habitat quality in that area, which may be having a negative impact on the population in that area (Triplett and Yesou 2000). Wetland habitat degradation on the east coast of India due to siltation, proliferation of invasive freshwater plant species (such as water hyacinth <I>Eichornia crassipes</I>), increased aquaculture activities and eutrophication may threaten the small proportion of the species that utilises the area (Nayak 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (van Heerden 1974). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade from Lake Chilwa, Malawi (Bhima 2006). It is also hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
100600351		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.200,000-2,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600352		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is subject to upredictable local nomadic movements (Johnsgard 1978) (usually of less than 500 km) in relation to variations in water and food availability (Madge and Burn 1988). Breeding commences at the start of the local rainy season (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) with the species nesting individually (Langrand 1990, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or in loose colonies or small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Adults undergo a post-breeding flightless moult period lasting for 18-25 days during which they are particularly vulnerable and seek the cover of densely vegetated wetlands (Kear 2005a). When not breeding the species is gregarious and may forage in flocks of up to several thousands of individuals (Kear 2005a). The species mainly forages at night (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (although it may also feed diurnally during the winter) (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) including lakes, swamps (Kear 2005a), marshes, large rivers, river deltas, flood-plains (Madge and Burn 1988), reservoirs (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a), sewage farms (Africa) (Johnsgard 1978) and estuaries (Kear 2005a), and is commonly encountered feeding in rice fields (Kear 2005a). It shows a preference for wetlands in open country (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (although it is likely to inhabit fresh or brackish waters in more forested areas in South America) (Johnsgard 1978) with mud or sandbars for roosting and rich shoreline (Johnsgard 1978), emergent and surface vegetation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Adults require densely vegetated permanent wetlands for cover during their flightless post-breeding moult period (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005a), although breeding birds prefer more ephemeral wetlands (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of grasses (e.g. <I>Echinochloa</I> spp.), aquatic seeds e.g. of water-lilies <I>Nyphaea</I> and <I>Nymphoides</I> spp., rice (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), pondweeds (e.g. <I>Potamogeton</I> spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and tubers (especially in the dry season) (Kear 2005a), as well as aquatic invertebrates such as molluscs, crustaceans and insects (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), the consumption of which is highest during the rains (Kear 2005a). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a depression (Johnsgard 1978) or low construction of vegetation (Kear 2005a) placed over or at varying distances from water, usually in stands of dense vegetation (e.g. long grass, sedge or rice) (Kear 2005a) on dry ground or in reedbeds (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), occasionally also in open crevices in trees (South America) (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a). The species may nest in solitary pairs (Langrand 1990, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) with nests placed more then 75 m apart (Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), although it may also nest in loose colonies or small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992).
100600352		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,700,000-2,800,000 individuals.
100600352		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian botulism (van Heerden 1974) and avian influenza (Gaidet <I>et al</I>. 2007) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade  in Malawi (Bhima 2006) and is hunted in Botswana (Herremans 1998). It is also hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
100600353		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected throughout much of its range, but law enforcement is inadequate (Staus 1997)<strong></strong>. Since 1997, the West Indian Whistling-duck Working Group of the Society for the Conservation and Study of Caribbean Birds has conducted a region-wide public education and awareness programme that provides local teachers and educators with training and educational materials and works to raise awareness and appreciation of the value of local wetlands and wetland biodiversity (Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The project has also sponsored surveys and worked with decision-makers, community leaders and hunters to reduce poaching and encourage protection of local wetlands, especially via development of "Watchable Wildlife Ponds" - wetlands equipped with interpretive signs and viewing areas where local people, school groups, and tourists can easily observe whistling-ducks and other wildlife (Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004). There are several protected areas in the region but, in general, suitable habitats, especially wetlands, are under-represented and many degraded wetlands should be restored (L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  There are plans to establish a re-introduced population on the Virgin Islands (to UK) (L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys to assess numbers and distribution in each country (<strong></strong>Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Assist local authorities in establishing a long-term monitoring programme (<strong></strong>Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Conserve and restore key sites (<strong></strong>Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Establish legal protection in countries where that is not yet in place and enforce protection in others. Continue public education and awareness programmes (<strong></strong>Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600353		distribution	eng	<em>Dendrocygna arborea</em> historically ranged throughout the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Haiti</strong>, <strong>Dominica,</strong> <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to USA)</strong>, <strong>St Kitts and Nevis </strong>(only an occasional visitor in the past and future records unlikely owing to habitat deterioration<strong></strong>), <strong>Antigua and Barbuda</strong>, and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong>. Breeding populations are known to exist in the Bahamas (at least 1,500 birds), Turks and Caicos, Cuba (at least 14,000, based on a survey of hunters [Acosta-Cruz and Mugica-Valdés <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006] which is said to have underestimated numbers  [L. Mugica <em>in litt.</em> 2011], although it has also been robustly argued that the results are too optimistic [L. Sorenson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), Cayman (800-1,200 and thought to be stable), Jamaica (500 and stable), Dominican Republic (six populations [Ottenwalder 1997]<strong></strong>), Puerto Rico (100 and perhaps stable), and Antigua (500) and Barbuda (50) (<strong></strong>Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600353		habitat	eng	This secretive, non-migratory duck is crepuscular or nocturnal and generally considered site faithful, but it will wander in search of water and good habitat during periodic droughts (Staus 1998a, Prosper <em>in litt</em> 2005, Staus 2005, L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. During the day, singles, pairs or flocks (up to 100) roost and possibly feed in mangroves, reeds and swampy areas (<strong></strong>Sorenson  <em>et al.</em> 2004, L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. At dusk, birds fly to fresh, brackish, and salt ponds, lagoons, ephemeral wetlands, tidal flats and agricultural fields (rice and corn) to feed (usually in small flocks), returning to roost-sites just before dawn (Staus 1998a)<strong></strong>. Scrub and coppice are important nesting habitats; birds often nest on offshore cays (Staus 1998a, Prosper <em>in litt</em> 2005, L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007). The nest is usually in a cluster of palm fronds, a clump of bromeliads, on a branch, in a tree-cavity, or in a leaf-lined scrape on the ground (Staus 1998a,b; L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in virtually all months, but peaks in the summer (Staus 1998b, Prosper <em>in litt</em> 2005, Staus 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600353		population	eng	A population estimate of 10,000-19,999 individuals is derived from L. G. Sorenson (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007) and L. Mugica (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. However, this should be revised upwards if recent estimates from Cuba (L. Mugica <em>in litt.</em> 2011) are confirmed.
100600353		threats	eng	It has suffered from excessive and under-regulated hunting for subsistence (including eggs) and sport (Staus 1997, Staus 2005, L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. Wetlands are a very limited habitat in the Caribbean, with continuing conversion primarily for development (Staus 1997, Prosper <em>in litt</em> 2005, L. G. Sorenson <em>in litt</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. More than 50% of remaining wetlands are seriously degraded by the cutting of mangroves and swamp-forest, pollution (chemical runoff from nearby agriculture, sewage and garbage), water mismanagement, and natural catastrophes such as droughts and hurricanes (Staus 1997, Staus 2005)<strong></strong>. Climate models predict a significant summer drying trend in the Caribbean (Neelin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and projected sea-level rise may threaten mangroves (L. Sorenson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), both suggesting that climate change could be a significant future threat to this species. Predation by introduced species is inadequately documented, but mongoose, racoons, rats, and feral cats and dogs are known to kill adults and young and eat eggs (Staus 1997, Staus 1998a)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600354		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,100,000-2,000,000 individuals.
100600355		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is partially migratory (Scott and Rose 1996) or semi-nomadic (Kear 2005a), making local dispersive movements during the rainy season (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988) to take advantage of temporary wetlands (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The timing of breeding varies geographically although it generally coincides with periods of higher or more stable water levels (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), dispersing after breeding (as water levels drop) to gather in small flocks (Kear 2005a) of 20 to 100 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) on more permanent lakes and marshes (Kear 2005a). The species is crepuscular (Kear 2005a) and obtains its food almost solely by diving (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits quiet shallow freshwater lakes, pools, lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), pans, inland deltas (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), flood-plains (Madge and Burn 1988), marshes and swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) fringed with abundant emergent and floating vegetation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. reeds, papyrus and water-lilies <I>Nymphaea </I>spp.) (Kear 2005a), generally avoiding very open water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It also often inhabits forested lakes in Madagascar (Kear 2005a) and may frequent farm impoundments or stock-ponds in other areas (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Diet</B> Although the species is predominantly herbivorous (taking the seeds and leaves of aquatic plants such as water-lilies <I>Nymphaea</I> spp. and <I>Polygonum</I> spp.) the young may feed on Chironomid insect larvae (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of vegetation either floating on or up to 45 cm above water (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) amongst reedbeds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or papyrus beds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), or on the ground in waterside vegetation on small islands (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species will occasionally use the abandoned nests of grebes or coots as nest bases (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988).<B></B>
100600355		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 12,000-28,000 individuals, roughly equating to 8,000-19,000 mature individuals.
100600355		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the modification of wetlands especially where the native aquatic flora is affected, e.g. through the introduction of herbivorous fish (Kear 2005a), the introduction of exotic plants, deterioration in water quality as a result of deforestation and soil erosion in catchment areas (Scott and Rose 1996), and pollution (Kear 2005a). The species has also declined in Madagascar due to hunting and trapping (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and its large eggs are especially prized as food by people living near wetlands (Kear 2005a).
100600356		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008). Previously, Kear (2005) estimated 25,000-100,000 individuals.
100600357		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range in the Americas, occurring in Canada, the USA, Mexico, the West Indies, and along the Andes from Colombia  to Tierra del Fuego (Chile). An introduced population is established and spreading in the United Kingdom.
100600357		habitat	eng	The species is partly migratory; North American breeders tend to depart from breeding grounds to winter further south or near the coast, whereas other populations are sedentary or make only short-distance movements. Freshwater swamps, lakes, pools, and marshes with emergent vegetation and open water are preferred breeding habitats, although outside the breeding season the species can also be found on larger lakes, brackish lagoons and estuaries (Carboneras 1992).
100600357		population	eng	(Wetlands International 2006)
100600359		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Under<span style="">way</span></strong><br/><span style="">CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I. The species is legally protected in many range countries, and occurs in a number of protected areas. A conservation programme in Spain has resulted in a significant population increase (J. Criado </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Ruddy Ducks</span><em style=""> O. jamaicensis</em><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""> are controlled in 15 Western Palearctic countries, including Spain, Portugal and France. A programme was started in 2005 to eradicate the UK population of Ruddy Ducks and by 2009, over 6,200 ducks had been culled, resulting in a suggested decrease in the UK population of almost 90% (Henderson 2009). Reintroduction schemes are operational in Majorca and Italy (B. Hughes </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999, A. J. Green <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. A European action plan was published in 2006 (Hughes </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2006)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. Sport hunting has been banned on two primary wintering lakes (Burdur Gölü and Yarisli Gölü) in Turkey where hunting from speedboats was threatening the White-headed Duck (Green <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>.  <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey breeding and wintering grounds and migration sites. Enforce strict protection from hunting. Conduct comprehensive winter monitoring, and tracking studies to improve knowledge of migration routes and phenology (Li and Mundkur 1993)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. Protect and manage key sites and their catchments, including monitoring of hydrology and water pollution (M.A. Tabur </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2005)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. Reduce disturbance by fisheries. Ensure legislative protection for this species in all range states</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Li and Mundkur 1993)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong></span><span style=""><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Alleviate hunting pressure and ban lead shot throughout its range. Prevent drowning in fishing nets by regulating fisheries. Promote policies to control </span><em style="">O. jamaicensis</em><span style=""> and hybrids. </span><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span>
100600359		distribution	eng	<em style="">Oxyura leucocephala</em><span style=""> is resident in </span><strong style="">Spain</strong><span style="">, </span><strong style="">Algeria</strong><span style=""> and </span><strong style="">Tunisia</strong><span style="">. A larger population breeds primarily in </span><strong style="">Russia </strong><span style="">and </span><strong style="">Kazakhstan</strong><span style="">, and also </span><strong style="">Turkey</strong><span style="">, </span><strong style="">Iran</strong><span style="">, </span><strong style="">Afghanistan</strong><span style="">, </span><strong style="">Tajikistan </strong><span style="">(likely small and declining [</span><span style=""><span style="">Li and Mundkur 1993</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>]</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">), </span><strong style="">Turkmenistan </strong><span style="">(Ritschard and Täschler 2008)</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Li and Mundkur 1993)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>, </span><strong style="">Uzbekistan, Armenia</strong><span style="">, and</span><strong style=""> Mongolia </strong><span style="">(believed to be increasing in this latter [</span><span style=""><span style="">Li and Mundkur 1993</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>]</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">) (Green and Hughes 1996). Its status in </span><strong style="">China </strong><span style="">is unclear, but it appears to be rare (Li and Mundkur 1993, Ma Ming 2007a; b)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. It occurs on passage/in winter in the eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, and central and south Asia. The global population was probably over 100,000 in the early 20th century, falling to an estimated 20,000 birds in 1996 (Green and Hunter 1996)</span><sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></sup><span style="">, since then numbers have probably declined to around 8,000-13,000 individuals</span><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">(Li and Mundkur 2003). Concurrently, breeding populations have become extinct in Italy, France, Hungary, Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Israel and Egypt, and probably also in the Ukraine and Armenia. Exact population trends are difficult to calculate given that numbers on wintering grounds often change dramatically in line with altered water availability (</span><span style=""><span style="">Li and Mundkur 1993, </span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>Schielzeth </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2003, E. Kreuzberg-Mukhina </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2005). At the former key wintering site, Burdur Gölü, </span><strong style="">Turkey</strong><span style="">, numbers have steadily declined from 10,927 birds in 1991 to 653 in 2001 (M.A. Tabur </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style="">. The total Turkish wintering population in 2005 was only 1,006 birds, down from over 9,000 in 1988</span><span style="font-weight: bold; "> </span><span style="">(S. Isfendiyaroglu </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. The wintering population in south Asia is mainly concentrated in </span><strong style="">Pakistan, </strong><span style="">where it has declined from 1,039 individuals in 1968 to less than 10 in 2002 (</span><span style=""><span style="">Li and Mundkur 1993, </span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>A.A. Khan, A. Parveen, and R. Yasmeen </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, 33 in January 2003 and 24 in January 2004. It is now only rarely recorded in </span><strong style="">India</strong><span style=""> (Li and Mundkur 1993)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""></span><span style="">. Increases at wintering sites in </span><strong style="">Israel</strong><span style=""> (Ohad Hatzofe </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2005), </span><strong style="">Syria</strong><span style=""> (recent large counts of at least 2,300 birds at Sabkhat al-Jabbul [Balmer and Murdoch 2010]), </span><strong style="">Greece</strong><span style=""> (Handrinos 1998), </span><strong style="">Bulgaria</strong><span style=""> (P. Iankov </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999) and </span><strong style="">Romania</strong><span style=""> (D. Munteanu </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999) and in the Spanish population (22 birds in 1977 to 2,396 in 2000 [J. A. T. Esquivias </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2000]</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, fluctuating to between 1,600 and 2,600 in 2001- 007 [Ballesteros</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 2008] do </span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">not compensate for the large declines at Burdur Gölü; and in other eastern populations e.g. Turkmenistan [</span><span style=""><span style="">Li and Mundkur 1993</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>]</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">). Important passage concentrations occur in Uzbekistan (E. Kreuzberg-Mukhina </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999) and Kazakhstan (Schielzeth </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2003). There are also reports of wintering populations in the Ukraine. </span><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
100600359		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The Central and<span style=""> east Asian populations of this species are migratory while the populations in Spain and North Africa are non-migratory (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Migrating birds breed from April to July (Sánchez </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000, Kear 2005) (its mating system is unconfirmed) (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. After breeding it undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for 2-3 weeks before it begins the migration to its wintering grounds in late August to arrive September-October (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. The return journey commences in February</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong> and all birds have returned to the breeding range by early May (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style=""> Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong>, </strong>Kear 2005)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season with more than 10,000 gathering at some winter sites, although individual flocks more usually contain less than 500 individuals (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. It breeds in single pairs (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.</span><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">In Mediterranean populations, although the species forms congregations at certain sites during the non-breeding season, there is no overall direction to its seasonal movements (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> and the location of such non-breeding sites varies inter-annually (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span><strong style="">Habitat </strong><em style="">Breeding</em><span style=""> It breeds on small, enclosed, semi-permanent or temporary (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> freshwater, brackish or eutrophic lakes with a fringe of dense emergent vegetation (Sánchez </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000, </span><span style="">Sebastián-González </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> submitted</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, often including </span><em style="">Phragmites </em><span style="">or </span><em style="">Typha</em><span style=""> species, and a covering of pondweeds (Potamogetonaceae)</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>. It is usually found where these conditions occur within larger wetland systems (Kear 2005, Sebastián-González </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> submitted)</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, and shows a preference for areas with extensive areas of shallow water 0.3-0.5 m deep (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span><em style="">Non-breeding</em><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">During the winter the species inhabits larger, deeper alkaline or saline waters which often have less emergent vegetation than in the breeding season, but still support algae and pondweeds</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. Habitats include saline inland lakes, coastal lakes and lagoons, and even the coastal waters of inland seas (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, although it is not found on areas of coast that are subjected to heavy wave action</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>. </span><span style="">In the north-east of its range it is associated with </span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">water bodies which are sufficiently saline so as not to freeze over during winter</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. </span><strong style="">Diet </strong><span style="">This is a diving duck (Sánchez </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000), its diet consisting predominantly of midge (chironomid) larvae (Sánchez </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000, Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> and other aquatic invertebrates such as amphipods, isopods and polychaetes (Sánchez </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000) (especially in coastal wintering sites [Kear 2005</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">]</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="font-weight: bold; "></span><span style="">). Seeds (Sánchez </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000) and the vegetative parts of </span><em style="">Potamogeton</em><span style=""> spp., </span><em style="">Ruppia</em><span style=""> spp. and other aquatic plants are also be taken (Kear 2005, </span><span style="font-weight: bold; "></span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style=""> Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. </span><strong style="">Breeding site </strong><span style="">The nest is constructed over water in emergent vegetation (usually </span><em style="">Phragmites</em><span style=""> spp. or </span><em style="">Typha</em><span style=""> spp.) (Kear 2005)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. It consists of a cupped platform of leaves and stems, over which a roof may be formed by bending down overhead leaves</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. It will also use old nests of coots or ducks, and has been found to make use of nesting boxes in which it constructs a nest of twigs</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>.</span><strong></strong> <p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
100600359		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500 individuals in Spain and Morocco (J. A. Torres Esquivias and A. Green<em> in litt.</em> 2002); 400-600 individuals in Algeria and Tunisia (H. Azafzaf and P. Isenmann <em>in litt. </em>2002); 5,000-10,000 individuals in the east Mediterranean and south-west Asia, and 10 individuals in south Asia. This totals 7,900-13,100 individuals, roughly equating to 5,300-8,700 mature individuals.
100600359		threats	eng	<p>The greatest long-term threat to<span style=""> the species survival is thought to be competition and introgressive hybridisation (i.e. genetic swamping) with the non-native North American Ruddy Duck <span style="font-style: italic;">Oxyura jamaicensis</span> (Green and Hughes 1996, <span style="">Green and Hughes</span><span style=""> 2001, Muñ<span style="">oz-Fuentes </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2007)</span><sup><strong></strong></sup><span style="">. Both male Ruddy Ducks and male hybrids are socially dominant over male White-headed Ducks during courtship</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)</span><span style=""><span style=""><strong></strong>. The threat from the Ruddy Duck is  extremely serious, given that, if allowed to proceed beyond a certain  point, the Ruddy Duck's spread across the Palearctic will become  unstoppable, especially if the species was allowed to become established  in White-headed Duck range-states such as Algeria, Turkey or the  Russian Federation, where the huge size and area of the wetlands and  their infrequent monitoring would make control impossible (Hughes</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 2006). Climate change is thought to be causing more frequent droughts and drying out of many lakes in central Asia which may be a great threat to the survival of the species. Droughts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan may have caused poor breeding seasons in 2002 and 2003 (Li and Mundkur 1993, B. Hughes <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Approximately 50% of breeding habitat has been drained during the 20th century. Remaining sites are vulnerable to drainage, filling, pollution and disturbance. A 1989 study in the main Pakistani wintering lakes showed that suitable habitat had decreased because of lowered water levels due to reduced water supply, and that fisheries had increased disturbance (A.A. Khan, A. Parveen, and R. Yasmeen <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Water abstraction for agriculture and other uses has affected water levels in many important sites throughout the range. The genetic diversity of the Western European population is low (Muñ</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">oz-Fuentez <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong> owing to its having suffered a bottleneck in the 1970s and early 1980s when only a few dozen individuals remained in the wild (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996, <strong></strong> Muñ</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">oz-Fuentez <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. This may lessen the adaptive potential of the population, rendering it less able to withstand environmental change (Muñ</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">oz-Fuentez <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Further threats include drowning in fishing-nets, hunting and ingestion of lead shot (Green </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">1996, </span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">J. Criado </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999, Mateo </span><em style="">et al.</em> 2001, A.A. Khan, A. Parveen, and R. Yasmeen <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is hunted illegally in most of the range states but this has not been quantified, apart from in Turkey. Hunting and egg collection are the most likely reason for extinction in some countries (Hughes <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p></p>
100600360		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Kenya and Tanzania approximately 80% of the population is thought to occur in protected areas whereas in southern Africa this figure is much lower, with approximately 20% in South Africa and just 10% in Namibia (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect key wetland sites from the threat of drainage or habitat conversion. Determine the impact of pollution on the population. Prevent exploitation of the species. Limit habitat modification by alien invasive plants. Assess the impact of competition from alien benthic fish. Grant Protected Animal status for the species in Botswana (Hancock 2008), and the legal status of the species should be examined in the countries where it currently has no protection (Berruti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/><p></p>
100600360		distribution	eng	<em>Oxyura maccoa</em> has a large range, with the global population estimated to be 9,000-11,750 individuals and divided into a northern population occurring in <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>, and a southern population found in <strong>Angola</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe </strong>(Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). South Africa supports the largest national population with 4,500-5,500 individuals (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total population for southern Africa is approximately 7,000-8,250 individuals. In East Africa and Ethiopia the main populations occur in Ethiopia (500-2,000) and Kenya (1,000), with an estimated 2,000-3,500 individuals in total (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600360		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mainly sedentary (Kear 2005)<strong></strong> but undertakes some small-scale post-breeding dispersive movements in search of suitable habitat during the dry season (Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is not thought to cover distances greater than 500km (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in South Africa from July to April, with a peak during the wet season months of September to November (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. Further north breeding has been recorded in all months, and appears to be dependent upon rainfall (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, with a density of up to 30 birds per 100 hectares (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and with males defending territories as large as 900 square metres (<strong></strong>Johnsgard 1978, Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996). During the non-breeding season the species is more congregatory (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>, forming flocks of up to 1000 individuals (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season it inhabits small temporary and permanent inland freshwater lakes (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>, preferring those that are shallow and nutrient-rich (Johnsgard 1978, Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong> with extensive emergent vegetation such as reeds (<em>Phragmites spp.</em>) and cattails (<em>Typha spp.</em>) (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong> on which it relies for nesting. It prefers areas with a bottom of mud or silt and minimal amounts of floating vegetation, since this provides the best foraging conditions (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>. It also breeds on man-made habitats, such as small farm wetlands in Namibia, and sewage-farm basins (Johnsgard 1978, Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>Outside the breeding season it will wander over larger, deeper lakes and brackish lagoons (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. It is thought to find refuge on the larger lakes while moulting (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> This species feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates including fly larvae (Diptera), <em>Tubifex</em> worms, <em>Daphnia</em> eggs and small fresh-water molluscs (Johnsgard 1978, Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>. It will also feed on algae, the seeds of <em>Persicaria</em> and <em>Polygonum</em><strong> </strong>(Johnsgard 1978, Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007), and the seeds and roots of other aquatic plants (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>. It forages by diving and straining the benthic substrate with its bill (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site </strong>The species tends to nest over deeper water among emergent vegetation (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. The nest is usually constructed from reeds and cattails that have been bent down to form a basin (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996)<strong></strong>, although old nests of Red-knobbed Coots <em>Fulica cristata</em> may sometimes be used.  <p></p>
100600360		population	eng	The global population is estimated to be 9,000-11,750 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,000-7,900 mature individuals.
100600360		threats	eng	Currently the links between population trends and threats facing this species are poorly understood. Pollution is a primary concern, since the species feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, and is therefore more vulnerable to bio-accumulation of pollutants than other duck species (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat loss as a result of the drainage and conversion of wetland areas for agriculture is also a significant threat (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as are rapid changes in water level that result from landscape changes such as deforestation and can severely disrupt the breeding activity of the species (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a high level of accidental mortality from entanglement in gill nets (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting and poaching, competition with alien benthic fish and habitat alteration by introduced plants all pose less serious threats (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600362		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify major perennial wetlands used by the species for breeding and moulting, and protect them against further degradation. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. <p></p>
100600362		distribution	eng	<em>Oxyura australis</em> occupies permanent deep water-bodies in southern <strong>Australia</strong> with the population estimated at c.12,000 mature individuals, or c.15,000 birds overall (R. Jaensch<em> in litt.</em> 2005 to Wetlands International 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is found particularly in the Murray-Darling basin and southern Victoria.  <p></p>
100600362		habitat	eng	The species is found on terrestrial wetlands in temperate regions, that are freshwater to saline, and may be natural or artificial. It nests in rushes, sedges, Lignum <em>Muehlenbeckia cunninghamii</em> and paperbark <em>Melaleuca</em>, and it lays 5-6 eggs. It feeds on aquatic insect larvae, seeds and plant matter. During autumn and winter the species aggregates in large flocks but disperses to smaller waterbodies when breeding. Aggregations also occur during drought. <p></p>
100600362		population	eng	The population has been estimated at c.12,000 mature individuals, equivalent to c.18,000 individuals in total.
100600362		threats	eng	It is threatened by drainage of deep permanent wetlands, or their degradation as a result of introduced fish, peripheral cattle grazing, salinisation and lowering of ground water. A small number are probably shot by accident during the duck hunting season. The western population is particularly threatened with predictions that rainfall there will fall as temperatures rise. In 2007, there was an ongoing drought in the species's range.  <p></p>
100600364		distribution	eng	This species breeds in central Chile (Santiago to Valdivia), western Paraguay (Boquerón and Presidente Hayes) and northern Argentina (south to Buenos Aires) (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Madge and Burn 1988, Hayes 1995). It is partially migratory with southern populations moving north to Bolivia, south Brazil and Uruguay in the austral winter; northern breeding populations are largely sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Madge and Burn 1988).
100600364		population	eng	(Kear 2005)
100600365		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded from wetlands across southern Australia, with major concentrations in the Paroo-Warrego catchment (Currawinya Lakes), Eyre-Georgine-Mulligan catchment (Lake Torquinie) and possibly at Lake Galilee. Other inland sites where substantial numbers have been recorded include Cooper's Creek and Bulloo River catchments, the wetlands of the Barkly Tablelands, and Lake Gregory in the central-north of Western Australia. Outside this area, breeding has also been recorded within the rest of the Murray-Darling catchment, notably along the Lachlan River, and swamps within the Millicent Basin of South Australia and Victoria. During extensive inland droughts, permanent wetlands in several states can become important refuge areas.
100600365		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 11,000-26,000 individuals, roughly equating to 7,300-17,000 mature individuals.
100600365		threats	eng	During times of inland drought, when found closer to the coast, birds are at risk of being misidentified as game species and shot by duck-hunters. Although no correlation between S. naevosa abundance and hunting effort has yet been identified. Plans to extract water from the Paroo River and Cooper's Creek, which would affect the flooding of critical inland swamps, constitute the greatest current threat. For the time being these plans have been shelved, however, should they proceed, it is estimated that the resulting reduction in habitat quality could cause a 20% population decline within three generations (c.15 years) (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
100600366		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Truly wild populations of this species are migratory (particularly where displaced by cold weather) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) although European and feral populations are essentially sedentary (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) or only locally migratory or nomadic (Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds during the local spring (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a)as isolated pairs in well-defended territories (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). After breeding the adults may gather in large concentrations of thousands or more (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988) on selected waters (Madge and Burn 1988) (non-breeders in northern Europe migrating to such gatherings (Snow and Perrins 1998)) between July and August (Scott and Rose 1996) to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for 6-8 weeks (Kear 2005a). Although not noticeably sociable in many areas during the winter (Johnsgard 1978) the species may flock in groups of several thousands on favoured waters (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits a variety of lowland freshwater wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) such as shallow lakes (Kear 2005a), ponds (Madge and Burn 1988), lagoons, marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) and slow-flowing rivers (Kear 2005a) (showing a preference for clean, weed-filled streams over larger, polluted rivers) (Johnsgard 1978). It is also common on artificial waterbodies such as reservoirs, gravel-pits, ornamental lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), ditches (Snow and Perrins 1998) and canals (Scott and Rose 1996), and will graze on grassland and agricultural land (e.g. arable cereal fields) (Kear 2005a). Moulting congregations of adults and non-breeders (Snow and Perrins 1998) may also utilise brackish or saline habitats (Johnsgard 1978) including brackish marshes (Kear 2005a), estuaries and sheltered coastal sites (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. brackish lagoons (Kear 2005a) and bays (Madge and Burn 1988)). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists predominantly of leaves and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and grasses (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) as well as algae (Johnsgard 1978) and grain (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), occasionally also taking small amphibians (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (frogs, toads and tadpoles) (Snow and Perrins 1998) and aquatic invertebrates (e.g. molluscs, insects and worms) (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a large mound of aquatic vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a) placed close to or floating on shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a) or amongst reeds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Breeding pairs often re-use nesting sites from previous years if the it was successful (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Management information </B>The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK resulted in an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes and in turn led to an increase in the winter use of the habitat by the species (Giles 1994). The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994). A control of the breeding output of the species (brood reduction) carried out in the Wylye Valley, UK to try to alleviate the species's negative impacts on fisheries (e.g. by overgrazing submergent riverine vegetation) was found to be ineffective as it had an insignificant impact on local population sizes (possibly due to immigration from surrounding areas) (Watola <I>et al</I>. 2003).
100600366		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.600,000-610,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;c.100   breeding pairs and &lt;c.1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt;c.50   individuals on migration and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in Korea and   c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600366		threats	eng	The species suffers heavy losses from lead poisoning due to ingested lead fishing weights (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kelly and Kelly 2004), lead shot (Spray and Milne 1988) and lead contaminated sediments from mining and smelting activities (Day <I>et al.</I> 2003). Heavy losses have also been recorded from local incidences of copper poisoning (Kobayashi <I>et al</I>. 1992). The ingestion of or entanglement in fishing lines and/or hooks can also cause severe injury or mortality (Kelly and Kelly 2004) as can collisions with overhead lines (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species may be threatened by future oil spills (which can cause death by oil saturation) (Berglund <I>et al.</I> 1963). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006)(e.g. strain H5N1) (Nagy <I>et al.</I> 2007) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus.
100600367		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.100,000-1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600369		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is predominantly migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and travels over land making brief stop overs (Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds from mid-May in solitary pairs with well-defined territories (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (non-breeders remaining in flocks separate from breeding pairs) (Kear 2005a). Adults undergo a post-breeding moult period between late-July and early-August when they become flightless for c.30 days (Kear 2005a) (5-6 weeks) (Scott and Rose 1996), males starting to moult before the females (Kear 2005a). Non-breeding individuals moult at the same time as breeders, but whilst breeding pairs tend to moult in their breeding territories non-breeders moult in large congregations (Kear 2005a). After moulting the species begins to migrate south from late-September to October (the precise timing determined by weather conditions) (Kear 2005a) and arrives on the wintering grounds by October or November (Madge and Burn 1988). The species departs for the breeding grounds again from March to April (Kear 2005a) or early-May (Madge and Burn 1988). Outside of the breeding season the species is highly sociable, migrating in small flocks or family groups (Madge and Burn 1988) and congregating into flocks of up to 300-400 individuals in the winter (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988). The species roosts on areas of open water adjacent to its feeding areas (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on islands in or along the banks of shallow freshwater pools, lakes, slow-flowing rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), marshes, swamps and bogs (Kear 2005a), showing a preference for habitats with abundant emergent vegetation (Kear 2005a) and reedbeds (Johnsgard 1978) in taiga (coniferous forest) zones (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005a), birch forest zones (Johnsgard 1978) and shrub/forest tundra (Kear 2005a) (generally avoiding open tundra) (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Non-breeders may also be found in flocks (Kear 2005a) along sheltered coasts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) on estuaries, lagoons and shallow bays during this season (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> On migration the species frequents lakes, estuaries and sheltered coasts (Kear 2005a). It traditionally winters on freshwater lakes and marshes (Kear 2005a), floodlands (Snow and Perrins 1998), brackish lagoons and coastal bays (Kear 2005a) although low-lying coastal agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and wet pastures (Snow and Perrins 1998) are now used increasingly (Kear 2005a). <B>Diet </B>The species is predominantly herbivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), its diet consisting of the leaves, stems and roots (Johnsgard 1978) of aquatic plants (e.g. algae and <I>Zostera</I>, <I>Ruppia </I>and <I>Potamogeton </I>spp.), grasses (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), sedges and horsetails (<I>Equisetum</I> spp.) (Kear 2005a). During the winter the species also takes agricultural grain, vegetables (e.g. potatoes and turnips (Johnsgard 1978)) and acorns (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and on the breeding grounds young birds often take adult and larval insects (Johnsgard 1978) (e.g. emerging chironomids) (Kear 2005a). Adults may also supplement their diet with marine and freshwater mussels (Kear 2005a). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a large mound of plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) built on dry ground or in reedbeds (Johnsgard 1978) on small islands in or along the edges of lakes, pools or rivers (Madge and Burn 1988). The same nest mound may be used over several years although it is often repaired and new material is added (Kear 2005a). <B>Management information</B> A study carried out at a wintering site in Denmark found that large wind turbines (towers 68 m high with blades 66 m in diameter, blades sweeping the heights of 35-101 m) pose less of a collision risk to the species than wind turbines of a medium height (towers 45 m high with blades 48 m in diameter, blades sweeping the heights of 21-69 m) (Larsen and Clausen 2002).
100600369		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.180,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals   (Brazil 2009).
100600369		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss (such as the reclamation of coastal and inland wetlands) (Kear 2005a) especially in the Asian part of its breeding range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Threats to its habitats include agricultural expansion (Kear 2005a), wetland drainage for irrigation (Ma and Cai 2002, Kear 2005a), overgrazing by livestock (e.g. sheep) (Ma and Cai 2002, Kear 2005a), vegetation cutting for winter livestock feed (Ma and Cai 2002), the development of roads (Ma and Cai 2002, Kear 2005a), mining (Ma and Cai 2002) (e.g. strip mining of sediment) (Gardarsson 2006), hydroelectric dam construction, disturbance from tourism (Ma and Cai 2002) and chronic oil pollution from oil exploration (Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006), exploitation (Ma and Cai 2002) and transportation (Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006). The species may suffer heavy losses from future oil spills (Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006), flying accidents (Kear 2005a) (such as collisions with overhead lines (Kear 2005a) or wind turbines (Larsen and Clausen 2002)), poisoning (Kear 2005a) from lead shot ingestion (Spray and Milne 1988) and natural disasters such as droughts or heavy snowstorms (Ma and Cai 2002), and is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is also threatened by hunting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Ma and Cai 2002, Kear 2005a), nest destruction and by subsistence egg collecting (Gudmundsson 1979, Ma and Cai 2002, Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006).
100600371		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels on a narrow front via specific routes using well-known stop-over sites (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> between its Arctic breeding and temperate wintering grounds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds from early-May to late-June (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (depending on local conditions [Kear 2005a])<strong><sup></sup></strong> where it breeds well-dispersed (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in single pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occasionally nesting semi-colonially in optimum habitats (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong></strong>. After breeding the species undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for c.30 days between late-June and early-September, gathering in flocks on open waters (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Family groups leave the breeding grounds from early-September to late-October (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and arrive on the wintering grounds from mid-October onwards (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During this autumn migration some groups may remain at stop-over sites until moved on by cold weather (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The return northward migration occurs from early-March, with the species travelling in small parties that disperse on arrival in the Arctic (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season, often gathering into large flocks of hundreds or thousands of individuals on the wintering grounds (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species forages by day (where undisturbed [del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992])<strong><sup></sup></strong> and roosts at night on open water (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds near shallow pools, lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and broad slow-flowing rivers (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with emergent littoral vegetation and pondweeds (e.g. <em>Potamogeton</em> spp.) connected to coastal delta areas (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in open, moist, low-lying sedge-grass or moss-lichen (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It rarely nests in shrub tundra, and generally avoids forested areas (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration the species frequents shallow ponds (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, lowland and upland lakes (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, reservoirs (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, riverine marshes, shallow saline lagoons (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and sheltered coastal bays and estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the winter it inhabits brackish and freshwater marshes (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, rivers, lakes, ponds (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and shallow tidal estuarine areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with adjacent grasslands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, flooded pastures (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or agricultural arable fields (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong></strong> below 100 m (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is predominantly herbivorous (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, its diet consisting of the seeds, fruits, leaves, roots, rhizomes and stems of aquatic plants (e.g. <em>Potamogeton</em>, <em>Zostera</em> and <em>Glyceria</em> spp.), grasses (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, sedges, reeds (<em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em> spp. [Kear 2005a])<strong><sup></sup></strong> and herbaceous tundra vegetation (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the winter the species complements its diet with agricultural grain and vegetables (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. potatoes [del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992]<strong><sup></sup></strong> and sugar beet [Kear 2005a]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and may also take estuarine invertebrates such as molluscs, amphipods (e.g. <em>Corophium</em> spp.) and polycheate worms on tidal mudflats prior to migration (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a large mound of plant matter positioned on elevated ground (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> such as a ridge or hummock, often at some distance from feeding pools<strong><sup> </sup></strong>to reduce to the risk of flooding (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may re-use a nest from the previous year or build a new one, and although it is not colonial, many pairs may nest close together in optimum habitats (e.g. 5-16 pairs per 10 km<sup>2</sup> [Kear 2005a])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>An experiment carried out in the Sacramento National Wildlife Refuge, California found that in wetland habitats where clay hardpans underlie wetland sediments tilling (plowing) the soil may be an effective means of reducing lead shot availability to waterfowl (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plowing was found to reduce the amount of shot available to depths of 20-30 cm (below the foraging zone of the species [Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2001])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600371		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.300,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600371		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitats due to drainage (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. for agriculture [Grishanov 2006])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, petroleum pollution, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth), the burning and mowing of reeds (Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and eutrophication (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its Arctic breeding habitat is also threatened by oil and gas exploration (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is threatened by mortality from oil pollution (oil spills) in moulting and pre-migrational staging areas, from collisions with powerlines, and from lead poisoning as a result of lead shot (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and fishing weight ingestion during migration and on wintering grounds (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species suffers from poaching in north-west Europe, is hunted for sport in North America (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is hunted considerably for subsistence throughout its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600372		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
100600373		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia and South Korea and some provinces in China. Several important sites are protected in Russia, Mongolia and China. In 2006, breeding birds in eastern Mongolia were fitted with satellite transmitters to research winter movements as a component of avian influenza research (T. Mundkur <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The marking of birds with neck collars may produce further information on the species's migration strategies (e.g. Xu Wen-Bin 2008). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the shores of Alexandra, Nikolay, Ul'banski and Tugurski bays (Russia). Study its decline and establish more protected areas in its breeding grounds. Protect breeding and moulting habitats in Russia. Protect the area around Chertovo lake and link it to the Orlik Wildlife Refuge (Russia). Expand the Khanka Lake Nature Reserve (Russia). Establish a protected area at the Han river estuary (South Korea). Regulate the hunting of all species of Anatidae in China. Reduce hunting at passage and wintering sites in Russia. Ensure legal protection in range states. Carry out research into the demographic consequences of forced diet changes in wintering populations of this species (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Study the impact of spreading aquaculture and changes in hydrology on the availability and productivity of submerged vegetation and formulate mitigation strategies (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
100600373		distribution	eng	<em>Anser cygnoides</em> has its key breeding grounds in the border area between <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Mongolia </strong>and mainland <strong>China </strong>(BirdLife International 2001), with totals of 33,000 and 12,000 birds recorded in east Mongolia during surveys in 2003 (O. Goroshko <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong> and 2004 (Robson 2004)<strong></strong> respectively. Other breeding sites include the lower reaches of the Amur river, north-western Sakhalin Island and Lake Khanka, Russia, western Mongolia and China. A poorly known population also appears to breed in eastern <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, around Saisan-Lake and further east (L. Lachmann <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, but its current status is unknown. In September 2005, six individuals were recorded in the Amu Darya River valley, c.125 km north-west of Turkmenabat in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkmenistan</span>, representing the first record of the species in this area (Marochkina and Rustamov 2008). Breeding is suspected in north-eastern North Korea. It winters in <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, central China, and occasionally in <strong>Japan</strong> and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China). Key wintering sites lie along the coast of Jiangsu and around the lakes of Poyang Hu and Dongting Hu in the Yangtze basin, China. Virtually the entire global population winters in the Yangtze floodplain (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Its population is estimated at 60,000-80,000 individuals, with significant declines in recent decades. However, a flock of 61,650 individuals was found at Shahu Lake (part of the Poyang Lake complex) in 2002 (Zhao Jing-Shen 2002)<strong></strong>, and in 2004/2005 totals, again numbering 61,000 individuals, were counted in the lower Yangtze Valley (Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008<em></em>)<strong></strong>. In January 2011, 87,544 were counted in a coordinated survey of all of the most important Yangtze River wetlands, with 25,502 at Neizhu and Waizhu Lakes, 21,000 at Hanchi Lake and 19,763 at Poyang Lake National Nature Reserve (Lei Jinyu <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> T. Fox and Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Declines appear to be continuing throughout Anhui province, for instance, with numbers wintering at Shengjin Lake declining from 10,000-20,000 birds in 2003-2006 to only c.1,000 by the winter of 2008/2009, probably owing to reductions in submerged vegetation (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The species's global wintering range has contracted dramatically in recent decades, and the species is now restricted to China, largely the Yangtze floodplain, where its range is perceived to be contracting rapidly (Cao Lei<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010). <br/><p></p>
100600373		habitat	eng	It breeds in wetlands in the steppe and forest-steppe zones, including river deltas, river valleys with meadows, the margins of brackish and freshwater lakes, and in mountainous areas along narrow, fast-flowing rivers. In winter, it occurs in lowland lakeside marshes, rice-fields, estuaries and tidal flats. Birds wintering at Shengjin Lake, China, have been observed feeding on below-ground tubers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vallisneria asiatica</span> and above-ground vegetation of sedges <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex</span> spp. and canary grass <span style="font-style: italic;">Phalaris arundinacea</span> (Fox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recent research involving the satellite tagging of individuals has revealed that birds migrate in stages, stopping at a number of sites en route between breeding an wintering grounds (T. Mundkur <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Birds gather in large flocks to moult in late July prior to migration (O. Goroshko <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600373		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at c.60,000-90,000 individuals (Liu Binsheng <em>et al.</em> 2002, Zhao Jisheng 2002, Lei Jinyu <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> T. Fox and Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Barter <em>et al.</em> (2004) and Barter (in prep.) counted 60,886 individuals in the Lower Yangtze Valley in 2004 and 61,178 individuals in 2005 (see also Barter <em>in litt.</em> 2007). In addition, the population in Korea has been estimated at c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals. The most recent coordinated survey of the Yangtze River wetlands in January 2011 found a total of 87,544 individuals (Lei Jinyu <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> T. Fox and Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), suggesting an upwards revision of the upper boundary for the estimate of mature individuals to 90,000.&#160; However, this apparent increase is more likely the result of better count coverage than a genuine increase in population size (T. Fox and Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
100600373		threats	eng	In Russia, the main threats are uncontrolled hunting, and the drainage and ploughing of breeding and moulting habitats, but disturbance by people and cattle also cause high levels of chick mortality (<strong></strong>Goroshko 2004)<strong></strong>. In China, agricultural development at breeding grounds has resulted in wetland destruction and increased disturbance. Egg collection on Sanjiang plain (China), coupled with habitat loss to agricultural development, has probably resulted in a decline in the numbers of breeding Anatidae there of 90% in the last 30 years. Recent droughts on the breeding grounds have resulted in a number of years of poor recruitment (<strong></strong>P. Nikolay <em>in litt. </em>2007). The species is absent from many suitable areas probably as a result of disturbance caused by the use of motor-boats and other high-speed vessels as well as illegal hunting activity (Poyarkov 2005). Hunting of waterfowl remains a serious problem in many parts of China, and is reported to be increasingly so in Mongolia in recent years, where the traditional attitudes that inhibited wildfowl hunting are apparently being deliberately replaced with the notion that wildfowl are a useful food source (Poyarkov 2005). Its wetland wintering grounds are under increasing pressure from development and pollution. The availability of submerged vegetation at Shengjin Lake is being reduced by the expansion of intensive aquaculture, leading to a decline in feeding opportunities (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The Three Gorges Dam is also likely to have impacted the productivity of submerged vegetation at Shengjin Lake through changes in the hydrology, with other lakes in the Yangtze River basin likely to have been affected (Fox <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The species is becoming more concentrated at fewer key wintering localities, especially centred on Poyang Lake, which itself is subject to large between-year changes in hydrological conditions (resulting in inundated areas varying four-fold between years since c.2002) and has been proposed for damming (T. Fox and Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The concentration of birds at fewer sites in winter renders the population more susceptible to the impacts of pollution, disease, hunting, and the loss and degradation of habitat (T. Fox and Cao Lei <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600374		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), travelling on a narrow front (Kear 2005a) between separate breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It breeds from mid-May to late-June or early-July (Kear 2005a) in territorial pairs (Madge and Burn 1988) which may form loose colonies (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) of not more than c.10 pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998). After breeding the species undergoes a flightless moulting period in July and August that lasts for c.25 days (Scott and Rose 1996), during which it remains close to open water (such as the sea or early thawing lakes) (Kear 2005a). Icelandic non-breeding flocks migrate to staging areas (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a) in east Greenland to moult, whereas breeding birds from Svalbard, Greenland and Iceland remain near their breeding areas (Scott and Rose 1996). After moulting the species departs from its breeding and staging grounds (Kear 2005a) from August to mid-September (Madge and Burn 1988), most arriving on the wintering grounds in October (Madge and Burn 1988). Outside of the breeding season the species remains highly gregarious (Madge and Burn 1988), generally forming large concentrations in the autumn (commonly up to 5,000 in the UK) (Snow and Perrins 1998) and in winter (Madge and Burn 1988). These aggregations are usually loose however, with large roosting flocks dispersing into smaller foraging groups by day (Snow and Perrins 1998). During the winter the species roosts on water by night and forages in nearly all hours of daylight (Kear 2005a). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on rocky outcrops, crags, steep river gorges (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a), cliffs, riverbanks and snow-free hummocks near areas of lush vegetation (Greenland) (Kear 2005a) in open arctic tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), especially near seabird colonies (Kear 2005a). Later in the summer the species forages chiefly on damp sedge-meadows, and while moulting and flightless it remains close to the sea or early-thawing lakes (Kear 2005a). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species overwinters on extensive areas of saltmarsh (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a) in estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and on flat agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. improved or fertilised grasslands, stubble fields, pastures and newly sown cereal fields) (Kear 2005a). In Scotland favoured winter daytime roosting sites include estuarine mudflats, lochs and reservoirs (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Diet </B>The species is hebivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and an opportunistic forager (Kear 2005a). <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season its diet consists of the leaves, stems, roots, berries and seed-heads of sedges, mosses, lichens (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), <I>Empetrum</I> spp. and grasses (Kear 2005a). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its wintering areas the species is more reliant on grass, grain, vegetables (e.g. carrots, sugar beet (Kear 2005a)) and potatoes grown on agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a low mound of vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a) on cliffs, rocky outcrops or snow-free hummocks (Kear 2005a) often near seabird colonies (Kear 2005a). The species nests in territorial pairs (Madge and Burn 1988) which may from loose colonies (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) of not more than c.10 pairs, with neighbouring nests spaced as little as 5 m apart (usually more than 75 m apart) (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information </B>An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on grasslands a minimum of 6 ha in area, managed by livestock grazing or mechanical cutting, with an optimum sward height of 13-20 cm (although the species was also found to use heavily grazed land down to a sward height to 1.5 cm), at a distance of less than 10 km away from roosting sites (the optimum distance was 2-5 km away) (Vickery and Gill 1999). Fertilising the grassland with nitrogenous fertiliser (ammonium nitrate 34.5 % N) in early-March at a rate of 80 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP> was also found to double the grazing intensity of geese compared to unfertilised areas (although no further increases were found with higher rates of fertiliser application) (Vickery and Gill 1999). Studies in the Vejlerne nature reserve, Denmark found that wind turbines placed in lines or small clusters cause less disturbance to the species than large clusters (small clusters may be placed in conjunction with existing physical elements such as roads, wind-breaks or buildings, and are therefore less likely to coincide with grasslands areas used for grazing by the species) (Larsen and Madsen 2000).
100600374		threats	eng	The species is hunted illegally in the spring in Iceland which may become a threat (Kear 2005a). Disturbance from hunting on spring staging grounds in Norway has major negative impact on breeding success, and persecution (shooting and disturbance) of the species by farmers is likely to increase in the future if populations increase (due to the species's impact on agricultural grassland) (Kear 2005a). Disturbance from farmers discouraging foraging individuals from their land in the winter has been shown to reduce the species's reproductive success in the spring (Madsen 1995), and the species is also threatened by general disturbance (e.g. from helicopters surveying areas for oil exploration) (Mosbech and Glahder 1991). It may be threatened by land-management changes (such as a reduction in the intensity of management and land abandonment) (Tombre <I>et al</I>. 2005), and by future habitat loss such as the development of hydroelectric projects on interior rivers in Iceland (which would flood a major moulting area) (Kear 2005a). The nesting success of breeding pairs in Svalbard is greatly reduced as a result of arctic fox <I>Vulpes</I> <I>lagopus</I> predation (Madsen <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is subject to hunting in Svalbard, Norway and Denmark, although mortality due to hunting does not seem to be a major factor controlling population sizes (O'Connell <I>et al</I>. 2006).
100600375		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory and travels between breeding grounds in the high Arctic to wintering grounds in the temperate and subtropical zones (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Populations that breed in the taiga nest in early-May, with those breeding in the tundra nesting one month later in early-June (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a). The species breeds in solitary pairs, usually with nests well-dispersed (Snow and Perrins 1998) (although it will also nest in loose groups) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). After breeding the species undergoes a moulting period when it is flightless for c.1 month between July and August (Scott and Rose 1996), some populations undertaking extensive northward moult migrations (Kear 2005a), and most congregating into large moulting flocks near open water (Scott and Rose 1996). The species departs from its breeding grounds after this post-breeding moulting period in early-September, arriving in the winter quarters from late-September through October (Madge and Burn 1988). It remains gregarious throughout the winter (Madge and Burn 1988) (although it occurs in smaller, loose flocks than many other goose species) (Snow and Perrins 1998) and roosts close to feeding areas (Madge and Burn 1988) in mixed-species flocks on lakes, rivers and flooded lands (Kear 2005a). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds near lakes, pools, rivers and streams in high Arctic tundra or the taiga forest zone (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Taiga nesting populations show a preference for scrubby birch <I>Betula</I> spp. forest (Madge and Burn 1988) and dense spruce forest with bogs or mires (Madge and Burn 1988), whereas tundra-based populations nest on damp tundra of moss, grass, sedge or scrub (Johnsgard 1978) near river flood-plains (but above flood levels) (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a), on Arctic islands and in Arctic coastal regions (Madge and Burn 1988). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter and on passage the species inhabits marshes, agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (pastures, arable fields, rice-paddies) (Kear 2005a), damp steppe grassland (Madge and Burn 1988), flood-lands, rivers and coastal shallows (Snow and Perrins 1998) in open country (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It also roosts on lakes, rivers and flood-lands in Europe during this season (Kear 2005a). <B>Diet </B>The species is herbivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), its diet consisting of herbs, grasses, sedges (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and mosses (Johnsgard 1978), complemented during the breeding season by berries (e.g. from <I>Empetrum</I> or <I>Vaccinium</I> spp.) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). During the winter it feeds predominantly on agricultural land taking grain, beans, potatoes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and sprouting winter cereal crops (Kear 2005a). <B>Breeding site </B>The species builds a nest of vegetation in a shallow scrape on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Taiga breeders nest in bogs or mires within forested regions, placing nests within 400 m of open mire and within 2 km of open water, usually 50-100 cm above bog surfaces on hummocks that are safe from flooding (Kear 2005a). Tundra breeders nest on dry hummocks and moss (Kear 2005a). <B>Management information </B>An investigation carried out in one of the species' wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on improved grassland or grasslands grazed by cattle that were a minimum of 5 ha in area, had an optimum sward height of c.20 cm and were at a distance of less than 9 km away from roosting sites (Vickery and Gill 1999).
100600375		threats	eng	The species declined in the past due to hunting (resulting in mortality, injury and disturbance) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a, Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006) and habitat loss (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Habitat degradation due to oil pollution (Grishanov 2006, Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006), drainage, peat-extraction, changing management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and forest clearance is a threat to breeding areas in Russia (Grishanov 2006), Norway and Sweden (Madge and Burn 1988). The species also suffers from human persecution (Madge and Burn 1988) and is susceptible to poisoning by pesticides used on agricultural land (Kwon <I>et al.</I> 2004).
100600376		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), travelling in stages via several stop-over sites between separate breeding and wintering grounds (Madge and Burn 1988). The species breeds from late-May or early-June in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), with moulting non-breeders and failed breeders gathering on areas of open water separate from the major breeding congregations (Kear 2005a). After breeding the species gathers in small flocks (less than 30 individuals) (Scott and Rose 1996) to undergo a post-breeding moult period (Madge and Burn 1988) near the breeding grounds where it becomes flightless for c.25 days (Scott and Rose 1996). After this moulting period flocks gather to migrate south to winter quarters, leaving the breeding areas from late-August through September and arriving late in the autumn (Madge and Burn 1988). Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious (Madge and Burn 1988) (large flocks of up to 30,000 individuals are recorded in Europe) although it is more commonly observed in small loose groups due to the patchiness of its favoured habitat (Kear 2005a). The species usually forages within 20 km of rooting sites (Kear 2005a), although the optimum distance for foraging areas may be less than this (less than 4 km in Scotland, UK) (Vickery and Gill 1999). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in open (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), low-lying, shrubby tundra (Snow and Perrins 1998) on the coast and inland (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), in close proximity to marshes, lakes, pools, rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998), and willow- and shrub-lined ponds and streams (Johnsgard 1978). It requires dry slopes, banks, mounds, hummocks or patches of sand or clay for nesting sites, especially those commanding good views of the surrounding area (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding </I>The species winters in open country on steppe and agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. improved grassland, stubble fields (Madge and Burn 1988) and wet meadows (Johnsgard 1978)), or in brackish (Kear 2005a) and freshwater marshy habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (such as upland bogs (Madge and Burn 1988), peatlands (Scott and Rose 1996) and floodlands (Kear 2005a)). It may also roost on tidal marshes, in sheltered bays or in estuaries and frequents inland lakes and reservoirs in North America (Kear 2005a). <B>Diet </B>The species is herbivorous, its diet consisting of the roots, leaves, stems, seeds and fruits of terrestrial plants such as herbs, grasses and sedges (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), as well as agricultural grain (e.g. corn, oats (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), wheat, rice and barley (Johnsgard 1978)), potatoes and sprouting cereals (especially in the winter) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow construction of plant matter on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) amongst vegetation such as grass or dwarf scrub heath, often on raised hummocks or slopes to reduce the risk of flooding and provide a vantage point of the surrounding area (Kear 2005a). <B>Management information</B> An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on grasslands managed with a livestock (cattle) grazing regime, with a sward height of 13-20 cm, at a distance of less than 9 km away from roosting sites (the optimum distance was 4 km away) (Vickery and Gill 1999). Fertilising the grassland with nitrogen in the autumn (mid-October) at a rate of 125 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP> was also found to increase the overall species use of the habitat by 42 % compared with unfertilised areas (Vickery and Gill 1999).<B>
100600376		threats	eng	The species is threatened by intense hunting pressure (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) resulting in mortality  (Kear 2005a, Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006) and disturbance at staging (Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006) and moulting sites (Glahder and Walsh 2006). It is also susceptible to poisoning by pesticides used on agricultural land (Kwon <I>et al</I>. 2004). Populations in Greenland are threatened by human disturbance at moulting sites from tourists in cruise liners (once displaced from a site birds are unlikely to find unoccupied replacement sites) (Glahder and Walsh 2006), and the species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the vius (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Climatic changes are likely to cause range contractions in this species's already highly restricted breeding range (Kear 2005a), and are already causing other species (e.g. Canada Geese <I>Branta canadensis</I>) to move northward, increasing competition for resources (Kear 2005a, Fox <I>et al</I>. 2006). Oil exploration in the tundra habitat poses a threat to the species's breeding (Kear 2005a) and moulting sites (Glahder and Walsh 2006) by increasing the possibility of oil spills and chronic oil pollution (Grishanov 2006, Nikolaeva <I>et al</I>. 2006), by direct habitat destruction (influencing breeding site selection and reducing reproductive success) (Kear 2005a) and through human disturbance (Glahder and Walsh 2006). Wetland habitat degradation due to drainage, peat-extraction and changing management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) is also a problem in areas of Russia (Grishanov 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is sustainably hunted for sport in Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al</I>. 2006).
100600377		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. It is protected in key range states except Azerbaijan and China. Satellite telemetry studies have improved knowledge of its ecology and the key threats (Aarvak <em>et al.</em>1997; Tolvanen <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A reintroduction programme in Sweden recently ended. Public awareness materials have been produced (Kostadinova <em>et al.</em> 1999). An European Action Plan was published in 1996 (Madsen 1996) and an updated International Single Species Action Plan for the western Palearctic population was published in 2008 (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reduce hunting pressure in key wintering and staging areas. Locate, monitor and protect key areas. Continue satellite tracking and other research. Prevent habitat loss and manage habitats in staging and wintering areas. Promote international and national legal protection. Promote public awareness. <p></p>
100600377		distribution	eng	Four main subpopulatio<span style="">ns of</span><em style=""> Anser erythropus</em><span style=""> can be recognised: the Fennoscandian population which breeds in the Nordic countries (</span><strong style="">Norway </strong><span style="">35-45 pairs, </span><strong style="">Finland</strong><span style=""> 0-5 pairs, </span><strong style="">Sweden </strong><span style="">5 pairs</span><strong style=""> </strong>[BirdLife International 2004<span style="">]) and the Kola Peninsula in </span><strong style="">Russia</strong><span style="">; the west Asian main population which breeds in northern Russian tundra to the west of the Taimyr Peninsula, including&#160; to the west and east of Pechora and Western Siberia (Yamal and Gydan peninsulas)</span>; and the Eastern population which breeds <span style="">in the southern Taimyr and Putorana Plateau and areas north of Eastern Siberia and Chukotka.</span> Eastern breeders winter in central <strong>China </strong>and<strong> Mongolia,</strong> and <span style="">Fennoscandian</span> and west Asian breeders winter around the Black and Caspian Seas, in <strong>Azerbaijan, </strong>the Evros Delta between<strong> Greece </strong>and<strong> Turkey</strong><sup> </sup>(Lorentsen <em>et al.</em> 1998), Iraq and possibly<strong> Iran</strong>. Small numbers occur on passage or in winter in <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Germany<sup> </sup></strong>(Morozov and Syroechkovski 2005), <strong>Slovakia, Romania</strong><sup> </sup>(Aarvak <em>et al.</em> 1997; Munteanu <em>et al.</em> 1991) <strong>Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania </strong>and <strong>Bulgaria</strong><sup> </sup>(Petkov <em>et al.</em> 1999). A small wintering population is also now established in <strong>The Netherlands</strong>, which originates from a reintroduced breeding population in <strong>Sweden</strong>. There are important staging areas in <strong>Kazakhstan</strong><sup> </sup>(Tolvanen <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia</strong><sup> </sup>(Tolvanen <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, <strong>Lithuania </strong>and <strong>Poland</strong>. The most recent total population estimate is 28,000-33,000 individuals, which compares <span style="">with previous published global estimates of 25,000 to 30,000 individuals (Lorentsen et al. 1999) and 22,000 to 27,000 (Delany &amp; Scott 2002). This includes 8,000-13,000 individuals in autumn in its Western Palearctic rang</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">e (Jones </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2008) and 20,000 individuals from the East Asian Flyway</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">  (Delany et al. 2008, Delany &amp; Scott 2006)</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(20,000 recorded in 1997 [Li and Mundkur 2004]; but later less than 17,000</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(Morozov and Syroechkovski 2005); 16,937 counted in Lower Yangtze Valley in 2004 (Barter </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2004), and 16,600 counted in East Dongting Lake nature reserve in 2004 [Barter 2005]). T</span>he Russian population has declined from a former estimate of 30,000-50,000 individuals (Morozov 1995). The Fennoscandian population has declined from more than 10,000 birds in the early 20th century.  <p></p>
100600377		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is fully migratory, and information about its migration routes has only recently come to light as a result of satellite telemetry studies<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005a). The species departs from its breeding grounds in northern Scandinavia and arctic Russia in late August to early September. Populations from Fennoscandia and west Asia follow several routes: either south (through Hungary), or east and then south, through the Russian Taimyr Peninsula in northern Siberia, northern Kazakhstan and finally the Black Sea<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998; Øien <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, to reach wintering grounds in south-east Europe (the Hungarian plain to the Black Sea) and the Near East (around the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998; Alerstam 1990)<strong></strong>. East Asian populations winter in eastern China<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em> 1992) and the Korean peninsula (Madsen 1996). The return passage to the breeding grounds begins in February, with the species arriving from early May<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998) to late June (Madsen 1996). In Siberia non-breeding birds undertake a moult-migration to higher altitudes or to areas north of the breeding range (Madsen 1996). Evidence indicates that this species is not a colonial breeder<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Johnsgard 1978), but nests in pairs on isolated territories<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Madge and Burn 1988). The species is gregarious outside the breeding season however<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Madge and Burn 1988). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in low-lying bogs, scrub-covered tundra and taiga-forest edges close to wetlands, up to 700 m above sea level<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005a). It can also be found on the slopes by lower parts of mountain streams, on mountain foothills, mountain lakes and on alpine precipices, often in thawing boggy areas or on stonefields<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Johnsgard 1978; Cramp and Simmons 1977)<strong></strong>. Adults of this species undergo a post-breeding flightless summer moult whilst still in their breeding range (in Siberia and Scandinavia adults migrate to areas north of the breeding range or to higher altitudes to exploit large open water fringed with sedge (<em>Carex</em>), or river valleys with long grass and scrub to escape predation)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005a). <em>Non-breeding </em>During winter and on migration this species frequents open short grassland in the steppe and semi-arid zones, particularly in sodic (e.g. seashore) pastures, arable farmland, pastures and meadows (Madsen 1996;&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>Kear 2005a; Cramp and Simmons 1977)<strong></strong>. Winter roosting colonies are also formed on large lakes and rivers<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Madge and Burn 1988; Cramp and Simmons 1977)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>, or in reedbeds and rushes (Cramp and Simmons 1977). <strong>Diet</strong> This species is herbivorous, feeding on grasses, roots, stems, leaves, fruits and the green parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants along lake-shores, rivers and marshes<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005a). During the winter the species supplements its diet with winter agricultural grains<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005a). <strong>Breeding site</strong> Birds of this species often nest on snow-free patches available early in the breeding season (such as rocky outcrops or prominent hummocks) hidden amongst vegetation (grass, dwarf shrub heathland) or in boggy hollows (Madsen 1996;&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>Kear 2005a)<strong></strong>, usually in close proximity to open water or marshy areas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005a).  <p></p>
100600377		population	eng	There is an estimated population of 8,000-11,000 autumn individuals in the western Palearctic plus about 20,000 wintering individuals from the east Asian flyway (from 11,800-16,800 counted in 1999, 16,600 in 2003, and 16,937 counted in the Lower Yangtze Valley in 2004). This gives a global estimate of 28,000-33,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 18,000-22,000 mature individuals.
100600377		threats	eng	<em>Breeding </em>Disturbance on breeding grounds (e.g. from increasing tourism and angling) causes much disruption to nesting birds (Madsen 1996). Illegal spring hunting and round-ups of moulting birds are taking place on the Russian breeding grounds (Jones in press) and illegal shooting continues in Norway T. Aarvak <em>pers. comm.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Western Palearctic at least 20-30% of the population are shot each yea<span style="">r (Mooij 2010) o</span>ften accidentally during hunting of other species. Habitat deterioration, as a result of land cultivation and increased water-levels in the Caspian Sea, is a further threat (Madsen 1996), as is habitat loss through the creation of reservoirs for hydroelectric power in Scandinavia (Madsen 1996). The species may also be threatened by nest predation from the Red Fox <em>Vulpes vulpes</em> (Madsen 1996). Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 28% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Zöckler and Lysenko 2000). <em>Non-breeding</em> High mortality in autumn and winter is caused by illegal hunting, and accidental shooting on the staging and wintering grounds is the most important threat<strong></strong> (Madsen 1996; Aarvak <em>et al.</em>1997; Lorentsen <em>et al.</em> 1998;&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>Kear 2005a; Morozov 2006; Jones (in press)<strong></strong>. Disturbance of roosting and feeding birds by hunters is a potentially significant limiting factor on survival and breeding output<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ebbinge and Spaans 1995; Ä 2000; N. Petkov<strong> </strong><em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The wintering population at Dongting Lake, China, is threatened by the Three Gorges Dam (Iwabuchi 1998). In the Kaliningrad region of Russia, important migratory stop-over points on the Baltic Sea coastline are being degraded through petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for agriculture, changes in wetland management leading to scrub and reed overgrowth, peat extraction, and the burning and mowing of reed beds<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600378		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is fully migratory although some populations in temperate regions are only sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or locally dispersive (Scott and Rose 1996), occasionally making irregular movements in very icy winters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds from May or April in loose colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005a), after which flocks gather to undertake moult migrations to favoured areas (with good feeding opportunities and access to safe roosting sites) (Kear 2005a) to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting c.1 month (Scott and Rose 1996). The species is highly gregarious (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a) outside of the breeding season (Madge and Burn 1988), with large concentrations forming during the post-breeding moult and before the autumn migration (e.g. flocks of up to 25,000 individuals) (Scott and Rose 1996). The species feeds diurnally, especially during the morning and evening, although non-breeding birds may also feed at night (Kear 2005a). It roosts at night and during the middle of the day on open water (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), and may fly to feeding areas more than 10 km away from roosting sites (Kear 2005a) (optimal distance 2-5 km away) (Vickery and Gill 1999). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season the species inhabits wetlands surrounded by fringing vegetation in open grassland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), sedge or heather moorland (Johnsgard 1978), arctic tundra, steppe or semi-desert from sea-level up to 2,300 m (Snow and Perrins 1998). It nests near streams, saltmarshes (Kear 2005a), river flood-plains, reedy marshes, grassy bogs, damp meadows, reed-lined freshwater lakes and estuaries (Johnsgard 1978) close to potential feeding sites such as meadows, grasslands, stubble fields and newly sown cereal fields (Kear 2005a). It requires isolated islands (Kear 2005a) in lakes (Johnsgard 1978) or on along the coast (Kear 2005a) out of reach of land predators for nesting (Kear 2005a). In the autumn (before migration) the species also frequents agricultural land (e.g. sugar-beet, maize and cereal fields) (Kear 2005a). <I>Non-breeding</I> In the winter the species inhabits lowland farmland in open country (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), lakes (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), reservoirs (Madge and Burn 1988), coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Diet </B>The species is herbivorous, its diet consisting of grass (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), the roots, shoots, leaves, stems, seedheads and fruits of other herbaceous marsh vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), aquatic plants (Johnsgard 1978), and agricultural grain and potatoes (especially in the winter) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow construction of plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) placed among reedbeds, on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), in or at the base of trees, under bushes or in sheltered hollows on isolated wooded islands on lakes or along coasts (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005a), as well as on rafts of vegetation in rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). Although the species is only semi-colonial, nests may be concentrated within a small area (e.g. placed 11 m apart on small islands) (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Management information</B> On the Vejlerne nature reserve, Denmark, it was found that reedbeds left unharvested for 5-13 years supported the highest nesting densities of this species (Nyeland Kristiansen 1998). Low nesting densities were found in reedbeds in the first four years after reed cutting, and no nests were found in reedbeds cut in the year of study (shoot density may have been too low to provide adequate cover) or in reedbeds left uncut for sixteen years (reed stems may have been too dense) (Nyeland Kristiansen 1998).
100600378		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,000,000-1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in China and   &lt;c.10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600378		threats	eng	This species is threatened by considerable hunting pressures across much of its range (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and is susceptible to poisoning from lead shot ingestion (Mateo <I>et al.</I> 1998). It is also persecuted by farmers as it can cause considerable crop damage (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The destruction and degradation of wetland habitats due to drainage (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Grishanov 2006), conversion to agriculture (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), petroleum pollution, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds is also a threat, especially in breeding areas (Grishanov 2006). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
100600382		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Assess the effects of hunting on population levels. Tackle the causes of projected climate change through international agreements. Enforce regulations to prevent oil pollution. Consider legal protection against hunting. Study interactions with other goose species, and how these relate to the availability of food plants (Lake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). <br/><p></p>
100600382		distribution	eng	<em>Chen canagica</em> is restricted to the Bering Sea, breeding in Arctic and subarctic Alaska, <strong>USA</strong> and extreme north-east coastal <strong>Russia</strong>, and wintering principally along ice-free coasts of the Aleutian Islands and, in smaller numbers, in <strong>Canada</strong> and the Alaska Peninsula, with very few reaching as far south as California (Petersen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Delany and Scott 2002). Its population in Alaska declined precipitously from 139,000 in 1964 to 42,000 in 1986, but was recently estimated at c.84,500 in 2002 <strong></strong>(U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
100600382		habitat	eng	It breeds in coastal saltmarshes and winters along ice-free coasts.  <p></p>
100600382		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.85,000 individuals (U.S. Fish and   Wildlife Service 2001), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600382		threats	eng	Factors affecting its population fluctuations are poorly understood, but subsistence hunting in Alaska and coastal oil pollution are considered to be contributory. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 54% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070 <strong></strong>(Zöckler and Lysenko 2000). <p></p>
100600383		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species benefits from a suit of protected areas, including Hawai'i Volcanoes and Haleakallâ (Maui) national parks, Kîlauea Point (Kaua'i) and Hakalau Forest (Big Island) national wildlife refuges, and several state sanctuaries (Banko <em>et al.</em> 1997, C. Terry <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Extensive research has been conducted on factors limiting population growth (e.g. Bailey and Black 1995, Rave 1995,<strong></strong> Rojek and Conant 1996)<strong></strong>. Predators are controlled, and supplementary food and water are sometimes provided at particular sites (C. Terry <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Despite the low average fledging success rate recorded in the Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park from 1989-1999, this was more than double the rate in the previous 15 years, owing to predator control and supplementary feeding during breeding seasons (Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Other efforts have involved habitat restoration and reducing human disturbance, especially to breeding birds (Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Releases of captive birds continued until the late 2000s (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, but have now ceased. Translocation of birds from Kaua'i to other islands is on-going, as there is a large population at Kaua'i Lagoons, near the airport (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Carry out further research into the factors limiting breeding and causing low recruitment. Manage and restore habitat, and control predators (Black 1995, Black 1998, Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2005)<strong></strong>. Ensure Kaua'i remains mongoose-free (H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Optimise genetic diversity in flocks with few founders (Rave 1995)<strong></strong>. Develop community education programme, particularly with regard to road-kills (Black 1995,<strong> </strong>C. Terry <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Establish large predator-free reserves in lowland areas with better quality forage in which the above targets can be addressed (H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Expand habitat restoration efforts<strong></strong>. In the Hawai'i Volcanoes and Haleakalâ national parks, prevent visitors from feeding the birds and speeding (Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Conduct a telemetry study to determine habitat use outside of the breeding season, as non-breeding areas have been largely unstudied (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). <br/><p></p>
100600383		distribution	eng	<em>Branta sandvicensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>U.S.A.</strong>). Fossil analysis suggests that it once occurred throughout the main islands (Olson and James 1991)<strong></strong>. However, along with other species, it declined due to habitat loss and alteration, and predation by humans and introduced predators (Olson and James 1991, A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The species is now the focus of conservation efforts. Between 1960 and 2006, over 2,400 captive-bred individuals have been released on Big Island, Moloka'i, Maui and Kaua'i (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. During the drought years of 1976-1983, the majority of released birds (c.1,200) perished (Black <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Of 63 birds released between 2000-2001 and 2005-2006, 55 (87%) survived their first year (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On Big Island, the population has been partly dependent on continued releases, although large numbers are no longer needed to maintain a stable population (C. Terry <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. This is the most genetically diverse population (F. Woog <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The population on Maui is considered to be more or less stable (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On Kaua'i, numbers had increased to c.1,400-1,600 by 2011. There is now a large population at Kaua'i Lagoons adjacent to the airport, and the state plans to move around 400 from there to sites on Maui, Big Island and Moloka'i.&#160; In 2011, the population was estimated at around 2,500 birds state-wide (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<em> <p></p></em>
100600383		habitat	eng	In 1949, the remaining populations on Big Island inhabited rocky, sparsely vegetated, high volcanic slopes. Following habitat loss and alteration for agriculture (Olson and James 1991)<strong></strong>, the optimal habitat is now apparently grassland, where there is an abundance of high protein food, adjacent to natural scrubland nesting areas (Black <em>et al.</em> 1994, Black 1995<strong>, </strong>Black <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Breeding success and productivity are currently low except on Kaua'i. In recent studies, less than 10% of all breeding-age females successfully bred (Banko <em>et al.</em> 1997, F. Woog <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, although this may not be the case on Kaua'i (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600383		population	eng	The total population was estimated to be 1,241 individuals in 2004 (based on counts in 2003), 1,744 individuals in 2006 (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007) and c.2,500 individuals in 2011 (A. Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). However, it is expected that fewer than 1,000 have bred successfully in the wild, and maintenance of the current population relies partly on the regular release of captive bred individuals. Hence the effective number of mature individuals falls within the band 250-999.
100600383		threats	eng	The development of agricultural systems by the Polynesians, and later by European settlers, resulted in the extensive loss and alteration of habitat (Olson and James 1991)<strong></strong>. A lack of suitable habitat, especially for rearing young, is the most important limiting factor, combined with predation by the introduced small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> (except on Kaua'i), dogs, cats, pigs and rats (Black <em>et al.</em> 1994, Black 1995,<strong></strong> H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160;<strong> </strong>T. C. Telfer <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Other threats include disease and parasites, inbreeding depression, loss of adaptive skills in captive-bred birds and dietary deficiencies. Feral cats carry the protozoan organism <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> which causes toxoplasmosis, a disease that can be fatal in the species (Hess and Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. Road-kills are an important threat on Big Island (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and probably on Maui (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Indeed road-kills were found to be the most common cause of known adult mortality on Big Island from 1989-1999 (Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Recruitment is low in this species, as found in the Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park over the same period. Yearly average hatching success was only 55% (range 44-77%), probably because of introduced predators rather than inbreeding. A yearly average of only 30% (range 0-50%) of nestlings fledged, with most lost to starvation, dehydration and predation. Recruitment into the breeding population is low, with only 42% of tracked fledglings eventually attempting to breed. An average of 35% of the population breed each year, probably limited by food availability, which affects female condition. Drought is another limiting factor for this species (Rave <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600384		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, breeding across tundra in much of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, Alaska, <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A</span>., and parts of the northern U.S.A., and wintering in southern North America, including <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>. Introduced populations are now resident in much of the U.S.A. south of the normal breeding range, as well as in a number of western European countries. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">asiatica</span>, which occurred in the Bering Sea region, has been extinct since around 1914 (Fuller 2000).
100600384		population	eng	(Wetlands International 2006)
100600384		threats	eng	Although hunting and other direct mortality takes a substantial toll, this species has increased its range and population since the 1940s (Mowbray et al. 2002).
100600385		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is fully migratory and travels on a narrow front (Kear 2005a) between extremely localised breeding and wintering areas (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It is present on its breeding grounds from May or June to August or September (Kear 2005a) where it breeds in small but often closely packed colonies (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) of 5-50 pairs, occasionally singly or in groups of up to 150 pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998). It uses the same nesting sites year after year (Johnsgard 1978) and sometimes nests among seabird colonies (Madge and Burn 1988). After the young hatch the adults undergo a flightless moult period near the breeding grounds between mid-July and mid-August that lasts for 3-4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996). The species migrates to autumn staging areas in September (Kear 2005a) from which it travels via regular stop-over sites (Madge and Burn 1988) to the wintering grounds, arriving in late-September (Kear 2005a). The return migration begins in April or May, the species moving to spring staging areas where it may be present for 20-30 days before migrating northwards (Kear 2005a). The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season, often feeding in dense concentrations on coastal grasslands during the winter (Madge and Burn 1988). In winter habitats it roosts on water (Madge and Burn 1988) or on sandbanks near saltmarshes and pastureland (Peberdy 1991). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in Arctic semi-desert tundra (fjellmark) (Kear 2005a)on crags, rocky outcrops (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), cliffs, rocky slopes (Johnsgard 1978) and coastal islands (Svalbard) (Kear 2005a) near wetlands such as lakes, rivers, marshes, the upper parts of fjords, coastlines (Johnsgard 1978), wet meadows and mudflats (Kear 2005a). In years when the snow is slow to melt the species first forages on grassy vegetation on south-facing mountain slopes fertilised by the droppings of cliff-nesting seabirds before moving down to breeding areas (Kear 2005a). It also returns to these slopes after the moulting period before autumn migration (Kear 2005a). After the young hatch families may disperse away from rocky ground to more vegetated areas surrounding tundra lakes and rivers (Kear 2005a). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season the species frequents tidal mudflats, saltmarshes (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005a) and adjacent coastal meadows (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (especially improved<B></B>rough pastures<B></B>and arable land (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a)), with agricultural fields becoming increasingly more important as winter feeding areas (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Diet </B>The species is herbivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) its diet consisting of the leaves, stems and seed-heads of grasses, sedges, aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a), mosses (Kear 2005a), various herbs (especially white clover <I>Trifolium repens</I> in the winter) (Peberdy 1991, Vickery and Gill 1999) and shrubs (e.g. arctic willow <I>Salix arctica</I>) (Johnsgard 1978). It may also take agricultural grain and vegetables during the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow depression in a low mound of vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) positioned on rocky ground (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a), rocky outcrops (Johnsgard 1978, Snow and Perrins 1998), among rocky crags, on steep cliffs (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998), on the tops of low hills (Johnsgard 1978), or on low vegetation hummocks and snow-free patches on islands in river channels (Snow and Perrins 1998). Nesting sites accumulate nesting materials as they are often used year after year (Johnsgard 1978), and the species may sometimes nest among seabird colonies (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Management information </B>An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on improved grasslands with high abundances of the grass <I>Lolium perenn</I>e and white clover <I>Trifolium repens</I> (Vickery and Gill 1999) (the growth of which is greatly influenced by the amount of summer grazing, which controls the grass height) (Peberdy 1991). Preferred fields were between 4 and 10 ha in area (the species avoided fields of less than 2-3 ha), and at an optimal distance of less than 5 km away from roosting sites (maximum 7 km away) (Vickery and Gill 1999). The species was also found to show a preference for grasslands with swards less than 10 cm in height (optimum 2 cm) in fields that had been cut for silage and then grazed (although there was no major difference in feeding intensity on pastures grazed with different livestock) (Vickery and Gill 1999). Overall winter use of grassland fertilised with large amounts of nitrogen was significantly greater than the use of unfertilised grassland by the species (Vickery and Gill 1999). The Barnacle Goose Management Scheme (BGMS) in Scotland, UK recommends fertilising farmland adjacent to reserves containing wintering groups of this species at times when geese are present (e.g. autumn or winter) and grazing stock (sheep or cattle) are absent (Cope <I>et al.</I> 2003). The BGMS also awards payments to farmers who manage pastures outside of established reserves for reducing the level of disturbance (e.g. scaring away feeding flocks) on their land (Cope <I>et al.</I> 2003).<B>
100600385		threats	eng	Today the species is fully protected throughout its range, although adults, eggs and down were once exploited by humans (Kear 2005a), and the species may be disturbed by shooting even though it is not directly hunted (Peberdy 1991). The species faces possible threats from persecution (disturbance) by farmers as in winter it favours grasslands and pastures used for grazing livestock (Cope <I>et al.</I> 2003). The species also suffers from nest predation by arctic fox <I>Vulpes lagopus</I> in Svalbard (Madsen <I>et al</I>. 1992).
100600386		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory, the main routes of migration being along Arctic coastlines (Snow and Perrins 1998). It arrives on the breeding grounds in early-June (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) where it may breed in small, loose colonies (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) or dispersed in single pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998) (especially in the high Arctic where the habitat is unsuitable for large groups) (Kear 2005a). There is a high degree of synchrony in egg laying and hatching (Johnsgard 1978), with the adults moulting c.10 days after the young hatch (mid-July to mid-August (Scott and Rose 1996)) during which they become flightless for c.21-30 days (Johnsgard 1978, Scott and Rose 1996). Most individuals moult near the breeding grounds (Scott and Rose 1996) although immatures, unsuccessful breeders (Johnsgard 1978) and some more southerly breeding groups (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984) may undertake pre-moult migrations (Johnsgard 1978) and form large moulting concentrations well-away from nesting areas (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984). After the post-breeding moult flocks leave the breeding grounds in early-September with some arriving in wintering areas as early as mid-September, others making stopovers on route and arriving later (Madge and Burn 1988). It leaves its wintering quarters again from mid-March to mid-April (Madge and Burn 1988). During the non-breeding season the species remains gregarious, gathering in groups of only a few to several thousands of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998), although it is rarely found in very large flocks (Kear 2005a). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in coastal Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in or close to wet coastal meadows with abundant grassy vegetation (Kear 2005a) and on tundra-covered flats with tidal streams (only just above the high tide line) (Johnsgard 1978). In some parts of its range it shows a preference for nesting on small grassy islands (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a) in tundra lakes and rivers, especially if nesting Sabine's Gulls <I>Xema sabini</I> (Kear 2005a), Snowy Owls <I>Bubo scandiaca</I> (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984, Kear 2005a), Peregrine Falcons <I>Falco peregrinus</I> (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984) or large raptors are present to deter predators (Kear 2005a). High Arctic nesters may also breed widely dispersed over icy tundra, well-away from water (Kear 2005a). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species becomes predominantly coastal, inhabiting estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005a), tidal mudlflats (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a), sandy shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), coastal saltmarshes (Kear 2005a) (especially in the spring) (Scott and Rose 1996) and shallow muddy bays (Kear 2005a). In recent years the species has taken to grazing on coastal cultivated grasslands (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) and winter cereal fields (Scott and Rose 1996), but rarely occurs on freshwater wetlands except on passage (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Diet </B>The species is mainly herbivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) although it may take animal matter (e.g. fish eggs, worms, snails and amphipods) (Johnsgard 1978). <I>Breeding</I> In its breeding habitat the diet of the species consists of mosses, lichens, aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), sedges, tundra grass <I>Dupontia</I> spp., arrowgrass <I>Triglochin</I> spp. and saltmarsh grass <I>Puccinellia</I> spp. (Alaska) (Kear 2005a), although the young may also take insects and aquatic invertebrates (Johnsgard 1978). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species predominantly takes marine microscopic and macroscopic algae (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. seaweeds, <I>Ulva</I> spp. (Kear 2005a)) and other aquatic plants linked with saline or brackish waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in the intertidal zone (e.g. especially eelgrass <I>Zostera</I> spp. (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a), as well as <I>Ruppia maritima</I>, <I>Spartina alterniflora</I>, <I>Salicornia </I>spp., and arrowgrass <I>Triglochin</I> spp.) (Kear 2005a). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow depression (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Although the species often nests close to water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) typically within a few hundred metres of the tideline (Snow and Perrins 1998), high Arctic nesters may breed on icy tundra well away from water (Kear 2005a) (some nearly up to 10 km inland) (Snow and Perrins 1998) often near boulders where the snow clears first (Kear 2005a). <B>Management information </B>An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on dry, improved grasslands that had high abundances of the grass <I>Lolium perenn</I>e, were between 5 and 6 ha in area, and were at a distance of up to 1.5 km inland or 4-5 km along the coast from coastal roosting sites (Vickery and Gill 1999). The species was found to show a preference for grasslands with short, dense swards c.5 cm in height, a characteristic that can be gained through summer management plans involving either mechanical cutting, livestock (sheep or cattle) grazing regimes, or cutting and then grazing (although over longer periods of time the selective grazing of sheep rather than cattle, and frequent rather than infrequent cutting may be more likely to enhance tillering and produce the short, dense sward favoured by this species) (Vickery and Gill 1999). Fertilising the grassland with nitrogen in the autumn at a rate of 50 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP> was found to increase the overall species use of the habitat by 21 % compared with unfertilised areas (Vickery and Gill 1999), and fertilising at a rate of 75 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP> was found to increase the overall species use of the habitat by 9-29 % and to remove any preference the geese showed for short sward heights (between 5 and 11 cm) (Vickery and Gill 1999). In other fertilising experiments grazing intensity of the species was found to increase linearly with increasing levels of fertiliser (from 0 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP> to 150 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP>), although responses in grazing intensity at fertiliser levels lower than 50 kg N ha<SUP>1</SUP> were found to be short-lived (c.2 months after fertiliser application) (Vickery and Gill 1999).
100600386		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.560,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt;c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600386		threats	eng	This species is threatened by hunting (Kear 2005a) and is susceptible to disturbance from vehicles in the UK (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002) (although it is relatively tolerant of human disturbance, e.g. walkers, compared to other species) (Vickery and Gill 1999, Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002). In its winter range the species may be persecuted by farmers, as in recent years it has increasingly taken to grazing on cultivated grasslands and winter cereal fields near the coast (Scott and Rose 1996). The species may also be threatened in the future by reductions in food supplies following the return of a disease of the eelgrass <I>Zostera marina</I> (a staple food) (Scott and Rose 1996). The nesting success of breeding pairs in Svalbard is greatly reduced as a result of Arctic fox <I>Vulpes</I> <I>lagopus</I> predation (Madsen <I>et al</I>. 1992), and the species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
100600387		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in key states (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is listed in the (national and regional) Red Book of Russia and Red Books of Kazakhstan and Bulgaria. Parts of its breeding range and principal <a style="mso-comment-reference: NP_1;mso-comment-date:20120503T1542">wintering roost sites are protected (some qualifying as Ramsar sites), including the implementation of hunting regulations and hunting-free areas</a><span class="MsoCommentReference"> in Russia and Kazakhstan, although hunting occurs in many feeding areas. A management plan is being implemented for roosting lakes in Bulgaria<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(S. Dereliev <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Wintering sites in Bulgaria and Romania are monitored and research and public awareness projects are ongoing (S. Dereliev <em>in litt.</em> 1999; D. Hulea <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Hunter <em>et al.</em> 1999). An International action plan was published in 2010 (Cranswick <em>et al.</em> 2010). An International Species Working Group is active and a coordinator is in place. In 2010 an EU Life project began in Bulgaria, which aims to address many of the key threats operating on the wintering grounds. A study of geese distribution, movements and feeding preferences will enable a sensitivity map is to be developed and goose-sensitive guidance provided to authorities to help guide development proposals. A payment for the species has been included in the National agri-environmental programme of Romania. In Bulgaria, an agri-environmental payment for farmers for seeding winter wheat in key wintering areas for geese was introduced in 2012. Spring-hunting of wildfowl was prohibited in southwest Russia in spring 2012.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Study migration patterns and determine species's non-breeding range using satellite telemetry. Expand monitoring and research programmes, especially in Ukraine and Romania to determine whether more birds are overwintering there. Implement a Strategy for Hunting and Waterbird Resource Management (Rozenfeld 2011b). Regulate hunting in key sites (particularly spring hunting in Russia and Kazakhstan). Monitor and reduce disturbance and illegal hunting. Monitor breeding population in Russia to determine population trends.  Identify and protect key staging areas.  Prevent loss of roosting lakes to urbanization. Monitor changes in agriculture and propose measures (in EU agri-environmental measures ) to ensure suitable foraging habitat is available. Promote beneficial agricultural policies and spatial crop rotation planning around roosting areas. Continue public awareness initiatives. Lobby for full designation of qualifying wetlands and feeding areas as Natura 2000 sites, ensure hunting is not allowed within them and ensure they are properly managed.<br/><p></p>
100600387		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Branta ruficollis</span> breeds on the Taimyr (70% of the population), Gydan  and Yamal peninsulas, Russia (Hunter and Black 1996). In winter, prior  to the 1950s, much of the population occurred along the western coast of  the Caspian Sea, mainly in Azerbaijan, and in Iran and Iraq. The  wintering area then rapidly shifted to the western Black Sea coast, and  80-90% of birds now congregate in January/ February at 5-10 roost sites  on the Black Sea coast, particularly at Shabla Lakes and Durankulak  Lake, Bulgaria, Razelm-Sinoe lagoons, Romania, and in the coastal area  between the rivers Danube and Dniester in Ukraine (Cranswick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2010; Rusev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; A. Mikityuk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999). Small numbers also  winter in Azerbaijan. The precise distribution in winter varies  according to the severity of the weather from the Crimean peninsula to  the Dobrudzha region of Bulgaria. In cold weather, small numbers are  occasionally on the Aegean shore of Greece and Turkey (Cranswick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.  </span>2010); during prolonged mild periods, significant numbers may remain in  Kalmykya, Stavropol and Rostov districts in Russia (S. Rozenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in  litt. </span>2012). Migration is believed to follow a relatively narrow route  south down the Ob to Kazakhstan (though a small number of ringing  recoveries point to some birds passing to the west of the Urals) and  then east to the Black Sea. There are four known main staging areas: the  Lower Ob, Middle Ob and Kumo-Manych depression in Russia, and the  Northern and Kostanay regions of Kazakhstan. They are also regularly  recorded in small numbers on passage in Hungary (e.g. Pigniczki 2008).  There may be other, currently unknown, staging sites and knowledge of  the migration route, particularly in Siberia, should therefore be  considered incomplete. It is also possible that some wintering grounds  remain undetected (<a style="mso-comment-reference:NP_1;mso-comment-date: 20120503T1542">perhaps in eastern Ukraine and southwest Russia</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="http://birds.iucnsis.org/apps/org.iucn.sis.server/SIS/index.html#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>), and use of these areas during mild weather may account for the variation in winter survey totals in recent years. Maximum population counts from wintering or staging areas were 60,000 between 1967-1970, 25,907 between 1976-1990, 75,879 between 1991-1995, 88,000 in 1996  (Aarvak <em>et al.</em> 1996), 60,444 between 1998-2001 (with a maximum of 88,425 in winter 2000) (D. Hulea <em>in litt</em>. 2003) and 56,860 in 2010 (Rozenfeld 2011a)<strong></strong>. It is unclear whether these represent genuine population fluctuations or are due to incomplete surveying of the species following suspected alteration its winter  distribution (as has been seen in the late 1960s following deterioration  of wintering conditions in Azerbaijan) with larger numbers of birds now  short-stopping and over-wintering in Ukraine (Cranswick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010; Rusev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and in areas in Romania (N. Petkov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>),  where monitoring is more difficult and less comprehensive. Coordinated censuses in January 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006 resulted in totals of 33,600, 52,800, 32,100 and c.34,000 respectively, with a mean population estimate of 37,300 (S. Dereliev <em>in litt.</em> to Wetlands International 2005)<strong></strong>. Total counts recorded 40,800 individuals in spring 2008 and 44,300 in 200<span style="">9 (Cranswick<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010).<em> <p></p></em>
100600387		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is highly migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. Following the post-breeding moult it migrates southwards overland in mid- to late-September (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, arriving on its wintering grounds in October-November. Here it is highly gregarious and occurs in flocks, regularly in association with the White-fronted Goose <em>Anser albifrons</em> (Madge and Burn 1988) Lesser White-fronted Goose     <em>A. erythropus </em>and Greylag Goose<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. anser</span>. The return journey is made between March and May (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, often together with <em>A. albifrons</em> (Kear 2005). It flies in dense flocks rather than in the defined V-formation typical of other goose species (Kear 2005), and arrives on its breeding grounds in small flocks of 3-15 individuals (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. It begins to breed in June in loose colonies, usually of around five to fifteen pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Madge and Burn 1988, S. Rozenfeld<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, although up to 37 have been observed (Kear 2005). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> It breeds in tundra or scrubby 'wooded' tundra (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>, in close proximity to rivers and gulleys (Madge and Burn 1988). It favours high and dry areas on steep river banks and precipices, low hills, rock outcrops and rocky islands (Kear 2005). Less commonly it inhabits low islands in lowland areas (Kear 2005). Vegetative cover in its preferred habitats is usually thin and includes dwarf birch <em>Betula</em>, willow <em>salix</em>, and dead grass (Kear 2005). <em>Non-breeding</em><strong> </strong>During the non-breeding season it inhabits open steppe and open rolling lowland hills, feeding among steppe, coastal lines, pasture, stubble and crop fields (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Throughout the day it flies to coastal and freshwater lakes to drink (Kear 2005). Occasionally it also roosts at these lakes, using the middle of the water or remote shallow areas and muddy and sandy beaches with low aquatic vegetation (Kear 2005). It will also roost on frozen lakes or on the sea (Kear 2005). The distribution of geese from year to year depends a lot on differences in lake water levels.<strong> Diet </strong><em>Breeding </em>On its breeding grounds it feeds primarily on Fabaceae and to a lesser extent grass leaves and the shoots of cotton-grasses <em>Eriophorum angustifolium</em> and <em>E. scheuchzeri</em> (Rosenfeld and Volkov 2001), as well as some <em>Carex and Equisetum</em> spp. (Kear 2005).<em> Non-breeding </em>Wintering geese feed on winter wheat, barley, maize, pasture and steppe grasses and, in Greece, natural grassland (Kear 2005). In Kazakhstan on passage they feed mainly on spilled grain on the fields after harvesting the wheat crops in autumn. They also feed on arid-adapted herbs such as <em>Salicornia</em> (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. At migration staging areas the diet is thought to consist largely of grass shoots, supplemented with tubers and rhizomes (Kear 2005), whilst at the Kumo-Manych stopover site, the diet consists of the salt marsh’s<span style=""> galophyte complex of </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Puccinellia distans</span><span style=""> and </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Aeroplus littoralis</span><span style=""> (Rozenfeld 2011b).</span><strong><span style=""> </span>Breeding site </strong>The species nests in hollows and fissures in the ground, usually 50-80mm deep and 200mm in diameter (Kear 2005). Nests are lined with dark-grey down and grass (Kear 2005). They are often constructed near to the eyries of birds of prey (Kear 2005), since breeding success may depend on nesting Peregrine Falcon <em>Falco peregrinus</em>, Snowy Owl <em>Bubo scandiaca</em> and Rough-legged Buzzard <span style="font-style: italic;">Buteo lagopus</span> providing protection from predators (Quinn <em>et al.</em> 1996, Prop and Quinn 2003, Quinn <em>et al. </em>2003, S. Rozenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Successful breeding seasons are also associated with good lemming years, and it has been suggested that this may be because predators are sated by the lemming population and so predation of geese is much lower.<strong> </strong>  <p></p>
100600387		population	eng	Coordinated censuses in January 2003, 2004 and 2005 resulted in total population estimates of 33,600, 52,800 and 32,100 individuals respectively. The geometric mean of these totals 38,500. Recalculating this including the 2006 count of c.34,000 gives a revised geometric mean of 37,000 individuals, which is retained here as a minimum estimate. However, total counts of 40,800 in spring 2008 (primarily as a result of a large count in Kalmykia), 44,300 the following winter (Cranswick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and a maximum population count of 56,860 in autumn 2010 (Rozenfeld 2011a) lend further weight to the suggestion that counts in the mid 2000s might be partially incomplete because birds wintered away from the traditionally surveyed sites.
100600387		threats	eng	Deliberate hunting of birds occurs in Russia and Kazakhstan (Rozenfeld 2009, 2011b). Following land privatization, and especially the residential and tourist development boom in winter roosting and feeding areas, the quality of roosting areas has decreased. In addition, the low profitability of agriculture has reduced the area under winter wheat cultivation which, together with conversion to other crops, has decreased the availability of food. <a style="mso-comment-reference:NP_1; mso-comment-date:20120503T1542">Some key feeding sites have </a>been lost in Bulgaria<strong> </strong>(S. Dereliev <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Hunting pressure on waterfowl as a whole is substantial in Bulgaria and Romania, including illegal shooting at <a style="mso-comment-reference:NP_2; mso-comment-date:20120503T1542">Red-breasted Goose (Simeonov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007).</a> <span class="MsoCommentReference">There are no effective hunting-free areas around roost sites in Bulgaria (hunting is only prohibited for 100m around the lake edge, and this rule is regularly ignored). However, conservation activities in the area of Shabla and Durankulak lakes  have reduced deliberate shooting of the species in 2010-2012 (N. Petkov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Disturbance in the lakes used for roosts is also caused by poachers and fishermen (Dereliev 1997, D. Hulea <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Dereliev and Georgiev, 2002). Disturbance/chasing of feeding birds by hunters (because they associate with White-fronted Geese Anser erythropus, a legal quarry species) is a significant limitation on foraging behaviour and prenuptial accumulation of fat reserves, which has a negative effect on survival during spring migration and breeding (N. Petkov <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Hunting by tourists in Ukraine poses an increasing threat (WWT TWSG News 10 1997) and birds are shot at staging grounds in Russia. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 67% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070 ( Zöckler and Lysenko 2000). The increase in oil and gas operations in the region has seen a significant expansion into previously remote areas and has resulted in disturbance of breeding birds as well as direct habitat loss to a small degree. Further expansion of operations in the region is anticipated (Cranswick <em>et al. </em>2010). Other threats include industrial developments at breeding sites in Gydan and Yamal, the use of rodenticides in the wintering grounds, as well as displacement by windfarms in the wintering areas. A major recent threat is the expansion in windfarms in the wintering areas since 2008. Many thousands of wind turbines have been proposed in Dobrudhza area both in Bulgaria and Romania, including large complexes adjacent to IBAs and SPAs. Data analysis from wintering grounds in Bulgaria suggest that there is already impact of the constructed windfarms leading to displacement and shifting of the foraging areas (<a style="font-weight: bold;">Petkov <em>et al.</em>, 2012</a>).<br/><p></p>
100600388		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 16,000-18,000 individuals, roughly equating to 11,000-12,000 mature individuals.
100600389		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Important breeding areas in the Bale Mountains National Park and Guassa Community Conservation Area are protected.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the species at selected sites across its range to determine trends. Study movements using radio telemetry to discover additional important sites. Protect important breeding and non-breeding sites, in both strictly protected areas and in multiple use community led conservation units. Monitor, raise awareness of, and encourage the authorities to control hunting, perhaps through dialogue with the Chinese Embassy (Y. Abebe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
100600389		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanochen cyanoptera</em> is endemic to the highlands of <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, and although it remains locally common and widespread, with the total population probably lying in the range 5,000-15,000 individuals (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982; Callaghan and Green 1993; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it is thought to be declining as suitable breeding habitats are lost (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
100600389		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mostly sedentary but demonstrates some small-scale seasonal altitudinal movements (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992; Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It breeds during the dry season months of March - June (Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, during which time it occurs in dispersed single pairs or small groups (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Little is known about breeding behaviour due to the species's nocturnal habits (Soothill and Whitehead 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It moves to lower altitudes during the wet, non-breeding season (Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, where it sometimes congregates in relatively large, loose flocks of 50-100 individuals (Dodman <em>et al</em>. 1999; Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Important concentrations occur at Areket (Dodman <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> and on the Sululta plain area during the rains and post-rains period (Callaghan and Green 1993; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>The species often breeds in open Afro-alpine moorland (Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding<strong> </strong></em>The species occurs on the banks of highland rivers and lakes with adjacent meadows of short grass (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992; Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also inhabits the edges of highland lakes, marshes, bog pools, swamps and streams with abundant grassland surroundings. It is rarely found in overgrown areas and does not venture into deep water (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992; Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. In the central parts of its range it occurs most commonly at altitudes of 2000-3000m in areas with waterlogged black cotton-soils (vertisols) (Kear 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the northern and southern extremities of its range it occurs at higher altitude where the substrate is granitic and the grasses coarser and longer (Kear 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is primarily herbivorous, grazing on grasses, sedges and other herbaceous vegetation (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982; Scott and Rose 1996; Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However it is also reported to take worms, insects, insect larvae, freshwater molluscs and even small reptiles (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992; Kear 2005; Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site </strong>The nest is built on the ground concealed amongst vegetation (Soothill and Whitehead 1978)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600389		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,000-15,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-10,000 mature individuals.
100600389		threats	eng	It was not formerly thought to be threatened by hunting as, for religious reasons, it is not traditionally eaten&#160; (Callaghan and Green 1993)<strong></strong>. However, recent reports and observations show that local people now trap this and other wildfowl for sale to the country's growing Chinese population. At some sites such as Gefersa Reservoir (30km west of Addis Ababa) which used to hold large populations, the species is now scarce (Y. Abebe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It is now also almost certainly under pressure because of the rapidly expanding human population and resulting drainage and degradation of wetlands and grasslands, and increased levels of disturbance (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. Agricultural intensification (privatisation) and droughts are also possible threats (T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <p></p>
100600394		distribution	eng	This species breeds on northern Tierra del Fuego Island (Chile and Argentina) and southern Santa Cruz, wintering in southern Buenos Aires, Argentina; there is also a virtually sedentary population on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100600394		habitat	eng	The species is found in open country, frequenting coastal grassland and meadows, often with Upland Goose C. picta and Ashy-headed Goose C. poliocephala (Argentina only). It feeds on roots, leaves, stems and seed-heads of grasses and sedges in natural grasslands, pastures and agricultural lands (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It nests from late September to early November in the Falklands, with nests recorded until January on Tierra del Fuego (Woods and Woods 1997, Chebez 1994).
100600394		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be 43,000-82,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). The population on mainland South America has decreased considerably, with simultaneous censuses in southern Chile and Argentina recording 312 individuals in 1998 (Y. A. Vilina in litt. 1998). Although abundant on Tierra del Fuego in the 1950s, a census in the 1973 breeding season yielded only 30 birds (del Hoyo et al. 1992). However, it is fairly common in the Falklands with 14,000-27,000 pairs estimated in surveys between 1983 and 1992 (Woods and Woods 1997).
100600394		threats	eng	The Argentinean federal government declared C. rubidiceps a pest in the 1960s, claiming it fed on wheat and corn crops, and competed with sheep and cattle stocks for grassland resources in Buenos Aires (Chebez 1994). Although there is no evidence to support the latter and its numbers are too few to seriously effect the former, this promoted the active destruction of the species and persecution at its wintering grounds is certainly a factor contributing to its decline. However, this is not true on the Falklands, where 100,000 were killed in the period 1905-1912 and fair numbers are still killed each year, but the mobility of the species apparently renders efforts to reduce its numbers ineffective (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It was also removed from the list of pest species (Schedule I of the 1964 Wild Animals and Bird Protection Ordinance) on the Falklands in 1985 (Woods and Woods 1997). The introduction of Patagonian Grey Fox Dusicyon griseus as a control for the European Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus on Tierra del Fuego is perhaps also a contributory factor in the species's decline (Chebez 1994). It is possible that the smaller sized C. rubidiceps is at some disadvantage in interspecific encounters with the larger and perhaps more aggressive C. picta leading to the displacement of  C. rubidiceps from foraging and nesting sites.
100600395		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of private and public protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends through regular, coordinated surveys. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Conduct awareness campaigns to discourage hunting and regulate the number of birds taken. Protect significant areas of suitable forest and wetland habitat in a network of public and private reserves.  <p></p>
100600395		distribution	eng	<em>Neochen jubata</em> remains relatively widespread in South America east of the Andes, from east <strong>Colombia </strong>and <strong>Venezuela</strong> (where taken together there are probably 5,000-10,000 individuals [T. McNish <em>in litt. </em>2007]<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (previously thought to just be a vagrant (Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but a small population of 20-30 now known from the Rio Pastaza area), <strong>Guyana</strong>, <strong>Suriname </strong>(no recent records and may never have been more than a vagrant [K. Kreise <em>in litt. </em>2004]<strong></strong>), south through Amazonian <strong>Brazil </strong>(where there are thought to be 2,000-4,000 individuals in the Cantão and Bananal Island region alone [R. Pinheiro <em>in litt. </em>2007]<strong></strong>), extreme east <strong>Peru</strong> (relatively common [Clements in prep.]<strong></strong>), <strong>Bolivia</strong> (perhaps a few thousand pairs [J. Tobias <em>in litt. </em>2007]<strong></strong>) and west <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Paraguay</strong> (two records, in 1990 and 1992 [Hayes 1995]<strong></strong>) to extreme north-west Argentina (either very scarce there now or just a vagrant) (Carboneras 1992a)<strong></strong>,. Clear declines have been noted in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Argentina (Callaghan in prep.)<strong></strong>, and although the population was once estimated at c.25,000-100,000 individuals (P. Canevari <em>in litt.</em> 1993)<strong></strong> it is now more likely to be 10,000-25,000 (K. Kreise <em>in litt. </em>2004<strong></strong>). Its strongholds appear to be the extensive, sparsely inhabited area of lakes, marshland and seasonally flooded savannas in north Beni, Bolivia, where flocks of up to 250 were observed in the early 1980s (Scott and Carbonell 1986, Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>), the Isla Bananal, Brazil (C. Yamashita verbally 2000)<strong></strong> and the Colombian and Venezuelan llanos. It is becoming increasing localised over much of its range and is now scarce, except in remote or protected areas (Carboneras 1992a)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600395		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest-covered banks of tropical rivers and damp clearings, wet savannas and muddy and sandy margins of large freshwater wetlands, from lowlands to 500 m (Carboneras 1992a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occasionally to 2,600 m (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600395		population	eng	The global population has been estimated to number 10,000-25,000 mature individuals based on the result of discussions on BirdLife's Globally Threatened Birds Forum.
100600395		threats	eng	The current decline is attributed to heavy and continuing hunting pressure (Carboneras 1992a); although availability of foraging habitat may limit numbers locally, the abundance of the species on certain private reserves where it is well protected indicate that hunting is the primary reason for its decline. In Venezuela, conversion of former private reserves for rice production may threaten previously well-protected populations of the species (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). <br/><p></p>
100600396		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is largely sedentary over much of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), although it may make seasonal nomadic or dispersive movements related to water availability (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a). It also undertakes annual post-breeding moult migrations to favoured waters (Kear 2005a). The timing of the breeding season in this solitary nester varies geographically, with pairs in some regions nesting in the spring or at the end of the dry season (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), whereas nesting in other areas, such as southern Africa, peaks in the middle of winter and does not necessarily correspond with local rainfall patterns (G. Cumming <I>in litt</I>. 2011). Outside of the breeding season the species may occur in flocks consisting of hundreds or thousands of individuals (e.g. during moult), although it is most common in pairs or small groups (Kear 2005a). It forages diurnally (Kear 2005a), mostly in the morning and evening (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits a wide range of freshwater wetlands in open country from sea level up to 4,000 m (Ethiopia) (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), including reservoirs, dams, pans, lakes, large ponds, rivers, marshes, sewage works, estuaries and offshore islands (Kear 2005a) (although it is generally absent from coastal regions) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It shows a preference for water-bodies with open shorelines and rich plant growth in close proximity to meadows, grassland and arable land for grazing (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), generally avoiding densely forested areas (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists predominantly of vegetable matter such as the seeds, leaves and stems of grasses and other terrestrial plants, crop shoots (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a) (e.g. maize, wheat, oats, lucerne, groundnuts and barley) (Kear 2005a), potato tubers (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), algae and aquatic weeds (Kear 2005a), as well as some animal matter (worms, locusts (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and termite alates (Kear 2005a)). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow depression (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) in plant matter (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) usually placed not far from water (Madge and Burn 1988). Nest sites are highly variable (Madge and Burn 1988) but include dense vegetation on the ground (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a), reedy vegetation near water, the ground under bushes or trees (Kear 2005a), burrows in embankments (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), holes and cavities in trees (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), cliff ledges and rural buildings, caves (Kear 2005a), and the abandoned nests of other large bird species (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a) up to 60 m above the ground (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982).
100600396		threats	eng	The species is persecuted by shooting and poisoning in parts of its range (it is regarded as an agricultural pest) (Kear 2005a). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is also hunted for sport (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) although not in large numbers (Kear 2005a).
100600397		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Asian populations are largely migratory, moving south on a broad front to winter at lower latitudes and altitudes in India and south-east Asia (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other populations are chiefly sedentary or dispersive, undertaking local movements linked to the availability of suitable water (moving away from drought-affected areas or to temporary wetlands) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is usually found dispersed in pairs during the breeding season, although it may form small nesting groups when desirable nesting sites are close together (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may congregate into larger flocks (e.g. 4,000 birds at a site in Nepal, &gt; 10,000 at a site in Turkey) during the autumn and winter, but is more characteristically found in scattered small flocks along rivers (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding that leaves them flightless for around four weeks mid-July to September (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Kear, 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, throughout which they require large open areas of water on or near their breeding grounds (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is mainly nocturnal (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>This species frequents the shores of inland freshwater, saline and brackish lakes and rivers in open country, particularly those in open steppe, upland plateau and mountainous regions (reaching up to 5,000 m in Himalayas) (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Johnsgard, 1978, Brown <em>et al. </em>1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Quan <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it is less dependent upon large water bodies for resting and feeding than most other Anatidae, and often occurs a considerable distance from water during the breeding season (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In the non-breeding season this species prefers streams, slow-flowing rivers, freshwater pools, flooded grasslands, marshes and brackish or saline lakes in lowland regions, and is also found on artificial reservoirs (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Johnsgard, 1978, Brown <em>et al. </em>1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Quan <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong> </strong>in the vicinity of agricultural lands (Uzbekistan) (Kreuzberg-Mukhina 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It avoids coastal waters and tall, dense vegetation or emergent and floating aquatic plants (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, it's diet consisting of tender green shoots and the seeds of terrestrial vegetation, agricultural grains such as millet and wheat, littoral crustaceans such as shrimps, aquatic and terrestrial insects (especially Locusts), aquatic molluscs, small fish, frogs, amphibian spawn and worms (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Johnsgard, 1978, Brown <em>et al. </em>1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Quan <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong>Breeding site</strong> Nests are shallow depressions, frequently located far from the water in burrows or holes in sand or clay banks (these can either be natural or excavated by another animal) (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other nest sites include abandoned buildings and farm sheds, hollow trees up to 10 m high, crevices in rocks and cliffs and occasionally nest-boxes (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The population in the "Ascania Nova" nature reserve, southern Ukraine, has been restored successfully as a result of artificial nest creation, regular feeding, breaking the ice on ponds to provide constant access to water, and raising broods using conspecific, <em>Cairina moschata</em> and <em>Anas platyrhynchos</em> foster parents (Zubko <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
100600397		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.170,000-220,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea (Brazil 2009).
100600397		threats	eng	Hunting is a threat, especially in south-east Europe (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, <strong></strong>Kear 2005a, Popovkina 2006) <strong><sup></sup></strong>(e.g. in Turkey) (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the species is largely protected in central and eastern Asia by its sacred status (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other threats to western populations include the loss and degradation of inland wetlands through subterranean water extraction for irrigation (Popovkina 2006) (leading to decreasing water supplies for seasonal and semi-permanent wetlands)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, widespread drainage of shallow marshes and lakes (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, salt extraction (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Green <em>et al.</em> 2002, Popovkina 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, urban development, pollution, introduction of exotic fish and overgrazing (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Green <em>et al.</em> 2002, Popovkina 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the Klingnau Dam in northern Switzerland the species has been known to hybridise with the South African Shelduck <em>Tadorna cana</em> from escaped captive populations, which could pose a threat to the integrity of both species (Owen <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1) and is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600398		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partially migratory over much of its range with substantial numbers of individuals undertaking seasonal movements related to the availability of water and moulting (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Between November and December adult birds migrate short distances to congregate in flocks of around 400 (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to as many as 5,000 (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on large deep water lakes to undergo a flightless moulting period (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species then disperses in single pairs to breed between May and September (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, although large flocks of non-breeding pairs and single females may also occur at this time (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside breeding and moulting seasons the species gathers in smaller flocks of several hundred birds (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is both a diurnal and nocturnal feeder (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species inhabits small, permanent, shallow freshwater and brackish lakes, pools in river courses, rivers and exposed inland mud flats, in both upland and lowland areas of open country (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the non-breeding season the species prefers deep freshwater lakes, artificial reservoirs, salt pans, sewage works (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and shallow brackish pans (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also be found away from water in natural grassland, Karoo veld, fynbos, ploughed land, stubble and fields of crops (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species requires large, deep freshwater lakes, reservoirs (Scott and Rose 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong> </strong>and dense swamps (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on which to undergo a post-breeding wing-moult (Johnsgard 1978, Geldenhuys 1981, Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season in South Africa its diet consists entirely of vegetable matter, such as maize seeds (Geldenhuys 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and other ripe kernels and seedlings of grain crops (such as wheat, oats, barley and sorghum), potatoes, peanuts, sunflower seeds, rice and over-ripe figs (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also takes the seeds, leaves and roots of grasses, reeds (e.g. <em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em>) and pondweed, as well as filamentous algae. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species is omnivorous (Geldenhuys 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, feeding on both animals (mainly crustaceans, brachiopods and insect larvae and pupae) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005, Kear 2005a)<strong></strong> and plants (submerged macrophytes) (Geldenhuys 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the moulting period the diet of this species is predominantly made up of wheat seeds (Geldenhuys 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> It often nests on the slope of a hill at the end of old mammal burrows (typically those of Aardvark or Porcupine) (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or in other cavities that may be up to 2km from water (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>  </strong> <p></p>
100600398		threats	eng	Human recreation (e.g. watersports) poses a threat to this species through disturbance (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In South Africa, the Aardvark is considered threatened so the species's reliance on this mammal for nest sites is a concern (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may also come under threat through range shifts or contractions as a result of climate change (van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and West African populations have already come under threat by the desiccation of the Sahel zone (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the Klingnau Dam in northen Switzerland the species has been known to hybridise with Ruddy Shelduck <em>Tadorna ferruginea</em> from escaped captive populations, which could pose a threat to the integrity of both species (Owen <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted mainly for sport (Little <em>et al.</em> 1995, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there is no evidence that this currently poses a threat.<strong> <p></p></strong>
100600401		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. In 1983, three million leaflets on this species were distributed in Russia, Japan, China, South Korea and North Korea. However, there was little response, with the only result the single unconfirmed record from North Korea. A new investigation was made in China from 1986-1990, through a publicity campaign and the distribution of 15,000 leaflets in 25 provinces and autonomous regions. This generated 82 responses, but no confirmed records.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to search for the species within its potential range through publicity campaigns and the distribution of illustrated leaflets. Conduct surveys at historical localities and in those areas where there have been unconfirmed sightings. <p></p>
100600401		distribution	eng	<em>Tadorna cristata</em> is known from a small number of records from Primorye, <strong>Russia</strong>, Hokkaido, Japan (single 19th century record) and <strong>South Korea</strong>. The most recent was a sighting of a male and two females in May 1964, on islands south of Vladivostok, Russia. A sighting of two males and four females was claimed in North Korea in March 1971, but serious reservations have recently been expressed about the reliability of this record. There have also been several unconfirmed records from north-east China, in Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning and Hebei. Given the paucity of recent records, it is likely that it has a very small population. <p></p>
100600401		habitat	eng	It has mainly been recorded in pairs or small flocks in coastal localities, often near river mouths. However, several of the unconfirmed reports in north-east China are from inland localities. It has been speculated that it may breed in mountainous areas, possibly away from water or on volcanic lakes, moving to the coast outside the breeding season.<p></p>
100600401		population	eng	The population is likely to number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
100600401		threats	eng	If it still survives, its numbers are likely to be so low that it would be susceptible to chance or accidental extinction. Several of the historical localities are close to the area affected by the implementation of the large-scale Tumangan Development Project. <p></p>
100600402		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are migratory (although European populations are largely sedentary) and undertake extensive moult migrations to favoured moulting sites after breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (Asiatic breeding populations may also moult near their breeding grounds) (Kear 2005a). The species breeds in single pairs or small groups (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), non-breeders usually remaining in flocks throughout the year (Kear 2005a). After breeding (between July and October) the species moults and becomes flightless for 25-31 days (Kear 2005a), during which it is highly gregarious (Madge and Burn 1988) and may aggregate into large flocks of up to 100,000 individuals or more (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005a). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for saline habitats and frequents mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and muddy or sandy (Madge and Burn 1988) estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in coastal regions, and occurs inland on saline and brackish lakes in steppe or semi-desert (Madge and Burn 1988). Asiatic populations also occupy freshwater rivers or marshes (Kear 2005a) and other populations utilise freshwater habitats on migration (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of salt-water molluscs (e.g. <I>Hydrobia</I> spp.) as well as other aquatic invertebrates (e.g. insects, crustaceans and worms), small fish, fish spawn and plant material (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. algae, seeds and agricultural grain) (Kear 2005a). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is commonly positioned in a tree-hollow (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) up to 8 m above the ground (Kear 2005a) or in a mammal burrow (e.g. of European rabbit <I>Oryctolagus cuniculus</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005a). Rarely nests may also be placed in the open or in dense vegetation up to 1 km from water (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a). The species will also nest in artificial nest-boxes (Kear 2005a).  <B>Management information</B> Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2004). In the outer archipelago of south-west Finland experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2002).<B> </B>
100600402		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.580,000-710,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea (Brazil 2009).
100600402		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of tidal barrage schemes in Europe (Kear 2005a, Burton 2006). It also suffers predation from American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> on islands (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2002) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006), and its eggs used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).
100600404		distribution	eng	This species can be found on the Pacific coast of South America from south-central <strong>Chile</strong> to Tierra del Fuego<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1992). <p></p>
100600404		habitat	eng	The Flightless Steamerduck frequents rocky coastlines and can be found several miles offshore. It dives in shallow waters among kelp beds, with a diet of aquatic molluscs, crutaceans and sometimes fish. Foraging occurs mostly during the high tide. Breeding starts in September or October on the shoreline in sheltered bays or channels with nests well hidden amonst vegetation (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1992). <p></p>
100600405		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Interjurisdictional Marine Park in San Jorge Gulf contains about 46% of the entire population (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a full and detailed census of the global population and follow up with monitoring to detect any potential declines. Restrict access to parts of its range from tankers and other large ships which might cause significant pollution events.  <p></p>
100600405		distribution	eng	<em>Tachyeres leucocephalus</em> was previously considered to be restricted to the south coast of Chubut province, <strong>Argentina</strong><sup> </sup>(Madge and Burn 1988, Carboneras 1992a). It is now known to have a larger range, with occasional sightings along the coastline from the Valdés Peninsula to the Beagle Channel in Tierra del Fuego<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Imberti 2003, M. Pearman <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, but its distribution is restricted to approximately 700 km of coastline (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The population has been estimated to not exceed 5,000 birds<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(S. Imberti <em>in litt. </em>2003), and surveys along the coast of Chubut province from 2006-2008 gave a total estimate of 3,400-3,700 mature individuals <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>(G. Borboroglu <em>in litt.</em> 2008, Agüero <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), with key populations at Bahía San Gregorio, Bahía Melo and Caleta Malaspina, all located at northern San Jorge Gulf. It appears to occur at very low densities throughout its range, and is inferred to be declining (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<em></em>.<em> <p></p></em>
100600405		habitat	eng	It is entirely coastal in rocky areas and sheltered bays, breeding on offshore islands in shallow, protected bays (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). <p></p>
100600405		population	eng	In 2003, S. Imberti (<em>in litt.</em> 2003) estimated that perhaps fewer than 5,000 remain. More recently, the total size of the breeding population has been calculated to be between 3,428 and 3,673 adults (Agüero<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011), and 1,899 juveniles  were also counted, giving a total population of c.5,300-5,600 individuals, and 3,400-3,700 mature individuals.
100600405		threats	eng	Its restricted range, flightlessness and the potential for oil pollution from passing tankers put this species at some risk (Carboneras 1992a, Callaghan and Green 1993, Agüero<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010, 2011). Perhaps the most significant threat is posed by oil exploration activities, which are taking place within 100 km of the species's centre of abundance; sea currents would likely take oil spills from the main area of development towards the species’s  range , Three major oil spills in the last 30 years that have affected  steamerduck breeding areas are reported to have caused massive  mortalities, and the sediment and rocks within the range of <em>T. leucocephalus</em>  are still contaminated with oil derivatives. The  species may also be affected by the harvesting of guano and macroalgae (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, 2011), as well as other human activities such as recreation and small-scale  coastal fishing. Egg collecting has also been reported but appears to occur at very low intensity at a few sites (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, 2011). A further potential threat comes from three introduced species: the green crab <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcinus maenus</span>, Asian kelp <span style="font-style: italic;">Undaria pinnatifida</span>, and the acorn barnacle <span style="font-style: italic;">Balanus glandula</span>, all of which may cause dramatic changes to ecosystems upon which steamerducks rely (Agüero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, 2011), and it may also suffer predation during the breeding season from  native species such as Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em>, whose  population in Patagonia is increasing.<br/><p></p>
100600406		distribution	eng	The Falkland Steamerduck is found exclusively on the <strong>Falkland Islands</strong> (<strong>Islas Malvinas</strong>) in the south-west Atlantic<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992). <p></p>
100600406		habitat	eng	This species frequents rugged shorelines, being most common on small islands and in sheltered bays. The bulk of its diet is a variety of salt-water molluscs and crustaceans, which it obtains my foraging in shallow water or diving in near shore. Its breeding season is variable, but most breeding occurs between September and December, concealing nests among vegetation or in unoccupied penguin burrows (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992).  <p></p>
100600407		distribution	eng	This species is found in south <strong>Chile</strong>, extreme southern <strong>Argentina</strong>, Tierra del Fuego and the <strong>Falkland Islands</strong> (<strong>Islas Malvinas</strong>). <p></p>
100600407		habitat	eng	This species occurs both inland on freshwater lakes, pools and rivers, and, during the non-breeding season, along rocky coastlines. It primarily consumes aquatic invertebrates captured both in salt and fresh water by diving. Its breeding season starting in October or November, creating well concealed nests among vegetation on small islets. It is largely sedentary, with only small-scale movements along the coast after the breeding season (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600407		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to number 11,000-26,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), roughly equivalent to 7,300-18,000 mature individuals. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands population is estimated at 600-1,200 birds, although the population trend appears to be unknown (Woods and Woods 1997). Reports from Argentina suggest that the species is still numerous, particularly in Patagonia (M. Pearman in litt. 2003).
100600407		threats	eng	The species is hunted for food in the Chilean fjords (S. Imberti <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2003).
100600408		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is partially migratory, making seasonal movements (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) of several hundred kilometres (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982) related to the availability of water (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It breeds during or near the end of the wet season in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) although it may also feed in small groups during this period (Kear 2005a). The species congregates after breeding (at the beginning of the dry season) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.50 days (Kear 2005a) (6-7 weeks) (Johnsgard 1978), the males moulting before the females (Kear 2005a). It is commonly found in small groups of up to 50 individuals (Madge and Burn 1988) and occasionally aggregates into larger flocks (e.g. when moulting) (Kear 2005a). In the winter it rests by day and feeds in the early morning, evening or at night (Kear 2005a), sometimes perching in trees to roost (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits seasonal and permanent wetlands (Kear 2005a) near grasslands or arable land (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), including lakes, rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), inland river deltas (Madge and Burn 1988), marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), swamps, flooded grasslands, pastures (Kear 2005a), reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), farm impoundments (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and sewage works (Johnsgard 1978), particularly those with emergent and fringing vegetation (Kear 2005a) and surrounded by scattered trees (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). When moulting it frequents areas with open shorelines, islands and sandbars (Kear 2005a), generally avoiding saline lakes and upland areas (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consist predominantly of plant matter such as the vegetative parts and seeds of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), agricultural grain (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), fruit (e.g. figs) (Kear 2005a) and tuberous crops (Johnsgard 1978) (e.g. sweet potatoes) (Kear 2005a), although it may occasionally take small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) or insects (Kear 2005a). <B>Breeding site</B> The species shows a preference for nesting in hollow trees, tree-cavities or in the abandoned nests of other tree-nesting bird species (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. Hamerkop <I>Scopus umbretta</I> (Madge and Burn 1988), African Fish-eagle <I>Haliaeetus vocifer</I> or Social Weaver <I>Philetairus scoius</I> (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982)), often between 20 and 100 cm high in trees 3-4 m tall (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Where tree-nesting sites are unavailable (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982), it will also nest on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) in long grass or reeds near water (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982), in rock cavities, holes in termite mounds (Madge and Burn 1988), or even in aardvark <I>Orycteropus afer</I> burrows (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982).
100600408		threats	eng	The species is threatened by uncontrolled hunting (declines in Botswana have been attributed to hunting outside of protected areas) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Utilisation </B>The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
100600409		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600410		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust produced, and implements, an action plan for the species. In 1993, 21 protected areas were known to support populations. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Dihing-Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Assam, were established because of its importance for this species. Conservation awareness materials depicting it have been widely distributed in Laos and Cambodia.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its distribution and status. Instigate regular monitoring of selected key populations. Promote strict enforcement of hunting regulations and minimise encroachment, disturbance and habitat degradation in all protected areas supporting populations. Campaign for increased protection of peat-swamp forest in Sumatra. Campaign against pesticide and oil pollution at key sites in north-east India. Promote widespread conservation awareness campaigns in and around key protected areas. Rapidly introduce the measures outlined above in newly discovered strongholds, e.g. northern Myanmar. <p></p>
100600410		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Cairina scutulata</span> was historically widely distributed from north-eastern India and Bangladesh, through South-East Asia to Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. It has undergone a dramatic decline, such that its population is now estimated at c.1,000 individuals, comprising c.200 in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Laos</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vietnam </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia</span>, c.150 on Sumatra, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, c.450 in <span style="font-weight: bold;">India </span>(Choudhury 2000) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh </span>(A. Choudhury <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007) and in the "low hundreds" in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar </span>(J. C. Eames<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007) following the identification of a significant population numbering tens of individuals in the proposed Hukuang Tiger Reserve. It has also recently been recorded in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan</span> (Choudhury 2007). It continues to decline throughout its range, and is probably extinct in Malaysia and on Java. The only recent records from Vietnam are from watercourses in dry dipterocarp forest in Yok Don NP, where it is rare but probably under-recorded (Eames <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It is likely to be extirpated elsewhere due to widespread forest and wetland destruction. There are no confirmed recent records from Laos, however, a few birds probably survive in the Nam Theun catchment (W. Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In Myanmar it is locally common on ox-bow lakes within the Chindwin basin (Tordoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In India, it has been recorded from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur (no recent report), with unconfirmed reports from Tripura and Mizoram. Its current distribution is chiefly in the eastern lowlands of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
100600410		habitat	eng	It inhabits stagnant or slow-flowing natural and artificial wetlands, within or adjacent to evergreen, deciduous or swamp forests, on which it depends for roosting and nesting, usually in tree-holes. Although lowlands (below c.200 m) provide optimum habitat, it occurs up to 1,400 m, especially on plateaux supporting sluggish perennial rivers and pools. <p></p>
100600410		population	eng	There has not been a comprehensive analysis of recent records, but estimates of c.450 in India (A. Choudhury <em>in litt.</em> 2007), low hundreds in Myanmar and c.100 in Cambodia (J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2007) combined with an earlier estimate of 150 in Indonesia suggest that the species's population may precautionarily be considered to lie within the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
100600410		threats	eng	Its decline is largely attributable to the destruction, degradation and disturbance of riverine habitats including loss of riparian forest corridors. The resultant small, fragmented populations are vulnerable to extinction from stochastic environmental events, loss of genetic variability, disturbance, hunting and collection of eggs and chicks for food or pets. Hydro-power development, inappropriate forest management, and pollution are more localised threats. It may be particularly susceptible to loss of large trees with nesting holes<strong> </strong>(W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <p></p>
100600411		distribution	eng	Pteronetta hartlaubii has a widespread distribution in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda and Angola.
100600411		habitat	eng	The species is found in forested areas, in particular in secluded marshes and pools within dense, swampy, lowland tropical evergreen forest and gallery forest. It is also found along small rivers and streams in well-wooded savanna areas, and is recorded from salt pans in Congo and Cameroon (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005). It requires areas of open water such as large rivers or lakes on which to moult  (Madge and Burn 1988). The species is sedentary throughout its range and only local movements have been recorded (Scott and Rose 1996). It is likely to breed between August and November, although this is not certain as no nest has ever been found in the wild (Scott and Rose 1996). The species is normally encountered dispersed in pairs or small groups during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons, but it is known to aggregate into larger flocks (&gt; 30 birds) on open water whilst undergoing moult (Madge and Burn 1988). The species generally feeds nocturnally (Kear 2005b), its diet consisting of aquatic invertebrates (insects, arachnids, crustaceans and molluscs), seeds and roots (F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt.1999, del Hoyo et al. 1992). No nest has ever been found in the wild, however observations from captive populations suggest that nest sites are most likely to be in tree holes and hollow trees or occasionally on the ground amongst dense cover (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b).  </P>
100600411		population	eng	The total population has been estimated to lie between 26,000 and 110,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). From the limited information available, it would appear to be locally common in Central Africa, west to Nigeria, being most numerous in Cameroon, Gabon, the Congo and DRC (Callaghan and Green 1993, Scott and Rose 1996). In West Africa, it has apparently suffered major declines and is now very scarce, with perhaps fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining (Scott and Rose 1996).
100600411		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is habitat loss due to forest destruction (Scott and Rose 1996). Other threats include hunting, increases in slash-and-burn cultivation, water pollution from mining and poison-fishing, and hydrological changes owing to logging (Holbech 1992, Holbech 1996, W. R .J. Dean in litt. 1999). However, in Cameroon and Nigeria, it appears to survive even in very disturbed areas (P. Hall in litt. 1999, M. Languy in litt. 2000, H. Rainey in litt. 2003) and the Central Africa populations are not considered to be threatened (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005). The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
100600412		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> undertaking poorly-understood (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> seasonal movements in relation to water availability (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds during the wet season in single pairs or small groups (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (harems [Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and outside of the breeding season usually occurs in small parties of up to 30-40 individuals (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large flocks also gather in the dry (non-breeding) season (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on suitable waters (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but these break up and disperse to breeding grounds at the onset of the rains (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species inhabits grassy ponds or lakes in savanna, open woodlands along large rivers and lakes (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, swamps (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, marshes, floodplains, river deltas (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, flooded forest, pastures and rice-paddies (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and occasionally sandbars and mudflats (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists largely of vegetable matter, including the seeds of grasses and sedges, the soft parts of aquatic plants (e.g. water-lilies [Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, agricultural grain (e.g. rice, corn, oats [Johnsgard 1978]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, wheat and groundnuts [Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) as well as aquatic insect larvae and locusts (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests close to water (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, building rough structures of twigs and coarse grass (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in large hollow tree cavities (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, between 7 and 12 m high (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or in holes in the walls of isolated buildings (Madge and Burn 1988) (or other cavities with a floor diameter of c.200 mm [Kear 2005a]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). It may also use the abandoned nests of other bird species, such as Hamerkop <em>Scopus umbretta </em>(Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or nest on the ground (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in the shelter of tall grass or on tree stumps (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When the species is tree nesting, the same cavity may be used from year to year (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600412		threats	eng	The species is threatened by hunting (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. in Madagascar [Kear 2005a])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, habitat destruction (Kear 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. from deforestation [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and indiscriminate use of poison in rice-fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has declined in the Senegal Delta following the damming of the Senegal River (which has resulted in habitat degradation and loss from vegetation overgrowth, desertification processes and land conversion to agriculture [Triplett and Yesou 2000])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so is potentially threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Gaidet <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600414		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.130,000-1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600415		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is somewhat nomadic (Madge and Burn 1988) or partially migratory (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), making local dry-season movements dictated by habitat and water availability (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or dispersing to favoured moulting areas (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The timing of the breeding season varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) but may be triggered by the rains (Kear 2005b). The species usually nests in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) but is commonly found in small family groups outside of the breeding season (Madge and Burn 1988, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), large concentrations of 10 to 200 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) also forming during the dry season or at moulting sites (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits permanent or temporary (Madge and Burn 1988) swamps, marshes, inland deltas (e.g. the Okavango), shallow lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), pools (Madge and Burn 1988), farm impoundments, flood-plains (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), slow-flowing rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and occasionally coastal lagoons (Madge and Burn 1988). It shows a preference for deep (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) clear waters (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) with abundant emergent and aquatic vegetation (Madge and Burn 1988), especially water-lilies (<I>Nymphaea</I> spp.) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of the seeds of water-lilies (<I>Nymphaea</I> spp.) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although the seeds and vegetative parts of other aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. pondweeds <I>Potamogeton</I> spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), aquatic insects and small fish may also be taken (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests in natural hollows or the disused holes of barbets <I>Megalima</I> spp. and woodpeckers in trees (Kear 2005b), preferably those standing in or close to water (Kear 2005b). It may also nest in other cavities (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) such as holes in cliffs or termites mounds (Madge and Burn 1988), in the disused nests of Hamerkop <I>Scopus umbretta</I> (Kear 2005b), or in ground sites such as papyrus stands (Kear 2005b) or grass clumps (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Elevated nests are usually up to 10 m (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) (occasionally 20 m) above the ground (Johnsgard 1978). The species will also nest in artificially erected nest boxes (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Management information</B> In South Africa a breeding pair successfully nested in an artificial nest-log (a stem of <I>Euphorbia ingens</I>) measuring 60 x 21 cm with a horizontal oval entrance-hole measuring 7 x 8 cm and an internal cavity diameter of 12 cm that was fixed to a tree 4.2 m above the ground at the edge of water (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982).
100600415		threats	eng	The species has declined is Madagascar as a result of hunting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is also threatened by habitat degradation such as the destruction of aquatic plant communities through the introduction of exotic fish (e.g. cichlids <I>Tilapia</I> spp.), siltation, pollution (e.g. herbicides), drainage and tourist water-sports (which destroy lily beds) (Kear 2005b).
100600418		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c. 65,000-66,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in China;   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600421		distribution	eng	This taxon is found along the Andes of South America, and occurs in six subspecies: columbiana is found from Venezuela to north Ecuador; leucogenis from central Ecuador to central Peru; turneri in south Peru; garleppi in Bolivia; berlepschi in north Chile and north-west Argentina; and armata throughout most of the Andes of Chile and Argentina.
100600421		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mountain rivers and streams of fast-flowing, clear waters, situated at anything from over 4,500 m in the high Andes to sea level in the south of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100600421		population	eng	(Wetlands International 2006)
100600422		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two co-ordinated management programmes are underway involving <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos</span>, Operation Ark and Whio Operation Nest Egg (WHIONE) (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Operation Ark was initiated in 2003 to target a suite of species occurring in <span style="font-style: italic;">Nothofagus</span> forests, including this species. Initially this focused on establishing five viable  populations (of fifty pairs each) with an extensive network of predator  traps at each site (Williams 2006). WHIONE is a programme where breeding pairs are closely monitored and eggs removed for hatching in captivity before being returned once the chicks are at a lower risk of predation, and has proven very effective at rapidly increasing numbers (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Both of these programmes occur alongside large-scale control of predators in the release locations. Numbers in managed areas had increased three-fold after 4 years (Bain 2008). A captive population has been established on the North Island and c.20 young are reared each year (Anon 2004)<strong></strong>. In 1987 and 1991, 12 birds were released at Egmot National Park on Mt Taranaki and further releases have been carried out annually (43 birds released up to 2005) (Caskey and Peet 2005), breeding occurred for the first time in 2005-2006 when five pairs nested rearing two young (Hutchinson 1998, <strong></strong>Biswell 2006)<strong></strong>. Intensive predator control is now carried out in the release area, this has led to the loss of no birds between 2004 and 2006 (Biswell 2006)<strong></strong>. Recreational activities have been reduced or stopped in some sensitive areas. Modifications to river flow regimes appear to have improved productivity and increased population sizes in certain areas (Adams <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Research is on-going to determine factors that most influence distribution. Genetic analyses of population fragments have been completed (Triggs <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish eight Security Sites with the aim to secure at least 50 pairs in each, hence a secure population of 400 pairs, using a combination of aerial 1080 poisoning and stoat trapping to control predators and using WHIONE to increase populations (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Establish a series of Recovery Sites across the range of the species that can be managed in conjunction with communities or have existing management in place (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Monitor population trends in locations where predator control is carried out and carry out close-monitoring to identify the agents of decline in areas other than Fiordland (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Continue to undertake research to inform conservation management. Use captive-bred birds to continue to re-stock declining populations on the North Island. Protect existing habitat through legal protection and advocacy (Adams <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Include local communities in advocacy activities; ensure information is shared effectively and include local people in protection activities (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Establish protocols to prevent the introduction of Didymo or avian disease into new catchments. <br/><p></p>
100600422		distribution	eng	<em>Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos</em> was formerly widespread in <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Since European settlement, its range has become highly fragmented, such that it is largely confined to the forested mountain ranges of central North Island and western South Island (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. The most recent population estimate is given as 2,500-3,000 individuals with a maximum of 1,200 pairs (Whio Recovery Group, <span style="font-style: italic;">in</span> Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), although in 2005 Williams (in Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) considered that the actual breeding population was unlikely to exceed 600 pairs (although it is not clear what this figure is based upon). In contrast a recent estimate was more positive, considering that approximately 640 pairs remain on the North Island and 700 pairs on the South Island (Young 2009). The largest numbers are found in rivers and streams in the catchments of the Bay of Plenty, the central North Island, Northwest Nelson, the West Coast and Fiordland (Whio Recovery Group, <span style="font-style: italic;">in</span> Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). An exhaustive survey in Arthur's Pass National Park using dogs found only 6 individuals in February 2011, down from around 50 in the early 1980s (Langlands 2011). <br/><br/><p></p>
100600422		habitat	eng	It is now confined to rivers of medium to steep gradients with partial forest cover overhead, and vegetation to the water's edge (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Collier <em>et al.</em> 1993, M. Willliams <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests near steep stream banks, in caves, cavities, or under dense vegetation. It usually lays six eggs, and can breed in its first year. Each pair requires a territory of 0.7-1 km of river (Williams 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Territorial birds can live for six to seven years (Williams 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It roosts mainly in stable undercut banks, often in association with woody debris (Baille and Glaser 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet consists almost entirely of aquatic invertebrates, primarily caddisfly larvae (Veltman <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600422		population	eng	A national survey estimated the population to number at least 1,200 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,800 individuals in total.
100600422		threats	eng	Predation of eggs, young and incubating females by stoat <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela erminea </span>was found to be the most significant threat to the species at least in Fiordland (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), but also probably across the rest of the species's range (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Eggs are also taken by brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> and occasionally by Weka <em>Gallirallus australis </em>(Adams <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong>.</strong> The greatest predation pressure occurs in cycle with beech mast years, as rodent populations explode, causing a lagged increase in stoat populations which seek alternative prey when rodent numbers crash (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). A male-biased sex-ratio has been observed throughout the range, indicating that predation during incubation (which is almost exclusively carried out by the female) is significant (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Previously, grazing and clearance of waterside vegetation decreased water quality and led to the species's disappearance from lowland rivers. Hydroelectric dams have altered the flow of some rivers, reducing available habitat (Heather and Robertson 1997), but increases in flow rates implemented from 2004 have mediated some of the impacts (Stier 2008)<strong></strong>. Poor dispersal reduces recolonisation and prevents mixing of nearby populations (Williams 1988)<strong></strong>. Introduced trout may compete for food (Heather and Robertson 1997), and birds caught in discarded fishing line have been reported (Young 2009)<strong></strong>. Human activities on the rivers often cause significant disturbance (Adams <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, and sub-division of land for development has recently occurred adjacent to rivers occupied by the species (Young 2009, Young 2010). The introduced alga Didymo may reduce habitat quality, and an avian diseases have the potential to significantly impact populations if introduced (Glaser <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><p></p>
100600423		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is protected by law in Papua New Guinea (Callaghan and Green 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is known to be fairly common within the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area where it has been a focus of specific study (Straus 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess best survey techniques. Survey rivers in areas with varying human population pressure. Assess hunting pressure through discussion with local hunters. Survey rivers upstream and downstream of hydroelectric, mining and logging activities. Survey rivers with high numbers of trout. Research ecology on both lakes and rivers. Address hunting through public awareness programmes.<p></p>
100600423		distribution	eng	<em>Salvadorina waigiuensis</em> is endemic to the mountains of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is rare and local at lower altitudes. There are records at 70m in the Lakekamu Basin, but it occurs across the island in suitable montane habitat. There are recent records from few locations, a consequence of the inaccessibility of most of its range and the species's unobtrusive, shy and perhaps nocturnal habits (Coates 1985<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The population has been variously estimated to be 2,500-20,000 birds and stable or slowly declining (Callaghan in prep., <strong></strong> Callaghan and Green 1993). More recently (2005, 2008) the species was observed using an ephemeral lake at 1650 m in the Foja Mts of western New Guinea <span style="">(B. Beehler </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012). This indicates that its movements are quite wi</span>despread and that it can cross expanses of closed forest in search of ideal habitat.   <p></p>
100600423		habitat	eng	Although recorded from 70-4,100m, this duck is uncommon below 600m and most common at the highest altitudes (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Callaghan and Green 1993, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It breeds beside fast-flowing rivers and streams, and alpine lakes, and has also been recorded on slow-flowing rivers (Coates 1985, Callaghan and Green 1993). It is not sociable, and one rarely encounters anything beside single adults or pairs (B. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding territories are variable in size owing to local conditions, for instance pairs have been found to occupy 1,600 m of stream on the Baiyer River (Kear 1975)<strong></strong> but only 160m on the Ok Menga River (Bell 1969)<strong></strong>. The species uses small tributary streams as well as main river channels, a factor which may contribute to its perceived rarity. It lays clutches of two to four eggs alongside rivers or lakes in the dry season (Kear 1975)<strong></strong>. It is omnivorous, feeding by dabbling and diving (Kear 1975, Coates 1985)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600423		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 2,500-20,000 individuals,and is thus best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
100600423		threats	eng	Some local extirpations and declines have been attributed to hunting (<strong><sup></sup></strong>Bishop 1987, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994), predation by dogs, and habitat degradation, largely through increasing human pressure and siltation, especially from hydroelectric projects, mining and logging (Murray 1988, A. Mack <em>in litt</em> 1999, Callaghan in prep.), but these have only impacted small areas (B. Whitney <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The stocking of alpine rivers with exotic trout species has been suggested as a potential risk to food sources (Kear 1975, Callaghan and Green 1993)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600425		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is well represented within protected areas, occurring in seven Argentinean National Parks<strong></strong> (Delany and Scott 2002) and Torres del Paine National Park, Chile<strong></strong> (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census and monitor the population. Research potential threats from tourism, predation and fish farming. Ensure the effective protection of the protected areas in which it occurs. <p></p>
100600425		distribution	eng	<em>Speculanas specularis</em> is most common in the Andean valleys of south <strong>Chile</strong> and west-central <strong>Argentina</strong> to Tierra del Fuego. It has been suggested that some birds disperse north and east after the breeding season<strong> </strong>(Carboneras 1992a). The population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 individuals (R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002), but there are few obvious threats and numbers seem stable.<em> <p></p></em>
100600425		habitat	eng	It breeds mostly by fast-flowing rivers in forested regions up to 1,800 m, but also on wetlands, ponds and lakes away from dense forests<strong> </strong>(Carboneras 1992a, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, S. Imberti <em>in litt.</em> 1999,<strong></strong> Delany and Scott 2002)<strong></strong>. Breeding begins in September-October, with egg-laying in October-November, and a c.30 day incubation period in captivity<strong> </strong>(Carboneras 1992a). It feeds on seeds, leaves and stems of aquatic plants, variable amounts of aquatic invertebrates, and sometimes in the leaf-litter of forests away from water<strong> </strong>(Carboneras 1992a, S. Imberti <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600425		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, and so is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600425		threats	eng	Potential threats include predation by <em>Mustela vison</em><strong></strong><strong></strong> (M. Pearman <em>in litt.</em> 1999), increased pressure from tourism (e.g. in Los Glaciares National Park [S. Imberti <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>), and salmon farming and trout stocking on Chilean rivers<strong></strong> (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
100600426		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is known to undertake considerable nomadic movements in response to changing water levels (many of its favoured sites are ephemeral) (Scott and Rose 1996), and it is an irregular and opportunistic breeder, varying its time of breeding with rainfall (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Throughout both breeding and non-breeding seasons the species is dispersed in single pairs or small flocks of 3-7 birds; large flocks in the moulting season are recorded rarely, when some gatherings can be as large as 2,000 strong (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). The species is diurnal, with most of its activity occurring between 0700-0900 (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and 1300-1700 (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), although occasionally the species may also forage at night (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat</B> This species frequents shallow saline lakes, seasonal and permanent brackish or saline pools and vleis, rivers, seasonally flooded wetlands, farm dams, state reservoirs, coastal shorelines, estuaries, lagoons, tidal mudflats and wastewater treatment pools (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Dowsett 2004, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b). In the East African Rift Valley it occurs from the lowlands up to 1,700 m (Scott and Rose 1996) on small, sheltered alkaline and brackish waters with little or no shoreline vegetation, moving to permanent alkaline waters when nearby temporal pools become dry (Baker 2003).<B> </B>In the Western Cape of South Africa this species moves to deep, open waters on which to moult, and prefers to breed on bare and grassy pans (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Diet</B> It has an omnivorous diet, feeding on the stems, leaves and seeds of pondweeds, as well as aquatic insects, crustaceans and tadpoles (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Breeding site </B>Females prefer to locate nests on islands where possible, although nest sites can be some distance from the water. The nest itself is a hollow scrape in the ground, well concealed amongst small trees, thorny bushes or aquatic vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b).
100600426		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974), especially when feeding on sewage and effluent ponds (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease. It is also potentially threatened by habitat loss through wetland destruction and degradation, for example Walvis Bay in Namibia (a key wetland site in southern Africa) is being degraded through changes in the flood regime due to road building, wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and disturbance from tourism (Wearne and Underhill 2005). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is highly valued and commonly shot (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Little <I>et al.</I> 1995), although there is no evidence that the hunting of this species currently poses a threat.
100600427		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anas strepera</span> has an extremely wide distribution across the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, occurring in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cuba</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Jamaica</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iceland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ireland</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">United Kingdom</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Morocco</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Sahara</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Andorra</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Monaco</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Luxembourg</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liechtenstein</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kosovo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Romania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Hungary</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovakia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Moldova</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tunisia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Libya</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Egypt</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Georgia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Armenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Azerbaijan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Syria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Israel</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lebanon</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Jordan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iraq</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Saudi Arabia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iran</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkmenistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uzbekistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tajikistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kyrgyzstan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mongolia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Burma </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Japan</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">couesi</span> was discovered on Teraina, Kiribati in 1874, but it has not been seen since and is now extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100600427		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is strongly migratory in the north of its range (Kear 2005b) although breeding populations in temperate regions are largely sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). Males leave the breeding grounds in early-July (one month before the females and young), migrating to key waters to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.4 weeks, after which they continue to the wintering grounds (Scott and Rose 1996). The return migration occurs from March to April (Scott and Rose 1996), and although the timing of the breeding season varies geographically the species generally nests late in the year (e.g. May-July) (Kear 2005b). It breeds in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and is usually observed in small parties outside of the breeding season, with large concentrations sometimes forming on passage (Madge and Burn 1988) or during the moulting period (Kear 2005b)  (Madge and Burn 1988). <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits highly productive (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b) and eutrophic (Snow and Perrins 1998) freshwater marsh or lake habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b) in open lowland grassland (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988), showing a preference for sheltered, shallow, standing or slow-flowing waters (Snow and Perrins 1998) with abundant emergent vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005b) and grass-covered islands providing cover for nesting (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). It may also be found on permanent, shallow, slightly alkaline marshes (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), as well as on oxbow lakes, channels (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), reservoirs and gravel-pits (Kear 2005b). After hatching, females move their broods to deeper marshes or to the edges of large impoundments, sometimes more than 1 mile away from the nesting sites (Johnsgard 1978). Rarely (e.g. in the winter) (Madge and Burn 1988) the species occurs along sheltered coasts (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996) at coastal marshes (North America) (Kear 2005b), estuaries (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998), deltas or lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Diet</strong> The species is predominantly herbivorous (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), its diet consisting of the seeds, leaves, roots and stems of aquatic plants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (submerged and emergent) as well as grasses and stoneworts <em>Chara</em> spp. (Kear 2005b), occasionally also taking cereal grains on land (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998). In addition, the species may take a small amount of animal matter during the winter (Africa), such as insects, molluscs, annelids, amphibians, amphibian spawn and small fish (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a well-hidden (Johnsgard 1978) hollow (Snow and Perrins 1998) in grass and leaves positioned on the ground in thick vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) such as nettles <em>Urtica</em> spp. (Madge and Burn 1988), grass tussocks, thick bushes, rushes or tall grass (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982). The species shows a preference for dense, dry herbaceous vegetation (Johnsgard 1978) and often nests far from water (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). It may nest in dense concentrations on islands (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b) (neighbouring nests as close as 5 m apart) (Snow and Perrins 1998) although it is not a colonial species (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). <strong>Management information</strong> The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK (leaving small fish for piscivorous birds) resulted in an increase in the winter use of the habitat by the species as result of an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes (Giles 1994). The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994).  <p></p>
100600427		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.3,200,000-3,800,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China;   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea and &lt;c.100 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600427		threats	eng	The species is threatened by pollution (Kear 2005b) and disturbance from recreational use of freshwater wetlands (Kear 2005b, Pease <em>et al.</em> 2005). It also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (Spain) (Mondain-Monval <em>et al.</em> 2002) and nest predation by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> (Europe) (Opermanis <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted throughout most of its range (Kear 2005b) both for recreation (Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006, Shortridge <em>et al.</em> 2006) and commercial uses (Balmaki and Barati 2006), but is rarely taken in large numbers except where it is particularly abundant (Kear 2005b). The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979). <p></p>
100600428		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor non-breeding populations. Formulate national and local hunting or shooting regulations (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Educate people about the plight of waterfowl, and provide alternative employment opportunities for local hunters (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Improve management of existing wetland nature reserves on the non-breeding grounds (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600428		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anas falcata</span> has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It breeds over much of south-east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, south to northern <strong>Mongolia, China, </strong>and<strong> Japan</strong>. Although the global population was previously estimated to be 35,000 individuals, recent counts indicate that it is considerably higher, with perhaps as many as 89,000 in total (Lei and Barter <em>in litt. </em>2007). The majority of birds spending the non-breeding season in China (78,000), Japan<strong> </strong>(9,000), <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South</strong> <strong>Korea </strong>(2,000) (Wetlands International 2002, Lei and Barter <em>in litt. </em>2007). It also regularly winters in small numbers in <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal, </strong>where it is<strong> </strong>rare and irregular (H. S. Baral <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, <strong>Taiwan</strong>, and northern <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, and <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it is a<strong> </strong>very rare visitor (A. W. Tordoff <em>in litt.</em> 2005<strong></strong>). Vagrants have been recorded from Afghanistan, Bulgaria, Canada, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Malta, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Turkey, and the Aleutian Islands of the United States (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Escapes from waterfowl collections mask the extent of vagrancy to western Europe. The species appears to be declining in southern China, remaining common only in Dongting Hu, Hunan Province (S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong> and there have been notable declines at least locally in the breeding range, for instance, on Lake Udyl the total number of Falcated Duck broods has fallen from 530 to 120 broods since the 1980s (Poyarkov 2006)<strong></strong>. Of 14,763 individuals counted in a 2005 survey of China, 13,605 were in Hunan Province, and 970 in Hubei Province (M. Barter <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Populations in Japan and Korea appear to have remained stable or declined only slightly (S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2005). It also appears to have become less frequent in Nepal (H. S. Baral <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600428		habitat	eng	The species breeds by water-meadows and lakes in lowland valleys, both in open and partly wooded areas. It winters on lowland rivers, lakes, flooded meadows, and, less frequently, coastal lagoons and estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. It is usually seen in pairs or small parties, with large flocks formed outside the breeding season, mixing with other dabbling ducks (particularly Eurasian Wigeon <em>A. penelope</em> and Northern Pintail <em>A. acuta</em>)<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. The breeding season is May to July. Birds dabble and up-end for food in open water near emergent vegetation, or sometimes graze in waterside grassland or crops (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600428		population	eng	Although the global population was previously estimated to be 35,000 individuals, recent counts indicate that it is considerably higher, with perhaps &gt; 89,000 individuals in total (Lei and Barter <em>in litt</em> 2007). The majority of birds spend the non-breeding season in China, (c.78,000 individuals), Japan (c.9,000 individuals), North Korea and South Korea (c.2,000 individuals) (Wetlands International 2002; Lei and Barter <em>in litt</em>. 2007).
100600428		threats	eng	Hunting for food, for subsistence and local markets, is probably the major threat. This is particularly true on the non-breeding grounds in China, with an estimated 33,000-37,000 individuals of this species taken along the lower and middle Yangtze River basins in each of the four winters from 1988-1992 (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600429		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is strongly migratory, undertaking significant cold weather movements of varying magnitude (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It leaves its breeding grounds in late summer (September) to arrive in its wintering grounds across Europe and Asia in October and November (Scott and Rose 1996, <strong></strong>Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Populations leave their winter quarters again between March and April, and arrive in their breeding grounds in northern Russia during the second half of May (Scott and Rose 1996, <strong></strong>Kear 2005b)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Both the males and females of the species undergo a flightless moult period after breeding and whilst still in their breeding range, during which they congregate at moult gatherings (Scott and Rose 1996, <strong></strong>Kear 2005b)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> (males moult their flight feathers between late May and July, females between late June and early September) (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds of this species are dispersive during the breeding season and nest in pairs or small groups (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On passage to their wintering grounds individuals come together in large numbers, and during the non-breeding season the species is highly gregarious, forming close aggregations (4,200 birds were recorded in one wintering flock in Ethiopia) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is chiefly a diurnal feeder (Myrfyn and Thomas 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but is sometimes nocturnal (depending on local disturbances and tides, especially in its non-breeding marine habitats) (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in lowland freshwater marshes, slow-flowing large rivers (Kretchmar 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and shallow lakes and lagoons with ample submerged, floating and emerging vegetation (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ideal wetland habitats for this species are those surrounded by sparse open forest, woodland and especially agricultural land (Kretchmar 1994, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in the boreal and subarctic zone (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It avoids tundra, densely forested and mountainous country, as well as fast flowing rivers and streams, but tolerates saline or alkaline steppe lakes and wetlands (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In the non-breeding season this species shows a preference for coastal salt-marshes, freshwater, brackish and saline lagoons (Cramp and Simmons 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, flooded grasslands (Cramp and Simmons 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, estuaries, intertidal mudflats (Cramp and Simmons 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and other sheltered marine habitats (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It  is vegetarian and consumes the leaves, seeds, stems and root bulbs of pond weeds, fine grasses (Myrfyn and Thomas 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (especially from agricultural land surrounding lakes) (Jacobsen 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, horsetails (Kretchmar 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and eelgrass, as well as algae (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Animal material is taken rarely and usually incidentally along with vegetation or seeds (Myrfyn and Thomas 1979, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nests of this species are shallow depressions in the ground lined with vegetation, usually positioned not far from water and well concealed under overhanging vegetation, in grass tussocks, scrub (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and especially in heather (Jacobsen and Ugelvik 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Removing red foxes <em>Vulpes vulpes</em> and pine martens <em>Martes martes</em> from regions in Finland significantly increased the breeding success of this species (Kauhala 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600429		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.2,800,000-3,300,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
100600429		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to disturbance from freshwater recreational activities (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Grishanov 2006) (e.g. tourists walking) (Mathers <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, pollution (including thallium contamination [Mochizuki, <em>et al.</em> 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, petroleum pollution [Grishanov 2006]<strong></strong>), wetland drainage (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, peat-extraction (e.g. in the Kaliningrad region of Russia) (Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) (Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the burning and mowing of reeds (Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Avian influenza virus (strain H5N1) is also a potential threat (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Jonassen and Handeland 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as is poisoning from the ingestion of lead shot pellets (Mondain-Monval <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted for sport (e.g. in the UK) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and although population numbers in an area decrease significantly after a period of shooting, there is no current evidence that such utilisation poses and immediate threat to the species (Vaananen 2001, Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species is also hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600432		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> It is not a migrant, being territorial and sedentary within a permanent range (Scott and Rose 1996), although in South Africa some birds move from rivers to large local open waters to roost, returning to the rivers in the early morning (Scott and Rose 1996). This species breeds irregularly, the timing of breeding varying with locality (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992), and throughout both breeding and non-breeding seasons the species remains dispersed as individuals or single pairs (Kear 2005b). It does not form large aggregations (Kear 2005b), although roosting flocks may be large (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982). Adults undergo a flightless moulting period lasting around 25-30 days; males moulting between October and February (numbers peaking in November), females between November and February (numbers peaking in December) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is diurnal, usually resting at night and spending daylight hours feeding, sleeping and preening (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> This species prefers fast-flowing shallow rivers and streams with rocky substrates, particularly in wooded and mountainous country (Johnsgard 1978, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) up to 4,250 m (Scott and Rose 1996). It can also be found in open, arid habitats and on lakes, reservoirs, lagoons, sandy-bottomed estuaries, stagnant or slow-flowing water (Johnsgard 1978, Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982), and sewage ponds (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). During this species' flightless moult period it requires cover near its foraging areas (e.g. lodged branches or undercut banks) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> It has an omnivorous diet consisting of waterweeds and other aquatic vegetation, agricultural grain (Johnsgard 1978, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), fruits from terrestrial plants overhanging the water, mulberries (<I>Morus</I>), firethorn (<I>Pryacantha</I>) berries, fallen acorns (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), aquatic insects and their larvae, crustaceans, larval amphibians and fish spawn (Johnsgard 1978, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site </B>Ground cavity nests and elevated tree-nesting sites have been reported for this species, but usually nests are sited close to running water on islands, grassy river banks, in reedbeds or amongst driftwood (Johnsgard 1978). Important criteria for suitable nest sites are close proximity to water and near invisibility from above (Johnsgard 1978).
100600432		threats	eng	The species is threatened by deforestation in Kenya (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992), and as it is a river specialist it is vulnerable to habitat loss through river degradation (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) such as dam building, water extraction (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b), siltation, pollution, clearing of riparian vegetation and alien biota (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). Hybridisation of the species with Mallard <I>Anas platyrhynchos</I> is also a potential threat (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B>
100600435		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> In temperate regions breeding populations of this species are sedentary or dispersive, often making local movements during severe weather (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other populations are fully migratory (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with females and juveniles leaving the breeding grounds in the western Palearctic from September<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and returning as early as February (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds between March and June (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although the exact timing varies with latitude (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. While the females are incubating (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (from mid-May) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> the males gather (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in small flocks and migrate to moulting areas (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong> where they undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (females moult near the breeding grounds) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species can be found in small to very large flocks (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> numbering up to several hundreds or even thousands of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> especially when moulting (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, on migration (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and during the winter (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may also roost both nocturnally and diurnally in communal groups when not breeding (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species occurs in almost every wetland type (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although it generally avoids fast-flowing, oligotrophic (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, deep, exposed, rough, rockbound waters and hard unvegetated areas such as rocky ground, sand dunes and artificial surfacing (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It requires water less than 1 m deep for foraging (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and shows a preference for freshwater habitats (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although it may frequent shallow brackish waters as long as they provide the cover (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> of submerged, floating, emergent or riparian vegetation, dense reedbeds or overhanging branches (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitats commonly frequented include flooded swampy woodlands, seasonal floodlands (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, wet grassy swamps and meadows, oxbow lakes (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, open waters with mudflats, banks or spits, irrigation networks, reservoirs, ornamental waters (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, canals and sewage farms (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the winter the species may also be found in saline habitats along the coast (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> where water is shallow, fairly sheltered and within site of land (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. brackish lagoons [Snow and Perrins 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, brackish estuaries [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998]<strong> </strong>and bays [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous and opportunistic (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, feeding by dabbling in water and by grazing on the land (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet consists of seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants (e.g. crops) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates (especially in the spring and summer) such as insects, molluscs, crustaceans, worms and occasionally amphibians and fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or bowl of vegetation that can be situated in many different locations such as within vegetation on the ground, in natural tree cavities (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> up to 10 m high (Africa) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, under fallen dead wood, on tree stumps (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, under bushes (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and even in abandoned nests of other species (e.g. herons or crows) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are generally placed close to water (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although occasionally they may be some distance away (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> "Extensive" grazing of wetland grasslands (c.0.5 cows per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in Hungary (Baldi <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity (Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK resulted in an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes, which in turn led to an increased use of the habitat for brood rearing by the species (Giles 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species will also nest in artificial nest boxes (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600435		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.19,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.10,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.10,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600435		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from pollution (e.g. petroleum [Grishanov 2006]<strong><sup></sup></strong> and pesticide pollution [Kwon <em>et al.</em> 2004]<strong></strong>), wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and the burning and mowing of reedbeds (Grishanov 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (e.g. in Spain [Mateo <em>et al.</em> 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong> and France [Mondain-Monval <em>et al.</em> 2002]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and poisoning from white phosphorous ingestion (from firearms) in Alaska (Steele 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also susceptible to duck virus enteritis (DVE) (Friend 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and avian botulism (Rocke 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (although it may be able to withstand sporadic losses due to its high reproductive potential) (Rocke 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is predated by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in Europe (Opermanis <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted throughout the world (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> mainly for sport (Evans and Day 2002, Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006, Mondain-Monval <em>et al.</em> 2006, Sorrenti <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also for commercial use (food) (Balmaki and Barati 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600436		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Kaua'i, the Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge is an important area for the species, especially in winter (Todd 1996)<strong></strong>. The species was reintroduced to O'ahu through the release of 326 captive-bred birds between 1958 and 1982 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>; in 1989, fewer than 12 captive-bred birds were released on Maui; and between 1976 and 1982, the species was reestablished on the Big Island also through the release of captive-bred birds (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. In the late 1980s, the importation of<em> A. platyrhynchos</em> was restricted by the state, with exceptions only for research and exhibition (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2002, the department of agriculture placed an embargo on all birds shipped to the Hawaiian Islands, to protect the public from West Nile Virus. Research is being carried out to develop techniques for the identification of hybrids (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. This will require simultaneous genetic testing and morphological characterisation (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop techniques for the identification of <em>A. wyvilliana</em>, <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> and hybrids (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Determine range, behaviour, and abundance of <em>A. wyvilliana</em>, <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> and hybrids, and estimate the extent of hybridisation (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Vigorously and humanely control <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> and hybrids (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005, Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007, P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Restore wetlands (P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and continue to  enhance and create wetlands through the USDA's Wetlands Reserve Program (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2008). Control predators where feasible (H. C. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 2000, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. Raise awareness amongst policy makers and the public of the threat from <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> and need for control. Prevent imports and releases of <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> and closely related species (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005, Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Protect and manage core and supporting wetlands and control invasive plants (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. Conduct an environmental education programme for landowners and land managers (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Identify sites for reintroduction on Maui and Moloka'i and assess the future use of captive breeding and translocation (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. Reintroduce either captive-bred or translocated birds to protected and managed sites on Maui and Moloka'i and monitor these new populations (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. Control feral mallards (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2008). <p></p>
100600436		distribution	eng	<em>Anas wyvilliana</em> was once an inhabitant of all the main Hawaiian Islands (<strong>U.S.A.</strong>) except Lana'i and Kaho'olawe (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>, but is now restricted to Kaua'i and Ni'ihau, and is reintroduced on O'ahu, Big Island and Maui. Its population was estimated to number 2,525 individuals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2002c)<strong></strong>, but this has been revised to 2,200 (K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr.<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, with c.2,000 on Kaua'i and Ni'ihau and c.200 on Big Island (Callaghan and Green 1993, Engilis and Pratt 1993, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005, K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr.<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 1997, 5-11 were seen on Maui (F. Duvall <em>per</em> P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In addition, some of the c.300 birds on O'ahu and c.50 birds on Maui that resemble <em>A. wyvilliana</em> are pure birds (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. However, most of the birds on these two islands are <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> × <em>A. wyvilliana</em> hybrids. The distribution and abundance of the species is not clear in some areas due to difficulties in the identification and distinguishing of hybrids (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600436		habitat	eng	It inhabits wetlands, including coastal ponds, lakes, swamps, flooded grasslands, mountain streams, anthropogenic water-bodies and occasionally boggy forests, as high as 3,300 m (Todd 1996, T. C. Telfer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs year-round, with the majority of breeding records coming between March and June (K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is an opportunistic feeder, taking invertebrates, seeds and plant matter (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. It favours larger (over 0.23 ha) wetlands far (at least 600 m) from human housing, and is twice as likely to be found on wetlands enhanced or created specifically for the species by the USDA's Wetlands Reserve Program than on agricultural ponds (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2008, K. Uyehara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
100600436		population	eng	The species's population is estimated to number c.2,200 individuals (K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr.<I> in litt.</I> 2007), roughly equivalent to 1,500 mature individuals.
100600436		threats	eng	A significant population decline in the early 20th century was brought about by nest predation by rats, mongooses, domestic dogs and cats, introduced fish and birds, habitat loss for agriculture and urban development, and local hunting pressure (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. The indiscriminate hunting of migratory waterbirds in the late 1800s and early 1900s took a heavy toll on the species's population (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. Presently, hybridisation with feral <em>A. platyrhynchos</em>, and therefore the danger of genetic introgression, is the primary threat to the species's recovery (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> was first imported to Hawaii in the late 1800s for ornamental ponds and farming, and in the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds were imported to stock hunting areas (Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On O'ahu, Maui and Big Island there are very few pure birds remaining (Engilis and Pratt 1993, Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007, Callaghan <em>et al.</em> in prep., K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> with the probable exception (on the latter) of birds at high elevations on Kohala and Mauna Kea, where there are few feral <em>A. platyrhynchos </em>(Engilis and Pratt 1993, Uyehara <em>et al.</em> 2007, A. Engilis <em>per</em> H. D. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 1999, K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Hybridisation appears to be beginning on Kaua'i, the species's largest population and so far largely free of hybrids (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. Wetland loss and habitat modification by alien aquatic plants are also threats (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Pigs, goats and other feral ungulates may degrade nesting habitat (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005)<strong></strong>. On O'ahu at least, artificial wetlands associated with sugarcane plantations and aquaculture have disappeared as these industries have declined on the island (P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Introduced predators (such as the small Asian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus</em>, rats, cats and dogs) are an additional factor (T. C. Telfer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The species is also threatened by drought and human disturbance from recreation and tourism (K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600437		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Laysan is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. The alien grass <em>Cenchrus echinatus</em> is thought to have been eradicated (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and native bunch grass has responded positively (M. Reynolds <em> et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Snow fences were installed 20 years ago to reduce the movement of sand and support natural revegetation (Moulton and Marshall 1996)<strong></strong>. A comprehensive restoration plan for Laysan Island has been developed, some sections of which are underway (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2004-2005, 42 wild birds translocated from Laysan Island were released on Midway Atoll and many bred successfully in their first season. Following the success of the releases on Midway, the next translocation is being discussed for Kure or Lisianski islands in the North West Hawaiian Islands to establish a third population; however, those captive birds currently held are unsuitable for translocation, and this would therefore require the establishment of a new captive population from wild stock (USGS unpublished data, M. Reynolds <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Both islands require some habitat restoration prior to duck translocation; this work is currently underway on Kure (USGS unpublished data)<strong></strong>. During the 2008 avian botulism outbreak on Midway, 28 sick birds were successfully treated with anti-toxin, rehabilitated and released, and the rapid removal of sick and dead birds was thought to have prevented the impact of the outbreak becoming even worse (M. Reynolds <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Management strategies have been initiated on Midway Atoll that should reduce the future impact of avian botulism outbreaks, including: annual flooding of the concrete-lined catchment during the summer months; drainage and cleaning of the catchment in the autumn or winter months to remove accumulated debris and seabird remains; vegetation removal around wetlands to allow carcass detection; weekly population monitoring that includes carcass removal and searches for sick birds; wetland carcass searches daily during the summer months; and use of heavy equipment and portable pumps each year to improve water quality (Work <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the population size and health on both Midway Atoll and Laysan Island. Continue to enhance nesting habitat on Midway by planting native bunch grasses. Enhance brood-rearing habitat on Midway Atoll with small fish-free freshwater wetlands with abundant cover. Use translocation and ecosystem restoration to re-establish four additional populations of Laysan Ducks.  On Laysan, continue to stabilise dunes by planting native vegetation (Moulton and Marshall 1996)<strong></strong>. Restore freshwater wetlands on Lisianski and Kure Islands prior to potential re-introduction. Ensure strict procedures to prevent the accidental introduction of exotic plants, invertebrates and animals (Moulton and Marshall 1996)<strong></strong>. Control exotic plants likely to negatively impact the species. Conduct further alien predator eradications to create potential for reintroduction to other larger higher elevation islands. After restored predator-free habitat is available, create a new genetically managed captive population within Hawaii to provide birds for reintroductions to other Hawaiian islands (Reynolds <em> et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Investigate the feasibility of vaccinating at least some birds in the Midway Atoll population against avian botulism (Work <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
100600437		distribution	eng	<em>Anas laysanensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it became confined to Laysan. The birds do not disperse from Laysan today, but sub-fossil remains indicate that it was widespread on the Hawaiian Islands in the past (<strong></strong>Reynolds and Kozar 2000)<strong></strong>, most recently being extirpated from Lisianski Island about 150 years ago. The species was near extinction at the beginning of the 20th century, but the population increased to 500 individuals in 1987 (Marshall 1992),<strong></strong> following the removal of introduced rabbits from Laysan. In 1993, there was a complete breeding failure and severe die-off owing to drought and disease. Poor monitoring at this time impairs accurate population estimates, but post-hoc analysis suggests that the population dropped to 82-127 adults from a peak of 743 birds prior to the drought. Since then, the population has gradually increased (M. Reynolds <em> et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>; the latest population estimate is 503-682 adult birds on Laysan (Reynolds and Citta 2007)<strong></strong>. Apparent population fluctuations over the past century were previously attributed to differing methods and seasons of counts (Marshall 1992)<strong></strong>, but are now thought to relate to genuine changes (M. Reynolds and G. Ritchotte <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. The Laysan population may currently have reached carrying capacity for the island, but 42 individuals were translocated to the two islands of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge in 2004 and 2005; the birds bred successfully in their first year (Reynolds and Klaviter 2006)<strong></strong> and the founder population increased in size to a total of 104 individuals in 2006 (Jarrett 2006)<strong></strong>, reaching c.200 adult and juvenile (post fledging) individuals by the end of 2007 (USGS unpublished data, Reynolds <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong></strong> and predicted to grow to a total of 380 birds (Reynolds <em>et al</em>. 2008). Although being hit by an outbreak of avian botulism in 2008, killing over 160 birds (a decline of up to 40-50%) (M. Reynolds <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>, the preliminary estimates from Midway place the population in 2010 at c.350 (M. Reynolds <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600437		habitat	eng	The species is non-migratory and characterised by female-only parental care and high adult survival. On Laysan, long-term pair bonds are common, and 3-4 eggs are laid per clutch. The timing of breeding varies significantly between years, with the beginning of incubation varying from December to July (Reynolds <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It selects different habitats during different times of the day. Most adult birds use dense cover and hide in the terrestrial vegetation during the day. During the evening, and at night (Reynolds 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it uses the central hyper-saline lake on Laysan, but concentrates near freshwater seeps around the shore (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially when raising young ducklings, which are less tolerant of hyper-saline conditions. It nests and rests in dense stands of shrubs and grasses (Moulton and Marshall 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds principally on invertebrates, but also grass and sedge seeds, and some algae (M. Reynolds <em> et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; brine fly <em>Scatella sexnotata </em>is an important prey species whose peak spring abundance is positively correlated with annual brood production of the teal (Reynolds <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reintroduced birds on Midway Atoll appear to breed successfully at an earlier age and produce larger clutches, probably owing to more food and a low density population. However, duckling survival is low on both atolls. <p></p>
100600437		population	eng	The total population on Laysan was estimated at 521 birds (95% CI: 492-549) in 2010, with probably over 400 individuals (between 268 and 473) on Midway in 2010 (M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). This suggests that there are c.500-680 mature individuals.
100600437		threats	eng	Random disasters and the limited carrying capacity of the fragile tiny islands are the main threats to its persistence. Historic declines on Laysan leading to the near-extinction of the species are attributed to introduced rabbits and more recently the parasitic nematode <em>Echinuria uncinata</em>, coupled with drought (Work <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Since the severe range contraction of the species from the main Hawaiian Islands after the introduction of rats, stochastic events that have already occurred include: the accidental introduction of noxious competitors, extreme weather, and disease epizootics. Additional populations on different islands are needed to reduce the extinction risk to small concentrated populations from alien predator introductions, tsunamis, and hurricanes, as the probability that disasters will affect several islands simultaneously is lower. In March 2011, an earthquake off the east coast of Japan triggered a tsunami that arrived at the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands at night and partially inundated Midway Atoll and Laysan Island (M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is reported to have over-washed 60-78% of Eastern Island and 15-20% of Sand Island, and affected c.15% of the species's breeding habitat on Laysan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2011, M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A botulism outbreak followed due to the more than 110,000 dead albatross chicks left by the flooding (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2011, M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Freshwater wetlands were also contaminated with sea water and carcasses (M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Most of the vegetation on Eastern Island was lost. Prior to the tsunami, two winter storms struck in January and February, bringing high wind and extensive flooding. Following the winter storms and tsunami, the population experienced complete reproductive failure, with preliminary analysis suggesting a decline in the adult population of c.25% (M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). On Laysan Island, brood rearing habitat is probably an important limiting factor.  Freshwater seeps with high invertebrate abundance and adjacent dense vegetative cover are used as duckling nurseries. High incidence of duckling trauma suggests these freshwater seeps may become overcrowded. Reproductive success is sometimes related to brine fly (prey abundance) densities which, in turn, are reduced by drought and low water-levels (Moulton and Marshall 1996, M. Reynolds <em> et al.</em> 2006, M. Reynolds unpublished data)<strong></strong>. During drought conditions, the birds depend more on terrestrial prey (Reynolds 2004)<strong></strong>. Introduced ants (e.g. big-headed ant <em>Pheidole megacephala</em>) are probably competitors for their terrestrial invertebrate prey (M. Reynolds <em> et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Disease or parasitic infestation by the nematode <em>Echinuria uncinata </em>(M. Reynolds <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> are perhaps one of the greatest potential threats - the catastrophic outbreak of avian botulism killed 40-50% of teal on Midway in 2008 (M. Reynolds <em>in litt. </em>2008, Work <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)<strong></strong>, and an outbreak of this disease has occurred every year since (M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, 2012, J. Walters <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Some alien invasive plants on Laysan have threatened nesting and wetland habitat (Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. Other threats faced by the species include accelerated filling of the interior lake and freshwater seeps due to alien wetland plant species, and erosion of dunes from storm impacts (M. Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
100600439		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected at five localities: Mt Iglit-Baco and Lake Naujan National Parks (Mindoro), Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park and Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay Forest Reserve (Luzon), and Olango Island (a Ramsar site). The Mayor of Candaba has designated part of Candaba Marsh as a protected area and two local conservation groups have been established as well as promotional materials: signs and a video documentary<strong> </strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  The Manleluag Spring National Park, Mangatarem, Pangasinan has been a Protected Landscape since 1940 under Proclamation No. 612.  At present, with the assistance of Haribon, the Local government of Mangatarem and the Protected Area Management Board of the park are proposing to expand the area of the park from 1,935 hectares to 4,240 hectares to include all the remaining tropical rainforests extending up to the boundary with Zambales Province. A government ban on firearms was imposed in 1972, although hunting continues. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remaining wetland areas, especially around Polillo and Subic Bay. Conduct long-term ecological studies to establish management requirements. Afford protected status to key sites (e.g. Polillo). Recreate natural marsh habitat at Candaba. Develop a management plan for the remaining wetland habitat at Lake Naujan. <p></p>
100600439		distribution	eng	<em>Anas luzonica</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, being recorded from all the major islands and eight smaller islands. Records since 1980 derive from c.30 localities, most on Luzon and Mindanao. Records from Siquijor and the Sulus remain unsubstantiated. A steep population decline was evident by the mid-1970s, with high numbers recorded at only a few sites in the following decade, e.g. Candaba Marsh (Luzon) which probably supported many thousands in the early 1980s. Subsequent local extinctions and near-disappearances have occurred in several significant sites, including Candaba Marsh and Buguey wetlands (where several thousand were recorded in 1983). Important current areas include Polillo Island (240 seen and an estimated 3,000 present in 1996), Subic Bay (600 seen in 1997), Magat dam (2,000 were seen in 2001) and Malasi lakes (1,320 were recorded in 2002), Luzon. Other recent records come from Mangatarem, Pangasinan (east of Zambales Mountains IBA) where 70 individuals were counted on the Barabac River inside the Manleluag Spring National Park, Cantilan mangroves in Surigao del Sur and from a mangrove fishpond in Bicol Region, Southern Luzon<strong> </strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  In 1993, its population was estimated at 10,000-100,000, but by 2002 fewer than 10,000 birds were thought to remain. <p></p>
100600439		habitat	eng	It frequents most freshwater and saltwater habitats, including mangroves, open sea and watercourses inside forest. It appears to be sedentary although some seasonal aggregation occurs. It feeds on fish, shrimps, insects, rice and young vegetation. <p></p>
100600439		population	eng	A total of 4,632 individuals were counted in the Asian Waterbird Census in 2004, and 4,428 in 2005 (D. Li <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The total population is likely to fall between 5,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
100600439		threats	eng	Exceptionally high levels of hunting and trapping have been evident since the 1960s. Thousands were reportedly shot weekly in August-October and January-March in the late 1980s. Conversion of natural wetlands through drainage, adoption of aquaculture and fishpond creation caused its near-extinction at Candaba Marsh and threatens the Polillo population. The on-going conversion of habitat at Liguasan is also thought to be impacting the species (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Mangrove destruction and the recent extensive use of pesticides on rice-fields are also likely to have had serious impacts.<br/><p></p>
100600440		distribution	eng	This species breeds in Indonesia from south Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi, through to Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea (including New Britain and New Ireland), Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia (to France), Australia, Caroline Islands (Federated States of Micronesia), Palau, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and American Samoa, Cook Islands (New Zealand), Society Islands (French Polynesia) and New Zealand. It occurs as three subspecies, with pelewensis found in the south-west Pacific Islands and north New Guinea, rogersi found in the Indonesian region, south New Guinea and Australia, and the nominate superciliosa occurring in New Zealand and associated larger offshore islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100600440		habitat	eng	The species has a broad habitat tolerance, breeding and feeding in a wide range of terrestrial and marine wetlands and estuaries. It also utilises artificial habitats such as farm dams and drains. In New Zealand, however, agricultural regions are now largely dominated by the introduced Mallard A. platyrhynchos, and A. superciliosa has become increasingly restricted to undeveloped areas. Nests tend to be built away from water, and are often in tree holes. Ten to 12 eggs are usually laid. Young are capable of breeding in the first year, but about 65% of young die before starting to breed. Adults live 21 months on average in New Zealand, but the oldest bird in the wild was at least 20 years of age.
100600440		population	eng	The species currently has a large global population estimated to be 180,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). Both superciliosa and rogersi have undergone significant declines in the last 20 years (Marchant and Higgins 1990). In New Zealand, the superciliosa population was estimated at 1.5 million birds in 1970, decreasing to 1.2 million by 1981, and less than 500,000 in the 1990s (Heather and Robertson 1997). A second estimate placed numbers at between 80,000 and 150,000 in 1993 (Rose and Scott 1997). Subspecies pelewensis was estimated at 10,000-25,000 birds and is considered stable (Rose and Scott 1997).
100600440		threats	eng	The species is believed to be declining throughout its range due to a combination of competition and hybridisation with A. platyrhynchos (Heather and Robertson 1997). This introduced species is most common in developed areas and, in New Zealand at least, numbers are still increasing (Marchant and Higgins 1990). Also in New Zealand, loss of wild habitats is considered to be a leading cause in declines (Heather and Robertson 1997), and there is a slow decline through Melanesia due to hunting and habitat degradation (G. Dutson in litt. 1999). Such habitat destruction is also occuring in Australia, but birds there have proved to be more able to utilise artificial habitats (Marchant and Higgins 1990).
100600441		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is mainly sedentary, although the southern African population is more nomadic, undertaking considerable local movements (up to 50 km (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982)) with the availability of seasonal wetlands (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982, Scott and Rose 1996). It forms huge colonies in the non-breeding season, but disperses to breed at the onset of the rainy season (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982). Adults undergo a post-nuptial wing moult three or four months after the peak of the breeding season, rendering them flightless for a period of about four weeks (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005b). The species is mainly nocturnal: typically foraging at dusk and after dark whilst remaining sedentary throughout the day (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Habitat</B> This species frequents slow-flowing rivers with pools and adjacent flooded grasslands, permanent and seasonal lakes, streams, marshes, brackish coastal lagoons, artificial reservoirs associated with mining, dams, salt pans, sewage works and the open water of estuaries (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b). It cannot tolerate highly acidic habitats or those where sodium chloride concentrations are very high, but can tolerate high concentrations of other salts around pH 10 or more (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982). It also avoids fast-flowing water (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> It is omnivorous, with a diet consisting of the fruits, seeds, roots, leaves and stems of aquatic and terrestrial plants, aquatic insects and their larvae (including mayflies, water beetles and grasshoppers) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), crustaceans, molluscs and agricultural grains such as maize and sunflower seeds (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is situated on the ground and is made of grass, rushes and reed stems (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is usually protected and screened from above by dense, overhanging vegetation (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992) and some nests may have tunnel access through the surrounding grass (Brown, <I>et al.</I> 1982).<B></B>
100600441		threats	eng	Pollution is a threat that still needs to be controlled within the species's range to keep the current population stable (Kear 2005b). Hybridisation of the species with the Northern Mallard <I>Anas platyrhynchos </I>represents a threat to the integrity of the species (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b, Owen, <I>et al.</I> 2006) because the two species hybridise easily and produce fertile progeny (Owen, <I>et al.</I> 2006). Northern Mallard <I>Anas platyrhynchos </I>was introduced both deliberately and accidentally into the Cape Provinces of South Africa and has since become naturalised (Owen, <I>et al.</I> 2006). Other exotic ducks may associate with the species (e.g. Laysan Teal at Gauteng Province) and these species pose a further potential threat (Owen, <I>et al.</I> 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Blaker 1967). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted (Dean and Skead 1989, Little, <I>et al.</I> 1995, Kear 2005b), and although there is no current evidence that such activities pose a threat to the species (Dean and Skead 1989), hunting levels may still need to be controlled in order to maintain current population levels (Kear 2005b). The species is also traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).<B>
100600442		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in at least seven protected areas, and is known from 14 Important Bird Areas (78% of eastern Malagasy wetland IBAs)<strong></strong> (ZICOMA 1999). No regular breeding sites are known. In 2007, there was a drive to increase the number of institutions that keep the species in captivity (Young 2007)<strong></strong>. It is a nationally protected species.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect remaining areas of least-modified wetlands at Lake Alaotra. Conduct wide-scale status surveys of eastern wetlands. Study its ecology to identify all causes of its decline. <p></p>
100600442		distribution	eng	<em>Anas melleri</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is found on the eastern and northern high plateau, in eastern drainage patterns (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. There are populations on isolated massifs on the western edges of the plateau (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Records from the west (B. Hughes <em>in litt</em>. 1998; Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> below the plateau (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, probably refer to vagrant or wandering birds (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. An introduced population on <strong>Mauritius</strong> is probably now extinct (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Although previously described as common in many areas of Madagascar (apparently with little supporting evidence; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007<strong></strong>), there has been a widespread decline since human colonisation, which has continued unabated over the last 20 years (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It is probably no longer common anywhere, except perhaps in forested areas of the northwest and in the wetlands around Lake Alaotra where there are some breeding pairs, but where many non-breeders collect (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, with up to 500 birds present (Morris and Hawkins 1998; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(but see Randriamahefasoa 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. All birds seem to be within a single subpopulation (B. Hughes <em>in litt</em>. 1998; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, which is probably continuing to decline rapidly (Young and Rhymer 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600442		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is largely sedentary, although there exist some records from the west coast where it does not usually occur, suggesting that it may wander to some degree within Madagascar (Ellis-Joseph <em>et al</em>. 1992; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Nesting usually takes place during the months of September-April (Langrand 1990; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, with the exact timing thought to be dependent upon levels of rainfall (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. It has been recorded to breed as early as July (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season it usually occurs in pairs (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, and is highly territorial and aggressive, particularly towards conspecifics (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007, 2012; Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, with pairs defending territories of up to 2 km in length (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Non-breeding birds often congregate in small groups (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>; Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, or occasionally in large numbers, with flocks of over 200 birds recorded at Lake Alaotra (Langrand 1990; Scott and Rose 1996; Kear 2005b<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species occurs in inland freshwater wetland (Young and Rhymer 1998)<strong></strong> habitats from sea-level to 2000 m (Del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>.  It is most often found in small streams that run east off the high plateau (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but also inhabits lakes, rivers, woodland ponds and marshes, especially in humid forested areas (Langrand 1990; Scott and Rose 1996; Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is sometimes found in rice-fields (Del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992; Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. It favours slow-moving water but will inhabit faster-moving streams and rivers when the preferred habitat is not available (Del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992; Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. It rarely inhabits coastal regions (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It especially breeds along small streams and backwaters around lakes (Young <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and also probably along undisturbed rivers (Pidgeon 1996; Young <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species forages mainly by dabbling (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007; Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, but may also forage on land (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Its diet includes aquatic seeds and plants (Langrand 1990; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong> as well as invertebrates, particularly molluscs (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>). In captivity small fish, chironomid flies, filamentous algae and grasses are also eaten (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>). Its presence in rice-fields suggests that it consumes rice when available (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site</strong> The nest is constructed from dry grass, leaves and other vegetation, and is built among tufts of herbaceous vegetation on the ground at the water's edge (Young and Rhymer 1998; Young <em>et al.</em> 2000; Del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600442		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,000-5,000 individuals, roughly equating to 1,300-3,300 mature individuals (H. G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2002).
100600442		threats	eng	<em>A. melleri</em> is among the largest species of wildfowl found in Madagascar and is widely hunted and trapped for subsistence (and for sport) (Ellis-Joseph <em>et al</em>. 1992; Scott and Rose 1996).<strong></strong> Interviews with hunters at Lake Alaotra suggest c<em>.</em>450 individuals are taken each year, constituting 18% of the global population (Randriamahefasoa 2001)<strong></strong>. Long term deforestation of the central plateau, conversion of marshes to rice-paddies and degradation of water quality in rivers and streams, as a result of deforestation and soil erosion, have probably contributed to its decline (Scott and Rose 1996; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Widespread exotic carnivorous fishes, notably <em>Micropterus salmoides </em>(although this may now be extinct) and<em></em> <em>Channa spp.</em>, may threaten young (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and cause desertion of otherwise suitable habitat (Kear 2005b<strong></strong>). Its decline on Mauritius has been attributed to hunting, pollution and introduced rats and mongooses (Ellis-Joseph <em>et al</em>. 1992; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong> as well as possible displacement by introduced Common Mallard <em>Anas platyrhynchos </em>(Young and Rhymer 1998).<strong> </strong>Pairs are very territorial and susceptible to human disturbance (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600444		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anas cyanoptera</span> has a distribution running through the Americas, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uruguay</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina </span>and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Falkland Islands</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">borreroi</span>, known from the east Andes of Colombia, has not been recorded since the 1950s and is likely to be extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)
100600445		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is largely sedentary, but can be somewhat nomadic and dispersive within its southern African range (Scott and Rose 1996). There may also be some true seasonal north-south migrational movements through central South Africa (South African birds have been recovered in Namibia up to 1,650 km away) (Scott and Rose 1996, Kear 2005b). Its movements are poorly understood (Scott and Rose 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), although migration appears to be between winter- and summer-rainfall areas (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) and is dependent on water availability, whereas nomadic movements are believed to be responses to food availability (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). In much of its range this species breeds throughout the year, although in some areas breeding is more seasonal (for example the breeding peak for birds in the south-west of Cape Province, South Africa is August-December) (Kear 2005b). The species breeds in single pairs or loose groups, but may crowd together where suitable nesting sites are scarce (Brown 1982, Madge and Burn 1988). Outside the breeding season the species is usually found in small groups, or very rarely in numbers up to 600 (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). Adult birds undergo a period of moulting after breeding during which they are flightless for around 30 days (Brown 1982); during this time they seek the refuge of large open waters (Brown 1982, Scott and Rose 1996) rich in natural foods (Brown 1982). It is both a diurnal and nocturnal feeder (Brown 1982). <B>Habitat</B> This species shows a preference for shallow freshwater and brackish habitats, such as lakes, marshes and temporary floodwaters (Johnsgard, 1978, Brown 1982, Kear 2005b). It will feed in fertile waters rich in planktonic organisms such as sewage disposal ponds, and will also tolerate highly alkaline lakes (pH 10), tidal estuaries, saline lagoons and salt-pans (Johnsgard, 1978, Brown 1982, Scott and Rose 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b). It generally avoids deep lakes, fast-flowing rivers, farm dams and reservoirs except as temporary refuges (Johnsgard, 1978, Brown 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). <B>Diet</B> This species is omnivorous, commonly consuming the stems and seeds of water plants, snails, insects, molluscs, crustaceans and amphibian larvae (Brown 1982). Animal matter makes up a significantly larger proportion of its diet than does plant matter (Brown 1982). <B>Breeding site</B> The preferred nesting sites of this species are close to highly fertile shallow-water areas that have abundant sources of invertebrate food (Johnsgard, 1978, Kear 2005b). The nest itself is a shallow scrape in earth, often with sides and a canopy built up from vegetation, and it is generally positioned near the waters edge (Johnsgard, 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b).
100600445		threats	eng	The only known potential threats to this species are the reduction of suitable ephemeral wetland habitats (Kear 2005b), and hybridisation with invasive Mallard <I>Anas platyrhynchos</I> (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974). <B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted, and although hunting is not currently a threat, it has the potential to become one if not managed sustainably (Little, <I>et al.</I> 1995, Kear 2005b).
100600448		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is highly migratory although it may be present all year round in parts of Europe (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds from March<strong><sup> </sup></strong>where it breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups<strong><sup></sup></strong> in the northern spring (chiefly from mid-April to June) (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Males undergo a post-breeding moult migration from early-May to early-June (females moulting one month later) during which they are flightless for 3-4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The autumn migration chiefly occurs between September and October (western Europe), during which the species is likely to travel on a broad front (e.g. across Arabia and into Africa) (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is usually found in pairs or small parties (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong> although it often congregates when feeding (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (flocks of  20 or 30 to several hundred individuals occur in favoured areas in Africa [Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982] <strong><sup></sup></strong>and large concentrations form at stop-over sites on migration) (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally and roosts communally at night (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits permanent<strong></strong> shallow freshwater wetlands<strong><sup></sup></strong> from sea level up to 2,900 m (Ethiopia) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, preferred sites being those surrounded by dense stands of reeds or other emergent vegetation whilst being free of overhanging trees or fringing forest (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Copious submerged aquatic vegetation sheltering abundant planktonic invertebrates is a valuable habitat characteristic (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include well-vegetated lakes and marshes and with muddy shores and substrates in open country (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b) (e.g. grasslands) (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as oxbow lakes, channels and swamps (former U.S.S.R.) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also frequents artificial waters bordered by lush grassland (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> such as sewage farms, rice-fields (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and fish ponds (Musil 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the winter it can be found on coastal brackish lagoons (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, tidal muflats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, coastal shorelines, fresh and brackish estuarine marshes (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, inland seas and brackish or saline inland waters (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occasionally occurring (briefly) on marine waters during migration (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (although it generally avoids very saline habitats) (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of small aquatic invertebrates such as adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. caddisfly larvae, damselfly and dragonfly nymphs, adult beetles, bugs <strong></strong>and flies [Johnsgard 1978, Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982]<strong></strong>), molluscs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, planktonic crustaceans (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the seeds of emergent and aquatic plants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. bulrushes and waterweeds) (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, annelids, amphibian spawn, tadpoles, spiders, fish and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants (e.g. duckweeds) (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a scrape<strong></strong> or depression (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on the ground in tall grass, among hummocks, in the open<strong> </strong>(Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984) or (rarely) in bulrush marshes (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Usually the species nests close to water but if grass cover is unavailable in the wetland site it may also nest far away from water under bushes<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in hayfields or in meadows<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Kear 2005b). Although it is not a colonial species, several pairs may nest in close proximity (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg/ha, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species (Musil 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK attracted nesting pairs to the area by causing an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes (Giles 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600448		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.5,500,000-6,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China, c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.10,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600448		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss in Britain and Ireland (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, is occasionally killed by collisions with power transmission lines (Malcolm 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and suffers from nest predation by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em><strong> </strong>(Opermanis <em>et al</em>. 2001, Nordstrom <em>et al.</em> 2002, Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003). It is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <em>et al.</em> 2007) and avian botulism (Forrester <em>et al.</em> 1980)<strong><sup></sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. The species may suffer from reproductive impairment as a result of selenium (Se) accumulation in liver tissues (selenium contained in sub-surface agricultural drain-water used for wetland management in California led to bioaccumulation of the element in the food chain) (Paveglio <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (Camargue, France<strong> </strong>and Spain [Mateo <em>et al.</em> 1998, Mondain-Monval <em>et al.</em> 2002]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is a favoured quarry species throughout most of the world, but is rarely taken in large numbers (Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is hunted for sport in North America (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Denmark (Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the Po delta, Italy (Sorrenti <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600449		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded from Baly Bay National Park, Tsimanampetsotsa Strict Reserve (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, Analabe Private Reserve, Kirindy Mitea National Park and Lac Bedo Ramsar Site (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. A captive-breeding programme started in 1993 (Morris and Hawkins 1998; Young 1998)<strong></strong>, and these birds are used to study breeding behaviour (Young 2006)<strong></strong>. Studies on the ecology of the wild birds (including provision of nest boxes; R. Lewis <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span> 2001<strong></strong>) and a conservation programme at Lac Antsamaka (in Manambolomaty Ramsar Site) have also been initiated. Flightless birds moulting wing feathers were caught and ringed annually in May and June at Antsamaky (Young 2006), but birds are no longer congregating there (H. G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the distribution and abundance of the species<strong></strong> through standardised national surveys and/or the sharing of data between organisations<strong></strong>, and search for new breeding sites on the west coast, e.g. north of Mahajanga (Thorstrom and Rabarisoa 1997; M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Study its ecological needs<strong></strong> and complete further ecological studies at Ankazomborona (Thorstrom and Rabarisoa 1997). Conduct research into the species's reproductive ecology; Ankazomborona may be a particularly suitable study site (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Ensure adequate protection of nesting, moulting and dry-season sites (Young 2006)<strong></strong>. Monitor movements using satellite telemetry (H. G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
100600449		distribution	eng	<em>Anas bernieri</em> is endemic to western <strong>Madagascar</strong>. Its range encompasses a narrow coastal strip along the whole of the west coast and the extreme north-east (Langrand 1995; F. Razafindrajao <em>per</em> R. Safford <em>in litt</em>. 1999; ZICOMA 1999; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is known to breed at many sites in Menabe and Melaky on the central west coast, and at Ankazomborona on the far north-west coast (Razafindrajao <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>: 100-500 were estimated to be present between Antsalova and Morondava in July-August 1993 (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and a flock of 67 was seen near Tambohorano<strong><sup> </sup></strong>in 1998 (Anon. 1998c)<strong></strong>; and a new breeding population of 200-300 individuals was discovered at Ankazomborona, north of Mahajanga and some 720 km north of the Masoarivo breeding site. The population in Baie de la Mahajamba was estimated to be 150-200 birds in November-December 2003 (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The total population is estimated at 1,500-2,500 individuals (G. Young <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600449		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Birds breed during the wet season months of December to March (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006; Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, and moult at the beginning of the dry season<strong></strong> when they become flightless for a period (Young 2006; Razafindrajao 2000)<strong></strong>. They then move short distances to coastal areas in search of suitable habitat for the dry season (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season the species occurs in solitary, dispersed pairs<strong></strong>, but during the non-breeding season it is more gregarious and occurs in groups of up to 40 individuals (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. Pair-bonds may last through consecutive seasons and investment by males is high and involves the protection of the female and young (Young 2006)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds only in seasonally flooded, non-tidal areas dominated by Black Mangrove <em>Avicennia marina</em>, on the landward side of littoral forest (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006; Young 2006; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007; Razafindrajao 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During its post-breeding moult, during which time it is flightless (Young 2006)<strong></strong>, the species seeks out lakes that are rich in aquatic vegetation<strong></strong>, and in the subsequent dry season it is found in coastal wetland areas of shallow water and nutrient-rich mud<strong></strong>, including saline and brackish areas (Kear 2005b; Razafindrajao 2000)<strong></strong>. Here it prefers open rather than vegetated wetlands (Young 2006)<strong></strong> and is most often found in coastal mangrove forest, bays, estuaries and shallow saline wetlands just inland of mangroves (tannes), though it can also be found less frequently in marshes, dense deciduous forest, areas of open water and herbaceous savannah, especially where <em>Hyparrhenia</em> and <em>Heteropogon</em> grasses are present (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Little is know about its diet except during moulting when it feeds on terrestrial and aquatic insects including Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera, in addition to the seeds of various plant families and the leaves and stems of monocotyledons (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. It usually feeds by dabbling in the mud while wading (Morris and Hawkins 1998; Young 1995)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site </strong>Nesting takes place in holes in <em>Avicennia marina</em> mangrove trees (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006; Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> that have been created by storm damage or decay (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>.  Ducklings fledge at 45-49 days (Young 2006)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100600449		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 1,500-2,500 individuals (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2002), roughly equivalent to 1,000-1,700 mature individuals.
100600449		threats	eng	The species is now extremely threatened throughout its breeding range, by extensive habitat loss and disturbance. The distribution of known sites suggests that the single subpopulation is being fragmented as areas of habitat become unsuitable (Young 2006; H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The species has limited dispersal capabilities and isolation may result in the loss of genetic diversity (Young 2006)<strong></strong>. Furthermore it is threatened by virtue of being highly specific to a series of habitats - which are themselves threatened - throughout its annual cycle (Razafindrajao 2000)<strong></strong>.  Conversion of shallow, muddy water-bodies to rice cultivation (Young <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong> has been so widespread on the west coast that in the non-breeding season the species now appears to be confined to the few suitable wetlands that are too saline for rice-growing, i.e. some inland lakes and coastal areas such as mudflats (Green <em>et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. In 2004, during a dry-season survey in Menabe, this species was only found in saline wetlands (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Pressures on coastal wetlands are exacerbated by the movement of people from the High Plateau to coastal regions, which is driven by the over-exhaustion of land (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Mangroves are under increasing pressure from prawn-pond construction and timber extraction, which also leads to massively increased hunting (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Subsistence hunting during the nesting season and the trapping of moulting birds are major threats (Young 2006)<strong></strong>. It is considered a delicacy by hunters and was found in markets in Sofia in 2011 (H. G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In contrast, the breeding site at Ankazomborona is not threatened by aquaculture and there is little pressure from subsistence hunters, though there is some pressure from sport hunters (Razafindrajao <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>.  Breeding birds may suffer disturbance from human activity, such as the collection of crabs (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially in competition for the use of suitable nest-holes with the Comb Duck <em>Sarkidiornis melanotos</em>, parrots <em>Coracopsis</em> species and nocturnal lemurs, <em>Lepilemur</em> species and <em>Cheirogaleus</em> species, though lemurs are absent in mangroves (Joiner <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600451		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000-1,100,000 individuals.
100600453		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Cattle, rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby Island, and rabbits from Rose Island, leaving all teal-inhabited islands free of introduced mammals. The eradication of pigs and cats from Auckland Island is planned if resources can be sourced. The cost was estimated at $22 million in 2007 and it is not considered likely to take place in the near future (Hyndman 2011). The species has bred successfully in captivity as an aid to the Campbell Island Teal <em>A. nesiotis</em> recovery programme, but no dedicated captive-breeding population is proposed (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor wild populations. Promote the recovery of the species and the importance of predator-free island ecosystems. Promote the removal of predators from the Auckland Islands to allow for future reintroductions (McClelland 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600453		distribution	eng	<em>Anas aucklandica</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong> where it has permanent populations on Ewing, Enderby, Rose, Ocean, Adams, Disappointment and Dundas Islands in the Auckland Islands group. The total area of the seven islands is 113 km<sup>2</sup> but, with the exception of Disappointment Island, birds were predominantly dispersed along island shorelines, but now occur throughout Adams Island at least (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It formerly bred on Auckland Island itself, where there are records from the 1940s. Three population estimates suggest that total numbers do not exceed 600 individuals, three indicate numbers of more than 1,000 (Moore and Walker 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and one suggests a population of more than 2,000 birds (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population appears to be stable. <p></p>
100600453		habitat	eng	It primarily inhabits sheltered coastlines feeding on tideline resources, and uses dense coastal vegetation as escape and nesting cover. Pairs may retreat 100-200 m up small streams or to coastal pools for daytime cover, but forage on the shorelines after dark (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mostly in washed up seaweed for invertebrates, or in coastal pools, and also eats algae (Moore and Walker 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has a low breeding rate and low annual productivity (Williams 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600453		population	eng	The species's population has been estimated at 600-2,000 mature individuals (Moore and Walker 1991, Heather and Robertson 1997). <p></p>
100600453		threats	eng	Introduced cats and pigs caused its extinction on Auckland Island. The accidental introduction of mammals to the remaining island populations could cause further local extinctions but it is unlikely to affect all sub-populations simultaneously (Moore and Walker 1991)<strong></strong>. The introduction of avian disease is also considered a significant potential threat (McClelland 1993)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
100600455		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is mostly sedentary or nomadic, but may disperse long distances (up to 1,800 km) in the dry season depending on the extent of flooding (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996) (birds ringed in South Africa have been recovered in Namibia. Angola, Zambia and Mozambique) (Scott and Rose 1996). It is a highly social and gregarious species in the non-breeding season, and  towards the end of the dry season or at the start of the rains (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992) flock sizes can reach several thousand (Madge and Burn 1988) (one flock was estimated at 500,000 on Lake Ngami, Botswana). The species breeds dispersed in single pairs (Madge and Burn 1988), and in southern Africa breeding takes place between December and April (Scott and Rose 1996).  In the dry season after the young have hatched, adult birds go through a flightless wing moult that lasts 24-28 days (Johnsgard 1978). The species is largely nocturnal during the rainy season, but at low flood levels birds take aquatic invertebrates by day and graze on aquatic vegetation by night (Brown,<I> et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preferences for shallow, still, freshwater habitats with large amounts of submerged, floating, emergent and peripheral vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992). Suitable habitats vary from lakes to marshes, small rivers (in Madagascar) (Kear 2005b), seasonal pools (ephemeral pans and dams) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), farm ponds, large dams (if food is available) (Woodall 1983) and temporarily flooded fields (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992). This species also grazes on land in fields of rice or other crops, especially in fields of stubble (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992). During the dry season the species regularly occurs in small numbers at scattered pans in semi-arid regions (Scott and Rose 1996), although whilst undergoing the dry season flightless moult the species favours large open bodies of water and emergent vegetation (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> This species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of agricultural grain; the seeds, fruits, roots, rhizomes and stems of aquatic plants, grasses (e.g. <I>Panicum schinzii</I>) and sedges (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b); also aquatic molluscs, insects (mainly beetles) (Brown,<I> et al.</I> 1982), crustaceans, worms, tadpoles and even fish (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) (although these latter items are unusual) (Johnsgard 1978).<I> </I>In South Africa the species breeding diet consists largely of terrestrial seeds (e.g. of <I>Panicum schinzii</I>) with very few invertebrates (Petrie 1996, Kear 2005b). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a depression in a mound of grass on the ground amongst dense vegetation, usually near the waters edge (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B></B>
100600455		threats	eng	There are potential threats from the leeches <I>Theromyzon cooperi</I> and <I>Placobdella garoui</I> which can lead to mortality in infested birds (Oosthuizen and Fourie 1985, Fourie, <I>et al</I>. 1986). The species is also threatened by habitat alteration in Madagascar (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> Although this species is extensively hunted and regarded as a favourite sporting target (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992), there is no evidence that such activities pose a current threat to the species.
100600457		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory throughout its northern range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b) although some populations in the Southern Hemisphere are sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) from April to June (Madge and Burn 1988), with males leaving the breeding areas first from May to early-June to undertake extensive moult migrations (females following later) (Scott and Rose 1996). During moult, large sexually segregated (Madge and Burn 1988) flocks gather in moulting areas (Kear 2005b) (e.g. in the Netherlands and Russia), although small gatherings are also possible (Scott and Rose 1996). The flightless moult period lasts for around 4 weeks (Johnsgard 1978, Scott and Rose 1996) between July and August (Scott and Rose 1996) after which flocks move southwards to winter quarters from mid-August onwards (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996). The species is highly gregarious in winter and on passage, often forming enormous concentrations (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) (although the size of flock depends on the size of the wetland) (Snow and Perrins 1998). It feeds nocturnally (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), flocks roosting by day on open water (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat </B>The species shows a preference for open lowland grassland (Snow and Perrins 1998), prairie or tundra habitats (Johnsgard 1978) containing freshwater, brackish and saline wetlands with shallow water (10-30 cm deep (Snow and Perrins 1998)) to facilitate dabbling (Kear 2005b). Wetland habitats include shallow freshwater marshes (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), small marshy lakes, slow-flowing rivers (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), wet meadows (Madge and Burn 1988), flood-plains and sewage ponds (southern Africa) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), especially favouring ponds with low, dense marginal vegetation and wetlands interspersed with brushy thickets or copses (Johnsgard 1978). During the winter it also frequents large inland lakes (Scott and Rose 1996), brackish coastal lagoons (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996), brackish (Madge and Burn 1988) and saline marshes (Steele <I>et al.</I> 1997), shallow fresh or brackish estuaries (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998), tidal flats (Madge and Burn 1988) and river deltas (Scott and Rose 1996) with adjacent agricultural land (e.g. stubble fields (Snow and Perrins 1998)) and scattered impoundments (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Diet </B>This species is omnivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and opportunistic (Johnsgard 1978), its diet consisting of algae (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), seeds (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) (e.g. cereals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and rice (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982)), tubers (e.g. potatoes) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants, sedges (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and grasses (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), as well as aquatic invertebrates (e.g. insects, molluscs and crustaceans), amphibians (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a slight hollow on the ground amongst vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. rushes, grass or low scrub) and can be close to or more than 1 km away from water (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005b). The species is not normally colonial but neighbours may nest as close as 2-3 m apart (Kear 2005b).
100600457		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,300,000-5,400,000 individuals.
100600457		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland habitat loss on its breeding and wintering grounds (Scott and Rose 1996). Reclamation of coastal areas for industrial development poses a threat in Europe, and major river diversion and irrigation schemes threaten wintering areas in Niger and Nigeria (Scott and Rose 1996). The species is also threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds in Russia (Grishanov 2006). The species suffers from over-exploitation in Europe (Kear 2005b), and is hunted for sport in North America (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994, Schmidt 2006). It also suffers poisoning from lead shot ingestion in North America (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994), poisoning from white phosphorous (from firearms) ingestion in Alaska (Steele <I>et al.</I> 1997), and reproductive impairment as a result of selenium (Se) accumulation in liver tissues (selenium contained in sub-surface agricultural drain-water used for wetland management in California led to bioaccumulation of the element in the food chain (Paveglio <I>et al.</I> 1997). The pecies is predated by feral cats <I>Felis catus</I> and rats <I>Rattus norvegicus</I> on islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and is susceptible to avian botulism (Rocke 2006) and avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <I>et al.</I> 2007) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted recreationally in Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006) and the Po delta, Italy (Sorrenti <I>et al.</I> 2006), and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006). The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979). The species is also traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
100600458		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some of the smaller islands in the Kerguelen Islands and four of the Crozet Islands are included within the Parc National Antarctique Francais and are a Specially Protected Area (Jouventin and Micol 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate cats from breeding islands where feasible, e.g. Cochons Island (<strong></strong>Green 1996a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys to establish an up-to-date total population estimate. Carry out monitoring to determine trends. <p></p>
100600458		distribution	eng	<em>Anas eatoni</em> has two island subspecies in the southern Indian Ocean: nominate <em>eatoni</em> is confined to the Kerguelen Islands and <em>drygalskyi</em> to the Crozet Islands, both <strong>French Southern Territories</strong>. On Kerguelen, it occurs only around the coast, less than 20% of the total area (M. Pascal <em>per</em> B. Hughes <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the 1950s and 1960s, <em>eatoni</em> was introduced to Amsterdam Island (also part of the French Southern Territories), but has not been seen there since 1970 (Ogilvie and Young 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is assumed to have been extirpated. In 1980-1982, the population was estimated at 600-700 pairs on Crozet and, in 1982-1985, at 15,000-20,000 pairs on Kerguelen (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but could now be considerably less. Although there is no information on trend, a rapid decline may already be well advanced (A. Green <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600458		habitat	eng	It occupies small freshwater lakes, as well as pools, marshes, peatbogs and streams, being more frequent on the coast in winter where it is found in coastal lagoons, along the sea shore and especially in sheltered bays (Scott and Rose 1996, Ogilvie and Young 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on vegetation, insects and crustaceans (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season, it occurs in small parties, occasionally in concentrations of up to 200 birds on Kerguelen (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is from November to the end of January or February (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and clutch size is a minimum of five (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600458		population	eng	The population on the Crozet Islands was estimated at 600-700 pairs in 1980-1982 and on the Kerguelen Islands the population was estimated at 15,000-20,000 pairs in 1982-1985, although the numbers on the Kerguelen Islands could have been much lower. The maximum estimate for the total population in the early 1980s is therefore 31,200-41,400 mature individuals (roughly equating to 45,000-60,000 indidivuals in total), however the population is expected to have declined significantly since (A. Green <em>in litt.</em> 1999).
100600458		threats	eng	It was formerly much hunted by sealers and scientific expeditions, with 200-300 shot each year after the establishment of a base in 1950 (Green 1992, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Today, introduced predators are the greatest threat on Possession, Cochons Island (Crozet) and the Kerguelen Islands (Green 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Ogilvie and Young 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kerguelen, feral cats may prove to be a serious threat in the near future if petrels, their staple prey, reach low levels (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The birds introduced to Amsterdam probably disappeared owing to predation by feral cats and brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus </em>(Green 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600459		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anas georgica</span> is found in South America, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uruguay</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Falkland Islands</span> and South Georgia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span>. The central Colombian subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">niceforoi</span> is now extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
100600460		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is highly migratory, breeding widely across Western Eurasia and wintering within the northern tropics (Scott and Rose 1996). It migrates on a broad front, the autumn migration beginning in late July and peaking in August or early September (in Europe and Egypt), with birds beginning to arrive in East and West Africa in early September, peaking in October (Scott and Rose 1996). Once the species reaches Africa it migrates in relation to seasonal flooding, the central point of its occurrence shifting gradually along the course of rivers as the winter progresses (Alerstam 1990). The spring migration begins in February, with birds beginning to arrive on breeding grounds from mid-March to early-May (Scott and Rose 1996). It is a highly sociable and gregarious species (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Madge and Burn 1988), and whilst breeding can be found in single pairs or small groups, but regularly forms large congregations of several hundred on passage, and flocks of up to several thousand are common in African and Asiatic winter quarters (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Madge and Burn 1988). Adults undergo a post-breeding moult period that leaves them flightless for 3-4 weeks, with males moulting between mid-July and mid-August, and females between mid-August and September (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Kear 2005b). The Volga Delta, in particular, is a major moulting area for this species. Birds of this species are both diurnal and nocturnal feeders, and when migrating often travel by night and rest on open water during the day (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding </I>In the breeding season this species frequents small, shallow ponds and lakes with abundant floating, emergent and fringing vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, de Hoyo<I>.</I> 1992) (that is not too tall or dense, such as bulrush - <I>Typha spp.</I>) (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Green 1998), in grass dominated environments, like swampy meadows, flooded fields, shallow freshwater marshes (Johnsgard 1978, de Hoyo<I>.</I> 1992, Schricke 2001).<I> Non-breeding</I> During this season the species shows a preference for large freshwater or occasionally brackish lakes, again with abundant floating, emergent and fringing vegetation (Kear 2005b), also shallow flood plains, shallow dams, pans and sewage ponds (in South Africa) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species also frequents coastal saltmarshes and lagoons on passage (de Hoyo<I>.</I> 1992) and may spend the day resting on marine inshore waters when migrating (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> When breeding this species is omnivorous (Johnsgard 1978). In spring and summer its diet is dominated by animal matter: chiefly molluscs, aquatic insects and their larvae (waterbugs, caddisfly, waterbeetles, midges), crustaceans (ostracods and phyllopods especially), worms, leeches, young and spawn of frogs, and small fish (Johnsgard 1978, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Seeds, roots, tubers, stems, leaves and buds of plants such as Hornwort <I>Ceratophyllum</I>, Naiad <I>Najas</I>, sedge, grass and other aquatic plants are also important at this time (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Johnsgard 1978, de Hoyo<I>.</I> 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> During this season the birds are mainly vegetarian, with a diet dominated by the seeds of pondweeds, smartweeds <I>Polygonum</I>, sedges, dock <I>Rumex</I>, wild rice and grass (Kear 2005b), (with the seeds of <I>Echinochloa colona</I>, <I> Nymphea micranthia</I> and <I> Nymphea lotus</I> being the most preferred food items) (Treca 1981). <B>Breeding site</B> Meadows are the favoured nesting areas of this species, with nests rarely located more than 150 m from water (usually within 20 m) (Cramp and Simmons 1977). The nest itself is a depression in the ground, typically situated under rushes or tall grasses (such as manna grass, <I>Glyceria</I>), but not generally under shrubs (Johnsgard 1978, de Hoyo<I>.</I> 1992). <B></B>
100600460		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,600,000-2,800,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600460		threats	eng	<I>Breeding</I> The most significant threat encountered by this species on its breeding grounds in Europe is habitat deterioration through the drainage and reclamation of wetlands (Kear 2005b), the increasing climatic aridity and subsequent lowering of the water table, and the transformation of wetlands to dammed reservoirs (Scott and Rose 1996).  Other threats to this species include the destruction of nests during the early mowing of meadows (Kear 2005b), increased human disturbance (Kear 2005b), lead poisoning, botulism during hot summers (Kear 2005b) and hunting disturbance in Africa and Europe (Vaananen 2001) (&gt; 500,000 are shot annually in Russia, Ukraine, France and Poland) (Kear 2005b). The invasive species American Mink <I>Mustela vison</I> also poses a threat through nest predation (Opermanis <I>et al.</I> 2001), and the species is susceptible to avian influenza (particularly strain H5N1) so is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).<I> Non-breeding</I> On its wintering grounds in Nigeria and Senegal the species is threatened by habitat destruction through dam construction, vegetation overgrowth and desertification (de Hoyo<I>.</I> 1992, Polet 2000, Triplett and Yesou 2000), and in West Africa it is threatened by large-scale river diversion and irrigation schemes (Scott and Rose 1996). The species is also at risk from avain influenza in its African wintering grounds (Gaidet <I>et al.</I> 2007) as well as in its breeding areas (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The proportion of the species which migrates via the West Siberian flyway is susceptible to West Nile Virus, and is therefore threatened by future outbreaks (Ternovoi <I>et al.</I> 2004). <B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted in Denmark , but there is evidence that this may be sustainable (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006). The species is also hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
100600461		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong and some provinces in China; and is listed in the Red Data Books of South Korea, Russia and Yakutia (Degtyarev <em>et al</em>. 2006). Some important sites are protected areas, including Bolob lake and Khanka lake (Russia), the Geum River (South Korea [Degtyarev <em>et al</em>. 2006]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and Katano duck pond (Japan). Annual monitoring takes place in parts of its range (Degtyarev <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to study its population trend and establish more protected areas in its breeding grounds. Research its wintering status in China. Draft and implement a management plan for the wintering population in South Korea. Regulate hunting of all Anatidae species in China. Ensure its legal protection in all range states. Carry out efforts to reduce disturbance at key sites (N. Moores <em>in litt</em>. 2010). Garner the support of farmers for the conservation of this and other rice field species (N. Moores <em>in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p>
100600461		distribution	eng	<I>Anas formosa</I> breeds in eastern Siberia, <B>Russia</B> and occurs on passage in <B>Mongolia</B> and <B>North Korea</B>. It winters mainly in <B>Japan</B>, <B>South Korea</B>, which now holds the majority of the wintering population, and mainland <B>China,</B> and it is a rare winter visitor to <B>Taiwan</B> (China) and <B>Hong Kong</B> (China). In the early 20th century, it was one of the most numerous ducks in eastern Asia and flocks of many thousands were regularly reported, but a significant decline took place since the 1960s and 1970s. Since then however, wintering counts in South Korea have increased spectacularly from the c.20,000 located in the 1980s to a total of 658,000 recorded during simultaneous surveys in 2004, including c. 600,000 in the lower reaches of the Geum River, and a staggering total of c.1.06 million counted in January 2009 (Moores <I>et al</I>. 2010, N. Moores <I>in litt</I>. 2010), with concentrations of over 20,000 at six different sites (N. Moores <I>in litt</I>. 2010). In support of the view that a genuine population increase has taken place in South Korea, an analysis of counts conducted at 38 sites every year since 1999 indicate an increase from a yearly average of 11,533 in 1999-2003 to a yearly average of 314,994 in 2005-2009 (N. Moores <I>in litt</I>. 2010). The increase in the South Korean wintering population is believed to be linked an increase in newly reclaimed land as well as a decline in hunting pressure (Moores 1996, Moores <I>et al</I>. 2010, N. Moores <I>in litt</I>. 2010). In January 2006 a flock of 8,000-10,000 individuals was noted at the small Chongming Dongtan Ramsar Site in China (where the previous maximum was 300 individuals) and in 2006/2007 a flock of 50,000 was recorded at Yancheng National Nature Reserve; these represent the largest flocks recorded outside of South Korea in recent years (Zhang Kejia <I>in litt.</I> 2006, Zhang 2006). The total national population estimate has since been placed at 91,000 individuals (Cao <I>et al</I>. in prep.). The species has continued to increase its numbers and range in China (Lei Cao and M. Barter <I>in litt</I>. 2010), and a possibly slow increase in the population has been noted in Japan since the 1990s, albeit with some fluctuation in numbers (Hironobu Tajiri<I> in litt</I>. 2011).
100600461		habitat	eng	It nests in open tussock meadows near water and in mossy bogs with clumps of willows <I>Salix</I> and larch <I>Larix</I>. It winters (in dense aggregations) on freshwater lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and farmland, often roosting on water during the day and feeding in fields during the night. It feeds on seeds and grain, water snails, algae and other water plants. The species arrives on its Korean wintering grounds from September, peaking through October and November and returning north in mid March/early April (Degtyarev <I>et al</I>. 2006).
100600461		population	eng	The 2004 Asian Waterbird Census estimated the population in Korea at 455,000 individuals (D. Li <em>in litt</em>. 2005; Wetlands International 2006). A separate study in 2004 reported 658,000 individuals in Korea (Hansoo Lee <em>in litt</em>. 2004), but this could be an over-estimate. Further to this, Brazil (2009) has estimated national population sizes at &lt;c.100 breeding   pairs and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China and c.10,000-1 million   breeding pairs in Russia.
100600461		threats	eng	Hunting was probably the main reason for its decline and is still a serious threat, particularly as it concentrates in large flocks on wetlands and arable land. However, hunting itself is now thought to be in decline (Moores 1996, Moores <I>et al</I>. 2010). In China and South Korea, birds are killed by poisoned grain; pesticide poisoning and pollution from agricultural and household wastes are thought to be a serious problem in the Geum River, South Korea (Degtyarev <I>et al</I>. 2006). Large declines in the numbers of Anatidae have occurred in Sanjiang plain and Poyang Hu, China, as a result of habitat loss to agricultural development and hunting. Wintering sites in South Korea are largely unprotected and threatened by the development of wetlands (N. Moores <I>in litt</I>. 2010); there has been a recent proposal for building the largest tourist development in northeast Asia on the Haenem reclamation site, a key site for wintering Baikal Teal (C. Moores <I>in litt</I>. 2005). Also, its habit of forming dense aggregations in winter renders the species susceptible to infectious diseases; 10,000 birds were recorded dead owing to avian cholera in October, 2002 (Degtyarev <I>et al</I>. 2006). The species suffers from disturbance at the Geum River with up to 12 incidences per day of disturbance from low flying aircraft (Degtyarev <I>et al</I>. 2006).
100600465		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary in West Africa and Madagascar but partly migratory elsewhere (Scott and Rose 1996), undertaking regular but unpredictable (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992) short-distance movements (up to 700 km) in southern and eastern Africa in response to changing water levels (Scott and Rose 1996). It breeds in single pairs in all months of the year (dependant upon local rainfall) (Brown, <I>et al,</I> 1982), and remains in small groups even outside of the breeding season, although large aggregations have been recorded rarely  (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). Adults undergoing wing moult have been recorded in August-September in Zambia (Scott and Rose 1996). The species is crepuscular, being active usually only at dusk and dawn (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). H<B>abitat</B> This species frequents shallow, freshwater marshes, swamps, pools and lakes, feeding at muddy edges and amongst submerged, floating (water-lilies) and emergent (Papyrus, reeds - <I>Phragmites spp.</I>, bullrushes - <I>Typha</I> <I>spp.</I>) vegetation (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b). It may occasionally be seen on more open lakes and reservoirs (Madge and Burn 1988), or sewage pans (Brown, <I>et al,</I> 1982, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), and will feed on land in flooded fields, rice paddies and waterside areas heavily disturbed by wild ungulates or cattle (Kear 2005b). During the dry season this species regularly occurs in small numbers on small scattered pans in semi-arid regions (Scott and Rose 1996). Throughout the day the species often sleeps on open water or in quiet marshy backwaters (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005b), and may also rest on land (Brown, <I>et al,</I> 1982). <B>Diet</B> This species is omnivorous (Kear 2005b), as although its diet consists largely of seeds (especially of the grass <I>Sacciolepis</I>) (Johnsgard 1978), fruits and other vegetable matter, it may take aquatic invertebrates such as crustaceans, molluscs, water insects such as beetles and the larvae of flies (especially if these are super-abundant) (Johnsgard 1978, Brown, <I>et al,</I> 1982, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kear 2005b). <B>Breeding site</B> Nests are built from surrounding vegetation and well hidden above water in drowned trees, <I>Phragmites</I> or <I>Typha</I> reeds, <I>Cyperus</I> sedge or in Papyrus clumps (Brown, <I>et al,</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). Usually this species nests singly, but pairs will sometimes nest close together (Brown, <I>et al,</I> 1982).
100600465		threats	eng	Habitat degradation (e.g. wetland conversion by commercial and subsistence agriculture in South Africa) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) is the main threat to this species, so the protection of wetlands and waterside vegetation (also deliberately burnt in South Africa) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) is necessary to maintain populations (Kear 2005b). <B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted (e.g. it is hunted for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi) (Bhima 2006), and although hunting at current levels does not threaten the species (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Kear 2005b), a control of hunting practices may be necessary in the future to maintain population sizes at current levels (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b).
100600467		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Bulgaria, Israel, Morocco, Spain, Russia, Tunisia and Turkey. Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) project surveys were conducted in Iraq by Nature Iraq during 2005-2010, finding c.44,000 individuals in 2010 and resulting in the proposal of several KBAs which hold wintering and breeding populations to be designated as protected areas (Salim 2010). Awareness-raising efforts were carried out in Iraq including the production of posters and hosting of conferences and meetings with hunters and hunting societies by Nature Iraq (Salim 2010).  Conservation programmes have been carried out in Spain. Survey and research projects have been carried out in Morocco and Turkey. An updated European action plan was published in 2008 (Iñigo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys and monitoring. Research its ecology. Protect habitat at all sites regularly holding the species. Prevent mortality from hunting and other causes. Increase public awareness. <p></p>
100600467		distribution	eng	<em>Marmaronetta angustirostris</em> has a fragmented distribution in the western Mediterranean (<strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia, </strong>wintering in north and sub-Saharan west Africa), the eastern Mediterranean (<strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Syria, </strong>wintering south to<strong> Egypt</strong>) and western and southern Asia (<strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong> and <strong>China, </strong>wintering in Iran, Pakistan and north-west India) (Green 1996<span style="">). </span>Surveys in the winter of early 2010 recorded c.44,000 individuals in southern Iraq (Salim 2010)<span style="">, more than the previously estimated world population of 14,000-26,000 (in 2002). </span>This may not represent a genuine population increase, but is perhaps more likely a product of the restoration of the marshes of southern Iraq since 2002, which has probably now resulted in the concentration in this area of most of the <em>M. angustirostris</em> population wintering in south-western Asia, combined with improved observer coverage.  <span style=""> Prior to 1991, th</span>e estimated population was 34,000-40,000 birds. Numbers wintering in Iran have fallen from 25,000-30,000 (1985-1992) to c.5,000 in 1993 and c.3,700 in 1995<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Delany <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Estimates of a wintering population of 3,000 birds in 1997<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Green and El Hamzaoui 1998) and a count of 4,250 in Tunisia in 1999 (J. F. Bos and L. M. Gilissen <em>in litt</em>. 1999), suggest the western Mediterranean population is larger than previously thought. <p></p>
100600467		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is dispersive and partially migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). It shows variable, nomadic movements and is capable of dispersal in search of suitable habitat at any time of year as changing conditions require<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Scott and Rose 1996)<strong><sup>&#160;</sup></strong> (Kear 2005, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. There is a general tendency for a more southerly distribution during the non-breeding season and a more northerly distribution during the breeding season. It is highly gregarious post-breeding and during the non-breeding season when it occurs in large monospecific flocks (Kear 2005) of up to 2000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Green<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2002)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season it is more dispersive, although paired birds often mix with conspecifics (Kear 2005). Nests are sometimes built in close proximity to one another, although they become increasingly spaced out as population density declines (Kear 2005, <strong></strong>Green 2007). Nesting has been recorded from mid April to late June, and broods from mid-April to mid-September (Kear 2005). The species exhibits drastic population fluctuations, partly in response to annual variations in rainfall. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It is adapted to temporary, unpredictable, Mediterranean-type wetlands<strong></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Green 2000, 2007)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and breeds in fairly dry, steppe-like areas on shallow freshwater, brackish or alkaline ponds with well vegetated shorelines<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(Green 1993), and rich emergent and submergent vegetation (Kear 2005). It also breeds on delta marshes where receding waters leave behind large areas of shallow water with abundant sedges and bulrushes<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(Johnsgard 1978). In addition it may use slow rivers and saline coastal lagoons, and man-made wetlands including fish-rearing ponds and small reservoirs<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(Green 1993). Although it favours brackish wetlands, it tends to avoid waters of high salinity. Microhabitat requirements are strongly influenced by diet. <em>Non-breeding</em> It uses similar habitat during the non-breeding season.<strong> Diet </strong>Diet varies considerably between seasons and sites and additionally with age. Diptera are an important component of the diet , especially before and during the breeding season. Small seeds become increasingly important after the breeding season with faeces of post-breeding birds in Turkey composed of 95% dry weight <em>Scirpus</em> seeds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Green and Sánchez 2003,  Fuentes <em>et al</em>. 2004, Green and Selva 2000)<strong></strong>. Newly hatched chicks are highly dependent on emerging chironomids<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Green 2000).<strong> Breeding site</strong> Nests are usually constructed on the ground at the water's edge, beneath a covering of vegetation (Kear 2005, Green 1993). They may also occur above water in <em>Typha</em> stands (Kear 2005) and are reported to have been found in the roofs of reed huts (Hawkes 1970, Kear 2005<strong><sup></sup></strong>)<strong></strong>. Mean clutch size was recorded in Spain to be 11.8<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Green 1998).  <p></p>
100600467		population	eng	The global population is estimated at c.50,000-55,000 individuals, based on estimates of 3,000-5,000 in the west Mediterranean and West Africa (T. Dodman <em> in litt.</em> 2002); 1,000 in the east Mediterranean; 5,000 in south Asia, and at least 44,000 individuals in south-western Asia.
100600467		threats	eng	Over 50% of suitable habitat may have been destroyed during the 20th century. Wetland drainage for agriculture occurs across its range, most significantly in Iraq where the species remains threatened by fluctuating water levels and local water shortages. Hydrological work has severely affected breeding sites in Tunisia, Turkey, Morocco and Spain. In Iraq, the species is also threatened by illegal hunting and persecution, exacerbated by it being the principal wildfowl target for hunters during the summer months (Salim 2010). Reed-cutting, reed-burning and grazing commonly reduce the amount of habitat for nesting. Pollution from agricultural, industrial and domestic sources is a threat at many sites. When breeding, it is vulnerable to shooting and egg collection. Further mortality results from birds caught in fishing nets and lead poisoning<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Svanberg <em>et al</em>. 2006, Mateo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. A lack of habitat following hot, dry summer months probably results in high juvenile and adult mortality post-breeding (Green 2000, 2007). Lack of water availability for the El Hondo reservoirs in Alicante have led to a major decline in Spain since 1998 (Ballesteros<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).    <p></p>
100600468		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II. Throughout the 1950s there were attempts to clarify its status, culminating in a literature and museum specimen review. It was subsequently searched for in some key areas. Since 1956, it has been legally protected. Since 2003, BirdLife International <em>in Indochina</em> and the Biodiversity and National Conservation Association (BANCA) have conducted a number of searches in Kachin State, Myanmar, the most recent taking place in January 2008<strong> </strong>(Eames 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate (provisionally using satellite imagery) and systematically survey any remaining remote and large tracts of suitable habitat within its former range, particularly north Bihar, Assam, India, and Kachin, Rakhine and possibly Chin States, Myanmar, and interview local hunters. Attempt night-time surveys given the species's potential nocturnal habits<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2008). Should it be rediscovered, stringent protection measures should be implemented to ensure the survival of any populations. Where possible introduce formal protected area status or non-formal management by local stakeholders for key wetland sites that may support this species (and which are known to support other Globally Threatened waterbirds)<strong> </strong>(Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2008). <p></p>
100600468		distribution	eng	<em>Rhodonessa caryophyllacea</em> was locally distributed in the wetlands of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar, and occurred rarely in Nepal, with most records from north-east India and adjacent Bangladesh. It was always considered uncommon or rare and was last definitely seen in the wild in 1949, surviving until around the same time in captivity. Recent "sightings" and positive leads from a series of questionnaires about its possible continued existence in north-east India were the result of confusion with Red-crested Pochard <em>Netta rufina</em>. Five searches in Kachin State, Myanmar, between April 2003 and December 2006 gained a possible sighting (in 2004), two credible reports from local fishermen and during the 2006 survey focused at Nawng Kwin and the grasslands and oxbow lakes along the Indawgyi River the team gathered the most convincing reports to date from a local fisherman that the species still occurs in the area<strong> </strong>(Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2008). Further searches took place in January 2008 in northern Kachin State, focusing on the three sites from which there had been recent reports or claims, but the team failed to find convincing evidence of the species's continued existence there<strong> </strong>(Eames 2008).  <em> </em><p></p>
100600468		habitat	eng	It is shy and secretive, inhabiting secluded and overgrown still-water pools, marshes and swamps in lowland forest and tall grasslands, particularly areas subject to seasonal inundation and, in winter, also lagoons adjoining large rivers. Outside the breeding season it was usually encountered in small groups and occasionally flocks of 30-40. Some, and possibly all, populations undertook local seasonal movements, resulting in scattered historical records as far afield as Punjab, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh in India. Conjecture from researchers conducting surveys for the species has suggested that it may be nocturnal, explaining the difficulty in locating it, and the reason behind its unique colouration<strong> </strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <p></p>
100600468		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on a lack of records and failure of surveys to find it.
100600468		threats	eng	Its decline likely resulted from habitat loss. Clearance of forest and conversion of wetlands for agricultural land has destroyed much of its habitat. Furthermore, it suffered year-round persecution during a period (the late 19th and early 20th centuries) when hunting levels in India were high. A number of other waterbird species have declined in South and South-East Asia as a consequence of human disturbance and/or hunting pressure and egg collection. However, these species, e.g. White-winged Duck <em>Cairinia scutulata</em>, do persist in parts of South and South-East Asia, suggesting that hunting pressure alone is unlikely to have caused the species's extirpation<strong> </strong>(Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2008). While the species was hunted historically, the role that this has played in its decline remains uncertain<strong> </strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2008). The invasive alien species water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes </em>may have contributed to its decline by altering wetland habitats to the detriment of this species<strong> </strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <p></p>
100600469		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The species is fully migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998) or locally dispersive (e.g. in Europe) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and breeds from mid-April to early-June (Madge and Burn 1988) in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Males and non-breeders moult and become flightless for four weeks between June and August (females moulting one month later) (Scott and Rose 1996) prior to which they may make extensive moult migrations which take them considerable distances from the breeding waters (Madge and Burn 1988). Once this post-breeding moult is complete the species departs for its winter quarters, arriving there from October onwards (Madge and Burn 1988). The species is highly gregarious for most of the year (Snow and Perrins 1998) and although it is more commonly found in small groups (Madge and Burn 1988) it often forms large concentrations (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) of several hundred individuals (Scott and Rose 1996) in moulting and wintering areas (Madge and Burn 1988). It feeds diurnally, being most active during the early morning and evening (Kear2005b). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits inland deep fresh or brackish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) reed-fringed lakes, rivers, or saline and alkaline lagoons (Kear2005b) in open country (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), also occurring (less often) on estuaries, river deltas and other sheltered coastal habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) on passage (Madge and Burn 1988) or during the winter (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists predominantly of the roots, seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. <I>Chara</I> spp. (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), <I>Hippurus</I> spp., hornworts <I>Ceratophyllum</I> spp., pondweeds <I>Potamogeton</I> spp., milfoil <I>Myriophyllum</I> spp. (Johnsgard 1978) and especially stonewort <I>Nitellopsis obtusa</I> (Ruiters <I>et al.</I> 1994)), although it will occasionally also take aquatic invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. molluscs) (Johnsgard 1978), amphibians and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of roots, twigs and leaves near water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear2005b) on the ground in dense vegetation or on floating mats of vegetation amidst reedbeds (Johnsgard 1978). Although the species usually breeds well-dispersed, neighbouring pairs may sometimes nest as close as 30 m apart (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear2005b). <B>Management information </B>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha<SUP>1</SUP>, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp or other herbivorous fish species), and systems that include ponds with fish fry are more likely to have high abundances of aquatic vegetation and are therefore more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species (Musil 2006).
100600469		threats	eng	The two main threats to this species are habitat degradation (Defos du Rau 2002) (e.g. through land-use changes) (Kear2005b) and hunting (Kear2005b) (e.g. the species is hunted in France, Portugal and Spain without any official hunting bag monitoring (Defos du Rau 2002)). The species also suffers poisoning from lead shot ingestion (Spain) (Mateo <I>et al.</I> 1998)and is occasionally drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China) (Quan <I>et al.</I> 2002). Deterioration in the water quality of wetlands can reduce the abundance of stonewort <I>Nitellopsis obtusa</I> (which is an important part of the species's diet) (Ruiters <I>et al.</I> 1994), and it is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted recreationally and for commercial purposes in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
100600470		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
100600471		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is partly migratory, undertaking both local and long-distance migrations within its southern African range (Scott and Rose 1996). South African populations migrate northwards during the dry season, and there is evidence that the species may congregate in the central parts of its range (Zambia, Tanzania) in the middle of the year in order to breed (Scott and Rose 1996). The exact timing of the breeding season varies according to locality and water levels (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), but eggs are often laid towards the end of the wet season (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). During the breeding season Southern Pochard is usually encountered singly in pairs or small parties (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). During the non-breeding season the species is relatively gregarious, with flocks of several hundred birds recorded at times (a concentration of 5,000 birds was once recorded) (Johnsgard 1978). Such large congregations usually only occur during the dry season however, when the reduction of water areas causes concentrations of birds to develop (Johnsgard 1978).  In South Africa (Scott and Rose 1996) adult birds undergo a total wing-moult period between August and September when they are flightless for around 31 days (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). During this period adult birds seek refuge on open water when they are together in flocks, or remain close to beds of emergent aquatic vegetation such as reeds or sedges if they are solitary (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species is both diurnal and nocturnal, feeding during the day and sometimes during the night, and is most active in the early mornings and evenings (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> This species occurs on most still freshwater (and sometimes brackish water) (Madge and Burn 1988) habitats with abundant submerged vegetation, from sea level up to 2,400 m in East Africa (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996, Kear 2005b). This includes shallow to deep, large to small, permanent or temporary pools or lakes, with or without emergent vegetation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Kear 2005b). It has recently been known to colonise reservoirs and rice paddy fields in South America (Kear 2005b) but is rarely seen on land (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Generally it avoids rivers, turbid waters, very shallow temporary ponds and flooded areas (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Diet</B> The species is primarily vegetarian although it may take animal material (Johnsgard 1978). Its diet consists primarily of seeds but also roots and vegetative parts of aquatic or shoreline vegetation (including water-lilies, bladderwort, duckweeds, cattails, bulrushes, grasses, sedges and domestic rice) (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), as well as aquatic beetles, snails, ants, hemipterans and crustaceans (Johnsgard 1978, Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Kear 2005b). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a basin-shaped construction of plant material that is usually well hidden in tall emergent vegetation such as papyrus, reeds or sedges, either above the water, along the bank or a little way from the water in tall grass (Kear 2005b). Nests have also occasionally been reported in exposed positions in sedge, on dam walls, in old antbear holes and in old nests of other water birds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B></B>
100600471		threats	eng	The South American population of this species has gone through a large decline, possibly due to habitat degradation (siltation caused by soil erosion degrades the rich macrophyte waterbodies favoured by the species) (Kear 2005b). In Africa this species is threatened through the transformation of wetlands into agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b) and through entanglement in gill nets (Kear 2005b). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (van Heerden 1974).<B>
100600472		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern populations of this species are highly migratory (Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), with those breeding in the milder parts of western or southern Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998) being sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) or only making short-distance dispersal movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) governed by harsh weather conditions (Scott and Rose 1996). The spring migration may occur as early as February in mild winters, with the main migration occurring from March to early-April (Scott and Rose 1996). The breeding grounds are reoccupied from the early-March (in the south) to early May (in Siberia) (Scott and Rose 1996) with breeding starting from April-May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species mainly moults on the breeding grounds before the autumn migration, becoming flightless for a period of 3-4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996). The autumn migration to wintering grounds peaks between late-September and November (Scott and Rose 1996), females migrating slightly later than the males (which results in a segregation of the sexes in the wintering range: males further north and females further south) (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and travels in small parties on passage (Snow and Perrins 1998), sometimes gathering in flocks of many thousands during the post-breeding moult period (Snow and Perrins 1998). During the winter it becomes highly gregarious, gathering in flocks of many thousands of individuals (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species can be crepuscular in the winter, and often feeds by night (Kear 2005b) by bottom-feeding and diving (Snow and Perrins 1998) (most foraging being done at depths of 1-3 m) (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Habitat </B>The species requires extensive areas of nutrient-rich open water less than 6 m deep (Scott and Rose 1996) that is uncluttered with floating vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) but has abundant submerged macrophytes (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b), surrounding emergent (Madge and Burn 1988) vegetation and/or animal food (e.g. Chironomid larvae) (Kear 2005b). <I>Breeding</I> In its breeding range the species inhabits base-rich (e.g. saline, brackish or soda) lakes (Kear 2005b), eutrophic freshwater lakes, well-vegetated freshwater or brackish (Johnsgard 1978) marshes with areas of open water, swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996) and slow-flowing rivers (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996). Although it shows a strong preference for inland wetlands (Snow and Perrins 1998), the species will shift to coastal habitats such as sheltered coastal bays (Kear 2005b) when driven by frost or other compelling factors (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter the species frequents similar habitats to those it breeds in, including large lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996), slow-flowing rivers (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996), reservoirs (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996), brackish waters, marshes, weirs (Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and flooded gravel pits (Fox <I>et al.</I> 1994). As in the breeding season, the species will shift to coastal habitats such as brackish lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996), tidal estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996) and inshore waters (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) (where it associates with sewage outfalls) (Kear 2005b) when driven by frost or other compelling factors (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet </B>The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), roots (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), rhizomes (Kear 2005b) and the vegetative parts of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), as well as aquatic insects and larvae (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. midge and caddis fly larvae during the summer) (Johnsgard 1978), molluscs, crustaceans, worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992)(oligochaetes) (Marsden and Bellamy 2000), amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. frogs and tadpoles) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a depression (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or shallow cup (Kear 2005b) in a thick heap of vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) positioned on the ground (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (usually within 10 m of water) (Snow and Perrins 1998), in shallow water (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (c.30 cm deep) (Johnsgard 1978), concealed in thick waterside vegetation (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. reedbeds) (Johnsgard 1978), or on floating mats of reeds of other vegetation (Johnsgard 1978). In years of high water levels when there are few emergent reedbeds or floating mats the species may nest in sedge tussocks, in flooded fields, or under bushes on hummocks (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Management information </B>In the Trebon Basin Biosphere Reserve, Czech Republic, it was found that artificial islands and wide strips of littoral vegetation are the most secure breeding habitats that can be created for the species (nest survival in littoral habitats was improved by reduced nest visibility, increased water depth, and increased distance from the nest to the habitat edge, and nest survival on islands was improved with increased distance to open water) (Albrecht <I>et al.</I> 2006). In the UK (Salford docks, Manchester) the species prefers to feed in waters heavily polluted with sewage that are devoid of aquatic vegetation but hold high densities of oligocheates and other pollution-tolerant organisms. The species may therefore suffer from plans to improve water quality in the docks (e.g. modernising sewage treatment systems and oxygenating water) (Marsden and Bellamy 2000). The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK attracted nesting pairs to the area by causing an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes (Giles 1994). The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994).<B>
100600472		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,200,000-2,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   c.10,000 individuals on migration and &lt;c.10,000 wintering individuals in   Korea and &lt;c.100 breeding pairs and c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan   (Brazil 2009).
100600472		threats	eng	The species is threatened by disturbance from hunting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Evans and Day 2002, Kear 2005b), water-based recreation (Fox <I>et al.</I> 1994, Kear 2005b) and from machinery noise from urban development (Marsden 2000). It is also threatened by habitat destruction (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) on its wintering grounds due to eutrophication (partially as a result of nutrient run-off from agricultural land) (Kear 2005b). The species suffers from nest predation by American mink <I>Mustela vison</I> in Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003), and adults are poisoned by ingesting lead shot (Spain) (Mateo <I>et al</I>. 1998) and drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China) (Quan <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation </B>This species is hunted in Northern Island (Evans and Day 2002), Spain (Mateo <I>et al</I>. 1998) and Italy (Sorrenti <I>et al.</I> 2006), and the eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979). The species is also hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
100600476		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is fully protected in Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Moldova, Netherlands, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland, and is protected from hunting in Austria, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Turkey and Ukraine. It is listed on Annex I of the European Union Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds, on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Appendices I and II of the Bonn Convention. The species has received little international conservation action, although a number of national initiatives have been developed recently, notably habitat management in Bulgaria and re-introduction schemes in Italy (Berezovikov and Samusev 1998)<strong></strong>. One of the highest priorities for this species is to establish systematic annual monitoring of Asian populations to more accurately assess trends. Such monitoring, if it provided evidence of continuing and significant declines across major Asian populations, could provide reason to uplist this species. An International Single Species Action Plan has been adopted by the Bern Convention, CMS and AEWA, which lays out a framework for conservation action throughout the specie's range (Robinson and Callaghan 2003). A restoration project for two key breeding sites on the Danube in <strong>Bulgaria </strong>is underway, funded by the World Bank<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(N. Petkov <em>in litt. </em>2003).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Promote the full legal protection of <em>A. nyroca</em> and its habitat through national and international legislation; promote environmentally friendly management of fishponds in Eastern Europe; promote adequate protection and management of key sites; promote conservation in the wider environment for the benefit of <em>A. nyroca</em> and its habitat; prevent mortality and disturbance caused by hunting; monitor the remaining population (particularly in Asia)and develop census techniques; investigate productivity and mortality; investigate ecology and limiting factors; investigate the impact of <em>C. idella</em> on the species and its habitat; develop and implement education programmes for the conservation of <em>A. nyroca</em> and its habitats.  <p></p>
100600476		distribution	eng	<em>Aythya nyroca</em> breeds principally in south-western Asia (east to <strong>China </strong>and south to <strong>Pakistan </strong>and <strong>India</strong>), central and eastern Europe, and north Africa (Callaghan 1999;&#160;<strong></strong>Vinicombe 2000)<strong></strong>. The wintering range overlaps with the breeding range and extends to the Middle East, north-east and West Africa (mainly <strong>Mali </strong>and <strong>Nigeria</strong><sup>&#160;</sup><strong></strong>[Vinicombe 2000]) and South-East Asia. Four main populations are recognised and migration occurs from early September to mid-October, whilst breeding grounds are re-occupied from mid-March to early May<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000). The main part of the population occurs in Asia, where there is much suitable habitat and it remains common, although quantitative data are lacking. Given that this species's range may fluctuate considerably from year to year, owing to changing water levels, it is unclear how much one-off high counts from Asian countries represent just one mobile population<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Petkov <em>et al.</em> 2003). The current global population is estimated at c.163,000-257,000 individuals. An estimate for North Africa and Asia of 10,000 individuals in 1991<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Perennou <em>et al.</em> 1994) appears too low. About 600 pairs breed in the El Kala National Park, <strong>Algeria</strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000), and there have been recent reports of breeding in Aswan, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Eg<span style="">ypt</span><span style=""> </span><span style="">(Hoek </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2010).</span><span style=""> </span>In Europe the breeding population is estimated at 12,000-18,000 pairs with the largest population in <strong>Romania</strong> (5,500-6,500 breeding pairs, concentrated in the Danube Delta) (BirdLife International 2004; O. Hatzofe <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Significant populations (between 1,000 and 5,000 pairs) are also found in <strong></strong><strong>Croatia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, and possibly <strong>Turkey</strong>, whilst smaller populations (c.500-1,000 pairs) are found in <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Serbia</strong> and possibly <strong></strong><strong>Ukraine</strong><strong> </strong>(BirdLife International 2004; O. Hatzofe <em>in litt.</em> <span style="">2005; Dordevic </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009). P</span>opulations in most European countries are showing signs of continuing large-scale declines. Sporadic breeding and/or wintering occurs in several western European countries. In Asia recent surveys have found high numbers, perhaps into the tens of thousands, in<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong> </strong>Inner<strong> </strong>Mongolia<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Xing Lianlian pers. comm. 1998)<strong></strong> (although the accuracy of these counts is unclear, and may refer to non-breeding birds from other areas), 6,000-7,000 breeding pairs in <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>(S. Yerokhov verbally <em>per</em> N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2005) (although others have suggested it is uncommon<strong> </strong>[C. Inskipp <em>in litt.</em> 2005; A. A. Khan <em>in litt.</em> 2006]<strong></strong>) and it is apparently common on the Tibetan Plateau, <strong>China</strong> (Scott 1993), and in winter in <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(70,000 birds counted at one group of four sites) (R. Halder <em>in litt.</em> 2002), <strong>Myanmar</strong> and <strong></strong><strong>Thailand</strong>. Other large winter counts have been made in Azerbaijan (9,000 birds), <strong></strong><strong>Turkmenistan</strong><strong> </strong>(21,000 birds) (Carboneras 1992a)<strong></strong> and<strong> </strong><strong>Uzbekistan</strong> (7,000 birds<strong> </strong>[Kashkarov and Mukhina 1997], but recently less<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[S. Yerokhov verbally <em>per</em> N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2005]). Small numbers occur on passage in <strong>Lebanon</strong> and <strong></strong><strong>Qatar</strong> and also in winter in <strong></strong><strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong>. The species has declined markedly in Europe where there have been declines of more than 20% in eight European countries (BirdLife International 2004; O. Hatzofe <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The status of the European population (12,000-18,000 pairs, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) was recently reassessed (BirdLife International 2004; O. Hatzofe <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Following a large decline in Europe during 1970-1990<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Unpublished expert communications to S. Sklyarenko 2005), the species continued to decline during 1990-2000, when up to 45% of birds appear to have been lost (particularly in south-east Europe). The European population is believed to have declined overall by &gt;30% (BirdLife International 2004; O. Hatzofe <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. There is also some evidence for declines in the number of birds in India<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. Katzner <em>in litt.</em> 2005; A. W. Tordoff <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, Kazakhstan<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Berezovikov and Samusev 1998; S. Subramanya <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> (although other evidence suggests that this population is actually stable [S. Yerokhov verbally <em>per</em> N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2005]<strong></strong>), Kyrgyzstan<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(C. Inskipp <em>in litt.</em> 2005), Pakistan<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(N. Petkov <em>in litt.</em> 2005), Uzbekistan<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kashkarov and Mukhina 1997; S. Subramanya <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> (but this population may have now stabilised<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[S. Yerokhov verbally <em>per</em> N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2005]<strong></strong>) and Vietnam<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Tucker and Heath 1994), and to a minor degree in Nepal<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(C. Inskipp <em>in litt.</em> 2005) (but possibly stable there<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[H. S. Baral <em>in litt.</em> 2005]). Winter counts from Israel suggest that population to be generally stable in recent years (T. Heinicke <em>in litt.</em> 2005). In Ukraine, numbers have fallen from an estimated 65,000 in the late 1960s<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000) to an estimated 1,500 pairs, whilst declines have also been recorded in Moldova, Albania (from 100-300 pairs to a recent estimate of 0-3 pairs<strong><sup>&#160;</sup></strong><strong></strong>[N. Petkov <em>in litt. </em>2003]), Poland,<strong> </strong>Hungary, and <strong>Spain</strong> (from c.500 pairs 100 years ago to five pairs in recent years)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000). However, populations remain stable in a number of other countries and slight local increases may have occurred in parts of Russia and Ukraine since hunting has diminished due to the species's rarity<strong> </strong>(Vinicombe 2000). This species's range has fluctuated considerably over the last c.150 years, although the overall trend has been towards a declining population and distribution. Owing to significant local declines it is classified as Vulnerable in Europe. Evidence of declines in the larger Asian populations is sparse, and sometimes contradictory, and so there is insufficient evidence at present to warrant uplisting to Vulnerable globally. <span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><em>  <p></p></em></span></span></span>
100600476		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is chiefly migratory<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, although little is known about its migratory routes (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> and some individuals in southern populations may remain on the breeding grounds all year<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b). It breeds from April or May<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> until late June<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Madge and Burn 1988) in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. Adults undertake a wing moulting period on the breeding grounds between July and August (Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> when large flocks of moulting individuals may gather (Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong> (no moult migration is recorded however [Scott and Rose 1996])<strong></strong>. Departure from the breeding grounds begins in mid- to late-August (N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008) and peaks in October<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the species arriving in wintering areas from late October (Scott and Rose 1996). The return migration to the breeding grounds begins in early March (Scott and Rose 1996). Large gatherings of up to 100 individuals may occur prior to migration at the end of the post-breeding moult<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Madge and Burn 1988) (July to August Scott and Rose (1996])<strong></strong>, and on migration the species often remains in small groups of 20-50 individuals (N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Outside of the breeding season the species may be observed solitarily, in pairs or small loose groups<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Madge and Burn 1988) of 2-5 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998), and larger gatherings of 1,000-2,000 individuals are also recorded from wintering grounds in Niger and C<span style="">had </span>(Petkov <em>et al.</em> 2003). <strong>Habitat</strong> It shows a strong preference for fresh standing water<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998; N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong> and is very rarely found on flowing streams or rivers (N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008). It requires shallow water 30-100 cm deep close to littoral vegetation for feeeding<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>Kear 2005b)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and generally avoids large open areas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. In Bulgaria there is evidence that the species shows a preference for well-vegetated, comparatively shallow wetlands with well-structured mosaic vegetation and a diversity of microhabitats. It is also found on shallow mudflats, possibly as a result of more accessible and abundant invertebrate food sources in this habitat<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Petkov in prep.) <em>Breeding</em> Shallow eutrophic freshwater pools and marshes with dense abundant submergent, floating, emergent and shoreline vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) are the major breeding habitats<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>Kear 2005b; N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Shallow banks with flooded vegetation and mudflats are particularly used for foraging during this season. The species shows a particular preference for breeding, moulting and staging on large river deltas<strong> </strong>(Kear (2005b; Scott and Rose 1996; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong><strong></strong>)<strong></strong> and extensively managed fish ponds in Eastern Europe (Petkov 2006; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong><strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. It is also less-commonly known to utilise brackish waters of estuaries, coastal lagoons, reservoirs, salt-pans, sewage farms, canals and drainage ditches during this season<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong><strong></strong>; N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>.<em> Non-breeding</em> Its habitat requirements outside of the breeding season are similar to those of the breeding season<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b), although it may also frequent large lakes, open lagoons, coastal marshes with reedbeds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Kear 2005b; Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and shallow coastal bays, straits and estuaries (Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Although the species is omnivorous, plant material such as seeds, roots and vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (<em>Potamogeton</em> spp., <em>Ceratophyllum</em> spp., <em>Scirpus</em> spp., <em>Carex</em> spp. and macroalgae <em>Chara</em> spp. [Kear 2005b])<strong></strong> dominates its diet. Animal matter taken includes worms, molluscs<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (snails [Kear 2005b])<strong></strong>, crustaceans, adult and larval insects<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (beetles, chironomids (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, dragonflies, waterbugs, caddisflies, flies [Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982]), amphibians<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (frogs, tadpoles and spawn [Kear 2005b; Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982])<strong></strong><strong></strong> and small fish<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> up to 3 cm long (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a low platform<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998) of reeds and other vegetation<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> placed on the ground or on an islet or hummock in thick vegetation close to water (Kear 2005b; Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Alternatively nests may be placed over water on floating mats of vegetation (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong> or in dense reedbeds along the shoreline (Kear 2005b; Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600476		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,400-2,600 in North Africa; 36,000-54,000 in eastern Europe; 25,000-100,000 in south-west Asia and north-east Africa (based on counts in the 1990s of 9,000 in Azerbaijan, 21,000 in Turkmenistan and 7,000 in Uzbekistan), and over 100,000 in the rest of Asia (based on tens of thousands breeding in Inner Mongolia (Xing Lianlian <em>in litt.</em> 1998), common occurrence on the Tibetan Plateau, and upwards of 90,000 being present on the hoars of north-east Bangladesh in January 2002).
100600476		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the degradation and destruction of well-vegetated shallow pools and other wetland habitats<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000;&#160;<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;&#160;<strong></strong>Kear 2005b; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(e.g. changes to the vegetation community, disruption of water regimes, siltation, and increased water turbidity [Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>])<strong></strong> as a result of excessive drainage and water abstraction<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000;&#160;<strong></strong>Grishanov 2006; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, peat extraction<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Grishanov 2006), eutrophication (from inadequate sewage treatment and nutrient run-off [Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>])<strong></strong>, oil pollution<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Grishanov 2006), dam and barrage construction, the building of infrastructure on flood-plains<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Vinicombe 2000; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong> and river canalisation<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. Changing land management practices such as reed cutting and burning during the breeding season (Petkov 2006)<strong></strong>, over-grazing<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Robinson and Hughes 2006) decreased grazing and mowing of wet meadows<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Grishanov 2006), and abandonment (causing succession to scrub) or intensification (causing reversion to open water) of extensively managed fishponds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000;&#160;<strong></strong>Kear 2005b; Petkov 2006; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong><strong></strong>)<strong></strong> also threatens the species. The introduction of non-native species has caused further habitat degradation. For example the stocking of lakes with and accidental introduction of Grass Carp <em>Ctenopharyngodon idella</em> has resulted in reductions in macrophyte biomass and corresponding reductions in invertebrate biomass<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, and in Bulgaria an introduced shrub (Desert False Indigo <em>Amorpha fruticosa</em>) is changing the ecological character of wetlands (Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Introduced predators such as the Wels Catfish <em>Silurus glanis</em> (Kazakhstan) that predate ducklings, and the Muskrat <em>Ondatra zibethicus</em> (Aral Sea region) have also caused population declines (Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Increased drought due to global climate change may pose a threat to the species in part of its range<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Disturbance by fishing boats and anglers alongside fringe vegetation could cause abandonment of the breeding sites or disrupt the timing of breeding (N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Hunting is another serious threat to the species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vinicombe 2000;&#160;<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992<strong></strong>; Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong></strong><strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Large numbers are shot on passage in the autumn (e.g. through the Volga delta) and on the wintering grounds (e.g. Sudan)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kear 2005b; Balmaki and Barati 2006)<strong></strong>. Illegal and accidental hunting also persists in most European countries. Other lower-level threats include lead poisoning (from ingestion of discarded lead shot), fires in areas of reed thickets, peat bogs and wo<span style="">ods (Grishanov 2006) and entanglement and drowning in fishing nets (Robinson and Hughes 2006</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> and hybridisation with native species (e.g. Tufted Duck </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Aythya fuligula</span><span style=""> and Common Pochard </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Aythya ferina</span><span style=""> in Switzerland [Leuzinger 2010]).  </span><p></p>
100600477		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Peregrine Fund and Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust are conducting further surveys at the site of rediscovery, which is currently permanently guarded, and are now seeking the support of locals to gain formal protection for the area (R. Watson <em>in litt</em>. 2006; L.A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2008; <strong></strong>Watson 2007; Cranswick 2010)<strong></strong>. Furthermore, together with the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and the government of Madagascar, and with support from with Mitsubishi Corporation Fund for Europe and Africa, a conservation breeding facility has been built, and a Malagasy warden was to be appointed to help protect the breeding site (Anon 2009)<strong></strong>. A small number of eggs were opportunistically taken from the wild in 2009, leading to hatching of the first captively-reared individuals<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Jarrett 2010)<strong></strong>, with three clutches successfully hatched by the end of the year, producing 20 young (Cranswick 2010)<strong></strong>. The long-term aims of such efforts are to secure of the existing population and to establish another viable population in the wild (Cranswick 2010)<strong></strong>. Work is ongoing through WWT, the Peregrine Fund and two PhD students to identify potential areas for the release of captive-bred birds, which will probably necessitate some habitat restoration (Cranswick 2010, 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Efforts are underway to conserve the last vestiges of suitable habitat at Lake Alaotra (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, and Lake Alaotra became a Ramsar Site in 2003. Searches for the species continue, as do education and awareness programmes on the benefits of maintaining natural wetlands. However, implementation of any conservation policy for the area will be very difficult owing to Alaotra's huge economic importance for agriculture and fisheries (Pidgeon 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue searches for extant populations, with a particular focus around former high-plateau wetlands (Rene de Roland <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect areas of least-modified wetland at Lake Alaotra. Continue community surveys and wetland awareness programmes. Conduct further surveys to determine the existing population size. Continue work to establish a captive-breeding programme. Carry out inventory of wetlands near remaining population to identify sites for release of captive-bred birds and assess the need for habitat restoration (Cranswick 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600477		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <strong>Madagascar </strong>(although sub-fossil remains of an <em>Aythya </em>duck on Reunion are attributed to <em>A. innotata</em>), where it was found historically in the Lake Alaotra basin in the northern central plateau. It was considered relatively common at Lake Alaotra in the 1930s, but declined dramatically through the 1940s and 1950s (Young and Kear 2006, Rene de Roland <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Until the 1990s, the last certain record was at Lake Alaotra in 1960, with one unconfirmed sighting near Antananarivo in 1970 and several other possible records. Then a single male was captured alive in August 1991. Intensive searches (including major publicity campaigns) at Alaotra during 1989-1990 and 1993-1994 failed to discover more birds. However, in 2006 the species was rediscovered when nine adults and four juveniles were observed at a volcanic lake situated 330 km north of the last known site, Lake Alaotra (S. T. Seing <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Reports from local people that the lake was not suitable for rice cultivation round the edge, it contained no fish and that the water was cold suggest that the species may have persisted at this new location because human disturbance has been minimal (S. T. Seing <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Follow-up surveys in 2006 located c.20 mature individuals with up to nine ducklings observed at the same site (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Five birds were seen at a second lake c.3-4 km from the site but these may be part of the 20 individuals counted previously. A total of 25 mature individuals were counted in 2008, with six pairs nesting in the 2007/08 season (L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. However, no chicks fledged in 2008 or 2009 (P. Cranswick <em>in litt. </em>2009, H. G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>, and only 19 adults were recorded in July 2009 (Jarrett 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, including six females (Cranswick 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 2011 there was again no successful breeding, and the lake was apparently in poor condition with little available food other than caddis fly larvae (Cranswick 2012), however a total of 29 mature individuals were counted (L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600477		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is generally sedentary and usually occurs singly, or occasionally in pairs (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It is not known to flock or to associate with any other species (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Nesting has been observed during the months of July to January (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species was historically only known from shallow freshwater lakes and marshes that combine open water with nearby areas of dense vegetation (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998; G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. It probably prefers marshy areas and shallow water (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. However, the site of its rediscovery is a volcanic lake with very little emergent vegetation (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. What vegetation does grow at the lake edge may provide suitable nesting habitat.<strong> </strong>The requirement for shallow water may prevent it from using other volcanic lakes similar to the site of its rediscovery (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.The nest is sited amongst lake-edge vegetation (Cyperaceae) and placed 10-20cm above water. The clutch size is 6-10 eggs (L.-A. Réne de Roland and G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).   <strong>Diet </strong>It is believed to feed on benthic invertebrates and aquatic plants and seeds by diving frequently in shallow waters (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>.<br/><p><strong> </strong></span></p>  <strong></strong> <p></p>
100600477		population	eng	A total of 25 adult birds were counted at the rediscovery site in 2008, with 29 there in 2011 (L.-A. Réne de Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The species may persist elsewhere but the numbers are likely to be tiny, with fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
100600477		threats	eng	Given that it has a tiny known population, it faces significant risk from stochastic events and genetic factors, particularly inbreeding depression. Since permanent guards have been positioned at the rediscovery site the population appears to have increased, suggesting that hunting may have been a threat there (L.A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, however breeding success has remained low, with no young reared in some years. Young may have trouble finding adequate food and if they do fledge likelihood of dispersing birds surviving away from main site is very low (H. G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  Slash-and-burn agriculture takes place in the catchment around the sole remaining site, and may be causing ash and silt sedimentation which has left the majority of the lake in very poor condition with little suitable food (Cranswick 2012). Previous declines have been attributed to the widespread loss of habitat through siltation and conversion to agriculture throughout the central plateau and, from the 1950s, introduction of exotic fish species to Alaotra and other wetlands (Young and Kear 2006)<strong></strong>. Lake Alaotra, one of very few unconverted central plateau wetlands, is under considerable and increasing pressure: the area is one of Madagascar's major rice producers, with 250 km<sup>2</sup> of the 350 km<sup>2</sup> surrounding the lake converted to rice cultivation (Edhem 1993)<strong></strong>. Soil erosion from deforested hillsides and more intensive agricultural practices have diminished the water quality of the lake (Pidgeon 1996)<strong></strong>. Introductions of exotic plants, mammals (<em>Rattus</em>) and fish, especially <em>Tilapia</em>, have depleted essential food supplies and likely increased nest-predation for the species (Pidgeon 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The introduction of <em>Tilapia</em> into Alaotra probably had a devastating effect on the pochard and other more widespread waterbirds preferring emergent vegetation (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Some of these species apparently died out at Alaotra but have repopulated from other parts of their ranges as water-lilies and other emergent vegetation have made a comeback along the marsh's southern edge (G. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Hunting and trapping of adults for food, and death through entanglement in monofilament gill-nets, are thought to have contributed to the decline of this species (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600478		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia and Hong Kong (China) and in some provinces in China. Some of its breeding and wintering sites are within protected areas, including Daursky, Khanka lake and Bolon lake (Russia), Sanjiang and Xianghai (China), Mai Po (Hong Kong), Koshi Barrage (Nepal), and Thale Noi (Thailand). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population, distribution, ecology and threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. <span style="">Research the species's breeding distribution and biology and feeding biology. Est</span>ablish more protected areas in its breeding grounds. Extend the area of the Khanka Lake Reserve (Russia). Designate the Xianghai Nature Reserve (China) as a restricted area during the breeding season. Regulate hunting of all Anatidae species in China. Ensure legal protection of this species in all range states.  <p></p>
100600478		distribution	eng	<em>Aythya baeri</em> breeds in the Amur and Ussuri basins in <strong>Russia</strong> and north-eastern <strong>China</strong>. It winters mainly in eastern and southern mainland China<strong></strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(c. 10 individuals in the last five years [J. Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010, S. Chowdhury<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2010, S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011], down from 1,000 - 2,000 individuals [P. Thompson <em>in litt. </em>2005])<strong></strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>, with smaller numbers in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea </strong>(very few records in the latter three countries in recent years [N. Moores <em>in litt. </em>2005])<strong></strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), <strong>Nepal </strong>(now a very rare visitor and absent in some years [H. S. Baral <em>in litt. </em>2007])<strong></strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Thailand </strong>(occurring in small numbers having suffered significant declines, e.g. around four or five individuals occur at Bung Boraphet, down from &gt;420 birds in 1988 [P. Round <em>in litt. </em>2007]), <strong>Lao PDR  </strong>(only one confirmed record [J. Tordoff <em>in litt. </em>2007]), and <strong>Vietnam </strong>(very rare in recent years<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[J. Tordoff <em>in litt. </em>2007]) and is a rare migrant to <strong>Mongolia</strong>. Declines in the breeding range have been reported in China with the species no longer reported to breed at Xianghai Reserve due to a prolonged drought at the site (J. Hornskov<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2005, S. Chowdhury<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2010). In addition, a drastic decline and range contraction has occurred in the species's wintering range, with the species ceasing to winter in regular numbers at any site  outside of mainland in China as of winter 2010/11. This is combined with a marked  range contraction in the wintering range within China,  with no records from many provinces in recent years, despite increases  in birdwatching activity, including the loss of populations along the Yangtze River basin (only eight individuals recorded during the 2005 WWF survey of the Yangtze River basin [Barter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005]), Wuchang Lake, Anhui (previously the location of the largest known concentration of wintering birds with &gt;200  individuals in recent years), Liangzi Lake (previously c. 130 individuals in winter 2010/2011) and the Baiquan wetlands, Wuhan (W. Xin, C. Lei, L. Jinyu and T. Fox <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Observations of the species migrating along the Hebei coast, China, have reduced considerably in more recent years (J. Hornskov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). The total population is now likely to be fewer than<span style=""> 1,000 individuals (W. Xin, C. Lei, L. Jinyu and T. Fox </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012).</span><br/><p></p>
100600478		habitat	eng	It breeds around lakes with rich aquatic vegetation in dense grass or flooded tussock/shrubby meadows. In Liaoning, China, it is usually found in coastal wetlands with dense vegetation, or on rivers and ponds surrounded by forest. The nest is built on a tussock or under shrubs, sometimes floating, and occasionally amongst branches. In winter, it occurs on freshwater lakes and reservoirs. <p></p>
100600478		population	eng	<span style="">W. Xin, C. Lei, L. Jinyu and T. Fox </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">(2012) stated that 'we fear that the global population is now less than 1,000  individuals and could be  very much lower than this', and so it is placed in the band 250-999 individuals, equating to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.</span><br/><span class="says">
100600478		threats	eng	Threats are poorly understood, but hunting and wetland destruction in its breeding, wintering and staging grounds are probably the reasons for its decline. In several cases, the loss of populations from former important areas have been preceded by low water levels or complete drying up of water bodies (e.g. the loss of the breeding population at Xianghai Reserve and the wintering population at Baiquan wetlands in Wuhan [J. Hornskov<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2005, S. Chowdhury<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2010, <span style="">W. Xin, C. Lei, L. Jinyu and T. Fox </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012</span>]). There are unconfirmed reports of high mortality from hunting, including a report of 3,000 individuals being shot annually at Rudong, Jiangsu Province (Lei Gang 2010); however, this is very likely an overestimate and may be due to the translation of the species name (Baer’s Pochard is synonymous with Mallard in Chinese) (S. Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
100600480		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> In central and north-west Europe this species is mainly sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) although other populations are chiefly migratory (Madge and Burn 1988). Migratory populations arrive on their breeding grounds from late-April (Kear 2005a) where they breed in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) with hundreds often nesting at the same site (although not colonially) (Kear 2005a). Once incubation has commenced (Madge and Burn 1988) the males gather in flocks (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a) to moult (moult migrations occurring in some areas) between late-June and early-September when they become flightless for 3-4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996) (females moult their flight feather 1-2 months later) (Scott and Rose 1996). The autumn migration begins in September (Kear 2005a), with a segregation of the sexes occurring in autumn and winter due to the difference in the timing of the moult (Scott and Rose 1996). The return spring migration begins in late-February (Kear 2005a). During the winter the species is highly gregarious and may occur in flocks of several thousand individuals (Kear 2005a). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in lowland regions and shows a preference for eutrophic waters 3-5 m deep (avoiding lakes deeper than 15 m) (Kear 2005a) with open water, islands for breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and abundant marginal and emergent vegetation (Kear 2005a). It is common on large, freshwater lakes, ponds, reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a), gravel-pits (Kear 2005a) and quiet stretches (Kear 2005a) of wide slow-flowing rivers during this season (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005a). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter the species frequents large freshwater lakes (Kear 2005a), reservoirs (Snow and Perrins 1998) and sheltered coastal locations (Kear 2005a) such as brackish lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), brackish inland seas (Kear 2005a) (e.g. Caspian Sea) (Scott and Rose 1996), tidal bays (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and estuaries (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998) although it avoids strong wave action and very exposed maritime conditions unless all inland freshwaters become frozen (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous (Kear 2005a) a major part of its diet consisting of molluscs (especially <I>Mytillus</I> and <I>Cardium</I> spp., gastropods (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and zebra mussels <I>Dreissena</I> <I>polymorph</I> (Kear 2005a)), crustaceans and aquatic insects (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), as well as grain (Kear 2005a) and the seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is constructed of vegetation and is placed in water (Kear 2005a) on floating mats or islets (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), or on the ground on islands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) in rush or grass tussocks (Snow and Perrins 1998), under bushes (Kear 2005a) or in the open amidst marsh-nesting gull or tern colonies (for protection against predators) (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005a). Nests are usually placed within 20 m of water (Kear 2005a) although on islands they may be placed up to 150 m away (Snow and Perrins 1998). Although the species is not colonial hundreds may nest on the same site with neighbouring nests spaced 7-11 m apart (within gull or tern colonies nests are spaced 2-3 m apart) (Kear 2005a). <B>Management information</B> In the UK (Salford docks, Manchester) the species prefers to feed in waters heavily polluted with sewage that are devoid of aquatic vegetation but hold high densities of oligocheates and other pollution-tolerant organisms (Marsden and Bellamy 2000). The species may therefore suffer from plans to improve water quality in the docks (e.g. modernising sewage treatment systems and oxygenating water) (Marsden and Bellamy 2000). Experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland also resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2002).<B> </B>The species competes for food (e.g. chironomid larvae and molluscs) with fish species such as roach <I>Rutilus rutilus</I> (Winfield and Winfield 1994). A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha<SUP>1</SUP>, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species (Musil 2006). The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK resulted in an increase in invertebrate food availability and increases in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes, which in turn led to a increase in brood use of the habitat by the species and increased species survival (Giles 1994). The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994).
100600480		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.2,600,000-2,900,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
100600480		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat degradation due to oil pollution, drainage, peat-extraction and changing land management practices (Grishanov 2006) (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth (Grishanov 2006) and agricultural intensification (Kear 2005a)) in breeding areas (Kear 2005a, Grishanov 2006). It also suffers decreased reproductive success as a result of disturbance from increased recreational use of inland waterbodies (Kear 2005a), machinery noise from urban development (Marsden 2000), hunting (Evans and Day 2002) and predation by American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> on islands (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation </B>The species is hunted for sport Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006), Italy (Sorrenti <I>et al</I>. 2006) and Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006), and is hunted commercially in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006). The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).
100600481		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
100600482		conservation	eng	<strong></strong>
100600482		distribution	eng	Summer breeding grounds of the Greater Scaup range across the northern limits of Europe (including <strong>Iceland</strong>) and Asia, through the Aleutian Islands (year-round breeding) to Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>), and across to the Atlantic coast of <strong>Canada </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992). It winters further south, reaching California, the great lakes and northern Florida in North America, the Adriatic Sea and northern Black Sea in Europe, the western Caspian Sea, and on the Pacific coast of Asia as far as south-east <strong>China </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992). <p></p>
100600482		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. It breeds in the high Arctic from late-May or early-June (depending on the timing of the Arctic thaw) (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, often with colonies of nesting gulls or terns (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> although it is not itself a colonial species (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. Males undergo short post-breeding moult migrations (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, often gathering in small or large flocks (up to 4,000 in Iceland) (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> while females are incubating (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Females usually moult on the breeding grounds (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, although large concentrations (500-1,000 individuals) of moulting females have been recorded away from breeding areas (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. During the moulting period the species is flightless for a period of c.3-4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. The autumn migration begins after the moulting period in mid-August (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, with males tending to remain much further north than females or immatures (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong> leading to some sexual segregation during the winter ( Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> and is commonly observed in small or large flocks ( Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong> sometimes of several thousand individuals (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. The return spring migration generally begins in late-February (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> although flocks of non-breeders may remain in the south, often in winter quarters, during the breeding season (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in tundra (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, wooded tundra (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> and moorland regions (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> in the high Arctic (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, occupying small, shallow (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, freshwater lakes, pools and rivers (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> with grassy shorelines and high densities of invertebrate life (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. It shows a preference for water less than 6 m deep (usually 2 m) for diving (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species winters on shallow coastal waters (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> less than 10 m deep (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> (especially in the vicinity of sewage outlets) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, as well as sheltered bays (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, estuaries (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> and brackish coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. It is also found inland on large lakes (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> and reservoirs during this season (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, its diet consisting predominantly of molluscs (e.g. mussels [Kear 2005b]&#160;<em>Mytilus</em> spp. [del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992]<strong></strong>, cockles <em>Cardium </em>spp. and clams <em>Macoma</em> spp. in coastal habitats, and <em>Hydrobia</em> spp. in brackish habitats [Kear 2005b]<strong></strong>) especially during the winter (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, as well as insects (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, aquatic insect larvae (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, crustaceans (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong> (e.g. amphipods [Johnsgard 1978]<strong></strong>), worms, small fish (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, and the roots, seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants such as sedges (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992) (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> and water weeds (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding</strong> The nest is a shallow depression close to water (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong> on the ground (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, either in thick vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992) (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, in cracks in rocks, under woody shrubs or under perennial herbaceous vegetation less than 50 cm high (Iceland) (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. The species is not colonial but it will sometimes nest among gulls and terns (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, with neighbouring nests being placed as close as 1 m in some areas (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>In Scotland, UK the introduction of a sewage treatment scheme in the Firth of Forth (a large marine bay) resulted in a considerable reduction in the abundance of the species, with feeding flocks only remaining at outfalls where sewage continued to be discharged in large quantities (Campbell 1984)<strong></strong>. It was unclear whether the changes in the species's distribution were due to reductions in the number of food items borne in the sewage or to reductions in aquatic invertebrate abundance as a result of the new treatment system (Campbell 1984)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100600482		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,200,000-1,400,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan and c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea (Brazil 2009).
100600482		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to oil pollution (Kirby <em>et al</em>. 1993, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> when moulting and in winter and may be threatened by high levels of organochloride contaminants (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. Its habit of congregating around coastal sewage outlets in the winter also puts it at risk from other pollution types (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong> and large numbers often drown due to entanglement in fishing nets (Kirby <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>. The species is threatened by hunting for sport in North America (Schmidt 2006, Blohm <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, and suffers from disturbance from hunting (Evans and Day 2002)<strong></strong>. It is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong></strong>. <strong></strong>The species is hunted legally for sport in seven countries of the European Union (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> (e.g. Denmark [Bregnballe <em>et al</em>. 2006]<strong></strong>), and is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006)<strong></strong>.     <p></p>
100600484		distribution	eng	The Common Eider is distributed over the northern coasts of Europe, North America, eastern Siberia and southern Greenland. It breeds in the Arctic and northern temperate regions, but its range expands during winter to as far south as New Jersey, southern Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>), the western Mediterranean and the southern tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula (<strong>Russia</strong>)<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992). <p></p>
100600484		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The majority of this species is migratory (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong></strong> (although it does not travel great distances) (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, with some populations e.g. in Europe being largely sedentary (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. The species breeds from early-April (although the most northerly populations may not breed until mid-June (Madge and Burn 1988))<strong></strong>, and generally nests in colonies<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992) of up to or occasionally more than 3,000 pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. The species may also nest within colonies of Arctic tern <em>Sterna paradisaea </em>(Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. The males and immature non-breeders of some populations may make extensive moult migrations to favoured areas where they form large moulting flocks (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> while the females remain on the breeding grounds (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. The species passes the winter (from October to March) at sea, congregating in flocks (<strong></strong>Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984) <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>that may be as large as many thousands of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on offshore islands and islets<strong> </strong>(Kear 2005) along low-lying rocky coasts (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>, on coastal shores and spits, on islets in brackish and freshwater lagoons<strong> </strong>(Kear 2005), lakes and rivers (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong> close to the sea (Kear 2005)<strong></strong> or on tundra pools, rivers<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992) and lakes (<strong></strong>Madge and Burn 1988) up to 5 or 6 km inland (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. It shows a preference for boulder-strewn or grassy islands (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong> with sheltered approaches (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> that are safe from nest predators<strong></strong>, although in the high Arctic where such shelter is unavailable more open sites must be used (in which case the species often nests in closely packed groups for protection) (<strong></strong>Snow and Perrins 1998). <em>Non-breeding</em> The species typically moults on shallow marine or sheltered coastal waters (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, and winters on shallow seashores, bays and estuaries (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>, especially where there are high abundances of benthic molluscs (Camphuysen <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ens 2006)<strong></strong>. It may also occur inland on freshwater lakes when on passage and during the winter (rarely) (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of benthic molluscs although crustaceans<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992) (e.g. amphipods and isopods (Johnsgard 1978))<strong></strong>, echinoderms, other marine invertebrates and fish may also be taken<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992). During the breeding season incubating females frequently complement their diet with algae, berries and the seeds and leaves of surrounding tundra plants<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a slight hollow in the ground that is usually positioned in the shelter of rocks or vegetation but may also in the open<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992). The species is a colonial nester, often nesting at densities of up to 250 pairs per hectare, and there may be over 3,000 nests in some colonies (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. The species may also nest in colonies of Arctic tern <em>Sterna paradisaea</em> for protection against predation (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A study carried out in Canada found that in order to prevent reductions in nesting success as a result of disturbing and displacing incubating adults (thus increasing the likelihood of nest predation) researchers and wildlife managers should visit eider colonies as late as possible in the incubation period and avoid visiting colonies associated with high densities of eider egg predators (Bolduc and Guillemette 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600484		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.3,100,000-3,800,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
100600484		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to chronic coastal oil pollution (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, especially oil spills (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992, Kear 2005, Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, in areas where large moulting and wintering concentrations occur (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>. It also comes into conflict with the shellfish aquaculture industry which depletes the species's food resources (Kear 2005, Ens 2006, Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006,)<strong></strong> and has previously lead to mass starvation events due to the over-fishing of benthic molluscs (e.g. in the Dutch Wadden Sea) (Camphuysen <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ens 2006)<strong></strong>. On the breeding grounds disturbance from the development of mineral resources along the coast (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> and from local shore-based activities (e.g. angling, dog-walking (Keller 1991)<strong></strong> and scientific research (Bolduc and Guillemette 2003)<strong></strong>) increases the likelihood of predation on young (Keller 1991)<strong></strong>. Unregulated tourism and shipping also cause disturbance to the species on its wintering grounds (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The species commonly becomes entangled and drowned in monofilament nets<strong> </strong>(Kear 2005) (e.g. gillnets (Merkel 2004))<strong></strong>, and it is hunted unsustainably (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> (e.g. in Denmark<strong></strong> (Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Greenland (Merkel 2004)<strong></strong>). <strong>Utilisation</strong> Populations of this species in the high Arctic are subject to shooting, especially in spring, by indigenous peoples for food (Byers and Dickson 2001, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. This subsistence hunting is likely to be sustainable at current levels (Byers and Dickson 2001)<strong></strong>. The species is also shot for sport in North America (this harvest may exceed sustainable levels in some areas (Kear 2005)).  <p></p>
100600485		distribution	eng	The King Eider breeds along the northern hemisphere Arctic coasts of Europe, North America and Asia. It can be found further south during the winter, including the north-east and north-west coast of North America, on <strong>Iceland</strong> and islands north of the <strong>United Kingdom</strong>, and on the Pacific coast of Asia to the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula (<strong>Russia</strong>) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600485		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. It breeds from late-June onwards (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> usually in well-dispersed (Kear 2005)<strong></strong> solitary pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, although in some areas it may also form loose colonies (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Males gather in vast flocks (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong> between July and August (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and undertake moult migrations to favoured marine areas (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong> often more than a thousand miles from the breeding grounds (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The autumn migration to winter quarters (by both males and females) peaks between August and October, stragglers still leaving the breeding grounds during September (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The timing of the return passage in the spring is determined by the ice conditions and the thawing of inland breeding waters (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds generally oversummer south of the breeding range or may remain on the wintering grounds (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious when not breeding (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, migrating in groups of up to c.1,000 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and aggregating into enormous flocks during the moulting period (e.g. 100,000 individuals off  the western coast of Greenland (Madge and Burn 1988))<strong><sup></sup></strong> and during the winter (e.g. 15,000 individuals (Johnsgard 1978))<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on dry Artic tundra (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005)<strong></strong> near freshwater lakes, pools, bogs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, marshes (Kear 2005), streams (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and small rivers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> (1992)<strong></strong> on the coast or up to 50 km (rarely up to 100 km) inland (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. It shows a preference for shallow fresh waters with emergent vegetation for initial brood rearing, afterwards moving to more saline waters where the young fledge (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species generally moults in sheltered fjords and bays with high densities of benthic fauna (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, and winters at sea on deep offshore waters (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005)<strong></strong> close to the edge of sea ice or in coastal areas with shallow waters (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of animal matter such as benthic molluscs, crustaceans, larval insects (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (e.g. caddisflies and midges (Johnsgard 1978))<strong><sup></sup></strong>, echinoderms (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (e.g. sea urchins and sand dollars (Johnsgard 1978))<strong><sup></sup></strong> and other marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, although the seeds and the vegetative parts of tundra plants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, sedges and aquatic plants (Kear 2005)<strong></strong> may also be taken on the breeding grounds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, and algae, eelgrass <em>Zostera</em> spp. and <em>Ruppia maritima</em> may be taken at sea (Johnsgard 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a slight hollow on dry ground and is usually positioned near water (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in the open (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or under the cover of driftwood (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, grass hummocks or rocks (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600485		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.790,000-930,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
100600485		threats	eng	The species is threatened by chronic coastal oil pollution (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and future oil spills (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005, Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially where it forms large aggregations on the sea during the moult period, on migration or in the winter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. The species is also threatened by the degradation of food resources as a result of oil exploration and by human disturbance when moulting and on migration, and is threatened by disturbance from uncontrolled shipping (e.g. oil transportation) on its wintering grounds (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population wintering in Greenland is under serious threats from over-exploitation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Merkel 2004, Kear 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (10-20 % of the winter population is killed annually (Kear 2005))<strong></strong> and through being caught and drowned as bycatch in gillnets during the spring migration (Merkel 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation </strong>Populations of this species in the high Arctic are subject to high shooting pressures, especially in spring, by indigenous peoples for food (Madge and Burn 1988, Byers and Dickson 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This subsistence hunting is likely to be sustainable at current levels (Byers and Dickson 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600486		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2000 the US Fish and Wildlife Service designated 62,386 km² of critical coastal habitat for the conservation of this species (Anon. 2001a).<strong></strong>
100600486		distribution	eng	This species breeds along the coasts of north-east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong> and east from the Leni Delta to north Alaska, <strong>USA</strong>. Its wintering grounds have only recently been discovered in an otherwise unbroken sea of ice halfway between St Lawrence and St Matthew Islands in the Bering sea (Balogh 1996, Petersen 1996).<em> <p></p></em>
100600486		habitat	eng	This species breeds on small lakes, pools, bogs and streams of the tundra. It mainly feeds on molluscs but will also take crustaceans, with a more varied diet in summer including insects, arachnids, berries and seeds. It feeds by diving, and will pluck or dabble on the surface. Breeding begins in May or June in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600486		population	eng	The global population is estimated at c.330,000-390,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). Although a massive decline of over 90% in breeding birds has been reported in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska (Stehn <I>et al</I>. 1993), no similar decline has been noted in Russia and 155,000 birds were counted on its wintering grounds in 1995 (Balogh 1996). The population in Russia has more recently been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009) although there is a degree of uncertainty in these estimates. Surveys in north Alaska during 1993-1995 indicated 7,000-10,000 breeding birds, with no indication of a declining trend. Recent survey work has discovered a huge concentration of this species in the Bering sea south of St Lawrence Island (Petersen <I>et al</I>. 1999). Estimates suggest that at least 333,000 birds winter in single-species flocks in the pack ice of the Bering Sea (Petersen <I>et al</I>. 1999), representing a total population estimate similar to that of c.400,000 individuals made during the 1970s.
100600487		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A European action plan was published in 2000, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service successfully proposed the critical habitat designation of 4,528 km<sup>2</sup> of coastal habitat for the conservation of this species (Anon. 2001)<strong></strong>. It is a protected species in both Russia and the USA. Work has begun in Russia to conduct waterfowl population and subsistence harvest surveys (K. Laing <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. A captive breeding and research programme (including 50 years of banding data) is underway in Alaska (Alaska SeaLife Center 2004)<strong></strong>. New protective zones are being proposed around wintering sites on Bearing Island (Y. Artukhin per K. Laing <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, including additional protected zones of the Komandorskiy Reserve (Belobrov and Artukhin 2008). CMS Appendix I and II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey breeding and wintering grounds (particularly surrounding the Kola Peninsula, Russia) to determine population size and trends. Determine causes of current declines. Work to mitigate threats such as lead poisoning. Ensure subsistence harvest is sustainable. <p></p>
100600487		distribution	eng	<em>Polysticta stelleri</em> breeds between the Kolyma Delta and the Yamal Peninsula, <strong>Russia</strong>, and on the Arctic plain of Alaska, <strong>USA </strong>(C. Dau <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Frederickson 2001). A remnant population breeds in western Alaska. Non-breeding populations summer in Novaya Zemlya, Russia, northern <strong>Norway</strong> and adjacent Russian waters, and south-west Alaska (C. Dau <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Birds breeding east of the Khatanga Gulf, Russia, winter in the Bering Sea. Small numbers winter in northern <strong>Japan</strong>. Birds breeding west of the Khatanga Gulf winter in the north-east Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea. The total current population estimate is 110,000-125,000 individuals. Wintering populations in Europe were estimated at 7,700-20,800 individuals in 2000 (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>, but this did not include all Russian populations: the total for Europe and Russia is estimated at 23,060-36,160 individuals. In Europe, marked declines have been noted in recent years, with numbers falling by an estimated 13% per annum in the Baltic between 1994 until 2003 and by 8% per annum in Norway between 1985 and 2003 (I. Burfield <em>in litt</em>. 2005; Žydelis <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Estimates of birds wintering in Alaska declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 74,369 individuals in 2011 (Larned <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2012), which was 9% below the 1992-2010 mean.&#160; The decline rate is equivalent to 2.3% per year; however, a higher frequency of optimally-timed counts in early years of the survey likely resulted in a slight negative trend bias of unknown magnitude (Larned<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2012). The poorly known population wintering in east Asia may have declined by 20-40% to c.20,000-25,000 birds (R. A. Stehn <em>in litt.</em> to Anseriformes Draft Action Plan), including 10,000-15,000 birds recently estimated to winter in the Russian Far East (D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. The number of eiders wintering on Bering Island, in the Commander Islands near Kamchatka, Russia, declined from estimates of 10,000 in the 1960s (Marakov 1965) to between  3,356-4,994 in 2005, 2006 and 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Y. Artukhin, per K. Laing <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>, Belobrov and Artukhin 2008).   It is possible that some of these declines reflect population redistribution to unknown areas. It has been speculated that declines in the Baltic could result from the population shifting to waters around the Kola Peninsula, Russia (Žydelis <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, although a survey of parts of this area in 2003 did not reveal sufficiently large numbers to confirm this (Krasnov <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100600487		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. It begins to breed in June, nesting sometimes in single pairs in very low densities (roughly one pair per 100 acres was recorded on the Kashunuk River in the 1960s)<strong></strong> (Johnsgard 1978), but occasionally in small colonies of up to 60+ nests (Kear 2005). Around the time of hatching, males gather in large flocks off the coast near the breeding ground (Johnsgard 1978). Shortly after hatching the female moves her brood to the coast where they form 'herds' (Johnsgard 1978). The species migrates up to 3000km to its moulting sites (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, where it becomes flightless for a period, before some continue migration to more distant wintering sites (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The timing of the moult migration appears to be highly variable, occurring sometimes as early as August, but in some years not until November, in which case the moult occurs prior to arrival (Johnsgard 1978). On the moulting grounds it forms flocks that may exceed 50,000 birds (Kear 2005, Laubhan and Metzner 1999)<strong></strong>. Congregations of a similar size also occur also in the spring when pair formation occurs prior to departure for the breeding grounds (Kear 2005). Spring migration commences in March in east Asia (Kear 2005), and elsewhere it begins in April, usually peaking in May (Kear 2005).<strong> </strong>Arrivals on the breeding grounds begin in early June (Kear 2005). Some small flocks remain throughout the summer in the wintering quarters at Varangerfjiord (Kear 2005). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>This species regularly breeds several kilometres inland (Kear 2005). It inhabits pools of various shapes and sizes in areas that characterise flat coastal belt within open tundra (Kear 2005). In the Lena Delta and Barrow areas it favours moss-lichen polygonal tundra (Kear 2005). It forages in areas of fresh, saline or brackish water, and tidal flats (Johnsgard 1978). Following hatching all birds move to coastal habitats (Johnsgard 1978). <em>Non-breeding </em>It winters mostly at sea, along low-lying rocky coasts, frequenting bays and river mouths<strong> </strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992). It forages in water that is less than 10m deep<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>, and particularly favours areas where freshwater streams enter the sea<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Madge and Burn 1988).<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds chiefly on molluscs, crustaceans and other marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season, some freshwater prey is taken including chironomid and caddisfly larvae (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. During moult, bivalve molluscs are the primary food source (Petersen 1981)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> Nests are built on small hummocks or in depressions between hummocks, usually within a few metres of a tundra pond, and are often well-concealed by grass (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. The nests are deep and lined with lichens, grass and down (Kear 2005). <strong> </strong> <p></p>
100600487		population	eng	Various population estimates include: c.10,000-15,000 wintering individuals in north Norway and the south-east Baltic (based on a count of 4,297 off Kola Peninsula in April 2003 [Krasnov <em>et al</em>. 2004], 2,250 in the south Baltic in 2003 [Zydelis <em>et al</em>. 2006] and c.2,000-4,000 individuals wintering off Norway [unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006]); c.100,000-110,000 wintering individuals in the north Pacific (counts in north America declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 77,329 in 2003, to 74,369 in 2011, forming basis of 2003 north American population estimate of 90,000-95,000 individuals [K. Laing <em>in litt</em>.  2005 to Wetlands International 2006]; however, the population has since declined to 74,369 individuals in 2011 [Larned <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2012]); c.20,000 migrating individuals through the Kamchatka Peninsula in spring (Gerasimov and Gerasimov 2003) and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600487		threats	eng	Subsistence hunting has been ongoing in Alaska since the late 19th century, and may have affected breeding populations here. Over-hunting in Siberia and in other breeding areas may be impacting the population. Studies at Barrow indicate that the species is subject to lead poisoning from the historical (and probably ongoing, but illegal since a nationwide ban in 1991 [Morse 2009]) use of lead shot. Disease and water pollution may impact eiders in their wintering area in south-west Alaska. Eiders breeding in Russia are subject to human subsistence harvest and exposure to lead shot. Males are subject to particular hunting pressure as they arrive on moulting grounds before females (Morse 2009). Declines of wintering birds on Bering Island, Russia appear to be greater on the west coast near the only village on the island; new protective zones are being proposed there (Y. Artukhin per K. Laing <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Nest predation by mammalian and avian predators (e.g. Arctic Fox <span style="font-style: italic;">Alopex lagopus</span>, Snowy Owl<span style="font-style: italic;"> Nyctea scandiaca</span> and Pomarine Jaeger <span style="font-style: italic;">Stercorarius pomarinus</span>) appears to be a threat on Alaskan breeding grounds; no nesting was observed on breeding grounds near Barrow between 2001 and 2004, but nesting has since occurred with some success following the inception of fox control in 2005 (Safine 2011). Increasing human habitation of Arctic regions has increased the range and numbers of Ravens and some large gulls, leading to a greater risk of predation (Kear 2005).   Recent dramatic changes in Arctic sea ice extent and thickness north of Alaska and Russia may affect eiders in unknown ways. Habitat loss also occurs through prospecting for, and the exploitation of, natural resources such as oil and gas (Kear 2005). The increasing traffic of tankers carrying oil from Arctic areas imposes the risk of contamination following spills (Kear 2005)<strong></strong>. It is not currently clear which of these many factors is driving the overall decline (K. Laing <em>in litt</em>. 2004, Žydelis <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. There are concerns in Alaska that a road-building project approved by the United States Congress in 2009 may impact the species (Morse 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600488		distribution	eng	<em>Camptorhynchus labradorius </em>probably bred along the Gulf of St Lawrence and coastal Labrador, <strong>Canada</strong>, wintering from Nova Scotia south to Florida, <strong>USA</strong> (Gourdin 2009). The last confirmed specimen was collected off Long Island, New York, in 1875<strong> </strong>(Chilton 1997), or possibly 1878 (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600488		habitat	eng	Birds presumably nested on sandbars and around sheltered bays and, in winter, foraged in shallow bays, harbours and estuaries<strong> </strong>(Chilton 1997).  <p></p>
100600488		threats	eng	Shooting and trapping on the winter quarters were certainly proximate factors in the species's extinction<strong></strong>. Overharvest of birds and eggs on the breeding grounds could also have been a factor<strong> </strong>(Chilton 1997), and it is likely that ecosystem-level effects following the arrival of Europeans reduced the supply of available food (Gourdin 2009).  <p></p>
100600489		distribution	eng	The Harlequin Duck is found in north-western and north-estern North America, eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, the Aleutian Islands, southern Greenland and <strong>Iceland</strong>. It can winter further south, being found off <strong>Korea</strong>, northern California and North Carolina (<strong>USA</strong>) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600489		habitat	eng	This species is found breeding on swifts torrents and rapid streams of rugged uplands, normally wintering on rocky coastlines. It feeds mainly on insects and their larvae in summer, catching molluscs and crustaceans in winter. Feeding mostly occurs mostly by diving, but also dabbling and head-dipping in shallow water. Breeding begins in May or June, nesting on the ground concealed in vegetation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). <strong><sup></sup></strong> <p></p>
100600489		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.190,000-380,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600490		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>Some of the species's habitat is protected. Efforts are on-going to monitor populations of this species in many parts of its range.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Conduct surveys to monitor the least-known populations in East Asia, improve monitoring in North America, and continue to assess trends in Europe. Carry out research to identify the causes of the decline in the Baltic Sea. React to improved knowledge of threats to the species by implementing actions to mitigate their impacts. Study the causes of reduced breeding productivity.
100600490		distribution	eng	<em>Clangula hyemalis</em> is circumpolar, breeding on the Arctic coasts of North America (<strong>Canada</strong>, Alaska, <strong>USA </strong>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greenland</span>), Europe (<strong>Iceland</strong> and <strong>Norway</strong>), and Asia (<strong>Russia</strong>). It winters at sea further south, as far as the <strong>United Kingdom</strong>, South Carolina and Washington in the United States, <strong>Korea</strong> on the Asian Pacific coast, and other areas including the Black Sea and Caspian Sea (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. According to monitoring data from the Baltic Sea, where the western Siberian and northern European populations winter, the population there has declined significantly since the early 1990s at least <strong>(</strong>Hario <em>et al</em>. 2009,<strong></strong> Ellermaa <em>et al</em>. 2010<strong></strong>, Nilsson and Månsson 2010, Skov <em>et al.</em> 2011). An estimated total of c.4,272,000 individuals was counted there in 1992-1993, falling to c.1,486,000 individuals in 2007-2009, which suggests that a decline of c.65% has occurred over a period of 16 years (Skov <em>et al.</em> 2011). There is no evidence to suggest that the geographical distribution of this population has shifted (Skov <em>et al.</em> 2011, L. Nilsson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, J. Bellebaum <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, M. Ellermaa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The estimation of a real and severe decline is supported by data from the Gulf of Finland flyway, where the numbers observed on migration have fallen dramatically since the early 1990s at least (A. Lehikoinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). North America holds the second largest population (c.1 million birds [Delany and Scott 2006]). Although Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data indicate an annual population change of -1.9% between 1965 and 2005, across c.70% of the species’s range in North America (Butcher and Niven 2007); however, the reliability of CBC data for monitoring this species has been questioned owing to the species's tendency to winter off-shore (T. Bowman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There are conflicting results from regional surveys.   Indices of abundance obtained during the North  American Breeding Waterfowl Survey  indicate a steady long-term downward trend between the 1970s and early  1990s, and a stable population since.   However, this species is  especially poorly monitored because its breeding distribution is largely  outside the area covered by breeding waterfowl surveys, and because of  its offshore distribution during winter and the lack of comprehensive  winter surveys (T. Bowman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).    No trend data are available for the third largest population (c.500,000–1,000,000 birds [Delany and Scott 2006]), which breeds in eastern Siberia and winters off eastern Asia. The fourth and smallest population (c.100,000–150,000 birds [Delany and Scott 2006]), which breeds in Greenland and Iceland and winters in the north Atlantic, is poorly monitored and trends are uncertain, although it may have been stable until the 1990s (Delany and Scott 2006). Research on the tundra of eastern European Russia since 1973 suggests that a steep decline may have occurred there (Y. and O. Mineev <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600490		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> although its movements are poorly understood (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. It breeds from late-May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong> in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, the males leaving the females soon after the start of incubation (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong> (between late-June and early-September) to gather in small flocks for a flightless moulting period (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>. Some populations undergo extensive moult migrations of up to 1,000 km, while others moult on waters near the breeding grounds (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Females moult between early-August and early-October on the breeding grounds (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, often abandoning their young at the start of the moult (the ducklings then gather into large parentless groups) (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>. The southward autumn migration occurs from September to October after the post-breeding moult (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> and non-breeders may oversummer in the wintering areas (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, in winter gathering into large aggregations of perhaps several tens of thousands of individuals to roost or to feed in inshore and offshore waters (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The species regularly dives to depths of 3-10 m when foraging (maximum depth 50-60 m) (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong> and is diurnal (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on marshy grass tundra in the high Arctic (Flint <em>et al</em>. 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, especially where habitat mosaics are formed by hummocks and ridges together with moist depressions (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>, bogs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, slow rivers (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> or pools of standing water (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. It generally avoids wooded tundra (Johnsgard 1978, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> but is common among willows or dwarf birch in the arctic-alpine zone (Scandinavia) (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. The species also breeds on small rocky islands off mainland Arctic coasts and on larger offshore islands,  using promontories, deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, coastal inlets (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> and islets in fjords (Greenland) (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>The species winters at sea, generally far offshore (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> in waters 10-35 m deep (Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong>, as well as in saline, brackish or fresh estuarine waters (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, brackish lagoons (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, and inland (very rarely) on large, deep freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species showing a preference for marine foods during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong>, its diet consisting predominantly of animal matter (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> such as crustaceans (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (e.g. amphipods [Kear 2005b]<strong></strong> and cladocerans [Johnsgard 1978]<strong></strong>), molluscs, other marine invertebrates (e.g. echinoderms, worms) and fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The species also takes freshwater insects and insect larvae (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> as well as plant material such as algae, grasses, and the seeds and fruits of tundra plants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a natural depression on dry ground positioned in the open, amongst vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, partially hidden by overhanging boulders (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong> or under low shrubs (Johnsgard 1978)<strong></strong> (e.g. willows or dwarf birch) (Flint <em>et al</em>. 1984)<strong></strong> usually close to water (Madge and Burn 1988)<strong></strong>. Although it is not a colonial species some pairs may nest in loose groups, and the species may also nest in association with Arctic Terns (Kear 2005b)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600490		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.6,200,000-6,800,000 individuals (Delany and Scott 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and c.10,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600490		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from petroleum pollution, wetland drainage and peat-extraction (Grishanov 2006)<strong></strong>. It is also threatened with direct mortality from oil pollution (Gorski <em>et al.</em> 1977,  del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kirby <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>, drowning through entanglement in fishing nets (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kirby <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong> and from hunting on migration routes over certain regions of the Arctic (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The species has previously suffered heavy losses from an outbreak of avian cholera (Friend 2006)<strong></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. There is evidence that the species is experiencing low reproductive  success on its Arctic breeding grounds. The results of autumn migration  monitoring at various Baltic sites show that juveniles now represent a  very low proportion of the population (e.g. Hario <em>et al.</em> 2009, Ellermaa <em>et al.</em>  2010), indicating that insufficient young are being raised to  compensate for adult mortality. The breeding success of this (and other)  species seems to have declined since the mid-1990s, when the formerly  distinctive 3-4 year cycle in the abundance of Arctic rodents collapsed,  probably due to climate change. With fewer rodents around, Arctic  predators now take a heavier toll on breeding birds every year,  instead of only once every 3-4 years.  Although the main reason for low  breeding productivity seems to be  likely connected mainly with skipped breeding, rather than with  increased predation pressure, possibly owing to worsened female body  condition (A. Kondratyev <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A decline in breeding  productivity is supported by unpublished data on the age ratio of  gillnet victims in the southern Baltic, which suggest a decline in breeding success by c.75%  from prior to 1990 until c. 2000 (J. Bellebaum<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Drastic declines on the tundra of eastern European Russia since 1973 are thought to be  connected to the natural cycles of the species, pollution  from oil and gas extractions, and pollution from the deposition of nuclear and  chemical waste in northern seas (Y. and O. Mineev <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In 2006-2007, on the  Hatpudirskaya bay coast (Barents Sea), several thousand  dead <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hyemalis </span>were found washed-up on beaches (Y. and O. Mineev <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<strong> Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport in several countries including Denmark (Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the USA<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100600492		distribution	eng	The Surf Scoter can be found in North America, breeding inland from western Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>) through central <strong>Canada</strong> to Labrador, and wintering from the Aleutian Islands down to Baja California (<strong>Mexico</strong>) on the Pacific coast, and along the Atlantic coast of the USA as far south as South Carolina (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996) <strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600492		habitat	eng	This species breed on small bodies of fresh water in boreal forests or tundra, wintering at sea in shallow waters of bays, eastuaries and river mouths. It feeds chiefly on molluscs, but also eats crustaceans, worms, echinoderms and, mainly in summer, insects and their larvae and plant material, feeding mostly by diving. Its breeding season begins in May or June, breeding in single pairs or loose groups in shallow depressions poorly lined with grass and some feathers (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996) <strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600492		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.250,000-1,300,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600494		distribution	eng	The Common Goldeneye ranges across the boreal forests of Scandinavia, eastern Europe, <B>Russia</B>, <B>Mongolia</B>, northern <B>China</B>, <B>Canada</B>, Alaska and northern <B>USA</B>. Its wintering range is equally broad, encompassing the coast of northern Europe including inland <B>United Kingdom</B>, scattered coastal and inland water bodies in south-eastern Europe (e.g. <B>Turkey</B>) and central Asia, the coasts of eastern China, <B>Korea</B>, <B>Japan</B> and the Kamchatkha Peninsula (Russia), the Pacific coast of Canada and the Alaskan coast and inland USA (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
100600494		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most of this species is fully migratory although it may only travel short distances (Kear 2005b), and certain populations in the north-west of Europe may also be sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds from April in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), after which it undertakes short northerly moult migrations to coastal areas, large lakes and rivers (Kear 2005b) to undergo a period of flightless moult lasting 3-4 weeks (males leave for this moult migration first while females are still incubating) (Scott and Rose 1996). Large moult gatherings are common during this period, males arriving at such gatherings in early-June and numbers peaking in late-August when adult females arrive (Scott and Rose 1996). The southward autumn migration begins in late-August with most arriving in the winter quarters by early-December (Scott and Rose 1996). Females tend to migrate further than males (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) and juveniles migrate further than adults (Scott and Rose 1996). The return migration to the breeding areas occurs as early as mid-February (Scott and Rose 1996), the species timing its arrival to coincide with the thawing and appearance of open water (Kear 2005b). Non-breeders may also oversummer on wintering grounds (Madge and Burn 1988). The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005b) usually being observed in small scattered groups (Scott and Rose 1996) or in small flocks on migration (Kear 2005b). Several hundred individuals may roost together (Snow and Perrins 1998) and large flocks often gather to feed at sewage outfalls (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) during the winter, although the species rarely occurs in very large flocks (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Habitat </B>The species is restricted to water close to the shore and less than 10 m deep (Scott and Rose 1996) (showing a preference for waters 4 m deep) (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Breeding</I> When breeding the species shows a preference for oligotrophic lakes devoid of fish (Kear 2005b) but with abundant invertebrate life (Johnsgard 1978), and requires tree-holes (or artificial nestboxes) for nesting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Suitable habitats include freshwater lakes, pools, rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and deep marshes (Johnsgard 1978) surrounded by coniferous forest (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species winters mainly at sea (Scott and Rose 1996) on inshore waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), shallow bays (Kear 2005b), estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996), especially in the vicinity of sewage outfalls (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Further to the south and on migration the species may also frequent large rivers, lakes (Scott and Rose 1996, Kear 2005b) and reservoirs (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Diet </B>The diet of the species consists predominantly of aquatic invertebrates such as molluscs, worms, crustaceans, aquatic insects and insect larvae (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. dragonflies, damsel flies and may flies) (Johnsgard 1978), as well as amphibians, small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and some plant material (mainly in the autumn) such as seeds, roots and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site </B>The species nests in hollows of mature trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. aspen, spruce or oak) (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984) formed by woodpeckers or by bacterial or fungal heart-rot invasions (Kear 2005b) that have internal cavity diameters of c.20 cm (although the height of the hollow does not seem to be important) (Johnsgard 1978). The species will preferentially nest in trees in open stands near water (Johnsgard 1978, Madge and Burn 1988) or solitary trees on the edges of marshes (Johnsgard 1978), rather than in trees in dense stands (to increase the ease of entry by flying) (Johnsgard 1978). The species will also nest in artificial nestboxes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Management information </B>In Scotland, UK the introduction of a sewage treatment scheme in the Firth of Forth (a large marine bay) resulted in a considerable reduction in the abundance of the species, with feeding flocks only remaining at outfalls where sewage continued to be discharged in large quantities (Campbell 1984). It was unclear whether the changes in the species's distribution were due to reductions in the number of food items borne in the sewage or to reductions in aquatic invertebrate abundance as a result of the new treatment system (Campbell 1984). In some areas nestbox erection programmes have been shown to cause significant range expansions and population increases (Dennis 1987, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although an experiment in southern Finland found that even though nestbox provision increased breeding numbers of the species there was a negative density-dependent effect on reproductive output (i.e. the number of fledged young did not increase despite an increase in breeding pairs) (Poysa and Poysa 2002). Nesting habitats in general may also benefit from a more extended rotation of timber harvesting (Kear 2005b).
100600494		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,500,000-4,600,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;c.100   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and   c.10,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600494		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland degradation and loss in North America and is susceptible to atmospheric acid deposition (e.g. acid rain) throughout a large part of its breeding range (Kear 2005b). The main threat to the species in its wintering range is pollution (e.g. from coastal oil spills or other pollutants from sewage outfalls) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted sustainably in Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006) although the influence of hunting on global populations is unknown (Kear 2005b).
100600495		distribution	eng	The major breeding range of Barrow's Goldeneye is along the western coast of the <B>USA</B> from southern Alaska to northern California. Breeding colonies are also found in Labrador (<B>Canada</B>), south-west Greenland<B> </B>(to Denmark) and <B>Iceland</B>. Some populations (e.g. Iceland) are sedentary, whereas others undertake longer trips to winter along the Pacific coast of Alaska and Canada, and the north-eastern coast of North America (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100600495		habitat	eng	This species breeds on freshwater lakes, pools and rivers in open or wooded country. It can be seen nesting as high as 3000 m in the Rocky Mountains (USA). After breeding individuals winter on larger, unfrozen lakes, brackish coastal lagoons or on the coast. Summers foods include insects and their larvae and plant material, whereas winter diet consists mainly of molluscs and crustaceans (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
100600496		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Japan has been estimated at   &lt;c.50 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
100600497		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is highly migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), often resting and feeding on inland waterbodies when on passage (Kear 2005b). It arrives on the breeding grounds from April (Kear 2005b) or early-May and breeds from mid-May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988) in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Males gather in large flocks close to the breeding grounds after mating to undergo a flightless moulting period (Madge and Burn 1988). The species then leaves the breeding grounds in early-September and October (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious and occurs in small or large flocks (Kear 2005b) usually not exceeding 100 individuals, although larger gatherings may form at major passage waters during migration (Madge and Burn 1988) and flocks of over 10,000 have been recorded during the winter (Kear 2005b). The species feeds diurnally (Madge and Burn 1988) by diving to depths of 1-4 m (Kear 2005b) and forms gregarious nocturnal roosts (Kear 2005b). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It breeds on freshwater oligotrophic lakes, pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), oxbow lakes (Kear 2005b), backwaters of large slow-flowing rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005b), muskegs (bogs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b) and flooded riverside woods (Johnsgard 1978, Snow and Perrins 1998) in the coniferous and mixed deciduous/evergreen forest zones (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for shallow water (Johnsgard 1978) up to 4 m (Kear 2005b) (maximum 6 m) deep (Snow and Perrins 1998), and requires mature broadleaved trees (e.g. oaks, willows and aspens) with holes in which to nest (Johnsgard 1978). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species overwinters on large freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and reservoirs (Johnsgard 1978), ice-free rivers (Kear 2005b), brackish coastal lagoons, estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and sheltered coastal bays (Madge and Burn 1988) (although rarely on the open sea) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), often resting and feeding on small bodies of water or small streams when on passage (Kear 2005b). <B>Diet </B>During the breeding season its diet consists predominantly of benthic aquatic invertebrates such as adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), crustaceans, molluscs and polycheate worms (Kear 2005b), as well as amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), fish (Kear 2005b) and plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (seeds, leaves and roots) (Kear 2005b). During the winter and in early spring however the species mainly feeds on fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests in tree hollows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) up to 10 m or more above the ground (Kear 2005b) (especially those excavated by Black Woodpeckers <I>Dryocopus martius</I>) (Madge and Burn 1988) in mature broadleaved trees (e.g. oak, willow or aspen) (Johnsgard 1978). It may also nest in artificial nest boxes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), especially those erected to attract Common Goldeneye <I>Bucephala clangula</I> (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998).
100600497		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.130,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Korea has been estimated at   c.50-10,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
100600497		threats	eng	Where it occurs in large numbers on coastal waters the species is particularly vulnerable to oil pollution (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Populations declined in Europe throughout the 19th and 20th centuries due to habitat degradation and loss (e.g. the loss of mature trees in river valleys as a result of logging, conversion to agriculture and river canalisation) (Kear 2005b). The species has also suffered local declines as a result of predation by American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> (Kear 2005b), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is susceptible to a certain amount of hunting pressure when on passage and during the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
100600499		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is legally protected in all three range states. It occurs in three Brazilian national parks, two state parks and one private protected area (Braz <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003), although there are no recent published records from Emas National Park. A species action plan has been published which outlines in detail its current status, ecology, threats and proposed conservation actions<strong></strong> (Ibama 2006). In Argentina, sections of the Arroyo Uruzú are protected within the Uruguaí Provincial Park (P. Benstead verbally 2004). Regular monitoring of the population in Serra da Canastra National Park is conducted and in 2008 a team from the WWT and Terra Brasilis colour-ringed 14 individuals and fitted five of them with radio transmitters in order to increase knowledge of the species's movements and ecology (Braz <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003, WWT 2008)<strong></strong>. Since then, 36 individuals have been banded, and the work has provided data on the species's sexual maturation and dispersal ability (Ribeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). During one phase of a long-term study in Serra da Canastra National Park four pairs fledged 70 young in five years, representing a considerable contribution to the species's long-term survival and highlighting the importance of the park<strong> </strong>(Bruno <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006). Nest boxes have recently been installed within the protected area (L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Genetic studies are underway in the population, which will help to inform conservation decisions (Vilaça <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The WWT continues to raise funds for this species, and over the next 12 months hopes to continue monitoring and ecological research and develop education work to address the threats faced by the species (Anon. 2009). A captive breeding programme was initiated in 2011 at the Poços de Caldas Breeding Center in Minas Gerais. Two young have been successfully reared so far (L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the status of the Bahia population<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira<em> in litt. </em>1999, L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Continue to monitor the Serra da Canastra population. Develop and implement a fieldwork strategy using satellite images. Protect the watershed and riverine habitats of populations, especially in Bahia. Improve local awareness and promote riverbank protection. Conduct surveys in Paraguay to confirm local reports. Advocate for the expansion of the Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park in Brazil to include the newly discovered population in the Rio das Pedras (Bianchi <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005).<br/><p></p>
100600499		distribution	eng	<em>Mergus octosetaceus</em> occurs in extremely low numbers at a few highly disjunct localities in south-central <strong>Brazil</strong>. The species's stronghold is in and (mostly) around Serra da Canastra National Park, Minas Gerais  (Lamas 2006), where recent surveys yielded a rough estimate of 65-100 territories, roughly equivalent to 130-200 individuals (L. V. Lins unpubl. data); if confirmed this would represent a significant increase to the size of the largest known subpopulation. A recently discovered population on tributaries of the Rio São Francisco  in west Bahia was thought to hold a significant population<strong> </strong>(Pineschi  and Yamashita 1999), but a 2003 survey there failed to locate any birds  (BirdLife International Brazil Programme unpubl. data).  It has recently been found in Patrocínio municipality, Minas Gerais (I. Lamas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012); a record from Itacolomi State Parque in the same state is though thought to refer to an accidental or escaped bird  (Arvelino de Paula 2008, L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In Goiás, there are records from Emas and Chapada dos Veadeiros national parks; the latter being surveyed in 2003-2004 with birds found just outside the park in the Rio das Pedras. In 1995, a small population was discovered on the Rio Tibagi, Paraná<strong> </strong>(Anjos <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997), but searches in 1998 were unsuccessful<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira<em> in litt. </em>1999). In 2002, another small population was discovered on the Rio Novo, in Jalapão State Park, Tocantins (Braz <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003), and six expeditions in 2007 and 2008 surveying a c.55 km stretch of the Rio Novo located three breeding pairs (Barbosa and Almeida 2010). It is believed extinct in Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio de Janeiro<strong> </strong>(Pacheco and Fonseca 1999), São Paulo, and Santa Catarina. In Misiones, <strong>Argentina</strong>, 12 individuals were found on the Arroyo Uruzú in 2002, the first records in the country for 10 years despite extensive surveys (Benstead 1994, Hearn 1994, J. C. Chebez <em>in litt</em>. 1999). In <strong>Paraguay</strong>, it was last recorded in 1984 and there is little (if any) habitat left. However, local reports indicate that a few individuals may still survive<strong></strong> (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003).<strong></strong><p></p>
100600499		habitat	eng	It inhabits shallow, fast-flowing rivers, requiring rapids and clear waters. It occurs especially in the upper tributaries of watersheds but ranges into small rivers with patches of gallery forest surrounded by "cerrado" (tropical savanna) or within Atlantic Forest. It is non-migratory and does not abandon the stretch of river where it establishes its territory<strong></strong> (Lamas 2006). Pairs have used 8-14 km stretches of river<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Bartmann 1996, L. F. Silveira<em> in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>,  nesting in tree-cavities and rock-crevices<strong> </strong>(C. Yamashita <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Lamas and Santos 2004<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Bruno <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Breeding activity has been recorded between June and August (Lamas and Santos 2004, <strong></strong>Bruno <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006, Bruno <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010)<strong></strong>, but timing may vary geographically. Incubation may last c.33 days (Bruno <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010). Young birds have been observed between August and November<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Lamas and Santos 2004, Bruno <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006). The diet comprises fish, small eels, insect larvae, dobson flies (<em>Corydalis</em> spp.) and snails. In Serra da Canastra it eats mainly lambari <em>Astyanax fasciatus</em>. Territory size is believed to be related to the number of rapids, edgewaters, water speed, fish abundance and conservation of riparian vegetation<strong></strong> (Lamas 2006). <p></p>
100600499		population	eng	The population was estimated at 250 individuals in 1992. Although no complete census has been conducted since this estimate, threats have continued, hence the current population is likely to be lower than this figure, thus the population is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals. There are recent suggestions that the population may exceed this figure (L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), but this requires confirmation.
100600499		threats	eng	Perturbation and pollution of rivers results largely from deforestation, agricultural expansion and, in the Serra da Canastra area, diamond-mining<strong> </strong>(Bartmann 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>Bartmann 1996)<strong></strong>. Previously, the species was thought to rely on gallery forest which, although protected by law in Brazil, has been cleared illegally throughout much of the species's range. However, evidence suggests it will occur on unforested, undisturbed stretches of river through cerrado. Mining has ceased in the immediate area of its known range but there is no additional habitat for dispersing birds<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira<em> in litt. </em>1999), and it is thought that diamond mining will resume at Serra da Canastra in the near future (L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Expanding agriculture and the construction of hydroelectric dams are considered the principal threats to the species (Braz <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003). Dam-building has already caused severe declines across much of its range, and is increasing in scale (L. V. Lins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Tourist activities result in river perturbation and have been recorded within known territories and inside national parks<strong></strong> (Ibama 2006).<strong></strong><br/><p></p>
100600500		distribution	eng	The red-breasted Merganser breeds in most of the northern North America, south to the Great Lakes, in Greenland (to Denmark), <B>Iceland</B>, and much of northern Eurasia south to the <B>United Kingdom</B>, parts of Eastern Europe, north-east <B>China</B> and northern <B>Japan</B>. Its wintering grounds expand its range to include the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, areas of central Europe and the Mediterranean basement, the Black Sea, the southern Caspian Sea, the southern coast of <B>Iran</B> and <B>Pakistan</B>, the eastern coast of <B>China</B>, and the coasts of <B>Korea</B> and <B>Japan<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
100600500		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) although in temperate regions it only undertakes short distance movements to nearby coasts (Scott and Rose 1996) or remains close to its breeding waters throughout the year (Madge and Burn 1988). It breeds from April or May (later in northern populations) (Kear 2005b) in single pairs or colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) on islands or small islets, adults often assembling in groups on beaches when not at the nest (even when nesting solitarily) (Kear 2005b). Males leave the breeding grounds in June to moult in small groups along the coast (Scott and Rose 1996), often considerable distances from the breeding areas (Snow and Perrins 1998) (although there is no evidence for any major migrations to common moulting sites) (Johnsgard 1978). The autumn migration begins in September (Scott and Rose 1996) and the species returns from the wintering grounds as early as February (Scott and Rose 1996). It is gregarious during the winter and on migration (Kear 2005b), flocks of up to a hundred or more occurring in suitable sites during the autumn (although it travels in much smaller flocks during the spring) (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds along the wooded shorelines (Kear 2005b) of deep lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), small rivers and streams (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) with moderate currents (Snow and Perrins 1998) in the tundra, boreal and temperate forest zones (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005b), as well as on more saline waters such as sheltered shallow bays, inlets, straits or estuaries with sandy rather than muddy substrates (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for narrow channels rather than open expanses of water, with islands or islets and spits, projecting rocks or grassy banks (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> The majority of the species winters at sea (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), frequenting both inshore and offshore waters, estuaries, bays and brackish lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) but showing a preference for clear, shallow waters not affected by heavy wave action (Johnsgard 1978). It will also utilise large freshwater lakes on passage (Madge and Burn 1988). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of small, shoaling marine or freshwater fish (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), as well as small amounts of plant material (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and aquatic invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) such as crustaceans (e.g. shrimps and crayfish) (Johnsgard 1978), worms and insects (Kear 2005b). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed within 25 m of water (Kear 2005b) in a variety of locations such as natural cavities on the ground (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005b) , burrows (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005b), under boulders (Madge and Burn 1988), amongst tree or scrub roots (Snow and Perrins 1998), in tree cavities, artificial nestboxes (Madge and Burn 1988), amongst reeds or on floating reed mats (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). Where tree cavities or artificial nestboxes are utilised, the species shows a preference for those with entrances c.10 cm in diameter and with internal diameters of 30-40 cm (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Management information</B> The breeding density of this species increased on islands in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland as a result of feral American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> removal (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species will also nest in artificial nestboxes with entrances c.10 cm in diameter and with internal diameters of 30-40 cm (Johnsgard 1978).
100600500		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.510,000-610,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006). National population estimates include: c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt;c.50   individuals on migration and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.100,000-1 million breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600500		threats	eng	The species is subject to persecution and may be shot (Kear 2005b) by anglers and fish-farmers who accuse it of depleting fish stocks (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kear 2005b). It is also threatened by accidental entanglement and drowning in fishing nets (Kear 2005b). Alterations to its breeding habitats by dam construction and deforestation, and habitat degradation from water pollution are other major threats to the species (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may the threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted in North America (Kear 2005b) and Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006), although it may not be a popular game species (Kear 2005b). The eggs of the species also used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).
100600501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Primary forest is protected at some breeding localities in China and at the most important breeding site in North Korea. Small proportions of its breeding and non-breeding populations occur inside protected areas, notably Sikhote-Alin' State Biosphere Reserve, Lazovskiy State Reserve and Botchinskiy State Reserve (Russia) (D. Solovyeva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008), and Changbai Shan Nature Reserve (China). An artificial nest programme in Russia, involving the provision of at least 180 nest boxes (Cranswick 2010), has shown positive results, increasing habitat capacity along rivers with logged flood-plains (D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008; Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. The programme involves the continued maintenance of artificial nests, liaison with hunters and fishers and collaboration with local communities, including information and education activities and the construction of a research and visitor centre (D. Solovyeva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008; Anon. 2009). This has already resulted in a change in fishing practices by local people. It has also facilitated the capture of females for tagging with geolocators, allowing the identification of staging and wintering sites (Cranswick 2010, Solovyeva <em>et al. </em>in press)<em></em><strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Delineate the breeding range in Russia. Survey breeding populations and locate rivers with a high density of breeding pairs within the main breeding range (Primorye and Khabarovsk Region). Continue to monitor population trends. Carry out research into the impacts of human activities. Identify and protect key wintering areas in China and the Korean peninsula. Establish new protected areas at important breeding localities, notably the Bikin and Iman river basins (Russia). Establish seasonal protected area at moulting sites. Promote forestry management that maintains primary forest along rivers. Implement an artificial nest programme on key rivers. Initiate education programmes to raise public awareness and reduce levels of illegal hunting. <p></p>
100600501		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Mergus squamatus</span> breeds in Khabarovsk, Amur, the Jewish Autonomous Region and Primorye in south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea </span>and Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner Mongolia in north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">China </span>(BirdLife International 2001). Some birds winter in south-east Russia and North Korea, but most winter in central and southern China (the majority of wintering flocks found on rivers and other water bodies in the Yangtze River catchment (He Fen-qi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Solovyeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press), with small numbers in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Japan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Taiwan </span>(China), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span>. Its population is estimated at fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and declining, although recent estimates suggest that there could be around 10,000 mature individuals or more (D. Solovyeva<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2007, Anon. 2009, B. Hughes per Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Cranswick 2011); however, this requires further study and verification. Most breed in Russia where, in the early 1980s, there were c.1,000 pairs in Primorye and c.100 pairs in Khabarovsk but, by 1990, the total number was estimated at c.950 pairs. However, recent survey results revealed that breeding density along rivers in Primorye has more than doubled since the 1960s/1970s (Solovyeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and a total of 173 individuals were recorded along a 20-km stretch of the Iman River in 2003 (Robson 2003). Where historical data was available for comparison, breeding populations in Russia showed some increases but this trend seems to have stabilised during 2003-2007 (D. Solovyeva <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2008). The breeding population in China was estimated at 200-250 pairs (now restricted to the Chingbai mountains following extinction in the Xingan Mountains and Wusuli basin) and declining (Peiqi Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Recent surveys of the Chingbai mountains suggest that the population there now numbers 150-200 pairs (Peiqi Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In 2003, a population of c.40 individuals was found on the lower Chongchon river in central Korea (Duckworth and Chol 2005). A total of 300 individuals (including one flock of 80 birds) were recorded on a stretch of river not more than 3 km long, at Song Jiang He in Jilin Province, China, representing a post-breeding congregation prior to migration (Peiqi Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2008). Surveys of c.1,000 km of rivers and 11 reservoirs in south-east China in the winters of 2006 and 2008 found a total of 71 individuals (31 and 40 respectively) (Cao and Barter 2008), and wintering birds at four sites in northern Jiangxi during 2002-2007 included a peak of 88 on a 22-km stretch of Xinjiang River (Yu Chang-Hao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but the whereabouts of the majority of the wintering population is still unknown (Cao and Barter 2008, Cranswick 2011). In the winter of 2007/2008, 1-2 birds were reported from Yalujiang River, north-east of Dandong City, Liaoning province (Bai Qing-Quan 2008), indicating that a few birds winter within the species's breeding range in north-eastern China and probably representing some of the most northerly wintering individuals in China. <br/><p></p>
100600501		habitat	eng	It breeds below c.900 m in mountainous areas, along rivers with tall riverine forest, mainly within the temperate conifer-broadleaf forest zone. It is largely confined to primary forests, with an abundance of potential nest-holes. During a study on the Russian breeding grounds, river size, mountain slope, human population, estimated forest cover and water clarity all failed to explain the observed distribution, but the species showed a marked preference for the middle reaches of rivers (Solovieva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It prefers freshwater habitats in winter, only c.10% are known to winter on coastal waters (Solovyeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). On passage and in winter it feeds along large rivers. Flocks of up to 20 individuals have been noted on passage or in winter (Duckworth and Chol 2005). In Russia, they moult on a range of water bodies within the breeding range and north and east of breeding range, including rivers, estuaries and the sea (Solovyeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press).<br/><p></p>
100600501		population	eng	In Russia, c.1,575 pairs nest in Sikhote-Alin (Solovyeva<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. in press). In China, 180-200 pairs breed in the Changbaishan Mountains (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and perhaps 30-40 pairs in Lesser Xingan. In North Korea, probably less than 200 pairs breed, mainly on Mayang Chosuji reservoir (Chong and Morishita 1996). The total world population is therefore likely to consist of less than 3,000 pairs (Solovyeva <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), however, there are other estimates of perhaps several thousand pairs (B. Hughes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). In recognition of this uncertainties, the number of mature individuals is estimated at 2,400-4,500, following Peiqi Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010). This is roughly equivalent to 3,600-6,800 individuals in total. Further research is required in order to verify this.
100600501		threats	eng	In the 1960s and 1970s, its decline in Russia coincided with economic development of the taiga. Primary forests in the valleys of all large rivers were greatly altered, but large-scale deforestation in river valleys is now prohibited; however, the new Russian Forest Codex (2007) requires a water protection zone (no deforestation) of only 100 m for large rivers (50 m on each side), and 50 m (25 m each side) for rivers shorter that 100 km, which is likely to significantly reduce suitable breeding habitat for this species, which nests up to 150 m from rivers (D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). Logging of river sources and adjacent slopes has led to reduced spring water levels and changes in fish abundance; since logging began on the Avvakumovka River in 2004, spring water levels and merganser populations have undergone continuous declines (D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). Other major threats within the breeding range include illegal hunting, drowning in fishing nets (a major cause of mortality at Russian breeding sites in 2003-2007 [D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008]), disturbance from motor boats during the breeding season, river pollution and natural predators. Increased hunting of waterfowl for sport together with poor regulation of the spring hunting season (which is intended to coincide with passage migration and avoid targeting locally breeding birds) is a significant and increasing threat; large numbers were reportedly shot in the Kievka River basin, southern Primorye, in spring 2008 (D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). Threats in its breeding range in China include dam construction, deforestation, illegal hunting, human disturbance and the use of poisons and/or explosives for fishing (Peiqi Liu <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Fine-meshed nets were a significant threat to the post-breeding congregations at Song Jiang He in Jilin Province, China, but illegal fishing at the site has been reduced and only large-meshed nets are used in legal fish-farming (Peiqi Liu <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. The site remains threatened by industrial pollution (Peiqi Liu <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. The proposed Korean Grand Canal project, which aimed to canalise 3,134 km  of the Korean peninsula's rivers and radically alter the Han and  Nakdong rivers (which currently support an estimated 30-50 birds in  winter), was suspended in June 2008 (Moores  2008), and an alternative scheme, the Four Rivers Project, was proposed in December of that year, with an environmental impact assessment and launch of construction in 2009 (Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)<strong></strong>. In South Korea, the species is impacted by increased river turbidity due to construction and dredging, bridge-building activities, river-bank strengthening and road-widening schemes (Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Some of these activities are associated with the Four Rivers Project on several stretches of river used regularly or irregularly by the species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Other significant aspects of habitat modification will include the deepening of rivers and the removal of boulders and islands, which are used for roosting. Many stretches of river are expected to be rendered unusable for the species owing to habitat degradation and disturbance (Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The species has low genetic diversity (Solovyeva and Pearce 2011). High levels of heavy metals, especially As and Hg, were reported in females and their eggs after wintering in the Yangtze catchment (Solovyeva<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Poor egg hatchability recorded within Sikhote-Alin population could be a result of pollution on the wintering grounds.<p></p>
100600502		distribution	eng	The Common Merganser can be found breeding year-round in central Asia and western <B>China</B>, in northern Europe including <B>France</B>, <B>Germany</B>, Scandinavia, the <B>United Kingdom</B> and <B>Iceland</B>, and in large areas of northern <B>United States</B> and parts of southern <B>Canada</B>. Summer breeding grounds include the majority of Scandinavia and <B>Russia</B>, parts of central Asia including northern <B>India</B>, northern regions of <B>Kazakhstan</B>, <B>Mongolia </B>and <B>Japan</B>, and much of southern Canada. Wintering grounds expand the range further south to encompass most of the United States, other coastal regions of south-eastern Europe (e.g. <B>Turkey</B> and <B>Greece</B>) and central Asia, and the eastern coast of China as well as <B>Korea</B> and <B>Japan<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
100600502		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern breeding populations of this species are fully migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998) although breeders in temperate regions are sedentary or only travel short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996). The species arrives on its breeding areas between March and May (Scott and Rose 1996), actually breeding as early as late-March (although often considerably later in more northerly regions) (Madge and Burn 1988). It breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of up to 8-10 individuals (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) (especially on islands that provide suitable nesting sites in lacustrine or coastal locations) (Johnsgard 1978). The males gather to moult after mating, often undertaking considerable moult migrations to flock on key waters (Madge and Burn 1988). Females also undergo a post-breeding moult on the breeding grounds during which they become flightless for around 1 month (Johnsgard 1978). The main migration to wintering areas largely occurs from October through to December (Scott and Rose 1996), mass departures being linked to the freezing of breeding and moulting areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). Outside of the breeding season the species is typically found in small parties, with groups of up to 70 individuals feeding together on shoals of fish during the winter (Kear 2005b). Large flocks may also form on roosting waters (Madge and Burn 1988), the largest gatherings occurring during the autumn migration and winter months and numbering up to several thousands of individuals (Madge and Burn 1988) (1,000 to 10,000 on suitable waters) (Snow and Perrins 1998). On passage in the spring flocks are usually small however, breeding pairs remaining in flocks until they reach the breeding grounds (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on large clear freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b), pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), the upper reaches of rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b) and streams (Kear 2005b) in the boreal, montane (Kear 2005b) and temperate forest zones (Johnsgard 1978). It requires waters with a fairly high productivity of fish (Kear 2005b) surrounded by mature hard-wood trees with holes excavated by woodpeckers or natural cavities for nesting in (Kear 2005b). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species winters on large unfrozen lakes, rivers, lagoons, brackish waters and marshes (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), generally avoiding highly saline waters (Madge and Burn 1988) although it may move to estuaries, coastal lagoons and sheltered sea coasts with waters less than 10 m deep in particularly harsh winters (Scott and Rose 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) less than 10 cm long (Kear 2005b), but may also include aquatic invertebrates (such as molluscs, crustaceans, worms, and adult and larval insects), amphibians, small mammals and birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests in holes excavated by large woodpeckers or natural cavities in mature hardwood trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b) with entry holes more than 15 m above the ground (Kear 2005b). It shows a preference for cavities with openings c.12 cm wide and internal diameters of c.25 cm (Johnsgard 1978) in trees close to or up to 1 km away from water (Snow and Perrins 1998). When natural tree-nesting sites are not available (Johnsgard 1978) the species will use artificial nestboxes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kear 2005b) or may nest among tree roots in undercut banks, on cliff ledges (Kear 2005b), in rock clefts (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) or in dense scrub or loose boulders on islands (Kear 2005b). Sometimes several females may nest in the same tree (Madge and Burn 1988), especially on islands that provide suitable nesting sites in lacustrine or coastal locations (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Management information </B>Artificial nestboxes commonly used are 85-100 cm high with openings 50-60 cm from the base (Johnsgard 1978).
100600502		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,700,000-2,400,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt;c.100 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea   and c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600502		threats	eng	The species is subject to persecution by anglers and fish-farmers who accuse it of depleting fish stocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and it is occasionally drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China) (Quan <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species is also threatened by the degradation of freshwater lakes through drainage and petroleum pollution in Russia (Grishanov 2006) and as a result of acid rain in North America (Kear 2005b). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted in North America (Kear 2005b) and Russia (Grishanov 2006) (although it is not a popular game bird) (Kear 2005b), and its eggs used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).
100600503		distribution	eng	<em>Mergus australis </em>was restricted to the Auckland Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, by the time of its discovery in 1840<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), but subfossil remains of a <em>Mergus</em> species have also been found on South and Stewart Islands<strong></strong>. At least 26 specimens were collected in total, the last in 1902<strong> </strong>(Kear and Scarlett 1970); there have been no records since, despite intensive searches<strong> </strong> (Williams and Weller 1974). <p></p>
100600503		habitat	eng	It was largely a freshwater species, foraging in inland streams, estuaries and, occasionally, sheltered bays<strong> </strong>(Kear and Scarlett 1970).  <p></p>
100600503		threats	eng	Its decline was presumably caused by a combination of hunting and predation by introduced pigs, rats, cats and dogs(Kear and Scarlett 1970) - the species's incipient flightlessness made it especially vulnerable<strong> </strong>(Livezey 1989b).  <p></p>
100600504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally abundant (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). National population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in   China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
100600505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. Its status ranges from uncommon in south-eastern Australia to common in the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Madge and McGowan 2002).
100600508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently common through much of its range. However, its status and population trend is very poorly known (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
100600509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently common as suggested by frequent capture (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to very common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China, c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
100600511		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in northern, western and southern Madagascar and less common in the east and high plateau (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600512		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Management actions completed or underway include surveys in Queensland (excluding Fraser Island), and research to determine habitat use, particularly of <em>A. cunninghamii</em> plantations and adjacent remnants of native vine thicket. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm size and distribution of Yarraman and Great Sandy populations. Determine status of remaining populations in New South Wales. Survey possible habitat before timber harvesting, licensing clearing, burning, roading and grazing. Develop a standard monitoring technique. Determine the impact of fox and cat predation, particularly in small fragments. Determine the extent of movement between habitat patches. Rehabilitate and consolidate habitat fragments. Ensure appropriate conservation management of all remaining breeding habitat, including protection from clearing, burning, timber harvesting, roading and grazing. <p></p>
100600512		distribution	eng	<em>Turnix melanogaster</em> is found in Queensland, from Marlborough to the New South Wales border and up to 300 km inland, and New South Wales, <strong>Australia</strong>. However, it now survives at a much reduced density, particularly in the Dawson and Fitzroy River catchments, and in northern New South Wales. The population may number as few as c.5,000 mature individuals, and subpopulations may be largely isolated. Its area of occupancy is estimated to be 750 km<sup>2 <strong></strong></sup>(Garnett and Crowley 2000, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The largest populations occur in the semi-evergreen vine thickets of the Yarraman district and in Great Sandy National Park (both Cooloola and Fraser Island sections) (M. Mathieson<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600512		habitat	eng	<p>In Queensland, it is found in closed canopy rainforest with a rainfall of 800-1,200 mm and a deep litter layer. It also occurs in softwood scrubs in the brigalow belt, vine scrub regrowth and early mature to mature hoop pine <em style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria cunninghamii</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>plantations, especially where a shrubby understorey is present. In New South Wales, it occurs in wetter subtropical rainforest, often in association with moist eucalypt forest. In littoral areas, the species inhabits dry vine scrubs, acacia thickets and areas densely covered in shrubs, particularly midgen berry <em>Austromyrtus dulcis</em><strong> </strong>(M. Mathieson<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Its diet comprises mainly invertebrates from the forest floor and possibly seeds. Adults are sedentary, although females tend to roam more widely during the breeding season as a result of this species's polyandrous breeding system (M. Mathieson<em> in litt.</em> 2007).</p>  <p></p>
100600512		population	eng	The present population is thought to number c.5,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 7,500 individuals in total.
100600512		threats	eng	<p>Historically at least 90% of its habitat was cleared for agriculture or plantations of hoop pine <em>Araucaria &#160;cunninghamii</span></em>. This undoubtedly contributed greatly to the local extinction from most of the Dawson River valley, however now almost all lands currently occupied are under state control and most are conserved. Timber harvesting throughout this species's range is also a threat. Surviving populations in vine thickets are affected by grazing and disturbance by cattle, horses, feral pigs and wallabies, which have increased as a result of partial clearing. Such disturbance has its greatest impact during droughts when the habitat, particularly the leaf-litter, is susceptible to fire. It is threatened by introduced predators including feral cats and foxes.</p><p></p>
100600513		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the characteristics of habitat used by the species. Correlate distribution with patterns of fire and grazing. Devise and implement optimum management regime, especially in protected areas.<br/><p></p>
100600513		distribution	eng	<em>Turnix castanotus</em> has a disjunct distribution in Top End, Northern Territory, and the Kimberley region, northern Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>. It could possibly number c.100,000 birds, including c.50,000 mature individuals. The species has not been seen in the McArthur River region since 1913, however no recent declines have been reported even though the population is sparse and scattered, and the population is not currently thought to be declining (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
100600513		habitat	eng	The species prefers areas of short grass in eucalypt woodland, particularly on stony or rocky hills (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Limited data suggest that it feeds on seeds and insects. Its nest is a dome of grass on the ground. <p></p>
100600513		population	eng	Its population could possibly number c.100,000 birds, including c.50,000 mature individuals. However, there are effectively no data to support this (S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2007, J. Woinarski <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
100600513		threats	eng	Its decline in the McArthur River region, from where the Partridge Pigeon <em>Geophaps s. smithii </em>and Hooded Parrot <em>Psephotus dissimilis</em> have also been extirpated, suggests that large-scale changes in habitat may be affecting the species. Possibilities include grazing by introduced herbivores or inappropriate changes in the fire regime. The spread of annual <em>Sorghum</em> spp. and exotic pasture grasses may be particularly detrimental to ground-dwelling granivores. This species may be adversely affected by global climate change, which could cause even more unfavourable fire regimes (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan has been prepared (Mathieson and Smith 2009). Searches for the species are underway, as is habitat analysis in the Mt Molloy area. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a reliable technique for finding birds. Search for populations in the northern Atherton Tablelands. Record calls and use to locate other populations. Determine habitat requirements. Determine habitat use and movements in wild populations using radio-telemetry. Determine an effective conservation management strategy for known populations. Capture at least 10 birds to establish a captive population. Determine the optimum habitat structure using a captive population. Undertake fire management at known locations, including storm burning (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<p></p>
100600514		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Turnix olivii </span>is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, and is one of the country's least-known birds. Historically, the species has been recorded near Cooktown, Coen, Musgrave, Mareeba and Mt Molloy. There are no recent records from sites of early collection at Coen and near Cooktown and, in the last decade, it has only been found sporadically at a few sites. Its range probably fluctuates greatly depending on annual variations in the pattern of burning (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Through the 1990s, birds were found progressively less frequently near Mt Molloy, despite intensive searching. The total population is best-guessed at 500 mature individuals, and may be restricted to an area of occupancy of 50 km<sup>2</sup> (Garnett and Crowley 2000).<br/><p></p>
100600514		habitat	eng	Most of the few observations of this species are from within grassland, on ridge-tops or stony rises within areas that are otherwise dominated by eucalypt woodland or rainforest. Fires after the first rains of the wet season are thought to be important in maintaining the open structure of their favoured grassland habitat (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Its only feeding records are of seeds and insects. They build dome nests on the ground and lay 4 eggs that are tended by the male.<p></p>
100600514		population	eng	Within the species's known range there are perhaps c.500 mature individuals, equivalent to c.750 individuals in total.
100600514		threats	eng	Some sites are in danger of being destroyed by clearing. Many sites may have been invaded by woody weeds and rendered unsuitable by inappropriate burning and grazing regimes that encourage extensive fires, but promote occlusion of grasslands and grassy woodland by woody weeds. As a result there may be few places that retain the open structure that the species appears to prefer for breeding (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011). Predation by feral cat <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span> or feral pig <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span> may also affect abundance (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<strong></strong><p></p>
100600515		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Turnix varius</span> occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">novaecaledoniae</span>, of <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span>, is probably extinct having not been recorded since 1912 (Warner 1947).
100600515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600516		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prioritise fieldwork to locate viable populations of the species and identify suitable areas where it might be effectively protected. <p></p>
100600516		distribution	eng	<em>Turnix worcesteri</em> is endemic to the island of Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from just six localities. Virtually all records have derived from bird-catchers and are assumed to be intra-island migrants. There is a recent (January 2009) record of an individual caught and photographed at Dalton Pass (Allen 2009). The limited available evidence suggests that it breeds somewhere in northern Luzon in April-June and that at least some birds disperse southwards in the period July-March. Thus its true range (and habitat) remain obscure. It appears to be rare; however, buttonquails are a notoriously cryptic and unobtrusive family of birds, and the species could conceivably occur in reasonable numbers somewhere. If it does inhabit grasslands, it cannot be assumed that increases in this habitat on Luzon have benefited the species, which may prove to have specific ecological requirements not met by the creation of pastures or cropland through forest clearance. <em> <p></p></em>
100600516		habitat	eng	It may be confined to grasslands in the highlands of the Cordillera Central, although records are from 150-1,250 m, and the possibility that it frequents forested (non-grassland) habitats cannot be discounted. It has been stated that it inhabits tall grass under pine trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Allen 2009), although this requires verification. <br/><p></p>
100600516		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, although it has been described as rare.
100600516		threats	eng	Hunting evidently poses a threat (e.g. at the migratory funnel and bird-catching area of Dalton Pass, Nueva Vizcaya), but the impact of this on its population cannot currently be gauged. <p></p>
100600517		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent surveys have provided important new information and a conservation project on Sumba has been initiated. While this project has submitted a proposal to gazette a network of seven protected areas on the island, it is unclear to what extent this will benefit this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further fieldwork to net and identify buttonquails at a wide range of sites across a variety of grassland habitats, in order to estimate population size, distribution and key ecological parameters. Ensure the Sumba Forest Conservation Strategy incorporates measures tailored to the needs of this non-forest species. Conduct conservation awareness programmes to reduce hunting and trapping. <p></p>
100600517		distribution	eng	<em>Turnix everetti</em> is endemic to the island of Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001),<strong> </strong>where it is apparently patchily distributed, but locally frequent, as at Yumbu where up to 17 have been recorded. Locals report it to be common during the maize harvest and unidentified buttonquails are encountered throughout the island. The species may therefore prove to be more widespread and abundant than currently suspected. <p></p>
100600517		habitat	eng	It inhabits sparse, dry grassland and scrub, often in a mosaic, from sea-level to at least 220 m, and appears to be less common in cultivated areas. At Yumbu, it was found in sparse natural grassland with occasional bushes on a raised coral limestone plateau, with all definite and possible records coming from areas with a 0.5-0.7 m sward height, interspersed with patches of shorter grass. It associates (and may be in competition) with other <em>Turnix</em> and <em>Coturnix</em> species. It has been postulated that resource partitioning in these species is related to bill morphology, the heavier bill of <em>T. everetti</em> being an adaptation to its diet of larger seeds. Although probably sedentary, seasonal movements may occur in response to food availability. <p></p>
100600517		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600517		threats	eng	Assessment of the threat posed by the burning and clearance of habitat is complicated by the fact that this activity may actually increase habitat availability for the species. Nevertheless, much survey time has been spent in human-made grasslands, and its apparent absence from these areas suggests that it is constrained by an unknown ecological factor. It is quite possible, therefore, that overgrazing and burning are deleterious, and that competition with other species is a problem. Recent evidence suggests that it is often trapped for food, at least seasonally, and this may constitute a major threat. <p></p>
100600518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600520		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
100600521		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to rare and sporadic (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600524		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and breeding biology,  as well as tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.<br/><p></p>
100600524		distribution	eng	<em>Indicator archipelagicus</em> is very local and sparse to uncommon (although easily overlooked) in peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong><em> </em><p></p>
100600524		habitat	eng	This species occurs sporadically in broadleaved lowland evergreen forest, up to 900 m. It also occurs occasionally in gardens and cacao plantations, in areas with adjacent primary forest. Its occurrence is associated with open nesting honeybees (<em>Apis dorsata</em> and <em>A. florae</em>). It is unknown whether this species is an obligate brood parasite, as in other members of the family.  <p></p>
100600524		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon to rare.
100600524		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).  <p></p>
100600525		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Sierra Leone, uncommon in Somalia and locally common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600527		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600528		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but not common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600529		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within the Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park, Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, Virunga National Park and Nyungwe Forest Reserve.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat included in protected areas. Tackle illicit logging through patrols by local wardens.  <p></p>
100600529		distribution	eng	<em>Indicator pumilio</em> is restricted to the Albertine Rift mountains in <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), possibly also occurring in Burundi (Fry <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong>.  Apparently not uncommon at some sites (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>, this unobtrusive species appears to lack an advertising song and is thus difficult to detect, so its apparent overall rarity may be simply a result of under-recording (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
100600529		habitat	eng	The species favours montane forest (1,500-2,400 m) and feeds on beeswax and insects (Fry <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda, it occurs in semi-open forest in drier areas (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its breeding season in eastern DRC is probably August-December, also May-June and possibly February (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It probably parasitises the nests of tinkerbirds <em>Pogoniulus</em> spp. or small woodpeckers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600529		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered common.
100600529		threats	eng	Forest within parts of its range is highly threatened as a result of shifting agriculture and illicit logging, exacerbated by high population pressure (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997; Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998; Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600530		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600531		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and breeding biology, as well as tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of giant honey bee colonies, as well as flower-rich habitats within the species's range.<br/><p></p>
100600531		distribution	eng	<em>Indicator xanthonotus </em>occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong> (possibly a seasonal or nomadic visitor; there are no recent records), <strong>Nepal</strong> (local and uncommon), <strong>India</strong> (very rare and local), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (local and uncommon), <strong>China</strong> (rare in south-east Tibet) and <strong>Myanmar </strong>(rare resident in the north) (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally assumed to be a rare species, although easily overlooked due to its inconspicuous behaviour and it may be more common than the paucity of records suggest. <em> </em><p></p>
100600531		habitat	eng	This species occurs in rocky gorges and valleys with broadleaved or coniferous forest, usually between 1,450 and 3,500 m. Males defend giant honey bee <em>Apis</em> <em>dorsata</em> nests that are usually attached to vertical cliffs. It may be an obligate brood parasite, although hosts are unknown.  <p></p>
100600531		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered very rare to uncommon throughout its range.
100600531		threats	eng	It has been suggested that over-exploitation of bees' nests for honey by human populations in the Himalayas might have a deleterious impact on its populations. Similarly, the loss of floral diversity as a result of agricultural expansion could affect bee populations. Forest loss could also influence this species.  <p></p>
100600532		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be only occasionally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600533		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Marahoué National Park, Cavally, Géoulé and Anguédédou Forest Reserves (Côte d'Ivoire), Kakum Forest Reserve amd Atewa Range Forest Reserve (Ghana), North Lorma National Forest (Liberia), and Okomu National Park and Cross River National Park (Nigeria). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study threats and clarify its dependence on the presence of primary forest. Study its ecology and if it is a brood-parasite identify the host species. Survey potential lowland forest habitat in West Africa, including afternoon visits. <p></p>
100600533		distribution	eng	<em>Melignomon eisentrauti</em> has been collected from <strong>Cameroon</strong> (two records), <strong>Liberia</strong> (near Mt Nimba, the Wonegizi Mountains, the slopes of Mt Balagizi and south of Vahun) (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (Gola Forest), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (Taï Forest, Mt Peko, Marahoué National Park, Cavally and Géoulé Forest Reserves [Rainey <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong></strong>, and most recently, Anguédédou Forest Reserve, plus probably Banco National Park [Lachenaud 2006]<strong></strong>), <strong>Ghana</strong> (Kakum Forest Reserve and Atewa Range) and <strong>Nigeria </strong>(Cross River National Park in 2004 [L. D. C. Fishpool <em>in litt</em>. 2006]<strong></strong>). It is likely to occur more widely in West Africa and is probably overlooked in surveys (Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong></strong>, perhaps due to singing in the afternoon (Dowsett-Lemaire 2008), but is undoubtedly rare and remains very poorly known (Bowden <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Further surveys are required, but with a better understanding of the species's distribution and habitat requirements it may well prove to be Least Concern, or perhaps Near Threatened, owing to a small and declining global population (Butchart <em></em>2007)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
100600533		habitat	eng	It is found in the mid-strata and canopy of semi-deciduous forest and primary evergreen lowland forest and appears to survive in secondary forest (though it is unlikely to be well adapted to such habitat). At Mt Nimba, it has been observed along logging roads (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects, pollen, small fruits and seeds (Allport <em>et al.</em> 1989, Bowden <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It is presumably a brood-parasite, but the host species remains unknown (Butchart 2007)<strong></strong>, although it has been seen being chased by Sharpe’s Apalis <span style="font-style: italic;">Apalis sharpii</span> suggesting that this may be a possible host species (Hugo Rainey pers. obs.). Recent records have been from semi-deciduous forest in Cote d’Ivoire suggesting that this may be a favoured habitat (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007).<p></p>
100600533		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as rare.
100600533		threats	eng	Although habitat throughout the species's range is under much pressure as a result of logging, agricultural encroachment and mining (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, lack of records and uncertainty over its dependence on primary forest makes it impossible to assess whether its population is declining rapidly due to forest loss. <p></p>
100600534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare though probably overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600535		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but never common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in Kenya and Tanzania (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600538		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 580,000-1,300,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 1,740,000-3,900,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of   the global population size is 3,550,000-15,600,000 individuals, although   further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and possibly c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600539		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to not uncommon and irregular in occurrence (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600541		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and probably uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600543		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600545		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and dependence on <em>várzea</em> forest. Evaluate threats to its habitat. <p></p>
100600545		distribution	eng	<em>Picumnus fuscus</em> has a moderately small range in <em>várzea</em> forest along the río Guaporé (Iténez) in Beni and Santa Cruz (Noel Kempff Mercado National Park), <strong>Bolivia</strong> and Rondônia, <strong>Brazil</strong><strong></strong> <strong></strong> (Short 1982, Parker and Rocha 1991, Killeen and Schulenberg 1998). It is poorly known, but observations suggest that it may be relatively common.<em> <p></p></em>
100600545		habitat	eng	It is restricted to <em>várzea</em> forest, where it may favour vine tangles and bamboo (Parker and Rocha 1991).  <p></p>
100600545		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
100600545		threats	eng	The río Guaporé is largely uninhabited, and almost continuously forested<strong></strong> (Parker and Rocha 1991), but by 1996 there was increasing human colonisation of river banks in the west of the species' range<strong></strong> (T. E. H. Stuart <em>in litt.</em> 1998). <p></p>
100600546		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600547		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600548		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
100600548		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Picumnus spilogaster</span> exists as three disjunct populations, each of which is considered a separate subspecies. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">orinocensis</span> is endemic to central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, where it is locally quite common on the "llanos" (plains) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">spilogaster</span> is common at its westernmost point in northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>. Its range is thought to extend through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, but it is very rare if still present in each of these countries<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The taxon's distribution reaches Roraima, north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">pallidius</span> is endemic to north-east Brazil, occurring around Belém, east Pará state (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It is thought that the species may occur in Colombia, but it has never been recorded there (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
100600548		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide range of lowland habitats up to 100 m, including rainforest, clearings and especially swampy areas, including mangroves (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It is usually seen hopping along tree limbs, singly or in pairs (Hilty 2003).
100600548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600548		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
100600549		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100600549		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Picumnus minutissimus</span> occurs on the north South American coast (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002). It is scarce in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>; indeed some consider that there have not been any conclusive records from this country. From there, its range extends east through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, where it is common throughout (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>In <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> it was once considered abundant, but its actual status is unclear and this is thought to have been a mistake (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
100600549		habitat	eng	This species occurs across a wide range of habitats, including montane forests, mangroves and riparian vegetation, as well as secondary habitats (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600549		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
100600550		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and probably uncommon or over-looked (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600551		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, which was designated in 1986 to protect the río Alto Mayo watershed for agricultural sustainability<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). However, forest clearance has continued unabated<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). Discussions with local leaders, public talks and media interviews have been conducted to advocate protection of forests in north-west San Martín<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys of the isolated east-Andean ridges of this region<strong> </strong>(Hornbuckle 1999b). Assess population status and ecological requirements. Control logging and habitat conversion in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, working with agricultural interests to protect the watershed. Support conservation groups currently working to protect forests in the region (Hornbuckle 1999b). Proposed sites for protection are listed in Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008).  <p></p>
100600551		distribution	eng	<em>Picumnus steindachneri</em> occurs in the central Huallaga valley and very locally in the Utcubamba valley in the Andes of north-west San Martín and south-east Amazonas, <strong>Peru</strong> (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is known from very few locations<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Taczanowski 1882, Hornbuckle 1999b<strong></strong>, R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt.</em> 1998, J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007<strong></strong>), but there are no recent records from the type-locality near Mendoza, and it is likely to have been extirpated from the area. It has been described as fairly common or common in the Abra Patricia area (the best-known location)<strong> </strong>(Hornbuckle 1999b). <p></p>
100600551		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid tropical and lower montane forests with many epiphytes and tall secondary growth at elevations from 1,100 m to at least 2,200 m<strong></strong> (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995, J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007, <strong> </strong>Clements and Shany 2001)<strong></strong>. It may be seen singly, in pairs or small family groups, and often moves through the canopy with mixed-species flocks<strong></strong> (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995, R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100600551		population	eng	The species is described as uncommon and geographically restricted. Its population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
100600551		threats	eng	Forests within its range have been logged since 1930 or earlier<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). Deforestation for coca plantations was a threat in the early 1980s, but commercial production now appears to have ceased in the area<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). Continuing population growth and immigration have led to heavy disturbance of (and deep intrusions into) forests where the species occurs, both through clear-cutting and selective logging<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). This situation is particularly concerning in the south-east of its range, where forest is now confined to the highest slopes<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). Large areas have been converted to agriculture (especially coffee plantations) and pastures<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999<strong>, </strong>Hornbuckle 1999b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600552		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
100600552		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Picumnus varzeae</span> has a small range within Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It is known from the area between the lower Rio Madeira in east Amazonas, and Obidos in extreme north-west Pará, although it may have a slightly wider distribution than this (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
100600552		habitat	eng	This is a poorly known species of lowland "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest), preferring dense undergrowth, and possibly tolerating disturbance to some extent (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, M. Cohn-Haft <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It is likely to breed between June and December (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600552		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
100600552		threats	eng	<p>This species is projected to lose more than half of its available habitat as a result of accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Its flooded habitat is threatened with further degradation by the building of hydroelectric plants (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
100600553		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600554		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600556		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600557		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600558		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Pedra Talhada and Serra Negra Biological Reserves, Tapacurá Ecological Station, Serra da Capivara National Park and Araripe National Forest<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995, F. Brammer <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. At Pedra Talhada, significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong></strong> (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong></strong> (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey sites in east Pernambuco to ascertain its current status. Survey potentially suitable habitat in the caatinga. Designate a biological reserve at Murici and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Continue conservation efforts at Pedra Talhada. Resolve the confusing taxonomic relationship between the <em>saturatus</em> subspecies and <em>P.&#160;limae</em>.<p></p>
100600558		distribution	eng	<em>Picumnus fulvescens</em> was, until recently, considered to have a disjunct range in the Atlantic forest and Caatinga of north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>.  Recent surveys, however, found it at four new widely distributed sites: Vale do Catimbau, Pernambuco (SNE 2002); Ubajara National Park, Ceara<strong> </strong>(A. Renaudier <em>in litt. </em>2005); Fazenda Tamanduá, Paraíba (Neves <em>et al. </em>1999); and Usina Serra Grande, Alagoas (Silveira <em>et al. </em>2003). The new records suggest that its distribution is not as disjunct as first thought. Observations made at Murici (J. M. Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2003) and Usina Serra Grande suggest that, in the Atlantic Forest region, this piculet uses drier second-growth forest and may be colonizing regenerating cleared areas. The species has been recorded in low secondary caatinga, and seems to be adaptable to human disturbance (as other <em>Picumnus</em>). Its occurrence in southern Piauí seems marginal, as its possible competitor, the Spotted Piculet <em>P. pygmaeus</em> is common there (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003). The number of localities (13) and extent of occurrence, are now estimated to exceed the B criterion at the Vulnerable level. Similarly the rate of population decline is now not thought to be so rapid, and the species has been reclassified as Near Threatened, and indeed may warrant downlisting to Least Concern. It is scarce, with most records pertaining to one or two birds<strong></strong> (Olmos 1993, Wege and Long 1995, F. Brammer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, J. Minns <em>in litt.</em> 1998, A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. It inhabits deciduous, semi-deciduous and secondary forest, and is regularly observed in degraded secondary scrub, from the lowlands to c.950 m  (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. There has been massive deforestation in Alagoas and Pernambuco, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. The extent of forest at Murici has been reduced from 70 km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s to 30 km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999). In January 1999,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has not been relocated around Serra da Capivara National Park, and significant areas outside the park have been degraded by cattle raising and wood collection to fuel the local brick factories (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003), a problem widespread in northeastern Brazil. Potentially suitable habitat in the Caatinga has been reduced through agricultural expansion, grazing and burning. It occurs in Pedra Talhada, Guaribas and Serra Negra Biological Reserves, Seridó Ecological Station, Tapacurá Ecological Station, Serra da Capivara National Park and Araripe National Forest<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995, F. Brammer <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. At Pedra Talhada, significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong></strong> (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong></strong> (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Vale do Catimbau is expected to become a National Park soon.   <p></p>
100600558		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous, semi-deciduous and secondary forest, and is regularly observed in degraded secondary scrub, from the lowlands to c.950&#160;m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600558		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available. It is considered scarce.
100600558		threats	eng	There has been massive deforestation in Alagoas and Pernambuco, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. The extent of forest at Murici has been reduced from 70 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong> in the 1970s to 30 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999). In January 1999,<strong> </strong>new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Potentially suitable habitat in the Caatinga has been reduced through agricultural expansion, grazing and burning, but the species's distribution in the region (and consequently potential threats) is poorly known.<br/><p></p>
100600559		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An environmental protection area was decreed in the Serra do Baturité in 1991, but its effectiveness in protecting forest habitat is unclear (R. Otoch <em>per</em> F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Local hotels protect some habitat in this serra (A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Resolve the confusing taxonomic relationship between the<em> saturatus</em> subspecies assigned to <em> P. fulvescens</em> and this species. <p></p>
100600559		distribution	eng	<I>Picumnus limae</I> is known from the Serra de Ibiapaba, Serra do Baturit&eacute; and Serra do Arataruai in north-central Cear&aacute;, north-east <B>Brazil</B>.  New information suggests it is far more numerous and widespread than was previously thought, and its range covers the northern half of the State of Ceara and a small part of eastern Rio Grande do Norte.  It persists in degraded and urban habitats, and its population is now estimated at 1,000,000 individuals (W. Silva and C. Albano <I>in litt. </I>2007).
100600559		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a diverse number of environments, from semi-deciduous hillside forests and the adjacent dryer tall caatinga to moist forests at elevations up to 1,000 m  (Parker <I>et al.</I> 1996, A. Whittaker <I>in litt.</I> 1999), as well as degraded habitats such as degraded forest edge with exotic bamboo and abandoned orchards (A. Whittaker <I>in litt.</I> 1999), and urban areas (W. Silva and C. Albano <I>in litt. </I>2007, C. Albano <I>in litt. </I>2009).
100600559		population	eng	The global population has been estimated a c.1,000,000 individuals (W. Silva <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
100600559		threats	eng	Potentially suitable forest and caatinga habitat has been reduced through agricultural expansion, grazing and burning (Short 1982). Only 1% of original forest remains in the Serra do Baturit&eacute;, largely as a result of clearing for sun coffee since the early 1970s (R. Otoch <I>per</I> F. Olmos <I>in litt.</I> 1999). Remaining habitat is threatened by the construction of holiday homes, and fires (R. Otoch <I>per</I> F. Olmos <I>in litt.</I> 1999). However, the species appears to be able to persist in degraded and even urban habitats, and as such is considered to be far less threatened by habitat loss than was previously thought (W. Silva and C. Albano <I>in litt. </I>2007).
100600560		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Aparados da Serra National Park in Brazil. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines. <p></p>
100600560		distribution	eng	<em>Picumnus nebulosus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Paraná south to Rio Grande do Sul, in adjacent parts of <strong>Uruguay</strong>, and in Misiones and Corrientes, north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>, where there are few recent records (Chebez 1994, Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100600560		habitat	eng	It is found up to 1,100 m in lowland evergreen and mixed <em>Araucaria</em> forests with dense undergrowth (often in bamboo areas, despite not directly depending on this microhabitat), forest edge and gallery woodland (Belton 1984,  Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Naka <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
100600560		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600560		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996). The proposed Garabí dam on the río Uruguay could flood the only forest patches from which it is currently known in Argentina (Chebez 1994). <p></p>
100600561		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600562		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600563		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600564		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600567		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600568		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600569		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600570		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600572		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>About 27% of remaining habitat is protected within the Guadeloupe national park  (Villard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations regularly.  Discourage the removal of dead trees.  Discourage clear-cutting and the siting of new roads and airports in valuble habitats.  Investigate the impact of rats on nesting success.   <p></p>
100600572		distribution	eng	<em>Melanerpes herminieri</em> is endemic to <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong> and inhabits the two main islands, Basse-Terre and&#160; Grande-Terre.<em></em>&#160;<em> <p></p></em>
100600572		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-deciduous forest on igneous and clay ground, evergreen forest, mangroves and swamp forest (Villard and Rousteau 1998)<strong></strong>, and excavates nest holes in the trunks of dead trees (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to the tree-line at 1,000 m, but is most common at 100-700 m (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995, Villard and Rousteau 1998)<strong></strong>. Habitats with the highest estimated population densities were seasonal  evergreen secondary growth forest, followed by swamp forest and  rainforest (Villard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Food items taken include a variety of invertebrates, vertebrates and fruit (Villard 2000)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><p></p>
100600572		population	eng	The population was estimated to comprise 7,920 pairs in 381 km<sup>2</sup> on Basse-Terre, and 2,410 pairs in 135 km<sup>2</sup> on Grande-Terre in 1994 (Villard and Rousteau 1998)<strong>. </strong>Surveys in 2007 revealed no significant change, but a different methodology calculated a total population of 8,469 pairs (Villard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The population is therefore estimated to number at least 16,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 24,000 individuals in total.
100600572		threats	eng	Clear-cutting and the removal of dead trees are the main threats, but damage from hurricanes, road construction, airport enlargement and land development are all concerning (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Villard and Rousteau 1998, Villard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Introduced rats may also be a problem (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600574		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas, but no species-specific actions are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Use fire for its positive effects - prescribed burning and understorey thinning increased numbers in Arkansas by creating more open forest stands, improving foraging opportunities; however, whilst burning may create nest-snags, it also destroys existing nest-snags. Creation or maintenance of snags for nesting and roosting  is of prime importance. Snags should be retained, in groups if possible. Dead branches should be retained on big trees in non-urban areas and only selectively pruned where hazardous in urban areas. Selective thinning of live trees appears to have a positive effect (e.g. removal of 50% of oak trees for prairie restoration on a reserve in Ohio immediately attracted nesting birds).  <p></p>
100600574		distribution	eng	<em>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</em> is found in central and eastern <strong>USA</strong>, from Montana to the Atlantic coast and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and in extreme southern <strong>Canada</strong><sup> </sup>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2002)<sup></sup>. The northern populations are migratory (Smith <em>et al. </em>2000, del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and historically its movements were influenced by nut crops from the now non-existent northern beech (<em>Fagus</em>) forests (Smith <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has experienced a steady decline of 2.5% annually since 1966 (J. Wells and K. Rosenberg <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the most severe declines in Florida and the Great Lakes Plain (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600574		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature lowland forest with dead trees for nesting, open areas for fly-catching and a relatively open understorey. It is strongly aggressive, particularly when defending food storage sites, and is interspecifically territorial against the Red-bellied Woodpecker <em>M. carolinus </em>(Reller 1972)<strong></strong>. It is omnivorous, eating a high proportion of animal matter in spring, but seeds predominate in winter. It breeds from April to September. <p></p>
100600574		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <p></p>
100600574		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, as a result of the removal of dead trees and branches in urban areas (Pulich 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and loss of nesting habitat to firewood cutting, clear cutting, agricultural development and river channelling in rural areas (Ehrlich <em>et al. </em>1992,<strong> </strong>Melcher 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, appears to be responsible. Collisions with moving vehicles may be a contributing factor, but persecution as a pest by farmers and utility companies is currently minimal (Smith <em>et al. </em>2000, del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600576		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600579		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600580		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600583		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600584		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600585		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600586		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600589		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600591		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600598		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although in some places rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600602		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600603		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An estimated 1,000-1,500 individuals are thought to occur in reserves, e.g. Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Carry out research into factors that possibly limit the species's population. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. <p></p>
100600603		distribution	eng	<em>Campethera notata</em> is a thinly dispersed endemic of the coastal lowlands of <strong>South Africa</strong>, extending north into southern KwaZulu-Natal and west to near Bredasdorp, Western Cape. The total range is less than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its total population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals.    <p></p>
100600603		habitat	eng	It is confined to coastal areas of forest, woodland, dense bush, <em>Euphorbia</em> scrub, or open country with large trees, extending marginally inland in places. The species feeds mainly on ants and ant larvae, as well as wood-boring beetles and their larvae (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in August-November. The nest hole is excavated in a dead tree trunk or branch. It has a clutch size of 2-4 eggs, which it probably incubates for 12 days, followed by a fledging period of three or four weeks (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A lack of suitable nest-holes may limit the population in some areas.   <p></p>
100600603		population	eng	This species is locally common but thinly dispersed within its small coastal range. Its population is estimated to number 1,500-5,000 individuals, roughly equating to 1,000-3,300 mature individuals.
100600603		threats	eng	A range contraction in KwaZulu-Natal in the 19th century has been attributed to the clearance of coastal bush for sugar-cane farming and township development.  <p></p>
100600604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally localized and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600606		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600607		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to not uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600609		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and sparsely distributed throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600613		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Nigeria and locally common in Gabon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600616		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across the species's range. Protect the species's habitat.  <p></p>
100600616		distribution	eng	<em>Dendropicos stierlingi</em> occurs in southern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, northern <strong>Mozambique</strong> and adjacent south-west <strong>Malawi (</strong>Winkler <em>et al</em>. 1995)<sup></sup>. Within most of this small range the species is uncommon to rare (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although it has been reported as being common in parts of the Dzalanyama Mountains in Malawi (Short and Horne 1981)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600616		habitat	eng	It inhabits <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland almost exclusively (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, from lowland areas up to 1,500 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its distribution is limited even within this habitat, although the reasons for this are unclear (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and centipedes in the middle strata and canopy, foraging on branches 4-12 cm thick and thus apparently avoiding competition with Cardinal Woodpecker <em>D. fuscescens</em> which feeds more often on twigs and smaller branches (Winkler <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the opening-up of <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland probably favours Cardinal Woodpecker over Stierling's Woodpecker (Short and Horne 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in tree holes, probably in July-October (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600616		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered common.
100600616		threats	eng	In Malawi and possibly also in Mozambique and Tanzania, <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland is being cleared for firewood especially in areas of tobacco cultivation where the tobacco is dried over wood fires (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be widespread and locally common but seldom numerous (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600620		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600624		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather local and generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600625		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon within its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and the most abundant woodpecker in its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600627		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are no formal protected areas in the archipelago. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although the likely benefits to the species are unknown. In 1997, an awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of all remaining forest tracts to identify further key sites and determine its habitat requirements. Urgently afford formal protection to any sites supporting populations, including Batu-batu. Campaign for rapid designation of further remnant forest patches as protected areas. Seek clarification of the proposal for conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes. <p></p>
100600627		distribution	eng	<em>Dendrocopos ramsayi</em> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known historically from eight islands, including Jolo, Siasi, Sanga-sanga and Sibutu (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Formerly thought to be widespread and abundant, the species was regarded as rare by the early 1970s. It persists on Tawitawi and fringing coralline islands. In 1998, the species was found to survive outside of dipterocarp forest, being recorded within Bardatal village, in bushes fringing mangrove, in heavily logged forest and in less degraded forest <strong></strong>(Allen 1998). In 2008, one pair was seen in heavily degraded farm habitat (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
100600627		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest clearings, forest edge, mangroves and cultivated areas, in addition to primary forest, although it has been speculated that it avoids dense forest. However, its habitat preferences are poorly understood. Its tolerance of degraded habitats implies that it should be more numerous than is the case.<p></p>
100600627		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600627		threats	eng	Extensive forest destruction throughout the archipelago presumably precipitated its decline. By the mid-1990s, rapid clearance of primary forest on Tawitawi had rendered remaining lowland patches highly degraded. Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus, but may indirectly conserve habitat by inhibiting logging or mining operations. <p></p>
100600628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600629		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600630		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600632		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 450,000-1,100,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 1,350,000-3,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of   the global population size is 2,760,000-13,200,000 individuals, although   further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in   Korea; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600633		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600635		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600637		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are many traditional rangeland reserves (mahjur) in south-west Arabia, where the vegetation (including trees) is protected by private or communal ownership rights from excessive exploitation, in order to provide fodder in times of drought (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. However, the management of these areas has been widely neglected or abandoned since the advent of more convenient supplies of supplemental feed (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. The species occurs in at least two protected areas in Saudi Arabia: Raydah Reserve and Asir National Park (Newton and Newton 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Encourage non-intensive agroforestry practices. Conduct a comprehensive population census and more extensive survey of potentially suitable sites. Promote the species as a flagship for strengthening the degree of protection of several sites in Saudi Arabia. <p></p>
100600637		distribution	eng	<em>Dendrocopos dorae</em> occurs locally in the Red Sea foothills and western ramparts of south-west Arabia (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, from 13°N in <strong>Yemen</strong> to 26°N in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> (Jennings 1995). It is generally uncommon to rare where it occurs, with some population data (Davidson 1996, Newton and Newton 1996)<strong></strong> suggesting that local densities are probably equivalent to 0.1-1.0 mature individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. The total population is therefore inferred to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. However, a more recent estimate of c.7,500 pairs (Jennings 2010) implies that there are c.15,000 mature individuals (M. Jennings <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), thus the population estimate used in this assessment may need to be revised. The population is currently inferred to be in continuing decline, but it has been suggested that its range and population have remained stable since the species was described early in the 20th century (Jennings 2010).<br/><p></p>
100600637		habitat	eng	It inhabits woodland, which now occurs only in residual fragments in Yemen, following millennia of settlement, cultivation and livestock-grazing. It occurs in a wide variety of woodland-types, including: groves of fig <em>Ficus</em>, date-palm <em>Phoenix</em> or pandan <em>Pandanus</em> at lower altitudes; subtropical, evergreen riparian forest; traditional shade-coffee plantations and well-developed succulent shrubland at middle-altitudes; woods, groves and parklands of <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Olea</em> and <em>Dracaena</em> at higher altitudes (often on slopes terraced for agriculture); and old-established orchards in the highlands (King 1978, Everett 1987, Newton and Newton 1996, Winkler <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to 2,800 m, and breeding records and behaviour (February-May) have been noted from 400 m up to 2,400 m (Everett 1987, Porter <em>et al</em>. 1996, Winkler <em>et al. </em>1996, Jennings 2010<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>), although it probably breeds down to sea-level (M. Jennings <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The nest-site is a small hole excavated in the trunk or major branch of a large tree (generally in dead wood or in a soft-wooded species). <p></p>
100600637		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600637		threats	eng	Lopping, cutting and clearance of trees, for charcoal and firewood (especially in Yemen [Beck 1990, Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991]<strong></strong>) and for building/agricultural land (mainly in Saudi Arabia [Newton and Newton 1996]<strong></strong>), are problems in parts of the species's range. Such activities are likely to preferentially target nest-trees (Winkler <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong></strong>, and are known to have reduced the number of large trees at some sites since the late 1980s (Beck 1990)<strong></strong>. In Yemen at least, the high price of cooking gas, and consequent heavy reliance on fuelwood, could be a cause for concern (D. Stanton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Abandonment of agricultural terraces at mid-altitudes is leading to massive loss of top-soil and degradation of terrace woodlands (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. A lack of tree regeneration, owing to high levels of grazing and browsing by livestock, has been observed at several sites and may be a problem. <p></p>
100600638		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon to scarce in most of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600639		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600641		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 140,000-310,000 breeding pairs, equating to 420,000-930,000 individuals   (BirdLife International 2004).
100600642		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 180,000-550,000 breeding pairs, equating to 540,000-1,650,000 individuals. Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1,00,000-7,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Japan, and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia.
100600643		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 12,000,000-18,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 36,000,000-54,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary   estimate of the global population size is 73,500,000-216,000,000 individuals,   although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population   estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000   individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600644		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 530000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 1590000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2150000-6600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
100600645		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600646		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600649		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600653		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The emphasis has been on site-specific rather than ecosystem-level management (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Intensive activities include translocating young females from natal sites to groups lacking a female, constructing artificial cavities (Jackson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and fitting restrictor plates to prevent <em>D. pileatus</em> enlarging cavities (Saenz <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat is managed (regular burning and understorey clearance) on some federal lands, but not always appropriately (Jackson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In South Carolina the "Safe Harbor" scheme offers financial incentives to private landowners who undertake beneficial management prescriptions (<strong></strong>Duncan <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations, especially where managed. Implement ecosystem-level management (James 1995)<strong></strong>. Provide incentives for landowners to maintain/enhance habitat (Kennedy <em>et al.</em> 1996, Bonnie 1997)<strong></strong>. Fit restrictor plates only where cavities are scarce (Saenz <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Document and monitor translocations (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Replace even-aged forest management with selective or no cutting (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Establish habitat corridors (e.g. along highways) (Jackson 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600653		distribution	eng	This species was originally distributed throughout south-east <strong>USA</strong>, but in 1999 it was limited to c.30 isolated populations (the largest in South Carolina and Florida), totalling c.4,700 groups or c.11,000 individuals and occupying just 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Jackson 1994, Guynn 1997, J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Between 1980 and 1990, it declined by at least 23%, with 50% of groups in just six populations (James 1995)<strong></strong>. However, the most recent data suggest that the population may be larger than previously estimated and may now be stable or increasing (Department of Defense/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service <em>in litt.</em> 2006, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2008, W. McDearman <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600653		habitat	eng	It inhabits fire-sustained open pine-forest, dominated in half of its range by longleaf pine <em>Pinus palustris</em> and elsewhere by shortleaf <em>P. echinata</em>, slash <em>P. elliotti</em>, or loblolly <em>P. taeda</em> pines (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a cooperative breeder, with each group requiring at least 80 ha of habitat. Nests are in cavities of living old-growth trees (100+ years old) and eggs are laid from late April to early June (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Foraging habitat preferences differ between the sexes and females are negatively influenced by the loss of old-growth trees (<strong></strong>Jackson 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One study showed that adults were heavier, and both adults and nestlings apparently sourced more food in shortleaf and loblolly pine habitats than in longleaf pine forest (Schaefer <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600653		population	eng	Guynn (1997), Jackson (1994) and J. A. Jackson (<em>in litt.</em> 1999) estimated the population to number 10,000-11,000 individuals, suggesting the number of mature individuals may fall below 10,000. Although more recent data suggests that the population may now be well above 10,000 mature individuals (Department of Defense and U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service <em>in litt.</em> 2006), a figure of 9,000-11,000 mature individuals is precautionarily retained.
100600653		threats	eng	Long-term clearance and economic management of habitat has reduced the viability of all populations. The excessive cutting of old-growth forests is reported to be still taking place in some areas (J. A. Jackson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Fragmentation has isolated nest-sites, making abandonment or group extirpation increasingly likely (Thomlinson 1995)<strong></strong>. Inbreeding depression has been highlighted as a potentially serious problem in small and isolated populations (Schiegg <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Exempting landowners from the Endangered Species Act has resulted in rapid declines on private land (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Translocating birds to federal lands may swamp locally adapted gene pools (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Southern pine beetle <em>Dendroctonus frontalis</em> infests cavities and kills nesting trees (Conner and Rudolph 1995)<strong></strong> (although they have a positive effect on woodpecker foraging both as a food item, and by creating arthropod rich dead-wood habitat [Schaefer <em>et al</em>. 2004]<strong></strong>). Beetle infestations have increased since habitat management for the woodpecker started in 1988, suggesting a possible connection (Conner and Rudolph 1995)<strong></strong>. Pileated Woodpeckers <em>Dryocopus pileatus</em> damage cavities (Saenz <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Fire management (involving regular burning) has aided habitat restoration, but as human populations expand there is increasing pressure to suppress fires. <p></p>
100600654		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600657		distribution	eng	The species has a large range across boreal Eurasia, with isolated resident populations in mountains to the south, including the Alps, Altai, and Tien Shan.
100600657		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mature conifer forests, particularly spruce Picea spp., and is somewhat irruptive, being found commonly where disturbance such as fire has caused local outbreaks of insects (Winkler et al. 1995).
100600657		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 350000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 1050000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4380000-66000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
100600657		threats	eng	Large-scale commercial logging and modern forestry management practices, including fire suppression and removal of dead or insect-infested trees, have led to declines of American Three-toed Woodpecker P. dorsalis (Hutto 1995., Leonard 2001), and are also likely to have led to declines of this species.
100600659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600662		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600663		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600664		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600665		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600667		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600668		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in El Pangán Reserve, Colombia; and Cotocachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and Bilsa in Ecuador.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines. <p></p>
100600668		distribution	eng	<em>Veniliornis chocoensis</em> occurs on the Pacific coast, from extreme west Antioquia and Chocó, west <strong>Colombia</strong>, south to Esmeraldas and north-west Pichincha, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Norton <em>et al.</em> 1972, Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely &amp; Greenfield 2001), and appears to be rare throughout its range.<em> <p></p></em>
100600668		habitat	eng	It is poorly known, but has been recorded in lowland evergreen forest and forest edge up to 1,000 m (Sibley and Monroe 1990)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
100600668		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as rare to uncommon and local.
100600668		threats	eng	Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating (Salaman 1994, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation pose threats, with deforestation most severe in its altitudinal range<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wege and Long 1995). For example, large areas of its western Ecuadorian range are being purchased, denuded of forest and converted to industrial oil palm plantations (Sharpe 1999).<p></p>
100600669		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600677		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600678		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Serra dos Órgãos and Itatiaia National Parks and Serra do Mar State Park, Brazil. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its precise ecological requirements and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Ensure the effective protection of existing protected areas in which it occurs. <p></p>
100600678		distribution	eng	<em>Piculus aurulentus</em> is restricted to south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais south to Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones and north-east Corrientes). It occurs at 750-2,000 m in Brazil, but at lower elevations in Paraguay and Argentina<strong> </strong>(Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1993, Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It seems to be rare in Paraguay, and more common in the mountains of south-east Brazil<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Chubb 1910, Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1993,<strong></strong> Sick 1993)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100600678		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane and lowland humid forests (but has been recorded in forest edge and dense secondary growth). <p></p>
100600678		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600678		threats	eng	These montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland areas, but the isolated forests in the north of its range have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pastureland and cultivation, and remaining patches are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading out of cultivated areas. <p></p>
100600679		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600680		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600682		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600684		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600685		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Colaptes auratus</span> is distributed through North America. Its range encompasses <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cuba </span>and Grand Cayman, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cayman Islands (to U.K.)</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">rufipileus</span>, endemic to Mexico's Guadalupe Island, has been extinct since the early 1900s (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600687		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The entire Zapata Swamp is a reserve, but there are no available resources to effectively police the area (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Design and distribute posters in villages around the Zapata Swamp to raise awareness of the importance and vulnerability of this species and others such as <em>A. leucocephala </em>(Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Fit nest-boxes to live palms within and around present nesting areas (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Consider controlling West Indian Woodpeckers at key sites to reduce competition for nest sites (A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600687		distribution	eng	<em>Colaptes fernandinae</em> was once widespread but never abundant on <strong>Cuba</strong>, and is now rare and localised; there are probably fewer than 900 individuals in total. It is currently known from Soroa, Mil Cumbres, Nortey, and Loma del Taburete in Pinar del Río province; the Zapata Swamp in Matanzas province (from at least twelve localities); Monte Ramonal, near Corralillo, El Dorado, and Isabela de Sagua in northern Villa Clara province; Aguada de Pasajeros and Rodas in Cienfuegos province; near Gibara (in the Campos de Veloso) and near Velazco (El Recreo), in Holguín province; Jobabo in Las Tunas province; Cienaga de Birama in Granma Province; and Sierra de Najasa (at La Belén and El Chorrillo) in Camagüey province (Mitchell 1998, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, G. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 2005, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. There are also recent records from eight localities in Santiago de Cuba province, where the most important locality is La Tabla (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2000, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The largest population persists in the Zapata Swamp, where total numbers were estimated at 300-400 pairs in 1998 (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, falling to 250-300 in 2007 (A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Even within Zapata Swamp it continues to decline, for instance, in Bermeja in the early 90's there were between 60 to 80 pairs, in 2007 this had dropped to between 14 to 18 pairs (A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600687		habitat	eng	It breeds in palm-savannah, where it nests in dead and live palm trees, especially <em>Palma cana</em><strong> </strong>(Mitchell and Wells 1997, J. A. Jackson <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and also inhabits pastures, swamps, forest edge and dense woodland (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Coiurtship takes place in late December and January, and nest excavation begins in February or March; breeding takes place in March-June (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, and loose "colonies" have occasionally been found at Bermeja in the Zapata Swamp (Wells and Mitchell 1995, Mitchell 1998, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2007)<strong></strong>. However, it is mostly solitary, and aggression between conspecifics is common (Wells and Mitchell 1995)<strong></strong>. There may be an association with palms used as a source of thatch, because fungus invades such trees making them more suitable for nesting (J. A. Jackson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600687		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 600-800 individuals (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999). This roughly equates to 400-530 mature individuals.
100600687		threats	eng	Logging and clearance for agriculture are severe threats. Nest-trees are often shared with the Cuban Parrot <em>Amazona leucocephala</em>, and trappers frequently topple the trees to collect young parrots, causing both the loss of the woodpecker's brood and the permanent destruction of the nest-site (Mitchell and Wells 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Community members will often fell a tree containing a woodpecker nest hole just to check if there is a parrot present, or even fell trees with woodpecker nests when there are clearly no parrots present, presumably to eat the eggs or nestlings (A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hurricanes have a devastating impact on the dead palm trees, as evidenced at Bermeja after Hurricane Lilli in 1996 (Mitchell 1998, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and have recently hit the species's stronghold in Zapata, causing significant destruction (A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. West Indian Woodpeckers <em>Melanerpes superciliaris</em> have been observed to prey on the eggs and chicks (Wells and Mitchell 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600688		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600689		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600690		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600691		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600693		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600695		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600696		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600699		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600701		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600702		conservation	eng	<strong></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p> It is protected by Brazilian law. Populations occur in numerous protected areas throughout its range: Iguazú National Park, Cruce Caballero Provincial Park, Yaboty Biosphere Reserve (Esmeralda Provincial Park, Moconá Provincial Park, Caá Yarí Provincial Park, Reserva Natural Cultural Papel Misionero, Área Experimental y Reserva Guaraní), Urugua-í Provincial Park, Peninsula Provincial Park, Caa Porá Private Reserve, Yaguaroundí Private Reserve and Campo San Juan Protected Reserve, in Argentina<strong> </strong>(Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998, Bodrati and Cockle 2006, Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, A. Bodrati in litt 2012); Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve, Itabó Private Reserve, San Rafael National Park, Caaguazú National Park, Golondrina Private Reserve, Cerro Corá National Park in Paraguay<strong> </strong>(Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996); and Intervales State Park, Ilha do Cardoso State Park and Iguaçu National Park, Brazil (Wege and Long 1995). A multiple-year study was initiated in Misiones, Argentina, in 2011 to assess by radio telemetry the ranging and use of old forests and logged forests by Helmeted Woodpecker. The project is expected to generate improved density and population estimates, assess forest structure requirements of the species, and provide guidelines for improving conditions for the species (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná is using the species as a flagship in visits to 14 rural schools in San Pedro department, Misiones, to explain how habitat loss and degradation threaten local fauna (K. Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).</p>  <p><strong><span lang="EN-AU">Conservation Actions Proposed</span></strong><span lang="EN-AU"><br/> Survey, with the aid of tape-playback, historical localities and areas of suitable habitat to clarify distribution and status. Assess population density at sites likely to hold large populations, such as Iguazú, Iguaçu, San Rafael, Yaboty Biosphere Reserve, Urugua-í Provincial Park and Mbaracayú. Use survey data to calculate an estimate for the species's population size. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Promote importance and improve protection of mature forest remnants. </p>  <br/><p></p>
100600702		distribution	eng	<em></em><em><span lang="EN-AU">Dryocopus galeatus</em><span lang="EN-AU"> is confined to south <strong>Brazil</strong> in São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> in Amambay, San Pedro, Canindeyú, Caaguazú, Alto Paraná, Caazapá, Guairá, Paraguarí (three old specimens), Itapúa<strong> </strong>(Hayes 1995, Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Madroño <em>et al</em>. 1997<strong>, </strong>R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Lammertink <em>et al. </em>2012) and north <strong>Argentina</strong>, through much of Misiones (Bodrati 2005, Bodrati &amp; Cockle 2006, Krauczuk 2008, Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2011). It is difficult to locate except when vocalising and, since it is silent for much of the year, is almost certainly under-recorded<strong> </strong>(Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996). However, it is rare or very uncommon at all known sites and its status remains unclear, particularly considering the high rates of deforestation within its range, and considering its association with mature forest of which little remains in the region and the extent of which is still being reduced due to selective logging (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is currently thought to number 400-8,900 individuals, within an occupied range of some 25,000-40,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2012).</span>
100600702		habitat	eng	Although it inhabits selectively logged montane and lowland Atlantic forest, it appears to reach its highest densities in primary or mature forest (Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). It has also been recorded in relatively small and degraded forest patches and gallery forest, although generally in the proximity of large forest tracts<strong> </strong>(Chebez 1995b, R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Bodrati 2005, Bodrati and Cockle 2006). Birds have been seen foraging primarily by pecking and probing in very soft decayed wood in the middle storey of the forest interior, sometimes (in winter) in large mixed species flocks &#160;(Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1993, R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Nests have been found in September-November <strong>in newly-excavated holes in dead sections of laurel trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nectandra </span>spp; </strong>Chebez 1994,<strong> </strong>Chebez 1995b,<strong> </strong>Madroño and Esquivel 1995, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt</em>. 1999, R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012).  <p></p>
100600702		population	eng	This species's population is thought to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (A. Bodrati <em>in litt.</em> 2010, G. Kohler <em>in litt.</em> 2010, M. Lammertink <em>in litt.</em> 2010, A. E. Rupp <em>in litt.</em> 2010, Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012<em></em>) and is thus placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals; however, this may well be an overestimate given the species's apparent scarcity at well observed sites (M. Lammertink <em>in litt.</em> 2010). This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600702		threats	eng	It is at risk from widespread and on-going deforestation, which has already caused the severe fragmentation of its habitat (G. Kohler<em> in litt</em>. 2010). In the Chapeco region of Brazil, the construction of dams is leading to the flooding and consequent destruction of remaining forest fragments and some areas of native forest are cleared for pine plantations (A. E. Rupp<em> in litt</em>. 2010). Habitat degradation through selective logging is also expected to be having a negative impact on the species, for example in Yaboty Biosphere Reserve (Argentina) where the species is widespread and where selective logging is permitted (K. Cockle<em> in litt</em>. 2010, Lammertink <em>et. al</em>. 2011, A. Bodrati<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Habitat degradation also results from the release of cattle into forests by ranchers during the austral winter (A. E. Rupp<em> in litt</em>. 2010). There is no evidence of interspecific competition for food with the larger <em>D. lineatus</em> and <em>C. robustus</em><em>, and the three species have been observed foraging together without interacting </em>&#160;(A. Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Although competition for food appears to be avoided by different foraging techniques, increasing habitat degradation and fragmentation creates forest edge habitat which may favour <em>D. lineatus</em> and presumably increases competition for nest-holes<strong> </strong>(Chebez 1994, Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996<strong>, </strong>R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2000, K. Cockle<em> in litt</em>. 2010). <em>Dryocopus galeatus</em> has, however, been recorded roosting with White-eyed Parakeets <em>Aratinga leucophthalma</em> in their nest cavity (Cockle 2010).  <p></p>
100600704		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600705		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Argentina it has been recorded in Formosa Natural Reserve, Río Pilcomayo National Park (Formosa), Chaco National Park (Chaco), and Chancaní and Cerro Colorado Provincial Reserves (Córdoba). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in small isolated populations in degraded and fragmented habitats. <p></p>
100600705		distribution	eng	<em>Dryocopus schulzi</em> is restricted to the xeric woodland and savannas of the central and southern Chaco and the woodlands of the foothill Chaco in south <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Tarija), west <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Nueva Asunción, Boquerón, Presidente Hayes) and north-central <strong>Argentina</strong> (Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero, Córdoba, San Luis and Corrientes), and transitional subtropical forest up to 1,500 m in the low Andean foothills of south-central Bolivia (Santa Cruz) and north-west Argentina (Salta, Tucumán)<strong></strong> (Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991, Madroño and Pearman 1992, Chebez 1995, Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It appears to have always been rare, or perhaps under-recorded, but has declined over much of its former range in Argentina. It survives mainly in two isolated population centres in Córdoba and adjacent San Luis, and the central Paraguayan Chaco<strong></strong> (Madroño and Pearman 1992,  García Fernández <em>et al.</em> 1997, H.&#160;Casañas <em>in litt.</em> 1998).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100600705		habitat	eng	Its habitat preferences are not clear, but it has been found breeding in mature horcoquebracho <em>Schinopsis hankeana</em> and <em>Lithraea ternifolia</em> woodland (Heredia <em>et al.</em> 1999), and has been found in timber plantations.<br/><br/><p></p>
100600705		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
100600705		threats	eng	Habitat loss is principally the result of logging of quebracho (<em>Aspidosperma</em> spp., <em>Schinopsis quebrachocolorado</em>) and algarrobo (<em>Prosopis</em> spp.) for charcoal, tannins and railway sleepers, land clearance for agriculture and cattle-ranching, and plantations of non-native tree genera<strong></strong> (Madroño and Pearman 1992, Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995, H.&#160;Casañas <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600706		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dryocopus javensis</span> occurs throughout Indomalaya, with populations in <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malaysia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brunei </span>and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cebuensis</span>, endemic to the Philippine island of Cebu, has not been found in recent searches and is now considered extinct (Paguntalan and Jakosalem 2008).
100600706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002), while the population in Korea has been estimated at &lt; c.100   breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600707		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines, rates of range contraction and habitat trends. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat.<br/><p></p>
100600707		distribution	eng	<em>Dryocopus hodgei </em>is endemic to the Andaman islands, <strong>India</strong>, where it is a common resident (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
100600707		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen forest, as well as in open areas with sparse patches of taller trees. It occurs mainly in the lowlands.   <p></p>
100600707		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common.
100600707		threats	eng	Although forest remains fairly extensive on the Andamans, the human population on larger islands is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging.   <p></p>
100600708		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 740,000-1,400,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 2,220,000-4,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of   the global population size is 4,530,000-16,800,000 individuals, although   further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in   Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600713		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600715		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Ecuador populations occur in Machalilla National Park, Tinalandia Natural Reserve and Cerro Blanco Protected Forest. It is present in Tumbes Natural Reserve and Cerros de Amotape National Park, Peru.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and the ability of small populations to persist in degraded habitats and small, fragmented patches. <strong><sup><p></p></sup></strong>
100600715		distribution	eng	<em>Campephilus gayaquilensis</em> is restricted to the west slope of the Andes and adjacent lowlands, from south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cauca) through west <strong>Ecuador</strong> to north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (south to Cajamarca) (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is locally relatively common, but appears uncommon to rare over much of its range (Parker and Carr 1992, Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997, <strong></strong> Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999, Clements and Shany 2001)<strong></strong>, with populations becoming highly fragmented owing to habitat destruction.<em> <p></p></em>
100600715		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry deciduous and humid forests, as well as tall second growth and mangroves (Hilty and Brown 1986), from sea-level to 800 m, occasionally higher in the south (Winkler <em>et al.</em> 1995), with records to 1,800 m<strong></strong> (Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600715		threats	eng	Forest in this region is being cleared for agriculture, and goats and cattle graze the understorey of much of the remaining forest, preventing regeneration. Most remaining forest in the region is highly fragmented, and it seems unlikely that small areas (e.g. Jauneche Biological Reserve Station in Ecuador) can support viable populations of this species, which occurs naturally at low densities (Parker and Carr 1992). It appears inevitable that such populations will ultimately become extinct (Parker and Carr 1992). <p></p>
100600716		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600717		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600718		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. A number of specific searches have been undertaken since the 1960s, including an extensive 11 month search in 1994-1995 (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no confirmed records from protected areas. Searches are ongoing and anecdotal reports are regularly pursued. The species's range and potential habitat fragments have been comprehensively mapped, and identified areas thoroughly explored. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prepare to follow-up any further local reports. Continue searching areas of old-growth forest in the former range, especially in small patches now surrounded by managed forest. The forest above the abandoned farm of Bajio de Don Victor, in Taxicaringa, and a patch of remnant forest to the north-west of Babicora, in Chihuahua, have been identified as priority sites for future searches (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
100600718		distribution	eng	<em>Campephilus imperialis</em> was formerly distributed throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental of <strong>Mexico</strong> in Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Nayarit, Zacatecas (possibly) and north Jalisco with more isolated populations in west Jalisco and Michoacán. It was not historically a rare species within suitable habitat, but the total population probably never numbered more than 8,000 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The last confirmed record was from Durango in 1956 but there have been convincing local reports of sightings after 1965 (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996, Otto 2003)<strong></strong>. The most recent are of a pair in central Durango in 1993, a single male c.20 km from this site in 1995, and a single female in north Sonora in 1993 (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. A reported sighting in north-central Durango in 1996 was followed up, but no birds were located (Otto 2003)<strong></strong>, and a bird was reported in November 2005 in the Barrancas-Divisadero region of Barranca del Cobre, Chihuahua, but subsequent searches have found neither Imperial Woodpecker, nor appropriate habitat or recent local knowledge of the species, within a 50 km radius of the locality (G. R. Homel <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. There are now no unsurveyed old-growth remnants that are large enough for a breeding territory (M. Lammertink <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In March 2010, the location of the 1956 record in Durango was checked, but no evidence of the species was found, and interviews suggest that the species disappeared from the area in 1956-1960 (M. Lammertink<em> in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Even if a few individuals persist, extensive habitat modification and continued hunting pressure from rural people has made extinction virtually inevitable (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996, M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600718		habitat	eng	It requires extensive areas (26 km<sup>2</sup> per pair) of continuous open pine forest on relatively flat plateaus with large numbers of snags for foraging and nesting (Tanner 1964, Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). Most records are from elevations of 1,920-3,050 m, but there are records as low as 1,675 m. There are many reports of more than four individuals, and this grouping behaviour may be related to its foraging specialisation<strong></strong>. The main food source, beetle larvae in snags, is probably patchily distributed and peaks within a short period of time. Consequently, feeding-sites are probably best exploited by "nomadic" groups. If it operated in groups of seven or eight individuals, the minimum area of old-growth forest for a group would have been 98 km<sup>2</sup>. Breeding has been recorded between February and June, and probably 1-4 eggs are laid (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600718		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on the lack of confirmed records since 1956; analyses of remaining habitat indicate that no tracts remain which are large enough to support the species.
100600718		threats	eng	The chief threats are the combined and interconnected impacts of hunting and habitat loss. It has been hunted for fun, food and supposed medicinal purposes over a long period of time. The expansion of lumber operations into remote parts of the sierra opened up areas for settlement (and hunters) in the early 1950s. Although over-hunting probably precipitated the initial decline, this was compounded by the widespread removal of dead pines for pulp and mature pines for timber. By 1996, only 22 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable breeding habitat remained and even the area from which the pair were reported in 1993 had been logged (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The species's social nature made it particularly susceptible to both types of threat; it frequently occurred in groups of four to eight (sometimes up to 20) individuals and therefore required large tracts of forest and was easily exploited by hunters (Mendenhall 2005)<strong></strong>. Interviews indicate that  logging interests encouraged persecution of the species, including through the poisoning of foraging trees (Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).  <br/><p></p>
100600719		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>After the reported rediscovery in February 2004, intensive surveys involving dozens of observers, automatic cameras and recording equipment have been carried out in the Big Woods area (Fitzpatrick <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Searches have also continued in other parts of the south-east U.S.A. that have historic records of the species, with specific searches taking place in 28 locations across that area in 2004-2009 (Hill <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, Rohrbaugh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. An endangered species recovery team of c.50 members has been appointed (Jackson 2006)<strong></strong>. By early 2010, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) had spent $14 million on efforts to document and protect the species, including through habitat protection and acquisition (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In October 2009, the search for the species in the U.S.A. was suspended because the most promising areas, including most of Arkansas's Big Woods, had already been surveyed to some extent (Dalton 2010, M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). USFWS was published a recovery plan in April 2010 (Dalton 2010, USFWS 2010)<strong></strong>. Part of the Big Woods area falls within the Cache River and White River national wildlife refuges. In Cuba there have been a number of searches for the species, and further searches were planned for 2010 and 2011 (BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Evaluate new reports of the species and follow up with searches in cases of credible reports in the U.S.A. and Cuba (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), to document the species's continued existence and determine its population size and distribution.  Ensure strict protection of any nests and nesting trees, if found. Ensure the implementation of appropriate protective measures if a population is found in Cuba. Engage birdwatchers in the search for the woodpecker and raise awareness about the importance of reporting and documenting any sightings<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600719		distribution	eng	<em>Campephilus principalis</em> formerly occurred at low densities throughout the south-east <strong>U.S.A.</strong> (nominate <em>principalis</em>) and <strong>Cuba</strong> (subspecies <em>bairdii</em>). Sixty years after the last confirmed North American record in north-eastern Louisiana in 1944, the species was reported to have been rediscovered in 2004 in the Big Woods region of eastern Arkansas (Fitzpatrick <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Evidence for the rediscovery comes in the form of seven sightings, a short poor-quality video, over 100 sound recordings indicative of this species from automatic recording stations, and a number of additional "possible encounters" (Charif <em>et al.</em> 2005, Dalton 2005, Fitzpatrick <em>et al.</em> 2005, M. Lammertink <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2006<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. The sound and video recordings have been analysed in detail, and the identity of the recorded birds has been debated between Ivory-billed Woodpecker and Pileated Woodpecker <span style="font-style: italic;">Dryocopus pileatus</span> (Fitzpatrick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Sibley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Fitzpatrick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Sibley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Collinson 2007, Fitzpatrick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service concluded that the recordings provided compelling evidence for the presence of Ivory-billed Woodpecker in 2004, and that search efforts were warranted (USFWS 2010). However, intensive searches until 2009 did not find evidence for the continued presence of the species in the Big Woods region.  There were also unconfirmed reports by researchers working in forests along the Choctawhatchee River in Florida, reporting 14 sightings and 41 acoustic encounters heard during 2005-2006, and further sightings and calls in the 2006-2007 field season, but again incontrovertible evidence is still required (Hill <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>; similarly, recordings made during 2006 and 2008 in Louisiana suggest characteristics of the species but could represent Pileated Woodpecker<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Collins 2011).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> A search in the coastal mangrove forests and inland hammock forests of south Florida in 2009 failed to find any sign of the species (Gold 2009)<strong></strong>, but south Florida has large areas of potential habitat and there is a relatively high frequency of plausible reports from there in recent decades (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Between the last confirmed sightings in 1944 and the 2000s records discussed above, there were a further 20 credible unconfirmed reports from within its historic range (Jackson 2002)<strong></strong>. Until hard evidence is obtained though, this subspecies should be considered possibly extinct. The species may well survive in Cuba, although searches have not found any new records subsequent to those of the late 1980s (M. Lammertink <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. The best hope lies in the Alejandro de Humboldt National Park, an area in which despite regular bird inventories being taken some sections have been only sparsely searched  (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Calls potentially of this species were heard in 1998 in the Sierra Maestra in south-east Cuba (<strong></strong>D. S. Lee verbally 1998, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, in an area from which there had been no historical records and at an elevation higher than the known altitudinal range of the species. Follow-up searches in the area found poor habitat and no indications of presence of the species (M. Lammertink <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. With the lack of recent confirmed records and no evidence of large woodpecker activity (M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), this subspecies also may well be extinct. A recent statistical analysis of physical evidence and independent expert opinion, as part of a study into the burden of proof required for controversial sightings of possibly extinct species, supported the view that this species is very likely extinct (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Any remnant population in either the U.S.A. or Cuba is likely to be tiny.<em> <p></p></em>
100600719		habitat	eng	It was originally found in both bottomland hardwood and montane (pine, mixed and broadleaf) forests in the U.S.A. and Cuba. Historic accounts indicate that it has a very large home range and occurs naturally at low densities, suggesting that large contiguous tracts of mature woodland would be required to support a viable population (Jackson 2002)<strong></strong>. The Big Woods area comprises several distinct types of swamp and bottomland hardwood forests (Fitzpatrick <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, covering a total area of c.220,000 ha. In Cuba, extensive habitat loss and degradation in the lowlands mean that any remaining population may be restricted to intact montane <em>Pinus cubensis</em> forests. The primary requirement is for dead trees, which harbour wood-boring beetle larvae, its preferred food source. It forages by stripping bark from dead trees, using its bill like a carpenter's chisel, and also takes fruit, nuts and seeds (Jackson 2002)<strong></strong>. The breeding season is between March and June in Cuba, and between February and May in the U.S.A. <p></p>
100600719		population	eng	Given the lack of confirmed sightings since 1944 any remaining population within the USA is likely to be tiny. A tiny population may also remain in Cuba, despite lack of recent sightings. Its total population, if extant, is likely to number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
100600719		threats	eng	Logging and clearance for agriculture are responsible for the dramatic decline in numbers and range. These factors are likely to threaten any remaining population. Hunting has also been implicated in the rapid population decline, and it has been proposed that this was the primary cause of its decline, with habitat destruction playing a secondary role, but this theory is contentious (Snyder 2007, <strong></strong>Hill 2008, M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600721		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at  &lt; c.100 breeding pairs   (Brazil 2009).
100600722		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600723		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt;   c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600727		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common but rather local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600729		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600732		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.<br/><p></p>
100600732		distribution	eng	<em>Picus rabieri</em> is known from China<strong> </strong>(one historical record from extreme south Yunnan), <strong>Laos</strong> (widespread and locally fairly common), <strong>Vietnam </strong>(uncommon in west and east Tonkin and north and central Annam) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia</span> (scarce to uncommon resident in the north-east) (BirdLife International 2001, Robson 2008).  <em> </em><p></p>
100600732		habitat	eng	This species occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and locally in tall mixed deciduous forest, usually below 700 m, ascending locally to c.1,000 m. It tolerates, and in some regions even appears to prefer, logged and disturbed forest, provided that some large trees remain.   <p></p>
100600732		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce to uncommon.
100600732		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to the on-going destruction and degradation of lowland forest that is taking place within its range.  <p></p>
100600733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600734		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 180,000-320,000 breeding pairs, equating to 540,000-960,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,250,000-19,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
100600735		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas. <br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.<br/><p></p>
100600735		distribution	eng	<em>Dinopium rafflesii</em> is found from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>It is generally local and uncommon. <em> </em><p></p>
100600735		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangroves, lowland forest and hill forest, to 1,200 m. It prefers dense, wet areas and avoids secondary growth and clearings.  <p></p>
100600735		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce to uncommon.
100600735		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).   <p></p>
100600736		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common locally (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600738		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600740		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally fairly common in India and uncommon in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600741		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very rare to uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil   2009).
100600742		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600743		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan. It occurs in Yonaha-dake Prefecture Protection Area and small protected areas on Mt Ibu and Mt Nishime and conservation organisations have purchased sites where it occurs. In early 2012, the Ministry of the Environment was preparing for the designation of the Yambaru area as a national park, although some forest in the Yambaru area has been protected by local administrations since 2007 (N. Kotaka <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).&#160; <br/> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor its population. Designate a special protected area to cover all the mature forest (40 years old or more) on the central ridge of northern Okinawa, and strictly protect forest that has escaped deforestation during and since World War II (N. Kotaka<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Connect fragmented forests in the north with planted forest corridors and ensure all forests of more than 25 years old are protected and logging is prohibited. Provide nest-boxes in young secondary forest. Initiate a conservation education programme using Okinawa Rail <em>Gallirallus okinawae</em> and Okinawa Woodpecker as flagship species. <p></p>
100600743		distribution	eng	<em>Dendreocopos noguchii</em><strong> </strong>is endemic to Okinawa Island, <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is confined to Kunigami-gun (=Yambaru) with the main breeding areas along the mountain ridges between Mt Nishime-take and Mt Iyu-take (BirdLife International 2001). It also occurs in coastal areas. It was considered close to extinction in the 1930s and, in the early 1990s, the breeding population was estimated to be c.75 birds and the total population between 146-584 birds. A density of 12.1 birds per km<sup>2</sup> has been estimated at the US Forces Northern Training Area in north-eastern Okinawa. <p></p>
100600743		habitat	eng	It occurs in subtropical, evergreen broadleaved forest at least 30 years old, with tall trees more than 20 cm in diameter, much of which is now confined to hill-tops. Foraging takes place in old-growth forest. Nesting is between late February-May, often in hollow <em>Castanopsis cuspidata</em> trees. There is an extraordinary difference in the foraging niches of males and females <strong></strong>(Kotaka <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although both forage on dead and live trunks, males have also adapted to feed on the ground on soil-dwelling arthropods, as well as berries, seeds, acorns and other nuts <strong></strong>(Kotaka <em>et al</em>. 2006). <p></p>
100600743		population	eng	The global population is estimates to number 150-584 individuals (Ikehara <em>et al</em>. 1991 in BirdLife International 2001), roughly equating to 100-390 mature individuals, while the population is Japan has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600743		threats	eng	Its decline is primarily attributable to deforestation, which continues at a significant rate as a result of logging, dam construction and associated road-building, agricultural development and golf course construction. Construction of six new helipads near the village of Takae in the US Marine Corps Northern Training Area began in 2007 and represents a further potential threat to remaining areas of forest <strong></strong>(WWF Japan 2007). The species's limited range and tiny population make it vulnerable to  extinction from disease and natural disasters such as typhoons. It is also threatened by introduced predators, such as mongoose and feral cats (N. Kotaka <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species is thought to be particularly susceptible to predation by alien species because it often forages on the ground, and during a 2006 survey the stomach contents of a captured mongoose were found to contain the species's feathers (N. Kotaka <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600745		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600746		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or scarce in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600749		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.   <p></p>
100600749		distribution	eng	<em>Meiglyptes tukki</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan (including the north Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including most offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally fairly common in suitable habitat throughout this range. <em> </em><p></p>
100600749		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland forests with dense undergrowth and rotting stumps. It is also found in peatswamp forests and tall secondary formations. Most records are from below 600 m, although it does occur up to 1,250 m.  <p></p>
100600749		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered uncommon to common.
100600749		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). A recent study shows that it is able to persist in logged forest <strong></strong>(Lammertink 2004), but it cannot sustain populations in areas where closed-canopy forests have been cleared <strong></strong><strong></strong>(M. Crosby <em>in litt</em>. 2005, D. R. Wells <em>in litt</em>. 2005).  <p></p>
100600750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600751		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparsely distributed and locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600753		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600754		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No current action is known for this species, although it does occur in many protected areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the status of this species at additional sites across its range (<strong></strong>Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess density responses to forest disturbance in the Indochinese forest complex (<strong></strong>Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate whether degraded forests can support viable populations (<strong></strong>Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote the protection of large tracts of its range, particularly in Myanmar which is thought to be a population stronghold (<strong></strong>Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600754		distribution	eng	<em>Mulleripicus pulverulentus </em>is found in South-East Asia, from northern <strong>India</strong> through the foothills of the Himalayas to southern <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Nepal </strong>(a rare and local resident),<strong> Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>,<strong> Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>, and through peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong> to the western islands of <strong>Indonesia</strong> and the <strong>Philippines</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002, <span style="">Inskipp </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2011</span>). The current population has been estimated at 26,000-550,000 individuals, which according to previous levels of forest cover may be a 90% decline on historical levels, and a significant decline within the past couple of decades (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600754		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This resident species breeds between March and May in the west of its range and without a distinct season in South-East Asia (Lammertink 2004)<strong></strong>. Clutch size is two to four eggs. Nest-hole excavation, incubation and chick-rearing are conducted by both sexes, with helpers at some nests. It forages in noisy groups of three to six individuals and sometimes more (Lammertink 2004)<strong></strong>. Groups occupy large territories. <strong>Habitat</strong> It occupies primary semi-open moist deciduous and tropical evergreen old growth, lower elevation forests, as well as adjacent secondary forest and clearings with scattered tall trees. It prefers dipterocarp and teak forests in certain areas, as well as swamp-forest and tall mangroves. It is most frequent in lowlands and lower hills below 600 m, but does occur up to 1,100 m in the Himalayas and occasionally up to 2,000 m. <strong>Diet </strong>Foraging groups search and exploit nests of social insects (ants, termites, and stingless bees), often in trunks and branches of old live trees. Birds may also take small fruit (Lammertink 2004)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600754		population	eng	Based on remote sensing and population density data, the global population has been estimated to number 26,000-550,000 individuals. This figure is revised from 260,000-550,000 individuals, as in many countries extrapolation from forest cover exceeds population numbers that appear reasonable based on anecdotal information about the abundance of the species, as large tracts which are classified as forest in remote sensing data are not occupied by the species (e.g. heath forest).
100600754		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat destruction, particularly the felling of old-growth forest, though it may persist in heavily logged forests at lower densities (<strong></strong>Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. There is no evidence of it being hunted but it is absent from or exceedingly rare at sites in Myanmar and Indochina where wildlife hunting is common (Lammertink <em>in litt.</em> 2012). &#160;  <p></p>
100600755		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600756		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in India and local in Pakistan (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
100600757		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600758		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600759		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600760		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600762		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600764		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.   <p></p>
100600764		distribution	eng	<em>Megalaima rafflesii</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
100600764		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary lowland evergreen forest up to 800 m. It is also found in tall secondary forest, poor-quality Dipterocarp slope forest and occasionally in rubber plantations.  <p></p>
100600764		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered scarce to common throughout its range.
100600764		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary and slope forest, although further studies are required to determine whether this species can genuinely persist in these habitats in the absence of adjacent primary habitat.  <p></p>
100600765		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.<br/><p></p>
100600765		distribution	eng	<em>Megalaima mystacophanos</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular (including the Tana Islands)<strong> Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(one record), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally abundant within suitable habitat (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
100600765		habitat	eng	This species occurs commonly in evergreen lowland primary and logged forest, and is somewhat rarer in flooded and peatswamp forest, up to 1,000 m but mainly at low elevations. It also occurs occasionally in rubber plantations, and will visit fruiting trees in gardens and other developed areas if forest habitats are adjacent.   <p></p>
100600765		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as common.
100600765		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of logged forest, although further research is required to determine the likelihood that populations would be able to persist in the absence of adjacent primary forests.  <p></p>
100600766		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.  <br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce trapping.<br/><p></p>
100600766		distribution	eng	<em>Megalaima javensis</em> is endemic to Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is widespread and often common in suitable habitat, although this is now highly fragmented (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
100600766		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open evergreen and hill forest, including teak forest, open woodland and woodland fragments. It is found mostly in the lowlands, but locally to 1,500 m.   <p></p>
100600766		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as often common.
100600766		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the lowlands of Java and Bali has been extremely extensive as a result of logging and conversion to agriculture. It is also sometimes trapped and traded as a cage-bird.  <p></p>
100600767		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600768		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600770		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600772		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600773		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.<br/><p></p>
100600773		distribution	eng	<em>Megalaima henricii</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>It is generally uncommon to fairly common within suitable habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
100600773		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland primary evergreen  forests up to 975 m. It is also found sporadically in tall secondary and logged forest, as well as swamp forest and occasionally in cacao plantations.  <p></p>
100600773		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered uncommon to common throughout its range.
100600773		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).   <p></p>
100600774		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600775		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600776		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600777		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600778		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600779		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600782		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as less common than G. calvus and G. bonapartei (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and relatively abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600786		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600787		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Short and Horne 2001).
100600788		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600790		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600791		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600792		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and local in the northern part of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600793		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600794		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600795		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600796		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600797		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600799		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600802		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600803		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600805		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and usually uncommon, although more common in the south of its range (Short and Horne 2001).
100600806		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600807		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600808		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Small numbers of this species are found in Kafue National Park (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1982, 1999)<strong></strong>, and the Nkanga River Conservation Area IBA holds c.50 birds (Roxburgh 2009). A survey of historical locations has been completed (Roxburgh<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study population trends at a number of sites, both in the periphery and the centre of its range. Confirm its persistance in the Lukanga Swamps. Using the species as a figurehead, raise awareness of the importance of the preservation of <em>Ficus sycomorus. </em>Study recruitment in <em>Ficus sycomorus</em>.  <p></p>
100600808		distribution	eng	<em>Lybius chaplini</em> is endemic to <strong>Zambia</strong>, where it is distributed from the upper Kafue River to Kabanga in the Kalomo District (Winterbottom 1952, Benson and Irwin 1965, Colebrook-Robjent and Stjernstedt 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its range size has been estimated as 76,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but only 9% of this is thought to be occupied and there are estimated to be only 5,200 individuals (Roxburgh 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are eight known subpopulations located in NRCA and neighbouring farms, Choma West-Sibanyati, Kalomo, Landless Corner and Chisamba, north Kafue Flats, south-east Kafue Flats (including Mazabuka and Monze), south-west Kafue Flats, and possibly Lukanga Swamps (the presence of birds in the last area is yet to be confirmed) (Roxburgh 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Within this small range, it is locally common where there is suitable habitat (Colebrook-Robjent and Stjernstedt 1976, R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1982, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600808		habitat	eng	It is almost invariably found in very open woodland with high densities of fig trees <em>Ficus sycomorus</em>, which provide a year-round supply of food as well as suitable nesting sites. Groups of two to six or more habitually roost and forage together, feeding mainly on figs but also on other fruits and arthropods (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1982, 1999)<strong></strong>. Pairs nest almost exclusively, in holes in dead branches of <em>Ficus sycomorus</em><strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Roxburgh 2007), and the species is a cooperative breeder, with groups consisting of two-five adults and up to four immatures from the current season (Roxburgh 2009). They breed in the dry season before the onset of summer rains in November (Roxburgh 2009). Territories cover up to 100 ha (Roxburgh 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600808		population	eng	The population was estimated to number at least 5,200 mature individuals by Roxburgh (2007) after a comprehensive survey of historical sites. This is equivalent to at least 7,800 individuals in total.
100600808		threats	eng	Although fig trees are sometimes left when areas of woodland are cleared for cultivation, and <em>L. chaplini</em> appears to be able to survive in partially degraded habitats, woodland clearance for agriculture (especially maize, wheat and sugar cane), and for housing, is decreasing the area of suitable habitat and is likely to lead to the loss of two subpopulations in the next few years (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1982, 1999, <strong></strong>Roxburgh 2006, <strong></strong>Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. Dead branches are removed from standing fig trees for fuelwood, and this is correlated with a decrease in barbet density (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1982, 1999, <strong></strong>Roxburgh<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2006, 2009)<strong></strong>. There may be a minimum threshold density of fig trees necessary to support these barbets with a year-round supply of figs. Lesser Honeyguides <span style="font-style: italic;">Indicator minor</span> parasitise up to 50 % of nests, while the smaller but more adaptable Black-collared Barbet <span style="font-style: italic;">L. torquatus </span>competes for nesting holes (Roxburgh 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600809		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Lake Mburo National Park (Uganda), Akagera National Park (Rwanda) and Ruvuvu National Park (Burundi) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Investigate factors that are potentially responsible for the species's low densities in Tanzania (J. P. Vandeweghe <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the area of suitable habitat within protected areas.  <p></p>
100600809		distribution	eng	<em>Lybius rubrifacies</em> is restricted to eastern <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong>, and north-west <strong>Tanzania</strong>, with a single locality (Lake Mburo National Park) in south-west <strong>Uganda </strong>(N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<sup></sup>. Although the species is locally common in Rwanda (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it has a restricted distribution and is presumed to have suffered a population decline since the mid-1990s (Kanyamibwa 2001, Short et al. 1990).   <p></p>
100600809		habitat	eng	It occurs in hilly areas of <em>Combretum</em>-wooded grassland, mixed woodland of <em>Albizia-Acacia-Commiphora</em> (including riverine woods) and also cultivated areas with scattered trees (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, generally at altitudes of 1,200-1,500 m (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in pairs and groups of up to five or more, feeding on figs, berries and seeds as well as insects (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is thought to take place in February-March and October (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600809		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
100600809		threats	eng	A population decline is suspected since the mid-1990s as a result of habitat loss after the degazettement of about two-thirds of Akagera National Park (from 2,850 km<sup>2</sup> to 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>; Kanyamibwa 2001, Short <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>, due to the arrival of settlers displaced by civil war (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. In Tanzania, habitat for this species is not currently under threat, but it occurs at very low densities, due to unknown limiting factors (J. P. Vandeweghe <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span>)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
100600810		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600811		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600812		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to often be local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600813		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600814		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600815		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Senegambia and Nigeria and locally common elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600816		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably uncommon or perhaps locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600817		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600818		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600819		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon but widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600821		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600822		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600823		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600824		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600825		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Search for the species at new sites with potentially suitable habitat. Effectively protect areas of lowland evergreen forest within its range. Establish now, community-managed or private protected areas to protect blocks of forest currently threatened by oil palm plantations (Sharpe 1999).<br/><p></p>
100600825		distribution	eng	<em>Capito squamatus</em> is poorly known but uncommon to locally fairly common on the Pacific slope of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño) and west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (historically south to El Oro, but now to Los Ríos and south Pichincha) up to 1,300 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
100600825		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland evergreen forest, forest edge and second growth, mainly below 800 m, also visiting farms, orchards, plantations and pastures in search of fruiting trees<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2002).  It apparently more readily moves into forest edge, younger second growth and plantations than <em>C. quinticolor</em> where the two species overlap<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2002). <p></p>
100600825		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available. It is considered generally uncommon.
100600825		threats	eng	Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating (Salaman 1994). Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all pose threats, with forest destruction most severe within its altitudinal range (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In particular, large areas of its western Ecuadorian range are being purchased, denuded of forest and converted to industrial oil palm plantations (Sharpe 1999). <br/><p></p>
100600826		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Serranía de los Yariguíes National Park and the small (c.1 km<sup>2</sup>) Río Claro Nature Reserve, Antioquia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remaining forests across its known range and survey potential sites to acquire an improved population estimate<strong></strong>. Monitor rates of forest loss within the species's range. Increase the area of primary forest within the species's range that is protected. Encourage the reforestation of pastures and other formerly forested areas.<br/><p></p>
100600826		distribution	eng	<em>Capito hypoleucus</em> is restricted to the north Central Andes and west slope of the East Andes, <strong>Colombia </strong> (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1992). The nominate subspecies is known from the north tip of the Central Andes and the Serranía de San Lucas, Bolívar and north Antioquia. Subspecies <em>carrikeri</em> and <em>extinctus</em> occur successively further south, from the Ponce valley, along the east slope of the Central Andes from Antioquia to Tolima, and on the west slope of the East Andes in Boyacá (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong></strong>)<strong></strong> and Cundinamarca. Since 1950, it has only been recorded in the south of its range. It is fairly common at many sites along the foothills and subtropical zone of the western slope of the Eastern Andes (e.g. Serranía de las Quinchas, Reserva El Paujíl, Serranía de los Yariguíes), Central Andes (eastern and northern slope) and Serranía de San Lucas (e.g. Stiles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Huertas and Donegan 2006,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). Birds that corresponded to subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">carrikeri</span>, previously known only from the type specimen<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, have been recorded near Pradera in the Central Andes (Cuervo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p>
100600826		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane humid forest and gallery forest at c.350-2,000 m, using primary, secondary and heavily disturbed forest, and occasionally areas with a mosaic of forest, coffee plantations and pasture, but appears to prefer primary forest above 1,000 m (Laverde-R <em>et al.</em> 2005, Y. G. Molina-Martínez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, F. G. Stiles<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It has been observed crossing pastures for distances of c.100 m or more (F. G. Stiles<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), but has also been observed to avoid passing through areas of pasture and crops (Y. G. Molina-Martínez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Its occurrence in human-modified landscapes is thought to be dependent on the presence of primary or minimally-disturbed forest (Y. G. Molina-Martínez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species's diet consists of seeds, fruit and insects, and it apparently responds nomadically to local fruit abundance (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong></strong>)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Evidence of breeding has been collected from late April (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong></strong>)<strong></strong> to early September. <p></p>
100600826		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600826		threats	eng	Vast areas of forest within its range have been cleared and used for livestock-farming, arable cultivation, narcotics plantations, infrastructure development, oil extraction and mining (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em> in litt</em>. 1999, Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Donegan and Salaman 1999,&#160;Forero 1989, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong></strong>). The northern tip of the Central Andes has been progressively settled and deforested since the 19th century, although some extensive forests survive (Forero 1989, Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. The middle Magdalena valley was rapidly opened up, colonised, logged and farmed during the 1960s and 1970s, although forest regeneration has begun following land abandonment in some areas (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. The Serranía de San Lucas was covered by primary forest until 1996, when a gold rush began, and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted to agriculture and coca production, with streams polluted by mining and cocaine production (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em> in litt</em>. 1999, Donegan and Salaman 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Forest loss within its range is thought to be occurring at a rate of around 25% per 10-15 years (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
100600827		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p> It occurs in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in Bolivia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).</p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
100600827		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Capito dayi</span> occurs in central South America. It is found between Rio Madeira and Rio Tocantins in Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, with a range stretching south-west as far as the west-centre of Brazil's Mato Grosso state. In the south-east it reaches east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, where it is known to occur in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600827		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland tropical forest up to 550 m, foraging mainly on fruits and arthropods in the canopy (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600827		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is not naturally rare, but is likely to be especially vulnerable to this change because of its restricted range and dependence on primary forest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).<p></p>
100600828		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Potentially suitable habitat is present in Cotacachi-Cayapas National Park and Awá Ethnographic Reserve, Ecuador, but the species has not yet been found in either (and effective protection at these sites is uncertain). It has been recorded in Cooperativa Tesoro Esmeraldeño, sector Cristóbal Colón, Esmeraldas, Ecuador a forest protected by a community cooperative (J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).   <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and particularly its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. <p></p>
100600828		distribution	eng	<em>Capito quinticolor</em> is known from c.15 sites in the lowlands and foothills up to 575 m in <strong>Colombia</strong> (central Chocó south to Nariño) and north <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas). It is generally considered uncommon and local (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996), but is fairly common at two locations in the lower foothills of Esmeraldas and Nariño (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001)<strong></strong>, one of which is selectively logged (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008).<br/><br/><br/><em> <p></p></em>
100600828		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet lowland forest, forest borders and tall secondary growth, foraging for fruits and insects, almost exclusively in the canopy of large trees (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008).<br/><p></p>
100600828		population	eng	Based on an estimate of 5,000 mature individuals in 2,400 km<sup>2</sup> in Ecuador in 2001, extrapolated over an estimated range of 40,700 km<sup>2</sup> (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2009), the total population is estimated to number 85,000-250,000 individuals
100600828		threats	eng	Extensive areas of lowland forest remain in Colombia, however the rate of forest loss in the lowland Chocó region of Colombia is presently accelerating at an extraordinary rate, as oil palm plantations (biofuel speculation), timber extraction (Pacific rim exportation), industrial-scale river dredging for gold, and coca production is stimulating immigration and colonisation to the region. Areas in Nariño where the species was frequently seen have in recent years been completely cleared (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008). In Ecuador, only a few hundred square kilometres of habitat at suitable elevation within the species range are included within the protected area network (Jahn <em>et al. </em>2000), and habitat loss has been taking place at a rate of 3.8% per year in the past decade<strong> </strong>(O. Jahn <em>in litt. </em>2009). The principal driver has been conversion for oil palm plantations, and rising demand for biofuels means that pressure on remaining forests is likely to increase<strong> </strong>(O. Jahn <em>in litt. </em>2009). It tends to reach unnaturally high population densities in remaining (secondary) forest fragments in areas where large-scale deforestation has occurred, but it is not known how quickly these will revert to more normal densities, and it is uncertain if the barbet can persist in forest fragments in the long-term or if it will eventually disappear from them altogether<strong> </strong>(O. Jahn <em>in litt. </em>2009). <p></p>
100600830		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not rare near Boim (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600831		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600832		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600833		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600834		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100600834		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eubucco versicolor</span> has a narrow distribution in western South America. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">steerii</span> is endemic to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, occurring from west-central Amazonas south as far as north Huánuco. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">glaucogularis</span> is also limited to Peru, ranging from east Huánuco south to north Cuzco. Throughout Peru the species is considered uncommon. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">versicolor</span> continues this range, occurring from Cuzco and Puno (Peru) to Cochabamba in north-central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).
100600834		habitat	eng	This species prefers submontane humid forest of 1,000-2,000 m; it also occurs in old secondary forest, but rarely in the dry forests of Bolivia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600834		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600834		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho et al. 2006, Bird et al. 2011).
100600835		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600836		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES III. Present in several protected areas including La Planada Nature Reserve, and Río Ñambi Natural Reserve, Colombia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Control illegal trapping. Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Protect Alto de Pisones. Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines.  <p></p>
100600836		distribution	eng	<em>Semnornis ramphastinus</em> is uncommon to common on both slopes of the West Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Nariño) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> at 1,000-2,400 m <strong></strong>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990,<strong></strong> Sibley and Monroe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 2003). Surveys at La Planada Nature Reserve, Colombia, in the mid to late 1980s suggested an estimated world population of c.73,000 individuals (Restrepo and Mondragon 1987) and it was described as 'common to abundant' at Alto de Pisones, Risaralda, in 2000 (Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
100600836		habitat	eng	It is found in the canopy of premontane to montane evergreen forest and edge but also occurs in dense second growth, overgrown pastures and dense growth with scattered trees around gardens. Fruits of <em>Cecropia </em>and <em>Ficus </em>are particularly important food resources<strong> </strong>(Freile and Chaves 2004).<br/><p></p>
100600836		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600836		threats	eng	It is trapped for the local and international cage-bird trade (Hilty and Brown 1986). There is low reproductive success owing to competition for nest-sites with, and predation of young by Plate-billed Mountain-toucan <em>Andigena laminirostris</em> (Restrepo and Mondragon 1987). Uncontrolled colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating<strong></strong> (Salaman 1994). Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation pose threats to its remaining forests (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
100600837		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600838		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600839		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600840		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600841		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the extensive Río Abiseo National Park, but the population in this reserve may be small.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to improve knowledge of its status, distribution and ecology. Assess the population within Río Abiseo National Park. Assess the likely impact of current threats. Designate further protected areas encompassing montane forests within its potential range. <p></p>
100600841		distribution	eng	<em>Aulacorhynchus huallagae</em> is known from only two localities in north-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is uncommon at the type-locality in La Libertad, and apparently very rare in Río Abiseo National Park, San Martín. It has also been reported recently from Leymebambe<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(T. Mark <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is predicted to occur to the north and south, but little of the area between the Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas, and the Carpish region, Huánuco, is accessible (Schulenberg and Parker 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it does not appear to occupy all potentially available forest, since there are no records from the relatively well-surveyed Carpish Mountains<strong> </strong>(Schulenberg and Parker 1997).  <p></p>
100600841		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy of humid, epiphyte-laden montane forest, particularly areas with <em>Clusia</em> trees (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>, at elevations of 2,000-2,600 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This narrow altitudinal range has been explained by the occurrence of the larger Grey-breasted Mountain-toucan <em>Andigena hypoglauca</em> above 2,300 m, and perhaps the smaller Emerald Toucanet <em>Aulacorhynchus prasinus</em> below 2,100 m. However, its restricted geographic range remains unexplained, and more recent information indicates that both the putative competitors have wider altitudinal ranges that (at least in some areas) completely encompass the known elevational range of <em> A. huallagae </em>(Clements and Shany 2001; J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600841		population	eng	It has a very small range, and appears to be rather scarce. The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,333 mature individuals, rounded to 600-1,500 mature individuals here. This requires confirmation.
100600841		threats	eng	The Huallaga valley, especially the upper reaches, was being taken over  by coca-growers in the early 1990s, and it seems likely that forest at  all elevations has suffered (M. A. Plenge <em>in litt.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. Deforestation has been widespread in the region, but mainly below this species's altitudinal range. In fact, the human population within its range was higher in the post than at present<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(T. Mark <em>in litt</em>. 2010).<strong></strong><p></p>
100600842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600843		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600844		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600845		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
100600845		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pteroglossus bitorquatus</span> occurs in east-central South America, restricted to the area south of the Amazon. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sturmii</span> has a distribution bounded by Rio Madeira and Rio Tapajós, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, to the west and east respectively, and ranges south as far as the states of Rondônia and Mato Grosso. It reaches <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, where it is present in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">reichenowi</span> occurs in Brazil between Rio Tapajós and Rio Tocantins, south as far as north Mato Grosso. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">bitorquatus</span> is also limited to Brazil, with a range encompassing Marajó Island and the area between Rio Tocantins in the west, and Maranhão in the east (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600845		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist tropical forest, gallery forest and some "cerrado" (dry savanna woodland) up to c.550 m, and appears to show some tolerance of secondary habitat (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600845		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600845		threats	eng	Although the species shows some tolerance of habitat fragmentation and degradation, the extent of projected deforestation in its known range is sufficient to pose a threat (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
100600848		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600849		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600851		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600853		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600854		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600855		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES II. It occurs in a number of protected areas including Itatiaia and Foç do Iguaçu National Parks, Brazil; Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú and Estancia San Antonio, La Golondrina and Estancia Itabó Private Nature Reserves, Paraguay; and Iguazú National Park, Argentina. <strong><sup> </sup></strong><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Enforce law to prevent capture for the illegal cage-bird trade. Develop awareness-raising campaigns in areas where hunting is a particular threat. Effectively protect national parks where species occurs. Study its ecological requirements. <strong><sup><p></p></sup></strong>
100600855		distribution	eng	<em>Baillonius bailloni</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil, it is most common in montane regions (up to 1,550 m) of Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais to Rio Grande do Sul, but also occurs in Pernambuco, and has been re-introduced into ex-Guanabara, Rio de Janeiro<strong></strong> (Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<strong></strong>). It is apparently less common in Argentina<strong></strong> (Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991) and Paraguay, where it is probably most numerous in south-east Paraguay (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996). A recent survey of 24 forest fragments in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Mato Grosso do Sul, only found the species in the largest fragment (Paranapiacaba, 1,400 km2). Surveys showed that the encounter rate at this site had declined by 47.5% between 1987-1991 and 1998 (Guix <em>et al.</em> 2000), but in Argentina it remains locally fairly common in Misiones<strong> </strong>(M. Pearman <em>in litt.</em> 2003<strong></strong>, N.<strong> </strong>Rey <em>in litt. </em>2004). It is less conspicuous than other toucans in the same region, and may be more easily overlooked. <p></p>
100600855		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and montane Atlantic forests, generally on slopes and beside streams, and in in Mantiqueira, Brazil it persists in second growth and forest remnants of c.3,000 ha<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<br/><br/><p></p>
100600855		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600855		threats	eng	There is an illegal cage-bird trade, hunting and significant habitat loss (Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1993, Chebez 1994)<strong></strong>. Montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland forest in Brazil, but isolated forests in the north of its range have been reduced by the expansion of pasture and cultivation, and fires spreading from cultivated areas. Cage-bird trade and hunting are apparently minimal in Argentina<strong> </strong>(M. Pearman <em>in litt.</em> 2003<strong></strong>, N.<strong> </strong>Rey <em>in litt. </em>2004) but it is still hunted in Paraguay. <p></p>
100600856		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is fairly common at La Planada Nature Reserve, Colombia<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of trapping. Control illegal capture for the cage-bird trade. Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  <p></p>
100600856		distribution	eng	<em>Andigena laminirostris</em> occurs along the west Andean slope from Nariño, south of the Patía valley, south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, to the río Chanchan in west <strong>Ecuador</strong><strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990), where it is relatively common.<em> <p></p></em>
100600856		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid montane forest and edge with abundant bromeliads and mosses, at 1,200-3,200 m, occasionally to 300 m<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<strong></strong>, <strong></strong> Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998), and will also enter secondary and selectively logged forest. <p></p>
100600856		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600856		threats	eng	It is primarily threatened by ongoing deforestation, which is largely the result of intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation, with destruction most severe in the lower half of its altitudinal range<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). A secondary threat, which may become more significant as habitat loss fragments existing populations, is the large illegal international cage-bird trade<strong> </strong>(Beltrán 1994). <p></p>
100600857		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Occurs in several protected areas including Las Cajas National Recreation Area and Podocarpus National Park, Ecuador. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in fragmented populations and in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines. <p></p>
100600857		distribution	eng	<em>Andigena hypoglauca</em> occurs primarily on the east slope of the Andes, from Nariño, south <strong>Colombia</strong>, through <strong>Ecuador</strong> south to Cuzco, south-east <strong>Peru</strong>. On the west slope of the Andes it occurs in Caldas and Cauca, Colombia, and Azuay and Loja, south-west Ecuador (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990; Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
100600857		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane evergreen forest, forest edge and stunted forest near the tree-line at 2,300-3,500 m, occasionally to 1,500 m (Hilty and Brown 1986; Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>;  Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996;<strong></strong> Ridgely and Greenfield 2001; Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<p></p>
100600857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600857		threats	eng	Its habitat in Colombia has been subject to widespread and severe deforestation over a prolonged period as a result of agricultural expansion (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998), whereas the east Andes of Ecuador and north Peru are under intense pressure from conversion for agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Peru, there is an alarmingly high rate of deforestation in the north Cordillera de Colán for the cultivation of cash crops<strong> </strong>(Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1995), and widespread forest loss on montane slopes in the Marañón drainage<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Montane forests in south-east Peru are perhaps the most intact within its range, but even these have been locally affected by domestic grazing animals, burning, cutting for fuel and clearance for cultivation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600859		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Colombia on both slopes of the West (south to Cauca), Central (head of the Magdalena valley in Huila and east slope in Putumayo and Nariño) and East (south to Cundinamarca and west Caquetá) Andes; in north-east Ecuador (Napo) on the east slope of the Andes; and in north-west Venezuela (Trujillo and Táchira) (Hilty and Brown 1986, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).
100600859		habitat	eng	The species is relatively common in montane evergreen forest and forest edge at 1,600-3,200 m, and to 1,200 m on the Pacific slope and east slope of the East Andes (Hilty and Brown 1986, Stotz et al. 1996).
100600859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600859		threats	eng	The species is becoming increasingly local owing to habitat destruction (Stotz et al. 1996). Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded many of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Stattersfield et al. 1998); a long history of human colonisation on inter-Andean slopes has left only remnant forest patches, pasture and plantations (Wege and Long 1995); and extensive degradation in the East Andes has largely cleared west slopes for intensive crop cultivation and pasture (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
100600860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600861		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600862		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600863		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600864		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600865		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600866		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600867		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common in Ecuador (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
100600871		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600872		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600873		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
100600873		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ramphastos ambiguus</span> occurs as three subspecies in Central America and South America. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">swainsonii</span> occurs through Central America from south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span>, the taxon occurs in Corcovado National Park and Braulio Carrillo National Park. Its range extends through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama </span>and west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, where it is limited in the east by the Cauca Valley having been extirpated from the Magdalena Valley. It continues west of the Andes as far as El Oro, south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). Here it is apparently uncommon and has undergone a marked decline, although a sizeable population persists at Esmeraldas <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">abbrevianus</span> occurs in north-east Colombia and northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, possibly disjunctly (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). It is scarce and local in the latter, with most records from Sierra de Perijá and the Andes <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Hilty 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">ambiguus</span> occurs east of the Andes from south-west Colombia through east Ecuador, where it is rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is also uncommon in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, where its distribution reaches Junín  (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600873		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of habitats, including lowland forests, secondary habitats, clearings, swamps and plantations. It usually occurs above 1,000 m, dropping to 400 m in Venezuela. It tends to feed mainly on fruits, to the extent that it is a major disperser for some fruiting tree species: up 45% of a fruit crop can be taken in a single session. Palms, flowers, arthropods and small vertebrates also form a part of its diet. Breeding is between September and July in all areas, with the nest made in a cavity 5-15 m above the ground (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).
100600873		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600873		threats	eng	<p>Although this species is tolerant of habitat degradation, the projected rate of&#160; deforestation in the Amazon basin is extensive enough to still constitute a primary threat (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). It is also hunted in some areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>
100600876		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600877		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600878		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600879		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600880		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600881		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600882		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600883		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. It is known from Caratinga Biological Station, the environs of Rio Doce State Park, Serra do Brigadeiro State Park, Fernão Dias State Park and UFMG Ecological Station, Minas Gerais.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat to clarify distribution, status and ecological requirements. Prevent disturbance of the understorey and earth banks at known localities<strong> </strong>(Silveira and Nobre 1998). Protect key sites, especially in south-east Minas Gerais and the rio Paraíba valley. <p></p>
100600883		distribution	eng	<em>Jacamaralcyon tridactyla</em> now occurs chiefly in small numbers at a few sites in the rio Paraíba valley in Rio de Janeiro state, and in the dry regions of east Minas Gerais, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are older records from Espírito Santo (known from only two localities and not since 1940), São Paulo (not since at least 1975) and Paraná (not reliably since 1961). Recent records from Minas Gerais have widened its known distribution<strong></strong> (Machado<em> et al</em>. 1998, T. A. de Melo Júnior <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, Silveira and Nobre 1998<strong>, </strong>Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 1999, Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong> and suggest that further populations may exist within this area. It was considered very common in the early and mid-19th century and must have suffered a very substantial decline in numbers. It is now local even in the core of its current diminished range. <p></p>
100600883		habitat	eng	It is now primarily restricted to small patches of dry forest, possibly associated with streams, but can persist in degraded areas where the original vegetation has been replaced (e.g. by <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations<strong></strong> [<strong></strong>Machado and Lamas 1996, Silveira and Nobre 1998]) if a native understorey remains. It is dependent on earth banks (streamsides and roadcuttings) for nesting-cavities (Silveira and Nobre 1998). Individuals are conspicuous, perching in exposed positions in the subcanopy (8-15 m), though also lower (T. A. de Melo Júnior <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, from where they sally to take aerial insect prey (Silveira and Nobre 1998). Preferred food items are small cryptic Lepidoptera (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Hymenoptera<strong> </strong>(Machado and Lamas 1996), but birds also take Diptera, Odonata, Homoptera, Hemiptera and Isoptera<strong> </strong>(Machado and Lamas 1996). Vocalisations and courtship behaviour increase at the start of the rainy season<strong></strong>, but decrease during incubation<strong> </strong>(Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><p></p>
100600883		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
100600883		threats	eng	Widespread and continuing habitat destruction have been responsible for the significant decline in numbers and range of this species. In addition, its specialised habitat requirements ensure that it is absent from many degraded woodlots. Its resulting highly fragmented distribution is very vulnerable to further habitat loss and the effects of small population sizes, such as local extinctions and inbreeding.<strong></strong><p></p>
100600884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600885		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600886		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600887		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600888		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Podocarpus National Park (which may protect quite a large population) and Cayambe Coca and Antisana Ecological Reserves (San Rafael and Cordillera de Guacamayos areas respectively). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further field surveys in forests of the Andean east slope (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997) to find new localities and provide population estimates. Designate a protected area in the Cordillera del Cóndor, and involve local people in the land-use management of this region (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). Create other protected areas in the lower montane forest within the species's range. <p></p>
100600888		distribution	eng	<em>Galbula pastazae</em> occurs in the foothills and subtropical zone of the Andean east slope in <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Napo, Tungurahua, Morona-Santiago, Zamora-Chinchipe, Loja) <strong> </strong>(Ridgely <em>et al</em>. 1998), two adjacent east-slope valleys in <strong>Colombia</strong> (Putumayo<strong></strong> [P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999] and Nariño), and the Cordillera del Cóndor in <strong>Peru</strong> (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). Except in Podocarpus National Park, Loja, where it is described as fairly common, the species is generally uncommon<strong></strong> <strong> </strong>(Poulsen and Wege 1994, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997<strong>, </strong>Ridgely <em>et al</em>. 1998) and local, and presumably declining as a result of habitat loss. <p></p>
100600888		habitat	eng	Its main habitat is humid lower montane forest, where it seems to prefer forest edge and second growth near primary forest at 600-1,700&#160;m altitude, generally between 900 and 1,300&#160;m. A specimen from Ambato, Tungurahua, at c.2,600&#160;m is surely mislabelled<strong> </strong>(R.&#160;S.&#160;Ridgely <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Nests with young have been found in December, in holes in earthbanks. <p></p>
100600888		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
100600888		threats	eng	The lower slopes of the eastern Andes in Ecuador at c.1,000-2,500 are seriously affected by clearance for small-scale agriculture, and for tea and coffee plantations, with forest disappearing at an alarming rate. In Colombia, however, c.80% of this forest remains, and the climate and terrain are unsuited to coffee- or tea-growing. Proposals to build a new Ipiales-Orito road, partly to facilitate exploitation of the heavily forested Guamués and Sucio valleys<strong></strong> (Putumayo and Nariño) (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999), represent a further threat. <p></p>
100600889		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600890		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600891		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600892		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600893		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600894		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600896		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600897		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600898		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600899		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600900		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600901		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is common in Los Katíos National Park, Chocó<strong></strong> (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999<strong></strong>, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and is present in Ensenada de Utría.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess its status<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986). Effectively protect national parks where the species occurs. <p></p>
100600901		distribution	eng	<em>Bucco noanamae</em> has a moderate-sized range in west <strong>Colombia</strong>, from the west side of the Gulf of Urabá, south through Chocó, and from west Antioquia to the río San Juan delta. Although there are confirmed recent records from only two sites (Pearman 1993<strong></strong>, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, few of the c.10 specimen localities have been studied since 1966. It is common in Los Katíos National Park, Chocó<strong></strong> (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999<strong></strong>, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<em> <p></p></em>
100600901		habitat	eng	Humid forest, secondary growth and adjacent non-forest areas in flat lowland areas below 100 m are occupied<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986<strong></strong>, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It is an inconspicuous species, perching motionless on open branches for long periods before stooping on large insects in the understory foliage<strong></strong> (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999<strong></strong>).  <p></p>
100600901		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600901		threats	eng	Logging and conversion to banana and oil palm plantations are causing considerable rates of deforestation, with human settlement, infrastructure development, cattle ranching and other agricultural land use also significant threats (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wege and Long 1995, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999<strong></strong><em></em>)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600902		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600903		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600904		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600905		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600906		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600907		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600908		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600909		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600910		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600911		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600912		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600913		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
100600914		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600915		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600916		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600917		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600918		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600919		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600920		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600921		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
100600922		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600923		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600924		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600925		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600926		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
100600928		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common but patchily distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600929		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600930		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and commonly heard (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600931		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread within its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600933		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600934		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600935		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600936		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600937		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600938		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common with patchy distribution (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600939		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600940		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in Ethiopia and uncommon elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600941		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in some small reserves (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600944		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and often common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600946		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Important populations exist in Mollem, Madei and Dandeli wildlife sanctuaries (Mudappa and Raman 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across its range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Improve knowledge of its distribution (Mudappa and Raman 2009). Investigate the potential threat from hunting. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against clearance and degradation. Raise awareness of the species and its status in any areas in which it is found to be hunted.<br/><p></p>
100600946		distribution	eng	<em>Anthracoceros coronatus </em>is restricted to central and southern <strong>India</strong> (common in a few areas, but declining and confined to land under 300 m) and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (local and moderately plentiful, but now restricted to more secluded forest of the dry lowlands).  <em> <p></p></em>
100600946		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open moist broadleaved deciduous and evergreen forests, especially in hilly country and riverine areas (Mudappa and Raman 2009). It makes seasonal movements in response to fruiting events, and sometimes visits isolated fruiting trees in cultivated areas.   <p></p>
100600946		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered rare to common throughout its range.
100600946		threats	eng	Forest on Sri Lanka has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983, and similar losses are occurring in mainland India. It is reportedly collected for medicinal purposes in Orissa (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2001)<strong></strong>. The proposed Athirapilly Dam poses a threat to the species in India's Western Ghats (Mudappa and Raman 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600947		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation measures underway</span><br/>The provision of artificial nest space in Singapore has secured the return of the species as a nesting breeder, with  50-60 individuals in 2010 (G. Davison <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation measures proposed</span><br/>Conduct research to determine the population size and trend.
100600947		distribution	eng	<em>Anthracoceros albirostris</em> is a widespread resident in northern South Asia, southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, Indochina and western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia.</span>
100600947		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest Asian hornbill (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
100600947		threats	eng	It was recently noted that this species has been almost completely extirpated from southern China (J. Fellowes <em>in litt</em>.  2010). In the Thai-Malay Peninsula, the species may be threatened by off-take for the trade in fledglings and outright forest  clearance (Wells 1999). There is  some evidence that the species has traditionally been captured for the  local pet trade, as historically one to two were reportedly kept in  every village in at least some areas of Myanmar (Tickell 1864 in Kemp  1995). The casques of Oriental Pied Hornbills are common souvenirs in  the markets of Thailand, Laos and Vietnam; however, the extent of this  trade has not been measured (Kinnaird and O’Brien 2007). However, this species is considered the most adaptable of the hornbills to landscape modification and thus the least threatened owing to its very wide range, small size and broad habitat preferences (S. Mahood<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012, D. Bakewell<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).
100600948		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across the range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Ensure the protection of remaining tracts of lowland evergreen forest throughout the Sundaic region.  <p></p>
100600948		distribution	eng	<em>Anthracoceros malayanus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra (including the Lingga, Bangka, Belitung islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally scarce or locally common in suitable habitat. Habitat loss has already driven it to the verge of extinction in Thailand.  <em> </em><p></p>
100600948		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland primary evergreen forest, usually below 200 m. It is also found in selectively logged, gallery and swamp forest and tall secondary forest.  <p></p>
100600948		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as locally common.
100600948		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been extensive as a result of commercial and illegal logging, conversion to agriculture (particularly plantations) and increasing human population pressure. This species's dependence on plains-level habitats places it at high risk, especially   <p></p>
100600949		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The whole of Palawan is classed as a game reserve, where hunting is illegal, and the island was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in the protected areas of El Nido Marine Reserve, Puerto Princessa Subterranean River National Park and the newly created Omoi Cockatoo Reserve, Dumaran Island and Culasian Managed Resource Protected Area, Rizal, southern Palawan. In the latter two sites the species benefits from a wardening scheme originally created for the Philippine Cockatoo <em>Cacatua haematuropygia</em><strong> </strong>(P. Widmann <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park was expanded to include the remaining forest of Cleopatra's Needle where the species is known to occur (B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The park is actively managed by the City Government of Puerto Princesa. It recently featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series. Wildlife trade is addressed through Katala Foundations "Southern Palawan Anti-Poaching Initiative", and a more recent cooperation of Katala Foundation with the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development and possibly a joint project with TRAFFIC South-East Asia (P. Widmann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forests, particularly around Mts Victoria and Mantalingahan, to identify and propose for protection additional key sites. Research its year-round ecological requirements. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. Formally protect forests at Iwahig. Allocate greater resources towards more effective control of hunting in Palawan forests and initiate conservation awareness campaigns amongst forest product collectors. <p></p>
100600949		distribution	eng	<em>Anthracoceros marchei</em> is endemic to Palawan and its satellite islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It has recently been described as quite common to uncommon and has evidently declined. There have been recent observations from c.10 localities, including several tiny offshore islands whose small populations appear relatively secure. It appears to be fairly common in Puerto Princessa Subterranean River National Park and the El Nido Reserve; Iwahig penal colony, Omoi Cockatoo Reserve, Dumaran Island and Culasian Managed Resource Protected Area, Rizal, southern Palawan may also be key sites for the species (P. Widmann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In a 2006 survey in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, the species was recorded at densities o<span style="">f 19.6 ± 3.6 individuals/km</span><sup>2</sup><span style=""> in old growth forest; 13.8 ± 4.8 individuals/km</span><sup>2</sup><span style=""> in advanced growth secondary forest forest; and 9.6 ± 7.6 individuals/km</span><sup>2</sup><span style=""> in old growth forest (Mallari </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2011). T</span>he species was not recorded in cultivated areas.<br/><p></p>
100600949		habitat	eng	It inhabits all storeys of forests, including secondary growth, up to 900 m, but probably requires large trees for nesting. It may also frequents mangroves, cultivated land and bushlands, all presumably close to contiguous forest, although a 2006 survey did not record the species in cultivation at all, despite 4 months of fieldwork in the Puerto Princessa Subterranean River National Park in Palawan (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). In this area, the species was recorded to reach its highest densities in old growth forest, followed by advanced growth secondary forest, and lowest densities in early growth secondary forest (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It may make local movements in response to food availability. <p></p>
100600949		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600949		threats	eng	Deforestation in lowland Palawan and on many of its satellite islands (e.g. Culion, Balabac and Busuanga) has been extensive. Logging and mining concessions have been granted for much of the island's remaining forest. Illegal logging is thought to persist in the south, and forest at Iwahig penal colony may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. Hunting for food and sport is also a threat and nest trees may be raided for young birds with the species apparently becoming increasingly common in the pet trade. <p></p>
100600950		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to conservation work in the Sulus. There are no formal protected areas in the archipelago. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawi-tawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although neither the outcome nor the likely benefits to the species is known. A draft a municipal resolution for the banning of hunting or capture of Tawi-tawi endemics has been developed and was planned to be passed in July 2010 (I. Sarenas<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in all remaining forest patches in the Sulus to identify key sites. Urgently establish formal protected areas in the south-west of Tawi-tawi to conserve populations in the main mountain range. Clarify the proposal for conservation funding for the Tawi-tawi/Sulu Coastal Area. Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes. <p></p>
100600950		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to three islands in the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Described as common to abundant in the late 19th century, it has undergone a drastic decline, and persists with certainty only on Tawi-tawi. Recent evidence suggests that its population is extremely low, perhaps numbering fewer than 20 pairs in the main mountain range. During  a visit in February and June 2009, four individuals were reported in  contiguous areas over two days on Tawi-tawi (I. Sarenas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). An estimated 250-300 km<sup>2</sup> of forest remained on Tawi-tawi in 2001, although much this included selectively logged forest (Mallari <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2001), and further declines have been noted since<strong></strong>. Fortunately, the rate of clearance for oil palm plantations is lower than was feared previously. The species is thought to be extinct on Jolo (Sulu), but this requires confirmation. It is almost certainly extinct on Sanga-sanga. Local reports from 1995 suggested that it may visit the small islands of Tandubatu, Dundangan and Baliungan, though these hold very little primary forest (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and are unlikely to sustain resident populations. <p></p>
100600950		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary dipterocarp forest, typically on mountain slopes (although this may simply reflect a constraint enforced by forest loss), occasionally visiting isolated fruiting trees over 1 km from the nearest forest. It requires large trees for nesting. <p></p>
100600950		population	eng	The population is estimated to number a minimum of 40 individuals, equivalent to 27 mature individuals.
100600950		threats	eng	Jolo (Sulu) and Sanga-sanga have apparently been almost completely deforested. By the mid-1990s, rapid clearance of primary forest on Tawi-tawi had rendered remaining lowland patches highly degraded, although plans to replace these with oil-palm plantations seem to have stalled, while the rate of logging has slowed with the remainder of forest being confined to rugged mountainous areas. Conversion to rubber plantations remains a threat to existing forest (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There have been examples of known sites being cleared for agriculture (I. Sarenas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). High gun ownership in the recent past has resulted in it being shot for food and target practice. Young may continue to be harvested for food, and the species may be collected for trade. Hunting pressure on Tawi-tawi may well have increased in recent years (I. Sarenas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010).<br/> <p></p>
100600951		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across the range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining extensive tracts of lowland forest in the Sundaic region.  <p></p>
100600951		distribution	eng	<em>Buceros rhinoceros</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of extreme south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>It generally occurs at low densities, even in suitable habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
100600951		habitat	eng	This species occurs in extensive areas of primary lowland and hill forest, extending into tall secondary forest and swamp forests, up to 1,400 m.   <p></p>
100600951		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
100600951		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been extensive as a result of commercial and illegal logging, as well as agricultural development. In Borneo it is shot for food and hat feathers by local tribes. It returns to customary nest-holes, even after surrounding forest has been disturbed, and studies demonstrate that logging reduces overall numbers.   <p></p>
100600952		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species is captively bred in zoos (Jensen 2008). It occurs in protected areas including Anamalai Tiger Reserve in the Western Ghats, India (Mudappa and Raman 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across its range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining extensive tracts of lowland forest throughout its range.  <p></p>
100600952		distribution	eng	<em>Buceros bicornis </em>has a wide distribution, occurring in <strong>China</strong> (rare resident in west and south-west Yunnan and south-east Tibet), <strong>India</strong> (locally fairly common, but declining), <strong>Nepal</strong> (local and uncommon, largely in protected areas), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (fairly common), Bangladesh<strong> </strong>(vagrant), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (scarce to locally common resident throughout), <strong>Thailand</strong> (widespread, generally scarce but locally common), <strong>Laos</strong> (formerly common; currently widespread but scarce and a major decline has clearly occurred), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (rare and declining resident), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (rare), peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (uncommon to more or less common) and <strong>Indonesia</strong>: the species is now uncommon on Sumatra where it has shown a significant decline following recent devastation of the island's lowland forest (K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <em> </em><p></p>
100600952		habitat	eng	This species frequents wet evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, ranging out into open deciduous areas to visit fruit trees and ascending slopes to at least 1,560 m (Mudappa and Raman 2009). The abundance of this species tends to be correlated with the density of large trees, and it is therefore most common in unlogged forest; indeed, recent work has shown a significant nesting preference for larger trees, usually in old-growth forest (James and Kannan 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600952		population	eng	The population has been estimated to number 3,500 individuals in west India. This only constitutes 5-24% of the species's range, so a very preliminary estimate of the total population is 10,000-70,000 individuals. It is probably best placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
100600952		threats	eng	Logging is likely to have impacted on this species throughout its range, particularly as it shows a preference for forest areas with large trees that may be targeted by loggers. Forest clearance for agriculture is also likely to have contributed to declines. It is particularly susceptible to hunting pressure as it is large and visits predictable feeding sites (such as fruiting trees), and its casques are kept or sold as trophies. It is also probably impacted by the pet trade (Eames 2008).<br/><p></p>
100600953		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across the range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the range.  <p></p>
100600953		distribution	eng	<em>Buceros hydrocorax</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it occurs on 11 islands: Luzon and Marinduque (race <em>hydrocorax</em>), Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Panaon, Biliran, Calico-an and Buad (race <em>semigaleatus</em>), Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao (plus Balut, Bucas and Talicud) and Basilan (race <em>mindanensis</em>) (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is still patchily common, notably in the Sierra Madre of Luzon, but is likely to be declining across much of its range.  <em> </em><p></p>
100600953		habitat	eng	This species occurs largely in primary evergreen forests up to 2,100 m. It is also known to occur locally in mature secondary and selectively-logged forests.  <p></p>
100600953		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as locally common.
100600953		threats	eng	This species suffers from substantial hunting pressure and widespread loss of habitat as a result of logging and conversion to agriculture.   <p></p>
100600954		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES I listed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Monitor the impact of hunting pressure on populations. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the range.  <p></p>
100600954		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinoplax</em> vigil is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally scarce and occurs at low densities even in optimal habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
100600954		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary semi-evergreen and evergreen lowland forest, up to 1,500 m. In particular, it prefers rugged terrain, especially in foothills, and can persist locally in selectively logged forest.   <p></p>
100600954		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered locally common.
100600954		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion. It is prized by hunters, although centuries of hunting have meant that it is very shy and wary, and therefore capture rates may be relatively low.  <p></p>
100600956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but only locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600957		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in primary forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600958		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The forest at Siburan is effectively part of the Sablayan penal colony, and it is included in the F. B. Harrison Game Reserve. Haribon Foundation has been working in the Municipality of Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro with local partners since 2002 <strong></strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Research has been conducted  in the area for this species and site-conservation actions were implemented in Mt Siburan IBA <strong></strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007). A Forest Management Plan was produced by the local stakeholders for the Sablayan forests including Mt. Siburan and is now being implemented. IBA monitoring is implemented within Mt Siburan IBA. The species also occurs in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park, where only tiny forest tracts remain. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera. A conservation education programme has also been started at Malpalon.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Mindoro, including localities with local reports, to clarify its current distribution and population status. Establish formal, managed, protected areas to conserve remnant forest at Malpalon, Puerto Galera and Manamlay Lake. Devise and implement a management plan for the forest at Siburan that reconciles biodiversity with its role as a prison.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
100600958		distribution	eng	<em>Penelopides mindorensis</em> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was formerly widespread and abundant (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Still considered fairly common in the 1970s, it has declined rapidly since. There are records from 17 localities (J. C. Gonzalez<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012), with a maximum count of 20 birds at Siburan in 1994. However, 183 observations were recorded from 5 sampling sites in Mt Siburan during fieldwork in 2005 <strong></strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Recent photographic records come from Sablayan (D. Roberson 2005, I.  Sarenas 2009) and from Calintaan (J.C. Gonzalez 2010). It is assumed that it only persists in very small numbers. It was reported  to occur historically on Ylin Island, but an extensive search revealed  no hornbills on adjacent Ylin and Ambulong islands (Gonzalez 2007). <br/><p></p>
100600958		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forest, forest edge, secondary growth and occasionally isolated woodlots and single fruiting trees in cultivated areas, in lowlands, rarely up to 1,000 m. Although it is capable of using tiny forest patches and edge habitats, it is probably reliant on nearby larger tracts of closed-canopy forest for nest-sites. <p></p>
100600958		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals, based on analysis of data in BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
100600958		threats	eng	By 1988, extensive deforestation on Mindoro had reduced forest cover to an estimated 120 km<sup>2</sup>. Remaining lowland forest is highly fragmented. In 1991, it was estimated that it would be totally cleared within 10-20 years, although rates of loss may have slowed. Encroaching slash-and-burn cultivation and selective logging threaten forest fragments that still support the species, including Siburan. Illegal timber and firewood collection are also destroying forest <strong></strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007). At Puerto Galera, dynamite blasting is forcing it upslope. In 1993, many hornbill nest-trees were destroyed by a flood, the effects of which were exacerbated by deforestation. It is easily hunted for food. Up to five hornbills could reportedly be shot per week at three localities in 1994. <p></p>
100600959		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been recently recorded in Mt Canlaon Natural Park (Negros) and the North Negros Forest Reserve. Coral Cay Conservation and Negros Forest &amp; Ecological Foundation jointly created the Negros Rainforest Conservation Project focusing on this area<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Turner <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. On Panay, the population is concentrated in the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park. This site and Mt Talinis (Negros) have been the focus of the Mt Talinis-Twin Lakes Federation of Peoples Organization. Conservation and socio-economic programmes at Mts Talinis and Canlaon have tackled local hunting pressure, but it has not ceased entirely. Captive-breeding has proved successful, with 15 hornbills so far  bred at Mari-it Wildlife Conservation Park on Panay Island (Lastizmoza  2010) and 12 bred in NFEFI-BCC on Negros Island (Justo 2011).  Rehabilitated hornbills continue to be released by PanayCon (formely  PESCP) at CPMP, with the latest pair released in 2008 (both fitted with radio  transmitters to study foraging movements). Since 2005, a total of 22  hornbills have been released and monitored by PhilinCon (formerly  PhilConserve). Artificial nest boxes put up in CPMP have been equally  successful (Curio 2009). Poaching has been kept minimal within CMNP due  to an effective community-based nest wardenining programme implemented  by PhilinCon and CAPE (M. Lovina <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Negros and Panay to identify further key sites with a view to establishing further protected areas. Gazette the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park. Promote the effective protection of the North Negros Forest Reserve and designation of Canaway and Hapon-haponon areas as protected areas in Southern Negros. Support on-going efforts to reintroduce the species on Panay and expand to Negros. Ascertain rates of forest loss since 1988 and calculate the area of forest remaining. <p></p>
100600959		distribution	eng	<em>Penelopides panini</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Panay, including the offshore islands of Sicogon and Pan de Azucar, Guimaras, Negros, Masbate and Ticao  (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the 19th century, it was widespread and common on Panay, Guimaras, Negros and Masbate. However, based on abundance comparisons with <em>A. waldeni</em>, fewer than 900 pairs may remain. On Panay, it is still fairly common within the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park but rare elsewhere (Alabado et al. 2009). On Negros, it has become increasingly rare, with recent records from Ban-ban forest in Ayungon (Paguntalan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2002), Mt Talinis-Balinsasayao (A. Pascua<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2009), the North Negros Forest Reserve (Hamann 2002)<em></em><strong></strong> and at Simpang forest, Sipalay Negros Occidental in 2005. Single records since 1990 from Masbate and Pan de Azucar indicate that tiny populations may remain on these islands. The race <span style="font-style: italic;">ticaensis</span> is extinct on Ticao: it was abundant in the early 1900s but recent surveys have found no evidence of its persistence, and little suitable habitat (Curio 1994, del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). The species is likely to have been extirpated from Sicogon and Guimaras.<br/><p></p>
100600959		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary, evergreen, dipterocarp forest up to 1,100 m, perhaps pushed upslope by deforestation to 1,500 m, sometimes wandering to secondary forest or isolated fruiting trees. It nests in tall trees, frequently in fragments of just a few hectares. Nest-holes were found aggregated in remnant habitat patches, at an average  height of 11m, with mean nearest-neighbour distance of about 190 m (Klop  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). Nest-density was estimated at three nest per km<sup>2</sup> on Mt  Balabag. Fruit makes up the bulk of the diet but 14% of the prey items brought to observed nests comprises animal matter (Klop <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
100600959		population	eng	The population is thought to number at least 1,800 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,200 mature individuals. This estimate is derived from analyses of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This estimate is now considerably out of date; if predicted rates of decline have precipitated the population may now fall below 1,000 individuals.
100600959		threats	eng	Deforestation and hunting are the major threats. Tiny fragments of forest remain on Masbate, Guimaras, Ticao, Pan de Azucar and Sicogon. In 1988, it was estimated that just 4% forest cover remained on Negros (although this is thought to have been an underestimate [Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1992]<strong></strong>) and 8% on Panay, and shifting <em>kaingin</em> cultivation continues. Hunting and trapping of adults and young is widespread and can account for 3-6 birds in a trip of 2-5 days on Negros. Individual birds may be sold for as little as US$1. <p></p>
100600960		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in primary forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600961		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in primary forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600962		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation measures underway<br/></strong>None is known<strong><br/></strong><br/><strong>Conservation measures proposed<br/></strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its distribution and status. Monitor  trends in the population. Protect remaining extensive tracts  of forest, extend existing protected areas where appropriate, and  strictly control hunting in protected areas. Lobby for improved logging  practices that leave patches of old growth or large trees. Design and  implement hornbill conservation programmes aimed at reducing hunting  levels.
100600962		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Penelopides exarhatus </span>is endemic to Sulawesi, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>. race <span style="font-style: italic;">P. e. exarhatus</span> occurs in northern Sulawesi and Lembeh island; race <span style="font-style: italic;">P. e. sanfordi </span>occurs in southern Sulawesi and the islands of Muna and Butung.
100600962		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland primary forest, occasionally tall secondary forest, usually below 650 m but sometimes up to 1,100 m. Family groups sometimes in more open habitats (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Diet consists mainly of fruit (85%), also some small animals, mainly invertebrates. Forages mostly through foliage below the canopy. In Gorontalo, Sulawesi, the species has been observed foraging in primary and  abandoned selectively logged forest, including those in fairly close proximity to human settlements (<strong style="font-weight: normal;">D. Mulyawati</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2010). It requires large forest trees for breeding (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001, F. Lambert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011), nesting in natural cavities or old woodpecker holes. Nests in some sites used by Knobbed Hornbill <span style="font-style: italic;">Aceros cassidix.</span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>
100600962		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
100600962		threats	eng	The species is threatened with habitat destruction, with forest on Sulawesi being lost at a rate of 16.9% per ten years during 1985-1997; and 36.1% per ten years during 1997-2001 (based on D. A. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 1999 and Kinnaird and O’Brien 2007). The species's specialised breeding requirements (including a dependence  on large trees) makes them particularly vulnerable to forest loss and  degradation. Hunting, both for food and for keeping as pets,  is also a serious threat (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1980) documented a dramatic crash in the  population at Tangkoko in 1978-1979 which may have been driven by disease  introduced by domestic poultry into wild populations (T. O’Brien and M. Kinnaird <span style="font-style: italic;">in  litt.</span> 2006).
100600963		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES II listed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct studies to determine habitat associations and relative abundance in hill forest. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.  <p></p>
100600963		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros comatus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and south-west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally uncommon (but possibly overlooked owing to its unobtrusive habits) (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
100600963		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary semi-evergreen and evergreen forests to 1,675 m, but usually below 600 m. It extends into secondary woodland and plantations in areas with adjacent primary forest.   <p></p>
100600963		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as generally uncommon.
100600963		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the lowlands of Indonesia have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats could have been allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
100600964		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The following protected areas support important populations: Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China, Thrumshing La National Park, Bhutan, Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India, Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Laos, and Um Phang and Maewong National Parks and Huai Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuaries, Thailand. Field surveys were conducted in Namdapha National Park, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Jairampur Forest Division and Deomali Forest Division, Arunachal Pradesh, India, during 1996-1999 and 2002-2004 (Datta 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its distribution and status. Monitor trends in selected key populations. Protect remaining extensive tracts of forest, extend existing protected areas where appropriate, and strictly control hunting in protected areas. Lobby for improved logging practices that leave patches of old growth or large trees. Design and implement hornbill conservation programmes aimed at reducing hunting levels. <p></p>
100600964		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros nipalensis</em> is currently known from <strong>Bhutan</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, southern Yunnan and south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>. It has declined dramatically and is now very rare across much of its historical range. It is thought to be extinct in Nepal, and to be close to extinction in Vietnam (<strong></strong>J. C. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>; it has also disappeared from many areas in Thailand. While still widespread and fairly common in Bhutan  (<strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>2007), healthy populations elsewhere survive only in Namdapha National Park, India, Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, central Laos and perhaps also Huai Kha Khaeng, west Thailand, and Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China. Population densities in these strongholds have led some to suppose that the species is more widespread and common than field surveys suggest (Kinnaird and O'Brien 2007)<strong></strong>. It is perhaps locally common in north Myanmar, and there are recent records from West Bengal (D. Ghose <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong> and Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India<strong> </strong>(Choudhury 2003, Datta 2009). <p></p>
100600964		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature broadleaved forests, generally between 600-1,800 m (maximum altitude 2,200 m), but locally down to 150 m. It has also been recorded in dry woodland (<strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests (usually March-June) in tall, wide-girthed trees. Evidence suggests that some populations make seasonal movements between forested areas in response to variations in the abundance of fruiting trees. <p></p>
100600964		population	eng	A population estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals has been derived from analyses of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
100600964		threats	eng	Its dependence on large trees for feeding and nesting makes it especially susceptible to deforestation and habitat degradation through logging, shifting cultivation and clearance for agriculture. Furthermore, viable populations require vast tracts of forest to survive, exacerbating its susceptibility to habitat fragmentation. These problems are compounded by widespread hunting and trapping for food, and trade in pets and casques.Hunting is the primary threat to the species in Arunachal, India (Datta 2009).<br/><p></p>
100600965		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.  <p></p>
100600965		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros corrugatus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including the Batu Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong><em> </em><p></p>
100600965		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary evergreen and swamp forests, up to 1,000 m. It can persist in selectively logged forest if primary forests are adjacent, but it does not occur in secondary forest.   <p></p>
100600965		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as always uncommon.
100600965		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). This species shows strong avoidance of degraded or secondary forests, and is therefore likely to be at increased threat.  <p></p>
100600966		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Mt Talinis, designated for protection, is being managed as a geothermal reserve, and The Twin Lakes Balinsasayao Natural Park benefits from conservation funding. Other sites with recent records include Mt Kanla-on Natural Park (Negros) and Northern Negros Natural Park, which receives nominal protection. A nest-guarding scheme by PhilConserve led to a reduction of nest poaching by 95% on Panay (Hembra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and that population can be stabilised at its current size if inroads into the forest by small-scale logging can be stopped (E. Curio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2008). The fledging of nearly 500 broods of 1-3 young each in the Central Panay Mountain Range was the consequence of this nest-protection scheme (Hembra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) and the aim is to expand nest protection into more southerly parts of the CPMR (E. Curio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2008). Confiscated hornbills have been rehabilitated and released by PESCP/PhilConserve (E. Curio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2008). PhilinCon (formerly PhilConserve) in collaboration with CAPE continues to monitor these crucial nest-sites at CPMR through a community-based nest warden scheme, where nest-poaching has been halted. As of December 2010, a total of 15 <span style="font-style: italic;">Aceros waldeni</span> have been successfully bred at Mari-it Wildlife Conservation Park (Lastimoza 2010). Five of these captive-bred hornbills were transferred to two facilities on Negros Island. This brings a total of eight hornbills forming the captive population in Negros Island, representing the founder populations for eventual re-introduction (Justo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Massive awareness campaigns have been developed by various conservation NGOs, highlighting the plight of hornbills in the Negros-Panay faunal region. Livelihood incentives such as carabao (work animals) are being given to hunters to establish permanent agricultural plots instead of shifting cultivation. Seedlings of fruit trees, basic farm tools, rice seeds and informal training are given to hunters by the Mari-it Wildlife Conservation Park to encourage them to take up alternative livelihoods (L. L. Lastimoza <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Funds should be allocated primarily to in-situ protection along the lines of PhilConserve's guarding scheme (E. Curio <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). Disseminate and act upon results from recent island-wide surveys on Panay and Negros. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay, to identify important sites. Continue community awareness programmes to reduce hunting and illegal logging on both Panay and Negros. Work in partnership at government level to strengthen protected area legislation and improve the network in the long term. <p></p>
100600966		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros waldeni</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is presumed to have occurred on three islands: Guimaras, Negros and Panay. It is now absent from Guimaras and survives only on Negros and Panay  (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). By 2006, the population in the Central Panay Mountain Range (CPMR) had been found by PhilConserve (formerly PESCP)  to contain 502 breeding pairs (E. Curio <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008), with 1,018 active nest holes located in 2008 (Alabado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>. There have been no breeding records since 1997 (one pair) in the north-west Panay Peninsula where, however, no systematic search has been conducted. Due to the small size of the remaining forest in the peninsula (c.5,000 ha) any breeding there may have been sporadic and it has since almost certainly been extirpated, despite pro-active anti-poaching and other forest wardening activities orchestrated by local support groups<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(W. Oliver <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Despite unconfirmed records from Balinsasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park and Calinawan Forest (P.&#160; Jakosalem <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), the species may be functionally extinct on Negros (E. Curio <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, J. Gonzalez<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). <p></p>
100600966		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy forests, also frequenting logged areas and occasionally isolated trees in clearings. It is probably adapted to lower or mid-elevation forest, with records from 400-1,200 m on Panay and 300-950 m on Negros. It is omnivorous, taking some animal matter to its nests (Kauth <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and feeding in the canopy on figs and other fruits. It may make local nomadic movements in response to food availability. It nests in large trees. <p></p>
100600966		population	eng	There were 752 active nest holes in the Central Panayan Mountain Range in 2007 (E. Curio <em>in litt.</em> 2008). This represents 1,504 mature individuals, and so it is sensible to estimate the mature population to number between 1,000-2,499. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
100600966		threats	eng	Chronic deforestation has led to its extinction on Guimaras and its extreme scarcity elsewhere. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988, although this has reportedly since been reduced to c.3% and c.6%, respectively<span style="FONT-WEIGHT: bold"> </span>(W. Oliver <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Only 10% (c.110 km<sup>2</sup>) of this is thought to be below 1,000 m. It heavily utilises (at least temporally) forest fruits and thus is adversely affected by deforestation. Hunting has reportedly had severe impacts in the past, with one estimate of up to a quarter of the (then estimated) population of north-west Panay shot in a single day in 1997, although the validity of this report is uncertain. Nest poaching, whether for sale of incumbent females and their dependant chicks for human consumption or into local bird trade, is the most serious threat. Poaching affected c.50% of broods before the implementation of a nest guarding scheme which now protects about two thirds of all broods in the Central Panay Mountain Range, but until the nest guarding scheme can be expanded the remaining third are still vulnerable (W. Oliver <em>in litt</em>. 2007; E. Curio <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008).<strong> </strong>  <p></p>
100600967		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range. Monitor hunting and trapping pressure.  <p></p>
100600967		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros leucocephalus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines </strong>occurring on three islands, Mindanao and its two small satellites Camiguin Sur and Dinagat (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is poorly known, but considered locally fairly common in suitable habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
100600967		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but most records come from between 300 and 1,000 m in primary lowland forest.  <p></p>
100600967		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as rare in general.
100600967		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and logging, particularly given its strong links to unspoilt primary forest. It is also subject to pressure from hunting and trapping for trade.  <p></p>
100600968		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation measures underway<br/></strong>None is known<strong><br/></strong><br/><strong>Conservation measures proposed<br/></strong>Conduct  further surveys to clarify its distribution and status. Monitor  trends  in the population. Protect remaining extensive tracts  of forest,  extend existing protected areas where appropriate, and  strictly control  hunting in protected areas. Lobby for improved logging  practices that  leave patches of old growth or large trees. Design and  implement  hornbill conservation programmes aimed at reducing hunting  levels.
100600968		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aceros cassidix </span>is endemic to Sulawesi and offshore islands of Lembeh, Togian Islands, Muna and Butung,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Indonesia</span>. It is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). However, a recent analysis has suggested that this species may be declining at a rate approaching 40% over three generations based on recent and ongoing rates of habitat loss on Sulawesi (D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Kinnaird and O'Brien 2007]<strong></strong>).<p></p>
100600968		habitat	eng	The species inhabits evergreen forest up to 1,800 m, especially in lowalnds below 1,100 m, where it extends into patches of secondary forest, woodland and plantations to forage. Feeds mainly on fruit, but also on animals, including insects, bird eggs and nestlings. It forages mainly in the canopy, even plucking off fruits in flight. Also digs in soft wood. Chases off other birds and primates at feeding sites. In Gorontalo, Sulawesi, the species has been observed foraging in  primary and  abandoned selectively logged forest, including those in  fairly close proximity to human settlements (<strong style="font-weight: normal;">D. Mulyawati</strong><span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2010). It requires large trees for breeding, nesting in natural holes 13-53 m up in tall forests trees (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001, F. Lambert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
100600968		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
100600968		threats	eng	The species is threatened with habitat destruction, with forest on  Sulawesi being lost at a rate of 16.9% per ten years during 1985-1997;  and 36.1% per ten years during 1997-2001 (based on D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em>  1999 and Kinnaird and O’Brien 2007). The species's specialised breeding  requirements (including dependence  on large trees) makes them  particularly vulnerable to forest loss and  degradation. Hunting  is a serious threat, as well as gold mining and fires (following exceptional fires in 1997, fieldwork showed a significant drop in breeding success and population recruitment in subsequent years) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al. </span>2001)
100600969		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in several areas across its wide range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600970		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under the Wildlife Protection Act and Narcondam Island is a wildlife sanctuary. Goats have been removed, although local reports suggest this may not have been completely successful (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Strict instructions not to hunt the species have been issued to the personnel on the island. A large proportion of the feral goats have been removed. In 1992, the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) began preliminary surveys of the avifauna on the Andaman Islands, with an emphasis on several target species, including Narcondam Hornbill.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population regularly. Completely remove all remaining goats from the island  (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Provide cooking fuel to the island's inhabitants to eliminate their requirement for fuelwood. Carefully investigate the possibility of establishing a second population on another suitable island in the Andamans in case of a serious population decline or natural disaster. Consider providing nest boxes to increase the availability of nest sites. Plant additional fig trees to encourage forest regeneration. Reduce illegal hunting through environmental education and strict enforcement of the Wildlife Protection Act. Develop a long-term species recovery plan (<strong></strong>K. Sivakumar <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600970		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros narcondami</em> is endemic to the tiny (6.82 km<sup>2</sup>) island of Narcondam, east of the Andaman Islands, <strong>India</strong>. In 1998, the population was estimated at 295-320 birds and stable, including an estimated 68-85 breeding pairs, while during fieldwork in 2000, the population was estimated to be 432 individuals (Yahya and Zarri 2002)<strong></strong>, and in 2003, Vivek and Vijayan (2003) reported 320-340 individuals; these figures may indicate that the number of mature individuals is fewer than 250 (Kinnaird and O'Brien 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600970		habitat	eng	It is resident in fairly open mixed forest, which covers most of the island, from sea-level to the peak at c.700 m, although the majority of nests are below 200 m (Vijayan 2009). It uses mature, undisturbed forests with large trees for nesting and roosting. The species nests in holes on the trunk or broken branches of large trees and the female is sealed into a nest-cavity for the duration of egg-laying and chick-rearing (the breeding period spanning at least from February until April). At this time, the female sheds her flight feathers and is incapable of flight. Each pair generally raise two young. Breeding birds are over four years old and constitute c.46-53% of the population (Vijayan 2009). Nine species of fruits have been recorded in the diet (Yahya and Zarri 2002)<strong></strong> as well as invertebrates and occasionally small reptiles (Vijayan 2009). <p></p>
100600970		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 320-340 individuals, based on an area of habitat of 6 km<sup>2</sup>. This is interpreted by Kinnaird and O'Brien (2007) to equate to fewer than 250 mature individuals, and so the population is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
100600970		threats	eng	A small police outpost was established on the island in 1969. Two or three hectares of forest have been lost to the creation of the post and a plantation of fruit trees and vegetable plots. At least 10 living trees are cut each year for fuel wood for the camp and further wood is cut periodically for maintenance purposes. The proposed installation of communication structures on the island could further reduce the habitat of this species and cause disturbance during the construction phase (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) . The introduction of domestic animals also poses a potential threat. Previously up to 400 feral goats were living on the island and limiting natural forest regeneration, but most have now been removed (Yahya and Zarri 2002)<strong></strong>. A sizeable population of feral cats occurs which may pose a threat to the species. Hunting for food results in an estimated annual loss of 25-40 birds (Islam and Rahmani 2010), but this is not a serious threat  given its high levels of recruitment. Its small population and tiny range make it susceptible to natural disasters and disease.<p></p>
100600971		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Populations occur in the recently established Manupeu-Tanahdaru National Park (MTNP) and Laiwangi-Wanggameti National Park (LWNP) (1,350 km<sup>2</sup> combined), which are now monitored by government-run management authorities set up in 2006. Burung Indonesia has been working intensively on the strengthening the national park management on Sumba since 2002/2003. The project included facilitating local communities and government to develop village conservation agreement and to agree on the demarcation of the MTNP, resulting a reduced external pressure on illegal logging, forest destruction, and better law enforcement (A. Dian <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population surveys were carried out for the species in the MTNP in 2009 (D. Mulyawati<em> in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The illegal wildlife trade has been monitored since 2004, and in four big cities in Sumba there have been no cases of the species being recorded in captivity (D. Mulyawati<em> in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed research into the breeding and foraging ecology of the species. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Conduct an accurate  population survey across the entire island and implement a monitoring  programme to establish population trends.<strong> </strong> Gazette strict nature reserves at Yawila, Puronumbu and Luku Melolo, a wildlife sanctuary at Lulundilo and a forest park at Tanjung Ngunju. Support initiatives to establish and manage further protected areas. Continue to work with local communities to prevent lowland forest clearing, hunting and trapping. Reconcile differences in population estimates. <p></p>
100600971		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Fieldwork since 1989 previously resulted in a tentative population estimate of 4,000 individuals (based on a density of 2.3 hornbills/km<sup>2</sup>, and an estimated 1,732 km<sup>2</sup> total forest-cover) (BirdLife International 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent research on the population size needs to be reconciled, as estimates have ranged from 1,650 mature individuals on the whole island (based on delayed maturation and its near absence from small forest patches) (T. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, to 6,400 individuals solely in the Manupeu-Tanadaru National Park (D. Mulyawati<em> in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although some areas of habitat are well protected (D. Mulyawati<em> in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, the species is likely to be declining overall owing to continued forest loss outside of reserves  (T. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and future declines may be extremely rapid (<strong></strong>Kinnaird and O'Brien 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600971		habitat	eng	Despite frequenting a variety of forested habitats, it shows a strong association with low altitude semi-evergreen forest containing large trees with a dense canopy. It is rare or absent in patches &lt;10 km<sup>2</sup>, and may only use them if they are within ranging distance of larger fragments (Sitompul <em>et al </em>2004)<strong></strong>. It has also been recorded up to at least 950 m, at forest edges and in isolated trees or groves in parkland far from closed forest, although its occurrence in parkland may be very infrequent. Nest-cavities tend to be situated within evergreen forest in the trunks of large deciduous trees, especially <em>Tetrameles</em> <em>nudiflora</em>, a species that is important for other threatened species on the island (e.g. Sulphur-crested Cockatoo <em>Cacatua sulphurea</em>) (BirdLife International 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600971		population	eng	Recent population estimates are difficult to reconcile, ranging from 1,650 mature individuals on the whole of Sumba, to 6,400 individuals in the Manupeu-Tanadaru National Park alone (D. Mulyawati <em>in litt.</em> 2010, T. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2010), although another estimate of fewer than 4,000 individuals in total has been given (Burung Indonesia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). A population size of 2,500-9,999 mature individuals is retained here until the differences between these estimates are accounted for.
100600971		threats	eng	Habitat<strong> </strong>destruction and fragmentation stemming from small-scale logging, fuelwood collection and clearance for cultivation or pasture poses the main threat. These pressures are exacerbated by fire resulting from a dry climate and uncontrolled burning to encourage new growth for cattle. Since the 19th century, c.60% of forest has been lost. This hornbill's preference for lowland areas further compounds the threat of habitat loss, as do the reported minor impacts of trade and exploitation for food (BirdLife International 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although one large area of lowland forest appears to be well protected in the Manupeu-Tanadaru National Park (D. Mulyawati<em> in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, forest loss is likely to be continuing outside of reserves (T. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600972		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It occurs in at least four protected areas in Thailand; Huai Kha Khaeng, Hala-Bala, Khlong Saeng and Mae Nam Phachi Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Khao Laem, Kaeng Krachan and Sri Phang-nga National Parks (Chew and Supari 2000, Hornbill Project Thailand <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The Thailand Hornbill Project repair nest sites annually and carry out systematic monitoring at breeding sites (P. Poonswad <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Belum Temengor IBA appears to be a main stronghold of the species; the Belum proportion is now a protected area called Royal Belum State park, while Temengor remains a logging concession (Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Efforts are being made to protect forest in the upper Perak catchment of Malaysia and in the lowlands of Tenasserim (at Myinmoletkat Biosphere Reserve), Myanmar, two areas of crucial importance for this species. It also occurs within Lampi Island Marine Park in Tenasserim, Myanmar (EcoSwiss <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Hornbill Project Thailand is in the process of collecting and analysing data to determine population densities for the species. Efforts are being made to establish links so that organisations in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia work collaboratively. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution, status, population size and specific habitat requirements. Satellite tracking should be used to study movement pattern. Genetic analysis is needed to determine the number of subpopulations. Establish further protected areas within its range in Myanmar and Malaysia. Consolidate or expand all protected areas supporting populations and enforce strict anti-hunting laws within them. Lobby for improved logging practices that leave patches of old growth or large trees. Promote public awareness and community-based conservation initiatives to reduce hornbill hunting. <p></p>
100600972		distribution	eng	<em>Aceros subrificollis</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Myanmar</strong>, west, south-west and extreme southern <strong>Thailand</strong>, and northern Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). All previous records from northern Myanmar, India and Sumatra were the result of misidentifications. Historically described as relatively common to very abundant in Myanmar, there have been no recent records and it appears to have undergone a rapid decline, at least in the Sittang valley. In 1993, the Thai population was estimated at &lt;1,000 individuals, although the recent discovery of a single roost of 900 birds in the extreme south suggests that this figure should be revised upwards. Several thousand individuals attend one or two roost-sites in northern Malaysia and this area clearly supports a key population. The Malaysian Nature Society has been monitoring seasonal migration movements since 2004 and has logged a maximum count of 3,261 individuals at Belum Temengor IBA; although subsequent counts have been much lower (Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In southern Myanmar, 150 individuals were recorded flying to roost within Lampi Island Marine Park (EcoSwiss <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
100600972		habitat	eng	It occurs in mixed deciduous, dry and humid evergreen forests, mainly in the lowlands, but also hills to c.1,000 m. It has a varied diet, mainly comprising fruit but also invertebrates and small vertebrates. It nests from January-June, in holes in tall, broadleaved trees. May undertake seasonal local migrations in response to seasonal fruiting patterns, however this needs more investigation (C. A.Yeap <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <br/><p></p>
100600972		population	eng	A population estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals has been derived from analyses of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. At least 1,000 are known from Thailand as well as strong population centres in northern Peninsula Malaysia and southern Myanmar. Regular monitoring has been conducted at Pos Chiong/Kg Tebang in Temengor Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia since 2004. Numbers fluctuate greatly from year to year, with the highest count on a single occasion of 3,261 on 14 September 2008 (Yeap and Ong 2011). Subsequent counts have been much lower (less than 1,000 individuals) (C. A Yeap <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Despite counts in previous years of between 2,500-3,000 individuals, less than 100 birds were counted in Perak, Malaysia in 2009 (F. Lambert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009). A roosting flock of between 700-900 individuals has been recorded at Bang Lang National Park in Yala Province, Thailand (P. Poonswad <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
100600972		threats	eng	Its size and flocking tendency render it especially vulnerable to hunting, which is a particular problem in Thailand and Myanmar. It is also threatened by rampant deforestation and forest degradation of the lowlands and foothills, a threat exacerbated by its requirement for large areas of forest and large trees for nesting. An additional, more minor threat is posed by the pet trade, and it shows some sensitivity to disturbance, apparently avoiding active logging operations (Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600973		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas of its wide range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600974		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be thinly distributed across a wide range, but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600975		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common across a wide range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600976		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but with a patchy distribution (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600977		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600978		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Maraoué National Park (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>, Taï National Park (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong> and Gola Forest (Okoni-Williams 2001)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys across the species's range to obtain a total population estimate. Track population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across the species's range. Carry out research into levels of hunting. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected.  <p></p>
100600978		distribution	eng	<em>Bycanistes cylindricus</em> is restricted to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, where it is found in southern <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (including Loma Mountains, Western Area Peninsula Forest, Kangri Hills and Gola Forest [Okoni-Williams 2001]<strong></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong>, southern <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (where it remains abundant in Taï National Park and periphery habitat [Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>]), south-west <strong>Ghana</strong> (where recently observed only once during surveys of Draw River, Boi-Tano and Krokasua Foret Reserves [H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>) and <strong>Togo </strong>(Kemp 1995; although this single record may be best considered unconfirmed [F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]). Its local status varies from uncommon to common (<strong></strong>Nash 1990a, Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. Recent observations suggest that the species is in rapid decline. It has been extirpated from Bia National Park (NP) in Ghana, where there have been no records since 1991 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2011). Several hunters interviewed by Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett (2009) in Ghana have said that <em>B. cylindricus</em> has become rare or difficult to find and the species may now be extinct at Fure Headwaters. It may also have disappeared from Opro River Forest Reserve (FR) (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2010). Surveys at three forest reserves in Ghana (Draw River, Bio-Tano and Krokosua) in 2003 suggested that hornbills were in decline owing to habitat fragmentation and hunting (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Observations of hornbill abundance in the forests of West Africa should be interpreted with regard to these species' movements, probably related to fruit abundance (e.g. H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
100600978		habitat	eng	It is a species of primary and mature secondary forest (Thiollay 1985a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been found in very disturbed forest in Mt Peko National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but generally prefers undisturbed forest (Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also found in plantations, and has been found to be more common in these sites than other hornbill species (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it is not known whether these represent viable breeding populations. As with other large hornbills, it is probably dependent on the presence of large emergent trees and dead standing trees for nest sites (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on fruit in the canopy and will also take insects on the wing (Fry <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Local populations in Cameroon fluctuate 12-fold and in synchrony, suggesting regional movements to track fruit availability (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is described as sedentary in Gabon and nomadic during the non-breeding season in Liberia and Uganda. In Liberia, egg-laying probably takes place in September-November, but this may occur in January-April, June-August or October-December elsewhere. It nests in natural tree cavities 20-25 m from the ground. The species appears not to breed every year (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
100600978		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
100600978		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the destruction and fragmentation of forest throughout its range (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. This species is often the first large hornbill to disappear following selective logging (<strong></strong>Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. Although hornbills can travel many kilometres in a single day in search  of fruiting trees, the increasing fragmentation of the Upper Guinea  forest is likely to have affected populations, particularly as  fragmentation is on-going and large fragments are becoming increasingly  isolated (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Forest is being lost in some protected areas, for example most forest has now been lost from Déré Foret Classée in Guinea (H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Deforestation in the region is driven by logging for timber, agricultural expansion and development, with some of the highest pressures on forest habitats occurring in Liberia (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), where there are plans to convert large areas of primary forest to oil-palm plantations (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Much forest in Opro River FR, Ghana, has been replaced with teak  plantations, whilst forest at Amama Shelterbelt FR has been cleared for  gardens and plantations (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Hunting is a significant threat both within and outside protected areas (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2011; F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Hunting pressure has led to its extirpation from Bia National Park (NP),  where there have been no records since 1991 (Dowsett-Lemaire and  Dowsett 2011), although it persists at a number of other sites,  including small numbers at Atewa Range FR and Tano Ofin  FR, despite high hunting pressure at these locations (Dowsett-Lemaire  and Dowsett 2009).<p></p>
100600979		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be largely uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600980		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600981		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range, but is effectively protected and secure in only a fraction of these, having already disappeared from numerous reserves owing to hunting and habitat loss (H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011, 2012; F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species is abundant and well protected in Gola Forest (Sierra Leone and Liberia)  (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the species at selected sites across its range to determine trends. Research the extent and nature of the threat caused by hunting. Conduct awareness programmes to discourage hunting. Protect significant areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. Improve the management of existing protected areas to ensure <span style="font-style: italic;">de facto</span> protection.<br/><p></p>
100600981		distribution	eng	<em>Ceratogymna elata</em> is widespread in West Africa from <strong>Senegal</strong> (very small range [Morel and Morel 1990]<strong></strong>), <strong>Mali,</strong> <strong>Guinea </strong>(c.419 individuals), <strong>Guinea-Bissau</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone </strong>(c.624 individuals), <strong>Liberia </strong>(c.2,385 individuals), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire </strong>(c.3,871 individuals), <strong>Ghana </strong>(c.817 individuals; it still occurs in the east, albeit in very small  numbers [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009b], which may not represent a  viable population [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009a]), <strong>Togo</strong> (few records [Cheke and Walsh 1996]<strong></strong>), <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Nigeria </strong>(c.1,625 individuals) and <strong>Cameroon </strong>(c.2,791 individuals) (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988, H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It still appears to be locally common in forested areas of Sierra Leone, south-west Ivory Coast and Liberia (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Additionally, in parts of Cameroon and south-west Nigeria it may also still be abundant, but there are indications that it is declining in many places (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994, P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Jam 2006, H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2011, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Much of Liberia has been deforested in recent years, so it is possible that while its population is still stable where forest remains, the overall area of occupancy may have declined with loss or degradation of habitat. Recent observations suggest that the species is in rapid decline in Ghana. It appears to have been extirpated from many areas, including Bia National Park (NP), where there have been no records since 1991 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2011a, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It<em></em> has not been recorded at Atewa Range FR since 2005 at least, with perhaps the last confirmed record in May 2002 (<em>per </em>Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2011b).  During a survey of three forest reserves in Ghana (Draw River, Bio-Tano  and Krokosua) in October-November 2003, only one large hornbill was recorded in high quality habitat, at a time when such species should have been present, probably indicative of local declines (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In Togo, it has  probably been extirpated from Assoukoko forest, which is the largest area of forest remaining in the country (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Overall, the population is suspected to be in rapid decline.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><br/><br/><em></em> <em></em><br/><p></p>
100600981		habitat	eng	It is a bird of lowland primary forest but also occurs in logged and secondary forest, riverine forest and oil-palm plantations (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988, Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong></strong>. It has also been recorded in predominantly agricultural landscapes, for example in areas near Gola Forest, Sierra Leone (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species undergoes local movements in response to fruit availability.<br/><p></p>
100600981		population	eng	Recent calculations put the species's area of suitable habitat at 35,808 km<sup>2</sup>, and mean population density at 0.35 birds/km<sup>2</sup>.<sup> </sup>This gives an estimated population size of 12,533 individuals (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007), here rounded to 12,500 individuals. This roughly equates to 8,000-9,000 mature individuals.
100600981		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to be a major threat throughout its range (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> and, in Ghana, over-hunting is probably causing a serious decline (Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong></strong>. Logging is probably only a threat to the species in small forests where hunting is rampant (Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong></strong>, but destruction of forest throughout its range is causing habitat fragmentation, resulting in the increasing isolation of large fragments, and which may inhibit movement between seasonal food sources and lead to a reduction in its population (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994, H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Deforestation is on-going and affecting protected areas; for example  forest at Déré Foret Classée (Guinea) has been mostly cleared (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Since this is a long lived and mobile species there is also the concern that populations, particularly in degraded areas, may seem healthier than they really are - birds may persist, although breeding may be disrupted causing populations to crash when these adult birds die (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Hornbills in general are thought to have been extirpated from some of the more isolated forest fragments (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The species is expected to disappear very soon from the small forest fragments east of the Volta region (Ghana), and adjacent Togo; its survival in the larger forest patch of Assoukoko on the Togo side is in doubt (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Its disappearance from Bia NP, where there have been no records since  1991 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2011a), is probably related to uncontrolled hunting and the logging of the southern section in the 1990s. The species's fate in south-western Ghana is very unfavourable, with most habitat expected to be lost to timber extraction and agricultural encroachment, and habitat in reserves expected to be lost by the early 2030s (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
100600982		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common but sparse (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600983		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It may still be protected by tribal lore in many areas, and occurs in several reserves and at least seven national parks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. There is extensive conservation work being carried out in South Africa, including a re-introduction programme, research into several different areas (population dynamics, tracking, and the feasibility of supplementary feeding, multiple clutching, group supplementation and artificial nest-site provision), and public awareness campaigns (A. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. From 2000-2008 the Mabula Project attempted 13 soft and hard releases and re- introductions of individuals, and a re-introduced female fledged a chick in 2008 in the Mabula Game Reserve (A. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 2009, 2011)<strong></strong>.  <strong> </strong>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct population surveys and establish monitoring to assess population trends. Begin awareness campaigns to prevent persecution. Identify key strongholds of the species and prevent further habitat degradation in these areas. Continue to research the effectiveness of artificial nest-sites.<br/><p></p>
100600983		distribution	eng	<em>Bucorvus leadbeateri </em>is found in southern Africa, ranging from southern <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong>, south-west to <strong>Angola</strong> and northern <strong>Namibia</strong>, and south to <strong>Botswana </strong>and eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>. It is described as widespread and fairly common, and the population in South Africa in 1992 has been estimated at c.1,400 mature individuals - perhaps a 50% decline on historical population numbers (Kemp and Webster <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Although data for other range countries is lacking, several threats are also thought to be causing population declines in Kenya (S. Thomsett <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, Botswana (S. Tyler <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong> and Zambia (R. Tether, P. Leonard and<strong></strong> L. Roxburgh <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, though rates of decline in Zambia are thought to be slower than elsewhere (L. Roxburgh <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. In Botswana it is still frequent in the Okavango Delta and Chobe areas, where it occurs at higher densities than it averages in South Africa, but is likely to be declining away from protected areas (S. Tyler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
100600983		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>It lives in groups of 2-8 members, rarely 11, and is a co-operative breeder, with the dominant pair assisted by adult and immature helpers to defend a territory. Laying occurs in large cavities in trees or cliffs, mainly from September to December, with a clutch of 1-3 (usually 2) eggs, although only one survives to fledging (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001; Kemp and Webster <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. One study in South Africa showed that a family group produced on average only one fledgling every nine years, although birds in the Okavango Delta appear to breed more frequently (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001; S. Tyler <em>in litt. </em>2010). <strong>Habitat </strong>It inhabits woodland and savanna, also frequenting grassland adjoining patches of forest up to 3,000 m in parts of its range in eastern Africa. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is mainly made up of arthropods, and, especially during the dry season, snails, frogs and toads, and sometimes larger prey such as snakes, lizards, rats, hares, squirrels or tortoises. It will on occasion feed on carrion, taking scraps and associated insects. Fruits and seeds are also recorded in its diet (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
100600983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common but sparse.
100600983		threats	eng	A major threat to the species is loss of nesting habitat due to clearance for small-scale use, agriculture, and because of fires, and perhaps because of the actions of African elephants <em>Loxodonta africana </em>in Botswana and South Africa (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001; S. Thomsett<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span><em></em> S. Tyler, R. Tether, P. Leonard and<strong></strong> L. Roxburgh <em>in litt.</em> 2010; K. Morrison and Y. Friedmann <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Widespread livestock grazing has also lead to the erosion of suitable grassland in Kenya, with perhaps only 10% of suitable habitat remaining in the country (S. Thomsett <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although cultural beliefs offered some protection in the past in Kenya, recent generations tend not to hold such values, and the species may be directly persecuted as a result (S. Thomsett <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Persecution also occurs directly as the species breaks window panes by attacking its own reflection in glass, indirectly by consuming poisoned bait, and it is sometimes killed as a supersitious token measure against drought (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001; K. Morrison and Y. Friedmann <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Collisions with powerlines may also be a threat in South Africa (K. Morrison and Y. Friedmann <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such threats are exacerbated by the slow reproductive rate and maturation, longevity and social structure of the species (S. Thomsett <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
100600986		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extremely widespread and often common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600988		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently not rare (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600989		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600990		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in uncut forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600991		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600992		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600993		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon but widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600996		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its restricted area (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
100600997		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species is an important symbol for conservation in Central America and reserves have been established to facilitate its protection, but these tend to be small and include limited representations of critical habitat (Wheelwright 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in several national parks throughout its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Create habitat corridors between higher and lower forests to facilitate altitudinal movements (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect forests at both higher and lower elevations that are used by the same populations. <p></p>
100600997		distribution	eng	<em>Pharomachrus mocinno</em> occurs throughout the montane cloud-forests of southern <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and western <strong>Panama</strong> east to Cerro San Antonio in Veraguas (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Howell and Webb 1995a, Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong></strong>. It is common in the Cordillera de Talamanca and protected cloud-forests in Costa Rica (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, Cerro El Arenal and Cerro Kilambe reserves, Nicaragua (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> and Sierra de Agalta National Park, Honduras (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but otherwise uncommon to locally common. In Costa Rica in 1977, it was estimated that there were 12,868-13,821 individuals in Talamanca Forest and 4,652-4,997 in La Amistad National Park, based on the extrapolation of a density of 2.7-2.9 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001). In 2007, populations in Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Costa Rica during the breeding season were estimated at 2,810-4,780 mature individuals, with 2,300-6,246 mature individuals estimated in the IBAs of Panama (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Its populations are presently in decline.  <p></p>
100600997		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in the canopy and subcanopy of undisturbed, humid, epiphyte-laden evergreen montane forest, cloud-forest, thickly vegetated ravines and cliffs, park-like clearings and pastures and open situations with scattered trees adjacent to forest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs at 900-2,275 m in Oaxaca (Mexico), and at 1,200-1,500 m up to 3,200 m further south in its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is mostly frugivorous, annually feeding on at least 41 species in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, Costa Rica (Wheelwright 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it depends mostly on c.18 species of the laurel family (Lauraceae), and the phenologies and habitat distributions of the Lauraceae appear to dictate the timing and direction of seasonal altitudinal movements between c.1,000 and c.3,000 m (Wheelwright 1983, Loiselle <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also feeds on insects, small frogs, lizards and snails (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001). Breeding takes place in March-August. Its territory was measured at 6-10 ha in Guatemala. Its nest, in which it lays 1-2 eggs, is a deep, unlined cavity in a decaying trunk or stump. Its incubation period is 17-19 days, followed by a fledging period of 23-31 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
100600997		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
100600997		threats	eng	It is threatened largely by widespread deforestation throughout its range. The main problem for the Monteverde population is the fragmentation and destruction of forests to which it descends in the non-breeding season (Powell and Bjork 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and this is probably applicable to many populations. Some direct persecution probably still occurs, particularly in south Mexico, but this appears to have reduced (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Howell and Webb 1995a).  <p></p>
100600998		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
100600999		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001002		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>La Michilía Biosphere Reserve is one of the most important sites for the species in Mexico (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of deforestation throughout its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Conduct research into the species's breeding biology. Study the species's movements and dispersal patterns. <p></p>
106001002		distribution	eng	<em>Euptilotis neoxenus</em> occurs almost throughout the mountains of west <strong>Mexico</strong>, in Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Zacatecas, Jalisco and Michoacán states, and even sporadically within Arizona and New Mexico, <strong>USA</strong>. Until recently, it was considered very uncommon and locally distributed, but this probably stemmed from a lack of field studies in appropriate areas (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 1995 showed it to be common in primary habitat, and frequent (including nesting) in disturbed areas and riparian corridors in otherwise largely logged areas (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population is believed to be stable (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001002		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane pine, pine-oak and pine-evergreen forests (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found in the upper and middle storeys of forest, particularly along watercourses in canyons, generally at 1,800-3,000 m, being most abundant at 2,100-2,800 m. It tends to nest in riparian corridors where habitat is generally intact. During winter in Mexico, it may move into lush subtropical and tropical evergreen habitat in barrancas and canyons. It feeds on insects, including moths, and fruit, though lizards are fed to nestlings (González-Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Caterpillars and beetles are reportedly fed to its young. Pairs form in April-June, and breeding occurs in June-October, sometimes as early as April. It nests in tree cavities (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001, González-Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001002		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001002		threats	eng	Widespread forest destruction in the region may adversely affect the species through the removal of trees with suitable nesting cavities (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, a problem compounded by uncertainty over seasonal movements. Competition for cavities may be a limiting factor in breeding success (González-Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p>
106001003		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001004		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some populations are afforded protection by national parks, e.g. in the Sierra de Baoruco.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population regularly.  Effectively protect national parks holding populations of this species.  Encourage forms of agriculture which do not require forest clearance.  Discourage charcoal production in native forests. Raise awareness of the uniqueness of the species and discourage hunting.   <p></p>
106001004		distribution	eng	<em>Priotelus roseigaster</em> is endemic to <strong>Haiti, </strong>where habitat loss has been extensive (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it is now restricted to the Massifs de la Hotte and de la Selle (Woods and Ottenwalder 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> where it is still quite common, especially in the relatively undisturbed Sierra de Baoruco (S. Latta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although there has been a moderately rapid population reduction, owing to deforestation.   <em> <p></p></em>
106001004		habitat	eng	It occurs at 500-3,000 m, but there is apparently some altitudinal migration with birds observed at lower elevations in winter (Dod 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits rain, dry and pine forests, but requires large, old decayed trees for nesting (Woods and Ottenwalder 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001004		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106001004		threats	eng	Forest loss and fragmentation owing to shifting agriculture are causing a decline, particularly in moist forest areas.  Dry forests have been considerably altered by charcoal production, and even pine forests have been devastated by indiscriminate logging and clear-cutting (Schubert 1993, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In particular, recent habitat destruction along highways has caused a drastic decline of the population in the Cordillera Central, but it is occasionally seen on abandoned coffee farms and old cocoa groves in the Cordillera Septentrional (Dod 1992)<strong></strong>. The species is also subject to hunting (Keith<em> et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106001005		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001008		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001009		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its core populations occur in Corcovado National Park, Manuel Antonio National Park, Peñas Blancas Wildlife Refuge, Carara Biological Reserve, the lowlands of La Amistad International Park, and several private reserves (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001, Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Search for the species on the Caribbean slope of Panama and southern Costa Rica. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected. Encourage the restoration of lowland and middle-elevation forest.  <p></p>
106001009		distribution	eng	<em>Trogon bairdii</em> is fairly common in suitable habitat on the Pacific slope of south-west <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, but there are very few recent records in extreme west <strong>Panama</strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Angehr and Jordán 1998). There are an estimated 450-1,800 mature individuals in the Important Bird Areas of Costa Rica (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>, thus it is estimated that there are 1,000-5,000 mature individuals in total. <p></p>
106001009		habitat	eng	It is restricted to tall rainforest, and adjacent secondary growth on the forest edge, at elevations up to 1,200 m (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit and insects, and has been observed to take a small lizard (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001). Breeding takes place in April-August. Its nest is a rounded, unlined chamber with an ascending tunnel, 2-5 m up in a large decaying trunk. It lays 2-3 eggs, and has an incubation period of 16-17 days followed by a fledging period of c.25 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <p></p>
106001009		population	eng	There are an estimated 450-1,800 mature individuals in the Important Bird Areas of Costa Rica (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>, thus it is estimated that there are 1,000-5,000 mature individuals in total, probably equivalent to a total population of 1,500-7,500 individuals.
106001009		threats	eng	Extensive forest clearance, for agricultural expansion and timber extraction, has drastically reduced its habitat in Costa Rica and may have almost extirpated the species in Panama (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001). Forest clearance for cultivation and cattle pasture has been the main process driving habitat loss in the past, but more recently pressure has come from increased coastal development and clearance for extensive oil-palm and pineapple plantations (Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<p></p>
106001011		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001012		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001013		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001015		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001018		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001020		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001022		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded in Gunung Halimun and Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Parks. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species at all mountains potentially within its range to clarify its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites for designation as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Work with local authorities and relevant companies to minimise the impact of tourism and development projects on forested mountains within its range.  <p></p>
106001022		distribution	eng	<em>Apalharpactes reinwardtii </em>is known from just six forested mountains in West Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>: Gunung Halimun, Gunung Salak, Gunung Gede-Pangrango, Gunung Patuha-Tilu, Gunung Wayang and Gunung Papandayan. There are only recent records from three of these (Halimun, Salak and Gede-Pangrango). The historical range totals 11,600 km<sup>2</sup>. Although it has been stated to occur from 800-2,600 m, little forest remains below 1,000 m away from Halimun, and the species appears to be rarer at higher elevations. The only site where the species appears to be common now is Gunung Halimun, but only at lower elevations. The population size of this species may be as low as a few hundred pairs <strong></strong>(Collar and van Balen 2002).   <p></p>
106001022		habitat	eng	It appears to favour mid-montane forest, where it feeds on a variety of invertebrates taken by aerial sallying or by perch-gleaning. It also feeds on fruit and will occasionally join mixed-species flocks <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2001). <p></p>
106001022		population	eng	The population size has been estimated to be as low as a few hundred pairs. It is thus placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001022		threats	eng	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, through widespread agricultural encroachment and localised development (e.g. holiday resorts and geothermal projects), are increasing threats in the species's altitudinal range. <p></p>
106001023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001024		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of this species's habitat requirements. In particular, studies should aim to determine levels of tolerance of secondary habitats, particularly in areas where primary forests are completely removed. Repeat surveys across the range to estimate population size and trends. Improve the management of protected areas within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.   <p></p>
106001024		distribution	eng	<em>Harpactes kasumba</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>It occurs at low densities even in optimal habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
106001024		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in primary or lightly logged lowland evergreen forests. It is most abundant below 600 m, but occurs occasionally up to 1,200 m in montane dipterocarp forest on Borneo. It is also recorded in peatswamp forest, as well as logged areas and even cocoa plantations.  <p></p>
106001024		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Thailand, fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia, locally fairly common on Sumatra, rather scarce in Sarawak and uncommon in Tanjung Putting National Park, Kalimantan (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001024		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).    <p></p>
106001025		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and levels of tolerance of secondary habitats, particularly in areas where primary forests are completely removed. Repeat surveys across the range to estimate population size and trends. Improve the management of protected areas within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.   <p></p>
106001025		distribution	eng	<em>Harpactes diardii</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong></strong>  <em> </em><p></p>
106001025		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the middle and lower storeys of primary and logged evergreen forests in lowlands and hills. It is mainly found below 600 m, although there are records up to 1,200 m on Borneo. It has also been recorded from peatswamp forest, luxuriant secondary forest and even cocoa plantations (in areas with adjacent forest cover).  <p></p>
106001025		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo, uncommon in Thailand and rare in Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001025		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).    <p></p>
106001026		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001027		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carefully monitor populations at known sites in order to evaluate trends. Ensure the protection of montane forests, particularly on the lower slopes of key sites. <p></p>
106001027		distribution	eng	<em>Harpactes whiteheadi</em> is restricted to Bornean mountains, including Mt Kinabalu, Sabah, and Mt Dulit, Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Gunung Lunjut, Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is apparently uncommon everywhere and reputedly declining on Kinabalu, for unknown reasons. <em> </em><p></p>
106001027		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to primary hill and montane forest at 900-1,500 m. It frequents dark, wet and mossy areas in higher branches of the understorey.  <p></p>
106001027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon throughout its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001027		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversion in its lower elevation range may be a threat, but reasons for declines at higher elevations are unknown.  <p></p>
106001028		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys throughout the range in order to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Ensure that remaining tracts of lowland closed-canopy forest in Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia receive adequate protection. <p></p>
106001028		distribution	eng	<em>Harpactes orrhophaeus</em> is known from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
106001028		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the lower storey of humid evergreen forest to 1,500 m. In Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, it is largely restricted to closed-canopy lowland forest (up to 180 m), whilst on Borneo it occurs mainly in submontane slope forest at 1,000-1,400 m. It is predominantly recorded from tall primary forests, although there are records from logged dipterocarp forest.  <p></p>
106001028		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although possibly the commonest trogon in peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001028		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).  Populations in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia are likely to be at the most serious risk due to their local dependence on closed-canopy lowland forest. In other areas, tolerance of sloping submontane forests implies a greater level of safety from habitat loss.  <p></p>
106001029		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the range to estimate population trends and rates of range contraction. Ensure the protection of remaining tracts of primary lowland rainforest throughout the range.  <p></p>
106001029		distribution	eng	<em>Harpactes duvaucelii</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is generally abundant<strong> </strong>in appropriate forest habitats (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
106001029		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland primary and logged forests (including swamp forest, although there are no records from peatswamp) to 1,065 m.   <p></p>
106001029		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon in Thailand, common in Peninsular Malaysia and throughout lowland Borneo and considered the most numerous trogon in Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001029		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).  Although apparently intolerant of disturbance to canopy cover, the large range and high abundance of this species suggests that it is not imminently threatened.  <p></p>
106001030		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001031		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001032		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys throughout the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as evaluate population trends and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat requirements and assess levels of tolerance of habitat disturbance. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce potential hunting pressure.  <p></p>
106001032		distribution	eng	<em>Harpactes wardi</em> is known from the eastern Himalayas in <strong>China</strong> (three collected in north-west Yunnan, 1973), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (uncommon and local, although recorded regularly in recent years), <strong>India</strong> (small numbers seen recently in Arunachal Pradesh, where it is apparently local and rare), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (formerly locally common in north, but there are no recent records and it is thought to be generally uncommon) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously common on Fan Si Pan, north-west Tonkin, but there are no recent records despite intensive searching) (BirdLife International 2001).  <em> </em><p></p>
106001032		habitat	eng	This species is found in the lower storey, undergrowth and bamboo of tall broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,500 and 3,200 m, perhaps moving to lower elevations during the cold season, down to c.1,220 m in some areas.   <p></p>
106001032		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001032		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest clearance and degradation in much of its range, particularly through subsistence logging and shifting cultivation. It is also probably susceptible to hunting, at least in South-East Asia.  <p></p>
106001033		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. Bonn Convention Appendix II. Inter<span style="">national</span><span style=""><span style=""> Species Action Plan in place</span> (Kovacs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). <span style=""><span style="">A number of national monitoring schemes within its range and has been the focus of targeted study. Species action plans have been developed in Hungary, Latvia, and Andalusia (Spain); similar documents are being drafted in Slovakia and Catalonia (Spain). Working groups present in Austria, Belarus, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Serbia and Slovakia.<br/><br/></span><strong style="">Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style="">Continue monitoring population trends. Determine Turkish, Middle Eastern and Central Asian trends and review its conservation status based on the findings. Tackle specific threats such as hunting. Address threats in Europe relating to the Common Agricultural Policy and integrate appropriate measures into agri-environment schemes. </span><p></p></span>
106001033		distribution	eng	<em>Coracias garrulus</em> occurs as two subspecies: the nominate breeds from <strong>Morocco</strong>, south-west and south-central Europe and Asia Minor east through north-west <strong>Iran </strong>to south-west Siberia (<strong>Russia</strong>); and <em>semenowi</em>, which breeds in <strong>Iraq </strong>and Iran (except north-west) east to Kashmir and north to <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, south <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>and north-west <strong>China </strong>(west Sinkiang). The species overwinters in two distinct regions of Africa, from <strong>Senegal </strong>east to <strong>Cameroon </strong>and from <strong>Ethiopia </strong>west to <strong>Congo </strong>and south to <strong>South Africa</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001). It has a large global population, including an estimated 100,000-220,000 individuals in Europe (50-74% of the global breeding range) (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. However, following a moderate decline during 1970-1990 (Tucker and Heath 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the species has continued to decline by up to 25% across Europe during 1990-2000 (including in key populations in Turkey and European Russia) (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Overall European declines exceeded 30% in three generations (15 years). Populations in northern Europe have undergone severe declines (Estonia: 50-100 pairs in 1998 to no known breeding pairs in 2004 [A. Kalamees <em>in litt</em>. 2005], Latvia: several thousand to under 30 pairs in 2004 [E. Raèinskis <em>in litt</em>. 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Lithuania: 1,000-2,000 pairs in 1970s to 20 pairs in 2004 [L. Raudonikis <em>in litt</em>. 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and in Russia it has now disappeared from the northern part of its range (A. Mischenko <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there is no evidence of any declines in Central Asia. Should these populations be shown to be declining, the species may warrant uplisting further to Vulnerable. <p></p>
106001033		habitat	eng	The European Roller breeds throughout temperate, steppe and Mediterranean zones characterized by reliable warm summer weather. It prefers lowland open countryside with patches of oak <em>Quercus </em>forest, mature pine <em>Pinus </em>woodland with heathery clearings, orchards, mixed farmland, river valleys, and plains with scattered thorny or leafy trees. It winters primarily in dry wooded savanna and bushy plains (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Europe, the species mainly breeds in abandoned Green Woodpecker <em>Picus viridis</em> cavities in white poplar <em>Populus alba</em>, especially in riparian forests, less often in <em>Salix </em>spp., or infrequently in natural cavities of planes <em>Platanus orientalis</em>, walls or sand-banks (Tron <em>et al.</em> 2006, Poole <em>et al.</em> in prep). They mostly forage in agricultural habitats, especially meadows (May and August) and in cereals in June-July. Fallow land is always favoured. Vineyards can be attractive if the soil keeps some vegetation cover (Tron <em>et al.</em> 2006, Poole <em>et al.</em> in prep)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hedgerows (as well as fences and powerlines) are essential perches while looking for prey (Tron <em>et al.</em> 2006, <strong></strong>Poole <em>et al.</em> in prep).<br/><p></p>
106001033		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 53000-110000 breeding pairs, equating to 159000-330000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population si
106001033		threats	eng	Threats include persecution on migration in some Mediterranean countries and hundreds, perhaps thousands, are shot for food in <strong>Oman</strong> every spring (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>, and Gujarat, <strong>India</strong>. The loss of suitable breeding habitat due to changing agricultural  practice<span style="">s, conversion to monoculture, loss of nest sites, and use of pesticides (reducing food  availability) are considered to be the main threats to the species in  Europe</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Kovacs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008; E. Raèinskis <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<span style=""><span style=""></span>.<span style=""><span style=""> It is sensitive to loss of hedgerows and riparian forest in Europe which provide essential habitats for perching and nesting.</span><br/><br/><br/><span style=""></span><p></p></span></span>
106001034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to frequent throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant, common or frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001036		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally frequent, even abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant to common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common in Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001040		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001043		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; &lt; c.100,000 breeding   pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106001044		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is currently only one protected area in North Maluku, Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve on Bacan, although this site is seriously threatened by agricultural encroachment and gold prospecting. One large area on Halmahera has recently been designated as a national park: the 167,300 ha Lalobata/Ake Tajawe NP. Another protected area at Gunung Gamkonora has also been proposed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its current distribution, quantify population size and elucidate trends. Establish, and subsequently manage, a national park on Halmahera, embracing habitat at Lalobata and Ake Tajawe. Establish a wildlife sanctuary at Gunung Gamkonora. Lobby for reduced logging in North Maluku and conduct awareness campaigns to minimise forest destruction on Halmahera. <p></p>
106001044		distribution	eng	<em>Eurystomus</em> <em>azureus</em> is endemic to North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from Halmahera, Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta and Bacan (BirdLife International 2001). It was originally considered uncommon, but the paucity of records during recent fieldwork suggests that it is now rare throughout its range, having undergone a substantial decline on Halmahera, where the bulk of the population survives.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001044		habitat	eng	It is resident in primary lowland and foothill-forest, including edges and selectively logged areas, occasionally in adjacent coconut groves, up to 600 m. Despite its use of clearings it appears to be sensitive to high levels of degradation. It is being replaced in cultivated areas by its widespread relative <em>E. orientalis</em>. <p></p>
106001044		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001044		threats	eng	This species is primarily threatened by habitat loss. Since the early 1990s (when it was reported that c.90% of the total area of Halmahera remained forested), clearance and fragmentation of forest has accelerated dramatically. Exploitation of economically valuable trees is now widespread and intensive, with most remaining forest under timber concession. In addition, habitat is under pressure from increased settlement and transmigration, conversion to agriculture, plantations, irrigation schemes, fuelwood-collection and mineral extraction. Given the predilection of this species for low elevations, and the fact that it is apparently outcompeted in cleared areas by <em>E. orientalis</em>, these threats are particularly alarming.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001045		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in 23 Important Bird Areas (77% of the total in eastern Malagasy forest) and is found in nine National Parks, two Strict Reserves, three Special Reserves and six Classified Forests (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys in order to estimate the population size. Compare survey data collected from protected and unprotected areas (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Improve the management of the eastern humid forests, especially the control of fires used in slash-and-burn cultivation. Pursue further ecological studies to determine its home-range size and its dispersal capability across deforested areas, in order to clarify the impact of forest fragmentation on its population structure. Conduct research into the level of hunting pressure on the species.  <p></p>
106001045		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypteracias leptosomus</em> is fairly common within its restricted habitat of low- and mid-altitude primary forests in eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from Daraina forest in the north to Andohahela in the south (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is the most localised of the rainforest ground-rollers (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001045		habitat	eng	This secretive species is found solely in undisturbed, primary rainforest (Thorstrom and Lind 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the upper part of its altitudinal range it occurs only where trees are large (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers forest with dark, humid areas, a moderate ground cover of herbaceous, mossy vegetation, and deep leaf-litter (Thorstrom and Lind 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The least terrestrial of the rainforest ground-roller species, it spends much time perched 2-15 m above ground on horizontal branches, searching for prey (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992; Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates (90%), often terrestrial, and also small vertebrates (10%) (Langrand 1990; Thorstrom and Lind 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in tree cavities and the root masses of epiphytes, often around 20 m above the ground (Thorstrom and Lind 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The home range of one pair was 19 ha<strong></strong>, occurring at 5-200 m; pairs occupied contiguous territories in this undisturbed habitat (Thorstrom and Lind 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species appears able to re-nest rapidly after natural nest failure (Thorstrom and Lind 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001045		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001045		threats	eng	The principal threat to its forest habitat is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the forest on the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is highly degraded<strong></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas (Jenkins 1987; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining unprotected forest, especially at the lower altitudes preferred by this species, will disappear within decades (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also hunted (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001046		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is known from the following protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Betampona Strict Reserve, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Mananara-North National Park, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park, Midongy-South National Park, Ramanofana National Park, Tsitongambarika Classified Forest, Vondrozo Classified Forest and Zahamena National Park (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its home-range size and its dispersal capability across deforested areas, in order to clarify the impact of forest fragmentation on its population structure. Carry out surveys in order to estimate its population size. Compare relative abundance and densities in protected and unprotected habitat (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Assess the potential threats from domestic dogs and hunting pressure. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106001046		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypteracias squamiger</em> is found only below 1,000&#160;m and thus is one of the few true lowland rainforest species in <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It occurs in lowland forest throughout the eastern rainforest belt from Marojejy south to Andohahela. However, there is much less lowland forest in the southern part of this belt (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001046		habitat	eng	This species seems to prefer low-altitude areas of undisturbed, primary rainforest with damp soils, dark and tangled undergrowth, low herbaceous vegetation and a layer of leaf-litter and branches (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates, chiefly earthworms but also snails, centipedes, spiders, ants and beetles, and more rarely small vertebrates (e.g. frogs) (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in a tunnel, dug in a bank or slope in the forest, between October and January.<p></p>
106001046		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. The true population size may lie at the upper end of this estimate, as the species is described as fairly common.
106001046		threats	eng	The principal threat to its forest habitat is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the forest on the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is highly degraded<strong></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup></sup></strong> and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas (Jenkins 1987; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining unprotected forest, especially at the lower altitudes where this species is more abundant, will disappear within decades (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by village dogs and hunting for food are possibly threats (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001047		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Madagascar.
106001047		habitat	eng	The species occurs in humid evergreen forest in the east, in the Sambirano region of the north-west and on the high plateau, up to 2,000 m (Langrand 1990). It is found mainly in primary forest but there are records from degraded forest and plantations near primary forest. A terrestrial species, it feeds among dead leaves where there is sparse ground cover and takes invertebrates and small chameleons (Langrand 1990).
106001047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but patchily distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001047		threats	eng	The ongoing destruction and fragmentation of its forest habitat (for subsistence agriculture), with attendant increased levels of hunting, is likely to intensify in the future.
106001048		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in at least 12 protected areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain data on density and thus a total population estimate. Monitor rates of habitat clearance and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected.   <p></p>
106001048		distribution	eng	<em>Atelornis crossleyi</em> is found in the more humid highland areas of the evergreen forest belt of eastern <strong>Madagascar (</strong>ZICOMA 1999), from Tsaratanana south to Andohahela. It has a larger population and wider distribution than was once thought (A. F. A. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 1995; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001048		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid parts of lowland to high-altitude rainforest, occurring from sea-level to 2,000 m, and is at its most common between 1,250 and 1,750 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is predominantly a terrestrial feeder, taking a variety of invertebrates. Breeding may take place in December-January. The nest burrow is 0.3-0.5 m long and is excavated in a sloping earth bank. Its clutch-size has been recorded as two (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001048		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified. Further research is required.
106001048		threats	eng	The species's habitat is threatened by slash-and-burn cultivation (Du Puy and Moat 1996; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it is not as affected as species that are restricted to lowland forests, which are under the greatest threat (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increased hunting could seriously impact this species.  <p></p>
106001049		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The spiny forest of south-west Madagascar has been identified as the biogeographical region in greatest need of additional reserves nationally (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong></strong>. The northern part of this region, to which the species is restricted, is entirely unprotected (Morris and Hawkins 1998; Seddon 2001),<strong></strong> and is suffering the most rapid degradation (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Potential conservation measures have recently been recommended for the area, designed in consultation with local communities (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong>.</strong> <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat clearance. Establish a coordinated network of community-based conservation areas, including a large protected area (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve agricultural efficiency and control charcoal production. <p></p>
106001049		distribution	eng	<em>Uratelornis chimaera</em> is restricted to a narrow coastal strip, originally 30-60 km wide and 200 km long, in south-western <strong>Madagascar</strong> between the Fiherenana and Mangoky rivers. In its habitat it is uncommon, occurring at population densities of about 0.008-0.1 individuals per ha (N. Seddon and J. Tobias <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although such habitat is threatened in the north-central, eastern and southern parts of this species's range, there is a fairly large intact block north of Manombo (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2000, the total population was estimated to be 10,000-20,000 individuals (N. Seddon and J. Tobias <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A total population estimate of 21,124 (95% CI: 9,487-32,687) mature individuals was calculated from a tentative estimate of the species's density at 5.7 (95% CI: 2.6-8.8) mature adults per km<sup>2</sup> from transect surveys in 1999 and an estimate of 3,706 km<sup>2</sup> of remaining habitat (Seddon and Tobias 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001049		habitat	eng	This terrestrial species inhabits semi-arid deciduous forest (Seddon and Tobias 2007, undated)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong><sup></sup></strong>on a sandy substrate<strong></strong> and of a low stature (4-6 m), and sparse coastal scrub, from sea-level to 80 m. The species shows a preferrence for slightly and even heavily degraded habitats (Seddon and Tobias 2007, undated)<strong></strong>. It is tolerant of disturbance by livestock, having been observed in extremely degraded forest close to villages (N. Seddon and J. Tobias <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Although it is largely terrestrial, this insectivorous species roosts in trees and shrubs, and vocalises from low perches (Seddon and Tobias undated)<strong></strong>. It appears to be socially monogamous and defends small territories around nest-holes during the breeding season. The nest-holes lead to long burrows which are dug at an angle into the flat sand. It occurs in family groups containing one to four juveniles immediately after fledging, but is otherwise solitary in the dry season and lives in pairs after the first rains in October-November (Seddon and Tobias undated)<strong></strong>. Breeding peaks in November (Seddon 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001049		population	eng	A total population estimate of 21,124 (with a 95% confidence interval of 9,487-32,687) mature individuals (roughly equivalent to 30,000-35,000 total individuals) was calculated from a tentative estimate of the species's density at 5.7 (95% CI: 2.6-8.8) mature adults km<SUP>-2</SUP> from transect surveys in 1999 and an estimate of 3,706 km<SUP>2</SUP> of remaining habitat. The 95% confidence intervals are taken as the upper and lower range estimates for the population.
106001049		threats	eng	Overall, primary-forest cover has declined by 15.6% between 1962 and 1999, although in the central part of this species's range, it has declined by c.28% (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000; N. Seddon and J. Tobias <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such clearance is mainly for slash-and-burn cultivation of maize and for charcoal production (both are increasing; Seddon 2001), and more locally for construction material and commercial timber (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the species prefers degraded habitat<strong></strong>, it does not occupy completely deforested land (Seddon and Tobias 2007, undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by dogs and trappers occurs, and introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> may pose a threat, at least locally (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in suitable habitat and elsewhere patchily distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001051		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001052		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001053		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001054		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are several protected areas where it has previously been recorded, but there are very few with recent sightings and information on remaining habitat is often lacking. The exceptions are Belize (Miller and Miller 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Guatemala (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where the majority of populations are within reserves. However, protected areas in Guatemala face threats owing to management deficiencies (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey remaining forest to assess the species's status. Survey all historical sites and those with recent reports, such as in Guatemala and Honduras, the Honduras-Nicaragua border area, the extensive Atlantic forest areas of Nicaragua and the region around Lake Arenal, Monteverde and Rincón de la Vieja, Costa Rica (Miller and Miller 1996). Gather all ad-hoc sightings of the species and encourage the submission of records. Use survey data and sightings to estimate the total population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation at known and potential localities. Improve management of protected areas in Guatemala.  <p></p>
106001054		distribution	eng	<em>Electron carinatum</em> has been recorded at a relatively small number of localities scattered over an extensive range in Central America, generally on the Caribbean slope of south <strong>Mexico</strong>, south <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, north and central <strong>Honduras</strong>, north-central <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, and north-central <strong>Costa Rica</strong> (Miller and Miller 1996, AOU 1998,&#160;M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Records of two individuals from La Tirimbina, Costa Rica, in February 2004 may be the southernmost for this species (R. Garrigues <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most records have been of pairs or single birds, and it has been recorded only once at most localities. The exceptions to this are recent observations in Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica but, even at these sites, it occurs at a very low density and is generally considered rare to uncommon (Miller and Miller 1996, Eisermann 2005, J. E. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). In Belize, records are concentrated in the southern Greater Maya Mountain region of the country (B.W. and C. M. Miller<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and most populations are small and many are significantly isolated (Miller and Miller 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Costa Rica, there have been several recent records, mostly in Volcán Arenal area, from private reserves and the national park (J. E. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, R. Garrigues <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to have declined in range in Mexico and parts of Guatemala, and there are very few recent records in Mexico (Gómez de Silva 2002, H. Gómez de Silva<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Mixed pairs of <em>E. carinatum</em> and Broad-billed Motmot <em>Electron platyrhynchum</em> have been documented in Costa Rica (J. E. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>R. Garrigues <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong> with records at three different sites in the Arenal area (R. Garrigues <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001054		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid lowland and montane forest up to 760 m, but there are three records at 1,220-1,555 m in Honduras (Miller and Miller 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Costa Rica, it is restricted to foothill and adjacent lowland primary and old secondary forests (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J. E. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). In Belize, it has been recorded most densely in an area of steep terrain intersected by many seasonal streams (Miller and Miller 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests in Costa Rica have been found in road and trail banks (J. E. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001054		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001054		threats	eng	In Mexico, all suitable habitat is being cleared at an alarming rate, and in Costa Rica the foothills have been heavily deforested since 1980 (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most habitat loss is the result of human settlement and conversion to subsistence agriculture, especially banana plantations. In Costa Rica, most of the habitat lost has been cut during logging activities, and following this the cleared land has been used for cattle grazing and subsequently converted to extensive pineapple plantations (J. E. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). Protected areas where the species occurs in Guatemala are threatened by forest fires, illegal logging and conversion to agriculture (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Its habitat in Guatemala is generally threatened by clearance for small-scale cultivation, large-scale cattle farming and banana plantations, driven by a rapidly growing human population (K. Eisermann<em> in litt</em>. 2007). In Belize, at present there are no immediate threats or human population centres in the area in which the species's population is concentrated (B.W. and C. M. Miller<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001055		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001058		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001062		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001063		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001065		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys throughout its range to clarify its current population status, as well as assess population trends and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat associations and potential threats. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat. Enforce laws against river pollution where applicable. Strengthen legislation against aquatic pollution throughout the species's range.  <p></p>
106001065		distribution	eng	<em>Alcedo hercules</em> occurs in southern <strong>China</strong> (rare), eastern Nepal<strong> </strong>(vagrant), <strong>Bhutan </strong>(rare), north-east <strong>India </strong>(rare), Bangladesh<strong> </strong>(vagrant), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(scarce to fairly common in the north, west and south), north-west <strong>Thailand</strong> (very rare visitor), <strong>Laos </strong>(uncommon to locally common in the north and Annamite mountains, scarce further south) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (locally fairly common in west Tonkin and Annam). Given its linear distribution along rivers, and thus restricted Extent of Occurrence, the total population size is possibly moderately small. <em> <p></p></em>
106001065		habitat	eng	This species is found along streams in evergreen forest and adjacent open country at 200-1,200 m, mainly 400-1,000 m.   <p></p>
106001065		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, although the population in China has   been estimated at fewer than 100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001065		threats	eng	This species is still widespread at low densities within its historical range, although deforestation is reducing and fragmenting its habitat, and human disturbance and river pollution are possibly also threats.   <p></p>
106001066		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &lt; c.600,000 individuals (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001), while national population estimates include:   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in   Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106001067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001068		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but seldom common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread in the north of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001071		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct line-transects along rivers of varying size, water velocity, water turbidity, altitude and surrounding habitat. Survey all lowland lakes on New Britain. Investigate ecological separation from <em>A. atthis</em>. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across the Bismarcks. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Enforce regulations protecting river courses in logging concessions. Encourage designation of large community-based conservation areas. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging. <p></p>
106001071		distribution	eng	<em>Alcedo websteri</em> is endemic to New Britain, New Ireland and the nearby islands of Umboi, New Hanover and Lihir in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are few records of this species, all of single birds or a pair, but it was recorded on all five islands in 1997 (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is also one sight record from Feni (I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to occur along most suitable rivers, but many rivers are too fast or too large on these mountainous islands. <p></p>
106001071		habitat	eng	This kingfisher inhabits small relatively slow-flowing rivers in lowland forest, sometimes in patchy degraded forest and logged forest (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. It has been recorded down to sea-level but its upper altitudinal limit may be only a few hundred metres (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967)<strong></strong>. It appears to be replaced by Common Kingfisher <em>A. atthis</em> along large sluggish rivers, mangroves and most lakes and is replaced by Variable Kingfisher <em>Ceyx lepidus</em> along smaller streams (Dutson 2011). It may occur beside forest-fringed lakes - there is one such record from Lake Hargy (Clay 1994)<strong></strong>, but no records from lakes with marshy or reedbed margins. <p></p>
106001071		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001071		threats	eng	Its dependence on extreme lowland forest renders it susceptible to habitat changes from the extensive logging and forest clearance across its range. Large areas of New Britain have been, or are scheduled to be, clear-felled for oil-palm plantations, 25% of suitable habitat has been cleared there in the last 12 years <strong></strong>(Buchanan <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it has been recorded from degraded habitats, it is likely to be affected by sediment run-off from logged and cleared areas into rivers. <p></p>
106001072		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded within various protected areas within its range, including Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Gunung Palung and Kutai National Parks, Kalimantan, Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Endau-Rompin and Taman Negara National Parks, Malaysia, and was recently reported from Gunung Halimun National Park, Java (B. Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Address the species as a key target during surveys, and research its range and ecological requirements, perhaps targeting the species through mist-netting above forest streams (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Formulate a management strategy for this species and a suite of other Sundaic birds largely reliant on lowland forest. Lobby for effective management of existing protected areas in the Sundaic region and for the expansion of the protected area network.  <p></p>
106001072		distribution	eng	<em>Alcedo euryzona</em> ranges from southern <strong>Myanmar</strong> (Tenasserim), through peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> to <strong>Malaysia</strong> (including Sabah and Sarawak on Borneo), <strong>Brunei</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java (where apparently the only record since the 1930s is a report of one seen in Gunung Halimun National Park in June 2009 [B. Cox <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009]) (<strong>Indonesia</strong>) (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally thinly distributed, being locally fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia and on Borneo, rare in Myanmar and Java (with apparently no records for over 70 years), and uncommon in Thailand and Sumatra. It may be under-recorded owing to its shy behaviour and often remote habitat (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001072		habitat	eng	It is generally sedentary on rocky or slow-flowing streams and larger rivers running through forest (usually humid evergreen, but also back-mangroves and mixed dipterocarp-dominated forest), most commonly in the lowlands, but ascending locally to at least 1,250 m (820 in Peninsular Malaysia). It is predominantly piscivorous, also consuming crustaceans, insects and small reptiles. Breeding has been recorded in February-June. <p></p>
106001072		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106001072		threats	eng	Huge areas of lowland forest were removed from the range of this species during the 20th century. For example, rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), owing to a variety of factors, including the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). A similar scenario (or indeed worse in the case of Thailand and Java) faces all other range states and islands. Its occupation of hill streams, however, provides some hope that it will survive in this relatively secure habitat. <p></p>
106001073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001074		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are post-1990 records from two protected areas, Rajah Sikatuna National Park, Bohol and Agusan Marsh, Mindanao. There are pre-1980 records from two further protected areas, Siargao Island and Mt Apo Natural Park, Mindanao, and also northern Dinagat Island, which is a priority site for conservation funding. There were recent sightings at Lituban Quipit Watershed and there is a pending DENR proposal to have this IBA declared as a national protected area <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Meanwhile, 627,631 ha of lowland forest watersheds, which are likely habitats for the species, were declared through Presidential Proclamation as protected watersheds <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). While populations in Pasonanca (10,560 ha; Zamboanga City) and Malagos Watersheds (235 ha, Davao City) are well protected by armed guards patrolling the watershed, doubts remain over how well these sites are managed and protected <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Current laws protecting riverine habitats are weak and require revision.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its current distribution and population status. Investigate factors affecting river pollution and determine its dependency on high-quality watercourses. Establish further protected areas at other key lowland sites (e.g. Mt Cabalantian/Capoto-an on Samar, Mt Lobi on Leyte, and Mts Dapiak, Sugarloaf, Piapayungan, Diwata and Mayo on Mindanao). Encourage the legal and practical protection of riparian habitats. <p></p>
106001074		distribution	eng	<em>Alcedo argentata</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where its two distinct populations occur on Samar, Leyte and Bohol (<em>A. a. flumenicola</em>), and Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao and Basilan (<em>A. a. argentata</em>) (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Formerly widespread and locally common, a comparison of pre-1970 and more recent records indicate a decline throughout its range. Since 1980, there have been documented observations from only c.10 sites confined to east Mindanao, Bohol and Leyte, although there are also recent sightings from the Zamboanga Peninsula, particularly within the Lituban-Quipit Watershed IBA. It is shy and inconspicuous and very likely under-recorded. Nevertheless, remaining areas of lowland forest with clear streams are very limited. <p></p>
106001074		habitat	eng	It appears to be reliant upon forested streams below 1,000 m (with one record from 1,120-1,350 m). It will tolerate secondary and selectively logged forest and even streamside vegetation within coconut plantations, close to forest edge, but terminalia and sago are the principal forest types where the highest densities were recorded during mist-netting in 2002-2003 <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It breeds in riverside banks and is apparently sedentary. <p></p>
106001074		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001074		threats	eng	Extensive lowland deforestation throughout its range is the chief threat. Only 4% forest cover is estimated to remain on Bohol. Most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions or mining applications. Watercourses with high siltation loads, resulting from deforestation, appear not to hold the species, and riverine pollution is likely to have a similar impact. Tree-cutting, agricultural expansion, including pesticide (specifically Carbofuran) contamination from commercial growing of banana, and soil erosion are all threats to Rajah Sikatuna National Park (Bohol) and forest at Bislig (Mindanao) is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Both are key sites for the species. Conversion of terminalia forest into rice fields and oil palm plantation is driving habitat loss elsewhere. <p></p>
106001076		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001079		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001080		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001081		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001083		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce, although easily overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001084		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce, although easily overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from several areas offering varying degrees of protection, including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and Bicol and Quezon National Parks (all on Luzon), and Polillo Watershed Forest Reserve. It is also recorded regularly in Pasonanca Natural Park, Alabat Watershed Forest Reserve and Aurora Memorial National Park (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There are also pre-1970 records from sites now within Mt Isarog and Mt Makiling National Parks, the Basilan Natural Biotic Area and the watershed reserve at Mt Hilong-hilong (Mindanao); protected areas that may supply some protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify remaining significant lowland forest tracts throughout its range. Comprehensively survey these sites, particularly those with pre-1980 records, to clarify its current distribution and status and provide data for further designation of key lowland sites as protected areas. Support the designation of central Catanduanes as a watershed reserve. Promote the effective protection of remaining lowland forest in the Northern Sierra Madre Mountains Natural Park. <p></p>
106001085		distribution	eng	<em>Ceyx melanurus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Alabat, Catanduanes, Tablas, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao and Basilan (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). There are records from c.60 sites, with documented observations from c.20 since 1980, mostly on Luzon but also Polillo, Catanduanes, Leyte and Mindanao. It appears to be generally scarce or rare, but it is secretive and difficult to observe and consequently may be under-recorded. <p></p>
106001085		habitat	eng	It is a lowland specialist, inhabiting forest understorey and secondary growth from sea-level to 750 m. Although it frequents watercourses, mainly small streams, probably for foraging, any association with them appears to be no more incidental than obligate. It appears to prefer regions of high rainfall (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106001085		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106001085		threats	eng	Extensive lowland deforestation on all islands in its range is the main threat. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon has declined by 83% since the 1930s. Most remaining lowland forest that is not afforded protection is leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Specific threats at key sites with recent records include illegal logging at Angat Dam (Luzon) and forest clearance under a concession at Bislig (Mindanao) for replacement with exotic trees for paper production. Typhoons on Catanduanes, in 1987 and 1996, destroyed large areas of forest and augmented flooding and silting of watercourses. <p></p>
106001086		conservation	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/></strong><strong style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys throughout the species's range to determine its current status and assess population trends. Conduct ecological studies to identify its precise habitat requirements and response to habitat degradation or fragmentation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status and safeguard against logging and agricultural encroachment.  <p></p>
106001086		distribution	eng	<em>Ceyx fallax</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>fallax</em>) and the neighbouring Sangihe and Talaud islands (race <em>sangirensis</em>), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is generally uncommon, although possibly more numerous in parts of Sulawesi, e.g. Panua Nature Reserve <strong></strong>(Riley <em>et al</em>. 2003). It may be extinct on Sangihe as a result of habitat loss.<em> </em><p></p>
106001086		habitat	eng	This species inhabits drier primary lowland forest (not associated with water) up to 1,000 m, chiefly c.600 m. It is also recorded from tall secondary and selectively logged forest.  <p></p>
106001086		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as generally scarce.
106001086		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades through logging and conversion to agriculture, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline.  <p></p>
106001087		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widely distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001088		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common, although uncommon at the periphery of its range (Fry et al. 1993).
106001089		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001090		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in suitable habitats (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001094		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001095		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001096		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to identify its habitat requirements and response to habitat degradation. Repeat surveys throughout the range in order to assess population trends. Assess the taxonomic status of the two subspecies, taking into account significant differences in plumage and vocalisations. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106001096		distribution	eng	<em>Cittura cyanotis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>cyanotis</em>) and the neighbouring Sangihe and Talaud islands (race <em>sanghirensis</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Its distribution is apparently fragmented, with no records from south Sulawesi, and it is generally uncommon. <em> </em><p></p>
106001096		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and tall secondary lowland forest and drier hill forest, up to 850 m on Sangihe and to 1,000 m on Sulawesi. It has also been recorded using mixed plantations and crops.   <p></p>
106001096		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is considered uncommon to relatively common. More research is required.
106001096		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline.  <p></p>
106001097		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys throughout the range to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining mature mangrove forest. <p></p>
106001097		distribution	eng	<em>Pelargopsis amauropterus </em>has a coastal distribution in north-east <strong>India</strong> (locally common in West Bengal, rare elsewhere), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (locally common), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(fairly common to locally common resident in the south-west and Tenasserim), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (uncommon to locally fairly common on the west coast) and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (fairly common but restricted to islands of the north-west) (BirdLife International 2001). Despite being locally common, its total population may not be very large within this highly linear distribution, as it is largely limited to areas of mangrove, creeks and tidal rivers. <em> </em><p></p>
106001097		habitat	eng	It is usually restricted to coasts, favouring mangroves (particularly dense, old growth forests with large trees [BirdLife International 2001, A. K. Nayak <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008]), but also frequenting creeks and tidal rivers, although it has been recorded occasionally far inland.   <p></p>
106001097		population	eng	There is no data available on population size, although it is possibly not very large; the species is considered rare to fairly common across its range.
106001097		threats	eng	This species is likely to be negatively affected by the on-going clearance and degradation of mangroves in South-East Asia.  <p></p>
106001098		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be widespread and generally sparse but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001099		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally sparse but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001100		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally rare and uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;  &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106001101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in suitable habitats (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001102		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 90-170 breeding pairs, equating to 270-510   individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming &lt;5% of the   global range. National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000   breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil   2009).
106001103		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent and common to uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.50   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan and   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in   Korea (Brazil 2009).
106001104		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001105		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001107		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001109		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001110		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001111		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable habitats for the species. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106001111		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus nigrocyaneus</em> is a little-known species of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and the adjacent islands of Salawati, Batanta and Yapen. There are only three recent records from Papua New Guinea: from Morehead (Trans-Fly), Madang and Lakekamu<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bellchambers <em>et al.</em> 1994, I. Burrows <em>in litt. </em>1994, Mack 1998)<strong></strong>, although it may be more common in Papua (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong> where it was reported from Nimbokrang near Jayapura (Eastwood 1996)<strong></strong>. It appears to be inexplicably rare.<em> <p></p></em>
106001111		habitat	eng	It is known from few scattered records from streams, swamps and ponds in forest to 600 m.  <p></p>
106001111		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered scarce to common across its range. More research is required.
106001111		threats	eng	It may be threatened by logging, particularly of lowland swamp forests, and the consequential decline in water quality. <p></p>
106001112		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from areas afforded varying degrees of protection, including Mt Guitinguitin on Sibuyan, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol and the tiny Central Cebu National Park on Cebu. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. Kansas University plan to conduct a complete inventory of forest vertebrates in the Pasonanca Watershed Area in Zamboanga City in early 2008 <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its current distribution and status. Research its ecological preferences to improve understanding of its conservation needs and facilitate development of appropriate protection measures. Seek clarification of the proposal for conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. <p></p>
106001112		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus winchelli</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is widely distributed throughout the Visayas, Mindanao and the Sulus (BirdLife International 2001). Formerly described as locally common to fairly abundant, recent records derive from c.15 widely scattered localities, on Sibuyan, Masbate, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Cebu, Siquijor, Tablas, eastern Mindanao, and three of the Sulu islands. A very small population was recently discovered on Camiguin Sur (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Although a comparison of historical and recent records suggests a decline, it was still locally common on the Sulu islands in the mid-1990s and common at Bislig (Mindanao) in 1997. However, it appears rare at other sites, some of which are likely to hold only relict populations. Total numbers seem likely to be small, although records since 2005 in a 235-ha forest block in the Malagos watershed suggest that it may survive in other lowland remnant forest blocks in Mindanao <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The largely intact and well protected Pasonanca Watershed Area in Zamboanga City may hold a sizeable population <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106001112		habitat	eng	It occurs on small islands and coastal lowland sites and also inland foothills, locally up to 1,000&#160;m (on Mindanao). However, the factors governing its distribution, including its association with freshwater, remain uncertain. Evidence suggests that it prefers forest on limestone, which makes it tolerant of open and more degraded forest. Alternatively, it may simply prefer large trees, which are now largely confined to limestone areas unsuitable for cultivation. One nest was found in an old arboreal termite nest (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001112		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001112		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation throughout its range must be the main threat, particularly given its apparent preference for lowland areas. The two sites where it has recently been described as common are severely threatened, Bislig from illegal logging and clearance for re-planting with exotic trees for paper production and Tawitawi and the neighbouring Sulu islands by rapid, near total clearance of primary forests and plans to replace even those remaining with oil-palm plantations. Illegal logging threatens the key site of Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol. <p></p>
106001113		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001114		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed studies of its ecological requirements, including habitat associations, in order to understand its scarcity in many apparently suitable areas. Conduct repeated surveys of sites throughout the range in order to monitor population trends. Assess the threat posed by trapping pressure. If found to be a significant threat, try to reduce trapping pressure through education and awareness campaigns.<br/><p></p>
106001114		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus lazuli</em> occurs in <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is restricted to the island of Seram, as well as small adjacent islands of Ambon and Haruku (BirdLife International 2001). Although it is common in some areas, it is sparsely distributed and absent from many sites with apparently suitable habitat <strong></strong>(Poulsen 2004). It occurs largely on the coast, and is apparently absent from much of the interior of Seram.  <em> </em><p></p>
106001114		habitat	eng	This species is recorded from forest edges, secondary growth and cleared areas with scattered trees (habitat that is gradually increasing in extent). Many recent records also come from open farmland, and there are apparently no records from the interior of primary forest <strong></strong>(Poulsen 2004). It nests in arboreal termite nests, many of which are now found in coconut plantations <strong></strong>(Poulsen 2004).  <p></p>
106001114		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered uncommon to locally common. More research is required.
106001114		threats	eng	Despite fears that it might be suffering from habitat loss, this species appears to thrive in heavily degraded coastal habitats. However, it remains scarce and patchily distributed, and is potentially declining due to localised pressure from trapping <strong></strong>(Poulsen 2004).  <p></p>
106001115		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001116		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the islands. <p></p>
106001116		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus albonotatus</em> is endemic to New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it appears to be a scarce species (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, Clay 1994, K.D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998<strong></strong>, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. This species appears to have a small total population and may prove to be threatened if it proves to be poorly tolerant of logged forest.<em> <p></p></em>
106001116		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary and tall secondary forest to c.1,000 m. It is not known to what extent it is tolerant of logged forest.  <p></p>
106001116		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001116		threats	eng	On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports. On that island, nearly 15% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 15 years, and this trend is on-going (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106001117		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001118		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Vanuatu law. It occurs in the two protected areas on Santo: Big Bay and Loru (Bowen 1997, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Malo and Malakula. Survey Santo to ascertain its distribution and abundance. Determine habitat and altitudinal requirements. Determine tolerance of logged forest. Ascertain extent of remaining closed-canopy lowland forest. Monitor numbers at Loru and Big Bay protected areas through annual aural surveys. Assess effects of cattle and pig browsing by monitoring in a large fenced-off sector of Loru Protected Area. Advocate creation of forest reserves on each major island. <p></p>
106001118		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus farquhari</em> is endemic to Espiritu Santo, Malo, Aore and Malakula in <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. It was reported to be fairly widely distributed on all these islands in 2004-2005 (N. Barre <em>in litt. </em>2007, S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. On Santo, the population density was estimated at c.7-17 calling birds per km<sup>2</sup> at Loru Protected Area (Bowen 1997)<strong></strong>, and the species is still considered "fairly common in suitable habitat" (Dutson 2011), but birds appear to be less common at Big Bay Protected Area and perhaps elsewhere (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. Though it is not hard to find in suitable habitat, numbers are believed to have declined on the east coast of Santo owing to habitat loss (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001118		habitat	eng	It replaces <em>T. chloris</em> in "dark bush" - the densest parts of closed-canopy forest (Medway and Marshall 1975, Bregulla 1992<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, however it also occurs in other forest types, such as dry forest (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<sup></sup>. It is most common in primary evergreen rainforest, from sea-level to at least 800 m, and it has been considered more common in the hills (Bregulla 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Kratter <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to be able to tolerate even fairly open secondary and logged forest and forest patches <strong></strong>(S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on lizards and insects from a perch low in the forest and nests in arboreal termite nests (Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001118		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals(N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2008).
106001118		threats	eng	On Santo, large areas of logged forest have been converted into cattle pasture, and on Malakula and Malo the situation is probably similar. Being an understorey species, it is likely to be affected by habitat degradation of primary and logged forest by feral cattle and pigs (Bregulla 1992, S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001119		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but sparsely distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001121		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Todiramphus cinnamominus</span> occurs on the islands of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Palau</span>, as well as on Pohnpei, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Federated States of Micronesia</span>. The population of the nominate subspecies on <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guam</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">(to U.S.A.)</span> became extinct in the wild in 1986 (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
106001121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to absent (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001122		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1931. A large national park that has been established on Halmahera, encompassing 3,550 km<sup>2</sup> of all representative forest-types on the island, between Lalobata and Ake Tajawe, is very likely to support a population of the species <strong></strong>(M. Poulsen <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Gunung Gamkonora (from whence old records derive) has been recommended for wildlife sanctuary or recreation forest status. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species to clarify its current distribution, status and ecological requirements (particularly to clarify the importance of intact forest). Determine and implement appropriate conservation actions, including the establishment of key sites as strict protected areas. Initiate conservation awareness programmes to elicit support for reduced forest clearance. <p></p>
106001122		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus funebris</em> is endemic to the island of Halmahera, North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon and local, with extremely few site-specific records (BirdLife International 2001). During recent censuses on the north-east peninsula of the island, the encounter rate was too low to allow an extrapolation of population size. <p></p>
106001122		habitat	eng	It is resident in closed-canopy primary forest (where it perches in shady locations in the lower canopy and middle storey), often overlooking clearings, swamp-forest dominated by sago palms with few tall trees, tall secondary woodland, mangroves and forest edge, from the lowlands up to 620 m (but most frequently below 300 m).<strong> </strong>It<strong> </strong>also<strong> </strong>visits<strong> </strong>cultivated habitats (including coconut-groves and plantations). <p></p>
106001122		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001122		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss. Since the early 1990s (when it was reported that c.90% of the total area of Halmahera remained forested), clearance and fragmentation of forest has accelerated dramatically. Exploitation of economically valuable trees is now widespread and intensive, with most remaining forest under timber concession. In addition, habitat is under pressure from increased settlement and transmigration, conversion to agriculture, plantations, irrigation schemes, fuelwood-collection and mineral extraction. Given the predilection of this species for low elevations, these threats are particularly alarming. <p></p>
106001123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very widespread and common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001124		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A population of this species occurs in the Karakelang Hunting Reserve.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends across the range to determine whether declines are occurring. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and tolerance of secondary habitats. Campaign for the protection of remaining primary forests in the Talaud Islands.  <p></p>
106001124		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus enigma</em> is restricted to the Talaud islands (Karakelang and Salibabu, with no contemporary records from Kabaruan <strong></strong>[Riley 2003]), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is apparently common and little affected by habitat loss (BirdLife International 2001).  <em> </em><p></p>
106001124		habitat	eng	This species occupies the mid-canopy of primary and secondary forest, often along streams (being replaced in cultivated and coastal areas by Collared Kingfisher <em>T. chloris</em>).   <p></p>
106001124		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as common.
106001124		threats	eng	Some areas within the species's range are subject to logging pressure, including the Karakelang Hunting Reserve. However, this species is apparently able to persist in logged forest.  <p></p>
106001125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001126		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across its range to determine whether declines are occurring. Conduct ecological studies to determine its habitat requirements and tolerance of secondary habitats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.   <p></p>
106001126		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus australasia</em> is restricted to four Endemic Bird Areas (Northern Nusa Tenggara, Sumba, Timor and Wetar, and the Banda Sea Islands, the first three with nominate <em>australasia</em>, the last one with subspecies <em>dammeriana</em> and <em>odites</em>), in <strong>Indonesia</strong> and<strong> Timor-Leste</strong>. Its distribution within this fairly wide area is, however, very patchy, and it is generally uncommon, although a recent visit to Wetar found the species to be widespread, occurring at all forest sites<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Trainor <em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span></em>2009).<em><br/><p></p></em>
106001126		habitat	eng	This species is a closed-canopy specialist, occurring in monsoon forest at 0-700 m. It is also found in secondary habitats, such as gardens and cultivated areas, provided that sufficient canopy cover remains.  <p></p>
106001126		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as generally uncommon.
106001126		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation seem likely to be considerable negative factors. On Wetar, pressure comes from agriculture, logging, mining and road-building, although much of the island is inaccessible (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001129		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> In 1996, a baseline survey and vegetation and rat-trapping studies were conducted. In 1997, this was followed by the first simple census using the Distance Sampling method, and it is hoped that this method will be adopted by a local annual monitoring programme (Kelly and Bottomley 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The feasibility of the eradication of Common Myna from the island was assessed in 2006, it was concluded that it was possible, at a cost of NZ$100,000 (Parkes 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A detailed study of nesting success in an area where mynas were abundant was started in 2006 (G. McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further research to determine population trends in the different areas of the island and requirements for long-term survival (Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct a detailed study of nesting success (Rowe and Empson 1996b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the population by surveying birds in secondary forest (due to its accessibility) (Baker<em> et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Provide nest-sites in appropriate places (SPREP 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage habitat preservation and augment habitat (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate<em> A. tristis </em>(SPREP 1999, Parkes 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider controlling cats and rats <em>Rattus </em>spp.  Make this species an emblem for conservation on Mangaia to engender pride in the species, help prevent deforestation and reduce disturbance of birds and their habitat by people, goats and pigs.   <p></p>
106001129		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus ruficollaris</em> is endemic to Mangaia, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, where in the early 1980s it was reported to be declining (McCormack 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1992-1993, the population was estimated at 250-450 birds, with c.50% concentrated in the north-west and an important population in the east (Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1996, the population was estimated at 400-700 birds using a different method (Baker<em> et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1997, numbers appeared to be broadly similar (Kelly and Bottomley 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, consequently, the population was assumed to be stable; surveys conducted since, though not directly comparable, indicate that this is still true. <p></p>
106001129		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest growing on the makatea (an encircling, raised coral limestone platform), preferring continuous forest canopy, and is found in highest densities in relatively unaltered tracts, although it also occurs in mature secondary forest and forest patches (Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, grubs, cockroaches and spiders, with lizards forming an important part of the diet (Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987, Rowe and Empson 1996b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in tree-cavities (preferring coconut and barringtonia <em>Barringtonia asiatica</em>). The clutch-size is 2-3 (Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987, Rowe and Empson 1996b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001129		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 400-700 individuals, roughly equating to 270-470 mature individuals.
106001129		threats	eng	The introduced Common Myna<em> Acridotheres tristis</em> (numbering c.9,000 birds), found in villages, horticultural areas, secondary forest and small forest tracts, competes for food and harasses breeding birds causing nest failure (Rowe and Empson 1996a, G. McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However the kingfisher is unexpectedly common in disturbed habitat where the Myna is abundant (G. McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In a recent study of 10 kingfisher nests in disturbed forest 11 young were raised from seven nests; Mynas were the cause of failure in one nest and were thought responsible for the failure of the other two (G. McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cats and rats, both Pacific rat<em> Rattus exulans</em> and black rat <em> R. rattus</em>, are present in all forest-types (particularly prevalent in areas with a high abundance of coconut trees) and are potential predators (Baker<em> et al</em>. 1996, Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Long-tailed Cuckoo<em> Eudynamis taitensis</em>, a winter migrant from New Zealand, may also predate eggs and chicks (Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture and browsing by goats cause habitat loss and forest fragmentation, whilst pigs affect forest regeneration (Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Human disturbance may have an impact on birds in the south-west (Rowe and Empson 1996a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and abundant to rare and localized (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001131		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A survey of the species and its threats on Tahuata was planned for 2009 (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Surveys of the species and its threats on Tahuata were conducted in 2003 (Gouni 2004) and 2011 (Withers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012), investigating the specie's behaviour and nesting and territory requirements. Public awareness-raising was implemented with positive results, as inhabitants were previously unaware of the species's endemic status.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly resurvey the species to determine trends.  Investigate threats and species distribution knowledge. Work with local stakeholders to protect remaining forest and retain dead trees in plantations, especially in coconut plantations. Take all measures possible to ensure that <em>B. virginianus </em>does not colonise Tahutua. Exclude livestock from the remaining intact forest.  Consider the possibility of translocation to a nearby island. Produce a Species Recovery Plan.  <p></p>
106001131		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus godeffroyi</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where there were 300-500 pairs on Tahuata in 1975 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, 695 birds in 2003 (<span style="">Gouni 2004</span>) and 401-484 birds in 2011 (<span style="">Withers </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2012</span>). It formerly occurred on Hiva Oa, where there were fewer than 50 pairs in 1971 and 1973; it was exceedingly rare on the island in 1990 (Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong> and was last seen in February 1997 in the Atuona Valley. Searches in 2001, 2004 and 2006 failed to find the species and it is considered extinct on the island (J.-C. Thibault<em> in litt. </em>2000, Gouni 2004, P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Records from Fatu Hiva, Mohotani and Ua Pou are apparently erroneous (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Thibault 1988)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001131		habitat	eng	It prefers dense, humid forest along the courses of mountain streams and remote valleys from low to mid altitude, but has also been seen in coconut plantations, on dry slopes covered with mango and <em>Eugenia cuminii</em> trees, and on peaks covered with groves of <em>Casuarina</em>. It has been found nesting in an old mango tree, in a decayed screw-pine trunk, in<span style=""> </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Pandanus spp</span><span style="">., dead </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Cocos nucifera</span><span style=""> trunks and </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Ficus spp</span><span style="">. (Withers </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2012). It f</span>eeds principally on insects and lizards (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Fry <em>et al.</em> 1992, Nitchen and Knowles 1995, Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106001131		population	eng	Withers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2012) estimated the population to number 401-484 individuals in 2011, roughly equating to 260-320 mature individuals.
106001131		threats	eng	Extensive damage has been caused to upland forest by feral cattle, horses, goats, sheep and pigs (WWF/IUCN 1994-1995)<strong></strong>, and this may be causing the continuing decline on Tahuata (Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>. It is thought to have been heavily predated by the introduced Great Horned Owl <em>Bubo virginianus</em> on Hiva Oa, and other alien species such as Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> and perhaps black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> (introduced c.1915 on Hiva Oa and still present on Tahuata in 2011 [Withers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012]) may have contributed to the decline (Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>. The introduction of <em>B. virginianus </em>to Tahuata would be disastrous for this species. No <em>B. virginianus </em>were detected on Tahuata during the 2011 study, but further investigation is still needed to confirm their absence (Withers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Mynas are currently absent on the island and local inhabitants are aware of the risk of their introduction to Tahuata island (Withers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106001132		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Niau is included in the Fakarava Man and Biosphere Protected Area (P. Raust <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A project studying the species's ecology, behaviour and movements took place from 2006 to 2012.  The entire island was thoroughly surveyed for the birds, which were colour-ringed and radio-tagged to track movements, nesting success and survival. A demographic analysis of band returns and habitat impacts was conducted in 2012 and indicated extremely low survival in adult females and juvenile birds (Kesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012a). Additional genetic studies have taken place to evaluate heritage and genetic variability that may impact survival.  A rat control programme has been set up through work with the local community. This will target stands of coconut palms in which the species nests. Additionally, a cooperative program to protect nesting habitat was started with resident coconut farmers and an endangered species education program was initiated in the Niau primary school.<span style=""> The natural history of the species was thoroughly investigated on Niau (</span><span style=""><span style="">Kesler 2011, Coulombe </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2011, Kesler </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2012a)</span>, following which an experimental translocation on Niau in 2010 proved successful <span style=""><span class="datalabel1">and provided a means of testing translocation methods and assessing the impact of harvest from the donor population (Kesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012b). The Gambier islands, Makatea and Anaa have been assessed for their suitability for a translocated population with the atoll complex of Anaa providing the best release option (D. Kessler <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Research is being conducted on the diet of invasive rats and cats to see whether they are predating on chicks, or competing with adults (Vidal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <span style=""><span class="datalabel1"><span style="">Two studies have illustrated the birds association with agricultural coconut plantations (Coulombe</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 2011) and provide recommendations for managing coconut habitats to benefit the birds.</span><p></p><strong style="">Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style="">Research the impact of rats and cats on kingfisher survival and reproduction. Provide nest boxes to increase the availability of nest-sites (Gouni </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2004)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Facilitate the establishment of a second supplementary population on Anaa through translocations (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Fry </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 1992, Gouni </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2006, D. Kesler </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2008, 2009, 2010)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.  </span><p></p></span></span>
106001132		distribution	eng	<em>Todiramphus gambieri</em> is confined to the island of Niau in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where the race <em>niauensis</em> was represented by 400-600 birds in 1974, and reported as common in 1990; the nominate <em>gambieri</em> having become extinct on Mangareva, Gambier Islands, probably prior to 1922 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Seitre and Seitre 1991, Seitre and Seitre 1992)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2003 and 2004 estimated the total population as 39-51 individuals, significantly lower than previously supposed (Gouni and Sanford 2003,<strong> </strong>Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, but surveys in 2006-2008 suggested that the total population had remained relatively stable at around 125 individuals (<strong></strong>Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006, Gouni and Zysman 2007, D. Kesler <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2009, 2010), with a slight increase to 135 individuals in 2009 (Gouni <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106001132		habitat	eng	This species prefers semi-open coconut plantation habitats (Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006, Gouni and Zysman 2007, Coulombe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>, limestone forests, and cultivated areas around villages, and readily uses Niau's ephemeral wetlands and ocean coasts for foraging. In particular the species selects agricultural coconut plantations with open understory, hunting perches, and exposed ground (Coulombe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011, Kesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Breeding is from September to January in nest cavities excavated from dead and decaying coconut palms (thus its choice of nest-site is limited) (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, <strong></strong>Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2007, Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects (e.g. small coleoptera) and small lizards (Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006). The main food source for chicks is lizards (Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106001132		population	eng	Surveys in 2009 estimated 135 individuals, roughly equivalent to 90 mature individuals.
106001132		threats	eng	Competition for food resources with rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus sp. </span>may pose a threat to the breeding success of this species (Gouni and Sanford 2003,<strong> </strong>Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2004, Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006, Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>, while the principal threat to young birds may be predation by feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus </span>(Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006, Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>: 25-50% of individuals are thought to disappear each year (Gouni <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. The removal of suitable nesting trees in 1984, following a hurricane in 1983, has reduced the availability of nesting sites (Gouni and Sanford 2003,<strong> </strong>Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2004, Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006, Gouni and Zysman 2007)<strong></strong>. The species may benefit from agricultural management, as it prefers  coconut plantations managed with prescribed burning for hunting (Coulombe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011) and survival in those areas is enhanced (Kesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012a). As such, any changes to the land management of the island could prove catastrophic for the species. <p></p>
106001133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001135		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>On Guadalcanal, search for more readily accessible populations above Gold Ridge. Survey other montane sites, especially from the south coast. Survey prevalence of introduced mammalian predators in mountains. Research population densities and basic ecology above Betilonga. Survey the population on Bougainville. Establish a system of community-based conservation areas. <p></p>
106001135		distribution	eng	<em>Actenoides bougainvillei</em> has two subspecies: <em>bougainvillei</em> on Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and <em>excelsa</em> on Guadalcanal, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. There are a few specimens from Bougainville, the last taken in 1938, and three from Guadalcanal, the last taken in 1953 (Mayr 1945, Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong></strong>, and then no definite records until 1994. It is very unobtrusive and crepuscular and is liable to have been overlooked unless the call is known. In 1994 and 1997, it was found to be frequent in montane forest above the abandoned Betilonga village on Guadalcanal. Calls were heard from up to six locations from a camp at 1,500 m. If each call relates to a different bird, then the local density was 75 calling birds per km<sup>2</sup>, but much forest at this altitude is unsuitable for this species (D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Gibbs 1996<strong></strong>, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. No other montane sites have been visited on Guadalcanal. On Bougainville, calls believed to be of this species were heard in 1986 on the edge of lowland swamp-forest near Arawa (Bishop 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a pair was reportedly watched at a nest-hole in the late 1980s (K.&#160;D.&#160;Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001135		habitat	eng	Observations and reports from Guadalcanal indicate that it only occurs in closed-canopy forest between 900-1,100 m and at least 1,550 m. Calls were not heard from the many patches of more open forest, damaged by cyclones and land-slides (D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Gibbs 1996<strong></strong>, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Guadalcanal, it is reported to nest in holes in the ground, sometimes in forest but usually in riverbanks (Gibbs 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to be a lowland species on Bougainville where it is very poorly known, but there is a report of it nesting in an arboreal ant-plant (Mayr 1945, K.&#160;D.&#160;Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001135		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001135		threats	eng	The Guadalcanal subspecies occurs at altitudes above human activity. As a hole-nesting species, it is potentially threatened by introduced rats and cats which are found at high altitudes (Leary 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Bougainville subspecies appears to occur in the lowlands which have been partially logged and heavy logging is likely to recommence once the island re-opens to commercial exploitation. <p></p>
106001136		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the range to estimate population trends and rates of range contraction. Ensure the protection of remaining tracts of primary lowland rainforest throughout the range.  <p></p>
106001136		distribution	eng	<em>Actenoides concretus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan, Sumatra (including offshore islands) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
106001136		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the middle stratum and understorey of lowland and hill forest up to 1,500 m (1,700 m on Borneo). It inhabits only closed-canopy forest, but can occur in regenerating logged forest.   <p></p>
106001136		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106001136		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106001137		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare on Luzon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001138		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in areas afforded varying degrees of protection, including Pasonanca Natural Park (Zamboanga) and Mt Apo Natural Park (recorded in 2011 after an apparent absence of records since the 1960s) (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), Mt Kitanglad Natural Park, Mt Hilong-hilong watershed reserve, Mt Malindang National Park, and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which is now a protected landscape under the protected areas system of the Philippines <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The proposed Mt Tagub-kampalili protected area may offer some protection of habitat in the future.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys, including mist-netting and use of its vocalisations, to establish its true range on Mindanao, and to assess its current distribution and status. Propose additional key sites (such as Mts Hilong-hilong, Diwata, Sugarloaf, Piapayungan, and Mayo) for urgent designation as formal protected areas. Ensure that current protected areas receive the level of protection needed to prevent further forest clearance. Advocate for better environmental impact assessments that truly yield acceptable estimates of threatened local wildlife prior to further mining developments, and ensure that the results and recommendations are heeded and any damages mitigated appropriately. <p></p>
106001138		distribution	eng	<em>Actenoides hombroni</em> is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the <strong>Philippines</strong> (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Formerly widespread, there have been records from just seven localities since 1980. However, three of these represent minor range extensions, suggesting further populations may yet be discovered. Contradictory assessments from the early 20th century considered it quite common and very rare. It is difficult to observe but knowledge of its call recently revealed it to be fairly common at Lake Sebu and this may be the case elsewhere. It was recorded in montane forests on Mt Hilong-hilong in Agusan del Norte during surveys in 2005-2007 <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106001138		habitat	eng	It is an apparently sedentary inhabitant of primary forest and occasionally secondary and disturbed habitats across a wide altitudinal range (100-2,400 m), although generally above 1,000 m. One anomalous report, of a bird collected in "low thick jungle covered daily by the sea", appears to relate to mangroves. It is unobtrusive and tends to call prior to dawn. <p></p>
106001138		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001138		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation has been a significant threat. In 1988, an estimated 29% of Mindanao remained forested. Even this is considered an overestimate and most remaining accessible tracts are leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Virtually all forest below 1,200 m at the ostensibly protected key site of Mt Kitanglad Natural Park has been felled, and agricultural encroachment along forest edges and illegal logging continue to threaten forests even within protected areas <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Forest burning associated with insurgency is a problem on the Zamboanga peninsula. However, the species appears to show a preference for montane habitats, therefore mining for chromite and nickel in the mountains of eastern Mindanao is perhaps the greatest threat <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106001139		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park, Dumgoa-Bone National Park and Tangkoko DuaSudara Nature Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify the taxonomic status of the two subspecies. Conduct repeated surveys of known and potential sites across Sulawesi in order to determine abundance and population trends. Conduct ecological studies to determine levels of tolerance of secondary habitats, particularly in areas where primary forests have been extirpated. Ensure the protection of existing forest reserves. <p></p>
106001139		distribution	eng	<em>Actenoides monachus</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>monachus</em> in north and central, race <em>capucinus</em> in east, south-east and south Sulawesi), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally considered to be uncommon, although it is highly inconspicuous. It is reported to be locally common in parts of Lore Lindu National Park, Dumgoa-Bone National Park and Tangkoko DuaSudara Nature Reserve. <em> </em><p></p>
106001139		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dense primary and tall secondary lowland forest up to 900 m.   <p></p>
106001139		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as generally uncommon.
106001139		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline.  <p></p>
106001140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but generally scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001143		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical locations and potentially suitable habitats for the species on the Aru islands and in the Trans-Fly. Study its ecological requirements and threats.  <p></p>
106001143		distribution	eng	<em>Tanysiptera hydrocharis</em> inhabits the Aru Islands and the Trans-Fly region of southern New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. It was not recorded during a month-long expedition to the Aru Islands (K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1994, 1997, 1999)<strong></strong> and there are recent records only from the Trans-Fly north of Kiunga (K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1994, 1997, 1999, P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1994, 1999,<strong></strong> Richards and Rowland 1995)<strong></strong> but it may occur throughout the Fly basin (B. Whitney <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. It is uncommon to common north of Kiunga, where it is sympatric with Common Paradise-kingfisher <em>T. galatea</em> and White-tailed Paradise-kingfisher <em>T. sylvia</em>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001143		habitat	eng	In the Trans-Fly north of Kiunga it is present in undisturbed seasonally flooded alluvial lowland forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1994, 1997, 1999, P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1994, 1999,<strong></strong> Richards and Rowland 1995, B. Whitney <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001143		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified. Further research is required.
106001143		threats	eng	There is no other indication of its population or its tolerance of degraded habitats but it may be threatened by logging. <p></p>
106001144		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001145		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out a major survey of Kofiau to assess the current population size and establish a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Establish a protected area on the island to ensure the on-going presence of primary forest. Clarify ecological preferences and tolerance of habitat degradation. Clarify its taxonomic status.  <p></p>
106001145		distribution	eng	<em>Tanysiptera ellioti</em> is endemic to the 144-km<sup>2</sup> island of Kofiau in the West Papuan islands of <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is abundant in primary and secondary forest <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). The population is suspected to be declining owing to habitat destruction <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
106001145		habitat	eng	Previous research suggested it can inhabit "most" habitats in the lowlands, including primary and tall secondary forest <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1994). Further surveys suggest that it is most abundant in primary and secondary forest, although it can be found persisting in traditional gardens <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). There is also circumstantial evidence that immature individuals may only occur in tall, closed-canopy forests <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). Individuals perch at 1-12 m and are not thought to venture up into the canopy <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
106001145		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001145		threats	eng	Kofiau has been largely selectively logged <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1994, <em></em>2000), and currently has no protected area <strong></strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995). New subsistence gardens and cash-crop coconut groves continue to clear primary and secondary forest; agricultural clearings increasing by an estimated 30% between 2002 and 2007 <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). Small-scale timber extraction is also continuing <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
106001146		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is present in the 110 km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area <strong></strong>(B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout the range to clarify its current abundance and distribution. Repeat surveys to monitor rates of population decline. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat associations and levels of tolerance of secondary habitats. Ensure the effective protection of tall forest in the Biak-Utara protected area.  <p></p>
106001146		distribution	eng	<em>Tanysiptera riedelii</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori off Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is sometimes considered to be a subspecies of Common Paradise-kingfisher <em>T. galeata</em> but there are significant morphological differences <strong></strong>(Forshaw 1985, Sibley and Monroe 1990, Sibley and Monroe 1993). It is reported to be fairly common, although it may be restricted to areas of tall forest <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <em> </em><p></p>
106001146		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary, secondary and logged forest up to at least 300 m, and possibly 600 m <strong></strong>(Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b, <strong></strong>B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000). It may be restricted to areas with tall trees and a closed canopy.  <p></p>
106001146		population	eng	This species is poorly known and no population estimates are available.
106001146		threats	eng	On Biak, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000).   <p></p>
106001147		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No protected area currently exists on Numfor, although a reserve has been proposed <strong></strong>(Diamond 1986).   <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine the habitat requirements of this species, and whether it can persist in areas where natural forest habitats are completely removed. Support plans to establish a nature reserve on Numfor. <p></p>
106001147		distribution	eng	<em>Tanysiptera carolinae</em> is endemic to the<strong> </strong>island<strong> </strong>of Numfor (330 km<sup>2</sup>) in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is common and widespread. <em> </em><p></p>
106001147		habitat	eng	This species occurs in all lowland habitats on Numfor, including beach vegetation and highly degraded forest <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, D. Gibbs verbally 2000).   <p></p>
106001147		population	eng	There is a single subpopulation, restricted to the island of Numfor. The population size has apparently not been quantified.
106001147		threats	eng	Much of the forest on Numfor has already been destroyed or degraded by logging and subsistence farming <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996).<p></p>
106001148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in some areas but common in others (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001150		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common, scarce or absent  (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001151		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in some areas (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106001155		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 100-200 breeding pairs, equating to 300-600   individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming &lt;5% of the   global range. National population sizes have been estimated at possibly   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in   Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106001156		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001159		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species has a population density of 20 individuals/km2 in primary lowland forest in Borneo and 10 individuals/km2 in forest on Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere very common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and frequent throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001168		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common in prime habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001169		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106001170		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed but local and generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is regarded as a rarity in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common, frequent or locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common locally over its entire range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce and absent from suitable-looking areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and regarded as common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt; c.10,000 breeding   pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001177		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,100-10,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,300-30,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106001178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106001180		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1 million individuals (S. T. Garnett <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001181		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 480,000-1,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1440,000-3,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,940,000-12,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106001182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout its vast range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common, absent or sporadic (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common along large rivers throughout its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001186		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and relatively uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its restricted area (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to usually be common or fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
106001192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common, or at least not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally not uncommon throughout its range. However it is suspected to be rarer towards the east of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106001195		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 58,000-77,000 breeding pairs, equating to 174,000-231,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500,000-5,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106001196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common or fairly common breeder in many parts of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106001199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most parts of its range but rarer in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001200		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106001200		distribution	eng	<em>Cuculus vagans</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, south <strong>Laos</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and, occasionally, west Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon (BirdLife International 2001). It is thought to be in decline owing to the extensive loss of lowland forest within its range. <p></p>
106001200		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen forest, forest edge and secondary forest; especially lower hill slopes, alluvial forest and bamboo forest up to 915 m. It is a brood parasite. <p></p>
106001200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Thailand and rare in Sumatra and Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001200		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106001201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001202		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001203		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001204		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106001205		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,200,000-8,600,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,600,000-25,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 25,000,000-100,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106001206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout its wide range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in several parts of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in   Taiwan; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in   Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration   in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106001209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common, at least locally (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon but not rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in Nigeria (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon. However it is locally common in central Kenya and the eastern part of the Arc Mountains (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001214		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001215		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106001217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001218		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and abundant in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be scarce to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001220		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey for this species and calculate density estimates in order to revise its global population estimate. Assess its dependence on forest. Calculate rates of forest loss using remote sensing of satellite images. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against encroachment and degradation. <p></p>
106001220		distribution	eng	<em>Cacomantis heinrichi</em> is restricted to the Northern Maluku Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs on Halmahera and Bacan (BirdLife International 2001).&#160;  <p></p>
106001220		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest at 1,000-1,500 m on Halmahera, but occurs lower (800-1,200 m) on Bacan with recent reports from as low as 100-450 m. No information is known about breeding and foraging behaviour. <p></p>
106001220		population	eng	This species has a relatively small range, within which forest habitats have declined and hence, the global population is suspected to be moderately small. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001220		threats	eng	It may be vulnerable to forest loss within its range owing to the expansion of small-holder farming and subsistence logging. <p></p>
106001221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncomon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001224		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001227		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001229		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001230		population	eng	Virtually nothing is known about this species's population size, and research is required to produce an estimate.
106001231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably scarce to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in most of its range. However it is reported to be locally common in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Congo Basin but rarer elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001237		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequently recorded at Varirata National Park, Papua New Guinea (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Thailand and the Greater Sundas, locally fairly common in Malaysia, rare in Singapore and Sri Lanka and widespread in Sulawesi (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106001240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although less common in the Greater Sundas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106001242		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001244		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in Australia and scarce elsewhere in its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001247		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the species's dependence on forest habitats. If appropriate calculate rates of decline inferred from rates of forest loss. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106001247		distribution	eng	<em>Phaenicophaeus diardi</em> occurs from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Although widespread and common in many parts of its range, it is presumably declining owing to deforestation. <p></p>
106001247		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary or secondary evergreen forest, swamp forest, bamboo or mangroves to 1,220 m. It is typically found in dense undergrowth and creepers. It forages for insects and breeds in January-April. <p></p>
106001247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Thailand and Borneo and uncommon in Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001247		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106001248		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106001248		distribution	eng	<em>Phaenicophaeus sumatranus</em> occurs from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, through peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(uncommon),<strong> </strong>to<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including the North Natuna Islands) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Overall it remains relatively common through large parts of its range. <p></p>
106001248		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, including mangroves, durian plantations and peatswamp forest, to 1,000 m. It forages quietly and unobtrusively in the dense crowns of trees on a range of arthropods. <p></p>
106001248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generrally fairly common, although localy very common to uncomon in Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001248		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106001249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread though not abundant through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally a rather rare species (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common species throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001253		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001254		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001256		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging, but encroachment continues. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area, Gal-Oya National Park, Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary, Uda Walawe National Park and Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out in 1991-1996. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Research its ecology, particularly its habitat requirements and possible seasonal movements. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. <p></p>
106001256		distribution	eng	<em>Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, primarily occurring in the wet zone of the south-west of the island and locally in the dry zone. The majority of records come from Wasgomua, Yala, Udawalawa, Galoya and Lahugala forests (Kaluthota 2007). There are unconfirmed records from Tamil Nadu, India. Historical records suggest it was widespread at the end of the 19th century, but its population has since declined, become increasingly fragmented and numbers are now no more than a few thousand individuals, perhaps as low as several hundred.  <p></p>
106001256		habitat	eng	It is mainly confined to undisturbed, tall, humid lowland forest with dense, tangled undergrowth, although there are scattered populations in dry zone riverine forest. Most records are from below 920 m, although it has been recorded up to 1,540 m. It forages solitarily or frequently in mixed-species flocks, usually in the canopy. Its diet consists primarily of invertebrates (Salgado 2006)<strong></strong>, but also includes fruit and berries. Breeding has been recorded from January-May, but it may also breed from August-September. Nests are placed on high bushes in the dense forest undergrowth. It may make seasonal altitudinal movements. <p></p>
106001256		population	eng	The population has been considered unlikely to number more than a few thousand individuals based on available records and survey results, and so it is retained in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. A recent estimate though suggests the population size may now be no greater than several hundred individuals.
106001256		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. As a primarily canopy-dwelling species, it has been particularly badly affected by selective logging. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. Historically, hunting was possibly a threat but it is unlikely to be a serious problem today. <p></p>
106001257		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001258		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001259		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within a number of protected areas on Borneo and was studied within Sungai Wain protected Forest where patrol teams have controlled hunting pressure, stopped illegal logging and maintained fire breaks. Education work is carried out in the local community. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Expand conservation actions that have been introduced successfully at Sungai Wain Protected Forest to other forest areas. Combat forest fires in the future. Generate a density estimate for the species by surveying using playback, and estimate its global population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss. <p></p>
106001259		distribution	eng	<em>Carpococcyx radiatus</em>, now treated separately from the threatened Sumatran Ground-cuckoo <em>C. viridis</em>, is endemic to the island of Borneo (<strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) (BirdLife International 2001), where it is known from at least 49 localities (Long and Collar 2002). This cuckoo is widely regarded as scarce to very rare, but has proved to be widespread and more common in several areas (including secondary habitats and lower hill country) than was previously realised (e.g. Long and Collar 2002). Nevertheless, the most extensive study to date researched the species's ecological and conservation requirements in Sungai Wain Protection Forest, east Kalimantan and obtained just 32 encounters in 44 months of survey effort <strong></strong>(Fredriksson and Nijman 2004). Its preference for lowland forest suggests that the species has declined. In 2004, it was known from just nine locations, mostly from single contacts <strong></strong>(Fredriksson and Nijman 2004). <p></p>
106001259		habitat	eng	This species clearly favours primary forest, probably preferring level areas near rivers (Long and Collar 2002). It shows a clear preference for alluvial and swamp forest within dry dipterocarp lowland forest below 500 m, over higher elevation, slope or ridge forest. It inhabits the forest floor, feeding on arthropods and fruit, and sometimes following army-ant swarms, bearded pigs <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus barbatus</span> and sun bears <span style="font-style: italic;">Helarctos malayanus</span> (BirdLife International 2001, Long and Collar 2002).<br/><p></p>
106001259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001259		threats	eng	Lowland forests in Borneo have been dramatically reduced in extent and quality by human activities such as logging and plantation agriculture, but particularly by uncontrolled forest fires; four years after fires at one site that supports this species, 74% of trees were dead. It is generally regarded as inedible and is not trapped. <p></p>
106001260		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001261		distribution	eng	<em>Coua delalandei </em>is known from 13 specimens, all apparently collected on Ile de Sainte-Marie (Nosy Boraha), <strong>Madagascar</strong>, with the most recent from 1834<strong> </strong>(Collar and Stuart 1985). Reports from 1930<strong> </strong>(WCMC 1992) are unfounded, and it is now considered extinct<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <p></p>
106001261		habitat	eng	It was a terrestrial species of primary rainforest<strong> </strong>(Collar and Stuart 1985). <p></p>
106001261		threats	eng	The complete deforestation of Ile de Sainte-Marie was presumably the ultimate cause of its extinction (Goodman 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Snaring for feathers and food and predation by introduced rats may also have contributed to the species's demise<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). <p></p>
106001262		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common where good forest still exists (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its rather restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001264		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common where good forest still exists (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in more than 30 localities within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be generally uncommon within its small range but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001269		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Only a very small area of suitable habitat is protected within reserves (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat clearance and degradation. Increase the area of habitat that is protected in reserves.  <p></p>
106001269		distribution	eng	<em>Coua verreauxi</em> has a relatively small range in south-west <strong>Madagascar</strong>, within the southern part of the spiny forest zone. Within suitable habitat the species can be fairly abundant.  <p></p>
106001269		habitat	eng	It is a bird of semi-arid thorn scrub where it forages for invertebrates among trees and bushes, also feeding on the ground (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also feeds on <em>Cassia</em> fruit (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species appears to favour thick coastal scrub on coral rag but also occurs outside this habitat, including within degraded areas (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to 100 m (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Males have been observed singing from tree tops in November, suggesting that breeding occurs at around this time (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001269		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106001269		threats	eng	The species's habitat is threatened by wood-cutting for charcoal production, which is widespread, particularly along roads and near to major towns (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in suitable habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be common and conspicuous on Halmahera but rarer on smaller islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001273		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on both islands. <p></p>
106001273		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus violaceus </em> is endemic to the islands of New Britain and New Ireland, <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where although it is rather poorly known, it appears to be widely distributed and not uncommon in suitable habitat. It is suspected to have declined moderately rapidly in recent years owing to ongoing clearance of lowland forest (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106001273		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest, usually primary or old-growth forest, up to 800 m. It is not thought to tolerate habitat degradation. <p></p>
106001273		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106001273		threats	eng	Lowland forest clearance on New Britain for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. On that island, more than 12% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 10 years, and this trend is ongoing (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.  This situation is not thought to be much different on New Ireland.  <p></p>
106001274		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001276		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common near the coast, rarer near arid areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001277		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106001278		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001279		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the 110 km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area <strong></strong>(B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Calculate the area of remaining forest on Biak and Supiori. Estimate rates of decline based on rates of deforestation. Protect areas of remaining forest within its range. <p></p>
106001279		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus chalybeus</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori, off Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939, <strong></strong>Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986). Recent observations indicate that it is probably not uncommon in forest and secondary forest, and probably more common on Supiori <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, Gibbs 1993, Eastwood 1996b, B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000<strong></strong>), where there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in the interior <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000). It is thought to be widespread, relatively common and tolerant of moderately degraded forest. However, there is very little recent information on the species and especially the status of forest on Biak-Supiori, and further research may show that this species is declining rapidly. <p></p>
106001279		habitat	eng	It is an elusive resident of primary and secondary forest where it is more often heard than seen. It feeds on the ground where it hops and takes short flights. <p></p>
106001279		population	eng	Owing to its restricted distribution on just two small islands the species is thought to have a moderately small population, estimated at 10,000-19,999 individuals. This roughly equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001279		threats	eng	On Biak, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming. <p></p>
106001280		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Populations of this species are reported from several protected areas within its range, including Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), Taman Negara (Malaysia), Similajau National Park (Sarawak) and Gunung Palung National Park (Kalimantan). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys by listening for its call to investigate its altitudinal distribution, ecological requirements and the levels of threat it faces and thereby determine whether any specific conservation measures are required. Provide adequate support for the conservation of relevant lowland protected areas. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forest in the Sundaic region. <p></p>
106001280		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus rectunguis</em> occurs from extreme southern <strong>Thailand</strong>, through Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> to Malaysian Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak), <strong>Brunei</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Kalimantan and Sumatra) (BirdLife International 2001). It appears to be rare in Thailand and Sumatra, but apparently locally fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001280		habitat	eng	It appears to be generally restricted to the undergrowth of lowland evergreen forest, where it occurs at low population densities. <p></p>
106001280		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106001280		threats	eng	As a lowland forest specialist, this species must be in steep decline from habitat loss. Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion for agriculture and housing development, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Furthermore, the major fires of 1997-1998 affected 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Sumatra and Borneo.  <p></p>
106001281		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An education programme has also been started at Malpalon. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera, where hunting has been locally prohibited. The Sablayan Penal Colony recently adopted the Mindoro Bleeding-heart <span style="font-style: italic;">Gallicolumba platenae</span> as their flagship species for conservation and established a forest protection and restoration unit within the boundaries of the penal colony inside the Mt. Siburan IBA, which may also benefit the coucal <strong></strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt.</em> 2008). As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme, Species Guardians Haribon Foundation are implementing the following actions for Mindoro Bleeding-heart and Black-hooded Coucal <strong></strong>(BirdLife International 2008): an IBA monitoring team for Mount Siburan has been set up, training and utilising local participants; actions are underway to strengthen the Sablayan Forest Management Board (SFMB), the main function of which is to oversee the implementation of the Sablayan Forest Management Plan; an IEC (Information-Education-Communication) Plan is being developed for use in environmental education, awareness raising and local advocacy; a Sablayan Ecotourism Plan is being developed, including training local bird tour guides; and efforts have been made to strengthen and consolidate the Site Support Group's actions aimed at eliminating logging activities and the accidental snaring of Mindoro Bleeding-heart.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and conduct further surveys in remaining suitable habitat, e.g. at Mt Halcon, to clarify its current status. Establish formal, managed protected areas to conserve remnant forest at Malpalon and Puerto Galera. Extend Mt Iglit-Baco National Park to encompass remaining lowland forest tracts. Devise and implement a management plan for the forest at Siburan that reconciles biodiversity with its role as a prison. Raise public awareness about the status and importance of this species. <p></p>
106001281		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus steerii</em> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was formerly widespread and fairly common (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). However, only a tiny amount of lowland forest remains on Mindoro and its population is now believed to be extremely small, with records since 1980 from just three localities (Siburan, Puerto Galera, Malpalon), two of which are adjacent to each other. Siburan is regarded as probably the key site for the species, where at least five calling birds were recorded during one day in 2011 (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106001281		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary lowland and transitional (to mid-mountain) dipterocarp forest, up to 760 m, where it frequents dense vegetation, tangled thickets, vine-covered shrubs and bamboo. It appears to be displaced in forest edge and second growth by <em>C. viridis</em>. <p></p>
106001281		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on a detailed analysis of recent records by BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106001281		threats	eng	By 1988, extensive deforestation on Mindoro had reduced forest cover to a mere 120 km<sup>2</sup>, of which only a small proportion is below this species's upper altitudinal limit. The lowland forest that does remain is highly fragmented and it is believed that at the current rate of deforestation all forest may disappear by 2020-2030. Slash-and-burn cultivation, occasional selective logging and rattan collection threaten the forest fragments that still support the species. Dynamite blasting for marble is an additional threat to forest at Puerto Galera. The species's genetic viability may be at risk given the small size and fragmented nature of remaining populations. <p></p>
106001282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common almost everywhere throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997). National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106001283		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001284		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded in at least three protected areas, Ujung Kulon National Park, and Segara Anakan and Muara Angke Nature Reserves. However, these are either only partly suitable for the species (Ujung Kulon), very small and isolated (Muara Angke) or subject to high pressure from outside (Segara Anakan). In addition, at least four proposed reserves support populations, including Muara Gembong, Tanjung Sedari, Muara Cimanuk, Ujung Pangkah and perhaps Muara Bobos.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the importance of known sites and to locate populations. Research further its habitat requirements and particularly the importance of mangrove swamps to its survival. Establish further protected areas where appropriate, either in their own right or as extensions to existing reserves. Investigate the possibility of habitat restoration at heavily disturbed sites. Afford full legal protection and promote public awareness campaigns to reduce snaring of birds in coastal swamps. <p></p>
106001284		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus nigrorufus</em> is endemic to <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs on Java, and possibly Sumatra (from where there is one specimen of doubtful origin and recent unconfirmed sight records) (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally common, but rather sparsely distributed, although it may be under-recorded. It can still be found in suitable habitat right along the north Java coast, and a very isolated population is still found at Maura Angke (N. Brickle <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012), which is completely surrounded by Jakarta. The relatively high numbers on sale in markets and displayed in zoos (often exceeding <em>C. sinensis</em>) suggest it may be more common and well-distributed than records suggest.  <p></p>
106001284		habitat	eng	It is a sedentary resident of mangroves and associated swamps (particularly comprising <em>Acrostichium</em>, <em>Saccharum</em>, <em>Imperata</em> and <em>Nypa</em> spp.) in the coastal lowlands. It occurs in freshwater swamps and grassland scrub adjacent to brackish water swamps (possibly suboptimal habitats), although it appears to be excluded from mature stands of <em>Rhizophora</em> and <em>Bruguiera</em> by <em>C. sinensis</em>, occupying fringing habitat instead. It has also been recorded in teak forest and well inland. <p></p>
106001284		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001284		threats	eng	The main threat appears to be the destruction and degradation of mangroves and swamps as a result of widespread conversion to fishponds and agricultural land, and reclamation for urban expansion and industrialisation. Suitable habitat on Java is now fragmented. It is also threatened by widespread trapping, giving rise to concern that local population extinctions might ensue. <p></p>
106001285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001286		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropus toulou</span> occurs on <span style="font-weight: bold;">Madagascar </span>and Aldabra, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Seychelles </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">assumptionis</span> of Seychelles' Assumption Island is extinct, having not been recorded since 1906 (Nicoll 1906).
106001286		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be patchily distributed and generally scarce over much its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in open country (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106001289		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka, and a moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out during 1991-1996. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its distribution, abundance and ecology, in particular to improve understanding of its habitat requirements and to identify appropriate forest-management regimes. Research the possible effects of competition with <em>C. sinensis</em>. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. <p></p>
106001289		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus chlorohynchus</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka,</strong> where it is confined to the wet zone in the south-west of the island (BirdLife International 2001). Its population is poorly known, but appears to have declined and become increasingly fragmented since the late 19th and early 20th century, and it is absent from some sites where it formerly occurred. It is unlikely that its population exceeds a few thousand individuals. <p></p>
106001289		habitat	eng	It is found in high-stature, undisturbed, wet zone forests with a dense understorey (often of bamboo) mainly below 760 m. There are a few records from human-modified habitats surrounded by forest but it appears generally intolerant of habitat modification. It will use forest corridors to move between good quality habitat patches but many of these have been cleared. It feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and also frogs, lizards and fruit, and is thought to breed from January-July, and possibly at other times of year.  <p></p>
106001289		population	eng	The population is unlikely to number more than a few thousand individuals, based on available records and survey results, thus there are assumed to be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001289		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood-collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation, for example Ingiriya Forest Reseve, where it is declining because of illegal logging. Competition with Greater Coucal <em>C. sinensis</em>, which occurs in logged and disturbed areas, may be contributing to its decline. <p></p>
106001290		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common,although rare in Togo and uncommon in Ghana (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001291		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001293		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common within its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001294		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be sparsely distributed but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001295		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its sizeable range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001296		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001298		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001299		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001300		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106001300		distribution	eng	<em>Centropus unirufus</em> is endemic to Luzon and its satellites, Polillo and Catanduanes, in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is uncommon and local (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106001300		habitat	eng	It appears to be a resident of lowland and hill forest with tangled undergrowth, but it persists well in mature secondary growth, selectively logged and degraded forest, and even prefers bamboo areas. <p></p>
106001300		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001300		threats	eng	It may be threatened by the actual and potential destruction of forest through logging, mining operations and agricultural expansion in the form of plantation agriculture and small-holder farming.  <p></p>
106001301		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001305		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001307		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cocos Island has been designated as a national park, but no substantive measures have been taken to reduce populations of introduced mammals (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the population, perhaps using call play-back and mist-netting (T. Sherry <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Carry out research into the species's breeding biology (T. Sherry <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the impact of introduced mammals. Begin to eradicate introduced mammals where feasible. <p></p>
106001307		distribution	eng	<em>Coccyzus ferrugineus</em> is endemic to Cocos Island, c.500 km from the coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong>. It is widespread and probably under-recorded in suitable habitat, but the extent of such habitat is very limited (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total population is probably significantly below 1,000 individuals, and it is the least common of the endemic land birds on the island. <p></p>
106001307		habitat	eng	It frequents second growth forest, <em>Hibiscus</em> thickets and streamside vine-tangles, feeding on large insects and lizards <em>Anolis</em> sp. (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are apparently no published observations of the species nesting (T. Sherry <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001307		population	eng	The total population is probably significantly below 1,000 individuals (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001307		threats	eng	Cats are potential predators of adults, fledglings and nests, whilst rats are potential nest predators. Feral deer, pigs and goats graze suitable habitat. Pigs especially devastate the lower strata and understorey of native forests and inhibit forest regeneration (Sherry 1985, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On many other islands, this combination of feral mammals has caused the extinction of numerous endemic plant and animal species. There is also low-level disturbance from increasing tourism (Sherry 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Global climate change might pose a threat in the future, perhaps through the effects of changes in weather patterns (T. Sherry <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001311		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has occurred in four protected areas in the Dominican Republic, but there are recent records from only the Sierra de Bahoruco and Nalga de Maco National Parks (S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a thorough, targeted survey using tape-playback throughout its potential range during the breeding season. Confirm the presence of a population at El Tetero. Effectively protect Sierra de Bahoruco and Nalga de Maco National Parks. Assess the impact of habitat modification, hunting and agrochemicals.  Initiate a community education and awareness programme in communities near remaining known populations. Continue research on the basic ecology of the species and determine territory sizes so as to more accurately estimate population sizes for this species. <p></p>
106001311		distribution	eng	<em>Hyetornis rufigularis</em> occurs in Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>), and apparently suffered a dramatic decline in range and numbers during the 20th century. It is considered extremely rare, if not extinct, in Haiti, and has already been extirpated from Gonâve Island. There are two known sites that support breeding populations, near the village of Puerto Escondido on the northern slope of Sierra de Bahorucos and near the village of Rio Limpio at the base of Nalga de Maco National Park on the lower northern slope of the Cordillera Central (L. Woolaver <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Both known populations are very small (likely to be less than 50 pairs at each site) (L. Woolaver <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Based on current knowledge, it is extremely localised, but there may still be other populations throughout the island, such as at El Tetero on the lower southern slope of the Cordillera Central on the edge of José del Carmen Ramírez National Park, where there have been convincing local reports (L. Woolaver <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001311		habitat	eng	It is found from the lowlands to 900 m, and sometimes higher (Payne 1997)<strong></strong>.  Its preferred habitat appears to be the narrow transition zone between dry forest and moist broadleaf forest, but it has also been reported from the arid lowlands, mixed pine and broadleaf forest, montane rainforest and even overgrown pasture in agricultural areas.  It feeds primarily on lizards and insects (L. Woolaver <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Birds have a very short breeding season which appears to be closely tied to the onset of the wet season and a bloom of cicadas, which is by far the most abundant food item fed to nestlings (L. Woolaver <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Loose stick nests are built (3-11 m above the ground) in trees that have concealing epiphytes or leaves, and are active in May-April. Clutches of two eggs, greyish with a chalky white coating, are most common although a clutch of three has been recorded (L. Woolaver <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001311		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001311		threats	eng	Its decline is probably associated with deforestation for agriculture, habitat degradation through high levels of grazing, hunting for food, and possibly the use of agrochemicals.  <p></p>
106001312		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001313		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001317		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001318		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001322		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crotophaga sulcirostris</span> occurs in the Americas, from the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> south through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> El Salvador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama </span>to South America, where it occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands Antilles</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The race <span style="font-style: italic;">pallidula</span>, described from Cabo San Lucas in the early 20th century (Bangs and Pernard 1921), is probably now extinct.
106001323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001324		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001325		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001326		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001329		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001330		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001331		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements. Survey potentially suitable habitat. Clarify taxonomic status. Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.   <p></p>
106001331		distribution	eng	<em>Neomorphus squamiger</em> is found south of lower Amazonia (the lower rio Tapajós area of Pará), <strong>Brazil</strong> (Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Payne 1997). It is known from only a handful of skins and a few sight-records from the lower half of the Tapajos-Xingu interfluvium (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Payne 1997, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <br/><em> <p></p></em>
106001331		habitat	eng	It occurs in tropical lowland evergreen forest but is otherwise poorly known. It is naturally rare, probably susceptible to hunting and reliant on  following ants (area sensitive), peccaries  and primates (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <p></p>
106001331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106001331		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the  Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network;  it is strongly susceptible to degradation and fragmentation due to its  reliance on primary forest (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011), and may also be vulnerable to hunting and dependent on mammals that are targeted by hunters (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).  <p></p>
106001332		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from several protected areas, including Los Farallones de Cali and Munchique National Parks and El Pangan Nature Reserve (Colombia), Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Biological Corridor, Protective Forest Los Cedros, Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve, and Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Reserve (Ecuador)<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Best <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hornbuckle <em>et al</em>. 1997, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey foothill-forests within its range (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Study its ecology<strong> </strong>(López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999). Develop a network of effectively protected reserves in its foothill range<strong> </strong>(López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999). Designate the Awá Reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. Sustainably manage the buffer zone to the Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. Implement population monitoring programs (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Consolidate protection of the Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas ecological reserves through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonization inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106001332		distribution	eng	<em>Neomorphus radiolosus</em> is found on the Pacific slope of the West Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Valle, Cauca, Nariño) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha). It was recorded only rarely until 1988, since when it has been found in three areas in Colombia and at least six in Ecuador<strong> </strong>(Leck <em>et al</em>. 1980, Best <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hornbuckle <em>et al</em>. 1997, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Krabbe &amp; Nilsson 2003, B. Palacios verbally 2005,<strong></strong> A. Solano verbally 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. Hunters in the Junín area, Nariño, reported in the 1990s that they saw it every few months, but it is evidently a low-density species<strong> </strong>(López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999) and very rare and local (Ridgely and Greenfield 2007).   <p></p>
106001332		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet foothill forests at 30-1,525 m ( B. Palacios verbally 2005, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. It seems to be dependent on continuous primary forest, but also uses adjacent secondary areas<strong> </strong>(López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999). Reports and information from local people suggest that it sometimes associates with collared peccaries <em>Tayassu tajacu</em>, and with mixed-species bird flocks attending army ant swarms<strong> </strong>(Hornbuckle <em>et al</em>. 1997, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It forages for arthropods from the ground by scouring foliage, stems and tree-trunks, or catching prey disturbed by army ants<strong> </strong>(Hornbuckle <em>et al</em>. 1997, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Two recently documented nesting attempts provided the first information on its nesting biology: one took place in March-April and the other in May, and both nests were located c.5 m above ground in understorey trees in primary forest<strong> </strong>(Karubian <em>et al. </em>2007). The clutch size appears to be small and may be only a single egg<strong> </strong>(Karubian <em>et al. </em>2007). A wide range of invertebrates (particularly grasshoppers) and vertebrates (mainly small frogs) were fed to the nestling<strong> </strong>(Karubian <em>et al. </em>2007). Extensive visual and auditory transect-mapping samples<strong></strong> (1997-2006) in Esmeraldas, covering an altitudinal range of 5-1,800 m confirmed that the species occurs at extremely low densities of 0.125-0.25 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Jahn in press a), or less, in most of its remaining Ecuadorian range; concordant with a radio-tagged adult that was found to have a home range of 5 km<sup>2</sup><strong> </strong>(Karubian and Carrasco<em> </em>2008).<br/><p></p>
106001332		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001332		threats	eng	The Chocó region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997). Deforestation is particularly rapid in Ecuador, Nariño, and along the Cali-Buenaventura and other roads (Salaman 1994, <strong></strong> Salaman and Stiles 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. By 1996, in western Ecuador the remnant cover of evergreen lowland and premontane forests was only 18% and 40% respectively (Sierra 1999). In the late 1990s, primary forests in Nariño and within 60 km of San Lorenzo, Esmeraldas, were selectively logged, and then converted to oil palm plantations at a rapid rate (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, <strong></strong> J. Mew verbally 2000, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. Between 1998 and 2007 the area planted with African palms rose from only 3 km<sup>2 </sup>to 225 km<sup>2</sup> (+900% per year) (Cárdenas 2007) with a further 275-315 km<sup>2</sup> due to be converted in the near future<strong></strong> (J. Mew verbally 2000). In Esmeraldas, annual deforestation rates in the lowlands (&lt;300 m) were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest &gt;38% during the last decade (Cárdenas 2007). During the same period, the cover of primary premontane forest (300-1300 m) was reduced by 7% (Cárdenas 2007). Infrastructural improvement in the region, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, is resulting in increased logging, small-scale agriculture, gold mining, and hunting for food (Salaman 1994, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Wege and Long 1995<strong>,</strong><strong></strong> Salaman and Stiles 1996), which is already affecting some key protected areas (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. There is intensive agricultural development, especially coca and banana plantations, at lower altitudes, and cattle-farming (Salaman 1994, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000,  Álvarez 2002, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong>,</strong> P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000).  <p></p>
106001333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001334		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001335		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001336		distribution	eng	This species has a patchy distribution along the northern coastal lowlands of New Guinea, from the Geelvink Bay in Irian Jaya (Indonesia) to the Astrolobe Bay in Papua New Guinea. It is generally reported to be uncommon (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986), but is locally fairly common in localities such as the Puwani River area south of Vanimo and in incompletely logged forest in the Wapoga River area (A. Mack in litt. 1999, K.D. Bishop in litt. 1999, B. Beehler in litt. 2000).
106001336		habitat	eng	It favours a type of primary and tall secondary forest which has only been recorded below 150 m.
106001336		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be greater than 50,000 individuals (Seal et al. 1992). It is generally reported to be uncommon (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986), but is locally fairly common in localities such as the Puwani River area south of Vanimo and in incompletely logged forest in the Wapoga River area (A. Mack in litt. 1999, K. D. Bishop in litt. 1999, B. Beehler in litt. 2000).
106001336		threats	eng	Forests throughout its range are threatened by commercial logging but the species's abundance in secondary forest suggests that it is not threatened (B. Whitney in litt. 2000).
106001337		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundnat (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001339		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I, and a protected species in Indonesia. Although 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest has some form of protected status on Karakelang, 250 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>as a Wildlife Reserve, there is, at present, no management of these sites <strong></strong>(Riley 2003). Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork and conservation awareness programmes, and developing ideas for future land-use. Efforts have been made to promote local support of the species on Talaud, its last stronghold. It has been reported that poaching and trade of this species have decreased dramatically following active confiscation operations by forestry department rangers in 2005 (R. T. Prayudhi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends and trapping levels. Enforce legislation (including strict dock controls, and perhaps activities by the navy and marine police [R. T. Prayudhi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008]) to reduce trading to sustainable levels. Conduct further research, provide training and resources for reserve staff and produce a cross-community management plan. Continue conservation awareness programmes to highlight the plight of this species and increase local support for its conservation. Develop capacity to effectively protect current reserves.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106001339		distribution	eng	<em>Eos histrio</em> is now confined to the Talaud Islands (almost exclusively on Karakelang) off northern Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Although it was previously abundant, the species has declined and the population on Karakelang was estimated at 8,230-21,400 birds in 1999 <strong></strong>(Riley 2003). The nominate subspecies, known from the Sangihe Islands, is probably now extinct.<p></p>
106001339		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, eating fruit and insects, but also visits agricultural areas to feed on coconut nectar and various cultivated fruits. Highest densities have been recorded in primary forest but the species does tolerate secondary forest too <strong></strong>(Riley 2003). The species nests in holes in tall trees, and the main breeding period appears to be May-June (although nesting has been suspected in several other months). Flocks regularly make short seasonal movements, and in some cases roost on offshore islands. <p></p>
106001339		population	eng	Karakelang, where the vast majority of the species's population is found, was estimated to hold 8,230-21,400 birds in 1999. The estimate of 8,200-21,400 individuals is used as a total here, roughly equating to 5,500-14,000 mature individuals.
106001339		threats	eng	Trade represents a significant and on-going threat to the species. It was widely trapped as early as the 19th century. In 1999, research suggested that as many as 1,000-2,000 birds were being taken from Karakelang each year, 80% (illegally) to the Philippines. This is compounded by the extensive loss of forest, perhaps the main factor underlying its disappearance from Sangihe. The reasons behind habitat loss are small-holder agricultural encroachment into primary forest and (illegal) commercial logging. Furthermore, in 2003 there were plans to develop a commercial banana plantation on Karakelang <strong></strong>(Riley 2003). The use of insecticides and the transmission of disease via escaped cage-birds to wild populations, have been identified as a further potential hazards. <p></p>
106001341		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at  &lt; c.100 introduced breeding   pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001341		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 99,834 wild-caught specimens have been recorded in international trade, although none since 2000 (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001342		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Investigate the extent of trapping and take appropriate measures, including the use of awareness campaigns, to address these issues. Protect significant areas of suitable forest on all islands where it occurs.  <p></p>
106001342		distribution	eng	<em>Eos reticulata</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is found on Tanimbar (Yamdena and Larat), with populations reported on Babar, Damar and Kai in the late nineteenth century but not since (BirdLife International 2001). An average 3,198 birds were traded annually in the period 1983-1989, but fieldwork in 1993 on Yamdena, which represents c.55% of the species's range, revealed an estimated 220,000 ± 52,000 birds, and past catch rates were judged unlikely to have caused any decline.  <p></p>
106001342		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, coconut plantations and mangroves, but little else is known about the species's ecology (Juniper and Parr 1998).<br/><p></p>
106001342		population	eng	Fieldwork in 1993 on Yamdena, which represents c.55% of the species's range, revealed an estimated 220,000 birds. It is probably best placed within the band 100,000-499,999 individuals.
106001342		threats	eng	Habitat loss continues apace in the south of Yamdena and this, combined with continued trapping, may be causing it to decline.<br/><p></p>
106001343		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara (covering 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Pulau Supiori (covering 420&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Nature Reserves (Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was common in Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997 (B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on all the Geelvink Islands to clarify its current distribution and population status. Research its ecology and movements to facilitate planning for its conservation. Investigate trade in the species and devise and implement appropriate controls. Estimate the rate of forest loss within its range. Control logging on Supiori. <p></p>
106001343		distribution	eng	<em>Eos cyanogenia</em> is endemic to the Geelvink Islands of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the islands of Biak-Supiori, and the much smaller islands of Numfor, Manim and Mios Num (Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>. On Biak, it is fairly common in patchy forest, although it has sometimes been recorded in flocks of 40-60 (Gibbs 1993, Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994, B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000). On Supiori, it is common, although less so at higher altitudes (Bishop 1982, Gibbs 1993)<strong></strong>. It is nomadic, making it difficult to assess its true numbers but, on Biak, it appears it declined notably between 1982 and 1995 (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001343		habitat	eng	It is a gregarious species which apparently feeds chiefly in inland forest, up to 460&#160;m (although becoming less common at altitudes above 200&#160;m on Supiori, at least), and roosts in coconut plantations and nearby coastal forest (Bishop 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is common in "flat forest" on Supiori (Gibbs 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and still relatively common in secondary forest on Biak (N. Bostock <em>in litt</em>. 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but is absent from low scrubby regrowth (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001343		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001343		threats	eng	Relatively large numbers have been trapped for the domestic and international trade (Nash 1990b, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and this species is commonly observed as a pet on Biak (Bishop 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large areas of forest on Biak have been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, particularly the southern plains, and the remainder is under pressure (Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Furthermore, forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation. <p></p>
106001344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and highly gregarious (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially in coconut plantations and around villages and common in Dumoga-Bone National Park, north Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001349		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106001350		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, especially in montane forest (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001351		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Protect significant areas of primary montane forest on Mindanao.  <p></p>
106001351		distribution	eng	<em>Trichoglossus johnstoniae</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs at Mt Kitanglad, near Lake Lanao, Mt Piapayungan, Mt Apo, Mt Matutum, Lake Parker, Luhan, New Dumangas, T'boli, South Cotabato, Lake Sebu and Mt Malindang (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It was described as uncommon and local, and was formerly considered Vulnerable, but now appears to be moderately common and even locally numerous.  <p></p>
106001351		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest above c.1,000 m, up to 1,700 m on Mount Malindang and to 2,500 m on Mount Apo (Juniper and Parr 1998). It prefers mossy forest, but also occurs at the forest edge and in degraded and logged areas. Birds in breeding condition have been collected between March and May (Juniper and Parr 1998).  <p></p>
106001351		population	eng	The global population size has apparently not been formally quantified, but the species is described as very uncommon and there are thought to be fewer than 10,000 individuals. On this basis it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001351		threats	eng	Its preferred habitat is relatively unlikely to be affected by human activities in the medium term, but logging and trapping must remain a concern. As a species of montane areas, it is potentially threatened in the long term by the effects of projected climate change on the distribution and extent of its habitats. <br/><p></p>
106001352		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is now the official state bird of Pohnpei and thus killing, trapping and export of the species are illegal (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Campaigns have been successful at reducing persecution and hunting pressure, as well as forest clearance for agriculture by encouraging cultivation at lower elevations (Buden 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there has been resistance to the latter because sakau grows better on wet mountain slopes and crops are likely to be safer in more remote areas (Buden 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor trends in the species's population and land use patterns on Pohnpei. Increase the area of primary forest that is protected. Encourage management practices that preserve large trees with holes and cavities and large <em>Xylocarpus</em> mangroves (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001352		distribution	eng	<em>Trichoglossus rubiginosus</em> is endemic to the island of Pohnpei and large forested islets of Ant Atoll, in the eastern Caroline Islands, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia </strong>(Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997). The population was estimated at 88,107 individuals following surveys in 1983-1984 although<strong></strong> this was probably an overestimate given the mobility of the species (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong>. Surveys conducted in 1994 suggested that the species had declined by 74-75% since the early 1980s, probably indicating a real decline (Buden 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The current population is thought to exceed 10,000 individuals (Juniper and Parr 1998, M. O'Brien<em> in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
106001352		habitat	eng	The species is found throughout the island up to c.600 m, occurring in a broad range of habitats including plantations, dense forest, secondary forest, mangroves (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and around urban areas (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990, J. R. Gilardi<em> in litt</em>. 2011, M. O'Brien<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar, pollen and fruit, particularly favouring nectar from coral trees <em>Erythrina fusca</em> and mango <em>Mangifera indica</em> fruit<strong></strong>, but also noted to favour flowers of coconuts, bananas and <em>Elaeocarpus</em> species (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species nests in the tops of coconut palms or in cavities in large trees (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also shows a preference for <em>Xylocarpus </em>mangroves (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting generally takes place from December to May, although there is evidence of breeding outside this period, and only one egg is laid by each female (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001352		population	eng	Surveys conducted in 1983-1984 yielded an estimate of 88,107 individuals; however, this was probably an overestimate, and surveys in 1994 registered an apparent decline of 74-75%. The current population probably numbers over 10,000 individuals (M. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2011), roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals. Further study is required.
106001352		threats	eng	Although the species is known to use a range of habitats, it may have suffered some negative effects from deforestation, which has been rapid. Overall, there was a reduction of undisturbed upland forest on Pohnpei of over 60% from 1975 to 1995 (Buden 1996, 2000, B. Raynor <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 2012). The majority of the island's forests have been to various degrees converted or at least degraded to mixed forest (native species mixed with lowland secondary species), largely attributable to the cultivation of sakau (= kava) <em>Piper methysticum</em> as a major cash-crop (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012). The fragmentation of such forest by sakau clearings also introduces and encourages the spread of invasive species in isolated areas throughout the forest. Although efforts over the past 20 years to reduce the amount of clear-cutting for sakau plantations have resulted in the slowing of native forest conversion rates, the trend remains negative (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012). There is a history of this species being hunted for food, persecuted for its perceived pest status and superstitious associations, and captured for trade, with the presence of some birds in captivity suggesting that nest poaching is still taking place (J. R. Gilardi<em> in litt</em>. 2010, 2011, M. O'Brien<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Its pest status may be exaggerated, as it apparently only inflicts minor damage on crops such as mangoes (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001353		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the centre of its range and rarer towards the northern and southern areas of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001354		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001354		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it is found from Kimberley division, Western Australia, east to north-east Queensland. It is common around Mt Isa and still appears to be widespread and abundant over huge areas of the Top End of the Northern Territory (D. Franklin in litt. 2003).
106001354		habitat	eng	The species is found in wooded areas, being especially attracted to paperbarks Melaleuca and eucalypts bordering streams and waterholes. It feeds on pollen and nectar from the flowers of Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and other tree species, and is nomadic in response to the availability of blossom, which may be responsible for its disappearance from some areas for long periods of time. Breeding chiefly occurs in April-August, but has been recorded all year round. It nests in tree holes, and has a clutch size of 2-5 eggs (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001354		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001355		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Investigate the extent of trapping and take appropriate measures, including the use of awareness campaigns, to address these issues. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Protect significant areas of suitable forest on both islands where it occurs.  <p></p>
106001355		distribution	eng	<em>Psitteuteles iris</em> is restricted to Timor and Wetar, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong> (BirdLife International 2001, Mauro 2003). It is reported to be not uncommon on Timor-Leste, it still survives in reasonable numbers in West Timor and it is, or at least once was, locally not uncommon on Wetar. It was, nevertheless, judged to be the least common of the three species of lorikeet on Timor in 1995.  <p></p>
106001355		habitat	eng	It occurs in monsoon forest, woodland, plantations and agricultural land with flowering trees, ranging up to 1,500 m (Juniper and Parr 1998), but is also found in open eucalypt savanna. <p></p>
106001355		population	eng	The global population size has apparently not been formally quantified, but the species is described as locally common at higher elevations, and its population may be in the region of 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,600-6,700 mature individuals.
106001355		threats	eng	It is subject to unknown levels of trapping for the bird trade and is also likely to be affected by on-going forest loss.  <p></p>
106001356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common depending on food availability (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001357		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In 2002, ProFauna Indonesia, in collaboration with the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) from the UK, launched a report to publicise the numbers of parrots trapped in North Maluku in 2001 (R. Tri Prayudhi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). This was followed by campaigns conducted by ProFauna Indonesia, supported by Yayasan KAMU, a local NGO. In 2008, a further report was launched by ProFauna Indonesia, again with the support of the RSPCA, to raise awareness of the capture and smuggling of parrots from North Halmahera (R. Tri Prayudhi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). A healthy population occurs in 167,300 ha of forest at Lalobata and Ake Tajawe on Halmahera which was declared a national park in 2004, although illegal logging and bird trapping have continued <strong></strong>(Anon 2008). Since August 2007, a project has been aiming to effectively manage the protected area, by building capacity for effective management, monitoring illegal trade and raising public awareness and support <strong></strong>(Anon 2008).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct long-term research into its population size, age structure, ranging behaviour and the relative effects of different threats. Monitor trade.  Initiate a conservation awareness campaign. Increase anti-poaching and anti-smuggling operations, perhaps through improved patrolling by the Indonesian Navy or maritime police (R. Tri Prayudhi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). <br/><p></p>
106001357		distribution	eng	<em>Lorius garrulus</em> is endemic to North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from Morotai, Rau, Halmahera, Widi, Ternate, Bacan and Obi (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally common, but rare near settlements and plantations. In 1991-1992, the population was estimated at 46,360-295,540 birds, with trappers potentially removing c.10% annually, a clearly unsustainable rate of harvest. However, in 1994, 52,500 individuals (39,600-69,900) were estimated in only 1,060 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Halmahera, suggesting a higher population than initially calculated. Very high densities can apparently be sustained in primary rainforest: this habitat at Miaf yielded an estimate of 149.0 (116.6-190.4) birds per km<sup>2</sup>. <p></p>
106001357		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 1,050 m, most commonly in montane forest, rarely in gardens and coconut plantations, although this may reflect variations in trapping pressure rather than habitat preference. Moreover, while it is tolerant of logging, the highest densities are to be found in primary forest. It is a canopy species, occasionally descending to the lower canopy to feed, and typically nesting in holes in very tall trees. <p></p>
106001357		population	eng	A population size of 46,000-295,000 individuals was estimated by Lambert (1993a, b) although subsequent work in 1994 suggests the population may at that time have been considerably higher.
106001357		threats	eng	The main threat stems from trapping for the cage-bird trade. This is the most popular bird exported from east Indonesia, largely owing to its strong imitative abilities. Several thousand individuals were legally taken from the wild annually during the 1980s and early 1990s, although the true figure was probably much higher. Legal trade declined through the 1990s and ceased in 2003 <strong></strong>(Poulsen <em>et al. </em>1999); however, illegal trade continues: in 2007 around 2,800 were recorded as poached and in 2008, 60 were recorded in trade in Javan bird markets <strong></strong>(R. Nursahid <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2009). Forests within its range were largely intact at the outset of the 1990s, but exploitation by logging companies for economically valuable timber has become intensive. Important nesting-trees are targeted for extraction because of their large size, and with logging roads greatly facilitating access for trappers, this represents an increasingly significant combination of threats. <p></p>
106001358		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and protected under Indonesian law since 1972. It occurs in one protected area, Manusela National Park, from whence most recent records derive, although the level of protection is unknown. A programme of local awareness, targeting Salmon-crested Cockatoo <em>Cacatua</em> <em>moluccensis</em> and linked with the promotion of ecotourism, may be of benefit to this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its current distribution and status, and to assess more specifically its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor domestic trade and implement current legislation in an attempt to control trapping. Devise and implement a major conservation awareness campaign on Seram designed to reduce trapping and trade pressure (for this and other endemic parrots). Establish a strict nature reserve in the Wae Fufa catchment and adjacent ridges and valleys of north-east Seram. <p></p>
106001358		distribution	eng	<em>Lorius domicella</em> is endemic to the islands of Seram, Ambon, and perhaps also Haruku and Saparua, South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It appears always to have been uncommon or rare, recent records deriving only from within Manusela National Park in central Seram, where it is scarce, and from the Wae Fufa catchment in the east, where it is fairly common on ridges between 900 and 1,050 m. It was thought to probably be distributed thinly throughout the island at appropriate altitudes, but may have been trapped out from most of the island by 2009 (J. Hornbuckle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011), with birds absent in 2006 from all sites where they were fairly common in 1994 (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). There are unconfirmed local reports that it still survives above Hila on Ambon. Historically at least, an apparently feral population also existed on the island of Buru. <p></p>
106001358		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill and submontane rainforest, sometimes preferring ridges, within a fairly restricted altitudinal range (between 300 and 1,100 m, but only common between 600 and 1,000 m). In one recent study it was not found in logged forest, suggesting intolerance of degradation. It lives in pairs or scattered flocks and is thought to be largely sedentary.<p></p>
106001358		population	eng	The population population was previously estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals, or 1,500-7,000 mature individuals, based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. Given the lack of recent records and apparent scarcity of the species, and the extent of ongoing trapping pressure and habitat loss since the original estimate in 2000, the population is suspected to have declined such that the population estimate is now best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals.
106001358		threats	eng	This species is widely trapped and kept as a pet in large numbers in villages throughout Seram, where it is much admired for its melodious call and skilful mimicry, and it was reportedly 'mostly trapped out' on the island by 2009 (J. Hornbuckle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Knowledgeable former trappers report that it has markedly declined and is now hard to find (S. Metz <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It is also traded externally, to Ambon at least (for which permits exist legalising trade of 300-600 parrots per week), and is a popular souvenir of Seram for visitors. Its apparent avoidance of logged forest indicates that habitat degradation, and certainly deforestation, poses a serious threat. Widespread commercial timber extraction, oil drilling and hydroelectric projects are thus further pressures within its range.<br/> <p></p>
106001359		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common but not abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001361		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect hill forest. Determine tolerance of logged forest at different altitudes. Monitor populations in key sites.  <p></p>
106001361		distribution	eng	<em>Lorius albinucha</em>, long known only from the montane massif of southern New Ireland, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, has also been found more recently on the Lelet Plateau in the middle of the island<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong></strong>. It is uncommon to fairly common in forest between 500-2,000 m and has occasionally been seen down to 250 m in logged forest (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs 1997<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>.  It is likely to have a population of less than 10,000 individuals.  <em> <p></p></em>
106001361		habitat	eng	It is a hill forest species, which like other members of the genus, feeds on fruit and flowers.   It occurs in forest between 500-2,000 m,  occasionally as low as 250 m in logged forest<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106001361		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001361		threats	eng	Logging is presently in operation up to 500 m on the southern massif but is unlikely to extend into montane forest (G. Dutson pers. obs 1997)<strong></strong>. Logging was not apparent but must also threaten forest on Lelet (Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong></strong>. It may not declining, but is more likely to do so if the logging operations expand into steep montane forest.  <p></p>
106001362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest large parrot within its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Makogai island and rare on Ngau island, Fiji (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001365		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In Kiribati, the species is fully-protected (Watling 1995)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In French Polynesia the species is protected by national legislation since 1996, and on Rimatara it has been protected by a traditional tapu (taboo) since c.1900. 27 individuals were reintroduced to Atiu from Rimatara in May 2007 (<strong></strong>G. McCormack <em>in litt </em>2006, Gouni<em> et al. </em>2007, Gouni<em> </em>and Zysman<em> </em>2007)<strong></strong>, following which a community contest was organised to find the first young birds, with a reward given to the winner (G. McCormack <em>in litt </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Monthly counting of the birds on Atiu is conducted to assess the success of the introduction effort <span style="">(R. Malcolm</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt.</span><span style=""> 2010)</span>. A Common Myna control programme began on Atiu in May 2009, including baiting and and trapping by locals, with a bounty for each bird killed. By October 2009 the myna population had been reduced by c.60% (G. McCormack<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2009) and this programme is continuing, however complete eradication of the mynahs has now been suggested (R. Malcolm <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  In June 2010 a group of 8 school children and 4 adults from Rimatara visited Atiu to celebrate the success of the introduction (<span style="">G. Albar </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2010, </span>Heptonstall 2010).  On Rimatara, 21 bait stations were set up on the main wharf in September 2009 to prevent black rats<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>from invading the island and awareness-raising is being carried out amongst children on the importance of protecting the island’s avifauna (Albar <em>et al.</em> 2009). There are plans to trial rat-excluding nestboxes on Mitiaro (G. McCormack<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2009).  <br/> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>On Rimatara and Atiu, monitor the population every two or three years (McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong></strong>. Launch a major quarantine campaign to prevent the accidental introduction of <em>R. rattus </em>to those islands (McCormack and Künzle 1996, Gouni<em> </em>2005,<strong> </strong>Gouni<em> et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. On Tabuaeran, investigate the species's survival with <em>R. rattus </em>and take steps to eradicate the predator (D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In Kiribati, promote greater awareness and enforcement of the wildlife legislation (Watling 1995)<strong></strong><span style="">. Survey the population on Teraina and Kiribati. On Atui, train nationals in monitoring techniques to facilitate regular monitoring. Continue conducting awareness campaigns with the local population of Rimatara to explain why this bird is important (Gouni</span><em style=""> </em><span style="">2005,</span><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">Gouni</span><em style=""> et al. </em><span style="">2007)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.Continue Common Mynah A. </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">tristis </span><span style="">control</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> </span><span style="">and assess feasibility of eradication on Atiu (R. Malcolm </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt</span><span style="">. 2012).</span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><p></p>
106001365		distribution	eng	<em>Vini kuhlii</em> is restricted to Rimatara in the Tubuai Islands (and according to local people may have occurred on Rurutu in the past [P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999]<strong></strong>), <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, and to Teraina (= Washington), Tabuaeran (= Fanning) and Kiritimati (= Christmas Island), <strong>Kiribati</strong>. W. Ellis contrasted Rimatara with Rurutu in 1820 by saying that Rimatara is known to have many colourful parrots, and there is no other historic or archaeological reason for believing that the lorikeet was naturalised on Rurutu (G. McCormack <em>in litt </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Fossil and oral traditions indicate that the species was formerly on at least five of the Southern Cook Islands (Steadman 1989, McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong></strong>. On Rimatara, the population was estimated at c.905 birds (minimum) following survey work in 1992 (McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong></strong>, then at c.750 birds in 2000 (G.<strong> </strong>McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2001)<strong></strong>, 610 birds in 2004 (<strong></strong>Gouni<em> </em>2005)<strong></strong> and 1,079 birds in 2009 (Albar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), although this number may be an overestimate due to the timing of the study, differences in methodology and potential double-counting of individuals. In April 2007, twenty-seven birds were re-introduced to Atiu in the Cook Islands from Rimatara. Atiu has similar vegetation to Rimatara and is free of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, although Pacific rat <em>R. exulans </em>is abundant. The first breeding on Atiu was reported in 2008, with four birds having already spread to the neighbouring island of Mitiaro (<span style="">Lieberman and McCormack 2008, Malcolm 2008</span>).<strong> </strong>The introduction appears to have been successful, with the population estimated at c.40 birds in 2009, 90 ± 19 birds in 2010 and 92 ± 24 birds in 2011 (R. Malcolm <em>in litt</em>. 2010, 2012),<strong> </strong>although the 2011 estimate is likely to be an underestimate due to observer error <span style="">(Malcolm 2011, R. Malcolm </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2012</span>).  On Teraina, the population is estimated at 1,000 individuals (minimum), with 50 on Tabuaeran, possibly fewer, on a single islet in the atoll (Watling 1995)<strong></strong>. On Kiritimati, a few individuals were reported to survive in 1999 (D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>1999), although the species was suggested to be 'common' in the <strong></strong>plantations to the north of the village of London in 2008 (<span style="">P. Fraser</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt.</span><span style=""> 2008</span>).<em><p></p></em>
106001365		habitat	eng	On Rimatara, the most favoured habitat is mixed horticultural woodlands, including coconut and <em>Paraserianthes falcataria</em> plantations, and it is rare in native makatea forest (McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Teraina and Tabuaeran, it is effectively confined to coconut plantations (Watling 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar from a wide variety of flowering plants (nearly all recently introduced) (McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001365		population	eng	A population estimate of at least 2,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,300 mature individuals, is derived from Watling (1995), McCormack and Kunzle (1996), D. Watling (<em> in litt.</em> 1999), Albar <em>et al.</em> (2009) and R. Malcolm (<em>in litt.</em> 2012).
106001365		threats	eng	Excessive exploitation for its red feathers is the most likely reason for the species's extinction from the Cook Islands (Watling 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong></strong>. A serious threat to all small lorikeets on Pacific islands is nest-predation by rats, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em><strong></strong>(Seitre and Seitre 1991, 1992, Gouni<em> </em>2005)<strong></strong>. On Rimatara, extensive trapping showed <em>R. rattus</em> to be absent in 2000, while <em>R. exulans</em> was widespread and abundant (G.<strong> </strong>McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2001, Gouni<em> </em>2005,<strong> </strong>Gouni<em> et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Extensive trapping in 2007 confirmed this situation (Gouni<em> et al. </em>2007). On Teraina, there is no evidence of the presence of <em>R. rattus,</em> although Pacific rat <em>R. exulans</em> is abundant while on Tabuaeran and Mitiaro, <em>R. rattus</em> occurs (Watling 1995, <span style="">G. McCormack </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. C</span>ats may be a threat on Kiritimati. The Common Myna <span style="font-style: italic;">Acridotheres tristis </span>is a threat to the introduced population on Atiu as it competes for nesting sites and has been reported to attack fledglings (Lieberman and McCormack 2008, Malcolm 2008, Heptonstall 2010).  <p></p>
106001366		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Following a feasibility study (Brooke and Towns 2008) a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson island in August 2011 (J. Hall<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). A follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the rat eradication.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson.<p></p>
106001366		distribution	eng	<em>Vini stepheni</em> is restricted to Henderson in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, a small uninhabited, raised-reef island in the south-central Pacific Ocean. In 1987, the total population was estimated at between 720 and 1,820 individuals (Graves 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; it is thought to be stable.  <p></p>
106001366		habitat	eng	It occurs in native forest, showing a preference for forest edge, and in coconut palms along beaches. It is a generalist feeder, consuming nectar, pollen and fruit from a wide variety of plants from beach-level to the plateau, although flowers from the plants <em>Scaevola sericea</em> and <em>Timonius polygamus</em> provide the main sources of nectar (Trevelyan 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Arthropods form part of the diet, including lepidopteran larvae found in the sporangia of the fern <em>Phymatosorus </em>(Trevelyan 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001366		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 720-1,820 individuals, roughly equating to 480-1,200 mature individuals.
106001366		threats	eng	This species appears to have adapted to the presence of the only introduced predator, Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans </em>(Trevelyan 1995)<strong></strong>. In August 2011, a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island to eradicate <em>R. exulans </em>from the island (J. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). However, the accidental introduction of a more aggressive predator, such as another <em>Rattus</em> species, could be devastating, and introduced diseases such as avian malaria and pox are another potential threat. The introduction of exotic plant species could have serious consequences for the native vegetation (Waldren <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong> and therefore for this species.  <p></p>
106001367		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. On Aitutaki, where extensive trapping in 1994 indicated the absence of <em>R</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span><em>rattus</em>, the species has been surveyed several times including by local high-school students using a simplified technique (McCormack 1997)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to ascertain its continuing presence and numbers on known islands. Continue monitoring the population on Aitutaki (G. McCormack verbally 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish more basic facts about the species's requirements, particularly those relating to feeding plants, in preparation for the re-establishment of populations on other suitable motus (Lovegrove<em> et al</em>. 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Undertake an educational programme on Apataki (Lovegrove<em> et al</em>. 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and on other islands where strong populations persist. Consider special protection of viable populations (Lovegrove<em> et al</em>. 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent the arrival of <em>Rattus rattus</em> on Aitutaki and other important islands (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001367		distribution	eng	<em>Vini peruviana</em> is widely but unevenly distributed in south-east Polynesia where it has been recorded from c.20 islands, but is now extinct on several of these (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>. Its range includes the Society Islands (formerly all), the northern atolls of the Tuamotu Archipelago (both <strong>French Polynesia</strong>), and Aitutaki (<strong>Cook Islands</strong>). In the Society Islands, there were possibly up to 250 and 350-400 pairs on Motu One and Manuae respectively in 1973 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, and it has been observed on Maupihaa in 1999, where it was thought to have been extinct (either a rediscovered subpopulation or a recent recolonisation) (<em>Te Manu</em> 1999 27: 1, <strong></strong><em>Te Manu</em> 1999 28: 3)<strong></strong>. In the Tuamotus, there are relatively recent records (2006 estimates in brackets) (Raust and Ziembicki 2006)<strong></strong> from Kaukura (1000), Rangiroa (1000), Arutua (500), Apataki (200), Tikehau (50) (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Lovegrove<em> et al</em>. 1989)<strong></strong> and Tiamanu Motu in Apataki atoll where a minimum 300 individuals were estimated in 1989 (this subpopulation being allegedly smaller than 10 years previously) (Lovegrove<em> et al</em>. 1989)<strong></strong>. On Aitutaki, where it was probably introduced, numbers have been estimated at under 500 pairs (Wilson 1993)<strong></strong>, 2,400 individuals and 1000 individuals (Raust and Ziembicki 2006)<strong></strong>. The apparent differences may be attributable to differing census techniques (G. McCormack verbally 1999)<strong></strong>.  Following the devastation of Cyclone Pat in 2010, a study was carried  out to assess the impact on the Blue Lorikeet, reporting an estimated  population size of c.1400 birds on Aitutaki (Jennings 2011) obtained through distance sampling.<p></p>
106001367		habitat	eng	It is typically found in lowland forest, mixed stands of native and cultivated trees, flowering plants, coconut, and banana plantations and gardens, where it feeds on nectar, soft fruit and flowers (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Collar 1997)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001367		population	eng	When recent survey data is combined, the global population is estimated at around 7,200-9,000 individuals. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001367		threats	eng	The species's extinction from many islands is most likely due to predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and to a lesser extent, feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span> (Lovegrove<em> et al</em>. 1989)<strong></strong>; its extinction from Makatea in the Tuamotus could have been accelerated by a particularly violent hurricane (Thibault and Guyot 1987)<strong></strong>. Its range reduction in the Society Islands correlates with the spread of the introduced Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans </em>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>.  The accidental introduction of black rats to the islands where Blue Loirkeet persists is a continuing threat to the species.  <p></p>
106001368		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. In 1992-1994, 29 birds were translocated to Fatu Hiva (Kuehler and Lieberman 1993)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and a follow-up survey was conducted in 1997 (Kuehler <em>et al.</em> 1997), after the arrival of black rats on the island a trapping program was intitated in 2002 in the Punahitahi vally to help conserve the Fatu Iva Monarch <em>Pomarea whitneyi </em>which might have had some marginal benefit for this species, were it still extant on that island (Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The local council at the port on Ua Huka have been issued with rat traps to help prevent the accidental introduction black rats to that island (Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  One local person has been employed in the rat control program on Fatu Hiva and posters of the species have been distributed to schools and community centres on Fatu Hiva and Ua Huka (Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Consider the possibility of translocation to the nearby island of Mohotani only if cats and rats are completely eradicated from this island (SPREP 1999).&#160;On Fatu Hiva, continue to control rats, expand trapping to also include the Omoa Valley (Thibault and Meyer 2000)<strong></strong>. On Ua Huka, monitor the population and take all precautions to prevent invasion by rats<span style=""> by installing and monitoring additional traps around the wharfs. Install robust rat-resistant artificial nest boxes so that in the event of black rat invasion on Ua Huka, a small population of </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Vini</span><span style=""> that may have adapted to use the boxes may survive.</span><p></p><p></p>
106001368		distribution	eng	<em>Vini ultramarina</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. On Ua Pou, it numbered 250-300 pairs in 1975, was rare in 1990 <strong></strong>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong> and was not found in 1998 (<em>Te Manu</em> 1998 24:1)<strong></strong>. On Nuku Hiva, it numbered 70 birds in 1972-1975 but could not be found in 1990 or in 2004 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Seitre and Seitre 1991, Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong></strong>. Recent records - three from Ua Pou (including one pair) in 1999 (<em>Te Manu</em> 1999 27:1)<strong></strong>, one in one week of searching there in 2000 (Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong></strong> and one from Nuku Hiva (at least three birds) in 1998<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<em>Te Manu</em> 1998 24:1)<strong></strong> - may be vagrant birds from Ua Huka rather than relictual populations (J.-C. Thibault <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It was (re)introduced to Ua Huka in the 1940s (a single captive pair), where the population was c.200-250 pairs in the early 1970s and c.1,300 birds in 1991 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Thibault 1988, Kuehler <em>et al.</em> 1997). By 2004 the species had slightly increased to 1,763 - 2,987 individuals (Ziembicki and Raust 2004) and has remained relatively stable since, with 2,094 individuals reported in 2009 (T. Doukas<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2010). It was further (re)introduced to Fatu Hiva (29 birds) in the 1990s (Kuehler and Lieberman 1993)<strong></strong>, where 51 birds were counted in 1997 (Kuehler <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong> but, by 2000 when rats had become established, fewer than 10 were seen in Omoa Valley; in 2004 the population was estimated at 3-10 individuals, and in 2007 it was considered extinct there (Ziembicki and Raust 2004, <strong></strong>P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007, J.-Y. Meyer and J.-C. Thibault unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001368		habitat	eng	It feeds on a wide variety of flowering trees on nectar and pollen, preferring flowers of the coconut palm, banana and native <em>Hibiscus tileaceus </em>and fruit, especially mango; as well as on flowers, buds and insects (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987, <strong></strong>Ziembicki and Raust 2004, Doukas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt. </span>2010). It nests in tree-cavities preferring <em>Artocarpus altilis, Pometia pinnata, Pandanus tectorius </em>and <em>Hibiscus tileacus </em>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987, <strong></strong>Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001368		population	eng	There are 2,094 individuals on Ua Huka alone, and so the total population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001368		threats	eng	It is likely that black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is responsible for its decline, being present on Nuku Hiva since c.1915, on Ua Pou (probably) since 1980, on a motu a few hundred metres from Ua Huka (Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong>, and confirmed, for the first time, on Fatu Hiva in February 2000 (Thibault and Meyer 2000)<strong></strong>. All islands have been devastated by very high levels of grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and extensive damage has been caused even to upland forests (WWF/IUCN 1994-1995)<strong></strong>.  Were the black rat to colonise Ua Huka patterns observed on other islands would indicate that the species would decline almost to extinction within 20 years (Ziembicki and Raust 2004)<strong></strong>.   Additional threats including the clearing of some sections of habitat in order to plant crops and trees for food, and wood carvings for tourism (Doukas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt.</span> 2010).<p></p>
106001369		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant to uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001371		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001372		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected by law in Vanuatu and occurs in the proposed Lake Letas Reserve on Gaua. There are plans to research the Solomon Islands population and breeding ecology (J. R. van Oosten <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other islands in northern Vanuatu. Estimate population density in Santo mountains. Determine any habitat or altitudinal requirements. Research tolerance of logged and degraded forest. Research breeding success and population cycles on small isolated islands. Investigate the role of malaria in causing population fluctuations. Ascertain genetic isolation of subpopulations on dispersed islands. Relate distribution to that of introduced mammalian predators. Designate the proposed Lake Letas Reserve on Gaua. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106001372		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna palmarum</em> has a fluctuating range in the Santa Cruz islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> and in <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. In Santa Cruz, it is known from Nendo (relatively common in higher inland forests in 1990), the Duff Islands (where 30 were seen around one village in 1997), Tinakula (which has not been visited recently), Vanikoro (where it recently appears to have become extinct), Tikopia (where very small numbers have recently colonised) Vanua Lava (where common around Langletak village in the east), Gaua (regular visitor to coconut blossoms at sea level and also recorded in flocks in the forest on the ridge around Lake Letas [c. 500 m above sea level]), Mere Lava (fairly common in small flocks higher up and visits lower altitudes during the day) and Ambae (flocks at higher altitudes only, in forest and at forest edge starting from Duviara village, 500 m above sea level) (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8, <strong></strong>T. Leary <em>in litt.</em> 2000,<strong> </strong>S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007, Dutson in press)<strong></strong>. It has been recorded throughout Vanuatu (except the Torres Islands), but its current range is poorly known away from its stronghold on Espirito Santo (<strong></strong>Diamond 1975b,<strong></strong> Diamond and Marshall 1976, Bregulla 1992,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8)<strong></strong>. In the 1960s, it disappeared from Efate and the southern islands, but birds were seen again on Efate and Tongoa in 1998 (Diamond 1975b, Bregulla 1992<strong></strong>, S. Birchenough and S. M. Evans verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. It is usually seen in small flocks of 10-30 birds (Bregulla 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8)<strong></strong> but its irregular distribution and nomadic habits make it difficult to estimate the total population. <p></p>
106001372		habitat	eng	It appears to occupy high montane altitude forest at elevations in excess of 1,000 m,  but flocks regularly descend to coastal trees, especially to feed on coconut blossoms (Diamond 1975b, Diamond and Marshall 1976, yBregulla 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8, S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007, Dutson in press)<strong></strong>. The one nest found was at 1,600 m Bregulla 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001372		population	eng	The total population size is estimated to fall within the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106001372		threats	eng	Avian malaria, cyclones and natural cycles are suggested causes of its fluctuating range (Diamond 1975b, Diamond and Marshall 1976, Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong>. Lowland forest, especially on small islands with high human populations, is being cleared for agriculture, domestic timber demand and commercial logging, but observations suggest that this habitat type may not be regularly used by this species (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001373		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001374		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at key sites. Study patterns of movement in individuals to get a better idea of population size and habitat requirement. Ensure the protection of significant areas of forest at all altitudes. Take measures to prevent large-scale export trade.   <p></p>
106001374		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna meeki</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and the islands of Santa Isabel, Kolombangara, Guadalcanal, New Georgia and Malaita (with one report from Makira) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is locally common in montane forest from 1,000 m - 1,200 m, with up to 50 seen in a day, and it uncommonly occurs down to sea-level and up to 1,700 m (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Schodde 1977,<strong></strong> Webb 1992, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong><strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, <strong></strong>Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106001374		habitat	eng	Resident in montane forests above 1,000 m. It is probably nomadic, feeding in the canopy on pollen and nectar; it is also occasionally seen in coconut plantations. Small flocks of up to 30 birds forage over large areas and may be reliant on a combination of habitats at different altitudes.<p></p>
106001374		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on the summit of Kolombangara (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001374		threats	eng	A number of congeneric lorikeets have become rare or extinct through unknown causes. Much of the lowland forest in the region has been or is scheduled to be logged but the montane forest is safe from such degradation. Although this species may have a small total population, there is not yet evidence of a decline, but it would be threatened by any future large-scale export trade (T. Leary <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106001375		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. An area of 1,450 km<sup>2</sup> on Gunung Kelapatmada in the west of the island is proposed as a reserve. It remains to be confirmed whether this site meets the conservation needs of all Buru's threatened landbirds. The Wildlife Conservation Society continues to operate wildlife crime market/trade surveillance and enforcement. This includes the trade hubs of both east and west Indonesia, and the work is set for considerable expansion in the coming years. They are also exploring the potential for habitat protection-based projects on Buru (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007)<strong></strong>. A visit to Buru in May and June 2010 raised awareness of the species and its conservation amongst local people, and a return visit is intended (A. Gray <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct widespread surveys ranging out from the Teluk Bara/Lake Rana area, to establish its current status, distribution, habitat requirements and movements. If key sites for the species are identified, propose their establishment as strict protected areas. Support the establishment of a proposed reserve at Gunung Kelapatmada. <p></p>
106001375		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna toxopei</em> is endemic to the island of Buru, South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was known from seven specimens collected in the 1920s, on the west side of Lake Rana. It was recorded by only one of the 24 collectors active on Buru, implying that it is either very rare, localised, nomadic or has specific habitat preferences. Similarly, recent targeted searches have yielded no confirmed records of the species (M. Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). However, recent observations of an apparent <em>Charmosyna</em> lorikeet on the island, possibly this species, suggest it may be quite common around Teluk Bara. It was recorded between 1979 and 1981, with an unconfirmed report in 1989. Further reports by local villagers during the 1990s, a record of birds being trapped in 1998 and three <em>Charmosyna</em> spp. seen in 2006 (M. Halaouate <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong> probably all refer to this species. Interviews conducted in the 1990s revealed that only local people living west of the Rana River knew it (or another similar lorikeet). A three-week visit to Buru in May and June 2010 did not produce any sightings of the species, although interviews with local people uncovered recent records<strong></strong>. However, it should be noted that local people frequently refer to all green parrots as "karenga" and make no differentiation between species (A. Gray <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The lack of confirmed records makes it problematic to assess this species's population size, but it has been described as "quite common", although only from one part of a very small range. <p></p>
106001375		habitat	eng	The original series of specimens was collected between 850 and 1,000 m, and comprised individuals found feeding on nectar and pollen, in trees on apparently level land. There is one aural record from a coconut plantation in the south, at or near sea-level. Recent observations of a <em>Charmosyna</em> species come from plantations, and selectively logged secondary and primary forest around 600 m. Anecdotal information collected from interviews with local people suggest that it is probably a lower montane species, which in some years occurs down to the coastal lowlands. It has been seen in pairs but apparently occurs more commonly in groups of up to 10 individuals. Further interviews with local inhabitants suggest that the species moves to the lowlands during the two annual hot seasons: in March and April, and between August and November (A. Gray <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001375		population	eng	Owing to the considerable loss of lowland forest and the lack of confirmed records this species is suspected to have an extremely small population, probably numbering 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106001375		threats	eng	Most forest in the coastal lowland of Buru has now been cleared, and much of the forest in the northern part of the island has been selectively logged or degraded and fragmented by shifting agriculture, such that only a few small patches of primary lowland forest remain. However, gardens on the island still contain many indigenous tree species. In 2010, there was at least one fairly large-scale logging operation on Buru, situated in the lowlands. However, the island's extensive montane forests remain largely undisturbed. The topography of the Kaplamandan mountain range means that almost all of the montane forest is expected to be inaccessible to loggers (A. Gray <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. All the original specimens were caught alive using lime, however the species is not kept as a pet, nor apparently is it traded. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001376		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at key sites such as Ok Tedi. Study patterns of movement in individuals to get a better idea of population size and habitat requirements. Ensure the protection of significant areas of forest at appropriate altitudes.   <p></p>
106001376		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna multistriata</em> is a poorly-known New Guinea species, ranging from the Snow Mountains of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to Crater Mountain in <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>(Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Mack and Wright 1996). It is known from very few localities but assessments of its range and populations are hindered by its presumed nomadic habits. There are no recent records from Papua (K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. In Papua New Guinea, there are records from Crater Mountain (Mack and Wright 1996)<strong></strong> and there were frequent records of up to 125 birds around Ok Tedi<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Gregory 1995a)<strong></strong>. However, following the severe drought in 1997-1998, sightings of the species have dropped to almost zero (P. Gregory <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106001376		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane forest from 800 to 1,770 m (Coates 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106001376		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although common in The Ok Tedi area of Papua New Guinea (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001376		threats	eng	Its habitat is locally under threat from logging and clearance for agriculture. Reports of the species in Ok Tedi dropped dramatically following the severe drought in 1997-1998 (P. Gregory <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). The species may be threatened by the presence of a large open-pit copper  and gold mine in Ok Tedi, but the impacts of this are currently  unknown. It is probably tolerant of degraded and patchy forest and although it may have a small overall population, it is not believed to be declining rapidly.&#160;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Mining in Papua New Guinea"></a><p></p>
106001377		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, but comparitivley rare than sympatric congeners (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001380		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Mt Panié massif, one of the most likely sites where it may still occur, is a floral reserve where the habitat is protected but hunting is permitted<strong> </strong>(Jaffré<em> et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Two recent conservation reviews have recommended that this reserve is upgraded to a special faunal and floral reserve and also extended to include Mts Colnett and Ignambi to the north as one contiguous forest block (Maruia/CI 1998, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. No new records were obtained during 500 man-days of bird censuses between 2002 and 2007 (J. Theuerkauf, S. Rouys and V. Chartendrault <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). A total of 120 locals interviewed between 2003 and 2006 did not provide any credible reports (J. Theuerkauf, S. Rouys and V. Chartendrault <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007). Funds have been attained to carry on the search until 2011.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey, if cost effective, other suitable mountains, particularly in the north-east and the Bokoua massif (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Publicise the search for this species among forest workers and villagers (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> through the "Wanted" campaign to maximise reactivity of the unofficial observer network. Advocate upgrading and extension of Mt Panié floral reserve<strong> </strong>(Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001380		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna diadema</em> is known from two specimens collected in 1859, and another collected, but not preserved, in 1913 on <strong>New Caledonia (to France) </strong>(Sarasin 1913, Forshaw 1989). The first specimens are from an unknown locality and the 1913 record from "the forests behind Oubatche" which corresponds to Mt Ignambi. There are unconfirmed reports from the 1880s to the 1920s (Layard and Layard 1882, Stokes 1980)<strong></strong>, and an experienced forester reported two birds in 1953 or 1954 in the central mountains and again in 1976, west of Mt Panié (Stokes 1980)<strong></strong>. However, in 1998 there were no records during several months of specific searching, including on Mt Ignambi (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001380		habitat	eng	The earliest reports were that it inhabited forest and occasionally fed in <em>Erythrina</em> trees (Layard and Layard 1882)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The 1953-1954 and 1976 reports were from <em>Melaleuca</em> savanna/humid forest ecotone, while the 1920s report was from low scrubland (Stokes 1980, Forshaw 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most closely-related species are nomadic and occur primarily in montane forest, but range into lowland forests, for which they may have a seasonal dependence (Forshaw 1989)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001380		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no reports since 1976, despite recent searches in 1998.
106001380		threats	eng	Montane humid forest is not under threat, but it is possible that this species has a requirement for other habitats, some of which, notably lowland semi-deciduous forests, have nearly disappeared from the island<strong> </strong>(Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Several <em>Charmosyna</em> lorikeets have undergone severe population declines or fluctuations of unknown cause (Forshaw 1989)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is possible that introduced disease (such as avian malaria) or more likely mammals (notably rats) may have been a cause of decline (Bregulla 1992, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001381		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under Fijian law. On Viti Levu, it occurs within the Tomaniivi Nature Reserve, but this is not large enough to maintain a resident population and, although the establishment of the proposed Wabu extension would make a reserve of appropriate size, it would not provide any better protection against rats if the reserve remains unmanaged (D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Taveuni, the combination of the Ravilevu Nature Reserve and the Bouma National Heritage Park provides an area of adequate size for its conservation but the lorikeet remains very rare (D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two management plans have been prepared for the species and discussions on their implementation are ongoing. In 2010, there were plans to facilitate increased observer awareness in the communities local to the Tomaniivi IBA, where local people report seeing the species occasionally, with the hope that the details of any further sightings will be formally recorded (M. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>On Viti Levu, repeat forest surveys around Tomaniivi and assess threats, in particular the degree to which rats have contributed to its decline and what threat they currently pose to remaining populations (SPREP 2000, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. If rats are identified as a major threat to a tiny remnant population considerations should be made for establishing a 'safe' population either in captivity or an appropriate rat-free island. Develop local expertise in survey methodology to enable monitoring (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify further suitable areas for the conservation of this species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey other islands, notably montane Taveuni (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys between the peak vunga and drala flowering season, between August and October (Swinnerton and Maljkovic 2002, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001381		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna amabilis</em> occurs on the islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taveuni and Ovalau,<strong> Fiji</strong>. It has always been regarded as a rare species although 10 specimens were collected during a one-month visit in 1925 (Watling 2000)<strong></strong>. It appears to be patchily distributed, with observations becoming scarcer within recent years (J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> 2000, V. Masibalavu<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. The last record by observers familiar with this species was in 1993, but one sighting at Mt Tomaniivi (=Mt Victoria) on Viti Levu in 2001 is supported by detailed field notes (P. Hayman <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>.  Nearly all recent records on Viti Levu have been in the Mt Tomaniivi area<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Watling 2000)<strong></strong>, but two birds were seen in the Nausori Highlands in 1998 (G. Allport<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. However, a survey on Viti Levu in 2001-2002 searched for the lorikeet in the central highlands, where it has been seen most frequently since the 1970s. During 49 days in the field no birds were seen or calls heard (Swinnerton and Maljkovic 2002)<strong></strong>. The species has also not been sighted during continuing surveys in the highlands of Viti Levu (Monasavu/Nadarivatu) and Sovi Basin (V. Masibalavu<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). There are unconfirmed records from the 1980s and 1990s from lowland areas of Ovalau, upland Taveuni and from the Natewa peninsula on Vanua Levu (Watling 2000)<strong></strong>. However, a second series of surveys in 2003 also failed to find any birds, suggesting marked declines have occurred (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Given the failure of further surveys to detect this species, it appears to be extremely rare, and its total population may number less than 50 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001381		habitat	eng	It is found in mature forests and may be reliant on old-growth forest above 500 m (Swinnerton and Maljkovic 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, its altitudinal restriction on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu is probably artificial, reflecting the absence of 'good' forest, except at higher elevations (D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Swinnerton and Maljkovic 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Ovalau, it has been observed in mangroves (J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is usually found in small flocks high in the canopy feeding on nectar and pollen from flowering trees, and probably roams seasonally in search of this food supply (Watling 1982, Clunie 1984)<strong></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown (Watling 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001381		population	eng	Two detailed surveys in 2001-2002 and 2003 failed to find any birds at all, so the remaining population is likely to be very small (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) indeed (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005).
106001381		threats	eng	Lowland and hill forest is slowly being cleared in much of Fiji. However, the rarity and assumed decline of this species is probably largely the result of predation by introduced mammals, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, as is the case with the closely-related New Caledonian Lorikeet <em>C. diadema</em>, which could be extinct owing to predation by rats. Ongoing increases in logging and expansion of the road network, especially around the high-altitude areas of Monasavu and Serua in Viti Levu, are likely to be increasing rat density (Watling 2000, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. The introduced Indian brown mongoose <em>Herpestes fuscus</em> is also present in the species's range and may pose a threat (V. Masibalavu<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Agricultural expansion is encroaching on primary forest in Taveuni. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is also potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106001382		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations on all the islands where the species occurs. Ensure the protection of significant areas of forest to provide suitable trees for nesting. Continue to control trade.   <p></p>
106001382		distribution	eng	<em>Charmosyna margarethae</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and six islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a scarce and localised species which appears to be absent from large areas of potentially suitable habitat (Webb 1992, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong></strong>. It is most common on Makira (= San Cristobal) where up to 70 have been seen in a day, perhaps owing to the absence of Meek's Lorikeet <em>C. meeki</em> from this island (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, G. Richards <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The overall population is believed to be small.  <em> <p></p></em>
106001382		habitat	eng	It is usually found in lower montane forest, it occurs from sea-level to 1,350 m and in coconut plantations (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Diamond 1975b, Schodde 1977, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may be nomadic and reliant on a combination of habitats at different altitudes. It feeds on pollen, nectar and some small fruits such as <em>Schefflera.  </em> <p></p>
106001382		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common, although uncommon on Santa Isabel island in the Solomon Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001382		threats	eng	Much of the lowland forest in its range has been or is scheduled to be logged, but this species is probably safe at higher altitudes. There is one licensed export quota for 60 birds, the proceeds to be used to fund conservation programmes (J. R. van Oosten <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>however, this species could be threatened by any large-scale trade (T. Leary <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2002, 200 birds were imported to Singapore with CITES permits (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005<strong><sup></sup></strong>).   <p></p>
106001383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified: the species is reported to be abundant in some areas but scarce in others owing to trade (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001384		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparse and local through most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001385		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001387		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001389		distribution	eng	This species is found in Australia and New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). In Australia, subspecies macgillivrayi is confined to the northern Cape York Peninsula, from Pormpuraaw on the west coast to Princess Charlotte Bay on the east. In New Guinea, it is widespread and tolerant of degraded forest habitats, mostly in the lowlands and foothills but occasionally up to 1,350 m.
106001389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is still recorded relatively commonly and appears to have a large overall population. The subspecies macgillivrayi is believed to have a stable population of c.3,000 individuals.
106001389		threats	eng	In some parts of its range, the woodland habitat in which hollow trees occur is being invaded by rainforest. The fire which maintains the rainforest/woodland ecotone also has the potential to reduce hollow availability if managed incorrectly, particularly where rainforest is stable or contracting (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001390		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Protected under Australian law since 1996. Forest management has now changed so that woodchipping apparently ceased in 2003. Research into the breeding biology of the species is ongoing but is hampered by difficulties in finding nests (P. Mawson <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. An information sheet was produced by the Government of Western Australia in 2007, outlining the status of the species and promoting non-lethal control methods by orchardists, e.g. exclusion netting (DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prevent illegal shooting in and around commercial orchard areas and more vigorously enforce anti-shooting legislation. Assist orchardists in developing a non-lethal damage mitigation strategy. Continue to raise awareness of the species's status amongst orchardists and promote non-lethal control methods (Chapman 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop and implement a feral bee control strategy. Retain mature and over-mature marri trees as nest and food sources as part of forest management prescriptions (P. Mawson <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a repeatable population monitoring technique. Initiate monitoring in different parts of range. <p></p>
106001390		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Calyptorhynchus baudinii</span> occurs in the south-west of Western Australia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, mostly between Perth, Albany and Margaret River. Breeding occurs in the far south of the range, from Nornalup north to near Bridgetown, though sometimes further north to Lowden and Harvey (Higgins 1999). The species has disappeared from c.25% of its range, and is thought to have declined in density over at least another 25%. Surveys during 1995-2004 suggest that the population is probably 10,000-15,000 individuals but that only c.10% of those birds make up the breeding population in any year (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004). Many birds thought to be this species in the far south of its range are in fact Carnaby's Black-cockatoo <span style="font-style: italic;">C. latirostris</span>, which occurs in the forest areas at a ratio of 5:1 with respect to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. baudinii</span> (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2004). Populations are believed to be declining in response to ongoing threats. The rate of decline has been inferred from changes in habitat and competition to be &gt;50% over 3 generations (58 years) (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106001390		habitat	eng	Restricted to moist, heavily forested areas dominated by marri <em>Eucalyptus calophylla</em>, karri <em>E. diversicolor</em> and jarrah <em>E. marginata</em>. Its overall non-breeding range may be determined by distribution of marri, though it does occur in apple and pear orchards and occasionally in wandoo <em>E. wandoo</em> woodland (Higgins 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species mainly feeds on the seeds and flowers of marri, as well as the seeds of <em>Banksia</em>, <em>Hakea</em> and <em>Dryandra</em> species, <em>Erodium botrys</em> and jarrah, and additionally takes insect larvae (DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also feeds on apple and pear seeds (DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and is considered a pest owing to the damage it causes when extracting seeds from crops in commercial orchards (Chapman 2007, DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Damage to commercial fruit crops is thought to be higher during local or seasonal shortages of marri seeds, and could be related to destruction of this habitat (DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may live for 25 to 50 years in the wild (DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds in large hollows of old karri, marri and jarrah (Higgins 1999, DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> within heavily forested areas (Higgins 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although recent work suggests that there are very few nest sites, that breeding occurs very infrequently and that many nest hollows are being taken over by feral bees (P. Mawson <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding data has indicated that pairs raise, on average, 0.6 chicks each year. In years of poor marri seed production, the population may fail to raise any young at all (DEC, Western Australia 2007a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has a strong association with very large (greater than 1.5m diameter) and old (230-300 years) marri trees, which may exacerbate declines (P. Mawson <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001390		population	eng	The 1995-2004 surveys of the species suggest the total population is probably still 10,000-15,000 individuals but that only c.10% of those birds make up the breeding population, giving an estimate of 1,000-1,500 mature individuals (P. Mawson <em>in litt.</em> 2004).
106001390		threats	eng	Up to a quarter of the species's habitat has been cleared for agriculture, with 8,933,294 m<sup>3</sup> of marri harvested during 1976-1998 (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2004). Nest hollow shortage is considered the principal threat, as suitable hollows are considered scarce, only forming in trees at least 130 to 220 years of age, many of which have been preferentially felled (Chapman 2007). The past and present impacts of logging for marri, initially for woodchips and now for furniture grade sawlogs, are reducing the availability of food and nesting trees. The impact of logging and woodchipping has not been quantified. Although logging of old growth forest in the south-west has now stopped, habitat loss is still likely to be causing population declines, and a sawlog industry based on marri has now been proposed with a projected minimum bole log harvest of 286,000 m<sup>3</sup> per annum (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2004). Feral European honey bees <span style="font-style: italic;">Apis mellifera </span>have been found to occupy many potential nest sites, and are known to have caused the loss of chicks and killed a brooding female (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2004). Although the species has been fully protected since 1996, illegal shooting by orchardists still occurs (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004, Chapman 2007). It is not known whether losses from shooting exceed productivity (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2004). Continued loss of forest to mining in some areas is also an issue, since revegetation will have no impact on conservation outcomes within the lifespan of this species (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2004). Competition for nests from Wood Ducks <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenonetta jubatta</span> is thought to be increasing as duck numbers increase in the south-west (P. Mawson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004).<br/><p></p>
106001391		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. BirdLife Australia (formerly Birds Australia), with the support of the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC), carries out annual roost surveys in the Perth region (kabat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). In 2002, a Recovery Plan was put in place by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Cale 2003). A revised recovery plan is in the final stages of completion. BirdLife Australia (formerly Birds Australia) instigated its Carnaby’s Black-Cockatoo Recovery Project in 2000 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The species is protected from hunting and persecution by law (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. Management actions completed or under way include the identification and protection of significant breeding areas, particularly stands of <em>E. salmonophloia</em>, protection and maintenance of known nests, re-establishment of feeding habitat, notably with <em>Banksia</em>, cooperation between conservation authorities and the avicultural industry, including improvement of husbandry techniques for keeping the species in captivity, management of captive-breeding stock and refinement of DNA fingerprinting in order to identify the source of all captive birds, distinguish any subpopulations and determine any loss of genetic diversity within regions or subpopulations. A recovery plan has been prepared for the species (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. In 2007, the Government of Western Australia produced an information sheet with details of the species's status and non-lethal control methods for agriculturalists and orchardists, e.g. exclusion netting (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Quantify the level and extent of capture for trade. Continue restoration of habitat for breeding birds. Create native habitat corridors to link areas of native vegetation, especially in extensively cleared agricultural areas such as the Western Australian wheatbelt (Saunders 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satisfy avicultural demand with a collaborative captive-breeding programme. Protect nesting trees and promote regeneration by exclusion of livestock and rabbits (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001391		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Calyptorhynchus latirostris</span> is endemic to south-western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. Between the 1970s and 1990s, the species disappeared from over one third of its range (Saunders 1990), with both local extinctions and reduced density in occupied areas, although it has recently been expanding into partially cleared forest habitat along the western fringe of its former range. Its current range covers a large area from Kalbarri southeast to Esperance (DEC, Western Australia 2007b). Most breeding occurs between Three Springs and the Stirling Range and areas to the west (Cataby to Tone Rover) (DEC, Western Australia 2007b). The total population is estimated at c.40,000 individuals (DEC, Western Australia 2007b), now divided into four subpopulations: northern wheatbelt, upper southern wheatbelt, south-eastern wheatbelt and Esperance coast (DEC, Western Australia 2007b). Surveys carried out in the Swan region show that the number of roosting birds declined of 37% between 2010 and 2011 (Kabat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). The number of roosts with 151-500 cockatoos reduced by 42% and no roosts had more than 500 birds. There was a 66% increase in the number of roosts that had 150 or fewer birds. Statistical modelling suggests that the total population for the Swan Region in now between 5,177 and 8,629 birds. Initial trends based on roost counts suggest that declines are continuing at a similar rate to historical range contractions, i.e. &gt;50% in 3 generations (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
106001391		habitat	eng	It forages in woodland, shrubland and heathland, usually breeding in areas receiving 350-700 mm of annual rainfall. Flocks of non-breeding birds then move to coastal areas, where pine plantations have become important feeding and roosting sites since the 1930s (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. It eats seeds of <em>Hakea</em>, <em>Grevillea</em>, <em>Banksia</em>, <em>Allocasuarina</em>, <em>Eucalyptus</em>, and <em>Dryandra</em>, but also feeds on the seeds of weeds and exotic pines, insect larvae and nectar (Saunders 1982, 1990, DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. The species has also been recorded damaging persimmon and nut crops and the shoots of trees in orchards (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. Its breeding success is dependent on the presence of heathland feeding areas within 12 km of its nesting habitat (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. It nests in hollows in large eucalypts, primarily salmon gum <em>E. salmonophloia</em> and wandoo <em>E. wandoo</em>. It is also now frequently found in marri <em>Corymbia calophylla</em>, jarrah <em>E. marginata</em> and karri <em>E. diversicolor</em> forests (DEC, Western Australia 2007b)<strong></strong>. It is a long-lived species; females appear not breed until they are at least four years old (Saunders 1982, 1986, Saunders and Ingram 1998)<strong></strong>, and the oldest known female was at least 19 in 1989 (Saunders and Ingram 1998)<strong></strong>. Observations suggest that pairs remain together until the death of one of the partners (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong>. The eggs are usually laid between late July and late September (Saunders 1990)<strong></strong>, but laying may continue into October or November (Saunders and Ingram 1998)<strong></strong>. Less than half of the nest hollows available in an area of breeding habitat may remain unoccupied due to aggressive interactions between females during the selection and preparation of hollows (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is known that some females return to the same nest hollows in successive years (Saunders 1982, 1990)<strong></strong>. The species usually lays two eggs, although pairs rarely fledge two young, the second to hatch usually dying within 48 hours (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The incubation period for four nests was found to be 28-29 days (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Juveniles remain with their parents until they return to the breeding area at the start of the following season, and in some cases may associate with their parents for longer (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This behaviour may be linked with the acquisition of knowledge and skills required for foraging (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001391		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number c.40,000 individuals.
106001391		threats	eng	Since the 1950s, most feeding habitat for breeding birds has been cleared for agriculture. Remnants are fragmented, threatened by rising soil salinity and weed invasion, and are often so far from nesting areas that growth rate and survival of nestlings are affected and eventually breeding ceases altogether. Fires and the introduced plant pathogen <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora cinnamomi</span> have also destroyed large tracts of suitable habitat. Breeding habitat has also been extensively cleared and, for at least 60 years, there has been little regeneration of nest trees because of grazing by sheep and rabbits. In the district of Coomallo Creek, between 1969 and 1982, a decrease in the percentage cover of native vegetation from 67% to 34% coincided with a decrease in the breeding population of the species by one third (Saunders 1986)<strong></strong>. As habitat is cleared, the species is likely to become more susceptible to human-related threats such as collisions with cars and shooting (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Many patches of native habitat are situated near human settlements and traversed by roads and railway lines (Saunders 1990)<strong></strong>, and birds may become increasingly reliant on commercial crops (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. As habitat becomes patchy, local populations may fail to locate suitable feeding areas (Saunders 1990)<strong></strong>. The species's long pair bonds and high breeding-site fidelity may mean that birds do not disperse following disturbance and may persist at the same breeding sites until all habitat in an area is cleared or the local population dies out (Saunders 1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Clearing for agriculture in the wheatbelt has left little kwongan vegetation, which the species requires for feeding, adjacent to the woodland patches in which it nests (Saunders and Ingram 1998)<strong></strong>. Nest-hollow availability, though not currently limiting, is likely to become so in the future with feral bees and other cockatoo species competing successfully for hollows. The species may be affected by nest hollow competition by the Galah <em>Cacatua roseicapila </em>(Saunders 1982, Saunders 1990)<strong></strong>. This species may damage unguarded eggs, and such interference caused the failure of 7% of recorded nesting attempts in one area during the 1970s (Saunders 1990)<strong></strong>. Much of the feeding habitat of non-breeding birds has been cleared, and many birds from the northern wheatbelt now seasonally feed largely on pines. These pines have now reached maturity, and once they are harvested this will result in a possible food shortage. Nest-robbing for domestic trade has declined, but damage to nest hollows occurs when birds are taken for illegal export. In October 2009 an unknown disease killed up to 23 females in a single breeding colony at Koobabbie (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). A heatwave in January 2010 is known to have killed flocks of 63 and 145 birds near Hopetoun and 57 birds were killed and 24 injured by a hailstorm in March 2010 (Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<p></p>
106001392		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 25,000 individuals (S. T. Garnett <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001393		population	eng	The world population is believed to be in excess of 100,000 individuals.
106001394		distribution	eng	This species is found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Australia. Subspecies erebus is found in east-central Queensland; subspecies lathami has a patchy distribution in Queensland, Victoria, and King Island, Bass Strait; subspecies halmaturinus is now restricted to Kangaroo Island.
106001394		population	eng	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size as follows: 12,000 individuals of subspecies lathami, 70 breeding pairs of subspecies halmaturinus (equating to 140 individuals) and 5,000 individuals of subspecies erebus giving an overall total of 17,140 individuals.
106001394		threats	eng	Most habitat clearance occurred in the 19th century, although, on the mainland, the species remains threatened by clearance of habitat for agriculture and residential development, degradation of habitat by burning, and the suppression of vegetation regeneration by grazing stock and rabbits. Fragmentation of habitat, especially when associated with agriculture, leads to the penetration of other native species from more open habitats which then compete for hollows. Illegal trapping for the bird trade may be a localised problem. However, in some parts of its range the area of mature food trees may be increasing (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001395		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001397		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. The nominate subspecies is very widespread across semi-arid woodland in eastern Australia. It disappeared from the Adelaide and Mt Mary plains by the 1950s, and density has been greatly reduced in north-west Victoria and western New South Wales. Subspecies mollis is found in the central and western arid zone and Nullabor, west of the Eyre basin and Port Augusta.
106001397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997). The nominate subspecies is thought to number c.50,000 individuals, whilst the subspecies mollis has a large and stable population.
106001397		threats	eng	Clearance of feeding and breeding habitat has substantially reduced the population of leadbeateri in the southern and eastern parts of its range, and is continuing. Grazing and weed invasion are also impeding recruitment of trees that could be used for breeding in the future. Nest robbing and trapping for aviculture are thought to have been a major cause of decline in South Australia and may be a significant threat elsewhere in the range. Subspecies mollis is probably largely unaffected by these threats (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001398		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I (2005). A cooperative recovery plan has been developed and adopted. Populations occur in several protected areas, the most important being Rawa Aopa Watumohai and Caraente National Parks (on Sulawesi) which supports up to 100 individuals (Nandika 2006)<strong></strong>, Suaka Margasatwa Nature Reserve on Pulau Moyo, Komodo National Park and two national parks on Sumba: Manupeu-Tanahdaru and Laiwangi-Wanggameti. The declared Nini Konis Santana National Park in Timor holds an estimated 100 birds (Trainor<em> et al.</em> undated)<strong></strong>. Moratoria on international trade are in place, although it is likely that a large proportion of the trade is domestic.<br/>Several cockatoo subpopulations have increased on Sumba between 1992 and 2002,  due to conservation efforts (including local education, eco-tourism and law enforcement), although densities remained below those typical of other cockatoo species (Cahill <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Following surveys in 2008 and 2009, the Indonesian Parrot Project and Konservasi Kakatua Indonesia have initiated meetings with community leaders and villagers on Masakambing and Masalembu, as well as the local military and police, to raise awareness and garner support for the species's conservation (Metz <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. A conservation-awareness-pride programme has also begun to engage the school children of the Masalembu Archipelago (Metz <em>et al.</em> 2009, Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. A 'village regulation' was drafted to make it illegal to trap, own or transport the species, and to initiate measures to reduce habitat destruction and employ a former village head to monitor and protect nests and study the species; the document was signed in May 2009 with 50 community representatives present, including the Chief of Police (Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. An awareness campaign to tackle illegal trade will also target the relevant officials, and the remaining habitat will be surveyed<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Metz <em>et al.</em> 2009). The species's pest status may be tackled by the planting of crops to compensate for losses and to act as a 'sacrifice crop'. A repeated census of the <em>abbotti</em> population is planned, along with studies into its life history and ecology (Metz <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. On the smaller islands of Roti, Alor and Pantar, enforcement of hunting and trading regulations is low (F. Verbelen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<br/><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys (including Roti but also further surveys on Alor and Pantar) to identify the most appropriate areas for conservation action and to periodically monitor key populations by repeating surveys conducted 8-10 years ago. Provide support for relevant protected areas and conservation initiatives within its range and protect nest-trees where possible. Strengthen control, law enforcement  and monitoring of trade. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Improve law enforcement in designated protected areas and other key areas for trade including ports, markets, etc. Promote widespread community-based conservation initiatives. Recommendations made specifically for the protection of the species in Komodo National Park were to conduct annual monitoring, maintain regular patrols, raise awareness in local communities and study human activities and impacts within the park (Imansyah <em>et al</em>. 2005, Benstead 2006)<strong></strong>. Conduct ecological research to clarify options for its management and conservation. Additional targets should be to study the abundance and distribution of nest holes and water sources. Providing artificial water sources near nest locations, i.e water ponds, is essential for Yellow-crested Cockatoo on Komodo Island.  <p></p>
106001398		distribution	eng	<em>Cacatua sulphurea</em> is endemic to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was formerly common throughout Nusa Tenggara (from Bali to Timor), on Sulawesi and its satellite islands, and the Masalembu Islands (in the Java Sea). It has undergone a dramatic decline, which is still ongoing, particularly in the last quarter of the 20th century, such that it is now extinct on many islands and close to extinction on most others. Sumba appears to support the largest remaining population, tentatively estimated (in 1992) at c.3,200 birds (but was reported to declining by perhaps 500 birds annually, with just 10% of the island still forested in 34 fragments [Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005]<strong></strong>), with other significant (but considerably smaller) populations on Komodo (c.500 individuals), Sulawesi, Buton, Moyo, Timor-Leste (Trainor<em> et al.</em> undated), Alor (a loose flock comprising c. 18 birds was observed in 2009) and Pantar (one or two cage birds captured on Pantar) (F. Verbelen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Tiny populations of just a few individuals also exist in the Tukangbesi Islands, on Oroho Island (a satellite of Wangi Wangi Island) and on Lintea Selatan (a satellite of Tomea Island) (D. Kelly <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong> and on Roti island (near Timor) (Johnstone and Jepson 1996, Trainor 2005, F. Verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The Komodo population alone (where poaching is more covert) declined by an estimated 60% between 2000-2005 (Imansyah <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Its current status on several small islands is unclear, but surveys of Masakambing in the Masalembu Islands in 2008 found only ten individuals remaining of race <em>abbotti</em><strong> </strong>(Anon 2008, Metz <em>et al.</em> 2009, Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009), with only eight recorded in 2009 (Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Local information suggests that the species was extirpated from Masalembu Island in 1987, owing largely to the trapping and killing of birds that accompanied the exploration of the archipelago in the late 1980s (Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. A feral population of several hundred birds exists in Hong Kong. It is likely extirpated from Lombok (F. Verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p>
106001398		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest (including evergreen, moist deciduous, monsoon and semi-evergreen), forest edge, scrub and agriculture up to 500 m on Sulawesi, and 800 m (sometimes 1,500 m) in Nusa Tenggara. On at least some islands (e.g. Sumba), it appears heavily dependent on closed-canopy primary forest. Breeding takes place from September to May on Sumba (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. It nests in tree cavities with specific requirements, tending use a chink in the trunk or branch, or a pre-existing nest-hole made by another species, often in dead, snagged or rotting trees (Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. On Masakabing Island, observations suggest that the species's favoured foods include male fruits of <em>Artocarpus communis</em>, fruit and flowers of <em>Cocos nucifera</em> (coconut palm), young leaves and flowers of <em>Ceiba petandra</em>, mangroves, and male flowers of <em>Brassus sudaica</em>, with consumption of the fruit, flowers and seeds of at least six other species observed (Metz <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Nesting has been observed in <em>C. nucifera</em>, <em>A. communis</em>, <em>C. petandra</em>, <em>Tamarindus indica</em> and <em>Avicennia</em> sp (Nandika <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001398		population	eng	Based on recent surveys within various parts of the species's range, C. Trainor (<em>in litt</em>. 2007) has estimated the global population at fewer than 7,000 individuals: 3,200-5,000 on Sumba, 500 on Komodo, 200-300 on Timor Leste, 200-300 on Sulawesi, 20-50 on West Timor, 40-70 on Flores, 50-100 on Sumbawa, 100 on Rinca and c.700 other birds in total. It is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001398		threats	eng	Its<strong> </strong>precipitous decline is almost entirely attributable to unsustainable exploitation for internal and international trade. Large-scale logging and conversion of forest to agriculture across its range has exacerbated the decline, and the use of pesticides since around 1989 is a further potential threat. At least formerly, the species was regarded as a crop-pest, and consequently persecuted. High rainfall years appear to limit productivity considerably, resulting in very low recruitment. Conversely, rainfall on Komodo has been low in recent years leading to limited availability of water sources. Competition for cavity nest sites with other parrots and owls in large trees (those targeted by logging activities) leads to low productivity (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001399		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though the population in Taiwan has   been estimated at &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001401		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been listed on Appendix I and II of CITES since 1989, a measure that effectively curtailed reported trade at the international level. It occurs in Manusela National Park on Seram, although it is not clear what level of protection this affords. Existing protected areas on Seram could support c.9,800 birds, but there is a worrying 30% overlap between these areas and logging concessions (Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A programme of local awareness, linked with the promotion of ecotourism, has recently been launched. ProFauna Indonesia carried out an investigation into domestic trade in 2003/2004 (Metz and Nursahid 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed research into its population dynamics, local movements and threats. Monitor trade and promote effective enforcement of regulations to control it. *Quickly resolve apparent overlap of logging concessions with Manusela National Park in favour of the park's integrity. Establish a strict nature reserve in the Wae Fufa valley of north-east Seram, and adjoining catchments. Continue and expand conservation awareness campaigns on Seram, using it as a flagship species to reduce trapping pressure and encourage local support. <p></p>
106001401		distribution	eng	<em>Cacatua moluccensis</em> is endemic to Seram, Ambon, Saparua and Haruku in South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. There are no recent records from Saparua and Haruku, and it may only survive at one locality on Ambon, leaving almost the entire population on Seram, where it was once abundant, but has suffered declines, including an estimated 20-40% in one region during the 1990s. It remains locally common in Manusela National Park and, perhaps especially, in east Seram. <br/><br/>There has been little research on the population size of the species, and the studies that are available report very different population densities. A study in 1998 reported a population density of 7.87 (±1.98) birds/km<sup>2</sup> (Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003), extrapolating to 110,385 birds (95% CI=62,416–195,242) in 1998, based on 14,026 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat available  on Seram), whereas a survey in 2006-2007 reported a density of 0.83 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (Y. E. Persulessy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007), extrapolating to 9,640 birds in 2007 (based on 11,598 km<sup>2</sup>of suitable habitat available  on Seram).<br/> <p></p>
106001401		habitat	eng	It is largely resident (although perhaps subject to minor local movements) in lowland rainforest up to 1,000 m. Recent studies estimated that it occurs at densities of 8.3±5.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in primary and secondary forest, and at 1.9±1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in recently logged forest. Furthermore, highest densities in unlogged forest were encountered below 180 m, clearly illustrating the importance of primary lowland forest. Another recent study found no significant difference between use of a number of land-use types but found that abundance was positively linked to the presence of strangler figs and suitable large nesting trees (Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Diet consists of berries, nuts, seeds, coconuts and insects and their larvae. <p></p>
106001401		population	eng	Kinnaird <em>et al.</em> (2003) report an estimated population size of 110,385 birds (with a 95% confidence interval of 62,416–195,242) in 1998, whereas Y. E. Persulessy (<em>in litt.</em> 2007) reports an estimated population size of 9,640 birds in 2007. Therefore the species is best placed in a range of 10,000-99,999 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700-67,000 mature individuals.
106001401		threats	eng	By the 1980s the species was being extensively and unsustainably trapped for the cage-bird market, with an estimated 74,509 individuals exported from Indonesia between 1981 and 1990, and international imports averaging 9,751 per annum between 1983 and 1988. Although reported international trade fell to zero in the 1990s, trappers have remained highly active and birds are openly sold within Indonesia (Metz and Nursahid 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This illegal trade was prolific during religious riots in 2004 (C. Shepherd <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and baseline estimates suggest 4,000 birds are removed from the wild annually in domestic trade. Commercial timber extraction, settlement and hydroelectric projects, pose the other major threats through resultant forest loss and fragmentation. It is predicted that half the current population on Seram may be lost to conversion of forest in the next 25 years (Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most forest has already been lost from Ambon and the coasts and lowlands of Seram. It has also been considered a harmful pest to coconut palms, and, historically at least, it was consequently persecuted. <p></p>
106001402		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The North Maluku government has proposed to the Forestry Ministry that the species be classified as a protected species (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. The Indonesian government issues catch quotas and all capture was illegal in 1999. It occurs in two protected areas: Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve on Bacan (although this site is threatened by agricultural encroachment and gold prospecting) and the 167,300 ha Aketajawe-Lolobata National Park on Halmahera, which was declared protected in 2004. A project was set up by Burung (BirdLife) Indonesia in 2007 to set up effective protected area management in the Aketajawe-Lolobata National Park, including monitoring wildlife trade, raising public awareness and support, and providing training for Aketajawe-Lolobata National Park staff and related partners (Waugh 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor national and international trade. Conduct research into population dynamics, ranging behaviour and threats, so that appropriate trapping quotas may be devised. Promote more effective enforcement of trapping quotas. Improve patrolling of the routes used for wildlife smuggling from Indonesia. Introduce trapping concessions to increase self-regulation of trade. Initiate a conservation awareness campaign promoting local support for the species and the regulated collection of eggs and young, rather than adults.<br/><p></p>
106001402		distribution	eng	<em>Cacatua alba</em> is endemic to the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta and Mandiole in North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Records from Obi and Bisa are thought to reflect introductions. It remains locally common: in 1991-1992, the population was estimated at 42,545-183,129 birds (Lambert 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this may be an underestimate as it was largely based on surveys from Bacan and not Halmahera where the species may have been commoner. Recent observations indicate that rapid declines are on-going. CITES data show significant harvest rates for the cage bird trade during the early 1990s. Annual harvests have declined in actual terms and as a proportion of the remaining population in recent years. <p></p>
106001402		habitat	eng	It is resident (perhaps making minor nomadic movements) in primary, logged and secondary forest up to 900 m. It also occurs in mangroves, plantations (including coconut) and agricultural land, suggesting that it tolerates some habitat modification. The highest densities occur in primary forest, and it requires large trees for nesting and communal roosting. <p></p>
106001402		population	eng	The global population has been estimated to number c.43,000-183,000 individuals (Lambert 1993), while the population in Taiwan has been been estimated at
106001402		threats	eng	Unsustainable levels of trapping for the cage-bird trade pose the greatest threat. In 1991, an estimated minimum of 6,600 birds (possibly representing a mere quarter of the actual figure) were taken from the wild. Catch quotas for the species were exceeded by up to 18 times in some localities, indicating that trappers were removing in the order of 17% of the population annually. In 2007, the catch quota was 10 pairs, and only for breeding purposes. However, an investigation by ProFauna revealed that  at least 200 White Cockatoo were caught from the wild in North  Halmahera in 2007, far exceeding the quota (ProFauna<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2008). Although forest within parts of its range remains relatively intact, exploitation by logging companies has become intensive, and some areas are have been cleared for agriculture and mining. Significant changes in forest cover on Halmahera appear to have driven a concomitant decline in the cockatoo population (F. Lambert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160; Habitat and nest-site availability is therefore decreasing, particularly the latter. Furthermore, new logging roads greatly facilitate access for trappers.<br/><p></p>
106001403		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I (1992). It is known from five protected areas: Rasa Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Omoi and Manambaling Cockatoo Reserves in Dumaran, Culasian Managed Resource Protected Area in Rizal and Samar Island Natural Park. It is also known from two sites proposed for major project funding: Dinagat and Tawitawi. Since 1998 an intensive species conservation programme, the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program (PCCP) has been implemented by the Katala Foundation. In 2005, the Katala Foundation started to plan and build the Katala Institute for Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation, designed as a centre for environmental education and research, as well as possibly serving a role as a facility for the captive breeding of <em>C. haematuropygia</em><strong></strong>. By 2009, a number of the buildings and facilities at the institute had been completed (Schoppe <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Three protected areas have been specifically created for the species in Palawan on Rasa Island, Dumaran and Rizal. Conservation efforts on Rasa Island recovered a small population from 25 individuals to over 200 by July 2008 (Widmann and Widmann<em> </em>2008) and c.280 in 2012 (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Poachers have been trained as wildlife wardens and were provided with alternative sources of income. This turned out to be the single most effective activity to prevent poaching and was repeated in three other project sites. Awareness campaigns have been conducted on Mindanao, Palawan and Polillo. Trilingual conservation posters have been distributed nationwide. The Katala Pride Campaign launched on Dumaran Island has focused on raising awareness among students and farmers (Anon. 2005)<strong></strong>. In 1992, an international captive-breeding programme was initiated, with 39 birds kept under the European Studbook in 2007 (P. Widmann <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In 2005, drought caused the starvation of 15 chicks, so 10 chicks were hand-reared for an experimental translocation (Widmann and Widmann 2005)<strong></strong>. An extreme drought in 2010, possibly worse than that in 2005, resulted in only 15 of 25 nests on Rasa producing a total of 24 young, of which only five survived until late April and were rescued for supplementary feeding<strong></strong>. Supplemental food and water were provided for adult birds on Rasa to mitigate the effects of the drought (Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>. Currently, sites are assessed and tested for their suitability for translocation. A first attempt on a resort island in northern Palawan indicated that rescued hand-raised birds can adapt well to natural conditions (foraging, predator avoidance), but was terminated owing to problems caused by tameness. Conservation efforts started in 2010 at a new project site on Pandanan Island to the south of Palawan (Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>, where recent surveys confirmed the presence of a viable population (Widmann and Lacerna-Widmann 2009)<strong></strong>. At least 15 nestlings have been ringed and successfully fledged, with one brood requiring supplementary feeding, and potential nest-trees continue to be monitored<strong></strong>. Meetings, focus groups and other events have been held to engage local communities, and alternative income sources are being promoted to reduce trapping pressure (Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>.    Experimental habitat restoration has been initiated at Dumaran and one mainland site in Palawan. A project to identify suitable reintroduction sites and to create necessary conditions for reintroduction (e.g. legal, social acceptance, site preparation) was initiated in 2012 (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on all range islands to assess the species's population size and distribution. Monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Quantify levels of trapping, persecution and trade. Designate further protected areas (e.g. Tawitawi and localities on or near to Palawan). Support the proposed expansion of St Paul's Subterranean National Park. Prevent further mangrove destruction. Promote economically viable alternatives to cockatoo-trapping. Continue education programmes. Establish staffed posts at airports and ferry terminals. Conduct translocation into suitable (well-protected, intact) lowland forest or mangrove habitats. <p></p>
106001403		distribution	eng	<em>Cacatua haematuropygia</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>. In 1950, it was common throughout but a rapid decline has left a population of c.1,000 birds. Of these, there are 250-700 on Palawan and its satellite islands, "several hundred" or 100-200 on Tawitawi, it is possibly extinct on Mindanao, and there are fewer than 20 individuals in the Polillo group of islands and Samar respectively. Subpopulations away from Palawan and the Sulus are mainly tiny and have few long-term prospects. Conservation efforts are underway at four sites; including on Rasa Island near Narra, Palawan, where the population increased from 20 in 1998 to over 200 in 2008 (Widmann and Widmann<em> </em>2008, Anon. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a record breeding season in 2008 saw 48 young banded by May 2008 (P. Widmann <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; but elsewhere declines have continued. <p></p>
106001403		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to lowland primary and/or secondary forest predominantly below 50 m, in or adjacent to riverine or coastal areas with mangroves. It breeds between January and July, and outside the breeding season it frequents both corn and rice fields. It depends on seasonally fluctuating food resources and is partially nomadic. Birds fly from the mainland to offshore islands as far as 8 km away from the mainland to roost and breed. The species is able to utilise regenerating forest for foraging and, if suitable trees are present, breeding (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001403		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 370-770 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 550-1,200 individuals in total (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106001403		threats	eng	On Palawan, Polillo and Samar, trapping is particularly serious, and the high price fetched per bird (c.US$160 in Manila in 1997 and US$300 in 2006) means that chicks are taken from virtually every accessible nest. High numbers were (legally) traded internationally in the 1980s (e.g. 422 in 1983). Poaching of nestlings and snares possibly intended for roosting cockatoos have also been noted during recent conservation work on Pandanan Island. During nest monitoring on Pandanan, illegal tree cutting was also documented (Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>. Lowland deforestation and mangrove destruction have been extensive throughout its range, and have contributed significantly to its decline. It is also persecuted as a crop-pest and hunted for food. Typhoons are a threat, at least in already declining populations. Very dry breeding seasons may lead to complete breeding failure. The release of captive birds may introduce disease into the wild population. Introduced predators represent a threat at many potential release sites.  <p></p>
106001404		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I (1992).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Investigate the extent of trapping and persecution and take appropriate measures, including the use of awareness campaigns, to address these issues. Protect significant areas of suitable forest on all islands where it occurs.  <p></p>
106001404		distribution	eng	<em>Cacatua goffiniana</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands of Yamdena and Larat (Tanimbar) with an introduced population on Kai, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. In the 1980s the numbers of birds entering trade annually exceeded 10,000 in some years and there were fears for its security, but the total population is estimated to number 300,000-400,000 individuals.  <p></p>
106001404		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest and agricultural land, feeding on maize crops and roosting in the forest.  <p></p>
106001404		population	eng	The global population has been estimated to number c.100,000-499,999 (BirdLife International 2001), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at   &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001404		threats	eng	Habitat loss continues apace in the south of Yamdena and this, combined with continued trapping, must be producing a decline. It may be persecuted as a crop pest or hunted for food in some areas.  <p></p>
106001405		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout inland and northern Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001406		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. Subspecies pastinator is found in most of south-west Australia, south of Perth from the Swan and Avon rivers in the north, to Augusta in the west and Broome in the east. Subspecies derbyi is found in the northern wheatbelt of Western Australia.
106001406		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population size for the nominate subspecies has been estimated as c.3,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001406		threats	eng	Subspecies pastinator declined significantly in range and numbers early in the 20th century, as it was considered an agricultural pest. Extensive shooting and poisoning by farmers caused the population to plummet to c.100 birds in the 1940s. However, both the expansion of agriculture and prohibition of poisoning and shooting has allowed a recovery in numbers (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Clearance for agriculture has reduced the area of breeding habitat for subspecies derbyi, and may be favouring the Short-billed Corella C. sanguinea. Nevertheless, despite a low reproductive rate, the range of this subspecies has expanded in recent decades (Garnett 1992).
106001407		population	eng	The global population was estimated to number 180,000 individuals in 1983 and well over 100,000 pairs in 1987: it has therefore been placed in the population band 100,000-499,999 individuals.
106001408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001409		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001410		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Research is being conducted on its ecology and population dynamics. Advocacy is aimed at informing alpine users of ways to minimise adverse impacts and to change the negative image of the species often held by high-country farmers and ski-field operators (A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the population. Instigate monitoring following the methodology developed by Elliot and Kemp (Elliot and Kemp 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish the nature and extent of the threat posed by introduced predators, particularly in the south-west of South Island. Continue advocacy campaigns. If appropriate, control introduced mammals.  <p></p>
106001410		distribution	eng	<em>Nestor notabilis</em> occurs in Marlborough and from Nelson to Fiordland on South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population is a fraction of what it once was. Estimates are: 1,000-5,000 (Anderson 1986)<strong></strong>; c.15,000 (Bond and Diamond 1992)<strong></strong>; and 5,000 individuals (Peat 1994, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. One study detected an apparent decrease in numbers over 30 years at one site (Wilson and Brejaart 1992)<strong></strong>, although numbers in the St Arnaud range in the north of the South Island remained stable during the period 1992-1999 (Elliot and Kemp 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001410		habitat	eng	It mostly inhabits high-altitude forest and alpine basins, although birds will often frequent lowland flats. It mostly feeds on berries and shoots, although many have adapted to feeding at refuse dumps and ski-fields. It nests in holes, under logs or in rocky crevasses. It usually lays four eggs. Males feed the females during incubation and after hatching. Birds breed after three or more years. The oldest recorded bird was over 20 years of age (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001410		population	eng	The population has been estimated to number c.5,000 individuals (Peat 1994, Heather and Robertson 1997), on which basis the number of mature individuals is put at 3,300, although up-to-date survey data are required. <p></p>
106001410		threats	eng	Up until its protection in 1970, over 150,000 were shot in a bounty scheme, established because rogue individuals were found to be attacking sheep as a source of fat. Introduced mammals such as stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em>, cats and brush-tailed possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> have spread into most of the species's range, but the extent of predation is unknown, although it may be significant (Wilson and Brejaart 1992, Peat 1994)<strong></strong>, and likely to increase in areas that possums have only recently colonised (Elliot and Kemp 2004)<strong></strong>. <em>T. vulpecula</em>, thar <em>Hemitragus jemlahicus</em>, red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em>, hare <em>Lepus europaeus</em>, chamois <em>Rupicapra rupicapra</em> and pastoral farming practices may also be depleting crucial winter foods (Wilson and Brejaart 1992, A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Deforestation for pasture has placed pressure on the species, and farmers still kill an unknown number of birds each year (Mosen 2009). It is suspected that some birds are poisoned by toxins and other hazardous material scavenged from rubbish dumps and sites of human occupation (A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Both lead toxins and the 1080 toxin used in invasive control have potentially widespread impacts on the population (T. Orr-Walker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). Climate change may pose a threat through possible future influences on its high altitude habitat (Mosen 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001411		distribution	eng	<em>Nestor productus </em>was endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong> and adjacent Phillip Island<strong></strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. It became extinct in the wild in the mid-19th century on Norfolk Island, and possibly a little later on Phillip Island. The last known living bird was in captivity in London in 1851 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. At least seven specimens exist<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). <p></p>
106001411		habitat	eng	It inhabited rocks and treetops, and was seen feeding on blossoms.  <p></p>
106001411		threats	eng	It was reportedly tame, and hence heavily hunted for food by convicts and early settlers and easily trapped as a pet.  <p></p>
106001412		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Predator/pest control is carried out in several large areas and around known nest-sites (T. Greene <em>in litt</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Kaka have been released into the pest free Maungatautiri sanctuary in the Waikato.  Intensive nest protection will be occurring within a small area of Waitutu forest in Southland during the 2007/2008 breeding season.  It is hoped that a more extensive integrated pest control regime will be initiated within Waitutu in the next year or two. Supplementary foods were trialled where wasps are a major problem, but did not increase productivity (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Radio-tracking is used to identify adult and juvenile movements and survival, habitat requirements and important food sources. An on-going ex situ breeding programme has resulted in the release of 31 individuals to the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary and the Pukaha Mt Bruce Forest, and breeding has subsequently been recorded in at Pukaha with the population there increasing steadily (ARAZPA 2004)<strong></strong>, but it is unlikely to be sustainable. A "stoat-proof" nest box has been developed, but adult mortality remains high (Greene <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>. In 2010, the Department of Conservation began poisoning possums across 25 ha in the Waitutu Forest, which has proved effective in eliminating 99.5%, with the birds unaffected (Ledgard 2010, Anon. 2011). Results from 2008 show that predator control has a positive influence on the incidence of successful fledging (Ledgard 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop and implement effective methods for estimating population sizes in this species. Research its diet and habitat use in relation to breeding frequency. Develop and implement long-term, sustainable and cost-effective methods of protecting, augmenting and reintroducing populations of the species.  <p></p>
106001412		distribution	eng	<em>Nestor meridionalis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The North Island subspecies <em>septentrionalis</em> survives in large forest tracts from Coromandel to Wairarapa, and is moderately common only in the forests of Pureora and Whirinaki and some offshore islands (Heather and Robertson 1997, Greene and Fraser 1998, T. Greene <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The South Island subspecies <em>meridionalis</em> is mostly found west of the Southern Alps, Fiordland and south-western Southland, Stewart Island and several offshore islands, and is in low numbers in all areas. The population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 birds (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, and new information indicates that the species has almost disappeared from the mainland except for a few intensely managed sites, and those valleys that remain free of possums. Three generations ago over 90% of the population would have been on the mainland, whereas now less than 50% is found there (R. Moorhouse <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Mortality is highest in nesting females, so relatively large numbers of males can remain highly visible for a long time after the population reaches a very poor condition functionally (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001412		habitat	eng	This species inhabits large areas of low to mid-altitude forest. Its diet is diverse, consisting of fruit, seeds, nectar, sap, invertebrates (Beggs and Wilson 1991, Moorhouse 1997)<strong></strong>, and also "honeydew" in South Island <em>Nothofagus</em> beech forests (Beggs and Wilson 1991)<strong></strong>. It appears to depend on infrequently available, superabundant food crops in order to breed (Moorhouse 1997, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It nests in natural cavities in old or dying trees and usually lays four eggs (T. Greene <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, with the chicks taking over seven months to become fully independent (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001412		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals in total, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 individuals.
106001412		threats	eng	Historically, forest clearance and hunting decimated habitat and numbers (Heather and Robertson 1997, Moorhouse 1997, Greene and Fraser 1998, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em> kill adults, in particular females incubating eggs, probably causing the highly skewed sex ratio on the mainland (Greene and Fraser 1998, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1998, T. Greene <em>in litt</em> 1999, Ledgard 2010)<strong></strong>. Brush-tailed possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> rob nests (T. Greene <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, being responsible for the failure of six out of 13 nests in Whirinaki during a single breeding season (Greene <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, and compete for high-energy foods (especially native mistletoe) required for successful breeding (Heather and Robertson 1997, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1998, Ledgard 2010)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> are also implicated (Moorhouse 1997)<strong></strong>. Sites with predator control have a nest failure incidence of 16%, compared to 84% in sites without predator control (Moorhouse <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003)<strong></strong>. Introduced wasps <em>Vespula</em> spp. compete for honeydew, and may be contributing to declines in <em>Nothofagus</em> forests (Beggs and Wilson 1991, Moorhouse 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001413		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001414		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the 110 km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area <strong></strong>(B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000). CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Use remote sensing to assess forest cover and trends. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Protect significant areas of suitable forest on all islands where it occurs.  <p></p>
106001414		distribution	eng	<em>Micropsitta geelvinkiana</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori and Numfor off Papua, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939, <strong></strong>Bishop 1982, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Recent visitors to Biak-Supiori have found it to be widespread but only in small numbers <strong></strong>(Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b, B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000), although it is also described as "well distributed in good numbers" (in suitable habitat) on Biak-Supiori <strong></strong>(Collar 1997a). There is very little recent information on bird and especially forest status on Biak-Supiori, and further research may show that this species is declining rapidly. <em> </em><p></p>
106001414		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest, secondary forest and forest gardens, up to at least 400 m, this species tolerates highly degraded habitats.  <p></p>
106001414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as well distributed in good numbers in lowland primary and secondary forests (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001414		threats	eng	On Biak and Numfor, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000).  <p></p>
106001415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very uncommon and local in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001416		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on both Manus and Lou (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001417		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to New Ireland and Bougainville in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
106001417		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland forests to about 1,000 m.
106001417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001417		threats	eng	Although there are reports that it is poorly tolerant of logged and degraded forest (Schodde 1977, Buckingham et al. 1995) and local extirpations may have occurred (Blaber 1990), it is frequently recorded elsewhere in logged forest (B. Beehler in litt. 2000). However, the lowlands throughout the region are subject to extensive logging.
106001418		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001419		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common. However some subspecies are reported to be very rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001421		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local  (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001422		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001423		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Two huge protected areas, Foja Nature Reserve (c.10,000 km<sup>2</sup>) and Jayawija Nature Reserve (8,000 km<sup>2</sup>), are located within the species's range <strong></strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is kept in captivity and breeds well but no coordinated breeding effort or studbook is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys to clarify its current distribution and population status. Ascertain scale of threats to lowland forest within its range. Investigate domestic and international trade in the species, and devise and implement appropriate combative measures. Assess the effectiveness of the current protected-areas system for conserving populations, and propose further reserves at key sites if appropriate. <p></p>
106001423		distribution	eng	<em>Psittaculirostris salvadorii</em> is endemic to northern Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs from the eastern shore of Geelvink Bay to the Cyclops Mountains <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986), including lowland forest up the tributaries of the Mamberamo River <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Recent records suggest that it is still locally common, including in the lowlands west of Jayapura and at Nimbokrang <strong></strong>(Diamond 1985, Gibbs 1993, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Eastwood 1996b). Previous evidence strongly suggested a decline <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1987, <em></em>1994, R. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994), although no new information is available and much of its range is remote and inaccessible <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>P. Gregory <em>in litt</em>. 1994, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <p></p>
106001423		habitat	eng	Small flocks inhabit the canopy of lowland forests, including forest edge and swamp-forest, from sea-level up to 400 m <strong></strong>(Rand and Gilliard 1967, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2000). It is frugivorous. <p></p>
106001423		population	eng	The population has been estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals; this was a preliminary population estimate which requires confirmation and refinement.
106001423		threats	eng	Relatively large numbers are trapped for the cage-bird trade, both for domestic and overseas markets, with a total of 1,582 birds known to have been exported from Indonesia between 1985 and 1990 <strong></strong>(Beehler 1985, Nash 1990b, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, Collar 1997a), and 1,791 between 1990 and 2001 when recorded trade in the species ceased <strong></strong>(UNEP-WCMC 2007). However, the true scale of trade is unknown and it is probably overlooked by many trappers in preference of more sought-after and abundant species (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Local human population increases, resulting from transmigration (e.g. near Nabire and Jayapura), have increased logging and land clearance for agriculture <strong></strong>(R. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995), and have probably increased trade in the species. Additional threats to lowland forests within its range include many large-scale logging and agricultural schemes <strong></strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996<em></em>).<br/><p></p>
106001424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001425		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the species's occurrence in trade and address this threat if necessary. Calculate rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques and estimate population trends accordingly. Protect remaining areas of lowland forest within its range. <p></p>
106001425		distribution	eng	<em>Psittinus cyanurus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra (including the Riau, Lingga, Bangka, Simeulue, Mentawai islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998, BirdLife International 2001). It is only locally common and generally rarer than sympatric <em>Psittacula</em> species. Nevertheless, the global population is thought to be in excess of 100,000 individuals, but declining.  <p></p>
106001425		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary, dry-land evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland forest, both mature and selectively logged, and also visits edge vegetation, cultivated areas and gap-phase growth of forest clearings and occasionally mangroves, up to 1,300 m, although generally below 700 m. It is gregarious and regularly forms flocks of up to 20 individuals. Breeding occurs in February to May in Malaysia, and June to September in Borneo. <p></p>
106001425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in primary habitat and uncommon in secondary habitats and plantations (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001425		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
106001426		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001427		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally scarce, though locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather scarce to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very uncommon on New Britian and New Georgia, locally common on Santa Isabel and Guadelcanal and uncommon to moderately abundant on Bougainville (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001433		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Calculate rates of forest loss within its altitudinal range on Luzon. Estimate the remaining area of suitable habitat and, using surveys, produce a density estimate to allow its global population size to be estimated. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106001433		distribution	eng	<em>Prioniturus montanus</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is almost entirely confined to montane forest regions (above c.700 m) in the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre, with records including Mt Sicapo-o at Mt Simminublak, Liwan, Kenema, Mountain province, Sablan, Mountain province, Massisiat, Abra, Mt Data, Mt Pulog, Mt Polis, Mt Puguis, Paoay, Irisan, Benguet, Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya, and three sites - Dipalayag, Los Dos Cuernos and Mt Cetaceo - in the Sierra Madre, plus Pangil, Laguna (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). The fact that it escaped detection in the Sierra Madre until 1991 is evidence that it lives in relatively inaccessible areas and its numbers, which were estimated in 1993 to be fewer than 10,000 individuals <strong></strong>(Lambert <em>et al</em>. 1993), may therefore be quite stable. <em> </em><p></p>
106001433		habitat	eng	Little is known of its ecological requirements: it occurs in humid montane forest from 850 m to 2,900 m. It feeds on seeds, berries and nuts. Breeding occurs in August to September. <p></p>
106001433		population	eng	Lambert <I>et al.</I> (1993) estimated a maximum of 10,000 individuals, and so the population size is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001433		threats	eng	There is a need for vigilance concerning habitat destruction, hunting and trapping for the cagebird trade, all of which may represent threats to the species. <p></p>
106001434		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Gather data on the impacts of international and national trade. Revise the population estimate. Calculate rates of forest loss within its altitudinal and geographic range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106001434		distribution	eng	<em>Prioniturus waterstradti</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from nine montane localities: Mt Hilong-hilong, Mt Mayo, Anakan and Civolig near Gingoog City, Mt Kitanglad, Mt Apo, Mt Matutum, Lake Sebu, and Mt Malindang. The notion that it is local and uncommon, apparently occurring at lower density than some of its congeners, appears to be over-cautious, with evidence to the contrary coming from several sources old and new. Moreover, montane habitats are relatively secure compared to lower formations. The population was estimated in 1993 at c.5,000 individuals and declining (Lambert <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1993)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001434		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest at 820-2,700 m, but it has been recorded as low as 450 m. It occurs in groups of 2-10 individuals and apparently undertakes daily altitudinal migrations. The nest is built 5-7 m above the ground (Schnitker 2008).<br/><p></p>
106001434		population	eng	In 1993, the population was estimated to number c.5,000 individuals (Lambert <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1993)<strong></strong>, probably including c.3,300 mature individuals. <p></p>
106001434		threats	eng	Forest loss may represent a threat but it is not thought to have a significant impact within this species's alititudinal range. Many parrots in the region are affected by trapping for trade, but its impacts upon this species are not known. <p></p>
106001435		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The whole of Palawan is classed as a game reserve, where hunting is illegal, and the island was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990. However, the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in four protected areas: Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, which may soon be extended by 325 km<sup>2</sup>, Rasa Island (where the species may benefit owing to a wardening scheme in place primarily for the conservation of Philippine Cockatoo), Omoi Cockatoo Reserve on Dumaran Island and Culasian Managed Resource Protected Area, Rizal, southern Palawan <strong></strong>(P. Widmann <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Iwahig Penal Colony is managed by the Bureau of Prisons but lacks official protection and management.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forests throughout its range, particularly around Mt Victoria and in the north (e.g. in the El Nido Reserve). Seek greater control of the cage-bird trade. Support the proposed extension of Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park. Clamp down on illegal logging in the species's range. Ensure the environmental impacts of proposed mining operations are properly assessed and damage is mitigated for. Assess the damage it causes to crops (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and tackle the threat of persecution through the development of alternative mitigation measures for farmers. Carry out awareness campaigns regarding the protected status of the species (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001435		distribution	eng	<em>Prioniturus platenae</em> is endemic to Palawan and its satellite islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong> (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999), where it is widespread in all mainland municipalities (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Since 1980, there have been records from seven satellite islands (Calauit, Busuanga, Culion, Dumaran, Rasa, Pandanan and Bugsuk). It reportedly used to be relatively abundant, but the recent paucity of records indicates that it has declined and become generally uncommon, although it still occurs regularly in small numbers at several sites (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106001435		habitat	eng	This poorly-known species inhabits lowland forest, forest edge and nearby cultivation, up to at least 300 m. On islands north of Palawan, it has been recorded in ultrabasic forest, bamboo scrublands, mangrove and in natural grassland with scattered trees. <p></p>
106001435		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001435		threats	eng	Forest destruction is the chief threat. Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive, and logging and mining concessions cover most of the island's remaining forested areas. Illegal logging persists in the south of the island. Forest at Iwahig penal colony may be threatened by plans to mine chromite, and habitat on the small island of Culion has been irreparably damaged. Trapping for the cage-bird trade is not considered a major threat, as birds are locally regarded as short-lived in captivity; consequently, the species is only rarely found in confiscated shipments (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The re-release of birds confiscated from trade may expose wild populations to diseases acquired during captivity. The species regularly feeds in banana plantations and is locally persecuted as an agricultural pest (P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106001436		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. National legislation exists to protect it from trade and hunting, although this is frequently violated. It is currently known from two protected areas, Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay Forest Reserve and the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. It receives nominal protection in the Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to identify further sites supporting key populations, with a view to formally establishing them as protected areas (e.g. Mts Cagua, Cetaceo and the Mariveles Mountains). Research its ecology and year-round requirements, to improve understanding of its management needs. Examine trends in <em>Prioniturus</em> species at all sites to monitor the spread of the apparently invasive <em>P. discurus</em>. Improve protection measures against logging at Subic Bay Forest Reserve. Clamp down on illegal logging within the species's range, and ensure that environmental impact assessments are carried out before any new logging concessions are granted. <p></p>
106001436		distribution	eng	<em>Prioniturus luconensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Luzon and Marinduque. Formerly widespread and locally abundant, it has declined rapidly. Virtually all recent records have been confined to the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon, where it is still locally common and probably relatively secure. However, at two sites with records since 1980, Quezon National Park and Angat Dam, it now appears to be extinct, having been common at the former in the 1980s. There are no recent records from Marinduque, where it may already be extinct. <p></p>
106001436		habitat	eng	It is a lowland species on Luzon, with records in the Sierra Madre from 300-700&#160;m. On Marinduque it has been recorded above 1,000&#160;m. Its increasing rarity suggests a dependence on lowland primary forest, although birds do range into scattered fruiting trees in open areas and into secondary and heavily degraded forest.<p></p>
106001436		population	eng	Recent records are almost exclusively derived from a sub-set of potential sites that are visited by birdwatchers so range-wide the population is difficult to estimate. However, the area of habitat still available suggests the population may lie within the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001436		threats	eng	Trapping for the cage-bird trade is a significant problem. Local extinctions as a direct result of forest loss are very likely. In 1988, forest cover was just 3% on Marinduque and 24% on Luzon. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre mountains has declined by 83% since the 1930s. Most remaining areas are under logging concession and may suffer further from major road-building plans. A new road development near Subic Bay has increased the incidence of illegal logging and felling is rife at Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park. Habitat modification may have accentuated interspecific competition, with the species having been replaced by Blue-crowned Racquet-tail <em>P. discurus</em> in Quezon National Park. <p></p>
106001437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001438		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> CITES Appendix II. Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus. There are no formal protected areas in the archipelago. In 1997, an awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawi-Tawi was initiated. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawi-Tawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although neither the outcome nor the likely benefits to the species are known. A municipal resolution has been in  development, with the hope of putting a stop to the hunting of endemic  species (I. Sarenas <em>in litt</em>. 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Conduct surveys in all remnant forest and mangrove patches in the Sulus in order to quantify the size of the remaining population. Urgently establish formal protected areas where the species persists, and pursue protection for other areas of suitable habitat (key sites are the central hilly areas to the east of Tarawakan across to Lubbuk, and as much as possible of the forest east of there through Languyan municipality and the southern bay). Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes. Consider the feasibility of captive-breeding (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001438		distribution	eng	<em>Prioniturus verticalis</em> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is historically known from six islands (BirdLife International 2001). At the turn of the century it was described as locally abundant but, by the 1970s, it had evidently undergone a huge decline. There have been no records from Tumindao and Manuk Manka for c.80  years, although there may have been a lack of search effort during this  time, and it is regarded as probably extinct on Bongao and Sanga-sanga,  although it could persist on Sibutu (D. Allen <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Very small numbers persisted at three sites (Buan, Tarawakan and Parangan) on Tawi-Tawi in the early 1990s, with the situation apparently continuing to deteriorate. The species appears to be becoming ever scarcer, and local people report that<em> </em>it is the least encountered parrot species on Tawi-Tawi (I. Sarenas <em>in litt</em>. 2011). During a one-week visit to Tawi-Tawi in early 2008, the species did not respond to tape luring (D. Allen <em>in litt</em>. 2008), and it was heard only once during a visit to the island in early 2010, which included seven field days, with visits to Sitio Lambug (Panglima Sugala) and the Bilatan Islands (I. Sarenas <em>in litt</em>. 2010, 2011). A five-day visit in January 2012 produced sightings of three individuals (I. Sarenas <em>in litt</em>. 2012). However, movement by tourists is increasingly restricted owing to security concerns, and the species could be numerous in other parts of the island beyond the small area sampled by visitors (I. Sarenas <em>in litt</em>. 2011, 2012). Although the population was previously estimated at fewer than 1,000 mature  individuals (BirdLife International 2001), more recent observations indicate that there could now  be fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining.<br/><br/><p></p>
106001438		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests, including mangroves, which provide roosting and foraging (and potentially nesting) sites, and also frequents forest edge and degraded forest, but not cultivated areas away from forest. <p></p>
106001438		population	eng	The population was previously estimated at fewer than 1,000 mature   individuals (BirdLife International 2001), but more recent observations  indicate that there could now  be fewer than 250 mature individuals  remaining, thus the population is now placed in the band for 50-249 mature individuals, probably equivalent to a total population of 75-375 individuals.
106001438		threats	eng	Virtually no primary forest remains on the island of Sibutu and there is little forest remaining on Sanga-sanga. By the mid-1990s, the rapid clearance of primary forest on Tawi-Tawi had rendered remaining lowland patches highly degraded. Logging of the few remaining tracts, now confined to rugged mountainous areas, is likely to be followed by uncontrolled settlement and conversion to agriculture. The tameness of this parrot, combined with the high rate of gun ownership in its range, have made it an easy target in the past. As of January 2012, logging was said to be on-going (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and hunting pressure on hornbills was increasing,  suggesting that other species may be suffering from increased  persecution (I. Sarenas <em>in litt</em>. 2010). Claims that the species is captured for trade to Indonesia have not been confirmed, and the species is apparently not favoured as a pet because it can not be sustained on rice (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001439		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the threats to this species. Calculate rates of forest loss in the lowlands of northern Sulawesi. Investigate the species's level of dependence on forest habitats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106001439		distribution	eng	<em>Prioniturus flavicans</em> is known with certainty only from the eastern two-thirds of the northern peninsula (Minahasa) of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with populations on adjacent islands including the Togian Islands (Juniper and Parr 1998, BirdLife International 2001). It has a limited area of occupancy on the peninsula, given that the extent of its lowland forest habitat is c.11,300 km<sup>2</sup>, and the world population is in the order of 45,000 birds. Its numbers are declining. <p></p>
106001439		habitat	eng	It is generally found in primary forest below 1,000 m but it will range as high as 1,900 m and use trees in cultivated areas. It forages in mid-storey lowland and hill forest, gathering in fruiting trees. The only recorded nest was situated in a cavity in the rootball of an arboreal epiphytic fern <strong></strong>(Walker and Seroji 2000).   <p></p>
106001439		population	eng	The population has been estimated to be in the order of 45,000 individuals (Walker and Cahill 2000). <p></p>
106001439		threats	eng	Declines are attributed to high rates of habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation. <p></p>
106001440		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001441		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001443		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several national parks within the Philippines: Bataan, Quezon and Minalungaw, and is relatively common within St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Palawan. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the impact of trade on the species's population. Revise its global population estimate. Estimate rates of decline based upon rates of deforestation within its range. Effectively protect significant areas of tall forest with suitable nesting trees at key sites throughout it range, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106001443		distribution	eng	<em>Tanygnathus lucionensis</em> is confined to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there are records from at least 45 islands, plus the Talaud Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and islands off north-east Borneo belonging to <strong>Malaysia</strong> (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It was common on most islands in the Philippines a century or less ago, but has suffered declines since on such a scale that it is now rare or extinct on many islands. However, while not a small-island specialist it does survive in small pockets of habitat on the smaller islands, so that its status overall is difficult to assess. Moreover, it is still fairly numerous in some areas of Palawan and on Tawitawi, and high numbers persist in a large tract of forest on Talaud. The total population was provisionally estimated to be below 10,000 individuals in 1993 <strong></strong>(Lambert <em>et al</em>. 1993). <p></p>
106001443		habitat	eng	It is a bird of closed and open forest formations, including second growth, coconut plantations, banana patches and mangrove, chiefly in lowland and coastal areas, up to 1,000 m. It is usually found in flocks of up to 12 individuals which roost communally and make regular dawn and dusk flights between feeding and roosting areas. It feeds in fruiting trees on nuts, fruits, berries and also on grain in other habitats. Nesting takes place in a hole in a tree in April-June. <p></p>
106001443		population	eng	Lambert <i>et al.</i> (1993) estimated a maximum of 10,000 individuals, and so the population size is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001443		threats	eng	It has declined through trapping (for both domestic and international trade) and habitat loss owing to agricultural expansion and logging pressure.  <p></p>
106001444		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001445		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Surveys for Buru's endemic birds were conducted in 1989 and 1995-1996, this species only being recorded during the latter survey. An area of 1,450 km<sup>2</sup>, encompassing Gunung Kelapatmada in the west of the island (where the species is known to occur), is proposed as a reserve. However, it remains to be confirmed that this site is the most appropriate area for the conservation of threatened endemic birds. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys particularly using its vocalisations at night, primarily in montane areas. Research its ecological requirements and movements in order to develop an appropriate conservation strategy. Identify the most appropriate area for the conservation of this and other threatened species on Buru, and promote its establishment as a strict protected area. <p></p>
106001445		distribution	eng	<em>Tanygnathus gramineus</em> is endemic to the island of Buru in South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. There are very few recent records from few localities, despite survey efforts (M. Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The only relatively recent records relate to two encounters in 1980 and two more in 1995 on Buru; one bird recorded as a pet on Bali in 2001 (Collar 2006)<strong></strong>, and a few possible sightings and aural records since (M. Poulsen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). According to early accounts, it was probably not uncommon, and the fact that recent searches have met with little success suggests it may have declined. Recent reports of the species (Persulessy 2010) are suspected to actually refer to Great-billed Parrot <span style="font-style: italic;">Tanygnathus megalorynchos </span>(Arndt 2011).<br/><p></p>
106001445		habitat	eng	This poorly-known species inhabits montane forest, chiefly above 1,000 m, but at least occasionally down to 600 m, or even the lowlands. There are suggestions it may be nocturnal, although this is unproven (T. Arndt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Although assumed to be resident, it perhaps makes altitudinal movements seasonally, or even daily. <p></p>
106001445		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001445		threats	eng	Habitat loss appears to be the main threat. Most forest in the coastal lowlands of Buru has now been cleared, and much of the forest in the northern part of the island has been selectively logged or degraded and fragmented by shifting agriculture, such that only a few small patches of primary lowland forest remain. The island's montane forests are largely undisturbed, although none currently receives formal protection. There is historical documentation of some minor exploitation of the species, but around 1980 there was no evidence of any trade. It has since been observed as a cage bird on Bali in 2001 (Collar 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001446		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon. The population on Sumba is estimated to be 1,900 individuals, although Sumba represents a very small proportion of the species's global range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001447		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Crater Mountain study have published conservation recommendations (Mack and Wright 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to improve the accuracy of the population estimate. Research the species's basic ecology, especially any feeding specialism. Research the feather trade. Monitor numbers at surveyed sites such as Crater Mountain and Kikori. Monitor numbers traded domestically and internationally. Control transport of threatened species on domestic flights. Run an education programme to dissuade tourists from buying feathers and artefacts. Investigate suitability of a programme to substitute artificial or dyed feathers (Mack and Wright 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001447		distribution	eng	<em>Psittrichas fulgidus</em> is patchily distributed across New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has been historically and recently extirpated from large areas, especially in Papua New Guinea (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Mack and Wright 1998<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is generally rare and seen in small numbers (birds are wide-ranging) (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has shown recent rapid declines in some areas such as Ok Tedi (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Gregory 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only population estimate is based on two pairs inhabiting 14 km<sup>2</sup> at Crater Mountain. Extrapolation suggests a total population of 21,000 pairs (Mack and Wright 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, this may have been an overestimate as the Crater Mountain birds sometimes foraged elsewhere, the species is atypically common at this site and is absent from many hunted areas (Mack and Wright 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conversely, it may be an underestimate by not accounting for substantial populations at lower altitudes (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001447		habitat	eng	It is restricted to hill and lower montane forest (Mack and Wright 1998, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At lower altitudes it appears to occur only in hills and at the base of mountains (Burrows 1995, Mack 1998, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is an extremely specialised frugivore, feeding only on a very few species of fig, and is probably seasonally nomadic. It nests in large, hollow trees and may have a lifespan of 20-40 years (Mack and Wright 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001447		population	eng	Pryor <em>et al. </em>(2001). <p></p>
106001447		threats	eng	The major threat is hunting for feathers (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Mack and Wright 1998<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, which are used for ornamentation, particularly in ceremonial head-dresses, in much of the Papua New Guinea Highlands and, in some areas, for skins, which are used as bride prices (Schmid 1993)<strong></strong>. Demand may increase as the population grows, however, the plumes of this species are not worn as commonly as those of other birds (M. Supuma<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012) and many feathers may be decades old as they are tend to be carefully stored when not being used (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In addition, hunting levels have decreased since the introduction of a law preventing the killing of birds with non-traditional means (i.e. shotguns). Tourist shows and cultural events have increased in recent years, which may increase demand for plumes, and birds or feathers are occasionally sold to tourists (van den Bergh 2009) although it is illegal to take them out of the country. Despite demand being generally lower in Papua, birds are also hunted for the cage-bird trade and meat (Nash 1992, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Nestlings are captured by felling trees or enlarging nest-cavities, and the scarcity of suitable nest-sites could become a limiting factor. Deforestation is a less major threat to the species since loggers usually leave fig trees (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001448		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under Fijian law, which has recently been revised, the old Birds &amp; Game Act has in part been surpassed by the Endangered Species Protection Act which does provide it with protection (SPREP 2000, D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Conservation projects have reduced trade in this species (Jackson and Jit 2004)<strong></strong>. Four communities have set up a community declared protected area covering 1,535 hectares of forest and local volunteers monitor bird populations and assess habitat status under their own initiative (V. Masibalavu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). Conservation actions targeting fire prevention (particularly awareness-raising following the change in decree relating to fire offences) have improved in recent the years (V. Masibalavu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012, M. Tabudravu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Set standards for the keeping of parrots in captivity to reduce demand (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor numbers trapped and transported to Suva. Determine population densities in various habitats. Research breeding requirements and success. Promote the creation of community-based forest reserves. Use the species as a figurehead to promote ecotourism in Kadavu. <p></p>
106001448		distribution	eng	<em>Prosopeia splendens</em> is endemic to <strong>Fiji</strong> where it occurs naturally on the islands of Kadavu and Ono, and is recently reported to be widespread and common on the former (G. Dutson pers. obs. 2000, J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The birds on Ono island are believed to be the same sub-population as on the nearby main island of Kadavu. Reports of breeding on other islands need to be confirmed and are likely to originate from long-lived escaped cage-birds (D. Watling verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although recent fieldwork on Kadavu has not specifically targeted this species, it appears to occur at similar population densities to Masked Shining-Parrot (86 Kadavu Shining-Parrots were recorded in 38 standardised observer-hours on the two BirdLife surveys, similar to the mean of 1.9 Masked Shining-Parrots /hour recorded at 18 sites across Viti Levu). Masked Shining-Parrot was estimated to occur at around 29 birds / km<sup>2</sup> in lowland native forest (Jackson and Jit 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2 </sup>(National Forest Inventory 1991-1993)<strong></strong>, so a reasonable population estimate for Crimson Shining-Parrot would be 6,000 birds. Conservation projects have reduced the numbers trapped for trading off Kadavu, and this species is probably declining at the rate of loss of forest on Kadavu, which is estimated to be 0.5-0.8 % per year across Fiji  (Claasen 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but probably higher on Kadavu which has suffered extensive fires in recent years (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001448		habitat	eng	It is found in forest, agricultural lands and around human habitation both in the lowlands and hills<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998). It is assumed to be a hole-nester like <em>P. tabuensis </em>(Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. The species is not restricted to  the forest during breeding  (D. Watling verbally 2000), as nests have been found in trees in the centre of the villages (M. Tabudravu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Pairs and small flocks forage widely for fruit and seeds, both in the forest canopy and in agricultural gardens (G. Dutson pers. obs. 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001448		population	eng	Jackson and Jit (2004) estimate the population to number 6,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 4,000 mature individuals. <p></p>
106001448		threats	eng	Although forest on Kadavu was heavily logged in the late 1960s and early 1970s and habitat loss and degradation for agricultural purposes continues, some 75% of the island remains forested and the species uses degraded habitats extensively (Watling 2000, V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Forest fires are an additional threat (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, which remains high, although conservation actions targeting forest fires have improved in recent years (M. Tabudravu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Most river estuaries and bays still hold large areas of mangroves which are intensively used by <em>P. splendens</em> for feeding (and perhaps breeding), although pressure on mangrove forest is not significant at present (J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt</em>. 2000, D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is captured in small numbers, with birds being taken as gifts by islanders returning to the capital, Suva (Watling 2000)<strong></strong>, and there is at least some illegal trade overseas (J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106001449		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under Fijian law, but existing legislation regarding the capture of wild parrots is inadequate and unenforceable (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in several protected areas including Tomaniivi Nature Reserve, Koryanitu National Heritage Park, Colo-i-Suva Forest Park and the Garrick Memorial Park (D. Watling<em> in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Review existing legislation and set standards for the keeping of parrots in captivity to reduce demand (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote the creation of community-based forest reserves. Determine its tolerance of logged forest and secondary growth. Monitor its numbers in protected sites, e.g. Koryanitu and Colo-i-Suva. <p></p>
106001449		distribution	eng	<em>Prosopeia personata</em> is endemic to <strong>Fiji</strong>, occurring only on the island of Viti Levu and perhaps formerly on the nearby island of Ovalau. It is not uncommon, and surveys in 2002-2005 indicate that the total population could be in the region of 88,000 birds (Jackson and Jit 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106001449		habitat	eng	It is found in forest and thick secondary growth at all altitudes (although most remaining forest is in the mountainous interior), frequently venturing into mangroves and fruiting trees in farmland and gardens (Clunie 1984, Pratt<em> et al.</em> 1987,<strong></strong> Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, breeding is probably restricted to mature forest only (Watling 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on fruit, but also flowers, insects, seeds and berries, and nests in holes or a crack in a large forest tree, or a cavity in the top of a stump (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001449		population	eng	Surveys by Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and BirdLife Fiji in 2002-2005 have generated much more data on this species and shown it to occur at higher population densities than previously estimated. WCS surveys estimated parrot numbers in a lowland forest site at Savura. Although there are various errors and biases in extrapolating these densities, dividing the total forest on Viti Levu into native forest, mahogany and pine plantations at various altitudes suggests that the total population could be in the region of 88,000 birds (with 95% confidence limits of 65,605-108,270).
106001449		threats	eng	The main threat comes from deforestation (less than 50% of Viti Levu remains forested), the resulting forest fragmentation, and the felling of large trees that are used for nesting (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over the last few decades, native forest was rapidly converted to mahogany plantations, causing significant loss of habitat for the species. This conversion has now largely ended and the rate of native forest loss is estimated to be back to the underlying level of 0.5-0.8 % per year, equating to 9-12% over 15 years (Claasen 1991, G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is some domestic traffic, but the "red" shining-parrots (<em>P. spendens</em> and <em>P. tabuensis</em>) are more important, with probably only one in ten shining-parrots in captivity being this species (D. Watling<em> in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and conspicuous throughout its range (Watling 2001).
106001451		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common but lost from cleared and afforested areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001452		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally comon, although rare on Halmahera. The population of the nominate race is estimated to be 70,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001453		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001454		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Zero quotas were imposed during the 1990s while uncertainty existed over the total population size, but these were not adhered to. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Revise the species's population estimate and review the impact of trade on its numbers. Determine whether declines are still evident. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106001454		distribution	eng	<em>Aprosmictus jonquillaceus</em> is restricted to Timor and Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Timor Leste</strong>, where it occurs on Timor, Wetar and Roti. Recent surveys of Wetar observed the species less often than most other restricted-range birds on the island (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The total population has been estimated at c.10,000 individuals and judged to be probably stable. <p></p>
106001454		habitat	eng	The species is found up to 2,600 m in monsoon forest, acacia savanna, lightly wooded cultivation and scrubby second growth. On Wetar, it is most often found along broad stream channels and typically feeds in <span style="font-style: italic;">Casuarina</span> trees (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><p></p>
106001454		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at c.10,000 individuals (Lambert <em> et al</em>. 1993), probably including c.6,700 mature individuals. <p></p>
106001454		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (possibly compounded by trade, with 1,343 birds officially recorded as being exported from Indonesia in 1981-1985) appears to be responsible for some declines in the past 15 years. <p></p>
106001455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001456		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. All populations were surveyed in the 1980s, and regular surveys of Barmah State Forest and along Murray, Murrumbidgee and Edward Rivers have been instigated. Annual community-based surveys occur in northern Victoria and southern New South Wales (C. Tzaros and M. A. Weston <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Guidelines have been developed for forestry in riparian breeding habitat, but these have sometimes been inadvertently ignored. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Refine monitoring techniques. Extend surveys of nest trees. Determine the extent of trade. Protect all known breeding and feeding habitat from clearance, including scattered paddock trees on private agricultural land (A. Manning<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reduce firewood collection. Promote good habitat management and revegetation on private land (Manning <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Coordinate land management on the scale of landscapes and centuries (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and involve all stakeholders (Manning <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop regional operations groups. Research the potential benefits of nest boxes (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct research into methods of regenerating scattered trees (Manning <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and develop grazing regimes suitable for eucalypt regeneration (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate research into population demography and communal behaviour (Leslie 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research importance of woodland, and potential new plantings, adjacent to breeding sites, and relationship to mortality of immatures (Leslie 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct research on local and landscape-scale movement patterns (A. Manning<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study nest-site fidelity (A. Manning<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out further investigations into, and monitoring of, the effects of climate variation on the species's abundance and distribution and the interaction with habitat loss and modification (A. Manning<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001456		distribution	eng	<em>Polytelis swainsonii</em> is endemic to Victoria and New South Wales, <strong>Australia</strong>. It has undergone a substantial historical range contraction, and bioclimatic modelling of suitable climatic conditions within its range supports this and suggests that it now occupies a relatively small part of its former range (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In Victoria, it is now largely confined to the Nathalia area, especially Barmah State Forest, birds having disappeared from central and southern areas in the early 1900s, and it has substantially declined in northern Victoria by 1930. In New South Wales, it has declined in the Parkes district since the 1960s. However, its range may have extended to Deniliquin and in northern New South Wales over the same period, and apparent increases have been noted in Canberra. The breeding population was estimated at fewer than 5,000 pairs in the early 1990s and, owing to a likely decline, was thought to number c.6,500 mature individuals in 2000. <span lang="EN-AU">A study systematically sampling 23,000 km<sup>2</sup> of parrot habitat on the western slopes in 2001 (Manning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007) found nearly 1,500 parrots in 53 out of 81 well-separated sites.  Furthermore they were reported from throughout the landscape, not just  where there were corridors of trees as had previously been thought  essential for the species. A simple extrapolation of these results gives  a total population of over 400,000 individuals. While such a figure is  unlikely, it is also highly unlikely the total could be as low as  10,000, and an <span lang="EN-AU">expert review panel considered it highly likely  that the population in 2010 exceeded 10,000 mature individuals, probably  by many thousands (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011).</span> Variation in the recorded abundance of the species, due to its movements, may mask population trends, and compounds the reliability of population estimates (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  However, the Atlas reporting rate increased by 61 per cent between the  averages for 1977-1981 and 1998-2009, and there is no evidence that  increases in Canberra in the last decade have been accompanied by losses  elsewhere in the range. The South-West Slopes of New South Wales appear to have become the most important area for the species, perhaps as habitat in other areas deteriorates (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106001456		habitat	eng	It nests in the New South Wales and Victorian Riverina in loose colonies in riparian woodland of river red gum <em>Eucalyptus camaldulensis</em> and forages in box woodland. On the slopes of the Great Dividing Range, it forages and nests in box-gum woodland, preferring highly modified, open habitat such as scattered paddock trees on private agricultural land (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2004, <em></em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting birds on the South-West Slopes show clear preferences for Blakely's red gum trees <em>E. blakelyi</em>, dead and aging trees in general, and larger trees, as all of these factors are correlated with the presence of suitable nest hollows (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also shows a preference for lower elevations in this area, which are dominated by agriculture (Manning <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in contrast to the poorer soils and lower temperatures of higher elevations (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Riverina, it feeds on the seeds of herbaceous plants, switching to lerp, mistletoe berries, eucalypt flowers and grass seed in winter, and forages up to 15 km from the nest. In contrast, it appears that the most important habitats for breeding birds on the South-West Slopes are within 3 km of nest-sites (Manning <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001456		population	eng	<p><span lang="EN-AU">An expert review panel considered it highly likely that the population in 2010 exceeded 10,000 mature individuals, probably by many thousands (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). A study systematically sampling 23,000 km<sup>2</sup> of parrot habitat on the western slopes in 2001 (Manning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) found nearly 1,500 parrots in 53 out of 81 well-separated sites. Furthermore they were reported from throughout the landscape, not just where there were corridors of trees as had previously been thought essential for the species. A simple extrapolation of these results gives a total population of over 400,000 individuals. While no member of the Australian Threatened Species Committee thought this number likely, they thought it highly unlikely the total could be as low as 10,000. The total is thus placed here in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals but may prove to be higher.  </p>
106001456		threats	eng	Range contraction is largely the result of clearing for agriculture. Decreases in the species's abundance are linked to land clearing that does not leave scattered trees in the landscape (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remaining habitat is often fragmented, with feeding and breeding habitats divided. Regeneration is commonly prevented by high grazing levels by stock and rabbits or inappropriate fire regimes. Scattered box-gum woodland is threatened by limited regeneration, rural tree dieback, removal of trees and firewood collection (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In breeding areas the majority of nest trees are often on private land, with scattered paddock trees in mixed agricultural land of vital importance on the South-West Slopes. Nest-site fidelity means that birds continue to use traditional breeding sites despite habitat loss and degradation (Leslie 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many nest trees are dead, particularly on inland slopes, and have no replacements when they fall or are cut for firewood, potentially resulting in competition with other species, particularly the Common Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em>. There are limited provisions for the protection of dead trees, and due to continued illegal removal and natural loss of old trees a decline in nest site availability is inevitable (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In areas of low occupancy, the availability of food in the breeding season, and not that of nest hollows, may limit population size (Leslie 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Riverina, altered flooding regimes may compromise the health and extent of riparian woodlands where this species nests (C. Tzaros and M. A. Weston <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Illegal trapping occurs, but is a far less significant threat than habitat loss. Birds are also killed on roadsides and possibly suffer from pesticide poisoning. The abundance and distribution of the species appears to be affected by changes in plant productivity, as influenced by climate (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is therefore susceptible to climate change and its interaction with fragmentation (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001457		distribution	eng	This species is found in two disjunct populations in southern Australia. Subspecies anthopeplus is found in south-west Western Australia, and monarchoides is found along rivers in south-west New South Wales, north-west Victoria, and south-east South Australia. Subspecies anthopeplus became extinct in 14 of the 66 wheatbelt shires in the central and northern wheatbelt between 1970 and 1990. However, there is evidence of range extentions and an increase in numbers in the wheatbelt in the 1990s and on the Swan Coastal Plain.
106001457		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be 21,500 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). The population of subspecies anthopeplusis is estimated at 20,000 individuals. The population of subspecies monarchoides is estimated at 1,500 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001457		threats	eng	Clearance of woodland and mallee for agriculture destroyed much wheatbelt habitat, but now occurs at insignificant levels. Remaining habitat, however, is grazed which may be a potential threat. Nesting habitat has been destroyed, and regeneration prevented, by timber logging, firewood collection, ringbarking, increasing salinisation and waterlogging. In some areas, feral honeybees and Galah Cacatua roseicapilla compete for remaining available hollows. A small proportion of the population is exposed to poison, shooting, and when feeding on split grain, traffic accidents (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001458		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>CITES Appendix II.  </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Study the ecology of species near Lake Tobin or the Great Victoria Desert to determine the likely constraints on population size. Follow up sightings to characterise habitat and model habitat requirements and response to fire history and rainfall from across the species's range. Use information from research to develop a management strategy. Protect any areas where the species is recorded breeding.   </P>
106001458		distribution	eng	<I>Polytelis alexandrae</I> is found in the central and western arid zone of <B>Australia</B>. At most sites, it appears at intervals of more than 20 years, but around Lake Tobin, Western Australia, birds were seen regularly through the 1990s, although less frequently since 2000. This may indicate that it is a core area from which birds move to central highlands during droughts in the western deserts. The Great Victoria Desert might contain a second core area. Large-scale movements and sporadic appearances outside the western deserts make it difficult to determine whether there has been any change in distribution or numbers. The decline in the numbers of records from the periphery of its range after 1950, however, suggests a contraction in range. All recent records, except from near Lake Tobin, have been of small parties and little breeding. This species has always been scarce; however, an apparent reduction in sighting frequency from the eastern part of its range since the early 19th century suggests that there has been a decline in density over 50% of its range. Although its population is thought to number c.5,000 mature individuals, this is not a reliable estimate.      </P>
106001458		habitat	eng	They are usually seen in swales between sand dunes, where they feed on a variety of seeds, as well as flowers, fruits and foliage of shrubs and trees.    </P>
106001458		population	eng	Its population is thought to number c.5,000 mature individuals, although this has little reliability. This equates to c.7,500 individuals in total.
106001458		threats	eng	It may be affected by a wide range of habitat changes including increased water availability on the periphery of its range (possibly favouring water-dependent taxa), altered fire regimes, introduction of predators such as cats and red foxes <I>Vulpes vulpes</I>, and introduction of herbivores such as sheep, rabbits and camels. Altered fire regimes with a coarser mosaic of fire history and introduced herbivores may have degraded habitat and reduced the abundance of food.  </P>
106001459		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001460		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest bird species in the wheatbelt of Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001462		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its small range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001465		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001466		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001467		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extremely common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001468		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common except at the edge of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001471		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001472		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Northern Territory, Australia. Its historical range extended between about Pine Creek in the west to the McArthur River in the east, and Melville, Banyan and Bathurst islands. However, its range has contracted, and it has not been seen in the McArthur River since 1913, it has been restricted to the mainland since the 1950s, and is now absent from the north coastal plain east of South Alligator River.
106001472		habitat	eng	The species remains common in areas under Aboriginal and national park management, where grazing is minimal and burning programmes are in place, or around rocky slopes, where food availability into the wet season is relatively assured.
106001472		population	eng	The global population is estimated to be 20,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001472		threats	eng	The species range has contracted, probably as a result of overgrazing and inappropriate fire regimes. Disappearance from the coastal plains may be reversed by reinstating appropriate burning and grazing regimes. The species may occasionally be illegally taken for the bird trade, but this is unlikely to pose a serious threat as the species is common in captivity and easy to breed (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001473		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Management actions completed or underway include an analysis of threats, changing fire regimes and vegetation change, annual monitoring and supplementary feeding of the population at Artemis Station, surveys of populations and nests in the remainder of the range, fencing and implementation of favourable fire regimes on leasehold land, signing of a conservation agreement with land-holders, inclusion of conservation requirements for the species in property planning in central Cape York Peninsula and initiation of favourable fire management in National Parks. Research is being carried out to assess whether the fencing-off of areas will prevent feral pigs from damaging termite mounds when they are foraging (Levy 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations in remote areas. Monitor effects of landscape management on nesting and vegetation structure. Refine understanding of wet-season ecology. Provide supplementary food during the wet-season. Develop and refine a pastoral management strategy, with reduced grazing and effective fire management. Secure land under conservation agreements. Protect nesting mounds in selected parts of range.<p></p>
106001473		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Psephotus chrysopterygius</span> is endemic to southern and central Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. Over the last century this species has vanished from most of its range (Levy 2004). Today, a northern subpopulation comprising 4 locations occurs in the upper catchment of the Morehead River and adjacent headwaters of the Alice River (including parts of Alwal National Park, and Artemis, Killarney and Dixie Stations with a few pairs on Mary River and Imooya Stations) and a southern subpopulation breeds in the south-east corner of Staaten River National Park and adjacent section of Bulimba Station. Historically, there were breeding populations near Coen and Port Stewart, where it was last reported in the 1950s. A further breeding population persisted at Bullaringa National Park into the 1960s. All birds reported outside these areas have been non-breeding. The northern population is estimated at 1,500 mature individuals based on surveys in 2009, and 1,000 individuals are assumed to be in the southern population, based on partial surveys in 1999 and 2004 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The overall population has been declining since at least the 1920s and continues to do so (Crowley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Preece <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001473		habitat	eng	It nests in termite mounds in grassy areas within ti-tree or shiny-leafed box <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus chlorophylla </span>savannas. After breeding, it disperses through open woodland, feeding on super-abundant seeds of fire grass <span style="font-style: italic;">Schizachyrium </span>spp. After the first wet-season rains, they form flocks in association with breeding Black-faced Woodswallow <span style="font-style: italic;">Artamus cinereus</span>, so predation by Pied Butcherbird <span style="font-style: italic;">Cracticus nigrogularis</span> is less likely (Crowley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Through the wet season the parrots switch foods continually, feeding through most of the daylight hours. They nest late in the wet season and lay an average of six eggs, which hatch early in the dry season when seeds are abundant (Levy 2004). The species relies on grass seeds for food and open country where there is minimal cover for predators. The species is potentially limited by the availability of nest sites, as they rarely re-use the same mound once the termites have repaired the damage with tougher material, and new termite mounds are very slow to build up (Levy 2004).<br/><p></p>
106001473		population	eng	The breeding population has been estimated at around 2,500 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), roughly equivalent to 3,750 individuals in total.
106001473		threats	eng	The continuing range contraction has been linked to a change in fire regime, with fewer intentional hot burns and lower fuel loads as a result of cattle grazing. This combination has resulted in the invasion of grassland by woodland throughout the species's former range. The increase in woody vegetation may have favoured predators, principally Pied Butcherbird <span style="font-style: italic;">Cracticus nigrogularis</span>. Predation of adults is a major cause of nest failure, with almost one third of nests losing one or more adults. In addition, the availability of termite mounds for nesting may be limiting: monitoring suggests that mounds large enough for the parrots are being lost faster than they are being replaced, largely from damage by cattle and feral pigs <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span> (Crowley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><p></p>
106001474		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Still listed in Appendix I of CITES. <p></p><strong></strong>
106001474		distribution	eng	<em>Psephotus pulcherrimus </em> was found in eastern <strong>Australia</strong>, only reported with certainty from southeastern Queensland. Claims from the north of the state are likely to have been mistaken. The species is also often said to have been found in New South Wales, but there have been no confirmed records (Olsen 2007). It was locally common although generally scarce in the 19th century<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989), but then declined rapidly and was thought to have become extinct as a result of the drought of 1902 until it was rediscovered in 1918<strong> </strong>(Chisholm 1922). The last confirmed observation was in 1928<strong></strong>. Some credible reports continued into the 1930s and '40s (Olsen 2007), but although Kiernan (1993) claims to have seen five birds in 1990<strong></strong>, the species is now considered Extinct<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).   <p></p>
106001474		habitat	eng	It was a specialist of open savanna woodland and shrubby grassland, feeding on native grass seeds and nesting in termite mounds (Olsen 2007).  <p></p>
106001474		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably sealed by a reduction of its food supply due to drought and overgrazing (Olsen 2007). Altered fire frequencies and the spread of prickly pears<strong> </strong>(Joseph 1988), disease, trapping and egg-collecting<strong> </strong>(Garnett 1992), predation of nests by introduced and native species<strong> </strong>(Chisholm 1922) and clearance of eucalypts by ringbarking<strong> </strong>(Kiernan 1993) also contributed. Following major reduction in the species's population size, it appears that inbreeding inhibited the birds' fertility (Jerrard 2008).<br/><p></p>
106001475		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Antipodes Islands are nature reserves, and landing is strictly by permit only. In 1907, 12 birds were released on Kapiti Island. They survived for c.20 years, but are no longer extant (Taylor 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is held widely in private aviaries, and adapts readily to captivity (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A captive management plan is in place to safeguard the species (A.&#160;D.&#160;Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Commence regular monitoring (B.&#160;Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate mice (A.&#160;D.&#160;Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001475		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus unicolor</em> is endemic to the uninhabited and protected islands of the Antipodes, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It is common on the main island (20 km<sup>2</sup>) and Bollons Island (0.5 km<sup>2</sup>), and occurs in small numbers on Leeward (0.1 km<sup>2</sup>), Inner Windward (0.1 km<sup>2</sup>) and Archway (0.1 km<sup>2</sup>) islets. In 1978, the population was estimated at 2,000-3,000 birds (Taylor 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population trends are unknown, but numbers are likely to be stable. <p></p>
106001475		habitat	eng	It is found throughout the island habitats, but is most common in the tall, tussock grassland and sedges. These plants form the main part of the species's diet, supplemented with seeds, berries and flowers. It nests in underground burrows, often more than one metre long, in tussock or sedge (Taylor 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In captivity, clutch-size is between five and six, but only one to three fledged young are generally seen with adults in the wild. Young probably start breeding at one year of age. Birds may be quite long-lived - two recaptures from Antipodes Island were at least 10 years old (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001475		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 2,000-3,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,300-2,000 mature individuals.
106001475		threats	eng	Introduced mice may compete for food (A.&#160;D.&#160;Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The accidental introduction of predators, such as rats <em>Rattus</em> spp., cats and mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., is a potential threat. <p></p>
106001477		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. This species occurs within a number of national parks where forest habitat is protected, but predators still pose a threat. It may be benefiting from efforts to eradicate introduced predators from some offshore islands. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population and the proportion of hybrids. Ensure that remaining primary forest is not logged. Re-vegetate islands that have historically been overgrazed. <p></p>
106001477		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus auriceps</em> is found throughout much of the North, South, Stewart and Auckland Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and on several offshore islands, and is uncommon throughout (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Numbers and range are believed to have declined in the last 100 years. No population estimates exist, and present population trends are unclear, but the species may be stable, and its range may have expanded in some areas (Higgins 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001477		habitat	eng	It prefers mixed <em>Nothofagus-Podocarpus </em>forests, usually at higher altitude than <em>C. novaezelandiae</em>, or, where the two occur sympatrically on small islands it is found in denser unbroken forest.<em> </em>It is rarely found in secondary forest, and is absent from logged forests (Higgins 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurs mainly in October-December. It feeds on seeds, berries, flowers, roots and insects taken from trees or, in predator-free areas, from the ground. <p></p>
106001477		population	eng	The population has decreased in numbers in the past and the species is now uncommon throughout its range. As a result it is suspected to have a moderately small population. <p></p>
106001477		threats	eng	Past declines have been attributed to deforestation, habitat modification and the introduction of mammalian predators, particularly cats, stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and rats (Heather and Robertson 1997, Higgins 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On offshore islands, Red-crowned Parakeet <em>C. novaezelandiae</em> is usually much more common (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and may have completely replaced <em>C. auriceps</em> on Solander Island. On Auckland Island, there is an unnaturally high rate of hybridisation between the two species.  <p></p>
106001478		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus zealandicus </em>is known from Tahiti, <strong>French Polynesia,</strong> from three specimens (two of which are now in Liverpool and one in Tring) collected on Cook's voyage in 1773, a fourth collected by Amadis in 1842, now in Perpignan<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and a fifth collected by de Marolles in 1844, now in Paris<strong> </strong>(Voisin <em>et al. </em>1995).  <p></p>
106001478		habitat	eng	Like Raiatea Parakeet <em>C. uleitanus</em>, the species was presumably a forest bird<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989).  <p></p>
106001478		threats	eng	Its demise could have resulted from habitat loss, hunting or predation by introduced species<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). <p></p>
106001480		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II, and fully protected by New Caledonian law. There are significant populations in Rivière Bleue and Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore de la Nodela (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Since 2005 the Loro Parque Fundación has been supporting a long-term  study on the species's ecology and threats (Theuerkauf and Rouys 2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other forest blocks within its extent of occurrence and investigate dispersal between isolated forest blocks<strong> </strong>(Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Investigate the breeding biology to identify any limiting factors such as nest failures or rat predation (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research ecological dependence on certain tree species for nesting or feeding (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to monitor numbers in Rivière Bleue and start a monitoring programme in Nodela (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, J. Ekstrom <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor for any evidence of trapping and trade (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999, O. Robinet <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider an Action Plan similar to that of <em>E. uvaeensis </em>(N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999, O. Robinet <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate control measures against introduced predators. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106001480		distribution	eng	<em>Eunymphicus cornutus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. It appears to have declined since the 1880s when it was reported from all forested areas, and it has considerably reduced its range on Mt Panié<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(now being restricted to the north-western part of the Panié massif [Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012]). Its numbers and trends were poorly known and until 2003-2006 there were only two independent population estimates of 1,000-3,000 birds (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> and 720 pairs (N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> respectively. A recent study using distance sampling density data, records, and ecological niche modelling indicates that the species has a wider distribution and is more common than previously believed (Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press). A rough estimate produced from this study indicates that the population may number 8,000-9,000 individuals (Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press), roughly equating to at least 5,000 mature individuals (V. Chartendault <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. During the 2003-2006 surveys, the species was recorded from the Ignambi massif in the north to the various massifs of the Grand Sud in the south. It was recorded on 57 % of the massifs in the northern province and 42 % of the massifs in the southern province. It is absent from the Ile des Pins. It is locally common in the centre part of the "chaîne" (Mé Maoya Massif, Moindou-Farino area, Poindimié-Ponérihouen area) (Chartendrault and Barre 2005, 2006, Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. Numbers have remained stable in Rivière Bleue in the last 20 years (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001480		habitat	eng	It is patchily distributed in rainforest to 1,500 m, but it also ranges in the valleys and into savannas, low-stature forest and scrub in maquis and high mountains (M. Thiollay <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong> Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002, Chartendrault and Barre 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. Selects rainforest, particularly in valleys (Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011, Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press). Pairs or small flocks (family flocks in April-June) feed in the canopy, largely on seeds and nuts (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Nests are sometimes on the ground, including under rocks and in fallen tree-trunks (Hannecart and Létocart 1983, O. Robinet <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>, and it has been recorded nesting in tree holes (J. M. Meriot verbally 2003)<strong></strong>. It may migrate seasonally to foraging grounds during the austral winter (June-September) (Chartendrault and Barre 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. Birds have been seen crossing scrub between forest blocks, and it is not believed to be fragmented into distinct subpopulations (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Birds have been seen in large groups, feeding in savannah (V. Chartendault <em>in litt. </em>2007).<strong></strong> and the species is seen every year in the valleys, feeding in close proximity to rural dwellings and in open areas.   Nest sharing has been reported in this species (Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<p></p>
106001480		population	eng	Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(in press) estimated the population to number c.8,000-9,000 individuals, equivalent to 5,333-6,000 mature individuals, rounded here to 5,300-6,000 mature individuals.
106001480		threats	eng	Populations may be declining through habitat degradation, both through logging and by introduced Rusa deer <em>Rusa timorensis </em>(Chartendrault and Barre 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. Black rats occasionally prey on Horned Parakeet nest (Gula <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), although this has not been confirmed. Particularly wet (La Niña)  years have been shown to reduce breeding success (J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt.</span> 2011). There is little documented trapping or trade, and although there are captive birds on the island and birds are locally sought by collectors for trade (Pain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), this seems to be marginal - there are no important local traditions in keeping pet birds (N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Chartendrault and Barre 2005, 2006)<strong></strong> and since the species breeds in remote areas and its nests are hard to find,  poaching is unlikely to be a major threat. There is occasional illegal hunting (C. Meresse <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. The introduction of Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) could be a threat to the species as may recently have been found in New Caledonian Parakeets <em>C. saisseti</em> (J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).&#160; <br/><p></p>
106001481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001482		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001485		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. A recovery team was established in 1980, a wide range of research projects are ongoing, and awareness-raising and education programmes are conducted. Much feeding habitat in Tasmania, Victoria and King Island has been reserved or is managed. Breeding, migration and winter counts are made annually, and over 60% of the wild population has now been colour-banded. A captive-breeding programme has been established with the main centre at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria; the current captive population of 160-170 birds is derived from only six founders (perhaps leading to low egg fertility as a result of inbreeding depression) and there are plans to capture new founder individuals from the wild (both nestlings and juveniles on the wintering grounds) to improve the genetic diversity of the captive population (Sims 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Releases of captive-bred birds are currently on hold, but birds from previous releases have migrated successfully between their breeding and wintering grounds (Loyn <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, making further releases potentially viable.The South Australian Orange-bellied Parrot Habitat Protection and Restoration Project, funded by the Natural Heritage Trust, has been underway since June 2008, focused on protecting and enhancing foraging and roosting habitat through a range of on-ground management activities. Activities include: erecting fencing to protect habitat and conducting herbivore exclusion trials; revegetation with foraging and roosting plants; implementation of prescribed fire regimes that enhance habitat; control of weeds and rabbits; and erection of information signs at key sites (Le Duff 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2010 the Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team prepared an Action Plan to prioritise efforts for the next 18 months, the implementation of which will be underwritten by a grant of $260,000 from the Australian government (P. Garrett <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Supplementary food provision at both breeding and wintering sites, the provision of extra nest boxes and discouragement of nest competitors, improved management of saltmarsh (winter) and strategic fire management (breeding season) are key short-term priorities (Sims 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all saltmarsh in wintering range using satellite imagery. Monitor genetic heterozygosity. Model breeding and feeding habitat to assess availability. Re-establish saltmarsh in areas where it is likely to benefit the species. Monitor and manage Psittacine Circoviral Disease in the captive population. Control human disturbance at Victorian sites and Melaleuca, Tasmania. Control predators at mainland sites. Control feral cats at King Island site. Create new winter habitats. Protect key wintering sites in South Australia. Develop and implement a media strategy. Continue to manage wild breeding population including supplementary feeding, an active fire management program and protection of nests from competitors and predators. Capture enough wild parrots to maximise genetic variability in captive population and maintain a healthy, genetically viable, captive population, increasing it from 160 to 400 individuals by 2014 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/><br/><p></p>
106001485		distribution	eng	This species is thought to breed only at Melaleuca and (formerly) Birch's Inlet in south-western Tasmania, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia </span>(C. Tzaros and M.A. Weston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2003). Birds migrate to the mainland after breeding, stopping over on King Island, and overwintering at sites scattered from south-eastern South Australia east to south-eastern New South Wales (C. Tzaros and M.A. Weston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2003). Annual winter counts in Victoria, South Australia and Bass Strait from 1979 to 1990 varied between 67 and 122, with no significant change in numbers. Numbers recorded in mainland surveys have since declined, for example 48 birds recorded from 19 sites in 2007 (Saunders 2008). The overall population, which was estimated to number around 150 individuals in 2005 (M. Holdsworth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2005), has since undergone a rapid decline (confirmed by data from both breeding and wintering sites): surveys in early 2010 found fewer than 50 birds at Melaleuca and no birds at any other historical breeding areas (Sims 2010). The wild population was therefore estimated to contain fewer than 50 individuals in 2010, and extinction in the wild has been predicted to take place within 3-5 years (Sims 2010). Low breeding participation of females appears to be a limiting factor, with some females not breeding every year (Sims 2010). Only 12 and 13 young are known to have fledged at Melaleuca in 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 with 21 of 27 young fledged in 2010–2011 taken to secure the captive population (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). 60-170 birds are now held in captivity in three locations, however annual releases occurring at Birch's Inlet 1999-2009 to establish a second breeding population have not established a viable colony and the release programme is currently on hold.<br/><p></p>
106001485		habitat	eng	It breeds in a mosaic of eucalypt forest and rainforest bordering extensive moorland plains. It nests in hollows, feeding on the ground on grass and sedge seed from surrounding moorlands. There is some evidence that early in the breeding season birds prefer to forage in areas burnt 7 to 15 years earlier, whilst later in the breeding season they prefer areas burnt 3 to 5 years earlier (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). After breeding it disperses to saltmarshes, dunes, beaches, pastures and shrublands close to the coast, where there they feed on the ground or in low vegetation, almost exclusively on seeds and fruits, mainly of sedges, and salt-tolerant coastal and saltmarsh plants (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106001485		population	eng	Surveys in early 2010 found fewer than 50 birds at Melaleuca and found no birds at any other historical breeding areas. The wild population was therefore estimated to contain fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals in 2010.
106001485		threats	eng	The primary reason for the species's decline is thought to be fragmentation and degradation of overwintering habitat by grazing, agriculture and urban and industrial development. Competition with introduced seed-eating finches may have affected winter food availability, while some former breeding habitat may have been vacated because of a change in the fire regime and competition with introduced Common Starlings<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sturnus vulgaris</span>, which fill nest-hollows with nesting material, rendering them unsuitable. Deaths from random events, such as sea storms during migration, predation by foxes and cats, or disease, are significant threats to such a tiny population. Degradation of remaining saltmarsh habitat on the mainland is a significant threat (C. Tzaros and M.A. Weston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003). A proposed application for a mining exploration licence in Melaleuca could prove highly damaging to the species's breeding grounds (Anon 2008). Windfarm developments may also kill about 1 bird per year (Smales <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In 2005-2006, 40 young birds bred in captivity died of unknown causes, but a viral disease is suspected. This population was quarantined to avoid releasing a threatening disease into the wild population (M. Holdsworth verbally 2006).<br/><p></p>
106001486		distribution	eng	The species was distributed throughout south-east Australia from the Suttor River, inland from Mackay in eastern Queensland through eastern New South Wales, including suburban Sydney, to Melbourne, Victoria. The species's range in Queensland has contracted to south of Maryborough although it is still present on Fraser Island, and its distribution in New South Wales is patchy. In Victoria, the species is largely confined to the north-east and to east Gippsland.
106001486		habitat	eng	Current threats include fox and cat predation, loss of hollow-bearing trees in forests managed for timber, and inappropriate burning that may favour a shrubby understorey over the grassy understorey the species requires (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001486		population	eng	The global population is estimated to be 20,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001487		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001487		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the mallee or mulga woodland of southern semi-arid inland Australia. However, the exact nature of its movements and patterns of abundance are not understood. Most records are from the Great Victoria Desert with a small population, apparently resident, on Gluepot Station in eastern South Australia. It appears to have declined historically in the Western Australia goldfields and there has been just one record from the Western Australian coast since 1854 (N. Dymond in litt. 2001). Similarly, there are more records from New South Wales in the 19th than in the 20th century. There is only a single record from Queensland since 1929, and a few recent records from the extensively cleared habitat of Victoria and Eyre Peninsula.
106001487		threats	eng	Habitat clearance has rendered much marginal habitat in western Western Australia, southern South Australia and north-west Victoria unsuitable. However all records away from its core range, where there has been no habitat clearance, may be the result of ephemeral irruptions. Altered fire regimes may have a detrimental effect elsewhere but there is no evidence of decline in the last 20 years. Although provision of permanent water in semi-arid rangelands is said to have favoured Bourke's Parrot Neopsephotus bourkii over Neophema splendida, the two co-occur over most of the range of N. splendida (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106001488		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.<strong> </strong>Management actions completed or underway include regular population surveys in Tasmania and throughout the mainland range, utilising a large network of volunteers (Saunders<em> et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (coordinated by the Swift Parrot Recovery Team and the Threatened Bird Network), addition of areas of critical habitat to the conservation reserve system in Victoria, development and refinement of guidelines for forestry in <em>E. globulus</em> and box-ironbark forests (at identified priority sites), development of community awareness programmes and revegetation and habitat rehabilitation.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish an annual monitoring programme to determine trends and breeding distribution under different climatic conditions. Conduct research on nesting distribution, breeding success and population viability. Identify nesting and foraging sites and migration routes and map these using GIS. Monitor the extent of habitat loss and alteration surrounding known sites. Develop a habitat phenology monitoring project. Place all areas of public land that support Swift Parrots under secure  conservation management, particularly those in timber reserves,  transport corridors and local government land. Promote revegetation and land reclamation that recreates woodland habitat. Establish incentive, conservation and management agreement and community projects each year for the protection, restoration or conservation management of habitat. Provide recommendations for the revision of threatened fauna manuals and forestry prescriptions when licence agreements are due for renewal in each state. Provide conservation information to key Local Government Areas.  Engage the public in research, monitoring, management and advocacy. Produce spatial and temporal climate change models, review the potential influence of climate change on the species and identify future management strategies. Establish and maintain a collision database. Produce and distribute collision prevention brochures. Produce media releases each year for increased public awareness. Develop a monitoring protocol for Psittacine beak and feather disease and distribute information to all fauna rescue and state conservation organisations.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106001488		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Lathamus discolor </span>breeds in Tasmania, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, mostly along the south-eastern coast from St Helen's to Southport with a small breeding population in the north near Deloraine. After breeding, birds disperse throughout Tasmania before migrating north to mainland Australia. In most years, a large portion of the population winters in central Victoria, with a smaller number of birds wintering further afield (D. Saunders<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). However during periods of extreme drought in central Victoria, Swift Parrots undertake large-scale movements (up to 1,000 km) to drought refuge habitats in wetter coastal areas of New South Wales (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Small flocks are recorded in Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory on a regular basis (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). The range in South Australia appears to have contracted, with only irregular recent records of small flocks or individual birds from the south-east of the state. Population size and trends are poorly known. In 1987-1988, the breeding population was estimated at 5,000 birds, including 1,320 breeding pairs, and in 1995-1996, at 940 breeding pairs (Brereton 1996). Annual surveys across the non-breeding range fluctuate depending on the distribution of the birds across the landscape and flock sizes (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). In 2010 mainland surveys recorded 2,158 birds, including immatures, the highest count for many years (C. Tzaros and D. Ingwersen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010). Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) estimate that the population probably contains around 2,000 mature individuals and is declining.<br/><p></p>
106001488		habitat	eng	When breeding, it is almost always associated with its main food source, flowering Tasmanian blue gum <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus globulus</span>. Flowering may be sufficient to support breeding in only three years out of every 10. In poor years, swamp (black) Gum <span style="font-style: italic;">E. ovata</span> is used as food source (Brereton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Most breeding birds are found in remnant forest patches of less than 0.01 km<sup>2</sup>. They nest in hollows of both live and dead eucalypt trees (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). The most common tree species used for nesting are stringybark <span style="font-style: italic;">E. obliqua</span>, white peppermint <span style="font-style: italic;">E. pulchella </span>and Tasmanian blue gum <span style="font-style: italic;">E. globulus</span>, white gum <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span>, gum-topped stringybark <span style="font-style: italic;">E. delegatensis</span> and dead stags (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Several pairs often nest in close proximity, in the same or neighbouring trees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. On the mainland, it lives in eucalypt forest and woodlands, mainly box-ironbark habitats on the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Critical food resources occur within this habitat, principally nectar from prolific flowering species such as red ironbark <span style="font-style: italic;">E. tricarpa</span>, grey box <span style="font-style: italic;">E. microcarpa</span>, yellow gum <span style="font-style: italic;">E. leucoxylon</span> and mugga ironbark <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sideroxylon</span>, and lerp (sugary secretions from sap sucking insects on leaves [D. Saunders<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007]). During the winter the birds are semi-nomadic and visit a network of traditional sites in reaction to flowering events and lerp availability (Kennedy and Tzaros 2005). Their wintering distribution varies greatly between years, depending on climatic conditions and the resulting food availability (Saunders and Heinsohn 2008). However it will also repeatedly use the same sites between years and often remain in winter foraging habitats for extended periods within a season (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). In some years, urban landscapes containing indigenous or non-local flowering eucalypts are also readily used (C. Tzaros <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003). The importance of larger trees as a food source has been shown in this species's breeding range (Brereton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and wintering range (Kennedy and Tzaros 2005), as such trees tend to offer a more reliable and abundant source of nectar. Individuals can travel up to 5,000 kilometres between their mainland wintering grounds and their Tasmanian breeding sites, making theirs the longest migration undertaken by any parrot in the world (Tzaros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001488		population	eng	Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) estimate that the current population probably contains around 2,000 mature individuals and is declining. It is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to  1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000  individuals.
106001488		threats	eng	The main threat remains habitat loss and alteration within breeding and drought refuge habitats. In Tasmania, breeding habitat is significantly reduced and fragmented through clearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. globulus</span> for agriculture, residential development, plantation timber, sawlog production and clear-felling for woodchips. Over 50% of the original grassy <span style="font-style: italic;">E. globulus</span> forest in Tasmania has been cleared (Brereton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Selective logging has resulted in the removal of larger trees from the remaining forest patches. Such patches are typically unfenced and exhibit poor regeneration (Brereton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Competition for remaining nest-sites with Common Starlings <span style="font-style: italic;">Sturnus vulgaris</span> could be a problem along forest edges. Even with protection of remaining habitat (80% private land), maintenance and recovery may be limited by the dependence of breeding on an irregular nectar supply. It also suffers high mortality through collision with windows, vehicles and fences. On the mainland, clearance and degradation of habitat for agriculture, forestry and residential and commercial development has had the biggest impact (D. Saunders<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007). Much of the preferred lowland habitat on the most fertile and productive sites has been cleared or substantially modified (C. Tzaros <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2003). Drought refuge habitats continue to be cleared and fragmented for coastal developments (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Remnants, including much of what currently exists in the conservation reserve system, have been heavily cut-over and degraded, and this practice is continuing in many areas, including hardwood production forests. This practice is considered to result in poor and unreliable nectar-sources through the reduction of large mature trees. Competition from large nectarivores honeyeaters and the introduced Bumblebee <span style="font-style: italic;">Bombus terrestris </span>may be exacerbated by forest fragmentation. In winter, the species relies heavily on public land that has been exploited for timber, honey and minerals (Kennedy and Tzaros 2005). Global warming threatens to alter habitat phenology and climatic conditions such that habitat availability may be significantly reduced (D. Saunders<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007). The species is also threatened by disturbance, Psittacine beak and feather disease and illegal bird capture and trade (D. Saunders <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106001489		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Korea   and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106001491		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Appeals for information leading to the rediscovery of the species have received much publicity in arid Australia, especially in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. A National Night Parrot Network has been formed in direct response to the Diamantina specimen, to assist with information exchange and to encourage action by relevant organisations. Recent and ongoing searches in the Pilbara have concentrated on developing methods to find birds. A GIS analysis of existing records has been commenced with the aim of identifying ways to focus search efforts spatially and temporally.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop alternative detection techniques, particularly the use of a national team of dogs. Complete the current GIS analysis of recent and historic records against habitat to derive a population estimate for the species and identify priority areas to conduct searches. Develop captive-breeding and release techniques using <em>Pezoporus w. wallicus</em>. Encourage individuals or voluntary organisations to follow up any plausible reports providing appropriate logistic support. Develop a contingency plan for any site where birds are found, including a strategy for handling publicity, initiation of ecological studies, capture of birds to establish captive population, and initiation of fire management and predator control. <p></p>
106001491		distribution	eng	<em>Pezoporus occidentalis</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>, where historical records are spread throughout the arid and semi-arid zones. There were comparatively few confirmed records from the 20th century. At least five dedicated searches and two broad-scale publicity campaigns in the 1990s failed to confirm the existence of any population, with only one authenticated record from near Boulia, north-western Queensland, in 1990. However, three birds were then reported at Minga Qwirriawirrie Well near the Fortescue Marshes in the Pilbara region of Western Australia in April 2005 (Davis and Metcalf 2008). Subsequent searches in 2005 and 2006 failed to relocate the species, but this may have been because there had been recent rain, and so birds were not concentrating at the waterhole (M. J. Bamford and B. M. Metcalf <em>in litt</em>. 2005). There were three possible sightings at two sites 145 km apart in the East Pilbara in 2010 (Ramsay 2010)<strong></strong>. A dead bird was found by Queensland Park and Wildlife Service Rangers in Diamantina National Park, Queensland in November 2006, less than 200 km from the1990 record, having apparently collided with a fence some weeks before (Birds Australia <em>in litt</em>. 2007, McDougall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. It was positively identified by Queensland Museum and appeared to be an immature, implying a breeding event in the two years prior to September 2006 (McDougall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Flood rains in the Channel Country have prevented access to the area for follow-up surveys (Birds Australia <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It seems quite likely that this cryptic species occurs at a low density elsewhere in its former range as there have been unverified sight records from inland regions of all mainland states and the Northern Territory. However, there has almost certainly been a historical decline in abundance given the sharp decline in reporting since the 1880s, most likely as a result of predation by non-native mammals.<br/><p></p>
106001491		habitat	eng	<p>Most specimens have been obtained from hummock grasslands <em>Triodia</em>-<em>Plechtrachne</em> or chenopod shrublands. It may persist in chenopod shrublands during dry years, moving into grassland after there is sufficient rain to set seed. The 1990 specimen and associ­ated reports were in <em>Astrebla </em>Mitchell grassland with scattered chenopods (Garnett <em>et al. </em>1993, Boles <em>et al. </em>1994), the 2006 specimen in sparse shrubland of gidgee <em>Acacia cambagei</em>, crimson turkey bush <em>Eremophila latrobei </em>and blunt-leaf cassia <em>Senna artemisioides </em>var. <em>helmsii </em>(McDougall <em>et al. </em>2009) and there have been unconfirmed reports from mallee shrubland and in open <em>Eucalyptus </em>woodland with an understorey of grasses (Menkhorst and Isles 1981, Garnett <em>et al. </em>1993). The 2005 record involved birds drinking at a water hole which may have been drawn from their typical habitat to drink (M. J. Bamford and B. M. Metcalf <em>in litt</em>. 2005). It has been suggested that the species has a similar metabolism to rodents as it is active at night. This behaviour may help it retain water, most of which is obtained through its diet. Therefore, drinking may only occur in dry circumstances making the species difficult to locate in wet years (M. J. Bamford and B. M. Metcalf <em>in litt</em>. 2005). The two nests recorded have both been at the end of tunnels into dense vegetation and contained three-six eggs or young (Higgins 1999).</p>  <p></p>
106001491		population	eng	Its remaining population is assumed to be very small, and was formerly precautionarily estimated to number fewer than 50 mature individuals based on the paucity of records. In 2010 an expert committee re-assessed this as untenable, given records from Western Australia in 2005 and Queensland in 2006, and estimated that there might be 50–250 birds in total (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). The number of mature individuals is therefore placed in the band 50-249, but may prove to be larger.
106001491		threats	eng	The sharp decline in reporting after the 1880s suggests a historical decline in abundance. One early account suggests the decline at Innaminka and Alice Springs coincided with the arrival of feral cats. Similarly ‘many were brought in by cats at Alice Springs Telegraph Station’ in 1892 (Ashby 1924, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Current threats are extrapolated from their presumed effects on  medium-sized, arid-zone mammals, and include predation by feral cats and  foxes <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes</span>, altered fire regimes, competition for food, degradation of  habitat near water by stock or rabbits <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryctolagus cuniculus</span>, and reduced availability of  water as a result of over-use by feral camels <span style="font-style: italic;">Camelus dromedarius</span>.<br/><p></p>
106001492		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Supplementary feeding has increased the success of breeding attempts, and may be able to be used to trigger breeding: supplementary foods with low macronutrient:calcium ratios may be most effective in supporting increased reproduction (Higgins 1999, Merton <em>et al.</em> 1999, Raubenheimer and Simpson 2006, Anon. 2008)<strong></strong>. All individuals are radio-tagged, and tracked throughout the year. Each nest is monitored continuously using infra-red video cameras, and heat pads are placed over eggs and nestlings while females forage. In 1998, the Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> (a predator of eggs and nestlings) was eradicated from Codfish (Merton <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Extensive research is on-going (Merton 1997, P. Jansen <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Methods of hand-rearing chicks are being refined. Reducing supplementary feeding levels has been shown to increase the percentage of female chicks produced and may redress the skewed gender balance (Clout <em>et al. </em>2002, Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Genetic diversity of the remaining population is managed to improve hatching rates (Merton 2006)<strong></strong>. Translocations have been carried out to take advantage of locally abundant food supplies and increase the frequency of breeding attempts (Merton 2006)<strong></strong>. Trials of artificial insemination methods have taken place (Anon. 2008b)<strong></strong>, and by early 2012 three chicks had been produced using this technique (R. J. Moorhouse <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In 2008, seven chicks hatched on Codfish Island were transferred to specialised facilities to be hand-raised, as rimu fruit failed to ripen (<strong></strong>Hirschfeld 2008)<strong></strong>. A search for any remaining birds in Fiordland was completed in 2006, with no birds found and no evidence of their continued existence. A Kakapo Recovery Plan (the third since 1989), produced in partnership between the Department of Conservation, Forest &amp; Bird and Rio Tinto Alcan (formerly Comalco), covers the period 2006-2015. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue research to identify key factors that limit breeding frequency and productivity, and address these urgently (Cresswell 1996)<strong></strong>. Maintain existing management practices that have facilitated a recent increase in the population, and increase the number of females to 60 by 2016. Restore sufficient habitat to cater for the population increase. Maintain public awareness and support (Hirschfeld 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001492		distribution	eng	<em>Strigops habroptila</em> formerly occurred throughout most of the North, South and Stewart Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Although it disappeared from most of its original range in the wake of human colonisation, the species remained abundant in Fiordland and some other higher-rainfall and more sparsely inhabited parts of South Island until the early twentieth century (Clout and Merton 1998)<strong></strong>. By 1976, however, the known population had been reduced to 18 birds, all males, all in Fiordland. In 1977, a rapidly declining population of c.150 birds was discovered on Stewart Island. Between 1980 and 1992, 61 remaining Stewart Island birds were transferred to offshore islands (Merton 1998, Merton and Clout 1998, Higgins 1999, Merton <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and are presently located on Codfish and Anchor Islands (R. J. Moorhouse <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The last accepted North Island record was in 1927, the last South Island record of three males in Fiordland in 1987, and the last Stewart Island record of a female found and transferred to Codfish Island in 1997 (Powlesland <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. In 2009, a male which was one of four transferred from Stewart to Codfish in 1987 was refound after having been missing for 21 years (Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. It is likely to be extinct in its natural range, but, as of November 2005, birds are still present on four islands: Codfish, Chalky, Anchor and Maud (Powlesland <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. In 1999, 26 females and 36 males survived (Merton and Clout 1999)<strong></strong>, comprising 50 individuals of breeding age, six subadults and six juveniles. The population stabilised, and has begun to slowly increase (Higgins 1999, Merton <em>et al.</em> 1999, P. Jansen <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> following the implementation of intensive management (Higgins 1999, Merton and Clout 1999, Merton <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. By 2005, the kakapo population stood at 86 (D. Merton <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, of which 52 were breeding adults (21 females and 31 males) and 34 were juveniles (P. Jansen <em>in litt. </em>2004, D. Merton <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>; a productive breeding year in 2009 saw the total population increase to 124 birds (Merton<em> </em>2009)<strong></strong>, and there were known to be 126 birds in early 2012, including 78 breeding adults (R. J. Moorhouse<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106001492		habitat	eng	This large, flightless, nocturnal parrot feeds on leaves, stems, roots, fruit, nectar and seeds, and, prior to human colonisation, it formerly inhabited a range of vegetation types throughout most of the North, South and Stewart Islands. It breeds once every two to five years, coinciding with periodic superabundant seeding or fruiting periods of key podocarp<em> </em>plant species: on Codfish, Stewart and Pearl Islands nesting has only occurred when rimu <em>Dacrydium cupressinum </em>or pink pine <em>Halocarpus biformis</em> fruit has been abundant (Harper <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Males cluster in traditional lekking sites and advertise their presence by calling each night for about three months, with mating occurring mainly between January and early March (Powlesland <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. One to four eggs are laid and all parental care is performed by the female, with eggs and chicks being left unattended for several hours at night. Female kakapo take 6-11 years to reach breeding age, and may live at least 90 years (P. Jansen <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. One productive male is at least 30 years old, and probably much older. Adult survivorship is now more than 99% per year (Lloyd and Powlesland 1994, Cresswell 1996, Clout and Merton 1998, Merton and Clout 1998, 1999, Higgins 1999, Merton <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001492		population	eng	In early 2012 there were 126 individuals, including 78 breeding adults (R. J. Moorhouse <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106001492		threats	eng	On Stewart Island, over 50% of monitored adults were killed each year by cats (Clout and Merton 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Abnormally low egg fertility and exceedingly low natural reproductive and recruitment rates are major concerns. In 2004, three juveniles died of septicaemia caused by the bacteria <em>Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae</em> (erysipelas), a disease which had not previously been reported in the species (P. Jansen <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001493		distribution	eng	<em>Mascarinus mascarinus </em>was described by numerous early travellers to <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>, with several captive birds shipped to France in the late 18th century<strong></strong>. The last accounts of wild birds were from the 1770s, and birds were not mentioned by Bory writing in 1804, so the species may well have been extinct in the wild by then<strong></strong>. The captive birds in Paris had also died by this time but a single bird survived in the King of Bavaria's menagerie until at least 1834<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). Two specimens survive today<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). <p></p>
106001493		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it is likely to have inhabited forest where it fed on fruits and nuts.  <p></p>
106001493		threats	eng	It is likely to have been hunted to extinction.  <p></p>
106001494		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001497		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but patchily common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001498		distribution	eng	</P>
106001498		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001498		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1976, 43,358 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001499		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001499		distribution	eng	This species occurs through the savanna woodland belt of West Africa, north of the rainforest belt from Mauritania through to south-western Chad, north-eastern Cameroon, and northern Central African Republic. The species undertakes seasonal movements in at least parts of its range, moving into dryer areas during the wet season.
106001499		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001499		threats	eng	This species has been heavily traded: from 1994-2003, over 410,000 wild-caught individuals were exported from range states (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, October 2005). It is one of the most popular avian pets, since it is regarded as a small, quiet bird that bonds well. Due to the large numbers of this species traded, it was the subject of a CITES significant trade review, in which it was listed as of "possible concern" (Inskipp et al. 1988). Nonetheless, and despite international exports of vast numbers of birds, trade does not appear to have seriously impacted this species overall, with no significant national population declines reported.
106001500		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. This species is one of the least known African parrots but is assumed to be frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001501		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common through northern parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001501		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 75,387 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001502		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common. It is considered commonest in northern parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001504		distribution	eng	This taxon occurs as two subspecies: subspecies tanganyikae is found in south-east Kenya, Wasiri Island (Juniper and Parr 1998), Zanzibar and Pemba in eastern Tanzania (where common and widespread (N. Baker in litt. 1999)), south Malawi and Mozambique (north of the River Save); and subspecies cryptoxanthus is known from south-east Zimbabwe and Mozambique (south of the River Save) to north-east South Africa (Swaziland, Zululand and Transvaal) (del Hoyo et al. 1997, Wilkinson in litt. 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998)). The only substantial population in South Africa is estimated at 1,500-2,000 birds, and is confined to the Kruger National Park (Wilkinson in litt. 1998). However, south of the River Save in Mozambique, the population is estimated at over 20,000 individuals and may be increasing because it exploits fruit and grain crops and nests in alien coconut trees, despite being hunted and captured for export as a cagebird (Harrison et al. 1997).
106001504		habitat	eng	The species occurs in flocks of 4-12, sometimes up to 40 (Fry et al. 1988), in semi-arid and subhumid bush, thornveld, open wooded savanna and woodland, including areas with large baobabs or figs, riparian forest, coconut and cashew-nut plantations, smallholdings and mangroves up to 1,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It feeds on seeds such as Erythrina and Adansonia, nuts, fruits and berries (particularly figs Ficus and Pseudocadia zambesica), pods of Acacia and Albizia gummifera, nectar and green shoots of trees (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It is known to raid millet and maize crops (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It breeds April-October depending on the locality (Juniper and Parr 1998) and clutch size is 2-3 (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001504		threats	eng	The species is increasingly vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation (Juniper and Parr 1998), with illegal capture for the bird trade of concern in Mozambique (Wilkinson in litt. 1998).
106001505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001506		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001506		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001506		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 107,829 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather uncommon and never reported as abundant except locally in Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and frequently seen (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Gabon and rare or uncommon elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001510		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Angola, Namibia and South Africa. There are records from other African countries but the chances of these birds being escapees are high.
106001510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or even abundant near water (Fry et al. 1993).
106001510		threats	eng	There has been a historic decline due to trapping and the export of thousands of birds from Angola is believed to have greatly contributed to past reductions in its populations in the southern part of that country (Collar 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998).
106001511		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Prevent trapping for export from starting again. Investigate the extent of hybridisation with <em>A. personata</em>.  <p></p>
106001511		distribution	eng	<em>Agapornis fischeri</em> is endemic to north-central <strong>Tanzania</strong>, where its historical range includes 14 locations, including three national parks (Morton and Bhatia 1992)<strong></strong>. Records from Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya apparently refer to feral birds and not to wild populations <strong></strong>(Morton and Bhatia 1992)<strong></strong>. It was very common in the past but, since the 1970s there has been a major population decline, caused principally by widespread trapping for the wild bird trade, with large flocks perhaps still occurring only around Ndutu and the Serengeti National Park <strong></strong>(Morton and Bhatia 1992, Moyer 1995)<strong></strong>.<br/>A self-supporting feral population derived from escapes from captivity exists in south-eastern France, where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. personatus </span>has also escaped with hybrids also observed (Jiguet 2007).<br/><p></p>
106001511		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-arid woodland with <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Adansonia</em>, and <em>Commiphora </em>at 1,100-2,200 m, deforested grassland, cultivation with remnant <em>Adansonia</em> and <em>Borassus</em> palm savanna (Morton and Bhatia 1992, Moyer 1995, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Serengeti, it is present in all types of woodland<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Riverine forest dominated by <em>Ficus</em>, <em>Ziziphus</em>, <em>Tamarindus</em>, <em>Aphania</em>, <em>Garcinia</em> and <em>Eckbergia</em> is an important dry season habitat. The species is mostly granivorous, taking seeds from seedheads and off the ground. It also takes <em>Acacia</em> seeds directly from trees. It attends waterholes and other types of surface water daily to drink. Breeding takes place from January to April and in June and July. Most nests are situated 2-15 m above the ground in holes and cracks in dead trees or dead branches on living trees, but possibly sometimes in cliffs as well. Its clutch-size in captivity is three to eight eggs, with an incubation period of c.23 days and fledging period of 38 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001511		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 290,205-1,002,210 birds.
106001511		threats	eng	It was the most commonly traded wild bird in the world in 1987 and was the most popular wild-caught parrot imported into the then European Economic Community, accounting for c.80% of the Psittacine exports from Tanzania<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(RSPB 1991)<strong></strong>. Legal trapping for export has now been halted, but the population is still much lower than it was, and trade could re-start (Moyer 1995)<strong></strong>. The species has hybridised with Yellow-collared Lovebird <em>A. personata</em> in the wild, but not within the species's natural range (there is range overlap but <em>A. fischeri</em> appears to be a non-breeding visitor to <em>A. personata</em> habitat [<strong></strong>N. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>Morton and Bhatia 1992]<strong></strong>) so this is unlikely to pose a threat.  <p></p>
106001512		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common and generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001513		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an overall population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Control or halt trapping and trade in order to prevent over-exploitation.  <p></p>
106001513		distribution	eng	<em>Agapornis lilianae</em> occurs along the Zambezi Valley in <strong>Mozambique</strong> and into <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, northwards along the Luangwa River into <strong>Zambia</strong> and southern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, and along the Shire River into <strong>Malawi</strong>. Although it has been described as common in most of its range (Collar 1997)<strong></strong>, the total population is estimated to number less than 20,000 birds (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)<strong></strong>. The global range may be less than 20,000 km (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001513		habitat	eng	The species has a strong association with mopane <em>Colophospermum mopane</em> woodland in the south of its range, but also inhabits belts of <em>Acacia</em> on aluvium and riparian forest, and frequents fig trees in the north of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. It feeds on grass seeds, including <em>Hyparrhenia</em>, millet and wild rice <em>Oryza perennis</em>, but also takes flowers, seeds and fruit of other species. Breeding takes place from January to March and in June and July in Zambia, with laying possibly occurring in January and February in Malawi, and young have been observed during April in Zimbabwe. The nest is a roofed structure in crevices in mopane trees. In captivity the clutch-size is three to eight eggs, with an incubation period of c.22 days and a fledging period of 44 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106001513		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number less than 20,000 birds. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equatiung to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001513		threats	eng	Its population has been reduced considerably by flooding of a large section of the Zambezi valley by Lake Kariba, and very likely also by the Cahorra Bassa Dam in Mozambique. It is considered a pest by small-scale farmers (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. In addition to legal trapping of large numbers for the international cage-bird trade (over 10,000 since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II<strong></strong>), many are captured and sold locally in Mozambique, and the species is also captured and traded in Zimbabwe and Zambia (V. Parker <em>in litt</em>. 2003, UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Trapping of birds for trade is now banned (T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. In Zambia, a trade ban on wild-caught birds was implemented in 1930 (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. Approximately 35% of its habitat lies within Kafue National Park and surrounding Game Management Areas (P. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 1999, T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>, whilst most of its core range is included within the Machile and Kafue National Park IBAs (Leonard 2005)<strong></strong>. Detailed research programmes on this species were underway in the 1990s<strong></strong> (Dodman 1995b, Warburton 1999a, b, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000) from which reports have been published. An education project focusing on the species was conducted in south-west Zambia in September 2001, involving local schools, villagers and Zambia Wildlife Authority scouts (Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular (e.g. monthly)<strong></strong> counts at selected sites (such as water sources in the dry season)<strong></strong> to monitor its population<strong></strong>, concentrating on the core distribution<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodman 1995c, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. Conduct annual monitoring  in areas such as the mid-Machile and Sichifulo rivers and the Mabiya pools region of south Kafue National Park and monitor the availability of surface water in the dry season (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. Investigate its status in the eastern Caprivi (Dodman (1995c, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. Encourage its return to former range areas, initially through piloting the provision of undisturbed water sources and strips of sorghum and millet<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Warburton 1999b)<strong></strong>. Continue a programme of environmental education involving school-visits<strong> </strong>and meetings with farming communities (Dodman 1995c, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, Warburton 2003)<strong></strong> to reduce trapping and disturbance at water sources (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. Provide training in ornithology and conservation for potential local bird guides and hold meetings with villagers on the protection of resources such as trees and water (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Maintain and create water resources with minimal disturbance (Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>. Continue to enforce the trade ban on wild-caught birds of this species (Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. Investigate the effect of burning on the availability of grass seeds (Warburton and Perrin 2005b)<strong></strong>.  Manage water sources to encourage use by the species, and<strong></strong> assess the impact of pumped boreholes on surface water supplies (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. Identify a selection of reasonably accessible sites where visitors can go to see the species, and ensure options for revenue generation through ecotourism, in collaboration with BirdWatch Zambia (T. Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p>
106001514		distribution	eng	<em>Agapornis nigrigenis</em> occurs patchily in south-west <strong>Zambia</strong> between the Kafue river to the north and the Zambezi river to the south (Warburton 1999b)<strong></strong>, with an Extent of Occurrence of c.14,400 km<sup>2</sup>, within which the core breeding areas cover c.2,500 km<sup>2</sup> (Dodman 1995b, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. The species is found in an area of 4,550 km<sup>2</sup> of mopane woodland, 3,200 km<sup>2</sup> of which occurs in the Zambezi catchment (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. It used to occur more widely<strong></strong>, although some isolated historical records may reflect feral populations<strong></strong>, as may unconfirmed records from the eastern Caprivi region of Namibia<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodman 1995b, Dodman 1997)<strong></strong>. However, these might refer to birds from wild populations (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. There have also been unconfirmed records from <strong>Botswana</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>. The core population can be split into two subpopulations during the dry season, those in the Zambezi catchment (c.6,200 birds in 1994) and the Kafue catchment (c.3,800 birds in 1994)<strong> </strong>(Dodman 1995c). In 1994, the overall population density in presumed breeding habitat was c.2.2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (this does not reflect their clumped distribution [L. S. Warburton <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000]<strong></strong>) and the total population was estimated to be 10,000 individuals (Dodman 1995c, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. Evidence from farmers and bird-trappers suggests that this is a considerably lower total than in the early 20th century (Moreau 1948, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001514		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous woodland, dominated by mopane <em>Colophospermum</em>, not <em>Baikiaea </em><strong></strong>(Benson and Irwin 1967) as formerly reported<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Moreau 1948), where permanent supplies of surface water exist (Dodman 1995c, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. It commutes to adjoining habitats, such as riverine vegetation and agricultural areas, to forage and drink (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. It requires daily access to water<strong></strong>, and needs to drink twice each day (Dodman 1995c, Warburton 1999a, b, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000, Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In the dry season it congregates in large flocks of up to 800 or more in some areas (Warburton 1999b)<strong></strong>. It relies on water sources that are not regularly disturbed by humans and livestock (Warburton and Perrin 2005d, T. Dodman<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It breeds in holes in mature mopane trees near roosting sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodman 1995b, Warburton and Perrin 2005a)<strong></strong>, during January-May<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(L. S. Warburton <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>. Fidelity to nest-sites is suspected<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>. The breeding season coincides with the annual maximum rainfall and the beginning of the dry season<strong></strong>, and pairs usually raise a single clutch (Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005c)<strong></strong>. Broods of six and seven nestlings have been observed (Warburton and Perrin 2005c)<strong></strong>. The species roosts in naturally formed cavities in live mopane trees (Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005a)<strong></strong>. Food largely consists of annual grass seeds, other seeds of annual herbs and ripening crop seeds (millet and sorghum) (<strong></strong>Dodman 1995c, <strong></strong>Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005b)<strong></strong>. They have also been observed to consume invertebrates, leaves, flowers, nectar, bark, lichen, resin and soil (Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005b)<strong></strong>. The crop-ripening season coincides with the species's breeding season<strong> </strong>(Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005d) and its appetite for crop seeds has earned it a reputation locally as a pest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. In south-west Zambia, it has been recorded that 18% of millet seed heads suffered more than 20% damage from the species during the ripening season (Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>. Flocks were observed feeding in sorghum and millet fields in early 2012, mainly east of the Machile River (N. Buys <em>in litt. </em>2012).<p></p>
106001514		population	eng	The population, based on surveys in 1994, has been estimated at c.10,000 individuals, however due to suspected declines in the population since this year, the population is placed in the range bracket 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001514		threats	eng	Three factors are thought to have caused its decline the past century: heavy exploitation for the cage-bird trade from the 1920s<strong></strong> to the 1960s (Moreau 1948, Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>, gradual desiccation of its habitat (Moreau 1948, Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, which is thought to be (currently) the main threat given the highly localised range of the species (Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>, and the partial replacement of sorghum and millet crops, (an attractive food source [Dodman 1995b, L. S. Warburton <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000]<strong></strong>), with maize, between c.1930 and 1950 (Dodman 1995c, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. There is evidence that the wild-caught trade in this species is currently at a very low level, with only isolated incidences of trade and export (Dodman 1995c, Warburton and Perrin 2005c)<strong></strong>, although it is clear that any international demand would be met eagerly<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Warburton and Perrin 2005a, d)<strong></strong>. Some birds are caught for subsistence consumption and it is also persecuted as a pest, however these birds would usually be eaten as well (Dodman 1995c, Warburton and Perrin 2005c<strong></strong><strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Farmers take measures to mitigate damage to crops<strong></strong>, but they are largely ineffective and rarely lethal (Dodman 1995c, Warburton 2003)<strong></strong>. The current levels of hunting and capture are unlikely to have any serious long-term impact on the population, but could threaten local populations suffering from the effects of desiccation (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. Recently there may have been local declines due to loss of surface water supplies in the dry season, perhaps due to long-term climate change<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodman 1995b, c, Warburton 1999b, Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. The number of permanent water sources in mopane woodland has decreased since the early 20th century<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. The low availability of water in the dry season is probably the principal factor in the disappearance of permanent populations from the Bovu and Sinde Rivers, and changes to the Ngweze River population (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. This is exacerbated by a decrease in the annual rainfall in the species's habitat of, on average, about 5 mm per year between 1950 and 1995, increasing the species's reliance on artificial water sources (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. The recent establishment of hand-pumped boreholes along the catchments of the Ngweze, Sichifulo, and Machile rivers may lead to a decrease in the availability of surface water as people reduce their water source creation activities in riverbeds (Warburton and Perrin 2005d)<strong></strong>. In some areas, water pools are poisoned to kill fish and this can impact the species (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. The species may be threatened by the declining dry-season availability of water in temporary rivers in south-western Zambia, due to declining levels of rainfall<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (T. </strong>Dodman<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Mopane woodland is exploited for firewood and timber, though the habitat is regenerating and encroaching into other habitats in some areas (Dodman 1995c)<strong></strong>. Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease Virus is present in the wild population (Warburton 2003, Warburton and Perrin 2005c)<strong></strong>, but there is no evidence that this is a serious threat. <p></p>
106001515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extremely rare in China, generally common elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001516		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and plentiful in the south-west and almost absent from the north of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001517		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Loriculus philippensis</span> is endemic to the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The Siquijor subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">siquijorensis</span>, is probably now extinct (Fuller 2000).
106001517		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001518		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001518		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 75,239 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001521		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between local people, local government, forestry officials and timber companies. Gunung Sahendaruman is the only protected forest on Sangihe and the less than 700 ha of natural forest is the last remaining on the island <strong></strong>(A. Dian <em>in litt. </em>2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into the ecological requirements of the species and determine whether it can survive exclusively in modified habitats. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Support proposals for  the rapid gazettement of the tracts of forest known to support the  species on Gunung Sahengbalira and Gunung Sahendaruman as strict nature  reserves, within a more extensive proposed wildlife reserve encompassing  these mountains.  <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Continue education  programmes emphasising the value of forest cover to water retention and  sound farming practices on already cleared slopes. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Continue sound farming practices on already cleared slopes. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content"> <p></p></span></span>
106001521		distribution	eng	<em>Loriculus catamene</em> is endemic to the small island of Sangihe, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It was considered 'not particularly plentiful' as long ago as 1886-1887, but has more recently been found to be distributed throughout the island and locally rather common. A survey in 1998-1999 resulted in a population estimate for Sangihe Hanging-parrot of 10,700-46,200 individuals <strong></strong>(Riley 2002) and found the species to be widespread on the island and tolerant of degraded and cultivated habitats, with a broad diet. In 2004 it was quite common and widespread in a variety of degraded habitats (forest edge, secondary forest, coconut plantations and garden areas) <strong></strong>(R. Hutchinson <em>in litt. </em>2009). Gunung Sahendaruman is the single most important site for the species. <p></p>
106001521		habitat	eng	In recent years it has been encountered most commonly in areas of mixed coconut groves and remnant forest, also occurring in coconut monocultures, up to c.950 m. Survey data have revealed no preference for primary forest over secondary habitats, but it is unclear whether forests may act as a source for the population while secondary habitats act as a sink. The only known nest was recorded in primary forest. Coconut nectar appears to be an important food source. In addition, at least two pairs have been observed on steep, tree-covered volcanic slopes. It is a sedentary species, generally found in small groups of one to four, but occasionally up to 27 birds <strong></strong>(Riley 2002). Observations suggest that the species regularly flocks at roosts or favoured feeding sites. <p></p>
106001521		population	eng	A survey in 1998-1999 resulted in a population estimate of 10,700-46,200 individuals, rounded to 10,000-46,000 individuals here, roughly equivalent to 6,700-31,000 mature individuals (Riley 2002).
106001521		threats	eng	Original forest on Sangihe has been almost completely replaced by cultivation, but the species appears to be tolerant of degraded and cultivated habitats and there is no evidence of a continuing decline. Further potential threats are the widespread clearance of large isolated trees which was linked to declines in the 1980s, disease transmitted by escaped parrots and volcanic activity in the future <strong></strong>(Riley 2002). <p></p>
106001522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001523		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the islands. <p></p>
106001523		distribution	eng	<em>Loriculus tener</em> is endemic to New Britain, New Ireland and New Hanover (= Lavongai) in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is, and appears always to have been, a rare species but it is unobtrusive and likely to have been overlooked. The few recent records have been from forest edge, where it is more easily observed (Mayr 1934, Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, K.D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998,<strong></strong> C. Eastwood <em>in litt.</em> 1999,<strong></strong><strong></strong> J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <p></p>
106001523		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest to about 500 m, although mostly below 200 m. It is not known whether it can breed in degraded habitats.  <p></p>
106001523		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106001523		threats	eng	Most of the accessible lowland forests in its range have been logged or are under logging concessions. On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (K.D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On New Britain, nearly 20% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 10 years and this trend is ongoing (K.D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  If it proves to be unable to survive in logged forest, it would be threatened on account of its small population and the rate of habitat degradation across its range.  <p></p>
106001524		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Attempt to make sense of population and trend data by studying the species's movements. Protect significant areas of primary lowland forest across its range.  <p></p>
106001524		distribution	eng	<em>Loriculus exilis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where although it is clearly inconspicuous and easily overlooked, records are so few that it is characterised as generally very uncommon and local (BirdLife International 2001).  <p></p>
106001524		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary lowland and hill forest and mangroves up to 1,200 m. <p></p>
106001524		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001524		threats	eng	It is apparently nomadic, so that the extensive forest destruction within its elevation range in recent decades may have caused a decline in its population. There was, at least formerly, limited trapping for the bird trade.  <p></p>
106001525		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Protect significant areas of suitable forest on Java and Bali.  <p></p>
106001525		distribution	eng	<em>Loriculus pusillus</em> occurs in Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is uncommon and has declined markedly in west Java, but appears to tolerate heavily degraded forest (as long as some tall trees are left) on Bali (BirdLife International 2001).  <p></p>
106001525		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland, swamp and montane forests to 2,000 m. <p></p>
106001525		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001525		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the lowlands of Java and Bali has been extremely extensive. However, the species's ability to tolerate degraded habitats and to persist at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has not been rapid.  <p></p>
106001526		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Two recent surveys have targeted endemic birds on Flores. Two sites at which this species occurs are proposed for establishment as protected areas: Tanjung Kerita Mese and Egon Iliwuli (on Gunung Egon). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a targeted survey for the species to identify important sites, with a view to affording them protection. Conduct research into its status and habitat use (with particular regard to feeding ecology and forest fragmentation) such that long-term management of the species is facilitated. Monitor trade across Indonesia to investigate whether this presents a significant threat. Support the rapid establishment of Tanjung Kerita Mese proposed protected area along with additional intact stretches of forest at Nggorang Bowosie (220 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong>) and Gunung Egon (150 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong>). Initiate awareness campaigns to elicit the support of local people in protecting forests. <p></p>
106001526		distribution	eng	<em>Loriculus flosculus</em> is endemic to Flores and satellite islands, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from eight documented localities, at some of which it is locally common in groups of up to 20 birds (BirdLife International 2001). At Tanjung Kerita Mese, population density was estimated at c.10 birds per hectare. The species is quite easily overlooked; however, its overall rarity cannot be disputed, and its apparently restricted habitat and altitudinal range suggest that it must be both numerically constrained and susceptible to further habitat loss. Recent records on Rinca Island from outside its known altitudinal range and preferred habitat <strong></strong>(Imansyah <em>et al</em>. 2007) suggest that it may be more cosmopolitan in its distribution and therefore less threatened, but this requires further research.<br/><p></p>
106001526		habitat	eng	It was thought to occur exclusively in primary semi-evergreen forest, particularly with an abundance of fruiting figs (an important food source), but more recently it has also been recorded in moist deciduous forest on limestone and Eucalyptus forest <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Its range apparently closely equates to that of these two forest-types on Flores, although it also visits degraded roadside habitat. It occurs chiefly in a narrow altitudinal band between 600 m and 1,200 m, but has been recorded down to sea-level in deciduous forest on Rinca Island <strong></strong>(Imansyah <em>et al</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
106001526		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001526		threats	eng	Habitat destruction through the combined impacts of firewood collection, commercial logging, timber extraction for construction materials and clearance for agriculture together represent the most pertinent threat. The loss and fragmentation of forests is already extensive on Flores, where no semi-evergreen forest below 1,000 m is included within gazetted protected areas. These threats are compounded by human population expansion, with large volumes of timber required for housing construction, and the fact that there is little or no governmental enforcement of laws. Moist deciduous forest is currently being extensively cleared through land grabbing and establishment of agricultural areas, a factor that is inevitably reducing the range and population of this species. Forest clearance continues in the coastal belt to make way for crops, and illegal logging continues in protected areas. <p></p>
106001527		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001527		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Pakistan and scarce in India (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while the population in Japan is estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001527		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 62,874 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001528		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacula wardi </em>was endemic to Mahé and Silhouette, <strong>Seychelles</strong>, with a sight record from Praslin<strong></strong>. A 'considerable number' were found in 1811, but it was rare by 1867 and the last specimen was shot on Mahé by Abbott in 1893. It may have survived into the 20th century (Skerrett and Disley 2011) although was apparently extinct by the time Nicoll visited the island in 1906 (Lionnet 1984). At least ten specimens exist<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). <p></p>
106001528		habitat	eng	It was a forest species, probably feeding on fruit and seeds.  <p></p>
106001528		threats	eng	Clearance of forest for coconut plantations and shooting and trapping (in particular, to protect maize crops) were the main causes of the species's demise<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989).  <p></p>
106001529		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its natural range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001530		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been the subject of a conservation programme since 1973 (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. The dramatic increase in the species's population in recent years is undoubtedly due to an intensive programme to manage the wild population combined with a highly successful captive breeding programme since the 1993/4 breeding season (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong> - a collaborative effort of  the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, the World Parrot Trust, the Mauritian Government and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Society (Greenwood 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Between 1997 and 2004, when reintroductions were completed, a total of 139 captive reared birds were released (Jones 2010). Intensive management includes nest site enhancement, provision of nest boxes (now more used than natural nests), supplementary feeding of some individuals, predator control around nest sites, control of nest competitors (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. krameri</span>, rats, mynahs<em></em>), control of nest parasites, close guarding and monitoring of all nests, rescue of eggs/young from failing nests, clutch manipulations (double clutching, exchanging infertile eggs with fertile ones), and brood manipulations (downbrooding, ie removing extra chicks from large broods and giving to foster parents) (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. All nest cavities are enhanced, modified and repaired as necessary, and measures taken to eliminate rats and parasites and prevent flooding (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Habitat management has been directed at increasing the productivity of native forest and has included the foundation in 1993 of the Black River National Park in 6,574 ha of native forest (Jones and Hartley 1995, Greenwood 1996), including most of the species's remaining habitat (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. There are 14 Conservation Management Areas (CMAs), ranging from 0.2 to 24 ha, in which native forest is manually cleared of weeds (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Some of these CMAs are heavily utilised by the species as their trees produce bumper crops (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Captive-reared birds have been released into the largest CMA, where problematic mammals are controlled (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Research is ongoing into present and historic genetic variation of the species so that the effects of the population bottleneck can be quantified and current populations managed to preserve maximum genetic diversity (Jones and Swinnerton 1997)<strong></strong>. Research into the impact of PBFD is likely to be ongoing for several years (Malham 2007), and has involved intensive screening of birds since 2005 and several PhD studies (Richards 2010, V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. It now includes looking at whether birds which recover from the disease remain carriers and have the potential to pass it on to their offspring, and whether <span style="font-style: italic;">P. krameri</span> may act as a reservoir for the disease (Richards 2010). Strict hygiene measures have been introduced to prevent species management spreading the disease (Richards 2010). Birds are fed supplemental food in the wild (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish additional populations in eastern Mauritius as population in Black River National Park reaches carrying capacity, and consider reintroduction to Réunion and possibly introduction to the Seychelles, where <em>Psittacula wardi</em> is extinct (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Improve nest site management (Thorsen <em>et al.</em> 1997, Swinnerton 1998)<strong></strong>. Continue to feed wild birds with supplementary food (Thorsen <em>et al.</em> 1997, Swinnerton 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Increase production of birds for release by controlling disease and improving diet of captive birds (Thorsen <em>et al.</em> 1997, Swinnerton 1998)<strong></strong>. Establish new, and improve existing (in part by the use of predator proof fencing (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>) CMAs (Swinnerton 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Further research the potential impacts of PBFD on the population, and the potential role of supplementary feeding in the spread of the disease (Richards 2010).<br/><p></p>
106001530		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacula eques</em> survives in south-west <strong>Mauritius</strong>, having become extinct historically on <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Réunion (to France)</strong>. From the 1970s to the mid-1980s the 10 or so known birds appeared to suffer almost total breeding failure. However, breeding subsequently began to be successful, and in 1993-1994 there were 16-22 birds. During the 1996-1997 breeding season there were 13 known wild pairs with a total of 50-61 birds present at the end of the breeding season restricted to an area of c.50 km<sup>2</sup> contained within the 65.74 km<sup>2</sup> Black River Gorges National Park in the south-west of the island (Jones and Swinnerton 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1998 the wild population stood at 59-73 birds, with 14 captive-bred or captive-reared birds having been released at Macchabé-Brise Fer since 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Safford 1998)<strong></strong>. The rapid increase in population since 1995 is due primarily to intensive management of the wild population, the discovery of previously unknown breeding birds and an increase in the number of breeding groups that attempt to breed each year (Thorsen and Jones 1998)<strong></strong>. In the 1999/2000 season the population stood at 106-126 wild individuals (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Since that time the population continued to increase to 55 pairs (280-300 birds in the wild) in February 2005 (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Malham 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The 2004-2005, 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 breeding seasons showed continued improvement (V. Tatayah <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Malham 2007), and in March 2006 the population was estimated at 309-335 in the wild (V. Tatayah <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Numbers fell to an estimated 290 birds by August 2006, probably due to Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) (V. Tatayah <em>in litt</em>. 2006), but recovered to over 500 birds in August 2010 (Jones 2010), with 129 young fledging in 2011/2012, and a known population of c.580 birds (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The species occupies only c.40 km<sup>2</sup> of remnant native upland forest and uses only around 50% of this regularly<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Thorsen <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106001530		habitat	eng	This species now survives in forest and upland scrub (Marshall 1997)<strong></strong>, with lowland, intermediate and scrub forests being very important feeding areas (Jones 1987)<strong></strong>. It appears to be a strictly arboreal forager, feeding mainly on native plants and taking a wide range of parts including buds, young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, twigs and even bark and sap (Jones 1987)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. They return to favoured food trees, some of which have been used for generations (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Birds forage singly or in small groups in different areas at different seasons and are known to travel several kilometers to and from feeding areas in search of food, although the dwarf forest and scrublands of the south-west plateau are an important foraging area throughout the year (Jones 1987)<strong></strong>. Nesting takes place in natural cavities in native trees (Greenwood 1996)<strong></strong>. It is monogamous, but breeding units in the 1970s and 1980s often comprised a group of one female with up to three males, one of which was dominant and mated with and fed the female (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. The presence of extra males was probably the result of a formerly skewed sex ratio; pairs are usually hostile to extra males, who seem to have no positive effect on fledging success, which is probably related to the experience of the dominant male (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Clutch size is 1-4 (but normally 2-3) eggs, which are laid from September-December (Thorsen and Jones 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>, and incubation, by the female, lasts 21-25 days (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Hatching success is high (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. One or two chicks are usually fledged (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong> from the end of October to the beginning of February or later, and fledgling parakeets are reputed to stay with their parents, being fed by them for at least 2-3 months after leaving the nest (Jones 1987)<strong></strong>. One possible reason for the marked increase in the number of pairs attempting to breed each year is the species's increasing utilisation of exotic plants for food, particularly the very common and invasive strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998, C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001530		population	eng	At the end of the 2011/2012 breeding season the population was estimated at c580 birds, which was conservatively estimated to include 300-350 mature individuals (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).
106001530		threats	eng	This species's earlier decline and contracting distribution corresponds to the severe destruction and degradation of its native habitat (Jones 1987, Greenwood 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The population crashed from a likely total of several thousand following forest destruction and the replacement of its favoured feeding habitat, upland dwarf forest, with plantations (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. In 1996, only 5% of the island was covered with native vegetation (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. The areas of upland native forest that remain continue to be highly degraded by cyclones, the influences of past forestry practices, the spread of introduced plants such as guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, privet <em>Ligustrum robustum</em> and jamrosa <em>Syzygium jambos</em> and the effect of introduced feral mammals such as pigs <em>Sus scrofa</em> and rusa deer <em>Cervus timorensis</em> (Greenwood 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Thorsen and Jones 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The production of native fruit, on which the parakeet feeds, and regeneration of potential nest trees is thus poor (Greenwood 1996)<strong></strong>. Recent research suggests that food shortage due to deterioration of the native forest is the major cause of nest failure; although exotics can provide an abundant food source it is not available year-round or even throughout the breeding season (Thorsen and Jones 1998)<strong></strong>. Crab-eating macaques <em>Macaca fascicularis</em> and black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> are amongst a number of introduced arboreal species which pose a threat to parakeets by raiding nests and competing for native fruits (Greenwood 1996)<strong></strong>. Bees <em>Apis melifera</em>, yellow wasps <span style="font-style: italic;">Polistes hebraeus</span>, paper wasps, termites,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>White-tailed Tropicbirds <em>Phaeton lepturus</em>, introduced Common Mynas <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> and Ring-necked Parakeets <em>Psittacula krameri</em> are all nest site competitors and can displace active breeding pairs (Thorsen and Jones 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. The decline in the number of old native trees, which are lost to storm damage and senescence, has intensified competition for nesting cavities, with 14-19% of <em>P. eques</em> cavities lost to competitors each year (Jones <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Infestations of nest fly larvae can be severe in some years and, without intervention, would kill many young (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. PBFD has been found in over 20% of sampled birds, and at least 50% of birds observed with PBFD are believed to have died, however a number of individuals have been seen to recover from the disease (Richards 2010). Pesticides do not seem to have significantly affected the species (Greenwood 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001531		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacula exsul </em>was endemic to forests on Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong> (Cheke 1987). It was said to be abundant by Leguat in 1691<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987), but Pingré noted that it was scarce by 1761, and the last record was a bird collected in August 1875 (Forshaw 2010)<strong></strong>. It seems probable that the last few were wiped out later that year, when the island suffered 'the worst cyclonic season of the 19<sup>th</sup> century'<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). Two complete specimens survive, plus various subfossil bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987).  <p></p>
106001531		habitat	eng	It was a forest species which fed on fruits, nuts and seeds.  <p></p>
106001531		threats	eng	The species's extinction was presumably caused by a combination of habitat loss and hunting<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
106001532		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in China, with a variable status elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001535		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in Nepal and generally common in India (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be of variable status across its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout the core of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001538		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001539		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 in India <strong></strong>(Government of India 1993)  and collecting for the pet trade is illegal in China <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). In some areas, such as Shachong valley (Szechwan), monks provide protection for wildlife, including anti-trapping activities <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends and trapping pressure. Tackle the threat of trade through the enforcement of legislation and awareness-raising activities. Increase the number of sites that are robustly protected. Support monks that carry out wildlife protection activities <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). Assess the effectiveness of a nest-box scheme <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). <p></p>
106001539		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacula derbiana</em> occurs from Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, <strong>India</strong>, to southern <strong>China</strong>, including south-eastern Tibet, western Szechwan and western Yunnan (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998). Local extinctions and locally falling numbers<strong></strong> (J. Eaton <em>in litt</em>. 2010, He Fen-Qi <em>in litt</em>. 2010, J. Hornskov <em>in litt</em>. 2010<em></em>, Zeidler and Francis 2011) suggest that the species is in decline overall. <p></p>
106001539		habitat	eng	The species inhabits coniferous and mixed pine-oak forests, <em>Rhododendron</em> alpine thickets and cultivated valleys, ranging from 1,250 to 4,000 m <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998). It feeds on the seeds of <em>Pinus tabulaeformis</em>, poplar catkins, barley and orchard fruit. It is an agricultural pest, often destroying ripening crops, including maize<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998). It probably also feeds on invertebrates, leaf-buds and berries <strong></strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998). It has been observed to breed in June in south-eastern Tibet <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997) and females lay a clutch of 2-4 eggs <strong></strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998, Zeidler and Francis 2011). The species nests in tree-holes, favouring <em>Populus ciliata </em><strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is apparently resident in south-eastern Tibet, but occurs in north-eastern India as a summer visitor <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997). Away from north-eastern India, it undertakes some altitudinal movements but may persist at up to 3,300 m in mid-winter <strong></strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998). <p></p>
106001539		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common  (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001539		threats	eng	The species was formerly threatened by logging campaigns that resulted in the loss of much breeding habitat; however, this threat ended in the 1990s <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). Today, old-growth trees, some of which provide nest-holes, are still felled for house construction and firewood, even in protected forests <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). Recent observations indicate that this species is subject to heavy trapping pressure and egg-collecting for the pet trade <strong></strong>(J. Eaton <em>in litt</em>. 2010, Zeidler and Francis 2011). Egg-collecting and the subsequent incubation, rearing of birds and onward selling is very organised and may take place through a network of people in some areas <strong></strong>(Zeidler and Francis 2011). The species is openly sold and widely kept as a pet in its natural range <strong></strong>(J. Eaton <em>in litt</em>. 2010, J. Hornskov <em>in litt</em>. 2010, Zeidler and Francis 2011). <p></p>
106001540		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong><br/></strong>
106001540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106001540		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 125,965 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001541		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the impact of trade on the species. Calculate rates of forest loss. Protect remaining areas of habitat. Assess the impact of the 2004 tsunami. <p></p>
106001541		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacula caniceps </em>is endemic to the Nicobar archipelago, <strong>India</strong>, where it has been recorded from Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Menschal and Kondul islands (BirdLife International 2001, A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It apparently remains common (as indicated by surveys in 2009-2011 [A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), although the effect of the large tsunami in the area in 2004 is unknown, and the species may have declined as a result of coastal forest destruction <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106001541		habitat	eng	It inhabits tall forest, feeding in small groups in the canopy on the fruit of <em>Pandanus</em> palms. It is perhaps more abundant in coastal forests than in the interior <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2007), and occurs up to c.190 m (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It has also been recorded in areca nut and coconut plantations (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), suggesting substantial tolerance of modified habitats. <br/><p></p>
106001541		population	eng	The global population is thought to be moderately small because while the species remains relatively common in some areas it occupies a restricted range and hence the population is perhaps best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This roughly equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001541		threats	eng	Moderately large numbers are trapped for the cage-bird trade. Furthermore, increased settlement of the islands has led to increased pressure on natural resources and planned development projects could severely affect the habitat of this species. The 2004 tsunami destroyed large tracts of coastal forest which may have caused a subsequent decrease in the population. However, data remains sparse, and the rate of regeneration of such forests is uknown <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106001542		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the species in trade. Monitor habitat trends and rates of deforestation in the Sundaic lowlands using satellite images and remote sensing. Research the species's ecology to improve understanding of movements it makes. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and multiple use areas. <p></p>
106001542		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacula longicauda</em> occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, <strong>India </strong>(where it was abundant, although little recent information is available), Coco islands, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna Islands), Sumatra (including the Riau Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread) (BirdLife International 2001).  <p></p>
106001542		habitat	eng	It occurs in coastal and lowland areas to at least 300 m, preferring extreme lowland swamp (including peatswamp) forest in the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although it avoids primary forest in Borneo. In addition, it has been recorded from many types of lowland evergreen forest including mangroves, oil-palm plantations and coconut groves. It prefers forest edge, including near cultivated areas and will visit parks and gardens. It is gregarious and flocks of thousands have been reported from the Nicobars and Borneo, although smaller numbers are more common. It makes poorly understood movements, being abundant in a locality for a period, then absent for years. It feeds on fruit and nests communally, using tree cavities and laying 2-3 eggs in December-February. <p></p>
106001542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common and widespread in southern Borneo, locally common in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia and common in Brunei, the Andaman islands and the Nicobar islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001542		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106001543		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II, protected under Brazilian and Bolivian law and banned from export in all countries of origin. Many ranch-owners in the Pantanal (and increasingly in the Gerais) no longer permit trappers on their properties. There are several long-term studies and conservation initiatives (eg. Anon 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the Caiman Ecological Refuge in the Pantanal the Hyacinth Macaw Project has used artificial nests and chick management techniques and raised awareness among cattle ranchers (Anon 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study the current range, population status and extent of trading in the different parts of its range (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the effectiveness of artificial nest-boxes (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce legal measures preventing trade. Experiment with ecotourism at one or two sites to encourage donors (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106001543		distribution	eng	<em>Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus</em> occurs in three areas of <strong>Brazil</strong>: east Amazonia (along the rios Tocantins, Xingu and Tapajós, and possibly persists in Amapá), the Gerais of Maranhão, Piauí, Bahia, Tocantins, Goiás, Mato Grosso and Minas Gerais, and in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and marginally into east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz), and <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Concepción, with local reports from Alto Paraguay [R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1997], but no observations to substantiate these despite significant fieldwork [R. P. Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011]<strong></strong>). Throughout the 1980s the species suffered major declines as an estimated 10,000 birds were illegally captured for the pet trade and widespread habitat destruction and hunting caused a further reduction in numbers (Anon. 2004). The majority of the population is now located in the Pantanal, where since 1990 the species has shown signs of a recovery and expanded its range (Pinho and Nogueira 2003, Anon. 2004), probably in response to conservation projects. Populations in east Amazonia and the Gerais have continued to decline, from an estimated 1,500 individuals in 1986 to 1,000 in 2003. The total population was estimated at 6,500 individuals in 2003, of which 5,000 were in the Pantanal (Anon. 2004) and around 200 in Bolivia (M. Herrera <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001543		habitat	eng	It occurs in várzea and savanna adjacent to tropical forest in east Amazonia, campo cerrado, caatinga and palm-stands in the Gerais, and palm-savannas in the Pantanal. It feeds mostly on the hard fruit of a few regionally endemic palm species (<strong></strong>C. Yamashita <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong> (<em>Scheelea phalerata</em> and <em>Acrocomia aculeata</em> in the Pantanal [Antas <em>et al</em>. 2006]<strong></strong>). Nesting is from July-December in large tree-cavities (primarily in <em>Sterculia apetala</em> in the Pantanal [<strong></strong>Johnson 1996<strong></strong>]<strong></strong>, and  <em>S. pruriens </em>in Amazonia [Presti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009<strong></strong>]<strong></strong>) and on cliffs (in the north-east). Two eggs are usually laid, but only one chick normally fledges (<strong></strong>C. Yamashita <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. The toco toucan <span style="font-style: italic;">Ramphastos toco</span> is responsible for dispersing 83% of the seeds of <em>Sterculia apetala</em>, but also consumes 53% of eggs predated (Pizo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p>
106001543		population	eng	Anon (2004) estimated 6,500 individuals (equivalent to 4,300 mature individuals) in 2003, of which 5,000 were in the Pantanal.
106001543		threats	eng	There has been massive illegal trade in the species. At least 10,000 birds were taken from the wild in the 1980s, with 50% destined for the Brazilian market (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1983-1984, over 2,500 were flown out of Bahía Negra, Paraguay, with an additional 600 in the late 1980s (<strong></strong>J. Pryor <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although these numbers are now much reduced, illegal trade still continues (e.g. 10 passed through a pet market in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, between August 2004-July 2005, where birds were changing hands for US$ 1,000 and were destined for Peru [Herrera and Hennessey 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). There is some local hunting for food and feathers. In Amazonia, there has been habitat loss for cattle-ranching and hydroelectric power schemes on the rios Tocantins and Xingu. In the Pantanal, only 5% of <em>S. apetala</em> trees have suitable cavities (<strong></strong>Guedes 1993, Johnson 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Young trees are foraged by cattle and burnt by frequent fires (<strong></strong>Newton 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Gerais is being rapidly converted to mechanised agriculture, cattle-ranching and exotic tree plantations (<strong></strong>Conservation International 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001544		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected by Brazilian law. An action plan was published in 2006 (A. Roos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Infiltration of trading networks and improved surveillance at breeding sites has resulted in arrests of poachers, smugglers and collectors<strong> </strong>(Reynolds 1997, IBAMA Press Release 14 1998, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are two conservation units within the species's range, with more in the process of becoming recognised (A. Roos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The Toca Velha-Serra Branca cliffs are guarded and protection has recently been improved following the acquisition of the 1,450 ha Canudos Biological Station<strong> </strong>(Holmer 2007), and there are plans to grow, plant and fence 50,000 licurí palm seedlings&#160;(Reynolds 1997, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span><strong></strong>Gilardi 2001)<strong></strong>. Comprehensive monitoring is underway, along with an education and awareness programme (A. Roos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Health surveys are being carried on to identify carriers for known psittacine pathogens among the population by sampling nestlings, with preliminary findings indicating a stable host-pathogen system (A. Saidenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  Parrots International and the Lymington Foundation began a corn replacement scheme for the farmers in 2007<strong> </strong>(W. Wittkoff <em>in litt. </em>2007).  There is a captive population of 74 birds (A. Roos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), but there is no coordinated breeding programme.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of all known populations. Continue to liaise with local people to locate additional populations (Munn 1995). Study the nesting ecology to estimate reproductive success, determine home ranges and consider double-clutching (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Enhance existing nest sites to prevent premature fledging of chicks (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Continue to compensate farmers for crop losses. Develop a long-term strategy of planting and protecting licurí palms from trampling and browsing by goats and cattle  (Munn 1995, Reynolds 1997, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000, J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Enforce legal measures, especially through local patrolling to prevent trapping (Munn 1995, Reynolds 1997, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Confiscate all birds from trade, integrating into breeding programs. Evaluate potential sites for the release of confiscated and captive bred birds throughout historic range, possibly including the historic range of the extinct Glaucous Macaw in southern Brazil pending genetic studies which may well indicate the two are conspecific (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106001544		distribution	eng	<em>Anodorhynchus leari</em> was known to science for 150 years from trade birds before a wild population was found in 1978. It is known from two colonies at Toca Velha and Serra Branca, south of the Raso da Catarina plateau in north-east Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>. In 1995, a roosting site holding 22 birds was located at Sento Sé/Campo Formoso, 200 km to the west (Munn 1995). Initially, this was thought to represent a distinct subpopulation (Munn 1995), but is now considered to refer to birds from the Toca Velha-Serra Branca population following patches of fruiting licurí <em>Syagrus </em>palms<strong> </strong>(C. Yamashita <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Melo Barros <em>et al. </em>2006). In 1983, the global population was estimated to number just 60 birds (Yamashita 1987). Censuses since have estimated 246 birds in 2001<strong> </strong>(Gilardi 2001), 400-500 in 2004<strong></strong>, 630 in 2006<strong> </strong>(Y. Barros <em>in litt.</em> 2007), 960 in 2008<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2009) and 1,123 in 2010 (Barbosa 2010). These figures are likely to include a large proportion of sub-adults<strong> </strong>(J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2007), and it is notoriously difficult to determine the number of mature individuals in the population because sub-adults form pairs and behave like nesting birds for a number of years before they actually breed<strong> </strong>(J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2007). Some of this increase may reflect changes in methodology and survey effort<strong> </strong>(J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2007), but there has also been a genuine increase as a result of intensive conservation measures.  <p></p>
106001544		habitat	eng	It occurs in arid caatinga with sandstone cliffs (for colonial nesting and roosting) and stands of licurí palms. It forages in trees and on the ground, largely for licurí palm nuts (individuals eat up to 350/day), but also <em>Melanoxylon</em>, <em>Atropha pohliana</em>, <em>Dioclea</em>, <em>Spondias tuberosa</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Zea mays</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schinopsis brasiliensis</span>, <em>Agave</em> flowers and maize (Neto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Breeding occurs between February and April. Two young often fledge. <p></p>
106001544		population	eng	The most recent population estimate is of 1,123 birds. Although the population is growing and thus this figure is likely to include a large proportion of sub-adults, the total number of mature individuals is thought to be at least 258, and so the population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals.
106001544		threats	eng	In 1992-1995, c.20 birds were caught and sold to smugglers from Toca Velha-Serra Branca (Munn 1995) and, in 1996, at least 19 individuals were taken (Reynolds 1997). This threat continues, but has been significantly reduced (A. Roos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Licurí palm-stands formerly covered 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> but have been vastly reduced by livestock-grazing. A major fire could now eradicate most of the food supply for the Toca Velha-Serra Branca population. Birds are occasionally persecuted for foraging on maize crops when palm nuts are scarce (Melo Barros <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Hunting for food and wildlife products are potential threats. <p></p>
106001545		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. There have been various attempts (so far unsuccessful) to rediscover the species. There are ongoing funding proposals to attempt to finance a programme of work aimed at confirming this species's presence in the wild. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct interviews with local people, especially former and active parrot trappers, to assess the likelihood that any populations remain. Prepare to follow-up on any positive data from these interviews. <p></p>
106001545		distribution	eng	<em>Anodorhynchus glaucus</em> was formerly widespread but clearly very local in north <strong>Argentina</strong>, south <strong>Paraguay</strong>, north-east <strong>Uruguay</strong> and <strong>Brazil</strong> from Paraná state southwards. It was endemic to the middle reaches of the major rivers (Uruguay, Paraná and Paraguay) and adjacent areas, with most records coming from Corrientes, Argentina. It became rare before or early in the second half of the 19th century and there were only two acceptable records in the 20th century, one direct observation (in Uruguay in 1951) and one based on local reports (in Paraná in the early 1960s). Whilst it has been generally treated as extinct, persistent rumours of recent sightings, local reports and birds in trade indicate that a few birds may still survive.  <p></p>
106001545		habitat	eng	It was reported mostly along major rivers, but this may reflect travellers' dependence on river transport rather than the species's true habitat requirements. It appears to have been adapted to consume palm nuts as its staple, and therefore presumably wandered into palm-savannas and potentially lightly wooded areas. The only palm in its range with the appropriate size and type of nut is the Yatay (or Chatay) palm <em>Butia</em> <em>yatay</em><strong> </strong>(Yamashita and Valle 1993). It nested and roosted on cliffs and the average clutch-size was probably two eggs. <p></p>
106001545		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on the lack of confirmed records since the 1960s.
106001545		threats	eng	Settlement of the major river basins within its range was presumably accompanied by the widespread loss of palm-groves, either through direct clearance for agriculture or the suppression of regeneration by colonists' cattle. The size and appearance of the bird probably made it a significant target for hunters, and even the taking of young as pets could have been important. There is some evidence that it was traded, but little to support various claims that there has been recent trade in live specimens. Any current trade in eggs, skins or live specimens would obviously be extremely harmful. <strong></strong><p></p>
106001546		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and is protected under Brazilian law. Ten years of protection, habitat restoration and a variety of on-going community conservation programmes, will pave the way for future reintroductions (Y. de Melo Barros <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000,<strong></strong> Caparroz <em>et al. </em>2001). IBAMA established the Brazilian government's Permanent Committee for the Recovery of the Spix's Macaw and cooperation between holders of birds resulted in annual increases in the captive population. This body is succeeded by the Working Group for the Recovery of Spix's Macaw (de Soye and de Melo Barros 2006), now overseen by the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio). This group is responsible for coordinating the captive breeding programme and there will be on-site reintroduction facilities later followed by on-site breeding facilities. The official captive population totals 71 individuals, and important proportions of this are currently held by Al-Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP), Qatar and Loro Parque Fundación (LPF), Tenerife, Spain. Other official holders are in Brazil and Germany. Including birds not registered in the official programme, up to 120 individuals are thought to exist in captivity worldwide. Successful breeding has occurred within some registered facilities, most recently in 2010 at AWWP and LPF. The latter has maintained the species since 1984 and in 2007 opened a new breeding centre for Spix's Macaws<strong> </strong>(Anon 2008a). A captive management and species recovery handbook is in preparation for this species. In February 2009 Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP) announced the purchase of the 2,200 ha Concordia Farm in Bahia state, Brazil, site of one of the last recorded sightings of wild Spix's Macaw, in October 2000<strong> </strong>(Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation undated). Concordia Farm was also the base of the Spix's Macaw field project, largely financed by the LPF, which operated throughout the 1990s until completion in 2002, and release site for the only captive Spix's Macaw yet to be released back into the wild, in 1995. Concordia Farm abuts the 400 ha Gangorra Farm, previously purchased by a conservation consortium. It is planned to allow both farms to return to a more natural state by removing domestic livestock, with the long term goal of the sites proving to be a valuable habitat resource for future reestablishment of a wild population. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify a suitable release site for the potential annual release of captive-bred birds starting between 2013 and 2030 depending on the success of captive breeding efforts (de Soye and de Melo Barros 2006). Protect and improve habitat at the identified release site (de Soye and de Melo Barros 2006). Establish a well-resourced on site re-introduction facility at Praia do Forte under IBAMA ownership (de Soye and de Melo Barros 2006). Introduce captive-bred fledglings and ensure protection from trappers. Continue cooperation between holders of captive birds. Continue ecological studies to assess the need for habitat management<strong></strong> (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Continue the community programmes. <p></p>
106001546		distribution	eng	This species was known for over 150 years, from small numbers of traded birds and a hunted bird taken by von Spix, until it was traced in 1985-1986 to near the rio São Francisco in north Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Only three birds remained and these were captured for trade in 1987 and 1988. However, a single male, paired with a female Blue-winged Macaw <em>Propyrrhura maracana</em>, was discovered at the site in July 1990. A female <em>C. spixii</em> was released from captivity in 1995 and initially paired with the male. Unfortunately, the female disappeared from the release site after seven weeks and is suspected to have collided with a power-line<strong></strong> (Caparroz <em>et al. </em>2001). The wild bird was still paired with the female <em>P. maracana</em> in January 2000 (Y. de Melo Barros <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000) but neither bird has been seen since the end of that year. In 2000, the total number of publicly declared birds in captivity was 60, but 54 of these were captive-bred (Schischakin 2000). The official captive population in 2010 totals 71 individuals, and including birds not registered in the official programme, up to 120 individuals are thought to exist in captivity worldwide. There are occasional local reports, including from Serra da Capivara National Park, which provide some hope the species may be extant<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2006). <p></p>
106001546		habitat	eng	It apparently requires gallery woodland dominated by caraiba <em>Tabebuia caraiba</em> trees for nesting, but feeds mainly on two regionally characteristic <em>Euphorbiaceae</em> plant species. Breeding occurs during the austral summer. Two or three eggs are laid in the wild (up to five in captivity). The wild bird and the <em>P. maracana</em> apparently produced infertile eggs1, although one experienced very early embryo death, subsequent DNA analysis revealing a hybrid. <p></p>
106001546		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), based on the disappearance of the last known individual.
106001546		threats	eng	The decline of Spix's Macaw has generally been attributed to two principal factors. First, long-term destruction of the specific gallery woodland habitat on which the species apparently depended, the result of the colonisation and exploitation of the region along the Rio São Francisco corridor during more than three centuries. Secondly, trapping for the illegal live bird trade in recent decades pushed the species towards extinction. In addition, the colonisation of the distributional range by introduced aggressive African bees, and the building of the Sobradinho hydroelectric dam above Juazeiro may have contributed, perhaps significantly, to the species's decline in the 1970s and 1980s. Direct hunting is considered a factor of minor importance in the overall decline, even though several reports of shooting are on record. <p></p>
106001547		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001547		distribution	eng	</P>
106001547		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001547		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 55,531 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001548		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Asociación Armonía/Loro Parque Fundación produced a Blue-throated Macaw Recovery Plan in 2003. Live export from Bolivia was banned in 1984, but illegal export continues<strong> </strong>(Duffield and Hesse 1997). The Asociación Armonía/Loro Parque Fundación parrot trade monitoring project has recorded reduced levels of trade in the species<strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008), but the large scale illegal trade infrastructure in Bolivia means there is the potential to start trapping again if there is a demand. Agreement has been reached with some landowners to control access and deter potential trappers, and negotiations with other landowners continue<strong> </strong>(Hesse 1998, A. Hesse <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Based on field surveys recommendations have been made that the Paraparau region, Beni department, be given greater conservation priority (Tobias 2003). Much of the remaining population occurs on private ranch-lands. Many landowners are sympathetic to conservation work on their lands and continued support will benefit the species's recovery. The population in captivity (some of which is held in captive-breeding facilities) is many times larger than the wild population. <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b014m55k" title="Planet Dinosaur"><span class="title"></a>A nest box campaign has been run since 2004 and has found that there is a great demand for suitable nesting cavities. The active management and monitoring of nest box use has helped to reduce the incidence of nest failure (Berkunsky 2010). Work with indigenous people looking for alternatives for headdress macaw feathers is on-going. There has been a widespread education programme, including pamphlets, posters, T-shirts, presentations, short-wave radio spots, video programmes, TV interviews, travel to the most remote ranches giving presentations on laptops, and creation of interpretation centres in the bottle-neck towns of Trinidad, Santa Rosa and Santa Ana. Other measures include on-going surveys of potential areas where populations may persist; a pet trade monitoring programme in two main Bolivian cities, and land acquisition programmes conducted in order to protect key habitat and populations. Asociación Armonía, with the help of the American Bird Conservancy and World Land Trust, completed the purchase of a 3,555 ha private reserve protecting at least 20 Blue-throated Macaw in November 2008<strong> </strong>(BirdLife International 2008). The reserve will be used for education, research and tourism and, with the support of Bird Endowment, an additional 100 nest boxes were due to be put in place for the 2008/2009 breeding season<strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008). The World Land Trust also carries out nest-box provision, as well as the feeding of nestlings and other manipulations. In 2009 a formal agreement was signed between the Loro Parque Fundación, Asociación Armonía, the Zoo Fauna Sudamericana and the Noel Kempff Mercado Natural History Museum which formalises the initiation of a managed cooperative breeding programme in Bolivia (Anon. 2008). It was hoped that by the end of 2012 the first birds would be moved from the U.S.A. to Bolivia, as part of a repatriation programme initiated by the World Parrot Trust (Berkunsky 2010, I. Berkunsky <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A monitoring project was also planned to track movements during the breeding and non-breeding seasons. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue nest guarding and monitoring. Expand, monitor and improve nest boxes. Continue illegal pet trade monitoring and confiscations of all native parrots from traders. Lobby local and national government regarding illegal pet trade. Research and promote the acquisition of land for Blue-throated Macaw's long-term conservation, studies into habitat requirements and restoration, and sustainable tourism support. Continue wide-ranging education programmes, especially in Santa Rosa y Santa Ana area - supported by interpretive centres. Develop alternatives and controls to macaw feather headdress usage. Develop tourism infrastructure on private reserve land to sustainably support protecting areas, and to control the negative impact Blue-throated Macaw tourism can have throughout the area. Maintain a low level of population monitoring and occasional new surveys. Field research to identify principal health threats. Release captively bred birds into areas of the species's historic range (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106001548		distribution	eng	<em>Ara glaucogularis</em> is known from the Llanos de Mojos in north <strong>Bolivia</strong>, being concentrated east of the upper río Mamoré, Beni<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Duffield and Hesse 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Yamashita and Barros 1997)<strong></strong>, where the wild population was discovered in 1992. In 2007, the total population was estimated to number 250-300 individuals occupying a range of c.4,000 km<sup>2</sup>, with 70 individuals discovered at a dry season roost site that year<strong> </strong>(Waugh 2007). However, information now suggests the population is unlikely to number more than 115 individuals. An estimated 1,200 or more wild-caught birds were exported from Bolivia during the 1980s, suggesting that the population was formerly much higher (Yamashita and Barros 1997). <p></p>
106001548		habitat	eng	It utilises forest islands and gallery forest found fragmented throughout the Beni Savannas at an 80:20 ratio. Motacú palm <em>Attalea phalerata</em> is a principal food of all macaws in the area, with abundances ranging from 0-100% in forest islands in the savannas, and borders of gallery forest. It nests in cavities, hatching 1-3 eggs. The species is most frequently found in pairs, but small groups (7-9) do occur and one large roosting group of 70 is known, thought to be made up of non-breeding birds (I. Berkunsky <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012, J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <br/><p></p>
106001548		population	eng	The population size is estimated to number c.110-130 individuals in the wild (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), roughly equivalent to 73-87 mature individuals.
106001548		threats	eng	It was severely threatened in the past by legal and illegal exploitation for the national and international cage-bird trade (A. Hesse <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999, I. Berkunsky <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), although this has been radically reduced since 1984 (I. Berkunsky <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). All known breeding sites are on private cattle-ranches, where burning and clearing for pasture and tree-felling for fuel and fenceposts have reduced the number of suitable nest trees and inhibited palm regeneration<strong> </strong>(Duffield and Hesse 1997, Hesse 1998, J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. However, cattle-rearing has occurred in the region since the 17th century (A. Hesse <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). Nest-site competition from other macaws, toucans, bats and large woodpeckers is significant, and disturbance from mammals, birds and human activity may reduce the reproductive output of some pairs (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Hunting to provide feathers for indigenous headdresses probably has an important impact in some areas (I. Berkunsky <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There are fears that inbreeding within an increasingly fragmented population is resulting in reduced fertility<strong></strong> (Loro Parque Fundación 2003).  <p></p>
106001549		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II, and legally protected in Venezuela, Peru and  Salta province, Argentina (L. Rivera <em>in litt. </em>2012). A trade ban in Mexico was decreed in October 2008 (J. C. Cantú <em>in litt</em>. 2010). There are reasonably healthy populations in El Cielo and Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserves, Mexico<strong> </strong>(J. Lyons <em>in litt</em>. 1998, K. Renton <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, Madidi and Amboró National Parks, Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Apolobamba National Integrated Management Area, Bolivia<strong> </strong>(<strong> </strong>Juniper and Parr 1998, B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999,&#160;<strong></strong>D. Ricalde <em>in litt</em>. 1999, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and Manu Biosphere Reserve and Bahuaja Sonene National Park in Peru<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 2007); a small but stable remnant population in Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve, Oaxaca, Mexico (<strong></strong>C. Bonilla <em>in litt. </em>2007, K. Renton <em>in litt. </em>2007), with populations in at least some of the other protected areas in its potential range<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>IUCN 1992, Desenne and Strahl 1994,<strong> </strong>Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998, Begazo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong>, </strong>D. Ricalde <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong>, </strong>Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its population status and ecological requirements. Monitor the largest known populations. Control capture and trade of wild birds, beginning in reserves<strong></strong> (Desenne and Strahl 1994, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). Improve management and awareness initiatives in and around national parks. <p></p>
106001549		distribution	eng	<em>Ara militaris</em> occupies a massive but fragmented range from <strong>Mexico</strong> to <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Mexico, it occurs from central Sonora to Guerrero on the Pacific slope, east Nuevo León and Tamaulipas to San Luis Potosí on the Atlantic slope<strong> </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a), and Durango, Morelos, Puebla and Oaxaca in the interior (C. Bonilla <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In <strong>Colombia</strong>, it is known from the Guajira Peninsula and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta through the Sierras de Perijá and de San Lucas, south along the East Andes, with local populations on the Pacific slope in Chocó, the Cauca valley, the head of the Magdalena valley and in the Sierra de la Macarena (Hilty and Brown 1986, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). A new population was recently reported from two localities in the Catatumbo-Barí National Park on the Colombian-Venezuelan border<strong> </strong>(J. E. Avendaño <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It is very local in north <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and occurs disjunctly in the east Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong> (also in the río Chinchipe drainage [Begazo <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong></strong>), <strong>Bolivia</strong> and north-west Argentina. It has been extirpated from many areas, especially in Mexico (practically extirpated from most of Veracruz and Hidalgo on the Atlantic side, and Chiapas, Oaxaca, as well as coastal regions of Guerrero and Michoacan on the Pacific slope<strong> </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a, K. Renton <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and is very local elsewhere. In Argentina the only records since 1991 are from Salta Province<strong style="font-weight: normal;">, with </strong>up to five birds in 2005-2007 at Finca Itaguazuti <strong></strong>(Chebez 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>M. Juárez <em>in litt. </em>2007) and 50 in the Sierra de Tartagal (Navarro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Similarly, an assessment of 21 known localities in the southern Yungas of Bolivia) found a total of 37 individuals at eight of these (L. Rivera <em>in litt. </em>2012). Populations in Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia face continuing threats, and further extirpations are expected. <p></p>
106001549		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest and adjacent cleared areas, wooded foothills and canyons. In Mexico, it is found in arid and semi-arid woodland, and pine-oak, humid lowland and riparian forest, moving seasonally to dense thorn-forest <strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>Renton 2004)<strong></strong>, although in Puno, Peru it was found to be more abundant in a mosaic of shade coffee plantations and degraded remnant forest patches than in neighbouring pristine Yungas forest<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It occurs from sea-level to 3,100 m, but the core range is 500-1,500 m<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. Nests and large communal roosts are sited on cliff-faces or in large trees<strong> </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a<strong>, </strong>Juniper and Parr 1998, Cruz-Nieto <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><strong></strong><br/><p></p>
106001549		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001549		threats	eng	Habitat loss and especially domestic trade are the chief threats, even within reserves (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1991-1995, 96 wild-caught specimens were found in international trade, with Bolivia and Mexico possibly the most significant exporters<strong> </strong>(Chebez 1994,<strong> </strong>D. Brightsmith <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In Mexico, it is still one of the most sought-after species in the illegal cagebird trade; in 1995-2005, it was the fifth most seized Mexican Psittacine species by the country's Environmental Enforcement Agency, becoming the fourth most seized Psittacine species in 2007-2010 (J. C. Cantú <em>in litt</em>. 2010). In many areas it nests in relatively inaccessible cavities on cliff walls, which provides some protection against the pressures of nest poaching. However, nest poaching is a severe threat in Jalisco and Nayarit where the species nests in tree cavities (C. Bonilla <em>in litt. </em>2007, K. Renton <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong>)</strong>. In Jalisco, Mexico, macaws were not found in deforested areas, even where abundant <em>Hura polyandra</em> (an important food source) were left as shade for cattle<strong> </strong>(Renton 2004). GARP analysis estimates that the species has suffered 23% habitat loss within its range in Mexico<strong> </strong>(Ríos Muñoz 2002). One sub-population in the Cauca valley, Colombia, numbering fewer than 50 mature individuals, may shortly be lost as a dam is expected to flood the sole nesting cliff (Fundación ProAves 2011). <p></p>
106001550		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The stronghold is in Darién Biosphere Reserve, Panama, and adjacent Los Katíos National Park, Colombia. There are important reserves in all range states, but these provide insufficient protection for seasonal wanderers (Juniper and Parr 1998). In Costa Rica, a proposed moratorium on logging <em>D. panamensis</em> has not been implemented (Powell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. A government-backed conservation strategy is being implemented in Ecuador<strong> </strong>(E. von Horstman <em>in litt</em>. 2005). In 2007, a successful rapid assessment study in search of the last surviving individuals was carried out in the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche, Ecuador<strong></strong><strong></strong> (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005). A bi-national campaign in the lowlands of the San Juan River (Nicaragua and Costa Rica) aims to increase awareness of biology, threats and conservation, and strengthen management of natural resources (Chassot <em>et al</em>. 2006). Habitat restoration utilizing native dry tropical forest species that are known or potential macaw food sources is being carried out by the Pro-Forest Foundation, with &gt;250 hectares so far replanted with 35 native species (E. Horstman<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement population monitoring programs (Benítez 2002<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Quantify levels of persecution and capture for trade. Effectively protect reserves in Honduras, Nicaragua (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000), Ecuador<strong></strong><strong></strong>  (Benítez 2002, O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Jahn in press a)<strong></strong> and other countries. Sustainably manage the buffer zones of key protected areas and reserves (Benítez 2002). Curtail trade through law enforcement and educational campaigns<strong></strong> (J. Lyons <em>in litt</em>. 1998, C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Benítez 2002). Designate the proposed Maquenque National Park, Costa Rica (Powell <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Ecuador, designate the Awá reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (Benítez 2002<strong></strong>, Jahn in press a)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador, efficiently guard all known nests during the entire nesting period to avoid the destruction of nesting trees and the collection of nestlings by poachers<strong></strong><strong></strong> (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005). Acquire private reserves in selected areas (Lopez-Lanus 1999, Sharpe 1999). Create a biological corridor for the species (and others), linking forest remnants in the Cordillera Chongon Colonche with the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest.<br/><p></p>
106001550		distribution	eng	<em>Ara ambiguus</em> occurs as two subspecies. The nominate race occurs from <strong>Honduras</strong> to north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, and the race <em>guayaquilensis</em> in western <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Fjeldså <em>et al</em>. 1987). In <strong>Panama</strong>, it is locally fairly common on the Caribbean slope and in Darién near Cana, Alturas de Nique<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1993, 2005, C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011) and adjacent Colombia (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and occurs in Serranía de Majé and south Cerro Hoya<strong> </strong>(Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Colombia, it is also found in the north of the Serranía de Baudó and the West Andes, east to the upper Sinú valley<strong> </strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Honduras, it is now rare near the río Plátano (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong> and, in <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, it persists in the Bosawas Reserve and the Indio-Maíz and San Juan Reserve may hold the second largest global subpopulation (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, O. Chassot verbally 2004)<strong></strong>. Ecuador's population has been estimated at 60-90 individuals in 2002 in two widely separated populations (Benítez 2002), but the population continues to shrink fast<strong></strong><strong></strong>&#160;<strong></strong>(O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005,&#160;<strong></strong>E. von Horstman <em>in litt</em>. 2005) and a census conducted in the Cordillera Chongon Colonche and Esmeraldas Province in 2010 found only 8 birds (E. Horstman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and the current population in Ecuador is suspected to be around 30-40 individuals (E. Horstman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The majority of these are in Esmeraldas (Benítez 2002), and very small numbers remain in the Cordillera de Chongón-Colonche, Guayas (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000, Benítez 2002). The southern Nicaragua - northern Costa Rica population held an estimated 1,530 individuals in 2009. Recent estimates suggest that the global population is less than 2,500 mature individuals (or less than 3,700 in total including juveniles and immatures), with the largest subpopulation in Darién, north-west Colombia estimated at less than 1,700 mature individuals (or less than 2,500 in total)<strong></strong><strong></strong> (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005). However, even within that area its distribution is quite local, it being absent from several remote areas<strong> </strong>(G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2005). The species forms non-breeding flocks of 50 or more, with flock attendants coming together from huge areas (O. Chassot verbally 2004), possibly leading to inflated local estimates of abundance<strong></strong><strong></strong> (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005).<br/><p></p>
106001550		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid and wet lowland, foothill and (in south-western Ecuador) dry deciduous forest<strong> </strong>(Benítez 2002, Berg <em>et al</em>. 2007), but occurs in edge habitats and crosses open areas<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså <em>et al</em>. 1987, Juniper and Parr 1998). It is found mainly below 600 m, but occurs to 1,000 m and occasionally 1,500 m in Darién. In Costa Rica, local movements may reflect the asynchronous fruiting of <em>Dipteryx panamensis</em>, the principal nesting and feeding tree (Powell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. In south-western Ecuador, it breeds in June-November, and nests in cavities of dead <em>Cavanillesia plantanifolia</em> trees (Berg and Horstman 1996, Lopez-Lanus 1999). Orchids made up 71% of the diet of a pair watched in Ecuador, and their feeding range was estimated at 2,000 ha (Lopez-Lanus 1999). In the non-breeding season, it tends to form flocks that disperse over large distances in search of food (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005, O. Chassot verbally 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001550		population	eng	The global population is estimate to number fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, or fewer than 3,700 individuals in total, when juveniles and immatures are included (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2005, <em>in litt.</em> 2007). There were estimated to be 1,530 individuals in the southern Nicaragua - northern Costa Rica population in 2009.<br/> <br/>
106001550		threats	eng	In Central America, there is conversion to banana plantations and cattle-ranching, and logging<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). <em>Dipteryx panamensis</em> is selectively logged in Costa Rica (Powell <em>et al</em>. 1995). Annual deforestation rates are very high throughout its range (FAO 2001). Deforestation in Panama probably exceeds 30% of its original range<strong> </strong>(G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2005) and in some other countries (e.g., Costa Rica and Ecuador) the historical range was reduced by ~90 % over the past 100 years<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong>.</strong> (Chassot <em>et al</em>. 2002, O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2004 and 2005)<strong></strong>. In its South American range, plans to colonise and develop remoter areas are progressing through infrastructural improvements, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, which have increased the impact of logging, small-scale agriculture, illegal coca plantations, gold mining, and hunting, which is even affecting some key protected areas (Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2001, Álvarez 2002, Benítez 2002, <strong></strong>Jahn in press a). Large areas western Ecuador are being purchased, denuded of forest and converted to industrial oil palm plantations (Sharpe 1999). Urbanisation and agriculture have largely extirpated race <em>guayaquilensis</em>, and it is reportedly shot as a crop-pest (Pople <em>et al</em>. 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. There is illegal capture for (mostly internal) trade, food and feathers<strong></strong> (Low 1995a, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Sharpe 1999, C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000, Benítez 2002).
106001551		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001552		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001553		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It is considered nationally Critically Endangered in Bolivia (Rojas<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). Its capture, transport and export is prohibited under Bolivian law (Fuller and Gaski 1987)<strong></strong>, although this is not effectively enforced<strong> </strong>(Herrera and Hennessey 2007). In 1992, 5,000 posters urging the protection of macaws and their habitat were made and apparently well received throughout the region. Non-breeding birds occur in the southern edge of Amboro National Park<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt. </em>2007, A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). Two municipal protected areas have been created at Pasorapa (1796 km<sup>2</sup>) and Mollepampa-Lagarpampa (303 km<sup>2</sup>) (J. Cahill <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Armonía has a long-term conservation project on the Rio Mizque working with three subsistence farming communities to protect a breeding cliff with 11-13 active nests  (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). An ecotourism lodge was inaugurated here in 2006 with proceeds going to the local communities, and it is planned to establish a protected area at this site<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt. </em>2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveying and monitoring (Clarke and Duran Patiño 1991<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>Snyder <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Fence key patches of gallery forest to limit cattle-grazing and permit vegetation to regenerate<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al. </em>2000). Effectively enforce trade laws<strong> </strong>(Herrera and Hennessey 2007). Organise awareness campaigns (Clarke and Duran Patiño 1991). Identify suitable sites for protected areas throughout the species' range (Kyle 2005, A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012).     (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). Establish education programs to reduce nest-poaching and trapping. Assess the costs of compensating crop damage to avoid persecution of macaws in agricultural areas, and investigate alternatives to resolve the conflict between agriculture and macaw conservation as the main threat for the species (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). Create a management plan for captive birds in ex-situ conservation, involving Bolivia and foreign countries, and incorporate pets and illegally traded birds into this programme (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2012, A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012).  There are significant numbers at the Santa Cruz Zoo in Bolivia and at zoos and in private holdings outside Bolivia (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2012).<p></p>
106001553		distribution	eng	<em>Ara rubrogenys</em> is endemic to a small area on the east Andean slope of south-central <strong>Bolivia</strong>, from south Cochabamba and west Santa Cruz through north Chuquisaca to north-east Potosí. It is principally found in the valley systems of the ríos Grande, Mizque, Caine and Pilcomayo. It is locally common but declining, with the population variously estimated at 2,000-4,000 individuals in 1991-1992 (Pitter and Christiansen 1995), or as few as 1,000 in 1991 (Clarke and Duran Patiño 1991). In the Caine valley (Cochabamba and Potosí) 40-100 indivuduals were considered resident and secure in 1989-1992, but only one was seen during five days fieldwork in 1995<strong></strong> (Pitter and Christiansen 1995<strong>, </strong>Herzog <em>et al.</em> 1997). Conservative estimates in 2007 indicated there were fewer than 500 breeding pairs, although not all nesting colonies had&#160; been found, and there were additional non-breeding adults in any given year<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt. </em>2007). A survey conducted in 2011 (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012) attempted to cover the entire range of the species, locating 34-35 occupied nesting sites in cliffs, of which 16 were previously unknown, as well as a small population breeding in palms (Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). The survey counted 130 pairs, of which 67-86 were breeding and the rest probably did not attempt to breed (immature pairs). Non-breeding individuals were aggregated in 7 localities during the breeding season and consisted of 545 individuals, giving a total population (including pairs) of 805 individuals (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). This survey also showed that 5 out of 28 (18%) of breeding locations known from the previous 5 years were unoccupied in 2011 (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). <p></p>
106001553		habitat	eng	Its original natural habitat is inter-Andean dry forest, but this has been degraded to thorn and cactus scrub by centuries (if not millennia) of human activity<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt. </em>2007) and it now inhabits subtropical, xerophytic thorny scrub with many cacti and scattered trees at 1,100-2,700 m, dispersing locally to 3,000 m. It nests and on undisturbed, steep-sided river cliffs, with a small population breeding in palms (Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Its diet includes seeds and fruit, but natural food sources are often scarce and birds feed extensively on crops, particularly groundnuts and unripe maize (Kyle 2005). Egg-laying takes place in February and March, with pairs fledging one, two or occasionally three offspring annually<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt. </em>2007, A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). Adults and their young remain on the breeding grounds until May, after which they congregate in a few large flocks in agricultural areas  and roost communally in large trees (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012).<br/><p></p>
106001553		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-4,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-2,700 mature individuals.
106001553		threats	eng	Its original natural habitat is inter-Andean dry forest but this has been degraded to thorn and cactus scrub by centuries (if not millennia) of highly unsustainable human activities, nowadays mainly overgrazing by goats, firewood cutting and charcoal production<strong> </strong>(S. K. Herzog <em>in litt. </em>2007). An estimated 40% of natural vegetation in valleys within its range had been converted to agriculture by 1991, with other areas degraded by intense grazing. Several important food trees are harvested for fuel and charcoal. As food plants are lost, agricultural land is used more, thereby increasing the species's exposure to persecution as a crop-pest, and the use of firearms for pest control has been recorded<strong> </strong>(Brace <em>et al.</em> 1995). Macaws are also potentially threatened by pesticides applied to crops where macaws forage mostly during the non-breeding season (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). Illegal trapping continues, but has been reduced as a result of legal protection<strong></strong> (Pitter and Christiansen 1995,&#160;<strong></strong>Juniper and Parr 1998, Herrera and Hennessey 2007,<strong> </strong>A. Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). The majority of the Bolivian parrot trade is domestic but more valuable threatened species end up in Peru or further afield. 26 Red-fronted Macaws were recorded passing through the Los Pozos pet market, Santa Cruz between August 2004-July 2005, and there are four other wildlife markets in the city and others in Cochabamba, suggesting this figure may only represent a small proportion of birds illegally trafficked in the country<strong> </strong>(Herrera and Hennessey 2007). In 2011, 45 red-fronted macaws were recorded in houses; some had been taken from nests as nestlings, but most of them were trapped when foraging in crops. Most were kept as pets but some were to sell to in major cities (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012). The two main threats appear to be nest-poaching and trapping for local pet supply, and persecution as crop pests, and possibly contamination by pesticides applied to crops  (A. Rojas, F. Hiraldo and J. L. Tella <em>in litt. </em>2012).   <br/><p></p>
106001554		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001556		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In Peru, 23.3% of its area of occupancy is within protected areas (Tobias 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop an appropriate census methodology. Survey for this species throughout its range to obtain quantitative population estimates. Determine the degree to which this species occurs in protected areas, and whether further such areas need gazetting. Support the enforcement of legislation preventing international trade. Raise awareness among local people of the need to conserve this species and its susceptibility to unsustainable exploitation. <p></p>
106001556		distribution	eng	<em>Primolius couloni</em> occurs in eastern <strong>Peru</strong>, extreme western <strong>Brazil</strong>, and north-western <strong>Bolivia</strong>. In some locations within its range it is considered not uncommon, but in other areas it appears to be scarce, or even absent. It has been recorded throughout the year at some locations, but numbers elsewhere seem to vary seasonally and the species may wander in response to food availability, confounding attempts to draw conclusions about population density across its range. Estimating its population size is therefore notoriously difficult, but a recent review of all known records put the population at 9,200-46,000 individuals, considerably higher than previous estimates<strong> </strong>(Tobias and Brightsmith 2007).  <p></p>
106001556		habitat	eng	It is found on the edge of humid lowland evergreen forest, along rivers and by clearings and other breaks in continuous canopy, locally even on the outskirts of towns, from lowlands to 1,550 m. Young birds have been observed with adults in April. It may be nomadic or wander seasonally in response to food availability<strong> </strong>(Tobias and Brightsmith 2007). <p></p>
106001556		population	eng	The population is estimated at 9,200-46,000 mature individuals (roughly equivalent to 10,000-70,000 total individuals), based on conservative estimates of range size and density.
106001556		threats	eng	The species is commonly found in markets in Brazil, being valuable and in high demand owing to its perceived rarity. Reported international trade is low (and virtually unknown before 1995), but apparently increasing: three specimens in 1993 increased to 55 birds in 2000, totalling 150 birds for the whole period; as many as 50 were reported to have been seized/traded illegally. The species has a very low reproductive rate and continued illegal harvest is thought likely to pose a serious threat to its survival (IUCN-SSC and TRAFFIC 2002). Much of the forest within the species's range is still intact, but the Bolivian forest is threatened by expansion of the logging industry (although the species may benefit from the consequent patchwork clearance), as well as mining and drilling for gas.    <p></p>
106001557		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It has been recorded at numerous protected areas in Brazil, but Serra do Cachimbo is unprotected and Serra Negra Biological Reserve is a mere 10 km<strong></strong><strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995<strong>, </strong>Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Twenty birds have been released in Bahia, Brazil, with the intention of correlating differences in ability to survive in the wild with differences of history in captivity<strong> </strong>(Waugh 1997). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Collate data on specimen and recent records to provide an improved assessment of distribution and status. Monitor known populations to assess trends. Investigate the impact of trade. Protect habitat in areas known to harbour high concentrations of the species.   <p></p>
106001557		distribution	eng	<em>Propyrrhura maracana</em> formerly occupied a huge range in <strong>Brazil</strong> (Pernambuco, Piauí, Maranhão, Pará, Tocantins, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Bahia, Espírito Santo, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Concepción, Canindeyú, Amambay, Alto Paraná and Caazapá) and <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones and north Corrientes), but has undergone a decline (Chebez 1994<strong>, </strong>Juniper and Parr 1998). The species is found in Marajó island, Pará (where it is common in mangrove forest and cerrado), over most of Brazil to Paraná and adjoining parts of Paraguay. There are no recent records from Misiones, Argentina and it is thought to be virtually extinct in the country<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al. </em>2006). In São Paulo state, the species has its stronghold in and around Caetetus Ecological Station. In Brazil, this macaw is found in a broad range of habitats, including mangrove forest in Marajó, semi-deciduous and humid forest in southern Pará and São Paulo, Atlantic forest in Rio de Janeiro, Bahia and Espirito Santo, cerrado in Tocantins, and caatinga in Bahia and Piauí. Despite declines in the southern part of its range the species remains widespread over most of its Brazilian range, and has even recolonised areas in its historical range in southern Rio de Janeiro, including the environs of Itatiaia National Park<strong> </strong>(Collar 1997a). Some areas considered as strongholds for the species are largely protected (Serra do Cachimbo in Pará is mostly under care of the Brazilian military, who bar colonists and loggers, although they conduct weapon tests in parts of the range) or not under strong pressure (Marajó). Previously unreported populations have been found in the Atlantic forest of Itarana (Barra Encoberta, Santa Joana, Alto Jatiboca e Limoeiro<strong> </strong>[de Jetibá 2003]).  <p></p>
106001557		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen and deciduous forest (including Atlantic forest and cerrado savanna) with an apparent preference for gallery forest (especially in the Caatinga region) and forest edge up to 1,000 m<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Sick 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998). There is evidence of breeding from December through February in north-east Brazil<strong> </strong>(Y. de Melo Barros verbally 1999). It apparently feeds on seeds from <em>Cnidoscolus phyllacanthus</em> and <em>Jatropha</em> spp.<strong> </strong>(Y. de Melo Barros verbally 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <em>Guazuma ulmifolia</em><strong> </strong>(C. Yamashita <em>in litt</em>. 2000) as well as introduced like <em>Melia azederach</em> (Chebez 1994) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Casuarina </span>(Camacho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It appears able to persist in fragmented landscapes where a core area of forest remains but it is unlikely that landscapes containing only small fragments are capable of sustaining the species<strong></strong> (Nunes and Galetti 2007). <p></p>
106001557		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals in total, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 individuals.
106001557		threats	eng	Its decline is only partly explicable by deforestion, since it has disappeared from localities where apparently suitable habitat remains<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998). It suffers from capture for the cage-bird trade, with 183 individuals arriving in the USA from Paraguay between 1977 and 1979 (Chebez 1994). At least in Argentina its decline could have been largely caused by persecution as a crop pest<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al. </em>2006). <p></p>
106001558		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001560		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001560		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001560		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 193,299 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001563		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1994 (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A captive-breeding programme has been instigated for potential reintroduction (R. Rodríguez-Estrella <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Mexican Navy has reduced the sheep population to c.300 (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sheep eradication is planned for 2008-2009 (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some control of feral cats has been undertaken (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there are plans to eradicate cats in 2009, at the earliest (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reports that rats have recently colonised Socorro have proved to be unfounded (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A pilot programme of nest-box provision is to be initiated (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population through regular surveys. Eradicate sheep and cats from Socorro (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate rabbits from adjacent Clarion Island to prevent their transportation and introduction to Socorro (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement and maintain an effective invasive animal and plant introduction prevention programme with a focus on preventing rat introduction (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control, but do not eliminate, the locust swarm (Song <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001563		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga brevipes</em> is endemic to Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. The population was estimated at 400-500 birds within c.35 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat in 1991. Numbers were considered stable and did not decline subsequently in the early 1990s (Rodríguez-Estrella 1995, Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there may have been some contraction in range since c.1960. Surveys from 2006 and 2007 estimated a population of c.300 individuals, suggesting a population decline from previous population estimates (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001563		habitat	eng	It inhabits forests of <em>Bumelia socorroensis</em>, <em>Psidium socorroensis</em>, <em>Guettarda insularis</em>, <em>Ilex socorroensis</em> and <em>Ficus cotinifolia</em> at elevations of 350 m-850 m. It nests exclusively in natural cavities within <em>B. socorroensis</em> trees (Rodríguez-Estrella 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the seeds and fruit pulp of this species comprise over 50% of the diet. The breeding season begins in November, and nests are attended by at least three individuals. After the breeding season, birds tend to form flocks of 7-40 individuals, with larger groups of 50-100 gathering in undisturbed forests on the northern slopes of the island. <p></p>
106001563		population	eng	Following surveys in 2006 and 2007, the population has been estimated at c.300 individuals (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106001563		threats	eng	The spread of erosion and, in places, the lack of forest regeneration caused by heavy sheep-grazing has presumably had a deleterious effect on the extent of suitable habitat. There may be some predation by feral cats, but the species is relatively tame and its remains have not been found in cat scats. Outbreaks of a permanent locust <em>Schistocerca piceifrons </em>swarm have occurred twice a year since 1994, resulting in damage to the leaves, flowers and fruit of indigenous forests, with at least 30 ha lost to defoliation so far (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outbreaks may be favoured by the habitat degradation caused by introduced species (Song <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The presence of an active naval base on the island and the lack of prevention measures means that the risk of rat introduction is high (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001565		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001565		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 76,974 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001566		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001566		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 158,149 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001567		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a population estimate. Research current threat from trade. Enforce trade restrictions. Census and monitor population. Monitor rates of habitat loss and fragmentation. Study its ability to persist in altered and fragmented habitats. <p></p>
106001567		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga erythrogenys</em> occurs from Manabí, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south to Lambayeque and Cajamarca, north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, with the high Andes marking its easternmost limit, at least in Ecuador (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995, Juniper and Parr 1998,&#160; Clements and Shany 2001)<strong></strong>. There are very few records from the centre of its range, in Guayas, El Oro and Azuay, Ecuador, which may effectively divide the population into two distinct sub-populations (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995). The total population is unlikely to be smaller than 10,000, with the majority occurring in Ecuador (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995). Although considered 'common' in parts of its range (Best and Clarke 1991, Best 1992<strong></strong>, Williams and Tobias 1994, Clements and Shany 2001), there have been severe local declines (Ridgely 1981a, Best <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, and there is recent anecdotal evidence that numbers are still falling<strong></strong> (E. Horstman <em>in litt</em>. 2011,<strong></strong> R. Orrantia and J. Baquerizo<em> in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
106001567		habitat	eng	It occurs in a range of habitats - from humid forest through deciduous forest, dry <em>Acacia</em> scrub to open, sparsely vegetated desert and intensely farmed areas to towns - but principally inhabits arid areas (Juniper and Parr 1998), from sea-level to 2,500 m, but most frequently below 1,500 m (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It nests in tree cavities, but the extent to which it tolerates logged forest and can breed successfully in small woodlots or even isolated trees is unclear (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995). Observations indicate that it can persist in highly degraded forest (E. Horstman <em>in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
106001567		population	eng	This species's population size has not been formally estimated, but, in the absence of sufficient data, it is preliminarily suspected to number more than 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals.
106001567		threats	eng	It suffers heavily from local trade in Peru and Ecuador, where it is a common and highly sought-after pet (Best and Clarke 1991,  Williams and Tobias 1994, Best <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It is also internationally traded from Peru, but its status is clouded by the misdeclaring of traded birds<strong></strong> (Inskipp and Corrigan 1992) and pre-trade mortality<strong> </strong>(Ramos and Iñigo 1985), which both demonstrate the complexities of estimating true numbers taken from the wild (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995). The species is frequently confiscated by the Ecuadorian authorities<strong></strong> (E. Horstman <em>in litt</em>. 2011,<strong></strong> R. Orrantia and J. Baquerizo<em> in litt</em>. 2011). Despite the threat of trapping, the main causes of recent declines may be habitat loss and fragmentation<strong></strong> (R. Orrantia and J. Baquerizo<em> in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
106001568		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001569		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>
106001569		distribution	eng	</P>
106001569		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001569		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 60,207 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001570		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected. It occurs within seven environmental reserves, including the important Ciénaga de Zapata National Park (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. A study of the species and an intensive public awareness campaign are intended to help establish an effective management programme (Wiley 1998)<strong></strong>. Ecotourism programmes have been initiated in some areas (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000).  A nest box provisioning scheme has been initiated. Synthetic boxes are longer lasting than those made from sections of palm trunk<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Waugh 2006), but the parakeets prefer those made of natural materials (Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further research to determine the species's ecological requirements and population (Wiley 1998, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conserve additional habitat, especially nesting areas (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Tailor environmental awareness and nest-site protection to local situations (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to plan for the re-establishment of the species on the Isla de la Juventud (Wiley 1998, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001570		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga euops</em> was formerly one of the most common endemic birds on <strong>Cuba</strong>, but is now rare throughout the island. It survives in a few of the more remote regions, remaining fairly common only in the Zapata peninsula, the Trinidad Mountains and the Sierra de Najasa (Juniper and Parr 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suggestions that the species occurred in the Sierra Maestra appear unfounded (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It has been extirpated from the western provinces (excluding Zapata) (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Isla de la Juventud, where it was once abundant. Recent studies of 14 populations have found that four are in serious decline (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Even the population within Ciénaga de Zapata National Park appears to have declined, with recent surveys finding no flocks larger than 18 birds (Mitchell and Wells 1997, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The total population is now thought not to exceed 5,000 individuals (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001570		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in semi-deciduous woodland, palm-savanna habitat, trees on cultivated land and the edges of woodland. It nests in tree-cavities or holes in arboreal termite nests, and is mostly restricted to dead royal <em>Roystonea regia</em> and sabal <em>Sabal palviflora</em> palms (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Breeding takes place in late April or early May, coinciding with maximum fruit availability, and runs through to August (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The species seems somewhat nomadic, ranging widely in search of food (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001570		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001570		threats	eng	Persecution as a crop-pest, habitat loss and in particular trapping for the cage-bird trade explain its current rarity (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Trapping for the international trade is now insignificant, with only 10 birds recorded in trade between 1991 and 1995. Another significant threat is loss of nesting-trees (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000) as a result of hurricane damage (such as caused in Zapata by Hurricane Lilli in 1996), and tree-felling for Cuban Parrot <em>Amazona leucocephala</em> chicks (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001571		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In the Dominican Republic, it is legally protected against hunting and trapping, but this legislation is not adequately enforced (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<sup></sup>. An education strategy with community participation has been launched for the protection of this species (Vásquez <em>et al.</em> 1995)<sup></sup>.  Interactions between this species and Olive-throated Parakeet <em>A. nana</em> (because of the recent increase in numbers of <em>A. nana</em> in the Sierra de Baoruco [S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998]<sup></sup>) are being investigated (Anon. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A volunteer parrot protection group is to be set up and damaged nest cavities refurbished (Anon. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify the status of the species in Haiti. Study ecology and breeding success to determine natural limiting factors. Enforce existing legislation in the Dominican Republic. <p></p>
106001571		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga chloroptera</em> occurs in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, with feral populations in Puerto Rico (to USA) (Juniper and Parr 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and possibly Florida, USA (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Guadeloupe (to France) (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The extinct race <em>maugei</em> formerly occurred on Isla Mona in Puerto Rico (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but went extinct around 1900 (Fuller 2000). It is now generally rare with isolated populations in the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Baoruco and the suburbs of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent records from Monte Cristi and Ebano Verde may represent additional local populations (S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its status in Haiti is unclear. It has been suggested that it may be extinct in Haiti (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the species was not recorded in the previously inhabited La Viste National Park in 2000 (Dávalos and Brooks 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there are also claims that it is common in the Massif de la Selle and la Citadelle area of the Massif du Nord (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001571		habitat	eng	It inhabits all kinds of natural habitat from montane forest to arid lowland forest, palm-savannah and open woodland, and ranges into agricultural land and second growth (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. It occupies a wide altitudinal range from the lowlands to 3,000 m (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nesting takes place in tree-cavities or arboreal termite nests (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001571		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001571		threats	eng	Habitat loss and persecution as a crop-pest are the greatest threats to this species. It is exploited for local and international trade, but only 12 wild-caught individuals were reported in international trade in 1991-1995 (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001572		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is very common in captivity, but it is not known what percentage of this population are hybrids between <em>A. (s.) solstitialis </em>and <em>A. (s.) maculata </em>(Silveira <em>et al. </em>2005, L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Consider listing the species on CITES Appendix I. Prevent cross-border trade immediately. Work with the indigenous inhabitants of the Terra Indígena Raposa Serra do Sol and the Amerindian Community in Karasabai Village to prevent trapping and protect suitable habitat. Survey extensively to locate other important additional sub-populations.  <p></p>
106001572		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga solstitialis</em> is restricted to central <strong>Guyana</strong> and Roraima state, <strong>Brazil</strong>, and may previously have occurred in Surinam<strong> </strong>(Silveira <em>et al. </em>2005). It is considered hypothetical in Venezuela on the basis of one sight record. Though it was fairly common until the 1970s in the Rupununi-Roraima savannas of western Guyana and adjacent Brazil, it has since been extirpated there, presumably by trappers, and it is now very scarce or absent across its former range. In Brazil it was recorded from the Mau river, Contão Cotingo river and Maracá Ecological Station<strong> </strong>(M. Persio <em>in litt. </em>2005) during the 1990s. Flocks of up to 12 birds have been recorded at the Terra Indígena Raposa Serra do Sol, and along the road from Santa Elena de Uairén (Venezuela) to Boa Vista, 50 km south of the border<strong>.</strong><span lang="EN-AU"> Birds have been frequently found (in flocks with &gt;15 individuals) at five localities inside São Marcos and Raposa/Serra do Sol indigenous lands (Laranjeiras <em>et al.</em> 2011). Records in the Sipalwini savannas relate to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. (s.) maculata</span> (Mittermeier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, T. Orsi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) which is likely to be split. There are no recent records in all other localities in Brazil where the species was found in/before the 1990s, including at Maracá Ecological Station, despite surveys in 2010 and despite local indications of its presence there around 2000 (Laranjeiras <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Several historic localities no longer contain dry foothill forest that the species apparently requires<span lang="EN-AU"><em></em><strong></strong>. In Guyana evidence of nesting has been found in the Karasabai area where 50-80 individuals were seen in 2003, and c.25 km from this site there are fairly recent records from Karanambo (c. 30 km from the Brazilian border at Bonfim), and on the west bank of Demerara in 2006<strong> </strong>(T. Arndt <em>in litt. </em>2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>Guyana Amazon Tropical Birds Society <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.&#160; Since the early 1990s records are limited to only nine localities, and there are thought to be fewer than 1,000 individuals in Brazil (T. Orsi and L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The total population probably now numbers no more than a couple of thousand  individuals at the very most, but probably fewer, with at least 90% of these in Brazil, within a restricted, decreasing and fragmented range (Laranjeiras <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).  <br/><p></p></span>
106001572		habitat	eng	It is restricted to dry, semi-deciduous forests on the slopes of north and north-east Roraima, and although it uses forest edge it appears to require quite a large quantity of intact forest<strong> </strong>(L. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>2007). Contrary to former opinion, birds only use savannah while flying from one hill area to another<strong> </strong>(T. Arndt <em>in litt. </em>2007, L. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001572		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, based on recent records. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals. <span lang="EN-AU"><span lang="EN-AU">Since the early 1990s records are  limited to only nine localities, and there are thought to be fewer than  1,000 individuals in Brazil (J. Gilardi, T. Orsi and L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  The total population probably now numbers no more than a couple of  thousand  individuals at the very most, but probably fewer, with at  least 90% of these in Brazil.</span>
106001572		threats	eng	Due to high demand in the pet trade this once common species has declined dramatically during the last twenty years<strong>  </strong>(J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2007). It has been heavily exported from Guyana during this time, leading its virtual extirpation from that country. Trappers from Guyana and French Guiana have since travelled over the border to Brazil to buy birds for export<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(T. Arndt <em>in litt. </em>2007, L. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. An annual export quota of 600 birds was set by Guyana in the 1980s and it is thought that more than 2,200 were imported into the United States between 1981 and 1985<strong>  </strong>(J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2007). Trade is ongoing, and due to the ease with which birds can be attracted to bait (e.g. corn) and the large distances they will travel it is easy to trap all the individuals in an area<strong>  </strong>(J. Gilardi <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p>
106001573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001574		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Monte Pascoal, Chapada da Diamantina, Serra da Canastra (common in the south)<strong> </strong>(Silveira 1998) and Serra do Caparaó National Parks, Rio Doce State Park and Caratinga Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to locate any major new populations and define the limits of its current range. Study to determine its population dynamics and dispersive capacity, and provide a detailed analysis of its habitat requirements at different sites. Ensure the protection of key reserves. Protect the species under Brazilian law. <p></p>
106001574		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga auricapillus</em> occurs from the Recôncavo area in Bahia, south to Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Goiás and Paraná, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. In São Paulo and Paraná, the species has only been recorded in the humid eastern forests. It has apparently vanished from Espirito Santo, and has been recently recorded from single sites in Rio de Janeiro and Paraná. Despite the loss of habitat and collecting for the pet trade, it is still locally common in Goiás, (where it occurs over most of its former distribution), Minas Gerais and Bahia. It is described as very common along the rio Grande basin (V. T. Lombardi<em> in litt</em>. 2011). A recent survey in Bahia found it in 18 out of 30 sites surveyed, including eight protected areas, being recorded in large groups and using secondary vegetation (Cordeiro 2002). The discovery that it is still widespread and has not declined over much of its northern range (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goiás), and its ability to cope with habitat fragmentation suggest its status is more secure than formerly thought. <p></p>
106001574		habitat	eng	It is found in both humid Atlantic coastal forest and inland transitional forests. It is largely dependent on semi-deciduous forest, but forages and breeds in forest edge, adjacent secondary growth, agricultural areas and even urban areas (V. T. Lombardi<em> in litt</em>. 2011). Like other <em>Aratinga</em>, it seems to adapt well to mosaics of forest fragments, pastures and agriculture, and in Goiás and Minas Gerais it also uses areas of cerrado (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2003). Pairs have been seen in November and dependent young in March (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 1999), indicating breeding in the austral summer. It feeds on fruits (such as mango, papaya and orange) (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and seeds (such as maize), and was formerly considered a serious pest.<br/><br/><p></p>
106001574		population	eng	This species's population size has not been formally estimated and in the absence of sufficient data it is preliminarily estimated to number more than 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals; however, detailed research is required.
106001574		threats	eng	There has been extensive and continuing clearance and fragmentation of suitable habitat for coffee, soybean and sugarcane plantations in São Paulo, and cattle-ranching in Goiás and Minas Gerais (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Trapping for trade has probably had a significant impact since it was relatively common in illegal Brazilian markets in the mid-1980s and imported in hundreds into West Germany in the early 1980s. However, the precise effect is obfuscated by high numbers of captive-bred birds, which presumably reduce pressure on remaining wild populations (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Despite its tendency to occasionally nest near human habitation, it is apparently not the most favoured species for the pet trade (V. T. Lombardi<em> in litt</em>. 2011). There are no records of persecution in response to crop degradation. <p></p>
106001575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001576		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001577		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001578		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001578		distribution	eng	</P>
106001578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001578		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 61,311 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001579		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aratinga pertinax</span> is found in northern South America, its native range encompassing <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands Antilles</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">griseipecta</span>, endemic to Colombia's Sinú Valley, has not been recorded since 1949 and is likely to be extinct (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
106001579		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001580		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001581		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001581		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 267,246 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001582		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is known from many protected areas (Wege and Long 1995), including Los Nevados and Cueva de los Guácharos national parks in Colombia, and Podocarpus National Park in Ecuador (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, Clements and Shany 2001). Of all these reserves, Ucumarí Regional Natural Park, Puracé National Park (Colombia), Huashapamba Protection Forest (Ecuador) and Río Abiseo National Park (Peru) are apparently well-protected (Wege and Long 1995). In Ecuador, a campaign organised by Aves y Conservación and the Jocotoco Foundation and supported by the government aims to reduce unsustainable harvesting of wax palms. The Jocotoco Foundation have installed nest boxes in their reserves, which are being used (even in preference to natural cavities) by this and other species of parakeet (D. Waugh <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its status in Peru (Flanagan <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). Establish the degree of dependence on wax palms in different regions (Sornoza Molina and López-Lanus 1999). Develop a network of protected montane forests. Protect the Nevado del Ruiz-Nevado del Tolima Massif and the Cordillera de Chilla (Jacobs and Walker 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, López-Lanus <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> in press). <p></p>
106001582		distribution	eng	<em>Leptosittaca branickii</em> is widely but locally distributed in <strong>Colombia</strong> (both slopes of the central Andes, the southern base of the east Andes and one record from Cerro Munchique, Cauca, in the west Andes), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (isolated massifs in the far north and south, but only in the south on the main Andean ridges) and <strong>Peru</strong> (Cordillera de Colán and the east Andean slope, with one record on the west slope of the Cordillera Central in La Libertad). It has declined considerably in Colombia and Ecuador, and may now be declining in Peru (where it has generally been considered to be stable) due to increasing habitat destruction<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007). The Nevado del Ruíz-Nevado del Tolima Massif, Colombia, harbours 1,000-3,000 birds (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). In forests of the Cordillera de Chilla, Ecuador, densities of c.2.3 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and c.6.6 birds/km<sup>2</sup> have been estimated (Jacobs and Walker 1999). <p></p>
106001582		habitat	eng	It inhabits temperate cloud and elfin forest at 2,400-3,400 m, occasionally down to 1,400 m<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998), in areas characterised by trees in the Melastomataceae and Cunoniaceae (Montes and Verhelst 2011). Some populations are nomadic, possibly owing to a heavy dependence on <em>Podocarpus</em> cones. It nests in dead <em>Ceroxylon </em>wax palms, even where these trees are scarce (Sornoza Molina and López-Lanus 1999). The two most important plants for feeding are <span style="font-style: italic;">Brunellia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">goudoti </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus oleifolius</span> (Montes and Verhelst 2011). Nesting probably corresponds to food availability, and may not be seasonal (Sornoza Molina and López-Lanus 1999). <p></p>
106001582		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001582		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation has been considerable throughout its range, with 90-93% of montane forest lost in Colombia, but less in Peru (Salaman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999b, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). The cutting of wax palms for Palm Sunday services is a serious problem in parts of Ecuador, and palms also suffer poor recruitment because cattle browse young trees, and logging in adjacent areas increases their susceptibility to parasites and disease<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Salaman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999b). Road construction is on-going throughout many areas of elfin and cloud forest in Peru and has caused severe habitat loss in areas such as Abra Malaga<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007). In Colombia, it is trapped as a maize pest and as a pet<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Salaman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999b). Many protected areas are affected by the burning and grazing of páramo, settlement, clearance for agriculture, logging, narcotics and gold mining (Wege and Long 1995, Salaman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001583		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The traditional roost-site in Ecuador has recently been purchased and is being reforested (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). Surveys took place early 2008 in Ecuador to determine the species's status there (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is hoped that an awareness campaign for people living nearby has stopped hunting of parrots for food (Krabbe 1998). In Colombia, awareness raising to reduce hunting pressure and the impact of Palm Sunday processions has involved poster campaigns, environmental education, community workshops, school visits and radio<strong></strong> (Waugh 2004). Combined with on the ground actions such as surveys, fencing of breeding sites to allow wax palm regeneration, habitat restoration and provision of artificial nest boxes<strong> </strong>(Salaman 2001), the species's population size has increased significantly<strong></strong> (Waugh 2004,<strong> </strong>Fundación ProAves <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. In 2009, ProAves, the Loro Parque Fundación, the American Bird Conservancy and others established a corridor of over 16,000 acres (including the acquisition of over 10,000 acres) for <em>Ognorhynchus </em>and other threatened parrots across the Central Cordillera in Colombia<strong> </strong>(Fundación ProAves <em>in litt.</em> 2010). More information on conservation initiatives is provided by Salaman <em>et al</em>. (2006).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for additional subpopulations, with a focus on determining status within the Intag valley, Ecuador (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Prepare habitat maps of the Volcán Ruiz-Tolima massif<strong> </strong>(Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b). Buy and protect further habitat<strong> </strong>(Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Continue the current highly successful programme of conservation activities in Colombia and extend these to any sub-population identified within Ecuador in the future. <p></p>
106001583		distribution	eng	<em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> formerly occurred in all three Andean ranges of <strong>Colombia</strong>, from Norte de Santander and Antioquia to Nariño and in north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south to Cotopaxi. It persists in the Central Andes of Colombia (Krabbe 1998, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1998, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999a)<strong></strong>, although its whereabouts for much of the year are unknown (Krabbe and Sornoza 1996, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999a)<strong></strong>. Once common to abundant, it is now potentially extinct in Ecuador: although there have been unconfirmed reports of flocks of c.20 individuals in the Intag valley since 2000 (O. Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2007), searches in 2008 in the last confirmed strongholds in Imbabura and Carchi failed to find the species (Anon. 2010). When re-discovered in Colombia in 1999 there were only estimated to be 81 birds, but intensive conservation actions have since seen the population dramatically recover. In 2004 the population reached a peak of 660 individuals (Salaman <em>et al</em>. 2006), although the population declined in 2005 and 2006 to 554 birds, thought to be caused by individuals leaving to establish satellite populations which subsequently failed to establish. However, the population has continued to increase since, and in 2009 was recorded at over 1,000 individuals, with three separate breeding populations on the slopes of the Western, Central and Eastern Cordillera. Although breeding success is good, the species's breeding requirements and highly fragmented habitat will continue to challenge its recovery<strong> </strong>(Fundación ProAves <em>in litt.</em> 2010).  <p></p>
106001583		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, elfin forest and partially cleared terrain at 1,200-3,400 m, favouring areas dominated by wax palms <em>Ceroxylon</em> <em>quindiuense</em>, in which it roosts, nests and feeds<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>Juniper and Parr 1998, Krabbe 1998, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999a, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Although currently resident at one site<strong> </strong>(López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 1998, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b)<strong></strong>, other flocks wander seasonally in search of food (bark, buds and fruiting/seeding blooms of <em>Ceroxylon</em>, <em>Citharexylon</em>, <em>Podocarpus </em>and <em>Sapium</em> spp., as well as a variety of fern species) (Krabbe 1998<strong>, </strong>Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Arosa <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Two breeding cycles in April-November were noted at one colony<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Breeding pairs enlist the help of 'brood-helpers' during the chick-rearing stage<strong> </strong>(Salaman 2001). Its ecology is discussed in further detail by Salaman <em>et al</em>. (2006).<p></p>
106001583		population	eng	The current population is thought to comprise 1,103 individuals. However, a maximum of only 212 individuals have bred in recent years (Fundacion ProAves <em>in litt.</em> 2010), hence this figure is used for the current population of mature individuals.
106001583		threats	eng	Its range appears to be heavily restricted by the spread of exotic forest, and occurs only in native forest<strong></strong> (Ceia <em>et al.</em> 2009). It has suffered considerable habitat loss and fragmentation (90-93% of montane forest in Colombia) throughout its range<strong> </strong>(Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>; however several sizeable areas of habitat remain within its historic range, suggesting additional causes of decline (Krabbe 1998, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Wax palm mortality is accelerating and they suffer poor recruitment because cattle browse young trees, and logging in adjacent areas increases their susceptibility to disease (Krabbe 1998<strong></strong>, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999a, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Wax palms are incredibly long-lived and slow-growing (mature individuals are over 500 years old)<strong> </strong>(Salaman 2001), and are being unsustainably exploited for use in Palm Sunday celebrations within the species's range. In Ecuador, hunting for food was prolific<strong> </strong> (Krabbe and Sornoza 1996, Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b)<strong></strong>, and trapping has had some impact in Colombia, although the species is notoriously hard to keep in captivity<strong> </strong>(Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b, Salaman 2001<strong></strong>)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001584		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected in the USA. The species has been the subject of field studies since 1994, and a permanent research team, located in the Sierra Madre Occidental ecoregion, monitors nesting sites and studies its breeding biology (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong></strong>. The goal of the research project is to develop sustainable forest management practices that incorporate the species's needs (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding or foraging sites at Tancítaro, El Carricito, Monte Oscuro, Mexiquillo, Las Bufas and Cebadillas have varying degrees of protection (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996, J. M. Lammertink <em>in litt.</em> 1998, J. Salgado <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Anon. 1998, Specimens in UMSNH <em>per</em> A. T. Peterson <em>in litt</em>. 1999, E. C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2003-2004, the Madera nesting area (the second most important breeding area) was in the process of being declared a National Forest Reserve, and efforts were underway for the protection of Mesa de Guacamayas (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2002, a moratorium on timber extraction was signed by the Tutuaca Ejido at Bisaloachia (Cebadillas), which will protect 10% of the breeding population for 15 years (Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2000, Lurie and Snyder 2001, Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The agreement involves reimbursement of half of the value of the uncut timber to the ejido by NGOs, whilst the same organisations will also assist the community in recouping the other half of the value through alternative income sources (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such agreements are being promoted in the Madera region and to the Conoachi Ejido (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em> is protected in Mexico (M. A. Cruz-Nieto<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two captive-breeding facilities in USA have raised 127 chicks to fledging (S. Healy <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but reintroduction attempts have failed owing to disease, the inability to develop flocking behaviour, and predation by raptors. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Protect all current and historic breeding sites (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004, Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including those at Mesa Las Guacamayas and Cebadilla/Yahuirachic and Cocono/Cienaga de la Vaca from the exploitation of snags (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Adopt forestry policies that have longer rotation cycles and retain snags (e.g. a minimum of five large snags per ha [Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Restore degraded areas to a more mature condition (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement forestry management practices that recognise the needs of the species (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and incorporate tree species required for nesting and feeding (Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Supplement natural nest cavities with nest boxes (to accomodate for the suitable maturation of trees, which may take 40 years) (Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Study movements using satellite-tracking.  <p></p>
106001584		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchopsitta         pachyrhyncha</em> is largely restricted to the Sierra Madre         Occidental, <strong>Mexico</strong>, in north-east Sonora, west Chihuahua, south         and west Durango and Michoacán (two collected in April 1987 and 200         birds in April-May 1990 [J. Salgado <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Specimens in UMSNH <em>per</em> A. T. Peterson <em>in litt</em>. 1999] are the first records         since 1941). Smaller, occasional or extirpated populations have         occurred in Sinaloa and Jalisco. Seasonal migrations occur to the         states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima and Michoacán (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz         Nieto 2004). Pre-1960 records of <em>Rhynchopsitta</em> parrots from         Coahuila, México and Veracruz may pertain to wanderers. It formerly         occurred in <strong>USA</strong>, in Arizona and New Mexico, but had disappeared         by the early 1990s (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004). Reintroduced         birds have bred in USA more recently. The population was estimated at         fewer than 5,000 birds in 1992 (Specimens in UMSNH <em>per</em> A. T.         Peterson <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and 1,000-4,000 in 1995 (Lammertink <em>et         al.</em> 1996). In 2004, the population was thought to number         3,000-6,000 individuals, including c.2<span class="GramE">,800         mature individuals (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004). These figures         may represent an over-estimation, as not all of the nest cavities         surveyed <span class="GramE">are used every year (M. A. Cruz-Nieto         <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Anecdotal observations by the         rural residents of ejidos (communally owned lands) indicate a continued         general decline in flock sizes and the frequency of sightings         throughout its range, including the disappearance of some local         populations (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004).</span>
106001584		habitat	eng	It inhabits temperate conifer, mature pine-oak, pine and fir forests at 1,200-3,600 m, but breeds from 2,000 to 2,700 m (Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in tree-cavities (especially in pine snags and <em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em><strong> </strong>[M. A. Cruz-Nieto<em> in litt.</em> 1998, Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004]), often originally excavated by woodpeckers. The selection of tree species in which pairs nest appears to shift in reaction to changes in local availability (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding coincides with the peak in production of pine-seeds, which are the species's primary food resource (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The egg-laying period is mid-June to late July (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Flocks roost on cliffs, but reintroduced birds have used trees. Outside the breeding season, it is nomadic in response to variations in cone abundance. <p></p>
106001584		population	eng	In 2004, the population was thought to number 3,000-6,000 individuals. The are possibly c.2,800 mature individuals,&#160;derived&#160;from the statement by Ortiz Maciel  and Cruz Nieto (2004) that an estimate of up to 140 nests in the  Bisaloachic-Cebadillas region represented c.10% of the total known  breeding population. Thus the number of mature individuals is assumed to fall within the range 2,000-2,800. However, these figures may represent an over-estimate, as not all of the nest cavities surveyed are used every year (M. A. Cruz-Nieto<em> et al. in litt.</em> 2007); there may even be fewer than 100 active nests each year (J. Gilardi <em>in litt</em>. 2010).
106001584		threats	eng	Less than 0.06% remains of the original forest cover in the Sierra Madre Occidental ecoregion (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz Nieto 2004)<strong></strong>. There has been extensive modification of old-growth pine forests for timber and woodpulp. In the Sierra Madre Occidental, 80-85% of forest cover remains, but only 0.6% is old-growth (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1994, there was extensive penetration and degradation of habitat in south Chihuahua by drug-growers, loggers and huge numbers of cattle. In the same year, forest stands at Mesa de Guacamayas were heavily burned (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fire remains a serious threat to the species (M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Logging has been intensive in the Sierra Madre Occidental, with no large fragments of old growth forest remaining in northern areas (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Commercial logging in the area involves the removal of larger trees and standing dead wood, and appears to reduce nest-site availability by leaving few snags and pine trees large enough for the species to nest in. Such large-scale logging operations across the species's historic range may be responsible for its decline (Monterrubio-Rico and Enkerlin-Hoeflich 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As a result of habitat loss, breeding is now concentrated in two areas; Cebadillas de Yahuirachi and Madera (Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Illegal trade in the species has fluctuated with peaks in the early 1970s and mid-1980s. Unofficial records confirm that the species is taken for illegal trade, but the extent of trapping is not known (M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001585		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The species is protected by Mexican law; formerly considered 'threatened' in Mexico, its status was recently revised to Endangered (SEMARNAT 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In October 2008, a bill was signed into law banning the capture and export of Mexican wild parrots (<strong></strong>Pham 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The El Taray Sanctuary encompasses 3.5 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat (Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this is not effectively protected (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A conservation plan has been put in effect, focusing on the main colony of El Condominio, including effective protection of 15 km<sup>2</sup> through contracts with individual land-owners and owners of ejidos (communally owned land) (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Significant numbers breed in Cumbres de Monterrey National Park, but this is not effectively protected (Macias Caballero 1998, C. Macias Caballero and E. C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1995, nesting has been monitored at the 23 known breeding colonies (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al.</em> 2006, R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plans had been made in 2006 to involve local people in the restoration of areas affected by fires, wildlife monitoring and the prevention of soil erosion (Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no protected sites in the species's wintering areas (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but conservation efforts include future projects for the protection of 80 km<sup>2</sup> of forest (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect all nesting colonies and wintering areas (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys to search for undiscovered colonies. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Actively control fires. Restore habitat affected by fires (Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine precise habitat usage (Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement a permanent environmental education programme for local communities (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop alternative sustainable activities for local people in order to decrease pressure on habitat (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010, Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001585		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchopsitta terrisi</em> is restricted to the Sierra Madre Oriental in Nuevo León, Coahuila and Tamaulipas, <strong>Mexico</strong>, where there is presently no more than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During winter 1998, some birds were recorded in the Sierra Gorda, Querétaro (R. Pedraza <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting wanderers reach the south of the Sierra Madre Oriental. By 1998, 21 colonies had been identified (Snyder and Enkerlin 1996, Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with 23 known by 2006 (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it is still unclear whether it breeds c.25 km south of that range at Cerro Potosí. Counts of large wintering aggregations and productivity data from 1996 to 2007 suggest that the known colonies could account for almost the entire breeding population (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are four main colonies (El Taray, El Condominio, San Antonio de la Osamenta and Santa Cruz [Macias Caballero 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with El Taray the most important [Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Population estimates are hampered by its seasonal movements, but numbers were put at 2,500-3,000 individuals in 1996 (Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and c.2,500 individuals following surveys in 2006-2007 (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An estimate of c.3,500 individuals was put forward in 2008 (Valdés-Peña <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, given that the species is thought to reach reproductive maturity at around four years, there are probably fewer than 2,500 mature individuals (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Comparisons with the 1,400 and 1,600 birds estimated in the 1970s indicate that population levels were relatively stable up until the mid-1990s (Snyder and Enkerlin 1996, Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, numbers of breeding pairs at known colonies have been declining, there is poor breeding success and the species's habitat is being destroyed (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears that less than 10% of the population is breeding successfully each year (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001585		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature pine, pine-oak and mixed conifer forest at 2,000-3,500 m, and exceptionally 1,300-3,700 m. Habitat preferences during the breeding season vary between years (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests colonially in solution holes in limestone cliffs. Breeding follows the fruiting pattern of pines, with pairs arriving between April and May<strong><sup></sup></strong>, laying in early July, and fledging in October-November (Macias Caballero 1998, Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pairs produce an average of two chicks (range 1-4), and the whole population produces up to 150 young per year (Macias Caballero 1998, R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds almost exclusively on pinions, depends on daily access to free-flowing water and groups congregate at clay licks to eat earth (Snyder and Enkerlin 1996, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition to pinions, it also eats agave flowers, fruits and acorns (Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007, R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Seasonal migrations or relatively predictable nomadic movements occur between the northern and southern range limits. Following the post-breeding migration to the southern part of its range, it forms large aggregations (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001585		population	eng	The population was recently estimated at c.3,500 individuals; however, the species is thought to reach reproductive maturity at about four years of age (R. Valdés-Peña <em>in litt.</em> 2010), thus the number of mature individuals is conservatively estimated at fewer than 2,500 and placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals.
106001585		threats	eng	Intensive grazing and agricultural conversion have destroyed and degraded forest (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 1996, Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Annual fires burn large areas (in 1998, 20 km<sup>2</sup> of foraging habitat were lost [Gómez-Garza and Garza-Tobón 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and 20 km<sup>2</sup> of pine forest, including 90% of El Taray Sanctuary, were lost to two wildfires in 2005-2006 [Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007, R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010<strong><sup></sup></strong>]), which regenerate as dense (and unsuitable) <span style="font-style: italic;">chaparral </span>vegetation (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 1996, Macias Caballero 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Data suggest that between 1999 and 2008 more than 15,400 ha of pine forest in the species's breeding range were destroyed by wildfires (S. G. Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al</em>.<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Droughts fuel fires and dry up natural water sources (in 1994, at least 50 birds drowned whilst attempting to drink from a cement-walled water tank [Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Additionally, the species is affected by low pinion production, and pressure from local people who collect pinions as an alternative income source (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest is also cleared for timber extraction (Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is affected by some trapping and shooting (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al.</em> 2006, Valdés-Peña and Ortiz Maciel 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may experience years of low breeding success (Ortiz-Maciel <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or even zero recruitment (R. Valdés-Peña <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001586		distribution	eng	<em>Conuropsis carolinensis </em>was endemic to the eastern <strong>USA</strong>,<strong> </strong>with the nominate race ranging from Florida to Virginia, and <em>ludovicianus</em>, through the Mississippi-Missouri drainage<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). Birds were still common at the beginning of the 19th century but, in 1832, Audubon noted their decline, which followed increasing human settlement moving inland from the east<strong> </strong>(Saikku 1991). The last specimens were collected by Chapman near Lake Okeechobee, Florida, in 1904,<strong></strong> although rumours of its survival persisted into the 1930s<strong> </strong>(McKinley 1985). The last captive bird died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918<strong> </strong>(Joines 1985).  <p></p>
106001586		habitat	eng	Birds were wide-ranging but their typical habitat was cypress and sycamore trees along rivers and swamps<strong> </strong>(Saikku 1991).  <p></p>
106001586		threats	eng	The main causes of the species's extinction were persecution (for food, crop protection, aviculture and the millinery trade), and deforestation (especially of the bottomlands), probably compounded by its gregarious nature<strong> </strong>(Saikku 1991), and by competition with introduced bees<strong> </strong>(McKinley 1960). <p></p>
106001587		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001587		distribution	eng	This taxon occurs as four subspecies: andinus is found in north-west Argentina, conlara is found in San Luis and Córdoba provinces, western-central Argentina, patagonus is found from central to south-east Argentina, ranging occasionally into Uruguay in winter, and bloxami occurs in central Chile.
106001587		habitat	eng	The species inhabits arid lowland and montane grassy shrubland, open dry woodlannd savanna, open Chaco plains along watercourses, and thorny scrub or columnar cacti, often with a sandy substrate, at elevations up to 2000 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997). The species may only breed successfully in fairly large, dense colonies (J. Burton in litt. 2002).
106001587		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is still common in many parts of its range in Argentina with only small range contractions reported in Córdoba (R. M. Fraga <em>in litt.</em> 2003).
106001587		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 122,914 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001588		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and is protected by Brazilian law. It occurs in Chapada da Diamantina and Monte Pascoal National Parks, Barrolândia Experimental Station, Linhares Forest Reserve, Caratinga Reserve, Rio Doce and probably Desengano State Parks, and Córrego Grande, Córrego do Veado and Sooretama Biological Reserves<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to locate and protect additional undetected populations<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000), especially in south Bahia and north-east Minas Gerais. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of key reserves, especially Sooretama, Linhares and Estação Vera Cruz. Confiscation of birds from trade, and well-planned release of such birds into areas of the species’ former range to enhance recovery and connectivity of disjunct populations (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106001588		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura cruentata</em> was formerly common throughout much of south-east Bahia, Espírito Santo, east Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Its current distribution is highly fragmented and now mostly restricted to isolated reserves. The stronghold is the Sooretama Biological Reserve and adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve, Espírito Santo. It remains common in Estação Vera Cruz (formerly the Porto Seguro Reserve), Bahia. Elsewhere it can be relatively common, but numbers in the large Chapada da Diamantina and Monte Pascoal National Parks, Bahia, appear low.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001588		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy of lowland humid forest and edge, occasionally up to 960&#160;m. It has also been recorded in small clearings and selectively logged forest, and persists (or at least persisted) in agricultural areas where many forest trees are retained (such as shade cocoa plantations). It favours <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span>-rich regenerating forest (Marsden <em>et al.</em> 2000) where it feeds on seeds and fruit of secondary growth trees such as <em>Trema micrantha</em> and <em>Cecropia</em>. Feeding on agricultural crops has not been observed in the wild. Breeding apparently occurs in the austral spring, when 2-4 eggs are laid in a tree-cavity.<p></p>
106001588		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001588		threats	eng	Extensive and continuing forest clearance is responsible for its current fragmented distribution. Its apparent tolerance of shade cacao plantations provides little hope because shading techniques since the 1980s have involved the use of banana and <em>Erythryna</em> trees, rather than standing forest, and unstable prices have resulted in conversion to pasture. Many remaining populations are now affected by site-specific threats such as conflicts between habitat conservation and the rights of local communities in Monte Pascoal National Park. Trapping for the cage-bird trade is a relatively new phenomenon, but the species is rare in national and international markets.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001589		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify extent of hybridisation with <em>P. frontalis </em>and its taxonomic position. Carry out surveys across the historic range and monitor populations to obtain accurate estimates of range and population size and rates of decline. <p></p>
106001589		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura devillei</em> occurs in southern <strong>Brazil </strong>(Mato Grosso do Sul), northern <strong>Paraguay </strong>(north-western Concepción and south-eastern Alto Paraguay) and south-east <strong>Bolivia</strong>. In Brazil it is only known from Mato Grosso do Sul where it is restricted to the serras of Bodoquena and Maracajú, in the ecotone between the planalto and the Pantanal lowlands, and along the Taboco river in the municipality of Aquidauana. It has a very restricted range in Paraguay, from where recent records are limited to the gallery forest along the río Apa.  <p></p>
106001589		habitat	eng	It is found in deciduous and gallery woodland, ranging into adjacent scrub and savanna, and feeds on fruit, seed, nuts, nectar and flowers<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1997). <p></p>
106001589		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon'.
106001589		threats	eng	Its range in Brazil has suffered extensive forest loss and degradation through agricultural expansion and charcoal production. The forests of northern Concepción and those in the easternmost Paraguayan Chaco are coming under increasing pressure and have seen considerable deforestation in the past 10 years<strong> </strong>(R. Clay <em>in litt. </em>2009). Apparent hybridisation with <em>P. frontalis </em>has been observed on the río Apa<strong> </strong>(R. Clay <em>in litt. </em>2009). Trade is apparently minimal<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1997). <p></p>
106001590		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001590		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001590		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 52,523 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001591		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>*Census and monitor populations to assess the global population and demographic trends and to refine the distribution and locate strongholds. *Investigate its ecology, threats and conservation requirements. Strengthen the network of protected areas within remaining core habitat. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.<p></p>
106001591		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura lepida</em> occurs in north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> south of the Amazon (Juniper and Parr 1998). There are three recognised subspecies: the nominate in Belém and near the rio Capim, Pará, east to São Luís, Maranhão; <em>coerulescens</em> in north Maranhão east of Rosário; and <em>anerythra</em> in the catchment of the upper rio Xingú and its tributaries, from the rio Pracuí and the left bank of the rio Tocantins (Juniper and Parr 1998). It is generally uncommon and declining.<em> <p></p></em>
106001591		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland <em>terra firme</em> humid forest, being reported from forest edge, clearings and second growth (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001591		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106001591		threats	eng	Despite an apparent tolerance of some habitat degradation, it is perhaps close to extinction in coastal areas of north Maranhão, owing to large-scale deforestation (Juniper and Parr 1998). It occurs within protected areas, but their integrity is compromised by illegal logging (Juniper and Parr 1998). Deforestation in the Amazon basin is expected to increase as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).  <p></p>
106001592		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106001592		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrrhura perlata</span> occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, from west Pará and east Amazonas south to west-central Mato Grosso. It is especially common along the Rio Jiparaná, in Rondônia. The species's range extends further into north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).<br/>  <p><br/></p>    <p><br/></p>
106001592		habitat	eng	This is a species of humid lowland forest. It appears to prefer dense vegetation at the forest edge and in secondary forest. Its diet consists mainly of fruit, of <span style="font-style: italic;">Trema micrantha</span> and various palms, as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span> catkins and flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bertholletia excelsa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dioclea glabra</span>. It is known to breed from July to November in the south of its range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001592		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001592		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). While it is tolerant of secondary growth, it is not known to occur on purely agricultural land. It is also susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106001593		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001594		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrrhura picta</span> is found in northern South America, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">subandina</span>, known from Colombia's Sinú Valley, has not been found in recent searches and is likely to be extinct (P. G. W. Salaman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
106001594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001596		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is protected by two national designations and is an international biosphere reserve (IUCN 1992), but this has not conserved the massif's ecosystems effectively.  All known sites for the species lie within Indian reservations where indigenous people have management rights and it is not possible to control management or hunting<strong> </strong>(Strewe 2005). In 2006, 1,600 acres of northwest Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta were protected through the American Bird Conservancy, Fundación ProAves and Conservation International and renamed as El Dorado Nature Reserve<strong> </strong>(Anon. 2006). The reserve currently emcompasses 2,250 acres. Within its boundaries, Fundación ProAves has overseen an on-going pine eradication project since 2006, removing thousands of trees and saplings and planting native trees appropriate to Santa Marta Parakeet's foraging and nesting requirements (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Artificial nestboxes have been used since 2006 (Olaciregui and Borja 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Estimate current population levels and the area of remaining suitable habitat (Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). Evaluate the state of all known populations, and localise new populations according to distribution models (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Study its habitat tolerance and population densities in different forest-types (Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, Salazar and Strewe undated)<strong></strong>. Research its ecology, movements and conservation status (Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). Work with local communities and regional institutions to identify and prioritise conservation and management strategies (Salazar and Strewe undated). Establish education programmes working with local communities to combat hunting and persecution<strong> </strong>(Strewe 2005). <p></p>
106001596		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura viridicata</em> occurs only in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, <strong>Colombia</strong>. Flocks of 5-30 birds are observed daily or every few days (<strong></strong>Salaman and Giles 1995, P. Boesman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998, Snyder <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000) on the relatively well-watched San Lorenzo Ridge. It is also known from Taquina, where specimens were collected in 1914 and the species was recorded commonly in 2010 (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and a population on the west flank of the río Frío which was located in 2001. The area of land on the north slope of the massif within its altitudinal range is less than 600 km<sup>2</sup>, within which as little as 200 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest may remain<strong></strong> (T. Arndt <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1993). Until recently it was judged to be fairly common (Ridgely 1981, Hilty and Brown 1986), but it has surely become less abundant. The total population is usually estimated to be 5,000-10,000 individuals (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). Others believe that there are no more than 4,000-4,500 individuals, based on estimates of 120 birds at San Lorenzo and using forest cover estimates from satellite images to calculate remaining suitable habitat<strong> </strong>(Strewe 2005). <p></p>
106001596		habitat	eng	<strong><br/></strong>
106001596		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106001596		threats	eng	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains, albeit largely on the north slope where this species occurs (L. M. Renjifo pers. comm. 1993, 2000). The main current threat is the expansion of non-native tree plantations, such as those of pine and eucalyptus, along with on-going clearance of land for livestock farming (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Historically, conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations was also a major threat<strong></strong> (L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1993, L. M. Renjifo pers. comm. 1993, J. Fjeldså verbally 2000, L. M. Renjifo pers. comm. 2000, C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), which was compounded by the government spraying herbicides on the sierra<strong></strong> (L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1993, L. M. Renjifo pers. comm. 1993, 2000). Other threats that followed human immigration to the area from the 1950s onwards include logging and burning (Dinerstein <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1995, <strong></strong>Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, Salazar and Strewe undated,<strong> </strong>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. It is known to be hunted in the río Frío valley, and in San Pedro district individuals in blackberry plantations have been shot. The species has not been found in the local bird trade<strong> </strong>(Strewe 2005). <p></p>
106001597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001598		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001599		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Portions of forest at Buenaventura have been recently purchased with the aim of ensuring their long-term conservation (López Lanús and Lowen 1999); the reserve currently covers 2,000 ha (H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The reserve protects 60 individuals year-round and c.120 birds seasonally (Schaefer and Schmidt 2003). A nest box scheme has recently been implemented in Buenaventura Reserve<strong> </strong>(Waugh 2007). Since 2007, 12-15 of 54 nest boxes have been occupied, producing 19 fledglings, with 50 hatchlings produced in 2011 (Anon. 2010, H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). An education programme was recently started involving excursions to the reserve and talks in local schools (Schaefer and Schmidt 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>,<strong> </strong>Waugh 2007). The species may occur in the extensive Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest, but logging and mining occurs within and around this reserve (N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000, H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution and population status (Wege and Long 1995). Investigate the Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest's suitability for wildlife conservation. Assess threats to the species<strong></strong> (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Extend the nest box scheme (H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106001599		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura orcesi</em> occurs on the west slope of the Andes in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (in Cañar, Azuay, El Oro and Loja), where it was discovered in 1980. It is apparently confined to an area only 100 km from north to south, and a maximum of 5-10 km wide<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998), containing highly fragmented habitat, and with a population estimated at fewer than 1,000 individuals<strong> </strong>(Garzón 2007). Numbers at the type-locality (Buenaventura) were stable from 2002-2007 (Juniper and Parr 1998), estimated at 171 birds in 2005-2006<strong> </strong>(Garzón 2007, H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). <p></p>
106001599		habitat	eng	It inhabits very humid, tropical forest from 800-1,200 m (occasionally as low as 300 m). It has been reported to tolerate some habitat fragmentation (Schaefer and Schmidt 2003). It generally occurs in groups of 4-15, although a flock of 60 has been observed. It feeds on various fruit (including figs <em>Ficus</em> spp.), fruits and <em>Cecropia</em> flowers<strong></strong> (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). It appears to favour <em>Dacryodes peruviana </em>(Burseraceae) for nesting<strong> </strong>(Garzón 2007) and breeds communally<strong> </strong>(T. Schaefer <em>in litt. </em>2007) but a pair exhibited pre-nesting behaviour in the cavity of a small Meliaceae tree in 1997<strong></strong> (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000), and nests have been reported in natural cavities 1.8-24 m above the ground in a variety of tree species (Schaefer and Schmidt 2003). The main breeding season appears to be&#160; between November and March<strong> </strong>(Garzón 2007). Seasonal movements to lower altitudinal forests have been reported at Buenaventura<strong> </strong>(T. Schaefer <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106001599		population	eng	The largest single population out of 5-6 known localities is at Buenaventura, where 171 individuals were estimated in 2005-2006, but its cooperative breeding system means that the number of breeding birds may be significantly fewer (H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160; It is best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, which equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001599		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador was 57% per decade in 1958-1988, although in the higher parts of its range, with steeper terrain and a harsher climate, deforestation is slower and a greater proportion of forest remains<strong></strong> (Dodson and Gentry 1991). In particular, rapid rates of logging around Piñas and Manta Real occurred during the late 1980s and 1990s (N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Typically, these areas were then burnt for cattle-farming. Mining is an additional threat (H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The species is particularly threatened because it does not occur above c.1,300 m. Lack of suitable nesting trees may be a limiting factor and nesting at suboptimal sites may increase predation by species such as Crimson-rumped Toucanet<strong> </strong>(Anon. 2006, Garzón 2007<strong></strong>, Waugh 2007)<strong></strong>. Its favoured nesting tree <em>Dacryodes peruviana </em>is highly sought after and frequently targeted for human use<strong> </strong>(Garzón 2007).<em> </em>Subpopulations may be isolated due to forest fragmentation, and the communal breeding system of the species might further increase its vulnerability to habitat loss<strong> </strong>(H. M. Schaefer <em>in litt. </em>2007). Inbreeding is known to occur, although its effects are unclear (H. M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001600		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106001600		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrrhura rupicola</span> has a small range in western South America, throughout which it is considered fairly common. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">rupicola</span> is endemic to central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sandiae</span> occurs in south-east Peru, where it is common in Manu National Park. The range of this taxon extends into extreme west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>and north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001600		habitat	eng	This species is found in humid lowland "terra firme" (with no flooding) and "várzea" (seasonally flooded) forest, ranging into the Andean foothills (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001600		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001600		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).  Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106001601		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Podocarpus National Park is an important site for the species's conservation. A revised management plan for the area has been devised, and a public awareness campaign highlights the importance of the park<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). The parakeet also occurs in the Fundación Jocotoco's 3,500 ha Tapichalaca Reserve where artificial nest boxes are being used successfully (Waugh 2009). It is also found in the Ichigkat Muja - Cordillera del Cóndor national </span>park (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). &#160;</span>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's distribution and total population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Manage Podocarpus National Park such that threatened species are better protected. Designate a protected area within Cordillera del Cóndor, and involve local people in the area's land-use management<strong> </strong>(Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). <p></p>
106001601		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura albipectus</em> is confined to three areas in south-east <strong>Ecuador </strong>and has recently also been found in northern <strong>Peru</strong>. In Ecuador it is known from Podocarpus National Park, Cordillera de Cutucú and Cordillera del Cóndor. Although its numbers appear relatively low, with a total population possibly of only a few thousand individuals, it is apparently common in Podocarpus National Park. There are now also confirmed records from as far south as Panguri in Zamora-Chinchipe. It has also recently been observed in the adjacent parts of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Peru with a published sighting from Mirador Cóndor in Morona-Santiago Province<strong> </strong>(Navarrete 2003). These range extensions suggest that it is not as severely threatened as formerly feared<strong> </strong>(Balchin and Toyne 1998). <p></p>
106001601		habitat	eng	This parrot inhabits upper tropical forest at 900-2,000&#160;m. It usually occurs in flocks of 4-20 individuals, foraging in fruiting trees within primary forest or clearings. It also occurs in partially and severely degraded habitat around Podocarpus National Park<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Diet includes fruit, seeds and flowers, mainly taken in the canopy<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998). A dependent juvenile was seen in September<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000).<p></p>
106001601		population	eng	The total population may only be a few thousand birds, and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001601		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the principal concern, as upper tropical zone forests east of the Andes are being cleared at an alarming rate. However, subtropical forests in Podocarpus National Park and Cordillera del Cóndor are largely intact<strong> </strong>(Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000<strong></strong>). Logging has been extensive at lower elevations within its range (to c.1,000-1,200&#160;m), and is gradually encroaching on core altitudes. In the Cordillera de Cutucú, some forest has been cleared for agriculture and to secure indigenous people legal ownership of their land. Illegal gold mining and human settlement occur, even within Podocarpus National Park, particularly at its southern boundary<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the Peruvian part of its range, there is little or no threat of deforestation; however, there is a mining concession in the area (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is trapped in small numbers for the domestic cage-bird trade<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><p>&#160;</p><br/><p></p>
106001602		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is common in Chingaza National Park and the adjacent Río Blanco-Olivares Forest Reserve and Carpanta Biological Reserve<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, and occurs in reserves at Soata, Farallones de Medina and Guayabetal<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007). West-slope records in c.1980 were from forest now protected by Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Santander<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, J. I. Hernández Camacho unpublished data)<strong></strong>. Experimental nest boxes have been occupied in Chingaza National Park<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Anon 2005, Arenas-Mosquera 2011) and Farallones de Medina (O. Cortés<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in Sumapaz National Park. Confirm its occurrence at Macizo de Tamá, Norte de Santander, and search in the adjacent El Tamá National Park, Venezuela. Study population densities in different forest-types and estimate current population<strong></strong> (Salaman 2000). Strengthen the effective protection of Chingaza National Park and adjacent protected areas. Formally protect Vereda Monterredondo. Monitor success of nest boxes in Chingaza National Park, and monitor birds at Soata<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
106001602		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura calliptera</em> occurs in the East Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it was formerly present on both slopes, but has been recorded at only one west slope location (in Santander) in modern times. On the east slope, there are recent records from Norte de Santander, in Farallon de Medina (Cundinamarca)<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007) and Ramiriquy and Soata (Boyacá)<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007). It could occur as far south as Páramo de Sumapaz, Meta. Although locally numerous, populations have become fragmented and have declined rapidly, especially in Cundinamarca. The total population has been estimated at 5,000-10,000 individuals<strong></strong> (Salaman 2000).<em> <p></p></em>
106001602		habitat	eng	It occupies upper subtropical and temperate forest (1,850-3,000 m), elfin woodland and second growth (3,000-3,400 m), and adjacent areas of páramo, subpáramo and agricultural land. It may make seasonal altitudinal movements<strong> </strong>(F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The diet consists of fruit (including plants from the <em>Ericaceae</em>, <em>Lauraceae</em>, <em>Melastomataceae</em> and <em>Clusiaceae</em> [Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007]), seeds and cultivated maize, but the largest flocks were observed in open areas where the parakeets fed on grass leaves and seeds (O. Cortés<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Breeding condition birds have been taken in August and October and breeding has been noted between November and January at Fusagasuga, Farallon de Medina and Soata<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007), and from September to February in Chingaza National Park (Arenas-Mosquera 2011). <p></p>
106001602		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106001602		threats	eng	Past and continuing forest destruction and fragmentation through logging, conversion to agriculture, human settlement and development of the road network have been extensive<strong></strong> (Salaman 2000), especially below 2,500 m on the west slope (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). The greatest current threats to forest in the Eastern Cordillera are cattle grazing and burning for agriculture<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Herrera<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al. </em>2007). On the east slope, logging is fairly widespread, although some large areas of intact habitat persist (<strong></strong> Stiles 1992, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Low levels of selective logging affect Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary. It is persecuted by local farmers as a crop-pest, a problem which may intensify as further forest is cleared for agriculture. Locally, it is kept as a pet, but it is unaffected by international trade. Nest site availability is considered the main population limiting factor<strong> </strong>(Anon 2005). <p></p>
106001603		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Hilty 2003).
106001605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001606		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001607		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001608		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001608		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 710,686 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001609		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001611		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001613		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Known populations are within the ineffectively protected Los Nevados and Puracé National Parks<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and monitor the species's population movements, densities and distribution. Clarify its natural history and threats to identify appropriate conservation actions<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). Enhance the protection of Los Nevados through fire control, a major reduction in livestock-grazing and agriculture and, where necessary, compensation to farmers. <p></p>
106001613		distribution	eng	<em>Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons</em> is known only from the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong>. Most records are from the Volcán Ruiz-Tolima massif in Tolima, Risaralda, Quindío and Caldas, but there are two specimens and a few observations from Volcán Puracé in Cauca, and it is probably present at low densities along the intervening ridge. The population has recently been estimated at 2,000-4,000 individuals (Renjifo <em>et al.</em> 2002), significantly higher than previous estimates. In September 1993, the species was found to be common (over 100 birds seen in eight hours) at El Bosque, below Laguna de Otún, in its stronghold, Los Nevados National Park<strong></strong> (Salaman and Gandy 1993).        <p></p>
106001613		habitat	eng	It inhabits temperate sub-páramo and páramo at 3,000-4,000 m, sometimes as low as 2,800 m. It also uses modified shrublands and agricultural areas in the temperate zone, and seems tolerant of heavily modified habitats (C. Downing <em>in litt. </em>2003). It is a gregarious species, tending to occur in noisy flocks of 10-100 individuals, and roosting communally on cliffs<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998). It forages terrestrially, mostly taking grass-seeds (especially <em>Anthoxantum odoratum</em><strong> </strong>[Verhelst<em> et al.</em> 2002]), the fruits of <em>Acaenia elongata</em><strong></strong> (<strong></strong>Verhelst<em> et al.</em> 2002) and flowers, and has adapted to some forms of habitat modification, possibly even preferring to feed in fallow fields and areas altered by grazing<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000,<strong> </strong>Verhelst<em> et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Although it reportedly nests in cliffs (Hilty and Brown 1986, Collar 1997), the only documented nest was constructed of moss and located 18m up in a <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrcianthes</span> sp. tree (Anon. 2007).<p></p>
106001613		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,000-4,000 individuals, roughly equating to 1,300-2,700 mature individuals.
106001613		threats	eng	Conversion of forest for agricultural purposes has been widespread below 3,300&#160;m in the Central Andes. At higher elevations, the forest is exploited for firewood and grazing, but large areas remain. Given its adaptation to the agricultural environment, the level of threat posed by deforestation is unknown<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). Conversely, widespread destruction of páramo vegetation, even in Los Nevados, seems to have seriously affected numbers. This is caused by frequent burning (promoting fresh shooting), intense grazing and, to a lesser extent, conversion to potato cultivation. The Colombian authorities have been unable to purchase pre-existing landholdings within national parks, often rendering the parks ineffective. It is occasionally kept as a pet. <p></p>
106001614		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001616		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001620		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in Peru but this is poorly enforced. Capture rates have decreased markedly since the ban, and trappers apparently only capture the species to order (Begazo 1996). There are no protected areas within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the population, especially in the less accessible centre of its range, and between the known ranges of the two <em>Forpus</em> species. Monitor the population, working with local people to generate the will to conserve the species <em>in situ<strong></strong></em> (Begazo 1996). Study its biology and ecology throughout an annual cycle. Control trade and enforce laws on trapping. Create at least one protected area within the species range (Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p>
106001620		distribution	eng	<em>Forpus xanthops</em> occurs in the upper Marañón Valley, in south Amazonas, south-east Cajamarca and east La Libertad, north-central <strong>Peru</strong>. Most recent records originate from the Balsas area, in Amazonas/Cajamarca, and the Chagual/Hacienda Soquián area, in La Libertad (Begazo 1996, <strong> </strong>Begazo <em>et al.</em> 2001,&#160;<strong></strong>R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998, J.&#160;Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but intervening areas are considerably less accessible. Records formerly assigned to this taxon in the Bagua area of the Marañón and Utcubamba valleys, north Peru (Dorst 1957), refer to <em>F. coelestis</em><strong> </strong>(R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998, T.&#160;S.&#160;Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999, N.&#160;Krabbe <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It was formerly abundant (Begazo 1996), but suffered a serious decline, probably during the 1980s, when it became rare in the more accessible areas (Begazo 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> J.&#160;Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1988, numbers were extremely low, with only 168 individuals counted during extensive surveys. It appears to be recovering somewhat following a ban on trade, and the number of birds traded has fallen markedly (Begazo 1996). However, there is little evidence of a substantial recovery (J.&#160;Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and the species remains scarce and difficult to detect (R. Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106001620		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid woodland, riparian thickets and desert scrub (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong> at 600-2,000&#160;m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is known to feed on canaquil <span style="font-style: italic;">Cercidium praecox</span>, pate flowers <span style="font-style: italic;">Bombax discolor</span>, and plum fruits <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus domestica</span> (Begazo 1996, F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In captivity, 3-6 eggs are laid, and up to three broods are raised per year. In the wild, the breeding season begins in March and April, and nesting takes place in natural dirt and rock walls, in colonies of up to 70 birds (Begazo 1996).<p></p>
106001620		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals, based on surveys by Begazo (1996) and a subsequent small scale population recovery. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001620		threats	eng	Trapping for the local cage-bird trade is probably the sole reason for its recent and drastic decline. Trappers estimate that over 17,000 birds were caught in 1981-1994 (a claim verified by dealers), and 1,481 were legally exported in 1981-1984 (Begazo 1996), but no wild-caught specimens were recorded in international trade in 1991-1995<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). The mortality rate between capture and sale is estimated at 40-100% (Dorst 1957), inevitably raising demand. By 1988, trade was reduced, with just 56 birds recorded in Lima's bird market that year (Begazo 1996). In a study during 2007-2008, 16 individuals were recorded at a market in Chiclayo, the true number traded being much higher since the rate of detection was estimated to be 3% (Gastañaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). An emerging threat is the building of dams on the Marañón, with four planned to be finished by the mid-2010s (Dourojeanni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<strong></strong><p></p>
106001621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001622		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001624		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and CMS Appendix I. International trade is banned in both Ecuador and Peru (Juniper and Parr 1998). It occurs in several protected areas, of which Cerro Blanco Protection Forest, Ecuador, and Tumbes National Reserve and Cerros de Amotape National Park, Peru, are particularly important breeding sites<strong> </strong>(Best 1992,<strong> </strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995<strong></strong>, Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997, Rosales and Obando 2011)<strong></strong>. <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys and other research to determine population size and distribution (Best 1992, M. R. Rosales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Determine its habitat requirements and ecology, especially the timing of the breeding season. Monitor rates of forest loss within its range (M. R. Rosales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Enforce strict trade bans, coupled with conservation education programmes<strong> </strong>(Best 1992). Support alternative livelihood initiatives for local people, in order to discourage poaching and trapping. Protect and manage key sites within its range (M. R. Rosales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001624		distribution	eng	<em>Brotogeris pyrrhoptera</em> occurs in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, from the río Chone valley, Manabí, south to El Oro and Loja, Ecuador, and Tumbes and Piura in Peru. The largest populations are in coastal Manabí and Guayas, and on the Ecuador-Peru border (Juniper and Parr 1998). A population decrease during the 20th century became marked in the early 1980s<strong> </strong>(Best <em>et al.</em> 1995, Juniper and Parr 1998), with 59,320 birds reportedly imported by CITES countries in 1983-1988. In 1995, the wild population was estimated at 15,000 birds, principally in Ecuador<strong> </strong>(Best <em>et al.</em> 1995). This represents a very crude decline of c.70% in 10 years, although it is still locally common in suitable habitat remnants (Juniper and Parr 1998). Transect counts in Cerros de Amotape National Park and Tumbes National Reserve revealed a decline of 33.2% between 1992 and 2008 (Anon. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001624		habitat	eng	The species is most numerous in deciduous forest dominated by <em>Ceiba trichistandra</em>, but it also occurs in humid evergreen forest, dry forest, arid <em>Acacia</em>-dominated scrub and semi-open agricultural areas<strong> </strong>(Best <em>et al.</em> 1995, M. R. Rosales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and probably only sporadically in heavily degraded areas (Juniper and Parr 1998). It usually occurs in pairs or small flocks, foraging for flowers, seeds, fruit and catkins<strong> </strong>(Best 1992), with <em>Ceiba</em> fruit apparently preferred<strong></strong> (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997). Small flocks have also been recorded taking bananas and maize<strong> </strong>(Best <em>et al.</em> 1995, Juniper and Parr 1998). Breeding has been noted between February and August, but most breeding occurs between August and November, at least in Peru (M. R. Rosales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106001624		population	eng	Best <em>et al</em>. (1995). <p></p>
106001624		threats	eng	The illegal cage-bird trade and habitat loss are the principal threats (Rosales and Obando 2011)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Numbers imported by CITES countries represent an absolute minimum of those in international trade, and exclude internal trade. Natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed through agricultural conversion, logging and grazing by goats and cattle, which prevents forest regeneration and seriously threatens deciduous forests<strong></strong> (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997). Persecution as a crop-pest may also be significant<strong> </strong>(Best 1992), and the species apparently suffered from poaching pressure in the late 1990s (Rosales <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Rosales and Obando 2011). <p></p>
106001625		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001627		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001629		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001630		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Present in Tambopata Reserve and Manu National Park (Peru) and Serra do Divisor National Park (Peru) (Whitney and Oren 2001). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into its population density and estimate the global population size. Study threats and current rate of habitat loss within its range. Effectively protect core areas of habitat within its range. <p></p>
106001630		distribution	eng	<em>Nannopsittaca dachilleae</em> is very local in the west Amazon basin of south-east and south <strong>Peru</strong> (Ucayali and Madre de Dios) and north-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz), and west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>(Acre) (<strong></strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1991, Collar 1997a, Juniper and Parr 1998, Whitney and Oren 2001)<strong></strong>. There are conflicting reports over its abundance, with some sources stating that it is locally common to very common (Juniper and Parr 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Forshaw 2006)<strong></strong>, and more recent observations suggesting that it is patchy in distribution and uncommon or very uncommon wherever it occurs (J. Gilardi<em> in litt</em>. 2010); further study is required. <p></p>
106001630		habitat	eng	It occurs in river-edge forest, being observed in small <em>Calocophyllum spruceanum</em> and <em>Cecropia membranacea</em> trees adjacent to rivers and in bamboo groves up to 300 m (Collar 1997a, Juniper and Parr 1998, Forshaw 2006)<strong></strong>. The possible association with bamboo suggests nomadic tendencies (<strong></strong>Collar 1997a, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001630		population	eng	The species's population is suspected to number c.10,000 individuals, equivalent to c.6,700 mature individuals. This figure is applied here as a preliminary estimate; however, there are no data available and further research is needed.
106001630		threats	eng	Although its habitat is relatively intact owing primarily to its inaccessibility, it has been subject to selective logging, and is being opened up for development, oil/gas extraction and mining, with associated road-building and human colonisation resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106001631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001632		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106001632		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Touit huetii</span> has a highly disjunct range in northern South America. It is known from south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, as well as the north-east of the country, with both populations considered rare and local, although it is often recorded along the Caño Colorado in east Monagas state (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Hilty 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is a population in neighbouring <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, also uncommon, whose range occasionally extends into Trinidad, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Trinidad and Tobago</span>. It is local and rare in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. Another population is at its northernmost in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, where again it is rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>This range continues through<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> through extreme west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>. It also occurs within Amazonian Brazil, from Rio Aripuanã east to Rio Tocantins, with a single record from Manaus (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001632		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid lowland forest, predominantly "terra firme" (with no flooding), but also "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest). It usually remains below 900 m but has been recorded up to 1,300 m. Diet is unrecorded. It is thought to breed in April in Venezuela, and between September and December in north Mato Grosso, Brazil. The species is apparently nomadic, with birds rarely found in one area longer than a few weeks at a time. Records from Trinidad, in 1974, 1975 and 1980, probably correspond to wandering flocks (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001632		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001632		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting. As a species it is naturally rare, and is not observed in agricultural habitats (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).</p>
106001633		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, notably Braulio Carrillo, Tapantí-Cerro de la Muerte National Parks and Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, Costa Rica, and La Amistad International Park and adjacent reserves in both countries. However, legal protection of Palo Seco Protection Forest (a large reserve in Panama adjacent to La Amistad) has not prevented clearance for agriculture (Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Evaluate the importance of habitats outside breeding season (J. Criado<em> in litt</em>. 2007, J. Sanchez<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys to determine its total population size. Study the species's ecology (J. Sanchez<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of forest loss and recovery (J. Sanchez<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Effectively protect Palo Seco Protection Forest. <p></p>
106001633		distribution	eng	<em>Touit costaricensis</em> occurs on the Caribbean slope and locally on upper Pacific slopes of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and west <strong>Panama </strong>(Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<sup></sup>. It is known from middle to high elevations in the Tilarán, Central Volcanic and Talamanca Mountain ranges in Costa Rica and south to Santa Clara, above Boquete, Cocoplum, Isla Popa and from both slopes in the Fortuna area, Panama (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are few records from south-eastern lowlands in Costa Rica or Panama, but it occurs continuously along the Cordillera de Talamanca (mainly on the Caribbean slope) (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Panama, there is an outlying sight record from El Copé, Coclé, in 1986 (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is evidently uncommon and local, but perhaps somewhat overlooked, especially in the poorly known south of its range (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding population in the Important Bird Areas of Costa Rica is estimated at 1,000-4,000 mature individuals (J. Criado<em> in litt</em>. 2007, J. Sanchez<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001633		habitat	eng	It probably breeds in the dry season in very wet montane forest at elevations of 700-1500 m (J. Sanchez<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is a daily altitudinal migrant (J. Criado<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season it is also recorded in highlands up to 3,000 m (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may occasionally occur in lowland humid forest at 200-500 m and rarely to sea-level especially in south-eastern Costa Rica (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is occasionally found in patchy secondary growth, and feeds on fruits from trees and epiphytes, including melastomes, ericads such as <em>Cavendishia</em>, and <em>Clusia </em>(Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001633		population	eng	The breeding population in the Important Bird Areas of Costa Rica is estimated at 1,000-4,000 mature individuals (J. Craido <I>et al. in litt.</I> 2007, J. Sanchez <I>et al. in litt.</I> 2007), thus the total population is expected to fall within the range 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001633		threats	eng	The level of habitat fragmentation in the species's range is judged to be moderate (J. Criado<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The widespread destruction of its foothill and highland forests is primarily the result of burning, small-scale logging operations and other conversion for intensive agricultural use (Dinerstein <em> et al.</em> 1995, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007, J. Sanchez<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Panama, deforestation is also taking place for urban and tourism development in highlands (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Virtually all remaining highland forest in Costa Rica is confined to existing protected areas (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species does not depend on lowland forests (J. Criado<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but widespread forest clearance in south-eastern Costa Rica is likely to be affecting this species in the wet season (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no reports of captive birds and it is apparently not traded (Collar 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001635		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001636		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in numerous protected areas, with recent records from: Desengano and Pedra Branca State Parks, Itatiaia, Serra dos Órgãos and Tijuca National Parks (Rio de Janeiro); Ubatuba Experimental Station, Iguape Environmental Protection Area, Serra do Mar, Ilha do Cardoso and Intervales State Parks (São Paulo) (Wege and Long 1995, Aleixo and Galetti 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat in Bahia and Espírito Santo to clarify distribution and status. Determine seasonal abundance at different elevations. Consolidate protected areas where it occurs. <p></p>
106001636		distribution	eng	<em>Touit melanonotus</em> is confined to south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná). It is sporadically, but widely, reported in Rio de Janeiro, while in São Paulo, there are records from six sites south to Ilha do Cardoso (Wege and Long 1995). Recent records from three sites in Bahia (J. Minns <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>E. O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999) are the first since the 19th century. It has generally been considered rare throughout its range, even by 19th century commentators, but with the proviso that parrotlets of this genus occur at very low densities, and their inconspicuous habits result in their often being overlooked. Records from several new sites since the mid-1980s, including the first for Espírito Santo<strong> </strong>(E. O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Paraná (Mazar Barnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), have stemmed from knowledge of the species's calls, after previously fruitless fieldwork in the areas involved. <p></p>
106001636		habitat	eng	Records are principally from lower montane evergreen forest at 500-1,200&#160;m (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>, but up to 1,400&#160;m in Itatiaia National Park<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998), and near sea-level in Bahia and São Paulo<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995,<strong></strong> F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It may undertake seasonal migration or dispersal, in some areas possibly only over quite short altitudinal distances. The only known food items are the seeds of large leguminous forest trees and the fruit of <em>Rapanea acuminata</em>, <em>Clusia</em> sp. and mistletoes<strong> </strong>(E. O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Breeding presumably occurs in September-October, but this remains unconfirmed<strong> </strong>(Collar 1997a), and juvenile was photographed in Serra dos Órgãos National Park in December 2008 (Junger and Pimentel 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001636		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001636		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantations have historically threatened its habitats<strong></strong> (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats are urbanisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995). Although the lower montane slopes have suffered comparatively less destruction than adjacent lowlands<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998), it has not been found at these elevations in São Paulo.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001637		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It has been recorded in numerous protected areas: Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve (Alagoas), Monte Pascoal and Serra das Lontras National Parks, Una Biological Reserve and Serra Bonita private reserve (Bahia), Córrego Grande, Sooretama and Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserves (Espírito Santo), Desengano State Park and Itatiaia National Park (Rio de Janeiro)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical localities and suitable habitat to clarify distribution. Research ecology and seasonal movements. Designate Murici in Alagoas as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto protection</em>. Consolidate protected areas in which it occurs. <p></p>
106001637		distribution	eng	<em>Touit surdus</em> occurs in north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Ceará, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas and Sergipe), and in the south-east from Bahia south to Rio de Janeiro (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Recent surveys have found it to be one of the commonest parrot in the Atlantic Forest of Alagoas (which has been reduced to &lt;2% of its former extent), being present in 5 out of 15 sites surveyed<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira <em>et al.</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.) and also in Murici Ecological Station (J. M. Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2002). It was also recently found nesting in arboreal termitaria in forest fragments in Pernambuco (Telino <em>et al. </em>2000). The species was found in 16 out of 31 surveyed areas in southern Bahia, including the private reserves Ecoparque de Una and Estação Veracruz (formerly CVRD Porto Seguro reserve), Una Biological Reserve, and Descobrimento, Pau Brasil and Monte Pascoal National Parks<strong> </strong>(Cordeiro 2002).<p></p>
106001637		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland evergreen forest and adjacent lower montane slopes, mostly below 500&#160;m, but up to 700&#160;m in Alagoas and 1,000&#160;m in Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo<strong> </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998, E.&#160;O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Flocks have been observed moving between distant forest fragments<strong> </strong>(A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Reported foods are fruit of <em>Spondias lutea</em> and <em>Rapanea schwackeana</em>. Breeding is unrecorded. At least in Rio de Janeiro, it may undertake seasonal movements. Recent observations suggest that this species is resilient to habitat alteration.<br/><p></p>
106001637		population	eng	The species is generally rare; its population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001637		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation throughout its range is regarded as the principal cause of its rarity, and the north-east population is most threatened because sugarcane plantations have replaced virtually all lowland forest in Alagoas, leaving just 2% of original forest cover<strong> </strong>(Brown and Brown 1992) in severely fragmented blocks, averaging 1.5 km<sup>2</sup> or less (Conservation International <em>et al.</em> 1995). Further south, the situation is little more encouraging: in Bahia, less than 10% of forest is intact, and in the rest of its range suitable habitat has been reduced to less than 20% of its original extent (Conservation International <em>et al.</em> 1995). Lowland forests were historically threatened by agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantations (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats arise from urbanisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).  <p></p>
106001638		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded in Sumaco Protection Forest, Cordillera de Cutucú Protection Forest, Sangay National Park and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Ecuador, with an old specimen collected in Serranía de la Macarena National Park.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its distribution, population status and current threats through field surveys<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). Maintain and improve the integrity of national parks in which the species occurs. Designate a protected area in the Cordillera del Cóndor, and involve local people in the land-use management of this region<strong> </strong>(Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). <p></p>
106001638		distribution	eng	<em>Touit stictopterus</em> occurs disjunctly through <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cundinamarca, Meta, Cauca), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Napo, Morona-Santiago, Zamora-Chinchipe) and northern <strong>Peru</strong> (Cajamarca, San Martín and Amazonas<strong> </strong>[<strong></strong>Clements and Shany 2001, Brooks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009]). A recent record from Manu Biosphere Reserve was erroneous<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2001). It is uncommon and local throughout its range, and may already be extinct (or nearly so) in Colombia<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998), where recent surveys in apparently suitable habitat have failed to produce any records<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). In 1983, 5-25 were recorded daily at Jesús del Monte, San Martín (Davis 1986), but it has been recorded less frequently (C. Bushell <em>in litt</em>. 1999), or not at all, by subsequent observers at this site (Wege and Long 1995), suggesting a decline (C. Bushell <em>in litt</em>. 1999). However, it appears to occur naturally at low density<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998), and may sometimes be overlooked and thus more widespread than records suggest. <p></p>
106001638		habitat	eng	It inhabits the upper tropical and lower subtropical zone, favouring tall, humid, montane forest at 1,050-1,700&#160;m, but has occasionally been reported from savanna-like woodland as low as 500&#160;m, and from stunted ridge-top forest up to 2,300&#160;m. It is often seen in small flocks of 5-12, sometimes more<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998), but occasionally in pairs (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It feeds on fruit, including <em>Ficus</em> spp., and reportedly raids maize crops<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998). <p></p>
106001638		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001638		threats	eng	Its fragmented habitats are affected by continuing deforestation<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000), especially in Colombia. Improvements to road networks lead to deforestation associated with human settlement of new areas. Habitat loss is also known to be occurring in the Cordillera de Cutucú and at Jesús del Monte.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001639		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001640		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106001640		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pionites leucogaster </span>is a polytypic Amazonian species. It is common across most of its range. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">xanthomeria </span>is abundant in parts of east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, and is present in Manu National Park. It also occurs in north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, although it may have been extirpated from Santa Cruz as a result of habitat destruction. This taxon's range extends as far as west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">xanthurus </span>occurs in Brazil, from Rio Purús and Rio Juruá to Rio Madeira. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">leucogaster</span> of north Brazil is distributed from Rio Madeira to Maranhão (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001640		habitat	eng	This species occurs along watercourses in lowland tropical rainforest. It preferentially occurs in "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest), although it is also found in "terra firme" forest (with no flooding). In the east of its range it is known to breed in January; the nest is made in a tree hollow c.30 m above the ground (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001640		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating rates of deforestation in the Amazon basin (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Despite being common in undisturbed landscapes, it is not thought to be tolerant of secondary forest or agropastoral land and appears restricted to alluvial habitats. It may also be susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).&#160;Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106001641		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001642		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001644		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>
106001644		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrilia barrabandi</span> is found in northern South America. It is naturally fairly rare throughout most of its range (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">barrabandi</span> ranges from south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela </span>into <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, as far as the Amazon to the south and Rio Negro to the east. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">aurantiigena</span> occurs in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, and east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>where it is present in Manu National Park. In north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>it is described as frequent to numerous. Its range also reaches Brazil: it is limited by the Amazon in the north, and Rio Madeira in the east (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001644		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to primary lowland forest up to 500 m, mainly "terra firme" forest (with no flooding), but also occasionally "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001644		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production; it is strongly susceptible to degradation and fragmentation due to its reliance on primary forest (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). It may also be vulnerable to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106001645		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Extensive, intact habitat is protected in Venezuela and Panama<strong> </strong>(G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1999, C. Sharpe, J. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Paramillo National Park, Antioquia, officially protects 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>, but human settlement and associated threats are continuing unabated<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its population size and distribution<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, C. Sharpe, J. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Assess range-wide threats (C. Sharpe, J. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Study its biology and movements (C. Sharpe, J. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Protect habitat in the Serranía de San Lucas and north-west Chocó<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106001645		distribution	eng	<em>Gypopsitta pyrilia</em> occurs in east Darién, <strong>Panama</strong>, north <strong>Colombia</strong> and north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong>. There are two records from north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>, a presumed wandering pair in Cotacachi-Cayapas National Park and a flock of c. 20 in Pedro Vicente Maldonado, north-west Pichincha (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001), but its status is unclear (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). It is now rare in accessible areas, but remains common in the Serranía de las Quinchas, (Boyacá), and at Cerro de la Paz (Santander)<strong> </strong>(Donegan <em>et al. </em>2003), Colombia and is unlikely to have declined significantly in Chocó, Colombia, or Darién (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1999, G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. There are few recent records, but it may still be numerous at the northern base of the Andes, Cordoba, northern Antioquia and Bolívar, and in the Magdalena valley, east Caldas and south-east Antioquia, Colombia<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It seems to have declined in Venezuela, where recent records are from the Mérida area, the south-east slopes of the Cordillera de Mérida, Barinas<strong></strong> (Kirwan and Sharpe 1999, C. Sharpe, J. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Sierra de Perijá (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The total population may have dropped below 10,000 individuals<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998, G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Indeed, the western population (west of Sinu) is thought to be 2,000-4,000 individuals (most intact habitat), the central population (Serranía de San Lucas) is probably much fewer than 1,000 individuals, the western slope of eastern Cordillera is estimated at approximately 1,000 individuals and the eastern slope of eastern Cordillera and Merida perhaps less than 1,000 individuals (C. Sharpe, J. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999).  <p></p>
106001645		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest, forest edge and tall secondary growth to c.1,000 m<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong></strong>, moving, probably seasonally, to cloud-forest as high as 1,650 m in Venezuela<strong></strong> (Hilty 2003). Specimens in breeding condition have been taken during March-June in Colombia, with juveniles seen in July in the Serranía de Perijá<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986). Most records come from mature forest and it is not thought to move far between fragments (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2006).<br/><p></p>
106001645		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 7,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 4,700 mature individuals (P. G. W. Salaman <I>in litt.</I> 2006).
106001645		threats	eng	Habitat loss has been occurring in the Magdalena valley for at least four centuries, but accelerated markedly throughout the 20th century<strong> </strong>(Stiles <em>et al.</em> 1999), and remains the chief threat in Colombia. Most forest on the eastern slopes of the Serranía de San Lucas has been lost since 1996<strong></strong> (A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Causes include logging, settlement, agriculture and mining<strong></strong> (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong></strong>, Stiles <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In Colombia, some birds are captured for the pet trade (G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It could be affected by stream pollution caused by mining and cocaine production<strong></strong> (L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In Sierra de Perijá, Venezuela, it is also hunted for food (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) <p></p>
106001646		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes
106001646		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrilia caica</span> is widespread in northern South America, although not really numerous in any parts of its range (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela </span>it is generally uncommon and has a very local distribution (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Hilty 2003). It occurs from there through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997). It is scarce throughout <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, but common in small numbers in interior <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species's range reaches north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, where it extends south as far as the Amazon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).
106001646		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to tall, primary "terra firme" forest (with no flooding), up to 1,100 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).
106001646		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001646		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106001647		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106001647		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrilia vulturina </span>is endemic to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. Its range extends from the Rio Madeira east to Maranhão (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). It is naturally rare, and may be restricted to the areas around major rivers within this region, which would mean its range size is overestimated (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).<br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>
106001647		habitat	eng	This species occupies both "terra firme" forest (with no flooding) and "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest). It is thought that its bare head may be an adaptation for feeding on large fruit, whose juice would mat feathers (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001647		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). Whilst it shows some tolerance of habitat degradation, it may also be susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106001648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001649		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, notably Guaramacal (Trujillo)<strong></strong> (Sharpe <em>et al</em>. 2001), Sierra Nevada (Mérida), Batallón y La Negra (Mérida) and El Tamá (Táchira) and National Parks in Venezuela (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In Colombia it is protected in Sumapáz and Chingaza National Parks and adjacent protected areas in Cundinamarca and Ucumarí Regional Park, Risaralda, and Soata Bird Reserve, Boyacá (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). The localities in Huila are protected. However, some of these protected areas are insecure, e.g. Valle de Jesús Communal Reserve (Cundinamarca), El Tamá and Sierra Nevada<strong></strong><strong></strong> (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Almost 17% of El Tamá National Park, Venezuela, is affected by livestock raising and coffee cultivation (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), though much of this is probably below the range of this species (C. Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm the identification of the <em>Hapalopsittaca</em> species in Huila and Ecuador. Determine its status in Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary and Cocuy National Park<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes and A. Hernandez-Jaramillo <em>in litt. </em>2007). Research its distribution, ecology, current conservation status and threats (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Investigate the possibility of captive breeding, which at present does not seem viable for this species (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Consider establishing additional protected areas, on the basis of the results of proposed new research into ecology and behaviour (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Prepare management plans and increase protection in protected areas<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106001649		distribution	eng	<em>Hapalopsittaca amazonina</em> has three subspecies in the Andes of <strong>Venezuela</strong> and <strong>Colombia</strong>. A sight record from Ecuador in 1992 was presumed by range to be this species (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). Subspecies <em>theresae</em> is restricted to the Sierra de Mérida (Trujillo<strong></strong> [Sharpe <em>et al</em>. 2001], Mérida and Táchira), Venezuela. Nominate <em>amazonina</em> occurs on both slopes of the East Andes in south-west Táchira, Venezuela; and Cundinamarca, Boyacá and historically Norte de Santander and Santander, Colombia. Subspecies <em>velezi</em> is known from both slopes of the Central Andes in Caldas, Risaralda<strong></strong> (R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Tolima<strong></strong> (B. López-Lanús <em>in litt</em>. 2000), Colombia. There are recent sightings of <em>Hapalopsittaca</em> species from the head of the Madgalena valley, Huila, Colombia, and northern Ecuador<strong></strong> (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1994a, G. H. Rosenberg <em>in litt</em>. 2000), probably all <em>amazonina</em> (Juniper and Parr 1998). A recent Colombian population estimate of 2,500-10,000 individuals based on a hypothetical density c.1 individual/km<sup>2</sup> and 25% occupancy of the estimated 13,890 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong> </strong>(Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002) may be over-generous, but it is likely that the Colombian population numbers several thousand birds<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2005). There are c. 250 birds of the nominate subspecies in the Soata bird reserve, Boyacá<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes and A. Hernandez-Jaramillo <em>in litt. </em>2007). The Venezuelan population unknown, although it is encountered regularly in several different parts of the Mérida Andes (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Weller and Rengifo 2003, Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).      <p></p>
106001649		habitat	eng	It occupies wet, epiphyte-rich cloud-forest, adjacent subtropical forest and treeline scrub at 2,000-3,000 m, mainly above 2,500 m. It feeds mainly in the canopy on fruit, blossoms and seeds (Brockner 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998<strong></strong>, Weller and Rengifo 2003)<strong></strong>. Migration between seasonal feeding grounds possibly occurs (Brockner 1998). <p></p>
106001649		population	eng	Renjifo <I>et al.</I> (2002) estimated that in Colombia the population may number 2,500-10,000 individuals, based on a hypothetical density c.1 individual/km<SUP>2</SUP>, and 25% occupancy of the estimated 13,890 km<SUP>2</SUP> of suitable habitat. This may be an over-estimate and the population could stand at around the few thousand mark in Columbia (P. Salaman <I>in litt.</I> 2005). Much smaller populations also exist in Venezuela. Its status in Ecuador is uncertain. It is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals overall, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001649		threats	eng	Historical localities in the northern East Andes are now wholly deforested (Juniper and Parr 1998, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Vast areas have been logged, cleared and used for agriculture, illegal drug plantations, infrastructure development and mining (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). Frequent burning, intense grazing and, locally, potato cultivation continue to lower the timberline in many areas. In Venezuela, clearing of forests for livestock reduces available habitat (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). As in Colombia, the main threat is the conversion of primary forest to livestock or crops like potato, a typical agriculture practice in the high Andes (C. Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). If dependent on fluctuating food-resources, it may be particularly sensitive to habitat alteration (Brockner 1998). It is considered nationally Vulnerable  in Colombia (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002) and Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008) and is amongst the top dozen priorities for bird conservation in Venezuela (Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).  <br/><p></p>
106001650		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected in Acaime and Cañon del Quindío Natural Reserves. An area of 631 ha of core habitat was recently acquired by Fundación ProAves with the support of Fundación Loro Parque, American Bird Conservancy and IUCN Netherlands and will be managed as Loro Coroniazul Bird Reserve: surrounding municipality land is also being managed for the species<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008). Another protected area, the Giles-Fuertesi Bird Reserve located in Cajamarca, was recently created with the support of Fundación Loro Parque and comprises nearly 300 ha at 3,200-3,700 m, including areas of cloud-forest (Anon. 2010, ABC 2012). This reserve will become a centre for research focussed on this species, including studies into its habitat use, behaviour and reproduction (Anon. 2010). Nest-boxes have been very successful at allowing high breeding success<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008, Tovar Martínez 2009)<strong></strong>, and 20 were installed in the new Giles-Fuertesi Bird Reserve in January 2010 (Anon. 2010). However, they are generally being used by Golden-plumed Parakeet <em>Leptosittaca branickii</em> to an increasing extent, thus additional boxes are being constructed to reduce competition<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008). A Species Conservation Plan was established in early 2008, and since 2005 the ProAves 'Parrot Bus' has been raising awareness through environmental education programmes in rural communities of the central Andes. There are no known individuals in captivity.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate the possibility that it occurs near Santa Isabel in Los Nevados National Park and the adjacent Navarco Nature Reserve. Research its ecological requirements to enable effective management of remaining habitat. Ensure the effective management of Alto Quindío Acaime Natural Reserve<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000) and El Mirador Municipality Nature Reserve. Acquire private properties with core breeding population and protect the species from expanding pasturelands. Work with local communities in raising awareness and avoid possible trade of the species. Increase provision of nest boxes. Continue monitoring the population. Acquire and reforest pastureland with native trees. <p></p>
106001650		distribution	eng	This species has a highly restricted range on the west slope of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia </strong>near the border of Quindío, Risaralda and Tolima. Until 2002 it was known with certainty only from the type-series collected at Laguneta and Santa Isabel in 1911. The species was rediscovered by Fundación ProAves in montane forest in Génova municipality, Quindío Department, where the largest group observed consisted of 25 birds and the total population was approximately 60 individuals. Recent searches in apparently suitable habitat surrounding Acaime have not been successful<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> B. López-Lanús <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. In July 2002, the first confirmed sighting was made in the central Andes, close to Los Nevados National Park, when 14 birds were located in a small area of forest<strong> </strong>(Parr and Gilardi 2002). The population has increased to 160 individuals thanks to conservation efforts which have resulted in 87% hatching success and 95% fledging success amongst breeding birds in the Central Cordillera<strong></strong> (Anon 2006). <p></p>
106001650		habitat	eng	This is a poorly-known inhabitant of cloud-forest at elevations of 2,610-3,600 m, but mostly 3,300-3,500 m. The species is restricted to mature montane cloud forest with a high occurrence of mistletoe (berries are a key food source of the species). Studies since 2003 have gathered extensive information on the species's breeding and feeding ecology, with the nesting period taking place from January to May. The average clutch size is three eggs. Incubation is conducted solely by the female, although post-hatching care is biparental (Díaz 2006). <p></p>
106001650		population	eng	The known global population has increased to 160 individuals thanks to ongoing conservation efforts, hence is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
106001650		threats	eng	Clearance of forest in the region of the type-locality was already extensive in 1911, and very little habitat now remains. The species remains highly threatened by forest loss for cattle pasture and selective logging of mature trees (vital for nesting) for timber and firewood. Most mature trees with natural cavities have been selectively logged, creating a shortage of natural nesting sites. <p></p>
106001651		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. There are a few records from Podocarpus and Sangay National Parks (J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and a small population is protected within the community-owned forest at Huashapamba, near Saraguro, Loja (Toyne and Flanagan 1997).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Direct efforts to conserve remaining cloud-forest around Saraguro. Protect forest betwen Selva Alegre and Manu in the Chilla Mountains. Prevent mining in Podocarpus National Park, and throughout the high Andean forests in the Saraguro region and Azuay province (J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Survey in Peru to assess whether viable populations survive (Snyder <em>et al. </em>2000). Monitor the population. Assess the extent to which the species can survive in secondary habitats.<br/><p></p>
106001651		distribution	eng	<em>Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops</em> is confined to the east Andes in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Morona-Santiago, Azuay and Loja) and contiguous ranges of north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura and north Cajamarca [I. Franke <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J.&#160;P.&#160;O'Neill <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007]<strong></strong>). In Ecuador, its range has been estimated at 2,839&#160;km<sup>2</sup><strong> </strong>(Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but this excludes areas of known and projected occurrence in Morona-Santiago and Cordillera de Cutucú Oeste. A revised estimate of suitable habitat suggests that its total range is likely to be c.9,940&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. It is found in fewer than 15 localities in Ecuador  (J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012): La Libertad, Alto Río Palora, Cajanuma (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001), Arenales, Jimbura, Matanga (Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2001), Cajas (Tinoco and Astudillo undated), Fasañán (Freile 2004),  El Sauce and Selva Alegre (Jacobs &amp; Walker 1999), Jima and Santa Rita  (Chapman 1926), Torré and Huashapamba (Toyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  1995), Mazán (King 1989). It is generally local and uncommon, and has declined seriously in recent years. A significant population inhabits the Cordillera de Chilla, Loja, where it was present at two of three forest patches surveyed in 1995, at densities of 88 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and 25 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, with an estimated population of c.350 at the former (Jacobs and Walker 1999). <p></p>
106001651		habitat	eng	It inhabits very wet, upper montane cloud-forest and low, open forest and shrubby growth adjacent to the páramo, at 2,500-3,500&#160;m. It has been reported from fragmented and degraded forest near pasture, and there is some evidence to suggest tolerance of (if not preference for) secondary habitat (Juniper and Parr 1998). It is usually solitary, or in pairs and small groups of up to five, sometimes up to 20<strong></strong> (Toyne and Flanagan 1997, Jacobs and Walker 1999). It nests in tree-cavities in October-January, with eggs in late November, chicks in early December, and fledglings in late January<strong> </strong>(Toyne and Flanagan 1996). Its diet includes shoots, flowers, berries and seeds (Toyne and Flanagan 1997).<p></p>
106001651		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. It is described as rare to uncommon and local throughout its range. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106001651		threats	eng	Its decline is attributed to habitat destruction and fragmentation, largely through slash-and-burn conversion to agricultural small holdings (Jacobs and Walker 1999). Serious losses can be expected owing to logging and forest degradation, by burning and grazing, in Ecuador's Cordillera de Chilla, Loja, although in 1995, large areas of forest were still extant<strong></strong> (Toyne and Flanagan 1997, Jacobs and Walker 1999). <p></p>
106001652		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001655		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001655		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001655		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 93,234 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001656		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001657		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001658		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106001658		threats	eng	The species is relatively scarce in captivity (Juniper and Parr 1998),  as it is not a main target of trappers and nest-poachers (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011, R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2011), although it is still present in illegal trade in Peru (F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2011) and, perhaps more importantly, it is persecuted as an agricultural pest (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2011, R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2011, <span class="url">Y. Molina-Martínez <em>in litt</em>. 2011).
106001659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001660		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Artificial nests have been used in Cuba by over 1,300 birds (Waugh 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Those made of artificial materials have proved more durable (Waugh 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Discourage the taking of birds from the wild through public education campaigns.  Encourage better bird-keeping practices to increase longevity of captive birds and reduce demand on wild populations. On Abaco, protect vital tracts of broadleaf forests. On Cuba, make and erect more artificial nests.  Monitor population trends throughout its range.   <p></p>
106001660		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona leucocephala</em> occurs on <strong>Cuba</strong> (including the Isle of Pines), the <strong>Bahamas</strong> (where it was formerly widespread but now restricted to Abaco and Great Inagua), and the <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong> (Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and formerly Little Cayman) (Bond 1979, King 1981, Sibley and Monroe 1990)<strong></strong>. In Cuba, it was widespread but has declined and is now restricted to Guanahacabibes peninsula, Zapata peninsula (where it is still common), Macizo de Guamuhaya, Loma de Cunagua, Sierra de Najasa, and the forests of the western Sierra Maestra and Cuchillas del Toa (Juniper and Parr 1998, Galvez-Aguilera <em>et al.</em> 1999, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1988 put the Cuban population at 5,000 individuals (Collar 1997a)<strong></strong> but  this was probably an underestimate and the total population there is now thought to be more than 10,000 individuals and perhaps stable. There were 1,900 on Grand Cayman in 1995, an increase (from 1,500 in 1992) possibly associated with legal protection from hunting (Collar 1997a)<strong></strong>. Numbers on Cayman Brac, Great Inagua and Abaco are apparently stable at c.300-430 birds (Collar 1997a, Juniper and Parr 1998, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, c.400-500, and 1,100-1,200 (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> respectively.  <em> <p></p></em>
106001660		habitat	eng	It inhabits different habitats on different islands.  In Cuba it inhabits dense woodland, in the Bahamas, native broadleaf and pine woodlands, and in the Cayman Islands (to UK), dry forest on the ridge-top plateau and nearby agricultural land (Bond 1979, King 1981, Sibley and Monroe 1990)<strong></strong>. The population on Abaco is particularly interesting because it nests in natural holes in limestone substrate on the ground (O'Brien <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. There, chicks and adults are completely insulated from the frequent fires required by their fire-dependent pine forest habitat (O'Brien <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Birds move to native broadleaf forests in the non-breeding season to feed on berries during the non-breeding season (Stahala and Stafford 2004)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106001660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106001660		threats	eng	It is trapped for the domestic, and formerly at least, international cage bird trade. Nest trees are often pushed over or nest cavities enlarged to extract chicks, rendering them useless for future breeding attempts.  Housing development threatens the non-breeding habitat of the Abaco population.   <p></p>
106001661		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been listed as threatened in Jamaica since 1986 (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1995, there has been work to delineate its range, estimate population sizes, identify factors limiting reproductive performance and train local people in research methods and techniques for long-term monitoring (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains has been declared a national park, but enforcement and management are weak (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is an on-going, high profile public awareness campaign to prevent bauxite mining in Cockpit Country by having the area declared "closed to mining" by Minister's Discretion (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Discussions have initiated which will hopefully lead to the banning of the importation of psittacines to Jamaica (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to delineate range and assess numbers (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Declare Cockpit Country "closed to mining". Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of the national park in the Blue and John Crow Mountains (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Design and implement education programmes in and adjacent to the species's occupied range (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce its legal protection. Ban the import of non-native parrots.  <p></p>
106001661		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona collaria</em> is mainly found in wet areas of <strong>Jamaica</strong> (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000). The largest populations occur from Cockpit Country to Mount Diablo and in the John Crow Mountains (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>, and it is local in the Blue Mountains (BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong>. It remains fairly common in suitable habitat, the population in Cockpit Country alone numbers 5,000 - 8,000 territorial pairs (Koenig 2001)<strong></strong>, but overall both range and population have decreased in the latter part of the 20th century (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001661		habitat	eng	It inhabits mid-level, wet limestone forest at elevations up to 1,200 m, flying considerable distances to feeding areas that include sea-level plantations (Collar 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998, BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong>. Breeding takes place from March to August, in tree-cavities and, occasionally, rock-crevices (Collar 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998, BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001661		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001661		threats	eng	Recent declines are probably attributable to shifting cultivation, forest clearance, bauxite mining, and trapping for the cage-bird trade and local consumption (Juniper and Parr 1998, BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The cutting of trees to trap nestlings may significantly reduce available nest-sites (Juniper and Parr 1998, BirdLife Jamaica Parrot Project <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The primary cause of nest failure is poaching for use as a cage-bird, compounded by a loss of nest trees owing to illegal timber extraction in bauxite mining areas (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-native <em>Amazona </em>parrots occasionally escape during the hurricane season and have had to be shot to prevent hybridisation with this species (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106001662		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. An education strategy with community participation has been launched to protect the species (Vásquez <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. In 1997-1998, 49 captive-reared birds were released and radio-tracked in Parque del Este, Dominican Republic (Vilella <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  The Loma Charco Azul Biological Reserve, created in 2009, holds populations of the species. Also, recent public education and outreach work, including some enforcement actions, have taken place in several communities surrounding the Parque Nacional Jaragua, near the border with Haiti.&#160; In January 2012 there was also a release of 10 captive-reared parrots which had been confiscated as young chicks from nest poachers. &#160;These chicks were reared and rehabilitated at the Parque Zoologico Nacional, and successfully released on the grounds of the zoological park (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the current size of the population. Establish a comprehensive monitoring programme. Determine the extent of remaining habitat. Determine the impact of the various threats. Enforce the laws and regulations protecting this species and its habitat (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Encourage better bird-keeping practices to reduce the demand on wild birds.   Educate public regarding negative impact of native pet trade in the Dominican Republic (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106001662		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona ventralis</em> is endemic to Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>) and the associated islands of Grande Cayemite, Gonâve, Beata and Saona (AOU 1998)<strong></strong>. Introduced populations are established in Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.), and St Croix and St Thomas in the Virgin Islands (to U.S.A.) (AOU 1998)<strong></strong>. It was common on Hispaniola, but declined significantly during the 20th century. By the 1930s, it was mainly restricted to the interior mountains, where it remains locally fairly common in suitable habitat, particularly within several major forest reserves (Juniper and Parr 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere, it is now uncommon, rare or absent. The introduced population in Puerto Rico numbers several hundred and is apparently increasing (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001662		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of wooded habitats, from arid palm-savannah to pine and montane humid forest, up to and slightly above 1,500 m (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. It frequently forages in cultivated lands (AOU 1998)<strong></strong>, such as banana plantations and maize fields (Collar 1997a)<strong></strong>. Breeding is known from February to May, but prospecting pairs have been seen in mid-April, suggesting that the season may extend further into the year (Collar 1997a, Juniper and Parr 1998, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Nests are situated in tree-cavities, and sometimes dead tree-stumps (Collar 1997a, Juniper and Parr 1998, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001662		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001662		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and charcoal production have destroyed most suitable habitat<strong></strong>. It is also persecuted as a crop-pest, hunted for food and trapped for the local and formerly at least, international cage-bird trade (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. Trapping of adults and robbing nests for chicks to supply the local pet trade is a particular concern because in some areas most families own a parrot, and these only live a few years before they have to be replaced (G. Woolmer <em>in litt. </em>2005, T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Moreover, nest-robbing activities frequently result in destruction of the nest cavity or nest tree, further exacerbating loss of nesting habitat to other causes (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).   <p></p>
106001663		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001664		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001665		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Since 1995, there has been work to delineate its range, estimate population size, identify factors limiting reproductive performance and train local people in research methods and techniques for long-term monitoring (Davis 1997, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains has been declared a national park, but enforcement and management are weak (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is an ongoing, high profile public awareness campaign to prevent bauxite mining in Cockpit Country by having the area declared "closed to mining" by Minister's Discretion (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Proponents remain optimistic that, whilst a large area of habitat will be lost, one big area of habitat will be declared closed for mining (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Discussions have been initiated which may lead to the banning of the importation of psittacines to Jamaica to lower the risk of escapes and hybridisation (S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to delineate range and assess numbers (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a long-term monitoring programme. Designate Cockpit Country "closed to mining". Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of the national park in the Blue and John Crow Mountains (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Design and implement education programmes in and adjacent to the species's occupied range (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001665		distribution	eng	This species is fairly common in the centre of <strong>Jamaica</strong>, from Cockpit Country to Mount Diablo (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the John Crow Mountains (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population in Cockpit Country was previously thought to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, however, recent surveys estimate that 7,500 - 9,500 territorial pairs are present and the species is fairly common there but is much less common on Mount Diablo (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Koenig 2001, S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001665		habitat	eng	This parrot occurs primarily in wet limestone forests and forest edge, mostly at elevations of 100-1,400 m (Collar 1997, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also uses cultivated land and plantations adjacent to forest for foraging (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pairs and flocks feed high in the canopy on fruits, blossoms, nuts and seeds (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place from March to August (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The use of abandoned Jamaican Woodpecker <em>Melanerpes radiolatus</em> cavities has been reported (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the majority of pairs use tree-hollows that form from processes related to weathering or pathogen and insect attacks (Koenig 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001665		population	eng	Preliminary population estimates best place the global population in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals (S. Koenig <i>in litt.</i> 2008). This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. Further studies are required to obtain an accurate figure.
106001665		threats	eng	Shifting cultivation, logging and bauxite mining have reduced suitable habitat, and the species is trapped for local consumption (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Bauxite mining licenses were recently issued for over 60% of the Cockpit Country Conservation Area, which supports over 90% of the global population of this species (Koenig 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A Population Viability Analysis indicated that were mining to take place as planned this species might decline by 50% over the next 15 years, though such declines are more likely to occur over a time frame of 40-50 years as habitat loss due to mining will be more gradual (Koenig 2008, <strong> </strong>S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by yellow boa <em>Epicrates subflavus</em> is a significant limiting factor to nesting success: of the 26 nest-sites located during the 1997 breeding season, over 30% suffered total failure and another 6% partial mortality during the early nesting stage (Davis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is no evidence that poaching for the cage-bird trade has a major impact (Davis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a risk of hybridisation with other species of imported <em>Amazona </em><strong></strong>(<strong></strong>S. Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009).  <p></p>
106001666		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Major intervention to preserve this species began in 1968, involving provision of highly successful artificial nest-sites, control of nest predators and competitors, and captive breeding and reintroduction. The success of newly fledged parrots is monitored using radio-telemetry (Meyers 1996)<strong></strong>. All remaining habitat is protected in the Caribbean National Forest (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000) and the Rio Abajo Commonwealth Forest (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. The population is monitored to help inform management decisions. Controlling exotic mammalian predators (trapping and toxic baiting) has been shown to be a highly cost-effective way of conserving Puerto Rican Amazon (Engeman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006, R. M. Engeman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Trapping data has shown the Luquillo Forest to have among the highest black rat densities studied in the world, and optimal rat baiting strategies have been devised for application during nesting. Economic analyses based on empirical production costs for captive-bred parrots showed very high benefit-cost ratios for predator management, estimating that the prevention of one parrot loss every 4–12 years more than offsets all forms of predator management (for all species) in the intervening time (R. M. Engeman<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Around 280 birds are currently held in captivity at Rio Abajo and Luquillo (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and these are being managed to preserve as much genetic diversity as possible. A release technique known as "precision release" was trialled with six birds in 2008. This involves releasing a small number of captive-reared subadult parrots at each active nest site immediately following the fledging of the chicks, and aims to promote immediate and close interaction between the wild parrots and released birds (T. White <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2008)<strong></strong>. Nearly 100 birds have been released from the Rio Abajo aviary in an attempt to establish a second population, which may be aided by lower annual rainfall at the site, lower levels of predation and a change in management techniques (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Although post-release mortality remains high, successful breeding has been recorded and the size and range of the flock is increasing (Breining 2009, Valentin 2009, T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Track the fate of released birds. Maintain the integrated conservation management programme. Improve synchronisation of breeding of wild and captive birds to increase the number of captive-bred chicks that can be fostered by wild parents (Thompson 2004)<strong></strong>. Integrate exotic mammalian predator trapping (black rats, small Indian mongooses, feral cats) into the existing conservation management programme, and monitor predator populations to study the efficacy of these measures (R. M. Engeman<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106001666		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona vittata</em> is endemic to <strong>Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.)</strong>, and once occurred throughout the forested parts of the island. An endemic subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">gracilipes</span> occurred on Culebra, but became extinct in 1912. There has been a drastic decline, which reduced the population to c.2,000 by the 1930s and an all-time low of 13 birds in 1975. It has been confined to the Luquillo Mts since the 1960s, and the present occupied range of 16 km<sup>2</sup> represents only 0.2% of its former distribution (Snyder<em> et al.</em> 1987)<strong></strong>. Conservation action has prevented the species's extinction, although recovery has been slow and the population remains tiny. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo cut the wild population from 47 to about 23. By the beginning of 1992, there were a minimum of 22-23 parrots in the wild and 58 in captivity, with a record fledging success in July 1992 taking the wild total to 39 or 40. In 2000, the parrot numbered 40 wild birds, plus 10 recently re-introduced birds and 100 in captivity, held in two aviaries (Davis 2000, T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>.  In 2001, thieves broke into an aviary and stole a number of captive adults. In 2004, the wild population was 30-35 individuals (Arendt 2000)<strong></strong>, and the long-term trend appears to be stable albeit with some fluctuations. In 2006, 20 birds were released in the Rio Abajo State Forest marking the beginning of a second population in the wild (Velez-Valentin and Boyd 2006)<strong></strong>: a further 26 birds were released here in December 2007 and 19 more were released in December 2008, with the first two successful nests recorded in the wild at Rio Abajo in 2008 (T. White <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2008, 2012)<strong></strong>. As of 2011, the population numbered c.50-70 wild individuals spread over two areas, and about 280 captive individuals (Breining 2009, T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001666		habitat	eng	Historically, it occurred in montane and lowland forest, and mangroves. It is now restricted to forest at elevations of 200-600 m. It breeds between late February and July, when it nests in large, deep tree-cavities and lays 3-4 eggs (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Arendt 2000)<strong></strong>. Since 2001, all known nesting in the wild has occurred in artificial cavities (White <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001666		population	eng	As of 2011, the population numbered c.50-70 individuals spread over two areas, roughly equivalent to 33-47 mature individuals. There is an additional captive population numbering c.280 individuals (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106001666		threats	eng	There has been an almost total loss of suitable forest habitat. Hunting for food and pest control, and the cage-bird trade have had crippling effects in the past (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The principal threats are now competition for nest-sites, loss of young to parasitic botflies, predation and natural disasters such as hurricanes (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Arendt 2000)<strong></strong>. Red-tailed Hawks <em>Buteo jamaicensis</em> predate parrots and hamper releases of captive-bred individuals. Predator-aversion training pre-release has improved the survival of captive-reared birds after release into the wild (White <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>; nevertheless raptor predation claimed 21% of all released individuals between 2000 and 2002. It formerly suffered from competition for nesting cavities with Pearly-eyed Thrasher <em>Margarops fuscatus </em>but this has been significantly reduced by specially designed artificial nesting cavities (T. White <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Predation by alien invasive mammals is also having a serious impact upon productivity, with six fledglings taken by small Indian mongooses <em>Herpestes javanicus</em> and one nest-failure from black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> during 2000-2003 (Engeman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. Although predation events have not been documented, feral cats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span>) are also common in parrot habitat in the Caribbean National Forest, are well-documented around the world as devastating bird predators, and represent another invasive mammal threat. Parrots regularly disappear without identification of a cause and cats and mongooses are capable of inflicting unidentifiable losses (R. M. Engeman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It has been suggested that hurricanes are the most serious limiting factor preventing population recovery, and climate change may cause the frequency of hurricane events to increase<strong></strong>. Furthermore, rainfall hampers the recovery programme, as chicks that fledge either during or before a major rainfall event have a much higher mortality rate than chicks that fledge during drier periods (Breining 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001667		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I, although the convention is not respected in Bolivia (A. B. Hennessey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Present in several protected areas including El Rey National Park, Argentina, mostly in the non-breeding season (L. Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In 2006, Serranía del Iñao National Park and Sustainable Management Area was designated, providing the foundations for actions to conserve one of the species's largest roosts in Bolivia, which is located nearby<strong> </strong>(Rivera<strong> </strong><em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009). A species conservation action plan is currently being developed for each of its native countries (L. Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Enforce ban on local trade (L. Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Assess the current population size. Produce a species action plan. Carry out further research to clarify the extent of the current threat from trade. Effectively protect core areas of remaining habitat; review its habitat requirements, and supplement nest sites using boxes where appropriate (A. B. Hennessey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Tackle unsustainable resource use and illegal activities in protected areas. Designate Montes Chapeados a protected area. <br/><p></p>
106001667		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona tucumana</em> is found in north-west <strong>Argentina</strong>,<strong> </strong>and southern <strong>Bolivia</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is known from 12 localities in Tarija, Chuquisaca and Santa Cruz departments<strong> </strong>(A. Maccormick <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, R. Hoyer <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, L. Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A recent study of the status and distribution of the species in Argentina recorded 6,015 individuals<strong> </strong>(Rivera <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007), and estimated the Argentinian population to number c.10,000 bird, but around 20,000 individuals were exported from Argentina in the mid to late 1980s suggesting a substantial population decline may have occurred. After it was placed on Appendix I of CITES in response to this, international trade was effectively cut off, although local exploitation continues. However, it does not seem that populations have recovered, and habitat loss is of concern, particularly in Argentina where it is highly degraded and there are only a few small and isolated woodland remnants<strong> </strong>(L. Rivera<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004). Threats to habitat are less severe in Bolivia, but the species has declined there and is projected to continue to do so<strong> </strong>(A. Maccormick <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005). The main concentrations of this species in Bolivia occur in Montes Chapeados, Villa Serrano and Tariquía Flora and Fauna National Reserve, with 1,643 individuals recorded at various sites during a recent study<strong> </strong>(Rivera<strong> </strong><em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009). A dedicated national population census and monitoring initiative is required to provide an estimate of the Bolivian population and to locate, measure and monitor local populations and post-breeding roosts<strong> </strong>(A. Maccormick <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005). <p></p>
106001667		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open mountain woodland in Andean yungas forest dominated by pure stands of <em>Alnus acuminata </em>or <em>Podocarpus parlatorei</em>, from 1,600-2,600 m in the breeding season (between November and February). At this time, the species gathers in large flocks, probably including individuals from several breeding localities. In the non-breeding season, it is present in several protected areas including El Rey National Park, and descends to lower elevations. The main tree species used for nesting and feeding are <em>P. parlatorei</em>, <em>Juglans australis</em> and those in the Myrtaceae family (L. Rivera <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011, 2012). <p></p>
106001667		population	eng	A recent study of the status and distribution of the species in Argentina recorded 6,015 individuals, and estimated the Argentinean population to be approximately 10,000 birds (L. Rivera <em>in litt.</em> 2004). In addition, 1,643 individuals were recorded at various sites in Bolivia during another recent study. The total population is thus placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals (L. Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). This is equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001667		threats	eng	Around 20,000 individuals were exported from Argentina in the mid to late 1980s<strong> </strong>(L. Rivera<em> in litt</em>. 2004). In the 1980s, c.5,400 individuals were captured in Bolivia for the international pet trade prior to it being listed by CITES<strong> </strong>(Rivera<strong> </strong><em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009). After it was placed on Appendix I of CITES, international trade was effectively cut off, although local exploitation continues at a reduced scale<strong> </strong>(L. Rivera<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, <strong></strong>Rivera<strong> </strong><em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009). Nest-raiding even takes place in protected areas in Bolivia, with whole broods removed from c.50 nests annually in Tariquía Flora and Fauna National Reserve<strong></strong>. The species's population in Bolivia has apparently not recovered to its former levels<strong> </strong>(Rivera<strong> </strong><em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009). Habitat in Argentina is highly degraded and consists of small, isolated fragments. The species's main nesting and feeding tree species are also targeted for logging by timber operations (L. Rivera <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011). In Bolivia, the regeneration of suitable forest is limited by burning to maintain extensive cattle grazing<strong></strong>. Its habitat is also threatened by slash-and-burn agriculture and wildfires<strong> </strong>(Rivera<strong> </strong><em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009, L. Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is considered Vulnerable in Bolivia (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Agua 2009).<br/><p></p>
106001668		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. There are breeding populations in five reserves and two austral winter feeding sites are protected (Wege and Long 1995). However, less than 1% of the year-round range, and under 4% of each seasonal range falls within protected areas (Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Artificial nests have been provided but not occupied<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). A public awareness campaign has been in progress since 1991 (Prestes<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997,<strong> </strong>Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to assess population trends. Study current levels of off-take for trade. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Protect breeding areas in Caçapava do Sul and Santana da Boa Vista. Improve protected-area management. Enforce the law against collectors and, especially, dealers by searching vehicles between December and February (Prestes<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997)<strong></strong>. Continue the awareness campaign. <p></p>
106001668		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona pretrei</em> breeds in Rio Grande do Sul, south <strong>Brazil</strong>, with main populations in the Campo de Cima da Serra, Planalto Médio, Depressão Central, Serra do Sudeste and Alto Uruguai (Prestes<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997). Southern (and perhaps northern) breeders move north in the austral winter. Most of the wintering population formerly roosted at Aracuri but, since 1991, there has been a shift to south-east Santa Catarina<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). In 1994, there were 15 roost sites in use seasonally, but large roosts at Aracuri and Rincão dos Pereira had disappeared. There has been a startling population decline since the 1950s. In 1971, the Aracuri roost was c.30,000 individuals, but more recent estimates of the total population are 7,500-8,500 individuals in the early 1990s, c.10,000 in 1994, c.12,600 in 1996 and c.16,300 in 1997<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). Elsewhere, there is an erroneous 19th century specimen from São Paulo<strong> </strong>(C.&#160;Yamashita <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). Wandering birds occur in <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Paraguay</strong>,<strong> </strong>but there are only three recent records<strong></strong> (Brooks <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1993, Lowen <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, Chebez <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>). The current breeding and wintering ranges are estimated by ecological niche modelling to have contracted from historical ranges by 32% and 43% respectively; and they are predicted to have shrunk by 63% and 91% respectively by 2060 (Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106001668		habitat	eng	It breeds in open savanna woodland and riverine forest below 1,000&#160;m, with tree-hollow nests recorded in over 30 tree species (Prestes<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997). Breeding occurs in late September-January, with young generally fledging by late December. There is a stronger non-breeding season association with <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em>, but there are roosts in <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. The diet includes seeds of <em>A. angustifolia</em> (especially important between May and August) and <em>Podocarpus lamberti</em> (important between January and February in some areas), but also fruit, seeds or flowers of 25 tree species. <p></p>
106001668		population	eng	Snyder <em>et al. </em>(2000). <p></p>
106001668		threats	eng	In 1914, 25% of Rio Grande do Sul was forested but, by 1988, this was less than 3% as a result of cutting for timber, building materials and fuelwood; over-exploitation of other forest products, notably <em>Araucaria</em> seeds, which possibly explains shifts to Santa Catarina<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000); intense grazing, and livestock trampling. There is an organised internal trade, with parrots usually taken by cutting the nesting-tree, resulting in permanent abandonment. <p></p>
106001669		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I (1992). It occurs in El Cielo and Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserves (A.&#160;G.&#160;Navarro <em> in litt</em>. 1998, T. Brush<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there are only small colonies in Sierra Gorda and its status in El Cielo is unknown (Wege and Long 1995, A.&#160;G.&#160;Navarro <em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ranchers are increasingly aware of the benefits of maintaining large trees, but this is not reflected in practice. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an estimate for the total population size. Monitor populations to determine the extent of declines. Identify the most important nesting aggregations for protection (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Integrate ranchers into efforts to curtail trapping and regenerate habitat (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001669		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona viridigenalis</em> is locally and seasonally fairly common to common on the Atlantic slope of north-east <strong>Mexico </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a)<sup></sup>, mostly in Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí, with small colonies in extreme north-east Querétaro (A.&#160;G.&#160;Navarro <em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It formerly occurred in Nuevo León and Veracruz, but there have been no records of wild birds since 1945 and 1960 respectively. In 1992-1994, densities in one area were estimated at 5.7 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, indicating a wild population of 3,000-6,500 birds (E.&#160;C.&#160;Enkerlin-Hoeflich <em>in litt</em>. 1994, Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This compares with 25.2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> reported in the 1970s (Castro 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population recently established in urban areas of the Lower Rio Grande Valley (Texas), <strong>USA</strong>, is considered by some to consist of wild birds (T. Brush<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced or feral populations are also established (and mostly increasing) in Florida and California (USA), Puerto Rico (to USA), O'ahu (Hawaii) and several parts of Mexico (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001669		habitat	eng	It inhabits lush areas in arid lowlands and foothills, especially gallery forest, deciduous woodland and dry, open pine-oak woodland on ridges up to 1,000 m. Smaller numbers occur in agricultural landscapes with a few large trees. Nests are usually in tree-cavities, with breeding from March-May. Clutches of 2-5 eggs are incubated for 25-31 days (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is nomadic in winter, with large flocks moving south (and apparently north) and to higher elevations. It feeds largely on the fruits of dominant tree species (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001669		population	eng	In 1992-1994, estimated densities in one area in Mexico indicated a wild population of 3,000-6,500 birds (E. C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich<I> in litt.</I> 1994). This estimate roughly equates to 2,000-4,300 mature individuals.
106001669		threats	eng	In 1970-1982, 16,490 birds (mostly nestlings) were legally imported into the USA. Illegal exports from Mexico and a pre-export mortality of &gt;50% equates to 5,000 birds per year (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Trappers damage nests when extracting chicks (sometimes felling entire trees), reducing nest-site availability and leading to permanent site abandonment (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many gallery forests have been cleared or degraded, with over 80% of Tamaulipas lowlands cleared for agriculture (especially sorghum) and pasture. Habitat is now patchily distributed on cattle-ranches, where trapping pressure is greatest (Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Hogan 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001670		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1999, the Mexican government established a Plan for the Conservation, Protection and Recuperation of Psittacines in Mexico, within which <em>A. finschi</em> is considered a priority species (Macias Caballero <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  In 2004, the species was upgraded to CITES Appendix 1, and in 2007, a proposal was approved for the species to be upgraded in 2008 from 'Threatened' to 'Endangered' under Mexican wildlife law (K. Renton<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Mexico, considerable efforts have been made to tackle illegal national trade, with at least 52 seizures during 1997-2003 (CITES 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Inspections in Mexico resulted in the seizure of 266 live individuals of the species being offered illegally in the pet trade from 1995 to 2003 (CITES 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is found in three Biosphere Reserves; Sierra de Alamos-Arroyo Cuchujaqui, southern Sonora, and Chamela-Cuixmala and Sierra de Manantlán, Jalisco, and is reported to occur in seven Important Bird Areas, however some of these lack official protection or conservation programmes (CITES 2004a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor levels of habitat destruction and degradation. Implement trade regulation strategies in the 1999 plan. Conduct outreach work and environmental education as outlined in the 1999 plan. Carry out habitat conservation and the recovery of wild populations as recommended in the 1999 Plan. Monitor the success of strategies from the 1999 plan.  Protect the remaining stands of tropical forest stands on areas where  the slope is greater than 6°: ideally all areas on steep slopes should  be restored to forest, in order to provide habitat for all native  wildlife (including Lilac-crowned Parrot) avoid soil erosion and promote alternative economic activities on the rugged coastal areas such as recreation and tourism (Ortega-Rodríguez and Monterrubio-Rico 2008).<p></p>
106001670		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona finschi</em> is endemic to the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong><sup> </sup>(Forshaw 1989, Collar 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998)<sup></sup>. Historically, its range extended from southern Sonora and southwest Chihuahua to Oaxaca (Forshaw 1989, Howell and Webb 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The species has been practically extirpated from Oaxaca, as well as parts of Nayarit, Jalisco, Durango, Colima and Michoacán, and has undergone significant population declines in many areas of its original range, especially in the lowlands (Renton and Elias 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite local declines the species is most abundant in the states of Jalisco, Michoacán and Sinaloa (Renton and Elias 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recent survey, carried out in appropriate habitat in 53 out of 77 50x50 km squares covering the species's entire range, estimated its population size to be 7,000-10,000 individuals (Renton and Elias 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The species has disappeared from 37% of the localities where it was historically recorded (Renton and Elias 2003, K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has shown a decline of 29% in its original distribution over the last 20 years (CITES 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001670		habitat	eng	It is reported to occur in deciduous and semi-deciduous forests along the coast, as well as pine-oak forests up to 2,000 m (Forshaw 1989)<strong></strong>.  However, semi-deciduous forest along more humid valleys at 600-1000 m is optimal breeding habitat (Renton and Salinas-Melgoza 1999, Renton and Elias 2003)<strong></strong>, and provides key food resources during the dry season (Renton 2001)<strong></strong>. A low toleration to human perturbation is evident as the species is encountered more frequently in protected than in degraded woodland (Renton and Elias 2003)<strong></strong>. Seasonality plays an important role in the species's life history as it may trigger altitudinal and latitudinal migrations (Renton <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and affect daily activity. The species shows a low rate of reproduction (Renton 2005)<strong></strong>. In Michoacán, nest sites were located preponderantly in relatively inaccessible rugged mountainous terrain, where the large stands of tropical semideciduous<br/> forests remain on steep slopes with an average gradient of 22° (Ortega-Rodríguez and Monterrubio-Rico 2008). <br/><br/><p></p>
106001670		population	eng	Renton and Elias (2003) estimate the global population at 7,000-10,000 individuals, based on surveys covering the majority of the species's global range. This roughly equates to 4,700-6,700 mature individuals.
106001670		threats	eng	Capture for domestic and international trade is the major threat to wild populations. Illegal trade is intensive and widespread, and <em>Amazona finschi</em> is one of the most frequently confiscated Mexican parrots (K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. During 1981-2001, 4,061 individuals were traded internationally, of which 79% were exported directly from Mexico and 64% were taken from the wild (CITES 2004a)<strong></strong>. Adults and juveniles are easily netted in large numbers because of their habit of congregating at communal roost sites late in the afternoon (Renton 2005, K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Chicks are commonly poached from nests (K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. During interviews with local people throughout the species's range, 75% reported poaching in their area (K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Habitat loss and degradation, mostly for conversion to both small-holder and large-scale cultivation and pasture (K. Renton<em> in litt</em>. 2007, A. Salinas<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Ortega-Rodríguez and Monterrubio-Rico 2008)<strong></strong>, is also a serious threat, with semi-deciduous forest along the Pacific coast being lost at a greater rate than any other forest type in Mexico (Masera <em>et al</em>. 1996, K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, resulting in the destruction of nest sites and reduction in the extent of this crucial breeding habitat (Renton 2005)<strong></strong>. In Michoacán, the more easily accessible potential nesting areas, such  as plains or rolling hills, have now been converted to extensive cattle  ranching or agriculture (Ortega-Rodríguez and Monterrubio-Rico 2008). Large development projects, such as dams, have also resulted in loss of breeding habitat for the species (K. Renton<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Semi-deciduous forest now covers only 5,106 km<sup>2</sup> within the species's range (Renton and Elias 2003, K. Renton <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  Decreases in rainfall that could result from global climate change would result in declines in the reproductive potential of wild populations in tropical dry forests (K. Renton<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001671		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001671		distribution	eng	</P>
106001671		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001671		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 55,329 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001672		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Recorded from Canaima National Park (Venezuela), Iwokrama Forest Reserve (Guyana) and Brownsberg Nature Park (Suriname)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology, seasonal movements and ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Effectively protect core areas of remaining habitat. Enforce restrictions on trade.  <p></p>
106001672		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona dufresniana</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Bolívar, with an isolated record in Amazonas), north <strong>Guyana</strong> (north of 5°N), north-east <strong>Suriname</strong> and north-east <strong>French Guiana</strong><strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991). There are reports from Pará and Amapá, Brazil, where its occurrence seems probable, but no conclusive records<strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991, Collar 1995)<strong></strong>. The scarcity of records from frequently surveyed areas suggests that this is a low density and rather uncommon species, at least in some parts of its range<strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991). In Guyana, "healthy populations" are known from the Aruka area in north-west Guyana between the Aruka and Amakuru rivers, Kaieteur National Park and the Kuribrong river, and the Iwokrama Forest Reserve (A. Narine <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010)&#160; <em> <p></p></em>
106001672		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid forest and cloud-forest in the lower subtropical zone but is also known from woodlands in forest-savanna mosaic in Venezuela<strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991). Most birds in the Guianas have been reported from gallery forest<strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991), but this may be an artefact of river transport use by observers<strong></strong> (Juniper and Parr 1998). There are some seasonal movements, apparently in response to food availability, from interior to coastal Suriname in July-August<strong></strong><strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991<strong></strong>, Juniper and Parr 1998). It occurs up to 1,700 m in Venezuela and 560 m in Guyana<strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991). <p></p>
106001672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001672		threats	eng	It has probably declined since the 19th century as a result of trapping for trade and habitat loss, particularly in the Gran Sabana region of Bolívar and parts of coastal Guianas<strong></strong> (Wege and Collar 1991). It was internationally traded in small numbers during the 1980s, and this has continued especially in Guyana, where 321 were exported in 2002, and Suriname<strong> </strong>(CITES 2004). Annual export quotas are 520 for Guyana and 70 for Suriname (O. Ottema <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). Some internal trade also continues, perhaps most frequently for food and pets in the far east of its range (Desenne and Strahl 1991, Wege and Collar 1991). <p></p>
106001673		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in 14 reserves<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995<strong></strong>, R. B. Pineschi <em>per</em> C. Yamashita <em>in litt.</em> 2000), but most of these provide minimal habitat protection and none are effective against poaching. The <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> population is managed under a European species survival scheme<strong></strong> (Sweeney 1996) and Curitiba Zoo (L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt. </em>2012), which together with the Loro Parque Fundación, Rare Species Conservatory Foundation and Idéia Ambiental, have successfully developed a captive breeding programme<strong> </strong>(Reinschmidt and Waugh 2005<strong></strong>, L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to locate additional populations. Protect forests where the species occurs outside reserves in Rio de Janeiro. Effectively protect habitat and birds within reserves. Enforce anti-trafficking laws, especially on the roads connecting Monte Pascoal National Park with the rest of south Brazil (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Map the species's current distribution within its Extent of Occurrence. Identify priority areas for conservation purposes. Research dietary and nesting requirements. Estimate the species's home range. Study the impact of forest fragmentation within its population. Implement an education programme ( L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt.</em> 2012).<p></p>
106001673		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona rhodocorytha</em> is now rare and local in the isolated Atlantic forest fragments of east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was first discovered in north São Paulo in the early 1990s (P. Martuscelli <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 1999). The healthiest populations are now found in Espírito Santo<strong></strong>, where the largest forest blocks remain<strong> </strong>(Klemann Júnior <em>et al</em>. 2008). It also occurs at three sites in south-east Bahia, and five in each of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. A disjunct population remains at São Miguel dos Campos, Alagoas, but recent surveys failed to find it elsewhere in the state (Klemann-Júnior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It was formerly abundant but, despite the recent accumulation of more records and localities, has clearly declined significantly. It is still fairly common at a few sites, most notably on Ilha Grande<strong></strong> (R. B. Pineschi <em>per</em> C. Yamashita <em>in litt.</em> 2000), at Sooretama and adjacent Linhares; and surveys observed 2,295 birds in Espírito Santo in 2004-2006<strong> </strong>(Klemann Júnior <em>et al</em>. 2008, L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012). <p></p>
106001673		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily in lowland humid forests, but presumed seasonally displaced individuals have been found up to 1,000 m. It feeds on fruit, seeds, berries and buds procured in treetops, and has been recorded feeding in papaya, jackfruit, mangoes, cocoa, banana and coffee plantations<strong> </strong>(Klemann-Júnior  2006, L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt. </em>2012). Eggs possibly hatch in October and pairs with fledglings have been observed in January. <p></p>
106001673		population	eng	The species has a small population placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals in total. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001673		threats	eng	Less than 10% of original forest cover remains in Bahia and Espírito Santo, and only 2% in Alagoas<strong> </strong>(Brown and Brown 1992, Conservation International 1995)<strong></strong>, primarily because of conversion to plantations and pastureland. In Rio de Janeiro, many important habitat fragments are being cleared, notably around Desengano State Park. The collapse of the cocoa economy in south Bahia has resulted in increased logging by landowners and the colonisation of reserves by former plantation workers (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). If the seasonal displacement of birds is confirmed, this would multiply the problems of habitat loss. In the 1998-1999 breeding season, 174 nestlings were poached, mostly from reserves, for the national and international cage-bird trade<strong> </strong>(Brown and Brown 1992), while 664 individuals were recorded in captivity at the Centre for Reintroduction of Wild Animals in 2005-2006 and others were found in private cages<strong> </strong>(L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt. </em>2007). Illegal trade is apparently the overriding threat to the species in Espírito Santo (Klemann-Júnior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b).&#160; Souvenirs containing feathers have been seen for sale outside Monte Pascoal National Park<strong></strong> (Sweeney 1996). It is considered a pest species in some papaya, coffee and cocoa plantations<strong> </strong>(Klemann-Júnior  2006, L. Klemann-Júnior <em>in litt. </em>2012). <p></p>
106001674		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs within 15 protected areas, but these are not locally enforced<strong></strong> (Martuscelli 1994, Lalime 1999)<strong></strong>. Superagui National Park, Paraná protects the stronghold<strong> </strong>(R. Bóçon <em>in litt. </em>2006). The creation of new reserves is hampered by economic interests (Martuscelli 1994). Several programmes are raising local awareness<strong></strong> (Martuscelli 1994, Lalime 1999<strong></strong>, Padua <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Conservation projects and the protected areas created in the species range seem to be paying off, although some trapping still occurs. There are studbooks and successful captive-breeding programmes in the European Union and Brazil<strong> </strong>(Lucker 1998) and the provision of artificial nests and the repair of natural nesting cavities is boosting reproductive success in the wild<strong></strong> (Waugh 2006). The Red-tailed Amazon Conservation Project is monitoring the population in Paraná<strong> </strong>(R. Bóçon <em>in litt. </em>2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of off-take for trade. Monitor trade levels. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Enforce laws on trafficking, especially on access routes to breeding islands (Lalime 1997, Lalime 1999). Effectively protect existing reserves (Lalime 1997, Lalime 1999). Formally designate Ilha Comprida State Park and Itapanhapina Ecological Station (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Expand Superagüi National Park to include Ilha do Pinheiro (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). Reforest breeding islands<strong></strong> (Lalime 1999). Continue and expand awareness efforts<strong></strong> (Lalime 1999). <p></p>
106001674		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona brasiliensis</em> occurs in a narrow littoral strip, between the Serra do Mar and coast, from Itanhaém in São Paulo through Paraná to extreme north-east Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Lalime 1997). Breeding areas are mostly located on small estuarine islands with few on the mainland. Populations were thought to have declined from c.3,500-4,500 birds in the 1980s to fewer than 2,000 individuals by 1991-1992 (Martuscelli and Scherer Neto 1993). A recent estimate of 6,600 individuals suggests long-term conservation measures have enabled the speccies to make a recovery<strong></strong> (Waugh 2006). The population in Paraná was estimated at 3,600 in 1996<strong></strong> (Lalime 1999), and a more recent census found 3,379 birds, suggesting that the population there is either stable or has suffered a small decline<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2003).  <p></p>
106001674		habitat	eng	Almost the entire population migrates daily between mangrove and littoral forest roosting and breeding areas, and Atlantic forest feeding areas. It feeds primarily below 200&#160;m, but has been recorded up to 700&#160;m (Lalime 1997)<strong></strong>. At the extremes, breeding occurs from late August to early March, with up to four eggs laid in natural tree-cavities, mostly in Gerivá palms <em>Syagrus romanzoffianum</em> and Guanandi <em>Callophyllum brasiliense</em> (Lalime 1997, Lalime 1999). Although essentially frugivorous, it also feeds on leaves, flowers and insects within fruit (Lalime 1997).<p></p>
106001674		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 4,000-5,500 individuals, roughly equating to 2,700-3,700 mature individuals.
106001674		threats	eng	There is extensive poaching for national and (especially) international trade with 356 birds, mostly nestlings, captured during 1991-1992 breeding season in the municipality of Cananéia (a quarter of the species's range) (Martuscelli 1994). Of 47 nests monitored between 1990 and 1994, six were naturally predated and the other 41 robbed by humans (Martuscelli 1997). Nest-cavities are virtually always damaged when removing nestlings, reducing the number available (Martuscelli 1994). There is continuing habitat loss for boat building, banana plantations, cattle- and buffalo-grazing and beach houses<strong></strong> (Lalime 1999, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Palmito palms are cut for processing in Guaraqueçaba<strong></strong> (Lalime 1999). The proposed construction of a bridge to Ilha Comprida will increase pressure from tourism and habitat conversion (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). <p></p>
106001675		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes
106001675		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Amazona festiva </span>exists in two disjunct populations, each considered a separate subspecies. It is generally common throughout this range. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">bodini</span> ranges east from east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>'s Orinoco Basin it is common but very local, being notably encountered at Delta Amacuro, north-east of Tucupita, at Hato los Indios in Apure state, and at Caurama Lodge in Bolívar (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Hilty 2003). It was formerly very common along the Orinoco (Hilty 2003). This subspecies is also sporadically recorded in north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">festiva </span>is local in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, and ranges from there, south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>through the Amazon Basin to west Pará in north-central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106001675		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with humid lowland forest along major rivers, up to c.500 m. It occurs in both "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest) and "igapó" (permanently flooded forest). Irregular movements may explain the reports from Guyana and others in east Ecuador and the Amazon delta, but this remains uncertain until these records are verified (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001675		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting and trapping for international trade, particularly in Venezuela (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
106001676		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs notably in Emas, Brasília, Araguaia, Grande Sertões Veredas, Chapada dos Veadeiros and Chapada dos Guimarães National Parks and Mangabeiras Environmental Protection Area<strong> </strong>(Forrester 1993, Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998,<strong></strong> F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000), but no protected area holds permanent populations. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its current distribution<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000), especially in poorly-known reserves such as Uruçuí-Una Ecological Station, Piauí, and Mirador State Park, Maranhão<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Collate data on specimen and recent records to provide an improved assessment of distribution and status. Estimate the total wild population (Bianchi 2009). Assess the impact of habitat loss <strong></strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). Create a network of large reserves in Bahia, Maranhão and Piauí<strong> </strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Effectively protect Mangabeiras. <p></p>
106001676		distribution	eng	<em>Alipiopsitta xanthops</em> is restricted to the <span style="font-style: italic;">cerrado </span>biome of interior <strong>Brazil</strong> (Maranhão, Piauí, Tocantins, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Distrito Federal, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and formerly São Paulo) <strong></strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000) and north-central <strong>Bolivia</strong> (two records from Beni: San Joaquín, east of río Mamoré, in 1964 and a captive bird caught north of Santa Ana in the 1990s) (Remsen <em>et al</em>. 1986, Armonía 1995,<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong> </strong>C. Yamashita <em>in litt</em>. 2000). It has been listed for Paraguay<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989), but there is no confirmed evidence of its presence (Hayes 1995). It is occasionally locally common (Sick 1993<strong></strong>), but mainly occurs at low densities and is now absent in many parts of its former range.      <p></p>
106001676		habitat	eng	This semi-nomadic <span style="font-style: italic;">cerrado </span>specialist occurs in wooded grassland (<span style="font-style: italic;">cerradão</span>), spiny arid scrub (<span style="font-style: italic;">caatinga</span>), gallery forest and <em>Mauritia</em> palm-stands (Willis and Oniki 1988, Sick 1993)<strong></strong>. It is a generalist and its diet consists of flowers, fruit and seeds (Bianchi 2009). Food species include <span style="font-style: italic;">Pouteria ramiflora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mauritia flexuosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erythroxylum suberosum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Annona coriacea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus </span>cf. <span style="font-style: italic;">fruticosusas</span> (Bianchi 2009), <em>Anacardium</em>, <em>Salacia crassifolia</em> and <em>Astronium fraxinifolium</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Juniper and Parr 1998). Birds have been reported taking unripe guava <em>Psidium</em> fruit in plantations and will spend weeks visiting mango trees<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Juniper and Parr 1998, Bianchi 2009). Maize <span style="font-style: italic;">Zea mays</span> is also eaten (Bianchi 2009). Birds have been observed feeding opportunistically on termites  (Bianchi 2009). However, the semi-nomadism of the species suggests that it depends on unpredictable food resources. Breeding takes place between May and October in Emas National Park (Bianchi 2009).<p></p>
106001676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001676		threats	eng	By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been either heavily or moderately altered (Conservation International 1999), with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong> </strong>(Cavalcanti 1999). High-quality cerrado grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning (<strong> </strong>Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997). Caatinga habitats are less threatened, but still suffer conversion to agriculture, grazing and burning. Nine wild-caught birds were recorded in international trade in 1991-1995<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106001677		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II, but legal protection in Venezuela is not enforced (C. J. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It occurs in Morrocoy, Cerro El Copey, Laguna de la Restinga and Washington-Slagbaai National Parks. In addition, Venezuelan NGO Provita has established the 700 ha Chacaracual Community Conservation Area (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In 2006 and 2007 reforestation of the Washington-Slagbaai park began by successful reintroduction of rare native drought resistant berry and fruit bearing tree species. In 2007 the fence to exclude goats from a large section of the park was restored (A. O. Debrot <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007) but goat removal has not yet commenced<strong></strong> (S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2012). There is a conservation and awareness-raising campaign on Margarita and La Blanquilla (Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). The reintroduction programme on Margarita was preceded by five years of environmental education, public awareness and ecological studies (Sanz and Grajal 1998)<strong></strong>. On Bonaire, awareness campaigns began in 1998-1999 and are ongoing, in combination with ecological research activity. An amnesty of captive birds took place in 2002, with all declared birds identified using a numbered ring on the leg to aid in anti-poaching law enforcement (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2011 and 2012 24 captive reared birds have been released on Bonaire and there are plans to release another 20 (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2012).  People still keeping illegal birds can be fined up to $550 (Williams 2010). Supplemental feeding has also been carried out during extreme droughts (A. O. Debrot in litt. 1999, 2007). In 2010 the NGO Echo was established on Bonaire to address threats through research and monitoring. The Dutch Caribbean Nature Alliance is producing a species management plan for the Caribbean Netherlands  (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2012). On Margarita artificial nests were introduced but suffered higher rates of poaching. The repair of natural nesting cavities has proved more successful (Sanz <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Genetic studies are being carried out to resolve the taxonomic status of subpopulations (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine distribution and status throughout range. Monitor key populations. Regulate captive populations and reduce poaching incentives (A. O. Debrot in litt. 1999, 2007). Deploy anti-poaching measures in known breeding areas (A. O. Debrot in litt. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. On Bonaire, establish protected areas of key breeding, roosting and feeding areas and promote habitat restoration (A. O. Debrot <span style="font-style: italic;">i</span><span style="font-style: italic;">n litt</span>. 1999, 2007).&#160;</span> Explore potential for reintroduction to Aruba where suitable habitat is thought to exist (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<p></p>
106001677		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona barbadensis</em> has a disjunct range with seven genetically isolated populations in northern coastal <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Falcón, Lara, Anzoátegui and Sucre) and the islands of Margarita, La Blanquilla, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Curaçao </span> and <strong>Bonaire</strong> (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Caribbean</span> <strong>Netherlands</strong>) (Rodríguez-Ferraro 2009). References to the presence of a wild parrot population on on Curaçao are made in an 18<sup>th</sup> century historical source (A. O. Debrot in litt. 1999, 2007); there have been modern reports since 1988 (De Boer 2008, <span id="spnFrom" class="rwRRO" _e_ondblclick="onDblClkReadRcp(event);" _e_onclick="onClkRcp(event);" _e_oncontextmenu="onRwCm(event);" _fjnk="1" _dn="Adriana Rodríguez-Ferraro" _rt="SMTP" _em="rodrigueza@usb.ve" _ao="3" title="rodrigueza@usb.ve">A. Rodríguez-Ferraro <em>in litt.</em> 2012). It is now extinct on Aruba (to Netherlands). The mainland population seems low, while numbers on the islands (1,600 on Margarita in 2008 [<span id="spnFrom" class="rwRRO" _e_ondblclick="onDblClkReadRcp(event);" _e_onclick="onClkRcp(event);" _e_oncontextmenu="onRwCm(event);" _fjnk="1" _dn="Adriana Rodríguez-Ferraro" _rt="SMTP" _em="rodrigueza@usb.ve" _ao="3" title="rodrigueza@usb.ve">Briceño-Linares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.</span><span id="spnFrom" class="rwRRO" _e_ondblclick="onDblClkReadRcp(event);" _e_onclick="onClkRcp(event);" _e_oncontextmenu="onRwCm(event);" _fjnk="1" _dn="Adriana Rodríguez-Ferraro" _rt="SMTP" _em="rodrigueza@usb.ve" _ao="3" title="rodrigueza@usb.ve"> 2011], 100 on La Blanquilla in 1996-1998 [Rodríguez-Ferraro and Sanz 2007], and 650-800 on Bonaire in 2012 [Department of Resources and Planning, Bonaire <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span><span id="spnFrom" class="rwRRO" _e_ondblclick="onDblClkReadRcp(event);" _e_onclick="onClkRcp(event);" _e_oncontextmenu="onRwCm(event);" _fjnk="1" _dn="Adriana Rodríguez-Ferraro" _rt="SMTP" _em="rodrigueza@usb.ve" _ao="3" title="rodrigueza@usb.ve">R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2012]<strong></strong>) appear to fluctuate, but have increased on Margarita from 750 birds in 1989 (Sanz and Grajal 1998). In 1992, 12 captive-reared birds were reintroduced to Margarita, with some success (Sanz and Grajal 1998).</span><span id="spnFrom" class="rwRRO" _e_ondblclick="onDblClkReadRcp(event);" _e_onclick="onClkRcp(event);" _e_oncontextmenu="onRwCm(event);" _fjnk="1" _dn="Adriana Rodríguez-Ferraro" _rt="SMTP" _em="rodrigueza@usb.ve" _ao="3" title="rodrigueza@usb.ve"><br/></span>
106001677		habitat	eng	It inhabits xerophytic vegetation, frequenting desert shrublands dominated by cacti and low thorn-bushes or trees. Nesting takes place in cavities in trees, cacti or cliffs, generally from March to August (Sanz and <span id="spnFrom" class="rwRRO" _e_ondblclick="onDblClkReadRcp(event);" _e_onclick="onClkRcp(event);" _e_oncontextmenu="onRwCm(event);" _fjnk="1" _dn="Adriana Rodríguez-Ferraro" _rt="SMTP" _em="rodrigueza@usb.ve" _ao="3" title="rodrigueza@usb.ve">Rodríguez-Ferraro 2006). Average clutch size is 3.38 eggs per nest, and most eggs survive until hatching. It tends to roost communally in tall trees, with groups of up to 700 birds recorded (Juniper and Parr 1998).<br/><br/><p></p>
106001677		population	eng	The species's island populations total over 1,300 individuals (over 910 on Margarita, fewer than 80 on Blanquilla and over 400 on Bonaire), and it also occurs on mainland Venezuela. Its population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001677		threats	eng	It is widely exploited for trade, which serves a strong internal pet market (many chicks taken in Bonaire are believed to end up in Curaçao [R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Martin 2009, Williams 2009]). Tourist and associated developments are destroying habitat, especially on Margarita, where the principal breeding, roosting and feeding-sites are threatened by unregulated mining for construction materials (Collar 1997a, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. However, the main threat is from poaching for pets and the pet trade (C.J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In some areas, it is hunted for allegedly damaging crops (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000). On Bonaire, natural vegetation has been heavily degraded historically for timber and charcoal production, and more recently through intensive grazing by goats and donkeys, drastically reducing natural food species diversity and availability (A. O. Debrot in litt. 1999, 2007, Williams 2009)<strong></strong>. The impoverished food resource and lack of mature trees for nest sites are believed to limit effective population size (Williams 2009). Introduced mammalian predators and the destruction of nest sites resulting from poaching activity also appear to limit its reproductive potential on Bonaire (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Martin 2009, Williams 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Negative attitudes due its perception as a crop pest in agricultural and urban areas of Bonaire may encourage persecution and undermine support for conservation efforts (R. Martin and S. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2012).<p></p>
106001678		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001678		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001678		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 413,505 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001679		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In Mexico it occurs in nine protected areas (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The race <em>magna </em>occurs in El Cielo, Los Tuxtlas, Pantanos de Centla and Laguna de Terminos Biosphere Reserves. The race <em>tresmarieae</em> is protected in the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve. The race <em>oratrix</em> occurs in Chamela-Cuixmala Reserve, on the Lagunas de Chacahua, Huatulco National Park, and on the recently created Zicuiran-Infiernillo Biosphere Reserve in Michoacan (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as seven protected areas in Belize (E. C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich <em>in litt</em>. 1994,&#160;Miller and Miller 1997, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only breeding population known in Guatemala was declared a wildlife refuge in 2005, but effective protection is difficult due to organised crime in the area (Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are several country-wide awareness campaigns in Mexico (Roberson and Carratello 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is bred in captivity, but the reintroduction of captive-bred birds is unfeasible (Low 1995b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting, capture and trade. Enforce trade restrictions. Effectively protect key sites such as Las Colorados Ranch, Soto La Marina/La Pesca, (Tamaulipas), río Naranjo, centred on Las Abritas (San Luis Potosí) and Punta de Manabique. Survey to identify additional important sites. Research habitat use and local movements. Continue to expand awareness campaigns. <p></p>
106001679		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona oratrix</em> has undergone a dramatic population decline, judged at 90% since the mid-1970s, to 7,000 birds in 1994. There are three subpopulations in <strong>Mexico</strong>: the race <em>magna</em> in Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, Chiapas, Tabasco and Campeche; the nominate race from Jalisco to Oaxaca (Roberson and Carratello 1997); and the race <em>tresmariae</em> on the Islas Marías. The race <em>belizensis</em> was widespread in coastal <strong>Belize</strong>, but is now primarily restricted to central and north-west areas (Clay 1999)<strong></strong>, mostly in pine-oak forests along the coastal plains (B. Miller <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. There is an old report and a 1993 record from Petén, <strong>Guatemala</strong> (Clay 1999), and "<em>guatemalensis"</em> occurs from Punta Manabique to extreme north-west <strong>Honduras</strong> (Lousada and Howell 1996). There are conflicting reports that <em>tresmariae</em> is stable (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998) and under considerable threat (Low 1995b). On the coast of Michoacán, Mexico, it has been calculated that the species occupies 45.6% of its estimated historic distribution (Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2007). Based on intensive field surveys during 2001-2007, it was verified that the species's range has contracted in Colima state, and it has been extirpated in 11 municipalities in coastal Guerrero state (from Tecpan de Galeana to Marquelia) (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The combined range decline for Colima, Michoacan and Guerrero is estimated at 3,990 km<sup>2<strong>&#160;</strong></sup> (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Its Mexican coastal Pacific range may now cover 18,957 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>split into three fragments (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong>. </strong>The population at Punta de Manabique declined by 30% to 70 individuals from 1994 to 2001 primarily because of nest poaching (Eisermann 2003<em>, </em>Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106001679		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense thorn-forest, savanna, tall deciduous forest and humid riverine woodland, occasionally up to 500 m. Birds favour semi-arid regions in the northern Atlantic lowlands, but more humid savannas further south. In Belize, it inhabits pine savannas and adjacent evergreen forest patches, and "<em>guatemalensis</em>" occurs in coastal scrub, palm savanna and mangroves (Lousada and Howell 1996, Eisermann 2003). Food privation and fire cause occasional wanderings. It nests in tree-cavities and in snags of <em>Roystonea</em> palms (Eisermann 2003<em></em>), with breeding occurring in February-June. Along the Michoacan Pacific coast in Mexico, the species nests in <em>Astronium graveolens, Brosimum allicastrum</em> and at least five other tree species (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Nesting success is only 0.5 fledglings per nest (E. C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich <em>in litt</em>. 1994). It feeds on fruit from wild and cultivated trees.  <p></p>
106001679		population	eng	The population was estimated at 7,000 individuals in 1994. This is roughly equivalent to 4,700 mature individuals.
106001679		threats	eng	Habitat loss has been extensive, with 80% of the Tamaulipas lowlands cleared for agriculture and pasture, and increasing settlement along the Western Highway in Belize (Somerville 1997)<strong></strong>. In Belize, where much of the suitable habitat lies outside the national protected area system, the regions occupied by the species remain under heavy development pressure (B. Miller <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Palm savannahs at the only known breeding site in Guatemala are used for non-intensive cattle-grazing (Eisermann 2003), which continues to be a threat here (</span>Fundary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Many thousands of individuals of this species are illegally exported from Mexico and some from Belize each year, and it is popular in domestic markets (Low 1995b,&#160;Miller and Miller 1997, Somerville 1997). Illegal domestic traffic is intense in Mexico and may account for 38% of the species's recent distributional loss (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In the Mexican states of Michoacan, Guerrero and Oaxaca, it is mainly nestlings that are taken for the pet trade (T. Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al. in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In Guatemala, it is reported that local military authorities are complicit in the illegal trade of this species, and nest poachers are reported to frequent the species's nesting site (Eisermann 2003, Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In addition, hunting for food by local fishermen has been reported from Guatemala (Eisermann 2003, Eisermann <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In Belize, it is hunted and persecuted for damaging crops (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong> and is still a victim of the illicit pet trade, capture for which involves the cutting down of nesting trees (B. Miller <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Its range around coastal Michoacán is estimated to have declined by 1,507 km<sup>2</sup>, of which 576 km<sup>2</sup> can not be attributed to habitat loss and thus may be due to poaching for trade (Monterrubio-Rico <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001680		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. Efforts have been underway to get a c.4,000-ha area east Monterrico on the Pacific coast of Guatemala declared as a protected area (C. Muccio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The species has been the subject of a number of local studies, some on-going, aimed at gathering information on population trends and threats. The extent of wildlife exploitation for trade has been highlighted by local media, for example in Honduras (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> O. Andino<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out coordinated surveys across the species's range in order to quantify the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of off-take for trade through regular surveys of local people and officials. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout the species's range. Conduct awareness-raising activities to reduce exploitation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives effective protection.
106001680		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona auropalliata</em> is found in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span> and Central America, occurring along the Pacific slope of the isthmus in southern Mexico (Oaxaca and Chiapas), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span> and north-western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span>, the Bay Islands (Roatán and Guanaja) of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, and the Caribbean slope in eastern Honduras and north-eastern Nicaragua (Juniper and Parr 1998). The total population has been estimated at fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008), although it may actually number fewer than 10,000 individuals (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011); however, more data are required to verify this. A population density of 0.054 individuals/ha was recorded in southern Rivas department, Nicaragua, during surveys in 2007-2008 (Lezama-López 2009). The species is thought to be in rapid decline, probably throughout most of its range, owing to the loss and degradation of its habitats and unsustainable exploitation for trade. An estimated overall population decline of c.50% from c.1980 to 2000 has been   reported (Anon. 2008), although this requires confirmation. Preliminary surveys and observations suggest that the population in southern Guatemala has plummeted since the 1990s (L. Joyner <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Interviews with local elders in south-western El Salvador provide anecdotal evidence that the species has undergone a significant decline since the 1950s and 1960s (R. Bjork <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In the early 1990s, the population in Gracias a Dios, Honduras, was estimated at c.123,000 birds; however, by this time the species had been nearly extirpated from Choluteca and El Valle (Wiedenfeld 1993). Surveys in Nicaragua indicate a steep decline in the species’s abundance between 1994-1995 and 2004 (Lezama <em>et al</em>. 2004), and locals in some areas report that the species has disappeared from the vicinity of human settlements (Grijalva 2008). The population in Costa Rica also appears to be in decline (T. Wright <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Although the Costa Rican population is regarded as one of the most secure, local people report that the species has declined since the 1970s and 1980s (A. Salinas <em>in litt</em>. 2011).
106001680		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-arid woodland, arid scrub and savannas, mangroves, clearings in deciduous forest, Pacific swamp-forest, evergreen gallery forest and sometimes secondary growth in agricultural landscapes (Juniper and Parr 1998, R. Bjork <em>in litt</em>. 2011).
106001680		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001680		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, driven primarily by the expansion of agriculture, and capture for local and international trade (Juniper and Parr 1998, Anon. 2008). Deforestation has been a prevalent threat in all range states (Grijalva 2008). For example, mangrove forests in the Gulf of Fonseca region are being cleared for the development of aquaculture and extraction of firewood and timber (Grijalva 2008). In Honduras, the species has been recorded as being c.93% less common in modified habitats, such as cultivation, compared to broadleaved forest (Wiedenfeld 1993). It is considered one of the most sought-after psittacines in the Central American pet trade<em></em>, owing to the species’s vocal capabilities (Wiedenfeld 1993, R. Bjork <em>in litt</em>. 2011 J. Gilardi <em>in litt</em>. 2011). During the 1990s, close to 100% of known nests in southern Guatemala were subject to poaching, and significant areas of habitat have been lost to the expansion of sugarcane cultivation (L. Joyner <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In south-western El Salvador, the species also suffers heavy nest-poaching, as well as cavity occupation by Africanised Bees (R. Bjork <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It has been reported that each year c.5,000 young <em>A. auropalliata</em> are smuggled out of La Mosquitia region, Honduras (<em>per</em> O. Andino <em>in litt</em>. 2011), although this has not been verified. Such numbers would not be unrealistic given that, on average, 8,388 birds were recorded in export from Honduras each year in the period 1987-1989 (Wiedenfeld 1993). The numbers of this species that are recorded in export from Nicaragua appear to be decreasing (Lezama <em>et al</em>. 2004); however, nest poaching is still high (J. A. Díaz Luque <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, M. Lezama <em>in litt</em>. 2011), and thought to affect over 50% of nests in Rivas department (M. Lezama <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In Costa Rica, roughly a third of nests were raided in one study, accounting for c.85% of the all nest failures observed (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2001, Grijalva 2008), although in one study conducted near Liberia, up to 100% of the nests located by researchers at study sites had been poached (A. Salinas <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It is thought that twice as many are taken from the wild than are recorded in export, based on a mortality rate of 54% during capture and transit (Pérez and Zúñiga 1998 in Grijalva 2008), although a survival rate of 1 in 3 or 4 has also been reported (<em>per</em> O. Andino <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Anthropogenic threats are thought to exacerbate the effects of poor rates of recruitment to the breeding population (Grijalva 2008).
106001681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as common in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106001682		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001682		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001682		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 268,510 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001684		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<br/><p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.<strong></strong>
106001684		distribution	eng	This species was only recently discovered, and appears to be confined to the Amazon basin of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>in Amazonas and Pará. However, a previously misidentified specimen labelled Colombia exists, and as a cryptic and poorly known species, it may have been overlooked and is likely to have a wider distribution than reported (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). A captive bird found on the edge of Amazonas National Park suggests its presence there (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106001684		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland rainforest, with a preference for "igapó" (permanently flooded forest) and river edge forest. It nests in cavities of trees in flooded forest, and is known to feed on tree seeds and palm fruits.
106001684		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001684		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network, and it is thought to be vulnerable to fragmentation and disturbance (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106001685		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106001685		distribution	eng	</P>
106001685		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001685		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 49,600 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106001686		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. Small populations occur in numerous protected areas<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In Argentina, two small provincial parks are used by the species, but offer only partial protection because the parrots use habitat outside of the parks for most parts of their life cycle, including, critically, reproduction. In the species' Argentine stronghold between San Pedro and Santa Rosa, environmental education is underway to reduce capture of chicks, and the population has been monitored since 2005<strong> </strong>(Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor large populations (in March in Argentina). Study reproductive biology and demography throughout the species's distribution. Protect General Carneiro (Santa Catarina), Itaipú (Alto Paraná), RNP Itabó Rivas (Canindeyú), Estancia Golondrina (Caaguazú) and forest outside reserves in Rio de Janeiro<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and between San Pedro and Santa Rosa in Misiones. Invest in permanent trained rangers and resolve land tenure problems in Brazilian and Paraguayan reserves<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). Enforce anti-trafficking laws on roads connecting Monte Pascoal National Park to south Brazil<strong> </strong>(Snyder <em>et al</em>. 2000), at sites where the species is captured, and on the borders and ports of Paraguay and Argentina. Raise local public awareness to curtail nest-robbing and promote conservation of nest sites. In Argentina, provide technical support to promote soil conservation, to avoid clearing of forest for crops on small-holder farms.   <p></p>
106001686		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona vinacea</em> has become rare throughout its extensive range. In the early 1980s, <strong>Paraguay</strong> was considered the global stronghold, but all remaining subpopulations in Canindeyú, Alto Paraná, and Caaguazú number fewer than c.200 birds<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, <strong></strong>Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Itaipú reserves and Reserva Natural Privada Itabó are key sites and the minimum remaining population in Paraguay has been estimated at 220 birds<strong> </strong>(Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). There are no recent records from Caazapá or Concepción, and it has probably been extirpated in Amambay (where its historical occurrence is doubtful), Itapúa and Guairá. It is perhaps most common in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paraná (several populations of more than 100 birds), southern <strong>Brazil</strong>, and low numbers persist in Minas Gerais and São Paulo, within an estimated national total of 1,500-2,000 birds<strong> </strong>(G. A. Bencke and A. E. Rupp <em>in litt. </em>2009). It was possibly never common, and must be close to extinction in Bahia, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro. In <strong>Argentina</strong>, few populations remain in Misiones, and the species's stronghold is the mosaic of small farms and forest remnants between San Pedro and Santa Rosa (San Pedro Important Bird Area)<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al. </em>2005), with two small additional populations near Campo Viera and Bernardo de Yrigoyen<strong> </strong>(Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). A 2007 census&#160; yielded a minimum of 253 individuals in Argentina<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001686		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and highland Atlantic forest up to 2,000 m, and ecotones between this forest and grasslands (southern Misiones) and cerrado (Paraguay). There is a strong association with <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> in Rio Grande do Sul and some correlation in the historical distributions of bird and tree, but <em>Amazona vinacea</em> was distributed throughout eastern Paraguay and southern and western Misiones, Argentina, where there has been no <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> in historic times, and many other food sources are utilised, including seeds of many native and exotic species, even in areas with <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria </span>forest<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, <strong></strong>Juniper and Parr 1998, Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). It nests from September to January in cavities in various tree species<strong> </strong>(Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). Significant movements may occur in Brazil, possibly dictated by intra- and inter-year variations in <em>Araucaria </em>cone-crop production, but these do not affect the Argentinian or Paraguayan populations. During the breeding season, it is found in pairs or small groups (probably non-reproductive individuals); after the breeding season (February to July), the species congregates in large groups and roosts communally<strong> </strong>(K. Cockle, A. Bodrati, N. Fariña and J. Segovia <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p>
106001686		population	eng	Based on estimates of 1,500-2,000 individuals in Brazil (G. Bencke <i>in litt.</i> 2009), 220-400 in Paraguay and 253 in Argentina (K. Cockle <i>in litt.</i> 2009), the total population is believed to lie within the range 1,970-2,650 individuals and is placed precautionarily within the band 1,000-2,499. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001686		threats	eng	In 1984-1991, 38% of Paraguay's Atlantic forests disappeared<strong></strong> (Huespe Fatecha<em> et al</em>. 1994), and range contractions in Brazil presumably result from similarly extensive deforestation. There is some correlation with the disappearance of <em>Araucaria</em> forest e.g. in Paraná, 73,780 km<sup>2</sup> of <em>Araucaria</em> forest was reduced to 15,932 km<sup>2</sup> in 1965<strong> </strong>(Hueck 1978). Selective logging, colonisation and plantation agriculture threaten remaining forests (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995). However, in Argentina, <em>Amazona vinacea</em> has disappeared from large forest reserves (e.g. the 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> Iguazú-Urugua-í forest complex), remaining mostly in the mosaic of small farms and degraded forest remnants between San Pedro and Santa Rosa. There, where the wild population numbers approximately 200 individuals, 40 individuals were found in captivity in 35 homes between 2003 and 2005<strong> </strong>(Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2006 and 2007, from twelve nests identified in this area, only one chick fledged; at least three nests were depredated, at least two were flooded during storms, and at three nests the chicks were captured for sale to Brazil<strong> </strong>(Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná <em>in litt. </em>2007). In the anthropogenic habitat that <em>A. vinacea</em> selects in Argentina, there appear to be few appropriate nest cavities, and most nests are in large, shallow, cavities which are easily depredated or flooded during storms<strong> </strong>(Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná <em>in litt. </em>2007). Furthermore, the species appears to be very conservative in selecting nest sites, returning year after year to cavities that continually fail<strong> </strong>(Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná <em>in litt. </em>2007). Competition with other hole nesting animals may also be important: in the above mentioned nests in Argentina in 2007, <em>A. vinacea</em> apparently lost competitions for nest cavities with exotic honeybees, possums, and several species of hole-nesting birds, apparently during the incubation stage<strong> </strong>(Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná <em>in litt. </em>2007). Internal trade has probably affected Brazilian and Argentine populations, and one massive bird-smuggling operation was centred in Paraguay and included <em>A. vinacea</em> (Endangered Species Bull. 1995 20[2]:7). The species was also shot as a crop pest in certain areas<strong> </strong>(White 1882<strong>, </strong>Chebez 1992), but this does not appear to be an important threat today (Cockle <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is considered nationally Vulnerable in Brazil<br/><p></p>
106001687		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It is protected by domestic legislation (J.&#160;D.&#160;Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Education and awareness programmes have turned the bird into a national symbol. This has successfully eliminated hunting (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, helped by a moratorium on hunting within forest reserves (J.&#160;D.&#160;Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A captive-breeding programme was established in 1975, and in 1995 a total of 19 young birds had fledged (Copsey 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain the hunting moratorium within all forest reserves. Conduct a basic study of the feeding and breeding ecology. Designate remaining habitat as protected areas. Reassess the objectives of the captive-breeding programme. <p></p>
106001687		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona versicolor</em> occurs in the central-southern mountains of <strong>St Lucia</strong>. In 1950, there were 295 km<sup>2</sup> of available habitat, but this has been reduced rapidly since the mid-1970s. There have been considerable population declines, but these are being reversed by concerted conservation action. Surveys in 1996 estimated the wild population at c.350-500 individuals (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and noted some range expansion (J.&#160;D.&#160;Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001687		habitat	eng	It favours montane, moist primary forest, mainly at 500-900 m, but also forages in secondary growth (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in tree-holes, and breeding takes place in February-March or later (Collar 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding success is apparently similar to other Caribbean and mainland <em>Amazona</em> parrots (J.&#160;D.&#160;Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001687		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 350-500 individuals, roughly equating to 230-330 mature individuals.
106001687		threats	eng	The human population of St Lucia is growing at a considerable rate, increasing pressure on the forest and resulting in habitat loss (Copsey 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Selective logging of mature trees may significantly reduce breeding sites (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and hurricanes, hunting and trade pose further threats. There have been recent efforts to lift the moratorium on hunting within forest reserves, which would seriously threaten this species (J.&#160;D.&#160;Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001688		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It is fully protected under domestic legislation. Much remaining habitat is within the Northern  and Central forest reserves, and the Morne Trois Pitons and Morne Diablotin national parks, but adjacent areas of critical importance are not protected (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>. Since 1980, it has benefited from joint government and non-government efforts to protect its habitat and sensitise local people to its needs. Research methods have been improved recently to maximise ecological information gained whilst minimising disturbance to the birds, and study has yielded important information on nesting behaviour and parental care; similarly, census methodologies have improved to give more accurate estimates of density and population size (Reillo and Durand 2008). The population is monitored annually. A recent PhD project examined the species's interaction with fruit crops on Dominica (P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue enforcement of the protection of Morne Diablotin and Morne Trois Pitons national parks and the Central and Northern forest reserves. Continue to monitor the population annually. Investigate the effects of nest-site (and food) competition between this species and <em>A. imperialis</em>. Continue to prohibit trade in this species, exports for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> captive breeding, and import of non-native psittacines as pets on Dominica (P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106001688		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona arausiaca</em> is concentrated around the Morne Diablotin Massif in the north of <strong>Dominica</strong>, with birds also occupying habitat in the far north (Morne au Diable region), east, south-east and centre of the island, and Morne Trois Pitons National Park in the south (Zamore and Durand 1998, Wiley <em>et al. </em>2004, P. R. Reillo<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Many areas have been reoccupied after the species disappeared from them in the aftermath of the destructive Hurricane David in 1979 (Zamore and Durand 1998)<strong></strong>. It is described as "ubiquitous" in forested areas, and "locally common" on agricultural land. Numbers have risen from possibly as few as 150 birds in 1980, to possibly as many as 1,000 in the present day (P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106001688		habitat	eng	It mainly occurs in the canopy of rainforests, generally between sea level and 800 m, but occasionally to 1,200 m<strong></strong>. It has become a regular visitor to coastal areas (Juniper and Parr 1998, P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>, descending to sea level throughout the year to search for food&#160;(Zamore and Durand 1998, Reillo and Durand 2008). There are an increasing number of records from agricultural land, mainly in citrus crop, passion fruit and mango plantations (Zamore and Durand 1998)<strong></strong>. Breeding takes place between February and June, with nests usually situated in the cavities of large forest trees, such as <em>Dacryodes excelsa</em> and <em>Sloanea caribaea</em><strong></strong>. These are usually 11-25 m above the ground and commonly have a protective covering of vines, bromeliads or creepers (Juniper and Parr 1998, Zamore and Durand 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001688		population	eng	The most recent population estimate stands at 850-1,000 mature individuals (P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), roughly equivalent to 1,200-1,500 individuals in total.
106001688		threats	eng	Habitat loss at lower elevations has been mainly caused by clearance for agriculture (Collar 1997); although replanting with fruit crops has benefited the species (Reillo and Durand 2008), frugivory by the parrots has sparked conflict with local farmers (Douglas 2011). Hurricane-related damage has also been important: another hurricane of the magnitude of Hurricane David could reverse recent population increases. Hunting and illegal trade are now low-level threats. <p></p>
106001689		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Domestic legislation protecting the species is enforced. The St Vincent Parrot Reserve was established to protect all occupied habitat (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Successful public education campaigns have apparently improved public perceptions of the species and, combined with the above measures, have reversed some of the previous declines. Captive populations exist in St Vincent and Barbados (Woolcock 2000, Sweeney 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A comprehensive species conservation plan was published in 2005 (Culzac-Wilson 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the population. Continue and enhance existing protective measures. Study the reproductive success, movement patterns and habitat requirements of this species (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Oppose plans for the cross-country road and propose a better option. Implement the species conservation plan.   <p></p>
106001689		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona guildingii</em> occurs on the upper west and east ridges of St Vincent (<strong>St Vincent and the Grenadines</strong>), where it declined seriously through the 20th century until the early 1980s. Following recent conservation action, numbers increased from 370-470 individuals in 1982 to approximately 519 in 2002, and then to c.734 in 2004 (Greenwood 1994, Culzac-Wilson <em>et al. </em>2003, Wege D. <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001689		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist forest, mainly at 125-1,000 m, preferring mature growth at lower altitude. It feeds in the canopy, on a wide variety of fruits, seeds and flowers (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but sometimes forages in partially cultivated areas. Breeding takes place between January and June, peaking in February-May, in loose aggregations of approximately 12 individuals, each defending its own nest site but tolerating the close proximity of nearby pairs (Culzac-Wilson 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During wetter years, birds may not attempt to breed (Culzac-Wilson 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are generally in cavities in mature, large trees (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001689		population	eng	Greenwood (1994) <p></p>
106001689		threats	eng	Hunting for food, trapping for the cage-bird trade and habitat loss were the principal causes of this species's decline. Deforestation has been the result of forestry activities, the expansion of banana cultivation, charcoal production, the loss of nesting-trees felled by trappers seeking young birds for trade, and natural events such as hurricanes and volcanic eruptions (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The introduced nine-banded armadillo <em>Dasypus novemcinctus </em>undermines large trees causing them to topple, reducing the number of suitable nest trees (Culzac-Wilson 2005)<strong></strong>. A cross-country road is planned, funded by the Taiwanese government, which would destroy large areas of suitable habitat and increase deforestation rates (Culzac-Wilson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  The genetic isolation of the separate subpopulations may present further cause for concern. <p></p>
106001690		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It is protected by domestic legislation. In recent years, there have been considerable efforts to protect suitable habitat and sensitise local citizens to its needs. Successful conservation education programmes have markedly reduced local trade. It is protected in the Northern Forest Reserve and the Central Forest Reserve, but important areas adjacent to these reserves remain unprotected (Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.  An area of 33 km<sup>2</sup> of the Northern Forest Reserve has been designated as the Morne Diablotin National Park (Collar (1997a, Wiley <em>et al </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is also present in small numbers in the Morne Trois Pitons National Park (Reillo 2001, Wiley <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Reports of the first successful captive breeding of the species were published in 2011 (Reillo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Continue enforcement of the protection of the Morne Diablotin and Morne Trois Pitons National Parks, and the Northern and Central Forest Reserves Study the ecology of this species and factors affecting its status (including interspecific competition) (Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Zamore and Durand 1998, Wiley <em>et al </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001690		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona imperialis</em> is endemic to <strong>Dominica</strong>, where it occurs in the Morne Diablotin area (primarily on the north-east and south-east slopes [Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998]<strong></strong>), the Northern and Central Forest Reserves, and has recently re-established a small population in the Morne Trois Pitons National Park (Reillo 2001, Wiley <em>et al. </em>2007, P. R. Reillo <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is known to have declined significantly and numbered only 80-100 individuals in 1993. Conservation action increased the population to 150 birds by 2003 (P. R. Reillo <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. At present Morne Diablotin National Park and its surrounds are thought to hold 100-175 individuals, with 50-75 in the Central Forest Reserve and  c.50 in Morne Trois Pitons National Park and its surrounds. The total population is estimated at 250-350 individuals (Wege and Anadón-Irizarry 2008, P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  <p></p>
106001690		habitat	eng	It mainly inhabits montane and elfin forest at 600-1,300 m, but forages down to 150 m in response to food shortages (Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is highly sensitive to habitat modification, readily abandoning traditional foraging and nesting territories (Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are situated in cavities in tall forest trees (the same species as used by <em>A. arausiaca</em>), with breeding between February and June (coinciding with the dry season). The nest cavity is heavily festooned with vines and epiphytes, making observation of nesting activity difficult (Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite the intensive work carried out towards this species' conservation, its ecology remains poorly known. <p></p>
106001690		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-350 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 160-240 mature individuals (P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106001690		threats	eng	A combination of habitat loss (mainly conversion to plantations, especially bananas (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and hurricane-related damage), hunting for food and trapping for the cage-bird trade were the principal reasons for this species's decline up until 1990 (P. R. Reillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Local trade has been considerably reduced, if not eliminated, as a result of a successful education programme, but foreign bird-collectors may still pose a threat (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Competition for nest-sites from the more numerous <em>A. arausiaca</em> will presumably become more significant as lowland forest is lost and the two species come increasingly into contact (Dominica Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001691		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001692		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in 14 protected areas in Brazil (Develey 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and most recent observations outside Rio Grande do Sul have been in reserves. In Rio Grande do Sul, clearance of native forest is prohibited, fuelwood extraction requires a licence and suitable areas for incorporation in a reserve network have been identified (Bencke 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some preliminary public awareness activities have been undertaken (Bencke 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor large populations. Create a reserve network in Rio Grande do Sul, implemented at the municipal level through land acquisition (Bencke 1996)<strong></strong>. Initiate a long-term plan for sustainable forest management of tobacco in Rio Grande do Sul (Bencke 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Expand public awareness activities at appropriate properties and schools (Bencke 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001692		distribution	eng	<em>Triclaria malachitacea</em> occurs mostly in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are additional records from south Bahia (none since 1833), Minas Gerais (a few doubtful records), Espírito Santo (four or five sites), Paraná (three modern records) and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley, Tijucas Valley and Serra do Mar region, in the north of the state [do Rosário 1996, G. Kohler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011]<strong></strong>). Two records from Misiones, Argentina, require confirmation. The population was formerly estimated at fewer than 5,000 individuals (Lambert <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>, but Bencke (1996) suggested that there may be c.10,000 in Rio Grande do Sul and significant numbers on the east slope of the Serra do Mar, however the apparent rarity of the species suggests that these figures may be an overestimate (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106001692		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower montane and escarpment forests up to 1,000 m, ranging into lowland forests outside the breeding season. In Rio Grande do Sul, it nests on flat, ridgeline terrain (possibly an artefact of lowland forest destruction) (Bencke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but, in the Serra do Mar, most records are along valley watercourses. <em>Trichilia claussenii</em> may be an important nest-tree in Rio Grande do Sul, with <em>Eugenia rostrifolia</em>, <em>Alchornea triplinervea</em> and <em>Cupania vernalis</em> frequently possessing suitable natural cavities (Bencke 1998)<strong></strong>. Nesting occurs from September (October in Rio Grande do Sul) to January (Bencke 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has a varied diet, including palmito palms<em> Euterpe edulis</em> and occasionally maize (Bencke 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It is vulnerable to fragmentation and appears to require fragments of over 60 ha to persist<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Uezu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001692		threats	eng	There has been extensive habitat loss for agricultural conversion, urbanisation and intensive palmito collecting. Even the moister valleys in the Serra do Mar are under conversion to banana plantations on the lower slopes. In Rio Grande do Sul, cutting for fuelwood to cure tobacco is fragmenting habitat (Bencke 1996)<strong></strong>. During the mid-1980s, small numbers were found in international trade. There is some internal trade but the species is rarely recorded in captitity (Bencke 1996, C. Yamashita <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001693		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001696		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the south Cauca valley, in Valle and Cauca, south-west Colombia (Collar et al. 1992). Since 1990 a spate of records has extended its range south through Ecuador, with localities in Napo (N. Krabbe in litt. 1995, S. N. G. Howell in litt. 1996, López-Lanús 2001), Morona-Santiago (M. Reid in litt. 1997) and perhaps Manabí (López-Lanús 2001), and into Amazonas, north-east Peru (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). It has apparently declined in Colombia, where there have been only five records at two sites since 1966, perhaps as a result of overuse of agrochemicals in the Cauca valley, where flocks of 20-25 were reported in the 1950s and early 1960s (Collar et al. 1992). Recent records suggest that it is more common elsewhere within its range, and its apparent preference for degraded habitats implies that deforestation may actually benefit the species (at least) in the short term (Chantler and Driessens 1995).
106001696		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open bushy grassland, pastures and hilly, eroded areas with bare soil and sparse grasses and shrubs (Collar et al. 1992).
106001696		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001696		threats	eng	The species has apparently declined in Colombia, where there have been only five records at two sites since 1966, perhaps as a result of overuse of agrochemicals in the Cauca valley, where flocks of 20-25 were reported in the 1950s and early 1960s (Collar et al. 1992). Recent records suggest that it is more common elsewhere within its range, and its apparent preference for degraded habitats implies that deforestation may actually benefit the species (at least) in the short term (Chantler and Driessens 1995).
106001697		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological and habitat requirements. Study threats. Clarify its distribution in Bolivia and its presence in Peru. Clarify whether it makes seasonal movements. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against clearance and encroachment.  <p></p>
106001697		distribution	eng	<em>Cypseloides rothschildi</em> occurs in north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, Formosa, La Rioja and Córdoba), south-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija), with one record from Cuzco in south <strong>Peru</strong> (Armonía 1995, Chantler and Driessens 1995, J.&#160;C.&#160;Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  It has been recorded in forest and open country at 800-2,000 m, but very little is known of its behaviour or status.<em> <p></p></em>
106001697		habitat	eng	It is probably most common in ravines and gorges of wet montane areas with numerous waterfalls for breeding sites<strong></strong> (Chantler and Driessens 1995). <p></p>
106001697		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. The estimate requries confirmation.
106001697		threats	eng	Large tracts of the yungas forests in the core of its range have been cleared, particularly in Argentina, owing to logging of valuable timber, conversion for agriculture, plantations of <em>Pinus</em> spp., road-building and human colonisation (Vervoorst 1979,<strong></strong> WWF/IUCN 1997). <p></p>
106001698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001699		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is known to have bred at Rancho Grande in the Henri Pittier National Park in Venezuela (Collins 1980)<strong></strong> and at Cabañas San Isidro and the Yanayacu Biological Station in eastern Ecuador (Greeney 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and threats. Survey further potentially suitable sites between known localities. Investigate nesting habits and potential competition for nesting sites with <em>Streptoprocne rutila</em>, as the two species are known to use the same nesting sites, but at different times of the year in eastern Ecuador (Greeney 2004, H. F. Greeney <sub>in litt</sub>. 2012).</span>  <p></p>
106001699		distribution	eng	<em>Cypseloides cherriei</em> has been recorded from the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca in <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, Cordillera de la Costa in Aragua, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, three sites in Santander, Cauca and Boyacá (Chávez-Portilla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), <strong>Colombia</strong>, and two sites in west Pichincha and Napo (Christmas Bird Count unpublished data), <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Breeding has only been proven at single sites in Costa Rica and Venezuela and two sites in Ecuador (Greeney 2004), where birds are presumed to be resident. It is almost certainly under-recorded, and its status and distribution in areas between the widely spaced known localities should be investigated<strong></strong> (Stiles and Skutch 1989).<em> <p></p></em>
106001699		habitat	eng	Most records are from montane regions, near streams in forested and open habitats, at 1,000-2,200 m  (Collins 1980<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It nests and roosts in permanently humid areas (e.g. behind waterfalls) in rocky gorges of mountain streams and roosts in similar habitats<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (Collins 1980,<strong></strong> Stiles and Skutch 1989,<strong></strong> Marín and Stiles 1993)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001699		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001699		threats	eng	Unknown, but most of its habitat is likely to be relatively intact. <p></p>
106001700		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys in potentially suitable habitat near historical sites and elsewhere in south-west Mexico. Clarify its ecological requirements and migratory status. <p></p>
106001700		distribution	eng	<em>Cypseloides storeri</em> has a restricted range in south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is known only from a few sight records and six specimens taken in Guerrero (Sierra de Atoyac), Michoacán (Tacámbaro) and Jalisco (Sierra de Manantlán and Juanacatlán) (Navarro <em>et al.</em> 1992, <strong></strong> Navarro <em>et al.</em> 1993,<strong></strong> Ibánez-Hernández <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. The most recent published observations are of a single individual believed to be this species in a mixed flock of c.100 swifts near Tacámbaro in September 1995 (Howell <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, a record of several birds showing features of <em>C. storeri</em> within a flock of <em>C. rutilus</em> near Manzanillo, Colima<strong></strong> in February 2002 (Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006, <strong></strong>D. Lane <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006) and another possible single at Teotitlan del Valle, Oaxaca in March 2010 (Howell 2011). Unpublished records include "one about 5km south of Tacámbaro in July 2009" (M. Patten per J. King <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, 2011), "at least 2-3 at an apparent colony at Tacámbaro on 17-18 June 2010" (J. King <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, 2011) and several photographed at Rancho Primavera, El Tuito,  Jalisco in 24 January 2012 (B. Gibbons per J. King <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <em> <p></p></em>
106001700		habitat	eng	It has been collected at 1,500-2,500 m in montane forest and transition pine-oak / dry tropical deciduous forest in areas with numerous waterfalls and ravines (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Tacámbaro sighting involved a mixed flock of swifts flying over hills and fields bisected by a narrow, steep-sided canyon. Well documented records are from February, June, July and September, indicating that the species may be sedentary (Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The specimen taken in June had enlarged testes indicative of breeding (Ibánez-Hernández <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001700		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001700		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106001701		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001702		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001703		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001704		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001705		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001706		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout the known range in order to determine current status and population size. In particular, clarify its presence, abundance and distribution on Borneo. Conduct ecological studies to explore habitat requirements, particularly the link to rainforest cover surrounding breeding sites. Protect areas of suitable habitat from clearance, degradation and disturbance.   <p></p>
106001706		distribution	eng	<em>Hydrochous gigas</em> occurs highly sporadically in the Main Range, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and the mountains of Sumatra and West Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Collar <em>et al. </em>2000). Records from Borneo, in Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia, and Brunei, involve no specimen evidence and are thus treated provisionally here. All individual populations appear to be small, although one, at Gede-Pangrango, Java, was once fairly large but has seemingly now vanished.  <em> </em><p></p>
106001706		habitat	eng	This species occurs over steeply mountainous rainforest, being largely dependent on waterfalls as breeding sites. Altitudinal limits are poorly known, but there are records from 800 m in Peninsular Malaysia, 440 m on Sumatra and 300-1500 m on Java <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although this species lacks echolocation, it has acute poor-light vision and may be a crepuscular feeder, potentially contributing to the paucity of records.  <p></p>
106001706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001706		threats	eng	This species may be dependent on areas of forest cover surrounding breeding sites, and therefore be susceptible to the effects of logging and landscape conversion for agriculture. The restricted nature of their waterfall breeding sites may pose an inherent limitation to population size, increasing their susceptibility to disturbance.  <p></p>
106001707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Java and satellite islands (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001710		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cave sites on Praslin and La Digue are monitored by Ministry of Environment rangers (S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999; G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Programmes for the control of invasive wetland plants are ongoing (G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue regular monitoring of cave sites (R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Create protected areas to encompass all known nest-caves and buffer areas and assign legal protection status (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control cats and Barn Owls in the vicinity of colonies (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conserve rich feeding grounds, such as marshes, by eradication of invasive, introduced aquatic plants (Rocamora 1997a; G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001710		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia elaphra</em> is endemic to the <strong>Seychelles</strong> and ranges over the islands of Mahé, Praslin and La Digue, with one known breeding site on each island. A colony on Félicité has disappeared, as has one on Mahé (; Watson 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The La Digue cave held 35-45 nests in 1996-1997 (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but as numbers have fluctuated in the past (MacDonald 1978; Watson 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong> it is unclear whether there is a continuing decline at this site. In the Praslin colony, 56 nests and 152 birds were estimated in 1977 (MacDonald 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with 60-80 nests from 1980 onwards (Rocamora 1997a; Watson 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Studies in 1996-1997 estimated the total population at 2,500-3,000 individuals (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001710		habitat	eng	It is an aerial, insectivorous species, and feeds over a variety of habitats including forest and wetlands. Flying ants form the majority of prey caught (MacDonald 1978)<strong></strong>. On Praslin and Mahé, it is most commonly seen flying over boulder-filled valleys or rocky slopes in the hills, usually in small flocks (MacDonald 1978)<strong></strong>. It nests colonially on the roofs of deep caves, laying a single egg (MacDonald 1978)<strong></strong>. There is increasing evidence that it breeds year-round (G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001710		population	eng	Studies in 1996-1997 estimated the total population at 2,500-3,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,700-2,000 mature individuals.
106001710		threats	eng	The past decline of this species may have been due to the widespread use of insecticides such as DDT, perhaps the collection of nests for bird-nest soup, and the ongoing drainage of wetlands (Shah 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> for housing and tourist developments in coastal areas, although this may not have a direct effect as the species feeds mainly elsewhere (G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the future, development encroachment could impact upon nest-caves and buffer areas (S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Quarrying may be a threat, and led to the destruction of a Praslin nest-cave in the 1970s (G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 1999; A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em> are likely predators of this species (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and can limit the number of potential nest-sites by direct disturbance or occupation (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cats may be a threat where nests are accessible to them (Rocamora 1997a; A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Marshes on La Digue have been invaded by introduced plant species and it has been suggested that this has affected invertebrates dependent on the marsh ecosystem (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, reducing the food supply for the species (Gerlach 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this is unproven. <p></p>
106001711		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in order to obtain an up-to-date total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Protect nest-sites from exploitation, vandalism and disturbance. Develop a code of good practice with the tourist industry and speleologists.  <p></p>
106001711		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia francica</em> breeds colonially in caves and lava tunnels<strong><sup></sup></strong> in <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong> and <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Cheke 1987c). In the 1970s, the species was much less common on Réunion than Mauritius (Cheke 1987b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. More recently, discoveries on Réunion of several large colonies indicate that the population has since increased substantially<strong><sup></sup></strong> to over 10,000 mature individuals (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999; M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999 A. Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm. </span>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including a small number of sites with more than 1,500 birds (Barré <em>et al.</em> 1996; A. Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm. </span>2000;  Le Corre and Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Mauritius, numbers have declined markedly in the last century, continuing through the last 20 years, with surveys in the 1990s indicating habitation of 34 caves, but complete removal of birds from a further 19. The population was estimated to be a minimum of 2,244-2,610 birds (G. Middleton <em>per </em>C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001711		habitat	eng	The species occurs over a wide range of habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on winged insects (e.g. Diptera, flying ants and anthomyid flies) in flocks, usually 20 m above the ground, but lower over lakes and during cloudy weather. Nest building and breeding may take place virtually all-year-round. Nests are bracket-shaped and constructed using lichen filaments, held together with saliva. Two eggs are typically laid, rarely one, and the incubation period is probably 21-23 days, followed by a probable fledging period of 45-55 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106001711		population	eng	The population on Réunion has been estimated at over 10,000 mature individuals (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and on Mauritius there is an estimated minimum of 2,244-2,610 birds (G. Middleton per C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000), thus the total population is expected to fall within the range 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001711		threats	eng	Collection for birds' nest soup and vandalism of caves are the principle threats on Mauritius (A. Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm. </span>2000; C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In an extreme case, the entrance of one cave has been completely filled in (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Réunion, proposed development of canyoning and caving tourism may threaten some colonies, and protected areas may be needed (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some colonies on Réunion are also threatened with disturbance during the study of caves by speleologists (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These threats are exacerbated by a shortage of suitable nest-sites (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106001712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the most abundant swift in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although rare in Rajah Sikatuna National Park, Bohol (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce in lowlands and locally common to abundant in highland areas (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001718		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001719		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout the known range in order to determine current status and population size. Conduct ecological studies to explore habitat requirements, particularly the link to forest cover surrounding breeding sites. Research taxonomic status. Protect areas of forest around volcano craters to ensure this potentially important habitat is not lost.   <p></p>
106001719		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia vulcanorum</em> is restricted to Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). There are confirmed records from four sites in west Java, with likely but unconfirmed reports from five further sites in west, central and east Java. Taking an average colony size of 25 pairs and assuming only one colony per site, this would give a total of under 400 birds for all localities, but this is thought to be highly precautionary and an additonal 4-5 craters may also support the species.  <em> </em><p></p>
106001719		habitat	eng	This species nests in rock crevices at 2,200-3,000 m, and forages around peaks and ridges of volcanoes and over hilly primary forest (BirdLife International 2001, Imanuddin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004). All known breeding sites are on active volcanoes.   <p></p>
106001719		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001719		threats	eng	As the species nests in crater crevices and all known localities are active volcanoes, population size is inherently restricted, and colonies are vulnerable to periodic extinction due to volcanic activity. Habitat requirements are poorly known, but this species could be susceptible to the loss of forest habitats surrounding breeding sites due to logging and agricultural conversion. Disturbance by tourists may become an increasing problem at locations such as Mt Gede (Imanuddin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004). <p></p>
106001720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001721		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mt Matutum Forest Reserve (140 km<sup>2</sup>, of which 3,000 ha is primary forest) has been proposed as a national park. The Natural Parks at Mt Apo (644 km<sup>2</sup>) and Mt Kitanglad (313 km<sup>2</sup>) are CPPAP sites. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct fieldwork using mist-netting to determine identification characters. Focus fieldwork on cliffs in montane forest in order to identify further important sites. Carry out studies at known sites to lay the basis for appropriate management strategies. <p></p>
106001721		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia whiteheadi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from only four mountains, one on Luzon (nominate <em>whiteheadi</em>) and three on Mindanao (race <em>origenis</em>) (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). On Luzon, it was collected on Mt Data in 1895, but has not been recorded there subsequently. On Mindanao, it is known from Mt Apo in 1904 and Mts Kitanglad and Matutum in the 1990s, with specimens taken recently at an unnamed locality in South Cotabato (the same province as Mt Matutum). Population numbers are entirely unknown, partly as a result of the species's apparent preference for relatively inaccessible areas and partly due to identification difficulties, even with birds in the hand.  <p></p>
106001721		habitat	eng	It occurs over forested mountains above 1,200 m elevation. Specimens of <em>origenis</em> were reportedly taken from a hollow tree, presumably when roosting. If several unidentified <em>Collocalia</em> swiftlets mist-netted on a cliff face at Mt Kitanglad in 1997 were this species, as seems likely, then cliffs may be an important component of habitat preferences. The breeding season is not known, but a nest was taken in July, reportedly from cliffs. Additionally, four nests (undated) thought to have been made by the species were taken from a hollow tree. Its migratory status is uncertain. <p></p>
106001721		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified. Further research is required.
106001721		threats	eng	Restricted range (if genuine) and habitat loss may combine to jeopardise the species. Mt Data is reportedly devoid of forest. Mts Kitanglad and Matutum are under threat from illegal logging operations and, like Mt Apo, clearance for <em>kaingin</em> shifting agriculture. <p></p>
106001722		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical locations and potentially suitable habitats for the species. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Clarify field identification criteria. <p></p>
106001722		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia papuensis</em> is known from a handful of specimens from New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). Specimens are known from the Idenburg River (where flocks of up to 30 birds were recorded), northern Snow Mountains, around Jayapura and one taken in 1993 from a cave in the Hindenburg Range. There are unconfirmed sight records across northern Papua New Guinea to the Huon Peninsula but this species may be unidentifiable in the field&#160;<strong></strong>(Coates 1985,<strong></strong> Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Rowland 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001722		habitat	eng	Its ecological requirements are unknown and it has been recorded from sea-level to 2,400 m. <p></p>
106001722		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106001722		threats	eng	The population, status and threats to this species cannot be assessed on present knowledge. <p></p>
106001723		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical locations and potentially suitable areas for the species. <p></p>
106001723		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia orientalis</em> is known only from three specimens: one each from Guadalcanal (in 1927) (<strong>Solomon Islands</strong>), New Ireland (in 1963) and Bougainville (in 1979) (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) (Mayr 1935, <strong></strong><strong></strong> Salomonsen 1963, Ripley 1983)<strong></strong>. Although very similar to Uniform Swiftlet <em>C. vanikorensis</em>, it may be possible to identify in the field but there are no field records except for a series of (unconfirmed) records. Unidentified large swiflets were seen on New Britain in 1980 (Bishop 1983), New Georgia in 1987 (Blaber 1990) and New  Ireland in 1997, 1999 and 2007 (Dutson 2007), possibly referring to this species.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106001723		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to montane areas. <p></p>
106001723		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified. Further research is required.
106001723		threats	eng	If restricted to montane areas it is presumably currently under little threat. <p></p>
106001724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Java (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001727		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001729		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant. The population on Yap has not been quantified but the species's population in the rest of its range is estimated to be 83,500 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001730		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys have been conducted and a standardised method for monitoring has been designed (McCormack 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Baiting to prevent the arrival of rats is underway by the airport and dock (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a new programme based on increased community vigilance, reporting any rat or sign of rats in cargo, and a response with traps and toxic bait has been initiated (G. McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Resurvey the population including a detailed study of the breeding biology over a full season so that further actions can be identified/justified (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Exclude crabs from breeding caves (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Investigate the possibility of translocation to another suitable island (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Monitor and regulate tourism.  Control Polynesian Rats <span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans</span> close to breeding caves.  Take measures to ensure that alien species, especially black rat<em> Rattus rattus</em>, are not accidentally introduced to the island. <p></p>
106001730		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia sawtelli</em> is restricted to Atiu,<strong> Cook Islands,</strong> although there is a possible early historic record from Mitiaro (Steadman 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and an unconfirmed report of swiftlet bones found on Mangaia (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When it was collected in 1973 from the Anatakitaki Cave there were c.60 nests and the local inhabitants reported that there were a few smaller colonies elsewhere on the island <strong></strong>(Holyoak 1974)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1987-1988, a detailed survey recorded 190 active nests in two caves (Tarburton 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1994 and 1995, further surveys were conducted and, although the numbers of active nests in each cave varied from year to year, the totals were stable at 172 and 175 (McCormack 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001730		habitat	eng	The species favours forests, fernlands, agriculturally developed areas such as croplands, and mixed horticultural areas, but avoids the dry, uparised coral ring (makatea) of Atiu (Fullard<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). Birds are most often seen foraging 3-5 m above the ground although occasionally descend to the edges of trees or bushes (Fullard<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). The species nests colonially in caves in makatea limestone (Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001730		population	eng	McCormack (1997) <p></p>
106001730		threats	eng	The major causes of chick mortality have been identified as starvation after falling out of the nest and predation by coconut crab <em>Birgus latro</em> and land crab<em> Cardisoma longipes </em>(Tarburton 1990)<strong></strong>. The fledging period is prolonged, perhaps because of lack of food. One of the caves has become a popular ecotourism destination (McCormack 1997)<strong></strong> and thus disturbance could be a problem, as there do not appear to be any restrictions on noise and the use of torches (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Polynesian rats <span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans </span>are present on the island and may be a threat (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106001731		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The population at Papehue valley is monitored regularly. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect the known breeding sites (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey for other breeding sites. Continue and expand monitoring of known populations. Identify nest predators and take protective measures as necessary. <p></p>
106001731		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia leucophaea</em> breeds only on Tahiti in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was recorded in five valleys in 1971-1974 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, and in six valleys (out of 39 visited) during the period 1986-1991 (Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>, apparently never having been abundant in the 20th century (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>. Indeed, in 1923, it was noted that two local hunters travelled for eight days through the valleys without seeing this species (Beck 1923)<strong></strong>. In 1997, a new breeding site, with c.30 nests, was found (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999, C. Blainvillain verbally 2000). A population of c.100 birds is monitored regularly in Papehue valley and appears to be stable (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The global population is estimated to be below 1,000 birds and stable.  It was formerly encountered on Huahine and (possibly) Bora Bora, while records from Moorea in 1973 may have referred to vagrants from Tahiti (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993, P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001731		habitat	eng	It prefers wet, rocky and forested valleys at high elevations (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests either in shallow depressions under overhanging rocks and coastal cliffs, or caves (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Chantler and Driessens 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001731		population	eng	The population size is estimated to be below 1,000 birds based on analyses of available records. It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001731		threats	eng	Its rarity is possibly linked to the introduction of the Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis </em>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong> (which is known to defend territories, tree hollows and other nesting sites from native birds) and Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans </em>(C. Blainvillain verbally 2000)<strong></strong>. Other introduced species may have a negative impact on Tahiti Swiftlet. <p></p>
106001732		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in peninsular Malaysia and abundant elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001734		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001735		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to vary considerably in status throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001738		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Itombwe Forest has recently been gazetted as a community reserve, although the boundaries still need to be defined (A. Plumptre<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No other potentially relevant conservation action is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys in the Itombwe Mountains to determine its distribution more accurately and to assess its population size. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Ensure effective protection of Itombwe Forest Community Reserve. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106001738		distribution	eng	<em>Schoutedenapus schoutedeni</em> is known with certainty from only five specimens to the east and north-east of the Itombwe Mountains in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>(DRC), where it appears to be resident. However, there are possible sightings from Bwindi Forest, Uganda (near the border with the DRC),<strong> </strong>and from Mt Tshiaberimu to the north-west of Lake Edward (DRC) (Sarmiento and Butynski 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which indicates that the species may have a less restricted range than previously thought (T. Butynski <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong></strong><p></p>
106001738		habitat	eng	Until recently, the species was known only from clearings in transitional and lowland forest, at low and intermediate altitudes (c.1,000-1,470&#160;m), but there are now indications that it may also be found over montane forest (up to 2,700&#160;m; T. Butynski <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in February or March.<p></p>
106001738		population	eng	The population is   assumed to be small (&lt;10,000) owing to the lack of confirmed records other   than five specimens collected during 1956-1972. It is placed in the band   2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded   here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001738		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the most likely threat as the Itombwe Forest is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters (Omari <em>et al</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this may be reduced by its recent designation as a community reserve (A. Plumptre<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture has increased dramatically in the past few years as corn crops have failed, causing famine (Omari <em>et al</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The human population in the area is increasing rapidly, and thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north (Omari <em>et al</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001739		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of this species's breeding ecology and habitat requirements. Conduct surveys across its range to estimate population size and locate important breeding sites. Once identified, monitor populations at breeding sites in order to determine population trends. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106001739		distribution	eng	<em>Mearnsia picina</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it has been described as fairly common on Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Cebu and Negros, with a recent record from Tawitawi, but it appears to be scarce and local even at the best sites (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). <em> </em><p></p>
106001739		habitat	eng	This species is apparently restricted to lowland forest, although little is known of its breeding habits or life history. It feeds high above forest, either alone or in small groups.  <p></p>
106001739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001739		threats	eng	The close association with lowland forests suggests that this species may be highly susceptible to habitat loss through commercial logging, conversion for agriculture and plantation forestry, as well as urban developments and mining.  <p></p>
106001740		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's status is reported to vary locally from scarce to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001741		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather common, especially in eastern Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001742		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on both Sao Tomé and Principé Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001743		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather local and uncommon to sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of east and central Africa and rarest within its limited southern African range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001745		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001746		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001749		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be only locally common, even in areas of greatest abundance, and rare throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon throughout much of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and possibly c.100-100,000   breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106001751		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals   (Brazil 2009).
106001752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be commonly encountered in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001753		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon but locally numerous (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001754		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001755		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001756		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001757		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001758		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Listed as a Threatened species in Canada (COSEWIC 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Populations continue to be monitored as part of the Breeding Birds Survey. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research potential measures to prevent further population declines. Assess threats in South America.  <p></p>
106001758		distribution	eng	<em>Chaetura pelagica </em>breeds in eastern North America as far north as southern <strong>Canada</strong>, and occasionally in California and Arizona (<strong>USA</strong>). It is a migratory species, wintering in eastern <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, north-west <strong>Brazil</strong> and northern <strong>Chile</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999). The Canadian population, which occupies one quarter of the breeding range, is estimated at just 11,820 breeding individuals (COSEWIC 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the global population has been estimated at 15,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Trends have been recorded through North America between 1966 and 2007, with a decline of 5.5% per year in Canada (total decline of 90%) and 1.8% per year in the USA (total decline of 53%). Overall, during this period the population has declined by 1.9% per year, though this decline has accelerated in recent years, reaching a decline of 2.8% per year between 1980 and 2008 (Dionne <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong> (total decline of 40% over this period) (Sauer <em>et al.</em> 2008). <p></p>
106001758		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This migratory species is extremely gregarious, and typically nests in chimneys, though other structures such as hollow tree trunks can be used (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999, COSEWIC 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs have been recorded from May to July, though the precise timing varies slightly throughout its range. A clutch of two to seven eggs is laid, and extra-parental co-operation is well established. It is present in North America until September (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It is readily associated with urban settings, though also forages and breeds over a variety of natural habitats over its wide range. Main habitats include river-edge forest,  the edge of tropical lowland evergreen forest and second-growth scrub. It can also be found along the coast in Peru, up to 3,000 m over irrigated farmland in western Andean valleys, and even in central city zones (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Spiders, along with <em>Hymenoptera</em> spp., <em>Diptera</em> spp. and other insects have been recorded (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106001758		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated to number 15,000,000 individuals.
106001758		threats	eng	The most significant threat to the species appears to be the decreasing number of nesting and roosting sites caused by logging operations, the demolition of old abandoned buildings and, especially, the sharp decline in the number of suitable and accessible traditional chimneys, which are this species's main breeding habitat (COSEWIC 2007, R. Windingstad <em>in litt. </em>2010). It is projected that very few suitable sites will remain within the next thirty years (COSEWIC 2007). The number of breeding sites in Quebec is limited, and it is estimated that only 60% of breeding-age adults actually reproduce; a trend which is thought to be replicated across Canada (COSEWIC 2007). Hurricanes during the migration period and harsh weather conditions during breeding season have caused a considerable number of deaths (COSEWIC 2007, Dionne <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In its South American wintering area, the species is threatened by intensive logging operations and by fires (COSEWIC 2007). <p></p>
106001761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001764		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001765		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001766		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001767		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified. Further research is required.
106001768		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001769		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001770		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001772		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001773		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 140000-330000 breeding pairs, equating to 420000-990000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1000000-4000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106001774		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001775		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001776		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6,900,000-17,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 20,700,000-51,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 40,000,000-200,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106001777		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 2,500-10,000 breeding pairs, equating to 5,000-20,000 mature individuals and 7,500-30,000 individuals in total (BirdLife International 2004).
106001778		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant throughout the Rift Valley Highlands (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001779		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 39000-160000 breeding pairs, equating to 117000-480000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 250000-2000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106001780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant in South Africa and locally common in east Africa. Race mayottensis is common and race balstoni is common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001781		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify taxonomic position relating to African Swift <em>A. barbatus</em> and identity of birds in northern Liberia. Survey mountainous areas near locations of historical records. Attempt to clarify its movements and ecological requirements. <p></p>
106001781		distribution	eng	<em>Apus sladeniae</em> is known from the Bakossi Mountains in west <strong>Cameroon</strong> (one record only), south-east <strong>Nigeria</strong> (one record only) (Elgood 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Mt Moco in <strong>Angola </strong>(though the Angolan specimens need confirmation) (Traylor 1960, da Rosa<strong> </strong>Pinto 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also known from Bioko, <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>, where six specimens were collected in 1903, but with no subsequent records (Pérez del Val 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a possible sighting (requiring confirmation) of c.10 birds at Moca in Monte Alen National Park in January 1998 - the first record for mainland Equatorial Guinea (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the species breeds on Bioko and visits the mainland during the non-breeding season, but its true status (including its taxonomic position relating to African Swift <em>A. barbatus</em>) remains uncertain.<em> <p></p></em>
106001781		habitat	eng	It is probably primarily a mountain species. <p></p>
106001781		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is known from only 10 records.
106001781		threats	eng	Unknown, but may be threatened by forest loss in part or all of its range. <p></p>
106001782		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its main Socotran breeding site in the Hajhir mountains (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported  generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout most of its breeding range except Pakistan (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999). National population estimates include:   &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in   China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in   Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106001786		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A presumed breeding site is located within the Blue Mountain National Park, Mizoram, north-east India. Strict forest policy and wildlife protection laws in Bhutan suggest that its future there is secure.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Advocate to include this as a key target species during surveys across north-east India, Bhutan and western and northern Myanmar to establish its breeding range, population status, ecology, seasonal movements, and potential threats. Strict protection should be afforded to all known colonies. <p></p>
106001786		distribution	eng	<em>Apus acuticauda</em> is known from just a few breeding colonies in the Himalayan foothills in <strong>Bhutan</strong>, and the hills of Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram, north-east <strong>India </strong>(BirdLife International 2001, Chantler 2005, Ahmed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its seasonal movements and wintering areas are virtually unknown. There are records throughout the year from India and during the non-breeding season from north-west <strong>Thailand </strong>and Yunnan, <strong>China </strong>(J. Hornskov <em>in litt</em>. 2005). There are no confirmed records from Myanmar, but it is likely to occur there. At known breeding colonies, the number of birds ranges from a few to 200 and the total population may not exceed 1,000 individuals.  <p></p>
106001786		habitat	eng	It breeds colonially in the crevices of rocky cliffs and deep gorges, at 200-1,350&#160;m, generally in the vicinity of forest. Breeding is from March to May usually at the same site each year. Birds apparently remain in close proximity to the nesting colonies while breeding, normally disappearing soon afterwards and reappearing the following year. Away from breeding sites, it has been recorded up to at least 1,500 m. It has been suggested that it may only undertake local movements, but this requires further investigation.<p></p>
106001786		population	eng	The population is thought to number 250-999 individuals, based on estimates of breeding colony sizes ranging from a few to 200 individuals. This estimate equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106001786		threats	eng	There are no known threats, although its reliance on forest as a feeding habitat should be investigated. <p></p>
106001787		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population   is estimated to number 900-2,500 breeding pairs, equating to 2,700-7,500   individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106001788		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant over most of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; &lt; c.100 breeding   pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil   2009).
106001791		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100-160 breeding pairs, equating to 300-480 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106001792		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant to very rare and generally rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001793		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001794		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001795		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001796		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001797		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001799		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001802		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001803		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001805		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001806		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001807		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001808		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001810		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001811		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage core areas of remaining habitat.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses.  <p></p>
106001811		distribution	eng	<em>Phaethornis koepckeae</em> is locally common, but very patchily distributed on outlying ridges near the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Peru</strong> (Amazonas, San Martín, Huánuco and Madre de Dios) (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1982, <strong></strong>Sibley and Monroe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001811		habitat	eng	It is found in the understorey of lowland and montane evergreen forest at 450-1,300 m, and at Hacienda Amazonia frequents <em>Heliconia</em> patches (Sibley and Monroe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Clements and Shany 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is rarely recorded in second growth.  <p></p>
106001811		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. The estimate requries confirmation.
106001811		threats	eng	It is threatened by rapid deforestation within its elevational range. Habitat in the Marañón drainage has been progressively deteriorating under cultivation for many years (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995), while the spread of oil palm plantations, cattle ranching and logging are all serious threats (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/> <p></p>
106001812		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001814		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001815		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001816		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001817		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as perhaps locally common, although poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001818		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001819		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001821		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001823		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001824		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001825		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001826		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001827		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage cores areas of remaining habitat.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses.  <p></p>
106001827		distribution	eng	<em>Ramphodon naevius</em> is relatively common in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Santa Catarina, with a historic record from Rio Grande do Sul), to 900 m (Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001827		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland Atlantic forest and second growth. <p></p>
106001827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001827		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forest habitats (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106001828		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It is protected under Brazilian law and survives in Monte Pascoal National Park, Bahia, and Linhares Forest Reserve, Espírito Santo.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its current status at Monte Pascoal National Park, Linhares Forest Reserve and Córrego Grande Biological Reserve. Survey historical localities and other areas of suitable habitat. Study its ecological requirements. Promote the continued protection of forest at Estação Veracruz and existing reserves where the species occurs.<p></p>
106001828		distribution	eng	<em>Glaucis dohrnii</em> occurs in east <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is known from a few widely scattered localities in Bahia and Espírito Santo. There are historical sight records from extreme east Minas Gerais where its occurrence is supported by records from adjacent Espírito Santo. Rio de Janeiro has been included in the species's published range based on a specimen labelled Rio de Janeiro. In Bahia, there are recent reports from only three sites: Estação Veracruz (formerly the CVRD Porto Seguro Reserve<strong></strong>) (F.&#160;Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999), where it was found relatively frequently during 1993-1997 [E.&#160;O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999]), Monte Pascoal National Park (a few recent records [G.&#160;M.&#160;Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1993]<strong></strong>), and adjacent to Serra de Itamaruja (one in July 1993 [Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1993]). In Espírito Santo, there is just one recent record (in 1988), from Linhares Forest Reserve, but it has not been seen subsequently. Possible records of birds at two further sites (Bralanda and Barrolândia) are being verified (E.&#160;O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It is likely that the species has never been common, but it has undoubtedly declined significantly in numbers and distribution.  <p></p>
106001828		habitat	eng	It occurs humid forest, particularly along streambeds with flowering <em>Heliconia</em>. It is generally seen in the forest interior, but has been recorded visiting ornamental flowers in areas adjacent to forest. It is reported to breed from September to February.<p></p>
106001828		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001828		threats	eng	The lowland forests of east Brazil have been fragmented and destroyed, and this is considered to be the principal cause of its decline. Although there are recent records from two reserves, these are under pressure from settlers, suffer from fire and road construction and generally provide inadequate protection. Perhaps most importantly, they protect few watercourses and consequently little suitable habitat for this species. The new owners of Estação Veracruz have apparently abandoned plans to clear the forest<strong></strong> (F.&#160;Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <strong></strong><p></p>
106001829		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001830		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001831		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001832		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001833		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a number of reserves (such as the Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve), but the extent of protection that some of these provide is questionable (Dirzo and García 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Conduct research into the species's ecology. Improve active protection of existing reserves in the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106001833		distribution	eng	<em>Campylopterus excellens</em> is fairly common in suitable habitat in south-east Veracruz, north-east Oaxaca and west Chiapas, <strong>Mexico </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a, AOU 1998, A. G.  Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<sup></sup>. Most records are from the Sierra de los Tuxtlas area of Veracruz.    <p></p>
106001833		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid and riparian forest, and open woodland in lowlands and foothills (up to 1,200 m) (Howell and Webb 1995a, AOU 1998, A. G.  Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet consists of nectar and arthropods (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Males in breeding condition have been reported in September-May (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001833		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001833		threats	eng	Extensive clearance for cattle-ranching and agriculture has deforested much of the region in which the species occurs, and remaining habitat is highly fragmented (Dirzo and García 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001834		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001835		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001836		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001837		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001838		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001839		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In Venezuela, it is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Guácharo National Parks (recently expanded to include a further 500 km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest [F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999]<strong></strong>) and, in Tobago, occurs within the proposed Main Ridge National Park. On Tobago, it is the subject of a conservation/education initiative by the Tobago Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and RARE Center. It has been the subject of a long-term (Caribbean Union College and University of the West Indies) ecological study (Hayes <em>et al. </em>2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure protection of the national parks where it occurs.  Continue the conservation and education initiative on Tobago and consider a similar scheme in Venezuela. Act on the results of the long-term study.   <p></p>
106001839		distribution	eng	<em>Campylopterus ensipennis</em> is restricted to the Turimiquire Massif (at 760-1,830 m) and Paria peninsula (at 400-1,200 m) in north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>, and the Main Ridge down to 100 m on Tobago (<strong>Trinidad and Tobago</strong>) (Hayes 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999). In Venezuela, it is relatively common in shade coffee plantations on Cerro Negro (Boesman and Curson 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Colvee 1999) and other parts of the Cordillera de Caripe. On the Paria peninsula it is also common (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), with 1.5 pairs/ha were estimated on Cerro El Olvido <strong></strong>in 1988 (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989) and 0.2 males/ha were recorded in primary forest and 4.5 males/ha in shade coffee plantations on Cerro Humo in 1993 (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1994a). On Tobago, it is recovering from the devastating effects of Hurricane Flora in 1963, but remains absent from the south-west (Hillsborough Reservoir) and north-east (Pigeon Peak) portions of its former range (F. E. Hayes <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999). Recent surveys suggest that there are between several hundred and in excess of 1,000 individuals on Tobago (Hayes 1996)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106001839		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature montane forest, edges of clearings, shade coffee and abandoned plantations and regenerating forest less than 15 m tall.   On Tobago males lek all year round but there is a pronounced breeding season during February to April (Hayes <em>et al. </em>2000).  <p></p>
106001839		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001839		threats	eng	In its Venezuelan range (except the east Paria Peninsula), there is clearance for agriculture and pasture, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline on the Paria peninsula is not yet judged economically viable but remains a potential threat (C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J-P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Natural disasters, such as the hurricane which destroyed most forest on Tobago in 1963, have resulted in significant population declines.   <p></p>
106001840		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001841		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is protected by two national designations and is an international Biosphere Reserve (L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte and M.&#160;Pearman<em> per </em>P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000), but this has not conserved the massif's ecosystems effectively.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to locate population strongholds (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, T.&#160;Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Protect effectively areas harbouring healthy populations (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, T.&#160;Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Work with local communities and regional institutions to identify and prioritise conservation and management strategies<strong> </strong>(Salazar and Strewe undated).<br/><p></p>
106001841		distribution	eng	<em>Campylopterus phainopeplus</em> is endemic to the Santa Marta mountains, north-east <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is locally fairly common on the south-east and north slopes<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986, L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte and M.&#160;Pearman<em> per </em>P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000, (P.&#160;Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 2000). The few recent records<strong> </strong>(G.&#160;M.&#160;Kirwan <em>in litt</em> 1998) are from two sites on the south-east slope (L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte and M.&#160;Pearman<em> per </em>P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000) and one on the San Lorenzo ridge (P.&#160;Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 2000), the massif's north-western extremity, during the 1990s. The paucity of records is presumably related to a lack of observers in this politically and militarily sensitive region<strong> </strong>(G.&#160;M.&#160;Kirwan <em>in litt</em> 1998), although the reason it went unrecorded on the relatively well-watched San Lorenzo ridge until 1999 is unknown.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001841		habitat	eng	It is an altitudinal migrant inhabiting humid forest borders at 1,200-1,800&#160;m<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986, L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte and M.&#160;Pearman<em> per </em>P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000) during the dry season (February-May), when it feeds particularly on banana flowers in shade coffee plantations, while in the wet season (June-October) it is found in open páramo up to the snowline at 4,800&#160;m<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986,<strong> </strong>Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. Breeding condition birds have been recorded from April to June, and displaying individuals have been seen in June and July<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986).<br/><p></p>
106001841		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001841		threats	eng	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains (L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000). The main threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993, L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000,<strong> </strong>J.&#160;Fjeldså verbally 2000), which has been compounded by the government spraying herbicides<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993, L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000). It is not known whether this activity is still undertaken by the Colombian authorities (L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000). From the 1950s onwards, immigration to the area has been considerable, and agricultural expansion (e.g. coffee and livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. pines)<strong></strong> (IUCN 1992, Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte and M.&#160;Pearman<em> per </em>P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000, <strong></strong>Salazar and Strewe undated) have caused extensive forest loss. The high-altitude breeding habitat is not known to be significantly threatened. The species is fairly common in shade coffee plantations when not breeding, but the extent of such plantations is decreasing (L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte and M.&#160;Pearman<em> per </em>P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000). <p></p>
106001842		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage core areas of remaining habitat.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses. <p></p>
106001842		distribution	eng	<em>Campylopterus villaviscensio</em> occurs on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Ecuador</strong>, at three sites in north-east <strong>Peru</strong> (San Martín, Amazonas) (Sibley and Monroe 1990, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997, J.&#160;Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and in southern <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño and Putumayo). It is relatively common but is presumably declining due to habitat loss.<strong></strong><strong></strong><em> <p></p></em>
106001842		habitat	eng	It occurs in foothill evergreen and elfin forest, and second-growth woodland at 1,050-1,500 m<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.&#160;<strong></strong><p></p>
106001842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001842		threats	eng	Much of its montane forests are under intense pressure from conversion for agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, with widespread destruction of its habitat also caused by peasant farmers, and tea and coffee growers (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106001843		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001844		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001845		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001846		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001847		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001848		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001849		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001850		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001851		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106001852		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001853		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001854		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001855		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001856		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001861		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001862		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001863		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001864		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001865		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106001865		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophornis gouldii</span> has a continuous distribution in east-central South America. In north-central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>it is frequently recorded in Serra dos Carajás, Pará. In west-central Brazil it is known to occur in Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, Mato Grosso. From this region its range extends through central Brazil to east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106001865		habitat	eng	This species's habitat includes forest edges, savanna and "cerrado" (dry  savanna woodland). It occurs up to 500 m elevation. Breeding is between  December and April (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106001865		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106001865		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011).</p>
106001866		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001867		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Atoyac (Hernández-Baños <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> incorporating the range of this species. Survey to clarify the full extent of this species's distribution. Survey to assess the impact of shade coffee plantations on this species and understand its altitudinal movements. <p></p>
106001867		distribution	eng	<em>Lophornis brachylophus</em> is only known from a 25 km stretch of the Atoyac-Paraíso-Puerto del Gallo road in the Sierra de Atoyac (north-west of Acapulco), and is likely to be confined to the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, <strong>Mexico</strong>. All records have been near the villages of Arroyo Grande, Paraíso and Nueva Delhi in the months of January-July (S. Hansson <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At least seasonally, it can be locally fairly common to uncommon (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001867		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid to semi-humid evergreen and semi-deciduous forest, forest edge and shade coffee plantations at elevations of 900-1,800 m, where it feeds on the flowers of <em>Inga</em> and <em>Cecropia </em>(Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are local reports to 650 m suggesting that it may migrate altitudinally, breeding at higher elevations (possibly November-February), and spending March-August (possibly longer) at lower altitudes (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001867		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001867		threats	eng	In the early 1990s, semi-deciduous forest between Paraíso and Nueva Delhi was being rapidly cleared for the cultivation of maize, fruit and coffee. Much of the remaining forest provides cover for illegal drug-growing making an evaluation of habitat quality difficult (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001868		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001869		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001870		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001871		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001872		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001873		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001874		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106001874		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Discosura popelairii</span> is a generally rare species of north-west South America. The northernmost part of its distribution is east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, where it is considered rare and local. In east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span> the species is generally uncommon, but recorded regularly at Panacocha  (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Its range extends as far as north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106001874		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland forest from 100-300 m, and does not appear tolerant of secondary habitats (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106001874		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001874		threats	eng	he primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106001875		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001876		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in lowland forest in northern Bolivia. <p></p>
106001876		distribution	eng	<em>Discosura letitiae</em> is known from two specimens simply labelled as from <strong>Bolivia</strong>, and taken prior to 1852 when it was described<strong></strong>  (Bourcier and Mulsant 1852, Butchart and Bird 2010). A study investigating the possibility that the specimens represented immature or variant plumages of Racquet-tailed Coquette <em>Discosura longicauda</em> (probably the most closely related species) or a hybrid form validated the original treatment as a separate species<strong> </strong>(Graves 1999). It could occur in the ornithologically poorly known Amazonian lowlands of north or north-east Bolivia, as the only other <em>Popelairia</em> recorded there is Black-bellied Thorntail <em>P. langsdorffi</em> (in extreme north-west Pando) and three of the other four <em>Popelairia</em> and <em>Discosura</em> species have lowland distributions. However, localities for 19th century trade skins, such as these, are often unreliable, to the extent that the two specimens may not have even come from Bolivia<strong> </strong>(Graves 1999). Furthermore, international boundaries have changed in this area since the early 19th century, such that parts of the Amazon previously in Bolivia are now in Brazil. <p></p>
106001876		habitat	eng	Unknown, but may occur in primary and secondary forest in the Amazonian lowland and foothills. <p></p>
106001876		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001876		threats	eng	Unknown, but if it is an extant species of the Amazonian lowlands it is presumably threatened by habitat loss. <p></p>
106001877		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001878		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001879		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001880		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106001881		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001883		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001885		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorostilbon bracei </em>is known only from the type, described in 1877 by Lawrence, from New Providence, <strong>Bahamas</strong> (Olson and Hilgartner 1982), although fossil hummingbird bones found on the island<strong> </strong>(Graves and Olson 1987) are probably also referable to this species<strong> </strong>(Olson and Hilgartner 1982).  <p></p>
106001885		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it was likely to have been typical of the genus.  <p></p>
106001885		threats	eng	The cause of its extinction is unknown, presumably owing to some kind of human disturbance<strong> </strong>(Olson and Hilgartner 1982). <p></p>
106001886		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001887		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001888		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001889		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001890		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001891		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001892		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001893		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001895		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001896		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. There are records from three protected areas: Cerro San Juan Special Biosphere Reserve, Nayarit; Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve, Jalisco/Colima; and Nevados de Colima National Park, Jalisco/Colima (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine the species's precise distribution and obtain an estimate of its population size. Investigate its ecological requirements. Assess the severity of the threat from habitat destruction. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106001896		distribution	eng	<em>Thalurania ridgwayi</em> is patchily distributed in south Nayarit, Jalisco and Colima states, west <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is uncommon to locally common. Surveys in central and south Mexico have failed to find the species and its restricted range seems real rather than the result of incomplete knowledge.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001896		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid, semi-deciduous woodland and shade coffee plantations at elevations of 250-1,200&#160;m. Its ecology is poorly known, but it is often found along streams and generally avoids edge habitats (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106001896		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001896		threats	eng	The reasons for its patchy distribution, and its precise ecological requirements are poorly understood. The avoidance of edge habitats indicates that it is probably threatened by habitat destruction, particularly for the cultivation of sun coffee. <p></p>
106001897		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001898		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in forested parts of pacific slopes in Colombia (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001899		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001900		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Monte Pascoal National Park and Pedra Talhada State Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. <p></p>
106001900		distribution	eng	<em>Thalurania watertonii</em> is confined to eastern Pará (probably erroneous), Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe and northern Bahia, north-eastern <strong>Brazil</strong> (Pacheco and Whitney 1995) where it is common but presumably declining due to habitat loss. <p></p>
106001900		habitat	eng	It is restricted to lowland habitats such as coastal rainforest, <span style="font-style: italic;">cerrado</span>, plantations and parks throughout its Atlantic forest range. It forages in the understorey and middle strata, usually on the periphery of vegetation on nectar and occasional invertebrates. Males defend territories against conspecific intruders and other hummingbirds. Breeding occurs between November and February.  <p></p>
106001900		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001900		threats	eng	Widespread and continuing disappearance of lowland forest in north-eastern Brazil is likely to be causing declines, the Atlantic forests north of the Sao Francisco river having been drastically reduced, with less than 4% remaining by 1995. It seems able to accept man-made habitats as long as patches of forest or stands of scattered trees remain. <p></p>
106001901		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001902		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001903		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001904		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001905		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Isla de Salamanca National Park, Magdalena, receives little effective protection and habitat loss has been considerable. Despite a number of searches, there have been very few records within the national park during the 1990s and 2000s (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J. C. De Las Casas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008)<strong></strong>. The Corporación Sentido Natural and the Fundación Colibri are researching its taxonomic status and ecological requirements. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys to clarify its distribution and population. Research its taxonomic status. Study its ecological requirements (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Improve active protection of Isla de Salamanca National Park. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.Restore damaged mangrove ecosystems (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<p></p>
106001905		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidopyga lilliae</em> is known locally on the Caribbean coast of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Atlántico, Magdalena and La Guajira) (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), most records originating in Isla de Salamanca National Park or Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It appears to be either rare or sporadic at the few known localities. The population size is low and it appears to move locally according to season (J. C. De Las Casas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). It is likely to have declined since the mid-1970s owing to habitat loss. <p></p>
106001905		habitat	eng	The species shows a preference for forests of <em>Erythrina fusca</em> while they are flowering. At other times it frequents mangroves where it feeds, at least in part, on insects (J. C. De Las Casas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). Its habitat is estimated to have declined by 40% (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><p></p>
106001905		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106001905		threats	eng	Construction of a pipeline and road through the wetlands of the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Isla de Salamanca in the mid-1970s obstructed tidal flow and caused very extensive mangrove die-back, continuing until at least 1992 (Wege and Long 1995), although mangroves are now regenerating in some areas (Salaman and Giles 1995). Domestic and industrial pollution, sewage, urbanisation and particularly mangrove and forest cutting are further problems. Land is being sold to build a large-scale port in the future, representing a potentially severe threat to the species's remaining habitat (J. C. De Las Casas <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106001906		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001907		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001909		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001910		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001911		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001913		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001915		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001916		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001917		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecology and population size. Grant protected status to areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106001917		distribution	eng	<em>Goethalsia bella</em> is uncommon in the foothills of Cerro Sapo, Cerro Pirre and the Serranía de Jungurudo<strong></strong> (G.&#160;R.&#160;Angehr <em>in litt.</em> 2000) in east Darién, <strong>Panama</strong>, and the adjacent extreme north-west Chocó in <strong>Colombia</strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106001917		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey of montane humid forest and edge. It is most common at elevations of 1,050-1,200 m on Cerro Pirre, but has been recorded from 600-1,650 m<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). <p></p>
106001917		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001917		threats	eng	Much of the highland forest within this very restricted range remains relatively pristine because of its inaccessibility and formal protection. The proposed Pan-American Highway link through Darién could be highly detrimental to this species<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995) but there are no current plans for its completion. <p></p>
106001918		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001919		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001920		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001921		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001922		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001923		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001924		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001925		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001926		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001928		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001929		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001930		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001931		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001933		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001934		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Honduran Air Force property known as Polígono in the río Aguán valley is now managed by the American Bird Conservancy and the Fundación Parque Nacional Pico Bonito as a core for a proposed 7,500-acre thorn forest reserve (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Anon 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An impact assessment of the proposed road is planned (S. Eccles <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is a conservation target of the Hummingbird Society. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a system of core protected areas and work with neighbouring ranches to ensure that adjacent land is appropriately managed (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Expand the Sierra de Agalta National Park to encompass suitable habitat within the valley (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey to locate additional populations. Promote the species as a flagship for local and national conservation (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Complete fencing thorn forest around Polígono to exclude cattle. <p></p>
106001934		distribution	eng	<em>Amazilia luciae</em> occurs in the arid interior valleys of <strong>Honduras</strong>, where it is currently known from three sites in the northeast, and has recently been rediscovered in the west of the country. It was not recorded between 1950 and 1988, when it was found to be common at two sites, 16 km apart, near Olanchito and Coyoles in the upper río Aguán valley, Yoro. In 1991, 22-28 birds were found in 2.5 ha of habitat near Olanchito (Howell and Webb 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1996, it was found north-east of Gualaco in the Agalta valley, where there was less than 1 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A previously unknown population was identified in the Valle de Telica, Olancho department in February 2007 (Anderson and Hyman 2007, Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in November 2008 located the species in six forest fragments along a 33-km transect in Santa Bárbara department; the first records in the west of the country since 1935 (BirdLife International<em> </em>2008, <strong></strong>R. E. Hyman <em>in litt. </em>2008,<strong> </strong>Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001934		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry forests and scrub, mainly arid, open-canopy deciduous thorn-forest (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, apparently at elevations up to 1,220 m. The thorn-forest near Coyoles is c.6-10 m high and dominated by Mimosaceae, Cactaceae and Euphorbiaceae, and the species is still found despite heavy grazing of the understorey and an apparent lack of flowers. At Olanchito, birds occur in similar but more cut-over and heavily grazed thorn-forest and scrub. The birds recently rediscovered at Santa Bárbara were in fragments of closed-canopy semi-deciduous woodland, ranging from 5 to 60 ha in size (R. E. Hyman <em>in litt. </em>2008, Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feeding has been observed at a minimum of 14 plant species, including cacti, thorny shrubs and low trees, herbs, epiphytes and parasitic species (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During recent fieldwork, over 90% of feeding visits observed in Yoro occurred at <em>Pedilanthus camporum</em> and <em>Nopalea hondurensis</em>, whilst over 90% of visits observed in western Honduras were to <em>Aphelandra scabra</em> and <em>Helicteres guazaumifolia </em>(Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Insect-catching has also been noted. The species is thought to undertake seasonal movements to track resources (Anderson and Hyman 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001934		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106001934		threats	eng	At Santa Bárbara and Cofradía most of the thorn-forest has been cleared for grazing and what little remains is extremely dry with few birds of any species present. Most remaining habitat in the río Aguán and Agalta valleys is on large haciendas, managed (non-intensively) for cattle-grazing (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there is still clearance for plantation agriculture and cattle pastures (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Agalta valley, bulldozers are removing thorn-forest for replacement with rice cultivation (M. Bonta <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and improved access to the río Aguán valley has facilitated the continuing conversion to pineapple plantations. Overall, most suitable habitat probably exists as fragments of less than 100 ha in size, with the majority located on private land, exacerbating the risk of habitat loss (D. L. Anderson<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Perhaps most concerning are plans to pave and extend a road through the range of this species, which would presumably lead to further habitat loss (S. Eccles <em>in litt. </em>2000). There are reportedly a number of multinational projects within the species's range in both eastern and western Honduras that are awaiting approval and could result in further habitat loss (D. L. Anderson<em> in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p>
106001935		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001937		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001938		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001939		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001940		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001941		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A small population occurs in Tivives Biological Reserve. Cutting mangroves is illegal in Costa Rica, but this law is widely ignored.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its population size, current distribution and the quality of remaining mangroves. Monitor the clearance and degradation of mangrove forests within the species's range. Investigate the causes of its absence from patches of apparently suitable habitat. Expand Carara Biological Reserve to protect mangroves around the mouth of the río Grande de Tárcoles. Protect mangroves north of Corcovado National Park around the río Sierpe (Capper <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Perhaps use this endemic species as part of an awareness campaign to promote the protection of mangrove forests (R. Garrigues<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106001941		distribution	eng	<em>Amazilia boucardi</em> is very local on the Pacific coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> from the head of Golfo de Nicoya to Golfo Dulce. The species was recently discovered in two new mangrove forest sites on the outer Nicoya Peninsula; a female was trapped in January 2005 and two were trapped in 2006 at Estero Tamarindo (Las Baulas de Guanacaste Marine National Park), and in August 2006, a male and female were observed at Playa Venado (R. Garrigues<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is patchily distributed even within the four or five large mangrove forests in this range (Harcourt and Sayer 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, probably reflecting the presence of its preferred food-plant, the Pacific mangrove <em>Pelliciera rhizophorae</em>. Despite tolerating some habitat alteration where <em>P. rhizophorae</em> remains common, it is absent from many areas of apparently suitable habitat. The population in the Important Bird Areas of Costa Rica has been estimated at 2,150-4,150 mature individuals (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001941		habitat	eng	It feeds principally on the flowers of <em>P. rhizophorae</em>, but is occasionally observed in adjacent, non-mangrove habitats. Nesting has been recorded in October-February. <p></p>
106001941		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001941		threats	eng	The construction of salinas and shrimp ponds, and selective logging for charcoal production are destroying mangrove habitats (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Other threats include illegal cutting, dyke and road construction (which have affected the hydrology in a number of places), and pollution (notably around the Golfo de Nicoya port of Puntarenas). The entire Pacific coast of Costa Rica is under heavy development pressure, with potentially negative effects on mangrove forests (R. Garrigues<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  This species could be affected by a significant rise in sea-level caused by climate change (R. Garrigues <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106001942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001944		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001945		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Amazilia cyanifrons</span> occurs in north and central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>(del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">alfaroana</span> is known from Miravalles Volcano in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span>, but it has not been recorded since 1895 (Underwood 1896) and is likely to be extinct.
106001945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001947		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001948		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001949		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001950		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001951		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001952		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001955		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Project Chicamocha has identified 14 sites that hold the species, concentrating searches primarily in the dry valley system that drains the western slope of the East Andes in Colombia. Fundacion Colibri, Organizacion Ambiental Ocotea, Fundacion Ecodiversidad and Fundacion Quincha have worked with <em>Amazilia castaneiventris</em> from 2002 to 2011, with local community involvement at a reserve that supports the species. They intend to start a banding programme to study the species's ecology from December to February. NGOs have conducted activites with school children in elementary schools in four veredas municipalities of Soatá, Tipacoque and Susacon (J. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Unlike other species found in the Yariguies, the new National Park there is probably not a significant step forwards for conservation of this species; the only known localities fall outside the Yariguies National Park boundary. However, there are localities in the relatively new Chicamocha National Park<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Fundacion Conserva is working to establish community based conservation reserves along the Chicamocha canyon. The presence of the species at Soata triggers the site as an IBA.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its status in the Serranía de San Lucas, at politically safe historical sites and in protected areas. Research its natural history and habitat preferences, in particular its dependence on <em>Trichanthera gigantea</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999; J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Prepare action plans for conservation of habitat within its range<strong> </strong>(L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Protect areas of suitable habitat found to hold the species<strong> </strong>(L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999; T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Raise awareness of conservation issues through educational campaigns<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Reforest areas, introducing yatago (<em>Trichanthera</em>) flowers<strong></strong> (J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009).<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Identify migration routes and areas and assign them protectoin (Parra </span><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">et al. </span><span style="font-weight: bold;">2010).</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><p></p></span>
106001955		distribution	eng	<em>Amazilia castaneiventris</em> was formerly known from the slopes of the Serranía de San Lucas, <strong>Colombia </strong>where one specimen was taken in 1947 on the east slope of the <span style="font-style: italic;">serranía </span>in Bolívar, but this population has not been rediscovered despite rapid assessment searches in 1999-2001<strong> </strong>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Today, it appears to be restricted to the drier parts of the Magdalena Valley, Colombia, with a core range in the Chicamocha, Suarez and Chucuri valleys. Although there are various sites where the species is now known to be found, it is somewhat unpredictable in occurrence (partly influenced by poorly understood seasonal movements) and, at least in the Yariguies area, not locally abundant. Recent records from the rio Chucurri basin and La Paz are outside of and generally more humid than the dry valley system that forms the core of its range (J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009; D. C. Sabogal <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Extensive survey work by Fundacion ProAves has recorded the species at 14 sites. There are historic records from two sites in Santander (in 1962 and 1963), and three in Boyacá including the 1977 specimen from Tipacoque; recent work has again recorded the species at Tipacoque<strong> </strong>(J. Zuluaga <em>in litt</em>. 2009), it has now been recorded in eight municipalities including a rediscovered population in the environs of Soatá<strong> </strong>(Chavez and Cortes 2006, <strong></strong>Cortes-Herrera <em>et al</em>. 2006,<strong> </strong>Cortes-Herrera <em>et al</em>. 2007, Parra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) and there was a sighting in 2000 at Villa de Leyva<strong> </strong>(López-Lanús 2002), although this has not been confirmed, and subsequent visits to Villa de Leyva have failed to find the species (J. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Historically, it was locally common, but trends are difficult to assess owing to a lack of baseline data. The species is often inexplicably rare in apparently suitable habitats and may go unrecorded for periods <strong></strong>(J. Zuluaga <em>in litt</em>. 2009); elsewhere it appears to be resident. The increase in records of the species owes much to increased observer effort, but also may reflect nomadic movements in recent years linked to flowering events on which the species relies to some degree<strong> </strong>(J. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009). The global population is roughly estimated at 3,780 individuals by extrapolating the species's known territory size by the area of suitable habitat (D. C. Sabogal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009); however, it is unlikely to be evenly distributed throughout suitable habitats and this figure may represent an overestimate. Based on several years of surveys, J. Cortes (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011) roughly estimated the global population at 1,200&#160; individuals by extrapolating densities from Soata and Tipacoque in 2008-2011 to known habitat and suitable habitat of the species (J. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p>
106001955		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry valleys and some humid sites at 340-2,200 m, and possibly as low as 120 m in the Serranía de San Lucas (though the species has not been rediscovered at this site since its collection there, despite rapid assessment of the area in 1999-2001 <strong></strong>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>). Many records come from forest borders, bushy canyons and semi-arid areas vegetated with shrubs and low trees<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(López-Lanús 2002); the species apparently shows a preference for rivers and streams, but is regularly recorded at roadside flowering trees<strong> </strong>(Cortes-Herrera 2006). Local abundance of this species is apparently affected by area available of potential habitat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricanthera gigantean</span> forest. [Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011]). However, it has been suggested that the species is tolerant of habitat degradation, having been recorded in pastures, fruit crops, coffee plantations and xerophytic scrub, where it exploits a wide variety of floral resources, e.g. cactus, guamo (<em>Inga</em> spp), banana (<em>Musa</em> sp), and coffee. Yatago (<em>Trychanthera gigantea</em>) flowers<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>seem to be the most important nectar source (J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009, 2010). However, a study about foraging behaviour of this species in one of the driest areas of the Chicamocha canyon showed 15 different types of pollen collected from the species's body, the most common pollen types belonging to Bromeliaceae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aechmea </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Catopsis</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pitcairnia</span> spp.) and Apocynaceae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mocoa</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Himatanthus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Temnadenia</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontadenia spp</span>., and <span style="font-style: italic;">Galactophora</span> spp.) This could also shed light on the plants pollinated by this species (Peñuela and Archila 2010). The is tolerant of human activities; fieldwork since 2004 has identified new sites, expanded the range and provided new information that emphasizes the species is adapted to altered landscapes. For example, the Cerulean Warbler Bird Reserve in San Vicente de Chucuri, Santander, has both shade coffee and primary forest areas; three years of surveys by many groups and individuals across these habitats and area have only ever found <em>castaneiventris </em>in shade coffee, hedgerows and pasturelands (never in primary forest), while the species moves between available resources<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>(P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2008). However, the species may be less tolerant of degraded areas as breeding habitat. The breeding season is December-February<strong> </strong>(J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009), although a nest was found at the end of April 2009 in the Niceforo’s Wren natural bird reserve (Peñuela and Archila 2010). The species benefits from bee-keeping which promotes the planting of melliferous vegetation used by hummingbirds (Cortes-Herrera <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the driest areas it seems to undertake nomadic movements/short-distance migration in response to dry conditions when key floral resources may be unavailable<strong> </strong>(J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Project Chicamocha found that territory sizes of Chestnut-bellied Hummingbird remain constant during the year, except in the driest season (November to April) when the species is absent of the Niceforo’s Wren natural bird reserve (Peñuela and Archila 2010).&#160; Moreover,&#160; some individuals have been observed returning to the same territories after the driest season since 2004&#160; (M. Beltran pers. comm. 2012).<p></p>
106001955		population	eng	This species has been recorded at a number of new sites in recent years. While still apparently rare in some areas, and nowhere abundant there is a comparatively large area of potentially suitable habitat. Its territory size has been estimated at 3-10 ha (D. C. Sabogal <em>in litt.</em> 2009), although territory sizes of seven individuals were estimated at 0.3 ha at Niceforo's Wren natural bird reserve (Peñuela and Archila 2010) and a density of 2.1 individuals/ ha has been reported at Soata (Cortes-Herrera 2006). Simple extrapolation of the lower end of D. C. Sabogal's (<em>in litt.</em> 2009) density range suggested a global population of 3,780 individuals. However, J. Cortes (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>  2011) roughly estimated the population at 1,200 individuals (extrapolating densities from Soata and Tipacoque in 2008-2011 to areas of potentially suitable habitat), and as the species may not be evenly distributed throughout suitable habitat, and is inexplicably rare in some areas, the population is cautiously assumed to fall within the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001955		threats	eng	The Sagamoso and Lebrija valley systems support large human populations and have long been areas of high agricultural production. Natural habitat has been severely fragmented, and generally replaced by coffee plantations, light woodland and, to a lesser extent, pastures and plantain and sugarcane plantations (the latter is used for biofuel production). Semi-arid habitats are less threatened than humid forest <strong></strong>(López-Lanús 2002), but are affected by livestock-grazing and seasonal burning for farming<strong> </strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The Serranía de San Lucas had held the largest tract of intact forest in north-west South America, but a gold rush began in 1996, and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted for agricultural and coca production (<strong></strong>A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999; L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999; Donegan and Salaman 1999<strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Mining and cocaine production cause stream pollution<strong></strong><strong></strong> (L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999; Donegan and Salaman 1999<strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Immigration is continuing as road and oil pipelines extend into formerly inaccessible areas (<strong></strong>A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It apparently suffers from subsistence hunting for food (Cortes-Herrera <em>et al</em>. 2006<strong></strong>; J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Logging activities may have a negative impact<strong> </strong>(J. O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Part of its range is threatened by flooding by the Sogamoso dam (M. Beltran pers. comm. 2011).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><p></p></span></span>
106001956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001957		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001959		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in only one protected area, the Omiltemi State Ecological Park in Guerrero (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate and clarify its distribution and the extent of remaining habitat. Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Atoyac (Hernández-Baños <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> encompassing the range of this species. Protect any remaining habitat near Putla de Guerrero. <p></p>
106001959		distribution	eng	<em>Eupherusa poliocerca</em> is fairly common to common (Howell and Webb 1995a, M. Reid <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but extremely local on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and west Oaxaca, south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>. Most records in Guerrero are from near Omiltemi and along the Atoyac de Alvarez-Teotepec road (e.g. Navarro 1992), but it has been recorded further west, inland from Zihuatanejo. All undisputed records in Oaxaca are from a stretch of road near Putla de Guerrero in the Sierra Yucuyacua. <p></p>
106001959		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud-forest, evergreen subtropical and semi-humid forest, forest edge and adjacent coffee fincas at elevations of 800-2,440&#160;m (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it is probably marginal or seasonal at the lower altitudes (below 1,200&#160;m) in the ecotone between tropical semi-deciduous forest and cloud-forest. It feeds on a variety of flowering plants, but is subordinate to other hummingbirds in its range (T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding season peaks are likely to be February-May and September-October.<p></p>
106001959		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001959		threats	eng	It tolerates some habitat degradation adjacent to suitable forested habitats, but lower montane forests are being widely cleared for corn, fruit and coffee (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with forests at higher elevations being destroyed by cutting for lumber. Areas near Putla de Guerrero are now heavily deforested and further degraded by goats (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001960		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001961		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No other measures are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the precise distribution and the extent of altitudinal migration. Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate and determine the impact of Hurricane Paulina. Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Miahuatlán encompassing the range of this species (Hernández-Baños <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106001961		distribution	eng	<em>Eupherusa cyanophrys</em> is endemic to the Sierra Miahuatlán, an isolated mountain range in southernmost Oaxaca, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It has been found in two areas of the sierra, separated by c.60-70 km: in the west along the Puerto Escondido road; and to the east along the Puerto Angel road at its intersection with the río Jalatengo. Appropriate habitat appears widespread along the latter road (Roberson and Carratello 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it was locally common until at least 1997 (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998, A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but its known range remains highly restricted. <p></p>
106001961		habitat	eng	It is primarily restricted to cloud-forest and the upper reaches of tropical semi-deciduous forest at 1,300-1,950&#160;m, occasionally wandering (possibly seasonally) to c.700&#160;m on adjacent mountain slopes. It also occurs up to 2,500&#160;m, but at lower densities (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded in September-November and May (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106001961		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106001961		threats	eng	The cloud-forests on the Sierra Miahuatlán were essentially unspoilt by human activity until the mid-1960s, when huge areas were cut and burnt for the planting of maize. Lower montane forest in the sierra is still being cleared, largely for the cultivation of citrus fruits (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In October 1997, Hurricane Paulina destroyed large portions of suitable cloud-forest habitat (A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the full impact of this stochastic event on the species is unknown.<strong></strong><p></p>
106001962		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106001963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001966		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001967		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001968		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001970		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001971		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106001972		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001973		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001974		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001975		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106001976		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001977		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in the very small Alto Quindío-Acaime Nature Reserve(J. E. Orejuela <em>in litt</em>. 1986). The protective designations in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta have been ineffective.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population, distribution and ecological requirements of subspecies <em>berlepschi</em><strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999), and confirm its persistence in Huila<strong> </strong>(T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Designate protected areas in the Central Andes<strong> </strong>(T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999), e.g. in the Toche valley<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999). <p></p>
106001977		distribution	eng	<em>Anthocephala floriceps</em> has a disjunct range in central and north-east <strong>Colombia</strong><strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986). The nominate subspecies occurs on the north and south-east slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, where it has recently been found to remain common<strong></strong> (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em> 1998, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999). Subspecies <em>berlepschi</em> is found in the Central Andes on Volcán Tolima in Quindío and Tolima, and south on the east slope to Huila (one record in 1976)<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986, J. E. Orejuela <em>in litt</em>. 1986, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999).<strong></strong><p></p>
106001977		habitat	eng	It is found in premontane evergreen forest and secondary growth in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta at 600-1,700&#160;m (mostly 1,200-1,600&#160;m), and in the Central Andes at 1,200-2,300&#160;m altitude<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986). It is usually seen in the forest understorey or in secondary scrub along roads and field edges, but males gather in small song-leks within closed-canopy forest<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999). Breeding apparently occurs in September-October<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986).<strong></strong><br/><p></p>
106001977		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106001977		threats	eng	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains (L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000). The main threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations<strong></strong> (L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993,<strong> </strong> L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000, J. Fjeldså verbally 2000)<strong></strong>, which, at least in the past, was compounded by the Colombian authorities spraying these slopes with herbicides (L. G. Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993, L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993 and verbally 2000)<strong></strong>. From the 1950s onwards, immigration to the area has been considerable, and agricultural expansion (e.g. coffee and livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees, e.g. pines (Dinerstein <em>et al</em> 1995, L. G. Olarte and M. Pearman<em> per </em>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999 and verbally 2000, Salazar and Strewe undated), have caused extensive forest loss. Agriculture has long dominated parts of the east slope of the Central Andes<strong> </strong>(Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999), and since the 1950s, much of the original habitat in the higher side-valleys has been cleared and used for coffee, sugarcane and banana plantations, potatos, beans and cattle-grazing<strong></strong> (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>., P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999). Mature secondary forest patches are scattered and natural vegetation cover has been reduced by c.85% between 1,900 and 3,200 m altitude<strong></strong> (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>., P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999). <p></p>
106001978		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106001978		distribution	eng	<em>Phlogophilus hemileucurus</em> is locally uncommon to common in the Andean foothills of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (west Putumayo and east Cauca), east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo south to Zamora-Chinchipe) and north-east <strong>Peru</strong> (San Martín and Loreto) at 800-1,500 m, but as low as 400 m in Peru<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Sibley and Monroe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Clements and Shany 2001, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001978		habitat	eng	It occurs in premontane and montane evergreen forest<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, primarily on low, outlying ridges (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and accepts altered habitats as long as forest patches and thickets of secondary growth remain<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1999). <p></p>
106001978		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001978		threats	eng	Much of its habitat  is under intense pressure from agriculture and cattle pasture, low-intensity farming, tea and coffee growing, mining operations and logging<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><p></p>
106001979		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106001979		distribution	eng	<em>Phlogophilus harterti</em> is restricted to the Andean foothills of central and south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (south Huánuco, Pasco, Cuzco and Puno) (Sibley and Monroe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, at 750-1,500 m where it is locally fairly common (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<em> <p></p></em>
106001979		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, primarily on low outlying ridges at 750-1,500 m<strong></strong> (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<p></p>
106001979		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as locally fairly common.
106001979		threats	eng	Its evergreen forests remain relatively intact, although extensive areas are subject to land clearance, agricultural conversion and logging, with associated road-building and human colonisation resulting in further degradation.  <p></p>
106001980		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001981		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001982		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001983		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage core areas of remaining habitat.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecological requirements and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses.  <p></p>
106001983		distribution	eng	<em>Heliodoxa gularis</em> occurs in the east Andean foothills of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cauca and Putumayo) and adjacent north-central <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Sucumbíos and west Napo), with records from north <strong>Peru</strong> (Loreto, Amazonas and San Martín) <strong></strong>(Davis 1986, Hilty and Brown 1986<strong></strong>, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999,<strong> </strong>Donegan and Salaman 1999<strong></strong><strong></strong>, LSUMZ specimens <em>per</em> J. P. O'Neill <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Ridgely &amp; Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106001983		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest and forest edge at 250-1,050 m on outlying ridges <strong></strong>(DMNH specimens<strong></strong>, Fitzpatrick and Willard 1982, <strong></strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Ridgely &amp; Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><p></p>
106001983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, and this species is described as very rare to rare in Ecuador, and rare, poorly known in Peru.
106001983		threats	eng	Forests in its altitudinal range are under intense pressure from clearance for agriculture and cattle pasture, low-intensity farming, tea and coffee growing, mining operations and logging (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995), although in north Peru, forests above 500 m are largely intact<strong></strong> (J.&#160;P. O'Neill <em>in litt</em>. 2000).  <p></p>
106001984		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001985		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001986		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001988		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001989		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001991		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Its entire range is formally protected by the Paria Peninsula National Park (375&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), but this has not entirely halted habitat degradation. In fact, this national park has always been chronically underfunded, even though it has been the target of some (admittedly rather ineffectual) international protected area strengthening programmes (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It still has no management plan, has insufficient budget, too few staff (three park guards), and inadequate means transport and communications (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The species is used as a symbol of conservation in villages adjacent to the park<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve the protection and management of the national park<strong></strong> (Sharpe 2008, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Census populations on cerros Humo, Patao, El Olvido and Azul<strong> </strong>(Sharpe 2008). Study its ecological requirements<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe, J-P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt. </em>1999). Initiate programmes to develop economic alternatives to reduce agricultural encroachment in villages adjacent to the national park<strong> </strong>(Sharpe 2008, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106001991		distribution	eng	<em>Hylonympha macrocerca</em> is endemic to the Paria Peninsula in Sucre, north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>, with records from cerros Humo, Patao, El Olvido and Azul. The only post-1980 records are from cerros Humo and El Olvido, but the extent of remaining habitat on cerros Patao and Azul indicates that the species is still present. It remains locally common or even abundant. In 1988, 4-8 birds per hectare were estimated on Cerro El Olvido, suggesting a population of c.1,000 individuals east of Cerro Patao (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). In 1993, 1.9 birds per hectare were estimated on Cerro Humo<strong> </strong>(Evans <em>et al.</em> 1994a), where there are c.15 km<sup>2</sup> of intact habitat and additional areas of second growth. <p></p>
106001991		habitat	eng	It inhabits lower and upper montane humid forest, where it has been recorded at 800-1,200 m on Cerro Humo, and 530-920 m further east. In primary forest, it feeds mainly at bromeliad flowers and on their insect inhabitants, whereas in secondary forest, feeding is associated with the shrubs <em>Heliconia aurea</em><strong></strong> and <em>Costus</em> sp (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Although it is regularly seen feeding on <em>Heliconia </em>in open areas it may nevertheless be dependent on the availability of pristine forest nearby (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). It also hawks insects from exposed perches. There may be seasonal movements<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe, J-P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt. </em>1999). <p></p>
106001991		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106001991		threats	eng	Increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco" (<span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthosoma sagittifolium</span>) and "ocumo chino" (<span style="font-style: italic;">Colocasia esculenta</span>), since the mid- to late 1980s have resulted in some uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. Cerros Humo and Patao have been worst affected, with the east of the peninsula fairly undisturbed. Since it is an understorey inhabitant, removal of understory vegetation for coffee and cacao cultivation is likely to lead to reduced population density<strong> </strong>(C. Sharpe <em>in litt. </em>2007, D. Ascanio <em>in litt. </em>2007). It is considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008), and has been recognised as a "high priority" species, amongst the top dozen priorities for bird conservation in Venezuela (Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106001992		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001993		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001996		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106001997		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001998		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106001999		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish adequate protected areas to protect the species's core range. Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses.  <p></p>
106001999		distribution	eng	<em>Oreotrochilus adela</em> has a restricted range in the high Andes of La Paz, Cochabamba, Potosí and Chuquisaca, south-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Armonía 1995). There are also reports of breeding birds from <strong>Argentina</strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106001999		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid montane scrub, <em>Polylepis</em> forest and disturbed habitats at 2,550-4,000 m (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Armonía 1995<strong></strong>, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106001999		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106001999		threats	eng	The main threats are heavy grazing by livestock and the uncontrolled use of fire, which combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal occurs<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). The change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification and afforestation, especially where exotic tree species (e.g. <em>Eucalyptus</em>) are planted<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996), are contributory factors. <p></p>
106002000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002003		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002004		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In 2009-2010, CORBIDI carried out an awareness campaign, the first for this species and one of the few conservation actions directed to this hummingbird (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the Chusgón Valley and more widely in the Pataz area to investigate the possibility of the existance of additional subpopulations. Determine the distribution of <em>A. cupripennis</em> to judge whether there are distributional gaps between the two hummingbirds where <em>A. aliciae</em> might occur (T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Research the species's ecological requirements (T. Züchner <em>in litt.</em> 1999), in particular assessing the suitability of <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations as habitat <strong> </strong>(Lambert and Angulo 2007). Investigate the species's taxonomic relationship with <em>A. cupripennis.</em> Safeguard remaining habitat. Pressure local authorities to include species-specific material in school syllabuses and to initiate a second awareness campaign.  Create a reserve for this species (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106002004		distribution	eng	<em>Aglaeactis aliciae</em> is only known with certainty from a tiny area in the upper Marañón drainage of La Libertad, west <strong>Peru</strong> (F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2012). Though there were historical records from Succha and nearby Soquián in La Libertad, the only location that produced regular records in the period 1979-2005 was El Molino, also in La Libertad<strong></strong> (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Hunnybun 1999, T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Lambert and Angulo 2007), where (at least until 2003) the species was described as "locally common"  (D. Geale <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Lambert and Angulo 2007), although available habitat at this site covers less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>. However, in 2006 field surveys found the species to be widespread and locally common within its reported historical range on the east bank of the Marañón, and, indeed, elsewhere (e.g. on the west bank of the Marañón and in the upper Chusgon Valley). The distance between the most northerly and southerly points where the species was found was 35.5 km<strong> </strong>(Lambert and Angulo 2007). There is also an unconfirmed sighting from the Llanganuco area in Ancash (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996), c.140 km south of the La Libertad sites; and within the Chusgón Valley, there is an additional area of 155 km<sup>2</sup> within which the species could potentially occur<strong> </strong>(Lambert and Angulo 2007).<br/><p></p>
106002004		habitat	eng	It is known from the temperate zone (2,900-3,500 m) with vegetation comprising montane shrubs and <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees (B. P. Walker <em>in litt.</em> 1995), where it is found in the understorey of alder woodland (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005).  It feeds on mistletoe parasitising alders and other trees, e.g. <em>Tristerix longebrachteatum</em><strong></strong> (T. Züchner <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Clements and Shany 2001), and in patches of flowering uñico <em>Oreocallis grandiflora</em><strong> </strong>(Lambert and Angulo 2007)<strong></strong>.  It has also recently been reported to feed and roost in introduced <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees, although the species's degree of tolerance of  <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations (especially as breeding habitat) is unknown  (F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, D. Geale <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. However, the unconfirmed sighting in the Llanganuco area was in the <em>Polylepis</em> zone at 3,600-4,000 m. Juveniles and immatures have been taken in February, March and June. <p></p>
106002004		population	eng	The population is estimated to be small, as the species is only known from c.178 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat. It is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106002004		threats	eng	The village of Molino is in a heavily populated area (B. P. Walker <em>in litt.</em> 1995) and, given its restricted range, this species is probably very vulnerable to habitat destruction. Perhaps the greatest concern is the felling of alder for replacement with eucalyptus plantations which provide better timber for the mining industry (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005). Alder woodland and montane shrubland is also impacted by cutting for firewood and small scale burning to improve pasture for grazing livestock<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, Lambert and Angulo 2007). Similar habitat loss is occurring throughout the region (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005).<br/><p></p>
106002005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002006		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002008		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002009		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002010		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected at Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (Andrade and Repizzo 1994) and Parque Regional Chicaque (Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in relatively inaccessible and well forested parts of the Serranía de las Quinchas (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). Study its ecology and breeding behaviour (T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Prepare a management plan for the species (T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Augment conservation activities in Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Protect areas of the favoured habitat holding significant populations (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106002010		distribution	eng	<em>Coeligena prunellei</em> is endemic to <strong>Colombia </strong>where it occurs on the west slope of the East Andes (Santander, Boyacá, Cundinamarca) and on both the western and eastern slopes of Serranía de los Yariguíes<strong> </strong>(Donegan and Avendaño 2006). A 1976 specimen of this species was incorrectly labelled as having been collected on the south-west slope of Volcán Tolima in the Central Andes of Quindío<strong></strong> (A. J. Negret <em>in litt</em>. 1995). It is locally common at Laguna de Pedropalo (Cundinimarca), Cerro Carare (Boyacá), at 2,000 m on El Talisman and Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (Santander)  (Andrade and Repizzo 1994, Wege and Long 1995, Donegan <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong> on the western slope and at La Luchata on the eastern slope of the Serranía de los Yariguíes<strong> </strong>(Donegan and Avendaño 2006).<br/><p></p>
106002010		habitat	eng	This is principally a species of mature humid montane forest, especially areas with a predominance of oak <em>Quercus humboldti</em> and <em>Trigonobalanus excelsa</em>. Although birds have also been recorded in open parkland and riverine gallery forest the species is a trap liner and probably relies on the persistance of mature oak forest<strong> </strong>(P. Salaman <em>in litt. </em>2007). Most observations have been at 1,675-2,500 m, but it is known between 1,000 and 2,800 m (Schuchmann 1999, T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Breeding is thought to take place between June and October.<br/><br/><p></p>
106002010		population	eng	Velasquez-Tibata et al. (2005) used a habitat model to estimate the population at 4,070-8,720 individuals, and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002010		threats	eng	The upper Magdalena valley and the Sagamosa drainage have been undergoing habitat loss, fragmentation and alteration since the 17th century (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). The primary causes are human settlement and urbanisation, with associated logging and agricultural land-use including coffee and, to a lesser extent, plantain and sugarcane plantations and pastures (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). As a result, tiny remnant forest patches are restricted to steep slopes and along streams (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999), with the significant exception of Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce (Wege and Long 1995). However, there are still extensive forests that are poorly known to ornithology in the Serranía de las Quinchas, west Boyacá (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is considered Endangered in Colombia (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). <p></p>
106002011		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002012		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002013		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2005, the Dusky Starfrontlet Bird Reserve was established by Fundacion ProAves, protecting over 5,000 acres of humid montane forest to páramo on the Páramo de Frontino<strong> </strong>(P. Salaman <em>in litt. </em>2007). A research and visitor station was established in 2007 with research ongoing on the Dusky Starfrontlet (assessing population and ecological requirements)<strong> </strong>(P. Salaman <em>in litt. </em>2007). There are proposals by National Parks Administration (UAESPNN) and Municipality of Urrao to extend Las Orquídeas National Park to encompass adjacent Páramo de Frontino. However, the benefit such a designation would have is questionable as the park is currently poorly protected and under great pressure from illegal colonists. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys to research the species's range, population size and trends. Support the proposed expansion of Las Orquídeas National Park, and the Dusky Starfrontlet Reserve in the Páramo de Frontino. Establish a management plan for Páramo de Frontino and Dusky Starfrontlet Reserve. Lobby for the adequate protection of Las Orquídeas National Park. Mobilise funds to facilitate law enforcement within the National Park and extensions to it. <p></p>
106002013		distribution	eng	This species has a very restricted range, being known from two tiny forest fragments at Páramo Frontino and Farallones del Citará in north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. There are only five other localities in the entire western Andes that retain suitable habitat. The combined area of all potentially suitable sites is thought to be less than 25 km<sup>2</sup>. Therefore, the species's global population is unlikely to exceed 250 individuals.  <p></p>
106002013		habitat	eng	It is apparently tied to elfin forest-timberline-páramo habitats and adjacent tall humid forest. At 3500 m it was seen feeding on insects in the Ericaceae-clad canopy of elfin forest. Stomach content analysis has shown that it feeds on parasitic wasps, spiders and dipterans; presumably in addition to nectar. Very little is known about its habits and breeding ecology.
106002013		population	eng	The population is estimated to fall within the band 50-249 mature individuals, equating to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106002013		threats	eng	Páramo de Frontino contains rich deposits of gold, zinc and copper, which have attracted the attention of mining companies. However, political instability in the region has prevented exploitation of these resources to date. The future expansion of mining remains a serious potential threat. The area is currently wholly unprotected and is suffering from continuing deforestation. Future colonisation by human settlers is likely to lead to habitat loss and degradation; a process ongoing in the nearby Las Orquídeas National Park.  <p></p>
106002014		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002015		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002018		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002020		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002021		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began restoring habitat in 1997 (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong> </strong>(Hulm 1995). Conservation is being led by the Juan Fernández Islands Conservancy, with support from the American Bird Conservancy, Conservation International, the Hummingbird Society, the Juan Fernandez Islands Conservancy (a program of Oikonos Ecosystem Knowledge), and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Key activities which have already taken place are<strong></strong> (Hodum and Tomé 2005, Hodum <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008): the hiring of two island residents as project coordinators; control of invasive plants and herbivores<strong></strong> (including volunteer programmes for island residents to participate in invasive plant removal), which appears to increase nesting success of the species; invasive predator control (including cat control in the town on Robinson Crusoe); habitat restoration in native forest; a community outreach programme aimed at engaging local people<strong></strong> (Anon 2005) and including environmental education programmes for local schoolchildren; as well as population surveys and monitoring of active nests, phenology and reproductive success.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the population using a quantitative census methodology that allows for statistical comparisons between surveys. Remove all introduced mammals, initially within an intensively managed, fenced, feasibility study area<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). Replant native flora (including a 10 ha plot with shrubs that flower throughout the year) in areas free of introduced rabbits and cattle, initially within the feasibility study area but also at forest edges<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). Enforce grazing restrictions on national park land<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). Evaluate feasibility of establishing feeding stations in native forest. Replant fast-growing, soil-binding trees along highly eroded slopes for short-term relief<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). Implement systematic introduced plant control zonally<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). Continue to support ongoing efforts to remove alien invasive plants and mammalian predators, and increase awareness. Support efforts by CONAF to cultivate endemic plants that serve as food resources for the species (P. Hodum <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002021		distribution	eng	<em>Sephanoides fernandensis</em> is endemic to the Juan Fernández Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>, where the nominate race is confined to c.11 km<sup>2</sup> on Isla Robinson Crusoe. The race <em>leyboldi</em> is extinct on Isla Alejandro Selkirk, where it was last recorded in 1908. Historical records indicate that densities on Robinson Crusoe were formerly much greater than the 684 individuals (varying between 804 birds in the austral summer and 445 in autumn) estimated in 1988-1989. Direct count surveys in 1995-1997 indicated that the population is in the low hundreds<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999), and transects counts were used in 2001-2002 to estimate a total population of 1258 individuals (Hahn  <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, more thorough surveys conducted in 2005 and repeated in 2006, coupled with quantitative modelling, estimated population densities in different habitats and concluded that the global population is considerably larger: c.2,500-3,000 individuals<strong></strong> (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). <p></p>
106002021		habitat	eng	It inhabits remnant native forests, on which it appears to be completely dependent for breeding (there is a strong negative correlation between the presence of non-native vegetation and the location of nests<strong></strong> [Hodum <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008]), but also utilises non-native plant communities during the non-breeding season, feeding on introduced plants, such as <em>Eucalyptus</em> <em>globulus</em> and garden flowers. This usage of non-native plants is especially common in the austral autumn and winter when only one native species (<em>Raphithamnus venustus</em>) flowers<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is mostly nectarivorous, but small insects are taken from leaves or in flight.  The proportion of insects in the diet increases during the chick-rearing period.  The sex ratio is heavily skewed, with three males to every female<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). It may experience competition with <em>S. sephaniodes</em>, especially over access to <em>Dendroseris litoralis</em> flowers post-breeding (López-Calleja <em>et al</em>. 2006). <p></p>
106002021		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-3,000 individuals in total, roughly equating to 1,700-2,000 mature individuals (Hodum <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106002021		threats	eng	The clearance and degradation of vegetation by humans since the late 16th century and the impacts of herbivorous mammals (especially rabbits introduced in the 1930s) has limited the availability, quantity and quality of food resources. Habitat quality is also being degraded by the spread and dominance of invasive plants, most prominently by elm-leaf blackberry <em>Rubus ulmifolius</em>, maqui <em>Aristotelia chilensis</em> and murtilla <em>Ugni molinae</em><strong></strong> (Anon 2005). Introduced predators, such as rats, cats and coatis, have been implicated in the mortality of some birds and may be responsible in part for its decline<strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong>, </strong>Hahn and Römer 2002)<strong></strong>. Cats have been documented killing firecrowns in town during the non-breeding season<strong></strong> (Hodum <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). As is true with many island species, firecrowns are easily approached, thus rendering them highly susceptible to predation.  Additionally, during its nocturnal torpor, this species is presumed to be very vulnerable to predation<strong> </strong>(Hahn and Römer 2002). Males are able to defend territories with highly productive resources, but the smaller females are possibly being indirectly outcompeted by <em>S. sephaniodes</em><strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999,<strong></strong> Wolf 2008)<strong></strong>. Preliminary analyses of the population have revealed some genetic variation, but significantly less than in <em>S. sephaniodes</em><strong></strong> (Roy <em>et al</em>. 1999). Early indications are that the devastating tsunami of February 2010, which destroyed the only town on Robinson Crusoe, did not have any significant impact on the species: although seasonally important populations of an endemic plant <em>Dendroseris </em>in the coastal zone were lost, the disaster likely also reduced cat predation. <p></p>
106002022		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002024		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002025		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002028		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002029		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002030		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002031		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known. <span>The creation of Las  Orquídeas Community Protection Area (Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) protects ideal habitat in the Nangaritza basin<span> <span>(Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span>. Likewise the Cerro Plateado <span>Biological <span> <span>Reserve <span>protects similar habitat higher up in the basin <span>(J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span>.<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span> Survey to locate additional populations have been carried out (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>. <br/><br/><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><strong></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the current status and extent of suitable habitat. Designate reserves in the south Cordillera de Colán<strong> </strong>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1996) and Cordillera del Cóndor (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). Expand (and effectively protect) Alto Mayo Protected Forest to include the Abra Patricia locality (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Further proposals are found in (Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106002031		distribution	eng	<em>Heliangelus regalis</em> is now known from eight areas in northern <strong>Peru</strong> and south-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>(Graves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It was first recorded in the latter country in the in the Cordillera del Cóndor in 1999, before being found at Yankuam Lodge in the Nangaritza valley, Zamora-Chinchipe province in 2006 (Krabbe and Ahlman 2009), and is now known from 6-7 localities in Ecuador (J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It occurs at the following localities in Peru: above San José de Lourdes in the Cordillera del Cóndor (Fitzpatrick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 1979); Duran, Amazonas (Dauphiné <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008); north of the village of San Cristobal in the south Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas (Seddon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996); Abra Patricia, San Martín (Hornbuckle 1999); Cajamarca; north-east of Jirillo, San Martín  (Davis 1986); the río Chipaota valley in the Cordillera Azul<strong></strong>, San Martín (Merkord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009); and the río Pauya valley in the Cordillera Azul<strong></strong>, Loreto (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The nominate subspecies occurs in the Cordillera del Cóndor and north-east of Jirillo, San Martín, whereas the more striking <span style="font-style: italic;">johnsoni</span>, recently described from specimens collected at Pauya, Loreto, is as yet only known from the Cordillera Azul <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Graves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<p></p>
106002031		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical elfin forest edge and shrubbery, often in areas of regular fire disturbance<strong> </strong>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is typically found in more xeric, stunted habitat growing on nutrient poor sandy soils on ridges (Davis 1986, F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It occurs at 1,750 m-1,950 m in the Cordillera de Colán<strong> </strong>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1996), 1,800-2,200 m in the Cordillera del Cóndor, 1,900 m at Abra Patricia (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and 1,450 m near Jirillo. In the Cordillera de Colán, males favour higher altitudes than females, at least during the dry season, and feed on different plant species<strong> </strong>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1996). The preferred nectar-source for males is apparently <em>Brachyotum quinquenerve</em>, and females in the Cordillera de Colán feed mainly from ericaceous plants<strong> </strong>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Ecuador, plants used for foraging included the small yellow-flowered terrestrial <span style="font-style: italic;">Guzmania gracilior</span> (Bromeliaceae), the larger, green-and-pink-flowered epiphytic <span style="font-style: italic;">G. garciaensis, </span>the epiphytic, fuchsia-flowered <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleanthus ampliflorus</span> (Orchidaceae), an unidentified small epiphytic bromeliad, the stunted tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrocarpaea harlingii</span>&#160;(Gentianaceae), an epiphytic <span style="font-style: italic;">Cavendishia </span>spp. and a shrubby <span style="font-style: italic;">Macleania</span> spp. (both pink-flowered Ericaceae) (Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It is partially insectivorous. Specimens taken in July had active gonads indicative of breeding, but no evidence of breeding was found during surveys in the Cordillera de Colán in August (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p>
106002031		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002031		threats	eng	Most forest in the southern Cordillera de Colán has already gone, with remnants being rapidly cleared for cash-crops, particularly marijuana and coffee (Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1995). However, this species inhabits stunted forests on poor, sandy soils that do not support agriculture or cattle ranching. Mining operations and road building are the main potential threats (Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002032		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search both slopes of the East and Central Andes in appropriate habitat at 1,400-3,200 m. <p></p>
106002032		distribution	eng	<em>Heliangelus zusii</em> is known from a single trade-skin purchased in 1909 in Bogotá, and speculated to have been collected on the East Andes or possibly the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, within a few hundred kilometres of the capital. However, some "Bogotá" specimens came from as far away as Ecuador <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>F.&#160;G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, and a recent reassessment (Kirchman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2009) suggests that the species might have originated in humid or semi-arid  habitat anywhere from northwestern Venezuela to northern Peru up to  3,200 m.<strong> </strong>Since no other specimen is known, it is assumed to be (or have been) a species of restricted range.&#160;<em></em> Much habitat in the Colombian East and Central Andes has been extensively degraded, particularly within the lower limits of this species's presumed elevational range. However, its probable habitat preferences suggest that it is not inconceivable that a remnant population may persist. The validity of this taxon is sometimes questioned <strong></strong>(e.g. <strong></strong>F.&#160;G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999), but DNA sequencing supports its recognition as a valid taxon (Kirchman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106002032		habitat	eng	<em>Heliangelus</em> spp. typically occur in cloud-forest and shrubbery at elevations of 1,200-3,400&#160;m, mostly at 1,400-2,200&#160;m. This species is probably more closely allied to <span style="font-style: italic;">Aglaiocercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Taphrolesbia</span>, and should be sought in humid or semi-arid  habitat as high as 3,200 m from northwestern Venezuela to northern Peru (Kirchman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.  2009).<strong> </strong><p></p>
106002032		population	eng	This species is only known from its type specimen and as such no population estimates are available.
106002032		threats	eng	Much habitat in the Colombian East and Central Andes has been extensively degraded, particularly within the lower limits of this species's presumed elevational range. However, its probable habitat preferences suggest that it is not inconceivable that a remnant population may persist.  <p></p>
106002033		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Media coverage of recent research on the species and threats to its habitat has encouraged the authorities to control access and forbid charcoal production at Yanacocha (Phillips 1998). The area was subsequently purchased by the Jocotoco Foundation and protects c.1,000 ha of key habitat for the species. An additional 26 ha has recently been purchased adjacent to the reserve for reforestation (of native cloudforest) for a carbon offsetting scheme by Bird Holidays, a birdwatching tour company<strong></strong> (Anon 2006). The neighbouring private reserve Hacienda Verdecocha protects an additional 1,200 ha of optimal habitat. A large part of the unexplored primary forest of Volcán Pichincha's western slopes are protected by Bosque Protector Mindo-Nambillo reserve (Jahn 2008). Western slopes of the Cordillera de Toisán are protected within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Jahn 2008). A Species Action Plan was developed in 2007 and published in 2008 (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008), with updates and a Spanish translation in progress during 2009; however, delays resulted from the introduction of the new Ecuadorian constitution (Aves &amp; Conservación <em>in litt</em>. 2009, 2010). Publication of the Species Action Plan in Spanish was to be followed by a stakeholder workshop (Aves &amp; Conservación <em>in litt</em>. 2009, 2010). Actions so far have included a community and stakeholder outreach programme in Pichincha province, the formation of a Local Conservation Group, production and distribution of environmental education materials, reforestation activities on cattle pastures and other degraded lands on the Hacienda Verdecocha and Yanacocha Reserves and initiation of a standardised bird monitoring programme. The Species Guardian, Aves &amp; Conservación, carried out capacity building activities for nature and community tourism in the Alaspungo community from July 2008 to December 2009 (Aves &amp; Conservación <em>in litt</em>. 2009, 2010). Recently, Aves &amp; Conservación was involved in work to achieve recognition of Alaspungo Community Forest as a protected area, with the intended consequence of developing a management plan for the site; however, delays have been caused by issues over the ownership of the land (which were expected to be resolved) (Aves &amp; Conservación <em>in litt</em>. 2009, 2010) and the prioritisation of another site<strong></strong> (C. Devenish <em>in litt</em>. 2010). The final protected area may now encompass additional contiguous forest at lower elevations<strong></strong> (C. Devenish <em>in litt</em>. 2010). The species was designated the 'emblematic bird of Quito' in 2005. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Expand awareness campaigns to other areas, particularly the Íntag valley and the Volcán Atacazo (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Implement recently-developed management plans to improve protection of the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and the Protective Forest Mindo-Nambillo through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonisation inside the reserves, and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Survey unexplored forest tracts, particularly the western slope of Volcán Pichincha, Volcán Atacazo and the main massif of the Toisán<strong> </strong>(T. Züchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Identify key sites for new community and private reserves (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Lobby for legislation prohibiting mining in the Cordillera de Toisán (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Provide local people with alternative incomes that do not damage the species's habitat (Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008), and develop and implement an endowment fund strategy for conservation easements (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Continue to reforest degraded lands and re-establish biological corridors to guarantee connectivity between remnant forest fragments and continuous habitat<strong></strong> (Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Pre-emptively restore native woody vegetation in at least 30% of grass páramo within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Volcán Pichincha, and Volcán Atacazo over the next 25 years in anticipation of future climate change (Jahn 2008, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Monitor changes in habitat on a five-yearly basis (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Carry out studies on feeder-transmitted diseases (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). <p></p>
106002033		distribution	eng	This species is found seasonally on the northern and north-western ridge-crests of Volcán Pichincha, Pichincha, and in the Cordillera de Toisán above the Intág valley, Esmeraldas and Imbabura, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>. On Volcán Pichincha, the area of suitable habitat where the species is known to occur has been dramatically reduced to c.34 km<sup>2</sup>, and supports an estimated 160 individuals. However, it may also occur on the unstudied western slope of the volcano where additional habitat remains. In 2006, a small population was rediscovered in the Cordillera de Toisán above the Intág valley. It may still occur on Volcán Atacazo, but the only confirmed evidence concerns three specimens from 1898, with a possible sighting in 1983. Recent searches on Atacazo resulted in one unconfirmed report<strong></strong> (C. Devenish <em>in litt</em>. 2010). The global population has been estimated at 250-999 individuals, with a known Extent of Occurrence of just 68 km<sup>2 <strong></strong></sup> (Aves &amp; Conservación <em>in litt</em>. 2009, 2010). Available records suggest that it is an altitudinal migrant, but its movements remain poorly understood and appear to have changed since it was first collected (Jahn 2008). The large number of museum specimens (over 100) suggests it was formerly more common, but the only confirmed record between 1950 and 1993 was of three individuals in 1980. It has clearly declined and is now rare within a very limited range (Phillips 1998).  <p></p>
106002033		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid and wet cloud forest, and especially high-Andean montane forest, including elfin forest and forest borders at 1,700-3,500 m (Jahn 2008, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). It is uncertain whether historical records at up to 4,700 m are due to mislabelling or whether they indicate that habitat structure and plant species composition of páramos has considerably changed over the last century (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008)<strong></strong>. Black-breasted Puffleg historically seemed to be most numerous between 2,400-3,050 m from April to September and above 3,100 m from November to February during the presumed breeding season. In recent years, most records were obtained between 2,850 and 3,500 m, with dispersing immatures occurring as low as 1,700 m (Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004<strong></strong>, Lyons and Santander 2006, Jahn 2008, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008)<strong></strong>. It has recently been recorded along bushy forest edges along road sides, steep slopes with stunted vegetation and from taller montane forest interiors and clearings (Bleiweiss and Olalla 1983, Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jahn 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008)<strong></strong>. Although it is more of a generalist than previously reported, seasonal altitudinal migrations are thought to be determined by the seasonal flowering of specific vines and species such as fuchsias and ericaceous trees (Bleiweiss and Olalla 1983). It has been recorded using 27 different species of food-plants, thus it is not believed to be restricted in range owing to dietary constraints (Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jahn 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). <p></p>
106002033		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 210-268 individuals, roughly equating to 140-180 mature individuals.
106002033		threats	eng	The main threat is the felling of forest for timber and charcoal, facilitating the introduction of cattle and the eventual spread of the agricultural frontier for ranching and to a lesser extent production of crops (Phillips 1998, Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jahn 2008)<strong></strong>. In Canton Cotacachi, Imbabura, 45% of households still use firewood and charcoal for cooking and heating, contributing to the destruction of key habitat (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). The situation is similar on the west slope of Volcán Pichincha, where some families still produce charcoal for auto-consumption and commercialisation in Quito (Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Suitable habitat on ridge-crests is disappearing more rapidly than surrounding vegetation, because the crests provide flat ground for cultivating potatoes and livestock-grazing within otherwise steep terrain (Bleiweiss and Olalla 1983). The Toisán population is threatened by rapid deforestation on the south-west slope of the cordillera, copper mining concessions, and invasions of landless farmers within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Jahn 2008, Jahn &amp; Santander 2008). Some ridges where it formerly occurred are now almost completely devoid of natural vegetation, and even if it still occurs in these areas it is unlikely to be numerous. Around 93 % of the suitable habitat within its probable historic range has been degraded or destroyed (Williams and Santander 2003), with 97 % lost in Pinchincha Province (Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004). Human-induced fires threaten large tracts of forest during the dry season (Jahn 2008). The construction of a pipeline at Cerro Chiquilipe led to habitat destruction for the pipeline itself, an access road and a depressurisation station despite the known presence of the hummingbird (Santander <em>et al</em>. 2004). Volcán Pichincha has sporadically erupted since 1999, and ash-fall in the area has been considerable. The impacts of this on the species and its habitat are unknown. Climate change in the future may push the climate zone for this species above the current treeline (Jahn 2008), and could lead to increased competition with Gorgeted Sunangel <em>Heliangelus strophianus</em> as that species expands its altitudinal range (Jahn 2008). However, the current treeline is thought to be lower than it was historically owing to centuries of anthropogenic stresses (particularly fire) causing the gradual loss and fragmentation of high altitude forest (Jahn 2008). <p></p>
106002034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002035		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Searches specifically for this species at a large number of potential sites in the vicinity of the type-locality have been unsuccessful. Further searches are planned for 2010<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>BirdLife International unpublished data). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey any remnant patches of habitat near the type-locality. Clarify its taxonomic status. <p></p>
106002035		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocnemis godini</em> is known from only six 19th century specimens, and may be extinct. Only the type-specimen has any locality information, having been taken at Guaillabamba, in ravines of the río Guaillabamba south of Perucho, Pichincha, in north <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Two "Bogotá" trade-skins are the only evidence of its occurrence in Colombia, but it has been suggested that these originated from Pasto in south Nariño. The only subsequent record is an unconfirmed sighting near Quito, in the Chillo valley, in 1976. <p></p>
106002035		habitat	eng	It was recorded at the type-locality between 2,100 and 2,300 m in a (presumably) arid ravine within a valley. It has been speculated that the "Bogotá" trade-skins may have inhabited temperate zones. <p></p>
106002035		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no confirmed records since the 19th century.
106002035		threats	eng	What is surmised to be suitable habitat at the type-locality has been almost completely destroyed, although remnants can be found in steep-sided stream-cuts in the arid upper Guaillabamba drainage.  <p></p>
106002036		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002037		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Monitor population at known sites and attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Quantify extent of habitat losses. <p></p>
106002037		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocnemis cupreoventris</em> occurs from the Mérida mountains, north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong>, south along both slopes of the East Andes to Cundinamarca, north-east <strong>Colombia</strong><strong></strong><strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). It is uncommon<strong></strong> or rare (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Hilty 2003).<em> <p></p></em>
106002037		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane and elfin forest borders, thickets and shrubbery, páramo vegetation with scattered low shrubs and, in Cundinamarca, secondary scrub (F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 2000) at 1,950-3,000 m<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Hilty 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon to rare.
106002037		threats	eng	Its habitats in the Colombian east Andes have been extensively degraded, with forest in its lower elevational range, on the western slope, largely cleared for intensive crop cultivation and pasture (Forero 1989). Deforestation is locally severe in Mérida and Táchira, Venezuela, primarily owing to agricultural colonisation, with many areas of páramo and forest already cleared for commercial and subsistence cultivation (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106002038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002040		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The type-locality is in Munchique National Park, but logging occurs within the park boundaries. The replanting of lulo fruits is being encouraged, with workshops targeting local communities located in impact zones. These are designed to involve communities in conservation efforts and enable technology transfers in integrated pest-management practices<strong></strong> (Mazariegos and Salaman 1999). Funding from Swarovski Optik allowed the purchase of 5,000 acres of forest which could potentially hold the species. There are plans to extend the reserve by planting key tree species. The Hummingbird Conservancy is supporting research on the ecology and population dynamics of this species both in Munchique and Serrania del Pinche<strong> </strong>(L. Mazariegos <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other areas of suitable habitat in Cauca. Research its status and annual ecological requirements at the type-locality<strong></strong> (Mazariegos and Salaman 1999). Continue to support the establishment and expansion of the newly formed reserve. Designate additional areas of suitable habitat as reserves. Improve the protection of Munchique National Park. Carry out habitat restoration in Munchique National Park.<br/><p></p>
106002040		distribution	eng	This species was until recently only known from the vicinity of the type-locality, Cerro Charguayaco, north-east of Cerro Munchique on the Pacific slope of the west Andes in Cauca, south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. It was known from four specimens (collected in 1967) and two observations (one doubtful), before being rediscovered at the type-locality in 1997. It appears to be uncommon and incredibly localised, and perhaps difficult to detect; despite not being found further than 300 m from the type-locality during extensive searches within a c.3 km radius at various altitudes<strong></strong> (Mazariegos and Salaman 1999),<strong></strong> it has now been found elsewhere in Munchique National Park<strong> </strong>(L. Mazariegos <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>, T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2008)  and at Cerro Charguayaco, Munchique (</span>O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2012). I<strong></strong>. It has now also been discovered in the Serrania del Pinche (2,800-3,000 m, with c500 ha of suitable habitat), c.30 km south of the type locality<strong> </strong>(L. Marzariegos <em>in litt. </em>2007), and at El Planchón in the Cordillera Occidental, Cauca Department (López-Ordóñez <em>et al</em>. 2008). Males have been observed in April, June-August and November, and females in February-April, July and November<strong></strong> (Mazariegos and Salaman 1999, J. Penhallurick <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Other areas of suitable habitat do exist in less accessible areas of the west Andes<strong></strong> (Mazariegos and Salaman 1999). <p></p>
106002040		population	eng	After extensive searches this species has now been recorded away from the type locality. However, it has a small occupied range in montane forest fragments that are threatened with clearance and it occurs at low densities at these sites. Therefore a very small population size of 250-999 mature individuals is suspected. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002040		threats	eng	In the 1960s and 1970s, the local economy was based on the fruit crop "lulo", which was grown under the forest canopy, and hence deterred logging. However, a fungal disease and lepidopteran pest destroyed the crop in the 1980s, and logging recommenced. An old mule-track below the type-locality has recently been cleared and widened, and small-scale logging has begun in the immediate vicinity<strong></strong> (Mazariegos and Salaman 1999). The Serrania del Pinche and Munchique National Park are threatened by habitat clearance for illegal coca cultivation; fires lit to clear forest at lower elevations spread to higher areas destroying sensitive habitats<strong> </strong>(L. Mazariegos <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>, P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Other areas of forest which potentially hold the species are threatened with clearance by slash and burn<strong> </strong>(L. Mazariegos <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106002041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002042		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Occurs in Los Nevados and Puracé National Parks, Ucumarí Regional Park and Volcán Galeras Sanctuary, Colombia; and El Ángel Ecological Reserve, Guandera Biological Station and probably Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Ecuador<strong> </strong>(Freile and Mazariegos 2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements. Search for the species in new areas of potentially suitable habitat. Monitor population at existing sites. Effectively protect those protected areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
106002042		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocnemis derbyi</em> has a disjunct range in the Central Andes of south <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño), and on both slopes of the Andes in extreme north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Carchi) (Hilty and Brown 1986, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990), where it is uncommon to fairly common and local.<em> <p></p></em>
106002042		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid forest edge, second growth, bushy partially open pastures and ravines at 2,500-3,600 m, but usually above 2,900 m (Hilty and Brown 1986, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. Although tolerant of some habitat degradation and sometimes occurring in pastures and gardens, it apparently prefers borders of montane forest and low scrub at the timberline. <p></p>
106002042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon and patchily distributed, and uncommon to locally fairly common in Ecuador.
106002042		threats	eng	Within its patchy distribution, these habitats have been severely deforested over several centuries to the extent that most, if not all, forest has been cleared in many areas, primarily for agricultural expansion (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).<p></p>
106002044		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, including what may be the core population at La Planada Reserve, and also at Awá Indigenous Forest Reserve, seasonally in El Pangan Bird Reserve in Colombia, and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and Centro Científico Las Palmas in Ecuador. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect remaining areas of premontane forest on the Pacific slope. Survey the species to clarify its status. <p></p>
106002044		distribution	eng	<em>Haplophaedia lugens</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of the Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (south to Pichincha) (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990), where it is locally common to uncommon.<em> <p></p></em>
106002044		habitat	eng	It occurs in very wet premontane to montane evergreen forest, forest edge and occasionally scrub, at 1,100-2,500 m (Hilty and Brown 1986,<strong></strong> Salaman 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is typically found in low, dense vegetation at small clearings or along ridges in primary forest, frequently near small streams, generally at lower altitudes than <em>H.aureliae</em> (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1999). Seasonal presence at some sites such as El Pangan Bird Reserve in Colombia (Fundación ProAves 2011) suggests that it undertakes local, seasonal movements, at least in part of its range.<br/><p></p>
106002044		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002044		threats	eng	Uncontrolled colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating (Salaman 1994)<strong></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all threaten the remaining forest (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Extensive deforestation and colonisation is taking place around, and possibly inside, the boundaries of La Planada reserve, which holds a key population of the species (Fundación ProAves 2011). At least historically it was taken for trade (Collar and Andrew 1988)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002045		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002046		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002048		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002049		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002051		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002053		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is recorded annually in the c.770-ha El Dorado Bird Reserve, but many of these are probably wandering immatures (Fundación ProAves 2011).  Since 2006, the foundation has been carrying out a programme to eradicate exotic pines and replace them with native trees, with the support of the local environment authority (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species may be afforded some protection by the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park (del Hoyo 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into the species's ecology and life history. &#160;Estimate area of occupancy (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Confirm presence at sites where the species was historically recorded (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate. Monitor trends in the population. Monitor the extent and condition of habitat. Raise awareness of the species's plight amongst local people. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives adequate protection. Encourage sustainable livestock and land management practices. <p></p>
106002053		distribution	eng	<em>Ramphomicron dorsale</em> is endemic to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in north-eastern <strong>Colombia</strong> (del Hoyo 1999). It is known from three sites, two of which are the source of historical records only (C. Olaciregui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be in decline owing to the continued loss of and damage to the species's habitats. <p></p>
106002053		habitat	eng	This species occurs on the edges of humid montane forest, elfin forest and <em>páramo</em>, from 2,000 m to the snow-line at 4,600 m (del Hoyo 1999)<strong></strong>. It is thought to breed in the timberline-<em>páramo</em> ecotone (Fundación ProAves <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011). It appears to forage in all strata, feeding on the nectar of Ericaceae, <em>Erythrina</em> species, Lobeliaceae, Melastomataceae, <em>Puya</em> species, Rubiaceae and <em>Salvia</em> species, and taking insects in the air or gleaning them from leaves. It moves to lower elevations in May-June (del Hoyo 1999). <p></p>
106002053		population	eng	This species's population size has not been estimated, but it was described as 'uncommon' by Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996).
106002053		threats	eng	Forest clearance for agriculture is severe and has reached this species's elevation range (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011), whilst trees in some areas are unsustainably cut for firewood<strong></strong> (N. Krabbe<em> in litt</em>. 2010). The state of <em>páramo</em> and the timberline-<em>páramo</em> ecotone in parts of the species's range is described as "disastrous" (Fundación ProAves <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011). Extensive and regular burning<strong></strong> (N. Krabbe<em> in litt</em>. 2010, Fundación ProAves <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) and heavy livestock grazing are causing severe damage to the timberline zone (Fundación ProAves <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011). The species is also potentially affected by climate change (Fundación ProAves 2011). <p></p>
106002054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002055		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in two protected areas, Las Cajas National Park and the Río Mazán reserve (N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecology, particularly breeding and movements <strong></strong>(B. Tinoco <em>in litt. </em>2012). Assess the status of known populations and connectivity amongst them <strong></strong>(B. Tinoco <em>in litt. </em>2012). Ensure effective protection of habitat in Las Cajas National Park (T. Zuchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Regulate the use of fire (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Reintroduce old, high-yield agricultural techniques (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Educate and encourage local people to take the lead in land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
106002055		distribution	eng	<em>Metallura baroni </em>occurs in the Western Cordillera of the Andes in Azuay and Cañar provinces, south <strong>Ecuador</strong>, from the Cañar river south to the Jubones river. Although it has been recorded on both slopes of the inter-Andean plateau west of Cuenca, there appear to be only three records from the Eastern Cordillera, and it should be considered irregular there (Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Its population was estimated at over 2,000 in 1992, when it was considered to be declining. Conservation measures have been implemented within one key area, Río Mazán, where the population was thought to be stable, at 50-100 birds, in 1986.  <p></p>
106002055		habitat	eng	It is confined to <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, shrubby páramo and the upper edge of montane forest at 3,100-4,000 m (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). These habitats are usually intermixed with open páramo and severely disturbed areas which have been converted to livestock pasture or pine plantation , where the species is not found (Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Its main nectar resources are <em>Brachyotum </em>spp. (Melastomataceae), <em>Berberis </em>spp. (Berberidaceae), and <em>Barnadesia arborea</em> (Asteraceae), but <span style="font-style: italic;">Draba </span>sp. (Brassicaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Gentianella </span>sp. (Gentianaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Ribes lehmannii </span>(Grossulariaceae), <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvia </span>sp. (Lamiaceae) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Saracha quitensis</span> (Solanaceae) are also visited (Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Nectar is supplemented with arthropods taken in flight or from plant substrates (Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It prefers to forage within a couple of metres of the ground.   Courtship displays were observed in June and July (Tinoco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). A nest with one egg was found in April (T. Zuchner <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<p></p>
106002055		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002055		threats	eng	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire<strong></strong> (Kessler and Herzog 1998). Sustainable land-use systems established by Pre-Columbian cultures were largely replaced by unsustainable agricultural techniques, including widespread burning of high-Andean habitats, during the colonial period<strong></strong> (Kessler and Herzog 1998). Regular burning of páramo grassland, adjacent to elfin forest, to promote growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and destroyed large areas of this species' habitat, and is ongoing<strong></strong> (Kessler and Herzog 1998). For the same reasons, <em>Polylepis</em> forest is one of the most threatened habitats in South America, having been reduced to isolated fragments within its historical range throughout the Andes (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Other threats include firewood-gathering, road construction and potato cultivation<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998<strong></strong>, Tinoco <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002056		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES II. CITES Appendix II. Occurs in Podocarpus and Yacuri (J. Freile  <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011) National Parks, Ecuador, and Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary, Peru. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Conduct research into threats and their impacts on the species. Effectively protect Podocarpus National Park. Secure Cerro Chinguela. <p></p>
106002056		distribution	eng	<em>Metallura odomae</em> is relatively common within three areas of southernmost <strong>Ecuador</strong> (including Podocarpus and Yacuri National Parks), and on Cerro Chinguela, north <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura), at 2,850-3,350 m<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Wege and Long 1995, <strong></strong> Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996,<strong></strong> Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It occurs in elfin forest, forest edge and scrub where, despite its numerical abundance (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011), it was thought to be vulnerable owing to its highly restricted distribution<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1982,<strong></strong> Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002056		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid tree-line <em>pajonal </em>with forested ravines, on <em>páramo</em> and in patches of mossy elfin forest above the tree-line<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106002056		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106002056		threats	eng	The Cerro Chinguela páramo is grazed by small numbers of cattle, and burnt annually by local herders, which must adversely affect various species of grasses and shrubs, possibly affecting population size and distribution<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995). However, no burning or grazing occurs within its known range in Podocarpus National Park. <p></p>
106002057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002058		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002062		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Cerro Tetari is formally protected by Sierra de Perijá National Park, Venezuela, but there is no active management (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995<strong></strong>, A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Cerro Pintado lies to the north of the park, but the inhabitants of the Villanueva village, Colombia, attempt to protect the natural habitat<strong></strong> (A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Estimate the population size (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Sharpe and Lentino 2008)<strong></strong>. Study its ecological requirements (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Sharpe and Lentino 2008)<strong></strong>. Assess habitat availability using aerial photographs (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). Manage and effectively protect Sierra de Perijá National Park (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe and Lentino 2008).  <p></p>
106002062		distribution	eng	<em>Metallura iracunda</em> occurs on the cerros Tres Tetas, Viruela, Pintado and Tetari, and probably Sabana Rubia, in the Sierra de Perijá on the border of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Guajira) and <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Zulia)<strong></strong> (Meyer de Schauensee 1978,<strong> </strong>Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Hilty 2003). <p></p>
106002062		habitat	eng	It inhabits small areas of open páramo vegetation near summits<strong></strong><strong></strong> (A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998). Cerro Pintado comprises karstic limestone covered by elfin forest, <em>Swallenochloa</em> bamboo and grass páramo<strong></strong> (A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Cerro Tetari is sandstone and supports a different type of páramo vegetation<strong></strong> (A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998). It occurs at elevations of 2,800-3,200&#160;m<strong></strong> (A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>, but as low as 1,850&#160;m in Venezuela (Meyer de Schauensee 1978, Hilty 2003, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). <p></p>
106002062		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 20,000-49,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size (e.g. the lower quartile of such estimates spans 50-130 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>) and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied.
106002062		threats	eng	Habitat on the lower slopes of the Sierra de Perijá is severely threatened by narcotics cultivation, uncontrolled colonisation, cattle-ranching and mineral exploitation, which are all facilitated by the many roads approaching the sierra from the Colombian side (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998<strong></strong>, R. Strewe <em>in litt. </em>2003, Sharpe and Lentino 2008)<strong></strong>. However, Cerro Tetari remains as yet unaffected by these developments<strong></strong> (A. Viloria<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998). Only patches of montane forest remain on the steepest slopes of the Cerro Pintado<strong> </strong>(R. Strewe <em>in litt. </em>2003). Forest is still being lost to burning and poppy cultivation. Security problems make access very difficult<strong> </strong>(R. Strewe <em>in litt. </em>2003). <p></p>
106002063		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002065		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002068		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002070		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known.   It occurs in Huascarán national park (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is considered Critically Endangered at the national level (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat between known sites (T. Züchner <em>in litt.</em> 1999 F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Assess the population status at known sites (T. Züchner <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Research the biology and habitat preferences of the species (T. Züchner <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Protect known sites (T. Züchner <em>in litt.</em> 1999). A new protected area for the species has been proposed (Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Develop a land management strategy (possibly introducing a rotational grazing regime fencing off some breeding and foraging areas) for the Rio Chonta area (near Otuzco village)<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007). Identify preferred food sources and encourage the planting of these by farmers and local communities<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007). Implement an educational campaign on the species in schools and colleges in Cajamarca<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007). Survey the Sunchubamba Hunting reserve to determine whether the species is found there (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).&#160;  <p></p>
106002070		distribution	eng	<em>Taphrolesbia griseiventris</em> occurs in the Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is known from nine localities, on the Pacific slope in Cajamarca, and in the río Marañón drainage in Cajamarca and Huánuco. There have been very few records since 1950: in Cajamarca, two males where the main road from Cajamarca to the coast crosses to the Pacific slope, in the early 1990s (B. P. Walker <em>in litt.</em> 1997); a female feeding nestlings in February 1999, near the río Chonta, south-east of Cajamarca<strong></strong> (Garrigues 2001); a female nest-building above Sucre, south-west of Celendín in February 1999<strong></strong> (Garrigues 2001); in Huánuco, near Cullcui in 1983 (where it was also recorded in 1922) (T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt</em>. 1994); three or more seen at the bridge where the Huánuco-La Unión road crosses the río Marañón, in 1975 (but not subsequently, despite several searches) (J. P. O'Neill <em>in litt.</em> 1997, W-P. Vellinga <em>in litt.</em> 1997) and three nests near Cajamarca in February 2001, two again occupied in December 2001<strong> </strong>(J. Flanagan <em>in litt. </em>2002). It was been reported in 2006 from Marcabalito, La Libertad (R. Zeppilli <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and has been seen close to  Llanganuco lake, Ancash (Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Two collecting localities near Cajamarca and one near Cajabamba have produced the greatest number of specimens, but the species has not been seen at any of these sites recently.<br/><br/><p></p>
106002070		habitat	eng	It occurs in semi-arid country, rocky areas and deep canyons mainly at elevations of 2,750-3,850 m<strong> </strong>(Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In less disturbed areas, it apparently inhabits steep, dry slopes with cacti, agaves, bromeliads, shrubs and other xerophytic plants<strong></strong> (Garrigues 2001). It has been observed in areas described as partly cultivated, through to heavily cultivated land with many <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees (B. P. Walker <em>in litt.</em> 1997), and it appears to be dominant over all other hummingbirds at flowering woody shrubs and trees<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007). Two nests (one in construction) were found in February 1999, each concealed in the overhang of road cuttings<strong></strong> (Garrigues 2001). Of three nests found in February 2001, two were used twice within the same year: in December 2001 one had two young, and the other had a female apparently incubating eggs<strong> </strong>(J. Flanagan <em>in litt. </em>2002). <p></p>
106002070		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002070		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation, burning of its habitat (especially  shrubby areas to stimulate regeneration of pastures), agriculture and  livestock raising (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.  It has apparently disappeared from the most heavily populated areas within its range. It seems to tolerate some degree of habitat alteration, but whether it can complete its life-cycle or occur at normal densities in heavily cultivated areas is not known. There are plans to construct a damn at rio Chonta, which would probably destroy the species' habitat there (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.&#160;<p></p>
106002072		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002074		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology and attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against clearance and encroachment.   <p></p>
106002074		distribution	eng	<em>Augastes lumachella</em> is restricted to Bahia, between Morro do Chapéu, Andarái and Barra da Estiva, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, at elevations of 950-1,600 m (Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> where it is fairly common but its restricted range renders it vulnerable to any form of disturbance (Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1996).<em> <p></p></em>
106002074		habitat	eng	It occurs in areas of arid and semi-arid montane scrub (<em>campo rupestre</em>) that are rich in cacti, bromeliads, <em>Velloziaceae </em>and orchids.  <p></p>
106002074		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002074		threats	eng	Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found in the region in the 19th century, and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. The principal threat is now increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106002075		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Occurs in Serra do Cipó National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology and attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106002075		distribution	eng	<em>Augastes scutatus</em> is relatively common in the Serra do Espinhaço, north Minas Gerais, from Montes Claros, Grão Mogol and Diamantina, to Serra do Cipó, Belo Horizonte, Ouro Preto and Conselheiro Lafaiete, in east-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1996). The hundreds of specimens from old collecting expeditions (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998) suggest that it was formerly more common.<br/><br/><em> <p></p></em>
106002075		habitat	eng	There are two distinct races with differing habitat requirements: <em>scutatus</em> in arid montane scrub and on rocky outcrops within undulating grassland at 900-2,000 m; and <em>ilseae</em> in gallery forest at 1,000-1,200 m (Pearman 1990, Sick 1993<strong></strong>). <strong></strong><br/><p></p>
106002075		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002075		threats	eng	Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found in the 19th century and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. The principal threat is now increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching, with its restricted range rendering it vulnerable to any form of disturbance (Vasconcelos 1999). <p></p>
106002076		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002077		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002078		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002079		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002080		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A protected area was set up under a conservation easement in 2006 (<strong></strong>Anon 2006). Several organisations are currently working in partnership to conduct an education programme, survey additional sites and raise funds for land acquisition in the La Florida region<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong><strong></strong>H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 2006, ECOAN established the Huembo Visitor  Centre</span> in Pomacochas, Amazonas.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey to locate additional sites for the species, and follow up recent reports of the species from near Tingo and immediately adjacent to Leimebamba <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong><strong></strong>H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007). Survey to investigate its potential occurrence west of the río Utcubamba<strong> </strong>(R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em>. 1998). Estimate the population near Florida. Protect remaining forests in the Cordillera del Colán<strong> </strong>(Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1995). Develop initiatives to reduce the impact of hunting. <p></p>
106002080		distribution	eng	<em>Loddigesia mirabilis</em> is uncommon and restricted to the eastern slopes of the río Utcubamba valley (an affluent on the right bank of the río Marañón) in the Cordillera del Colán, Amazonas, and one locality further east in San Martín, north <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Peru (</strong><strong></strong>M. Pearman <em>in litt.</em> 1995)<sup></sup>. On the slopes above the río Utcubamba, it is known from three areas (north and south-east of Leimebamba, the Chachapoyas area and Florida, on the shore of Lago Pomacochas), but the only recent records are from Florida (Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, a male recorded near Jesús del Monte, San Martín, in 1987<strong>&#160;</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong><strong></strong>M. Pearman <em>in litt.</em> 1995) indicates that there is much to learn about the species's distribution, and there are recent reports of the species from near Tingo, Utcubamba and it is also rumoured to occur immediately adjacent to Leimebamba<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong><strong></strong>H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007). In the 1960s, it was reported to have occurred at c.15 localities west of the río Utcubamba in Luya province, but there is no supporting evidence. It appears to occur at low densities and numbers seem to have dwindled around Florida.   <p></p>
106002080		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest edge, second growth, montane scrub and, in particular, thorny, impenetrable <em>Rubus</em> thickets admixed with <em>Alnus</em> trees, at 2,100-2,900&#160;m (occasionally 1,700-3,700&#160;m) (Clements and Shany 2001). Its preferred food-plant is the red-flowered lily <em>Alstroemeria</em> (<em>Bomarea</em>)<em> formosissima</em>, but it has been observed feeding on at least five species of flowering plant<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is thought to run from late October to early May. Adult males (which are greatly outnumbered by females and immature males) gather at leks where they display to attract females. <p></p>
106002080		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002080		threats	eng	Deforestation is widespread on the mountain slopes of the Cordillera del Colán, with much habitat cleared since 1978, and remaining forest under threat of conversion to cash-crops such as marijuana and coffee <strong></strong>(Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. However, the species's apparent preference for forest edge and isolated woodlots on steep slopes may reduce its vulnerability to habitat alteration. Interviews with Florida's inhabitants and enquiries in a nearby market town have revealed that dried hearts of the males of this species are believed to have aphrodisiac properties<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Garrigues 2000). Hunting with slingshots for this reason may even explain the skewed sexual ratio<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Garrigues 2000).<strong></strong><p></p>
106002081		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002082		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002083		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002084		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002085		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002086		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002087		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002088		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002089		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002090		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in three protected areas (Biosphere Reserves Ría Lagartos and Río Celestún, and Special Biosphere Reserve Bocas de Dzilám de Bravo). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor the extent of habitat degradation and rates of habitat loss. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status.  <p></p>
106002090		distribution	eng	<em>Doricha eliza</em> occurs in <strong>Mexico</strong> and has two disjunct populations: one in central Veracruz, and one on the northern fringe of the Yucatán peninsula. A recent review found no morphological differences between the two populations, but there are distinct ecological differences (Ortiz-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Veracruz population must be tiny, and declining (Ortiz-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002090		habitat	eng	The Yucatán population is found exclusively in a narrow (c.1 km wide) coastal strip, mainly in the ecotone between mangroves and tropical deciduous forest (Ortiz-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also breeds in gardens and urban areas (S. Howell <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Veracruz population occurs in undisturbed, dry deciduous forest and overgrazed habitats c.25 km inland (Ortiz-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 2002, S. Howell <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has been observed feeding at<em> </em>flowers of <em>Ipomoea</em>, <em>Justicia</em> and <em>Helicteres guazumaefolia</em>, and its diet is supplemented by small arthropods (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Veracruz, breeding condition has been noted in May, and a nest with small chicks was found in early August. In Yucatán, nesting takes place in August-April, with recently fledged young reported in February and March. Its nest, in which two eggs are laid, is cup-shaped, and made of seeds of Compositae, lichens and spiders' webs (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002090		population	eng	<span class="url"><span class="url">Ortiz-Pulido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) calculated that<span class="url"> <span class="url">the Veracruz population comprised <span class="url"> <span class="url">fewer than 2,500 individuals<span class="url">, and R. Ortiz-Pulido<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. (2012) <span class="url"><span class="url">estimates that no more than 6,000 - 10,000 birds are found in the Yucatan, assuming (optimistically) three to four times the Veracruz density (0.099 - 0.132 ind. / ha; Ortiz-Pulido <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002)<span class="url"> respectively.<span class="url"></span></span></span></span></span>
106002090		threats	eng	The Veracruz and Yucatán populations are subject to different threats, both causing habitat degradation. The Veracruz population is threatened by severe habitat degradation as a result of livestock grazing, sugar cane cultivation and residential development (Ortiz-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 2002), while the Yucatan population is under pressure mainly from development of its coastal dune habitat for tourism (J. F. Ortega-Pimienta<span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012, <span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url"><span class="url">R. Ortiz-Pulido<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span>  <p></p>
106002091		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002094		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002099		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002100		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002101		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Enforce the protection afforded to the species by protected areas.  Discourage further clearance of forest for agriculture, using the species as a figurehead.  Monitor key populations.   <p></p>
106002101		distribution	eng	<em>Mellisuga helenae</em> is endemic to <strong>Cuba</strong>, with a patchy distribution including Habana, Sierra de Anafe, Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Zapata Swamp, Jucaro, Moa, Cuchillas del Toa, Sierra Cristal, Mayarí and the coast of Guantánamo (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000) <strong></strong> and formerly Isla de la Juventud<strong></strong>. Although previously common and widespread, it is now rare and localised (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106002101		habitat	eng	It is found primarily in dense forests and edge of woodlands with plenty of bushes (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting takes place between April and June (Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106002101		threats	eng	The historic decline is principally the result of habitat modification and destruction (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of Cuba's natural vegetation has been converted to cultivation and pasture for cattle, with only 15-20% of land remaining in its natural state (Perera and Rosabal 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the recent expansion of cacao, coffee and tobacco production poses a further serious threat (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>  <p></p>
106002102		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002104		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002105		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002107		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. All exports of hummingbirds from Peru and Chile are controlled. A ten-year species recovery plan was approved in 2004 and included plans for a public awareness campaign, a study of competition with the woodstar and Peruvian Sheartail, a permanent population monitoring programme, restoration of natural vegetation in the Azupa and Lluta valleys, incorporation of its conservation into the agenda of the local Good Agricultural Practices committee, and a study of the feasibility of an <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> conservation project and reintroduction into suitable areas within the historical range (Estades 2007, Estades <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research genetic structure of populations.  Begin a habitat restoration program in the Lluta, Vitor and Azapa valleys. Conduct an education campaign to emphasize the importance of native plants, and encourage the planting of appropriate trees and bushes. Continue population monitoring as detailed in species recovery plan. Limit the amount of pesticides used in Azapa and Vitor valleys.  <p></p>
106002107		distribution	eng	<em>Eulidia yarrellii</em> is only known to breed regularly in the Azapa and Vitor valleys, Arica department, extreme north <strong>Chile</strong> (Estades 2007). Surveys since 2003 have failed to find it in the Lluta valley where it had previously been recorded in small numbers (Estades 2007). Stragglers have been found north to Tacna and possibly Moquegua departments, south <strong>Peru</strong>, and there is a historical record as far south as north Antofagasta province, but there are no recent records for Peru (Estades 2007). It was described as very common in the first half of the 20th century, with over 100 seen feeding together. More recent surveys have found the species to be scarce to locally common (Howell and Webb 1995), but it is unclear whether this reflects a serious decline or previous observers finding suitable flowering trees. In 2003 the Azapa valley held around 75 % of the total population, which was estimated at around 1,500 individuals (Estades 2007)<strong></strong>, while in 2007 the total population was estimated at around 1,200 individuals (55%  in Azapa and 45% in Vitor) (C.<strong> </strong>Estades <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p>
106002107		habitat	eng	It inhabits small remnant patches of native scrub in desert river valleys up to 750 m, but birds are occasionally reported above 2,000 m and once as high as 3,000 m (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Estades 2007)<strong></strong>. It is postulated that it migrates altitudinally, and may require fairly continuous vegetation along rivers to undertake such movements (Howell and Webb 1995)<strong></strong>. Estades <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) observed woodstars feeding on the flowers of native trees like the "chañar" (<em>Geoffroea decorticans</em>)<em> </em> and <span class="st">"pimiento<span class="st">" (<span style="font-style: italic;">Schinus </span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> molle</span>), as well as ornamentals like <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelargonium </span>spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bougainvillea </span>sp., and crop plants such as alfalfa (<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago sativa</span>), garlic, onion (<span style="font-style: italic;">Allium </span>spp.), and tomato (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lycopersicon </span>esculentum). They noted that the favoured species have entomophyllous flowers rather than typical ornithophyllous flowers (Estades <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It has often been reported feeding in gardens, particularly on <em>Lantana</em> and <em>Hibiscus</em> flowers (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>, but it is comparatively rare in such habitats (Howell and Webb 1995)<strong></strong>. It uses fruit groves for feeding (<span style="font-style: italic;">Citrus </span>spp) and nesting (olive trees) (C.<strong> </strong>Estades <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Despite the large numbers formerly seen feeding in flowering trees, it is usually a solitary feeder. Active nests have been found in April, May, late August and September and there appear to be two annual peaks in breeding activity (Estades 2007, Estades <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><p></p>
106002107		population	eng	Estades (<em>in litt. </em>2007) estimated the population to number 650 individuals in Azapa, and 550 in Vitor. This totals 1,200 individuals, roughly equivalent to 800 mature individuals. Previously, Estades <em>et al.</em> (2007) had calculated a Chilean population of 1,539 individuals in September 2003.
106002107		threats	eng	Remaining native habitat in the heavily cultivated Azapa and Vitor valleys is confined to small patches, and the indigenous plants favoured by the species may be severely threatened. Although it has adapted to use introduced plants the presence of certain native species may still be a limiting factor (Estades 2007). The 'chañar' tree (<em>Geoffroea decorticans) </em>may be an important food resource but is often destroyed by farmers who consider it invasive and believe it attracts mice (Estades 2007). Pesticides began to be heavily used in the Azapa valley in the 1960s in order to control the Mediterranean Fruit fly and other crop pests but the Peruvian Sheartail has not suffered similar declines, suggesting that this may not be the primary cause of its decline (Estades 2007). Competition with Peruvian Sheartail <em>Thaumastura cora</em> has been suggested as a potential threat, although this has not been proven (Estades <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, C.<strong> </strong>Estades <em>in litt. </em>2007, S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002109		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002110		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Río Ñambí Community Nature Reserve (Nariño), Río Palenque Reserve (Pichincha), Loma Alta Ecological Reserve, Podocarpus National Park<strong> </strong>(J. F. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2000) and Machalilla National Park. Machalilla is the largest of the four, but lacks effective protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species, especially in parts of its range where habitat remains but where there are few recent records (Peru, central Ecuador, east Andean slopes throughout). <p></p>
106002110		distribution	eng	<em>Chaetocercus bombus</em> has historically been recorded from central <strong>Peru</strong> (seven departments from La Libertad and Huánaco in the south), on both slopes of the Andes north through Andean and west-central lowland <strong>Ecuador</strong> (14 provinces) to south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño), where it was recently discovered and is thought to be seasonal (Salaman and Mazariegos 1998). It was once common, but has declined significantly, and very few have been recorded in recent years<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990), although several were reported recently from northern Peru (T. Marks <em>in litt.</em> 2003). During the 1990s, it was considered uncommon in Machalilla National Park, Manabí, Ecuador<strong></strong> (Parker and Carr 1992), and common in the newly established Loma Alta Ecological Reserve (7.5 km<sup>2</sup>), Guayas, Ecuador (Becker and López Lanús 1997), but recent reports relate to single individuals (e.g. at least one at Dos Mangas Communal Reserve, Guayas in 2005<strong></strong> [Ágreda 2007]) and it is not known to be present regularly or in large numbers anywhere in the country<strong></strong> (Gurney 2006). <p></p>
106002110		habitat	eng	It is found between sea-level and 3,050&#160;m, in humid evergreen forest and, more commonly, in the transitional zone between dry and wet forests. It appears to make seasonal or occasional movements, perhaps in response to continental rainfall patterns or El Niño Southern Oscillation events(Salaman and Mazariegos 1998).<br/><p></p>
106002110		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002110		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in western Ecuador over the period 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong></strong> (Dodson and Gentry 1991). High levels of habitat loss are continuing, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest if effective action is not taken urgently. In higher parts of the species's range, rates of habitat destruction are not as great, but logging and conversion of land for agriculture and plantations are causing loss and degradation of forest<strong></strong> (Dodson and Gentry 1991, Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995). <p></p>
106002111		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002112		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002113		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Machalilla National Park, but this provides inadequate protection (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The 7.5 km<sup>2</sup> Loma Alta Ecological Reserve receives local community support as a watershed reserve and conservation area (Becker and López Lanús 1997). The Chongón-Colonche Protection Forest may support the species, and a biological corridor linking forest remnants between this site and the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest is being set up (E. von Horstman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remnant moist forest in the Colonche Hills. Determine its status on Isla de la Plata. Exclude roaming livestock from Machalilla<strong> </strong>(Best <em>et al.</em> 1996, Becker and López Lanús 1997)<strong></strong>. Prevent further loss and degradation of habitat within Machalilla. Map and protect forest within the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche (Becker and López Lanús 1997, E. von Horstman <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2008)<strong></strong>. Encourage ecotourism at Loma Alta Ecological Reserve to financially benefit local people (Becker and López Lanús 1997). Establish a new protected area within the breeding habitat of the species (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<p></p>
106002113		distribution	eng	<em>Chaetocercus berlepschi</em> is restricted to a small area of west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Manabí, Santa Elena and Guayas), where it is very rare and localised (fewer than 15 known sites). Very little suitable habitat remains, and the species's distribution is extremely fragmented. Small numbers persist south of the río Ayampe, Machalilla National Park (Becker <em>et al.</em> 2000), Guayas, between October and March, but it is apparently absent during other months. In 1993, it was found near Súa, Esmeraldas, in an area severely threatened by logging<strong> </strong>(Best <em>et al.</em> 1996), and, in 1998, one male was recorded on Isla de la Plata (Becker <em>et al.</em> 2000). Several males were observed in the Loma Alta Communal Reserve, Guayas, in December 2002 and 2003, and a male was at Dos Mangas Communal Reserve, Guayas in December 2005 (Agreda 2007). During 2007-2008, 11 new localities were found in the lowlands of Manabí and Santa Elena (Harris<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).<p></p>
106002113		habitat	eng	This hummingbird inhabits semi-deciduous to evergreen moist (c.1,500 mm annual rainfall) forest along the Pacific coast of western Ecuador from around sea level to 750 m elevation (Becker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Agreda 2007, Harri<span style="font-style: italic;">s et al.</span> 2009). The vast majority of records come from the rainy season, i.e. from mid-October until late May. The species is found along a gradient from low elevation (0-250 m), partially disturbed areas (Becke<span style="font-style: italic;">r et al. </span>2000, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001) to more intact, higher elevation (250-750 m), misty "garúa" (low-level cloud) forest in the hills of the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche (Agreda 2007). A recent record from a garden (J. Croxall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011) shows at least a partial tolerance for degraded habitat. It appears to breed in lower elevation, disturbed areas along the central Ecuadorian coast and move to northwestern Ecuador for the non-breeding season (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). A male studied in 2005 fed mainly in a flowering patch of understorey herb <em>Razisea</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Agreda 2007). Other common foodplants include <span style="font-style: italic;">Kohleria spicata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cornutia pyramidae</span> and flowering <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitex gigantea</span> trees (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, E. von Horstman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A total of 21 active nests were encountered between October and April, at 30-350 m elevation and within 14 km of the sea (Harris<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009, Juiña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Most were in areas disturbed by cattle ranching, but adjacent to large blocks of forest (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Juiña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Nesting biology is discussed further by Juiña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010).<p></p>
106002113		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002113		threats	eng	All forest-types within its range have greatly diminished owing to logging and agricultural clearance<strong> </strong>(Dodson and Gentry 1991, Best <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Persistent grazing by goats and cattle damages the understorey, prevents regeneration and is a serious current threat<strong> </strong>(Dodson and Gentry 1991<strong>, </strong>Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Rapid habitat loss continues, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all extant forest<strong> </strong>(Dodson and Gentry 1991). Uncontrolled forest fires are a major threat to forest in the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche (E. von Horstman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2000, 2008). Even in Machalilla, its habitat is threatened by illegal settlement, deforestation, livestock-grazing and habitat clearance by people with land rights (Becker <em>et al.</em> 2000, Harri<span style="font-style: italic;">s et al.</span> 2009).. <p></p>
106002114		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002118		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002119		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002120		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Santa Fe National Park was established in 2001 and protects part of the species's range, but it still has inadequate staff and resources (G. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Panama Audubon Society has opened discussions with communities in the Ngobe-Bugle Comarca (Indigenous Homeland) with regard to protection of the region of Cerro Santiago (G. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cerro Hoya National Park protects the possible population on the Azuero Peninsula (Wege and Long 1995, Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to clarify its actual distribution and abundance. Study its habitat requirements. Determine the identity of the birds on the Azuero Peninsula. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Establish a protected area around Cerro Santiago and neighbouring peaks (G. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002120		distribution	eng	<em>Selasphorus ardens</em> is restricted to west and central <strong>Panama</strong> in the Serranía de Tabasará (eastern Chiriquí and Veraguas provinces) and possibly the highlands of Azuero Peninsula. In Chiriquí, it has been recorded on Cerro Flores and Cerro Colorado (adjacent peaks in the Cerro Santiago massif), but recently only from Cerro Colorado (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege and Long 1995, Montañez 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Veraguas, there are records from Cerro Tute (a few sightings in the 1980s), Calovévora (presumably Pico Calovevora just north of Santa Fe) and an unnamed locality (possibly Santa Fe itself) in the Santa Fe area (Stiles 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is poorly known, seemingly uncommon and difficult to locate, perhaps increasingly so (W. Porteous <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this may be confounded by seasonal migrations (G. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1994, <em>Selasphorus</em> hummingbirds were mist-netted and a specimen taken on Cerro Hoya, in the Azuero Peninsula, Los Santos (Engleman 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These records probably refer to this species, but there is some doubt concerning their identification (Engleman 1994, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002120		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in shrubby growth in clearings and forest borders at elevations of 750-1,850 m. <p></p>
106002120		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002120		threats	eng	Forest in eastern Chiriquí is becoming fragmented, and the Serranía de Tabasará is generally threatened by subsistence agriculture, clearance for coffee plantations, cattle-grazing, over-use of pesticides and fires (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994, G. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Deforestation for subsistence agriculture is severely affecting the core of the species's range in the area of Cerro Santiago (G. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002122		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be plentiful through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002124		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in the Shimba Hills National Park (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Zanzibar, 44% of the population is found within protected areas (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys across the species's range to obtain a new total population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to track population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Monitor rates of trapping. Monitor levels of trade. Enforce, extend and tighten quotas for trade in the species. Consider uplisting the species to CITES Appendix I. Increase the number of protected areas that incorporate the species's habitat. Enforce existing laws on Zanzibar demanding payment for timber harvesting on public land (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Create plantations as a source of firewood on Zanzibar (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Use<em> T. fischeri</em> as a flagship species in awareness campaigns, at least on Zanzibar (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002124		distribution	eng	<em>Tauraco fischeri</em> inhabits coastal and riverine forest and woodland in <strong>Kenya</strong>, north-eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong> and southern <strong>Somalia</strong>. In Kenya and Tanzania, it is frequent to common (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in coastal forests from Boni south to Tanga, inland along the Tana River, and up to 1,500 m in the Usambara Mountains (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> where a population of over 1,000 individuals is thought to reside (L. Borghesio <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>T. f. zanzibaricus</em>, endemic to Zanzibar (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, was thought to number only 25-50 birds (D. A. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but following surveys in June-July 2001 the population has been estimated at c.1,400 individuals (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Somalia, there are now probably fewer than 50 individuals left (D. A. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, all in the lower Jubba valley, where up to 80% of the riverine forest has been cleared in less than 30 years (Madgwick 1986, Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; there is thus little hope that the species will persist there. The total population is unknown but assumed to be 2,500-9,999 individuals. Although a limited time series of data suggests the population is Eastern Usambara is stable (<strong></strong>L. Borghesio <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>, the population as a whole is probably declining due to trapping and the clearance of coastal forests (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002124		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest and wooded thickets, favouring a canopy and sub-canopy of mature fruiting trees (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. Although sometimes recorded in degraded habitats, e.g. cultivated areas with a few remaining trees (Fry <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong></strong>, it is much rarer in this habitat (Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) and it is not clear whether populations can persist without tracts of intact forest (Fanshawe 1995, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It primarily feeds on fruit, in particular the berries of <em>Pachystela brevipes</em>, but also takes flower buds, young leaf shoots and insects (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. Its nest is a fragile platform of twigs placed in a tree 3-10 m above the ground. It lays two eggs, and the incubation period is 22-23 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002124		population	eng	The total population was thought to be very small, at no more than 2,500 birds (D. A. Turner <i>in litt.</i> 1999), but the recently revised population estimate of c.1,400 individuals for Zanzibar and over 1,000 in the Eastern Usambara, Tanzania (L. Borghesio <i>in litt.</i> 2010) suggests that the total population estimate should be recalculated. The population is thus assumed to fall within the range 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002124		threats	eng	It is threatened primarily by trapping and the clearance of coastal forests (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the 1980s and early 1990s, hundreds of birds were exported from Tanzania for the cagebird trade, with many more perishing en route, and this had a serious impact on numbers in the Usambaras (D. A. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Trade in live birds from Tanzania is still a significant threat (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although a recently imposed quota system is helping to limit its impact (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Zanzibar, there is a high rate of habitat degradation, with only 16% of the habitat occupied by the species showing signs of low, rather than high, human impact (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its habitat on Zanzibar is threatened mainly by firewood collection, but also by charcoal production, timber extraction and extensive clearing of land for agriculture (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002126		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002127		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Local communities are actively engaged in conserving montane forest, with support from the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project. However, there is now reportedly a lack of adequate conservation action taking place at Kilum-Ijim, despite the presence of many forest management institutions around the forest (P. Forboseh<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Community-based conservation activities were extended to other forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands in 2000 (J. DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000, P. Forboseh <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study ecological constraints to its survival including seasonal food requirements, size of forest patches, tolerance of habitat degradation (Forboseh and Ikfuingei 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and competition with <em>T. persa</em><strong> </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998c, J. DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Conduct surveys to improve knowledge about the species's population size. Take measures to prevent forest fires (F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Educate communities about the magnitude of the forest fire problem (F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Protect as many as possible of the remaining forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands (J. DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop strategies for restoring larger blocks of natural forest and connecting corridors (J. DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002127		distribution	eng	<em>Tauraco bannermani</em> is mainly restricted to the Bamenda Highlands in western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, but small populations exist on nearby Mt Mbam (Njabo and Languy 2000)<strong></strong> and, most recently discovered, at Fossimondi and Fomenji to the south-west. It is only likely to survive if the Kilum-Ijim forest, the largest remaining montane forest area in the Bamenda Highlands, is preserved (D. Thomas <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Research in 1994-1995 found the species in several remaining forest remnants in the Bamenda Highlands and seemingly able to survive in very small forest fragments (&lt;1 km<sup>2</sup>) (McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong></strong>. However, follow-up surveys in 2000 found some of these forest fragments had almost completely disappeared, with <em>T. bannermani</em> either absent or with only a few pairs remaining (Njabo and Languy 2000)<strong></strong>. In Kilum-Ijim, it is unlikely that more than 1,000-1,500 pairs occur (Forboseh and Ikfuingei 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002127		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal frugivore of montane forest (McKay 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It can survive in degraded and secondary forest as long as sufficient tall, fruiting trees remain (Stuart 1986)<strong></strong>. At lower altitudes, it is replaced by its congener, the Green Turaco <em>T. persa</em>, which is found in more open forest or scrub (McKay 1994, McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It would appear to move to higher altitudes (2,200-2,600 m) during the breeding season, probably to exploit seasonal fruiting patterns (Forboseh and Ikfuingei 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002127		population	eng	The total population is estimated in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals based on data given by Forboseh and Ikfuingei (2001). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002127		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is habitat loss: the Kilum-Ijim forest halved in area between 1963 and 1986. Following changes to a major long-term conservation project in 2004, it is reported that the threats of habitat loss and degradation at Kilum-Ijim have increased (P. Forboseh<em> in litt</em>. 2007, R. Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Stewart 2009)<strong></strong>. Forest fires are responsible for the greatest proportion of habitat loss (P. Forboseh <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, for example c.500 ha of forest burnt around Lake Oku in March 2000 (J. DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It is also under serious threat from forest clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood and timber, with birds surviving in forest fragments in imminent danger of extinction (McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong></strong>, particularly due to their reluctance to cross open habitats (Njabo and Languy 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is hunted for its feathers, which are given as awards in local ceremonies (K. Stewart <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106002128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002129		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Liberia and Gabon, elsewhere uncommon probably owing to confusion with other species (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in many areas of Podocarpus and juniper forest in Ethiopian Highlands above 2,400 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002131		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The woodlands of Anferara-Wadera and adjacent Bore-Anferara have been designated as National Forest Priority Areas (EWNHS 1996)<strong></strong>. The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority proposed to include the species's range in its Protected Areas Network in March 2012 (A. Shimelis <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect key sites, especially the area around Sele and Lela Lemu woodlands, but also <em>Juniperus-Olea</em> forest and adjoining woodlands north of Arero (Borghesio and Massa 2000)<strong></strong>. Initiate a scheme for monitoring its distribution and population. Evaluate its habitat requirements in more detail. Investigate the importance of its seasonal use of woodlands. Carry out surveys in the wet season (April-May), when it is more evenly distributed across its range (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Investigate the possibilities for ecotourism in the area (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Further investigate the extent of hybridisation between <em>T. ruspolii</em> and <em>T. leucotis</em><strong> </strong><em></em>(Lernould and Seitre 2002, 2004). Research use of plantations by <em>T. leucotis</em>, and assess whether natural tree plantations could be established that would not be favoured by this species, but would reduce human pressure on native woodlands (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Assess the level of hunting pressure for the illegal trade in adults and eggs (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Encourage reforestation with native tree species (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002131		distribution	eng	<em>Tauraco ruspolii</em> has a very restricted range in southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, around Arero, Bobela, Sokora, Negele and Wadera (Turner 1997)<strong></strong>. Fieldwork in 1995 found the species in all previously known localities and in some previously unreported sites (Borghesio 1997a)<strong></strong>. The northern part of the species's distribution encompasses the woodlands of Anferara-Wadera and adjacent Bore-Anferara, where it is not uncommon in suitable habitat (EWNHS 1996). In the central part of the range, the   woodlands bordering Sede and Lela Lemu forests may stil be fairly intact,  and  support high densities of the species. It is more common and widespread than was formerly believed (Turner 1997)<strong></strong>, but may never have occupied a much wider range than today (Borghesio 1997a)<strong></strong>, due to its restricted altitudinal distribution. In 1995, the population was estimated at c.10,000 individuals (Borghesio and Massa 2000)<strong></strong>. However, rapid changes to its habitat between 1995 and 2007 are likely to have caused a decline in the population of around 10-30%, and it is now expected to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (L. Borghesio<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002131		habitat	eng	This species is an arboreal frugivore and has been found at the edge of <em>Juniperus-Olea</em> forest, in mixed conifer-broadleaved woodland, and riverine tree formations.  It is most common at mid-altitudes (c.1,500 m [EWNHS 1996]<strong></strong>) in habitats with relatively low humidity, and intermediate between lowland thorn-bush and montane forest (Borghesio 1997a, 1997b)<strong></strong>. The diet includes fruits of <em>Ficus</em>, <em>Juniperus</em> and <em>Podocarpus</em><strong> </strong>(Borghesio 1997b). Birds may undertake seasonal movements of a few kilometres (Borghesio 1997a)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Hybrids between <em>T. ruspolii</em> and White-cheeked Turaco <em>T. leucotis </em>have been observed, most commonly in edge habitats (Lernould and Seitre 2002, Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002131		population	eng	In 1995, the population was estimated at c.10,000 individuals. However, rapid changes to its habitat between 1995 and 2007 are likely to have caused a decline in the population, and it is now expected to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (L. Borghesio<em> in litt.</em> 2007), so placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106002131		threats	eng	Surveys in 1989 and 2003 revealed habitat loss and a decline in habitat quality at some sites (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Human pressure is probably to blame for the decline of the species around Arero, with fires being reported in neighbouring woodland areas in March 1994. Agricultural expansion was found to be the main cause of habitat degradation in the north, but overgrazing and uncontrolled bushfires were more important in the south (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Rates of  illegal logging and agricultural expansions are  increasing in the Sede and Lela Lemu area,  and rates of habitat destruction are bound to increase  as the road  system will soon be upgraded to support the expansion of the mining   industry. The road from Kibre Mengist to Negele is being tarmacked and this will cause an expansion of human activities, while there are already large mines south of Shakiso (L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Throughout, collection of firewood is degrading habitat (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. However, the species does seem able to tolerate some human exploitation of its habitat (Turner 1997)<strong></strong> which, being relatively semi-arid, is not as severely threatened by the expanding human population as most other Ethiopian forests (Borghesio 1997a)<strong></strong>. However, the area is wet enough to support coffee, which will likely result in increased settlement (L. Borghesio <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Many plantations of exotic tree species (<em>Eucalyptus</em> spp, <em>Cupressus</em> spp) have also been created recently (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004, L. Borghesio <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Not only do these seem to have failed in their aim of reducing pressure on native forests, but they have - along with habitat degradation - facilitated a substantial expansion of the range of the forest-preferring <em>T. leucotis</em> into the range of the more woodland-favouring <em>T. ruspolii</em><strong> </strong>(Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004). Studies seem to indicate that <em>T. ruspolii</em> is not at risk from competition (Borghesio 1997a)<strong></strong>. However, recent observations of hybrids with <em>T. leucotis </em>have raised fears over the long term genetic integrity of <em>T. ruspolii </em>(Lernould and Seitre 2002, Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lernould and Seitre 2004, Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Fieldwork in 2007-2008 found hybrids along the entire overlap zone between the ranges of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. ruspolii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. leucotis</span>, where none had been seen in 1995 (Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In addition, the reluctance of turacos to fly across non-wooded habitat may make isolated populations unusually susceptible to local extinction (Lernould and Seitre 2002)<strong></strong>. Evidence has recently been found of attempts to illegally capture the species, perhaps indicating that this is an increasing threat, and access to areas within its range, although still difficult, has improved in recent years (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The capture of adult birds is likely to be for the cagebird trade and appears to be only a minor threat (L. Borghesio<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The species's eggs may be taken for medicinal purposes, although this also likely to be a very minor threat (L. Borghesio<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common everywhere within its range and locally abundant in some areas up to 2,000 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002135		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be localised but quite common in most of parts of its southern African range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002136		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in several areas, even very common in some places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002137		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002138		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002139		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range and possibly abundant in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common in most of parts of its range and locally abundant in Senegal and The Gambia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common in most parts of its range and locally abundant around the lake Victoria basin (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002143		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the most widespread of all turacos, and seems not uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002146		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in two protected areas, Bogani Nani Wartabone and Lore Lindu National Parks, which have been described as "two of the largest, biologically most important and best administered parks in Wallacea". In addition, 21 protected areas, with a total area of c.9,000 km<sup>2</sup>, have been proposed and/or established within the known range of the species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct widespread searches for the species in suitable habitat (using playback of its vocalisations if available), to clarify its range, distribution and population status. Reassess its conservation needs following these surveys, recommending further areas for protection where appropriate. Lobby for reduced logging of lower altitude forest in Sulawesi. <p></p>
106002146		distribution	eng	<em>Tyto inexspectata</em> is endemic to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from 11 specimens collected on the Minahasa peninsula and north-central regions of the island, and a few subsequent records (BirdLife International 2001). A number of recent records have come from Tangkoko National Park (F. Verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It appears to be sparsely distributed, and has been described as very uncommon or rare. However, it is shy, easily overlooked, and consequently almost certainly more abundant than records suggest. Numbers are likely to have declined steadily in line with on-going habitat loss. <p></p>
106002146		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and lightly disturbed rainforest, rich with lianas, ferns, palms and epiphytic plants, and also, at least occasionally, disturbed riverine forest and forest edge, from 100 m to 1,600 m. It is presumably sedentary. <p></p>
106002146		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size; its description as being uncommon or rare, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002146		threats	eng	The loss, degradation and fragmentation of forests pose the major threat to the species. It has doubtless contracted in range in the lowlands of Sulawesi, particularly on the Minahasa peninsula, as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, agricultural and infrastructural development and large-scale logging. Destruction of lowland forest on the Minahasa peninsula is described as "almost complete", and most primary forest below 1,000 m has been reduced to remnant patches, supplanted by secondary, disturbed and commercially utilised forest. Recent records of the species from higher altitudes provide some hope that healthy populations survive in more secure montane forests. In Indonesia, new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000); these empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi.  <p></p>
106002147		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A seven week avifaunal survey was conducted on Taliabu in 1991. A strict nature reserve has been proposed for the island, but only c.18% encompasses lowland forest, and it remains to be confirmed that this site is appropriate for the conservation of this rare owl. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct widespread searches for the species (including the neighbouring islands of Mangole and Sanana), questioning local people about its possible presence and clarifying its range, distribution, status and ecological requirements. Reassess its threat status and conservation needs, recommending further areas for protection where appropriate. Ensure effective management of any forthcoming protected area on Taliabu. <p></p>
106002147		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Tyto nigrobrunnea</span> is endemic to the Sula Islands, Maluku, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, where it is known from just one specimen (collected in 1938) and a handful of subsequent sight records, all from the largest island in the group, Taliabu (Davidson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1991, Rheindt 2010). It is possible, however, that future surveys will reveal its presence on the neighbouring island of Mangole and perhaps Sanana (Rheindt 2010). There is no information on its population size, but the paucity of records (even taking into account its inconspicuous nature and the fact that it could easily be overlooked) indicate that it is likely to be very scarce. However, it appears to be well-known to villagers at Binadesa and recent records suggest it can occupy secondary growth and bamboo thickets in the vicinity of habitation.<br/><p></p>
106002147		habitat	eng	Little is known of its ecology. The only specimen was collected in lowland forest, however, recent sightings have been made in heavily logged forest and dense secondary bamboo thickets suggesting that it can tolerance habitat degradation (Rheindt 2010). Unlike on other islands in the region, there is no open-country congener on Taliabu, which may have allowed it to adapt to disturbed habitats (Rheindt 2010). It apparently occurs within a broad elevational range (Rheindt 2010).<p></p>
106002147		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002147		threats	eng	Large-scale logging of lowland forest has taken place, and some areas have been clear-felled for industrial timber production. Most of Taliabu's lowland forest, below 800 m, is designated for logging concessions. Selective logging has already produced a mosaic of different-aged forest stands, with few, if any, extensive tracts of primary lowland forest remaining, except perhaps in the central south-west of the island. The effects of habitat degradation on this species remain unknown, but in combination the processes driving forest loss are thought to represent considerable threats. <p></p>
106002148		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A bird thought to be of this species was photographed within Manusela National Park on Seram. Additional protected areas are proposed on Buru (Gunung Kepalat Mada) and Yamdena (a 600 km<sup>2 </sup>reserve). Whether these areas support populations of the species remains to be investigated. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>*Conduct widespread searches for the species, including on other Banda Sea islands, to clarify its distribution, status and broad habitat preferences (including tolerance of habitat degradation) and thereby compile an effective conservation strategy. *Establish protected areas of forest on Buru and the Tanimbar islands, ensuring that habitat is adequately managed and legislation enforced. <p></p>
106002148		distribution	eng	<em>Tyto sororcula</em> is known from the island of Buru (and probably Seram) in South Maluku and Yamdena and Larat in the Tanimbar group, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Most records are of specimens collected in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, and more recent observations comprise one photographed individual (probably of this species) on Seram, one reported from north-west Buru in 2006 (M. Halaouate <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007), and several sightings on Yamdena between 2004-2011 (Burung Indonesia and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). There is no information on numbers, and although it is described as "apparently rare", it is probably often overlooked and consequently almost certainly more widespread and numerous than available records suggest. Nevertheless, it occurs in primary and selectively-logged lowland evergreen forest, a habitat that is being rapidly cleared from islands within its range by loggers and shifting cultivators. One collector was brought two live birds caught in holes in limestone cliffs on Buru, and this habitat type should be revisited and searched for the species <p></p>
106002148		habitat	eng	Recent and historical records derive from primary and selectively-logged lowland evergreen forest, and fairly degraded secondary forest (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). One collector was brought two live birds caught in holes in limestone cliffs on Buru, and one observation in 2005 concerned a bird roosting in a hole in a walnut tree along the border of primary forest and agricultural land (Burung Indonesia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). The species is presumably strictly sedentary. <p></p>
106002148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably rare (Konig et al. 1999).
106002148		threats	eng	Most forest in the coastal lowlands of Buru has now been cleared, and habitat in the northern portion of the island has been selectively logged, degraded and fragmented by shifting agriculture, such that only a few small patches of primary lowland forest remain. The situation is similar in the lowlands of Seram. Forest on Larat may have been seriously degraded by the outset of the twentieth century, and although much forest remains on Yamdena, it is highly accessible, partitioned into logging concessions and cannot necessarily be expected to persist. Nevertheless, local resistance to logging on Yamdena has reportedly meant that only one logging company remained operating in 2009, in the south-west of the island (Burung Indonesia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Oil drilling, transmigration and hydroelectric projects pose further potential threats to habitat within its range in south Maluku. <p></p>
106002149		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A large area of uninhabited forest including Mt Dremsel (719 m), has been identified as a very important area of terrestrial biodiversity (Beehler 1993)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveying to locate the species on Manus. Study the taxonomy of <em>T. manusi </em>and <em>T. novaehollandiae</em>, and compare their ecology and biology (König <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106002149		distribution	eng	<em>Tyto manusi</em> is known only from two historic specimens from Manus in the Admiralty Islands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are no records of the species since 1934 (P. Gregory <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) as recent surveys have failed to locate this species and there are few if any convincing reports from local villagers (Dutson and Newman 1991,<strong></strong> D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>.<em> Tyto</em> owls known only from subfossil bones on the adjacent islands of Mussau and New Ireland appear to have become extinct through unknown causes (Steadman and Kirch 1998)<strong></strong>. As with other <em>Tyto</em> owls, it may have been overlooked, but with further visits to Manus by birdwatchers and a continuing lack of records, its population may be smaller than 1,000 individuals.<br/><p></p>
106002149		habitat	eng	<em>Tyto manusi</em> is a rare owl of forest interior and has not been found in heavily degraded or swamp forest, although as it is only known from two specimens, it may have wider habitat tolerances. It is poorly known but is assumed to have similar habits to Australian Masked-owl <em>Tyto novaehollandiae</em>. The latter is nocturnal, shy and secretive; it roosts in dense folliage, hollow tree trunks and caves. Australian Masked-owl feeds on small rodents and other small vertebrates and larger insects (König <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Manus Masked-owl is likely to have large territories, with a home-range size of between 0.04-1.8 km<sup>2</sup> per pair (Higgins 1991)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002149		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002149		threats	eng	In 1987, 80% of vegetation on Manus was estimated to be primary forest (Kula <em>et al. </em>undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large areas of lowland Manus are now logged or under logging concessions and in coastal areas the forest is being eroded by shifting cultivation. This is not a major threat but could be important for rare endemics such as <em>Tyto manusi </em>that are presumed to have tiny populations and distributions. Introduced mammalian predators, such as dogs and cats, may be implicated in the species's rarity but the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has decimated birds on Guam, is thought to be native to Manus (Dutson and Newman 1991, R.&#160;Beck <em>in litt.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and therefore might not pose a serious threat.  <p></p>
106002150		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Attempt to rediscover a population of this species, searching in intact and degraded areas. Research its tolerance of degraded forest.  <p></p>
106002150		distribution	eng	<em>Tyto aurantia</em> is endemic to the island of New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is known from very few specimens and just two field sightings (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, Coates 1985, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1987)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Tyto</em> owls have become prehistorically extinct through unknown causes on the adjacent islands of Mussau and New Ireland (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, as with other congeners, it is likely to be overlooked and it may prove to be not uncommon and tolerant of logged forest. <p></p>
106002150		habitat	eng	It appears to be a lowland forest species but one specimen was taken at 1,000 m and one bird believed to be this species was heard at 2,000 m (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The two recent sightings were in forest edge, so it may tolerate degraded forest.  <p></p>
106002150		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002150		threats	eng	If this is a lowland species, then it may be threatened by logging and deforestation. On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On that island just over 15% of habitat thought to be suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 15 years, and this trend is ongoing (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002153		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002154		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Several sites where it has been recorded are protected areas - Mantadia National Park, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Masoala National Park, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Tsaratanana Strict Reserve and Zahamena National Park - where it probably occurs at low density (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. Four individuals are being radio-tracked and monitored at Bemanevika New Protected Area (L-A. Rene de Roland<em> in litt</em>. 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish presence or absence at rainforest sites to the south of Mantadia, especially in Midongy-South, Ranomafana, Andringitra and Andohahela National Parks. Determine its habitat requirements for breeding and foraging, to clarify its population size. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.<br/><p></p>
106002154		distribution	eng	<em>Tyto soumagnei</em> occurs in the eastern rainforest of <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it was formerly known from between Amber Mountain in the far north to Mantadia National Park in the centre-east, before a further site (Kalambatritra) was located 500 km further south of its previously known range (Irwin and Samonds 2002)<strong></strong>. More recently, the species was found in the extreme south-east of Madagascar, in the lowlands of Tsitongambarika, extending its presumed range considerably (R. Thorstrom and L-A. Rene de Roland<em> in litt</em>. 2007; R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is probably present in all suitably large blocks of humid evergreen forest in the east and north of Madagascar, but its nocturnal habits make it difficult to detect. Future surveys may reveal it to be less rare than currently thought (Morris and Hawkins 1998; ZICOMA 1999), and has been found to be common at Bemanevika New Protected Area at 1,500-1,650 m<strong></strong> (L-A. Rene de Roland<em> in litt</em>. 2012). <p></p>
106002154		habitat	eng	The species occurs in and adjacent to humid evergreen forest&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>from sea level to 2,000 m (Morris and Hawkins 1998; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but has also been recorded in an area dominated by dry deciduous forest (van Esbroeck 2006; Cardiff and Goodman 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It hunts at night in somewhat open areas in or near primary forest, perching in trees at the forest edge. Although formerly believed to occur only in undisturbed rainforest (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it has been recorded in degraded/secondary forest-edge vegetation and also hunts over open, human-altered habitat adjacent to forest, including rice-paddies and slash-and-burn cultivation (Thorstrom and de Roland 1997; Thorstrom <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it may require both forest and open areas (and so may be absent from large areas of forest interior; S. Mitchell <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Masoala it ranged over 210 ha (Thorstrom <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet is predominantly small native mammals, in contrast to <em>T. alba</em> which feeds mostly on introduced rat <em>Rattus</em> species (Goodman and Thorstrom 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> outside primary forest. Tsingy tufted-tailed rats <em>Eliurus antsingy </em>constituted almost 50% of total prey mass of birds in dry forest at Ankarana (northern Madagascar), and birds here also consumed insects, frogs and geckos (Cardiff and Goodman 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds have been recorded roosting on rock ledges and in cave entrances (van Esbroeck 2006; Cardiff and Goodman 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The first nest recorded by scientists was found in September 1995, 23 m above ground, in a natural tree-cavity in an isolated native tree <em>Weinmannia</em>, 500 m from the edge of the main forest block; clutch-size was probably two (two young successfully fledged) (Thorstrom and de Roland 1997)<strong></strong>. The species may have been overlooked previously for three reasons: a) it is reclusive and strictly nocturnal; b) it is mistaken for <em>Tyto alba</em>; and c) it occurs patchily and at low densities (Irwin and Samonds 2002; R. Thorstrom and L-A. Rene de Roland<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106002154		population	eng	A conservative estimate of primary rainforest cover in Madagascar is c.40,000 km<sup>2</sup> so even at 0.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> a low population estimate would be 4,000 individuals (F. Hawkins <em>in litt.</em> 2009). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, which is rounded to 3,500-15,000 individuals here.
106002154		threats	eng	Deforestation, mainly for subsistence slash-and-burn cultivation but also for commercial logging, continues to destroy the species's main evergreen forest habitat. Uncontrolled use of fire, often as a result of poor farming practices, is also a major cause of deforestation. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002156		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002157		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to very rare throughout most of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Taiwan   (Brazil 2009).
106002159		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Itombwe Forest has recently been gazetted as a community reserve, although the boundaries still need to be defined (A. Plumptre<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine the range and population of the species (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research its ecology (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Facilitate conservation action in collaboration with traditional authorities to limit further habitat degradation (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002159		distribution	eng	<em>Phodilus prigoginei</em> had not been recorded since the type-specimen was collected in 1951 at Muusi, in the Itombwe Mountains, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), until its rediscovery in 1996, when a female was mist-netted in the extreme south-east corner of Itombwe Forest (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997; Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. This rediscovery extends the species's known range southwards by c.95 km and lowers its altitudinal range by approximately 600 m (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Itombwe is not the only forest in central Africa with a large area of highland forest/grassland habitat, and it is possible the species occurs elsewhere, especially in Nyungwe Forest (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a possible sighting in Burundi from 1974 and, in 1990, calls of an unidentified owl were tape-recorded in Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent surveys of Kibira and Mt Kabogo, in which this species was targeted, were unsuccessful (A. Plumptre<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002159		habitat	eng	The record in 1951 was at 2,430&#160;m, in a grass clearing. The 1996 rediscovery was in montane gallery forest at 1,830&#160;m, where the slopes are covered with grass and bush and the lower slopes and valleys with montane forest (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species would appear to require a mosaic of grassland and either montane or bamboo forest, and was netted in a slightly disturbed area, indicating that it may tolerate some human activity (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002159		population	eng	The population is estimated at 9,360 individuals (10 individuals/km<SUP>2 </SUP>x 936 km<SUP>2</SUP> [20% EOO]), i.e. within the range 2,500-9,999, and likely to be at lower end due to specific habitat requirements. This range equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Density from estimate for congeneric Oriental Bay Owl  <I>P. badius</I>; see BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet.
106002159		threats	eng	Forest clearance for smallholder agriculture is a serious threat in Itombwe, where a maize blight since the early 1990s has reduced yields and forced farmers to clear forest for new farms (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Gallery forest on the central savanna plateau, including the locality where the species was rediscovered, is being degraded as a result (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for livestock-grazing, particularly at higher altitudes, is also a threat (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is considered to be very rare throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002161		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, including Kaeng Krachan National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng, Khlong Saeng, Hala-Bala and Khao Banthad Wildlife Sanctuaries, Thailand and Pasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. It probably occurs in the recently established Myinmoletkat Biosphere Reserve, Myanmar. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct playback and mist-netting surveys across its range to establish its distribution, status and habitat requirements. Afford effective protection to all forest in relevant protected areas. Campaign for reduced deforestation of lowlands in southern Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia. <p></p>
106002161		distribution	eng	<em>Otus sagittatus</em> is known from Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, south-west <strong>Thailand</strong> and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It appears to be locally distributed and scarce throughout its range. However, its true status is unclear as it is difficult to detect and it may be more common than records suggest. <p></p>
106002161		habitat	eng	It is resident and nocturnal in old-growth and regenerating evergreen or mixed deciduous forests of level lowlands and hill-slopes to at least 700 m. Limited mist-netting data indicates that it sometimes frequents dense or open lower storeys of mature forest, but may not inhabit recently logged forest. In Malaysia and Thailand, the breeding season is apparently February-March. Insects, chiefly moths, are its only documented food items. <p></p>
106002161		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002161		threats	eng	If this species is a lowland forest specialist, extensive lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, primarily through logging, development and conversion for agriculture, pose the greatest threats across its range. <p></p>
106002162		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas throughout its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Research is required to assess the species's dependence on primary habitats, generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species and estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106002162		distribution	eng	<em>Otus rufescens</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra (including Bangka Island) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>It has also been reported from the <strong>Philippines</strong>,<strong> </strong>perhaps from islands offshore from Sabah. It seems to be generally rare throughout its range but is reported to be locally common in some areas. Overall, declines are assumed to be taking place owing to the extensive loss of forest in the region. <p></p>
106002162		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and tall secondary forest, including logged forest and peat-swamp forest up to 1,000 m, but favours primary forest below 600 m. Nesting takes place in March-July. <p></p>
106002162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather rare (Konig et al. 1999).
106002162		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106002163		distribution	eng	This species has been reported from 21 sites in eight different countries: Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Fishpool and Evans 2001, Demey and Rainey in press).
106002163		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland evergreen forest in which it is very difficult to locate, and feeds on insects including grasshoppers and crickets. Breeding probably occurs in February-March (Fry et al. 1988).
106002163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare throughout its fragmented range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002164		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the focus of a project aiming to promote long-term conservation through community management (Fanshawe 1997)<strong></strong>. Within the forest reserve there is a 43-km<sup>2</sup> strict nature reserve, although this does not contain good quality owl habitat (Virani 1995a, 1995b, 2000a, N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007). A two-yearly census of the owls in Arabuko-Sokoke was initiated (M. Z. A. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Peregrine Fund has been funding the study of the species in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, including the radio-tracking of birds (Cameron 2003)<strong></strong>. In the East Usambaras, the main habitat is found in the Kwamgumi-Bamba-Segoma forest reserves, and also in the lowland forests within the private Kwamtili estate (N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Efforts were started to link all of these forest areas together within a single forest reserve managed by the central government, but this has not been concluded and additional support is needed to complete the process (N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its breeding biology, population structure, survival, and habitat requirements (Virani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Study the effects of removing <em>Brachylaena</em>. Monitor populations and forest health in Arabuko-Sokoke, Dakatcha and Usambara forests. Evaluate the effectiveness of nest-boxes as substitute breeding sites (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Survey additional lowland forest reserves, village forests, and unprotected forest patches in the East Usambaras, as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachylaena</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra </span>woodland in the Mwakijembe area of north-eastern Tanzania, and, in Kenya, north of Dakatcha as far as the southern coast of Somalia to see whether they hold the species (M. Z. A. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007, N. Cordeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007, Virani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Continue to work towards linking existing reserves into a single forest reserve in the lowland East Usambaras.<br/><p></p>
106002164		distribution	eng	<em>Otus ireneae</em> was believed to be endemic to the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in coastal <strong>Kenya</strong>, but in 1992 it was found in the lowlands of the East Usambara Mountains of <strong>Tanzania</strong> as well (Evans 1997a)<strong></strong>. In Arabuko-Sokoke, a population of c.1,000 pairs occurs in c.220 km<sup>2</sup> of forest (Virani 1995b) - this population was suspected to have been stable between 1984 and 1998 (Virani 2000a), but playback surveys in 2005 and 2008, and compared with  data from 1993, suggest that the species may have undergone declines of  22.5 % in 16 years (Virani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In the East Usambaras, there are c.97 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat and densities range from less than 1.5 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> up to 3-4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a population in the low hundreds (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong>. The species might also occur in the Mundane Range, near the Kenya-Somalia border (Virani 1995a, 1995b)<strong></strong>. The discovery of a very small population on the edge of Marafa Forest to the north of Arabuko-Sokoke suggests further exploration of the overall area might produce more pockets of habitat holding marginal or remnant populations (C. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, and this may possibly be true for the lowland areas of the East Usambaras (N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, although it was not found at three previously unsurveyed <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachylaena </span>woodland sites in north-east Tanzania (Cordeiro &amp; Githiru 2000). Surveys in Kaya forests along the Kenyan coast south of Mombasa did not locate the species (M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002164		habitat	eng	In Arabuko-Sokoke, it occurs mostly in good quality <em>Cynometra</em> forest (787 pairs in 99 km<sup>2</sup>), and at much lower densities in an additional 120 km<sup>2</sup> of secondary or more disturbed <em>Cynometra</em> forest (Virani 1995b, Evans 1997b). It roosts and forages in the dense lower half of the <em>Cynometra</em> canopy and possibly nests in natural cavities in large or old <em>Brachylaena</em> trees (Virani 1994, 1995b). It feeds mainly on beetles (Cameron 2003), with 91 % of the diet in one study in Arabuko-Sokoke found to consist of Coleoptera (Virani 2008)<strong></strong>. In the East Usambaras it occurs in lowland coastal forest with a mixed tree species composition up to 400 m which is taller and structurally different to that in Arabuko-Sokoke (Evans 1997b, <strong></strong> N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It has a home range of 12-14 ha <strong></strong>(Virani 1995b,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>2000b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002164		population	eng	In Arabuko-Sokoke, a population of c.1,000 pairs (stable between 1984 and 1998) occurs in c.220 km<sup>2</sup> of forest. In the East Usambaras, there are c.97 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat and densities range from less than 1.5 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> up to 3-4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a population in the low hundreds. The total population is estimated to number at least 2,500 individuals and is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002164		threats	eng	In Arabuko-Sokoke, unsustainable (and often illegal) extraction of <em>Brachylaena huillensis</em> for wood-carving and firewood may have reduced the species's breeding success (Virani 1995b, <strong></strong> M. Z. A. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and there may now be few if any of these trees remaining (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). <em>O. ireneae</em> is probably long-lived (Cameron 2003)<strong></strong>, so the resulting declines might not be observed for some time. In the East Usambaras, most lowland forest outside reserves has already been cleared for agriculture, and there is a programme to reserve the remaining patches as village forest reserves (N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>.  Government-owned forest reserves suffer from pit-sawing of timber and pole-cutting (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1994, <strong></strong>N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In addition, Arabuko-Sokoke forest is under threat from titanium mining (Cameron 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> N. Burgess<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is possible that the species breeds opportunistically in response to rain, however the seasons in Kenya have deteriorated into more irregular rains and increased droughts (Cameron 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002165		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect some areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Compare population densities in human-modified areas and natural forest, and generate a revised population estimate for the species. Encourage developments to be sensitive to the species; it could easily occur within resorts. <p></p>
106002165		distribution	eng	<em>Otus balli </em>is an endemic resident in the Andaman islands, <strong>India</strong>, where it was common, at least early in the twentieth century (BirdLife International 2001). Its current status is unclear, although it appears to be easily found and therefore probably common. There seems little reason to expect its population to be under immediate threat given its tolerance of disturbed areas. <p></p>
106002165		habitat	eng	It occurs in trees in semi-open or cultivated areas and around human settlements. It feeds at night on insects and nests in February-April. <p></p>
106002165		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Konig et al. 1999).
106002165		threats	eng	Forest loss is accelerating on the Andamans, owing to development of the coastline and possibly small-scale agricultural encroachment. <p></p>
106002166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in places (Konig <I>et al</I>. 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002167		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research on the species as it remains very poorly studied. Determine its status and abundance, and assess threats to the species. Consider other conservation actions subsequently. Protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002167		distribution	eng	<em>Otus umbra </em>is endemic to Simeulue Island, off north-west Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Reports as to its status differ, from rare, or possibly rare, to not uncommon. <p></p>
106002167		habitat	eng	This species favours forest edge and remnants, especially on coasts, as well as clove plantations. <p></p>
106002167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather frequent (Konig et al. 1999).
106002167		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been very extensive, but very few data on this phenomenon are available from Simeulue. The tolerance of secondary and edge habitats shown by this species renders it unlikely to be under immediate threat. <p></p>
106002168		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species has been recorded recently in two protected areas, Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park and Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve. These two areas cover over 500 km<sup>2</sup> of forest between 500 m and 3,000 m. Nature Reserves exist on Gunung Tangkuban Prahu and Gunung Ijen, from where there are historical records. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive nocturnal fieldwork (including mist-netting) on mountains throughout Java to establish its true range and population status, and discover what vocalisations might aid detection. Support proposals to gazette further montane protected areas, and campaign for the establishment of new reserves (including Gunung Salak and Gunung Ciremai) or extensions to existing reserves. Improve protected-area management. Initiate conservation-awareness programmes around Javan forests. <p></p>
106002168		distribution	eng	<em>Otus angelinae</em> is endemic to the island of Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from seven mountains, although there are recent records from only three (BirdLife International 2001). Most recent records come from Gunung Gede-Pangrango, where it is regarded as still fairly common (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). An evaluation of records and museum/zoo specimens, coupled with its reputed silence, suggests it may be more numerous and widespread than available evidence shows.  <p></p>
106002168		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical upper montane forest between 1,000 m and 2,000 m. Observations suggest a breeding territory size of very roughly 50 ha. Fledged young have been recorded in February, June and July, indicating egg-laying in at least May and December. It is presumed to be resident, perhaps making some altitudinal movements. <p></p>
106002168		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002168		threats	eng	The main threat is from forest loss, degradation and fragmentation through widespread agricultural encroachment by shifting cultivators. Localised development (e.g. for holiday resorts and geothermal projects) is probably becoming an increasing threat in the lower part of its altitudinal range (1,000-1,500 m), particularly on unprotected mountain slopes. The area above this zone is still relatively secure. <p></p>
106002169		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002170		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Protect areas of forest within its altitudinal range. <p></p>
106002170		distribution	eng	<em>Otus longicornis</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is recorded from the provinces of Ilocos Norte, Benguet, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Quezon, Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Despite its fairly wide distribution and elevation tolerance, the species is generally uncommon and appears to be sensitive to habitat alteration in the lowlands. <p></p>
106002170		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from humid forest in foothills and mountains, and pine forest, from 360 to 1,800 m. Recent records are from lower montane forest at 700-1,500 m. It is believed to feed mainly on insects and a nest with chicks was observed in May. <p></p>
106002170		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon locally (Konig et al. 1999).
106002170		threats	eng	The species is thought to be susceptible to habitat loss and degradation driven by logging, mining and agricultural expansion. <p></p>
106002171		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Compare population densities in fragmented and secondary forest with primary forest and determine the likely remaining population size and Area of Occupancy. Calculate rates of forest loss. Protect remaining tracts of forest on Mindoro for the benefit of this and a number of other threatened species. <p></p>
106002171		distribution	eng	<em>Otus mindorensis</em> is endemic to Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is now judged likely to occur throughout the mountains in the centre of the island, and it appears to be common above c.1,000 m. The species was commonly observed recently in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park at 700-900 m. <p></p>
106002171		habitat	eng	It occurs in closed-canopy montane forest above 700 m. It has been recorded recently in patches of highly fragmented secondary forest within this elevation band. <p></p>
106002171		population	eng	Although apparently quite common in suitable habitat, the area of remaining habitat is small and as a consequence, the population size is assumed to be moderately small also, with the number of mature individuals likely to be between 10,000-19,000. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002171		threats	eng	Montane forest has been extensively cleared on Mindoro and is now greatly reduced in extent. Logging operations continue to clear remaining tracts and may pose a threat to this species. <p></p>
106002172		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>This species is poorly known and requires study before its status and threats can be accurately assessed. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002172		distribution	eng	<em>Otus mirus</em> is endemic to Mindanao in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it has been recorded from Mt Hilong-hilong, Mt Apo, Mt Kitanglad and Lake Sebu (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although described as rare, this is a species of higher elevations and is probably not seriously threatened. <p></p>
106002172		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane forests. <p></p>
106002172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare (Konig et al. 1999).
106002172		threats	eng	Forests within its altitudinal range have not been as severely affected by logging, mining operations and clearance for agriculture as forests at lower elevations. <p></p>
106002173		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species<strong><sup></sup></strong> has been ratified (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000; M. Melo<em> in litt.</em> 2003; F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Legislation for the creation of Obo National Park has also been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> has been proposed.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecological requirements. Carry out surveys to establish its population size and distribution. Identify the key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining primary forest and maintain areas of mature secondary forest where it occurs. List it as a protected species under national law. <p></p>
106002173		distribution	eng	<em>Otus hartlaubi</em> is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>, where it is relatively widely distributed in suitable habitat (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and probably has a population of several hundred birds. Reports of a small owl on Príncipe, could refer to this species, but recent searches have found no evidence of its presence (J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106002173		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and undisturbed secondary forest up to 1,500 m, but not in plantations with shade trees. The diet includes invertebrates and probably small lizards. It calls frequently at dusk or dawn and occasionally during the day (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002173		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002173		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of forest were cleared for coffee and cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Construction for the country's developing oil industry, including the established idea of building 'free ports' (free economic zones)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, was seen as a potential threat to the species's habitat (M. Melo<em> in litt.</em> 2003). However, prospecting on land was unsuccessful, and any construction is likely to be offshore (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002176		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 210000-440000 breeding pairs, equating to 630000-1320000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 51000-2640000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.1000000-3000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002177		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species has also been the focus of specific study, improving knowledge of its life history and potential threats. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of remaining forest in different parts of its range to ensure that all subspecies are represented. Monitor threats to the species. <p></p>
106002177		distribution	eng	<em>Otus elegans</em> is found on the Nansei Shoto islands and Minami-daito-jima island, southern <strong>Japan</strong>, on Lanyu Island, off south-east <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), and on the Batanes and Babuyan islands off northern Luzon in the<strong> Philippines</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is common wherever suitable habitat remains on the Nansei Shoto, and is presumed to have quite a large population there. The population that persisted on Kita-daito is apparently extinct but 245 territorial males were estimated on adjacent Minami-daito during the 2005 breeding season <strong></strong>(Takagi <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has a population estimated at c.1,000 birds on Lanyu Island, and it has been described as fairly common on the Batanes and Babuyan islands. However, its range must have been much reduced and fragmented in the Philippines by deforestation, although its population it thought to be stable on Lanyu Island and its prospects for survival there are good so long as suitable habitat is protected. It is presumably also relatively secure on the Nansei Shoto, but its extirpation from Kita-daito highlights it vulnerability to extensive forest clearance (the island is almost entirely under cultivation now).  <p></p>
106002177		habitat	eng	It occurs in subtropical evergreen forest, and locally in or near to villages, from sea-level to 550 m or higher. It feeds on a range of arthropods and will take small mammals and small birds. Eggs are laid in March-July. <p></p>
106002177		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Nansei-shoto. The total population on Lanyu is estimated to be 150-230 individuals (Konig <I>et al</I>. 1999), while other national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002177		threats	eng	The species has likely been impacted by forest clearance (leading to its extirpation on Kita-daito <strong></strong>[Takagi <em>et al</em>. 2007]), and studies have shown that suburban owls may not live as long as those in forest, suggesting forest is optimal habitat. <p></p>
106002178		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known islands and ascertain its tolerance of habitat degradation. Assess the rate of habitat loss and area of suitable habitat remaining. Protect key sites within the range for this, and other Threatened and Near Threatened species. <p></p>
106002178		distribution	eng	<em>Otus mantanensis</em> is endemic to the islets off Sabah (e.g. Mantani), <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and off Palawan (e.g. Rasa, Ursula) in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, as well as to islands in the Sulu archipelago and central Philippines (BirdLife International 2001). It is apparently common in suitable habitat. The total range size is very small. <p></p>
106002178		habitat	eng	It is fairly common in coconut groves and other wooded habitats, although its total area of occupancy is small. It hunts at the forest edge or in clearings, feeding primarily on insects. Eggs are thought to be laid in March-May in a tree cavity. <p></p>
106002178		population	eng	This species is poorly known, but is common on at least some of the islands where it occurs. Overally the population is assumed to be moderately small. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002178		threats	eng	It is confined to increasingly disturbed and degraded habitats within a small range. <p></p>
106002179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Konig et al. 1999).
106002180		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species is protected by law in Seychelles under the Animals and Bird Protection Act (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the highland forest where the species occurs is incorporated into the Morne Seychellois National Park (MSNP), although the park covers only c.55% of the species's maximum predicted range (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A second protected area of 1,000 ha, south of the MSNP, proposed in 2000-2001, would increase the protection of the species's range to 80% (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a; D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some other sites are also classified as Sensitive Areas under the Environment Protection Act (S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A stakeholder agreed action plan highlighted key conservation management priorities for this species (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Importantly, there appears to be few realistic options for increasing its range on Mahé and few options for translocation programmes, given that the most suitable island (Silhouette) can hold only 20 territories (based on the Mahé model) and similarly hosts a suite of alien predators (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve management of the Morne Seychellois National Park (MSNP), including implementation of a management plan, control of development, monitoring of ecotourism impacts, new legislation, enhanced institutional capacity, and a review of park boundaries<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Rocamora 1997a; N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extend the limits of the national park southwards to include most of the species's range (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Examine the influence of alien predators on nest success and adult survivorship. Conduct a public awareness campaign to gain better knowledge of the species's occurrence (S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue survey work to confirm its distribution and stability on Mahé, and monitor population densities (Rocamora 1997a; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a; D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue ecological research, particularly into feeding and nesting requirements (R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. Minimise forestry activities in important areas for the species (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Retain <em>Dillenia ferruginea</em> and <em>Pterocarpus indicus</em> specimens that are dead or alive (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate whether the species nests in <em>Paraserianthes falcataria</em> before initiating control of this tree species (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate factors affecting habitat quality and breeding success (Rocamora 1997a; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a). Develop a contingency plan to be implemented should a catastrophic event occur on Mahé (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the effect of<em> </em>high mortality in <em>P. indicus</em> on reproductive success (J. A. Mortimer <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enhance potential habitats so that new breeders can set up territories, thus ensuring recruitment into the breeding population (R. Fanchette<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002180		distribution	eng	<em>Otus insularis</em> is endemic to Mahé in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>. The population size was previously estimated at 90-180 pairs (Rocamora 1997a; Watson 2000b)<strong></strong>. However, modelling according to altitude and vegetation (thus excluding unsuitable habitat) produced an estimate of 125-142 territories, or 250-284 mature individuals, in a c.31 km<sup>2</sup> range (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong></strong>. There are no data on the current population trend (R. Fanchette<em> in litt.</em> 2005; D. Currie<em> in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. However, it is highly unlikely to be undergoing significant declines, since most available habitat is occupied and the area of habitat is probably stable (R. Bristol<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The population may have been more or less stable since the mid-1970s (Rocamora 1997a; Watson 2000b). Eight of 12 sites where pairs were regularly seen in 1975-1976 were visited again in 1993 and pairs were detected at all eight sites (Watson 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002180		habitat	eng	It favours upland (&gt;400 m) mixed forest with native and introduced tree species and a high canopy<strong></strong>, which is often mist-shrouded, and generally in areas of high rainfall (Rocamora 1997a; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong></strong>, in valleys and on sheltered slopes<strong></strong>. The species's increased frequency at higher elevations may be associated with a preference for less-disturbed forest that as a result is dominated by native tree species, although it is found in forested areas in close proximity to urban and agricultural areas (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a). Between 250 and 600 m it inhabits secondary forest, which is dominated by exotics (Mellanby <em>et al</em>. 1996). </span>  It has been recorded above 700 m and suitable habitat exists up to the summit of Morne Seychellois at 906 m (D. Currie <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Its previously supposed association with 'boulder fields' is probably ecologically meaningless because of the ubiquitous nature of such terrain (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Territories are c.20-25 ha (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004a)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It has been observed from low in the understorey up to the lower canopy (Mellanby <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. Main prey items discovered from pellet analysis were Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Araneae, and vertebrates may be taken (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Similarly, during observations at two nests, the majority of items fed to nestlings were invertebrates, mostly Orthoptera, arachnids and Lepidoptera (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. These observations on the species's diet suggest that it forages on foliage and tree trunks, not just on the ground<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Nests are found within wooded areas, which are made up mainly of exotic vegetation (Fanchette <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Eight nests have been found by scientists, all in the cavities of two relatively uncommon tree species, the native <em>Dillenia ferruginea</em> and introduced <em>Pterocarpus indicus</em>,<em> </em>at heights of 7-25 m (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. <em>P. indicus</em> may have become important in the life history of the species if it replaced native trees that had originally provided important nest-sites J. A. Mortimer <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Nests are usually found in live trees located amongst dense vegetation (R. Fanchette<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A single egg is laid; congeners normally lay two, but Seychelles land birds characteristically lay a single egg (Watson 1978, Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002, Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Observations at two nests revealed that incubation lasted for 3-4 weeks and the fledging period was 4-6 weeks (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. The species can probably breed year-round with peaks in nesting around May and October (Watson 2000, Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Pairs can initiate re-nesting soon after nest failure (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. Breeding success is recorded as low at c.0.5 fledglings/territory/year (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>, although this may be high enough to maintain population stability (D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002180		population	eng	Currie <em>et al. </em>(2004a) estimated 125-142 territories (i.e. possibly 250-284 mature individuals) in 2001/2002 based on modelling altitude and habitat suitability. Given the uncertainty in these extrapolations and the time since the surveys it is plausible that the population now falls below 250 mature individuals, hence the range 249-300 mature individuals is used here.
106002180		threats	eng	Some lowland habitat destruction, at the lower limit of the species's range, is occurring due to housing and other developments (Rocamora 1997a; G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. <em></em>2007;<strong></strong> N. Doak<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and highland forest on Mahé continues to be cleared on a small scale for timber and tea cultivation (but these activities are not threats, providing they are not intensified) (Rocamora 1997a; A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Forest clearance was extensive in the 19th and 20th centuries, but such rates unlikely to occur again (D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Presently, localised forest clearance, e.g. for cinnamom <em>Cinnamomum verum </em>coppicing and governmentral forestry activities may impact specific pairs (D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, for example localised forestry activity is thought to have caused the desertion of one nest and the shifting of several pairs by over 300 m (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. If areas south of the national park were opened up to development the species could suffer a severe reduction in population size (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Promotion of ecotourism in the uplands, resulting in the creation of new trails and increased disturbance, may be a localised threat (N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Introduced species including rats, cats and Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em> are likely predators of nests and adults (Rocamora 1997a; A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b; A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> are very likely to have predated two or three of the few nests so far discovered for this species (Fanchette <em>et al.</em> 2000; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002; Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. The Common Mynah <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> is a potential nest-site competitor (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong>. <em>R. rattus</em> and <em>A. tristis</em> both occur at high densities on Mahé, and <em>T. alba</em> is often present in <em>O. insularis</em> territories<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The impact of introduced species on the breeding success of <em>O. insularis</em> is unknown (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2004b)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Cinnamon significantly encroaches habitat, but effects on the species are unknown (N. Doak<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Over recent years,  <em>P. indicus </em>has been decimated by a fungal disease and has suffered widespread local extinction on Mahé, resulting in a drastic reduction in suitable nest-sites (P. Matyot <em>in litt. </em>2005; G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  Climate change presents a long-term threat to the species (R. Fanchette<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, probably through increases in extreme weather events (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Storms might cause damage to <em>Albizia</em>-dominated forest, as it is prone to wind damage (D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The existence of only one island population leaves this species vulnerable to catastrophic events such as the introduction of a novel predator<strong></strong> or disease (D. Currie<em> in litt</em>. 2007; G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002182		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Protected areas on Pemba include Ngezi-Vumawinbi Nature Reserve, Msitu  Mkuu Forest Reserve and Ras Kiuyu Proposed Forest Reserve (Siex 2011).  There are also 13 community forests which include 'high protection' and  'low impact use' zones (Siex 2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue studies to determine rates of habitat destruction (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005, M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Conduct in-depth population studies (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005, M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Carry out research into the species's ecology and habitat requirements (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Virani 2005, M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Control illegal activities within the Forest Reserves  (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Improve sustainable tourism facilities at Ngezi Nature Reserve (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Protect additional areas of forest and off-shore islands (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Promote sensitive tourist development (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  Carry out survey work to determine if there is potential to restore  connectivity of forest patches via enrichment planting (Siex 2011).<strong></strong><br/><p></p>
106002182		distribution	eng	<em>Otus pembaensis</em> is endemic to Pemba, some 55 km off the coast of northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Although occurring over most of the island, it is largely confined to the two small remaining native forests; Ngezi (14 km<sup>2</sup>) and Msitu Mkuu (3 km<sup>2</sup>) (Catry <em>et al.</em> 2000, Virani 2005, M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The global population size is estimated at c.1,500 pairs (M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Global population trends have not been quantified, and populations appeared to be stable (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999) or declining slightly owing to slow habitat conversion. However, observations of habitat loss from surveys in 2005 suggest that the species is in rapid decline (Virani 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002182		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a number of forested habitats, such as dense areas in clove and mango plantations (Virani 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but is much more common in native, primary forest. Surveys in February 2005 recorded owl responses per transect point. Relative abundances for various habitats were: 2.9 (primary forest), 1.6 (secondary forest), 0.7 (old growth cloves), and 0.4 (settlements with old trees) responses respectively. No responses were obtained in open farmland, villages, or towns (M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding biology is unknown, but it probably breeds from August to October in tree holes (König <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002182		population	eng	M. Virani (<em>in litt.</em> 2005) estimated the population to number 1,500 breeding pairs (3,000 mature individuals), based on preliminary data on the extent of various habitats, and densities of the species in these different habitats. This estimate equates to 4,500 individuals in total.
106002182		threats	eng	Decreasing global clove prices led to the conversion of some old clove plantations (which offered suitable habitat) to open farmland growing rice and cassava (Catry <em>et al.</em> 2000, Virani 2005, M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The human population of Pemba continues to rise (400 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>,  and increasing by 5% per year, Siex 2011), and although agriculture  remains small-scale the need for crop-land is intensifying rapidly (J.  Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007, N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2102)<strong></strong>.  The  vast majority of the human population is dependent upon shifting  cultivation and forest  products, such as building poles, firewood, and  charcoal. Due to the high price of  electricity, even the urban  population is heavily reliant on firewood  and charcoal for cooking, and  Zanzibar as a whole is losing an estimated 1.2 percent of its forest  each year, leading to increasing  fragmentation and rapidly diminishing  any potential to maintain and restore connectivity of forest patches  (Siex 2011). Some native forest has also been recently converted to rubber plantations (Virani 2005)<strong></strong>. Ras Kiuyu forest has been heavily exploited for building materials, lime burning and fuel wood (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Msitu Mkuu Forest Reserve is subject to illegal exploitation (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Development of tourism may require infrastructure that passes through remaining forest (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005, B. Peters <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Non-native House Crows <em>Corvus splendens</em> may also pose a threat (F. Reid <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002183		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Long-term, ongoing developments that will benefit wildlife in general include a family-planning programme, environmental education projects, and the formation of a non-governmental environmental organisation (Ulanga) (Safford 1993)<strong></strong>. The UNDP, in partnership with the government, planned to implement a large-scale reserve covering Mount Ntingrui from around 2009.  A participatory conservation project has been ongoing on Anjouan since 2008 (H. Doulton <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2010, <strong></strong>K. Green <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Activities centre on improving livelihoods and agricultural productivity, helping communities to collectively manage their natural resources such as water, and monitoring biodiversity patterns across all three islands to help prioritise areas for wildlife protection. Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation’s (BCSF) project in the Comoros, Engagement Communautaire pour le Developpement Durable (ECDD) is taking a community-led landscape management approach towards the protection of forest and biodiversity in the Moya Forest region of Anjouan. Actions include intensification of agricultural practices to reduce the demand for land, improving soil fertility through terracing and the integration of livestock management into agricultural practices, and the development of alternative revenue streams such as through market gardening (K. Green, H. Doulton and B. Daniel <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Research aiming to establish estimates of current population size and distribution, establish a long-term monitoring scheme and recommend conservation actions to assist the preservation of the species began in 2010 (K. Green <em>in litt. </em>2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring to confirm the population size, and carry out additional research on the ecology and behaviour of the species, including researching its requirements for food resources and nest sites, thus investigating why this species appears to be dependent on forested areas and has low presence in plantations. Although it has been found to be less dependent on pristine forest than previously feared, the species occurs at its highest densities in undisturbed forest, and conservation measures proposed should thus focus on the conservation of forest ecosystems, complemented with awareness raising for the species both nationally and internationally.  Additional measures such as the provision of nest-boxes in secondary forest (Moorcroft 1996)<strong></strong> and establishing a captive population as insurance against extinction (Safford 1993)<strong></strong> may not be necessary if the species is confirmed to have a much larger population than was once suspected.<br/><p></p>
106002183		distribution	eng	This species was rediscovered on Anjouan (= Ndzuani) in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> in June 1992, after an absence of records dating back to 1886. At least several tens of pairs, probably 100-200 pairs, were estimated to survive in 1999 (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and although a survey in 1995 produced a maximum estimate of only 96 individuals (Moorcroft 1996)<strong></strong>, differences between these two estimates may be due to sampling techniques. Surveys in 2006 found the bird to be abundant in suitable habitat and encouragingly found individuals in degraded habitats down to 300m, and it has also been sighted at sea level (H. Doulton <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2010, C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2009).<strong></strong> This survey estimated the population to be somewhere between the two previous estimates at 50-100 pairs (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2009)<strong></strong>. Surveys carried out in 2010-2011 suggested that the species may be frequent in degraded forest, with habitat modelling giving a potential range of 93.4 km<sup>2</sup>. Density was estimated at 0.53 birds per hectare (0.44-0.63, 95% CI), meaning that the total population may be significantly higher than previously thought and possibly as high as 4,950 individuals (3,641-6,632, 95 CI), however further work is needed to confirm this (K. Green <em>in litt. </em>2010, 2011, Lloyd 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002183		habitat	eng	It survives in remaining fragments of native upland forest, degraded forest and plantations, and appears to be dependent on large trees with cavities for nesting and roosting, usually on steep slopes (Safford 1993)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2010-2011 found the species to be commonest in native forest, with significantly lower densities in degraded forest and lower densities still in plantations, and it also occurs in agroforestry with natural or non-natural understorey vegetation (K. Green <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It has been recorded perching in thick cover, 3-15 m from the ground (Lewis 1996)<strong></strong> and roosting 3-4m off the ground on the bottom branch of a tree fern (H. Doulton <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2010)<strong></strong>. Insects are believed to form at least part of its diet (Safford 1993)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002183		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 50-100 pairs (C. Marsh in litt. 2007, 2009), however surveys carried out in 2010-2011 suggested that the species may be more widespread, and frequent in degraded forest, with habitat modelling giving a potential range of 93.4 km2. Density was estimated at 0.53 birds per hectare (0.44-0.63, 95% CI), meaning that the total population may be significantly higher than previously thought and possibly as high as 4,950 individuals (3,641-6,632, 95 CI), however further work is needed to confirm this (K. Green in litt. 2010, 2011, Lloyd 2010), hence the population is currently precautionarily maintained in the band 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106002183		threats	eng	Habitat clearance for agriculture, timber extraction and charcoal manufacture is ongoing (Lewis 1996, Safford 2001, K. Green <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. Between 1990-2000 the country suffered from the fourth highest rate of deforestation in the world. Remaining habitat is becoming increasingly degraded through human disturbance and invasion by exotic plants such as <em>Rubus rosifolius</em> and <em>Lantana camara</em><strong></strong> (Safford 1993). Introduced black rat<em> Rattus rattus</em> is abundant in the forest, and may predate nests (Safford 1993)<strong></strong>. The introduced Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> may compete for nest holes (Safford 1993, H. Doulton <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2010, C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2009)<strong></strong>.  Severe cyclones are a regular threat to remaining forest fragments (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002184		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been suggested, but has not yet materialised (Louette and Stevens 1992; Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Protected area planning was underway for the Karthala forests in 2012 (K. Green <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the ecology of this species to aid conservation plans. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala to encompass the remaining native forest, and develop a land-use strategy (Louette and Stevens 1992; Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area (Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop an environmental education programme on the island (Louette and Stevens 1992).<strong></strong> <p></p>
106002184		distribution	eng	<em>Otus pauliani</em> is found only on Mt Karthala, an active volcano on Grand Comoro (= Ngazidja), in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. In November 1989, studies revealed its presence on the northern, western and southern flanks of the volcano where about 100 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat exists, and the population may prove to be over 1,000 pairs (Herremans <em>et al.</em> 1991a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In September 2005, the species was found to be abundant on the south-eastern flanks of the Karthala which may increase the population estimate; however the extent of suitable habitat will have been reduced since 1989. <p></p>
106002184		habitat	eng	This species occurs from 650 m upwards to the tree line (Louette <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is territorial, occurring in primary, montane, evergreen forest, favouring areas with old hollow trees, but is also found in "pioneer forest"; (forest that grows on rocky soils; Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988; Louette <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and regenerating forest dominated by <em>Psidium cattleianum </em>(Louette <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It shows a preference for edge habitat: either edges along the upper limits of the forest where it is replaced by giant heath <em>Philippia</em>, edges along old lava-flows, or edges of open areas within the forest itself (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its feeding and breeding ecology are unknown. <p></p>
106002184		population	eng	In November 1989, studies revealed its presence on the northern, western and southern flanks of the volcano where about 100 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat exists, and the population may prove to be over 1,000 pairs. In September 2005, the species was found to be abundant on the south-eastern flanks of the Karthala, which may increase the population estimate. However, no formal revised estimate is available and the extent of suitable habitat will have been reduced since 1989. The estimate is thus retained at 2,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to at least 1,300 mature individuals.
106002184		threats	eng	Since 1983 intact forest may have declined by over 25% as agriculture, on all but the poorest soils, has advanced steadily up the slopes of Mt Karthala toward the habitat of <em>O. pauliani </em>(Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>. There is large clearance for road construction on the western side above Mvouni, relatively intensive logging for plank production using chainsaws in the south, above Kourani, and cattle grazing on the <em>Phillipia</em> heaths in the highlands (K. Green <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Secondary forest in the agricultural belt on the mountain is dominated by exotic plants, particularly strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum </em>(Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>, which could spread into and degrade remaining native forest. Commercial logging occurs in a 50 km<sup>2</sup> concession on the south-western slopes (Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>. Pioneer forest, although unsuitable for agriculture and of little value for logging, is susceptible to fire and may be burnt to provide grassland for cattle (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. Grazing is increasing - even at high altitudes - and could prohibit forest regeneration (Louette and Stevens 1992; Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong>. Introduced rats and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> may act as competitors or nest predators (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002185		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as rare.
106002186		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan;  &lt; c.10,000 breeding   pairs in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and possibly &lt;   c.10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002187		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Surveys are required to clarify this species's status, determining its dependence on forest and the current rates of deforestation on the Mentawai islands. Conduct awareness programmes to discourage hunting. Protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002187		distribution	eng	<em>Otus mentawi</em> is endemic to larger islands of Mentawai, off west Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Its status is poorly known, but it may be locally common. Declines are likely owing to habitat conversion, but its ability to persist in human-modified habitats suggests that it is not immediately threatened.<em> </em><p></p>
106002187		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland forest and secondary growth, including around villages. <p></p>
106002187		population	eng	This species occupies a few small islands and consequently its population is thought to be moderately small. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. This preliminary estimate requires clarification.
106002187		threats	eng	Forest destruction owing to agricultural expansion and logging operations in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been extensive, but the situation in the range of this species is poorly known. <p></p>
106002188		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known, but the species has been recorded from St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106002188		distribution	eng	<em>Otus fuliginosus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it is known from Palawan and the adjacent islands of Alabagin and Balabac, with an unconfirmed report from Calauit (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). On Palawan, there are records from Kinalaykayan and Dicabaitot, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Cleopatra's Needle, Buenavista, Iwahig Penal Colony, the vicinity of Puerto Princesa, Quezon at Tabon, Singnapan at Kabasakan, Pinikpikan and Tining-luan, Taguso, Mt Mantalingajan at Pinigisan and Tigwayan, Batarasa. Although described as rare and evidently a bird of lowland forest, the emerging evidence from knowledge of its voice is that it is much more common and more widespread than was supposed. <p></p>
106002188		habitat	eng	It is a bird of lowland forest, but can adapt to mixed cultivation and plantations. <p></p>
106002188		population	eng	This species is thought to have a moderately small population as it is a bird of lowland forest restricted to the island of Palawan. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. However, this is a preliminary estimate that requires clarification.
106002188		threats	eng	As a forest-associated species, deforestation driven by logging and agricultural expansion has almost certainly caused declines, especially as the species occurs in the lowlands. <p></p>
106002189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon locally (Konig et al. 1999).
106002197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002199		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No other targeted conservation action is known for this species.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Study the species's ecology (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect suitable habitat. Future research should focus on the breeding ecology, life history strategies, demography, and population trends to evaluate the conservation status of this species; this work will be essential for a better understanding of how habitat degradation may be<br/>affecting this species’ survival (Enríquez &amp; Cheng 2008).<p></p>
106002199		distribution	eng	<em>Megascops barbarus</em> is endemic to the highlands of Chiapas, south-east <strong>Mexico</strong>, and west <strong>Guatemala </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a, del Hoyo et al. 1999).<br/><p></p>
106002199		habitat	eng	This species is found in montane evergreen and humid pine-oak forest at elevations of 1,800-2,500 m (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong></strong>. In Guatemala is also occurs in ten year old pine plantations (Eisermann 2011). Its diet consists mainly of large insects, particularly beetles, which are captured in the understorey by a sit-and-wait strategy (Enríquez &amp; Cheng 2008)<strong></strong>. Breeding likely takes place between March and June (Enríquez &amp; Cheng 2008). The only known nest was found in June 2001 2.45 m above ground in a  natural cavity of a large living oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus laurina</span>; inside was an  adult red-morph female brooding a single grey-morph nestling estimated  to be 3 weeks old (Enríquez &amp; Cheng 2008). Birds moult in the rainy season, from July to October (Enríquez &amp; Cheng 2008).<br/><p></p>
106002199		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002199		threats	eng	Pine-oak forest is disappearing rapidly through logging for firewood and charcoal, agricultural expansion, urbanization  and bark-beetle epidemics that are exacerbated by habitat degradation (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, Ochoa-Gaona and González-Espinosa 2000)<strong></strong>. Civil war in Chiapas, Mexico, accelerated deforestation (P. J. Bubb <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><p></p>
106002200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002201		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a number of small protected areas, and probably in Munchique National Park, Cauca, Colombia and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Esmeraldas, Ecuador<strong></strong> (Salaman 1994, Freile and Chaves 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its ecological and habitat requirements, particularly its dependence on forest. Clarify its presence in Munchique National Park and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, and search in other potentially suitable areas. Effectively protect core areas of remaining suitable habitat <p></p>
106002201		distribution	eng	<em>Megascops colombianus</em> is known from the Pacific slope of the West Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong> and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Chocó to Cotapaxi)<strong></strong> (<strong></strong> Fitzpatrick and O'Neill 1986,<strong></strong> Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990,  Sibley and Monroe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Freile and Chaves 1999)<strong></strong>. It is common at La Planada Nature Reserve (Salaman 1994)<strong></strong>, but is usually considered uncommon (Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998).<em> <p></p></em>
106002201		habitat	eng	It was thought to inhabit montane evergreen forest, but apparently occurs in tall secondary forest, forest edge and open pasture, at 1,250-2,200 m<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Freile and Chaves 1999)<strong></strong>. Its overall dependence on forest within its life-cycle is unknown. <p></p>
106002201		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106002201		threats	eng	Deforestation is accelerating within its range, primarily owing to intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, coca cultivation and gold-mining (Salaman 1994, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996).&#160;<p></p>
106002203		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002204		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify extent of threat to cloud-forest in the Cordillera Yanachaga. Survey ridges in the Gran Pajonal area. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against future threats. Estimate population size (Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Quantify deforestation rates within the species' range  (Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<p></p>
106002204		distribution	eng	<em>Megascops marshalli</em> is known from six localities from Pasco department, <strong>Peru</strong>, south to Cochabamba department, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> (Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has a disjunct distribution with four subpopulations: from the Cordillera Yanachaga, Pasco<strong></strong> (Weske and Terborgh 1981, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990),  south into north-central Junin, Peru; Cordillera Vilcabamba, north-west Cusco and adjacent Junin, Peru which includes the type locality and Campamento Segakiato, the source of a recent specimen; Madidi National Park, La Paz, Bolivia, from Inciensal Sauce west to just across the Peruvian border, Puno; and Cochabamba and immediately adjacent La Paz, encompassing the Cordillera Cocapata, the adjacent unnamed mountain range, and Serranía de Callejas  (Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The overall extent of occurrence is calculated as 12,700 km<sup>2</sup> (Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <br/><em> <p></p></em>
106002204		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat is pristine to at most slightly disturbed  wet montane forest with high structural complexity, dense understory, and abundant epiphytes. It has been recorded at altitudes of 1,550–2,580 m, but locally its altitudinal range is 500 m  (Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <br/><p></p>
106002204		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather abundant (Konig et al. 1999).
106002204		threats	eng	The north Cordillera Vilcabamba is the most intact area of montane habitat in Peru (J.&#160;Fjeldså verbally 2000), and this sub-population is considered secure. Cloud-forest in the Cordillera Yanachaga was largely undisturbed when the species was recorded, but threats are unquantified and require clarification. <p></p>
106002205		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002210		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Megascops nudipes </span>occurs on <span style="font-weight: bold;">Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.) </span>(del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">newtoni</span>, from Puerto Rico's offshore islands and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Virgin Islands (to U.S.A.)</span> has not been reported convincingly since 1927 (Wetmore 1927) and is likely to be extinct.
106002210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002211		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, and further field research is required to determine its current level.
106002212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002213		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. It occurs in several protected areas, including Mt Apo and Mt Kitanglad Natural Parks and Siargao Island. There are older records from Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which has been proposed as a national park. In the 1990s, it featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct nocturnal surveys, using voice playback, to establish presence/absence in poorly surveyed areas of Mindanao (e.g. Mts Three Kings, Diwata and Dapiak) and Samar. Conduct more intensive fieldwork to assess abundance, elevational range and habitat requirements at key sites. Promote improved protection of remaining forest at the sites listed above and campaign for a protected area in south Mindanao to encompass the cluster of sites with recent records. <p></p>
106002213		distribution	eng	<em>Otus gurneyi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Dinagat, Siargao and Mindanao. It has a relatively widespread distribution on Mindanao, where it has been discovered at eight new sites since 1990. However, its status is uncertain and, although it is likely to be under-recorded, it is considered to be probably uncommon at best. <p></p>
106002213		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary, secondary and selectively logged dipterocarp forests, primarily in the lowlands up to 670 m, with occasional records up to 1,300 m, including in mossy forest. <p></p>
106002213		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002213		threats	eng	Its entire range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao and in 1992 no more than 724 km<sup>2</sup> of closed-canopy forest remained on Samar. These figures are likely to be overestimates, with most remaining lowland forest tracts leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Dinagat has been almost entirely deforested as a result of illegal logging and chromite surface-mining. <p></p>
106002215		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 19,000-38,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 57,000-114,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe   forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global   population size is 250,000-2,500,000 individuals, although further validation   of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea;   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106002216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002218		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be generally uncommon to rare and very local but more common in some places (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002221		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The East Usambara Catchment Forest Project is curbing forest destruction and incorporating much of the remaining unprotected forest into reserves, e.g. at Mt Nilo Forest Reserve (Cordeiro 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the lack of jurisdiction over neighbouring Public Lands Forest threatens the long-term prospects of reserves (Cordeiro 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conservation action in the Ulugurus focuses on assisting local initiatives and increasing the involvement of local communities in forest management (Buckley and Matilya 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Iwonde Forest in Udzungwa National Park is well protected (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish population densities and sizes at known locations (D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999; Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a programme to monitor its population and habitat on a regular basis (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve the protection and management of reserves within the species's range. Continue to increase the involvement of local people in forest management.  <p></p>
106002221		distribution	eng	<em>Bubo vosseleri</em> is distributed throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains of <strong>Tanzania</strong>, having been recorded from both the East and West Usambara Mountains (including Mt Nilo Forest Reserve (Cordeiro 1998; Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a), Uluguru North Forest Reserve (above Tegetero; Hunter <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Mkungwe Forest Reserve (15 km north-east of the Ulugurus and particularly common; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Iwonde Forest in Udzungwa Mountains National Park (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Kilombero Nature Reserve (Mt Mufu) (Barnes <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (along the Kihanga and Mpimbili rivers and in the Mbawi sector; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are also unconfirmed reports or probable records from three other locations (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1998; Moreau 1964; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999; T. Romdal <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Records from lowland forest in the Usambaras during October-March (Evans 1997b; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> suggest that it may be resident there and the total population may thus be higher than the previous estimate of 200-1,000 individuals (Evans 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002221		habitat	eng	Most records are from montane and submontane evergreen forest (800-1,500&#160;m), with some from lowland evergreen forest down to 200&#160;m (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is presumed to be a canopy-dwelling species (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may be able to tolerate some human disturbance of forest structure, since it occurs on the forested borders of tea plantations (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and several young birds have been found in forest where the understorey has been cleared for cardamom cultivation. The diet appears to be exclusively small mammals (rodents, insectivores<strong></strong> and possibly dwarf bushbabies <em>Galagoides; </em>T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong><sup></sup></strong>). The breeding season is thought to be November-February. The nest-site may be a tree-hole. <p></p>
106002221		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 200-1,000 individuals, however records from lowland forest in the Usambaras (D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <I>in litt.</I> 1999) suggest that the total population is higher. The population is therefore placed in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002221		threats	eng	Unreserved forests in the East Usambaras are under heavy pressure from subsistence agriculture, pit-sawing and grazing livestock (Cordeiro 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although most forests in this region have been gazetted as protected areas since 1997-2004 (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is also pressure on forest reserves in many areas and this is likely to increase as stocks of fuelwood and timber outside reserved areas are depleted (Cordeiro 1998; <strong></strong>Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002224		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from several protected areas. However, no targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Encourage the recording of as much information as possible from sightings, including habitat type, prey and relative abundance compared to other areas or preceding years (H. Rainey<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out research into the species's ecology and behaviour, and record its vocalisations. Once a range of vocalisations have been recorded, conduct extensive surveys for the species. Monitor the clearance and degradation of lowland forests within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat covered by protected areas.    <p></p>
106002224		distribution	eng	<em>Bubo shelleyi</em> is a large, rare forest owl known from scattered locations from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> to northern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (Borrow and Demey 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is known from the following sites: Gola (Sierra Leone); Lofa-Mano, Mt Nimba, Zwedru, Balagizi Mts (<strong>Liberia</strong>); Taï, Mt Nimba (contiguous with Mt Nimba in Liberia) (<strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong>); <strong>Ghana</strong> (two old records only; Grimes 1987); 'south' <strong>Cameroon</strong><sup> </sup>(Borrow and Demey 2001); Ipassa Strict Nature Reserve (<strong>Gabon</strong>); Dimonika Biosphere Reserve (<strong>Congo</strong>); Okapi Faunal Reserve (DRC). <em>B. shelleyi</em> is the largest African forest owl, and may thus require large areas of good quality habitat and thus have a small population, possibly below 10,000 individuals.  <p></p>
106002224		habitat	eng	It is one of the most poorly known owls in Africa, and its ecology and behaviour are largely unknown (Koenig 1999)<strong></strong>; it has been recorded from inside forest, on forest edge and in clearings, in lowland areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999; Fry<em> et al</em>. 1988)<strong></strong>. Its full range of vocalisations have not been documented (Chappuis 2000)<strong></strong>, which is probably a factor in the paucity of records. It has been observed eating a large flying squirrel, and its large size and powerful feet suggest a diet of medium-sized to large prey (Fry<em> et al</em>. 1988). A captive bird required c.110 g of flesh per day (Fry<em> et al</em>. 1988)<strong></strong>. The timing of breeding is not clear; although intense calling has been noted in March, nestlings have been seen in September-November and fledged juveniles have been observed, or possibly observed, in December (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999; Fry<em> et al</em>. 1988)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002224		population	eng	This species may require large areas of good quality habitat and thus have a small population, possibly below 10,000 individuals. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002224		threats	eng	The Upper Guinea forests are being cleared at a very high rate and the forests of Cameroon and much of Central Africa are also likely to suffer reductions in area and quality over the next few decades.  <p></p>
106002225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread, uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002227		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002228		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. There are recent records from several protected areas, including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Quezon and Mt Makiling national parks on Luzon, Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo natural parks on Mindanao and Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol. In the 1990s, it featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the Only in the Philippines series. In 2005 the species was successfully bred in captivity for the first time and by 2007, 10 birds had been captive-bred (Anon. 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further fieldwork using playback, to establish its current distribution and status. Propose and designate further key sites as formal protected areas (e.g. central Catanduanes and the Angat watershed). Improve habitat protection measures in existing protected areas, e.g. at Cayapa in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and the U. P. Laguna Land Grant, in accordance with its official status. Use nest cameras to study the species's biology and raise interest in Philippine owls (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002228		distribution	eng	<em>Bubo philippensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Luzon, Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Mindanao and possibly Sibuyan. Historically it was uncommon and the paucity of recent records suggests that it is now rare, although it is widespread at low density on Luzon and even nests on the fringes of Manila (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002228		habitat	eng	It appears to be a sedentary resident of lowland forest, sometimes near watercourses, generally below 650 m but occasionally up to 1,250 m (e.g. on Leyte). It tolerates disturbed, selectively logged and secondary forest and even coconut plantations with patches of thick secondary growth. Studies of the species's pellets suggest it feeds on rodents and amphibians (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002228		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002228		threats	eng	Extensive lowland deforestation throughout its range will inevitably have had a major and continuing deleterious effect on its population. On Luzon, forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s and illegal logging is common at two sites from where there are recent records. A substantial proportion of remaining lowland forest in the Philippines is leased to logging concessions, and mining applications pose an additional threat. Local pressures at Rajah Sikatuna National Park (Bohol), a key site, include illegal tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion. Typhoons on Catanduanes in 1987 and 1996 destroyed large areas of forest. Hunting may be an additional threat. <p></p>
106002229		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in all range states. It has been recorded from several protected areas including Magadanski, Botchinski, Verkhnekhorskiy and Kuril'ski (Russia), Changbai Shan (China), and Shiretoko and Hattaushi (Japan). On Hokkaido, there is a programme of supplementary feeding and nest-box provision. The Blakiston's Fish-owl Project was initiated in 2005 in Russia as a collaborative study with the Amur-Ussuri Center for Avian Biodiversity, to conduct research on a variety of issues, including habitat-use and nest monitoring, as well as building scientific capacity and increasing conservation awareness  (Anon. 2008, Slaght and Surmach 2008, Slaght 2009, J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Collaborative activities are ongoing, with planned projects in Primorye and in Magadan, including surveys of the Iman River Basin, Primorye, and a study of prey preference during the breeding season (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <span class="style5"><strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of river basins along the Okhotsk Sea coast, the lower Amur Valley (Russia) and in China and North Korea. Designate a national park encompassing three existing protected areas on the Bikin River, Primorye; designate a protected area along the Anyuy River, and create a system of specially protected areas in the Khor River Basin (Russia). Design and implement a recovery plan for the river systems and forests in Hokkaido (Japan). Provide nest-boxes especially where nest trees have been removed. Draft regulations to restrict human access to key sites during the breeding season and to ban fishing on stretches of river used by the species. Eliminate use of potential nest trees for bridge construction. Institutionalize logging road closures post-harvest (as a necessary component of compliance with Forest Stewardship Council certification) to reduce human access to riparian zones (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<span class="style5"> Develop methods to reduce mortality due to collision with power-lines and traffic and drowning in nets. Instigate public awareness and education campaigns in all range states.  <p></p></span>
106002229		distribution	eng	<em>Ketupa blakistoni</em> is found in the coastal mountain ranges of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>'s Far East, north to Magadan, including Sakhalin Island (although it has not been recorded here since 1974), the southern Kuril Islands and the Amur Basin (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012); the mountains of Heilongjiang, Jilin and eastern Inner Mongolia, <strong>China</strong>, and central and eastern Hokkaido,<strong> Japan</strong>. It probably occurs in North Korea. The population numbers 250-400 birds in Primorye, Russia, an area representing the extreme south of its range, and by extension the total population size is likely to be a few thousand (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is declining in Russia, China, and Hokkaido. <br/><p></p>
106002229		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense forest, with large, old trees for nest-sites, near lakes, multi-chanelled rivers, springs and shoals that do not freeze in winter (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Fish forms the main part of the diet but small mammals, birds, amphibians, insects and crustaceans are also taken. <br/><p></p>
106002229		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number a few thousand birds, based on estimates of 250-400 in Primorye alone (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is precautionarily placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals. Surveys throughout its range are required to gain a more accurate estimate than this.
106002229		threats	eng	Logging of riverine forest, conversion of forest to farmland, development along riverbanks and the construction of dams are the major threats. Over-harvesting of fish, especially salmonids, has reduced food availability in Russia and Japan. Disturbance is a problem across its range and river pollution, hunting and trapping are also threats (J. Slaght <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). On Hokkaido, birds are killed through collision with powerlines and traffic and drowning in nets on fish-farms. Incidences of close inbreeding have been reported on Hokkaido, likely as a result of the small population there numbering just c.35 pairs (Hayashi 2009).<br/><p></p>
106002230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be very rare and local to uncommon in the west of its range but possibly not uncommon locally elsewhere (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999). National population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in   China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002234		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a few protected areas, including Taï National Park and Loma Forest Reserve. Taï National Park and periphery reserves (including Haute Dodo and Cavally Forest Reserves) is the largest and best-preserved area of Upper Guinea forest, but management needs improvement (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forests on the border of Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire, near Mt Nimba, are not effectively protected (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The AfRap Project planned to conduct a systematic survey of this species in the National Parks of Côte d'Ivoire (G. Rondeau <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. River surveys for the species have been conducted recently in Gola. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in western Ghana, around the three large river systems Tano, Ankobra and Pra and their tributaries (Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys to determine whether the species occurs within other protected areas in West Africa (Gatter 1997). Survey the mangroves of Guinea, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Upgrade the protected status of Mt Loma (currently a non-hunting forest reserve) (H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and carry out ecological studies there (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1996b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce the law against fishing with poison, particularly in protected areas. Improve the management and protection of protected areas where the species occurs, particularly riparian forest. Improve management of Taï National Park and periphery (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Taï National Park and Gola Forest, take action to limit forest clearance in and around the national park and incorporate local people into the development of an effective management plan including development of land use regulations, alternative livelihoods, ecotourism and other activities that will limit encroachment into park (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Effectively motivate forest guards to carry out patrols (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002234		distribution	eng	<em>Scotopelia ussheri</em> is endemic to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, occurring in <strong>Guinea</strong> (recorded from Ziama forest in 1951 and more recently in 1992 and 1993 [Bützler 1996<strong></strong>]), <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (four records up to 1969, in 1989 recorded from an area adjacent to Gola Forest [P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998], in 1992, found to be moderately common in one small area on Mt Loma, and recently river surveys in Gola located it in at least four, but possibly six, areas, suggesting it is uncommon or rare, but perhaps locally common along the Kwadi and Mogbai Rivers [E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2008<strong></strong>]; one was also observed west of Gola West near Tiwai Island in 2009 [Conway <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010]), <strong>Liberia</strong> (fairly widely distributed and not uncommon with recent sight records from the upper Dube River, Zwedru, and near small forest streams in Grand Gedeh and northern Lofa County [Gatter 1997]), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (five sites: Lamto [Demey and Fishpool 1991], and four protected areas: Taï NP [Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995], Azagny NP<strong></strong>, Mount Péko NP<strong></strong> and Marahoué NP [H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2003]<strong></strong>) and <strong>Ghana</strong> (not found during surveys in the south-west during 2001-2005 [H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007], but reported from Antikwa, Kakum, in 2008, with records from several other sites [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009]<strong></strong>). Loma Forest, Sierra Leone, is a prime site for the species's conservation due to the area of suitable habitat (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002234		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitats are riverine rainforest and mangroves. However, records have also come from a small stream in swampy forest in Taï National Park (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong> and streamside vegetation in a coffee plantation in degraded forest near Gola Forest (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Surveys in Gola located the species in primary forest, forest edge near villages and in secondary growth such as old cocoa plantations and bamboo stands, along small, shady streams in mosaics of open floodplains and riverine forest (E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009)<strong></strong>. It would appear that it can survive in secondary forest with small rivers as long as there is suitable gallery forest (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>, where branches of trees overhanging streams can be used as fishing posts (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1996b)<strong></strong>. The species may feed on freshwater crabs and other food items, in addition to fish (E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The comparative paucity of records, and its absence at some sites with potentially good habitat, suggest it is patchily distributed and generally at low densities (G. Rondeau <em>in litt</em>. 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span> H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Pairs probably engage in duets (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2003, E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is generally considered to be nocturnal, although an active individual was camera-trapped at midday in Sierra Leone in 2009 (Conway <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
106002234		population	eng	The species was previously estimated to number fewer than 2,500 individuals because of its apparent scarcity; however, it has recently been shown to be more widespread and probably more common than previously thought, thus it is now estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Further study is required.
106002234		threats	eng	Continuing deforestation outside reserves and the inevitable consequent disturbance are both serious threats (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. Forests on the Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire border, near Mt Nimba, have little effective protection and clearance for agriculture and logging is taking place rapidly (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Marahoué National Park, where the species was previously recorded, has now been cleared of semi-deciduous forest (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Whilst outright forest clearance seriously threatens the species, it seems able to tolerate some habitat degradation provided sufficient cover remains and swampy areas are present (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may be affected by the poisoning of small streams and rivers, e.g. due to industrial pollution (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> or fishermen using poison for illegal fishing (M. Gartshore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which is apparently becoming more frequent (G. Rondeau <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. Increased sedimentation in rivers as a consequence of deforestation causing increased turbidity could adversely affect the species, which hunts by sight (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>.  Birds on low perches are easily shot by day or captured at night by fishermen who dazzle them with spotlights (Demey and Fishpool 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, in some areas the main threat from hunters, as well as fishermen, is probably disturbance (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009)<strong></strong>. The association of owls with witchcraft by many local people means that they are not commonly hunted for food, although there is evidence to suggest that they are sometimes captured as pets or for local trade (E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The fragmentation (and therefore increased accessibility) of its habitat is exacerbating such hunting pressure (G. Rondeau <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. <p></p>
106002235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common near rivers in the Congo basin (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002236		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.300,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106002237		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's status is reported to vary from uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon throughout most of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100   breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil   2009).
106002240		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 480,000-1,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,440,000-3,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,000,000-6,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002242		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> CITES Appendix II. The northern (<em>caurina</em>) and Mexican (<em>lucida</em>) subspecies are listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, and are the subject of recovery plans (S. Holmer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, B. Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The Northwest Forest Plan was drawn up to provide protection and reduce rates of timber harvest leading to habitat destruction. Protected Activity Centres are advocated for as an effective mechanism of conserving the species in parts of its range (Willey and van Riper III 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends across its range. Large reserves, encompassing suitable habitat and widely distributed are needed to retain the owl's current range. Calls have been made for captive breeding of birds from the tiny remaining British Columbian population. To prevent local extinction a halt to logging operations is required in parts of its range. Conduct research into the extent to which Barred Owls have precipitated recent declines in Spotted Owls, and investigate the threats posed by West Nile virus, avian malaria and climate change. Counter unfavourable management policies designed to reduce wildfire risk.<br/><p></p>
106002242		distribution	eng	<em>Strix occidentalis</em> has a population of c.15,000 individuals in four subspecies: <em>caurina</em> has a minimum of 3,778 pairs and 1,001 territorial individuals from south-west British Columbia, <strong>Canada</strong>, to north California, <strong>USA</strong>; the nominate has a minimum of 3,050 individuals in central and south California, USA, and (formerly) Baja California, Mexico; <em>lucida</em> has a minimum of 777-1,554 individuals from Utah and Colorado to Arizona, New Mexico and extreme west Texas, USA, and also occurs in Sonora, Chihuahua and Nuevo León to Jalisco, Durango, Michoacán and Guanajuanto, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Johnsgard 1988a, Sibley and Monroe 1990, Gutiérrez <em>et al</em> 1995, Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996,  AOU 1998); and <em>juanaphillipsae</em> has been recently described from the State of México (Dickerman 1997)<strong></strong>. Mexican populations may be stable because forestry activities there typically modify rather than destroy habitat (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996, J. M. Lammertink <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Most other populations are declining and, in some, the decline is accelerating because of clear-felling and selective logging (Gutiérrez <em>et al</em> 1995, Noon and McKelvey 1996)<strong></strong>. Subspecies <em>caurina</em> is estimated to be in significant decline, at 3% per year range-wide and 7% per year in Washington State (S. Holmer<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011), and  is close to extinction in Canada. The most recent information on the numbers of subspecies<em> lucida </em>in Arizona indicates that the population there is stable, but the population in New Mexico is estimated to be declining at a rate of 6% per year (B. Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Overall, the population is suspected to be in decline, although the rate of decline has not been estimated.<br/><p></p>
106002242		habitat	eng	Most populations strongly associate with old-growth conifer or oak forests (Johnsgard 1988a, Gutiérrez <em>et al</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, but <em>lucida</em> also occurs in heavily logged secondary pine-oak forest, warmer and drier conditions and even bare rocky canyons (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996, J. M. Lammertink <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. While some degree of logging may aid foraging, the species associates with old trees and old-growth forest for nesting and roosting (Dugger <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to 1,200 m in the northern part of its range, and to 2,700 m in the southern part. Nests are generally in trees within closed-canopy forest, (usually in cavities or on stick platforms constructed originally by raptors, wood rats or squirrels), in caves, or on cliff-ledges in steep-walled canyons. Eggs are laid from March to May. Young and unpaired birds disperse, which is an adaptation that has been shown to improve territory quality (Blakesley <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> and helps to sustain some sink populations. It feeds principally on nocturnal mammals.  <p></p>
106002242		population	eng	Its population size is estimated at c.15,000 mature individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004). <p></p>
106002242		threats	eng	Degradation and fragmentation of its habitat through clear felling and selective logging is the primary threat to the species. This has been compounded by the removal of a requirement that contractors assess the viability of wildlife on U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service lands (Noon and Blakesley 2006)<strong></strong>. Populations in the southwest of its range are threatened by habitat  fragmentation caused by fire and drought associated with climate change  (T. Supplee <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and habitat loss to wildfire has been greater than expected in recent years, raising the economic value of remaining habitat (D. Heiken <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Projected climate change may result in longer fire seasons and larger more intense fires, as well as increased tree mortality from drought and insects, and uncertainty over the viability of habitat restoration. Further effects from climate change could include changes in the frequency and duration of inclement weather during the breeding season (D. Heiken <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Timber harvesting on private land is a significant threat, as well as renewed pressure to eliminate protections for the species on federal land in Oregon, in order to allow increased logging (T. Supplee  <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Unfavourable management includes intensive thinning of suitable habitat,  which is expected to result in declines over the short term (T. Supplee  <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), as well as logging and manipulation of canopy vegetation to reduce the risk of wildfire (B. Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, D. Heiken <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It faces strong competition from Barred Owl <em>Strix varia</em> which is gradually displacing Spotted Owls from much of the northern part of their range, outcompeting it for food and space and occasionally hybridising (Kelly and Forsman 2004)<strong></strong>. The extent to which Barred Owls have been responsible for recent continuing declines in Northern Spotted Owl populations remains uncertain. Potentially serious threats include West Nile virus, which is fatal to the species, the potential loss of habitat to Sudden Oak Death Syndrome  (D. Heiken <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and avian malaria, which has been discovered in the species and found to weaken infected individuals, probably reducing reproductive success (Ishak<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008, D. Heiken <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002244		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002245		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded form a number of protected areas including Rio Doce State Park (Minais Gerais), Aparados da Serra National Park (Rio Grande do Sul), Itatiaia National Park, Serra da Cantareira State Park  (São Paulo) and Iguazú National Park (Misiones) (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999, C. O. Gussoni per F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect core areas of remaining Atlantic forest. Clarify its vulnerability to fragmentation and disturbance. Survey and monitor populations at known sites. <p></p>
106002245		distribution	eng	<em>Strix hylophila</em> is an uncommon species endemic to the southern Atlantic Forest of <strong>Brazil</strong> (from Minais Gerais to Rio Grande do Sul), east and south <strong>Paraguay</strong> and extreme north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. <p></p>
106002245		habitat	eng	It is found in both lowland and montane forest (to 2,000 m). It appears to naturally occur at low densities, and is considered highly sensitive to disturbance<strong> </strong>(Parker <em>et al. </em>1996), although some observers report birds present in small (&gt;6 ha), disturbed blocks of habitat (A. Bispo per F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2003).  <p></p>
106002245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. This species has been described as uncommon, but is the most common larger owl in Misiones, Argentina.
106002245		threats	eng	The extent of habitat loss (mainly through logging and burning) throughout its range must have severely affected the species. In Paraguay, the species's range is largely restricted to the Paraná watershed, where virtually no forest cover now remains outside of a few poorly protected reserves. <p></p>
106002247		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 53000-140000 breeding pairs, equating to 159000-420000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500000-8000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002249		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.60,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106002250		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002251		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002253		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002254		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest owl of forest and woodland throughout the whole of sub-Saharan Africa (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002255		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm details of its voice to enable thorough surveys of lowland forest to take place. Study its true range, population size, habitat preferences and threats to sites where it is located. Conserve largest remaining areas of intact primary forest including in Gabon, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cote d'Ivoire and Liberia (H. Rainey<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2007). <br/><p></p>
106002255		distribution	eng	<em>Jubula lettii </em>is known from 14 sites in <strong>Liberia </strong>(Nimba and Zwedru [Gatter 1997]<strong></strong>), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (Taï), <strong>Ghana </strong>(old record only), <strong>Cameroon </strong>(Korup, Mt Rata and Rumpi Hills, Mt Cameroon and Mokoko-Onge), <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>, <strong>Gabon </strong>(Gamba, Lopé and Ipassa), <strong>Republic of Congo</strong> (Dimonika and Lower Kouilou), and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (Okapi Faunal Reserve, Itombwe). It is very poorly known, and although it is reported as very scarce and rare in parts of its range, its call is unknown and this may be leading to under-recording of the species. Further research is needed to establish its true range, population size and habitat preferences.<em> <p></p></em>
106002255		habitat	eng	It is thought to prefer tall closed-canopy rainforest, not semi-evergreen open-canopy forest (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has never been recorded outside forest or forest clearings. A pair with full-grown young were observed in February at Mt Limba, Liberia; it apparently lays during March-May in the Democratic Republic of Congo; and fledglings have been observed in late December and January in Cameroon and Gabon (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare in the west of its range and commoner in the east (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002255		threats	eng	It is presumably at some risk from habitat loss through harvesting of timber.  <p></p>
106002256		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002257		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002258		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002259		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the southern Atlantic forest of east Paraguay, extreme north-east Argentina (Misiones) and south Brazil (from Espírito Santo south to Santa Catarina). In Paraguay, the species's range is largely restricted to the Parana watershed, where virtually no forest cover now remains outside of a few poorly protected reserves. In Brazil the species is common in Sao Paulo (F. Olmos in litt. 2003), it is also common in Argentina (M. Pearman in litt. 2003), and has been recorded from seven Misiones departments (Chebez 1996) and may occur in others.
106002259		habitat	eng	The species is found in both lowland and montane humid forest to 1,500 m, but has been recorded from degraded and marginal forest (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996). However, in Brazil the species is common in Sao Paulo (F. Olmos in litt. 2003), it is also common in Argentina (M. Pearman in litt. 2003), and has been recorded from seven Misiones departments (Chebez 1996) and may occur in others.
106002259		threats	eng	Populations may have decreased in Argentina as a result of timber-cutting (Holt et al. 1999). However, in Brazil the species appears to tolerate a significant level of habitat alteration (F. Olmos in litt. 2003).
106002260		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.130,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002261		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 47,000-110,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 141,000-330,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe   forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the   global population size is 300,000-1500,000 individuals, although further   validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in China and possibly c.100-10,000   breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002262		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common to rare in various parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common in places (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the most abundant owl in Chile (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002273		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002274		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002276		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common over most of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1999), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106002277		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common locally (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002278		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not rare (Konig et al. 1999).
106002279		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A number of protected areas exist within the moist zone, and the species is still regularly recorded from Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve. A moratorium has been placed on further logging. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to estimate the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Enforce the existing ban on logging.  <p></p>
106002279		distribution	eng	<em>Glaucidium castanonotum </em>is endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is a rare resident (BirdLife International 2001). Whilst it may be more common than records suggest, its range has diminished dramatically since the 19th century when it was widespread in the lowlands of Sri Lanka to the outskirts of Colombo. Declines are thought to be continuing. <p></p>
106002279		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense wet forests of the lowlands and hills, but has also been recorded in logged forests, rubber plantations, scrub and cultivation, and ranges up to 1,950 m. It is shy and retiring; generally keeping to the canopy of large trees, and is therefore probably overlooked. It feeds mostly on insects but also takes lizards, small mammals and small birds. Eggs are laid during March-May. <p></p>
106002279		population	eng	This species is assumed to have a moderately small population as it is generally uncommon within lowland wet zone forest on Sri Lanka. It is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. Further research is required to refine this estimate.
106002279		threats	eng	Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <p></p>
106002281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002284		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Nyungwe Forest Reserve. Itombwe Forest has recently been gazetted as a community reserve, although the boundaries still need to be defined (A. Plumptre <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other parts of the Itombwe Mountains are not protected. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reassess its taxonomic status. If the taxon is confirmed as a species, survey its distribution and status within the projected range, once the security situation permits this. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, continue to monitor population trends as long as the security situation is conducive. Monitor the loss and degradation of habitat within its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106002284		distribution	eng	<em>Glaucidium albertinum</em> is known from just 3-5 specimens, collected in the Itombwe Mountains (two specimens) and in forest west of Lake Edward (two at relatively low altitude [1,100 m], and originally identified as <em>G. capense castaneum </em>[Prigogine 1953] may need re-examination; F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000<strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), as well as in Nyungwe Forest (one), <strong>Rwanda</strong>. There is also a recent sight record from Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, west of Lake Kivu (DRC). It may be fairly common in parts of Itombwe (T. Butynski <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> - as a nocturnal species, it may have been under-recorded by past ornithological surveys. <p></p>
106002284		habitat	eng	This bird is found in very open montane and transitional forest, with many clearings<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a dense understorey, and probably occurs up to 2,500&#160;m at least (based on a <em>Glaucidium</em> sp. heard calling at this altitude at Nyungwe, almost certainly <em>G. albertinum</em><strong></strong>; Dowsett-Lemaire 1990). The diet includes invertebrates. Its breeding ecology is unknown (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106002284		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002284		threats	eng	Deforestation and forest degradation are the most likely threats throughout its range. Forest in the Itombwe Mountains and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998;<strong></strong> Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The human population in this volatile area is increasing rapidly and thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998;<strong></strong> Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Clearance for agriculture, particularly along the southern and western edges of gallery montane forest, has increased dramatically in the past few years as maize crops have failed, causing famine (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In contrast, reports suggest that there has been very little encroachment at Nyungwe in recent years, due to the conflict-related emigration of local people (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002285		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is considered endangered by Peruvian law (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It occurs in the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Martín, but it is unclear whether the high-elevation forests are protected under this designation<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999, Hornbuckle 1999, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. In any case, the protected status appears to have had little or no effect on the rate of deforestation<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). Recent records come from the Area de Conservación Privada de Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva, a recently protected private conservation area<strong> </strong>(Anon. 2007), and the Hierba Buena-Allpayacu Private Conservation Area near Corosha (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat on each of the isolated ridges in the region. Follow up local reports of the species from Wichim, Cordillera de Colán, using playback surveys. Effectively protect the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and ensure that high-elevation forest is included within its boundaries<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999, Hornbuckle 1999, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Establish a protected area in the Cordillera de Colán<strong></strong>, and search for the species on its eastern side (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997, F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106002285		distribution	eng	<em>Xenoglaux loweryi</em> was discovered in 1976, and is known from three localities on isolated ridges in the eastern Andes of Amazonas and San Martín, north <strong>Peru</strong> (O'Neill and Graves 1977, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Cardiff and Remsen 1995). It was discovered in the Garcia area north-east of Abra Patricia, San Martín, and was subsequently collected east of Bagua, Amazonas, in the Cordillera de Colán (O'Neill and Graves 1977, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. In total, five specimens have been collected (O'Neill and Graves 1977, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In 2002, the territorial call was confirmed and recorded at the type-locality in the Abra Patricia area (D. Lane <em>in litt. </em>2003, 2007). In 2007 it was seen in the wild for the first time, at Abra Patricia, when birds were seen three times in daylight hours, and an individual was also captured in a mist-net<strong> </strong>(Anon. 2007). Acquisition of the recording has allowed more thorough searches to take  place (D. Lane <em>in litt. </em>2003, 2007), and one bird was seen at the Lechucita Bigotona Lodge, Abra Patricia, in 2008 in response to playback of the Lane recording (F. Lambert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). In January the 2010, one bird was observed and at least five heard in a primate reserve near the village of La Esperanza some 15 km west of Abra Patricia (S. Alterman, N. Shanee and E. Fonseca <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010), a site at which it has been recorded several times since.<strong> </strong>Two further sites have been<strong> </strong>located since then, both in Amazonas: the Hierba Buena-Allpayacu Private Conservation Area near Corosha, and a location near the town of Yambrasbamba (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160;  It appears to be both difficult to catch and reluctant to respond to playback, but may prove to be more widespread if methods for locating the species can be improved (D. Lane <em>in litt. </em>2003, 2007). <p></p>
106002285		habitat	eng	It apparently inhabits the understorey and mid-storey of very wet elfin forest and tall forest at 1,890-2,400 m (but potentially heard down to 1,800 m), with abundant epiphytes, bamboo thickets and scattered palms and tree ferns (O'Neill and Graves 1977, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Cardiff and Remsen 1995, D. Lane <em>in litt. </em>2003, 2007, Schulenberg <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. If local reports of the species in elfin forest at Wichim are confirmed, it also occurs below 1,200 m. It is conjectured that the species could be almost flightless (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).<br/><p></p>
106002285		population	eng	The population is assumed to be very small, based on a paucity of records since its discovery in 1976, within its extremely small range. It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals here, equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002285		threats	eng	Remaining areas of suitable habitat are being cleared for timber, agriculture and to secure ownership of the land, gradually around Abra Patricia, but more rapidly in the Cordillera de Colán, where locals had estimated in 1994 that all the forest on the Cordillera de Colán could be cleared by 2004<strong></strong> (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997<strong></strong>, Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. More recent surveys have confirmed that habitat destruction in the region continues unabated<strong></strong> (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999). Abra Patricia is under pressure owing to road improvements and recent immigration and population growth in the area (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Hornbuckle 1999, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Mining activities around Yambrasbamba also contribute to habitat destruction, both directly and by opening new roads that facilitate colonisation (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106002286		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Micrathene whitneyi</span> is found in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>and southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">graysoni</span>, endemic to Socorro in Mexico's Revillagigedo Islands, has not been recorded since 1931 and is likely to be extinct (Jehl and Parkes 1983).
106002287		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 560,000-1,300,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 1,680,000-3,900,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of   the global population size is 5,000,000-15,000,000 individuals, although   further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in   Korea and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002289		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Since its rediscovery in 1997, fieldwork has been conducted to study its status, ecology and threats. Interventions have been made to seek the prevention of further forest losses at the site of rediscovery. Over 100 individuals have been seen in the protected Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra (Kasambe <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>, and it has been recorded in Toranmal Reserve Forest, Khaknar Reserve Forest and Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary. Further surveys in 2009 in the Melghat Tiger Reserve indicate that the park is well protected<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>G. Jathar <em>in litt.</em> 2010). An education and awareness programme has been initiated. A recent survey was carried out in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh  in 2010 and 2011 (<span style="">Jathar and Patil 2011</span>). A recovery plan is being worked on  (D. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prevent illicit wood-cutting and hunting of wildlife in forests within the species's range (Ishtiaq and Rahmani 2005)<strong></strong>. Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat, particularly sites not surveyed until, in the 800 km gap between the east/west limits of the historical records, to establish its total range, current distribution and population status, habitat use, and to assess its main threats. Potential habitat should be searched at Orissa and Chhattisgarh particularly. Research its relationship with both invasive and potentially problematic native species (D. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Provide support to the education and awareness-raising programme among local communities to promote the value and importance of this species and convey its potential benefits. Control the use of pesticides and rodenticides. Use nest site protection to avoid destruction of nests. Initiate a number of forest management measures and establish community reserves within its range (Rahmani and Jathar 2004, G. Jathar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>, with Khaknar and Toranmal being priority sites for protection. Train forest staff in conservation. Use watershed development to stabilise the species's habitat. Publicise conservation among local young people (D. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106002289		distribution	eng	<em>Heteroglaux blewitti</em> is endemic to central <strong>India</strong>. Until its rediscovery in 1997, it was only known from seven specimens collected during the 19th century at four localities in two widely separated areas, north-western Maharashtra (G. Jathar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and south-east Madhya Pradesh/western Orissa. In 2000, a survey of 14 forest areas across its former range located 25 birds at four sites in northern Maharashtra and south-western Madhya Pradesh, including three pairs at Taloda Forest Range and seven pairs at Toranmal Forest Range. Further surveys in 2004<span style=""> found 12 adults and 7 fledglings in Toranmal but no birds were found in Taloda (Jathar and Rahmani 2004), and following surveys in 2005 and 2006 also reported a pair of birds at Toranmal Forest Range (Jathar and Rahmani 2006</span><span style="">, Jathar and Patil 2011</span><span style="">, </span>G. Jathar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012<span style="">). Further surveys on the Toranmal Forest Range in November 2009 revealed that only two of the seven territories remain</span><span style="font-weight: bold; "> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal; "> (</strong><span style="">G. Jathar </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2010)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. A further study in 2010-2011 surveying known localities in Taloda and Toranmal Forest Ranges found no birds in Taloda and only one pair in Toranmal despite intensive surveying over two seasons (Jathar and Patil 2011). No birds were found in a brief survey of its former eastern range in Orissa, or in north-east Andhra Pradesh (Mehta </span><em style="">et al. </em><span style="">2007, Anon 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In 2003, survey effort in the Satpura Range (Maharashtra) located another five sites with a total of nine birds (Rithe 2003)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, indicating that the species may prove to be widespread but previously overlooked in the western Satpura Mountains, and in 2006, 24 birds were found in two sites in Burhanpur and one site in Khandwa (Mehta </span><em style="">et al. </em><span style="">2007). </span>By 2005, over 100 individuals had been recorded in Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><em><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></em>(Kasambe <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>, which is now recognised as the species's stronghold. The species has also been found breeding nearby at Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary  (Chavan and Rithe 2009)<strong></strong>. Modelling suggests that its remaining range is severely fragmented, and only c.10% is protected<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>G. Jathar <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Although there is some confusion over its former abundance, evidence strongly suggests it has always been scarce. <p></p>
106002289		habitat	eng	It appears to be a sedentary resident with recent sightings from fairly open dry deciduous forest dominated by teak <em>Tectona grandis </em>(Ishtiaq <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong>. Along with teak, a ground cover of weed like wild basil and grasses is typical of the known owlet sites (D. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It was rediscovered at 460 m and other known locations are at 400-700 m (G. Jathar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Most historical records came from moist deciduous forest or dense jungle, the altitudinal range of which is unclear, although most specimens were collected in plains forest. This suggests that the recent observations from hill slopes may represent birds in suboptimal habitat. It appears to be quite strongly diurnal and fairly easy to detect, frequently perching on prominent bare branches. Lizards, small rodents, nestlings of other birds, grasshoppers, frogs and caterpillars are all prey items (<em></em>Ishtiaq <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kasambe <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, which are often cached in hollow tree trunks<em> </em>(Ishtiaq <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2002)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>It appears to partition resources with the similar and widespread Spotted Owlet <em>Athene brama<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></em>(Kasambe <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. It breeds between October and May, laying a brood of two eggs (Ishtiaq and Rahmani 2005) in a hole in a softwood tree, and can re-lay if its first nesting attempt fails. At one nest, the young fledged at 30-32 days, after which they were dependent on the parents for at least another 40-45 days<em> </em>(Ishtiaq <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002289		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on the number of records from known sites, with c.100 individuals now recorded from Melghat Tiger Reserve. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals. Given the increasing number of records and sites known within its range it may prove to be more common than previous evidence has suggested.
106002289		threats	eng	Given its rarity, identification of threats is difficult. The site of its initial discovery in 1872 (Chhattisgarh) has completely been encroached by agriculture (D. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is likely that other forest areas where it occurs are under similarly intense pressure. Forest in its range is being lost and degraded by illegal tree cutting for firewood and timber, and encroachment for cultivation, grazing and settlements<em> </em>(Ishtiaq <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002, Chavan and Rithe 2009)<strong></strong>, as well as forest fires and minor irrigation dams (Chavan and Rithe 2009)<strong></strong>. Overgrazing by cattle may reduce habitat suitability<strong> </strong>(Jathar 2003). The proposed Upper Tapi Irrigation Project threatens 244 ha of prime habitat used by the species<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Kasambe <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004). It suffers predation from a number of native raptors, limiting productivity, and it faces competition for a limited number of nesting cavities (Jathar 2003, Ishtiaq and Rahmani 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is hunted by local people and body parts and eggs are used for local customs, such as the making of drums<strong> </strong>(Jathar 2003, Jathar and Rahmani undated)<strong></strong>. Pesticides and rodenticides are used to an unknown degree within its range and may pose an additional threat <strong> </strong>(Jathar 2003). <p></p>
106002290		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Athene cunicularia</span> is distributed throughout the Americas, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bahamas</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cuba</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Dominican Republic</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Haiti</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands Antilles</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uruguay</span>. The Lesser Antillean subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">guadeloupensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">amaura</span>, of Guadeloupe (to France) and Antigua and Barbuda respectively, have both been extinct since the late 1800s (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106002291		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,700,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Japan   and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002293		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002294		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002295		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002296		distribution	eng	This species occurs in open forest and woodlands in eastern Australia, from south-west Victoria to at least Eungella, and possibly Bowen, Queensland. Large areas of the species' range are now unsuitable as a result of clearing for agriculture and pastoralism, although the species now occupies suburban Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne.
106002296		population	eng	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size as follows: fewer than 500 pairs (equating to 1,000 individuals) in Victoria,  approximately 1,000-1,500 pairs in north-east New South Wales (approximately 2,000-3,000 individuals) and approximately 125 pairs (equating to 250 individuals) in south-east New South Wales. This gives an overall population estimate of between 3,250 and 4,250 individuals, equating roughly to 2,200-2,800 mature individuals.
106002296		threats	eng	Although densities in remaining forest may eventually be affected by a reduction in the availability of suitable nest hollows and den sites as a result of intensive forestry practices, studies indicate birds persist in mosaics of unlogged forest, in which they nest, and logged forest, in which they forage. There was no difference in density between heavily logged, lightly logged and unlogged forest. Intense wildfire can result in local loss but, if suitable habitat remains nearby, they may return to forage. Poisoning, disturbance and predation by foxes may also cause nest failure and some mortality, but are unlikely to be significant (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106002297		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002298		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify the species's abundance outside of forest habitats and generate a global population estimate. Determine the impact of forest clearance on the population. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002298		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox rudolfi</em> is restricted to Sumba, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Although characterised as uncommon or rare, recent observations have revealed that the species is widespread and moderately common on Sumba, despite forest cover being reduced to just 10% on the island. <p></p>
106002298		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 1,000 m in primary, disturbed primary and secondary forest and forest edge, in both deciduous and evergreen formations, and mangroves (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is typically found occurring singly, in pairs or small dispersed groups of up to four birds. Its diet is not known but probably consists mainly of insects. <p></p>
106002298		population	eng	The species was reportedly relatively common and widespread in 1998, but may have declined since. Hence, the current population estimate of 10,000-19,999 individuals is very preliminary and requires clarification. This estimate equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002298		threats	eng	Forest cover is threatened by extensive clearing and repeated burning for grazing and agriculture. <p></p>
106002301		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002302		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Given the small range of this species it requires research and monitoring to assess its conservation needs. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002302		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox affinis </em>is endemic to the Andaman and Nicobar archipelagos, <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Although its tolerance of degraded habitats gives cause for optimism, the species may be declining as human populations on the islands increase. <p></p>
106002302		habitat	eng	It is presumed to inhabit mainly lowland forest, and is known to occur in low secondary forest (König and Weick 2008), as well as mangrove forest, settlements, rubber plantations, lightly wooded areas and forest clearings, apparently hawking insects at dusk.  <p></p>
106002302		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106002302		threats	eng	The human population on larger islands in the Andaman group is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. <p></p>
106002303		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002304		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Konig et al. 1999).
106002305		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species has been recorded from several protected areas within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the rate of forest loss on Sulawesi in recent years and evaluate the likely impact that this has had on the population. Determine the species's dependence on forest habitats. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002305		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox ochracea</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (but not the south peninsula), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon (BirdLife International 2001). <p></p>
106002305		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and tall secondary lowland forest, riverine and lower montane forest up to 1,000 m, with an assertion that it is chiefly a species of drier formations. It roosts in dense vegetation such as rattan palm by day. <p></p>
106002305		population	eng	This species is generally uncommon throughout its range and hence, the population is not thought to be large. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. This preliminary estimate requires clarification.
106002305		threats	eng	Forest destruction, owing to logging and agricultural expansion, within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its population must have declined.  <p></p>
106002306		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather common (Konig et al. 1999).
106002307		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A national park was created in 1980, and has since been extended to cover more than 60% of the island (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. A lease agreement has been established with the mining company which prevents clearance of primary rainforest and in theory requires permits to clear regrowth. However, in reality regrowth is still cleared without permits (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. A draft recovery plan has been prepared. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and has effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent) (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and hand-baiting measures have been ongoing. Aerial baiting commenced in September 2002 and proved to be successful against major colonies (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, eliminating over 98% of ants (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the ants have since recovered (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ants remained persistent in 2006, and perpetual baiting may be the only means of controlling them. The bait used so far is known to be toxic to invertebrates, including crabs, and although alternatives have been trialled, an effective replacement has not been found (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control of the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions has been suggested, in order to reduce this food supply (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control of the ants may have allowed the species's population to stabalise (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although there is no evidence of past declines or fluctuations (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Rehabilitate rainforests in priority areas after the cessation of mining activities. Negotiate with all landowners to ensure protection of primary forests outside the national park. Form a recovery team and implement the recovery plan. Conduct a community education programme. Use established methods to monitor the population. <p></p>
106002307		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox natalis</em> is restricted to <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong> in the Indian Ocean. The species is present throughout the island, with highest densities occurring in primary forest and the lowest in regrowth after mining. The population was estimated at 560±100 pairs in 1995 and c.1,000 individuals in 2004 (Hill &amp; Lill 1998, S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2004, D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2004, D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is suspected to have declined in the recent past, although numbers are now thought to be more or less stable. <p></p>
106002307		habitat	eng	It occupies permanent territories in all habitats on the island to 360 m (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, although it is absent from mined sites that have not been rehabilitated. The species does however occupy re-established vegetation of over c.10 years in age on old mining sites (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. They nest in tree hollows in closed forest 30–40 m high with emergent trees up to 45 m tall, predominantly with <span style="font-style: italic;">Syzygium nervosum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Planchonella nitida</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hernandia ovigera </span>as canopy trees (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011). Its diet consists primarily of insects supplemented with small vertebrates, possibly including the introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. <p></p>
106002307		population	eng	The population is estimated at c.1,000 individuals (S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2004, D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2004, 2005), roughly equivalent to 670 mature individuals.
106002307		threats	eng	Forest clearance for phosphate extraction has destroyed 25% of available habitat. In 2007, some significant patches of mature secondary forest were cleared for mining (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Also in 2007, a new application to mine a 250 ha area of  rainforest (P. Green <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> was turned down (J. Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, but has since gone to appeal (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A possible threat is the introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or c.3,400 ha, but in 2002 it was controlled over about 2,900 ha. Since then a number of supercolonies have been re-established (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and in 2006, the ants were regarded as widespread and patchily common (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. If allowed to spread uncontrolled, ant super-colonies may prey directly on nestlings (although there is no evidence that this is a threat) and alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, which otherwise inhibits understorey plant growth and the spread of weeds by eating the seeds and seedlings of both native and invasive species (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003, S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2003, D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The ants also farm scale insects, causing canopy die-back, which in turn promotes weed growth and further alters forest structure (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<em> </em>The scale at which these processes occur is uncertain (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The species may also be affected by the pesticide Fipronil used for ant  control, but this remains unproven. Black Rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>, which are  affecting some other bird species on Christmas Island, are also likely  to kill birds and reduce nesting success (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Disease is another potential threat, for which two established exotic sparrows could act as conduits between domestic chickens and wild birds (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106002308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common locally (Konig et al. 1999).
106002310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be widespread and generally uncommon but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in forest and forest edges (Konig et al. 1999).
106002312		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest, on New Britain. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites across the island.  <p></p>
106002312		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox odiosa</em> is endemic to the island of New Britain <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where although it is rather poorly known, it appears to be not uncommon in suitable habitat. It is suspected to have declined rapidly in recent years owing to ongoing clearance of lowland forest (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008).<em> <p></p></em>
106002312		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest up to 1,200 m. It is thought to tolerate some degree of habitat degradation.  <p></p>
106002312		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002312		threats	eng	Lowland forest clearance on New Britain for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Over 30% of suitable habitat has been cleared in the last 10 years and this trend is ongoing (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106002313		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread within its range and reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002314		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical locations and potentially suitable habitats for the species. Study its ecological requirements, tolerance of habitat degradation and threats. <p></p>
106002314		distribution	eng	<em>Uroglaux dimorpha</em> is sparsely distributed in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>), known only from few localities in the north-west, including Yapen island, near Vanimo and Lae, the south-east and Gulf Province (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Lamonthe 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are only records from nine sites in the 1980s and 1990s, including a series of birds captured near Lae (Hicks 1988, Lamonthe 1993, Shany 1995, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1999, P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1999,<strong></strong> T. Leary <em>in litt. </em>2000,<strong></strong> C. Makamet <em>per</em> B. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106002314		habitat	eng	It is a lowland forest species, occasionally recorded to 1,500 m, and is also found in gallery forest in savannah (Coates 1985)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently very scarce or rare (Konig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).
106002314		threats	eng	Its tolerance of degraded habitat is unknown and it is potentially threatened by logging of lowland forests. <p></p>
106002315		distribution	eng	<em>Sceloglaux albifacies </em>was endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong> with the nominate race on the South and Stewart Islands (with bones known from the Chatham Islands) and the subspecies<em> rufifacies</em> on the North Island<strong></strong>. Birds were not uncommon until the first half of the 19th century, but were becoming rare by the 1840s<strong></strong>. The last specimens of <em>rufifacies</em> were collected in 1889, with unconfirmed reports until the 1930s, and of <em>albifacies,</em> in 1914, with unconfirmed reports until the 1960s<strong> </strong>(Williams and Harrison 1972, Tennyson and Martinson 2006).  <p></p>
106002315		habitat	eng	The species roosted and nested among rocks in open country and on forest edge<strong> </strong>(Williams and Harrison 1972). <p></p>
106002315		threats	eng	Causes of the species's extinction are obscure, possibly habitat modification through grazing or burning, or predation by introduced mammals<strong> </strong>(Williams and Harrison 1972). <p></p>
106002316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002317		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002318		population	eng	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 120,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 380,000-810,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,140,000-2,430,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 1,500,000-5,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to rather rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare (Konig et al. 1999).
106002321		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002322		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.2,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in   Korea and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002324		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine population densities in primary and logged forest, hunted and unhunted areas and at various altitudes. Monitor population trends around Tirotonga. Research diet and breeding success at Tirotonga. Lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging, especially on Choiseul. Discuss possibilities of large-scale community-based conservation areas on all three islands. Promote this species as a figurehead species for community-based conservation and ecotourism initiatives. <p></p>
106002324		distribution	eng	<em>Nesasio solomonensis</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and Choiseul and Santa Isabel in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. There are also possible reports from Buka. It is presumed to be a species of low population density as it is rarely seen and no more than one bird has been heard calling from any location. In a well-studied area at Tirotonga on Isabel, three nests were about 2 km apart (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M. Hafe verbally 1998)<strong></strong>, which would extrapolate to an approximate total population of c.3,000 pairs, but it appears to be unusually common in this area (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002324		habitat	eng	This large owl is the top predator along with Sanford's Fish-eagle <em>Haliaeetus sanfordi</em> and is reported to feed mostly on northern common cuscus <em>Phalanger orientalis </em>(Diamond 1975a, Webb 1992)<strong></strong>. Phalangers were introduced to these islands in prehistoric times; presumably the owl previously fed on the giant arboreal rats which are now very rare across their range (Flannery 1995)<strong></strong>. Its distribution may now mirror that of <em>P. orientalis</em> which is heavily hunted for food in some districts (Webb 1992)<strong></strong>. All records are from old-growth lowland and hill forest, usually in primary forest but also in adjacent secondary forest and forest edge to at least 2,000 m (Gardner 1987, Webb 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. Three nests on Isabel were on ephiphyte-covered branches of huge fig trees, one was in primary forest, the other two in forest edge close to many gardens (Webb <em>in litt.</em> 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002324		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 6,000 individuals, equivalent to 4,000 mature individuals (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M. Hafe verbally 1998).
106002324		threats	eng	This species is threatened by large-scale logging and deforestation in the lowlands, which has increased in intensity in recent years (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It may also be less common in areas where rural communities over-hunt prey species <em>P. orientalis</em> (Dutson 2011). <p></p>
106002325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Halmahera (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cleere 1998).
106002327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in Australia and moderately common over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002328		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The 1998 sighting was in the Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore de la Ni-Kouakoue. This area receives little conservation management but is very remote and hence affords a degree of protection. Between 2002 and 2007, c.500 person-days in the field yielded no sightings and between 2003 and 2006 120 local interviews received no credible reports. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further intensive field surveys close to the 1998 sighting and on other ultrabasic massifs in the vicinity (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong></strong>, provided these are cost effective and do not detract from the conservation of other Threatened species. Publicise the search for this species amongst forest workers and villagers (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong></strong> within the "Wanted" campaign, to maximise efficiency of the unofficial observer network.  <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Investigate feasibility and costs of rat control in the Ni-Kouakoue forest.   <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Ensure better protected status for Ni-Kouakoue.  <p></p></span>
106002328		distribution	eng	<em>Aegotheles savesi</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. It is known from a specimen collected in 1880 at Païta, near Nouméa (Layard and Layard 1881)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, a second specimen dated 1915 recently discovered in an Italian museum (C. Violani <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, a possible record from the island of Maré (Macmillan 1939)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, one found dead (but not retained) in the Tchamba valley in the 1950s (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, one shot close to Païta in 1960 (Hannecart and Létocart 1983, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a sighting in 1998 in the Rivière Ni valley (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Calls similar to those of the allopatric <em>A. cristatus</em> were heard in 1996 and 1998. Given that local people do not know this distinctive species and that there have been no other records from recent surveys, it must occur in very low numbers and/or be restricted to the most remote forest massifs such as Kouakoue (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002328		habitat	eng	The records are from <em>Melaleuca</em> savanna and humid forest. The 1998 sighting was of a single bird foraging for insects briefly at dusk, in evergreen riverine forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong></strong>. Other owlet-nightjars <em>Aegotheles</em> spp. are territorial and vocal inhabitants of various wooded habitats (Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong></strong>. They nest and roost in holes in trees and are largely sit-and-wait predators of small animals, foraging from perches or from the ground. <em>A.&#160;savesi</em> is larger and has much longer legs than congeners, which may indicate more terrestrial habits (Olson <em>et al.</em> 1987, J.&#160;Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Tobias and Ekstrom 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002328		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with just a single record (in 1998) since 1960.
106002328		threats	eng	There is no direct information on threats. However, the ecologically similar <em>A. cristatus</em> is believed to suffer high predation rates of both adults and nests (Brigham and Geiser 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It seems likely that <em>A. savesi</em> has declined through predation by introduced rats and possibly cats or habitat loss through fire, mining and logging. <p></p>
106002329		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002330		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify details of its vocalisations and use to carry out surveys in hill forest within its potential range. <p></p>
106002330		distribution	eng	<em>Aegotheles wallacii</em> is known only from New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has been recorded from the Aru islands and Vogelkop in the far west across to Karimui in central Papua New Guinea. It is known from few specimens and very few recent observations; the paucity of records largely results from the extremely unobtrusive nature of the genus, and its call is poorly known (Coates 1985,<strong></strong> Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986,<strong></strong> Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As a result its status cannot be assessed from the current data.<em> <p></p></em>
106002330		habitat	eng	It is a hill-forest species which has been recorded below 1,540 m. <p></p>
106002330		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and rare throughout New Guinea (Cleere 1998).
106002330		threats	eng	Although it has an extensive range, some of the forest is threatened by logging and clearance for agriculture. Owlet-nightjars are hole-nesters which have suffered elsewhere from introduced mammalian predators (Brigham and Geiser 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be plentiful in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002332		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but race salvadorii is reported to be common at least in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002334		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in Papua New Guinea and common in its Australian restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002336		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from a number of protected areas, including Taman Negara National Park in Peninsular Malaysia, Way Kambas National Park in Sumatra, and Danum Valley and Gn Mulu National Parks in Borneo (Cheong and Li 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106002336		distribution	eng	<em>Batrachostomus auritus</em> occurs very sparsely in south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>; Kalimantan (including the Natuna and Labuan islands) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is an elusive and poorly known species, but appears to be genuinely rare or uncommon and is almost certainly declining owing to the destruction of lowland forest. <p></p>
106002336		habitat	eng	It occurs<strong> </strong>in lowland dipterocarp forest to at least 250 m, perhaps 1,000 m. A nest has been described from a branch fork c.4 m from the ground, from which a chick hatched in mid-March (Cheong and Li 2010).<br/><p></p>
106002336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely rare in Thailand, rare in Peninsular Malaysia and local and very uncommon in Borneo (Cleere 1998).
106002336		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106002337		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Before conservation priorities can be set, basic information on the species's ecology, status and likely threats are required. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against logging and agricultural encroachment.  <p></p>
106002337		distribution	eng	<em>Batrachostomus harterti</em> is restricted to the Bornean Mountains Endemic Bird Area. Discounting its erroneous listing for Tanjung Puting National Park, it is known by only eight specimens from four areas in Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and one in West Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. The range and population have not been thoroughly investigated. <p></p>
106002337		habitat	eng	The few available reliable records indicate that it favours hill and lower montane forest at 300-1,250 m (Orenstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <p></p>
106002337		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as possibly not common, although little is known (Cleere 1998).
106002337		threats	eng	There is steady habitat loss on Mt Dulit. Typically logging and agricultural expansion threaten forest habitats in Borneo. <p></p>
106002338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002339		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known, although the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106002339		distribution	eng	<em>Batrachostomus stellatus</em> occurs from central peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including the North Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including the Riau and Lingga archipelagos and Bangka Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is fairly widespread and common<strong> </strong>in suitable habitat (BirdLife International 2001). <p></p>
106002339		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen and secondary forest to at least 500 m (once to 920 m). It feeds on insects in the lower storeys of forest. <p></p>
106002339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not common (Cleere 1998).
106002339		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). <p></p>
106002340		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon in southern India and common in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002342		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known, although it does occur within a number of protected areas inside its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Using available knowledge of the species call, conduct surveys to improve understanding of the species's range and habitat association. Assess the main threats based on this work. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106002342		distribution	eng	<em>Batrachostomus poliolophus</em> is endemic to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from a small number of records from the Barisan range, but is presumably greatly under-recorded because it is nocturnal (BirdLife International 2001). <p></p>
106002342		habitat	eng	The species occurs in sub-montane primary forest and mixed pine forest between 660 and 1,400 m. It feeds on insects. <p></p>
106002342		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and little known (Cleere 1998).
106002342		threats	eng	Deforestation in the lower part of its altitudinal range is a threat, even within the protected areas in its range, such as Kerinci-Seblat National Park <strong></strong>(P. Benstead pers. obs. 2001). <p></p>
106002343		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey specific sites to improve knowledge of the species's ecological requirements and then assess its potential distribution and the likely threats. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against threats.  <p></p>
106002343		distribution	eng	<em>Batrachostomus mixtus</em> is restricted to Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lower montane forest (BirdLife International 2001). It is thought to be probably not common and may have declined due to forest loss within its range. <p></p>
106002343		habitat	eng	It occurs in lower montane forest at 600-1,675 m and may use secondary habitats. <p></p>
106002343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not common (Cleere 1998).
106002343		threats	eng	Forest loss has been extensive in Borneo owing to logging operations, agricultural expansion and severe forest fires. <p></p>
106002344		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
106002345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002348		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002350		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002351		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002352		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002353		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002355		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but local throughout its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002356		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eurostopodus mystacalis</span> is an Australasian species, occurring in eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New Guinea</span> and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">exul</span> of <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span> has not been recorded since its type specimen was collected in 1939, and is likely to be extinct (Dutson 2011).
106002356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002357		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in one protected area, Lore Lindu National Park, where most recent confirmed observations have been made, and also in Gunung Klabat Proposed Wildlife Reserve. In addition, there are unconfirmed reports from Tangkoko-Batuangus and Panua Nature Reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain recordings of its vocalisations and use these to facilitate further searches for the species, including in south-east Sulawesi and on Buton (Sykes 2009). Conduct extensive surveys to establish its distribution, status, ecological requirements and main threats. Propose further forested areas supporting populations of this, and other threatened species endemic to Sulawesi, for protection. <p></p>
106002357		distribution	eng	<em>Eurostopodus diabolicus</em> is endemic to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from mountain ranges in the north and centre of the island <strong></strong>(Riley and Wardill 2003), with unconfirmed records from the south (BirdLife International 2001) and a probable sighting in July 1996 and additional reports from 1995 from the adjacent island of Buton (Sykes 2009). Although it appears to be very thinly distributed and genuinely rare overall, it is locally not uncommon, and its nocturnal habits and associated difficulties in identification have probably led to it being overlooked. The extensive and largely unsurveyed upland areas of Sulawesi, covered by undisturbed or lightly disturbed forest, imply that the species could be more widespread than currently known (K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It must have suffered from loss of habitat at lower altitudes, although its ability to utilise secondary habitats <strong></strong>(Riley and Wardill 2003) and its recent discovery in montane forest suggests that it may be locally secure. <p></p>
106002357		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical lowland and lower montane, evergreen rainforest, from 250 m to 1,750 m, tolerating at least selective logging. It is presumed to be sedentary. It has been found incubating in June and July <strong></strong>(Boon and Faustino 2005). <p></p>
106002357		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002357		threats	eng	The primary threat to this poorly known species is presumably forest loss and fragmentation at lower altitudes. This has been extensive in the Minahasa peninsula of north Sulawesi, owing to land clearance for transmigration settlements, shifting cultivation, plantation agriculture and large-scale logging. Logging and rattan collection are reportedly common at the best known site for this species, the Anaso road, Lore Lindu National Park <strong></strong>(Boon and Faustino 2005). However, much forest remains in hilly and mountainous regions, which is currently relatively secure. <p></p>
106002358		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed but generally rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002359		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed but generally rare or uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002361		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002362		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002365		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements. Search for the species along potentially suitable stretches of river. Clarify threats. Protect significant areas of riverine forest within its range.  <p></p>
106002365		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctiprogne vielliardi</em> was only described in 1994, and is currently known from just two localities on the rio São Francisco in Bahia and Minas Gerais, central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Lencioni-Neto 1994, Cleere and Nurney 1998). It is presumably more widely distributed along the rio São Francisco and immediately adjacent tributaries (of which there are few in the caatinga zone) (J. Mazar Barnett verbally 2000). There is no information on population but, at least in Minas Gerais, it may not be uncommon (Cleere and Nurney 1998, J. Mazar Barnett verbally 2000)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106002365		habitat	eng	It is crepuscular and presumably nocturnal along riverbanks in caatinga woodland, having been observed feeding high above the open river in loose flocks of up to 20 birds at dusk (J. Mazar Barnett verbally 2000). Roosting birds have been flushed from riverside bushes and the ground (Lencioni-Neto 1994, Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002365		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as possibly not uncommon (Cleere 1998).
106002365		threats	eng	No specific threats are known, but it must be threatened to some extent by the loss of riverine forest and scrub within its range. <p></p>
106002369		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002373		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey, especially Milk River and the Hellshire Hills, to locate any remaining populations (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002373		distribution	eng	<em>Siphonorhis americana</em> is endemic to <strong>Jamaica</strong>, but has not been positively recorded since 1860. Reference has been made to five specimens, but only four have been located (C.&#160;Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two specimens (one untraced) were taken in the Great Salt Pond area near Spanishtown in 1857, with others collected in the Bluefields area, near Savanna-la-Mar in western Jamaica, (apparently) at Freeman's Hall near Albert Town and from near Linstead (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, C.&#160;Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Three of these localities (excepting Freeman's Hall) are in the lowlands on the southern side of the island, and there is anecdotal evidence that the species could often be found in (what is now assumed to be) the Hellshire Hills (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Cleere and Nurney 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, C.&#160;Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the specimen information is confused by the practice of labelling skins with the residence of the collector as the location of collection (C.&#160;Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been some recent, unconfirmed reports of caprimulgids from Milk River and Hellshire Hills, which apparently do not refer to other known species on the island (Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002373		habitat	eng	The south side of the island is drier, suggesting that the species is (or was) found in either dry limestone forest, semi-arid woodland or open country at low elevations. It presumably nests (or nested) on the ground. <p></p>
106002373		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on a lack of records since 1860.
106002373		threats	eng	Introduced mammalian predators are considered primarily responsible for the possible extirpation of this species. The mongoose was introduced in 1872 (after the last confirmed record), but it can be assumed that rats were the cause of any decline prior to this date. As its ecological requirements are not known, the impact of habitat destruction is difficult to assess. However, the loss of at least 75% of original forest, with remaining forest largely secondary, presumably had (and perhaps continues to have) an adverse effect. <p></p>
106002374		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are currently no actions being taken for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain more precise range, population and trend estimates. Avoid habitat destruction at key sites. Consider trapping introduced predators at key sites.  <p></p>
106002374		distribution	eng	<em>Siphonorhis brewsteri</em> is found in central and west <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (particularly on the north slope of the Sierra de Baoruco and between Oviedo and Pedernales), <strong>Haiti</strong> (between Arcahaie and Montruis north of Port-au-Prince) and, at least formerly, was numerous on Ile de la Gonâve (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It is thought to be generally rare, although it can be locally common and is possibly under-recorded (Cleere and Nurney 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). Surveys at Las Cruces, Sierra de Bahoruco, in March 1996 revealed 4.5 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, essentially unchanged from 4.8 birds/km<sup>2</sup> during 1976 surveys in the same area.   <p></p>
106002374		habitat	eng	It is found in arid or semi-arid lowlands, especially scrubby woodland, and also broadleaf, pine or mixed forest up to 800 m (Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Perches inconspicuously by day on branches close to the ground. Crepuscular and nocturnal, calling at night.  <p></p>
106002374		population	eng	This species is suspected to have a moderately small population based upon its apparent rarity and the limited availability of suitable habitat. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002374		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and introduced predators are thought to threaten the species (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002375		distribution	eng	The species is endemic to western Mexico, where it is fairly common in suitable habitat on the Pacific slope from Chihuahua through Jalisco, Colima and Guerrero as far as Oaxaca (Howell and Webb 1995a).
106002375		habitat	eng	The species inhabits arid to semihumid oak and pine-oak forest on rocky slopes from 1,200 to 2,500 m, and is also found in wooded gullies and overgrown fields with scattered trees, possibly on a seasonal basis (Howell and Webb 1995a).
106002375		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002376		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002377		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002380		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002381		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002382		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002386		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected. Guánica, Susúa and Maricao are public lands designated as state forests, and Guánica is a biosphere reserve. The Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico has acquired lands in the Guayanilla-Peñuelas region; this area includes mature dry forest where nightjars are abundant. The latter constitutes the only protected nightjar habitat in this portion of its range. The population is surveyed regularly and spatial analysis is being used to identify areas of potentially suitable habitat for protection and examine changes in habitat cover over time (F. J. Vilella <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. As part of BirdLife International's Preventing Extinctions Programme the Sociedad Ornitológica Puertorriqueña, Inc. have been designated as Species Guardian and have produced a revised species action plan in collaboration with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. A survey of occupancy of habitat in order to establish current range was carried out by Mississippi State University between March and May 2009 (Vilella and González 2009). The priority conservation actions identified by the species action plan will be implemented through a newly-established Puerto Rican Nightjar Conservation Network and facilitated by the Species Guardian.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to identify additional areas for protection, particularly in the newly-established regions of its range in south-central and south-eastern Puerto Rico. Assess population size in newly-established regions of its range. Monitor to assess population trends and the effects of management. Study movements and dispersal patterns. Research breeding biology and life history parameters to develop population models and enable use of population viability analyses. Effectively conserve existing reserves<strong></strong>. Reforest disturbed areas with native and selected plantation species. Acquire privately owned tracts of mature dry limestone forest (Vilella 1995)<strong></strong>. Lobby for priority site conservation through existing initiatives and site support groups (Vilella and González 2009). Create a new dry forest reserve in the Guayanilla Hills (González 2010).<br/><p></p>
106002386		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus noctitherus</em> probably formerly occupied large areas of <strong>Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.)</strong>, but its current distribution was recently thought to be restricted to the south-west, notably Susúa-Maricao, Guayanilla-Peñuelas and Guánica-Bermeja. However, recent survey work confirms that its range extends from Ponce through south-central Puerto Rico to Guayama province in the south-east (Vilella and González 2009)<strong></strong>. There are further recent records from the Parguera Hills and Sierra Bermeja, c.10 km west of Parguera. Studies in 1985-1987, 1989-1990 and 1992 found 712 singing males in 98 km<sup>2</sup> of fragmented habitat, with 347 in the Guánica area, 177 in the Susúa-Maricao area and 188 in the Guayanilla area. The population was consequently estimated at 1,400-2,000 individuals, which is similar to the 1984 population estimate of 670-800 pairs (Vilella and Zwank 1993a)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002386		habitat	eng	The historical range probably comprised moist limestone and coastal forest in northern Puerto Rico, as well as currently occupied dry limestone forest, drier sections of the lower cordillera forest and perhaps dry coastal forest. It is presently more abundant in closed canopy dry forest on limestone soils, composed mainly of semi-deciduous hardwood trees with abundant leaf litter and an open understorey (little or no ground vegetation) at elevations up to 620 m, but more commonly above 75 m. It occurs at lower densities in dry, open, scrubby secondary growth, xeric or dry scrubland, open scrub-forest and thorny forest undergrowth, with a few birds in <em>Eucalyptus robusta</em> plantations (Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Breeding occurs between late February and early July, mainly between April and June (Vilella 1995)<strong></strong>. Nests are common at elevations above 100 m and are characterised by a deep layer of leaf litter and an open midstorey beneath a closed canopy (Vilella 2008)<strong></strong>. Birds are perhaps permanently territorial, exhibiting strong interannual site fidelity<strong></strong>. In Guánica forest, c.87% of nests in one year produced at least one fledgling (Vilella 1995)<strong></strong>. It feeds on beetles, moths and other insects (Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002386		population	eng	The estimate of 930-1,300 mature individuals (roughly equivalent to 1,400-2,000 individuals in total) was estimated based on 712 calling males found within 66% of the suitable habitat within its known range.
106002386		threats	eng	The introduction of the mongoose in 1877 may have contributed to the initial drastic population decline (there are no data on what the initial effect was), but the differing habitat preferences of the two species suggests very little overlap in their current ranges (Vilella and Zwank 1993b)<strong></strong>. Habitat loss and degradation now have more significant impacts, especially from residential, industrial and recreational expansion, with concomitant increases in disturbance and fire risk (Vilella 1995)<strong></strong>. Grass fires started by local people occasionally spread to adjacent forest, with fires that occur during periods of low rainfall being particularly damaging (S. A. Colón López<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. A proposed windfarm development in the Karso del Sur IBA has the potential to wipe out 5% of the total breeding population (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Young birds are predated by Short-eared Owl <em>Asio flammeus</em>, and young and eggs may be predated by Pearly-eyed Thrasher <em>Margarops fuscatus</em>, fire-ants and feral cats (Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The proposed construction of a natural gas pipeline in the Guayanilla Hills would create significant disturbance to breeding nightjars and destroy and fragment tracts of the species's habitat (C. A. Delannoy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002387		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002390		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Paraguayan law where it is considered Endangered at a national level<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(H. del Castillo in<em> litt</em>. 2012). </span>It occurs in Emas National Park, Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve and Beni Biological Station, and is protected under Brazilian law. Attempts are being made to secure the purchase of Laguna Blanca<strong> </strong>(J. L. Cartes <em>in litt</em>. 2007). A three-year study of its breeding biology, ranging behaviour and habitat use in Paraguay was completed in 2001 (Pople 2003).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of suitable cerrado habitat in Brazil, north-east Paraguay and Bolivia. Utilise the survey techniques developed in Paraguay to estimate the population in Emas. Establish fire management regimes at protected sites, to create and maintain mosaics of vegetation ages, and prevent uncontrollable, destructive wildfires during the breeding season (Pople 2003). Monitor and control the spread of invasive grass species. Secure further private protected areas within the </span>Cerrado de Laguna Blanca IBA (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2012).  <p></p>
106002390		distribution	eng	<em>Eleothreptus candicans</em> is currently known from Emas National Park, south-west Goiás, <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1999), Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve, Canindeyú<strong></strong> (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998, Pople 2003), and Laguna Blanca, San Pedro<strong> </strong>(Anon. 2002, Guyra Paraguay 2008) <strong>Paraguay</strong>, and Beni Biological Station, Beni, <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Davis and Flores 1994, Grim and Šumbera 2006). There are historical records from Mato Grosso and São Paulo, Brazil, and even older evidence of its occurrence in Paraguay<strong> </strong>(de Azara 1805). In Mbaracayú, there is 10-38 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat holding c.40-150 birds (Pople 2003). In the 1980s, the Emas population was assumed to number in the hundreds (if not larger), but density estimates from Mbaracayú suggest that despite the paucity of recent published records (Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1999) this may be an underestimate. In Bolivia, the sighting of an adult male in 2003 (Grim and Šumbera 2006) represents the first record at Beni since the initial male was collected in 1987 (Davis and Flores 1994). <p></p>
106002390		habitat	eng	In Paraguay, home ranges primarily comprise wet grassland and "campo cerrado", the latter with a mixture of palms <em>Butia paraguayensis</em> and termite mounds (Pople 2003). In Brazil, it has been recorded mainly in "campo limpo" with abundant termite mounds. When foraging, it prefers areas of younger vegetation, perhaps due to the increased insect prey they support (Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pople 2003)<strong></strong>. Known populations are apparently sedentary (Pople 2003), although there may be local movements in response to fires. Suggestions that it may be migratory in parts of its range<strong></strong> (Cleere and Nurney 1998)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>are not supported by current knowledge (Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pople 2003)<strong></strong> or the apparent source of this information<strong> </strong>(de Azara 1805). In Paraguay, the breeding season extends from September to January (Pople 2003). The breeding system, male nuptial display, nest-site, eggs and chicks have all been described recently (Clay <em>et al</em>. 2000, Pople 2003). <p></p>
106002390		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002390		threats	eng	Known populations are relatively well protected, but two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered by 1993<strong> </strong>(Conservation International 1999), with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong> </strong>(Cavalcanti 1999). The principal threats are grazing, invasive grasses (Pople 2003, Guyra Paraguay 2008)<strong></strong>, inappropriate fire regimes (Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pople 2003)<strong></strong> and conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, pasture, soybeans and other exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform in Brazil) (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><br/><p></p>
106002391		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002393		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002394		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several nsuccessful searches have been made at the type locality (although the forest had regrown and the site may no longer have been suitable) and elsewhere in French Guiana, including at the site of the possible sightings in 1999 (J. Ingels <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in the Saül area using mist-nets or by dazzling. Take sound recordings of nightjars at possible localities for the species<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006). <p></p>
106002394		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus maculosus</em> is known with certainty only from the type-specimen taken in 1917 at Saut Tamanoir on the Fleuve Mana, c.10 km above the confluence of the Rivière Cockioco, <strong>French Guiana</strong>. Despite recent, quite intensive mist-netting for nightjars in French Guiana, the only subsequent records are of a possible female caught at Saül airstrip in 1982 and two nightjars, possibly of this species but more likely Blackish Nightjar <em>C. nigrescens</em> (J. Ingels and N. Cleere <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) near to the same village in October-November 1999<strong></strong> (Ingels and Pelletier 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>,&#160;<strong></strong>Cleere and Ingels 2004). Unusual nightjars have been seen in small forest clearings at the same site for several years since then, although some are likely to relate to sightings of <em>C. nigrescens</em><strong> </strong>(Cleere and Ingels 2004). Its taxonomic status has been questioned, but a re-examination of the type-specimen appears to confirm it as a valid species.<em> <p></p></em>
106002394		habitat	eng	The locality has two basic habitat types: the many boulder-strewn rapids on the lower reaches of the river are bordered by closed-canopy forest and more open areas characterised by large boulders, sandy or stony river banks and savanna-like clearings. It is speculated that it prefers forest clearings as opposed to the rocky substrate favoured by <em>C. nigrescens</em>. <p></p>
106002394		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered unlikely to be common.
106002394		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106002395		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002396		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Pantepui of south-east Venezuela, where it is only known from cerros Roraima, Ptari-tepuí, Jaua, Urutaní and Duida (Cleere and Nurney 1998).
106002396		habitat	eng	The species is fairly common on the edge of elfin forest and in semihumid/humid montane scrub, preferring areas such as clearings and treefalls with scattered, very dense vegetation, at elevations of 1,280-1,800 m (Stotz et al. 1996, Cleere and Nurney 1998).
106002396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002396		threats	eng	The tepuis are largely inaccessible and remain relatively undisturbed (Huber and Alarcón 1988). However, many of the endemic plants of the tepuis harbour flammable secondary compounds which help to spread fire and this could affect available habitat. Any such habitat loss would be absolute as montane forests on the tepuis tend not to regrow but are replaced by bracken Pteridium (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106002397		distribution	eng	This species was thought to be endemic to xeric caatinga of north-east Brazil but a population was recently discovered in east-central Brazil (Cleere and Nurney 1998, Ribon 1995, Vasconcelos and Lins 1999). There are three races: the nominate from south Piauí, south-east across Bahia and east to Alagoas; cearae from Ceará south through east Piauí to extreme north Bahia; and the newly described vielliardi from Colatina, Espírito Santo (Cleere and Nurney 1998) and Aimorés, Minas Gerais (Vasconcelos and Lins 1999).
106002397		habitat	eng	The species largely prefers lowland deciduous forest especially with open sandy areas (Stattersfield et al. 1998), although the newly described subspecies vielliardi occurs in rocky areas (Cleere and Nurney 1998).
106002397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and probably not very common (Cleere 1998).
106002397		threats	eng	Caatinga habitats have suffered markedly from agricultural expansion, grazing and burning since the late 18th century (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The level of general disturbance has further increased in the last 30 years since the arrival in the area of the Brazilian oil company, Petrobrás, which has improved access, permitting an influx of settlers and relocation of many families by government agencies (Hart 1991, Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106002398		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002399		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 21,000-110,000 breeding pairs, equating to 63,000-330,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 130,000-1,500,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002400		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1999), while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002401		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 470,000-1,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,410,000-3,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,000,000-6,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002402		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002403		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002404		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally scarce to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002405		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in many regions (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002406		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its taxonomic status. Continue surveys in area of the type locality. <p></p>
106002406		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus centralasicus </em>is known from a single record in Xinjiang, western <strong>China</strong>. Several recent surveys of the type locality and other similar sites in this region have failed to locate it, indicating that it is scarce and presumably localised. Its taxonomic status requires clarification, as it has been suggested that the specimen may prove to be an immature European Nightjar <em>C. europaeus plumipes</em>, although this theory has been called into question more recently (Leader 2009). <em> <p></p></em>
106002406		habitat	eng	The type-specimen was collected in sandy scrub-jungle at 1,220 m and it presumably occurs in desert and semi-desert habitats.  <p></p>
106002406		population	eng	This species is only known from its type specimen and as such no population estimates are available.
106002406		threats	eng	There has been widespread degradation of desert and semi-desert habitats in the Taklimakan Desert through intensive grazing by goats and camels, extraction of fuelwood, and the conversion of huge areas to irrigated farmland. In 1990, the habitats at the type-locality, Guma, were found to have been very much altered since the 1920s. <p></p>
106002407		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon and scarce in many parts (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and perhaps even rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002409		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant throughout Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002411		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002412		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but probably not common anywhere in its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002413		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common in many parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002416		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally quite common (Cleere 1998).
106002417		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Itombwe Forest has recently been gazetted as a community reserve, although the boundaries still need to be defined (A. Plumptre <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No other potentially relevant conservation action is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in northern Congo and south-east Cameroon and mistnet the species to confirm whether<em> prigoginei</em> or a new species (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys in forest in the region using tape play-back to clarify its range (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys in suitable habitat in the Itombwe Mountains. Facilitate conservation action in collaboration with traditional authorities to limit further habitat degradation (Omari <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002417		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus prigoginei</em> remains known from a single female collected in August 1955 at Malenge, in the Itombwe Mountains of the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (Dowsett-Lemaire 2009). A sound recording of two nightjars, in Itombwe at c.1,700 m in 1996, very probably refers to this species (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Identical tape-recordings were obtained in northern Congo in 1996<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998a)<strong></strong> and south-east Cameroon in 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000a)<strong></strong>, suggesting that the species may be more widespread. Additional records of nightjars that probably refer to this species (Butchart 2007)<strong></strong> have come from Gabon in 1985 (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt.</em> 2006, Brosset and Erard 1986)<strong></strong>, and Congo (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998a, F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> and Cameroon (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998b)<strong></strong> in the 1990s.<br/><p></p>
106002417		habitat	eng	It is possible that the species is restricted to transitional (between lowland and montane) forest in which the type was found at 1,280 m (Louette 1990, Prigogine 1974)<strong></strong>. However, at this altitude it may equally well be found in either lowland or montane forest (Louette 1990, Prigogine 1974)<strong></strong>. Based on observations of birds which are probably this species, it appears to prefer forest with a broken canopy (Dowsett-Lemaire 2009).<br/><p></p>
106002417		population	eng	The population of this species is assumed to be small (fewer than 10,000 individuals) based on the fact that there are no confirmed records since the original specimen was collected in 1955. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals here, equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002417		threats	eng	Forest clearance for smallholder agriculture is a serious threat in Itombwe, where a maize blight since the early 1990s has reduced yields and forced farmers to clear forest for new farms (Omari <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for livestock-grazing, particularly at higher altitudes, is also a threat (Omari <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106002418		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002419		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and widespread throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002421		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be of variable status throughout its fragmented range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002422		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather common throughout much of its African range and locally common in the Middle East (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout much of its range and locally abundant in some countries or regions (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002426		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs at Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Gunung Niut Nature Reserve, Kalimantan and the Danum Valley Conservation Area (Sabah). Further research is likely to reveal its presence at other lowland protected areas in the future. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout the three islands that it occupies using knowledge of its distinctive call as the basis. Investigate its altitudinal distribution, ecological requirements and the levels of threat that it faces and thereby determine whether any specific conservation measures are required. Support the conservation of relevant lowland protected areas. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forest in the Sundaic region. <p></p>
106002426		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus concretus</em> occurs on Sumatra, Belitung Island and Kalimantan (Borneo), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei, </strong>and Sabah and Sarawak (Borneo), <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it is locally common, but rarely recorded (BirdLife International 2001). Most recent observations are from South Sumatra (e.g. Way Kambas National Park) and East Borneo (e.g. Danum Valley) (D. Yong<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). it has also been recorded recently near the Barito river in Central Kalimantan (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). This patchiness of distribution at least partly reflects the ease with which it is overlooked, but it does appear genuinely rare at many localities.  <p></p>
106002426		habitat	eng	It is restricted to lower elevations (one record from 900 m, but usually below 500 m) where it frequents forest, perhaps particularly clearings and edges, heath forest and secondary growth. The true nature of its habitat use is uncertain, although it has been observed foraging from a perch inside forest. <p></p>
106002426		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002426		threats	eng	If this bird is an extreme lowland forest specialist, as appears possible, then it must be in steep decline from habitat loss. Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Furthermore, the major fires of 1997-1998 affected c.50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Sumatra and Borneo, damaged at least 17 of Indonesia's parks and reserves and, following previous major conflagrations in 1972 and 1982-1983, accelerated the desiccation of the forest environment that renders regrowth and unburnt adjacent areas more vulnerable to fire and poorer in biodiversity. <p></p>
106002427		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect montane forests and ensure that they are not encroached upon in future. Estimate rates of forest loss and the total area remaining to improve the assessment of this species's status. <p></p>
106002427		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus pulchellus</em> is restricted to Sumatra (South Barisan Mountains) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is likely to be moderately secure in small numbers at higher elevations, but losing habitat and populations at lower levels where encroachment is occurring. <p></p>
106002427		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest at 1,350-2,200 m, but perhaps lower on Java, at 800-1,800 m (Holyoak 2001). <p></p>
106002427		population	eng	This species is assumed to have a moderately small population because the area of available habitat is not large and it is not common within its range. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002427		threats	eng	Habitat encroachment at lower elevations is a threat, with logging and agricultural expansion continuing. <p></p>
106002428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rare throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is possibly locally common throughout lowland rain forest (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002433		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and frequent to abundant throughout much of its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002434		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant throughout much of its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106002435		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002436		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002438		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002439		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002440		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law in Brazil and occurs in Brasília and Serra da Canastra National Parks and Cambuí Biological Reserve. It has been recorded from El Palmar, Diamante, Pilcomayo, Mbrurucuyá and Iguazú National Parks, Argentina, where it is probably a summer migrant<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1999).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its precise ecological requirements and seasonal movements. Effectively protect core areas of habitat within its range. Survey current and historical sites. <p></p>
106002440		distribution	eng	<em>Eleothreptus anomalus</em> is very scarce throughout east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (regular at one site in Misiones and 5-6 other confirmed records) (Hayes 1995,<strong></strong> Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, Capper <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong> and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (at least 12 records since 1980), with apparently fragmented populations in central and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Bornschein <em>et al.</em> 1996, Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<sup></sup>. It has also been recorded from <strong>Uruguay</strong>. Almost all records are of lone individuals, although six individuals were recorded at a wetland site in Rio Grande do Sul recently (Accordi 2002). However, in most cases, there is only a single record from each locality. Some records refer to southern breeders migrating north in the austral winter (Cleere and Nurney 1998).<em> <p></p></em>
106002440		habitat	eng	Most records are from gallery forest, monte (chaco-type woodland) and transitional woodlands, flooded grasslands and patches of chaco-woodland, with islands of <em>Geoffroea decorticans</em> in north-east Argentina. Other noted habitats are in or near savannas and grasslands, marshland, swamps, campo cerrado, lagoon edges with spiny scrub and along streams, pools and flooded palm groves (Straneck and Viñas 1994, Cleere and Nurney 1998, Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but it is not as associated with water bodies as previously thought (Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106002440		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106002440		threats	eng	Chaco-type habitats are threatened by intensive grazing, wildfires and seasonal burning and, in some places, agricultural expansion<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). Grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by extensive cattle ranching, agriculture, wetland drainage, excessive use of pesticides and afforestation with <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> spp.<strong></strong> (Pearman and Abadie 1995, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002441		distribution	eng	<em>Raphus cucullatus </em>is known from numerous bones, specimen fragments, reports and paintings from <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Strickland and Melville 1848).  It was last reported from an offshore islet by Iversen in 1662<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987), and although there was a report by an escaped slave in 1674 and statistical techniques indicate that it is likely to have persisted until 1690<strong> </strong>(Roberts and Solow 2004), it is generally considered that all references to "dodos" thereafter refer to Red Rail <em>Aphanapteryx bonasia</em><strong> </strong>(Cheke 2006)<em>.</em> <p></p>
106002441		habitat	eng	It was mainly a species of the dry lowland forests<strong> </strong>(Owadally 1979), although possible mutualism with the upland tambalacoque tree <em>Calvaria major</em><strong> </strong>(Temple 1977) suggests that it may have ranged into the hills<strong> </strong>(Hachisuka 1953). Evidence suggests it was predominantly herbivorous (Rijsdijk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The species was flightless<strong> </strong>(Livezey 1993) and tame<strong> </strong>(Hachisuka 1953).  <p></p>
106002441		threats	eng	Due to its tameness and large size it was very heavily hunted for food by sailors<strong> </strong>(Hachisuka 1953).  <p></p>
106002443		distribution	eng	<em>Pezophaps solitaria </em>was endemic to Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong>, from where it is known from numerous historical accounts<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987), with those of Leguat in 1708 providing particularly rich detail<strong> </strong>(Hachisuka 1953), and many bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987). It was very rare by 1761, when Pingré  was informed of its presence. Morel reported in 1778 that the birds were certainly extinct <strong></strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
106002443		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited dry forest and perhaps scrubland.  <p></p>
106002443		threats	eng	Birds were heavily hunted and predated by introduced cats.  <p></p>
106002444		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.260,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while the population in China has been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (possibly introduced) (Brazil 2009).
106002445		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often quite common locally (Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2001). National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt;   c.10,000 breeding pairs in Korea and &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106002446		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002447		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002448		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant within its restricted range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002449		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 520000-730000 breeding pairs, equating to 1560000-2190000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1700000-3000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002450		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and monitor populations in suitable habitat within known range. Study breeding ecology and possible threats (including that posed by <em>C. guinea</em>). <p></p>
106002450		distribution	eng	<em>Columba         <span class="SpellE">oliviae</span></em>         is a locally common species endemic to north-east <strong>Somalia </strong>(Ash         and <span class="SpellE">Miskell 1998). It has been found from         45°E east to Cap <span class="SpellE">Guardafui</span> and south down the         east coast as far as 7°30'N (Ash and <span class="SpellE">Miskell         1998). There have been records as recently as 2005 at a few sites,         including in areas around Galgalo (J. <span class="SpellE">Miskell</span> <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2006). Given its small         range and the paucity of recent information, its status remains         uncertain, though there is no evidence to suggest that it has changed         in the last 60 years (J. S. Ash <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>.         1999). There has been no survey or conservation work carried out in         recent years; something that is urgently required to improve existing         knowledge of this <span class="SpellE">species's abundance,         distribution, ecology and possible threats.</span>
106002450		habitat	eng	It is a ground-feeding, rock-dwelling bird of arid, coastal regions, at altitudes of 75-750 m (though once seen at 1,425 m), within 24 km of the coast (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>. It is generally resident but shows seasonal movements locally (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on the ground, on seeds, cultivated grains and berries (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Very little is known of its breeding ecology (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997, Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably rare, although poorly known (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002450		threats	eng	A potential threat may come from Speckled Pigeon <em>Columba guinea</em>, which is still expanding its range very rapidly in Somalia and was seen for the first time in the Galgalo area in April 2005 (Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. How this may affect the Somali Pigeon remains to be seen. No other threats are known. <p></p>
106002451		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In China, 15 protected areas have been designated within its range. In India, it occurs around the Harike Lake Bird Sanctuary, Punjab. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey its central Asian breeding range to establish the size and distribution of the breeding population, key threats and habitat requirements. Investigate habitat requirements in its wintering grounds. Protect important breeding habitat from further loss and degradation. Protect it from hunting across its range, particularly in China, where it should be listed as a protected species, and in India. Improve management of protected areas holding the species. <p></p>
106002451		distribution	eng	<em>Columba eversmanni</em> breeds in southern <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, north-east <strong>Iran</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>China </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Its status and distribution within this range are poorly known. It winters in <strong>Pakistan</strong> and north-west <strong>India</strong>,<strong> </strong>historically as far east as Bihar, and southern Xinjiang and western Gansu, China. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was recorded in huge flocks in its wintering grounds, particularly in the Punjab, India. However, it has declined rapidly, from wintering flocks numbering thousands of birds to flocks generally only of tens or a few hundreds of birds, with occasional larger counts, most recently (1995) of up to 2,000 individuals in a single flock. Whether it continues to decline is unclear. <p></p>
106002451		habitat	eng	It breeds in holes in trees, buildings, cliffs and earth banks in semi-arid and desert areas, including around human settlement and, at least in Kazakhstan, in<em> </em>woodland. In winter, it occurs in open areas with scattered trees, often with agricultural crops, and in areas with suitable fruiting trees, where it roosts and feeds gregariously. The diet includes grass seeds, arable crop seeds and the fruit of trees and shrubs, including <em>Zizyphus</em> and mulberry <em>Morus alba</em>.  <p></p>
106002451		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002451		threats	eng	Hunting in both its breeding and wintering grounds has been the primary cause of its decline and continues to be a major threat in China. In India, intensification of arable cultivation and a change from the large-scale cultivation of pulses and mustard to wheat and rice has reduced the quality of habitat in its key wintering areas. Destruction of poplar <em>Populus</em> woodland is believed to have had a major impact on the breeding population in eastern Kazakhstan. <p></p>
106002452		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Columba palumbus</span> has a wide distribution across the western Palearctic. It occurs in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">United Kingdom</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Morocco</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tunisia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Andorra</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Monaco</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Luxembourg</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Netherlands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liechtenstein</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kosovo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Romania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Hungary</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovakia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Moldova</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ukraine</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belarus</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Latvia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lithuania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;">Georgia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Armenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Azerbaijan</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iraq</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkmenistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uzbekistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tajikistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kyrgyzstan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The Madeiran subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">maderensis</span> went extinct in the early 20th century (Fuller 2000).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
106002452		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 9-17 million breeding pairs, equating to 27-51 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 30-70 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002453		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected and hunting was banned in 1986. Madeira Natural Park has a management plan, and an action plan for the species was published in 1996. All key sites are now protected and habitat restoration has expanded the area of laurel forest<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Barov and Derhé 2011). Farmers suffering crop damage are provided with free bird-scaring devices, and several government control programmes have been implemented, reducing levels of illegal hunting and poisoning<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Barov and Derhé 2011). Work has been undertaken to remove cattle from some areas and control invasive species in laurel forest, as well as measures to reduce the incidence of fire <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Barov and Derhé 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research and monitoring should be continued. Illegal hunting should be controlled or prevented. An education campaign may overcome the species's unpopularity. Identify and protect new areas of laurel forest. Promote the use of bird scarers to reduce agricultural damage. <p></p>
106002453		distribution	eng	<I>Columba trocaz</I> is endemic to Madeira and formerly the neighbouring island of Porto Santo, <B>Portugal</B>. It is found predominantly on the island's mountainous northern slopes, but can also be seen on a few isolated laurel forest pockets in the south. It was very abundant in the early years of human colonisation, but subsequently declined dramatically to c.2,700 birds in 1986 (Oliveira <I>et al.</I> 1999). However, the population recovered rapidly soon after the ban on hunting in 1986. There are now between 8,500 and 10,000 individuals (Oliveira <I>et al</I>. 2007, BirdLife International 2010, P. Sep&uacute;lveda <I>in litt</I>. 2011) in approximately 160 km<SUP>2</SUP> of suitable habitat (P. Oliveira <I>in litt.</I> 1999, Oliveira <I>et al.</I> 1999). The species is now widespread throughout all areas of laurel forest, and has reoccupied many parts of its former range that it had previously deserted (Madeira National Park Service <I>in litt</I>. 2010).
106002453		habitat	eng	The species is confined to laurel forest, largely below 850 m  (Oliveira <I>et al.</I> 1999). There is strong evidence that it is highly mobile between different areas at different times of year (Oliveira <I>et al.</I> 2006). It nests in trees in laurel forest, occasionally on the ground or in cavities in cliffs. Normally only one egg is laid. The species is largely frugivorous, although leaves and flowers are also well represented in its diet: at least 33 different species are taken (Oliveira <I>et al.</I> 2002). Birds may also feed on agricultural land (Marrero <I>et al</I>. 2004, Oliveira <I>et al.</I> 2006).
106002453		population	eng	The population is currently estimated to number between 8,500 and 10,000 individuals (P. Sepúlveda <em>in litt.</em> 2011), roughly equivalent to 5,700-6,700 mature individuals.
106002453		threats	eng	Extinction on Porto Santo and historical declines on Madeira were directly related to forest destruction for wood, agriculture, grazing and human settlements. Regeneration and expansion of the forest is now ensured with the removal of livestock from the forest. This species's unpopularity, as a result of its use of agricultural areas, has a negative influence on conservation and management actions. Hunting and poisoning, as a result of the damage done to crops, continue illegally in a few well-defined areas, especially on agricultural land, and in response to farmers' protests, the regional government authorised limited culling of the species on one occasion in 2004 (Nagy and Crockford 2004). Nest predation by black rat <I>Rattus rattus</I> is likely to be a factor limiting reproduction.
106002454		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A European action plan was published in 1996. The majority of areas inhabited by this species are now protected under regional or national law (BirdLife International 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting has only been a residual threat since hunting-free zones (coinciding with reserves) were implemented. The restoration of pine forest and thermophile forest is still pending full implementation. As part of a LIFE project (2005-2008), work has been carried out to eradicate exotic plant species, plant native species, raise public awareness and increase knowledge of the survival of different native species present in thermophilous forests. Tenerife has undertaken a major effort in eradicating Monterey pine and replanting with native species. Also in Tenerife, Canarian pine tree plantations are partly cleared (thinned) which makes them more suitable for the species. Some islands have rat control plans in place<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the population and potential threats. Protect remaining areas of laurel forest. Establish an invasive species control plan. Implement awareness-raising campaigns. <p></p>
106002454		distribution	eng	<I>Columba bollii</I> occurs on Tenerife (more than 2,000 individuals (Mart&iacute;n and Lorenzo 2001), particularly at Anaga and Teno), La Palma (more than 3,000 birds (Mart&iacute;n and Lorenzo 2001) in a restricted area of the north-east), La Gomera (over 1,000 in Garajonay National Park with some birds outside the park) and El Hierro (where it occupies the whole of Golfo and Sabinosa) in the Canary Islands, <B>Spain</B>. It may formerly have occurred on Gran Canaria, as bones similar to those of a laurel pigeon have been found and there is a possible sight record from the late 19th century. It was common in the past, but disappeared from many areas owing to clearance of laurel forest in the islands. More recently the rate of laurel forest clearance has been slowed or stopped. Population estimates for the species are 1,160-1,315 birds in 1980, 6,000 individuals in 2001, and 5,000-20,000 most recently. Whether these figures reveal genuine population increases is unclear, but the area of occupied territory appears to be expanding and despite several potential threats the population is at least stable, probably increasing.
106002454		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense laurel forest in mountainous areas, especially in ravines; also in heath of <em>Myrica faya</em> and <em>Erica arborea</em>, and sometimes in rather open areas, e.g. cultivation. It spends the hottest part of the day in deep shade. It feeds mainly on fruit but also takes grain and occasionally buds, leaves and shoots. It will gather in large concentrations on fruiting trees, plucking berries from the tree but also feeding on the ground. Breeding occurs in January-September. It makes some altitudinal movements to take advantage of ripe cereals and fruit at lower elevations in late summer. <p></p>
106002454		population	eng	In 2007, the species was estimated by SEO (Sociedad Española de Ornitología/BirdLife in Spain) to number 5,000-20,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 3,300-13,000 mature individuals.
106002454		threats	eng	Historical declines resulted from intensive exploitation of laurel forests. The extent of forest loss has slowed, although fragmentation has continued in some areas as forests are exploited for poles and tool handles. A small amount of illegal hunting occurs at drinking sites. As it is a tree-nesting species, predation by introduced mammals including rats is of less significance than for <I>C. junoniae</I> but it remains a potential threat, the impact of which has not been fully assessed (Hern&aacute;ndez <I>et al.</I> 1999). Grazing pressure from sheep is leading to habitat degradation on La Gomera and at El Hierro. Forest fires also pose a moderate threat to its habitat (BirdLife International 2010). Recreational activities cause some disturbance in the breeding season. The species is potentially threatened by outbreaks of Newcastle Disease and Tuberculosis (BirdLife International 2010).
106002455		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is fully protected under Spanish law. Many protected areas have been established, including Garajonay National Park (La Gomera), and El Canal and Los Tiles (La Palma). The majority of areas inhabited by the species now have protected status under regional or national law (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. There have been several projects focused on the conservation of this species (and Dark-tailed Laurel Pigeon <em>Columba bollii</em>)<em> </em>since the 1980s. An action plan was published in 1996 and reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). The restoration of pine forest and thermophile forest is still pending full implementation (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. As part of a LIFE project (2005-2008), work has been carried out to eradicate exotic plant species, plant native species, raise public awareness and increase knowledge of the survival of different native species found in thermophilous forest. Rat control programmes are in place on some islands. There are on-going efforts to reintroduce the species to Gran Canaria using birds from La Palma (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a population census and initiate monitoring. Ensure the adequate protection of key sites, particularly as yet unprotected ones on La Gomera and La Palma. Continue to promote the restoration of dry and laurel forests. Avoid further damage to laurel forest from commercial forestry. Control introduced predators at breeding sites, particularly on Tenerife. Control illegal hunting, especially at drinking sites. Continue on-going education and awareness campaigns. <p></p>
106002455		distribution	eng	<em>Columba junoniae</em> is endemic to the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>, where it occurs on the islands of La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife and El Hierro (González 1996, Martín and Lorenzo 2001)<strong></strong>, and formerly on Gran Canaria (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. In the 1980s, the population was estimated at 1,200-1,480 individuals, but more surveys conducted dur<span style="">ing 1997-2000 e</span>stimate the population at 1,000-<span style="">2,499 pairs (BirdLife International 2004). Al</span>though this figure is considerably higher than the previous estimate, the increase in numbers may reflect increased sampling effort rather than an actual population increase, however, recent the species is now believed to be more widely distributed than previously thought (Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000). Data from censuses and recent phylogenetic studies have sh<span style="">own that the preferred vegetation type of the species is thermophilous forest (Gonzalez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span><span style="">. 2009, Marrero</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al</span><span style="">. 2008, Nogales </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009), which is has been heavily reduced and only small fragments of original habitat remain (Santos 2000). </span>Habitat loss has had severe consequences on the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. junoniae</span>, which currently survives in secondary areas of laurel and pine forest (Martín<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2000). The largest subpopulation is found on La Palma, where it occurs across much of the northern half of the island. The species is common on La Gomera, where it is found primarily in the north, and also occurs patchily on the northern slopes of Tenerife. It has recently also been recorded on El Hierro; however, breeding there has not yet been confirmed (Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Although the species was recently suspected to be declining on Tenerife (Hernández 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, data suggest that its Area of Occupancy, and so presumably its population, has increased overall during the last 20 years (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002455		habitat	eng	It prefers thermophilous forest, with a potential altitudinal range of 200–500 m asl on the north slopes of the islands, and 600–1000 m asl in the so<span style="">uth (Nogales <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and occurs in areas with steep slopes, escarpments and gullies, as well as in laurel forest and Canary pine forest, and cultivated areas (Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Nests are on the ground - in fissures, holes or small ledges, at the bases of trees, and under rocks or fallen tree trunks - in steep, rocky, shady areas with abundant shrubby vegetation (Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. The breeding season varies between islands, but extends from January to September, with a peak between April-June. At least on Tenerife, breeding success appears to be low, as a consequence of intense nest predation (Hernández <em>et al.</em> 1999, Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002455		population	eng	The breeding population is estimated to number 1,000-2,500 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000-7,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,000-5,000 mature individuals.
106002455		threats	eng	Habitat loss has been extensive. Dry and laurel forests have been intensively exploited since the 15th century, and some areas of remaining forest continue to be felled and fragmented owing to the demand for wooden stakes and poles for agriculture, particularly vine-growing (Hernández 2004, Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Grazing by livestock, notably sheep, is degrading habitat on El Hierro and La Gomera. Predation of eggs and chicks by rats, and of nesting adults by feral cats <em>Felis catus</em>, are important threats (Hernández 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, particularly on Tenerife where five of seven nests monitored were predated, primarily by black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em> (Hernández <em>et al.</em> 1999, Martín <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Illegal hunting remains a threat, especially when birds concentrate at drinking and feeding sites (Hernández 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Recreational activities such as climbing, abseiling, quad-biking, mountain-biking and motocross may disturb nesting birds (Hernández 2004, Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by outbreaks of Newcastle Disease and Tuberculosis (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><p></p>
106002456		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although locally quite common in Cameroon and Gabon (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant to not uncommon locally (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002458		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species (Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000, M. Melo<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> has been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Legislation for the creation of Obo National Park has also been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> has been proposed.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecological requirements. Identify its key threats, including levels of hunting, in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law. <p></p>
106002458		distribution	eng	<em>Columba thomensis</em> is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>, where its range includes Chamico in the north-west, the regions of Lagoa Amelia, Zampalma, Nova Ceilão and Bombaím in the central massif and Formoso Pequeno southwards along the valley of the rio Io Grande. In the south-west, it extends into the lowlands along the valleys of the Xufexufe and Ana Chaves rivers. In the south-east, it occurs west of Agua Izé and on the isolated peak of Maria Fernandes, north of São João dos Angolares (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991, <strong></strong>Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species occurs at low densities, with a maximum of 18 birds observed in two 1km transects after the breeding season in a core area of high altitude forest near the Pico of São Tomé (M. B. Carvalho <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The global population may number considerably fewer than 1,000 mature individuals, and hunting is suspected to be causing population declines even at higher altitudes; hunting pressure may also be driving a decline in range as the species is pushed into higher, more inaccessible areas (M. B. Carvalho <em>in litt. </em>2011, R. F. de Lima <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002458		habitat	eng	It is most common in primary forest above 1,000 m but also occurs in mature secondary forest, particularly coffee plantations abandoned for more than 20 years, and in lowland primary forest in the south-west and more occasionally in cultivated areas at forest edge. The diet consists primarily of fruit (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991, <strong></strong>Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the species appears to make seasonal movements in response to fruit availability. <p></p>
106002458		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified but is probably best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals considering its scarcity and highly restricted distribution. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002458		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of forest were cleared for coffee and cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest, but may be a threat in the future (Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Construction for the country's developing oil industry, including the established idea of building 'free ports' (free economic zones) (M. Melo<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, was seen as a potential threat to the species's habitat. However, prospecting on land was unsuccessful, and any construction is likely to be offshore (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting is the key current threat to the species, particularly in the most accessible areas of primary forest (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; this is the biggest pigeon on the island and it is also very tame. Significant numbers of birds may be taken at a time (eg. a single hunter was observed to kill nine birds in one hunting session) (M. B. Carvalho <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the current distribution of the species is thought to be determined by hunting pressure. <p></p>
106002459		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002460		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No action for this species is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends. Protect habitat from clearance and degradation. Discourage hunting through environmental education.  <p></p>
106002460		distribution	eng	<em>Columba pollenii</em> is endemic to the Comoro archipelago where it is found on all three islands of the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> and on <strong>Mayotte (to France)</strong><sup></sup> (Louette 1988). On Grand Comoro, it is moderately common on Mt Karthala and La Grille above 500 m, increasing in abundance up to the tree-line at 1,750 m, while on Moheli, it is limited to the island's main forested ridge (Louette 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Anjouan, it is uncommon and restricted to the few remaining areas of primary forest (Moorcroft 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Mayotte, it remains in a number of widespread remnant pockets of suitable, wet, high-altitude forest and occurs in this habitat at a higher density than on the other islands (Stevens and Louette 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Numbers on each island are low, and the total population may be under 10,000 individuals. It has been suggested that migration between islands must take place for there to be a continuingly viable population (Louette 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002460		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to primary forest. The species is usually found at high elevations, although on Maore it extends down to sea-level (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit plucked from trees, but also appears to feed on the ground. The only nest documented was found five metres above the ground and contained a single egg (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002460		population	eng	The species is hunted and little known. It probably numbers less than 10,000 individuals and is thus placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002460		threats	eng	Its habitat is diminishing as a result of charcoal production and shifting cultivation (Louette 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is not found in plantations and gardens, suggesting that it does not adapt well to disturbed habitat (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting is a threat on all four islands Safford 2001a, 2001b; Stevens and Louette 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced predators are a potential threat (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002461		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is suspected to be usually uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002462		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor rates of habitat loss within the species's range. Protect areas of the species's habitat.  <p></p>
106002462		distribution	eng	<em>Columba albinucha</em> occurs in dense mid-altitude forests and forested slopes in eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), where it is reported to be locally common, Bangangai Game Reserve in <strong>South Sudan</strong> (on the border with the DRC; Hillman and Hillman 1986)<strong></strong>, Bwamba and Kibale in west <strong>Uganda</strong> (few records), and <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where until recently it was known from only one locality in the Rumpi Hills<strong> </strong>(three records in 1967; Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. However, since 1992 there have been several sightings from Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mountains at 1,000-1,450 m often in small coffee farms in farmbush with primary transitional forest nearby (Bowden 1998a; Williams 1995)<strong></strong> and, in 1999, it was recorded from Santchou Sanctuary south of Dschang (Fotso <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>, Mt Manenguba (on the lower slopes and at 2,100 m) and there is one unconfirmed record from nearby Mt Nlonako (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c; Fotso <em>et al. </em>2001). The species is generally considered scarce throughout its restricted and fragmented range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002462		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dense lowland forest and forested slopes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its altitudinal range in Uganda is 700-1,800 m, with upper limits of 1,500 m in DRC and 1,100 m in Cameroon. It feeds on fruit and berries taken from the canopy or middle levels in the forest, rarely descending to the ground. A bird in breeding condition has been collected in February, and the only recorded nest contained one egg and was found in secondary growth in a forest clearing (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002462		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002462		threats	eng	The species's scarcity and its very restricted and fragmented range leaves it highly vulnerable to the effects of habitat loss (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main threats to the species are therefore presumed to be forest clearance for small-holder cultivation and grazing and subsistence-level logging.   <p></p>
106002463		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and secretive (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population in Taiwan to number c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
106002464		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in India and occurs in at least 16 protected areas, most in Kerala, including three national parks, 10 wildlife sanctuaries, one tiger reserve and two reserve forests. A remote sensing project is planned to attempt to delimit the range and assess rates of forest loss (L. Vijayan <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into seasonal movements and identify key sites. Establish protected areas where necessary, ensure these sites are effectively safeguarded, and promote sustainable exploitation of forests throughout the Western Ghats. Encourage the protection of all habitat types used by the species (Somasundaram and Vijayan 2010). Conserve and propagate preferred fruiting trees (Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Campaign for significant reductions in the conversion of natural forest to plantation. Promote community-based conservation initiatives focusing on alternatives to deforestation and restoration of disturbed natural habitats within its range. <p></p>
106002464		distribution	eng	<em>Columba elphinstonii</em> is endemic to the hill-ranges of the Western Ghats, south-west <strong>India</strong>, occurring from north-west Maharashtra south, through Karnataka and Goa, to southern Kerala and western Tamil Nadu. It was once considered common and widespread, but has undergone a major decline, which is thought to be continuing owing to on-going forest loss. Most recent records come from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, where it still appears to be locally common. <p></p>
106002464		habitat	eng	It is virtually confined to moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, including densely wooded ravines and hollows ("sholas"), chiefly in foothills and mountains up to c.2,250 m, but there have been an increasing number of records in the lowlands down to 50 m (J. Praveen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding has been exclusively recorded from natural forest but it does forage in 'Wattle' plantations and occasionally visits moist deciduous forest, <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations to roost and preen (Somasundaram and Vijayan 2006)<strong></strong>. It is absent from tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations. Most breeding takes place in montane temperate (shola) forests above 2,000 m and in very low densities in evergreen forests in mid-altitudes at 900 to 1,800 m (L. Vijayan <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It appears to make some nomadic movements in response to food availability and perhaps colder weather suggesting that its dispersal range is much larger than for most other species in the Western Ghats (J. Praveen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A study of its diet using direct observations and faecal sampling indicated that it feeds on the fruits of at least 39 plant species, the seeds of 11 species, flowers and leaf buds of four species and some ground-dwelling invertebrates (Somasundaram and Vijayan 2010). The same study found that fruits of species in the family Lauraceae were the most preferred. The species forages mainly by gleaning, predominantly at the edges of the upper and middle canopy, and the frequency of fruit consumption is correlated with fruit abundance (Somasundaram and Vijayan 2010). It generally breeds in March-July but has been recorded starting in November-December (Subramanya 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002464		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals (P. O. Nameer <em>in litt.</em> 2003).
106002464		threats	eng	Historically, it was hunted for food and sport, which probably contributed to its decline. Currently, the loss, degradation and increasing fragmentation of forest are a greater concern. In Maharashtra, forest cover is declining because of shifting cultivation and collection of timber for fuel and building. A massive 47% of evergreen/semi-evergreen forest was lost in the Kerala portion of the Western Ghats between 1961 and 1988, principally as a result of conversion to plantations, cash-crops, and clearance for human settlements and development projects. This apparently continued with c.25% of forest cover lost within its range during the 20 years prior to 1997 (S. Somasundaram <em>in litt</em>.)<strong></strong>, and forest loss continues to date (L. Vijayan <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In certain portions of its range (e.g. Goa) hunting is still considered a threat. <p></p>
106002465		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its ecology, particularly seasonal movements in response to food availability. Encourage protection of important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.  <p></p>
106002465		distribution	eng	<em>Columba torringtoniae</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it occurs in the mountains of the centre of the island and the adjacent foothills of the wet zone (BirdLife International 2001). Its population size and trends are unclear but it appears to have declined and become increasingly fragmented since the mid 20th century, becoming uncommon in the central mountains. It is unlikely that the population numbers more than a few thousand individuals.  <p></p>
106002465		habitat	eng	It occurs in hill and montane forest, generally above c.900 m, but it sometimes descends as low as 300 m in the lowland forests of the wet zone. It is arboreal and frugivorous, making movements in response to the availability of fruiting trees, and has frequently been recorded at fruiting trees outside forest. Nesting is from January-March and again from August-October, in tall forest trees. <p></p>
106002465		population	eng	The population is estimated to be unlikely to number more than a few thousand individuals based on recent records and surveys. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals here, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002465		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood-collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. It has also suffered reductions in food supply because of replacement of natural forests, containing fruiting trees, with monoculture plantations. Forest die-back in the montane region, perhaps a result of air pollution, is a potential threat. <p></p>
106002466		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although it has been recorded from numerous protected areas, their contribution to its conservation is not known, especially given its seasonal and nomadic movements. Indeed, site-based conservation strategies are unlikely to be successful unless populations are able to follow seasonal patterns of fruit-ripening within secure protected sites. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys, particularly in Myanmar, to clarify its current distribution, seasonal movements and population status. Conduct research into its ecological requirements and the relative effects of various threats operating across its range. Identify and protect, where appropriate, sites supporting key populations. Promote improved management and establish/increase buffer zones around protected areas supporting key populations. Enforce strict hunting controls within all protected areas and devise awareness campaigns to reduce pigeon hunting wherever this is possible. <p></p>
106002466		distribution	eng	<em>Columba punicea</em> is locally distributed across its broad range, which encompasses parts of northern <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It appears to have been locally abundant in the early 20th century, but has declined markedly in many areas. Scattered recent records indicate that it now only occurs rarely and erratically throughout its range, although a roosting flock of 174 individuals was recorded at Don Mamuang, Thailand in 2002 <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2002). There are no recent records from China, where it was previously recorded on Hainan Island and in south-east Tibet, and it has occurred as a vagrant in Peninsular Malaysia. In Vietnam it is very rare and local with small numbers recently reported from mangrove forest at Mang Den/Kon Plong, Kontum Province in 2010 and near Ho Tram, approx 100 km south-east of Ho Chi Minh City, in 2011 (R. Craik <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). However, large flocks were reported in the past from near Da Lat (C. Robson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and it is regarded as uncommon but resident on some islands in Bai Tu Lam Bay (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In India, it is a rare resident in Orissa and northeast India, with most recent records from the Similipal hills. Here birds have been encountered throughout the year with the highest count involving a flock of 17 birds in the Upper Barakamura range (M. Nair <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106002466		habitat	eng	It frequents a wide variety of habitats from the lowlands up to 1,600 m, chiefly primary or secondary evergreen forest, but also open, deciduous dipterocarp forest, bamboo, and agricultural fields, particularly in close proximity to forest. Recent records from deciduous dipterocarp forest in Cambodia indicate an association with riverine corridors of bamboo forest (<strong></strong>J. Bird <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Some records also originate from small forested islands and other coastal habitats. It is mainly frugivorous, although seeds and grain form important dietary components in some areas. Its breeding range and seasonal movements are poorly understood, but in places it appears to be semi-nomadic, perhaps in response to food availability. <p></p>
106002466		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals by BirdLife International (2001), based on available records and surveys. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002466		threats	eng	Its decline is poorly understood but is suspected to be the result of hunting and habitat loss and fragmentation owing to commercial logging, small-scale timber collection, and clearance of forests for plantation agriculture, cash-crops, charcoal production and shifting cultivation.<p></p>
106002467		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent provisional observations have been made in two protected areas, the Berbak Game Reserve and Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve, both in South Sumatra. Further searches for the species are planned (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on islands within its historical range (and mangroves and swamp-forest of South Sumatra province [Iqbal 2010]<strong></strong>) to clarify its current distribution, population status, movements and attendant threats. Priority islands to search include Jemaja and Natuna islands and small islands off South Bangka Island (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, D. L. Yong <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Formulate a conservation strategy involving protection of key islands, especially those supporting breeding populations. Study fruiting tree phenology where the species has been recorded or is suspected to be extant to improve knowledge of food availability and the species's feeding ecology (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Initiate conservation measures on Simeulue to counter the potential threats of hunting pressure and the loss and degradation of suitable habitat (Eaton 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002467		distribution	eng	<em>Columba argentina</em> appears to have a highly restricted range, with historical records suggesting that it at least formerly occurred on islands off Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (e.g. Simeulue, Mentawi Islands, Riau and Lingga archipelagos), and off the west coast of Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and Kalimantan, Indonesia (e.g the Karimata and Natuna Islands, including Burong). There is one confirmed historical record each from mainland Sumatra and Kalimantan. There were previously no confirmed reports since 1931, and recent reports from South Sumatra province and Pulau Talang Besar in the Talang Talang Islands in 2001 have been treated as provisional (Wilson 2004)<strong></strong>. However, in 2008 one individual was photographed between the islets of Masokut Island and Simaimu Islands, off the southern tip of Siberut in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia, confirming that the species survives in the wild (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. This record was followed by at least one other sighting on Siberut of two birds that were possibly this species, in January 2009 (Verbelen 2010)<strong></strong>. Unequivocal evidence that the species persists on Simeulue came in the form of at least three birds photographed in late December 2010 (J. Eaton<em> in litt</em>. 2010, Eaton 2011)<strong></strong>. There is also a photograph of two captive individuals in Hong Kong, and pictures of a small flock of birds, potentially <em>C. argentina</em>, from the Sembilang National Park in 2008 (Anon 2009, M. Iqbal <em>in litt.</em> 2009, Iqbal 2010)<strong></strong>. Interviews with 20 local people near the Merang-Kepayang River (South Sumatra), in August 2009, produced one possible record (Iqbal 2010)<strong></strong>. There is also a report of a single bird in peatswamp forest at Berbak National Park (Jambi province, Sumatra) from February 2011 (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Given the difficulty in distinguishing <em>C. argentina</em> from the sympatric <em>Ducula bicolor</em>, it is likely that <em>C. argentina</em> has been overlooked in previous surveys for the species (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Following the documentation of key differences between the two species (Yong 2009)<strong></strong>, it is likely that further surveys will result in the discovery of remnant populations. <p></p>
106002467		habitat	eng	It inhabits mangroves and coastal forests in the lowlands and hills of offshore islands, occasionally being found in similar habitats below 100 m on mainland Sumatra and Borneo. Although poorly known, available evidence suggests it wanders seasonally or disperses between islands in response to food supply. <p></p>
106002467		population	eng	This newly re-discovered species is precautionarily assumed to have a tiny population (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals). However, given the probable misidentification of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. argentina</span> in past surveys, and the documentation of key differences between the species and the similar sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">Ducula bicolor</span>, future surveys may well identify remnant populations and revise the population estimate upward.
106002467		threats	eng	Although little is known about the species, it may be speculated that settlement, deforestation, disturbance, hunting on small islands and the introduction of mammalian predators have caused widespread declines, as is the case for a number of other declining columbiformes. The birds photographed on Simeulue Island in December 2010 were found to be tame, prompting concerns that they could be easy targets for the island's hunters, although it was noted that other pigeon species were abundant (J. Eaton<em> in litt</em>. 2010, Eaton 2011)<strong></strong>. Poaching to supply the pet trade may be a further threat, as exemplified by two captive birds in Hong Kong (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Habitat loss is likely to be a major threat, with extensive clearance for logging and conversion to agriculture and plantations taking place throughout the species's range (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2009, Iqbal 2010)<strong></strong>. The locality of the recent records on Simeulue is being mined for gravel (J. Eaton<em> in litt</em>. 2010, Eaton 2011)<strong></strong>, which could result in the loss of suitable habitat (J. Eaton<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Further mining is planned on Simeulue, as are large-scale oil palm plantations (Eaton 2011)<strong></strong>, which could result in extensive habitat loss. <p></p>
106002468		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecology and survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor to determine population trends.  Investigate its tolerance of degraded forest and the extent of hunting by local residents. Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of intact forest on a number of islands across its range.   <p></p>
106002468		distribution	eng	<em>Columba palumboides </em>is endemic to the Andaman and Nicobar (including Great Nicobar, Nancowry, Car Nicobar and Batti Malv) archipelagos, <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is uncommon in the Andamans <strong></strong>(A. Prasad <em>in litt. </em>2002), and the same may be true in the Nicobar islands.  <p></p>
106002468		habitat	eng	This exclusively arboreal species inhabits dense broadleaved evergreen forest and occurs in pairs or small parties (BirdLife International 2001, Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It is frugivorous, taking a wide variety of large berries and fruit, and wanders between islands in search of food sources such as fruiting fig trees (BirdLife International 2001, Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). <br/><p></p>
106002468		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not very common (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106002468		threats	eng	Its limited range and preference for dense forest suggest that it is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Indeed, although forest remains fairly extensive on the Andaman and Nicobar islands, the human population on larger islands is rising and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing, logging and development projects. Hunting is also apparently common on the islands and may affect this species.  <p></p>
106002469		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is a small captive population of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nitens</span> at Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, where successful breeding has occurred as part of a conservation programme (Otani Chikara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2005). <br/>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor to determine population trends.  Investigate its tolerance of degraded forest and the extent of hunting by local residents. Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of intact forest on a number of islands across its range. Conduct research into the taxonomic status of its subspecies. Investigate the status of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nitens</span> on the Iwo Islands.<em></em> <p></p>
106002469		distribution	eng	<em>Columba janthina</em> is an uncommon and local resident in <strong>Japan</strong>, on small islands off southern Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, south through the Nansei Shoto islands to the Yaeyama Islands and the Izu Islands to the Ogasawara and Iwo Islands (BirdLife International 2001). It occurs locally on small islands off the south coast of <strong>South Korea</strong>, and it has been recorded (presumably as a vagrant) in eastern Russia, Shandong, mainland China and Taiwan (China). Although it is still relatively common on the Izu Islands, it has apparently declined there since the 1950s, and it is thought to have declined on Okinawa during the 1980s because of forestry activities. There are estimated to be only 30-40 individuals of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nitens</span> on the Ogasawara Islands, but the status of this subspecies on the Iwo Islands remains unknown (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Otani Chikara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2005, Simba Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2005).<em> </em><p></p>
106002469		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense subtropical forest and warm temperate evergreen broadleaved forests, and is heavily dependent on mature forest. It feeds mainly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Camellia</span> seeds, but is thought to take the seeds and fruit of other plants, and although it is mainly arboreal it will also take fallen seeds from the ground (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Breeding occurs from February to September, and females lay a single egg in a tree-hole or amongst rocks (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><p></p>
106002469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2001). National population estimates include:
106002469		threats	eng	It is thought that hunting and deforestation are causing this pigeon to rapidly decline.   <p></p>
106002470		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Columba vitiensis</span> is distributed through the islands of Indomalaya, Australasia and Oceania. It occurs in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New Guinea</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vanuatu</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Fiji </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Samoa </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">godmanae</span> once occurred on Australia's Lord Howe Island, but it has been extinct since the mid-1800s (McAllan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106002470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare on Bougainville and the Bismarck islands and common on many Pacific islands. Race metallica is rare except on Timor where it is common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002471		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce, although locally common in New South Wales and northern Queensland (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002472		distribution	eng	<em>Columba versicolor </em>was endemic to Nakondo Shima and Peel Island (Chichi-jima) in the Bonin Islands (Ogasawara-shoto), <strong>Japan</strong> (Goodwin 1967). It is known from four specimens, in Frankfurt, Leningrad and Tring<strong> </strong>(Brazil 1991) and was last recorded in 1889<strong>&#160;</strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998).<p></p>
106002472		habitat	eng	It inhabited the lush forested interior of the small islands in its range.  <p></p>
106002472		threats	eng	Its extinction presumably resulted from clearance of the islands' subtropical evergreen forest, and from predation by introduced cats and rats<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998).  <p></p>
106002473		distribution	eng	<em>Columba jouyi</em><em> </em>was endemic to Okinawa and Kerama, and the Daito Islands, in the Nansei Shoto Islands, <strong>Japan </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was described in 1887 from a type in the Tokyo Educational Museum<strong> </strong>(Stejneger 1887), and is also known from three skins in Tring<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994). It apparently declined rapidly (and inexplicably), and was last recorded on Okinawa in 1904, and on Daito in 1936<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998).<p></p>
106002473		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited the forested interior of the islands on which it lived.  <p></p>
106002473		threats	eng	It is not known why it became extinct.  <p></p>
106002474		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A brief project to investigate the range and ecology of this species and the impact of hunting was undertaken at Hauta, Makira. The Hauta area is subject to an ongoing community conservation and development programme (R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct survey work to discover other populations, especially in areas already under discussion for protected status. Discuss its status and population trends with hunters. Monitor numbers seen and killed in Hauta. Lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging. Advocate creation of wildlife protection areas on major islands. Assess effects of community conservation programmes at Hauta. Extend public awareness programmes to coastal communities on Makira.<p></p>
106002474		distribution	eng	<em>Columba pallidiceps</em> occurs in the Bismarck Archipelago, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is known from New Ireland, New Britain, Bougainville, Choiseul, Vella Lavella, Ndai (= Gower), Nggela (= Florida), Ramos, Guadalcanal, Makira (= San Cristobal) and possibly Duke of York and Ugi (=Uki Ni Masi), and may occur on intervening islands. It has undergone a major decline since collections in the 1870s-1930s, and is now rare. Recent records are from New Britain (one collected in the 1960s, singles seen in 1995, 1997 and 2006, the latter in Garu Wildlife Management Area [Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999, H. Kaestner <em>in litt.</em> 1999, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>2006])<strong></strong>, New Ireland (one in 1984 [Finch and McKean 1987])<strong></strong>, Guadalcanal (one in 1987 [S. Blaber <em>in litt.</em> 1991]) and Makira (several records since 1990 [Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Richards 1996, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999])<strong></strong>. Throughout its range, notably on New Britain, many months of searching have failed to record it. On Makira, it is not infrequent around Hauta, but no more than five birds have been seen together (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Richards 1996, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Its unobtrusive habits, infrequent calls and nomadic behaviour may have led to it being under-recorded. <p></p>
106002474		habitat	eng	It has been recorded only in primary or tall secondary forest, with most records from hills up to c.650 m, but also in lowlands and one recent record at 1,300 m (Dutson 2011). It appears to be principally a subcanopy species, often seen feeding on fruiting <em>gaivou</em> trees at Hauta (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but its long stout legs suggest that it is partly terrestrial, and is thought to be partially nomadic. The bird is difficult to observe during most times of the year and really only conspicuous when feeding on <span style="font-style: italic;">Litsea/ Neolitsea spp. </span>(Lauraceae) fruits (R. James<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). However, the whistling wing noise in flight is very distinctive. It has been suggested that it may nest on the ground (R. James<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012), making it particularly vulnerable to mammalian predators.  <p></p>
106002474		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002474		threats	eng	It may be particularly susceptible to predation by introduced mammals as it may nest on the ground (R. James <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Although too rare to be targeted specifically by hunters, it featured within bags of mixed large pigeons hunted at Hauta (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. All the islands within its range have suffered logging, both some of the small islands, e.g. Duke of York, which now have little or no forest, and the larger islands such as New Britain. On the latter it has been estimated that forest clearance for oil palm production has caused the loss of c.20% of suitable habitat for this species in the last 15 years (Buchanan <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002475		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect important breeding islets.  Ensure protection of low-lying forests on larger islands where the species forages.  Discourage removal of poisonwood where possible in Florida.  Enforce hunting laws. Take measures to reduce collision with man-made objects.  Educational programs that encourage people to plant native, fruit-producing trees in the Florida Keys should be enacted. Investigate the effects of pesticide use on the species.  Monitor key populations throughout the species range.   <p></p>
106002475		distribution	eng	<em>Patagioenas leucocephala</em> is found primarily in the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong> and <strong>Antigua</strong>. It breeds in smaller numbers in Hispaniola (<strong>Dominican</strong> <strong>Republic</strong> and <strong>Haiti</strong>), <strong>Puerto</strong> <strong>Rico</strong>, the <strong>Virgin Islands (to USA)</strong>, the <strong>Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, San Andres<strong> </strong>(<strong>Colombia</strong>), Isla de Providencia and the Corn Islands<strong> </strong>(<strong>Nicaragua</strong>), <strong>Cayman Islands</strong>, <strong>Anguilla (to UK)</strong>, <strong>St Barthelemy (to France)</strong>, and more rarely on <strong>St Martin</strong> and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong> (Bancroft and Bowman 2001)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. Populations extend west along the Caribbean coasts of Yucatan <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong> and north-west <strong>Panama</strong>. It reaches the <strong>USA</strong> only in the Florida Keys and the southern tip of mainland Florida (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997, Bancroft and Bowman 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002475		habitat	eng	In Florida, the Bahamas, the coastal Yucatan islets and the Lesser Antilles it requires isolated offshore mangrove islets with limited disturbance for breeding, for feeding it flies to humid evergreen or semi-deciduous hardwood forests on adjacent mainland areas (Bancroft and Bowman 2001, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Gibbs <em>et al.</em> 2001). Elsewhere it generally occupies lower-lying forest habitats (Gibbs <em>et al.</em> 2001).   <p></p>
106002475		population	eng	Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2003) <p></p>
106002475		threats	eng	Degradation of foraging habitat is a threat to this species (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Florida removal of poisonwood <em>Metopium toxiferum</em>, which can cause severe human dermatitis, affects the species as it feeds on the poisonwood's fruit (Bancroft and Bowman 2001, Gibbs <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>C. leucocephala</em> is an important game species through much of its range, and although hunting regulations in the Bahamas have been changed, illegal hunting seems to be a threat (Bancroft and Bowman 2001)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. Collision with man-made objects is a major source of mortality in Florida, and pesticide use and human impact may also have detrimental effects (Bancroft and Bowman 2001)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002476		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002477		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002478		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002479		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002480		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002482		distribution	eng	This species occurs in central and south Chile from Coquimbo south to central Fjordlands, including Isla Mocha, and south-central and south Argentina from Neuquén to west Chubut and southwest Santa Cruz. Although almost extirpated by Newcastle's Disease in 1954, it has recovered well and appears to be expanding in population and range, with some recent records within its former range in Argentina (del Hoyo et al. 1997). There are a high number of protected areas within its range, including some very large national reserves and parks at its southern extent, notably part of Katalalixar (6,745 km²) and Laguna San Rafael (17,420 km²) (Stattersfield et al. 1998). In addition, there are records from six national parks in Argentina: Lanin, Nahuel Huapi, Los Arrayanes in Neuquén, Lago Puelo, Los Alerces in Chubut and Los Glaciares in Santa Cruz.
106002482		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland and highland southern temperate forest and woodland at elevations up to 1,500 m, notably where Araucaria araucaria and large Nothofagus dombeyi occur, but also at the forest edge and on cultivated land (del Hoyo et al. 1997, Stotz et al. 1996). It sometimes breeds in large loose colonies, often in bamboo thickets, with nests found in December-March, and also in May (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002482		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'common' in parts of Chile (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002482		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by intensive logging and timber plantations (Dinerstein et al. 1995). Large areas of old-growth forest have already been lost to logging concessions, and the industry is still active (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106002483		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected, but this is not enforced. Habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains has been declared a national park, but there is little enforcement or management (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Funding is actively being sought for conservation in Cockpit Country (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and current efforts are being directed to supporting Forestry Department and community-based Local Forest Management Committees to protect the Forest Reserves and private buffer lands in the Cockpit Country Conservation Area (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> </em>There is an on-going, high profile public awareness campaign to prevent bauxite mining in Cockpit Country; Cockpit Country Stakeholders Group and Local Forest Management Committees are engaged in the process of voicing opposition to mining and having the area declared "closed to mining" by Minister's Discretion (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> </em> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess numbers and precise distribution. Prevent bauxite mining in Cockpit Country by declaring the area "closed to mining". Maintain corridors linking highland forests and lowland areas (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce legal protection. Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of the national park in the Blue and John Crow Mountains (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002483		distribution	eng	<em>Patagioenas caribaea</em> is found throughout the wetter areas of <strong>Jamaica</strong>, but most notably in Cockpit Country, and the Blue and John Crow Mountains. It has been greatly reduced in numbers and range since the mid-19th century, however, it is highly seasonal in its use of foraging habitats and in flocking patterns, which makes trends difficult to track without systematic monitoring (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002483		habitat	eng	It inhabits relatively undisturbed humid forest and woodland, and wet limestone forest, at elevations of 100-2,000 m. It breeds mostly in the highlands in spring and summer (from late February to August), occurring locally to sea-level on the wetter, north side of the island (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some birds move to lower altitudes at certain times, but these movements are poorly understood (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds in small flocks on fruits and seeds high in the canopy, and large flocks are sometimes seen moving to different feeding locations (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is constructed high in a tall tree. <p></p>
106002483		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002483		threats	eng	Unabating pressure from illegal hunting, logging and clearance for plantation agriculture is responsible for this species's ongoing decline (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the potential for bauxite mining in Cockpit Country is the currently the most important threat for the important populations in west-central Jamaica (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106002484		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002486		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are no protected areas within this species's range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish the precise limits of its range, population levels and trends, and conservation requirements (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997). Research its ecology. Designate protected areas within the upper río Marañón valley, e.g. in the Cordillera de Colán<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997). <p></p>
106002486		distribution	eng	<em>Patagioenas oenops</em> occupies a restricted range in north <strong>Peru</strong>, principally in the upper Marañón valley (Cajamarca and Amazonas), and regularly at one site in La Libertad<strong> </strong>(Clements and Shany 2001), with one record from Piura. There are also recent sight records in extreme south-east <strong>Ecuador</strong><strong></strong> (P.&#160;Coopmans <em>per</em> R.&#160;S.&#160;Ridgely <em>in litt</em>. 1994,<strong> </strong>Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is generally relatively uncommon, but scarce in heavily populated areas in the north of its range, and relatively common in a comparatively inaccessible area near Balsas (upper río Marañón) in 1975 and 1999, and on the río Comboca, in the south Cordillera de Colán in 1994<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997,<strong> </strong>Begazo <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent surveys of the Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas, suggest it is tolerant of some forest degradation<strong> </strong>(Clements and Shany 2001), but this threat must be causing a population decline. <p></p>
106002486		habitat	eng	It inhabits riparian woodland, dominated by the willow <em>Salix humbertiana</em>, and adjacent dry forest on steep valley slopes, mainly at 850-2,400&#160;m. It has also been recorded in degraded, humid premontane forest (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997) and around mango orchards (R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett <em>in litt</em> 1998). It appears to make limited seasonal elevational movements. Its ecology is very poorly known, with virtually no data on feeding, although it has been seen eating ripe coca seeds (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997), and singles and pairs have been recorded in fruiting trees<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(including <em>Cordia lutea</em>) (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997, Begazo 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only breeding data refers to a juvenile collected in April. <p></p>
106002486		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002486		threats	eng	It probably suffers some hunting pressure. The gradual degradation and loss of its already naturally restricted habitat are presumably causing a population decline, although surveys of the Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas suggest it is tolerant of some forest degradation<strong> </strong>(Clements and Shany 2001). Its relative abundance within inaccessible areas, and scarcity in heavily populated regions suggests that these threats have already resulted in significant decreases. <p></p>
106002487		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recovery programme is underway in Puerto Rico (Miyamoto <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Funding is being sought for conservation in Cockpit Country, Jamaica (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is legally protected in Cuba (but this is not enforced), and has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Guanahacabibes Biosphere Reserve, where it has been the subject of an education programme. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess numbers and distribution, especially in Cuba and Jamaica (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the impact of illegal hunting (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conserve the Cockpit Country, and southern dry limestone forests and woodlands, in Jamaica (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Design and implement education programmes in Cuba to reduce hunting pressures (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce habitat protection in the Sierra de Bahoruco National Park in Dominican Republic. <p></p>
106002487		distribution	eng	<em>Patagioenas inornata</em> was once abundant and widespread in the Caribbean, but has undergone considerable declines. In <strong>Cuba</strong>, it was widespread, but has now declined; it was thought to be now restricted to six areas: the Guanahacabibes (c.100 pairs, the largest population) and Zapata peninsulas, the sierras de Najasa and del Chorrillo, cayos Romano and Sabinal and the Esteros de Birama (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but has subsequently been found at another eleven localities (Sanchez <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In <strong>Jamaica</strong>, it was scarce as early as 1840 (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is now rare and local. On <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, it numbered less than 100 in the 1970s, but had increased to c.700 by 1996 (Norton 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and recent information suggests that this population totalled 1497-6106 individuals during 1997-2001 (Rivera-Milán <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This population increase is attributed to increased food and nesting habitat availability following the recovery of second growth forests, resulting from the abandonment of marginally productive pasture and cropland as Puerto Rico gradually became industrialised from the 1940s onwards (Rivera-Milán <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, extensive searches in 1986 failed to find the species, and sites with records in the 1970s had been cleared. However, it has been recently described as locally common (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially in the Sierra de Baoruco (S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In <strong>Haiti</strong>, there have been reports of birds in significant numbers, although numbers in Hispaniola overall are not reported to be increasing (C. Rimmer <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002487		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in lowland forest, mangrove and swampy areas in Cuba, highland pine and broadleaf forest, and occasionally coastal desert and mangroves in Hispaniola, and wet limestone forests in west, and drier woodlands in southern Jamaica (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Puerto Rico, it formerly occurred in primary lowland forests, but now mainly inhabits secondary growth, pasture and farmland (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is during April-July in Cuba and Hispaniola, and year-round in Puerto Rico (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002487		population	eng	Rivera-Milan et al. (2003) reported a population size of 1,497-6,106 individuals, rounded here to 1,500-6,100 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,000-4,100 mature individuals.
106002487		threats	eng	Hunting, logging and clearance for plantation agriculture, combined with the devastating effects of hurricanes, have reduced populations (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Few birds are shot in Jamaica and this does not appear to explain the species's current scarcity on the island (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest predation may affect reproduction in key areas on Puerto Rico (Rivera-Milán <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002489		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006)
106002489		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Patagioenas subvinacea </span>is a polytypic species of northern South America. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">subvinacea </span>occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">berlepschi</span> ranges from south-west Panama along <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>'s Pacific coast to south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, where it is described as uncommon to frequent (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">zuliae </span>is found in north-east Colombia and west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">peninsularis</span> is endemic to the Paria Peninsula in north-east Venezuela. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">purpureotincta</span> ranges from south-east Colombia through south Venezuela to the Guianas (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). It is uncommon in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, but common in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana (</span>Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">bogotensis</span> is distributed from Colombia's north-west Andes through east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>to Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>and north-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106002489		habitat	eng	This is a canopy species of medium to high altitude forest, occurring most often between 1,000-2,000 m, but it has been recorded at 2,200 m in Colombia. Movements to lower elevations during the non-breeding season have been recorded in Costa Rica. It tends to occupy tall forests in Amazonia. Diet consists of fruit from trees, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span>, and epiphytes (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Hilty 2003). It has been recorded breeding between April and August in Colombia; the nest is a platform of sticks 5 m above the ground (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106002489		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002489		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin and elsewhere within its range (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). Whilst it is tolerant of disturbed primary forest, hunting presents an additional threat (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).</p>
106002490		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002491		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002492		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and secretive (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002493		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in Obo Natural Park, although there is no law enforcement within these areas and the lack of data about the species's ecological requirements makes it difficult to assess the benefits of these areas. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas has been ratified<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure designated protected areas are actively protected. <p></p>
106002493		distribution	eng	<em>Columba malherbii </em>is endemic to the islands of  Príncipe, São Tomé (<strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>), and Annobón (<strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>). The population size has not been estimated, but it remains widespread and reasonably common; however anecdotal evidence suggests it is becoming harder to find near populated areas and may be declining moderately rapidly owing to hunting pressure and capture as a cage bird. <p></p>
106002493		habitat	eng	The species makes seasonal within-island movements, becoming very conspicuous in forest, savannah and coastal habitat during the breeding season (November-February). It tolerates, and may even prefer, some degraded habitats. <p></p>
106002493		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common on Principe and frequent to uncommon on Sao Tome (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002493		threats	eng	Hunting represents   the primary threat to the species, which is considered a favourite quarry and   is often sold in bars and at parties (M. B. Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011, R. F. de Lima <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Live adults   and juveniles are also taken into captivity during the breeding season for   home breeding and sale (M. B. Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).   Many young children hunt the species, and hunting pressure may be increasing   (M. B. Carvalho <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). The species's tolerance of   degraded habitats makes it less vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation,   but may make it more vulnerable to hunting as hunters can find the species   without having to go into the forest interior (R. F. de Lima <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106002494		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002495		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nesoenas picturata</span> has a native range encompassing <span style="font-weight: bold;">Madagascar</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Seychelles </span>and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Comoros</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">aldabrana</span>, endemic to the Amirante Islands, Seychelles, is now extinct due to hybridisation with the introduced nominate subspecies (Skerrett and Disley 2011).
106002495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally quite common. Races rostrata and aldabrana are virtually extinct owing to genetic swamping by introduced Columba picturata (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002496		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be secretive and therefore perhaps under-recorded (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002497		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A captive-breeding and reintroduction programme, combined with establishment of Conservation Management Areas, habitat restoration, control of exotic predators, supplementary feeding, nest guarding, clutch and brood (fostering) manipulations, rescue of eggs and young from failing nests, control of disease and monitoring of survival and productivity, has helped this species survive (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The Black River National Park covers much of its range (Swinnerton 2001)<strong></strong>. The population is managed to maximise genetic diversity and counter the effects of inbreeding depression, with birds moved beetween subpopulations (Swinnerton <em>et al. </em>2004, Raffa 2011)<strong></strong>. There are plans to release three additional populations (<strong></strong>K. Edmunds <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue research into population genetics and disease (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue rehabilitation of mainland native vegetation (Safford and Jones 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue intensive mangement of wild-living populations. Extend Conservation Management Areas and surrounding predator-proof fences (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider introduction to other Mauritian islets (and Réunion) if ecosystem rehabilitation and predator elimination are successful (Safford and Jones 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002497		distribution	eng	<em>Nesoenas mayeri</em> survives in the Black River Gorges of south-west <strong>Mauritius</strong> and on Ile aux Aigrettes, just off the eastern coast. Although once common, it declined to just 10 wild individuals in 1990, and were it not for intervention, it would have rapidly gone extinct. Since then, intensive management has resulted in a spectacular increase, although the population is still dependant on ongoing intensive management. Since 2000 the population has been over 300 individuals in five subpopulations; numbers have fluctuated but in April 2007 there were 380 birds (C. Jones <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, in April 2010 the population was estimated at 376-493 birds (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010) and in August 2011 the population was estimated at 446 birds in six subpopulations (five in the National Park and one on Ile aux Aigrettes). In 2007, of the five established subpopulations, two were in decline (Plaine Lievre c. 110 birds and Bel Ombre c. 48 birds), two were increasing (Pigeon Wood c. 65 birds and Combo c. 65 birds) and the subpopulation on Ile aux Aigrettes was believed to have reached carrying capacity and to be stable at 85 birds (<strong></strong>K. Edmunds <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is now thought that the Ile aux Aigrettes birds and probably other subpopulations are undergoing natural fluctuations (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). There is some limited movement between the mainland populations (Jones and Swinnerton 1997), and in 2010 five birds out of 27 which had been translocated from the mainland to Ile aux Aigrettes flew back to the mainland (Raffa 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002497		habitat	eng	It inhabits native forest and has a diverse diet, including both native and exotic plants (Jones 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the early 1990s, the entire wild population nested in a single grove of introduced Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em>. However, ongoing studies suggest that rat predation in <em>Cryptomeria</em> is higher than in native vegetation, thus the value of <em>Cryptomeria</em> is unclear (Carter 1998, Swinnerton 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When there is available restored native vegetation for nesting, birds use this in preference to exotic species.  <p></p>
106002497		population	eng	C. Jones <I>in litt. </I>(2005) estimated the population to number 360-395 individuals in total, roughly equating to 240-260 mature individuals.
106002497		threats	eng	Severe loss of habitat has been compounded by continued predation of nests and adults by introduced crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>, rats and feral cats (Reese Lind 1994, Swinnerton 2001)<strong></strong>. Invasive plant species reduce the quality of breeding and foraging habitat. Cyclones destroy nests and accelerate habitat degradation (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Natural food shortages mean that birds must be provided with supplementary food. The disease Trichomonosis was brought to Mauritius by alien pigeons (which now act as a reservoir for the disease) a<strong></strong>nd 359 (84.3%) of 429 individual birds screened between 2002-2004 tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trichomonas gallinae</span> at least once, however pathogenicity was found to be low, with active sigens of the disease recorded in only 1.9% of birds which tested positive (Bunbury <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Nevertheless, the disease causes significant levels of mortality, especially in juveniles, and it is likely to be limiting population growth (<strong></strong>Swinnerton <em>et al. </em>2005, Bunbury <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Inbreeding depression is an ongoing concern (Swinnerton <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002498		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,500,000-7,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 10,500,000-21,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 20,000,000-100,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002499		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002500		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout the Ethiopian highlands and east Africa and uncommon in Malawi (del Hoyo et al.1997).
106002501		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Gibbs <I>et al</I>. 2001). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002502		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 61,000-210,000 breeding pairs, equating to 183,000-630,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms   &lt;5% of the global range.
106002503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common throughout almost all of its range (Gibbs <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002506		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout much of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002509		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004) have estimated the global population to number c.8,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number c.4,700,000-11,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to c.14,100,000-33,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is c.20,000,000-50,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Korea and   c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002511		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation action for the species is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Study the species's ability to survive in modified habitats. Monitor rates of riparian woodland clearance and degradation within its range. Protect areas of the species's habitat.  <p></p>
106002511		distribution	eng	<em>Streptopelia reichenowi</em> is restricted to the vicinity of the Jubba and Shabeelle rivers, which flow from <strong>Ethiopia</strong> into <strong>Somalia</strong>, as well as the Daua river (a tributary of the Jubba) along the border between north-east <strong>Kenya</strong> and Ethiopia. It appears to be common to abundant within this highly restricted range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002511		habitat	eng	In Somalia, the species is found in riparian woodland, usually near water, and has also been seen in towns (Madgwick 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Ethiopia, it has colonised windbreaks planted next to irrigation channels (Brown 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is also found in drier vegetation a few kilometres from rivers (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it replaces other <em>Streptopelia</em> species (Brown 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>S. reichenowi</em> forages mainly on the ground, with berries being an important food item. Breeding is known to occur in January and February in Ethiopia (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a loose platform of interlaced petioles and twigs, 15 cm in width and situated 2.5 m high in a <em>Parkinsonia</em> tree. The clutch-size is two (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002511		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002511		threats	eng	Riverine woodland in Ethiopia is being destroyed owing to conversion to agriculture and fuelwood collection (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it is considered highly threatened in Somalia for the same reasons (Ash and Miskell 1998; Madgwick 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These widespread threats to the species's natural habitat cause some concern for its future, but its ability to colonise secondary habitats (near water) may be sufficient to ensure its survival. The effects on the species and its habitats of armed conflict and civil unrest in the region are unknown (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002512		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in the Mariana islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002513		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to frequent, although scarce in the Himalayas (Gibbs <I>et al</I>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106002514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor to determine population trends.  Investigate its tolerance of degraded forest and the extent of hunting by local residents. Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of intact forest on a number of islands across its range.  <em> </em><p></p>
106002514		distribution	eng	<em>Macropygia rufipennis </em>is endemic to the Andaman and Nicobar (Nancowry subgroup and Great Nicobar) archipelagos, <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally frequent on the former and scarce on the latter.  <p></p>
106002514		habitat	eng	It frequents dense broadleaved primary and secondary evergreen forest, tolerating some degree of habitat degradation, and occurring in adjacent secondary growth, gardens and clearings (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001. The species is frugivorous and takes a variety of fruits and berries, including those of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span> species, and in some areas is said to feed almost exclusively on bird's-eye chillies (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).&#160;  <p></p>
106002514		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon, although very poorly known (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).
106002514		threats	eng	While forest remains fairly extensive on the Andamans and Nicobars, the human population on larger islands is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. Hunting is also apparently common on the islands, possibly affecting this species, and planned development projects on the Nicobars could seriously affect its habitat.  <p></p>
106002515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1997), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106002516		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually scarce, although common locally on Borneo and on islands off the west and south coasts of Sumatra (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce on Timor, frequent on Tanimbar island and common on Kalaotoa island (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002520		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in the northern part of its range and common in the south (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002521		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant throughout most of its range, although rare on Karkar island (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on most islands, although rare and local on New Britain and Aneityum, Vanuatu (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually rather scarce, although locally common at higher elevations (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002524		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Research the extent and effects of hunting. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the islands. <p></p>
106002524		distribution	eng	<em>Reinwardtoena browni </em> is endemic to the islands of New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Umboi, Lolobau, Duke of York, Lihir, Tabar and Watom in the Bismarck Archipelago and Manus, Rambutyo and Nauna in the Admiralty Islands  <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where although it is considered rather scarce. Although it is rather poorly known, it appears to be widely distributed in suitable habitat. It is suspected to have declined rapidly in recent years owing to ongoing clearance of lowland forest (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002524		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and hill forest up to 1,000 m but is perhaps commoner in hills. Its tolerance of habitat degradation is poorly known. <p></p>
106002524		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002524		threats	eng	On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. On that island nearly 20% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 10 years and this trend is ongoing (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  This situation is likely to be similar on other islands in the region. It may also be subject to hunting pressure.  <p></p>
106002525		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Protect lowland and hill forest throughout its range. Discourage hunting through awareness programmes in villages.   <p></p>
106002525		distribution	eng	<em>Reinwardtoena crassirostris</em> is a large pigeon endemic to Bougainville (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It occurs at relatively low densities and therefore the total population is believed to be small. It may be declining rapidly in the lowlands, although the hill populations are probably declining very slowly. <em> <p></p></em>
106002525		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forest in the hills to a maximum of 1,500 m, more usually to 1,000 m (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Schodde 1977, Coates 1985, Webb 1992, D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002525		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002525		threats	eng	The lowland forests across the region are being extensively logged, causing a significant decline in this species; hunting is a minor additional threat. It is most common in steep hills unsuitable for logging and usually feeds on <em>Schefflera</em> fruits which commonly grow in secondary growth (R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002526		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002527		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several protected areas have been proposed in West Timor, and one on Wetar. The most important for the species are likely to be Gunung Mutis/Timau, Bipolo and Camplong, on West Timor, and Gunung Arnau on Wetar. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its current distribution, status, ecological requirements and threats. Propose key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. Support initiatives to establish a protected area encompassing Gunung Mutis and Gunung Timau, West Timor. Initiate conservation awareness programmes to reduce forest loss and hunting. <p></p>
106002527		distribution	eng	<em>Turacoena modesta</em> is restricted to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, West Timor and Wetar, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon or rare. Historical records indicate that it was once fairly common, at least locally on Wetar and in West Timor, even near settlements. A paucity of recent records, despite extensive searching, suggests that a marked decline has occurred in West Timor. However, recent survey work in Timor-Leste revealed it to be frequent in a wide range of habitats, and surveys of Wetar in 2008 showed it to be "widespread and fairly common" at all tropical forest sites (Trainor <em>et al. </em>2004, 2009)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002527		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and tall secondary monsoon-forest, often where this habitat is drier or more open, and also vine thickets, thickly vegetated gullies and eucalyptus woodland with dense understorey, from sea-level to 1,770 m (Mauro 2003, C. Trainor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. As it has been found in "more or less open areas near villages", it probably has a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation, and in Timor-Leste appears to be more common in patchy landscapes: forest edge, secondary forest, woodland with scattered figs, <em>Eucalyptus </em>savanna or non-<em>Eucalyptus </em>woodlands with tropical forest trees in gullies or on scattered rock outcrops (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Singles or pairs forage in the lower-middle storey, with groups congregating at fruiting trees (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>, and it probably moves seasonally in response to fruiting patterns.   <p></p>
106002527		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002527		threats	eng	Loss of monsoon-forest has been severe in its range, with an estimated 50% decline in Timor-Leste's remaining montane forest cover during Indonesian rule (1975-1999). Monsoon forests now cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in about seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size owing to excessive grazing and burning. On Wetar, while much forest is inaccessible, that near the coast is under continuing pressure from agriculture and logging. Mining and road building are also potential threats on the island, although their impacts have been limited to date (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). However, habitat loss may not be a severe threat as the species is highly mobile and presumably able to access necessary fruit resources over a large area (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Pigeons are hunted intensively on Timor, and the species allows close approach and concentrates at fruiting trees, rendering it susceptible to hunters; local villagers have stated that 20-30 birds/day could be shot by focusing on fruiting trees (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002528		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or abundant throughout much of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002529		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002530		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002531		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002532		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002533		threats	eng	Since 1984, 158,149 wild individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106002534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common, although scarce on Java and Bali and uncommon on the Ryukyu islands (Gibbs <I>et al</I>. 2001), while other national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002535		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce, although possibly locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002537		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A population occurs in the Poikili Wildlife Protection Area.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Determine best survey techniques. Identify call through investigation of all unknown pigeon calls. Survey status in logged forest. Ascertain altitudinal range. Investigate impact of hunting through discussion with local hunters. Interview hunters about population trends. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across New Britain. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging. Discuss enforcement of regulations in Poikili Wildlife Management Area with local landowners.<p></p>
106002537		distribution	eng	<em>Henicophaps foersteri</em> is endemic to New Britain and Umboi in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is clearly a rare species but is also likely to have been overlooked. Several were seen on Umboi in 1976 (Diamond 1976)<strong></strong> and there are a series of recent records from Pokili Wildlife Management Area (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1987, 1994)<strong></strong>, but only three recent records elsewhere (D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1996, P. Gregory<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and G. Dutson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Its population has been estimated as fewer than 5,000 individuals (Toone <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002537		habitat	eng	This is a lowland forest species, known only from primary and mature secondary forest in lowlands and hills to at least 700 m (Dutson 2011). It feeds on the ground but flushes up to perch in trees and it may also feed on arboreal fruits (D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Largeky terrestrial but may possibly feed in low bushes like New Guinea Bronzewing <span style="font-style: italic;">H. albifrons</span>. <p></p>
106002537		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002537		threats	eng	As a lowland species which is apparently restricted to mature forest, it is threatened by logging. Nearly all accessible lowland forest within its range has been logged or is under logging concession, and large areas are clear-felled for oil-palm plantations; c. 20% habitat suitable for this species has been cleared since 1993 (<strong></strong>Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As a terrestrial species, it may suffer predation from introduced cats and dogs. <p></p>
106002538		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002539		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002540		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is recorded periodically within a broad sweep from Western Australia, north of 24ºS, through the Northern Territory and north-east South Australia, to eastern Queensland and western New South Wales as far south as Booligal. Its range has apparently recently contracted from eastern Australia, although there have been periodic irruptions into western New South Wales, northern South Australia and eastern Queensland.
106002540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common, with numbers estimated at between thousands and millions (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002540		threats	eng	Recent range contractions have coincides with the expansion of pastoralism and agriculture, and it is possible that pastoral management, conversion of land to agriculture, and overgrazing by stock and rabbits has rendered much habitat unsuitable. The area of decline also corresponds to the distribution of foxes, and it may be that irruptive flocks cannot persist in areas where foxes are present (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106002541		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common in suitable habitat (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002543		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation measures are known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate effects of the spread of exotic pasture grasses and grazing on behaviour and abundance (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Determine breeding success and the factors that affect it (particularly the significance of feral cat predation) (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Develop robust monitoring techniques, and monitor abundance in landscapes under different management regimes, or in selected accessible parts of range. Continue to undertake annual fire planning and management, managing</span> land with a fine-scale mosaic of burning across the range. Control populations of introduced herbivores and cats as appropriate.  <p></p>
106002543		distribution	eng	<em>Geophaps smithii</em> is endemic to Western Australia and Northern Territory, <strong>Australia</strong>. The nominate subspecies has declined or disappeared from the west, east and south parts of its distribution, over the last 100 years. It is now only found in about half of its former range, in sub-coastal north Northern Territory. <span style="font-style: italic;">G. s. smithi </span>was estimated to number c120,000 mature individuals in 2010 (115,000 in the mainland subpopulation and 5,000 on the Tiwi Islands) (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Subspecies <em>blaauwi</em> is recorded from remote areas of the west and north-west Kimberley region, northern Western Australia. However, there are few recent records, including from Kalumburu where it was common in the 1970s. <span style="font-style: italic;">G. s. blaauwi</span> was  estimated to number 6,000 mature individuals in 2010 (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). Both subspecies are thought to be declining, with rapid declines in relative abundance at several monitored sites (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<p></p>
106002543		habitat	eng	<p>The western subspecies <em>blaauwi </em>occurs primarily in open woodland, particularly between the rugged King Leopold Sandstones and alluvial flats. The eastern subspecies <em>smithii</em> primarily inhabits open forest and woodland dominated by <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta </em><em>and E. miniata</em> that has a structurally diverse understorey, usually in areas with a fire regime that promotes a mosaic of fire ages, including wet season burns, which promote grass diversity and year-round seed availa­bility (Fraser <em>et al. </em>2003). The ground cover is mostly tall grasses, though the pigeons are usually seen feeding in recently burnt areas, by roads and in short grass (Johnstone 1981, in Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). It appears to rely on per­ennial grass species which set seed relatively early (Fraser 2001). Breeding takes place in the dry season, between March and October, and it usually lays 2 eggs in nests made on the ground, most often at the base of a clump of grass. It feeds on seeds taken from bare ground. It may benefit from the recent spread of introduced feral cane toads <em>Bufo marinus</em> throughout large parts of its range, as the toads are likely to cause severe reductions in goanna monitor lizards <em>Varanus</em> spp. and snakes, which are likely to be major predators of the species and its eggs and young (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007).</span></p><p></p>
106002543		population	eng	<p>The population of <em>G. s. smithi </em>was estimated at c120,000 mature individuals in 2010, based on an AOO of 6,000 km<sup>2 </sup>and a density of 0.2 birds/ha, while <em>G. s. blaauwi </em>was estimated at 6,000 mature individuals in 2010 based on 0.1 birds/ha in occupied habitat (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011), giving a total population estimate of 126,000 mature individuals (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106002543		threats	eng	Both subspecies are threatened by a change in fire regime to one where fires extend over large areas and the mosaic of fire ages is erased (Fraser 2001; Fraser <em>et al. </em>2003; Woinarski <em>et al. </em>2007). Although early fires burn some nests; extensive, late dry season fires, promote uniform vegetation of tall annual sorghum. Most areas in which the species persists are still under Aboriginal management or have a fire regime that promotes a mosaic of vegetation ages. Climate change may cause even more unfavourable fire regimes (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Two further threats are associated with fire. Predation by feral cats <em>Felis catus </em>may increase when extensive fires reduce cover (Woin­arski 2004) and, in the Northern Territory, exotic pasture grasses, particularly Gamba Grass <em>Andropogon gayanus</em>, are invading habitat and change the vegetation structures because the fires they generate are so intense (Rossiter <em>et al. </em>2003</span>, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011</span>). Grazing by cattle and other livestock may cause habitat degradation in some areas, and there has been some habitat clearance on the Tiwi Islands and in the Darwin-Daly area (Woinarski 2004, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).</span>  <p></p>
106002544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002545		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002546		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002547		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common over most of its range, although scarce in Bali and Java and uncommon in the Philippines and Borneo (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002550		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be adaptable and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002551		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in the south of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002552		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in suitable habitat (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002553		distribution	eng	<em>Ectopistes migratorius </em>was found forest in eastern and central <strong>Canada</strong> and the <strong>USA</strong>, occasionally wandering south to <strong>Mexico</strong> and <strong>Cuba</strong>. Over the 19th century, the species crashed from being one of the most abundant birds in the world to extinction<strong> </strong>(Schorger 1955). The last wild bird was shot in 1900, and surveys in 1910-1911 failed to record any (Blockstein and Tordoff 1985). The last captive bird died in 1914 in the Cincinnati Zoo<strong> </strong>(Wilcove 1989). <p></p>
106002553		habitat	eng	It was a nomadic species, breeding and foraging in vast flocks millions of birds strong. It exploited seasonally available crops of beechmast, acorns and chestnuts; scouting for food sources and infomation sharing was likely to have required flocks of a certain critical size, below which survival would be compromised. Birds nested in April or May in vast colonies typically 16 by 5 km in size.  <p></p>
106002553		threats	eng	The precise cause of its extinction is difficult to determine, but the widespread clearance of the hardwood trees which provided its mast food, and the proliferation of the rail network and telegraph system which enabled efficient location of nesting colonies and the transport of young birds to market are probably the two single most important factors. Other important factors were excessive shooting, Newcastle disease, and towards the last of their years, the breakdown of social facilitation<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Halliday 1980, Blockstein and Tordoff 1985, Bucher 1992)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002555		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994 (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria recognised a breeding programme for the species, as initiated by Cologne and Frankfurt zoos (Germany) and the private interest group Wild Pigeons and Doves, as an official European Endangered species programme (EEP), in 1995 (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Modern studbook software has been employed to assist with the genetic and demographic management of the captive population. Individuals have been distributed to zoos and bird parks in Belgium, the Netherlands, U.K., Poland, Austria, Luxembourg, France, Spain, the Czech Republic and Germany, at least (S. G. Stadler<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. Of 672 individuals listed in the studbook by December 2010, 102 were known to be alive (S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Since 2006, following an extensive survey of the origin of the founding individuals of the EEP population, major software-based population genetic analyses have been conducted and recommendations for new pairs have been given by the EEP coordinator (S. G. Stadler<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. A special breeding unit for the species has been opened at Marlow Bird Park, Germany (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. A proposalhas been developed to reintroduce the species (Baptista and Martínez-Gómez 1996, Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003, S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>, along with a restoration programme for Socorro (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003, Horblit <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. DNA fingerprinting has revealed extensive hybridisation with <em>Z. macroura</em> in the U.S.A., however it also showed a high degree of relatedness between the European population and pure individuals kept in California (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. As a result, the European population will be used for reintroduction efforts. The construction of breeding aviaries on Socorro began in August 2003 (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong> and was completed by 2005 (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005a)<strong></strong>. Resident populations of <em>Z. macroura</em> and Common Ground-dove <em>Columbina passerina</em> (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005a)<strong></strong> were screened in December 2003 and January 2004 to assess the presence of pathogens that might affect the reintroduction programme (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003, Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005a, 2005b)<strong></strong>. Avian malaria and trichomoniasis were detected in both species, and as a result recommendations were put forward (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005a, 2005b)<strong></strong>. In 2005, plans were outlined to control the locust outbreaks, restore native vegetation and assess the problem of erosion (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. The arrival on Socorro of the first birds from the EEP was planned for June 2005 (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005b)<strong></strong>, with the establishment of a breeding flock by June 2006 (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005a, S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. However, there have been problems with import restrictions and permits (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In the face of these restrictions a small insurance population was established in the U.S.A. in 2008 (H. Horblit <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, forming the basis for the return of the species to Mexico in 2012 when several pairs will be established at the conservation breeding grounds at Africam Safari Zoo, Puebla (S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Some control of feral cats has been undertaken on Socorro (<strong></strong>B. Tershy <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, and there were plans to eradicate cats in 2009 at the earliest (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Reports that rats have recently colonised Socorro have proved to be unfounded (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. The sheep population has been reduced to c.300 by the Mexican navy (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Sheep eradication is planned for 2008-2009 (B. Tershy<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Import birds from the EEP and establish a breeding flock on Socorro (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2005a, 2005b, J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007, S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Complete the eradication of cats and sheep on Socorro (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. Continue to restore native vegetation on Socorro (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Reintroduce the species following satisfactory progress in mammal eradication (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2007)<strong></strong> and habitat restoration programmes (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003, Horblit <em>et al.</em> 2006, J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Put measures in place to control, but not eliminate, the locust swarm (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt. </em>2005, Song <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002555		distribution	eng	<em>Zenaida graysoni</em> has been extirpated from Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It was formerly common and observations in 1957 and 1958 gave no indication that it was declining. The last sighting in the wild was in 1972 (Baptista and Martínez-Gómez 1996)<strong></strong>, and all suitable habitat on the island has been surveyed subsequently without recording the dove (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Several individuals were taken during an expedition to the islands in 1925 and subsequently bred in the U.S.A., with some sent to Europe (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Fortunately, aviculture has prevented the extinction of the species, with captive populations&#160; held in the U.S.A. and 12 European countries (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The European breeding programme for this endangered species has monitored the captive population for more than 30 years (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The captive population was thought to total several hundred birds, but hybridisation with Mourning Doves <em>Z. macroura </em>became a major problem in the U.S.A. in the 1990s (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, and it now appears that many of these U.S. birds are hybrids (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  As a consequence of the occurrence of avian influenza in Europe in 2006, the Socorro Dove Project sent a total of 12 birds to Albuquerque Biological Park to form a second, independent reserve population nearer to the species's native country (S. G. Stadler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106002555		habitat	eng	It was apparently commonest in forested areas above 500 m, dominated by <em>Bumelia</em>, <em>Prunus serotina</em>, <em>Guettarda</em>, <em>Ilex</em>, <em>Psidium</em> and <em>Ficus</em>. It was a highly terrestrial frugivore, and probably depended on an intact understorey of ferns and euphorbias. <p></p>
106002555		threats	eng	The decline and extinction in the wild of <em>Z. graysoni</em> has been attributed chiefly to predation by cats. However, it was thought that cats became feral on Socorro in the 1950s, but this date has now been revised to the early 1970s (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This suggests that other factors, such as human predation (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong> and high levels of understorey grazing by sheep, may have been significant. Outbreaks of a permanent locust <em>Schistocerca piceifrons </em>swarm have occurred twice a year since 1994, resulting in damage to the leaves, flowers and fruit of indigenous forests, with at least 30 ha lost to defoliation so far, thus reducing the extent of prime habitat for the species (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Locust outbreaks may be favoured by the habitat degradation caused by introduced species (Song <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002556		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002557		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002559		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to the Galápagos islands, Ecuador, where two subspecies are recognised. The race exsul is known from Culpepper and Wenman, while the nominate galapagoensis occurs on all the other major islands. It is rare on some islands but common on others, appearing to be fairly secure away from settled areas and on islands free of predators.
106002559		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry rocky lowlands with scattered trees, bushes and Opuntia cacti. It feeds mainly on seeds, but during the wet season it also feeds on caterpillars and cacti blossoms. Active nests usually containing two eggs have been found during most months, and the breeding season may vary between islands; the nest may be on the ground, in rock cavities, or in old Galápagos Mockingbird Nesomimus parvulus nests.
106002559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002559		threats	eng	Predation of adults, eggs and young by feral cats and other introduced predators is probably the main threat to this species today. In the past, its confiding nature made it an easy target for hunters with records of 60-70 being killed in a single morning; however the species is now much less tame, and hunting pressure has decreased considerably (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002561		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002563		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002564		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002567		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002568		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Serra das Araras Ecological Station. National parks encompass relatively large areas of potentially suitable <em>cerrado</em> grassland habitat. Searches is in Serra das Araras, Mato Grosso, have been taking place during 2010, have so far failed to encounter the species.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the Serra das Araras to determine the size of the population and propose measures for its protection. Survey near Cuiabá and at Campo Grande to determine its status and protect these areas if appropriate. Survey any area with apparently suitable habitat, especially Emas National Park and Iquê-Juruena Ecological Station, Chapada dos Veadeiros and the still extensive open cerrados along the Tocantins/Goiás border, taking care to avoid overlooking the species by confusing it with other sympatric species<strong></strong> (Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2006). Study its ecology to assess reasons for its historical rarity. <p></p>
106002568		distribution	eng	<em>Columbina cyanopis</em> is known from very few records over a wide range in the interior of <strong>Brazil</strong>. There is a small population in the Serra das Araras, Mato Grosso<strong> </strong>(da Silva and Oniki 1988, B. A. Carlos <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but the only other recent records are from near Cuiabá (also in Mato Grosso) in the 1980s, and one individual at Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, in 1992<strong></strong> (Parker and Willis 1997). Historical records are also scarce, with five specimens collected in Mato Grosso in 1823-1825, two from Goiás in 1940-1941, and one from São Paulo in 1904. It has been erroneously listed for Minas Gerais, but could conceivably occur in the extreme west of the state. <p></p>
106002568		habitat	eng	It occurs in campo cerrado grasslands<strong></strong> (Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>, and was once observed in a rice-field after harvest. It is terrestrial and occurs singly or in pairs. <p></p>
106002568		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106002568		threats	eng	The reasons for this species's historical rarity are unknown because, until recently, large areas of potentially suitable habitat remained. It is now severely threatened by the massive destruction of the Brazilian cerrado. The combined effects of grazing, invasive grasses, annual burning and conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops, encouraged by government land reform<strong></strong>  (Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>, had heavily or moderately altered two-thirds of the cerrado region by 1993<strong></strong> (Conservation International 1999). Most of this destruction has occurred since 1950<strong></strong> (Cavalcanti 1999). <p></p>
106002569		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002570		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002571		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law, and has been recorded in a number of protected areas in Brazil, including the Floresta Estadual do Palmito (Paraná), the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (Espirito Santo), and several sites in the Serra do Mar. It is also reported from Iguazú National Park, Argentina. However, numbers observed are small and no population is known to be adequately protected. The small captive population held by a few Brazilian aviculturists has apparently died out. Surveys were planned to take place in March-June 2009 in northern Misiones, Argentina to coincide with a flowering event of takuarusu bamboo, aiming to find and document presence of the species at flowering bamboo, obtain a tape recording and study its biology<strong> </strong>(Bodrati 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently survey to locate additional populations, using tape-playback if possible, and focusing search on bamboo flowering events. Record and document its vocalisations. Develop a CMS agreement for this and other bamboo specialists. Study basic aspects of its biology (feeding, habitat use, breeding) to determine measures needed to conserve the species. Consider protecting the appropriate species of bamboo through existing legislation (such as Provincial Natural Monuments in Misiones) on all public and private land<strong> </strong>(Bodrati 2009).  <p></p>
106002571		distribution	eng	<em>Claravis geoffroyi </em>was fairly common at the beginning of the 20th century, judging by the wide scatter of specimen records and reports of flocks of up to 100 birds. At that time it occurred from Bahia (<strong>Brazil</strong>), south through eastern Brazil to northern <strong>Argentina</strong> and eastern <strong>Paraguay</strong>, from sea-level to 2,300 m. In the last twenty years there have been several reports of 1-3 individuals, including one from eastern Paraguay in 1994<strong> </strong>(Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996) and a few from Brazilian sites such as Itatiaia (2004, possible in 2006); Ubatuba (1997 and 2004) and Intervales (2003 and 2007); and Urubici (1997), these being in the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina respectively<strong> </strong>(Naka<em> et al</em>. 2000, Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2005, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 2006,<strong> </strong>J. Pedro <em>in litt. </em>2009,<strong> </strong>A. Whittaker <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. In Argentina there are records from Iguazú, Misiones Province, in 1990 (Chebez 2008) and 1991 (F. Lambert<em> per</em> J. Tobias <em>in litt.</em> 2006), and more recently a female was seen twice there in November 2007 (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Bodrati 2009). These reports are almost certainly reliable, but none are documented. There are also recent Brazilian records from coastal Paraná and Espirito Santo, the latter involving 3-5 birds (Carrano <em>et al. </em>2004, Simon 2004). The paucity of recent records, and the fact that none describe groups of more than five birds, suggest that extremely severe declines have occurred. Its range is now highly fragmented; this coupled with its specialised habitat requirements appear to render the species highly vulnerable to extinction. Extensive targeted searches during <span style="font-style: italic;">Guadua chacoensis</span> masting in Argentina turned up only the two 2007 records mentioned above (A. Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106002571		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid Atlantic forest, apparently with a preference for edge habitats in rather hilly, broken terrain. Records range from near sea-level to 2,300 m. All known records of the species in Argentina coincide with flowering events of only two species of bamboos: takuarusu <em>Guadua chacoensis</em> and yatevo <em>G.trinii</em><strong> </strong>(Areta <em>et al.</em>  2009). Since it depends on bamboo seeds, and most species of bamboos  produce seeds synchronously over large areas and only after many years  of vegetative growth, the species must travel widely between patches of  seeding bamboo<strong> </strong>(Bodrati 2009). Its Andean relative Maroon-chested Ground-dove <em>C. mondetoura</em> is rarely found away from patches of flowering or seeding bamboo where it gathers to forage and breed, sometimes semi-colonially<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2006). Assuming their ecological requirements are similar <em>C. godefrida </em>probably undertakes irregular nomadic movements following bamboo flowerings, but it has been recorded eating other seeds (including those of sedges and grasses) and fruit. Breeding apparently occurs in the austral summer, with birds calling from November to February<strong> </strong>(Naka<em> et al</em>. 2000). Historically it was reported in flocks of up to 100, but no recent records have involved more than five individuals.&#160;<p></p>
106002571		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals, equating to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals. Dedicated surveys and quantified population estimates would be desirable to confirm this.
106002571		threats	eng	The clearance and fragmentation of Atlantic forest for colonisation and the expansion of plantation agriculture<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995) have increased the physical and temporal distances between bamboo flowerings. Given its apparently highly specialised requirements, it is not inconceivable that this fragmentation is already too extensive to ensure the long-term survival of the species. It is uncommon in trade, but the taking of additional birds from the wild must have a considerable impact on such a small population. <p></p>
106002572		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002574		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002579		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002580		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Coiba is a national park protecting nearly 30% of this species's range. On the mainland, it occurs within Cerro Hoya National Park and El Montuso Forest Reserve (Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess numbers within protected areas and identify additional sites requiring protection. Study the species's ecological requirements (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the extent of habitat loss within protected areas and the region as a whole. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce hunting pressure. <p></p>
106002580		distribution	eng	<em>Leptotila battyi</em> is restricted to the Pacific coast of west <strong>Panama</strong>, on the Azuero Peninsula and the islands of Cébaco and Coiba. In the 1960s, it was common on Coiba Island and subsequent threats have been minimal (Wetmore 1968, Angehr 1993, Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is uncommon and likely to be declining throughout the remainder of its range (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002580		habitat	eng	It inhabits high forest and wooded swamps, and is apparently restricted to hilly areas on the mainland, but not on Coiba (Wetmore 1968, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This difference is possibly explained by habitat destruction in the Azuero Peninsula lowlands extirpating the species in these areas, or the lack of competitors on Coiba, allowing an expansion of its ecological niche (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Angehr 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002580		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002580		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and fragmentation, and hunting for food threaten this species (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the mainland the main causes of deforestation are clearance for subsistence cultivation and for cattle pastures (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since the closure of the Coiba penal colony, areas on the island formerly maintained for cattle and agriculture have been reverting to forest, increasing the area of suitable habitat there (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Away from Coiba, most lowland areas in its range have already been deforested (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002581		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan was drafted in 1998 (Rusk <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> and a four-year GEF/WB funded Dry Forest Biodiversity Conservation Project based on stakeholder input was implemented from 2001-2006. In 2008, an updated 10 year conservation and recovery plan was drafted (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>In 2011, critical dove habitat on crown lands at the Beauséjour Estate (c.100 acres) received Government of Grenada cabinet approval for its protection and addition to the Perseverance Protected Area (B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). This species is legally protected from hunting and egg-collecting, but these threats are insignificant. Grenada Dove is the national bird of Grenada, has been a focus of environmental education in schools and ecotourism, and features on stamps. In 1996, parts of the Mt Hartman and Perseverance estates were declared a national park and a protected area, respectively (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The Four Seasons resort development on the Mt Hartman Estate has been extensively modified to minimise impacts on the dove, and the national park has been redesigned and will now comprise one contiguous area of habitat, including 50 of 58 doves known from the Mt Hartman Estate within the new boundaries. The redesigned park will also include significant opportunities for habitat creation (D. Wege <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. A predator control programme has been agreed to ensure that land disturbance from construction does not also encourage the migration of predators such as mongoose to the sanctuary. Developers of the Four Seasons resort will fund the construction of traps and hire local residents to set and monitor the traps, and the predator control programme will be monitored by the government of Grenada (J. Ellard <em>in litt. </em>2008, B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. The developers agreed to permanent (dove-sensitive) fencing around the perimeter of the national park (D. Wege <em>in litt. </em>2008, B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Clearance for the golf course was to begin in 2009, but no construction has taken place except for a road built across the valley, which was supervised by a dove biologist and did not impact dove territory (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012)<strong></strong>. The timing and sequence of hole clearing will be designed to minimise disturbance near dove habitat during the breeding season and allow for the movement of doves into protected habitat before territorial behaviour begins<strong></strong>. Recent clearing on the development lands for farming and veterinary activities can limit this movement, and is being addressed. Dove habitats on private lands at Beauséjour, Grenville Vale and Woodford, all IBAs, are recommended for protection in the 2010 Conservation and Management Plan for Perseverance Protected Area. &#160;All dove habitat are IBAs and are included in Grenada's System Plan for Parks and Protected Areas. Currently, all remaining dove habitat is on unprotected, privately owned land. A legislative review to address private lands slated for protection has taken place (B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).    <strong> </strong> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eliminate/minimise further habitat loss. Formally protect important habitat that falls within private lands (Rusk 2011). Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends and determine the sex ratio (and therefore the actual population) of remaining birds. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Finalise and implement the revised recovery plan. Ensure that the Mt Hartman and Perseverance reserves are effectively protected. Develop incentives/regulations for protection of dove habitat on private residential lots in the south-west (adjacent to Mt Hartman), and Beauséjour and Woodford on the west coast (B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Restore habitat at existing and new sites. Establish two new subpopulations (Rusk <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002581		distribution	eng	<em>Leptotila wellsi</em> is endemic to <strong>Grenada</strong> in the Lesser Antilles. Historically, it was more widespread in coastal and possibly offshore islands (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but may always have been rare (Devas 1943)<strong></strong>. The population declined by c.50% in 1987-1990 (Blockstein 1991)<strong></strong>, and by 1998 numbered only c.100 individuals, with strongholds on the Mt Hartman estate, and on the Perseverance and adjacent Woodford estates in the west (Rusk 1998)<strong></strong>. The population increased to an estimated 182 individuals by 2003-2004, but in 2004 hurricane Ivan had a devastating impact upon the island and the dove's population. This resulted in declines, particularly severe along the west coast, where the population declined from 36 calling males to 3-12 calling males, but also within the Mt Hartman area, from 55 males to 30-48 males (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, 2006, 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Three years following hurricane Ivan the population was estimated at 68 calling males with 136 individuals in total (Rusk 2007, B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>, however this assumes an even sex ratio, and there is a tendency for such relict populations to be male-dominated. The total population may therefore be as small as 100 mature individuals or c.30 reproductive pairs (N. J. Collar <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Of all remaining known territories, 28 are within protected areas, 11 on unprotected crown land and 29 on private land. Forty-three per cent of remaining birds are thought to occur in the Mt Hartman Estate (B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106002581		habitat	eng	It inhabits a successional stage of dry, coastal scrub-woodland in the south-west, which comprises a closed canopy of leguminous (often thorny) trees and shrubs c.3-6 m high, a sparse understorey of shrubs and saplings, sparse to absent ground-cover and much exposed soil (Blockstein 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the west coast, its habitat includes some mixed deciduous/evergreen vegetation. It may have been always confined to xeric, coastal areas where climax vegetation was deciduous, seasonal forest and thorn woodland, but frequent natural disturbances (particularly hurricanes) kept the vegetation in a sub-climax condition. This temporary occupation of ephemeral patches and recolonisation of developing patches may be the normal life history pattern. Breeding is limited to the rainy season in the south-west, but is more extended on the less xeric west coast (Rusk 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002581		population	eng	The global population is estimated at c.130 individuals, roughly equivalent to 87 mature individuals.
106002581		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to clearing for<strong> </strong>small plantations and charcoal production has been replaced in recent years with chronic and continuing habitat loss for residential housing, roads and other development. Population declines are likely to be compounded by introduced mongooses, cats, rats and manicous predating eggs and fledglings, of which rats were found to be the most widespread, followed by mongooses and manicous (B. L. Rusk <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012, Twyman and Hyslette unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. It is possible that mongooses and cats are able to climb diagonal branches and trunks to reach the birds<strong></strong>. Cutting was substantially reduced at Mt Hartman (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> but, in 1995, 50% of Perseverance was clear-cut for a planned quarry, with half the site now a sanitary land-fill (Rusk and Temple unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. A lease was granted for a new quarry at this site in 2008, but that was temporarily halted in 2009 (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Increases in squatters and cattle in the 1990s resulted in more disturbance at Perseverance, though currently habitat degradation is due to garbage and toxic fumes invading the site from the garbage dump across the road as well as spillover from the adjacent hurricane debris site (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Following strong opposition to initial proposals, which would have proved disastrous for the species, modified plans for the development of a Four Seasons resort and golf course at Mt Hartman are now predicted to result in the displacement or loss of four pairs, or 6% of the total population (D. Wege <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Hurricanes pose a pertinent threat now that the remaining population is so small. Following hurricane Ivan in 2004 calling frequency by males during the breeding season appeared to have fallen significantly, possibly as a result of stress owing to limited resources (B. L. Rusk <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. The hurricane damaged habitat structure and allowed the invasion of alien vines into suitable dove habitat. <p></p>
106002582		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002583		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002584		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002585		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002586		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Tumbes Reserved Zone (which protects a large area and range of forest-types and presumably supports a viable population)<strong></strong> (Dodson and Gentry 1991), Laquipampa Reserved Zone<strong> </strong>(J. Flanagan <em>in litt.</em> 2001), Machalilla National Park (Guayas/Manabí), Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve and Cerro Blanco Protection Forest (Guayas) <strong></strong>(Parker and Carr 1992, Wege and Long 1995, Pople <em>et al</em>. 1997). The 776 km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chongón-Colonche Protection Forest is the nucleus of a reforestation project<strong></strong> (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000) and may support the species. A communal reserve is being established at Quebrada Limon<strong> </strong>(H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess seasonal reliance on particular forest-types. Control threats to habitat within protected areas. Expand protected areas to include adjacent forest remnants and connect such fragments. Map forest in the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche to identify sites for protection<strong></strong> (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Assess impact of hunting. <p></p>
106002586		distribution	eng	<em>Leptotila ochraceiventris</em> occurs in west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manabí, Los Ríos, Guayas, Chimborazo, El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque). The population is small and fragmented, and it is common only at Campo Verde in Tumbes Reserved Zone (within the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve), north-west Peru<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong>H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  <p></p>
106002586		habitat	eng	This inconspicuous dove inhabits tropical and subtropical forests, mainly at 500-1,800&#160;m (with recent records at 80-200&#160;m in Guayas<strong> </strong>[Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997, Pople <em>et al</em>. 1997]), but also to sea-level and occasionally 2,625&#160;m. It occurs in dry deciduous, wet lower montane, semi-deciduous cloud-forest, humid cloud-forest, evergreen moist forest and, prior to their destruction, moist forests of the río Guayas basin and Cordillera de Colonche. It is also found in heavily degraded forest, scrub and hedges, but it is unknown whether such habitats support viable populations. Generally solitary or in pairs (Parker and Carr 1992), but sometimes in groups of 3-7<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995), it favours areas with a dense understorey of small trees and woody vines<strong> </strong>(Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997). Inter-habitat, seasonal movements are apparently undertaken. Its ecology is virtually unknown. <p></p>
106002586		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002586		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador, in 1958-1988, was 57% per decade, although in higher parts of the species's range, with a steeper terrain and harsher climate, the process has been slower, and a greater proportion of forest is extant<strong></strong> (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Overgrazing degrades the forest understorey which is this species' habitat (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). All pigeon species are hunted, but <em>L. ochraceiventris</em> is not specifically targeted<strong></strong> (Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106002587		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has not been recorded from any protected areas. However, an integrated conservation programme for the forests around the type-locality should benefit this and other threatened species in the area. Action for the Yellow-eared Parrot <em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> has increased public awareness and community involvement in conservation issues in the río Toche area, Tolima (Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b), which should also benefit <em>L.&#160;conoveri</em>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Evaluate forest cover in its range and follow-up with surveys of larger blocks to determine the current population and distribution<strong></strong> (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000). Investigate the ecological requirements of this species, especially the degree to which it tolerates modified habitats. Protect a stronghold area, if found<strong></strong> (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106002587		distribution	eng	<em> Leptotila conoveri</em> occurs on the east slope of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known only from the valleys of the Coello-Combeima river system, near Ibagué, Tolima, and two valleys in the headwaters of the río Magdalena, Huila. However, of the latter two valleys, there are no records from one since 1952. The small number of records suggests that its population is small. It is fairly common at one site in Tolima (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<strong></strong><p></p>
106002587		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in humid forest and bushy forest borders in the subtropical zone at 1,600-2,225&#160;m, and possibly as high as 2,500&#160;m. It has been found in secondary growth, with one record from a valley of coffee groves and secondary forest. Birds collected in Huila in March-April, and in Tolima in June, were in breeding condition.<p></p>
106002587		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size; the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied, and previous population estimates of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002587		threats	eng	Parts of the upper Magdalena valley have been converted to agriculture since the 18th century (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999) but, when the type-series was collected in 1942, the higher valleys of the Toche area, Tolima, were heavily forested. Since the 1950s, much of the original habitat in these valleys has been cleared and used for agriculture, including coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing<strong></strong> (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Mature secondary forest patches are now fragmented, and natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c.15% between 1,900 and 3,200&#160;m<strong></strong> (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000<em></em>). <p></p>
106002588		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in two protected areas: Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve and Los Tuxtlas Biological Station. A small captive population is kept at Africam Safari Zoo, Pueblo City, Mexico (<strong></strong>R. Ortiz-Pulido <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate for the species, and survey the Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve to determine the species's status within this protected area. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Expand existing protected areas, or designate new reserves, to cover more of the remaining forests in the sierra. <p></p>
106002588		distribution	eng	<em>Geotrygon carrikeri</em> is endemic to Sierra de los Tuxtlas in south-east Veracruz, <strong>Mexico </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995a)<sup></sup>. It presumably occurred throughout the sierra, but fragmentation of its habitat may have isolated populations in three areas on the main volcanoes, San Martín and Santa Marta. It was found to be fairly common in surveys between 1951 and 1962 (Andrle 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is now considered fairly common to common in suitable habitat (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there has been a rapid loss of such habitat (Dirzo and García 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, indicating that the population has probably declined significantly. <p></p>
106002588		habitat	eng	It is partially terrestrial in the understorey of humid evergreen forest at elevations of 350 m-1,500 m (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only recorded nest was found in secondary forest in mid-October and contained one egg (Andrle 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002588		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002588		threats	eng	Destruction of the species's habitat is presumed to take place for timber, cultivation and pasture. On Volcán San Martín, 84% of the original forest area was lost by 1986, with 56% lost between 1967 and 1986 (Dirzo and García 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1992, it was predicted that only 8.7% of original habitat, restricted to the most inaccessible tracts and protected areas, would remain by 2000 (Dirzo and García 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At that time, it appeared that similar habitat loss was taking place on Volcán Santa Marta (Dirzo and García 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is unknown whether this prediction has been fulfilled, but it is clear that there has been extensive forest clearance in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas. Pressures on the species's habitat may be abating, or at least stabilising at present levels (<strong></strong>R. Ortiz-Pulido <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002589		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002590		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106002590		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Geotrygon saphirina</span> occurs in north-west South America (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">purpurata</span> is found in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, where it is uncommon (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Its range extends south to north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>; this taxon is rare in the country, as is the nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">saphirina, </span>which ranges from east Ecuador to south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>and extreme west Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is also thought likely to exist in south-east Colombia. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">rothschildi</span> is known only from Cadena in the Mareapata Valley, south-east Peru. The species is very locally distributed throughout its range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106002590		habitat	eng	This is an undergrowth and forest floor species of lowland and montane evergreen forests, and advanced secondary growth. It generally occurs between 600-1,100 m. It probably feeds on seeds and small invertebrates (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).
106002590		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002590		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).</p>
106002591		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Hunting of the species in the Dominican Republic was prohibited in 1978. Montane forest is poorly represented in the Dominican Republic's protected-areas system, but the wildlife service has recently proposed 15 new areas, including six in montane forest (Schubert 1993, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs within a numbers of reserves in Cuba (including the Corral de Santo Tomás Faunal Refuge in the Zapata Swamp area, La Güira National Park and the Sierra del Rosario Biosphere Reserve), but few are afforded strict protection (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to clarify the species's current status and determine the protected areas within which it occurs. Control dry season burning and draining. Enforce laws concerning hunting of the species.  Formally designate the proposed reserves in the Dominican Republic. Devise and implement management plans for protected areas.  Enforce protection of protected areas.   <p></p>
106002591		distribution	eng	<em>Geotrygon caniceps</em> has a limited distribution and is rare throughout <strong>Cuba</strong> (subspecies <em>caniceps</em>), being most common on the Zapata Peninsula and Sierra del Rosario.  It also occurs on the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Baoruco and Sierra de Neiba in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (subspecies <em>leucometopius</em>)<strong> </strong>(Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997, S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). There are local reports from the 1920s of a rare, grey quail-dove near the summit of Morne La Selle in Haiti, but intensive habitat destruction has probably extirpated any hypothetical populations (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It remains locally fairly common on the Sierra de Baoruco (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, but is still only known from eleven localities there and in the Cordillera Central; it is thought to have been extirpated from the Sierra de Neiba (S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Garrido <em>et al. </em>2002, Latta <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002591		habitat	eng	In Cuba, it favours drier, limestone-based forest but also inhabits humid lowland forests bordering swamps, and (at least in the Sierra del Rosario) mid-elevation montane forest (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Garrido <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. In the Dominican Republic, it occurs in dense, montane moist forests and coffee plantations up to 1,800 m, and is known from two localities at sea-level (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It feeds on seeds and small invertebrates, foraging on the ground and frequently along tracks, but may perch 10 m above the ground (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002591		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002591		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has reduced this species to near-extinction on the Cordillera Central and Sierra de Neiba (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The expansion of cacao, coffee and tobacco production seriously threatens suitable habitat in Cuba, and dry-season burning, drainage, agricultural expansion and introduced predators are severe problems in the Zapata Swamp (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wells and Mitchell 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is heavily hunted for food in Cuba, using drop-traps baited with orange seeds (Wells and Mitchell 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002592		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure effective protection of reserves where the species occurs, particularly in its strongholds in the Blue Mountains and Cockpit Country. Conduct a public education campaign to reduce trapping. Monitor populations in key sites.   <p></p>
106002592		distribution	eng	<em>Geotrygon versicolor</em> is endemic to <strong>Jamaica</strong>, where it is locally fairly common, it is perhaps most numerous in the Blue Mountains and Cockpit Country (Bond 1984, Downer and Sutton 1990, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It also occurs in the John Crow Mountains and Mt. Diablo area (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002592		habitat	eng	Found singly or in pairs on the floor of wet limestone and montane forests at elevations of 100-2,200 m, preferring areas with a relatively undisturbed understorey.  The breeding season lasts from March until June.   <p></p>
106002592		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002592		threats	eng	Despite occurring commonly in good, wet secondary forest (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it suffers from habitat loss and degradation (Haynes <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat loss has been largely caused by the establishment of plantations (mostly coffee and Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em>), small-scale farming and clearance for development (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also trapped for local consumption and the cage-bird trade (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002593		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002594		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002595		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002596		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology. Census and monitor the population. Improve the management of national parks within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106002596		distribution	eng	<em>Geotrygon goldmani</em> consists of two recognised subspecies within a relatively restricted range. The nominate race occurs in montane forests of east Panama, San Blas and Darién provinces, <strong>Panama</strong>, and extreme north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. The race <em>oreas</em> is uncommon within a minute range on Cerro Chucantí, but may occur more widely in Serranía de Majé, east Panama  (Hilty and Brown 1986, <strong></strong> Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106002596		habitat	eng	It is very poorly known, but locally common in undergrowth of humid forest at 750-1,600 m in east Darién, Panama, but to 90 m in Colombia (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997). <p></p>
106002596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002596		threats	eng	Although much of its highland forests are relatively pristine, owing to their inaccessibility and formal protection, some partial deforestation has occurred within national parks on the western fringe of its range, while the proposed Pan-American Highway through Darién could also have detrimental effects if plans for its construction are revived (<strong></strong>Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995<strong></strong>, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106002597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002598		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002600		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002602		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002603		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under national law and in the Zapata Swamp, but neither is enforced and hunting continues (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only known highland population is protected within La Güira National Park (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas outside known sites, where the species may persist (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Immediately protect any populations discovered during these surveys. Conduct public awareness and education campaigns to highlight the plight of the species and reduce hunting pressure (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Enforce the protection afforded by protected areas.   <p></p>
106002603		distribution	eng	<em>Starnoenas cyanocephala</em> is endemic to <strong>Cuba</strong>, where it was once common and widespread from Pinar del Río across to Guantánamo. It is now rare almost everywhere, and virtually extinct on the Isla de la Juventud and Isla de Pinos (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the late 1980s, reasonable numbers were reported only from Zapata Swamp, and a more recent study found good numbers in the lowlands around Zapata, with another smaller, but significant, population in the mountains at La Güira in Pinar del Río province and another on Guanahacabibes peninsular (Wells and Mitchell 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small numbers are also known or presumed to persist in several additional areas throughout the country (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002603		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the undergrowth of lowland forest including swampy areas, and occasionally in highland forest. It forages for seeds, berries and snails on the ground in dense forest and occasionally on forest tracks. It is generally found in pairs, but larger congregations have been recorded, with 18 birds at a water hole during the 1995 dry season (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Breeding takes place mainly between April and June, with nests placed on or close to the ground, often amongst tree roots or in stump cavities (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, or higher up on a horizontal branch 2.5-8 m above the ground (Leavelle 2008, Kirkconnell and González 2008).<br/><br/></span><br/><p></p>
106002603		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. However, Leavelle (2008) recently estimated a much higher density than that used in these calculations, and so the population estimate may be revised upwards.
106002603		threats	eng	The combined and chronic effects of excessive hunting and habitat destruction have produced a large-scale decline. It has always been regarded as excellent eating, and is still trapped illegally using drop-traps baited with orange seeds (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hurricanes may significantly affect the species by felling large areas of forest, such as happened in Zapata Swamp in 1996 (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002604		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research population size and trends.  Protect known breeding islands from clearance for plantations.  Preserve areas of lowland forest close to breeding islands.  Educate people who live close to breeding islands to prevent trapping for food and the pet trade.  Eradicate rats <em>Rattus </em>spp., cats and other alien predators on particularly important breeding islands.  Prevent further introductions of alien predators to breeding islands.   <p></p>
106002604		distribution	eng	<em>Caloenas nicobarica</em> is a small island specialist, it occurs on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, <strong>India</strong>, Mergui archipelago (Myeik Kyunzu), <strong>Myanmar</strong>, islands off south-west peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, islands around Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, islands off southern <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>, islands around Sumatra, Wallacea and Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, possibly also Timor-Leste, many islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, islands in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and throughout the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, plus <strong>Palau</strong> (race <em>pelewensis</em>). Generally scarce throughout its range, it is most abundant on the smallest, least disturbed islands. The distinctive race <em>pelewensis</em> was thought to still number up to 1,000 birds in 1985.      <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
106002604		habitat	eng	It normally breeds, often in dense colonies, on extremely small, wooded offshore islands and forages <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> or on adjacent mainland (or larger island) areas up to at least 500 m. It prefers uninhabited and remote islets with original forest vegetation, though these must be close enough to large areas of lowland rainforest which it requires for foraging.   <p></p>
106002604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally commoner on smaller islets (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002604		threats	eng	Trapping for food, the pet trade and perhaps for their gizzard-stones is a serious threat.  The clearance of small islands for plantations and the adjacent areas of lowland forest which it requires for foraging must have reduced numbers.  Predation by rats <em>Rattus </em>spp., cats and other alien predators at nesting grounds can affect large numbers of birds due to the colonial nature of the species.  <p></p>
106002605		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Captive populations in Europe and North America are formally managed (Webster and Michael <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009). The number in captivity in North America has remained around 75 since 1988. A Population Management Plan was developed in 2009 by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums with the aim of reaching 100 birds in the North American zoo population. In-situ conservation efforts are also reported to be underway (Webster and Michael <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size using playback. Regularly monitor to determine population trends.  Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of intact forest throughout its range. Attempt to rediscover the population on Catanduanes.  <p></p>
106002605		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba luzonica</em> is endemic to Luzon (where it is everywhere scarce or rare), <strong>Philippines</strong>, in the Sierra Madre south to Quezon National Park and Mt Makiling, with a recent report from Mt Bulusan in the south, and also Polillo (recently rediscovered probably very rare) and Catanduanes (single specimen) (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). <em> </em><p></p>
106002605		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland forest (below 1,400 m), including selectively logged and otherwise poor secondary growth and even plantations. It forages on the ground, searching the leaf-litter for seeds, fallen fruits and invertebrates (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><p></p>
106002605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually rather scarce or rare (Gibbs<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001).
106002605		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation through deforestation for timber extraction and agricultural expansion. It is vulnerable to snaring for the pet trade, but remains widespread and locally numerous.   <p></p>
106002606		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park, where only tiny forest tracts remain. Haribon have been working at the site for over five years and have established a site support group. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera, where hunting has been locally prohibited. The Sablayan Penal Colony recently adopted the Mindoro Bleeding-heart as their flagship species for conservation and established a forest protection and restoration unit within the boundaries of the penal colony inside the Mt. Siburan IBA (B. Tabaranza <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. As a result, hunting and trapping by local people and inmates has been totally eliminated in this area (Haribon Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Haribon, through the LGU, SPPF and other stakeholders, propose to designate the Mt. Siburan IBA as a Municipal Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary in order to conserve the largest lowland forest tract of the entire island and the endemic and threatened species present therein (<strong></strong>Haribon Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>.  As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme, Species Guardians Haribon Foundation are implementing the following actions for this species and Black-hooded Coucal (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>: an IBA monitoring team for Mount Siburan has been set up, training and utilising local participants; actions are underway to strengthen the Sablayan Forest Management Board, the main function of which is to oversee the implementation of the Sablayan Forest Management Plan; an Information-Education-Communication Plan is being developed for use in environmental education, awareness raising and local advocacy; a Sablayan Ecotourism Plan is being developed, and training has begun for local bird tour guides; and efforts have been made to strengthen and consolidate the Site Support Group's actions aimed at eliminating logging activities and the accidental snaring of Mindoro Bleeding-heart. A 25-year moratorium on mining for the whole of Sablayan has recently been established (Tabaranza 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently produce a detailed map of remaining forests on Mindoro, and survey these systematically to clarify its current distribution and population status. Follow up any anecdotal reports of the species. Conduct ecological studies to assess its requirements for breeding and foraging. Regulate hunting of wildlife species and the extraction of forest products within Mt Siburan IBA.  <p></p>
106002606		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gallicolumba platenae</span> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there have been confirmed records from only four sites since 1980. These localities are Puerto Galera, MUFRC Experimental Forest, Siburan and Mt Iglit-Baco National Park, with unconfirmed local reports from eight other localities suggesting that remnant populations conceivably exist elsewhere. It was common in the early 20th century and apparently locally common as recently as 1954. Subsequently, unconfirmed reports suggested it was common in the recent past in the extreme south of the island. However, the paucity of reports from hunters and very low encounter rate by fieldworkers suggests that numbers have become very low. The Mount Siburan IBA holds the largest remaining suitable habitat for the species. <p></p>
106002606		habitat	eng	This predominantly terrestrial pigeon inhabits closed-canopy primary and secondary lowland forest, preferring dry forest substrates on gentle slopes up to 750 m. It is not known whether or not it undertakes altitudinal, seasonal or nomadic movements. It has been recorded breeding in May. In Mt. Siburan IBA, the species has been recorded in various habitats: (1) in an open area of the forest floor under closed canopy forest surrounded with limestone outcrops and boulders, (2) in bamboo thickets with numerous rattans, bounded by primary closed canopy forest, (3) close to a pool in a dry riverbed in closed-canopy forest on flatter, less rocky ground, (4) in shady, level forest with minimal rocky outcrops. These sites were classified as secondary lowland growth forest with varying degrees of canopy gap and human disturbance (Haribon Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002606		population	eng	A population estimate of 50-249 mature individuals has been derived from analyses of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106002606		threats	eng	Lowland forest destruction has eradicated almost all of this bird's habitat. In 1988, just 120 km<sup>2</sup> of forest remained on Mindoro, only 25% of which was closed-canopy. At current rates of loss, the island may lose all primary forest below 900 m within a few years. The forests at Siburan and Mt Iglit-Baco National Park are threatened by encroaching shifting cultivation and occasional selective logging. Rattan collection further disturbs the forest undergrowth. Dynamite-blasting for marble is a threat to forest at Puerto Galera. On Mt. Siburan, clearing for agriculture and slash-and-burn farming was the main cause of forest fragmentation. Ground surveys have shown an open patch of land to be a slash-and-burn farm owned by indigenous people called the Batangan, a sub-tribe of the Mangyan ethnic group. Hunting (using snares) for food and collection for the pet trade are additional threats, particularly during the dry season (February-May). Recent surveys have shown that during the rainy season, Mangyan-Batangan indigenous people set hundreds of ground traps intended for the Red Junglefowl (<em>Gallus gallus</em>) and other ground birds, small mammals and reptiles (Haribon Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. These ground traps have accidentally caught <em>Gallicolumba platenae</em><strong> </strong>(B. Tabaranza <em>in litt.</em> 2008, Haribon Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2009).  <p></p>
106002607		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The only recent records are from Mt Canlaon Natural Park, Mantikil, and in the Calinawan Community-based wildlife sanctuary on Negros <strong></strong>(J. Bucol <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Local reports also derive from the North Negros Forest Reserve, and another area where it was formerly recorded (Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes on Negros) has been receiving funding for conservation actions <strong></strong>(J. Bucol <em>in litt.</em> 2007). In the mid-1990s, the species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster as part of the "Only in the Philippines" series. It was used also as main logo in a photo exhibit "Wet and Wild" held at the Provincial Convention Center, Oriental Negros in November 2007 <strong></strong>(J. Bucol <em>in litt.</em> 2007). It has been studied as part of the Philippine Endemic Species Project (PhilConserve) <strong></strong>(Slade <em>et al</em>. 2005). The North Negros Forest Natural Park was declared by Presidential Decree in 2006. Efforts are ongoing to strengthen protected area management and involve Negros Forests and Ecological Foundation, Inc. (NFEFI) and Silliman University - Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management (SUAKCREM) as well as other existing local non-government organisations and people's organisations in the protection of the species. It was bred for the first time in captivity in 2007 at the Center for Tropical Conservation Studies, Philippines <strong></strong>(H. Roberts <em>in litt. </em>2009), and a very small number of captive individuals have been bred at the A. Y. Reyes Zoological and Botanical Gardens: in 2007, two chicks hatched, although one died<strong> </strong>(Hirschfeld<em> </em>2008). Three birds salvaged from the illegal bird trade in captivity have produced eight young so far, and the total captive population now numbers 18 birds <strong></strong>(Hirschfeld<em> </em>2008). Captive breeding is being orchestrated by the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Foundation, and there are plans for future re-introductions <strong></strong>(P. Hospodarsky <em>in litt.</em> 2010).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct fieldwork in all areas from which the species has been locally reported and all other sites where suitable habitat remains, including the Bulabong Puti-an National Park. Establish the proposed 100 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong> North-west Panay Peninsula National Park, where the species has recently been discovered. Provide immediate effective protection for the North Negros Forest Reserve. Encourage careful reforestation activities around remaining forests and law enforcement to stop small-scale yet rampant illegal logging. <p></p>
106002607		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba keayi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Panay and Negros (Collar<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em> 1999). On Panay, it was recorded in 1997 at two sites on the north-west peninsula, having been reported by locals at five sites earlier in the decade. Since then birds have been recorded nesting in the same area and further observations of the species have been made <strong></strong>(Slade <em>et al</em>. 2005). On Negros, it was fairly common in the 19th century, but had become extremely rare by the 1930s. Since 1980, it was recorded at just one locality (above Mambucal), despite several weeks of surveys, with unconfirmed local reports from six additional localities. Recent research identified a few small populations in southern Negros, but it may now be extinct in the north <strong></strong>(J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 2005, P. Hospodarsky <em>in litt.</em> 2010). It seems unlikely that more than a few hundred individuals remain on each island, although as Panay retains more forest cover, it is likely that this population is larger <strong></strong>(P. Hospodarsky <em>in litt.</em> 2010). <p></p>
106002607		habitat	eng	This predominantly terrestrial species appears to prefer dense closed-canopy forests from 300-1,000 m, exceptionally to 1,200 m, although reports suggests it tolerates secondary habitats on Panay where it has been recorded from selectively logged forest on limestone, and from open and severely degraded forest with few large trees<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Slade <em>et al</em>. 2005, J. Bucol <em>in litt.</em> 2007). It seems unlikely that it undertakes more than very local movements in response to food patchiness. It has been recorded nesting in May and June with chicks fledging after only 12 days, apparently as an adaptation to the vulnerability of their open and low nests in epiphytic ferns <strong></strong>(Slade <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has also been recorded nesting in March <strong></strong>(Curio 2001). Nests appear to be regularly predated <strong></strong>(Slade <em>et al</em>. 2005). <p></p>
106002607		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals, based on the assessment in BirdLife International (2001) that it "seems unlikely that there are more than a few hundred individuals... on each island [Panay and Negros], and there may only be a few tens". This estimate equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106002607		threats	eng	Primary forests have been almost totally destroyed on Negros (where just 4% of any type of forest cover remained in 1988) and Panay (where 8% remained). Habitat degradation, through clearance for agriculture, timber and charcoal-burning, continues to pose a serious threat to remaining fragments. This is exacerbated by trapping and hunting for food and, presumably, for the cage-bird trade. In 2005, five birds were killed by poachers in Negros <strong></strong>(J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 2005). A number of nests have been depredated, although it is unknown whether this is by native or introduced predators.  <p></p>
106002608		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> It has been recorded recently in a number of protected areas, e.g. Rajah Sikatuna National Park. Other areas, now afforded protection, where it formerly occurred (and may still occur) include Mt Malindang National Park, Mt Hilong-hilong (which includes a watershed reserve) and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve (a proposed national park). There is a stakeholder move to expand the coverage of the Mount Hamiguitan (Tumadgo Peak) Wildlife Sanctuary to include the lowland forests. A 7,000-hectare nesting site of the Philippine Eagle which includes Mindanao Bleeding Heart habitat was also recently declared by a local government as protected in Mount Hamiguitan <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>SAMAR RH AND OTHERS, DINAGAT DA, ZAMBOANGA<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in remaining tracts of suitable habitat and areas with historical records, particularly on Samar and Leyte. Continue to advocate the effective protection of (possible) key sites. Propose remaining forests found to support the species for establishment as protected areas. Promote more effective enforcement of laws relating to hunting and trapping. <p></p>
106002608		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolomba crinigera</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Dinagat, Mindanao and Basilan (Collar<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em> 1999). There are records from c.35 localities, but since 1980 it has only been recorded from Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, Bislig on Mindanao and during recent surveys on Mount Hamiguitan and Mount Hilong-hilong in eastern Mindanao <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It always appears to have been rare throughout its range, although its aptitude for self-concealment may mean that it is under-recorded. Nevertheless, a substantial population decline is likely to have occurred. <p></p>
106002608		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary lowland and transitional dipterocarp forest below 750 m. It is highly terrestrial, favouring flat areas with only sparse undergrowth, particularly in dry, coastal areas. There is no evidence of seasonal movements, but a degree of nomadism or altitudinal displacement might be anticipated, perhaps linked to the rains (March-June), when it appears to breed. <p></p>
106002608		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106002608		threats	eng	The near-total loss of lowland forest throughout its range has caused its decline. In the late 1980s, forest cover was estimated at just 29% on Mindanao, and as little as 433 km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained on Samar and Leyte, with most lowland forest leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Dinagat has lost practically all lowland forest as a result of illegal logging and, particularly, chromite and nickel surface-mining. Bohol is thought to retain only 4% forest cover, with tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion all acting as threats to Rajah Sikatuna National Park. Forest at Bislig on Mindanao is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Elsewhere in eastern Mindanao where the largest old growth dipterocarp forest remain, illegal logging and mining persist at varying levels of intensity. In 2006, DENR-CARAGA Region confiscated 41,232 pieces or 12,998.27 cubic metres of illegally cut logs, amounting to around Php 18 million. Eliminating illegal logging remains difficult, with very limited capacity and logistics allotted by the government for monitoring and law enforcement. There are 51 mineral production sharing agreements (MPSA) at various levels of exploration and extraction approved since 1990 in eastern Mindanao alone. In the Tumadgo Peak IBA, almost 70% of unprotected dipterocarp and cloud forest is under MPSAs. Only 22% of the whole IBA, mostly high-elevation forest, is protected as wildlife sanctuary. Trapping for food and trade is a problem for all terrestrial birds in the Philippines. <p></p>
106002609		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus. There are no protected areas in the archipelago. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although neither the outcome nor the likely benefits to the species are known. In 1997, a public awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated. In the mid-1990s, the species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct intensive surveys of all remaining forest tracts on Tawitawi and other islands, such as those nearby as well as Sulu and Siasi for example, in order to establish whether the species is still extant. Urgently propose any sites found to support the species for strict protection. Incorporate protective measures relevant to this species within conservation funding proposals for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, as and where appropriate. <p></p>
106002609		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gallicolumba menagei</span> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is known by just two specimens taken on Tawitawi in 1891, when it was described as extremely rare. The only evidence of its continued existence derives from unconfirmed local reports in 1995. Local reports claim that it was quite abundant before the 1970s, but had declined dramatically and is now only rarely seen. Visits to Tawitawi in February and June 2009 did not produce any records of the species (I. Sarenas <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Sykes 2009)<strong></strong>, and conversations with trappers and other local people have failed to find anyone familiar with the species (R. Hutchinson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Despite apparently being well-forested with secondary regrowth, Tandubatu, Dundangan and Baliungan have a total area of 17 km<sup>2</sup>, and are thought unlikely to support viable populations. <p></p>
106002609		habitat	eng	This species may be a small-island specialist. It may survive in logged forest, although its close relative <em>G. keayi</em> apparently prefers primary forest (Allen 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002609		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on assessment of local reports and area of remaining habitat which concluded that the population must be extremely small and on the verge of extinction. It is reliably known from just two specimens collected in 1891; there have been no confirmed records since and repeated surveys in the 1990s failed to find any direct evidence of the species.
106002609		threats	eng	In 1994, remaining primary forest on Tawitawi was being rapidly cleared and the areas of forest left were highly degraded and recently logged. In 1996, there were plans to replace even these with oil-palm plantations, but in 2006 some forest tracts reportedly remained. Logging of the few remaining tracts, now confined to rugged, mountainous areas, is on-going. Small-scale logging operations occur on Tandubatu, Dundangan and Baliungan. Hunting and trapping may have caused a substantial decrease during martial law in the 1970s. <p></p>
106002610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce on New Guinea, although locally common; common on New Britain between 900 and 1,500 m and very rare in the Solomon Islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002613		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Traditional leaders have been encouraged to adopt a programme to plant sakau in the lowlands, but resistance is high because the plant grows best on wet mountain slopes and is less likely to be pilfered in more remote areas (Buden in prep.)<strong></strong>. Watershed Forest Reserve boundary lines have been laid down and enforced in Madolenihmw and Uh on Pohnpei (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Preserve native and mixed forest remnants (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999, G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including atoll islets where human disturbance can be minimised and the introduction of predators prevented (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the extent of hunting in both Pohnpei and Chuuk (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the feasibility of fencing a predator free protected area on Chuuk or Pohnpei. <p></p>
106002613		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba kubaryi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, occurring on the islands of Pohnpei, where the population was estimated at 841 birds in 1983-1984, and Chuuk (Truk), where it was estimated to number 294 in 1983-1984 (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. In 1994, a repeat survey on Pohnpei recorded a decrease in encounter rate in the lowlands (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007, Buden in prep.)<strong></strong>. A Chuuk population estimate in 2001 indicated a significantly smaller population (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Populations have probably always been low, at least in historical times (Baker 1951, Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002613		habitat	eng	On Pohnpei, it inhabits brushy ravines, appearing to prefer those where hibiscus <em>Hibiscus tiliaceus</em> forms dense thickets. This constitutes a highly disturbed habitat, often occurring near settlements (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is also found in lowland forests, mangroves and, less commonly, in montane forest. On Chuuk, it is found in agricultural and native forest at all elevations (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. Surprisingly dense populations have been found on some islets, indicating that coastal strand/forest vegetation is also suitable (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>.  It has been sighted feeding in fairly degraded habitat on the island of Weno (C. Collins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). It feeds primarily on the ground on seeds, worms and small snails<strong></strong>. It nests in deep forest, up to 180&#160;m. On Chuuk, nests with eggs have been found in February, April, June and September. Clutch-size is one (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002613		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002613		threats	eng	On Pohnpei, predation by introduced species (mainly rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and cats) and excessive hunting may have caused some depletion (Buden in prep.)<strong></strong>. Habitat loss is also a major issue. Overall, there was a reduction of undisturbed upland forest on Pohnpei of over 60% from 1975-1995 (Buden 1996, 2000, B. Raynor <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1995, 2012). The majority of the island's forests have been, to varying degrees, converted or at least degraded to mixed forest (native species mixed with lowland secondary species), largely attributable to the cultivation of sakau (kava) <em>Piper methysticum</em> as a major cash-crop (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012). The fragmentation of such forest by sakau clearings also introduces and encourages the spread of invasive species in isolated areas throughout the forest. Although efforts over the past 20 years to reduce the amount of clear-cutting for sakau plantations have resulted in the slowing of native forest conversion rates, the trend remains negative (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012).   On Chuuk, the only remaining semi-original forest remains in tiny remnants on the higher reaches of a few islands.  <p></p>
106002614		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Expeditions in June and October 1999 surveyed eight islands of Matureivavao and Tenararo. Follow-up work, including further surveys, rat eradication and captive breeding, took place in 2001. Since then, a successful rat eradications have been&#160;completed on a few motu located in the south of Rangiroa atoll (Faulquier 2009) and others have been proposed within a feasibility study that was produced in 2010 by the Société d'Ornithologie de Polynésie "Manu" (Champeau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme SOP-Manu continue to: update the Species Action Plan; raise awareness through education and signage, provide support for land owners to manage tourist visits in order to prevent rat re-establishment on the rat-free islets of Rangiroa; support and advocate the development of protected areas for Rangiroa, Morane and Tenararo; colour-ring the population and undertake enhanced monitoring to assess productivity and adult survival and work to develop a Site Support Group (SSG).    Only a single bird remains in captivity in Tahiti. A field survey to assess the population in Morane and the Acteon group is planned for May 2012, and the eradication of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans</span> from Vahanga atoll is planned for 2013 (Pierce <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in the central Tuamotus and Acteon group, including showing pictures to local people (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, SPREP 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Study the remaining wild population on Tenararo, e.g. feeding and breeding behaviour (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Protect Tenararo from the introduction of predators (by implementing biosecurity measures)  and human disturbance (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Identify suitable islands in the Acteon group for translocation, either rat- and cat-free or where eradication is possible, and support similar initiatives in Rangiroa atoll (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, SPREP 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Gain the support of local people for rat eradication throughout Rangiroa (Albar <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002614		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba erythroptera</em> formerly occurred in the Society Islands and throughout the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. There are also fossil records from the Southern Cook Islands (Steadman 1989)<strong></strong>. Race <em>erythroptera</em> is known from Tahiti and Moorea in the Society Islands (now extinct) and from the southern Acteon Group in the Tuamotus, while race <em>pectoralis</em> is known from the central and northern Tuamotus (possibly extinct) (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>. Recent records include Matureivavao (not numerous in 1968, apparently surviving in 1987 according to local people, but not found in 1999) (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong> and two forested islets in Rangiroa Atoll (12-20 birds in 1990-1991, with 11 there in 2010; perhaps a separate subspecies or colour morph of <em>pectoralis</em><strong></strong> [Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993a]). In 2005, a rat eradication was conducted on one of Rangiroa's motus (small islands) and follow-up surveys in 2006 found 9 doves in the atoll, including one male on the rat-free island (Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2005, Raust <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. In 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 further expeditions to Rangiroa took place to assess the impact of rat eradication efforts, carry out further eradication work and survey for the species (Albar <em>et al</em>. 2009, 2010, Champeau<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010); it is hoped that the species's population occurring on these small islands will begin to expand (Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. During field surveys from 2008 to 2011, 12 individuals were captured and banded on Rangiroa. In 2011, 9 individuals were confirmed on this atoll (Albar 2011). In 1999, a small population (estimated at 16-30 birds) was found on Tenararo, but it was not seen during surveys on a further seven islands (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. A 2003 expedition to remote islands in the Tuamotu archipelago found a population of 50 birds on Tenararo and discovered a new population of 50 birds on Morane, doubling the known global population to around 100-120 birds (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2003, Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2007, four birds were seen on Vahanga (nearest island from Tenararo) but no nests were discovered (Griffiths <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. A report by a local inhabitant of a unknown bird on Tikehau atoll, which was suspected to be  <em>G. erythroptera</em>, has not yet been confirmed. Is is suspected that if Vahanga Atoll is successfully eradicated of predators, the population could increase from 4 to c. 50 individuals, comparable to that of nearby rat-free Tenararo Atoll which is of a similar size (L. Faulquier and P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106002614		habitat	eng	It favours primary forest of <em>Pandanus tectorius</em> and <em>Pisonia grandis</em> on atolls with herbs, shrubs and ferns or dense shrubs (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has a varied diet, including caterpillars and other insects, seeds, green leaves, buds and fruit (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most recently, it was present in dense shrubs under coconut trees (planted in 1977 and never managed or harvested) (C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002614		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 100-200 individuals, roughly equating to 70-130 mature individuals.
106002614		threats	eng	It was formerly caught by local people for food but it is more likely that the introduction of cats and rats, (Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and Pacific rat <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans</span>), are the real reasons for its decline (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. Tenararo and Morane are currently free of rats and the likelihood of predator introduction is reduced due to their extreme isolation and the decision by the Catholic church to preserve Morane (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). However, rodents are present on several islets or motu within the Rangiroa atoll and eco-tours reach the atolls several times a year, thus posing a potential risk of predator introduction. However,Habitat loss is also likely to have been a factor as the largest atolls with the richest vegetation have been cleared for coconut plantations (Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993a)<strong></strong>.<br/> <br/> <br/><p></p>
106002615		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><span lang="EN-US">A captive breeding conservation program was established by officials of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and a consortium of AZA facilities making up the MAC group (H. Roberts<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2009).&#160;&#160;&#160;<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations, particularly those in the Northern Marianas.  Restrict hunting in the Northern Marianas.  Set aside and protect areas of habitat which support good numbers of the species.  Take measures, e.g. snake barriers around ports, to prevent the introduction of <em>B. irregularis </em>to islands which are currently snake-free.   <p></p>
106002615		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba xanthonura</em> occurs widely in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong> and on Yap in the <strong>Federated States of Micronesia.  </strong>It has become extirpated from Guam (to USA) owing to predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis,</em> and although single birds turn up once every few years, these are almost certainly individuals dispersing from the island of Rota, 60 km to the north (G.&#160;Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. The highest population is probably on Rota where c.2,400 birds were estimated in 1982 (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982), but this population is declining as a result of predation by the invasive tree snake (H. Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). It is fairly common on Saipan where up to 72 birds/km<sup>2</sup> were recorded in limestone forest in 1991-1993 (Craig 1996)<strong></strong>. It is rare on Yap where the population was estimated at c.195 in 1984 (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002615		habitat	eng	The species inhabits native forest, secondary forest, plantations, introduced tangan-tangan <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> thickets and habitat mosaics including fields, but appears more frequent in native forest than in disturbed habitats (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982, Jenkins 1983, Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990, Craig 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In contrast to other <em>Gallicolumba </em>it is largely arboreal; it feeds in the forest canopy taking fruits, seeds and flowers.   <p></p>
106002615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare on Guam, uncommon in the Mariana islands north of Guam and uncommon on Yap (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002615		threats	eng	The species can still be legally hunted in the Northern Mariana Islands (G.&#160;Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong> and must be affected by habitat loss. <em>B. irregularis</em> appears to be established on Saipan and Rota and the greatest threat to the species would come from the accidental introduction of <em>B. irregularis</em> to other islands in its range.<p></p>
106002616		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Sovi Basin and Taveuni reserves on Fiji, and the Aleipata Islands on Samoa (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.   The Aleipata Project was implemented in May 2009 which involved the transfer of the birds from Samoa (Nu'utele and Nu'ulua) to a captive holding and breeding facility on another island. Twenty-three doves are currently being held. After removal, rat poison was broadcast via helicopter over both islands. After rat eradication has been determined successful&#160;the birds will be repatriated to the islands (H. Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). This process has been delayed with the re-establishment of rats on Nu'utele, but Nu'ulua may be rat-free (A. Tye <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout its range to assess its distribution, population numbers and conservation requirements. Consider setting aside an area of protected forest.  Assess the feasibility of controlling the mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>. <p></p>
106002616		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba stairi</em> has a discontinuous and poorly-documented distribution in central Polynesia including <strong>Fiji</strong>, where it is described as scarce on the four larger islands, but common on small offshore islands such as Makodroga and Namenalala (Watling 2000, V. Masibalavu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012); <strong>Tonga</strong>, where a healthy population survives on the isolated and largely undisturbed island of Late (Baptista <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997) with others on Fonualei (D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, a few smaller islands in Vava'u, and formerly, or perhaps still, on a few islands in the Ha'apai and Nomuka groups; <strong>Samoa</strong>, where in recent years it has only been seen breeding on the tiny islands of Nu'utele, where the population numbered at least 26 individuals in 2009 (Baptista <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997, A. Tye <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and Nu'ulua, where the population numbered at least 6 individuals in the same year (H. Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009, A. Tye <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), with one injured bird recovered from the main island of Upolu in 2006 (A. Tye <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012);  <strong>American Samoa</strong>, where there was a sighting in 1993 on the island of Ofu (Baptista <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997) and another in 1996 on Olosega (H. Freifeld<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999<strong></strong>), and on the islands of <strong>Wallis and Futuna (to France)</strong>. In 1995, the only population found in a study on Vava'u was six birds in a large forest remnant on Uta Vava'u, but this area was being logged and the species is therefore unlikely to survive there (Steadman and Freifeld 1998)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys have found this species to be widespread but patchy and at low population densities on the larger Fijian islands, recording an average of 0.11 birds/hour equating to c.1 bird/km<sup>2</sup>, mostly calling males. The species was recorded at about 50% of the sites surveyed (16/34 sites), which were selected to be the densest old-growth rainforest (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Unlike on Samoa and Tonga, there is no evidence that the species is declining on Fiji faster than the rate of forest loss or degradation which is estimated at 0.5-0.8%/year (Claasen 1991, G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species remains very rare in American Samoa, Samoa, Tonga and Wallis and Futuna.        <p></p>
106002616		habitat	eng	It is found in both scrubby bush and bamboo thickets on smaller islands and lowland and montane forest on larger ones. It feeds on seeds, fruit, buds, young leaves, snails, insects and caterpillars on the forest floor and in the undergrowth (Watling 1982, Clunie 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002616		population	eng	Recent surveys have found this species to be widespread but patchy and at low population densities on the larger Fijian islands. Surveys recorded an average of 0.11 birds / hour (a total of 54 birds). Estimating an average pace 1 km / hour and an effective detection distance of 50 m each side of the trail suggests that about 1 bird was detected per km<sup>2</sup>, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked. The species was recorded at about 50% of the sites surveyed (16/34 sites) which were pre-selected to be the densest old-growth rainforest. If it assumed to occur in 50% of the forest, which covers about 40% of the species' Fijian EOO of about 17,500 km<sup>2</sup>, the total population is estimated to be 2,500-9,999 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002616		threats	eng	It appears particularly sensitive to disturbance, usually leaving areas with logging or planting activities within days of occurrence, and not re-inhabiting even five years after the cessation of human activity (J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The reasons for this may relate to changes in forest characteristics (e.g. leaf-litter, food-resources), structure (e.g. openness) or invasion by ground predators, especially mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>, which are present on both the two larger islands in Fiji (J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> 2000, V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The major threat to the small Samoan population is predation by Polynesian rat <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans</span> (H. Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).<p></p>
106002617		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two lowland forests have recently been protected on Santo but the species has not been found in either. Forest and Bird and EcoLifelihood Development Associates (funded by UNDP/GEF/SGP) are managing a newly established project to develop landowner capacity to control the invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Merremia peltata</span> in Vatthe Conservation Area.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Tinakula. Survey any predator-free islands within the species's range. Survey Santo to ascertain its distribution, altitudinal range, habitat requirements and abundance. Determine population levels of introduced mammals around current sites on Santo. Assess hunting levels and population trends based on discussions with Santo hunters. Advocate creation of more forest reserves on Santo. Investigate hunting control measures through community discussion and awareness programmes. <p></p>
106002617		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba sanctaecrucis</em> is known from Tinakula and Utupua in Temotu province (= Santa Cruz Islands), <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, and Espiritu Santo, <strong>Vanuatu</strong> (Bregulla 1992, D. Gibbs <em>in litt </em>1999). It may still persist on Tinakula (8 km<sup>2</sup><strong></strong>) which is only seasonally inhabited and has not been visited by ornithologists for many years. It is probably extinct on Utupua (69 km<sup>2</sup>), which is largely deforested. During a brief visit in 1994 none were seen and the villagers of Nembao had no knowledge of it (D. Gibbs <em>in litt </em>1999)<strong></strong>. It is likely to survive on Santo (3,955 km<sup>2</sup>) which has extensive forest - recent sightings are of some birds seen in 1972, one in 1985, and three heard on Peak Santo in the mid 2000's. Unconfirmed recent incidental sightings of the species on Santo have been reported at two sites in the mountains of west Santo (S. Totterman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010), in Vatthe Conservation Area in the north side of the island (S. Maturin to M. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010) and on the high mountain ranges of&#160;Penoru village of north western Santo (in early 2009 [D. Kalfatak <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012]); however it was not recorded during a recent study of bird communities on Santo (Bregulla 1992, <strong></strong>Kratter <em>et al. </em>2006, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> or on a 2010 visit to the area (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Historically, it probably occurred on more islands (D. Gibbs <em>in litt </em>1999)<strong></strong>, such as Vanikoro and the Reef Islands (but no evidence of it during weeks of fieldwork in 1997 [G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998]<strong></strong>), the Duff Islands, Nendo (where there are sight records from the Whitney expedition in the 1930s [J. Diamond <em>in litt.</em> 1999],<strong></strong> it is now probably extirpated<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007]<strong></strong>) and the Banks and Torres islands of northern Vanuatu (which are both poorly known [<strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998]). <p></p>
106002617		habitat	eng	It is believed to forage exclusively on the ground but often perches on low branches and roosts in trees. It inhabits old-growth rainforest and patches of remnant forest isolated by agricultural land at 300-1,000 m<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bregulla 1992, S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>, but may prove to occur down to sea-level.<br/><p></p>
106002617		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002617		threats	eng	Introduced rats, cats, dogs and pigs are found throughout Utupua and Santo and may also occur on Tinakula. Cyclones and volcanic eruptions are a risk, particularly on Tinakula where any remaining population must be naturally small. Forest has been and is being extensively cleared and degraded on Utupua and Santo although, on Santo, much of the land is too steep for commercial logging and there are few hill villages and gardens above c.500 m. A recently identified threat in Vatthe Conservation Area is the establishment of the invasive vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Merremia peltata</span>, which causes the death of large numbers of canopy trees. Approximately 2,300ha (92%) of Vatthe forest has been affected, some 1,300 ha of which are beyond the ability to  control and need to be replanted (Maturin 2012). It may also be hunted, and may be outcompeted by the common <em>Chalcophaps indica</em> in degraded forest habitats (Bregulla 1992, S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, D. Gibbs <em>in litt </em>1999)<strong></strong>.<br/>  <p></p>
106002618		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba ferruginea</em><em> </em>is known only from Forster's 1774 painting, from Tanna Island, <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, in Tring<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994). <strong> </strong><p></p>
106002618		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it may have inhabited the islands' forests.  <p></p>
106002618		threats	eng	It is likely to have become extinct because of hunting and the depredations of human comensals.  <p></p>
106002619		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba salamonis</em> is known from just two specimens from the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, one from Makira (= San Cristobal) taken in 1882 and the other from Ramos (c.4 ha) in 1927. Although the Makira locality has been queried, it is thought to be valid<strong> </strong>(D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Surveys looking for this species on Makira (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, D. Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999, R. James <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> were unsuccessful. Recent surveys on Ramos<strong></strong> also failed to find any individuals and the species was not known to landowners<strong> </strong>(G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2004). There is now no longer any reasonable doubt that the last individual has died, probably some time ago. It is likely that it once occurred on other islands in the region. It may have been a tramp species of small islands with occasional birds occurring on larger islands, or the two specimens may just represent the last individuals of a declining population<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Lees 1991, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002619		habitat	eng	The Makira bird was collected at 300 m, although congeners occur in forest at all altitudes. Ramos has drier beach forest than inland Makira and this may have been a preferred habitat-type.  <p></p>
106002619		threats	eng	The species is likely to have declined through a combination of predation by introduced cats and rats, and habitat destruction. On Makira, introduced rats, pigs, cats and dogs are widespread. Most lowland forest has been logged or is in logging concessions, and the larger pigeons are targeted by local hunters. Ramos remains forested and appears to be free of introduced predators, although hunters from the adjacent islands of Santa Isabel and Malaita make regular journeys to harvest the nesting Nicobar Pigeon <em>Caloenas nicobarica</em>, and may have shot ground-doves on these expeditions<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, D. Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002620		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Hatuta`a is a protected area but there is no active management.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and monitor its population on both islands. Take measures to ensure that the islands remain cat-free. Effectively manage Hatuta`a (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Investigate the possibility of translocation to the nearby island of Mohotani if cats are eradicated from that island (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002620		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba rubescens</em> is restricted to two uninhabited and cat-free islets in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. On Hatuta`a, the population was estimated at c.225 birds in 1975 and although it was thought to be similar in 1987, in 2007 it was estimated at c.1,000 individuals, this is unlikely to be a genuine increase, but is instead thought to be a result of more accurate survey methods (Thibault 1988, <strong></strong>P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007,<strong> </strong>A. Gouni <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. On Fatu Huku, the population was estimated at 10-100 in the 1990s, and it was thought to be similar in 2002 (Seitre and Seitre 1991, A. Gouni <em>in litt. </em>2007) and in 2011, when six birds were observed on the island (Butaud 2011)<strong></strong>. It probably formerly occurred on Nuku Hiva, where the type-specimen is reputed to have been collected, and subfossils are known from three other islets, suggesting that it was originally distributed throughout the entire group <strong></strong>(Steadman 1989)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002620		habitat	eng	It inhabits wooded regions, groves of <em>Pisonia grandis</em> and shrubby vegetation<strong><sup> </sup></strong>feeding primarily on seeds (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Hatuta`a, the birds prefer the plateau, rarely descending to vegetation near the sea (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002620		population	eng	Better survey methods in 2007 lead to an estimate of c.1,000 mature individuals on Hatuta'a; it is thought that less than 100 persist on Fatu Huku. This estimate equates to c.1,500 individuals in total.
106002620		threats	eng	Predation by cats has probably caused its disappearance from other islets in the group. Due to the negative effects of a drought on Hatuta`a, (P. Raust<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012) it is likely that the effects of climate change, including more frequent and severe environmental events (e.g. La Nina and El Niño  Southern Oscillation events) could pose a threat to the species in the future.<br/><p></p>
106002621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although common on Makira island and rare on Manus island (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002622		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species was included in the 1991 and 2005 National Bird Survey conducted by the Palau Conservation Society and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The 1991 survey reported a relative abundance estimate for Ground Doves of 0.015 birds/station and the 2005 survey reported relative abundance estimate of 0.006+0.003 birds/station. However, the species was not well surveyed in 2005 and the data is very sparse (based on sightings of only 4 birds).<br/><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the species's population size. Take measures to prevent the accidental introduction of <em>B. irregularis </em>to islands important for the species.   <p></p>
106002622		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba canifrons</em> is endemic to <strong>Palau</strong> where it is found in dense forest on all the major islands from Babeldaob (very rare) to Angaur, and on many of the small limestone islands south of Koror known as the Rock Islands (where it is more common) (Engbring 1988)<strong></strong>. It is difficult to locate because of its secretive habits, sparse vocalisations (H.&#160;D.&#160;Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and inaccessible habitat and, during a survey in 1991, too few were counted to record a meaningful population estimate, although it was thought there were approximately 500 individuals present on the Rock Islands (Engbring 1992)<strong></strong>. However, although it is scarce through much of its range, the Rock Islands are not faced with imminent development, nor is the species hunted and numbers may be stable (Engbring 1992)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002622		habitat	eng	It prefers limestone islands, inhabiting forest on rocky terrain.  It is terrestial, foraging for fallen fruits and seeds in places where deep leaf-litter has accumulated, such as gullies and hollows.   <p></p>
106002622		population	eng	The species occurs throughout the Palau archipelago but it is rare on most islands.  It is common only on the small Rock Islands where in 1982 there were thought to be 500 individuals.  The population is therefore likely to be at the lower end of the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002622		threats	eng	The introduction of alien species (e.g. rats, brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>) is a serious potential threat. The Palau Conservation Society reported observing a ground dove being killed by a rat in 2005 (A. Gupta<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2011). <br/><p></p>
106002623		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species probably occurs in Bekau Huhun Nature Reserve on Wetar, but the boundaries have only been remotely delineated and the reserve is unlikely to harbour a substantial population as it excludes extensive high quality forest (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a). Several protected areas have been proposed in West Timor and another (Gunung Arnau) on Wetar. Recent surveys have identified four further areas in West Timor to be of importance to the islands' endemic avifauna, two of which, Camplong and Soe are known localities for <em>G. hoedtii</em>. Another site, Gunung Timau, is currently subject to an initiative to include it within the Gunung Mutis protected area. One of the main motivations of a successful 13-week field research project on Wetar in late 2008 was to establish whether the species was extant there (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in suitable remaining forest on Wetar, West Timor, and Timor-Leste to establish its current distribution, population status, seasonal movements (if any), ecological constraints and main threats. Propose key sites supporting populations of this, and other threatened species, for establishment as strict protected areas. Strongly support initiatives to protect Gunung Timau. Extend the boundaries of Bekau Huhun Nature Reserve (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a).<br/><p></p>
106002623		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba hoedtii</em> occurs in West Timor and Wetar, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>. On Wetar, it was previously known from fewer than 20 specimens collected at unspecified localities around 1900, with eight birds collected in five days in 1902. No records were made during a very brief visit to the island in 1990 (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Trainor <em>et al. </em>undated)<strong></strong>, but visits in 2008 and 2009 produced numerous records (and photographs of the species), with perhaps more than 100 birds along the Naumatang Gorge and a flock of at least 40 birds and a total population of possibly over 100 on Redong Island (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b). It has been recorded at only three localities in West Timor (including only one record during a nine-week survey in 1993), where it is presumably rare, although possibly overlooked. In 2004, a male bird was confiscated from a bird trapper in Dili (Lambert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The trapper claimed to have caught his birds on the south coast of Timor-Leste, in the Natarbora region (Manututo District) (Lambert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Subsequent surveys in 2005 close to the border with Indonesia, in the vicinity of Desa Foho Lulik (Tilomar sub-district), found at least four, and perhaps five, calling birds (Lambert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>.The total population on Wetar is estimated at fewer than 10,000, and probably around 3,000-5,000 individuals (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a), thus the global population is conservatively estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals.<br/><p></p>
106002623		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland monsoon-forest, and possibly woodland, up to 950 m, but was only recorded below 250 m on Wetar during searches in 2008 and 2009 (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b). In West Timor, two of the three records have been from "forest near a clearing" and "fairly undisturbed hill forest". Its habitat receives highly seasonal rainfall, but it is not known whether it makes any dispersive movements, e.g. in response to bamboo seeding events, as in several of its congeners (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is possible that this species is associated with bamboo, and thus partly nomadic (Lambert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Birds found in Timor-Leste were only found within gallery forest and remnant trees bordering a wide stream, suggesting that wet forest - possibly only that associated with flowing water - is important breeding habitat (Lambert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Likewise, records from Wetar in 2008 and 2009 were mostly from wide stream channels and gorges in gallery forest (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). It appears to call from, and nest in, the canopy and seems to be a dry-season breeder (Lambert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Birds on Redong Island were observed to alight on the ground to feed on fallen figs (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b).<br/><p></p>
106002623		population	eng	There are estimated to be fewer than 10,000, possibly around 3,000-5,000, individuals on Wetar. The species appears to be rare on Timor, therefore the global population is conservatively placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002623		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in West and Timor-Leste has been very extensive, and is presumably the primary threat. Three recently identified IBAs contain much of the remaining tropical monsoon-forest in Timor-Leste (approximately 652 km<sup>2</sup>) (Trainor 2002)<strong></strong>. Tropical forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to intensive grazing and burning. Forest cover in Timor-Leste declined by 14% between 1989 and 1999 (Bouma and Kobryn 2004)<strong></strong>. Plans to increase tourist infrastructure in Timor-Leste (ETAN 2008) may have serious impacts on suitable habitat for the species. In addition, pigeons are apparently hunted extensively on Timor, a factor that must have contributed to the decline of this species. The species's habits of remaining on the ground for prolonged periods  and only flying short distances when flushed may make it particularly  susceptible to hunting, although hunting pressure has been noted to be low on Wetar (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). Extensive forest remained on Wetar until at least 1990 (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, but illegal logging and the development of gold mines may threaten the remaining population. The species seems restricted mostly to lowland gallery forest on Wetar,  which probably now covers only c.3% of the island's area (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009b). The clearance of forest for cultivation, especially plantations of cash crops, is likely to increase as a threat (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a), although the island's rugged terrain means that most of its land area is difficult to access and unsuitable for agriculture (C. Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). Mining activities on Wetar have had a limited impact so far, but are expected to expand, and road-building projects, including a planned ring-road, pose a significant threat to forest (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b).<br/><p></p>
106002624		distribution	eng	This species occurs across New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), but may be absent from some large areas such as the Sepik-Ramu and north-eastern regions (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986). Although there are only three published records since 1990 (de Silva Garza 1993), it is frequently seen in suitable lowland forest; for example, several individuals are seen a week at Lakekamu (B. Beehler in litt. 2000). It appears to occur patchily, usually at very low population densities (Coates 1985, I. Burrows in litt. 1994), but at one site population density was estimated to be one bird per 10 ha (Bell 1982).
106002624		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest to c.650 m (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1985) but is usually found in primary lowland flat forest (K.D. Bishop in litt. 1999).
106002624		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002624		threats	eng	The species' tolerance of logging is poorly known but it persists in some selectively logged forests (B. Whitney in litt. 2000); however, much of the forest at these altitudes is threatened by logging. It is also under localised threat from children stealing eggs and chicks (A. Mack in litt. 1999).
106002625		distribution	eng	<em>Microgoura meeki </em>was probably endemic to<em> </em>Choiseul, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, from where it is known from six skins and a single egg<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994). Claims that it may have occurred on islands from Bougainville to Malaita are speculative (Tennent 2009). It has not been recorded since 1904<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Diamond 1987) despite searching and interviews with villagers<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). There have been unsubstantiated reports from the early 1940s (Tennent 2009) and more recently (Pikacha 2005), but these are not considered to be accurate; it has often been confused with the extant&#160;Crested Cuckoo-dove (<span style="font-style: italic;">Reinwardtoena crassirostris</span>) and Yellow-legged Pigeon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Columba pallidiceps</span>) (Tennent 2009). There have been several unsuccessful searches for it (Dutson 2011) and it is now considered Extinct.<br/><p></p>
106002625		habitat	eng	It was probably a species of lowland forests and swamps, and reportedly nested on the ground (Tennent 2009). It occurred in small groups and was reported to be tame (Dutson 2011).  <p></p>
106002625		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably caused by predation by feral dogs and especially cats (Tennent 2009), as suitable habitat remains on the island<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). <p></p>
106002626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often fairly common in hilly areas, but locally scarce (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002627		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon, although very common in the Sierra Madre in northern Luzon (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002630		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus. There are no protected areas in the archipelago. A project proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. In 1997, a public awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated. Haribon through the "EU-Integrating Forest Conservation with Local Governance in the Philippines (EU-IFCLGP, 2001-5)" project and the "CEPF-Threatened Species Programme (TSP, 2002-7)" initiated some activities in Tawitawi leading to future site-conservation actions.  A preliminary bio-physical survey and a participatory appraisal were conducted in the Municipality of Languyan in 2003.  A flyer using the results of the survey highlighting the threatened species of birds and other taxa was produced and widely distributed to schools, LGUs and local communities (B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct an intensive survey in remaining forests to identify further key sites. Determine its ecological requirements, particularly tolerance of degraded habitats. Urgently protect remaining forest and any other areas of habitat found to support the species. Incorporate protective measures relevant to the species within conservation funding proposals for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, as and where appropriate. Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes in the Sulu archipelago. Encourage the participation of local people in research and conservation actions and provide relevant training.<br/><p></p>
106002630		distribution	eng	<em> Phapitreron cinereiceps</em> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is restricted to the island of Tawitawi and adjacent Sanga-sanga (Collar<em> et al.</em> 1999). On Tawitawi, there are recent records from four sites, including Languyan, Lubbuk and Tarawakan. On Sanga-sanga, it was recorded at one site in c.1987, but is almost certainly extinct there as the island retains virtually no forest. It was common at Tarawakan in 1996 and early 2008 (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). The Tawitawi population is assumed to be very small, but the species is apparently shy and, as such, may not be as rare as feared. An estimated 250-300 km<sup>2</sup> of forest remained on Tawitawi some time prior to 2001, although much of this has been selectively logged (Mallari <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. The species was heard there regularly in both primary and secondary forest during a field visit in January 2012 (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The rate at which remaining tracts have been cleared for oil-palm plantations is thought to be lower than was feared previously, but it is still presumably being degraded very rapidly.<br/><p></p>
106002630		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, including beach mangroves with mixed primary and secondary growth, and has been noted to be common in very logged forest on Tawitawi (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008), suggesting a substantial tolerance to habitat degradation. Likewise, during a field visit to Tawitawi in January 2012, the species was heard, and seemed more common in forest edge and secondary forest, compared with primary forest (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is unlikely to be altitudinally restricted, as the maximum elevation on Tawitawi is c.500 m.<br/><p></p>
106002630		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002630		threats	eng	In 1994, remaining primary forest on Tawitawi and adjacent islands was being rapidly cleared, and the remaining areas of forest were highly degraded and recently logged (Mallari <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. In 1996, there were plans to replace even these with oil-palm plantations. Logging of the few remaining tracts, now confined to rugged, mountainous areas, is likely to be followed by uncontrolled settlement and conversion to agriculture. Illegal logging remains rampant, particularly in the north-eastern part of Tawi-tawi Island in Barangay Himba, Municipality of Tandubas, followed by forest clearance for cassava plantation. Harvesting of poles and boles for fuelwood and stilt-house building are also continuing activities especially in the islands of Simunul and Mantabuan (B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A new emerging threat, particularly in the Municipality of Languyan, is mining. Only very small areas of heavily degraded low-stature forest remain on Sanga-sanga. Hunting and trapping remain considerable threats to the species. It appears that environmental laws are not strictly or effectively enforced (B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106002631		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends.  Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of primary forest throughout its range.  <p></p>
106002631		distribution	eng	<em>Treron fulvicollis</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (recorded once in the last fifty years, a male at Ko Pratong in 2003 <strong></strong>[Anon 2003]), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> (non-breeding visitor), <strong>Brunei </strong>(very uncommon) and Kalimantan (where not uncommon) and Sumatra (including the Riau and Lingga archipelagos, Bangka, Belitung, Siberut and Nias islands), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
106002631		habitat	eng	It occurs in freshwater swamp forest, peatswamp forest, mangroves, coastal forest, open scrub and secondary growth, including wooded gardens, to 1,200 m. Non-breeders occasionally visit higher elevation dry land forests.  <p></p>
106002631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare, although common in some areas of swamp forest in southern Borneo (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106002631		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106002632		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Sumatra and Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002633		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually uncommon, although abundant in parts of Sri Lanka and fairly common in east Java and northern Bali (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002635		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon, although locally rare in Thailand and the Philippines (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002637		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, especially in lowland areas (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002638		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded recently in the Wolo Tadho Strict Nature Reserve and in Keli Mutu National Park, which is protected for its spectacular crater lakes.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution, status and ecological requirements, such that an effective management strategy may be compiled. Promote the establishment of appropriately sited protected areas, including at Ria on Flores, and Selalu Legini and Gunung Olet Sangenges on Sumbawa. Initiate conservation awareness campaigns on Sumbawa and Flores to elicit local support for forest protection and reduced hunting, as part of a broader strategy for conserving endemic fauna and flora on the islands. <p></p>
106002638		distribution	eng	<em>Treron floris</em> is endemic to Nusa Tenggara, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, where it is known from the islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Besar, Solor, Lembata, Pantar and Alor, and may also occur on some other Flores Sea islands (BirdLife International 2001). It has been reported from Komodo where high elevation forest may support a small population (C. Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Recent records derive from Sumbawa, where it is rare and local, Flores, where it is generally uncommon but locally numerous around fruiting trees, particularly in the centre where flocks in the tens have been seen quite regularly, Lembata, where it was recorded in small numbers (2-10 birds) in 2000 and 2009 (C. Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2002, 2012), Alor, where flocks of 30-50 have been observed and it may be locally common (C. Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2002) and Pantar (F. verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002638		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland, moist and dry, deciduous monsoon-forest, including forest edge and patchy, dry forest/savanna, and more rarely (or at lower densities in) semi-evergreen forest, from sea-level to 1,000 m (on Flores), but only to 550 m on Sumbawa. It is a frugivore, and a key habitat feature may be the presence of certain species of fig (although it is known to take other fruit), particularly as it was absent from moist deciduous monsoon-forest that lacked fig trees. It may be nomadic in relation to the fruiting cycles within (and conceivably between) its island ranges. <p></p>
106002638		population	eng	It is apparently uncommon on Sumbawa and Flores. A rough estimate based on recent survey results suggests there are fewer than 2,000 birds on Flores. It is frequent on several smaller islands - Alor might have a substantial population, but Besar and probably Lembata would have in the order of hundreds of birds only.  Therefore, the global population is unlikely to exceed 5,000 individuals. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002638		threats	eng	Although it appears fairly tolerant of forest degradation, and of drier formations, it is basically forest-dependent and habitat loss is the main threat it faces. Forest clearance, as a result of shifting agriculture, and the practice of burning in the dry season, have had a major impact on natural vegetation across its range, while parts of south-west Sumbawa are threatened by a new gold and copper mine. Forest remnants are now largely confined to steep valleys and the highest peaks. Hunting is a further threat, although recent observations of birds close to villages on Lomblen and discussions with local people have indicated that hunting pressure is low-level <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt. </em>2002). Small numbers have been recorded in trade. <p></p>
106002639		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends.  Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. If relevant, control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of suitable forest throughout its range.  <p></p>
106002639		distribution	eng	<em>Treron teysmannii</em> is restricted to Sumba, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where the population in the early 1990s was estimated to be somewhat larger than 14,000 birds and presumably declining with forest clearance (BirdLife International 2001). <p></p>
106002639		habitat	eng	It occurs at all altitudes in open forest, particularly disturbed areas with tall trees (although this might reflect a greater ease of detection in such habitats). <p></p>
106002639		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated as 14,000 individuals (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).
106002639		threats	eng	Continued deforestation is presumably causing this species to decline. The extent and effects, if any, of hunting are not known.  <p></p>
106002640		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent surveys have identified several areas in West Timor to be of conservation importance to the island's endemic avifauna, one of which, Bipolo (although now only c.2 km<sup>2</sup>), supports the species and another, Camplong, did until very recently. Another site, Gunung Timau, is subject to an initiative to include it within the Gunung Mutis protected area. Recent surveys in Timor-Leste have located it at approximately ten sites <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The recently designated Nino Konis Santana National Park supports a population estimated to number in the low hundreds <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys for the species using tape playback in remaining monsoon-forest tracts in Timor-Leste (when security problems allow) and West Timor, to assess its current distribution, movements, ecological constraints, status and threats <strong></strong>(Mauro 2003). Propose key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. Strongly support initiatives to establish a nature reserve encompassing Gunung Mutis and Gunung Timau. Initiate conservation awareness programmes to elicit local support for forest conservation and reduce pigeon hunting. <p></p>
106002640		distribution	eng	<em>Treron psittaceus</em> is endemic to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, West Timor and its satellite islands, Semau (although there are no recent data) and Roti, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it appears to be uncommon or rare, and apparently very local (BirdLife International 2001). It has been infrequently recorded during recent fieldwork, although it is perhaps overlooked owing to its inconspicuous and very wary disposition. It is thought to have declined recently throughout West Timor, but is more common in Timor-Leste <strong></strong>(Trainor <em>et al. </em>2004), being described as scarce to moderately common at all locations visited during survey work in 2003 <strong></strong>(Mauro 2003). Flocks of 50 birds and exceptionally 140 have been recorded in Timor recently and one record of a bird well away from forest indicates it may tolerate degraded habitat <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). On Roti it is apparently rare—the first was recorded in 1969 (Mees 1975), subsequently one bird was observed north-west of Sipu in 2004 (Trainor 2005) and two birds were seen near Daurendale hamlet (Sotimori village, East Roti) in August 2009 (F. Verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106002640		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and tall secondary, lowland dry and monsoon-forest, mostly in the extreme lowlands, straggling up to 1,000 m <strong></strong>(Mauro 2003, Trainor and Soares 2004, C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is likely to be nomadic in response to the fruiting cycle of figs, and is usually encountered in small flocks containing tens of birds, exceptionally up to 140 individuals <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106002640		population	eng	The species occurs very patchily and is absent from areas of apparently suitable habitat. It's global population is precautionarily estimated to lie within the band 1,000-3,000 individuals (C. Trainor <em>in litt.</em> 2012), roughly equivalent to 660-2,000 mature individuals.
106002640		threats	eng	Loss of monsoon-forest has been severe in its range, and together, this and hunting represent the greatest threats to the species. The mountains of Timor-Leste were heavily deforested early in the 20th century, but habitat destruction has recently accelerated: an estimated 50% decline in remaining montane forest-cover occurred during Indonesian rule (1975-1999). Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in around seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to intensive grazing and burning. Pigeons (including this species) are hunted extensively in Timor and have been in preceding decades during military occupation; the species is considered delicious and guns are widely available <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is a principal target of hunters on Roti where hunting pressure is intense (Trainor 2005).<p></p>
106002641		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in several protected areas, including Taman Negara (Malaysia), Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks (Kalimantan), Gunung Leuser and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks (Sumatra), and Gunung Mulu (Sarawak). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct comprehensive surveys to establish its current distribution and status, and gather data on its movements and ecological requirements. Formulate a management strategy for Sundaic birds largely reliant on lowland forest. Promote effective management of existing protected areas in the Sundaic region and the expansion of the protected area network. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forests throughout its range. <p></p>
106002641		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Treron capellei</span> occurs from peninsular <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand </span>and Peninsular <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malaysia </span>to Borneo (including Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia, and Kalimantan, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>), and the Indonesian island of Sumatra (BirdLife International 2001). It was once widely distributed and at least locally very common, but serious declines have taken place, such that it is now highly local and scarce. There are no recent records from Myanmar or Java. In the early twentieth century, flocks of 200–300 birds were reported as normal in Peninsular Malaysia (BirdLife International 2001). Regular flocks of 20-30 birds in Taman Negara, and reports that it remains locally common in Belum Temenggor, suggest that sizable populations may still persist within large forest blocks in Malaysia (Yeap Chin Aik<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007, Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press). The species was absent from several recent surveys in Kalimantan (eg. Meier 2005, Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Sheldon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010), or recorded in small number (Slik and Balen 2006, Wielstra and Pieterse 2009, Wielstra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, Woxvold and Noske 2011). However, 48 birds were reported roosting on the edge of secondary forest in East Kalimantan in November 2011 and up to 25 were seen at a logging concession in Melawi district, west Kalimantan in March 2011 (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). At least 50 birds were observed inside the Danum Valley conservation area, Sabah in May 2009 (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). Little is known about its status on Sumatra, however, a flock of more than 40 birds was observed at Way Kambas National Park in May 2006 (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).<br/><p></p>
106002641		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and logged evergreen rainforest, almost exclusively in the lowlands, rarely ascending foothills to 1,500 m. Small flocks visit fruiting trees (usually figs <em>Ficus</em> spp.) and are generally encountered high in the canopy. It is largely sedentary, although populations may fluctuate in response to fruiting cycles, and nocturnal movements have been noted. <p></p>
106002641		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002641		threats	eng	Massive declines in the population of this species are presumably occurring in the face of habitat loss. Huge areas of lowland forest were removed from its range during the 20th century, chiefly through logging, conversion to agriculture and fire. For example, Kalimantan lost almost 25% of its cover between 1985 and 1997, and Sumatra lost 30% in the same period, suggesting that virtually all original lowland habitat may disappear in the near future, unless preventative measures can be implemented effectively. A similar scenario faces all other range states. Major fires in Borneo and Sumatra continue to affect enormous areas of forest while industrial-scale illegal logging is rampant in almost all "protected" areas. A secondary threat is imposed by widespread high levels of hunting. <p></p>
106002642		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002645		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in Obo Natural Park, although there is no law enforcement within these areas and the lack of data about the species's ecological requirements makes it difficult to assess the benefits of these areas. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas has been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009, 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure designated protected areas are actively protected. List it as a protected species under national law. <p></p>
106002645		distribution	eng	<em>Treron sanctithomae</em> is endemic to the island of São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe </strong>(and formerly also nearby Ilhéu das Rolas). It was formerly abundant and remains common at some fruiting trees in forests and less well-visited plantation areas, but is now nearly absent from the most populated northeast of the island (R. F. de Lima <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with apparently reduced numbers at areas such as Lagoa Amelia and Monte Carmo, and hunters reporting capture rates less than half of those five years previously (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009, 2011; <strong></strong>M. Carvalho <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002645		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical and subtropical forest, tolerating forest fragmentation and also occurring in plantations, and is found from sea-level to 1,600 m but is more common above 300 m (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997; Gibbs <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is generally sedentary but makes local elevational movements. Breeding has been recorded from November to April-May, with the nest built up to 3 m above the ground on a horizontal branch or in a tree fork (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997; Gibbs <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a frugivore, feeding mainly in the canopy on a variety of fruits, particularly figs. <p></p>
106002645		population	eng	The population is suspected to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (R. F. de Lima in litt. 2011). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002645		threats	eng	Hunting represents the primary threat to the species. which is caught for consumption in rural communities and by commercial hunters to sell to bars in the capital. Some commercial hunters can kill large numbers at a time, e.g. around 30 killed and a further 30 wounded in a single morning's hunting trip (R. F. de Lima <em>in litt. </em>2011; R. Rocha <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting pressure is much greater in accessible habitats, and the species is easy to catch with slingshots or air guns<span style="font-weight: bold;"> (</span><strong></strong>M. Carvalho <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat loss is believed to have driven the disappearance of the species from Ilhéu das Rolas. <p></p>
106002646		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Protected areas on Pemba include Ngezi-Vumawinbi Nature Reserve, Msitu Mkuu Forest Reserve and Ras Kiuyu Proposed Forest Reserve (Siex 2011). There are also 13 community forests which include 'high protection' and 'low impact use' zones (Siex 2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess its population size. Once a baseline estimate of the population size has been obtained, continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Combine research into habitat loss and population trends with in-depth ecological studies of the species. Control illegal activities within the Forest Reserves (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Improve sustainable tourism facilities at Ngezi Nature Reserve (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Protect additional areas of forest and off-shore islands (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Encourage the planting of suitable fruiting trees, especially in tourist areas (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Promote sensitive tourist development (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Carry out survey work to determine if there is potential to restore connectivity of forest patches via enrichment planting (Siex 2011).   <p></p>
106002646		distribution	eng	<em>Treron pembaensis</em> is endemic to Pemba and adjacent offshore coral islets, some 55 km off the coast of northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Although occurring over most of the island, it is most common in the two small remaining native forests; Ngezi (14 km<sup>2</sup>) and Msitu Mkuu (3 km<sup>2</sup>) <strong></strong>(Catry <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Given the rarity of the species within its range (A. Sander <em>in litt.</em> 2004; M. Virani<em> in litt.</em> 2005; J. Wolstencroft <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2007)<strong></strong>, the global population size is believed to be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, although it has been suggested that the total population may actually number fewer than 500 individuals (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be declining slightly owing to slow habitat conversion. <p></p>
106002646		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a number of forested habitats, including secondary growth, clove plantations, and gardens, but is much more common in native, primary forest. It feeds on a variety of fruit high in the canopy. Breeding has been recorded from October to February, with nests found even near human habitation or in plantations (B. Peters <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The flimsy nest platform is made of twigs, and contains one or two eggs. <p></p>
106002646		population	eng	Recent visitors to Pemba have struggled to find this species, which now appears to be rather rare (A. Sander <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Virani<em> in litt.</em> 2005, J. Wolstencroft <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2007, N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Population estimate = 5-8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 400 km<sup>2</sup> (45% of EOO) = 2,000-3,200 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of six congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals at present: this estimate requires validation, and direct information on area of suitable habitat, population densities in various habitats, and total population size may lead to adjustment of this estimate up or down. The estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002646		threats	eng	Decreasing world clove prices led to the conversion of some old clove plantations (which offered suitable habitat) to open farmland growing rice and cassava (<strong></strong>Catry <em>et al.</em> 2000, Virani 2005, M. Virani<em> in litt.</em> 2005, J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Low-statue coral rag woodland, marginal agricultural land and dry scrub are also being cleared for cultivation (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Wooded knolls and extensively managed plantations, where the species could occur, are in decline (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The human population of Pemba continues to rise (400 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, and increasing by 5% per year, Siex 2011), and although agriculture remains small-scale the need for crop-land is intensifying rapidly (J. Wolstencroft<em> in litt</em>. 2007, N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2102)<strong></strong>. The  vast majority of the human population is dependent upon shifting cultivation and forest  products, such as building poles, firewood, and charcoal. Due to the high price of  electricity, even the urban population is heavily reliant on firewood  and charcoal for cooking, and Zanzibar as a whole is losing an estimated 1.2 percent of its forest each year, leading to increasing  fragmentation and rapidly diminishing any potential to maintain and restore connectivity of forest patches (Siex 2011). Some native forest has also been converted to rubber plantation (Virani 2005)<strong></strong>. Ras Kiuyu forest has been heavily exploited for building materials, lime burning and fuel wood (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005, N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Msitu Mkuu Forest Reserve is subject to illegal exploitation (A. Hija <em>in litt.</em> 2005, N<strong></strong>. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Non-native House Crows <em>Corvus splendens</em> may also predate nests (F. Reid <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.<br/>  <p></p>
106002647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002649		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends.  Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. If relevant, control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of primary montane forest across its altitudinal range.  <p></p>
106002649		distribution	eng	<em>Treron oxyurus</em> is restricted to Sumatra (350-1,800 m) and West Java (600-3,000 m), <strong>Indonesia</strong>; although formerly considered locally common, it is now apparently very hard to find on both islands (BirdLife International 2001). <p></p>
106002649		habitat	eng	It occurs in hill and montane forest, to 1,800 m in Sumatra and to 3,000 m in Java, where it keeps high in the canopy (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Breeding has been recorded during January in Sumatra and during June in Java (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).&#160; <p></p>
106002649		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although generally scarce on Sumatra and very rare on Java (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106002649		threats	eng	Destruction of its preferred habitat has been widespread in the lower parts of its elevation range, and it is now rather scarce.  <p></p>
106002650		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002651		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002652		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very rare (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while national population estimates include: &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs and &lt;   c.50 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in   Taiwan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002653		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends.  Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Where relevant, control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of suitable forest across its altitudinal range.  <p></p>
106002653		distribution	eng	<em>Treron formosae</em>, considered a small-island specialist, nests in the Nansei Shoto islands of <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and the Batanes islands north of Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>; it is uncommon and local on the Batanes, rare in Taiwan and common only in the Nansei Shoto (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
106002653		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical broadleaved evergreen forest, cultivated fields where there are trees nearby, and even towns where there are gardens, mainly on small islands but at up to 2,000 m in Taiwan.  <p></p>
106002653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare on Taiwan, uncommon on the Batanes islands and common in the Ryukyu islands (Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2001). Brazil (2009) has estimated national population sizes at riukiuensis) and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan.<br/><br/>The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare   on Taiwan, uncommon on the Batanes islands and common in the Ryukyu islands   (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Brazil (2009) has estimated national   population sizes at &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and (for the   subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">riukiuensis</span>) and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs in Japan.
106002653		threats	eng	In the Philippines, threats presumably comprise deforestation and hunting while commercial development through tourism is an imminent threat to Mt Irada. Threats elsewhere are poorly known.  <p></p>
106002654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon, although locally abundant in suitable habitat in Sumatra and uncommon in Java and Bali (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002656		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Populations occur in the recently established Manupeu-Tanahdaru and Laiwangi-Wanggameti National Parks (1,350 km<sup>2</sup> combined). These protected areas are the result of recommendations derived from recent surveys for this and other threatened and/or endemic species. Plans to designate further protected areas are underway. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed research into the ecology of the species in order to develop an effective management strategy. Gazette strict nature reserves at Yawila, Puronumbu and Luku Melolo, a wildlife sanctuary at Lulundilo and a forest park at Tanjung Ngunju. Support efforts to establish and manage further protected areas. Conduct conservation awareness programmes to reduce hunting. <p></p>
106002656		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus dohertyi</em> is endemic to the island of Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally scarce, locally moderately common, but unobtrusive and easily overlooked. Fieldwork in 1989 and 1992 yielded density estimates of 6.9 (±1.2) birds per km<sup>2</sup>. Given 1,080 km<sup>2</sup> of closed-canopy forest on Sumba, this was extrapolated and corrected upwards to a global population estimate of 9,100 birds. <p></p>
106002656		habitat	eng	It inhabits both primary and secondary, tropical montane rainforest, sometimes "on the near-vertical walls of limestone gorges", usually at relatively high altitude, but exceptionally down to 160&#160;m. It is tolerant of moderate degradation, and generally found in the canopy and middle storey, often foraging for fruit in the outer foliage (it is chiefly, if not exclusively, frugivorous). It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements. <p></p>
106002656		population	eng	The global population has been estimated to number c.9,100 individuals (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), roughly equivalent to c.6,000 mature individuals.  <p></p>
106002656		threats	eng	Habitat<strong> </strong>destruction and fragmentation, stemming from small-scale logging, fuelwood-collection and clearance for cultivation or pasture, pose the main threats. These pressures are exacerbated by fires resulting from an extremely dry climate and uncontrolled burning of grasslands to encourage new growth for grazing. Since the 19th century, c.60% of forest has been lost. However, the reliance of this species on montane forest and partial tolerance of habitat degradation suggest that it is perhaps secure. Hunting is a potential further threat. <p></p>
106002658		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> It is known from two protected areas, Mt Pulog National Park (which lacks effective protection) and the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. There are also historical records from several areas now afforded national park status, including Maria Aurora Memorial National Park, Mt Bicol and Mt Banahaw/San Cristobal, although it is unclear what protection this classification confers. In the 1990s, the species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys to identify and prioritise additional key sites supporting important populations. Intensively research its movements and basic ecological requirements to help clarify its conservation needs. Formally propose key sites (e.g. Mts Cetaceo and Polis) for protected status. Promote stricter enforcement of legislation designed to curtail hunting and trade. <p></p>
106002658		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus marchei</em> is endemic to the island of Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs chiefly in the northern provinces (Collar<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> <em>et al.</em></strong> 1999). It is known from at least 17 sites, with records from at least 11 since 1980. It was considered to be fairly common in the Abra highlands and on Mts Sicapo-o and Data during the 1940s and 1950s. However, it was uncommon or rare in the Sierra Madre mountains, except at Los Dos Cuernos, during surveys in the early 1990s. There are recent records from Balbalsang, Kalinga province (where apparently fairly common), Mt Data (where rare; possibly only two pairs), Mt Polis (presumably breeds) and Mt Amuyao (where heavily hunted) (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Familiarity with its call might reveal a greater abundance. <p></p>
106002658		habitat	eng	It is known from 450-1,500&#160;m, with a lower limit in the Sierra Madre of 850&#160;m, and one record from 2,300&#160;m. It inhabits lowland and hill dipterocarp forest and mid-montane forest, with occasional records from stunted montane or mossy forest. It probably prefers primary forest above 1,000&#160;m, is apparently unrecorded from secondary forest, and is seemingly unable to survive in selectively logged areas. It undertakes some seasonal movements, probably following fruiting trees.<p></p>
106002658		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002658		threats	eng	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are the chief threats, compounded by hunting for food and probably sport, and collection for trade (e.g. birds were being sold openly in several markets in 1994). Forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s and most remaining areas are under logging concessions and may suffer further from major road-building plans. Little or no undegraded habitat remains at key sites such as Mts Data, Polis and Cetaceo, and quarrying and unregulated seasonal tourism threaten remaining forest on Mt Banahaw. <p></p>
106002659		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends.  Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of suitable primary forest across its range.  <p></p>
106002659		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus merrilli</em> is endemic to Luzon and to two of its satellites, Polillo and Catanduanes, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs as two races, <em>faustinoi</em> north of Quiriñon and nominate <em>merrilli</em> south of Quiriñon (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Despite being considered rare, nomadic and under pressure from hunting, the total number of localities for the species is at least 24 and it appears to be fairly common, even in ultrabasic forest, and in 1996 it was found to be abundant on Patnanungan island in the Polillo group. It may prove to be substantially overlooked.  <p></p>
106002659		habitat	eng	This frugivorous species is found chiefly in primary and selectively logged forest up to 1,300 m in the Sierra Madre (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). One nest was found in May 1997 and contained a single egg (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).  <p></p>
106002659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally and generally rare although locally common in the Sierra Madre and on Patnanungan island (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002659		threats	eng	Habitat destruction (presumably through logging and agricultural expansion) and hunting pressure are substantial threats. <p></p>
106002660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in parts of the Sierra Madre and on Bohol island (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002662		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted in-situ conservation actions are known of, although the species occurs in a number of protected areas and will benefit from reforestation projects and efforts to increase the coverage of protected areas. The species has been kept in zoos affiliated to the Association of Zoos and Aquariums since the early 1980s, with 22 of these institutions currently holding birds, although successful breeding is currently only achieved by a few captive pairs (J. Pribble <em>in litt</em>. 2009).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Where relevant, control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of suitable primary forest across its range.  <p></p>
106002662		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus jambu</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> (scarce and irregular non-breeding visitor), Kalimantan, Sumatra and West Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001).&#160;  <p></p>
106002662		habitat	eng	This frugivorous species inhabits evergreen and mangrove forests to c.1,600 m (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). It is known to take fallen fruits from the ground as well as directly from branches. Seasonal and fruiting-related movements have been noted. Breeding takes place from November to February and in July (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). <br/><p></p>
106002662		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally and seasonally common and very rare in Java (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002662		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
106002663		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil   2009).
106002664		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Where relevant, control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of primary lowland forest across its range.  <p></p>
106002664		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus subgularis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>epia</em>), the Banggai Islands (race <em>subgularis</em>) and Sula Islands (race <em>mangoliensis</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is moderately common (BirdLife International 2001). It is much less common at the upper end of its elevation range.<em> </em><p></p>
106002664		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in primary forest, but also some secondary and disturbed forest from the lowlands up to 800 m on Sulawesi, and a little higher (900 m) in the Banggai Islands and Sula Islands.  <p></p>
106002664		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon, although easily over-looked (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002664		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and is likely to continue, and its population must be suffering an on-going decline.<em> </em> <p></p>
106002665		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to moderately common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002667		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, especially at lower altitudes (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002669		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>None is known.    </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Effectively protect lowland rainforest. Conduct social surveys to determine the extent of hunting, and consider measures to reduce hunting pressure.     </P>
106002669		distribution	eng	<I>Ptilinopus tannensis</I> is endemic to <B>Vanuatu</B> where it occurs on most islands. In Loru Protected Area on Espirito Santo, its population density was estimated to be 14 birds per km<SUP>2 </SUP> (Bowen 1997), and it was recently found to be very common in all habitats and at all altitudinal levels (Barr&eacute; <I>et al.</I> 2006), but it may be less common elsewhere, especially in the southern islands (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998).<I>
106002669		habitat	eng	It inhabits old-growth rainforest, and also degraded habitats with large fruiting trees, including open woodland, parkland, plantations and gardens. It is most common in the lowlands and hills, but is also present in mountains to at least 1500 m (G. Dutson <I>in litt.</I>2008).
106002669		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on most islands in its range, although rare on Aneityum, and recent observations on Santo found it to be very common in all habitats and at all altitudinal levels.
106002669		threats	eng	All lowland forests in Vanuatu are threatened by commercial logging and the species is therefore suspected to be slowly declining owing to a loss of large fruiting trees (G. Dutson <I>in litt.</I>2008). It has been suggested that overhunting is a threat but there is currently no evidence to support this (G. Dutson <I>in litt.</I>2008).
106002670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002674		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size and determine its abundance in different forest types. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Where relevant, control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of lowland forest across its range.  <p></p>
106002674		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus monacha</em> is restricted to the North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits at least 13 islands (BirdLife International 2001). Although moderately common, it is mainly a small island and coastal specialist and is therefore likely to have a small population. <p></p>
106002674		habitat	eng	It frequents lowland forest up to 750 m, but seems to prefer, or is more easily detected in mangroves, coastal woodland and disturbed forest.  <p></p>
106002674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not very common on Halmahera, although locally or seasonally frequent. The population in the proposed Lolobata Reserve in north-east Halmahera is estimated as 8,700 individuals (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002674		threats	eng	It suffers from substantial habitat loss within its range.<em> </em><p></p>
106002675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002677		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002678		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recent "Promoting Protection through Pride" campaign on Rota has resulted in legislation fully protecting the species from hunting and trapping (T. Holm <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. A brown tree-snake barrier was constructed at the port on Tinian and plans are underway to build a barrier at the port on Rota to support interdiction efforts (<strong></strong>Amindon <em>in litt. </em>2007, Hawley <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  The Mariana fruit dove captive breeding program began in 1993 under the umbrella of the Mariana Archipelago Rescue &amp; Survey (MARS) program and has now evolved into Mariana Avifauna Conservation Program (MAC) (H. Roberts<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. in litt.</span> 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Control <em>Boiga irregularis </em>population by trapping and monitor its spread on Saipan. Take precautions to prevent the introduction of <em>B. irregularis</em> onto Tinian and Rota, such as traps and monitoring around the airport and harbour (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Formulate species management plan and consider introduction to snake-free islands. Monitor populations on Saipan to assess population trend following introduction of <em>B. irregularis.  </em>Control the spread of introduced plant species, especially <em>Leucaena.  </em>Implement an education program to help control hunting and limit habitat destruction.   <p></p>
106002678		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus roseicapilla</em> is fairly common on four islands in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, where it is primarily a bird of mature forest although it is also found in some moderately disturbed mixed woodland and second growth habitats (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982, Jenkins 1983, Craig 1996)<strong></strong>. It has become extirpated from Guam (to USA) owing to predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis,</em> and although single birds turn up once every few years, these are almost certainly individuals dispersing from the island of Rota, 60 km to the north (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In 1982, the total population was estimated at 9,443 birds, with 2,541 on Saipan, 3,075 on Tinian, 3,535 on Rota and 292 on Aguijan (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>. Surveys conducted over the last decade indicate that the species has increased on Aguijan (data from 2008 [Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep]), declined on Rota (data from 2003 [Amar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008]) and Tinian (data from 2008, [Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press]), and appears stable on Saipan (data from 2007 [Camp<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009]). A recent "Promoting Protection through Pride" campaign on Rota has resulted in legislation fully protecting the species from hunting and trapping (T. Holm <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. However, the species must be affected by habitat loss and is at great risk from the recent introduction of <em>B. irregularis</em> to Saipan, and the likely introduction to Tinian.  <p></p>
106002678		habitat	eng	This species eats a variety of fruit from the forest canopy (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong> particularly from native <em>Ficus </em>spp. and <em>Premna obtusifolia </em>trees. It may also descend to feed in bushes or on the ground, where it takes the fruits of the introduced prostrate vine <em>Momordica charantia </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found in a variety of forest types but appears more common in limestone forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Craig 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and to prefer mature native forest (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Aguijan it is found in heavily grazed forest and on Tinian in the scrubland of introduced <em>Leucaena </em>trees. It seems to breed all year round with a peak in breeding activity and consequently population size during April-July (Craig 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays one egg in a nest approximately 2.8 m from the ground (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106002678		population	eng	The population was estimated at 9,443 birds in 1982, consisting of 2,541 on Saipan, 3,075 on Tinian, 3,535 on Rota and 292 on Aguijan. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here, equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002678		threats	eng	Persistent reports from the island of Saipan suggest that the brown tree snake may be in the process of becoming established on the island <span style="">(</span>Rodd and Savidge 2007<span style="">),</span> and has also been detected on Tinian and Rota (A. Saunders <em>in litt.</em> 2003, Williams 2004). Although it appears to not yet be established on Tinian and Rota (<strong></strong>Amindon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, there is a risk it may be in the future since tourism development on Tinian necessitates the importation of large amounts of building materials (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Unless the snake can be controlled on Guam and Saipan and prevented from becoming established on Tinian and Rota, the populations on three islands are likely to be extirpated rapidly. Other threats include the spread of introduced plant species, especially <em>Leucaena</em>, habitat destruction and hunting (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <p></p>
106002679		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although possibly only a seasonal visitor to New Caledonia  (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002680		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant within its restricted range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002683		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species perhaps marginally benefits from conservation measures carried out for the Rarotonga Flycatcher<em> Pomarea dimidiata </em>(classified as Endangered) in the south-east of the island. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and monitor the species on both islands to establish numbers and trends. Research its immediate conservation requirements (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including foraging and dietary studies (Steadman and Freifeld 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Take measures to ensure that alien species are not accidentally introduced, especially<em> R. rattus</em> on Atiu. Consider translocation to Mangaia (Steadman and Freifeld 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002683		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus rarotongensis</em> survives only on Rarotonga (where it is moderately common) (G. McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Atiu, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, but was once more widespread given early historic records from Aitutaki and Mauke, and fossils from Mangaia (Steadman 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1987, the population on Rarotonga was estimated at fewer than 100 individuals, but it was apparently common on Atiu (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It now appears more common on both islands, with the population on Rarotonga probably exceeding 500 individuals and with perhaps twice that present on Atiu G. (McCormack 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 2002,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>McCormack <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is no evidence of inter-island movements (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002683		habitat	eng	On Rarotonga, it is commonest in hillside and upland forest, often visiting the horticultural lowland areas. On Atiu, it is found in a wide variety of wooded habitats, including the fringes of plantations as well as forest growing on the makatea (a raised coral limestone platform) (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987, Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is primarily frugivorous but has also been reported to peck small insects from foliage (Baptista <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002683		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002683		threats	eng	There is no evidence that the black rat<em> Rattus rattus</em>, which is present on Rarotonga, poses any threat to this species. The introduction of exotic avian diseases to which local birds have no immunity, although unlikely, is another possible threat (McCormack 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the introduced Common Myna<em> Acridotheres tristis</em> is likely to reduce the nesting success of this species in horticultural and village areas it does not penetrate into heavily forested areas.  Habitat destruction is likely to be a fairly minor threat at present since most native forest required for horticulture and housing was cleared a long time ago.  <p></p>
106002684		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Proposals have been made to protect the Hiri Valley and to consider captive breeding (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Guava trees have recently become established on the island, these may reduce the impact of cattle grazing on the species's habitat and provide a new food source (J. Millet <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Re-survey the population.  Study the level of use of <em>P. cattleianum </em>and its impacts on occupancy and population trends. Discuss with the local community the possibility of establishing a protected area in the upland forests <strong></strong>- if agreement is reached, fence forest remnants to reduce grazing pressure (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Reduce goat numbers (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Exclude fires from upland areas (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Consider the possibility of translocation to another island to establish a second population (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Investigate the impact of cats and rats on the species, and take precautions to prevent invasion by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>.  As a precaution, establish a captive population.   <p></p>
106002684		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus huttoni</em> is endemic to the tiny island of Rapa in the Tubuai Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where its population was estimated at 274 individuals (175-368) in 1989-1990 (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it is probable that the area of available habitat has diminished during the 20th century and this may have caused a decrease in population, in 1991 there was thought to have been no serious decline since 1974 (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The situation now is thought to be much the same (J. Millet <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the introduction of the Chinese guava <em>Psidium cattleianum </em>may have provided an additional food source and be causing the population to increase, although surveys are needed to confirm this (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002684		habitat	eng	Although once thought to be confined to remaining undisturbed forest fragments in valleys and mountains between 40 and 450 m (292 ha in 1991), and not able to utilise coastal vegetation or secondary forest (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, it has been seen in pine plantations and may feed on the introduced Chinese guava <em>Psidium cattleianum </em>(P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fleshy fruit and nectar from flowers (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002684		population	eng	A population estimate of 270-274 individuals is taken from figures published in Thibault and Varney (1991). This is roughly equivalent to 180 mature individuals.
106002684		threats	eng	Destruction and degradation of forest by goats, cattle, fires (used to control fernland and increase grazing land) and felling are the main threats. Predation by feral cats and Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans </em>are possible threats, while hunting for food by local inhabitants is no longer a threat owing to an improvement in the standard of living on the island (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002685		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002686		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2009 and early 2010, the species was surveyed on Niau (G. Albar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Quantitative observations are expected to be published in 2011.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat destruction. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Take measures to prevent the introduction of black rats to atolls inhabited by the species. Control hunting of this, and other Columbids throughout its range. Prevent habitat destruction on atolls.     <p></p>
106002686		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus coralensis</em> is widespread throughout the islands of the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. It is likely to occur at low densities throughout its range as its preferred food resources are scarce (J.-C. Thibault <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In a recent survey it was found to be uncommon on five out of eight islands visited, but others have found it to be abundant on some atolls which have remained free from the ravages of introduced predators (Blainvillain <em>et al.</em> 1999,<strong></strong> Blainvillain <em>et al.</em> submitted)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002686		habitat	eng	It is the only fruit-dove in the tropical Pacific adapted exclusively to low coral atolls, where it inhabits forest and abandoned coconut plantations, feeding on insects and seeds, usually on the ground (Holyoak and Thibault 1984,<strong></strong> Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in some areas and scarce in others (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002686		threats	eng	Predation by introduced rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) is a threat on a small number of atolls (Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the species is vulnerable to habitat destruction including the exploitation of coconut plantations (Blainvillain <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also reported to be rather tame, and is rare on inhabited islands, so hunting may also be a threat.   <p></p>
106002687		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Work was carried out in 2009 by Société d’Ornithologie de Polynésie Manu to determine the population size of the species through distance sampling (Albar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, 2010).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Assess the threat posed by introduced species. Consider captive breeding and translocation. <p></p>
106002687		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus chalcurus</em> is endemic to Makatea in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was found to be common in 1972 and 1986-1987 (Thibault and Guyot 1987)<strong></strong>, and may now even be increasing slightly owing to the cessation of mining activities (P. Raust<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The population was broadly estimated at 250-999 individuals based on density estimates for congeners in 2004. A survey in 2009 estimated the total population size at 444-2,219 individuals, based on density estimates (Albar<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009, 2010).<br/><p></p>
106002687		habitat	eng	It is found in all wooded habitats as well as dense forest in the south of the island, and is also present near villages (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>. It probably takes fruit from a wide variety of trees (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002687		population	eng	Albar <em>et al.</em> (2010) estimated the population to number 444-2,219 individuals in 2009. This is roughly equivalent to 290-1,500 mature individuals.
106002687		threats	eng	Although much forest was destroyed during the period 1917-1964, as a result of phosphate mining, the indigenous vegetation has recovered over the last 40 years and it appears that the mining did not change either the distribution or abundance of the species (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong>. However, Makatea is being considered for new mining activities, which may further affect the birds (Albar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). There is no hunting or disturbance (given that the human population is low) (P. Raust<em> in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Predation by introduced rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) may be a problem (Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong> although the species has coexisted with rats for several decades (J.-C. Thibault <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002688		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Following a feasibility study (Brooke and Towns 2008) a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island in August 2011 (J. Hall<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). A follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the rat eradication.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson.<p></p>
106002688		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus insularis</em> is confined to Henderson in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, a small uninhabited, raised-reef island in the south-central Pacific Ocean. In 1987, its population was estimated at c.3,420 birds (Graves 1992)<strong></strong> and, in 1992, using a different technique, at c.4,000; in 2003 there appeared to be no major change in the species' abundance (Brooke and Jones 1995, M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, likewise for 2012 (M. Brooke <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Numbers may be limited by food supply (Brooke and Jones 1995)<strong></strong> and<strong><sup> </sup></strong>are assumed to be stable. <p></p>
106002688		habitat	eng	The species inhabits interior forest, with dense understorey. It is a specialist frugivore (possibly territorial so that it can exploit fruits as they become available), foraging solitarily or in pairs (Brooke and Jones 1995)<strong></strong>. Research in 1991/1992 recorded 19 different plants in its diet, with <em>Procris pedunculata</em> constituting the major food. A preference for fruit with a high water content suggests that the species may rely on its food for obtaining water, especially during dry spells (as there is no permanent water on Henderson) (Brooke and Jones 1995)<strong></strong>. From two nests, each with a single egg recorded in March, the breeding season would appear to be at the beginning of the calendar year and clutch-size is probably one (Brooke and Jones 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002688		population	eng	Brooke and Jones (1995).  <p></p>
106002688		threats	eng	The species has apparently adapted to the presence of Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em>. In August 2011, a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island to eradicate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. exulans</span><em> </em>from the island (J. Hall <em>in litt</em>. 2012). However, the accidental introduction of a more aggressive predator, such as another <em>Rattus</em> species, could be devastating, and introduced diseases, such as avian malaria and pox, are another potential threat. The introduction of exotic plant species could have serious consequences for the native vegetation (Waldren <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong> and therefore for this species too.&#160;<p></p>
106002689		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus mercierii </em>was endemic to the<em> </em>Marquesas, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, with the nominate subspecies on Nuku Hiva and subspecies<em> tristrami</em> on Hiva Oa<strong></strong>. While the former is only known from the type collected during the 1836-1839 voyage of the Venus, the latter is known from at least 11 specimens, the last collected by the Whitney Expedition in 1922<strong> </strong>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984). The species was reported on Hiva Oa in 1980<strong> </strong>(Hay 1986), but this was probably a mistake<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <p></p>
106002689		habitat	eng	Its ecology is likely to have been similar to other members of the genus <em>Ptilinopus</em>.  <p></p>
106002689		threats	eng	Its extinction has been attributed to predation by the introduced Great Horned Owl <em>Bubo virginianus</em><strong> </strong>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984), as well as by introduced rats and cats<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). <p></p>
106002690		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002691		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in parts of the range and possibly vulnerable in part of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002693		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in parts of the range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002694		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect remaining areas of unlogged lowland rainforest. Survey to determine tolerance of logged forest. Conduct social surveys to determine the extent of hunting.   <p></p>
106002694		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus eugeniae</em> is endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) and nearby islets in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is fairly common in lowland forest but is less common in logged forest (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong> <strong></strong>G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998,<strong></strong> Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106002694		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest up to 700 m. It eats small seeded fruits and berries.   <p></p>
106002694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common, especially in foothills (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002694		threats	eng	Most of the lowland forest on Makira has been logged or is under logging concessions. It appears to tolerate logged forest well enough not to be threatened but this conclusion is based on relatively little fieldwork.  <p></p>
106002695		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002696		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted actions are known. There is a proposed protected area, Pulau Obi, on the island, although it remains to be determined whether this is the most appropriate area for the conservation of threatened and endemic avifauna. There is also a move to protect Danau Saku, a freshwater lake which is quite likely to host numbers of this pigeon in its fringing forests. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its current distribution, status and ecological requirements (particularly tolerance of habitat degradation). Investigate levels of hunting on Obi. Identify the most appropriate area for designation as a protected area, catering for this species and other endemic fauna. <p></p>
106002696		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus granulifrons</em> is endemic to the island of Obi, North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is widespread, generally scarce, but locally common, although like its congeners it is probably easily overlooked. <p></p>
106002696		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary, lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest and a mosaic of scrub and lightly wooded cultivation, from 40 m up to 550&#160;m, generally frequenting the canopy and subcanopy, where it feeds chiefly on fruit. It is assumed to be resident, but it may perhaps make local movements in response to fruiting events.<p></p>
106002696		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002696		threats	eng	Obi is a small island, and any deforestation would be problematic for this species, particularly given its predilection for lowland forest habitats. Much of the lower-lying forest has already been logged, much of the remainder is under logging concession, and illegal gold mining is reported to be destroying some areas of forest. Furthermore, areas proposed for protection only include land at 500 m and above. <p></p>
106002697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant on mainland New Guinea, common on Kariru island and scarce on other islands such as Karkar (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in lowland forest and less common at higher altitudes (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002699		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce but not rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002700		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002701		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The only record derives from Mt Canlaon Natural Park, which supports 115 km<sup>2</sup> of mainly montane forest. No other conservation measures are known to have been taken other than its depiction in the mid-1990s on a bilingual environmental education poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Comprehensively survey all suitable lowland to mid-montane forested habitat on Negros to determine whether the species is extant. Conduct more surveys for fruit-doves<em> Ptilinopus </em>spp. on Panay, and employ extensive sound recording. Carry out, if possible, biochemical analyses on the type-specimen to confirm its taxonomic validity.<p></p>
106002701		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus arcanus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known only by a single female specimen (one of a pair) collected on Mt Canlaon on the island of Negros in 1953 (Collar<em> et al.</em> 1999). Its population is unknown and, given the failure of any fieldworker to encounter it since its discovery, it must be extremely rare. However, the recent discovery on Panay of threatened species which, until 1990, were known only from Negros, and sometimes formerly Guimaras (e.g. Negros Bleeding-heart<em> Gallicolomba keayi</em> and White-throated Jungle-flycatcher<em> Rhinomyias albigularis</em>), suggests that it is not impossible that this enigmatic bird may be extant. <p></p>
106002701		habitat	eng	The specimen was shot in a tall fruiting tree in primary forest at c.1,100 m. It is possible that it is a lowland specialist discovered at its upper altitudinal limit (as forest at this site had been cleared up to 1,000 m). <p></p>
106002701		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on a lack of records since the only specimen was collected in 1953.
106002701		threats	eng	A combination of hunting, which affects all pigeons and fruit-doves on Negros, and habitat destruction are presumably the major threats. Just 4% of Negros remained forested in 1988, and remnant tracts are small, heavily fragmented and under incessant pressure from clearance for agriculture, timber and charcoal-burning. <p></p>
106002702		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002703		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002704		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2000, BirdLife Fiji conducted surveys to estimate population size.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population size to assess trends.  Set aside and protect forest habitat, particularly in lowland areas.  Investigate the impact of hunting on the species and regulate as appropriate.   <p></p>
106002704		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilinopus layardi</em> is endemic to the islands of Kadavu and neighbouring Ono in south-west <strong>Fiji</strong>. In 2000, surveys found this species to be common in evergreen forests, with 53 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours in a mixed lowland and montane site, and 17 birds in 15 hours at a montane site (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, equating to 23 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and 11 birds/km<sup>2</sup> at these sites respectively, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked and the species's higher abundance at lower altitudes (where calling males can be as little as 100 m apart (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2 </sup>(National Forest Inventory 1990-1993)<strong></strong>, suggesting that the total population is around 10,000 birds. However, the species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes a second sub-population (as this and other <em>Chrysoenas</em> doves are rarely seen flying outside forest and have not been recorded from smaller islands), numbering about 5% of the total population (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong> <p></p></strong>
106002704		habitat	eng	It is generally found in well-forested areas in the lowlands; on Ono it is restricted to forest remnants (Clunie 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is sometimes found in gardens (Watling 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages mainly in the substage of forests and in dense thickets.   <p></p>
106002704		population	eng	Recent BirdLife Fiji surveys found this species to be common in evergreen forests, with 53 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours a mixed lowland and montane site and 17 birds in 15 hours at a montane site. Estimating an average pace 1 km / hour and an effective detection distance of 50 m each side of the trail suggests that around 23 and 11 birds were detected per km<sup>2</sup> at these sites, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked and the species' higher abundance at lower altitudes (where calling males can be as little as 100 m apart). The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting that the total population is around 10,000 birds. However the species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes a second sub-population (as this and other <em>Chrysoenas</em> doves are rarely seen flying outside forest and have not been recorded from smaller islands), numbering about 5% of the total population (G. Duston <em>in litt.</em> 2005). In total the population is estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals.
106002704		threats	eng	The population is estimated to be declining at the same rate as forest loss and degradation on Kadavu, which has also suffered extensive fires in recent years. Hunting may be an additional threat.   <p></p>
106002705		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law, although some hunting still takes place.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect lowland forests. Monitor populations in key sites. Intensify awareness campaigns in local communities to enforce the protection of the species. Maintain a quota on cartridges.   <p></p>
106002705		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanoptila holosericea</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> where it is common in suitable habitat throughout the main island. Although it is absent from the Loyalty islands, it is present on the Ile des Pins, where it is common (V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent studies estimate the population to be in the region of 140,000 birds (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106002705		habitat	eng	It occupies a wide range of habitats, including primary and secondary humid forest to 1,000 m and <em>Melaleuca</em> savanna<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>Y. Létocart verbally 1998, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, <strong></strong>V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to prefer humid forest between 400-600 m and to favour the forest edge (V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007,<strong> </strong>C. Meresse <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002705		population	eng	Based on an extrapolation of a mean density estimate of 0.354 individuals/ha, calculated from 281 point counts at seven forest sites in 1998, the total population is estimated at over 140,000 individuals.
106002705		threats	eng	Hunting levels are currently very low owing to cartridge quotas which mean that hunters save their ammunition for larger targets, particularly New Caledonian Imperial-pigeon <em>Ducula goliath </em>(V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007, V. Chartendrault <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the national legislation for cartridge quotas is under review and includes a proposal to reduce or remove quotas; this may lead to an increase in hunting pressure in the near future (V. Chartendrault <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although some forest is being lost to fire, logging and mining, this species has declined only very slowly to date, but it may be threatened if hunting levels greatly increase (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in protected areas but less common on the coastal plains (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extinct in some localities, common in others and extinct on several small islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002708		distribution	eng	<em>Alectroenas nitidissima </em>is known only from three skins<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987) and a number of descriptions and paintings (Tuijn 1969, Cheke 1987)<strong></strong>, from <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Cowles 1987). It was first described by Harmansz in 1602, and persisted for more than two centuries thereafter<strong></strong>. Milbert, writing in 1812, noted that he ate many in 1801, and Desjardins reported in 1832 that birds were "still found towards the centre of the island in the middle of those fine forests which by their remoteness, have escaped the devestating axe". The last specimen was collected in 1826, however, it seems to have persisted into the early 1830s<strong></strong> (Cheke 1987). <p></p>
106002708		habitat	eng	Very little is known, although it evidently inhabited the islands forests, although there is a curious reference provided by Desjardins to it living alone near riverbanks where it fed on fruit and freshwater molluscs.  <p></p>
106002708		threats	eng	Hunting and habitat loss presumably caused the species's extinction.  <p></p>
106002709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be less common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002710		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Where possible, control hunting, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of lowland primary forest across its range.  <p></p>
106002710		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula poliocephala</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it occurs on at least 16 islands (Basilan, Biliran, Bohol [<strong></strong>P. Benstead pers. obs. 2001], Catanduanes, Cebu [probably extinct], Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon, Masbate, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Samar, Sibuyan and Tawitawi) but is uncommon, local, and perhaps semi-nomadic (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <p></p>
106002710		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, although not exclusively, as the species ranges up to 1,500 m. It is found most often in primary forest and old secondary growth.  <p></p>
106002710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although frequent on Negros island and extinct on Cebu (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002710		threats	eng	It is certainly in decline owing to the combination of heavy hunting pressure and the extensive clearance of its preferred habitat. <p></p>
106002711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common and widespread in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002712		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In 1964, the species was removed from the list of game birds, and soon afterwards was afforded legal protection, although actual enforcement of this legislation is ineffectual. A (presumably tiny) population may persist in the predominantly grassland Mt Iglit-Baco National Park. The species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster focusing on pigeons produced as part of the "Only in the Philippines" series in the mid-1990s.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys (using vocalisations as an aid to detection and making sound recordings) in remaining submontane and montane forests on Mindoro, to clarify its current status. Research its ecology, including determining food sources, tree phenology and seasonal movements. Propose all remaining forest on Mt Halcon for improved protected status. <p></p>
106002712		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula mindorensis</em> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from seven localities in the central mountains (although it was presumably once present throughout the highlands), with records from five sites since 1980 (Collar<strong> <em style="font-weight: normal;">et al.</em></strong> 1999). It has always been uncommon and local, occurring at low densities. However, 22 individuals were seen or heard over six days on Mt Ilong in 1991, indicating that the species may be under-recorded, particularly if fieldworkers are unfamiliar with its vocalisations. <p></p>
106002712		habitat	eng	At least formerly it was usually found in forest above 1,000 m, with records spanning 700-1,830 m. However, during fieldwork in 1991, most observations were made in understorey trees of the lowest-altitude forest remaining (between 800-950 m), with only two noted above 1,000 m. It conceivably undertakes seasonal or nomadic movements in response to changes in food supply.  <p></p>
106002712		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002712		threats	eng	Forest destruction and hunting for food (<em>Ducula</em> pigeons are common targets for subsistence hunters throughout the Philippines) are the most significant threats. In 1988, just 120 km<sup>2</sup> of Mindoro remained forested, of which just 25% was closed-canopy. Although it generally occurs above the zone of greatest deforestation, this does not confer security if it periodically depends on fruiting events at lower elevations. Logging and shifting cultivation continue to reduce lower-altitude forests at key sites such as Mt Halcon and San Vicente. <p></p>
106002713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002714		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded recently in two protected areas, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (Luzon) and Mt Kitanglad Natural Park (Mindanao). Four others may offer some habitat protection: Maria Aurora Monument and Quezon National Parks (Luzon), and MUFRC Experimental Forest and Siburan Penal Colony (Mindoro). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys, using sound recording methods, to clarify the species's current distribution and population status across its historical range, including Mt Halcon (Mindoro), Mts Canlaon and Talinis/Twin Lakes (Negros), Mts Apo, Mayo, Malindang, Matutum and Three Kings (Mindanao). Satellite-tag and radio-tag birds to gather information on ecology and movements to enable conservation planning. Promote improved protection of remaining forests at key sites. <p></p>
106002714		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula carola</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Luzon, Mindoro, Sibuyan, Negros, Siquijor and Mindanao (Collar<strong style="font-style: italic;"> <em style="font-weight: normal;">et al.</em></strong> 1999). Since 1980, there have been records from at least 12 sites on Luzon, Mindoro and Mindanao. On northern Luzon, it was fairly common in the late 19th century. By the 1990s, it had become rare and local in the Sierra Madre mountains, although flocks of 20 were still recorded regularly at Angat Dam. There is evidence of a decline on Mindanao and it may have been extirpated on Sibuyan and Mindoro. The race <span style="font-style: italic;">nigrorum</span> of the Visayas is likely to be extinct: although common as recently as the 1950s on Negros, it was not found during recent surveys there (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993), and it is very likely to be extinct on Siquijor (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002714		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and selectively logged forest and forest edge up to 2,400 m, but favours lowlands. It appears to be confined to closed-canopy forest, although occasionally ventures to fruiting trees outside forest to feed. It is gregarious and nomadic, travelling long distances, both daily and seasonally, in response to food availability. <p></p>
106002714		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002714		threats	eng	Extensive habitat destruction and hunting have caused its serious decline and range contraction. The species's complex pattern of habitat- and resource-use magnifies the risks it faces. In 1988, forest cover was as low as 4% on Negros, 24% on Luzon and 29% on Mindanao, and just 30 km<sup>2</sup> of closed-canopy forest remained on Mindoro. Moreover, most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions and mining applications. On Luzon, logging is taking place throughout the southern Sierra Madre (D. Allen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). On Mindanao, forest is being cleared and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production at the key site of Bislig. Its congregatory habits facilitate hunting, with large numbers caught during the 1950s on Luzon. <p></p>
106002715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common  (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002716		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population on Buru is estimated as 382,000 individuals and the population in the proposed Lolobata Reserve in north-eastern Halmahera is estimated as 22,100 individuals (Gibbs et al. 2001). However these two areas represent only a small proportion of the species's global range so the total has been put in the band 500,000-999,000 individuals.
106002717		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002718		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Common to abundant in Vanuatu, uncommon in Tokelau, Niue and American Samoa, rare on New Caledonia and locally common in the Cook Islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002719		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1991 and 2005, the Palau Conservation Society and the US Fish and Wildlife Service conducted the National Bird Survey which involved surveying the species's abundance on Palau. In the Marshall Islands, a recovery programme for the species has been launched by the Marshall Islands Conservation Society, with numbers in the Majuro Atoll now reaching up to c.80 individuals on a complex of 27 islets (M. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess its total population size and distribution. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Protect significant habitat, particularly on Kosrae where numbers are particularly high. Enforce the fire-arms ban on Palau. Prevent hunting of the species.   <p></p>
106002719		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula oceanica</em> occurs in the Micronesian islands of <strong>Palau</strong>, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae (<strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>), including many small offshore islands. It is probably extinct on Kiribati and Nauru, and many or all of the <strong>Marshall Islands </strong>(Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2001). There were estimated to be 13,718 birds on Palau in 1991 (Engbring 1992)<strong></strong>,  and 572 on Yap, 51 on Chuuk, 822 on Pohnpei, 7,474 on Kosrae in 1983-1984 (Engbring 1990) and c.80 in the Marshall Islands in 2011 (M. O'Brien<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2011) following recovery efforts<strong></strong>. Numbers on Pohnpei are known to have declined by about 70% between 1983 and 1994 (Buden 2000)<strong></strong>. The population on Kosrae is inferred to have declined less severely due to the lower rate of forest loss and smaller human population on that island. In 2005, the Palau Conservation Society and the US Fish and Wildlife Service repeated the National Bird Survey that was conducted in 1991. The resulting data were not analysed in the same way as those from the 1991 survey, and so are not comparable. However, relative abundance (birds/station) was compared between the two surveys, showing that abundance decreased by c.40% between 1991 and 2005. If this decline in relative abundance is applied to the 1991 population estimate, then the estimated population on Palau in 2005 is c.8,175. In addition, there was a marked decrease in the number of birds observed at monitoring stations between 2005 and 2010 (Olsen and Eberdong, 2010). This indicates a possible rapid decline in the population and/ or a possible restriction in range. The 2005 survey showed that the species was most common in remote areas far from human populations, and less common on transects near towns and roads, suggesting that hunting pressure is responsible for the decline. Further analysis of the data is needed to determine the species trend and to identify any potential range restrictions in Palau.<p></p>
106002719		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, found predominantly in the mountains of Pohnpei and Kosrae, but widespread where not hunted, including secondary forest, beach forest and mangroves (Engbring 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002719		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Palau, Yap Pohnpei and Kosrae and rare to extinct on Chuuk and some of the Marshall islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002719		threats	eng	The main threat is hunting for food and especially as a cultural food item; this has continued on Palau despite a fire-arms ban (Engbring 1990, Buden 2000, E. Matthews pers. comm.<em> </em>2007) and has been suggested to be driving the decline of the species on Palau (Ketebengang and Gupta 2011)<strong></strong>. Ongoing forest clearance for agriculture is another concern, upland forest on Pohnpei has declined by about two thirds between 1975-1995 (Trustrum 1996)<strong></strong>, although deforestation rates on other islands have not been so intense.<br/><p></p>
106002720		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Tahiti, a year-long study in 1998 collected information from the inhabitants of the valleys where it was last recorded (<em>Te Manu</em> 1998 22: 2, J.-C. Thibault <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Work was carried out in 2009 by Société d’Ornithologie de Polynésie Manu to determine the population size of the species through distance sampling (Albar <em>et al.</em> 2009, 2010).   <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>On Makatea, resurvey the population (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in order to assess both numbers and distribution within primary and regenerating forest. On Tahiti, conduct field surveys to confirm its extirpation. Ensure <em>C. approximans </em>does not become established on Makeata by developing a reporting system for residents.  Eradicate <em>C. approximans </em>from Tahiti and the Society Islands to prevent it spreading to Makatea.  Oppose plans for a large runway on Makatea, support instead plans for a smaller runway.  Consider captive breeding and reintroduction to Tahiti. <p></p>
106002720		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula aurorae</em> is known from Tahiti in the Society Islands and Makatea in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. On Tahiti, it may already be extinct, it was restricted to the Papeno`o and Hitia`a valleys in 1986-1990<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993b)<strong></strong>, but none were reported in 1998 and in 2006 it was considered unlikely to persist (<em>Te Manu</em> 1998 22: 2, Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On Makatea, the population was judged to lie between 100 and 500 individuals in 1986-1987, but may now be increasing slightly following a reduction in hunting (Thibault and Guyot 1987, Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>. A survey on Makatea in 2009 estimated the total population size at 1,206 individuals (95% Confidence Interval, 867-1677) (Albar<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009, 2010). Further clarification of this estimate is needed. It is unclear whether this represents a genuine population increase, however the cessation of mining activities and reduction of the human population inhabiting the island represent prospects for population recovery of many of the native birds on Makatea. There are also fossil records indicating that it was once more widespread, including in the Southern Cook Islands (Steadman 1989)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><em> <p></p></em>
106002720		habitat	eng	Though the species was formerly found only in dense forest, where it feeds on fruit from a variety of native and introduced trees, it has recently spread into secondary habitats and even gardens (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Thibault and Guyot 1987, <em>Te Manu</em> 1998, Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>. It is now an important seed disperser on Makatea, accelerating the spread of native forest into areas which had been mined<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106002720		population	eng	A survey on Makatea in 2009 estimated the total population size at 1,206 individuals (with a 95% confidence interval of 867-1,677 individuals, roughly equating to 570-1,200 mature individuals). Further clarification of this estimate is needed, and the previous estimate of 100-500 mature individuals is precautionarily retained until higher numbers can be confirmed.
106002720		threats	eng	On Makatea, much of its habitat was destroyed during the period 1917-1964, as a result of phosphate mining, however it is now spreading as vegetation recovers and hunting is reduced (Thibault and Guyot 1987, P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999, Thibault and Cibois 2006, Albar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, 2010)<strong></strong>. However, Makatea is being considered for new mining activities, which may further affect the birds (Albar <em>et al.</em> 2010). A proposed runway and associated road and infrastructure development is likely to lead to renewed deforestation (Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>.  Predation by introduced cats and rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) may be a problem (Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993b)<strong></strong>, although the species has coexisted with rats for several decades (J.-C. Thibault <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. On Moorea, Tahiti and other formerly inhabited islands, its extinction may have been the consequence of the spread through the Society Islands of the Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans </em>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984, <strong></strong>Thibault 1988, Seitre and Seitre 1991, Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>. This species continues to spread throughout the region, and its arrival on Makatea would be disastrous for the Polynesian Imperial-pigeon (Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106002721		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The bird is revered in local culture and hunting is forbidden (although it continues) (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. Following recommendations of translocations <strong></strong>(SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>, five birds were released on Ua Huka (where there are no<em> R. rattus </em>in June 2010 [Champeau 2010])<strong></strong>. At least 4 of the 5 introduced birds had survived into June (Blanvillain <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, and in 2003, 5 more birds were released to augment the population. Following a 28% increase in this population during the 2005/6 season, the population reached 46 individuals in 2008 (Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). A visit to the island in 2010 reported a number of individuals and several nests (Champeau 2010). Monitoring is continuing and, if deemed successful, further translocation will occur to increase the genetic base and further establish the population (Blanvillain <em>et al. </em>2000). An awareness raising campaign focused initially on local school children has met with success and it has now been expanded to the general public. As a result hunting pressure appears to have been reduced (Gouni 2006)<strong></strong>. A moral agreement with the people of Ua Huka not to hunt the bird has been achieved (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Thanks to lobbying by Manu the road development project was amended and the new road and tunnel project cancelled - only rehabilitation of the actual road was carried out (A. Gouni <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research predation by cats and rats and, depending on the results, set up some control measures (Evva 1998, Villard <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Promote public awareness through publicity materials and schools, especially in relation to legal protection (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. Ensure that game is not reintroduced into the wild (which would increase hunting generally) and prevent further accidental introductions of exotic species (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. Ensure that road development takes account of the species's requirements (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>.&#160;<strong></strong>Establish the absence of avian diseases (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. Investigate the possibility of reintroducing the species to Ua Pou (A. Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012.<br/><p></p>
106002721		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula galeata</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands and until 2000 was only known from Nuku Hiva, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it is now restricted to valleys in the west and north of the island, although there have been recent observations of the species in the central south of the island (Anon 2011). In 1998, a maximum of 85 birds were seen and the population was estimated at c.250, distributed in small subpopulations between which the passage of individuals was not evaluated  (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. Surveys between 2004 and 2006 found the population was apparently stable (Gouni 2006)<strong></strong> and was estimated at 265 individuals in 2008 (Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). There is a late 18th century record from Tahiti in the Society Islands, and fossil evidence indicates that it once occurred on a further four islands in the Society and Marquesas Islands, and also in the Southern Cook Islands and Henderson in the Pitcairn Islands (Steadman 1989)<strong></strong>, though this may be subject to revision: the bones attributed to this species may come from a different species at least on Henderson (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. A translocation programme began in 2000 to establish a second population on Ua Huka Island, (with a carrying capacity estimated at 200-300 individuals [A. Gouni<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012]). This translocated population increased by 28% in the 2005-2006 season and reached 46 individuals in 2008 (Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). A visit to the island in 2010 reported a number of individuals and several nests (Champeau 2010).<br/><p></p>
106002721		habitat	eng	It is an arboreal species found in remote wooded valleys from 250-1,300 m and is also seen in secondary forest and at the edge of banana and orange plantations (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit from trees and shrubs, including large quantities of guava <em>Psidium guajava </em>(Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It only lays one egg suggesting that it is long lived and any population increases would be slow and unclear for several years (Villard <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002721		population	eng	The population on Nuku Hiva was estimated at 265 individuals in 2008,  and has probably been stable since then (though perhaps slowly  increasing due to better public awareness). The recently established  population on Ua Huka has already increased to 46 individuals. The  population thus totals at least 300 individuals, roughly equivalent to 200 mature individuals.
106002721		threats	eng	Illegal hunting is the main concern (Evva 1998), though following an awareness raising campaign this appears to have been reduced. Nevertheless poaching has the potential to rapidly reduce the small population and remains a potential threat (Gouni 2006)<strong></strong>. Habitat has been modified and degraded by introduced vegetation and grazing by feral stock (Seitre and Seitre 1991, 1992, Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. However, cattle have been eradicated, and goats and<strong><sup> </sup></strong>pigs are decreasing (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. New roads and tunnels could result in habitat loss and facilitate access and considerable disturbance, although there is currently little traffic (Evva 1998)<strong></strong>. Introduced cats <em>Felis catus</em>, pigs <em>Sus scrofa</em>, goats <em>Capra hircus</em>, cattle <em>Bos taurus</em> and possibly rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus </span>spp. are all common on Nuku Hiva and likely constitute a threat (Seitre and Seitre 1991, 1992, Blanvillain and Thorsen 2003)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002722		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss in the region. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites across the islands. <p></p>
106002722		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula rubricera </em> is widely distributed in the Bismark Archipelago, including New Britain and New Ireland (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) as well as on Bougainville. It is also found on nearly all forested islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. Although it is still common where extensive forest remains, it is much rarer in degraded habitats. It is suspected to have declined rapidly in recent years owing to ongoing clearance of lowland forest, at least in parts of its range (Buchanan <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002722		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland rainforest up to 500 m on New Britain, 700 m on New Ireland and 1,200 m on Guadalcanal. Although it is often found at the forest edge and even close to villages, it is thought to be very scarce or absent from more heavily deforested areas.  <p></p>
106002722		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002722		threats	eng	It is threatened by logging and forest conversion. Lowland forest clearance on New Britain for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and West New Britain province alone continues to account for at least 50% of Papua New Guinea’s timber exports (Bun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Over 30% of suitable habitat has been cleared in the last 10 years and this trend is ongoing (Buchanan <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106002723		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Geelvink Bay and scarce and local in West Papuan Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common on small islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002725		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Christmas Island National Park was established in 1980, and has since been extended to cover more than 60% of the island (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent) (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and hand-baiting measures have been ongoing. Aerial baiting was carried out in September 2002 and proved to be successful against major colonies (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with 98% of ants controlled (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the ants have since recovered (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ants remained persistent in 2006, and perpetual baiting may be the only means of controlling them (T. Low <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The bait used so far is known to be toxic to invertebrates, including crabs, and although alternatives have been trialled, an effective replacement has not been found (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control of the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions has been suggested, in order to reduce this food supply (T. Low <em>in litt.</em> 2006, D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control of the ants may have allowed the species's population to stabilise (S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through standardised surveys. Continue to investigate the potential impacts of <em>A. gracilipes</em> on the species. Control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Upgrade quarantine standards for the island. Eradicate black rats from the island, and control or eradicate feral cats. Create a multi-stakeholder team with responsibility for ensuring the conservation of threatened species on Christmas Island.<br/><p></p>
106002725		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula whartoni</em> is endemic to <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong>, in the Indian Ocean. Numbers have apparently fluctuated, and perhaps declined, between the time of the island's settlement in 1888 and the mid-1970s, but no good data are available. In 1975, the population was estimated at 10-100 breeding pairs. The breeding population was estimated at c.1,000 mature individuals in 2000, and at 5,000 mature individuals byt Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011). However, it is widespread and considered very common on the island, and the total population probably exceeds the 2000 estimate by at least an order of magnitude (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. This is supported by surveys in 2005 and 2006, in which the species was recorded during 92% of point counts and at 98% of surveyed sites (James and Retallick 2007)<strong></strong>. At the end of the 19th century, it was unsuccessfully introduced to Cocos-Keeling Islands (to Australia). It occupies a range of no more than 137 km<sup>2</sup> (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002725		habitat	eng	It is found in rainforest and, to some extent, in secondary regrowth dominated by the introduced Japanese cherry <em>Muntingia calabura</em>. Surveys in 2005 and 2006 found the species to be more common in evergreen forest than in either semi-deciduous forest or cleared areas (James and Retallick 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in the top of rainforest trees and other dense vegetation, and feeds on native and exotic fruits, as well as buds and leaves. <p></p>
106002725		population	eng	The most recent population estimate was of 1,000-10,000 individuals (Beeton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), from which c5,000 mature individuals was considered a reasonable estimate by Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011). However, it has been described as widespread and considered very common on the island (the species was recorded in 98% of 123 sites surveyed by James and Retallick [2007]), and the total population may exceed this estimate by at least an order of magnitude (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007).
106002725		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p><p>About one third of the species's previously favoured plateau forest was cleared for phosphate mining before clearance ceased in 1987. This loss has been partly offset by the introduction of <em>M. calabura</em>, which flourishes on many former mine fields and other disturbed areas, and provides a rich food source for much of the year. Future habitat loss is possible through clearance for mining (S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2003), and in 2007 significant patches of mature secondary forest were cleared for mining (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Also in 2007, a new application to mine a 250 ha area of rainforest (P. Green <em>in litt.</em> 2007) was turned down (J. Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Illegal hunting continued after prohibition in 1977, but is now less prevalent. The failure of the introduction to Cocos-Keeling Islands has been attributed to hunting and/or lack of suitable food-trees. The introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em>, which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or about 3,400 ha, but was controlled over about 2,900 ha in September 2002, was thought to be a potential threat. Once controlled, however, the ants are re-establishing supercolonies (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007). In 2006, the ants were regarded as widespread and patchily common (T. Low <em>in litt.</em> 2006). If allowed to spread uncontrolled, ant super-colonies may prey directly on nestlings, although there is no evidence that this is a threat to the overall population, and alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, which otherwise inhibits understorey plant growth and the spread of weeds by eating the seeds and seedlings of both native and invasive species (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003, S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2003, D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007). The ants also farm scale insects, causing canopy die-back, which in turn promotes weed growth and further alters forest structure (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007). The scale at which these processes occur is uncertain (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007), but fears that the pigeon would be affected by the ants<em> </em>appear to have been unfounded, perhaps due control of the ants and because there are fewer ants in the canopy where the pigeons feed (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). Black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>may reduce nesting success and feral cats <em>Felis catus</em> are present but neither are currently thought to be causing declines (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>  <p></p><p></p>
106002726		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess its population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Where possible, control hunting, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of lowland forest on many islands across its range.  <p></p>
106002726		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula rosacea</em> is restricted to <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it occurs in four Endemic Bird Areas (Northern Nusa Tenggara, Timor and Wetar, Banda Sea Islands, and Northern Maluku) and five Secondary Areas (Seribu Islands, Masalembu, Kangean, Salayar and Bonerate Islands, and Tukangbesi Islands). Despite this wide range, the species appears to have become very rare at least in some areas, and rather uncommon elsewhere. It is thought to be the commonest pigeon on Wetar, with the population on this island estimated to be "very large" (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
106002726		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, scrub and farmland up to 930 m (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
106002726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly scarce, although common on Tanahjampea, Timor, Tanimbar and Wetar islands (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).
106002726		threats	eng	It is eagerly sought by hunters and is thought to be affected by habitat loss. Whilst most of the rugged forest on Wetar is thought to be secure, the accessible areas near the coast are vulnerable to pressure from agriculture and logging, with mining and road construction possibly also posing a threat (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106002727		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from several protected areas: Baguan Island within the Turtle Islands Marine Natural Park (Philippines), Tunku Abdul Rahman National Park (off Sabah), the Maratuas and Pulau Mantanani Bird Sanctuary <strong></strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Rasa Island (southern Palawan) has also been protected under municipal law since 1999 and under national law since 2005. The species may benefit at this site owing to a wardening scheme in place primarily for the conservation of Philippine Cockatoo <strong></strong>(P. Widmann <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The Karakelang Hunting Reserve (Talaud islands) may also offer some protection, but requires evaluation to define boundaries and management needs. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct comprehensive surveys of islands, especially in the Sulu archipelago, to clarify its current status, movements and ecological preferences. Assess the potential importance of the extensive mangroves along the east Kalimantan/Sabah coast through further surveys. Propose sites/islands supporting key populations for establishment as strict protected areas, as appropriate (e.g. Ursula). Eradicate macaques and black rats from protected islands. Devise and initiate conservation awareness campaigns to control hunting and curb deforestation on key islands. Seek ban on trade in Imperial pigeons. Review taxonomic status of two subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;">D. p. pickeringii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">D. p. langhornei</span>). <br/><p></p>
106002727		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Ducula pickeringii</span> is known from c.20 small islands off Palawan, Mindanao and in the Sulu archipelago in the southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>, c.13 small islands off the mainland coast of Sabah, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malaysia </span>(north Borneo), the Derawan Islands (including Sangalaki, Kakaban and Maratua), East Kalimantan, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia </span>and the Talaud islands off northern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). Early reports describe it as plentiful at several localities. There are recent (post-1980) records from eight islands in the Philippines (Baguan, Cadiao, Lagen, Tandubatu, Rasa, Bugsok, Pandana and Ursula as well as in Malampaya Sound and Honda Bay), four islands off Sabah, and Sangalaki (Meier 2004) and Karakelang islands (Indonesia), with a maximum count of c.30 on key islands Ursula (Philippines), and Pulau Mantanani (Sabah, Malaysia) indicating that its range and population have decreased significantly. It is reputedly still common on the Talaud Islands (J. Eaton<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002727		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of lowland, primary forest-types, also frequenting secondary forest and cultivated areas with trees. It has been noted feeding on fruits of <em>Ficus procera</em> and <em>Cananga odorata</em>, both common trees in primary forest and secondary habitats <strong></strong>(Riley 2003). Little is known about its movements. It is reportedly resident on some northern Bornean islands, but certainly moves between Philippine islands, and varied in abundance from 1995-1997 on Karakelang, Indonesia. Like other small-island specialists, it presumably wanders in search of food. <p></p>
106002727		population	eng	A population estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals has been derived from analysis of records and surveys in BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002727		threats	eng	Habitat clearance and degradation are the primary threats, with native forest on small islands being replaced by plantations across much of its range. The species's large size and unwary disposition render it vulnerable to hunting whenever it comes into contact with human populations; birds are taken for food, pets and trade. Introduced mammalian predators may cause birds to abandon some islands. Tourism developments may place pressures on island populations when habitat is cleared and through disturbance <strong></strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007). However, some resort development may be positive where resort grounds provide a safe haven (Q. Phillipps <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The effect of competition with Green Imperial-pigeon <em>D. aenea</em> is not understood but this species has begun to outnumber <em>D. pickeringii</em> on Rasa Island <strong></strong>(P. Widmann <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106002728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002729		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002730		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Research the extent (if any) and affect of hunting on populations. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the islands. <p></p>
106002730		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula finschii</em> is endemic to the islands of New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Lavongai, Umboi and Watom in the Bismarck Archipelago <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where although it has been considered very scarce, it is rather poorly known, it appears to be widely distributed and not uncommon in suitable habitat, i.e. old-growth forest in hills. It is suspected to have declined rapidly in recent years owing to ongoing clearance of lowland forest (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002730		habitat	eng	It inhabits old-growth lowland and hill forest up to 1,500 m, especially between 200-900 m. It has been observed in partially logged areas but its tolerance of habitat degradation is poorly known. <p></p>
106002730		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002730		threats	eng	On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. On that island nearly 20% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 10 years and this trend is ongoing (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.  This situation is likely to be similar on other islands in the region. It may also be subject to hunting, although this is unconfirmed.  <p></p>
106002731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002732		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002733		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The effects of hunting pressure and the foraging behaviour of large pigeons has been studied briefly at Hauta. The forests around Hauta are part of an integrated conservation and development programme (R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Community-based education programmes have started around Komarindi (van Oosten and Wyant 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the current rate of deforestation within the species range. Survey other areas of Guadalcanal and Malaita. Interview local hunters across the range. Monitor population trends around Hauta. Determine food source dependence. Investigate effects of logging and clearance for gardens on food source trees. Assess the effects of community-based education programmes. Develop hunting guidelines with local communities. Extend awareness programmes to coastal communities. <p></p>
106002733		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula brenchleyi</em> is endemic to Guadalcanal, Malaita and Makira (= San Cristobal), including the satellite islands of Ulawa, Ugi (= Uki Ni Masi) and Three Sisters, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. On Guadalcanal, an expedition in 1953 failed to find it (Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong></strong> and there are few recent records (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Hunters at Komarindi report shooting just one of this species for every 20 <em>D. rubricera </em>(van Oosten and Wyant 1999)<strong></strong>. On the little-studied island of Malaita, it is known from just one specimen and was seen twice in 1990 (<strong></strong>Mayr 1931, Lees 1991, P. Scofield <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Makira, it was recorded as common from coastal to ridge forest in 1953 (Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong></strong>. More recent records include single birds and congregations of up to 20 birds around Hauta (Lees 1991, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gibbs 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8, <strong></strong>R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999) <strong></strong>. On Ugi and Ulawa, it was recorded as abundant in 1953 (Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but there have been no recent records there or on the Three Sisters, and it may be extinct on these small islands (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002733		habitat	eng	It is usually recorded in primary forest but also occurs in fruiting trees in degraded forest and gardens (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Recent records have been from sea-level to 700 m, but has been reported by local villagers on Guadalcanal as occurring in mist-forest (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It appears to be nomadic (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-8, J. Waihuru verbally 1998, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>: at Hauta, birds congregate to feed on banyan figs for about a week until the fruit is finished and then disperse, often over large distances (Cain and Galbraith 1956, J. Waihuru verbally 1998, R. James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002733		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002733		threats	eng	This large pigeon is hunted by villagers around Hauta and elsewhere across its range. Forest is being degraded through logging activities and pressure on land for cultivation is a problem on the over-populated island of Malaita. Rate of forest loss has increased in recent years on the Solomon Islands (<strong></strong>G.<strong> </strong>Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and this may particularly affect this species due to its reliance on fruiting trees.<br/><br/>  <p>Forest degradation has been accelerating across the Solomons and, particularly on Guadalcanal, prime habitat for this species has been severely altered by logging (west Guadalcanl has lost most of its intact low and mid elevation forest in the last 5 years).&#160; This would suggest levels of threat from habitat degradation and destruction as increasing right up to the time of revising these accounts.&#160; Hunting pressure on the other hand has likely declined across most of the range of this species, and though surely a threat, since gun ban in 2003 little evidence that this species has rebounded like other large pigeons that were presumably more impacted by hunting.&#160; Again, given the poor knowledge of this species, this should be taken with some caution, though it is interesting to note.</p>  <p></p>
106002734		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law and may be hunted only between 1 April and 30 June. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other islands within its range. Survey other areas of Santo to ascertain its distribution and abundance. Determine habitat and altitudinal requirements. Determine tolerance of logged forest. Assess hunting levels and population trends based on discussions with local hunters. Advocate creation of forest reserves on each major island. Investigate hunting control measures through community discussion and awareness programmes. <p></p>
106002734		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula bakeri</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, where it occurs on some of the larger northern islands: Ureparapara, Vanua Lava and Santa Maria (= Gaua) (all in the Banks group), Espiritu Santo, Maewo, Aoba (=Ambae), Pentecost and Ambrym (Diamond and Marshall 1977, Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. There are recent records from Santo (where it was recorded as present between 500 and 1,400 m asl, and common between 800 and 1,200 m asl in the West Santo mountains [S. Totterman pers. obs. 2010]), Vanua Lava (Vureas Bay [c. 100 masl]), Langletak (c. 50 masl and heard from the mountain near Sola), Gaua (Lake Letas [412 masl]), Maewo (Mt Tagutgagaro summit [812 masl]), Pentecost (Mt Vetmar summit [887 masl]) and Ambrym (Mt Tovuo upper flanks [c. 800 masl]) (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It appears to be rare on Ambae (none seen or heard in several days birdwatching in the montane forest [S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007])<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002734		habitat	eng	It is a locally nomadic frugivore. It has been thought to replace the more widespread <em>D. pacifica</em> in mid-mountain and montane forests (Diamond and Marshall 1977, Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong>, although this may be only true on Santo (and perhaps Ambrym), both Imperial-pigeons have been recorded in the same forest on other islands (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. On Santo, it occurs above 500 m but is much more common at higher altitudes (between 800 and 1,200 m (S. Totterman<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2010). On Vanua Lava it can be heard at sea level (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Maewo, Pentecost and Ambrym have small areas of montane forest and this bird is found only on the peaks (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002734		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals in total, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.<br/><a name="_msocom_1"></a>
106002734		threats	eng	A significant area of mid-montane forest has been cleared for cultivation, including for kava <span style="font-style: italic;">Piper methysticum</span>, for domestic and export markets (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998). Pentecost is a big kava producer with a sizeable human population (S. Totterman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007). In addition, Lowland forest (although not a major habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bakeri</span>) is being extensively degraded by logging and for cattle-ranching, G.Dutson pers.obs. 1998). As one of the largest edible birds on Vanuatu, it is a favoured hunting target for hill villagers (Bregulla 1992). However, its montane haunts and wary nature serve to lessen the impact of this threat. <br/><p></p>
106002735		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law for most of the year.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect lowland forests. Lobby against any changes in the law which would extend or change the timing of the hunting season. Monitor populations in key sites. Enforce the closed season. Increase awareness amongst local residents regarding the laws concerning this species.   <p></p>
106002735		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula goliath</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. Recent studies have estimated much higher populations than previously surmised, with 1,500-7,000 individuals for Parc Provincial Rivière Bleue depending on the season (Grillet 1995, J-P. Demoncheaux <em>in litt.</em> 1997, Y. Létocart verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and 100,000 individuals for the entire island (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is distributed from the far north (Mandjelia) to the extreme south at Goro and is common in suitable habitat throughout (V. Chartendrault N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is present on the Ile des Pins and absent from the Loyalty islands (V. Chartendrault N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106002735		habitat	eng	It is a humid forest species, occurring throughout the island wherever there are tall trees, and ranging to 1,500 m. It may live in quite small patches of forest along talwegs, particularly in the south (V. Chartendrault N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002735		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated at roughly 100,000 individuals (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002735		threats	eng	As a nomadic species, it may require large areas of protected forest to survive. Hunting by indigenous Kanaks could be in decline (Maruia/CI 1998, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> and recreational hunting is presently significant only in a few easily accessible forests. Although the overall population is considered safe, any relaxation of hunting laws, or change in the timing of the hunting season, would severely impact some populations (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Barre <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the traditional ignam feast (from February to May, depending on the region), many individuals are killed by most of the tribes in the mountains and on the slopes. This famous game species has a symbolic value (it is considered the king of the birds) and is killed at certain occasions. As a game bird, it is legally hunted during the weekends of April, with a maximum of 5 birds per day/hunter (V. Chartendrault N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Unfortunately, it is also shot all-year-round for the illegal trade in towns and villages, or for local consumption, especially at special events such as wedding and religious days (V. Chartendrault N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002736		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in mountain areas (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002738		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare on some Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and often the commonest Ducula in its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002740		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although poorly known in Nepal and very rare in Java (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002741		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002742		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A 90,000-ha protected area has been established at Gunung Mutis. Several other montane protected areas are proposed for West Timor and Wetar, although it is not known if these areas support the species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in remaining montane and monsoon-forest to establish the current distribution and population status of the species (including on Wetar), its habitat requirements and altitudinal preferences, in order to develop an effective strategy for its conservation. Propose key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. Increase capacity on Wetar for studying the species and implementing conservation measures and protected areas in the future. <p></p>
106002742		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula cineracea</em> is endemic to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>,<strong> </strong><strong></strong>West Timor and Wetar, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally common, but presumed to be declining as available habitat continues to shrink. Recent observations have revealed a stable population on Gunung Mutis in West Timor. It was recently described as frequent in coffee plantations in the Ermera area of Timor-Leste, although little time has yet been spent surveying at appropriate altitudes for this mostly montane species (Trainor <em>et al. </em>undated)<strong></strong>. The species was also recorded during surveys of Mt. Mundo Perdido, Timor-Leste, in 2009 (BirdLife International 2009). The population on Wetar may account for a very high proportion of the global population (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b), which has been crudely estimated at perhaps 10,000-20,000 birds (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a).<br/><p></p>
106002742		habitat	eng	It is presumably resident, perhaps making local altitudinal movements, in montane forest and monsoon woodland. It appears to occur between 600 m and 2,200 m on the island of Timor, whilst on Wetar the species has been recorded from sea-level to 930 m, being more frequent at higher elevations (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b). It is reportedly common in native eucalyptus forest. On Wetar, the species has been seen most commonly in the canopy, but also occasionally in the mid-storey, 10-12 m above the ground (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b). It has been observed to feed in <span style="font-style: italic;">Canarium</span> and nutmeg <span style="font-style: italic;">Myristica</span> trees. On Wetar, a stick nest was found 2.8 m above the ground in a low tree in a forested gulley in October 2008 (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a).<br/><p></p>
106002742		population	eng	The species is at least locally common, with a population of perhaps 1,000 individuals at one site with c.20 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat in East Timor (C. Trainor <i>in litt.</i> 2007). On Wetar, densities of 5-15 birds/ha have been recorded in gallery forest in Naumatang gorge at 100-200 m, and the island appears to support a very high proportion of the global population. Overall, the total population has been crudely estimated at perhaps 10,000-20,000 birds, thus it is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002742		threats	eng	The mountains of Timor-Leste were heavily deforested early in the 20th century, but habitat destruction has recently accelerated: an estimated 50% decline in remaining forest-cover occurred during Indonesian rule (1975-1999). Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered around seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to intensive grazing and burning. In addition, pigeons are apparently hunted extensively in Timor-Leste and West Timor, a factor that has presumably contributed to the decline of this species. On Wetar, the species occurs commonly down to the lowlands, thus its habitat is threatened by planned road construction, the expansion of mining activities and agricultural expansion, particularly driven by the cultivation of cash crops (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009a,b). However, much of the island is difficult to access and unsuitable for agriculture and timber extraction (C. Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008), providing hope that impacts will be limited.<br/><p></p>
106002743		population	eng	The population in Australia is estimated to number 500,000 individuals (S. J. Garnett and G. C. L. Dutson <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to seasonally or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002747		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites across the islands. <p></p>
106002747		distribution	eng	<em>Ducula subflavescens</em> is endemic to the Admiralities and Bismarcks, including Manus, Lou, Nauna, Lavongai, New Ireland, New Britain, Lolobau,Watom and Duke of York, and possibly other nearby small islands in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is locally common on New Britain in flocks of up to a few tens of birds but on New Ireland there are recent records only from the far south and there are only two recent records from Manus.  <p></p>
106002747		habitat	eng	It is a nomadic forest species, usually seen in lowland forest but recorded sporadically up to 900 m on New Britain (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, Finch and McKean 1987, D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996, 1999, Dutson 2011<strong></strong>) and 560 m on New Ireland and across Manus<strong></strong> (Dutson 2011). It may have a requirement for coastal or lowland riverine forest (Gibbs in prep.)<strong></strong> and most records are from primary forest.  <p></p>
106002747		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106002747		threats	eng	Most lowland forest and especially coastal forest in this species's range is threatened by logging and conversion to oil palm plantations. On New Britain, 20% of forest within the species elevational range was cleared during the last 15 years (Buchanan <em>et al </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears not to be threatened by hunting (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002749		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In some small areas, intensive predator control has seen numbers undergo unprecedented increases, while work on the Chatham Islands has reversed the decline of <em>chathamensis</em>, from 40 individuals in the 1980s to c.200 in 1996 (Grant <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor to determine population trends.  Investigate the extent of hunting by local residents. Control hunting where possible, perhaps using awareness campaigns. Protect significant areas of intact native forest throughout its range. Control introduced predators and competitors at key sites.  <p></p>
106002749		distribution	eng	<em>Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae</em> is a forest pigeon endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The nominate subspecies breeds on the North, South and Stewart Islands, and several offshore islands. It is in rapid decline in Northland - a 1993 survey indicated a 50% decline within 14 years (Pierce <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. Studies indicate that declines are occurring elsewhere (Mander <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The subspecies <em>chathamensis</em> is only found in the Chatham Islands. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">spadicea</span>, of Norfolk Island, went extinct in the early 20th century (Schodde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983).<em> <p></p></em>
106002749		habitat	eng	It breeds in native forest, in the non-breeding season birds also utilise exotic plantations and suburban areas.  <p></p>
106002749		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Gibbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106002749		threats	eng	Introduced predators are the primary cause of decline nationwide, in particular, brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em>, black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and cats (Mander <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>T. vulpecula</em> and <em>R. rattus</em> also compete for fruit, reducing the number of breeding attempts, and possibly causing the starvation of adults (Mander <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Loss of forest habitat through burning and clearance for farmland, removal of firewood and browsing by herbivores is also a threat (Aikman <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds are illegally hunted for food, particularly in Northland, with perhaps hundreds being shot each year (Heather and Robertson 1997, Pullman and Pullman 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002751		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common and seasonally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population on Buru is estimated as approximately 43,000 individuals (Gibbs et al. 2001). Since Buru represents a little under half the species global range, the species has been put in population band 50,000-99,000 indiciduals.
106002753		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
106002754		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species is afforded some protection in Indonesia from commercial trade and domestic use <strong></strong>(Nichols <em>et al</em>. 1991). There are single protected areas on all the West Papuan Islands of occurrence<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and three very large proposed nature reserves within its mainland Papuan range, but most are in the mountains <strong></strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995).&#160;  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys to clarify its current distribution and population status. Ascertain tolerance of logged forest. Monitor populations in well-studied protected areas. Investigate hunting, and devise and implement appropriate controls. Investigate international and domestic trade, and devise and implement appropriate controls. Support formal designation of the proposed nature reserves on mainland Papua. Enforce protection in these protected areas. <p></p>
106002754		distribution	eng	<em>Goura cristata</em> occurs in the West Papuan Islands (Misool, Waigeo, Salawati, Batanta), the Vogelkop and western Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), west of Geelvink and Etna Bays, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(King and Nijboer 1994), and also on Seram, South Maluku <strong></strong>(Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1993, <strong></strong>Macdonald 1995), where it was almost certainly introduced <strong></strong>(Coates and Bishop 1997). It was historically common <strong></strong>(Rand and Gilliard 1967), and remains locally fairly common at several sites on mainland Papua <strong></strong>(Erftemeijer <em>et al</em>. 1991, Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994), Salawati <strong></strong>(Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b) and Seram <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>Macdonald 1995, Coates and Bishop 1997), but may be extinct on Batanta <strong></strong>(D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 1994), and has been extirpated from many sites on Papua <strong></strong>(King and Nijboer 1994). <p></p>
106002754		habitat	eng	It inhabits marshy and partly flooded forest, usually undisturbed alluvial forest, but also hill forest, dense secondary growth and mangroves, up to at least 350 m <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Coates and Bishop 1997). Pairs incubate a single egg for a month, tend the nestling for a further month and continue to feed the fledgling for several months <strong></strong>(King and Nijboer 1994). <p></p>
106002754		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002754		threats	eng	It is heavily hunted for food and its plumes (although less than the two other <em>Goura</em> species because gun ownership is lower in Indonesia than in Papua New Guinea) <strong></strong>(Beehler 1985), and is also subject to "significant" levels of trade, being a highly prized aviary bird <strong></strong>(King and Nijboer 1994). Extensive logging concessions have been granted within its range and habitat has already been lost to substantial transmigration schemes <strong></strong>(Collins <em>et al</em>. 1991). Logging roads and oil and mineral exploration also increase access for hunters <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2000).  <p></p>
106002755		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Education and research programmes are planned in Papua New Guinea (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is protected by law in Papua New Guinea. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat between Astrolabe Bay and Collingwood Bay. Determine populations in study areas such as the Wapoga River. Assess hunting levels through discussion with local hunters. Investigate population trends through discussion with local hunters. Ascertain tolerance of logged forest. Monitor numbers traded. Establish more wildlife protection areas in lowlands. Enforce protection in uninhabited reserve areas. Launch public awareness programmes to reduce hunting. Utilise as a flagship species in ecotourism ventures.<br/><p></p>
106002755		distribution	eng	<em>Goura victoria</em> occurs on Biak-Supiori (where it may have been introduced), the Yapen islands, and northern New Guinea from Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to Astrolabe Bay, and an isolated area around Collingwood Bay in easternmost <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>(Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, King and Nijboer 1994). Its absence between Astrolabe Bay and Collingwood Bay is likely to be natural, given the lack of a coastal plain along this strip, though some think it may indicate a historic extirpation (King and Nijboer 1994, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The main populations are in the Sepik Basin of PNG and the Mamberamo Basin of Papua (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, it remains locally common in some remote undisturbed areas (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994), and in lowland alluvial forest (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002755		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland forest, including swamp-forest, mostly in the extreme lowlands, but sometimes to 600 m (Coates 1985)<strong></strong>. It feeds on the ground in small groups of 2-10 birds and roosts in trees. Captive birds start breeding from 15 months old, lay a single egg, and tend to the fledgling for some months after hatching (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002755		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002755		threats	eng	It is prized by hunters for meat and, to a lesser extent, for its feathers (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nestlings are also taken to be reared for food (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It has become extirpated from the vicinity of some transmigration settlements in Papua where it had survived constant hunting from indigenous people (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>. However, the species is fairly difficult to hunt without a shotgun (which are essentially no longer available in New Guinea) as it flushes at considerable distance (c.40 m) and perches high in the middle-story, out of the reach of hunters with bows (B. Beehler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Lowland forests (such as in the Sepik basin [B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007])<strong></strong><strong></strong>, particularly on the flat terrain favoured by this species, are threatened by selective logging and the development of oil palm plantations, as well as logging roads opening up access to hunters (King and Nijboer 1994, I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994, B. Beehler in litt. 2012)<strong></strong>. Capture for trade may also be significant (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002756		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Education and research programmes are planned in Papua New Guinea (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is protected by law in Papua New Guinea. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey western extreme of range. Determine population size and density in study areas such as Lakekamu and Kikori Basins. Assess hunting levels through discussion with local hunters. Investigate population trends through discussion with local hunters. Ascertain tolerance of logged forest. Monitor numbers traded. Monitor population in study areas. Establish more community-based conservation areas in lowlands. Enforce protection in uninhabited reserve areas. Launch public awareness programmes to reduce hunting. Utilise as a flagship species in ecotourism ventures. <p></p>
106002756		distribution	eng	<em>Goura scheepmakeri</em> occurs in the southern lowlands of New Guinea, (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has not been recorded west of Etna Bay and is absent from much, if not all, of southern Trans-Fly (N. Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong> but ranges to the far east of New Guinea at Orangerie Bay (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>. Although it is rare or extirpated around most villages, it has a huge range and is still locally common in remote regions of Papua and Western and Gulf Provinces in Papua New Guinea (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1994, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 2000, <strong></strong>I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong> and was found to be fairly common in the Lakekamu Basin even where hunted regularly (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1994, B. Beehler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002756		habitat	eng	It inhabits undisturbed dry and flooded forest, often alluvial, in the lowlands to 500 m (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. It feeds on the ground in small flocks of 2-10 birds (historically up to 30 birds [Ramsay 1879]<strong></strong>) and roosts in trees. Captive birds start breeding from 15 months old, lay a single egg, and tend to the fledgling for some months after hatching (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002756		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002756		threats	eng	This large species is prized by hunters for meat and, to a lesser extent, for its feathers (Beehler 1985)<strong></strong>. It has been hunted to extinction throughout much of its range in the south-east (Schodde 1978, Coates 1985, G. R. Kula <em>in litt.</em> 1988)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It has become extirpated from the vicinity of some transmigration settlements in Papua where it had survived constant hunting from indigenous people (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>. However, the  species is fairly difficult to hunt without a shotgun (which are  essentially no longer available in New Guinea) as it flushes at  considerable distance (c.40 m) and perches high in the middle-story, out  of the reach of hunters with bows (B. Beehler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). The species was found to be fairly common in the Lakekamu Basin even where hunted regularly (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1994, B. Beehler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012), suggesting it may be able to tolerate some hunting pressure. Lowland forests, particularly on the flat terrain favoured by this species, are threatened by logging and the development of oil palm  plantations, and although its tolerance of logged forest is poorly known, logging roads open up access to hunters (King and Nijboer 1994, I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994, B. Beehler in litt. 2012)<strong></strong>, as does oil and gas exploration in Papua (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, 2000)<strong></strong>. Capture for trade may be significant (King and Nijboer 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002757		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is fully protected by law and hunting is banned, though this has not been enforced. It occurs in some proposed and a few existing protected areas, but these have suffered cyclone damage and the O Le Pupu Pu`e National Park on `Upolu is threatened by logging and cattle-farming (Beichle and Maelzer 1985)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It has been chosen as a flagship species to promote conservation awareness, and was selected as the mascot of the South Pacific Games held in 2007 in Samoa, in order to promote bird and forest conservation. A species recovery plan was published by the Samoan Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and funds are now being sought to implement the plan. Surveys of the Savai'i uplands are planned for 2012.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement the species recovery plan prepared for this species. Extend the hunting ban to cover all native columbids to avoid "mistaken" shooting (U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution and population numbers and gather further information on its life-history and habitat requirements (Freifeld 1999, SPREP 1999, U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Investigate threats (Freifeld 1999, SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Identify important sites, set up a network of long-term monitoring stations, and establish conservation areas/nature reserves, e.g. on the four small islands off the east coast of `Upolu including Nu`utele (Aleipata) (Freifeld 1999, SPREP 1999, U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Increase local involvement in its study and conservation (Freifeld 1999, SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Consider establishing a captive population, and, in due course, consider translocations to islands such as the rat-free Nu`utele if these are found to be suitable.<br/><p></p>
106002757		distribution	eng	<em>Didunculus strigirostris</em> is endemic to <strong>Samoa</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is known as Manumea; its total population was estimated at 4,800-7,200 birds in the mid-1980s (Beichle 1987), but in the 1990s the population showed a drastic decline owing to the effects of cyclones such that, in 2000, fewer than 2,500 mature individuals were believed to survive. In 1999 and 2000, surveys on Savai`i showed that it had become rare with pairs scattered in suitable habitat. An eleven month survey in 2005-2006 reported the species from only ten locations, and the population was estimated to number only a few hundred, although the remote and largely intact uplands of Savai'i remain largely unsurveyed (Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, Samoa 2006)<strong></strong>. Small numbers were recorded in a few locations on Upolu in 2009, but lack of recent sightings among local hunters further suggests that declines are continuing (R. Stirnemann and M. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). There is concern that these small, increasingly fragmented subpopulations may not be viable (H. Freifeld <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. A single individual on Nu`utele in 2010 may have been an immigrant from Upolu (M. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Surveys of the Savai'i uplands are planned to take place in 2012 (M. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). <p></p>
106002757		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary forest from sea-level to 1,600&#160;m, also occurring in forest edge, along forest roads and sometimes visiting clearings where native trees remain (Beichle 1987, Blockstein 1987, U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is specialised to feed on the seeds of <em>Dysoxylum</em> spp. (using its unusual bill to saw through the tough, fibrous pericarp), also feeding on other fleshy fruit (Beichle 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch-size is probably two (Beichle 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106002757		population	eng	The population estimate of 1,000-2,499 individuals is derived from U. Beichle (<em>in litt.</em> 2000). This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. The lack of recent records suggests that the total population may now be far lower than this, possibly fewer than 250 mature individuals, but further work is needed to confirm this.
106002757		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation for agriculture, and also the severe effects of cyclones, e.g. in 1990 and 1991, when canopy cover was reduced from 100% to 27% (Elmqvist <em>et al</em>. 1994) and up to 95% of large trees may have been lost in some areas (D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) and more recently when cyclones passed close to the islands (J. Atherton <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Forest quality is further reduced by the subsequent invasion of highly aggressive non-native trees (H. Freifeld <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Hunting is also a further threat, e.g. in 1985, 400 birds were being shot every year (Beichle and Maelzer 1985)<strong></strong>. Although hunting is now illegal, birds are still shot in the seasonal harvest of unprotected pigeon species (Blockstein 1987)<strong></strong>. Predation of eggs and nestlings by Pacific rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans </span>may represent a threat.<br/><p></p>
106002758		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002759		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A European action plan was published in 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007), its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011) and updated in 2010 (Iñigo and Barov 2010). A species action plan for the species in Sardinia is in preparation. In Catalonia, Management Plans for the SPA with a Little Bustard population have been developed. The species has been the subject of several LIFE Nature projects in Portugal, Spain, France and Italy. France and Spain have attempted a joint programme of reinforcement of the populations in Central and Western France by release of captive-bred chicks during 2006-2009. In France, targeted agri-environmental measures (MAET) have been developed and tested in the region of Poitou-Charentes. Management agreements have been elaborated and signed with farmers, which are believed to have led to an increase of the affected populations (Leitão <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bamière <em>et al.</em> 2011, Bretagnolle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). In France, Spain and Portugal national census takes place every 5 (4 in France) years.   The number of protected areas established in steppe habitats in those countries has increased.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out coordinated surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate for the total population. Continue to conduct surveys to monitor population trends. Preserve habitat and alter land-use practices through EU and national policies. Work with land-owners to manage land favourably and reduce hunting. Reduce hunting pressure through awareness campaigns. Ensure fields with permanent cover on arable land through agri-environmental schemes using rotations and fallow land. Eliminate dangerous powerlines.<br/><p></p>
106002759		distribution	eng	<em>Tetrax tetrax</em> has two widely separated breeding populations. In its eastern range it occurs in <strong>Russia</strong> (likely to have been previously underestimated at 9,000 displaying males as 14,000-17,000 individuals were reported in one region alone [Orenburg] in the last two years [A. Antonchikov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012]), <strong>Georgia</strong> (60 non-breeding individuals [E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007])<strong></strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan</strong> (c.20,000 individuals and likely to be increasing [N. Petkov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012]), <strong>Ukraine</strong> (100-110 individuals [Y. Andryuschenko <em>in litt</em>. 1999]), north-west <strong>China</strong>, northern <strong>Iran</strong> and <strong>Turkey</strong> (20-100 pairs [Eken and Magnin 1999]). Its western range covers <strong>Spain</strong> (71-147,000 individuals comprising 41,482-86,195 breeding males [García de la Morena, <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006], down from 100,000-200,000 males in the 1990s [De Juana and Martínez 1996]) and <strong>Portugal</strong> (c.17,500 displaying males<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong><strong></strong>), with smaller populations in <strong>Italy</strong> (1,515-2,220 individuals [E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007]), <strong>France</strong> (1,677-1875 displaying males in 2008 [Jolivet 2009]<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>) and <strong>Morocco</strong>. Eastern populations winter from Turkey and the Caucasus to Iran, and erratically elsewhere in south Asia, with <strong>Azerbaijan</strong> holding the main wintering quarters (over 150,000 individuals in 2005-2006 [Gauger 2007, E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007])<strong></strong> and sightings in the winter of 2010 report 25,000 and 50,000-70, 000 individuals in Adjinohur valley and Shirvan National Park respectively (Gauger and Heiß 2010). Western populations winter in the Mediterranean zone, with the Iberian peninsula holding the most important wintering quarters (a minimum of 16,429-35,929 and 11,200 individuals in Spain and Portugal, respectively)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The global population (excluding Kazakhstan) was estimated at a minimum of c.240,000 individuals in the late 1990s (C. Martínez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but it may be substantially lower than this, due to the re-evaluation of the size of the Spanish population (García <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Whilst it remains widespread and numerous, in some parts of its range it has declined dramatically since the 19th century, leading to extinctions in at least 11 European countries, Algeria, Tunisia and probably as a breeding bird in Azerbaijan. The species has now disappeared from mainland Italy, where it occurred in Apulia, and it is presently declining in France and Spain (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Portugal, the population appears to be stable, and eastern populations are said to have increased in recent years<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The population in the Eurasian steppe belt is thought to have recovered due to an increase in fallow land during the transition process of the former Soviet Union (Gauger 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002759		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dry grassland and, in Europe, it also occurs in areas of low-intensity arable cultivation and pastoral land, selecting areas with a high diversity of ground cover such as mosaics of pasture, stubble fields, long-rotation fallow land and legume crops. The species has been observed to form mixed-species flocks with Pin-tailed Sandgrouse<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pterocles alchata </span>in Iberian regions and France (Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Wintering birds in Azerbaijan prefer semi-desert and steppe areas under winter pasturing, and avoid areas of intensive agriculture (Gauger 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002759		population	eng	The global population (excluding c.20,000 individuals in Kazakhstan) has been estimated at a minimum of c.240,000 individuals (C. Martínez <em>in litt</em>. 1999).
106002759		threats	eng	The primary cause of its decline has been conversion of dry grassland and low-intensity cultivation to intensive arable agriculture, especially where this has included the planting of monocultures or perennial crops, irrigation or afforestation. The fragmentation of traditional habitats, by means of agricultural intensification or infrastructure development, negatively affects habitat availability and quality for the species, as well as male density<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007, García <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> as displaying males exhibit a preference for old and same-year fallows which offer shelter and food (Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The use of pesticides could reduce food availability<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Harvesting with modern farm machinery, operated at high speed and often during the night, is the key threat to females and nests in Europe and is the cause for the observed male-biased sex structure and low fecundity (Iñigo and Barov 2010). Farm machinery accounts for 40% of clutch failure in southwest France (Inchausti &amp; Bretagnolle, 2005). Conversion to intensive arable agriculture continues to be the primary threat and cause of continuing declines<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>in Europe (E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007) and is predicted to cause declines in the eastern population in the near future (Kamp <em>et al.</em> in press). It also suffers from illegal hunting (Y. Andryuschenko <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, although this is a minor threat (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The collision of birds with overhead powerlines is a locally important cause of mortality<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The release of farm-reared gamebirds could eventually introduce new pathogens to wild populations of <em>T. tetrax</em><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. García<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Azerbaijan, the main threats are disturbance from intensive land use (mainly heavy grazing), habitat loss to infrastructure development and probably hunting (Gauger 2007)<strong></strong>. Climate change effects could lead to shorter rainy seasons and reduced winter precipitation in Southern Europe which could have a detrimental effect on habitat quality for the species (Delgado<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009, Delgado and Moreira 2010)  <p></p>
106002760		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II, CMS Appendix I and II and CMS MoU in place since 2002. EU Wild Birds Directive Annex I, Bern Convention Annex II, Bonn Convention Annex I (S. Nagy <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Goriup <em>in litt. </em>2007). A European action plan was published in 1996 and updated in 2009 (Nagy 2009) and an action plan for east Asian populations in 1998. Agri-environmental and land management programmes have been (successfully) implemented in Spain, Portugal, Austria, Hungary, Germany, Serbia. Artificial incubation and chick rearing projects have been established in Germany and Hungary since the 1970s. A UK reintroduction project began in 2003 with chicks imported from the Russian Federation (Dawes 2008). A LIFE Nature project for the species was implemented in Hungary during 2004-2008 with the aim of increasing in-situ protection of the species (Bankovics and Lóránt 2008). Other LIFE projects for the species have been implemented in Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria and Slovakia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style="">Conduct nationwide surveys in countries with currently low quality estimates, to confirm worldwide numbers and trends. Research limiting factors. Research wintering distribution in Russia, Ukraine and Asia. Pr</span>otect and manage breeding and wintering areas. Upgrade existing and establish new protected areas in east Asia. Implement agri-environment measures for low-intensity farming. Prevent steppe fires, illegal hunting and collision with power-lines. Raise public awareness.<br/><br/><p></p>
106002760		distribution	eng	<em style="">Otis tarda</em><span style=""> breeds in </span><strong style="">Morocco </strong><span style="">(</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">91-108 birds), </span><strong style="">Portugal</strong><span style=""> (1,893</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> birds), </span><strong style="">Spain</strong><span style=""> (29,400 - 34,300 birds), </span><strong style="">Austria </strong><span style="">(199-216 birds), </span><strong style="">Czech Republic </strong><span style="">(0-2 birds)</span>,<strong style=""> Germany </strong><span style="">(114-116 birds), </span><strong style="">Slovakia </strong><span style="">(0-3 bird</span>s)<span style="">, </span><strong style="">Hungary</strong><span style=""> (1,413-1,582 birds), </span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><strong style="">Serbia and Montenegro </strong><span style="">(35-36 birds),</span><strong style=""> Romania </strong><span style="">(0-8 birds),&#160;</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><strong style="">Turkey</strong><span style=""> (400-1,000 birds), </span><strong style="">Iran</strong><span style=""> (89-161 birds), </span><strong style="">Russia</strong><span style=""> (8,000-12,000 birds), </span><strong style="">Ukraine</strong><span style=""> (520 -680 birds), </span><strong style="">Kazakhstan </strong><span style="">(0-300 birds), </span><strong style="">Mongolia</strong><span style=""> (c.1,000 birds [Palacín and Alonso 2008]), and </span><strong style="">China</strong><span style=""> (c.500-3,300 birds [Chan and Goroshko 1998, </span><span style="">Alonso and Palacín 2010</span><span style="">, M. Kessler in litt. 2012]); and a reintroduction scheme is currently taking place in the </span>United Kingdom.<strong style=""> </strong><span style="">Its Palearctic range is becoming increasingly disjunct and there have  been rapid declines and some extinctions throughout eastern and central  Europe (</span><span style="font-weight: bold; ">Bulgaria</span><span style=""></span><span style="font-weight: bold; ">, Poland, Moldova</span><span style=""> [Palacín and Alonso 2008]). Numbers have almost certainly  declined in</span> Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Moldova, <span style="">Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Turkey,  Iran, and Morocco, and in most of the eastern distribution range (Chan  and Goroshko 1998, Barati and Amerifar 2008, Palacín and Alonso 2008), along a with a range contraction due to the disappearance of smaller populations across the species's range (e.g. in </span>Iberia [Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004] and Hungary [Faragó 1993])<span style="">.</span><span style=""> In contrast, the species  has increased in Hungary, Austria, and Germany, and there are possible increases in  Spain and Portu</span>ga<span style="">l (Alonso and Palacín 2010). </span>The previous fluctuating trend in Russia has changed to a rapid decrease during recent <span style="">years (Antonchikov 2008, 2011). Recent trends are unknown in Ukraine and some parts of Asia. The  world population is estimated to be between 44,054 and 57,005  individuals, of which c1,900-4,600 occur in east  Asia (Alonso and Palacín 2010). </span>Most populations are partially migratory  and 8,000-10,000 birds occur on passage or in winter in Ukraine (Y.  Andryucshenko <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002760		habitat	eng	It occurs in open, flat or somewhat rolling landscapes, usually with a mixture of crops (cereals, vineyards, fodder plants, in some countries also with steppic grassland [J. C. Alonso<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012]). Areas with little or no disturbance and abundant supply of insects are required for successful breeding (Y. Andryucshenko <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Nest sites are selected in fallow or cereal fields (primarily alfalfa in Central Europe) in areas of low patch-type diversity, far from human infrastructure and with good horizontal visibility (Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Highly variable migratory behaviour across populations, including obligate winter migrants (Asia, Russia), facultative migrants (central European populations) and partial winter and summer migr<span style="">ants with differential migratory pattern by sex (Iberian populations) (</span><span style=""><span style="">Morales </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2000, Alonso </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2000, 2001, Palacín </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009, 2011)  </span><br/><strong></strong> <p></p>
106002760		population	eng	Alonso and Palacín (2010) estimate the global population to number 44,054-57,005 individuals, rounded here to  44,000-57,000 individuals.
106002760		threats	eng	Key threats are increased habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss due to agricultural intensification, land-use changes and infrastructure development  which has the potential to increase following land privatisation in eastern Europe (S. Nagy <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007<span style="">, Nagy 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> and is occurring in China (Chan and Goroshko 1998)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.</span> Habitat loss and fragmentation continues as a result of ploughing of grasslands, intensive grazing, afforestation and increasing development of irrigation schemes, roads, power-lines, fencing and ditches. Mechanisation, chemical fertilisers and p<span style="">esticides, fire and predation all contribute to high mortality in eggs, chicks, juveniles and incubating females (Nagy 2009). Hunting is</span> a major threat in Morocco, Syria, Turkey, Ukraine, China, Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Y. Andryucshenko <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Chan and Goroshko 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Goriup <em>in litt. </em>2007, M. Kessler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) and is expected to intensify as the paved road network in Mongolia expands. Collision with power lines <em></em>(J. C. Alonso <em>in litt. </em>2007, Nagy 2009, M. Kessler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012) and wind turbines are also significant threat<em>s</em> (S. Nagy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). <p></p>
106002761		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish an estimate for the entire population. Carry out regular surveys to measure population trends. Monitor the rate of habitat loss, especially in Kenya and South Africa. Test the use of alternatives to reduce hunting, such as ecotourism. Protect habitat and enforce hunting bans in reserves. Research and work to reduce power-line collisions in South Africa for this and other bustard species.<br/><p></p>
106002761		distribution	eng	<em>Neotis denhami</em> occurs in southern <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire,</strong> <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, <strong>Sudan, South Sudan</strong>, <strong>Eritrea, Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Congo</strong>, <strong>Angola</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong> (a stronghold), <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong> (where it is very scarce [Hancock 2008]), the extreme southern tip of <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Lesotho</strong> and <strong>Swaziland</strong>. Although very widely distributed, it has suffered population declines through much, if not all, of its range (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. The Rift Valley in Kenya was formerly regarded as its stronghold, but there are now probably fewer than 300 in all of Kenya (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and its range has contracted in this country (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. It is considered common in Central African Republic and parts of Uganda, but there have been declines in Sudan, South Sudan and Nigeria (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. In South Africa, the total Transvaal breeding population only numbers c.300 birds, and the South Cape Province winter population is an estimated 956 birds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002761		habitat	eng	Found up to 3,000 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits grasslands, grassy <em>Acacia</em>-studded dunes, fairly dense shrubland, light woodland, farmland, crops, dried marsh and arid scrub plains, also grass-covered ironstone pans and burnt savanna woodland in Sierra Leone and high rainfall sour grassveld, planted pastures and cereal croplands in fynbos in South Africa (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, small vertebrates and plant material (Collar 1996, T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is variable and consequently unclear, perhaps indicating opportunism in reaction to rainfall (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The clutch-size is one or two (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the Central African Republic and parts of Uganda  (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002761		threats	eng	Hunting is the primary cause of declines across the Sahel (Newby 1990)<strong></strong> and throughout West Africa (Turner and Goriup 1989, Collar 1996, P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In eastern and southern Africa, hunting is also a problem (Parker 1999)<strong></strong>, but the main threat appears to be conversion of grassland and light woodland to agriculture (Collar 1996, Turner and Goriup 1989)<strong></strong>. Collisions with power lines may be a significant threat in parts of the range, particularly South Africa.<br/><p></p>
106002762		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A research project is underway at the Percy  FitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town to: conduct a new census of the Ludwig's Bustard population  in South Africa, to compare with the last assessment in the 1980s (Allan  1994); thoroughly assess the magnitude of power line mortality through  regular line surveys across the Karoo; look at habitat use, and patterns of local and regional movement of bustards through satellite tracking in relation to environmental conditions and the power grid; and to explore mitigation  options through experimentation of line marking devices (J. Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). An extensive line marking experiment was put up near De Aar in 2011 in conjunction with the Eskom - Endangered Wildlife Trust Strategic Partnership to test the two current devices used in mitigation in South Africa. In Namibia, NamPower are also working to implement effective mitigation measures (A. Scott and M. Scott <em>in litt.</em> 2010).    <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to raise awareness to stop hunting, and to encourage the public to report mortality from power lines etc. All new infrastructure (power lines, wind turbines) should be sited and mitigated appropriately, and dangerous sections of line should be retrofitted with appropriate mitigation. Further research into mitigation measures for power line collisions, other than those being tested at the De Aar site, should be instigated as the results of such experiments take a long time to gather. Research to learn more about about key life history parameters for this long-lived bird is also crucial to facilitate more accurate assessment of the impacts of unnatural mortality. Extend research currently underway in South Africa to Namibia (J. Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106002762		distribution	eng	<em>Neotis ludwigii</em> has a large range centred on the dry biomes of the Karoo and Namib in southern Africa, being found in the extreme south-west of <strong>Angola</strong>, western <strong>Namibia</strong> and in much of <strong>South Africa </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996; Anderson 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The global population has been previously estimated at 56,000 to 81,000 individuals (Allan 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, this estimate is now approximately 20 years old, and in this time the species is suspected to have declined rapidly as a result of collisions with overhead power lines, for which there is currently no effective mitigation (Anderson 2002; Jenkins and Smallie 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002762		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open lowland and upland plains with grass and light thornbush, sandy open shrub veld and semi-desert in the arid and semi-arid Namib and Karoo biomes. It appears to undertake seasonal movements, moving to the western winter-rainfall part of its range in winter (Allan 1994, J Shaw unpubl. data).  The breeding season spans from August to December, with the species nesting on bare ground with a clutch of 2-3 eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996; Jenkins and Smallie 2009)<strong></strong>. Chick-rearing is conducted solely by females (Jenkins and Smallie 2009)<strong></strong>. The diet includes invertebrates, some small vertebrates and vegetable matter, including the berries of <em>Lycium oxycladum</em>. There is strong evidence that the species undergoes movement with rains in pursuit of <em>Orthoptera</em> hatchlings, though vegetation remains important (Allan 1994). Flocks of up to 70 individuals have been recorded (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002762		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at 56,000-81,000 individuals. However, given the estimated rates of power line collisions since this estimate, the true population size is likely to be much lower; a full population census is underway to accurately establish current numbers (J. Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).
106002762		threats	eng	The primary threat to the species is collisions with overhead power lines (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996; Anderson 2002; Jenkins and Smallie 2009; Jenkins 2009; Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2011)<strong></strong>. Bustards have limited frontal vision so may not see even power lines, even if they are marked (Martin and Shaw 2010). Collision rates on high voltage transmission lines in the De Aar area of the Karoo may exceed one Ludwig's Bustard per kilometre per year (Anderson 2002; Jenkins <em>et al.</em> (2009)<strong></strong>, and there is preliminary evidence for this level of mortality on transmission lines across the Karoo, indicating that the problem is widespread (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2011<em></em>)<strong></strong>. Given that the extent of power lines in the Karoo is vast and expanding (Jenkins and Smallie 2009; J. Smallie <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, with already over 17,000 km of transmission lines in place, it is estimated that such collisions alone are already enough to cause a rapid decline in the population and may increase in the future (Jenkins <em>et al. </em><em></em>2011). Recent surveys on low voltage lines have also revealed substantial levels of mortality (J. Shaw unpubl. data), and in addition to power lines wind farms are set to be established in many parts of the Karoo in the next few years. Other threats to this species include deliberate hunting, capture in snares set for mammals, poisoning and disturbance, with one satellite tracked bird likely hunted (J. Shaw unpubl. data, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996).<p></p>
106002763		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the species at selected sites across its range to determine trends. Research the extent and nature of the threat caused by hunting. If sensible and feasible, regulate hunting. Ensure complete protection of important populations of both subspecies.  <p></p>
106002763		distribution	eng	<em>Neotis nuba</em> has a disjunct range across the Sahelian and, marginally, Saharan zones of Africa. The western subspecies <em>N. n. agaze</em> has populations in <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Mali, Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong> and western <strong>Chad</strong>, and the eastern subspecies <em>N. n. nuba</em> has a single population in eastern Chad and <strong>Sudan</strong> (Johnsgard 1991). <em>N. n. agaze</em> was formerly common in Mali and Mauritania and probably remains common only in Chad and Niger (<strong></strong>S. Hogberg <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, while <em>N. n. nuba</em> is described as rare and little known in Sudan (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Nikolaus 1987)<strong></strong>. Vehicle-based transect surveys for raptors in the Sahel zone of Mali and  Niger in 2004 failed to record any bustard species, despite <em>N. nuba</em>  being frequently recorded along the same transects in 1971 and 1973  (Thiollay 2006). Bustards can be inconspicuous, which, coupled with the  focus of these surveys on raptors, means that some birds were probably  missed, and local hunters reported that bustard species were still  extant in the surveyed areas; however, the difference between the survey  results from the early 1970s and 2004 most likely indicates dramatic  declines in this species (Thiollay 2006). Several hundred kilometres of vehicle-based transects have been conducted recently in Mauritania in search of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nuba</span>, without any success by January 2012 (K. DuRose <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).&#160; <br/> <br/><em> <p></p></em>
106002763		habitat	eng	It occupies desert fringes, semi-arid scrub and savanna where it feeds on large insects, as well as grass seeds, leaves and fruits (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1996).
106002763		threats	eng	There is little information on the current status of this species or its population trends. However, it apparently suffers from widespread hunting, which may now be causing substantial declines in parts of its range (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Johnsgard 1991)<strong></strong>. Tourist hunters from the Middle East pay large sums of money to kill hundreds of bustards, even in their current strongholds (S. Hogberg <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Over-hunting is probably the main cause of declines in the  bustard species of Sahelian West Africa. Off-take by local nomads has  been augmented by the hunting activities of military and mining  personnel, as well as tourists (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Thiollay 2006). Civil war in Chad in the 1980s, and recent unrest in Sudan, is likely to have increased local hunting pressure because of the number of weapons available. Other threats to <em>N. nuba</em> may include the intensification of land use, disturbance by off-road vehicles, overgrazing, disturbance by livestock, firewood collection and commercial wood collection (J. Brouwer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Although the Sahel zone has seen only a limited impact from West Africa’s rapid human population growth, along with low population densities and a predominantly traditional nomadic lifestyle, habitat degradation is occurring through the thinning of sparse non-regenerating <em>Acacia</em> woodlands, as well as the overgrazing of sub-desert steppes and excessive harvesting of firewood, which are followed by wind erosion and sand encroachment (Thiollay 2006).<br/><p></p>
106002764		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in northern Kenya and northern Somalia, uncommon in most of Ethiopia and rare in Eritrea (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002765		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed<br/></span>Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends throughout its range. Monitor rates of&#160; habitat degradation. Monitor hunting pressure. Conduct awareness-raising activities to help reduce hunting pressure. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected.&#160; <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>
106002765		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ardeotis arabs</span> occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mauritania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Senegal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Gambia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mali</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Burkina Faso</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niger</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nigeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chad</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Sudan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Eritrea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Djibouti</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Somalia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Saudi Arabia</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Yemen</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lynesi</span> is known from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Morocco</span>, but there have been no definite records since 1962 and it is likely to be extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). Survey results and anecdotal observations from the more accessible and better monitored parts of its range<em></em> suggest that it has undergone a rapid decline in recent decades owing to habitat destruction and hunting (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Thiollay 2006). Vehicle-based transect surveys for raptors in the Sahel zone of Mali and Niger in 2004 failed to record any bustard species, despite <em>A. arabs</em> being frequently recorded along the same transects in 1971 and 1973 (Thiollay 2006). Bustards can be inconspicuous, which, coupled with the focus of these surveys on raptors, means that some birds were probably missed, and local hunters reported that bustard species were still extant in the surveyed areas; however, the difference between the survey results from the early 1970s and 2004 most likely indicates dramatic declines in these species (Thiollay 2006). The species was formerly quite common in the Lake Chad area of Nigeria; however, the species may now have been extirpated from the country (P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).
106002765		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-desert and open grassy plains, arid bush, savanna and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> woodland, and is also found in cultivation in Yemen (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). It feeds on insects and other invertebrates, as well as small vertebrates. It also takes seeds, fruits, succulent parts of plants and gum from <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>. Its breeding season varies geographically according to local climatic patterns (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106002765		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in very poorly documented areas, so might still be common in many places (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1996).
106002765		threats	eng	The Sahel zone has seen only a limited impact from rapid human population growth in West Africa, along with low population densities and a predominantly traditional nomadic lifestyle; however, habitat degradation is occurring through the thinning of sparse non-regenerating <em>Acacia</em> woodlands, as well as the over-grazing of sub-desert steppes and excessive harvesting of firewood, which are followed by wind erosion and sand encroachment (Thiollay 2006). Overhunting, though, is probably the main cause of declines in this species. Off-take by local nomads has been augmented by the hunting activities of military and mining personnel and tourists (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Thiollay 2006). In Waza National Park, corrupt management resulted in high poaching pressure in the floodplain section of the park between 2007 and 2009, but this situation has since improved with the installment of a new warden (R. Buij <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population of <em>A. arabs</em> on the Arabian Peninsula is very small and likely to be in decline owing to hunting, habitat loss and the effects of pesticides (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species is reportedly still fairly common in parts of western Yemen; however, the intensification of agriculture may pose a threat (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996).
106002766		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be still common where undisturbed (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002767		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In India it is legally protected and there are severe  penalties for killing an individual. It has been the focus of several  publicity initiatives aimed at reducing hunting. Since 1981, extensive  fieldwork has investigated its status, distribution and ecology, and a  detailed conservation strategy has been published. Protected areas have  been specifically established for the species (Sonkhaliya-Sorson,  Lala-Naliya, Gaga-Bhatiya, Karera, Ghatigaon, Nanaj and Ranibennur), and  populations occur in some others (Desert National park and Rollapadu  Wildlife Sanctuary). Despite some failures (local extinctions in Karera,  Gaga-Bhatiya and Ranibennur), there have been some success as well.  Rehabilitation of grasslands has also benefited the species in some  areas. The Indian government has provided financial support to  conservation actions for this species in some regions (Anon. 2009).  Meetings and processions with local communities have been carried out in  the past by the Bombay Natural History Society (Rahmanin2006) to  generate support for birds among local people. More recently (March  2011), the Great Indian Bustard Foundation held a two-day meeting with  communities within and around the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary at  Nannaj (Patil 2011). Nearly 600 villagers attended and discussions  covered the problems of local people and threats to the species (Patil  2011). The Great Indian Bustard Foundaton along with Maharashtra Forest Department, is conducting a school awareness programme and large-scale community awareness programme.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India have set up a Task Force to guide field implementation of bustard conservation actions (Anon 2011). Through meetings and workshops involving many parties (officials, experts, common citizen), site specific recovery plans have been drafted. Broadly speaking, the proposed conservation actions are: 1) To consolidate core breeding areas identified across the species’ range by creating strict refuges during prime breeding months (July–September). This will require acquiring government lands that are not owned by Forest Departments; making all core areas inviolate by chain-link-fencing and patrolling guards; and removing nest predators (dogs &amp; cats) therein. Consumptive human use should not be permitted during breeding months but allowed under regulations outside of it. 2) To formulate landscape conservation strategies in priority areas (informed by telemetry research) for accommodating species’ non-breeding needs. Research informed habitat management should be planned herein (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012) that excludes any construction of road and tall shrub/tree plantation. Unfriendly infrastructure (road, electricity network and wind turbines) should be curtailed within 2km radius of core breeding areas or replaced by bustard-friendly forms (underground electric cables and passes). This can be done by declaring priority areas as community or conservation reserves or Eco-sensitive zone through legislation. Additionally, local livelihoods should be linked with bustard conservation in priority areas by subsidy/ incentive driven Agro-environmental Schemes that promote bustard–friendly farming practices, such as pesticide–free farming of short palatable crops separated by long fallow periods, and stall feeding of livestock during peak monsoon months. 3) To commence ex-situ conservation breeding programme as an insurance against extinction. Since in-situ conservation measures will require at least 5-10 years to be implemented and the rapidly declining species’ trend provides a window of &lt;5 years for procuring eggs from the wild, the implementation of conservation breeding should be taken up urgently. However, this is not an alternative to effective habitat management, and is only a mechanism to repopulate extinction-prone small stocks after their habitats have been restored. 4) To assess the efficacy of these conservation actions by systematic, country-wide population monitoring on alternate years for the next 10 years. <br/><br/><p></p>
106002767		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Ardeotis nigriceps</span> occurs in the Indian Subcontinent, with former strongholds in the Thar desert in the north-west and the Deccan tableland of the Peninsula (BirdLife International 2001). It has been extirpated from 90% of its former range: now principally confined to Rajasthan (c.175 birds), with smaller populations (fewer than 30 birds) in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and fewer than 5 birds in Madhya Pradesh, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>. Recent declines have been noted in several areas, including Maharashtra (Kasambe<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006, P. Patil<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011) and Kachchh (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In Maharashtra, the latest population estimates suggest a population as low as 30 individuals (Kasambe<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006) and numbers have been falling in the Bustard Sanctuary since at least the late 1980s, with the 2010 census recording only 9 individuals, and breeding has not been recorded there since 2007 at least (P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Whilst in Kachchh the latest population estimate is fewer than 20 birds at densities of 0.05 per km<sup>2</sup> in ~400 km<sup>2</sup> suitable habitat (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The species is likely to be close to disappearing from Karnataka (Kumara and Mohan Raj 2007), and it is thought to have completely disappeared from the states of Haryana, Punjab, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India, but some apparently survive, and are hunted, in Sind, Pakistan (Khan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, B. Lechleiter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Its total population has declined from an estimated 1,260 individuals in 1969 to c.300 individuals in 2008 (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), equivalent to a reduction of c.82% over 47 years (three generations), assuming an exponential trend. The results of a recent genetic study, in which the effective population size was estimated from the diversity of mitochondrial DNA, provide support for an estimate of fewer than 1,000 birds, and likely about 500 during the period 2006-2010, when samples were collected (Ishtiaq <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). This study found very low genetic diversity for such a widespread species, probably owing to a bottleneck event caused by its widespread extermination possibly even before the mid 19th century (Ishtiaq <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Population viability analysis predicts a high probability of local extinction within 50 years for populations numbering fewer than 30 individuals, with the more secure population of over 100 individuals showing sensitivity to the loss of one additional adult each year to human causes, indicating that present levels of off-take are unsustainable (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Current levels of hunting may result in the extinction of even the largest western Indian population in the next 15-20 years (Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106002767		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid and semi-arid grasslands with scattered short scrub, bushes and low intensity cultivation in flat or gently undulating terrain. Birds congregate in traditional grassland patches (mostly identified) which are less disturbed, to breed during mid-summer and monsoon. It nests in open ground, laying only one clutch (consisting of one and very rarely two eggs) per year. Outside of breeding season, it probably makes local and possibly long distance nomadic movements (largely unknown) in response to various factors, using areas rich in food resources and surrounded by natural grass-scrub habitat for easy navigation. It requires different microhabitat envelopes for different activities, such as grasslands with relatively tall (vegetation 25-100cm) and dense cover, high insect resources and less grazing for nesting; short sparse vegetation (&lt;25 cm vegetation) on slightly elevated ground for display; sparse vegetation (&lt;25 cm vegetation) with minimal scrub for roosting; and moderate (25-50 cm vegetation) shade for resting (Rahmani 1989, Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106002767		population	eng	The species's total population was estimated at c.300 individuals in 2008, indicating that there are probably fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining, hence the population is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
106002767		threats	eng	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">Historically widespread hunting for sport and food precipitated its decline, accelerated by vehicular access to remote areas. High intensity poaching still continues in Pakistan (which is probably shared with western Rajasthan and Kachchh populations), where 49 birds were hunted out of 63 that were sighted over a period of 4 years (Khan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Some poaching continues in India as well (Sridhar 2005, Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011), including one documented case where mine-workers that lost their livelihoods when mines near Gwalior were closed for the creation of the Ghatigaon Bustard Sanctuary hunted bustards to undermine the criteria on which the area was first designated as a sanctuary (Sridhar 2005). Egg-collecting was rampant in many states during early 19th century, and prevails very sporadically in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). However, the current threats are mostly from habitat loss and degradation, caused by; 1) widespread agricultural expansion and mechanization of farming; 2) infrastructural development such as irrigation, roads, electric poles, wind turbines and constructions; 3) mining and industrialization; and 4) well intended but ill-informed habitat management (Anon 2011; Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). With increased availability of water due to Government irrigation policies, agriculture has spread over vast arid–semiarid grasslands. For example, the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project has caused drastic hydraulic changes and massive agricultural conversion in and around the Desert National Park. Moreover, irrigation facilities and changing lifestyles have led to a shift in the crop pattern from bustard–friendly traditional monsoonal crops (Sorghum, millet etc.) to cash crops (sugarcane, grapes, cotton, horticulture etc.) which are not suitable for the species. Due to ill-defined land distribution policies and the ambiguity arising from segregated ownership between private, community and government bodies, encroachment is a major problem in many bustard areas, especially in and around bustard sanctuaries of Maharashtra and Kachchh. Activities such as mining, stone quarrying, growth of industries and power projects along with the expansion of roads, electric poles, wind turbines and other infrastructures have increased the severity of habitat degradation and disturbance (Anon 2011). Traditionally, grasslands and scrub have been considered as wasteland and the Forest Department policy, until recently, has been to convert them to forests with plantation of fuel/fodder shrub/tree species, even exotics like <span style="font-style: italic;">Prosopis juliflora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gliricidium </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>spp., under social forestry and compensatory afforestation schemes (Forest (Conservation) Act 1988; Indian Forest Act 1927) resulting in further loss of habitat. Overgrazing on unprotected lands has also led to degradation of some areas (Mathew 2007, Dutta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, Anon 2011).<br/></strong> <p></p>
106002768		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Studies have taken place which examine the ecology and movements of this species in northern Australia (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. This research provided estimates of its population density at several sites, and established reliable and robust methodologies for estimating abundance (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Non-traditional hunting is banned in all Australian states and territories. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Consolidate existing vehicle-based bustard counts and relate them to land use. Assess data available from annual kangaroo and feral animal surveys to give information on numbers in remote areas. Monitor population trends. Initiate studies of factors affecting breeding success. Quantify traditional hunting pressure and work towards regulation of take as necessary. Work with land managers to alter land-use practices so that areas of favourable habitat are created and maintained.  <p></p>
106002768		distribution	eng	<em>Ardeotis australis </em>occurs across continental <strong>Australia</strong> and occasionally in southern <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>and Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. The total population is thought number less than 100,000 birds (S. Garnett<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, and almost certainly more than 10,000 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), with the majority occurring in northern Australia. It is rarely recorded on the plains of south-western Papua New Guinea. It has all but disappeared from south-eastern Australia, and is less abundant elsewhere, particularly south of the tropics. Local population size varies strongly with rainfall (Ziembicki and Woinarski 2007)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>making assessment of trends difficult, however population loss in southern Australia is believed to have been largely historical, and the population in the north is thought to be relatively stable. Satellite-tracking has provided substantial information on dispersal in this species, suggesting that populations in higher-rainfall northern Australia undergo relatively local dispersal, whereas those in lower-rainfall areas may undergo far more substantial regional and inter-regional movements (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In southern and central Queensland, this species appears to move eastwards in autumn, retracting westwards later in the year (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002768		habitat	eng	It inhabits grassland, including tussock grassland, <em>Triodia</em> hummock grassland, grassy woodland, low shrublands, and structurally similar artificial habitats, such as croplands and golf-courses. It will also use denser vegetation, when this has been temporarily opened up by recent burning. It lays one, or occasionally two, eggs on the ground, where possible along a boundary between open grasslands and more protective shrubland or woodlands (Marchant and Higgins 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In northern Australia it may disperse widely to follow recently-burnt grounds (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002768		population	eng	The population is estimated at under 100,000 individuals (S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2003).
106002768		threats	eng	Its widespread historical decline was probably caused by a combination of intensive agriculture, invasion of pastoral land by woody weeds, hunting, changes to fire regimes and predation by the Red Fox <em>Vulpes vulpes </em><strong></strong>(Harrington <em>et al</em>. 1984, Marchant and Higgins 1993, J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It readily deserts nests in response to disturbance by humans, sheep or cattle (Marchant and Higgins 1993)<strong></strong>. Pesticides, either directly or indirectly ingested, are also held responsible for local extinctions (Ziembicki and Woinarski 2007)<strong></strong>. The area where it has declined corresponds with the distribution of foxes in Australia, a distribution that may be slowly expanding northwards. Traditional and illegal hunting by people is also considerable and may be contributing to the perceived decline in northern and central Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>. Across northern Australia it may be less common in areas invaded by woody weeds. Local increases in abundance have occurred in parts of northern Australia in response to recent clearing (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong> and subsequent horticultural development, but this effect may dissipate as agriculture intensifies (J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002769		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>    CITES Appendix I. For the race <em>fuertaventurae</em>: improved protection from poaching, reduction of grazing (agricultural decline) and habitat management within protected areas (Martín <em>et al.</em> 1997, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martí and del Moral 2003). SEO/BirdLife purchased a 209 ha reserve to  protect the species on  Fuerteventura in 2005. For the race <em>undulata</em>: an action plan for the species in North Africa was published in 2007 (Azafzaf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). A successful captive breeding and release programme is on-going in Morocco and Algeria (O. Combreau <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). For the race <em>macqueenii</em>: studies of the status, ecology and migration of the species in various parts of its range, notably Kazakhstan (Combreau <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002, Tourenq <em>et al. </em>2004,&#160;O. Combreau and M. Lawrence <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, F. Launay  pers. comm. 2004). Captive breeding schemes have been established which are intended in part as quarry substitutes for wild birds, and also for certain restocking initiatives in Arabia (F. Launay  pers. comm. 2004); a population has been reintroduced into Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area in central Saudi Arabia, where it is now established and numbers 250-300 individuals, and other reintroductions are planned elsewhere in the country (Zafar-ul Islam <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Produce a range-wide action and recovery plan, based on agreement under the Convention on Migratory Species. Monitor and reduce hunting pressure throughout range. Establish robust, workable systems for the sustainability of hunting throughout range. Create hunting preserves and other types of managed protected areas.  Reduce grazing and other farming pressures (Goriup 1997, Combreau <em>et al.</em> 2001,&#160;O. Combreau and M. Lawrence <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, F. Launay  pers. comm. 2004). For the race <span style="font-style: italic;">macqueenii</span>: assess the population in Saudi Arabia (Zafar-ul Islam <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). For the race <em>fuertaventurae</em>: designate new and expand existing special protected areas under European law.  Increase wardening of key areas.  Ensure safe powerline positions; conduct rigorous census every five years. Continue conservation-related biological research. Undertake local awareness campaigns (Martín <em>et al.</em> 1997, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martí and del Moral 2003).<p></p>
106002769		distribution	eng	<em>Chlamydotis undulata</em> occurs in a wide range across North Africa, the Middle East and western Asia, in three subspecies. Race <em>fuertaventurae</em> is confined to the eastern Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. Race <em>undulata</em> occupies North African countries as follows: northernmost <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Western Sahara</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>Libya</strong> and <strong>Egypt</strong> west of the Nile with old records from <strong>Sudan</strong>. Race <em>macqueenii</em> extends from Egypt east of the Nile through <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Lebanon</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Yemen</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>, <strong>U.A.E.</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong>, <strong>Kuwait</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong> to <strong>China</strong>, with unconfirmed reports from Azerbaijan and Turkey (Collar 1979, Goriup 1997). The population of race <em>fuertaventurae</em> in the mid-1990s was estimated at 527 birds, with 18 on La Graciosa, 268 on Lanzarote and 241 on Fuerteventura, although an apparently independent assessment put the total population at 147-882 birds<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Carrascal and Alonso 2005). More recent estimates place the population at 108-252 birds on Fuerteventura, 272-801 on Lanzarote and 3-10 on La Graciosa (Carrascal <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, whilst another census estimated the population at around 1,000 birds on the all the islands, with 384-459 on Fuerteventura, 383-806 on Lanzarote and 11-17 on La Graciosa (Lorenzo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. The population of nominate <em>undulata</em> in the mid-1990s was estimated to be at least 9,800 individuals, of which over 50% were in Algeria, 30% in Morocco and 10% in Libya (Goriup 1997). In more recent discussions, however, a reliable estimate for the number of individuals in North Africa has not been considered achievable (without huge confidence limits). Instead, it has been roughly estimated that the region holds around 30% of the total population. Although this subspecies showed a steady decline of c.25% in the 20 years preceding 2004 (F. Launay  pers. comm. 2004), this trend has since been reversed by a successful captive breeding and release programme in east Morocco and west Algeria, and the overall population of <span style="font-style: italic;">undulata</span> is now thought to be increasing (O. Combreau <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The population of race <em>macqueenii</em> in the mid-1990s was estimated to be in the range 39,000-52,000, of which over 75% were in Kazakhstan and 15% in Uzbekistan (Goriup 1997). In more recent discussions, however, a reliable estimate for the number of individuals in the Middle East and central Asia has also not been considered achievable without huge confidence limits. Instead, the region has been broken into two, west Asia (the resident population distributed from the Arabian Peninsula to Pakistan and Uzbekistan) with around 20% of the total population, and east Asia (the migrant population distributed from Kazakhstan to China) with around 50%. With no new information on the rate of decline in west Asia, that of c.25% estimated in 2004 (F. Launay  pers. comm. 2004, Tourenq <em>et al. </em>2004) is retained here. The species has declined "sharply" in east Asia (O. Combreau <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Whilst this rate has been highly variable (ranging from a 40% increase in east Kazakhstan to a 90% decline in west Kazakhstan), an overall decline rate of c.40-50% as estimated in 2004 (F. Launay  pers. comm. 2004, Tourenq <em>et al. </em>2004) is thought to remain sensible. The species showed a general decline of c.35% from 1984-2004, but trends now are likely to be less severe given the arrested decline in North Africa.&#160; If 50% (east Asia) of the species is declining by 40-50%, 20% (west Asia) is declining by c.25%, and the remaining 30% (North Africa) is now increasing (at a conservative estimate, by 1-10%) the global population is currently declining by c.20-29%. <p></p>
106002769		habitat	eng	All subspecies inhabit sandy and stony semi-desert and are specialised to existence in arid conditions where trees are absent and both shrub cover and herb layer are sparse (Collar 1979, Goriup 1997, Snow and Perrins 1998, Martí and del Moral 2003). Scrub forest is used in Saudi Arabia (Zafar-ul Islam <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). They feed on invertebrates, small vertebrates and green shoots, and typically lay 2-4 eggs in a scrape on the ground. Eggs and young are vulnerable to ground predators. North African and Arabian populations may be sedentary or partially migratory, moving relatively short distances to find recent plant growth; populations from Turkmenistan east to China are migratory, and winter in large numbers in Iran and, less abundantly, other parts of the Middle East (Snow and Perrins 1998).  <p></p>
106002769		population	eng	The population in Kazakhstan was estimated at c.49,000 in 2011. Added to a population likely to number 4,000-6,000 birds in China and Mongolia (O. Combreau <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), this gives an estimate of 53,000-55,000 for the east Asian migrant population. This is thought to represent around 50% of the global population, and so a very preliminary estimate of the global population is 106,000-110,000 individuals. This is placed in the band 100,000-499,999 individuals to account for uncertainty.<br/><p></p>
106002769		threats	eng	The principal threat to the North Africa, Middle Eastern and western Asian populations is from hunting by Middle Easten falconers, largely but not exclusively on the species's wintering grounds (Judas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Michler 2009). Large numbers of Houbara Bustard are trapped, mainly in Pakistan and Iran, and shipped to Arabia for use in training falcons to hunt (Combreau 2007). Habitat loss and degradation compound this problem (Goriup 1997, Snow and Perrins 1998, Combreau <em>et al.</em> 2001,&#160;Combreau <em>et al.</em> 2002). The race <em>fuertaventurae</em> is threatened by collisions with powerline<span style="">s, with up to 17% killed in this way (Lowen 2007, C. González and J. A. Lorenzo </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style=""><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong style=""></strong><span style="">; habitat degradation caused by to</span>urist facilities; off-road vehicles; military exercises; overgrazing; sand extraction<span style=""></span> and road development, and possibly also nest predation by introduced mammals and illegal hunting (Martín. <em>et al.</em> 1997, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Martí and del Moral 2003). Recent evidence suggests that the impact of military exercises and hunting have reduced considerably in recent years, but mortality from powerlines may be significant (C. González and J. A. Lorenzo <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.<span style=""></span><br/><p></p>
106002770		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. There is Little information available about the species but it is reportedly fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range except in Sudan where it is generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002772		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002773		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002774		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. There is no detailed information available but this species is apparently common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002775		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common and common in coastal Angola (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002776		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002777		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Although this species occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Las Anod-Taleh-El Chebet, Gaan Libaax, El Hammure; Robertson (in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it cannot be considered secure. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research and monitoring of populations are urgently required (Collar 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Improve management of protected areas within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106002777		distribution	eng	<em>Eupodotis humilis</em> is known only from north and west-central <strong>Somalia</strong> and adjacent areas of eastern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, which it apparently colonised in the 1970s (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Somalia, it has been considered "common south to 7°N" and scarcer beyond to 4°N (Ash and Miskell 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Ethiopia, it was not uncommon in the Lower Wabi Shebelle and Warder region from 1969 to 1976 (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but was not recorded during field surveys in this region during 1995-1996.    <p></p>
106002777		habitat	eng	The species favours light, open thornbush and occasionally also adjacent tussocky plains where it feeds on insects, small reptiles and seeds (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season extends from April to August (Ash and Miskell 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is placed on sandy soil, usually without a scrape (Collar 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Normally two eggs are laid, but a clutch-size of three has been recorded (Collar 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002777		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Ogaden, eastern Ethiopia and common in northern Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002777		threats	eng	Droughts and war in the heart of the species's range during the 1970s and 1980s may have disrupted breeding and caused a sharp population decline. The continuing presence of refugee camps on both sides of the Ethiopia-Somalia border, and of an armed population, is likely to have caused at least local extinctions through the combined effects of hunting, cultivation, firewood collection and overgrazing.  <p></p>
106002778		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002779		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in at least 15 nature reserves in South Africa, but these sites may protect only 100-500 individuals (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carefully monitor its populations (Barnes 2000).&#160;<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>Monitor rates of habitat loss within its range. Protect additional areas of the species's habitat. <p></p>
106002779		distribution	eng	<em>Eupodotis caerulescens</em> is virtually endemic to <strong>South Africa</strong>, extending only marginally into western <strong>Lesotho</strong>. The total South African population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals, but this may be an underestimate as the population in the former Transvaal alone has been estimated to exceed 10,000 individuals, with between 1,000 and 3,000 in the proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom.    <p></p>
106002779		habitat	eng	It is found on high grassveld, usually above 1,500 m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it inhabits open, fairly short grassland and a mixture of grassland and karoo dwarf-shrubland, with termite mounds and few or no trees (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also inhabits old and fallow cropland, pastures and winter cultivation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, scorpions, small lizards and vegetable matter. It apparently benefits from small-scale agriculture, as it regularly forages in crop fields and planted pastures. Breeding occurs from August to April, mainly in October and November (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is situated on bare open ground, often in short, thick grass or cropland (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The clutch-size ranges from one to three eggs, and the incubation period is 24-28 days (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The young stay with their parents for up to two years, in a breeding system that appears to involve group-territorialism (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002779		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 12,000-15,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 8,000-10,000 mature individuals.
106002779		threats	eng	It does not appear to have decreased in the west of its range, but seems certain to have decreased to some extent in the east owing to dense human settlement and large-scale agriculture. Habitat loss looks set to continue throughout its range (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with intensive agriculture appearing to be the main threat (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Kenya and Sudan, rare and local at the edge of its range in Somalia, and uncommon in Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002782		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Several populations occur within protected areas, the most important being the Bengal Florican Conservation Area (BFCA) network in Cambodia (see Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012), Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa and Dudwa National Parks, India. Tiny, perhaps unsustainable populations may still remain at Ang Trapeang Thmor Sarus Crane Reserve, Cambodia and within the Mekong Delta at Boeung Prek Lapouv Sarus Crane Reserve, Cambodia and Tram Chim National Park, Vietnam. A PhD research project investigating movements and habitat requirements in the non-breeding season began in 2007 and at least 19 birds have been fitted with satellite or radio transmitters (Packman 2008, 2009), the data from which have revealed previously unknown non-breeding sites (Packman 2009). The Wildlife Conservation Society, BirdLife International and their government partners are engaged in a programme of conservation activities in the Tonle Sap floodplain of Cambodia, aimed at reducing habitat loss and hunting pressure on the species (A. W. Tordoff <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Achievements so far include the designation of 173 km<sup>2</sup> of breeding and 138 km<sup>2</sup> of non-breeding habitat as Bengal Florican Conservation Areas (BFCAs). Populations in the BFCAs and in adjacent areas has been monitored annually since 2008 using a survey which employs a randomised sampling design to measure occupancy of 1km<sup>2</sup> squares by displaying males which allows results to be extrapolated within and across sites to obtain accurate population and trend data. These data indicate that the population is probably stable at some BFCAs and possibly declining in others and in adjacent areas (van Zalinge<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009, 2010, Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012)). Suitable habitat in BFCAs continues to be lost to various threats, including the expansion of dry season rice cultivation and dam construction (van Zalinge<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010), although overall habitat loss outside of BFCAs has been much greater. Work is on-going to maintain effective management structures for these areas and build constituencies of support for their conservation among local stakeholders. Official patrol teams are now operating in Kampong Thom and Siem Reap, and&#160; in both provinces the Forestry Administration working through provincial commissions, has already halted several proposed developments which would otherwise have destroyed vital breeding habitat (Eames 2007, van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, 2010, Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Changes in land use in the Tonle Sap floodplain and in the BFCAs in particular are also monitored with the aid of aerial and/or satellite images (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). When land encroachment in the BFCAs is detected through patrols or satellite-monitoring WCS facilitates meetings between the parties concerned to resolve disputes and reverse encroachment. An in-depth socio-economic study has been conducted by the Centre d'Etude et de Développement Agricole Cambodgien. The report highlights the economic benefits local communities derive through the traditional use of grasslands and is used to build support among key decision makers and local communities. An awareness programme covering 71 villages and over 3,200 people was conducted in 2008/9 and school and village outreach is ongoing. Training in selected villages was conducted to improve agricultural systems and reduce the immediate pressure on grasslands from people wanting to convert grasslands into agriculture (BirdLife International 2009). Villagers receive financial rewards for reporting nests which they incidentally found as a deterrent against collecting and eating the eggs; finders receive an additional financial reward if the nest fledges successfully, although nest-finders are discouraged from protecting the nests directly to reduce accidental disturbance to birds (van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, van Zalinge<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010, Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). At the four breeding season BFCAs community management committees have been established to act as intermediaries between WCS, government partners and the communities, they assist in awareness raising, patrolling and reporting illegal activities in the BFCAs. At one of the BFCAs rice is purchased at a premium from local farmers abiding by conservation agreements under a wildlife-friendly rice&#160; initiative and community members gain an additional income from acting as guides to birdwatchers visiting the site through the Sam Veasna Centre. These activities appear to be having some early success in arresting the rapid decline of the species in Cambodia, but their long-term outcome remains to be seen. A range-wide survey of the Cambodian population will be completed in early 2012 (L. Packman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<br/><br/><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue annual monitoring of the population in the BFCAs, Cambodia, and replicate the monitoring protocol in key sites in India and Nepal. Conduct research on Bengal Florican breeding productivity, and habitat utilisation in breeding and non-breeding BFCAs .Introduce a protected area management regime, including appropriate rotational burning, grazing and cutting based on research findings. Promote grassland conservation awareness initiatives in all range countries. Strengthen the legal protection for existing BFCAs and expand the network (van Zalinge<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009, 2010). Continue surveys for populations, particularly in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and Koshi Barrage, Nepal (Poudyal 2007). Identify additional important sites for birds in the non-breeding season in Cambodia. Extend, upgrade and link protected areas in India and Nepal, and establish new ones. Devise and promote a conservation strategy for all Asian bustards. Share best practice guidelines for management of small bustards in grassland habitats across Europe and Asia.<br/><p></p>
106002782		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Houbaropsis bengalensis </span>has two disjunct populations, one in the Indian Subcontinent, the other in South-East Asia (BirdLife International 2001). The former occurs from Uttar Pradesh, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, through the terai of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span>, to Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India, and historically to Bangladesh. It has declined dramatically and only survives in small, highly fragmented populations. Declines have apparently continued in Nepal, even inside the protected Royal Chitwan National Park (Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), but they may have stabilised in India (Rahmani 2001). Surveys and interviews with staff at four protected areas in the North Bank area of Assam suggest that the species has been largely absent from three of them since 2000 (Brahma and Lahkar 2009). An estimate from 2007 put the Nepalese population at just 28-36 mature individuals (restricted to a few widespread sites) (Poudyal 2007), down from 32-60 individuals in 2001 (S. Hogberg <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). Around 12 pairs are estimated to remain in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and the adjoining areas (Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). The South-East Asian population occurs in Cambodia and may be extant in southern Vietnam. The population in the Tonle Sap region, which supports the vast majority of the population of Cambodia, was estimated at between 666 and 1,004 birds (95% CI range based on surveys in 2006-2007), with perhaps as few as 294 displaying males remaining in 2007 (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). More than 50% of this estimated population occurs on seasonally inundated grasslands within Kompong Thom province (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This estimate, based on extent of available habitat in 2005 and known habitat loss between 2005 and 2007, represents a rapid decline owing to habitat loss, from a projected 3,000 individuals in 1997 (T. Gray, T. Evans and Hong Chamnan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). Given accelerating post-2005 grassland loss of 28% within 10 grassland blocks holding 75% of the estimated population (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and a further 11% of habitat lost in four protected areas in 2008 (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), projected rates of decline will equate to over 80% during a three generation period (T. Gray, T. Evans and Hong Chamnan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). A Cambodian range-wide survey is in progress, early indications are that this will validate assumptions that the Bengal Florican population in the Tonle Sap floodplain is continuing to decline as suitable habitat declines in extent and quality (S. Mahood and L. Packman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Annual monitoring of Bengal Florican populations in Bengal Florican Conservation Areas (BFCAs) and adjacent areas in Cambodia during March-April 2008-11 indicates that whilst populations in some protected areas are stable, in other locations population declines are ongoing.<br/><p></p>
106002782		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland dry, or seasonally inundated, natural and semi-natural grasslands, often interspersed with scattered scrub or patchy open forest. Most Indian populations appear to be resident. In Cambodia, it is known to make relatively local seasonal movements in response to the flooding regime of the Tonle Sap lake: in the dry season, the species breeds in grasslands in the inundation zone of the lake; it then moves to nearby open forest areas during the wet season. During the breeding season males preferentially select habitats related to low-intensity human activity, chiefly burned grassland, whereas females primarily select unburned grassland but also use unburned, uncultivated grassland in dry-season rice head-ponds (Gray<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009), although anecdotal evidence suggests that eggs are laid in small pockets of medium to tall grass in recently burnt areas (R. van Zalinge, pers. obs.).<br/><p></p>
106002782		population	eng	The population in Cambodia was estimated at 294 displaying males or c.600 individuals in 2007 (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), with just 32-60 individuals left in Nepal. No recent estimates are known from India but the total global population for this species is likely to fall in the range 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002782		threats	eng	The key threats are the extensive loss and modification of grasslands through drainage, conversion to agriculture and plantations, overgrazing, inappropriate cutting, burning and ploughing regimes, heavy flooding, invasion of alien species, scrub expansion, dam construction and inappropriate and illegal development (Brahma and Lahkar 2009, Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009; van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In particular, the spread of dry season rice cultivation in Cambodia is rapidly converting existing grassland habitat. Land sales and concessions are often pushed through despite resistance from local villagers (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Excessive hunting for sport and food may have triggered its decline, but owing to advocacy and law enforcement is no longer a serious threat, at least in Cambodia. At least in South Asia, most populations are small, isolated and vulnerable to local extirpation. Other threats may include human disturbance and trampling of nests by livestock. Detailed research into the species' ecology in Cambodia demonstrated that the effects of human disturbance are weak and annual burning is important for maintaining suitable habitat, supporting the idea that community-based grassland management that maintains traditional agricultural practices will benefit Bengal Floricans. This has implications for the species' management in South Asia, where remaining (and declining) populations are largely confined to strict protected areas in which such practices may not be occurring (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further study has revealed that, whilst burned grassland is selected by males during the breeding season, unburned grassland and other habitats providing cover are selected by females, demonstrating the need for appropriate grassland management in conservation areas that provides a variety of habitats to ensure the survival of this species (Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106002783		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In 1983, Rajasthan declared a ban on hunting this species, effective for 10 years, and local people were employed in a scheme to prevent hunting in Madhya Pradesh. In Nepal, the species is protected at the national level (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In 1994, a conservation strategy was published, which proposed management recommendations for fodder-producing grasslands and increased protection for natural grasslands. In 1996, several sites in Rajasthan were identified for intensive conservation action. Two Lesser Florican sanctuaries exist: Sailana and Sardarpur, both in Madhya Pradesh (Rahmani 2006)<strong></strong>. The species occurs in a number of other protected areas. In Maharashtra, a local NGO, Samvedana, has worked to involve local poachers in conservation actions for the protection of the species and its habitats (P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population size and trends. Map and delimit remaining grassland habitats supporting populations for establishment as protected areas with sustainable grassland management regimes (Sankaran 2006)<strong></strong>. Implement proposals to ensure sustainable use of a network of fodder-producing grasslands (Sankaran 2006, Anon. 2009, P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Promote local participation in grassland restoration and continue to employ local people as guardians of floricans and their habitats. Implement 'Project Bustards', the conservation strategy for Indian bustards. Work with local communities to develop and implement favourable grassland management practices, such delayed grass-cutting or leaving areas uncut (P. Patil <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002783		distribution	eng	<em>Sypheotides indicus</em> breeds in <strong>India</strong> in Gujarat, south-east Rajasthan, north-west Maharashtra (25-30 breeding pairs in  Akola District [P. Pat<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>il<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012]) and western Madhya Pradesh, with some dispersal to south-east India in the non-breeding season. It is a rare summer visitor to the terai of <strong>Nepal</strong>, and was formerly recorded more frequently, but may have only been an non-breeding visitor, dependent on monsoon rains (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Formerly widespread and common, it has been declining since at least the 1870s. From 1982-1989, its population declined by nearly 60% (4,374-1,672 birds). However, by 1994, it had increased by 32% to 2,206 birds. These population fluctuations are directly correlated with breeding season rainfall patterns, indicating that it is susceptible to extinction in the event of severe, prolonged drought. A survey conducted in August 2010 (coinciding with a peak in male displays) in north-western India (Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh) (Bhardwaj <em>et al</em>. 2011), which followed methodology similar to that of a survey in 1999 (Sankaran 2000), recorded a decline of 65% in the sightings of <em>S. indicus</em> since 1999. A total of 84 birds (including one female) were recorded during the 2010 survey, down from 238 in 1999. The species was recorded in only 24 of the 91 grasslands surveyed, compared to its presence in 37 grasslands in 1999 (Bhardwaj <em>et al</em>. 2011). However, it has been indicated that the methodology of the 2010 surveys may not be comparable with that of the 1999 surveys (S. Dutta and Y. Jhala<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). It is also possible that the 2010 survey results were affected by severe drought conditions that occurred in many parts of India in 2009, when the monsoon rains were delayed, and it is unclear whether the 2010 data indicate a genuine reduction in the population, or movement to other areas.<br/><p></p>
106002783		habitat	eng	It occurs in productive dry grasslands, in lowland areas (below 250&#160;m), particularly dominated by <em>Sehima nervosum</em> and <em>Chrysopogon fulvus</em>, with scattered bushes and scrub. It has also been recorded in cotton and millet crops. Non-breeding season movements are poorly understood.<p></p>
106002783		population	eng	The species's population was estimated at c.2,200 birds in the mid-1990s (Sankaran 1994b, 1995c), and based on this the number of mature individuals is put at c.1,500. <p></p>
106002783		threats	eng	Severe hunting pressure, particularly of males for sport and also food, precipitated its decline. More recently, declines have been caused by rapid reductions in the area of grassland owing to conversion to agriculture and overgrazing. In addition, the rapid spread of the non-native <em>Prosopis glandulosa</em> threatens habitat quality. Over the last two decades, unreliable monsoon rains have caused significant population fluctuations. In Nepal, the species suffers from disturbance and insufficient protection resulting in overgrazing and subsequent grassland degradation (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). It is also seriously threatened by inappropriate management, such as ploughing in protected areas, leading to a loss of suitable habitat. Pressure on lowland grasslands in Nepal continues to increase. In addition, the invasive plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Mikania micrantha</span> has had serious impacts on Chitwan National Park and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. The species also continues to be threatened by hunting in Nepal (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002784		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Listing under Appendix I has been pursued in the past (R. Beilfuss <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A collaborative project was launched in 1999 to determine the population size and trend, distribution and threats, and to draft an action plan for the species (E. T. C. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This may help to identify key breeding areas which can be protected (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns. <p></p>
106002784		distribution	eng	<em>Balearica pavonina</em> occurs in disjunct sub-populations through the Sahel and <strong>Sudan-Guinea </strong>savanna zones of Africa, with records from as far south as the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, but was once more numerous and widespread. The western sub-population (<em>B. p. pavonina</em>) was estimated to number 15,000-20,000 birds in 1985 and c.15,000 birds in 2004, suggesting that an alarming rate of decline reported in the 1960s and 1970s may have slowed in recent years (Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The status of the eastern sub-population (<em>B. p. ceciliae</em>) is less well-known, though it appears to have declined from 65,000-90,000 individuals in 1985 and 65,000-77,500 individuals in 1994 to 28,000-55,000 individuals in 2004 (with at least 80% in Sudan and South Sudan) (Beilfus<em> et al. </em>2005, Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Records also indicate a range contraction in both sub-populations (Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002784		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species is largely a resident, but undergoes local daily and seasonal movements of up to several dozen kilometres (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996, E. T. C. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It breeds during the wet season months of May to December in West Africa, and July to January in East Africa (subject to local seasonal variation)<strong></strong>, nesting in single pairs in territories 0.5-1 square kilometres (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the dry (non-breeding) season it is more congregatory, forming large flocks of up to several hundred individuals (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. In southern Sudan it begins to flock along the Nile in November, reaching a peak in late February and March (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Chad it gathers in concentrations after breeding, and then moves south (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Nigeria it is subject to local movements with seasonal changes in water levels(Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages singly, in pairs or in small groups (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>This species is found in wet and dry open habitats, but prefers freshwater marshes, wet grasslands, and the peripheries of water-bodies<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Sudan it is especially found in areas with water up to 1m in depth, and knee-high to hip-high vegetation dominated by <em>Cyperus, Eleocharis, Scirpus, Setaria, Cynodon </em>and various leguminous and rosaceous plants (Johnsgard 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It always remains near wetlands, but is rarely associated with deep, open water (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It often prefers to forage on dry ground with short grass (Johnsgard 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, particularly in West Africa, it will sometimes forage and nest in upland areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, rice fields, wet crop fields and even abandoned fields (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers to roost in large trees, but will use small trees or shallow water when necessary (Johnsgard 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> during the non-breeding season it congregates in larger permanent wetlands<strong></strong>, and often forages near herds of domestic livestock (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or even in rubbish dumps (Johnsgard 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>This species is a generalist omnivore (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its primary food source is small grain crops (45%)<strong></strong>, with small plants, small invertebrates and small vertebrates also featuring in the diet<strong> </strong>(Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). It will take insects (grasshoppers, flies), molluscs, millipedes, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, seed heads, grass tips and agricultural grain (corn, rice, millet) (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>.<strong>Breeding site </strong>Nests are built on the ground<strong></strong> in densely vegetated wetlands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest consists of a round, loosely constructed platform of reeds and grasses placed in short grass marsh in several centimetres of water, or occasionally on dry land (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its base is often over a metre in diameter (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch-size is c.2.5 eggs per nest   <p></p>
106002784		population	eng	The western sub-population (<i>B. p. pavonina</i>) was estimated to number c.15,000 individuals in 2004, and the eastern sub-population (<i>B. p. ceciliae</i>) is less well-known, though estimated at 28,000-55,000 individuals in the same year.
106002784		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation are significant threats, occurring through drought, wetland drainage and conversion for agriculture, overgrazing, fire, agricultural and industrial pollution, industrial construction and dam construction (flooding wetlands upstream and dessicating those downstream) (Meine and Archibald 1996, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003, <strong></strong>Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2007, <strong></strong>T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Droughts have both directly and indirectly impacted this species's habitat, since they force people to migrate to relatively moist, less populated regions, which are then subjected to the associated pressures mentioned above (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Considerable hunting pressures also exist (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2007. Kone 2007, Morrison 2009)<strong></strong>, including capture and sale of live birds, some destined for legal international markets (over 7,000 birds since 1985 when the species was listed on CITES Appendix II [UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005]<strong></strong>). Parts of dead Black Crowned-cranes, notably the head and wings, are used in traditional healing (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. In addition, indiscriminate pesticide application may be leading to harmful bio-accumulation of toxins (E. T. C. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and direct poisoning to reduce crop depredation has been reported in East Africa (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Warfare and political instability affects nations across the range of the species, and may particularly impact upon those in southern Sudan where the implementation of conservation measures has not been able to proceed (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Oil exploration in and near the wetlands also poses a threat (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002785		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Community-based wetland conservation projects have been undertaken in Kenya. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campai<span style="">gns. Improve species protection and increase enforcement of hunting legislation.</span><br/><p></p>
106002785		distribution	eng	<em>Balearica regulorum</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa, with <em>B. r. gibbericeps </em>occurring from the <strong>Democratic Republic of the Congo</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Rwanda, </span><strong>Uganda</strong> and <strong>Kenya </strong>south through <strong>Tanzania</strong> to <strong>Mozambique</strong>, and nominate race <em>B. r. regulorum </em>found from Mozambique south through <strong>Zimbabwe </strong>to <strong>South Africa </strong>and west in small numbers to <strong>Namibia </strong>and <strong>Angola</strong>. Populations in many areas including Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe and Namibia have experienced very rapid declines (Beilfuss <em>et al. </em>2007, K. Morrison <em>in litt</em>. 2011, National Biodiversity  Data Bank in prep<span style="">., A. Scott </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2012, O. Mabhachi </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, although the South African population appears to be stable or increasing (Beilfuss </span><em style="">et al. </em><span style="">2007)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. The largest remaining populations are believed to be in Kenya (17,000-20,000 individuals in 2004), Uganda (13,000-20,000 individuals), the Democratic Republic of Congo (perhaps 5,000 birds), and South Africa (4,000-5,000 birds) (Beilfuss </span><em style="">et al. </em><span style="">2007)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span><p></p>
106002785		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratory although it may make variable local and seasonal movements depending on the abundance and distribution of food, nest-sites and rainfall (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies in relation to the rains, with the breeding of East African populations peaking during dry periods, but with the breeding of populations in the drier parts of southern Africa peaking during wet periods (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary territorial pairs (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but often flocks together (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and roosts communally at night (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in groups of up to 20-200 individuals (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> during dry periods in the drier part of its range (e.g. Namibia and South Africa) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The abundance and distribution of food and suitable nesting sites are the key ecological factors determining the size of the home range of this species and the extent of local and seasonal population movements (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits wetlands such as marshes, pans and dams with tall emergent vegetation (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, riverbanks (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, open riverine woodland, shallowly flooded plains (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and temporary pools (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with adjacent grasslands, open savannas, croplands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, pastures, fallow fields and irrigated areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It shows a preference for short to medium height open grasslands adjacent to wetlands for foraging (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and breeds within or at the edges of wetlands (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> especially in marshes with water 1 m deep and with emergent vegetation 1 m above the water (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It roosts in water along rivers or in marshes, or perches on nearby trees (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is a generalist, its diet consisting of seed heads (e.g. of sedges <em>Cyperus</em> spp.), new tips of grasses (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, agricultural pulses, nuts and grain (Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, insects (Orthoptera, larval Lepidoptera), frogs, lizards and crabs <em>Potamon</em> spp. (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a circular platform of uprooted grasses and sedges (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> concealed in tall emergent vegetation (greater than 1 m in height) (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong></strong> in or along the margins of wetlands such as marshes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with water c.1 m deep (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may also rarely nest in trees (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002785		population	eng	Beilfuss <em>et al. </em>(2007) estimated the population to number 50,000-64,000 individuals in 2004. Since the population is declining very rapidly, the current population size is likely to be lower than this and so a new population estimate is needed.<br/><p></p>
106002785		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of wetland breeding areas through drought-related changes in land-use, drainage and overgrazing (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> (e.g. uncontrolled cattle grazing) (Kampamba and Pope 1996)<strong></strong>, as well as through the heavy use of agricultural pesticides (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong></strong>, declines in fallowing practices, high sedimentation rates (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> (due to deforestation [Meine and Archibald 1996])<strong></strong>, uncontrolled grass and deep litter fires in the breeding season (Kampamba and Pope 1996)<strong></strong>, dam construction (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong></strong> (for hydroelectric power generation [Kampamba and Pope 1996])<strong></strong> and groundwater extraction, leading to changes in hydrological regimes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996)<strong></strong> (e.g. unseasonal flooding [Kampamba and Pope 1996])<strong></strong>. The species is also threatened by live-trapping (for trade), egg-collecting and hunting (Meine and Archibald 1996, Kampamba and Pope 1996, Olupot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>, and by indirect disturbance from the hunting of large mammals or ducks in wetlands and the activities of fisheries (Kampamba and Pope 1996<span style="">)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span><span style=""><span style="">Preliminary studies of information from  Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Rwanda and Namibia have shown that that the illegal captive  trade is </span><span style="">particularly significant from&#160; Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda </span><span style=""><span style="">(Morrison 2008, 2009), with the  demand being  domestic (South Africa and  Rwanda) and from the Middle/  Far East, and specifically relates to the  pet trade, captive facilities  and informal zoos (K. Morrison<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2011). <span style="">D</span>ue to human population pressure, the cranes are increasingly living in closer proximity to people, exposing them to disturbance and making them more vulnerable to hunting (W. Olupot <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011, O. Mabhachi<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). It is also persecuted in some areas (e.g. southern Africa) due to its use of agricultural land for foraging (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.<span style=""></span><span style=""> Research has found  that large  numbers of Grey Crowned-cranes are killed annually by  poisoning in  Kenya, mainly as retaliation or to prevent of crop damage (</span><span style=""><span style="">Morrison 2008, 2009)</span><span style="">.  </span><span style=""><span style="">In South Africa in particular, an increase of coal mining is threatening much of the grassland /wetland  habitat where the species breeds (</span><span style=""><span style="">K. Morrison<span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt.</span><span style=""> 2011).</span><span style=""> Mortality of birds due to electrocution and  collision with overhead power lines is a serious threat  in Uganda, South Africa and Tanzania and is likely to increase significantly in the future, across its entire range (K. Morrison<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2011, J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <span style=""></span><span style=""></span><br/><p></p></span></span></span></span>
106002786		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in all range states. Eleven range states signed a Memorandum of Understanding under the Convention for Migratory Species (CMS MoU) and develop Conservation Plans every 3 years. To help protect key wetland sites, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the International Crane Foundation conducted the UNEP/GEF Siberian Crane Wetland Project from 2003-2009, conceived in 1998, to protect and manage a network of sites across Asia critical to the Siberian Cranes and 26 other threatened species (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1996, G. Sundar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004, Mirande 2007, 2010, Prentice 2010). Achievements include improved protection for over 2.4 million hectares through designation of four new reserves, expansion of three others and upgraded legal protection status at another three, the designation of five new Ramsar sites, new management plans and improved capacity for many sites, and an extensive environmental education programme (Prentice 2010). Since 2002 Crane Day Celebrations in 7 Siberian Crane Range States, including Siberian Crane Festivals in West Siberia and Kazakhstan, attract attention of people of different task groups to conservation of this endangered species and its habitats (Moore and Ilyashenko 2010).&#160; A set of four national stamps were published in Iran in 2008 to help raise public awareness of the Siberian Crane and the importance of wetland conservation within the country (Fazeli 2007). Some birds have been marked and fitted with satellite transmitters (Germogenov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Researchers monitoring breeding sites in the remote Yakutia region incorporated remote sensing given the difficulties monitoring on the ground (Stishov and Bysykatova 2008). Key protected areas where moniotring occurs include Kytalyk, Chaygurgino, and Middle Aldan (Russia), Momoge, Poyang and Dongting (China), and Naurzum (Kazakhstan). The North East Asian Crane Site Network has been established under the East Asia-Australasian Flyway Partnership. Twelve important Siberian Crane sites along both Western and Central Flyways are designated in the Western/Central Asian Site Network for the Siberian Crane and other Waterbirds established under CMS MoU and UNEP/GEF SCWP, and another 24 sites are proposed for inclusion. Four flourishing colonies of captive Siberian Cranes successfully raise Siberian Cranes for education and conservation purposes. The fifth issue of the International Studbook was published in 2009 (Kashentseva and Belterman 2009). Captive-raised birds have been released in an effort to maintain the Central Asian (G. Sundar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2004) and Western Asian flocks (S. Sadeghi Zadegan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). From 1991 to 2010, 139 captive-bred birds were released at breeding grounds (Kunovat River Basin), migration stopovers (south of Tyumen Region and Volga Delta) and wintering grounds in Iran (Shilina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Russian scientists started the “Flight of Hope” project which replicates the methodologies that have successfully helped to boost Whooping Crane populations in North America (G. Sundar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004, Shilina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).<br/><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Strengthen conservation of major wetlands in China that serve as critical migration and wintering habitat for the East Asian population through research, management, and policy activities. This includes: 1) water management at Poyang needs to sustain wetland productivity and ensure that extensive mudflats and shallow water areas are available throughout the winter, 2) strengthen integrated water management at migratory stopover sites in Northeast China, guided by on-going monitoring of the condition of these wetlands, to support wetland ecosystems that can support cranes, 3) maintain or improve water quality at key stopover and migration sites to avoid detrimental ecosystem change or direct impacts on crane survival, 4) continue long-term research on the effects of changes in water levels on water plants and water birds at Poyang and at sites in Northeast China, and 5) protect and manage additional stopover sites, especially from Liaoning to Jiangxi Provinces, based on further investigation of migratory habitats. Determine movements and behavior of birds during their first summer to identify and manage key sites for sub-adult birds. Investigate potential impacts of climate change on Yakutian breeding grounds. Identify, legally protect and manage key staging areas in Yakutia, accompanied by mitigation of development impacts along the flyway. Provide technical assistance on wildlife health monitoring and management practices at staging and wintering areas. Incorporate management of Western/Central Asian Site Network for Siberian Cranes and other Migratory Waterbirds under the broader Central Asia Flyway Initiative for migratory birds. Foster relationships with hunters to improve awareness and promote sustainable hunting of waterbirds, and to engage hunters to protect and report sightings of Siberian Cranes, especially in Western and Central Asia. Cooperate with gas and oil companies in Russia and China to minimize disturbance of the Siberian Crane and habitat degradation.<br/><br/><p></p>
106002786		distribution	eng	<em>Leucogeranus leucogeranus</em> breeds in arctic <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia </span>in Yakutia and West Siberia (BirdLife International 2001). Two regional populations are recognised; the western population has a small remnant population estimated at 10-20 individuals. The eastern population breeds between the rivers Kolyma and Yana and south to the Morma mountains in Yakutia. Non-breeding birds summer in Dauria, on the border between Russia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mongolia </span>(Tseveenmyadag 2005) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>. Birds have also been recorded in summer in central Mongolia (Tseveenmyadag 2007, 2008). The main wintering sites were in the middle to lower reaches of the Yangtze river; now almost the entire population winters at or very near Poyang Lake, China. Surveys of the districts and counties around the lake recorded 2,700 individuals in 2006 and 3,750 in 2008 (Ji Weitao and Wang Yunbao 2007, Yu Changhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It requires a number of important wetlands during migration: in Liaoning province Huanzidong Reservoir in Shenyang region has had 900 Siberian Cranes recorded during autumn migration (Li Fengshan 2003, Zhou Haixiang 2006), and 1,100 in spring (Bai Qing-Quan 2008), and numbers at Wolong Lake peaked at 1,200 in March 2008 (Bai Qing-Quan 2008), while at Momoge Nature Reserve in Jilin province spring totals peaked at 1,156 in May 2007, 2,183 in April 2008 ( Zou Chang-Lin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, 2008), and reached 3,128 in May 2010 (Jiang Hongxing 2010) and 3,400 in May 2011 (Jiang Hongxing, pers. comm.). The Western/Central population is divided into Central Asian and Western Asian flocks. The Central Asian flock breeds on the basin of the Kunovat river, the north of West Siberia , Russia (Sorokin and Kotyukov 1982), and wintered at Keoladeo National Park, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>; however, none have been seen at Keoladeo since winter 2001/2002 (Vardhan 2002), and this flock may now be extinct; unconfirmed, but credible&#160; reports of the species have continued from West Siberia, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and India, however (Shilina 2008). Passage birds are recorded in Russia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kazakhstan </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uzbekistan </span>(Shilina 2008, Bragin 2005, Belyalova and Fundukchiev 2007). The Western Asian flock breeds in the basin of Konda and Alymka rivers , the center of West Siberia, Russia ( Sorokin and Markin 1996; Kanai et al 2002), and winters in Fereydoonkenar in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iran </span>(recently c.10 birds [Kanai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002], but only one wild bird has arrived since winter 2006/2007 (S. Sadeghi Zadegan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2009, P. Khalafbeigi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010) . Birds use the Volga river delta as a migration stopover (Rusanov and Chernyavskaya 1996, Kanai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002; Shilina 2008) pass through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Azerbaijan </span>during migration (E. Sultanov<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008, 2011) and. The global population is about 3,750, of which over 99% belongs to the eastern population and winters at Poyang Hu (Hirschfeld 2008).<br/><p></p>
106002786		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. It arrives on its breeding grounds in late May (<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983), and eggs are generally laid in June<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs in territorial pairs at a density estimated in the 1970s to be around one pair per 625 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983). The main autumn migration usually begins towards the end of September<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983)<strong></strong>, although birds (thought to be non-breeders [Cramp and Simmons 1980]<strong></strong>) have been recorded on passage over the Volga delta as late as October-December<strong> </strong>(Cramp and Simmons 1980)<strong></strong>. This migration was recorded in the 1960s to occur in groups of 12-15 individuals<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983)<strong></strong>. The species arrived on its wintering grounds in Pakistan in October, but seldom earlier than November-December further east<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1980,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong><strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983). The spring migration commences in late-March or early-April<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cramp and Simmons 1980)<strong>, </strong>with birds travelling in pairs or small groups of up to 10 (<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983). <strong>Habitat </strong>It is the most aquatic member of its family, breeding and wintering in wetlands, and shows a general preference for wide expanses of shallow (up to 30 cm) fresh water with good visibility. It discriminates strongly in favour of sites that are infrequently visited by man<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1980)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds in the lowland taiga and taiga-tundra transition zone (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong> where it occurs in moss-covered marshland<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983), tidal bogs, marshes and other wetland depressions with unrestricted visibility (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. It may also breed on brushland interspersed with woods<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cramp and Simmons 1980)<strong></strong>. The preferred nesting habitat in Yakutia was found to consist of damp tidal flat with well-developed vegetative cover made up of typical polygonal swamp associations of sedges and cottongrass (<em>Eriophorum</em>) forming sparse, short stands<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983). In late springs some birds have been known to nest on drier, more hilly areas of polygonal tundra, and non-breeders sometimes occur on high, hilly banks of rivers and lakes and in small depressions between large, elongated hills<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983). <em>Non-breeding </em>Resting areas and stopovers on migration tend to consist of large, isolated wetlands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. It winters in the shallows and mudflats of seasonal lakes of the Yangtze Basin (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>, as well as steppes near water, open jheels and swamps<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1983). Those that winter in India and Iran use artificial water impoundments and flooded rice fields (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>This species is omnivorous (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>During the summer its diet is broad, consisting primarily of roots, rhizomes, seeds, sprouts of sedges and other plant materials, but also insects, fish, rodents and other small animals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season it feeds mainly on roots, bulbs, tubers (especially of sedges), rhizomes, sprouts and stems of aquatic plants, and sometimes aquatic animals if these are readily available (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>It builds a large mound of grass and sedge 50-80 cm in diameter emerging above water 25-60 cm deep (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. It typically lays two eggs but generally does not fledge more than one chick.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106002786		population	eng	The population is estimated at 3,500-4,000individuals, based on a count of 3,750 at Poyang Lake in 2008 (Yu Changhao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and counts of 3,400 at Momoge in May 2011 and at Poyang in early 2012. The western subpopulation numbers four individuals (E. Ilyashenko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2002).
106002786		threats	eng	The key threat is wetland loss and degradation at wintering sites and staging areas through diversion of water for human use, agricultural development, the development of oilfields and increased human utilisation. The most significant threat to the eastern flyway is a proposed dam at the outlet of Poyang Lake to stabilize water flows for navigation,irrigation, and other economic purposes–to be built in part in response to impacts of Three Gorges Dam on water levels in the Yangtze River. Management of water levels to sustain ecosystem function will be critical to the long-term viability of this species (Harris and Zhuang 2010). Severe drought caused Poyang Lake to shrink dramatically in the winters of 2003-2004, 2006-2007 (Anon 2007), and 2010-2011. The most recent drought forced birds to feed in suboptimal upland habitat. Construction of the Three Gorges Dam will change the hydrological pattern of the lower Yangtze river and may have a major impact on the wintering population. Increasing levels of human disturbance are also a problem, particularly at Poyang Lake. Along eastern migration routes, water has been diverted form the Zhalong and Momoge National Nature Reserve for human use. Although water releases to sustain wetland functions have been negotiated, sustaining these releases over the long term will be important, especially for Momoge. Also canals and fragmentation within the reserve have altered water flow. Limited fresh water has caused marshes in the Huanghe Delta National Reserve to dry up, and the harvesting of reeds by people has seriously disturbed cranes (Shan Kai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). A hydro-electric scheme is also proposed for the headwaters of the Aldan River basin, the construction of power lines northwards to Yakutsk, and oil and gas prospecting (Prentice and Stishov 2007). Hunting on passage and wintering ground in Iran is the key threat to the Central/Western population (G. Sundar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2004), and inhibits recovery. Poisoning targeted at waterbirds in China, e.g. Huanzidong Reservoir, Shenyang Region, may also affect this species. Pesticide use and pollution is a threat in India. Climate change may be a long term threat to breeding sites, with changes in the permafrost layer causing expansion of lakes and the loss of islands, peninsulas and low-lying shorelines (Harris 2008). The expansion of lakes and subsequent habitat modification has been on-going in the breeding grounds of the eastern population since the 1950s (Pshennikov and Germogenov 2008).<br/><br/><p></p>
106002787		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, importantly Ang Trapeang Thmor, Cambodia, and Tram Chim National Park, Vietnam, which seasonally support the majority of the Indochinese population. A proposed 238,374-ha conservation reserve for the species in the Kampong Trach IBA, Cambodia, was demarcated in 2006, awaiting a ministerial decree (Anon. 2006b)<strong></strong>. Patrols have since been carried out, and environmental education is ongoing in the area (Anon. 2006b)<strong></strong>. Following the discovery of a major non-breeding population in the Basaac river floodplain of the Mekong Delta, in Borei Chulsar and Koh Andeth districts, Takeo province, during surveys in 2001-2002, a workshop was organised and a 9,275-ha protected area was proposed and subsequently went for approval (Anon. 2002)<strong></strong>. In 2003, protection was proposed for Hon Chong grassland (Anon 2003)<strong></strong>. Conservation awareness campaigns have been initiated in India, Nepal, Laos and Cambodia. Nest protection schemes in India have proven successful (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong></strong>. In 2004–2005 protection of 22 nests by volunteer in the Kota district, Rajasthan resulted in the successful fledging of 19 chicks (Kaur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). National surveys have recently been conducted in India and Cambodia, and detailed studies on species requirements are ongoing in India and Nepal (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Myanmar, Buddhist monks have increased local respect for cranes and many nests are protected when they would otherwise be destroyed to prevent damage to rice paddies (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Since 1997, annual roost counts have been conducted on the Atherton Tableland in the far north of Queensland during the non-breeding season (E. Scambler<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Implementation of the Wild Rivers Act 2005 in Queensland is ongoing, but it will apply to key known breeding habitat in the Gulf of Carpentaria flood plains, and will limit or halt major developments that affect wetland catchments and ensure intense scrutiny of the species's breeding habitat (E. Scambler<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Thailand, a captive breeding programme is underway at Nakhon Ratchasima Zoo with the intention of establishing a wild population in the country (Siri-Arunrat 2009).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in northern Cambodia, southern Laos and southern Vietnam to identify key sites. Control pesticide use and industrial effluent disposal around feeding areas. Upgrade to CITES Appendix I, and strictly control local, national and international trade (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Target further conservation awareness campaigns at communities in and around important sites (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000, Sundar and Choudhury 2003, Khacher 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and educate private landowners (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage a mosaic of small natural wetlands in heavily farmed areas (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as pairs will nest in wetlands as small as 1 ha (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Collect baseline data on ecology (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve protection of wetlands and other key habitats (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out restoration of deteriorating wetlands (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage nest protection by farmers and amateur ornithologists (Khacher 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider compensating farmers for real or expected crop damage (Khacher 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this may change attitudes to the species to its detriment (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Captive rearing programmes could be considered (Khacher 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although opinion is split (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and such efforts may be futile in the face of existing threats (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a more certain estimate of the Australian population and its trends (Grant 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002787		distribution	eng	<em>Grus antigone</em> has three disjunct populations in the Indian subcontinent, South-East Asia and northern <strong>Australia</strong>, with a total world population estimated at 15,000-20,000 individuals (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. The nominate subspecies (c.8,000-10,000 birds) inhabits northern and central <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal </strong>and<strong> Pakistan </strong>(although now thought to be extinct as a breeding species there [Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong></strong>), with occasional vagrants in Bangladesh. Its range has contracted towards the north and west of the Subcontinent (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong> and its population is considered to be in decline (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. The north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh remains the species's stronghold, with a population estimated at over 6,000 individuals (Sundar 2008). Subspecies <em>sharpii</em> occurs in South-East Asia where its range has declined dramatically, now being confined to <strong>Cambodia</strong>, extreme southern<strong> Laos</strong>, south <strong>Vietnam</strong> (c.800-1,000 birds between these three countries [Wetlands International 2006]<strong></strong>), and <strong>Myanmar</strong> (c.500-800 birds [Wetlands International 2006]<strong></strong>). Despite past declines, recent counts have shown some increase in the South-East Asian population, however Population Viability Analysis of cranes in Tram Chin shows the population is highly unstable and prone to extinction if current rates of habitat degradation continue (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Since 2001, a coordinated census has been held each year in Cambodia and Vietnam in the late dry season. In 2009, 455 individuals were counted at six sites, around 30% fewer than in the previous year. Early dry season counts (562 individuals), however, were higher than in 2008 (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The Australian population (<em>gilliae</em>) is confined to the north and east of the country. It was estimated at fewer than 10,000 breeding adults in 2000 (Garnett and Crowley 2000, R. Jaensch <em>in litt.</em> 2005 to Wetlands International 2006)<strong></strong>, and has been put as low as 5,000 individuals (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. The highest number recorded in surveys in north Queensland was in October 2000, when an estimated minimum of 3,000 individuals was present on Atherton Tableland (E. Scambler<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. During recent years, fluctuations in recruitment and numbers visiting the tablelands have been noted, and are thought to be related to variation in annual rainfall in the Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape Regions (J. Grant<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is extinct in Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines and probably China. <p></p>
106002787		habitat	eng	Indian birds inhabit open wet and dry grasslands, agricultural fields, marshes and pools, while in South-East Asia and Australia the species shows a preference for dry savannah woodlands with ephemeral pools during the breeding season, frequenting open and man-made wetlands during the non-breeding season (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In India, the species is increasingly forced to use suboptimal rice paddies as breeding habitat because of the deterioration and destruction of its natural wetland habitat (Meine and Archibald 1996, Sundar 2009). In Australia, cattle pastures and maize stubble are important foraging habitats in the non-breeding season (J. Grant<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers a mixture of flooded, partially flooded and dry ground for foraging, roosting and nesting. It is omnivorous, feeding on a variety of roots and tubers as well as invertebrates and amphibians. In some locations in the Indian subcontinent and in Australia, birds disperse seasonally in response to available water. Breeding in India may take place virtually year-round if conditions are suitable, but there is a major peak in July-October, with egg laying in August-September, and a much smaller peak in February-March (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds during respective wet seasons in South-East Asia and Australia, migrating to key non-breeding sites during the dry season where birds form sizeable aggregations (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In India and Nepal, breeding pairs maintain discrete territories, year-round in areas with an adequate water supply throughout the year, while non-breeding birds are generally found in flocks that use larger wetlands to roost (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Successful breeding pairs generally raise one or two chicks, with three chicks being extremely rare. Flock sizes in India are a function of wetland availability with the largest flocks seen in summers when wetlands are much reduced (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Australia, flocking is common in the non-breeding season, and birds use traditional sites for roosting and feeding (Grant 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002787		population	eng	There are thought to be 8,000-10,000 individuals in India, Nepal and Pakistan; 800-1,000 in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, 500-800 in Myanmar (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups 2006), and in litt. 2005). The population size thus totals 19,000-21,800 individuals, roughly equivalent to 13,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002787		threats	eng	The main threats are a combination of loss and degradation of wetlands, as a result of drainage and conversion to agriculture (for example wet rice paddy into dry sugarcane or soya bean [Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), ingestion of pesticides (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the hunting of adults and collection of eggs and chicks (particularly in Indo-China but increasingly in India and Pakistan) for trade, food, medicinal purposes and, in some areas, to help prevent damage to crops (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000, Khacher 2006, K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These factors may be the cause of low recruitment in India, and can rapidly extirpate localised populations (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Vietnam and Cambodia, large areas of the Mekong Delta, which supported key dry season habitat, have been reclaimed for agriculture in recent decades (Archibald <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. From 2001 to 2006, much of the seasonally inundated floodplains of the Ha Tien Plain, were lost, mostly due to the expansion of shrimp farms (Tran 2006a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The mechanisation of farming practices may threaten birds breeding on agricultural land (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Collision with powerlines may be a significant threat in parts of its range, with observations from India suggesting that 2.5-20 % of cranes are affected (Sundar <em>et al</em>. 2000, Sundar and Choudhury 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mostly non-breeding birds, equating to almost 1% of the total population (Sundar and Choudhury 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. High human usage of wetlands results in a high rate of disturbance to cranes and considerably limits breeding success (Sundar and Choudhury 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Anecdotal observations suggest that chick predation by dogs and egg predation by corvids is increasing as their populations increase following the decline of vultures on the Indian subcontinent (K. S. G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The vast majority of the Australian population breed and winter in non-protected areas (J. Grant<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Gulf of Carpentaria region of northern Australia, proposals to increase cropping would entail conversion of land currently grazed by cattle, which is breeding habitat for the species, and would also involve impoundment of water currently available in wetland habitats (J. Grant<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Lake Tinaroo, Australia, grazing is forbidden in some areas in the interests of water quality, and such sites have now become overgrown with dense vegetation and abandoned by the species (E. Scambler<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also threatened by the increasing subdivision of the shoreline grazing land at Lake Tinaroo for residential development, which is accompanied by increasing disturbance, e.g. from the use of speedboats (E. Scambler<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Each year there are one or two reports of individuals killed by powerlines on the Atherton Tableland, although this threat has not been investigated or quantified (E. Scambler<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002789		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in all range states. Protected areas have been established for its conservation, of which the most important are Khingansky, Muraviovka, Daursky and Lake Khanka (Russia), Daguur (Mongolia), Zhalong, Xingkai Hu, Xianghai, Keerqin, Poyang Lake, Dongting Lake and Shengjin Hu (China), Kumya and Mundok (North Korea), and Izumi-Takaono (Japan). Artificial feeding has resulted in an increase in the population wintering in Japan.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish transboundary protected areas at the Tumen estuary between Russia, China and North Korea and the Argun River between Russia and China. Secure the conservation status of Cholwon and the Han River estuary in the Demilitarised Zone. Increase the number of suitable wintering sites in Japan. Enforce conservation measures to minimise threats from the Three Gorges Dam and thousands of other dams to wetlands along the Yangtze and at Poyang. Extend or establish protected areas for breeding and wintering grounds as well as migratory stopovers, including Kumya, Lake Khanka-Xinghai, Poyang Lake, Sanjiang Plain, Sonbon and Bohai Bay. Control spring fires in the breeding grounds. Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Establish local crane conservation groups at small wintering and breeding sites. Establish a database combining the locations of crane records with details of existing reserve boundaries in order to identify priority sites. Ensure conservation measures are targeted to within 3 km of roosting sites, as a recent study has shown that to be the maximum distance travelled by foraging individuals (Bradter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160; Develop emergency response plans in case of avian disease outbreak at Izumi.<br/><p></p>
106002789		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Grus vipio</span> breeds in Dauria on the border of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mongolia </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, the Amur and Ussuri basins on the Sino-Russian border and the Songnen and Sanjiang plains, China. It migrates along the Songnen plain and Gulf of Bohai to its wintering grounds in the Yangtze basin, mainly at Poyang Hu (c.1,000-1,500 individuals), along the Korean peninsula to the Demilitarised Zone in North Korea/South Korea, mainly Cholwon (c.1,900 individuals), and to southern Kyushu in Japan. The population is estimated at c.6,500 individuals and is probably declining.<br/><p></p>
106002789		habitat	eng	It breeds in the wetlands of steppe and forest-steppe zones, in grassy marshes, wet sedge-meadows and reedbeds in broad river valleys, lake depressions and boggy upland wetlands, preferring areas where its nest can be concealed and there is little grazing pressure (Bradter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Its preferred habitats are less aquatic than for the Red-crowned Crane found over much of the same breeding range. In winter, it frequents freshwater lakes, farmland and occasionally coastal flats.  <p></p>
106002789		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 5,500-6,500 individuals, based on estimates of 1,000-1,500 individuals wintering in China , and a 2009 count of 1,920 in Korea (Lee Ki-sup <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and a maximum count of 3,142 in 2009 at Izumi, Japan (S. Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).&#160; Double counting is possible between the Korean sites and Izumi due to movement of birds during the wintering period.
106002789		threats	eng	The loss of wetlands to agricultural expansion and growing human demand for water, on both breeding and wintering grounds, is the main threat. Between 2000 and 2009, wetland loss in the western (Daurian) part of the range has been greatly exacerbated by prolonged drought conditions. This drought is part of a climatic cycle, and is predicted to persist until 2015 (O. Gorosko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Breeding birds are also threatened by steppe fires, whilst livestock grazing may cause disturbance and reduce the availability of suitable nesting habitat (Bradter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In its wintering grounds, the main threats are from development and increasing human disturbance of wetlands in the Yangtze basin, the effects of the Three Gorges Dam on wetlands in the Yangtze basin, the proposed construction of a dam at the outlet to Poyang Lake, and the potential development of wetlands in the Demilitarised Zone. In China, wintering flocks occur outside of existing reserves, and are consequently at risk from hunting, direct disturbance, pollution from pesticide use and further loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion (Higuchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). At Cholwon, Korea, a switch from spring to autumn ploughing of rice paddies resulted in reduced foraging rates, potentially affecting overwinter survival (Don Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Mortality due to agricultural chemicals has been reported and is probably under-estimated.&#160; In Japan, the high proportion of individuals wintering at a single site at Izumi may render the population at greater risk from stochastic events or disease. Izumi is the main poultry region in Japan, and a disease outbreak among cranes could lead to over-reaction and extreme control measures due to economic risks to poultry farmers. The presence of livestock is likely to be detrimental because of disturbance, although it is possible that a limited amount of grazing could be important for maintaining habitat (Bradter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
106002791		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It migrates on a narrow front via specific routes (Johnsgard 1983), and may travel vast distances without alighting to rest or feed (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). The Autumn migration begins in late summer (Meine and Archibald 1996) (August-September), with the species returning in flocks from its wintering areas to breed in March and April (sometimes as late as early-June in the north) (Johnsgard 1983, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On arrival in the breeding grounds the species remains gregarious for a few weeks, before becoming more territorial and eventually nesting in solitary pairs (although the species may still forage in small groups of c.7 individuals during the breeding season) (Johnsgard 1983). After breeding (from mid-August) (Snow and Perrins 1998) migratory flocks as large as 400 individuals begin to form (Johnsgard 1983), and on arrival in its wintering grounds the species often aggregates into huge flocks of up to several thousands or tens-of-thousands (Johnsgard 1983, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Habitat </B>In both its breeding and wintering ranges this species shows a preference for grassland habitats in close proximity to streams, shallow lakes and other wetlands, also frequenting desert areas where water is available (Johnsgard 1983, Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996). <I>Breeding</I> In its breeding range the species occurs from sea-level up to 3000 m (Johnsgard 1983, Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996), inhabiting grassy steppes of feather grass <I>Stipa</I> and fescue <I>Festuca</I>, and dry areas dominated by wormwood <I>Artemisia</I> (Johnsgard 1983), the essential habitat requirement being access to water (e.g. rivers, streams or wells) for drinking (Johnsgard 1983). It can be found on hilly steppes along wide river valleys (Johnsgard 1983), shrubby steppes and semi-desert (Johnsgard 1983), forest edge habitats (e.g. meadows) (Johnsgard 1983), and occasionally unvegetated alkaline flats, or large expanses of rock or gravel (Johnsgard 1983). It will often forage in damp marshes and swamps (Johnsgard 1983), and is regularly found in cultivated areas (Johnsgard 1983).  <I>Non-breeding</I> In Africa the species inhabits dry <I>Acacia </I>savanna, grassland, grassy river margins (Johnsgard 1983, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and semi-desert (where water is available) (Johnsgard 1983), but in India a wider range of habitat types are used, including marshes, freshwater lakes, rivers (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), cultivated fields and rice stubble (Johnsgard 1983, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sandy riverbeds, the flat and open margins of seasonal pans and farm ponds (Johnsgard 1983), and hot desert (if water is readily available) (Johnsgard 1983, Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996). It often roosts in shallow water or on sandbars and mudflats surrounded by water (Johnsgard 1983, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet </B>The diet of this species consists mainly of plant material (Snow and Perrins 1998) (such as grass seeds) (Johnsgard 1983, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although lizards and small invertebrates such as large insects (especially beetles) and worms (Johnsgard 1983, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) are also taken during the summer (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species will forage in cultivated fields (Johnsgard 1983), feeding on ripening cereal crops in its breeding grounds (Johnsgard 1983), peanuts, beans and other crops on migration (Meine and Archibald 1996), and wheat, chickpeas, alfalfa (Johnsgard 1983) and lucerne (Snow and Perrins 1998) in India (Johnsgard 1983, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow scrape (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998) (although often no attempt is made to find or construct a cavity) (Johnsgard 1983)on dry ground, lined or surrounded by pebbles and plant materials (eggs may be laid directly onto the ground) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The nest may be placed on gravel (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in areas partially or entirely free of vegetation (Johnsgard 1983), or in open patches of grass and cultivation, usually less than 1-2 km away from a source of water (Johnsgard 1983, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). Nests are rarely positioned closer than 200-300 m apart (Johnsgard 1983).
106002791		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.230,000-280,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106002791		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation from agriculture (e.g. agricultural conversion of steppe grassland (Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), intensification of agricultural methods and changes in agricultural practices such as increased spring ploughing) (Meine and Archibald 1996) is the primary threat to this species throughout its range. Other threats include disturbance due to rising human populations (Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996), intensive use of pesticides (Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996), hunting for sport (along the migration route in Afghanistan and Pakistan) (Meine and Archibald 1996), and shooting and intentional poisoning in some areas where crop damage occurs (Ellis <I>et al.</I> 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996). Many migratory habitats have also been lost through the building of dams and the drainage of wetlands (Meine and Archibald 1996), and the breeding population in Morocco is threatened by over-grazing and mining (Meine and Archibald 1996).
106002792		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. Conservation measures have expanded in scale since the mid-1980s, including efforts to mitigate power-line collisions, addressing illegal trade, the adoption of stricter legal protection, local and national surveys in South Africa, increasing research on the species's biology and ecology, habitat protection and management programmes (especially on private land), establishment of local conservation organisations, and the development of educational facilities, programmes and publications (Archibald and Meine 1996,<strong></strong> Barnes 2000). The introduction of more ecologically sensitive agrochemicals and tighter controls over their use has reduced the number of poisoning events<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). The formation of a Crane Working Group in Namibia has facilitated education, surveys, ringing and protection (R. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Future studies in Namibia will assess whether its population is genetically isolated from that in South Africa, and will use transmitters to help study habitat use, their choice of breeding areas and the occurrence of inter-breeding (Simmons <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prevent conversion of grassland habitat to other land uses and secure sites critical to cranes in the grasslands (K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). Monitor the species's population trends through regular surveys. Include habitat management in future planning of afforestable regions (Barnes 2000). Encourage more responsible use of agrochemicals<strong> </strong>(Barnes 2000). Target awareness campaigns at the farming community so as to increase awareness and reduce deliberate poisoning of cranes for food<strong> </strong>(Barnes 2000,<strong> </strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). Further research the impacts and risk factors involved in power-line collisions, and use the results of this research to make hazardous power-lines more visible with appropriate devices (Barnes 2000, Shaw <em>et al. </em>2010). Discourage the taking of fledglings from the wild<strong> </strong>(Barnes 2000). Encourage the retention of a mosaic of pasture and cereal cultivation in the Western Cape (Bidwell <em>et al.</em> 2006). Increase conservation protection of grasslands and wetlands north of Etosha National Park<strong> </strong><strong>(</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). A Biodiversity Management Plan for Species for cranes, as outlined in the National Biodiversity Act (2004) would encourage national support for crane conservation efforts.  <p></p>
106002792		distribution	eng	<em><span style="font-style: italic;">Anthropoides paradiseus</span></em> is near-endemic to <strong>South Africa</strong>, with small breeding populations also in northern <strong>Namibia</strong> (c.35 birds at Etosha, isolated but stable [Simmons <em>et al</em>. 2006, K. Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012]<strong></strong> after rapidly declining in 1980s-1990s) and western <strong>Swaziland</strong> (c.12 birds) (Parker 1994), and it is occasionally seen in <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Lesotho</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). In South Africa, numbers in the south and south-western Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal have increased as the species has expanded into agricultural areas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> but, overall, the national population has fallen by half since the 1970s, with dramatic declines in many former strongholds, e.g. of up to 80% in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State and Eastern Cape during the 1980s<strong> </strong>(Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. The increase in the Western Cape has accompanied the conversion of fynbos and renosterveld vegetation to agricultural land<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(McCann<em> et al</em>. 2007). The population in the central Karoo region is presently stable<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(McCann<em> et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Namibia the largest recent count is of 67 birds at Etosha in 2006, while further sightings since 2006 include and 38 birds at Lake Oponono and 25 near Mamili National Park, c.900 km east of Etosha, which may represent isolated populations or possibly wanderers from the Etosha population (Benadie 2010). The population has been estimated at c.25,700 individuals (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 1996, McCann <em>et al. </em>2005), but more recently at over 25,580 individuals<strong><sup> </sup>(</strong>Beilfuss <em>et al</em>. 2007), with a minimum of 25,520 in South Africa<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(McCann<em> et al</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
106002792		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a partial migrant which makes local, seasonal movements across elevational gradients (best documented in Natal)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000, Vernon <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. There is also some movement into the Karoo biome during the winter months (Vernon <em>et al</em>. 1992). However in some areas it appears to be resident or locally nomadic<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It breeds, usually at high elevations, between August and April, with a distinct peak in November in South Africa, December to March in Namibia, and November in Botswana<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is a territorial, solitary breeder<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, and while nesting has been found to occur at a density of 0.57 pairs per square kilometre of appropriate habitat (<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000). After breeding there is movement to lower altitudes, where the species becomes highly congregatory, occurring regularly in flocks of around 50<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Filmer and Holtshausen 1992)<strong></strong>, and occasionally numbering up to 1000<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It roosts at night, often communally, with roosts being known to comprise hundreds and sometimes thousands of birds<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>This species breeds in natural grass- and sedge-dominated habitats, preferring secluded grasslands at high elevations where the vegetation is thick and short<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. Occasionally it will breed in or near wetland areas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>, in pans or on islands in dams<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). Particularly in W Cape of South Africa it also uses lowland agricultural areas, particularly pasture, fallow fields and cereal crop fields as stubble becomes available after harvest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. A few pairs in this area also breed in the coastal dunes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species occurs at lower altitudes (Walkinshaw 1973). It inhabits short, dry, natural grasslands, as well as the Karoo and fynbos biomes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. In the Karoo it is mainly restricted to areas where summer rainfall exceeds 300mm <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005) and where grassland vegetation rather than scrub is dominant<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000). In the fynbos it occurs almost exclusively in cultivated habitats, largely avoiding the natural vegetation<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000), although this habitat may provide important cover for juveniles<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bidwell <em>et al.</em> 2006). The agricultural habitats that it uses include pastures, croplands, particularly where cereal crops are grown<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>, and fallow fields. It is intolerant of intensively grazed and burnt grassland <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It roosts in shallow wetlands<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>This species feeds primarily on plant material including the seeds of sedges and grasses, roots, tubers and small bulbs<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It also takes a variety of animals including insects such as locusts and their eggs, grasshoppers, termites and caterpillars, worms, crabs, fish, frogs, reptiles and small mammals <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996,<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). In agricultural areas it feeds on cereal grains such as wheat and maize, and also eats invertebrate crop pests <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">, </strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005).<strong> Breeding site </strong>In wetland breeding sites the nest is a simple pad of wetland vegetation<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005, Walkinshaw 1973). Elsewhere it may consist of a layer of small stones, dry vegetation or mammal dung<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005, Walkinshaw 1973)<strong></strong>, or eggs may be laid directly on the grass or on bare ground<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000). Preferred nesting sites usually have good all-round visibility<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005).    <p></p>
106002792		population	eng	The population has been estimated at over 25,580 individuals, with a minimum of 25,520 in South Africa.
106002792		threats	eng	The main factors behind its drastic population decline since the 1970s were widespread poisoning on agricultural land (both intentional and accidental<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[Barnes 2000<strong></strong>]) and the commercial afforestation of large tracts of its grassland nesting habitat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. Poisoning has decreased dramatically over the last few years. Accidental poisoning, however, still occurs occasionally when grain is soaked in agrochemicals for the capture of wildlife for food, although cranes are not usually the target species, and also as a result of the misuse of agrochemicals <strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). Cranes are social birds and poisoning incidences often involve a number of individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). Afforestation is ongoing and large tracts of suitable grassland habitat have been designated for afforestation over the few years following 2007 in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Western Cape<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). Other major threats include collision with power-lines, which is now arguably the major cause of mortality and could have been a major hidden cause before lines were monitored<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), entanglement with fences, illegal capture of fledglings (for food and a growing threat from local and international trade, K. Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), predation by domestic dogs and the drowning of chicks in water-troughs (<strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>.  In the Overberg, Western Cape, which holds approximately half the global population, modelling gave a conservative estimate that c.12% (95% CI 5-23%) of the Blue Crane population in the study area is killed annually in power-line collisions (Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), which exceeds the maximum annual adult mortality rate of 7.5% beyond which a population viability assessment predicts the Western Cape population would be unable to persist (Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In the Western Cape, the species is threatened by a change in agricultural crops and increases in the human population in agricultural areas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bidwell <em>et al.</em> 2006, K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Climate change could force changes in agricultural practices that may be detrimental to the species<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Prolonged dry spells and the resultant competition with domestic stock for habitat at such times are considered a major threat in Namibia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Simmons <em>in litt. </em>1999, <strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>K. Morrison <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106002793		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. Protected areas (including Ramsar Sites) have been established in several key wetlands, notably in Zambia, Namibia and Botswana<strong> </strong>(Burke 1996; T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2000). A major environmental flows initiative is underway for the Zambezi River basin, addressing the restoration of natural flooding patterns, conservation of basin wetlands, and control of invasive species in the Zambezi River basin (Beilfuss and Brown 2010).&#160; Key wetlands targeted by the program include the Kafue Flats, Zambezi Delta, Liuwa Plain, Busanga Swamps, and others, covering about 40% of the global Wattled Crane population.&#160;&#160; The initiative is a partnership between Zambezi basin dam operators and water authories, NGOs (World Wide Fund for Nature, International Crane Foundation), universities in the basin countries, and other stakeholders. In South Africa, and some other countries, action has included legal protection, marking and relocation of powerlines, awareness programmes, and encouragement of habitat protection, security and management by private landowners (Archibald and Meine 1996; Barnes 2000<strong> </strong>; Burke 1996). In the Kafue Flats, more than 800 ha of invasive <em>Mimosa pigra</em> was eradicated through aerial spraying and community-involvement in manual cutting (Shanungu 2009). A conservation group conducted aerial surveys, field research and a community awareness programme in the Kafue Flats (Kamweneshe and Beilfuss 2002). Aerial surveys, nest monitoring<strong> </strong>(Hancock 2003; Motsumi and Hancock 2004a; Nkape 2004) and monitoring of adult:juvenile ratios<strong> </strong>(Hancock 2003; Mostumi and Hancock 2004b) took place annually on the Okavango Delta in the early 2000’s. In 1993, an action plan was developed for the species at the African Crane and Wetland Training workshop (Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 1996). A continent-wide programme for the species was launched in 2001 to monitor the species's status and threats, and help develop effective conservation programmes for the management of wetland systems<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). National conservation plans have been developed for Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe, (Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Following a workshop in July 2000, the Wattled Crane Recovery Programme was initiated for the South African population<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006; Pittman 2007). There are currently five partners in this South African programme, one aim of which is to establish a viable captive population and supplement the wild population (K. Morrison <em>in litt. </em>2012). The Johannesburg Zoo has also built a dedicated chick-rearing facility, and several captive management facilities throughout South Africa now participate in the breeding programme<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pittman 2007). In 2005, it was announced that a veterinary fence would be constructed to the east of the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park in Botswana, effectively extending the park boundary and protecting grasslands used by the species from the high density of livestock in the area<strong> </strong>(BirdLife Botswana 2006).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a coordinated range-wide action plan<strong> </strong>(P. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>1998). Re-operate large dams to restore flooding in key Wattled Crane habitats, including Kafue Flats and Zambezi Delta (Beilfuss and Brown 2010). Coordinate range-wide surveys and long-term monitoring<strong> </strong>(Burke 1996), partly in order to understand population movements between sites and countries<strong> </strong>T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2000). Continue and expand ecological research (Burke 1996; S. J. Tyler <em>in litt. </em>1999<strong><sup> </sup></strong>; Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003). Strengthen key protected areas, especially in the Kafue Flats, Liuwa Plain,and Bangweulu Swamps (Zambia) and Zambezi Delta (Mozambique) (Burke 1996; Beilfuss et al. 2007). Improve protection of birds outside of protected areas such as the Jao/Boro rivers of Botswana<strong> </strong>(Gibson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Increase educational campaigns (A. Shimelis <em>in litt. </em>1998), targeting landowners with breeding cranes<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Burke 1996). Employ satellite tracking to study the species's movements across its range (BirdLife Botswana Crane Working Group 2004; Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). In South Africa, work with farming communities to conserve natural grasslands that surround wetlands<strong> (</strong>McCann and Benn 2006). Investigate whether the South African<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006) and Ethiopian (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006) populations represent separate subspecies. Assess the levels of legal and illegal trade in the species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Continued (second phase) aerial spraying and manual control of <em>Mimosa</em> in the Kafue Flats (Shanungu 2009, per R. Beilfuss &amp; K. Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Assess the impacts of fire and management on the species<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Study the impact of indigenous game compared with domestic cattle<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Plan and conduct research into semen cryopreservation, genetic fingerprinting, eggshell membrane sexing and nutrition (Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). In South Africa, supplement existing wild populations with captive-bred fledglings of South African origin<strong> </strong>(J. M. Pittman <em>in litt</em>. 2007).   <p></p>
106002793		distribution	eng	<p><em>Bugeranus carunculatus</em> is found in <strong>Ethiopia, </strong>(c.200 [Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2003, 2007]), <strong>Tanzania</strong> (c.200 [Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003]), <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (probably around 500 [Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007]), <strong>Zambia</strong> (c.4,500 [Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007]), <strong>Angola</strong> (c.500, perhaps declining<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt. </em>1999, Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007]), <strong>Malawi</strong> (c.15 pairs [F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000,<strong> </strong>H. G. Msiska verbally <em>per</em> J. Haugaard <em>in litt. </em>2000] or 40 individuals<strong> </strong>[Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003]), <strong>Mozambique</strong> (c.300<strong> [</strong>Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007], 120 pairs in the Zambezi Delta region [Bento <em>et al</em>. 2007]), <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (c.200<strong> [</strong>Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007]), <strong>Botswana</strong> (c. 111 breeding pairs in a total of 1,300 individuals<strong> </strong>[Gibson <em>et al</em>. 2002, Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003, Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007]), <strong>Namibia</strong> (c.250 birds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003] including probably fewer than 10 pairs [R. E. Simmons <em>in litt. </em>1999]), and <strong>South Africa</strong> (c.235<strong> </strong>[Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003, Mattison 2004, Pittman 2007], with a 35% decline in 20 years<strong> </strong>[Pittman 2007], but possibly stable since<strong> </strong>Mattison 2004]). The total population appeared stable from the mid-1980s to mid-1990s<strong> </strong>(Burke 1996), however when estimates from the 1980s are compared with those from 2006, it is judged to have declined significantly<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006), perhaps indicating declines in the last 10 years. The key Zambian population at the Kafue Flats reportedly fell in the mid-1990s (Archibald and Meine 1996; Burke 1996) and was estimated at c.1,000 individuals in 2002<strong> </strong>(Kamweneshe and Beilfuss 2002). The comparison of 2002 estimates with those from 1993 suggests marked declines in Mozambique, Zambia and possibly Botswana (Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007). The substantial reduction in numbers since 1993 apparently reflects real declines at individual sites and regions, although the 2002 estimate may be influenced by an improvement in accuracy relative to previous estimates (Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007). Following declines in Zambia the Okavango Delta in Botswana may now hold the largest single population, of c1,300 birds (Hancock 2008). The world population has been variously estimated at 7,700 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pittman 2007) or fewer<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006, Motsumi <em>et al</em>. 2007), not more than 8,000 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007) and 6,000-8,000 individuals<strong> </strong>(Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003). It exists in three disjunct populations, the large south-central population and small Ethiopian and South African populations<strong> </strong>(Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006; Pittman 2007), which may be relicts from its former range<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003).</p><p></p>
106002793		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is generally not migratory but those that inhabit seasonal wetlands are irregularly nomadic in response to water availability (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. The Ethiopian population, however, does appear to migrate locally<strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). It breeds in May-October, leaving the breeding area in November-December when the wetlands dry up, and returning with the rains in May-June<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996).  Other populations breed in territorial pairs (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong> between July and December with a peak during the months of August and September coinciding with the peak of the floods<strong> </strong><strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). The most southerly populations often breed a little earlier in July-August <strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). During the non-breeding season the species is fairly congregatory, occurring regularly in flocks of 10-50 individuals (<strong></strong>Johnsgard 1983)<strong></strong>, and there are reports of flocks of up to 1000 in the Okavango delta in April-May (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). <strong>Habitat </strong>In South Africa this species was found to occupy large home ranges of approximately 16 sq. km, which consist largely (75%) of grassland with a small core of essential wetland breeding habitat <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>McCann and Benn 2006).<strong> </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests in shallow sedge-dominated wetlands, often above 2000m altitude (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. In South Africa and Zimbabwe it breeds on undisturbed small permanent wetlands surrounded by grassland or miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em>) woodland in high rainfall areas with plateau topography (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005), where human disturbance is minimal<span style="font-weight: bold;"> (</span>Archibald and Meine 1996)<strong></strong>. Ephemeral and seasonal wetlands may be used opportunistically by breeding pairs or serve as important post-breeding dispersal areas<strong> </strong><strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). In South Africa it relies on relatively undisturbed mid-altitude wetland-grassland mosaics<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>McCann and Benn 2006). Elsewhere in its range it breeds on large low-lying tropical, seasonal flood plains such as the Okavango delta (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong> where wetlands are bordered by grasslands<strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). It may use man-made habitats such as dams (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Ethiopian population uses high-altitude wetlands in the Bale Mountains<strong> </strong><strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species continues to rely on wetland habitats surrounded by grassland<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>McCann and Benn 2006)<strong></strong>. It congregates at large wetlands on riparian floodplains, but also requires pristine or semi-pristine, high-altitude wetlands and grasslands in some places&#160;<strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996;&#160;Barnes 2000; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1998). It frequents dambos (depressions), permanently isolated wetlands (Morrison and van der Spuy 2006) and vleis<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>) as well as using grasslands, pastures, and occasionally cultivated fields for foraging (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). Dams and pans are used as roosting sites during the non-breeding season (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Ethiopian population is less dependent on wetlands during this season, generally moving to drier, lower elevation habitats including ploughed fields<strong> </strong><strong> (</strong>Archibald and Meine 1996). Birds that breed in the Okavango delta often move to recently burnt ground in the dry season (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). <strong>Diet </strong>The species feeds on rhizomes, roots and bulbs of sedges (<em>Cyperus</em> and <em>Eleocharis</em> species, Bento 2002), and grass sward and seed (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It will also take animals including small aquatic snails, fish and frogs<strong> </strong>(Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). Chicks are reported to eat insects<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>).<strong> Breeding site </strong>Preferred nesting sites are where grass and sedge marshes are bordered by drier, flat to sloping grassland meadows, with medium height vegetation and water up to 1m in depth (<strong></strong>Johnsgard 1983)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The nest is a large mound of plant material (reeds and sedges), one metre in diameter and protruding 20 cm above the water surface, usually with a moat of open water about a metre in diameter around it. A significant proportion of nests in the Okavango Delta are on small mud islands two or three metres in diameter, exposed by 20-30 cm as floodwaters recede, and in these cases, the eggs are laid on few pieces of reed or sedge stems. Fidelity to the previous year's nesting area is suspected. The clutch size is one or two (68% and 32% of nests respectively, in Botswana)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, however only one chick is raised from clutches of two and the other egg is abandoned<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Pittman 2007)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong></strong>. If a clutch or chick is lost, pairs may attempt to breed again<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. The incubation period is 33-36 days<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Natural levels of nest predation appear to be high (Nkape 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The first-hatched chick leaves the nest on its first day<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>; Nkape 2004)<strong></strong>, and may be particularly susceptible to predation at this time<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Nkape 2004)<strong></strong>. The fledging period is 135 days, but immature birds usually accompany their parents for their first year<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Reproductive maturity is reached at about the age of seven and the species is monogamous, pairing for life.  <p></p>
106002793		population	eng	Its present world population has been variously estimated at 7,700 individuals (Pittman 2007) or fewer (Morrison and van der Spuy 2006; Motsumi <em>et al</em>. 2007), fewer than 8,000 individuals (Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007) and 6,000-8,000 individuals (Beilfuss <em>et al.</em> 2003), which is the estimate used here. This roughly equates to 4,000-5,300 mature individuals.
106002793		threats	eng	The primary threat is loss and degradation of wetlands as a result of upstream river regulation, intensified agriculture, drainage, invasive species such as <em>Mimosa pigra</em>, and rice cultivation (Burke 1996;<strong> </strong>W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt. </em>1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>Kamweneshe and Beilfuss 2002, McCann and Benn 2006, Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Other threats include nest disturbance<strong> </strong>(P. Leonard <em>in litt. </em>1999; P. Mundy <em>in litt. </em>1999<strong><sup> </sup>; </strong>McCann and Benn 2006), grass-burning regimes (M. Herremans &amp; R. E. Simmons <em>in litt. </em>1999, T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2000, Morrison and van der Spuy 2006), though in the non-breeding season burnt floodplains are used for feeding in some areas,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003), poisoning, collision with utility lines<strong> </strong>(Burke 1996), direct consumption of chicks (Ngwemyama <em>in litt.)</em> persecution, and traditional medicine<strong> </strong>(A. Shimelis <em>in litt. </em>1998). Increasing livestock, wars, desertification and agrochemicals are additional threats to the species's habitats<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Nest destruction through trampling by livestock is believed to be a problem<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). The population is threatened by the illegal removal of eggs and chicks for international trade<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pittman 2007). Adults are also taken for trade and are hunted<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). The level of exports from Tanzania is believed to exceed known legal exports<strong> </strong>(Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). The destruction of vegetation by fires probably leaves adults more susceptible to predation and hunting, and flood levels in turn influence the extent and intensity of fires (Morrison and van der Spuy 2006). Recent potential threats that could extensively affect a large portion of the Okavango Delta include the proposed hydroelectric scheme at Popa Falls in Namibia, papyrus cutting, channel modification, and the extensive aerial spraying of pesticide to eradicate the tsetse fly<strong> </strong>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003). The extent of suitable breeding habitat in the Zambezi Delta (Mozambique) and Kafue Flats (Zambia) and the suitability of remaining habitat for feeding is believed to have declined as a result of the interruption of the natural flooding regime by the Cahora Bassa (Tete province), Kariba (Zambia/Zimbabwe), and Itezhi-tezhi (Zambia) dams upstream, and hunting is also a threat in this country<strong> </strong>(Parker 2005, Bento <em>et al</em>. 2007).Breeding success appears to be low in the species<strong> </strong>(Hancock 2003, Mostumi and Hancock 2004b).<strong> </strong>A pre-fledging chick:adult ratio of 5.8% on the Okavango Delta in January 2003 indicates a low chick survival rate<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hancock 2003). However, each pair of this long-lived species needs to raise only two chicks that survive to adulthood over the course of their lifetimes for the population to remain stable<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species is highly sensitive to human disturbance and may abandon home ranges which are impacted by adjacent land-use (Morrison and Bothma 1998).   <br/><p></p>
106002794		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory, although isolated breeding populations east and south of the Black Sea may be resident or only undertake local movements (Snow and Perrins 1998). It usually migrates on a narrow front, utilising two major migration routes (south-west, and south to south-east passages across Europe) and uses regular staging areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). Family groups and non-breeding birds begin to migrate in July, but the majority of the species migrate in early September, arriving in African wintering grounds during October. The species returns to its breeding areas in March (Vegvari 2002), where breeding begins in late April or early May, occasionally up to three weeks earlier in southern areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is gregarious for much of the year, migrating in flocks of between 10-50 to 400 birds (Africa) and congregating in groups of few to 1,000 birds in the non-breeding season (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), exceptionally it gathers in flocks of up to 4,000 during the moulting period (Cramp and Simmons 1980). Whilst breeding, pairs are solitary with large nesting territories, although immature and unmated birds may remain in groups of 6-10 individuals (Cramp and Simmons 1980). Every two years adults undergo a complete moulting period, after breeding but before leaving for wintering grounds, throughout which they are flightless for around six weeks (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). This species is diurnal, feeding during the day and roosting during the night on the ground or in water in large numbers (the same roost is often used every night, and sometimes every year) (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species utilises a wide variety of shallow wetlands, including high altitude, treeless moors or bogs (where the main vegetation is <I>Sphagnum</I> moss or Ericaceae) usually with some standing water, and swampy forest clearings, reedy marshes and rice paddies (Cramp and Simmons 1980). The species requires inaccessible ground nesting-sites, so is commonly associated with quaking bogs and other impassible mires, especially in the vicinity of <I>Alnus</I> carr woodland or seasonally flooded riverine forest (Cramp and Simmons 1980). In Central Asia the species may use drier forested areas (such as pine or mixed birch/pine woodland) if water is readily available (Cramp and Simmons 1980), but it generally avoids heavily wooded areas (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species moults in its breeding habitat after breeding, specifically requiring shallow waters or high reed cover for concealment during this vulnerable flightless period (Cramp and Simmons 1980). <I>Non-breeding</I> The non-breeding wintering and migration habitats of the species include floodland, swampy meadows, shallow sheltered bays, rice paddies (Cramp and Simmons 1980), pastures and savannah-like areas (such as open holm oak woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula) (Meine and Archibald 1996). The species may also be found roosting on mudflats or sandbanks along rivers, lakes and reservoirs during this season (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Meine and Archibald 1996) and undertake flights of up to 20 km (Cramp and Simmons 1980) to forage in agricultural fields (Meine and Archibald 1996, Vegvari 2002) (due to human encroachment and destruction of its preferred habitats) (Cramp and Simmons 1980). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous in both breeding and non-breeding seasons, the plant component of its diet consisting of grass roots and shoots, rhizomes, tubers (e.g. potatoes), the leaves of crops and wild herbs (e.g. brassicas, clover, nettle, chickweed), pondweed, the berries of <I>Empetrum</I> and <I>Vaccinium</I>, cereal grain (e.g. wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, rice), peas, olives, acorns, cedarnuts, groundnuts <I>Arachis</I>, and the pods of <I>Cajanus</I> (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). Animal matter in this species' diet includes adult (beetles, flies) and larval (Lepidoptera) insects, snails, earthworms, millipedes, spiders, woodlice, frogs, slow-worms, lizards, snakes, small mammals (rodents and shrews), fish and occasionally the eggs and young of small birds (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a mound of wetland vegetation (which may be re-used from year to year), generally placed in or near water in inaccessible undisturbed bog, heath, marsh, mire (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), or sedge meadow (Malik and Prange 1995). <B>Management information</B> The removal of willow bushes, reeds and bog grass from areas in the Kremmener Luch nature reserve, central Germany, has been successful in providing suitable roosting sites with wide panoramic views which have attracted the species to the area (Malik and Prange 1995). The vegetation was removed during the winter months: willow bushes being cut off and poisoned with arboricid, bog grass being burnt down and reeds being mechanically cut (Malik and Prange 1995). Other management efforts in western Europe include the burial or relocation of utility lines, and programs to encourage the planting of lure crops and the use of waste grain for diversionary feeding (away from agricultural crops) (Meine and Archibald 1996).<B></B>
106002794		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.360,000-370,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002794		threats	eng	In both its breeding and non-breeding ranges this species is principally threatened by habitat loss and degradation through dam construction, urbanisation and agricultural expansion (including changes in land-use, intensification, expanded irrigation systems and conversion of traditional holm oak pastures) (Meine and Archibald 1996). <I>Breeding</I> In parts of its breeding range that are heavily developed the species is threatened by nest disturbance from tourism and recreation which reduces its breeding success by increasing the incidence of successful nest predation by corvids, wild boar and foxes (Meine and Archibald 1996). Egg collecting is also a threat to the breeding population in Turkey (Meine and Archibald 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Along its migrational routes and in its wintering grounds the Common Crane is particularly threatened by habitat fragmentation and the loss of many smaller traditional feeding and roosting sites, leading to increasing concentrations of large flocks in smaller areas, and therefore increased competition (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Alonso <I>et al.</I> 1994, Meine and Archibald 1996). Pesticide poisoning may also be affecting cranes along migration routes and in some wintering areas, especially where they depend primarily on grain from agricultural fields (Meine and Archibald 1996). Collisions with utility lines are frequent in highly developed areas along migration routes and in winter ranges (collisions being the leading cause of adult mortality at wintering areas in Spain) (Meine and Archibald 1996). Hunting is a significant threat to this species on migration (e.g. through Afghanistan and Pakistan) (Meine and Archibald 1996, Nawaz <I>et al.</I> 2006) and illegal shooting has been identified as a problem in other areas (including Portugal, southeast Europe, Egypt and Sudan) (Meine and Archibald 1996).
106002795		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. Key protected areas include Norsky, Daursky and Khingansky (Russia), Daguur and Ugtam (Mongolia), Shengjin Hu, Longgan Hu, parts of Poyang Hu, Dong Dongting Hu and Chen Hu (China), Mundok (North Korea), Suncheon Bay (South Korea ) and Izumi-Takaono and Yashiro (Japan).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to identify additional breeding areas. Establish strictly protected areas in the Bikin river basin (Russia) and Suncheon Bay (South Korea). Expand the area or number of suitable wintering sites in Japan. Expand protected areas at Chongming Dao and Xinglong Dongsha (China). Enforce measures to minimise threats to wetlands in the lower Yangtze due to hydrological changes caused by the Three Gorges Dam. If the proposed outlet dam is constructed at Poyang Lake, operation of the dam should attempt to restore the natural hydrology; careful monitoring of cranes and their habitats will be needed and active mitigation measures implemented to ensure availability of foraging habitat (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Establish local crane conservation groups in China.  <p></p>
106002795		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Grus monacha</span> breeds in south-central and south-eastern Siberia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia </span>(BirdLife International 2001). Breeding is suspected in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mongolia </span>and two breeding sites have recently been found in the region of Heilongjiang, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China </span>(Yuming <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Guo Yu-min <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its global population is estimated to be c.11,500 birds (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2006). The majority of the population winter in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Japan</span>, with smaller numbers in <span style="font-weight: bold;">China </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span>. Over 80% of the population winter at Izumi, southern Japan, where 10,468 were recorded in 2009 (S. Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A second Japanese wintering population at Yashiro (western Honshu) has declined considerably since the 1940s. There were 355 birds in 1940, down to 100-200 in the 1950s-1960s, 50-100 in the 1980s, 20-50 in early 1990s and about 20 birds in late 1990s. The current wintering population is currently lower than 10 birds (only 7 birds in 2012) (S. Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). An estimated 1,050-1,150 birds winter in China, including between 300-400 at Poyang, over 600 at Shengjin and Caizi and over 100 at Chongming (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Around 114 winter in South Korea (Li and Mundkur 2004), mainly at Suncheon Bay. A total of 1,088 individuals were counted at the Yangtze floodplain in 2005 (M. Barter<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2006).<br/><p></p>
106002795		habitat	eng	It breeds in remote, wooded, upland bogs on gently sloping foothills and flat river terraces, mostly within the permafrost zone. It winters in freshwater marshes, wet grassland, coastal tidal flats and farmland. <p></p>
106002795		population	eng	The global population was estimated at c.6,900 mature individuals (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006), but is now estimated to be c.11,600 individuals based on winter estimates of 1,050-1,150 individuals in China (J. Harris<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012); c.10,500 individuals in Japan (S. Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and c.114 individuals in Korea (Li and Mundkur 2004). The population is thus best placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106002795		threats	eng	The key threats are wetland loss and degradation in its wintering grounds in China and South Korea, as a result of reclamation for development and dam building, especially the Three Gorges Dam and a proposed dam at the outlet to Poyang Lake which threatens an important wintering site. Conversion of rice-paddies to cotton fields at Longgan Hu and Dongting Hu has caused declines. A newly discovered wintering site at Suncheon Bay, South Korea, is threatened by development. The artificially high concentration of birds at Izumi, as a result of supplementary feeding, risks a major population reduction from disease or another catastrophe. Other threats in China include pollution of coastal waters, invasive cordgrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina alterniflora </span>in tidal areas, pesticide poisoning, increased levels of human disturbance and over-fishing. Some poaching and hunting of breeding birds occurs.<br/><p></p>
106002796		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. There is an international recovery plan (CWS and USFWS 2007)<strong></strong> focusing on increasing the size of the natural flock, establishing additional wild populations through experimental releases, teaching captive-bred birds to migrate (Lewis 1995, Line 1995, RENEW report 1999)<strong></strong>, and increasing the captive population for experimental releases and ecological research (e.g. habitat selection). Considerable progress has been made in improving the genetic health of captive stock and in breeding under-represented genetic strains, but delayed reproduction in captivity and the failure of some pairs to breed at all has slowed down progress (Putman 2007)<strong></strong>. In the past, recruitment was increased in certain years in Canada by removal of a single egg from two-egg broods (Boyce <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>; the removed eggs are used to supplement captive flocks, but the overall impact of the egg pickup program is largely undetermined (<strong></strong>CWS and USFWS 2007)<strong></strong>. An eastern migratory population which mostly winters in Florida and summers in Wisconsin has now been established but only two instances of successful breeding has been recorded so far (J.Hook <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Garland and Peterson 2009)<strong></strong>. If passed, the Crane Conservation Act (H.R. 1771 and S. 1048) would allocate $5 million per year over five years to be spent on crane conservation efforts world-wide, with strict limitations on the amount going to help Whooping Cranes. Due to the loss of 17 captive-bred cranes in a <a>severe storm in 2007, </a>the ultralight-led juveniles from Necedah NWR are now split into two wintering groups, with half spending the winter at Chassahowitzka NWR and half at the St. Marks NWR along Florida's Gulf Coast.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Survey and monitor breeding grounds to determine nesting effort (RENEW report 1999)<strong></strong>, and the wintering grounds to determine flock size. Research food resources and high mortality (RENEW report 1999)<strong></strong>. Alleviate threats in Texas. Reduce powerline collisions. Continue establishment of two further self-sustaining populations (Meine and Archibald 1996, RENEW report 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue raising cranes for reintroduction (RENEW report 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002796		distribution	eng	<em>Grus americana</em> declined from historic estimates of &gt;10,000 prior to European settlement of North America to 1,300-1,400 birds by 1870, and only 15 adults in 1938 (CWS and USFWS 2007)<strong></strong>. The three wild populations totalled 385 in December 2008 (Stehn 2008)<strong></strong>, including two reintroduced populations in the eastern U.S.<span style=""> that are not yet self-sustaining. </span>The only natural wild population breeds in Wood Buffalo National Park, on the border of Northwest Territories and Alberta, <strong>Canada</strong>, and winters at and near to Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, <strong>USA</strong> (Meine and Archibald 1996). It totalled 266 birds in 2007 (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, with 65 active nests (B. Johns, <em>in litt.</em> 2007), followed by a rec<span style="">ord 270 birds in spring 2008 (Archibald 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, dropping to 247 in spring 2009 (Archibald 2009) </span>following a drought in the wintering quarters in Texas.  A reintroduced, non-migratory flock in Florida numbered c.41 individuals in 2007, with additional releases put on hold (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. A reintroduced flock migrates between Wisconsin and Florida, numbering 75 birds in 2007 (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, increasing to c.90 birds in 2008 (Stehn 2008). A new reintroduced flock comprising 10 juveniles was established in south-western Louisiana in early 2011 (Zimorski 2011). The first wild born chick fledged in Wisconsin and migrated successfully in 2006 (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007) and another <strong></strong>wild born chick hatched in June 2009 (<span style=""></span>Garland and Peterson 2009). Captive flocks totalled 151 birds in 2008 at 5 breeding centres and 6 display facilities in the USA and Canada (Stehn 2008)<strong></strong>. Overall, the global wild population has increased in numbers since 1938. <p></p>
106002796		habitat	eng	It breeds in prairie wetlands, preferring small, shallow lakes and ponds, willow communities, marshes, mudflats and perhaps sedge meadows, but this may be atypical considering its historical range (Archibald and Meine 1996, Timoney 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs are laid from late April to mid-May (Archibald and Meine 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It winters in coastal brackish wetlands. <p></p>
106002796		population	eng	The total population in the wild numbers 382 individuals (T. Stehn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). However, the only self-sustaining population breeding in Northwest Territories/Alberta, Canada and wintering in Texas, USA numbers 266 individuals, fewer than 250 of which are mature. Hence we retain a precautionary estimate of 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106002796		threats	eng	Over-hunting, habitat conversion and human disturbance were the main causes of the species's decline. Currently, the most significant known cause of death or injury to fledglings is collision with powerlines (Lewis 1997)<strong></strong>. Powerline markers can reduce collisions by 50-80% (T Stehn and T. Wassenich in press)<strong></strong>, but most powerlines remain unmarked and collision is a major and growing problem (Lewis 1997)<strong></strong>. The anticipated placement of thousands of wind turbines in the migration corridor will decrease availability of crane stopover habitat and may also dramatically increase the number of powerlines (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2007, a lightning strike during severe weather killed 17 captive-bred young  birds being housed in a top-netted release pen in Florida (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Eggs and pre-fledged chicks are subject to predation by various birds and mammals including<span style=""> raven, bald eagle, wolf, black bear and lynx </span>(CWS and USFWS 2007)<strong></strong>. Drought is a serious threat to the species as it is detrimental to all habitats utilized year around, but is especially harmful by dramatically decreasing production on the nesting grounds (RENEW report 199<span style="">9</span>)<strong></strong>. In early 2009, a prolonged drought and reduced water inflow to coastal wetlands led to a reduction in availability of blue crabs <span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;">Callinectes sapidus</span> and wolfberries <em>Lycium spp. </em>(important food items), causing Whooping Crane mortality rates to double (Archibold 2009). Coastal development, sea level rise, climate change, chemical spills, reduced fresh water inflows, and human disturbance threaten the Texan wintering grounds (RENEW report 1999, CWS and USFWS 2007)<strong></strong>. Aransas National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) can only support a maximum of 500 birds through the winter (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> and falls short of the initial downlisting target of 1,000 birds. Continued population growth may force some cranes in future to use disturbed and suboptimal habitat (M. Reid. <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Much of the currently unoccupied crane habitat at Aransas where the cranes would be expected to expand into is being threatened with construction of houses (T. Stehn, <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. There are currently concerns about oil spills and river inflows to Aransas NWR (CWS and USFWS 2007)<strong></strong>, as well as reduced water flows in the central Platte River Ralley, Nebraska, a key stopover site for migrating Whooping Cranes (Chavez-Ramirez 2008). The spread of West Nile virus and avian influenza in the future may pose a threat to the species (Chu <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  The long-term effects of genetic drift after a severe population bottleneck are unknown (Glenn <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> There have been incidences of illegal shooting of the species in Alabama and Indiana (MacKenzie 2011, Shaw 2011).<br/><p></p>
106002797		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in China, India and Bhutan. Major breeding and wintering areas are protected in China. There have been conservation and development programmes in local communities at the important sites of Cao Hai and Dashanbao. The Indian breeding population occurs in the Changthang Cold Desert Wildlife Sanctuary. Shooting of cranes and other wildlife in the region has been substantially reduced due to control of firearms, better enforcement of wildlife protection laws and greater awareness (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). There is an annual census of the wintering population in Bhutan, where there is also November festival held to raise public awareness of the importance of crane conservation (Anon. 2010a, b), and annual winter counts at Dashanbao, Cao Hai and Napahai. Winter ecology and migration studies have been conducted extensively in recent years. Winter cropping is banned in Bumdeling, Bhutan, to maintain a food supply for the cranes (Lhendup and Webb 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to study its migration. Designate breeding areas in Ladakh (India) as waterbird sanctuaries. Stop drainage of marshes and the use of pesticides and rodenticides at Ruoergai marshes (China). Maintain water-levels of wetlands at Cao Hai (China) and prohibit encroachment. Leave some harvested fields unploughed in the wintering grounds between November-March. Include newly identified stopover sites, most of which are not already protected, in the nature reserve system, especially those threatened by disturbance from local herders (Qian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Conduct regular monitoring of birds along migration routes (Lhendup and Webb 2009). At Ruoergai (China) control meadow livestock during key feeding periods (May to August) and establish protected buffer zones around breeding lakes and swamps (Wu<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). Restrict livestock at Napahai (China) and maintain a network of farmed areas as wetlands (Qiang Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Ban settlement expansion in important areas of crane habitat in Bhutan. Implement subsidies for farmers in important areas to promote management that suits the cranes. Careful planning on tourist/eco-tourist development in both wintering and breeding areas.&#160; Regulate tourist access to the species. Implement education programmes for the general public, especially students, teachers and policy makers. Create a new action plan for the species (Lhendup and Webb 2009).&#160; Monitor impact from climatic and glacial changes on breeding habitats. Black-necked Crane network in China has been proposed to improve monitoring and education.<br/><p></p>
106002797		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Grus nigricollis</span> breeds on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, with a small population in adjacent Ladakh, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India </span>(BirdLife International 2001). Six wintering areas have been identified at lower altitudes on the Qinghai-Tibet and Yunnan-Guizhou plateaus, China, including counts of 3,562 birds in Yunnan and western Guizhou in winter 2003 (Li 2005) and, in Tibet, 4,277 in 1999 (Li 2005) increasing to 6,940 in 2007 (Bishop and Drolma 2007). It also winters in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan </span>(450 individuals), and Arunachal Pradesh, India (10 individuals) and small numbers were once recorded in Vietnam (Bishop and Drolma 2007), but this species has not been seen here for over than 30 years. The global population is estimated at 10,070-10,970, including 1,000 (Cao Hai), 1,000 (Dashanbao), 800-1,200 (other parts of NE Yunnan), 300 (NW Yunnan), 6,500-7,000 (Tibet), 450 (Bhutan), and ~20 (India) (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Key sites on the birds' migration include the wetlands of the Ruoergai Plateau (China), which serves as a stopover for some individuals and a breeding ground for others, and Gasa (Bhutan), used as a stopover in both autumn and spring (Lhendup and Webb 2009, Qian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Evidence from Tibet, and a long term study at Cao Hai, Guizhou (Chen 2002), indicates that the population may be increasing in line with conservation efforts and changing attitudes, but it is not known whether these figures represent short-term population peaks, or long-term trends.<br/><p></p>
106002797		habitat	eng	It breeds in alpine bog meadows and riverine marshes, favouring lacustrine marshes from 2,600-4,900 m. It prefers to nest at large water bodies, at a water depth of around 30 cm: this probably minimises exposure to nest predators. It winters in river valleys and along reservoir shorelines in the vicinity of barley and spring wheat fields. Whilst it prefers breeding in lakes, shallow marshes and meadows are the most important habitat for feeding; its diet consists of roots, tubers, insects, snails, shrimps, fish, small birds and rodents (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Qiang Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106002797		population	eng	<br/><br/>The global population is estimated at c.10,070-10,970 individuals in total, probably including c.6,600 mature individuals (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106002797		threats	eng	Intensive grazing and pesticide use has caused degradation of grasslands in the Ruoergai (Zoige) breeding grounds, China. In central Tibet, farmers are increasingly planting high yield winter wheat rather than traditional crops. Ploughing in autumn rather than spring has reduced the availability of grain on cultivated land. The drying-up of marshes and desertification as a result of surrounding development and agriculture is affecting some breeding sites. Mechanised farming and draining of wetlands for settlement expansion are the major threats in Bhutan; grazing, hunting and stray dogs have possibly also contributed to declines (Lhendup and Webb 2009). A dam planned on the Lhasa river threatens wintering birds. Fish-farming, peat and firewood collection, river channelisation, industrial pollution and sedimentation, and the construction of roads and fences have resulted in increased disturbance and habitat degradation in Qinghai, Sichuan, Ruoergai and Yunnan, China (Wu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Qiang Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Further disturbance at the species' stopover sites arises from the use of the areas as camping grounds by local herders (Qian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). At Dashanbao National Nature Reserve, China, farmland is being converted to grassland and woodland as part of conservation measures; however, recent work suggests this is detrimental to the cranes as they prefer farmland (Kong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The collection of eggs and poaching are problems in parts of China and India, and unsustainable tourism threatens its habitat (Anon. 2011). A small number of birds have been killed after striking power-lines (Li 2002; Li <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). Climate change scenarios suggest that glacier melt as well as changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration are likely to lead to substantially reduced breeding habitat (wetlands) within high altitude breeding range of the species (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). For example, at the key breeding area of Ruoergai in Sichuan and Gansu, 6 of 17 lakes over 6.6 ha have already dried completely during 1985-2000, and the size of the other 11 lakes has decreased to different degrees (J. Harris in litt. 2007). Natural predators of the species include common leopards, yellow-throated martens, leopard cats and Asiatic golden cats (Anon. 2010a).<br/><p></p>
106002798		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in all range states. Key protected areas include Khingansky, Muraviovka and Lake Khanka (Russia), Zhalong, Xianghai, Hui River, Shuangtai Hekou, Yellow River delta and Yancheng (China), Kumya and Mundok (North Korea), Kushiro, Akkeshi-Bekanbeushi and Kiritappu (Japan). Surveys of the wintering population in China have been carried out since 2006 (Su Liying <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The International Red-crowned Crane Workshop was held in Japan in November 2008, where it was concluded that international cooperation was necessary to stop development from threatening crane habitat across the species's range (Wang Hui 2008). Artificial feeding has been set up at some sites (Wang Qi-shan 2008). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify breeding times during which particularly stringent protection rules should be implemented, as has been done at Liaoning Shuangtai Estuary (Zou Hong-fei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Improve general monitoring procedure, with complete censuses, satellite tracking and aerial counts. Determine Area of Occupancy to a more accurate level. Initiate a study of heavy metal contamination on the mainland (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). Expand the area/number of wintering sites in Japan. Establish a transboundary protected area at Tumen estuary, between Russia/China/North Korea. Secure the conservation status of the Cholwon and Han estuary in the Demilitarised Zone. Strengthen management of protected areas on the Sanjiang plain (China), reducing human disturbance. Halt tidal-flat reclamation along the Yancheng coast (China), and control the highly invasive cordgrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina alterniflora</span>. Improve management of wetland restoration at Zhalong, to prevent floods from causing breeding failure (Qiang Wang and Feng Li 2008). Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Control fires in the breeding grounds. Establish interest groups and a communications organisation for crane conservation in China (Wang Qi-shan 2008).<br/><p></p>
106002798		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Grus japonensis </span>breeds in south-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mongolia </span>(where it was first recorded in 2003 [O. Goroshko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003]), and eastern Hokkaido, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Japan </span>(BirdLife International 2001). The Russian and Chinese populations mainly winter in the Yellow river delta and the coast of Jiangsu province, China, and the Demilitarised Zone, <span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea</span>/<span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span>. Staging areas exist along the Yellow river between the provinces of Shanxi and Shaanxi. The Japanese population is non-migratory. The population is estimated at c.2,750 birds; however, this species has a long generation length (12 years), so the population is likely to include only c.1,650 mature individuals (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007, 2009). Trends are difficult to infer from population estimates, because due to habitat degradation wintering sites are becoming more concentrated and counts are therefore likely to be becoming more accurate, but it is probably declining on mainland Asia (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2009). The wintering population in China totals c.400-500 birds (Su and Wang 2010). There are another 1,000-1,050 at four locations in North/South Korea (Lee and Yoo 2010). The resident population in Japan has increased to c.1,200 birds (Wang Qi-shan 2008).<br/><p></p>
106002798		habitat	eng	In Russia and China, it breeds in grass, reed, and sedge marshes. In winter and on passage, it occurs in wetlands, including tidal flats, saltmarshes, rivers, wet grassland, saltpans and aquaculture ponds.  <p></p>
106002798		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.2,750 individuals, which roughly equates to 1,650 mature individuals (J. Harris <em>in litt.</em> 2007, <em>in litt.</em> 2009). National population estimates include: 100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; at least 10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and 100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia.
106002798		threats	eng	The key threat is the loss and degradation of wetlands in its breeding and wintering grounds, principally for conversion to agriculture, but also industrial and economic development (J. Harris<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007, 2009). This loss of habitat is leading to the over-concentration of cranes at a few sites (Wang Qi-shan 2008). In China, wetlands are becoming drier as a result of surrounding development (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007, 2009). In Russia and China, spring fires destroy suitable nesting grounds, and the proliferation of dams lowers water levels, allowing predators access to nests and destroying suitable breeding sites (J. Harris<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2007, 2009). Human disturbance has been so high as to prevent individuals from nesting in some areas (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). Rainfall patterns in the breeding grounds appear to follow a 30-year cycle, and the current dry period has meant birds, people and livestock have had to depend on ever smaller areas of wetland, also resulting in increased pressure to divert water from rivers and lakes (Harris 2008). Wetland restoration at Zhalong Nature Reserve (China) was recorded as causing inappropriately-timed floods leading to nest failure (Qiang Wang and Feng Li 2008). Important sites on the Song-nen plain, Shuangtai Hekou and Yellow River delta are on or near major oilfields and pollution is a potential threat (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007, 2009). There is high adult mortality in some mainland wintering areas which is apparently due to poisoning; the species has been found to carry high levels of heavy metal contamination, and the incidence of poisoning has been increasing in recent years (Harris 2008, Su Liying <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Su <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Poaching has also been suggested as a threat (Su Liying <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In the demilitarised zone of North/South Korea, the shift to autumn ploughing is reducing access to waste grain (Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and there is uncertainty regarding the long-term fate of the crane habitat, whatever the political future delivers. In Japan, the concentration of birds at feeding stations means there is a risk of disease, especially given the low genetic diversity of the population, which passed through a bottleneck in the 1950s (J. Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007, 2009; Wang Qi-shan 2008). Also the DMZ in Korea is under pressure for development due to the recent relaxation of tensions between South and North Korea (Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b).<br/><p></p>
106002799		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106002800		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is largely sedentary (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It nests in solitary territorial pairs (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), the timing of breeding corresponding to peaks in water-level (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species occurs in forest and wooded savanna along permanent streams (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) with thick growths of <I>Syzygium guineese</I>, along secluded reaches of thickly wooded rivers (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), on the edges of pools, lakes and dams with well-vegetated banks (particularly with reeds and overhanging branches) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), on the edges of dense papyrus beds far from the shore (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), in mangrove swamps (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), creeks (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986) and in flooded forest (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It is rarely found away from shoreline vegetation and generally avoids stagnant or fast-flowing water (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates such as adult and larval insects (e.g. Ephemeropta, Odonata, Coleoptera and Orthoptera), spiders, millipedes, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) (e.g. crabs, shrimps and prawns) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), small snails, frogs, small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), snakes (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) and occasionally vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a flat, loose structure of reeds and twigs (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) placed 1-4 m high over water either on a mass of flood debris or fallen branches (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), on an overhanging tree limb or on a horizontal branch (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986).
106002800		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat degradation from increased river siltation, reduced river flow (due to commercial afforestation) (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) and pesticide contamination (which leads to reductions in prey availability) (Brooks and Gardner 1980). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106002801		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in protected areas in most range states, potentially the most important being the Sundarbans, Bangladesh, and the Chindwin Basin in northern Myanmar. It is depicted on conservation awareness material in Cambodia and Laos. The proposed Hukaung Tiger Reserve in Myanmar covers an area that is considered to be of high national and global significance for the species<strong> </strong>(Tordoff <em>et al</em>. in press). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys to clarify its distribution, population status, breeding range and seasonal movements. Investigate its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation and disturbance. Afford protected-area status to key breeding sites, and strictly minimise habitat loss, hunting and disturbance within them. Campaign for increased protected-area representation for riverine habitats, particularly in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia.  <p></p>
106002801		distribution	eng	<em>Heliopais personatus</em> is patchily distributed from north-east <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, through <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong> to Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Sumatra and Java (one record), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Populations are apparently in steep decline throughout its range such that its population is now thought to number in the low thousands at most, and possibly fewer than 1,000 mature individuals<strong> </strong>(J. C. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The last records from Sumatra date back to 1996. Elsewhere it continues to be recorded from the Sundarbans of Bangladesh<strong> </strong>(Mansur <em>in litt</em>. 2005) and it was recently recorded in Bharatpur district, India<strong> </strong>(Verma and Mathur 2006);  there are recent records from Cambodia, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Kachin state, Myanmar is the least known part of its range; the area probably supports the largest remaining population and it was recorded as still relatively common during wetland surveys in the early 2000s<strong> </strong>(J. C. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Its movements are poorly known; it appears to occur as a migrant in parts of the range, but breeding has been reported recently from Cambodia, Myanmar and Bangladesh<strong> </strong>(Neumann-Denzau 2008), and birds are recorded in most seasons in the Sundarbans and Myanmar. No empirical estimates exist for the current rate of decline, but as a species reliant on undisturbed wetlands declines are anticipated across its range given the pressure on riverine and mangrove habitats. Threats in Myanmar (now assumed to be the species's stronghold) remain largely unknown, but several major river systems that have until now remained in a largely natural state, are now threatened by dam development and heavy immigration<strong> </strong>(W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). <p></p>
106002801		habitat	eng	It occurs principally in rivers in lowland riverine forest including mangroves, but has been recorded in coastal and inland wetlands, such as tidal creeks, flooded forest, swamps and lakes (rarely reservoirs or industrial pools on passage). In the Sundarbans of  Bangladesh all records originate from the fresh and brackish waters with no records from the saltwater zone<strong> </strong>(Gani 2005). Most breeding appears to occur inland while most records are from lowlands, although it has occurred up to 1,220 m on migration. There is an emerging pattern of non-breeding season records in peninsular Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia and breeding season records in continental South-East Asia, with passage migrants observed between these ranges. It has been observed catching freshwater shrimp, large beetles and small fish<strong> </strong>(Shepherd 2006), but feeds mainly by gleaning insects from overhanging vegetation<strong> </strong>(J. C. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The species is generally very shy and retiring but can appear extremely tame and confiding while incubating, rendering it susceptible to human predation<strong> </strong>(Neumann-Denzau 2008).  <p></p>
106002801		population	eng	The species appears to have declined dramatically and is now known from comparatively few sites, occurring at low densities everywhere. The population may now number as low as 1,000 individuals (J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2007), and so is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106002801		threats	eng	The main threat is the destruction and increased levels of disturbance to rivers in lowland riverine forest, driven by agricultural clearance and logging operations and increased traffic on waterways. Habitats have been further degraded by the removal of bankside vegetation and changes in hydrology resulting from dam construction, and siltation. Hunting and collection of eggs and chicks have been recorded and although their contribution to population declines is probably minimal this requires clarification<strong> </strong>(Neumann-Denzau 2008); indeed the species is easily caught at the nest making it prey to opportunistic human hunters. <p></p>
106002802		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002803		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002805		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. Clarify the taxonomic status of the three subspecies and whether they warrant species status.
106002805		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psophia viridis</span> is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, with a contiguous distribution occupied by three subspecies. The nominate <span style="font-style: italic;">viridis </span>occurs centrally, between Rio Madeira and Rio Tapajós. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">dextralis</span> occurs east of this, between Rio Tapajós and Rio Tocantins. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">obscura</span> is found in the north-east of the country, in north-east Pará (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). This taxon is thought to be critically endangered (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
106002805		habitat	eng	This is a species of dense lowland rainforest, only occurring away from human settlement. It has a diverse diet, including fruit, arthropods, small vertebrates and carrion. Its breeding is poorly known; a female shot in January in Pará had large eggs in her ovary (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).
106002805		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106002805		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also declining as a result of hunting pressure (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
106002806		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002807		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106002808		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Dogs are controlled in Rivière Bleue (Létocart 1991, Hunt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Another important population is protected in Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore de la Nodela, but without wardening or dog control (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The Grandes Fougères Park,&#160; is also a key site. Legislation and education aims to reduce capture by hunting dogs, but incidental killings are difficult to control (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Birds have been successfully bred in captivity since 1978, and reintroduced to protected areas (Bregulla 1987)<strong></strong>. A repeat of Hunt's 1992 survey is planned for 2008-09 to document population trends (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. A Kagu Species Action Plan (PASC) which spans the period 2009-2020 was compiled in 2008 by the Société Calédonienne d'Ornithologie (SCO) with financial support from Conservation International.<p></p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Assess genetic status of the population. Evaluate fragmentation and gene flow between subpopulations with molecular methods (now possible because of<span style=""> Stoeckle</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al. </span><span style="">2012) Inv</span>estigate dispersal between isolated populations. Survey poorly-known forest areas. Monitor populations in better-known areas. Determine effects of rat predation at different sites, particularly in the north. Ascertain effects of deer.  Investigate possibilities of deer population control in some important areas (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. Control dogs and cats in key forest sites.  Initiate intensive conservation projects on Boulouparis - Canala range and more widely along the provincial boundaries to protect important subpopulations (Nodela, Farino, Mé Adéo-Mé Ori (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong> . Initiate conservation actions in the Northern province to protect the last small subpopulations there (such as Massif des Lèvres, Goro Até, Mé Kanin-Arago and Prokoméo) and more widely in small remote subpopulations (Such as Pic Ningua and Grand Koum) (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006).<strong></strong><strong></strong>  Investigate the possibility of Kagu reintroduction (Panié) or reinforcement (Massif des Lèvres)<strong></strong> (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong style="font-weight: normal;">.</strong> Increase public awareness programmes regarding Kagu conservation and responsible dog ownership (Y. Létocart and C. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2002, J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003).  <p></p>
106002808		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynochetos jubatus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. The highest recorded densities are in Parc Provincial Rivière Bleue, where the population has increased recently and was estimated at 300 in 1998, and 500 birds in 2007 (Y. Létocart and C. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2002, <strong></strong>Mériot <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Elsewhere, a survey of calling birds in 1991-1992 recorded 491 adults, 82% in Province Sud, and another survey conducted between 2003 and 2006 (though not designed specifically for Kagu survey) recorded 357 birds, but these figures may be underestimates (Hunt 1996,&#160;Y. Létocart and C. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Mériot <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  The population therefore is likely to be in excess of 850 birds. It was previously thought to be declining outside Rivière Bleue, with most subpopulations thought to be small (&lt;4 birds) and some subpopulations considered to have become extinct (Hunt 1996, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, <strong></strong>Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2002). Populations now seem to be stable in the most important area for the species outside Rivière Bleue (the forest between Bourail and Thio) and possibly at the key site, the Canala - Boulouparis area. <a style="mso-comment-reference:JT_1;mso-comment-date:20120204T1812">At least 15% of the surveyed population died in the Rivière Bleue Park during the 2006 breeding season</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>, perhaps due to disease, highlighting the fragility of the population (J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007).<p></p>
106002808		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of forest-types, usually in humid forest with open understory, at mid-altitudes but ranges from sea-level to 1,400 m and also occupies drier forests at low altitude in the centre of the island (Boulouparis-La Foa area, from 100 m in the upper Ouenghi river) (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong> and sometimes utilises closed-canopy scrub during the wet season (Hunt 1996, Létocart and Salas 1997). It feeds on worms, insects, snails and lizards (Létocart 1991). Pairs occupy exclusive territories of 10-28 ha and fledge 0.9 juveniles per year in Rivière Bleue (Létocart and Salas 1997) (though reproductive success is now low<span style="">er [Theuerkauf </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009]). </span>Birds survive over 30 years in captivity (Y. Létocart and C. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and at least 20 years in the wild (results from several radiotracked Kagus in the wild [R. Gula and J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012]).<br/><p></p>
106002808		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002808		threats	eng	Dogs killed 17 out of 21 birds with radio-transmitters at Pic Ningua in 1993 (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Most mortality at Rivière Bleue occurs in chicks under three weeks old, possibly by introduced rats and cats (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, although a long term study showed that rats had no impact on Kagu populations <span style="">there (</span><span style=""><span style="">Gula </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2010). Feral pigs occasionally take eggs (two out of 40 eggs and unlikely to be a significant threat [J. Theuerkauf </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2007, S. Rouys </span><em style="">in litt. </em><span style="">2008]) and forest floor rootings may make foraging for worms less easy (Hunt 1997, Létocart and Salas 1997, DDRP 1998, Y. Létocart </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999, Ekstrom </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">). Introduced Rusa deer </span><em style="">Cervus timorensis</em><span style=""> are damaging forests in the Boulouparis - La Foa - Canala triangle, an important areas for the species outside Rivière Bleue, and so may pose a threat to the species (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Forest is being slowly eroded by mining and fires (Y. Létocart and C. Lambert </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999</span><span style="font-weight: bold; ">, </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Ekstrom </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000, J. Ekstrom </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 2003), and logging aids access for hunters and dogs (Y. Létocart </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999, Ekstrom </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2000)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Disease in the Rivière Bleue may be a severe threat in the future (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.   </span><p></p>
106002809		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is non-migratory, although some populations may make local movements in disturbed and unusually dry habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season is poorly known, but in most areas the species breeds during the rains (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in permanent territories held by solitary nesting pairs or family groups (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally, its activity peaking in the early morning and late afternoon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species requires areas of  leaf-litter, mud, sand, gravel or shallow water covered with dense vegetation in which to forage, and is usually found associated with forest swamps, streams, pools and riverbanks in lowland rain forest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also occur up to 400 m away from water on the forest floor (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and although it is rarely found deep inside primary forest, it may follow rivers and streams out into gallery forest, dense thickets of scrubby growth and neglected cultivation, exceptionally being found in papyrus and other vegetation by lakes (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is well adapted to forest disturbance, often remaining along forest streams after forest clearance, and successfully colonising cleared areas and secondary growth as long as suitable cover remains or develops (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists chiefly of invertebrates such as insects (including ants, beetles, Hemiptera, flies and small moths), aquatic and terrestrial insect larvae (e.g. those of chironomids, mayflies, beetles and Lepidoptera), earthworms, nematodes, small leeches, small gastropods, myriapods and spiders, occasionally also taking small frogs and vegetable matter (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a mound of dead leaves placed by forest pools, on damp forest floors, or on rotten tree roots standing in shallow swamp water (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002810		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is likely to be partially migratory although its movements are poorly known (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In some areas its appearance is related to the timing of the rainy season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and there is evidence for regular altitudinal and coastal movements (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). The species breeds during the rains in southern Africa, although there is little known about the timing of breeding in other regions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in territorial solitary pairs (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), remaining solitary, in pairs or family groups (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) outside of the breeding season if resident in an area (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species forages diurnally, mostly in the morning and late-afternoon (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), roosting off the ground during the hottest part of the day and at night either in breeding or roosting nests or on low perches in trees and bushes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species frequents permanent habitats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) associated with forest or thick bush from sea level up to 3,200 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), requiring dense overhead and ground cover with soft earth, moss or leaf-litter for foraging (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). It inhabits the interiors or edges of more open types of forest (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), particularly favouring clearings, secondary growth and scrub (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or dense evergreen and deciduous thickets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and is often found away from tall trees in bushy ravines or on brush-covered hillsides (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). Other habitats include banana and arrowroot plantations, neglected cultivation and rural gardens (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Although not typically associated with water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (may be 1-2 km away from it) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), the species may be found on the floor of muddy valleys (Gabon) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), in swampy forest patches (Sudan) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), or along forest streams (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occasionally feeding in marshes adjacent to forest habitats during the winter (South Africa) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may occur in atypical habitats on migration (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet </B>The diet of this species consists of invertebrates such as small ants, bugs, flies, small gastropods, cockroaches, Lepidoptera, centipedes, nematodes, Collembolla (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), earthworms, amphipods, isopods, millipedes, spiders, ticks, grasshoppers, crickets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), termite workers and alates, adult and larval beetles, and slugs (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as grass and tree seeds (possibly to aid in grinding up other foods) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a domed structure (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) or an open shallow cup with a roof of low vegetation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), positioned on the ground in a small excavated depression, usually well-hidden in dense ground vegetation, tangled cover or under the leaves of a large plant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) in areas shaded by tall trees or within clumps of bushes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002810		threats	eng	In residential areas the species suffers heavy predation from domestic cats <I>Felis catus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002811		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is entirely sedentary although immatures may disperse widely after the breeding season and local movements may occur during the non-breeding season when habitat is drastically reduced (e.g. through burning or drying-out) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In equatorial regions the breeding season is indeterminate, but elsewhere (e.g. in southern Africa) the species breeds during the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It nests in solitary pairs and is permanently territorial throughout the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), with pairs found at intervals of c.50-100 m in continuous habitats (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits a wide range of marshland vegetation types, requiring dense vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) where the overall canopy cover is more than 65 % (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and areas of mud, firm ground or short vegetation for foraging in (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also shows a preference for moist to shallowly flooded ground although it will occupy deeply flooded wetlands including papyrus swamps as long as there is enough dense, matted, emergent vegetation or floating grass available to provide a stable substrate (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include seasonally wet hygrophilous grassland and sedge meadows with swards c.55 cm tall to permanently flooded reedbeds up to 3 m tall (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996)  in isolated wetland patches or in swamps and marshes fringing streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and drainage lines (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). For nesting the species shows a preference for damp or shallowly flooded grass at the edge of marshy areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In forested regions of West Africa the species may also occur in dry grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and in South Africa it may occur in dry grass-dominated areas during the non-breeding season whilst foraging in hayfields of <I>Eragrostis</I> spp. and in lucerne fields adjacent to marshes during the breeding season (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species readily colonises artificial wetlands such as seepage areas below dam walls and shallowly flooded vegetation at dam intakes or along feeder streams, and will inhabit wetland patches surrounded by cultivated fields or close to human habitation as long as the habitat is not greatly disturbed or trampled (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates such as earthworms, small gastropods, spiders, adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. termites, small ants, Diptera, aquatic and terrestrial Hemiptera, and Coleoptera) and crustaceans (e.g. amphipods) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Grass seeds may also form part of diet during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a cup of vegetation placed well hidden in a clump of damp or shallowly flooded grass or herbaceous vegetation 8-30 cm above the ground or the surface of water at the edge of marshy areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> Management information</B> The species readily colonises artificial wetlands such as seepage areas below dam walls and shallowly flooded vegetation at dam intakes and along feeder streams (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It is also a successful colonist of small wetland patches, even those less than 0.5 ha in extent (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002811		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by the destruction of wetland habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002812		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The movements of this species are largely unknown although it is likely to be entirely sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Outside of the breeding season it may be displaced locally following habitat reduction by burning however (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The timing of breeding varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although the species appears to breed during the rains in the southern part of its range (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It is likely to breed in solitary pairs and is solitary (or at least territorial) throughout the year (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for habitats with dense, lush grass and other vegetation between 0.7 and 1.5 m high (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) in areas with shallow mud and water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include patches of savanna in lowland forest, grassy marshes in savanna and along lake shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), rank grass and sedge along wet drainage lines (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) in miombo woodland (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), open secondary growth (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and moist post-cultivation growth dominated by <I>Aframomum</I> spp. and arrowroot in forest (north-east Gabon) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet is little known (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) but may include insects (e.g. small black ants) and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Breeding site</B> The nesting characteristics and breeding site of this species are undescribed (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002812		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106002812		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by the destruction of wetland habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002813		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> whose movements are imperfectly known (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds during the rains in the southern tropics (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in solitary, territorial pairs (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> after which it migrates towards the equator during the dry season when much of its breeding habitat dries out and is burnt or grazed (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It is chiefly a grassland species and breeds in temporarily inundated short grassland at the edges of rivers, dambos, marshes, grassy flats and pans (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It shows a preference for nesting in seasonally moist to flooded grassland (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> characterised by grasses such as <em>Setaria anceps</em>, <em>Sporobolus pyramidalis</em>,<em> Eulalia geniculata</em>, <em>Eragrostis</em> spp. and <em>Bothriochloa insculpta </em>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> between 30 and 70 cm tall (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and flooded to maximum depth of 10 cm (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> or surrounded by pools of shallow water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is poorly known but appears to consist of small seeds (e.g. of grasses) and small insects (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a pad or shallow bowl of grass (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> placed in a tuft of sedge or perennial grass (often built in the crown of a burned tuft of <em>Sporobolus pyramidalis</em>, <em>Setaria sphacelata</em> or <em>Aristida</em> spp. when new blades around the perimeter are 20-35 cm tall [Taylor and van Perlo 1998])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, usually above wet (though not flooded) ground (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species may tolerate light grazing of domestic stock on grasslands but does not occur in heavily grazed areas (heavy grazing and trampling by cattle may cause breeding pairs to depart prematurely from otherwise suitable breeding habitats [Taylor and van Perlo 1998])<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002813		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106002813		threats	eng	The species may be threatened in East and southern Africa by habitat loss as a result of overgrazing and the damming, drainage and cultivation of seasonal wetlands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002814		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary, but may make local movements when grassland habitats dry out or are burnt (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may also make altitudinal movements in South Africa in relation to seasonal fluctuations in the number of invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species generally breeds during the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), nesting in solitary territorial pairs (and remaining territorial even during the non-breeding season) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and forages diurnally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits small streams and marshy patches in dry upland or montane grassland with long or short grass, bracken, brambles or <I>Protea</I>, and<I> </I>near forest edges, in fields of crops (e.g. lucerne and millet) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1996), and occasionally in <I>Psoralea</I>-<I>Osmitopsis</I> fynbos in South Africa (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It requires dense cover with clear ground for foraging (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists of insects (such as beetles, cockroaches, adult and larval Lepidoptera, ants, termites, grasshoppers, crickets and flies), earthworms, small spiders and vegetable matter such as grass and sedge seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a bowl of dry grass and rootlets built into a grass tuft (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002814		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the loss of its grassland habitat through overgrazing, afforestation and too frequent burning.
106002815		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a sedentary endemic of Madagascar (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), its breeding season stretching between October and September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is territorial both during the breeding and non-breeding seasons (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and lives alone or in solitary pairs (Langrand 1990). <B>Habitat </B>The species frequents a wide variety of habitats, such as grasslands in clearings and on the edges of undisturbed and degraded rain forests, dense cultivation, and large fern, thick grass and <I>Philippia</I> (Ericaceae) scrublands. It is also common in marshes with long grass, reeds and sedges, and in rice paddy-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species is little known, with only insects and seeds being recorded (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a woven ball of wide grass blades constructed on the ground in dense grass (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002816		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. Some South African sites have some legal protection, and at least four sites are protected by the landowners (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. At the largest Ethiopian breeding population, the vegetation is not cut for fodder until October-November (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, thus giving the birds time to breed without disturbance (Anon. 1997c). In South Africa, the Middelpunt Wetland Association was formed in 1994 with the main objective of conserving the species (De Smidt 2003, M Drummond <em>in litt.</em> 2005). One of the Ethiopian sites, Berga, is on a state-run dairy farm, and formerly so was Weserbi. The farm at Weserbi has been privatised, but the marsh still remains under the control of the central Dairy Farm Enterprise based in Addis Ababa (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. A Site Support Group, formed for Berga by the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society, has carried out successful conservation action (De Smidt 2003).<strong><sup> </sup></strong>In 2003, a partnership was formed to mitigate the effects of the Braamhoek pumped storage scheme. In June 2003, a national Species Action Planning stakeholder workshop was held in Wakkerstrom, South Africa, to assess the threats facing the species in this country, and concluded with the agreement that a South African White-winged Flufftail Action Group be established (De Smidt 2003). An International Species Action Plan was published in 2008 (Sande <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). A proposal was put forward in 2006 to initiate a captive breeding programme in August that year, based in Pretoria Zoo, and using eggs taken from Berga marsh, Ethiopia (Tarboton and Wondafrash in prep.)<strong></strong>. The aim would be to study the species's life history and behaviour (Tarboton and Wondafrash in prep.)<strong></strong>. However, there were concerns that the programme should be carried out in Ethiopia, where it is known to breed, and that releasing birds into its non-breeding range could result in hybridisation with similar species (P.K. Ndang'ang'a <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The captive breeding programme is not currently going ahead (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain and restore suitable habitat at breeding areas in Ethiopia through sustainable use under community-based conservation programmes (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1996a, <strong></strong>Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Protect additional sites in South Africa (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue surveys in Ethiopia and southern Africa to better define its range, population, seasonal movements and habitat requirements (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1996a, A. Shimelis <em>in litt. </em>1998, Barnes 2000). Locate new breeding sites (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004, M Drummond <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Rehabilitate degraded wetlands (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004). Conduct research to determine the extent of the species's dependency on mire habitat in South Africa (Taylor and Grundling 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure integrity of known and suspected sites in South Africa by 2008 (De Smidt 2003). Reduce disturbance at eight sites in South Africa by 2008 (De Smidt 2003). Confirm that the species migrates between Ethiopia and South Africa (De Smidt 2003). Determine and record its principal calls for field studies (De Smidt 2003).  <p></p>
106002816		distribution	eng	<em>Sarothrura ayresi</em> occurs in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> (currently three sites in the central highlands, the only known breeding area for this species) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Taylor 1998, 1999), <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (one record in 1988 [Hustler and Irwin 1995<strong></strong>], two records in the 1970s [Taylor and van Perlo 1998]<strong></strong>, and a possible breeding record in the 1950s [Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Taylor 1999]), and <strong>South Africa</strong> (ten sites in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga [De Smidt 2003]). Claimed records from Zambia and Rwanda are unproven (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1999,&#160;P. Leonard <em> in litt. </em>1999). The occupied breeding range has been estimated as 250 km<sup>2</sup> <strong></strong>(Anon. 1999). In South Africa, the total population is estimated to be 235 birds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). In the Ethiopian highlands, 10-15 pairs have bred at Sululta annually since 1996 (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1996a, Anon. 1997c, J. S. Ash <em>in litt. </em>1999) and c.200 pairs were discovered at a new breeding site (Berga floodplain) in 1997 (Anon. 1997c, <strong></strong>A. Shimelis <em>in litt. </em>1998, M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007<strong></strong><strong></strong>). In 2005, a small breeding population was discovered at Bilacha in Ethiopia (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, with three adults recorded initially in July, followed by the location of three eggs in August and 19 nests in September (Anon. 2006)<strong></strong>. Whether a single population migrates between Ethiopia and South Africa, or each country hosts its own subpopulation, is still not known (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Barnes 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>), although observations from a breeding site in Ethiopia discovered in 2005 show that birds continue to breed into the dry season and may remain in Ethiopia after breeding, rather than migrate (A. Tefera <em>per</em> anon. 2006)<strong></strong> <p></p>
106002816		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The movements of this species are not fully understood. Lack of subspeciation has been interpreted to imply that the birds migrate between the two range areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and this is supported by the fact that breeding has not been observed in South Africa where it is considered by many to be a non-breeding summer visitor (Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005). However the fact that there are overlaps in occurrence has prompted suggestions that strict migration is unlikely (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). One suggestion is that long-distance dispersal occurs when numbers are high (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), with local movements being predominant at other times. In Ethiopia birds that breed in the central highlands in June-September may move to lover-level habitats during the non-breeding season when the highland areas becomes unsuitable (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). In South Africa the species is thought to be nomadic, moving in search of its transient habitat (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Anon. 1997c, J. S. Ash <em>in litt. </em>1999). Birds in Ethiopia are present between June and October (J. S. Ash <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while non-breeding birds in South Africa are present from November to March (P. B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with a few records in May, August and September (Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005). Breeding occurs in July-August (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding birds occur at a density of 2-4 pairs per hectare (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Non-breeding birds occur in loose associations (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in high-altitude seasonal marshes (between 2,200 and 2,600 m) with dense, rapidly growing vegetation dominated by sedges, grasses and forbs (Taylor 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It occurs here when vegetation has reached 20-40 cm in height and the ground has not yet become entirely flooded (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004). Very soon after hatching, it appears to move its chicks to areas of denser vegetation where the ground is more deeply and continuously flooded (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004).<em> Non-breeding</em><strong> </strong>In South Africa it inhabits moist to flooded peat-based habitats (Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005) (mostly at 1,100-1,900 m) where vegetation is dense and dominated by sedges (<em>Carex </em>species)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005), although it is occasionally found in pure stands of Bulrush and reeds (Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005). It forages in mud at the edges of reed beds, in shallow water, in floating mats of aquatic vegetation and occasionally on dry ground (Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005). Of the 10 important sites for the species in South Africa, 9 are within the Eastern Uplands, Great Escarpment Mountains and Highveld peatland ecoregions, emphasising the importance of peat-based habitats (Taylor and Grundling 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2002, a new site was discovered in northern coastal KwaZulu-Natal following speculation that the species no longer occurred in coastal areas (Taylor and Grundling 2003)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on seeds and vegetation (De Smidt 2003) as well as insects, spiders, earthworms, small frogs and small fish (Urban <em>et al.</em> 2005).<strong> </strong>The stomach contents of a deceased chick included coleoptera (Dystiscidae) imagines, Diptera larvae (Tipulidae and Tabanidae), and the remains of small crustaceans. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Nests found in Ethiopia are described as a ball of woven live sedge, <em>Eleocharis </em>or<em> Cyperus</em>, and other plant stems and vegetation, with clutches of 4-6 eggs (Allan <em>et al.</em> 2006, Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004). Observations at a nest found in August 1999 resulted in an estimated incubation period of 15-16 days.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106002816		population	eng	The population in South Africa is estimated to be 235 birds, with at least a further 210-215 pairs in Ethiopia (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998), i.e. probably 700 mature individuals in total, which Wetlands International (2002) interpreted to equate to 865-880 individuals.
106002816		threats	eng	Seasonal marshes are threatened by drainage (for cultivation and forestry), flooding by dams, catchment erosion, water abstraction, human disturbance, too-frequent burning, and excessive trampling and grazing by livestock and cutting of marsh vegetation for fodder (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1996a, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, P. B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Observations in Ethiopia suggest that it moves its chicks very soon after hatching to areas of denser vegetation and deeper flooding before the vegetation at nest sites has grown enough for cutting by local people (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004). Grasses and sedges are cut for the culturally important Ethiopian coffee ceremony (De Smidt 2003). In Ethiopia, a serious problem is the rapid growth in the numbers of livestock at around 2.4% per annum, and the resultant grazing of breeding habitat to a very short sward length (M Drummond <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The peatlands of South Africa are threatened by cultivation, afforestation, grazing, water abstraction, horticulture, peat fires, draining, headcut and donga erosion, siltation, fences and developments such as roads and dams (Taylor and Grundling 2003)<strong></strong>. The construction of the Braamhoek pumped storage scheme at Bedford Chatsworth marsh in eastern Free State, South Africa, may have caused disturbance and damage to habitat (De Smidt 2003). <p></p>
106002817		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Ranomafana has been a National Park since 1987, but there is no protection specifically for wetlands in eastern Madagascar (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, which came into force for the country in 1999. Ramsar site status has benefited the conservation of at least one site where the species occurs, Torotorofotsy Marsh, and the convention could be of additional importance to the species if it is found in the watershed of Lake Alaotra (O. Langrand<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the distribution and population at all known and possible sites of occurrence (Langrand and Wilmé 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Evaluate sites suitable for protection (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the feasibility of conducting research into the species's ecology and life history.  <p></p>
106002817		distribution	eng	<em>Sarothrura watersi</em> has been recorded reliably from only three well-separated areas in eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>. If 1970-1971 records from the Antananarivo district are discounted as erroneous, the remaining sites are "south-east Betsileo" in 1875, near Analamazaotra in 1928, near Andapa in 1930, Ranomafana/Vohiparara since 1988 and Torotorofotsy marsh since 1997. All sites are in, or adjacent to, mid-altitude rainforest. Its marshland habitat is widely but very patchily distributed (Wilmé and Langrand 1990; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it may yet occur at other sites, having been overlooked due to its extremely secretive behaviour (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nevertheless, very little suitable habitat is likely to remain (P. B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and its total population may number considerably less than 1,000 individuals (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002817		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species is presumed to be sedentary in the absence of any evidence of movements (Taylor and van Perlo 1998; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is incredibly difficult to see (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but has a fairly loud and distinctive call, given most frequently between October and February. It may thus breed during the rainy season, but its breeding behaviour is otherwise unknown (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>This is an aquatic species which is largely confined to permanent, montane marshland which is shallowly flooded, at least seasonally, and dominated by dense, short grasses, with scattered clumps of thin-stemmed sedges and rushes (<em>Cyperus, Schoenoplectus</em>) (P. B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers wetlands with adjacent dense, grassy terrain or even rice paddies, near rainforest at altitudes of 950-1800m (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is possible that it may also occur in overgrown, weedy, disused agricultural land and the scrubby edges of marshes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>Its diet is unknown (Langrand 1990; Taylor and van Perlo 1998; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>Its nest, nest site and eggs are unknown (Langrand 1990; Taylor and van Perlo 1998; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002817		population	eng	Although the species may be overlooked, owing to its very secretive behaviour, very little suitable habitat is likely to remain (P. B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999) and its total population may number considerably fewer than 1,000 individuals, thus a range of 250-999 mature individuals is assigned to the species. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded to 350-1,500 individuals here.
106002817		threats	eng	Most grass-dominated marshes on the eastern plateau of Madagascar are heavily used and exploited, especially for cultivating rice, the staple diet of the rapidly increasing human population (Langrand and Goodman 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106002818		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is likely to be non-migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), but its breeding habits are very little known (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species usually forages in groups of 2-3 individuals during the day (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), with peaks of activity at dawn and dusk (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), occasionally also observed with parties of other insectivorous species during the dry season, and in mixed-species groups following driver ant columns (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It roosts at night in bushes or low trees (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits dense lowland primary and secondary rainforest where rank vegetation lines streams, rivers, and swamps or marshy areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may also be found in mangrove swamps, or in areas disturbed by logging (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and generally requires bushes or low trees up to 15 m high in which to roost at night (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>The diet of this species consists of snails, millipedes, insects (e.g. ants and beetles), small amphibians (e.g. frogs) and hard seeds (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>Only two nests of this species have been described (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), both being coarse structures of twigs and leaves placed c.1.2 m above the ground (one on a heap of brushwood, another in a tree) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002818		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest destruction (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is sometimes trapped for food by local people (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106002819		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is assumed to be sedentary as no movements have been recorded for it (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds during the rainy season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and is presumed to be territorial, although there is very little evidence regarding its social organisation or aggregatory behaviour (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits ravines, creeks and streams in primary and secondary lowland rainforest, especially where these are overhung by trees and bordered by rank undergrowth (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also frequents seasonally flooded and swampy forest in areas with mud, tall arrowroot plants and tree ferns, as well as marshes within forested regions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), preferring to remain in thickets or patches of fallen branches and avoiding areas of open water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists of insects (e.g. ants, beetles, caterpillars and other larvae), small lizards (e.g. skinks), snails, slugs, small crabs and millipedes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>Only three nests have been described for this species (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), two being structures of broad grass leaves placed on stumps in swampy surroundings (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), the other being placed among the roots of an uprooted tree over a stream bank (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002819		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation (Manu <I>et al.</I> 2007)from forest destruction (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002820		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a sedentary endemic of Madagascar (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It breeds May-June, or November (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and normally forages in pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), or less frequently alone (Langrand 1990). Very little is known about this species social organisation or aggregatory behaviour (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for forest habitats characterised by open understoreys and substrates of leaf-litter (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It frequents water courses and reedy or papyrus-grown edges of ponds and marshes within primary and adjoining secondary rainforest with sparse herbaceous ground-cover (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It has also recently been observed in dry deciduous forest established on a karst subtratum (Langrand 1990). <B>Diet</B> Its diet is little known (Langrand 1990), but foods such as insects, amphibians and seeds have been recorded (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a bowl of grass and leaves placed in a bush or a tangle of creepers (lianas) 2-3 m above the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002820		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-1,300 mature individuals.
106002820		threats	eng	The species is threatened by forest destruction from slash-and-burn agricultural practices, timber exploitation for firewood and clearance for rice and coffee plantations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002821		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in China, South Korea and Japan. It occurs in a number of protected areas including Khanakiski (Khanka) and Khinganski State Reserves (Russia), Mongol Daguur Nature Reserve (single record) (Mongolia), and Xingkai Hu (Lake Khanka), Zhalong National Nature Reserve and Poyang Hu Nature Reserve (China).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey its potential breeding range in Russia and north-eastern China to identify its population size and distribution. As a result of surveys, identify key areas and recommend protection where necessary. Survey and monitor key non-breeding sites including at Poyang lake and other large wetlands in the Yangtze valley. Research its ecological requirements and identify key threats. Improve protection of its habitat in Russia and in protected areas in China, as well as on the wintering grounds. <p></p>
106002821		distribution	eng	<em>Coturnicops exquisitus </em>is known to breed at a handful of sites in south-eastern <strong>Russia</strong> and north-eastern <strong>China</strong> (BirdLife International 2001), with recent reports of possible breeding in Aomora Prefecture, <strong>Japan </strong>(S. Chan <em>in litt</em>. 2003). It has been recorded on passage and in winter in <strong>Mongolia, North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, Japan (including the Nansei Shoto Islands) and southern and eastern China. Its breeding and wintering ranges are inadequately known and it is probably very rare and declining. It is considered to be uncommon in mainland China, although surveys at Poyang Hu lake, Jiangxi, in the early 1980s, recorded 5-30 birds per km<sup>2</sup>. <p></p>
106002821		habitat	eng	Its ecology is poorly known. It has been recorded in wet, grassy meadows and tussock-swamps in the lowlands, reed-swamps, grassy swamps near rivers, rice-fields and around streams and pools with thick cover.  <p></p>
106002821		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on   recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This estimate   equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000   individuals. National population estimates include: &lt; c.100 breeding pairs   and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in China, &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Korea, &lt; c.50 wintering   individuals in Japan and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002821		threats	eng	The main population stress is thought to be from the destruction and modification of wetlands in both its breeding and wintering ranges owing to a number of threatening processes. Habitat in south-eastern Russia is being reduced as a result of drainage and ploughing for conversion of wetlands to agriculture. In China, the Zhalong National Nature Reserve is threatened by agricultural encroachment, reed-harvesting, hunting and water extraction for agriculture. The Poyang Hu Nature Reserve is threatened by vegetation cutting, reclamation for agriculture, construction of the Three Gorges Dam and illegal hunting. The over-use of pesticides may affect it. <p></p>
106002822		distribution	eng	This taxon exists in two disjunct populations. The nominate race is migratory, breeding locally in Alberta, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, and North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Massachusetts and Connecticut, <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, and wintering from coastal North Carolina south to Florida and west along the gulf coast to Texas (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The race <span style="font-style: italic;">goldmani </span>is known from the rio Lerma in central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, but as it has not been seen since 1964 and has lost much of its habitat to draining (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), it is considered likely to be extinct.
106002822		habitat	eng	The nominate race arrives in its breeding grounds in late April and leaves in September or October (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The race goldmani winters in both fresh-water and brackish marshes, but breeds only in fresh-water marshes and wet meadows (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Breeding takes place in the summer, with laying occurring between May and July (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In autumn it is sometimes found in hay and grain fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002822		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
106002822		threats	eng	Drainage of its wetland habitat is the principal danger to this species throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002823		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is known to occur in three protected areas in Argentina: Bañados del Río Dulce (Córdoba), Otamendi Strict Nature Reserve and Reserva Municipal de Biosfera Mar Chiquita (both Buenos Aires). The Colombian and Bolivian sites, and one Venezuelan site (in Mérida) are also protected (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Wege and Long 1995).<strong></strong>
106002823		distribution	eng	This species has been recorded in Colombia (Meta, once in 1959), Venezuela (twice, in 1914 or 1916 in Mérida and 1954 or 1960 in Portuguesa), Guyana (once in 1907), Brazil (three sites in São Paulo state, with recent and repeated sightings at Taubaté, and two in Rio Grande do Sul), Paraguay (three records, in Presidente Hayes, Concepción and Alto Paraná, all before 1945), Uruguay (six localities, from Durazno in 1915 and 1918, Colonia in 1985 when breeding was confirmed, Montevideo in 1985, Maldonado in 1993 and at sea off Rocha in 1875) and Argentina (at least 10 records from Corrientes south to Patagonia, with four recent records of single birds from Reserva Municipal de Biosfera Mar Chiquita, Buenos Aires) (Collar et al. 1992, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Martinez et al. 1997). The only record for Bolivia is a sighting of one bird at the Beni Biological Station in 1997, over 1,000 km from the closest previously known locality in Paraguay (Brace et al. 1998). Its distribution is certainly not fully understood, with birds possibly either undertaking north-south migrations or occasionally erupting large distances in a random pattern from their centres of distribution in north and east South America (Collar et al. 1992). The former is unlikely since the species occurs in east Brazil from April-August and March-June in Paraguay and Uruguay, and Venezuelan specimens taken in August had enlarged gonads (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The latter is much more likely, but there is no proper evidence to suggest that the centres of distribution are in tropical grasslands, and it is also possible that the species's distribution is wider and more continuous than currently thought (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002823		habitat	eng	The species habitat is variable, and it has been recorded from dense marshy vegetation (including rushes, reedbeds and floating vegetation), swamps, flooded rice fields, alfalfa fields, wheat fields, flooded pasture and other wet grasslands, open grassy savanna, crop stubble, brackish coastal Spartina species dominated grasslands and humid woodland edge, mainly in the lowlands at elevations up to 1,500 m (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002823		population	eng	The species is normally described as very rare, but the records from Taubaté have been taken to indicate that it is difficult to find rather than scarce, although further evidence for this is required (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002823		threats	eng	Specific threats are difficult to determine given its poorly known distribution and apparently catholic habitat requirements, but the grasslands of central South America, where it is seemingly most common, are under intense pressure from high levels of grazing and frequent burning (Collar et al. 1992). It suffers particularly from the latter since at one site in Buenos Aires, it disappeared for up to one year after burning (Martinez et al. 1997).
106002824		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive range in South America, occurring in Costa Rica (one record in 1967), south-central Colombia, south and east Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname (Hilty and Brown 1986), extreme southern Peru (Clements and Shany 2001), central and south-east Brazil (locally in Goiás, Mato Grosso, Bahia and São Paulo states (Sick 1993), north and central Bolivia (apparently widespread and numerous (Parker et al. 1991, Pearce-Higgins et al. 1995)) and eastern Paraguay (Lowen et al. 1996), but it is apparently absent from Amazonia, Brazil (da Silva 1995).
106002824		habitat	eng	In Paraguay the species is typically found in sparse campo sucio-type habitat on top of ridges and plateaus. Evidence from Paraguay and Brazil suggests that it disappears after grassland fires (Lowen et al. 1996, Calvacanti 1988). However, it apparently occurs in a variety of habitats in Bolivia (Parker et al. 1991, Pearce-Higgins et al. 1995), suggesting that it may tolerate piecemeal habitat degradation more than uncontrolled, widespread fires.
106002824		threats	eng	Threats include human-induced fires (Sick 1993), and predation by Maned Wolf Chrysocyon brachyurus. It is presumably also threatened by conversion of its preferred tall grassland habitat (Collar et al. 1994, Sick 1993).
106002826		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are two protected areas within its range, the Wondiwoi/Wandammen Nature Reserve (730 km<sup>2</sup>) and the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve, (currently 683 km<sup>2</sup>), and the proposed the Pegunungan Tamrau Nature Reserve (c.4,415 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Tamrau mountains<strong> </strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range. Research its tolerance of logged forest. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs. Quantify the impact of hunting on populations. Research the effects of introduced and feral species on populations.  <p></p>
106002826		distribution	eng	<em>Rallina leucospila</em> is endemic to north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the Tamrau, Arfak and Wandammen mountain ranges <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986). There are very few recent records but one was seen and others heard in 1994-1995, and it was reported by local guides to be rare and to have a very patchy distribution <strong></strong>(D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 1996). <em> </em><p></p>
106002826		habitat	eng	This species is a terrestrial inhabitant of interior montane forest from 1,450 to 1,600 m <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986).  <p></p>
106002826		threats	eng	The extensive rainforests within its range remain largely undisturbed, owing to their geographical isolation and the low-density and traditional lifestyle of the human population<strong> </strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995).  The only likely threats to this species are localised forest loss and incidental kills from dogs on hunting trips<strong> </strong>(N. Bostock <em>in litt</em>. 1993), but it may be threatened by introduced predatory mammals even in these remote mountains<strong> </strong>(D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 2000). As a species of montane habitats, it is regarded as potentially threatened by the effects of projected climate change.<br/><p></p>
106002828		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical locations and potentially suitable habitats for the species and establish identity of rails seen in Foya mountains. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106002828		distribution	eng	<em>Rallina mayri</em> occurs in the isolated mountain ranges of Cyclops, Bewani and Torricelli of north New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). Unidentified rails in the Foya mountains may also belong to this species (Diamond 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits areas which are very rarely visited but is likely to prove to be locally common as with other New Guinea congeners (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986). It was recorded as common in the Bewani and Torricelli (J. Diamond <em>in litt. </em>1987, Collar <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but this was based on seven specimens taken in 1966 (Diamond 1969)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it has not been recorded (or searched for) there subsequently. In the Cyclops, it is known from four specimens (Diamond 1969)<strong></strong> and was not found during fieldwork in 1992 (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106002828		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest between 1,100-2,000 m. <p></p>
106002828		threats	eng	Its montane habitat is likely to be safe from logging and there are no other known threats to this species (J. Diamond <em>in litt. </em>1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002830		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from Chidiyatapu Biological Park.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout its range to determine its current population size. Asses the extent and impact of habitat loss on populations. Quantify the impact of trapping on populations. Regulate trapping if appropriate. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106002830		distribution	eng	<em>Rallina canningi</em> is endemic to the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>, where it is known from North, Middle and South Andaman and may occur on other islands. Formerly considered very common based on high trapping rates, there were very few recent records until survey work in 2004 found it to be fairly common in suitable habitat (Ezhilarasi and Vijayan 2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002830		habitat	eng	It is resident in marshes and along streams within or at the edge of forest, and occasionally mangroves, favouring dense vegetation including tangled thickets of rattan and pandanus.  <p></p>
106002830		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
106002830		threats	eng	It is known to be under heavy trapping pressure, and may also be declining as a result of increasing habitat destruction and degradation through forest clearance for settlements, cultivation, road construction, and other infrastructural projects. Introduced predators are another potential threat.  <p></p>
106002832		population	eng	The global population size has not been quatified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002837		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Yacambú and Morrocoy National Parks. However, there are no significant wetland areas in Yacambú, where it inhabits a man-made pond. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey (in May-August, when birds are most vocal) to locate additional populations and reassess overall population size<strong></strong> (Boesman 1997). Identify specific threats<strong></strong> (Boesman 1997). Monitor known populations to determine trends<strong> </strong>(C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J.&#160;P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Assess its ecological requirements<strong> </strong>(Boesman 1997, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J.&#160;P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999), in particular to determine the benefit to the species of artificial pools. Develop a conservation strategy<strong> </strong>(Boesman 1997, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J.&#160;P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Manage important wetlands (e.g. Guataparo Lake, Tacarigua and Canoabo dams and San Pablo marsh)<strong></strong> (Boesman 1997).  <p></p>
106002837		distribution	eng	<em>Laterallus levraudi </em>occurs on the lower Caribbean slope of north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong>, in eastern Zulia  (V. Morón-Zambrano <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), Barinas, Portuguesa, Falcón, Lara, Yaracuy, Carabobo, Aragua, Distrito Federal and Miranda. Until 1995, the only post-1946 records were from Yacambú (Lara), Morrocoy (Falcón)<strong></strong> (Lentino and Goodwin 1991) and Embalse de Taguaiguai (Aragua). However, surveys in 1995-1996 identified seven new localities in east Falcón and west Carabobo<strong> </strong>(Boesman 1997). The first records for Barinas and Portuguesa were in 1998, with subsequent records from eastern Zulia  (V. Morón-Zambrano <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and the species is now known from 32 localities (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Hilty 2003, V. Morón-Zambrano <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. It is probable that deforestation along the eastern flank of the Andes, together with the construction of dykes and pools for watering cattle, has allowed the species to spread southwards through Falcón, Yaracuy and Barinas (Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><p></p>
106002837		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, aquatic vegetation fringing marshes, lakesides, lagoons, swamps, flooded pastures and sometimes dry grassland, in the lowlands to 600&#160;m, but with records to 1,400&#160;m at Yacambú<strong></strong>. In hilly country, it occurs in small ponds at least partly bordered by reeds and grasses and with some fringing vegetation or adjacent forested slopes<strong></strong>. In more open country, it has been found in lakes, pools or marshes with rich or very dense, undisturbed aquatic vegetation<strong></strong>. Several known areas are artificial ponds<strong></strong>, and it seems to be able to survive in small roadside and pastureland water bodies as long as there is lush marginal vegetation (Boesman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, P. Clavijo Michelangeli  <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In Zulia, it has been recorded from shrimp farms and drainage ditches (V. Morón-Zambrano <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It probably breeds in May-July, with young fledging in August-September<strong></strong> (Boesman 1997). <p></p>
106002837		population	eng	The known population at seven recently discovered sites in Lara and Falcón in 1996 was c.35-94 pairs  (Boesman 1997). There are nearly 25 additional known sites, and further surveys are likely to discover additional localities, so the total population is probably several times the known figure  (Boesman 1997, Sharpe <em>et al.</em> 2001, V. Morón-Zambrano <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Therefore, although the population at known sites was thought not to exceed 250 individuals in 2008  (Ascanio and Sharpe 2008), the total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002837		threats	eng	Industrial waste, pesticides and lowering of water-levels are degrading wetland habitats. Falling water-levels in the mid-1980s are blamed for its disappearance from Embalse de Taguaiguai. Tourist development and pollution threaten the Morrocoy and Cuare areas<strong>&#160;</strong>(Ascanio and Sharpe 2008). Agriculture and deforestation are advancing around Canoabo Dam, and plans to increase the water-level at Guataparo Lake would inundate habitat<strong></strong> (Boesman 1997). <p></p>
106002838		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002841		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas but no specific conservation actions are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conserve wetland habitats within its range. Manage retreat at coastal sites so they continue to support the species in the face of sea level rise and increased storm frequency. Protect threatened sub-populations. Develop and introduce methods for monitoring population changes over time. <p></p>
106002841		distribution	eng	<em>Laterallus jamaicensis</em> is widespread, but very local, in fresh and saline marshes, wet meadows and savanna in North, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. The nominate race occurs on the east coast of <strong>USA</strong>, with sporadic records inland to Colorado and Minnesota (but no confirmed nesting since 1932). It is very local in north-east <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong> (only in 1903), <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong> (only in 1963), with an unconfirmed report from Honduras. It is locally rare in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> and <strong>Haiti</strong>, but mainly a winter visitor on <strong>Jamaica</strong> and <strong>Cuba</strong>. It was probably extirpated as a breeder from <strong>Puerto Rico</strong> <strong>(to USA) </strong>by introduced mongooses, and is now extremely rare in winter. It is recorded as a non-breeder in the <strong>Virgin Islands</strong> (to USA). There is one recent record from north <strong>Brazil</strong>. The race <em>coturniculus</em> is very local in south-west USA, irregularly to north-west Mexico (one recent record). The race <em>murivagans</em> occurs at few coastal marshes in central <strong>Peru</strong>. The race <em>salinasi</em> is rare and local in south Peru to central <strong>Chile</strong> and adjacent parts of west-central <strong>Argentina</strong>. It may occur (doubtful race <em>pygmaeus</em>) in the Colombian East Andes. In USA, most populations declined drastically in the 20th century, and the breeding range seriously contracted.  <p></p>
106002841		habitat	eng	It inhabits fresh and saline marshes, wet meadows and savanna. It occupies marshes with shallower water than other rallids and requires some tall vegetation to escape into. Feeds on terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates.  <p></p>
106002841		population	eng	25,000-100,000 <em>jamaicensis </em>(unpublished report 'Waterbird Conservation for the Americas 2001' cited in Wetlands International 2002); plus &lt;10,000 <em>coturniculus </em>(Eddleman <em>et al</em>. 1994). <p></p>
106002841		threats	eng	Continued massive degradation of wetlands habitats give cause for concern. In parts of its range it is threatened by pollution, drought, wildfires, groundwater removal, changing water levels, grazing and agricultural expansion (Eddleman <em>et al.</em> 1994, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <p></p>
106002842		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The lake is a national reserve, but this has not influenced mining and dam-building activities (O'Donnell and Fjeldså undated). <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size and range. Reduce pollution and regulate water-levels for the benefit of local people and wildlife (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Assess the feasibility of a sustainable habitat management programme (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Investigate the species's taxonomic relationship with <em>L.&#160;jamaicensis</em>.  <p></p>
106002842		distribution	eng	<em>Laterallus tuerosi</em> is endemic to the shores of Lago de Junín, Junín, in the Andean highlands of central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is known at two sites (near Ondores and Pari) on the south-west shore, but is likely to occur in other portions of the c.150&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of marshland surrounding the lake, and may be fairly common. <p></p>
106002842		habitat	eng	This secretive waterbird inhabits the rushy marsh vegetation fringing Lago de Junín, at 4,080&#160;m in the Andean highlands. Its habitat preferences are not fully known, but it has been observed in mosaics of <em>Juncus</em> and open marsh with mosses and low herbs (Fjeldså 1983). Breeding is reported to occur at the end of the dry season, in September-October, and two eggs are laid. <p></p>
106002842		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. This estimate was derived by BirdLife International (2000) from the observation that the species may be fairly common in the c.150 km<sup>2</sup> of available marshland habitat.
106002842		threats	eng	Since at least 1955 the lake has been affected by pollution and human-induced water-level changes, which may adversely affect the fringing vegetation. There has been strong desiccation of reed marshes, caused by drought and unsustainable water management by Electro Peru, and occasional flooding with highly acidic water from the Cerro de Pasco mines<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> to Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Predation by pampas cats <em>Oncifelis colocolo pajeros</em> may be a significant problem which is exacerbated by periods of drought when more of the marsh becomes accessible to the cats<strong> </strong>(J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p>
106002843		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of the archipelago is under national park protection, including much of the species's remaining natural habitat. Localised control of introduced predators is ongoing (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and UNDP 'Galapagos Invasive Species' project taking place 2001-2007. Goats have been eradicated from Pinta, north Isabela and Santiago, and on Santiago a programme to eradicate pigs has been successfully completed<strong></strong> (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). The islands were declared a World Heritage Site in 1979. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct standardised surveys on all range islands to assess the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Study the impacts of predation and habitat degradation by alien species. Restrict movement of domestic animals on Floreana (Rosenberg 1990). Acquire plateau areas on San Cristóbal, and exclude herbivores from these areas (Rosenberg 1990). Restore plant communities on Santiago and north Isabela (Rosenberg 1990, A. Tye <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Monitor the expansion of invasive <em>Cinchona</em> in the highlands of Santa Cruz, and investigate its impact on the species<strong> </strong>(Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2003).<span lang="EN-AU"> Investigate threats posed by rats and cats on Santa Cruz Island (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p>
106002843		distribution	eng	<em>Laterallus spilonotus</em><span lang="EN-AU"> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, where it occurs on a number of islands including Pinta, Fernandina, Isabela (on Sierra Negra, Wolf, Darwin, Alcedo volcanos), Santiago, Santa Cruz, Floreana, and San Cristóbal. It is considered common in the highlands of Santiago, Santa Cruz and Sierra Negra (south Isabela) and smaller though stable or increasing populations occur on Wolf, Darwin, and Alcedo volcanos and on Fernandina<strong> </strong>(J. Gibbs <em>in litt. </em>2007). The Pinta population is recovering after goat eradication. The small population on Floreana is certainly declining, and recent survey work on Santa Cruz suggests a slight population decline since baseline surveys in 1986-1987<strong> </strong>(Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2003). The population on San Cristóbal is probably extinct (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000).  <p></p>
106002843		habitat	eng	It inhabits grass and forest of mesic regions in the highlands, where it occurs in deep thickets and dense ground-cover (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), although it is rarely found in mangroves (Wiedenfeld 2006). It appears to favour areas with freshwater pools, and avoids short, herbaceous vegetation (Rosenberg 1990). Although historically known from coastal mangroves, it has largely abandoned this habitat for unknown reasons (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It appears tolerant of human-modified habitats, such as agricultural land, but avoids grazed, short-grass meadows (Rosenberg 1990). It feeds mainly on invertebrates and seeds<strong></strong> (Franklin <em>et al.</em> 1979, Harris 1982). <p></p>
106002843		population	eng	The population was estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals by Rosenberg (1990), and repeat surveys on Santa Cruz Island in 2000 gave broadly similar results. This roughly equates to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106002843		threats	eng	This species is probably vulnerable to introduced predators such as rats (predation on nests and fledglings potentially the biggest threat, D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), cats, dogs and pigs, given its weak flying ability. Short-eared Owl <em>Asio flammeus</em> and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> may be natural predators (Rosenberg 1990<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. Habitat destruction as a result of grazing by introduced herbivores (notably goats, cattle and horses) is probably the principal explanation for its rarity on San Cristóbal and Floreana (Rosenberg 1990, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000). If populations on San Cristóbal and Floreana remain small, local extinction is likely owing to natural disturbances, inbreeding and population changes of predators and herbivores (Rosenberg 1990, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000). The invasion of the highlands of Santa Cruz by exotic <em>Cinchona</em> may lead to a reduction in the fern and sedge vegetation types it favours<strong> </strong>(Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2003). <p></p>
106002845		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from Itirapina Experimental Station, Brasília National Park and adjacent Norte Brasília State Ecological Park (Brazil), Paso Bravo National Park, Mbaracuyú Forest Nature Reserve, Tapytá Private Nature Reserve, (possibly) Estero Milagro National Park (Paraguay) and Beni Biological Station (Bolivia)<strong> </strong> (Oniki and Willis 1996, Brace <em>et al</em>. 1998, D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. However, the drying effects of plantations has affected one part of Brasília, Paso Bravo has yet to be consolidated and large parts of Estancia Tapytá have been afforested (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey using tape-playback, concentrating on the large gaps in its distribution in the Brazilian Cerrado, Concepción, Amambay and San Pedro departments, north-east Paraguay, and areas of similar habitat in north-east Argentina (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999). Effectively protect Paso Bravo National Park. <p></p>
106002845		distribution	eng	<em>Laterallus xenopterus</em> has been recorded from widely disjunct areas in east <strong>Paraguay</strong>, central <strong>Brazil</strong> and central <strong>Bolivia</strong>. In Paraguay, there are recent records from seven sites in Concepción, Canindeyú, Itapúa and Caazapá and lost specimens from San Pedro and Amambay (Hayes 1995, <strong></strong> Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. All Brazilian records are from Distrito Federal (where relatively frequent), except for a dead bird found at Itirapina, São Paulo (Oniki and Willis 1996) and an individual captured in a small mammal trap at Fazenda Jacaré-Riachão, Minas Gerais, in 2004<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong> </strong>(de Vasconcelos 2006). The only Bolivian records are from Beni Biological Station<strong> </strong>(Brace <em>et al</em>. 1998) and Estancia Cristalino (Tobias and Seddon 2007), Beni Department. Recent records have shown that it is more widespread than previously thought<strong> </strong>(Brace <em>et al</em>. 1998, D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999) and it may even occur in north-east Argentina (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106002845		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-lying marshes or inundated grasslands in the Cerrado region, where there are dense tussock-grasses (0.3-2&#160;m in height) and usually 0.5-2 cm of standing water (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suitable grasslands are often located in areas of undulating terrain adjacent to gallery forest (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999), but the Bolivian records were in partially flooded savanna and a belt of <em>Cyperus giganticus</em> fringing a lake<strong> </strong>(Brace <em>et al</em>. 1998).<p></p>
106002845		population	eng	A population estimate of 2,500-9,999 has been interpreted from recent records, the observation that it is relatively frequent in Distrito Federal, Brazil, and the fact that it appears to be more widely distributed that previously assumed. This would equate to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Verification of this estimate is desirable.
106002845		threats	eng	By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been either heavily or moderately altered<strong> </strong>(Conservation International 1999), especially by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching and afforestation<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950 (Cavalcanti 1999). However, wet valley-bottoms are perhaps the least suitable habitat-type in the region for intensive agriculture and the species appears to tolerate some burning (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999). The most significant threat is possibly the widespread use of pesticides, fertilisers and other chemicals (D. R. Capper, J. Mazar Barnett and R. P. Clay <em> in litt.</em> 1999).<strong></strong><p></p>
106002846		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific measures have been implemented. It occurs within Queen Elizabeth National Park on Guadalcanal, but there is no enforced protection of this site which is highly degraded.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey with playback of tape-recordings across it range. Survey its status through interviews with local villagers. Determine its occurrence on Choiseul and Malaita. Ascertain its habitat requirements. Monitor numbers around Buala, Garana and Queen Elizabeth National Park. Investigate threats and ecology through discussions with villagers. Reduce levels of trapping though community education programmes. Conduct a population survey on Bougainville and survey areas inland from the coastal road and along west coast of the island to determine whether suitable habitat exists and whether the rail is present here (S.<strong> </strong>Hamilton <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002846		distribution	eng	<em>Nesoclopeus woodfordi </em>occurs on Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, Santa Isabel, Guadalcanal and possibly Choiseul in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> (Mayr 1949, J. M. Diamond <em>in litt.</em> 1987). Recent sightings include five records from Guadalcanal and a series of records from the vicinity of Buala on Santa Isabel (Kaestner 1987, <strong></strong>Webb 1992,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Hornbuckle 1999a,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>H. P. Webb <em>in litt.</em> 1999). On Bougainville there were two sightings (Kaestner 1987, <strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong> of Woodford's rail in 60 years prior to 1999. However, in 1999 Woodford's rails were reported as common and "thriving" throughout the entire eastern lowlands of Bougainville; a result of a large population increase during the seccessionist uprising of 1989-1997 (Hadden 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There has also been an increase in numbers in coastal north Guadalcanal (G.<strong> </strong>Dutson pers. obs. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Santa Isabel, it is locally common, notably along the Garana River where three pairs were heard and one seen along a 2 km path, in 1998 (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. Local reports indicate that it is rather uncommon in other degraded habitats and rare in forest in the vicinity (Webb 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. There are also recent unconfirmed records from Malaita (Webb 1992, R. H. Loyn and D. M. Tully <em>per</em> P. Scofield <em>in litt.</em> 1994), but records from New Georgia (Sibley 1951, Blaber 1990)<strong> </strong>and Kolombanagara (Finch 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong> refer to Roviana Rail <em>Gallirallus rovianae</em> (Diamond 1991, Gibbs 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998<strong></strong>). <p></p>
106002846		habitat	eng	It had been assumed to be a species of lowland forest, as supported by two records from Bougainville in lowland swamp-forest (Kaestner 1987, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994) and from Guadalcanal in patchy forest (Webb 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup></sup></strong>. However, it is reported to be rare in primary forest on Isabel (there is no swamp-forest at this site) where it prefers dense, grassy thickets mixed with forest and secondary forest thickets, including abandoned gardens, especially close to rivers (Webb 1992,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998). On Bougainville Woodford's rail thrives in 2 m-tall grass and shrub thickets in and around Arawa. These habitats increased greatly during the war as grassed areas and coconut plantations were abandoned  (Hadden 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may nest at any time of the year (Hadden 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>and may do so near to streams (Webb 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is said to be omnivorous (Webb 1992)<strong></strong> and has been observed wading into streams to feed (Hadden 2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002846		population	eng	Hadden (2002) estimated the population to number over 10,000 individuals and to be common, thriving and encountered everywhere. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals here, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002846		threats	eng	As a flightless species, it may be susceptible to predation by cats and dogs, exacerbated by incidental capture by hunting dogs and in traps, but it appears to survive, at least locally, close to villages and predators (Webb 1992, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Development associated with the progressing peace agreement is likely to lead to grassy habitats disappearing quickly. This may eliminate Woodford's Rail from this coastal area again (S.<strong> </strong>Hamilton <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Lowland forest is being extensively logged throughout its range. <p></p>
106002848		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Further island translocations are planned (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys of distribution and density are presently being completed in parts of the mainland range considered to be strongholds (D. King <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. J. Beauchamp<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research on the impacts and management of threats (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Implement monitoring programmes in appropriate sites for all subspecies. Identify the most important threats affecting sites and instigate management programmes to address these. Establish further populations to ensure each subspecies has at least one large mainland population and three island population; select island sites carefully, as populations in wetter, less variable climates will be less susceptible to fluctuation (Beauchamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Carry out long-term demographic studies of healthy populations to determine why they undergo catastrophic declines (G. Bramley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Conduct genetic analysis to confirm the taxonomic status of the four subspecies, the origin of some island populations, and the genetic diversity of translocated and island populations (G. Bramley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002848		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus australis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Subspecies <em>greyi</em> is mostly restricted to the east coast of the North Island; it experienced significant declines and local extinctions from the 1900s, and the remnant population underwent a significant decline after the early 1980s, falling to c.4,000 birds (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999, D. King <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. J. Beauchamp<em> in litt.</em> 2000, G. Bramley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Several releases to former mainland habitats have been attempted, but most have been largely unsuccessful (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> owing to high levels of predation. However, introduced populations at Russell and Kawakawa Bay, as well as the main remnant population on the east coast of the North Island between Motu and Opitiki, have all expanded and the total population size of this subspecies is now estimated at c.11,000 individuals (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Nominate <em>australis</em> remains locally common in north and west South Island (Heather and Robertson 1997, Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but numbers fluctuate dramatically, even in large populations (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In north-west Nelson, numbers plummeted by c.95% (A. J. Beauchamp<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, in north Westland, counts indicate declines of over 90% in c.20 years (S. Bartle <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and declines were also noted in Fiordland. However, a number of reintroductions and predator control for the benefit of a number of threatened mainland species have led to recent increases in parts of the South Island (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt</em>. 2008), although predator control appears not be a major factor in facilitating such increases (G. Bramley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Subspecies <em>hectori</em> is now extinct in its natural range, but was introduced to Chatham and Pitt Islands where it may number 38,000-58,000 birds (<strong></strong>A. J. Beauchamp<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and survives a take of 5,000 birds annually (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Some individuals of this subspecies have been returned to islands on lakes in the South Island, with much success, and mainland releases have taken place, using predator fencing, although these have suffered heavy predation pressure even with intensive management (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt</em>. 2008, 2012, G. Bramley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Subspecies <em>scotti</em> became extinct on Stewart Island in the 1990s (D. King <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but introduced populations survive on surrounding islands (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Their total numbers are thought to be less than 8,000 and declining (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Overall, the four races are present (many as introduced populations) on more than 70, mostly tiny, offshore islands (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Whilst there have been no major declines in the last ten years, future population crashes are predicted, as climate change is likely to increase the probability of such events occurring, and inbreeding depression remains a challenge (G. Bramley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002848		habitat	eng	It utilises most habitats, including forests, grasslands, scrub, inland and coastal wetlands and even semi-urban environments. It is omnivorous, taking mostly fruit and invertebrates, but also vertebrates (Marchant and Higgins 1993, Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds breed in their first year and eggs are laid year-round (Bramley and Veltman 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002848		population	eng	The population of subspecies <em>australis</em> is estimated to number 50,000-100,000 individuals, although with large fluctuations; subspecies <em>greyi</em> c.11,000 (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt.</em> 2012); subspecies <em>hectori</em> 38,000-58,000 on Chatham and Pitt Islands, and subspecies <em>scotti</em> fewer than 8,000 on the islands surrounding Stewart Island (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt.</em> 2012). On the basis of these estimates, the total population is thought to number 107,000-177,000 individuals, probably including 71,000-118,000 mature individuals.
106002848		threats	eng	Rapid declines are due to a combination of habitat clearance and degradation, road-kills, a wide range of introduced mammalian predators and competitors, combinations of drought and flood years, poison baits used for possum and rabbit control, and possibly disease (Heather and Robertson 1997, <strong></strong>Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1998, <em></em>1999; D. King <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Birds have been eradicated from several islands due to possible risks to other native biota, and removal from Pitt and other islands is a future possibility (Beauchamp <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002849		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species may be benefiting from the conservation action for <em>Rhynochetos jubatus</em>, particularly the control of introduced mammalian predators (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only measures of the sort currently being implemented are in the Rivière Bleue Park, where the occurrence of the rail is very unlikely. No new records of the species have been obtained despite 500 man-days spent doing bird censuses in forested areas of the central mountains. 120 locals interviewed between 2003 and 2006 did not provide any credible reports. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further intensive surveys in remote forests (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000), although these should be cost effective and not divert funding away from conservation of other threatened habitats and species. Search other areas with high population densities of <em>R. jubatus</em>, another flightless bird, as these areas may have avoided the pressures that have caused the species's decline elsewhere. Include this species in the predator-control and public awareness programmes for <em>R. jubatus</em> in Rivière Bleue Park. Publicise the search for this species amongst forest workers and villagers (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000). <p></p>
106002849		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus lafresnayanus</em> is known from at least 17 specimens taken between 1860 and 1890 from <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, apparently including Ile des Pins (Fullagar <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are a scattering of later reports from near Mt Panié in the north and the headwaters of Rivière Blanche in the south in the 1960s and in 1984 (on Mt Panié) suggesting that it may yet survive in small numbers (Stokes 1979, Balouet 1986, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Interviews in 2004 produced credible reports by local hunters who stated they had seen the bird on the western slopes of the Panié Massif before the 1980s. These hunters have not observed the bird since (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000). <p></p>
106002849		habitat	eng	It is presumed to have inhabited evergreen forest with similar ecological requirements to Kagu <em>Rhynochetos jubatus<strong></strong></em> (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2002)<em><strong><sup></sup></strong></em>. Historical records have been from near sea-level to c.1,000&#160;m, but recent reports have been from inaccessible montane forests, presumably as these areas have fewer introduced mammalian predators. Although two recent reports from marshland seem unlikely (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000), it has been suggested that this habitat may be the last refuge from dogs and pigs (J.&#160;Morel in Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It probably feeds on a variety of invertebrates including earthworms (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002849		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no definite records since 1890, a series of more recent unconfirmed records notwithstanding.
106002849		threats	eng	It is likely to have declined owing to predation by introduced species such as cats, pigs and rats which now occur throughout the island. Many historical records are of birds caught by hunting dogs and it is likely therefore that it remains at risk from village dogs on hunting trips and when straying (Stokes 1979, Fullagar <em>et al.</em> 1982, <strong></strong>Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000). <p></p>
106002850		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species is successfully bred in captivity. Predation and disturbance by dogs is minimised by community support for conservation efforts. Goats and pigs have been eradicated.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor trends in the population. Control <em>T. novaehollandiae</em>. Establish a remote population to minimise the risk of extinction (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement measures to prevent further introductions of exotic predators to Lord Howe Island. <p></p>
106002850		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Gallirallus sylvestris</span> is endemic to Lord Howe Island (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>). In 1788, it was found from sea-level to the tops of the two mountains on the island, but from the mid-19th century, it became restricted to the summits. In the 1970s the population comprised fewer than 10 breeding pairs (Brook<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1997). In the 1980s, following the eradication of introduced pigs <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>, birds were reintroduced to lowland sites, including isolated, steep, coastal palm forest at Little Slope, and lowland palm forests around the settlement. The highest densities are now surrounding the settlement and on Mt Gower, which support over half of the population. The population has reached the island’s carrying capacity (estimated at c.220 individuals [Brook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997]) and was estimated to be stable at around 220–230 birds and 71–74 breeding pairs (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002).<br/><p></p>
106002850		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gallirallus sylvestris</span> is sedentary, flightless and confined to closed forest. At high altitudes, it occurs in gnarled, mossy forest which covers, and is unique to, the mountain summits. It is largely found in megaphyllous, broad sclerophyll forest at lower altitudes, particularly kentia palm <span style="font-style: italic;">Howea forsterana</span> growing on igneous soils. It is rarely found in the rainforest subformation that covers most of the island. It nests on the ground under thick vegetation or in petrel burrows, and forages among the litter on the forest floor, taking worms, molluscs, invertebrates and occasionally petrel nestlings.<br/><p></p>
106002850		population	eng	The population has recovered to the island's carrying capacity (estimated at c.220 individuals [Brook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>   1997]) and was estimated to be stable at around 220–230 birds  and  71–74 breeding pairs (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002).
106002850		threats	eng	The species was eliminated from the lowlands by predation by feral pigs, cats, people and their dogs, as well as disturbance by pigs and goats. These threats were largely eliminated in the 1980s, although uncontrolled pet dogs can still be an occasional problem. The only remaining significant threat is the introduced Masked Owl <span style="font-style: italic;">Tyto novaehollandiae </span>which is thought to be responsible for a major decline in the Little Slope population in 1989. Further introductions of exotic predators or the introduction of chronic disease could have serious consequences (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Buff-banded Rails <span style="font-style: italic;">Gallirallus philippensis </span>have re-colonised the island and may conflict with Woodhens, especially during the breeding season (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). Woodhens are likely to be in danger of accidental poisoning during the planned eradication of black rats, which is why it is planned to take as many as possible into captivity while the baits are toxic (Lord Howe Island Board 2009). Natural catastrophes are an additional threat. Population Viability Analysis using VORTEX suggests that the species remains highly susceptible to changes in survival or fecundity (Brook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). <br/><p></p>
106002852		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan. Yonaha-dake and parts of Mt Ibu and Mt Nishime are designated as protected areas. Conservation organisations have been promoting the protection of Okinawa's forests since 1970 and have bought some sites on Mt Yonaha to establish private wildlife reserves. In 1996, Yambaru was designated as a national park. The species was the focus of several surveys conducted between 1996 and 2006. Some areas of fencing and a trapping regime have been employed to reduce predation on the species by introduced mammals (Ozaki <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Traffic calming measures have been taken in some areas to reduce the number of road kills. Japan's Ministry of Environment plans to undertake a captive breeding programme for the species, aiming to obtain a captive population of 200 individuals. Genetic analysis of 20-25% of the population has indicated that minor haplotypes persist, suggesting that conservation measures have been implemented in time to preserve most of the species's genetic diversity (Ozaki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish monitoring and research programmes. Provide full protection for the whole area of Yambaru. Continue to expand research and actions to control introduced predators. Instigate a conservation education programme for Okinawa using this species and Okinawa Woodpecker <em>Sapheopipo noguchii</em> as flagship species. Develop measures to further reduce road kills. Continue fencing areas to reduce predation. <p></p>
106002852		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus okinawae</em> is endemic to Okinawa Island, <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is confined to Kunigami-gun (=Yambaru) in the northern quarter of the island, north of Shioya and Higashi-son. Surveys from 1996 to 2004 found that numbers declined dramatically from c.1,800 individuals in 1986 to an estimated 717 individuals, with its range contracting northwards by 40% since 1985-1986 (Ozaki <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2006 did not detect any further contraction in range size, suggesting that measures to control introduced Javan Mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus </em>have had some success (K. Ozaki <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Low genetic diversity in the species's population is suggestive of a recent population bottleneck, with genetic diversity likely to be negatively affected by habitat fragmentation (Ozaki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).&#160; <p></p>
106002852		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats, including primary and secondary, evergreen and broadleaf subtropical forest, often with a dense undergrowth of ferns, near to streams, pools or reservoirs and cultivated areas close to forest. It is almost, but not completely, flightless and feeds on the forest floor, and occasionally in shallow water, where it takes invertebrates and lizards. Nests are made on the ground during the breeding season, from May-July. The usual clutch-size is two to three eggs.  <p></p>
106002852		population	eng	Surveys conducted between 1996 and 2004 estimated 717 individuals at the end of the period. Repeat surveys in 2006 found no further decrease (Ozaki <em>in litt</em>. 2006). On this basis the population is estimated at c.720 individuals, equivalent to c.480 mature individuals. Brazil (2009) estimates the population of Japan to number c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
106002852		threats	eng	Logging, dam construction and associated road-building, agricultural development and golf course construction are causing forest loss and fragmentation. Recent research (Ozaki <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> indicates that its range on the island has contracted to the north (resulting in a 25% decrease in extent of occurrence). The research strongly implies that introduced Javan mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus</em> are the cause of this contraction, although feral dogs, cats and introduced Jungle Crows <em>Covus macrorhynchos </em>are also possible predators (K. Ozaki <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Road kill was the cause of mortality in 70% of the 22 recorded deaths during a five year study from 1998 to 2003 (Kotaka and Sawashi 2004)<strong></strong>. Mortality was worst during the breeding season, suggesting that road kill lowers recruitment to the adult population and may be causing localised declines. <p></p>
106002854		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Research the extent and affect of hunting on populations. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the island. <p></p>
106002854		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus insignis</em> is a flightless (or almost flightless) forest rail endemic to the island of New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is generally uncommon, although it is rather secretive and poorly known (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, <strong></strong>Bishop 1983, Coates 1985, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, <strong></strong><strong></strong>Bishop and Jones 2001).  <p></p>
106002854		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and montane forest to 1,250 m, especially along rivers and in mid-montane altitudes, it is less common in tall secondary forest.  <p></p>
106002854		population	eng	G. Dutson (<em>in litt.</em> 2002) estimated that fewer than 10,000 individuals survive, so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002854		threats	eng	On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (Bishop 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On that island nearly 15% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 15 years and this trend is ongoing (Bishop 1983)<strong></strong>.  It is also sometimes trapped with snares or caught by hunting dogs (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002855		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gallirallus philippensis </span>has a distribution spanning much of Indomalaya, Australasia and Oceania. It occurs in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cocos (Keeling) Islands (to Australia)</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Palau</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New Guinea</span>, the<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Solomon Islands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Norfolk Island (to Australia)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vanuatu</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Fiji</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tonga</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Samoa </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niue (to New Zealand)</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">macquariensis</span>, of Australia's Macquarie Island, went extinct in the late 1800s (Hamilton 1894).
106002856		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey on Kohinggo, Wana Wana and Rendova to determine current status there. Investigate threats and ecology. Reduce levels of predation by dogs through community education programmes.  <p></p>
106002856		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus rovianae</em> is known from New Georgia and Kolombangara, with reports from Kohinggo, Wana Wana (= Vonavona) and Rendova in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> (Diamond 1991a). It is locally fairly common in thickets and young plantations on Kolombangara, but there are few records from other islands (Diamond 1991a, Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106002856		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, especially secondary growth, young plantations, rank grassland, abandoned gardens and other edge habitats.   <p></p>
106002856		population	eng	G. Dutson (<em>in litt.</em> 2002) estimated that fewer than 10,000 individuals survive, so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002856		threats	eng	As a flightless species, it may be under threat from introduced predatory mammals and village dogs but there is no evidence of decline on Kolombangara, where it has presumably increased to populate the large forestry plantations (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998).  <p></p>
106002857		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Captive breeding started in 1984. Since 1987, efforts have been under way to establish a self-sustaining, experimental population on the nearby snake-free island of Rota (Haig <em>et al.</em> 1993). In 1999, birds bred there for the first time (K. Brock <em>per</em> G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>; birds have since been released at four sites and success has been mixed (Wenninger <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In late 1998, some captive-reared birds were released in northern Guam, into a small area (24 ha) protected from snakes by a barrier and trapping, and though these birds were breeding (K. Brock <em>per</em> G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999), this population is now extinct (Wenninger <em>in litt. </em>2007). In 2011, 16 rails were released on Cocos Island, a small island off the southern tip of Guam, after rats were eradicated from the island. Evidence of breeding has been observed (F. Amidon<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue the captive-breeding programme. Control <em>B. irregularis</em> and feral cats<span style="font-style: italic;"> F. catus</span> on Guam so that more introductions can take place (K. Brock <em>per</em> G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999). Undertake large-scale feral cat control program on Rota. Continue to manage the released populations on Rota to maximise the retention of the species's genetic diversity (K. Brock <em>per</em> G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999). Implement stringent measures to prevent the spread of <em>B. irregularis</em> from Guam to Rota. Before considering another reintroduction to Guam, control feral cats.  <p></p>
106002857		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus owstoni</em> is endemic to <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong>, where it was widely distributed until 1968 when, along with most other indigenous species, it started to decline (Jaffe 1994)<strong></strong>. In 1981, the population was estimated at c.2,000, in 1983 it was reckoned to number fewer than 100 and, by 1987, it was extirpated from the wild (Witteman <em>et al.</em> (1990)<strong></strong>. It survives in captive-breeding facilities in Guam and in 15 zoos in the USA (c.159 birds in total) (Ross <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. It was reintroduced to Guam in 1998 but a rapid population decline was observed during 2000-2002 and no rails have been detected since, either in the predator free zone (Area 50, 24 hectares) or the snake reduced open landscape (Wenninger <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. From 1989-2007 853 captive reared rails were released on nearby Rota, Northern Mariana Islands (to USA), though this has experienced mixed success, with some populations rapidly declining to extinction, there is currently an expanding population of 40-60 individuals in the Duge area and another of 20 birds at Apanon (Wenninger <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 2011, 16 rails were released on Cocos Island, a small island off the southern tip of Guam, after rats were eradicated from the island. Evidence of breeding has been observed (F. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <br/><p></p>
106002857		habitat	eng	This flightless species was widely distributed in most habitats on Guam, including forest, savanna, scrub, secondary grassland, fern thickets and agricultural areas (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (but not in freshwater wetland habitats [Taylor and van Perlo 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). It foraged along field edges and roadsides (never far from cover) for snails, slugs, insects, geckos, vegetable matter, seeds and flowers from low grasses and shrubs, and also the introduced giant African snail <em>Achatina fulica</em> which became an important part of the diet (Taylor 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds throughout the year (birds attaining sexual maturity at four months) with a peak period during the rains in July-November (Haig <em>et al.</em> 1993). Nests are located on dry ground in dense grass, and clutch-size is 1-4, usually 3-4 (Taylor 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002857		threats	eng	Its decline and extinction in the wild is the result of predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> (Savidge 1987). Reasons for the failure of some of the introduction attempts on Rota are not known, but predation by feral cats was responsible for the failure of the reintroduction attempts on Guam (Wenninger <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> and so feral cat control has been included as a recommended measure in the Rota release programme (F. Amidon<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).  <p></p>
106002858		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus wakensis </em>was endemic to Wake Island in the central Pacific Ocean,<strong> United States Minor Outlying Islands (to U.S.A.)</strong>. Although it was not uncommon before the Second World War, it was extinct by 1946<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106002858		habitat	eng	The species inhabited scrub throughout the island. It fed by digging up leaves and soil with its head, being observed to take seeds, insects, small lizards and hermit crabs (Wetmore 1970, Olson 1996). Accounts suggest it bred between July and August, with the nest constructed as a saucer-like depression in the ground (Spencer 1959, Olson and Rauzon 2011). It had an unusual communal breeding system, with young attended and defended by groups of adults until well after hatching, presumably as an adaptation against potential nest predation by rats and crabs (Olson and Rauzon 2011).<br/><p></p>
106002858		threats	eng	It was presumably eaten to extinction by the starving Japanese garrison between 1942 and 1945<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). Occasional inundations of the island during storms are also thought to have caused considerable mortality. The species is likely to have coexisted with rats since prehistoric times, and despite some suggestions it is not thought that rat predation was a factor in its extinction (Olson and Rauzon 2011).<br/><p></p>
106002859		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus pacificus </em>is known only from Forster's painting from Tahiti, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, in the British Museum<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994), from Cook's second voyage in 1773<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1994), although there were reports from Tahiti until 1844, and from the nearby Mehetia until the 1930s<strong> </strong>(Bruner 1972).  <p></p>
106002859		habitat	eng	Nothing is known. <p></p>
106002859		threats	eng	It was flightless, and its extinction was presumably caused by introduced cats and rats<strong> </strong>(Bruner 1972). <p></p>
106002860		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus dieffenbachii </em>was endemic to Chatham, Mangere and Pitt Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong> (Marchant and Higgins 1993). It is known from the type, in Tring<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Knox and Walters 1994), with one other specimen reported to be in Bremen<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), and from abundant subfossil material<strong> </strong>(Tennyson and Millener 1994). The species was already scarce when the type was collected in 1840, and was extinct by 1872<strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1993).  <p></p>
106002860		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it may have inhabited scrub or forest.  <p></p>
106002860		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably due to predation by introduced rats, cats and dogs, and habitat loss from fire<strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1993).   <p></p>
106002863		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002864		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 3,500-3,700 individuals, roughly equating to 2,300-2,500 mature individuals.
106002866		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cuare Faunal Refuge is a Ramsar site (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995)<strong></strong>. Significant mangrove areas remain in Henri Pittier and Morrocoy National Parks (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C. J. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. This species was considered Endangered in the Venezuela Red Data Book  (Sharpe 2008) and amongst the four highest priority bird species for  conservation in Venezuela (Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to establish its current distribution (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Re-enforce management plans at Cuare Faunal Refuge (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control tourism developments at Playa de Cata (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002866		distribution	eng	<em>Rallus wetmorei</em> is restricted to a small stretch of the north coast of <strong>Venezuela</strong>, where it is known from, at most, nine localities - and only three in recent years - in east Falcón, north Carabobo and Aragua. It is extremely rare and very poorly known, but was probably at least locally common when discovered: 11 specimens were collected at Puerto Cabello/San Esteban in 1944-1945, and 11 at Tucacas in May 1951. It persists at Tucacas where at least six pairs were found in June 1999 (R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong> and on the Morrocoy Peninsula where there have been regular sightings since 1999 (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>  2011). The only other record for Falcón since the 1950s was an unconfirmed record at Cuare Faunal Refuge in 1986. In Carabobo, there are apparently recent sightings from Patanemo (Ascanio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), 10 km east of Puerto Cabello. In Aragua, the most recent records are of a pair at Playa de Cata, 15 km east of La Ciénaga, in April 1991 (A. Fernández Badillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1992), and a pair at Henri Pittier National Park in 1991 and 1993 (A. Fernandez Badillo <em>per</em> A. Lentino <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. An observation of a bird at Las Peonias Lagoon near Maracaibo, Zulia<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong> in August  2000 <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(J. Colvée, cited in World Birdwatch 2001. 23(2):5</strong>) would be a significant range extension requiring verification. <p></p>
106002866		habitat	eng	It is apparently sedentary in coastal mangroves, and shallow saltwater or seasonally flooded brackish lagoons and marshes with emergent and halophytic vegetation dominated by saltwort <em>Batis maritima</em>. A breeding condition female was collected in April, a male taken in May had enlarged testes, and a bird collected in September was apparently a juvenile, suggesting a breeding season beginning in April or May. <p></p>
106002866		population	eng	The population is assumed to fall in the band 50-249 individuals, based on a paucity of recent records and the restricted number of known localities. This equates to 33-166 mature individuals, placed here in the band 50-200 mature individuals. For the sites where there are recent records (i.e. since its initial collection in the 1940s-1950s), the population is estimated to be at least 20 pairs in the Morrocoy-Tucacas area of Falcón and 15 in Patanemo, Carabobo. Verification of this estimate is desirable.
106002866		threats	eng	Mangrove habitats are being destroyed to make way for housing and hotel developments, and construction of marinas for pleasure boats<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. The Cuare Faunal Refuge is threatened by squatters, hotel developments, tourism, illegal hunting, pollution from domestic sewage, pesticides and mercury, a proposed golf course and the restriction of water flow by road-building. Development projects threaten the coastal wetlands of San Esteban and Henri Pittier National Park. The Playa de Cata lagoon has been closed off from the sea by a dyke to facilitate the development of the beach for tourism. <br/><p></p>
106002868		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some páramo birds occur in protected areas such as Chingaza National Park and Carpanta Biological Reserve, but savanna wetlands are unprotected apart from Laguna de Pedro Palo and Fuquene. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect wetland areas that harbour large populations (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Research the status of birds in páramo habitats. Assess the taxonomic status of the species. Implement monitoring programme to assess potential declines due to development in the Bogotá area<strong></strong>. Assess the effects of predation by domestic cats and dogs<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106002868		distribution	eng	<em>Rallus semiplumbeus</em> occurs on the Ubaté-Bogotá plateau in Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the east Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. The race <span style="font-style: italic;">peruvianus </span>of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>is only known from its type material, collected in 1886, and is probably extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). In Boyacá, it is known from Laguna de Tota and, in Cundinamarca, it has been recorded at a minimum of 21 localities. The Ubaté-Bogotá plateau formerly held enormous marshes and swamps, but few lakes with suitable habitat remain<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). Although declining, it is still uncommon to fairly common, with notable populations including c.400 birds at Laguna de Tota, c.50 territories at Laguna de la Herrera, c.110 birds at Parque la Florida<strong> </strong>(Lozano 1993), and those at La Conejera Marsh and Laguna de Fúquene (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999).&#160; <p></p>
106002868		habitat	eng	It occurs in the temperate zone, at 2,500-4,000 m (occasionally as low as 2,100 m), in savanna and páramo marshes, but it is unclear whether páramo birds breed locally. Characteristic wetland habitats are fringed by dense, tall reeds, bulrushes and vegetation-rich shallows (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). It appears to be particularly associated with the presence of <em>Typha</em> and two other aquatic plants, <em>Limnobium laevigatum</em> and <em>Eichornia crassipes</em><strong> </strong>(O. Cortes <em>in litt. </em>2007). It uses flooded pasture and small overgrown dykes and ponds, but probably not for breeding (Fjeldså 1990, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Breeding probably takes place in July-September<strong> </strong>(Taylor 1996). Nests have been found in <em>Scirpus</em> and <em>Typha</em> beds adjoining shallow water (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). It feeds primarily on aquatic invertebrates and insect larvae, but also takes worms, molluscs, dead fish, frogs, tadpoles and plant material.<br/><p></p>
106002868		population	eng	The population estimate of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals is derived from Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1992), Lozano (1993) and F. G. Stiles (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999). This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106002868		threats	eng	Drainage has caused massive habitat loss on the Ubaté-Bogotá plateau, and few suitably vegetated marshes remain because of pollution and siltation. All major savanna wetlands are seriously threatened, mainly by drainage, but also by agricultural encroachment, erosion, dyking, eutrophication (caused by untreated sewage effluent and agrochemicals), insecticides, tourism, hunting, burning, trampling by cattle, harvesting of reeds, fluctuating water-levels and increased water demand. The fringing habitat at Laguna de Tota has been reduced to less than 2 km<sup>2</sup>, and its continuing decay is reducing food availability (Varty<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1986). Laguna de la Herrera is affected by hunting, cattle trampling and irrigation schemes, and La Conejera Marsh and Laguna de la Florida are threatened by road construction and illegal settlement<strong> </strong>(Lozano 1993, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong>. Construction of a new road system from Bogotá may open up wetland tracts to colonisation, agriculture, hunting and the introduction of invasive species such as rats and domestic cats and dogs. Feral cats are common in the Bogotá wetland but it is not known how much threat they pose<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes <em>in litt. </em>2007). A dog was observed killing a Bogota Rail in Jaboque wetland<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106002869		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Targeted surveys are responsible for recent records (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b, A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2000, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). One population lies adjacent to Los Glaciares National Park but, since cattle graze inside and outside the reserve, its extension would currently offer minimal protection (J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). Laguna Nimes municipal reserve offers some protection<strong> </strong>(S. Imberti <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In Chile, it occurs in Pali Aike and Torres del Paine National Parks <strong></strong> (Imberti and Mazar Barnett 1999, A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>, with extensive habitat remaining in the former<strong></strong> (Imberti and Mazar Barnett 1999). It has bred in Torres del Paine National Park (Matus and Jaramillo, unpublished: A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey (with tape-playback) remaining main rivers and marshes throughout possible and historic range (J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect key sites such as El Zurdo and Estancia Soledad. Ensure that agricultural development has minimal effects. Raise local awareness of the species and potential threats. <p></p>
106002869		distribution	eng	<em>Rallus antarcticus</em> was rediscovered in 1998, and has been subsequently found at seven localities in Santa Cruz and two in Chubut, <strong>Argentina</strong>, and two in Magallanes, <strong>Chile</strong> (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b, <strong></strong> Imberti and Mazar Barnett 1999, Pugnali <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Soave <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, M. Pearman <em>in litt. </em>2003, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). It is fairly common at three sites, with the largest population holding c.35 birds<strong></strong> (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b, <strong></strong> Imberti and Mazar Barnett 1999, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). Curiously all recent records fall outside the historical range, despite searches at former haunts (J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). The fact that it has been found in Patagonia in the breeding season, whereas the historical Buenos Aires specimens were taken in autumn/winter may indicate that the species is migratory (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998, Pugnali <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), although old breeding records from central Chile suggest otherwise (A. Jaramillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A tendency to undergo long-distance movements is suggested by a recent record from the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</span> (Pugnali <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It was previously known from a few specimens and fewer confirmed sight records, with none since 1959. In addition historical records exist for Buenos Aires, Río Negro, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, and Valparaiso, Santiago, Colchagua and Llanquihué, Chile. The population is estimated at 2,500 to 9,999 individuals, but recent surveys at the nine locations only added a further 125 individuals to the known total, and there are concerns that the population may actually be below 2,500 (J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). <p></p>
106002869		habitat	eng	It occurs in marshy Patagonian steppe wetlands (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003), where there are large patches of dense and tall (c.2&#160;m) rushbeds <em>Schoenoplectus</em> (<em>Scirpus</em>) <em>californicus</em>, and open areas, densely covered by <em>Myriophyllum</em> sp. and lush green grass (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b, A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Some northerly post-breeding dispersal or possibly partial migration may occur, at least in southern populations (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b).<p></p>
106002869		population	eng	A population estimate of 2,500-9,999 mature individuals has been derived from analyses of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002869		threats	eng	The most serious threat is the planned development of intensive agriculture in suitable river valleys<strong></strong> (S. Imberti <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Intensive grazing of the steppes may have affected wetlands, because the resulting bare soil has been deposited in pools and marshes by the wind<strong></strong> (Fjeldså 1988). There has been extensive harvesting of aquatic vegetation for cattle<strong></strong> (Fjeldså 1988). However, this practice is now limited in many areas<strong></strong> (Blanco and Canevari 1995), and rushbeds at the site of the rediscovery (and presumably elsewhere) have increased in recent years owing to the particularly wet climate (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b). Water extraction for agriculture and other purposes may negatively impact on wetlands (J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt. </em>2000, 2003). <p></p>
106002870		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Western and southern populations of this species are mainly sedentary (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, whereas others are fully migratory, moving overland on a broad front between breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. After mild winters the spring migration begins in late-February, otherwise it occurs from March to mid-April (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or May (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Europe and Russia the autumn migration occurs from August to December (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds in single pairs or small family groups (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although large concentrations of breeding birds may occurring in extensive wetlands, with nests 20-50 m apart where population densities are high (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. After breeding the species may pause on passage in favourable habitats between early-July and early-September (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to undergo a flightless wing-moult (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> that may last for c.3 weeks (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains solitary (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, but may occasionally congregate into small groups of up to 30 individuals during the winter (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species regularly uses well-defined paths between favoured food sources within its habitat (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species requires muddy ground for foraging (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and shows a preference for shallow still or slow-flowing water (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> 5-30 cm deep (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, surrounded by dense riparian, emergent, submergent or aquatic vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in reedbeds and other emergent vegetation in fresh and saline swamps, fens and marshes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and at the fringes of open fresh or saline lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other habitats include clay pits, gravel pits, peat excavations (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, river oxbows and channels, damp meadows<strong><sup></sup></strong> and rice paddy-fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rather than occupying large uniform wet areas in larger habitats, the species shows a preference for wetlands that form a mosaic with drier patches and areas of trees (e.g. willow <em>Salix</em> spp. [Taylor and van Perlo 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) or other fringing scrub (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration and in the winter the species frequents riverbanks (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, canals (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, gravel pits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, farm sewage outfalls (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, marshy areas (Iceland) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, bracken on islands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, flooded blackberry <em>Rubus</em> spp. thickets (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and other very small wetland patches (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting predominantly of animal matter (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> such as worms, leeches, molluscs, shrimps, crayfish, spiders, terrestrial and aquatic insects and larvae, amphibians (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. frogs, toads and newts) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, fish, birds and mammals (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also takes plant matter (especially during the autumn and winter) including shoots, roots, seeds, berries and fruits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a substantial cup of vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> that is usually positioned in thick stands of reeds or rushes on the ground in or near water, or rarely on a tree stump or in the open (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests placed in water are built up if the water level rises (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002870		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to severe conditions (e.g. ice or severe floods) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002871		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> There is no evidence that this species makes regular migratory movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) although numbers may fluctuate throughout the year in some locations due to the dispersal of immatures and to nomadic behaviour in response to environmental conditions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is a strongly territorial breeder (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for c.3 weeks between August and November (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits permanent and temporary swamps and marshes often at the edge of lakes, pools, rivers and streams, and also occurs in seasonally wet sugar-cane plantations and paddy-fields adjacent to natural marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It requires shallowly flooded areas with mud and floating vegetation for foraging (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and shows a preference for habitats lined with reedbeds or dense species-rich vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) with channels and runways linking patches of more open growth (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). For breeding the species shows a preference for seasonally inundated grasslands and sedge meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) with robust sedges and grasses c.50 cm or more in height (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of worms, crustaceans (e.g. crabs and crayfish), aquatic and terrestrial adult and larval insects, spiders, small fish, small frogs and some vegetable matter including seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup of plant matter well concealed in aquatic vegetation, usually over water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002872		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is found in several protected areas (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No species-specific conservation action is yet in place. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Promote conservation of its habitats through both policy changes and community conservation projects. Determine the rate of population decline. <p></p>
106002872		distribution	eng	<em>Rallus madagascariensis</em> occupies suitable habitat in eastern <strong>Madagascar </strong>where it is generally rare but locally not uncommon (Morris and Hawkins 1998; Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its population is estimated to number 2,500-10,000 individuals. <p></p>
106002872		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>No evidence has been found to support the suggestion that this is a migratory species (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996; Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It is a secretive bird, usually found alone or in pairs (Langrand (1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It mainly breeds during the months of August-October (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species inhabits dense aquatic vegetation of marshes, wet woodlands and river margins (Langrand 1990; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996; Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, from sea level to 1,800 m (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but more frequently at high altitudes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers areas in which the vegetation is dominated by long grasses, reeds and sedges (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>it feeds mainly on invertebrates in muddy substrates (Langrand 1990; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996; Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>It nests<strong> </strong>on the ground in thick aquatic vegetation ( Morris and Hawkins 1998; Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is undescribed (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002872		population	eng	The species's population is estimated to number 2,500-10,000 individuals (F. Hawkins<I> in litt.</I> 2002)and is thus probably best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106002872		threats	eng	Habitat loss is the principal threat (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; its aquatic and wet forest habitats are rapidly being transformed by agricultural and logging activities (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002873		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prioritise fieldwork to clarify the distribution and habitat requirements of the species and to locate viable populations at sites where it might be effectively protected. <p></p>
106002873		distribution	eng	<em>Lewinia mirificus</em> is known from Luzon and Samar in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, to which it is probably endemic, although as breeding there has not been confirmed, this remains to be proven (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). The vast majority of records derive from the migration funnel, and bird-catching site, of Dalton Pass on Luzon, where over 200 were recorded between 1965 and 1970, suggesting that it may persist in reasonable numbers, and that it is migratory. In October 2009, 10 individuals were recorded as they were caught by bird-trappers (Allen 2010). Although breeding and non-breeding areas are uncertain, these records infer movements either between the Cagayan valley and Luzon's central plain, or between the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre mountains; if the former is true, the records from south Luzon and Samar may relate to overshooting migrants. Recently an individual was observed in degraded cloudforest at 2,240 m on Mount Data, Luzon in January 2001. The bird was heard to call (a frog-like accelerating series of clicking notes), and the same call was heard in cloudforest at 1,100 m on Mayon Volcano in Southern Luzon (Dinets 2001)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106002873		habitat	eng	Although it has been speculated that it has strict habitat requirements, if these are similar to its congener (and possibly conspecific) Lewin's Rail <em>L. pectoralis</em>, it may prove to be rather cosmopolitan in its preferences, as the few documented details (cloudforest, near pine forest, and in a small undisturbed riverside swamp), from 550-2,250 m, imply. <p></p>
106002873		threats	eng	The only known threat is hunting (evidenced at Dalton Pass), although the impact of this on its population cannot currently be gauged. <p></p>
106002874		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lewinia pectoralis</span> occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New Guinea</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">clelandi</span>, known from south-west Australia, has not been seen since the 1930s and is now extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).
106002875		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The islands are nature reserves and part of a World Heritage Site declared in 1998.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Eradicate pigs from Auckland Island in the long term (B. D. Bell verbally 1999, A. D. Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Transfer birds to other suitable pest-free islands in the Auckland Island group (A. D. Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002875		distribution	eng	<em>Lewinia muelleri</em> is endemic to the Auckland Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It was once thought to be extinct but was rediscovered on Adams Island (100 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1966 and Disappointment Island (4 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1993. On Adams, where suitable habitat may cover as little as 10% of the island (Elliott <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the population is estimated at 1,500 birds (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Disappointment, the population is estimated at more than 500 (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its status on Ewing Island is unclear, and it may indeed never have occurred there (Elliott <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population numbers are apparently stable (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002875		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat consists of coastal and cliff herbfields, <em>Carex</em> grassland, tussock-herbfields and forest. The one clutch seen in the wild consisted of two eggs (Elliott <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One juvenile bird caught in the wild lived for nine years in captivity, and ate insects and other invertebrates (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002875		population	eng	The total population is estimated at c.2,000 mature individuals, based on estimates published by Collar <em>et al.</em> (1994)  and Heather and Robertson (1997).<br/><p></p>
106002875		threats	eng	Although both rail-inhabited islands are predator-free, Auckland Island (a few hundred metres from Adams) supports feral cats, mice and pigs, and therefore the introduction of these animals is a possible threat. <p></p>
106002876		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dryolimnas cuvieri</span> occurs on <span style="font-weight: bold;">Madagascar</span> and the Aldabra Islands, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Seychelles</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">abbotti</span>, known from the Seychelles island of Assumption, went extinct in the early 20th century (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species has also been extirpated from Mauritius (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).
106002876		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratratory (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). It breeds during the rains in Madagascar or in December on Aldabra Island, nesting in solitary pairs and remaining solitary and territorial throughout the year (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). <strong>Habitat</strong> It occupies a variety of habitats including forest with dense herbaceous ground cover (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), woodland water courses (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), stream edges with tall, dense, herbaceous vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), mangroves, beaches or coral islets and wetlands (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) (e.g. marshes with long grass, reeds and sedge (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), and rice paddy-fields (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)). The species also inhabits rough, heavily dissected coral limestone covered by dense scrub on Aldabra Island, and may forage on sand and pebble beaches (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small molluscs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) (e.g. gastropods such as <em>Melanoides</em> spp. and <em>Littorina</em> spp.) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), small ghost crabs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) (e.g. <em>Ocypode cordimana</em>) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), insects (e.g. Diptera, Coleoptera, termites, ant eggs and larvae) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) and eggs and hatchlings of green turtles <em>Cheldonia mydas</em> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species also associates with tortoises: taking tortoise droppings (in order to extract insects), picking insects from tortoise carapaces and taking insects from decaying tortoise carcasses (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest can be either a loose structure of twigs and leaves placed in a depression in a rock, or it can be a more substantial bowl placed on the ground in dense vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <strong>Management information</strong> The species was successfully reintroduced to Picard Island, an island free of domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em> near Aldabra atoll (Wnaless <em>et al</em>. 2002).  <p></p>
106002876		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,100-7,500 individuals, roughly equating to 3,400-5,000 mature individuals.
106002876		threats	eng	The species is threatened by accidental introductions of feral domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em> into otherwise suitable habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <p></p>
106002877		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a partial migrant, moving both north and south of the equator to breed during the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in solitary territorial pairs, and normally occurs singly, in pairs or family parties (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) outside of the breeding season, with small groups of up to six individuals occurring together on migration (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). Newly arrived migrants in both the breeding and non-breeding grounds have also been observed in groups of 3-8 individuals (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species is most active early and late in the day, especially after heavy rain or during light rain (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat </B>The species shows a preference for a range of grassland habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) from seasonally moist or inundated grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) (e.g. temporary wetlands in the moist grassland of the Okavango Delta) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), grass and rank vegetation at the edges of freshwater swamps, reedy marshes, and open waters (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) (e.g. rivers, streams and farm dams) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), to tall grass savannas (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and dry grassland in lightly wooded country (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species also frequents grassy areas in forest clearings and occurs around exotic plantations (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), in maize, rice and cotton fields (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), in neglected cultivation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and in moist sugar cane plantations adjacent to marshy areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Its grassland habitat is frequently burnt in the dry season, forcing emigration (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of earthworms, molluscs, insects and their larvae (especially termites, ants, beetles and grasshoppers), small frogs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), small fish (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), grass seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and vegetable matter (e.g. grass blades, green shoots and other leaves) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow cup of grass blades that is usually positioned on the ground in a scrape or depression, often hidden under a tussock or small bush (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), occasionally also 2-15 cm above dry ground, or floating or standing in water in dense grass or other vegetation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002877		threats	eng	The loss of wetland and grassland habitats due to overgrazing, cultivation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. sugarcane plantations) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and human settlement is a threat to this species (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is killed for food in some regions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002878		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS (Bonn Convention) Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is legally protected from hunting in most of the countries in its breeding range (Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Conservation measures have been taken in 14 European range states. National action plans have been prepared in Switzerland, Norway, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Hungary, Germany, Denmark, UK, and Slovakia. Appropriate habitat management techniques have been researched, and local repeat surveys in Russia show relative stability of the population (A. Mischenko <em>in litt.</em> 2006). A European action plan was published in 1996 and a revised version published in 2006 <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006), and a Corncrake Conservation Team was established in 1998. There is an ongoing reintroduction programme in England, UK<strong> </strong>(Newbery (2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor numbers through regular coordinated surveys, and improve monitoring in key countries (e.g. Russia, Belarus)<strong></strong>(Doga Dernegi 2006, Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Monitor habitat condition and extent <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Doga Dernegi 2006, Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Ensure that agri-environmental measures for the species in the EU are well targeted and implemented, and focus on mowing date and methods suitable for the species. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Restore lost habitat where possible. Conduct further research into the species's ecology and demography <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Work with farmers and land managers to ensure that traditional farming methods are retained, areas of grass are left uncut and harvest times are delayed (Doga Dernegi 2006). Monitor levels of illegal trapping and hunting <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Lobby governments in remaining countries where it is not protected to afford the species legal protection <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). <p></p>
106002878		distribution	eng	<em>Crex crex</em> breeds in Europe and central Asia, as far east as western <strong>China</strong>, and winters in sub-Saharan Africa. There were recently estimated to be 1.3-2 million breeding pairs in Europe (including 1-1.5 million pairs in European Russia) (BirdLife International 2004), higher than the 1.1-1.8 million pairs in Europe previously estimated (Schäffer and Mammen 1999), which were in turn significantly higher than the 92,000-233,000 estimated in 1996, the difference resulting from the completion of the first systematic surveys of national populations in eastern Europe and <strong>Russia</strong>. A further 515,000-1,240,000 pairs are estimated for Asiatic Russia (Schäffer and Mammen 1999), yielding a global total of 1.815-3.24 million pairs and 5.45-9.72 million individuals. Given the high level of uncertainty in some of the breeding estimates and the apparent scarcity of the species in its non-breeding areas in sub-Saharan Africa, the total population may fall at the lower end of this range; even in the low millions. Whilst some of these populations may be increasing, population trends are unclear and often show large fluctuations (K. Koffijberg <em>in litt</em>. 2007) in response to changes in agricultural practices or annual rainfall (A. Mischenko <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Historically, most west European range states have seen major declines, which continued in some countries during 1990-2000 but were reversed elsewhere (BirdLife International 2004). The population in the UK recently increased, from 480 calling males in 1993 to 1,245 calling males in 2007, in response to conservation action (P. Walton <em>in litt. </em>2006, K. Koffijberg <em>in litt</em>. 2007), although numbers have since dipped to 1,098 in 2009 (RSPB 2010). Many western European states have observed a partial recovery since 1997, but dominated by large fluctuations (K. Koffijberg <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In Finland the population in 2003-2008 averaged around five times that in the 1990s (T. Lehtiniemi <em>in litt. </em>2010).  Monitoring since 2002 in 13 regions and republics in Russia (which holds the vast majority of the global population) indicates that numbers have remained stable or are even increasing (with some fluctuations due to extreme weather) (A. Mischenko <em>in litt. </em>2010).  Whilst it is difficult to accurately predict future trends owing to the species's extensive range, and differing climatic and agricultural conditions in different regions, it is thought that populations in key parts of the range in Russia and Kazakhstan are unlikely to change dramatically in the near future, although agricultural intensification and abandonment may drive some regional declines, and the species's conservation status in much of the western part of its range remains unfavourable.
106002878		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>The species is a long-distance migrant (Del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It breeds during the months of April-August, with nests generally well separated but sometimes only 20-55m apart from one another (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It is sequentially polygynous, with some males moving a considerable distance to new singing areas (Green <I>et al.</I> 1997). A male's territory may encompass several nests (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and local concentrations of breeding birds therefore sometimes occur (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species normally produces two broods per year. It begins to leave its breeding grounds in August, with a peak in September (Cramp and Simmons 1980), and arrives on its African wintering grounds in November-December (Cramp and Simmons 1980). It migrates at night, travelling at low altitude (Del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). During migration it sometimes travels in pairs (Cramp and Simmons 1980), occasionally forming groups of around 20-40 individuals (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and diurnally resting flocks may contain several hundred birds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It occurs solitarily during the non-breeding season, individual birds holding territories of 4-9ha (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The return migration begins in late February or March, and the breeding grounds are occupied from mid-April (Cramp and Simmons 1980). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding </I>The species breeds in open or semi-open habitats, mainly meadows with tall grass. The original breeding habitat would almost certainly have been riverine meadows of <I>Carex</I>-<I>Iris</I>-<I>Typhoides</I> and alpine, coastal and fire-created grasslands with few trees or bushes present (Green <I>et al.</I> 1997). The species is now strongly associated with agricultural grassland managed for the production of hay (Barnes 2000). Suitable habitats include moist, unfertilised grassland and regularly cut meadows in areas of low-intensity agriculture where vegetation grows tall in summer. Across its European range, hay or silage fields in valleys liable to flooding seem of most importance, but birds also breed in hay and silage fields in subalpine areas. Wetlands and marsh edges may act as important refuges when drier habitats are unsuitable. Males are also found singing in clear-cuts in forest, pastures and young conifer plantations. Singing males can regularly be heard in fertilised meadows or fields sown with cereals, but successful reproduction here is thought to be infrequent (Sch&auml;ffer and Mammen 1999). In Bulgaria radio tracking showed that the two broods are produced in different locations, the second brood at a significantly higher altitude than the first one, thus benefiting from delayed vegetation development and later hay mowing at higher altitudes (Niemann 1995).<B> </B>It avoids very marshy areas, standing water, river and lake margins and open ground with rocks, stones and gravel (Del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), and also those areas with a thick layer of dead grass or very dense vegetation above 50cm tall (Cramp and Simmons 1980). Adults move to areas of high herbage along ditches to moult after breeding (Taylor and van Perlo 1998): embankments or fallow areas adjacent to the breeding habitat are very important as moulting sites (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> During migration it occurs in a variety of habitats including wheat fields and on golf courses (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). In the wintering grounds dry grassland and savanna are preferred with birds also occurring in rank grass near rivers, sewage ponds and pools and in relatively short grass in wetter areas, moist sedgebeds and reedbeds and in tall grass within young conifer plantations (Barnes 2000). It also occurs in <I>Eragrostis</I> hayfields, old land and pastures, maize fields bounded by grass, fallow and abandoned cultivation uncut grass on airfields, and the edges of sugarcane (Barnes 2000). It occurs where vegetation is between 30cm and 2m in height, and often in areas that are burnt during the dry season (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).<B> Diet</B> It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates, including taxa living on plants, on the soil surface and in the soil (Green <I>et al.</I> 1997). It takes a large number and wide variety of insects (Cramp and Simmons 1980), as well as snails and slugs, arachnids, millipedes, earthworms, young frogs, green parts of plants, young shoots and seeds and possibly even small mammals and birds (Cramp and Simmons 1980).<B> Breeding site </B>The nest is on the ground in dense vegetation and is constructed from dead stems and leaves (Green <I>et al.</I> 1997). Often surrounding stems are pulled over the top to form a loose canopy (Del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The average clutch-size is c.10 eggs and two broods may be raised per season (Green <I>et al.</I> 1997).<B></B>
106002878		population	eng	BirdLife International (2004) estimated 1.3-2 million breeding pairs in Europe (including 1-1.5 million pairs in European Russia). This is higher than the 1.1-1.8 million pairs in Europe previously estimated by Schäffer and Mammen (1999). A further 515,000-1,240,000 pairs are estimated for Asiatic Russia, yielding a global total of 1.815-3.24 million pairs and 5.45-9.72 million individuals. Given the high level of uncertainty in some of the breeding estimates and the apparent scarcity of the species in its non-breeding areas in sub-Saharan Africa, the total population may fall at the lower end of this range; even in the low millions.
106002878		threats	eng	Chick mortality due to mechanized mowing and consequent increased predation is considered to be the primary threat in Europe (Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Intensification of grassland management and the loss of hay meadows and wetlands are considered as the critical threats to its habitats (Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Following privatisation, potential changes to land-use and management of agricultural land in the species's core breeding range in Russia and eastern Europe are also possible threats (Sch&auml;ffer and Mammen 1999). Land abandonment temporarily favours the species, but areas become unsuitable as vegetation becomes too dense and scrub develops. Intensified management of hay meadows, or their conversion to arable, is resulting in widespread habitat loss (Sch&auml;ffer and Mammen 1999). Across western and central Europe, intensification of grassland management, leading to earlier and rapid mowing of hay and silage, is the main threat (N. Sch&auml;ffer <I>in litt. </I>2003). Early mowing and the use of mechanised methods results in the destruction of nests and chicks (Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). It is a quarry species in Russia, Ukraine and Georgia, but hunting pressure is considered low. Illegal hunting of the species during the Common Quail <I>Coturnix coturnix</I> hunting season has been reported from Bulgaria and Croatia, and 0.5-2.7% of the European population may be susceptible to capture in netting set up for <I>C. coturnix</I> in Egypt each autumn. Introduced mammals, such as domestic cats and the American mink <I>Mustela vison</I>, are reported to be predators of the species's nests, in addition to native species. The species may be disturbed by recreational activities and developments, such as motorways (Koffijberg and Schaffer 2006). Late spring floods can reduce local populations by around 50% (Donaghy 2007).
106002879		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No actions are known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss within its range. Protect areas of important habitat.  <p></p>
106002879		distribution	eng	<em>Rougetius rougetii</em> is widespread in the highlands of <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, and much less widespread in those of <strong>Eritrea</strong>, from 1,500 to 4,100 m (Taylor and van Perlo 1998; Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to have maintained its distribution but to have suffered a reduction in numbers (Ash and Gullick 1989; EWNHS (1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Thus, during field surveys of Important Bird Areas in Ethiopia (1995-1996), it was considered uncommon or present only in small numbers at seven sites, and not uncommon or fairly common at two sites (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This contrasts with earlier records which refer to the species as widespread and common to locally abundant (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002879		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is presumed to be sedentary in the absence of any evidence of migratory or dispersive movements (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is generally monogamous and solitary, although some degree of cooperative breeding may take place (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds from March to October (Taylor and van Perlo 1998; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds in marshy areas within high altitude montane grasslands and moorlands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found in areas with lush grass, reeds, tussocks and bushes along streams, around ponds and in <em>Alchemilla</em> bogs (Taylor and van Perlo 1998; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season it is also found on dry ground among heaths and <em>Alchemilla</em> and adapts well to human-modified habitats such as lawns, shrubberies and thickets in parks and gardens (Taylor and van Perlo; 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In urban areas it is attracted to feed in areas where the grass has been recently mown, and often occurs in ditches and drainage channels in grass (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been recorded in relatively sparse cover along polluted streams (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded foraging in open meadows, on bare mud and in shallow water (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong> Diet </strong>It has a wide diet, including seeds and aquatic insects (especially water beetles; Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as crustaceans, small snails (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and earthworms (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is a pad of dead rushes on wet ground among high rushes, in rushes over water, or in grass tussocks (Taylor and van Perlo 1998; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>A clutch usually consists of four or five eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002879		population	eng	Dodman (2005) estimated the population to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, and so it is placed here in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002879		threats	eng	Although it can survive in heavily grazed and highly disturbed wet pasture, intensive grazing and mowing for building material, throughout the densely populated highlands, may be the cause of its apparent population reduction (Ash and Gullick 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong> owing to loss of vegetation cover making habitats unsuitable for use by the species (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, grasslands are being converted to cereal fields, and droughts are likely to have had a negative effect on the species (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106002880		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. It is known to occur in two substantial protected areas, Lore Lindu and Bogani Nani Wartabone national parks, although in recent years the have remained subject to deforestation (T. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys for this species and <em>G. rosenbergi</em> (using tape-playback of their vocalisations if possible), to establish their current distribution and population status, and assess their habitat requirements and main threats. Identify important areas for these species and promote their designation as protected areas where appropriate. Raise public awareness. <p></p>
106002880		distribution	eng	<em>Aramidopsis platenae</em> is endemic to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the lowlands and hills in north, central and south-eastern parts of the island, and adjacent Buton (BirdLife International 2001). Its secretive habits make assessment of its population status very difficult. It is only known from c.10 specimens and a handful of recent records. It may therefore be genuinely rare, although it was formerly described as common along the Menado river, south of Tondano. It is likely to have declined as a result of widespread deforestation across its range. <p></p>
106002880		habitat	eng	This flightless rail inhabits tropical, lowland evergreen and lower montane rainforest, especially densely vegetated, forest-edge habitats or thick understoreys of primary forest, from sea-level to 1,000 m. Streams, damp gullies and thick secondary growth (in places dominated by rattans, lianas and bamboo) appear to be important habitat features. It has also been found in dense low forest/shrub regrowth on recently abandoned rice-fields and its habitat requirements thus appear more flexible than first believed. Its diet is reported to consist chiefly of small crabs. <p></p>
106002880		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002880		threats	eng	As the exact habitat needs and altitudinal preference of the species are somewhat unclear, the impact of extensive lowland deforestation on Sulawesi, as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, agricultural and infrastructure development and large-scale logging, is poorly understood. However, habitat loss and fragmentation is likely to pose the single major threat to the species. In Indonesia, new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000) these empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has also been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi. The harvesting of rattan in the lower elevations of Lore Lindu National Park may be impacting the species (K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Its flightlessness renders it vulnerable to predation, particularly by introduced predators (e.g. dogs). Hunting (using snares) poses a further threat.<br/><p></p>
106002881		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Inaccessible is a nature reserve and, although Tristan Islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano, other access is restricted (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A management plan for the island was due for comment in 2000 (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Carry out research to identify and quantify the main causes of natural mortality. Minimise the risk of colonisation by introduced species through strict controls on visits (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote awareness about the dangers of alien species introduction through inter-island transfers (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a captive-breeding population for research and advocacy. Nominate Inaccessible for World Heritage Site status (J. Cooper <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002881		distribution	eng	<em>Atlantisia rogersi</em> is confined to the South Atlantic island of Inaccessible, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong>. The population has been variously estimated as 1,200 birds in 1938 (Hagen 1952)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 5,000-10,000 birds in 1952 (Elliott 1957)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and 1,000-2,000 breeding pairs in 1974 (Richardson 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most accurate survey to date gave an estimate of 8,400 birds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is abundant on the island and may be at carrying capacity given its high population density, delayed maturity, small clutch-size, and lack of major predators or competitors (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1992, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002881		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is sedentary and flightless <strong></strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998, <strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is monogamous, and lives in family groups (Collar and Stuart 1985)<strong></strong>, holding small territories at a density of up to 10-15 birds per hectare in good quality habitat (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. <strong> </strong>Breeding occurs from October to January (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It occurs virtually throughout the island, on most vegetation types, at all altitudes, and even on the steepest slopes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>Breeding has been recorded in coastal tussock-grass <em>Spartina arundinacea</em>, especially where this is mixed with the fern <em>Blechnum penna-marina</em> to form luxurian undergrowth and mats of vegetation (Collar and Stuart 1985, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. Nests have also been found in beds of sedge on the plateau (Collar and Stuart 1985)<strong></strong>, where the species often occurs in open fern-bush habitats and island-tree thickets, generally away from the cliffs (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. It inhabits heathland at the island's highest altitudes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. In general it prefers areas where vegetation, boulders or other landscape features at ground level provide tunnels in which to shelter and to breed (Collar and Stuart 1985)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> It forages in every available habitat including very short vegetation, boulder beaches and marshy areas (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>It is absent from one site of short dry tussocks on cinder cones (Collar and Stuart 1985, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet comprises a wide range of invertebrates including earthworms and moths, centipedes, and a wide variety of insects and insect larvae, as well as berries and seeds (Collar and Stuart 1985, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> Nests are built on the ground beneath a dense cover of vegetation (Taylor and van Perlo 1998<strong></strong>). They are carefully woven from the vegetation in which they are sited<strong></strong>, usually oval or pear-shaped<strong></strong>, and accessed via a track or tunnel extending for up to 50cm through the vegetation<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998). A clutch consists of two eggs (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106002881		population	eng	The most accurate survey to date gave an estimate of 8,400 birds, roughly equivalent to 5,600 mature individuals.
106002881		threats	eng	Predation by Tristan Thrush <em>Nesocichla eremita</em> and wet weather are believed to be the main causes of chick mortality, but pose no real threat. However, there is a permanent risk that the island will be colonised by mammalian predators, particularly the black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> from Tristan. The colonisation of potential competitors would also be a threat, as well as alien invertebrates which could negatively modify the prey base (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite its name, the island is now more accessible to islanders via a fisheries patrol vessel based at Tristan (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002883		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106002884		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5-50 million individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008). Previously, Wetlands International (2006) estimated 100,000-1,000,000 individuals.
106002885		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from Ensenada de Utría National Park (Colombia); Cayapas-Mataje Mangrove, Mache-Chindul, and Manglares-Churute ecological reserves, and Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Reserve (Ecuador)<strong></strong> (Clay <em>et al</em>. 1994, Porteous and Acevedo 1996, P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998, L.Carrasco per R.Clay <em>in litt. </em>2007, O. Jahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007, Alava and Hasse 2011).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Surveys to locate additional sites for the species. Survey to assess its occurrence in Peru. Research its precise ecological requirements<strong> </strong>(Taylor 1996). Consolidate protection of the Cayapas-Mataje Mangrove, Mache-Chindul, and Manglares Churute ecological reserves through law enforcement against illegal shrimp farming, palm plantations (coconut and oil palm), logging, hunting, and colonization inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones<strong></strong> (O. Jahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Develop a participative Action Plan for the conservation and sustainable management of the unique <em>Guandal </em>swamp forests of Esmeraldas<strong></strong> (O. Jahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Develop a participative Action Plan for the conservation and sustainable management of the of the Río Ónzole drainage, ideally as an integral part of a proposal for a large biosphere reserve in Esmeraldas<strong></strong> (O. Jahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Assess the efficiency of the IBA network and identify new sites.   <p></p>
106002885		distribution	eng	<em>Aramides wolfi</em> is known from west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cauca and Chocó), west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Los Ríos, Guayas and El Oro) and possibly north-west Peru (Tumbes). There are a few recent records from Ecuador (Cayapas-Mataje Mangrove Reserve, Humedales de Yalare, Río Ónzole, Quinindé, Pedro Vicente Maldonado, Jatun Sacha - Bilsa, Río Palenque and Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve)<strong></strong> (Clay <em>et al</em>. 1994, P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998,<strong> </strong>J. F. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2000, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Jahn et al. 2002, O. Jahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007), but elsewhere it has become extremely rare (Ridgely and Greenfield in press). Population estimates are lacking but eight pairs and six solitary birds were recorded at Bilsa Biological Station, Esmeraldas, in 2007<strong> </strong>(L. Carrasco per R.Clay <em>in litt. </em>2007). In Colombia, most records originate from the Serranía de Baudó, the most recent report (March 1996) coming from Ensenada de Utría National Park, Chocó, which holds a potentially large population (Porteous and Acevedo 1996). The single (potential) record for Peru was at Puerto Pizarro, Tumbes, in September 1977<strong> </strong>(Graves 1982).<p></p>
106002885		habitat	eng	It has been recorded most frequently in mangroves, but has also been found in forest, secondary growth, forested river edges, riverine marsh and swampy woodland, up to 1,300 m<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998).<br/><p></p>
106002885		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals. This requires confirmation.
106002885		threats	eng	Its decline is attributed to extensive habitat loss, particularly of mangroves. Other lowland forest habitats in western Ecuador and Colombia have suffered rapid rates of destruction for over four decades, leaving less than 10% and 60% of original habitat cover in each country respectively<strong></strong> (Dodson and Gentry 1991, <strong></strong>Salaman 1994). In the San Lorenzo area, Esmeraldas, which lies at the border of the Cayapas-Mataje Mangrove Reserve, the area planted with oil palms rose from only 3 km<sup>2</sup> in 1998 to 225 km<sup>2</sup> (+900% per year) in 2007<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007), with a further 275-315 km<sup>2</sup> due to be converted in the near future (J. Mew verbally 2000). Other agricultural activities and shrimp farming are also on the rise, with an increase in area from 98 km<sup>2</sup> to 280 km<sup>2</sup> (+20.5% per year) and 19 km<sup>2</sup> to 32 km<sup>2</sup> (+7.64% per year), respectively<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007). In the last decade, annual deforestation rates of lowland evergreen forest (&lt;300 m) were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest &gt;38% in the same period<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007). The extension of the neighbouring mangroves and <em>Guandal</em> forests (the latter is a unique periodically inundated swampy forest type in the lower río Cayapas-Santiago-Mataje drainages), were reduced by &gt;24% and 13% respectively<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007) and non-forested swamps and wetlands shrunk by 64% in the last decade<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007). It seems likely that riverine forest would suffer above-average rates of destruction. The causes, both past and present, are road construction and associated colonisation and deforestation, commercial logging, mining, conversion to oil-palm and coca plantations, and other agricultural land-uses (arable and livestock), grazing in remnant forest patches and other developments such as dams, pipelines and military installations<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996, Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002889		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002890		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known to occur in five protected areas, Bogani Nani Wartabone, Lore Lindu and Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Parks, Gunung Klabat, Pengunungan Palu and Tangkoko DuaSudara and Gunung Ambang Nature Reserves (BirdLife International 2001, N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> T. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007); however, in recent years deforestation has continued both within and adjacent to protected areas in northern Sulawesi (T. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for this species (using tape playback of its vocalisations to aid detection), on both Sulawesi and Peleng, to establish its current distribution and status, assess its ecological requirements and identify local threats. Propose further key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. <p></p>
106002890		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnocrex rosenbergii</em> is known from Sulawesi and the nearby island of Peleng, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Specimen records and sightings suggest that it is relatively widely distributed and locally fairly common. However, it appears to have declined, and has probably disappeared from much of the Minahasa peninsula, and indeed lowland Sulawesi. Recent records derive from few localities, suggesting that it is now rare and local, although its retiring habits undoubtedly result in it being under-recorded. Its current status on Peleng (where it is known from just three specimens) is unknown. <p></p>
106002890		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense primary and old secondary tropical evergreen (sometimes relatively dry) forest, usually between 150 and 900 m. However, recent records from c.1,700 m suggest that its altitudinal range is broad. Records indicate a preference for thick understorey (comprising small saplings, palms, rattans and bamboos), forest streams and pools. It has also been encountered in dense, low forest/shrub regrowth on recently abandoned rice-fields. It is a very poor flier, and is therefore presumably largely sedentary. Its call is potentially a significant aid to detection. <p></p>
106002890		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002890		threats	eng	The impact of extensive lowland deforestation on Sulawesi, as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, agricultural and infrastructure development and large-scale logging, is unclear. However, habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation certainly pose the main threats to the species. In Indonesia new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000), which empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has also been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi. The harvesting of rattan in the lower elevations of Lore Lindu National Park may be impacting the species (K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Its near flightlessness renders it vulnerable to predation, particularly by introduced predators (e.g. dogs), and hunting (using snares) may pose a local threat. <p></p>
106002892		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes   have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.100   breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106002896		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.10,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002897		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary and a local migrant, its movements related to seasonal rainfall and the filling up of temporary waters (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Young birds may also undergo extensive dispersal movements that are not linked to rainfall (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species may breed throughout the year when conditions are suitable, with seasonal peaks during or following periods of rain (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It nests territorially (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), and is usually observed in pairs, but may gather in groups of up to 10 individuals (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The adults may become flightless for up to 3 weeks between December and March when moulting their fight feathers (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), during which time they remain within the cover of waterside vegetation (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is active diurnally, with peaks of activity occurring just after rainfall (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits many types of wetland, although it requires moderate vegetation cover, some degree of permanent flooding (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and tangled vegetation in which it can climb, roost and nest (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include flowing and still inland freshwaters (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) (such as lakes, ponds, reservoirs, seasonal pans and temporary flooded areas along rivers) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), the margins of coastal lagoons (Ghana) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and estuarine waters (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005); preferably fringed by rank grass, sedges, reedbeds, papyrus, swampy thickets, bushes or other vegetation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species also inhabits ponds with floating submergent vegetation (e.g. water-lilies) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and the interior of dense or extensive reedbeds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as dense undergrowth in boggy forest clearings (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), or the margins of swampy forest streams (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). In more open areas it may inhabit broad, grassy marshes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and will occupy very small streams with little cover in drier regions (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Diet </B>The diet of this species consists of worms, molluscs, crustaceans, adult and larval insects, small fish (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), small frogs and tadpoles (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), the eggs and nestlings (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) of weavers <I>Ploceus</I> spp. and herons (e.g. Rufous-bellied Heron <I>Ardeola rufiventris</I>) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as the seeds and other parts of water plants (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) (e.g. duckweed <I>Lemna</I> and water-lilies <I>Nymphaea</I>) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and occasionally carrion (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a deep bowl of reeds and other aquatic plants that is usually placed floating on or suspended 20-50 cm above the surface of water in vegetation  (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Nests may also be placed on the ground or in grass tussocks near water, and occasionally up to 3 m high in bushes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002897		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106002897		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for trade (at traditional medicine markets) in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001), and for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi (Bhima 2006).
106002898		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, which came into force for the country in 1999 and may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands. Several wetland areas where the species occurs, or has occurred, are the subject of planned conservation measures, including Lake Bemamba, Lake Kinkony and the Mangoky River (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>.  There are new initiatives underway and planned for the conservation of threatened wetlands such as the lower Mahavavy river area, including Lake Kinkony (R. Safford<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, and in 2007 the Mahavavy-Kinkony Reserve received temporary protected status, with the hope that permanent protection would follow. Surveys for the species were conducted in 2003-2006 (M.<strong> </strong>Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2004, <strong></strong>Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006, Rabenandrasana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys to find and census populations<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P.B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999, M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2004, <strong></strong>Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong>. Use GIS analysis to predict population size by extrapolating data into unsurveyed areas (Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong>. Investigate its ecology, especially its population ecology, year-round (in at least one site, e.g. Lake Bemamba, Lake Kinkony and Lake Ampandra) to identify the causes of its rarity (P.B. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong>. Initiate further wetland-conservation programmes, designed in cooperation with local communities, at its known locations (R. Safford<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Carry out anti-erosion management in the most vulnerable water catchment areas, and attempt to restore the most severely degraded marshes (Andriamasimanana and Rabarimanana  2011)<strong></strong>. Establish a national conservation plan (Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong>. Seek full protection of known sites as soon as possible, by including them in priority-setting for short- and medium-term conservation action under the Malagasy Government’s new Protected Area System expansion policy (Rabenandrasana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Conduct public awareness-raising programmes with the aim of reducing persecution and disturbance, particularly during the breeding season (Rabenandrasana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><p></p>
106002898		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Amaurornis olivieri</em> is known from several widely separated areas in lowland western <strong>Madagascar</strong>, and is rare and localised. Specimens were taken in 1930 and 1962 (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>, and all records since have been field sightings: at Lake Bemamba a single bird seen in 1995 (Ramanampamonjy 1995)<strong></strong> and an adult in 1999 (P.B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>, two individual adults at Amboropotsy marsh (near Bekopaka) in 2001 (Willard and Goodman 2002)<strong></strong>, a pair with young and two other adults at Lac Ampandra (near Bejofo-Antanandava) in 2002 (I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>  and two adults (probably a pair) observed over several days at Lac  Kinkony (south-west of Mahajanga) in 2003 (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>.  Surveys of potential sites in western Madagascan wetlands between the  Betsiboka and Mangoky rivers from August  2003 to November 2006 found  the species at five sites: Lacs Kinkony, Ampandra, Amparihy, Sahapy and  Mandrozo (Rabenandrasana <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). At each site the population was small (12–39 individuals, maximum count of 39 at Lac Amparihy) and the highest density was 20 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>; the total number of birds recorded was 100 and the population at the five sites was estimated at 215 individuals (Rabenandrasana <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Birds were not recorded at potential sites in the south (Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, where they may be absent or populations may be close to extinction (M.<strong> </strong>Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>.  Based on these survey results the population may not exceed  250 individuals<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   This may be an underestimation, however, as the surveys were brief and  the methods were still being developed, thus the species is not  necessarily absent at sites where it was not recorded, and the number of  sightings is likely to indicate a larger population (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106002898		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is not known to make any seasonal movements (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. Nesting has been observed in July (Rabenandrasana 2007)<strong></strong> and March (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>, and juveniles have been found in December (I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong> and in March (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Local knowledge suggests the species may be double-brooded (I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, or it may have a very extended breeding season stretching from July to March (Rabenandrasana 2007)<strong></strong>. The majority of breeding observations between 2002-2006 occurred between the months of September and November (Rabenandrasana 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>The species has been found in areas of dense, high, marginal vegetation in streams, lakes and marshes. It prefers gaps (e.g. pirogue channels) between high <em>Phragmites, Typha </em>and <em>Cyperus</em> beds where open water occurs with patches of short, mixed floating vegetation on which it forages (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Water-lilies <em>Nymphaea</em>, appear to be particularly important (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>, but it also uses floating <em>Salvinia</em> spp., sedges, grasses and the invasive water-hyacinth<em> Eichhornia crassipes</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P.B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. This also appears to be the habitat in which it breeds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>The species may have been under-recorded in the past because it is very difficult to observe from the shore, since the hidden alcoves of floating vegetation that it frequents are difficult to access during the wet-season floods<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. In addition, during the dry season there is some evidence that it hides in dense beds of <em>Phragmites</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, and it has been recorded in bushes and grass emerging from the water in a clearing of a flooded palm-covered valley (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Field observations at Lake Kinkony suggest the diet includes both crustaceans (found on the short sub-surface roots of <em>Salvinia</em> sp.) and invertebrates (spiders and insects) found on top of the floating vegetation (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>One nest was found 50cm above ground-level in <em>Typha </em>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>, another in a deep tunnel of <em>Phragmites</em>, 70cm above the ground (Rabenandrasana 2007)<strong></strong>.<em> </em>Clutch-size is probably two.<br/><strong> </strong> <p></p>
106002898		population	eng	Survey results from 2003-2006 estimated a total of 215 individuals at five key sites, suggesting that the total population may not exceed 250 individuals (M. Rabenandrasana in litt. 2004, Rabenandrasana et al. 2009). However, this may be an underestimation as the surveys were brief and the methods were still being developed, thus the species is not necessarily absent at sites where it was not recorded, and the number of sightings is likely to indicate a larger population (R. Safford in litt. 2004), therefore the estimated population range used here is 250-999 individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106002898		threats	eng	Wetland degradation is a cause of major concern for the species (Ramanampamonjy 1995)<strong></strong>. Like the threatened Madagascar Grebe <em>Tachybaptus pelzelnii</em>, it has probably been affected by the loss of fringing water-lily habitat, following the conversion of wetlands to rice cultivation (Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong>, and by the impact of introduced fish (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. The species is also threatened by a reduction in the area of <em>Phragmites</em>, which may be due in part to cutting for human use, although this is not well understood and other factors may be involved (Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006)<strong></strong>. Lac Kinkony is highly threatened by the conversion of adjacent unprotected  lands into rice paddies, and an estimated 80% of historical reed area  had been lost by 2008, with increased turbidity associated with erosion  the primary contributor to reed loss (Andriamasimanana and Rabarimanana  2011). Contrary to previous fears, the small size of this rail makes it an unlikely target for hunters<strong></strong>, and in some areas at least the species is taboo and the eggs not collected<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003, <strong></strong>M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Rice cultivation impinges on its native habitat (such as at Lake Kinkony), and the burning of marshland areas by farmers in the dry season also threatens the species, especially when these fires go unchecked<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. At the Befojo site, the local fishing industry centred on the lakes may make it less likely that the lakes will be drained for rice cultivation, as is happening to wetlands across Madagascar (I. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Disturbance by fishermen and people from local villages may pose a threat, and the potential effects of other processes such as hydrological change or the effects of exotic fish or vegetation are uncertain (Rabenandrasana<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009).<br/><p></p>
106002900		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>Most populations of this species are fully migratory and migrate to wintering grounds from late-August to November, returning north from February-May, and arriving again on breeding grounds between March and April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with breeding occurring between May and August (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds in separate territories in solitary pairs or family groups (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998), although in favourable habitat nests may be placed as close as 30-35 m apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Outside of the breeding season the species is usually seen singly (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) although it may occur in groups on migration and in the Autumn it sometimes associates with Spotted Crake <I>Porzana porzana</I> (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in the lowlands (up to 2,000 m) in temperate and steppe zones (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), extending into boreal regions if conditions are favourable (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It inhabits natural or semi-natural eutrophic freshwater wetlands with still or slow-flowing water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and requires tall stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. <I>Scirpus</I>, <I>Typha</I>, <I>Carex</I>, <I>Sparganium</I> and <I>Phragmites</I>) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) in or near fairly deep water in which to breed, preferably with a mixture of dead and living stems and a layer of broken stems at ground or water level (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include the margins of lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), small pools and oxbows in regularly inundated floodplains (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), marshes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), flooded woodland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as alder <I>Alnus</I> coppices (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and flooded rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season this species inhabits flooded rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), seasonally flooded grasslands (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), swamps and small pools overgrown with reeds, bulrushes, sedges and rank grass (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), and sewage ponds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may occur in more atypical habitats on migration (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>The diet of this species consists mostly of insects (especially waterbeetles, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, and adult and larval Diptera), as well as the seeds and shoots of aquatic plants (<I>Carex</I>, <I>Sparganium</I>, <I>Polygonum</I> and <I>Nymphaea</I>), worms, gastropods, spiders and water mites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow cup of plant matter (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) placed in thick vegetation on or near water (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), or occasionally raised on a tussock or platform of dead material, preferably in sites only accessible by swimming (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Management information </B>The species prefers to breed in tall reedbeds that are not regularly cut or burnt (i.e. with mixtures of dead or living stems) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002900		threats	eng	In its breeding range the species is threatened by wetland degradation and destruction such as lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian <I>et al.</I> 2002), and intensive reed harvesting (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002901		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> African and Australasian populations of this species are non-migratory or only make local movements in response to seasonal habitat changes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Those populations in Europe and Asia however appear to be fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), most flying southward from late-August to October and returning to the northern breeding areas from March to May (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species breeds in solitary pairs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Langrand 1990) in the spring, usually nesting during or just after the wet season (where this occurs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is usually a solitary species, but can be found in pairs or family groups, and sometimes forages in small groups of up to 10 individuals in non-breeding areas (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species forages diurnally but is most active in the early morning and late afternoon or evening (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat </B>The species frequents similar habitats throughout its range and throughout the year (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Langrand 1990, Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), although its breeding areas are characterised by low, dense, tussocky or continuous vegetation such as flooded sedges and grasses (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It inhabits freshwater, brackish or saline marshy wetlands (Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), both inland and coastal (Australasia) (Marchant and Higgins 1993), permanent and temporary, with dense emergent and floating vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (especially reeds, rushes, sedges, tall dense grasses and <I>Typha</I> spp.) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). Typical habitats include marshes, swamps, peat bogs, flooded meadows (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), damp grassland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), seasonally flooded pans and depressions, tussocky grassland interspersed with patches of mud on the margins of open water (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)(e.g. lakes and reservoirs) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Marchant and Higgins 1993), pools in sand-dunes (Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), swampy creeks, rivers (Marchant and Higgins 1993) and streams (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), tall reedbeds (2-3 m high) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) with extensive mud, shallow puddles and <I>Sesbania</I> bushes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and occasionally salt-marsh (Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species also frequents marshy artificial wetlands such as irrigated fields of crops (e.g. rice) (Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sewage ponds (Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), salt-works (Marchant and Higgins 1993, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), farm ponds (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and dense grassy vegetation in rural residential areas (Marchant and Higgins 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Although the species shows a preference for shallowly flooded areas, breeding birds may occupy grassland and sedges flooded to a depth of 30 cm and will occur on floating vegetation or in tall shrubs flooded to a depth of 2 m (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, bugs, Odonata, stoneflies, caddisflies, flies and mosquitos) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as annelids (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (up to 10 cm long) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), molluscs, small crustaceans (e.g. ostracods and copepods), small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (up to 2 cm long) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), amphibians (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and vegetative plant material and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow cup or platform of vegetation placed close to water on a grass tussock or in soft grass, usually 4-60 cm above the water level (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Occasionally the nest may be floating or anchored to vegetation in water, or placed in or under low bushes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information </B>Changes in water level during the nesting period should be avoided, cutting and burning of vegetation near the waters edge should be controlled and the maintenance of natural vegetation around fish ponds and rice-fields should be encouraged (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).<B></B>
106002901		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.13,000-37,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002901		threats	eng	The species is threatened by degradation and loss of seasonal and ephemeral wetlands owing to drainage, overgrazing, cultivation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), reed-cutting, reed-burning and sudden changes in water levels caused by discharges from large dams (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species also suffers high mortality during migration from collisions with powerlines (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002902		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana palmeri </em>was found on<em> </em>Laysan Island, Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong> <strong></strong>(Baldwin 1947), from where it became extinct between 1923 and 1936<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. A similar bird was also seen by Kittlitz on nearby Lisianski Island<strong> </strong>(Baldwin 1947). Birds were introduced to Pearl and Hermes Reef and to Eastern Island in the Midway Atoll in 1891 and 1913, and from there to Sand Island in 1910, with failed re-introductions also reportedly attempted to Lisianski, Laysan and to the main Hawaiian group<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998). However, it became extinct on Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1930, on Sand Island in 1943 and Eastern Island in 1944<strong> </strong>(Baldwin 1945). <p></p>
106002902		habitat	eng	It inhabited grass tussocks and thickets.  <p></p>
106002902		threats	eng	It became extinct on Laysan Island as a result of habitat destruction by rabbits and guinea pigs introduced by guano diggers<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The Pearl and Hermes Reef colony was destroyed by storms; and rats, brought in by wartime activities, exterminated both the Sand Island colony and the Eastern Island colony<strong> </strong>(Baldwin 1945). <p></p>
106002903		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Its Autumn dispersal to its wintering grounds beginning mid-July (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), with the species returning to reoccupy its breeding grounds from April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds in Europe from April to July and in the former USSR from May to July (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Early migrating birds (mainly juveniles) often moult in August during stops on migration, during which they become flightless for c.3 weeks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). The species is territorial throughout both breeding and non-breeding seasons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is usually seen singly, in pairs or in family groups, although occasionally small groups of 2-4 individuals may forage together on migration (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It normally roosts at night in thick vegetation and forages by day (although this behaviour is reversed when migrating) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits similar habitats in both its breeding and winter ranges (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and generally requires very shallow water (less than c.15 cm deep, typically foraging in water less than 7 cm deep) that is rich in invertebrate food and is interspersed with stands of low vegetation cover (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species shows a preference for freshwater wetlands with a range of water depths or where water levels vary seasonally  (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), especially where these have a mixture of muddy, moist and shallowly flooded substrates (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and a dense covering of grass, sedges, rushes, <I>Polygonum</I>, <I>Iris</I>, <I>Equisetum</I> and other emergents, as well as trees (e.g. A<I>cacia</I>, <I>Sesbania</I>, <I>Betula</I>, <I>Salix</I> and <I>Alnus</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Suitable habitats include seasonal and permanent marshes and fens (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), bogs, damp meadows, the edges of drainage ditches (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), swamps, seasonally flooded pans (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), pools in flooded grassland, grassy margins of reservoirs and lakes, slow-flowing rivers and sewage settling-ponds (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of small aquatic insect adults and larvae (e.g. Trichoptera, Odonata, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and ants), earthworms, molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), arachnids (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. spiders and water mites) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and small stranded fish (1-2 cm long) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), as well as algae and the shoots, leaves, roots and seeds of <I>Panicum</I>, <I>Oryza</I>, <I>Carex</I> and S<I>choenoplectus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a thick-walled cup of plant matter, usually placed in thick vegetation near or over standing water, or alternatively in a tussock, or built up well above the water level (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002903		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to changes in water levels, either through artificial wetland modification and drainage, or through climatic changes (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Numbers have declined over the past century in Europe due to wetland drainage (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and the species is threatened by wetland destruction in Africa (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002906		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most records are from Mar Chiquita Biosphere Reserve (Buenos Aires), Mar Chiquita Ramsar Biosphere Reserve (Córdoba), Punta Rasa Biological Station and the Otamendi Strict Nature Reserve. It occurs in Lagoa do Peixe National Park, Brazil<strong> </strong>(S.&#160;B.&#160;Scherer <em>per</em> G.&#160;A.&#160;Bencke <em>in litt</em>. 2000). It is protected under Uruguayan law. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat within its known range in Santa Fe<strong></strong> (J.&#160;C.&#160;Chebez <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Rio Grande do Sul. Record its voice to enable further surveys using tape-playback. Study the effects of cattle-grazing. Expand Otamendi Strict Nature Reserve to encompass larger tracts of habitat. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Mar Chiquita Biosphere Reserve, Buenos Aires. <p></p>
106002906		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana spiloptera</em> occurs in <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes-Chaco [Chatellenaz and Zaninovich 2009], Córdoba, Buenos Aires and Entre Ríos, with one collected in Santa Fe in 1906, and unconfirmed historical records from Mendoza and San Luis [(Chebez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008]), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (Canelones, Colonia, Maldonado and Montevideo, but none since 1973) and <strong>Brazil </strong>(recent records from two sites in Rio Grande do Sul)<strong>&#160; </strong>(Cuello and Gerzenstein 1962, <strong></strong>Escalante 1983, Arballo and Cravino 1999, <strong></strong>A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J.&#160;C.&#160;Chebez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, S.&#160;B.&#160;Scherer <em>per</em> G.&#160;A.&#160;Bencke <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Records from La Rioja, San Luis, San Juan and La Rioja, Argentina, are thought to refer to <em>L. jamaicensis</em><strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al</em>. 1997, Chebez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Pagano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It is relatively widespread (16 localities in Buenos Aires with recent records from eight), but all records refer to 1-2 birds. It was formerly locally frequent to abundant in Buenos Aires, but is now rare to fairly common. This may be partly attributable to a paucity of observers, but there seem to have been declines (or perhaps birds are just highly mobile in search of optimum habitat) at the relatively well-watched sites of Punta Rasa and the río Luján<strong> </strong>(M.&#160;Pearman <em>in litt</em>. 1999).  <p></p>
106002906		habitat	eng	It occurs in temporary and tidal marshes, swamps, wet marshy meadows, and wet to dry grassland. In Argentina, it associates with cord grass <em>Spartina densiflora</em> (up to 70&#160;cm tall) in areas of permanent, brackish surface water<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al</em>. 1997). It has been found in seasonally wet grasslands of <em>Spartina</em> and <em>Juncus acutus<strong></strong></em><strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al</em>. 1997), and has been flushed from <em>Paspalum</em> grass. <p></p>
106002906		population	eng	The population is assumed to fall in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on the low numbers usually recorded at the relatively small number of known localities with recent records, where it is described as rare to fairly common. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Verification of this estimate is desirable.
106002906		threats	eng	There is land reclamation for agriculture, and high levels of grazing and burning. At Punta Rasa, a recreational development project has resulted in an increase in visitors. Mar Chiquita, Buenos Aires, has been flooded. Birds seem to disappear for up to one year after burning<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al</em>. 1997). In the early 1990s, cattle-grazing displaced birds at río Luján<strong> </strong>(M.&#160;Pearman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Crake are regularly trapped in Buenos Aires, but there is no evidence that this species is caught<strong> </strong>(M.&#160;Pearman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106002908		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana sandwichensis </em>occurred on the east side of Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong>, and may also have occurred on Molokai<strong> </strong>(Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). It is known from bones and a number of specimens<strong> </strong>(Olson and James 1991), and was illustrated by Ellis on Cook's third voyage<strong> </strong>(Stresemann 1950). The last specimen was collected in 1864 and the last report was in 1884, or possibly 1893 (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).  <p></p>
106002908		habitat	eng	It inhabited clearings in upland forest.  <p></p>
106002908		threats	eng	The timing of its extinction indicates that it was perhaps not caused by mongooses, as they were not introduced until 1883<strong></strong>. More probably, it was due to a long process of predation by rats, cats, dogs and people<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <p></p>
106002909		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106002910		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in the breeding and wintering grounds to estimate the size of the population and its habitat preferences. Encourage farming systems that create and do not destroy suitable habitat for the species. Oppose development schemes that destroy sites where the species is found.  <p></p>
106002910		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana paykullii</em> is known to breed in the middle and lower Amur Valley and Primorye in south-east <strong>Russia</strong>, and Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei and northern Henan in north-east <strong>China</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is has been reported to breed in both <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>, although this is unproven. In Russia, although it is still abundant in parts of its breeding range in most areas, it appears only sporadically. It occurs on passage and/or in winter in North Korea, South Korea, China (Inner Mongolia, Shandong and southwards to southern China, including <strong>Hong Kong (China)</strong>), central <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong> (Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak) and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (northern Sumatra, Java and northern Kalimantan, with one record from southern Sulawesi). It is a vagrant on Sakhalin Island in Russia and in Japan, and there is an erroneous record from the Philippines. Very little information is available, and its status and distribution urgently require investigation, especially in the wintering range.<em> </em><p></p>
106002910		habitat	eng	It breeds in lowland marshes and meadows with tussocks, thickets or small trees, and is often found near villages and along field edges. It winters in wet grassland, swamps and paddyfields.  <p></p>
106002910		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, although national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China.
106002910		threats	eng	It is threatened by the intensification of agriculture, industrial development and other forms of habitat destruction.  <p></p>
106002912		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana monasa </em>was endemic to<em> </em>Kosrae, Caroline Islands, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>. Kittlitz collected the only two known specimens (now in St Petersburg) in 1827-1828, and regarded the species as uncommon even then<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It declined to extinction over the next half-century.  <p></p>
106002912		habitat	eng	It inhabited coastal swamps and marshes, taro patches and "continually wet, shadowy places in the forest"<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Measurements of the carpometacarpii from x-rays of the two specimens suggest that the species was flightless<strong> </strong>(Steadman 1986). <p></p>
106002912		threats	eng	Its extinction quickly followed the arrival of rats from missionary and whaling ships in the 1830s and 1840s<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998).  <p></p>
106002913		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Following a feasibility study (Brooke and Towns 2008) a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson island in August 2011 (J. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). A captive population of c.80 Henderson Crakes was established and maintained throughout the eradication operation to minimise risk from non-target poisoning. During this time the birds successfully bred in captivity and six chicks were released at the end of the operation. A follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the rat eradication.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson.<br/><p></p>
106002913		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana atra</em> is endemic to Henderson in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, a small uninhabited, raised-reef island in the south-central Pacific Ocean. Numbers were estimated at c.3,240 in 1987 (Graves 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, using a different technique, c.6,200 birds in 1992; no major change in population size was evident in 2003 (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>M. Brooke <em>pers. comm. </em>2007). Although recruitment to the breeding population is not known, numbers of surviving chicks probably compensate for annual losses such that the population can be considered stable (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002913		habitat	eng	The species is found in dense to open forest throughout the island plateau, both in forest dominated by <em>Pisonia</em> and <em>Pisonia/ Xylosma</em> and in <em>Timonius</em> thicket, also occurring in <em>Pandanus-Thespesia-Argusia</em> embayment forests and coconut groves on the beaches (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is omnivorous and appears to be an opportunistic feeder, taking advantage of seasonal increases in prey (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. It forages in the leaf-litter, gleaning items such as skink <em>Emoia cyanura</em> eggs from the undersides of fallen leaves, large nematodes, beetles, moths, spiders, dead caterpillars, land snails and small insects (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. The breeding season is long, extending from late July to mid February (double broods are not uncommon) and clutch-size is 2-3 (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. Helpers may provide extraparental care such as defending eggs and chicks from crabs and rats. Based on a small sample, adult annual survival is at least 43%, and reproductive success is a minimum of 0.95 chicks surviving to one month old per pair, per annum (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002913		population	eng	Jones <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated the population to number 6,200 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 9,300 individuals in total.<br/><p></p>
106002913		threats	eng	Although Polynesian Rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> takes eggs and chicks, there is no indication that the species is unduly threatened by this predation as the two have co-existed on Henderson possibly since the 8th century (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. In August 2011, a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island to eradicate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. exulans</span> from the island and a follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the project (J. Hall <em>in litt</em>. 2012).  However, other possible introductions, such as Black Rat <em>R. rattus</em> (a more aggressive predator than <em>R. exulans</em>), diseases and exotic plant species, are a potential threat (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1995, <strong></strong>Waldren <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/>  <p></p>
106002914		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106002916		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a wet-season migrant, moving between ephemeral habitats in response to seasonal rainfall and drought (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds during the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in polyandrous groups (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), with territorial males nesting solitarily (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species forages diurnally (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) with most activity occurring in the late afternoon and evening (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), roosting at night in grass clumps or on roosting platforms in vegetation (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species shows a preference for areas on higher ground (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) with shallow pools, muddy patches and grasses up to 1 m tall (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), generally avoiding tall, dense vegetation in permanent marshes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), areas with water more than 20-30 cm deep (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and streams liable to heavy flooding (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It typically inhabits seasonally inundated tussocky grasslands which dry out and burn in the dry season (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as river flood-plains (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), temporary pans, short-grass dambos, old rice-fields, and the edges of marshes, ponds and ditches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <I>Non-breeding </I>The species's habitat requirements on migration and during the non-breeding season are less well known (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), although they appear to be similar to breeding season requirements (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Habitats frequented during this season include inundated grassland and pool edges, beds of fine reeds near streams, short sedge and grass clumps fringing shallow water (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and marshy savanna with small scattered thickets (Ghana) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists of earthworms, small snails, spiders, beetles, grasshoppers, flies, moths, insect larvae, small fish and tadpoles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow bowl or platform of vegetation, typically constructed 10-25 cm above the water in a tuft of grass, or occasionally floating or positioned above damp ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species sometimes builds false nests which it abandons before completion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002916		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-17,000 mature individuals.
106002916		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of overgrazing (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and the damming, draining (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and cultivation of seasonal and ephemeral wetlands (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).<B></B>
106002917		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two known sites are in protected areas: the well protected and managed Corral de Santo Tomás Faunal Refuge (A. Mitchell <em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a nature tourism area including the Laguna del Tesoro. The last surveys for the species throughout its range were reported in 1998 and 1999 (<em>Cotinga</em> 10 1998, Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently conduct surveys to assess current population size, distribution and status. Assess the impact of introduced species and research ways to mitigate their effects. Conduct research into the ecology of this species Control dry season burning. Survey for any additional threats Investigate current habitat management practices and recommend future strategies (A. Mitchell <em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002917		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the northern side of the 4,500 km<sup>2</sup> Zapata swamp, south-west <strong>Cuba</strong>. Four were collected near Santo Tomás in 1927, and the species was found easily in 1931. There were no subsequent records until the 1970s, when its voice was recorded and birds were found in the south-east of Laguna del Tesoro. There are also reliable records from Peralta, within the Zapata swamp (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It may occur elsewhere within the swamp (A. Mitchell <em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, and was formerly even more widespread, with fossil bones found in cave deposits in Havana, Pinar del Río and on the Isla de la Juventud (Olson 1974, Garrido 1985, E. Abreu <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and Sancti Spiritus (W. Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2012). It is now thought to have an extremely small population given the paucity of recent records and threats to the species, with anecdotal evidence suggesting a significant decline since the year 2000 (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2009, A. Mitchell <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002917		habitat	eng	It inhabits a flooded, tall (1.5-2.0 m) grassland ecosystem comprising dense, tangled, bush-covered swamp with low trees, where 'arraigán' <em>Myrica cerifera</em> brush, <em>Salix longipes</em>, sawgrass <em>Cladium jamaicensis</em> and cattails <em>Typha angustifolia</em> are common (King 1981, Regalado Ruíz 1981, E. Abreu <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>C. jamaicensis</em> is the preferred vegetation for nesting and feeding (E. Abreu <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place around September, and possibly in December and January (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are apparently situated on raised tussocks above water-level (Bond 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds may disperse during wet-season floods, returning to permanently inundated areas in the dry season (A. Mitchell <em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002917		population	eng	Given the scarcity of recent sightings the population is thought to number fewer than 250 mature individuals (A. Kirconnell <i>in litt.</i> 2009, A. Mitchell <i>in litt.</i> 2009), and so is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded to 70-400 individuals here.
106002917		threats	eng	Dry-season burning is potentially devastating. Introduced mongooses and rats are probably important predators. Exotic catfish may also predate juveniles, a problem exacerbated by the species's nidifugous nature, and there is anecdotal evidence that there has been a dramatic decline in population since catfish were introduced in 2000 (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2009, A. Mitchell <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2012)<strong></strong>. There was formerly extensive grass-cutting for roof thatch. <p></p>
106002918		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm its song and use recordings to facilitate surveys in suitable habitats across the likely range of both races<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al.</em> 2006). Clarify taxonomic status of the two subspecies. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106002918		distribution	eng	<em>Neocrex colombiana</em> consists of two subspecies. The nominate race is considered rare throughout its range, with scattered records across much of north <strong>Colombia</strong>, south on both slopes of the West Andes through west <strong>Ecuador</strong>. The race <em>ripleyi</em> is known from two specimens taken in central <strong>Panama</strong> and north-west Colombia, and one site in east Panama (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. The nominate race was recorded from at least two sites (Same and Playa del Oro) in Esmeraldas, Ecuador in the 1990s, where it was considered 'not uncommon'<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is ample suitable habitat on the Pacific slope in Colombia and the lack of recent records are presumably due to it being overlooked<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is very poorly known and its status, distribution and natural history demand urgent attention (Taylor 1996).<em> <p></p></em>
106002918		habitat	eng	It occurs in marshes, swamps, wet savannas, wet grass, pastures and overgrown forest edge up to 2,100 m, and is not restricted to areas with water (Hilty and Brown 1986<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002918		threats	eng	Unknown, although it is considered unlikely to be at risk in the lowlands of western Ecuador and there is ample suitable habitat on the Pacific slope in Colombia<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al.</em> 2006).   <p></p>
106002920		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106002922		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000-2,000,000 individuals.
106002924		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. A large protected area is proposed for Halmahera, encompassing 3,550 km<sup>2</sup> of all representative forest-types on the island, between Lalobata and Ake Tajawe, although it is not clear whether this includes suitable habitat or known localities for <em>H. wallacii</em>. Extensive effort has gone in to interviewing local people about the species and its possible whereabouts, without any confirmed records to date<strong> </strong>(M. Poulsen <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify all remaining areas of sago swamp and conduct surveys for this species therein (using tape-playback of its vocalisations, if available, to aid detection). Investigate claims that it frequents a variety of other habitats. Determine and implement appropriate conservation action, including establishment of any remnant sago swamps, or other key sites, as strictly protected areas. <p></p>
106002924		distribution	eng	<em>Habroptila wallacii</em> is endemic to the island of Halmahera in North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001), where it is known from only a handful of specimens and confirmed records, with the most recent report from 2003<strong> </strong>(E. Emanuelson <em>in litt</em>. 2003). Its status is extremely difficult to judge given its skulking behaviour and unwelcoming habitat, and the paucity of records might reflect these factors rather than any genuine scarcity. However, there is danger in assuming this without acknowledging the possibility that the loss of Sago swamps and predation have had a serious impact in recent decades. <p></p>
106002924		habitat	eng	It is a flightless, and thus presumably strictly sedentary species, thought to inhabit dense, impenetrable, swampy thickets, particularly remote parts of sago swamp, apparently also favouring swamp edges at the interface with deciduous foothill-forest, although not penetrating the latter. Calls attributed (perhaps erroneously) to this species were heard in tall reeds (<em>Saccharum</em> sp.), alang-alang grassland (<em>Imperata</em> sp.), overgrown native plantations, sweet potato and cassava fields adjacent to forest and stream habitats<strong> </strong>(E. Emanuelson <em>in litt</em>. 2003), and mangrove (<em>Gymnorhiza</em> sp.). <p></p>
106002924		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002924		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation is probably the main threat, and it has possibly declined considerably given that sago swamps on Halmahera have been extensively destroyed through commercial sago extraction, irrigation schemes, conversion for wet rice and, potentially, fishpond development. Moreover, flightless rails confined to single islands have a long history of extinction through predation by introduced species. Indeed, the species is apparently occasionally caught by dogs when local people are hunting deer and pigs. <p></p>
106002925		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys and interviews in villages to better understand its distribution, population density and threats. Use awareness programmes to discourage hunting. Effectively protect large areas of lowland rainforest.    <p></p>
106002925		distribution	eng	<em>Megacrex inepta</em> is endemic to the lowlands of central New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). There are very few records, but it is reported to be locally common, especially where sago is harvested (Gregory 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its population size is unknown, but it appears to be small. There is no evidence of a significant decline.<em> <p></p></em>
106002925		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, especially wet thickets, swamp forest and mangroves.   <p></p>
106002925		threats	eng	Although flightless, it appears to be able to fight off attacks from dogs and to climb into trees to escape predators (Ripley 1964, Coates 1985). It is hunted in some areas, sometimes targeted specifically with sago lures, and it may be affected by feral pigs. Lowland forests across its range are under pressure from logging (K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Gregory 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, T. Leary <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002926		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in China; &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals   on migration in Korea and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil   2009).
106002927		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary, nomadic or partially migratory, with many populations making local seasonal movements in response to changing habitat conditions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. the drying of marshes) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The timing of breeding varies geographically (in relation to peaks in local rainfall) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in solitary territorial pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) (especially in pastures) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) or in small communal groups containing several breeding males, breeding females and non-breeding helpers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) (especially in swamps) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). When not breeding the species occurs in pairs, small groups of 12 or more individuals (Africa) or in larger congregations of 50 to several hundred individuals (India and New Zealand) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species is mainly crepuscular and forages in the early-morning and late-evening (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> It shows a preference for permanent, fresh or brackish, still or slow-flowing, sheltered, extensive wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with floating mats of water-lilies (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), tall, dense emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds <I>Phragmites</I> spp., <I>Typha</I> spp., sedge <I>Carex</I> spp., papyrus <I>Cyperus</I> spp. (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), <I>Scirpus</I> spp. or <I>Eleocharis </I>spp. (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)), muddy or sandy shorelines and patches of shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may however occur in saline, eutrophic or turbid wetlands, and may be found on small waters and seasonal or temporary wetlands (e.g. in Africa) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Suitable habitats include ponds, lakes, dams, marshes, swamps, rivers, flood-plains, artesian wells, sewage farms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and wet rice-fields (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species also extends into open habitats adjacent to wetlands including grasslands, agricultural land, parks, gardens, hedgerows and forest margins (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of plant matter including shoots, leaves, roots, stems, flowers and seeds (e.g. of <I>Typha</I> spp., <I>Scripus</I> spp., rice, grasses, sedges, <I>Rumex</I> spp., <I>Polygonum</I> spp., water-lilies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), clover <I>Trifolium</I> spp., fern <I>Salvonia repens</I>, bananas, tapioca and yam <I>Dioscorea</I> spp. (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)). It also takes animal matter including molluscs, leeches, small crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (Isopods, Amphipods and crabs) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (Coleoptera, grasshoppers, Hemiptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), earthworms (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), spiders, fish and fish eggs, frogs and frog spawn, lizards (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), water snakes <I>Natrix maura</I> (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), adult birds, bird eggs and nestlings, small rodents and carrion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup in a large substantial structure of vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) built on a platform of vegetation floating on or standing in shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) 30-120 cm deep (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and concealed in thick vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> There is evidence that the application of rabbit <I>Oryctolagus cuniculus</I> control measures may lead to an increase in nest predation on this species by rabbit-specialising predators (New Zealand) (Haselmayer and Jamieson 2001).
106002927		threats	eng	The main threats to this species are habitat loss through wetland drainage (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), habitat degradation through the introduction of exotic species (e.g. coypu <I>Myocastor coypus</I>) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), direct mortality from pesticide contamination (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Dowding <I>et al.</I> 1999) (e.g. brodifacoum, a pesticide applied aerially to exterminate rodents) (Dowding <I>et al.</I> 1999), poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins (from dense blooms of cyanobacteria in wetlands) (Alonso-Andicoberry <I>et al.</I> 2002) and hunting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <I>et al.</I> 2007) and avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (Galvin <I>et al.</I> 1985).
106002928		distribution	eng	<em>Porphyrio albus </em>is known from two skins in Liverpool and Vienna<strong> </strong>(Taylor and van Perlo 1998), several paintings, and some subfossil bones from Lord Howe Island, <strong>Australia</strong> (Marchant and Higgins 1993). Although not uncommon when discovered in 1790, the species was rapidly hunted to extinction; it had probably already vanished by the time the island was colonised in 1834<strong> </strong>(Hindwood 1940). <p></p>
106002928		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, it may have inhabited forest or marshland.  <p></p>
106002928		threats	eng	It was hunted to extinction by whalers and sailors.  <p></p>
106002929		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Since the 1960s, deer have been controlled in the Murchison Mountains. A new mainland population in the Stuart Mountains is being established with surplus birds from the Burwood Bush Captive Rearing facility (Greaves 2007)<strong></strong>. Stoat trapping is also undertaken in the mountains (Wickes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Island populations of the species are managed intensively, optimising breeding success by supplementary feeding, inter-island transfers (also minimising inbreeding), and egg manipulation (primarily removal of infertile eggs to promote re-nesting) (Bunin <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Captive-breeding efforts have increased the rate of survival to one year of age (when birds are released into the wild) by 50-60% to 90% (Maxwell and Jamieson 1997)<strong></strong>. A major review of management in 1996-1997 has been completed (Department of Conservation 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population and productivity trends, as well as carrying out research on captive populations. Establish a second mainland population, perhaps by fencing around the captive breeding centre at Burwood, and/or introducing the species to another area of Fiordland (Wickes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Promote public awareness by holding captive birds for public display and visits to islands, and through the media (Crouchley 1994)<strong></strong>. Manage the small islands as a metapopulation, with regular transfers of females between islands and periodic introductions of new breeders from the Fiordland population (Jamieson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Remove individuals with high mean kinship values from island population, and replace them with individuals from the Fiordland population to avert inbreeding depression (Grueber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Consider the introduction of birds to another island which could support a larger population. On small islands, plant clumps of native shrubs such as <em>Coprosma</em> spp. at 20-30 metre intervals in open grassy areas to provide cover from <em>C. approximans</em>. Research the viability of reintroducing bush snow-grass <span style="font-style: italic;">Chionochloa conspicua</span> throughout the Murchison Mountains.<br/><p></p>
106002929		distribution	eng	<em>Porphyrio hochstetteri</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Subfossils indicate that it was once widespread in the North and South Islands, but when "rediscovered" in 1948, it was confined to the Murchison Mountains in Fiordland (c.650 km<sup>2</sup>) (Bunin <em>et al.</em> 1997),<strong></strong> and numbered just 250-300 birds (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Having declined to its lowest point in the 1970s and 1980s, this population has fluctuated between 100 and 160 birds for the last 20 years (Maxwell 2001)<strong></strong> and is thought to be at carrying capacity (Greaves 2007)<strong></strong>. A captive-rearing programme was initiated in 1985, with the aim of raising populations for translocation to predator-free islands. Translocated populations (1984-1991) now exist on four offshore islands - Kapiti, Mana, Tiritiri Matangi and Maud - but have increased only slowly, with 55 adults in 1998 (Eason and Willans 2001), due to low hatching and fledging rates related to the level of inbreeding of the female of a given pair (Bunin <em>et al.</em> 1997, Jamieson <em>et al </em>2003)<strong></strong>. The population on Tiritiri Matangi and other small islands may be close to carrying capacity (Baber and Craig 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002929		habitat	eng	It originally occurred throughout forest and grass ecosystems. Today it is restricted to alpine tussock grasslands on the mainland and feeds primarily on juices from the bases of snow tussock and a species of fern rhizome. It eats introduced grasses on the islands. It usually lays two eggs. Chicks can begin breeding at the end of their first year, but usually start in their second. It is long-lived, probably 14-20 years (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002929		population	eng	The total population is currently estimated to number 227 adult birds, roughly equivalent to 340-350 individuals in total.
106002929		threats	eng	Introduced red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em> competing for tussock were a major factor in the post-1940s decline (Mills and Mark 1977)<strong></strong>, while a series of unusually harsh winters appears important in the recent fluctuations (Bunin and Jamieson 1995, Bunin <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Recent research has confirmed predation by introduced stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em> to also be a key threat (Crouchley 1994, Bunin and Jamieson 1996, Bunin <em>et al.</em> 1997, Wickes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Other potential competitors or predators include the introduced brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> and the threatened Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em><strong></strong> (Department of Conservation 1997). The level of inbreeding in females appears to be related to the low hatching and fledging success exhibited by small island populations (<strong></strong>Jamieson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Radio-tags have been shown to increase daily energy expenditure, which may influence mortality, particularly in hard winters (Godfrey <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. On some Tiritiri Matangi at least there is probably some predation by Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em><strong> </strong>(Baber and Craig 2003). The small island populations may be close to carrying capacity (Baber and Craig 2003)<strong></strong>: on Tiritiri Matangi the 2000-2001 breeding season was largely unsuccessful, primarily due to the increase in territorial disputes among proximal family groups (Baber and Craig 2003)<strong></strong>. The small island populations have also been shown to be threatened by inbreeding depression (Grueber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Habitat quality on some of the islands is probably in decline as reforestation reduces the area of foraging habitat (Baber and Craig 2003)<strong></strong>. Hunting by humans is likely to have contributed historically to its decline (Wickes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><p></p>
106002930		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). At the onset of the rains populations in the northern tropics move north and populations in the southern tropics move south (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), although some may remain sedentary all year round in permanent wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The timing of the breeding season varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in relation to seasonal rainfall (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), the species breeding in territorial solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with nests well spaced even when many pairs share the same area (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). In favourable conditions the species may occur at high densities and in very large numbers (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), although it is more commonly found alone, in pairs, or in family groups (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species undergoes a flightless moulting period shortly after breeding (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and is mainly diurnal (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), being most active in the early-morning and late-afternoon (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for wetlands with water-lilies and other floating vegetation (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986) (such as <I>Nymphaea</I>, <I>Nymphoides</I> and <I>Ottelia</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and frequently occupies and breeds in seasonal or temporary habitats (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include freshwater marshes, inundated grasslands, flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and river deltas (e.g. Okavango Delta) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) with grasses and sedges (e.g. <I>Oryza longistaminata</I> and <I>Cyperus fastigiatus</I>), reedbeds, papyrus swamps, rice-fields, and thick vegetation (sedges, grasses and reeds) beside lakes, rivers, ponds and temporary pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of the flowers and seeds of reeds and sedges, the seeds, stems and leaves of grasses and other marsh plants, unripe seedheads of water-lilies, and fruits of thorn bush <I>Drepanocarpus lunatus</I>, as well as earthworms, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic and terrestrial insects, spiders, fish eggs and small fish (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a loose structure of reeds, sedges and other vegetation typically positioned in reeds, grasses or tangled vegetation at the waters edge (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and also in open marshes and rice-fields (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002930		threats	eng	The species is threatened throughout its range by the destruction and modification of wetlands (especially the loss of seasonally flooded habitats) through drainage, damming and grazing (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi (Bhima 2006).
106002933		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. A biodiversity survey of Savai`i conducted by <span class="st">the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) is planned for late May 2012 which will search for this species in previously unsurveyed areas (J. Atherton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently conduct a survey to find this species and assess its status and conservation needs (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect foothill and upland forest for this and other species in north-west Savai`i (Beichle in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Train local people to do bird surveys, generally involve the community and improve awareness of the species (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999, SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Assess field sites for the study of this and other threatened species on the island (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106002933		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinula pacifica</em> is endemic to Savai`i, <strong>Samoa</strong>, where it was last recorded in 1873 (Ripley 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1984 there were two possible sightings in upland forest west of Mt Elietoga (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in October 2003 a possible sighting of two individuals was made at 990 m on Mount Sili Sili (D. Hobcroft <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recent survey of the island yielded no record of the species (J. Mittermeier <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002933		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary montane forest and most probably feeds on invertebrates, including insects. It may dig or live in burrows. One nest is described: it was found on the ground, constructed of a few twigs and some grass, and containing two eggs (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987, <strong></strong>Bellingham and Davis 1988, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It has exceptionally large eyes and may thus be nocturnal (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002933		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no definite records since 1873, but two possible sightings in 1987 and another in 2003.
106002933		threats	eng	Cats, rats, pigs and dogs have no doubt contributed to its disappearance, and hunting may also have been a factor as it was formerly a favoured food of the human population (Bellingham and Davis 1988, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Slash-and-burn cultivation threatens remaining areas of upland forest on Savai`i, as farmers use forestry roads from heavily logged lowland forests to gain access to formerly inaccessible land (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong>. Wild cattle and pigs have browsed the understorey and ground-cover along the main range (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong>. In 2000, attempts were being made by sawmill operators to clear-fell the area south of Aopo village, the site where this species was last seen (U. Beichle<em> in litt</em>. 2000).<strong></strong><p></p>
106002934		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys and interviews with local hunters between 400 m and 1,000 m elevation around Hauta in the central mountain ranges, most recently in 2006, have failed to find evidence of this species (C. Filardi <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The forests of the Hauta region are presently protected under a community sustainable use programme. A local NGO is collaboratively searching for the bird and spreading awareness of its identification, through distribution of pictures and awareness sessions in the provincial capital of Makira-Ulawa, Kirakira (C. Filardi <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Circulate coloured paintings to hunters in inland Makira to gather any information on its survival. Survey uninhabited inland mountains. Encourage tighter controls of commercial logging. Support the continuation and extension of community-based sustainable use programmes in the mountains. <p></p>
106002934		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinula silvestris</em> is known only from the type-specimen collected in 1929, and a subsequent observation of one in 1953 on Makira (= San Cristobal), <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. The 1929 collectors failed to secure more specimens and concluded that the species was already rare (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). In 1953, it was reported to be well-known to guides from Ghoghe village and to be not uncommon (Cain and Galbraith 1956). Hunters in hill villages close to the type locality reported it in 1974, but not in 1990 or subsequently (<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>J. M. Diamond <em>in litt.</em> 1987, Lees 1991, <strong></strong>Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,&#160;R. James verbally 1998, J. Waihuru verbally 1998<strong></strong>). Several weeks have been spent surveying this area without any evidence of the species's survival (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, R. James verbally 1998)<strong></strong>, but two unconfirmed reports of birds caught by dogs, in 2001, 2002 and most recently 2005, suggest it may still be extant (R. James <em>in litt. </em>2003, 2011)<strong></strong>. Furthermore, unidentified calls heard in 2004 were reported to belong to this species by local people who claimed to see it rarely, while apparently credible reports from the western part of the island in 2008 indicated that villagers were familiar with the species but did not encounter it regularly (C. Collins <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002934		habitat	eng	The specimen was taken at 600 m and the 1953 sighting was at c.450 m in the central ranges of Makira. Hunters reported that it was flightless but climbed into bushes to escape dogs. These records are from rainforest on steep, rocky hills with many small rivers but no standing water (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It has been suggested that it may also inhabit the largely unexplored swamps of north Makira (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but no evidence of it was found there in a very brief survey in 1998 (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002934		population	eng	Any surviving population assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no confirmed recent reports, despite several weeks of surveys.
106002934		threats	eng	It is likely to have declined owing to predation by introduced mammalian predators. Birds were also caught by village hunting-dogs but this was probably an uncommon and unplanned result of hunting for pigs (Cain and Galbraith 1956,&#160;Taylor and van Perlo 1998, J. Waihuru verbally 1998). Although most of the lowlands of Makira have been logged or are under logging concessions, forests on steep, rocky slopes are likely to be safe from commercial logging. Introduce snakes would likely be a threat to the species, should they become established on Makira.<p></p>
106002937		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is predominantly sedentary or locally dispersive, but makes partially or fully migratory movements in the northern parts of its range due to its vulnerability to freezing conditions (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Most northern populations move south from September to December, returning again from March to May (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species breeds in solitary territorial pairs during the spring, especially during wet months (the exact timing varying geographically) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It remains largely solitary throughout the year although juveniles and adults may form diurnal feeding groups of up to 30 individuals in the winter, especially during hard weather (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), often congregating on sheltered lakes and ponds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits freshwater wetlands, both still and moving, requiring easy access to open water (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and showing a preference for waters sheltered by woodland, bushes or tall emergent vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include slow-flowing rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), oxbow lakes (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), streams, canals, ditches, lakes, reservoirs, sites with small open water surfaces such as pools and ponds only a few metres across, swamps, marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), seasonally flooded sites (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) such as flood-plains (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), disused gravel pits, rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), sewage ponds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and occasionally mangroves (Puerto Rico)<B></B>and seashores (Azerbaijan) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It generally avoids very open sites (especially those exposed to wind or wave action) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and oligotrophic or saline habitats (although it may be found on brackish waters) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). When foraging the species may range onto drier grassland, agricultural land or meadows, and on migration and in the winter months it can often be observed on damp grassland away from water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>The species is omnivorous and opportunistic, its diet consisting of earthworms, crustaceans, molluscs, adult and larval insects (especially flies, mayflies, caddisflies, bugs, beetles and Lepidoptera), spiders, small fish, tadpoles and occasionally birds eggs, as well as plant matter such as filamentous algae, moss, the vegetative parts of reeds and aquatic plants, the seeds of reeds, rushes, sedges, water-lilies, waterside herbaceous vegetation, trees (<I>Ulmus</I> spp.) and cereal crops, flowers of <I>Eichhornia</I> spp., and the berries and fruits of yew, <I>Rubus</I>, <I>Sorbus</I>, <I>Rosa</I>, <I>Crataegus</I>, <I>Rhamnus</I>, <I>Hedera</I>, <I>Sambucus</I>, <I>Hippophae</I> spp. and various orchard trees (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest varies between a shallow saucer and a deep cup constructed from twigs and waterside vegetation, and can be floating on or positioned up to 1 m above water in emergent vegetation, or positioned on a solid platform of branches in water. Less often the nest is placed in ground vegetation or in low bushes on the bank near water, or in bushes and trees up to 8 m from the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Management information </B>Early harvesting in rice-fields should be avoided as it harms nests and young broods of this species (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002937		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.3,900,000-8,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100,000-1   million breeding pairs and &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in China;   c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100,000-1 million   breeding pairs and &gt;c.10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002937		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <I>et al. </I>2007) and avian botulism (Forrester <I>et al.</I> 1980), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. It also suffers nest predation from American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> in the UK (Ferreras and MacDonald 1999). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade in Sumatra (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and Malawi (Bhima 2006), for sport in the USA (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) , and for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
106002939		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant with movements related to seasonal rainfall, although some populations may be resident all year round in permanent habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996). The timing of the breeding season varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996), with the species breeding in solitary well-separated territorial pairs (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits permanent and temporary freshwater wetlands such as papyrus swamps, reedbeds, marshes with rushes and open water, ponds with floating vegetation (e.g. water-lilies), flood-plains and pans with emergent grass, sedges and floating plants, rank vegetation on the edges of ponds, dams, rivers and forest streams, rice-fields, flooded farmland, sewage ponds, seasonally inundated grassland (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), gravel pits (Zimbabwe) and coastal lagoons (Ghana) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998); although it shows a preference for temporary waters with abundant emergent vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of molluscs, insects (especially beetles) and vegetable matter such as the seeds and flowers of reeds (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a pad of grass or sedge with a shallow cup that is usually placed on the surface of water or up to 5 cm above it (water typically 20-100 cm deep), alternatively in emergent grass or sedges up to 1.5 m tall (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002939		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland habitat loss through draining, damming and grazing (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Utilisation</B> The species was hunted in the past for subsistence in northern Namibia (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). Currently the species is hunted for trade (at traditional medicine markets) in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001), and for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi (Bhima 2006).
106002942		distribution	eng	This species formerly occurred on mainland Australia but disappeared around 4,700 years ago, roughly coinciding with the arrival of the dingo Canis familiaris. It is now restricted to Tasmania, Australia, although the species was introduced to Maria Island, off east Tasmania, in 1969.
106002942		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of habitats from open pasture and crops to permanent and seasonal freshwater wetlands. It requires short-grazed pasture for foraging and is currently dependent on swards maintained by introduced species (sheep, cattle and rabbits); swards were formerly maintained by grazing marsupials and by fire. It always breeds near water, usually from August-November, and mostly feeds on seeds and leaves, varying with the availability of plant species. It is flightless, making it very vulnerable to introduced predators.
106002942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but is very numerous within its range and is regarded as an agricultural pest.
106002942		threats	eng	The recent spread of foxes Vulpes to Tasmania is of concern, and although they are still scarce it is likely that they will impact upon G. mortierii in the long term.
106002943		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is both sedentary and nomadic (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), often making local movements (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) in response to rainfall, water levels and the availability of its favoured foods (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) (e.g. pondweed <I>Potamogeton pectinatus</I>) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The timing of the breeding season varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is a solitary territorial breeder (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) although it is occasionally observed in family groups (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), with flocks of non-breeding individuals also occurring during the breeding season (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). After breeding the species becomes more gregarious (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), forming flocks which range in size from small groups of 10-12 individuals, to larger, loose-knit groups of 20-330 (Langrand 1990), occasionally also to large flocks of up to 1,000 or more (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Adults may undergo a flightless moult period that lasts 49-59 days at any time of the year (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). During this time moulting birds remain out on open water among full-winged birds, possibly to avoid predation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Habitat </B>The species requires wetlands with submerged aquatic vegetation and still water for foraging, and waters with fringing or emergent vegetation in which to nest when breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). During periods of flightless moult adults also prefer more permanent open waters rich in submerged aquatic vegetation (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Suitable habitats include open freshwater or slightly brackish (Langrand 1990, Gomez 2002) lakes, lagoons, ponds, dams, and permanent or temporary pans, flood-plains (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), sewage ponds, reed, papyrus and <I>Typha</I> swamps (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and occasionally rivers and tidal lagoons (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet </B>The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting predominantly of the shoots, fruits and seeds of submerged or floating aquatic plants (such as aquatic ferns <I>Marsila</I> spp., knotweed <I>Aeschynomene fluitans</I>, <I>Polygonum limbatum</I>, saw-weed <I>Najas pectinata</I>, pondweed <I>Potamogeton pectinatus</I>, ditch grass <I>Ruppia maritima</I> and water hyacinth <I>Eichhornia crassipes</I>), filamentous and macroscopic algae (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and grass, as well as molluscs, crustaceans, insects and occasionally carrion (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a platform of reeds and other aquatic plant material (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) built either on open water (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) (sometimes anchored to water-lilies or on rafts of fresh, green reeds) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), or within emergent vegetation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) on a foundation of bent and trampled stems (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). No attempt at concealing the nest is made (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although the site chosen usually facilitates quick and easy access to open water (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Management information </B>Adequate wetland management can increase the breeding success of this species (e.g. limiting the areas with grazing livestock, maintaining stable water-levels during the breeding season,<B></B>providing more vegetation for nesting and reducing disturbance can all have positive effects) (Gomez 2002).
106002943		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease. It is also threatened by poisoning, both intentionally (pest control) and unintentionally (pesticides used on crops) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is threatened in Spain and Morocco (the northernmost range extremes) primarily by habitat loss and degradation due to changes in hydrological regime, over-exploitation of catchments and sedimentation (which are altering the periods of wetland flooding), agricultural, industrial and domestic pollution, overgrazing (cattle herds), the burning of reeds, and the introduction of alien species (e.g. Louisiana Swamp Crayfish <I>Procambarus clarkii</I> and <I>Ciprinidae</I> fish which both reduce the availability of food and hence increase competition) (Gomez 2002).
106002944		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations in warm and temperate regions are resident (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often making nomadic dispersive movements according to changing water levels and seasonal rainfall (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B></B>Populations in northern Eurasia are fully migratory however, migrating on a broad front through continental Europe and across the Sahara (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Southward movements occur from mid-August to November (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), with the return passage occurring from late-February (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) to May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in dispersed solitary pairs (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), although it is largely gregarious (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with flocks (sometimes of several thousand individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998)) frequently forming during the winter (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Adults undergo a post-breeding flightless moult period, with flocks of moulting birds congregating from June-September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The species is diurnally active and roosts at sunset solitarily or in flocks (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It may feed in flocks on land, especially when winds cause high waves on water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits large, still or slow-flowing waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and shows a preference for shallow water with adjacent deeper water (e.g. &gt; 2 m) for diving (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), and muddy substrates, marginal, emergent, floating or submergent vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Habitats include eutrophic and mesotrophic (Taylor and van Perlo 1998) lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), pools, ponds, reservoirs, barrages, gravel-pits, canals, drainage ditches, dykes, oxbow lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), fish ponds (Musil 2006), creeks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and river deltas (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), as well as open marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), freshwater meadows (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), flood-lands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), freshwater and saline lagoons (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), salt-pans, clay-pans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998) and sewage ponds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). It frequently exploits temporary pools and seasonally inundated marshes when breeding (Africa) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), and may extend to quiet estuaries or inshore waters in the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It generally avoids closely overgrown, narrowly confined and very shallow waters, and those overshadowed by trees or cliffs (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). If solitary the species roosts at sunset on small islets, mudbanks, sandbanks, rocks in water, floating mats of vegetation, floating logs, or branches of trees over water, preferring to roost on open water, in shore vegetation or in meadows adjacent to water if in flocks (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Diet </B>This species is omnivorous, although its diet consists primarily of vegetable matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as algae (e.g. <I>Chara</I>, C<I>ladophora</I>, <I>Spirogyra</I>), the vegetative pasts of aquatic and terrestrial plants (e.g. waterweeds, bulrushes, reeds and grasses), the seeds of waterweeds, sedges, water-lilies, grasses and cereal crops (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), clubmoss <I>Selaginella</I> and aquatic fungi (e.g. <I>Leptomitus</I>) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Animal matter in its diet includes molluscs, adult and larval insects (especially flies, caddisflies, Odonata, Lepidoptera, beetles and bugs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Taylor and van Perlo 1998), worms, leeches, shrimps, spiders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), small fish (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), fish eggs, frogs, birds and bird eggs, and small mammals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a platform of vegetation that may be resting on the bottom of shallow water, floating or on a foundation of trampled plant matter in emergent vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also nest on artificial platforms, islands, rafts, tree stumps, tree forks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or in bushes up to 3 m above the water (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). <B>Management information </B>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg/ha, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species (Musil 2006). The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK (leaving small fish for piscivorous birds) resulted in increased winter use of the habitat by the species as result of an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes (Giles 1994). The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994).
106002944		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.8,900,000-9,800,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002944		threats	eng	This species suffers disturbance (Evans and Day 2002) and mortality (Azerbaijan) from hunting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and is poisoned by ingesting lead shot (France) (Mondain-Monval <I>et al.</I> 2002). It is also threatened by oil and petroleum pollution (Azerbaijan (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and the Kaliningrad region, Russia (Grishanov 2006)), and by habitat degradation and loss due to agricultural drainage schemes (Pakistan) (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds (Grishanov 2006). The species is often drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China) (Quan <I>et al.</I> 2002), and suffers predation from American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> (Slonsk Reserve, Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003) and UK (Ferreras and MacDonald 1999)). It is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).<B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for sport in the Mediterranean (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), Denmark (Bregnballe 2006), Northern Ireland (Evans and Day 2002) and Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006), and for food in the Mediterranean (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006), India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and neighbouring countries (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), especially when it is flightless during the post-breeding moult (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).
106002945		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Hunting was prohibited in 1939, and the species has been fully protected by US law since 1970 (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Several key wetland areas have been, or are being, acquired as refuges or sanctuaries, and other areas are protected by cooperative agreements. Predator control has been effective in increasing the productivity of many wetland species at Kanaha pond, Maui (H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study breeding seasonality and local movements (Byrd <em>et al.</em> 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine the relative importance of threats (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate whether herbicides and insecticides used on golf courses pose a serious threat to the species. Manage habitats, e.g. prevent ponds from drying out, or becoming overgrown by alien plants and create nesting islands inaccessible to introduced predators (Byrd <em>et al.</em> 1985, Engilis and Pratt 1993, H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out predator control (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the area of protected wetlands (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Where botulism is a problem, remove carcasses, manage water-levels and quality, treat sick birds and discourage or move healthy birds from affected areas (Morin 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002945		distribution	eng	<em>Fulica alai</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it is found on all the main islands except Kaho`olawe (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Formerly, it was also absent from Lâna`i, which, along with Kaho`olawe, lacked suitable wetland habitat (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Stragglers reach as far west as Kure in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It declined dramatically during the 20th century (Berger 1972)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it increased on O`ahu from the mid-1970s to the late 1980s. During this period, highly variable numbers on other islands showed no local trends (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey data from 1976 to 2003 reveal short-term population fluctuations, with a long-term slight increase in the overall population (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The current population probably fluctuates between 2,000 and 4,000 individuals, with Kaua`i, O`ahu and Maui supporting 80% of this total (, Pratt 1987, Engilis and Pratt 1993, USFWS 2005)<strong></strong>. Some 30 colonies or concentrations are known (H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002945		habitat	eng	It can be expected on virtually any body of water, including estuaries, marshes and golf course wetlands (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is typically a species of the coastal plain, usually found below 400 m, however some birds inhabit upland pools above 1,500 m on Kaua`i and montane stock ponds up to 2,000 m on Hawai`i (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding sites are characterised by robust emergent plants interspersed with open, fresh or brackish water, which is usually less than one metre deep. To some extent it is nomadic and irruptive, wandering between islands in response to the availability of water-bodies (Taylor and van Perlo 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may nest in any month of the year (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002945		population	eng	The current population is thought to fluctuate between 2,000 and 4,000 birds, roughly equivalent to 1,300-2,700 mature individuals.
106002945		threats	eng	Throughout its range, wetlands have been destroyed by drainage for cultivation and developments (Berger 1972, <strong></strong>P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, S. L. Pimm <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> such as hotels, housing areas, golf courses, shopping centres, landfill sites, military installations, roads and industrial sites (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some water-bodies have become overgrown by introduced plants (H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On O`ahu, artificial wetlands associated with sugarcane plantations have disappeared as these industries have declined on the island (P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, this has had no detectable effect on the population, based on survey data (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced predators are an additional threat (Engilis and Pratt 1993, H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. These include the black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, brown rat <em>Rattus norwegicus</em>, domestic cat and dog, small Asian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus</em> and Cattle Egret<em> Bubulcus ibis</em><strong> </strong>(M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <em>H. javanicus</em> is known to take the eggs, young birds and nesting adults of wetland bird species (USFWS 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation appears to be a serious problem on golf courses, where<em> F. alai</em> is abundant (M. Reed <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may be poisoned by insecticides and herbicides used to treat water channels on agricultural land and golf courses (Berger 1972, P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although research is required to confirm this potential threat and its severity. Outbreaks of avian botulism have caused high mortality in several areas (Morin 1996, H. C. Baker and P. E. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, E. VanderWerf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106002946		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 6,000,000 individuals.
106002947		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a thorough population survey throughout its range.  Conduct a public education campaign to discourage draining of wetlands and hunting of wetland birds. Provide alternatives to taking eggs and adults from the wild. Monitor populations at key sites throughout the region. Prioritise the protection of small wetland sites (Nijman 2010). <p></p>
106002947		distribution	eng	<em>Fulica caribaea</em> is an uncommon and local resident in northern <strong>Venezuela</strong> (especially eastern Falcon), on <strong>Haiti</strong>, <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (where it has declined markedly during the last century, mirrored throughout the region) and <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, and a rare resident on <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>British Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>US Virgin Islands (to USA) </strong>and <strong>Colombia</strong> (Taylor 1996, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Keith <em>et al. </em>2003, Hilty 2003). It is a rare wanderer in the Lesser Antilles with a few recent breeding records on <strong>Martinique (to France) </strong>and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France),</strong> regular recent breeding on <strong>Antigua and Barbuda</strong> (Antigua)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Prins <em>et al. </em>2005), and breeding is also suspected on <strong>Barbados</strong> and <strong>Trinidad and Tobago</strong> (Ffrench 1992, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It formerly bred on <strong>St Kitts and Nevis</strong>, but is now only an uncommon migrant, and it is a very rare non-breeding transient on <strong>Cuba</strong> with other records from Caicos, <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Montserrat</strong> (<strong>to</strong> <strong>UK</strong>), <strong>St Lucia</strong>, <strong>Grenada</strong>, <strong>Dominica</strong>, <strong>St Vincent and the</strong> <strong>Grenadines</strong>, <strong>Anguilla</strong> (<strong>to UK</strong>), north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> and <strong>Netherlands Antilles</strong> (Curaçao)<strong></strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Ffrench 1992, Taylor 1996, Keith <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. The population in the Dominican Republic is estimated at a minimum of 5,000-10,000 individuals (D. Wege <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, though the global population size is unknown. <em> <p></p></em>
106002947		habitat	eng	It is found on freshwater lakes, ponds, marshes and less frequently coastal brackish lagoons from lowlands to 1,350 m in Venezuela (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt. </em>2011)<strong></strong>, and in similar habitats elsewhere.    <p></p>
106002947		population	eng	Although the population in the Dominican Republic has been estimated at a minimum of 5,000-10,000 individuals (D. Wege <i>in litt.</i> 2010), there are currently no estimates for the global population size.
106002947		threats	eng	It has suffered a marked decline throughout the Caribbean as a result of hunting pressures (including the taking of eggs for local consumption), habitat degradation and introduced predators (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent research suggests that these threats have not abated, recording drainage or land reclamation as the most common threat, closely followed by hunting (including egg collection) and pollution. Only at four sites out of 49 were there no recorded threats (Nijman in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002948		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106002950		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106002953		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Laguna Pelada has some protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research threats. Carry out population census and continue to regularly monitor the population. <p></p>
106002953		distribution	eng	<em>Fulica cornuta</em> is known from a few high altitude Andean lakes in south-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Oruro in 1903, Potosí), north <strong>Chile</strong> (Tarapacá, Antofagasta, Atacama), and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca in 1918, Tucumán, San Juan)<strong></strong> (Haene and Montañez 1996). Large concentrations have been recorded only occasionally, most notably 8,988 in the Vilama and Pululos area of Argentina in October 1995 <em></em>(<em>TWSG News</em> 9 1996: 34-39), and 2,800 birds on Laguna Pelada, Bolivia, in November 1989 (Cabot and Serrano 1982). It normally occurs at low densities, with 1-10 nesting pairs at most sites, and up to 70-90 at a few (Taylor 1996, <em></em><em>TWSG News</em> 9 1996: 34-39)<strong></strong>. The Chilean population is estimated at 620 birds (Glade 1988), and Bolivia seems to hold a healthy population (Rocha and Quiroga 1996). The global population is likely to be in the range of 10,000-19,999 individuals. There is no definite evidence of a recent decline (Taylor 1996), but local populations are believed to fluctuate greatly between periods of drought and inundation.<em> <p></p></em>
106002953		habitat	eng	It inhabits high altitude Andean lakes, with dense submerged aquatic plants, primarily at 3,000-5,200 m but as low as 2,000 m in harsh weather. <p></p>
106002953		population	eng	A total of 8,988 individuals were counted in Argentina in 1995, 2,800 in Bolivia in 1982 and 620 are estimated in Chile. The total is probabaly in the range of 10,000-19,999 individuals, and probably fluctuates greatly. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106002953		threats	eng	Its fresh and brackish lakes are susceptible to contamination and vegetation trampling by cattle, and water is pumped from some to coastal towns and mines. It also suffers from hunting, egg-harvesting, and some predation by Andean Gull <em>Larus serranus</em>. <p></p>
106002954		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All six sites are Important Bird Areas, and site-conservation programmes are ongoing at four of them (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>: Menabe forest, Ankarafantsika Strict Reserve, Ankarana Special Reserve and Analamera Special Reserve. Ambatovaky, although a Special Reserve, currently lacks conservation activity. The long-term future of Ankarafantsika and Analamera as reserves is not certain (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Furthermore the Menabe forest complex is under increasing threats and even areas such as the Kirindy forest are not safe (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The newly elected national government has already re-structured a poorly managed forestry organisation in the Morondava area (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One conservation organisation is building capacity for community managed forests in the Menabe region (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population. Once a baseline population estimate has been acquired, continue to monitor population trends. Monitor habitat loss and degradation at known sites. Conserving dry forests where the species occurs should be considered a major conservation priority for Madagascar (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Curb illegal logging in the Menabe region (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop community managed forests in the Menabe region to control slash and burn agriculture and forest fires (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent vehicle access to the interior of forests (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002954		distribution	eng	<em>Mesitornis variegatus</em> is found at five sites in north and west <strong>Madagascar</strong> - Menabe forest, Ankarafantsika complex, Ankarana Special Reserve, Analamera Special Reserve and Daraina forests - and at one site in the east, Ambatovaky Special Reserve (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys have demonstrated its genuine absence from many intervening areas, including some with apparently suitable habitat. Fieldwork in the early 1990s found a minimum of 2,000 birds in the Menabe area and 6,000 at Ankarafantsika, but productivity and density appeared to be low (Hawkins 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and populations at other sites may be relictual. Ankarafantsika, in particular, is threatened by fires, and the forests of the Menabe region are heavily exploited for timber and plantations. <p></p>
106002954		habitat	eng	This inconspicuous, rail-like ground-dweller is found at highest density and with highest productivity in deciduous forest near rivers (in the south of its range) and in undisturbed deciduous forest on sand (in the north) (Hawkins 1994)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, from sea-level to 150 m (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there is one record from rainforest at 350 m (at Ambatovaky), in sympatry with <em>M. unicolor</em>. It forages for invertebrates, seeds and small insects (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in family groups of 2-4 (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106002954		population	eng	The population is estimated to number a minimum of 8,000 individuals, based on point counts at the two major sites of Menabe and Ankarafantsika. This roughly equates to 5,300 mature individuals.
106002954		threats	eng	Forest is under threat from slash-and-burn agriculture (at all sites), uncontrolled fires, logging and exploitation for charcoal/firewood (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species appears not to recolonise areas of regenerating forest (Hawkins 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is hunted opportunistically, especially in the dry season (Hawkins 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its stronghold in Menabe is currently highly threatened by continuing legal and illegal logging due to poor management by local forestry organisations of concessions such as Kirindy. The Menabe region has suffered from immigration and the resultant population growth has rapidly expanded slash-and-burn agriculture (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002955		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is known from 14 Important Bird Areas in eastern Madagascar, including seven National Parks, one Strict Reserve, four Special Reserves and one Classified Forest (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor rainforest clearance and degradation. Assess threat posed by predatory non-native mammals. Conduct interviews to assess the level of mortality from hunting. Protect remaining tracts of rainforest on the east coast through community reserves and carbon trading. <p></p>
106002955		distribution	eng	<em>Mesitornis unicolor</em> has a patchy distribution in the eastern rainforest of <strong>Madagascar (</strong>Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, known for certain from as far north as Marojejy and the Masoala peninsula and extending almost as far south as Taolañaro (Fort Dauphin). It is thinly distributed and never common, although its status is difficult to ascertain as it is secretive and rarely seen.<strong></strong><p></p>
106002955		habitat	eng	This is a ground-dwelling species of undisturbed primary, evergreen, humid forest (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to 1,200&#160;m but is most frequently encountered below 800&#160;m. It seems to prefer steep slopes and dark areas with much leaf-litter and little herbaceous growth (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on the forest floor for seeds and small insects, often in family groups of two to three (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, also gleaning from leaves and stems at ground-level (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is built 1-1.5&#160;m from the ground and clutch-size is one.<p></p>
106002955		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002955		threats	eng	Rainforest is under pressure from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, with commercial timber exploitation and hunting in some areas (Morris and Hawkins 1998; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Near villages, dogs and rats <em>Rattus</em> may predate the species as it is a reluctant flier (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106002956		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The spiny forest of south-west Madagascar has been identified as the biogeographic region in greatest need of additional reserves nationally (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The northern part of this region, to which the species is restricted, is entirely unprotected and is suffering the most rapid degradation (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Potential conservation measures have recently been recommended for the area, designed in consultation with local communities (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Continue to monitor the clearance of spiny forest. Establish a coordinated network of community-based conservation areas, including a large protected area (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve agricultural efficiency and control charcoal production. <p></p>
106002956		distribution	eng	<em>Monias benschi</em> is restricted to a narrow coastal strip, originally 30-60 km wide and 200 km long, in south-western <strong>Madagascar</strong> between the Fiherenana and Mangoky rivers. It is common within suitable habitat, occurring at population densities of 0.2-0.3 individuals per ha (Seddon 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although such habitat is threatened in the north-central, eastern and southern parts of this species's range, there is a fairly large intact block (c.2,500 km<sup>2</sup>) north of Manombo (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2002, the total population was estimated to be 115,000 individuals (Tobias and Seddon<em> </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002956		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to dry, deciduous spiny forest, 5-15 m high, on sandy soil, with an abundance of <em>Didierea</em> trees, also tolerating highly degraded forest (A.F.A. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 1995; Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and inhabiting very low-stature, sparse coastal scrub Seddon <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds by picking invertebrates (and some seeds) from under the litter layer by a combination of shallow probing, flicking over dead leaves, and digging in sand. Although adapted for flight, the species in fact only flies to reach elevated roost sites and nests, and evade predators (Seddon <em>et al.</em> (2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds all-year round in cooperative groups of 2-9 individuals, which defend territories of 7-21 (mean of 14.9) ha (Seddon 2001; Tobias and Seddon<em> </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In contrast to all other bird species in the same habitat, the species can continue to breed through the dry season and access food resources such as termites and buried invertebrate larvae (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a loosely woven platform of twigs, c.15 cm in diameter and c.5 cm deep, with a very shallow cup lined with fresh lichen. Breeding groups are known to construct up to five nests in a breeding season. It has been observed that one or, more commonly, two eggs are laid in each nest. Some populations are male-biased, perhaps due to higher female mortality during diurnal incubation and dispersal (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The generation span (average age of breeding birds) is probably more than five years (Tobias and Seddon<em> </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002956		population	eng	Tobias and Seddon (2002) provided estimates of the species's population size using five methods, the most reliable of which yielded an estimate of 115,000 individuals. The other methods gave estimates ranging from 98,000 to 152,000 individuals, and these figures are taken as the species's population range.
106002956		threats	eng	Overall, primary spiny forest cover has declined by 15.6% between 1962 and 1999, although in the eastern part of this species's range, it has declined by c.28% (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000; Tobias and Seddon<em> </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such clearance is mainly for slash-and-burn cultivation of maize and for charcoal production (both are increasing; Seddon 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and more locally for construction material and commercial timber (Seddon <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by dogs and trappers occurs, and introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> may pose a threat, at least locally (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106002957		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common and widespread in the Tibetan plateau but it is declining in the former USSR (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002958		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as irregular over its Chinese range, although common in some areas (Madge and McGowan 2002). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals.
106002959		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10,000-21,000 breeding pairs, equating to 30,000-63,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 130,000-1,500,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002960		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
106002961		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocles exustus</span> has a native range encompassing <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mauritania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Senegal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Gambia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mali</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niger</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chad</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Eritrea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Somalia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tanzania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Saudi Arabia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Yemen</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Oman</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">United Arab Emirates</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iran</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">floweri</span>, endemic to central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Egypt</span>, was last seen in 1979 and is probably extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997).
106002961		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread throughout most of its range and locally abundant in the Sahel region (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002962		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common throughout most of its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon and local (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002964		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 28,000-62,000 breeding pairs, equating to 84,000-186,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500,000-4,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106002965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in most parts of its range, although uncommon in northern west Africa and common to abundant in Algeria (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002966		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in south and west Madagascar and less common in the north (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002967		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in Ethiopia, southern Somalia and parts of Kenya (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002968		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and widespread (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002969		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest sandgrouse in west Africa and uncommon in Kenya (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002970		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in parts of India and generally rare in Pakistan (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002971		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to locally common, although uncommon in west Africa, Sudan and Kenya (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002972		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in Botswana, locally common in Transvaal state, South Africa; common in eastern Namibia, abundant in Gemsbok National Park and uncommon in Angola (Madge and McGowan 2002).
106002975		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
106002977		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Management actions completed or underway include extensive surveys in New South Wales, Victoria and south-east South Australia, detailed research on habitat requirements, recovery planning in New South Wales and Victoria, and incorporation of habitat in the protected-areas estate in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Locust control spraying is now regulated in the species's habitat.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Refine population estimates in Queensland and northern South Australia. Monitor populations and habitat condition, and provide feedback to land-holders. Survey for suitable habitat in New South Wales and Queensland and identify areas of high conservation value for the species. Determine the effects of locust control. Purchase a reserve in the Riverina of over 200 km<sup>2</sup>. Negotiate refuge areas, ensuring Plains-wanderer habitat is not cultivated, has a 2 km buffer from cultivated land wherever possible, is not overgrazed during drought and is integrated into a regional conservation plan (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Continue to advocate the use of Green Guard® biological control agent for locust control in Plains-wanderer habitat (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002). Establish a recovery team.<br/><p></p>
106002977		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Pedionomus torquatus</span> is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. It is recorded from north-central Victoria, eastern South Australia, southern New South Wales around the Riverina and west-central Queensland (Baker-Gabb 2002; Barrett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). The population is estimated to vary from c.2000 birds during periods of widespread drought to c.5500–7000 birds after several successive seasons with favourable conditions (Baker-Gabb 2002). A significant proportion of the population occurs in the Riverina region. Here, the population may be as high as 5,500 birds after good years, but can decline to about 1,000 in poor years (Baker-Gabb 2002). The population in west-central Queensland is estimated at 1000 birds, and the north-central Victorian and South Australia populations may hold 500 birds each during good years (Maher and Baker-Gabb 1993; Baker-Gabb 2002). Surveys in the Riverina reveal an on-going decline, with an encounter rate of 0.13 birds/km in 4,286 km of monitoring during the dry years of 2001–2007, compared to 0.3 birds/km in 2,121 km of monitoring in the wetter years of 1984–1986 (Baker-Gabb 2002; Birds Australia 2008).<br/><p></p>
106002977		habitat	eng	It favours sparse grasslands with c.50% bare ground, widely spaced plants up to 0.1 m high and remaining standing vegetation less than 0.05 m in height. It is sedentary for as long as the habitat remains suitable. May occasionally use lower-quality habitat including cereal stubble, but cannot persist in an agricultural landscape (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Habitat mapping of 2.3 million ha in the Riverina showed that just 2.3% was primary habitat suitable all year round and 4.3% was secondary habitat that may be periodically occupied (Roberts and Roberts 2001). The female lays 3–5 eggs in a shallow, grass-lined scrape (Marchant and Higgins 1993; Baker-Gabb 1998).<p></p>
106002977		population	eng	The population is estimated to vary from between 5,500–7,000 in good years  to around 2,000 birds during periods of  widespread drought (Baker-Gabb  2002, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals.
106002977		threats	eng	The cultivation of native grassland has virtually extinguished the species from southern South Australia and Victoria and is increasing across the Riverina. Even if left to recover, habitat remains unsuitable for decades. Where patches survive, they are often too few and dispersed to be suitable. High levels of grazing cause the desertion of an area, possibly because birds become too vulnerable to predators. Pesticides for locust control may kill birds, directly or indirectly through the food chain. Foxes may be significant predators near crops. <p></p>
106002978		distribution	eng	This species has a large global population estimated to be 15,000,000-16,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002).   </P>
106002978		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The species is sedentary on Atlantic islands (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and in some areas in south-western maritime countries (Snow and Perrins 1998) but is otherwise strongly migratory (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The spring migration starts at the end of February (Ferrand <I>et al.</I> in prep) (the timing of this movement being closely related to temperature), with the species arriving on the breeding grounds between March and mid-May. In Europe, the species breeds from the end of February to July (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The autumn migration to the wintering grounds is largely governed by the timing of the first winter frosts (e.g. from October to November) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is typically solitary and usually migrates singly or in groups of 5-6 (Snow and Perrins 1998). Individuals may also become aggregated by topography or weather conditions, especially when migrating overland or where food and shelter are restricted (Snow and Perrins 1998). It typically forages nocturnally during the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The distribution of earthworms is an important habitat characteristic for the species throughout the year (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Breeding</I> For breeding the species requires extensive unfragmented areas (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of broadleaved deciduous or mixed broadleaved/coniferous forest (Johnsgard 1981) containing a dense undergrowth of shrubs and ground cover (Lutz and Pagh Jensen<I> </I>in prep) (e.g. of brambles <I>Rubus spp</I>., holly <I>Ilex aquifolium</I>, hazel <I>Corylus avellana</I>, gorse <I>Ulex</I> spp., bracken <I>Pteridium</I> spp. or bilberry <I>Vaccinium myrtillus</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Lutz and Pagh Jensen<I> </I>in prep) and with a mosaic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of dry, warm resting places, moist areas for foraging (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) (e.g. streams, springs or damp, swampy patches) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and clearings or other open areas as flight paths (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species may also nest in swampy forests with mossy ground, brooks and other watercourses or alternatively in coniferous forest with moist leaf litter and an undergrowth of broadleaved shrubs and ferns (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species's habitats requirements during the daylight hours of the non-breeding season are similar to its breeding habitat requirements but are less restricted (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). As well as extensive broadleaved or mixed broadleaved/coniferous forest (Johnsgard 1981) the species will also occupy young conifer plantations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), hedges with high densities of trees and shrubs (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b), smaller woods, areas of scrub (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and coppiced habitats with coppice of between 7 and 20 years old (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It still shows a strong preference for woodlands with rich (e.g. mull) humus types that have high earthworm biomasses, and a dense shrub strata however (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b). At night during this season the species gathers to roost and feed in damp, earthworm-rich, permanent grasslands (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b) sometimes 3-4 km away from woodland areas used for cover during the day (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), showing a preference for grazed meadows compared to cultivated fields (as the latter contain higher earthworm biomasses) (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b). The species may also feed on intertidal mud during freezing weather (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of earthworms, especially during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), but the species may also take adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, earwigs and millipedes), spiders, slugs, leaches, ribbon worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and plant material such as seeds, fruit, agricultural grain (e.g. oats and maize), and grass roots and leaves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Small freshwater bivalve molluscs and crustaceans are also taken by migrating birds (Johnsgard 1981). The composition of the diet may differ between the sexes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression in the ground concealed by shrubs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in open wooded sites (Johnsgard 1981), often at the base of a tree or near a dead fallen branch or log (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Management information</B> In France, both wintering and breeding populations have been monitored since the beginning of the 1990s (Ferrand <I>et al.</I> 2006); in autumn-winter, the monitoring is based on indexes of abundance from data collected by hunters (approx. 1,000) and ringers (approx. 400); in spring, the monitoring is based on censuses of roding males in May-June carried out by a network of 400 observers; wintering population seems to be slightly increasing (1992-2007). Annual success of reproduction is estimated from analysis of wings collected by hunters (mainly in France (Ferrand <I>et al.</I> 2006) and Denmark (Clausager 2006)) and from ringing data (5,000 individuals every year in France). Hunting bags are regularly estimated in some Europeans countries, especially in Denmark (Clausager 2006), in the European part of Russia (Blokhin <I>et al.</I> 2006), in Finland, in Sweden (Ferrand and Gossmann 2001) and in Switzerland. The annual European hunting bag is estimated at 3-4 million birds (Ferrand and Gossmann 2001). Bag limits are applied in different European countries, especially in France, Italy and Portugal (Ferrand and Gossmann 2001). In Britain an appropriate method of surveying the species was found using data on seasonal and evening patterns of summer male display (Hoodless <I>et al.</I> 2006). It was found that in Britain the best months for surveying the species are May and June, and that the detection of 83% of male passes at a fixed point should be possible in a survey lasting 1 hour and commencing 15 minutes before sunset (Hoodless <I>et al.</I> 2006). There is evidence from France that hunting reserves may be efficient tools for conserving wintering woodcocks, but only if buffer zones at least 1 km wide where hunting pressures are kept low and under-control are in place around reserves (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005a). In France it was also found that forestry management practices should preserve rich humus types and coppices by choosing tree species that ameliorate the soil and by soil tilling (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b). The species may also benefit from set-aside land, grass field-borders and the simplification of farm practices (e.g. by reducing soil tilling and direct sowing) (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b).
106002978		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.10,000,000-26,000,000 individuals   (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002978		threats	eng	<I>Breeding</I> The most significant threat to the species in its breeding range is the increased fragmentation of woodlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is threatened by the disappearance of permanent grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and through the intensification of agricultural practices (e.g. the destruction of hedges, decreases in the number of permanent grazed meadows and the impoverishment of soil fauna as a result of ploughing and chemical application) (Duriez <I>et al.</I> 2005b). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (both in its breeding and wintering range) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the viurs (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted in Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006).
106002979		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan. Yuwandake National Wildlife Protection Area, and Kinsaku-baru Prefecture Protection Area have been established on Amami-ooshima. Yonaha-dake has been designated as a prefecture protection area on Okinawa-jima. On Amami-ooshima, <em>S. rusticola</em> has been given special protection in order to prevent accidental shooting of <em>S. mira</em>. A radio-telemetry study of its home range was completed in the early 1990s and 2000s. Small Indian mongoose has been actively controlled by the Ministry of the Environment since 2002 with benefits to the woodcock. Censuses along mountain roads in the breeding season (twice a year, mainly in March and June), observations with ringed and radio transmitter fitted birds, and automatic camera surveys are now performed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Restore the remaining areas of forest on the islands where it occurs. Increase control of introduced cats and dogs and continue efforts to control small Indian mongoose. Monitor the status of the population on Amami-ooshima, particularly to determine the impact of introduced predators. Conduct surveys and ecological research on the islands where it occurs. <p></p>
106002979		distribution	eng	<em>Scolopax mira</em> is endemic to the Nansei Shoto Islands in southern <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is recorded from the islands of Amami-ooshima, Kakeroma-jima, Toku-no-shima, Okinawa-jima and Tokashiki-jima. On Amami-ooshima, it was reported to be common in the mid-1980s and is mainly confined to the western half and the eastern tip of the island. Numbers around the Naze area of Amami City have declined markedly. On Toku-no-shima, it was reportedly reasonably common in the mid-1980s, but it seems to be uncommon on Okinawa, where its population is believed to be small and confined to the northern part of the island. Its population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. Declines are thought to have continued until 2002, but following conservation efforts since then, including the control of mongooses, as well as a decline in forestry, it may have begun to recover (T. Mizuta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002979		habitat	eng	It occurs in subtropical, evergreen, broadleaved hill forest, sometimes with cycads, where it prefers damp and shady areas of the forest floor. It has been suggested that some birds migrate from Amami-ooshima to more southerly islands in winter, but this remains uncertain.  <p></p>
106002979		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &lt; c.10,000 individuals (based on recent   records and surveys by BirdLife International 2001 and Rose and Scott 1997).   Recent surveys suggest that the total population including immature birds may   now exceed 10,000 individuals but whether the number of mature individuals is   greater than 10,000 requires clarification. It is placed in the band   2,500-9,999 mature individuals here, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in   total, rounded to 3,500-15,000 individuals. The population in Japan has been   estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106002979		threats	eng	On Amami-ooshima, large areas of mature forests have been clear-cut and replaced by young secondary forests. On Okinawa-jima, the area of forest has declined and there is a continuing but reduced level of deforestation in its range (T. Mizuta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Despite a decline in forestry during the past decade, forestry activities continue to threaten the  species (T. Mizuta<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). There have been significant population declines in areas of good habitat where small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus </em>was common, suggesting high levels of predation. Since 2002, there has been some control of mongooses and the predation risk may have decreased. Feral dogs and cats remain potential predators however. The species may suffer some mortality to vehicles on Amami-ooshima, as it is often observed on roads (T. Mizuta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002980		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the size of the population and the extent of its distribution. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs. <p></p>
106002980		distribution	eng	<em>Scolopax saturata</em> is endemic to Java and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Its range and status are poorly known, but it is seen with regularity at Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, Java.  <p></p>
106002980		habitat	eng	It occurs in damp, primary montane forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m and appears not to tolerate habitat disturbance<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Hayman <em>et al. </em>1986).  <p></p>
106002980		threats	eng	Although the forests of Java and Sumatra are under high pressure from logging and conversion to oil palm plantations, montane forests are relatively secure. <p></p>
106002981		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Lore Lindu National Park.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the size of the population and the extent of its distribution. Investigate its tolerance of degraded forest and the extent of predation by feral cats. Protect large areas of unlogged montane forest in areas where it occurs. <p></p>
106002981		distribution	eng	<em>Scolopax celebensis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (not the south-east peninsula but a recent record from the east peninsula), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, although it is known from very few localities (BirdLife International 2001). It is possibly fairly common and overlooked in appropriate habitat. There have been few recent records, although it has been recorded in Lore Lindu National Park in 2000 (close to Hanggira village) and at Tomado in 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Mole and Wangko 2006),   there must be concern that it is local, and declining.  <p></p>
106002981		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest and bamboo thickets at 1,700-2,300 m, possibly down to 1,100 m. The 2001 reports came from a small stream.  <p></p>
106002981		threats	eng	It is possibly affected by habitat disturbance and loss, and even by the spread of feral cats into montane Sulawesi. As a species of montane habitats, it is potentially impacted by the effects of projected climate change.<br/><p></p>
106002982		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Bacan, it probably occurs in Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve. On Obi, there are two further proposed protected areas, Pulau Obi and Danau Saku (whose fringing forests might support a population). It remains to be determined whether these are the most appropriate areas for the conservation of threatened, endemic avifauna. Given that they are the most mountainous parts of either island, they are probably ideally situated to conserve this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys on both islands (particularly within proposed protected areas) to establish its distribution, population status, ecological requirements and main threats. Support the effective management of Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve (Bacan) and the establishment of protected areas at Pulau Obi and Danau Saku (Obi), ensuring that these are suitably designed and situated. Devise and implement further conservation measures on each island. <p></p>
106002982		distribution	eng	<em>Scolopax rochussenii</em> is endemic to the islands of Obi and Bacan, North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from eight specimens (the most recent collected in 1980) (BirdLife International 2001). It was not observed during surveys on both islands in 1991-1992, but a local guide convincingly reported it to inhabit the interior of Obi. Furthermore, historical accounts report a local name ascribed to the species, indicating at least a degree of familiarity with it. Thus, although nothing is known about its population, it may not be as rare as current evidence suggests. <p></p>
106002982		habitat	eng	It is assumed, based on good anecdotal evidence, to be a bird of tropical montane forest. A local guide on Obi in 1991-1992 stated that it inhabits interior forests, where it is sometimes flushed (from very close range) on ridgetops above c.500&#160;m during dry periods. It is assumed to be resident, but may make local elevational movements.<p></p>
106002982		population	eng	A population estimate of 2,500-9,999 mature individuals has been interpreted from information in BirdLife International (2001): based on small area of hill forest on Bacan and Obi, the population of this forest wader is unlikely to be high. This would equate to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Verification of this estimate is desirable.
106002982		threats	eng	Bacan and Obi are both small islands, with limited hill and montane forest. There are no gazetted protected areas on either island and any deforestation is likely to cause difficulties for the species. Much lowland forest on Obi has been logged or is under logging concession, and illegal gold mining is reported to be destroying further areas of forest. On Bacan, Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve embraces just over 100 km<sup>2</sup> of upland forest, but its lowland forest (at least) is under pressure from agricultural encroachment and gold mining. It is possible that hunting is an additional threat, although this remains to be confirmed. <p></p>
106002984		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.11,000-110,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50   wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002985		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002986		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It has been recorded in numerous protected areas, but many are remote and lack sufficient resources to provide adequate protection. Amongst the most important are Wolong Biosphere Reserve (China), Langtang, Shey-Phoksundo and Sagarmatha National Parks (Nepal) and Hoang Lien Nature Reserve (Vietnam). A survey for the species was carried out in Langtang National Park (Nepal) in March-June 2007 (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).</span><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys throughout its breeding and wintering ranges to establish its current distribution, status, seasonal movements and major threats. Identify key sites and campaign for their protection where appropriate. Research its ecological and habitat requirements, particularly its tolerance of habitat degradation in wintering areas. Promote conservation awareness campaigns to reduce hunting in and around protected areas known to support populations. <p></p>
106002986		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinago nemoricola</em> breeds locally in the Himalayas of north-west and north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong> and south-east Tibet, central Sichaun and perhaps Yunnan, <strong>China</strong> (BirdLife International 2001), as further suggested by a recent record from Pudacuo National Park (J. Fjeldså and A. Krištín <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In winter, it occurs at lower altitudes in the Himalayas, as a regular visitor in small numbers to northern <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and as a vagrant (or perhaps irregular visitor) to the hills of central and southern India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, north Thailand and Laos. Historically, it was considered rare and local across much of its range. It appears to have declined in traditional wintering areas in parts of India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand and Laos, from where there have been few recent records. Its population in Nepal is estimated at fewer than 350 individuals (C. Inskipp and H. Baral<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), and its global population is estimated to include fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. The species is likely to be under-recorded in Nepal, as few birdwatchers visit its breeding areas at the right time of year (C. Inskipp and H. Baral<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106002986		habitat	eng	It breeds from April through to June, in alpine meadows and marshes with scattered low bushes, or in dwarf scrub in barren, boulder-strewn areas, generally between 3,000 and 5,000 m, and at least occasionally down to 2,100 m, with one historical breeding record from 1,200 m. In winter, it frequents swampy ground in and at the edge of evergreen forest and marshy grassland and scrub, below 3,000 m, sometimes down to lowland plains (below 100 m). Populations are partially migratory, with some birds travelling from the Himalayas to south India. <p></p>
106002986		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, from analysis of a detailed account of recent records in BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Further documentation is desirable.
106002986		threats	eng	During the early 20th century, hunting was probably a major cause of decline. It remains a local threat, particularly in China and South-East Asia. Habitat loss is now the key threat, with substantial losses and degradation of evergreen forest, wooded wetlands, marshes and swamps in its wintering areas as a result of drainage, clearance for tea plantations, and conversion to both commercial and shifting agriculture. In Nepal at least, the species is threatened by high grazing pressure from livestock in its breeding habitats of subalpine shrubland and grasslands between May and September, causing habitat degradation, disturbance and probably the trampling of nests (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A high volume of tourist traffic to Langtang National Park is considered a threat to the species owing to the resultant habitat degradation and disturbance, but this is unlikely to be a concern in more remote protected areas in Nepal, at least for the foreseeable future (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106002987		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and travels over land on a broad front between its breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from late-May to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) after which it migrates in small flocks of 5-10 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species also overwinters in small groups (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> It breeds in Arctic and boreal wetlands up to 2,300 m above sea-level on damp meadows along river valleys (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), in grassy and mossy swamps (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), swampy taiga forest (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), sphagnum bogs (Johnsgard 1981) and shrub tundra with patches of dwarf birch <I>Betula nana</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its wintering range the species inhabits a wider variety of wetland habitats including flooded paddy-fields, wet grasslands, seepage swamps and marshland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often foraging on the muddy shorelines of swamps and along streams (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of molluscs, adult and larval insects, earthworms and occasionally crustaceans, seeds and other plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression<B></B>usually well-concealed in dense cover (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002987		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.50,000-2,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106002987		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> The species is subject to hunting pressures throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002988		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from May to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in scattered solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and forages singly (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Coates and Bishop 1997) or in dispersed flocks outside of the breeding season (Coates and Bishop 1997). The species is crepuscular and nocturnal in its foraging activities (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> It breeds in open deciduous or mixed deciduous/evergreen woodland, showing a preference for grassy areas near marshes and streams (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), clearings (Johnsgard 1981), clear-cut areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), woodland along river valleys (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and open regions of forest with meadows, thickets and young stands of aspen <I>Populus</I> spp. or birch <I>Betula</I> spp. (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). It generally avoids very wet or boggy sites during this season (Johnsgard 1981) but may occur on alpine meadows near the treeline (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> In it's non-breeding range the species occurs in dense growths of grass and rushes around the edge of fresh and brackish (Higgins and Davies 1996) marshes (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), swamps, pools, small streams, rice paddy-fields, sewage ponds (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), rank grassland (Higgins and Davies 1996, Coates and Bishop 1997) and dry cultivated areas (e.g. with crops of rapeseed and wheat) (Higgins and Davies 1996). It may also be observed foraging among hummocks or on mudflats around seepage areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of earthworms, adult and larval insects (e.g. glow-worms, beetles, ants and grasshoppers) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), terrestrial molluscs (Johnsgard 1981) and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a simple scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) placed on dry substrates (Johnsgard 1981) with short grass (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) on slight elevations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or mounds (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) in swamps and bogs (Johnsgard 1981), amongst bushes, or in the open in forest meadows (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106002988		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106002989		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. An international single species action plan was published in 2004 (R. Ekblom<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. National action plans for this species have been published for several countries, including Sweden, Estonia, Ukraine and Latvia (R. Ekblom<em> in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish coordinated monitoring programmes in all countries within the species's distribution range to monitor trends. Research population numbers and trends in Russia. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Investigate the impact of climate change on the species and determine mitigation measures. Work with farmers and land managers to ensure the use of favourable land management. Initiate changes in agricultural practices through EU and national policies.<br/><p></p>
106002989		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinago media</em> breeds primarily in <strong>Russia</strong>, east to 95°E (150,000-250,000 males), with large numbers in <strong>Belarus</strong> (12,000-20,000 males) and <strong>Norway</strong> (10,000-20,000 mature individuals [J. A. Kålås <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>). It also breeds in <strong>Poland</strong>, <strong>Finland</strong>, <strong>Sweden </strong>(1,800 lekking males [Ekblom and Carlsson 2007]), <strong>Estonia</strong> (500-700 males [Kålås <em>et al.</em> 1997]), <strong>Latvia</strong>, <strong>Lithuania</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong> and <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>. The Scandinavian population probably numbers 13,000-25,000 mature individuals (J. A. Kålås <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The total population is estimated at 500,000-1,050,000 individuals (V. Morozov <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It should be noted that the estimation of effective breeding populations from numbers of lekking males is difficult as possibly only 50% of males obtain matings (J. A. Kålås <em>in litt</em>. 2007). From early August, it migrates through central Asia, central and south-eastern Europe (notably <strong>Turkey</strong> and <strong>Cyprus</strong>)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Tunisia </span>and <strong>Egypt</strong>, with birds gathering in wet high-plateau grasslands in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> (J. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999). When these dry out in October, birds follow the rains south and west to <strong>Sudan, South Sudan</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, <strong>Congo</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Angola</strong> and <strong>Namibia</strong>. Its range has contracted and numbers have declined since the late 19th century.<br/><p></p>
106002989		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds from mid-May to early-July and nests solitarily, although it has a polygamous mating system (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Males form leks after sunset (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> from May to July, each lek holding 5-30 males (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The departure from the breeding grounds occurs from early-August onwards, with the species arriving on its wintering grounds just after the rainy season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is generally solitary on migration although groups of up to 10 have been recorded (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the non-breeding grounds it is also predominantly solitary but sometimes occurs in small scattered flocks (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It usually forages singly or in small groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The return northward migration occurs on a broad front across Africa between March and April (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The southern breeding birds go directly to their breeding grounds, while the northern breeding birds probably use more southern roosting sites while waiting for the breeding areas to become available in early June. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Nesting habitats include flood-plain and tussock meadows, natural fens with scattered bushes and peatlands up to 1,200 m (J. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in lowland interior taiga and wooded tundra (Cramp and Simmons 1983). In the Scandinavian mountains it breeds along the tree line. It shows a preference for habitats rich in sub-surface invertebrates and medium density scrub cover for nesting, often in wide river valleys (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Although generally associated with moist to wet terrain, it is tolerant of wooded, and occasionally well-drained sites that adjoin bogs or marshes (Cramp and Simmons 1983). A considerable area of marshy ground may be essential for display purposes (Cramp and Simmons 1983). Many sites are fringed with willow <em>Salix</em>, alder<em> Alnus</em> and Birch <em>Betula</em> growing as scrub or woodland, or burnt areas in course of regrowth (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It favours areas where the ground is covered with mosses, lichens and dead and decaying leaves (Johnsgard 1981). Juveniles are often found around springs in steppe, or even in wheatfields (Cramp and Simmons 1983).<em> Non-breeding </em>On migration it  occurs in drier meadows but also on sedge marshes with <em>G. gallinago</em>.<em> </em>It gathers on wet high-plateau grasslands in Ethiopia (J. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999) before these dry out in October, after which it follows the rains south and west (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. During the winter it frequents wetland areas, including marshlands and short grass or sedges on lake edges or in flooded fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is also found in drier habitats such as moorland, sand dunes (Johnsgard 1981), tracks in wooded areas, in plough furrows and occasionally at puddles on dirt roads or in old cultivation (Cramp and Simmons 1983).<em> </em><strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of earthworms as well as gastropods, adult and larval terrestrial insects (beetles, tipulids), and the seeds of marsh plants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression with a slight lining of grass or moss (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It is situated on the ground or on grassy tussocks in swamps (Johnsgard 1981). It is often completely concealed in thick vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> but may be fairly exposed (Johnsgard 1981). <p></p>
106002989		population	eng	There are an estimated 13,000-25,000 mature individuals in Scandinavia (roughly equivalent to 15,000-40,000 total individuals) (J. A. Kålås <em>in litt.</em> 2007) and 450,000-1,000,000 individuals in W Siberia and NE Europe (V. Morozov <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106002989		threats	eng	Rapid declines in the southern forest and forest-steppe zones of Russia and Ukraine are largely a result of the destruction and deterioration of nesting habitats. The main causes of habitat loss are conversion to intensive agriculture (Kålås <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, wetland drainage and the submergence of river valleys during the creation of reservoirs. It is also hunted in eastern Europe and in its wintering range (Kålås 2003)<strong></strong>, with reports of several thousands killed in just 15-20 days in Amasia, Armenia (L. Balyan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2008). Habitat loss due to climate change may represent the most severe threat to the Scandinavian population (R. Ekblom<em> in litt</em>. 2007, J. A. Kålås <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106002991		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is mainly sedentary (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) although it is subject to local movements associated with the drying of temporary floods (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), sometimes moving several hundred kilometres away from nesting sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In East Africa it also descends to lower altitudes after breeding (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is usually found feeding in small numbers or scattered groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and nesting solitarily (not closer than 30 m) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It is also least active during the middle of the day (although it is not crepuscular) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Habitat</B> This species is always found associated with freshwater or brackish wetlands, and is typically found on vleis, marshes, highland bogs, wetlands around artificial water bodies, ditches, inland deltas (e.g. the flood plain of the Okavango River) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), swampy lake edges, seasonally flooded grasslands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and wet moorlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It most frequently occurs at high altitudes (1,500 m in Ethiopia and north-east Africa, occasionally reaching up to 4,000 m) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and typically nests at between 1,800-2,700 m in East Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although it can also be found on lowland wetlands inhabiting shallow estuaries and lagoons (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species also favours soft muddy areas among shallowly flooded vegetation on which to feed (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Diet</B> The diet of this species mainly consists of the larvae of beetles, dragonflies and flies, annelid worms, small crustaceans, molluscs and sometimes seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a pad of grass leaves hidden in a tuft of grass or fine rushes, surrounded by flooded or moist ground (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), often where grazing animals have opened up muddy patches and paths (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106002991		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation in Kenya (such as decreases in the area of natural pasture, lake-edge and stream-edge marshes; agricultural expansions; and increases in the area of lake mudflats due to increased siltation and reduced water supply) owing to encroachment, overgrazing, burning and the drainage of wetland areas by peasant farmers (Gichuki <I>et al.</I> 2006). A population in Zimbabwe recently crashed after an extreme drought, and the species is may also be threatened by future outbreaks of avian botulism (Blaker 1967, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106002992		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, which came into force for the country in 1999, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain an up-to-date population estimate, and develop monitoring to establish population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss. Study the impact of hunting on the species. Discourage and control hunting as appropriate. Protect important wetland sites. <p></p>
106002992		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinago macrodactyla</em> is found in the humid eastern half of <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from sea-level up to 2,700 m, being more common above 700 m (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded from Tsaratanana in the north to Madena in the south-east, and from the eastern coast to the Sakay river on the western side of the central plateau (R. Safford <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been recorded on Ile Sante Marie (R. Safford <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is uncommon (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, but may be locally common at some sites (R. Safford <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and although the total population has been estimated at 1,800-7,500 individuals (F. Hawkins<em> in litt</em>. to Wetlands International 2002<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the true population size is likely to be at the higher end of this estimate (R. Safford <em>pers. comm. </em>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002992		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is presumed to be sedentary, and breeding has been observed during the months of July-January (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season it is fairly gregarious and often observed foraging in small groups of 4-8 individuals (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It inhabits dense vegetation and muddy areas, including grassy and sedge-covered marshes and swamps  muddy shores of lakes and watercourses, flooded fields and sometimes rice-paddies (Langrand 1990; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>Breeding has been recorded in a grassy swamp with dry hummocks (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and plants (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is placed in a dense tuft of grass in or adjacent to marshland (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One nest has been described, and it consisted of a depression in a dry hummock, scantily lined with grass (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106002992		population	eng	The total population was previously estimated at 1,800-7,500 individuals (F. Hawkins <i>in litt.</i> 2002). However, the population size is likely to lie in the upper end of this estimate (R. Safford pers. comm. 2010), hence the population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106002992		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the increasing conversion of wetland-edge habitat to rice cultivation (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. For example, at the largest block of suitable wetland habitat in Madagascar, Lake Alaotra, 250 km<sup>2</sup> of the 350 km<sup>2</sup> surrounding the lake are now under rice production (Edhem 1993; Pidgeon 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by hunting (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106002995		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas; for example, in Ecuador, stable populations are present in Limpiopungu Lagoon in Cotopaxi National Park and a private reserve in the Yanacocha area (Cisneros-Heredia 2006), and it is found in Chingaza National Park in Colombia<strong></strong> (Fundación ProAves in press). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys in order to estimate the total population size and rate of decline. Implement an outreach and education campaign to reduce hunting pressure. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives protection.  <p></p>
106002995		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinago nobilis</em> occurs in the northern Andes of South America, from north-western <strong>Venezuela</strong> through central <strong>Colombia</strong> and into <strong>Ecuador</strong>. No population estimates are available, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly numerous (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Hilty 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Restall <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. No movements are known and the species is presumably sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). Localised declines have been noted in recent years, for example at La Mica Lagoon in Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia 2006). <p></p>
106002995		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane grassy wetlands, swamps and bogs, wet savanna and pasture and reed-marshes adjacent to eutrophic lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is usually found at 2,500-3,900 m, but may range from 2,000 to 4,000 m. It breeds from March to September, probably laying a clutch of only two eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). <p></p>
106002995		population	eng	No population estimates of this species are available, but it is described as fairly common.
106002995		threats	eng	The species is targeted by both indigenous people and sports-hunters and is threatened by localised over-hunting, as well as the desiccation, transformation and degradation of its habitats (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Cisneros-Heredia 2006, D. Cisneros-Heredia<em> in litt.</em> 2011). Suitable habitat is converted for agriculture and degraded by fires (Cisneros-Heredia 2006, D. Cisneros-Heredia<em> in litt.</em> 2011). <p></p>
106002996		distribution	eng	This taxon exists in two forms: the nominate undulata occurs in two disjunct areas, one in Colombia, and the other from Venezuela through Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana to extreme north-east Brazil; the race gigantea is found in eastern Bolivia, eastern Paraguay and south-east Brazil, and probably also in Uruguay and north-east Argentina (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It occurs in Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú and Golondrina Private Nature Reserve, Paraguay (Lowen et al. 1996), and all recent records for Venezuela have been from Canaima National Park and World Heritage Site (C. Sharpe in litt. 2003).
106002996		habitat	eng	the species has been found in tall vegetation in swamps and flooded grasslands, and occasionally in dry savannas (Hayman et al. 1986), from the tropical zone locally up to 2,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It apparently also occurs in degraded habitat following forest clearance (J. Mazar Barnett verbally 1998). Its diet apparently includes frogs and it may feed only at night (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In Brazil, nests have been found in September and from November to early January; nests are generally placed on a small hillock between swamps, and 2-4 eggs are laid (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The movements of this species are very poorly understood, and it appears to arrive seasonally at some sites, apparently after rain (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002996		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is regarded as local and uncommon in Colombia, and is nowhere common, but its nocturnal habits and extremely secretive behaviour might exaggerate the impression of its scarcity (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106002996		threats	eng	The species is reported to suffer severe hunting pressure in French Guiana, and may be hunted throughout its range, being apparently easier to shoot than some other sympatric snipes (del Hoyo et al. 1996, van Gils and Wiersma 1996), although it does not appear to be hunted in Venezuela (C. Sharpe in litt. 2003). Habitat loss is presumably a threat, at least in part of its range, as less than 5% of the Brazilian cerrado remained in a virgin state by 1988 (Cavalcanti 1988) with most of the destruction having occurred since 1960 (Collar et al. 1992).
106002998		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify threats to its habitat. Protect areas of important habitat. <p></p>
106002998		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinago stricklandii</em> breeds in south-central <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong> south to Tierra del Fuego, with some birds reportedly migrating north in winter to Valdivia, Chile (Olrog 1979, Piersma 1996b). It has reportedly bred in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>, but there is only one recent record and the historical documentation is a lost specimen of questionable identity (Bennett 1926, Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong>. The population has been estimated at less than 10,000 individuals (R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002), but could be even smaller. There may be some declines in the north of its range and, although reportedly common on islands around Cape Horn, it is to some extent naturally rare<strong></strong> (Chebez 1994, Piersma 1996b).<em> <p></p></em>
106002998		habitat	eng	It is found in grassy and forested boggy areas with low scrub or rushes, often in a mosaic of grassy bog, bamboo and lichen-clad dwarf forest and sometimes cushion-plant bogs up to 4,200 m<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Piersma 1996b). In the north of Tierra del Fuego, it also occurs in non-forested open grass and scrubby areas (Humphrey <em>et al.</em> 1970). <p></p>
106002998		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, and so is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (R. Schlatter <I>in litt.</I> 2002). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106002998		threats	eng	None are known, but habitat in some areas is presumably vulnerable to degradation and conversion for agriculture and grazing. <p></p>
106002999		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its biology. Effectively protect remaining core areas of páramo. Search for the species in potentially suitable habitat. <p></p>
106002999		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinago imperialis</em> was considered extinct for over half a century, but has been found at approximately six sites in <strong>Peru</strong> since 1967, and at 12 locations in <strong>Ecuador</strong> since 1988<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Krabbe 1992<strong></strong>, Piersma 1996b, Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 1997, Williams <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Ecuador, it probably occurs continuously along the east and west slopes, on massifs from Carchi to Cotopaxi (Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Peru, it is perhaps equally widespread on the east slope, although it apparently occurs at very low densities (4-5 displaying within 1.6 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable ridge-top habitat) (Terborgh and Weske 1972), and known populations are small and localised (Johnsgard 1981, Krabbe 1992). Also recorded in <strong>Colombia</strong>. If the number of records and known sites continue to increase, it may be downlisted to Least Concern.<em> <p></p></em>
106002999		habitat	eng	It occurs around the tree-line at 2,745-3,700 m, where it is probably largely restricted to bogs and moist elfin forest intermixed with tree-ferns and tall grass, but is also found in bamboo-fringed glades with extensive <em>Sphagnum</em> mosses (Krabbe 1992, Piersma 1996b). <p></p>
106002999		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106002999		threats	eng	Burning, grazing and conversion for agriculture of the páramo has negatively affected areas adjacent to the tree-line, consequently destroying and degrading its preferred habitat mosaic (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106003000		distribution	eng	This species has a large global population estimated to be 1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002).  </P>
106003000		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and crosses Europe on a broad front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from May to early-September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in well-dispersed solitary pairs (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998), after which (between August and September) adults undergo a flightless moulting period close to the breeding grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The autumn south-west migration occurs from mid-September to mid-November, with the species departing its wintering grounds again in March to mid-April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species remains largely solitary, usually feeding singly or in groups of up to 5 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Most of its activities are carried out nocturnally or in the early morning and late evening (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in the northern taiga and forest tundra zones on open grassy marshes and bogs with swampy ground (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), in swampy coniferous forest, willow <I>Salix</I> spp. marshes or wet alder <I>Alnus</I> spp. woods (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season it inhabits both fresh and brackish wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) showing a preference for mosaics of moist and waterlogged mudflats with soft, silty mud and dense of tussocks vegetation (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Suitable habitats include swamps, fens (Snow and Perrins 1998), grassy marshes (Johnsgard 1981), the margins of rivers and streams (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), overgrown flood-lands, sewage farms (Snow and Perrins 1998), rice-fields (Johnsgard 1981), flooded arable fields, damp pastures and water meadows (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects, annelid worms, small freshwater and terrestrial gastropods and the seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic and shoreline plants (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is positioned on hummocks of sphagnum moss or grass tussocks on floating bogs just above the surrounding water (Johnsgard 1981), also on drier ground amongst bushes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. dwarf birch <I>Betula</I> <I>nana</I> and heather) (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Management information</B> The annual success of reproduction is estimated every year by wing surveys in Denmark since the end of the 1970s, and in France since the mid-1990s. Hunting bags are estimated every year in Denmark (Clausager 2006).
106003000		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006). National population sizes have been estimated at &lt;   c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in China   and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003000		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its wetland habitats through afforestation, peat extraction and drainage for agricultural intensification (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also suffers from lead poisoning as a result of ingesting lead shot deposited on wetlands (Olivier 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted during the autumn migration (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. in Denmark) (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006).
106003001		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1970, the species was successfully reintroduced from Rangatira Island to Mangere Island, after feral cats were eradicated (Aikman and Miskelly 2004)<strong></strong>. Captive breeding was attempted in 1983 and 1987, but failed (Heather and Robertson 1997, Aikman and Miskelly 2004). However, in 2001 a trial attempt to hold the species in captivity was successful (Miskelly and Barlow 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Reintroduce the species to the predator-fenced portion of Ellen Elizabeth Preece Conservation Covenant on Pitt Island (Colin Miskelly pers. comm., Aikman <em>et al. </em>2001, Roberts and Miskelly 2003, Aikman and Miskelly 2004). Restore sufficient mammal-free forest areas within the Chatham Islands to allow the species to establish self-sustaining populations that require minimal management (Aikman <em>et al. </em>2001, Roberts and Miskelly 2003, Aikman and Miskelly 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003001		distribution	eng	<em>Coenocorypha pusilla</em> is confined to four small, predator-free islands in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it is common and considered stable. It was once widespread throughout the group. The population is estimated at c.900-1,100 pairs. Most of these, 700-800 pairs, are on Rangatira (=South East) Island. The population on Mangere Island (which was reintroduced from Rangatira Island) numbers between 200 and 250 pairs. Birds have recently colonised Little Mangere Island, and a population was recently found on Star Keys (totalling fewer than 50 pairs) (Higgins and Davies 1996, Aikman and Miskelly 2004). Vagrant individuals have been seen on Pitt Island and nearby Rabbit Island (Miskelly <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003001		habitat	eng	It breeds from the shore to island summits, but is most common in <em>Plagianthus chathamicus</em> and <em>Olearia traversi</em> forest. It builds its nests under dense vegetation, and usually lays two eggs (Miskelly 1990, 1999a)<strong></strong>. It is insectivorous (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong></strong>. Its age of first breeding and life expectancy are unknown, but other <em>Coenocorypha</em> snipe can breed at one year of age, and live for up to 17 years (Miskelly 1999b, Miskelly and Sagar 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003001		population	eng	Higgins and Davies (1996) estimated the population to number 700-800 pairs on South East Island, possibly 200-250 pairs on Mangere Island and fewer than 50 pairs on Little Mangere Island and Star Keys. The population is thus estimated to fall within the range 1,800-2,200 mature individuals, roughly equating to 2,700-3,300 individuals in total.
106003001		threats	eng	The historical range of this species was reduced as the result of the introduction of predators such as cats and rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. (Higgins and Davies 1996, Roberts and Miskelly 2003)<strong></strong>. Birds attempting to colonise neighbouring Pitt Island are killed by cats and Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em> (introduced following the species extirpation from the main Chatham islands) (C. Miskelly pers. comm.)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003002		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known, but the tiny known Campbell Islands population is thought to be expanding following the eradication of rats from the main island and there have been subsequent records of the species recolonising. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Advocate the eradication of cats and pigs from Auckland Island. Monitor its status on the Antipodes Islands and ensure that mice do not become a threat in the future. Monitor island populations opportunistically and consider reintroductions to predator-free islands off the New Zealand mainland if appropriate. <p></p>
106003002		distribution	eng	<em>Coenocorypha aucklandica</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Nominate <em>aucklandica</em> occurs in the Auckland Islands (excluding the main island), <em>huegeli</em> is known from the Snares Islands (3 km<sup>2</sup>), and <em>meinertzhagenae</em> occurs in the Antipodes Islands (20 km<sup>2</sup>). Races from Stewart Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">iredalei</span>) and Little Barrier Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">barrierensis</span>) have been driven extinct by invasive species (Tennyson and Martinson 2006). In 1997, a tiny population was discovered on Jacquemart Island (0.2 km<sup>2</sup>), in the Campbell Island group (Anon 1998a)<strong></strong>. The total population is estimated to number 29,100 birds and is considered stable (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong></strong>. The Auckland Islands hold two thirds of the population.  <p></p>
106003002		habitat	eng	The species favours areas of dense ground cover where it feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates. It nests on the ground (hence its vulnerability to introduced mammals) and lays its eggs between August and January (the exact date varies depending on island group). <p></p>
106003002		population	eng	Higgin and Davies (1996) <p></p>
106003002		threats	eng	Many local extinctions have occurred in the past, probably caused by various introductions of Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em>, cats, pigs and Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em><strong> </strong>(Higgins and Davies 1996). Such introductions brought about the extinction of two further island subspecies, <em>iredalei</em> and <em>barrierensis</em>, while <em>R. exulans</em> probably caused the extinction of the species from mainland New Zealand around 1,000 years ago (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003003		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An EU management plan for 2007-2009 was adopted, and an AEWA action plan replaced it at the end of 2008 (Anon. 2008). Intensive management of breeding habitat has been carried out in some Western European countries (H. Hötker <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, and a number of agri-environment schemes focus on this species, although results have been mixed (Musters <em>et al.</em> 2001, S. Nagy <em>in litt. </em>2005,&#160;A. Mischenko <em>in litt. </em>2007,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Verhulst <em>et al.</em> 2007). It occurs in a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain more quantitative data on status, population trends and conservation requirements outside Europe. Carry out research on survival, recruitment, breeding and migration (Gill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Critically evaluate the effectiveness of current conservation action. In the EU, use a mixture of agri-environment schemes, direct payments to wader-friendly farmers (Musters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001) and large reserves to secure protection and appropriate management of breeding habitat; the coverage of agri-environment schemes in Europe should be increased (Kleijn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and increases in groundwater depth should be prioritised as an outcome (Verhulst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Establish nature reserves on important breeding sites throughout the species's range.  Manage existing reserves appropriately: prescriptions include avoiding drainage of existing wet meadows, raising water tables where necessary, low-level use of organic fertiliser, low intensity grazing, late mowing, and prevention of succession to bushy vegetation; winter flooding is sometimes recommended but may reduce numbers of invertebrate prey (Gunnarsson <em>et al. </em>2005). On intensively farmed land, maintenance of unfertilised field margins has been shown to have positive effects (Oosterveld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Ensure that migratory staging posts and winter feeding habitats and roosts are conserved and monitored, and knowledge of them is improved (Estrella and Masero 2010). Designate a special protection area at Extremadura's rice fields, which is a key stopover site (Masero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).&#160; Manage artificial habitats appropriately, e.g. maintain low water levels in salinas such that they are available to foraging godwits (Estrella and Masero 2010), and block drainage to retain water in Iberian rice fields (Lourenço and Piersma 2008a). Protect important Yellow Sea tidal flats in China and South Korea. Engage with governments and local people throughout its migration routes. Effectively enforce the EU-wide ban on hunting until there is clear evidence that the population has returned to a favourable conservation status. Safeguard habitats in West Africa and Iberia, perhaps by offering support to rice producers (Gill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Collaborate with farmers and hunters, carrying out environmental education and outreach work where appropriate. Prevent afforestation of lowland breeding habitat in Iceland. Prevent a loss of key breeding areas due to abandonment of grasslands and meadows in east Europe and Russian Far East. Monitor human disturbance as a threat. Restore wetland sites in Australia (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Ensure recognition as a protected animal throughout range (Hancock 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003003		distribution	eng	<em>Limosa limosa </em>has a large discontinuous breeding range extending from Iceland to the Russian far east, with wintering populations in Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Australasia<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996). It occurs as three subspecies, <em>L. l. islandica</em>, <em>L. l. limosa</em>, and <em>L. l. melanuroides</em>. Subspecies<em> islandica </em>breeds predominantly in <strong>Iceland</strong>, with much smaller numbers in the <strong>Faeroe Islands</strong>, Shetland (<strong>United Kingdom</strong>) and the Lofoten Islands (<strong>Norway</strong>). Significant numbers of this subspecies overwinter in <span style="font-weight: bold;">France </span>(Triplet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Subspecies<em> limosa </em>breeds across a wide area extending from Western Europe and central Europe to central Asia<strong> </strong>and Asiatic Russia, as far east as the River Yenisey. The European population of this subspecies migrates south through France and Iberia to winter in West Africa (Gill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Oomen 2008). Subspecies<em> melanuroides </em>breeds in disjunct populations in <strong>Mongolia, </strong>northern <strong>China</strong>, Siberia (<strong>Russia</strong>) and the Russian Far East.  The species migrates across a broad front and has wintering grounds extending from the <strong>Republic of Ireland </strong>to <strong>Australia</strong>, encompassing the Mediterranean, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of the Middle East, <strong>India</strong>, Indochina, <strong>Taiwan, </strong>the <strong>Philippines, Indonesia, </strong>and Melanesia (Dutson 2011). The global population has recently been estimated at 634,000-805,000 individuals (Wetlands International in press).<strong> </strong>Population trends vary in different parts of its range. There have been large and well-documented declines in mainland Europe, e.g. in the <strong>Netherlands</strong>, where the population in has decreased dramatically from 120,000-135,000 pairs in 1969 and 85,000-100,000 pairs in 1989-1991, to just 46,000-62,000 in 2009 (Tucker and Heath 1994,&#160;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>BirdLife International 2004a, <strong></strong>EU Technical Report 19 2007, Oomen 2008, Höglund <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and in the species's Australian wintering grounds (S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, which hold c.50% of the wintering population of <em>L. l. melanuroides</em><strong> </strong>(Watkins 1993). However, in central Asia the breeding population appears to be stable or fluctuating (L. Belyalova<em> in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, and in Iceland numbers are increasing, although at c.50,000-75,000 individuals, this subpopulation is only a small part of the global population (Gill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Wetlands International in press)<strong></strong>. Similarly, in West Africa, there have been notable declines in some countries (e.g. Senegal and Morocco), while trends elsewhere (Mali, Chad and north Cameroon) have remained stable (Lourenço and Piersma 2008b). A recent analysis based on published literature, survey data and expert opinions from throughout the species's range suggests that, overall, the global population may have declined at a rate approaching 30% over15 years leading up to 2005 (I. Burfield <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <em> </em> <p></p>
106003003		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is highly gregarious and migrates on a broad front, making long-distance flights,often overland between relatively few staging and wintering areas<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). It breeds from April to mid-June in loose, semi-colonial groups of up to 3 pairs per ha (Gunnarsson <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Non-breeding birds remain in flocks, often near to the breeding colonies. As soon as the young fledge, breeding birds begin to congregate in loose flocks of up to 500 individuals (Cramp <em>et al.</em> 1983)<strong></strong>. The species migrates southwards between late-June and October. During the autumn migration it may roost in flocks of tens of thousands at favoured sites<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996), and many adults pause in north Morocco in July to moult. Huge flocks occur at some wintering sites, particularly in the floodplains of Lake Chad. Elsewhere (e.g. Morocco) flocks are smaller (Cramp <em>et al.</em> 1983)<strong></strong>. The return passage occurs between February and April<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1996), and birds arrive at the breeding grounds in groups of 5-30 individuals (Johnsgard 1981)<strong></strong>. Many one-year-old birds remain in the wintering range during the summer. During the winter and migration the species usually forages gregariously<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> In its breeding range it mostly inhabits areas with high grass and soft soil<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, Johnsgard 1981), occasionally using sandy areas. Its preferred habitats include cattle pastures, hayfields (Johnsgard 1981), lowland wet grasslands, grassy marshland, raised bogs and moorland, lake margins and damp grassy depressions in steppes<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1996). Subspecies <em>islandica </em>shows a distinct preference for large patches of dwarf-birch bog and marsh, particularly with abundant sedge-pools<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, Gunnarsson <em>et al. </em>2006). Extensive farmland habitats are of critical importance for breeding Western European populations<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996). After the young have fledged, adults and fledgelings often move to secondary habitat which more closely resembles that of their non-breeding range, including wet damp areas around fish-ponds and sewage farms, tidal marshes, mud flats and salt-water lagoons (Cramp <em>et al.</em> 1983, Tucker and Heath 1994)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>Subspecies <em>limosa </em>tends to winter in freshwater habitats<strong></strong>, including swampy lake shores, pools, flooded grassland and irrigated rice fields<strong></strong>. Subspecies <em>islandica </em>and <em>melanuroides</em>, however,<em> </em>often winter in brackish habitats<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996) such as sheltered estuaries and lagoons with large intertidal mudflats (Johnsgard 1981), sandy beaches, salt-marshes and salt-flats<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996). Despite these general differences there is considerable overlap in wintering habitat between sympatric populations of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">limosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">islandica</span> (Various 2007).&#160; Seasonally-flooded grassland is a critical habitat for the birds wintering in Ireland (Hayhow 2008). Birds on passage in Iberia make much use of rice fields (Lourenço <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (especially beetles), annelid and polychaete worms, molluscs, ragworms, crustaceans, spiders, fish eggs, and the spawn and tadpoles of frogs<strong> </strong>(Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996). On the breeding grounds grasshoppers and other orthopterans are often prevalent in the diet (Johnsgard 1981). Particularly during the winter and on migration it will also take plant material including berries, seeds and rice grains<strong> </strong>(Cramp <em>et al.</em> 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On its wintering grounds in Portugal, the bivalve <em>Scrobicularia plana</em> has been found to represent its primary food source (Moreira 1994)<strong></strong>; in the salinas of Spain, it mainly feeds on chironomid larvae (Estrella and Masero 2010). <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is placed on the ground in short, often luxurious vegetation<strong> </strong>(Johnsgard 1981, Cramp <em>et al.</em> 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It consists of a shallow scrape 12-15cm in diameter, lined with a thick mat of stem grass, leaves and other available vegetation (Cramp <em>et al.</em> 1983). Breeding birds show a high degree of nest site fidelity<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996) and some degree of natal philopatry (Kruk <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003003		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 162,000-183,000 in Western Europe; 90,000-165,000 in eastern Europe; 25,000-100,000 in west-central Asia; 150,000 in central Asia and Siberia (Asian Waterbird Census unpublished data); 160,000 in the rest of Asia and Australia, and 47,000 (subspecies <em>islandica</em>) in the Faroe Islands and Iceland.
106003003		threats	eng	Loss of nesting habitat owing to wetland drainage and agricultural intensification, and conversely, abandonment, are the most significant threats (A. Mischenko <em>in litt. </em>2007). Detrimental activities include the conversion of wet meadows to arable land, increased fertilisation and drainage of grassland, artificial flooding of nesting habitats, earlier and more frequent cutting as farmers adapt to climate change, spring burning, overgrowing by scrub, land claiming by businesses and developers, the construction of roads and parks, and disturbance by walkers (Tucker and Heath 1994,&#160;A. van Dijk <em>in litt.</em> 2005,&#160; A. Mischenko <em>in litt. </em>2007, Hayhow 2008, Oomen 2008, Holm and Laursen 2009, Kleijn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Increasing populations of predators to possibly unnatural levels is a significant cause of mortality in the Netherlands, exacerbated by intensive farming reducing available cover for the godwits (Schekkerman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). On intensively grazed pastures, trampling is a major cause of nest loss, and a switch to monoculture on arable land reduces the supply of insects that the species feeds on (Oomen 2008). Habitat fragmentation may cause particular problems for this species, which nests in dispersed colonies and sub-colonies as protection against predators and may be unlikely to breed successfully in small areas of habitat. The planned development of a new airport near Lisbon is likely to have negative implications on an important site for migratory birds (Gill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Masero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Hunting has been another significant threat, although France has now followed the rest of the European Union (EU) in implementing a five-year ban on hunting of the species, beginning in 2008 (I. Burfield <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). Outside the EU, for example on the African wintering grounds, hunting is known to occur but its scale and impact is unknown. Water pollution is probably an issue in parts of the species's range (H. Hötker <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, and drought in the West African wintering quarters may have had negative impacts on the mainland European population (Tucker and Heath 1994). Wetlands have been extensively drained in West Africa, for energy production, water storage and agriculture (Gill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The Icelandic population is potentially at risk from the policy of the Icelandic government to encourage afforestion of the lowland habitats where they breed (S. Nagy <em>in litt. </em>2005). Threats on migration include pollution, human disturbance, habitat reclamation for tidal energy plants, aquaculture ponds, land conversion for agriculture, urban expansion and agricultural intensification at rice paddies. Invasive plants may also impose on wintering habitat in Australia (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Climate change may be having an effect (Oomen 2008). Juvenile birds which select good wintering sites also select good breeding sites (Gunnarsson <em>et al. </em>2005), therefore maintaining high quality wintering sites is crucial to raising productivity on breeding grounds and slowing the rate of decline. There is a marked decrease in the density of breeding birds near to roads, particularly those with heavy traffic (van der Zande <em>et al.</em> 1980, Reijnen <em>et al</em>. 1996<strong></strong>). Natal philopatry means that a decrease in local recruitment could prove catastrophic for individual breeding sites (Kruk <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003005		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full long-distance migrant (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). It breeds from late-May to August (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986) in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), although it may also form small colonies (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). After breeding adults disperse to coastal moulting sites, the onward migration to wintering grounds then continuing into October and November (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986). The species often flies in large flocks (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986) and forages in groups outside of the breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), occasionally aggregating into huge flocks of several hundreds of thousands of individuals at favoured sites (e.g. in Mauritania) (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in marshy, swampy areas in lowland moss and shrub tundra (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) near wet river valleys (Johnsgard 1981), lakes and sedge bogs (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), as well as on swampy heathlands in the willow and birch zone near the Arctic treeline (Johnsgard 1981), in open larch <em>Larix</em> spp. woodland close to water (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), and occasionally on open bogs in the extreme north of the coniferous forest zone (Johnsgard 1981). <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species may frequent inland wetlands (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986), sandy beaches with pine <em>Pinus</em> spp. stands, swampy lowlands near lakes (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984) and short-grass meadows, but during the winter it is more common in intertidal areas along muddy coastlines, estuaries, inlets, mangrove-fringed lagoons and sheltered bays (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) with tidal mudflats or sandbars (Johnsgard 1981). <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding the species feeds on insects, annelid worms, molluscs<strong></strong>and occasionally seeds and berries (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em>Non-breeding</em> In intertidal areas the species's diet consists of annelids (e.g. <em>Nereis</em> spp. and <em> Arenicola</em> spp.), bivalves and crustaceans, although it will also take cranefly larvae and earthworms on grasslands and occasionally larval amphibians (tadpoles) and small fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a depression positioned on a dry elevated site (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) such as a tundra ridge (Johnsgard 1981) or hummock (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), often between clumps of grass (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) or under a thicket (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). <strong>Management information</strong> In the UK there is evidence that the removal of <em>Spartina anglica</em> from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species (Evans 1986).
106003005		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,100,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003005		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the degradation of foraging sites due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Kelin and Qiang 2006), reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006) and in some areas the invasion of mudflats and coastal saltmarshes by mangroves (owing to sea-level rise and increased sedimentation and nutrient loads at the coast from uncontrolled development and soil erosion in upstream catchment areas) (Straw and Saintilan 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003007		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory, travelling from mid-August to October along the coast of eastern Asia on a narrow front with few stop-overs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On its wintering grounds in Australia the species also makes erratic movements in relation to ranifall (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from late-May to early-August in loose colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of 3-30 pairs (Labutin <I>et al</I>. 1982) and migrates in flocks of up to 1,000 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). During the non-breeding season it occurs in dense flocks of several hundreds or thousands of individuals and gathers in large flocks to roost during the warmest part of the day and at night (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in secondary vegetation growth in open burnt areas or in grassy clearings in northern montane larch <I>Larix</I> spp. or dwarf birch woodland, chiefly along river valleys (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or on well-drained (Labutin <I>et al</I>. 1982) southward-facing mountain slopes (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage the species shows a preference for foraging and resting in swampy meadows near lakes and along river valleys (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). It overwinters on dry inland grassland, bare cultivation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), dry mudflats and coastal plains of black soil (Johnsgard 1981) with scattered shallow pools of freshwater (Higgins and Davies 1996), swamps, lakes or flooded ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It shows a preference for short grass swards of less than 20 cm tall, and occasionally occurs in dry saltmarshes, coastal swamps, mudflats or sandflats in estuaries, or on the beaches of sheltered coasts (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. grasshoppers, crickets, weevils, beetles, caterpillars, ants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and termites (Bellio <I>et al</I>. 2006)) and spiders as well as vegetable matter including seeds, rice husks and berries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression located on open ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in open burnt areas or grassy clearings in larch <I>Larix</I> spp. or dwarf birch woodland, chiefly along river valleys (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in loose colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with neighbouring nests spaced between 200 and 300 m apart within a radius of 1 km (Labutin <I>et al</I>. 1982).
106003007		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.180,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106003007		threats	eng	Important migratory stop-over sites for this species in northern Australia are being degraded through colonisation by invasive plants (e.g. <I>Mimosa pigra</I>, <I>Hymenachne amplexicaulis</I> and para grass <I>Brachiaria mutica</I>), saltwater intrusion as a result of rising sea-levels, and damage from feral pigs and buffalo (Bellio <I>et al</I>. 2006). The habitats of this species are also potentially threatened by agricultural intensification and pesticide contamination (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003008		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. It is protected in the USA, Canada, Argentina and Mexico. Its status has been fully documented, and identification details publicised (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding and wintering areas have been surveyed, and reported breeding sites investigated (Blanco <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998, C. L. Gratto-Trevor <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An Environment Canada species recovery plan recommends that no recovery action be undertaken other than continued monitoring of reported sightings (Environment Canada 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue cooperative international assessments of historical sites (Blanco <em>et al</em>. 1993, C. L. Gratto-Trevor <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey heath tundra along the Labrador coast during August-September and historic breeding grounds prior to the initiation of development projects (C. L. Gratto-Trevor <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate any credible sightings (C. L. Gratto-Trevor <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Expand prairie habitat, and employ prescribed burnings (C. L. Gratto-Trevor <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003008		distribution	eng	<em>Numenius borealis</em> bred at (and presumably between) the Bathurst peninsula and Point Lake in Northwest Territories, <strong>Canada</strong> (<strong></strong>Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998), and perhaps also Alaska, USA. Birds migrated across Hudson Bay to Labrador (and New England, <strong>USA</strong>), and through the Caribbean to <strong>Argentina</strong> (especially the Pampas), and possibly <strong>Uruguay</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> (R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2003), southernmost <strong>Brazil</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong> south to Patagonia<strong> </strong>(Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998). The return migration was probably along the Pacific coast, through Central America, across the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas coast and northwards through the prairies. It probably numbered hundreds of thousands, but declined rapidly in the 1870s-1890s to become very rare in the 20th century (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998, Graves 2010)<strong></strong>. The last irrefutable record was of a specimen collected in Barbados in 1963 (Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Since then there have been no confirmed records (none from the wintering grounds in South America since 1939), only several unconfirmed reports during 1981-2006 (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998, M. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 2003, C. L. Gratto-Trevor <em>in litt</em>. 2004, R. Hoffman <em>in litt</em>. 2006, N. Crockford <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The population (if one persists) must be tiny (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003008		habitat	eng	It bred (May-August) in treeless arctic tundra at 180-335 m, comprising grassy meadows with birch (<em>Betula</em>) and sedge (<em>Carex</em>)<strong> </strong>(Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998). On autumn migration (July-October), it favoured ericaceous heath, crowberries <em>Empetrum nigrum</em>, pastures and intertidal flats (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Winter habitat was possibly wet pampas grasslands, intertidal and semi-desert areas (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On return migration (March-May), it favoured burnt areas in tall grass and mixed-grass prairies, and rocky mountain grasshopper <em>Melanoplus spretus</em> was a key food source (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was gregarious, with traditional autumn migration sites (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003008		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), as there have been no confirmed sightings since the early 1980s.
106003008		threats	eng	Large-scale spring hunting in North America partially explains the species's near-extinction, but there was no recovery after hunting was outlawed and abandoned in c.1916 (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main cause is almost certainly the near total loss of prairies to agriculture, compounded by the suppression of prairie wildfires and the extinction of <em>M. spretus </em>(Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The widespread conversion of the pampas began after the main decline, but has hindered any possible recovery (Gill <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003009		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and travels over land on a broad front utilising few staging areas on route (in autumn no known concentrated staging occurs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds from May to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) either in well-dispersed (Johnsgard 1981) solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or in loose groups depending on the topography of the land (Snow and Perrins 1998). The autumn migration occurs from July onwards (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) with the return passage to the breeding grounds occurring chiefly between March and May (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) (non-breeders may also remain on the wintering grounds all year round) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). When not breeding the species usually forages singly or in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), flying in small parties (Johnsgard 1981) or larger flocks on migration (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998)and roosting communally at night in mangrove trees or in shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on dry scrub heathland (Snow and Perrins 1998), moss and lichen tundra with stunted bushes (Johnsgard 1981), sedge meadows (Johnsgard 1981), wet moorland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and mossy hummock bogs (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) in open areas, river valleys (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), along the shores of tundra lakes (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), in birch forest near the Arctic treeline (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), burned areas of forest (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) and open montane forest (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in the boreal, subarctic and subalpine zones (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It generally avoids extremes of cold and wet, steep slopes, bare rock and gravel expanses or tall dense vegetation (e.g. dense forest) (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage in the autumn and spring the species frequents wetlands, tidal flats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), short-sward wet and dry grasslands (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), farmland (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and heathland with <I>Empetrum</I> spp., generally occupying coastal habitats in the winter such as muddy, rocky or sandy beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), coral shores (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), exposed reefs, tidal mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sandflats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), mangrove swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996),<B> </B>tidal marshes (Johnsgard 1981) and lagoons (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> When inland on migration and during the breeding season its diet consists of adult and larval insects (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. Coleoptera, Orthoptera and cranefly larvae), spiders, millipedes, earthworms, snails, slugs, seeds, leaves and berries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. of ericaceous plants) (Johnsgard 1981). On the coast during the winter the species takes crustaceans (e.g. crabs), molluscs, large polychaete worms and occasionally fish, reptiles or young birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) often positioned on hummocks or in short heather or grass (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) in dry exposed locations (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) sometimes far from water (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). When the breeding habitat (e.g. tundra or heathland) is flat and open the species nests in solitary pairs, but where irregular features such as hummocks and tall vegetation patches give more visual isolation the species may nest in loose groups (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> A study in the Shetland Islands, UK found that when trying to enhance the grazing quality of heathlands by re-seeding (e.g. with high quality grass-seed mixtures) it is better to apply lime, grass-seed and inorganic fertiliser directly to the surface of the ground rather than ploughing and harrowing the ground first, as the latter maintains more natural vegetation hummocks and heather used by the species for nesting (Grant 1992). Re-seeding of heathland with prior ploughing and harrowing may improve feeding conditions for pre-breeding adults however (Grant <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003009		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,000,000-2,300,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and &gt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003009		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003010		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Most breeding and staging grounds are well-protected (Gill 1999)<strong></strong>. The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge protects several wintering and stop-over sites. Protection and management of habitat at Kahuku on O'ahu has facilitated an increase in the local wintering population (P. Donaldson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey key historical sites (Marks and Redmond 1994a, SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>, and identify migratory stop-over sites and sites with high concentrations of wintering birds (Marks and Redmond 1994a, SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Monitor population trends on its breeding grounds (Marks and Redmond 1994a, P. Donaldson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Assess the harvesting rate (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect and manage key islands, atolls and other wintering sites (Marks and Redmond 1994a, P. Donaldson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Initiate a coordinated conservation programme involving stakeholders in the U.S. and Pacific nations (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106003010		distribution	eng	<em>Numenius tahitiensis</em> breeds on the lower Yukon River and central Seward Peninsula in western Alaska, <strong>USA</strong> (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992). Suggestions that it breeds in Russia are unsupported (R. E. Gill <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2003). It winters on oceanic islands, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), <strong>US Minor Outlying Islands</strong>, <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, <strong>Marshall Islands</strong>, <strong>Nauru</strong>,<strong> Kiribati</strong>, <strong>Tuvalu</strong>, <strong>Tokelau (to New Zealand)</strong>, <strong>Fiji</strong>, <strong>Tonga</strong>, <strong>Niue (to New Zealand)</strong>, <strong>Samoa</strong>, <strong>American Samoa</strong>, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, and <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, also reaching the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>, Kermadec Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong> (notably Oeno) and Easter Island (<strong>Chile</strong>) (Vilina <em>et al.</em> 1992, Brooke 1995b, Y. Vilina <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. The breeding population numbers c.7,000 birds, but c.3,000 subadults over-summer on Pacific islands (P. Donaldson <em>in litt. </em>1999, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>SPREP 1999). <p></p>
106003010		habitat	eng	It breeds in dwarf-shrub tundra at 100-350&#160;m during May-July. Birds congregate in the Yukon-Kuskokwin Delta in August, and migrate south, mostly bypassing the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands to make landfall after 6,000&#160;km or more (Marks and Redmond 1994b, Gill 1999<strong></strong>). It winters on coral reefs, sandy beaches, intertidal flats, rocky shores and in palm forests and dense vegetated understorey (Gill 1999, <strong></strong>R. E. Gill <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2003). It is long-lived (15-23 years), forms long-term monogamous pairs, and is highly faithful to breeding and wintering sites (Gill 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106003010		population	eng	Morrison <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimated the population to number 7,000 breeding mature individuals and 3,000 immatures, giving a total of 10,000 individuals.
106003010		threats	eng	Introduced predators, especially dogs, but also cats and possibly pigs are likely to predate flightless birds on wintering grounds. The species may suffer some loss and degradation of its habitats through clearance for coconut plantations and proliferation of coconut groves where not harvested (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Hunting for food is localised, particularly previously in the Tuamotus, and recent reports suggest it may also be a threat in the Marshall Islands, Carolines, US Minor Outlying Islands and Hawaiian offshore islands (G. Allport <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Breeding birds are predated by several species of raptor, Parasitic Jaegers <em>Stercorarius parasiticus</em>, Common Ravens <em>Corvus corax</em> and foxes. Gold mining is a potential future threat in Alaska (R. E. Gill <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2003). Ingestion of lead paint on Midway Island needs to be investigated (it was recently identified as a problem in seabirds) (R. E. Gill <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2003). The species is also potentially threatened by the impacts of projected climate change through changes and geographical shifts in habitat and rising sea levels.<br/><p></p>
106003011		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. A Memorandum of Understanding, established under the auspices of the CMS, came into effect in 1994, and a working group was established in 1998 (Gallo-Orsi and Boere 2001)<strong></strong>. An international action plan was published in 1996<span style="">. N</span>ational action plans are in place in Italy (Nagy and Crockford 2004)<strong></strong>, Bulgaria and Ukraine. Several of the sites within the EU where the species has been recorded are designated as Special Protection Areas. There have been several international initiatives to survey passage and wintering sites (Azafzaf and Feltrup-Azafzaf 2003;&#160;T. R. Cleeves <em>in litt</em>. 2006; van der Have <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong> and potential breeding areas (Gallo-Orsi and Boere 2001; Gretton <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, collate records (Gallo-Orsi and Boere 2001), protect key sites, raise public awareness (Azafzaf and Feltrup-Azafzaf 2003)<strong></strong> and educate hunters. Details of a 'last push' to locate any remaining populations (focusing initially on surveys of historical wintering areas) were announced at the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Migratory Species in December 2008 (BirdLife International 2008; <strong></strong>RSPB 2010; Crockford 2009). Surveys across the potential non-breeding range (from Morocco, perhaps as far as Japan) took place in 2009-11 with a particular focus on wintering and potential moult sites (G. Buchanan &amp; N. Crockford <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>. The Slender-billed Curlew Working Group has developed a tool kit to assist people to identify and report Slender-billed Curlew in the field (available at: www.slenderbilledcurlew.net). If any can be found and caught then the sites used during the annual cycle could be determined by satellite tagging. An attempt to narrow down the search for breeding and moulting sites using stable isotope analysis and Strontium analysis of museum skins commenced in 2002 (Hilton 2003)<strong></strong>; preliminary results suggest that the main breeding area may have extended from southern central Russia into northern Kazakhstan (Nagy and Crockford 2004; G. Buchanan &amp; N. Crockford <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor key former and potential wintering and passage sites. Search for breeding grounds (taking into account results of stable isotope analysis). Attach satellite transmitters to captured birds. Provide training in species identification along the migration route. Promote protection of habitat. Provide legal protection for this and similar species. Increase public awareness. <p></p>
106003011		distribution	eng	<em>Numenius tenuirostris</em> has only been confirmed breeding near Tara, north of Omsk in Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, between 1909-1925. It migrates west-south-west from its presumed breeding grounds in Siberia through central and eastern Europe, predominantly <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong> and the former Yugoslavia to southern Europe, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Italy</strong>, and <strong>Turkey</strong>, and North Africa, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong> and <strong>Tunisia</strong>. It has also been reported from <strong>Slovenia</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong></strong><strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, and<strong> Yemen</strong>. Reports of birds staging in Ukraine persist but require confirmation. Regarded as very common in the early 19th century, it was already a rare bird by the 20th century, with regular records having dried up by the end of the century. Between 1980 and 1990, there were only 103 records involving 316-326 birds (BirdLife International 1999)<strong></strong>, and from 1990-1999, this dropped to 74 records involving 148-152 birds (BirdLife International 1999)<strong></strong>. Although there have been reports from Bulgaria, Ukraine and Uzbekistan of larger groups, most recent verified records have been of one to three birds, with the last nationally accepted record coming from Hungary in April 2001 (G. Buchanan &amp; N. Crockford <em>in litt. </em>2009; Oláh and Pigniczki 2010)<strong></strong>. In 1994, the population was estimated at only 50-270 individuals, but the paucity of recent confirmed records suggests it may now be lower than 50 birds.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003011		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is thought to breed in small colonies with nests between 2-3 m and 10-15 m apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Eggs have been found in May (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). Early records often referred to the species as occurring in large flocks on migration and in winter. However, it is some decades since any sizeable flocks have been observed. The peak of the autumn migration appears to occur around September, with the spring migration peaking around March (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The only known nests were recorded in bog-forest transition zones (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991)<strong></strong> on the northern limit of the forest-steppe zone in habitat more typical of taiga marsh. This may represent either a very specialised breeding habitat requirement, or an unusual use of habitat at the limit of the species's breeding range (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991).<em> Non-breeding </em>On migration and in winter, a wide variety of habitats are used, including saltmarsh, steppe grassland, fishponds, saltpans, brackish lagoons, tidal mudflats, semi-desert, brackish wetlands and sandy farmland next to lagoons. Large coastal wetland complexes may be especially characteristic, and most records come from close to the sea (Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Where it winters inland it inhabits marsh areas fed with freshwater, but with areas of <em>Salicornia</em> indicating that the ground has a high salt content (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991). <strong>Diet </strong>There is little information on its diet: birds at Merja Zerga (Morocco) fed on earthworms and tipulid larvae, while elsewhere insects (there is a suspiscion that orthoptera may have been an important food source [N. Crockford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012]), molluscs and crustaceans have been recorded as prey.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest found by Ushakov in 1914 was constructed of dry grass with a few leaves of rush <em>Scirpus</em> but little or no sedge (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991)<strong></strong>. The known nests were situated on dry areas of sedge and bog moss some distance from willow scrub or birch grove (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991).  <p></p>
106003011		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on small number of recent records, most of which are of just 1-3 individuals.
106003011		threats	eng	Threats on the breeding grounds are unknown. Within its potential breeding range, the taiga has been little modified, the forest-steppe partially cultivated and much of the steppe modified by agriculture. Habitat loss in the wintering grounds is of unknown importance. There has been extensive drainage of wetlands in the Mediterranean and North Africa and potentially important areas in Iraq. The conversion of European wetlands and central European steppes to arable farmland may have heavily impacted the species in depriving it of important habitats during migration (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991). Historically hunting was high, and may have been the key factor in its decline. Following the initial decline, breakdown of social behaviour patterns may have prevented recovery. Historically a gregarious species, smaller groups or individuals may have difficulty in locating suitable stop-over sites on migration (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991). Individuals may join flocks of <em>N. arquata</em>, being led to unsuitable wintering habitat and rendered unlikely to find a mate (<strong></strong>Gretton 1991).  <p></p>
106003012		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Annex II/2 of the EU Birds Directive. A management plan for the species, updated for 2007-2009, was published in 2007, covering the EU portion of the species's range (Jensen and Lutz 2007). A 5    year moratorium on hunting the species was implemented in France in July 2008 (A. Duncan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2008). The species occurs in a large number of protected areas throughout its range and features in several national monitoring schemes.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>The Management Plan for Curlew outlines key conservation targets: Protect key wintering sites. Determine the key parameters driving declines in breeding areas and integrate agri-environment measures to counter these. Continue monitoring trends. Minimise disturbance on the wintering grounds. <p></p>
106003012		distribution	eng	<em>Numenius arquata</em> is widely distributed, breeding across Europe from the British Isles, through north-western Europe and Scandinavia into <strong>Russia</strong> extending east into Siberia, east of Lake Baikal. It winters around the coasts of north-west Europe, the Mediterranean, Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, South-East Asia, <strong>Japan</strong> and the Sundas. It has a large global population estimated to number 765,000-1,065,000 individuals (M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. 2007; Wetlands International 2006). The breeding population in Western Europe (220,000-360,000 pairs) has declined in recent years, with a 53% decline in the <strong>United Kingdom</strong> calculated over the period 1970-2005 from the Common Birds Census and the Breeding Bird Survey, and a 37% decline over the period 1994-2006 derived from the Breeding Bird Survey (Eaton <em>et al</em>. 2007;<strong></strong> R. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. A decline of 86% was calculated in <strong>Ireland</strong> between 1988-1991 and 2003 (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 1993; Hillis 2003)<strong> </strong>and declines have been recorded in <strong>Finland </strong>(BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>, <strong>Germany </strong>(Hötker <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, <strong>Lithuania</strong> (20-30% per decade) (L. Raudonikis <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and the <strong>Netherlands</strong> (31% since 1984 (A. J. van Djik <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>). Unquantified, but potentially highly significant, declines have also been recorded in the central Asian populations of <em>N. a. orientalis </em>(J. Kamp and S. Sklyarenko <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In <strong>Denmark </strong>(K. N. Flensted <em>in litt</em>. 2007; Meltofte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong> and eastern Siberia (I. Fefelov <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> breeding populations are apparently stable and apparent increases in wintering populations in the Wadden Sea (Laursen and Karsten 2005; Meltofte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>, on the Adriatic coast (Gusson <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, in East Asia (M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and in Western Europe suggest that breeding populations, probably in European Russia and northern Siberia have perhaps increased. Overall, analysis of the compiled trend data indicate three generation (15 year) estimate of decline of between 26% and 34%<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>BirdLife International 2004; Hillis 2003; <strong></strong> A. J. van Djik <em>in litt</em>. 2007; M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. 2007; Wetlands International 2006; Thorup 2006; A. Copland <em>in litt</em>. 2007; M. Boschert <em>in litt</em>. 2007; Eaton <em>et al</em>. 2007;<strong></strong> R. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Owing to the uncertainty over whether declines in southern populations have been compensated by increases in northern populations, the global trend is suspected to fall within the band 20-30% declines in the past 15 years or three generations. <p></p>
106003012		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) and breed from April to August<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in solitary territorial pairs (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occasionally also forming small colonies (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong></strong>. After breeding adults gather on coasts (from July onwards)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong> for the post-breeding moult (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> before migrating south to the wintering grounds between July and November (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species departs its wintering grounds again from February through to May, although non-breeders may remain in the wintering areas all-year-round (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the winter the species usually forages singly or in small groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> occasionally aggregating into flocks of several thousand individuals, especially at roosting sites (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on upland moors, peat bogs, swampy and dry heathlands, fens, open grassy or boggy areas in forests, damp grasslands, meadows (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, non-intensive farmland in river valleys<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>, dune valleys and coastal marshlands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species frequents muddy coasts, bays and estuaries (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with tidal mudflats and sandflats (Snow and Perrins 1998), rocky and sandy beaches with many pools (Johnsgard 1981;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Snow and Perrins 1998), mangroves, saltmarshes (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal meadows (Johnsgard 1981) and muddy shores of coastal lagoons (Johnsgard 1981), inland lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also utilises wet grassland and arable fields during migration (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists chiefly of annelid worms and terrestrial insects (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) (e.g. Coleoptera and Orthoptera) (Johnsgard 1981) especially during the summer (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), although it will also take crustaceans, molluscs, polychaete worms (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, spiders (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, berries and seeds, as well as occasionally small fish, amphibians, lizards, young birds and small rodents (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression on the ground or on a mound (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong></strong> in the open or in the cover of grass or sedge (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> often far from water (Johnsgard 1981). <strong>Management information</strong> A study into the effects of shellfish harvesting by hand in coastal intertidal habitats recommends that the harvesting load should be limited to -1 during this species's autumn migration (Navedo and Masero 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003012		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.77,000-1,065,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006 and Barter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007), while   national population estimates include: &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration   and &gt;c.10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   ? in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003012		threats	eng	<em>Breeding</em> The species is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of moorland habitats as a result of afforestation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996; Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and of marginal grassland habitats as a result of agricultural intensification and improvement (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996; Johnsgard 1981;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Baines 1988) (e.g. drainage, inorganic fertilisation and reseeding) (Baines 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also suffers from high egg and chick mortalities (due to mechanical mowing) and higher predation rates if nesting on improved grasslands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conversely populations in the central Asians steppes have declined following abandonment of farmland and subsequent increases in the height of vegetation, rendering large areas unsuitable for nesting. It has also suffered population declines as a result of hunting (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Wintering populations are threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996; Burton <em>et al.</em> 2002a, 2002b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. from construction work (Burton <em>et al.</em> 2002a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and foot-traffic (Burton <em>et al.</em> 2002b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>), development on high-tide roosting sites, pollution (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) and the flooding of estuarine mudflats and saltmarshes as a result of tidal barrage construction (Burton 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by the degradation of migrational staging areas owing to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Local populations of this species have also declined owing to hunting pressures (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003013		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>CMS Appendix II. The American bird Conservancy has worked to increase awareness of the species as a flagship for grassland conservation in the Northern Rockies (Anon 2006/2007). Population surveys have been conducted and global population estimates generated. It occurs within a number of protected areas and areas of short grass prairie are being conserved for it and other species's benefit.<p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Clarify the global population estimate. Identify the principal threats driving declines and develop and appropriate management plan to reverse these. Protect key breeding and wintering sites.
106003013		distribution	eng	This species was once an abundant breeder over most of the prairie regions of the USA and Canada. Populations have declined throughout this range since the beginning of the 20th century as a result of over-hunting and habitat loss (owing to fragmentation, conversion to croplands, and urban development). It is now extirpated as a breeding bird in Kansas, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, eastern Nebraska, Illinois, Manitoba and south-east Saskatchewan. It migrates to winter in the southern USA and Mexico, with birds occurring irregularly in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Costa Rica (AOU 1998, Hill 1998).
106003013		habitat	eng	Breeding habitat is short-grass or mixed-grass native prairie, but varies from moist meadows to very dry grasslands. It generally prefers to nest in large open expanses of relatively low vegetation, and is late maturing, long-lived and has a low reproductive output. In winter it favours intertidal habitats but will feed in adjacent pastures (Leeman and Colwell 2005).  </P>
106003013		population	eng	Continental populations were thought to be declining by 2% per year between 1980 and 1996 (equivalent to 16% in ten years) (AOU 1998, Hill 1998); however data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey indicate that these figures were incorrect and in fact annual declines at a rate of 0.6% between 1980 and 2006 are more realistic (Morrison et al. 2006). This equates to a decline of just 5.8% over a ten year period. However, it appears that there are considerably more Long-billed Curlews than previously thought, with a likely global population in the order of 50,000-123,000, based on recent assessments, expert opinion and statistically based surveys (Wetlands International 2006).
106003013		threats	eng	Sea-level rise may reduce the amount of available intertidal wintering habitat in future (Colwell and Mathis 2001). The loss and conversion of large areas of short grass prairie into agricultural land within its range has presumably had a major impact upon the species and is likely to the most important threat at present. Long-billed Curlew are facing increasing threats in the grasslands and prairies of North America, both on their breeding and wintering grounds. In addition, Long-billed Curlew range contractions on the eastern edge of their range continue to cause concerns.
106003014		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species, although population trends are being monitored in Australia as part of the Monitoring Yellow Sea Migrants in Australia project. The species is included in the action plan for Australian birds 2010 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify key stopover areas and prevent their reclamation. Continue to monitor population trends. Restore reclaimed wetland sites. Campaign to stop shorebird hunting in Asian countries. Legally protect it in all range states. Survey the breeding grounds for potential threats. <p></p>
106003014		distribution	eng	<em>Numenius madagascariensis</em> breeds in eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, from the upper reaches of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska river east though the Verkhoyarsk mountains to Kamchatka, and south to Primorye and north-eastern <strong>Mongolia</strong> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). The Yellow Sea of <span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea, South Korea</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span> is a particularly important stopover site on migration. It has been recorded as a passage migrant in <strong>Japan</strong><strong style=""></strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong>, with most birds wintering in <strong>Australia, </strong>but also in China, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and <strong>New Zealand</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). The global population has recently been estimated at 38,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006)<strong></strong>, including 28,000 in Australia (Bamford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The global population is declining, as indicated by reduced numbers at stopover points in South Korea and Japan, and a significant decline in the number of non-breeding individuals wintering in north-west Australia and south-eastern Australia (Amano 2006, Gosbell and Clemens 2006, Moores <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2008, D. Rogers <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2009, Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003014		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This migratory wader nests from early May to late June, often in small colonies of 2-3 pairs, with an average clutch size of four eggs. It probably delays maturity longer than most shorebirds, perhaps not breeding until 3-4 years old (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Rogers <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2006)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species breeds on open mossy or transitional bogs, moss-lichen bogs and wet meadows, and on the swampy shores of small lakes; in the non-breeding season it is essentially coastal, occurring at estuaries, mangrove swamps, saltmarshes and intertidal flats, particularly those with extensive seagrass (Zosteraceae) meadows. It often roosts in salt-marshes, behind mangroves, or on sandy beaches (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet on breeding grounds includes insects, such as larvae of beetles and flies, and amphipods. Berries are also consumed during the autumn migration. In non-breeding areas it feeds on marine invertebrates, preferentially taking crabs and small molluscs but also feeding on other crustaceans and polychaete worms (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong> <p></p></strong>
106003014		population	eng	Wetlands International (2006) estimated the global population at c.38,000 individuals, although recent documented declines mean that the true population size is likely to be smaller, and may not exceed 20,000 individuals (D. Rogers <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). As such, the population is estimated to number 20,000-49,999 individuals. National <span style=""><span style="">population estimates include: &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).</span>
106003014		threats	eng	Habitat loss on the Yellow Sea staging grounds is probably the primary threat to the species, with the amount of intertidal habitat lost to reclamation projects estimated at 50% or more (D. Rogers<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). It is although it is difficult to ascertain whether declines seen at reclaimed sites such as Saemangeum represent true declines, or whether the birds have simply been displaced (Moores <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2008, D. Rogers <em>in litt. </em>2009), but the former seems more probable, given the huge scale of habitat loss in the Yellow Sea. Wetland degradation in the Yellow Sea may affect the species where it stages on migration (Bamford<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008, van de Kam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Further threats may include disturbance at the nesting and feeding sites, direct persecution throughout its range, and a decrease in the availability of food due to pollution in at stopover points in South Korea. Furthermore, females probably tend to migrate further south to southern Australian wetlands which are more threatened than those in northern Australia (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p>
106003016		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full migrant (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, Smit and Piersma 1989, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), breeding in the subarctic and arctic zone of Fennoscandia and Siberia (Smit and Piersma 1989). On passage to its wintering grounds the majority of the species travels overland on a broad front, although there is also an important route down the west coast of Europe (Smit and Piersma 1989, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Females begin to moving south in early-June, the males following during July, and juveniles migrating from August to September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The movements of this species are characterised by long flights between staging areas (such as the Wadden Sea, Dutch delta region, southern Hungary, south-east Greece, central Turkey, the Black and Caspian Seas, central Kazakhstan, Lake Baikal, Chang Lake (Ussuriland), central Yakutia, Sakhalin, Japan and Korea) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), those birds wintering in Sahel and northern savanna zones (e.g. Mali, Nigeria and Chad (Smit and Piersma 1989)) also cross the Sahara (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Arrival in Africa begins in August and peaks in October (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), the species being present throughout the tropics mainly between October and April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and returning to arctic breeding grounds between late-April and mid-May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Few birds remain in the tropics during the breeding season, but non-breeders may spend the summer just south of the breeding grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds in dispersed pairs and is often seen singly, although it is also common in parties of up to 20 and exceptionally over 100 (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Adults typically moult in large flocks (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in staging areas in their arctic breeding range before moving to wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species is both a diurnal and nocturnal feeder (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species inhabits lowland and upland (but not montane) regions, in wooded and open tundra (Snow and Perrins 1998), marshes, swampy pine or birch forest near the arctic tree-line, and also more open areas such as heathland and shrub tundra (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During migration and on its wintering grounds (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) this species frequents a variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands such as sewage farms, irrigated rice fields, brackish lagoons, salt-marshes, salt-pans, sheltered muddy coastal shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and mudflats (Johnsgard 1981), marshes and marshy lake edges (Johnsgard 1981, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), small reservoirs, pools and flooded grasslands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting chiefly of aquatic insects and their larvae (especially swimming beetles and hemipterans), terrestrial flying insects (such as craneflies), small crustaceans, molluscs, polycheate worms, and small fish and amphibians up to 6-7 cm long (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow depression (Snow and Perrins 1998) positioned in grass tussocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), on sphagnum moss (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), or in fairly dry areas of forestamongst low vegetation such as dwarf willows (Johnsgard 1981). Nest sites are often selected near dead trees or other suitable look-out perches (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Management information</B> Intensive grazing of grassland (&gt; 1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B></B>
106003016		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.110,000-350,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003016		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss in its wintering range and on migration: wetland sites in Ghana are being degraded through coastal erosion and developments involving drainage and land reclamation (Ntiamboa-Baidu 1991);  and in China and South Korea important migrational staging areas around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Barter 2002, Barter 2006, Kelin and Qiang 2006).
106003017		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a broad front over land and along coasts, some Icelandic and Western European populations remaining close to their breeding grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from March to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitarily pairs or in loose colonies (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), departing the breeding grounds from June to October, and returning from the wintering grounds again between February and April (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). Outside of the breeding season the species forages singly, in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or occasionally in larger flocks of up to c.1,000 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998) especially at roosting sites (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) or when feeding on fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, inland wet grasslands with short swards (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (including cultivated meadows) (Johnsgard 1981), grassy marshes, swampy heathlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and swampy moors (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage the species may frequent inland flooded grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and the silty shores of rivers and lakes (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), but during the winter it is largely coastal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occupying rocky, muddy and sandy beaches, saltmarshes, tidal mudflats, saline and freshwater coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), tidal estuaries (Johnsgard 1981), saltworks and sewage farms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> When breeding its diet consists of insects, spiders and annelid worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season the species takes insects, spiders and annelid worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), as well as molluscs, crustaceans (especially amphipods e.g. <I>Corophium</I> spp.) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and occasionally small fish and tadpoles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest s a shallow scrape or hollow (Snow and Perrins 1998) on a hummock or at the base of a tuft (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) of grass (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often well hidden by overhanging leaves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species usually nests solitarily inland (less than 10 pairs/km<SUP>2</SUP>) but in loosely colonial groups (up to 100-300 pairs/km<SUP>2</SUP>) on the coast (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Optimal breeding conditions for this species may be provided by creating a mosaic of unflooded grassland, winter-flooded grassland and shallow pools (Ausden <I>et al.</I> 2002). Winter flooding of grasslands is beneficial to the species as it helps to keep the sward height short and open and also creates pools which provide a source of aquatic invertebrates in the spring (Ausden <I>et al.</I> 2002, Olsen and Schmidt 2004). Such shallow pools on coastal grazing marshes should be maintained until the end of June (Ausden <I>et al.</I> 2003). The number of breeding pairs on improved grassland was successfully increased on a reserve in Wales by the implementation of a two-year rotation of chisel ploughing, as well as a seasonal sheep and cattle grazing regime and a controlled increase in the water-level (Squires and Allcorn 2006). At Lower Lough Erne in Northern Ireland the breeding population of the species increased considerably as a result of cutting rush beds in mid-winter (although the species nested on uncut areas, chicks benefited from the presence of adjacent short, open areas for feeding) (Robson and Allcorn 2006). Low-level grazing of salt marshes (e.g. c.1 cow per hectare) does not appear to affect the species and may even be beneficial to breeding populations (Norris <I>et al.</I> 1997, Ausden <I>et al.</I> 2005), although cattle should not be put onto the marsh until towards the end of the nesting season (e.g. late-May or early-June) to minimise the risk of nest trampling (Norris <I>et al.</I> 1997). There is also evidence that too heavy grazing can be detrimental (Evans 1986). The species is known to show increased hatching success when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas (Jackson 2001), and in the UK there is evidence that the removal of <I>Spartina anglica</I> from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species (Evans 1986).
106003017		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.960,000-2,600,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003017		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the loss of breeding and wintering habitats through agricultural intensification, wetland drainage, flood control, afforestation, land reclamation, industrial development (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), encroachment of <I>Spartina </I>spp. on mudflats (Evans 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), improvement of marginal grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. by drainage, inorganic fertilising and re-seeding) (Baines 1988), coastal barrage construction (Burton 2006), and heavy grazing (e.g. of saltmarshes) (Norris <I>et al.</I> 1998). The species is also threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats from construction work (UK) (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002a) and foot-traffic on footpaths (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002b). It is vulnerable to severe cold periods on its Western European wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and suffers from nest predation by introduced predators (e.g. European hedgehog <I>Erinaceus europaeus</I>) on some islands (Jackson 2001). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the viurs (Melveille and Shortridge 2006).
106003018		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full migrant, travelling overland on a broad front between its breeding grounds in central Asia (Russia and Siberia), and its wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia, Indonesia and Australia (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The main passage to and from Russia is believed to occur east of the Black Sea (Snow and Perrins 1998), with only a few birds crossing Europe (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (during south-west to south-south-west movements into and out of Russia a small proportion of the species regularly crosses Slovakia, Hungary, the Balkans, Italy and the eastern Mediterranean) (Snow and Perrins 1998). In eastern central Asia the species passes through Mongolia; central, north-eastern and coastal China; Korea (on southward migration only), Japan, Myanmar, Malaysia and Sumatra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species leaves its breeding range between the first half of July and early-September (Snow and Perrins 1998), arriving in its wintering grounds in September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). For those birds wintering in West Africa, the Nile valley in Sudan is commonly used as a stop over site before crossing the Sahara (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is present in West Africa from September to mid-April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and departs again between the second half of March and April, passing through central Asia in early-April to early-May, and reoccupying breeding areas again by mid-April to mid-May (Snow and Perrins 1998). Most non-breeders remain in the winter quarters or at intermediate sites during the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species forages singly or in groups of less than 20 (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), although flocks can sometimes exceed 300 (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It usually nests solitarily or in loose colonies with pairs spaced less than 10 m apart (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally (independent of moon phases) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species inhabits warm inland wetlands from open steppe to boreal forest, including shallow freshwater and brackish marshlands, grassy or marshy lake-edges (Johnsgard 1981), river valleys, flooded meadows (Snow and Perrins 1998) and occasionally salt-lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species typically occurs on the margins of inland freshwater and brackish wetlands such as rice paddy-fields, swamps, salt-pans, salt-marshes, sewage works and marshy lake-edges, and although it is rare on open coastlines it can occasionally be found on estuaries, lagoons and intertidal mudflats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and both aquatic and terrestrial insects (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow depression (Snow and Perrins 1998), often on a mound at the marshy edge of a lagoon, lake or pool (Johnsgard 1981).
106003018		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.260,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003018		threats	eng	<I>Breeding </I>The species has disappeared as a breeding bird from eastern Europe, Belarus, Maldova and Russia as a result of steppe habitat losses due to agricultural intensification (such as increased ploughing (Tomkovich 1992)), and possibly also due to egg-collecting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may also be threatened by industrial pollution from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (organic pollutants) in the Lake Baikal region in Russia, where high levels of pollutants have been recorded in its eggs (Lebedev <I>et al.</I> 1998). <I>Non-breeding </I>In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Barter 2002, Barter 2006). The species is also threatened by habitat loss in its wintering range, as wetland sites in Ghana are being degraded through coastal erosion and developments involving drainage and land reclamation (Ntiamoa-Baidu 1991). It may be susceptible to future outbreaks of avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974), partly due to its choice of habitat (it often shows a preference for sewage works) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003019		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and generally migrates overland on a broad front, although the majority of Western European birds passes through coastal and estuarine sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The Wadden Sea for example is used by many Fennoscandian birds as a stop-over and moulting site from late-April to mid-May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Most palearctic birds are trans-Saharan migrants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), the main autumn passage through northern and temperate Europe occurring from the second week of July to late-October (Snow and Perrins 1998). One parent (usually the female) leaves the breeding territory first from late-June to early July (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), with the other parent and juveniles following around 3-6 weeks later (Snow and Perrins 1998). Flocks arrive in southern Africa and Australia from August to September, and depart again in March for the northward return migration (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species departs for its breeding grounds during the evening (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and once there it breeds between late-April and June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Some non-breeding birds may also remain in the south throughout the summer (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species normally breeds in very dispersed pairs (Johnsgard 1981), but on passage it can occur singly or in small flocks (flocks of 20-25 are common in southern Africa) (Snow and Perrins 1998), although congregations of 100 or more may very rarely occur at high tide or at roosting sites (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). This species feeds both diurnally and nocturnally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species breeds in the boreal forest zone from sea level to 1,200 m in Norway (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998)(although predominantly up to 450 m) (Snow and Perrins 1998), in swampy forest clearings, woody moorland, open bogs and marshes (including raised and blanket bogs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and eutrophic lakes with margins of dead and decaying vegetation (Johnsgard 1981). It avoids bare or broken barren expanses, mountain escarpments, and closed forests with very dense, tall vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its wintering grounds this species frequents a variety of freshwater, marine and artificial wetlands, including swamps, open muddy or rocky shores of lakes and large rivers, sewage farms, saltworks, inundated rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), ponds, reservoirs (Snow and Perrins 1998), flooded grasslands (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), saltmarshes, sandy or muddy coastal flats, mangroves, estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), lagoons<B></B>and pools on tidal reefs (Snow and Perrins 1998) or exposed coral (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), although it generally avoids open coastline (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On migration this species occurs on inland flooded meadows, dried-up lakes, sandbars and marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> This species is chiefly carnivorous, its diet consisting of insects and their larvae (especially beetles), crustaceans, annelids, molluscs, amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), small fish (mullet <I>Liza</I> spp., clinids <I>Clinus</I> spp. and tilapia <I>Oreochromis</I> spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005)<I> </I>and occasionally rodents (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on open ground, often in clearings in woods (Snow and Perrins 1998), and is typically placed next to a piece of dead wood (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), or beside rocks, trees (Johnsgard 1981), fences and sticks (for use as nest markers) (Snow and Perrins 1998).
106003019		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.440,000-1,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50   wintering individuals in Korea; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003019		threats	eng	In the Chinese, North Korean and South Korean regions of the Yellow Sea this species is threatened by the degradation and loss of its preferred wetland habitats through environmental pollution, reduced river flows and human disturbance (Kelin and Qiang 2006).
106003020		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II. In Russia, protected areas have been established in northern Sakhalin, along the coasts and islands of Nabilski and in Dagi and Piltun Bays, and it is partially protected on Kamchatka in the Kronotsk Reserve and on the Moroshechnaya river. Key protected and non-hunting areas along its migration route include the Yellow River delta, Yancheng and Chongming Dongtan (China), Mai Po (Hong Kong), Ko Libong (Thailand), Peam Krasop (Cambodia), and Xuan Thuy (Vietnam). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to the south-west of Okhotsk and between the Ul'beya river and Cape Onatsevich (Russia); carry out comprehensive surveys in South Korea (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Research its status and conservation at potentially important wintering grounds in the Irrawaddy delta (Myanmar) and Ganges delta (Bangladesh). Establish further protected areas in its breeding grounds, at least at Konstantin Bay in Khabarovsk (Russia), as well as important sites in the winter range. Draft management plans for coastal wetlands to promote their conservation. Ban the hunting of all shorebirds in its breeding grounds. Provide full legal protection throughout the range. Conduct research into its feeding ecology, roosting requirements and energy budgets, including at passage sites (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003020		distribution	eng	<em>Tringa guttifer</em> breeds in eastern <strong>Russia </strong>along the south-western and northern coasts of the Sea of Okhotsk and on Sakhalin Island. Its non-breeding range is not fully understood, but significant numbers have been recorded on passage in <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), whilst wintering birds have been recorded in <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Myanmar,</strong> <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Malaysia</strong>. It is thought that it could be under-recorded in Bangladesh (Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has also been recorded on passage or in winter in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>,<strong> India</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong> (which may yet prove to be an important part of its wintering range), <strong>Singapore</strong> (e.g. Tan Gim Cheong 2009), the <strong>Philippines,</strong> <strong>Indonesia </strong>(e.g. Tirtaningtyas and Philippa 2009, H. Abdillah<sup> </sup>and M. Iqbal in prep.) and<strong> Australia</strong> (A. Boyle <em>in litt</em> 2006). There are unconfirmed records from Nepal and Guam (to US). Surveys of 100 sites in Peninsular Malaysia recorded 146 individuals at four sites (Li<em> et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is thought to have a population of 500-1,000 mature individuals; however, surveys conducted at the species's Russian breeding sites in 2010 and 2011 suggest that this could be an overestimate (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> E. Lappo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The data from these surveys also support the suspicion of a very rapid population decline, and further analyses may indicate whether the rate of decline is more severe. Numbers recorded on passage in South Korea also suggest a decline, at least since the late 1980s, although reduced observer effort may account for some of this trend (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<em> <p></p></em>
106003020		habitat	eng	Its breeding habitat is a combination of sparse larch <em>Larix</em> forest for nesting, wet coastal meadows interspersed with piles of driftwood, and coastal mudflats which are used by the adults for feeding. Wintering birds usually frequent estuaries, coastal mudflats and lowland swamps, and sometimes damp meadows, saltpans and rice-fields. <p></p>
106003020		population	eng	BirdLife International (2001) estimated 250-999 individuals, but the lower limit is probably nearer 500, as 100 have been estimated in Malaysia (Li <em>et al.</em> 2005), 100-200 in Thailand (P. Round <em>in litt. </em>2005 to Wetlands International 2006), c.100 in Myanmar (D. Li <em>in litt.</em> to Wetlands International 2006), plus unknown but low numbers in north-eastern India, Bangladesh and Sumatra, thus overall the population is estimated at 500-1,000 individuals, roughly equating to 330-670 mature individuals. The results of surveys conducted on the species's breeding grounds in 2010 and 2011 imply that the current population estimate is optimistic (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> E. Lappo <em>in litt</em>. 2012).
106003020		threats	eng	The key threats are the development of coastal wetlands throughout Asia for industry, infrastructure and aquaculture, and the degradation of its breeding habitat in Russia by grazing reindeer <em>Rangifer tarandus</em>. Over 90% of its breeding range is unprotected, and in Russia some of its breeding sites are expected to be modified by  pipeline construction and other developments for the oil industry (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> E.  Lappo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The area of intertidal wetlands in South Korea has decreased by more  than 50% in the past 25 years, with extensive reclamation at Yeongjong  Island, almost complete reclamation of Asan Bay and inner parts of Namyang Bay,  and complete reclamation of Saemangeum (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Several other sites that support or formerly supported tge species in South Korea have been significantly degraded since the 1980s (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Pollution in coastal wetlands, hunting and human disturbance are further threats. Observations suggest that hunting is a significant threat at breeding sites in Russia (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> E. Lappo<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
106003024		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and moves overland on a broad front (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) with European populations making well-documented stop-overs in Saharan oases (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Southward movements to the wintering grounds occur between June and early November, with the species being present in the north and equatorial tropics from late-August to early-April, and in southern Africa from October to March (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The return passage to northern breeding grounds occurs between late-February and mid-May (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), where the species breeds between late April and June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In mild winters some birds may also remain in the breeding grounds of southern Scandinavia (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species generally occurs in low concentrations during passage and at stop-over sites, although it may occur in small scattered groups of up to 30 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in the winter, with aggregations of over 50 being unusual (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species inhabits damp areas in swampy, old pine, spruce or alder woodland and montane forest with many fallen and rotten tree stumps, marshy forest floors and heavy carpets of lichens and mosses, generally in the vicinity of rivers, streams, swamps, ponds, lakes (Johnsgard 1981) and bogs (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season this species shows a preference for a wider variety of inland freshwater habitats such as marshes, lake edges, sewage farms, small dams and ponds, ditches, riverbanks and forest streams, often near villages and cultivation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (although less often in the vicinity of woodland) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is also very rarely found in intertidal areas such as creeks and the channels of saltmarches (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous, although its diet is predominantly made up of aquatic and terrestrial insects (Snow and Perrins 1998) (e.g. dragonfly larvae, ants, waterbugs, moth larvae, and the adults and larvae of beetles, Diptera and Trichoptera), annelids, small crustaceans, spiders and fish, as well as plant fragments (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> This species frequently nests high in trees in the abandoned nests of passerine species such as Common Woodpigeon <I>Columba palumbus</I>, thrushes <I>Turdus</I> spp. (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), crows, jays and shrikes (Johnsgard 1981), but may also nest in squirrel dreys (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998), on natural platforms up to 20 m high (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and occasionally on tree stumps or mounds of accumulated pine needles, among branches and tree roots, or amongst fallen trees on the ground (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> Unfertilised grasslands with low cattle densities (0.5 cows per hectare) were found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B></B>
106003024		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,200,000-3,600,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while national population estimated include: c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003024		threats	eng	This species is susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003025		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is a full migrant, travelling overland on a broad front across Europe and the Middle East (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). The adults start to move away from the breeding grounds in late-June, with juveniles following in late-August, arriving in tropical Africa from late-July through August to October (Snow and Perrins 1998). On this southern migration many birds frequent stop-over sites to the north of the Mediterranean (especially in France and Italy), after which they overfly the Sahara (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). Spring departure from the wintering grounds begins in late-March to early-April (Snow and Perrins 1998), with breeding areas starting to be reoccupied from late-April (early June in northern Russia) (Snow and Perrins 1998), and with breeding occurring between May and mid-July (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). Some non-breeding birds may also remain in the south throughout the summer (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species nests in well-dispersed solitary pairs (from 1-10 pairs per km<SUP>2</SUP> to 50 pairs per km<SUP>2</SUP> in forest tundra) (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996), but in winter it may occur in small scattered groups or larger flocks (20-50 individuals), and concentrations can exceed 1,000 individuals on migration (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species inhabits open, swampy areas in boreal forest (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996), scrubland between tundra and coniferous forest with willow, dwarf birch or spruce (Snow and Perrins 1998), wet heathlands, and extensive mossy, sedgy or grassy marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season this species is less associated with woodlands, being more commonly found in open areas such as the margins of inland freshwater lakes and reservoirs (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996), muddy marshlands, grassy stream banks, sewage farms, wet paddyfields, small temporary pools (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996), permanent swamps, flooded grassland and irrigation channels (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It rarely occurs in coastal habitats, but may be found along the creeks of saltmarshes and mangrove swamps (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> Whilst on the breeding grounds this species is chiefly carnivorous, taking small insects (up to 2 cm long), especially the aquatic forms such as dytiscid or hydrophilid beetles, Hemiptera and the larvae of Diptera such as midges (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season the species has a more varied diet consisting of aquatic and terrestrial insects and their larvae, worms, spiders, crustaceans, gastropod molluscs, small fish (up to 2 cm long) and frogs, as well as plant matter such as seeds (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape on the ground amongst dense vegetation (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) or raised on a tussock or slight ridge, and can sometimes be surrounded by water (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also nest in trees in the abandoned nests of other species (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996) such as thrushes (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> Intensive grazing of grassland (&gt; 1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003025		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.3,100,000-3,600,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs, &gt;c.10,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt;c.1,000 individuals on migration in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003025		threats	eng	The species is threatened in some European countries (such as Finland) from exploitation, and peatland drainage and destruction for forestry and agriculture (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). The populations in southern Sweden, Germany and Poland have also declined, possibly due to the threats of climatic change (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1996). The species is susceptible to both avian botulism (Hubalek <I>et al</I>. 2005) and avian malaria (Mendes <I>et al.</I> 2005), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.
106003026		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full migrant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The East Asian population migrates along the eastern coast of the continent, whereas the populations in western Asia pass south overland through the Caspian region, the Middle East (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or between the Ural and Volga rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). The Finnish population flies across Eastern Europe and crosses the Mediterranean and Sahara non-stop (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding occurs between May and June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), after which the adults depart in early-July (the juveniles departing mainly in August) (Snow and Perrins 1998), to arrive in their wintering grounds between August and October (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The return movement northward from Africa begins in late-March and continues throughout April (Snow and Perrins 1998). Many one-year-old (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and other non-breeding birds remain in the wintering grounds throughout the northern summer (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species is known to breed semi-collonially (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (as many as 10 nests have been found within a square kilometer) (Johnsgard 1981), but is mainly solitary outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). Occasionally it occurs in small flocks of 5-25 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), or up to 300 at tidal roosting sites (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species is both a diurnal and nocturnal forager, but its nocturnal activities may by restricted to moonlit nights (Rohweder and Baverstock 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species breeds in lowland valleys in northern boreal forest and tundra, especially on floodplains with flooded meadows and marshes, and where overgrown moist grasslands alternate with willow scrub (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It also frequents lakesides and marshy banks of streams, and extends to the coasts of sheltered seas in the Baltic (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species avoids mountains, fast rocky streams, steep or broken terrain, extensive open spaces and tall dense forest (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits tropical coasts, especially open intertidal estuaries and mudflats, as well as coral reefs, sandy and pebbly beaches, sandbars and mudlfats at river mouths, coastal swamps, saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), coastal lagoons and saltmarsh creeks (Johnsgard 1981). It can occasionally also be found up to 10 km inland around brackish pools and riverbeds, and often forms communal roosts in the branches of mangroves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). During migration the species may stop-over at inland freshwater wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), such as muddy lakes or river edges (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> On its breeding grounds the diet of this species consists mainly of adult and larval midges (Diptera) as well as seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its wintering grounds and on migration the diet of this species is more varied, consisting of a variety of insects, small molluscs, crustaceans (including crabs), spiders and annelid worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression close to water either in the open, or sheltered by short grasses (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003026		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.160,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals   in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003026		threats	eng	In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas of this species around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation, and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Barter 2002, Barter 2006). This species is also potentially at risk from exposure to DDT's in southern India (Tanabe <I>et al.</I> 1998).
106003027		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full migrant, migrating at night overland on a broad front across both deserts and mountains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Small numbers may also remain in the northern maritime climatic zone (e.g. the British Isles, Mediterranean and Japan) throughout the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The European population that overwinters in West Africa migrates south between mid-July and August (juveniles following one month later), and returns to the breeding grounds from late-March to April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Immature individuals may also remain in the winter range throughout the summer breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds from May to June in scattered single pairs 60-70 m apart in optimal breeding habitat (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and migrates singly or in small flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although it usually remains solitary in its winter range (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It forages diurnally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and may aggregate at night (Johnsgard 1981) into roosts of over 100 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species shows a preference for pebbly, sandy or rocky margins of fast-flowing rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), as well as small ponds, pools (Snow and Perrins 1998) and dams (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), clear freshwater lake shores, sheltered sea coasts with rocky or sandy beaches, tidal creeks and estuaries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), and often forages in patches of dry meadow (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It occurs from sea level up to 4,000 m or more in the mountains, but generally avoid frozen, snow-clad or very hot areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its winter range this species inhabits a wide variety of habitats, such as small pools, ditches, riverbanks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), streams, dam shores (Yalden 1992), marshy areas (Johnsgard 1981), estuaries, freshwater seeps on coastal shores, tidal creeks in mangrove swamps and saltmarshes, harbours, docks (Yalden 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) and filtration tanks of sewage works (Yalden 1992). It will also forage on grassland along roadsides and occasionally in gardens (Yalden 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), but it generally avoids large coastal mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists of adult and larval insects (such as beetles and Diptera), spiders, molluscs, snails, crustaceans, annelids, and occasionally frogs, toads, tadpoles and small fish, as well as plant material (including seeds) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression, sometimes amongst shrubs and trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003027		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,600,000-3,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan   and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt;c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003027		threats	eng	The size of the breeding population in England is threatened by disturbance from recreational anglers (Yalden 1992).
106003029		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.40,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003030		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.10,000-25,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), roughly equivalent to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.   The population in Russia has been estimated at &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs   and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003032		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Information on this species has been collected as a result of expeditions in 1999 and follow-up work in 2001 and 2003, as well as work conducted on Tahanea in 2008/2009 and 2011 (M. H. Burle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Manu has developed an action plan to eradicate rats on Vahanga (adjacent to Tenararo) with technical support from the New Zealand Department of Conservation, Pacific Invasives Initiative, BirdLife International, SOP and Island Conservation and funding from CEPF<span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.</span> In 2011, Island Conservation, the USFWS, and the RSPB conducted rat eradications on Palmyra Atoll and Henderson Island respectively in 2011. In 2013, it will be established whether such actions were successful and whether these islands could thus be considered for future translocations of Tuamotu Sandpipers.  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain the predator-free status of Morane and Tenararo by restricting access.  Eradicate predators from motus (islets) where the species is no longer present on the atolls Tahanea and Reitoru to allow it to re-colonise these naturally.  Survey islands where historical records indicate that the species may still persist, particularly Marutea Sud, Maria,  and islands in the Duke of Gloucester Group (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004). Also re-survey Reitoru prior to decisions on rat eradications. Identify suitable islands for translocation, either rat- and cat-free or where eradication is possible, taking into consideration a number of physical, social and biological parameters (SPREP 1999, Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Eradicate rats from such islands. Consider translocating birds to islands on which predators have been eradicated where the species never occurred but which supported now extinct species of  <em>Prosobonia.  </em>Develop a recovery plan (SPREP 1999, Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  Involve local people in the implementation of the recovery plan, with the species as its emblem, so that they associate it with increased coprah and coconut crab yields which will result from rat eradication.   <p></p>
106003032		distribution	eng	<em>Prosobonia cancellata</em> is endemic to the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it has declined during the last century and possibly also the 19<sup>th</sup> century. The type specimen was collected on  Kiritimati (= Christmas Island), Kiribati (Walters 1993). This population was probably eliminated by introduced cats and rats and its taxonomic relationship with Tuamotu birds is unclear (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004).  Only five islands are now thought to support populations: Tenararo (a minimum of 500 in 2001), Morane (a minimum of 530 in 2003), Reitoru (estimated at 57 in 2003), Tahanea (estimated at 185 in 2003, 59 in 2007, c. 150 in 2009, 168 at the beginning of 2011 and 74 at the end of that year, following a massive die-out (through starvation) of the population in the month following an entry of saltwater into the water tables of the islets caused by a strong swell [M. H. Burle<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012]) and a very small population (no estimate available) on Raraka, near Tahanea. Elsewhere in the Tuamotu Archipelago, one bird was seen on Aratika in 2007 (P. Raust <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, another on Raroia atoll (Levy 2011) and two on Raroia in 2008 (J-Y. Meyer, pers. comm. to M. H. Burle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) and otherwise small numbers of birds were reported in the 1980s and 1990s, most notably from Fakarava (reports from fishermen in the 1980s and one seen 2003) and Anuanuraro (30-40 in 1990) (Lacan and Mougin 1974, Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Thibault 1988, Lovegrove <em>et al.</em> 1989, Seitre and Seitre 1991, C. Blanvillain <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999, Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002, Pierce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.  There have been an increasing number of nil returns when islands where small numbers had been reported are re-surveyed, implying a continued decline correlated with the spread of rats <em>Rattus </em>spp and cats (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.  Consequently, populations on the latter three islands may already be extinct and records of small numbers of individuals elsewhere may refer to visiting (rather than established) birds (Blanvillain <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. It is unlikely that many more populations will be discovered, although the Duke of Gloucester Islands and Marutea Sud warrant surveys (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004). The population is estimated to be 1300 individuals.    <em> <p></p></em>
106003032		habitat	eng	It is found on upper beaches of coral rubble and sand amongst dwarf srubs (especially <em>Scaevola, Messerschmidti </em>and <em>Guettarda</em>) and scattered tall shrubs, as well as in adjacent areas of shrubland and interior of forest, especially open forest (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.  Dense stands of <em>Pandanus </em>and coconut trees <em>Cocos nucifera </em>are avoided (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004) when they outcompete the shrub layer.  The species is regularly reported along atoll shorelines and lagoon edges (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong></strong>, but it is thought they only frequent these habitats when attracted out of curiosity to the observers (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.  It is non-migratory but may visit islands where it does not nest (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong></strong>.  Food, which comprises mainly invertebrates, seeds, nectar and some plant material, is gleaned from the vegetation of scrubs and trees and also from the surface of the ground and in leaf litter (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004, M. H. Burle<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003032		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1,300 individuals based on surveys by Pierce in 2003, reported on in Pierce and Blanvillain (2004). This roughly equates to 870 mature individuals.
106003032		threats	eng	The introduction of rats, particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, and cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span>, has eliminated the species from all but the most infrequently visited islands in the archipelago (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987,. Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.   The establishment of coconut <em>Cocos nucifera </em>plantations is thought not to be a threat unless native undergrowth is also cleared (Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>  or outcompeted by seedlings when plantations are not harvested (M. H. Burle<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Abandoned coconut plantations are thus another important cause of habitat loss, for instance on many islets of Tahanea and possibly, to a much greater extent, on Tenararo (M. H. Burle and D. B. Lank<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Moreover, the establishment of coconut plantations can increase the frequency of human visits to islands and consequently the likelihood of predator introduction (Pierce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.  Of particular concern is that the two neighbouring islands to Tenararo, where there is coprah, support rats <em>Rattus </em>spp. (Pierce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Pierce and Blanvillain 2004)<strong></strong>.  An additional concern is that visiting birdwatchers, as well as local fishermen and coconut crab <span style="font-style: italic;">Birgus latro</span> harvesters,  may accidentally introduce rats to Tenararo and Morane, the latter of which merits reserve status (Pierce<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003, P. Raust in litt. 2007)<strong></strong>. The dramatic effect of a swell witnessed in 2011 (a 55% population crash in less than a month due to starvation as a result of vegetation, and possibly arthropod, die-out [M. H. Burle and D. B. Lank in<span style="font-style: italic;"> litt.</span> 2012]) proved the negative effects of sea level rise to the species. As such, the effects of climate change, particularly sea level rise, are  likely to be a significant threat to the species in the future.<p></p>
106003033		distribution	eng	<em>Prosobonia leucoptera </em>was endemic to Tahiti, in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong> (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). The type was collected by Forster and painted by his son in 1773<strong></strong>; the specimen is now in Leiden and the painting in London<strong> </strong>(Walters 1994). Another specimen, now lost, was taken in 1777 (Greenway 1967).<br/><p></p>
106003033		habitat	eng	All that is known of the species's ecology is that Forster noted that the birds occurred along highland streams<strong> </strong>(Walters 1994). <p></p>
106003033		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably caused by introduced rats<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106003034		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from May to early-August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although several pairs may nest close together in optimal habitats (Johnsgard 1981) along coasts or on islands (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species migrates in large flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is gregarious and sociable when feeding or roosting in winter (Snow and Perrins 1998), often foraging in close flocks of 10-100 or more individuals, especially in tidal areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds near the coast or up to several kilometres inland (Snow and Perrins 1998) in the high Arctic (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), nesting on coastal plains, marshes and tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and showing a preference for mosaics of bare rock, clay or shingle and vegetation near water (Snow and Perrins 1998) or in areas that remain damp until late summer (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is mainly coastal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although on migration it may occur inland along dykes or on lake shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). During the winter it frequents productive rocky and shingle shores (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), breakwaters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sandy beaches with storm-wracked seaweed (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), short-grass saltmarshes, sheltered inlets, estuaries, mangroves swamps, exposed reefs and mudflats with beds of molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> On its Arctic breeding grounds the species takes Diptera<B></B>(especially adult and larval midges) as well as larval Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and spiders, occasionally also taking vegetable matter early in the season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season its diet consists of insects, crustaceans, molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (especially mussels or cockles) (Johnsgard 1981), annelids, echinoderms, small fish, carrion and birds eggs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in mud, peat or on dry ground (Johnsgard 1981) with dense vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often positioned on a slight ridge, hummock or tussock, or in cleft or shallow fissure (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species usually nests solitarily, although neighbouring pairs may nest as little as 15 m apart along coasts or on islands (where abundant feeding habitats are available) (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> Removing feral American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea had the result of increasing the breeding density of this species in the area (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2003).
106003034		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.460,000-800,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while national population estimates include: c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003034		threats	eng	The species suffers nest predation from feral American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> in some regions (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2003), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003037		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.400,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt; c.50   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt;   c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan   and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003038		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II.The species is included in the action plan for Australian Birds 2010 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to improve knowledge of breeding and wintering grounds. Regularly monitor the population at important sites on both the breeding and wintering grounds. Oppose developments that threaten key wintering sites.  <p></p>
106003038		distribution	eng	<em>Limnodromus semipalmatus</em> has a disjunct breeding range in the steppe regions that extend from west to east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, and south into <strong>Mongolia </strong>and Heilongjiang in north-east <strong>China</strong>. It has been recorded as a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland China, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, <strong>Australia</strong> and <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population size is estimated at 23,000 individuals (Bamford<em> et al</em>. in prep)<strong></strong>. It is dependent on a rather small number of wetlands, notably the wintering sites at the Banyuasin Delta on Sumatra, where up to 13,000 were estimated in 1988 (BirdLife International 2001), and Ujung Pangkah in east Java.<em> <p></p></em>
106003038		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory but its movements are not well known (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds in small colonies of 6-20 pairs often with White-winged Terns <em>Chlidonias leucopterus</em>, and although the timing and location of breeding varies considerably depending on water levels, most females lay between late-May and early-June (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). Neighbouring nests are spaced 4-350 m apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). Birds arrive in the wintering grounds in September (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), returning usually in April (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), although some small groups remain in the wintering range during the boreal summer (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is a gregarious species, that occurs in small flocks during migration<strong>&#160;</strong> (Johnsgard 1981). At other times it occurs in pairs or small groups, with larger flocks of over 100 individuals roosting or feeding together at favoured sites (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds in extensive freshwater wetlands in the steppe and forest steppe zones. Suitable habitats include lake shores, river deltas, flooded meadows and grassy bogs along rivers with short grass and sedge vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), and areas of bare mud<strong>&#160;</strong> (Johnsgard 1981). It is also found on the boggy shores of alkaline ponds<strong>&#160;</strong> (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and<em> </em>has been observed in rice fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season it occurs in sheltered coastal environments, primarily estuarine and intertidal mudflats, lagoons, creeks and saltworks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). It will also roost on sandy beaches or in shallow lagoons during this season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996).<strong> Diet </strong><em>Breeding </em>On the breeding grounds its diet consists of small fish, insect larvae and oligochaetes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em> Non-breeding</em> On migration and in its wintering range, it feeds on polychaetes, insect larvae and molluscs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nests of one colony were reported to be sited either on mounds among reeds in shallow water, or in the open, in hollows almost devoid of cover<strong>&#160;</strong> (Johnsgard 1981). On bare ground the nest is a shallow depression lined with grass (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Those found over water are created from grass stalks and dead leaves<strong>&#160;</strong> (Johnsgard 1981). They are sometimes found up to 8-12 cm above water that is 25 cm deep (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996).   <p></p>
106003038		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.23,000 individuals (Bamford <em>et al. in prep</em>), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in   China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003038		threats	eng	It may be particularly vulnerable to habitat loss in its breeding grounds as a result of the drainage of wetlands for agriculture, or their drying-out as a result of climate change (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It may also be vulnerable to hunting, pollution and other pressures on both the breeding and wintering grounds.  Wetland loss and degradation along its migration route is a potential  threat, especially in the Yellow Sea where c.40% stage during northward  migration (Barter 2002). <p></p>
106003040		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species, although population trends are being monitored in Australia as part of the Monitoring Yellow Sea Migrants in Australia project.<br/><br/><strong><strong style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed </strong><br/></strong>Identify key stopover areas and prevent their reclamation. Continue to monitor population trends. Restore reclaimed wetland sites. Campaign to stop shorebird hunting in Asian countries. Legally protect it in all range states. Survey the breeding grounds for potential threats. Manage roost sites in the species's Australian wintering range to minimise disturbance (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2006).<strong><sup><p></p></sup></strong>
106003040		distribution	eng	<em>Calidris tenuirostris</em> breeds in north-east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, wintering mainly in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia,</span> but also throughout the coastline of South-East Asia and on the coasts of <span style="font-weight: bold;">India, Bangladesh, Pakistan</span>, and the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The Yellow Sea of <span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea, South Korea </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span> is a particularly important stop-over site on migration in both spring and autumn. The global population has been estimated at 380,000 individuals, of which 176,000 were thought to pass through <strong>South Korea </strong>(Wetlands International 2006). Since then the reclamation and development of wetlands in South Korea has led to a decline in the observed counts of non-breeding populations, mostly notably including dramatic declines at the Saemangeum wetland which previously held c.20-30% of the global population on migration (Moores <em>in litt.</em> 2009, Rogers <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Despite there being no observed declines within the Chinese portion of the Yellow Sea, further declines at smaller staging grounds in Japan and at major wintering grounds in Australia (of c.90,000 individuals [Rogers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009]) make it clear that the population is declining overall (Amano 2006, Moores <em>et al.</em> 2008, R. Clemens <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003040		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a long-distance migrant that largely travels along the coast making few stopovers (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but utilising different routes in the autumn and the spring (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996, Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May to late-June, departing the breeding grounds in July and arriving on the wintering grounds between August and October (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The return migration to the breeding grounds takes place from March to April (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although juvenile non-breeders often remain in the tropical parts of the wintering range for the breeding season (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species forages in large flocks of one hundred to several thousand (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> at favoured sites on passage (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but during the winter it typically forages in small groups (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on gravelly areas covered with lichen and patches of herbs, heather (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <em>Empetrum</em> spp., <em>Dryas</em> spp. and <em>Vaccinium</em> spp.(Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or alternatively on areas with a continuous layer of lichen and scattered stunted larch <em>Larix</em> spp. or dwarf pine <em>Pinus pumila</em><strong> </strong>(del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996). It occurs on plateaus or gentle slopes with montane tundra in the subarctic at heights of 300-1,600 m (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species occurs in sheltered coastal habitats such as inlets, bays, harbours, estuaries and lagoons with large intertidal mud and sandflats, oceanic sandy beaches with nearby mudflats (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996, Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, sandy spits and islets, muddy shorelines with mangroves and occasionally exposed reefs or rock platforms (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It roosts in refuges (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> such as shallow water in sheltered sites, on coastal dunes or on saltflats amongst mangroves (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> during high tides (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. On passage the species stages in estuaries and on intertidal mudflats (Tomkovich 1997, Moores 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The adult breeding diet consists predominantly of plant material such as berries (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. of <em>Empetrum nigrum</em>) (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and pine kernels of dwarf pine <em>Pinus pumilla </em>(del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small chicks feed exclusively on insects (e.g. larval Diptera and Coleoptera) and spiders (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter and on passage the species takes bivalves up to 36 mm long from intertidal mudflats as well as gastropods, crustaceans (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. crabs and shrimps) (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, annelid worms and echinoderms (e.g. sea cucumbers) (del Hoyo<em> et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest may be an open depression in moss (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984) but very few nests have been found (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003040		population	eng	The global   population has been estimated to number c.380,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006). Following the reclamation of the tidal flats at   Saemanguem, c.90,000 non-breeding individuals disappeared from the area.   Surveys elsewhere in South Korea confirmed they had not been displaced, and a   decline of the same magnitude and timing in Australia suggests that   individuals previously using Saemanguem have died (D. Rogers in litt. 2009).   Therefore a global population of c.290,000 individuals is estimated, though   given documented declines elsewhere the true figure is likely to be lower.   National population estimates include: &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003040		threats	eng	In the Chinese, North Korean and South Korean regions of the Yellow Sea (a major stopover area) the species is threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitats through environmental pollution (Kelin and Qiang 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. oil contamination of intertidal mudflats) (Tomkovich 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, reduced river flows and human disturbance (Kelin and Qiang 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. from off-road vehicles, tourists and hunters) (Tomkovich 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In South Korea, after the loss of the important Saemangeum stopover area and almost all of the tidal-flats in Asan Bay and much of Namyang bay, possibly only five sites nationwide remain internationally important. Of these, only one (the Geum Estuary) currently has a low risk of reclamation, with the other four at risk due to the construction of tidal power plants and barrages, industrial use and urban expansion (Moores <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10<sup>o</sup> latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003041		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full long-distance migrant that utilises few stopover sites or staging areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species breeds from June to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986), travelling in flocks on migration (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and remaining highly gregarious in winter often foraging in flocks of 300-10,000 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986) at select feeding and roosting sites (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in the high Arctic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986) on dry upland tundra including weathered sandstone ridges, upland areas with scattered willows <I>Salix</I> spp., <I>Dryas</I> spp. and poppy, moist marshy slopes and flats in foothills, well-drained slopes hummocked with <I>Dryas</I> spp. (Johnsgard 1981) and upland glacial gravel close to streams or ponds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is strictly coastal, frequenting tidal mudflats or sandflats, sandy beaches of sheltered coasts, rocky shelves, bays, lagoons and harbours, occasionally also oceanic beaches and saltmarshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season the species's diet consists predominantly of insects (mainly adult and larval Diptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera and bees) as well as spiders, small crustaceans, snails and worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). When it first arrives on the breeding grounds however, the species is dependant upon vegetation (including the seeds of sedges, horsetails <I>Equisetum</I> spp. and grass shoots) owing to the initial lack of insect prey (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species takes intertidal invertebrates such as bivalve and gastropod molluscs, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986) (e.g. horseshoe crab <I>Limulus</I> spp. eggs) (Karpanty <I>et al.</I> 2006), annelid worms and insects, rarely also taking fish and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is an open shallow depression (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) either positioned on hummocks surrounded by mud and water or on stony or gravelly ground (Johnsgard 1981) on open vegetated tundra or stone ridges (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003041		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003041		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to extensive land reclamation projects that encroach upon staging areas in Western Europe (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986), and is threatened by the over-exploitation of shellfish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986, Goldfeder and Blanco 2006) which leads directly and indirectly to reductions in prey availability (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species also suffers from disturbance in the non-breeding season as a result of tourism (Goldfeder and Blanco 2006), foot-traffic on beaches (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002), recreational activities and over-flying aircraft, which together reduce the size of available foraging areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986). It is also potentially threatened by industrial pollution and oil exploration (Argentina) (Goldfeder and Blanco 2006), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted illegally in New Zealand (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003042		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full long-distance migrant that travels mainly via offshore and coastal routes using a number of favoured stopover sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from June to mid-July in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), departing the breeding grounds between mid-July and early-September (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species usually occurs in small flocks on migration (Johnsgard 1981) although it may aggregate into larger flocks at stopover sites (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), and in winter it forages in small to very large flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in the high Arctic on barren, stony tundra with well-drained ridges (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), gentle slopes or level alluvial plains supporting scattered vegetation of willow <I>Salix</I> spp., <I>Dryas</I> spp. and saxifrage <I>Saxifraga</I> spp. usually less than 200 m above sea-level (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage the species may occur on inland freshwater or saline lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) but it is largely coastal during the winter, inhabiting open sandy beaches exposed to the sea, the outer reaches of estuaries, rocky and muddy shores, mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and coral reefs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> When breeding the species takes insects (especially adult and larval Diptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera) as well as spiders and crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On arrival on the breeding grounds the species may also complement its diet with plant matter (e.g. seeds, saxifrage buds, moss and algae) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) before invertebrate prey becomes available (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter its diet consists of small molluscs, crustaceans, polychaete worms and adult, larval and pupal insects (e.g. Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera), as well as occasionally fish and carrion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression on the bare earth (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of stony well-drained ridges, gentle slope or level alluvial plains (Johnsgard 1981).
106003042		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.620,000-700,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while national population estimates include: c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003042		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to disturbance on beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. from recreational activities and free-running dogs (Thomas <I>et al</I>. 2003)), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). In the Chinese, North Korean and South Korean regions of the Yellow Sea (East Asian flyway route) this species is threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitats through environmental pollution, reduced river flows and human disturbance (Kelin and Qiang 2006).
106003043		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><strong></strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known. Hunting of shorebirds is illegal in Suriname, but this is poorly enforced. An adaptive management plan for Delaware Bay was formally adopted by the Atlantic  States Marine Fisheries Commission in 2012. The plan links harvest decisions to information on the  welfare of both horseshoe crab and Red Knot <span style="font-style: italic;">Calidris canutus </span>population levels as well  as the use of crabs for bait and by the medical industry, and calls  for crab harvest levels to be regularly adjusted in response to data on Red Knot and horseshoe crab populations.<strong> <br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed<br/></strong><strong></strong>Carry out systematic monitoring in breedng areas, key staging sites and wintering sites. Evaluate key threats, in particular mortality from hunting. Campaign for better enforcement of hunting regulations and the introduction of these where they do not currently exist. Support adaptive management plan for horseshoe crab harvest in Delaware Bay.
106003043		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calidris pusilla </span>is a common breeder in the Arctic and subarctic from far-eastern Siberia (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>) east across Alaska (<span style="font-weight: bold;">USA</span>) and northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada </span>to Baffin Island and Labrador (Chandler 2009). In the non-breeding season the species uses coastal estuarine habitats, wintering on the Pacific coast from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, and on the Atlantic coast from the Yucatan and the West Indies south to central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span>, with large non-breeding concentrations occurring along the coast of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996, Chandler 2009, D. Mizrahi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). The population was formerly estimated at 3.5 million individuals, but this was revised downwards to 2.2 million individuals in 2006 (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, A. Lesterhuis <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009) assuming annual declines of 5% in 75% of the North American population. Trends are hard to quantify, but aerial surveys conducted along the coasts of Suriname  and French Guiana suggest that the non-breeding population in the region could have declined by c.80% between the early 1980s and 2008, from c.2 million to c.400,000 individuals; the possibility that there has been a shift in the wintering range seems unlikely but has not been completely ruled out (D. Mizrahi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).
106003043		habitat	eng	It breeds in high and low Arctic and subarctic wet sedge or heath tundra, oftern near pools, rivers and lakes (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). In the non-breeding season it is mainly coastal, favouring sandy beaches and intertidal mudflats, sometimes also shallow lagoons and saltmarsh (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). On migration also at inland wetlands, lake edges etc  (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). Food is mainly chironomid larvae in the breeding season, along with other small invertebrates and seeds. Various small aquatic, marine and terrestrial invertebrates taken on migration, including horseshoe crab <span style="font-style: italic;">Limulus polyphemus </span>eggs on spring migration in eastern USA  (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). Makes non-stop flights of up to 4,000 km on migration, with flocks of up to 350,000 gathering at key stopover sites  (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996).
106003043		population	eng	The population was formerly estimated at 3.5 million individuals, but  this was revised downwards to 2.2 million individuals in 2006 (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, A. Lesterhuis <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009) assuming annual declines of 5% in 75% of the North American population.
106003043		threats	eng	Hunting of shorebirds in northern South America, which is legal in French Guiana  but illegal in Suriname, is widespread and thus a potential threat to <em>C. pusilla</em>. Shorebirds killed by hunters in Suriname are estimated to number several tens of thousands annually, involving mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pusilla </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Tringa flavipes</span>: if 20,000 <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pusilla</span> were removed from a population of two million annually (1% decrease, net after recruitment), the decline would amount to some 26% over 30 years, independent of other mortality, suggesting hunting could be a significant factor in the observed declines (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Poaching in Suriname may have increased over the last c.20 years  owing to improvements in weaponry and transportation. Another potential  threat is the harvesting of horseshoe crabs <em>Limulus polyphemus </em>in Delaware Bay, an area  which reportedly sees the passage of c.60% of the total population of <em>C. pusilla</em>  during the spring migration. The species feeds primarily on horseshoe crab&#160;<em></em>eggs during episodes of rapid mass  accumulation, but harvest pressure from 1995-2005 dramatically reduced  egg availability  (Mizrahi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Significant changes in the intertidal profile, for unknown reasons, have taken place along the coast of the Guianas, although numbers of birds were also lower in areas with no obvious changes in mudflat area (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Use of pesticides in agricultural areas such as rice fields may affect shorebirds using those habitats directly, and drainage of pesticides into coastal areas and onto mudflats also has the potential to affect shorebirds (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Small-scale gold mining has increased considerably in the northern South American wintering range, and mercury, which is used in the extraction process and can reach the coast via the rivers, has the potential to affect shorebirds in coastal areas (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Oil exploration has also begun in Suriname and Guyana, with spills representing a further potential threat. Increasing frequency and severity of hurricanes during southbound migration may be causing increased mortality during this period (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012).
106003045		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full long-distance migrant that migrates overland on a broad front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (or by utilising a great many routes) (Snow and Perrins 1998) across much of the Western Palearctic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It is also nomadic in parts of its wintering range (e.g. southern Africa), moving as habitats flood or are overgrown (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Autumn movements to wintering grounds occur between July and November; the return migration occurring mid-May to early-June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), with breeding occurring between late-June and early-July (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Many immatures also remain in the wintering grounds all year round (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species is gregarious outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998) and occurs in small groups in its winter range (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), often aggregating into larger flocks to roost at high tide or at night (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). A typical migratory flock can be as large as 20-30 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding pairs sometimes nest as close as 5 pairs/ha, but more often they are dispersed (around 10 pairs/km<SUP>2</SUP>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species inhabits low altitude tundra in the high Arctic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (although it exceptionally occurs above 1,000 m in the west of its range) (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for dry ground among dwarf willows near swampy areas or saltmarshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), or areas where mosses and sedges are interspersed with hummocks covered by <I>Empetrum</I> (Johnsgard 1981). It avoids areas where annual rainfall exceeds 250 mm (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On migration this species is found along the muddy edges of small inland lakes, reservoirs, sewage farms (Johnsgard 1981), riverbanks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and seasonal pools (Snow and Perrins 1998), as well as on coastal mudflats and seashores (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In its winter range the species mainly inhabits coastal areas such as estuarine mudflats and sandflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), enclosed lagoons, tidal creeks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and saltpans (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), but it also occurs at inland freshwater wetlands such as open pools in marshes, paddyfields, jheels (and other small bodies of water covered with vegetation) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), small dams, floodwater margins and sandbanks along rinvers (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists chiefly of invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season larval and adult Diptera and small beetles are the primary foods (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), particularly the larvae of mosquitoes and craneflies (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the diet becomes more varied, with ants, Hymenoptera, waterbugs, annelids, small molluscs, crustaceans, freshwater mites and plant material being taken as well as Diptera and beetles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup (Snow and Perrins 1998) on the ground in the open (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), sometimes covered with vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B></B>
106003045		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,400,000-1,500,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003045		threats	eng	The species is threatened on the south-east coast of India (Point Calimere) by illegal hunting (bird trapping), reservoir and marshland habitat alteration by salt-industries, and habitat degradation by diminishing rainfall (changing the salt regime) (Balachandran 2006). It is threatened at Walvis Bay in Namibia, a key wetland site in southern Africa, by habitat degradation (e.g. through changes in the flood regime due to road building, and wetland reclamation for suburb and port development), and disturbance from tourism (Wearne and Underhill 2007). This species is also susceptible to avian malaria (Mendes <I>et al.</I> 2005) and avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.
106003046		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt; c.320,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003047		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full migrant, migrating on a broad front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) overland across the full width of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East (Snow and Perrins 1998). Adults leave their young in July before they are fully fledged and migrate south to the wintering grounds (Snow and Perrins 1998); juveniles then leave the breeding grounds in early-August (Snow and Perrins 1998). Some individuals also winter in Europe as far north as Britain (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), breeding between late-May and early-July on returning to the breeding range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).  The species feeds singly or in groups of up to 30 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and migrates singly or in small parties, although between 100 and 250 individuals have been encountered at some European staging sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> This species breeds in arctic tundra, shrub tundra and forest tundra along flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), although it avoids extremely cold conditions and exposed coasts (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is mainly found near coastal inlets, fjords, deltas, rivers or streams from sea level to 250 m, but also occurs up to 1,200 m inland (Snow and Perrins 1998) on flat, clear ground with little vegetation, areas covered with short grass and interspersed with patches of scrub (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), areas with grasses, sedges or <I>Empetrum</I>, and scrub willow or birch thickets with sandy or gravelly stretches (Johnsgard 1981). Both dry and wet areas are used, but habitats with elevated locations such as boulders or buildings are preferred because of their use as song perches (Johnsgard 1981). In Scandinavia the species also breeds near fishing huts and houses, and in industrial workings (Ronka 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits inland freshwater wetlands such as flood-lands, irrigated fields, sewage farms, densely vegetated wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), ditches, muddy marshes and lake edges (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), and on the coast shows a strong preference for mudflats in sheltered inlets, estuaries and saltmarshes, whilst tending to avoid open and sandy beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> On the breeding grounds and in inland habitats the diet of this species consists primarily of insects and their larvae (especially beetles and Diptera such as craneflies and midges) (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), as well as the occasional plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On the coasts the species takes annelids, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (such as sand fleas) (Johnsgard 1981) and small molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup (Snow and Perrins 1998) on the ground in the open or amongst low vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), often at the base of small willows, junipers or other shrubs (Johnsgard 1981).
106003047		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.170,000-1,300,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while national population estimates include: c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003047		threats	eng	This species is threatened by nest predation (Koivula and Ronka 1998, Ronka <I>et al.</I> 2006) from Common Gull <I>Larus canus</I> and Ruddy Turnstone <I>Arenaria interpres</I> (Ronka <I>et al.</I> 2006), as well as from Hooded Crow <I>Corvus corone cornix</I>, weasel <I>Mustela nivalis</I>, American mink <I>Mustela vison</I> and fox <I>Vulpes vulpes</I> in Finland (Ronka 1996). It is also threatened in its Scandinavian breeding range by shrinkage and deterioration of suitable habitats (due to eutrophication and the overgrazing of shore meadows), and by increased human recreational disturbance due to the building up of breeding sites (trampling and disturbance often lead to increased hatchling predation and abandonment of nests) (Ronka 1996). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza and may therefore be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003048		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory and travels largely overland on a broad front between its breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from early-June to July in solitary pairs, usually well-dispersed but sometimes very close together within wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The departure from the breeding grounds starts in July and peaks between August and September, with the return northward migration peaking between April and May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is only mildly gregarious outside of the breeding season and usually forages singly or in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of 3-7 individuals although it rarely also occurs in flocks of between 15 and 50 individuals (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds near pools (Johnsgard 1981) on open, grassy bogs or swamps (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or on mountain tundra (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) in boreal forest (taiga) (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), showing a preference for areas with mosses, sedges and dwarf willows <I>Salix</I> spp. for nesting (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species occupies shallow inland wetlands (Johnsgard 1981, Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and although it shows no preference over fresh, brackish or saline waters it does require habitats with soft, muddy shorelines and short grass (Johnsgard 1981, Higgins and Davies 1996), sedges, floating aquatic vegetation, reeds and rushes (Higgins and Davies 1996). Suitable habitats include the edges of permanent and temporary lakes (Johnsgard 1981, Higgins and Davies 1996), ponds, reservoirs (Higgins and Davies 1996), lagoons, swamps (Johnsgard 1981, Higgins and Davies 1996) and streams, river flood-plains (Higgins and Davies 1996), marshes (Johnsgard 1981), rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sewage ponds, saltpans (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and saltmarshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species also less frequently occurs around tidal estuaries (Higgins and Davies 1996) on intertidal mudflats (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet includes insects (e.g. carabid beetles), small gastropod molluscs, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) amphibians (Johnsgard 1981) and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on a hummock of sedge (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) well-hidden (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in areas with mosses, sedges and dwarf willows <I>Salix</I> spp. near pools (Johnsgard 1981) on open, grassy bogs or swamps (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or on mountain tundra (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) in boreal forest (taiga) (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species shows a high degree of nest site fidelity (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003048		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.25,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-10,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003051		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.300,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration   (Brazil 2009).
106003052		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003053		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.160,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106003054		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It arrives on the breeding grounds from mid-May to mid-June where it nests in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and forages in small loose groups (Snow and Perrins 1998). From July to August the adults undergo a flightless moulting period on the coast close to the nesting areas before travelling to the wintering grounds in September and November (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). During the non-breeding season the species is gregarious and usually forms small flocks of up to 250 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on Arctic coasts (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and in upland areas (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), nesting close to the fringes of snow and ice (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on wet moss or barren rocky tundra with patches of lichen and <I>Dryas</I> spp., on rocky islands and islets or on shingle beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It forages on dry tundra or along the moist margins of ponds, at the edges of melting snow-drifts and in areas of thick moss (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter and on passage the species shows a preference for tidal rocky shores with strong wave action (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and suitable high-tide roosting areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often utilising artificial structures such as concrete sea defences and breakwaters (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). In some northern areas (e.g. Svalbard) the species frequents mudflats, shingle beaches and coastal lagoons before and after breeding but before migrating south (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season its diet consists largely of insects (e.g. adult, larval and pupal Diptera, Ichneumon wasps and aphids) and Collembola (springtails), as well as spiders, gastropods, annelid worms and some plant material (e.g. leaves, buds, berries and seeds) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On the coast the species feeds predominantly upon molluscs (especially gastropods <I>Littorina</I> spp. and mussels <I>Mytilus</I> spp.) as well as insects (e.g. beetles and Diptera), small crustaceans (e.g. amphipods), annelid worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), small fish (Johnsgard 1981) and algae (<I>Enteromorpha</I> spp.) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a small scrape positioned in the open on tundra moss (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), in hummocky tundra (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) close to tufts of <I>Dryas</I> spp. or <I>Arctostaphylos</I> spp. (Johnsgard 1981), or in rocky or pebbly areas between cliffs (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984).
106003055		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.160,000-170,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003056		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a fully migratory circumpolar breeder with several sub-populations that employ a number of migration strategies, from short coastal flights to long, non-stop flights overland on a broad front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The sub-population that breeds in north-east Greenland migrates through Iceland, Britain and western France to arrive in its West African wintering grounds (specifically Banc d'Arguin in Mauritania) from late-July, returning again between March and early-April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). European birds may gather in large congregations from the beginning of July in areas such as the Wadden Sea or the Wash to moult (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and some juveniles may remain in the non-breeding range all year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds dispersed or aggregated in loose colonies, and travels in group sizes of up to 1,500 on passage, remaining in large groups (up to hundreds of thousands of birds) throughout the non-breeding season (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> </B>The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Shepherd and Lank 2004). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> In the breeding season this species frequents moist boggy ground interspersed with surface water, such as tussock tundra and peat-hummock tundra in the arctic, as well as wet coastal grasslands, salt marshes and wet upland moorland (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> In the non-breeding season this species mainly prefer estuarine mudflats, but also frequent a wide variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), both coastal and inland, including lagoons, muddy freshwater shores, tidal rivers, flooded fields, sewage farms, salt-works, sandy coasts (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), lakes and dams (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). For roosting during high tides and at night this species prefers large fields of naturally fertilised short pasture or soil-based crops with few vertical structures that could be used by predators (Shepherd and Lank 2004). Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species is omnivorous during the breeding season, consuming mostly adult and larval insects (dipteran flies, beetles, caddisflies, wasps, sawflies and mayflies), and also spiders, mites, earthworms, snails, slugs and plant matter (usually seeds) (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> It is also omnivorous during the non-breeding season, consuming mostly polychaete worms and small gastropods, as well as insects (dipteran flies and beetles), crustaceans, bivalves, plant matter and occasionally small fish (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> Its nest is a scrape or shallow depression in the ground, concealed in vegetation and sometimes in a tuft or tussock (and thus raised slightly off the ground) (Cramp and Simmons 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> The provision of well-surfaced paths in breeding areas that recieve &gt; 30 visitors a day has been shown to reduce the impact of human disturbance on this species' reproductive performance (Pearce-Higgins <I>et al.</I> 2007). It is also known to show increased hatching successes when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas (Jackson 2001).
106003056		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.4,600,000-6,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.10,000 wintering individuals in   China; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in Korea; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003056		threats	eng	<I>Breeding</I> This species is significantly threatened by the loss of its breeding habitat though afforestation of moorland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Lavers and Haines-Young 1997). It may also suffer from nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog <I>Erinaceus europeaus</I>) on some islands (Jackson 2001). <I>Non-breeding</I> In the winter this species is restricted to a small number of estuaries, so it is vulnerable to any changes in this habitat for example through land reclamation (drainage) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and the invasion of alien plant species (such as the grass <I>Spartina anglica</I> which has spread on British mudflats, resulting in the reduction in size of feeding areas available) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is also threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats from construction work (UK) (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002a) and foot-traffic on footpaths (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002b). Important migratory stop-over habitats on the Baltic Sea coastline adjacent to the Kaliningrad region of Russia are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, peat-extraction, reedbed mowing and burning, and abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub and reed overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1 in particular) and is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003057		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a full migrant, moving long distances by well-travelled routes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). During the autumn migration adults precede the juveniles, with males leaving 3-4 weeks before the females in early-July, and juveniles following 4-6 weeks later (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On this southern migration, the species crosses Europe in July, reaching Africa from mid-July to September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The return migration to the breeding grounds begins late-April to May, with arrival in the Arctic beginning in early-June, and breeding stretching from June to July (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Many 1st-year birds remain on the wintering grounds, and non-breeding adults remain just south of the breeding grounds in Central Siberia during the summer (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Nest density on the breeding grounds in commonly 1-2 pairs/ha (Johnsgard 1981), but pairs will sometimes nest as close as 200-300 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season, occurring in small parties or larger flocks of up to several hundreds on the coast, but usually in smaller numbers inland (although gatherings of hundreds can occur locally on passage) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It forages both diurnally and nocturnally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species breeds on slightly elevated areas in the lowlands of the high Arctic (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) especially on southward-facing slopes (Johnsgard 1981), </B>as well as along the coast and islands of the Arctic Ocean (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It shows a preference for open tundra with marshy, boggy depressions and pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) from melting permafrost and snow (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> In the winter the species chiefly occurs on coastal brackish lagoons, tidal mud- and sandflats, estuaries, saltmarshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), exposed coral, rocky shores and tidewrack on sandy beaches (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), and also inland on the muddy edges of marshes, large rivers and lakes (both saline and freshwater), irrigated land, flooded areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), dams (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and saltpans (Khomenko 2006). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> On the breeding grounds the diet of this species consists mainly of insects, such as the adults, pupae and larva of Diptera (e.g. midges, craneflies (Johnsgard 1981)) and beetles, as well as bugs and leeches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> In the winter its diet consists of polycheate worms, molluscs, crustaceans (such as amphipods, brine shrimps and copepods), and occasionally insects and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a cup positioned on the margins of marshes or pools, on the slopes of hummock tundra, or on dry patches in <I>Polygonum</I> tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003057		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,800,000-1,900,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt;   c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003057		threats	eng	In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas of this species around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation, and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased environmental pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Barter 2002, Barter 2006, Kelin and Qiang 2006). The species is threatened on the south-east coast of India (Point Calimere) by illegal hunting (bird trapping), reservoir and marshland habitat alteration by salt-industries, and habitat degradation by diminishing rainfall (changing the salt regime) (Balachandran 2006). It is also threatened at Walvis Bay in Namibia, a key wetland site in southern Africa, by habitat degradation (e.g. changes in the flood regime due to road building, and wetland reclamation for suburb and port development), and disturbance from tourism (Wearne and Underhill 2005). This species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <I>et al.</I> 2007) and avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.
106003059		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. A symposium was held in 2005-2006 to identify priority actions for the conservation of the species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement priority actions identified at the Buff-breasted Sandpiper symposium. Ascertain the population size and trend for the species. Complete a species action plan. Conserve key staging and wintering grasslands. Investigate the quality of foraging habitat and the influence of contaminants at the agricultural feeding grounds used on migration (McCarty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<p></p>
106003059		distribution	eng	<em>Tryngites subruficollis</em> breeds sporadically along Arctic coasts from central Alaska, <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, to Devon Island, <strong>Canada</strong>, with a relict population on Wrangel Island and west Chukotka, <strong>Russia</strong>. It has also been reported from <span style="font-weight: bold;">St Pierre and Miquelon (to France)</span> as a non-breeder. Birds winter in eastern South America including <strong>Argentina</strong>, <strong>Uruguay</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> and <strong>Bolivia </strong>after passing through the Greater and Lesser Antilles or around the Gulf coast of Central America. Originally numbering in the hundreds of thousands to millions (1890s-1900s), the species was brought to near extinction in the early 1920s by hunting. It has not recovered, with the current population estimated at 16,000-84,000 individuals based on various estimates from birds passing through the Rainwater Basin in Nebraska and the Gulf coastal plain in Louisiana and Texas (Morrison <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. It is difficult to monitor, as it is not faithful to breeding sites (and possibly not to wintering sites), but data from North American migration sites suggest that declines are continuing.    <p></p>
106003059		habitat	eng	It breeds in the high Arctic on well drained tundra with tussocks and scant vegetation. It is generally not found near the sea and avoids marshes. It appears to depend heavily upon intensive grazing by livestock in its wintering grounds to create short grassland (Lanctot <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>, but also uses flooded pampas grasslands. During migration it is found on many short grass habitats. At the internationally important Rainwater Basin stopover site in Nebraska, U.S.A., it was observed to feed primarily in agricultural grassland, and use wetlands for resting (McCarty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is a lekking species. <p></p>
106003059		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.16,000-84,000 individuals (Morrison <em>et al. </em>2006).
106003059		threats	eng	It was severely overhunted in the early part of the 1900s, reportedly declining to near extinction from a population which may have numbered in the millions. Immediate threats are the matter of some conjecture. The breeding grounds may be affected by habitat loss and degradation, and environmental contaminants (R. Lanctot<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Previously, on-going declines were attributed to widespread and continuing destruction of grasslands in the wintering range (Lanctot and Laredo 1994, Lanctot 1995)<strong></strong>, but there seems little evidence to support this, although environmental contaminants may be playing a part there (R. Lanctot<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Exposure on migration to toxic chemicals and pollutants in its agricultural feeding grounds may pose a threat, and is being investigated further (Lanctot 2006, McCarty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106003060		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. Protected areas in its breeding, staging and wintering areas include Moroshechnaya and several local wildlife refuges on the Chukotsk peninsula (Russia), Yancheng and Chongming Dongtan (China), Mai Po (Hong Kong), Lanyang estuary (Taiwan), Point Calimere and Chilka lake (India), and Xuan Thuy Nature Reserve (Vietnam). The Bird Conservation Society of Thailand have lobbied the Government of Thailand to request that Khok Kham be designated a Ramsar site (Fowlie 2011). Annual surveys are undertaken of breeding sites on Chukotka and over 450 adults and young have been ringed on the breeding grounds since 2000 (Zöckler <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In June-July 2011, dedicated surveys for breeding Spoon-billed Sandpipers were due to be conducted in the previously inaccessible Olyutorskiy Bay (Fowlie 2011). Local support groups have been established in some breeding areas and negotiations have taken place to reduce short-term hunting pressure at one of the key wintering sites in Myanmar (Zöckler and Thin Hla 2009; Zöckler <em>et al. </em>2010b)<strong></strong>. Researchers and a local environmentalist group convinced two villages on Nan Thar Island to agree to a hunting ban of the species, with a view to develop an ecologically and economically sound alternative in the future (C. Zöckler <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009, 2010; Zöckler <em>et al. </em>2010b)<strong></strong>. In the Bay of Martaban, socio-economic surveys carried out in early 2010 indicated that bird-hunting is undesirable and that most hunters would readily switch to alternative livelihoods if assisted<strong></strong> (BANCA 2010)<strong></strong>. These surveys were swiftly followed by mitigation activities in the same year, in which hunters agreed to stop their activities in exchange for equipment to provide them with an alternative income source and awareness-raising events and materials were provided for whole communities (BANCA<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. In 2011, awareness-raising and advocacy activities were planned for schools in China (Fowlie 2011). A Species Action Plan was produced in 2006 (Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006), and updated in 2008 (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong> and 2010 (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010c)<strong></strong>. At the fifth meeting of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway Partnership  in Cambodia in December 2010, the partners agreed to establish a Task  Force for this species, charged with implementing the action plan (Fowlie 2011). Studies into the feasibility of captive breeding and use of data-loggers on small calidrine waders were on-going in 2009 (Syroechkovskiy<em> et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. A captive-rearing and breeding programme started in 2011, when eggs were collected in Chukotka and the young birds were subsequently transported to purpose-built conservation breeding facilities at the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust headquarters at Slimbridge,<strong> </strong>UK (Pain 2010, sbsproject.wordpress.com)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor numbers at known breeding sites and carry out searches of suitable habitat in North Kamchatka. Actively prevent collection of eggs and birds for scientific purposes, museums and private collections. Take measures to ensure that researcher activity does not increase mortality. Ensure effective legal protection of all known breeding sites. Survey existing and potential wintering sites in Myanmar and Bangladesh. Stop hunting and trapping at key sites in Myanmar, Bangladesh and Russia. Ensure protection of newly discovered sites and existing sites, especially in South Korea. Campaign against the continued reclamation of intertidal mudflats along the entire migration route. Restore reclaimed wetland sites. Legally protect it in all range states. Identify and mitigate pressures at breeding grounds. Lobby against plans for a deep-water port at Sonadia, Bangladesh (Bird<em> et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Pursue protected area status for the Bay of Martaban and other coastal sites in Myanmar (BANCA<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003060		distribution	eng	This species has a naturally limited breeding range on the Chukotsk peninsula and southwards up to the isthmus of the Kamchatka peninsula, in north-eastern <strong>Russia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It migrates down the western Pacific coast through Russia, <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and <strong>Vietnam,</strong> to its main wintering grounds in <strong>Bangladesh </strong>and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Wintering birds have also been recorded from <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, Vietnam, the <strong>Philippines</strong>, in the Fujian province of China (F. Cheung <em>in litt. </em>2010), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong>. It occurs regularly at only a few sites within this wintering range, with important countries including Bangladesh and Thailand, and Myanmar, which is potentially the most important wintering country (with 84 recorded in 2007-2008, 73 in January 2009 (Clark 2009)<strong></strong>, and 89 in 2010 (Zöckler <em>et al. </em>2010b)<strong></strong>; 150-220 were estimated in the Bay of Martaban in 2010<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010a,b). In March-April 2010, a minimum total of 49 individuals were recorded during targeted surveys along the coast of Bangladesh (Bird<em> et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. A count of up to 103 individuals at Rudong, China, in October 2011 is likely to have accounted for a substantial proportion of the global population (Menxiu Tong <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Due to its specialised breeding habitat requirements it was probably always a scarce species, but numbers have dropped in recent years and surveys on the breeding grounds have revealed a dramatic decline from 2,000-2,800 pairs in the 1970s to fewer than 1,000 pairs in 2000, 402-572 pairs in 2003, 350-380 pairs in 2005 (Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong> and not more than 150-320 pairs in 2008 (Zöckler and Syroechkovskiy in prep.)<strong></strong>. The breeding population in 2009-2010 was optimistically estimated at 120-200 pairs (<strong></strong>Bird<em> et al</em>. 2010, Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010a<strong></strong>)<strong></strong> (in an estimated total population of 500-800 individuals [Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010a]<strong></strong>), perhaps indicating an 88% decline since 2002, equating to an annual rate of decline of 26%<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010a)<strong></strong>. These declines have taken place across all known breeding sites, and it is unlikely that significant colonies remain undiscovered (<strong></strong>Zöckler 2005, <strong></strong>Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Declines are also being observed at wintering grounds. For example, no birds were sighted wintering in Vietnam in 2009 at a site that supported at least 27 birds in the mid 1990s (E. Syroechkovskiy <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Breeding success is very low: average productivity was 0.66 young fledged per nest in 2005, and much lower in 2007, and this is compounded by a very low rate of juveniles and adults returning to the breeding grounds. The species now has an ageing and rapidly declining population with little recruitment. For example, data collected on birds at one breeding area from 2003 to 2009 suggest that recruitment into the adult breeding population was effectively zero in all years apart from 2005 and 2007 (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010a)<strong></strong>. Evidence to support suspicions that immature birds stay on their wintering grounds until their second year came from photographs of a second calendar-year bird in Thailand in July 2010 (G. Chutima<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>.<em> </em> <p></p>
106003060		habitat	eng	It has a very specialised breeding habitat, using only lagoon spits with crowberry-lichen vegetation or dwarf birch and willow sedges, together with adjacent estuary or mudflat habitats that are used as feeding sites by adults during nesting. The species has never been recorded breeding further than 5 km (and exceptionally once, 7 km) from the sea shore. Breeding birds are very site faithful. It breeds either in single pairs or loose aggregations (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During winter it prefers mixed sandy tidal mudflats with uneven surface and very shallow water, mainly in the outermost parts of river deltas and outer islands, often with a higher sand content and thin mud layer on top. In the areas with total coastal conversion it favours certain stages in the management of saltpans (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species feeds by plover-style pecking and occasionally probing (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, also appearing to use its bill as a shovel (Bird<em> et al</em>. 2010). <p></p>
106003060		population	eng	The breeding population in 2009/2010 was estimated at 120-200 pairs, roughly equivalent to 240-400 mature individuals and 360-600 individuals in total, although this is thought to be an optimistic estimate.
106003060		threats	eng	Throughout its migratory and wintering ranges, tidal flats are being reclaimed for industry, infrastructure and aquaculture and are becoming increasingly polluted. The important staging area at Saemangeum and Geum estuary, South Korea, including the Mangyeung and Tongjin estuaries, has already been reclaimed, and remaining wetlands are under serious threat of reclamation in the near future (Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Another important passage site, with up to 20 birds, is Rudong (China), which has been negatively affected by an introduced grass and is ear-marked for reclamation in the near future (P. Morris <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong> as well as being the site for development of the largest wind farm in Asia (C. Zöckler <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009, 2010)<strong></strong>. Plans for a deep-water port at Sonadia and cross-dams along the coast of Bangladesh continue to pose threats (Bird<em> et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Although not specifically targeted, it is regularly caught in nets set to catch other waders for food in the key wintering areas of Bangladesh and Myanmar (C. Zöckler <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009, 2010; <strong></strong>Zöckler and Thin Hla 2009; <strong></strong>Bird<em> et al</em>. 2010; Zöckler <em>et al. </em>2010b)<strong></strong>, and this may be a particularly serious threat to birds wintering on Nan Thar Island and in the Gulf of Martaban, Myanmar (C. Zöckler <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009, 2010; Zöckler <em>et al. </em>2010b). A survey of hunting activities in five villages around Sonadia Island, Bangladesh, in September 2010, found that of the 53 hunters interviewed, eight of them claimed to have caught a total of 22 Spoon-billed Sandpipers between October 2009 and April 2010 (Chowdhury 2010). Hunting in the species's non-breeding range could be a crucial factor in the poor rate of recruitment into the breeding population, as immature birds do not return to the breeding areas until they are two years old and thus are more exposed to capture (Zöckler <em>et al.</em> 2010a)<strong></strong>. There are no immediate threats to the breeding grounds, but nests in the vicinity of villages are sometimes destroyed by dogs (<strong></strong>E. Syroechkovskiy <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Poor breeding productivity in recent years has been attributed to heavy nest predation and bad weather (Syroechkovskiy<em> et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Significant habitat degradation has been observed in 5 of 30 visited breeding locations (C. Zöckler <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2009, 2010)<strong></strong>. Human disturbance, both by residents and researchers, may cause increased levels of nest desertion and predation by foxes and skuas (Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Shorebirds, including this species, are also occasionally killed by children with slingshots (Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>; one male was also shot by a Russian hunter near the Chinese border in 2008 (Zöckler and Syroechkovskiy 2008)<strong></strong>. Small but significant numbers of birds and their eggs have been collected for scientific purposes in the last 20 years, with one small colony completely wiped out due to this activity (Zöckler and Bunting<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 57% of the breeding habitat for this species could be lost by 2070 (Zöckler and Lysenko 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003061		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is a full migrant, and migrates on a broad front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) by making short flights between a series of stop-over sites (Verkuil <I>et al.</I> 2006). Adults breeding in Fennoscandia leave the breeding grounds in July (juveniles departing in August), and stop-over in substantial numbers in Sivash, southern Ukraine, on the Middle Eastern coasts, Caspian Sea and Bulgarian seaboard, before arriving in wintering grounds in Africa, Pakistan and south India between August and early-October (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Eastern breeding populations migrate on a broad front across the taiga, or along the eastern edge of the continent between September and October, and return in April-May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).  The Fennoscandian breeding population departs the wintering grounds in the spring between mid-April and early-June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). A few non-breeding birds also remain at the wintering sites during the summer (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding occurs in early- to late-June in Fennoscandia, and between mid-June and early-July in Russia, pairs nesting in loose colonies of 2-10 nests, usually spaced 80-100 m apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species migrates singly or in small groups, although during the spring migration flocks of up to several hundred can occur (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species breeds in the wettest parts of bogs (Snow and Perrins 1998) and on open peatland; the Scandinavian and north-west Russian populations breeding in the subarctic montane and lowland zones above 200 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (around 1,000 m in Norway) (Snow and Perrins 1998), and the Siberian population breeding in wet Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On migration this species shows a preference for muddy and boggy areas on the shores of ponds and lakes, but it is also found on shallow freshwater, brackish and saline (sometimes hyper-saline) lagoons, temporary swamps, flooded rice-fields, overgrazed wet meadows, inlets of fjords (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species mainly overwinters on large, soft intertidal mudflats, in brackish lagoons, on saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sewage farms and saltmarshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> This species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of marine nereid worms, small bivalves and snails, crustaceans (e.g. amphipods), adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, flies, grasshoppers, ants) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), as well as the seeds of aquatic plants (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a cup on top of a wet sedge or moss cushion, well raised above the water level (Johnsgard 1981).
106003061		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.71,000-160,000 individuals (Wetlands   International, 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003061		threats	eng	In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas of this species around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation, and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased environmental pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Barter 2002, Barter 2006).
106003062		distribution	eng	There is evidence to suggest that the European population (200,000-510,000 pairs, occupying 50-74% of the global breeding range) has declined by up to 30% over ten years (three generations)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this may reflect shifts in breeding populations<strong><sup></sup></strong>, populations in Asia are not thought to be declining<strong><sup></sup></strong> and wintering populations in Africa appear to be increasing<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003062		habitat	eng	This species is fully migratory and travels on a broad front across Europe (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) with males gathering in suitable lekking areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Flint et al. 1984) and females nesting solitarily or in semi-colonial groups (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species departs the breeding grounds between late-June and August, returning from the wintering grounds from March to mid-May (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species migrates in large flocks of hundreds or thousands of individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and forms huge dense groups on its wintering grounds (Hayman et al. 1986). The species inhabits tundra habitats from the coast to the Arctic treeline (Johnsgard et al. 1981, del Hoyo et al. 1996) during the breeding season, requiring adjacent foraging, lekking and nesting areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It shows a preference for dry mounds and slopes with low willow Salix spp. and dwarf birch Betula spp. as lekking areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), and dry patches of tall sedge as nesting sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). Suitable foraging habitats include littoral belts, deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal saltmarshes (Johnsgard et al. 1981) and extensive lowland freshwater wetlands such as small shallow lakes with marginal vegetation (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), grassy hummocky marshes (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), and damp swampy grasslands (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996), with shallow pools or ditches (del Hoyo et al. 1996). During the non-breeding season the species occupies the muddy margins of brackish, saline and alkaline lakes, ponds, pools, rivers, marshes and food-plains (del Hoyo et al. 1996), as well as freshly mown or grazed short-sward grasslands (Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996) and wheat- or rice-fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996), usually roosting at night in the shallow waters of lake shores (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species rarely utilises intertidal habitats (Hayman et al. 1986) but may frequent tidal mudflats and lagoons in India (del Hoyo et al. 1996). During the breeding season the species's diet consists almost entirely of adult and larval terrestrial and aquatic insects such as Coleoptera and Diptera (del Hoyo et al. 1996). On passage and during the winter the species takes insects (e.g. caddisflies, water-bugs, mayflies and grasshoppers), small crustaceans, spiders, small molluscs, annelid worms, frogs, small fish and the seeds of rice and other cereals, sedges, grasses and aquatic plants (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo et al. 1996) concealed in marsh vegetation or meadow grass (del Hoyo et al. 1996) on damp ground (Johnsgard et al. 1981) usually more than 100 m away from the nearest lek site (Johnsgard et al. 1981). The species nests solitarily or semi-colonially, neighbouring nests occasionally only a few metres apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Management information Intensive grazing of grassland (&gt; 1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005).
106003062		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number 2,000,000-2,600,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in China;   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003062		threats	eng	The species is threatened by petroleum pollution (Grishanov 2006), wetland and flood-plain drainage ( del Hoyo et al. 1996, Grishanov 2006) (for irrigation and water management) (Grishanov 2006), peat-extraction, and land abandonment and changing land management practices that lead to scrub and reed overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). The species may also suffer future population declines and range contractions as a result of global climate change (Zöckler 2002), and is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet et al. 2007), avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974,  Hubalek et al. 2005) and avian malaria (Mendes et al. 2005), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.
106003064		distribution	eng	The Red-necked Phalarope breeds in the Arctic regions of North America and Eurasia. It is migratory, wintering pelagically off central-western South America, in the Arabian Sea, and from central Indonesia to western Melanesia (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003064		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and travels over land on both broad and narrow fronts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) using favoured lakes as staging points on route (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). It breeds from late-May to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary pairs, occasionally forming loose colonies where suitable habitat is restricted (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species leaves the breeding grounds between late-June and early-September (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), migrating in gregarious flocks and wintering at sea in flocks of 20-100 (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in the Arctic on coastal and inland tundra, forest tundra and alpine tundra near lakes, pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), ponds, lagoons, streams or other permanent water-bodies (Johnsgard 1981) with marshy margins overgrown with grass, sedge or moss (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in freshwater marshes and bogs (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). It may also frequent coastal moorland, flood-plains and islets in large rivers, and in Iceland it commonly nests on sparsely vegetated lava deserts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage the species frequents inland saline and hypersaline lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) as well as reservoirs, sewage-ponds and coastal marshes (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). During the winter it is largely pelagic however, foraging at sea in upwelling zones and marine areas with a high abundance of plankton (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> In its breeding range its diet consists of insects (especially adult and larval Diptera, beetles, caddisflies, ants and Hemiptera) and other small invertebrates (e.g. snails, crustaceans and annelid worms) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), larval amphibians (tadpoles) (Johnsgard 1981) and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage the species may take larval brine-flies (<I>Ephydra</I> spp.) from saline lakes, but when feeding pelagically during the winter it feeds on zooplankton (e.g. euphausiids and calanoid copepods) and other floating planktonic particles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground or amongst sparse vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in sedge thickets or damp, grassy or hummocky areas close to water (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). <B>Management information</B> In the UK management regimes to benefit the species include increasing the area of open water in mires by digging small pools, controlling water-levels and providing tussocky vegetation suitable for nesting (through grazing by ponies and cattle) (O'Brien <I>et al.</I> 1997).
106003064		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.3,600,000-4,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; &gt;   c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100,000-1 million breeding   pairs and &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003065		distribution	eng	The Red Phalarope breeds in the Arctic regions of North America and Eurasia, generally wintering pelagically off western South America and western and south-western Africa (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003065		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant that travels via marine routes and has been observed migrating 80-160 km offshore. Adult females depart from the breeding grounds in early-June, followed by the adult males and juveniles in late-July and August, most arriving in the non-breeding quarters by the end of November. The species departs Chilean and South African seas in March, and West African and south-west African seas in April, migrating along the Arctic coasts and reoccupying breeding grounds from late-May to early-June. It may also wait 2-3 weeks at the edge of sea ice in the High Arctic waiting for the land to thaw before nesting (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Once in the breeding grounds the species breeds between June and July (from mid-June to mid-July in Iceland, and from early-June to early-July in Russia). The species is gregarious at all times of the year (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and will even breed in loose groups where the habitat is favourable. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> This species breeds close to the coast on marshy tundra with small pools, on boggy meadows with moss and grass, in marshy river valleys, or on islets in fjords. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season this species is pelagic and frequents upwelling zones in the tropics and subtropics where plankton occurs in high concentrations (e.g. over 50,000 organisms/litre). <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the diet of this species consists chiefly of invertebrates, such as adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, caddisflies, dipteran flies, bugs), molluscs, crustaceans, annelid worms, spiders, mites, jellyfish (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and occasionally plant material (seeds) when animal matter is scarce. <em>Non-breeding</em> During this season the species feeds at sea on plankton, including amphipods less than 2 mm long, Hydrozoa and small fish from the water surface or just below. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup or scrape on the ground in short vegetation (e.g. sedges or grasses) and is usually close to or surrounded by water (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong> </strong>   <p></p>
106003065		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,100,000-2,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and  &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003068		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is nomadic in relation to changing water levels with some individuals travelling as far as several kilometres between suitable habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species may breed in any month of the year in permanent wetlands but only during the wet season in seasonally flooded areas (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It has a polyandrous mating system, with males holding nesting, breeding, foraging and chick-rearing territories while females mate with several adjacent males (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species forages singly, in pairs or in dispersed family groups (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986) and may occasionally gather in small, loose flocks (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits permanent or seasonally flooded shallow freshwater wetlands, requiring floating vegetation (especially water-lilies) for nesting on, as well as tall emergent vegetation near the shore for cover (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and stagnant marshes with open water, flooded grassland, waterways choked with vegetation (e.g. water-lettuce <I>Pistia</I> spp., water-hyacinth <I>Eichhornia</I> spp., water-fern <I>Salvinia</I> spp. or water-weed <I>Elodea</I> spp.), small lakes, dams (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), ponds (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986) and the sheltered shores, inlets (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986) and backwaters of broad slow-flowing rivers (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species also forages amongst waterside plants or on dry land along the edge of water (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of insects (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) (e.g. dragonfly nymphs, bees) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986) and worms, as well as spiders, crustaceans, molluscs and occasionally seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is usually a simple, partly submerged pad of aquatic vegetation, although on deeper water nests are often placed on small floating rafts of vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).  <B>Management information</B> There is evidence that the species is able to switch to nesting on less stable mats of floating aquatic plants (such as the exotic water-fern <I>Salvinia</I> spp.) if water-lilies are destroyed by invasive coypu <I>Myocastor coypus</I> in wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003068		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106003068		threats	eng	The species is locally threatened by wetland degradation and loss through flooding (as a result of hydroelectric projects), drainage and overgrazing (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003069		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas, and will benefit from actions carried out for other aquatic bird species.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out surveys to acquire a total population estimate and baseline estimates for certain sites. Conduct regular population monitoring at selected sites. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable wetland habitat that receives effective protection. Conduct awareness-raising activities to help reduce habitat degradation.
106003069		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Actophilornis albinucha</span> is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Madagascar</span>. It has been described as common or abundant in western and northern  Madagascar, but is rare in the east of the island (Langrand 1990, Morris  and Hawkins 1998). It has been noted that the species is becoming less frequently observed in suitable habitat (P. Morris <em>in litt</em>. 2010, L.-A. Réné de Roland<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), probably indicating that a decline has occurred. This apparent decline is suspected to be on-going, on the basis of continued habitat loss and modification, as well as hunting pressure (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, P. Morris <em>in litt</em>. 2010, L.-A. Réné de Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, G. Young<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).
106003069		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The migratory movements and breeding habits of this species are little known, although it appears to make minor local movements in response to water conditions and may breed throughout the year (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. The species is usually found alone or in pairs, more rarely in groups (one group recorded contained 75 individuals) (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for floating vegetation on shallow lake margins, in freshwater marshes, on ponds and on slow-flowing rivers, from sea-level to c.750 m (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996).<strong></strong> <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects and other invertebrates, as well as the seeds of aquatic plants (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a floating heap of aquatic vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003069		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003069		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, e.g. a decline in the population on Lake Aloatra has been attributed to siltation, agricultural development, drainage, over-fishing and illegal hunting (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. In general, aquatic habitats in Madagascar are threatened by conversion to rice cultivation, which also results in a reduction in the extent of habitat fringed by water-lilies (Rabenandrasana and Sama 2006). However, the species can survive in some modified and disturbed habitats, such as flooded rice fields (G. Young<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). This species, like all waterbirds in Madagascar, is hunted wherever possible (L.-A. Réné de Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, G. Young<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003070		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>The migratory movements of this species are very little known (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It is a sedentary resident of permanent wetlands throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) although some populations appear to be nomadic, appearing at ephemeral wetlands (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and seasonally flooded pans even after years of absence during drought (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species breeds in territorial solitary pairs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), the timing of breeding varying geographically in response to wet seasons and the availability of suitable habitat (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species can be observed singly or in loose groups of up to 20 individuals (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for shallow water around the edges of permanent and seasonally flooded wetlands, with areas of sparse sedge (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) (<I>Rhynchosporia</I>, <I>Eliocharis</I>, <I>Cyperus </I>and <I>Juncus </I>spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), aquatic grasses (<I>Leersia </I>and <I>Hemarthria </I>spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and stands of floating vegetation such as water-lilies<B></B>(<I>Nymphaea </I>and <I>Nymphoides </I>spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It inhabits lake and dam backwaters (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), river flood-plains (e.g. Okavango Delta) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), swampy river edges, pans, coastal lagoons (Natal, South Africa) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), grassy swamps (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and sometimes small ponds (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), although it generally avoids shorelines with firm substrates (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists predominantly of insects, although it may take small pieces of aquatic vegetation (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and seeds (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a small floating platform of aquatic vegetation positioned on shallow water (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003072		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50   individuals on migration in Taiwan; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50   individuals on migration in Korea and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in   Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003074		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003076		distribution	eng	This species breeds on the Antarctic Peninsula (Antarctica), and along the Scotia Arc on the South Shetland Islands, Elephant Island, the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia (Georgia del Sur) and the South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur); and probably also on the South Sandwich Islands, where breeding has not been confirmed. It is a non-breeding migrant to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), Tierra del Fuego (Chile and Argentina) and Patagonia (Argentina), with some birds wandering further north.
106003076		habitat	eng	The species is typically found in seabird colonies, especially those of penguins, but occasionally those of cormorants and albatrosses, and also at seal rookeries and haul-outs. In the Falklands it occurs near human settlements. It is omnivorous, and notably feeds on marine prey stolen from penguins (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003077		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 13,000-20,000 individuals, roughly equating to 8,700-13,000 mature individuals.
106003078		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. In Argentina, it breeds in Tierra del Fuego and Perito Moreno National Parks, and Bosques Petrificados Natural Monument, and it is also found in Magallanes and Laguna de los Cisnes National Reserves, Chile. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Systematically survey known sites and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat. Continue monitoring on Gallegos and Chico estuaries and extend monitoring to other areas of likely high importance such as Santa Cruz estuary and river. Study its ecology and research threats. Increase protection at key breeding and wintering sites. <p></p>
106003078		distribution	eng	<em>Pluvianellus socialis</em> is local and partially resident in the extreme south of <strong>Chile</strong> and south <strong>Argentina</strong>, with part of the population wintering north to the Valdés peninsula, south-central Argentina, and sometimes as far as Buenos Aires province (Narosky <em>et al.</em> 1993, Chiurla 1996,<strong></strong> Piersma 1996a)<strong></strong>. The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 birds<strong> </strong>(R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International), and other estimates suggest it may be considerably smaller. Significant recent concentrations of non-breeding birds have included 145 and 123 on the Gallego and Chico estuaries respectively (Argentina) in 1999<strong> </strong>(Ferrari <em>et al. </em>2003).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003078		habitat	eng	It breeds on the open shores of freshwater or brackish lakes and shallow pools, and perhaps sometimes by rivers, in steppe-like regions up to 1,200 m, but generally at lower elevations in the south. Outside the breeding season, it occurs along rivers<strong> </strong>(Imberti 2003) and on the coast, mostly in sheltered bays, lagoons and river mouths. It feeds primarily on tiny arthropods during the breeding season, with chironomid larvae apparently forming the staple food in winter, when it forages in small flocks<strong></strong> (Piersma 1996a). <p></p>
106003078		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, and so is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106003078		threats	eng	There are few apparent reasons for its scarcity. However, the destruction and degradation of natural grassland in Patagonia by grazing livestock and introduced herbivores must have had some impact on mainland breeding habitat, and numbers are perhaps limited by the carrying capacity of the hostile environment (Fjeldså 1988, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong><strong></strong>S. Imberti <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Trampling of nests and chicks by grazing animals is a potential threat which has been observed in Magellanic Oystercatcher<strong> </strong>(Ferrari <em>et al. </em>2003). It may be particularly vulnerable to human disturbance and further potential threats in the non-breeding season include predation by feral cats and dogs and the degradation of estuarine habitat due to oil spills, garbage dumping and sewage<strong> </strong>(Ferrari <em>et al. </em>2003).&#160;<p></p>
106003079		distribution	eng	This species has a large global population estimated to be 140,000-330,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002). The status of the European population (46,000-78,000 pairs, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) was recently reassessed, and following a large decline in Europe during 1970-1990 (Tucker and Heath 1994), the species continued to decline during 1990-2000, when up to 20% of birds were lost and several national extinctions occurred. Overall, declines in Europe exceeded 30% over three generations (27 years) (BirdLife International 2004). However, there is no evidence of declines elsewhere in its global range, and incomplete data from Central Asia and southern Russia suggests that there the species is stable or increasing in places (A. Mischenko <I>in litt</I>. 2005).
106003079		population	eng	It has a large global population estimated to number 130,000-310,000 individuals. The European population is estimated at 46,000-78,000 pairs.
106003080		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is mostly sedentary but may undertake seasonal movements in parts of West Africa in relation to flooding and drought (both of which cause the species to move out of an area) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). In Nigeria it undertakes local movements only, corresponding to water level changes, and in other parts of its range it does not migrate (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). It is commonly found in pairs or small parties of up to six individuals (flocks occasionally exceed 20-60 individuals on the River Nile in Egypt (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996)), but in the breeding season nesting pairs become territorial and usually disperse to nest singly (Cramp and Simmons 1983). In the Nile Delta, the species commonly nests in small colonies however, with up to 21 nests recorded on the roof of one house. The timing of the breeding season varies according to locality (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), but it usually occurs before the rains in areas with seasonal rainfall (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is mainly nocturnal, but is often crepuscular (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), sometimes foraging in the twilight hours of morning and evening (Cramp and Simmons 1983). <B>Habitat</B> This species occupies a wide variety of open land with sparse or no vegetation, including savanna and woodland clearings, open orchards, sandy or stony ground amidst thorny scrub, gardens in towns and villages (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986), gravel roads (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), burnt woodland and semi-arid grassland (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is always found in the close proximity to water, especially on sandy riverbeds, riverside mudbanks, rocks mid-stream (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986), lake shores, mangroves (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), grassy flats beside rivers and irrigated fields (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). It avoids steep broken terrain, desert and tall, dense vegetation, either in wetland or forest (Cramp and Simmons 1983). <B>Diet</B> This species is carnivorous and feeds exclusively on land (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), its diet consisting mainly of insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers) and crustaceans, but also of molluscs, worms, frogs, tadpoles and small rodents (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape positioned on bare ground, sand-banks, the top of low flat rocks or on rocky islets in rivers (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It has also been recorded nesting on the flat roofs of buildings in Egypt (Cramp and Simmons 1983).<B> </B>
106003080		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation in Ghana wetlands owing to coastal erosion and proposed developments involving drainage and land reclamation (Ntiamoa-Baidu 1991). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003081		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is largely sedentary although some individuals may make local movements to avoid river flooding (returning to exposed riverbanks as the water recedes) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The timing of breeding is variable but generally coincides with the dry season or the early rains, with the species nesting solitarily (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or in loose associations of several pairs on riverine sandbars (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). The species is usually observed foraging nocturnally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in pairs or small groups (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986) but is also gregarious at times, gathering in flocks of 30 or more individuals during the non-breeding season (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986).<B> Habitat</B> It inhabits riverbanks, lake shores, estuaries, mangrove swamps, undisturbed sheltered beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and the shores of coastal creeks and islands (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986), showing a preference for habitats with bushes or shrubs providing cover (e.g. light woodland) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It generally avoids heavily vegetated wetlands (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) but occasionally forages more than 1 km from water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. aquatic beetles, grasshoppers, locusts and termites) (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. crabs with carapace widths of up to 50 mm) (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), worms, frogs and tadpoles, millipedes and grass seeds (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape in the ground often positioned close to water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on a sandbank, shoreline (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986) or a small islet (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986) near a landmark such as a piece of driftwood or a bush (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003081		threats	eng	The species is threatened by human disturbance and predation by domestic dogs on beaches (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005).
106003083		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Fox control has been trialled in Victoria in an attempt to reduce predation of adults and chicks (D. Robinson and G. Johnson <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A post-graduate study into the demography and ecology of the species in New South Wales and Victoria has been completed (E. Tack <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. A number of conservation projects for the species have been implemented in south-eastern Australia, in Victoria (3), South Australia (2) and New South Wales (4) (D. Harley <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007, C. Price<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Habitat requirements of the species in different areas are becoming better understood. Community involvement and support for projects are increasing, and the profile of the species has been raised in many areas (C. Price<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Molecular studies at the Australian Museum were underway and expected to be completed in 2007, with the aim of clarifying whether genetic differentiation is evident between populations in northern and southern Australia (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007, C. Price<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve fox control. Improve understanding of threatening processes, particularly pertaining to juvenile recruitment (C. Price<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the rate of juvenile recruitment (which may necessitate large-scale fox control) (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop standardised techniques for surveying distribution and monitoring abundance (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop agreement with landholders to maintain litter layer and fallen timber in remnant woodland. Determine the minimum area of woodland needed to maintain sub-populations and incorporate where necessary into land-clearing guidelines. Promote the iconic status of the species amongst regional farming communities (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase understanding about its habitat requirements (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003085		distribution	eng	<em>Burhinus grallarius</em> has been recorded from all but the most arid parts of mainland <strong>Australia</strong>, and many offshore islands. A tiny breeding population is also found in southern New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea)</strong>. In Australia, it is now largely absent south and east of the Great Dividing Range, and is scarce elsewhere in southern Australia. Historic declines led to its disappearance from 90% of its mainland range in South Australia (D. Harley <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, however it remains common in northern Australia and on many continental islands, even within towns (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006, 2011)<strong></strong>, although it has declined in southern Queensland. The total Australian population has been estimated at 15,000 individuals (Watkins 1993)<strong></strong>, and in 2010 the total population was estimated to almost certainly exceed 10,000 mature individuals (S. Garnett. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106003085		habitat	eng	It is a resident of open forest and woodland, preferring a scattering of fallen timber and ground carpeted with dead leaves. The species feeds nocturnally on insects taken from the ground and is thought to forage primarily in open country, including paddocks and stubble in agricultural areas (D. Watson <em>in litt.</em> 2006, D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (in urban coastal areas birds forage on ovals, mudflats and saltmarsh) (C. Price<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pairs occupy stable territories and display long-term site fidelity (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season, individuals may gather in small flocks (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003085		population	eng	The total Australian population has separately been estimated at 15,000 individuals, and to "almost certainly exceed 10,000 mature individuals" (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The population is therefore placed in the band 10,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106003085		threats	eng	Its decline in its southern range has been attributed to predation by the introduced Red Fox <em>Vulpes vulpes</em>, habitat clearance for agriculture and urban development, habitat degradation by pastoralism, and removal of fallen timber from habitat remnants. Other threats include poisoning from pesticides or insecticides and in urban areas, road mortalities and predation by cats and domestic dogs (T. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2006, D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Population monitoring in south-eastern South Australia suggests that poor nesting success and a lack of juvenile recruitment are significant factors limiting populations (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Nestling mortality, probably owing to predation, appears to be the main cause of nesting failure (D. Harley<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Hunting of the species is illegal.  <p></p>
106003086		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-17,000 mature individuals.
106003088		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are fully migratory, inland breeders moving to the coast for the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds from April to July (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary pairs or small groups (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), during the winter foraging singly or in small groups of up to 10 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998) and with larger flocks often forming in major bays and estuaries and at roosting sites (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, sand and shingle beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), dunes, cliff-tops with short grass (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and occasionally rocky shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), as well as inland along the shores of lakes, reservoirs and rivers (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) or on agricultural (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) grass and cereal fields, often some distance from water (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is chiefly coastal, frequenting estuarine mudflats, saltmarshes and sandy and rocky shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> When foraging on soft intertidal substrates bivalves and gastropods are the most important food items for this species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Polychaetes and crustaceans are more important in estuaries however, and molluscs (e.g. mussels, limpets and whelks) are most important on rocky shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). When inland, prey such as earthworms and insect larvae (e.g. caterpillars and cranefly larvae) are also taken (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) often on raised surfaces (e.g. earth banks) (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in the open or in short vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) on cultivated or uncultivated land, cliff-tops, rocky outcrops or clearings in taller vegetation including woods and moorland (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> The breeding numbers of this species may decline if cattle grazing regimes are implemented on coastal grassland, possibly as a result of changes in food availability and increased predation risks (Olsen and Schmidt 2004). Removing large numbers of gulls (e.g. <I>Larus argentatus</I> and <I>Larus fuscus</I>) from islands may attract higher breeding numbers of the species but may not improve the overall breeding conditions (Harris and Wanless 1997). There is also evidence that the creation of large marine protected areas (MPAs) to protect this species from the threat of anthropogenic shellfish over-fishing may not be an effective management or conservation technique on a global scale, especially if over-fishing continues to occur in adjacent areas (Verhulst <I>et al.</I> 2004).
106003088		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,100,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs in Korea; &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106003088		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is the over-fishing of benthic shellfish and the resulting disappearance of intertidal mussel and cockle beds (Atkinson <I>et al.</I>2003, Verhulst <I>et al.</I> 2004, Ens 2006). The species is also threatened by habitat degradation on its wintering grounds due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance (Kelin and Qiang 2006) (e.g. from construction work) (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002), coastal barrage construction (Burton 2006) and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003089		distribution	eng	<em>Haematopus meadewaldoi </em>was endemic to Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and their offshore islets in the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong> (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). It was last collected in 1913 and locally reported to have become extinct by the 1940s<strong> </strong>(Collar and Stuart 1985). It is now considered extinct because extensive surveys in the mid-1980s failed to find any evidence of the species's survival, despite four convincing reports (two from Tenerife and two from Senegal) between 1968 and 1981<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <p></p>
106003089		habitat	eng	It inhabited the coastal zone where it foraged for invertebrates; its ecology was likely to have been typical of the genus.  <p></p>
106003089		threats	eng	Its decline was probably a result of overharvesting of intertidal invertebrates and disturbance by people<strong> </strong>(Hockey 1987), although predation by rats and cats has also been implicated<strong> </strong>(Collar and Stuart 1985). <p></p>
106003090		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On most near-shore islands, population sizes have been stable or increased recently due to either improved management, e.g. the cessation of guano-scraping during the 1980s, and/or a change in diet from indigenous limpets and mussels to invasive mussels such as <em>Mytilus galloprovincialis </em>(e.g. at Robben Island, South Africa) (Calf and Underhill 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recreational vehicles have been banned from the Overberg coast since February 2002 (Jeffery and Scott 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The national Oystercatcher Conservation Programme (OCP) has been raising public awareness concerning the species and its needs, and has been generating local community involvement it its conservation (Jeffery and Scott 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends and annual breeding success. Study local rates of predation. Create disturbance-free areas on beaches. Protect areas of coastal habitat. Design measures to prevent the introduction of mammalian predators to breeding islands.  <p></p>
106003090		distribution	eng	<em>Haematopus moquini</em> has a coastal breeding range which stretches from Lüderitz, <strong>Namibia</strong>, to Mazeppa Bay, Eastern Cape, <strong>South Africa</strong>. The total population is estimated to number 5,000-6,000 individuals (T. Dodman<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with about half occurring along the Western Cape (South Africa) coastline, half of these on its near-shore islands.  <p></p>
106003090		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Adults of this species are mostly sedentary, although some seasonal movement occurs between breeding and non-breeding habitats (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, within a 15km range (Urban <em>et al. </em>1986)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs from September to April, with a peak from November to February (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It breeds slightly later in Namibia than in South Africa (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The start and duration of egg-laying is affected by predation risk and weather conditions, including unpredictable tidal inundation (Calf and Underhill 2005, Tjørve and Underhill 2008). Juveniles either disperse at independence, moving up to 150km from their natal site to areas with high adult density (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, or migrate up to 2000km to one of five nursery areas (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. These return to their natal area after 2-3 years (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species breeds and forages solitarily (Urban <em>et al. </em>1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, but roosts communally in groups of up to 200 in the non-breeding season (Urban <em>et al. </em>1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Offshore islands and sandy beaches are favoured as breeding habitats (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It rarely breeds on mainland rocky shores (Urban <em>et al. </em>1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>The species forages exclusively in the intertidal zone (Urban <em>et al. </em>1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong> </strong>and is found on mainland rocky and sandy shores during the non-breeding season, being less frequent in estuaries, lagoons and coastal pans (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It tends to roost on promontaries with good all-round visibility (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Nurseries occur in both sheltered bays and open rocky shores (<strong></strong>Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet includes primarily bivalves such as limpets and mussels, but also polychaetes, whelks and crustaceans (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a scrape in sand where possible, but on rocky subtrata shells are built up to form a lip (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, or eggs are laid on bare rock (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The nest is usually situated within 30m of the high water mark (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005, Calf and Underhill 2005)<strong></strong>, often beside a disruptive object such as a rock or clumps of kelp (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005, Jeffery and Scott 2005)<strong></strong>. The clutch-size ranges from one to three eggs, but is usually two. The incubation period is 27-39 days, followed by a fledging period of 35-40 days; pairs rear one or two chicks. Fledging success is 0.3-0.6 young per pair per year on predator-free offshore islands, but is lower on the mainland. There is evidence that breeding productivity has increased on the west coast since 1980, following the invasion of the Mediterranean mussel <em>Mytilus galloprovincialis</em>. Age of first breeding is three years in females, and probably four years in males. The species is known to live for over 18 years (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003090		population	eng	The population is estimated at 5,000-6,000 individuals (T. Dodman<I> in litt.</I> 2002), roughly equivalent to 3,300-4,000 mature individuals.
106003090		threats	eng	The peak of the breeding season coincides with peak coastal recreational activities and the resulting disturbance reduces breeding success (Leseberg <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Off-road vehicles are a particular problem, as they churn up beaches, run over nests and crush eggs, and kill young hiding in vehicle tracks. In addition, people on beaches can keep adults off nests for extended periods, overheating eggs and killing embryos, and predation of eggs and chicks by domestic dogs can be a problem (Leseberg <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance also leads to the predation of eggs and chicks by Kelp Gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em><strong> </strong>(Jeffery and Scott 2005). On sections of the coastline undisturbed by humans, natural predators (e.g. mongoose) take many nests. The mainland is likely to prove a population sink for surplus birds from near-shore islands, with breeding productivity too low to sustain coastal populations. Coastal development is thought to have caused declines in some areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The c.30% of the total population that is found on offshore islands is threatened by the introduction of mammalian predators (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003092		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 8,900-11,000 individuals, roughly equating to 5,900-7,300 mature individuals.
106003095		population	eng	Estimate excludes totals for Haematopus chathamsensis, which is not split by Wetlands International (2006).
106003096		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mangere and South East islands were designated as nature reserves in the 1950s. Nest manipulation may have helped to increase hatching success on Chatham. Nests are moved slowly back up the beach to mitigate the impacts of flooding. Artificial incubation was trialled but did not increase overall productivity. Stock have been fenced from some beaches on Chatham, with strongly positive results (Moore 2009); signs have been erected to reduce human and dog disturbance, and marram is being controlled in some areas. Recently, intensive predator control combined with nest manipulation resulted in a high number of fledglings. A research programme aiming to assess the effects of predators, flooding and management on breeding success has been initiated (H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999, F. A. Schmechel <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Increase predator control at selected sites, and expand to other breeding areas (Department of Conservation 2001). Continue habitat management and dune restoration into a wider area (Waugh 2009). Continue nest manipulation. Continue research on population dynamics and monitoring of breeding activity. Minimise destruction of nests by domestic stock, dogs and people, through communication, education and possibly more fencing (Department of Conservation 2001).<br/><p></p>
106003096		distribution	eng	<em>Haematopus chathamensis</em> is endemic to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1987-1988, the population was estimated at 100-110 birds, including 44 breeding pairs: eight on South East Island (= Rangatira), 25 on Chatham Island, nine on Pitt Island and two on Mangere Island. In 1998, a census indicated 140-150 birds, representing a significant increase. Numbers on South East, however, appear to have gradually declined since the 1970s (Schmechel and O'Connor 1999)<strong></strong>. Very small numbers may breed on Star Keys (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. In 2004, a minimum of 266 birds were counted on most of the coast of four islands in the Chathams group, representing a population of 310-340 birds, including 89 pairs (Moore 2005, 2007)<strong></strong>. The population is thought to have levelled off at over 100 pairs, and 310-360 individuals, since 2006 (Moore 2008). The population on Chatham Island is thought to have reached carrying capacity, with 45 pairs monitored in 2009. Elsewhere at this time, 12 pairs were monitored on Pitt, three on South East and three on Mangere (Waugh 2009).<p></p>
106003096		habitat	eng	It builds nests in scrapes on sandy and rocky shores, away from the waterline. Occasionally, it breeds amongst low vegetation or constructs nests out of vegetation (F. A. Schmechel <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It lays two to three eggs, usually in a simple scrape in sand or shingle (Heather and Robertson 1997, Moore 2009)<strong></strong>. It starts breeding from three years old and most pairs attempt breeding each season (98%); productivity averages 0.44 fledglings/season/pair (Schmechel and Paterson 2005)<strong></strong>. Mean life expectancy is 7.7 years. The oldest recorded bird lived for a minimum of 28 years (F. A. Schmechel <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It feeds principally on molluscs and marine worms, also taking other invertebrates, by probing and hammering with its bill (Heather and Robertson 1997, Moore 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003096		population	eng	In 2004, a minimum of 266 birds were counted on most of the coast of four islands in the Chathams group, represented a population of 310-325 birds. By 2006 this had risen to 310-360 individuals. However, the number of mature individuals in breeding pairs remains below 250, and so the population is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
106003096		threats	eng	Introduced predators are a major threat on Pitt and Chatham, as are cattle and sheep (B. D. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1999, F. A. Schmechel <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. South East and Mangere are free of mammalian predators, but population sizes are still highly variable, and the reason for the decline on South East is unknown (Schmechel and O'Connor 1999)<strong></strong>. However, video cameras set by nests have revealed that feral cats are a major nest predator (Moore 2005)<strong></strong>. Predation by native birds, especially Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em>, may be a potential threat (F. A. Schmechel <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Chatham, some pairs are forced to nest close to the tideline because introduced marram grass has spread and reduced the open areas it prefers: these nests are more vulnerable to high tides and storms, and flooding is the major cause of egg loss (B. D. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1994, S. Sawyer <em>per</em> G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Schmechel and Paterson 2005)<strong></strong>. Disturbance and trampling of nests by stock and vehicles may affect breeding success (Aikman <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2001)<strong></strong>. Hunting and collection for museums may have had a significant effect on the species's small population in the past (Moore 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003100		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though the population in China has   been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003101		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern populations of this species make long-distance migratory movements, travelling southwards to their wintering grounds between August and November and returning to their breeding areas between March and April (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). In more temperate regions the species is sedentary or only locally dispersive however (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds solitarily or in loose colonies of 2-50 or occasionally up to several hundred pairs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is typically a gregarious species, occurring in small groups (Snow and Perrins 1998) (up to 15 individuals) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or larger flocks of several hundred up to a thousand individuals on migration, during the winter (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998) and at nightly roosts (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species typically breeds in shallow freshwater and brackish wetlands with sand, mud or clay substrates and open margins, islets or spits near water level (Snow and Perrins 1998). Suitable habitats include marshes and swamps, shallow lake edges, riverbeds, flooded fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), irrigated areas (Snow and Perrins 1998), sewage ponds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and fish-ponds (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also breed around alkaline and high-altitude (montane) lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or in more saline environments such as river deltas, estuaries (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal lagoons (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998) and shallow coastal pools with extensive areas of mudflats, salt meadows (Johnsgard 1981), saltpans, coastal marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and swamps (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species occupies the shores of large inland waterbodies and estuarine or coastal habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as river deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal lagoons (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998) and shallow freshwater or brackish pools with extensive areas of mudflats, salt meadows (Johnsgard 1981), saltpans, coastal marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and swamps (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet is strongly seasonal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) but generally includes adult and larval aquatic insects (e.g. Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Diptera, Neuroptera and Lepidoptera), molluscs, crustaceans, spiders, oligochaete and polychaete worms, tadpoles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and amphibian spawn (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), small fish, fish eggs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and occasionally seeds (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a depression (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) or shallow scrape positioned on hard ground near water on a hummock (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) or amongst grass and sedge (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Alternatively the nest may be a more elaborate platform of vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) constructed on a floating mass of aquatic vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests singly or in loose colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), showing a preference for open areas close to foraging sites with good all-round (360 degree) visibility (Johnsgard 1981).
106003101		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.450,000-780,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in   China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and &lt; c.10,000   breeding pairs &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003101		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.
106003103		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent advances in release methods appear to have enhanced the initial survival of released birds from 20-45% to 80-100%, but require further testing (Chambers and MacAvoy 1999)<strong></strong>. Active management involves double and triple clutching of parents by removing eggs to encourage re-laying. The removed eggs are reared in captivity. Playback calls are broadcast to juvenile birds during captive-rearing to equip them with the behavioural and auditory recognition skills necessary for survival (Galbraith <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A study was recently published on the influence of release age, size of release group and size of the wild population at release sites on the post-release movements of captive-reared Black Stilts, with implications for the future management of the programme (van Heezik <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Predator exclusion fencing was first installed at the site near Lake Tekapo in the late 1970s (Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. Trapping for predators around all wild nests has been on-going since 1997 (R. Maloney <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and research is underway to determine the nature of the threat from each predator species (D. P. Murray <em>per</em> A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Hybrids, now numbering fewer than 20 within the Black Stilt's range, are controlled (R. Maloney <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Water-levels are manipulated in managed wetlands to attract birds to feed, and possibly breed, in areas where predators are controlled (Dowding and Murphy in press)<strong></strong>. Habitat restoration is on-going, and involves the removal of exotic weeds from riverbeds (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. The introduction of a second population on a suitable predator-free island is desirable and has undergone a feasibility study (Murray and Sanders 2000, R. Maloney <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>, but it is unlikely that a suitable release site will be found. The species's recovery plan reportedly aims to increase the population to at least 250 breeding birds by 2011 (Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout the species's range. Maintain and improve productivity of the captive population, and ensure pairs forming in captivity are sufficiently unrelated to prevent potential inbreeding depression (Hagen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Establish a self-sustaining population on a predator-free island. Encourage public interest and support (Reed and Murray 1993)<strong></strong>. Seek to maintain predator-free habitat for breeding within its current range. Continue efforts to prevent hybridisation with <em>H. himantopus</em>, and maintain parity in the adult sex ratio in order to avoid conditions under which introgression with <em>H. himantopus </em>could occur (Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106003103		distribution	eng	<em>Himantopus novaezelandiae</em> was formerly widespread, breeding and wintering across the North and South Islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, but following a long-term decline it is now restricted during the breeding season to the upper Waitaki Valley in the South Island. Approximately 90% of the population is sedentary, but small numbers still overwinter in the North Island. The population may have numbered 500-1,000 birds in the 1940s (Pierce 1984)<strong></strong>, by which time it had ceased to breed in the North Island and was rare as a breeding species in the lowlands. It continued to decline to a low of just 23 birds in 1981, when intensive management began (Keedwell 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2001, the wild breeding population consisted of just seven pairs (<strong></strong>Keedwell <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>, but a maximum of 84 adults were recorded in the wild in August 2002 (M. Bayliss <em>in litt. </em>2002). By the 2004-2005 breeding season, there were 11 productive pairs (R. Maloney <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2005), and during 2007-2008, that figure had climbed to 20 breeding pairs and a total of 78 mature individuals in the wild (R. Maloney <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008) (although it is not clear how many of these are of captive origin and have not yet bred in the wild). This represents a slight increase overall, but numbers have fluctuated. Fewer than 20 dark <span style="font-style: italic;">H. novaezelandiae </span>x<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. himantopus</span> hybrids are currently known (R. Maloney <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). Cryptic hybrids are extremely rare (Steeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The partial recovery of its population is primarily thanks to the annual release of captive-reared subadults and juveniles - 77 and 16 respectively in 2007-2008 (R. Maloney <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008) - and the species's survival remains dependent on captive-rearing efforts until predator-free breeding habitat can be maintained (Keedwell 2005). The release of more than 80 captive-reared birds near Lake Tekapo in August 2009 increased the free-living population to over 200 individuals (R. Maloney<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2008).
106003103		habitat	eng	It breeds on braided riverbeds, but also occurs in wetlands and swamplands, and some of the population winters along the coastline in inter-tidal habitats. It feeds primarily on insects, but also takes molluscs (Anon. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and small fish (Pierce 1986a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is monogamous and birds pair for life (Anon. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays four eggs and will usually re-nest if the first clutch is lost early in the season. Both birds in a pair share incubation duties (Anon. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most breed for the first time at three years of age. The average age is 6.8 years, and there are two birds that are older than 10 years. <p></p>
106003103		population	eng	The estimate of 40 individuals (roughly equivalent to 27 mature individuals) is based on 20 productive breeding pairs at end of 2007-2008 season; a total of 78 'mature individuals' were counted in 2008 (R. Maloney <em>in litt.</em> 2008), but it is unclear how many of these were captive bred and have not yet bred in the wild successfully.
106003103		threats	eng	Predators, in particular introduced mammals such as cats, ferrets <em>Mustela furo</em>, stoats <em>M. erminea</em>, hedgehogs <em>Erinaceus </em>sp. and brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em>, and the native Australasian Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em> and Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em><strong> </strong>(Pierce 1986b, D. P. Murray <em>per</em> A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999) are today the primary threat, but the combined impact of habitat loss has exacerbated declines. Habitat has been lost through conversion to agriculture and hydroelectric developments (Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. Nests are destroyed, and predation is potentially increased, by drainage and hydroelectric development, weed growth and flood-control programmes (Dowding and Murphy in press)<strong></strong>, and nesting birds are disturbed by recreational use of riverbeds. Adverse weather and natural flooding are additional, unpredictable threats (D. P. Murray <em>per</em> A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Hybridisation with <em>H. himantopus</em>, which was allowed to continue under former management strategies, posed a threat because the crash in the Black Stilt population made it difficult for them to form conspecific pairs and a biased sex ratio resulted in single males mating with <em>H. himantopus</em> females or hybrids (Pierce 1984, R. Maloney <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>, although hybridisation has been bidirectional (Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Extensive bidirectional hybridisation appears to have been taking place since at least 1960 (Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The sex ratio is now even and the frequency of hybridisation has decreased (R. Maloney <em>in litt. </em>2008, Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Adjustment of the sex ratio, low reproductive success in hybrid females and high mortality are the likely reasons for a lack of widespread introgression between the two species (Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Adult mortality in the wild remains very high (Keedwell 2005)<strong></strong>. Despite the genetic bottleneck experienced by <em>H. novaezelandiae</em>, there is so far no evidence of inbreeding depression in the wild (Steeves <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. However, a negative relationship has been shown between inbreeding and fitness in the captive population; in light of this care should be taken to minimise the relatedness of pairs forming in captivity (Hagen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p>
106003107		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern populations migrate south between August and October and return to the breeding grounds between March and May, staging on route in large numbers at certain sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is present all year round in much of its African range and in parts of Western Europe however (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from April to August in large colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) usually of between 10 and 70 pairs (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981). The species remains gregarious on passage and during the winter, migrating in loose flocks (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), foraging in groups of 5-30 individuals (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and gathering to roost in large flocks of several thousand individuals (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in flat open areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on shallow saline or brackish wetlands (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981, Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) with islands, ridges, spits or margins of bare sand, clay or mud (Snow and Perrins 1998) and sparse short vegetation (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), including inland lakes (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal lagoons (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), estuaries, saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes, irrigated land and flood-plains in arid areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). The most important characteristics of breeding habitats appear to be water levels which gradually decline over the summer to expose additional feeding areas, and high salt concentrations that prevent the development of excessive emergent and shoreline vegetation (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits coastal and inland saline lakes and mudflats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), lagoons, pools, saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), estuaries (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sandy beaches, river deltas and flood-plains (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It rarely occurs on inland freshwater lakes and rivers (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) but may forage on agricultural land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic invertebrates 4-15 cm long including aquatic insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. small beetles, midges and brine flies) (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981), crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. <I>Corophium</I> spp.) (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981), oligochaete and polychaete worms, and molluscs, as well and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. sole) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. seeds and small roots) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) that may be positioned in a variety of sites including on bare sand (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981), dried mud, short grass (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), dead vegetation and built-up mounds of debris (Johnsgard <I>et al.</I> 1981). The species nests in large colonies, neighbouring nest usually 1 m apart (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) or occasionally as close as 20-30 cm (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Management information</B> Artificially constructed nesting sites in coastal locations such as beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation are successful in attracting breeding pairs of this species (Burgess and Hirons 1992). The species responds positively (e.g. breeding numbers increase) to the introduction of cattle grazing on coastal grasslands, possibly as a result of reduced vegetation cover allowing improved predator detection (Olsen and Schmidt 2004).
106003107		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.210,000-460,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and &gt;c.10,000 wintering individuals   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106003107		threats	eng	The species is threatened in Europe by the pollution of wetlands with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), insecticides, selenium, lead and mercury (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Important wintering sites (e.g. in Portugal or the Yellow Sea) are also threatened by infrastructure development (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance and reduced river flows (Kelin and Qiang 2006). The species is susceptible to avian botulism (Blaker 1967, Hubalek <I>et al.</I> 2005) and avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.
106003111		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory but may only move short distances in some regions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from May to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary pairs (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), adults leaving the breeding grounds before the juveniles between July and August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The return migration in the spring peaks between April and early-May (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species feeds in small flocks during the breeding season, but on passage and in winter feeding flocks of tens to thousands of individuals may occur (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on humid moss, lichen and hummock tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), low-lying marshes in moss tundra (Johnsgard 1981), shrub tundra, open bogs in forest, peatlands, alpine tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), highland bogs , moors (Johnsgard 1981), and swampy highland heaths with high abundances of sphagnum moss and heather (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It shows a preference for nesting on short vegetation less than 15 cm tall (Ratcliffe 1977). <I>Non-breeding</I> When on passage and in its winter quarters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) the species frequents freshwater wetlands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), moist grasslands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), pastures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), agricultural land (e.g. stubble, ploughed or fallow fields) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and highland steppe (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), also foraging on tidal shores, coastal rocky outcrops (Johnsgard 1981), intertidal flats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and saltmarshes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in shallow bays and estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of insects (especially the adults, pupae and larvae of beetles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), larval Lepidoptera, locusts and grasshoppers (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986)), as well as earthworms, spiders, millipedes, snails, polycheate worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), crustaceans (Johnsgard 1981) and some plant material (e.g. berries, seeds and grass) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground in flat, sparse areas with short vegetation (less than 15 cm) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is a solitary nester, although in optimal habitats neighbouring pairs may nest only a few hundred metres apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Extensive grazing of wetland grasslands (e.g. c.0.5 cows per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in Hungary (Baldi <I>et al.</I> 2005), and in the UK the species shows a preference for nesting on heathlands and moors managed by rotational burning (a management strategy used to encourage grouse) as this keeps the vegetation short and prevents grasses from being displaced by heathers (Ratcliffe 1977, Johnsgard 1981).
106003111		threats	eng	The species has suffered minor range contractions due to the cultivation and afforestation of heathlands (Ratcliffe 1977, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and is susceptible to very cold winter temperatures and severe weather conditions (Ratcliffe 1977). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is frequently taken by hunters on its wintering grounds (e.g. France) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003112		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory, with different populations travelling on narrow or broad fronts depending on the location of their breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds between June and July (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) after which it departs the breeding grounds from late-August or early-September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may forage singly or in flocks of one hundred or more individiuals, occurring in small groups of 3-7 individuals at stopover sites on the northward passage but in large flocks on the southward passage (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It breeds on inland Arctic habitats including shrub tundra, montane tundra and stony well-drained uplands with mosses and lichens (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species occurs on the shores of lakes and rivers when on passage in the U.S.S.R. (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), but outside of the breeding season in generally occupies coastal areas, foraging in coastal fields and prairies with short grass, ploughed fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), coastal freshwater pools (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), saltmarshes, beaches, open mud and sandflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and reefs (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). It roosts on the same habitats used for foraging, as well as on exposed sandy beaches and exposed rocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of insects, molluscs, worms, crustaceans and spiders, although berries are also important during the breeding season on the Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape positioned on a dry site amongst hummocks, lichen, <I>Dryas</I> spp. or moss (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species shows a high degree of nest-site fidelity and will return to the same nest cup or to within 100 m of nest-site of previous year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003112		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.190,000-250,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003112		threats	eng	</P>
106003113		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106003114		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It departs its breeding grounds from late-July to September (southward movements continuing into November) (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and returns from late-May to June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from May to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary well-dispersed pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and forages alone or in small loose flocks (Johnsgard 1981) of up to 30 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is gregarious during the winter however, often roosting in large flocks containing up to several thousand individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species nests in the high Arctic in both upland and valley locations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) between the treeline and the coast (Snow and Perrins 1998) , utilising dry stony tundra with sedge, moss, lichen (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), grass (Johnsgard 1981) or dwarf birch (Snow and Perrins 1998), peat ridges in tundra marshes (Johnsgard 1981), dry exposed ridges, riverbanks, raised sand or gravel beaches, and rocky slopes (Johnsgard 1981). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents intertidal mudflats, saltmarshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sandflats (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of oceanic coastlines, bays and estuaries (Johnsgard 1981). During migration it may also be found inland on lakes, pools or grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season the diet of this species consists largely of adult and larval insects such as beetles and Diptera (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) as well as some plant matter (e.g. grass seeds and stems) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> When on the coast in its wintering range the species takes marine polychaete worms, molluscs and crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. crabs, sand shrimps) (Johnsgard 1981), occasionally also taking insects (e.g. grasshoppers and beetles) or earthworms when in inland habitats on passage (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on dry ground in exposed, stony sites (Snow and Perrins 1998), neighbouring nests not less than 400 m apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> In the UK there is evidence that the removal of <I>Spartina anglica</I> from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species (Evans 1986).
106003114		population	eng	The global population is estimated at 692,000 individuals according to WPE3 population data, which are considered complete. National population estimates include: c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan, and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia.
106003115		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On the North Island, management at important breeding sites includes predator trapping, gull control, advocacy, reduction of nest losses to flooding, and the presence of wardens (Dowding and Davis 2007)<strong></strong>. This results in local improvements in breeding success - 20% of c.600 breeding pairs were managed in 1998-1999 (Dowding and Murphy 2001)<strong></strong>. In some areas, there is substantial community involvement in management (Dowding 2006)<strong></strong>. On Stewart Island, cats and rodents are intensively controlled at four important breeding sites (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ombler 2006)<strong></strong>. Captive-breeding trials with <em>aquilonius</em> have been undertaken in case the technique is required for <em>obscurus</em><strong> </strong>(Dowding 1998). Chicks have been raised successfully (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but their survival in the wild has been low. A revised species recovery plan was published in 2007 (Dowding and Davis 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete a full North Island census every seven years. Continue existing protection programmes on North Island. Expand protection to new sites on North Island, with priorities being on the west coast and in the Far North. Increase community involvement and other-agency partnerships in management activities on North Island. Identify and protect important breeding, roosting and flocking habitat on North Island by advocacy and statutory protection. Estimate the population size annually on Stewart Island. Continue current management on Stewart Island. Maintain the mustelid-free status of Stewart Island. Investigate more cost-effective methods of cat control on Stewart Island. <p></p>
106003115		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius obscurus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Subspecies <em>obscurus</em> is now restricted when breeding to Stewart Island, but formerly occurred on the South Island (Dowding 1999)<strong></strong>. On Stewart Island, it declined by as much as 80% in c.40 years, numbering 62 birds (including only 18 pairs) in 1991-1992 (Dowding and Murphy 1993)<strong></strong>, but thanks to the poisoning of feral cats it recovered to 111 birds in 1997, 150 in 1999 and 250 in 2005 (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Wilson 2005, Dowding 2006)<strong></strong>. Subspecies <em>aquilonius</em> breeds in northern North Island. The population was estimated at 1,313 birds in 1989, 1,452 in 1996 and 1,701 in 2004. The current population status is management-dependent, and significant declines would begin immediately if intensive management stopped (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Management at some sites is funded by programmes for other species, and there is no guarantee that the current level of management will continue. The east coast of the North Island holds 83% of the northern subspecies's population including all managed subpopulations. It has been declining rapidly at Wiakato and elsewhere along the west coast and local extinction and a consequent reduction in its range size are likely. <p></p>
106003115		habitat	eng	On the North Island, it usually breeds on wide ocean beaches, estuaries and harbours with tidal mudflats (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Stewart Island, it breeds inland, usually at high altitudes on bare hilltops and open bog or tussock-grasslands (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays three eggs. It feeds mostly on terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates. Young generally begin to breed in their second year. The oldest recorded bird lived to at least 31 years of age (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003115		population	eng	The latest estimate for subspecies <I>aquilonius</I> was that its population numbered 1,701 in October 2004. The latest for subspecies <I>obscurus</I> was that its population numbered 270, in April 2006 (J. E. Dowding <I>in litt.</I> 2008). This totals c.2,000 individuals, equating to c.1,300 mature individuals. Within the northern subspecies, if subpopulations are found to contribute to larger metapopulations (in excess of 250 individuals) with gene flow between them, then the species will warrant downlisting.
106003115		threats	eng	Introduced predators were the primary cause of extinction on the South Island (Dowding 1999)<strong></strong>. They remain the greatest threat on the North Island - one study indicated that at unmanaged sites 60% of nests were lost to predators (Dowding 1998)<strong></strong>. Feral cats caused the rapid decline on Stewart Island (Dowding and Murphy 1993)<strong></strong>. On the North Island, housing developments and encroachment by dune-stabilising weeds reduce habitat, and disturbance by livestock, humans, dogs and vehicles reduces breeding success (Dowding 1993, Lord <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. A known breeding site has been bulldozed as part of an attempted storm protection programme (Anon. 2008). Storms and very high tides can cause nest failures (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Wills <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003)<strong></strong>. Where native avian predators (notably Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em>) occur at high densities, they are a significant threat to eggs and chicks. <p></p>
106003116		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The majority of this species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and travels either on a broad or narrow front depending on the location of each population's breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species starts to breed from April until June, nesting in solitary pairs or loose semi-colonial groups (especially in undisturbed areas) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is a gregarious species (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and often roosts communally in flocks of several hundred close to its feeding areas (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occurring singly, in small (up to 50 individuals) or large flocks (up to 1,200-1,500 individuals) during the non-breeding season (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds primarily on sand or shingle beaches either along the Arctic coast (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) or around coastal tundra pools or lakes (Johnsgard 1981). In the south of its range it may also breed inland on the Arctic tundra (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on muddy plains with stones or pebbles (Johnsgard 1981), on shores and sandbars of inland rivers, lakes, gravel pits or reservoirs (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), or on short grassland, farmland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and other well-drained sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits muddy, sandy or pebbly coasts in the tropics and subtropics (Johnsgard 1981) including estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), tidal mudflats, sandflats and exposed coral reefs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It also frequents mudbanks or sandbanks along rivers and lakes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), lagoons, saltmarshes, short grassland, farmland, flooded fields, gravel pits, reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sewage works and saltpans during this season (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of small crustaceans, molluscs, polycheate worms, isopods, amphipods, insects (e.g. ants, beetles, flies and fly larvae) and millipedes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) positioned near the high-water mark on shingle or sandy beaches (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species is a solitary nester although it may breed at quite high densities in undisturbed areas, neighbouring nests spaced between 5 and 100 m apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Removing feral American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species in the area (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2003).
106003116		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.360,000-1,300,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals   in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003116		threats	eng	Important migratory stop-over habitats for this species on the Baltic Sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, land abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub overgrowth (Grishanov <I>et al.</I> 2006). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism (so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease) (Blaker 1967), and suffers predation from feral America mink <I>Neovison vison</I> in some regions (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2003).
106003117		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.150,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration   (Brazil 2009).
106003118		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,000-25,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), roughly equivalent to 670-17,000 mature individuals. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003119		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory in much of its range. The European and North African populations migrate across the Sahara Desert between late-July and early-September (leaving breeding grounds June to mid-July) to reach wintering grounds in tropical Africa from late-August onwards (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These population return to their breeding grounds from mid-March, where they breed April-June (Europe) or March-May (North Africa) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Siberian and other Asian populations migrate to wintering grounds in South-East Asia and India (only crossing Japan on the northward return migration) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some populations in South-East Asia, India, New Guinea and the Philippines do not migrate but are sedentary or locally nomadic in response to water levels (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species is mainly solitary throughout the non-breeding season and on migration, occasionally occurring in flocks of not more than 10 individuals (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also breeds singly or in loose neighbourhood groups spaced 7-200 m apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species shows a preference for bare or sparsely vegetated sandy and pebbly shores of shallow standing freshwater pools, lakes or slow-flowing rivers (Johnsgard, 1981, Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Grimmett <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including river islands, dry, stony riverbeds, sand, shingle or silt flats (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, dry wadis and dune slacks (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species may also utilise temporary artificial habitats such as gravel pits (Ratcliffe 1974, Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), sewage works, industrial wastelands (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and refuse tips (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and may use open arable land on clay soil in exceptional circumstances (Johnsgard, 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (resident populations in India it can be found on wet grassland and rice paddy-fields) (Grimmett <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species prefers lowland habitats and is rarely found above 800 m in Europe (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but where river banks, dry riverbeds, or islets offer suitable habitat it will penetrate further upstream, reaching higher than 2,000 m in Afghanistan (e.g. in the mountains of Kashmir where it occurs along the pebbly banks of fast-flowing mountain torrents) (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and even higher in the east Palearctic (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species generally avoids rough or broken terrain, forest, cultivated land or pastures, and tall or dense vegetation including vegetated margins of inland waters (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also very rarely found on the coast, although it may occasionally visit saline inland pools and flats, intertidal areas on the seashore, mudflats, tidal creeks and brackish estuaries or lagoons (in India for example) (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Grimmett <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its African wintering grounds this species favours extensive sandbanks (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, muddy and sandy shores of rivers and lakes, residual flood waters, short grassy areas on dry ground around villages or near water, airfields and pastures (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It less commonly inhabits coastal areas such as saltpans, estuaries, creeks or rainwater pools on dry salt-flats bordering mangroves (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species prefers lowland habitats during the winter as well as during the breeding season and is rarely found above 800 m in its wintering range (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting mainly of insects such as beetles, flies (especially larvae and pupae), ants, bugs, mayfly and dragonfly larvae, caddisflies, crickets and larval Lepidoptera, as well as spiders, freshwater shrimps and other small crustaceans, mussels, worms and snails (Johnsgard, 1981, Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Vegetation (such as the seeds of grasses, sedges, <em>Polygonum</em> and Compositae) is taken rarely and is likely to be ingested incidentally along with animal matter (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on loose sand, dry mud or on flat, bare rocks surrounded by mud or sand (Johnsgard, 1981, Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, sometimes amongst sparse vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Grimmett <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in the vicinity of water, and often on small islands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or adjacent farmland (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting pairs have also been recorded on flat gravelled roofs (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>          <p></p>
106003119		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.280,000-530,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003119		threats	eng	This species is threatened primarily by the degradation and loss of its preferred habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Barter 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many of the species' breeding sites are also disturbed by human recreational activities (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increased flood regulation and pollution from oil and tar along the Mediterranean coast and the River Jordan has resulted in the degradation of the breeding sites in those areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (Barter 2002, 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may also be susceptible to outbreaks of avian botulism (Hubalek <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is potentially at risk from exposure to DDT's in southern India (Tanabe <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003121		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106003122		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is found in two protected areas (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, an important site for the species, and Baly Bay National Park (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, in general, mangroves, wetlands and coasts have little legal protection in certain parts of Madagascar (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out regular surveys in order to monitor population trends, monitor the ringed populations at Tsimanampesotse, Mahavavy delta and Marambitsy bay, and continue to ring and monitor populations at other important breeding sites (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct population viability analysis (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the loss and degradation of the species's habitats. Collect data on the species's behavioural ecology, including its mating system and competition (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the reasons for its rarity, and study important and potential threats, including nest predation (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Evaluate the possibility of competition with other <em>Charadrius</em> species (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase public awareness of protected areas and include unprotected breeding sites in new protected areas (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003122		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius thoracicus</em> occurs somewhat uncommonly between Boanamary of Mahajanga on the north-west coast (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong> and Tapera of Tolagnaro in south-eastern <strong>Madagascar </strong>Goodman <em>et al</em> (1997), where recent surveys confirmed a total of 15 breeding sites, including Tsimanampesotse National Park (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is usually found in groups of 2-10, but occasionally up to 50 individuals are seen together (Morris and Hawkins 1998, (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It favours saline lagoons and sandy coasts and estuaries, for example the Tambohorano wetlands, salt lagoons around Morombe and the Tsiribihina estuary (47 individuals seen in March 1998, ZICOMA 1998<strong></strong>), and open alkaline grassland around Lake Tsimanampesotse (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. More than 60-100 pairs bred at Tsimanampesotse each year between 2005 and 2007 (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Nesting is also concentrated at Marambitsy Bay where 24 nests were located between 2002-2005 (Zefania <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span> 2008), while 61 individuals have been seen on the mudflats at Bemoramba in Maintiramo (ZICOMA 1998)<strong></strong>. In January 1971, one was seen near Antananarivo and in 1985 it was infrequently reported from the east coast near Manakara (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. Its total population has been estimated to number 750-6,000 individuals (F. Hawkins <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002)<strong></strong>, however this was not based on systematic surveys (Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, and more recently it was estimated at c.3,100 individuals (Long <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>through the modelling of observed densities at suitable sites across an estimate of the total area of habitat above a defined suitability threshold (Zefania <em>et al.</em> 2005, <strong></strong>Long <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003122		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is sedentary (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is usually found in pairs or small groups (Johnsgard 1981)<strong></strong>, although larger groups sometimes form at roosting sites, often alongside other plover species (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. The largest group recorded consisted of 33 birds (Johnsgard 1981, <strong></strong>Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. Nests can be found between August and May, but the most important breeding period is from December to April, with a peak in February at Tsimanampesotse (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>It is generally found at, or near to, sea level. Typically this species prefers drier areas than Kittlitz's Plover <em>Charadrius pecuarius</em>, and avoids flooded grasslands<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong><em>Breeding<strong> </strong></em>It breeds in areas of dry short, grazed grassland and <em>Salicornia</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Johnsgard 1981)<strong></strong> near to the coast or around bodies of saline water including alkaline lakes, and brackish pools or lagoons. <em>Non-breeding</em> Roosts occur on sand spits facing the sea or a lake, or on sand dunes covered with creeping vegetation (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It forages on intertidal mud, the open mud area of mangroves (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Morris and Hawkins 1998, S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and silty areas at river mouths, often in association with other coastal plover species (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is poorly known, but it is thought to feed on invertebrates, mainly insects (Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site </strong>Its nest is a small scrape made in dry grassland (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Clutches of two eggs are most common, with some containing one (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The incubation period is 27.3 ± 0.8 days, followed by a fledging period of 30.5 ± 2.5 days; hatching success has been recorded as 22.9%, with fledging success recorded as 41.41% (Zefania<em> et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Overall nest success was 9.49% in 2005. Adult survival rate is 0.79 and juvenile survivorship is 0.32 (Zefania<em> et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003122		population	eng	The population has recently been estimated at 3,100 ±177; 396 (SE) individuals through the modelling of observed densities at suitable sites across an estimate of the total area of habitat above a defined suitability threshold. The standard error range is rounded to the nearest 100 and used as the population range estimate: 2,700-3,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,800-2,300 mature individuals.
106003122		threats	eng	It may be vulnerable to egg collection locally, but most of the population lives in remote areas that have low human population densities (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, and the nests are difficult to find and rarely searched for (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Modifications of its wetland habitat on the west coast of Madagascar represent an increasing threat. This is still limited, and has recently involved the local development of shrimp farms in the Baly Bay and Besalampy area (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Competition with Kittlitz's Plover <em>C. pecuarius</em> and/or White-fronted Plover <em>C. marginatus</em> has been suggested as a possible threat, but there is little or no evidence for this (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. The species may be particularly vulnerable to the aforementioned threats, as it exhibits low productivity, inflexible breeding behaviour and is a habitat specialist (S. Zefania, T. Szekely and P. Long <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Zefania <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003123		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All bird species on St Helena have been protected by law since 1894 (Pitman 1965)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The St Helena National Trust (SHNT) has been formed to coordinate the work of environmental NGOs (Rowe 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including population monitoring, ecological research, habitat restoration and raising public awareness (Smith 1997, N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over 150 ha of pastures have been enhanced for the species (J. Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A programme of trapping appears to have formerly reduced feral cat populations in some areas (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup>  </sup></strong>but has recently become irregular (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and neutering of domestic pets is now infrequent. New predator control programmes were due to be initiated in early 2011 (E. Duff <em>in litt.</em> 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Agriculture and Natural Resource Department and the SHNT are currently operating a project titled "St Helena Airport and supporting infrastructure: Mitigation for the Impacts on the Wirebird population" through a Department for International Development grant (<strong></strong>F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A Species Action Plan was launched in January 2008 with a ten-year goal that the species should have a stable, relatively large population which does not need continuous conservation intervention, such that it can be downlisted to Vulnerable (RSPB undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A PhD studentship based at the University of Bath, which began in October 2007, investigated the conservation biology of the St Helena Plover (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As part of this project nest exclosures, designed to prevent predation of eggs by cats, are being trialled at present (F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to closely monitor the population on a regular basis. Increase research into the effects of pasture management and control of introduced species (McCulloch 1992, 1999, B. Rowlands <em>in litt.</em> 1999, F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Maintain pastures as grazing land and manage appropriately (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Monitor changes in habitat quality closely. Restrict vehicle access to significant semi-desert sites (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Ensure that mitigation measures are in place for the proposed airport at Prosperous Bay Plain. Intensify the control of feral cats and rats around known breeding sites. Closely monitor development plans for the airport and tourist infrastructure (N. McCulloch<em> in litt.</em> 2010, T. Prater <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003123		distribution	eng	This species is the only surviving endemic landbird on <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong> and may have declined sharply in the 1970s (Rowlands <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1988-1989 (giving a total of c.450 individuals), repeated in 1998-1999, revealed large declines at all important pastureland sites, and were not compensated by concurrent increases in lower density populations at semi-desert sites. Fieldwork in 1999-2000 and 2000-2001 suggested populations had stabilised at c.350 adults (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2000, N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, but survey data from 2005 and 2006 showed further evidence of a decline with an estimated 200-220 mature individuals (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Full January surveys in 2007-2010 located between 397 and 297 (averaging 353) adults (<strong></strong>F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, Ellick <em>et al. in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>, with 350 recorded in 2011 (E. Duff <em>in litt.</em> 2011)<strong></strong>. This indicates that a population increase has occurred and some recovery has taken place (F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>; however, the cause of these apparent fluctuations is still unclear.  <p></p>
106003123		habitat	eng	Some 70% of its population occurs in pastureland, with highest densities in relatively dry, flat, short-sward pastures (McCulloch 1992, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some populations occupy semi-desert habitats (McCulloch 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extended rain seasons resulting in extensive vegetation growth can delay or prevent breeding (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates. More than one clutch (of two eggs) may be laid each year and replaced if eggs or chicks are lost: the proportion of a clutch that survives to independence is probably less than 20%, although adult survival is most likely high. Juveniles disperse widely in small flocks (McCulloch 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003123		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 200-220 mature individuals (T. Prater <em>in litt.</em> 2006). However, surveys in 2008 and 2010 found 373 and 397 mature individuals respectively, and the population also exceeded 250 mature individuals in 2007 (F. Burns <em>in litt.</em> 2008). Therefore, although a population estimate of 50-249 mature individuals is precautionarily retained here, if the number of mature individuals remains above this threshold over the five year period, without a continuing decline, it is likely to qualify for downlisting. This banded estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106003123		threats	eng	Livestock grazing has become unprofitable over much of St Helena, leading to major alterations to its preferred short-sward grassland habitat. Sward growth, due to lowered densities of cattle (and sheep at two sites), and reductions in arable land may have resulted in a decline in the quality of feeding and nesting habitat at some sites (Norris and McCulloch 1999, N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. For the same reason, scrub encroachment has resulted in a major population decline at one site (Norris and McCulloch 1999)<strong></strong>, and the spread of invasive plant species has further altered habitats on the island (RSPB undated)<strong></strong>. These factors probably resulted in the significant declines of the early 1990s (McCulloch and Norris 2001, N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. In addition, invertebrate prey populations may be subject to large-scale, short-term fluctuations (N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Cats, rats (mostly <em>Rattus norvegicus</em>) and, to a lesser extent, Common Mynas <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> are probably significant predators of chicks and nests respectively (McCulloch 1999, N. McCulloch <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Using motion sensitive, infra-red cameras situated near to nests, cats, rats, Common Mynas and sheep have been shown to predate and disturb eggs, and nest survival rates have been found to range from 6 to 47% due to variation in predation levels (<strong></strong>F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Evidence suggests feral cat populations may be increasing. Less effort has gone into trapping feral cats or neutering domestic pets in recent years (McCulloch 2006)<strong></strong>. However, successful cat control may lead to an increase in the rat population, through decreased predation and increased food availability (<strong></strong>F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Increasing recreational use of off-road vehicles in semi-desert areas may result in disturbance and nest-destruction. Housing development has recently encroached on a number of minor breeding locations. Stalled plans to develop an airport on St Helena were reinstated in 2010 (UKPA 2010)<strong></strong>. There is considerable uncertainty over the extent and location of developments associated with the airport and the anticipated increase in tourism, the extent of future mitigation measures, and the threat posed by the introduction of invasive species (T. Prater <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The airport is set to be built on one of the species's breeding sites in the semi-desert of Prosperous Bay. Associated developments are to include additional housing, roads, hotels and a golf course. New housing developments adjacent to important sites for the species may lead to increasing predation of nests by domestic  animals, particularly cats. Similarly, a proposed new garbage transfer  station may attract potential nest predators like rats and cats. To compensate for the expected impacts on the species, a large mitigation project has  been in place since 2008. This project aimed to improve habitat in  several of the species's pastureland breeding sites by removing scrub and  increasing grazing intensity. This work has been successful in creating  suitable breeding habitat in grassland, but the extent to which it will  actually compensate for the development is unclear, as there is uncertainty of future funding, the project has focussed on dry grassland rather than the semi-desert habitat that will be affected by the airport, and success so far in increasing numbers locally has been limited. The ability of breeding pairs to relocate is currently unknown. Off-road driving with  all-terrain vehicles is expected to increase with increases in the residential population and tourism. The import of construction material and engineering equipment, and the potentially large increase in visitors, may lead to the  inadvertent introduction of other non-native species. The most important breeding site (Deadwood Plain), with 20% of the breeding  population, has been ear-marked for a significant wind  turbine development, with apparently no  proposed mitigation measures (T. Prater <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106003124		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is predominantly sedentary, but may make local movements related to seasonal rainfall (with birds leaving during rains and flooding) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), the patterns of which are poorly understood (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Whilst breeding the species is usually found in pairs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) or nesting in loose neighbourhood groups with nests 20 m apart (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is gregarious during the non-breeding season however, usually occurring in small flocks of up to 20 individuals, but sometimes in larger groups (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) (during local migratory movements flocks of 100-300 have been reported) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It is diurnal but may feed during moonlit nights (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat </B>This species primarily inhabits flat, open (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), dry ground with very short grass or dried mud, often near the margins of lakes, reservoirs and rivers, or on small permanent and temporary pools, flood plains, dry sandy riverbeds (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and marshes (Owino 2002). It is also found along the coast on dry salt-flats, tidal mudflats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), lagoons, salt-marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), estuaries, sandy beaches with kelp wrack (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and offshore islands (Johnsgard 1981), although it generally avoids rocky coasts (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species less often inhabits airfields, golf courses, overgrazed pastures and ploughed fields (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small terrestrial and marine invertebrates such as beetles, flies, bugs, grasshoppers (up to 40mm long) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), the larvae of Lepidoptera, spiders, molluscs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), polycheate worms and crustaceans (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape in coarse sand or dry mud, often in an exposed positions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as on sand ridges or sand piles, sandy-soil patches in open grassland, or on areas of dried mud devoid of vegetation (Johnsgard 1981). Nests are usually within 50-100 m of water, although they may be several km away (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), and breeding pairs may re-use old scrape nests (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or utilise natural depressions (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003124		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss through wetland destruction and degradation (Ntiamboa-Baidu 1991, Wearne and Underhill 2005). Walvis Bay in Namibia (a key wetland site in southern Africa) is being degraded through changes in the flood regime due to road building, wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and disturbance from tourism (Wearne and Underhill 2005); and Ghana wetlands are under threat from coastal erosion and proposed developments involving drainage and land reclamation (Ntiamboa-Baidu 1991). The proportion of the species that migrates via the east Atlantic flyway is susceptible to avian malaria and is therefore potentially threatened by future outbreaks (Mendes <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Blaker 1967).
106003125		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The migratory status of this species is poorly known (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) but some populations may undergo partial intra-African dispersive movements in response to rainfall (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species breeds opportunistically throughout the year although nesting usually peaks between April and September in the tropics, between July and December in the south and between July and September in Madagascar (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It nests in solitary pairs with territories (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) stretching 80-150 m along the shore (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and usually forages singly, in pairs or in small flocks of 6-10 up to 20 individuals (very rarely in larger groups of 40 individuals) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It roosts solitarily or in groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occasionally forming loose roosting flocks of more than one hundred individuals in the winter (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat</B> The species requires clear, firm sand, mud or gravel shores for nesting, foraging and roosting (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It inhabits the edges of inland freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), temporary or muddy pools (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), streams with shingle banks (Johnsgard 1981), rice-paddies (Madagascar) (Langrand 1990), and the margins of artificial water-bodies (e.g. sewage tanks) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also occurs along the coast on the edges of intertidal mudflats (Johnsgard 1981, Langrand 1990), sandy beaches (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), coastal lagoons, estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), tidal pools (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and mangroves (Langrand 1990) where shows a preference for the least saline areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, small molluscs and worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a simple scrape placed on sand, dry mud (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), shingle (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) or on rocks close to water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003125		threats	eng	The species may be susceptible to future outbreaks of avian botulism (Blaker 1967).
106003126		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) that makes seasonal (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) local movements (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) between its breeding areas and nearby grassland habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It mainly breeds during the rains in solitary pairs, although the exact timing varies throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is not a gregarious species and usually forages singly (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), but may occasionally occur in small loose flocks (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) of 15-20 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) during the dry season (Johsngard 1980). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It breeds on rocky, upland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) hills and slopes (Johsngard 1980), especially on those with granite outcroppings (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Newly fledged broods may also forage in nearby cultivated fields and rice-paddies (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <I>Non-breeding</I> After breeding the species moves to short grassland habitats as well as forest clearings (Johsngard 1980, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), bare ground, recently burnt areas, cultivated fields and the muddy edges of lakes, rivers, pools or reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval beetles, grasshoppers and other insects as well as small molluscs, crustaceans and worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape positioned on top of a granite outcrop or on gravel in a stream bed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may use the same nest-site for several years (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003127		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. There were censuses in 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 (Plissner and Haig 1997, J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It is considered Endangered in U.S.A. and Canada. There is a recovery plan for Atlantic coast breeders (USFWS 1996b, A. Hecht <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Novia Scotia Piping Plover Conservation Program uses monitoring and site protection to aid species recovery in Nova Scotia, Canada (Abbott 2008). Predator management has increased hatching success (D. Amirault <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Hecht <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Seasonal restrictions and public education have limited disturbance (Hecht 1995, A. Hecht <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Measures to protect breeding and wintering beaches are having mixed results; $3 million per year is being spent in Atlantic U.S.A. alone, and this will need to be kept up indefinitely. Nature Canada filed a lawsuit in 2006 against the Canadian Environment Ministry for failing to take necessary measures under the Species at Risk Act, which resulted in a revised recovery plan with critical habitat identified. The Great Lakes population is supplemented by captively bred individuals (Roche <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the importance of north-west Mexico for wintering birds. Continue breeding and wintering censuses (A. Hecht <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Develop action plans for Great Lakes and wintering birds (A. Hecht <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect breeding and wintering beaches, and expand existing measures (D. Amirault <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Hecht <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Create sand-flats near to roosting sites on its wintering grounds, to mitigate against habitat loss (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Assess the relative effects of different predators on plover populations, and the effectiveness of predator and disturbance management measures (Boettcher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Study causes of nest abandonment, aiming to reduce its occurrence (Maslo and Lockwood 2009). Manage water sympathetically on the Great Plains (J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Designate the Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas as a protected area. <p></p>
106003127		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius melodus</em> breeds in the <strong>U.S.A. </strong>and <strong>Canada</strong>. Regular range-wide breeding censuses are carried out, with that in 2006 recording 8,092 mature individuals (Haig <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2005, Elliott-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. Populations occur along the Atlantic coast (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">melodus</span>), with 3,320 breeders counted in 2006, comprising 41% of the total population (USFWS 2004, Elliott-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009); in the Great Plains (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">circumcinctus</span>), numbering 4,662 breeders, <strong></strong>or 58% of the total (Ferland and Haig 2001, Elliott-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and in the Great Lakes region (also <span style="font-style: italic;">circumcinctus</span>), with 110 breeding birds, or 1% of the total, in 2006 (Stucker 2004, Elliott-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Miller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Totals in 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 respectively were 1,892, 2,581, 2,920 and 3,320 breeding birds on the Atlantic coast, 2,744, 3,284, 2,953 and 4,662 in the Prairie Canada / U.S. northern Great Plains, and 32, 48, 72 and 110 in the Great Lakes (Elliot-Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). These data indicate a total population increase of over 70% since 1991. However, it must be noted that these increases are the result of sustained management initiatives, upon which populations remain dependent. Small numbers also nest on<strong> St Pierre and Miquelon (to France)</strong> (P. Wood <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Less than 60% of birds are recorded in winter (Brush 1995, USFWS 1996b, Plissner and Haig 1997, J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, mainly from the Carolinas, U.S.A., to Tamaulipas (and patchily Yucatán), <strong>Mexico</strong>; the <strong>Bahamas</strong>; <strong>Cuba</strong>, and <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to U.K.)</strong> (G. Hilton <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000), but also from <strong>Barbados</strong>, <strong>Haiti</strong>,<strong> Dominican Republic</strong>,<strong> Bermuda (to U.K.)</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to U.K.)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to U.S.A)</strong> and <strong>St Kitts and Nevis</strong> (Plissner and Haig 1997, P. R. Blanco <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. Wilson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. Wood <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Small numbers in Sonora, north-west Mexico, may represent regular winterers (J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003127		habitat	eng	It nests on sandy beaches, sandflats, barrier islands, alkaline lakes, riverine sand / gravel bars, reservoirs, and sand / gravel pits (USFWS 1996b, Plissner and Haig 1997)<strong></strong>. Ephemeral pools, bay tidal flats and areas of open vegetation are all important brood-rearing habitats (Elias <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. There is high winter site fidelity (USFWS 1996b, J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> in sandy bays, lagoons, and algal flats / mudflats (Brush 1995, Plissner and Haig 1997)<strong></strong>, particularly around sheltered inlets (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It feeds primarily on small arthropods, particularly beetles such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Bledius opaculus</span> (Majka and Shaffer 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003127		population	eng	The latest census recorded 3,320 mature individuals on the Atlantic coast (41%), 4,662 on the northern Great Plains and prairies (58%), and 110 in the Great Lakes (1%). This totals c.8,100 breeding individuals, equivalent to a population of c.12,000-13,000 individuals in total.
106003127		threats	eng	Drought, inappropriate water and beach management, gas / oil industry dredging operations, development, shoreline stabilisation and beach disturbance (including cat and dog predation, and possibly that from native avian species and ghost crabs) are key threats (Hecht 1995, J. H. Plissner <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Elias <em>et al. </em>2000, Boettcher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Leg related injuries, reducing fitness, have been recorded in birds fitted with anodised aluminium rings (Amirault <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. Coastal flooding driven by climate change has been noted to cause reduced reproductive success in Virginia, and its importance is likely to increase (Boettcher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
106003128		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The three most important sites for this species are designated Ramsar sites and Important Bird Areas. Additionally, Sandwich Harbour is a national park and Lake Natron is a game controlled area.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine how resilient the species is to human modification of its habitat. Monitor trends to determine whether the global population is in decline. Protect the key sites for the species and prevent disturbance (K. Kapanya <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and damaging habitat degradation or modification at these sites.  <p></p>
106003128		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius pallidus </em>has a disjunct distribution with two separate populations. The nominate subspecies occurs across southern Africa in <strong>Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, while subspecies <em>venustus</em> is restricted to the Rift Valley of East Africa in <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>. The species has a large range. Its global population is estimated at 17,500 individuals. Simultaneous counts indicate that just three sites - Walvis Bay and Sandwich Harbour in Namibia, and Lake Natron in Tanzania - can hold 87% of the world population during non-breeding periods. Nine key sites have been identified, based upon counts between 1990 and 2001, which hold &gt;1% of the global population and between them can hold the entire population during the non-breeding season (Simmons <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Namibia, Walvis Bay has held approximately 7,700 individuals, Sandwich Harbour 5,000 individuals, Okondeka 300 individuals and Mile Four has had 174 individuals counted. Elsewhere in southern Africa the Berg River saltpans in South Afica held 181 individuals and the Nata delta in Botswana has had 277 individuals. Counts in the Makgadikgadi system in Botswana in 2007 gave a population estimate of 508-1,016 individuals (Hancock 2008). The East African population, thought to number 5,000-6,000 birds (N. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, is concentrated in the northern Rift Valley with counts from Tanzania of 2,340 individuals at Lake Natron and 520 individuals at Lake Manyara, and 590 individuals at Lake Magadi in Kenya. <p></p>
106003128		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is thought to be a partial migrant<strong></strong> though its movements are poorly understood and vary throughout its range <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996,<strong> </strong>Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Coastal birds in South Africa are probably mostly resident (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and breed between March and May<strong></strong>, and also between September and January<strong></strong>, with a peak in the months of November and December (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Namibia some birds move inland from the coast to breed (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005, <strong></strong>Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, except in years of drought when they remain in coastal areas (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some inland birds disperse to the coast after breeding, to join the coastal residents<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conflicting reports exist concerning the breeding months in Namibia, but it is probably between January and June based on reports of birds moving inland from the coast during the rains in January (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and occurring in large numbers on the coast in the dry months of June and July (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007, Wearne and Underhill 2005)<strong></strong>. However some authors place the breeding season in March - October (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>,or specifically in July (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), and report large numbers of birds occurring at the coast in December and January (Whitelaw <em>et al.</em> 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The East African population breeds between March and October (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds move up and down the Rift Valley<strong></strong>, with peak numbers occuring at Lake Manyara during the months of July to September (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Scattered records outside its normal range suggest some degree of nomadism (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Numbers at any given site (and perhaps in the global population) fluctuate from year to year, particularly in response to drought at inland breeding sites. Breeding mostly coincides with the end of the rains (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is usually found in pairs or small groups, particularly during the breeding season when pairs defend territories<strong> </strong>(Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). During the non-breeding season it roosts communally<strong></strong>,and much larger aggregations are formed: 375 birds were seen together in Namibia<strong> </strong>(Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is known to occasionally roost in colonies of mixed plover species and sometimes forages in loose flocks of up to 60 birds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species is strongly associated with saline and alkaline water (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in alkaline and saline wetlands, including inland salt pans, both natural and man-made (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In East Africa in breeds around large alkaline lakes (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the coast it is found around lagoons and estuarine salt marshes (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers areas that are devoid of vegetation (Johnsgard 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is rarely found more than 50m from the water's edge (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season it is more often found in its coastal habitats, including intertidal mud-flats (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and usually occurs within 1km of the water's edge (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It very rarely occurs in freshwater habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has shown itself to be adaptable by colonising new areas and using man-made habitats such as salt ponds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet is unknown but presumed to consist of insect (eg Chironomid) larvae and small crustaceans such as <em>Artemia</em> species (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest consists of a scrape in an area of calcareous soil, dry mud or stony ground<strong></strong>, approximately 5cm in diameter and 1cm in depth, and is always positioned within 50m of the water's edge (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>  <p></p>
106003128		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at 16,200-17,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 11,000-12,000 mature individuals.
106003128		threats	eng	Two key sites face ongoing threats that may impact negatively upon the population. Walvis Bay on Namibia's central coast is the premier site for this species<strong></strong> and also the site of Namibia's largest port<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where pollution is a risk. The main threats include concentrations of fish oils and other detritus from ships (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Siltation has also been a threat since a salt works was established at the southern end of the lagoon (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These threats have the potential to reduce habitat quality. Lake Natron in Tanzania, despite its inhospitable climate and inaccessibility, may suffer reduced water input in future years for two reasons (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. First, an irrigation project on the Ewaso-Ngiro River was proposed in the 1990s which could also generate hydroelectric power (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Secondly, there are more recent plans to expand operations for a soda-extraction plant along the south-western shores, threatening to use much of the water that would otherwise flow into the lake (Baker and Baker 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Canoeing as a tourist activity has been introduced on some Rift Valley lakes within this species's range and may cause disturbance.  <p></p>
106003129		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>Although some populations of this species are sedentary or only disperse short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), most inland and northern coastal populations (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986) are fully migratory and have distinct separate breeding and wintering ranges (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species occupies its breeding grounds chiefly from March to October (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986), dispersing from late-June immediately after the young fledge, with the southward migration peaking in September (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests solitarily or in loose semicolonial groups (Johnsgard 1981, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), usually in densities of 0.5 to 20 pairs per hectare (exceptionally up to 100 pairs per hectare) (Johnsgard 1981), and sometimes in association with other species (e.g. Least Tern <I>Sterna antillarum</I>) (Powell and Collier 2000). Outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998) the species feeds singly (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000) or in small flocks of 20-30 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), and occasionally in larger flocks of up to 260 individuals (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), often roosting in large mixed-species flocks (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Habitat </B>During all seasons the species is predominantly coastal (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is usually found on sand, silt or dry mud surfaces (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), generally avoiding very exposed oceanic coastlines (Snow and Perrins 1998) and rocky or broken ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also shows a preference for sparsely vegetated and sandy areas when breeding (Johnsgard 1981). Typical habitats include sandy, pebbly or muddy shores (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, Grimmett <I>et al.</I> 1998), dunes (Johnsgard 1981), coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), coastal marshes (China) (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000), tropical shores of coral limestone (Johnsgard 1981), estuaries and tidal mudflats (Africa) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). It is uncommon on freshwater, even when migrating (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986), but frequently occurs on inland habitats not far from the coast such as seasonal watercourses (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), open flats near brackish or saline lakes (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), salt-pans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Grimmett <I>et al.</I> 1998), salty steppes with scattered grasses (Johnsgard 1981), sandy deserts (Johnsgard 1981), pebbly or muddy plains (Johnsgard 1981), gravel pits (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and less frequently sandy riverbanks (Africa) (Johnsgard 1981, Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, Grimmett <I>et al.</I> 1998), sandy pond margins (Grimmett <I>et al.</I> 1998) and barren reservoir shores (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists mainly of insects and their larvae (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. beetles and flies) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), gammarids (Johnsgard 1981), crabs (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), other crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and brine shrimps (Johnsgard 1981), bivalve and univalve molluscs (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), polychaete worms (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), spiders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and small pieces of seaweed (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) positioned near water on bare earth or in sparse vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often on slightly raised ground (Snow and Perrins 1998) and partly sheltered by plants (Snow and Perrins 1998) or near conspicuous objects such as grass clumps or shrubs (Johnsgard 1981). The species nests in semicolonial groups, with nests spaced between 2 and 5 m (western Paleartic) (Snow and Perrins 1998) or more than 20 m apart (up to 80 m) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information </B>Shallowly flooding a previously dry habitat at Owens Lake, California, was found to attract more breeding pairs to the area and had the effect of extending the nesting season by c.1 month (Ruhlen <I>et al.</I> 2006). At Batiquitos Lagoon, California, creating new nesting areas from dredging spoils (e.g. coarse-grained sand and shell fragments) attracted more breeding pairs and non-breeding individuals, possibly because the new areas were covered with less debris and a smaller amount of tall vegetation than older sites (Powell and Collier 2000). In the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Oklahoma, there is evidence that nests adjacent to herbaceous and shrub vegetation suffer significantly lower losses to flooding but significantly higher losses to mammalian predation than those 500 or 1,000 m away (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In the same area artificial nest ridges (made by ploughing) and nest mounds constructed from existing materials (gravel, sand and clay) were found not to reduce nest flooding (Koenen <I>et al.</I> 1996a). Predator exclusion experiments from nesting areas using electric fences in the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Oklahoma (Koenen <I>et al.</I> 1996a) and in Monterey Bay, California were unsuccessful in increasing the number of chicks fledged per male (Neuman <I>et al.</I> 2004) or significantly reducing annual egg predation (this was probably still limited by avian predation) (Koenen <I>et al.</I> 1996a), although in Monterey Bay the hatching success of nests within the exclosure did increase (Neuman <I>et al.</I> 2004) and the overall nesting success was higher for breeding pairs within the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge exclosures (Koenen <I>et al.</I> 1996a). At Monterey Bay the predator exclosures were also not successful in increasing adult breeding numbers, and the mortality of incubating adults was actually higher within the enclosures than outside them (Neuman <I>et al.</I> 2004). On beaches in Santa Barbara, California, erecting protective barriers to direct tourist foot-traffic away from sections of upper beach was found to decrease disturbance of the species by more than half and attracted increased numbers of breeding pairs, although the distribution of the species on the beach contracted to within the protected area (Lafferty <I>et al.</I> 2006).
106003129		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.300,000-460,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, &gt;c.10,000 individuals on migration   and &gt;c.10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003129		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the disturbance of coastal habitats (e.g. tourists trampling nests and disturbing roosts on beaches) (Lafferty <I>et al.</I> 2006). It is also threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitat through environmental pollution (Barter 2006, Kelin and Qiang 2006), land reclamation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Barter 2006), declining river flows (Barter 2006, Kelin and Qiang 2006) (from water abstraction), unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna (Barter 2006, Kelin and Qiang 2006), urbanisation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into coastal areas by rivers (Barter 2006). The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Blaker 1967).
106003130		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is both sedentary and partially migratory, with some populations undertaking local seasonal movements (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In southern and eastern Africa adults of coastal populations are sedentary (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), although they often move from exposed to sheltered shores in the winter (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Inland populations in central and southern Africa are partially migratory and move to the east coast when rivers flood between December and May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (in years of poor rainfall and little flooding these populations remain inland) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). Other populations also undergo local movements in relation to water levels (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). During the non-breeding season this species usually remains in pairs or small flocks (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), although it can be more gregarious, occasionally occurring in flocks of up to 375 individuals (Namibia) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Breeding pairs are generally solitary and territorial, although nests can be as close together as 16 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species is diurnal but may forage during bright moonlit nights (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> This species shows a preference for sandy seashores and coastal dunes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), but is often found on rocky shores, coastal and inland mudflats, salt-pans, estuaries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), saline and brackish lagoons, and offshore islands (Johnsgard 1981). It is also occurs along sandy shores of large inland rivers and lakes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (both fresh water and alkaline) (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> The species is carnivorous, feeding on insects (such as sandflies, grasshoppers, termites, mosquito pupae and fairy shrimp larvae), gastropods, bivalves, bivalve siphons, crabs and other small crustaceans, isopods and worms (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape in the sand (Watson <I>et al.</I> 1997) usually more than 70 m above the high water mark (Watson <I>et al.</I> 1997, Watson <I>et al.</I> 1997), on dunes, sandbars, and occasionally in quarries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or on roadside gravel (Johnsgard 1981). <B></B>
106003130		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss through wetland destruction and degradation (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Wearne and Underhill 2005). A considerable contraction of the species' inland range in Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique has already occurred due to altered river morphologies as a result of dam comstruction (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005); key wetland sites in southern Africa (for example Walvis Bay, Namibia) are being degraded through wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and changes in the flood regime due to road building (Wearne and Underhill 2005); and Ghana wetlands are under threat from coastal erosion and proposed developments involving drainage and land reclamation (Johnsgard 1981). This species is also susceptible to nest disturbance by tourists and off-road vehicles due to its preference for nesting on coastal dunes (negative impacts on nestlings in such areas have been observed) (Watson and Kerley 1995, Wearne and Underhill 2005).
106003132		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on the breeding and wintering grounds to estimate the size of the population and its specific habitat preferences. Oppose development schemes which destroy sites where the species is found. Promote restoration of saltflat habitats on abandoned aquaculture sites, which have less commercial value than beaches (Yasué <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  <p></p>
106003132		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius peronii</em> is a breeding resident in <strong>Vietnam</strong> (scarce in Cochinchina), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (rare), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (local and uncommon), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(scarce to locally common), East Malaysia, <strong>Singapore</strong> (rare), <strong>Brunei</strong> (apparently declining), <strong>Philippines </strong>(widespread but uncommon) and <strong>Indonesia </strong>(local around coasts and offshore islands of Sumatra, uncommon on and around Borneo and Bali, very rare on mainland Java, and uncommon and sparsely distributed in the Lesser Sundas and the Sulawesi sub-region). The global population is thought to number 10,000-25,000 individuals.  <p></p>
106003132		habitat	eng	It frequents quiet sandy bays, coral sand beaches, open dunes and artificial sand-fills, where it lives in pairs, generally not mixing with other waders. Juveniles feed in wetlands and mudflats (Yasué and Dearden 2008). The species primarily breeds in beach habitat, although research has shown saltflats are also suitable. The latter are likely to become more important as further development for tourism causes degradation of beaches in the species's range, particularly in Thailand (Yasué <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<p></p>
106003132		population	eng	The population was estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals by Perennou <em> et al.</em> (1994), but BirdLife International (2001) noted that this may be an underestimate given the number of islands it inhabits. Therefore the population size is probably placed in the band 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
106003132		threats	eng	The species is absent from some apparently suitable areas, perhaps for ecological reasons not yet understood, and there is growing concern that it is under pressure from the development and disturbance of coastal habitat, particularly that causing coastal erosion on nesting beaches (Yasué <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  <p></p>
106003133		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the size of the population and its specific habitat preferences. Oppose development schemes which destroy sites where the species is found.  <p></p>
106003133		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius javanicus</em> is restricted to Java and the Kangean Islands, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). <strong></strong>The taxonomic status of this species is extremely unclear and records attributable to it are therefore sparse; nevertheless, it was recently found to be common in southern Madura.Whilst it may prove widespread, its population is likely to be small and declining.  <p></p>
106003133		habitat	eng	It<strong> </strong>occurs on sandy beaches, mudflats and adjacent open areas around coasts. <p></p>
106003133		threats	eng	It is thought to be declining due to human disturbance of coastal habitats within its limited and linear range, and is also threatened by coastal development projects. <p></p>
106003134		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003138		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory, with four definable groups migrating on a broad front to different wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). In central Siberia, flocks form in early July and depart for their winter quarters in early-August to early-September (adults leaving first), to arrive in India, south Arabia and East Africa in early-August to mid-September (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). Populations breeding in eastern Russia, Kamchatka, the Commander Islands and the Chukitsk Peninsula, winter from Taiwan to Australia (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), leaving their breeding grounds late-July to early-September (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The population breeding in the Himalayas and southern Tibet winters in a range or areas from India to Sumatra (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), returning to its breeding grounds between late-February to April (reaching them between mid-April and mid-May) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The fourth migratory group of this species breeds in eastern Tibet and winters from Thailand to the Greater Sundas (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). Many non-breeding birds may also stay in their winter quarters all year round (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). During the non-breeding season the species may occur singly or in flocks of up to 100 or more, but nesting pairs are solitary and territorial during the breeding season (Johnsgard 1981, Urban <I>et al. </I>1986).<B> </B>This species is mainly diurnal but sometimes forages on moonlit nights (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species mainly occurs above the tree-line on mountains at altitudes of up to 5,500 m in the Himalayas<B></B>(Ladakh, Sikkim, and Tibet) (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It inhabits barren valleys and basins in elevated tundra and mountain steppe, mainly near water (bogs) on moist but well-drained gravelly, rocky or sandy surfaces with sparse vegetation such as salt-pans, patches of detritus, dry edges of salt-marshes and places used by herds of cattle (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). In Siberia and the Commander (Komandorskiye) Islands the species also occurs at sea-level, here inhabiting sand dunes and shingle along the coast (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species is almost strictly coastal during the non-breeding season, preferring sandy beaches, mudflats of coastal bays and estuaries, sand-flats and dunes near the coast (Urban <I>et al. </I>1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), occasionally frequenting mangrove mudflats (in Australia) (National Parks and Wildlife Service 1999 Species Profile: <I>Charadrius mongolus</I>. Downloaded from http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au on 13/8/2007) and feeding on exposed coral reefs (Solomon Islands, Pacific) (Cramp and Simmons 1983). Very rarely the species also frequents coastal airfields (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), and during migration it may be seen on the shores of inland lakes (e.g. the East African Great Lakes) (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban <I>et al. </I>1986) and rivers, or on cultivated land (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, Grimmett <I>et al.</I> 1998). <B>Diet </B><I>Breeding</I> The breeding diet of this species includes many beetles, weevils, fly larvae, stalk worms and crabs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).<I> Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season this species takes insects, crustaceans (such as crabs and amphipods), molluscs (particularly bivalves) and polycheate worms (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).<B> Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape in bare sand or shingle (nesting pairs may often utilise cattle footprints), sometimes beside bushes and big stones (or amongst lichens and <I>Drias</I> in the Far East) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003138		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.310,000-390,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 wintering individuals and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003138		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss (e.g. agricultural developments reducing the area of coastal and inland habitats, and hydrological changes to estuaries modifying important areas of suitable habitat in Australia ), as well as disturbance from tourism (National Parks and Wildlife Service 1999 Species Profile: <I>Charadrius mongolus</I>. Downloaded from http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au on 13/8/2007).
106003139		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is fully migratory, and is likely to migrate without stopping on a broad front between breeding and non-breeding areas (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). Migratory flocks form after the end of breeding between mid-June and early-August, and arrive in the wintering grounds between mid-July and November (adults and immature birds arriving before juveniles) (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). Those birds wintering in South-East Asia start moving northwards to the breeding grounds in late-February (the migration peaking in March to early-April), arriving from mid-March to May; whereas those wintering in East Africa and southern Asia depart for breeding grounds from mid-April to early-May (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). Most non-adult wintering birds remain in the wintering areas during the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). The species is typically gregarious, feeding in flocks of 2-50, and sometimes congregating in groups of up to 1,000 when roosting (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species is predominantly found in open, dry, treeless, uncultivated areas up to 3,000 m (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), including dried mud, silt and clay flats, hard salt-pans overgrown with halophytic plants (Johnsgard 1981, Snow and Perrins 1998), and rocky plains near mountains in desert or semi-desert (Johnsgard 1981, Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). In Turkey the species frequents heavily grazed saline steppe (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). The species usually breeds near water (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996) but exceptionally it will nest up to 20 km away from it (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B> </B><I>Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season this species shows a preference for littoral habitats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) with mixed sand and mud substrata (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It is found on sheltered sandy, shelly or muddy beaches, large intertidal mudflats, sandbanks, salt-marshes, estuaries, coral reefs, rocky islands (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996), tidal lagoons (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and dunes near the coast (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), although it may sometimes feed on coastal grasslands (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986). Whilst on migration the species will occasionally utilise inland habitats such as salt-lakes and brackish swamps, usually roosting on sandbanks and spits (Hayman <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). <B>Diet</B> This species is carnivorous: during the breeding season its diet consists mainly of terrestrial insects and their larvae (especially beetles, termites, midges and ants), and occasionally lizards (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996); whereas during the non-breeding season its diet contains mainly marine invertebrates such as molluscs (snails), worms and crustaceans (such as shrimps and crabs) (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996) amongst sand-hills, gravel, or on other barren substrates (Johnsgard 1981). <B></B>
106003139		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.180,000-360,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in China and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106003139		threats	eng	<I>Breeding</I> In some parts of its breeding range this species is threatened by the destruction of wetlands and bordering fallow steppe through drainage and water extraction for irrigation (Turkey) (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss throughout its non-breeding range: in Australia agricultural developments are reducing the area of coastal and inland habitat, and hydrological changes to estuaries are modifying important intertidal areas (National Parks and Wildlife Service 1999 Species Profile: <I>Charadrius leschenaultii</I>. Downloaded from http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au on 14/8/2007); key wetland sites in southern Africa (for example Walvis Bay, Namibia) are being degraded through wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and changes in the flood regime due to road building (Wearne and Underhill 2005). One of the species' migratory staging areas in China (Chongming Island) is undergoing significant habitat loss and degradation through conversion to aquaculture ponds, farmlands and vegetable gardens, the cultivation of the alien plant <I>Spartina alterniflora</I> on tidal flats (promoting rapid sedimentation with the intention of reclaiming the area), and the Three Gorges Dam on the upper reaches of the Yangtze River reducing the supply of river-borne sediment to mudflats in the area (Ma <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species is also susceptible to disturbance from tourists in its non-breeding range (National Parks and Wildlife Service 1999 Species Profile: <I>Charadrius leschenaultii</I>. Downloaded from http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au on 14/8/2007, Wearne and Underhill 2005), and commercial hunting (for sale at market or to restaurants) is a major threat in the area of Chongming Island, China (Ma <I>et al.</I> 2002).
106003140		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It migrates to winter in African between August and October, and once within Africa moves south in a nomadic fashion following the dry season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species departs from southern Africa in late-February to early March, and from East and south-east Africa in late-March to early-April, frequenting stop-over sites in Iran, Iraq, the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea (it over-flies this Middle Eastern region during the Autumn migration), arriving in the breeding grounds again from late-March to early-May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On migration the species usually moves in flocks of 5-12 (and sometimes up to 30) individuals, and whilst over-wintering in Africa it moves in Nomadic flocks of 5-20 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). When breeding this species may nest singly or in small loose colonies of 10-25 pairs spaced at least 50-60 m apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> This species breeds in desert and desert steppe near water amongst sparse shrub vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) up to about 800 m (Snow and Perrins 1998). It is primarily associated with saline habitats such as salt-pans, saline soils subject to seasonal flooding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), inland saltmarshes (Johnsgard 1981) and alkali flats (Flint <I>et al. </I>1984). The species concentrates in flocks after breeding but whilst still in its breeding range on the banks of lakes, rivers, water-holes trampled by cattle (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and cultivated land (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its non-breeding range (Africa) the species is often found far from water on recently burnt or heavily grazed grassland, dry floodplains, ploughed cultivated land, coastal dunes (Somalia) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), the dried mud of lake shores (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), salt-pans, saltmarshes, (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) airfields and golf courses (where it is attracted by insects on animal droppings) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). During migration the species has been recorded on damp sandbanks and pebble beds along the Zambezi River, Zimbabwe (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> The species is primarily carnivorous throughout both the breeding and non-breeding seasons. <I>Breeding</I> Whilst breeding the species takes mainly adult and larval insects (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as beetles, ants, grasshoppers, bugs, caterpillars and flies, although it will occasionally take plant material (e.g. grass seeds) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the non-breeding season beetles, termites, grasshoppers and small snails are the main contributors to this species diet, and it is often observed hunting for insects in town refuse heaps and cattle dung (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape on open ground or amongst low vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> </B>
106003140		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is the destruction of natural steppe and grassland though overgrazing and conversion to intensive agricultural practices, especially within the European (breeding) part of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003141		population	eng	The global population estimate has been increased to 160,000 individuals based on the results of surveys at Eighty Mile Beach in north-western Australia in February 2010, during which c.144,300 birds were counted, combined with a previous estimate that c.91% of the global population winters in Australia.
106003142		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Pawnee National Grassland, Colorado, and Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Montana, are important reserves (Shackford <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It has been proposed for listing under the Federal Endangered Species Act (F. L. Knopf <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. Black-tailed prairie dog <em>Cynomys ludovicianus</em> has also been proposed, partly because it helps to maintain suitable habitat (F. L. Knopf <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. The release of Black-footed Ferret in Mexico is helping with prairie dog colony protection (B. Leachman<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Define Mexican breeding and winter distribution (S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Monitor U.S.A. and Canada's populations. Research movements of birds (S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect prairie dog colonies, especially at Janos (S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Restore prairie ecosystems (include protection/reintroduction of grazers). Improve population estimates by documenting the number of birds nesting away from prairie dog colonies. Protect remaining breeding and wintering habitats and prevent further conversion of grasslands. Stop agricultural disturbance at nest sites. Monitor the extent and health of habitat throughout its range (Childers and Dinsmore 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003142		distribution	eng	<em>Charadrius montanus</em> breeds in south Alberta and south-west Saskatchewan, <strong>Canada</strong>, and Montana, Wyoming (3,400 adults), eastern Colorado (8,600 individuals), Park County in Colorado (2,300 adults), New Mexico and the Oklahoma Panhandle (68-91 individuals), <strong>U.S.A.</strong> (Knopf 1996, Childers and Dinsmore 2008, McConnell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It has bred in Texas, east Utah (Day 1994)<strong></strong> and once in eastern Arizona (Knopf and Rupert 1999), and has apparently been extirpated from <strong></strong>former breeding areas in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas (McConnell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). All these birds winter from Sacramento, San Joaquin and Imperial valleys, California (Knopf and Rupert 1995, S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, south to Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Wilbur 1987), and irregularly in south Arizona and south Texas in the Blackland Prairie (Knopf 1996, M. Lockwood <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Abundant in the 19th century, it declined to an estimated 8,000-9,000 birds in 1995, including a 63% decrease from 1966-1991 (Knopf 1996)<strong></strong>, but the population is now estimated at 11,000-14,000 individuals (Plumb <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. These figures are likely to reflect an increase in counting accuracy rather than a recent population increase. Breeding was first successful in Nuevo León, Mexico, in 2004 (Gonzales Rojas <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> following an unsuccessful attempt in 1998 (F. L. Knopf <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, Knopf and Rupert 1999)<strong></strong>, and in Coahuila in 1999 (Desmond and Ramirez 2002)<strong></strong>. These and/or northern birds regularly winter at Janos in Chihuahua (P. Manzano <em>in litt.</em> 1998, S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, with others reported from Sonora to Tamaulipas south to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí (Howell and Webb 1995a, Gómez de Silva <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003142		habitat	eng	It nests in heavily grazed, shortgrass prairie, xeric scrub and fallow fields, typically on prairie dog <em>Cynomys</em> spp. colonies (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1982, Knopf 1996, Knopf and Rupert 1999)<strong></strong>. It arrives in Canada and northern U.S.A. in late March-April and leaves in early August (Knopf 1996)<strong></strong>. It is a dietary generalist in winter (Knopf 1998)<strong></strong> when it inhabits semi-desert, dry, bare agricultural land and (in Mexico) breeding-type habitats (S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Imperial Valley (California) wintering flocks show a preference for burnt Bermudagrass fields and grazed alfalfa (Wunder and Knopf 2003)<strong></strong>. The species apparently fares better during drought years (Dinsmore 2008). It flocks in winter and on migration (S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003142		population	eng	The global population was estimated to number 11,000-14,000 individuals, but this has recently been revised upwards to 15,000-20,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 10,000-14,000 mature individuals.
106003142		threats	eng	Hunting probably explains the long-term decline. More recently, cultivation and urbanisation have reduced nesting habitat, and intensive grazing has resulted in desertification and a reduced prey base (S. D. Earsom and V. B. Estelle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large declines in grazing species, especially bison and prairie dogs, have resulted in unsuitable habitat succession (Piersma 1996, Knopf and Rupert 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over 70% of nests on cultivated land are destroyed by farm machinery (Shackford <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106003144		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant ongoing research is being carried out into the management of this species (Weston 2001, Dodge <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. There are already regular surveys of this species, and detailed studies into its breeding biology have been ongoing. Effective beach-sharing protocols have been developed. Cages have been used successfully to protect nests, although the risk of adult mortality may mean that the idea is abandoned (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An Action Statement has been prepared for its conservation in Victoria. A draft Recovery Plan has been prepared for New South Wales and South Australia. Baiting of foxes in some areas of Western Australia is reducing predation.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study demographic trends including population size, breeding success and growth rate, and the location of key breeding lakes and winter flocking sites (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Holdsworth and Park 1993, Weston 1993, Baird and Dann 2003, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. (</span>2011). Monitor levels of nest predation and breeding success, in areas with and without predator and stock control programmes (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. (</span>2011). Evaluate habitat availability and risk of habitat loss due to weed invasion, rising sea levels and dune morphology changes. Assess the relative impacts of different threats so that a threat index can be formulated and beaches ranked and prioritised for management (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. (</span>2011). Manage, and where appropriate discourage and actively police, the use of key beaches for recreation, and consider bans on vehicle access, horse riding and dog walking in the breeding season (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Baird and Dann 2003, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Where necessary reduce predation by cats and foxes and manage native predators  (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Baird and Dann 2003). Manage refuse near beachside towns to reduce numbers of gull and raven species. Advocate for suitable coastal planning and erosion control activities (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Adequately fence livestock from key breeding sites (Baird and Dann 2003). Identify and manage key breeding lakes and winter flocking sites. Engage the public in research, monitoring, management and advocacy.  <br/><p></p>
106003144		distribution	eng	<p><em>Thinornis rubricollis</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong> and is found in Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland (vagrant), Tasmania and nearby islands. The eastern subspecies <em>rubricollis</em> is restricted to the coastline and numbers 3,000 birds (Garnett <em>et al.</em> 2011). Its range has contracted in Queensland and New South Wales, and declines, probably driven by low reproductive success, have been estimated based on monitoring data in all eastern states (Garnett <em>et al.</em> 2011). Calculated population declines include 12% across Victoria from 2000–2008, and 33% from 600 to 400 from 1980–2008 (Birds Australia 2008); 13% between comprehensive surveys across Victoria in 1988 and 1992, but statistically non-significant overall decline 1980–1992 (Weston 1993); 58% on Phillip Island from 1981–1997 (Baird and Dann 2003); c.20% across Tasmania from 1982–2006 (Woehler and Park 1997, Bryant 2002 and E. J. Woehler <em>in litt., </em>in Garnett <em>et al.</em> 2011); 25% on Kangaroo Island from 1985– 2004 (Dennis and Masters 2006, in Garnett <em>et al.</em> 2011); and 55% across New South Wales from 1988–2008 (Birds Australia 2008; NSW Scientific Committee 2008). The declines in New South Wales and Kangaroo Island may be biased towards heavily-disturbed beaches. Though largely secure on small islands, it is likely to con­tinue declining wherever appropriate beach management is lacking (Weston 1993). The western subspecies <em>tregellasi</em> numbers 2,500 birds (Garnett <em>et al.</em> 2011). This population has been subject to less rigorous monitoring but the data available suggest that it may also be in decline.</p>  <br/><p></p>
106003144		habitat	eng	<p>The species primarily inhabits sandy, ocean beaches, with the highest densities on beaches with large amounts of beach-washed seaweed, that are backed by extensive open dunes (Schulz and Bamford 1987). In Western Australia the species also inhabits inland and coastal salt lakes (Schulz and Bamford 1987). In eastern Australia, it is an opportunistic feeder and takes a range of invertebrates; however, information is lacking on its diet and feeding habits in Western Australia (Schulz and Bamford 1987). The species shows a preference for nesting on flat beaches and stony terraces (Baird and Dann 2003) and primary sand dunes (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Baird and Dann 2003). It lays 1-3 eggs (usually 3) (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Baird and Dann 2003). Clutches are laid from August to February (Schulz and Bamford 1987) or March (Baird and Dann 2003). Most on Phillip Island are laid from December to February, with the peak in January (Baird and Dann 2003). Hooded Plovers are highly dispersed nesters with relatively large territory sizes (37 ha) to which they are highly site faithful (Weston <em>et al. </em>2009).</p><p></p>
106003144		population	eng	The numbers of mature individuals are 3,000 <em>rubricollis</em> and 4,000 <em>tregellasi</em>. This gives a total population size of 7,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 10,000-11,000 individuals in total.
106003144		threats	eng	<p>The greatest threat to this species is low breeding success and thus low recruitment (Weston 1993). The primary causes of nesting failure are the crushing of nests and eggs by off-road vehicles and trampling by livestock (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Weston and Morrow 2000, Weston 2001, Baird and Dann 2003), disturbance by people and their dogs (Baird and Dann 2003), flooding by spring tides, predation (Schulz and Bamford 1987), and ill-considered beach erosion management (Weston and Morrow 2000, Weston 2001). Up to 81% of nests and 30% of chicks in the Coorong would have been crushed by off-road vehicles (Buick and Paton 1989), and over 30% of nests were trampled by dogs or people at Mornington before controls were introduced (Dowling and Weston 1999). The species's breeding season coincides with the peak in the summer holiday season, when human presence on beaches is at its highest (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Baird and Dann 2003). Human disturbance increases the likelihood of predation and thermal stress (Schulz and Bamford 1987, Weston 2000). On the mainland, predation by foxes, cats and dogs is considered the most significant threat. The introduction of foxes to Tasmania may threaten the population in this stronghold and introduced predators may now be a problem on Kangaroo Island, another refuge for the species (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Around human settlements, artificially high numbers of Silver Gull <em>Larus novaehollandiae</em> and Raven <em>Corvus</em> spp. are responsible for an increasing number of predation events. However, it is not known exactly what effect these mammalian and avian predators have had on the species's breeding success overall (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Ongoing development is opening up areas of coastline to human activities and further developments (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Oil-spills represent an additional threat (Weston 2003). Birds remain relatively secure on islands and where active nest protection operates; however, on Phillip Island, declines between 1982 and 1998 suggest that breeding success was too low to sustain the local population, probably due to anthropogenic causes of nest failure (Baird and Dann 2003). The species's coastal habitats are threatened with degradation by marram grass <em>Ammophila arenaria</em> and other introduced coastal weeds (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007). The population in Western Australia is considered to be in less danger because, in addition to beaches, it breeds on inland and coastal salt lakes where human disturbance events are rare (Schulz and Bamford 1987), especially in remote areas. Predation by foxes is probably the main threat in Western Australia, but it is not known whether this constrains the population. Pollution of lakes may also affect the western population (M. A. Weston<em> in litt</em>. 2007).</p><p></p>
106003145		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The population on Rangatira Island and all translocated populations are monitored annually, and research is on-going. Two captive populations are held to provide birds for translocations. Releases of captive-reared birds began on Motuora Island (71 individuals released in 1994-98); two chicks were successfully fledged, but the translocation failed due to predation by Moreporks (C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. The two last birds lingered on nearby Beehive Island until they were caught and returned to captivity in 2005. A breeding population of about 100 birds (27 pairs) was successfully established on another island off the North Island following releases of captive-reared birds between 1998 and 2005. The location of this privately-owned island is not divulged, at the request of the owners. A small breeding population of about 12 birds (five pairs) was established on Mangere Island (Chatham Islands) by transferring recently-fledged wild juveniles from nearby Rangatira Island during 2001-2003 (C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. This subpopulation is constrained by limited habitat, but interchange of individuals is occurring with the larger Rangatira population. Fifteen captive-reared juveniles were released on Rarotoka (Centre) Island in Foveaux Strait in March 2006, but all birds dispersed (C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. Further releases of wild (parent-reared) juveniles are planned for this site. Forty-one captive-reared birds (mainly juveniles) were released on Mana Island in March-May 2007, and one pair laid a two-egg clutch there in December 2007. One of the chicks fledged, and five more fledged the subsequent year (Anon. 2009). Further releases of captive-reared juveniles have been on-going as part of a five-year project (C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008, Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement measures to detect the arrival of mammalian predators on South East Island and all release sites (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue the captive-breeding and release programme at suitable sites around mainland New Zealand, and produce suitable literature on captive management and release techniques. Maintain habitat quality on South East Island, restrict the number of visitors, and monitor any environmental change (Department of Conservation 2001). Research species interactions with avian predators (owls, harriers, skua and gulls). In the longer term, remove cats and Weka from Pitt Island to allow expansion of the South East Island population. <p></p>
106003145		distribution	eng	<em>Thinornis novaeseelandiae</em> breeds on South East Island (= Rangatira) and Mangere Island (with vagrants to Pitt Island) in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. A small population on Western Reef, Chatham Islands declined following its discovery, when 21 individuals were known (Bell and Bell 2000)<strong></strong>, and the last individual was taken into captivity in 2003. The species was once widespread around the coast of at least the South Island, but had been extirpated by the 1870s. In 1937, the population on South East Island was estimated at 72 pairs by Fleming. Since grazing ceased in the 1960s, inland pasture used for nesting has become overgrown, and the population has declined and become increasingly restricted to the coast (Department of Conservation 2001). It has stabilised at 45-50 pairs and a post-breeding total of 120-140 individuals (S. O'Connor <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008, C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008,  S. O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Releases on islands off mainland New Zealand have had mixed success. On Motuora Island, Hauraki Gulf, reintroduction was unsuccessful and the two remaining males were re-captured for use in the captive-breeding programme. At Release Site 2, off the east coast of the North Island, a population numbering 100 birds in 2007 was successfully established (Anon. 2006, J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008, C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008, S. O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Attempts to establish a population on Mangere Island, Chatham Islands, between 2001 and 2003 by the transfer of wild-bred juveniles from South East Island were also successful, and 6 pairs are now breeding; this is believed to be at or close to the carrying capacity of the island (O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008, C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008, J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. In 2006, a single release was made at Release Site 3, an island off the South Island; further releases there were halted when birds were found to be carrying avian pox, and a population did not establish itself. In 2007, releases began on Mana Island, near Wellington. One pair bred and successfully fledged a chick in 2007-2008, and further releases occurred in 2008 (O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008, C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008, J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008, Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. Five more young were fledged in 2009 (Anon. 2009). This programme of releases on Mana Island will run for five years with the aim of establishing a self-sustaining population (S. O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003145		habitat	eng	On South East Island, it nests at the head of rock wave-platforms, on salt meadows and on sandy and boulder beaches (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small crustaceans, molluscs and other invertebrates, using "foot-trembling and beak probing" behaviour (Heather and Robertson 1997, Armitage 2008)<strong></strong>. It lays two to three eggs in a nest set under dense vegetation, beach rack or boulders, either on the shore or further inland (Davis 1994, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. On South East  Island, where the population is at carrying capacity, breeding usually begins in the second or third year. Breeding has occurred in the first year at reintroduction sites and in captivity, where resources are less limiting. In 1986, the average age of the population was six years (Dowding and Kennedy 1993, Davis 1994)<strong></strong>. The oldest known individual was a male aged 21 years (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003145		population	eng	The total mature population was estimated at about 200-220 birds in 2008, with the effective population numbering 156-166 birds (78-83 pairs), because the species is still limited by breeding habitat ( J. E. Dowding <I>in litt.</I> 2008, C. Miskelly <I>in litt.</I> 2008, S. O'Connor <I>in litt.</I> 2008). The total population was considered likely to number 300-330 individuals. Whilst it is now thought to number closer to 250 individuals (N. Askew <i>in litt.</i> 2009), these earlier estimates are retained pending confirmation.
106003145		threats	eng	Cats and brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> probably caused its extinction from the South Island (Dowding and Kennedy 1993, Davis 1994)<strong></strong>. The removal of sheep from South East Island in 1961 has resulted in some loss of breeding habitat on the southern coast as previously grazed marsh-turf has reverted to forest. This threat is likely to continue, but is off less immediate concern. Other threats include fire, expansion of fur seal <em>Arctocephalus forsteri </em>colonies, disease, rough seas and storms, human disturbance and predation by Brown Skuas <em>Catharacta skua</em><strong> </strong>(J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Department of Conservation 2001). Island visitors heighten these threats (Department of Conservation 2001). Losses from translocated populations have largely been the result of dispersal to the mainland (where they are killed by predators, although some birds have survived for several years before vanishing) and predation by Morepork <em>Ninox novaeseelandiae</em><strong></strong> (Aikman 1999) and Australasian Harrier was recorded on Motuora Island. The threat of mammalian predator reinvasion to offshore islands is a constant threat requiring vigilant contingency measures (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008, S. O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Mustelid (stoat, weasel or ferret) arrival on any Shore Plover islands would have devastating results (S. O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. These pests are common on mainland New Zealand.<br/><p></p>
106003147		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels non-stop on a broad front across Europe, staging first at a number of traditional sites (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It departs from its breeding grounds from August to September, the return migration in the spring beginning in late-February or March (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds from May to August (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in solitary well-dispersed pairs (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although where suitable habitat is restricted it may also breed in loose groups of 2-5 pairs and adults may roost communally at night (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species migrates in small parties (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> commonly of 3-6 individuals (occasionally up to 20-80 individuals [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996])<strong></strong> and it remains gregarious throughout the winter (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on flat open uplands, on mountain ridges and plateaus with sparse vegetation, and on coastal and inland Arctic tundra of moss, short grass or lichen and bare patches of rock (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species stages in exposed areas with short vegetation, such as heathlands and fallow or ploughed fields, and during the winter its habitats include stony and shrubby steppe, semi-desert, ploughed farmland and the margins of cultivation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of insects (e.g. beetles, adult and larval Diptera, larval Lepidoptera, grasshoppers, crickets, earwigs and ants), spiders, snails and earthworms, as well as plant matter such as leaves, seeds, berries and flowers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. of <em>Empetrum</em> spp. [Johnsgard 1981])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground or in short vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is a solitary nester but where suitable habitat is restricted it may also breed in loose groups of 2-5 pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are normally placed between 200 m and several kilometres apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003147		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.50,000-220,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003148		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003149		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species was shot for sport until 1940, when it became fully protected (Marchant and Higgins 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research on the impact of predation and prey-switching is being undertaken. Predator control for Black Stilt <em>Himantopus novaezelandiae</em> protection benefits a small proportion of the population (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Project River Recovery carries out habitat restoration and predator research in the McKenzie basin (A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Model demographic data to determine population trends (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue to monitor wintering aggregations. Control introduced predators and invasive plants at important sites. Control the recreational use of riverbeds, perhaps by delimiting areas where humans are excluded. Identify and monitor key areas of habitat (Rebergen 2011). Increase awareness of river-dwelling birds as part of the current government policy formulation on freshwater resource management (D. Melville <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003149		distribution	eng	<em>Anarhynchus frontalis</em> breeds in Canterbury and Otago, South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It is found on over 26 riverbeds, but is only common on 10. It winters mainly north of 38°S in the North Island. In the last 40 years, population counts have varied between 3,000 and 5,000 individuals (Sagar <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, probably reflecting the difficulty in surveying the species (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the current best estimate is 4,500-5,000 birds (Riegen and Dowding 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analysis of wintering flocks indicates a slow decline over the last 40 years (Veitch and Habraken 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which is supported by preliminary results from a long-term demographic study (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003149		habitat	eng	It breeds on braided riverbeds, and frequents sheltered estuaries and coasts over the non-breeding season. Nests are built within 250 m of running water, and are usually hollows in bare shingle, lined with more than 100 small pebbles (Marchant and Higgins 1993, J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays two eggs. Young usually begin to breed at two or three years of age (Marchant and Higgins 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mark-recapture of almost 2,400 birds indicates that many live past 10 years of age (Davies 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the average adult life expectancy is c.5.4 years (Hay 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Diet comprises mostly mayflies and caddisflies, but is more general when rivers are in flood (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003149		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 4,500-5,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,000-3,300 mature individuals.
106003149		threats	eng	Breeding habitat is deteriorating, primarily from the encroachment of weeds as hydroelectric schemes reduce seasonal flushing of riverbeds (Marchant and Higgins 1993), and perhaps also owing to changes in the management of gravel extraction regimes<strong></strong> (D. Melville <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Land intensification in the high country will have similar effects on reducing water flow, as well as increasing the concentration of nutrients in rivers, further encouraging weed growth (Rebergen 2011). The extent of predation by stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em> and cats has not been quantified, but is likely to be substantial, perhaps especially in the non-breeding season (Battley and Moore 2004)<strong></strong>. The recent illegal introduction of rabbit haemorrhagic disease has resulted in the localised switching of some predators to a diet containing proportionately more birds. Predation by Kelp Gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em> may pose an increasing threat as they become more numerous in association with human activities (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Increasing use of riverbeds for recreational purposes and floods are also threats (Marchant and Higgins 1993, A. Grant <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Water quality deterioration and disturbance pose threats at the species's wintering grounds in Auckland and Northland (Rebergen 2011). Further threats may include the conversion of coastal habitat for aquaculture, development of wind farms, and the spread of mangroves (D. Melville <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<strong></strong><p></p>
106003150		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to obtain an accurate population estimate. Assess threats to puna zone habitat. Search suitable unsurveyed high altitude habitat. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106003150		distribution	eng	<em>Phegornis mitchelli</em> is poorly known and perhaps naturally rare in the Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (from Ancash south [Clements and Shany 2001]) through north <strong>Chile</strong> and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> to south-central Chile and south-central <strong>Argentina</strong>. The population has been estimated at fewer than 10,000 individuals and declining (R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002) to Wetlands International), but occupation of a harsh environment at high altitude suggests that it may be relatively secure (at least) in parts of its range<strong></strong> (Piersma 1996). <p></p>
106003150		habitat	eng	It occurs in the puna zone on waterlogged mossy tundra and bogs with matted cushion-plant vegetation, especially <em>Distichia</em> bogs, with occasional records from gravel or grass on river plains and near lakes. It breeds at 2,850-5,000 m, and in the south of its range descends to 2,000 m in winter<strong> </strong>(Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Piersma 1996, Fernandes d'Oliveira and Rodríguez Moulin 1997). <p></p>
106003150		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, and so is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (R. Schlatter <I>in litt.</I> 2002). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106003150		threats	eng	Its high altitude habitat is presumably relatively secure. <p></p>
106003153		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and travel on a broad front out of Europe (Snow and Perrins 1998) although some breeding populations in more temperate regions are sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds from April to July (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) although pairs may also nest close together (Johnsgard 1981), even semi-colonially (Trolliet 2003), in optimal habitat (Johnsgard 1981). The species may roost communally at night during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and after breeding the species gathers in large flocks for migration (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and remains highly gregarious during the winter (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998) in flocks of several thousand (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species shows a preference for breeding on wet natural grasslands (Trolliet 2003), meadows and hay meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with short swards (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, Devereux <I>et al.</I> 2004) and patches of bare soil (Johnsgard 1981) at low altitudes (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) (less than 1,000 m) (Snow and Perrins 1998). It will also breed on grassy moors, swampy heaths (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), bogs (Johnsgard 1981) and arable fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-</I> <I>breeding</I> During the winter the species utilises large open pastures for roosting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and forages on damp grassland, irrigated land (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), stubble and ploughed fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), riverbanks, lake shores, fresh and saline marshes, drainage ditches, estuaries and mudflats (Africa) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. beetles, ants, Diptera, crickets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), grasshoppers, dragonflies, mayflies, cicadas and Lepidoptera) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), spiders, snails (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), earthworms (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), frogs, small fish (Africa) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and seeds or other plant material (Africa) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape in short grass vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Short swards are the most profitable foraging habitat for the species (Devereux <I>et al.</I> 2004) so the application of cattle-grazing (Olsen and Schmidt 2004), preferably intensively (e.g. &gt; 1 cow per hectare), may be successful in increasing abundances of the species on grasslands. On coastal grazing saltmarsh however it may be desirable to exclude cattle from selected areas in the spring where the rate of grass growth is slow (Hart <I>et al.</I> 2002). In the UK it has been found that a mosaic of unflooded grassland, winter-flooded grassland and shallow pools may provide optimal conditions for this species to breed (Ausden <I>et al.</I> 2001). It has also been found that shallow pools on coastal grazing marshes should be maintained until the end of June, as the aquatic invertebrates contained within them can be an important part of this species's diet (Ausden <I>et al.</I> 2003). Another UK study found that the species shows a preference for feeding in rills (relict saltmarsh drainage channels) in coastal grazing marshes, especially those with many branches (Milsom <I>et al.</I> 2002). It is possible to attract breeding pairs just by flooding rills during April and May to create water-margin habitats for feeding, rather than extensively flooding the land (i.e. marshes can therefore be managed to encourage lapwing breeding without preventing the grazing of cattle) (Milsom <I>et al.</I> 2002). At Lower Lough Erne in Northern Ireland the species showed a preference for nesting in the spring on open areas created by cutting rush beds in mid-winter (Robson and Allcorn 2006). It is also known to show increased hatching successes when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective cages or fences around individual nests or nesting areas (Jackson 2001, Isaksson <I>et al.</I> 2007). The number of breeding pairs on improved grassland was successfully increased on a reserve in Wales by the implementation of a two-year rotation of chisel ploughing, as well as a seasonal sheep and cattle grazing regime and a controlled increase in the water-level (Squires and Allcorn 2006).
106003153		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.5,200,000-10,000,000 individuals   (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.10,000 wintering   individuals in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003153		threats	eng	This species suffered past declines as a result of land-use intensification, wetland drainage and egg collecting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Today it is threatened by reduced breeding productivity as a result of intensifying and changing agricultural practices (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), especially the improvement of grasslands (e.g. by drainage, inorganic fertilising and reseeding) (Baldi <I>et al.</I> 2005). Important migratory stop-over habitats for this species on the Baltic Sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, land abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). Clutch destruction may also occur during spring cultivation (using machinery) on arable fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Hubalek <I>et al.</I> 2005), and may suffer from nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog <I>Erinaceus europeaus</I>) on some islands (Jackson 2001). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for commercial use (to be sold as food) and for recreational purposes in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006), and is hunted in France, Greece, Italy and Spain (Trolliet 2003).
106003154		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary, although it is known to move between permanent water bodies at the height of the dry season to temporary wetlands during the rains (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), and to make local movements in Rwanda dependent on water levels (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). In the dry season local aggregations can occur on flooded grasslands or at contracting waters (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986) (a concentration of nearly 100 birds was recorded from Kafue Flats, SW Zambia (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), but usually flocks are smaller and of between 10 and 40 birds (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986)). When breeding however, the species disperses into single pairs on small territories (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996); breeding appearing to occur all year round (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), although laying dates are likely to be at or immediately following the peak of flooding (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) (mainly December-March in central Africa and June-November in southern Africa) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> This species prefers areas of stagnant water such as lakes, pools, ponds and canals, with floating vegetation (such as <I>Salvinia molesta</I>, <I>Typha latifolia</I>, <I>Ludwigia, Cyperus, Pistia, Leersia, Oryza, Panicum repens, Vossia, Wolfia</I>, <I>Azolla</I> and water-lilies <I>Nymphaea</I>) (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). It can also be found on marshes, swamps, slow-flowing rivers, grass-covered floodplains, water meadows and flooded rice fields (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is present on both eutrophic and oligotrophic waters up to 2,200 m in Kenya, but is not found on carbonate lakes (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989). It feeds mainly on the surface of floating vegetation rather like Jacanas (Jacanidae), supported by its long toes (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), but in the dry season it also feeds on exposed mud at the edges of ponds and small gravelly waterways (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic insects, maggot-like insect larvae, dragonfly nymphs, beetles, ants and small snails (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest of this species varies with the habitat: it can be a shallow scrape in the mud up to 100 m from the water's edge, a shallow depression in short grass near water, a cup made from plant material on floating vegetation, or a 5-10 cm high platform of vegetation in swampy areas (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> </B>
106003154		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003155		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106003156		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1978, albeit probably rather too late to be of any influence. Several recent searches of historic and potential sites for this species have all drawn a blank, but all potential sites have yet to be searched. One of the most recent searches was carried out at Muara Gembong in West Java, where interviews with local people produced strong evidence that the species could still be present (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Searches are planned for Belitung Island, southern Sumatra, during 2012 (M. Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Tanjung Air needs surveying urgently, and other coastal wetlands and grasslands should be searched on Java and elsewhere in the Greater Sundas. Initiate immediate habitat protection in the event of its rediscovery.  <p></p>
106003156		distribution	eng	<em>Vanellus macropterus</em> is known with certainty only from the island of Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabited marshes and river deltas in the west (on the north coast) and the east (on the south coast). A specimen and two eggs collected in the 19th century may have derived from Sumatra, and there is an unsubstantiated claim that it occurred on Timor (at least three specimens). It was described as local and uncommon, apparently only ever encountered in scattered pairs, and has not been recorded since 1940. The fact that it was reputedly impossible to overlook suggests very strongly that it is no longer present at any site studied in recent decades by ornithologists. However, there are areas that have not been recently surveyed and recent unconfirmed reports that require investigation (P.R. Rudyanto<em> in litt. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and recently translated observations from the 1920s suggest that its habitat requirements may have been less restricted than previously thought, perhaps providing some further hope for its continued existence (van Balen and Nijman 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003156		habitat	eng	It inhabited "wide, steppe-like marshes" in river deltas, keeping to the least flooded areas during the rainy season. It also frequented damp pastures (including those grazed by buffalo) bordering marshes thickly covered in sedges and low aquatic vegetation, open areas near freshwater ponds, and was found in agricultural fields and rice-paddies (van Balen and Nijman 2007)<strong></strong>. It occurred in isolated pairs, often in rather large areas, suggesting that it must have been a naturally low-density species. It was probably resident, although some local movements or migration are suggested by its erratic and off-shore occurrences (van Balen and Nijman 2007). <p></p>
106003156		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on a lack of records since 1940 and failure of recent surveys to locate this species.
106003156		threats	eng	Its decline has been attributed to 'merciless' hunting and trapping. However, it seems far more likely that high levels of human disturbance and conversion of its habitat to aquaculture and agricultural land were the principal agents. The fact that it may have been a naturally low-density species could have exacerbated its susceptibility to extinction in the face of large-scale habitat loss and disturbance. <p></p>
106003159		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is partially migratory (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) and undertakes local movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in relation to seasonal rainfall (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) and flooding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding usually peaks at the start of the local dry season but may occur in any month of the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in solitary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), well-dispersed pairs (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and usually forages singly or in pairs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), although during the non-breeding season flocks of up to 100 individuals or more (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) congregate in good feeding areas (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits dry (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), moist or marshy grasslands (Johnsgard 1981, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), saltflats and flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) around freshwater or saline (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) lagoons, lakes, dams, water-holes, rivers, marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), swamps (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), saltpans and estuaries (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). During the non-breeding season flocks may also congregate around sewage farms (Johnsgard 1981), and the species often travels c.1-2 km from water to forage (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) on ploughed land, in fields amongst cattle (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or in arable fields of vegetables and lucerne (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of molluscs, crustaceans, worms and insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape or depression (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) placed on bare ground or in short grass very close to water (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in solitary, territorial pairs with neighbouring nests spaced at least 400 m apart (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003159		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (van Heerden 1974).
106003160		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> African breeding populations are largely sedentary (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) but may make irregular local movements (e.g. to drier areas during the rains) although it does not appear to be very sensitive to seasonal changes in water-level (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeders in the eastern Mediterranean region are fully migratory however and disperse south to Africa for the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests from March to September in West Africa and in the eastern Mediterranean region (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), the timing of breeding varying geographically elsewhere (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It nests in solitary pairs or loose colonies and outside of the breeding season flocks of up to 15 (occasionally up to 200) individuals may occur (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species frequents dry ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) close to fresh or saline (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986)pools, lakes, rivers, lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or marshes (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) as well as burnt grassland, cultivated, flooded or irrigated fields (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) (e.g. rice-paddies) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), saltflats by alkaline lakes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), mudflats, sandflats, beaches, dunes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and coastal saltpans (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, Diptera, midges, termites and ants) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) as well as spiders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), centipedes, millipedes (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and occasionally crustaceans, molluscs, small lizards, tadpoles, adult frogs, fish and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is placed in a shallow natural depressions in rock (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or is a shallow scrape on dry bare ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or on mudflats (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003160		threats	eng	The species has suffered from past declines as a result of the loss of natural and semi-natural saltmarsh habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is locally exposed to hunting pressures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003161		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservationa Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends throughout its range. Quantify the severity and impact of threats across its range. Carry out awareness-raising activities to alleviate human pressures on riverine ecosystems, and lobby against high-impact dam projects. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives effective protection.
106003161		distribution	eng	<em>Vanellus duvaucelii</em> occurs in southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, much of South-East Asia, and the northern Indian Subcontinent (Chandler 2009), including <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Laos</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vietnam</span>. This species generally occurs at low densities throughout most of its range (Li <em>et al</em>. 2009), and there are several threats that are thought to be driving at least regional or local declines, but the population is expected to go into overall decline as impacts intensify and become more widespread.
106003161		habitat	eng	It inhabits larger rivers and lakes (Chandler 2009), preferring wide, slow-moving rivers with sand or gravel bars and islands (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1998).
106003161		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-17,000 mature individuals.
106003161		threats	eng	In southern Thailand, the species is threatened by the casual off-take of eggs and chicks, and potentially by future agricultural intensification in some areas (Wells 1999). It is also threatened by incidental disturbance caused by people, livestock and dogs, and is potentially seriously impacted by the multitude of hydroelectric dam projects completed, underway and planned on large rivers in its range, which threaten to alter flow regimes (Thewlis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Duckworth<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1998, F. Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). These include the recently-built hydroelectric dams on the Vietnamese section of the Sesan, and this population, along with that on the Sekong, is predicted to be lost in the next 10 years (F. Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Populations in the upper Cambodian Mekong have so far been under relatively less pressure; however, they may be lost in the next 10-20 years owing to multiple hydroelectric dam projects and inadequate protection of their habitat against degradation, encroachment and disturbance (F. Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The threats of disturbance and hunting, in Laos at least, are exacerbated by the tendency for both <em>V. duvaucelii</em>  and human settlers to select the same rivers, although the numbers of  the species and frequency of villages are inversely correlated, which  appears to confirm that there are some negative impacts from human  activities (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1998). Along the Sangu river in Bangladesh, which may harbour all or most of the country's population of <span style="font-style: italic;">V. duvaucelii</span>, the species is subject to on-going hunting pressure, and there is no evidence of successful breeding along surveyed stretches, probably owing to the frequenting of sandbars by people, dogs and corvids (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003163		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratory, but it is likely to undertake limited local seasonal movements (large numbers appear north of Gondar, Ethiopia, during the rainy season [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is usually found in solitary pairs or small flocks, and outside of the breeding season it often occurs in parties of 30-40 birds (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occasionally in larger flocks of more than 100 (Ficha Abbera, Bale Mountains, Ethiopia [Vivero Pol 2001])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species breeds in April (Bale Mountains) and in August in the Shoa region (Johnsgard 1981), Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is diurnally active (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat</strong> This species inhabits highland grassland (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, moorland with giant lobelia, giant heath, <em>Alchemilla</em> and tussock grass (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, marshes, damp meadows, streams and particularly cattle pastures (often occurs around domestic stock [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, generally between 1,800 m and 4,100 m above sea level (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is undescribed (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Only one nest of the species has been described: it was a shallow scrape in a patch of grass and moss, situated on a small rocky island in a shallow pool surrounding by giant lobelia moorland (Johnsgard 1981, Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong>  </strong>  <p></p>
106003163		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003163		threats	eng	Although it is regarded as locally common, its very restricted range makes this species somewhat vulnerable (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It has recently been reported to be unevenly distributed in areas where it was once common, probably due to climatological changes (Vivero Pol 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no other threats recorded for this species (Vivero Pol 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003164		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in   China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals   in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003166		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is essentially sedentary but during periods of flooding it leaves rivers and moves to drier ground or temporary lagoons (Johnsgard 1981). Outside of the breeding season the species is gregarious and can generally be found in groups of 6-12 birds, occasionally in flocks of up to 30 (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996) or more on migration to less flooded areas (Johnsgard 1981). Breeding occurs mainly during the dry season (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), and at this time the species is highly territorial and is found in isolated pairs (Johnsgard 1981). In western and equatorial Africa breeding usually begins near the end of April, with exact dates varying with locallity (Johnsgard 1981). <B>Habitat</B> This species inhabits large rivers with sandy riverbanks and islands or sandbanks mid-stream, both in open country and forest (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005). During floods it is also found on small streams, pans and lagoons (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), and sometimes occurs on lake shores (e.g. Lake Kariba) (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) foraging for worms in damp grassy places (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986).<B> Diet</B> The species is mainly omnivorous, taking insects (including beetles, weevils, ants, mantids and mutillid wasps), worms, molluscs, crabs, other small crustaceans and small fish (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005) or frogs (Johnsgard 1981, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005); very rarely taking vegetable matter (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a lined shallow scrape on sand or shingle in riverbeds at times of low water (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003166		threats	eng	The species is threatened in South Africa by habitat degradation owing to decreasing river flows (resulting from afforestation, invasive plant species and increasing water abstraction) (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003167		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant, sedentary in some areas but moving nomadically and opportunistically in others depending on rainfall and flood regimes (although there is no pattern of seasonal movements) (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding occurs in all months of the year depending on locality and the timing of the rains (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species is more solitary than other lapwings, being found singly, in pairs or small groups even outside of the breeding season (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). Occasionally larger flocks of between 20 and 60 individuals (Zambia) (Johnsgard 1981) form in the non-breeding season in newly available habitats such as burnt grassland or temporary waters (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species is diurnally active (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> This species demonstrates ecological plasticity, in some areas occupying the same habitat all year round, in others changing habitat seasonally and opportunistically (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). It is mainly a lowland species, with the highest altitude of occurrence being 2,200 m in East Africa and Ethiopia (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). Habitats frequented by this species include marshes, damp grass and muddy or sandy ground beside lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, inundated grassland, temporary pools (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986) and flooded rice fields (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), as well as drier habitats such as savanna, dry grassland, airports, cultivated land (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996) (ploughed land and dry, weedy, fallow fields) (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), wastelands and burnt grassland (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> This species is omnivorous, its diet chiefly consisting of insects such as grasshoppers, locusts, beetles (including dung beetles and weevils) (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005), crickets, termites and various aquatic insects, also worms, coarse grass leaves and grass seeds (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Breeding site</B> The nest of this species is a shallow depression situated in short grass, on bare ground or amongst weeds in fallow fields, frequently near roads or human settlements (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), and always within 100 m of water (Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986). In Rwanda 3-4 pairs were recorded nesting close together in a small colony, but in South Africa pairs are highly territorial (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003167		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss in South Africa as a result of commercial afforestation (Allan, <I>et al.</I> 1997). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003168		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant that may undertake regular seasonal movements or more irregular movements related to the occurrence of brush fires (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Some populations also remain largely sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in loosely colonial groups with several pairs scattered over a small area, the timing of breeding varying geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is gregarious throughout the year (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), usually foraging in flocks of 5-10 individuals and migrating in large flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits dry, open habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as lightly wooded savannas, open grassland with bushes and scrub, patches of burnt grass in <I>Accacia</I> spp. woodland and sparsely vegetated short grassland (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). It shows a strong preference for burnt grassland with newly sprouted grass (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) especially if this is in the vicinity of water (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). Other habitats frequented include cultivated land, airfields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), pastures (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and the margins of lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (especially beetles) and other small invertebrates as well as grass seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape or depression positioned on burnt ground with newly sprouting grass, on bare patches in grassland or on ploughed land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003169		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant; moving to lower altitudes (e.g. 1,500-2,000 m lower) for the winter in East Africa and South Africa, but remaining sedentary in Ethiopia (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds between April and July in Ethiopia, between July and October in South Africa, and in all months of the year in Kenya and Tanzania (generally depending on the rains, although avoiding the wettest periods) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). During the breeding season the species is found in solitary pairs or small, loose colonies, but during the non-breeding season it gathers in flocks of up to 50 individuals, occasionally thousands, and possibly up to 10,000 prior to migration (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). This species is chiefly diurnal, but migrates at night as well as by day (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> This species breeds in short-sward grassland on highland plateau and mountain slopes, and at lower elevations on open plains, dry savanna (especially in areas with large wild or domestic ungulates and game animals), and burnt fields with newly grown grass (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding </I>In winter the species is found mainly at lower altitudes, where it occurs on wastelands, cultivated and fallow fields, meadows, airfields, coastal flats (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996) and golf-courses (Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Diet</B> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of molluscs, earthworms, adult and larval insects (such as beetles and flies), and occasionally small fish (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> Its nest is a scrape in  recently burnt short-sward grassland or on bare or newly ploughed land (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> </B>
106003169		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss in South Africa as a result of commercial afforestation (Allan, <I>et al.</I> 1997, Hockey, <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003170		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is not strongly migratory but does make local dispersive movements related to habitat changes (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It moves during the dry season to areas of recent brush fires to breed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and departs again for drier areas after breeding (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) during the rainy season when the grass becomes too high (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds semi-colonially and occurs in loosely associated wide-ranging flocks of 10-40 individuals outside of the breeding season (occasionally up to 100-150 especially just after breeding season) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also form large communal roosting flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits dry, open, treeless or sparsely wooded habitats, and shows a strong preference for nesting amongst newly sprouted grass on recently burnt grasslands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also frequents pastures, <I>Accacia</I> spp. (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) short grass savanna (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), open patches in bushveld or thornbush (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), mopane <I>Colophospermum</I> spp. shrublands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), cultivated land, fallow fields and artificial grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), avoiding areas where the grass greater than 60 mm tall (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species will tolerate desert conditions (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and is occasionally observed on sand-dunes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and although it generally avoids moist ground it may form communal daytime roosts near the edges of or on islands in lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (e.g. termites, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and ants) and earthworms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape or depression in the ground placed amongst newly sprouted grass on recently burnt grasslands, often close to trees that provide shade (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests semi-colonially, with neighbouring pairs usually spaced between 25 and 50 m part (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B></B>
106003171		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a transequatorial migrant, adults migrating to and from breeding grounds through eastern and central Zaire in November-December (returning in July-August with juveniles) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding is assumed to occur during the dry season (January-February in Nigeria and December-January in Zaire) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). On migration and in its wintering grounds the species may occur in flocks of up to 30-50 individuals (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986, Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), exceptionally being recorded in a flock of 100 in Rwanda (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). Throughout the breeding season this species is solitary and nesting pairs are territorial (although they may nest close together on newly burnt ground if this habitat is scarce) (Johnsgard 1981). The species is crepuscular and feeds at dawn and dusk, occasionally remaining active during bright moonlit nights (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> This species inhabits a wide variety of dry grassy habitats, including open savanna with <I>Accacia gerrardii</I> and <I>Dychrostachys cinerea</I> (in Rwanda), orchard-bush savanna (in Nigeria), recently burnt grassland (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), football fields and lawns (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). It often occurs near rivers and lakes on open, bare ground, and on migration in Zaire it occurs in cleared areas within forest (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> The species is carnivorous, consuming mostly insects (beetles, ants, butterfly and fly larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, bugs, earwigs and termites), but also molluscs, worms and small crustaceans (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), preferably positioned in recently burnt grassland (where the nest is safe from new fires) (Johnsgard 1981, Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986). Nests may also be positioned in close proximity to water (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996) in grassy or orchard-bush savanna, and sometimes also near buildings (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003171		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-17,000 mature individuals.
106003172		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. An international species action plan was published in 2004. It is legally protected in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan, but this is generally not enforced (Belik 2005)<strong></strong>. An intensive research project at the breeding sites in central Kazakhstan has been running since 2004 (Cresswell <em>et al</em>. 2005, Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006). In 2005 the Sociable Lapwing research project was initiated in Kazakhstan by a team from the RSPB and the Association for the  Biodiversity Protection in Kazakhstan (ACBK) in order to understand the  causes of the species's decline. In 2006 the team secured funding through  the UK Government's Darwin Initiative programme that will allow work to  continue until 2009. A survey of historical breeding sites in the South Urals was conducted in 2005 (Morozov and Kornev 2005)<strong></strong> and another at passage sites in south-west Russia was carried out in 2006 (Field <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Coordinated counts were undertaken at key passage/wintering sites in Syria and Turkey in March 2007 (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. A project was initiated in Turkey in 2008 to gain a better understanding of stopover sites used by the species in Turkey during migration (Biricik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Satellite-tags have been placed on nine birds in central Kazahstan,one of which was tracked to Turkey in October 2007 (R. Sheldon <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008), to provide information on the species’s migration, with the information being fed into a website. Hunting in Syria has  been identified as a major threat with measures being implemented to  control it. The inaugural meeting of the International Sociable Lapwing Working Group was held in Palmyra, Syria in March 2011. The group agreed on conservation measures required by each country, and planned cross-border actions to protect the species across its extensive range.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue research in Kazakhstan (and initiate in Russia) on breeding biology, habitat requirements and migration, including colour-ringing and satellite tracking to determine movements. Continue surveys of breeding range in Kazakhstan, potential breeding range in Russia and western China, and wintering/passage sites in Middle East and Africa (including determining periods when birds are present). Continue to monitor trends on breeding grounds and at key passage/winter sites. Identify and evaluate key threats on breeding, passage and wintering grounds. Investigate the importance of hunting on passage/wintering grounds. Review International Species Action Plan in the light of recent research on the breeding grounds and identification of key passage/wintering sites. Develop national species action plans, at least for Kazakhstan and key passage/wintering countries. At breeding colonies sensitive to trampling by sheep during nesting period, work with local shepherds to minimise disturbance. Control hunting on wintering/passage sites.  <p></p>
106003172		distribution	eng	<em>Vanellus gregarius</em> breeds in northern and central <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and south-central <strong>Russia </strong>(and, at least formerly, Xinjiang province, western China [Kamp <em>et al. </em>2010]<strong></strong>), dispersing through <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Turkey </strong>and<strong> Egypt</strong>, to key wintering sites in <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong> (see below) and north-west <strong>India </strong>(e.g. 45 birds in the Little Rann of Kutch in November 2007 [Deomurari 2007] and 30 at Great Rann of Kutch in November 2008 [J. Tiwari <em>in litt. </em>2008]<strong></strong>). Birds winter occasionally in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka, Oman </strong>and<strong> UAE</strong>. The species has suffered a very rapid decline and range contraction. In northern Kazakhstan, a decline of 40% during 1930-1960, was followed by a further halving of numbers during 1960-1987. Recent fieldwork has shown the population to be larger than once feared. Surveys in 2006 in Kazakhstan counted 376 breeding pairs in an area of 145,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Extrapolating this population density across the breeding range yields a possible total population size of 5,600 breeding pairs (Sheldon <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, i.e. 11,200 mature individuals; but work is continuing in order to refine this estimate. A satellite-tagged bird from central Kazakhstan was located in Turkey in October 2007 in a flock of 3,200 individuals (R. Sheldon <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, Biricik 2009), even larger than the total of simultaneous counts of over 1,500, maybe as high as 2,000, in northern Syria and 1,000 individuals in south-eastern Turkey in March 2007 (Anon. 2007,&#160;Bozdogan <em>et al</em>. 2007, Hofland and Keijl 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Two tagged birds were then tracked to wintering quarters in Sudan in February 2008 (P. Donald and R. Sheldon verbally 2008)<strong></strong>, indicating that the sites in the Middle East are used for stopping over en route to Africa. Two further individuals, including one in far eastern Kazakhstan, were tagged in 2008 (R. Sheldon <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Surveys in September 2009 confirmed the importance of the Manych depression in south Russia as a stopover site with estimates of up to 2,000 individuals (Koshkin 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003172		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It breeds semi-colonially in small groups of 3-20 pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> from mid-April until July, and begins the migration south in August or September (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> (occasionally as late as October [R. Sheldon <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008]). Flocks of several thousand birds have been known to gather before migration in Siberia and Kazakhstan (Johnsgard 1981, R. Sheldon <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>, but migration itself usually occurs in small groups of 15-20 birds (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). In Syria, it arrives yearly around mid-February to late March, and again in Autumn (Hofland and Keijl 2008)<strong></strong>. It arrives on its wintering grounds in India and Pakistan by September-October, and in Sudan by late October (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Small flocks of similar size to those observed on migration are usual on the wintering grounds<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1981), although very occasionally larger flocks of over 100 birds have been recorded<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1981)<strong></strong>. It departs the wintering grounds in March or early April, arriving on its breeding range from mid April (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds mainly in the transition zones between <em>Stipa</em> and <em>Artemisia</em> grassland steppes where bare saline areas occur near water-bodies. It uses dry wasteland, cultivated, ploughed and stubble fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nests are preferentially placed in areas of <em>Artemisia</em> where there is a high dung abundance and vegetation is short (Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Steppes that are densely vegetated may be avoided<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>Johnsgard 1981), however areas with a low percentage of bare ground and high percentage of tall vegetation are preferred by chicks, and may be important for providing cover from predators (Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. It has been postulated that it evolved to nest in habitats created by migratory Saiga <em>Saiga tatarica</em> (e.g.&#160;<strong></strong>Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, but this is unlikely given the timing of Saiga movements relative to Sociable Lapwing breeding, the speed with which they pass through areas, and the very short swards favoured by the birds; nevertheless Saiga grazing combined with fires may have promoted optimal habitat (Kamp 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Suitable habitat probably occurred naturally in sparsely vegetated <em>solonchaks </em>and areas recently burnt by steppe fires, but are now most abundant in the periphery of villages, at least in central Kazakhstan (M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Around such villages, there is a strong positive correlation between grazing intensity and the density of nests (Kamp <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>On migration it uses mainly sandy plains with short grass, dry meadows, fallow land and cultivated fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The wintering grounds are burnt steppe and savannah, dry plains, sandy wastes, harvested millet fields, damp pastures and short grass areas, often adjacent to water (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. In Arabia it often occurs in the desert near the coast (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds chiefly on insects including Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and moth larvae (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It also takes arachnids and frequently small amounts of plant matter including grains, leaves and flowers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Small stones are often found in the stomach, occasionally along with the remains of small vertebrate bones and mollusc shells (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The diet is more varied during the breeding season, being limited mainly to orthopterans and other insects during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape that is unlined or lined with plant material, pebbles and debris (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is usually found on bare saline patches or in short vegetation near to water (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Nest survival during the egg stage varies between years, owing to varying levels of predation by fox <em>Vulpes vulpes</em>, polecat, long-eared hedgehog and souslik species, and trampling by cattle, and in particular, sheep and goats (M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003172		population	eng	Surveys in 2006 in Kazakhstan estimated 376 breeding pairs in an area of 145,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Extrapolating this  population density across the breeding range yields a possible total population size of 5,600 breeding pairs, i.e. 11,200 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 16,000-17,000 individuals in total; but work is continuing in order to refine this estimate. This total is consistent with record counts of 3,200 individuals in Turkey in October 2007.
106003172		threats	eng	Key factors explaining the magnitude of declines remain poorly understood, despite much recent research. On the breeding grounds, it was probably formerly threatened by the conversion of steppe to arable cultivation, plus, perhaps less likely, the reduction in grazing by large herds of native ungulates and, latterly, by the loss of the enormous herds of domestic grazing animals from state-sponsored collective farms (Eichhorn and Khrokov 2002, Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, large areas of arable cultivation have been abandoned and are reverting to natural steppe habitat, herds of domestic livestock have become concentrated around villages (where their permanent presence leads to shorter swards than were created by the vast herds that grazed semi-nomadically under the Soviet system), while an increase in fires (owing to reduced control of fires) may also have contributed to an increase in suitable habitat. These factors may be behind the possible increase in numbers (at least in parts of Kazakhstan) in recent years (Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006, M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Concentration of nests in heavily grazed areas in the vicinity of villages may have increased threats from human disturbance and trampling by sheep, goats and possibly other livestock (Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong> M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Low egg survival due to nesting in areas of high grazer density has been suggested as one of the causes for the species' decline (Watson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Nest predation by Rooks <em>Corvus frugilegus </em>- which have expanded widely into the breeding range with the plantation of networks of shelter-belts (Belik 2005)<strong></strong> - was previously suggested as a cause of declines, but data from central Kazakhstan indicate this is unlikely (Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006, M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Illegal hunting during migration and on the wintering grounds may now be the primary threat (M. A. Koshkin, J. Kamp and R. D. Sheldon <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong></strong>, Biricik <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The species may be affected by the increasingly dry climate in its breeding and wintering range, but it is not clear if this benefits or threatens this semi-desert species (Watson <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003173		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory in central Asia although there are some sedentary populations in the Middle East (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996) (parts of Iraq and Iran) (Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986). Migratory populations breed in Russia between mid-April to May and depart on a broad front for winter quarters in north-east Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan and northern India (Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986) between mid-July and September (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), (although individuals occasionally winter in Russia), returning to breeding grounds during March and April (Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986). This species often breeds in loose colonies of between 4 and 24 pairs (Hayman, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), sometimes up to as many as 100 pairs (Iraq) (Johnsgard 1981, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). Outside of the breeding season this species occurs singly, in pairs or small groups (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986), with small migratory flocks of between 1-6 individuals and wintering flocks of 6-25 individuals (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> </B>This species is diurnal (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for habitats in the vicinity of shallow standing or slow-flowing water with suitable smooth beds permitting unhampered walking and wading (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Breeding </I>In Russia this species breeds in damp, vegetated areas near salt or fresh water, and on small vegetated islets or swampy shores of brackish lakes (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter this species prefers rivers, drainage ditches, ponds, jheels (India), coastal lagoons, marshes (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986) and flooded or recently dried out grassland (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It also occurs on salt-shrub terrain with low, sparse vegetation, on shallow seepage pools by canals and reservoirs, and on irrigated rice fields (Cramp and Simmons 1983). During this season the species also occurs on dry ground near water such as river banks and lake shores (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996), but avoids dry, open country (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986) although it has been known to roost on dry ploughed fields (Pakistan) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species has also been recorded feeding in a stream of sewage effluent in Sudan (Urban, <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting mainly of insects (especially beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, fly larvae (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996) and locusts (Johnsgard 1981)), but also worms, molluscs and crustaceans (including freshwater shrimps) (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B> Breeding site</B> The nests of this species are shallow scrapes in the open, usually near water (del Hoyo, <I>et al.</I> 1996). Few observations of nesting sites are available, but one was found on an irrigated but uncultivated field covered with grass, another was observed on a dry ridge near a marsh (Johnsgard 1981).<B> </B>
106003173		threats	eng	The loss of wetland habitats in Mesopotamia owing to drainage, and wetland destruction in Iraq (two of the core breeding and wintering areas) poses a threat to this species (Stroud, <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003175		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,000,000 individuals.
106003176		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003177		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Many individuals migrate southwards between August and November and return northwards between March and April, although over much of its range the species is present in fluctuating numbers throughout the year (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds from April to August in dense colonies (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, nesting in burrows set close together (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in sandy islets or dunes (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species usually feeds singly or in loose groups, flocks occasionally foraging together on mudflats or in shallow water (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and gathering at communal high-tide roost sites (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most of the species's activities occur in the early morning and late afternoon (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits sandy coastlines and islands, intertidal sandflats and mudflats, estuaries, lagoons and exposed coral reefs (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, specifically requiring sandy islands or extensive dunes up to 1 km inland in which to excavate nesting burrows (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of crabs as well as other crustaceans, small molluscs and marine worms (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is an unlined chamber at the end of a burrow 100-250 cm long excavated into the sandy substrate (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> of an island or extensive coastal dune system (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species nests colonially, with many burrows set close together in a honeycomb arrangement (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003177		threats	eng	The species is threatened by future oil spills (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the potential introduction of nest predators onto breeding islands (del hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The planting of mangrove stands over bare substrates in some areas may also reduce the availability of nest sites (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Eggs and young of the species used to be collected from nesting colonies, a practice which may still occur (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003178		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is largely sedentary but does undertake local irregular nomadic movements in response to changes in riverine water levels (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). North of the equator the species breeds from January to April or May when the water levels in rivers are the lowest (the timing of breeding has not been recorded in the southern parts of species's range) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is usually observed in pairs or small groups when not breeding (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), often migrating in flocks of up to 60 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits the middle stretches (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) of large lowland tropical rivers with bars of sand and gravel (which it uses for nesting) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It often occurs around human settlements near rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and may occasionally use other wetland habitats (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) (e.g. lakes or ponds) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and be found away from water when not breeding or when rivers are in spate (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). It generally avoids heavily forested areas and estuarine waters however (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of insects (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) (adult and larval aquatic and terrestrial forms but especially small flies) as well as worms, molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and seeds (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a deep scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) where the eggs are incubated by being buried in warm sand (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) on an exposed sandbank in a riverbed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B>
106003178		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat changes resulting from the damming of rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003182		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The local Yanaadi community have been employed to try to locate it. The Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary and Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary have been declared in the Lankamalai, Veliconda and Palakonda hill-ranges as a direct result of its rediscovery. The Telagu-Ganga canal, which would have passed through one of these protected areas, was realigned in response to lobbying that it would fragment habitat, but in 2005 unauthorised work began again on the canal. In February 2006, India's Central Empowerment Committee ruled in favour of a precise route for the canal that will entirely avoid courser habitat (Jeganathan and Rahmani 2006; Anon 2006)<strong></strong>, and 1,200 ha of land was given in compensation to expand the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2008, a workshop was held to draft a Species Recovery Plan. The identified priorities included: to ensure protection of the species's habitat; to map potential habitat of the species within scrub forest using remote sensing; to capture and radio-tag individuals; to increase efforts to identify new sites that may host the species and to raise awareness of the species<strong> </strong>(Chandrasekhar and Jeganathan 2008). A final draft was submitted to the State Forestry Department and National Government for endorsement (I. Barber <em>in litt.</em> 2009, 2010), and the final version was published in November 2010 (Anon 2010)<strong></strong>. The development of tracking-strips and camera traps as a survey method is on-going and should facilitate the discovery of other sites (Jeganathan <em>et al.</em> 2002; I. Barber <em>in litt.</em> 2009, 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Also, survey methods have been developed to conduct night-time listening surveys for identifying new populations and studying existing ones<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Jeganathan <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Forest department staff have attended training in survey techniques and habitat management and an awareness-raising programme has so far been attended by more than 85 people from five villages (BNHS <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify areas of suitable habitat within its putative range and conduct surveys of these to establish its current distribution, population status, and assess potential threats. Monitor the species's status at all known locations at intervals of no more than five years (Anon. 2010). Monitor the extent and condition of suitable and potentially suitable habitat (Anon. 2010). Carry out a radio-telemetry study and diet analysis using faecal samples to determine the ecological requirements of this species and enable more effective conservation recommendations to be formulated (<strong></strong>Jeganathan <em>et al</em>. 2004, Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>. Make recommendations for its conservation based on survey findings, including the establishment of sites supporting populations as strictly protected areas. Lobby against quarrying and proposed mining activities that threaten existing habitat. Take a precautionary approach regarding habitat management (Anon. 2010). Expand conservation awareness programmes and promote alternative livelihoods in and around areas supporting populations to minimise habitat alteration, disturbance and trapping (Anon. 2010). Continue to train forest department staff, local communities and volunteers to carry out surveys for the species (Anon. 2010). <br/><p></p>
106003182		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinoptilus bitorquatus</em> is a rare and local endemic to the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh and extreme southern Madhya Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>  (BirdLife International 2001). Historically, it was known from just a few records in the Pennar and Godavari river valleys and was assumed to be extinct until its rediscovery around Lankamalai in 1986. It has since been found at six further localities in the vicinity of the Lankamalai, Velikonda and Palakonda hill-ranges, southern Andhra Pradesh, with all localities probably holding birds from a single population, the majority of which are contained within the Sri Lankamaleswara WildLife Sanctuary. Two individuals were sighted in 2009 in the Cudaapah District of Andhra Pradesh, the first confirmed sightings for several years<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003182		habitat	eng	It inhabits sparse, thorny (dominated by <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Zizyphus</em> and <em>Carissa</em>) and non-thorny (dominated by <em>Cassia</em>, <em>Hardwickia </em>and <em>Anogeissus</em>) scrub-forest and bushes, interspersed with patches of bare ground, in gently undulating, rocky foothills. Studies using tracking strips have revealed the species has a strong preference for certain densities of scrub-jungle habitat, favouring areas where the density of large bushes is 300-700/ha and small bushes occur at less than 1,000/ha (<strong></strong>Jeganathan <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It calls and is active mainly at night. <p></p>
106003182		population	eng	The population at known sites numbers at least eight individuals, but unsurveyed habitat may support "hundreds" (R. Green <em>in litt.</em> 2002). It is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals, equating to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106003182		threats	eng	Its habitat is becoming increasingly scarce and fragmented. The dependence of the settlers on the area for resources, and the increase in the number of settlers, poses a serious threat to habitat through fuel-wood collection, livestock grazing, quarrying and clearance for agriculture<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> and plantations </strong> (Jeganathan <em>et al.</em> 2008, Anon. 2010), and to the birds themselves through increased disturbance. Accidental and opportunistic trapping may also be an issue<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (Jeganathan <em>et al.</em> 2008, Anon. 2010). Suitable habitat for the species lying outside Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary was threatened by the proposed construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal in Cuddapah District<strong> </strong> (Jeganathan and Rahmani 2006); however, in 2008 the Supreme Court, having already halted construction work, approved a new route avoiding the remaining suitable habitat (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>. Despite this, the remaining habitat is still under threat due to the expected increase of agriculture around the reserve as a result of the construction of the canal (Jeganathan <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003184		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is locally nomadic (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) although few details are known about its movements (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It nests in solitary pairs (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) with breeding peaking in the dry season just before the rains (between August and December) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species occurs in pairs or small loose flocks of up to 10 individuals (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits open short-sward grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), dry savannas (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), fallow fields, overgrazed or burnt grasslands and pastures, bare or sparsely vegetated sandy or gravelly deserts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), stony areas dotted with small shrubs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of insects such as harvester termites <I>Hodotermes mossambicus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), larval Lepidoptera, beetles, weevils and ants (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), but it will also occasionally take seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The eggs are laid directly onto bare ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sometimes between grass tufts (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or on small cleared patches of soil ringed with pieces of dried plant material, animal droppings and small stones (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003184		threats	eng	The species is threatened in the south of its range by habitat degradation as a result of poor grazing practices (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and agricultural intensification (especially irrigation and the increased use of pesticides) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It is also threatened by disturbance from domestic livestock (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003187		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern populations of this species are fully migratory (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and many African populations are nomadic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests colonially in small groups of 10-20 or up to 100 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is highly gregarious throughout the year. <B>Habitat</B> The species breeds on flat open areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) with short or patchy vegetation (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) such as fields, steppe plains near water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) the margins of alkaline lakes and dried mudflats (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in Eurasia (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In Africa it frequents ploughed fields (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), recently burnt open ground, overgrazed grassland, alkaline flats and sandflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) usually along the edges of larger rivers and estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may also forage over water, in rice-fields or in coastal scrubland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occurring along coasts, at reservoirs or desert oases on migration (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of large insects (e.g. Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera and Isoptera), spiders and molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape or depression on the ground on dry mudflats and sandflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003187		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the use of herbicides and insecticides, and by changes to its preferred habitats (e.g. changes in water levels, ploughing of grasslands, artificial irrigation and fertilisation, changes in traditional grazing regimes, increasing urban encroachment and human disturbance) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003188		population	eng	In February 2004, 2.88 million birds were counted by aerial survey on 80 Mile Beach, north-western Australia, and were assumed to consistute the majority of the world population, thus a global estimate of 2.9-3 million individuals is applied here.
106003189		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. An international single species action plan has been published for this species (Belik and Lebedeva 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A national action plan for the stronghold country Kazakhstan is at the stage of preparation. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its population status and trends in Kazakhstan and Russia. Research population development on breeding and wintering grounds also by the means of a literature review (Belik and Lebedeva 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research breeding success and adult mortality. Target promotion of low-disturbance agriculture around nesting colonies, and manage grazing and other disturbance (Belik and Lebedeva 2004). Ensure development and implementation of appropriate regulations on pesticides and hunting in key range states (Belik and Lebedeva 2004). <p></p>
106003189		distribution	eng	<em>Glareola nordmanni</em> has a very large range, breeding in <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine </strong>and <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and sporadically in <strong>Belarus</strong>, <strong>Hungary and</strong> <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>. It migrates to southern Africa, mainly <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe, South Africa</strong> and <strong>Namibia</strong>, and irregularly to West Africa. It is now rarely recorded in West Africa, possibly indicating a dwindling 'sub-population' of breeding birds from south-east Europe that once wintered in larger numbers (Dodman 2002)<strong></strong>. Some birds winter in Ethiopia, as the observation of 5,000 birds at river Baro in January 1973 indicates (Ash 1977)<strong></strong>. Passage birds are regularly recorded in <strong>Cyprus</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Kuwait, Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong>, <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Sudan, South Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, west <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, west <strong>Zambia</strong> and <strong>Angola</strong>. Non-breeding birds are also recorded in <strong>Libya</strong>, <strong>Lesotho</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan </strong>(rarely (S. Sklyarenko <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>), <strong>Kyrgyzstan </strong>and <strong>Georgia</strong>. The population was estimated at 29,000-45,000 birds following country expert interviews during the Single Species Action Plan Workshop (Moscow, 2002) (Belik and Lebedeva 2004). However, this seems to be an underestimate and was probably based on incomplete coverage: the current breeding population has been estimated at 76,000 to 95,000 breeding pairs, based on five large scale surveys across the whole breeding range (Kamp <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. A flock of 250,000-800,000 birds in Orange Free State, <strong>South Africa</strong>, in 1991 (du Plessis 1995)<strong></strong> and a flock of 76,500 birds at Vaal Dam, South Africa, in 2006<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(University of Cape Town 2006)<strong></strong> support these substantially larger figures. Trends for the Asian population are poorly studied. There was a clear negative trend in eastern areas of the breeding range 1990-2000 going possibly along with a range contraction (e.g. Berezovikov 2002), but a slightly positive trend in some parts of South Asian Russia (Karyakin and Koslov 1999)<strong></strong>. At least since 2004, a positive trend has been observed in Akmola and Karaganda regions, Central Kazakhstan (J. Kamp <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. At least since 2000, numbers have been increasing in Pavlodar region, north-east Kazakhstan, with a 20-30% population increase between 1998 and 2007 (Kamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009; A. O Solomatin pers. comm.)<strong></strong>. This increase coincides with the massive increase of fallow and abandoned land in north-east Kazakhstan and European Russia. The European population (2,500-5,100 pairs or more, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) declined by over 50% during 1990-2000, with steep declines in European Russia (A. Mischenko <em>in litt</em>. 1999; Belik <em>et al</em>. 2000) and Ukraine (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. This trend is probably halted now, mainly due to greater availability of suitable habitat (Kamp <em>et al</em>. 2009). Surveys in 2006 of 65,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Stavropolskii Krai, south-east Russia found a total of 1,800 breeding pairs (L. Malovichko and M. Koshkin <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> in an area where only 100-200 pairs were estimated in 2004 (Belik and Lebedeva 2004)<strong>. Recently, declines have been reported from the South African wintering grounds </strong>(Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. A count of 20,000 individuals in 2006 at Chagraiskoe reservoir, Manych, Stavropolskii Krai, south-west Russia represents one of the largest flocks in recent times recorded outside the wintering range (L. Malovichko and M. Koshkin <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is clear that additional survey work visiting suitable habitat is required, especially in Kazakhstan and Asiatic Russia, but available evidence does not indicate that the global population is small or declining rapidly.<em> <p></p></em>
106003189		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It nests in small to large colonies (5 to &gt;500 pairs, occasionally thousands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>) from May to July (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Birds gather to moult after breeding in July and August, and then apparently migrate rapidly overland at high altitude to non-breeding grounds (Belik and Lebedeva 2004;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Hayman <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>. They depart between August and early October (Belik and Lebedeva 2004;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Hayman <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>, and arrive on their wintering grounds in October-November (Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Migrating flocks of several thousand individuals have been recorded<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species is constantly nomadic (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Cramp and Simmons 1983) and highly congregatory, occurring regularly in flocks of 10-100<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and occasionally in foraging flocks of thousands<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1983), often in association with Collared Pratincoles <em>Glareola praticola </em>(Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It roosts at night in loose concentrations (Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The return migration begins in March, with birds arriving on the breeding grounds from the end of April through May <em></em>(Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on grazed short-grass steppe, fallow and ploughed fields as well as on alkaline flats, sandspits, shell ridges and sparsely vegetated <em>Solonchaks</em> (saltpans) in lake depressions and river valleys (Belik and Lebedeva 2004; Hayman <em>et al</em>. 1986; J. Kamp <em>et al</em>. in prep.;<em></em>Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Cramp and Simmons 1983). Large colonies always occur near water and damp meadows, or marshes overgrown with dense grass<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1983).  A study on habitat selection in Central Kazakhstan in 2006 revealed presence of livestock, vegetation height and the availability of water as key habitat features whereas vegetation type and topography had no influence (J. Kamp <em>et al</em>. (in prep.)<strong></strong>. Nonbreeding birds frequent open high-altitude glassland and mudflats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season it occupies seasonally wet grasslands, savannas, and sandbanks along large rivers (Belik and Lebedeva 2004; Hayman <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>. It is also found at the edges of salt pans<em></em> (Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005). <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on epigeic and airborne insects, particularly swarming species<em></em> (Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005). It takes locusts, orthopterans and coleopterans as well as wasps, bees, dragonflies, ants, termites, flies, ichneumons and cockroaches<em></em> (Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It responds quickly to insect emergence after storms<em></em> (Hockey <em>et al. </em>2005). <strong>Breeding site</strong> This species nests on open ground, usually near water<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1983). The nest consists of a shallow depression of about 10cm diameter lined with small pieces of available vegetation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mortality of eggs and chicks strongly fluctuates and may reach 60-100% annually (Belik and Lebedeva 2004). Recent quantitative data from Kazakhstan indicate higher fledging rates with a mean of 0.5 fledged chicks per nesting pair in 2006-2007 (Akmola, Karaganda and Pavlodar regions) (J. Kamp <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>.
106003189		population	eng	Survey work in Kazakhstan and subsequent re-calculation of bird numbers across the known range of the species would suggest a world population of 76,000-95,000 pairs, roughly equivalent to 220,000-290,000 individuals in total. This upward revision of breeding numbers is reasonable given the large flocks recently reported on the wintering grounds, e.g. a flock of 76,000 individuals recorded at Vaal Dam in South Africa on the wintering grounds.  An  even larger  flock of 250,000-800,000 individuals in Orange Free State in South Africa in 1991 suggests the population may be (or might have been) even larger.
106003189		threats	eng	Threats are poorly understood. Where declines are occurring the key factors probably relate to changing land-use practices such as conversion of steppe to arable agriculture in some areas (although much former agricultural land in Central Asia is now becoming fallow and grazed areas provide new breeding habitat), shifts in arable land versus livesto<span style="">ck grazing on semi-natural steppe in others, and agricultural operations, such as harrowing. A recent study in Kazakhstan by Kamp </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span><span style="">. (2009) reported that the species is largely dependent on the presence of large grazers and declines occurring from the end of the 19th century in Ukraine and European Russia have been associated with the increase in ploughed areas and the loss of grazed steppe (Kamp </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2009). Nest trampling by livestock might influence breeding success at the Kazakhstan strongholds (Kamp </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In some areas, predation by corvids may affect breeding success. In th</span>e wintering grounds, agricultural practices and grassland degradation may have reduced the area of available habitat, and locust control measures may also have negative impacts (Hockey and Douie 1995)<strong></strong> both in terms of loss of a food source and the impact of pesticides (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Whether regional climate change, as proved for Pavlodar region in northern Kazakhstan, affects the species negatively or positively, is largely unknown (A. O Solomatin pers. comm.)<strong></strong> but it is likely to influence distribution and abundance. <p></p>
106003190		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is found in a number of protected areas across Madagascar, although few of its breeding areas are protected (Dodman<em> </em>2008)<strong></strong>. No species-specific conservation action is in place. Counts in Kenya’s Tana Delta in 2011 add important information to the knowledge of the species and its reliance on critical sites.&#160;In 2011 a high level meeting resulted in the launch of the Tana Delta planning initiative, with the process to take place from 2011-2013 and the planned output to be a long-term strategic land use plan representing a 'truly sustainable' future to the Delta, informed by Strategic Environmental Assessment (RSPB 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study the species's population size and trend. Determine the status of the species in its non-breeding range in East Africa, and establish timings of occurrence and movements at key sites in the coastal belt between Mozambique and Somalia (Dodman<em> </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Investigate possible threats, including those in East Africa. Increase the area of habitat, particularly breeding habitat, that has protected status. <p></p>
106003190		distribution	eng	<em>Glareola ocularis</em> is a migratory species breeding in <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is found in groups of 10-50 in a variety of habitats across most of the country except the extreme south-west (Morris and Hawkins 1998, Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. Eastern Madagascar probably constitutes its main breeding range, whereas on the west coast it is most often observed as a migrant (Morris and Hawkins 1998, Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It migrates to East Africa during the austral winter (May-August) (Morris and Hawkins 1998, Langrand 1990)<strong> </strong>where it is mainly found near the coast between <strong>Somalia</strong> and <strong>Mozambique</strong>, although large numbers have sometimes been recorded from inland sites (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>. Several wintering sites are very important, holding several thousand birds (T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2003) - surveys in September 2010 found over 3,000 at the Tana River Delta, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya </span>(RSPB 2012) - whereas only two sites are known on Madagascar holding more than 100 individuals (T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>.  Its population is small, recently estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals, and thought to be declining or stable following a major decline (Wetlands International 2002, Dodman<em> </em>2008)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003190		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This is a gregarious, migratory species (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. On its breeding grounds it occurs in colonies of 10-50 birds (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>, and forages in groups of up to 150 (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It breeds mainly in eastern Madagascar from November to January, then moving west across the central highlands and assembling in large post-breeding groups on western rivers, before migrating to the East African coast where it is present from March to September (Delany <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). A flock of 9,000-10,000 was reported from the Kenyan coast in 1978 (Britton 1980, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) but no other congregations larger than c.3,000 individuals have been recorded . It returns to its breeding range in September (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It is known to breed in loose colonies on rocky islets in rivers, saltmarsh and coastal rocky areas (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It is also found in short grasslands and at the edges of lakes and rivers (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In its non-breeding range, it is generally found near to the coast in wetland areas, particularly lake shores, estuarine flats and sand bars, and coastal dunes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. It is also found in short grasslands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>, but rarely on exposed rocks (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds on insects, particularly Neuroptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>, which are often caught on the wing (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nests consists of a hollow in rock, lined with regurgitated insect exoskeletons (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003190		population	eng	The species's population has been estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2002), roughly equivalent to 3,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106003190		threats	eng	The species may be threatened by anthropogenic modification of its habitat, especially its breeding areas on the east coast of Madagascar. Changes to aquatic ecosystems in Madagascar may represent one of the biggest threats to this species's survival. The 130,000 ha Tana River Delta in Kenya, where over 3,000 individuals were counted in September 2010, is <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">threatened  by large-scale conversion for agriculture (food and biofuels),  including Kenyan based organisations wanting to establish huge sugar  cane  plantations on over 70,000 ha of land, companies from  Canada and the UK wanting to grow oil seed crops on over 60,000 ha,  possible  mining in the sand dunes and prospecting for oil and gas. <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">Kenya's  National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) approved these  projects after considering their Environmental Impact Assessments, and i<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">f they go ahead they will convert an area of over 110,000 ha<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">  into plantations (RSPB 2012).<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">&#160;The Dar es Salaam coast of Tanzania is unprotected and subject to a range of threats including pollution and habitat degradation caused by urbanisation and unplanned development, while the Sabaki River mouth in Kenya, and key sites in Somalia, are unprotected and heavily disturbed (Delany&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.&#160;</span>2009).&#160; <p></p></span></span>
106003191		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a intra-African migrant (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), undertaking post-breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998) seasonal movements in relation to water level changes (departing when an area becomes flooded (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) and arriving when bare rocks are exposed by drought (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005)). It breeds during the dry season (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998) in small, loose colonies of up to 26 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and often with many attendant non-breeders (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species is strongly gregarious even when not breeding (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998) and is commonly found in groups of 2-10 (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), sometimes gathering in flocks of more than 100 individuals prior to migration (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> </B>It is mainly crepuscular, foraging on the wing at dawn and dusk (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998). <B>Habitat</B> This species shows a preference for exposed emergent rocks in large rivers and streams (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998), sometimes also frequenting mud and sandbars by lagoons (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), dams and ponds on migration (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). When rivers flood it may move to coastal areas, or other inland waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998). <B>Diet</B> This species is insectivorous, its diet consisting chiefly of flies (including tsetse flies <I>Glossina</I>), ants, beetles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998), moths, grasshoppers, leaf cicadas and termite alates (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> Eggs are laid directly into shallow depressions, cracks, and on the flat tops of bare rocks (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998) surrounded by deep and sometimes fast-flowing water (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), or on rock ledges and under overhangings (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Most nests are found within a metre or two of the water level (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997).
106003191		threats	eng	This species is threatened by dam construction (Irwin 1981, Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005)as it is vulnerable to the fluctuating water levels of dammed rivers, and the loss of suitable habitat through the creation of lakes (Irwin 1981, Williams <I>et al.</I> 1989, Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Destruction of the species' riverine rocky habitat has occurred in southern Africa through extensive siltation of the southeastern lowveld rivers (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997). <B>Utilisation</B> Nestlings and eggs may be gathered for human use from breeding areas along the Zambezi River (Williams <I>et al.</I> 1989).
106003192		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant, dispersing during the rainy season to Lake Chad, small rivers and coastal estuaries when rivers flood (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds during the dry season in loose colonies, with nests a few metres apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is very gregarious when not breeding (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). It forages on the wing during the evening over water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), grassland or woodland (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> This species shows a preference for the sandbanks of large slow-flowing rivers (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and lakes in both forested and open country (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), but also frequents reservoirs and coastal habitats (occasionally mangroves and estuaries (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986)) in times of river flooding or high water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is insectivorous, its diet consisting of flies, beetles, small grasshoppers and spiders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape in the sand of a sandbar or on shingle (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), usually within 100 m of water (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986).
106003192		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 11,000-35,000 individuals, roughly equating to 7,300-23,000 mature individuals.
106003192		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat destruction through the building of dams (the creation of Lake Volta in Ghana removed much suitable habitat and caused an exodus of the species from the country) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is also subject to human disturbance (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003195		distribution	eng	The Great Skua breeds in <B>Iceland</B>, <B>Norway</B>, Svalbard (to Norway), the <B>Faroe Islands </B>(<B>to Denmark</B>), the Scottish islands and a few on mainland <B>Scotland</B>. It is a migratory species, normally wintering off the Atlantic coast of <B>France</B> and the Iberian Peninsulas, but juveniles can reach as far as <B>Cape Verde</B>, the coast of <B>Brazil</B>, areas of the Carribean and small numbers also winter on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland (<B>Canada</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003195		habitat	eng	This marine species avoids land during migration and winter, aggregating in winter in areas where it can scavenge from fisheries. It has a hugely varied diet owing to be being a highly opportunistic feeder. Individuals reguarly show individual specialisations in diet and feeding with some colony-specific learning. Breeding begins in May, and it is loosely colonial but highly territorial, breeding on islands on flat ground with some vegetation cover, usually avoiding human contact. Most birds breed within 1 km of their birth place (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003195		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 16,000-16,000 breeding pairs, equating to 48,000-48,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106003196		distribution	eng	The Southern Skua is found on the <strong>Falkland Islands </strong>(<strong>Islas Malvinas</strong>) on in south-east <strong>Argentina</strong>, wintering off south-east South America (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003196		habitat	eng	This marine species is found on or around subantarctic islands populated by burrow-nesting seabirds or penguins. It is highly predatory, feeding mainly on other birds but will also scavenge around fishing boats and ships and feed at sea. Breeding begins in October and November. Birds are loosely colonial but highly territorial, nesting on grass, gravel or bare rock (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003197		distribution	eng	The Brown Skua is found on the Antarctic Peninsula and subantarctic islands of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, wintering near or slightly dispersed from the breeding area (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003197		habitat	eng	This marine species is found on or around subantarctic islands populated by burrow-nesting seabirds or penguins. It is highly predatory, feeding mainly on other birds but will also scavenge around fishing boats and ships and feed at sea. Breeding begins in October and November. Birds are loosely colonial but highly territorial, nesting on grass, gravel or bare rock. Individuals at some northern colonies are resident throughout the year, but will disperse over the sea where conditions are harsher (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003197		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106003198		distribution	eng	This predatory species ranges from central <B>Peru</B> round Tierra del Fuego to north <B>Argentina</B>, breeding from central <B>Chile</B> to the southern tip of Argentina (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003198		habitat	eng	The Chilean Skua is a marine species occuring especially in channels and straits of coastal South America. It breeds on islands and remote mainland coastal areas. Breeding begins in November, with individuals forming colonies of high densities (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003199		distribution	eng	The South Polar Skua breeds throughout the Antarctic coast, especially in the Ross Sea rea. It undergoes a transequatorial migration, wintering as far north as Alaska (<B>USA</B>) and <B>Greenland</B> (<B>to Denmark</B>).  </P>
106003199		habitat	eng	The South Polar Skua breeds on relatively snow-free areas in Antartica (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It is usually reliant on fish (Pietz 1987), with predation on penguins being of variable importance (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It can, however, subside exclusively on penguins where a breeding colony is associated to a penguin rookery (Trillmich 1978, Young and Miller 1999). It is a trans-equatorial migrant, wintering in the North Pacific and North Atlantic (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003199		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106003200		distribution	eng	The Pomarine Jaeger breeds in the far north of Eurasia and North America. It is a transequatorial migrant, mostly wintering between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn and along the coastlines of <B>Australia</B> and <B>Argentina<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003200		habitat	eng	This species is marine outside the breeding season, remaining somewhat coastal, especially in upwelling regions of the tropics and subtropics. Whilst breeding it specialises on catching lemmings which frequently constitute over 90% of their diet, also feeding on young waders and gamebirds, bird eggs, carrion. In winter it takes fish, sometimes by kleptoparasitism, small seabirds, and scavenges on carrion. Breeding begins in June at scattered sites across the tundra where lemming concentrations are high. Individuals are highly territorial. Outside the breeding season it migrates south including long migrations over land (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003200		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number c.20,000-50,000 breeding pairs,   equating to c.60,000-150,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the   global population size is c.250,000-3,000,000 individuals, although further   validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include:   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.50-10,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003201		distribution	eng	The Parasitic Jaeger breeds on the northernmost coasts of Eurasia and North America. It is a transequatorial migrant, wintering on the southern tips of South America (as far north as <B>Peru</B> and <B>Argentina</B>), Africa (as far north as <B>South Africa</B> and <B>Angola</B>), and on the coasts of <B>Australia</B> and <B>New Zealand</B>, excluding the northern half of Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003201		habitat	eng	This marine species is predominately coastal but will migrate over land. Most or all of its food will be obtained by kleptoparasitism when nesting near other seabird colonies, otherwise its diet can include microtine rodents, adult and fledgling passerines, wader chicks, birds eggs, insects and berries. Breeding begins in May or June, occuring later in the north then the south. It is either colonial at seabird sites or widely scattered accross the tundra where it is territorial (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003201		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number c.40,000-140,000 breeding pairs, equating to c.120,000-420,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is c.500,000-10,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003202		distribution	eng	This species breeds in the high Arctic of Eurasia and North America, and has a circumpolar winter distribution in the Southern Oceans (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003202		habitat	eng	This species is marine and highly pelagic, rarely occuring within sight of land except when breeding. It feeds mainly on lemmings during the summer but will also take shrews, many insects, berries and small birds when microtines are scarce. Its winter diet is largely unknown, but probably includes marine insects and fish with some scavenging and kleptoparasitism. Breeding begins in June with birds widely scattered over the Arctic and subarctic or montane tundra, up to 1300 m in Scandinavia. It is highly territorial (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003202		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number c.12,000-78,000 breeding pairs,   equating to c.36,000-234,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the   global population size is c.150,000-5,000,000 individuals, although further   validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106003204		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No actions targeted at this species are known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify population status and trends by monitoring breeding populations annually and assessing breeding success. Conduct public awareness campaign regarding  its conservation needs, both through ecotourism to areas such as the Okavango delta, and through local grassroots environmental education (Tyler and Stone 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003204		distribution	eng	<em>Rynchops flavirostris</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, but is largely confined when breeding to large, dry sandbars in broad rivers and some lakes, below 1,800 m (Coppinger <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is less restricted in the non-breeding season, dispersing to rivers, lakes and coasts in countries as widespread as <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong> and <strong>Botswana</strong>. Large concentrations (including breeding birds) occur along the Zambezi River (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, e.g. 1,428 individuals (Coppinger <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and non-breeding flocks of at least 1,000 individuals have been recorded in <strong>Tanzania</strong> and <strong>Kenya</strong>. The population is estimated to number 15,000-25,000 birds (with 7,000-13,000 in West and Central Africa and 8,000-12,000 in East Africa and <strong>South Africa</strong>) (T. Dodman 2002 <em>in litt</em>. to Wetlands International 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the species is thought to be declining (Zusi 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003204		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species migrates up and down larger rivers, and to and from inland lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, dispersing widely after the breeding season (Tyler 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Migration is driven by the need for calm weather (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place during the dry season when rivers are at their lowest and sandbars most exposed (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This generally occurs from March to June in West and East Africa, and mainly from July to November south of the equator (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Nigeria the species disperses up to 600km from its breeding sites in June - August (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, moving mainly downstream (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It returns in November or December, coinciding with the onset of strong winds in its non-breeding areas (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in small colonies of up to 50 pairs (Tyler 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season larger flocks are formed, sometimes of up to 1500 birds (Tyler 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species requires expanses of calm water for feeding (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds along broad rivers on large, dry sandbars that are largely free from vegetation (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It sometimes breeds on sandy lake shores, and very occasionally on sandy sea shores (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season it is more commonly found at lakes (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986) and also frequents coastal lagoons, salt-pans, open marshes and estuaries (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is less common along coasts (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Vagrant birds may use swamps and artificial habitats such as sewage ponds and dams (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on fish, such as cichlids (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, foraging exclusively in the fashion characteristic of the family Rynchopidae, namely by skimming the water in flight with its mouth open and lower mandible submerged (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>Eggs are laid in an unlined scrape in the sand (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Scrapes occurs within 2-14m of one another (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986) and are initially created within 30m of the water (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, though falling water levels may increase this distance (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The clutch-size is two or three, rarely four, and the incubation period is c.21 days followed by a fledging period of about four weeks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003204		population	eng	There are 7,000-13,000 in West and Central Africa and 8,000-12,000 in East Africa and South Africa (T. Dodman <I>in litt.</I> 2002), giving a total of 15,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 10,000-17,000 mature individuals.
106003204		threats	eng	Dam-building has flooded some upstream areas and reduced downstream flows, destroying suitable habitat (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Coppinger <em>et al.</em> 1988, Ginn <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong></strong>. Farming practices have also caused siltation of many rivers, raising river levels and swamping breeding islands (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Ginn <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong></strong>. Egg-collecting, trapping of adults and general disturbance by humans, cattle and recently increased boat traffic can be serious problems in some areas (Britton 1980, Coppinger <em>et al.</em> 1988, Tyler and Stone 2000)<strong></strong>. Disruption by recreational fishermen may impact breeding colonies in the Okavango Panhandle, and local fishermen have been reported using chicks as bait (Vial 1995; cited in Hancock 2008). Food supplies may have been reduced by pollution, overfishing and introduced predatory fish, but it is unclear whether this has affected its prey of small fry (fish) (Tyler and Stone 2000)<strong></strong>. Large-scale spraying of DDT and general water pollution may result in toxic bioaccumulation of pollutants in these piscivores (Coppinger <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003206		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in National Chambal Sanctuary, India. Narora, in Uttar Pradesh, has been declared a Ramsar site (Siddiqui et al. 2007). Active management has reduced key threats at some wetland sites.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in Myanmar, Bangladesh and Cambodia to clarify its current distribution and status. Organise a population census in India and Pakistan during the breeding season. Conduct detailed research into seasonal movements of non-resident populations. Campaign for strict protection of the National Chambal Sanctuary, with particular reference to the maintenance of high water levels during the breeding season. Promote active management of static wetlands used as feeding areas. Promote strict control of pesticide use near important sites. Research and mitigate threats at important breeding colonies. Campaign for increased representation of large waterways in protected-area systems. Carry out awareness-raising activities (Siddiqui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), perhaps targeting certain stretches of river. Consider persuading some farmers to abandon islands along certain stretches of river (Siddiqui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In some areas, use physical barriers and people to prevent access to river islands by other people and unwanted animals (Siddiqui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106003206		distribution	eng	<em>Rynchops albicollis</em> is confined to <strong>Pakistan</strong> and <strong>India,</strong> north of c.16°N, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, where a large proportion of the population winters, principally in the Padma-Meghna delta, and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. It is a rare visitor to <strong>Nepal</strong>. It was formerly widely distributed across the Indian Subcontinent, along the major rivers of Myanmar and along the Mekong in Indo-China. It was common in the 19th century in Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, but there are very few recent records from Myanmar (Sundar 2004)<strong></strong> and none from Laos, Cambodia or Vietnam. It has declined in India and Pakistan. Its population is estimated at 6,000-10,000 mature individuals. <p></p>
106003206		habitat	eng	It occurs primarily on larger, sandy, lowland rivers, around lakes and adjacent marshes and, in the non-breeding season, estuaries and coasts. It breeds colonially on large, exposed sand-bars and islands.<p></p>
106003206		population	eng	The population was estimated to number 10,000 individuals by Perennou <em>et al.</em> (1994), but BirdLife International (2001) considered that it may well have fallen below this level given the evidence of declines throughout its range. The Asian Waterbird Census recorded 5,542 in 2001 (Li and Mundkur 2004). S. Balachandran (<em>in litt.</em> 2005) estimated the Indian population to be 2,500 individuals. Its total poulation is estimated at 6,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 4,000-6,700 mature individuals.
106003206		threats	eng	Its decline is attributable to widespread increases in human disturbance, exploitation and degradation of rivers and lakes through fishing, transportation, domestic use, irrigation schemes and pollution from agricultural and industrial chemicals. These factors have reduced reproductive and foraging success. The population stronghold at National Chambal Sanctuary, Utter Pradesh (India) has been badly affected by the damming of the Chambal River in upstream Rajastan, resulting in dropping water levels and allowing predators and livestock to access breeding islands (Sundar 2004)<strong></strong>. Water release from dams and seasonal floods can destroy breeding colonies. Encroachment of vegetation, especially the invasive water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, is an increasing problem at lakes and reservoirs. House Crows <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus splendens</span>, which have been witnessed to decimate at least one breeding colony, are attracted to human settlements, cultivation and areas of food waste and animal carcass disposal, activities that also encourage the presence of stray and domestic dogs (Siddiqui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106003207		distribution	eng	This species is known from colonies around the coasts of southern <B>Chile</B> and <B>Argentina</B>, Tierra de Fuego, and the Falklands Islands (<B>Islas Malvinas</B>). Colonies are numerous along the South American coast, but tend to be very small, rarely exceeding 200 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In Argentina, the total population has been estimated at c.700 pairs. On the Falklands, there are 3,000-6,000 pairs which are widely distributed in small colonies (Woods and Woods 1997).  </P>
106003207		habitat	eng	This species can be found on rocky coasts, feeding mainly on carrion, offal, bird eggs and chicks, but will also take marine invertebrates and other natural food. It scavenges around marine mammals for dead fish, placentae and particularly faeces. It exploits human intrusion into colonies by preying on unguarded eggs and chicks. It probes seaweed, captures swarming beach flies and will pick mussels which are then dropped onto rocks. It does not frequent rubbish dumps but will sometimes feed at sewage outlets. Colony attendance begins in September laying highly asynchronous broods. Colonies are small, with a maximum of 210 pairs recorded, and can be found on low sea cliffs, sand or gravel beaches, marshy depressions or headlands, usually in the vicinity of seabird colonies, marine mammals, slaughterhouses, sewers or farmyards (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003207		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-28,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-19,000 mature individuals.
106003207		threats	eng	Cats, rats, mink Mustela vison and Patagonian fox Dusicyan culpaeus have been introduced to the Falklands, but their effect on L. scoresbii is not known (Croxall et al. 1984). Habitat destruction and modification due to introduced rabbits and stock may have had some effect on the distribution on the species. Chiloe Island, an important breeding site for the species in Chile, is heavily populated and many aquaculture farms have been established inshore and along shorelines (Duffy et al. 1984).
106003208		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <B>Australia</B>. The subspecies pacificus breeds in Tasmania, on many Bass Strait islands and westward along the Victorian coast from Wilson's Promontory to the South Australian border. The subspecies georgii is found on the coasts of south-western Western Australia and western South Australia. Its range has expanded in recent years northwards along the Western Australian coast (Wetlands International 2006).
106003208		habitat	eng	As with other coastal species, L. pacificus is prone to disturbance both while breeding and feeding. Most nest sites are protected, however, by their inaccessibility, and the species has proved adaptable in exploiting new food sources provided by urbanisation (Garnett and Crowley 2000). It has a diverse diet including fish, squid, intertidal molluscs, echinoderms and crabs, fish offal, carrion and refuse. Breeding occurs between September and January, either in small and open colonies or solitary (del Hoyo et al. 1996).<B>
106003209		distribution	eng	The Band-tailed Gull is found along the Pacific coast of South America, from <B>Ecuador</B> to central <B>Chile</B>, breeding primarily from northern Chile to north <B>Peru<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003209		habitat	eng	This species occurs on rocky shores and inshore on guano islands. It feeds on fish, crabs, shellfish and carrion, as well as seabird eggs and young which are important in the breeding season. It feeds along beaches and around bird colonies, scavenging in the intertidal zone. Breeding begins in December in scattered, usually small colonies (100 pairs). It nests in hollows among rocks or on sand on the shore close to the high tide line (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003209		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003210		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. All colonies in southern Buenos Aires, except the largest one, Isla del Puerto, are included in two protected areas: the Bahía Blanca, Falsa and Verde Nature Reserve and the Bahía San Blas Nature Reserve. The colonies in southern Chubut have recently gained legal protection due to the designation of a new marine protected area in northern Golfo San Jorge, the Parque Interjurisdiccional Marino Costero Patagonia Austral. In winter, it has been recorded in numerous reserves<strong> </strong>(Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In early December 2008 600 fledglings were colour-ringed by Aves Argentinas at Bahia Blanca, southern Buenos Aires province, with any sightings to be reported to Aves Argentinas to understand movement patterns (BirdLife International 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Given the frequent change in colony location of the species, develop comprehensive and simultaneous surveys throughout the breeding range during the same breeding season so as to obtain a correct estimation of the total breeding population (Yorio <em>et al</em>. 2005). Monitor the population<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1997). Enlarge the Bahía Blanca, Falsa and Verde Nature Reserve to include the colony at Isla del Puerto (Yorio <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Integrate management plans and actions through formal cooperative programmes<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1999). Work with oil companies and governments to improve and enforce anti-pollution regulations<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1999). Develop joint conservation actions between Argentina and Uruguay within the current framework of international agreements (Yorio <em>et al</em>. 2005). Evaluate natural and human related factors which may contribute to the observed changes between seasons in the use of colony sites (Yorio <em>et al</em>. 2005). Promote studies on the effects of pollution on Olrog's gull populations in southern Buenos Aires (Yorio <em>et al</em>. 2005). Implement monitoring programmes for the expanding Kelp Gull population and studies of behavioural interactions with Olrog's Gull (García Borboroglu and Yorio 2007b). Include non-breeding areas in conservation strategies, for example by creating areas to protect the species at the important Mar Chiquita, Buenos Aires province (Berón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p>
106003210		distribution	eng	<em>Larus atlanticus</em> breeds on the coast of <strong>Argentina</strong> between 38º49' and 45°11'S<strong></strong> (Yorio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It has been recorded breeding at eighteen coastal locations <span class="msoDel"> in the Bahía Blanca estuary and Bahía Anegada, south Buenos Aires, and north of Golfo San Jorge, Chubut<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1997, Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>P Yorio, P. García Borboroglu, and P. Petracci, unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. The number of recorded colonies in each year has varied as it often changes breeding locations between years<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1997<strong>, </strong>García Borboroglu and Yorio 2007, P Yorio, P. García Borboroglu, and P. Petracci, unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. Over 98% of the total breeding population nests in south Buenos Aires province and 50-70% is concentrated in the Bahía Blanca estuary (P Yorio and P. García Borboroglu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), an area subject to growing human development (disturbance and pollution). In winter, the species disperses north, reaching <strong>Uruguay</strong><strong> </strong>(Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and <strong>Brazil</strong> (Dias and Maurício 1998, Pacheco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) recorded at eight localities in Rio Grande do Sul, mostly around Lagoa dos Patos (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 2009), with one inland record in Córdoba<strong> </strong>(Yzurieta 1995). Also recently sighted for the first time in Santa Catarina, thereby extending its range 380km beyond Rio Grande do Sul, its previous most northerly location (Pacheco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Previously considered a vagrant to Brazil, it is currently considered a regular visitor in April-August (Pacheco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The world population has been estimated at 4,800-7,800 pairs<strong></strong> (P Yorio, P. García Borboroglu, and P. Petracci, unpubl. data, 2012). Recent data reporting 3,800 active nests in 2005 indicate the population may be larger than previously thought and may exceed 10,000 individuals (R. Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009). Radio telemetry indicates strong site fidelity in non-breeding areas (Berón <em>et al.</em> 2007).<p></p>
106003210		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Olrog's Gull is a coastal species with a restricted range in south eastern South America.  It is one of the few globally threatened <em>Larus</em> species. It is a specialist predator, feeding mainly on crabs, which may be the result of interference competition with the larger and behaviourally dominant Kelp Gull (<em>Larus dominicanus</em>)<strong></strong> (Delhey <em>et al. </em>2001b). Olrog's Gull is spatially associated with the Kelp Gull throughout its breeding range<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al</em>. 1997). <strong>Habitat</strong> It breeds on flat islands on bare ground or close to low vegetation, and close to the high tide line<strong></strong> (García Borboroglu and Yorio 2007a), and frequents beaches, rocky coasts, harbours, coastal and brackish lagoons and estuaries. Eggs are laid in September-October and chicks fledge in November or December. <strong>Diet</strong> The species depends mainly on three crab species (<em>Neohelice granulata</em>, <em>Cyrtograpsus altimanus</em> and <em>C. angulatus</em>) during the breeding season<strong></strong> (Delhey <em>et al.</em> 2001, Herrera <em>et al</em>. 2005, Suárez, <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). During incubation <span style="font-style: italic;">N. granulata </span>predominated in the diet (&gt;90%) with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. altimus</span> a minor component (&lt;2% of crabs taken). However, during young chick rearing this was reversed, with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. altimus</span> forming the bulk of diet (&lt;10% v. 60%, respectively) (Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). During the winter, varunid crabs remain the main prey (proportionally made up of 70% <span style="font-style: italic;">N. granulata</span> and 30% <em>C. angulatus</em>) (Berón and Favero 2010), but it also shows a more opportunistic feeding ecology consuming molluscs, snails, small fish, insects, garbage and fish discards<strong> </strong>(Spivak and Sanchez 1992, Martinez <em>et al</em>. 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Silva Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. At Isla Felipe, diet analysis showed that <em>Cyrtograpsus altimanus</em> contributed 76.1% of the diet and <em>C. angulatus</em> contributed 21.7% (Herrera <em>et al</em>. 2005). At Mar Chiquita Lagoon during the non-breeding season, grapsid crabs were by far the main prey in frequency of occurrence, followed by fish and snails<strong></strong> (Copello and Favero 2001). Some differences in diet were found between ages, particularly in spring when mature birds start to feed on the eggs of ovigerous females of <em>Cyrtograpsus angulatus</em>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>At Golfo San Jorge, Argentina, breeding Olrog's Gulls fed almost exclusively within the inlet<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004). Feeding grounds were located up to 7 km from the colony, but 85% of mapped locations were within 3 km of the colony, near the mouth of the inlet<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004). The birds were consistent in the use of one particular area, and most birds foraged mainly in one or two areas<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004). Gulls foraged only within the Caleta Malaspina, in an area of less than 35 sq km, and foraged at all states of the tide, although they were more likely to forage during mid and low tides<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004). Non-breeding birds also show strong foraging site fidelity<strong> </strong>(Beron <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species has a small foraging range, defined by the spatial extension of intertidal habitats<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004). Since crabs are their main prey, particularly during the breeding season, they are dependent on intertidal areas with grapsid crabs<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al</em>. 2000). Olrog's Gulls usually forage on open mudflats or along muddy intertidal areas with loose rocks and algae<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004), although it has also been observed to feed along a rocky shore where the presence of crabs was confirmed<strong> </strong>(Yorio <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Argentina, it was observed to forage in crab-bed patches and beaches where sport-fishing activities usually took place<strong> </strong>(Beron <em>et al.</em> 2007). Individuals occasionally moved up to 4 km south to a village where they might also take advantage of rocky intertidal pools available along the shore<strong> </strong>(Beron <em>et al.</em> 2007). At Mar del Plata harbour, Argentina, the species has frequently been observed to associate with commercial fishing activities<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al</em>. 2000). Similarly, in Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon, juveniles have often been observed making use of sport-fishing by-products<strong></strong> (Copello and Favero 2001, Berón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <p></p>
106003210		population	eng	A count of 2,806 nests (8,418 individuals) was recorded in the Isla del Puerto colony in 2003. P. M. Yorio <em>in litt. </em>(2005) estimated 3,500 pairs in total, equating to 7,000 mature individuals and 10,500 individuals.
106003210		threats	eng	The Bahía Blanca estuary is subject to intense human pressure from urban development, industry, agriculture, recreation, fishing, and pollution<strong></strong> with lead and other heavy metals found in tissue samples in 2007<strong></strong> (García Borboroglu and Yorio 2007a, Saggese <em>et al.</em> 2009). Human disturbance is thought to be an important factor in the low reproductive success of the species through destruction of nests and killing of chicks (Berón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Bahía Anegada is subject to recreational activities, artisanal fishing and ranching activites, and eggs at the colonies near Bahía San Blas are occasionally harvested (Yorio <em>et al</em>. 2005). Sports fisheries affect non-breeding birds in winter (Berón <em>et al</em>. 2005). They have frequently been observed associating with commercial fisheries at Mar del Plata harbour and are threatened by injestions of discarded hooks or entanglement with lines and nylon bags (Berón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<p></p>
106003211		distribution	eng	The Black-tailed Gull is found in east Asia, specifically the coasts of eastern <B>China</B>, <B>Japan</B>, <B>North Korea</B>,<B> South Korea</B> and Sakhalin, <B>Russia<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003211		habitat	eng	This species is found on coasts, and in bays and estuaries. Its diet varies locally and annually, but includes small fish, crustaceans, insects, offal, molluscs and polychaetes. It often follows fishing boats and can be a kleptoparasite. Colonies form mid-April on sandy or rocky seashores, sea cliffs and rocky islets. Many colonies hold over 10,000 pairs. Post-breeding it moves to areas rich in food (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003211		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China;   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in   Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003212		distribution	eng	The Grey Gull breeds in the extremely arid Atacama Desert in northern <B>Chile</B> and is present as a non-breeding visitor throughout most of the Chilean coast, excluding the south, and the coast of <B>Peru</B> and <B>Ecuador<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003212		habitat	eng	This species feeds mainly and sometimes exclusively on mole crabs, but will also feed on fish, nereid worms and offal. It will also scavenge in harbours and follow fishing boats. Its breeding season ranges from November to January, breeding in the barren montane Atacama Desert between 35 and 100 km inland. It nests is a scrape in the sand, usually near rocks, but does not breed in years with a severe occurence of El Nino (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003213		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to take active measures to protect breeding populations on islands, particularly Isla Rasa. Monitor population trends at breeding sites, particularly in response to climatic change or fluctuation. <p></p>
106003213		distribution	eng	<em>Larus heermanni</em> has a population of 525,000 individuals (Kushlan <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, 90% of which nest on Isla Rasa, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). There are 150 pairs on George Island, 1,500 on Cholluda (Burger and Gochfeld 1996)<strong></strong>, 4,000 on Cardonosa and 200 on San Il de Fonso (E. Velarde <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, with breeding south to Nayarit and islas San Benito and San Roque, and sporadically north to California, <strong>USA</strong> (Everett and Anderson 1991, Burger and Gochfeld 1996). Post-breeding dispersal occurs commonly to central California, USA, and in smaller numbers north to British Columbia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, and south to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala </span>(Burger and Gochfeld 1996)<strong></strong>. Numbers on Isla Rasa are similar to estimates in the late 1960s, but there have been significant fluctuations with a low of 55,000 pairs in 1975 (Burger and Gochfeld 1996)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106003213		habitat	eng	This coastal species breeds very synchronously and often at high densities (up to 110 nests/100m<sup>2</sup>) on remote rocky coasts and islets (Velarde 1992, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds largely within inshore waters and in the littoral zone.  <p></p>
106003213		population	eng	Kushlan<em> et al</em>. (2002) <p></p>
106003213		threats	eng	Population fluctuations are probably caused by the effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation (compounded by over-fishing) on prey abundance and consequently breeding success, and even adult survival (Velarde <em>et al.</em> 1994, E. Velarde <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Velarde 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, fluctuations are considerably less than one order of magnitude and therefore the species is not even close to qualifying as threatened for this reason. The occupied breeding range is very small, but Isla Rasa was declared a sanctuary in 1964 (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is currently very well-managed during the breeding season by resident biologists, who discourage egg-collecting and disturbance (E. Velarde <em>in litt.</em> 1998, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003214		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends. Control the harvest of eggs and chicks. Prevent the introduction of mammalian predators to breeding colonies and control them where this has taken place. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil-spills. Enforce measures to control disturbance. Ensure the majority of breeding colonies are protected. <p></p>
106003214		distribution	eng	<em>Larus leucophthalmus</em> breeds colonially on inshore islands and islets in the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, in <strong>Egypt</strong> (2,500 pairs [Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mainly on islands at the mouth of the Gulf of Suez [Baha El Din 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Sudan</strong> (300-1,000 pairs [Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Eritrea</strong> (1,400 adults in the Dahlak Archipelago in 1962), <strong>Djibouti</strong> (600-700 pairs [Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> (more than 1,500 pairs [Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Yemen</strong> (at least 3,900 pairs [Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>) and <strong>Somalia</strong> (1,200-2,200 pairs [Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003]<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>), with wintering birds dispersing throughout the breeding range. The total population is estimated as 12,000-13,000 breeding pairs (36,000-39,000 individuals) (PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, excluding Eritrea, equating to 37,000-44,000 individuals overall (Shobrak <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; it is believed to be stable (Rose and Scott 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003214		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mostly sedentary (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, although it disperses from its breeding sites to occur throughout the Red Sea during the non-breeding season (Olsen and Larsson 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There may also be some southward and eastward movement during this time, when it is reported to become scarce in the northern part of its range (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place during the months of June - August, extending to September in Egypt (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds in loose colonies, usually consisting of fewer than 25 pairs, though occasionally larger colonies of hundreds of individuals are known to occur (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season it is usually found in small groups, but sometimes forms flocks of hundreds or even thousands to forage (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>The species is mainly coastal. It usually feeds at sea (PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but some Egyptian populations have adopted a scavenging role at rubbish tips and harbours (S. Baha El Din verbally to A. Grieve 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> Breeding </em>It breeds on inshore islands, where it occupies bare rock and sand flats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> Non-breeding</em> Outside the breeding season it often occurs further out to sea (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It roosts on rocks, coral reefs, piers and fishing vessels (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet consists largely of fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, annelids and offal (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fish species taken in Egypt include <em>Scarpus </em>species about 110mm in length (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also feeds on fruits and plants such as <em>Nitraria retusa<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></em><strong></strong>(Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986),<em> </em>and is known to predate the eggs and nestlings of the Lesser Crested Tern <em>Sterna bengalensis</em><strong> </strong>(Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986). It scavenges in the northern part of its range, but to a lesser extent than does <em>L. hemprichii</em> with which it often associates (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding Site </strong>Nests occur on bare rock, sand or exposed flats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On sandy substrates the nest consists of a conspicuous ring of twigs, seaweed and debris (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On rocky islands it consists of a small pad of vegetable matter beside rocks (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may alternatively consist of a scrape among impenetrable <em>Euphorbia </em>clumps (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays two or three eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003214		population	eng	PERSGA/GEF (2003) estimated 12,000-13,000 breeding pairs (36,000-39,000 individuals), excluding Eritrea, equating to 37,000-44,000 individuals overall.
106003214		threats	eng	There are a variety of potential threats, against which it is not secure. It is permanently at serious risk from introduced predators on the breeding islands (e.g. rats) and from floating and beached oil-spills (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is also under pressure from egg- and chick-collecting (especially in Somalia [Ash and Miskell 1998, PERSGA/GEF 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), disturbance by fishermen and tourists (and related building) and oil exploration (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is known to be affected by West Nile virus (Rappole and Hubálek 2003).<strong><sup></sup></strong> <p></p>
106003215		distribution	eng	The Sooty Gull can be found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, east to south <B>Pakistan</B> and south to northern <B>Kenya</B> (Kiunga Islands) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003215		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a partial migrant or nomad (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), most populations undergoing southern post-breeding dispersal movements (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) in September-November (Olsen and Larsson 2003). Some populations may also be sedentary (many remain in the Red Sea area all year round) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species breeds in the Summer (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) (usually between April and October) (Olsen and Larsson 2003), and usually nests colonially (e.g. in small loose colonies on the larger islands in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), or occasionally solitarily (e.g. in Africa) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) with 1-3 pairs per island (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) often amidst colonies of other species (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It usually forages alone, but is highly gregarious at times (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits coasts and inshore islands and is hardly ever seen inland (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) or at freshwater (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It is found at harbours and ports, and forages inshore, in intertidal zones (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), and up to 10 km beyond reefs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), rarely extending up to 140 km offshore (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It nests on coastal or inshore coral islands preferring smaller outer islands of old coral that are sparsely vegetated, rocky and sandy, preferably protected from the ocean by live reef (Cramp and Simmons 1983). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists mainly of dead fish and fishermen's offal, as well as tern eggs and chicks (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), the eggs of White-eyed Gull <I>Larus leucophthalmus</I> (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), turtle hatchlings (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), prawns and small fish (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It poses a threat to other species as it is a serious local predator of eggs and chicks in colonies of other seabirds (Gallagher <I>et al.</I> 1984). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a scrape or depression in bare coral (Kenya) (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), under mangrove bushes on a bed of leaves, under <I>Suaeda</I> bushes in loose sand (Somalia) (Cramp and Simmons 1983, Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), or under low hanging coral (Red Sea) (Cramp and Simmons 1983, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) on exposed promontories (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species usually nests colonially but is more of a solitary nester in Africa, with pairs spaced as far apart as possible (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986).
106003215		threats	eng	This species is threatened by oil exploration (e.g. pollution from future oil spills (Cooper <I>et al</I>. 1984, Gallagher <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Javed <I>et al.</I> 2005), future land reclamation for oil prospecting in the Gulf region (Javed <I>et al.</I> 2005), and disturbance to breeding birds from future oil drilling in Tanzania) (Cooper <I>et al</I>. 1984). It is also threatened by human exploitation, in particular egg collection (Cooper <I>et al</I>. 1984) from nesting colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003216		distribution	eng	The Mew Gull breeds in northern Europe, northern Asia and north-west North America. Most populations, except those in <strong>Iceland</strong>, around the North and Baltic Sea, and some off the coast of <strong>Canada</strong> migrate south. This expands its range to include the Pacific coast of North America down to Baja California (<strong>Mexico</strong>), the Pacific coast of Asia down to northern <strong>Vietnam</strong>, the Atlantic coasts of <strong>France</strong> and <strong>Portugal</strong>, the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, the entire coasts of the Black Sea and Persian Gulf, and the south coast of the Caspian Sea (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003216		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It breeds from May onwards in solitary pairs or in single- and mixed-species colonies of up to 300 pairs (Flint <em>et al. 1</em>984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or more (e.g. 1,000 pairs in Baltic region (Snow and Perrins 1998))<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, foraging in flocks of up to one hundred or more individuals during the winter, flock sizes depending upon the habitat and conditions (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds along the coast (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> and inland (Flint <em>et al</em>. 1984, Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) in a variety of sites not necessarily close to wetlands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. On the coast it nests on grassy and rocky cliff-ledges (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, grassy slopes (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, inshore rocky islets, islands and stacks (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, and on sand and shingle beaches, banks and dunes (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> amongst tide-wrack or flood debris (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Inland the species nests on small islands in freshwater and saline lakes (Flint <em>et al</em>. 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, shingle bars or small islets in streams or rivers (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, islets, artificial structures and shores of artificial waterbodies with short, sparse vegetation (Skorka <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and on bogs (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, marshes (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, meadows (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and grass or heather moorland near small pools (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or lakes (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. After the young fledge the species often disperses to coasts, tidal estuaries, agricultural land and reservoirs<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season it occupies similar habitats to when it is breeding, although it may occur more frequently along the coast during this period (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on estuaries with low salinities, sandy beaches and estuarine mudflats (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of  earthworms, insects, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. planktonic crustaceans (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, crayfish and molluscs (Flint <em>et al</em>. 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and small fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. During the spring the species will also take agricultural grain (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> and often scavanges (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup of vegetation placed on grass, rock, sand, shingle, earth or floating and marshy vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> in a variety of coastal and inland locations (Flint <em>et al</em>. 1984, Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may also nest off the ground on artificial structures, in nest-boxes and in trees (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species may benefit from the removal of introduced predators such as American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> from small breeding islands (Nordstrom <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has been known to nest on artificial rafts intended to encourage other species (e.g. Common Tern <em>Sterna hirundo</em>) to breed (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003216		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.2,500,000-3,700,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003216		threats	eng	<em>Breeding</em> In north and west Europe the species is threatened at breeding colonies by predation from introduced ground predators such as American mink <em>Neovison vison </em>(Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and by disturbance from tourism, angling and research activities during the laying period (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Inland populations breeding in colonies near rivers are also vulnerable to mass outbreaks of black flies (Simuliidae) (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by the transformation and loss of its breeding habitats through land reclamation, drainage, afforestation (e.g. with conifers) and dam construction (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species is potentially threatened by the activities of fisheries (e.g. reductions in fishing effort, increases in net mesh sizes and exploitation of formerly non-commercial fish species) and their effects on competition for prey resources (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other threats to wintering sites include land reclamation and drainage (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Egg collecting from in colonies occurs in Germany, Scotland, the Russian Federation and Poland, and the species is shot in the Russian Federation (Bukacinski and Bukacinska 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003217		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. A European action plan was published in 1996. The ecology of this species, particularly its breeding and foraging behaviour and demography and population dynamics, has been extensively studied. Lebanon prepared an action plan to restore the breeding population back to Palm Islands Nature reserve. Several LIFE Nature projects have been implemented between 1992 and 2006 in Spain and Italy, contributing to successful recolonisation of breeding islands and development of safe line-fishing techniques. Control of invasive black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> has been effective at some colonies (<strong></strong>Jones <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Culling of Yellow-legged Gulls <span style="font-style: italic;">Larus michehellis</span> was conducted from 2000 to 2009 on Alborán Island, Spain, and demonstrated immediate local benefits (Paracuellos and Nevado 2010). However, even in small, remote colonies, culling needs to be continuous to avoid a return to the original situation (Paracuellos and Nevado 2010).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor breeding colonies. Identify appropriate actions to mitigate against the key threats. Implement strict fishery management policies in the species's range. Increase the area of suitable coastal habitat that is protected from development and degradation. Enforce laws designed to minimise marine pollution. Implement measures to reduce mortality in fishing gear, perhaps facilitated by legislation. Ensure regulation of the river Ebro benefits the species.  <p></p>
106003217		distribution	eng	<em>Larus audouinii</em> breeds in (all data for pairs) <strong>Spain</strong> (19,517 [Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008]<strong></strong>), mainly the Chafarinas Islands and the Ebro Delta with the latter holding 67% of the global population<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (14,177 in 2007 [Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008])<strong></strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong> (100-600), <strong>Greece</strong> (300-500 (D. Portolou <em>in litt.</em> 2010), and Sardinia and Tuscan Archipelago, <strong>Italy</strong> (1,019 [N. Baccetti <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008]), with smaller colonies in <strong>Portugal </strong>(11 [Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008]), Corsica, <strong>France</strong> (84 in 2009 [Recorbet and Culioli 2009]<strong></strong>), <strong>Cyprus</strong> (c. 32 [Charalambidou and Gücel 2008]<strong></strong>), islets and rocks in the southern Adriatic Sea near Korcula and Peljesac Peninsula, <strong>Croatia </strong>(65 in 5 colonies [Rubinic and Vrezec 2000]), <strong>Turkey</strong> (60-90 [G. Eken <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>), <strong>Tunisia</strong> (70-115) and <strong>Morocco</strong> (50-300). It winters on the coast of North and West Africa from <strong>Libya</strong> west to Morocco and south to <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong> and <strong>Gabon </strong>(Sanpera <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and there is a small wintering population in the east Mediterranean along the Aegean coast of Turkey. The global population has been estimated at 21,161 pairs (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008), and a recent assessment estimated the European population (encompassing over 90% of the global population) to be stable or increasing throughout (Barov and Derhé 2011). This represents a significant increase from an estimated population of 1,000 pairs in 1975 and is thought to be a result of the increased availability mainly of effectively protected areas during the 1980s, and secondly of discarded fish from the trawlers, particularly around the Ebro Delta (Criado 1997)<strong></strong> where the colony has grown rapidly since 1981 (Guitiérrez and Guinart 2008). The large expansion of <em>Larus audouinii </em>in the western Mediterranean has probably caused the breeding population in other parts of the Mediterranean to increase and new colonies have been found in Croatia and even out of the Mediterranean in southern Portugal (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2004; Onmus 2006). Nevertheless more than 90% of the European breeding population occurs at just four sites<strong> </strong>and only a single site (the Ebro Delta) held 67% of the global breeding numbers in 2007. Recruitment can be extremely rapid when food availability is high, resulting in high population growth rates (Tavecchia <em>et al</em>. 2007; Oro and Pradel 2000). It is a long-lived species with high adult survival and relatively low fertility. Adult annual survival is estimated at 0.95 (Tavecchia <em>et al</em>. 2007; Oro <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2004)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong><em> <p></p></em>
106003217		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Audouin's Gull is a medium sized gull largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It is partially migratory and dispersive (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It breeds in large monospecific colonies ranging from 10 up to 10,000 pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> at a density of up to 1 nest/ sq. m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>. Egg-laying takes place in the second half of April until the beginning of May, and peak hatching occurs in late May (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, with fledging mainly in the first two weeks of July. It has a large foraging range while breeding, and has been recorded up to 200 km from the colony (Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. After breeding the birds disperse widely around the Mediterranean coast (Sanpera <em>et al</em>. 2007<strong></strong>; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Almost all juveniles and some adults migrate past Gibraltar during July-October (Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong></strong>, peaking in August (Guitiérrez and Guinart 2008), to winter on the North African coast (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. During the winter it roosts in flocks of several thousand (Olsen and Larsson 2003). It returns to its breeding sites between late February and mid April (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. First year birds remain in the non-breeding range throughout the summer (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>, while most third-summer birds attend the breeding colony as non-breeders (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008). Second-summer birds migrate to the Mediterranean but do not join the colony, instead forming large gatherings, often far from colonies (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008).  Very high colony-site fidelity is probably related to previous breeding success. However, in the Aegean Islands, birds return to the same "island group" but not necessarily to the same islet. At the Ebro Delta, Spain, c.1,400 breeders disperse to other colonies every year, generating marked fluctuations at those sites (Tavecchia <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The Audouin's Gull is one of the few species of Larid to show nocturnal foraging patterns, which may be linked to fisheries activities; arrivals and departures from the Ebro Delta colony are in accordance with the trawling timetable (Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. The species scavenges around fishing vessels, and uses discards extensively and very efficiently (Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species's association with fisheries is more pronounced in the western than in the central and eastern Mediterranean (<strong></strong>Pedrocchi <em>et al.</em>2002)<strong></strong>. A trawler moratorium off the Ebro Delta established in 1991 reduced food availability to birds and impacted breeding success, possibly by increasing foraging ranges (<strong></strong>Arcos and Oro 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Colonies are located on exposed rocky cliffs and on offshore islands or islets (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>, normally not more than 50 m above sea level (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>. The Ebro delta colony is located on saltmarsh and a sandy peninsula<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong></strong>. In the Aegean it breeds on uninhabited islands sloping gently to the sea and covered with large stones, eryngo <em>Eryngium</em>, grass and low bushes of <em>Pistacia lentiscus</em> (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>. Characteristics of habitats used differ from region to region and even within the same areas in different years: altitude ranges from close to sea-level to 100 m, vegetation cover from bare rocks to 85% bush cover, and slope from 0-90<sup>o</sup>. Medium vegetation cover is preferred, and this probably provides chicks with shelter from heat and predators. The concentration of breeding colonies in the western Mediterranean is possibly related to the lower water salinity and higher abundance of clupeids. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season the species prefers sheltered bays, either flat and shingly, sandy or with cliffed margins (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>. It sometimes visits seaside resorts and marinas lured by food, and it especially likes areas on beaches where freshwater occurs, such as stream mouths or floods (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>. It is a coastal species, rarely occurring inland and generally not travelling far offshore (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>This species was historically thought to feed far out to sea, but more recent observations show that it feeds regularly along the coast. The diet consists mostly of epipelagic fish, especially Clupeiformes, for which it sometimes forages at night, taking advantage of its prey's diel migration patterns<strong> </strong>(Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004) and of commercial fishing by purse-seine netting (<strong></strong>Pedrocchi <em>et al.</em>2002)<strong></strong>. It is also known to take some aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, small birds and plant material such as the peanut <em>Arachis</em>, olive <em>Olea</em>, and grain (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>. The Ebro delta colony feeds largely on fish waste dumped by boats fishing nearby (<strong></strong>Oro and Martínez-Vilalta 1992)<strong></strong>. The species is also known to feed on food discarded at tourist beaches (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>, and during a moratorium on trawling, it was found to forage in marshes, rice fields and occasionally at refuse tips (Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. They began to exploit the introduced North American Red Swamp Crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkia</span>, which are abundant in rice fields around the delta (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008). Hence Ebro Delta birds have developed from being mainly pelagic foragers to more coastal-foraging, even scavenging species (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008). The fishing mortatorium was relaxed in 2000 during the birds breeding season, and as discards became available, so the population was boosted once again (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008). Diet during the breeding season has been found to vary between colonies due to fishing practices that target different species in the respective areas (<strong></strong>Pedrocchi <em>et al.</em>2002).<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nests is a shallow scrape lined with available debris and vegetation (Cramp and Simmons 1983)<strong></strong>. It is placed among rocks and vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Foraging range</strong> During the non-breeding season, surveys in Morocco found birds no further than 46 km from the coast (Hoogendoorn and Mackrill 1987)<strong></strong>, and generally &lt;40 km from the colony seems to be the norm<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. However, the maximum recorded foraging range from a colony was 160 km<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Mañosa <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. In recent years, some birds have remained at the Ebro Delta colony over-winter, with an average of c. 90 birds during 1996-2008, but occasionally up to 300 birds (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008). The species primarily forages in coastal and continental shelf areas between 5 and 15 nautical miles (nm) offshore. A radius of 15 nm from the Ebro Delta would ensure the protection of 30% of the birds (or 30% of the foraging area). A 30 nm radius would protect 80% of birds. These distances could be reduced in colonies where the surrounding continental shelf is narrower (SEO/BirdLife <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). Juveniles tend to forage in upwelling zones, whereas subadults and adults are more independent of these sites (Martinez-Abrain et al 2002)<strong></strong>. It remains extremely rare along the northern coast of Spain (Gutiérrez and Guinart 2008).<p></p>
106003217		population	eng	Gutiérrez and Guinart (2008) reported a global population of 21,161 pairs. However, more recent figures point to a total of 21,300-22,300 pairs, of which 21,080-21,310 pairs are in Europe. The global population is therefore estimated to number 63,900-66,900 individuals (G. Eken <em>in litt.</em> 1999, N. Baccetti <em>in litt. </em>2008, D. Portolou <em>in litt.</em> 2010).
106003217		threats	eng	The trawling fishery off the Ebro Delta is regarded as unsustainable and its collapse would probably result in a decline in the breeding population due to the increase in density-dependence (Oro <em>et al</em>. 2004, Tavecchia <em>et al</em>. 2007, Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. A similar outcome would arise if waste from the trawlers were used industrially to produce food for domestic animals, as occurs in other areas, rather than being dumped near the Ebro colony. More important could be the reduction of small-pelagic fish stocks, the main natural prey for Audouin's Gull, due to increasingly high fishing pressure around the breeding grounds, owing partly to high demand by tuna-farming (Arcos <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Other important threats include coastal tourism developments, regulation of the river Ebro, mortality due to entanglement in fishing gear (mainly longlines and sporting lines) (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2003; Belda and Sánchez 2000), and predation by terrestrial predators, such as red fox <em>Vulpes vulpes</em>, badger <em>Meles meles </em>and domestic dogs (Tavecchia <em>et al</em>. 2007; Oro <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Predation by sympatric Yellow-legged Gull <em>L. michahellis </em>can be high at some breeding colonies, especially when densities of Audouin's Gulls are low (Bonaccorsi 2003; Travichon 2004; Oro <em>et al</em>. 2006; Paracuellos and Nevado 2010). Predation on chicks by black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>has a negative impact at some breeding colonies (<strong></strong>Jones <em>et al. </em>2008). Nevertheless Audouin's Gull shows a very nomadic breeding site selection and high dispersal rates from year to year, probably avoiding large densities of Yellow-legged Gulls (Oro and Matínez-Abraín 2007; Genovart <em>et al</em>. 2003; Martínez-Abraín <em>et al</em>. 2003). Peregrines <em>Falco peregrinus</em>, other raptors, some herons and snakes can also prey on adults and nests but only accidentally and locally (Oro 1997, 1996)<strong></strong>. Very high levels of mercury and other pollutants are found in this species (Sanpera <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, partly due to the consumption of discards (Arcos <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, thus posing a potential threat, although no negative effects have been demonstrated. Current marine wind-farm projects, particularly around the main breeding colony (Ebro Delta), could also represent a serious threat. Overgrazing of some islets by goats in the east of its breeding range may reduce breeding success. Natal and breeding dispersal are extremely high ensuring genetic mixing and buffering against bad local environmental conditions through emigration and colonisation (<strong></strong>Oro and Ruxton 2001; Oro <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003218		distribution	eng	The Ring-billed Gull breeds in the <B>USA</B> and <B>Canada</B> from in north California, east Washington and interior British Columbia, across the praire provinces, north mountains and plain states. Also from the Great Lakes east to the coast. It winters in the southern portion of its breeding range south to the Gulf Coast, <B>Mexico</B>, Central America, Greater and Lesser Antilles (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003218		habitat	eng	This species inhabites coasts, rivers, estuaries, reservoirs and rubbish dumps. It is a highly opportunistic feeder, owing to its varied diet including fish, insects, earthworms, refuse, offal, fiddler crabs, dates, fish eggs, grain, rodents and birds. It lays from late April to May, though this can be delayed in the north of its range due to snow cover. Colonies are often very large and found on low-lying islands in freshwater lakes, on wet meadows and rarely on rivers. Its large, bulky nests are usually built beside rocks, driftwood or vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003219		distribution	eng	The breeding range of this species in in western North America from Northwest Territories (<B>Canada</B>) south to eastern California and Colorado (<B>USA</B>). It winters in coastal regions from south-west Canada to south-west <B>Mexico<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003219		habitat	eng	This species can be found on a variety of habitats, including coasts, estuaries, bays, mudflats and fields, breeding in open habitats usually on low rocky islands in freshwater and hypersaline lakes. Its breeding season begins in early May, laying in April and May in colonies. It feeds on insects, grubs, the eggs and young of birds, rodents, rubbish, grain and berries (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003220		distribution	eng	This species can be found breeding on coasts from the extreme north-west of <B>Russia</B>, along Scandinavia, on Baltic Sea coasts, on the coasts of north-western <B>France</B>, the <B>United Kingdom</B> and <B>Ireland</B>, across the north Atlantic in <B>Iceland</B> and southern Greenland and on the Atlantic coasts of <B>Canada</B> and the <B>USA</B> down to North Carolina. Individuals breeding in harsher environments will migrate south, wintering on northern coasts of Europe from the Baltic Sea to southern <B>Portugal</B>, and down North America as far south as the Carribean (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).<B>
106003220		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The migratory movements of this species vary throughout its range, with high Arctic breeders migrating south for the winter but southern breeders only dispersing short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The breeding season starts from early-April or mid-May with the species nesting in solitary pairs amidst colonies of other species or in small mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of up to 50-100 individuals (Richards 1990) (e.g. with Herring Gull <I>Larus argentatus</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in favourable locations (Richards 1990). The autumn migration occurs between July and November (peaking October-November) and the return migration to the breeding grounds occurs between March and April (Olsen and Larsson 2003). Outside of the breeding season the species is largely gregarious (Olsen and Larsson 2003). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits rocky or sandy coasts, estuaries and inshore and offshore waters, breeding on vegetated islands, dunes, flat-topped stacks, rocky shores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), flat beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998) and islands in saltmarsh (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also breed on undisturbed inland sites including islets in large freshwater lakes and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), fields and open moorland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous and opportunistic, its diet consisting of fish, adult and young birds, birds eggs, mammals (e.g. rabbits, lemmings, rats and mice), insects, marine invertebrates (e.g. molluscs), carrion and refuse (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup constructed from grass, moss and seaweed and is positioned on sand, grass or bare rock substrates on vegetated islands, rocky ridges and outcrops, dunes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), flat beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998) and islands in saltmarsh among scrub (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also nest in undisturbed inland sites such as islets in large freshwater lakes and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), fields and open moorland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> The breeding densities of this species in the Baltic Sea were unaffected by the removal of the introduced nest predator American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> from small offshore breeding islands (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2003). The species is considered to be a threat to other bird species due to its predatory and opportunistic diet (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003220		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for sport in Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006).
106003221		distribution	eng	The Kelp Gull breeds on coasts and islands through much of the southern hemisphere. It is found on a number of subantarctic islands, on the Antarctic peninsula, on the southern coast of <B>Australia</B> and all of <B>New Zealand</B>, on the southern cost of Africa and <B>Madagascar</B>, and on the coast of South America as far north as <B>Ecuador</B> and southern <B>Brazil<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003221		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Although this species is largely sedentary some southern populations migrate north after the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds between late-September and January (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) in colonies of up to several hundred pairs (occasionally nesting solitarily) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and remains gregarious outside of the breeding season (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits sheltered coastal (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) harbours, bays, inlets, estuaries, beaches and rocky shores (Higgins and Davies 1996), usually foraging within 10 km of the shore but also following fishing boats beyond the continental shelf (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may forage and roost in near-coastal inland habitats including lagoons (Higgins and Davies 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), lakes, swampy basins, rivers, streams (Higgins and Davies 1996), reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), pastures (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), cultivated land, tussock grassland, scrubland and cleared areas in pine plantations (Higgins and Davies 1996). It often also forages around abattoirs, fish- or seafood-factories and at sewage outfalls (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species will form breeding colonies in a number of locations including headlands (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sea cliffs (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), rocky outcrops, stacks (Higgins and Davies 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), offshore islands (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), low sandy, pebbly or rocky beaches, spits or islands (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in estuaries and lagoons (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), on reefs, peninsulas, mudflats, sandbanks (Higgins and Davies 1996) and occasionally on the roofs of coastal buildings or in salt and sewage works (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Locally (e.g. in New Zealand) it may also breed inland on flat rocky mountaintops near permanent water (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of molluscs (e.g. mussels, cuttlefish <I>Sepia</I> spp. and terrestrial snails), echinoderms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), sponges (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), arthropods (e.g. swarming termites, crabs, isopods, amphipods) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), macrozooplankton (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), fish, worms, reptiles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. snakes) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. frogs) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), small mammals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and berries (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species also scavenges refuse, sewage and carrion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a bulky structure of dried plants or seaweed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) placed on bare rock, sand or mud substrates (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in well-vegetated sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (with grasses, sedge, rushes and other herbaceous plants) (Higgins and Davies 1996) at the base of bushes, trees, rocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), walls (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or other vertical structures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding habitats include headlands (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sea cliffs (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), rocky outcrops, stacks (Higgins and Davies 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), offshore islands (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), reefs, peninsulas, mudflats, sandbanks (Higgins and Davies 1996), the roofs of coastal buildings, salt and sewage works, guano platforms, shipwrecks (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and above the high water mark on low sandy, pebbly or rocky beaches (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), spits or islands (Higgins and Davies 1996) in estuaries and lagoons (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Locally (e.g. in New Zealand) it may also breed inland on flat rocky mountaintops near permanent water (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Management information</B> Attaching high-visibility plastic cones to trawler warp cables can significantly reduce the mortality and bycatch of this species due to trawler fisheries (Gonzalez-Zevallos <I>et al.</I> 2007).<B></B>
106003221		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 3,300,000-4,300,000 individuals.
106003221		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by future marine oil spills (Parsons and Underhill 2005), and is susceptible to avian cholera (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Leotta <I>et al.</I> 2006) and avian botulism (Blaker 1967, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. The species also suffers mortality from interactions with trawler warp cables (Argentina) (Gonzalez-Zevallos <I>et al.</I> 2007).
106003222		distribution	eng	This species ranges from northern <B>Mexico</B> in the Gulf of California and on the western coast of Baja California, up the Pacific coast of North America to Alaska, across the Aleutian Islands (<B>USA</B>) to the northern coast of <B>Japan</B>. Its breeding range begins on the coast of Washington (USA), through <B>Canada</B> and Alaska to the Commander Islands (<B>Russia</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1996)
106003222		habitat	eng	This species can be found in coastal areas and over shelf waters. Its diet is comprised of fish, various marrine invertebrates, carrion, offal, bird eggs and small mammals, with the exact composition varying depending on locality. It uses a variety of feeding methods, including plunge-diving, diving from the surface and dropping shellfish on rocks. It arrives at breeding colonies between February and March, and will nest on a wide variety of substrates including rocky islands, cliffs, inland lakes, city parks and buildings. It is usually colonial but can be solitary. Some birds remain on their territories over winter, but others will migrate to the southern edges of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003222		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.570,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106003223		distribution	eng	The Western Gull is found on the Pacific coast of North America, ranging from Vancouver Island (<B>Canada</B>) to the southern tip of Baja California (<B>Mexico</B>), and breeding from north-west Washington (<B>USA</B>) to central Baja California (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003223		habitat	eng	This species is essentially confined to the coast, staying on a few kilometres inland. It has a very varied diet, including marine fish and invertebrates, eggs, chicks and adults of seabirds, carrion, spawning salmon, and it may attack and kill newborn seal pups. Some males may establish feeding territories in alcid or cormorant colonies feeding mainly by predation, piracy and scavenging, occupying the same territory year after year. It also drops shellfish on to rocks to break them. It lays from late April or early May, and later in the north, nesting on barren substrates in colonies on rocky islets with some herbaceous cover and gravelly beaches. Some populations are migratory whilst others are sedentary, and individuals tend to disperse depending on food availability (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003224		distribution	eng	The Yellow-footed Gull primarily found in the Gulf of California (<B>Mexico</B>) and rarely in southern California (<B>USA</B>), with some post-breeding dispersal north to the Salton Sea and south to Sonora (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003224		habitat	eng	This species is found on sandy and rocky islands usually with little or no vegetation. Its diet include fish, invertebrates, carcasses or marine mammals and offal. It can also take small seabirds and pelican eggs. Egg-laying begins in early April in colonies mostly under 100 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003225		distribution	eng	This species breeds in the Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Birds breeding in northern Europe and Asia tend to remain near the colony year-round. Breeders in North America migrate south, being found in the North Pacific from California (<B>USA</B>) round to the extreme south-east of <B>Russia</B>, off the western coast of North America down to Virginia, and the Atlantic coast of Europe down to Brittany, <B>France</B> including the <B>United Kingdom</B> and <B>Ireland<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003225		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species migrate southwards after breeding although some western Palearctic breeders remain on their breeding grounds throughout the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds from mid-May to mid-June (the timing depending on latitude and ice conditions) in solitary pairs or small colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), departing the breeding grounds from September to mid-October (Olsen and Larsson 2003). Outside of the breeding season the species is gregarious and occurs in small or large flocks, up to tens of thousands gathering where food is temporarily abundant (Snow and Perrins 1998) during the winter (e.g. at fishing harbours) (Olsen and Larsson 2003). <B>Habitat</B> It breeds on sea cliffs and inshore islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), particularly near human settlements and often near colonies of other gulls or geese (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also breed on islands in lakes near the coast (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) or on the edges of coastal lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998). Throughout the year the species forages over coasts, bays, harbours, inshore waters with sewage outfalls, the intertidal zone, land-fill sites, fishing wharves and large inland lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of fish, molluscs, Echinoderms, crustaceans, rodents, adult and young birds, eggs (especially of ducks, auks and shorebirds), insects, berries and carrion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a mound of seaweed and debris (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) usually placed on the edges of cliffs, rock pinnacles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), rocky outcrops (Snow and Perrins 1998), slopes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and occasionally on ice or snow (Snow and Perrins 1998).
106003225		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.340,000-2,400,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &gt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-1 million breeding   pairs and &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003225		threats	eng	The species is threatened by organohalogen pollution in its Arctic breeding range (Bustnes <I>et al.</I> 2004, Verreault <I>et al.</I> 2007) (there is evidence that organohalogen contaminants alter the species's basal metabolic rate (Verreault <I>et al.</I> 2007) and that organochlorines reduce the efficiency of its immune system (Bustnes <I>et al.</I> 2004)). In parts of its breeding range the species is also being displaced by Herring Gull <I>Larus argentatus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> First year birds are hunted in Greenland, mainly between August and November (Evans 1984).
106003226		distribution	eng	The Iceland Gull breeds in the Arctic regions of <strong>Canada</strong> and Greenland (to Denmark), and outside the breeding season can be found wintering in the northernmost states of the eastern <strong>USA</strong> as far inland as the great lakes, on <strong>Iceland</strong>, <strong>Ireland</strong>, the <strong>United Kingdom</strong>, the north coast of <strong>Norway</strong>, the southern tip of Scandinavia and the northern tip of <strong>Germany </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p>
106003226		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northernmost populations of this species are strongly migratory whereas others (e.g. in Greenland) only disperse locally along the coast after breeding (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds from mid-May to July (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in solitary pairs or in small single- or mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> of up to several hundred pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998).<strong><sup></sup> In late-July after breeding the species may move to coastal feeding areas, the departure from the breeding grounds occurring in August or September </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits rocky coasts and fjords with steep cliffs (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, offshore stacks and undisturbed low islands for nesting on<strong><sup></sup></strong>, also foraging in the intertidal zone (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. After breeding the species remains in similar habitats (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but often disperses to harbours, refuse tips, sewage outfalls and inland reservoirs, although it generally avoids freshwater habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. salmon <em>Salmo</em> spp., sprat <em>Sprattus</em> spp. and herring <em>Clupea</em> spp.) and marine invertebrates as well as bird eggs and chicks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) (especially of Black-legged Kittiwake <em>Rissa tridactyla</em>) (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, seeds and fruits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of dry grass, seaweed and moss on large, flat ledges<strong><sup></sup></strong> of steep coastal cliffs greater than 100-200 m in height (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or on offshore stacks or on the ground on undisturbed low coastal islands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003226		population	eng	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).
106003226		threats	eng	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is extensively hunted by local people in Greenland (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003227		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Preventative and control measures are frequently used against this species as it is regarded as a pest and a threat to many other colonial bird species (it usurps habitats and preys upon bird eggs and young), and also to airports (frequently causes collisions) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong>
106003227		distribution	eng	The Herring Gull breeds in most of <strong>Canada</strong> and Alaska, as well as the north-east <strong>USA</strong>, on the northern coastline of Europe including inland <strong>Iceland</strong>, <strong>Ireland</strong>, Scandinavia and the <strong>United Kingdom</strong>, and in the north of <strong>Russia</strong> from the centre to its eastern tip. Some populations winter further south, being found in much of the USA, <strong>Mexico</strong> and Central America, on the northern coasts of <strong>Spain</strong> and <strong>France</strong>, in much of <strong>Japan</strong> and on the south-eastern coast of <strong>China </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p>
106003227		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although populations in the south are nomadic or completely non-migratory (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds between mid-April and late-June (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in colonies of up to several thousand pairs, occasionally nesting solitarily or as single pairs on the edge of other seabird colonies (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious and gathers in large flocks in favoured sites (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Individuals show foraging site fidelity (Shamoun-Baranes and van Loon 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits coastal and near-coastal areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but may also forage inland on large lakes and reservoirs, fields and refuse dumps (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996).<strong><sup>  </sup>It has no specific breeding habitat </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but may show a preference for rocky shores with cliffs, outlying stacks or islets (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, otherwise nesting on rocky and grassy islands, sandy beaches (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, dunes (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, gravel bars, saltmarshes, rocky outcrops, buildings, claypits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, tundra with reeds or hummocks (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, swampy lowlands near lakes and on river islands (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When inland on migration the species also shows a preference for large river valleys (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species has a highly opportunistic diet and will exploit almost any superabundant source of food (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It takes fish, earthworms, crabs and other marine invertebrates (e.g. molluscs, starfish or marine worms), adult birds, bird eggs and young, rodents, insects (e.g. ants), berries and tubers (e.g. turnips) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also scavenges at refuse dumps, fishing wharves and sewage outfall zones and frequently follows fishing boats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hiippop and Wurm 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a depression in a mound of vegetation (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> placed on the ground, e.g. on a cliff ledge or roof, usually in the shelter of vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although Herring Gulls exploit refuse tips and farmland extensively all year round, their breeding distribution is extremely coastal compared to other Larus gulls (other than L. marinus) (Gibbons <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range</strong> The species shows increasing foraging distances later in the breeding period (Belant <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The feeding range has been variously reported as 35 km (for breeding herring gulls in a Dutch colony) (Spaans 1971)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 41 km (in Westphalia, Germany, outside the breeding season) (Sell and Vogt 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 50 km (for breeding birds in Morocco) (Witt <em>et al.</em> 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and 70 to 100 km (for herring gulls breeding in Denmark) (Klein 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Several other studies have reported shorter foraging distances (Andersson 1970, Verbeek 1977, Witt <em>et al.</em> 1981, Sibly and McCleery 1983, Cramp and Simmons 1983, Nogales <em>et al.</em> 1995, Pons and Migot 1995, BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Refuse tips are frequently exploited by foraging individuals (Sibly and McCleery 1983, Nogales <em>et al.</em> 1995, Pons and Migot 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and so the feeding distribution of some colonies will be determined by location of refuse dumps (BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the basis of a simple density model of birds at sea, it has been estimated that 95% of herring gulls breeding on Terschelling in the Dutch Wadden Sea foraged within 54 km of the colony (BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Radio-tracking of four gulls at an inland lake in Ontario indicated extreme specialisation in foraging patterns, with two of the gulls feeding within 1 km whereas two others took extended flights to destinations more than 30 km away (Morris and Black 1980, BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003227		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2.7-5.7 million individuals, including totals for <em>Larus heuglini</em>.
106003227		threats	eng	The species is threatened by coastal oil pollution (Gorski <em>et al.</em> 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in Denmark (Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006).<strong><sup></sup> </strong> <p></p>
106003229		distribution	eng	The Slaty-backed Gull breeds in north-east Siberia (<strong>Russia</strong>) from Cape Navarin south to the northern tip of <strong>North Korea</strong>, including the Commander Islands, Russia and Hokkaido, <strong>Japan</strong>. Its winter distribution extends south to encompass Korea, the extreme north-east of <strong>China</strong>, much of Japan and <strong>Taiwan </strong>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003229		habitat	eng	This species can be found over inshore coastal waters. Its diet varies year to year depending on availability, mainly consisting of fish and invertebrates (e.g. crabs, sea urchins) but also carrion, refuse, offal, bird eggs and chicks, voles and insects. Birds may also take fish and roe during salmon spawning, leftovers from bear-kills, berries, and waste from fisheries and slaughterhouses. Some Hokkaido males specialise on predation, piracy and scavenging from seabird colonies but they feed their chicks mostly on fish. Prey is obtained by a varied of methods including plunge-diving and surface-plunging. Birds arrive at breeding colonies in April in the south and June in the north. Colonies form on low sea cliffs, rocky islets, sandy shores or the rocky tops of sea cliffs and can number from dozens to 1500 pairs. Many populations are non-migratory (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003229		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.25,000-1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and  &gt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and  &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003231		distribution	eng	The Lesser Black-backed Gull breeds from the central-north of <B>Russia</B>, around Scandinavia, <B>Germany</B>, <B>Belgium</B>, the <B>Netherlands</B> and northern <B>United Kingdom</B> to <B>Iceland</B>. It also breeds year-round on the coast of <B>Portugal</B>, southern <B>Ireland,</B> the United Kingdom and northern <B>France</B>, and one seasonally breeding population is found in north-east <B>Spain</B>. Seasonal breeders disperse widely, expanding its range to include the entire North Sea coast, much of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea coasts, the northern and eastern coasts of Africa (including rivers inland), and around the Arabian Peninsula to north-west <B>India<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003231		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and travel in leapfrog-like stages (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), using many stopovers en-route (Olsen and Larsson 2003). The Autumn migration is started by the non-breeding birds in late-June, the breeding birds following from late-July to September (Olsen and Larsson 2003). The return migration takes place between February and late-June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), with the species arriving at breeding colonies from March onwards, and breeding from May or late-April to mid-June (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds colonially (Richards 1990, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), often with other gull species (especially Herring Gull <I>Larus argentatus</I>) (Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), in colonies ranging in size from a few pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998) to several tens of thousands (Richards 1990). Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, normally migrating singly or in small groups of less than 10 (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), and often feeding  in flocks of hundreds of individuals on rubbish dumps or over shoals of fish at sea (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998). It may also feed singly or in small groups (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). In its African wintering grounds the species may roost communally during the day on salt or fresh waterbodies (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986, Bustnes <I>et al.</I> 2006). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on coastal grassy slopes (flat and unbroken) (Richards 1990), sand-dunes (Richards 1990, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), cliffs (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), rocky offshore islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), saltmarshes (Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), and on inland habitats such as the margins of lakes (Richards 1990, Olsen and Larsson 2003), high moorland (Richards 1990, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), and islands in lakes and rivers (Olsen and Larsson 2003) . It shows a preference for well vegetated sites, with fairly close, short vegetation (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), and may forage on arable land, pasture land (Richards 1990), and on refuse dumps (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species chiefly inhabits inshore and offshore seas (Snow and Perrins 1998), as well as lagoons, estuaries, harbours and seashores in the tropics (Snow and Perrins 1998). It may also frequent inland habitats during this season, such as large lakes and rivers (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), in England preferring flooded gravel pits and reservoirs, canals, river weirs, flood-lands and sewage treatment areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). As in the breeding season it is often seen foraging on arable land, pasture land (Richards 1990), and on refuse dumps (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet </B>The species is an omnivorous, opportunistic feeder (BirdLife International 2000) that forages extensively at sea. Its diet consists of small fish (especially Baltic herring <I>Clupea harengus</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (e.g. beetles, flies and larvae, ants, moths (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), grasshoppers (Olsen and Larsson 2003), crustaceans, molluscs, segmented worms and starfish (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986)), bird eggs and nestlings, carrion, offal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), rodents, berries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and grain (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). It often follows fishing fleets, feeding on discarded bycatch (BirdLife International 2000). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest can be anything between a heap of grass, seaweed (Richards 1990), lichen, feathers (or other local materials) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and a simple sparsely-lined scrape (Richards 1990), that is usually positioned on open ground on a flat rock or a bare peat hag (Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004). The species breeds in colonies, showing a preference for level-ground (Hume and Pearson 1993, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) that is well covered with fairly close, short vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), often nesting under heather, bracken or other vegetation (Richards 1990) (sometimes under pine trees) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Suitable sites include flat, unbroken grassy slopes (Richards 1990), sand-dunes,<B></B>the tops and ledges of coastal cliffs (Richards 1990, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), rocky offshore islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), saltmarshes (Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), the margins of inland lakes (Richards 1990, Olsen and Larsson 2003), islands in lakes and rivers (Olsen and Larsson 2003), and high moorland (Richards 1990, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004), although the species will also nest on buildings and rooftops (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003231		threats	eng	Some populations of this species have significantly declined due to decreasing food availability caused by competition and predation from <I>Larus argentatus</I> and <I>Larus marinus</I> (Barcena <I>et al. </I>1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003) and by changes in fishing and refuse disposal practices (Olsen and Larsson 2003, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004) (e.g. closure of landfill sites and the covering of waste) (Barcena <I>et al. </I>1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003, Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004). Population declines may also have been aided by poisoning from organochloride pollution (Bustnes <I>et al.</I> 2006). Contamination from pesticides is no longer considered a likely threat (I. C. T. Nisbet<I> in litt</I>. 2010). Colonies have been culled in Britain and Ireland in order to protect other breeding seabirds (e.g. terns) from predation and competition (Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004). The species is exploited on its African wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), is hunted unsustainably in Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006), and is threatened by egg-collecting and general human disturbance on the Iberian Peninsula (Barcena <I>et al. </I>1984). Human disturbance occurs at wintering sites, caused by local people checking snare traps set to catch other species (Hario 2006). The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this disease (Mitchell <I>et al.</I> 2004).
106003232		distribution	eng	Pallas's Gull breeds in a few very small, scattered localities from the Black Sea (Crimea,<strong> Ukraine</strong>), east to Lake Balkhash (<strong>Kazakhstan</strong>) and spottily to north-west <strong>Mongolia</strong>, possibly also in northern <strong>China</strong> (Gansu and Qinghai) and Tibet. It wingers on the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Gulf of Persia, south Capsian Sea and north Indian Ocean to <strong>Myanmar </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). <p></p>
106003232		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although many immatures over-summer in the winter range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species begins to arrive in its breeding grounds from early-May; breeding from early-April in large colonies, usually of more than 10 pairs (often 150-300 [Snow and Perrins 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong> or exceptionally up to 3,000 pairs [del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) sometimes near, but not with, <em>Larus argentatus</em><strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It may also breed in single pairs, but never nests solitarily (it will always nest within a colony of other gull species) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species usually remains solitary or in small parties of 2-3 individuals (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it may roost gregariously, and will aggregate into large groups where fish are abundant (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on barren islands or islets in fresh and saline lakes, on inland seas in warm arid steppe, on rivers and river deltas<strong> </strong>where ample surface water is available, and on suitable mountain lakes up to 1,700 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong></strong>. It nests in reedbeds, in shrubby vegetation or on bare flat surfaces (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> After breeding the species shifts to fish-rich<strong><sup></sup></strong> sea-coasts (Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, wintering on beaches and in harbours (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During this season it may also occur inland on beaches (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> of major rivers<strong><sup></sup></strong>, lakes<strong><sup></sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or at fish ponds<strong><sup></sup></strong> and refuse dumps (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous although its diet is dominated by animal material (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It chiefly feeds on fish (particularly dead fish), crustaceans, insects and small mammals, less often taking birds and their eggs, reptiles, and seeds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It often flies long distances from colonies in the breeding season to feed aerially on swarms of insects (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, follows fishing boats and scavenges in harbours (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup></sup></strong> positioned in the open<strong></strong> on bare rock, among reeds or scrub vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or on vegetated sand-dunes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003232		threats	eng	This species is threatened by increasing predation from <em>Larus cachinnans</em> in its breeding range, and by nest predation by mammals (e.g. wild boar <em>Sus scrofa</em>) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also still persecuted in some regions due to its depredation on commercial fish, and colonies are often subject to flooding following storms (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003233		distribution	eng	The breeding range of the Brown-headed Gull is the mountains of south-central Asia from Turkestan in the west, south-west Gansu (<B>China</B>) in the east, and the Pamirs and Tibet in the south. It winters on the coast of <B>India</B>, northern <B>Sri Lanka</B> and south-east Asia, and sparingly to the west of India up to the Arabian Peninsula (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003233		habitat	eng	This species breeds on islands in large, cold high altitude lakes of varying salinity or in neighbouring marshes, frequenting coasts and rivers outside the breeding season which begins in May. Colonies form from 50 pairs up to several thousand. It feeds on fish, shrimps and offal when wintering, and has a large diet including rodents, sewage, grubs, slugs and earthworms during the breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003234		distribution	eng	This species can be found in South America on coastal <strong>Ecuador</strong> and <strong>Peru</strong>, and from central-eastern and coastal <strong>Brazil</strong> to <strong>Argentina</strong> and inland to <strong>Paraguay</strong> and Santa Fe (Argentina). It is also present throughout much off Africa, on coastal and inland south of the Sahara, including <strong>Madagascar<sup></sup></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p>
106003234		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are sedentary, although inland breeders will disperse short distances to the coast in the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong></strong>. The species breeds colonially (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>,  from April-May (before the rains) in Africa (Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and from early-May in South America (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It remains fairly gregarious outside of the breeding season (Langrand 1990, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is typically observed in pairs or small groups of 3-8 individuals (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or feeding in large flocks in harbours and at refuse dumps (Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species inhabits tropical and subtropical coasts, rocky offshore islands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, coastal dykes, coastal dunes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, estuaries (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and harbours (Africa) (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as large inland fresh and alkaline lakes (Africa) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, rivers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, salt-pans (Martin and Randall 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and marshes (Argentina) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species remains along the shores of coastal habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. rocky offshore islands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, coastal dykes, coastal dunes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and estuaries (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong></strong>) but also frequents settlements, cattle pens and fishing harbours (in Africa) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of fish (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, as well as invertebrates (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. insects, molluscs and termites (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)), the eggs of herons and cormorants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and dead fish and refuse obtained by scavenging (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The species breeds colonially, with nests often placed less than 1m apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are positioned on bare ground, in clumps of reeds and papyrus (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on islands (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or on floating vegetation (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, often camouflaged in tall, thick vegetation (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest itself varies from a shallow scrape to a well built cup of rushes and grasses (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> depending on location, although floating nests are always substantial (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003234		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (van Heerden 1974)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> There is evidence that chicks of this species are traded in traditional medicine shops (Brooke <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003235		distribution	eng	The King Gull is a non-migratory breeding resident endemic to the Atlantic Ocean coastline of <strong>South Africa</strong> and <strong>Namibia </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). <p></p>
106003235		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is predominantly sedentary (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although it may disperse short distances along the coast outside of the breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Information about the timing of breeding is conflicting, although it appears to vary geographically, with the species breeding in any month of the year in some areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds in colonies of 10-1,000 pairs (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, frequently with Greater Crested Terns <em>Sterna bergii</em> and other colonial species (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It remains gregarious outside of the breeding season, occurring in large groups (e.g. of 60 [Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong> to several hundred [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986]<strong><sup></sup></strong> individuals) that forage and roost together (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits coastal areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is rarely seen further than 20 km from land (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (usually observed within 3 km [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986])<strong></strong>. Suitable habitats include shallow inshore waters (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where water is less than 50 m deep, estuaries, lagoons (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, intertidal zones, beaches (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and harbours (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, also occurring on land at refuse dumps (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup>, </strong>abattoirs (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and sewage and salt works (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds on low, flat, rocky offshore islands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is strongly associated with kelp beds (a large part of its diet consists of invertebrates associated with stranded kelp [Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. kelp fly larvae, amphipods [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, molluscs and crustaceans [Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), especially those associated with stranded kelp (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as terrestrial insects (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, moths and ants [Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, small fish (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, earthworms (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the fruits of low-growing shrubs (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, offal and refuse (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species breeds colonially, with nests spaced 1-2 m (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suitable sites include low, flat, rocky offshore islands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and artificial structures (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> such as dykes in sewage lagoons and saltpans (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the roofs of buildings (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it does show a preference for bare or slightly vegetated ground (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. with beach halophytes [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, that are associated with sites of more substantial vegetation (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a slight hollow (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or a woven structure of plant stems (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> that is typically placed on rocky surfaces (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or occasionally in reedbeds (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or up to 20-50 cm high in densely-matted sclerophyllous shrubs (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106003235		threats	eng	The species is threatened by a high rate of breeding failure brought about by a number of man-made and natural causes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. For example storms (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and changing water levels in artificial breeding sites (Blaker 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong> may flood colonies, and abnormally high sea-surface temperatures may reduce food availability and lower reproductive succes (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Natural predators such as Kelp Gulls <em>Larus</em> <em>dominicanus</em>, African Sacred Ibises <em>Threskiornis aethiopicus</em> and Cattle Egrets <em>Bubulcus ibis</em> eat eggs, chicks and occasionally adults, and Greater Crested Terns <em>Sterna bergii</em> frequently displace incubating pairs, resulting in egg mortality (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990,  del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced predators on offshore islands such as mongooses (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Galerella</em> <em>pulverulentus </em>and yellow mongoose <em>Cynictis penicillata</em> [Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, domestic cat <em>Felis catus</em><strong> </strong>(Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005) and cape fox <em>Vulpes chama </em><strong></strong>(Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990) threaten breeding colonies (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and colonies near airports are often deliberately disturbed (by breaking eggs, collecting chicks and shooting adults) to reduce the threat of air strikes (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Blaker 1967, Williams <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <p></p>
106003236		distribution	eng	The Silver Gull breeds on much of the coast of <B>Australia</B> except the central-north, on Tasmania, <B>New Caledonia</B> (<B>to France</B>). During winter its range expands to encompass the central-northern coast of Australia, and inland Tasmania, central, south-west and south-east Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003236		habitat	eng	This species can be found at both coastal and inland locations in a variety of habitats including artificial habitats such as rubbish dumps. It has a very varied, opportunistic diet including fish, marine and terrestrial invertebrates, seeds, insects and bird eggs. Kleptoparasitism has been observed. It breeds on small islands and points, mainly offshore, but also on freshwater and brackish lakes, and on causeways in salt-pans. The breeding season covers all months, with the exact timing varying depending on locality and age. It is colonial and occasionally solitary, with smaller colonies in the tropics (3-25 pairs) up to 3000 pairs in southern Australia. Colony size depends on food availability. Individuals may wander widely outside the breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 1996).<B>
106003237		distribution	eng	The Red-billed Gull is native to <B>New Zealand</B>, being found throughout the mainland and on Stewart Island, Campbell Island, and the Chatham, Bounty, Snare and Auckland islands (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003237		habitat	eng	This species can be found on coasts, lakes, rubbish dumps, sewage outfalls, fishing piers, wet lawns and fields. It feeds mainly on euphausiid krill and other planktonic crustaceans in the breeding season, but also earthworms, insects and small fish. Outside the breeding season its diet is more variable, including fish, refuse and berries. It is also commonly a kleptoparasite. It begins nesting in July, laying between late September and December. Colonies can be very dense on the main islands, but small groups or even solitary birds are found on subantarctic islands, and can be found on rocky beaches, islands and stacks, and rarely on inland lakes. Almost all birds return to their natal colonies and retain mates from year to year. Birds returning early take large, central territories in the colony which are defended for a large period. After the breeding season most birds remain within 380 km of the colony, though juveniles may travel further (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003238		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Studies of breeding biology, movements and dispersal are being undertaken. Localised and nationwide counts are on-going. Habitat restoration and protection in the MacKenzie Basin is undertaken as part of Project River Recovery, including predator research and a public awareness campaign (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor key breeding populations. Initiate nest protection and trapping of introduced predators at key colonies. Initiate riverbed weed control if nesting habitat continues to be lost. Assess the possible impacts of further hydroelectric dam projects, and gravel and water extraction proposals (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003238		distribution	eng	<em>Larus bulleri</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The majority of the population (78%) breeds in Southland (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, mostly on the Mataura, Oreti, Aparima and Waiau rivers (Powlesland 1998)<strong></strong>. On the Oreti and Aparima, the number of breeding birds appears to have plummeted by as much as 90% in the last one to two decades (Powlesland 1998, Taylor 2000, McClellan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Upper Waitaki catchment populations declined between the 1960s and 1990s, with breeding colonies disappearing from six rivers (Maloney 1999)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys at one minor colony in the Hunter Valley, Otago, showed numbers had dropped from 581 in 1969 to just 12, with the same trend seen in the nearby Makarora catchment area (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Overall, Southland counts estimated a minimum of 57,000 pairs in 1985-1986 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, declining by c.40% to 33,500 pairs in 1996-1997 (Powlesland 1998)<strong></strong>. Its numbers and range continue to increase in the North Island, but these colonies are small and the increase does not offset the South Island declines (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. The most complete nationwide census was carried out in 1996-1997 (G. A. Taylor per R. Coumbe <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and counted 48,000 nests (Powlesland 1998)<strong></strong>. Some birds remain at colonies throughout the year, others move from inland breeding sites to the coasts (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003238		habitat	eng	In the South Island, it breeds mainly on braided river systems (Higgins and Davies 1996, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the North Island, it uses sand-spits, shellbanks, lake margins and riverflats (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It often roosts and feeds on farmland, and scavenges in urban areas where refuse is available (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has a varied diet of terrestrial, freshwater and marine invertebrates, fish and shellfish (Higgins and Davies 1996, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding can begin after two years (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but many individuals do not start until six years old, and adults may live over 30 years (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003238		population	eng	The most complete nationwide census was carried out in 1996-1997 (G. A. Taylor per R. Coumbe <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and counted 48,000 nests (Powlesland 1998)<strong></strong>, thus the number of mature individuals is estimated to be 96,000; however, more up-to-date survey data are required. <br/><p></p>
106003238		threats	eng	Brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> take eggs and chicks in the North Island. Remote video cameras have shown that mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp. and feral cats are major predators on South Island colonies, often taking hundreds of chicks in a season (Biswell 2006)<strong></strong>. Hedgehogs may also take eggs. The recreational use of riverbeds and coastal areas is increasing, causing greater disturbance of nesting colonies (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. River modification (including hydroelectric development, and water and gravel extraction) also has a significant impact. The spread of weeds is a major threat, reducing suitable nesting habitat on riverbeds (Maloney 1999, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003239		distribution	eng	This species is found in South America, breeding from south-central <B>Chile</B> round Tierra del Fuego to <B>Argentina</B> and <B>Uruguay</B> including the <B>Falkland Islands</B> (<B>Islas Malvinas</B>), and wintering up to the coasts of north Chile and central <B>Brazil<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003239		habitat	eng	This species is found on sea coasts, rivers, lakes and marshes, and will frequent sewage outfalls, slaughter-houses, harbours and fields. It is largely insectivorous, but in Chile breeding birds feed mainly on fish. Breeding is sometimes solitary, but usually in colonies of 5-50 nests and occaisionally over 500 nests. It breeds mainly on freshwater or alkaline lakes, but also on rocky peninsulas or high on shingle beachges (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003240		distribution	eng	The Black-headed Gull breeds in north-east North America and across much of Europe and Asia, excluding the north of each continent (northern Scandinavia and north Russia), and south Asia. Some populations in North America and the milder areas of Europe are resident, with the remaining populations wintering to the south over a large range, encompassing much of the southern coast of Asia and Europe, and the central and northern coast of Africa (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003240		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are strongly migratory although populations at lower latitudes tend to be sedentary or locally dispersive (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds between April and May (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in dense colonies of up to several thousand pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> often with other gull or tern species (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It generally remains gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may roost in large flocks during the winter (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species chiefly breeds inland and shows a preference for shallow, calm (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, temporarily flooded wetland habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with lush vegetation (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forms nesting colonies on the margins of lakes (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, lagoons (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, slow-flowing rivers, deltas, estuaries (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and on tussocky marshes (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but may also nest on the upper zones of saltmarshes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, coastal dunes and offshore islands in more coastal areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species will also utilise artificial sites such as sewage ponds, gravel- and clay-pits, ponds, canals and floodlands (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may nest on the dry ground of heather moors, sand-dunes, beaches (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and stony islets (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species is most common in coastal habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and tidal inshore waters, showing a preference for inlets or estuaries with sandy or muddy beaches, and generally avoiding rocky or exposed coastlines (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also occur inland during this season, frequenting ploughed fields, moist grasslands, urban parks, sewage farms, refuse tips, reservoirs, ponds and ornamental waters (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and roosts on sandy and gravel sites or on inland reservoirs (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic and terrestrial insects, earthworms and marine invertebrates (e.g. molluscs, crustaceans and marine worms) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> although it may also take fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (usually dead or sick) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, rodents (e.g. voles) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and agricultural grain (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species may rely heavily on artificial food sources provided by man, especially in Western Europe (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and often scavenges from refuse tips during this period (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a rough construction of vegetation (Richards 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> based on a shallow scrape (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and placed on a floating mat, in broken reeds, on a hummock, or sometimes on dry, grassy or sandy ground (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species shows a strong preference for nesting near vegetation (although vegetation overgrowth can lead to the desertion of colony sites) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It usually nests in dense colonies with neighbouring nests placed an average of 1 m apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003240		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.4,800,000-8,900,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &gt;   c.1,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in   China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &gt; c.1,000   wintering individuals in Korea; &lt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-1 million breeding   pairs and &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003240		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (Hubalek <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by future coastal oil spills (Gorski <em>et al.</em> 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and has suffered local population declines in the past as a result of egg collecting (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In some areas of its breeding range the species may also suffer from reduced reproductive successes due to contamination with chemical pollutants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003241		distribution	eng	The Slender-billed Gull breeds widely  at isolated, scattered localities, from <B>Senega</B>l, <B>Mauritania</B>, and the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula, through the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Asian Minor and the Middle East to east <B>Kazakhstan</B>, <B>Afghanistan</B>, <B>Pakistan</B> and north-west <B>India</B>. It winters in much of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea including coastlines around the Arabian Peninsula, south to the Horn of Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996).
106003241		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Populations breeding in central Asia are fully migratory, although other populations are sedentary or only disperse short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Migratory populations return to breeding colonies in late-February, most using a route along the west coast of the Black Sea (Olsen and Larsson 2003), leaving breeding sites again in July (Olsen and Larsson 2003). Many immatures also remain in winter quarters throughout the breeding season (Olsen and Larsson 2003). The species breeds from late-March to May in dense monospecific or mixed-species colonies (e.g. with terns) in numbers ranging from ten to many thousands of pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996), and is gregarious throughout the year, commonly occurring in flocks of up to 200 individuals, occasionally up to 3,000 (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on the coasts of land-locked seas (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), on sand-spits, beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996) and islands with mudflats and marshes in shallow tidal waters (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), and on saline inland seas and steppe lakes (Olsen and Larsson 2003). It may also frequent meadows and moist grassland by tidal inlets (Snow and Perrins 1998), and brackish or freshwater lagoons or marshes near river deltas during this season (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding </I>The species is almost entirely coastal outside of the breeding season, frequenting shallow inshore waters and salt-pans, although it generally avoids harbours (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The diet of the species consists mainly of fish (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) (c.50 % of the diet) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996), as well as insects and marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996) (e.g. crustaceans) (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The species breeds colonially with pairs nesting as close as 20-50 cm (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986); large groups often splitting into subcolonies with groups centres 10-50 m apart (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The nest is a deep scrape or shallow depression (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Richards 1990), preferably positioned on open mud, although some pairs may nest in <I>Salsola</I> or <I>Salicornia</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003). <B>Management information</B> A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996).
106003241		threats	eng	Eggs and chicks of this species are preyed upon by <I>Larus cachinnans</I> and <I>Larus melanocephalus</I> (especially where colonies are frequently disturbed by humans) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996), and storms or cold weather may threaten breeding colonies by causing nest flooding and chick mortality (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996). The species is threatened by pollution form oil (Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984, James 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1996) and plastic waste, and is exploited by local people (subsistence egg collecting) in the Mediterranean and western Africa (Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984, James 1984). It also suffers from disturbance caused by local people and tourists casually visiting breeding colonies, and by habitat loss resulting from tourism development (James 1984). The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <I>et al.</I> 2007). Pollution from agricultural chemicals is no longer considered a likely threat (I. C. T. Nisbet<I> in litt</I>. 2010).
106003242		distribution	eng	This species is found in North America, breeding from western Alaska (<B>USA</B>) to British Columbia, and east to eastern Quebec (<B>Canada</B>). It winters further south to northern <B>Mexico</B> on the Pacific and Atlantic coast including the Carribean. It can also be found wintering inland from Lake Erie to the valley of the Mississippi (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003242		habitat	eng	Bonaparte's gull breeds on ponds or muskeg in coastal and inland areas, nesting mainly in low lying spruce and ramaracks close to or over water but up to 600 m in Alaska. It feeds on small fish, krill, amphipods and insects with the proportions varying geographically and seasonally. It feeds mainly by surface-seizing and diving. It mainly feeds in flocks exceeding 2000 birds over the incoming tide. It arrives at breeding grounds in early May, laying within the month. It is a non-colonial species though nests may be clumped (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003243		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. The key nesting sites in China are all nature reserves. Wintering sites at Manko (Japan), Mai Po (Hong Kong), and Xuan Thuy (Vietnam) are all protected areas. The species is classed as Vulnerable in China and therefore receives full legal protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in North Korea for potential breeding sites. Expand the Yellow River Delta Nature Reserve (China), to include additional nest-sites. Establish protected areas at the wintering sites of Wenzhou-Yueqing bays (China), Tutu estuary, Hanpao and Aoku (Taiwan), Suncheon-Kwangyang bays (South Korea), Daijyu-garami, Hakata Bay and Sone (Japan). Provide management plans for coastal wetlands to promote their conservation and prevent the expansion of smooth cordgrass through active management measures (Jiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Ensure full legal protection for this species. <p></p>
106003243		distribution	eng	<em>Larus saundersi</em> breeds in eastern mainland <strong>China</strong>, and sporadically at sites on the south-west coast of <strong>South Korea </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). The most important breeding grounds are Yancheng National Nature Reserve and Shuangtai Hekou National Nature Reserve in China. A count of 1,317 birds was made at Shuangtai Hekou, Liaoning in October 2001 (Robson 2002)<strong></strong>, with 8,671 adults recorded and 399 banded in 2007 (Jiang Hongxing 2007). At the Yellow River Delta of Shandong, 801 adults were recorded and 27 juveniles banded, while in Yancheng of Jiangsu, 575 adults were recorded in 2007 (Jiang 2007). Non-breeding birds occur in <strong>North Korea</strong>, where it may also breed. It winters in eastern and southern China (9,625 individuals), from Jiangsu southwards, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) (35 individuals), <strong>Macau </strong>(China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) (700 individuals), along the western and southern coast of South Korea (2,000 individuals), in south-western <strong>Japan</strong> (2,000 individuals) and in <strong>Vietnam</strong> (10 individuals) (Cao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The coast of Dandong is an important stopover site on the flyway of Panjing-Japan, with 232 adults sighted in April 2008, 75% of which were sub-adults in their first winter (Bai Quing-Quan 2008). The key wintering grounds are Bohai Bay, where 864 birds were counted in 2005/2006 (Liu Yang  <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007<strong></strong>) and Wenzhou-Yueqing bays, Guangdong and Guangxi in China and Suncheon-Kwangyang bays, with c.750 individuals recorded at Kum River estuary in January 2004 (Kim Hark-Jin <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004), in South Korea. The global population is estimated to be 7,100-9,600 birds although recent figures point to a minimum of 14,400 birds, mostly likely due to increased survey effort rather than any real increase in the population (Cao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, it is likely that the population is continuing to decline, given the significant threats to habitat and high human disturbance levels occurring across the species's range (Jiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).  <p></p>
106003243		habitat	eng	It nests on the ground and is restricted to common seepweed <em>Suaeda glauca </em>saltmarsh habitats. Wintering birds are found on estuarine tidal flats with regular movements between different sites dependent on weather and food supply.<p></p>
106003243		population	eng	A population estimate of 14,400 mature individuals has been derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2011). This is roughly equivalent to 21,000-22,000 individuals in total.
106003243		threats	eng	The key threat is reclamation of tidal flats and saltmarshes, particularly in China, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan. From 1990-1995, many former breeding sites at Yancheng were lost through reclamation and construction. Common seepweed habitat, in which the species nests, decreased in areas by 79.1% (27,358 ha) over 15 years predominantly as a result of conversion to aquaculture ponds (Jiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). In 2011, many chicks and eggs at a breeding colony in Panjin were lost to rising water levels associated with land conversion to aquaculture ponds, which is a potential future threat to other colonies (Liu Yang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The introduction of smooth cordgrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina alterniflora </span>in 1982 has also caused considerable habitat degradation by replacing common seepweed habitats and increasing in area by 322% (11,057 ha) between 1999 and 2007 (Jiang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The other two breeding sites in China, Shuangtai Hekou and the Yellow River delta, are major oilfields and birds are under increasing threats from pollution and human activities. Reclamation developments associated with the Tianjin New Coastal District project (started in 2006) had seriously impacted an important wintering area by autumn 2011, resulting in a substantial loss of inter-tidal mudflats in Tianjin municipality (P. Holt <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Disturbance of nest-sites is a problem, particularly through the collection of lugworms on tidal flats in China, and by photographers in South Korea. The disturbance of adults results in increased predation of eggs and chicks. In China, eggs are sometimes collected by fishers. Unfavourable weather conditions threaten birds and nests at Yancheng.<br/><p></p>
106003245		distribution	eng	The Meditteranean Gull breeds almost entirely in Europe, mainly on the Black Sea coast of <B>Ukraine</B>, with a recent spread to the northern Caucasian Plains and <B>Azerbaijan</B>. It also breeds at scattered localities throughout Europe, including the <B>Netherlands</B>, southern <B>France</B>, <B>Italy</B>, <B>Greece</B>, <B>Turkey</B>, southern <B>England</B>, <B>Belgium</B>, <B>Germany</B> and <B>Spain</B>. It winters in the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, north-west Europe and north-west Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003245		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel along coastlines between their breeding and wintering areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003) (although a minority travel inland across Asian Turkey or follow major river valleys through Eastern and central Europe) (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species returns to its breeding colonies from late-February (Olsen and Larsson 2003) to early-April, with most beginning to breed from early-May (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The Autumn migration to the wintering grounds occurs from late-June onwards (Olsen and Larsson 2003). The species breeds in colonies, usually of less than 1,000 pairs and occasionally in single pairs amidst colonies of other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It often breeds near but not among Sandwich Terns <I>Thalasseus sandvicensis</I>, or intermingling with <I>Larus ridibundus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). When breeding in coastal areas the species may fly up to 80 km away from the colony to feed on inland grassland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on the Mediterranean coast at lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and sometimes coastal saltmarsh (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), often also breeding inland on large steppe lakes and marshes in open lowland areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It nests near water on flood-lands, fields and grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and on wet or dry areas of islands (Snow and Perrins 1998), favouring sparse vegetation but generally avoiding barren sand (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species becomes entirely coastal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), favouring estuaries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), harbours (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), saline lagoons and other sheltered waters (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Diet </B><I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects, gastropods, small numbers of fish and rodents (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> When not breeding the species takes marine fish, molluscs (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), insects (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) (e.g. beetles and grasshoppers) (Milchev <I>et al.</I> 2004), earthworms, berries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), seeds (e.g. of barley, wheat, sunflowers and ragwort) (Milchev <I>et al.</I> 2004), offal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and occasionally sewage and refuse (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a shallow depression, situated on the ground in sparsely vegetated sites, thickets or reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) near water (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds in dense colonies, with neighbouring pairs c.60 cm apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Artificially constructed nesting sites in coastal locations such as beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation are successful in attracting breeding pairs of this species (Burgess and Hirons 1992). A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996).
106003245		threats	eng	This species sustains heavy losses as a result of tourist disturbance at breeding colonies (James 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also be threatened by habitat loss resulting from tourism development, and by marine pollution (e.g. oil spills and chemical discharges) (James 1984). <B>Utilisation</B> Eggs and adults are collected from breeding colonies by fishermen in the Mediterranean Sea (James 1984).
106003246		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. It is protected from hunting in Russia. A nature reserve was established to protect breeding sites in Alakol' Lake (Kazakhstan). Breeding sites in Russia are protected in the Tsasuchey-Torey Sanctuary and several localities in Mongolia are Ramsar Sites. A poster campaign has been carried out to inform communities on the Ordos Plateau about the importance of the breeding colonies. A nature reserve has been delimited around the major breeding site at Taolimiao-Alashan Nur, China (He Fen-qi and Qiao Zhen-zhong <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to locate further breeding sites in Russia, Mongolia and China, with the aim of establishing new protected areas. Extend the protected area at Taolimiao-Alashan Nur, China, to incorporate breeding sites used in dry years (He Fen-qi and Qiao Zhen-zhong <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Conduct surveys to locate further wintering areas, possibly including the use of satellite tracking. Survey the southern part of Bothai Bay, China, to determine the full size of the wintering population there. Study its habitat requirements and evaluate the threat posed by development. Increase wardening at major breeding colonies and conduct education campaigns amongst local communities to minimise disturbance. List it as a protected species in Mongolia. <p></p>
106003246		distribution	eng	<em>Larus relictus</em> breeds at two localities in eastern <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>(but regularly at only one [Rubini and Berezovikov 2002])<strong></strong>, one in <strong>Russia</strong> and several in <strong>Mongolia, </strong>whilst the largest colonies are thought to occur in <strong>China</strong>, at Honjian Nur Lake, Shaanxi (up to 5,000 pairs [He Fenqi and Ren Yong-qui 2006]) and previously at Taolimiao-Alashan Nur on the Ordos Plateau in Inner Mongolia (up to 3,000 pairs [He Fenqi and Qiao Zhenzhong <em>in litt.</em> 2004]<strong></strong>), although this site was recently abandoned (He Fenqi and Ren Yong-qui 2006)<strong></strong>. Its non-breeding range is poorly understood, but some are known to winter in <strong>South Korea</strong>, whist large numbers (7,880 near Tanggu, coastal Tianjin [P. Holt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]) have recently been found at Bohai Bay on the coast of eastern China<strong></strong>, and over 8,000 have been counted in the Nanpu-Caofedian area of coastal Tangshan, Hebei (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> P. Holt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). There is also evidence that some winter inland on the northern flank of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, China. Both breeding and wintering ranges are known to fluctuate widely in response to weather conditions. The population has been estimated at 12,000 individuals (Rose and Scott 1997); however, counts of over 7,000 nests in the Ordos uplands of Inner Mongolia and in northern China in 2010 and 2011 (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) suggest that the number of mature individuals exceeds the previous estimate and probably falls somewhere in the region of 10,000-19,999.<br/><p></p>
106003246		habitat	eng	All known breeding colonies are below 1,500 m, in the arid-steppe zone, on islands in saline and slightly saline lakes with fluctuating water-levels. No nesting occurs if lakes dry up, if the islands become joined to the shore, or if the water-level is too high and the islands become too small or overgrown with vegetation. Some important non-breeding sites are on estuarine mud and sandflats.<p></p>
106003246		population	eng	The population was estimated at 12,000 individuals by Rose and Scott (1997); however, over 7,000 nests were recorded in 2010 and 2011 in the Ordos uplands of western Inner Mongolia and northern China (He Fenqi <em>in litt.</em> 2011), strongly suggesting that the total number of mature individuals exceeds the previous estimate. The population is thus placed in the band for 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003246		threats	eng	Changes in water-level affect breeding success, and the loss of ephemeral wetland habitats in arid regions, associated with climate change, could greatly affect this species in the near future (He Fenqi <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, although geographic shifts and fluctuations could result, rather than chronic declines. Climate models used to predict scenarios until 2080 suggest a trend of increasing aridisation of current steppe areas in Kazakhstan and an overall shift of vegetation zones into Siberia (Tchebakova<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009), probably resulting in the drying-out of shallow saline lakes used for nesting in north-eastern Kazakhstan, although many lakes in southern Siberia would be expected to become more saline owing to these climatic changes, providing replacement habitat for this mobile species (J. Kamp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The former breeding site of Lake Balkhash is unlikely to be recolonised if the drying trend there continues (J. Kamp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The major breeding colony at Taolimiao-Alashan Nur, China, has been affected by recent tourist developments, and habitat degradation since 2002, caused by  drought, human disturbance and unsustainable water use, has resulted in  the absence of nesting activity by this species since 2006 (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). For similar reasons Hongjian Nur in the Ordos uplands has decreased from an area of over 60 km<sup>2</sup> to c.40 km<sup>2</sup>, and now shows a pH value of up to 9.6, thus threatening the colony there (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.  2011).  Competition for breeding sites and predation by other gulls, as well as mortality from hailstorms and flooding, can affect breeding productivity. Human disturbance has caused increased mortality of eggs and chicks in Russia and China, by making them vulnerable to bad weather, predation and desertion. In South Korea, most of the mudflats at the Nakdong estuary have been reclaimed and it is likely that many other coastal wetlands are under similar pressure from development. The major wintering area at Bohai Bay, China, has been affected by reclamation for oilfields, harbours, roads and other developments, and plans are in hand to reclaim 43% of the remaining habitat (Yang Liu <em>et al</em>. 2006). In addition, the Bohai Sea is amongst the world's most polluted, and expansion of offshore oil extraction in Bohai Bay will increase the likelihood of spills, such as those that occurred from the Penglai offshore oilfield in June 2011 (P. Holt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Other coastal wintering areas are under threat from development, as  demonstrated by a massive reclamation project in Tianjin, resulting in  the displacement of the wintering population northwards to the  Nanpu-Caofedian area of coastal Tangshan, Hebei, which is in turn  threatened by another reclamation project (P. Holt<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). Another threat in coastal wintering areas of that of disturbance caused by increasingly mechanised shellfish harvesting (P. Holt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106003247		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although much of the island archipelago is protected in the Galápagos National Park, the greatest densities of this species may occur in the three main ports &#160;(Wiedenfeld 2006)</span>, and these urban areas are not part of the national park (H.&#160;Vargas and F.&#160;Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000). The islands were declared a World Heritage Site in 1979. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop and use methodologies for accurate population censuses and long-term monitoring (H.&#160;Vargas and F.&#160;Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Identify nesting areas and control populations of introduced mammals. <p></p>
106003247		distribution	eng	<em>Larus fuliginosus</em> breeds only in the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. It is widespread throughout the archipelago, with possibly the most dense populations found at Puerto Ayora (Santa Cruz) (Jackson 1985, H.&#160;Vargas and F.&#160;Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000), Puerto Baquerizo Moreno (San Cristóbal) and Puerto Villamil (Isabela) (H.&#160;Vargas and F.&#160;Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000). In 1963, a survey of 56 km of coastline on the south and east of Santa Cruz found eight territories, which was extrapolated over the remaining coastline in the archipelago to give an estimate of 300-400 pairs. This has been considered an overestimate, and an estimate by Aguirre (2007) determined only 81 individuals in the largest population, on Santa Cruz Island. If extrapolated, this would produce a total population of only 243 individuals (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <a name="_GoBack"></a>It has been suggested that the tiny population is probably a consequence of its confinement to linear feeding grounds of restricted range, which provide a limited food supply for much of the year (Snow and Snow 1969). <p></p>
106003247		habitat	eng	It nests solitarily in sheltered places near lagoons, pools and other calm water, usually close to the sea<strong></strong> (Snow and Snow 1969). It is a scavenger, with local concentrations of birds in areas of high food availability, such as harbours, and will associate with boats (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). However, it also takes seabird eggs, juvenile marine iguana <em>Amblyrhynchus cristatus</em>, small fish and crustaceans<strong></strong> (Snow and Snow 1969). It nests in scrapes on sandy beaches or low outcrops close to water, and lays two eggs (Burger and Gochfeld 1996). Territories are large<strong></strong> (Snow and Snow 1969). <p></p>
106003247		population	eng	Snow and Snow (1969) estimated 600-800 mature individuals which Wetlands International (2002) interpreted to equate to 900-1,200 individuals. This may be an overestimate (Aguirre 2007, D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <a name="_GoBack"></a>
106003247		threats	eng	Lava Gulls are threatened by fishing activities, such as being caught on hooks as bycatch and direct persecution by fishermen, and from feeding on refuse (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez 2008). Potential threats (applicable to many of the Galápagos seabirds) include predation and disturbance by introduced mammals such as feral cats, rats and dogs (Cepeda and Cruz 1994, H.&#160;Vargas and F.&#160;Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000).   <p></p>
106003248		distribution	eng	The Laughing Gull is found in North, Cental and South America. It breeds year-round on the eastern coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>, and on the western coast of the three continents from North Carolina (<strong>USA</strong>) down to <strong>Venezuala</strong> including the Carribean. It also breeds seasonally on the eastern coast of the USA from North Carolina to Maine, wintering from Mexico down to <strong>Peru</strong>, and down to the mouth of the Amazon (<strong>Brazil</strong>) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003248		habitat	eng	This species is strictly coastal when breeding, being found on vegetated sandy beaches, islands, salt-marshes, and on the tops of rocky islands. It lays from mid- to late May in the north, and in late April in Florida. Colonies form from dozens of individuals to 10,000 pairs. Its diet is comprised of aquatic invertebrates and insects, but also fish, scraps and refuse. It can be kleptoparasitic on Brown Pelicans (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003249		distribution	eng	This species breeds in the northern <B>USA</B> and central-west <B>Canada</B>, migrates south through Central America and winters off the west coast southern <B>Mexico</B>, Central America and of South America, where it is particularly common from <B>Ecuador</B> to <B>Chile<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003249		habitat	eng	This species can be found on coasts, lakes, marshes, field and rubbish dumps. It feeds almost exclusively on earthworms or emerging chironomids, but also aquatic invertebrates, grasshoppers and incidental small rodents and small fish. Early arrivals to colonies may depend on grain or sunflower seeds before insects become available. In winter small fish make up an important part of the diet, as do fish offal and refuse. Breeding is highly synchronous, with individuals arriving at colonies in mid-April and laying in mid- to late May. It is a highly gregarious species, forming colonies from 100's to over 10'000 pairs at inland lands and marshes, with nesting requiring emergent vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003249		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to human disturbance early in its breeding cycle and during hatching, when it may desert colonies. Individual colonies are vulnerable to vagaries of local water levels, and draining of marshes or drought can eliminate colonies completely (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003250		distribution	eng	The Little Gull can be found breeding in northern Scandinavia, the Baltic republics and western <B>Russia</B> to western Siberia, in eastern Siberia, and in the Great Lakes of North America. Its distribution expands in winter to include most of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea coastlines, as well as the Atlantic coast of Europe and the north-west coast of the <B>USA<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003250		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), usually arriving in its breeding areas from late-April to late-May (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and leaving again in late-July (Richards 1990, Olsen and Larsson 2003) (although its movements are poorly documented) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).  The species breeds from late-June<B></B>in mixed-species colonies and subcolonies occasionally as large as 2,000 individuals, sometimes also in more solitary scattered pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). After breeding the species is gregarious (Snow and Perrins 1998), with groups of 10-20 individuals common at feeding or resting sites (Snow and Perrins 1998), and flocks of hundreds or even thousands congregating briefly at favourable sites or during bad weather (Snow and Perrins 1998). Large groups (thousands of individuals) may also gather on German lakes and wetlands to moult before migrating to wintering areas (Olsen and Larsson 2003). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds inland on shallow freshwater and brackish lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003), river basins, marshes and bogs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), occasionally also at coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), showing a preference for habitats with lush vegetation (Richards 1990) and emergent or floating plants in muddy shallow water (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> On migration the species occurs at sea, along shores, and on reservoirs, lagoons and lakes (Olsen and Larsson 2003), wintering along the coast on sandy and muddy beaches (Olsen and Larsson 2003), mouths of rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and at sea (Olsen and Larsson 2003), especially at stream and sewage outlets (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species is mainly insectivorous when breeding, taking e.g. dragonflies, beetles, midges (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), mayflies and stoneflies (Richards 1990). <I>Non-breeding</I> On migration its diet is the same as during the breeding season (consisting mainly of insects) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), although during the winter the species switches to a diet of small fish and marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996),  (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest varies from a shallow depression (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) to a much more substantial structure depending on the situation (Richards 1990). Nests are sited on the ground in wet vegetation adjacent to or on shallow water (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), floating at the edge of emergent vegetation (e.g. in reedbeds) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), on grassy islands in freshwater shallow lakes (Olsen and Larsson 2003), and occasionally also on sandbanks (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species breeds in colonies or subcolonies with nests spaced c.1-1.5 m apart, sometimes also in more solitary scattered pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003250		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.97,000-270,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003251		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A Norwegian-Russian project satellite tagged 31 individuals in 2007/2008 to assess movements at breeding grounds and their dispersal ability (Gilg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends throughout the range, with particular emphasis on determining rates of decline in main breeding areas. Research the magnitude of threats facing all populations. Protect colonies from mining action.  <p></p>
106003251		distribution	eng	<em>Pagophila eburnea</em> has a near-circumpolar distribution in the Arctic seas and pack-ice, breeding from north <strong>Canada</strong> through <strong>Greenland (to Denmark)</strong>, Svalbard (<strong>Svalbard and Jan Meyan Islands (to Norway)</strong>) and islands off northern <strong>Russia</strong>. The Russian population is estimated to number in the range of 14,500-22,000 individuals, with recent surveys giving estimates of including 1,500-3,000 breeding pairs on Franz-Josef Land (European Russia), 5,000-6,000 pairs on Severnaya Zemlya; and 1,500-3,000 pairs in the rest of the Kara Sea Islands (M. Gavrilo <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Other populations include 500-700 individuals in northeast Canada (<strong></strong>Hess 2004, Gilchrist and Mallory 2005)<strong></strong>, at least 4<span style="">,000 individuals in Greenland</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Gilg</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 2009), and 350-500 pairs in Svalbard (Hess 2004, </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">H. Strom </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2007)</span><span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Given these totals, the global population is perhaps best placed in the band 19,000-27,000 individuals. The population is possibly larger: extrapolations based on aerial estimates suggested up to 35,000+ between Canada and Greenland in 1978-1979 (Orr and Parsons 1982)</span><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. The Spitsbergen population is probably decreasing (A. Volkov </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2003)</span><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, and breeding has apparently recently ceased on Victoria Island in Russia (M. Gavrilo </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2007)</span><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Other Russian populations are apparently stable, although interannual fluctuations complicate the calculation of trend estimates. Recent surveys have revealed a drastic decline in Canadian populations, falling from 2,400 birds in 1987 to 500-700 birds in 2002-2003 (Hess 2004)</span><span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, representing an 80% decline in that period across the Canadian breeding range in all three known nesting habitat types (Gilchrist and Mallory 2005)</span><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. The species seems to be declining in the south of its Greenland breeding range, while in North Greenland the trends are unclear (</span><span style=""><span style="">Gilg </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009). Birds have disappeared from 13 known and three suspected breeding colony sites.   </span><p></p></span></span></span></span>
106003251		habitat	eng	This species is migratory (Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds between late-June and August (although most pairs do not lay until early-July, and some pairs may not breed if food conditions are unfavourable) in colonies of 5-60 pairs (rarely more than 100 pairs) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It departs from the breeding grounds between August and October, returning late-February to early-June (Olsen and Larsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most active migration occurs in November, with the first birds only arriving on the wintering grounds in December (Bering Sea, southeast Greenland, Davis Strait/Labrador Sea), and with birds from Greenland, Svalbard, and Russia arriving in sequence (Gilg <em>et al. </em>2010). Most of the birds wintering in the Pacific are thought to originate from the largest Russian colonies - Kara Sea Islands and Severnaya Zemlya (Gilg <em>et al. </em>2010). Between July-December they may travel 50,000 km on average, and even more for individuals that moved to the Pacific (Gilg <em>et al. </em>2010).  Outside of the breeding season the species is weakly gregarious, occurring singly or in flocks of up to 20 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Larger numbers also gather in the spring at hooded seal <em>Pagophilus groenlandicus</em> whelping sites, where they feed on carrion and discarded placentae (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also regularly follows polar bears <em>Thalarctos maritimus</em> to feed on scraps from their kill (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in the high Arctic north of the July 5<sup>o</sup>C isotherm (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> on broad upper ledges of steep, inaccessible coastal or inland cliffs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> up to 300 m high (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, on broken ice-fields or on bare, level shorelines with low rocks (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season it associates with the edges of pack-ice, showing a preference for areas with 70-90% ice cover (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish, shrimps, shellfish, algae and carrion (e.g. seal placentae) (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, feeding mostly by hovering and contact dipping in open leads in ice-filled waters, or scavenging on marine mammal remains (Gilg <em>et al. </em>2010). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of moss, straw and other debris on a snow-free area of rock (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest sites include broad upper ledges of steep, inaccessible coastal or inland cliffs (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> up to 300 m high (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, broken ice-fields and bare, level shorelines with low rocks (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On cliffs, pairs usually nest within 10 m of the top in small colonies with inter-nest distances of 1-20 m (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003251		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 14,500-22,000 individuals in the Russian Arctic, of which 2,500-10,000 are in European Russia, 4,000 on Severnaya Zemliya and 8,000 on Franz Josef Land and Victoria Island. Between 500-700 were recorded in northeast Canada in 2002-2003, and there are at least 4,000 individuals in Greenland and 50-200 in Svalbard. This givies a total of 19,050-26,900 individuals, rounded here to 19,000-27,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 12,000-18,000 mature individuals. The population is possibly larger: Orr and Parsons (1982) recorded aerial estimates of possibly more than 35,000 individuals between Canada and Greenland in 1978-1979, while del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> (1996) estimated possibly 25,000 pairs (75,000 individuals).
106003251		threats	eng	The species is thought to be declining due to changes in conditions on its staging or wintering grounds (e.g. more severe winters, changing sea-ice distribution and thickness) (Gilchrist and Mallory 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is hunted (Gilchrist and Mallory 2005)<strong></strong>. Potential causes of the decline identified in Canada include illegal hunting (Stenhouse <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, oiling at sea, disturbance of colonies due to escalating diamond exploration and/or increased nest predation, and toxic pollutants that bioaccumulate at high trophic levels (Braune <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. For example, concentrations of total mercury in eggs of Ivory Gulls collected from Seymour Island, Canada, have steadily increased since 1976 to levels which are now among the highest measured in seabirds (Braune <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, which may have had a long-term effect on breeding productivity (C. Miljeteig <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Potentially having the same effect, levels of PCB and DDT are higher in Ivory Gull eggs than in all other Arctic seabirds (Braune <em>et al</em>. 2007).<strong></strong>   <p></p>
106003252		distribution	eng	Ross's Gull breeds in the high Arctic of North America and Siberia. It is found in north-east Siberia, <B>Russia</B>, from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Kolyma River, locally in Greenland (to Denmark) and irregularly in <B>Canada</B>. Its wintering range in Siberia expands further west and east down to the tip of the Kamchatkan Peninsula, with other wintering sites including the north coast of Alaska (<B>USA</B>) and the south-eastern coast of Greenland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003252		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and travels north after breeding to overwinter in the Arctic Ocean (Snow and Perrins 1998). It arrives on its breeding grounds in late-May where it breeds from early-June in loose colonies of 2-10 pairs (rarely up to 18 pairs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) often with other species (e.g. Arctic Tern <I>Sterna paradisaea</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The departure from the breeding grounds occurs from late-July onwards with the species migrating in small flocks of 2-16 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It forages solitarily or in small loose flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in the upper boreal forest (taiga) and tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) zones of the high Arctic (Olsen and Larsson 2003), showing a preference for nesting on small, low islets in shallow pools (created by snow-melt on tundra underlain with permafrost) (Snow and Perrins 1998) surrounded by stands of stunted alder <I>Alnus</I> spp. and willow <I>Salix</I> spp. (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) and by muddy, boggy or marshy (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003) ground with sedges and moss (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species also breeds on marshy tundra in high Arctic river deltas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and on marshy ground in well-wooded river valleys (Richards 1990). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species forages pelagically on the open sea or along the edges of pack-ice (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> On its breeding grounds the species is chiefly insectivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), its diet including Coleoptera and dipteran flies (Richards 1990). <I>Non-breeding</I> On migration and in the winter its diet consists of small fish and surface-dwelling marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) (including plankton, crustaceans, molluscs and priapulid marine worms) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of dry grass, sedge and moss (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), usually on a tussock on an island in a pool in tundra or forest (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in near invisible colonies, often with other species, with an average distance between neighbouring nests of 43 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003252		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003252		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by the development of oil extraction in the Beaufort Sea, and also suffers from nest failures as a result of human disturbance in Canada (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is shot whilst on passage by native Alaskan peoples for food (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003253		distribution	eng	Sabine's Gull breeds in the arctic and has a circumpolar distribution through northernmost North America and Eurasia. It migrates south during the autumn, wintering in the cold waters of the Humboldt current off the coast of <B>Peru</B> and <B>Ecuador </B>and off the south-west coast of Africa in the cold waters of the Benguela Current (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003253		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a long-distance migrant (Olsen and Larsson 2003) that migrates offshore between its breeding and wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It returns to the breeding grounds from late-May to early-June when the Arctic tundra is still snow-covered, and breeds in colonies of 6 to 15 or occasionally up to 60 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also nest solitarily or as single pairs amidst colonies of Arctic Tern <I>Sterna paradisaea</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). After breeding the adults and juveniles depart the breeding grounds from late-July to August (Olsen and Larsson 2003), migrating in flocks of up to a hundred individuals and spending the winter in small flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or as solitary individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on coastal (Snow and Perrins 1998) tundra wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in the Arctic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), showing a preference for swampy, moss and sedge tundra with many lakes (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), floodlands and low-lying shallow brackish pools, especially where these contain islets or narrow peninsulas of grass or moss and have low, moist margins that provide feeding areas (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is pelagic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occurring in cold water upwelling zones south of the equator (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> When breeding its diet consists of adult and larval insects (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) (e.g. springtails Collembola), Arachnids, small fish and carrion, as well as small birds and the eggs of Arctic Tern <I>Sterna paradisaea</I> and conspecifics (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species also takes seeds and plant matter on its arrival to the breeding grounds before the Arctic ice melts and other prey items become available (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding </I>Outside of the breeding season the species takes marine invertebrates and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (Richards 1990) or more substantial cup of grass (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), moss, seaweed and feathers (Richards 1990) placed on rocky, barren (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or damp ground vegetated with moss (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) or grass, usually near the edge of water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003253		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.330,000-700,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003254		distribution	eng	The Swallow-tailed Gull breeds mainly on the Galapagos Islands, <B>Ecuador</B> (all major and several minor islands) but also on Malpelo Island, <B>Colombia</B>. When not breeding it can be found along the Pacific coast of South American from Ecuador to northern <B>Chile<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003254		habitat	eng	This species feeds mostly at night but also by day, heavily exploiting squid at night but also taking clupeid fish. It appears to suffer from periodic food shortages, and is often observed feeding 500 km from the nearest land. It breeds throughout the year and asynchronously across the Galapagos, with individual subcolonials being synchronised by social interactions. It forms loose colonies with large inter-nest distances but can be solitary, nesting on steep slopes or broken cliffs, often on broad clifftop ledges but also just above the wave line, and on gravelly beaches and under vegetation. Adults leave the colony after breeding and become highly pelagic, returning in 4-5 months often to their previous nest site.   </P>
106003255		distribution	eng	The Black-legged Kittiwake nests along coastlines in much of the north Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and also breeds on inlands off the northern coast of <B>Russia</B> and on the northern coast of <B>Norway</B>. It winters at sea, ranging across much of the north Atlantic and Pacific oceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Overall population trends are unknown, though failed breeding seasons in 2008 and in some cases significant population declines have been observed in the United Kingdom by the RSPB.
106003255		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is migratory and disperses after breeding from coastal areas to the open ocean (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It returns to its breeding grounds from January where it breeds from mid-May to mid-June in huge single- or mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) that often exceed 100,000 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Breeding may occur later after periods of cold weather and many individuals do not remain on the breeding grounds during such conditions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species begins to disperse from the breeding colonies between July and August, often moulting in large flocks of several thousand individuals on beaches between the breeding grounds and the open sea (Olsen and Larsson 2003). Non-breeders may also remain at sea during the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). Outside of the breeding season the species often occurs singly or in pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998) but may also occur in small flocks or as dispersed aggregations (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It nests on high, steep coastal cliffs with narrow ledges in areas with easy access to freshwater (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species moults on sandy beaches (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and on passage it may concentrate at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and at rich fish banks (Olsen and Larsson 2003). During the winter the species is highly pelagic, usually remaining on the wing out of sight of land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (e.g. squid and shrimps) and fish, although during the breeding season it may also take intertidal molluscs, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. crayfish) (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), earthworms, small mammals and plant matter (e.g. aquatic plants, potato tubers and grain) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). At sea during the winter it will also take planktonic invertebrates and often exploits sewage outfalls and fishing vessels (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a compacted mass of mud (Snow and Perrins 1998), grass and feathers (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) usually built on a narrow ledge on high, steep coastal cliffs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Occasionally the species may also nest on glaciers or snow banks (where these have covered traditional cliff nesting sites), on buildings and piers, or on flat, rocky or sandy sites up to 20 km inland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in very large colonies with neighbouring nests spaced evenly 30-60 cm apart (where site availability allows) (Snow and Perrins 1998), and generally feeds within 50 km of the breeding colony (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003255		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.17,000,000-18,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003255		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the depletion of food resources (e.g. through over-fishing) (Frederiksen <I>et al.</I> 2004, Nikolaeva <I>et al.</I> 2006), marine oil spills (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Nikolaeva <I>et al.</I> 2006) and chronic oil pollution (Nikolaeva <I>et al.</I> 2006). It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10<sup>o</sup> latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (BirdLife International, unpublished data). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted in Greenland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003256		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is a protected species in both the USA and Russia. The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge and Commander Islands Nature and Biosphere Reserve protect many of the breeding colonies. A rat prevention programme is underway in the Pribilof Islands (Byrd and Williams 1993)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor breeding populations to assess decline rates. Assess the status of rats at breeding colonies. Assess the impact of commercial fishing. Establish the proposed buffer zone around the Pribilof Islands in which trawl fishing would be prohibited (Lensink 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003256		distribution	eng	<em>Rissa brevirostris</em> breeds in the Pribilof (St Paul, St George and Otter), Bogoslof (Bogoslof and Fire) and Buldir (Buldir, Outer Rock, Middle Rock) islands, <strong>USA</strong>, and the Commander Islands (Arij Kamen, Toporkov, Bering and Mednyi), <strong>Russia</strong>. In 1990s, small  breeding colonies were also discovered on Unalga, Koniuji and Amak Islands (Aleutians) (J. Williams <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  From the mid-1970s to mid-1990s, the known population declined by c.35%. Most of this decline was on the Pribilofs: a precipitous c.44% in breeding numbers on St George, where over 80% of the 1970s population bred. The small population on St Paul declined by 55%. The population on St George has apparently now stabilised at c.123,000 birds (Dragoo <em>et al. </em>2000, Dragoo <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. The second largest colony on Bering Island contained 12% of the population in the mid-1970s but the decline on the Pribilofs had increased this to 18% by the mid-1990s. There is some evidence of a historic decline on the Commander Islands, but no counts are available prior to the late 1980s and numbers have remained stable from the mid 1990s to 2007 (J. Williams <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. No other colony holds more than 2% of the population, but the number of nests had increased threefold on the Bogoslof Islands and twofold on Buldir Island by the mid-1990s (Byrd <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. There are an estimated 160,000-180,000 breeding adults in Alaska (Kushlan <em>et al</em>. 2002) and 17,000 pairs in the Commander Islands, Russia, (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), which gives a global population estimate of 337,000-377,000 mature individuals.<p></p>
106003256		habitat	eng	This species nests in colonies on ledges on vertical sea cliffs, and feeds on small fish (e.g. lampfish), squid and marine invertebrates (Byrd and Williams 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds arrive at nesting colonies in April and leave around September, dispersing southwards over the north-east Pacific and east to the Gulf of Alaska (Byrd and Williams 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003256		population	eng	There are an estimated 160,000-180,000 breeding adults in Alaska (Kushlan <em>et al</em>. 2002) and 17,000 pairs in the Commander Islands, Russia, (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), which gives a global population estimate of 337,000-377,000 mature individuals, and the population is therefore best placed in the band 100,000-499,999 individuals. Brazil (2009) has estimated the population in Russia at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration.
106003256		threats	eng	The reasons for the population decline remain unclear, but it has been attributed to a reduction in food supply resulting from excessive commercial fishing. Shifts in the distribution of prey fish species, resulting from climate change and rising sea temperatures, may also contribute to current and future declines (Anon 2006)<strong></strong>.  The recent construction of a harbour in the Pribilof Islands considerably increases the chances of the accidental introduction of rats which would pose a serious threat (Byrd and Williams 1993)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10<sup>o</sup> latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO<sub>2</sub> levels (Birdlife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. The on-going decline on St Paul could be partly caused by subsistence offtake (H. Renner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003257		distribution	eng	The Gull-billed tern breeds in warmer parts of the world in southern Europe, very small isolated population in northern <B>Germany</B> and <B>Denmark</B>, temperate and eastern Asia, both coasts of central and southern North America, the north-west and eastern coasts of South America and Australia. Post-breeding dispersal expands its range to include much of south Asia, Central America, <B>New Zealand</B> and parts of central Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003257		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern breeding populations of this species are migratory, dispersing widely after breeding before travelling southwards to the wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds colonially in monospecific groups of 5-500 pairs (occasionally up to 1,000 pairs) or as solitary pairs amidst colonies of other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), remaining gregarious outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It breeds in a variety of locations with bare or sparsely vegetated islands, banks, flats, or spits of dry mud and sand (Higgins and Davies 1996) including barrier beaches (shoals), dunes, saltmarshes, saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), freshwater lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), estuaries, deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998), inland lakes, rivers, marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998) and swamps (Higgins and Davies 1996). During this season it may also feed on emerging insects over lakes, agricultural fields, grasslands and even over semi-desert regions (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage the species typically forages over saltpans, coastal lagoons, mudflats, marshes and wet fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), overwintering on estuaries, saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998) and saltmarshes (Higgins and Davies 1996) or in more inland sites such as large rivers, lakes, rice-fields (Snow and Perrins 1998), sewage ponds, reservoirs, saltpans and irrigation canals (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Diet</B> It is an opportunistic feeder and is largely insectivorous (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) taking adult and larval terrestrial and aquatic insects (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (such as Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera) as well as spiders, earthworms, small reptiles, frogs, small fish (6-9 cm long), aquatic invertebrates and rarely voles and small birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape in dried mud, sand or gravel (Richards 1990) on beaches, dry mudflats, dykes, sea-wrack on the tideline or on floating vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996).
106003257		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.150,000-420,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003257		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the deterioration and loss of habitat, e.g. through wetland drainage, agricultural intensification, pesticide pollution, fluctuating water levels (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), beach erosion and the development or modification of foraging sites (Molina and Erwin 2006). It also suffers from reduced reproductive successes as a result of human disturbance at breeding colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Molina and Erwin 2006).
106003258		distribution	eng	The Caspian Tern has a cosmopolitan but scattered distribution. Their breeding habitat is large lakes and ocean coasts in North America (including the Great Lakes), and locally in Europe (mainly around the Baltic Sea and Black Sea), Asia, Africa, and Australasia (Australia and New Zealand). North American birds migrate to southern coasts, the West Indies and northernmost South America. European and Asian birds winter in the Old World tropics. African and Australasian birds are resident or disperse over short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003258		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Although populations breeding near the equator are largely sedentary (Richards 1990), northern populations are strongly migratory and disperse after breeding before migrating southwards (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds between April and June (northern Hemisphere) or between September and December (southern Hemisphere) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in large dense monospecific colonies or as single pairs or small groups (2-3 pairs) amidst large colonies of other species (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It is not a highly gregarious species outside of the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998) but may aggregate into flocks on passage (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), and during the winter it may feed in loose congregations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in rich fishing areas or at nightly roost sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The breeding, passage and wintering habitats of this species are similar, although during the winter it is largely confined to the coast (Shuford and Craig 2002). It frequents sheltered sea coasts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), estuaries (Richards 1990, Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), inlets, bays, harbours (Higgins and Davies 1996), coastal lagoons (Higgins and Davies 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and saltpans (Martin and Randall 1987, Higgins and Davies 1996), also occurring inland on fresh or saline wetlands including large lakes, inland seas (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), large rivers (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Higgins and Davies 1996), creeks (Higgins and Davies 1996), floodlands (Snow and Perrins 1998), reservoirs (Richards 1990, Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and sewage ponds (Higgins and Davies 1996). When breeding the species shows a preference for nesting on sandy, shell-strewn or shingle beaches (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998), sand-dunes, flat rock-surfaces (Snow and Perrins 1998), sheltered reefs (Higgins and Davies 1996) or islands (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) with sparse vegetation and flat or gently sloping margins surrounded by clear, shallow, undisturbed waters (Snow and Perrins 1998). It also forms winter roosts on sandbars, mudflats and banks of shell (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish 5-25 cm in length (Shuford and Craig 2002) as well as the eggs and young of other birds, carrion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), aquatic invertebrates (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) (e.g. crayfish) (Shuford and Craig 2002), flying insects (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Shuford and Craig 2002) and earthworms (Shuford and Craig 2002). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression in the sand, gravel, shells, sparse vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or dried mud (Richards 1990) of ridges, beaches (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Higgins and Davies 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), dunes (Snow and Perrins 1998), flat rocky or stony islets, banks (Higgins and Davies 1996), islands or reefs in seas, lakes and large rivers (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), dredge spoil piles and islands in reservoirs (Higgins and Davies 1996). The species nests in large colonies or as single pairs or small groups amidst colonies of other species, neighbouring nests placed between 0.7 and 4 m part (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may forage up to 60 km from the site of the breeding colony (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Management for this species should include a number of measures such as habitat and vegetation management, the use of artificial nest substrates, predator management (e.g. control of gull populations) and the minimisation of disturbance (Shuford and Craig 2002). Habitat and vegetation management may include the creation of artificial islands with calm water on their leeward side to allow the growth of submerged vegetation and fish spawning habitats, or alternatively the creation of floating artificial nesting-rafts (e.g. barges covered with sand) (Shuford and Craig 2002).
106003258		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.240,000-420,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China;   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   Taiwan; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003258		threats	eng	The species is currently threatened by the loss and deterioration of breeding habitat through accelerated vegetation succession (possibly through the introduction of exotic plant species) (Shuford and Craig 2002) and may be threatened in the future by habitat loss through inundation as a result of sea-level rise (Shuford and Craig 2002). The species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991) especially during the early-courtship and incubation periods (Shuford and Craig 2002), and exposure to bioaccumulated contaminants (e.g. organochlorines or methylmercury) in fish could be lowering the species's reproductive success (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Newcastle disease (Shuford and Craig 2002, Kuiken <I>et al.</I> 2006) and avian botulism may also threaten concentrated local populations (although these diseases are unlikely to threaten the global population as a whole) (Shuford and Craig 2002).
106003259		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out regular surveys to monitor the population throughout its range. Conduct education activities to help alleviate human pressures on river and lake habitats. Lobby against high-risk dam projects, especially in South-East Asia.
106003259		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna aurantia</em> occurs across a wide range in southern Asia, being found in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Bangladesh</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Laos</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vietnam</span> and southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span> (Yunnan) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), with vagrant records from Iran and Afghanistan, although it is generally resident over most of its range. The global population is estimated at between 50,000 and 100,000 individuals (Delaney and Scott 2006). It has reportedly declined in abundance in Thailand, where it is now considered very rare (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>.1996). The species has also declined in Laos since the early 20th century (Thewlis <em>et al</em>. 1998), and is very close to being extirpated from the country (W. Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It is said to be declining throughout its range in Cambodia (F. Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), with sharp declines noted in the number of pairs in the largest breeding colony on the Mekong, and the number of breeding locations, during the period 2007-2011 (A. Claassen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In view of its historical and recent precipitous decline in Cambodia, the species is said to be heading towards extinction there in 5-10 years if no specific conservation action is carried out (A. Claassen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The species is now a rare and very local visitor in Nepal, with a maximum population of 20 individuals estimated in 2011, having rapidly declined since the 1990s (C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The species is described as uncommon along the Dayingjiang river in south-western Yunnan (Yang Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In contrast to declines noted in South-East Asia, the species is now more regular in southern India than was once thought, having probably benefitted from the development of reservoirs (Praveen J.<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Likewise, the species is described as having increased in Andhra Pradesh over the past 10 years (S. Riyazuddin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003259		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and freshwater lakes, also occurring rarely on estuaries, and breeds on sandy islands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). It has been recorded up to 600 m in Nepal. It feeds predominantly on fish, small crustaceans and insects. Breeding occurs mainly in February-May (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106003259		population	eng	The population in India has been estimated to number more than 50,000 individuals, thus the global population is put at 50,000-100,000 individuals (Delany and Scott 2006).
106003259		threats	eng	Nesting areas are vulnerable to flooding, predation and disturbance (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). The negative population trend in Laos is probably due mainly to excessive human disturbance on sandbars (Thewlis <em>et al</em>. 1998). The multitude of dam construction projects completed, underway or planned in South-East Asia (e.g. along the Mekong river [F. Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011]<em></em>) may also threaten the species through changes to flow regime and flooding of nest-sites. Its habitat may be threatened by the construction of dams  in the Dayingjiang region of south-western Yunnan (Yang Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.  2011).
106003260		distribution	eng	The Royal Tern is found in the Americas and the Atlantic coast of Africa. In Africa is breed from <B>Mauritania</B> to <B>Guinea</B>, ranging in winter from <B>Morocco</B> to <B>Namibia</B>. In the Americas it breeds from southern California (<B>USA</B>) to Sinaloa (<B>Mexico</B>), from Maryland to Texas (USA), through the <B>West Indies</B> to the Guianas and possibly <B>Brazil</B>, on the Yucatan Peninsula, in south Brazil, <B>Uruguay</B> and north Patagonia (<B>Argentina</B>). It winters from Washington (USA) south to <B>Peru</B> on the western coast, and from Texas to south Brazil on the eastern side (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003260		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species undergoes post-breeding dispersive movements northwards before migrating southwards for the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds between April and June (Richards 1990) in dense colonies of 100-4,000 pairs often near colonies of Laughing Gull <I>Larus atricilla</I> and Sandwich Tern <I>Sterna sandvicensis</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may also nest singly amidst colonies of other tern species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It usually feeds singly or in small flocks and roosts gregariously even outside of the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> For breeding the species shows a preference for inaccessible sites including barren sandy beaches, islands in saltmarsh, dredge spoil and coral islands surrounded by shallow water and with a high degree of visibility, no mammalian predators and little vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also forages along estuaries, in lagoons and in mangroves during this season, mostly within 100 m of the shore but up to 40 km from the breeding colony (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species forages within 100 m of the land along sheltered coasts in estuaries, harbours and river mouths, sometimes also foraging a short distance inland along broad rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish 3-18 cm long as well as squid, shrimps and crabs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a simple scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in sand (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) in inaccessible sites surrounded by shallow water near the mouths of bays with a high degree of visibility, no mammalian predators and little vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> The preferred breeding sites of this species are often vulnerable to flooding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003260		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by the contamination of large prey with pesticides (through bioaccumulation in the food chain) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It has also suffered dramatic declines over the past 25 years in California due to the disappearance of its staple prey (the Pacific sardine) through overfishing (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> Egg-collecting is known to occur at breeding colonies of this species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Del Viejo <I>et al.</I> 2004).
106003261		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends throughout the breeding range. Research links between climate, fisheries, prey availability and breeding success. Ensure continued effective protection of all breeding colonies.  <p></p>
106003261		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna elegans</em> breeds along the Pacific coast from south California, <strong>USA</strong>, to Baja California and the Gulf of California, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Howell and Webb 1995a, AOU 1998). The estimated population is 51,000-90,000 individuals (J. A. Kushlan <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with up to 95% breeding on Isla Rasa in the Gulf of California (Velarde and Anderson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At least three other Mexican islands are used at least occasionally (Velarde and Anderson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, small populations breed on Bolsa Chica (50-4,000 pairs, first recorded in 1987) and in San Diego bay (500-800 pairs), California (Velarde and Anderson 1994, Gochfeld and Burger 1996, E. Verlarde <em>in litt.</em> 1998, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds summer from California to Costa Rica (AOU 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds winter from Guatemala to El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile (AOU 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are significant population fluctuations, probably caused by the effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation (compounded by over-fishing) on prey abundance and consequently breeding success (E. Verlarde <em>in litt.</em> 1998, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Only the Isla Rasa colony breeds every year (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but fluctuations are considerably less than one order of magnitude.  <em> <p></p></em>
106003261		habitat	eng	This species breeds on flat rocky areas and is strongly tied to the coast. It forages in inshore waters, estuarine habitats, salt ponds and lagoons, with some individuals venturing further offshore in the non-breeding season.  <p></p>
106003261		population	eng	Kushlan <em>et al.</em> (2002). <p></p>
106003261		threats	eng	Population fluctuations may be related to El Niño Southern Oscillation events, but food supply may also be influenced by over-fishing. Nest robbery formerly reduced colony size on Isla Rasa, but this site now receives adequate protection. <p></p>
106003262		distribution	eng	The Lesser Crested Tern breeds in subtropical coastal parts of the world mainly from the Red Sea across the Indian Ocean to the western Pacific, and <B>Australia</B>, with a significant population on the southern coast of the Mediterranean on two islands off the coast of <B>Libya</B>. Outside the breeding season it ranges on the north African coast (both Mediterranean and Atlantic), on much of the Indian Ocean nearby continents, and in the western Pacific north of Australia up to <B>New Guinea</B> and <B>Vietnam<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003262		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The details of this species's movements are poorly known although some breeding populations appear to be migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds in large dense colonies of up to 20,000 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) often with other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is gregarious throughout the year, foraging in single- or mixed-species flocks up to 400 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits tropical and subtropical (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) sandy and coral coasts and estuaries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), breeding on low-lying offshore islands, coral flats, sandbanks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and flat sandy beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998), foraging in the surf and over offshore waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of small pelagic fish (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and shrimps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on ridges or bare areas surrounded by vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on flat sandy beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998), low-lying sandy islands, coral flats, small coral islets and sandbanks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003263		distribution	eng	This species can be found found on islands and coastlines of the tropical and subtropical Old World, ranging from the Atlantic Coast of South Africa, south around the Cape and continuing along the coast of Africa and Asia almost without break to south-east Asia and <B>Australia</B>. It can also be found on <B>Madagascar</B>, islands of the western Indian ocean and islands of the western and central Pacific Ocean. Outside the breeding season it can be found at sea throughout this range, with the exception of the central Indian Ocean (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003263		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Many populations of this species remain sedentary in their breeding areas or disperse locally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) although some are more migratory (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species breeds in large dense colonies, or in small groups of less than 10 pairs amidst colonies of other species (e.g. King Gull <I>Larus hartlaubii</I> or Silver Gull <I>Larus novaehollandiae</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It usually forages singly (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) or in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) but several hundred individuals may gather at roost sites (Langrand 1990). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits tropical and subtropical coastlines, foraging in the shallow waters of lagoons (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), coral reefs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), estuaries (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), bays, harbours and inlets (Higgins and Davies 1996), along sandy, rocky, coral (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or muddy shores, on rocky outcrops in open sea, in mangrove swamps (Langrand 1990) and also far out to sea on open water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It shows a preference for nesting on offshore islands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), low-lying coral reefs, sandy or rocky coastal islets, coastal spits, lagoon mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and artificial islets in saltpans and sewage works (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) within 3 km of the coast (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of pelagic fish 10-50 cm long (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) although it will also take cephalopods (e.g. squid), crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. crabs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and prawns (Higgins and Davies 1996)), insects and hatchling turtles opportunistically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape in bare sand, rock or coral (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in flat open sites (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) on offshore islands (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), low-lying coral reefs, sandy or rocky coastal islets, coastal spits, lagoon mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or islets in saltpans and sewage works (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in dense colonies (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986) with neighbouring nests very close together (rims may be touching) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and usually forages within 3 km of the breeding colony (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003263		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.150,000-1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003263		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to human disturbance (e.g. tourism) at breeding colonies on offshore islands (Benoit and Bretagnolle 2002) which can lead to nest desertion and increased predation of eggs and nestlings by gulls and ibises (Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1990). The species is also threatened by injury and mortality from entanglement with baited hooks, fishing lines, nets and human refuse (e.g. plastic bags) (Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1990). <B>Utilisation</B> Most breeding colonies of this species are subject to subsistence egg collecting (de Korte 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003264		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Matsu colony and surrounding islands were declared a national nature reserve in 2000 and eight islets have been declared 'preserved areas', with no-one allowed to land during the breeding season (Chang Shouhwa  and Wang Dustin  2008)<strong></strong>. The Taiwanese Coast Guard patrols waters around the Matsu Islands and has recently begun seizing fishermen's nets if they are caught egg-collecting - this appears to be a major deterrent as there has been no recorded egg loss since (Anon 2007b)<strong></strong>. Reclamation at Min Jiang estuary was halted in 2006 and the site is now a provincial-level reserve (F. Morning <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In Thailand, it is nationally protected, and the locality where it was historically recorded is protected as the Laem Talumphuk Non-Hunting Area. A Special International Meeting of the Pacific Seabird Group was held in Lukang, Taiwan, in October 2007, at which the Chinese Crested Tern Working Group was formed and various conservation actions were discussed (Anon. 2007b). An 18-month 'Critically Endangered Chinese Crested Tern' project began in July 2008, aiming to locate undiscovered breeding colonies and feeding areas in Fujian Province, and is also conducting education and awareness work at schools and local communities around key sites in northern Fujian, and raising awareness of the need for strengthened law enforcement and other actions among stakeholders in Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces (BirdLife International 2009)<strong></strong>. In April 2009, 20 participants attended the Chinese Crested Tern Conservation Meeting across the Taiwan Straits in Fuzhou City, Fujian (Cheung 2010). Amongst the coordinated conservation actions agreed were synchronised surveys to be carried out twice a month from June to August 2009 in the Matsu Islands and Min Jiang estuary to confirm the total number of individuals off the coast of Fujian, surveys for new breeding sites along the eastern coast of mainland China in the next few years, and investigation of migration routes and basic training for nature reserve staff and volunteers. A public seminar and photo exhibition were held in the public library of Fujian in the same month to raise awareness of the species and major threats. In October 2009, further awareness-raising activities were conducted in schools in coastal areas of Zhejiang and Fujian (Cheung 2010). Environmental education work is on-going (Hong Kong Bird Watching Society <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In November 2009, an international symposium on the Chinese Crested Tern was held in the Matsu Islands and was attended by almost 100 delegates (Chen Shuihua 2009, Gill 2010). A Species Action Plan was published in 2010 (Chan <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>A CMS International Single Species Action Plan (Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) recommended a number of actions, including to: Conduct surveys at its former localities, both in the presumed breeding and non-breeding ranges, and at other potentially suitable breeding sites in China. Take immediate conservation measures to safeguard any sites found, especially nesting colonies. Upgrade the level of protection afforded to Min Jiang Estuary. Monitor the known breeding colonies, while taking care to avoid disturbance. Enforce a ban on landing on the breeding islands. Stop exploitation of the species, ensuring no eggs are taken - posting a warden at the Matsu Islands would be ideal; however this may not currently be possible for political reasons. Survey potential wintering areas and migration sites, including islands in the Seram Sea and Banda Sea (Robson 2011). Lobby to reduce the amount of pollution from industry. Strengthen the species's legal protection status. Conduct an education/awareness raising campaign to raise the profile of the species. Implementation of suggested actions is needed by all range countries. Study the species's breeding ecology, movements and genetic diversity (Liu Yang  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Monitor the breeding colony on the Wusishan Archipelago.<p></p>
106003264		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna bernsteini</em> is an exceptionally poorly-known species, recorded breeding recently at only two sites on the eastern coast of <strong>China</strong>: Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces and, outside the breeding season, in <strong>Indonesia</strong>, Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Taiwan (China)</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong> and the <strong>Philippines</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). In June-July 1937, a total of 21 specimens were collected on islets off the coast of Shandong, where it was presumably breeding, indicating that it was locally not uncommon in the past; however, surveys conducted in June-July 2006 suggest that the regional breeding population has been extirpated from the coast of southern Shandong (Chen Shuihua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Liu Yang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Until the rediscovery of the breeding sites on Matsu Islands, Fujian and Jiushan Islands, Zhejiang, the only records were from China, in Hebei in 1978 and Shandong in 1991, with a possible record from peninsular Thailand in 1980. However, in summer 2000 four adults and four chicks were found amongst a colony of other tern species on an island in the Matsu Archipelago off the east coast of mainland China (but administered by Taipei). Birds failed to breed the next year but were present again in 2002 (S. Liao<em> in litt.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>, and sighted again in 2008. In 2003, young and downy chicks were seen with adult birds, and in 2006, 5-7 birds, including a pair of adults and a juvenile were present (Candido 2006)<strong></strong>, with a total of 20, including three chicks, reported in 2008 (<strong></strong>Hansbro <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. A small group was also found breeding at Jiushan off the Zhejiang coast in 2004 (Kejia <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, but none bred there in 2005 or 2006; four pairs were recorded in 2007 but all eggs were collected by local people (Chen Shuihua 2007)<strong></strong>. One to 11 birds (thought to be birds from the Matsu colony) are present from April to September at the Min Jiang estuary, Fujian. Since 2008, a small number of putative hybrid <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bernsteini</span> x <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bergii</span> birds have also been recorded and photographed at Min Jiang estuary (Chen Lin and He Fenqi 2011), with two recorded at the Mazu Archipelago in June 2011 (Wang Jianhua and He Fenqi in press). It is thought that the species's known population can be divided into three small flocks: the Taiwan Straits flock, Zhoushan Archipelago flock and northern Chinese coast flock (Jiang Hangdong  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Surveys of the coasts of Shandong and Zhejiang in 2003-2007 suggested that the breeding colonies on the Matsu and Jiushan Islands were the only ones still extant (Chen Shuishua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). However, four adults, considered to be a former breeding group of the  Jiushan birds, successfully fledged two juveniles in 2008 from the  Zhoushan Wusishan Archipelago nature reserve (Shuihua Chen 2008, Chen  Shuihua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), with two pairs present in 2009 (Chen Shuihua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)<strong></strong>. In addition, a record of three birds at Rizhao, southern Shandong, in September 2011  adds support to the theory that another flock still exists along the coast of northern China (Qin Yupin and He Fenqi 2011), although these may be post-breeding stragglers from a known colony (Liu Yang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There is also a very northern record from Tangu, Tianjin, in September 2008 (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Liu Yang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species's movements and wintering grounds remain poorly understood, but heightened awareness in Taiwan<strong> </strong>(China) has resulted in several records of 1-2 birds using the Pachang River outside the breeding season since 1998 (<strong></strong>P. Kennerley <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, and more recently in 2004 at Chongming Dongtan National Nature Reserve, Shanghai (Kejia <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, and the Xisha Archipelago, indicating that it may winter around islands in the South China Sea. An individual was recorded on Palau Lusaolate, north Seram, Indonesia in December 2010 (C. Robson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, Robson 2011). Its current population is unknown, but is presumably tiny given the paucity of recent records. <p></p>
106003264		habitat	eng	Records indicate that it is exclusively coastal and pelagic in distribution. In China (including Taiwan), it has been found on offshore islets (breeding) and tidal mudflats. <p></p>
106003264		population	eng	Based on the   paucity of recent records and tiny number of known breeding pairs (c.10 pairs   annually) the global population is thought to be tiny (fewer than 50   individuals and mature individuals).
106003264		threats	eng	Many coastal wetlands in its presumed breeding range in eastern China are affected by large-scale development projects and, in China, seabirds are exploited for food. The apparent extirpation of the population that formerly bred along the coast of southern Shandong is thought to be linked to the colonisation and development of its breeding islands since the 1950s (Liu Yang  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Breeding failures in 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2005 at the Matsu tern colonies, and in 2007 in Zheijang Province may have been attributed to fishermen landing to collect shellfish and tern eggs (Candido 2006, Anon 2007a, Chen Shuishua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong> and this is probably by far the most serious immediate threat to the species. The going rate for one seabird egg in Zhejiang more than doubled between 2005 and 2007, encouraging more people to enter the egg-collecting trade (Anon 2007a)<strong></strong>. Putative <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bernsteini</span> x <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bergii</span> hybrids have been recorded and photographed at Min Jiang estuary since 2008 at least, thus hybridisation may be a significant threat to the population (Chen Lin and He Fenqi 2011). Oil spills are another potentially serious threat: a partly-oiled pair were present on the Min Jiang estuary in 2010 (P. Morris <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Rats are possibly present on Matsu and may predate nesting terns (Anon 2007b)<strong></strong>. Given its tiny population, natural disasters represent an additional threat, with tern colonies on the Jiushan Islands devastated by two large typhoons in August 2004 (Chen Shuishua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Over-fishing and disturbance associated with fishing activities and tourism are additional potential threats (Chen Shuishua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The potential threat from the impact of pollution from domestic sewage and industrial effluent on the species's food supply is no longer considered likely (I. C. T. Nisbet <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003265		distribution	eng	The Sandwich Tern can be found in Europe, Africa, western Asia, and the southern Americas. It breeds seasonally on the coast of much of Europe east to the Caspian Sea, wintering from the Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Seas to the coasts of western and southern Africa, and from the south Red Sea to north-west <B>India</B> and <B>Sri Lanka</B>. In the Americas, it breeds from Virginia to Texas (<B>USA</B>), on the coasts of the Yucatan Peninsula, Lesser Antilles, Venezuala, <B>French Guiana</B>, eastern <B>Brazil</B> and <B>Argentina</B>. It winters from Texas, USA down to southern <B>Argentina</B>, in the Greater Antilles and from southern <B>Mexico</B> down to northern <B>Chile<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003265		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is migratory, undergoing post-breeding dispersive movements north and south to favoured feeding grounds before migrating southward (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds in dense colonies with other terns or Black-headed Gulls <I>Larus ridibundus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is gregarious throughout the year, often forming feeding flocks where prey is abundant or concentrated (although it may also feed solitarily) (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season the species forms colonies on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes, shingle beaches and extensive deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998) with immediate access to clear waters with shallow sandy substrates rich in surface-level fish (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for raised, open, unvegetated sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates for nesting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents sandy or rocky beaches, mudflats fringed by mangroves, estuaries, harbours and bays, often feeding over inlets and at sea (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of surface-dwelling marine fish (Snow and Perrins 1998) 9-15 cm long (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) as well as small shrimps, marine worms and shorebird nestlings (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on raised, open, unvegetated sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates preferably far from upright vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes and shingle beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species forms very dense colonies during the breeding season in which the eggs of neighbouring pairs may only be 20 cm apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> The species responds favourably to habitat management such as vegetation clearance, and can be readily attracted to suitable nesting habitats by the use of decoys (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992). A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996).<B></B>
106003265		threats	eng	The species is particularly vulnerable to human disturbance (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. from tourists) especially near breeding colonies on beaches early in the breeding season (Bourne and Smith 1974). It is also sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004). It is threatened by the loss or degradation of its favoured breeding habitats through inundation, wind-blown sand and erosion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and has suffered previous local declines from to exposure to bioaccumulated organochlorine pollutants in marine fish (Koeman <I>et al.</I> 1967, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Egg collecting at breeding colonies also poses a threat to the species throughout the tropics (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted in West Africa during the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003266		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Breeding pairs are known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992) and nesting-boxes provided (chicks may also use nest-boxes as shelters if adults do not nest in them directly) (Avery <em>et al.</em> 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Casey <em>et al.</em> 1995, Newton and Crowe 2000, Environment Canada 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increased breeding successes can also be gained through nest-site vegetation management (Newton and Crowe 2000<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Casey <em>et al.</em> 1995), landscaping (e.g. creating terraces or infilling flooded hollows), flood prevention<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Newton and Crowe 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and continuous wardening to minimise unauthorised disturbance (Newton and Crowe 2000<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Casey <em>et al.</em> 1995). Non-lethal predator control (e.g. destroying eggs and nests of gull species attempting to nest on islands) can also be successful in increasing the overall breeding success of the species<strong> </strong>(Environment Canada 2000, Leonard <em>et al.</em> 2004<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Casey <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p><strong></strong>
106003266		distribution	eng	<I>Sterna dougallii</I> breeds in widely but sparsely distributed colonies along the east coast and offshore islands of <B>Canada</B>, <B>USA</B>, from <B>Honduras</B> to <B>Venezuela</B>, possibly to <B>Brazil</B>, the Caribbean (including the <B>Bahamas</B>, Greater and Lesser Antilles and the West Indies), <B>UK</B>, <B>France</B>, <B>Ireland</B>, <B>Portugal</B> (Azores, Salvages and perhaps Madeira), <B>Spain</B> (Canary Islands), <B>South Africa</B>, <B>Kenya</B>, <B>Somalia</B>, <B>Madagascar</B>, <B>Oman</B>, <B>Seychelles</B>, St Brandon and the Mascarene Islands (<B>Mauritius</B>), <B>Maldives</B>, Chagos (<B>British Indian Ocean Territory</B>), Andaman and Nicobar Islands (<B>India</B>), <B>Sri Lanka</B>, Ryukyu Islands (<B>Japan</B>), <B>Indonesia</B>, <B>Fiji</B>, <B>Solomon Islands</B>, New Guinea (<B>Papua New Guinea</B>), <B>New</B> <B>Caledonia</B> (<B>to France</B>)<B> </B>and<B> Australia</B> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has a large global population estimated to be 78,000-82,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002). The population in North America underwent a significant decline in 40 years, decreasing from 8,500 pairs in the early 1930s to 2,500 in 1978 (Brown and Nettleship 1984). Numbers, however, appear to have stabilised at 3,000 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In Nova Scotia, the decline was from 200 to 32 pairs (Brown and Nettleship 1984). Between 1969 and 1992, the UK population declined from 1,018 pairs to 57, and pairs in Ireland dropped from 1,435 to 454 (Sprunt 1984). In 1995, however, over 1,700 pairs bred in Europe. The French population is 100-110 pairs which may be a decline from c.500 in 1973. The large Azores population has fluctuated between 550 and 1,028 pairs from 1989/90 to 1995 (Snow and Perrins 1998). The tropical Indian Ocean may be the most secure region for this species (Feare 1984). The species is threatened by a number of agents of which hunting in the wintering quarters may be the most significant (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984, Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995). Trapping of tern species is still prevalent in <B>Ghana</B>, which has the highest number of wintering <I>S. dougalli</I> of the western African countries (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995). At the northern European breeding grounds it is not clear which threats are having the most impact. Disturbance and egg-collecting have been stopped in most areas by the use of wardens, but the former still threatens some major colonies in the Azores. Predation by rats, ferrets, red foxes and Peregrine Falcon <I>Falco peregrinus</I> occurs locally, and can have significant effects, including complete breeding failure at some Azores colonies (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995). Natural predators can often take a great toll on localised colonies, particularly when terns are disturbed from the nest by other birds and humans (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984). Habitat loss in northern Europe is not a major problem but has caused the local extinction of some colonies, as have extreme weather events (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
106003266		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The Roseate Tern is a migratory coastal seabird that feeds by plunge diving. It dives from a greater height than other terns. The species breeds in large, dense single- or mixed-species colonies that may contain several thousands of pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It remains gregarious throughout the year, roosting in large groups (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998) and feeding singly, in small loose groups (Snow and Perrins 1998) or in flocks of many hundreds of individuals (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, Snow and Perrins 1998). It is regularly found in mixed species flocks with Lesser Noddy (<I>Anous</I> <I>tenuirostris</I>) and White Tern (<I>Gygis alba</I>) (Ramos 2000). When mixing with the former in conjunction with predatory fish, breeding success was markedly better (Ramos 2000). Large, dense foraging flocks are associated with higher rates of chick feeding (Ramos 2000). <B>Habitat</B> The species nests on sand-dunes, sand-spits, shingle beaches, reefs (Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes and rocky, sandy or coral islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), showing a preference for densely vegetated sites in temperate regions but sparsely vegetated sites in the tropics (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also shows a preference for nest sites close to clear, shallow, sandy fishing grounds (Snow and Perrins 1998) in tidal bays and sheltered inshore waters (Snow and Perrins 1998). Throughout the year the species often rests and forages in sheltered estuaries, creeks (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986), inshore waters and up to several kilometres offshore (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), moving to warm tropical coasts after breeding (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> This species is a specialist forager, and takes a small prey spectrum compared to Common Tern at the same sites (Birdlife International 2000). Its diet consists predominantly of small pelagic fish (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), particularly sandeel (Birdlife International 2000, Newton and Crowe 2000) and sprat (Birdlife International 2000) and sometimes clupeids (Birdlife International 2000, Newton and Crowe 2000)and gadoids (Newton and Crowe 2000), although it will also take insects and marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as crustaceans (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). Sandeel are particularly important during chick rearing (Newton and Crowe 2000). In Puerto Rico, adult Roseate Terns fed primarily on dwarf herrings (<I>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</I>) and anchovies (<I>Anchoa</I> spp.), and chicks were mostly fed dwarf herrings and sardines (<I>Harengula</I> and <I>Opisthonema</I> spp.); few anchovies were fed to chicks (Shealer 1998). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a bare scrape in sand, shingle or coral rubble (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), preferably in sites surrounded by walls and rocks (Newton and Crowe 2000) or in the shelter of vegetation (in temperate regions) (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), also in crevices between and under rocks, or in the entrances to rabbit or Puffin burrows (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Foraging range </B>At various colonies in New York, USA, birds were observed to forage at sites up to 30 km away from their breeding colony, although at most sites, most birds foraged within 10 km (Birdlife International 2000). Similarly, in Massachusetts, USA, birds foraged at up to 30 km from the breeding colony (Shealer 1996). However, in Puerto Rico birds fed within 2 km of the colony (Shealer 1998). In Ireland, birds at Lady's Island Lake tended to forage about 5 km from the colony at a site 3 km offshore (Newton and Crowe 2000). At Rockabill, Ireland, during chick rearing, birds fed within 10 km of the colony in offshore, relatively deep water (20 - 30 m), but during incubation and post-fledging they appeared to be travelling tens of kilometres to feed over sandbanks to the south (Newton and Crowe 2000). The species may be either coastal or more pelagic in nature, depending on the colony location (Newton and Crowe 2000). Throughout their range they forage in habitats where prey availability is high. Temperate populations feed over tide rips (Birdlife International 2000), shoals (Birdlife International 2000, Environment Canada 2006), inlets (Birdlife International 2000), upwelling areas, and predatory fish that force prey to the surface (Ramos 2000). In Puerto Rico, Roseate Terns feed primarily in deep, open water, and rely heavily on predatory fish to drive prey fish to the surface (Shealer 1998). In the Caribbean, they feed primarily over shoals of predatory fish or along reef margins (Birdlife International 2000). In North American parts of the north-west Atlantic, Roseate Terns appear to use one of two strategies: either foraging over tide-rips, sand shoals and sandbars (Safina 1990, Shealer 1996, Gochfeld <I>et</I> <I>al</I>. 1998), in some cases up to 20-30 km from the colony, or more pelagically in deeper water over schools of predatory fish which flush prey fish species to the surface (Shealer 1996, Gochfeld <I>et</I> <I>al</I>. 1998). Where predatory fish are not relied upon, the birds forage over sandy substrates (Sheer and Kress 1994) in water under 10 m deep (Safina 1990, Sheer and Kress 1994). On Aride Island, Seychelles, birds concentrated their foraging along the coastline exposed to prevailing winds (Ramos 2000). <B>
106003266		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.70,000-82,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003266		threats	eng	The species is threatened by a number of agents, of which hunting in the wintering quarters may be the most significant (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984, Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995) (e.g. hunting for food and sport in South America and West Africa) (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Trapping of tern species is still prevalent in Ghana, which has the highest number of wintering <I>S. dougalli </I>of the western African countries (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995). At the northern European breeding grounds, the most significant threats are human disturbance (e.g. from habitat development, off-road vehicles and recreation (Buckley and Buckley 1984, van Halewyn and Norton 1984)) and predation from both natural and introduced avian and ground predators (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984, van Halewyn and Norton 1984, Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995, Snow and Perrins 1998). Disturbance and egg-collecting have been stopped in most areas by the use of wardens, but disturbance still threatens some major colonies in the Azores, whilst egg collecting occurs at some colonies (e.g. in East Africa and the Caribbean) (van Halewyn and Norton 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Predation by rats, ferrets, red foxes and Peregrine Falcon (<I>Falco</I> <I>peregrinus</I>) occurs locally, and can have significant effects, including complete breeding failure at some Azores colonies (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995). Natural predators can often take a great toll on localised colonies, particularly when terns are disturbed from the nest by other birds and humans (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper <I>et al.</I> 1984). Habitat loss in northern Europe is not a major problem but has caused the local extinction of some colonies, as have extreme weather events (Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995).<I> </I>The species is also vulnerable to pollution and disease (Brown and Nettleship 1984, Avery <I>et al.</I> 1995, Environment Canada 2000).
106003267		distribution	eng	The White-fronted Tern is native to south-west Australasia, breeding on the North and South Island of <B>New Zealand</B>, Stewart Island, the Chatham, Auckland and Snares Islands off the coast of New Zealand, and Flinders and Cape Barren Island off the north-east of Tasmania. It is also a winter visitor to <B>Australia</B>, from south Queensland to Tasmania and west to South Australia.  </P>
106003267		habitat	eng	This species can be found in coastal areas, nesting on rocky or sandy beaches and shingle islands in rivers, also on coastal cliffs and deserted barges, often close to the surf. It feeds along the shore and in bays, and over oceanic waters in winter. It feeds almost exclusively on fish but will also take shrimp, feeding in the surf zone or several kilometres out to see. It often feeds in flocks, plunge-diving from 7-10 metres with or without hovering. It also feeds but contact-dipping, and is frequently victimised by skuas. It lays from October to December with most colonies containing 100-500 pairs, although solitary pairs are recorded at the edges of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003268		distribution	eng	This species ranges in tropical and subtropical areas of the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. In the western Indian Ocean it breeds on the Aldabra and Amirante Islands, <strong>Seychelles</strong>, Chagos Islands (<strong>British Indian Ocean Territory</strong>) and the <strong>Maldives</strong> and can be found on the eastern African coast. Its range in the eastern Indian Ocean and Pacific ecompasses the Andaman Islands, <strong>India</strong>, east to southern <strong>Japan</strong> and <strong>China</strong>, south through <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, the <strong>Philippenes</strong> and <strong>New Guinea</strong> to north-east <strong>Australia</strong> and some islands in the western-central Pacific (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003268		habitat	eng	This species frequents small offshore islands, reeds, sand spits and rocky cays, feeding in atoll lagoons and close inshore over breakers, but sometimes also at sea. It feeds mainly on small fish and will almost always forage singly by shallow plunge-diving or surface-diving. Its breeding season varies depending on locality, usually forming small colonies of 5 to 20 pairs, but sometimes up to 200 pairs. Colonies are often monospecific and formed on unlined depression in the sand or in gravel pockets on coral banks close to the high tide line (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003269		distribution	eng	This species breeds on the coasts of southern Peru and Esp&iacute;rito Santo, east-central Brazil south to Tierra del Fuego, Argentina and Chile, and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Duffy et al. 1984, Schlatter 1984, Woods 1988, De Tarso Zuquim Antas 1991). In the austral winter, most birds breeding in the extreme south move north to Uruguay (where breeding remains unconfirmed), and the species also winters north to Ecuador and Bahia, Brazil (Antas 1991). There are also large colonies on inshore islands in Guanabara Bay and off the Esp&iacute;rito Santo coast, Brazil (Antas 1991). The population on the Falkland Islands was recently estimated at 6,000-12,000 pairs (Woods and Woods 1997), and a colony exceeding 1,000 pairs was discovered in south Peru in 1995 (del Hoyo et al. 1996), where it is fairly common (Clements and Shany 2001). However, although formerly locally common in Chile, only two breeding sites are now known (Damas Island and Inutil Bay near Porvenir), and extensive searches to locate former colonies between 1994 and 1997 were unsuccessful (Mickstein in litt. 1998).  </P>
106003269		habitat	eng	The species is almost exclusively coastal, breeding on rocky or sandy beaches, cliff tops and small islands. Non-breeders frequent coastal waters, beaches, estuaries and harbours. It feeds mainly on small fish and crustaceans and probably also takes insects. Laying occurs in April-June in Brazil, early November in north Argentina and early December in south Argentina. Two to three eggs are laid (del Hoyo et al. 1996).<B>  </P>
106003269		threats	eng	Tourism may be responsible for the decline of the Chilean population, with a breeding colony at Lake Calafquen apparently deserted due to disturbance from bathing tourists and water bikes (Mickstein in litt. 1998). Tourism has also increased markedly on the Argentinean coast, and this has presumably had a detrimental effect on at least some breeding colonies (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Egg collecting is also a problem at colonies in Espírito Santo, Brazil (Antas 1991), and may have contributed to the decline of the Chilean population (Mickstein in litt. 1998). Commercial fishing and industry are considered potential threats to the Falkland Islands population (Woods and Woods 1997).
106003270		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Management techniques used to increase the breeding numbers and reproductive success of the species in the Great Lakes region of North America include creating artificial nesting sites, vegetation management, enhancement of existing nesting habitat, using models and vocalisation to attract breeding pairs and predator control (e.g. mammal-exclusion, destruction of gull nests, direct predator removal, or preventative measures against gull nesting) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991)<strong></strong>. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites (Fasola and Canova 1996)<strong></strong>. Artificial nesting rafts have proved effective in promoting breeding success in areas where there is a lack of suitable nesting habitat or where human disturbance is a particular threat (1996) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). Using fire to expose the ground surface in areas where vegetation succession is proceeding too far towards closed vegetation stages has been successful in some areas (Hyde 1997). Culling predatory gulls can be an effective management tool to enhance breeding productivity (Guillemette and Brousseau 2001), although some management plans recommend non-lethal harassment techniques that target gulls (e.g. egg and nest destruction, conspicuous human observers, gull displacement walks, and pyrotechnics) to reduce predation on nesting colonies rather than culling (Donehower <em>et al.</em> 2007). <p></p><strong></strong>
106003270		distribution	eng	The Common Tern has a circumpolar distribution and can be found breeding in most of Europe, Asia and North America except the extreme north and south. It winters further south, being found along the coast and inland of South America down to the <B>Falkland Islands</B> (<B>Islas Malvinas</B>), along the coast of Africa excluding the north, along parts of the Arabian Peninsula and the whole coast of <B>India</B>, and throughout much of south-east Asia and Australasia (excluding New Zealand) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003270		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a strongly migratory coastal seabird (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds between April and June in solitary pairs or colonially in groups of up to several thousand pairs (inland colonies often smaller and more widely-dispersed than coastal ones) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Palearctic breeders migrate south after breeding between August and October, returning to the breeding grounds in March or April (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species may moult on arrival in its the wintering grounds (e.g. the Caribbean), during which it may become vulnerable to human exploitation (van Halewyn and Norton 1984). It is gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998) and shoals of fish may attract dense feeding flocks, although it otherwise feeds singly or in small loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). In some cases, it is territorial; in Massachusetts, feeding territories usually consist of linear strips of shoreline which are occupied and defended regularly by both members of a pair. The prevalence of territoriality at feeding sites varies between colonies and is related to food species availability (Nisbet 1983). Most individuals forage 5-10 km from breeding colonies, occasionally feeding at sea 15 km offshore (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Common Terns forage over fresh water as well as marine habitats, and often follow predatory fish , waiting for panicking baitfish to surface. They sometimes forage in mixed-species flocks together with other terns (Safina 1990, Brenninkmeijer <I>et al. </I>2002).<B> Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds in a wide variety of habitats in coastal and inland areas from sea-level to heights of greater than 4,000 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Along the coast it shows a preference for nesting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands (Snow and Perrins 1998), open shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), vegetated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996)and coastal lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), mainland peninsulas (Snow and Perrins 1998) and grassy plateaus atop coastal cliffs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Inland it may nest in similar habitats including sand or shingle lakes shores (Richards 1990), shingle banks in rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), sand- or gravel-pits (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), marshes, ponds, grassy areas and patches of dredged soil (Snow and Perrins 1998).<B> </B><I>Non-breeding</I> The species winters on sheltered coastal waters (Higgins and Davies 1996), estuaries and along large rivers, occupying harbours, jetties, piers, beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and coastal wetlands including lagoons, rivers, lakes, swamps and saltworks, mangroves and saltmarshes (Higgins and Davies 1996). During this season it roosts on unvegetated sandy beaches, shores of estuaries or lagoons, sandbars and rocky shores (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is opportunistic, its diet consisting predominantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic crustaceans and insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow depression on open substrates with little or no vegetation placed near a vertical object (e.g. rock, shell, plant or artefact) to provide shelter for chicks and to facilitate nest identification (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Nest sites include the edges of bare sand amongst vegetation, rocks or logs, open areas on the margins of vegetation on beaches, the edges of mats of vegetation in marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and grassy or rocky substrates on rocky islets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species will also readily nest on artificial rafts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Foraging range </B>Studies have observed foraging birds at up to 37 km from the nearest colony (Cramp 1985, BirdLife International 2000). However, although Common Terns tend to range further than Roseate Terns (BirdLife International 2000), most are observed within 10 km of a breeding colony (Becker <I>et al.</I> 1993, Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1998, Newton and Crowe 1999). At various sites, visual observations e.g. of direction of flight also suggest that most feeding trips are to sites within 10 km of the colony (Hopkins and Wiley 1972, Duffy 1986, Uttley <I>et al.</I> 1989, Burness <I>et al.</I> 1994, BirdLife International 2000), although birds in these studies were recorded at a maximum of 18 km from the colony (Duffy 1986). Radio-tagging at the Wadden Sea has shown that birds forage at a mean radius of at least 6.3 km (Becker <I>et al.</I> 1993), although the total distance travelled by individuals on these foraging trips is much greater, around 26-30 km. In Massachusetts, feeding territories tend to be located in shallow water up to 75 m from shore, and may be at least 8.5 km away from the breeding colony (Lemmetyinen 1973, Nisbet 1983, BirdLife International 2000), as well as areas where depth changes abruptly and tidal currents are strong, which presumably produces much upwelling and mixing of cold, deep water with warmer surface water (Safina 1990). Birds lower the rate at which they attempt to forage when windspeed is high (Taylor 1983).
106003270		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,600,000-4,600,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003270		threats	eng	During the breeding season the species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Blokpoel and Scharf 1991) (e.g. from off-road vehicles, recreation, motor-boats, personal watercraft and dogs) (van Halewyn and Norton 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hyde 1997, Burger 1998), and to the flooding of nest sites as a result of naturally fluctuating water levels (Buckley and Buckley 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hyde 1997). On its breeding grounds the species is also threatened by habitat loss as a result of coastal developement (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hyde 1997), erosion (Hyde 1997), vegetation overgrowth (rapid vegetation succession encroaching upon nesting habitats) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hyde 1997), and chemical pollution (which may also result in eggshell thinning) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hyde 1997). It suffers predation at nesting colonies from rats (especially on islands) (Buckley and Buckley 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and from expanding populations of large gull species (Brown and Nettleship 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) such as Herring Gulls <I>Larus argentatus</I> (Buckley and Buckley 1984) (gulls may also prevent the species from nesting in the area by colonising it first) (Blokpoel and Scharf 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is harvested semi-commercially on its wintering grounds in the Caribbean (van Halewyn and Norton 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003271		distribution	eng	The Arctic Tern has a circumpolar range, breeding in the Arctic and subarctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America as far south as Brittany, <B>France</B> and Massachusetts (<B>USA</B>). It is a transequatorial migrant, and can be found wintering throughout the Southern Ocean to the edge of the Antarctic ice and the southern tips of South America and Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Overall population trends are relatively unknown, though the 2008 breeding season in the  north of the United Kingdom was reported to be a failure by the RSPB.
106003271		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The species is a very strong migrant and makes exceptional long-distance movements offshore or along western continental coastlines (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Melville and Shortridge 2006) between its high Arctic breeding grounds and Antarctic wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds between May and July (although the exact timing varies with temperature and food availability) in solitary pairs or colonies of a few to several hundred pairs (usually 2-25) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and remains gregarious throughout the year especially when roosting, foraging (Snow and Perrins 1998) and on passage (Higgins and Davies 1996). The species generally feeds within 3 km of breeding colonies but may occasionally forage up to 50 km away (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On its wintering grounds in Antarctica it may also forage in association with Antarctic Minke Whale <I>Balaenoptera bonaerensis</I> in the open ocean north of the pack-ice zone (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds along northern coastlines (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996)and on inshore islands (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998) as well as inland on tundra and forest-tundra (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). It shows a preference for habitats with a vegetation cover of less than 40 %, nesting on sand or shingle beaches, ridges (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and spits (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), rocky ground (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and small islands (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) in lakes and coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may also nest on islets or banks along rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), on swampy tundra (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and peatlands with bog hummocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and reed-covered flats (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), or on inland heaths, rough pastures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and sedge grassland (Snow and Perrins 1998) not far from water (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). The species also forages offshore, in ice-filled coastal bays or over wet tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage it largely flies over open ocean (Snow and Perrins 1998) resting at sea on kelp, logs or flotsam, but may occur inland or along coastlines on beaches, reefs and spits (Higgins and Davies 1996). During the winter the species is pelagic, foraging at the edges of pack-ice, icebergs and ice-floes near shore (especially in channels between ice-floes) (Higgins and Davies 1996) and up to 24 km offshore (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) often in association with Antarctic Minke Whale <I>Balaenoptera bonaerensis</I> (Higgins and Davies 1996). It also roosts on ice-floes and icebergs during this season (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish<B></B>as well as crustaceans (especially planktonic species), molluscs, insects (e.g. caterpillars, Chironomidae) and earthworms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It will also take berries in the early spring on arrival on its breeding grounds but does not readily switch to other prey items when preferred prey supplies fail (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in sand, shingle or turf (Richards 1990) on beaches, ridges (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and spits (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), rocky ground (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), small islands (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) in lakes, coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998), swampy tundra (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and peatlands with bog hummocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and reed-covered flats (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), or on inland heaths, rough pastures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and sedge grassland (Snow and Perrins 1998) not far from water (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). It will also nest on artificial structures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> Removing feral American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species in the area (Nordstrom <I>et al.</I> 2003). Gull control measures may also be practised successfully at some sites to reduce predation and displacement, especially when carried out in conjunction with the use of recordings and models to induce recolonistion of nesting terns (Buckley and Buckley 1984).
106003271		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.2,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   (Brazil 2009).
106003271		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10<sup>o</sup> latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (Birdlife International, unpublished data).
106003272		distribution	eng	The Antarctic Tern can be found breeding on a large number of islands in the Southern Oceans and off the coast of Antarctica. Some birds from the south of its range have been found wintering on the coast of <B>Argentina</B> and <B>South Africa<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003272		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Breeding populations in the southern part of this species's range are migratory, post-breeding flocks migrating long distances to winter off the southern coasts of South America and South Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Those populations that winter in South America arrive from mid April and depart again from mid-October, during which time the adults moult their flight feathers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Some populations around Antarctica remain close to their breeding grounds all year round however and moult on ice-floes or icebergs on open water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds between November and December although the exact timing varies depending on climate and food availability (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It usually nests in small loose colonies of 5-20 pairs although it may often nest singly and has been known to nest in larger colonies of up to 1,000 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It forages in inshore waters singly or in small flocks (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and in the winter communal roosts of 10-1,200 individuals often form (Urban <I>et al.</I> 1986). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on rocky areas very near the coast or a short distance inland (Higgins and Davies 1996), showing a strong preference for nesting sites that are inaccessible to ground predators (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Suitable nesting habitats include vegetated or unvegetated rocky islets, offshore stacks, coastal cliffs, gravel, rocky and sandy beaches and sparse scrubland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species forages in inshore waters up to 200 m from the shore and in coves, bays, inlets, harbours and off estuaries, especially where there are large forests of kelp (Higgins and Davies 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species moves to the nearest area of open water or to pelagic zones far from land (Higgins and Davies 1996) where it forms communal roosts on ice-floes and icebergs (Higgins and Davies 1996) and forages in patches of unfrozen inshore water or in open water along the edge of ice. More migratory populations also winter off the temperate southern coasts of South America and South Africa with adjacent cold water currents (Higgins and Davies 1996), inhabiting rocky headlands and beaches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish although it also takes polychaetes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), molluscs (Higgins and Davies 1996) (e.g. limpets) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), crustaceans (e.g. euphausiids and amphipods), insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and algae (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests in natural depressions in rock or in shallow scrapes in soil, sand or vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) that may be positioned on ledges or crevices of sheer cliffs, boulders at the base of cliffs, headlands, stacks, rocky islets, ridges, spits and peninsulas, rock fields by freshwater, and beaches of gravel, coarse shingle and sand (Higgins and Davies 1996).
106003272		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to human disturbance and to the introduction of ground-based predators on offshore islands including domestic or feral cats <I>Felis catus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and rats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003273		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The introduction of salmonid fish into rivers on Kerguelen has provided a new source of food. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reassess the population size on Kerguelen (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species on Kerguelen during a breeding season (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent the introduction of feral cats and other predators to breeding colonies.   <p></p>
106003273		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna virgata</em> breeds in the southern Indian Ocean on the Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>) (10-40 pairs on Marion Island during 1996-1999, 12-56 pairs during 1998-2009 without any apparent trend [Whittington <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009], 20 pairs on Prince Edward Island [Barnes 2000]<strong></strong> although only a single nest located in 2008 survey [Whittington <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009]), Crozet Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) (150-200 pairs over 1980-1982) and Kerguelen Islands (also French Southern Territories) (1,000-2,000 pairs during 1982-1985). The total population is estimated at 3,500-6,500 individuals (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1988, Thibault and Guyst 1993)<strong></strong>. There are no recent counts from the main breeding area on Kerguelen (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong> and thus population trends are unknown, but it is assumed that the species is not undergoing any significant decline.  <p></p>
106003273		habitat	eng	This species is apparently sedentary, dispersing only to seas adjacent to its breeding islands outside the breeding season (Harrison 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits rocky, volcanic islands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species feeds on fish and crustaceans in seaweed <em>Macrocystis</em> beds, the surf zone, and in shallow water close to shore, also foraging in terrestrial vegetation for invertebrates (Sagar 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds in scree and sparse vegetation on cliff-tops and river flats (Weimerskirch and Stahl 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are assembled on moss from stones and twigs and are often lined with plant material (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Egg-laying commences in mid-October, and continues until January, with a peak in breeding from early November to mid-December. One or two eggs are laid. The incubation period is 24 days, followed by a fledging period of 31-39 days and then 20 days of dependence (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003273		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at 3,500-6,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,300-4,300 mature individuals.
106003273		threats	eng	Adverse weather conditions are probably the dominant threat, with gale-force winds preventing all feeding in marine and terrestrial habitats; the timing and length of the laying season are also dependent on the weather with birds known to desert breeding colonies during storms (Weimerskirch and Stahl 1988, Sagar 1991)<strong></strong>. Although there are feral cats on Kerguelen, <em>S. virgata </em>inhabits predator-free islets around the main island and therefore predation is not considered a major threat (T. Micol <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. The decline in the small population of Prince Edward Island since 1984, runs contrary to the stable population of Marion Island, and is in stark contrast to trends in sub-Antarctic skuas, which have increased at Prince Edward Island but decreased at Marion Island, in spite of the eradication of feral cats (Whittington<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Although the principal prey species of sub-Antarctic skuas at Prince Edward Island are burrowing petrels, given the small population, the loss of only a few birds to predation by skuas could pose a significant threat (Whittington <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<p></p>
106003274		distribution	eng	Forster's Tern can be found in North and Central America, breeding seasonally in southern <B>Canada</B> and northern <B>USA</B>, wintering in south-east and coastal south-western USA, along the eastern and western coast of <B>Mexico</B> and in Central America. It can also be found year-round on the Atlantic coast of the USA from Virginia to Texas (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003274		habitat	eng	This species breeds mainly at freshwater lakes, potholes, inland and coastal marshes and salt-pold dykes, and rarely on sand, mud or rocky islets. It feeds over lakes, streams and estuaries favouring water less than 1 m deep. It feeds mainly on small fish (5-7 cm), but also aquatic insects and crustaceans. The exact composition of its diet and prey species varies depending on locality. It feeds mainly by plunge-diving or dipping from the surface, and occaisionally diving from a perch in a kingfisher-like fashion. It has been seen to maintain a breeding territory. Breeding occurs between April and May on the Gulf Coast and to late May elsewhere, forming loose colonies of 5-250 pairs, though is sometimes solitary. It prefers nesting among floating and emergent vegetations, but will also nest on boards, dredge spoil, sand or fine shell and on coarse gravel islands (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003275		distribution	eng	This species breeds in south-east <B>Brazil</B> and <B>Uruguay</B>, through to Patagonia, though rarely Santa Cruz, <B>Argentina</B>, and in <B>Chile</B> (from Aconcaqua to Llanquihue). In winter, the species moves north as far as southern <B>Peru</B> on the west coast, and Rio de Janiero, Brazil, on the east coast (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003275		habitat	eng	This species frequents fresh and saline wetlands, both coastal and inland. Its diet includes small fish and insects, feeding mainly on pejerrey in Chile. It forages over shallow clear waters on the edge of lagoons, rivers and estuaries, pluynge-diving for fish. It will also feed on plouged fields. Breeding appears to occur from October to December on vegetated lagoons, mainly in marhses but also on dykes and islands in saline lagoons. Adults will vigorously attack and even strike intruders (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003275		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003275		threats	eng	The species only nests in large wetlands, suggesting habitat loss may be a potentially serious problem (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003276		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas, erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this species on sandy beaches<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Richards 1990, Medeiros <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is also evidence that earlier breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season (Medeiros <em>et al.</em> 2007). Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992). A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites (Fasola and Canova 1996). The scheme particularly specifies that small bare islets of 0.1-0.8 ha with very reduced vegetation cover (less than 30 %) and sward heights less than 20 cm should be maintained or created as additional nesting sites for this species (Fasola and Canova 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong></strong>
106003276		distribution	eng	Breeding populations of the Little Tern can be found through much of Europe, scattering along the coast and inland in parts of Africa, in much of western, central and the extreme east and south of Asia, and in northern parts of Australasia. Migratory individuals expand the range to include most of the coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the western coast of <strong>India</strong> and most of the waters of south-east Asia and Australasia, including <strong>New Zealand</strong>. One seasonally breeding colony is also present on Hawaii (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p>
106003276		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The Little Tern is a strongly migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) coastal seabird which usually fishes in very shallow water only a few centimetres deep, often over the advancing tideline or in brackish lagoons and saltmarsh creeks. It has the most inshore distribution of all terns. It breeds between May and July (Richards 1990) in solitary pairs (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984) or small monospecific groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) usually of 1-15 pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998) (rarely over 40 pairs) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) occasionally amidst colonies of other terns (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). Breeding may be timed to coincide with peak fish abundance (Perrow et al 2006). Northern breeders depart the breeding grounds from late-July onwards (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), travelling first to moulting sites where they form large roosts before continuing southwards (Tavecchia <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species is gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998) and usually feeds singly, in small groups or larger scattered flocks (Snow and Perrins 1998) and congregating in many thousands on passage in small wetlands where fish fry are abundant (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on barren or sparsely vegetated beaches, islands and spits of sand, shingle (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), shell fragments, pebbles (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), rocks or coral fragments (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) on seashores (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984) or in estuaries, saltmarshes, saltpans, offshore coral reefs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), rivers, lakes (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) and reservoirs (de Silva 1991). It may also nest on dry mudflats in grassy areas (de Silva 1991, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) but shows a preference for islets surrounded by saline or fresh water where small fish can be caught without the need for extensive foraging flights (Snow and Perrins 1998). <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents tidal creeks, coastal lagoons and saltpans and may foraging at sea (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) up to 15 km offshore (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. <em>Ammodytes </em>spp., roach <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, rudd <em>Scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>, carp <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> and perch <em>Perca fluviatilis</em>) and crustaceans 3-6 cm long as well as insects, annelid worms and molluscs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Scotland, Little Terns feed mainly on small fish and invertebrates, including herring, sandeel, and shrimps (<em>Crangon</em> <em>vulgaris</em>) (BirdLife International 2000). In Portugal, birds were found to feed mainly on sand-smelts (<em>Atherina</em> spp.) and gobies (<em>Pomatoschistus</em> spp.), which were the most abundant fish species in the study areas (Catry et al 2006). On Rigby Island, Australia, chicks were fed entirely on juvenile fish of the families Clupeidae, Engraulidae, Pomatomidae and Carangidae, including pilchard, southern anchovy and blue sprat (Taylor and Roe 2004). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a bare scrape (Richards 1990) positioned on the ground in less than 15 % vegetation cover (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) on beaches of sand, pebbles, shingle, shell fragments, coral fragments or rock (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) above the high tide-line and often only a few metres away from shallow clear water (Snow and Perrins 1998). Alternatively in more marshy habitats (e.g. coastal saltmarshes) the species may build a nest of shells or vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species nests in small loose colonies, with neighbouring nests usually placed more than 2 m apart (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). <strong>Foraging range </strong>In Spain, 95% of foraging terns were observed less than 4 km away from the nearest colony (Bertolero et al 2005). However, the foraging range of individuals varies according to whether they are currently breeding. In Norfolk, UK, birds with an active nest occupied a range of &lt;6.3 km<sup>2</sup> with a range span of up to 4.6 km (Perrow et al 2006), whereas failed birds ranged widely, travelling up to 27 km in a single foraging bout (Perrow et al 2006). In Portugal, ranges were found to be significantly greater during incubation (April-May) than during chick rearing (June-July) (Paiva et al 2007). Little Terns prefer channels and lagoons for foraging, rather than deeper marine habitats (Bertolero et al 2005, Paiva et al 2007). They also prefer areas with abundant resources, entrance channels and main lagoon channels with strong currents, and areas with alternative feeding resources nearby (Paiva et al 2007). Areas subjected to strong human pressure (Paiva et al 2007) and salt marshes (Bertolero et al 2005) are avoided. The species tends to forage preferentially at low tide (Paiva et al 2007).<strong> </strong>  <p></p>
106003276		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.190,000-410,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003276		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984) such as the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996) (e.g. for the development of new harbour facilities) (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984). It is also highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996). Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury and DDT) (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984, Thyen <em>et al.</em> 2000, Choi <em>et al.</em> 2001) and artificially induced water-level fluctuations in saltmarshes (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984) may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive success (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984, Thyen <em>et al.</em> 2000, Choi <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species also suffers from local egg collecting (Barcena <em>et al.</em> 1984) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).  <p></p>
106003277		distribution	eng	This poorly known species breeds along the coasts of the Red Sea south to Socotra (Yemen) and Somalia, and around the Persian Gulf off Saudi Arabia, Iran and Oman, to north-west India, Sri Lanka, Adu Atoll (Maldives), and possibly the Amirantes and Seychelles (del Hoyo et al. 1996). North-east African birds move south as far as Tanzania in winter, and birds around the Red Sea also move south within the breeding range. Birds in south-east Somalia, Sudan and Socotra are resident. Other populations appear to migrate eastwards to the west coast of India, Sri Lanka, Laccadives (to India) and Maldives, Seychelles and Malaysia (Snow and Perrins 1998). The location of its breeding colonies is mostly unknown, but in Iran, c.150 pairs nested in the 1970s in seven colonies, a small population was known to breed in Bahrain which appeared to decrease substantially from 1969-1971 to 1981, and 29+ pairs bred in 1983 on the Farasan Archipelago in Saudi Arabia (Gallagher et al. 1984).
106003277		habitat	eng	Behaviour The movements of this species are not well known although many individuals winter outside of their breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species breeds in solitary pairs or small loose colonies of 5-30 pairs (Gallagher et al. 1984, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It inhabits shallow tropical and subtropical inshore waters, estuaries, tidal lagoons and harbours often feeding up to 15 km offshore and nesting up to 2 km inland (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Diet consists of small fish, crustaceans, molluscs and insects (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The nest is a hollow (e.g. an animal footprint) in bare sand, shingle or dried mud just above the high tide line on beaches, on mudflats or up to 2 km inland (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for nesting on small mounds of wind-blown sand surrounding plants or other objects, and in breeding colonies neighbouring nests are usually placed between 20 and 100 m apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003277		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats and is highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003278		distribution	eng	The Least Tern breeds along almost the entire coast of North America, excluding Alaska and Canada, on the northern coast of Central America and locally on the northern coast of South America. It also breeds inland along rivers in central North America. It is migratory, wintering on the southern coast of Central America, and the northern and Atlantic coast of South America as far south as central <strong>Brazil </strong>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003278		habitat	eng	This species can be found on lakes, rivers and estuaries, strictly on the coast in some regions (e.g. California) but inland in others (e.g. Florida). It feeds on small fish fry, shrimps, marine worms and occasionally flying ants and other insects. Prey are usually caught by plunge-diving up to 10m, preceeded by prolonged hovering, and it also occasionally peforms surface-dipping and aerial hawking. The breeding season begins between April and mid-June depending on locality, and it breeds in a large variety of habitats, from baren sandy beaches to parking lots and roof tops. Individuals form colonies usually between 5 and 200 pairs strong. It is a highly migratory species, though some populations in the north of South America, and on the Pacific coast of Mexico may be year-round residents (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003280		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Chile, CONAMA (2006) has recognized the species as threatened with extinction, and it has been officially classified as Endangered. In Peru it has been recognized as Vulnerable (Zavalaga <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008a). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct searches for colonies in previously unsurveyed areas or in areas that need confirmation of breeding (Chavez 2007). Monitor known colonies to assess trends. Restore abandoned colonies using decoys and playbacks. Uplist the conservation status in Peru from Vulnerable to Endangered and include monthly evaluations for the presence of terns in any project for the construction of roads or other facilities in coastal desert plains (up to 5 km inland). Protect known colonies from habitat destruction, disturbance and pollution.  <p></p>
106003280		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna lorata</em> is restricted to the Humboldt Current Zone from north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>to the peninsula of Mejillones in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile </span>(Enticott and Tipling 1997, Guerra-Correa <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Its movements are poorly known, but it has been recorded north to central Ecuador (Enticott and Tipling 1997). There are now only four confirmed breeding sites in Peru, at Pampa Lechuzas, Yanyarina, Paraiso and Pacasmayo (Zavalaga <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008a), and nine in Chile, all of which are located in Mejillones and nearby areas <strong></strong>(Guerra-Correa <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). In Chile all colonies have been found in the desert plains, generally within 1 km of the coast, but in other locations colonies have also been found on sandy beaches associated with wetlands. A well-known former breeding site at Puerto Viejo is now heavily developed and no longer supports breeding birds<strong> </strong>(Zavalaga <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008a), and population declines have been noted at Pampa Mejillones and La Portada in Chile. One locality was previously reported to have tens of thousands of individuals, but the population is now thought to be significantly reduced, as the numbers at all sites are estimated at 950-1,100 individuals and 150 to 160 pairs<strong> </strong>(Guerra-Correa <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). Some reports suggest that the population may have declined by 50% in the last 10 years<strong> </strong>(Luchsinger 2007). However, there are still unsurveyed sandy beaches away from the Pan-American Highway that could be suitable for nesting, and old colonies that have not been visited since their discovery decades ago, while signs of previously unknown breeding sites have recently been recorded in La Libertad, Peru (Amorós 2011); the total is therefore likely to fall in the range of 1,000-2,500 individuals. <p></p>
106003280		habitat	eng	It breeds either on broad sandy beaches and dunes (100-200 m from the high tide mark) associated with wetlands (Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a), or in desert plains 1-3 km inland (Vilina 1998, Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a). The shallow waters of wetlands are thought to offer optimal conditions for foraging, both within and outside the breeding season (Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Egg-laying is asynchronous both within and between groups, and spread from August to February (Vilina 1998, Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), particularly October to late January (Zavalaga<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008b).Clutch size is one or two eggs, but usually only one chick fledges (Vilina 1998, Guerra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). To counteract high levels of predation it nests in homogeneous habitat in small groups (3-25 nests), loosely aggregated, with inter-nest distances usually over 100 m (Vilina 1998, Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008b), thus making nests difficult to detect (Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a). Eggs and chicks are well camouflaged with the bare ground. Inland nesting is believed to be a strategy to reduce risk from terrestrial predation, as predators often patrol closer to the shore. Birds are known to be absent during El Niño events (Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008a) and do not attempt to breed (Zavalaga<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008b). Post-breeding dispersal occurs from April until July, to unknown areas, probably offshore (Mackiernan <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2001). During the 1997-1998 El Niño event, hundreds were sighted 25-200 km offshore, suggesting they can disperse widely during oceanographic anomalies (Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008a).  It generally forages in inshore areas, but is occasionally seen 10-70 km offshore (Mackiernan <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2001). Main prey include anchovies <em>Engraulis ringens</em>, South Pacific sauris <em>Scomberesox saurus scombroides</em> (Guerra <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003), Peruvian silversides <em>Odonthestes regia regia</em> and mote sculpins <em>Normanychtis crocker</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>.  Prey items found in nests measured less than 8 cm, indicating a prey size limit imposed by chick body size (Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008b). <p></p>
106003280		population	eng	Estimates range from 100 pairs (G. Engblom <I>in litt.</I> 2005) to 5,000 pairs (M. Plenge <I>in litt.</I> 1999). Given that there are still unsurveyed sandy beaches away from the Pan-American Highway, the total is perhaps likely to fall in the range of 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded to 600-1,700 individuals here.
106003280		threats	eng	It         undoubtedly suffered from the 1972 collapse of anchoveta <em>Engraulis</em>         spp. stocks. which have not subsequently recovered (Schlatter 1984,         Gochfeld and Burger 1996). The principle threat to this species is the         destruction of breeding habitat, through building of shanty towns,         summer homes (as at Puerto Viejo), <span class="GramE">road         constructions and through human activities such as driving 4×4 vehicles         on the beaches. Off-road vehicles have also led to increased         disturbance in previously inaccessible areas. Other threats include         wetland pollution and water use for irrigation (at Paraiso and Mejia),         conversion of desert plains into agricultural land (at Punta         Literas-Pativilca), management of wetland water levels (at Ite) and oil         exploration near tern areas (at San Pedro de Vice).         In Chile, risks include the building of port facilities at Mejillones         (which would affect at least 200 birds), off-road driving at Rio Loa         and the construction of coastal highways throughout the north         (Guerra-Corre <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). Foxes <em>Pseudalopex </em>spp. and         aerial raptors are considered the main predators of Peruvian Tern (Vilina         1998, Guerra <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003, Zavalaga <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2009).
106003281		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Many colonies in Australia are regularly monitored, and intensive management has led to an increase in the population on New Zealand.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor all breeding colonies annually to assess trends. Control introduced mammals and other nest predators at important breeding sites. Oppose developments which would encroach on breeding colonies. Restrict access to important breeding colonies.  <p></p>
106003281		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna nereis</em> occurs in <strong>Australia</strong> (subspecies <em>nereis</em>), <strong>New Caledonia</strong> <strong>(to France) </strong>(<em>exsul</em>) and northern <strong>New Zealand</strong> (<em>davisae</em>). In Australia, subspecies <em>nereis</em> may number less than 5,000 mature individuals at up to 170 sites, with less than 1,600 pairs in Western Australia, a few hundred pairs in each of Tasmania and South Australia and just a few pairs in Victoria (B. Baker <em>in litt. </em>2007,&#160;<strong></strong>D. Paton <em>in litt. </em>2007,&#160;<strong></strong>A. Burbidge <em>n litt. </em>2007,&#160;<strong></strong>D. Saunders <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Though it may be stable in Western Australia, numbers elsewhere in Australia have declined rapidly during the last thirty years. In New Zealand, <em>davisae</em> plummeted to three pairs in 1983 but, due to intensive conservation efforts has increased and in 1998, totalled 25-30 birds and 8-10 pairs over three sites. In 2006 this had increased to 30-40 individuals and 10 pairs (Parrish and Honnor 1997, <strong></strong>Taylor 2000, S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2007). By 2011, this had increased again to 40-45 individuals and c10 pairs (P-J. Pridham <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. In New Caledonia, <em>exul</em> numbers 100-200 pairs, but was formerly much more abundant (F. Hannecart <em>per.</em> M. Pandolfi <em>in litt.</em> 1999, N. Barre <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. One small population in the Southern Lagoon of New Caledonia may be increasing (Baling et al. 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003281		habitat	eng	It breeds on sheltered mainland coastlines and close islands, usually on sandy beaches above the high tide line but below where vegetation occurs (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurs at different times at different locations, but generally occurs from mid to late October until February (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Adults have been observed to conduct post-fledgling parental care in New Zealand (Preddey 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds almost entirely on fish mainly by following shoals of feeding predatory fish, and is rarely found out of sight of land (Higgins and Davies 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lays one or two eggs. The oldest recorded individuals are at least 13 (New Zealand) and 17 years (Australia). Observations over one season on New Caledonia revealed a low rate of nesting success, with only one in five nests producing a fledgling (Baling et al. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003281		population	eng	In Australia, subspecies <em>nereis</em> may number fewer than 5,000 mature individuals at up to 170 sites, with less than 1,600 pairs in Western Australia, a few hundred pairs in each of Tasmania and South Australia and just a few pairs in Victoria. In New Zealand, <em>davisae</em> numbers 35-40 pairs. In New Caledonia, <em>exul</em> numbers 100-200 pairs. The total population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106003281		threats	eng	Threats include habitat degradation by encroaching weeds and housing developments, predation by introduced mammals and gulls, extreme weather events (which locally at least can put an entire breeding season at risk) (Parrish and Honnor 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and disturbance by humans (particularly tourists in New Caledonia), dogs and vehicles, either causing the direct destruction of eggs or desertion of nests (<strong></strong>Higgins and Davies 1996, Parrish and Honnor 1997, F. Hannecart <em>per.</em> M. Pandolfi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In South Australia inappropriate water level management has lead to a collapse in the numbers of prey fish, and a subsequent decline in colonies (D. Paton <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003282		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. In November 2000, information boards and barriers were used to successfully prevent off-road vehicles entering the breeding site at Caution Reef. This resulted in a slightly increased nesting density and enabled hatching success to increase from 56% to 80% (Braby <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends. Designate disturbance-free areas on nesting beaches. Protect important breeding sites.  <p></p>
106003282		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna balaenarum</em> is recorded in the breeding season along the coast of <strong>Namibia </strong>(98% of the population nest between the Orange and Cunene rivers [Braby <em>et al. </em>2001]<strong></strong>), south to the Cape provinces in <strong>South Africa</strong> (less than 125 pairs [Braby <em>et al. </em>2001]<strong></strong>) and north to Cabinda in <strong>Angola</strong> (Gochfeld and Burger 1996), where there are less than 190 pairs (Simmons 2010). A recent survey between Tombua and the Cunene River mouth (197 km) recorded 573 individuals, with a breeding colony (6 pairs) located 30 km north of the Cunene River (Simmons 2010). It disperses north after the breeding season and is recorded regularly from the coastal waters of <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Congo</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong> and <strong>Côte d'Ivoire </strong>(Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Demey and Fishpool 1991, Gochfeld and Burger 1996). During 2002, the total population was estimated at 14,000 birds (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 1998b, du Toit <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, with peak density in the central area of its range (around 23°S) - apparently the main spawning ground of many fish species - and decreasing density north and south along Namibia's 1,470 km coast (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 1998b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003282		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a partial migrant (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986). It breeds between late October and mid-November (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> in small groups usually consisting of 4-10 pairs, although occasionally of up to 60 (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Pre-migratory flocks of tens, hundreds or occasionally thousands of birds gather at the Namibian coast in April (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, and then move northwards as far as Nigeria and Ghana (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is most numerous here between July and October (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, coinciding with the arrival of strong upwellings off the Ghanaian coast which bring spawning fish inshore (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. About 100 individuals remain in the breeding grounds year-round. Outside the breeding season it roosts colonially (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong> but usually feeds solitarily, with individuals spaced 10-50m apart (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. It returns to its breeding grounds in September and October (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species is predominantly coastal (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> On gravel and stony plains, salt pans and dunes (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, sometimes in sheltered bays and shallow reefs (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, but often several kilometres inland (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Recently breeding has been observed up to 11.5 km from the coast in southern Namibia (Braby <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. It will also breed on rocky ledges and at rehabilitated diamond mines, favouring breeding localities that provide good visibility (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong></strong>. It shuns outer beach areas that are frequented by predators (Gochfeld and Burger 1996, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. There are very few records of breeding on islands (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season it is found on more exposed, high-energy coasts (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>The species usually feeds in the shallow, inshore waters of bays, estuaries, lagoons and salt-pans and in the surf zone (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986, Gochfeld and Burger 1996, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, but occasionally forages in the open ocean, as far as 5km from land (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mainly on small fish (usually less than 50mm in length [Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005]<strong></strong>), including mullet<em> Mugil richardsonii</em> and anchovy <em>Engraulis japonica</em>, as well as small squid (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Eggs are laid in a nondescript scrape (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, sometimes lined with shell chips or small stones (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The clutch-size is usually one, rarely two, and the incubation period is 18-22 days, followed by a fledging period of 20 days and 2.5 months of dependency (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003282		population	eng	The population is estimated at 14,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 9,300 mature individuals.
106003282		threats	eng	Land claim, dredging and hotel construction threaten some feeding areas; off-road vehicles may destroy nests (but are not a threat to whole breeding colonies as this species does not desert colonies like other terns [Demey and Fishpool 1991]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) particularly as the breeding season coincides with peak human activity on beaches in summer (Gochfeld and Burger 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The largest breeding colony known (minimum of 120 pairs [Braby <em>et al. </em>2001]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), Caution Reef, south of Swakopmund, is on town land and suffers considerable human disturbance (Cheke and Walsh 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large-scale mining operations have caused disturbance both to offshore feeding and onshore breeding areas (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 1998b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, resulting in a drop from 20 breeding pairs to 2-7 pairs at Elizabeth Bay between 1996 and 2002 (Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, diamond mining is due to end in the next five years and tern populations may then increase again (R. E. Simmons <em>in litt. </em>1999, Braby <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some roosting birds are caught in snares by children on the wintering grounds (Cheke and Walsh 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003283		distribution	eng	The White-cheeked Tern ranges from the Red Sea (seasonal breeding) south to <B>Somalia</B> and <B>Kenya</B> (resident), in the Persian Gulf and <B>Oman</B> (seasonal breeding) and locally in western <B>India</B> (resident). Seasonally breeding birds winter from the Arabian Sea to south-west <B>Indian</B> and the Laccadives (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003283		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most of this species is migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998) although individuals breeding in East African may remain in their breeding range throughout the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds with other tern species in well-dispersed colonies of 10-200 pairs (sometimes up to 900 pairs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and remains gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits tropical coasts and inshore waters, foraging mainly within 3 km of land over coral reefs or occasionally up to 10 km offshore (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It nests on rock, sand, gravel or coral islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), bare and exposed sandflats and sparsely vegetated open ground on sand-dunes and above the high-water mark on beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of small fish (average 5 cm long) and invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow scrape on rock, sand, gravel or coral in barren or sparsely vegetated areas on islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), sandflats, sand-dunes and beaches (Snow and Perrins 1998).
106003283		threats	eng	In India the species is contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) at levels which may affect embryo development (Kunisue <I>et al.</I> 2003). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is subject to egg collecting from colonies in many areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003284		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range, including Harike Wildlife Sanctuary, Keoladeo National Park, Rajiv Gandhi National Park, Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Kaziranga National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Organise a population census in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Nepal during the breeding season, and conduct further surveys in Myanmar to clarify its current distribution and status. Monitor population trends through regular surveys across its range. Carry out awareness-raising activities to alleviate human pressures on riverine ecosystems. Campaign for increased representation of large waterways in protected-area systems. <p></p>
106003284		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna acuticauda</em> is known from southern <strong>China </strong>(previously regular in Yunnan, now very rare), <strong>Pakistan </strong>(fairly common in north Sind and Punjab), <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally fairly common, but some evidence for localised declines), <strong>Nepal</strong> (once locally fairly common, declining since the early 1990s at least, and judged to be a rare and very local visitor in the lowlands, with a maximum population of 20 estimated in 2011 [C. Inskipp and H. S. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011]), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (previously common, now a local breeder; the provenance of some recent records has been questioned [P. Thompson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011]), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(previously abundant, now declining rapidly and a scarce to uncommon resident, with some surveys since 2002 failing to record the species at all [J. C. Eames <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), <strong>Thailand </strong>(formerly resident in the north-west, now very rare and probably extinct as breeding species), <strong>Laos </strong>(previously bred in large numbers along the Mekong channel, now very rarely recorded), <strong>Cambodia </strong>(in early 1960s the species was apparently fairly common along the Mekong; the last breeding record was of just two pairs in 2003 [C. Poole<em> in litt.</em> 2003], and it is now considered probably extinct there [Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010]<strong></strong>) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (formerly occurred regularly in Cochinchina, and occasionally in Annam, but now probably extinct). There has been a precipitous decline in South-East Asia and it is now almost extinct in the region. Despite its large range, the species may now number fewer, perhaps significantly fewer, than 10,000 mature individuals (Perennou <em>et al</em>. 1994, S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><br/><p></p>
106003284		habitat	eng	It is found on large rivers (usually breeding on sandspits and islands) and marshes, occasionally on smaller pools and ditches, in lowlands (but not on the coast), up to 730&#160;m.  <p></p>
106003284		population	eng	Despite its large range, the species could now number fewer, perhaps  significantly fewer, than 10,000 mature individuals (Perennou <em>et al</em>. 1994, S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), although this may be over-cautious (BirdLife International 2001). The population estimate is currently placed at 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals, until more data are available.
106003284		threats	eng	Threats include the destruction of breeding habitat (islands and sandspits in larger rivers are increasingly cultivated), the collection of eggs for food, overfishing and the flooding of nests, often caused by dams. Increased disturbance and over-harvesting of wetland products are blamed for the recent complete disappearance of the breeding population within Chitwan National Park (Nepal) (F. Cuthbert <em>in litt.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. River damming, disturbance, predation by dogs and egg collecting are highlighted as causes of the species’s disappearance from Cambodia (Goes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In India, the species faces many threats, which include, in addition to those already listed, water extraction, sand and gravel extraction for development, disturbance and predation by cats, dogs and corvids, such as House Crows <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus splendens</span>, which are attracted to human settlements, pollution from industry and agriculture, and mortality through fisheries bycatch (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003285		distribution	eng	The Aleutian Tern breeds in the north Pacific Ocean on the coasts of Sakhalin and Kamchatka, <B>Russia</B>, on the Bering and Pacific coasts of Alaska (<B>USA</B>) and on the Aleutian Islands (USA). It is strongly migratory, wintering off <B>Indonesia</B> and <B>Malaysia<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003285		habitat	eng	This species is found over the waters of the Arctic and subarctic coastal plains. It feeds mainly on small fish which it catches by surface-dipping. Laying mainly occurs in June, usually in small monospecific colonies on a variety of habitats up to 20 km inland (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003285		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.30,000-35,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003286		distribution	eng	The Grey-backed Tern can be found in the tropical Pacific Ocean, from the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) and <strong>Northern Mariana Islands </strong>(<strong>to USA</strong>) in the north, south through the Phoenix and Line Islands (<strong>Kiribati</strong>) to <strong>Fiji</strong>, and east to the Austral and Tuamoto Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>). It is also found at sea throughout this area (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003286		habitat	eng	This species has a diet comprised mainly of fish and squid, but it will also occasionally take lizards. It feeds mainly inshore, often with other terns, and takes tiny fish by plunge-diving, and also by contact-dipping or hover-dipping over schools of tuna. It has a long breeding period of February to September, breeding on oceanic islands on low sea cliffs, sandy beaches or bare found on coral or rocky islands (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003287		distribution	eng	The Bridled Tern is a bird of the tropical oceans. It breeds off the Pacific and Atlantic coast of Central America including the Carribean, off small areas of western Africa, around Arabia and eastern Africa down <B>to South Africa</B>, off the coast of <B>India</B>, and in much of south-east Asia and Australasia excluding southern <B>Australia</B> and New Zealand (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003287		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations are migratory and dispersive (Higgins and Davies 1996, Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999) and abandon their breeding sites at the end of the breeding season to overwinter at sea (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). Its detailed migratory movements are largely unknown however (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and some populations in the Indian Ocean are entirely sedentary or only partially migratory (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). The timing of breeding varies geographically, most populations breeding annually in groups of 2-30 pairs (sometimes up to 400-2,000 pairs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) that are not strictly colonial but involve solitary pairs congregating in suitable habitat (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). When nesting the species often associates with nesting <I>Sterna fuscata</I> or <I>Sterna bergii</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). After breeding the adults and newly fledged young leave the breeding colonies in loose flocks (Higgins and Davies 1996) and migrate alone, in small groups of 10-12 individuals or more rarely in larger groups of up to 200 individuals (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). Outside of the breeding season the species is thought to occur singly (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits offshore tropical and subtropical seas (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Breeding </I>It breeds on the periphery of vegetated coastal and continental (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999) coral, rock or rubble islands and beaches (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999), volcanic stacks and exposed reefs (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999), foraging inshore and up to 50 km offshore (although mostly within 15 km of land) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and feeding from the surface of the water or up to 20 cm below it (Higgins and Davies 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Away from the breeding grounds the species is entirely pelagic and often associates with patches of macroalgae (e.g. <I>Sargassum</I> spp.) or flotsam (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999) which it uses for perching (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Its marine distribution is therefore linked to small- and medium-scale oceanographic features where water circulation aggregates such floating matter into patches (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of squid and surface-schooling fish less than 6 cm long as well as crustaceans and occasionally aquatic insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or molluscs (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a scrape or depression in shingle or sand (Higgins and Davies 1996) that may be freshly excavated or re-used from a previous season (Higgins and Davies 1996). Nests are placed in a variety of concealed locations (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) around the rim of oceanic islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), including natural cavities amongst rocks or coral rubble, in vegetation (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (up to 75 % ground cover) (Higgins and Davies 1996), in a crevice or cave up to 1.5 m deep, under a cliff ledge or on the ground beneath low bushes or shrubs (Higgins and Davies 1996). The species is not strictly colonial but solitary pairs usually congregate in suitable habitats (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999) with neighbouring nests spaced according to nest-site availability (usually 1-5 m apart, minimum 30 cm) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Management information</B> The species will become habituated to human presence in sites exposed to long term visitation, especially where human movements are predictable, groups sizes are kept consistent and human behaviour is reliable (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). Additional measures to reduce human disturbance of nesting colonies includes the erection of barriers and signs, the provision of walkways, and the supervision and education of vistors (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999).<B></B>
106003287		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.610,000-1,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration   in Taiwan and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003287		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to the effects of oil spills and is highly vulnerable to the accidental introduction of domestic cats <I>Felis catus</I> to offshore breeding islands (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). It has also been known to abandon breeding colonies when subject to severe human disturbance (although at sites exposed to long-term visitation it may become habituated to continuous and predictable human presence and activity) (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999). <B>Utilisation</B> Eggs are harvested for subsistence in the Bahamas and the West Indies, and eggs and chicks are harvested on some islands in the Pacific by local residents and coastal shipping crews (Haney <I>et al.</I> 1999).
106003288		distribution	eng	The Sooty Tern breeds on tropical islands and ranges through most of the tropical oceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003288		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The species is dispersive and migratory (Higgins and Davies 1996). At most colonies adults leave for the open sea after breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and become strongly pelagic (Higgins and Davies 1996) for 2-3 months before returning to the breeding grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). On returning to the breeding colonies they continue to forage pelagically by day and settle on land at night for a further 2-3 months before beginning to breed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The timing of breeding varies throughout the species's range, with nesting occurring all year round at some colony sites but seasonally at others (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in very large colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and remains gregarious throughout the year (congregating in small to large flocks to feed at sea) although it may be observed singly (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It breeds on flat, open, sparsely or heavily vegetated, oceanic or barrier islands of sand, coral or rock in productive tropical and subtropical offshore waters rich in plankton, fish and squid (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is absent from cold current areas and generally avoids islands with terrestrial predators (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is highly pelagic but generally avoids cold current areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish up to 18 cm long (usually 6-8 cm) and squid, but it also occasionally takes crustaceans, insects and offal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is reliant upon prey driven to the surface by predatory fish (e.g. tuna, Scombidae), especially when breeding (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a slight depression (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or scrape on the ground (Higgins and Davies 1996). It shows a preference for nesting on flat, bare sand, coral grit or shell (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) amongst low vegetation (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) on beaches above the high-water mark (Higgins and Davies 1996) or on coral islands, atolls and sandbanks (Higgins and Davies 1996). Less often it may nest on rock stacks or other offshore islets, and on ledges or terraces of cliffs (although it avoids sheer cliff-faces) (Higgins and Davies 1996). It nests in dense colonies within which neighbouring nests may be placed c.50 cm apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Higher nesting densities occur in areas where bare ground predominates but which are vegetated with plants greater than or equal to 15 cm tall (Feare <I>et al.</I> 1997). <B>Management information</B> The mortality of the species was significantly reduced on Isla Isabel (a densely forested tropical island off the Pacific coast of Mexico) by the eradication of introduced domestic cats <I>Felis catus</I> using a combination of poisoning, trapping and hunting with firearms (Rodriguez <I>et al.</I> 2006). The nesting density and therefore the number of breeding pairs was increased in colonies on Bird Island by clearing areas of dense native or introduced vegetation and burning existing colony areas annually to prevent the growth of woody plants (Feare <I>et al.</I> 1997).
106003288		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.21,000,000-22,000,000 individuals   (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Japan has been   estimated at &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration (Brazil 2009).
106003288		threats	eng	Some colonies (e.g. on Ascension Island) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) are threatened by predation from introduced rats and domestic cats <I>Felis catus</I> (Rodriguez <I>et al.</I> 2006), and the species has been displaced from nesting colonies on Bird Island by invasive ants <I>Anoplolepis longipes</I> (Feare 1999). Persistent large scale egg-collecting in some areas has encouraged the species to move to suboptimal nesting sites, resulting in higher mortality and reduced reproductive success (van Halewyn and Norton 1984). It may also be threatened by climatic change, as variations in sea-surface temperature have been shown to negatively influence the species's foraging success at breeding colonies (hence lowering reproductive success) (Erwin and Congdon 2007). The species is vulnerable to oil pollution from oil spills and tankers transporting fuel (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and is threatened by reductions in the global populations of tuna (a result of over-fishing) due to it's dependence on tuna to force prey to the surface (Reichel 1991). <B>Utilisation</B> The eggs of this species are harvested in many areas (e.g. Caribbean) (van Halewyn and Norton 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003289		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several studies have been completed covering aspects of the species's biology and ecology. Habitat restoration and fauna monitoring is carried out by Project River Recovery in a number of major riverbed habitats in the McKenzie basin, covering part of the range (A. Grant <em>in litt</em> 1999, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Some populations have received predator control measures with limited improvements to breeding success (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census and map all breeding colonies, and census winter flocks. Monitor accessible colonies annually. Examine all proposals for the development of hydroelectric dams or irrigation projects to identify impacts on the species. Establish nest protection if predation is identified as significantly affecting breeding success. Spray weeds on rivers if required (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, and commence a trial of establishing islands/rafts in lagoons and tarns (B. D. Bell verbally 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003289		distribution	eng	<em>Sterna albostriata</em> breeds in the South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It is found along the eastern riverbeds from Marlborough to Southland, and on the upper Motueka and Buller Rivers in southern Nelson (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Birds disperse to the coastline and estuaries in winter, mostly from Stewart Island to the southern North Island, feeding at sea within 10 km of the coast (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The most recent estimates put the total population at 7,000-10,000 individuals (R. Keedwell <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> or 5,000 individuals (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  All populations of this species that have been studied have been in decline (G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Numbers recorded in the Bay of Plenty during winters in the 1980s ranged between 25 and 45 individuals. Since 2000, counts at the same site have varied between 10 and 16 individuals (M. Szabo <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Similarly, on the breeding grounds numbers on the Ashburton River declined from over 750 birds in 1981 to fewer than 200 by 1990 (O'Donnell 1992, Maloney 1999, Taylor 2000). A total of 55 individuals was recorded in the lower 18 km of the Ashley River in 1980 (Wildlife Service surveys), with just 26-28 along the same stretch in 2005-2006 (J. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2006). These and other observations indicate that the species may be in widespread decline (O'Donnell 1992, Maloney 1999, Taylor 2000, M. Szabo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003289		habitat	eng	It breeds on riverbeds, creating simple scrapes in the shingle. It usually lays two eggs. The young fledge after c.30 days. It feeds on freshwater invertebrates and small fish, taken as it forages over channels in gravelly rivers of South Island, occasionally taking earthworms and other invertebrates in terrestrial environments (on pastureland) and, when at sea, feeding mainly on crustaceans (Heather and Robertson 1997, O'Donnell and Hoare 2009)<strong></strong>. Adults in one colony fed their chicks 36-73 common skinks <span style="font-style: italic;">Oligosoma polychroma </span>per hour (O'Donnell and Hoare 2009).&#160; <p></p>
106003289		population	eng	In 2004, the New Zealand Department of Conservation estimated 1,000-5,000 mature individuals of this species (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2006), and a winter census in 2007 estimated c.5,000 individuals (<span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Another estimate has put the total population at 7,000-10,000 individuals (R. Keedwell <em>in litt.</em> 2006), roughly equivalent to 4,600-6,700 mature individuals. Based on these estimates, the population is placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106003289		threats	eng	Introduced mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., feral cats, brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em>, hedgehogs, brush-tailed possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em>, dogs, Australian Magpies <em>Gymnorhina tibicen</em> and other native bird species prey on this species (Taylor 2000, Keedwell <em>et al. </em>2002, M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Major breeding failures have been recently reported at colonies as a result of predation (G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160;<strong></strong>Keedwell <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Cattle and sheep can disturb breeding colonies. Recreational activities, presently increasing rapidly, can cause breeding failure and disturbance at wintering sites. Further hydroelectric developments are a major threat; notably an approved project on the Wairau River where 12% of the population currently nest (M. Szabo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Invasion of introduced weed species and tree planting along riverbeds reduces available habitat (Taylor 2000) and forces birds to nest in areas more prone to flooding (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Confinement of rivers to a single channel reduces the availability of nesting "islands" (B. D. Bell verbally 1999)<strong></strong>. The species may be threatened at its roosting sites by predation, disturbance and development (M. Bell<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106003290		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern breeding populations of this species are fully migratory whilst tropical breeders are more nomadic or locally dispersive (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species breeds from May to early-June (Richards 1990) in monospecific colonies of 10-100 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). After breeding it departs for the wintering grounds from late-July to September, returning again between April and May (Richards 1990). The species sometimes forages singly, but is more common in small groups or larger mixed-species flocks on passage and in the winter (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species utilises a variety of wetland habitats but shows a preference for freshwater marshlands with scattered pools, particularly where the surrounding vegetation is grazed by cattle or horses (Richards 1990). It frequents inland lakes, rivers, marshes, temporary pans (e.g. in Africa), artificial fish-ponds and drainage-ponds covered with water-lilies (e.g. in Italy) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), swamps, river pools, reservoirs, large dams, sewage-ponds, flooded saltmarshes, arable fields (e.g. in Australia) (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). In Australia the species also occurs along the coast on estuaries, coastal lagoons, creeks in mangrove swamps (Snow and Perrins 1998) and tidal mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. Dytiscidae, adult and larval Odonata, Orthoptera, flying ants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and mosquitoes (Richards 1990)), spiders, frogs, tadpoles, small crabs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), shrimps (Richards 1990) and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a heap of aquatic vegetation (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) or dry grass (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), placed either on floating and emergent vegetation over water 60-80 cm deep or resting on the bottom of very shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in colonies, neighbouring pairs spaced between 1 and 5 m apart (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and may forage up to 9 km away from breeding sites (more usually within 1 km) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003290		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.300,000-1,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000   individuals on migration in Korea; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003290		threats	eng	The species suffers nest destruction from the invasive rodent species <I>Myocastor coypus</I> in Italy (Arduin 1997). <B>Utilisation</B> Large numbers of eggs are collected for sale and local consumption in India (this may be causing population declines in some areas) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and fishermen collect eggs in Ukraine (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003291		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from April to August in small colonies of between 3 and 100 pairs (mostly 20-40 pairs) that may contain other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Throughout the year the species feeds in flocks (Snow and Perrins 1998) and migrates and overwinters in large flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of up to tens of thousands of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds inland on freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), swampy standing water, rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998) and shallow naturally flooded grassland (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998) with areas of open water bordered by stands of reeds, sedge and other aquatic vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998). It generally avoids fish-ponds, rice-fields and ornamental waters (Richards 1990) but may feed over wet fields, dry farmland and steppe grassland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> On passage and in winter the species frequents a variety of habitats from inland lakes to rocky coasts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), including rivers, flood-plains, lakes (Snow and Perrins 1998), impoundments, lagoons and mangrove swamps, also feeding over wet fields, dry farmland and steppe grassland (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> It diet consists predominantly of aquatic insects (especially Diptera, Odonata and Coleoptera) as well as adult and larval terrestrial insects, small fish and tadpoles (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup in a mound of aquatic vegetation usually placed over water 30-120 cm deep on floating mats of vegetation, or on dry shores or resting on the bottom in shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in single- or mixed-species colonies, neighbouring nests usually widely spaced (i.e. 10-30 m apart) but may be as close as 2.5 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003291		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,500,000-4,500,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000   individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003291		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003292		distribution	eng	The Black Tern is found in the Old and New World. It ranges from southern Scandinavia to southern <strong>Spain</strong>, east through Europe and western Asia to central <strong>Mongolia</strong>. Individuals from this area predominately winter on the Atlantic coast of Africa, from the <strong>Western Sahara</strong> to <strong>South Africa</strong>. It is also found across much of <strong>Canada</strong> to northern regions of the <strong>USA</strong>, with individuals wintering on the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>, the Pacific and Atalantic coast of Central America and northern South America (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003292		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> and travels both over land and over sea (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. It breeds between May and June (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> in colonies, usually of less than 20 pairs (rarely more than 100 pairs) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> and often close to other species (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. After breeding it departs for its wintering grounds from July onwards (Richards 1990)<strong></strong>, returning north again from late-March (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. The species is gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, foraging in groups of 2-20 during the breeding season and congregating in large flocks offshore on passage and in the winter over shoals of predatory fish (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on fresh or brackish wetlands (Richards 1990)<strong></strong> such as small pools, lakes, marshes (Richards 1990, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, ditches, overgrown canals, quiet reaches of rivers, swampy meadows (Richards 1990)<strong></strong>, peat bogs and rice-fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, showing a preference for well-vegetated areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> with sparse, open emergent vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> (e.g. <em>Typha</em> spp., sedge or reeds) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong></strong> and floating water-lilies (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, and with water 1-2 m deep (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It generally avoids small marshland areas less than 4 ha in area (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species frequents inland wetlands including pools, ditches (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, reservoirs, lakes and sewage farms (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, as well as coastal habitats and estuaries (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In winter it is predominantly coastal however, frequenting estuaries (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, saltmarshes, bays (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>, coastlines and coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong> as well as marine waters up to 400-600 km offshore (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> Its breeding diet consists predominantly of insects (e.g. chironomids, Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Coleoptera) as well as small fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and amphibians (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong> (e.g. tadpoles and frogs) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage and during the winter the species's diet consists largely of marine fish although insects and crustaceans may also be taken (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest may be a low compressed mound of plant matter (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> placed in very shallow water (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong> or on a floating mat of aquatic vegetation (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong> over water more than 50 cm deep (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The nest may also be a shallow scrape (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong> on the ground amongst marsh vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds in small colonies and may forage up to 2-5 km from breeding sites (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the Netherlands the provision of anchored artificial nesting rafts has been partly successful as a conservation measure (van der Winden <em>et al.</em> 2004, 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially in habitats where unstable nest substrates (such as floating water-lilies) result in poor breeding successes (van der Winden <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Netherlands there have also been successful programmes to reduce disturbance and improve habitat quality in agricultural areas, which has benefited the species (van der Winden 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The application of glyphosphate-based herbicides to combat and prevent the overgrowth of <em>Typha</em> spp. in wetlands may also benefit the species (Linz and Blixt 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003292		threats	eng	On its breeding grounds the species is threatened by reductions in food availability due to the eutrophication of surface waters (which reduces the diversity of large insects) (Beintema 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the acidification of lakes (which leads to the death of fish) (Beintema 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the introduction of exotic fish species (e.g. peacock bass <em>Cichla ocellaris</em>) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and pesticide pollution (which may also lead to direct mortality from poisoning) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When breeding the species is also threatened by fluctuating water levels (Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the loss and deterioration of freshwater nesting habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, van der Winden 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. through drainage for agriculture (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and overgrowth of <em>Typha</em> spp. beds [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Linz and Blixt 1997]), and human disturbance (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, van der Winden 2005) (especially where this forces breeding pairs to leave the nest before the young are fully fledged) (van der winden 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003294		distribution	eng	The Brown Noddy is a tropical seabird with a worldwide distribution, ranging from the Hawaiian Islands (<B>USA</B>) to the Tuamotu Archipelago (<B>French Polynesia</B>) and <B>Australia</B> in the Pacific Ocean, including colonies off the Pacific coast of north-west South and Central America, from the Red Sea to the <B>Seychelles</B> and Australia in the Indian Ocean including south-east Asia and in the Caribbean to Tristan da Cunha (<B>St Helena to UK</B>) in the Atlantic Ocean including a colony off the coast of <B>Cameroon</B>. Some colonies are also present in the sub-tropics with individuals from these colonies wintering in the tropics (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003294		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Although its migratory movements are poorly known and the species is present all year round at most tropical colonies, it is seasonally absent from subtropical colonies and is known to disperse to the open ocean after breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The timing of breeding varies throughout the species's range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It may breed colonially in groups numbering up to 100,000 or more pairs (Higgins and Davies 1996) although it also nests almost solitarily depending on the availability of nesting sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Even when not breeding the species remains gregarious and can occur in huge flocks in some areas, although it is more usually observed in smaller flocks of 50-100 individuals (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Habitat</B> The species occurs around isolated, bare or vegetated, pantropical and subtropical, inshore or oceanic islands or coral reefs with rocky cliffs or offshore stacks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and coral or sand beaches (Higgins and Davies 1996). It forages in the inshore waters surrounding such islands, often along the line of breakers or in lagoons (Higgins and Davies 1996), and disperses up to 50 km out into the pelagic zone to forage (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (especially when not breeding) (Higgins and Davies 1996). Out at sea it often rests on buoys, flotsam, ships and on the open water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (Higgins and Davies 1996) as well as squid (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), pelagic molluscs, medusae and insects (Higgins and Davies 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest may be a simple layer of debris or a more elaborate construction of seaweed and sticks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and may be placed in a number of sites including flat shingle beaches, bare ground, cliff ledges, offshore stacks, low bushes and tall trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It nests in colonies that can be very dense or more open depending on the availability of nesting sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106003294		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.180,000-1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003294		threats	eng	Breeding colonies on islands (e.g. Ascension Island) are threatened by predation from introduced rats and cats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Predation from the introduced brown tree snake <I>Boiga irregularis</I> is also likely to havecaused the decline in the breeding population on Guam (Reichel 1991). <B>Utilisation</B> Eggs, chicks and adults (to a lesser extent) are taken from breeding colonies in the Mariana Islands (Reichel 1991).
106003295		distribution	eng	The Black Noddy has a worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical seas, with colonies widespread in the western and central Pacific Ocean and more scattered across the Caribbean, central Atlantic and in the northeast Indian Ocean (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003295		habitat	eng	This species inhabits pantropical and subtropical islands, often with small populations dispersed throughout many inshore and oceanic islands. It feeds on small fish and squid, with prey species and proportion of each depending on locality. It often feeds by hover-dipping and contact-dipping. Kleptoparasitism has been observed, and it will associate with other seabirds over schools of predatory fish. Its breeding season varies depending upon locality, with variable colony sizes and nest sites (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003296		distribution	eng	This species breeds in the Seychelles, Mascarene Islands and Agalega Islands (Mauritius), Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory), and Houtman Albrolhos Islands and possibly Ashmore Reef (Australia) (Feare 1984, Higgins and Davies 1996). The Australian subspecies melanops may be resident. The nominate race is a winter visitor to Madagascar and the eastern African coast between southern Somalia and Kenya (Higgins and Davies 1996).
106003296		habitat	eng	This species is largely sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and remains at its breeding colonies throughout the year, although it may also forage extensively out to sea (Higgins and Davies 1996) and regularly occurs off the coast of East Africa during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It breeds from August to October (del Hoyo et al. 1996) in large colonies of up to tens of thousands of pairs (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996) and also forages in vast flocks during this season (Higgins and Davies 1996). When not breeding it remains gregarious and is usually observed in groups of up to 45 individuals (Higgins and Davies 1996), often within larger flocks of Brown Noddy Anous stolidus (Langrand 1990). The species breeds and roosts in mangroves on oceanic coral-limestone islands with shallow lagoons (providing seaweed as nesting material), gullies, sink holes and salt-lakes, and may also occur on shingle or sandy beaches (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996). It largely forages in inshore seas and reefs surrounding these breeding islands during the non-breeding season although it may also forage extensively out to sea (Langrand 1990, Higgins and Davies 1996). Diet consists of small surface-dwelling fish and invertebrates (e.g. squid) that have been driven to the surface by predatory fish (Feare 1984, Urban et al. 1986, Langrand 1990, Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996). Prior to breeding, adults also consume large quantities of coral fragments from beaches as a source of calcium (needed for egg laying) (Skerrett et al. 2001). The nest is constructed of damp vegetation and seaweed in a low bush or on a horizontal or vertical fork of a tall mangrove tree (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Skerrett et al. 2001). It nests colonially, with neighbouring nests spaced between 0.3 and 5 m apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003296		population	eng	The species has a large global population with an estimated minimum of 1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). In the Seychelles, populations were estimated at 100,000 pairs on Cousin Island in 1974 and 18,000 pairs on Aride Island in 1972, and 250,000 pairs on Serpent Island in 19752 and 5,000 pairs on Lizard Island, Mauritius (Higgins and Davies 1996). In the Houtman Albrolhos, populations were estimated at 7,665, 6,325 and 34,895 pairs on Morley, Wooded and Pelsart Island respectively in 1993 (Higgins and Davies 1996).
106003296		threats	eng	Habitat loss is a threat to tropical Indian Ocean islands where this species breeds, and introduced browsers and predators (e.g. rats) are present on several islands although their current impact is thought to be minimal (Feare 1984, Skerrett et al. 2001). In Australia, eggs, chicks and adults were taken for food last century by people harvesting guano (Higgins and Davies 1996).
106003297		distribution	eng	The Blue Noddy is found in the central and western Pacific Ocean, in <B>American Samoa</B>, the <B>Cook Islands</B>, <B>Fiji</B>, <B>French Polynesia</B>, <B>Kiribati</B>, <B>Marshall Islands</B>, <B>New Caledonia (to France)</B>, <B>Samoa</B>, <B>Tonga (Niua)</B>, <B>Tuvalu</B> and the Hawaiian Islands (<B>USA</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003297		habitat	eng	This species takes very small fish (average length 17 mm), squid, crustaceans and pelagic sea striders with proportions varying seasonally and geographically. It feeds on the wing by dipping or pattering. Breeding can be continual in places (e.g. Hawaii) and occurs in loose colonies on cliffs or rocky areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003297		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 27,000-120,000 individuals, including totals for <i>Procelsterna albivitta</i>.
106003298		distribution	eng	The Common White Tern has a distribution across the tropics of the world, being found year-round on islands in the south Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the western and central Pacific. It is also a seasonal visitor to islands in the south-central and eastern Pacific off the coast of <B>Mexico<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003298		habitat	eng	This species feeds mainly upon small fish, but will also take squid and crustaceans. The proportions vary locally, with 50% of its diet comprising of fish on Christmas Island compared to 85% on Hawaii. Prey are caught by diving. Its breeding season varies locally, nesting on coral islands, usually with vegetation, nesting in trees and bushes, on rocky slopes and cliffs, and also on artificial substrates. It lays a single egg on a bare branch, usually within a slight depression at a fork or on the midrib of a palm frond or banana leaf. It is resident year round on some islands though is a seasonal visitor on others where its non-breeding movements are not known (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003299		distribution	eng	The Little White Tern can be found on the Marquesas Islands (<B>French Polynesia</B>), and possible the Phoenix Line Islands (<B>Kiribati</B>) of the Pacific Ocean (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003300		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some breeding sites lie within managed guano reserves or protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify those breeding sites where introduced predators are a problem and control/remove them from these sites. Determine effects of interactions with fisheries. Monitor population levels at key sites. Establish key locations as Marine Protected Areas. <p></p>
106003300		distribution	eng	<em>Larosterna inca</em> is found along the Pacific coast from northern <strong>Peru</strong> south to central <strong>Chile</strong>. Mass dispersal and breeding failures have resulted periodically from El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, and both fish-stocks and the populations of seabirds that depend upon them are adapted to these fluctuations. Population declines are usually promptly reversed, suggesting that food shortages trigger rapid dispersal not high mortality in adults and high reproduction rates (up to two successful broods in a year). Although fishing for anchoveta has been banned in Peru, and the guano industry adequately regulated, there are concerns that this species might be badly affected by the El Niño Southern Oscillation event of 1998<strong> </strong>(G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003). Prior to the guano industry (c.1850) there were millions of Inca Terns in Peru (according to accounts from Coker 1919, Hutchison 1950). Current numbers are much lower than two centuries ago, but they are common and breed in some localities. The total population has been estimated at more than 150,000 individuals (Zavalaga <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).  <p></p>
106003300		habitat	eng	It breeds on inshore (and occasionally offshore) islands and rocky coastal cliffs. Nests are placed in suitable fissures, burrows, caves and cavities, sometimes the old nest of a Humboldt Penguin <em>Spheniscus humboldti</em>. It feeds, often in large flocks, on schooling anchoveta <em>Engraulis ringens</em>, mote sculpins <em>Normanychtic crokeri</em> and silversides <em>Odothestes regia regi</em>a found in the cold water of the Humboldt Current. Additionally, this species scavenges offal and scraps from sea-lions and fishing boats. One or two eggs are incubated for about four weeks, and the chicks leave the nest after seven weeks. Birds feed by plunge diving for fish.  <p></p>
106003300		population	eng	The total population has been estimated more than 150,000 individuals (Zavaga <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).
106003300		threats	eng	Reduction of nesting habitat as a result of guano harvesting may affect population dynamics. However, Inca Terns are very flexible and successful in using any kind of coverage (natural or artificial) for nesting. They can nest inside abandoned buildings and huts on guano islands, and in any pile of wood and metal slabs. Reduction of anchovy stocks due to commercial fishing may limit population size. The presence of rats and cats on some islands can also prevent nesting or reduce breeding success.  <p></p>
106003301		distribution	eng	The Little Auk breeds on islands of the high Arctic, being found on islands in the Bering Sea, from east Baffin Island (<B>Canada</B>), through <B>Greenland (to Denmark)</B>, <B>Iceland</B> to Spitsbergen, Bear Island and the <B>Jan Mayen Islands (to Norway)</B>, Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land, <B>Russia</B>. It is migratory, expanding its range in winter to include the North Atlantic Ocean as far south as the <B>United Kingdom</B> and the north-east <B>USA<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003301		habitat	eng	This species feeds mainly on small invertebrates such as amphipods and euphausiids and on fish larvae. The precise timing of its spring arrival at breeding colonies is variable depending on locality, from late February on Franz Josef Land to early May in north-west Greenland. Immense colonies are formed on sea coasts, usually nesting in crevices in rock scree of maritime slopes and on coastal cliffs. Colonies are abandoned in August with individuals seeking more southerly waters (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003301		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.16,000,000-36,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration   (Brazil 2009).
106003302		distribution	eng	The Common Guillemot has a circumpolar distribution, occuring in the low-arctic and boreal waters of the north Atlantic and north Pacific (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003302		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>The Common Guillemot is a pursuit-diving marine bird which forages primarily during daylight. One parent remains at the colony with the chick whilst the other is on a foraging trip. Birds departing colonies usually splash-down to form large rafts close to the colony before departing to foraging areas. External radio tagging has been shown to adversely effect breeding (Wanless <I>et</I> <I>al.</I> 1988, Nevins 2004), whereas birds fitted with internal transmitters behaved as normal (Wanless <I>et</I> <I>al.</I> 1988). <B>Diet </B>During the breeding season, schooling pelagic fish species are the most important prey for adults, though benthic species can also be important.In Labrador, Canada, Shannies (Sticheaidae) were the main source of food, comprising 84%  of the diet in 1996 and 52.9% in 1997 (Bryant and Jones 1999). Capelin (<I>Mallotus villosus</I>) were also important, forming 44.7% of the diet in 1997 (Bryant and Jones 1999). In the UK, the main prey taxa are sandeel (<I>Ammodytes </I>spp.) and clupeids. Small gadoids are also important at some colonies. <B>Foraging range </B>This species dives to maximum depths of 170-230m. During the breeding season, surveys recorded the highest densities of birds in the 51 - 100 m depth zone, although birds were still abundant in water less than 50 m and 101 - 200 m deep. Very few were seen in deeper areas (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1990). The foraging range of this species appears variable across seasons and years. At the Isle of May, Scotland, during 1986 around 70% of foraging trips were over 7 km from the colony, whereas in the following year the birds tended to make shorter trips (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1990). Foraging trips in eastern Canada are within 100 km (Cairns <I>et</I> <I>al</I>. 1987, Davoren <I>et al.</I> 2003), and in Pribilof Islands, Alaska, foraging occurred mostly within 60 km. In Witless Bay, Newfoundland, foraging aggregations formed over large Capelin schools within 5 km of breeding sites. Along the Newfoundland coastline, aggregations occurred within 15 km of the colonies, and at an offshore ridge about 80 km southeast of the colonies. Despite these large foraging radii, waters close to the colony were the most frequent destination of feeding birds. This was particularly true during chick rearing, when only one third of feeding trips could have exceeded 10 km from the colony (Cairns <I>et</I> <I>al</I>. 1987).<B> </B>In Pribilof Islands, Alaska, birds showed a consistent preference for shallower waters (Schneider and Hunt 1984).<B> </B>High densities of foraging birds have also been observed foraging over a submarine ridge (Coyle <I>et al.</I> 1992).<B> </B>In Kachemak Bay, Alaska, it appears that birds tend to feed over rocky substrates in water depths of about 18 to 55 m (Sanger G.A. 1987). They have also been observed to forage in riptides (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1990), and in areas of sandy sediment suitable for sandeels (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1998, BirdLife International 2000).<B> </B>Near Flamborough Head, UK, the Farallones, California, and Pribilof Islands, Alaska, birds forage at fronts between thermally distinct bodies of water. In the UK example, this occurs at a seasonally-occuring front between thermally-mixed and thermally-stratified water, whereas in the Farallones, the front was between cold and salty upwellings and estuarine outflow (Decker and Hunt 1996, BirdLife International 2000).
106003302		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.18,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals   in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003303		distribution	eng	This species has a circumpolar distribution in the arctic and high arctic regions of North America, Europe and Asia breeding on coasts and islands. It breeds as far south as the Kuril Islands (<B>Russia</B>), Newfoundland and Labrador (<B>Canada</B>) and Alaska (<B>USA</B>), and also winters off the coast of central <B>Japan<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003303		habitat	eng	The Thick-billed Guillemot is exclusively marine ranging along sea coasts and as far offshore as the continental shelf edge. It feeds chiefly on fish, squid and crustaceans throughout the year, supplemented by polychaetes and molluscs. Fish predominate during summer with the main species varying with locality and are usually caught close to the colony.  Birds arrive at colonies in the spring though the start of laying is variable depending on sea temperature, laying latest where the temperatures are lowest (e.g. early July in the high Arctic). It is a highly colonial, usually forming immense aggregations on sea cliffs laying on narrow ledges. The extent and timing of post-breeding dispersal is largely determined by ice conditions and food availability. During the winter periods it can be found in large flocks at sea, likely related to the non-random distribution of winter prey (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003303		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.22,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population is Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003304		distribution	eng	Their breeding habitat is islands, rocky shores and cliffs on northern Atlantic coasts, in eastern North America as far south as Maine (<B>USA</B>), and in western Europe from northwestern <B>Russia</B> to northern <B>France</B>. North American birds migrate offshore and south, ranging from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland (<B>Canada</B>) to New England (USA). Eurasian birds also winter at sea, with some moving south as far as the western Mediterranean.
106003304		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>Razorbills are pursuit divers that propel themselves through the water with their wings. They are capable of diving to 120m depth, but mostly forage nearer the surface. They spend most of their lives at sea, only arriving ashore to reproduce. During the prelaying period, they never spend a night in the nest, and even after the egg is laid, only one parent remains in the nest. <B>Diet </B>They are known to consume krill, amongst other prey. In the Bay of Fundy, Canada, 76% of Razorbill stomachs contained krill (Huettman et al 2005).<B> Foraging range </B>This species has been described as coastal rather than pelagic (Huettman et al 2005), and birds tend to be concentrated within 10 km of the shore (BirdLife International 2000, Huettman et al 2005). At Flamborough Head, UK, maximum densities of birds were observed at under 1 km from the colony and 6 - 28 km away from the colony (BirdLife International 2000). Birds were seen up to 25 km from the Pembrokeshire Islands in 1992, with the highest mean density within 5 km, whereas in June 1990, birds were found up to 45 km away (albeit in low numbers beyond 25km) with the highest densities within 10 km (BirdLife International 2000). At the Isle of May during chick rearing, radio-tracking revealed that 91% of birds foraged at over 10 km from the colony, although transect counts showed a density maximum within 5 km of the colony (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1998). Another area of high bird density was located 35km away over the Wee Bankie (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1998). Razorbills breeding at St Kilda foraged at the Whale Rock Bank, 38 km away, although a high proportion of the breeding population appeared to be foraging within 5 km of the island. At North Rona the maximum feeding range was 15 km.<B> </B>Razorbills are probably capable of diving to at least 120 m. Analysis of surveys of distribution at sea indicated that very few were present in waters deeper than 200 m during the breeding season, with the greatest abundance found at depths less than 100 m. At the Isle of May, they foraged preferentially in shallow waters (less than 30 m deep) (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1998). The same individuals used several widely-separated feeding areas on different days and even on the same day (Wanless <I>et al.</I> 1998). Razorbills occur in high numbers around fronts, as around the Irish Sea Front during autumn. On the Isle of May they were found to be associated with both tidal fronts and the presence of the Clyde front during the early breeding season (BirdLife International 2000). They were also highly concentrated at an offshore bank near St Kilda (Leaper <I>et al.</I> 1988, BirdLife International 2000). In winter in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, they tended to forage within tidal upwelling zones (Huettman et al 2005). A significant proportion of Razorbills breeding in North America spend at least part of the winter in the outer Bay of Fundy and in its coastal zone (i.e. less than 8km offshore) (Huettman et al 2005). It is likely that, in winter, the species gathers in relatively small areas where predictable concentrations of prey occur (Huettman et al 2005).
106003305		distribution	eng	<em>Pinguinus impennis </em>occurred in naturally scattered colonies<strong> </strong>(Bengtson 1984) across the North Atlantic until the 19th century, breeding from <strong>Canada</strong> through <strong>Greenland (to Denmark)</strong>, the <strong>Faeroe Islands (to Denmark)</strong> and <strong>Iceland</strong> to <strong>Ireland</strong> and the <strong>UK</strong>, with archeological records from the western coast of Europe from European Russia south to France<strong> </strong>(Bourne 1993), and wintering offshore south to New England, USA, and southern Spain<strong> </strong>(Montevecchi and Kirk 1996). The last known pair were killed on Eldey Island, Iceland, in 1844, and the last live bird was seen off the Newfoundland Banks in 1852<strong> </strong>(Halliday 1979).  <p></p>
106003305		habitat	eng	Historically, birds bred only on remote, rocky islands, probably due to early extirpation in more accessible sites<strong> </strong>(Lyngs 1994). Birds were flightless<strong> </strong>(Livezey 1988). Immatures probably fed on plankton<strong> </strong>(Hobson and Montevecchi 1991) while adults dived for fish<strong> </strong>(Olson <em>et al</em>. 1979). <p></p>
106003305		threats	eng	Details of how it was driven to extinction by hunting for its feathers, meat, fat and oil are well known<strong> </strong>(Grieve 1885). As birds became more scarce, specimen collecting became the proximate cause of their extinction<strong> </strong>(Birkhead 1994).  <p></p>
106003306		distribution	eng	The Black Guillemot can be found throughout Arctic waters on the northern coasts of <B>Russia</B>, Alaska (<B>USA</B>), <B>Canada</B> and <B>Norway</B>, in the Atlantic Ocean off <B>Greenland (to Denmark)</B>, eastern Canada as far south as the <B>United Kingdom</B> including the North and Baltic Sea (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003306		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>Black Guillemots are pursuit divers that propel themselves through the water using their wings. <B>Diet </B>The species is probably primarily a benthic forager, since much of the prey consists of benthic fish and invertebrates, including crustaceans (Bradstreet and Brown 1985, Cairns 1987a, BirdLife International 2000). Various studies find sandeels (<I>Ammodytes </I>spp.) (Harris and Riddiford 1989, Ewins 1990) and blennies (particularly butterfish <I>Pholis gunnellus</I>) (Harris and Riddiford 1989, Ewins 1990, BirdLife International 2000) to be the most important prey species of fish, although the relative contributions of each of these to the overall diet differs. Flatfish (Harris and Riddiford 1989) and gadoids (Ewins 1990) are also sometimes important. Amongst invertebrates, sea-scorpions are noted as an important prey item (Harris and Riddiford 1989). Adults tend to consume a higher proportion of invertebrates than chicks (Ewins 1990). The general trend is for increasing importance of invertebrates with latitude (presumably reflecting overall availability) in the summer diet of both adults and chicks. The few data on winter food suggest that invertebrates are of greater importance during the winter than during the summer (Ewins 1990).<B> Breeding site </B>Both early spring and breeding distributions appear to be influenced by the Hell Gate and Cardigan Strait polynya located in western Jones Sound, Canada, between Ellesmere and Devon islands. The evidence presented suggests that annual variation in the distribution of ice edges in Jones Sound may influence the distribution of breeding birds among suitable breeding habitat. The observed distribution of Guillemots in March, April, and May is coincident with the location of open water and the associated ice edges. Thereafter, as the ice margin recedes and shoreleads open, the distribution of Guillemots tends to reflect the location of breeding colonies (Prach and Smith 1992).<B> Foraging range </B>Birds feeding in the eastern Canadian Arctic fed principally in waters 10-130 m deep (Cairns 1987a). Birds have been caught in nets up to 50 m deep, but have a theoretical maximum dive of 130 m. They have been observed actively feeding in water 35-45 m deep (Uspenski 1956). However, in Kattegatt, Denmark, approximately 80% of all Black Guillemots were recorded in water with depths of 10-30 m (Durinck <I>et al.</I> 1994).<B> </B>Black Guillemots were always recorded less than 5 km from the coast of Caithness, Scotland during May-July (BirdLife International 2000). At the Bay of Fundy, Canada, almost all birds remained within 300 m of the shore (Ronconi and St. Clair 2002). At Papa Westray, Scotland, the mean foraging distance was 2.4 km away from the colony, and birds were recorded foraging in areas up to 3.9 km away from the colony, but despite this large variation in foraging range, feeding sites were never located further than 1.5 km from the shore (BirdLife International 2000). At Rockabill, Ireland, birds forage within 1 km of the colony or else fly 7km or more to reach the mainland coast (BirdLife International 2000). In the eastern Canadian Arctic, censuses indicated that most birds were feeding within 13 km of breeding colonies, with a few found as far as 15 km (BirdLife International 2000). Sightings were frequently highest within 5 km of the colony (BirdLife International 2000). Several studies (at the Bay of Fundy, Finland, Denmark and Iceland) found that Black Guillemots foraged between 0.5 and 4 km from nest sites, and occasionally beyond 7 km away (BirdLife International 2000). By contrast, in the NW Territories, Canada, breeding adults rarely foraged close to the colony, and some birds may have been travelling as far as 55 km (BirdLife International 2000). Birds probably capture some prey in the water column, but forage principally on benthic prey (Cairns 1987a). In Shetland, birds tend to forage where the sea bed is rocky and vegetated with dense stands of kelp (<I>Laminaria spp</I>.) (Ewins 1990) which reflects the habitat preferences of their main prey (BirdLife International 2000).
106003306		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.400,000-700,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration   (Brazil 2009).
106003307		distribution	eng	The Pigeon Guillemot can be found in the North Pacific, breeding from the Kuril Islands (<B>Russia</B>), on the Kamchatkan Peninsula to the eastern tip of Siberia, Russia, and from the western tip of Alaska (<B>USA</B>) down through the Atlantic coast of <B>Canada</B> to southern California (USA), including colonies on the Commander and Aleutian Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003307		habitat	eng	This marine species can be found along rocky coastlines of the North Pacific. Its diet includes a wide variety of small benthic fish and invertebrates, widening to include more species in the summer. Chicks are usually fed fish which tend to be obtained within 1 km of the colony. It normally arrives at colonies between March and April, breeding on sea cliffs and slopes close to regions of shallow water usually less than 50 m deep. It is a monogamous species with high mate and site fidelity, usually breeding in small colonies of under 50 birds, sometimes as single pairs, but colonies of over 1000 birds have been seen. Individuals normally remain near colonies outside the breeding season, though birds from Alaska and California move south and north respectively (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003307		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt;&#160; c.470,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106003308		distribution	eng	The Spectacled Guillemot is found on coasts and islands of the north-west Pacific, breeding from the Kamchatkan Peninsula, <B>Russia</B> and Sea of Okhotsk to the north-east <B>North Korea</B>, including the Kuril Islands, and Hokkaido, <B>Japan</B>, wintering near breeding locations and beyond the southern tip of Japan (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003308		habitat	eng	This exclusively marine species is found near-shore whilst breeding and over both pelagic waters and along coasts during the winter. It feeds largely on fish with a few invertebrates, usually catching prey close to breeding colonies. Its breeding season probably begins between April and May, nesting either as a single pair, in groups of 10-20 pairs and rarely in colonies of 200-300 pairs. It lays in cliff crevices, in holes and cavities in scree slopes and boulder fields or in more accessible sites on predator-free islands. Individuals are resident and mostly sedentary, remaining in the vicinity of the colonies except in the north of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003308		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.140,000-148,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003309		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> It is Threatened in all range states except Alaska. Detailed conservation recommendations were made in 1995 (Ralph <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Federal land-use in the USA is regulated, areas for management identified, and some temporarily removed from logging (Nelson 1997)<strong></strong>, though the protected status of old-growth forest in California is<span style=""> currently under review by </span>the USFWS in response to a timber-industry-led petition. In July 2008, the USFWS proposed a limited revision to critical habitat for the species in Oregon and Northern California. The Pacific Seabird Group (PSG) filed an objection to the removal of critical habitat designation in some counties in Oregon, but concurred with the proposed critical habitat revisions in northern California and southern Oregon (Harrison 2008). USFWS initiated a status review of the species in 2008, which will also function as a 5-year status review (Harrison 2008). In Canada there has been extensive research, a (now outdated) Recovery Plan <span style="">(Kaiser </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">1994), so</span>me (relatively minor) habitat protection under the British Columbia Forest and Range Practices Act, more extensive protection of forest habitat under various Land Use agreements and a radar monitoring plan developed by the Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recove<span style="">ry Team (CMMRT 2003). The Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team developed a Recovery Strategy to be compliant with the Canadian Species at Risk Act. This Recovery Strategy was based on a thorough conservation assessment (CMMRT 2003) approved by the multi-stakeholder team and submitted to the Canadian and British Columbia governments in 2006, but has been shelved since then (A. E. Burger </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012). The Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team (CMMRT) also oversaw the completion of a SARA-compliant Marbled Murrelet Nesting Habitat Recovery Action Plan dealing with forest habitat; this too was submitted to the governments in 2006 and has since received no attention (A. E. Burger </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012). The Department of</span><span style=""><span style=""> Natural Resources (WDNR) began developing a Marbled Murrelet Long-Term Conservation Strategy in 2007 (Escene 2007). The Northwest Forest Plan (2006) is expected to ensure the protection of a large proportion of important habitats in the USA (Raphael 2006). Extensive areas of suitable forest nesting habitat have been set aside in conservancies on the northern and central mainland and in Haida Gwaii (formerly Queen Charlotte Islands) (COSEWIC 2012). Smaller areas are being protected by other forestry and conservation measures. &#160;Overall, an estimated 35% of the 1,826,828 hectares of&#160; suitable habitat in all of British Columbia (based on the Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team modeling criteria [CMMRT 2003]) had been protected under various measures by 2011 (COSEWIC 2012). In 1998, the Exxon Valdez Trustee Council protected 179 km<sup>2</sup> of Afognak Island (<em>BBC Wildlife</em> 1999 172: 23)<strong></strong>. In 2007, 1,569 ha of forested land on the Oregon Coast was acquired under conservation easement for the species (amongst others), part funded by the New Carissa oil-spill funds (Escene 2007). Between 1998 and 2002, 507 Marbled Murrelets were radio-tracked in British Columbia (Barrett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and during 2005-2007, 111 birds were radio-tracked at Port Snettisham, Alaska, to determine nesting habitat, activity patterns and distribution (Nelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). A recommended protocol for surveying the species in forests was published in 2003 by PSG (Mack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). In British Columbia standard protocols have been developed for various survey methods (<span style=""><span style="">RIC&#160; 1997, Burger 2004). Research has shown that habitat management at relatively fine scales may provide conservation benefits (Horton 2008) and that the species would benefit from a reduction in the amount of hard edges (recent clear-cuts) at both patch and landscape scales (Malt and Lank 2007, 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style=""><strong style="">Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style=""> Survey potential nesting habitat. Collect data on the ratio of juvenile to adult birds from sites throughout the range, and monitor over time, as this is thought to be a reliable indicator of productivity (Peery </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2007). </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Research means of improving the abundance of high quality food, e.g. small fish, during the pre-breeding period. Minimise damage to fish stocks and feeding areas (RENEW Report 1999 9: 20)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Conduct research on the behaviour of migrants to determine the extent to which dispersal results in gene flow and prevents declines in resident populations (Peery </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2010). Complete and implement the SARA-compliant Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recovery Strategy and the Action Plans proposed therein&#160; (CCMMRT 2003).  Protect nesting habitat (K. J. Kuletz </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Move campgrounds away from old-growth areas in Californian State Parks, in order  to reduce predator populations in breeding areas. Reduce oil-spills, gill-net mortality and logging (K. J. Kuletz </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999)</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. List as Threatened in Alaska (K. J. Kuletz </span><em style="">in litt.</em><span style=""> 1999)</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style="">.</span><br/><p></p></span></span>
106003309		distribution	eng	<em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em> occurs in the <strong>USA</strong> and <strong>Canada</strong> in California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, south-east Alaska, Prince William Sound, Kenai Peninsula, Lower Cook Inlet, Barren Islands, Afognak and Kodiak Islands, the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians locally to Andreanof and Near Islands (Gaston and Jones 1998)<strong></strong>. In Alaska (85% of the population), historical estimates place the population at c. 750,000 individuals, though when trend estimates are applied to this figure it gives an estimated 2006 population of c. 271,000 individuals (Piatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. The British Columbia population was previously thought to be c. 54,000 - 92,500 (Piatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) but recent radar counts suggest the population may in fact be c. 72,600-125,600 birds (Bertram <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, A. Burger <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). This higher estimate is likely due to differences in survey methodology as opposed to a genuine population increase. The population in Washington, Oregon and California is estimated at 14,631-20,952 individu<span style="">als <span style="">(Falxa </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""><span style=""> 2009</span>). The greatest historical decreases have occurred in Washington, Oregon and California, and these continue (A. Burger<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Declines are also reported in British Columbia and south-east Alaska (Perry 1995)<strong></strong>. Trend analyses conducted during 2000-2007 suggests a decline of c.15% over the period in Washington, Oregon, and California (<span style="">Falxa </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008)</span>, a decrease of c. 70% in Alaska from<span style=""> the 1980s to 2006 (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong>, and a 40% decline in some parts of British Columbia in 1982-1992 (Kelson <em>et al.</em> 1995). At-sea surveys over the past 25 years in British Columbia suggest declines of c. 1% per year<span style=""> (Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2006) although&#160; radar surveys suggest the population may </span>have been relatively stable since 1999 (<span style="">COSEWIC 2012).</span> Availability of nesting habitat in British Columbia, which is strongly correlated with local breeding populations (Burger 2001, Burger et al. 2004), has declined by 22%&#160; between&#160; 1978 and 2008 and is continuing (COSEWIC 2012).  <p></p></span>
106003309		habitat	eng	It nests in old-growth trees (up to 60 km inland) and on the ground (sparsely where trees are absent, suboptimal) (Piatt and Ford 1993, Ralph 1995, Gaston and Jones 1<span style="">998, </span><span style=""><span style="">Burger 2002, McShane </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2004, Piatt</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style="">,</span> with the breeding season stretching between March and September in California, April and September in British Columbia, and May and September in Alaska (Piatt <span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Forest areas with multiple canopy layers and (in southern parts of its range) high mistletoe abundance are strongly preferred</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Research in British Columbia shows that in areas where forest habitat is relatively plentiful the species seldom re-use the same trees as nest sites, whereas in areas where logging has reduced old-growth there is a higher proportion of nest tree re-use (</span><span style=""><span style="">Burger </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009). The species has been suggested to tolerate substantial fragmentation (Harrison 2008), however, it has been shown to suffer  increased predation and disturbance at forest edges adjacent to recently cleared areas, compared with forest edges adjacent to regenerating or riparian areas (Malt and Lank 2007, 2009). Multiple radar studies have shown a significant correlation between numbers of birds entering watersheds and the areas of suitable forest habitat within those watersheds (</span><span style=""><span style="">Burger 2002, Burger </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2004). The species may prefer breeding sites with warmer sea-surface temperatures as annual density and productivity estimates during 1995-2007 have been found to increase with increasing sea surface temperature in the San Juan Archipelago, Washington (Raphael and Bloxton 2008), although  a study in Northern California, suggests that reproductive effort may decrease with warmer sea-surface  temperatures (Bigger and Chinnici 2008). Breeding is mid-March to early September in California, but more compressed further north (Hamer and Nelson 1995a, 1995b, Gaston and Jones 1998, Burger 2002). The diet is sandlance, herring, other small schooling fish and, in winter, invertebrates (Gaston and Jones 1998, </span><span style=""><span style="">Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Chicks are generally fed large subadult or adult prey rather than juveniles or larvae (Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. It feeds in near-shore habitats up to 1.4 km offshore, in sheltered waters, lagoons and sometimes inland lakes (Carter 1986, Hunt 1995, Gaston and Jones 1998, Burger 2002, Hebert and Golightly 2008)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Daily movements to feeding areas can be up to 250 km in exceptional cases (Whitworth </span><em style="">et al. </em><span style="">2000)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> but are normally about 30 km (Burger 2002, Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2006). Radio-marked birds from Redwood Creek in North California moved a maximum average distance of 99 km alongshore, with males travelling further than females, and non-breeding males travelling further than breeding males perhaps in search of mates or nesting habitats. Average home range size was 505 km</span><sup>2</sup><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">, again being greater for males than females (Hebert and Golightly 2008)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Individuals exhibit plasticity in their foraging behaviour, foraging closer to shore and increasing dive rates during nesting (Peery </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span><span style="">. 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Marbled Murrelets most often forage in pairs (Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Individuals in the northern part of its range may travel south during the non-breeding season, a movement which likely reflects the availability of prey (Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.</span><br/><p></p></span></span></span></span>
106003309		population	eng	<span style="">COSEWIC (2012) esti</span>mated the total population to number 358,200-417,500 individuals, rounded here to 350,000-420,000 individuals, based on 271,000 individuals in Alaska (Piatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), 72,600-125,600 in British Columbia <span style="">(Bertram </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2007), and 14,631-20,952 individuals in Washington, Oregon and California (Falxa </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009).</span><br/><p></p> <p></p>
106003309		threats	eng	Many areas of remaining old-growth forest used as nesting habitat are slated fo<span style="">r logging. Loss of nesting habitat is strongly linked with declining populations through most of the species range (</span><span style=""><span style="">Burger 2002, Burger and Waterhouse 2009, Piatt </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2006).  </span>Multiple radar studies have shown that when breeding habitat is reduced  by logging, the birds do not simply relocate to remaining forest  patches in higher densities, but suffer a population declin<span style="">e (Burger 2001).  This strongly suggests that population declines through much of its  range have been driven, at least in part, by loss of nesting habitat  (Burger 2002).  The species has been found to suffer increased corvid predation and disturbance at forest edges adjacent to recently cleared areas (Burger 2002, M</span>alt and Lank<span style=""> 2007, 2009). Juvenile recruitment off Vancouver Island was significantly reduced in a year of low marine productivity and prey availability (Ronconi and Burger 2008)&#160; Since the collapse of the Pacific sardine fishery, prey quality and  abundance has declined, with lower trophic</span>-level prey (e.g. krill) now  dominating the pre-breeding diet in California (Becker and Bessinger  2006)<strong></strong>. This has resulted in a lower proportion of  individuals reaching breeding condition, and therefore lower population  productivity. This factor, combined with high rates of nest predation by  corvids, is thought to be the primary cause of recent declines in  California (Peery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)<strong></strong>. Nylon, monofilament gill-nets in shallow waters and oil-spills (e.g. Exxon Valdez, Nestucca and New Carissa) also cause considerable mortality (Piatt and Naslund 1995, Nelson 1997, Gaston and Jones 1998, Burger 2002, Titmus and Smith 2008)<strong></strong>. A 2010 study suggests genetic divergence of the species in central California, despite c. 7% of this population being classified as migrants, as individuals dispersing from northern populations contribute relatively few young to the central California population (Peery <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
106003310		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the USA, the species is a candidate (listing priority 2) under the Endangered Species Act, and is listed in the Russia Red Data Book (Van Pelt 2005, M. Kissling <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Guidelines have been drawn up in the USA to avoid disturbance of nesting birds. From 2005 to 2009 in Icy Bay, Alaska, 340 birds were banded, and 122 adults and four juveniles have been radio-tracked leading to the discovery of eight nests (M. Kissling unpublished data)<strong></strong>. The Pacific Seabird Group established the Kittlitz's Murrelet Technical Committee in 2008 to, amongst other things, act as a technical authority on ecology, distribution and ecology of the species; identify, encourage and facilitate research; address conservation problems, and; act as a liaison between research and management (M. Kissling <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the species's population and trends in Alaska and Russia. Assess the impact of gill-net fisheries, and of boat traffic on the use of foraging areas. Develop innovative gill-net gear and fishing methods to reduce bycatch. Reduce habitat degradation and human disturbance through private sector codes of conduct. Enforce legislation to reduce the chances of oil-spills and other pollution. Tackle the threat of global climate change through international agreements. Estimate reproductive performance and other important population parameters to determine the most important factors affecting population stability. Identify and protect important courtship and nesting habitats. Identify important non-breeding areas. <p></p>
106003310		distribution	eng	<em>Brachyramphus brevirostris</em> has a distribution that is geographically centred on the Bering Sea where it is rare and patchily distributed in both <strong>Russia</strong> and the <strong>USA</strong>. In Alaska (where c.70% of the total population occurs [<strong></strong>K. Kuletz <em>in litt. </em>2002]<strong></strong>) it is found from just east of Cape Lisburne south to the Aleutian Islands and east to LeConte Bay. In Russia, it is limited to the eastern Chukotskiy Peninsula in the Chukchi Sea west to Cape Schmidt and south to Anadyr Gulf, as well as Shelikov Bay in the northern Sea of Okhotsk (Day <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Alaskan population is estimated to number 8,190-36,193 birds (USFWS 2009)<strong></strong>, and surveys in much of the Alaskan range indicated that populations may have declined by &gt;80-90% during the past 15 years (Piatt <em>et al</em>. undated)<strong></strong>. In Prince William Sound, the population declined by 84% between 1989 (6,436 birds) and 2000 (1,033 birds) following a possible longer term decline since 1972, when the population was estimated at 63,000 individuals (K. Kuletz <em>in litt. </em>2002, <strong></strong>Kuletz  <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. In the Malaspina Forelands, numbers declined by 38-75% in 1992-2002. In Glacier Bay, density estimates declined by 89.1% in 1991-2000, with c.2,200 birds estimated there in 1999-2000 (<strong></strong>K. Kuletz <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Total abundance in Icy Bay, Alaska, was estimated to be 1,725-2,372 birds in 2002, suggesting a decline of 59% over a three-year period (<strong></strong>Kissling 2006)<strong></strong>. There are no trend data from other parts of the species's range, but anecdotal information suggests population declines are occurring in at least some of these other areas. The wintering distribution includes records from coastal Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, Hokkaido (Japan) and the continental shelf of the northern Gulf of Alaska (Day 2006)<strong></strong>, and birds are present year-round at Kodiak Island (Alaska) (Stenhouse <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. There is now considerable uncertainty over the current population trend and the rate of the decline over recent decades, and further analysis is required.<br/><p></p>
106003310		habitat	eng	It lays a single egg on the ground amongst unvegetated scree or on cliff faces, but one recently found nest on Kodiak Island, Alaska, was on exposed bedrock (Stenhouse <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Breeding was thought to be restricted to sites at or near the tops of mountains in glaciated regions (Day <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but twelve active nests were recently found on Agattu in the western Aleutians, indicating that the species can nest at high densities in areas far from glaciers (<strong></strong>Stenhouse <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Individuals do not breed until 2-4 years of age, and may not breed every year (<strong></strong>Day and Nigro 2004)<strong></strong>. It generally forages in different water types to the closely related Marbled Murrelet <span style="font-style: italic;">B. marmoratus</span>, preferring but not exclusively feeding during the breeding season in turbid waters of glacial origin (Day <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. It feeds on fish and macro-zooplankton. During winter, recent work suggests that small groups are present in the Bering and Chukchi Sea in spring and autumn, but not in summer. Birds are almost always found in open leads of pack ice during early spring, but not in other times of the year, and birds are often found near Point Barrow in the autumn (M. Kissling <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>  <p></p>
106003310		population	eng	The population in   Alaska is currently estimated at 19,578 individuals (range of 8,190-36,193;   USFWS 2009). Data from Russia is scarce, but 5,100 birds are estimated to   occur along Kamchatka and the Chukotka Peninsula (USFWS 2009), hence the   global population is best placed in the band 20,000-40,000 individuals.   Brazil (2009) estimates that Russian population to comprise: &lt; 100   breeding pairs; &lt; 50 individuals on migration and &lt; 50 wintering   individuals.
106003310		threats	eng	There have been strong links made between this species's decline and areas of glacial recession (possibly as a result of climate change) (<strong></strong>Piatt <em>et al</em>. undated, Kuletz  <em>et al</em>. 2003, Van Pelt 2005)<strong></strong>. Other threats include habitat degradation and repeated disturbance of birds owing to recreational and commercial tour-boat traffic; mortality in gill-net fisheries (documented in Prince William Sound, Yakutat Bay, and near Kodiak Island [M. Kissling <em>in litt.</em> 2010]<strong></strong>); mortality from petroleum contamination (7-15% of the Prince William Sound population died as result of the <em>ExxonValdez</em> oil spill); and a change in prey species abundance adversely affecting piscivorous fish (Kuletz <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Boat traffic in Glacier Bay was found to cause a 30-fold increase in flight behaviour, and nearshore densities of murrelets were temporarily suppressed by vessel passage, although this was not found to result in a persistent loss of foraging habitat (Agness <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. In 2008, the U.S. Government auctioned leases to drill for oil and gas in the Chukchi Sea off Alaska, raising the potential prospect of catastrophic oil spills in an area where the species is known to breed (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>. Near-zero productivity in 1996-1998, for unknown reasons, may lead to further future declines (Day and Nigro 2004)<strong></strong>. Birds breeding in the western Aleutians have been found to have low reproductive success, with losses during the incubation period primarily due to avian predators locating unattended eggs, and chick mortality during the nestling period largely due to inclement weather (Kaler <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, data from Agattu and Kodiak islands indicate that nest success is very low (less than 10%), with few juvenile birds having been documented there, and blood chemistry analysis at Icy Bay indicates that few females there (c.10%) are breeding despite the majority (c.90%) being physiologically prepared to breed (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2011). It is also suspected that adult mortality is slightly elevated by losses to hydrocarbon contamination, entanglement in gillnets and high predation pressure (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2011).  <br/><p></p>
106003311		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All potential breeding islands in the USA and Mexico have been surveyed, with the exception of the offshore rocks of Cedros Island (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over the past 10 years, most invasive mammals, including cats, rats, goats, sheep, rabbits, donkeys and dogs have been removed from almost all islands  that are known current or suspected historical nesting sites in the US and Mexico (McChesney and Tershy 1998, B. Keitt and D. Whitworth <em>in litt. </em>2003, Whitworth <em>et al.</em> 2005, Keitt 2005, Aguire <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most important remaining conservation action is to eradicate cats from Guadalupe Island.  Because of its large size and lack of native mammals, Guadalupe may have been the largest Xantus's Murrelet breeding colony and was very likely the most important colony for the southern subspecies.  The Xantus's Murrelet is currently listed as Endangered in Mexico and Threatened under the California Endangered Species Act, and is currently a candidate species for federal listing in the USA (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2003, fishing and other extractive uses was banned within important areas of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary in an attempt to reduce light and noise pollution in important near-shore staging areas. However, the exclusion zone covers only a small buffer area around some colonies, and may be ineffective at minimising threats (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Guadalupe Island has just been declared a Biosphere Reserve (thanks to Conservación de Islas) (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The remaining Mexican islands with current or former breeding colonies are either in existing biosphere reserves (Natividad, Asunción and San Roque) or in a proposed new biosphere reserve. This is the first step to regulating tourism and the more damaging impact of commercial fishers (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A pilot habitat restoration for the species has begun on Santa Barbara Island (Wolf 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate introduced predators on other small islands (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including ground squirrels from Natividad Island, invasive house mice from Coronados Island and recently introduced deermice from the Western San Benito Island (B. Tershy <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop strategies to remove predators from larger islands, with a particular focus on removing cats from Guadalupe Island (B. Tershy <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop contingency plans to prevent the establishment of new predator populations (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey remaining potential breeding islands<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to monitor population trends with precision (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Regulate tourism on Baja California islands (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the impact of gill-net fisheries (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct further studies to determine levels of genetic differentiation and the extent of mixing between the two subspecies to clarify their taxonomic status.  <p></p>
106003311		distribution	eng	<em>Synthliboramphus hypoleucus</em> breeds off the coast of southern California, <strong>USA</strong> and Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong>.  Based on data from aerial and boat surveys between 1975 and 2003, the world population has been estimated at 39,700, of which 17,000 are likely to be breeding in any given year (Karnovsky <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the USA an estimated 885-2,575 breeding pairs occur, the biggest colony on the island of Santa Barbara holds 500-1,250 pairs (B. Keitt and D. Whitworth <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small numbers breed on Anacapa (200-600 pairs), Santa Cruz (100-300 pairs), San Miguel (50-300 pairs), and San Clemente islands (10-50 pairs), USA (Sowls <em>et al.</em> 1980, Hunt <em>et al.</em> 1981, Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992, Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting is suspected at Santa Catalina Island (25-75 pairs) (B. Keitt and D. Whitworth <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Santa Barbara colony has been stable since the 1980s, but recent surveys suggest a decline (B. Keitt and D. Whitworth <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Mexico, it is known to breed on Los Coronados (750-1,250 pairs), San Jeronimo, San Benito (250-500 pairs), and two islets offshore of Guadalupe Island. Nesting was also recently confirmed on Todos Santos (B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and may also occur on the San Martin islands based on vocalizations heard during the breeding season. There are two distinct subspecies, the southern form breeding on only the three San Benito Islands and two rocks offshore of Guadalupe Island. Other likely former breeding colonies (Cedros, Natividad, Asuncion and San Roque) have been extirpated by invasive animals (B. Keitt and D. Whitworth <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Both subspecies breed sympatrically on the San Benito Islands, and the presence of intermediates suggests that some mixing takes place, although most mating is apparently assortive (Wolf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Post breeding birds disperse north and have been recorded in some number in late summer off British Columbia, <strong>Canada </strong>(Gaston and Jones 1998). <p></p>
106003311		habitat	eng	It nests on steep sea-slopes, canyons and cliffs with a sparse cover of herbaceous and shrubby plants (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong>. It is a generalist predator, and may exploit higher prey concentrations around pelagic convergence lines (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Around Santa Barbara, it feeds on larval fish, especially northern anchovy <em>Engraulis mordax</em><strong> </strong>(Hunt and Butler 1980, Hunt <em>et al.</em> 1981). Breeding effort and performance are lower when anchovy abundance is low (Hunt and Butler 1980)<strong></strong>. Adults enter and leave the nesting colonies at night when there is little or no moon, typically arriving on the Channel Islands in mid-February. Nesting persists through mid-June with peak nesting from late March to late April (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Clutches consist of two eggs laid approximately eight days apart with replacement of lost clutches unusual. Incubation takes c. 34 days (Jones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005). There are no recent records of them breeding under shrubs on top of Anacapa Island, a habitat used frequently on nearby, rat-free Santa Barbara Island (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).<p></p>
106003311		population	eng	Based on at sea survey data from 1975 to 2003, Karnovsky <I>et al.</I> (2005) were able to estimate a current North American at-sea population of 39,700, of which 17,000 are likely to be mature breeding individuals. Although this estimate is based on extrapolation from survey data, the population estimate is perhaps best placed conservatively at 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106003311		threats	eng	Invasive mammals were responsible for all known and suspected colony extinctions and in 1995 were present on all the larger colonies and former colonies but Santa Barbara Island (McChesney and Tershy 1998)<strong></strong>.  There was heavy cat predation on North Coronado until the mid-1990s (Jehl and Bond 1975, Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> almost extirpated the species from Anacapa (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong>, but have now been successfully eradicated (Whitworth <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The most significant current threat to Xantus's Murrelet recovery is the presence of invasive cats on Guadalupe Island, likely the most important historical site for the southern subspecies (B. Tershy <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  Cat predation is thought to have caused the extirpation, or at the very least, significantly reduced the population on the main island of Guadalupe (Keitt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). House mice were recently introduced the the Coronados Islands and deer mice <span style="font-style: italic;">Peromyscus maniculatus anacapae </span>(native to nearby Cedros Island) have also been introduced to the San Benito Islands.   Deer mice predate eggs on Santa Barbara (Murray <em>et al.</em> 1983)<strong></strong>, however they were established on Anacapa long before rats were introduced, precluding them from consideration as the cause of declines there (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). All Xantus's breeding colonies in California are legally protected as National Parks, private protected areas or military bases.  In Mexico, however, only the three southernmost former breeding islands were legally protected, while all current breeding islands were not protected (Wolf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Pollution from offshore oil-wells or the Los Angeles oil-tanker lane could extirpate the species from the south California Bight (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong>. Further threats are drowning in drift gill-nets, nest-site disturbance, bright lights used by the squid fishery that cause disturbance and mortality and possibly organochlorine pollution (Drost and Lewis 1995)<strong></strong>. The 80% decline in zooplankton off southern California from 1951 to 1993 may be detrimental to the species. Changes in sea temperature associated with global climate change could have an impact on food availability in future (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003312		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A management plan and implementation strategy for the Gulf of California Special Biosphere Reserve were detailed in 1994 (Velarde and Anderson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and work began in 1999 (D. W. Anderson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced mammals have been eradicated from a number of islands that are current, past or potential breeding sites (B. Tershy <em> in litt</em>. 1999, Tershy <em>et al</em>. 2002, B. Tershy <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Aguire <em>et al</em>. in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Instructive signs have been placed on many of the islands and there is a general move towards increasing enforcement of existing regulations.  At the same time, human use of the islands is increasing, much of it unregulated (B. Tershy <em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other measures include the development of management plans for all known breeding islands, environmental education, the erection of warning signposts on islands and increased enforcement of existing regulations (B. Tershy <em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate introduced predators on other small islands. Monitor all islands for new mammalian introductions. Develop strategies to remove predators from larger islands. Ensure the full implementation of the management plan. Estimate population sizes with precision. Monitor key populations. Assess the impact of gill-net fisheries (Everett and Anderson 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Regulate tourism on Baja California islands (Velarde and Anderson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003312		distribution	eng	<em>Synthliboramphus craveri</em> has an estimated c.5,000 breeding pairs, scattered throughout the Gulf of California, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Everett and Anderson 1991). It breeds on Islas Partida, Tiburón, San Jorge, San Esteban, Estanque, San Pedro Mártir, San Pedro Nolasco, San Francisco, Espíritu Santo and San Ildefonso, and possibly on the Pacific coast of Baja California, north to Islas San Benitos (DeWeese and Anderson 1976, Everett and Anderson 1991, Velarde and Anderson 1994, E. Velarde<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population, with pre-breeders, is probably 15,000-20,000 birds (Gaston and Jones 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which is similar to an at-sea survey estimate of c.22,000 birds (Pitman <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It winters in the Gulf of California and along coasts to south California, <strong>USA</strong>, and Sonora, Mexico, and possibly Guatemala (DeWeese and Anderson 1976, Tershy <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003312		habitat	eng	Two eggs are usually laid on bare rock or soft substrate at the end of a rock-cavity or crevice, but also in ground-burrows, under dense shrubs and boulders (DeWeese and Anderson 1976, Gaston and Jones 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting success varies from 12-79%, but chick survival during the first month at sea is only 30-35% (DeWeese and Anderson 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on larval fish, especially rockfish <em>Sebastes</em>, herring (Clupeidae) and lanternfish <em>Benthosema panamense</em><strong> </strong>(DeWeese and Anderson 1976). <p></p>
106003312		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 9,000-15,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,000-10,000 mature individuals.
106003312		threats	eng	Cats and rats are probably the greatest threat, presumably predating both adults and nests on several breeding islands (DeWeese and Anderson 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Deer mice may also pose a threat on some islands. Oil spills from the tanker lane stretching from the Gulf of California to Puerto Libertad could threaten a large percentage of breeding adults. Pollution from offshore oil-wells or the Los Angeles oil-tanker lane could also affect non-breeding adults in the south California Bight (Velarde and Anderson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further threats are drowning in drift gill-nets, nest-site disturbance and possibly organochlorine pollution (Velarde and Anderson 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003313		distribution	eng	The Ancient Murrelet can be found from the Yellow Sea (islands off <B>China</B> and <B>Korea</B>), through the <B>Russian</B> Pacific coast and the <B>Aleutian Islands</B> to the Haida Gwaii archipelago of British Columbia (<B>Canada</B>), where about half of the world population breeds. It can be found as far south as the southern coast of California (<B>USA</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003313		habitat	eng	<B>Habitat: </B>This species if found offshore and along rocky sea coasts. It breeds on islands often with dense vegetation. It forages mainly in offshore waters to the edge of the continental shelf but mayalso be found inshore where oceanographic processes concentrated food near the sea surface. It winters well offshore, often off the shelf break, but also over inshore waters where food concentration is high. Its distribution is determined largely by concentrations of planktonic crustaceans and small fish. <B>Diet:</B> Its diet is comprised mainly of planktonic crustaceans and small larval fish, with the specific prey species varying both geographically and temporally. Feeding usually occurs in small flocks by diving. <B>Breeding: </B>Individuals arrive in the vicinity of colonies a month before laying, from early spring to mid-summer depending on the locality. It is colonial but at low densities, and is often associated with other alcids. It is nocturnal at colonies, nesting in burrows excavated in soil but also in rock crevices and cavities and occasionally in holes dug by other suterranean nesters (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003313		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,000,000-2,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003314		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Japan. In addition to the several breeding colonies already protected as national wildlife protection areas, including Nanatsu-jima, Kiinagashima, Okino-jima and Danjo-gunto, in November 2010 Biro-jima, Tadanae Island, Ohnohara-jima and Kanmuri-jima also received this designation (K. Ono <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Gugul Islet (South Korea) has been designated as a Natural Monument. In Japan, educational materials have been produced to inform fishers about the species and the importance of the largest known breeding colony on Biro-jima Island.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct coordinated surveys of breeding sites to determine current population size and trends. Establish new protected areas at important colonies that are not officially protected. Restrict human access to islands with breeding colonies. Control predators at breeding colonies. Research and design methods to reduce the bycatch of seabirds by fisheries. <p></p>
106003314		distribution	eng	<em>Synthliboramphus wumizusume </em>is endemic to the warm current regions near central and southern <strong>Japan</strong>, where it breeds on uninhabited islands (BirdLife International 2001). The most important breeding sites are in Kyushu, notably the islands of Biro-jima, Koya-jima and Eboshi-jima, and the Izu Islands, notably Onbase-jima and Onohara-jima. Breeding has also been recorded on Gugul Island off the southern coast of <strong>South Korea</strong>, and it may also breed in Peter the Great Bay, Primorye, <strong>Russia</strong>. After breeding, birds move northwards to an area south-east of Hokkaido. They also winter along the coasts of Honshu and Kyushu, some birds apparently moving south to the Nansei Shoto Islands. The population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals. It is still declining in many localities, particularly the Izu Islands (Carter <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003314		habitat	eng	It frequents rocky islets and headlands during the breeding season (between mid-February and early May), nesting in single pairs, small groups and sometimes in large colonies. In the non-breeding season it occurs offshore, occasionally entering bays. Juveniles have recently been sighted outside the breeding season in the Seto Inland Sea, an area previously thought unsuitable for Japanese Murrelet, at least 150 km from the nearest known breeding site (Iida 2008). This was confirmed by the sighting of several family parties around the south-west of Yashima Island in the western Seto Inland Sea (Iida 2010). Two adult and two chicks with down, seen close to the coast of Tateyama City at the south end of Boso peninsula, point to other unknown breeding locations, as these sightings were 70 km from the nearest known breeding islands (Fujita 2008).&#160; <br/><p></p>
106003314		population	eng	The global   population is roughly estimated to be in the band c.2,500-9,999 mature   individuals (Ono 1996 and BirdLife International 2001), equating to   3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. National   population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003314		threats	eng	Sport fishing on isolated offshore reefs and islets is a major threat as it causes direct disturbance and habitat degradation. Fish, discarded by anglers, attract crows and gulls which then predate eggs and chicks. Indeed, predation by crows is the main threat on Biro-jima and Onohara-jima. Brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> has been introduced to some nesting colonies and has almost extirpated the population on Koya-jima, after rats had been successfully eradicted in 1987/1988 until 2006 when they were reintroduced, and then possibly eradicated for a second time. Landings by fishermen pose a continuing threat of rat reintroduction (M. Sato <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>undated). Annual mortality of adults in drift-nets has been estimated at 1-10% of the total breeding population, but these figures may be underestimates. There is some evidence that fish stocks have declined around the Izu Islands because of changes in water temperature. Oil spills are a potential threat.<br/><p></p>
106003315		distribution	eng	Cassin's Auklet ranges from Baja California (<strong>Mexico</strong>) up the Pacific coast of the <strong>USA</strong> and <strong>Canada</strong>, through Alaska to the Aleutian Islands (USA) (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003315		habitat	eng	This species is found offshore and along sea coasts, mostly over the continental shelf to the edge but also beyond into deep ocean. It feeds mostly on crustaceans throughout the year, supplemented by other invetebrates and small larval fish. The start of the breeding season varies greatly with latitude, from November in Baja California to July in Alaska. Birds form colonies from under 500 birds to over one million, usually at high densities on coastal islands with or without trees and nesting on a wide range of habitats. It winters mainly offshore within the breeding range, with southerly populations being relatively sedentary compared to northern individuals which migrate south (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003316		distribution	eng	The Parakeet Auklet is found in the North Pacific Ocean, from Hokkaido, <B>Japan</B> and far off the coast of California (<B>USA</B>) in the south, up to and including the southern part of the Chukchi Sea. It breeds on islands throughout this area, as well as on the coast of Alaska (USA) and the eastern coast of Siberia, <B>Russia<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003316		habitat	eng	This marine species occurs offshore and along rocky sea coasts. Its diet is comprised mainly of planktonic crustaceans, specifically euphausiids and amphipods early and calanoid copepods during chick-rearing, and it is supplemented with varying amounts of other invertebrates and small fish. Food is usually obtained at considerable distance from colonies. Spring arrival and the start of laying is variable depending on latitude, starting earliest in the south of its range and latest in the extreme north. It is monogamous with high site fidelity and presumably high mate fidelity between years. Colonies are loose and range from small to large, breeding on offshore islands using dark crevices and cavities in steep sea cliffs, rocky talus slopes and beach boulder fields as nesting sites (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003316		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.1,200,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003317		distribution	eng	The Crested Auklet can be found in the north-west Pacific Ocean, specifically in the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003317		habitat	eng	This species can be found offshore and along sea coasts, breeding on remote islands and coasts utilizing scree slopes, boulder fields, lava flows and sea cliffs. It forages in deep water, usually far often shore, and concentrating on areas with dense aggregations of zooplankton (e.g. areas of converging currents or upwellings). It usually occurs in large flocks. Its diet comprises mainly of planktonic crustaceans and infrequently small fish and squid. Individuals arrive at colonies between March and May, with the peak laying time varying depending on locality. Individuals are monogamous with high mate and site fidelity, and both sexes prefer mates with larger crests. Nest density in its sometimes large colonies (over 100,000 pairs) is determined by the availability of suitable rock crevices and cavities for nesting. Outside the breeding season it remains in the north-west Pacific (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003317		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.8,200,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been   estimated at &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003318		distribution	eng	The Whiskered Auklet is found in the north Pacific, from the north-east Sea of Okhotsk, the Commander and Kuril Islands (<strong>Russia</strong>), and throughout the Aleutian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It winters as far south as the eastern coast of <strong>Japan<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003318		habitat	eng	This species is found offshore and along sea coasts in summer and is mostly pelagic in winter. Its diet includes a high variety of planktonic crustaceans, and infrequently small fish and squid. It forages mainly offshore in deep water, and sometimes in near-shore regions almost always in large flocks throughout the year. Birds arrive at colonies from March to June depending on the site. It is highly monogamous with high site and mate fidelity throughout its breeding life. Colonies can be as large as 100,000 pairs and form on remote islands and coasts in a variety of different rocky habitats. Densities are determined largely by the availability of suitable rock crevices and cavities for nesting (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003318		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.100,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been estimated at
106003319		distribution	eng	The Least Auklet can be found in the northern Pacific Ocean. It ranges from Hokkaido, <B>Japan</B> and south-west Alaska (<B>USA</B>) in the south, up to and including the south of the Chukchi Sea. It breeds on the islands of Siberia, <B>Russia</B> and Alaska, as well as a few colonies on their coast (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003319		habitat	eng	This marine species is found offshore and along coasts. It forages on planktonic crustaceans near-shore or offshore throughout the year, almost always in large flocks and in the open oceans where physical charachteristics cause high planktonic densities. Birds arrive at colonies in the spring, earliest towards the extreme south and latest in the north. It is monogamous with shared mate choice and relatively low mate fidelity between the years. Colonies of more than one million individuals may form on remote islands and sea coasts, nesting on talus slopes, beach boulder rubble, sea cliffs and lava fields where crevices are suitable for breeding (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003319		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.24,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003320		distribution	eng	The Rhinoceros Auklet is found in the North Pacific and breeds from California, <B>USA</B>, off the coasts of <B>Canada</B> and Alaska to the Aleutian Islands in North America; and on Hokkaido and Honshu, <B>Japan</B>, as well as on the northern tip of <B>North Korea</B>, Sakhalin (<B>Russia</B>) and at two places on the far eastern Siberian coast in Asia (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003320		habitat	eng	<B>Habitat: </B>This marine species cab ne found both offshore and along sea coasts and islands. It breeds on maritime and inland grassy slopes, sometimes on predator-free islands, and rarely on steep island or mainland cliffs. It occurs in large aggregations at sea, often forming dense roosting flocks at night in sheltered bays. In winter it is normally pelagic in waters offshore from breeding areas and sometimes in near-shore coastal waters where food is highly concentrated due to oceanographic conditions. <B>Diet:</B> It feeds mostly on fish throughout the year supplemented in winter by small amounts of invertebrates such as squid and krill. Chick diet it almost exclusively fish though also invertebrates for late-hatching young. <B>Breeding:</B> It arrives at colonies in late March and early April, laying from the end of April to mid-June. It is monogamous with high site and mate fidelity. It is highly colonial in small to very large concentrations sometimes over 100,000 individuals. Laying is often highly asynchronous within a colony. Birds lay in nest chambers at the end of a burrow which are excavated by both sexes (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003320		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,300,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-1 million breeding   pairs c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003321		distribution	eng	The Atlantic Puffin can be found throughout the North Atlantic Ocean, from north-west <strong>Greenland</strong> (<strong>to Denmark</strong>) to the coastline of Newfoundland (<strong>Canada</strong>) in the west, and from north <strong>Norway</strong> down to the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong> in the east (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003321		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Atlantic Puffins are pursuit-divers that catch most of their prey within 30 m of the water surface (Piatt &amp; Nettleship 1985)<sup></sup>. They are capable of diving to 60 m, although they usually forage at depths less than 30 m (Piatt &amp; Nettleship 1985, Burger and Simpson 1986)<sup></sup>. Birds gather on the water around nesting sites, sometimes for several days, before taking up residence on land (BirdLife International 2000)<sup></sup>. They are frequently kleptoparasitised by Kittiwakes (Camphuysen et al 2007)<sup></sup>. Breeding females make a greater contribution to feeding chicks than do males, whereas males spend a greater proportion of time at the breeding burrow (Creelman and Storey 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> They prey on 'forage' species, including juvenile pelagic fishes, such as herring <em>Clupea harengus</em>, juvenile and adult capelin <em>Mallotus</em> <em>villosus</em>, and sandeel <em>Ammodytes</em> spp. (Barrett et al. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At times, they also prey on juvenile demersal fishes, such as gadids (Harris and Hislop 1978, Martin 1989, Rodway and Montevecchi 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sandeels usually form the majority of the prey fed to chicks (Corkhill 1973, Hislop and Harris 1985, Harris and Wanless 1986, Martin 1989, Harris and Riddiford 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and many chicks starve during periods of low sandeel abundance (Martin 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although there are exceptions, such as at Skomer Island in 1969 when sprat made up the majority of the diet fed to chicks (Corkhill 1973)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>This is a relatively wide-ranging species. When feeding chicks, birds generally forage within 10 km of their colony, but may range as far as 50 to 100 km or more (Harris 1984, Rodway and Montevecchi 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A boat transect run on one day in 1970 found that 85% of all birds seen were concentrated within just 3 km of the colony (BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but other studies have found peaks in the density of foraging birds at up to 40 km distance from the colony (Webb <em>et al.</em> 1985, Stone <em>et al.</em> 1992, Stone <em>et al. </em>1993, BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Similarly, surveys at the Isle of May, Scotland, suggest that birds forage close to the breeding colony, but also at other sites up to 40 km away (Wanless <em>et al.</em> 1990, BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Various studies (Pearson 1968, Corkhill 1973, Bradstreet and Brown 1985, BirdLife International 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, based on different breeding colonies, have estimated the theoretical maximum foraging radius at anywhere from 32 km (Corkhill 1973)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to 200 km (Bradstreet and Brown 1985). <p></p>
106003322		distribution	eng	The Horned Puffin can be found in the northern Pacific Ocean, from the coast of <B>Japan</B> and south-west <B>Canada</B> in the south, up to and including the Chukchi Sea in the north. It breeds on most of the islands and coasts in this area, up to the north of its range on Wrangel Island, <B>Russia</B>, but can only be found breeding as far south as the Queen Charlotte Islands (Canada) and Sakhalinsk (Russia) (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
106003322		habitat	eng	This marine species can be found along sea coasts on rocky cliffs and offshore islands during breeding, and ranging over adjacent waters usually only to the edge of the continental shelf during non-breeding periods.  Its diet is comprised mainly of a wide diversity of fish, supplemented with a significant proportion of squid, crustaceans and polychaetes. Chick diet is primarily the high fat and calorific sandeels and capelin. It obtains most prey by pursuit-diving. Individuals arive at colonies on rocky cliffs, boulder areas and talus slopes in spring, with the start of breeding being variable depending on locality. It is a colonial species with aggregations of varying sizes (del Hoyo et al. 1996). <B>
106003322		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.1,200,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106003323		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.3,500,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in Japan and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs c.1,000-10,000 wintering   individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003327		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003329		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003330		population	eng	Partners in Flight   estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in   litt. 2008).
106003333		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine best survey techniques. Survey status in logged forest. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Assess levels of hunting through interviewing local hunters. Interview local villagers about population trends. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across New Britain. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging. Encourage creation of large wildlife management areas on New Britain. Address hunting through public awareness discussions.<p></p>
106003333		distribution	eng	<em>Henicopernis infuscatus</em> is a little-known endemic of New Britain (including Lolobau) in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are only c.30 recent records, all of singles or pairs (Coates 1985, Clay 1994, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, B. Finch <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Hornbuckle 1999a, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 1999). As a large raptor, it is believed to occur at low population densities and it appears to be much less common than the allospecific New Guinea Long-tailed Buzzard <em>H. longicauda</em> (B. Finch <em>in litt.</em> 1994<strong>, </strong><strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999). However, it is an inconspicuous forest species which is probably widespread and is likely to be very under-recorded (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, Dutson 2011).  <p></p>
106003333		habitat	eng	It is usually recorded gliding over primary hill forest to a maximum of 1,300 m (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are few records from logged or otherwise degraded forest, but its habitat requirements are poorly known (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Clay 1994, B. Finch <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its feeding ecology may be similar to that of <em>H. longicauda</em> which hunts above or within the canopy for arthropods, lizards, birds and birds' eggs (Coates 1985).<p></p>
106003333		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size (Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Dutson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106003333		threats	eng	Nearly all lowland and hill forests on gentle gradients on New Britain have been logged or are under logging concessions, and large areas have been subsequently converted to oil-palm plantations (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998,&#160;P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008). However, much of this species's habitat is on steep slopes and montane forest which is not suitable for logging (Clay 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998). These striking birds are likely to be shot opportunistically as trophies and for meat (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994). Hunting has rendered <em>H. longicauda</em> scarce in some areas of New Guinea (Coates 1985). <p></p>
106003334		population	eng	Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated the population to number 100,000-1,000,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 110,000-160,000 breeding pairs, equating to 330,000-480,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Hence a revised global estimate is 350,000-1,000,000 individuals.
106003335		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.100,000-1,000,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003336		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003337		distribution	eng	Endemic to Australia, this species is found throughout the mainland, though rarely in central Australia.
106003337		habitat	eng	This species is a specialised, canopy-dwelling predator inhabiting primarily coastal and subcoastal environments and inland wooded watercourses. There is an assured supply of passerines in those places where it hunts around towns, and it may have even benefited from partial clearance (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106003337		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003337		threats	eng	Half or more of its habitat in southern and eastern Australia has been at least partially cleared for agriculture. Illegal egg-collecting and shooting constitute threats in marginal populations.
106003338		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003340		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003341		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003343		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.100 breeding   pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106003344		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003345		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population fluctuations through regular surveys and analysis of ad-hoc sightings. Conduct research into the impact of cattle grazing on rat numbers. Study the impact of nest predation by cats. Consider control of cats at core breeding sites. Identify and protect sites used by the core population. <p></p>
106003345		distribution	eng	<em>Elanus scriptus</em> occurs in the eastern arid zone of <strong>Australia</strong> but occasionally irrupts to all parts of the continent. The species is usually confined to the Coopers Creek drainage system (Olsen 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, whilst its wider distribution is thought to be centred on the Barkly Tablelands in the eastern Northern Territory and river systems in south-western Queensland, north-eastern South Australia and north-western New South Wales (Garnett (Ed) 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population cycles appear to be linked to those of the principal prey, the plague rat <em>Rattus villossimus</em>, which has population explosions following high rainfall (Olsen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In years when rats are numerous the species can breed rapidly and be abundant. When rat populations crash following the onset of drought, birds are forced into areas that are outside their normal range and eventually most perish (Olsen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These explosions in population and range rarely last for more than a year, after which the species's distribution again contracts (Garnett (Ed) 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Little is known about the intervening lean times when the species is rarely seen and the population may fall near to 1,000 individuals. Despite such fluctuations the species is regarded as secure (Garnett (Ed) 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003345		habitat	eng	This is a largely nocturnal species (Garnett (Ed) 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, hunting at night, and tending to rest in coolabah trees <em>Eucalyptus coolabah</em> during the day (Olsen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits open or sparsely wooded country, usually in flocks, but also seen as pairs and singles (Johnstone and Storr 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. They roost, nest and sometimes hunt in groups, and often form large noisy breeding colonies of up to a hundred individuals (Olsen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. They nest in the cooler months when the rats often reach their peak, with nesting peaking in July. The nest is an open platform of sticks from herbage and shrubs. They lay clutches of 2-7 eggs and the incubation period is thought to be 31 days. The age at fledging is five weeks. During a rat plague, pairs will produce several clutches in succession until the rat populations crash, and parents spend little or no time on post-fledging care. During this time the population may increase by ten fold very rapidly. Parents may abandon their chicks when the local rat population crashes (Olsen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rat populations are thought to be fairly secure, even in extremely dry years, and there is reportedly always a core population of rats present (D. Akers<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plaguing house mice <em>Mus domesticus</em> are also an important food resource, and the species feeds on a variety of invertebrates (M. Mathieson<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003345		population	eng	The population is almost impossible to assess due to its extreme fluctuations. In years when rats are numerous the species can breed rapidly and be abundant. When rat populations crash following the onset of drought, birds are forced into areas that are outside their normal range and eventually most perish. Little is known about the intervening lean times when the species is rarely seen and populations may fall near to 1,000 individuals. Its population size generally remains between 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003345		threats	eng	There are no known major threats, although intensification of cattle grazing may eventually affect rat numbers and hence the species's populations. Cats are known to predate nests, and may take significant numbers of nestlings, but this is yet to be confirmed by careful study (Olsen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003346		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003348		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003349		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003352		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003353		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive is the the focus of close monitoring and targeted conservation actions across most of its range, including reintroduction to parts of the UK since 1989<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(English Nature 1995; RSPB 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 2007, further reintroduction projects are aiming to re-establish red kites in Tuscany and in the Marche (Italy), the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland - the first breeding attempt in the Republic was recorded in 2009. An EU species action plan for the Red Kite was published in 2009 (Knott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). National species action plans are in place in Germany, France, the Balearic Islands and Denmark, and a draft national action plan is in place in Portugal.<span style=""></span> Ongoing research in Germany  aims to examine further the impact of windfarms on the red kite breeding  population in this country. <span style="">In 2</span>007, for the first  time, three young birds in France were fitted  with satellite  transmitters, although only one provided regular  information<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Mionnet 2007). In Spain, radio-tracking was carried out in Segovia in 2006-7.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends and breeding productivity. Continue to manage reintroduction projects. Regulate the use of pesticides, especially in France and Spain. Reduce persecution through law enforcement, prosecutions and awareness campaigns. Carry out further studies into the impact of changing land-use practices. Lobby for changes in EU and national agricultural policies. Increase the area of suitable woodland and forest with protected status. Work with land-owners to protect habitat and prevent persecution. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Consider extending supplementary feeding to more areas of low food availability.  Ensure national legislation on animal by-products takes into account the needs of scavengers. Promote control on feeding stations to be compliant with sanitary regulations.<br/><p></p>
106003353		distribution	eng	<em style="">Milvus milvus</em><span style=""> is endemic to the Western Palearctic, with the European population of 19,000-23,000 pairs encompassing 95% of its global breeding range</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(BirdLife International 2004; U. Mammen 2007)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. It breeds from </span><strong style="">Spain&#160;</strong><span style="">and </span><strong style="">Portugal</strong><span style=""> east through central Europe to </span><strong style="">Ukraine</strong><span style="">, north to southern </span><strong style="">Sweden</strong><span style="">, </span><strong style="">Latvia </strong><span style="">and the </span><strong style="">UK</strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, and south to southern </span><strong style="">Italy</strong><span style="">. Populations winter within the western breeding range, and formerly in isolated patches south and east to eastern </span><strong style="">Turkey</strong><span style="">. Its status as a breeding and wintering species in North Africa is now uncertain.  The three largest populations (in Germany [10,500-12,500</span><span style="font-style: italic; "></span><span style="">], France [2,300-3,000] and Spain </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">[1,900-2,700]&#160;, which together hold more than 75% of the global population <span style="">[Knott </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span><span style="">. 2009 ]) all declined during 1990-2000, and overall the species declined by almost 20% over that period</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(BirdLife International 2004)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><strong></strong>. Eastern German populations declined by 25-30% between 1991 and 1997, but have remained stable since then<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Mammen 2000; Mammen and Stubbe 2002)<strong></strong>, whereas in the federal state Saxony-Anhalt the decline continued until 2006 (U. Mammen 2007). The populations of the northern foothills of the Harz Mountains (the most densely populated part of its range) suffering an estimated 50% decline from 1991-2001 (<strong></strong>Nicolai and Weihe 2001)<strong></strong>. In Spain, the species showed an overall decline in breeding population of 46% for the period 1994 to 2004, and surveys of wintering birds in 2004 suggest a decline of around 50% since 1994<strong></strong><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> (Cardiel 2006)<strong></strong>; trends that have apparently continued in recent years<strong><sup> </sup></strong></span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(J. Vinuela </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2009)<strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In France, breeding populations have decreased in the northeast, and in the north and east Massif Central, but seem to be stable in southwest and central France</span><sup><strong></strong></sup><span style=""><span style=""> and Corsica (A. Mionnet </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2005</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">; Mionnet 2007)<sup><strong></strong></sup><span style=""><span style="">. Comparing counts from 1980 and 2000 suggests a decline of up to 80% in some areas, during which time the species's range in France decreased by 15%</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(A. Mionnet </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2005; Thiollay and Bretagnolle (2004)<span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. A national survey conducted in 2008 revealed a decline of more than 20% of the French breeding population over 6 years (David and Mionnet 2010), with the breeding population declining from 3,000-3,900 pairs in 2002</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">(Mionnet 2007)<span style=""><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">to 2,335-3,022 pairs in 2008 (</span><span style=""><span style="">Pinaud </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009). A survey in January 2007 indicated that the wintering population in France numbered nearly 6,000 individuals, with most in the Pyrenees</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">(Mionnet 2007)<span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. The Balearic Islands population declined from 41-47 breeding pairs in 1993 to 27 in 2004<strong></strong> (Cardiel 2006)<span style=""><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. However, conservation actions have since enabled the population to recover, to 38 breeding pairs in 2007</span><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">(Cardiel</span><em style=""> in litt</em><span style="">. 2007)<span style=""><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Populations elsewhere are stable or increasing. In Switzerland, populations increased during the 1990s to 1,200-1,500 in 2008 (Knott </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009), and have now stabilised</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> (V. Keller </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2005)<span style=""><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> The population in Belgium was estimated at 150 breeding pairs in 2007 (<span style=""><span style=""><span style="">Knott </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009<span style=""><span style=""><span style="">), following an increase from 1-2 irregular pairs in 1967<strong> </strong>(Defourny </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2007)<span style=""><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In Sweden the species has increased from 30-50 pairs in the 1970s to 1,800 pairs in 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Lindell <em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2005; Å. Lindström </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2005; <span style=""><span style=""><span style="">Knott </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009). The rate of increase in Sweden has been recorded as 7.1% annually during 1982-2006 or 13% annually during 1998-2006, depending on the survey method used (Å. Lindström </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2007)<span style=""><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">; and a rough calculation suggests that Sweden could support 5,000-10,000 pairs once the species has reached carrying capacity<span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">(N. Kjellén </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style=""><span style="">. 2008)<span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In Denmark, the population has increased from 17 known breeding pairs in 2001 to 81 breeding pairs in 2009 (Hjembæk 2010). Since an extreme low during the 20th Century the UK population has increased in recent decades and was estimated to number 1,600 breeding pairs in 2008 (Knott </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009). This population is still increasing rapidly and a long-term estimate for future carrying capacity is in the order of 10,000 pairs</span><strong style=""> </strong><span style="">(N. Kjellén </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style=""><span style="">. 2008)<span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Overall, the species population has declined in recent years owing to rapid declines in Iberia for resident breeding birds, and migrants that winter in Spain. Previously the majority of the global population wintered in Spain, but increasingly birds are remaining on their northern European breeding grounds. Those populations that winter outside of Spain are generally increasing. Therefore, while serious declines are expected to continue in southern Europe and therefore in the global population as a whole, as northern populations increase, it is anticipated that their growth will eventually outweigh declines in Iberia.  </span><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106003353		habitat	eng	The species breeds in broadleaf woodlands and forests, mixed with farmland, pasture and heathland, to 2,500 m in Morocco<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1994). In winter it also occupies wasteland, scrub and wetlands. Formerly an urban scavenger, it still visits the edges of towns and cities. It takes a wide range of food, but feeds mainly on carrion and small to medium-sized mammals and birds. Reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are less important prey<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 1994).<br/><p></p>
106003353		population	eng	A review of available data in 2009 concluded the population numbers 21,000-25,500 pairs.
106003353		threats	eng	The most pertinent threat to this species is illegal direct poisoning  to kill predators of livestock and game animals (targetting foxes, wolves, corvids etc.)and indirect poisoning from pesticides and secondary poisoning from consumption of poisoned rodents by rodenticides spread on farmland to control vole plagues, particularly in the wintering ranges in France and Spain, where it is driving rapid population declines<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Aebischer <em>in litt</em>. 2009); there is a strong correlation between rapid declines and those populations that winter in Spain<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Carter 2007). The Spanish government released more than 1,500 tons of rodenticide-treated baits over about 500,000 ha to fight against a common vole plague in agricultural lands between August 2007 and April 2008; records of red kites dying by secondary poisoning in treated areas resulted<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. Vinuela <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Illegal poisoning is also a serious threat to the species in north  Scotland, with 40% of birds found dead between 1989 and 2006 having been  killed by poisoni<span style="">ng (Smart et al. 2010).  In</span> France populations disappeared at the same rate as conversion from grasslands to cereal crops<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P. Tourret <em>in litt</em>. 2009). The decline of grazing livestock and farming intensification leading to  chemical pollution, homogenization of landscapes and ecological  impoverishment also threatens the species (Knott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Wind turbines are a potentially serious future threat (P. Tourret <em>in litt</em>. 2009; <span style="">Duchamp 2003; Mammen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and more research needs to be conducted to assess the level of threat windfarms pose to the species. Other less significant threats include electrocution and collision with powerlines<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(Mionnet 2007; P. Tourret <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>,&#160; hunting and trapping (P. Tourret <em>in litt</em>. 2009; Mionnet 2007), road-kills, deforestation, egg-collection (on a local scale) and possibly competition with the generally more successful Black Kite <em>M. migrans</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001; Cardiel<em> in litt</em>. 2007; U. Mammen 2007; Cardiel and Viñuela 2007)<strong></strong>. Another factor implicated in the declines in France and Spain is a decrease in the number of rubbish dumps<strong></strong> (Mionnet 2007; Cardiel and Viñuela 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003358		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), while the population in China has been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003359		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,000-10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <I>et al</I>. 2001), equivalent to c.670-6,700 mature individuals. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003360		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is well-known to Solomon Islanders and is often featured in environmental articles and postage stamps. It has legal protection in some provinces. Recent initiatives are promoting its protection in inland community projects (van Oosten and Wyant 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey inland areas of Guadalcanal, Malaita and Makira to compare populations in areas of variable human impact. Establish a database of known and reported nests to monitor population trends. Ascertain levels of hunting. Research effects of coastal and marine environmental degradation. Promote community-based education programmes, especially in inland villages. Conduct national education programmes to promote its conservation and underline its protected status.<br/><br/><p></p>
106003360		distribution	eng	<em>Haliaeetus sanfordi</em> is endemic to Bougainville and Buka, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where it occurs on most islands, excluding Rennell, including many tiny islets and reefs<em> </em>(Blaber 1990, Webb 1992, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong><strong></strong>Cain and Galbraith 1956, Olsen 1997, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. Highest numbers appear to be in the New Georgia group where a minimum territory size of 10 km<sup>2</sup> was estimated in relatively undisturbed coastal habitat on Kolombangara (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>, but four pairs were reported on the Three Sisters (12 km<sup>2</sup>) off Makira in the 1950s (French 1957)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds are less common inland and on larger islands, e.g. Guadalcanal and Malaita (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong><strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998), where numbers have declined within living memory (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong><strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998). <p></p>
106003360		habitat	eng	It prefers forested coasts (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> where it scavenges and kleptoparasitises Osprey <em>Pandion haliaetus </em>(Blaber 1990, <strong></strong> Webb 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998). Some pairs also hunt far inland and others, especially on the eastern islands, appear to have entirely inland ranges where they prey largely on northern common cuscus <em>Phalanger orientalis</em> and perhaps arboreal rats and fruit bats (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Olsen 1997, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). It also hunts over deforested areas where it is reported to scavenge dead mammals including feral dogs (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998). <p></p>
106003360		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003360		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation, which has increased in intensity in recent years (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over-fishing and silt run-off from logging and plantations are also likely to adversely affect it. Hunting for food and occasionally sport is a recent threat with a breakdown of traditional taboos, especially in the lowlands of larger islands (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998). It is also killed in some villages to protect poultry, cats and dogs (Olsen 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may suffer from competition with humans for the favoured prey-species <em>P. orientalis</em>. <p></p>
106003362		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Since 1991, the species has been studied in the Antsalova region, where an on-going conservation programme aims to increase the known breeding population to at least 250 pairs. Activities to reach such a target include the enforcement of existing traditional laws at the local community level, and in two cases through the release of captive-reared birds rescued from siblicide (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997, Peregrine Fund 1998, Watson 1998)<strong></strong>, with the latter almost doubling the number of young fledged per nest in one study (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Manambolomaty (the Three Lakes Complex), is a Ramsar Site and official protection was expected to be confirmed for the area in early 2009 (Peregrine Fund 2008)<strong></strong>; this site and surrounding area supported 28 territorial pairs in 2006. Persecution has been reduced at Soamalipo Lake through the establishment of a research camp by The Peregrine Fund in 1991, accompanied by community outreach activities, resulting in increased breeding productivity (Razafimanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population size and distribution to detect changes (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Increase awareness within local communities in order to reduce persecution and protect habitat around nest sites (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Manage the wild population to increase the population size and distribution in suitable habitat (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Investigate the factors limiting the number of available breeding territories, survival rates of immatures and adults, and breeding productivity (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003362		distribution	eng	This species survives in low numbers along the west coast of <strong>Madagascar</strong>. Surveys during 1991-1995 recorded at least 222 adults and 99 breeding pairs from 105 sites, apparently concentrated into three main regions: the Antsalova region west of Bemaraha Reserve, along the Tsiribihina River, and the coast from Mahajamba Bay to the island of Nosy Hara (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Although this estimate is double an estimate from the period 1980-1985, this is probably due to more comprehensive surveying, and a decline in some areas was still recorded (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys suggest that the Antsalova district is the main stronghold, with 12 pairs in the Manambolomaty complex and a further 15 pairs elsewhere in the district in 2008 (L.-A.<strong> </strong>Réné<strong> </strong>de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, and the population is currently thought to comprise c.120 breeding pairs (R. Watson <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Immature birds wander widely, making the non-breeding population difficult to assess (Langrand 1990, Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003362		habitat	eng	The species is found predominantly in wooded areas adjacent to waterbodies (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It favours sites with large trees by the shoreline suitable for perching (Berkelman 1997)<strong></strong>, and feeds mainly on fish (Langrand 1990, Berkelman <em>et al.</em> 1999a,b)<strong></strong>, with the majority of prey in one study comprising two species of non-native tilapia (Berkelman 1997)<strong></strong>. Breeding pairs are territorial (May-October) (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, and nest  in a large tree or rock cliff. Annual productivity is low (0.15 young fledged per territory [Watson <em>et al.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>) because clutch-size is only one or two (three recorded at one nest in 2005) and only one chick is raised, due to siblicide (Watson 1998, Watson <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>; and in one third of breeding attempts no eggs are laid (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003362		population	eng	The current population is thought to be around 120 breeding pairs, equating to 240 mature individuals and roughly 360 individuals in total (R. Watson <em>in litt.</em> 2010).
106003362		threats	eng	Deforestation, soil erosion and the development of wetland areas for rice-paddies is causing the on-going loss of nesting and foraging habitat (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997, Berkelman <em>et al.</em> 1999a, Watson and Rabarisoa 2000, L.-A. Réné de Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, R. Safford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. The species is threatened by direct human competition for fish-stocks (Watson 1998, Watson and Rabarisoa 2000)<strong></strong>, persecution through the taking of nestlings and shooting of adults, accidental entanglement in fishing-nets, disturbance at breeding sites by human activities and, according to local people, use of eagle body parts in food and traditional medicine (Rabarisoa <em>et al.</em> 1997, H. R. Ratsimba <em>in litt</em>. 2006, R. Safford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Water pollution poses a potential threat (H. R. Ratsimba <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, given the species's reliance on fish and the tendency for pollutants to accumulate in prey tissues. The species has been recorded to have low genetic diversity compared to other <em>Haliaeetus</em> species; however, this is not thought to be because of the recent population bottleneck, hence it is not thought to be a major threat (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003363		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix II. It occurs in many protected areas across its range such as Corbett, Kaziranga and Manas, India and Chitwan, Nepal.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out research into the species's breeding ecology (Gilbert and Gombobataar 2009). Conduct surveys in central Asia and Myanmar to establish its status, distribution and threats. Establish protected areas for key populations. Encourage sustainable management of wetland resources. Limit the use of pesticides and control of industrial discharges around wetlands. Control water hyacinth at important breeding/feeding sites. Protect remaining nest-trees and re-establish them around wetlands. Protect nest-sites (and adjacent feeding sites) from disturbance. Promote rural education programmes concerned with wetland birds. Study the impact of hydroelectric dam projects, such as those in Mongolia (e.g. Gilbert and Gombobataar 2009), and monitor the levels of pesticide residues in prey species to indicate whether further measures are required (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Conduct research into the species's ecology and behaviour (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and carry out satellite tracking to study the species's movements (Gilbert and Gombobataar 2009).  <p></p>
106003363		distribution	eng	<em>Haliaeetus leucoryphus</em> occurs across a huge range from <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>(may no longer breed, although a positive trend has been noted in the number of records since the late 1990s at least [Kovalenko 2009]), southern <strong>Russia </strong>(possibly still breeds), <strong>Tajikistan, Turkmenistan</strong> (probably dispersing non-breeders) and <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, east through <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>China</strong>, south to northern <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. It is a passage migrant and winter visitor to <strong>Nepal</strong> and non-breeding visitor to <strong>Afghanistan</strong>. The main breeding populations are believed to be in China, Mongolia and the Indian subcontinent. Surveys in Mongolia in June-August 2009 produced observations of a minimum total of 20 birds at eight locations (Gilbert and Gombobataar 2009). It is believed to have declined significantly during the 20th century in China, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The population is likely to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. <p></p>
106003363		habitat	eng	It is closely associated with wetlands, principally large lakes and rivers, from the lowlands to 5,000 m. It generally nests in trees near water.  <p></p>
106003363		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &lt; c.10,000 mature individuals (by   BirdLife International 2001) based on detailed analysis of available records,   while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs (Brazil 2009). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals,   equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000   individuals.
106003363		threats	eng	Key threats are habitat loss, degradation and disturbance. Across the Indian subcontinent, and probably most of its range, wetlands have been drained or converted for agriculture and human settlements. The felling of large trees near wetlands has reduced the availability of nest and roost sites. The spread of water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes </em>is a problem in India, as is the siltation of lakes due to catchment deforestation. Pollution of wetlands with pesticides and industrial effluents reduces breeding success. Habitat loss and degradation are compounded by disturbance of wetlands. Reductions in the prey base, primarily through hunting and over-fishing, are further consequences of increasing human pressure. In Myanmar, the development of oil and gas fields is a threat and, in China, hunting is a localised problem. In Mongolia, during surveys in summer 2009, it was noted that two recently completed hydroelectric dams were severely disrupting water levels in the affected drainage basins and could potentially affect all sites where the species occurs in the Great Lake Basin (Gilbert and Gombobataar 2009). Over-fishing was also noted at several sites and low rainfall was leading to falling water levels in some areas (Gilbert and Gombobataar 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003364		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II.<strong></strong>
106003364		distribution	eng	The species has its strongholds in <B>Norway </B>and <B>Russia </B>(which together hold &gt;55% of the European population (BirdLife International 2004), and important populations in south-west <B>Greenland (to Denmark)</B>, <B>Sweden</B>, <B>Poland </B>and <B>Germany</B>. Smaller numbers breed in <B>Iceland</B>, <B>United Kingdom</B>, <B>Finland</B>, <B>Estonia</B>, <B>Latvia</B>, <B>Lithuania</B>, <B>Belarus</B>, <B>Austria</B>, <B>Czech Republic</B>, <B>Slovakia</B>, <B>Slovenia</B>, the former Yugoslav states, <B>Bulgaria</B>, <B>Romania</B>, <B>Hungary</B>, <B>Moldova</B>, <B>Greece</B>, <B>Turkey</B>, <B>Iran</B>, <B>Armenia</B>, <B>Georgia</B>, <B>Azerbaijan</B>, <B>Ukraine</B>, <B>Kazakhstan</B>, <B>Turkmenistan</B>, <B>Mongolia</B>, mainland <B>China</B>, and <B>Japan</B>. It formerly bred in Algeria and may still do so in Iraq.<I>
106003364		habitat	eng	The species requires large and open expanses of lake, coast or river valley, within the boreal, temperate and tundra zones, nearby to undisturbed cliffs or open stands of large, old-growth trees for nesting. Its food is vertebrates (fish, mammals and especially birds), from marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. It is mainly migratory in the north and east of its breeding range, but sedentary elsewhere.
106003364		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 5,000-6,600 breeding pairs,   equating to 15,000-19,800 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe   forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the   global population size is 20,300-39,600 individuals, although further   validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   Korea; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003364		threats	eng	Threats that affect this species include loss and degradation of wetlands, human disturbance and persecution, environmental pollution, collision with wind generators (Krone and Scharnweber 2003), and indiscriminate use of poisons. Modern forestry methods reduce the availability of suitable nesting habitat. Although some losses may be taking place in Asian Russia owing to increased logging and oil industry development, these are outweighed by increases in Europe.
106003365		distribution	eng	This species breeds in Canada, USA, Mexico, and the French island territories of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. It is considered a vagrant in Belize, Bermuda, Ireland, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands.
106003365		population	eng	(Rich et al. 2004)
106003365		threats	eng	Past declines have been attributed to intense hunting, unintentional poisonings (notably use of DDT and lead shot), and habitat destruction in combination with the loss of great herds of bison, a seasonally important food source.
106003366		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Russia, Japan, China and South Korea. It is monitored in several protected areas in Russia, including the Magadan State Nature Reserve, Kronotski State Reserve, Lake Krontskoea Wildlife Refuge and Kava Wildlife Refuge (Magadan), the Orel' and Udyl' Wildlife Refuges and Dzhugdzhurskiy, Shantarsky and Komsomol'ski Nature Reserves (Khabarovsk), the Poronayskiy Nature Reserve (Sakhalin), and the Kuril'ski Nature Reserve (Kuril Islands). In Japan, the key wintering grounds on Hokkaido, Shiretoko and Furen-ko are designated as National Wildlife Protection Areas.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Minimise the damaging effects of industrial development in its Russian breeding grounds. In some wintering areas, consider establishing special artificial feeding-sites. Ensure regular sampling of the environment and the species for DDT/DDE, PCBs and other pollutants in Khabarovsk and Magadan, and for lead in Japan. Protect important salmon spawning grounds. Encourage sustainable management of key fish stocks. Preserve potential nest trees in river valleys within 30 km of the sea (M. McGrady <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Establish no disturbance zones in estuaries where conflicts exist between fishers and eagles (M. McGrady <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/>  <p></p>
106003366		distribution	eng	<em>Haliaeetus pelagicus</em> breeds on the Kamchatka peninsula, the coastal area around the Sea of Okhotsk, the lower reaches of the Amur river (south to the Gorin river) and on northern Sakhalin and Shantar, <strong>Russia</strong>. A few hundred winter in Kamchatka, the northern Sea of Japan, and the coast of Okhotsk, but most (c.2,000) winter in the southern Kuril islands and Hokkaido,<strong> Japan</strong>. It is an uncommon winter visitor to north-eastern <strong>China</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>. Declining breeding success has been noted in the inland river populations of Magadan district, Russia, from 1991 to 2009, with a slow increase in the breeding success of coastal populations over the same period, suggesting that they can be considered sink and source populations respectively (Potapov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Its total population is estimated at c.5,000 mature individuals and declining overall.  <p></p>
106003366		habitat	eng	It breeds on sea coasts and inland near larger rivers (mostly on lower stretches) or lakes, where there are stands of mature trees. In the Magadan district of Russia, successful breeding pairs along coasts appear to produce more fledged chicks than successful pairs on rivers, and average brood size is larger for coastal pairs (Potapov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). During the autumn birds forage along rivers where dead salmon are abundant. During mid-winter, birds in Russia tend to remain on the coast, except some that winter in Kamchatka along inland rivers fed by hot springs and at Lake Kurilskoye (M. McGrady <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), while those wintering in Japan mainly stay near freshwater, but c.35% move to mountainous areas where many feed on deer carcasses (Ueta <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003366		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.4,600-5,100 individuals, including c.1,830-1,900 breeding pairs (M. McGrady <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), assumed to be equivalent to c.3,600-3,800 mature individuals.
106003366		threats	eng	In Russia, it is threatened by habitat alteration during the development of hydroelectric power projects, proposed large-scale coastal and offshore developments for the petrochemical industry, and logging for timber. Industrial pollution of rivers and high levels of DDT/DDE, PCBs and heavy metals are further threats. Over-fishing has caused a decline of fish stocks in Russia and Japan which has led to an increasing tendency of birds on Hokkaido to move inland and scavenge on sika deer carcasses left by hunters, exposing them to a risk of lead poisoning through ingestion of lead shot. <p></p>
106003367		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to reveal important areas and regularly monitor at various sites throughout its range.  Protect forest in areas known to be important to the species. Research the link between pesticide use and the decline.  <p></p>
106003367		distribution	eng	<em>Ichthyophaga humilis </em>occurs in <strong>India</strong> (restricted to Himalayan foothills and north-east, with an additional small population in Karnataka state in the south<strong> </strong>[Lethaby 2005]; declining in range and population),<strong> Bangladesh, Nepal</strong> (rare and local in lowlands), <strong>Bhutan </strong>(very rare at lower altitudes), <strong>China</strong> (rare visitor to Hainan), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(widespread, scarce to locally fairly common), <strong>Thailand </strong>(rare in west and south), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (recently recorded - status unclear<strong> </strong>[P. Davidson <em>in litt.</em> 2003]), <strong>Laos</strong> (small numbers persist in several catchments, although fragmentation of populations and their small size renders them vulnerable to local extinction), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (rare to locally fairly common in west Tonkin and south Annam), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(previously common; now scarce to locally fairly common but declining) and east Malaysia, <strong>Brunei </strong>(scarce), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (uncommon in Sumatra and Borneo; locally common in south-east Sulawesi, uncommon to rare elsewhere, and in the Sula islands and Buru) (BirdLife International 2001).  <p></p>
106003367		habitat	eng	It frequents large forested rivers and wetlands in the lowlands and foothills up to 2,400 m, but usually below 1,000 m.  <p></p>
106003367		population	eng	The global population is preliminarily estimated to number 10,000-50,000 mature individuals, pending further research. This is roughly equivalent to 15,000-75,000 individuals in total.
106003367		threats	eng	Loss of forest habitat along rivers, siltation, over-fishing and increasing human disturbance of waterways are causing widespread declines. It is also declining in Uttar Pradesh, India, partly because of pesticide use and this is presumably relevant throughout much of its range.  <p></p>
106003368		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to reveal important areas and regularly monitor at various sites throughout its range.  Protect forest in areas known to be important to the species. Conduct awareness campaigns involving local residents to engender pride in the species and encourage better care of wetland habitats.   <p></p>
106003368		distribution	eng	<em>Icthyophagus icthyaetus</em> occurs in <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally frequent in the north-east, scarce and local in the peninsula, <strong>Nepal</strong> (now rare and local, mainly below 250 m), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (rare in the dry lowlands), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (widely distributed but uncommon and local), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(rare to scarce resident), <strong>Philippines </strong>(formerly quite common in the north and east, now rare and apparently declining), <strong>Thailand</strong> (formerly a widespread resident, now absent from north and centre, rare and local in the south), <strong>Laos </strong>(now rare), <strong>Vietnam </strong>(scarce in south, disappearing from north), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (scarce and declining [<strong></strong>P. Davidson <em>in litt.</em> 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(previously common, now uncommon and sparse, perhaps 40 pairs remaining), east Malaysia, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), <strong>Brunei </strong>(scarce), and the Greater Sundas and Sulawesi,<strong> Indonesia</strong> (widely distributed but uncommon in Sumatra and Borneo, and now very rare in Java) (Collar <em>et al.</em> 2000). Although widely distributed, the species is local and declining in most parts of its range through loss of forested wetlands. However, historical and even recent records are difficult to interpret, in South-East Asia at least, due to identification difficulties between this species and Lesser Fish-eagle <em>I.</em> <em>humilis</em>. <em> </em><p></p>
106003368		habitat	eng	It is found near slow-moving rivers and streams, lakes, reservoirs and tidal lagoons in wooded country, usually in lowlands but ascending locally to 1,525 m.  <p></p>
106003368		population	eng	This species's global population is preliminarily estimated at 10,000-100,000 mature individuals on the basis that it may not exceed a five-figure total. This estimate equates to 15,000-150,000 individuals in total.
106003368		threats	eng	The most pertinent threats are the loss of undisturbed wetlands, over-fishing, siltation, pollution and persecution. The construction of dams on the Mekong River has potential negative implications for the flood regime of Lake Tonle Sap and the Fish-eagle population there.  <p></p>
106003370		population	eng	Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated the population to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 300-700 breeding pairs, equating to 900-2,100 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). A revised global estimate is therefore 2,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 1,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106003370		threats	eng	The main causes of on-going declines appear to be non-target poisoning,  direct persecution, habitat degradation, disturbance of breeding birds,  inadequate food availability,changes in livestock-rearing practices and collisions with power-lines  and wind farms (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Barov and Derhé 2011, S. Xirouchaki<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Simmons and  Jenkins (2007) suggested that population trends in this species in  southern Africa may be correlated with climate trends.<br/><span class="says"><span class="says"><span class="says"></span>
106003371		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Occurs within a number of protected areas across its range. Monitoring programmes, supplementary feeding (Cortés-Avizanda <a style="mso-comment-reference:A_1;mso-comment-date:20120227T1623"><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) </a>and campaigns against illegal use of poisons, including awareness-raising, are in place for a number of national populations. The veterinary drug Diclofenac has now been banned by the Indian government. <span style="">I</span>n 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of Diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007).  An International species action plan for the species was published in 200<span style="">8 (Iñigo </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008). National species action plans are in place in France, Bulgaria and Italy</span>, and the species is <span style="">included in the Balkan Vulture Action Plan (BVAP)</span>. Efforts are being taken to <span style="">release captive-bred individuals in parts of Italy. </span><span style="">In Spain</span>, France, Italy, Bulgaria and Macedonia birds have been fitted <span style="">with satellite-tags to study juvenile dispersion, migratory movements and wintering areas (e.g. García-Ripollés <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Nest guarding schemes for pairs that are most threatened by poachers have been implemented in Italy and Bulgaria, where very small populations survive. Expeditions to study the limiting factors in the wintering areas and along the migration flyway have taken place together with local organizations in Mauritania, Senegal, Ethiopia, Sudan and Turkey.<br/> <span style=""><br/><span style=""></span><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Start and maintain intensive cooperation with local key stake-holders to ensure poison- and poaching-free zones at sites with high densities or congregations of the species throughout the breeding, migration and wintering range, alongside similar efforts for other threatened species. Build capacity in countries along the migration flyways and in the wintering areas. <span style="">Protect nest sites where persecution is a problem. Research the causes <span style="">and extent </span>of current declines across the species's range. Insulate dangerous electricity pylons in areas where high mortality is recorded. <span style=""> Coordinate monitoring to assess trends throughout the range. Relax the European Union animal hygiene regulations in relation to necrophagous birds. Establish supplementary feeding sites where appropriate,</span> especially at sites where congregations of non-breeders can be supported<span style="">. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists in Africa of the dangers of using Diclofenac for livestock<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007)<span style=""><strong></strong>. Effectively reduce risks of poisoning through strict enforcement of poison-bait ban and education. Lobby for the banning of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes throughout the species's range, and support the enforcement of this ban where it has been adopted. Where applicable, establish the impact of wind turbines, and lobby for effective impact assessments to be carried out prior to their construction. Where appropriate, reduce disturbance by guarding nests.</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">Where  appropriate, guard nests to reduce disturbance. Confiscate illegally  kept live birds and use them for the purposes of captive breeding and  future restocking and reintroduction programs. In key areas of the  species range, implement long term and large-scale education and  community involvement program.</span><br/><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><br/></span><span style=""><span style="">  </span><p><br/></p>  <span style=""><span style=""><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106003371		distribution	eng	<em>Neophron percnopterus </em>occupies a large range with isolated resident populations in the<strong> </strong>Cape Verde and Canary Islands in the west, through <strong>Morocco</strong> and parts of West Africa (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001). A small resident population persists in <strong>Angola</strong> and <strong>Namibia</strong>. The bulk of the resident population occurs in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and East Africa, Arabia and the Indian Subcontinent,while Saharan and Sahelian parts of Africa in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niger,</span> northernmost <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cameroon, Chad</span> and northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span> also hold significant but presumably smaller populations (I. Angelov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Migratory birds breed in Northernmost Africa (Morocco, Algeria, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tunisia, Libya, </span>Northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Egypt</span>), southern Europe, from<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Spain</span> in the west, through the Mediterranean, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>, the Caucasus and central Asia to Northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iran,</span> <strong>Pakistan</strong>, northern <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Nepal</strong>. These birds winter within the resident range, and in addition throughout the Sahel region of Africa. Global population estimates for the species are crude, but combining figures o<span style="">f </span><span style="">3,300-5,050</span><span style=""> pairs in Europe (Iñigo </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008)</span><strong style=""></strong>, &lt;2,000 pairs in central Asia, just a few thousand pairs now in the Indian Subcontinent,  perhaps 1,000 pairs in the Middle East, and perhaps 1,000-2,000 pairs in Africa<span style=""> (Thiollay 1989,</span> I. Angelov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) gives a rough total of<span style=""> around 21,900-30,000 individuals. </span>The European population has declined by over 50% in the last three generations<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2004). In Spain, which with at least 1,300 pairs may support as much as 40% of the European breeding population, the number of territories declined by at least 25% between 1987-2000 (i.e. equating to a decline of &gt;50% over three generations)<sup><strong> </strong></sup>(Donázar 2004, Del Moral 2009), likely due to high mortality rates (Cortés-Avizanda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. Similar declines are reported from the Middle East<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(S. Aspinall <em>in litt.</em> 2005), e.g. 50-75% in <strong>Israel</strong>, however in <strong>Oman</strong> the population appears stable<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. Eriksen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2005), although this may be more a reflection of count methods rather than genuine stability in the population. Around 1,700 birds are resident in a stable population on the island of Socotra (Porter and Suleiman <span style="font-style: italic;">in prep</span>.). The resident populations within Africa also appear to have declined, including those in Ethiopia and <strong>Djibouti<sup> </sup></strong>(G. Mulholland <em>in litt</em>. 2006), and Angola and Namibia (where just 10 pairs remain)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(R. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Across much of Africa residents are outnumbered by migrant European and probably Asian breeders<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. M. Thiollay <em>in litt</em>. 2006, I. Angelov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Most critically, the species has undergone a catastrophic decline (&gt;35% per year) since 1999 in India, where numbers detected on road transects declined by 68% between 2000 and 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cuthbert <em>et al</em>. 2006), while on the Balkans a decline of nearly 50% was noted between 2003-2011 (I. Angelov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<em> </em>  <strong></strong><em> <p></p></em>
106003371		habitat	eng	Typically nests on ledges or in caves on cliffs<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Sarà and Di Vittorio 2003), crags and rocky outcrops, but occasionally also in large trees, buildings (mainly in India), electricity pylons<span style=""> (Naoroji 2006) and exceptionally on the ground (Gangoso and Palacios 2005). Forages in lowland and montane regions over open, often arid, country. A</span>lso scavenges at human settlements. Broad diet including carrion, tortoises, organic waste, insects, young vertebrates, eggs and even faeces. Usually solitary, but will congregate at feeding sites, such as rubbish tips, or vulture restaurants (i.e. supplementary feeding stations), and forms roosts of non-breeding birds<a style="mso-comment-reference:A_1;mso-comment-date: 20120227T1623"> (Ceballos &amp; Donázar 1990</a>). Performs an energetic display flight with mate. Several resident island populations show genetic isolation. Northern breeders conduct long-distance intercontinental migrations, flying over land and often utilising the narrowest part of the Strait of Gibraltar on their way to Africa (García-Ripollés <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The species exhibits high site fidelity, particularly in males (Elorriaga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009; García-Ripollés <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106003371		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,300-5,050 breeding pairs, equating to 9,900-15,150 individuals. Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 20,000-61,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 13,000-41,000 mature individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106003371		threats	eng	This species faces a number of threats across its range. Disturbance, lead poisoning (from gun shot), direct poisoning, electrocution (by powerlines), collisions with wind turbines, reduced food availability and habitat change are currently impacting upon European populations<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Donázar <em>et al</em>. 2002; N. Petkov <em>in litt</em>. 2005; Kurtev <em>et al.</em> 2008; Angelov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep. 2011; Zuberogoitia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008; Carrete <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009; Sara<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009; Dzhamirzoev and Bukreev 2009). Illegal poisoning against carnivores seems to be the main threat operating on the breeding grounds in Sp<span style="">ain (Hernandez and Margalida 2009) and the Balkans (I. Angelov </span><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="">in. </span>litt. 2012). Declines in parts of Africa are likely to have been driven by loss of  wild ungulate populations and, in some areas, overgrazing by livestock<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992). Within the European Union, regulations introduced in 2002, controlling the disposal of animal carcasses, greatly reduced food availability, notably through the closure of traditional "<em>muladares</em>" in Spain and Portugal<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Donázar 2004; Lemus <em>et al</em>. 2008; J. C. Atienza <em>in litt</em>. 2007, <a style="mso-comment-reference:A_1;mso-comment-date: 20120227T1623">Donázar et al. 2009, Donázar et al. 2010a, Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2010,</a>Cortés-Avizanda 2011); however, recently passed regulations will permit the operation of feeding stations for scavengers<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Brunner<em> in litt</em>. 2010). Poisoning is a threat to the species, often through the use of poison baits targeted at terrestrial predators (Carrete et al. 2007, Carrete et al. 2009, Cortés-Avizanda <a style="mso-comment-reference:A_1;mso-comment-date:20120227T1623">et al. 2009</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>), and through the consumption of inappropriately disposed poisoned animals. Recent analyses from many countries such as Spain (Lemus et al. 2008)  and Bulgaria (Angelov 2009) have highlighted high levels of  contamination of Egyptian Vultures leading to increased mortality. Antiobiotic residues present in the carcasses of intensively-farmed livestock may increase the susceptibility of nestlings to disease (Lemus <em>et al</em>. 2008) (e.g. avian pox has been reported as a cause of mortality in Bulgaria<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[Kurtev <em>et al.</em> 2008]). It appears that Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) often used for livestock, and which is fatal to <em>Gyps </em>spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses (BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007), is driving the recent rapid declines in India<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cuthbert <em>et al</em>. 2006, A. Rahmani in litt. 2012). NSAIDs are reportedly toxic to raptors, storks, cranes and owls, suggesting that vultures of other genera could be susceptible to its effects<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007). It seems plausible that this species previously had less exposure to the toxin owing to competitive exclusion from carcasses by <em>Gyps</em> spp. vultures<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cuthbert <em>et al</em>. 2006). In 2007, Diclofenac was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007). In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(C. Bowden <em>in litt</em>. 2007) and exporting it to 15 African countries<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007). Mortality at power lines has been found to be particularly common on the Canary Islands <span style="">(Donazar et al. 2002, <a style="mso-comment-reference:A_1;mso-comment-date:20120227T1623">Donazar <span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span></a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="index.html#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a<span style="">) </span>and &#160;potentially risky in other regions of Spain (<a style="mso-comment-reference:A_1;mso-comment-date:20120227T1623">Donazar <span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span></a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007b, 2010b) <span style="">and in Africa (Nikolaus 1984, 2006), </span>with 17 individuals found killed by electrocution in Port Sudan, over 10 days in&#160; 2010 (I. Angelov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010), indicating a potentially serious problem that has persisted for decades and will continue to contribute to Egyptian Vulture population declines. In Morocco at least, the species is taken for use in traditional medicine. Competition for suitable nest sites with Griffon Vulture may reduce breeding success<strong><sup> </sup></strong>in the short-term (Kurtev <em>et al.</em> 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style=""><p></p></span></span>
106003372		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted actions are known. This widespread species occurs in a large number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out systematic surveys throughout the species's range to acquire a more accurate population estimate and monitor trends. Raise awareness of the species's plight and the impact of hunting and persecution. Monitor rates of land-use change across its range. Monitor effects of poisoning on the species and its use in muti trade and for meat (C. Kendall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106003372		distribution	eng	<em>Necrosyrtes monachus</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa; from <strong>Senegal</strong> and southern <strong>Mauritania</strong> east through southern <strong>Niger</strong> and <strong>Chad</strong>, to southern <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong>Sudan</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Sudan</span>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and western <strong>Somalia</strong>, southwards to northern <strong>Namibia</strong> and <strong>Botswana</strong>, and through <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> to southern <strong>Mozambique</strong> and north-eastern <strong>South Africa </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The species is generally sedentary, with some dispersal by non-breeders and immature birds, and movements in response to rainfall in the Sahel of West Africa (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Data and observations of varying coverage and quality from various parts of its range suggest that the species is undergoing a very rapid decline in its global population (Ogada and Buij 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Following evidence of declines across its range, the total population has been estimated at a maximum of 197,000 individuals (Ogada and Buij 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003372		habitat	eng	The species is often associated with human settlements, but is also found in open grassland, forest edge, wooded savanna, desert and along coasts (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs up to 4,000 m, but is most numerous below 1,800 m. It feeds mainly on carrion, but also takes insects. In West Africa and Kenya it breeds throughout the year, but especially from November to July. Breeding in north-east Africa occurs mainly in October-June, with birds in southern Africa tending to breed in May-December. It is an arboreal nester and lays a clutch of one egg. Its incubation period lasts 46-54 days, followed by a fledging period of 80-130 days. Young are dependent on their parents for a further 3-4 months after fledging (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003372		population	eng	Given evidence of recent declines in various parts of its range, this species's population is estimated to number a maximum of 197,000 individuals.
106003372		threats	eng	Major threats to this species include non-target poisoning, capture for traditional medicine and bushmeat, and direct persecution (Ogada and Buij 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Hooded Vulture meat is reportedly sold as chicken in some places. Intentional poisoning of vultures may be carried out in some areas by poachers in order to hide the locations of their kills. Secondary poisoning with carbofuran pesticides at livestock baits being used to poison mammalian predators is also an issue in East Africa (Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, C. Kendall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  Declines have also been attributed to land conversion through development and improvements to abattoir hygiene and rubbish disposal in some areas (Ogada and Buij 2011)<strong></strong>. The species may also be threatened by avian influenza (H5N1), from which it appears to suffer some mortality and which it probably acquires from feeding on discarded dead poultry (Ducatez <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003373		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas thoughout its range. A press release was circulated in July 2007 to raise awareness of the impacts of hunting for medicinal and cultural reasons in southern Africa (McKean and Botha 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>, and in 2008 an awareness-raising campaign at a conference of the World Organisation for Animal Health in Senegal led to a resolution  being adopted unanimously by more than 160 delegates to "request Members to consider their national situation with the aim to seek  measures to find solutions to the problems caused by the administration  of diclofenac in livestock" (Woodford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, C. Bowden <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish a monitoring network for African vultures. Establish legal protection for the species in range states. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using poisons for pest control. Eliminate the veterinary use of diclofenac and other toxic drugs in Africa. Limit the hunting of game to improve the availability of carrion. Carry out education and awareness programmes, particularly targetted at farmers, to reduce persecution, unintentional poisoning and hunting for cultural reasons.  <p></p>
106003373		distribution	eng	<em>Gyps africanus</em> is the most widespread and common vulture in Africa, although it is now undergoing rapid declines. It occurs from <strong>Senegal, Gambia</strong> and <strong>Mali</strong> in the west, throughout the Sahel region to <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and <strong>Somalia</strong> in the east, through East Africa into <strong>Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia</strong> and <strong>South Africa</strong> in the south. Its global population has been estimated at 270,000 individuals. Consistent with other vulture species, it has declined by over 90% in West Africa (<strong></strong>J. M. Thiollay <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, and it has largely disappeared from Ghana apart from Mole National Park (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011), Niger (no records away from W National Park since 1997, J. Brouwer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) and Nigeria (no sightings in 2011 in last stronghold of Yankari Game Reserve, nor anywhere else, and possibly extirpated from the country, P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in ltt. </span>2011). The species has also declined in Sudan and South Sudan (Nikolaus 2006), Somalia (A. Jama <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011)<strong></strong> and Kenya (c.52% declines in Masai Mara over c.15 years, M. Virani <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Virani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>, but is apparently more stable in Ethiopia (Nikolaus 2006)<strong></strong>, Tanzania (D. Peterson <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, and across southern Africa where an estimated 40,000 individuals remain (R. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Nevertheless, it is suspected to have declined very rapidly overall.<br/><p></p>
106003373		habitat	eng	Primarily a lowland species of open wooded savanna, particularly areas of <em>Acacia</em>. It requires tall trees for nesting. A gregarious species congregating at carcasses, in thermals and at roost sites. It nests in loose colonies. <p></p>
106003373		population	eng	The species's global population has been estimated at 270,000 individuals.
106003373		threats	eng	The species faces similar threats to other African vultures, being susceptible to habitat conversion to agro-pastoral systems, loss of wild ungulates leading to a reduced availability of carrion, hunting for trade, persecution and poisoning.  In East Africa, the primary issue is poisoning (particularly from the highly toxic pesticide carbofuran), which occurs primarily   outside protected areas; the large range sizes of this and <span style="font-style: italic;">G. rueppellii </span>species puts them at significant risk as it means they inevitably spend  considerable time outside protected areas (Ogada and Keesing 2010,   Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Kendall and  Virani in press). Recent evidence from wing-tagging and telemetry  studies suggests that  annual mortality, primarily from incidental  poisoning, can be as high as  25% for <span style="font-style: italic;">G. africanus</span>  (Kendall and Virani in press). In  addition, the ungulate wildlife  populations on which this species relies have  declined precipitously throughout East  Africa, even in protected areas  (Western <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In 2007, diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug often used for livestock, and which is fatal to <em>Gyps </em>spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses, was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>. It was also reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes (C. Bowden<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> and exporting it to 15 African countries (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>. In southern Africa, vultures are caught and consumed for perceived medicinal and psychological benefits (McKean and Botha 2007), and the decline and possible extirpation in Nigeria has been attributed to  the trade in vulture parts for traditional juju  practices (P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). As a result of this and environmental pressures, it is predicted that the population of <em>G. africanus</em> in Zululand could be become locally extinct in 26 years, unless harvest rates have been underestimated, in which case local extinction could be 10-11 years away (McKean and Botha 2007)<strong></strong>. There is evidence that it is captured for international trade; for example in 2005, 13 individuals of this species being kept illegally in Italy were reportedly confiscated (F. Genero<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Electrocution on powerlines is also a problem in parts of its range, and it is vulnerable to nest harvesting or disturbance by humans (Bamford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009); perhaps more so than <span style="font-style: italic;">G. rueppellii</span>, as it breeds in trees rather than on inaccessible cliffs (C. Kendall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106003374		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. The governments of India, Nepal and Pakistan passed legislation in 2006 banning the manufacture and importation of diclofenac as a veterinary drug, with India passing further legislation in 2008 banning the manufacture, sale, distribution or use of veterinary diclofenac. In 2008, the Indian government ordered a crackdown on companies selling diclofenac. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use' (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>. In October 2010, the government of Bangladesh banned the production of diclofenac for use in cattle, and the distribution and sale of the drug were due to be outlawed during the first half of 2011 (M. M. H. Khan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2010). These bans have led to a reduction of diclofenac within ungulate carcasses (the principal food source for vultures) in India (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a ) and a study of 11 administrative districts in Nepal found diclofenac use dropped by 90% since 2006 following the introduction of measures to reduce its use (Anon 2008)<strong></strong>. However, levels of diclofenac contamination still remain high and human forms of the drug are still sold for veterinary use (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a,b ). Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are on-going and are showing signs of success with evidence for a decrease in diclofenac and an increase in the safe alternative (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011c ). An alternative drug, meloxicam, which is out of patent and manufactured in Asia has been tested on Gyps vultures with no ill-effects (Swan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Swarup<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007 ). Vulture restaurants are increasingly used as ecotourism attractions in parts of the species's range, particularly Cambodia, to raise awareness and fund supplementary feeding programmes and research (e.g. Masphal and Vorsak 2007). The exchange of diclofenac with meloxicam near breeding colonies is taking place in Nepal in combination with diversionary feeding with diclofenac-free carcasses (Chaudhary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Diversionary feeding has been shown to reduce but not eliminate vulture mortality from diclofenac poisoning, and uncertainty over the movements of Asian <em>Gyps </em>vultures makes the effectiveness of measures such as these uncertain (Pain <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Birds have been satellite tagged in various parts of their range to improve understanding of their movements, foraging range, site fidelity etc., and to aid the development of suitable conservation strategies for the species (Ellis 2004)<strong></strong>. Socioeconomic surveys in Nepal have shown that local people are strongly in favour of vulture conservation because of the associated ecological services that vultures provide (Gautam and Baral 2003)<strong></strong>. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres, each capable of holding 25 pairs (Bombay Natural History Society 2004)<strong></strong>. Captive breeding efforts are on-going and met with success when two chicks hatched in early 2007 at a breeding centre in Pinjore, Haryana (V. Prakash <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Bowden 2009)<strong></strong>. Three more birds hatched in 2009 (Bowden 2009)<strong></strong>. The centre is part of a captive breeding programme established by the RSPB and Bombay Natural History Society. A website has been set up to allow researchers to contribute data on known colonies to identify founder individuals for captive flocks that will ensure the full geographical spread of the species is represented in captive breeding efforts (M. Gilbert <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. By April 2008, there were 88 in captivity at three breeding centres in India, as well as 11 at a centre established by WWF-Pakistan and 14 in captivity in Nepal (Pain <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. During 2009, these numbers increased to 120 in India, 43 in Nepal and 14 in Pakistan (Bowden 2009)<strong></strong>. In late 2009, trials of artificial incubation methods were due to start soon (Bowden 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. By November 2011, the total number held in breeding centres affiliated to SAVE (Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction) stood at 221 birds (SAVE 2012). Captive breeding centres often receive vultures that have been found poisoned and then rehabilitated by rescue centres such as the Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation, Assam, which is run by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Wildlife Trust of India (Wildlife Trust of India (2009)<strong></strong>. Surveys utilising vulture restaurants were carried out in Myanmar in late 2006 and early 2007, simultaneously censusing nesting colonies, vulture deaths and looking for diclofenac use (Eames 2007a). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Continue to measure the frequency of diclofenac-treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular continue conservation and research activities in Cambodia and Myanmar, and survey southern India where it is hoped vulture populations may not have crashed to the same extent that they have in the rest of the Subcontinent. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres with the aim of holding at least 150 pairs of each species in captivity (<strong></strong>Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008, Pain <em>et al.</em> 2008). Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones. <p></p>
106003374		distribution	eng	<em>Gyps bengalensis</em> occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong> and southern<strong> Vietnam, </strong>and may be extinct in<strong> </strong>southern<strong> </strong>China and Malaysia (BirdLife International 2001). It has been recorded from south-east Afghanistan and Iran where its status is currently unknown. As recently as 1985 the species was described as "possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world" (Houston 1985)<strong></strong>. However, it disappeared from most of South-East Asia in the early 20th century and the only viable populations in the region are found in Myanmar and Cambodia, mainly in the north (both probably in the low hundreds of individuals) (Htin Hla 2003, Anon 2003, 2005; Eames 2007a,b; Hance 2009)<strong></strong>. Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in this part of its range is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures (Anon 2003, 2005)<strong></strong>. Since the mid-1990s, it has suffered a catastrophic decline (over 99%) across the Indian Subcontinent (the majority of its historic range), first noticed in Keoladeo National Park, India (Prakash <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but mirrored in Pakistan (Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> and Nepal (Baral <em>et al</em>. 2005, Chaudhary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>, to the point that the species is highly threatened with extinction. Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), diclofenac, to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse (Green <em>et al</em>. 2004, Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a,<strong></strong> Shultz <em>et al</em>. 2004<strong></strong><em></em>)<strong></strong>. This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses leading to renal failure and causing visceral gout (Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a, 2004b; Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005, <strong></strong>Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Declines in India between 2000 and 2007 averaged 43.9% per year (Prakash <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and ranged between 11%-61% in Punjab province, Pakistan over the same period (Murn <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, while surveys of 23 known colonies in Punjab province in 2006 found a total of only 37 breeding pairs (Murn <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In the lowland districts of Nepal the species declined at 14% a year between 2002 and 2011 (Chaudhary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). Diclofenac is apparently entirely absent in Cambodia, adding greater importance to that remaining small population (171 counted at vulture restaurants in 2008) (H. Rainey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Census results from Cambodia suggest the population there may have been increasing since 2004, or is at least stable (Eames 2007b, S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003374		habitat	eng	It<em> </em>occurs mostly in plains and less frequently in hilly regions where it utilises light woodland, villages, cities, and open areas. It feeds on carrion, both putrid and fresh. While feeding considerable aggregations can form, and regular communal roost sites are used. It is social and usually found in conspecific flocks. It breeds in colonies in tall trees, often near human habitation. Movements are poorly known, although satellite-tagged birds have shown that they will forage over a vast range. The degree of connectivity of apparently separate populations is not known. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India. <p></p>
106003374		population	eng	Formerly described as possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world, this species global population almost certainly numbered several million individuals. However, following dramatic declines through the 1990's across its range its global population is now estimated to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003374		threats	eng	By mid-2000, <em>Gyps</em> vultures were being found dead and dying in Nepal, Pakistan, and throughout India, and major declines and local extirpations were being reported. The anti-inflammatory veterinary drug diclofenac, used to treat domestic livestock, has been identified as the cause of mortality, with renal failure resulting in visceral gout in the vast majority of examined vultures (Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a<strong></strong>, Shultz <em>et al</em>. 2004, <strong></strong>Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005, Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006). Modelling has shown that to cause the observed rate of decline in <em>Gyps</em> vultures, just one in 760 livestock carcasses need contain diclofenac residues (<strong></strong>Green <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Despite awareness programmes to educate locals about the association between diclofenac and vulture mortality, a survey in Nepal indicated that the vast majority of people still do not link diclofenac use to a decline in vulture populations (Paudel 2008)<strong></strong>, potentially leading to a slower uptake of meloxicam. A second veterinary drug in use in India, ketoprofen, has also recently been identified to be lethal to the species, and measurements of residue levels in ungulate carcasses in India indicates that they are present in sufficient concentrations to cause vulture mortalities (Naidoo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Other potential contributory factors are changes in human consumption and processing of dead livestock, non-target poisoning (Wildlife Trust of India 2009)<strong></strong>, avian malaria (Poharkar <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong> and pesticide use, but these are probably of minor significance. In South-East Asia, the near-total disappearance of the species pre-dated the present crisis, and probably resulted from the collapse of large wild ungulate populations and improved management of deceased livestock (Anon 2003)<strong></strong>. In Cambodia, vultures are still threatened by extremely low population densities of wild ungulates, a decline in the number of free-ranging domestic ungulates, felling of nesting trees for timber and accidental poisoning at carcasses laced with pesticides to kill stray dogs (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). One study recorded that the sex of fledglings, the sex of dead adults and the sex of adults with visceral gout were all male-biased which may lead to problems in the future (Arshad <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003376		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas across Africa. It was included in a CITES Significant Trade Review. In 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania (BirdLife International 2007), and in 2008 an awareness-raising campaign at a conference of the World Organisation for Animal Health in Senegal led to a resolution being adopted unanimously by more than 160 delegates to "request Members to consider their national situation with the aim to seek  measures to find solutions to the problems caused by the administration  of diclofenac in livestock" (Woodford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, C. Bowden <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish legal protection for this species, particularly in West Africa. Monitor remaining populations including at colonies, perhaps through a pan-African monitoring mechanism (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004)<strong></strong>. Conserve remaining populations within protected areas. Protect breeding colonies. Maintain remaining wild ungulate herds within protected areas. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using poisons for pest control. Discourage the use of diclofenac for veterinary purposes in countries where this does not already take place (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>. Lobby governments to outlaw the marketing and sale of diclofenac for veterinary purposes (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003376		distribution	eng	<em>Gyps rueppellii</em> occurs throughout the Sahel region of Africa from <strong>Senegal, Gambia </strong>and<strong> Mali </strong> in the west to <strong>Sudan, South Sudan </strong>and <strong>Ethiopia </strong>in the east. Also south through the savanna regions of East Africa in <strong>Kenya, Tanzania</strong> and <strong>Mozambique</strong>. Formerly abundant, the species has experienced extremely rapid declines in much of its range, particularly West Africa. Although in Gambia it is apparently stable (C. Barlow <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, comparative data have shown some colonies in Mali (J. M. Thiollay <em>in litt</em>. 2006) and South Sudan (Nikolaus 2006)<strong></strong> have declined by up to 96% and 100% respectively, and it may no longer occur in Nigeria (no sightings in 2011 in last stronghold of Yankari Game Reserve, nor  anywhere else in the country, P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in ltt. </span>2011). Surveys of the Sudano-Sahelian savannas of Burkino Faso, Mali and Niger, carried out in 1969-1973 and 2003-2004, indicate a drop in the species's abundance from 61.3 birds/100 km to 2.5 birds/100 km (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004)<strong></strong>. It has also declined in Cameroon (87% decline 1973-2000, Thiollay 2001)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong>Uganda</strong> (D. Pomeroy <em>in litt</em>. 2006), Kenya (M. Virani <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Somalia </span>(A. Jama <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011), Malawi (gone from Kasungu and Liwonde National Parks, where previously common, L. Roxburgh <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011) and Tanzania (J. Wolstencroft <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, but may be stable in Ethiopia (Nikolaus 2006)<strong></strong>. Since the 1990s there has been a series of records involving small numbers of individuals in Spain and Portugal; these are believed to have crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with migrating <span style="font-style: italic;">G. fulvus</span>, but breeding is not yet known to have taken place in Iberia. Now largely confined to protected areas throughout its range.      <p></p>
106003376		habitat	eng	It frequents open areas of <em>Acacia</em> woodland, grassland and montane regions, and it is gregarious, congregating at carrion, soaring together in flocks and breeding mainly in colonies on cliff faces and escarpments at a broad range of elevations. It locates food entirely by sight. <p></p>
106003376		population	eng	Mundy <em>et al</em>. (1992). <p></p>
106003376		threats	eng	The species faces similar threats to other African vultures, being  susceptible to habitat conversion to agro-pastoral systems, loss of wild  ungulates leading to a reduced availability of carrion, hunting for  trade, persecution and poisoning.  In East Africa, the primary issue is  poisoning (particularly from the highly toxic pesticide  carbofuran), which occurs primarily   outside protected areas; the large range sizes of this and <span style="font-style: italic;">G. africanus</span> puts them both at significant risk as it means they inevitably spend  considerable time outside protected areas (Ogada and Keesing 2010,   Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Kendall and  Virani in press). In  addition, the ungulate wildlife  populations on which this species relies have  declined precipitously throughout East  Africa, even in protected areas  (Western <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In 2007, diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug often used for livestock, and which is fatal to <em>Gyps </em>spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses, was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>. In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes (C. Bowden<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and exporting it to 15 African countries (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>. The West African population has been heavily exploited for trade, with birds commonly sold in fetish markets (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004, Nikolaus 2006)<strong></strong>. For example, the Dogon of central Mali climb the Hombori cliffs to take eggs and chicks of this species (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004)<strong></strong>. The decline and possible extirpation in Nigeria appears to be entirely  attributable to the trade in vulture parts for traditional juju  practices (P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It is apparently also captured for international trade. In 2005, 30 birds were reportedly confiscated by the Italian authorities (F. Genero <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Disturbance, especially from climbers, is a particular problem for this species. In Mali, the Hombori and Dyounde massifs are dotted with at least 47 climbing routes, on which expeditions take place every year, mainly during the species's breeding season. However, the impact of these activities is not known (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003379		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected throughout its range. Some breeding colonies lie within protected areas (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. Non-governmental organisations have successfully raised awareness among farming communities in South Africa of the plight of this species (Barnes 2000). Many nestlings of this species were colour-ringed in southern Africa in the 1970s and 1980s<strong> </strong>(Botha 2006). The national electricity supplier in South Africa has replaced pylons in some regions with a design that reduces electrocution risk to large birds (Barnes 2000), and breeding numbers have increased in one area (Wolter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Supplementary feeding at vulture restaurants may have helped to slow declines in some areas (Barnes 2000). The establishment of a restaurant at Nooitgedacht, South Africa, is thought to have helped promote the recolonisation of the former colony there, and another restaurant has possibly contributed the species's recovery in Magaliesberg <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Wolter <em>et al</em>. unpubl.), although the extent of the species's dependence on such artificial food sources is yet to be studied in depth (W. D. Borello<em> in litt</em>. 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Wolter <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). Supplementary feeding is known to significantly increase the survival rate of first-year birds in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Piper <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. 37 individuals were in captivity in Namibia in 2011, with 7 breeding pairs from which at least 2 chicks have been hatched (Anon. 2011). In October 2005, 16 birds from South Africa were released in Namibia and, although at least two have perished (Diekmann and Strachan 2006) and one was taken into care with a companion (Komen 2006)<strong></strong>, data on flight patterns and breeding behaviour have been recorded from two birds that were fitted with satellite transmitters (Anon. 2006). By 2006, five birds had been fitted with satellite tracking collars (Diekmann and Strachan 2006, Bamford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In Namibia, both communal and commercial farmers have been educated about the benefits that vultures bring and thus the disadvantages of poisoning carcasses, whilst there is also an education centre and education programme for schools (Diekmann and Strachan 2006). A conservation workshop for the species was held in March 2006 and was attended by 19 individuals (Komen 2006). The group reassessed the status of the species and the threats it faces, and decided on conservation actions. A task force was established and people were identified to manage conservation actions for each of the key colonies in southern Africa. In the East Cape awareness programmes have led to modifications in cement reservoirs to prevent drownings as well as aiming to reduce indirect poisoning. A press release was circulated in March 2006 raising awareness of the dangers of using diclofenac in the treatment of cattle. In 2006, the re-establishment of monitoring was expected at the species's only colony in Zimbabwe (Komen 2006). A press release was circulated in July 2007 to raise awareness of the impacts of hunting for medicinal and cultural reasons in southern Africa (McKean and Botha 2007)<strong></strong>. The threat posed by anti-inflammatory drugs in southern Africa is under investigation (K. Wolter <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. An expert workshop on the species's conservation was held in South Africa in March 2006<strong> </strong>(Boshoff and Anderson 2006).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop conservation plans for each of the 18 'core' colonies through the Cape Griffon Task Force (Boshoff and Anderson 2007, Jenkins 2010). Protect breeding colonies (Barnes 2000), and prevent uninhibited access by tourists to nesting sites (Borello and Borello 2002, Hancock 2008)<strong></strong>. Mitigate impacts from poisoning and electrocution (Barnes 2000). Increase availability of livestock carcasses to <em>G. coprotheres</em> in areas where current practices do not allow this. Develop conservation partnerships with the farming community (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. Investigate the burgeoning exploitation for traditional medicine (Barnes 2000). Reduce hunting for medicinal and cultural reasons (McKean and Botha 2007)<strong></strong>. Monitor food availability, especially through the nestling period. Carry out a complete survey of its breeding sites (Barnes 2000). Continue population monitoring and demographic studies (Barnes 2000). Conduct research to assess the potential impact of climate change compared with other threats (Simmons and Jenkins 2007)<strong></strong>. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using Diclofenac for livestock<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(BirdLife International news www.birdlife.org/news 2007)<strong></strong>. Lobby governments to outlaw the sale of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(BirdLife International news www.birdlife.org/news 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003379		distribution	eng	<em>Gyps coprotheres</em> is found in <strong>South Africa</strong> (where overall numbers are decreasing [Vernon 1999, Barnes 2000, Benson 2000<strong></strong>] with a minimum of 630 pairs at 143 colonies and 2000 individuals in the Eastern Cape and 39% of colonies recorded between 1987-1992 now inactive [Boshoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009]), <strong>Lesotho</strong> (c.552 pairs at c.47 colonies, with a continuing decline at some colonies [Donnay 1990]), eastern and south-eastern <strong>Botswana</strong> (c.600 pairs [Borello and Borello 2002<strong>, </strong>Borello <em>in litt.</em> 2003]) and <strong>Mozambique</strong> (10-15 pairs near Swaziland [Parker 1999]). It formerly bred in Swaziland (declined to extinction [Parker 1994]), central <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (declined to extinction - an isolated roost of up to 150 non-breeding birds persists [Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1997]<strong></strong>), and <strong>Namibia</strong> (over 2,000 in the 1950s, but now considered extinct as a breeding species [Wolter 2011]). By 2000 there were only 6-12 birds in Namibia (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 1998a,&#160;R. Simmons <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2000, Diekmann and Strachan 2006), with 16 birds released in October 2005<strong> </strong>(Diekmann and Strachan 2006<strong></strong>). Birds fitted with satellite transmitters in Namibia have been recorded making flights of up to 400 km into <strong>Angola</strong> (M. Diekmann<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The total population was estimated to be 4,400 pairs in 84 colonies in 1994 (Piper 1994)<strong></strong>, and was implied to have declined to c.4,000 pairs by 1999 (Barnes 2000). 18 'core' colonies now hold 80% of the <span style="font-style: italic;">G. coprotheres</span> population (Boshoff and Anderson 2007). In 2006, the total population was estimated at 8,000-10,000 individuals (M. Diekmann<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The population is estimated to have declined by 10% between 1994 and 1999 (Barnes 2000), and over the period 1992-2007, the species declined by 60-70% in eastern South Africa (McKean and Botha 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003379		habitat	eng	It is a long-lived (Oatley <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> carrion-feeder specialising on large carcasses, it flies long distances over open country, although usually found near mountains, where it breeds and roosts on cliffs<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003379		population	eng	In 2006, the total population was estimated at 8,000-10,000 individuals (M. Diekmann <I>in litt.</I> 2006), roughly equivalent to 5,300-6,700 mature individuals.
106003379		threats	eng	The species is assumed to be declining throughout much of its range in the face of a multitude of threats (Boshoff and Anderson 2007). Sixteen known or suspected mortality factors were identified and ranked at an expert workshop with a decrease in the amount of carrion (particularly during chick-rearing), inadvertent poisoning, electrocution on pylons or collision with cables, loss of foraging habitat and unsustainable harvesting for traditional uses considered the most important factors (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992, Barnes 2000, Benson 2000, Borello and Borello 2002<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Boshoff and Anderson 2007). Further threats include disturbance at colonies, bush encroachment and drowning (Anderson 1999, Borello and Borello 2002<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Bamford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)<strong></strong>. In southern Africa, vultures are caught and consumed for perceived medicinal and psychological benefits (McKean and Botha 2007, Anon. 2008)<strong></strong>. It is estimated that 160 vultures are sold and that there are 59,000 vulture-part consumption events in eastern South Africa each year, involving an estimated 1,250 hunters, traders and healers. At current harvest levels, the populations of this species in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho could become locally extinct within 44-53 years. Should the populations of<em> </em>White-backed Vultures <em>G. africanus</em> become depleted first, the resultant increase in hunting pressure on <em>G. coprotheres</em> could cause a population collapse within the subsequent 12 years (McKean and Botha 2007, Anon. 2008)<strong></strong>. Extrapolation from a limited study of traditional healers in Maseru, Lesotho, suggests that, conservatively, nearly 7% of the breeding population in that country would be lost annually for such use<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Beilis and Esterhuizen 2005). The species suffers mortality from the ingestion of poison left for pests (not vultures) (Diekmann and Strachan 2006) and potentially Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug often used for livestock, and which is fatal to <em>Gyps </em>spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses (Komen 2006,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> BirdLife International news www.birdlife.org/news 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 2007, Diclofenac, was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> (BirdLife International news www.birdlife.org/news 2007)<strong></strong>. In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes (C. Bowden<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and exporting it to 15 African countries<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> (BirdLife International news www.birdlife.org/news 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A single poisoning incident can kill 50-500 birds, making the species susceptible to sudden local declines (M. Diekmann<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The collapse of a key colony in eastern Botswana has been attributed to human disturbance, especially insensitive tourism<strong></strong> (Borello and Borello 2002). The ongoing urbanisation around Hartbeespoort Dam and the Magaliesberg Mountains, South Africa, has limited the extent of natural areas for foraging by vultures, perhaps resulting in their reliance on supplementary food at vulture "restaurants" <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Wolter <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). If such restaurants were closed, vultures might be exposed to unsafe carcasses <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Wolter <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). Poor grassland management in some areas has promoted bush encroachment, making finding carcasses more difficult for vultures (Schutz 2007). There are records of at least 120 individuals (21 incidents) of this species drowning in small farm reservoirs in southern Africa between the early 1970s and late 1990s (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1999), although modifications to many reservoirs have now been made (Boshoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Raptors are thought to drown after attempting to bathe or drink, with mass vulture drownings probably due to the triggering of group behaviour by the actions of one bird (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Magaliesberg a large number of fatalities have been associated with powerline collisions and electrocutions, and this is one of the main factors causing the ongoing decline of the species in South Africa (K. Wolter <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is reported that a lack of adult females in the relict Namibian population may have led to four males breeding with <em>G. africanus</em>, although this is not thought to be a problem across southern Africa (Diekmann and Strachan 2006). Patterns in the contraction of the species's range since the 1950s imply that climate change could be an underlying factor driving its decline through changes in habitats and decreases in prey populations, though further research is required to confirm a link (Simmons and Jenkins 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003380		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The EU Birds Directive has contributed to the recovery and conservation of the species in Europe, particularly Spain, where t<span style="">he population has increased from an estimated 290 pairs in 1984 to a minimum of 1,845 pairs at present</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="font-weight: bold; "> </span><span style="">(</span><span style=""><span style="">De la Puente</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al. </span><span style="">2007). <span style="">Co-operation between Spanish government agencies and conservationists under the 'Antidote Programme' also appears to have been effective in mitigating the effects of poisoned baits. Both the Spanish and the Andalusian Governments have produced anti-poisoning strategies, but the former still remain to be financially supported while the latter need more decisive official endorsement. A reintroduction project in Grands Causses, Southern France has resulted in the establishment of a small breeding population (16 pairs were breeding in 2006 [Eliotout </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2007</span>]) with good prospects.  Supplementary feeding programmes have been initiated in Spain and France to provide a safe, poison-free food source, although there are concerns that the species may be not very prone to feed at conventional feeding stations. In the Balkans, the species has only one stable colony in the Dadia forest reserve in northern Greece, where WWF has long been involved. Supplementary food is also provided in Bulgaria for breeding birds<strong style=""></strong> (Anon. 2007)<span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> and South Korea during the winter, which may be the factor attracting birds from Mongolia</span> (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2006)<span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. In eastern Europe and central Asia, fewer conservation actions are known, although the species occurs within a number of protected areas in the region. The Balkan Vulture Action Plan aims to transfer expertise and technology relating to the conservation of the species from western to eastern parts of Europe</span><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2004b)<span style=""><span style=""></span><strong style=""><sup></sup></strong><span style="">.  </span><strong style=""><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style="">Survey to determine the species's status and population trends on breeding grounds outside Europe and on wintering grounds</span><strong style=""></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2004b)<span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Research threats, particularly the decline in abundance of prey species. Carry out reintroductions to link up the western and the eastern sub-areas of the present range, following the recommendations of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Black Vulture Conservation Foundation. Restore wild rabbit </span><em style="">Oryctolagus cuniculus</em><span style=""> populations in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands (Spain) as this may help to increase food availability, particularly during the breeding period. Promote cooperation and information exchange among people working on the species, both at a national and international level. Strengthen and enforce legislation regulating trade in pesticides that are used to poison meat baits. Increase the rate of prosecution and the severity of judicial sentences for illegal poisoning.  </span><p></p></span></span></span>
106003380		distribution	eng	<em>Aegypius monachus</em> breeds in <strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyztan</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, north <strong>India</strong>, northern <strong>Pakistan</strong> (A. Khan, A. Parveen and R. Yasmeen <em>in litt.</em> 2005),<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Mongolia</span> and mainland <strong>China</strong>, with a small reintroduced population in <strong>France</strong> (Heredia 1996b; V. Galushin <em>in litt. </em>1999; Heredia <em>et al.</em> 1997; WWF Greece 1999). It may occasionally breed in Portugal, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia and Albania, but it no longer breeds in Slovenia, Italy, Cyprus, Moldova and Romania. There are wintering areas in <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, Pakistan, north-west India, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan, Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Lao People's Democratic Republic, North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>. Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, with 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2004;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Anon. 2004)<strong></strong> and 5,500-8,000<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2004)<strong></strong> pairs in Asia. In Europe, populations are increasing in Spain (minimum 1,500 pairs [Barov and Derhé 2011]), Portugal and France, and are stable in Greece and Macedonia<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Barov and Derhé 2011). However, numbers are decreasing in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Turkey and the Ukraine<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2004; Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. Overall, the European population underwent a large increase between 1990 and 2000, possibly &gt;30% overall<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2004;  I. Burfield <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong> and increased from 1,330-1,874 in 1993-1996 to 1,995-2,852 in 2000-2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Much less information is available regarding the status and population trends of the species in Asia, where the bulk of the global population resides.  There are probably over 1,000 pairs in the Asian part of the former Soviet Union and a further 1,760 pairs in China<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ye Xiao-Ti 1991). It appears that breeding populations are more or less stable in Mongolia<strong></strong> (where the species is described as common [<em></em>N. Batbayar <em>in litt.</em> 2005]) and Pakistan (A. Khan, A. Parveen and R. Yasmeen <em>in litt.</em> 2005) (where it is described as scarce), although fluctuations in distribution and breeding success occur, and populations within some nature reserves in Mongolia (where there are few domestic livestock) are declining<em></em> (N. Batbayar <em>in litt.</em> 2005).  In Kazakhstan, however, populations of all vulture species are in severe decline, owing to a precipitous decline in their main food resource, the Saiga antelope (<em>Saiga tartarica</em>) (W. Fremuth <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. This trend may be mirrored in a number of other central Asian countries where populations of both domesticated livestock and wild ungulates have declined greatly in recent years<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. Katzner <em>in litt. </em>2005). Very little is known about population trends on its wintering grounds, although wintering populations appear to be declining in Nepal (H. S. Baral <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong> and increasing in India (T. Katzner <em>in litt.</em> 2005) and South Korea (Lee <em>et al</em>. 200<span style="">6)</span><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span><p></p>
106003380		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forested areas in hills and mountains at 300-1,400 m in Spain, but higher in Asia, where it also occupies scrub and arid and semi-arid alpine steppe and grasslands up to 4,500m<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Thiollay 1994). It forages over many kinds of open terrain, including forest, bare mountains, steppe and open grasslands.  Nests are built in trees or on rocks (the latter extremely rarely in Europe but more frequently in parts of Asia), often aggregated in very loose colonies or nuclei.  Its diet consists mainly of carrion from medium-sized or large mammal carcasses, although snakes and insects have been recorded as food items. Live prey is rarely taken. In Mongolia, at least, the species is reliant on livestock numbers for successful nesting (Batbayar <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <p></p>
106003380		population	eng	Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, roughly equating to 14,000-20,000 mature individuals. This consists of 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe (BirdLife International 2004; Anon. 2004) and 5,500-8,000 pairs in Asia (Anon. 2004). The population in Korea has been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009). The estimate roughly equates to 21,000-30,000 individuals in total.
106003380		threats	eng	The two main threats to the species are direct mortality caused by humans (either accidentally or deliberately) and decreasing availability of food. The main cause of unnatural death is the use of poisoned baits for predator extermination<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2004b), although shooting and destruction of nests also occur<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2004b; N. Batbayar <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Shooting and poisoning are increasing in Mongolia<em></em> (N. Batbayar <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, and many birds are trapped or shot in China for their feathers. There are fears that veterinary application of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug Diclofenac, which has caused the near-extinction of several <em>Gyps</em> vultures in India, may have a negative impact on <em>A. monachus</em> (N. Batbayar <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, particularly as increasing numbers of the species are wintering in northern India<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. Katzner <em>in litt. </em>2005). A study in central Spain during 2003-2005 found high concentrations of antibiotics in blood samples from 57% of nestlings tested<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Lemus <em>et al</em>. 2008). The same study found two antibiotics in the liver samples of all dead nestlings that were tested. It is hypothesised that antibiotic residues, particularly quinolones, cause liver and kidney damage, and deplete lymphoid organs and alter bacteria flora, facilitating pathogenic bacterial and fungal infections<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Lemus <em>et al</em>. 2008). In Europe, decreased food availability was formerly caused by European Union legislation on carcass disposal<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2004b); however, recently passed regulations will allow the operation of feeding stations for scavengers<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Brunner <em>in litt</em>. 2010). In eastern Europe and central Asia, particularly in the former Soviet Union, changes in agricultural practices and human migration from the countryside to the cities have greatly reduced numbers of domestic livestock. In Georgia and Armenia, declines may be linked to the loss of subsidies for sheep-herding in the post-Soviet era (M. McGrady <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Additionally, there have been steep declines in many populations of wild ungulates which provide a major food source for the species. The Saiga antelope (<em>Saiga tartarica</em>), for example, numbered over one million individuals ten years ago, and has now been reduced to a population of 30,000-40,000 owing to uncontrolled hunting and severe winters (W. Fremuth <em>in litt.</em> 2005). In South Korea, food limitation is a serious problem such that the species relies on supplementary food (Lee <em>et al</em>. 200<span style="">6)</span><span style=""><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Habitat loss is also thought to be important</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(Anon. 2004). The majority of brood losses occur during the incubation period and it is suspected this may be partially due to low and fluctuating temperatures (Batbayar </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2006) and so changes in air termperatures resulting from climate change may be a potential future threat to the species. </span><br/><p></p>
106003381		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. The species was put forward as a candidate for the CITES Review of Significant Trade in 2004 (CITES<em> in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. It breeds in a number of protected areas within its extensive range. Ecological research is ongoing, notably in Saudi Arabia (Newton and Shobrak 1993)<strong></strong>. Following a workshop, a five-year international action plan for the species was published in 2005, with the aims of stabilising or increasing its populations, improving knowledge of its distribution, population size and trends and minimising the impact of human activities at key sites (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). A comprehensive study of the species in Botswana was planned for 2007 (P. Hancock<em> in litt.</em> 2006), and 221 chicks have been marked with patagial tags between 2006 and 2009 (Bridgeford 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2007, a survey began to  establish the extent of diclofenac use for  veterinary purposes in  Tanzania (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>,  and in 2008 an  awareness-raising campaign at a conference of the World  Organisation for  Animal Health in Senegal led to a resolution  being  adopted unanimously  by more than 160 delegates to "request Members to  consider their  national situation with the aim to seek  measures to  find solutions to  the problems caused by the administration  of  diclofenac in livestock"  (Woodford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Organise coordinated surveys and monitoring throughout its range to clarify population size and decline rates. Conduct further ecological research (Brown 1986, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Boshoff <em>et al</em>. 1997, Shobrak in press<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>. Initiate awareness campaigns aimed at farmers, local communities, developers and ecotourists to reduce mortality from persecution, accidental poisoning and disturbance (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, Boshoff <em>et al</em>. 1997, <strong></strong><strong></strong>Barnes 2000, Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005, Shobrak in press). Identify important nesting areas (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Carry out research into the effects of nest disturbance (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Improve awareness amongst utilities and NGOs of hazardous pylon designs and suitable measures to prevent collisions through training courses and literature such as posters and best practice manuals (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Increase awareness amongst farmers of suitable reservoir and drinking trough modification methods (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Enforce legislation concerned with incorrect use of poisons and pesticides (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Carry out research into the impacts of different poisons across its range (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Study the impact of the species on livestock numbers and share information with stakeholders (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Enact legislation against the persecution of the species (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Encourage vulture feeding sites and the abandonment of livestock carcasses from death by natural causes (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Provide enforcement for existing nature reserves in West Africa and design of a new one in northern Mali<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Thiollay 2006)<strong></strong>. In West Africa, determine the severity of accidental poisoning, hunting of the species for medicine and cultural reasons, hunting for food, and the threat from the development of powerlines (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004). Complete a vulture census for West Africa (Anderson 2005)<strong></strong>. Eliminate the veterinary  use of diclofenac and other toxic drugs in  Africa.<br/><p></p>
106003381		distribution	eng	<em>Torgos tracheliotos</em> breeds in <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Somalia</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Swaziland</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> (an increasing population, in excess of 500 individuals [Newton and Shobrak 1993, M. Shobrak <em>in litt.</em> 2000]), <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong>, <strong>Oman,</strong> <strong>Yemen </strong>and<strong> </strong>possibly Libya (Massa 1999)<strong></strong>. The species also occurs in <strong>The Gambia</strong>, northern <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Central African Republic</strong> and southern <strong>Angola</strong> (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is no longer thought to breed in Côte d'Ivoire (G. Rondeau <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>It has been extinct in Algeria and Tunisia since the 1930s, and now only small populations remain in southern Egypt, and Mauritania (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The last records from Morocco concerned two birds in 1972 (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is considered likely to be extinct in Western Sahara, as it has not been recorded there since 1955 (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Nigeria, there has been a major decline since the late 1970s and it may now have been extirpated (Brown 1986, Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It probably previously bred in Jordan<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Evans and Al-Mashaqbah 1996)<strong></strong>, has largely disappeared where formerly common in Somaliland (Somalia) (A. Jama <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009), and is considered extinct in Israel, where three birds remained until 1994 (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species was not recorded during surveys in 2004 in northern Mali and Niger along the same transects that yielded 96 birds in 1971-1973<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Thiollay 2006)<strong></strong>. The combination of these results with comparable transect surveys from Burkina Faso indicate a decline in abundance of c.97% in rural areas and c.39% in national parks between 1969-1973 and 2003-2004 (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004)<strong></strong>, and declines of 50% were also recorded between 1978-1986 and 2003-2005 on transects in the Masai Mara, Kenya (Virani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It is suffering a slow decline in southern Africa (Boshoff <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>, although the population in central Mozambique is probably stable (Parker 2005)<strong></strong>. There are possibly 1,000 pairs (almost 3,000 individuals) in southern Africa, at least the same in east and north-east Africa, and possibly only c.500 pairs in West Africa and the Sahara, giving a total rough estimate of the African population of at least 8,000 individuals (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992).  <p></p>
106003381		habitat	eng	The species inhabits dry savannah, arid plains, deserts and open mountain slopes (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, up to 3,500 m (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Ethiopia, it is also found at the edge of forests, having been recorded at Bonga forest and forest in Bale Mountains National Park in 2007, as well as the Afro-alpine habitats of the national park in 2005 (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It ranges widely when foraging (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> and is mainly a scavenger, feeding predominantly on any large carcasses or their remains (Mundy 1982, Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is also known to hunt, probably taking a variety of small reptiles, fish, birds and mammals, and has been observed apparently group-hunting flamingo <em>Phoenicopterus</em> chicks (McCulloch 2006a, 2006b). It builds solitary nests (usually containing just one egg), often in <em>Acacia</em> (its distribution sometimes being limited by these trees' distribution [Boshoff <em>et al</em>. 1997]<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>), but also in <em>Balanites</em> and <em>Terminalia</em> (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It does not breed until at least six years old, then fledging c.0.4 young/pair/year (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992). Ringing studies in Namibia have revealed a very low return rate (Simmons and Bridgeford 1997). The species's minimum home range is thought to be 8 km<sup>2</sup>, and this can expand to 15 km<sup>2</sup> in some habitats (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Mozambique, egg-laying occurs from late April until mid-August, with a peak in May and June (Parker 2005). A nest found in Oman contained a small chick in early March, and thought to have fledged in mid-June (Wernery 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003381		population	eng	The African population is at least 8,000 individuals, and there may be 500 in the Middle East. This gives a total population of at least 8,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 5,700 mature individuals.
106003381		threats	eng	Widespread accidental poisoning, largely due to strychnine, used by many farmers for predator control,  and more recently carbofuran, has contributed significantly to declines (Brown 1986<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, C. Kendall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Several <span style="font-style: italic;">T. tracheliotos</span> were found to have died after feeding on the carcass of a poisoned jackal in Namibia (Komen 2009). It is also often mistakenly persecuted as a livestock predator (Brown 1986): one major deliberate poisoning incident killed 86 individuals in Namibia (Simmons 1995)<strong></strong>. Other major threats to the species include nest predation by humans, reduced food availability and electrocution (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Increasing use of agricultural pesticides may also be a problem for the species (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992), including those breeding at Tayma, Saudi Arabia (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Nest disturbance, to which it is extremely sensitive (Steyn 1982)<strong></strong>, may be growing with an increase in forest settlements in Ethiopia (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and the increasing recreational use of off-road vehicles (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992). Breeding birds at Tayma could face disturbance from motorised vehicles in the desert (Shimelis <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population collapse in West Africa may be a result of higher nest disturbance, local extinctions of wild ungulates through habitat modification and over-hunting, intensified cattle farming in which sick or dying animals are rarely abandoned, and an increase in accidental poisoning<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Thiollay 2006<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Rondeau and Thiollay 2004)<strong></strong>, although the latter threat, in particular, requires further study (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004). National vaccination campaigns in West Africa have reduced illness in domestic livestock, and sick animals can now be sold off, rather than abandoned, due to the proliferation of markets and abattoirs (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004). The species may be hunted for medicine and cultural reasons in West Africa, and some ethnic groups in the sub-region hunt vultures for food, though the impact on this species is unknown (Rondeau and Thiollay 2004). In central Mozambique, the population has declined due to a scarcity of game and livestock following the armed conflict of the 1970s and 1980s, and the surviving population continues to be threatened by the over-exploitation of game by poachers (Parker 2005). There are incidences of deliberate poisoning to kill vultures by poachers, due to the belief that the arriving birds will give away the locations of poached animals (Hancock 2009). In Ethiopia, the principal threat to the species is habitat loss on the lowland plains (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. Potential introduction of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac, which is fatal to <em>Gyps </em>spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses may represent a potential future threat to the species.<p></p>
106003382		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species currently occurs throughout much of southern and East Africa's protected areas network (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. It is classified as vulnerable in Namibia and South Africa (R. E. Simmons and C. J. Brown <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>. Individuals were marked with patagial tags in Fouta Djallon vulture sanctuary, Guinea, in 2007 to monitor movements and for a toxicological assessment of the vulture population of the park (Rondeau 2008).  In 2007, a survey began to  establish the extent of diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in  Tanzania (BirdLife International 2007)<strong></strong>, and in 2008 an  awareness-raising campaign at a conference of the World Organisation for  Animal Health in Senegal led to a resolution  being adopted unanimously  by more than 160 delegates to "request Members to consider their  national situation with the aim to seek  measures to find solutions to  the problems caused by the administration  of diclofenac in livestock"  (Woodford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out co-ordinated surveys throughout the range of this species to clarify its population size and trends. Raise awareness about the impact of poisoning on this species (R. E. Simmons and C. J. Brown <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Enforce anti-poisoning legislation (R. E. Simmons and C. J. Brown <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Minimise disturbance at nests (C. Kendall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  Eliminate the veterinary  use of diclofenac and other toxic drugs in Africa. Limit the hunting of  game to improve the availability of carrion. Carry out education and  awareness programmes, particularly targetted at farmers, to reduce  persecution, unintentional poisoning and hunting for cultural reasons.<br/><p></p>
106003382		distribution	eng	<em>Trigonoceps occipitalis</em> has an extremely large range in sub-Saharan Africa (from <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Gambia </strong>and <strong>Guinea-Bissau</strong> disjunctly east to <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia </strong>and <strong>Somalia</strong>, and south to easternmost <strong>South Africa</strong> and <strong>Swaziland</strong>), where it is uncommon to locally common, but generally widespread outside forested regions (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It has declined rapidly in parts of West Africa since the early 1940s (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. M. Thiollay <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2012)<strong></strong>, is declining in East Africa (Virani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) and in southern Africa is now largely confined to protected areas. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Botswana</span> only four nests were located during gyrocopter surveys of three Important Bird Areas during 2008 and the species has the lowest relative abundance of the vulture species recorded (Hancock 2008), while in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Niger </span>there are only four records since 1995, all in the Gadabeji area (J. Brouwer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. The species has probably declined in central <strong>Mozambique</strong> (Parker 2005a), where the population is estimated at 200 pairs (Parker 2005b). An extrapolated estimate of the global population suggested there were 2,600-4,700 pairs (7,000-12,500 mature individuals) (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003382		habitat	eng	It prefers mixed, dry woodland at low altitudes, avoiding semi-arid thornbelt areas (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs up to 4,000 m in Ethiopia, and perhaps 3,000 m in Kenya, and ranges across the thorny <em>Acacia</em>-dominated landscape of Botswana (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It generally avoids human habitation (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is thought to be a long-lived resident that maintains a territory (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may generally fly lower than other vultures, and is often the first vulture species to arrive at carcasses (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. While it is often found on the periphery of vulture congregations at large carcasses, it is also often found at small carcasses and is probably an occasional predator (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests and roosts in trees, most nests being in <em>Acacia</em> spp. or baobabs (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch size is one, the egg being laid a couple of months after rains have finished and the dry season is underway (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pairs that breed have a success rate of 65-75%, however, up to 61% of pairs do not attempt to breed each year (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992, del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003382		population	eng	An estimate of 7,000-12,500 mature individuals was extrapolated from a number of regional estimates. This equates to 10,500-18,750 individuals in total, here rounded to 10,000-20,000 individuals.
106003382		threats	eng	Reductions in populations of medium-sized mammals and wild ungulates, as well as habitat conversion throughout its range best explain the current decline (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992, P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999, R. Davies <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Additional threats include indirect poisoning (R. Davies <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong> at baits set to kill jackals in small-stock farming areas, and  in East Africa at poisoned baits set for larger mammalian carnivores such as lions and hyenas (C. Kendall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012),<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> and, particularly in East Africa, secondary poisoning from carbofuran (Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), although this species may be less susceptible than other vultures owing to its broad diet. Exploitation for the international trade in raptors (N. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> also poses a threat. In 2005, 30 individuals of this species were confiscated by the Italian authorities (F. Genero<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In South Africa, this species is captured for use in traditional medicines (R. E. Simmons and C. J. Brown <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Breeding birds may readily desert nests in areas of high human disturbance (R. E. Simmons and C. J. Brown <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is highly sensitive to land-use and is highly concentrated in protected areas (Hancock 2008). Potential introduction of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac, which is fatal to <em>Gyps </em>spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses may represent a potential future threat to the species.<p></p>
106003383		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. <br/><br/>The governments of India, Nepal and Pakistan passed legislation in 2006 banning the manufacture and importation of diclofenac as a veterinary drug, with India passing further legislation in 2008 banning the manufacture, sale, distribution or use of veterinary diclofenac. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India in 2008 warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(BirdLife International 2008). In October 2010, the government of Bangladesh banned the production of  diclofenac for use in cattle, and the distribution and sale of the drug  were due to be outlawed during the first half of 2011 (M. M. H. Khan<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. While these bans have been introduced and have led to a reduction of diclofenac within ungulate carcasses (the principal food source for vultures in South Asia) levels of diclofenac contamination still remain high and human forms of the drug are still sold for veterinary use (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011a,b ). Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are on-going and are showing signs of success with evidence for a decrease in diclofenac and an increase in the safe alternative (Cuthbert et al 2011c ). An alternative drug, meloxicam, which is out of patent and manufactured in Asia has been tested on Gyps vultures with no ill-effects (Swan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Swarup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007 ). Monitoring of vultures has been conducted in a number of protected areas in India, and monitoring of vulture populations combined with supplementary feeding is underway in the northern and eastern plains of Cambodia. There are currently seven vulture restaurants in Cambodia, which are run by The Cambodia Vulture Conservation Project, a partnership between the Royal Cambodian Government and national and international NGOs (e.g. Masphal and Vorsak 2007, H. Rainey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Advocacy to reduce the use of poisons and poisoned bait to catch fish and waterfowl has succeeded in reducing the number of vultures being poisoned accidentally (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A five-year captive breeding and reintroduction scheme to be run by the Zoological Park Associatin and Kasetsart University was due to begin in 2007 in Uthai Thani, Thailand (Anon 2007)<strong></strong>, but captive breeding efforts are not as advanced as they are for Critically Endangered <em>Gyps</em> vultures and these are urgently needed. Surveys utilising vulture restaurants were carried out in Myanmar in late 2006 and early 2007, accompanied by research into the locations of nesting colonies, causes of vulture deaths and potential that diclofenac was being used in livestock (Eames 2007a). Further research on the causes of decline in this species was being proposed in 2011 (R. Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Measure the frequency of diclofenac treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Continue to carry out public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities that have been implemented in Cambodia in Myanmar. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternatives to diclofenac. Test other NSAIDs to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.  <p></p>
106003383		distribution	eng	<em>Sarcogyps calvus </em>occurs in Pakistan (previously regular, now a rare straggler with two in Tharparker in 2002 the first record since 1980 [Nadeem <em>et al. </em>2007])<strong></strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong> (uncommon), <strong>India</strong> (sparsely distributed and declining, now rare or absent from some areas, e.g. parts of Gujarat and the north-eastern states, but still fairly common in the west Himalayan foothills), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (rare in the north-west),<strong> Bhutan, Myanmar</strong> (rare resident; recent records come mainly from Mount Victoria [G. Chunkino <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Hla <em>et al.</em> 2011], with up to 11 in Shan state in 2003 - the first recent documented records in the east of the country [Bezuijen <em>et al. </em>2010])<strong></strong>, <strong>China</strong> (unrecorded in Yunnan since the late 1960s<strong> </strong>[S. Chan <em>in litt. </em>2006]; possibly occurs in south-east Tibet), <strong>Thailand</strong> (near extinct in the country [P. Round <em>in litt.</em> 2006<strong></strong>]), <strong>Laos </strong>(previously widespread and common, but now only occasional wanderers from the Cambodian population), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously regular in central regions, but now only occasional wanderers from the Cambodian population), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (previously common, now rare and restricted to the northern and eastern plains), peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (previously locally common in north, now absent), <strong>Singapore</strong> (formerly occurred, apparently now absent) (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al.</em> 2001). Historical reports indicate that it was widespread and generally abundant, but it has undergone a population and range decline in recent decades. Recent information indicates that in India the species started undergoing a rapid decline (41% per year) in about 1999, and declined by 91% between the early 1990s and 2003 (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Declines in the Indian Subcontinent have followed widely reported and well-researched declines in <em>Gyps</em> vultures owing to mortality following ingestion of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac, used to treat livestock, and it is hypothesised that this same drug has been responsible for the observed trends in Red-headed Vulture. Census results from Cambodia suggest that the population there has been stable since 2004 at least (Eames 2007b). Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia, and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in the region is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures (Anon 2003, <strong></strong>2005)<strong></strong>. Given its rarity in South-East Asia, it is unlikely that more than a few hundred individuals remain there, while the total population seems unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals given the patchiness of its distribution across India and the apparently catastrophic very recent declines.<em> </em><p></p>
106003383		habitat	eng	It frequents open country usually away from human habitation, well-wooded hills and dry deciduous forest with rivers, usually below 2,500 m. Nesting has been recorded in tall trees. It occurs at lower density than <em>Gyps</em> vultures owing to its predominantly territorial behaviour, and movements are poorly known. Vultures play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India. <p></p>
106003383		population	eng	Given its rarity in South-East Asia, it is unlikely that more than a few hundred individuals remain, while the total population seems unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals given the patchiness of its distribution across India and the apparently catastrophic very recent declines. In light of this it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, here rounded to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003383		threats	eng	The disappearance of vultures from Asia is linked to a suite of factors: notably the demise of wild ungulates (Anon 2003)<strong></strong>, the intensification of agriculture, increased sophistication of waste disposal techniques, direct persecution and disease. However, rapid declines since the turn of the 21st century are believed to have been driven by the pharmaceutical NSAID diclofenac used to treat livestock, which has proven highly toxic to vultures, causing mortality from renal failure that results in visceral gout (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It seems plausible that this species previously had less exposure to the toxin owing to competitive exclusion from carcasses by <em>Gyps</em> spp. vultures (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Surveys in Myanmar in late 2006 and early 2007 found no evidence that diclofenac was being used in livestock (Eames 2007a) and it is not in use in Cambodia (Mahood<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). In Cambodia at least it experiences some incidental mortality through the widespread use of poisons to catch fish or waterbirds at <span style="font-style: italic;">trapeangs</span> (waterholes). <br/><p></p>
106003386		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003387		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor the population. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation in its range. Increase the area of protected habitat across its range.  <p></p>
106003387		distribution	eng	<em>Circaetus fasciolatus</em> occurs from southern <strong>Somalia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> to north-eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>, extending up the Save River (Mozambique) to south-eastern <strong>Zimbabwe </strong>(Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982). It is generally found within 20 km of the coast, except along major rivers (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong></strong>, in the lower Tana River forests in Kenya, the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania, and in Zimbabwe (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>. It is uncommon, occurring at low densities, over most of its range (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> but may be locally common in the East Usambara Mountains (Stuart and Hutton 1977)<strong></strong>. In South Africa, where it has suffered a range reduction (no longer found in the southerly part of its former range), the total population is only 40-50 pairs (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong></strong>. In the early 1990s it was recorded in only 16 out of 31 coastal forest blocks in Kenya and Tanzania<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Burgess and Muir 1994)<strong></strong>, and a more recent survey recorded it in only 24 out of 41 forests (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003387		habitat	eng	It is a secretive raptor feeding almost exclusively on snakes and lizards (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>, but also taking rodents, amphibia, arthropods and birds (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong></strong>. It is confined mainly to dense coastal and riverine forest, also ranging into adjacent marshes and floodplains (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong></strong>. Anthropogenic habitats adjacent to forest are used for foraging and the species may nest in plantations of introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>spp<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>(Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The species is sedentary and resident throughout much of its range, except for some movement north into Kenya during the dry season (May-September). Egg-laying occurs in July-October in East Africa and September-October in southern Africa. Its small nest is constructed from sticks and located in an upper fork of a forest tree, well-hidden amongst creeping plants (Parkes 2007). The clutch-size is one (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003387		population	eng	This species has a limited range and usually occurs at low densities; its population is estimated at 1,000-3,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-2,000 mature individuals.
106003387		threats	eng	Coastal forest is threatened with degradation and fragmentation (particularly along rivers) (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong></strong> as a result of the extraction of wood for use as timber, charcoal, poles and firewood<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Burgess and Muir 1994)<strong></strong>. In Mozambique, it probably no longer occurs on the coast between the Limpopo and Save rivers due to human population pressure and deforestation, while the population south of the Save river is probably fewer than 50 birds . (Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003389		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement education and awareness campaigns across its range to reduce the use of poisoned baits. Carry out regular population monitoring across its range. <p></p>
106003389		distribution	eng	<em>Terathopius ecaudatus </em>has an extensive range across much of sub-Saharan Africa (from southern <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, southern <strong>Mali </strong>and <strong>Guinea </strong>east to southern<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong>Sudan</strong>, northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Sudan</span>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and west <strong>Somalia</strong> and south to <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong> and northern and north-eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>), and also occurs in south-west Arabia (south-west <strong>Saudi Arabia </strong>and <strong>Yemen</strong>). Its global population is estimated to be 10,000-100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong>. There have been significant population declines and/or range contractions suspected in many regions, including Botswana (S. Tyler <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire&#160;</strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994), <strong>Kenya</strong> (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Ogada 2009), <strong>Namibia</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994), <strong>Nigeria </strong>(an estimated decline of at least 50 % in 30 years and now essentially confined to protected areas) (P. Hall <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2009, <strong></strong>O. J. Daniel <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>, Somalia (A. Ajama <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>, South Africa (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, S. Thomsett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, Sudan (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>, parts of <strong>Zambia</strong> (P. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 2005), <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994), and possibly parts of <strong>Tanzania</strong> (J. Wolstencroft <em>in litt.</em> 2005), in some areas, however, the species is not declining and remains widespread and common (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2005, N. Cordeiro <em>in litt.</em> 2005, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.      <p></p>
106003389		habitat	eng	It inhabits open country, including grasslands, savanna and subdesert thornbush from sea level to 4,500 m but generally below 3,000 m (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is generally considered resident but some adults as well as immatures are nomadic (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It takes both live and dead food, mostly mammals and birds but also some reptiles, carrion, insects and occasionally birds' eggs and crabs, foraging over a huge range (55-200 km<sup>2</sup>) (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is built in the canopy of a large tree, and breeding is chiefly September-May in West Africa, throughout the year in East Africa and December-August in southern Africa (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003389		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003389		threats	eng	Putative reasons for declines vary, but include poisoned baits, pesticides, trapping for international trade, nest disturbance from spreading human settlements, and increased intensification and degradation of agricultural land (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001<strong>, </strong>N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2005, S. Thomsett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The major cause of the decline seems to be almost entirely poisoning by a few large-scale commercial farmers, but poisoning is also a problem in tribal small-stock farming communities. <p></p>
106003390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common, although locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003393		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It<strong> </strong>occurs within Kinabalu and Mulu National Parks and Temburong/Kuala Belalong (Brunei)<strong> </strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct fieldwork to determine the range (particularly the southern and western limits) and population size of this species along with the degree of threat it faces from habitat destruction. Propose further sites for establishment as protected areas in the Bornean highlands. Ensure effective management of key protected areas for the species, including lending support to the 'Heart of Borneo' initiative. <p></p>
106003393		distribution	eng	<em>Spizaetus</em><strong> </strong><em>kinabaluensis </em>is confined to the mountains of central and northern Borneo in <strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). From observations in the 1980s and 1990s, it appears to be a genuinely scarce species, with a small total population. However, much of its range is infrequently visited and it may prove to be more widespread than current indications suggest. It is likely to occur more or less continuously along the Crocker Range from Mount Kinabalu to Ulu Padas, G. Mulu and the border mountains of Brunei, and Gunung Murud (Pulong Tau National Park)<strong> </strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  The southern and western limits of its distribution are poorly known and need to be investigated, e.g., its occurrence in the Kelabit Highlands and Usun Apau, Kayan Mentarang and central montane parts of Kalimantan<strong> </strong>(G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007).   <p></p>
106003393		habitat	eng	It is apparently sedentary in submontane and montane evergreen rainforest where it tends to prefer ridge-top forest at 750-2,900 m. In areas where it occurs alongside <em>S. cheela</em> it is separated vertically by a few hundred metres. <p></p>
106003393		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003393		threats	eng	Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation are the primary threats to the species, particularly towards the lower altitudinal limits of its distribution<strong></strong>,  where the extent of forest is diminishing fairly rapidly in the face of agricultural expansion and intensification, although forest at higher altitudes is also threatened, for example by small-holder agriculture (G. Davison <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012).  <p></p>
106003396		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range. Investigate its abundance in forest at different levels of perturbation. Protect significant areas of intact interior forest in the Andaman islands. Quantify the impact of hunting on populations. Conduct awareness campaigns involving local residents to engender pride in the species and prevent hunting.  <p></p>
106003396		distribution	eng	<em>Spilornis elgini </em>is endemic to South Andaman island, <strong>India</strong>, where it has been considered common (BirdLife International 2001).  <em> </em><p></p>
106003396		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the rainforests of the interior of the islands. It appears to be ecologically separated from Crested Serpent-eagle <em>S. cheela</em>, which inhabits coastal forests on the same island.  <p></p>
106003396		population	eng	This species's population is preliminarily estimated to number 1,000-5,000 mature individuals, pending further research. This is roughly equivalent to 1,500-7,500 individuals in total.
106003396		threats	eng	Although forest remains extensive on the Andamans, loss and fragmentation of cover continues and is perhaps accelerating. The human population on larger islands is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under mounting pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. Hunting is also apparently common on the islands and may affect this species.  <p></p>
106003398		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species has been found in several protected areas, including four National Parks, one Strict Reserve, two Special Reserves and one Classified Forest, as well as at 10 of the 30 Important Bird Areas in eastern Madagascar (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may occur in other protected areas further south. It is the subject of an ongoing research program in the Masoala peninsula (Thorstrom and de Roland 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish whether it is present in the southern half of the eastern rainforest belt, including Ranomafana and Midongy-South National Parks (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. Refine population estimates (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. Improve the management and conservation of protected areas in the east coast rainforest belt. <p></p>
106003398		distribution	eng	<em>Eutriorchis astur</em> is a rare inhabitant of the eastern rainforests of <strong>Madagascar</strong> from Zahamena in the south to Marojejy in the north, and in the central high plateau at Anjozorobe and Bemanevika&#160; (L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2012). Apart from inconclusive reports of its presence in Marojejy Reserve in the 1960s and 1970s, and despite considerable search-effort within its habitat, it was not definitely recorded between 1930 and 1993 (R. Thorstrom and L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Since the clarification of the species's territorial call in 1995, it has been discovered at several new sites. Amongst other localities, it is most commonly observed in Masoala National Park, where at least 16 individuals have been recorded from nine sites (Wilcove 1999)<strong></strong> and nesting attempts have been recorded, and at Makira forest (R. Thorstrom and L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The population is almost certainly greater than 250 individuals (F. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003398		habitat	eng	An elusive and wary denizen of lowland and mid-altitude primary rainforest, it rarely, if ever, ventures beyond the forest edge (Langrand 1990, <strong></strong>Morris and Hawkins 1998, Horstrom and Watson 1997)<strong></strong>. It is known to feed on lizards (chameleons and geckos, which make up 83% of its diet) and frogs (Thorstrom and de Roland 2000)<strong></strong>. It flies between subcanopy perches, hunting for food on the ground, possibly also taking reptiles in the subcanopy. It is also known to glide over the canopy and use foot-thrusting to flush prey in epiphytes and under leaf litter on the ground (R. Thorstrom and L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Between 1997-2005 a total of five nests were located on the Masoala Peninsula, all of which were placed inside epiphytic ferns, however at Bemanevika New Protected Area nests observed in 2007-2012 were constructed from sticks and placed in a tree fork 20-23 m above ground, with a clutch size of two (Peregrine Fund 1997, L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. In one studied nest at Masoala the clutch size was one, incubation 40+ days, nestling period 62 days, and the young dispersed at 15 weeks of age. The species exhibits low productivity, producing one offspring every one or two years (R. Thorstrom and L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003398		population	eng	The population is estimated at 66-1,660 individuals (0.04-1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,660 km<sup>2</sup>), but is perhaps best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. Hawkins (<em>in litt.</em> 2003) suggests the total population is certainly not less than 250 individuals, and L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> (2012) suggests 250-650 individuals. Assuming a body mass of 800-1,200 g, data in Newton (1979) suggests a breeding density of c. 0.04-1 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, however the body mass has since been estimated to average 700 g for males and 800 g for females (L.-A. Rene de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2012).
106003398		threats	eng	Its forest habitat is being reduced by extensive clearance for subsistence slash-and-burn agriculture and also commercial logging activities. Other threats include uncontrolled bush fires and poor mining practices. The species dependence on pristine lowland forest makes it particularly susceptible to disturbance. Human persecution may also be a problem in some areas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Thorstrom and Watson 1997)<strong></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest; remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest, especially at the lower altitudes preferred by this species, will disappear within decades (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong></strong>. It is possible that numbers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Uroplatus </span>geckos, a key prey species, are being reduced by capture for the exotic pet trade, but this has not been confirmed (Eames 2010).<br/><p></p>
106003399		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 93,000-140,000 breeding pairs, equating to 279,000-420,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 0.5-2 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106003400		distribution	eng	This species is resident in wetlands from South Africa north to Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan. The extensive Okavango marshes (Botswana) are probably its stronghold (Harrison et al. 1997a).
106003400		habitat	eng	The species breeds in wetlands, foraging primarily over reeds and lake margins (Harrison et al. 1997a). Its diet consists largely of small mammals, particularly striped mouse Rhabdomys pumilio (Kemp and Dean 1988).
106003400		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be still well represented at some wetland sites in both eastern and southern Africa, especially in Uganda, Botswana and Zambia (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001). In South Africa, c.3,000-6,000 pairs remain, but populations are declining here (Barnes 2000), as is the case in some other parts of its peripheral range (Brown et al. 1982, Ginn et al. 1989). However, in some huge countries such as Zambia suitable habitat is extensive and the species is still locally common (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett in litt. 2000).
106003400		threats	eng	Drainage, burning and grazing of wetlands have probably led to general declines, although these have been partly mitigated by adaptation to new wetlands created by dams (Ginn et al. 1989) and sewage-works (Barnes 2000). The Okavango marshes are threatened by water abstraction (R. Simmons in litt. 1999), and there has been massive drainage of wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal (Begg 1986). Accumulation of chemical pollutants in eggs may be responsible for poor hatching success, although it does not appear to have an effect on adult reproductive output (de Kock and Simmons 1988, R. Simmons in litt. 1999).
106003401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare in Russia and uncommon in northern Japan (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Additional national population estimates include: c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, 50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003402		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003403		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including five National Parks, one Strict Reserve, one Special Reserve, one Classified Forest and one Hunting Reserve (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. However, the protection of the marshes and grasslands that are vital for the species is relatively neglected compared with the protection of forest in Madagascar (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004,<em></em> 2009)<strong></strong>. The species is the subject of research into its population (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009, L.- A. René de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Anon. 2007)<strong></strong> and breeding biology (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys to confirm the total population size. Study the species's population dynamics (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Obtain more accurate estimates of nesting success, and investigate relative importance of different mortality factors at nest. Reduce burning at key sites, particularly during the breeding season when fires destroy nests. Identify and establish protected areas to conserve key nesting sites. Improve protection of marshes and grasslands (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Raise awareness amongst local communities about the impacts of fire (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Study the species's ecology on Comoros<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003403		distribution	eng	<em>Circus macrosceles</em> is confined to the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> and <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It has not been seen recently on Mayotte (to France) (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. The species has a broad distribution stretching c.1,000 km from north to south on Madagascar, but occurs at very low densities; surveys in 2005-2006 of 71 % of the potential harrier habitat on the island recorded a total of 80 individuals (René de Roland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009). The population on Comoros (Grande Comore, Moheli and Anjouan:  three separate subpopulations), where its habitat is nearly totally  destroyed, is estimated at no more than 50 mature individuals (R.  Thorstrom and L.-A. René de Roland<em> in litt</em>. 2007). The total population is estimated to be somewhere in the range 250-500 mature individuals. The Bealanana and Ankozobe regions in Madagascar are particularly important for the species (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. It is suspected to be declining, but population trends have not yet been accurately quantified.<p></p>
106003403		habitat	eng	In Madagascar, it is primarily associated with wetlands, hunting around the periphery of vegetation-fringed lakes, marshes, coastal wetlands and rice-paddies, as well as over savanna grasslands (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>, including those that are very degraded<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On the Comoros, it uses a variety of open and forested habitats in drier areas. It feeds on small vertebrates (including birds) and insects (Langrand 1990, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. It nests in low vegetation or on the ground in marshes (Morris and Hawkins 1998, René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004, 2009)<strong></strong>. Breeding has been recorded as starting in late August and September, during the middle of the dry season (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The incubation period has been observed to be 32-34 days, and nestlings fledge at 42-45 days of age at the start of the rainy season. The species reproduces at a relatively low rate, with mean clutch size recorded as 2.9 eggs, average productivity recorded as 0.9 young fledged per breeding attempt, and three quarters of nests being successful. The diet is comprised of insects, snakes, birds, lizards, rodents and domestic chickens (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106003403		population	eng	Surveys in 2005-2006 of 71% of the potential harrier habitat in Madagascar recorded a total of 80 individuals. The population on Comoros (three separate subpopulations on Grande Comore, Moheli and Anjouan), where its habitat is nearly totally destroyed, is estimated at no more than 50 mature individuals (R. Thorstrom and L.-A. René de Roland<em> in litt.</em> 2007). The total population is here estimated to be somewhere in the range 270-500 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 400-750 individuals in total, but this estimate may need to be revised downwards.
106003403		threats	eng	In Madagascar, this species is likely to have very poor nesting success owing to the regular and comprehensive burning of grasslands and marshes<strong></strong>, especially in the central high-plateau region (to produce fresh grazing areas and to clear land)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004<strong></strong>, <strong></strong>2009, Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>, and due to egg-hunting and nest-destruction by local people (ZICOMA 1999, A. F. A. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Most savannah fires occur from August to November, thus coinciding with the species's breeding season (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. For example, in October 2005, all seven nests at Ambohitantely were destroyed by fire during the incubation period, resulting in the loss of all eggs (L-. A. René de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2006, René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009.)<strong></strong>. Conversion of wetlands for rice farming is also likely to have a negative impact upon the species (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004, 2009, L.-A. René de Roland <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Over 80% of marshland in Madagascar has been converted into rice fields (R. Thorstrom and L.-A. René de Roland <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, mainly in areas of dense human inhabitation (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Nestlings are often taken by people for food, and interviews with local communities have revealed that adults are also hunted for food (Anon. 2007, René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. The species is also persecuted because of its threat to poultry, however, in one study of breeding birds, domestic chickens accounted for only 1% of prey items (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The disturbance of marshes appears to limit the number of breeding pairs present, and human activities during the cultivation period may force the movement of birds. The species requires undisturbed areas with unaltered savannah, however land-use activities have rendered it absent from many areas of Madagascar (René de Roland <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003406		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. There are fewer than 100 individuals in protected areas (Siegfried 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The resident Namibian population occurs within the Skeleton Coast Park and is protected from fires and grazing (Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Closely monitor the population, including those in the north-western rivers of Namibia (Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the possible occurrence of breeding in the northern Namibian population (likely in October-November) (Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the causes of population fluctuations (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out research into its foraging ecology and the availability of rodent prey around habitat fragments (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Provide incentives to landowners to manage fynbos, renosterveld and grasslands beneficially (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Instigate education programmes to raise awareness of the value of this species. Study direct interactions and potential competition between the species and African Marsh Harrier <em>C. ranivorus</em> where they occur in sympatry (Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote the species as an icon of Cape conservation needs (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003406		distribution	eng	<em>Circus maurus</em> is restricted to southern Africa, where it is concentrated in the Western Cape (its core range)<strong></strong>, and occurs in the Eastern Cape, the Northern Cape and Free State (where it is irruptive in both areas)<strong></strong>, in <strong>South Africa</strong> (R.E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 2004), and is also found in <strong>Lesotho </strong>(non-breeding birds) (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, with a tiny isolated population in northern <strong>Namibia</strong> (less than 50 birds including about five pairs [Simmons 2005]<strong></strong>). It is considered a vagrant in Botswana and Swaziland, where non-breeding birds occasionally occur (Hancock 2008). An unknown proportion migrates between South Africa and Namibia (Simmons 2005)<strong></strong>. It is widespread and can be locally common within its breeding range (Thiollay 1994)<strong></strong>, with high concentrations of breeding pairs (up to 10 pairs/0.7 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong></strong> at suitable sites (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004), such as West Coast National Park in South Africa (Thiollay 1994, Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. The total population is estimated at 1,000-1,500 individuals (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, although the number of mature individuals is likely to be less than 1,000. Although there has been some debate on its status and trends, with breeding birds now known to irrupt into grasslands in some areas (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004, R.E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, populations have probably been stable overall and its range has not changed markedly during the 20th century. Recently, the population is thought to have experienced a slight decline due to the loss of some patches of renosterveld vegetation in Overberg (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Future declines may occur in reaction to a predicted decrease in rainfall in the western parts of its range (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003406		habitat	eng	It is a cool, dry-country species, frequenting coastal and montane fynbos<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004,  (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, highland grasslands, Karoo subdesert scrub, open plains with low shrubs and croplands. It often breeds close to coastal and upland marshes with tall shrubs or reeds, occurring in dry steppe and grassland areas further north in the non-breeding season (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Thiollay 1994, R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In the western cape of South Africa it is most abundant in coastal and montane fynbos<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, whilst in Namibia it favours coastal river floodplains<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(S. Braine and J. Paterson <em>per</em> Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers open ground with low vegetation for hunting, where it feeds on a diet comprising mainly of small mammals, especially <em>Otomys </em>and <em>Rhabdomys</em> species  (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Whilst mammals make up the vast majority of prey taken at coastal sites, with reptiles and birds also taken, birds make up a slightly greater proportion than mammals in the diet of pairs nesting in montane habitats (Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Local fluctuations in breeding numbers may be related to population cycles in its prey base (Thiollay 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, such as mice whose numbers fluctuate with rainfall, especially in the more arid regions (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Damp sites, near vleis, marshes or streams, are preferred for breeding (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while south-facing slopes are preferred in montane areas (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are built on the ground and usually hold three to five eggs (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004, R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In south-western South Africa, egg-laying takes place in June-November, with peaks in July and September (Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003406		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 1,000-1,500 individuals (R.E. Simmons<I> in litt.</I> 2007); however, it is thought that the number of mature individuals does not exceed 1,000, thus the range 250-999 mature individuals is retained for the population estimate.
106003406		threats	eng	The species has conceivably lost 50% of its preferred breeding habitat over the last century (Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and present rates in the Overberg may be over 1% per annum (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat is primarily lost to agriculture, and this is compounded by the uncontrolled burning of fynbos and grassland, which renders these habitats unsuitable for breeding for about five years (R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Alien vegetation and urbanisation are also cited as causes of habitat loss (Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In south-western South Africa, it is thought that breeding birds have been displaced from prime lowland habitats (renosterveld and fynbos) by the spread of cereal agriculture, with breeding pairs presently occupying only coastal areas, with high productivity, and montane habitats, where breeding success is low and levels of nest predation are high (Curtis <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rodent populations in areas of wheat cultivation may be as low as 33% of those found in renosterveld vegetation (R.E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and remnant patches of renosterveld, which continue to be degraded R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, hold lower numbers of rodents than coastal strandveld vegetation (R.E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Low hatching rates, possibly as a result of high pesticide residues, is an increasing threat now that many remaining breeding habitats are surrounded by agricultural areas R.E. Simmons, O. Curtis and A. Jenkins <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ingestion of herbicides and pesticides may account for the death of some adults in South Africa (Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while road deaths adjacent to west coast breeding grounds numbered six birds over one breeding season in 2007 (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Drainage, impoundment and inappropriate management of vleis, marshes or streams near breeding grounds could prove detrimental. Climate change in South Africa is predicted to cause a decrease in overall winter rainfall in the core breeding areas, which is likely to lead to a reduction in mouse populations and disruption to breeding (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The same threats may apply to the species in Namibia, and the favoured habitats of the migrant population may be overgrazed, particularly in southern Namibia (Simmons 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Overgrazing in southern Namibia is attributed mainly to resident pastoralists and 'emergency grazing' by farmers from elsewhere, which is offered during years of good rainfall (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003407		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,300,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering   individuals in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003409		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is listed in Appendix II of CITES, Annex II of the Bonn and Bern Conventions and in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is also listed in the Red Data Books of Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and Turkey (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003; Kiliç and Eken 2004)<strong></strong>. It occurs in five state nature reserves in Russia and in Naurzum and Korgaljin Nature Reserves in Kazakhstan (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. An International Action Plan for the species was produced in 2003 (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Encourage conservation of wetlands and ponds in typical steppe grassland and semi-desert. Support moderate grazing and conservation of grasslands. Develop survey methodology (including GIS) and carry out surveys, primarily in the core breeding range and, secondarily, to establish its northern and southern range limits as well as to search for new nesting places outside core breeding grounds. Carry out research into diet and foraging range size, and their role in the movement of populations. Lobby for enactment and enforcement of legislation banning the use of harmful pesticides in the winter range, and in the recovering agricultural economy in the breeding range. Survey grassland and thorn-forest areas in African and Indian winter range for significant roosting concentrations, including tracking birds by means of satellite telemetry as soon as feasible. Review roost site and catchment area management at winter roosts, most urgently in areas where agriculture is changing due to new irrigation schemes, and pursue any necessary conservation action. Carry out research into pesticide residues in corpses, and pesticide use in winter roost catchment areas. Encourage full legal protection and education in countries on migration routes and in the winter range (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003409		distribution	eng	<em>Circus macrourus</em> breeds primarily in the steppes of Asiatic <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and north-west <strong>China</strong>. Small populations breed in <strong>Azerbaijan, Romania, Turkey </strong>and<strong> Ukraine</strong>. A minority winter in south-east and central Europe, north Africa and the Middle East but most migrate to the Afrotropics (<strong>Sudan, South Sudan</strong>, <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Djibouti</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Somalia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Guinea-Bissau, Liberia</strong>, <strong>Ivory Coast</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso,</strong> <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Angola</strong>, <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Swaziland</strong> and <strong>South Africa</strong>) and the Indian subcontinent (<strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>) (Thiollay 1994). There are also records from the <strong>Maldives</strong>. In 2007, six pairs bred in the Moscow region for the very first time<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Vintchevski<em> in litt</em>. 2007). The global population is estimated at 9,000-15,000 pairs (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and has shown marked declines and range contractions. The status of the European population (310-1,200 pairs in Azerbaijan, Romania, Turkey, Ukraine and western Russia, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) was recently reassessed (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003; BirdLife International 2004a)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Following a large decline in Europe during 1970-1990 (Tucker and Heath 1994), when up to 30% of birds were lost (particularly from the key population in European Russia), the species continued to decline in 1990-2000, and overall trends exceeded 30% over three generations (18 years) (BirdLife International 2004a). It appears that the species has been extirpated from Moldova and Belarus, where it bred formerly (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>BirdLife International 2004a)<strong></strong>. In Asia, however, the population is presumed to be more stable. Surveys in the Kustanay Oblast region (northern Kazakhstan) from 1997 to 2004 indicate a fluctuating but ostensibly stable population of 1,500-2,000 pairs, nesting at a density of 9.4-25 pairs per 100 km<sup>2 </sup>(Bragin 1999; E. Bragin <em>in litt. </em>2005)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. No other detailed surveys are known from the species's Asiatic range, although anecdotal evidence from southern Kazakhstan (Almaty to Chockpack Bird Station) suggests that it is locally abundant<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Corso <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Assessment of the status of this species is complicated by the fact that on breeding territories numbers fluctuate in response to environmental conditions, probably numbers of small mammals. Thus, high or low numbers in any given year or two-year period may be indicative of change in demographics or they may be indicative of change in local environment (and birds may go elsewhere without their population size changing) (T. Katzner <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Reliable records from migration routes and wintering grounds are also difficult to obtain owing to the rarity of the species, its broad-front migration strategy, and difficulties in field identification, although important concentrations of birds have been identified in parts of India and Africa (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106003409		habitat	eng	It breeds in semi-desert, steppe and forest-steppe up to 2,000 m, where its favoured nesting sites are wet grasslands close to small rivers and lakes, and marshlands (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003; Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  The species has also been found to breed in agricultural areas, at least when agriculture is non-intensive<span style=""> (Terraube </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009). </span>A small minority of the population breeds in the boreal forest and forest-tundra zones, north of its main breeding range (Kuznetsov 1994; Morozov<em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, where it nests in clearings and other open areas (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Semi-desert, scrub, savanna and wetlands are used in winter (J. Brouwer <em>in litt.</em>)<strong>.</strong>  <p></p>
106003409		population	eng	The global population is estimated at 9,000-15,000 pairs.
106003409		threats	eng	In its breeding range it is primarily threatened by the destruction and degradation of steppe grasslands through conversion to arable agriculture, burning of vegetation, intensive grazing of wet pastures and the clearance of shrubs and tall weeds (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003; E. Bragin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Fires are started by farmers, arsonists and dry thunderstorms<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(E. Bragin <em>in litt</em>. 2007). On its wintering grounds it is thought to be negatively affected by the use of harmful pesticides, rodenticides and other toxic chemicals (R. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, although this requires further research, and by the loss of grassland due to burning, cutting and overgrazing (Galushin <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003410		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003413		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003419		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106003419		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Accipiter poliogaster</span> ranges over much of South America, and has recently been recorded in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> for the first time (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). In northern South America, it is rare but widespread in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>.  In north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>it is very rare (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) . From here its range spreads southwards through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>. The species's distribution reaches northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span>, although there have been no recent records from the north-east (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
106003419		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest species, occurring in lowlands up to 500 m. It is also found in patches of riparian forest and other dense woodland. As a large bird it is thought to take sizeable prey, likely other birds (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
106003419		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals.
106003419		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). Its patchy distribution also makes it susceptible to fragmentation and disturbance, and it may be hunted. However, it has been observed foraging in degraded habitat and clearly has at least some tolerance to deforestation (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). <br/></p>
106003420		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest African accipiter (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
106003424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in larger tracts of forest (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003426		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected under Indian Wildlife legislation. No targeted conservation measures are known to have been implemented. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate its ecological requirements. Conduct detailed surveys of the archipelago to determine the true status of this species. Develop a community-governed protected area on Katchall (K. Sivakumar<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).   <p></p>
106003426		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter butleri</em><strong> </strong>is endemic to the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>, where it is only known with certainty from Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Pilo Milo, Kamorta, Teressa, Bompoka, Tillanchong, Katchall and Nancowry islands (Sankaran 1995, BirdLife International 2001, A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). As many islands in the archipelago are poorly studied, it is possible that it is more widely distributed. It is evidently very scarce: during three years of surveys, R. Sankaran sighted 20-25 individuals of this species in its entire known range, and no sightings of this species were obtained in the coastal habitats of the Nicobar Islands during fieldwork in 2006 (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), whilst fieldwork from March 2009 to August 2011 produced only two sightings of single birds on Nancowry Island (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The impact of the 2004 tsunami on this species has not been studied (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106003426		habitat	eng	This species is apparently restricted to forested habitats. There is very little information available about its breeding and feeding ecology. Lizards and insects have been recorded as food items.   <p></p>
106003426		population	eng	Its status and population size are very poorly known, owing to its apparent scarcity, the species's restricted range and identification difficulties. Its total population may include c.2,500-5,000 mature individuals (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). This equates to c.3,700-7,500 individuals, assuming that mature individuals account for around 2/3 of the total population.
106003426		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species appears to be habitat loss and degradation, and this has accelerated since the arrival of migrants from mainland India in the late 1960s. Clearance for agriculture and development have increased and have exacerbated soil erosion problems. The impacts of the tsunami in 2004, which destroyed significant areas of habitat across the islands, have not been investigated for this species, and it may have had secondary consequences such as increased agricultural encroachment (K. Sivakumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106003427		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003428		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003429		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003431		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003433		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003434		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003435		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003436		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure the protection of tracts of primary forest. Monitor populations in primary and degraded forest to ellucidate trends. Compare nesting success  in primary and degraded forest. Run a public education campaign to discourage the killing of native raptors.  <p></p>
106003436		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter haplochrous</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> where it is fairly common throughout. It is distributed from the far north (Manjelia) to the far south at Goro. Its area of occurrence is therefore c.12,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which if each pair requires 3-5 km<sup>2</sup>, equates to a population of c.2,400-4,000 pairs<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007).     <p></p>
106003436		habitat	eng	It appears to be widespread in humid forest but occurs at lower densities in degraded forest and savannah where it coexists with Brown Goshawk <em>A. fasciatus</em>. It is not shy and often found close to human habitation (V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003436		population	eng	The global population numbers c.2,400-4,000 pairs (V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007), best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106003436		threats	eng	Despite legal protection, a few are killed around inhabitated areas, as it sometimes kills domestic chickens, and habitat loss and degradation are further threats (Vuilleumier and Gochfield 1976, Stokes 1980, Thiollay 1993, <strong></strong>Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000). However, it is assumed that it is not undergoing any significant continuing decline.  <p></p>
106003437		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003438		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known to have been taken.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine best survey techniques. Survey to assess population size by investigating: its status in logged forest; its altitudinal range; and its abundance at different elevations. Search for presence in northern New Ireland. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Map remaining forest, logging concessions, oil palm plantations and proposed expansion areas, and current and proposed mining operations across New Britain and New Ireland. Research identification through examination of museum specimens. Build conservation capacity within the region as a precursor to properly assessing the measures needed to safeguard forest. These may include: promoting uptake of environmental certification schemes for products sold in overseas markets; working with extractive industries to reduce and offset the impacts of forest exploitation; community-based forest management; developing national capacity to effectively engage in international conventions and meet obligations, particularly under the Convention on Biological Diversity; engage in forest protection measures under the REDD+ initiative.<p></p>
106003438		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter luteoschistaceus</em> is endemic to New Britain and Umboi with unconfirmed records from New Ireland (probably referring to New Britain Sparrowhawk <em>A. brachyurus </em>[Dutson 2011]) in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> (Finch and McKean 1987, Debus 1992, Hornbuckle 1999a,<strong></strong> T. Palliser <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It is only known from c.11 specimens and a handful of recent records, but it is likely to have been overlooked as it appears to be unobtrusive and can be difficult to identify due to confusion with Brown Goshawk <em>A. fasciatus</em> (Diamond 1976, <strong></strong>Coates 1985, <strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Clay 1994, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003438		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from a number of forest habitats including open forest and cocoa plantations, but is presumed to be a species of tall forest (Clay 1994, I. Burrows verbally 1999). It is greatly outnumbered by Grey Goshawk <em>A. novaehollandiae</em> in all degraded and artificial habitats. Records range to 700 m where it is probably replaced by Brown Goshawk <em>A. fasciatus</em> (Dutson 2011). The only documented food items come from a specimen with a 15 cm lizard in its stomach (Gilliard and Lecroy 1967)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003438		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003438		threats	eng	<p>Although its habitat requirements are poorly known, this lowland species is probably dependent on primary forest where <a style="mso-comment-reference:JB_1; mso-comment-date:20120403T1404">Brown Goshawk <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fasciatus</span> is absent</a>. Populations are probably threatened by the extensive logging of lowland and hill forests throughout its range. New Britain alone accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (<a style="mso-comment-reference:JB_2;mso-comment-date:20120403T1434">Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008</a>). Lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades in both New Britain and New Ireland<a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_3" href="#_msocom_3" name="_msoanchor_3"></a>. Mining may be a threat to the species's habitat in the future, as  forests in the Bismarck Islands are jeopardised by mining interests,  with two exploration licences granted in Central and East New Britain in  2012, covering 1,696 Km<sup>2</sup> (Frontier Resources Limited 2011). Although mining is unlikely to affect large areas of forest in the short-term, unlike logging and oil palm operations which are generally restricted to lowland areas mining can affect montane forest areas and could threaten key upland forest refugia in the medium to long-term future. On that island nearly 20% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 15 years and this trend is ongoing (Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Although to date exploitation and degradation of montane forests has been limited, and despite relatively limited survey effort in the region, this remains a notably rare species.</p><p></p>
106003439		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known to have been taken.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue searches on Choiseul and, when accessible, Bougainville. Survey population size and trends at Tirotonga. Research basic ecological requirements and interactions with <em>A. albogularis</em> at Tirotonga. Lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging, especially on Choiseul. Discuss possibilities of large-scale, community-based conservation areas on all three islands. <p></p>
106003439		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter imitator</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and Choiseul and Santa Isabel, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is rare but may be overlooked because of its unobtrusive forest habits, and it perhaps lacks a distinctive call. It is known from just one specimen from Bougainville and a handful from both Choiseul and Isabel (Schodde 1977)<strong></strong>. During many weeks of fieldwork on all three islands in the 1980s and 1990s, it was seen only once on Bougainville (Hadden 1981)<strong></strong> and there was a series of records from Tirotonga village on Isabel. One specimen was also taken there, but some of the other field records and local reports, including those of all-black individuals, have been queried (Webb 1992, 1995, Debus 1995). A recent visit to the island led Hadden (2008) to suspect that the species may be reasonably common in the forest interior throughout Bourgainville, due to the mist-net capture of two individuals despite very few net hours. This species's similarity to the polymorphic sympatric <em>A. albogularis</em> has led to a number of uncertain records, including birds on the distant island of Makira<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Population numbers and trends are difficult to assess from so few recent records, but the species is clearly rare and appears to have declined, on Choiseul at least (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1994,&#160;D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998). <p></p>
106003439		habitat	eng	This species has been collected and sighted in lowland forest or forest edge to at least 400 m and, possibly, 1,000 m (Webb 1992, 1995, Debus 1995, Dutson 2011). One was seen feeding on a Chestnut-bellied Monarch <em>Monarcha castaneiventris</em> (Webb 1997). Its ecology is poorly known and its niche separation from <em>A. albogularis</em> is unknown, but its shorter wings and tail and longer legs suggest that it is better adapted to interior forest (Schodde 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003439		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003439		threats	eng	As a lowland species, it is likely to be threatened by forest loss and degradation, which has increased in intensity in recent years (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is extensive logging in the lowlands and hills of Choiseul and some on Isabel. Logging may become a problem on Bougainville when the island opens up to development. It possibly suffers from competition with <em>A. albogularis</em>, especially in degraded forest. <p></p>
106003440		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003441		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine best survey techniques. Survey to assess population size by investigating: its status in logged forest; its altitudinal range; and its abundance at different elevations. Search for presence in northern New Ireland. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Map remaining forest, logging concessions, oil palm plantations and proposed expansion areas, and current and proposed mining operations across New Britain and New Ireland. Research identification through examination of museum specimens. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss.<br/><br/>Build conservation capacity within the region as a precursor to properly assessing the measures needed to safeguard forest. These may include: promoting uptake of environmental certification schemes for products sold in overseas markets; working with extractive industries to reduce and offset the impacts of forest exploitation; community-based forest management; developing national capacity to effectively engage in international conventions and meet obligations, particularly under the Convention on Biological Diversity; engage in forest protection measures under the REDD+ initiative.<br/><p></p>
106003441		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter princeps</em> is endemic to the island of New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is known from four specimens and a handful of recent records (Diamond 1971, <strong></strong>Coates 1990,<strong></strong> Clay 1994, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996,<strong></strong> <strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs 1997-1998, Bishop and Jones 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the status of the species is difficult to assess, it is undoubtedly scarce and probably declining.  <p></p>
106003441		habitat	eng	Most of the recent records have come from hill and montane forest from 750 to 1,400 m, but it was recorded once at 200 m (Diamond 1971, <strong></strong>Coates 1990,<strong></strong> Clay 1994, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996,<strong></strong> <strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs 1997-1998, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong> and there are occasional records from lowland forest, including unconfirmed records down to sea-level (Dutson 2011). Single birds usually seen perched in subcanopy or flying rather slowly but powerfully through mid-mountain forest.<p></p>
106003441		population	eng	The species is known from four specimens and a handful of recent records and so the global population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003441		threats	eng	Whilst lowland forests are being extensively logged and cleared for conversion to oil palm on New Britain, there is little logging activity in the mountains and even though the population may prove to be small, it is likely to be declining only slowly. Mining may be a threat to the species's habitat in the future, as forests in the Bismarck Islands are jeopardised by mining interests, with two exploration licences granted in Central and East New Britain in 2012, covering 1,696 Km<sup>2</sup> (Frontier Resources Limited 2011). Although mining is unlikely to affect large areas of forest in the short-term, unlike logging and oil palm operations which are generally restricted to lowland areas mining can affect montane forest areas and could threaten key upland forest refugia in the medium to long-term future. Nevertheless, even though the population may prove to be small, it is likely to be declining only slowly.<br/><p></p>
106003442		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003443		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey and attempt to estimate global population. Extend protected areas network to include further core areas of remaining habitat. <p></p>
106003443		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter collaris</em> is known from a few localities on the west and east slopes of the Andes from south-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Mérida, Táchira), through <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Ecuador</strong>, with a recent range extension of 1,500 km to south <strong>Peru</strong> (Thiollay 1994). Although occasionally relatively abundant (Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1994, Thiollay 1994), it is usually rare and highly sensitive to human disturbance<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996).<em> <p></p></em>
106003443		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and forest edge, mostly subtropical and moist or wet, at 1,700-1,950 m in Peru (C. Bushell <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and at 600-1,800 m in Colombia (Hilty and Brown 1986, Thiollay 1994).  <p></p>
106003443		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106003443		threats	eng	Forest in many parts of its range has suffered major losses, primarily due to agricultural expansion. <p></p>
106003445		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003446		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003447		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106003448		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Research its tolerance of logged forest. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
106003448		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter nanus</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (uncommon to rare) and Buton (rare), <strong>Indonesia.  </strong>It has been recorded from very few localities, although its similarity to the Vinous-breasted Sparrowhawk <em>A. rhodogaster </em>has possibly resulted in it being under-recorded.<em> </em><p></p>
106003448		habitat	eng	It inhabits mountain and hill forest at 550-2,250 m (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).   <p></p>
106003448		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992).
106003448		threats	eng	Forest loss in the lower-lying areas of Sulawesi has been extensive in recent decades and has probably caused this species to decline.  <p></p>
106003449		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003450		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003451		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known to have been taken.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine best survey techniques. Survey to assess population size by investigating: its status in logged forest; its altitudinal range; and its abundance at different elevations. Search for presence in northern New Ireland. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Map remaining forest, logging concessions, oil palm plantations and proposed expansion areas, and current and proposed mining operations across New Britain and New Ireland.<p></p>
106003451		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter brachyurus</em> is endemic to New Britain and New Ireland in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are only a handful of historic or recent records on New Britain (Coates 1985, <strong></strong> K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1987,<strong></strong> I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, J. Diamond <em>in litt.</em>1999). It has recently been discovered on New Ireland where it was the commonest (although not very common) raptor in the montane fore<span style="">sts (Beehler </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2001</span>)<strong></strong>. Its true distribution is clouded by identification problems with the other <em>Accipiter</em> species on New Britain, but it is clearly a localised species occurring at low population densities. <p></p>
106003451		habitat	eng	This is a very poorly-known forest species. Although there are some lowland records (Coates 1985, <strong></strong> K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1987,<strong></strong> I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> J. Diamond <em>in litt.</em>1999)<strong></strong>, most records are from montane forest to 1,800 m (<span style="">Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Dutson 2011), including records at 1,200-1,800 m on New Ireland (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 1997, Coates 1985, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, <span style="">Beehler and Alonso 2001, Dutson 2011). It may be excluded from </span>degraded forest habitats by the common <em>A. novaehollandiae</em> and it may be less common in the lowlands through competition with the similar <em>A. luteoschistaceus</em>.<br/><span style=""><br/><br/><br/><br/><p></p></span>
106003451		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003451		threats	eng	<p>Populations are threatened by the extensive logging of lowland and hill forests throughout its range. New Britain alone accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports (<a style="mso-comment-reference:JB_1;mso-comment-date:20120403T1305">Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008</a>). Lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades in both New Britain and New Ireland<a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" href="#_msocom_2" name="_msoanchor_2"></a> (<span style="">Swartzendruber 1993, Stattersfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998, Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008). Forests in the Bismarck Islands are also jeopardised by mining interests wit</span>h new mining operations due to begin in New  Ireland in 2012. Although mining is unlikely to affect large areas of forest in the short-term, unlike logging and oil palm operations which are generally restricted to lowland areas, mining can affect montane forest areas and could threaten key upland forest refugia in the medium to long-term future. On that island nearly 20% of habitat suitable for this species has been cleared in the last 15 years and this trend is ongoing (Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Although to date exploitation and degradation of montane forests has been limited, and despite relatively limited survey effort in the region, this remains a notably rare species.</p><p></p>
106003452		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003453		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish estimates of its population size and range. Study the species's ecology. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation across its range. Secure habitat through protected area status.    <p></p>
106003453		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter madagascariensis</em> is found uncommonly in primary forest throughout <strong>Madagascar </strong>(Langrand 1990)<sup></sup>. The species is little-known, widely misidentified, and dependent on habitat that is declining in many parts of Madagascar (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003453		habitat	eng	It occurs in rainforest in the east, deciduous forest in the west and also spiny forest in the south-west, at altitudes of up to 1,500 m (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is only rarely recorded in degraded areas (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds largely on small birds, as well as frogs, toads and reptiles (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Egg-laying takes place in November, with a clutch of three eggs observed (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is constructed from sticks, situated high in a forest tree<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003453		population	eng	The population is estimated at 10,000-100,000 individuals.
106003453		threats	eng	Primary forest habitats in Madagascar are already seriously damaged, and habitat degradation is ongoing (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003454		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003455		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,500,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003462		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Populations occur within the Sierra Maestra and Sierra del Cristal national parks. Environmental education has grown in Cuba in recent years (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Pinar del Río province and the Zapata swamp, and re-survey areas in eastern Cuba to determine current populations and assess trends<strong></strong>. Further define the species's ecological requirements<strong></strong>. Conduct education and public awareness campaigns to highlight the plight of the bird and discourage human persecution (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106003462		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter gundlachi</em> has never been common, but formerly occurred throughout <strong>Cuba</strong>. It is now very rare and local, with five main population centres known to remain. The total population was estimated at 150-200 pairs in 1994. There are three centres for the nominate race in west and central Cuba, but two of these held only three and 20 pairs respectively in 1994. There are two further areas important for the race <em>wileyi</em> in the east of the island, where the bulk of the population resides. Sightings around Pico Turquino are scarce, but a bird was seen on the north slopes of the Sierra Maestra in early 1999 (Rompré <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003462		habitat	eng	It is found up to 800 m in a variety of wooded habitats including humid, dry and pine forests (Bierregaard 1994a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It preys mostly on birds, including poultry. The breeding season is February-May, with young fledging by June (Bierregaard 1994a, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The nest is generally placed close to the trunk of a high tree, but below the canopy. <p></p>
106003462		population	eng	The population is estimated to number c.400 individuals, equivalent to c.270 mature individuals.
106003462		threats	eng	Habitat loss and disturbance as a result of logging and agricultural conversion, and human persecution (because it preys on poultry) have been the chief causes of its&#160; decline (A. Kirkconnell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106003463		population	eng	Partners in Flight   estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in   litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.   Previously, Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated 100,000 individuals.
106003465		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish an up-to-date estimate of its population and range. Study the species's ecology. Monitor rates of deforestation across its range. Secure habitat through protected area status. <p></p>
106003465		distribution	eng	<em>Accipiter henstii</em> is a forest raptor sparsely distributed throughout most of <strong>Madagascar</strong> but absent from the south-west<span style="font-weight: bold;"> (</span>Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is rare throughout its range <span style="font-weight: bold;">(</span>Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but appears to be present in almost all adequately large forest blocks that have been surveyed (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003465		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary forest, both dry deciduous and humid evergreen, and in some secondary woodlands and large <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, not always near primary forest, up to 1,800 m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It hunts below the canopy for birds and small mammals, probably including some lemurs (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Egg-laying takes place in October-November, and the nest is large and constructed from sticks in the main fork of large trees, including those in <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003465		population	eng	The population is estimated at 1,000-3,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-2,000 mature individuals.
106003465		threats	eng	The species is considered vulnerable to deforestation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003466		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.500,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and possibly   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003467		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003468		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in potentially suitable mountain forest in New Guinea. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106003468		distribution	eng	<em>Erythrotriorchis buergersi</em> is a rare and little-known species, endemic to New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is known only from a handful of records, none in the last ten years, all from eastern New Guinea except for a single record from the Foya Mountains in Papua (Pratt 1982, Coates 1985,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Diamond 1985, <strong></strong>Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986,&#160;K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1999, P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1999). Although it is likely to be overlooked, it does soar (Diamond 1985, <strong></strong>I. Burrows <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong></strong> and appears to occur at very low population densities.<em> <p></p></em>
106003468		habitat	eng	Hill and lower mountain forest, probably generally lower than <em>Accipiter meyerianus</em>, at 450-1,580 m. <p></p>
106003468		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
106003468		threats	eng	Most of its habitat is unsuitable for logging and it is unlikely to be hunted (B. Finch <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, however its status cannot be assessed from the present few records. <p></p>
106003469		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Some survey work has been carried out in various parts of the species's range.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>From Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2011). Study demography, especially adult survivorship. Monitor known nesting localities. Investigate the impact of habitat fragmentation on nesting pairs. Protect habitat through purchase or voluntary conservation agreements. &#160;Encourage landholders to protect and manage Red Goshawk&#160;</span>territories. &#160;Promote information used to identify and protect nesting habitat. Produce habitat descriptions and maps for management purposes. &#160;Produce educational materials that promote the recovery process. Limit access to known nest sites.</span>  <p></p>
106003469		distribution	eng	<p><em>Erythrotriorchis radiatus</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. Historically, it ranged in northern and eastern Australia, north of c.33°S in the east, and 19°S in the west, but its range has contracted from south of 28°S in the east, and it is now virtually extinct in New South Wales. Recent surveys suggest breeding is continuous across northern Australia. The population was estimated at only 330 pairs in the early 1990s, but was estimated at 700 pairs in 2010, including 100 pairs on Tiwi Islands, probably a separate subpopulation, and 600 pairs elsewhere across northern Australia from the Kimberley through the Northern Territory and through Queensland to northern New South Wales (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). Gradual declines owing to loss of habitat may still be occurring, at least in eastern Queensland (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011).</p><p></p>
106003469		habitat	eng	<p>It lives in coastal and subcoastal, tall, open forests and woodlands, tropical savannas traversed by wooded or forested rivers and along the edges of rainforest. It builds stick nests in trees taller than 20&#160;m within 1&#160;km of a watercourse or wetland. It hunts in open forests and gallery forests, with a home range of up to 200 km<sup>2</sup>, taking mostly medium to large birds, but also snakes. In winter in eastern Australia, it appears to move from nest-sites in the ranges to coastal plains, where it often feeds on waterbirds taken from open wetlands.</p><p></p>
106003469		population	eng	<p>Because of its inconspicuousness, the population size is probably historically under-estimated. The total popula­tion was previously estimated at about 350 pairs, but is now estimated at about 700 pairs. This includes 100 pairs on Tiwi Islands, probably a separate subpopulation, and 600 pairs elsewhere across northern Australia from the Kimberley through the Northern Territory and through Queensland to northern New South Wales (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106003469		threats	eng	<p>Widespread clearance for agriculture probably caused the historical decline in north-eastern New South Wales and southern Queensland. Continuing clearance is affecting more northerly populations. Even if riparian strips are left uncleared, pairs usually nest in the tallest trees that are then exposed to storm damage and other disturbance. Clearing of forest for acacia plantations has rendered some territories on Melville Island unproductive (S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Egg-collecting may result in the failure of some nests as does the burning of nest trees or disruption of breeding by fire. Shooting by pigeon and poultry owners, and possibly pesticides, causes some mortality of individuals and may result in temporary local scarcity. Prey abun­dance may be reduced by loss or degradation of freshwa­ter wetlands, loss of hollow-bearing trees in which prey breed, over-grazing by livestock and feral herbivores, and changed fire regimes.</p><p></p>
106003470		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to estimate population size and determine tolerance of logged forest. Set aside and protect important areas of lowland forest.   <p></p>
106003470		distribution	eng	<em>Megatriorchis doriae</em> is a little-known New Guinea endemic (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, including neighbouring Batanta island, Indonesia (Bishop 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is rarely recorded, partly because of its unobtrusive habits, with for instance only one record in seven years of observation at Tabubil  (P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it appears to be widespread and not immediately threatened (J. Diamond <em>in litt. </em>1987, K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994), it may be suffering a moderately rapid population decline.   <p></p>
106003470		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, sometimes also found in mangrove and semi-deciduous forest; mainly sea-level to 1,100 m, although sometimes to 1,400 m (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare, although more common in Ghana and not uncommon in Sierra Leone (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
106003470		threats	eng	Its general tolerance of logging is poorly known but it has been seen repeatedly in logged forest near Port Moresby (P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003472		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and locally abundant in some areas (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001).
106003474		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003475		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, &gt; c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003476		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003477		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey and attempt to estimate global population. Extend protected areas network to include further core areas of remaining habitat. <p></p>
106003477		distribution	eng	<em>Leucopternis plumbeus</em> is considered rare to uncommon in east <strong>Panama</strong>, west <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Bierregaard 1994a, Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1994, Clements and Shany 2001). There is a 1995 sighting from Santa Fe in Veraguas, but it has been extirpated from much of west Panama (Bierregaard 1994a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> G. Montañez <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. It is known from several scattered localities in Colombia, notably in Nariño (Hilty and Brown 1986, Bierregaard 1994a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Accelerating rates of deforestation are presumably impacting the species, but it is inconspicuous - in part owing to its 'sit-and-wait' predatory behaviour (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999) - so is probably under-recorded in remaining habitat.<em> <p></p></em>
106003477		habitat	eng	It largely inhabits the closed-canopy interior of lowland and foothill (up to 800 m) humid forests, but has been recorded in degraded forest (Bierregaard 1994a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106003477		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106003477		threats	eng	There has been widespread deforestation (primarily for agriculture) across most of its range. <p></p>
106003478		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003479		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003482		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in at least 14 protected areas, but the distances between them, and the low density of the species, means that they do not guarantee long-term security. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat, particularly in the Jequitinhonha valley, Minas Gerais, and central Bahia. Consolidate protected areas where it occurs. Maintain and create habitat corridors between forest fragments. Initiate awareness programmes to address hunting problems.<p></p>
106003482		distribution	eng	<em>Leucopternis lacernulatus</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Paraíba in 1949 (Pacheco and Whitney 1995), Alagoas, central<strong> </strong>(T.&#160;A. de Melo Júnior <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and south Bahia, east Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and extreme east Paraná and Santa Catarina). Although considered common around 1830, the paucity of recent records suggest that it is uncommon in isolated forest patches, with a small overall population.  <p></p>
106003482		habitat	eng	It appears largely confined to patches of primary lowland forest up to 900&#160;m (but to 2,890 m in Minas Gerais<strong></strong> [Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998]), where it occurs in the midstorey. In Minas Gerais, it has also been recorded in secondary habitats (capoeiras, <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations), but always close to areas of extensive, more pristine, forest cover<strong></strong> (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998). It appears to specialise in invertebrate prey, feeding on those disturbed by other animals (including <em>Eciton</em> army ants, a human with a lawn-mower, foraging birds and monkeys)<strong> </strong>(Martuscelli 1996). A recent study of prey revealed grasshoppers, stick insects and a gastropod <em>Megalobulimus paranaguensis</em><strong> </strong>(Martuscelli 1996). Stomach contents of three individuals also indicate a primarily invertebrate diet, including spiders and insects, although other prey, including birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals, have been reported.<p></p>
106003482		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003482		threats	eng	It is primarily at risk from habitat destruction, which is compounded by its low density and highly fragmented range. Unwarranted persecution as a predator of domestic animals remains a problem in São Paulo and Minas Gerais<strong></strong> (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998).<strong></strong><p></p>
106003483		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003484		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106003485		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In Ecuador, the species occurs in Machalilla National Park, Mache-Chindul, <span>Manglares Churute and <span>Arenillas </span>Ecological Reserves, <span>Pacoche Wildlife Reserve and the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve, as well as the Chongón-Colonche Protection Forest (which is the nucleus of a reforestation project) (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Six pairs may breed in the Buenaventura reserve (<span>R. S. Ridgely <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2012).&#160; It is also found in other small private reserves like Jorupe, Cantalapiedra, Loma Alta, La Ceiba, El Aromo, Lalo  Loor, Caimito and Silanche (<span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2012). Reforestation is under way in several private reserves such as Buenaventura, Canande, Jorupe and Lalo Loor (Vargas <em>in litt.</em> 2012). In Peru, it is found in Cerros de Amotape National Park, Tumbes National Reserve (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) and the Angostura-Faical Regional Conservation Area in Tumbes (R. Piana <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).     <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the species in each of the habitat fragments where it occurs (T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Map the forest patches of the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche to identify further sites for protection<strong> </strong>(E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Effectively protect habitat in &#160;Cerros de Amotape National Park, Tumbes National Reserve, Angostura-Faical Regional Conservation Area and Machalilla National Park (R. Piana <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Designate the Awá Reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Consolidate protection of the Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonization inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in its buffer zone (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Search for the species in forest remnants in coastal Nariño, Colombia (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007), and forested areas south of the Cerros de Amotape National Park towards the border with Ecuador (R. Piana <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)..   <p></p>
106003485		distribution	eng	<em>Leucopternis occidentalis</em> is confined to west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Manabí, Pichincha, Los Ríos, Azuay, El Oro, Guayas, Cañar and Loja) and adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes). Most records refer to one or two pairs per site and, if these fragmented outposts represent "stranded" birds rather than dispersive resilience, viable populations may survive at only a few sites. Notable amongst these are Machalilla National Park, Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve (K. Berg verbally 2002), the largely unprotected IBA Verde-Ónzole-Cayapas-Canandé (EC005 [Freile and Santander 2005b]) (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007), the Buenaventura reserve (<span>R. S. Ridgely <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2012), and surrounding areas in Piñas, Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco and Manta Real (Vargas 1995),</span> Ecuador, the northern portion of the Cerros de Amotape National Park, the Tumbes National Reserve (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) and the Angostura-Faical Regional Conservation Area in Tumbes, Peru (R. Piana <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), which is relatively secure owing to its remoteness (J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2000). At this moment, it is unclear if the newly discovered population in the humid lowlands to the far north of the Río Esmeraldas, was previously overlooked or represents a recent expansion the species's range (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Although it is possible that the species temporarily benefits from forest fragmentation in that area, deforestation rates in Esmeraldas are so high that almost total deforestation might occur within one or two decades (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106003485		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry deciduous and humid evergreen forests, but is more frequently recorded in the latter. This species can be found feeding in fairly degraded habitats in the environs of Machalilla National Park (J. F. Freile<em> in litt. </em>2000) and at forest edges in Esmeraldas (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)), Piñas and Manta Real (Vargas 1995), and the Tumbes National Reserve (Piana and Marsden in press 2012). It mostly occurs at elevations of 100-1,400 m, but occasionally as high as 2,900 m (Best and Kessler 1995). It feeds on lizards, snakes, crabs, rodents, small birds, earthworms, frogs and large insects (Vargas 1995). Breeding appears to take place year round&#160; and nests and eggs were described by Vargas (1995)&#160; Eight nests were&#160; located in Piñas and two in Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco, Ecuador (Vargas 1995).</span> <p></p>
106003485		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003485		threats	eng	There has been extensive habitat destruction and fragmentation throughout its range, with over 90% of west Ecuador now deforested. Clearance for timber and agriculture, and intense grazing pressure from goats and cattle in the forest understorey, have led to west Ecuador's forests becoming one of the world's most threatened ecosystems<strong> </strong>(Parker and Carr 1992). Even Machalilla National Park is affected by settlement, cutting, livestock-grazing and hunting. Human persecution is a major threat in south-western Ecuador (Vargas&#160; 1995). </span>In Esmeraldas, annual deforestation rates of lowland evergreen forest were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest &gt;38% in the last decade (Cárdenas 2007). Colonisation and land development are progressing through infrastructural improvement, particularly the expansion of road networks, and in turn are increasing the impact of logging, cattle-ranching, oil palm planting and hunting (Cárdenas 2007, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena V. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve is increasingly affected by illegal logging, hunting, and other activities (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  The Tumbes National Reserve and the Angosturas-Faical Regional Protected Area are subject to forest clearing for the establishment of cattle pasturelands and are affected by timber extraction and hunting (Piana and Marsden in press 2012).<p></p>
106003486		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In Brazil, the species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Serra do Itajaí National Park (NP), Araucárias NP, Sâo Joaquin NP and Sassafrás Biological Reserve (A. E. Rupp<em> in litt</em>. 2011). The species was the focus of a recent MSc thesis conducted at the Federal University of Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, and supported by The Peregrine Fund (M. Canuto <em>in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys and monitoring to obtain accurate population and trend estimates. Study threats. Study its ecology and ability to persist in altered and fragmented habitats. Extend protected area network to include remaining core areas of forest. Effectively protect existing protected areas. <p></p>
106003486		distribution	eng	<em>Leucopternis polionotus</em> is rare to locally fairly common in east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Alagoas to Rio Grande do Sul) (A. E. Rupp<em> in litt</em>. 2011), and rare in east <strong>Uruguay</strong> and south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (only three records, with the last in 1989, despite recent extensive fieldwork; now possibly extinct) (Bierregaard 1994,<strong></strong><strong></strong> Hayes 1995<strong></strong><strong>,</strong> Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996,<strong></strong><strong></strong> R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It is considered hypothetical in Misiones, Argentina<strong></strong> (Mazar Barnett and Pearman 2001). This species is considered less obviously threatened by deforestation than White-necked Hawk <em>L. lacernulata</em> (because of its more upland and extensive range), but it appears to occur at very low densities, and the overall population seems unlikely to exceed the uppermost hundreds<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).<p></p>
106003486		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland and mid-elevation humid forests, especially in foothills. It has also been recorded in secondary growth and, in Paraná plantations<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It is found at sea-level to at least 1,500 m (probably mainly above 500 m)<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106003486		population	eng	This species appears to exist at very low densities, prompting Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001) to infer that the total population is unlikely to exceed the uppermost hundreds; however, this seems very conservative given its extensive range. Pending further research, the population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003486		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitats <strong></strong> (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Brazil, observations suggest that the species has adapted to landscapes composed of pine plantations and native forest (A. E. Rupp<em> in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
106003487		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Buteogallus aequinoctialis</span> occurs from the Orinoco Delta, east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, along the north-east South American coast through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> to Paraná, south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). It is apparently frequent to common throughout its range, except for in Trinidad, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Trinidad and Tobago</span>, where it is uncommon and local (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
106003487		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangroves and other swampy areas, feeding on crabs (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
106003487		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin, and it is projected to lose well over 50% of its known habitat (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). However, it is quite tolerant of habitat degradation and occurs in suburban mangrove swamps in Pará, Brazil (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
106003490		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003493		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106003495		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey and attempt to estimate global population. Extend protected areas network to include further core areas of remaining habitat. <p></p>
106003495		distribution	eng	<em>Harpyhaliaetus solitarius</em> has a wide latitudinal distribution, from western <strong>Mexico</strong> to extreme north-west <strong>Argentina </strong>(with other populations in <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong>, <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong> and <strong>Bolivia</strong>). Despite its extensive distribution, it is generally rare and local<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001) and the population may not exceed 1,000 individuals<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001) although this estimate is probably too low.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003495		habitat	eng	It is a species of humid, densely wooded foothills and other tropical and subtropical premontane and humid montane forest, mostly between 600 and 2,200 m. <p></p>
106003495		population	eng	Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001) stated that the population was most unlikely to exceed three figures, however even though the species occurs at low densities it has an extremely large range and this estimate seems implausibly low. The population is  therefore preliminarily suspected to lie in the range 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106003495		threats	eng	Serious threats include deforestation, disturbance and shooting. <p></p>
106003496		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected in Argentina and Paraguay<strong> </strong>(H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007), and hunting is prohibited in Brazil and Paraguay. There are few records from protected areas, but it has been found in more than a dozen protected areas in Argentina (R. Pereyra <em>in litt. </em>2012), and small populations probably exist in Chapada dos Veadeiros<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995), Emas, Brasília, Serra da Canastra<strong> </strong>(Silveira 1998) and Chapada dos Guimarães<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>1999) National Parks, Brazil, and Beni Biological Station, Bolivia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to identify key populations, especially in the large Brazilian national parks. Study ecological constraints, breeding success and migration/dispersal patterns, possibly using satellite tracking. Enforce legal protection of the species. Organise awareness campaigns to limit hunting near key populations. Organise educational campaigns in areas where persecution is a threat (such as Central Argentina). Promote establishment of ecological corridors in southern Brazil to reduce effects of fragmentation. Establish protected areas in the dry Chaco (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2012).  Assess of other causes of mortality such as poisoning, electrocution with powerlines (J. H. Sarasola <em>in litt.</em> 2012) and drowning.<p></p>
106003496		distribution	eng	<em>Harpyhaliaetus coronatus</em> has a very large range in <strong>Brazil</strong> (from Maranhão and Bahia west to Mato Grosso and south to Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni and Santa Cruz), Uruguay (no records since before 1933 and presumably extirpated), <strong>Paraguay</strong> (has been recorded throughout), and <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy to south Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and La Pampa with an accidental record in Neuquén<strong> </strong>[Giai 1952, Gonnet and Blendinger 1998, Delhey and Carrete 1999], and an 1879 record from Chubut [R. Pereyra <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]). Trends are difficult to detect in low density populations but, given the severity of threats, it seems likely that a significant loss of numbers is occurring. In Paraguay it appears to be most numerous in the Cerrado of Concepción department; it also continues to be recorded in humid Chaco habitat with a new record in Ñeembucú department and there are records,&#160; including juvenile birds, from sites in dry Chaco (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><p></p>
106003496		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland areas of semi-open seasonal dry country (palm-savanna, sparse woodland, steppes with bushes), chaco and campo cerrado (from campo limpo to cerrado <em>sensu stricto</em>). It sometimes occurs in moderate altitude hill-ranges in south-east Brazil and Argentina and has also been reported in caatinga, gallery forest, marsh and buriti groves. In Paraguay there are a number of recent records from extensive cattle ranches<strong> </strong>(H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007). Reported foods include mammals, birds, reptiles, carrion and fish<strong> </strong>(R. P. Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000), but in La Pampa, Argentina, armadillos and snakes and were the most important prey (Sarasola <em>et al</em>. 2010). A large platform nest is situated in trees or ravines and one egg is laid. Its movements are poorly understood, and it may be partially crepuscular. <p></p>
106003496		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003496		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and hunting are the most pertinent threats. In Brazil, <span style="font-style: italic;">campo cerrado</span> habitats are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong> </strong>(Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>. The situation is similar in much of Paraguay, but habitat remains fairly intact in Concepción, where direct persecution is probably more significant. Chaco habitats are more intact, but increasing colonisation is destroying wooded areas and grassland. Persecution, including shooting and deliberate disturbance, may be a significant threat in central Argentina<strong> </strong>(Sarasola and Maceda 2006, Sarasola <em>et al.</em> 2010, R. Pereyra <em>in litt. </em>2012): in La Pampa province at least 40 individuals are known to have been killed (R. Pereyra <em>in litt. </em>2012). Recent records from Paraguay indicate that the species may be able to use extensive cattle ranches where it is not subjected to disturbance<strong> </strong>(H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007). Collision with powerlines and drowning in water tanks are an unquantified cause of mortality in Argentina (R. Pereyra <em>in litt. </em>2012). At least a dozen individuals have been recorded in illegal trade in Argentina (R. Pereyra <em>in litt. </em>2012).<br/><p></p>
106003499		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Los Haitises National Park is an important but very poorly protected site, supporting the majority of pairs in the Dominican Republic (Thorstrom 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. However, recent evidence suggests that the park has been mainly deforested (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  Intensive research of the species's breeding ecology and conservation genetics are part of an ongoing study initiated in 2005, and annual surveys are conducted to monitor the population within the park, with 53 active nests monitored in 2007 (Woolaver 2006, 2007). An ongoing publicity campaign was initiated by the Peregrine Fund in 2005 to raise awareness within local communities in the Dominican Republic (Woolaver 2006). In 2010, the species's conservation was the subject of articles in the popular press, as well as an information commercial (J. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Conservation staff working on this species have received training and financial support from the Peregrine Fund (Thorstrom 2004)<strong></strong>, Sociedad Ornitológica de la Hispaniola, Wildlife Preservation Canada, York University and the Smithsonian Institution. Ongoing DNA work is comparing the extent of genetic variation remaining in the current population with the historical population to determine if poor genetic diversity should be a concern for species recovery (L. Woolaver <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Juveniles have been translocated to the Loma la Herradura private reserve and Punta Cana (Thorstrom 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>J. L. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010), with further translocations planned for the future (Thorstrom 2008)<strong></strong>. A stakeholder workshop was planned for 2010, which was to result in a conservation plan being finalised by January 2011 (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Environmental education activities have been ongoing, with community lectures and school visits taking place and education materials being distributed (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of remaining habitat in Los Haitises National Park. Continue and expand education and awareness campaigns to reduce direct persecution. Survey remaining forest fragments adjacent to Los Haitises National Park, as well as historical sites that have not experienced significant habitat loss including Isla Beata and Valle Nuevo. Establish a captive population as a safeguard in the event that wild populations become extirpated. Assess potential sites for future relocation to establish additional populations within secure habitat.  <p></p>
106003501		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> and formerly occurred in Haiti, with historical reports from the adjacent Haitian islands of Gonâve; the Cayemite Islands, where it was reportedly common in 1934; Île-à-Vache, where it was reportedly common in 1962 (Wiley and Wiley 1981<strong></strong>) but is now apparently extinct (T. Brooks <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000<strong></strong>), and the Dominican islands of Isla Beata and Alto Velo. There is a single record from the island of Culebra off Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.) (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It was formerly widespread, but has been extirpated from over 96% of its original Extent of Occurrence during the last century (Woolaver 2011). Its population has declined steeply and it is now rare (A. Keith <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, with c.80-120 pairs estimated in 2006 (Woolaver 2005, 2006) and 200-300 individuals in 2010 (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The latest estimates put the population at 91-109 pairs or 182-218 individuals (Woolaver 2011), confined to one locality in Los Haitises National Park, north-east Dominican Republic. In 2003, 93 individuals were recorded there<strong></strong>, including 37 pairs, 30 of which attempted nesting with eight successful pairs fledging 10 chicks (Thorstrom <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 2005, 19 fledglings were produced from 11 successful (out of 28 total) attempts (Woolaver 2005, 2006), while in 2007, 40 fledglings were produced from 22 successful nests (Woolaver 2007). There have been very few recent records outside Los Haitises National Park (S. Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It was also recorded in human-modified habitat on the Samaná Peninsula in 2003 (Thorstrom <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species has been reported from Isla Beata and Valle Nuevo in 1981 (Wiley and Wiley 1981)<strong></strong>; both sites have not been surveyed significantly since then and confirmation of its status at these two sites is a priority. The Peregrine Fund is attempting to establish a new population in the private reserve of Loma la Herradura by translocating individuals from the Los Haitises National Park (Thorstrom 2008)<strong></strong>. The species is declining rapidly with an annual loss of c.5-10% of pairs recorded at a key study site, Los Limones, within Los Haitises National Park. Furthermore, forest loss at the same site is estimated at 10-15% (L. Woolaver <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong> </strong>annually with no park infrastructure in place to prevent slash-and-burn agriculture. <p></p>
106003501		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 2,000 m in a variety of undisturbed forest-types including rainforest, subtropical dry and moist forests, pine forest, limestone karst forest and marshland and is occasionally seen in secondary and agricultural habitats (Wiley and Wiley 1981)<strong></strong>. Prey consists primarily of reptiles (lizards and snakes comprising 80% of the diet) and frogs. Hawks will occasionally prey on small mammals (bats and rodents), centipedes and small mammals (Woolaver 2011). Nests have been found in the crowns of tall endemic trees, with Hispaniolan Royal Palms <em>Roystonea hispaniolana</em> particularly favoured (Woolaver 2005, 2006, 2011). Nest-building occurs in January-March and eggs laid in February-April (Wiley and Wiley 1981)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It lays 2-3 eggs and pairs have successfully fledged three chicks, but more typically one or two. Males are known to participate in incubation. Disturbance by humans is the major cause of nest failure (Woolaver 2011). The home range of three adjacent breeding pairs was just c.60 ha (Wiley and Wiley 1981)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106003501		population	eng	The estimate of 160-240 individuals (roughly equivalent to 110-160 mature individuals) is based upon densities at Los Limones extrapolated for remaining habitat in the rest of Los Haitises National Park.  More recent estimates put the population in the same range: 91-109 pairs or 200-300 individuals (J. L. Brocca <i>in litt.</i> 2010).
106003501		threats	eng	Large-scale habitat loss through clearance for livestock farming, coffee and other crop plantations, and direct persecution have been major factors in this species's decline (Thorstrom 2004)<strong></strong>. Even within Los Haitises National Park wood burning is widespread and areas are cleared for the cultivation of root crops. Virtually all primary forest within the park has now been destroyed, and the remaining secondary fragments are being cleared at a rapid rate (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2010, the situation appeared to be getting worse, largely attributed to a lack of awareness regarding the location of the park boundaries (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010). In 2005, of 28 monitored nests, four nests were destroyed by human activity during the nestling stage. A fifth nest was abandoned during incubation when two local men flushed the female off the nest during a rainstorm, and then attempted to kill the female with a slingshot. Human disturbance was also likely, but not confirmed, for another five failed nests (Woolaver 2006). Significant causes of natural mortality are poor weather (rain lasting over several days when nestlings are less than one week old), and botfly infestations, but overall natural mortality is not nearly as much of a threat as habitat loss and human persecution. Local people still regard the species as a serious threat to poultry, although such predation, whilst likely, is not proven and requires further study (J. L. Brocca <em>in litt.</em> 2010). <p></p>
106003503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106003504		distribution	eng	This species is widespread throughout south and central America (AOU 1983, Sibley and Monroe 1990, Howell and Webb 1995a). It is resident locally in peninsular Florida (USA), and from Sinaloa and Tamaulipas (Mexico) south through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil (Sibley and Monroe 1990).
106003504		habitat	eng	Tolerant of a wide variety of habitats, it is found in swamps, woodland, forest edge and open country, generally avoiding heavily forested areas (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m, and rarely as high as 3,000 m (Howell and Webb 1995a). The populations in Florida and Central America appear to be partially migratory (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
106003504		population	eng	Although uncommon through most of its range and rare in Florida (del Hoyo et al. 1994), it is fairly common in Mexico and northern Central America (Howell and Webb 1995a), and has a large global population estimated to be c.2,000,000 individuals (Rich et al. 2004).
106003505		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003508		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Most of the archipelago is under national park and marine reserve protection and, in 1979, was declared a World Heritage Site. The species has been protected by Ecuadorian law since 1959<strong></strong> (de Vries 1973). The possibility of reintroduction to previously inhabited islands has been discussed<strong></strong> (de Vries 1984, Faaborg 1984), but advised against as prey-supply may have declined, and the effects may be detrimental to other threatened species (de Vries 1984). Ecological research is ongoing and will result in detailed information on each island population (T. de Vries <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2007). A study on natal dispersal collected from 1998 to 2009 from a banded population of 25 territorial groups (Rivera<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). Rats were eradicated from Rábida, Bartolomé and Bainbridge #3 islands in 2011.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Minimise illegal persecution. <p></p>
106003508		distribution	eng	<em>Buteo galapagoensis</em> was apparently once common on most of the main islands of the Galápagos, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. The population is difficult to measure except in terms of breeding territories, of which 130 were estimated in the early 1970s<strong></strong> (de Vries 1973). Following a serious population decline, it is now extinct on five islands, and present on Santiago (c.50 territories), Española (10), Isabela (c.25), Fernandina (10), Pinta (12-15), Marchena (5), Pinzón (5) and Santa Fe (17)<strong></strong> (de Vries 1973). Recent records of single birds on Santa Cruz are presumed to be stragglers from other islands (T. de Vries <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2007), although the possibility of there being a very small population there has not been ruled out (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The breeding system means that the population is larger than the number of territories suggests, for example, the population on Santiago may number 180 adults in the 50 territories, with a total of c.250 individuals (Faaborg 1984). The total population may number 400-500 adults and 300-400 juveniles (T. de Vries <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2007). <p></p>
106003508		habitat	eng	It is found in all habitats, from shoreline to bare lava-fields, open, rocky, scrub country, deciduous forests and mountain peaks. It feeds on a wide variety of sea and landbirds, rats, lizards, iguanas, invertebrates and carrion. It breeds throughout the year. It nests on a stick platform on a prominent lava outflow, rocky outcrop or in a small tree<strong></strong> (Thiollay 1994). It is cooperatively polyandrous, with one female typically mating with two or three males (up to eight males have been recorded), and all males helping in raising the chicks<strong></strong> (Faaborg <em>et al.</em> 1995). Genetic research indicates there is little movement between island populations<strong> </strong>(Bollmer <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><p></p>
106003508		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 400-500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 270-330 mature individuals (T. de Vries <em>in litt.</em> 2000).
106003508		threats	eng	The most probable cause of the species's historical decline is persecution by humans<strong></strong> (de Vries 1973), which still continues on Santa Cruz and south Isabela (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000) but is now a fairly uncommon practice elsewhere (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The largest island, Isabela, may support a comparatively small population owing to competition for food with introduced feral cats and other predators<strong></strong> (de Vries 1973). Similar scenarios may have been partly responsible for the local extinctions. Lack of genetic diversity<strong> </strong>(Bollmer <em>et al. </em>2005) has been suggested as a potential threat, and it has led to increased parasite loads and vulnerability to disease in certain island populations<strong> </strong>(Whiteman <em>et al. </em>2006), but the species has never had a large effective population size so this is unlikely to become a major threat to the species now<strong> </strong>(D. Wiedenfeld <em>in litt. </em>2007). The removal of goats and pigs from Santiago may reduce habitat for non-breeding individuals as vegetation recovers (T. de Vries <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2007).<br/><p></p>
106003512		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Following surveys in 1998-1999, an island-wide survey for the species was carried out in 2007 (M. Gorresen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A plan for the monitoring of the species's population is being developed (T. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ungulates are locally excluded from regenerating habitat (M. Gorresen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect habitat remnants from logging and clearance. Continue with long-term population monitoring. Continue to exclude introduced ungulates from regenerating habitat. Protect nests from disturbance.  <p></p>
106003512		distribution	eng	<em>Buteo solitarius</em> breeds on Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), with vagrants recorded on Maui, O'ahu and Kaua'i. The population is thought to be fairly stable (J. Nelson <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and estimates range from 1,457 (Klavitter <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and 1,600 (1,120 adults) to 2,700 birds (Hall <em>et al</em> 1997, Griffin <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The lack of information on historical numbers makes an assessment of this species difficult, and the underlying trend may be of gradual decline as nesting habitat disappears (J. Klavitter <em>in litt. </em>1999). The rapid occupation of abandoned breeding territories suggests that the species may now be at or near the carrying capacity of remaining habitat (J. Nelson <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003512		habitat	eng	It occurs in a broad range of habitats up to 2,700 m, from lowland agricultural areas to all types of forest (Thiollay 1994, Hall <em>et al</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, most successful nesting is restricted to native `ohi`a trees <em>Metrosideros polymorpha </em>(which are slow growing and generally in decline) (J. Klavitter <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It benefits from some anthropogenic changes, for example, it feeds on introduced game-birds, passerines and rodents, and uses edge habitat around sugar-cane fields and orchards for hunting (Hall <em>et al</em> 1997, J. Klavitter <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species reproduces at a slow rate, and there are observations that incubation lasts for 38 days, nestlings fledge after 59-63 days, and parents care for fledglings for an average of 30.2 weeks (Griffin <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Parents feed nestlings with mostly mammalian and avian prey.  <p></p>
106003512		population	eng	Using a mean density of 0.004 birds/ha observed in 1993, and an estimate of 400,000 ha of suitable habitat on Hawai`i, an estimate of 1,600 birds, including 1,120 adults (560 pairs), was calculated by Hall <I>et al.</I> (1997). A similar estimate of 1,457 individuals was obtained from surveys in 1998-1999. The breeding population calculated by Hall <I>et al.</I> (1997) is rounded to 1,100 mature individuals.
106003512		threats	eng	Continuing threats include forest clearance for agricultural and other developments, logging, the actions of introduced ungulates that degrade native forests and inhibit their regeneration, repeated nest disturbance, and perhaps road-kills (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Thiollay 1994, J. Klavitter <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting habitat in particular has been reduced, with recruitment of <em>M. polymorpha</em> restricted by competition from exotic plants in some areas (M. Gorresen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> </em>The species is threatened by the conversion of land used for pasture and sugar-cane to eucalyptus plantations, and residential development in extensive areas of subdivided land, mainly in Puna District (T. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It formerly suffered extensively from shooting and may come into conflict with future efforts to reintroduce the Critically Endangered Hawaiian Crow <em>Corvus hawaiiensis</em>, which it preys upon. <p></p>
106003514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to obtain an accurate population estimate and monitor trends. Clarify threats. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against the effects of logging and overgrazing. <p></p>
106003514		distribution	eng	<em>Buteo ventralis</em> is endemic to the lower Andes of Patagonia in southern <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, where it is rare, occurring at naturally low densities. No data is available regarding numbers or densities, and there is no firm evidence of a decline, but its habitat has suffered extensive degradation and some authorities consider that the total population is unlikely to exceed 1,000 individuals<strong></strong> (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Further information is required regarding population size, trends and other potential or existing threats. Increased knowledge of identification features may generate more records of this species.<em> <p></p></em>
106003514		habitat	eng	It inhabits the ecotone between <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and steppe grassland from sea level to at least 1,200 m. <p></p>
106003514		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003514		threats	eng	Its habitat has been negatively affected by logging and overgrazing since the introduction of sheep and cattle<strong></strong> (S. Imberti<em> in litt. </em>2003). <p></p>
106003516		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003519		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), while national population sizes have been   estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in China and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Korea (Brazil 2009).
106003520		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.<strong></strong>
106003520		distribution	eng	This species occurs in North America, nesting in 17 states in the USA and three provinces in Canada. It winters in the south USA and north Mexico.
106003520		habitat	eng	An open-country species inhabiting grasslands, shrub-steppes and deserts.
106003520		population	eng	(Rich et al. 2004)
106003520		threats	eng	Threats include cultivation, over-grazing and fire degrading habitat throughout its range, and the controlling of small mammal populations (prairie-dog towns and gopher populations) limiting food resources.
106003521		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.500,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003524		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003525		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and attempt to estimate population density and global population. Organise educational campaigns to reduce hunting pressure. Study its ability to persist in fragmented and degraded habitat. <p></p>
106003525		distribution	eng	<em>Morphnus guianensis</em> is sparsely distributed throughout its extensive range from <strong>Guatemala</strong> through <strong>Belize, Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong>, <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Guyana</strong>, <strong>Suriname</strong>, <strong>French Guiana</strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>, and east Andean <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Paraguay </strong>and <strong>Bolivia</strong> to north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Bierregaard 1994a, Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995, Guyra Paraguay 2004).<em> <p></p></em>
106003525		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland tropical and subtropical forest, including gallery forest in the south of its range, typically below 600 m but locally up to 1,200 m (Bierregaard 1994a<strong></strong>, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003525		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003525		threats	eng	Its large size and low population densities make it particularly vulnerable to hunting (Bierregaard 1994a, Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Deforestation is a severe problem, with many old records from now deforested parts of the Chocó region in north-west Colombia (Bierregaard 1994a, Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Similarly extensive deforestation in parts of its Central American range suggest that local contractions of range or serious declines in population have already occurred (Bierregaard 1994a, Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It presumably also suffers from competition with humans for prey (Galetti <em>et al. </em>1997b). <p></p>
106003526		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Reintroductions have taken place in Belize and Panama<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Matola 2004, Muela and Curti 2005). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Work with local communities to reduce hunting. Stengthen network of protected areas to include core remaining areas of habitat. Clarify its precise ecological requirements and its ability to persist in fragmented and altered habitats. <p></p>
106003526		distribution	eng	<em>Harpia harpyja</em> is sparsely distributed and generally rare throughout its extensive range in south <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Belize </strong>(recently confirmed<strong></strong> [B. W. Miller <em>in litt.</em> 2000]), <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong> (including four birds introduced in 1998 [Bell 1998]), <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Guyana</strong>, <strong>Suriname</strong>, <strong>French Guiana</strong> (perhaps 200-400 pairs [Thiollay 1985b]), <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, but formerly Formosa, Salta and Jujuy [Chebez 1994, Chebez <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong>Vargas <em>et al. </em>2006]<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. It is thought to be locally or regionally extinct in large parts of its former range, notably most of central and north Central America and possibly Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Bierregaard 1994a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, but recent records suggest that the population in the southern Atlantic forests may be migratory (Galetti <em>et al.</em> 1997b).<em> <p></p></em>
106003526		habitat	eng	It occurs in uninterrupted expanses of lowland tropical forest (typically below 900 m but locally to 2,000 m), but will nest where high-grade forestry has been practised, and use forest patches within a pasture/forest mosaic for hunting (Bierregaard 1994a, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Nests have been reported only 3 km apart in Panama and Guyana (Bierregaard 1994a).<br/><p></p>
106003526		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106003526		threats	eng	Although still reasonably common in the Amazonian forests of Brazil and Peru (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 1999), it will only survive in the long term if the escalating rate of forest destruction in the region is brought under control and a network of inviolate reserves established (Malingreau and Tucker 1988, Bierregaard 1994a)<strong></strong>. Low overall population densities and slow reproductive rates make shooting the most significant threat over its entire range (Bierregaard 1994a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It could perhaps survive in disturbed forests or even forest mosaics if its large size and boldness in the face of humans did not make it an irresistible target for hunters (Bierregaard 1994a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Bierregaard <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It presumably also suffers from competition with humans for prey (Galetti <em>et al.</em> 1997b). <p></p>
106003527		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, such as the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (K. M. Kisokau <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is fully protected by law in Papua New Guinea, but these laws are rarely enforced. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine territory size and relate to prey abundance. Locate nests to research basic breeding biology. Research basic ecology of prey-species. Monitor numbers in study sites such as Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project area. Investigate hunting levels and possible regulation through discussions with local hunters. Enforce protection in uninhabited reserve areas. Utilise as a flagship species in ecotourism initiatives. <p></p>
106003527		distribution	eng	<em>Harpyopsis novaeguineae</em> is widely distributed on New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It occurs at very low population densities and is nowhere common (Coates 1985,&#160;J. Diamond <em>in litt.</em> 1987, B. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>2007). There are no data regarding territory or total population size, but it is significantly less common or extirpated in most densely inhabited regions (Beehler 1985, Coates 1985). There are only three records in four years from the heavily hunted Ok Tedi area (Gregory 1995a)<strong></strong>, but it has been reported to be relatively common in the Kikori basin where hunting pressure is low (K. D. Bishop<em> in litt.</em> 1999) and widespread (but present in low numbers) in the YUS Conservation Area, even in forests that are hunted (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106003527		habitat	eng	It is most common in undisturbed forest, but has been recorded from forest clearings and gallery forest from sea-level to 3,700 m (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It feeds mainly on mammals, mostly marsupials and rats, but also pigs and dogs, and sometimes takes birds, lizards and snakes (Coates 1985, <strong></strong>Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1992, B. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It often hunts on the ground but also takes arboreal prey and extracts animals from tree-cavities (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986). Only one active nest has been examined, containing a single chick, and it is possible that this species breeds less than annually (Coates 1985). The species requires extensive old growth forest and is thought to be fairly intolerant of logged forest, however, there have been reports of the species inhabiting selectively logged  forests in the upper Watut of Papua New Guinea (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003527		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003527		threats	eng	It is hunted in most if not all forests of New Guinea, especially the highlands, for its tail and flight feathers which are used in ceremonial head-dresses. Hunting pressure is most intense close to densely inhabited areas (most people live in mid-montane altitudes). Guns are becoming increasingly available in west Papua, locally increasing hunting pressure (Coates 1985), but gun ownership has dropped significantly in Papua New Guinea (B. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012)<strong></strong> due to<span style=""> a law preventing</span> the killing of birds with non-traditional means (i.e. shotguns). Logging roads also open up previously inaccessible areas to hunting (I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. It may also suffer from competition with human hunters for large mammalian prey (A. Mack <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003528		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Since 1970, various initiatives have been launched, including the passing of legislation prohibiting persecution and protecting nests, survey work, public awareness campaigns, captive breeding and a socio-economic project to alleviate pressure on an eagle territory whilst increasing local economic prosperity. It occurs in several protected areas including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park on Luzon, and Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo Natural Parks on Mindanao. A Philippine Eagle Foundation exists which runs the Philippine Eagle Centre in Davao City, Mindanao and oversees captive-breeding efforts and monitoring and conservation of wild populations<strong> </strong>(Salvador 2004); in 2008, there were 32 eagles at the centre, 18 of which were captive bred, and the Foundation is working towards the development of a full reintroduction programme<strong> </strong>(Philippine Eagle Foundation 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further research into distribution, numbers, ecological needs and threats. Extend the protected-areas system to embrace known eagle nests and habitat. Implement habitat management schemes for the benefit of wildlife and local people. Integrate eagle-friendly practices into forestry policy. Launch a campaign to engender national pride and respect for the eagle. Investigate genetic differences between birds on Luzon and those on Mindanao, Samar and Leyte and take findings into account when planning releases of captive-bred and rehabilitated birds (<strong></strong>Miranda <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003528		distribution	eng	<em>Pithecophaga jefferyi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from eastern Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao. Mindanao supports the bulk of the population, with recent research estimating 82-233 breeding pairs (Bueser <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Estimates from other islands are of six pairs on Samar and perhaps two on Leyte, and Luzon may have very few left; but these should be considered precautionary figures (<strong></strong>Collar<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. An earlier estimate using 1992 forest-cover data suggested 226 mature individuals, with a total population, including immatures, of c.350-670 birds. Extrapolations across all islands based on the density of nests located on Mindanao suggest a total of 340 pairs; however, it is unknown whether the species reaches similar densities on the other islands, particularly Luzon, and this figure should perhaps be treated with caution<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (<strong></strong>Miranda <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Poor recruitment to the breeding population was previously thought to be a key factor in this species's decline (Miranda 2006)<strong></strong>, but recent research suggests that the dispersal and survival of juveniles and subadults is of greater concern<strong> </strong> (<strong></strong>Miranda <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. The first release of a captive-reared bird took place in 2004 when a male was released into the forest of Mount Apo, Mindanao (Block 2004)<strong></strong>. Unfortunately this bird was electrocuted nine months after release, and another rehabilitated bird released on Mindanao in 2008 was killed by a hunter four months after release, but further experimental releases are planned<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (<strong></strong>J. Ibanez <em>in litt. </em>2008,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Philippine Eagle Foundation 2008)<strong></strong>, preceding a full scale reintroduction programme to supplement wild populations<strong> </strong>(Salvador and Ibañez 2006). <p></p>
106003528		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary dipterocarp forest, particularly in steep terrain, sometimes frequenting secondary growth and gallery forest (but not occupying open canopy forest), from lowlands to at least 1,800 m. Estimates based on the distribution of nests in Mindanao suggest that each pair covers an average of 133 km<sup>2</sup>, including an average of 68 km<sup>2</sup> of forest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (<strong></strong>Miranda <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On Mindanao, eagles begin nesting from September to December in primary and disturbed forest, with some differences in the timing of breeding between Mindanao and Luzon (Ibañez <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. A complete breeding cycle lasts two years, with successful pairs raising one offspring (Ibañez <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Birds form a monogamous bond for life with sexual maturity for females at around five years and for males at around seven years (<strong></strong>J. Ibanez <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The young fledge after c.4-5 months, but stay in the nest vicinity for almost a year and a half (<strong></strong>J. Ibanez <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong> Captive birds have reached more than 40 years of age (<strong></strong>J. Ibanez <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003528		population	eng	Bueser <I>et al.</I> (2003) estimated the population on Mindanao to number 82-233 pairs. Numbers elsewhere are tiny: perhaps six pairs on Samar, two on Leyte and probabaly very few on Luzon, giving a total population size of perhaps 90-250 pairs, or 180-500 mature individuals, roughly equating to 250-750 individuals in total.
106003528		threats	eng	Forest destruction and fragmentation, through commercial timber extraction and shifting cultivation, is the principal long-term threat. Old-growth forest continues to be lost rapidly, such that as little as 9,220 km<sup>2</sup> may remain within the eagle's range. Moreover, most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions. Mining applications pose an additional threat. Uncontrolled hunting (for food and, at least formerly, zoo exhibits and trade) is perhaps the most significant threat in the short term  (<strong></strong>Miranda <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Naive juvenile birds are easily shot or trapped, as are adults nesting near forest edges (<strong></strong>J. Ibanez <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Birds are also vulnerable to accidental capture in traps intended for wild pigs and deer, and there are several records of individuals caught in snares presumably whilst hunting on the forest floor (<strong></strong>J. Ibanez <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Pesticide accumulation is another potential but unproven threat which may reduce its already slow reproductive output. <p></p>
106003529		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106003530		population	eng	In Europe (which covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 14000-19000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000-57000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106003531		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Belarus, Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Russia and nominally in Thailand. An International Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagle Working Group has been established. A European action plan was published in 2000 (Meyburg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The first national census was conducted in Belarus during 2000-2002. Research into hybridisation and habitat requirements began in Belarus in 2003. National Action Plans for the species have been produced in <span style="">Belarus</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(Dombrovski </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> (2002), Estonia and Ukraine (Domashevsky 2000).</span> Site protection measures have been initiated at key Belarusian, Polish and Estonian sites, including restricting forestry activities at nest sites during the breeding season. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey range and population. Establish long-term monitoring schemes to improve understanding of population trends. Improve understanding of breeding habitat requirements. Protect breeding areas from drainage and rising of infrastructure. Maintain traditional wet meadows. Regulate forestry to minimise disturbance and protect potential nesting trees. Investigate potential threat of hybridisation with <em>A. pomarina</em>. Prevent illegal shooting, poisoning and electrocution. Investigate lead poisoning from feeding on quarry. Raise awareness. <p></p>
106003531		distribution	eng	<em>Aquila clanga</em> occupies a fragmented range, breeding in<strong></strong> <strong>Estonia</strong><sup> </sup>(Lõhmus 1998), <strong>Poland</strong>, <strong>Belarus</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong> (Meyburg <em>et al.</em> 1999), and apparently regularly in tiny numbers in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</span> and north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span> (BirdLife International 2001), with some individuals possibly still breeding in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland, Latvia </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lithuania</span> (Database of the Lithuanian Ornithological Society 1999), although this has not been confirmed recently. Passage or wintering birds occur in small numbers over a vast area, including central and eastern Europe, north and east Africa, the Middle East, the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent and south and South-East Asia. Wintering birds have also been reported in <strong>Hong Kong (China)</strong>. The population probably numbers fewer than 10,000 mature individuals with Russia holding 2,800-3,000 pairs. The European population is probably no more than 900 pairs (with c.150 pairs in Belarus). Numbers appear to have declined in the western half of its range and in some parts of its Asian range. However, long-term trends are difficult to assess owing to identification problems. <p></p>
106003531		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland forests near wetlands, nesting in different types of (generally tall) trees, depending on local conditions. It feeds on unretrieved quarry, small mammals, waterbirds, frogs and snakes, hunting over swamps, wet meadows and, in Europe, over extensively managed agricultural land<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Lõhmus <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106003531		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 810-1,100 breeding pairs, equating   to 2,430-3,300 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49%   of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population   size is 5,000-13,200 individuals in total, roughly equating to 3,300-8,800   mature individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.   National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals   in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003531		threats	eng	There is strong evidence of hybridisation between this species and Lesser Spotted Eagle <em>Aquila pomar<span style="">ina</span></em><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(Bergmanis </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">1997, Lohmus &amp; Vali 2001, Dombrovski 2002, Vali </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2010). In some European countries mixed pairs can constitute 50% of Greater Spotted Eagle pairs (</span><span style=""><span style="">Maciorowski &amp; Mizera 2010) or even more (Vali 2011). It is unclear whether this represents a new phenomenon or a conservation concern, but </span><em style="">A. pomarina</em><span style=""> is far more numerous than </span><em style="">A. clanga</em><span style=""> in the zone of overlap, and the range of </span><em style="">A. pomarina</em><span style=""> appears to be spreading east, further into the range of </span><em style="">A. clanga</em><span style="">. Other key threats are habitat destruction and disturbance, also poaching and electrocution can be considered important. Suitable habitat mosaics have been lost as a result of afforestation and wetland drainage. In eastern Europe, agricultural intensification and the abandonment of traditional floodplain management have reduced habitat quality (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999). Birds are intolerant of permanent human presence in their territories. Forestry operations are a major cause of disturbance. Shooting is a threat in Russia, the Mediterranean, South-East Asia and Africa (P. D. Round </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">1998, P. Mirski </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012), together with deliberate and accidental poisoning across much of its range. In Israel, poisoning and electrocution are major causes for casualties of wintering population (Perlman and Granit 2012).  </span><p></p>
106003533		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003534		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. There are 24 Important Bird Areas identified for the species, 22 in Spain and 2 in Portugal. Altogether,<br/>there are 107 areas protected by Law (national and EU S<span style="">pecial Protected Areas,) containing c.70% of the total breeding population (Barov and Derhé 2011). Since 1987, national and regional governments have been implementing a coordinated conservation plan for the species. A European action</span> plan was published in 1996 and updated in 20<span style="">08 (Sánchez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008), an</span>d a national plan is being implemented. From 1991-1999, 14,370 dangerous electric towers were modified, considerably reducing deaths from electrocution (L. M. González <em>in litt</em>. 2005) and more recently, work has been carried out to isolate dangerous power lines on private<span style=""> farms (Cabezas 2011). A</span> supplementary feeding programme has been established to mitigate the effects of rabbit decreases, and has significantly increased breeding success (L. M. González <em>in litt</em>. 2005). Nest monitoring has reduced disturbance and improved reproductive success.  The Flying High Programme created by SEO/BirdLife in 2006, begun its second phase in 2009 until 2012,  based on a large land stewardship network (of municipalities, landowners and schools). This network focuses on  habitat management, species conservation, awareness and information activities covering the species’s entire distribution. So far, 54 municipalities have joined the network. Work is ongoing to raise awareness and support on private land where the species breeds, including improving habitat management (García 2007), and nearly 50% of breeding pairs are covered by such projects (L. M. González <em>in litt</em>. 2005). Numerous young birds have been released as part of a reintroduction project in Cádiz (M. Pandolfi <em>in litt</em>. 2003), but no breeding pairs have yet become established in the province, and levels of mortality appear to be significant<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(B. Sánchez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue with actions to reduce mortality, particularly from poisoning and electrocution (González and Oria 2004). Survey the breeding population annually. Approve regional recovery plans (González and Oria 2004). Maintain an adequate area of legally protected habitat (e.g. within the Natura 2000 network [González and Oria 2004]). Protect and manage breeding sites and key dispersal areas. Continue the successful nest monitoring and supplementary feeding programmes (González and Oria 2004). Promote the recovery of the rabbit population (González and Oria 2004). Modify dangerous powerlines. Avoid the construction of wind farms in key areas for the species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(B. Sánchez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Increase coordination between private landowners, NGOs and government (González and Oria 2004; B. Sánchez <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003534		distribution	eng	<em>Aquila adalberti</em> breeds in <strong>Spain</strong> in the Sierras of Guadarrama and Gredos, the plains of the Tajo and Tiétar rivers, the central hills of Extremadura, Montes de Toledo, the Alcudia valley, Sierra Morena and the Guadalquivir marshes, with occasional nesting in Salamanca and Málaga (González 1996b). In the 1960s, only 30 pairs remained, but recovery began in the early 1980s at a rate of five new breeding pairs per year up to 1994. After 1994, the population again started to decline from 148 pairs to 131 pairs in 1998<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. Criado <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and breeding success in important areas such as the Guadalquivir marshes declined dramatically in the late 1990s<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. Criado <em>in litt.</em> 1999). However, this is thought to represent a brief levelling out of a positive trend, and in 2000 the population began increasing (Grupo de Trabajo Nacional del Águila Imperial Ibérica unpubl. data; A. Madroño <em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2005), associated with a decline in the number of poisoning events (González </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2007), and in 2007 there were 232 breeding pairs in Spain and three in Portugal (Sánchez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2008).</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> T</span>he estimated population size has increased annually in Spain since 2000, and the species has recently recolonised <strong>Portugal</strong> (three pairs). Some of these increases can be attributed to more thorough searches within its range (notably in Andalucía), which is currently split into three subpopulations with relatively little interchange (González and Oria 2004).<em> <p></p></em>
106003534		habitat	eng	It occurs in alluvial plains and dunes in the Guadalquivir marshes, plains and hills in central Spain, and high mountain slopes in the Sistema Central, where there is an absence of irrigated farmland. The abundance and distribution of rabbits, its favoured prey, influence population density, rang<span style="">e (Fernández</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al. </span><span style="">2009) and reproductive performance. Indeed, its evolutionary dependence on rabbits has been suggested as permanently limiting its abundance and distribution</span><strong style=""><sup> </sup></strong><span style="">(Ferrer and Negro 2004), although a recent study has suggested the species exhibits a certain diet plasticity, at least during the non-breeding season, adapting its diet when rabbits are scarce (Sánchez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2010). Data fr</span>om Doñana national park in Spain show that the most important variables explaining nest site selection are height of tree and distance from human activity<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bisson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Many recently-colonised territories are in marginal areas, and several of the occupying pairs include at least one sub-adult bird (González and Oria 2004; González <em>et al</em>. 2006b; Margalida <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003534		population	eng	Around 200 breeding pairs, some of which include at least one subadult bird (Grupo de Trabajo Nacional del Aguila Imperial Ibérica, unpubl. data, A. Madroño<em> in litt.</em> 2005), so an estimate of 300-400 mature individuals is appropriate. This roughly equates to 450-600 individuals in total.
106003534		threats	eng	Electrocution is the primary cause of non-natural mortality for the  Spanish Im<span style="">perial Eagle recently, causing 50% of deaths according to  recent studies (González et al. 2007). Juveniles are f</span>requently killed through electrocution by powerlines, and this has been increasing in the last few years (L. M. González <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat fragmentation has occurred as a result of deforestation for agriculture and timber, having negative impacts on nest site preferences in particular. Suitable habitat in breeding and dispersal areas has also declined as a consequence of urban development and land-use changes (e.g. new irrigation schemes in Huelva<strong><sup> </sup></strong>[B. Sánchez <em>in litt</em>. 2007])<strong></strong>. Mortality from intentional poisoning has risen sharply, particularly in hunting reserves where game is commercially exploited. Between 1990-1999, 57 birds died from poisoning and this is thought to be the primary cause of declines in the late 1990s<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. Criado <em>in litt.</em> 1<span style="">999). In&#160; Doñana National Park in particular,&#160; the  population has been seriously affected by the illegal use of poisoned  bait, especially during the 1990s (Ortega </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009). Rab</span>bit populations have declined as a result of viral haemorrhagic disease, and this is believed to have reduced breeding success<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Margalida <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition, changes in the management of hunting estates to favour larger quarry species, such as deer and boar, rather than rabbits and partridges, has further reduced prey availability<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(B. Sánchez <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<span style=""> In spring 2009, a male Spanish Imperial Eagle was shot and killed in Portugal, highlighting the current threat of hunting to this species.</span> Human activities in the vicinity of active nests can disturb incubating adults and reduce hatching success (González <em>et al</em>. 2006a;&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>Margalida <em>et al</em>. 2007). The ingestion of lead shot embedded in the flesh of prey items may be a problem in certain areas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pain <em>et al</em>. 2005; González and Oria 2004)<strong></strong>. Recent modelling suggests no subpopulations are currently at risk of extinction, provided the current level of active management is maintained (L. M. González <em>in litt</em>. 2005).<br/><strong style=""></strong><p></p>
106003535		conservation	eng	<strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Conservation Actions Underway </strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine. The Eastern Imperial Eagle Working Group was established in 1990. A European action plan was published in 1996 and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Regional Action Plans have been published for the Balkan Peninsula (Stoychev <em>et al</em>. 2004) and for the Southern Caucasus<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Horváth <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Eastern Imperial Eagle Management Guidelines for Hungary were published in 2005 and are under preparation for Slovakia<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Kovács <em>et al.</em> 2006). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in Asia (particularly Russia and Kazakhstan) to determine population size and trends. Conduct surveys to identify breeding and wintering sites, and migration routes. Improve protection of species and sites. Implement beneficial forestry policies. Maintain large trees in open land and protect old woodland on slopes<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(B. Hallmann <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Prevent mortality from nest robbing, nest destruction, illegal trade, poisoning and electrocution on medium-voltage powerlines, as well as persecution in wintering grounds and migratory routes. Maintain feeding habitats by preserving traditional land use. Increase the availability of prey species by habitat management. Raise public awareness and involve stakeholders in conservation activities. <p></p>
106003535		distribution	eng	<em>Aquila heliaca</em> breeds in <strong>Austria, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Turkey </strong>and <strong>Ukraine </strong>(Heredia 1996). Breeding has not been proved but possibly occurs in Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Pakistan, Romania, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. On passage and in winter, birds are found in the Middle East, east Africa south to Tanzania, the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent and south and east Asia (from Thailand to Korea). The European population comprises 1,800-2,200 pairs (Demerdzhiev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). This number is considerably higher than previous estimates of 1,051-1,619 pairs were reported in 2000 (Horváth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and 1,110-1,624 pairs in 2008 (BirdLife International 2008, Barove and Derhé 2011), and is partly due to increased survey effort rather than a genuinely large population increase. There was a rapid decline in Europe and probably in Asia in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Recently the Central European pop<span style="">ulation (177-192 pairs mostly in Hungary and Slovakia) appears to have been increasing (Hor</span>váth <em>et al.</em> 2005, Demerdzhiev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) as a result of conservation efforts, although the majority of the threats to the species persist (D. Horal<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). In the last six years the occurrence of persecution incidents significantly increased (Horváth<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011), with more than 50  Eastern Imperial Eagles poisoned in Hungary (M. Horváth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The Balkan population<span style=""> (76-132 pairs mostly in Bulgaria and Macedonia [Demerdzhiev </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2011] ) i</span>s apparently stable (al<span style="">though the last proven breeding in Greece took place in 1993). Recent surveys in Azerbaijan found relatively high densities in the north-western plains, estimating 50-60 pairs within a 6000 km</span><sup>2</sup><span style=""> study area (Horváth </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2007), and a total popu</span>lation size of 50-150 pairs (Horváth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; Sultanov 2010). This suggests that the Caucasian population may have been underestimated (it was previously assumed that less than 50 pairs bred in Azerbaijan and Georgia (Horváth <em>et al.</em> 2007). Populations in the Volga Region of Russia are relatively stable, but are suspected to decline in the future due to the presence of threats at breeding sites (M. Korepov and R. Bekmansurov <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). At least half of the world population (and possibly more) breeds in Russia (900-1,000 pairs<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[Belik <em>et al.</em> 2002]) and Kazakhstan (750-800 pairs [Bragin 1999]). More recent surveys condu<span style="">cted by Karyakin </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> (2008, 2011) estimated 3,000-3,500 pairs in Russia </span><span style="">and 3,500-4,000 pairs in Kazakhstan</span><span style=""></span>. <span style="">However these figures have yet to be confirmed and should be treated with caution. Although</span> these populations currently seem to be stable, the Russian  population has been predicted to decline in the next three to five years [V. Galushin <em>in litt.</em> 1999].<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003535		habitat	eng	This is a lowland species that has been pushed to higher altitudes by persecution and habitat loss in Europe. In central and eastern Europe, it breeds in forests up to 1,000 m and also in steppe and agricultural areas with large trees, and nowadays also on electricity pylons. In the Caucasus, it occurs in steppe, lowland and riverine forests and semi-deserts. Eastern populations breed in natural steppe and agricultural habitats. Both adults and immatures of the eastern populations are migratory, wintering in the Middle East, east Africa south to Tanzania, the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent and south and east Asia, and wintering birds have been reported in Hong Kong (China). Wetlands are apparently preferred on the wintering grounds. Adults in Central Europe, Balkan Peninsula, Turkey and Caucasus are usually residents, whilst most immatures move south. Non-territorial birds often associate with other large eagles such as <em>Haliaeetus albicilla</em> and <em>Aquila clanga </em>on wintering and temporary settlement areas. <p></p>
106003535		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,800-2,200 breeding pairs, equating to 3,600-4,400 individuals. Recent population estimates from Russia and Kazakhstan suggest the global population may exceed 10,000 mature individuals<span style="">, but in light of criticism of these estimates the population is precautionarily retained in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals here. This equates to 3,75</span>0-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003535		threats	eng	Breeding sites are threatened primarily by intensive forestry in the mountains, and by the shortage of large indigenous tr<span style="">ees in the lowlands (e.g. illegal tree cutting affected several pairs in Russia [Karyakin </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009a] and Bulgaria). Other threats are loss and alteration of feeding habitats, shortages of small and medium-sized prey species (particularly ground-squirrels S</span><em style="">permophilus </em><span style="">spp.), human disturbance of breeding sites, nest robbing and illegal trade, shooting, poisoning and electrocution by powerlines. An average of c.450 Eastern Imperial Eagles were killed by powerlines during the 2009 breeding season in the Altai region – 25% of the total population of the region (Karyakin </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009b). Habitat alterations associated with agricultural expansion threaten historical and potential breeding sites in former range countries. Hunting, poisoning, prey depletion and other mortality factors are also likely to pose threats along migration routes and in wintering areas. Competition for nest sites with Greater Spotted Eagle </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Aquila clanga</span><span style=""> has been reported in the Altai region, Russia (Karyakin </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009c).</span><br/><p></p>
106003536		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine density and the affect of disturbance. Effectively protect large areas of lowland rainforest.  <p></p>
106003536		distribution	eng	<em>Aquila gurneyi</em> is a wide-ranging species of the Moluccas, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, Indonesia and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). There are no estimates of population sizes or trends but in Lakekamu Basin it is sparsely distributed in lowland alluvial forest (A. Mack <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106003536		habitat	eng	It appears to be widespread in a variety of forested habitats to 1,000 m, although it seems to prefer primary forest, it has been seen to 1,500 m (Coates 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003536		threats	eng	It clearly occurs at low population densities and is likely to be declining slowly through habitat loss and degradation.   <p></p>
106003537		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.170,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50   wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003539		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003543		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003545		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003546		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003547		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A system to compensate farmers for stock losses has been initiated in South Africa. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Introduce programmes combining awareness campaigns and compensation to farmers for stock losses across the species's range. Install anti-electrocution devices on electricity pylons.  <p></p>
106003547		distribution	eng	<em>Polemaetus bellicosus </em>has an extensive range across much of sub-Saharan Africa, from <strong>Senegal </strong>and the <strong>Gambia </strong>east to <strong>Ethiopia </strong>and north-west <strong>Somalia </strong>and south to <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana </strong>and <strong>South Africa</strong>. It is generally scarce to uncommon or rare, but is reasonably common in some areas (Ferguson-Lees &amp; Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is suspected to have undergone declines in much of its range, including Namibia (C. Brown <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and <strong>Nigeria </strong>(P. Hall <em>in litt. </em>2009). <p></p>
106003547		habitat	eng	It inhabits open woodland, wooded savanna, bushy grassland, thornbush and, in southern Africa, more open country and even subdesert, from sea level to 3,000 m but mainly below 1,500 m (Ferguson-Lees &amp; Christie 2001)<strong></strong>. The main prey is sizeable mammals, birds and reptiles (Ferguson-Lees &amp; Christie 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003547		population	eng	The population was estimated as probably 'in tens of thousands' by Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001). <p></p>
106003547		threats	eng	The species suffers from direct persecution (shooting and trapping) by farmers, indirect poisoning (these two threats by far the most important causes of losses), drowning in sheer-walled reservoirs, electrocution on power poles, and habitat alteration and degradation (<strong></strong>Global Raptor Information Network 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Poisoning is largely carried out by a few large-scale commercial farmers, but is also a problem in tribal small-stock farming communities. Deforestation may be having less of an impact on this species than on other large eagles as it can utilise man-made structures for nesting. Reduction in natural prey may lead to an increase in predation on domestic animals which may in turn lead to increased persecution by farmers. In some areas birds may be taken for use in traditional medicine. <p></p>
106003548		population	eng	Partners in Flight   estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in   litt. 2008).
106003549		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003550		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003554		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Several surveys have targeted the species, exploring its distribution and ecology (Prawiradilaga 2006)<strong></strong>. Strict legislation protects it from hunting or trading, although this is often ineffective. It occurs in several protected areas, including Gunung Halimun, Gunung Gede-Pangrango and Meru Betiri National Parks, although these still face serious problems. An action plan has been compiled and conservation awareness programmes including several training and awareness raising workshops have been initiated (Prawiradilaga 2006, Narwatha <em>et al</em>. 2007). Project Garuda, which ran in 2002-2003 in Butahu, West Java, combined research with conservation activities implementing an extensive awareness raising programme including radio broadcasts, school visits and an exhibition<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Narwatha <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). A nest protection programme involving local communities has been run successfully  (Prawiradilaga 2006)<strong></strong>. Regular monitoring occurs in Telaga Warner Nature Reserve, Gede-Pangrango National Park and parts of G. Halimum-Salak National Park<strong><sup></sup></strong> (Prawiradilaga 2006)<strong></strong> and surveys took place around Butahu in 2002-2003 (Narwatha <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). A captive breeding programme has been underway since 1996, although as of 2006 it had failed to produce any offspring (Nijmal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement the Javan Hawk-eagle Recovery Plan. Continue ecological studies to allow appropriate management regimes to be devised. Improve management of existing protected areas, and establish further reserves, particularly in central Java, at Dieng Mountains and Gunung Slamet, and West Java in southern Cianjur district. Manage these protected areas as an established and connected network of sites, with the help of local stakeholders. Focus future population surveys on areas predicted but not confirmed to hold populations of the species (Syartinilia and Tsuyuki 2008). Continue to search for and guard nests found near human populations. Improve and enforce legislation to control trade. Continue and expand education schemes to elicit public support for the conservation of this and other threatened species on Java. <p></p>
106003554		distribution	eng	<em>Spizaetus bartelsi </em>is endemic to the island of Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is restricted to remaining patches of forest and is consequently scarce (BirdLife International 2001). An increase in survey effort and knowledge of the species's home-range size has led to consecutive upward revisions of the global population, now estimated at over 600  individuals (Prawiradilaga 2004)<strong></strong>, with one estimate of 270-600 pairs<strong> </strong> (Gjershaug <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004)<strong></strong>. It is distributed widely throughout much of the island with a recent increase in the number of known localities, although it remains unrecorded from large areas of the north. Although there is no direct indication of a decline, with the species always considered rare, the on-going diminution of forest-cover on Java and increasing trade in the species are certain to have been detrimental (Nijman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <p></p>
106003554		habitat	eng	It frequents primary humid forest, although individuals and even nests have been recorded in secondary forest, production forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest, preferring rugged slopes with high vegetation cover (Syartinilia and Tsuyuki 2008). While it occurs from sea-level to high mountains, it is most frequent at 500-1,000 m. Recent extensive research has estimated the average home range size of one pair to be c.400 ha (Gjershaug <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>. The species's dispersal capabilities (and therefore its susceptibility to habitat fragmentation) remain poorly known, but adults appear to be highly sedentary while young birds are the main dispersers (Nijman and van Balen 2003). Juveniles and immatures are recorded in woodland and some cultivated habitats before moving to secondary and primary evergreen forest as adults (Nijman and van Balen 2003)<strong></strong>; this behaviour suggests that unsuitable habitats may not represent barriers to dispersal. It breeds every two years, principally between January and July, but can breed at any time of year<strong> </strong> (Prawiradilaga 2006)<strong></strong>; its reproductive output is generally considered to be low (Syartinilia and Tsuyuki 2008). The preferred diet consists of small mammals but it will take birds, snakes and lizards<strong> </strong> (Prawiradilaga 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003554		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 600-900 individuals, roughly equating to 300-500 mature individuals, based on a 1:1 ratio of adults to juvenile and immature birds, as recorded in past studies (B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003554		threats	eng	The key threats are habitat loss and trade. The burgeoning human population on Java brings with it intense pressure on natural resources, one aspect of which has been a massive reduction in forest cover, particularly in the lowlands. This threat continues in the form of conversion to agriculture, development and uncontrolled fire, even within protected areas. The species is also sold openly in Javan bird markets, with 30-40 reported in trade each year, and presumably many more undetected. This threat appears to be intensifying, following the elevation of the species to national bird. Individuals are taken from the wild for zoos and wildlife collections, where they tend to fare poorly (Nijman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003555		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003556		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded recently from numerous protected areas, including Mts Isarog and Makiling National Parks, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay on Luzon, Mt Canlaon on Negros, and Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo Natural Parks and Mt Malindang on Mindanao, and Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol and recently on Mount Irid-Angilo-Binuang of the Southern Sierra Madre in Luzon (J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007), as well as Tadao Ilocos Norte, Mt Palay Palay and Mt Banahao (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. These sites are legally protected through local government decrees, but the efficacy of this legislation is often unclear and is ineffective at Mt Malindang and in the Southern Sierra Madre (D. Allen in litt. 2012). The species is regularly recorded during surveys for Philippine Eagle <em>Pithecophaga jeffreyi</em> in Luzon <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in areas from which the species is known (e.g. Mt Los Dos Cuernos on Luzon, Mts Cabalantian/Capoto-an on Samar), which may merit formal protection. Study the species's ecology, particularly home-range size and dispersal ability to help inform a global population estimate and assess the likely impact of habitat fragmentation. Promote more effective enforcement of legislation designed to control hunting and trading. Gazette the proposed Southern Sierra Madre Protected Landscape. Use remote-sensing to assess forest loss in the Philippines and gauge the species's likely rate of decline and degree of fragmentation of its populations. Research hunting and trade by interviewing local people and visiting wildlife markets. <p></p>
106003556		distribution	eng	<em>Spizaetus philippensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there are records from c.60 sites on at least 12 islands (Collar<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em> 1999). Since 1980, there have been records from 15 localities on Luzon (primarily in the Sierra Madre mountains), 13 on Mindanao and six on Mindoro, Bohol, Negros and possibly Panay, combined. Historically, the species was rare, and the spate of recent records - most of unconfirmed identification - does not change that impression. Although relatively common at one site on Mindanao, it is uncommon in the Sierra Madre lowlands, very scarce on Mindoro and Negros, and is very probably already extinct on some smaller islands within its former range (e.g. Siquijor). Following recent fieldwork, 200-220 pairs were estimated to remain on Luzon and 320-340 pairs on Mindanao. If these estimates are accurate, the overall population must be very low. <p></p>
106003556		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary, selectively logged and disturbed forest, occasionally frequenting open areas, from the lowlands to lower mountain slopes, almost exclusively below 1,000 m. It appears not to tolerate much forest degradation. No migration is known, although unconfirmed reports from the migration funnel of Dalton Pass (Luzon) hint at intra-island movements. <p></p>
106003556		population	eng	The species strongholds appear to be Luzon and Mindanao where 200-220 pairs and 320-340 pairs respectively were recently estimated. Therefore, the global population is probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106003556		threats	eng	Deforestation for plantation agriculture, livestock and logging throughout its extensive, predominantly lowland range is the chief threat. In 1988, forest cover was as low as 24% on Luzon and 29% on Mindanao and these figures are likely to be overestimates, with most lowland forest leased to logging concessions. Habitat loss is exacerbated by considerable hunting and trapping pressure. <p></p>
106003557		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in numerous protected areas, including at least six (four national parks and two wildlife reserves) on Sumatra, at least three (two national parks and one wildlife reserve) in Kalimantan, at least five (one national park and four wildlife sanctuaries) in Thailand, at least three (two national parks and one wildlife reserve) in Malaysia, and one wildlife sanctuary in Myanmar. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys to more clearly establish its distribution and status compared with <em>S. alboniger</em>. Conduct research into its ecological requirements, particularly its tolerance of habitat degradation and its ranging behaviour. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah. Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Afford it full legal protection under Myanmar, Thai, Indonesian and Malaysian law. <p></p>
106003557		distribution	eng	<em>Spizaetus nanus</em> occurs in southern Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular and East (Sabah and Sarawak) <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Although still widespread, it is uncommon or rare throughout its range. It may be nearing extinction in Thailand and is declining everywhere. However, its status is somewhat unclear because of the difficulties of separating it from <em>S. alboniger</em>. <p></p>
106003557		habitat	eng	It is resident in evergreen forests, chiefly in the lowlands and on lower hill-slopes, but has occasionally been reported up to 1,000 m. It may tolerate some habitat degradation, having been recorded in heavily logged forest in Kalimantan and Sumatra, and logged forest in Malaysia. However, a study in Malaysia recorded it in primary forest prior to selective logging, but not subsequently.  <p></p>
106003557		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003557		threats	eng	The key threats are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, including within protected areas, and widespread forest clearance for plantation agriculture (primarily rubber and oil-palms). Between 1985-1997, nine million and nearly seven million hectares of forest were lost on Kalimantan and Sumatra, respectively. The impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 has yet to be fully assessed, but fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity on Sumatra and Borneo. In Thailand, virtually all lowland forest has now been cleared, and encroachment continues on the lower slopes of almost all mountains. Despite these negative statistics, the species has shown resilience to at least a degree of habitat modification, even recorded within small lowland forest patches within oil palm plantations in Sabah <strong></strong>(Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106003558		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106003559		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106003559		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Spizaetus ornatus</span> ranges through most of the Neotropics. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">vicarius</span> occurs from south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama </span>to northern South America. It is rare in west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, and is also known to reach<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, but there have been very few records there (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">ornatus</span> occurs from east Colombia east through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, where it is slightly more frequent but still uncommon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Hilty 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is uncommon to rare in<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Trinidad and Tobago</span> (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The taxon's range extends south through east Ecuador, north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> and north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>It reaches<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, where it has declined in areas of heavy deforestation, and further south<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>In north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span> it is also known to have declined (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
106003559		habitat	eng	This species mainly occurs in humid forest, although it is also known to occur near open areas in Venezuela's "llanos" (plains) and in low swamp forest at Petén, Guatemala. In Colombia it mainly occurs up to 1,200 m, but has been recorded as high as 1,800 m, and elsewhere it is known rarely to reach 3,000 m. It mainly hunts large prey, especially birds and mammals. It appears to have an extended breeding season, with laying occurring in the dry season and fledging at the beginning of the rainy season (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
106003559		population	eng	Ferguson-Lees <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimated the population to number in the tens of thousands. Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008).
106003559		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin, through which it is projected to lose up to 40% of its habitat (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting and persecution, but is comfortable traversing fragmented landscapes and has a huge range (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).</p>
106003560		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its vast range.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor populations at selected sites throughout its range. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Carry out research into the impacts of human competition for prey species. Increase the total area of suitable habitat that is protected. Conduct education activities to reduce direct persecution and hunting pressure on prey species.
106003560		distribution	eng	<em>Stephanoaetus coronatus</em> is a widespread resident of sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in easternmost <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span> and<span style="font-weight: bold;"> South Sudan</span>, western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>, southernmost <span style="font-weight: bold;">Senegal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea-Bissau</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liberia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">C</span>ô<span style="font-weight: bold;">te d'Ivoire</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ghana</span> and southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Togo</span>, southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nigeria</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cameroon</span>, through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Gabon</span>, into <span style="font-weight: bold;">Congo</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Democratic Republic of Congo</span>, south to north-western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Angola</span>, east to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uganda</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tanzania</span>, south-east through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zambia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malawi</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mozambique</span>, to northern and eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zimbabwe</span>, north-eastern, eastern and south-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Swaziland</span> (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The species's range in Malawi is regarded as certainly decreasing, and habitat clearance there is expected to be impacting the species (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2006). It has also declined in southern Mozambique owing to forest destruction along the coast (Parker 1999). The negative effects of habitat loss in South Africa are regarded as being partly offset by the establishment of exotic plantations (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005 and references therein). The species is thought to be in decline overall as a result of a suite of widespread threats, including direct persecution and competition from humans for prey species, in addition to habitat loss.
106003560		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, woodland, savanna and shrubland, as well as some modified habitats, such as plantations and secondary growth (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001), and can persist in small forest fragments (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2006). It shows high resilience to heavy deforestation and degradation in some areas (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), although such changes are assumed to cause local declines in population density.
106003560		population	eng	Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001) estimate that total the population could number in the upper thousands, although given its range this is perhaps likely to be an underestimate and they also state that, for this reason, an estimate of tens of thousands might be expected. On this basis, the population is estimated at 5,000-50,000 mature individuals until better information becomes available.
106003560		threats	eng	Although the species is welcomed by foresters in some areas, it is subjected to a number of significant threats throughout much of its range, including deforestation (carried out for timber extraction, charcoal production, the encroachment of agriculture and plantations, shifting cultivation and mining), competition from humans for prey species (with apparently unsustainable levels of exploitation for bushmeat in some areas), direct persecution in an estimated 90% of its range (e.g. for food, arrow-fletching, witchcraft, ornaments and its pest status and threat to humans) and human disturbance (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005, Thomsett 2011). In Ghana, it is threatened by deforestation and hunting, including of its main prey (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Some once-occupied areas in Ghana have now been almost totally deforested, whilst others, such as Bosomoa Forest Reserve, have been converted to teak plantations (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species may have altered its diet to partly accommodate declines in primate abundance in parts of Ghana, but its population is unlikely not to have been affected by such a dramatic decline in its prey base (which has probably worsened further since the mid-1990s) (B. Phalan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  Although the species appears to be doing well at Udzungwa, Tanzania, it  may be absent as a breeding species from several areas (e.g. Uzungwa  scarp, Kising’a-Rugaro, New Dabaga), owing to prey depletion by humans  (T. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In Nigeria, it seems likely that the population has been impacted by widespread forest clearance in the south of the country (P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003561		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several national parks and other protected areas in Venezuela, Colombia<strong> </strong>and Ecuador (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Y. Molina <em>in litt.</em> 2010, H. Vargas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. A conservation and monitoring project on the east slope of the Eastern Andes of Colombia is seeking to identify priority areas for conservation as well as addressing conflicts between chicken owners and eagles (C. Márquez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat fragmentation. Attempt to obtain an accurate global population estimate of this difficult to survey species. Expand network of protected areas to include large core areas of mountain slope primary forest.  Investigate methods to protect backyard chickens from eagle predation</span> (C. Márquez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, H. Vargas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106003561		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive but narrow and altitudinally restricted linear distribution on the coastal ranges of north-central <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Carabobo and Aragua) and north-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (Santa Marta Mountains), and from the subtropical slopes of the Andes from Venezuela (Mérida and Perijá Mountains) through Colombia, <strong>Ecuador</strong> and <strong>Peru</strong> to west-central <strong>Bolivia</strong> and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong><strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Thiollay 1994, Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is thought to be rare and patchily distributed but its status is very poorly known (Thiollay 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001)<strong></strong>. A recent population estimate indicated that the total population may not exceed 1,000 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001), however, the Venezuelan population is estimated to be in the low hundreds<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2003), a maximum of 200 individuals are estimated to reside in Ecuador<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong> </strong>(Ridgely and Greenfield 2001), and a large stretch of suitable habitat on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Colombia, from Huila to Meta department, is also thought to hold a few hundred individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. Donegan <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The population in Argentina may be small (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001), and whilst there is an unquantified number in Peru and Bolivia, it remains rare.&#160;<p></p>
106003561		habitat	eng	It is found on heavily forested mountain slopes, probably occurring mostly in large valleys, usually at 1,500-2,800 m, but recorded from sea-level to 3,500 m<strong></strong><strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Thiollay 1994). It has been observed in some partially logged tracts of forest, but this is perhaps as a direct result of extensive primary forest loss in the subtropical zone (Thiollay 1994). Despite such observations, it is considered that the the species requires some undisturbed primary motane forest in at least part of its large home range<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It has been recorded feeding on a variety of mammals and birds, and its breeding season in Colombia and Bolivia is thought to be between February and September<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Chickens comprised over a third of prey items at one nest in Colombia (Márquez and Delgado 2010).<p></p>
106003561		population	eng	The population in Venezuela has been estimated in the low hundreds (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2003). Opinions on the population in Colombia differ: one population alone is thought to support a few hundred individuals (T. Donegan <em>in litt.</em> 2010), or the total population may be fewer than 100 adults (C. Márquez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population in Ecuador is thought to consist a maximum of 200 mature individuals. The global population has been estimated to be larger than 1,000 individuals<strong></strong> (T. Donegan <em>in litt.</em> 2010, Y. Molina <em>in litt.</em> 2010) or fewer than this (H. Vargas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Given that further populations exist both in Colombia and in other range countries, it is reasonable to estimate a population of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals. However, a complete survey of this species throughout its range is needed to accurately quantify its global population.
106003561		threats	eng	It apparently requires at least part of its home range to include undisturbed primary forest, which has been subject to huge losses in many parts of its extensive range, primarily due to conversion for agriculture<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Persecution has been recorded in Colombia and Ecuador in response to predation of chickens (Márquez and Delgado 2010, Y. Molina <em>in litt.</em> 2010). It is not known how serious a threat this is, but in one Colombian study, eight cases of eagle persecution and killing were noted (Márquez and Delgado 2010). As larger extensions of forest are colonised, eagles may come into more frequent contact with humans and livestock (C. Márquez <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, H. Vargas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003562		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of national parks and other protected areas across its large range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Initiate a coordinated continent-wide monitoring programme to obtain an up-to-date population estimate and track the species's trends. In areas where the species is declining, raise awareness of threats amongst local people, particularly livestock herders. Monitor and tackle the capture and trade of the species. <p></p>
106003562		distribution	eng	<em>Sagittarius serpentarius</em> occurs in sub-Saharan Africa, from southern <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>The Gambia</strong> and northern<strong> Guinea</strong> eastwards, north of the forest zone, through southern <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, southern areas of <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>,&#160; <strong>Sudan</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Sudan </span>and northern parts of <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong> and the <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, to <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and north-western <strong>Somalia</strong>, and south through eastern areas of the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>, to southern Africa, including<strong> Angola</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> and <strong>South Africa</strong><sup>1</sup>. It is variably described as common to rare and localised, and is sedentary in some parts of its range and nomadic in others (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Ad-hoc records, localised surveys and anecdotal observations indicate an apparent decline in many parts of the species's range, with some of the strongest evidence suggesting rapid declines in Tanzania since the late 1990s and in South Africa between 1987-1991 and 2007-2010 (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003562		habitat	eng	The species inhabits grasslands, ranging from open plains to lightly wooded savanna, but is also found in agricultural areas and sub-desert (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It ranges from sea-level to 3,000 m. A variety of prey is consumed, primarily insects and rodents, but also other mammals, lizards, snakes, eggs, young birds and amphibians. Breeding occurs throughout the year and the species typically nests in a flat-topped <em>Acacia</em> or other thorny tree, where it constructs a flattened stick structure (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003562		population	eng	Although the species occurs across a vast range, surveyed densities suggest that the total population size does not exceed a five-figure number.
106003562		threats	eng	Although the species may benefit from deforestation, such positive effects may be outweighed by the negative impacts of spreading cultivation and urbanisation (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001<strong><sup></sup></strong>). The excessive burning of grasslands may suppress populations of prey species, whilst the intensive grazing of livestock is also probably degrading otherwise suitable habitat (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance by humans, probably most often herders, is likely to negatively affect breeding. The species is captured and traded in apparently small numbers; however, it is unknown how many die in captivity and transit. Direct hunting and nest-raiding for other uses and indiscriminate poisoning at waterholes are also potential threats. These human-induced threats may compound the effects of severe droughts in some areas (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003563		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003565		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003567		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003568		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is officially protected by Falklands Islands (Malvinas) law.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor breeding population on at least one island (including ringing to monitor juvenile mortality rate)<strong> </strong>(R. Woods 2006). Study ecology, dispersal, population dynamics and survival<strong> </strong>(R. Woods 2006). Assess incidence of damage to livestock and evaluate impact of species on sheep farming, then begin dialogue with farmers<strong> </strong>(R. Woods 2006). <p></p>
106003568		distribution	eng	<em>Phalcoboenus australis</em> is restricted to isolated shores, rookeries and islets off extreme south <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong>, including the south and east coasts of Isla Grande on Tierra del Fuego, Isla de los Estados, Navarino and Cape Horn, and the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong><strong></strong> (Bierregaard 1994, <strong></strong> Strange 1996). It is rare in much of its range<strong></strong> (Bierregaard 1994), but locally numerous on some of the smaller islands in the west Falklands<strong></strong> (Strange 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1983-1992, the population on the Falklands was estimated at 500-900 breeding pairs, with more recent surveys suggesting 500-650 pairs (R. Woods <em>in litt.</em> 1998). A 2006 survey found that the breeding population had not increased despite the species being protected by law since 1999 but was stable at around 500 pairs<strong> </strong>(R. Woods 2006). <em> <p></p></em>
106003568		habitat	eng	It occurs in open lowlands, from the tidal zone perhaps to low coastal mountains, and most typically along rocky coasts<strong></strong> (Bierregaard 1994), feeding on dead adults and chicks of colonial seabirds, and insects and grubs along the tidal zone<strong></strong> (Bierregaard 1994). It will attack weak or stranded sheep and, in groups, wild geese (Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991).  <p></p>
106003568		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106003568		threats	eng	It was heavily persecuted in the past on the Falklands<strong></strong> (Bierregaard 1994), and is much reduced in numbers<strong></strong> (Woods 1988). The immature population is probably only capable of replacing losses in the breeding population<strong></strong> (Strange 1996), but none of the populations seem to be facing any major threats. <p></p>
106003573		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003574		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003575		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Los Farallones de Cali National Park, which could hold a significant population, Río Ñambi and El Pangan Nature Reserves (Colombia) (R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong>,</strong> (Wege and Long 1995); and Cotacachi-Cayapas and Mache-Chindul ecological reserves, Jatun Sacha Bilsa Reserve, Awacachi Corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, Milpe Reserve and probably also in the Canandé Reserve (Ecuador)<strong> </strong>(K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999),<strong></strong> (Jahn et al. 2002, Krabbe and Nilsson 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, <strong></strong>P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey less well-known areas, notably Los Farallones de Cali National Park (Wege and Long 1995). Design and implement an action plan for the species and its habitat (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Designate the Awá Reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve<strong></strong> (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, <strong></strong>P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn in press a). Sustainably manage the buffer zone to the Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, <strong></strong>P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement population monitoring programs (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Consolidate protection of the Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas ecological reserves through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting and colonisation inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  <p></p>
106003575		distribution	eng	<em>Micrastur plumbeus</em> is restricted to the Pacific slope and lowlands in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Chocó, Valle de Cauca, Cauca and Nariño) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas and Pichincha). It was not recorded in Colombia in 1959-1992 but, since then, two sites in Valle de Cauca and four sites in Nariño have been discovered<strong></strong>  (Wege and Long 1995, <strong></strong> N. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, including four pairs studied in the c.20 km<sup>2</sup> Río Ñambi Community Nature Reserve (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). In Ecuador, from 1959-1998 there were only single records from three sites<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong>,&#160;</strong><strong></strong>N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1999), but the number of known locations has been increasing considerably in recent years, and now includes at least seven sites in Esmeraldas<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, <strong></strong>P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn in press a) and two sites in Pichincha<strong> </strong>(N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Jahn et al. 2002, Krabbe and Nilsson 2003). It is described as rare<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986), but is likely overlooked.  <p></p>
106003575		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid and wet, lowland, foothill and premontane forest to 1,500 m, and is dependent on undisturbed closed-canopy habitat<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000<strong></strong>). It preys largely on small, ground-dwelling animals, notably <em>Anolis</em> lizards (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). It has a relatively small home range during the breeding season (March-August) (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Nests are placed in tree-cavities (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000).  <p></p>
106003575		population	eng	In its ideal habitat, continuous primary wet premontane forest, the species has an estimated population density of about 4 adults / km<SUP>2</SUP>, calculated on the basis of extensive visual and auditory transect-mapping samples in Esmeraldas. However, it is much rarer in the lowlands and disturbed habitat. Based on this density data, and the species's Extent of Occurrence, the population is estimated to number 4,960-49,600 individuals. It is precautionarily placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals (Jahn <I>in litt.</I> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <I>in litt.</I> 2007).
106003575		threats	eng	The Chocó region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997). By 1996, in western Ecuador the remnant cover of evergreen lowland and premontane forests was only 18% and 40% respectively<strong></strong> (Sierra 1999). In Esmeraldas, annual deforestation rates in the lowlands (&lt;300m) were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest &gt;38% during the last decade<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007). During the same period, the cover of primary premontane forest (300-1300m) was reduced by 7%<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007). During the same period, the cover of primary premontane forest (300-1300m) was reduced by 7%<strong></strong> (Cárdenas 2007). Infrastructural improvement, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, in the region has led to logging, hunting, small-scale agriculture, illegal coca plantations and gold mining in formerly pristine areas<strong></strong> (Salaman 1994, Wege and Long 1995, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Salaman and Stiles 1996)<strong></strong>, and already affects some key protected areas<strong></strong> (Jahn in press a, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, <strong></strong>P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). There is intensive agricultural development, especially oil-palm and banana plantations, and cattle-farming<strong></strong> (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, P. Coopmans <em> in litt</em>. 1998, Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). International investment in the region has been lacking in concern for the environment (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). The combination of these factors has resulted in a high and increasing rate of deforestation, particularly in Ecuador, Nariño and along new roads<strong></strong>  (Salaman 1994, Salaman and Stiles 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000).  <p></p>
106003578		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003579		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106003582		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Conduct searches in suitable habitat to investigate the assumption that significant populations are undiscovered. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range. Determine the level of hunting of this species and its affects on population levels.  Conduct local education programmes to discourage hunting. Protect large areas of dry dipterocarp forest where it is known and suspected to occur. <p></p>
106003582		distribution	eng	<em>Polihierax insignis </em>occurs in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (previously widespread and locally abundant; it now appears scarce or uncommon, although the large quantity of suitable habitat remaining suggests that healthy populations may survive), <strong>Thailand </strong>(distributed through north, north-east and western provinces south to Ratchaburi, once widespread and fairly common but now scarce throughout after an apparent decline due to clearance of open deciduous forest habitat), <strong>Laos</strong> (historically very common and locally widespread in the south, but now apparently local and scarce), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (fairly widespread, chiefly in north, with large areas of suitable habitat remaining) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously very common locally in south, now scarce; only present in any numbers in Dak Lak province) (BirdLife International 2001). Populations in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia are potentially large, but few data are available due to a lack of fieldwork in suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106003582		habitat	eng	It is resident in wooded grasslands and open forest, chiefly deciduous dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest of the plains and foothills up to 915 m, where it uses holes in trees for nesting and roosting.  <p></p>
106003582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local and is thus assumed to have a moderately small population. On this basis, the population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, pending further study. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003582		threats	eng	Although dry dipterocarp forest has generally suffered less degradation than evergreen forest in many areas, it is increasingly cleared and disturbed, through wood collection and burning. Given the high levels of hunting in much of its range, and the ease with which this species is shot, persecution presumably poses an additional threat.  <p></p>
106003583		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003584		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003585		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range. Investigate its abundance in forest at different levels of perturbation. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106003585		distribution	eng	<em>Microhierax latifrons</em> is restricted to Sabah, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it is locally not uncommon (BirdLife International 2001). It is likely to have a moderately small population overall.  <p></p>
106003585		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest-edge habitats and cultivation with scattered trees up to 1,200 m.  <p></p>
106003585		population	eng	This species is thought to have a moderately small population, thus it is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals until further research is carried out. This estimate equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003585		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998), and declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened.  <p></p>
106003586		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003587		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.1,000-10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while the populations in China has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003589		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. Research and management of the species, its sites and habitats have been carried out in France, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and South Africa. A European action plan has been published. </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Encourage surveys and monitoring. Research limiting factors and habitat management. Promote national action plans. Promote appropriate agricultural policies, control of pesticides and zoned forestry. Construct artificial nests. Protect colonies. Encourage legal protection. </P>
106003589		distribution	eng	<em>Falco naumanni</em> breeds in <strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Portugal</strong>, <strong>Gibraltar </strong>(to UK), <strong>France</strong>, <strong>Italy</strong>,<strong> Bosnia-Herzegovina</strong>, <strong>FYRO Macedonia</strong>, <strong>Albania</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>Libya</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Palestinian Authority Territories</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong>. Birds winter in southern Spain, southern Turkey, <strong>Malta</strong> and across much of Africa, particularly <strong>South Africa</strong>. The European population is estimated at 25,000-42,000 pairs, with half of these in Spain. Several thousand pairs breed outside this range, principally in central Asia. Western Palearctic populations have undergone serious declines, although a few have begun to increase again. The western European population has declined by c.95% since 1950, and the species has disappeared from the Ural region of Russia and from northern Kazakhstan, as well as from the western and central parts of the Balkan Peninsula (Davygora 1998, B. Barov<I> in litt.</I> 2007). However, some populations in south-western and central Europe are stable or increasing (I&ntilde;igo and Barov 2010) and eastern breeding populations are also reported to be stable (Galushin 2009). Italy has seen a marked population increase and range expansion since 2000 (N. Baccetti<I> in litt</I>. 2010), and the population in Andalucía, Spain, has increased from c.2,100 pairs in 1988 to c.4,800 in 2009 (J. R. Garrido<I> in litt</I>. 2011). In Kazakhstan, the species appears to be stable or increasing slightly, perhaps in association with the abandonment of villages and livestock stations in the 1990s (J. Kamp <I>in litt</I>. 2010). Co-ordinated counts of the South African wintering population recorded 117,000 birds in 2005/2006 (van Zyl 2007, A. van Zyl <I>in litt. </I>2007) and 98,000 birds in 2006/2007 (A. van Zyl <I>in litt. </I>2007), but it is not clear whether this represents a genuine reduction in numbers or whether the missing birds were wintering elsewhere, most likely in East Africa (A. van Zyl <I>in litt. </I>2007). An enormous roost discovered in January 2007 in <strong>Senegal</strong> contained over 28,600 individuals (most likely European/North African breeders). <p></p>
106003589		habitat	eng	It is usually a colonial breeder, often in the vicinity of human settlements. It forages in steppe-like habitats, natural and managed grasslands, and non-intensive cultivation.  </P>
106003589		population	eng	The European population is estimated at 25,000-42,000 pairs, with half of these in Spain. Several thousand pairs breed outside this range, principally in central Asia. Wintering population estimates include a roost in Senegal of over 28,600 individuals in January 2007, and 98,000 in south Africa based on roost counts in 2006/2007. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003589		threats	eng	The main cause of its decline was habitat loss and degradation in its Western Palearctic breeding grounds, primarily a result of agricultural intensification, but also afforestation and urbanisation. In South Africa, key grasslands have been lost to agricultural intensification, afforestation and intensive pasture management (Pepler 2000). The use of pesticides may cause direct mortality, but is probably more important in reducing prey populations. The neglect or restoration of old buildings has resulted in the loss of nest-sites (Davygora 1998, J.-P. Biber <I>in litt</I>. 1999). At La Crau in southern France, where such nest sites are rare, a population increase in the 1990s may be linked to the progressive selection of ground nests in stone piles, reducing inter-specific and intra-specific competition (Prugnolle <I>et al.</I> 2003).
106003590		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.5,000,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003592		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. A recovery programme, at first concentrating on research, was initiated in 1973 (Nicoll <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. From 1984 to 1994, an intensive management programme significantly increased population numbers. Activities included captive propagation and restocking, supplementary feeding, nest-site enhancement, provision of nest boxes, nest guarding, control of predators around nest- and release-sites, clutch manipulations, brood manipulations, treatment of parasite infestations on chicks and the rescue of eggs/young from failing nests (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. In the late 1980s, the species was re-introduced into the Bambous mountain range by release of captive-reared birds, and subsequent evidence suggests that there was no discernable difference between the survival rate of these birds and those bred in the wild (Nicoll <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Since 1994, there has been no release of captive-bred birds (Jones 1998)<strong></strong> and little active conservation management (Jones and Swinnerton 1997)<strong></strong>, although provision of nest-boxes and monitoring of survival and productivity continue (Burgess 2005)<strong></strong>. A few pairs still receive supplementary food to enable detailed behavioural studies and for public relations purposes (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Research is ongoing into genetic variation so that populations can be managed to preserve genetic diversity (Jones and Swinnerton 1997, Groombridge <em> et al.</em> 2000, Groombridge <em>et al.</em> 2001, Ewing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. In October 2005, it was announced that plans for the construction of a highway through the east coast mountains IBA had been cancelled, with a different route to be used (Anon. 2006)<strong></strong>. The construction of the highway would have damaged the south-eastern forest, home to about half the species's world population, centred around Ferney Valley, which has now become a conservation area (Anon. 2006, V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>.     <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue detailed population and ecological studies (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, particularly using molecular techniques to monitor population size (Groombridge <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. Eventually, consider translocating birds to islands such as Réunion, although not until the endangered reptile populations on those islands are secure elsewhere (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Continue and expand provision of improved long-lasting nest boxes, particularly in the western population where natural nesting sites are lacking.<br/><p></p>
106003592		distribution	eng	<em>Falco punctatus</em>, restricted to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, has undergone a spectacular recovery from just four wild birds (including one breeding pair [Burgess 2005]<strong></strong>) in 1974 (Safford and Jones 1997, Burgess 2005)<strong></strong>. By the end of the 1994 breeding season there were an estimated 222-286 birds in the population, following a successful recovery programme launched in 1973 (Nicoll <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. At the end of the 1999-2000 season, the population was estimated at the time to number 145-200 breeding pairs and a total population of 500-800 individuals (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, divided into three subpopulations on mountain chains in the north, east and south-west of Mauritius (Jones and Swinnerton 1997)<strong></strong>. In 2007-2008 the population was estimated at 500-600 individuals by Dale (2008); 800-1,000 individuals were estimated in 2005 (Burgess 2005, Mauritian Wildlife Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong> but it is now thought unlikely that the population ever approached 1,000 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), and may have only peaked at 350-500 individuals at the end of the 1990s (C. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). By 2011-2012 the population was estimated to number c400 individuals, with the small subpopulation in the Moka Range in the north of the island apparently extinct, and declines observed in the south-western population, particularly in suboptimal habitat on the periphery of the range, since 2007-2008 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The eastern population is stable and appears to be limited by nesting sites to around 40 pairs; the population remains dependent on conservation measures (Groombridge <em>et al.</em> 2001) and there is no record of dispersal to other locations despite intensive monitoring through colour ringing (Ewing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Senapathi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106003592		habitat	eng	Its primary habitat was native, evergreen, subtropical forests, but captive-bred birds have shown greater tolerance for degraded and open areas (Jones 1998, Carter and Jones 1999)<strong></strong>. They are no longer considered obligate forest dwellers but also exploit grassland (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Avoidance of agricultural areas may be partly due to a lack of isolated mature trees to use as vantage points (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It preys mainly on endemic arboreal <em>Phelsuma</em> day-geckos, as well as small birds, insects, and introduced mice and shrews (Temple 1977, Jones 1987)<strong></strong>. It traditionally nests in volcanic rock-cavities, and probably tree-holes, within forest territories (Temple 1977, Jones 1987)<strong></strong>, but now even breeds in a few suburban areas (Jones and Swinnerton 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><p></p>
106003592		population	eng	In 2005, the population was estimated at 800-1,000 individuals (V. Tatayah <em>in litt. </em>2006), roughly equivalent to 530-670 mature individuals, however in 2011/2012 this was revised downwards to just 400 birds, including c250-300 mature individuals (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).
106003592		threats	eng	Deforestation by early colonists initiated declines - less than 3% of original forest now remains (Cade and Jones 1993)<strong></strong>. More recent declines appear related to organochloride pesticide-use in the 1950s and 1960s in agriculture and to control malaria-carrying mosquitoes (Cheke 1987a, Safford and Jones 1997)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em>, crab-eating macaques <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, small Indian mongooses <em>Herpestes javanicus </em>and feral cats are all introduced predators of eggs, young or adults (Cade and Jones 1993, C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Introduced plants including traveller's palm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ravenala madagascariensis</span>, Chinese guava <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum, Ligustrum robustum </span>and the creeper<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hiptage benghalensis </span>have invaded much of the species's habitat, particularly in the north of the island (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Cade 2008). This may reduce the kestrel's hunting efficiency (Cade 2008). Birds in suboptimal habitat in the west have been lost when natural nest sites are absent (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In addition the species suffered extreme loss of genetic variation and high rates of inbreeding, due to the population bottleneck, which are considered sufficient to affect the long-term viability of the population (Ewing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Climate change may be affecting the species through the increase in wet days at the start of the breeding season leading to laying date becoming later (Senapathi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106003593		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The Morne Seychellois National Park on Mahé covers almost 25% of the island and provides a safe refuge (N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species was reintroduced to Praslin in 1977 (Watson 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nature Seychelles is presently introducing predator-proof nest boxes on Praslin and initiating awareness campaigns through the Wildlife Clubs of Seychelles (Millett <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research factors influencing its density (N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and population dynamics (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the effect of urbanisation (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue nest protection and awareness campaign on Praslin<strong> </strong>(Millett <em>et al.</em> 2003). Continue habitat protection on Mahé (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, possibly through extension of the Morne Seychellois National Park (G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em> and rats around nesting sites on Praslin (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure no return to widespread pesticide use (N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess translocation possibilities (R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Raise public awareness of the species's value, and the need to protect nest-sites in buildings; particularly on Praslin (Rocamora 1997a, N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Millett <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Resume long term monitoring (G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003593		distribution	eng	<em>Falco araea</em> is found on the granitic islands of the <strong>Seychelles</strong>, with a total of c.420-430 pairs in 2008, the majority on Mahé (plus a few on its satellite island, Watson 2000a, Pandolfi and Barilari 2009)<strong></strong>, 40-50 pairs on Silhouette, and a few pairs on Praslin and Ile du Nord. There are frequent records from La Digue but no recent evidence of breeding (N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. At least one pair has also been heard on Félicité (Shah and Parr in prep.)<strong></strong>. Considerable development and habitat alteration have taken place on Mahé since 2002, suggesting that a population increase since then is unlikely, and that a decline could have occurred (N. Doak <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Genetic analysis suggests that the global population underwent a crash some time between 1940 and the early 1970s, and at one time numbered as few as eight (3.5-22) individuals, which is compatible with claims that there were fewer than 30 birds on Mahé during the 1960s (Groombridge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003593		habitat	eng	It inhabits native, evergreen, upland forests, but is now found in secondary rainforest and coconut plantations on Mahé. It hunts indigenous lizards (mainly geckos <em>Phelsuma</em> spp.) (G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, insects, small birds and mice (Watson 1981, Watson 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting is predominantly on cliffs above 200 m, and less successfully - probably due to predation (Watson 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> -<strong><sup> </sup></strong>at lower elevations on buildings, in holes in trees and in old Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> nests (Loustau-Lalanne 1962)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small territories are occupied year-round, but only one brood is reared per year (Watson 2000a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003593		population	eng	A combination of survey results and records (S. Parr<em> in litt. </em>1999) can be used to deduce a total population of at least 800 individuals, roughly equivalent to 530 mature individuals.
106003593		threats	eng	Reduced numbers in the 1960s and 1970s may have been due to pesticide use or to peaks in commercial cinnamon cultivation and logging, which reduced upland forest to its lowest extent at this time (N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced nest predators, nest-site competitors and food competitors may be an ongoing threat (Loustau-Lalanne 1962, Watson 1992, A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Housing development could be a threat (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the species breeds in urban areas (N.J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fires, and possibly housing developments and alien predators, have nearly halved its population on Praslin in 10 years (S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Millett <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003594		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003598		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003601		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003602		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands.
106003603		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Added to Annex I of EU Birds Directive in 2004. Recent conservation measures in Hungary have shown that birds will occupy artificial colonies, meaning that this could be a useful mid-term conservation tool to stop population fragmentation (P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The species is also included in Agro-environmental programs in Hungary. Following surveys in Bulgaria, which indicated a decline in the number of suitable breeding sites, over 100 nest boxes were constructed and installed in suitable places during 2006; however, none were used by the species in 2007<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Anon. 2007). Anti-poaching patrols have been increased in the Akrotiri area of Cyprus, following the unprecedented loss of a migratory flock to hunters in October 2007 (BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007). Sporadic irregular population surveys have been carried out and are implemented in Serbia, while a nation-wide census of the species was concluded in 2009, in the Ukraine (Kostenko 2009). A European Action Plan for the species has been in implementation since 2010 (Palatitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Conduct further research into the effects of changes in agriculture and land management. Change farming and land-use practices in Central Europe, through EU policy and/or national schemes. Provide more artificial colonies for the species. Prevent hunting in problem areas through law enforcement, prosecution and awareness campaigns.<br/><p></p>
106003603		distribution	eng	<em>Falco vespertinus</em> breeds in eastern Europe and west, central and north-central Asia, with its main range from <strong>Belarus </strong>south to <strong>Hungary</strong>, northern <strong>Serbia and Montenegro</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Moldova </strong>and east <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, eastward through <strong>Ukraine </strong>and north-west and south <strong>Russia </strong>and north <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>to extreme north-west <strong>China </strong>and the upper Lena river (Russia). It winters in southern Africa, from <strong>South Africa</strong> northwards to southern <strong>Kenya</strong><sup> </sup>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001). In Central Europe, 1,000-3,500 birds congregate at migratory roost sites (P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It has a large global population estimated to be 300,000-800,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>, but recent evidence suggests that it is undergoing large declines in parts of its range. The European population of 26,000-39,000 pairs (forming 25-49% of the global population) suffered a large decline during 1970-1990<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Tucker and Heath 1994)<strong></strong>, and has continued to decline during 1990-2000, particularly in the key populations in Russia and Ukraine, with overall declines exceeding 30% in ten years (three generations)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. A national scale survey conducted in Ukraine in 2009, estimated an approximate decline of 23% compared to 1990-2000 (Kostenko 2009). Declines have also been reported from eastern Siberia, where the species may have disappeared as a breeder from the Baikal region<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(I. Fefelov <em>in litt</em>. 2005; Popov 2000)<strong></strong>. In Hungary estimated populations have declined from 2,000-2,500 pairs in the late 1980s to 600-700 pairs based on surveys in 2003-2006<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. 2005; P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and in Bulgaria previously estimated 50-150 pairs dropped to 15- 50  pairs based on a partial survey conducted in 2009 (Palatitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2006, surveys in Bulgaria found the species breeding at only 26 sites, out of 75 known locations (Anon. 2007). However, populations in central Asia appear to be stable, with the species reported to be common in suitable habitats in Kazakhstan (especially in forest-steppe zone with Rook <em>Corvus frugilegus </em>colonies), and no evidence of any population declines there<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(E. Bragin <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Some small marginal populations in south-west Europe are also stable or increasing<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>, especially in Italy (P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106003603		habitat	eng	The species breeds in open lowlands with trees and plenty of insects, on which it feeds, including steppe and forest-steppe, open woodland, cultivation and pastureland with tall hedgerows or fringing trees, agricultural areas with shelterbelts and, in the north-east, boggy areas and taiga edge. It is usually colonial, breeding in disused nests of other birds (most commonly <em>C. frugilegus</em>), but can also be solitary. It is found from sea-level to c.300 m in the west, but to 1,500 m in Asia (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003603		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number 300,000-800,000 individuals, with 26,000-39,000 pairs in Europe.
106003603		threats	eng	Threats include destruction of suitable nest-sites when rookery trees are felled for agricultural expansion or timber<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001; Anon. 2007)<strong></strong> and, more significantly, the widespread use of pesticides is affecting the food supply<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. In Central Europe, agricultural intensification is causing habitat loss, and a decrease in extensive grassland management, especially grazing, is affecting the species' food supply (P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. (2007). From 1980 to 1999 intensive poisoning of <em>C. frugilegus</em> in Hungary forced the species to change its nest site selection habits, and large colonies have nearly disappeared there as a result, with only 38% of the population breeding colonially<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P. Palatitz <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. As productivity is generally greater in larger colonies, further decreases may occur. The species appears to be hunted opportunistically during migration. In October 2007, 52 birds that had been roosting at Phasouri, Cyprus, were found shot (46 already dead and six wounded) (BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007)<strong></strong>. Two suspects were arrested seven days later; they contested charges in court in December 2007, and a trial was scheduled for January 2008 (BirdLife International news [www.birdlife.org/news] 2007).    <p></p>
106003604		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,000,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Korea;   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003605		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 5,900-6,200 breeding pairs, equating to 11,800-12,600 mature   individuals or 17,700-18,600 individuals in total (BirdLife International   2004).
106003606		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A two-year pilot survey was conducted on the offshore islands of northern Oman during 2007-2008, including the marking of birds with PIT rings and gathering of blood samples and unhatched eggs (McGrady <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor a number of breeding colonies annually to assess trends. Research the ecology of non-breeding and migrating birds to assess potential threatening processes. Oppose developments which would encroach on breeding colonies. Restrict access to important breeding colonies. Conduct surveys, to locate further breeding colonies and determine the proportion of birds that winter outside Madagascar. Establish annual monitoring at the important sites on the Daymaniyat and Fahal Islands, Oman. Survey coastal areas near Muscat, where baseline data exist from 1978, to better quantify population declines. Train local people in survey techniques (McGrady and Nicoll 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003606		distribution	eng	<em>Falco concolor </em>breeds discontinuously and highly locally from <strong>Libya</strong>, eastwards through <strong>Egypt</strong> to the Red Sea islands off <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Djibouti</strong> and <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, islands and coasts of north-west and south-west <strong>Saudi</strong> <strong>Arabia</strong> and north-west <strong>Yemen</strong>, southern <strong>Israel</strong>, south <strong>Jordan</strong> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bahrain</span>, as well as islands in the Persian Gulf from <strong>Qatar</strong> to <strong>Oman</strong>, the<strong> United Arab Emirates</strong> and south-west <strong>Pakistan</strong> (Aspinall 1994); a few inland breeding records from Saudi Arabia show that its range extends to the interior of the region (Gaucher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988). Most of the population winters in <strong>Madagascar</strong>, but a small but unknown proportion winters in coastal <strong>Mozambique</strong> and eastern <strong>South Africa</strong> (south to southern Natal), and there is also limited over-wintering in the southern part of the breeding range. Estimating the total population has proved notoriously difficult, and the population may have been overestimated in the past.  However, there are now thought to be no more than a few thousand wintering in Madagascar and a recent review of all Arabian census data, (which is reportedly surprisingly comprehensive for this species), and found that the total Arabian population is probably just below 500 breeding pairs (Jennings and Sadler 2006, F. Hawkins <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Given that the Arabian population is generally regarded as the largest within its range (perhaps half of the world population), the estimate from Madagascar may indeed prove to be accurate (Jennings and Sadler 2006)<strong></strong>. Anecdotal evidence from Madagascar indicates a decline, and this is mirrored by data from breeding colonies in the Middle East (Kavanagh and King 2003, F. Hawkins <em>in litt. </em>2007, McGrady <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>; each of the latter when surveyed has shown a decline relative to previous survey results (McGrady and Nicoll 2008, Shah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Current estimates of the total populations range from 1,000-40,000 pairs, roughly equivalent to 2,000-80,000 mature individuals and 3,000-120,000 individuals in total (Nicoll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Clearly this estimate needs to be refined.<br/><p></p>
106003606		habitat	eng	It breeds colonially in hot, arid environments; on cliffs, small rocky islands and rugged desert mountains where its breeding is timed to coincide with the autumn migration of small birds on which it feeds. Its nest is a shallow depression dug into the ground (Gaucher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988). In the non-breeding season it forages for large insects over grassland and open country with trees.  <p></p>
106003606		population	eng	It is very difficult to accurately estimate the population size, but breeding surveys and evidence from the non-breeding grounds (F. Hawkins <em>in litt. </em>2007) suggest there may only be a few thousand; this is placed into the banded range 10,000-19,999 mature individuals pending new information. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003606		threats	eng	Most of its breeding colonies are inaccessible or in protected areas so it would appear to be declining due to pressures in wintering grounds or on migration. Still, human disturbance may be a factor in some areas, including Bahrain's Hawar Islands (Kavanagh and King 2008, McGrady and Nicoll 2008). Increased pesticide use has been suggested as a causal factor, but egg analysis indicates that it is at very low concentrations in these birds.  <p></p>
106003608		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.1,300,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003609		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003610		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt; c.400,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs   and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106003612		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003614		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Research into the use of exotic pine plantations by this species is ongoing using radiotracking and colour-banding (Seaton 2009, Seaton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the three populations and ascertain trends. Evaluate threats if declines are confirmed. Implement control measures against the brush-tailed possum. Raise awareness of the species's status, particularly amongst farmers, in an effort to reduce persecution. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Manage pine plantation habitat to create a high local heterogeneity of stand ages throughout a plantation (Seaton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010).&#160; <p></p>
106003614		distribution	eng	<em>Falco novaeseelandiae</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and is separated into three forms - Bush, Southern and Eastern - which vary in plumage, size, range and habitat type (Marchant and Higgins 1993)<strong></strong>. Bush Falcon (c.650 pairs) breeds in the North Island and north-western South Island; Southern Falcon (c.200 pairs) breeds in Fiordland, Stewart Island and its outliers, and the Auckland Islands (Fox 1978, Heather and Robertson 1997, Bell and Lawrence 2009)<strong></strong>; Eastern Falcon (c.3,150) is found in open terrain in the eastern South Island (Fox 1978, Heather and Robertson 1997, Bell and Lawrence 2009)<strong></strong>. It was probably once found throughout the North and South Islands, but may have never been common. Population trends are unknown but it may be declining.  <p></p>
106003614		habitat	eng	It occurs predominantly in bush and forest, and Eastern Falcon also breeds in rough farmland and dry tussockland. The species also breeds in exotic pine plantations (Stewart and Hyde 2004) and this is now recognised as a major habitat for the species (Pawson et al. 2010) and extremely high densities can be supported (Seaton 2009). Adults are mainly sedentary but juveniles wander widely and are seen in farmland, orchards and urban areas. Juvenile dispersal may occur earlier in exotic pine plantations (Seaton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Established pairs remain on territory all year and display during late winter and early spring before nesting in September-December. When food availability is high females may breed in their first year (Seaton and Hyde 2008), though age of sexual maturity is typically considered 20 months (Marchant and Higgins 1993). The majority of prey taken are small passerines (Seaton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), although prey species several times heavier than the falcon have also been recorded (Hyde and Seaton 2008). <br/><p></p>
106003614		population	eng	Fox (1978) estimated the population at 3,700-4,400 breeding pairs, equating to 7,400-8,800 mature individuals, and a 2010 estimate was also 4,000 pairs though this is based on the same information (Stewart <em>in litt. </em>2010) Given the estimate is now over 30 years old, and the population may have declined since, the population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003614		threats	eng	The range has been reduced owing to forest clearance (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (although it is still large, estimated at a minimum of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>) (Fox 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and habitat loss is an ongoing, although much reduced, threat. Introduced brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> take eggs. Although protected since 1970 (Marchant and Higgins 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, birds are occasionally shot by farmers, and pigeon and poultry keepers (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, possibly as many as 400 a year (N. Hyde <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003615		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Research on the species was underway in 2007 (J. Schoenjahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop methods for assessing population trends. Survey and record regeneration status of nesting habitat. Carry out regular monitoring of the species in selected parts of range, including both arid and semi-arid zones. Study its biology, ecology, and conservation status and needs (Garnett 1993, Olsen 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Document nest-sites and encourage protection by volunteers (Garnett 1993)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003615		distribution	eng	<p><em>Falco hypoleucos</em> is infrequently seen over much of arid and semi-arid <strong>Australia</strong>. Its range covers eastern Australia, especially arid regions, and northern Australia south to approximately 26<sup>o</sup>S, south of which it is casual in occurrence (Johnstone and Storr 1998). It may have been eliminated from some breeding areas early in the 20th century, particularly those with more than 500 mm annual rainfall in New South Wales, where its eastern limit has also shifted further inland since the 1950s (Olsen 1998). The contraction in its breeding distribution (Garnett 1993) is attributed to habitat degradation, which reduced the suitability of some semi-arid habitat and restricted the species to the arid zone (Olsen 1998). The main breeding distribution now covers areas where annual rainfall is &lt;500 mm (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). The present range is believed to be stable, and it is apparently more widespread during inland droughts. There is evidence of regular seasonal movements between the arid zone and northern Australia, and possibly New Guinea, and from west to east in Queensland. It is always found at very low densities, and its population is believed to number only 1,000 mature individuals in total (Schoenjahn 2011, Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011). These estimates are based on limited information about the species and comparison with data for the Peregrine Falcon <em>Falco peregrinus </em>(J. Schoenjahn<em> in litt.</em> 2007). The population of <em>F. hypoleucos</em> is thought to be stable.</p><p></p>
106003615		habitat	eng	<p>The distribution of this species is centred on inland drainage systems where there is an average annual rainfall of less than 500 mm. It favours timbered lowland plains, particularly acacia shrublands that are crossed by tree-lined watercourses, but frequents other grassland and woodland habitats. It hunts birds (mostly parrots and pigeons), insects (Johnstone and Storr 1998), and mammals, and will also feed on carrion. It uses the abandoned nests of other bird species, particularly raptors, or corvids (Johnstone and Storr 1998), and lays one to four eggs in July or August (Johnstone and Storr 1998). Its preferred nests are usually in the tallest trees along watercourses. In any particular area nesting may only take place in years of above average rainfall, with birds leaving in drier years.</p><p></p>
106003615		population	eng	<p>The species always occurs at low densities and other grey raptors are often misreported as Grey Falcons; the AOO is nominally estimated at 0.1% of the EOO as the species has been encountered very infre­quently during extensive dedicated searching in many parts of arid Australia over the last decade (Schoenjahn 2011). By comparing the range and number of sightings per 1 degree block in the first Atlas (Blakers <em>et al. </em>1984), it is estimated that the Grey Falcon occupies about 0.27× the area occupied by the Peregrine Falcon <em>F. peregrinus </em>(99 compared to 365 grid blocks) at an average of one-quarter its density. Given an estimated 3,000–5,000 pairs of Peregrines in Australia (Olsen and Olsen 1988, in Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011), this suggests a total of 200 to 350 pairs of Grey Falcon (Schoe­njahn 2011). The second Atlas (Barrett <em>et al. </em>2003) reports sightings in 118 (14%) compared with 384 (47%) of grid blocks, for the Grey Falcon and Peregrine Falcon respec­tively. At one-third the distribution and a little over half the density, the estimated population is 550–915 pairs. The average of the mid-point of these ranges, about 500 pairs, is considered appropriately precautionary, espe­cially considering the uncertainty and historical declines (Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011), thus the population is estimated here at 999 mature individuals.</p>
106003615		threats	eng	<p>The 20<sup>th</sup> century decline and range contraction was caused by overgrazing in arid zone rangelands and clearance of open woodland in the semi-arid zone for marginal farming, which degraded habitat and affected prey abundance and nest site availability (Garnett 1993). Localised DDT-related eggshell thinning of up to 15% was detected when this pesticide was legal, but is no longer considered a problem. Nest-site availability, particularly in sparsely-treed inland areas, may eventually become a limiting factor, especially where grazing by introduced herbivores is preventing tree regeneration. All threats are speculative and are largely at the wetter margins of the species's range where it might be out-competed by the more mesic Peregrine Falcon <em>F. peregrinus</em>. The species's eggs are sought after by egg-collectors, and eggs and young may be taken for falconry (Garnett 1993).</p><p></p>
106003616		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003618		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It breeds in Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range. Restrict the use of pesticides and make local people aware of their impacts on the local wildlife. Enforce the legal protection afforded to the Saker Falcons, to the benefit of this species as well. Determine the level of capture of this species and its affects on population levels.  Conduct local education programmes to discourage falcon catching. <p></p>
106003618		distribution	eng	<em>Falco jugger</em> occurs in the Indian Subcontinent from extreme south-east <strong>Iran</strong>, south-east <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, and <strong>Pakistan</strong>, through <strong>India</strong> (from the Himalayan foothills south to northern Kerala and northern Tamil Nadu), <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and north-west <strong>Myanmar. </strong>The species's range has been estimated to cover 4.2 million km<sup>2</sup> <strong></strong>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the 1960s the species was "the commonest of all [the region's] falcons"<strong> </strong>(Ali and Ripley 1978), but is now declining rapidly<strong> </strong>(Ali and Ripley 1987). In the 1970s, a total population of 10,000-25,000 pairs was suggested<strong> </strong>(Cade 1982). Now, the total population may still number more than 10,000 birds, although is perhaps not much more<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001).<em> </em><p></p>
106003618		habitat	eng	It is mostly found from sea-level to 1,000 m in dry open woodland and open country with scattered trees<strong> </strong>(Ferguson-Lees <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <p></p>
106003618		population	eng	In the 1970s the global population was estimated at 10,000-25,000 pairs by Cade (1982). The total population may still number more than 10,000 birds, although there are perhaps not many more), thus it is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003618		threats	eng	Declines have been noted in Pakistan and north-west India, perhaps from spreading cultivation and pesticides, and the species is scarce in Nepal and Bangladesh. In Pakistan at least, the species is threatened by trapping for Saker Falcons <em>Falco cherrug </em>- Laggar Falcons themselves are apparently not prized for falconry <strong></strong>(Ali and Ripley 1987). The main threat, given the presumed susceptibility of the species to pesticides, is the intensification of pesticide use in the region, e.g. there was a seven-fold increase in pesticide use in Pakistan between 1981 and 1992<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Movalli 2000). <p></p>
106003619		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This is a protected and red-listed species in many range states, particularly in the western parts of its range (Baumgart 1991, 1994). It is listed on CMS Appendix I (as of November 2011, and excluding the Mongolian population) and CITES Appendix II, and in 2002 CITES imposed a trade ban on UAE, strongly affecting the unregulated market there (Fox 2002)<strong></strong>. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Intensive wardening and management has produced a steadily rising population in Hungary (Baumgart 1994). Controls of illegal trade were implemented in various countries in western range in 1990s (Baumgart 1994)<strong></strong>. Captive breeding has developed strongly in some countries, including UAE, as a means of substituting farmed for wild-caught birds (Riddle and Remple 1994, N. Fox <em>in litt</em>. 2002). Clinics have also been set up to improve the longevity and availability of wild-caught birds in various Gulf states (Riddle and Remple 1994, Bailey <em>et al. </em>2001<strong></strong>). New research programmes in many parts of the range have begun to establish baseline data on distribution, population, ecology and threats. In Mongolia, the process of erecting 5,000 artificial nests has begun, funded by the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi,  which are predicted to provide nesting sites for up to 500 pairs by 2015 (A. Dixon <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. As a product of the resolution resulting from CMS COP10 in November 2011, a Saker Falcon Task Force was established and met for the first time in March 2012 in Abu Dhabi (UAE). The task force has the objective of involving range states, partners and  interested parties in the development of a coordinated Global Action Plan for the species's conservation, including a  management and monitoring framework. Conservation efforts in Europe have resulted in positive population trends (A. Dixon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain or implement programmes of population and habitat management throughout the range. Maintain or improve systems of wardening and customs control (including DNA sampling to check provenance of traded birds).  Continue key biological research (Baumgart 1991, 1994). Enforce CITES regulations, particularly in the Middle East and Asia. Improve exportation standards including meeting IATA transportation specifications. Improve import regulations, staff capacity and practices (quarantine facilities). Monitor markets to quantify falcon trade. Develop existing microchipping schemes to help monitor and regulate trade and quantify its effects. Increase awareness of health and conservation issues among falconers. Continue studying, monitoring and censusing the species throughout its range. Maintain ecologically and socially sustainable grazing systems to ensure long-term survival of key prey species. Bring greater protection (against conversion, degradation and pollution) to key breeding environments (Baumgart 1991, Bailey <em>et al. </em>2001, Fox 2002, <strong></strong>ERWDA 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003619		distribution	eng	<em>Falco cherrug</em> occurs in a wide range across the Palearctic region from eastern Europe to western China, breeding in <strong>Austria</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Czech Republic</strong>, <strong>Slovakia</strong>, <strong>Serbia &amp; Montenegro</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Russian Federation</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>China</strong>, and at least formerly in <strong>Turkmenistan</strong> and probably Afghanistan, possibly India (Ladakh), with wintering or passage populations regularly in <strong>Italy</strong>, <strong>Malta</strong>, <strong>Cyprus</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Libya</strong>, <strong>Sudan, South Sudan, </strong><strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Yemen</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>, <strong>UAE</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>Kuwait</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong> and <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, with much smaller numbers or vagrants reaching many other countries (Baumgart 1991, 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Snow and Perrins 1998, Haines 2002, ERWDA 2003)<strong></strong>. The historical and present global population size remains subject to considerable uncertainty; however, a revised analysis of available data has resulted in a global population estimate of c.17,400-28,800 breeding pairs (median c.22,100) in 1990, incorporating estimates for the most important range states as given by Moshkin (2010), with the largest numbers in China (3,000-7,000 pairs, median 5,000), Kazakhstan (4,808-5,628 pairs, median 5,218), Mongolia (2,792-6,980 pairs, median 3,884) and Russia (5,700-7,300 pairs, median 6,500), in addition to collated estimates for other countries (Haines 2002, Dixon 2007, 2009). A total population of c.6,400-15,400 pairs (median c.10,900) is calculated for 2010, including the most important range states of China (1,000-5,000 pairs, median 3,000 [A. Dixon <em>in litt</em>. 2012]), Kazakhstan (800-1,450 in 2011; median 1,125 pairs [A. Dixon and A. Levin <em>in litt</em>. 2012]), Mongolia (2,000-5,000 pairs, median 3,500 [Dixon 2009]) and Russia (1,854-2,542 in 2007, median 2,198 [Karyakin 2008]), and collated estimates for other countries (Haines 2002, Dixon 2007, 2009)<strong></strong>. The populations in Europe, and probably in Mongolia, are now increasing (A. Dixon in litt. 2012), but the overall population trend is estimated to be negative. Assuming a generation length of 6.4 years and that the decline in the species's population had already begun (at least in some areas) prior to the 1990s (consumption in the Middle East was heavy by the mid-1980s), the overall population trend during the 19-year period 1993-2012 equates to a 47% decline (based on median estimates), with a minimum-maximum decline of 2-75%<strong></strong>. Given considerable uncertainty over the population estimates used, the species is precautionarily estimated to be declining by at least 50% over three generations.<br/><p></p>
106003619		habitat	eng	It is physically adapted to hunting close to the ground in open terrain, combining rapid acceleration with high manoeuvrability, thus specialising on mid-sized diurnal terrestrial rodents (especially ground squirrels <em>Citellus</em>) of open grassy landscapes such as desert edge, semi-desert, steppes and arid montane areas; in some areas, particularly near water, it switches to birds as key prey, and has recently substituted domestic pigeons for rodents in parts of Europe (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. It uses copses or cliffs for nest sites (sometimes even the ground), occupying the old nests of other birds (Baumgart 1991, <strong></strong>Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong>. Clutch size varies from two to six, with means from 3.2 to 3.9 in different circumstances (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Breeding success varies with year (especially in areas where rodents cycle) (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Birds are sedentary, part-migratory or fully migratory, largely depending on the extent to which food supply in breeding areas disappears in winter (Baumgart 1991, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003619		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.12,800-30,800 mature individuals, based on national population estimates of breeding pairs (Karyakin 2008, Dixon 2009, A. Dixon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, A. Levin<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012, BirdLife International unpubl. data) that total c.6,400-15,400 pairs (median c.10,900).
106003619		threats	eng	In Europe, this species has suffered mainly from the loss and degradation of steppes and dry grasslands through agricultural intensification, plantation establishment and declines in sheep pastoralism, causing a decline in key prey species; offtake for falconry is a serious problem, which has caused local extinctions (Baumgart 1991, 1994, K. Ruskov <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In eastern Hungary, landscape reversion following the abandonment of agriculture could have a negative influence, as most prey species require short swards that are maintained by agricultural practices (S. Nagy <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere, declines are mainly attributable to offtake for falconry, although persecution, pesticide use (notably in Mongolia in 2003) and agrochemical deployment play a lesser part (Baumgart 1991, Remple 1994, Barton 2000, Riddle and Eastham <em>et al</em>. 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span>Fox 2002,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong><strong></strong>Haines 2002<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>ERWDA 2003). The number trapped annually for Middle East falconers has been estimated at 4,000 in Saudi Arabia, 1,000 in Qatar and 500-1,000 in each of Bahrain, Kuwait and UAE, which, allowing for a 5% mortality prior to receipt, indicates an annual consumption of 6,825-8,400 birds (Fox 2002, ERWDA 2003)<strong></strong>. Of these, the great majority (77%) were believed to be juvenile females, followed by 19% adult females, 3% juvenile males and 1% adult males, potentially creating a major bias in the wild population (Fox 2002, ERWDA 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Another study, however, gives a far lower estimate for numbers legally trapped in Saudi Arabia, at an average of 22 birds per year in the period 2002-2009 (M. Shobrak <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>.  Hybridisation with escaped or released hybrid falcons could influence the genetic integrity of wild populations (S. Nagy <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Nittinger <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau in China, policies to control rodents and herding practices, along with the development of hydroelectric dams and human settlements with electricity power infrastructure, have the potential to impact the population (A. Dixon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><p></p>
106003620		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.110,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003622		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The tree-nesting population in central and eastern Europe declined from c. 4,000 pairs to extirpation, before restoration efforts in Germany and Poland returned it to c. 20 pairs. Significant further efforts are needed to fully restore it across its former range, which included Germany, Poland, Russia, Belarus and the Baltic States (European Peregrine Falcon Working Group<em> in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p><strong></strong>
106003622		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.1,200,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while population estimates include:   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China;   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003624		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its extensive range. Fundación ProAves Colombia has designated a reserve in the East Andes specifically for the protection of this species (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The experimental introduction of captive-bred birds of Panamanian origin is being carried out in the Mountain Pine Ridge of Belize, which should reveal whether inbreeding depression has been the cause of lowered breeding productivity (Berry<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out a periodic meta-analysis of all known records and conduct further surveys to study the species's range, population size and trends. Monitor habitat trends across its range. Encourage the protection of nests by land-owners. Investigate methods for reducing the impacts of Black Vultures and other predators and nest competitors (Berry<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010). Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106003624		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Falco deiroleucus</span> has a range covering much of Latin America. The most northerly limit of its distribution is in southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>. In 1992, a total of 10 pairs were known from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize </span>and Tikal National Park, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>. The species is known from throughout southern Central America, through <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama </span>to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, where it is very rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). From there, its range extends eastwards through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, where it is considered scarce and local with most known pairs in remote locations (Hilty 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname </span>it is also scarce, and likewise in <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, although here it is at least widespread. It is scarce in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Trinidad and Tobago</span>, with no records from the latter island<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. It is rare in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, and is also known to range through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>, north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), and was recorded for the first time in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span>, at Calama, in 2007 (Jara 2008). Declines in territory occupancy, average annual fledgling production per pair and the overall breeding productivity of the population were noted between 1992-1997 and 2003-2009 in Belize (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), and these declines continue (R. B. Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The small population (c.30 pairs) in Belize and Guatemala appears to be isolated (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, R. B. Berry<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011), and an analysis of historical and contemporary records suggests that the species has been extirpated from much of Central America and southern Mexico, and that its range is contracting in South America (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The species is thus suspected to have declined overall, owing primarily to continued habitat loss and fragmentation, and this negative trend is projected to continue (Bird<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011).
106003624		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of habitats, including lowland forest, savanna edges, drier regions such as the Chaco, and subtropical mountain slopes. It also occurs in human-modified landscapes, but only if mature forest is the dominant habitat (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It is found mostly up to 1,100 m, but has been recorded at c.2,900 m (Carrión and Vargas 2008). It is a highly specialised hunter of flying prey, mainly birds, but also bats. In Guatemala and Belize, courtship begins in February and offspring fledge in May and June. The nest is built on a cliff face, or rarely in a tree, often near water (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994, Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).
106003624		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106003624		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011), although the clearance, fragmentation and degradation of its forest habitat is expected to be a significant threat to the species throughout much of its range. The species, however, exhibits some tolerance of forest fragmentation and degradation, being recorded in modified landscapes with cultivated fields, orchards and pastures (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), and it has been found nesting in dead trees in cattle pastures  (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). This suggests that it is not in rapid decline as a result. A further problem associated with habitat loss appears to be its displacement from nest sites by Black Vulture <span style="font-style: italic;">Coragyps atratus</span>, whose arrival is linked to human occupation and deforestation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). The construction at three hydroelectric dams along the Macal River, Belize, initiated in 1993 and still on-going today, has been implicated in the loss of two territories in the 1990s, and has exposed two still active territories to an influx of construction workers, increased public access, the risk of electrocution and collision with powerlines, and increased numbers of Black Vultures (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The species may suffer a low level of direct persecution by humans, and average nesting success appears to be depressed by frequent predation, at least in some areas. The species may also be negatively impacted by the presence of Africanised Bees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In addition, the species is affected by high tourist traffic in the vicinity of some breeding sites (Berry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/></p>
106003625		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Limited surveys in the eastern escarpment of South Africa were carried out in September 2006 (Jenkins 2007, Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Recent data on the species in South Africa are the product of five years of survey and monitoring in the Mpumalanga/Limpopo escarpment region of the country by the South African Taita Falcon Survey Team, now operating as a BirdLife South Africa Species Guardian under the Preventing Extinctions Programme (A. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The South African Taita Falcon Survey Team and the Birds of Prey Programme of the Endangered Wildlife Trust jointly organised a workshop on the overall status of the species at the Pan-African Ornithological Congress in September 2008 (A. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a systematic, range-wide survey of its distribution and population size (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate schemes to monitor breeding success (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study its ecological requirements (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out research into its tolerance to disturbance (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Evaluate the potential effects of pesticides, especially in northern Zimbabwe (K. Hustler <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate interactions with other raptors. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106003625		distribution	eng	<em>Falco fasciinucha</em> is uncommon to rare throughout its wide range in eastern and southern Africa. Due to variations in observer effort and because 'islands' of suitable rock-face habitat are infrequently visited by ornithologists (Thomsett 1998)<strong></strong>, the distribution of records is patchy. Its range, distribution and population are therefore poorly known (Thomsett 1998)<strong></strong>, with probably around 40 known active nest-sites (Jenkins 2007)<strong></strong>. However, the species is easily overlooked (S. Thomsett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and it has been estimated that there are probably more than 1,000 mature individuals (Thomsett 1998), although more recently it was stated that there are probably substantially fewer than 500 pairs (Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)<strong></strong>. It is recorded from southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, eastern <strong>South Sudan</strong>, eastern <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> (probably occurring at low densities throughout the country) (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong> (scattered records) (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, eastern <strong>Zambia</strong> (a few sites), <strong>Malawi</strong> (two recent records), <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (20-50 pairs [White <em>et al.</em> 1994], but recently reported to be in decline [N. Deacon <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012])<strong></strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> (one record of unknown reliability), <strong>Botswana</strong> and north-eastern <strong> South Africa</strong> (seven breeding pairs and an eighth territory occupied by a single bird [A. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]). The species's status in Kenya, as in much of its range, is difficult to judge owing to the lack of previous occupancy data and paucity of contemporary observations (S. Thomsett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).&#160; <br/><p></p>
106003625		habitat	eng	It occurs at gorges and escarpments (up to 3,800 m), using associated cliffs for nesting (White <em>et al.</em> 1994, D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and roosting, often overlooking river valleys. It is largely sedentary and does not wander far from favoured sites (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, a review of sightings in Kenya confirms that it occurs in a variety of habitats (Thomsett 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is closely associated with cliffs but does not have an absolute fidelity to a 'home cliff' and is sometimes sighted away from cliff environments. A portion of the population is therefore prone to wander away from typical habitat. These findings from East Africa are at odds with studies from southern Africa where the species does not tend to wander into flat areas devoid of cliffs (Thomsett 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on small birds (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003625		population	eng	There are probably more than 1,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to 1,500 individuals in total.
106003625		threats	eng	The spraying of organochlorine pesticides in northern Zimbabwe may have reduced numbers there, and pesticide-spraying (e.g. through operations to control <em>Quelea</em> and locusts) may pose a significant threat in other areas, including a recorded case in Uganda (Thomsett 1998)<strong></strong>. Helicopters and micro-light aircraft appear to have caused considerable disturbance to birds resident along the Victoria Falls gorges of the Zambezi, and the few birds that remain (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> are threatened with flooding by a proposed dam (K. Hustler <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Reasons for its rarity in East Africa may include competition for food and nest sites with the larger and more dominant Peregrine Falcon <em>F. peregrinus</em> and predation of young by the Peregrine Falcon, Lanner Falcon <em>F. biarmicus</em> and owls, e.g. Spotted Eagle-owl <em>Bubo africanus</em>. For example, in South Africa, a territory that was occupied by this species from 2006 to 2009, has been lost to Lanner Falcons (A. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003627		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although some areas are protected, there is currently no action being taken to protect the species or to mitigate the threats it faces. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Promote awareness of the plight of the species amongst local communities and encourage involvement in its conservation. Formulate a Species Action Plan. Investigate alternatives to gill-netting along reedbed edges and scaring methods to reduce bycatch. Implement a monitoring programme using a standardised survey technique to assess declines. Survey Río Laka Jahuira to confirm whether species present along the whole section of the river and whether there is interchange with birds on Lake Poopó (Konter 2006). Identify areas with large numbers of breeding territories, good breeding habitat and minimal fishing nets and investigate possibility of designating these as net-free harvest refugia for <em>Orestias </em>spp<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006). Study potential effects of organic and inorganic waste on the species and lake ecosystem<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). Develop plans to mitigate current and future diversions of water bodies such as Lakes Uru Uru and Poopó<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). Assess genetic variability<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). Study effects of increased tourism and if necessary develop a management plan to reduce disturbance from tourist boats<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106003627		distribution	eng	<em>Rollandia microptera</em> is endemic to open, freshwater lakes on the altiplano of <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Bolivia</strong>. It occurs from lakes Arapa and Umayo in south-eastern Peru, through Lake Titicaca into adjacent Bolivia, and along the Desaguadero River to Lakes Uru-uru and Poopó (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Temporary populations occur on smaller adjacent lakes in years when Lake Titicaca floods (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Surveys in the 1970s and 1980s led to population estimates of between 2,000-10,000 individuals, with at least 1,147 on Lake Umayo alone in 1986 (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2001). Surveys in 2001 found just four individuals on Lake Umayo, and 156 adults on Lake Arapa, whereas 215 adults and 45 young were recorded from 16 lakes in the Peruvian range (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2001). Counts during 1997 in Bolivia found a total of 100 individuals (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2001). Further declines were indicated during a brief follow-up survey in 2003<strong></strong> (G. Engblom<em> in litt</em>. 2003), but surveys of Lake Titicaca in 2003 found a total of 2,583 individuals, which was thought likely to be an underestimate of the total population on the lake.  In 2007 preliminary census data found 1,254 individuals in the wet season<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007).  A census on a small section of the Río Laka Jahuira (at Paso Julian) in 2004 found 138 mature individuals, and further surveys are needed along the entire eastern section of the river to confirm the size of this subpopulation (Konter 2006). The total global population is estimated at 1,600 mature individuals<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006).<em> <p></p></em>
106003627		habitat	eng	It is a social species, but usually solitary when feeding (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). It breeds in wide reed-marshes composed primarily of <em>tule</em>-rushes (<em>Schoenoplectus tatora</em>) in places with easy access to open water, or in open view in floating water weeds (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Fish of the genus <em>Orestias </em>comprise up to 94% of prey as measured by biomass<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006). The species is an opportunistic breeder and reproduction occurs throughout the year<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006). <p></p>
106003627		population	eng	Martinez <em>et al. </em>(2006) estimated around 1,600 mature individuals by summing the adults counted in their study of Lake Titicaca in 2003 and those adults counted elsewhere in the Titicaca watershed by Engblom <em>et al.</em> and Rocha <em>et al</em>. 2,583 individuals of all ages were counted on Lake Titicaca itself which combined with smaller numbers elsewhere in the watershed represents a higher population than previously estimated.
106003627		threats	eng	Since at least the early 1990s, there has been unregulated use of 80-100 m long monofilament gill-nets in lakes throughout its range. Confirmation that birds are drowned in these gill-nets comes from local fishermen and direct observations - one study found 100% of Aymara fishermen questioned had found grebes drowned as bycatch in their nets<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006), 45% of the fishermen finding such birds on a weekly basis. A rapid evaluation with two fishermen in 2005 found one dead grebe per net/fisherman/day<strong> </strong>(B.<strong> </strong>Hennessey <em>in litt.</em> 2005) and studies in 2006-2007 found 2.7 individuals per fisherman/month. Local, natural fluctuations in water levels seriously impact breeding success (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2001). Lakes Poopó and Uru Uru are threatened by chemical contamination from the heavy metal mining industry (Konter 2006). Lake ecosystems in the area are being affected negatively by the introduction of exotic fish such as <em>Basilicthys bonariensis </em>and <em>Onchorhynchus mykiss</em> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2003,&#160;<strong></strong>Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Uro communities have recently started hunting birds, including Titicaca Grebes, on a commercial basis to sell at market<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006), and eggs may be harvested for food. Harvesting of <em>tule-</em>beds has taken place for centuries but human population growth and market demand for cattle may be changing harvesting patterns and posing a threat to the grebes' breeding habitat<strong> </strong>(Martinez <em>et al. </em>2006). In particular burning of <em>tule</em>-rushes during the grebes' peak breeding period may be affecting reproduction<strong> </strong>(B.<strong> </strong>Hennessey <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Tourism on Lake Titicaca has increased rapidly over the past decade, and disturbance by boats may be a threat to reproductive success<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). Alteration of the rio Desaguadero watercourse for extensive farming may affect the aquatic ecosystems of Lakes Poopó and Uru Uru in the future<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). Organic and inorganic waste from cities such as Alto is dumped in large quantities in some parts of Lake Titicaca<strong> </strong>(H. Aranibar-Rojas <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106003628		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary, locally dispersive or fully migratory depending on the winter temperatures of its breeding grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Some dispersive movements in Africa are also related to seasonal rains and the appearance of temporary wetlands (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species breeds in solitary pairs, the timing of breeding varying geographically and depending on the growth of emergent vegetation and water-levels (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). After breeding the species undergoes a flightless wing-moulting period during which it may assemble in loose groups (Fjeldsa 2004) (up to 700 individuals) (Snow and Perrins 1998) in rich feeding areas (Fjeldsa 2004). During the winter the species is largely solitary or occurs in small groups of 5-30 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits a wide range of small and shallow wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) usually less than 1 m deep (Fjeldsa 2004) with rich vegetation (floating, submerged and emergent) and high densities of aquatic invertebrates, generally avoiding waters with large predatory fish (Konter 2001). Suitable habitats include small lakes, ponds, the sheltered bays and vegetated shores (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) of larger freshwater, alkaline or saline lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), slow-flowing rivers (Konter 2001), canals (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), flood-plain oxbows, coastal brackish lagoons (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), seasonally inundated areas, swamps (Fjeldsa 2004), gravel pits (Santoul and Mastrorillo 2004), sewage lagoons (Fjeldsa 2004) and rice-fields (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Outside of breeding season it is common on more open waters and is occasionally observed along the coast in estuaries or sheltered bays protected from strong wave action (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). When moulting the species requires rich feeding areas (Fjeldsa 2004). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects, especially mayflies, stoneflies, water bugs, beetles, flies, caddisflies and dragon flies, as well as molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. freshwater snails) (Fjeldsa 2004), crustaceans, adult and juvenile amphibians (e.g. small frogs and newts) and occasionally small fish (up to 11 cm) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) during the winter (Konter 2001). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a floating platform of aquatic plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) anchored to emergent vegetation (Fjeldsa 2004), submerged branches or bushes close to the edge of shallow wetlands (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Management information</B> In France it was found that the presence of aquatic macrophytes was the most important factor in attracting the species to new artificial habitats (such as gravel pits) (Santoul and Mastrorillo 2004).
106003628		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.610,000-3,500,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003628		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this viurs (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for commercial (sold as food) and recreational purposes Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
106003630		distribution	eng	<em>Tachybaptus rufolavatus</em> was endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong> and known chiefly from Lake Alaotra<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. There were no direct observations since 12 were seen at Lake Alaotra in December 1982, and two were seen (in addition to several apparent hybrids) near Andreba on Lake Alaotra in September 1985<strong></strong>. Individuals with some characteristics of the species were also seen on Lake Alaotra in 1986 and 1988<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>A survey in 1999 and visits in 2000 found no individuals (of this or any species of <em>Tachybaptus</em>) on Lake Alaotra or surrounding lakes<strong></strong>. Records outside the Lake Alaotra region were unreliable as species was probably incapable of prolonged flight, so in all likelihood never occurred very far from Lake Alaotra<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(ZICOMA 1999, Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A recent visit to Lake Amparihinandriamabavy failed to find any grebes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong><strong></strong>F. Hawkins <em>in litt.</em> 2009). It is now considered Extinct<strong style="font-weight: normal;">, as no suitable wetlands remain unsurveyed in the Alaotra region (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009).</strong> <p></p>
106003630		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species was presumed to be strongly sedentary since its small wings render it unable to fly long distances<strong></strong>. Some movements to highland lakes and ponds other than Lake Alaotra were thought to have occurred as a result of the degradation of its preferred habitat, as opposed to representing habitual movement<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992).<strong> </strong>It was usually found in pairs, sometimes in association with <em> T. ruficollis</em><strong> </strong>(Langrand 1990). It was thought to have a flexible breeding season, with historical records of breeding in April-June and in January-March<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992).<strong> Habitat </strong>Lake Alaotra is a large, shallow, brackish lake<strong></strong>. Its shores were historically covered with dense vegetation including papyrus and reeds, which may have been important for this species<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992).<strong> Diet </strong>It fed almost exclusively on fish<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>Nothing was known of its breeding ecology<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Langrand 1990). <p></p>
106003630		threats	eng	Several major factors contributed to this species's extinction. The use of monofilament nylon gill-nets at Lake Alaotra has proliferated recently, to the extent that they now cover a large part of the open lake. They undoubtedly kill many diving waterbirds; however the introduction of this fishing method probably only happened after the grebe had already been greatly reduced in number or had disappeared. It is also likely that the introduction of the carnivorous fish<em> Micropterus</em> and <em>Ophiocephalus</em> has been a major factor in the species's decline and extinction<strong> </strong>(ZICOMA 1999). Soil erosion from deforested hillsides, agriculture and sedimentation have lowered the water quality of the lake<strong></strong>. Introductions of exotic plants, mammals and fish, especially <em>Tilapia</em>, probably depleted essential foods for the species<strong> </strong>(Pidgeon 1996), and natural habitat has been lost through the conversion of marsh areas to rice farms<strong> </strong>(Wilmé 1994). Hybridisation with <em>T. ruficollis</em>, probably a recent colonist from Africa, has occurred in the past and may have been the major contributing factor in this species's decline<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Poaching is also thought to have played a significant role in the extinction of the species (Wilmé 1994).  <p></p>
106003631		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is recorded from six protected areas, but numbers within them are small. To assess and prioritise wetlands for protection, a monitoring procedure has been proposed using birds, particularly <em> T. pelzelnii</em>, as indicators (Langrand and Goodman 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Malagasy government has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Initiate a monitoring programme (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct studies to evaluate the causes of its decline, especially in relation to changes in wetlands caused by exotic plants and animals ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Evaluate the possibility of hybridisation (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the number of occupied sites that have protected status. Work with fishermen to develop bycatch reduction measures. Employ measures to control exotic aquatic plants (such has <em>Eichhornia</em> and <em>Salvinia</em> spp.). Target awareness campaigns at farmers in an effort to reduce the use of pesticides and fertilisers. If necessary, control populations of exotic fish species.  <p></p>
106003631		distribution	eng	<em>Tachybaptus pelzelnii</em> is still widespread and reasonably common in western and central <strong>Madagascar</strong>, with pairs or individuals on many small lakes. Surveys in the late 1990s recorded the species at 25 Important Bird Areas distributed throughout Madagascar (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, but it is suspected to be undergoing rapid declines.  On Lake Alaotra the number of <em>Tachybaptus</em> (including a small proportion of <em>T. rufolavatus</em>) declined from several hundred in 1985 to 10-20 in 1993, to none in 1999 (ZICOMA 1999), but 100-200 survive in the forested lakes of the northwest plateau where <span style="font-style: italic;">Aythya innotata </span>survives (H. G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. The current total population may number as few as 1,500-2,500 individuals (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, although clarification is required. The present decline in the population is expected to accelerate over the next 10 years as increasing wetland conversion and overfishing continues to restrict the species to small lakes that are inaccessible and unsuitable for human use (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007; M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007; O. Langrand <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003631		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is sedentary but will disperse in search of suitable habitat (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>.  Breeding has been observed during the months of August to March (Langrand 1995)<strong></strong>. Breeding pairs are territorial<strong></strong> but sometimes nest close to one another, and groups of 150 individuals have been recorded (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Fjeldså 2004)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>It was thought to prefer shallow, freshwater lakes and pools, with a dense covering of lily-pads <em>Nymphaea </em>(Langrand 1995; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Fjeldså 2004), but has also been found in several much deeper lakes (H. G. Young<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. It occasionally occurs in brackish waters and slow-flowing rivers (Langrand 1995; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Fjeldså 2004)<strong></strong>. It appears to be capable of breeding in the above-mentioned habitats, including small temporary lakes (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, where a suitable covering of vegetation exists. <strong>Diet </strong>It probably feeds mainly on insects<strong></strong>, but is also known to take small fish and crustaceans (Langrand 1995; Fjeldså 2004)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is a floating structure of aquatic plants, anchored to offshore vegetation, particularly waterliles (Fjeldså 2004)<strong></strong>. Clutch-size is 3-4 (Fjeldså 2004)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003631		population	eng	The population estimate of at least 5,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 3,300 mature individuals, is based on recent records and results of surveys since Collar and Stuart (1985). Although it has been suggested that the population is now lower than this (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007), further surveys are required to confirm this suspicion.
106003631		threats	eng	The most serious threat in the west is from reduction of habitat, especially conversion for rice cultivation and cash crops, as well as the introduction of exotic fish and intensification of fishery practices (H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007; O. Langrand <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere, e.g. at Lake Alaotra, predation of adults by carnivorous snakehead fish <em>Channa </em>spp. (H. G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> and death through entanglement in monofilament gill-nets are probably significant threats. The introduction of exotic herbivorous fish (<em>Tilapia melanopleura</em> and <em>T. zillii</em>) has considerably limited the development of aquatic vegetation and favoured the Little Grebe <em>T. ruficollis </em>(Langrand 1995)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Hybridisation with <em>T. ruficollis</em> has been suggested as a serious threat (Langrand 1995)<strong></strong>, but there is no supporting evidence (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, and it should be noted that all grebe species in Madagascar are extremely threatened by fishing activities and widespread habitat conversion (H. G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In addition, the use of pesticides and fertilisers in agriculture is increasing and freshwater ecosystems in Madagascar are severely degraded by the proliferation of exotic aquatic plants such as <em>Eichhornia</em> and <em>Salvinia</em> spp. (O. Langrand <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The species is apparently considered a delicacy (H. G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2012) and may therefore be subject to an unknown level of hunting pressure.<p></p>
106003634		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Still listed on Appendix I of CITES.  <p></p><strong></strong>
106003634		distribution	eng	<em>Podilymbus gigas </em>was endemic to Lake Atitlán, <strong>Guatemala</strong> (LaBastille 1974). Its population dropped from c.200 to 80 in the 1960s, but recovered to a high of 232 in 1975<strong> </strong>(LaBastille 1984). However, various factors drove the population down to 30 by 1983, and it was extinct by 1986<strong> </strong>(LaBastille 1990).  <p></p>
106003634		habitat	eng	It inhabited one freshwater lake.  <p></p>
106003634		threats	eng	Initial population declines were a result of competition and predation by large-mouth bass <em>Micropterus salmoides</em>, introduced into the lake in 1960<strong> </strong>(LaBastille 1984). However, increasing pressure on breeding sites from local reed-cutting and from tourism development, along with the murder of the government game warden for the national park during the political unrest of 1982 and falling lake levels following the earthquake of 1976, are likely to be the factors which drove the population to extinction<strong> </strong>(LaBastille 1990). Drowning in gill nets and disturbance by increasing boat traffic have also been suggested as contributory factors<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <p></p>
106003636		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Infrequent, region-wide surveys have been undertaken to monitor some key population changes<strong></strong>, e.g. the five-yearly census of the Rotorua lakes population (Sachtleben in prep.). Predator control operations since c.2002 have included the use of bait stations to control numbers of brown rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus norvegicus</span> around the shoreline of Lake Tarawera at the Tarawera settlement, which has led to a doubling of the local <span style="font-style: italic;">P. rufopectus</span> population (Sachtleben in prep.).<br/><strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor population changes throughout its range. Carry out research into the species's life history and population dynamics (K. Owen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Quantify the effects of introduced predators on breeding success.  Consider reintroductions to the South Island (B. D. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003636		distribution	eng	<em>Poliocephalus rufopectus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The remaining population is restricted to North Island with a wide but fragmented distribution. Occasional vagrants have appeared in the north of South Island since the late 1980s. In 2012, a pair bred near Takaka, representing the first confirmed breeding record on South Island since 1941 (K. Owen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The national population has been estimated to number 1,900-2,000 birds, including c.200 in Northland, c.700 in the Volcanic Plateau, c.400 in the Hawkes Bay, c.150 in Wairarapa and c.400 in Manawatu (Heather and Robertson 1997, Sachtleben in prep.)<strong></strong>. Numbers appear to be stable or increasing in some parts of its range (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Sachtleben in prep.), but the population is precautionarily suspected to be in decline overall, owing to continued threats<strong></strong>. The reason for the rapid decline and extinction on South Island in the 19th century is not known. <p></p>
106003636		habitat	eng	It inhabits small bodies of freshwater such as sand-dune lakes and lagoons and larger inland lakes with shallow, sheltered inlets (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. It also uses "artificial" habitats such as farm ponds and dams and oxidation ponds. It usually builds its nest on emergent vegetation at the water's edge, floating but attached to vegetation or overhanging branches; as such, it is easily broken up by wave motion or swamped (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. It feeds predominantly on aquatic invertebrates, mostly insects and larvae, but sometimes fish and freshwater crayfish (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Little is known about the species's life history or population dynamics.<br/><p></p>
106003636		population	eng	The population has been estimated at c.1,900-2,000 birds (Heather and Robertson 1997, Sachtleben in prep.), thus the number of mature individuals is put at 1,200-1,400, based on the assumption that mature individuals account for around 2/3 of the total population.
106003636		threats	eng	Threats include the drying of dune lakes, destruction of nesting habitat, increasing vegetation, increased human activity on waterways, especially boat traffic, and predation by introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., especially when nesting (Marchant and Higgins 1990, G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Nests are prone to boat wash caused by recreational boating, which occurs on many occupied lakes during the breeding season (K. Owen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Low breeding success is achieved on large waters, possibly owing to fluctuating water-levels, wave action and disturbance by other species. Breeding success on dune lakes, farm dams and the sheltered arms of lakes appears to be higher (Marchant and Higgins 1990, K. Owen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and increases in the number of water storage dams may be driving increases in this species's population in some areas (K. Owen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003638		distribution	eng	This species can be found in western <B>Canada</B>, north-west <B>USA</B>, eastern <B>Russia</B>, north-east <B>China</B> and northern <B>Japan</B>, wintering from Japan and <B>Korea</B> through the Aleutian Islands to California (both USA), and off eastern the USA south to Florida. It can also be found in eastern Europe, west and west-central Asia wintering from the North Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003638		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory and breeds from April or May to June or August (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in isolated solitary pairs (Fjeldsa 2004), sometimes also nesting in loose colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of up to c.20 pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998). Post-breeding adults undergo a flightless wing-moulting period (Fjeldsa 2004) after which they migrate south either singly or in small loose flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) with concentrations of over 2,000 individuals occurring at favoured staging sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). During the winter the species typically feeds singly and rarely aggregates into flocks (Fjeldsa 2004). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on small (less than 3 ha), shallow (less than 2 m deep) inland waters with abundant emergent vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. reedbeds) (Fjeldsa 2004) and stretches of open water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), showing a preference for waters in forested areas or in shrub tundra further to the north (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Suitable habitats include small pools and lakes, backwaters of large rivers, pools cut off from the sea in estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and coastal lagoons (Fjeldsa 2004). In coastal locations the species often makes foraging flights to inland lakes or offshore areas (Fjeldsa 2004), and if foraging at sea it shows a preference for sub-tidal locations down to a depth of 15 m with sand or gravel substrates, scattered rocks and patches of seaweed (Fjeldsa 2004). <I>Non-breeding</I> When moulting, on passage or during the winter the species frequents large inland lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Fjeldsa 2004) or shallow coastal areas (Fjeldsa 2004) with abundant fish stocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), often considerable distances from the shore, amongst islands in archipelagos or over drop-off zones (Fjeldsa 2004). When foraging at sea the species shows a preference for sub-tidal locations down to a depth of 15 m with sand or gravel substrates, scattered rocks and patches of seaweed (Fjeldsa 2004). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates (Snow and Perrins 1998) such as adult and larval aquatic insects (e.g. water beetles, water bugs and dragonfly larvae), crayfish and molluscs (Konter 2001), although fish are also be important locally or seasonally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a floating platform of plant matter anchored to submerged or emergent vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species typically breeds in isolated pairs with more than 50 m between neighbouring nests (Fjeldsa 2004), although in some cases (e.g. on predator-free islands of floating vegetation attached to emergent vegetation beds) semi-colonial nesting may occur (Fjeldsa 2004).
106003638		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.190,000-290,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs, &lt;   c.50 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003638		threats	eng	In North America the species is threatened by pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other pesticides (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. DDT) (Ogilvie and Rose 2003) which cause reduced reproductive success due to egg sterility and eggshell thinning (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Ogilvie and Rose 2003). The species is also threatened by the modification and degradation of lakes and by human disturbance from water-based recreational activities (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It may also be threatened by future oil spills at sea during the winter (although during this season the species is widely scattered along coasts, so the effects of oil spills are likely to be small) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003639		distribution	eng	The Great Crested Grebe is found across most of Europe and central Asia, though it also winters in parts of southern Asia (e.g. northern <B>India</B>). Colonies can also be found scattered through Africa, from <B>Tunisia</B> and <B>Egypt</B> in the north, through a few scattered colonies in central Africa to <B>South Africa</B>. Nesting colonies are also found in southern <B>Australia</B> and <B>New Zealand</B>, with individuals wintering in eastern and northern Australia (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003639		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The majority of this species is fully migratory although some populations may only undergo local dispersive movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds between April and September in Europe, in all months of the year in Africa (peaking during long rainy season) and from November to March in Australasia, nesting either in solitary, dispersed pairs or in loose colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (forming only where safe nesting sites are few and feeding areas are extensive) (Fjeldsa 2004). After breeding (from August to October) (Fjeldsa 2004) adults may disperse locally to large lakes and reservoirs to undergo a flightless moulting period (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), during which gatherings of hundreds of individuals<B></B>(occasionally even greater than 10,000) may form (Fjeldsa 2004). During the winter the species largely remains solitary (Snow and Perrins 1998), especially when feeding (Fjeldsa 2004), but temporary congregations (Snow and Perrins 1998) of up to 5,000 individuals may form in some areas (Fjeldsa 2004).<B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on fresh or brackish waters with abundant emergent and submerged vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998), showing a preference for non-acidic eutrophic waterbodies with flat or sloping banks and muddy or sandy substrates (Snow and Perrins 1998), usually 0.5-5 m deep (Snow and Perrins 1998) and with large areas of open water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Suitable habitats include small pools or lakes, backwaters of slow-flowing rivers and artificial waterbodies (e.g. reservoirs, fish-ponds, gravel pits and ornamental lakes) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). In Australia the species also utilises swamps, reservoirs, lagoons, salt-fields, estuaries and bays (Marchant and Higgins 1990), and in tropical Africa and New Zealand it may breed on montane, subalpine and alpine lakes up to 3,000 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species overwinters on large exposed ice-free (Fjeldsa 2004) lakes and reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998), moving to sheltered coastal inshore waters (Snow and Perrins 1998) less than 10 m deep (Fjeldsa 2004) such as brackish estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998), deltas, tidal channels and tidal lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998) during cold spells (Fjeldsa 2004). In addition it frequents large saline lakes in Australia (Marchant and Higgins 1990). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of large fish as well as insects, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish, shrimps) and molluscs, occasionally also adult and larval amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species's invertebrate consumption is highest during the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of aquatic plant matter either floating on water and anchored to emergent vegetation or built from the lake bottom in shallow water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Typical nest sites include reedbeds or flooded thickets as well as more open sites such as floating mats of water-weed or kelp fronds (Fjeldsa 2004).
106003639		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.920,000-1,400,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000   wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals   on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003639		threats	eng	The species suffered declines in the nineteenth century as a result of hunting for the plume trade (this is no longer a threat) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species was also hunted in the past for food in New Zealand, a threat that although past is still limiting to the New Zealand population when combined with the modern threats of low food availability, modification of lakes for recreational purposes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), hydroelectric development and the introduction of competitors (e.g. trout) and predators (e.g. weasels, cats and rats) (Fjeldsa 2004). The species is commonly drowned accidentally in monofilament gill-nets (fishing nets) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Fjeldsa 2004) with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (Quan <I>et al.</I> 2002). It may also be threatened by future coastal oil spills (Gorski <I>et al.</I> 1977), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for commercial (food) and recreational purposes in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
106003640		distribution	eng	<I>Podiceps auritus</I> can be found across from <B>Iceland</B>, northern <B>United Kingdom</B> and Scandinavia in Europe, and throughout the centre of <B>Russia</B> to the Pacific coast. It also breeds in southern Alaska (<B>USA</B>), in most of western and central <B>Canada</B>, and in northern USA. Wintering grounds occur further south, including the North Sea, Adriatic Sea, Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, as well as the coast <B>Japan</B>, <B>Korea</B> and <B>China</B>, and the USA down to California on the Pacific coast and Texas on the Atlantic coast (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003640		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and travels over land in stages on a broad front, some populations only moving short distances to the nearest ice-free coast (Fjeldsa 2004). The species breeds from April to August (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in solitary isolated pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Fjeldsa 2004), small loose colonies occasionally forming on lakes with rich extensive feeding areas (Fjeldsa 2004). During the non-breeding season the species usually remains solitary or forages in pairs or small groups (Snow and Perrins 1998) although flocks of up to c.500 individuals may gather occasionally on the sea during the winter (Fjeldsa 2004) and flocks of up to 60 individuals may travel together on passage (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on small, shallow fresh (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), brackish or slightly alkaline (Fjeldsa 2004) waters between 0.5 and 2 m deep and between 1 and 20 ha in area (Snow and Perrins 1998) with rich floating (Konter 2001), submergent and emergent vegetation (Fjeldsa 2004). Habitats include small pools, marshes with patches of open water and secluded sections of larger lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> In its wintering range the species frequents coastal inshore waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) up to 10-20 m in depth (Fjeldsa 2004) including sheltered bays (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), lagoons and estuaries (Ogilvie and Rose 2003). It may also occur on large lake and river systems south of its breeding range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Fjeldsa 2004). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish and invertebrates such as adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, dragonflies, mayflies, water bugs, damselflies and caddisflies), crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. brine shrimp, cladocerans, amphipods, decapods (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), crayfish (Fjeldsa 2004) and crabs (Konter 2001)), molluscs and worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Fish and crustaceans are more important components of the diet during the winter when the species is at sea (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of aquatic vegetation either floating and anchored to emergent vegetation, built from the lake bottom (where water is shallow) or built on rocks at water level (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Management information</B> At a breeding lake in Scotland (Loch Ruthven) sedge beds are being extended to provide more nesting habitat for the species (Ogilvie and Rose 2003).
106003640		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.140,000-1,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003640		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are human disturbance, forestry operations around breeding lakes (e.g. afforestation leading to hydrological changes and resulting in reduced numbers of invertebrate prey), fluctuating water levels, and the stocking of lakes with rainbow trout <I>Salmo gairdneri</I> (which competes with the species for aquatic insects) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Historical range contractions have also occurred due to acidification and increased humus content of lakes, and the species is vulnerable to hypertrophication (Fjeldsa 2004). It is commonly caught and accidentally drowning in fishing nets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and is particularly vulnerable to oil spills in the marine environment during the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Ogilvie and Rose 2003, Fjeldsa 2004).
106003641		distribution	eng	The Black-necked Grebe is found on every continent except Australasia and Antarctica. It can be found from Europe to western Asia and in central and eastern Asia, wintering in the south-west Palearctic, east Asia and east Africa. It can also be found wintering and breeding in southern Africa. Furthermore, it breeds in south-west <strong>Canada</strong>, western <strong>USA</strong> and central <strong>Mexico</strong>, wintering as far south as <strong>Guatemala<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003641		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is fully migratory (Snow and Perrins 1998), although the extent of migration varies between populations (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and some populations remain predominantly sedentary (e.g. in Spain) (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). Autumn movements are often protracted, with dispersal beginning in mid-August and lasting until late-November (peaking in October) (Snow and Perrins 1998), with the return migration beginning in March (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species migratory movements are mainly nocturnal, although diurnal migration is known in the Palearctic (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds between May and June in the Northern Hemisphere (Fjeldsa 2004) (although laying dates often vary extensively between years and lakes) (Fjeldsa 2004), and nests in reed swamps (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in small or large colonies of up to 2000 nests (although the species may also nest in isolated pairs) (Fjeldsa 2004). It forages diurnally (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Fjeldsa 2004) and is highly gregarious (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Fjeldsa 2004), both on migration and during the winter, forming concentrations of hundreds of thousands at certain sites in North America and Asia (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). After arrival in autumn staging grounds (e.g. Mono Lake in California) the species becomes flightless for 3 to 4 months due to loss of weight from the pectoral muscles (Ogilvie and Rose 2003). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season this species frequents permanent and temporary (Snow and Perrins 1998) small, shallow, highly eutrophic pools with lush vegetation, such as freshwater marshes and lakes (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) with dispersed submergent vegetation and patches of reeds (Konter 2001, Fjeldsa 2004), as well as ponds and fish ponds, sewage farms, quiet river backwaters and newly flooded areas (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). In southern Russia and Kazakhstan it shows a preference for variably developed reed swamps and gypsotrophic lakes (alkaline waters with rich submergent vegetation such as <I>Chara</I> and <I>Potamogeton</I> <I>pectinatus</I>) (Fjeldsa 2004). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species moves to salt lakes (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), hyper-saline industrial evaporation ponds (Fjeldsa 2004) and reservoirs (Snow and Perrins 1998), or to coastal estuaries, arms of the sea, and inshore shallows in bays and channels (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of adult and larval insects (such as aquatic bugs, terrestrial and aquatic beetles, damselflies, dragonflies (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), midges and brine-flies (Fjeldsa 2004)), molluscs, crustaceans (e.g. brine shrimps), amphibians (e.g. small frogs and tadpoles) (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), nereid worms (Fjeldsa 2004), snails (Konter 2001) and small fish (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Fjeldsa 2004). <B>Breeding site</B> It usually nests colonially in thinly spaced, emergent marsh vegetation (such as <I>Scirpus, Typha </I>or sedge <I>Carex</I>), or on dense mats of floating waterweed, sometimes far from the shore (Fjeldsa 2004). The nest is a floating platform of aquatic vegetation anchored to emergent vegetation (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) such as reeds (Fjeldsa 2004).
106003641		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.3,900,000-4,200,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003641		threats	eng	Huge mortalities are frequently sustained at Salton Sea in southern California for unknown reasons (Friend 2002, Cole and Franson 2006) (possibly an unknown biotoxin, pathogen, impairment of feather waterproofing leading to hypothermia, or a unique manifestation of avian cholera) (Meteyer <I>et al.</I> 2004). The species is also vulnerable to oil pollution as it frequently winters on the coast (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Ogilvie and Rose 2003), and is susceptible to avian cholera (Ogilvie and Rose 2003, Friend 2006), Erysipelas (Jensen and Cotter 1976, Friend 2006) and avian botulism (van Heerden 1974) so is threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. Populations have also been known to crash in winter habitats during ENSO events due to reductions in food availability due to warming sea-surface temperatures, although they afterwards rebound (Jehl <I>et al.</I> 2002). Local declines of this species are also attributed to human disturbance (especially recreational activities on lakes) (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and it is commonly killed by collisions with power transmission lines (Malcolm 1982). The species is predated by American Mink <I>Mustela vison</I> in the Slonsk Reserve, western Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003) and was threatened in North America by egg collecting and hunting for the millinery (hat making) industry (although this threat has since been removed) (del hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
106003642		distribution	eng	<em>Podiceps andinus </em>was restricted to the Bogotá wetlands at c.2,600 m in the Eastern Andes of<strong> Colombia</strong>. It is known from 18 or 19 specimens collected between 1939-1964<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså 1993). The species was still abundant on Lake Tota in 1945<strong> </strong>(Borrero 1947), but numbers crashed in the 1950s due to various factors and the last confirmed record was in 1977<strong></strong>. Because intensive studies in 1981<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså 1993) and 1982 (Varty <em>et al</em>. 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong> failed to find the species, it is now considered Extinct<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). <p></p>
106003642		habitat	eng	It inhabited freshwater wetlands, including reed-fringed pools and lakes.  <p></p>
106003642		threats	eng	It declined as a combined result of wetland drainage, siltation, pesticide pollution, disruption by reed harvesting, hunting and predation by introduced rainbow trout <em>Salmo gairdneri</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Fjeldså 1993). <p></p>
106003644		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Lake Junín has been declared a national reserve. Hunting and fishing are regulated but little has been done to interfere with the management of the water level, which is controlled by mining companies<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). An attempt was made to translocate grebes to a lake north of Junín; capture and transfer were feasible, but that the chosen lake (and others) was unsuitable, because gill-nets are used to fish rainbow trout<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). In 2002, the Peruvian government passed an emergency law to protect the lake which makes provisions for its cleaning and places greater restrictions on the extraction of water (Valqui 1994), but this has so far proved ineffective (BirdLife International 2009). Asociación Ecosistemas Andinos (ECOAN) is working in the area to educate local communities about the lake's two endemic birds. A program involving education, workshops, press releases and a photo exibit is underway with the aim of drawing attention to the problems facing Lake Junín<strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008). In 2009 the species was adopted as a symbol of wetland conservation in the high Andes by groups including BirdLife International, American Bird Conservancy, ECOAN and INRENA, who have called for an independent environmental audit and continuous environmental monitoring of the lake (BirdLife International 2009).    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population and reproductive success biannually<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997,&#160;<strong></strong> Anon. 2007, T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Research the species's requirements throughout its life-cycle<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Prepare and implement a species recovery plan<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997) and involve local people in a participatory species action plan as well as environmental education and awareness-raising campaigns (Anon. 2007). Reduce pollution (and continue monitoring water quality [Anon. 2007]) and regulate water-levels for the benefit of local people and wildlife<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997) with the agreement and participation of the local mining company (Anon. 2007). Assess the feasibility of a sustainable habitat management programme<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Identify a lake for potential translocation of individuals<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Develop ecotourism in the area including building a lookout platform for the lake to aid population monitoring<strong> </strong>(Hirschfeld 2008).  <p></p>
106003644		distribution	eng	<em>Podiceps taczanowskii</em> is a flightless waterbird confined to Lake Junín in the highlands of Junín, west-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It was extremely abundant in 1938, and the population was probably well over 1,000 birds in 1961. In the early and mid-1980s there were c.250 birds, but only 100 were counted in 1992, falling to around 50 in 1993 (Valqui 1994). New extrapolations in early 1995, using a different methodology, estimated 205 individuals<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). The 1995-1996 and 1996-1997 breeding seasons were unsuccessful, but two broods apparently fledged in 1997-1998<strong> </strong>(T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999). In August 1998, over 250 <em>Podiceps</em> sp. were found in 4 km<sup>2</sup> of the lake (suggesting a total of 350-400 birds) and all those identified (over 20) were <em>P. taczanowskii</em><strong> </strong>(T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Counts in 2001, 2002 and 2007 using standardised survey methods estimated the population at 304, 249 and 217 individuals respectively (ECOAN 2009). The population now appears to be restricted to the south of the lake, though individuals are still seen attempting to colonise the north and north-west (ECOAN 2009). <p></p>
106003644		habitat	eng	Lake Junín is fairly shallow and bordered by extensive reed marshes at 4,080 m. The grebe forages in open water, near the shore in the (wet) breeding season (November-March), and in the centre of the lake in the dry austral winter. It feeds mainly on small <em>Orestias</em> fish (which become scarce when the reedbeds dry out <strong></strong>[<strong></strong>O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997]), and invertebrate larvae and adults. Nests are built in flooded reedbeds; clutch size is two eggs<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). It is probably long-lived, and invests little in recruitment per season<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). <p></p>
106003644		population	eng	Different surveying methods identification have made population estimates difficult. However, three surveys in 2001, 2002 and 2007 indicate a population of between 217 and 304 individuals, hence the population is best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
106003644		threats	eng	Declines followed a deterioration in water quality owing to mining activities, and extreme water-level fluctuations. Water-level regulation for a hydroelectric plant supplying nearby mines causes nesting and foraging areas to dry out, and breeding to fail. Mining activities also pollute the lake, with the north-western part rendered lifeless by iron-oxide sedimentation<strong> </strong>(O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997, ECOAN 2009)<strong></strong>.   Dead grebes, possibly killed by pollution, were reportedly found in 2008<strong> </strong>(Hirschfeld 2008), and this is presumably the most significant threat to the species. Relatively unstable climatic conditions, linked to El Niño Southern Oscillation events, may have contributed to large population fluctuations, with a recovery in years with high water levels (e.g. 1997-1998)<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and previous poor breeding successes. Although the population has shown major fluctuations, its ability to recover were it to experience a series of poor years is in doubt. Many individuals died during extreme cold conditions in 1982; similar conditions in June 2007 gave cause for concern (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2007), but the impacts are, as yet, unknown. <p></p>
106003645		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The site where the species was discovered in 1974, Laguna Los Escarchados, was declared a reserve in 1979 but is now known to hold only a marginal population (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997), and six individuals were recorded within Perito Moreno National Park, Argentina in 1992. Its key breeding lakes in the core of its range lack any kind of legal protection, but the population stronghold on Meseta de Strobel is afforded some protection from its remoteness and inaccessibility<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em> 1992). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring at key sites at intervals of a few years (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Survey upland and coastal sites to identify wintering and staging sites (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Write and implement a species recovery plan. Work with landowners to raise awareness of the impacts on Hooded Grebes of introducing salmonids to lakes, and identify lakes where salmonids could be introduced without negatively impacting Hooded Grebes. Study the species's ecology to understand population movements. Identify breeding sites. Gather empirical data on population size and trends. Clarify the threats to the species and the reasons behind recent declines. <p></p>
106003645		distribution	eng	<em>Podiceps gallardoi</em> breeds on a few basaltic lakes in the interior of Santa Cruz, extreme south-west <strong>Argentina</strong>; the only known wintering grounds are the río Coyle, río Gallegos and río Chico estuaries on the Atlantic coast of Santa Cruz (Johnson and Serret 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong> </strong>Imberti <em>et al</em>. 2004, Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b)<strong></strong>. It is apparently accidental in Magallanes, south <strong>Chile</strong> (Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). The total population was estimated at 3,000-5,000 individuals in 1997 with half of these on Meseta de Strobel (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Counts on the wintering grounds suggested a decline of 40% over a seven year period<strong> </strong>(S. Imberti <em>in litt</em>. (2006), and surveys conducted in December 2006 and January 2009 that revisited key known breeding sites surveyed in 1987 (Lagunas del Sello, del Islote and Tolderia Grande) and 1998 (Encadenadas) also found sharp declines; numbers fell from 452 to 51 at Laguna del Sello, from 700 to 0 at Laguna del Islote, from 90 to 0 at Tolderia Grande<strong></strong> (H. Casañas <em>in litt</em>. 2009) and from 198 to 0 at Lagunas Encadenadas<strong></strong> (Konter 2008). The latest counts during the 2010-2011 breeding season found 535 individuals, which indicates a population decline of more than 80% over the last 26 years (Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). While there is speculation that numbers fluctuate dramatically at breeding sites from year to year driven by movements rather than actual population fluctuations (Fjeldså 1986), overall declines detected on the wintering and breeding grounds appear to be real and rapid (Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). Examination of photographs from the 1980s suggests that <em>P. gallardoi </em>was formerly the commonest waterbird on its core breeding grounds, the Buenos Aires, Strobel and San Martin plateaus; the 2009 surveys visited two of these areas and recorded the declines above as well as noting that a number of former breeding sites were completely dry. <br/><p></p>
106003645		habitat	eng	During the breeding season, it inhabits basaltic lakes in the arid Patagonian steppes at elevations of 500-1,200 m<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Chebez 1994); saline and bitter-salt lakes are used by non-breeding flocks and at least some birds wintering on the Argentine coast (Johnson and Serret 1994). Aquatic vegetation (mainly <em>Myriophyllum elatinoides</em>) on its breeding lakes is essential material for its floating nest and as habitat for several aquatic invertebrates that form its basic diet<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Chebez 1994). During the first week after hatching, chicks are fed with aquatic beetles (<em>Limnaea </em>spp.)<strong> </strong>(Chebez 1994). It breeds in colonies of up to 130 pairs from October-March<strong> </strong>(Chebez 1994), but has an exceedingly low reproductive rate with an average of 0.2 young reared per adult per year (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). However, while potential resources for breeding are apparently limited, the resources for adult survival appear to be plentiful and under natural circumstances adult mortality may be extremely low (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). It occasionally establishes colonies in areas marginal to its main range (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). <p></p>
106003645		population	eng	O'Donnell and Fjeldsa (1997) estimated the population to number 3,000-5,000 individuals. The minimum population size, based on simultaneous winter counts during 2010-2011, is 759 (Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). Following recent and rapid declines, and new surveys, the latest estimate is 1,000-1,200 individuals, roughly equivalent to 660-800 mature individuals.
106003645		threats	eng	The two principal threats to the species appear to be climate change and the introduction of salmon and trout to private lakes on the Strobel plateau (Imberti &amp; Casañas 2010, S. Imberti <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Recently the introduction of trout has been correlated with a decline in breeding numbers at certain lakes<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong> (Konter 2008, S. Imberti <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2006, 2009 and 2010-2011 found a number of lakes completely dry and that water levels at known breeding sites were 2-3 m lower than in previous years<strong></strong> (Konter 2008, Imberti &amp; Casañas 2010, Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). Anecdotal reports indicated reduced winter snowfall without a corresponding increase in precipitation at other times<strong></strong> (Konter 2008). Excessive grazing by sheep (which causes erosion at lakeshores and limits the growth of emergent vegetation), predation by Kelp Gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em> at some lakes, an inhospitable breeding climate and low breeding potential have been cited as threats  (del Hoyo <em>et al</em> 1992, O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997, Imberti &amp; Casañas 2010), but the species's life history strategy is apparently well adapted to these conditions (Fjeldså 1986). In 2010-2011 an American Mink <span style="font-style: italic;">Neovison vison</span>, a new arrival on the Buenos Aires plateau, killed more than half the adults in a breeding colony of two dozen nests&#160; (Roesler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). The population may be limited by the carrying capacity of rather few lakes with good nest vegetation (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). Volcanic eruptions in the breeding area may have a negative short-term effect because of heavy ash fall, but a long-term positive effect on the productivity of the wetlands (O'Donnell and Fjeldså 1997). There is oil exploitation on the potential migration route to the Atlantic<strong></strong> (S. Imberti <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <p></p>
106003646		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 130,000 individuals.
106003647		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 11,000-21,000 individuals, roughly equating to 7,300-14,000 mature individuals.
106003648		distribution	eng	This species ranges across tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the north-west Indian Ocean and the eastern Pacific. Breeding colonies are found on the Galapagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, off the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>, in the Carribean, on the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>, on islands in the southern Atlantic, and on the coasts of <strong>Yemen</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong> and <strong>Saudi Arabia </strong>(del Hoyo et al. 1992). <p></p>
106003648		habitat	eng	This species is found in tropical and sub-tropical seas and is mostly pelagic. It feeds mostly on small fish, especially flying fish, but will also take squid. Most prey is caught by plunge-diving but flying-fish are sometimes taken in flight. Breeding is seasonal in places but can be more or less continuous in others. It is loosely colonial, nesting in rocky crevices, or on the ground on small, remote oceanic islands preferentially on cliffs where take-off is easy. No regular migration is undertaken, although individuals can undergoe extensive dispersal out to sea (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003648		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,000-20,000 individuals, roughly equating to 3,300-13,000 mature individuals.
106003649		distribution	eng	The Red-tailed Tropicbird nests in the southern Indian Ocean, and just north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn in the Pacific Ocean. It breeds on islands, but can also be found on the south-west coast of <B>Australia<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003649		habitat	eng	This species feeds mostly on fish, especially flying-fish, and large quantities of squid. Crustaceans are also taken in places. Prey is caught by plunge-diving, but flying-fish can be taken in flight. Breeding is seasonal in places, takin place in loose colonies on small, remote oceanic islands mostly on inaccessible cliffs. No regular migrations are known and adults can be found in the vicinity of colonies all year round (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003649		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt; c.32,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>), while the population of Japan has been estimated   at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106003650		distribution	eng	This species can be found across much of the tropical oceans, including the southern Indian Ocean, western and central Pacific, and south Atlantic Ocean. Breeding colonies are also found in the Carribean (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003650		habitat	eng	The white-tailed Tropicbird can be found over pelagic waters and the coast of tropical and subtropical seas. It feeds on small fish, especially flying-fish, squid and some crustaceans (especially crabs). Its diet varies locally, for example taking mostly fish in the Seychelles. Most prey is caught by plunge-diving but flying-fish can be taken on the wing. Breeding is seasonal in places but elsewhere can be more or less continuous. It is loosely colonial, nesting in rocky crevices or sheltered scrape on the ground on small-remote islands preferring inaccessible spots on cliffs where take-off is relatively easy. It is resident and dispersive, with both adults and juveniles wandering extensively (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003650		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.50,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992), while the population in Japan has been   estimated at &lt; c.50 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003651		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. A national park was created in 1980, which has since been extended to cover more than 60% of the island (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and includes most breeding areas. A lease agreement with Christmas Island Phosphates Pty Ltd prevents clearance of primary rainforest and requires permits to clear regrowth. A monitoring programme was in place between 1982 and 1993. Since 1984, c.20% of mined areas adjacent to nesting areas have been planted in an ongoing restoration programme. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent) (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and hand-baiting measures have been ongoing. Aerial baiting was carried out in September 2002 and proved to be successful against major colonies (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, eliminating over 98% of ants (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the ants have since recovered (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ants remained persistent in 2006, and it was thought that perpetual baiting would be the only means of controlling them (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The bait used so far is known to be toxic to invertebrates, including crabs, and although alternatives have been trialled, an effective replacement has not been found (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control of the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions has been suggested, in order to reduce this food supply (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2004, 2005 and 2006, surveys were carried out to assess the impact of the construction of an immigration centre on a breeding colony adjacent to the site (James 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em><strong></strong> (Commonwealth of Australia 2004) whilst continuing to implement control measures. Develop and implement appropriate monitoring techniques (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor impact of rehabilitation efforts on trends and distribution. Identify feeding habitat of breeding adults and juveniles (by satellite tracking studies) (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Negotiate with the mining company to ensure protection of all breeding habitat and appropriate buffers. Minimise and monitor effects of developments such as the launch pad (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a wind turbulence model to guide habitat restoration (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to implement weed management strategy (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor likely impact of developing fisheries around Christmas Island (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Address threats from global climate change at national and international levels (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the possible effects of climate change on the species (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect nest cluster (c.30 nests) discovered in 2002 (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003651		distribution	eng	<em>Papasula abbotti</em> breeds only on <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong>, though it once had a much wider distribution in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. One female was recently observed on Rota Island (Northern Mariana Islands to USA), though it is not known whether it is vagrant or a solitary resident (Pratt et al. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population was estimated at 2,300 pairs in 1967, declining to 1,900 pairs by 1983. Newly discovered breeding sites brought the total to an estimated 2,500 active pairs, following a survey in 1991 (Yorkston and Green 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which is regarded as the most accurate and comprehensive to date (James 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A helicopter survey in 2002 recorded about 1,500 active nest sites (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the results were not verified by ground-based surveys (James 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Overall, it seems that the breeding population was more or less stable between 1991 and 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, P. Green<em> per</em> D. James and M. Jeffery <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the survey techniques are not directly comparable (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007, James 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's breeding cycle takes 15-18 months, meaning that successful pairs nest once every two years whilst unsuccessful pairs may breed in successive years or take 'rest years', thus only a proportion of the breeding population breeds in a given year, and this is dependent on nesting success in the previous year (James 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Thus in 2000, following on from the 1991 survey, the total population of mature individuals was put at c.6,000. It disperses within the Indian Ocean. Recent records from the Banda Sea indicate either a major extension of its known range or unknown breeding colonies. <p></p>
106003651		habitat	eng	It nests in tall rainforest trees, mostly above 150 m elevation in the western, central and northern areas of Christmas Island (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and lays one egg. Most successful parents can only breed biennally. It may first breed at eight years of age, and its average lifespan may be c.40 years. It feeds at sea on squid and fish. The at sea distribution of this species is poorly known. It was previously thought that cold water upwellings south of Java could be important feeding areas for breeding boobies (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, however tracking studies seem to indicate that they simply forage within 40-100 km of Christmas Island and show no association with any clear oceanographic features (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003651		population	eng	Following an estimate of 2,500 active pairs in 1991, the total number of mature individuals has been put at c.6,000, equating to c.9,000 individuals in total. It should be noted that only a proportion breed in a given year owing to a 15-18 month breeding cycle and the possibility that some unsuccessful pairs take 'rest years' rather than breed in successive years. Despite a helicopter survey in 2002, the 1991 survey is considered the most accurate and comprehensive.
106003651		threats	eng	During 1965-1987, phosphate extraction resulted in the destruction of approximately one third of nesting habitat. Some trees in nesting areas have degenerated, but the extent of this is unquantified (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, exotic plants that have colonised and been introduced to old mine sites may invade existing forest and threaten habitat rehabilitation (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Future habitat loss is possible through clearance for mining (S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2007, significant patches of mature secondary forest were cleared for mining (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Also<strong><sup> </sup></strong>in 2007, a new application to mine a 250 ha area of rainforest (P. Green <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> was turned down (J. Hennicke <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but has subsequently gone to appeal (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plans for a satellite launch pad on the island are not proceeding at present (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The effect of satellite launches on this species is unknown (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding boobies are vulnerable to extreme weather events. In 1988, a cyclone destroyed a third of monitored fledglings and nest-sites. In wind-affected areas, increased turbulence causes higher adult mortality and reduces fledging success. Artificial forest clearings, e.g. for roads and buildings, also cause wind turbulence. Possibly the most serious threat is the introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover 28% of the forest on the island. However, control efforts have been successful (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and at the beginning of 2005 there were an estimated 300 ha with <em>A. gracilipes</em> present on Christmas Island, with densities considerably lower than prior to control (D. James and M. Jeffery <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite the successes, in 2006 the ants were regarded as widespread and patchily common (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Allowed to spread uncontrolled ant super-colonies may prey directly on nestlings or cause nest abandonment. However, there have been no observations of ants preying on the species, and comparison of ant distribution and densities with <em>P. abbotti</em> distribution showed no sign of nest abandonment in ant-infested areas (D. James and M. Jeffery <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Super-colonies alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, and by farming scale insects which damage trees. <em>A. gracilipes</em> occurs from below ground-level to the canopy where <em>P. abbotti</em> nests. There are signs of forest die-back in a small area of breeding habitat, which may be indirectly caused or exacerbated by <em>A. gracilipes</em>, but its impact is unlikely to be severe (D. James and M. Jeffery <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Less specific threats include over-fishing and marine pollution. In addition, climate change may threaten the species through changes to sea surface temperatures, rainfall patterns and El Niño Southern Oscillation (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it is unlikely to be affected by sea level rise as it nests above 100 m (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At sea, birds may suffer from direct hunting and bycatch, but this has not been documented (Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If some birds feed close to Java this could bring them into contact with Taiwanese and Indonesian fisheries (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003652		distribution	eng	The Northern Gannet is found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean with small numbers of individuals reaching the equator on the western and eastern side in the south, and reaching Norway in the north. Breeding sites include northern <B>France</B>, the <B>United Kingdom</B>, <B>Ireland</B>, <B>Iceland</B>, <B>Norway</B> and the eastern tip Quebec (<B>Canada</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003652		habitat	eng	This strictly marine species wanders mostly over continental selves, feeding on shoaling pelagic fish which are mostly caught by plunge-diving from large heights. It also attends trawlers and will form large congregations where food is plentiful. Breeding is highly seasonal starting between March and April, usually in large colonies on cliffs and offshore islands, but also sometimes on the mainland. Young birds will migrate to the extreme south of its range, whereas adults range less extensively but still regularly winter in the Mediterranean and Gulf of Mexico (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003652		population	eng	del Hoyo et al. (1992) estimated the global population to number 526,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 300,000-310,000 breeding pairs, equating to 900,000-930,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 950,000-1,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106003653		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In South Africa, Lambert's Bay and Bird Island are nature reserves and Malgas Island is within West Coast National Park. In Namibia, the three breeding islands are administered by the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources. All six islands have been identified as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) (Barnes 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Oiled birds are rehabilitated with success in South Africa, and the species is protected by law.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Develop and implement a sustainable, coordinated fisheries plan for the region. Develop measures to prevent oilspills from illegal cleaning of ship tanks. Consider the potential culling of individual seals that are inflicting excessive mortality on, or causing extensive disturbance to, threatened colonies (Crawford<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). <p></p>
106003653		distribution	eng	<em>Morus capensis</em> breeds at just six islands: Bird (Lambert's Bay), Malgas and Bird (Algoa Bay), <strong>South Africa</strong>, and Mercury, Ichaboe and Possession, <strong>Namibia</strong>. Historically it bred on four more islands (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Outside the breeding season, adults are generally sedentary but young range east to KwaZulu-Natal, Angola, Mozambique and Tanzania, and regularly north as far as Nigeria, but usually within 100 km of land. In 1996, the global population numbered c.173,000 breeding pairs: 153,000 (88.4%) in South Africa, the balance in Namibia. The total breeding population in 2004-2006 was c.150,000 pairs (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Exchange occurs between breeding localities. Although the numbers breeding at South African islands increased between 1956 and 1996, the Namibian population declined massively. The total breeding population has decreased by 1.14% per year over the 49 years between 1956-1957 and 2005-2006, equivalent to 36% over 39 years (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Over a 50 year period, numbers at the three Namibian colonies fell by 85-98%, with greater proportional decreases in the south (Crawford<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). The colony at Lambert’s Bay increased between 1956-57 and 2003-04, but attacks by Cape Fur Seal <span style="font-style: italic;">Arctocephalus pusillus</span> on birds on nests caused abandonment of the whole colony in 2005-05 (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  The colony at Possession Island now numbers only 750 pairs, and may soon be lost. <p></p>
106003653		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is not strictly migratory and the majority of birds remain within 500km of their breeding site year round (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, some (mainly adult males) continuing to use the breeding grounds as roosting sites throughout the non-breeding season (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. However some adults disperse up to 3300 km from the breeding colonies, moving along the African coast for about 3 months during the non-breeding season (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005; Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Juveniles disperse northwards in April (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>, travelling up to 4000 km towards the equator (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong> where they may remain for over a year (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>, returning to breed around four years of age (Makhado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Breeding occurs between September and April in large colonies of up to 5000 pairs (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>, although it will also nest in much smaller groups (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Large foraging aggregations occur around trawling vessels (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Individuals can travel as much as 450 km in a day in search of food (Mullers 2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species is strictly marine. <em>Breeding </em>It prefers to nests on flat or gently sloping open ground on offshore islands (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, but will also use island cliffs as well as man-made structures such as guano platforms (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>It most often forages within 120km of the shore (Adams and Navarro 2005)<strong></strong>, particularly frequenting areas where purse-seine netting occurs (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>, but occasionally wanders further offshore over the continental shelf (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> where it benefits from the discards of deep-water stern trawlers (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mainly on shoaling pelagic fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> such as anchovy <em>Engraulis capensis</em>, sardine <em>Sardinops sagax</em> or saury <em>Scomberesox saurus</em>, as well as offal discarded by fishing boats including demersal fish (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In South Africa fluctuations in the contribution of <em>E. capensis</em> and <em>S. sagax</em> in the diet match the changing abundance of the species (Crawford and Dyer 1995, Crawford <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest consists of a mound with a cup-shaped depression in its centre (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. It is made from guano, vegetation and other matter that can be scraped together (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Where no such material is available, eggs are laid on bare ground (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  . <p></p>
106003653		population	eng	The total breeding population in 2004-2006 was c.150,000 pairs.
106003653		threats	eng	Food shortage, following the collapse of the Namibian sardine fishery, has been the main cause of declines. In Namibia anchovies only temporarily and partially replace sardines in the diet when the latter becomes scarce (Crawford <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In both Namibia and South Africa, the numbers of Cape gannets breeding were significantly related to the biomass of epipelagic fish prey (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).  Oil-spills are also a serious threat: c.5,000 <em>M. capensis</em> were oiled during an incident in 1993. Guano collection may decrease breeding success, as it inhibits some birds from laying (through human disturbance and lack of quality nesting habitat through excessive removal of guano) and reduces the effective breeding season (Kemper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). The Cape Fur Seal <em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em> displaced <em>M. capensis</em> from Hollam's Bird Island and killed 27,000 fledglings over the course of three breeding seasons on Malgas Island, equating to a 25% reduction in the size of the colony and threatening the sustainability of the population (Makhado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). They also caused the abandonment of a colony at Lambert's bay in 2005/2006 (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), although historically a programme to discourage seals on Mercury Island was largely effective (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Other threats include predation by Great White Pelicans <em>Pelecanus onocrotalus</em> which are a significant threat on chicks in Malgas Island (Mullers 2009)<strong></strong>, by-catch during longline fishing, exploitation for food in southern Angola, nesting habitat degradation by excessive guano removal and flooding of nests during storms (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106003654		distribution	eng	Breeding colonies are found off the coast of south-east <B>Australia</B>, Tasmania and <B>New Zealand</B>. One small colony is also found further north at <B>Norfolk Island</B> (<B>to Australia</B>). Winters in adjacent waters and up the east and west coasts of Australia as far north as the Tropic of Capricorn (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003654		habitat	eng	The Australasian Gannet generally feeds over continental shelves or inshore waters, seldom far from land. Its diet is comprised mainly of pelagic fish, especially pilchard, anchovies and jack mackerel, but also squid and garfish. Prey is caught mainly by plunge-diving, but it is also seen regularly attending trawlers. Breeding is highly seasonal (Oct - May), nesting on the ground in small but dense colonies. Adults tend to stay within the vicinity of the colony after breeding with young birds dispersing (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003655		distribution	eng	This species is found on the western coast of the Americas, ranging from north-west <B>Mexico</B> and <B>Panama</B> to north <B>Peru </B>and the Galapagos Islands,<B> Ecuador</B>. When food is scarce, it can be seen as far north as California (<B>USA</B>) and northern <B>Chile<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003655		habitat	eng	The Blue-footed Booby is strictly marine, feeding in adjacent inshore waters, tending to exploit cool, rich waters in areas of upwelling. It specialises in catch fish by plunge-diving, often in unison, catching sardines, achovies and mackerel, but also flying-fish and squid. It has been seen fishing in the company of dolphins and the Peruvian Booby. Breeding is seasonal in places and otherwise opportunistic, nesting on cliffs and islets in areas with little or no vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003656		distribution	eng	The Peruvian Booby is found in the area of the Humboldt Current, breeding from northern <B>Peru</B> to central <B>Chile</B>, with non-breeders being found as far as south-west <B>Ecuador<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003656		habitat	eng	This strictly marine species feeds close to the coast in cool, rich waters of upwellings where food is abundant. It feeds almost exclusively on abundant supplies of anchovetta, but will switch to other fish species when stocks collapse. Feeding mostly occurs by plunge-diving from moderate height, usually in groups of more than 30-40 individuals. Breeding is only loosely seasonal on bare, arid islets along rocky coasts, mostly on cliff ledges in Chile, but preferring open, flat ground in Peru. It is largely sedentary, but will disperse widely during El Nino years (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003658		distribution	eng	This species winters on tropical islands in most oceans, excluding the eastern Atlantic. It winters at sea in the same area, just ranging north of the Tropic of Cancer, and just south of the Tropic of Capricorn (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003658		habitat	eng	This species is strictly marine and largely pelagic. It feeds mainly on flying-fish and squid with a mean prey length of 8.8 cm. Prey are caught by plunge-diving, but flying fish are also taken in flight especially when chased by underwater predators. It often rests on boats using them as vantage points. Breeding is not seasonal in most of its range. Individuals form large colonies, nesting and roosting mainly in trees or on islets with abundant vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003658		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.1,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration   in Taiwan and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003659		distribution	eng	The Brown Booby can be found throughout the pantropical oceans with few exceptions. Breeding sites include the Carribean, the Atlantic coasts of <B>Brazil</B> and Africa, oceanic islands off <B>Madagascar</B>, the Red Sea, northern <B>Australia</B>, many oceanic islands in the western and central Pacific, as well as off the coast of <B>Mexico</B> and <B>Peru<SUP>1</SUP></B>.<B>  </P>
106003659		habitat	eng	This species is strictly marine, generally feeding on inshore waters. Its diet is comprised mainly of flying-fish and squid, but also some halfbeak (<I>Hemiramphu</I>), mullet (<I>Mugil</I>) and anchovy (<I>Engraulis</I>). Prey is usually caught by plunge-diving and it can also snatch prey off the surface of water. Kleptoparasitism has been observed, mostly by females. Breeding is seasonal in some reas by elsewhere it breeds opportunistically or more or less continuously. Nests are usually built on the ground in the midst of vegetation on rocky islands or coral atolls. Individuals form colonies that are usually smaller than other <I>Sula </I>species (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003659		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.200,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003661		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mainly sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but is subject to little known opportunistic local movements related to drought and wetland conditions (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The timing of breeding is seasonal in some areas, but can be at any time of the year (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species usually breeds in mixed-species colonies (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and roosts nightly in groups of 10 to 50 (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (sometimes up to 100) in trees, bushes or reedbeds often in mixed-species groups (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it is generally a solitary feeder (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Johnsgard 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its moulting habits are little known, but some adults may go through a flightless moult period after breeding (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for still, shallow, inland freshwater and alkaline lakes and slow-flowing rivers fringed with reeds and trees (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also occur in swamps (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, reservoirs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, river oxbows (Johnsgard 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and forested streams (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982), typically avoiding marine habitats (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but occasionally foraging in<strong><sup> </sup></strong>mangrove swamps (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, estuaries (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, shallow tidal inlets (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and coastal lagoons (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It generally avoids fast-flowing rivers, areas with dense floating vegetation (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and narrow, steep-banked or seasonally drained habitats (Johnsgard 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, preferring to feed in water 1-3 m deep (up to 6 m [Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005])<strong><sup></sup></strong> with forested margins or scattered emergent trees and islets with dense vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species requires trees, bushes or reedbeds for roosting (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and prefers dead trees, rocks or banks to rest on after feeding (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists mainly of fish such as Cichlidae and Cyprinidae (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it will also take amphibians, water snakes, terrapins, aquatic insects, crustaceans and molluscs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in mixed-species colonies (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, each pair building a nest platform of sticks and other vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in forks of trees or in reedbeds 1-6 m high (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (often c.2 m [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992])<strong></strong> over water or on islands (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003661		threats	eng	This species is persecuted in some areas of southern Africa because of its perceived (actually minimal) impact on trout and other recreational fish species (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Burundi it is threatened by disturbance, exploitation at colonies (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, destruction of habitats and environmental pollution (Ntahuga 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003662		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas. At Prek Toal on the Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, WCS initiated a scheme in 2002 that employed former egg collectors as colony guards. Together with MoE staff, they protect and monitor the colony throughout the nesting period from tree top platforms. This has caused the population to increase from 241 nests in 2002 to over 6,000 nests in 2011, doubling the world population during this time period (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to discover new colonies. Regularly monitor known colonies throughout the species's range. Ensure complete and permanent protection of all breeding congregations. Conduct awareness campaigns involving local residents to engender pride in the species and other large waterbirds and prevent hunting.  <p></p>
106003662		distribution	eng	<em>Anhinga melanogaster </em>occurs in <strong>Pakistan </strong>(fairly widespread but local year-round resident and irregular visitor to Sind and Punjab), <strong>India </strong>(widespread resident, locally common in Assam, current status poorly known but apparently declining), <strong>Nepal </strong>(uncommon resident and non-breeding visitor), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka </strong>(common resident in dry lowlands, scarce visitor elsewhere), <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(local resident in northern and coastal regions), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(previously a widespread resident, now scarce to locally fairly common in south, status uncertain elsewhere), <strong>Thailand </strong>(formerly widespread, now very rare and possibly no longer breeds, although sightings are increasing in frequency due perhaps to increased protection of breeding colonies in Cambodia), <strong>Laos</strong> (previously widespread and numerous but numbers have plummeted with only a few sporadic recent records), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously widespread breeder, once locally common but now almost extinct, however, increasing numbers are now recorded in the non-breeding season), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (abundant in early 1960s with flocks reported to be totalling several thousand observed on the Mekong; currently a local resident in small numbers and still breeds on Tonle Sap Lake, where the largest colony at Prek Toal has grown from 241 nests in 2002 to 6-7,000 nests in 2011), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (vagrant in west, possibly a former resident), <strong>Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (locally common breeder on Borneo, Java and Sulawesi, vagrant to other islands in the Lesser Sundas and Moluccas) and <strong>Timor-Leste </strong>(uncommon resident) (BirdLife International 2001). The species is generally uncommon and declining throughout Asia <strong></strong>(Perrenou <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <em> </em><p></p>
106003662		habitat	eng	It inhabits shallow inland wetlands including lakes, rivers, swamps and reservoirs.  <p></p>
106003662		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 22,000 mature individuals, roughly equvialent to over 33,000 individuals in total.
106003662		threats	eng	In common with many other Asian waterbirds, it is primarily threatened by habitat loss (both degradation of foraging areas and felling of trees used for breeding), pollution, disturbance (at feeding grounds and colonies), hunting, egg collecting and pollution. <p></p>
106003664		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a sedentary resident and partial migrant, making irregular movements (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005)in response to changes in local water conditions, especially with the rising and falling of flood-levels (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The breeding season varies geographically, although most breeding peaks are associated with periods of rainfall (Johnsgard 1993) or flooding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds in association with other waterbird species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Nelson 2005), usually nesting in small numbers (1-5 pairs) amid much larger mixed-species colonies (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Langrand 1990). It generally fishes singly (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or in small groups in shallow water by day (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Langrand 1990), with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Nelson 2005), occasionally also hunting cooperatively in loose associations with conspecifics or other species (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Nelson 2005). It commutes to foraging areas singly or in loose flocks (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and roosts nightly in large numbers (e.g. several thousands), often in mixed-species groups (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). During droughts the species may concentrate on permanent water-bodies, such as large rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for sheltered waters with fringing vegetation, emergent trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Nelson 2005) and gently sloping shores (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), preferring to fish in shallow water c.2 m deep (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Nelson 2005), and within c.100 m of the shore (Nelson 2005). It is quick to colonise temporary flood-waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and will frequent most freshwater habitats except fast-flowing streams (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), commonly roosting in <I>Typha</I> or <I>Phragmites</I> beds, or on partly submerged bushes or trees (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Habitats include large and small slow-flowing rivers (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Nelson 2005), lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), ponds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), small farm dams, creeks, lakes (Nelson 2005), swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Nelson 2005) and thickets of scrub or stands of trees within sedge-filled areas of water (Nelson 2005). It is occasionally observed on inland alkaline lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and on freshwater wetlands along the coast (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. coastal lagoons) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Nelson 2005), and sometimes frequents rocky shores (Nelson 2005), inshore islands (Nelson 2005) with rocky outcrops and flats (Johnsgard 1993), mangrove swamps (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Nelson 2005), estuaries (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and sheltered coastal waters (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Diet</B> This species is a generalist, taking any slow-moving prey (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). In estuaries, coastal lagoons and large inland lakes its diet is dominated by fish of up to 20 cm long, especially cichlids (<I>Haplochromis</I>, <I>Pseudocrenilabrus</I> and tilapia <I>Sarotherodon</I>) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), but at smaller water-bodies frogs, crustaceans, aquatic insects (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), molluscs and occasionally small birds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) are more important (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).<B> Breeding site</B> The species nests in mixed-species colonies, with nests scattered throughout the group, often nearer water than the other species (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The nest is a platform of twigs and other vegetation built 0.5-6 m above the ground (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), although the height of the nest is influenced by water-levels (it breeds higher in trees when water-levels are low, to reduce the risk of predation) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). Nesting sites include the forks of trees (often partly submerged, over water or on islands) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), reedbeds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), sand (Nelson 2005) and tufts of vegetation on the ground (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), or cliffs and rocky outcrops on coastal islands (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Nelson 2005). <B>Management information</B> Three artificially constructed heronries in a man-made wetland at Blouvlei (Western Cape, South Africa) attracted a number of nesting pairs of this species which proceeded to breed successfully (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 2001). The heronries were erected in open water (the centre of a pond), and took the form of rectangular frameworks anchored by sunken corner posts, with natural poles and branches of dead wood arranged and secured within them to imitate natural thickets (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 2001). No decoy birds or nests were used (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 2001).
106003664		threats	eng	This species is persecuted in some areas of southern Africa because of its local (insignificant) impact on trout (<I>Salmo</I> spp.) and other recreational fish stocks (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species may also be declining at Lake Naivasha, Kenya as a result of increased disturbance by fishermen along the lake shore (this species's primary feeding location) (Childress <I>et al.</I> 2002).
106003665		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Colonies at Mercury, Ichaboe, Lüderitz Bay and Possession Islands are partially protected, while those at Bird Island, West Coast National Park/Saldanha Bay Islands, Dassen Island, Robben Island and Sperrgebiet are fully protected (Barnes 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Management practices at breeding islands currently minimise disturbance. Selective culling of Cape fur seals that are observed killing seabirds has occurred since 1993. This has an immediate but short-term effect on seabird mortality rates<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(David <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population through regular and simultaneous range-wide surveys. Ensure full protection of all breeding colonies (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reduce the prevalence of discarded fishing-line. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil-spills. <p></p>
106003665		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax coronatus</em> is restricted to the west coast of southern Africa, breeding at 48 localities from Walvis Bay in <strong>Namibia</strong> to Cape Agulhas in <strong>South Africa</strong>. During 1977-1981, the population was estimated to be 2,665 breeding pairs. The most recent estimate is of 8,700 individuals (du Toit<em> et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Information from 10 well-monitored islands off South Africa suggests that the population is stable or increasing. However, birds are known to move between breeding sites, and the possibility of duplicate counting cannot be discounted without coordinated simultaneous surveys throughout. With a small global population, and movement between breeding sites, sudden declines may go unnoticed.  <p></p>
106003665		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is largely sedentary, with some movement occuring to the north and east of its breeding range<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1982)</strong>. Egg-laying occurs all year round, but with a seasonal peak in late spring and summer - over 60% of nesting activity occcuring between November and January<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1982)</strong>. At Malgas Island, South Africa most breeding takes place between September and April (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999), while in northern South Africa and southern Namibia breeding peaks from October to February (Crawford<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1999). The seasonal pattern in central Namibia requires investigation (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It usually breeds in small groups of 4-50 pairs<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong><sup> </sup></strong>Johnsgard 1993), although colonies supporting up to 280 nests have been recorded (Johnsgard 1993). It usually forages solitarily (Harrison et al. 1997). <span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat </span>The species occurs during both the breeding and the non-breeding season along the coastal cliffs of the mainland and offshore islands in the cold waters of the Benguela Current (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>. It has never been recorded more than 10 km offshore (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>, or more than 100m inland<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. It forages in shallow coastal waters and estuaries (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, often in kelp beds (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>, among breaking waves or in tidal pools during periods of high tide (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. It does not forage off sandy shores<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Diet consists largely (97%<strong><sup></sup></strong>) (Williams and Cooper 1983) of benthic fish, particularly klipfish (Clinidae) and pipefish (Syngnathidae) of up to 160mm in length<strong> </strong>(Williams and Cooper 1983). Shrimps and isopods also form a small part of the diet (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>This species commonly breeds in mixed seabird colonies. Nest sites include sheltered areas on rocks, cliffs, bushes, small trees, and kelp wracks, as well as man-made structures including jetties, the supports of guano platforms, wrecked ships and sometimes moored ships<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. The construction of the Bird Rock guano platform in Wavis Bay, Namibia, resulted in a range extension of 415km<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Crawford <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. The nest is constructed mostly from kelp and sticks, lined with finer material, and they are often used for several years in succession (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>. A clutch usually consists of two or three eggs (but occasionally of up to five<strong></strong>) (Williams and Cooper 1983), typically producing two chicks, normally from the first tow eggs laid (Williams and Cooper 1983). After leaving the nest, chicks form crèches near the colony. In response to disturbance, nestlings and fledgelings will disperse and often enter the water where they are vulnerable to predation by the Cape Fur Seal <em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Johnson <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003665		population	eng	The most recent estimate of the population was of 8,700 individuals, roughly equivalent to 5,800 mature individuals.
106003665		threats	eng	Human disturbance, to which the species is very susceptible, is a major threat<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mortality due to entanglement in fishing-line at nests is also a concern (T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recent major oil-spill affected some colonies. Predation by Cape fur seals, particularly on fledgelings, has escalated owing to the seal having become abundant in the Benguela ecosystem as a result of conservation measures (David <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is possible that this may impact the status of <em>P. coronatus</em> owing to its small global population size and limited distribution (David <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003666		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. A European action plan was published in 1996.<strong></strong>
106003666		distribution	eng	The species breeds in south-east Europe (east from Italy), Russia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzebekistan, and winters primarily in Albania, Greece, the Balkan states, Turkey, Cyprus, Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan and also Israel, Bulgaria, Romania and Syria.
106003666		habitat	eng	The species occurs in reedbeds, transition zones between reedbeds and open waters, extensively grazed or mowed shores and wet meadows and, in winter, in coastal wetlands, along rivers, and sometimes on inland lakes (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Crivelli et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2004). The preferred nesting habitat is willow Salix trees but, in Azerbaijan, birds breed mainly in Tamarix (Crivelli et al. 2000). The nest is a deep cup of sticks and reeds built near or over water in trees, bushes, reedbeds or on floating islets of vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson et al. 2005). The species breeds between April and July in large mixed-species colonies, leaving the breeding grounds towards the end of August and returning between March and April (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The species is sedentary over much of its range with some populations migrating over short distances (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Throughout the year it normally feeds singly or in small groups (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Nelson et al. 2005). Diet consists predominantly of fish up to 15 cm long (del Hoyo et al. 1992).  </P>
106003666		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be 85,000-180,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006).The estimated European population (75-94% of the global breeding range) is now 28,000-39,000 pairs, considerably higher than the 13,000 pairs estimated in 1996, with an estimated 8,000-12,000 breeding pairs in Azerbaijan and 11,500-14,000 breeding pairs in Romania (BirdLife International 2004).
106003666		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the degradation of wetlands through drainage for agriculture (del Hoyo et al. 1992) and changes in hydrological regimes (Eken and Magnin 1999, Kazantzidis and Nazirides 1999, Crivelli et al. 2000). It also suffers persecution from the aquaculture industry (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Eken and Magnin 1999, Kazantzidis and Nazirides 1999, Crivelli et al. 2000). The species is hunted for recreation and for commercial use (sold at food markets) in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006). In south-east Europe, conservation measures have ameliorated the most important threats (Crivelli et al. 2000), although concern still exists regarding habitat destruction and persecution in its wintering range (Petkov, Nikolov and Velkov in litt. 2005).
106003669		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax perspicillatus </em>was restricted to Bering Island, in the Commander Islands, <strong>Russia</strong><sup> </sup>(Greenway 1967), and possibly the adjacent coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula<strong> </strong>(Siegel-Causey <em>et al</em>. 1991). Steller noted that it was common in 1741<strong></strong>, but its breeding islands were colonised by people in 1826<strong></strong> and although the five known specimens were collected between 1840-1850, and in 1882, Stejneger was told by the island's residents that the last birds had disappeared about 30 years before<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106003669		habitat	eng	It inhabited rocky coasts and fed in adjacent seas.  <p></p>
106003669		threats	eng	It was a poor flier<strong> </strong>(Livezey 1992) and was heavily hunted for food by the Aleuts from the 1820's onward.  <p></p>
106003670		distribution	eng	Brandt's Cormorant occupies the Pacific coast of North America, ranging from south-east Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>) to Baja California (<strong>Mexico</strong>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003670		habitat	eng	This species is strictly marine and is restricted to rocky coasts and islands, foraging over rocky substrates, sometimes over sand or mud, but also in mid-water. It mainly feeds on fish which it catches by pursuit-diving, and sometimes fishing co-operatively forming large aggregations. Laying occurs mainly from March to July, with individuals forming colonies sometimes alongside other seabirds. It nests on rocks, islands and sandy beaches, usually on slopes, headlands and cliff tops (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003671		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All populations are within the Galápagos National Park and Marine Reserve (A. Tye <em>in litt.</em> 2000, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site (Jackson 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A research project investigating the factors behind the species's decline commenced in August 2003 (H.<strong> </strong>Vargas <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Invasive species are controlled (<strong></strong>Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor both island populations annually (Rosenberg <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Minimise human disturbance. Stop net-fishing within feeding range. Continue the cat control program (Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reduce or ban fishing activities and hunting (hogs and other animals) with household dogs in Iguana Cove and other places in Zone 8 where the largest growth in penguin and cormorant populations has been detected in the last few years (Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003671		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax harrisi</em> is endemic to Fernandina and Isabela in the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. It is found around most of the coast of Fernandina (mainly on the east), but only on the north and west coasts of Isabela (Valle and Coulter 1987, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1971-1972, the population was estimated at 800 pairs (Harris 1973)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Between 1977 and 1985, it remained more or less stable at around 650 to 850 adults (Harris 1973, Valle 1986, Valle and Coulter 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, during the 1983 El Niño event, the population declined by 50% to 400 birds, but recovered within a season (Valle and Coulter 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1986, it was estimated at 1,000 adults (Rosenberg <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1999, a total of 900 individuals was counted during the census (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A total of 1,396 cormorants were counted in 2006, which is 10% less than the population counted in 2005. Nevertheless, the total counted in 2006 is one of the four highest counts among all cormorant surveys conducted since 1977. After the last El Niño event of 1997-1998, growth in the cormorant population has been higher than ever before in the survey period (1977-2006). Still, results as of 2003 show a decrease in the rate of population growth and a low percentage of juveniles (3% in 2006), suggesting that the population is stabilizing at a new high (Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003671		habitat	eng	It usually nests in sheltered areas, on shingle and flat lava outcrops (Levéque 1963)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mostly within 100 m of the shoreline (Harris 1974)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is thought to breed near the coldest and richest waters (Harris 1974, Valle 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in small groups of just a few pairs (Levéque 1963)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mainly during the colder season (July-October) when marine productivity is highest, and the risk of heat stress to chicks and incubating adults is reduced (Harris 1974)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some pairs may nest biannually (Valle and Coulter 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is highly sedentary (Valle 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and fearless of humans (Levéque 1963)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It preys on eels, octopuses and fish (Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003671		population	eng	In 2006, 1,338 adults were recorded. Therefore, the estimate of population size in 2006, according to the Valle (1994) methodology, was 1,679 individuals.
106003671		threats	eng	Its flightlessness and disinclination to disperse render it extremely susceptible to human disturbance (Levéque 1963)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and catastrophes such as oil spills (Valle 1986)<strong></strong>. Moreover, they may be affected by nest flooding or even volcanic eruptions (Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al. </em>2007, D. Wiedenfeld<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Although the species has shown itself to be capable of recovery, further environmental changes and fluctuations will continue to be a threat, and may be increasing in intensity; the effects of climate change and more frequent and severe El Niño Southern Oscillation events could have potentially catastrophic impacts on the species in the future (J. Freile<em> in litt</em>. 2010, G. Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>in litt</em>. 2011, D. Wiedenfeld<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Introductions of rats, cats and dogs could have a significant impact on the species (Valle 1986, D. Wiedenfeld<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong> on Fernandina (they are present on Isabela) (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The introduction of parasites and pathogens is also a potential threat (J. Freile<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Samples collected from birds on Islabela and Fernandina in 2003-2005 and 2008 tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Toxoplasma gondii </span>antibodies - a common protozoan parasite of humans and warm-blooded animals, thought to originate from feral cats, pointing to additional risks from this invasive predator beyond direct predation (Deem<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). Illegal fishing activities are increasing around Fernandina and Isabela (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003672		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In South Africa, it is protected by law and the major islands where it breeds are national parks, nature reserves or otherwise protected. However, some of the smaller breeding rocks are not protected and in fact only 11 of the 45 (24%) extant breeding colonies have nature reserve status (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Namibia, breeding islands are administered by the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, but only three are staffed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop and implement management plans to protect breeding islands and cover the effects of introduced predators, alien plant control and human disturbance (Cooper 1981, Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Protect sites accessible to humans from the mainland at low tide. Census the population regularly so that trends can be assessed and use colour-banding to better understand the species movements (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Develop and implement a sustainable fisheries plan for the Benguela Upwelling Region to avoid over-depletion of fish and lobster stocks (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>, including a potential ban on lobster fisheries within key areas to reduce the risk of entanglement of benthic diving birds in the traps (Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Take measures against the illegal cleaning of oil tanks at sea, which causes significant oil spills. Develop a contingency plan for major oil spills off the coast of south-western Africa (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Improve the legal protection of Namibian offshore breeding sites (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Increase public awareness of the conservation problems facing this species (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003672		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax neglectus</em> breeds at 45 localities between Hollam's Bird Island, <strong>Namibia</strong>, and Quoin Rock, <strong>South Africa</strong>. About 80-90% of the breeding population is located on Mercury (1,840 pairs) and Ichaboe Islands, Namibia (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007, Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. The non-breeding range extends from just south of Hoanibmond south to Die Walle. Several island populations in the west and north Cape Province have declined in recent years and seven former breeding localities have been vacated (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. The total number of breeding pairs fell from 7,600 in 1978-1980 to 5,750 by 1990 and to 2,800 by 2006 (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The rate of decline was 4.3% per year over 16 years, equivalent to a decrease of 52.9% over three six-year generations. Between 1993 and 1998, the Namibian breeding population is estimated to have declined by 68%, mainly due to a population collapse on Ichaboe Island after 1994-1995, mainly thought to result from food shortage, but other factors, e.g. predation and displacement by seals may also be a factor (Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Numbers on Ichaboe have since continued to decline, and although numbers have increased on Mercury Island and are currently stable (Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010); the total Namibian population in 2006 was 39% less than in 1993 (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003672		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Adults are highly sedentary, and although individuals have been known to move up to 150 km, a capture-recapture survey recovered a large majority of adults within 10km of the point of banding (Cooper 1981)<strong></strong>. Juveniles tend to disperse over larger distances, with adults and immatures tending to occur and forage in different areas (Kemper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is a gregarious species, breeding and roosting in colonies of up to 100 pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, although it forages singly or in loose groups of up to 15 birds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. Breeding activity occurs year round but is concentrated between May and October in the southern part of its range, and between November and April in the central Namibian colonies at the northern extension of its range (Crawford <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The distribution of this species broadly reflects that of kelp <em>Ecklonia maxima</em> beds and it is rarely found more than 10 km from shore (Cooper 1981)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It does not use estuaries or inland waters (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on sea-cliffs and rocky offshore islands (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>, sometimes making use of walls or artificial platforms in close proximity to the sea (Cooper 1981)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  Its large size makes it difficult to take off, and this may influence and limit its choice of habitat (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species has a varied diet which consists principally of marine fish (Williams and Burger 1978)<strong></strong> but includes some invertebrates, particularly crustaceans including the commercially fished Cape Rock Lobster, <em>Jasus lalandi</em><strong> </strong>(Cooper 1985) (particularly in the South African part of its range [Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010]), and various cephalopods. Through most of its range the species prefers to forage on the sea floor - especially among kelp beds at depths of 5 -15m - and preys mainly on klipfish (Clinidae) and blennies (Blenniidae) which are associated with that habitat (Williams and Burger 1978)<strong></strong>. However in the northern part of its range where the largest populations occur, the species forages away from the kelp beds and the majority of its diet consists of Pelagic Gobies <em>Sufflogobius bibarbatus</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Williams and Burger 1978, Cooper 1981) typically foraged around 30-40m depth (Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). <strong>Breeding site </strong>Nests are built on exposed rocks, walls or artificial platforms in close proximity to the sea (Cooper 1981)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The nest is very large (up to 6kg) (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong> and constructed mainly from green seaweed with some sticks and feathers incorporated (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. A clutch consists of one to three eggs, with a mean of two, but nests are often lost to rough seas (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. The young leave the nest before they are able to fly properly, and so are particularly vulnerable to predation and disturbance at this stage. Age at first breeding is two to three years and average longevity of breeders is estimated at six years (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003672		population	eng	The total breeding population was estimated at 2,800 pairs (5,600 mature individuals) in 2006. This roughly equates to 8,400 individuals in total.
106003672		threats	eng	Human disturbance resulted in the loss of four colonies, and reductions in the populations at six others, between 1978 and 1997. Cape Fur Seals <em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em> displaced 1,824 pairs from Mercury Island between 1978 and 1986. Despite expulsion of most seals, the colony has recovered poorly. Seals have caused declines at three other colonies, and occur at 16 breeding localities, often severely restricting breeding space (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. A decreased abundance of goby off central Namibia in 1994 led to large population reductions on Mercury and Ichaboe Islands; if goby are commercially harvested off Namibia, further significant declines are predicted in the species's populations at Ichaboe and Mercury Islands (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Numbers of breeding birds have also reduced in areas of South Africa in line with reduced abundance of Cape Rock Lobsters (Ludynia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and the decline of this major food source may be another contributing factor (Wanless 2010). A further impact of the commercial fishery for Cape Rock Lobsters is birds being caught incidentally in lobster pots (Kemper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Substantial decreases on Malgas and Dassen Islands may also have been food-related. Oil-spills are also a threat: 25% of the population of Robben Island was lost due to the <em>Treasure</em> oil-spill in 2000 (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Habitat destruction, both through guano collection and coastal developments, has been a significant threat in the past and guano collection contines on Ichaboe island (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Alien mammalian predators, allowed access through the construction of a land bridge, caused the extinction of the Lambert's Bay Bird Island colony (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Predation of eggs and chicks by Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em> and Great White Pelican <em>Pelecanus onocrotalus</em> is also a problem (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>.Avian cholera has affected other cormorant species in South Africa and could have catastrophic consequences for this species (Kemper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/><p></p>
106003673		distribution	eng	This species is found along the coast of south <B>Australia</B> with two independent populations: one on the coast of south Western Australia, the other on the coasts of South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003673		habitat	eng	It feeds in coastal waters, sometimes in sheltered places such as bays and islets and can be found entering rivers along the coast. Its diet it comprised of a variety of fish which is catches mainly be pursuit-diving, sometimes in flocks of up to several thousand individuals. Breeding usually occurs on rocky islands, but also on stacks, slopes and sea cliffs in colonies of up to 2500 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003673		population	eng	The total population probably numbers several 10,000s of birds (del Hoyo et al. 1992)
106003674		distribution	eng	The Neotropic Cormorant is found throughout the continent of South America, ranging as far north as the <B>Bahamas</B> and <B>Cuba</B>, north-western <B>Mexico</B> and southern <B>United States<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003674		habitat	eng	This species occupies a wide range of habitats in fresh, brackish or salt water. Its diet it equally varied, including small fish, crustaceans, frogs, tadpoles and aquatic insects, with the exact composition varying locally. It feeds mainly by pursuit-diving, but also by plung-diving at sea. It often fishes co-operatively. Breeding occurs all year round with the peak varying locally. It forms colonies, sometimes thousands of pairs strong. It forms nests in trees and bushes or on rocky ground (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003674		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,000,000 individuals.
106003675		distribution	eng	The Double-crested Cormorant is widely distributed across North America, from the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (<B>USA</B>) down to north-west <B>Mexico</B> on the Pacific coast, and from North Carolina (<B>USA</B>) down to <B>Cuba</B> on the Atlantic coast. Summer breeding grounds also include much of the United States and southern-central and eastern <B>Canada<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003675		habitat	eng	This species habitat ranges widely, including sheltered marine waters such as estuaries, bays and mangrove swamps, rocky coasts and coastal islands, and inland on lakes, rivers, swamps, reservoirs and ponds. Its diet it almost exclusively fish with a few crustaceans, with the prey species changing depending on locality. Prey is caught by pursuit-diving, and individuals can fish co-operatively, sometimes with thousands of birds together at one time. It begins laying from April to July, nesting on a wide variety of substrates forming colonies sometimes over thousands of pairs strong (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003677		distribution	eng	This species is found exclusively on <B>Australia</B> and <B>New Zealand</B>, wintering along the whole coast and inland in both countries. It breeding exclusively on the north island of New Zealand, with scattering breeding site, mostly coastal, in Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003677		habitat	eng	This species is mostly marine, especially is western Australia, but occupies a variety of water bodies both offshore, on the coast and inland. Fish comprise roughly 90% of the body and weight of its diet, but it will also feed on crustaceans, including prawns, shrimps and crabs, and a few molluscs and cephalopods. It feeds exclusively by pursuit-diving and often forms feeding flocks at sea. Its breeding season varies considerably with region and year depending on local conditions, generally forming colonies in a variety of habitats. Adults are basically sedentary, with juveniles performing fairly extensive dispersal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992)
106003679		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It may be possible to alleviate conflicts between this species and fisheries by using such strategies as preventing birds from landing on fish ponds through disturbance, or creating unsuitable feeding conditions<strong> </strong>(Kirby <em>et al.</em> 1996). <p></p><strong></strong>
106003679		distribution	eng	The Great Cormorant has an extremely large distribution, being found on every continent except South America and Antarctica. Colonies in North America are restricted to the north-east, although individuals do winter further south up to the tip of Florida (<strong>USA</strong>). Breeding colonies are also found in in western Greenland (to Denmark). In Europe, the it can be found along most of the Atlantic coast, as well as throught the Mediterranean and in large areas of Eastern Europe. In Africa, it can be found wintering of the northern coast as well as along the Nile, and breeding year-round on the north-west coast, in pockets of central-east Africa and in South Africa. Summer breeding occurs in patches through much of central Asia up to eastern <strong>China</strong>, year-round wintering occurs in <strong>India</strong> and southern China, and birds can be found wintering in south-east Asia. Finally, it can be found in most of <strong>Australia</strong> except central regions, and it also winters in <strong>New Zealand<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003679		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Throughout its range the species is sedentary or locally dispersive, with northerly populations also making strong migratory movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The timing of breeding varies geographically, occurring all year round (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or coinciding with the rains in the tropics (Johnsgard 1993) and peaking between April and June in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds in mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of 10-500 pairs (Nelson 2005) (occasionally up to 1,000 pairs) (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982), the size of the colony depending upon the extent of nearby feeding areas (Nelson 2005). It is usually a solitary feeder (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982) but may form large fishing flocks in some areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It also roosts communally at nesting sites or in major feeding areas and flies in flocks of varying sizes (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). Off the coasts of eastern Jutland and of L&aelig;s&oslash;, Denmark, flocks sizes of up to 890 individuals were observed (Petersen et al 2003). Feeding is exclusively diurnal.<B> Habitat</B> The species frequents both coastal and inland habitats (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Snow and Perrins 1998, Nelson 2005). In marine environments it occurs in sheltered coastal areas on estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), saltpans, coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Johnsgard 1993), mangrove swamps, deltas (Johnsgard 1993) and coastal bays (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982), requiring rocky shores, cliffs and islets for nesting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) but generally avoiding deep water and rarely extending far offshore (Snow and Perrins 1998). It also inhabits fresh, brackish or saline inland wetlands (Nelson 2005) including lakes, reservoirs, wide rivers, flood waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), deep marshes with open water, swamps and oxbow lakes (Johnsgard 1993), requiring trees, bushes, reedbeds or bare ground for nesting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and avoiding overgrown, small, very shallow or very deep waters (Nelson 2005). <B>Diet</B> The species' diet consists predominantly of fish, including sculpins, Capelin, gadids (Gremillet et al 2004) and flatfish (Leopold et al 1998) as well as crustaceans, amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), molluscs and nestling birds (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). At sea the species preys mostly on bottom-dwelling fish, occasionally also taking shoaling fish in deeper waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is a generalist, having been shown to feed on at least 22 different fish species (Gremillet 1997). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest varies from a depression (Nelson 2005) to a platform of sticks, reeds and seaweed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). On the coast the species nests on inshore islands, cliffs, stacks, amongst boulders and occasionally on artificial structures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), also nesting inland on trees or bushes, in reedbeds or on bare ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species usually nests in mixed-species colonies, often re-using sites and nests from year to year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Foraging range </B>The Great Cormorant has a largely neritic distribution. At sea, it rarely wanders far from the coast, preferring sheltered areas and estuaries where it normally feeds in shallow water. It preys mainly on benthic fish species. It is rarely observed to dive below 10 m (BirdLife International 2000, Petersen et al 2003, Gremillet et al 2004) although it has been recorded at up to 35 m (Gremillet et al 2004). Several studies have shown that this species is able to forage up to 20-25 km from its wintering roosts or breeding colonies. Most foraging trips are confined to within 10 km of the colony (Gremillet 1997, BirdLife International 2000, Petersen et al 2003), but trips up to a 35 km radius have been recorded (Gremillet 1997). Off the coasts of eastern Jutland and at L&aelig;s&oslash;, Denmark, 75% of recorded birds were seen within 3 km of the coast (Petersen et al 2003). Preferred habitats include granitic boulder, since this is the favoured habitat of labrids, the commonest prey in the diet (Gremillet 1997). The species is also likely to select sandy areas with a high abundance of flatfish or rocky substrates where gobies, wrasse, sea scorpions and small gadoids occur (BirdLife International 2000).
106003679		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,400,000-2,900,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &gt;c.1,000   wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &gt;c.1,000   wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   &gt;c.10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and possibly c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106003679		threats	eng	The species is often persecuted by the aquaculture industry and may be shot, drowned or poisoned in attempts to control numbers (Carss 1994). It may also suffer from disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004), and is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and Newcastle disease (Kuiken 1999) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these viruses (Kuiken 1999, Melville and Shortridge 2006). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for recreation and is sold at commercial food markets in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).
106003680		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the Pacific coast of Asia, breeding on the extreme south-east coast of <B>Russia</B> down to <B>North</B> <B>Korea </B>and<B> South Korea</B>, including central the central and northern coasts of <B>Japan</B> and the South Kuril Islands. During winter it can be found in small numbers off the eastern coast of <B>China</B> as far south as <B>Taiwan<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003680		habitat	eng	This marine species occupies rocky coastlines and islands, rarely being found inland. It feeds mostly on fish which it catches by pursuit-diving. Laying occurs between May and July in Japan in colonies on cliffs or rocks.  </P>
106003680		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt;   c.50 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003681		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species is legally protected in most range states (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>, but not in UAE (Aspinall 1995)<strong></strong>. Research on the species has increased during the last 10 years, and specific conservation measures have been proposed and acted upon, including the protection of some breeding sites. More surveys are planned by the Eritrean Coastal, Marine and Island Biodiversity project to investigate further evidence of nesting (Chiozzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue basic research into its ecology across its range (Baha El Din 1991, Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue monitoring throughout its range (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect important breeding colonies (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Adopt breeding islands as priority sites in existing oil-spill contingency plans (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue public awareness campaigns (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate restoration of certain former colonies (Aspinall 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003681		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax nigrogularis </em>occurs in two subpopulations  (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984). The northern one breeds on islands off the Persian Gulf coasts of <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong> (UAE), <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong> and possibly <strong>Iran</strong> (breeding not confirmed since 1972) (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984, Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong>. The southern subpopulation is apparently much smaller and breeds on one or more islands off the Arabian Sea coast of <strong>Oman</strong> and in the Gulf of Aden off <strong>Yemen</strong> (c.60,000 birds in total) (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984, Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996, Jennings 2000)<strong></strong>. Breeding was confirmed at Socotra for the first time in March 2005, when a colony of c.500 birds was found on the islet of Saboniya (S. Aspinall <em>in litt</em>. 2007), and there is now known to be a population of c.6250 pairs (Jennings 2010, R. Porter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. There is no evidence of birds moving between the two subpopulations, although this could be taking place (Baha El Din 1991)<strong></strong>. The overall population is estimated at 110,000 pairs (Jennings 2000)<strong></strong> (330,000 [Jennings 2000]<strong></strong> to fewer than 500,000 [H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005]<strong></strong> individuals). The species has a very small area of occupancy within its limited breeding range, which has declined rapidly largely because of human disturbance and oil spills (Chiozzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Only 13 colonies are known to be active at the present time (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996, H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, equivalent to nine locations. The three largest colonies contain at least 75% of the world population (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984, Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong>, with that on the island of Suwad al Janubiyah (hereafter Suwad) in the Hawar archipelago being the largest (H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. In the northern population, c.12 colonies have become extinct (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996, H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005) since the 1960s, representing a potential decline of up to c.80,000 pairs (c.26% of the subpopulation). In Saudi Arabia, the number of breeding pairs declined by more than 75% during 1980-1992 (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>. Only a rare visitor to the Red Sea, with a single individual observed around 1897. It is fairly common along the coast and islands of central and southern Eritrea, particularly in winter, when 500-4,000 birds were observed, and is still present in summer in large numbers (more than 1,500 birds at a time) (Chiozzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Suspected to breed off the Danakil coast, although no nesting islands located (Chiozzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<p></p>
106003681		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is highly gregarious, occurring throughout the year in large aggregations (Johnsgard 1993, King 2004, Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Roosts are tightly packed, occupying the smallest possible ground footprint, potentially to maximise shade to the feet (King 2004). Some seasonal movements are thought to occur, probably related to fish migrations (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong>, where the species travels in large flocks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> within the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. However it is difficult to separate seasonal movements from dispersal (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>, and there is little conclusive information available regarding patterns of movement (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It occurs as a vagrant as far east as West India, and west to the African coast of the Red Sea (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The breeding season is variable with laying recorded in most months, but each colony is internally synchronised (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Breeding has been reported to occur on the Kuria Maria islands from June to October (Gallagher and Woodcock 1980)<strong></strong>, on Halne Island in the Persian Gulf from January to March (Meinertzhagen 1954)<strong></strong>, and on the islands off Saudi Arabia in April, May, September, October and November (Bundy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989)<strong></strong>. It is suspected that breeding occurs irregularly to in response to locally varying food availability (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species is exclusively marine and occurs within the range of productive upwellings (Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on offshore islands and islets that have shores of level sand or gravel (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Nonbreeding </em>Outside the breeding season it roosts on coastal cliffs and rocky islets (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists principally of small pelagic shoaling fish for which it dives from the surface  to depths in excess of 18 m (King 2004). It is regularly seen drowned in fishing traps at various depths (King 2004). Information concerning prey species is scarce (Johnsgard 1993, Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong> although sardines (<em>sardinella </em>spp.), scads (<em>Selar crumenophthalmus </em>and<em> Atule mate</em>), Silverside <em>Atherinomorphus lacunosus</em>, Spotted Half-beak <em>Hemiramphus far</em> and Streaked Rabbit-fish <em>Siganus javus</em> are probably among the species taken (<strong></strong>King 2004)<strong></strong>. Foraging occurs offshore in large groups (Gallagher and Woodcock 1980)<strong></strong>, and is thought to be communal rather than cooperative (Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site</strong> Breeding occurs on shores of level sand or gravel, or gently sloping hills free from vegetation (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>, since unimpeded access by foot is essential (Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong>. Nests consist of depressions in the substrate, or in small mounds of substrate, and occur at high densities (Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong> in colonies that range in size from 50 to tens of thousands of pairs (Johnsgard 1993, Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003681		population	eng	The breeding population is estimated at 110,000 pairs (Jennings 2010).
106003681		threats	eng	The very high rate of coastal development on the breeding islands is the main threat, since colonies are displaced and may not be able to successfully relocate elsewhere (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984, Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong>. Colonies suffer from frequent human disturbance, which allows wide-scale predation of eggs by large gulls <em>Larus</em> spp. (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984, Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The extinction of 12 colonies since the 1960s, is attributed to encroachment by development and prolonged human disturbance (H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is very vulnerable to marine oilspills (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984, Symens and Suhaibani 1993)<strong></strong>. For example, in August 1980 an oil-spill of about 20,000 barrels of light crude oil off the coast of Bahrain killed up to 1,000 birds, most of which were this species (Baha El Din 1991)<strong></strong>. As well as direct mortality, reduced immune function and reduced breeding success from oiling and ingestion, oil-spills also deplete fish stocks (Baha El Din 1991)<strong></strong>. As a piscivore the species is susceptible to other marine pollutants such as heavy metals and PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls), as well as neurotoxins (Baha El Din 1991)<strong></strong>. Potential threats are posed by fisheries (food depletion), introduced predators on breeding islands, the harvesting of chicks and eggs for food (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Morris 1996, M. Jennings <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>, and persecution (Symens <em>et al</em>. 1993, Aspinall 1996, Morris 1996)<strong></strong>. The species is regularly found drowned in fishing traps (H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Ectoparasites may be a problem in some colonies (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>, causing breeding cormorants to desert sites or abandon their young to die (Gallagher <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong></strong>.  As a ground-nesting species, it is vulnerable to the effects of storms, such as the flooding of nests during heavy rains, as took place on Suwad in November 1997, and the sudden termination of breeding and mass abandonment of chicks, as occurred due to an isolated thunderstorm with strong winds on Suwad in April 2003 (H. King<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003682		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Following past declines caused by guano mining, guano platforms have been constructed to increase the extent of suitable breeding grounds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Strict measures were put in place on Dyer Island in 2004, to control an outbreak of avian cholera (Cape Times <em>per</em> R. Thomas <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A selective cull of Cape Fur Seals was instigated in 1993, with immediate but short-term effect on seabird mortality rates (David <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct simultaneous surveys (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor trends in the stocks of prey species. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil-spills. Develop emergency plans for the control of disease.  <p></p>
106003682		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax capensis</em> is endemic to southern Africa, and breeds at 69 localities between Die Oase, <strong>Namibia</strong>, and Stag Island in eastern Cape Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, although less than 2% of the population breeds east of Cape Agulhas (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. The global population numbered 247,000 pairs during 1977-1981 and 72,000 pairs in 1996, with 37% in South Africa (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population experiences fluctuations owing to variations in oceanographic conditions and consequently food supply (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003682		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mainly sedentary but shows extensive post-breeding dispersal to the north and east of its breeding range, with birds reaching the mouth of the river Congo and southern Mozambique (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993) and individuals moving up to 1430km (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. It is thought that the birds follow the movements of schooling fish (Crawford and Shelton 1978, Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. It is a highly gregarious species which breeds in vast colonies of up to 120,000 birds (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Egg-laying occurs throughout much of the year, with a peak usually in September and October (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>, continuing to February in Namibia (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. However the level of breeding activity is highly dependent on food supply: breeding will fluctuate depending on prey availability (Berry <em>et al.</em> 1979, Crawford and Dyer 1995)<strong></strong> and will even cease if prey becomes scarce (Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. It usually forages in large aggregations, often co-operatively and in association with other seabirds (Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, although solitary foraging is also known to occur (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>. Birds may fly up to 40km to a feeding location (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat</span> This species is usually found in the Benguela current less than 10 km from the coast (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, although it does occasionally range as far as 70km offshore. During both the breeding and the non-breeding seasons it inhabits cliffs and ledges on the mainland and on offshore islands (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. It is occasionally found in the brackish waters of coastal lagoons, estuaries and harbours (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, but does not use these habitats for breeding. It occurs in highest densities in areas of suitable habitat near the recruitment grounds for pilchards (Clupeidae) and anchovies (Engraulidae<em>.</em>) (Crawford and Shelton 1978)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists almost entirely of pelagic schooling fish, although it will occasionally take some invertebrates including crustaceans, molluscs and cephalopods (Rand 1960, Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. South African Pilchards <em>Sardinops ocellata</em> and Cape Anchovies <em>Engraulis japonicus capensis</em> are often reported to be by far the most significant prey species throughout its range (Johnsgard 1993)<strong></strong>, but preferences appear to be subject to seasonal variation depending on the relative abundance of different fish species (Duffy <em>et al.</em> 1987, Crawford and Dyer 1995)<strong></strong>. Sandeels <em>Ammodytes spp.</em>, Pelagic Gobies <em>Sufflogobius bibarbatus</em> and Maasbanker <em>Trachurus trachurus</em> may comprise the major food source under some circumstances (Cooper 1985, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site</strong> Breeding occurs mainly on cliffs and ledges, and flat inland areas of offshore islands (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Caves, estuarine sand islands, guano platforms and other artificial structures are also used as breeding sites (Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Nests are constructed from seaweed, sticks and stems, and occur in high density (roughly 3 nests per square metre) within large colonies (Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Normally two or three eggs are laid, although the clutch-size ranges from one to five. The incubation period is 22-28 days, and the chicks fledge after about nine weeks. Post-fledging care is provided for several weeks. The oldest ringed bird was at least nine years old (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106003682		population	eng	The population was estimated at 72,000 pairs in 1996, equating to c.144,000 mature individuals, and likely 200,000-250,000 total individuals.
106003682		threats	eng	In the past, guano mining caused considerable disturbance and declines (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Declines in the late 20th century are attributed to commercial over-fishing of <em>S. ocellata</em>, whose stocks crashed in the mid-1970s (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disease has caused high mortality (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2004, over 8,000 individuals on Dyer Island, South Africa, died due to an outbreak of avian cholera (Cape Times <em>per</em> R. Thomas <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Oil pollution is also a potential threat, a major oil-spill recently affecting part of its range (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large fluctuations in abundance are related to changes in availability of <em>E. capensis</em>, an important prey species, which may be part of a natural cycle. However, <em>E. capensis</em> stocks are currently decreasing off southern Africa (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Given the influence of oceanographic conditions on prey availability and consequently the species's population, climate change may be a future threat. Predation by the Cape Fur Seal (<em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em>) on fledglings has increased as the seal has become more abundant owing to successful conservation measures (David <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has been found to represent a significant mortality factor for this species on Dyer Island, South Africa (Marks <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong></strong> and Ichaboe Island, Namibia (Du Toit <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It probably affects the species throughout its range.    <p></p>
106003683		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several breeding colonies lie within managed guano reserves or in Marine Protected Areas. Closure of the Anchovy fishery has reduced impact of declining food sources. Education and awareness on the importance of the conservation of this species has helped raise its local profile.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Development of a standardised methodology to estimate the population size throughout the breeding range. Evaluate the human consumption of the species in Peru and Chile. Protect important colonies and regulate, or if neccesary halt, exploitation.  <p></p>
106003683		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax bougainvillii</em> is found along the Pacific coast of <strong>Peru</strong> and northern <strong>Chile</strong>. A small population also bred on a short stretch of the Patagonian Atlantic coast of <strong>Argentina</strong>, but this appears to be ecologically extinct (Bertellotti<em> et al. </em>2003). From historical times the Guanay Cormorant has been the dominant avian species in the Peruvian Coastal Current in terms of numbers and consumption of marine resources. The population in Peru was estimated as &lt;4 million birds during the period 1909-1920; 21 million were estimated in 1954 and 3.7 million were estimated on the north-central Peruvian coast in 1996<strong> </strong>(Zavalaga and Paredes 1999). Mass dispersal, breeding failures and temporary declines have resulted periodically from El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, and both fish-stocks and the populations of seabirds that depend on them are adapted to these fluctuations. Although the species is now protected in Peru, fishing for anchoveta is banned, and the guano industry is adequately regulated, there are concerns that this species has been badly affected by the ENSO event of 1998<strong> </strong>(G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003), and that declines now approach 30% over three generations (33 years in this species). <p></p>
106003683		habitat	eng	Breeding occurs year round with an egg-laying peak in November-December (on the northern coast of Perú, breeding starts in June). It breeds on offshore islands and remote coastal headlands and feeds exclusively in the inshore environment usually within 3 km of colonies<strong> </strong>(Zavalaga and Paredes 1999). Unlike other cormorants it is not primarily a benthic feeder but preys mainly on the schooling Peruvian anchovy <em>Engraulis ringens, </em>Peruvian silverside <em>Odonthestes regia </em>and mote sculpin <em>Normanichythes crockeri </em>found in the cold water of the Humboldt Current<strong><sup></sup></strong><strong></strong><strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992, Zavalaga and Paredes 1999).<br/> <p></p>
106003683		population	eng	Zavalaga &amp; Paredes (1999) estimated the population at 3.7 million individuals, hence the population is best placed in the band 2,500,000-4,999,999 individuals.
106003683		threats	eng	Historical<strong> </strong>declines were due to guano exploitation and overfishing of key food sources<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992). These threats are now managed to some degree. Consumption of birds perhaps represents the biggest current threat with around 20,000 birds taken each year in Northern Peru (P.<strong> </strong>Majluf <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Another potential cause of population declines in Peru is high predation rates on eggs and small chicks by Band-tailed Gull <em>Larus belcheri</em>. Declines have been particularly evident since the final collapse of the anchoveta stocks in 1974<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992).  <p></p>
106003685		distribution	eng	Four discrete ranges exist. <I>Phalacrocorax atriceps </I>is found on the southern tip of South America, from central <B>Chile</B> round to central <B>Argentina</B>, and on the <B>Falkland Islands </B>(<B>Islas Malvinas</B>). <I>Phalacrocorax (atriceps) bransfieldensis</I> breeds on the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. <I>Phalacrocorax (atriceps) georgianus</I> is found on the islands of <B>South Georgia (Georgia del Sur)</B>, the South Orkney Islands, <B>South Sandwich Islands</B> (<B>Islas Sandwich del Sur</B>) and Shag Rocks (Scotia Sea). In the Indian Ocean, <I>Phalacrocorax (atriceps) verrucosus</I> is restricted to the Kerguelen Islands (<B>French Southern Territories</B>), <I>Phalacrocorax (atriceps) melanogenis </I>occupies the Crozet Islands (<B>French Southern Territories)</B>, <I>Phalacrocorax (atriceps) nivalis </I>is found on Heard Island (to <B>Australia</B>) and <I>Phalacrocorax (atriceps) purpurascens</I> is restricted to Macquarie Island (to <B>Australia</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003685		habitat	eng	This marine species forages in subantartic and Antarctic waters along the coast and around islands. It feeds in inshore waters having a diet which varies geographically, but including fish, crustaceans, squid and benthic invertebrates including sea urchins in the Kerguelen Islands. Breeding begins in either October or November, forming colonies up to hundreds of thousands of birds which are very dense (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003688		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Campbell Island group is a nature reserve and, in 1998, was declared part of a World Heritage Site. Cattle, sheep and rats have been eradicated since the 1980s (P.&#160;Moore <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Taylor 2000, BBC 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the entire breeding population in the next five years and compare to the 1975 census. Turn the World Heritage Site territorial sea (out to 12 nautical miles) into a marine reserve and restrict all fishing (B.&#160;Weeber <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003688		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax campbelli</em> is endemic to Campbell Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and adjacent offshore islands and stacks. In 1975, the population was estimated at c.2,000 pairs and 8,000 birds (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the breeding season may be quite extended and not synchronous, and therefore the census may have underestimated numbers (P.&#160;Moore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, so the number of individuals may be a more reasonable reflection of the breeding population. Birds usually forage in seas within 10 km of the main island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003688		habitat	eng	It nests in inaccessible colonies of up to 150 nests on exposed rocky ledges or in sea caves. The oldest bird known lived for over 13 years (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003688		population	eng	In 1975, the population was estimated at c.2,000 pairs or 8,000 birds (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>.  However, the breeding season may be quite prolonged and staggered between colonies,  and therefore the census may have underestimated numbers (P.&#160;Moore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, so the number of individuals may be a more reasonable reflection of the breeding population. Nevertheless, a more up-to-date population estimate is required for this species.<br/><p></p>
106003688		threats	eng	Historically, cattle and sheep may have restricted possible expansion of some colonies. Feral cats are believed to have little impact on the species (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and recent observations and surveys suggest they may have died out on Campbell Island (P.&#160;Moore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> has recently been eradicated from the island but was thought to have little or no effect on breeding success (Taylor 2000, BBC 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The native Brown Skua <em>Catharacta lonnbergi</em> is a predator of eggs (P.&#160;Moore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003689		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All permanent colonies are wildlife sanctuaries, and are sign-posted. Charter boats have to remain 50-100 m from colonies, but it is thought that this may not be sufficient to avoid considerable disturbance (Schuckard 1994)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> briefly colonised Duffers Reef but were eradicated by 1983 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. In early 2012, a species conservation strategy, including a conservation management plan, was in the process of being produced for this species (R. Schuckard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census all breeding colonies every five years using an established methodology (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Obtain information on the extent of disturbance from vessels (P. Gaze <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Develop techniques for establishing colonies at new sites. Establish a code of conduct for commercial charter boat operators and fishers to minimise the disturbance of colonies. Obtain protection for all breeding grounds (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Prevent marine farming close to colonies and feeding areas (B. Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Start an advocacy programme to encourage fishers to adopt set-net practices which minimise bycatch (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003689		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax carunculatus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where 92% of the population breeds on White Rocks, Sentinel Rock, Duffers Reef and Trio Islands, in the Marlborough Sounds, with two smaller colonies off D'Urville Island (Schuckard 1998, 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds formerly bred at D'Urville Peninsula and Te Kuru Kuru Island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys between 1992 and 2002 indicate a population of c.645 birds, including 102-126 breeding pairs (Schuckard 1998, 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Numbers are believed to have remained stable over the last 50 years (historical counts are lower, probably because they were conducted at different times of day) (Schuckard 1994, 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The maximum feeding distance from the Duffers Reef colony is 24 km (Schuckard 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003689		habitat	eng	It breeds on small islets and rock stacks, with nests spaced c.1 m apart (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main dietary item of at least part of the population - witch <em>Arnoglossus scapha</em>, a left-eyed flatfish - is not a species targeted by commercial and recreational fishers (Lalas and Brown 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003689		population	eng	The population between 1992 and 2002 has been estimated at c.645 birds, including 102-126 breeding pairs, hence a population of 250-999 mature individuals is assigned here. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003689		threats	eng	In the 1800s, collecting by ornithologists and hunting for the fashion trade may have affected numbers (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Human disturbance (boats, aircraft and scuba divers) can cause desertion of nests and subsequent predation by gulls <em>Larus </em>spp. (Nelson 1971, Schuckard 1994)<strong></strong>. New interest from tour operators in the region may increase the problem. Set-nets are sometimes placed very close to colonies (Schuckard 1994)<strong></strong> and present a major risk. Birds are occasionally illegally shot (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003690		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although only one national census has been completed, many counts have been made at individual colonies, mostly since the 1950s (<strong></strong>Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the species's entire range to locate and census all breeding colonies. Monitor at least one colony in Otago and Foveaux Strait yearly, and census the entire breeding population every 10 years. Develop techniques to establish new colonies. Fence colonies at mainland sites to exclude predators and stock. Develop an advocacy programme to discourage shooting and encourage the safe use of set-nets in order to minimise bycatch, enforcing restrictions if necessary, near Stewart Island colonies (<strong></strong>Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Prevent marine farming near breeding colonies and feeding areas (B.&#160;Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Obtain legal protection for all colonies (<strong></strong>Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003690		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax chalconotus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, breeding on the South Island from the coast of North Otago south to Foveaux Strait, and on Stewart Island. In total, it breeds at c.9 localities (G. A. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, in colonies of 10-500 pairs (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Individual island population estimates from the 1950s-1970s indicate a total of c.3,000 birds (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. The only national census dates from 1981, and estimated the population at 1,800-2,000 breeding pairs, 900-1,000 in both Otago and Southland. The Otago population doubled to 1,850 pairs in 1987-1988, and the breeding range also expanded, but numbers then decreased to 1,500 pairs in 1992-1993 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Total numbers may be as high as 5,000-8,000 (C.&#160;Lalas <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. In 1914, the population on Kane-te-toe Island was estimated at 400-500 nests; however, by 1975 the colony had been deserted (Watt 1975)<strong></strong>. The population on Centre Island declined from 600 to 25 nests between 1955 and 1991 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Colonies on Jacky Lee and Codfish Islands have also been deserted (B.&#160;Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It disperses over shallow inshore waters within 15 km of land (G. A. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003690		habitat	eng	It breeds on rocky headlands and islands, building a platform nest of twigs, seaweed and guano, 0.5 m in diameter and 1-1.5 m high (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to eventually destroy the surrounding vegetation, probably contributing to the abandonment of colonies until sufficient regeneration has occurred (Watt 1975)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fish and marine invertebrates (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003690		population	eng	Population estimates have varied, although the population may be as high as 5,000-8,000 individuals (C. Lalas <i>in litt.</i> 1994). This is roughly equivalent to 3,300-5,300 mature individuals.
106003690		threats	eng	Human activities very easily disturb colonies and may have caused the desertion of some in the past (Watt 1975)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Illegal shooting is a problem (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Set-nets are a major threat, regularly catching birds, particularly near breeding colonies. Introduced predators such as mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., cats and rodents are a threat to mainland colonies (<strong></strong>Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003691		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The first census of this species was completed in 1997 (Bell and Bell 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, with a follow-up census carried out in 2003-2004 under the Chatham Islands Shag and Pitt Island Shag recovery plan (published 2001) (Bester and Charteris 2005)<strong></strong>. As yet no conservation action has been specifically directed towards the species (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the entire adult population every five years and monitor a Chatham Island colony yearly to determine trends. Fence colonies from stock and pigs on main Chatham Island if agreement is reached with local owners. Conduct education and awareness-raising activities (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and educate dog owners about the possible impact of dogs on breeding grounds. Conduct research into the species's population dynamics, breeding biology, movements, foraging and diet (K.-J. Wilson <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003691		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Four islands support breeding: Chatham, Star Keys, Rabbit and Pitt (Imber 1994, M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>, with a further population on North East Reef (B. D. and D. Bell verbally 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1997, a census found a total of 842 pairs at 10 sites (Bell and Bell 2000)<strong></strong>, with the largest colony on Star Keys which, in 1980, had 358 nests containing eggs or chicks (Imber 1994)<strong></strong>. However, surveys in 2003-2004 estimated the breeding population to be 271 pairs, distributed at 13 colonies, with the largest colony on Star Keys holding 81 pairs (Bester and Charteris 2005, Wilson 2006)<strong></strong>. This represents a 67.8% decrease in total breeding pairs since 1997, but a poor breeding season or variability in the timing of breeding within and between seasons may have contributed to this apparent decrease, and further surveys are needed to confirm population trends (Bester and Charteris 2005)<strong></strong>. Although colonies are spread over three islands, the species's breeding range totals less than 1 ha (Wilson 2006)<strong></strong>. Its foraging range is assumed to be up to 24 km offshore (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>). <p></p>
106003691		habitat	eng	It nests in colonies, usually high on exposed rocks on top of headlands or small islands, or on cliff-ledges (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on small fish (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003691		population	eng	A census carried out in 2011 counted 357 breeding pairs (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), presumably equating to 714 mature individuals and c.1,070 individuals in total.
106003691		threats	eng	The largest breeding colonies are found on islands free of introduced predators (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. On Chatham, colonies are disturbed by humans, farm stock, feral cats, agriculture (Wilson 2006)<strong></strong>, feral pigs (Wilson 2006)<strong></strong>, Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em>, brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> and dogs (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Birds sometimes stampede from their nests when disturbed, causing egg breakage and subsequent predation by gulls (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, and several breeding colonies have been abandoned (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Fur seals <em>Arctocephalus forsteri</em> may disturb the colony on Star Keys, possibly causing rapid declines (B. D. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000, M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>, and have occupied former colony sites (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Visits by tourists can cause disturbance to colonies if not supervised carefully (B. D. and D. Bell verbally 1999)<strong></strong>. Illegal shooting of birds occurs infrequently. Population declines may also reflect changes in the marine environment that affect their food supply (Bester and Charteris 2005)<strong></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003692		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1995, feral goats were eradicated from Auckland Island and, in 1993, feral cattle and rabbits were removed from Enderby and Rose (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1998, the Auckland Islands group (already a nature reserve) was declared part of a World Heritage Site. In 2003, the area was designated as a Marine Reserve (B. Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the entire adult population once a suitable methodology has been developed, and on Auckland Island, survey coastline to locate all nesting sites. On Enderby, monitor the breeding population every 10 years. On Auckland Island, eradicate feral cats and pigs (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003692		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax colensoi</em> is restricted to the Auckland Islands and adjacent waters, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Colonies are present on Auckland, Enderby, Rose, Ewing and Adams Islands. The total breeding population has been estimated at fewer than 1,000 pairs (Robertson and Bell 1984)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1988 and 1989 found 475 nests in 11 colonies on Enderby, one colony of 62 nests on Rose, and 306 nests on Ewing (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. A boat-based survey carried out in December 2011 counted 1,366 active nests on Enderby Island (J. Hiscock<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Its foraging range is assumed to be up to 24 km offshore (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>).<br/><p></p>
106003692		habitat	eng	It nests on the ground on ledges and the tops of steep cliffs. Sites are abandoned when sheltering plants are killed by guano, and waves sometimes destroy nests (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on small fish and marine invertebrates (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003692		population	eng	Although the population was thought to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, surveys in 1988 and 1989 indicated 475 nests in 11 colonies on Enderby, one colony of 62 nests on Rose, and 306 nests on Ewing. A boat-based survey of Enderby Island carried out in 2011 counted 1,366 active nests in 10 colonies (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Based on these data, a population of c.3,000 mature individuals is estimated, although a more up-to-date estimate of numbers in other colonies is needed (J. Hiscock<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). On the basis of the estimated number of mature individuals, there are assumed to be c.4,500 individuals in total.
106003692		threats	eng	On Auckland Island, the major threat is from feral pigs which destroy any colony they can reach and, as a consequence, most, if not all, colonies are in inaccessible places (B.&#160;D.&#160;Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Rose and Enderby, feral cattle and rabbits may have had a similar impact and, on Enderby, cattle eliminated a tussock species that was a favoured nesting material (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cats are also potential predators on Auckland Island (G.&#160;A.&#160;Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003693		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Bounty Islands are nature reserves and are free of introduced predators. In 1998, they were declared part of a World Heritage Site. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete a full census of all colonies every 10 years, including a census of nest-sites and breeding pairs (A. D. Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Turn the World Heritage Site territorial sea (out to 12 nautical miles) into a marine reserve and restrict all fishing (B. Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003693		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax ranfurlyi</em> is restricted to the Bounty Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1978, 569 pairs were observed on 11 islands (Robertson and van Tets 1982)<strong></strong>. In 1997, a repeat census was attempted, but proved very difficult because it was not possible to land on the islands. However, colonies were noted on 13 islands, and 120 nests and 368 birds were counted (A. M. Booth <em>in litt</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The islands were surveyed again from land in 2005, when 618 individuals were counted (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Although it is not known whether differences in the estimates are due to differing survey methods, differences in peak breeding times between years or a true change in numbers, a comparison with other species surveyed at the same time suggests that they show genuine trends (Taylor 2000, R. Hitchmough <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2011 suggest that the overall population has remained stable since 2005 (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The population is likely to fluctuate markedly as a result of the effects of weather conditions on feeding (A. J. D. Tennyson <em>in litt.</em> 1994). The species's foraging range is assumed to be up to 24 km offshore (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>).  <p></p>
106003693		habitat	eng	It breeds mostly on narrow cliff-side ledges, with nests often as little as 1 m apart (Robertson and van Tets 1982, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fish, snails, squid, isopods and crabs (Robertson and van Tets 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003693		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 620 individuals, roughly equating to 410 mature individuals (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt. </em>2005).
106003693		threats	eng	Extreme weather conditions may be a threat (A. J. D. Tennyson <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Nesting sites may be restricted by the presence of large numbers of fur seal <em>Arctocephalus forsteri</em>, Salvin's Albatross <em>Thalassarche salvini</em> and Erect-crested Penguin <em>Eudyptes sclateri</em><strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1990). The introduction of mammalian predators is very unlikely, but remains a possibility. The most likely long-term threat to the species is posed by changes to the marine environment around the islands, possibly driven by climate change. <p></p>
106003694		distribution	eng	The Rock Shag breeds on the southern coasts of <B>Argentina</B> and <B>Chile</B>, including Tierra del Fuego and the <B>Falkland Islands </B>(<B>Islas Malvinas</B>). It can be found wintering as far north as <B>Uraguay<SUP>6</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003694		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>The Rock Shag is a foot-propelled pursuit diver widely distributed in southern South America. It generally forages within 5 km of the colony, and eats a variety of primarily benthic prey. It principally forages during daylight hours, with occasional night time trips during moonlit nights when birds forage in similar locations and depths as during the day (Sapoznikow and Quintana 2002). It forages solitarily, in strictly coastal areas, and feeds at the sea bed (Punta <I>et al.</I> 1993). <B>Diet </B>At Punta Loma, Argentina, the main prey are benthic fish <I>Riberoclinus eigenmant</I> and the polychaete <I>Eunice sp.</I>, both associated with sandy seafloors and seaweeds (Quintana 2001). At Bahias Bustamante and at Melo, Argentina, the species fed mainly on Rock Cod (<I>Notothenia spp.</I>), which were present in 87% of breeding and 91% of non-breeding regurgitated pellets (Punta <I>et al.</I> 1993). <B>Foraging range </B>At Punta Loma, Argentina, during the chick-rearing period, birds spent 36% of daylight hours away from the colony on feeding trips, and 92% of the foraging trip was spent diving (Quintana 2001). Shags fed mainly in water less than 10m deep, with a gravelly sand bottom and within 5 km of the shore (Quintana 2001). The mean foraging ranges were 3.8 &#177; 2.6 km and 2.6 &#177; 2.3 km in 1996 and 1997 respectively (Quintana 2001).  These results are consistent with observations made in Bahia Bustamante, Argentina, where the observed foraging range was between 50-2000 m from the coast (Punta <I>et al.</I> 1993). Typically, the species forages in inshore waters less than 20m deep (Quintana 1999). Using a published relationship between dive depth and dive duration in Shags (depth (m) = (dive time (s)-35)/1.28), the mean diving depth for Rock Shags was estimated at 12.7 &#177; 7.5 m, with 86% of dives under 20 m (Quintana 1999). In Port Stanley Harbour, Falklands, birds foraged mainly in or just outside giant kelp beds (<I>Macrocystis spp. and Lessonia spp.)</I>, within 50 m of shore and where the water was 1-6 m deep (Wanless and Harris 1991). Fewer birds foraged up to 100 m out, in water 7-13 m deep but not over kelp beds (Wanless and Harris 1991). The mean water depth for dives was 4.5 m (Wanless and Harris 1991). At Bahia Bustamante and Melo, Argentina, birds either foraged within bays, or else at a distance of less than 200 m from the shore and among kelp (<I>Macrocystis pyrifera</I>)<I> </I>beds (Punta <I>et al.</I> 1993). They foraged in areas which were 2 - 12 m deep, and contained algae (Punta <I>et al.</I> 1993). Foraging occurred at the bottom throughout the year, but occasionally also in mid-water during the breeding season (Punta <I>et al.</I> 1993). At Punta Loma, Argentina, the seabed in all the foraging areas consisted of bands of shallowly-sloping, gravelly sand sediments, with tuffs and wave cut platforms in some areas (Quintana 2001). The features of the seabed at foraging sites were consistent with the habitat requirements of the principal prey species, i.e. sandy sea floors and seaweeds (Quintana 2001). Shags used the same feeding areas during the two study years (Quintana 2001).
106003695		distribution	eng	The Red-faced Cormorant can be found in the north Pacific from Hokkaido (<strong>Japan</strong>), the Kuril Islands and Commander Islands (<strong>Russia</strong>) eastwards to the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). <p></p>
106003695		habitat	eng	This exclusively marine species feeds on a variety of small fish and crustaceans, including crabs and shrimps, which is catches mainly by pursuit diving. It lays in May or June, forming colonies along rocky coasts and on offshore islands. Nests are normally built on cliff ledges. It is mainly sedentary, dispersing over nearby coasts during winter (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003695		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003697		distribution	eng	The European Shag can be found along the entire Atlantic coast of Europe as far north as <B>Finland</B> and including <B>Iceland</B>, as far south as the coast of <B>Morocco</B>, and ranges in the entire Mediterranean nesting on parts of the coastline of most European (e.g. <B>Italy</B>, <B>Turkey</B>) and north African countries (e.g. <B>Algeria</B>, <B>Libya</B>), as well as parts of the Black Sea coast (e.g. <B>Ukraine</B>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003697		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The European Shag is a coastal species that shows high nesting site fidelity. It feeds exclusively diurnally, and one bird is always present with the clutch or brood during the breeding season. The species breeds in colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) that can hold more than a thousand well-spaced pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998, Nelson 2005). It is largely sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although immatures may undergo post-breeding dispersive movements over short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Some birds undergo short-distance migrations during winter. Individuals often forage alone when away from nesting colonies and in winter (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998), but may follow dense shoals of fish in flocks of several hundred individuals (Nelson 2005). <B>Habitat</B> It occupies marine habitats but does not usually occur far from land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It shows a strong preference for rocky coasts and islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) with adjacent deep, clear water (Nelson 2005), and forages over sandy and rocky seabeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It also prefers sheltered fishing grounds such as bays and channels, although it generally avoids estuaries, shallow or muddy inlets and fresh or brackish waters (Wanless and Harris 1997). <B>Diet</B> The species feeds on a wide range of benthic, demersal and schooling, pelagic fish. Sandeels (Ammodytidae) are the dominant prey of birds in British and some Spanish populations (Wanless et al 1997, Velando and Friere 1999, BirdLife International 2000, Velando et al. 2005), and are consistently present in the species' diet in most other locations studied. These are usually caught at, or near, the sea bed (Wanless et al 1997). Other prey species include fish of the families Gadidae, Clupeidae, Cottidae, Labridae, and <I>Trisopterus</I> spp. (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although birds also take small numbers of polychaetes, cephalopods, other molluscs and small benthic crustaceans (Wanless and Harris 1997). Adults provision their chicks with sandeels, but consume a broader variety of prey for themselves (BirdLife International 2000). The Mediterranean subspecies feeds mainly on coastal fishes, caught from the bottom or mid water over rocky or sandy seabeds, but economically important fish seem to form a very small part of the diet (Aguilar and Fernandez 1999). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of marine vegetation and flotsam (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Nelson 2005), from just above the high water level to over 100 m high (Snow and Perrins 1998) on ledges, in crevices or in caves on sea cliffs, rocks and stacks, and at the base of sea cliffs amongst boulders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Foraging range </B>At Islas C&iacute;es, Spain, birds foraged within 20 km of the colony all year round (Velando et al. 2005). During the breeding season, the foraging range was typically within 4 km of the colony, and birds foraged in groups of 300-1000 individuals (Velando et al. 2005). Foraging areas tend to coincide with areas of sandy benthic sediment (Wanless et al 1991, BirdLife International 2000, Velando et al. 2005), and occur where depth is less than 80 m (Wanless et al 1991, Velando and Friere 1999). At the Isle of May, Scotland, over 90% of foraging occurred within 13 km of the colony, and the maximum distance recorded was 17 km (Wanless et al 1991). Foraging individuals visited more than one area during a trip, often feeding at sites several kilometres apart (Wanless et al 1991). Birds were often found feeding in areas of strong tidal flow (Wanless et al 1991). The available data on European Shag feeding habitat suggest that, within the inshore zone as a whole, the species is fairly plastic in its habitat requirements. In some areas, the birds' foraging range is considerably less than 20 km; the small number of birds breeding at Hirta, Scotland, all appeared to forage within a 2 km radius (BirdLife International 2000). Similarly, birds were only present within 3 km of North Rona, Scotland (BirdLife International 2000).
106003697		threats	eng	The species is persecuted (e.g. shot, intentionally drowned or poisoned) at commercial fisheries and fish farms as it is perceived to be a threat to fish stocks (Carss 1994, Wanless and Harris 1997). It also suffers predation at nesting colonies by introduced American mink <I>Neovison vison</I> (Wanless and Harris 1997), is vulnerable to coastal oil pollution (Wanless and Harris 1997, Velando et al. 2005), locally suffers from accidental entanglement and subsequent drowning in gill-nets (fishing nets) (Wanless and Harris 1997, Velando and Freire 2002), and is susceptible to the Newcastle disease so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Kuiken 1999). <B>Utilisation</B> Eggs, chicks and adults are taken from colonies for food (Wanless and Harris 1997).
106003698		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Chile is discussing the creation of a network of marine protected areas along its coastline. Peru and Argentina are improving their coastal marine protected areas network.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Support the proposal to establish a network of marine protected areas in coastal Chile. Assess the impact of the proposed industrial harbour in Argentina and recommend appropriate action. Monitor populations to identify changing trends. Research ways to minimise fisheries interactions. Identify and monitor key sites for the species, and aim to establish these as marine protected areas. Determine levels of hunting and bycatch in various parts of its range.  <p></p>
106003698		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax gaimardi</em> occurs on the coasts of southern South America: 13,000-15,000 breeding birds in the Pacific from Isla Foca, <strong>Peru</strong>, to Punta Elefante, Peninsula de Taitao, <strong>Chile</strong>; and 1,600-1,800 birds in the Atlantic from Bahia Sanguinetto to the Monte León National Park, Santa Cruz province and occasionally to the strait of Magellan, <strong>Argentina </strong> (Gandini &amp; Frere 1995; Zavalaga <em>et al.</em> 2002; Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004, 2005). Populations have declined, particularly in Peru (Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004). A series of surveys in Peru  in 1999-2000 estimated the population to number 1,518-2,082 birds, and reported declines of up to 97.9% (3,229 to 69 birds) at ten localities in northern and central Peru between 1968 and 1999-2000, declines of 97.6% (2,230 to 54 birds) in the Chinchas and Ballestas islands between 1978 and 1999-2000, and declines of 72.6% (580 to 159 birds) at eight southern localities between the first half of the 1990s and 1999-2000 (<strong></strong>Zavalaga <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. In Chile, surveys during 1998-2000 produced an estimate of 5,018-5,218 breeding pairs (Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events may have led to distributional changes (with southern regions having become particularly important for the species), the population declines reported in Peru do not seem to have been mirrored in Chile (Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004). The main 12 colonies in Argentina are concentrated along the coast of Santa Cruz (Puerto Deseado and Santa Cruz) (Gandini &amp; Frere 1995; Frere <em>et al.</em> 2005), where coastal development is increasing rapidly (Gandini &amp; Frere 1995). During the last 10 years the Argentinian breeding population has declined by 18% but the causes are unknown (Millones <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>The world population is now estimated at 30,000 individuals (<strong></strong>Frere <em>in litt.</em> 2007) <strong></strong>. Continued population declines may lead to this species being uplisted to Vulnerable.   <p></p>
106003698		habitat	eng	It favours rocky coastline with cliffs for nesting and shallow cold productive offshore waters for feeding. It nests in inaccessible areas rather than the tops of rocky islets. Sometimes nests in loose aggregations approaching colonies. Generally solitary when feeding but may occur in flocks. Red-legged Cormorants are inshore feeders (less than 3 km from the colony) and forage in shallow waters (&lt;15 m) on benthic fish and invertebrates (Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004). &#160;Often found coexisting with rock shags <span style="font-style: italic;">Phalacrocorax magellanicus</span>, sharing the same cliffs but not mixing nest sites, its breeding success shown to increase with this sympatry (Millones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). In two of eight localities it also breeds sympatrically with imperial cormorants <span style="font-style: italic;">Phalocrocorax atriceps</span> (Millones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). Avian predation of eggs and wind exposure at nest sites are important factors influencing chick mortality, with studies showing highest densities of active nests in areas protected from prevailing wind conditions (Millones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). <strong></strong> <p></p>
106003698		population	eng	The world population has been estimated at 30,000 individuals (E. Frere <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106003698		threats	eng	Most threats result from interactions with fishers and fisheries: directly through entanglement in equipment, and indirectly through competition with fishers targeting benthic invertebrates and also when fishers take adults, chicks and eggs at a subsistence level. The species has been detrimentally affected by ENSO events in the north of its range, particularly in northern Peru where dramatic declines have been recorded owing to kelp die-off caused by sea temperature rises. The main colonies in Argentina are concentrated around Puerto Deseado (588 mature individuals [Gandini &amp; Frere 1995]<strong></strong>), where there is a plan to double the size of the industrial harbour (Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004). The increase in fishing activity that would follow this development would favour its main predator, Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em> (Frere <em>et al.</em> 2004) which is known to heavily impact breeding success (Millones <em>et al.</em> 2008).<p></p>
106003699		distribution	eng	The Spotted Shag breeds solely on the coastline of <B>New Zealand</B> including offshore islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003699		habitat	eng	This marine species forages in fairly deep offshore waters up to 16 km from the coast, but also in bays, inlets and estuaries. It feeds on fish, crusaceans and other invertebrates which it catches by pursuit-diving. It can form flocks numbering thousands of birds. It breeds in colonies of variable size, breeding on rocky coasts and inshore islands. It nests on cliffs, occupying ledges or cracks (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003700		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1961, sheep and cattle were removed from South East Island and, in 1968, sheep were taken off Mangere Island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the entire adult population once a suitable methodology has been developed, and at 10-year intervals thereafter, and monitor two accessible colonies annually to determine trends (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Assess the impact of rock lobster fishing practices (B. Weeber <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Remove feral cats and <em>G. australis</em> from Pitt Island if agreement is reached with residents, and remove sheep, cattle and pigs from parts of Pitt and Chatham Islands that are suitable for colonies. Fence colonies (with owners' permission) if stock are found to be impacting on colonies (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003700		distribution	eng	<em>Phalacrocorax featherstoni</em> is found in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, on Chatham, Pitt, Mangere, Little Mangere, South East (= Rangatira), Star Keys, the Pyramid, Big and Middle Sister, Murumurus, the Castle and Rabbit Islands (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Imber 1994, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The population has been variously estimated at c.500 pairs, fewer than 1,000 pairs (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong> and in 1997-1998, at 729 pairs, following a complete census over the entire breeding range (Bell and Bell 2000)<strong></strong>. However, new information suggests that the population has declined by 25% over six years from 1997 to 2003, with 547 pairs counted in the second complete census over the 2003-2004 breeding season (Bester and Charteris 2005)<strong></strong>. The species's foraging range is assumed to be up to 24 km offshore (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>). <p></p>
106003700		habitat	eng	It nests in small colonies of between five and 20 pairs, on rocky shores and islets, headlands and cliffs. Breeding distribution is limited by suitable nesting sites (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on small fish, supplemented by marine invertebrates (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003700		population	eng	A total of 547 pairs (=1,094 mature individuals; 1,400 estimated total individuals) were counted in the second complete census over the 2003-2004 breeding season.
106003700		threats	eng	The effects of introduced species on Chatham and Pitt Islands are not known, with birds tending to nest in inaccessible sites. Some nests, however, could be affected by stock, feral cats, pigs, dogs, black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em>, brown rats <em>R. norvegicus</em> and Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em><strong> </strong>(Taylor 2000). Birds are sometimes illegally shot by fishermen (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A total of 40-80 birds may be caught in crayfish pots annually (Bell and Bell 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent declines may be a response to changes in the marine environment that are affecting food supplies (Bester and Charteris 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: it is restricted to an island or islands with a maximum altitude of 283 m (Birdlife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003702		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Nineteen of the 39 breeding sites identified on the Pacific coast of Mexico occur in protected areas (Palacios and Amador-Silva 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ongoing studies are underway on the Caribbean coast of Mexico and the southern USA. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its population status in Cuba, Belize and other parts of the Caribbean. Monitor populations to determine trends. Identify threats to the species. Implement predator control at key colonies. <p></p>
106003702		distribution	eng	<em>Egretta rufescens</em> occurs in Baja California and disperses south along the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>, but the majority are found in the Caribbean along the southern coast of the USA, through the Caribbean islands and down the Central American coast to northern <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Venezuela</strong>. Surveys in western Mexico identified 39 breeding sites including eighteen nesting sites in Baja California Sur, eight in Sinaloa, six in Baja California, five in Sonora, and only two in Chiapas. The largest Mexican colony supports 258 breeding pairs while the average colony size was 35 pairs. The population estimate for the west coast of Mexico was between 954 and 1,260 breeding pairs (Palacios and Amador-Silva 2008)<strong></strong>. Numbers have not been collated for the entire Caribbean, but the following figures have been compiled: 1,000 pairs at Green Island, Texas, 200 - 300 pairs elsewhere in Texas, &lt;200 pairs at Tamaulipas, Mexico (Laguna Madre), 50 pairs at Inagua, <strong>Bahamas</strong> and 50 pairs elsewhere in the Bahamas, and up to 200 pairs in Florida (Palacios and Amador-Silva 2008, S. Melville <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Accurate data are not available for other sites in the Caribbean, but latest information suggests it is a common resident (and migrant) throughout coastal <strong>Cuba</strong> and on many cays - 23 are listed with one, Cayo Fragoso noted as a breeding colony (A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>; in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> it is considered a locally common breeding resident, and appears to be more common today than in the 1930's (R. Rodríguez-Mojica <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>; in Puerto Rico it is reportedly very rare (R. Rodríguez-Mojica <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>; 180 individuals were recorded at one site on the Yucatan in March 2006 demonstrating either that there are a lot more birds than previously thought to occur in the region or that it was a previously poorly recorded migrant (B. MacKinnon <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>; and finally data from BirdLife International's World Biodiversity Database of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) suggests that there may also be important numbers in <strong>Belize</strong> with up to c.5,000 resident individuals estimated from three IBAs in the country. This suggests a total of c.10,500-11,300 mature individuals with an unknown additional number in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Population trends are not well understood; certainly the species seems to be increasing in parts of its range where it is well protected and has safe nesting sites, but declines are reported at the majority of sites.       <p></p>
106003702		habitat	eng	The species frequents shallow coastal waters, salt-pans, open marine flats and shorelines; it is rarely recorded away from the coast. It breeds on islands and in mangroves. It feeds mainly on small fish, frogs, tadpoles and crustaceans, using a variety of feeding techniques. It will breed in almost all months of the year, with seasonal peaks that vary in timings across the range. Most breeding takes place along northern coastlines within its range, with non-breeding birds dispersing to the south in the Caribbean and along the Pacific coast. <p></p>
106003702		population	eng	Population estimates throughout its range are: 954-1,260 breeding pairs on the Pacific coast; 1,000 pairs at Green Island, Texas; 200-300 pairs elsewhere in Texas; fewer than 200 pairs at Tamaulipas, Mexico; 50 pairs at Inagua, Bahamas; 50 pairs elsewhere in the Bahamas; up to 200 pairs in Florida, and up to c.5,000 resident individuals in Belize. This suggests a total of c.10,500-11,300 mature individuals with an unknown additional number in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Therefore it is best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equivalent to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003702		threats	eng	Populations were heavily exploited for food in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, fluctuations occur at some colonies, apparently relating to predators which can cause rapid declines; recoveries have been observed following predator control. Threats to the species are not well understood, but it is likely to have declined in parts of its range owing to commercial development of the coastline. <p></p>
106003703		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. The main populations in Zambia and Botswana occur within protected areas (C. Brewster <em>in litt.</em> 1999, T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Herremans <em>in litt.</em> 1999, S. J. Tyler <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, although these latter do not necessarily protect against catchment-wide threats to wetlands (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is the subject of long-term studies and monitoring in Botswana (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a, 2006b), though the biennial African Waterbird Census does not incorporate any suitable habitat for the species (Hancock 2008). Transect routes for long-term monitoring have been identified though no visits occurred in 2008 (Hancock 2008). A draft International Species Action Plan to cover the period 2012-2022 was produced in 2011 (Tyler 2011). Information recently collected on the species in Botswana is to be incorporated into the Slaty Egret Action Plan (Hancock 2008)<strong></strong> and the management plan for the Okavango Delta (Hancock 2006c)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further baseline surveys and ecological studies to clarify the factors affecting its range, population and breeding performance (M. Herremans <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>S. J. Tyler <em>in litt.</em> 1999, T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Tyler 2011)<strong></strong>. Implement surveys to identify all breeding colonies in Botswana and  possibly in Zimbabwe and Zambia, and key nonbreeding sites in all range  states (Tyler 2011). Initiate a study to determine movements of Slaty Egrets between range  states using radio transmitters on nestlings or full-grown birds (Tyler  2011). Assign permanent protection to more of the Okavango Delta, especially the northern Panhandle (S. J. Tyler <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and s<strong></strong>afeguard other key wetlands through designation as reserves or protected areas (Tyler 2011). Enforce legislation and raise public awareness to curb illegal burning of water-margin vegetation and reed-cutting (M. Herremans <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Control disturbance and fires at breeding and roost sites. Monitor population trends by surveying along fixed transects (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Conduct research into the importance of burning and grazing by red lechwe and hippos to the suitability of habitat for the species (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Carry out studies into whether food is limited at feeding sites and whether this affects survival (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a, Tyler 2011). Control the spread of <em>Salvinia</em> (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Increase the awareness of tourists about the impact of disturbance (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a)<strong></strong>. Encourage tourist guides to adopt a code of conduct for visiting breeding sites (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Incorporate concerns over the damage of nesting sites by elephants into elephant management plans (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Construct firebreaks around breeding sites (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Encourage the transition to modern building materials in local communities (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Prevent activities that decrease the area of floodplains, e.g. channel clearing, drainage, large-scale water abstraction, damming and construction of weirs (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Investigate the effects of Deltamethrin on the availability of the species's prey. Prevent or control development that would reduce the species’s breeding habitat, including the implementation of EIA studies before any development (Tyler 2011). <br/><p></p>
106003703		distribution	eng	<em>Egretta vinaceigula</em> occurs in <strong>Zambia</strong> (perhaps 500-1,000 birds, notably at Liuwa Plain, Kafue Flats and Bangweulu in some years, although breeding not recorded [R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 1999<strong></strong>]), northern <strong>Botswana</strong> (probably over 2,000 birds [S. J. Tyler <em>in litt</em>. 2007], mostly around the Okavango Delta and Chobe river, where breeding occurs in at least 12 heronries [S. Tyler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012]<strong></strong>), and northern <strong>Namibia</strong> (c.300 birds [R.E. Simmons and C. Brown <em>per</em> Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a], especially along the Chobe floodplain and Caprivi Strip). It wanders more widely when not breeding (M. Herremans <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and possibly occurs sparsely in Katanga in the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, in <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, and occasionally <strong>South Africa</strong>. It is expected to occur in Mozambique (its presence on the Zambezi Delta is unconfirmed [Parker 2005]), Angola and possibly Malawi. The species is nearly always encountered in small numbers, e.g. rarely more than c.100 together in Zambia (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, and it is likely that the Okavango Delta/Lake Ngami population is in excess of 2,000-3,000 birds, with a world population of c.3,000-5,000 birds (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, Tyler 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003703		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mostly sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>, but moves seasonally within wetlands in response to changing water levels, showing movements in response to rains (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a), which cause seasonal variation in habitat conditions (Tyler 2005)<strong></strong>. However the movements are in general poorly understood. It occurs year-round in some areas (such as Zambia) where it is not known to breed  (Tyler 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Occasional records from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa indicate that the species has a tendency to vagrancy (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005).<strong> </strong>Breeding appears to be irregular, but most often occurs during the months of March to June, coinciding with high flood-levels (Randall and Herremans 1994, Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, S. J. Tyler <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It breeds in small colonies of 1-60 nests, and usually forages in small groups of 4-8 individuals (Hancock and Kushlan 1984)<strong></strong>, although it may forage solitarily or occasionally in larger aggregations of up to 60 individuals (Tyler 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits river floodplains, marshes, and temporary shallow wetlands, preferring areas where water levels are receding from their seasonal peak (Hancock, Elliott and Gillmor 1978, Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It tends to avoid open water (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), being most often found in areas where there is ample cover of short, emergent vegetation (Dowsett 1981, Martínez-Vilalta and Motis 1992) such as <em>Cynodon dactylon</em> and <em>Panicum repens</em> (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). The availability of this habitat is increased by fire and high grazing pressure, however there has so far been insufficient data to confirm important links between these factors and the species's abundance, although it has been observed to be more abundant on burnt floodplains, and it often occurs in association with Red Lechwe <em>Kobus leche</em> (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). It forages in water less than 10cm in depth (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in temporary wetlands at the time of - or shortly after - maximum water levels (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Its preferred breeding habitat is <em>Phragmites</em> reedbed (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a), but it will also nest on islands of vegetation such as water figs <em>Ficus verruculosa</em>, <em>Acacia</em> species (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a, Reed 2006) and date (Tsaro) palms <em>Phoenix reclinata </em>(Atkinson 2003<strong></strong>, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006b) .<strong> Diet </strong>When possible it feeds mainly on young fish (Dowsett 1981, Mathews and McQuaid 1983), especially cichlids (Hancock 2006c)<strong></strong>, but in temporary wetlands where fish do not occur, its diet consists of frogs, aquatic invertebrates (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a, 2006c)<strong></strong> and tadpoles (Hancock 2006c<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Tyler 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span>Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Mathews and McQuaid 1983)<strong></strong>. It locates prey by sight in clear, shallow water (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a, 2006c)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Additionally it will glean snails from lily pads and uses 'standing flycatching' to catch dragonflies and other insects (Mathews and McQuaid 1983, Kushlan and Hancock 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>).&#160;<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>It forages diurnally, often in association with other heron and wader species (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).<strong> Breeding Site </strong>The nest is a bowl lined with fine plant material (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006b), usually on a platform constructed from sticks, and the species shows high nest-site fidelity (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Clutch-size has been recorded as 1-4 eggs, with a mean of 2.4 (n = 16) (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a, 2006b)<strong></strong>, and the incubation period in one nest was recorded as 22-24 days<strong></strong> (Hancock 2006a).<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003703		population	eng	A population estimate of 3,000-5,000 individuals follows new surveys and replaces Collar and Stuart's (1985) estimate of 5,000-10,000 individuals. This roughly equates to 2,500-3,300 mature individuals.
106003703		threats	eng	The wetlands inhabited by this species face many threats, including: flood regulation (P. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, water abstraction, land-claim for agriculture (S. J. Tyler <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, reed-cutting (through disturbance and burning) (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a), fire (Randall and Herremans 1994)<strong></strong>, rice production and disturbance from tourists (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). It is known to have disappeared from part of the Kafue Flats due to flood control by humans, which involved damming the Kafue River (Tyler 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>. At the Okavango Delta (Botswana) food availability appears to be limited and any decrease would impact the survival of adult and immature birds (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). The aerial spraying of Deltamethrin to eradicate tsetse flies did not have any discernible impact on populations as yet (Hancock 2008), despite being known to affect small fish and aquatic invertebrates (Hancock 2006b)<strong></strong>. The presence of <em>Salvinia molesta</em> in some areas reduces visibility by covering the water surface and probably affects foraging by the species (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Breeding success is erratic, and can be significantly affected by human interference, poor floods and predation of nests and adults (Martínez-Vilalta and Motis 1992, Randall and Herremans 1994<strong>, </strong>R. E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 1999). In Botswana, two major historical breeding sites in reedbeds have been destroyed by human-induced fire and their regeneration prevented by decreased flood levels, whilst other sites have suffered human disturbance (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Feeding and trampling by elephants <em>Loxodonta africana</em>, which have expanded their range since the moratorium on elephant hunting, and to a lesser extent buffalo <em>Syncerus caffer</em>, renders reedbeds and trees unsuitable for nesting (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Productivity may be limited by high levels of predation by raptors and other species at some colonies (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a). The species may also be threatened by climate change in the long term (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2006a).  <p></p>
106003704		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The movements of this species are little known (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), although it is thought to be sedentary, sometimes making local movements in response to seasonal rainfall and the appearance of temporary shallow-water feeding areas (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds at the start of the rainy season and in periods of flooding when shallow feeding sites develop (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It typically breeds in densities of 5 to 50 or up to 100 nests scattered throughout a single- or mixed-species colony. Exceptionally larger breeding colonies are observed, for example 1,500 nests were recorded at Chagana, Tanzania, and huge monospecific colonies used to form in Madagascar (over 10,000 birds where recorded at Antananarivo in 1949/50) although this no longer seems to occur (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992). When feeding the species may remain solitary and defend territories, or it may form feeding flocks of 5-50 individuals or more (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) (a flock of 250 was recorded at Benamba Lake, Madagascar) (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992). It feeds diurnally (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992), particularly at dusk (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992), and roosts communally in trees or reedbeds in both monospecific and mixed-species groups (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat </B>The species mainly inhabits lowlands, but occurs up to 1,500 m in the High Plateau Region of Madagascar (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992). It shows a preference for shallow, perennial (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) freshwater habitats (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992) such as shallow lakesides (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), dams (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), ponds, flood-plains, rice-paddies (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992), marshes (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), swamps (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982), seasonally flooded grasslands and the edges of rivers (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It can also found on alkaline lakes (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992) and in estuarine waters (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) including mangroves, tidal mudflats (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and tidal creeks (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), although when in such habitats it remains near freshwater inlets (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists predominantly of fish, but crustaceans and aquatic insects are also taken (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a solid platform constructed of sticks and twigs, usually between 1 and 6 m (Brown <I>et al</I> 1982) high in trees, bushes or reedbeds, and always near or over water (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003704		threats	eng	The greatest threats to this species in Africa are human disturbance and avian predation at nest sites, as well as threats to the aquatic habitats on which the species depends (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It is highly threatened in Madagascar due to human interference at breeding sites (del Hoyo<I> et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003709		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> There is little known about the movements of this species (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), although it apparently disperses widely (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and may be partially migratory (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It breeds between April and July or in October (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in solitary pairs, or more usually in small colonies of around 12 pairs (sometimes up to 100) (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). When not breeding the species is a solitary feeder, although it is occasionally found in small groups (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). It feeds diurnally, but also at night depending on the tides, and roosts at night in large numbers of between 500 and 1,000, in mangroves or on rocky cliffs and islets (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). <B>Habitat </B>The species shows a preference for rocky or sandy shores and reefs (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), but will also frequent other coastal habitats such as estuaries, mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves, tidal creeks (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and lagoons (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and molluscs, but crickets, grubs and earthworms are also taken (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests in solitary pairs or small colonies on the ground, or in reedbeds, bushes and mangrove trees up to 20 m high, as well as on ledges or boulders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), the nest being a platform of twigs and seaweed (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982).
106003709		threats	eng	This species wasseriously persecuted and hunted for the plume trade in the past, but has since recovered (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003712		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Russia, China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, and South Korea. Some important breeding, staging and wintering sites are protected, including the Far Eastern Marine Reserve (Russia) and sites in China, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam and the Philippines.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the coast of China, North Korea and South Korea for breeding sites and monitor existing sites. Survey its wintering range for new sites and establish a winter monitoring programme. Create a network of environmentally stable sites for it in the central Philippines. Extend the boundaries of the Far Eastern Marine Reserve to include the coast between the Tumen river mouth and Pos'yet Bay (Russia). Establish as protected areas Thai Thuy in the Red River delta and Bai Boi in the Mekong delta (Vietnam). Incorporate mudflats and mangroves near Krabi within the Hat Nopparat Tara National Park (Thailand). Establish protected areas at Pulau Bruit, Sarawak (Malaysia). Protect offshore breeding islands in China and North Korea. Prohibit egg-collecting in the breeding grounds in China and North Korea. <p></p>
106003712		distribution	eng	<em>Egretta eulophotes</em> breeds on small islands off the coasts of eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong> and mainland <strong>China</strong>. It formerly bred in <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), but is now only a non-breeding visitor or passage migrant. It is also a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, the <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular and eastern <strong>Malaysia</strong> (Sarawak), <strong>Singapore</strong>, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Sulawesi) and <strong>Brunei</strong>. Key wintering areas are the Eastern Visayas (Leyte, Bohol and Cebu), Philippines, and the Malaysian states of Sarawak and Selangor where 30-50% of the global populaton are believed to winter based on winter counts in 2004/2005 (Li 2006)<strong></strong>. The population is estimated at 2,600-3,400 mature individuals. There has been no significant decline in this species in the last ten years (Simba Chan <em>in litt</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, and recent discoveries of new colonies off southern China may represent increased observer effort, but possibly indicate some improvement in the species's status.   <p></p>
106003712		habitat	eng	It occurs in shallow tidal estuaries, mudflats and bays, occasionally visiting fishponds and paddy-fields. Since 1985, all breeding records have been from uninhabited offshore islands.  <p></p>
106003712		population	eng	The global population was estimated to number c.2,600-3,400 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,700-2,300 mature individuals, based on recent records and surveys (BirdLife International 2001). However, this is thought to be an underestimate, as the number in China alone is estimated at c.1,000 mature individuals and could be around 1,500-2,000 mature individuals (Xiaolin Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). On this basis, the population is placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, which is probably equivalent to 3,800-15,000 individuals, assuming that mature individuals account for around 2/3 of the population.
106003712		threats	eng	By the end of the 19th century, it had been almost totally extirpated by persecution motivated by factors including the trade in its plumes. Today, the greatest threat is habitat loss and degradation through reclamation of tidal flats, estuarine habitats and uninhabited offshore breeding islands for infrastructure, industry, aquaculture and agriculture, and through pollution. Fishers in Liaoning, China, collect eggs for food, and breeding birds are threatened by disturbance. The rapid decline of a colony at Shin-do, South Korea, in the early 1990s, was apparently a result of disturbance by photographers. <p></p>
106003713		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number 100,000-1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt;   c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in   Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003715		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most Palearctic populations of this species are fully migratory, dispersing widely in September-October after the breeding season and returning to breeding grounds in February (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Further south, populations tend to be sedentary or only partially migratory. Most migratory movements occur nocturnally, with birds moving in small parties or larger flocks of 200-250 (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species breeds January-May in the Palearctic Region, and in spring and summer in temperate areas, but mainly during the rains in Africa and the tropics<B></B>(although here it may also breed in any month of the year) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It breeds in mixed colonies of hundreds or thousands of pairs (the largest colony in Europe is 800-1,300 pairs), although it may also nest solitarily or in small groups of 2-10 nests (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is typically a solitary feeder but at abundant temporary food sources, or where available feeding areas are restricted, large congregations may occur (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It feeds at any time day or night, but is most active at dawn or dusk, typically roosting communally or solitarily (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) during the middle of the day and at night (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) in trees and on cliffs, low rocks, islets or along shores (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> This species is a generalist in its habitat use, although shallow water, relatively large prey, and four or five months of ice-free breeding season are among the essential characteristics of its habitat (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It occurs from sea-level up to 500 or even 1,000 m, occasionally breeding much higher (Snow and Perrins 1998) (2,000 m in Armenia, 3,500-4,000 m in Ladakh, north-west India), inhabits any kind of shallow water, either fresh, brackish or saline, both standing or flowing, and shows a preference for areas with trees as it is commonly an arboreal rooster and nester. Some degree of isolation and protection are also typical of places chosen for roosting and nesting (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is found inland on broad rivers, narrow streams, lake shores, ornamental ponds, fish-ponds, marshes, flood-plains, reeds swamps, rice-fields and other irrigated areas (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), river oxbows, reservoirs, ditches, canals, sewage farms, inland deltas, and on islets and emerging rocks (Snow and Perrins 1998). On the coast the species also frequents deltas, salt-marshes, mangroves (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), estuaries, tidal mudflats, muddy and sandy shores, and sand-spits (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish and eels 10-25 cm long, as well as amphibians, crabs, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic insects, snakes, small rodents, small birds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and plant matter (although this may be incidental,<B></B>or only to aid in pellet formation) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a stick platform that is often re-used over successive years (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), usually positioned high in a tall tree up to 50 m, but also on the ground or on cliff edges, in reedbeds or in bushes. In reed-beds nests may be built of reeds, and ground nests may be reduced to a slight scrape, ringed with small stones and debris (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species commonly nests in colonies, and nesting sites are typically situated 2-38 km (convenient flying distance) from preferred feeding areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).<B></B>
106003715		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.790,000-3,700,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100,000-1   million breeding pairs and &gt;c.10,000 individuals on migration in China;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   Korea; c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt;c.10,000 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt;c.10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003715		threats	eng	In Europe the species was heavily persecuted in the nineteenth century due to its consumption of fish, which resulted in competition with fishermen and fish farmers (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Although killing at aquaculture farms has not reduced the global population so far (possibly because it is young birds that are mostly killed) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), 800 herons are estimated to have died per year at Scottish fish-farms between 1984 and 1987 (Carss 1994, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) by being shot, drowned or poisoned by fish farmers (Carss 1994). Renewed hunting poses a threat to Bavarian populations by decreasing numbers to levels that inhibit recovery following severe winters (severe winters increase mortality rates for juveniles) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is vulnerable in Madagascar owing to its restricted range, exceedingly high levels of habitat alteration (from siltation and the need for agricultural land for rice and grazing) (Kushlan and Hafner 2000, Hafner and Kushlan 2002), hunting, and predation at nesting colonies (Kushlan and Hafner 2000, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Timber harvesting is a threat throughout much of the species range by removing trees used by nesting colonies and/or disturbing nearby colonies (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006)and avian botulism (van Heerden 1974), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003720		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Although populations of this species breeding in the equatorial zone of Africa are largely sedentary other populations are partially migratory and move in relation to the timing of the dry seasons (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992). The species nests in small mixed-species colonies of up to 200 pairs with breeding activities peaking during the rains (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992). The species is usually a solitary forager, but may occasionally congregate into loose feeding flocks (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and commonly roosts in groups of tens to hundreds of individuals (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Individuals may travel over 30 km daily between preferred feeding grounds and roosting sites (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits marshes (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992) with reed and papyrus beds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992), the margins of rivers and lakes, estuaries (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992), coastal creeks (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and flats (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), temporary pools (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and natural savannas or artificial grasslands (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) including damp open pastures, moist grassland and cultivated land (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992) (especially Orthoptera), earthworms (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), crabs (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992), Arachnids (e.g. scorpions and spiders) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), small mammals (e.g. rats, water voles, musk-shrews (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and mice (Hancock and Kushlan 1984)), lizards, snakes, frogs, birds and fish (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Insects are the most important prey item for the species during the rains, although these become less important as grasslands dry out (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a platform of sticks usually positioned high in trees (del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. eucalyptus, baobab, acacia, fig or palm) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) or in reedbeds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo<I> et al.</I> 1992), papyrus beds, floating islands of papyrus or on sandstone ledges (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species nests in colonies with up to 35 pairs nesting in one tree (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Management information</B> In Cameroon the re-flooding of a desiccated flood-plain twinned with an increase in rainfall and colony protection resulted in a increase in the number of breeding pairs of this species (Scholte 2006).
106003720		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003721		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is recorded from Ankarafantsika Strict Reserve, Ankarana Special Reserve and Baly Bay National Park, but overall its habitat is poorly protected (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>, with c.50% of the population residing outside protected areas (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong></strong>. The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, which came into force for the country in 1999, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands. During surveys in the Antsalova region in 2003/2004, the numbers of this species, on average for each site, were found to be significantly higher on lakes in designated Ramsar sites (Lakes Befotaka, Soamalipo, Ankerika and Antsamaka) compared with lakes outsite designated sites  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). However, this could be due to variations in survey effort, the availability of suitable shoreline habitat, the proximity of the relatively undisturbed Tsimembo Forest, which prevents serious soil erosion, or the proximity of lakes to one another (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). A survey in 1999 found the species in 20 Important Bird Areas within the West Malagasy Endemic Bird Area (ZICOMA 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate and protect important breeding colonies. Obtain population estimates for the species (Morris and Hawkins 1998). <p></p>
106003721		distribution	eng	<em>Ardea humbloti</em> breeds only in <strong>Madagascar</strong> but is also recorded as a vagrant from the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Comoro Islands</strong> and <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Mayotte (to France)</strong>. In 1973, it was reported to have declined alarmingly and to be facing extinction unless completely protected. More recently it was found to be fairly common (though patchily distributed) in parts of north and west Madagascar, and uncommon in the south (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. It has also been seen regularly at Lake Alaotra (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. The total population was recently estimated to number 1,000-3,000 individuals (F. Hawkins<em> in litt. </em>2002 to Wetlands International 2002)<strong></strong>, although since then survey data from 2003 and 2004 combined with past literature has resulted in an estimation of no more than 1,500 individuals  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). It is now judged to be restricted to western Madagascar, where it is sparsely distributed, with its stronghold being the Antsalova region  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press).  <p></p>
106003721		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>There is no evidence of migration in this species, but it is prone to long-distance wandering in search of suitable habitat (<strong></strong>Kushlan and Hancock 2005; Hancock and Kushlan 1984). It is usually seen alone, sometimes with other herons (Langrand 1990). It breeds mainly in small groups of a few pairs in mixed species colonies but also solitarily (Langrand 1990; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992). Various independent observations suggest that nesting takes place year-round (Langrand 1990; ZICOMA 1999;&#160; Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). There are observations of grey heron <em>Ardea cinerea</em> and <em>A. humbloti</em> chicks occupying the same nests; though there is no evidence of mixed pairings or hybridisation, and this interaction between the two species is not understood  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). <strong>Habitat </strong>The species prefers coastal areas (including coral islets, mangroves, tidal mud flats and estuaries) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005; Hancock and Elliott 1978) but also frequents freshwater lakes (particularly those that persist through the dry season and are in close proximity to other lakes  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press)), rivers and, more rarely, rice-paddies (<strong></strong>Kushlan and Hancock 2005; Hancock and Elliott 1978). It forages in clear, shallow waters (Langrand 1990; Hancock and Elliott 1978) and among floating vegetation (Hancock and Elliott 1978; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992). Habitat suitability depends on water clarity, shoreline areas with shallow water and the availability of large fish  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). Diet It feeds chiefly on medium to large fish (up to 20cm (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)) and crustaceans (Langrand 1990; Morris and Hawkins 1998). <strong>Breeding Site</strong> It nests in tree-tops or hollows in rocks, and has also been reported to nest on the ground (Kushlan and Hancock 2005; Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Its clutch-size is three.  <p></p>
106003721		population	eng	Survey data from 2003 and 2004 combined with past literature suggests that there are no more than 1,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,000 mature individuals.
106003721		threats	eng	Natural wetlands have been degraded by modification and conversion for human use, particularly for rice cultivation (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998 ; Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press), and by siltation as a result of watershed deforestation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong><strong></strong>. The former wetlands of the central highlands may once have been important refuges for immature birds<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong></strong>. At the nest it is especially vulnerable to disturbance, egg-collection and the capture of nestlings by local villagers for food<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(ZICOMA 1999;&#160; Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). These pressures are likely to reduce its numbers as the human population of western Madagascar continues to increase<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, however the establishment of a local community association resource management process (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gestion Local Securisee</span> or GELOSE) has significantly decreased these activities in these zones (Razafimanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Cutting of nesting-trees can also be a significant threat, e.g. at Manambolomaty Ramsar Site where this has caused an alarming decline over the last 10 years (ZICOMA 1999). Wetlands in Madagascar have long been in decline as the climate has become progressively drier (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong>, and this has been compounded by the degradation of wetlands<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong><strong></strong>. The depletion of fish stocks by local fisheries is a potential threat  (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press).  <p></p>
106003722		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is not migratory but may make local dispersive or nomadic movements in response to seasonal habitat changes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Breeding usually coincides with the start of the rains although in some areas the species breed in any month of the year (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or only when conditions are most favourable (i.e. not every year) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is not a gregarious species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and usually nests and forages in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Occasionally it may also nest in small single- or mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and has been known to forage in larger flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits both coastal and inland (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) freshwater and saline waters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), showing a preference for (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) shallow water along the shores of lakes, rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and lagoons (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Other suitable habitats include marshes, tidal estuaries, reefs, mangrove creeks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and waterholes in woodland savanna (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species often forages away from the shore in deep water near floating vegetation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of large fish 15-50 cm long although it will also take frogs, lizards, snakes, rodents, crabs, prawns and floating carrion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of sticks or reeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) placed less than 3 m high in trees over water, on partly submerged trees, low bushes, mangroves, cliffs, sedges, papyrus, reeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or on bare ground (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), showing a preference for nest sites that are surrounded by water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. islands or islands of vegetation in lakes) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) but also utilising on riverbanks and lakeshores (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003723		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It probably breeds in Namdapha Tiger Reserve (last surveyed in 2005-2006) (Maheswaran 2007)<strong></strong> and it occurs seasonally in several other protected areas, including Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa and Manas National Parks, and Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, India. In Myanmar, a small population occurs within the Hukaung Tiger Reserve<strong> </strong>(A. W. Tordoff <em>in litt</em>. 2006), and Hpon Razi Wildlife Sanctuary. A project studying White-bellied Heron began in Bhutan in 2003, and is run in conjunction with the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature, the World Wildlife Fund, the Felburn Foundation and the International Crane Foundation. Recognising the importance of the riverbed in Punakha-Wangdue as a primary feeding ground for this species, the Royal Government of Bhutan has declared the area as protected habitat for White-bellied Herons. In May 2011, a White-bellied Heron was hatched in captivity for the first time (Tshewang Norbu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and in September 2011 it was released at Bumitsawa, Pochu, Punakha, in Bhutan, having been already tagged with a satellite transmitter (www.rspnbhutan.org).&#160; <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys for the species in north-east India, Myanmar and also south-east Tibet, to establish its distribution, population status and ecological requirements, particularly in breeding areas. Support proposals to provide more effective protection for Namdapha National Park, including creation of buffer zones. Support requests to maintain habitat and minimise disturbance along the Manas river and around Ada lake, Bhutan. Initiate conservation awareness programmes in areas supporting populations, particularly in Myanmar and north-east India, using it as a flagship species. Consider satellite tagging individuals to improve current understanding of the species's movements and habitat preferences<strong> </strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Improve conservation of protected areas in Myanmar. <p></p>
106003723		distribution	eng	<em>Ardea insignis</em> is known from the eastern Himalayan foothills in <strong>Bhutan</strong> and north-east <strong>India</strong> to the hills of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, north <strong>Myanmar</strong> and, historically at least, across west and central Myanmar  (BirdLife International 2001). It may also occur in south-east Tibet, China, but is now extinct in Nepal. Birds visit the Brahmaputra lowlands in winter. Although historical reports suggest it was previously common in Myanmar, it has evidently declined throughout its range given the paucity of recent records. Most of the few recent records come from five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India, one or two sites in Bhutan, and parts of Myanmar. In Bhutan, there is a small population of 30 known individuals (with six juveniles) as of July 2007 (Pradhan 2007), with the total national population unlikely to exceed 50 individuals (Pradhan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The birds were observed along the Phochu, confluence of Phochu-Mochu, Punatsangchhu, Kamechu (Digchu), Zawa, Ngagshina and Burichu confluence (Pradhan 2007). Six active nests were recorded in Bhutan in 2007, two from a new site, and by 26 July 2007 they held six chicks in total. Due to the natural forest fire, three nests were abandoned. A further three active nests with five chicks were recorded in 2009, although only three chicks remained on a subsequent visit (Anon 2009)<strong></strong>. Six breeding sites from two rivers of central Bhutan have been recorded, and the eastern part of the country has not been thoroughly surveyed (Pradhan <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2007)<strong></strong>. The species has also been reported from the Thim Chhu, Lungtenphu (C. Feijen<em> in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. A massive hydroelectric scheme may have recently caused its expiration from the Sunkosh Valley (K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In Myanmar, the 21,700 km<sup>2</sup> Hukaung Valley tiger reserve (the largest area of suitable habitat within the species's range) is believed to support approximately 30-40 individuals (W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, and Hpon Razi Wildlife Sanctuary and Hkakabo Razi National Park hold small populations. White-bellied Heron has been recorded along rivers elsewhere in Kachin State, such as the Nam Sam Chaung, although little is known about its status in these areas<strong> </strong>(A. W. Tordoff <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Despite an increase in survey effort within the species's range in Myanmar there has been no corresponding increase in the number of records and the species was apparently absent from large areas of suitable habitat (J. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. One recent repeat survey failed to record the species in an area where it had been seen in 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The findings of field surveys have also been supported by reports from local people which suggest that the species has declined in the region in recent years<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This evidence suggests there may be fewer than 250 individuals remaining<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(J. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Wilson<em></em> <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006)<strong></strong>. In north-east India, a few individuals are regularly seen in Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh. However, records from other sites are sporadic and there are no recent sightings from a number of former sites including Jamjing Reserved Forest, Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (A. Choudhury <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The most recent sighting in Assam was of two birds from Subankhata Reserved Forest, Baksa district in 2010 (A. Choudhury<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<p></p>
106003723		habitat	eng	It is primarily recorded from small or large rivers, usually with sand or gravel bars, often within or adjacent to subtropical broadleaved forest, from the lowlands up to at least 1,500 m, and it has also been reported from an inland lake (A. W. Tordoff <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. It is generally solitary but may aggregate into small flocks and family groups during winter (D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong> </strong>Pradhan<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2007) and tends to frequent inaccessible and undisturbed areas. The species is known to breed and roost in Chir pine forest<strong> </strong>(A. W. Tordoff <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006); four nests located in Bhutan in 2003-2007 were solitary and located in large Chir pines on ridges or steep slopes at 500-1,500 m, near the confluence of a small forest stream with a larger river (Pradhan 2007, Pradhan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Nesting took place in March-early June. Birds then moved up to 30 km to feed on sand bars in large braided river systems in winter (Pradhan 2007, Pradhan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <p></p>
106003723		population	eng	Though a complete population census is yet to be conducted, the current population size is though to be best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals (D. Wilson and J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2006). This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106003723		threats	eng	The main threats are presumed to be widespread loss, degradation and disturbance of forest and wetlands. Wetlands have become degraded as a result of pollution, rapid growth of aquatic vegetation, and the over-exploitation of resources. Increasing disturbance and habitat degradation from settlement, conversion to agriculture, harvesting of wetland resources and, more locally, poaching are thought to present significant threats in key protected areas (e.g. Namdapha National Park) in north-east India, Bhutan and Myanmar (W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Natural forest fires have destroyed nests in Bhutan. In Bhutan, hydroelectric power developments and road improvements have resulted in significant habitat degradation. Rivers act as busy transport routes for the human population, exacerbating disturbance of this specie<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>s (W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006).   <p></p>
106003725		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Populations breeding in the western Palearctic are migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and travel on a broad front between breeding and wintering grounds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). African and tropical-Asian populations are largely sedentary however, occasionally making local dispersive movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds from April to June in the western Palearctic, during the rains in Africa, and from June to October in the north of India or November to March in the south of India (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is a colonial breeder (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Turner 2000, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and although nesting group sizes are usually small (e.g. 2-3 pairs per colony in Africa) and rarely exceed 50 pairs (Turner 2000), colonies of up to 1,000 pairs have been recorded in some areas (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It often also nests on the periphery of colonies of other heron species such as Grey Heron <I>Ardea cinerea</I> (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). In migratory populations the autumn migration occurs from August to October (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), with the return passage in the spring beginning in March (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). On migration the species commonly occurs in small groups (the maximum recorded migratory groups sizes being 300-400 individuals) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and throughout the year it will roost communally by day and by night (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) in groups of up to 100 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) although it generally feeds solitarily (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is mainly crepuscular, but may also feed diurnally (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits wetlands from sea level to 1,800 m (Madagascar) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), showing a preference for dense, flooded, freshwater reedbeds (<I>Phragmites</I> spp.) in temperate areas (occupying <I>Typha</I>, <I>Scirpus </I>and <I>Papyrus</I> swamps elsewhere) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It also utilises lake shores, river margins (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), ditches, canals, brackish water lagoons (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), rice-fields, mangroves and coastal mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists of fish 5-15 cm long (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (occasionally up to 55 cm), salamanders (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), frogs, insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. beetles, dragonflies, hemiptera (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and locusts (Hancock and Kushlan 1984)), crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), spiders (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and molluscs (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) as well as small birds and mammals, snakes and lizards (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of reeds stems or sticks (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) positioned over or beside water up to 3 m high in flooded reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), 3-4 m high in thickets or mangroves (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or up to 25 m high in trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species usually nests in loose single- or mixed-species colonies with Grey Heron <I>Ardea cinerea</I>, and although colony sizes are usually small, large groups of up to 1,000 pairs have been recorded (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (the colony size depends on the size of the area of marshland) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Management information</B> Studies in southern France have shown that the overall conservation of this species in Europe is favoured by maintaining large uncut reedbeds with relatively high spring water levels (Barbraud <I>et al.</I> 2002).
106003725		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.270,000-570,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals   in Taiwan; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Japan and possibly &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106003725		threats	eng	The main threat to this species in Europe is the loss of reedbeds though direct elimination (to reduce sedimentation) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), agricultural encroachment (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), water management practices (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (e.g. drainage) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and reed cane harvesting (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003728		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersive movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Populations breeding in the tropics are sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or partially migratory (in relation to rainfall) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), whereas Palearctic and Nearctic populations are migratory (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The timing of the breeding season varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) although temperate breeders tend to nest in the spring and summer (e.g. April to July) and tropical breeders nest in the part of the rain cycle when food becomes maximally available (this may be during the rains or in the dry season) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species typically breeds in colonies of tens, hundreds or even a thousand pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), sometimes with other species (e.g. 450 pairs in a mixed colony of over 3,000 nests in Australia) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Some populations also show a tendency to breed solitarily or in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Outside of the breeding season the species may feed solitarily (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or in small loose groups (Marchant and Higgins 1990) (e.g. of 12-50 individuals) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), although flocks of hundreds or more individuals may form where food is abundant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is a diurnal feeder (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) but is most active at dawn and dusk (although in coastal environments it feeding habits are determined by tidal stages) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and roosts at night in trees (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) alongside lakes or rivers or in mangroves, often with other species (Langrand 1990). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits all kinds of inland and coastal wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) although it is mainly found along the coast in the winter (e.g. in the Palearctic Region) (Snow and Perrins 1998) or during droughts (e.g. in Australia) (Marchant and Higgins 1990). It frequents river margins, lakes shores, marshes, flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), oxbows, streams (Snow and Perrins 1998), damp meadows (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), rice-fields, drainage ditches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), aquaculture ponds, reservoirs (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and sewage works (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) inland, and the shallows of salt-lakes (Marchant and Higgins 1990), saltpans, mudflats, coastal swamps, mangroves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), saltmarshes, seagrass flats, offshore coral reefs, lagoons (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and estuaries when in coastal locations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> In aquatic habitats its diet consists of fish, amphibians, snakes, aquatic insects and crustaceans although in drier habitats terrestrial insects, lizards, small birds and mammals are more commonly taken (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed from sticks (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and vegetation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and is normally positioned over water at a height of 1-15 m (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) in reedbeds, bamboos (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), bushes, trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. willow <I>Salix</I> spp.)<B>, </B>mangroves (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and other plants near water or on islands in sites that are protected from ground predators (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species usually nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups where nests may be less than 1 m apart or touching, although they are usually placed more spread out in reedbeds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Breeding pairs may also reuse nests from previous years (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Management information </B>Breeding site conservation should include colony protection, control of disturbance and vegetation management, and the conservation of feeding areas should include the management of hydrology, salt intrusion, contaminants and disturbance (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). An artificial island nesting site created in the Camargue, France succeeded in attracting nesting pairs to the area (Hafner 2000).
106003728		population	eng	Estimate includes totals for 'Ardea modesta'.
106003728		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss (Marchant and Higgins 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) for example through drainage, grazing, clearing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants (Marchant and Higgins 1990). Breeding colonies in Madagascar may be declining due to egg and chick gathering from colonies by local peoples (Langrand 1990, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and the species previously suffered from intense persecution for the plume trade (this is no longer a threat) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003729		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> North-Asian populations of this species are fully migratory, leaving Japan in September-October to winter in the Philippines and Borneo (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and returning to breeding colonies in April (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The majority is predominantly sedentary however, with some populations making limited nomadic or partially migratory movements (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) in response to changing water levels (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The breeding season varies regionally (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), but is usually centered around the wet season (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), with birds breeding in mixed-species colonies (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) of between 7, 20 (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and hundreds of pairs (sometimes up to thousands) (Marchant and Higgins 1990). The species is diurnal (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and usually feeds singly, but old records suggest (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) that it may form flocks of 15-20 individuals (sometimes up to 250) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), occasionally forming concentrations around permanent water during droughts (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). During the night the species roosts communally in trees over water (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) in groups of 20 or more (Marchant and Higgins 1990). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits lowlands from sea-level to 1,000 m in Sumatra, and 1,450 m in Nepal (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It shows a preference for sheltered flood-plains and seasonal wetlands with water less than 80 mm deep and emergent grasses, herbs, sedges, reeds or rushes and abundant aquatic vegetation (Marchant and Higgins 1990) (generally avoiding areas where vegetation is too thick for feeding) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Such habitats include seasonally flooded marshes, inland deltas (e.g. Okavango Basin, Botswana) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), ponds, swamp forest (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), freshwater swamps, pools, rivers, streams, rice-fields, the margins of freshwater, brackish and saltwater lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), wet meadows, and flooded and dry pasture near water (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It occurs less often in coastal habitats, but may roost in mangrove swamps (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), and frequents mudflats, tidal estuaries (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), coastal lagoons (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), saltmarshes, and tidal streams and rivers (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Diet</B> In aquatic habitats the diet of this species consists predominantly of fish less than 10 cm long (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) (including eels, perch <I>Macquaria</I>, gudgeon and mosquitofish <I>Gambusia</I>) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), as well as frogs, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish) (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and aquatic insects (e.g. leeches, water bugs and dragonfly larvae) (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It will also take terrestrial prey in drier habitats (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) including grasshoppers (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), mole crickets, bugs and beetles, snakes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), spiders (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) lizards (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and exceptionally birds (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The species breeds colonially with other species (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) but does not concentrate into dense groups; individual nests being typically situated 0.5 m away from each other (Marchant and Higgins 1990). The nest is a shallow platform of sticks and other marshland vegetation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) usually positioned in trees standing in water or over reedbeds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Marchant and Higgins 1990) (e.g. in inland swamps or mangroves) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), at heights of 3-6 m and occasionally up to 20 m (del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species may also nest on ledges, in reedbeds or in bushes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982).
106003729		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.180,000-1,300,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003729		threats	eng	This species has declined markedly in Japan since the 1960s due to pollution and the disturbance of nesting colonies (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species is also threatened in the Northern Territory of Australia by the degradation of flood-plain habitats owing to grazing, burning, invasion by introduced plants (Marchant and Higgins 1990) (particularly <I>Mimosa pigra</I> and <I>Salvinia molesta</I> (Maddock 2000)), reduced water flows from drainage and water diversion for irrigation (Marchant and Higgins 1990, McKilligan 2005), levee breaking by feral buffalo (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Maddock 2000) (allowing salt intrusion and accumulation of tidal sediment (Marchant and Higgins 1990)), clearing of swamp forest, and pollution from mineral extraction (Maddock 2000). <B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003730		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are partially migratory, making long-distance dispersive movements related to food resources in connection with seasonal rainfall (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Other populations (e.g. in north-east Asia and North America) are fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds throughout the year in the tropics with different regional peaks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) depending on food availability (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It breeds colonially, often with other species, in groups that number from a few dozen to several thousand pairs, even up to 10,000 pairs in Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The nesting effort of the species is related to rainfall patterns, leading to an annual variation in productivity (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), feeding in loose flocks of 10-20 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and often gathering in flocks of hundreds or even thousands of individuals where food is abundant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Nocturnal roosting sites in Africa commonly hold a few hundred to 2,000 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species is a diurnal feeder (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and commonly associates with native grazing mammals or domesticated livestock (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and may follow farm machinery to capture disturbed prey (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits open grassy areas such as meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), livestock pastures (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), semi-arid steppe (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and open savanna grassland subject to seasonal inundation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), dry arable fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), artificial grassland sites (e.g. lawns, parks, road margins and sports fields) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), flood-plains (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), freshwater swamps, rice-fields, wet pastures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), shallow marshes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), mangroves (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and irrigated grasslands (with ponds, small impoundments, wells, canals, small rivers and streams) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It rarely occupies marine habitats or forested areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) although in Australia it may enter woodlands and forests, and it shows a preference for freshwater (Marchant and Higgins 1990) although it may also use brackish or saline habitats (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It occurs from sea-level up to c.1,500 m (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or locally up to c.4,000 m (Peru) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists primarily of insects such as locusts, grasshoppers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), beetles, adult and larval Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, dragonflies (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and centipedes but worms (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), spiders (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), crustaceans, frogs, tadpoles, molluscs, fish, lizards, small birds, rodents and vegetable matter (e.g. palm-nut pulp) may also be taken (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of twigs and vegetation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and is positioned up to 20 m high in reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), marshes, mangroves, dense thickets (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), bushes or trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), usually over or surrounded by water (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups with the nests placed close or touching (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> The species can adversely affect the trees and bushes it uses for nesting, which may lead to the abandonment of the colony site if it is not managed (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003730		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 3,800,000-7,600,000 individuals.
106003730		threats	eng	Large colonies nesting in urban areas are perceived as a public nuisance and may be persecuted (e.g. by disturbance to prevent colony establishment, removal or direct killing) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). In its breeding range the species is threatened by wetland degradation and destruction such as lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Armenia) (Balian <I>et al.</I> 2002), and in some parts of its range it is susceptible to pesticide poisoning (organophosphates and carbamates) (Kwon <I>et al.</I> 2004). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003731		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> In the Palearctic this species is migratory and dispersive (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), travelling on a broad front between breeding and wintering areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). African breeding populations are nomadic or sedentary however and make local dispersive movements to temporary wetlands following seasonal rains (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). The species breeds from April to July in Eurasia and North Africa (the populations south of the Sahara breeding mainly during the rainy season) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in single- or mixed-species colonies that can be up to 2,000 pairs in size (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). After breeding Palearctic populations migrate south from August to November (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), returning to the breeding colonies between February and May (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species feeds solitarily (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or in small groups of 2-5 individuals during the breeding season (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) although in winter and on migration large feeding flocks may form (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and in Africa resident populations may feed in parties of up to 20 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species is mainly crepuscular (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), roosting by day and night in large (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) often mixed-species (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) groups in sheltered woods and reedbeds (these roosts may draw in herons feeding up to 80 km away) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits permanent or temporary wetlands (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) showing a preference for fresh waters with abundant marsh vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), reedbeds, nearby bushes, trees and scrub (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Habitats frequented include swampy plains, river valleys, deltas, lakes, ponds, canals and ditches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) although rice paddyfields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) are now the principle habitat throughout much of its range (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). On migration (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) the species may also occur on estuaries, inshore reefs or islets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It generally avoids dry habitats and those with very high rainfall (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and usually breeds in the lowlands although it has bred on montane lakes up to 2,000 m (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of larval insects although fish and amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. frogs and tadpoles) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) up to 10 cm long, grasshoppers, beetles, butterflies, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs and exceptionally small birds may also be taken (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a well-constructed platform (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) usually placed less than 2 m (occasionally up to 20 m) high near or over water in reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or in dense thickets of trees or shrubs (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (e.g. of willow <I>Salix</I> spp. or poplar <I>Populus</I> spp.) (Hafner and Didner 1997), preferring nesting sites within 5 km of feeding areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds in single- or mixed-species colonies that can be up to 2,000 pairs in size (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), neighbouring pairs building nests 5-10 m apart (occasionally as close as 0.5 m) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003731		threats	eng	The greatest threat to this species is the loss and deterioration of natural and man-made freshwater habitats (e.g. through changes to flood regimes in rice paddyfields) and wet woodlands (e.g. through woodcutting and burning) (Hafner and Didner 1997). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003733		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.25,000-1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Korea (Brazil 2009).
106003735		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Madagascar has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, which should increase the priority given to wetland conservation. Forthcoming conservation efforts will focus on freshwater wetlands in Madagascar (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct basic surveys on Madagascar to assess population size and provide a baseline for monitoring. Study its ecology to confirm the causes of decline. Research the extent, impacts and causes of hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ralloides. </span>Locate and protect important breeding colonies under national protected area legislation. Reduce exploitation pressures through public-awareness campaigns.<br/>Regulate access to sites during the breeding season including community led control.<br/>Prevent development which reduces breeding habitat, including through the use of an EIA process for development.<br/><br/><p></p>
106003735		distribution	eng	<em>Ardeola idae</em> breeds on <strong>Madagascar</strong> (2,000-6,000 individuals<strong> </strong>[Delany and Scott 2002]), Aldabra (20-50 pairs in 2001 [Ndang’ang’a and Sande 2008] down from 100 breeding pairs in 1970 [Benson and Penny 1971]) in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>, Mayotte (10-20 pairs in 2007 [Ndang’ang’a and Sande 2008] (eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Comoro Island,</span> to France) and Europa (15 pairs [Ndang’ang’a and Sande 2008] (<strong>Réunion</strong>, to <strong>France</strong>). It has a large non-breeding range in Central and East Africa including the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Comoro Islands</strong>, <strong>Mozambique, Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Zambia, Malawi</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. It is present almost throughout Madagascar, but is always uncommon (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. It is rare in the south and probably commonest in suitable wetlands in the west (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. A decline has been reported over the last 50 years, most notably on the high plateau (Morris and Hawkins 1998;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Salvan 1970, 1971, 1972)<strong></strong>. Whilst it remains fairly widespread, populations are low, and increasing exploitation at breeding sites is likely to increase the rate of population decline (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>.&#160; <p></p>
106003735		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). It breeds between October and March with a peak at the start of the wet season in November and December (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. Breeding is colonial, the species occurring historically in groups of up to 1000 pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>, though now usually in much smaller numbers<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Burger 1990)<strong></strong>, often as part of a mixed-species colony (Burger 1990; del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>. It migrates westward in May, and returns to its breeding range in October (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>. First-year birds are reported to remain in the non-breeding areas during the breeding season<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It forages solitarily.<strong> Habitat </strong>It principally inhabits freshwater wetlands, particularly shallow waterbodies fringed with vegetation and adjacent trees (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). <em>Breeding</em> In its Madagascan breeding range it occurs in grassy marshes, small lakes, ponds, ditches and rice fields, usually near trees and bushes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), although it has been recorded nesting on islands where trees are scarce (Burger 1990). In Aldabra it uses mangroves, inland pools and lagoon shores (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and is occasionally found to inhabit areas away from water (Benson and Penny 1971)<strong></strong>. <em>Nonbreeding </em>In its non-breeding range it is commonly found along the banks of small streams, including those inside forest. It is also found on rice paddies, and more rarely in mangroves and on the seashore (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds on fish, insects and small invertebrates (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, as well as frogs and small reptiles including skinks (Scincidae) and geckos (Gekkonidae) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).<strong> Breeding Site </strong>It nests in trees and bushes in or near to marshes, lakes or ponds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>. In Aldabra it also nests in mangroves (Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>. The nest is bulky and constructed of twigs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Kushlan and Hancock 2005)<strong></strong>.  It tends to be placed 0.5-4m above the ground (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), and when the species occurs in a mixed colony with <em>A. ralloides</em>, it occupies the higher nesting sites<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. Typical clutch is 3, incubation lasts about 20 days and chicks can feed alone at under 4 weeks old (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).&#160; <br/><p></p>
106003735		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,000-6,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,300-4,000 mature individuals (T. Dodman<I> in litt.</I> 2002).
106003735		threats	eng	The principal threat for this species is thought to be habitat loss as a result of the clearing, drainage and conversion of wetland habitats to rice fields <strong></strong><strong></strong>(Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Exploitation of eggs and young is heavy at many breeding sites and appears to be increasing in intensity (ZICOMA 1999), however the establishment of a local community association resource management process (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gestion Local Securisee</span> or GELOSE) has significantly decreased these activities in these zones (Razafimanjato <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<strong></strong> The introduced fish <em>Micropterus salmoides</em> may compete for food (<strong></strong><strong></strong>Salvan 1971, 1972). There is also evidence of hybridisation with Squacco Heron <span style="font-style: italic;">Ardeola ralloides</span> on Madagascar (Ndang’ang’a and Sande 2008). <br/><p></p>
106003736		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species is mainly sedentary, although it may make partial migratory movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in relation to seasonal flooding (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982) of river flood-plains (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It breeds during the rainy season, or when flooding is at a peak (which may be in the early dry season) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species nests colonially with other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), typically in small groups of 6-30 pairs, although groups of 60-80 pairs have been reported at Lake Bangweulu, Zambia (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species feeds diurnally, and sometimes nocturnally, alone or in small flocks of up to five individuals, exceptionally more than 12 (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and when not foraging it roosts in trees (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits seasonally flooded grasslands, marshes, flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and inland deltas (such as the Okavango Delta) (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), shallow water along riverbanks and lake shores, stands of papyrus, reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and rice-fields (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of small fish (<I>Tilapia</I> and <I>Barbus</I>), frogs, crustaceans, aquatic insects and worms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a small platform of vegetation positioned low down (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) in reeds, trees or shrubs that are usually standing in water (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It usually nests on the periphery of mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003737		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The majority of this species is sedentary although northern breeding populations are migratory and populations in Africa may perform local movements relating to seasonal rainfall (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The timing of breeding varies geographically but often occurs during the rains in the tropics (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is highly territorial and often forages and nests singly (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005), occasionally also nesting in loosely spaced single-species groups of 5-15 pairs, or even in larger breeding aggregations of several hundred (300-500) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) pairs (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for forested water margins (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) such as mangrove-lined shores and estuaries, or dense woody vegetation fringing ponds, rivers, lakes and streams (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Other suitable habitats include river swamps, canals, artificial ponds, salt-flats (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), mudflats, tidal zones, exposed coral reefs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), reedbeds, grassy marshland, pastures, rice-fields and other flooded cultivation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet varies considerably over its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) but usually consists predominantly of fish (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) as well as amphibians (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. frogs) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), insects (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (e.g. water beetles, grasshoppers and dragonflies) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), spiders, leeches, crustaceans (e.g. crabs and prawns), molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), earthworms, polychaete worms, birds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), small reptiles and mice (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a small, shallow structure of twigs (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) placed well hidden amongst the branches of trees or bushes (especially mangroves <I>Rhizophora</I> spp. and <I>Avicennia</I> spp., or <I>Allocasuarina</I> spp., <I>Myoporum</I> spp., <I>Callistemon</I> spp., <I>Hibiscus</I> spp., <I>Casuarina</I> spp., <I>Syzygium</I> spp.<I> </I>and <I>Inga </I>spp.) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) 0.3-10 m above the surface of water or above the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992).
106003737		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.150,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 wintering individuals and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and possibly   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106003737		threats	eng	The species is threatened by human disturbance, pesticides (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and habitat destruction (e.g. the loss of mangroves) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is taken for food in some areas (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992).
106003740		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106003740		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agamia agami</span> is a Neotropical species, and is generally scarce throughout its distribution. Its range extends from east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>in the north through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span>. It was considered widespread and common in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama </span>in the 1960s, but is rare to the south in bordering <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. In the west, the species reaches north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). To the east, the species occurs in <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, where it is considered widespread; the largest known colony (c.2,000 pairs) was discovered here recently (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). A second, disjunct range spreads south-east from French Guiana, through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela </span>it is uncommon and very local, although recorded regularly in forest at Hato Piñeiro,&#160; Hato Cedral, and the Camani area (Hilty 2003). <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>In north and central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, it is thought to be unusually common along the Rio Juruá, and likewise in south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>. Its distribution spreads as far as east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>.
106003740		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swampy stream and lake margins within tropical forest, and also in seasonal marshes. It tends to remain in lowlands under 300 m in elevation, but has been recorded at 2,600 m in Colombia's east Andes. Fish are its primary food source, with cichlids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aequidens</span>) and characins (<span style="font-style: italic;">Triportheus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Astyanax</span>) recorded as prey. The breeding season appears to coincide with the arrival of rains; nest building occurs between June and September in both Costa Rica and Venezuela (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). The species is semicolonial (Hilty 2003). Nests are built in a tree or bush 1-2 m above water (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
106003740		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003740		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting (A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).</p>
106003742		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Northern populations of this species are migratory, with those breeding in the western Palearctic travelling on a broad front across the Sahara (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and those breeding in North American travelling on a narrow front along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Post-breeding southward movements occur from September to October and return northward movements occur from March to May (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Tropical populations are not migratory but may undergo seasonal post-breeding dispersive movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). In temperate regions breeding occurs in the local spring, with tropical and subtropical nesting generally coinciding with the rains (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species usually nests in small numbers (Snow and Perrins 1998) in single- or mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although sometimes groups may reach several thousand pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). When nesting within mixed-species colonies the species tends to form monospecific clusters (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species's aggregatory behaviour outside of the breeding season varies much throughout its range, some populations (e.g. in America) remaining highly gregarious throughout the year (Snow and Perrins 1998) and gathering in flocks of hundreds or even thousands to roost (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), others (e.g. Palearctic breeders) being largely solitary except when roosting or on migration (Snow and Perrins 1998) (roosting flocks of 2-6 to 200 are known in Africa (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1992) and small flocks occur on migration) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is largely crepuscular and nocturnal, but may feed diurnally especially during the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits fresh, brackish or saline waters with aquatic vegetation and bamboo or trees (e.g. pine, oak or mangroves) for roosting and nesting in (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), showing a preference for islands or predator-free areas for nesting sites (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It occupies the forested margins of shallow rivers, streams, lagoons, pools, ponds, lakes, marshes and mangroves and may feed on pastures, reservoirs, canals, aquaculture ponds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and rice-fields (up to 96 % of a colony's food resources may be taken from nearby rice-fields) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). On migration the species may also frequent dry grasslands or marine coasts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), kelp beds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and estuaries (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It breeds up to 4,800 m (Chile) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) but is more common at elevations of up to c.2,000 m (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> It is an opportunistic feeder taking fish, frogs, tadpoles, turtles, snakes, lizards, adult and larval insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and dragonflies) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, leeches, small rodents, bats and the eggs and chicks of other bird species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is platform constructed of sticks and vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) placed 2-50 m above water or on dry ground near water (Snow and Perrins 1998) in trees, bushes, reedbeds, on cliff ledges (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (overhanging rivers) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) in protected sites (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species nests close together in single- and mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) with as many as 20-30 pairs in the same tree (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Colony sites may be reused in consecutive years or flocks may move to new sites (usually such movements are a result of nesting trees being destroyed due to the colony's nesting activities) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Colony sites are dispersed throughout the landscape in relation to distance from feeding areas (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).  <B>Management information</B> A study carried out in north-west Italy suggests that existing nesting sites should be protected and that breeding habitats should be actively managed in order to maintain suitable habitat characteristics (Fasola and Alieri 1992). The creation of a network of new nesting sites spaced at 4-10 km in relation to available foraging habitats in zones currently without suitable nesting sites is also recommended (Fasola and Alieri 1992).
106003742		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.510,000-3,600,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100,000-1   million breeding pairs, &gt;c.10,000 individuals on migration and   &gt;c.10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100,000-1 million breeding   pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003742		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland drainage and destruction (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and by drought in wintering areas (Hafner and Kushlan 2002). It is highly susceptible to pesticides (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kwon <I>et al.</I> 2004, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) such as organophosphates, carbamates (Kwon <I>et al.</I> 2004) and DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) which negatively affect hatching success (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). There are also cases of genetic damage to chicks as a result of petroleum contamination (Custer 2000). The species is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and Newcastle disease so may be threatened by future outbreaks (Kuiken <I>et al.</I> 2006). It is also persecuted (anti-predation killing) at aquaculture facilities due to its depredation on fish stocks (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), and has suffered declines due to the exploitation of chicks from nesting colonies in the past (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> Chicks of the species are still taken for food in some areas (e.g. Madagascar) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005, Hafner 200) and adults are hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003743		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nycticorax caledonicus </span>occurs in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New Guinea</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Palau</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span> and the Caroline Islands, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Federated States of Micronesia</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">crassirostris</span>, which was endemic to Japan's Bonin Islands, has been extinct since the late 1800s (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).
106003744		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The movements of this species are very little known (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), although it appears to be sedentary, possibly making partial seasonal migrations related to the onset of the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It breeds in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), the breeding season varying geographically, but usually coinciding with the rains or the early dry season when floods are at their highest (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species feeds singly or in pairs and is strictly nocturnal (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), requiring secure day-roosting spots such as high trees or very dense marsh and forest vegetation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits densely vegetated forest (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), frequenting tree-fringed streams, mangroves, islands in large rivers and lakes, the wooded margins of marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) and occasionally reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet is little known, but may consist of small fish, amphibians, molluscs, crustaceans, flying ants, flies and other insects (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a stick platform (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), usually well hidden and built low over water in trees or bushes (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), occasionally away from water in trees, bushes, reedbeds, mangroves, or on rocks, rock piles on islands (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or rocky shores in caves (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), but very rarely in exposed positions (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005).
106003744		threats	eng	The species is threatened in southern Africa by habitat loss and degradation. Overgrazing, increased water offtake, soil erosion and poor river management are leading to siltation, reduced river flows, and increased water turbidity, and riparian vegetation is being cleared for agriculture (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Barnes 2000). <B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003745		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is a Class II nationally protected species in China. It has been recorded in or near several protected areas in China, including Shennongjia Nature Reserve (Hubei), Tianmu Shan National Nature Reserve (Zhejiang), Dayao Shan Nature Reserve and Daming Shan Nature Reserve (Guangxi), Chebaling National Nature Reserve (Guangdong), Jianfengling Nature Reserve and Wuzhishan Nature Reserve (Hainan), and Jiulianshan Nature Reserve (Jiangxi) (Tang Pei-Rong and Liao Cheng-Kai 2003)<strong></strong>. In Vietnam, it has been recorded in Ba Be National Park and Na Hang Nature Reserve (Nguyen Cu 2008, Eames and Le Manh Hung 2009, Pilgrim <em>et al. </em>2009, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 2009, Walsh 2010). Special nature reserves have been created for the species in Fusui and Shangsi, southern Guangxi<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2001), of which the former was later merged administratively with the Fusui Precious Animal Reserve protecting the white-headed leaf monkey <em>Trachypitheus poliocephalus</em>. Fieldwork in northern Vietnam in 2008 appears to have raised awareness amongst local people, such that they are now starting to officially report nests (Walsh 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys in south-east China, and extend them to Hainan and Hoa Binh province, Vietnam, and conduct searches in the hill-districts of Fokien (Fujian), Chekiang (Zhejiang), and Anhwei (Anhui) (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a), with the aim of locating and censusing populations and determining whether additional sites require protection. Study the species's ecology at a known breeding site (preferably also a historical site where long-term presence can be confirmed) in order to estimate population connectivity and the species's likely range<strong> </strong>(He Fenqi <em>et al</em>. 2007b)<strong></strong>. Implement conservation actions for its only known breeding site in Zhejiang. Extend, link, and manage (particularly to control encroachment, logging, tourism and stream damage), protected areas where it occurs. Instigate public-awareness programmes to stop hunting and habitat destruction. Carry out surveys in Bac Kan province and Tuyen Quang province, Vietnam, to assess the size of the population (Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Encourage nest protection schemes (Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Campaign for the Government of Vietnam to add the species to the list of those that are strictly protected (Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/> <p></p>
106003745		distribution	eng	<em>Gorsachius magnificus</em> is known from southern <strong>China</strong> and northern <strong>Vietnam </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). By 2001, the species was known from c.20 localities, but since then extensive survey effort and increased awareness have resulted in records from more than 30 new localities (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). There are records from Hunan, Hubei, Zheijian, Anhui, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Xinping, Guangdong, Yunnan, Fujian, Guizhou and Sichuan provinces, and it was last recorded on Hainan in 1962 (Gao Yuren 2003, <strong></strong> Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2003,<strong> </strong>He Fenqi and Lin Jiansheng 2004, <strong></strong>He Fenqi <em>et al</em>. 2007a,b, M. Crosby <em>in litt.</em> 2009, He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. There are also recent records from northern<strong> Vietnam</strong> (including Ba Be National Park, Bac Kan province,  and Na Hang Nature Reserve, Tuyen Quang province), among them the first and subsequent breeding records for the country (Anon. 2001, Nguyen Cu 2008, Eames and Le Manh Hung 2009, Pilgrim <em>et al. </em>2009, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 2009, Walsh 2010). <strong></strong>Direct observations and information from local people suggest that there is a minimum of seven pairs in the Xuan Lac and Ba Be areas of Bac Kan province (Walsh 2010). The degree of connectivity between populations is poorly understood. The rate of discovery of new sites has led to considerable extension of its known range and suggests the species has been under-recorded and may breed across a wider range in southern China and northern Indochina (He Fenqi <em>et al</em>. 2007a,b, 2011)<strong></strong>. However, significant threats to the species and its habitats remain and as a result a continuing decline is inferred.<em> </em><p></p>
106003745		habitat	eng	Its ecology is poorly known. It occurs in subtropical and tropical forest, with recent records from sites close to streams, rivers, reservoirs and rice-fields (close to or within forest). Its ability to persist in modified habitats is also demonstrated by its presence as a breeding species in a low-integrity plantation forest in Nanning (He Fenqi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007a) and secondary pine forest on reservoir islands in Zhejiang (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Eames and Le Manh Hung 2009). Its diet includes small fish, shrimps and invertebrates, and it appears to be almost entirely nocturnal (Pilgrim <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. The species does not nest in heronries and lays 3-5 eggs<strong> </strong>(Li <em>et al</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106003745		population	eng	The global population is estimated at c.250-999 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2001; M. Crosby <em>in litt</em>. 2005). Although recent records confirm the species occurs in a wider range than previously thought, the aforementioned population estimate is still seen as appropriate (J. Kushlan <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population in China at fewer than 100 breeding pairs. The total estimate   equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500   individuals.
106003745		threats	eng	A key threat is forest clearance and fragmentation, primarily as a result of demands for timber and agricultural land in an extremely densely populated region. Although the species can nest in human modified habitats, vulnerability of monocultures to pest invasion is a risk<strong> </strong>(Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Human disturbance may cause this secretive bird to abandon eggs while incubating (Li <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Hunting is a major additional threat, even inside protected areas, and it may be particularly vulnerable when nesting. The decline or disappearance of the birds in Hubei and parts of Guangxi and Guangdong has been attributed to habitat damage and direct hunting (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a). In Guangxi, the number of birds seen in markets outnumbers records in the wild. In recent years, a relatively high number of specimens have been collected, including those to supply scientific purposes, notably at Chebaling and Shennongjia (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a). This, like capture for food, is illegal in China. Direct habitat damage for dam construction, river regulation and road building has driven birds from known sites, but counter-intuitively these activities also create new habitats in some cases. It appears that most areas of suitable habitat in Vietnam are subject to pressure from deforestation and hunting (Eames and Le Manh Hung 2009, Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Walsh 2010), with overfishing and the intensive use of agricultural chemicals also being widespread (Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The impact of chemical pesticides and fertilizers is unknown. Other threats affecting Ba Be National Park, Vietnam, include firewood collection, harvesting of non-timber forest products, occupation of agricultural land within the park, cattle-grazing, water pollution and sedimentation (Eames and Le Manh Hung 2009, Walsh 2010<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).&#160; <p></p>
106003746		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan and Hong Kong. Birds may occur in protected areas in Japan and it has been recorded in Quezon National Park, Philippines. Environmental Impact Assessments are conducted prior to major developments in Japan, and if this species is identified using a site mitigation measures are taken (K. Kawakami <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007).<strong></strong> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey its breeding range in Japan and its wintering range in the Philippines. Establish a monitoring programme of its breeding and wintering populations. Study its home-range requirements using radio-telemetry. Protect and manage forests in its breeding and wintering grounds. Ensure official protection throughout its range and strengthen and enforce legislation to prevent the sale of this (and other threatened) species. Establish public-awareness programmes concerned with its conservation. Control and monitor invasive species where appropriate within its range. <p></p>
106003746		distribution	eng	<em>Gorsachius goisagi</em> breeds in <strong>Japan</strong>. There has been one report of breeding from <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), and recent work has discovered a breeding site at Jeju Island, <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span> (Oh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It has also been recorded in spring and summer in <strong>Russia</strong> (Primorye and Sakhalin)<strong style="font-weight: normal;">,</strong> and is a passage migrant in coastal mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), and also in Taiwan. The main wintering area appears to be in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, but it has also been recorded as a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and as a vagrant to Brunei<strong> </strong>and Palau. Improved awareness of the identification criteria for immatures of this species has led to a marked increase in records from the Philippines (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It was apparently locally common in Japan until the 1970s, but by the 1980s and 1990s had disappeared from many of its former breeding sites. There have apparently been just two records from mainland China since the early 1960s, one of two sightings at Wuyuan in Jiangxi Province in April 2006 and a taxidermy specimen noted in Haiyan county in Zhejiang province in February 2010 and apparently purchased in Haining city in April 1998 (He Fenqi <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. The relative paucity of recent records suggested that the population numbered fewer than 1,000 mature individuals, but recent work in Japan and increasing numbers of records from the Philippines imply that this may have been overly  pessimistic. Hence, the true figure may lie within the band  1,000-2,499 individuals. However, this may still be an underestimate (K. Kawakami <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003746		habitat	eng	It breeds in heavily forested areas, including coniferous, broadleaved and degraded forest, on hills and the lower slopes of mountains (up to 1,500 m), where there are watercourses and damp areas. It winters in dark, deeply shaded forest near water up to 2,400 m. It forages mainly in forest, but will use swamps, rice-fields and farmland and is mainly crepuscular. Breeding has been recorded from April to July (Kawana 2006)<strong></strong>. Earthworms are probably the principal food source, but land snails, cicadas, crabs, and ground and scarabid beetles are all present in its diet (Kawakami <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, K. Kawakami <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, Oh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003746		population	eng	Recent work in   Japan suggests the previous assertion that the global population comprises   fewer than 1,000 individuals may have been overly pessimistic (although   Brazil 2009 estimated fewer than 100 breeding pairs, fewer than 50 individuals on   migration and fewer than 50 wintering individuals in Japan). Hence, the true   figure probably lies within the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to   667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106003746		threats	eng	The main threat is deforestation for timber and agriculture in both its breeding and non-breeding ranges. The development of dense scrub undergrowth in forest and on abandoned farmland (following a change in traditional agricultural practices) is believed to reduce the suitability of these habitats for feeding. It has probably been hunted in many parts of its range and suffers from human disturbance (Anon. 2009). It declined rapidly on Miyake-jima in the Izu Islands, where it was formerly abundant, following the introduction of Siberian weasel <em>Mustela sibirica</em> in the early 1970s. Today nest predation by corvids is an increasing threat as crow populations increase in urban and suburban areas. <p></p>
106003747		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.2,000-20,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), roughly equivalent to 1,300-13,000 mature individuals. National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003748		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003749		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003750		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003752		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to better understand the abundance and distribution of the species. Protect large areas of lowland rainforest. Ensure protection of forests along watercourses. <p></p>
106003752		distribution	eng	<em>Zonerodius heliosylus</em> occurs throughout New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and on the adjacent islands of Salawati and Aru, Indonesia. There are very few recent records and it is such a reclusive species that it is impossible to assess its true population (Coates 1985, <strong></strong>Beehler <em>et al. </em>1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, D. Gibbs <em>in litt. </em>1994, Eastwood 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). <em> <p></p></em>
106003752		habitat	eng	It frequents streams, pools and swamps in forest to 1,430 m.  <p></p>
106003752		population	eng	Fewer than 10,000 individuals are estimated to survive (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups), so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here. This equates to  1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106003752		threats	eng	Although it is not hunted (B. M. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and there are still huge areas of suitable habitat left, it may be threatened by the extensive logging of lowland forest (I. Burrows <em>in litt. </em>1994, R. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially as it occurs along watercourses (A. Mack <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003753		distribution	eng	<I>Tigriornis leucolopha</I> is uncommon to rare through the African equatorial rainforests, with breeding records from the <B>Gambia</B>, <B>Senegal</B>, <B>Guinea-Bissau, Guinea</B>, <B>Sierra Leone</B>, <B>Liberia</B>, <B>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</B>, <B>Cameroon</B>, <B>Gabon </B>and the <B>Congo</B>. It is perhaps commonest in parts of Gabon, lower Congo and northern <B>Democratic Republic of Congo</B> (DRC) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock and Kushlan 1984), and has been described as widespread in <B>Ghana</b> (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <I>in litt</I>. 2005). It is difficult to estimate a total population size due to the secretive nature of this species (Hancock and Kushlan 1984), but it is now known from at least 62 sites (H. Rainey <I>in litt</I>. 2003).
106003753		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is largely sedentary although there are indications of some migratory movements or vagrancy (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The timing of breeding varies locally but tends to coincide with the rains<B></B>(mostly May-July in West Africa, November-January in East Africa) to synchronise chick feeding with the period when water levels are highest (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds in solitary pairs (as far as is known) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and remains solitarily when not breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is partly nocturnal and mainly forages around dawn and dusk (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> It shows a preference for small shaded streams, marshes or swamps (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) in dense areas of primary rainforest or swamp-forest (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It also occurs along the banks of forested rivers (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (although it generally avoids larger waterways) (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) and inhabits streams (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) in tangled mangrove swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) usually well-away from the coast (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of small fish, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. crayfish (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and freshwater crabs (Hancock and Kushlan 1984)), spiders, insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. winged termites (Hancock and Kushlan 1984)), frogs, snakes and lizards (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest may be a platform of twigs placed 6 m high in trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003753		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003754		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106003754		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zebrilus undulatus</span> is a poorly known species of the Orinoco, Negro and Amazon basins. It occurs in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, where it is considered rare and local (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992). In bordering <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela </span>there have been an increasing number of records, and the species may be locally common (Hilty 2003). From here, its range extends eastwards through<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> and north-central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, and south-west to east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>and north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992). It appears generally very rare, but has probably been significantly  under-recorded due to its elusive nature and is likely to have a wider  distribution than is currently known (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2006, A. Lees<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"> <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> </span>2011).
106003754		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the streams, pools, marshes and swamps of tropical evergreen forests, as well as in mangroves. Its diet is not well documented but is thought to mainly consist of small fish and flying insects (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). It has also been observed foraging in "leaf muck" (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106003754		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is also susceptible to hunting, for example in Venezuela (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106003756		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Palearctic populations of this species undergo extensive post-breeding dispersal movements in all directions and are also fully migratory, travelling southward on a broad front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) between August and October and returning to the north from March to April (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Other populations (e.g. in the tropics) are resident but may make partial migratory movements connected with fluctuations in water-level (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). In the western Palearctic and India the species breeds mainly between May and July, breeding from October to January in Australia, June to February in South Africa, or in relation to the rains in tropical Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds singly or occasionally in small loose groups in favourable areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. 2-3 nests were spaced 50 m apart at the same pond, Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). When not breeding the species may be found singly, in pairs (Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), in small flocks of 5-15 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998) (e.g. on migration) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), or roosting in groups of 30 individuals (Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). In most areas it is mainly a crepuscular feeder (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005) although it may be diurnal in some regions (e.g. South Africa) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Habitat</B> The species is most common in freshwater marshes with beds of bulrushes <I>Typha</I> spp., reeds <I>Phragmites</I> spp. (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or other dense aquatic vegetation, preferably also with deciduous bushes and trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) such as willow <I>Salix</I> spp. or alder <I>Alnus</I> spp. (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It may also occupy the margins of lakes, pools and reservoirs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), wooded and marshy banks of streams and rivers (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), desert oases, peat bogs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), wooded swamps, wet grasslands, rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), rank vegetation around sewage ponds (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and in places mangroves, the margins of saline lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and saltmarshes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Diet</B> Its diet varies with region and season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) but it is essentially insectivorous and takes aquatic adult and larval insects such as crickets, grasshoppers, caterpillars (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and beetles (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Other food items include spiders, molluscs, crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. shrimp and crayfish) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), fish, frogs, tadpoles, small reptiles and birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed from reeds and twigs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and is normally placed near open pools<B></B>in thick emergent vegetation (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) (such as beds of bulrushes <I>Typha</I> spp. or reeds <I>Phragmites</I> spp.) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) close to the surface of the water or up to 60 cm above it (Snow and Perrins 1998). Alternatively nests may be placed in low bushes or trees (e.g. alder <I>Alnus</I> spp. or willow <I>Salix</I> spp.) up to 2 m above water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Preferred nesting sites are usually 5-15 m out from the shore in water 20-30 cm deep (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species usually nests singly but may nest in loose colonies in favourable habitats with neighbouring nests as close as 5 m apart (solitary nests are usually 30-100 m apart) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Nests are often reused in consecutive years (Kushlan and Hancock 2005).
106003756		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss (Hafner and Kushlan 2002) through direct destruction, pollution (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and hydrological changes (e.g. in rivers) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species also suffers mortality as a result of drought and desertification on African staging and wintering grounds (degrades wetland habitats needed by the species) (Hafner and Kushlan 2002).
106003757		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.100,000-1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and &lt;   c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106003758		distribution	eng	<em>Ixobrychus novaezelandiae</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It became extinct before 1900, for unknown reasons, on the South Island, while on the North Island it is only known from bones<strong> </strong>(Holdaway 1999).<p></p>
106003758		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited freshwater wetlands.  <p></p>
106003758		threats	eng	Reasons for its extinction are not known, but introduced predators and hunting are responsible for the demise of most of the New Zealand's endemic species.  <p></p>
106003760		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.1,000-25,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), roughly equivalent to 670-17,000 mature individuals.   National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China: &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs   and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea: &lt; c.100 breeding pairs   and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003761		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.130,000-2,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003762		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant, its movements related to changes in water level due to seasonal rainfall (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The breeding season is geographically variable but generally coincides with the rains (although the species may also breed early in the dry season) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It breeds solitarily or in small groups of a few dozen pairs, and hunts nocturnally alone or in pairs, sometimes also hunting by day if conditions are cloudy (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> It uses a variety of habitats, but shows a preference for thickets and forests characterised by fluctuating water levels (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It frequents the margins of freshwater rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and pools overhung with dense foliage (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), marshes with grasses or reeds, seasonally flooded areas, mangroves (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), rice-fields, and open grassy swamps with bulrushes or papyrus (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of grasshoppers and frogs, but it will also take water beetles, small fish, crabs, spiders and snails (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a stick platform positioned 0.5-4 m high (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) on horizontal or hanging branches of trees and bushes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) that overhang water or stand in flooded areas (Hancock and Kushlan 1984).
106003762		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003763		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.63,000-320,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106003765		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106003766		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Populations breeding on the Atlantic coast of Europe, in the Mediterranean and in South Africa are largely sedentary due to the relatively mild winters (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996) (although they may make local dispersive movements related to rainfall) (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). Continental populations are mainly migratory however (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996, Kushan and Hancock 2005) with a marked post-breeding dispersal of immatures (Kushan and Hancock 2005). The species breeds from March to June in Eurasia and during the rains from September to January in South Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It usually nests solitarily although males are polygamous and may mate with up to five females nesting on a large wetland site (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species remains solitary throughout the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (although migratory individuals may travel in small flocks) (Kushan and Hancock 2005), and is mainly crepuscular in its activities (Kushan and Hancock 2005). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species has highly restrictive breeding habitat requirements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It shows a strong preference for quiet lowland marshes around lakes and rivers (less than 200 m above sea-level) (Kushan and Hancock 2005) with extensive dense young reedbeds of <I>Phragmites</I> spp. (e.g. with 1- 3 years worth of new growth (Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000, Puglisi <I>et al.</I> 2005) but still maintaining some old or dead stems (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992)) that are flooded but are fairly shallow (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (less than 30 cm deep) (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996), have few fluctuations in water-level (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), have low acidity (Kushan and Hancock 2005)and are surrounded by clear open areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of deeper water is maintained into the driest part of the breeding season (Gilbert <I>et al.</I> 2005). Breeding adults are more attracted to unfragmented (Puglisi <I>et al.</I> 2005) reedbeds over 20 ha in area, although smaller sites with networks of reed-fringed waterways or open wetland habitats with a number of small reedbeds (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996) (greater than 100 m) (Gilbert <I>et al.</I> 2005) over a wide area may also be used (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species avoids saline waters (Kushan and Hancock 2005) but is equally abundant in fresh or brackish habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. in estuarine or delta marshes) (Snow and Perrins 1998), and may occasionally nest in stands of rushes <I>Scirpus</I> spp. (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or <I>Papyrus</I> spp. if reeds are unavailable (Kushan and Hancock 2005). <I>Non-breeding</I> The species frequents a more varied range of habitats outside of breeding season, foraging on rice-fields, watercress beds, gravel pits, fish farms, ditches, sewage farms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), small ponds and wet grassy areas (Kushan and Hancock 2005) as well as marshes and reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It also forages in running water (e.g. streams) when still waterbodies freeze during the winter (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). <B>Diet</B> Its diet varies depending on the site and season although it predominantly takes fish (particularly cyprinids and eels) and amphibians as well as adult and larval insects, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, snakes, lizards, birds, nestlings and small mammals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a pad of reeds and other vegetation (Kushan and Hancock 2005) constructed close to or floating on water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) amidst dense reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushan and Hancock 2005). Although it is a solitary nester, breeding densities from 2 per 100 ha to 100 per 100 ha may occur depending on the quality of the habitat (Kushan and Hancock 2005), nests sometimes being placed close together in areas where the species is particularly numerous (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). <B>Management information</B> Breeding adults in Europe may be more attracted to unfragmented (Puglisi <I>et al.</I> 2005) reedbeds over 20 ha in area, although smaller sites with networks of reed-fringed waterways or open wetland habitats with a number of small reedbeds over a wide area may also be used (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996). There is evidence that females in Britain preferentially nest in locations surrounded by less scrub but more vegetated open water, with a higher proportion of <I>Phragmites</I> spp. than other plant species, and in areas where deeper water is maintained into the driest part of the breeding season (Gilbert <I>et al.</I> 2005). The European Action Plan for this species recommends raising water levels, harvesting and burning reeds, cutting invasive scrub, or digging out reedbeds on a rotational compartmental basis as methods of slowing reedbed succession (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996). It also recommends the regular cutting of small areas of reedbed to maintain <I>Phragmites</I> spp. monocultures (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996), to provide a range of multi-age reed stands (Kushan and Hancock 2005) and to favour the retention of water levels in spring and summer (promoting rapid growth, preventing a build-up of reed litter and providing foraging sites) (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996). Large-scale reed cutting should be prohibited in the late-winter however (Kushan and Hancock 2005). Wetlands should also be managed to enhance the carrying capacity of fish and eel populations (thus increasing food resources for bitterns) (Noble <I>et al.</I> 2004, Self 2005, Gilbert <I>et al.</I> 2007). In Britain it was found that suitable habitats should be provided for all fish life stages (including spawning, refuge and overwintering), the movement of fish throughout reedbeds should be promoted (e.g. by changes in hydrological management regimes and sluice design) (Noble <I>et al.</I> 2004) and issues relating to water quality, zooplankton and macrophyte community structures should be addressed (Self 2005).
106003766		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.110,000-340,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals   in Korea; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Japan and &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003766		threats	eng	The species is threatened mainly by the loss of <I>Phragmites</I> reed marshes (Kushan and Hancock 2005) owing to habitat alteration through drainage (Kushan and Hancock 2005), direct destruction (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), changes in traditional management (e.g. changes to reed harvesting regimes) (Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000), sea level rise and salt water intrusion (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996), the effects of wave action from boat traffic at the edge of open water (Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000), and pollution (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000) (either eutrophication which modifies fish populations within reedbeds or pesticides which may reduce the species's survival) (Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000). Disturbance from humans during the nesting period is also a threat (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996, Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000, Kushan and Hancock 2005) (e.g. disturbance from reed cutting (Kushan and Hancock 2005), noisy recreation and water-sports (Newbery <I>et al.</I> 1996, Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000, Kushan and Hancock 2005), motor vehicles and hunting (Kushan and Hancock 2005)). The hunting of adults and collecting of eggs and chicks still occurs in some areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and the species may suffer high mortalities in very cold winters (especially in sedentary populations) (Marion <I>et al.</I> 2000).
106003767		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Australia, Bool Lagoon and Lake Muir are managed specifically for the species (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>. Recent initiatives by the Threatened Bird Network in Australia to survey Painted Snipe <em>Rostratula benghalensis australis</em> will contribute to the information on the distribution of this species (C. Tzaros and M. A. Weston <em>in litt.</em> 2003, G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. BirdLife Australia (formerly Birds Australia) started a Bittern Project in 2007. In 2011, the species was added to the list of Australia’s threatened species recognised by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act as Endangered. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete field surveys to determine its current global distribution, status and key sites for conservation (N Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999, C. O'Donnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>. Develop methods for assessing population trends (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>. Rehabilitate selected former breeding wetlands in Australia (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). In New Zealand, determine factors that may be limiting populations (C. O'Donnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In New Caledonia, obtain legal protection of representative, low altitude habitats (N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect remaining sites against drainage or salinisation.<br/><p></p>
106003767		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Botaurus poiciloptilus</span> occurs in the wetlands of southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span>. In Australia, the population is now estimated to number not more than 1,000 mature individuals (R. Loyn <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008) and is probably between 247 and 796 (Birds Australia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Birds Australia (now BirdLife Australia) estimated the number of adult birds in 2009–2010 to be 3–16 in Queensland, 82–162 in New South Wales, 86–248 in Victoria, 12–100 in Tasmania, 26–116 in South Australia and 38–154 in West Australia (Birds Australia<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). Consecutive atlas censuses in Australia have shown a marked decrease in reporting rate; the species was recorded in 260 10-minute grid squares in 1977-1981, 142 grid squares in 1998-2003, and just 61 in 2003-2008 (J. O'Connor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). The declining reporting rate was particularly pronounced in the Riverina (63%), Tasmania (&gt;90%), and south-west Australia (&gt;90%). This decline in reporting rate is thought to represent a genuine population decline over the period. In Australia, most birds are in the Murray-Darling basin and adjacent coastal areas. In Western Australia, the population was estimated to contain up to 100 pairs in 1980 (Marchant and Higgins 1990), but it is now much reduced, with the largest concentration in the Albany and Lake Muir wetlands. There have been no confirmed records from the Swan Coastal Plain since 1992 and surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 found that half the wetlands that supported the species in 1980 now retained no suitable habitat (Pickering and Gole 2008). There are now only occasional records from Queensland (Garnett and Crowley 2000) and there appears to have been no great influx to remnant wetlands after the recent drought, as might have been expected if they were more common inland. In South Australia, breeding is confined to the south-east, however, loss of suitable habitat at Bool Lagoon, arguably the key site in Australia for this species, and other wetlands in the area owing to changes in regional drainage, has probably had a large impact in the last 10-20 years (R. Jaenesch <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003). It is now known from just one site, Hirds Swamp, in Victoria (G. Dutson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). In Tasmania, the species is now recorded from only a handful of sites and several of the major lakes that it once occupied have been dry for some years. In New Zealand, the estimated population was between 580 and 725 individuals in 1980 (Heather and Robertson 1997); numbers may be greater, given the lack of targeted survey work, and the large size of suitable swamps (G. H. Sherley<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 1999). In New Caledonia and Uvea, there have been just two recent records of single calling males, and the population is not thought to exceed 50 individuals (N Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999, Ekstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003767		habitat	eng	It has fairly specific habitat preferences, preferring shallow, vegetated freshwater or brackish swamps where there is a mixture of short and tall emergent sedges and rushes (Garnett 1992). It has been recorded in rice paddies in the Murray Darling basin, but it is not thought to use such habitats for breeding (G. Dutson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2008). It usually lays four eggs. It feeds, mostly at night, on fish, eels, frogs, freshwater crayfish and aquatic insects (Heather and Robertson 1997). The population seems to increase rapidly in good years and decline rapidly in poor ones (S. Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2003). The species appears to disperse widely, including to coastal wetlands during periods of drought and to ephemeral wetlands during and after periods of rainfall (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p>
106003767		population	eng	In New Zealand, the estimated population was between 580-725 individuals in 1980. The population on New Caledonia is not thought to exceed 50 individuals. Following apparently rapid declines, the Australian population is now thought to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals (R. Loyn <em>in litt.</em> 2008). The total population is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106003767		threats	eng	In Australia and New Zealand, the main threats are wetland drainage for agriculture, as well as changes brought about by high levels of grazing and salinisation of swamps (Garnett 1992, B. D. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>. In Australia, the species appears able to adapt to the availability of ephemeral wetlands, but is likely to be particularly sensitive to the destruction of drought refugia. Loss of these habitats may explain its decline in Western and South Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>. The Murray-Darling basin, a former stronghold of the species, has suffered consecutive droughts in recent years and over-extraction of water is an on-going problem (H. Ford <em>in litt</em>. 2008, R. Loyn <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. In Australia, introduced red foxes <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes</span> are thought to take eggs and juveniles (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). Overgrazing and inappropriate fire regimes can also reduce habitat suitability (Marchant and Higgins 1990). Nests have been reported to be abandoned following visits by people, implying that the species is sensitive to disturbance (O’Donnell 2011). Shooting and flying into powerlines are additional contributory causes (B. D. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>, but hunting pressure is very low (N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003768		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) but often makes local movements in semi-arid areas (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and disperses during the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds all year round in East Africa, but elsewhere breeding peaks mostly late in the rains or in the dry season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species nests solitarily (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and usually occurs in pairs or in small groups of 8-10 individuals outside of the breeding season, sometimes also occurring in social groups of more than 50 (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species occupies a wide variety of habitats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) from forest to semi-desert, wherever water is available (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It is commonest in well-watered savanna or woodland and less common in forest, showing a general preference for permanent waters although it will also use temporary wetlands in arid areas (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species forages in shallow water along sandbanks, in reedbeds or in floating vegetation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and requires trees (e.g. <I>Khaya senegalensis</I>) to nest and roost in (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Suitable habitats include the banks of large rivers and lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), marshes, dams, temporary seasonal ponds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), aquaculture ponds, irrigation schemes and estuaries as well as  rocky coasts in Tanzania (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of amphibians (especially <I>Xenopus</I> spp. adults and tadpoles) and small fish as well as crustaceans, worms and insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is an elaborate hollow structure of sticks usually built in a fork of a tree (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) overhanging water, but alternatively built on cliff ledges, rock columns, on the ground or on sandbanks (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species shows a preference for nesting in dead trees standing in water and usually roosts in or near its nest (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982).
106003768		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by a deterioration in wetland water quality caused by the excessive use of pesticides (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003769		distribution	eng	This species is regularly seen from West Africa eastward throughout the Mediterranean to South West and South Asia, and throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The Palearctic population (including West Africa, Iran and Kazakhstan) is estimated to number between 205,000 and 320,000, the South West and South Asian populations combined at 240,000, and the sub-Saharan African populations between 100,000 and 120,000 (Delany and Scott 2006). The Palearctic population appears to be increasing, while the Asian and sub-Saharan African populations appear to be stable (Delany and Scott 2006).
106003769		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Juveniles, and to a lesser extent adults (Mateo <I>et al.</I> 1998), are prone to irregular nomadic or partially migratory movements throughout the species's range in response to water-level changes (Snow and Perrins 1998, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) or food availability (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Members of the Palearctic population are partially migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) and regularly travel to warmer regions in the winter via favoured stop-over sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (non-breeders may be present all year round in the wintering areas) (Snow and Perrins 1998, Amat <I>et al</I>. 2005). In the Mediterranean and West Africa, breeding colonies appear to be linked by a significant frequency of juvenile and adult dispersal and are thus considered to belong to a single metapopulation (Balkiz 2006). Members of the Asian populations move from their breeding sites at inland lakes to coastal wetlands during non-breeding periods (Balachandran 2007), and when not breeding the sub-Saharan African population tends to disperse among the alkaline-saline lakes and wetlands of eastern and southern Africa (McCulloch <I>et al.</I> 2003, Baker <I>et al.</I> 2006). The Palearctic population breeds regularly from March to June in large dense single-species colonies of up to 20,000 pairs (occasionally up to 200,000 pairs) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and in some regions may undergo a post-breeding flightless moult period where adults gather in flocks on inaccessible waters (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). The Asian and sub-Saharan populations breed irregularly following the rains, often in large mixed colonies with Lesser Flamingo <I>Phoeniconaias minor</I> (Brown and Root 1971, McCulloch and Irvine 2004, Balachandran 2007). The species is gregarious and commonly occurs in flocks of 100 or more outside of the breeding season (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), with thousands often flocking together (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) in areas rich in food or at freshwater inlets of saline or alkaline lakes to drink and bathe (Snow and Perrins 1998). In sub-Saharan Africa, the species may also join large flocks of non-breeding Lesser Flamingo. The species is a bottom feeder (Snow and Perrins 1998) and forages both by day and night (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), feeding by filtering particles through tiny platelets in the bill (Snow and Perrins 1998). It also often roosts at night in large flocks (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits shallow (c.1 m deep over a large area) (Snow and Perrins 1998) eutrophic waterbodies (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) such as saline lagoons, saltpans and large saline or alkaline lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) up to pH 11 (Snow and Perrins 1998). It will also frequent sewage treatment pans, inland dams (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), estuaries (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and coastal waters (Diawara <I>et al</I>. 2007), seldom alighting on freshwater but commonly bathing and drinking from freshwater inlets entering alkaline or saline lakes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It nests and roosts on sandbanks (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), mudflats (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), islands (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) or boggy, open shores (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (especially brine shrimp <I>Artemia salina</I>) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), molluscs, annelid worms, larval aquatic insects, small fish, adult terrestrial insects (e.g. water beetles, ants), the seeds or stolons of marsh grasses, algae, diatoms and decaying leaves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It may also ingest mud in order to extract organic matter (e.g. bacteria) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests in large dense colonies on mudflats or islands of large waterbodies, occasionally also on bare rocky islands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), with a distance between neighbouring nests of between 20 and 50 cm (Snow and Perrins 1998). The nest is usually an inverted cone of hardened mud (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) with a shallow depression on the top (alternatively it may be a small pile of stones and debris when mud is not available) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Management information</B> The removal of sand polluted with lead shot from a salt-lake in Cyprus was successful in significantly reducing the numbers of deaths due to lead poisoning (Miltiadou 2005). At two colonies (one in France and one in Spain) management techniques to counteract erosion and the lack of suitable nesting islands were successfully applied in order to encourage breeding by the species (Martos and Johnson 1996).
106003769		threats	eng	The species suffers from low reproductive success if exposed to disturbance at breeding colonies (Ogilvie and Ogilvie 1986, Yosef 2000) (e.g. from tourists, low-flying aircraft (Ogilvie and Ogilvie 1986) and especially all-terrain vehicles (Yosef 2000)), or if water-levels surrounding nest-sites lower (resulting in increased access to and therefore predation from ground predators such as foxes and feral dogs) (Miltiadou 2005). The lowering of water levels in lakes can also lead to hyper-salinity which may affect food resources (Nasirwa 2000). Other threats to the species's habitat include effluents from soda-ash mining (Nasirwa 2000, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), pollution from sewage and heavy metal effluents from industries (Nasirwa 2000). The species also suffers mortality from lead poisoning (lead shot ingestion) (Mateo <I>et al.</I> 1998, Miltiadou 2005), collisions with fences and powerlines (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and from diseases such as tuberculosis, septicemia (Nasirwa 2000) and avian botulism (van Heerden 1974). <B>Utilisation</B> In Egypt large numbers of adults are shot or captured to be sold in markets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and egg collecting from colonies occurs in some areas (this may become a threat) (Ogilvie and Ogilvie 1986).
106003770		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Extend and continue simultaneous surveys during breeding season to monitor population. Introduce measures to control intensive egg-harvesting. <p></p>
106003770		distribution	eng	<em>Phoenicopterus chilensis</em> breeds in central <strong>Peru </strong>(apparently erratically, irregularly and in small numbers) (M.&#160;A.&#160;Plenge <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Argentina</strong>, <strong>Chile</strong> and perhaps erratically in <strong>Paraguay </strong>(at least one breeding record, and perhaps increasing in the Chaco, with 5,200 wintering in 2005, R.&#160;P.&#160;Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Lesterhuis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>,<strong> </strong>with a few wintering in <strong>Uruguay</strong> and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, and vagrants in Ecuador and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). In the mid-1970s, the population was estimated at 500,000 birds, but more recent figures of 100,000 in Argentina, up to 30,000 in Chile, and tens of thousands in Peru and Bolivia, suggested that no more than 200,000 individuals might persist, however coordinated surveys in 2010 found 283,000 individuals and estimated the total population at 300,000 (Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Moderately rapid population declines have been suspected but data from 2010 suggest that declines may have been less rapid than previously suspected, however further monitoring is needed to confirm this.<em> <p></p></em>
106003770		habitat	eng	It occurs on coastal mudflats, estuaries, lagoons and salt-lakes at elevations up to 4,500 m. Breeding habitat is typified by the presence of suitable salinities and islands with extensive surrounding mudflats - conditions that do not occur each year. At Mar Chiquita, birds bred in only nine of the 26 years to 1999<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003770		population	eng	The population was estimated to number 200,000 individuals by del Hoyo (1992) and Valqui <em>et al.</em> (2000), however a coordinated census in 2010 found 283,000 individuals, and gave a total population estimate of 300,000 individuals (Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106003770		threats	eng	It has probably been subject to intensive egg-harvesting since the arrival of humans in South America and, in recent years, egg-collectors have been responsible for the partial or complete failure of colonies in Bolivia (del Hoyo 1992, Flamingo CAP Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong>. Mar Chiquita (Argentina), perhaps the most important breeding site, is threatened by abstraction of water for irrigation projects<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mining has wrought extensive habitat alteration, and the species also suffers from hunting and tourism-related disturbance (Flamingo CAP Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003771		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It breeds at an artificially created site at Kamfers Dam, South Africa (M. Anderson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In September 2006, 35 experts from the species's range states attended a meeting in Nairobi, Kenya, to start the process of drafting an International Action Plan for the species under the auspices of CMS and AEWA (Anon. 2008). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at Lake Natron and other key sites. Ensure complete and permanent protection of all breeding congregations, particularly those at Lake Natron.  <p></p>
106003771		distribution	eng	<em>Phoeniconaias minor</em><strong> </strong>breeds mainly in the Rift Valley lakes of East Africa in <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Three smaller breeding congregations occur in West Africa, in southern Africa, and in Asia, in <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Pakistan</strong>. When not breeding, it occurs in virtually every sub-Saharan country and from the Arabian peninsula to Pakistan. The global population has been estimated as c.2,220,000-3,240,000, including c.650,000 in Asia (Rose and Scott 1997)<strong></strong>. The largest population, estimated to be 1.5-2.5 million birds, occurs on the alkaline-saline lakes of the Great Rift Valley in East Africa (Delany and Scott 2006)<strong></strong>. Smaller populations occur in the Rann of Kachchh in north-western India, estimated to be approximately 390,000 birds, in southern Africa, estimated to be 55,000-65,000 birds, and in West Africa, estimated to be 15,000-25,000 birds (Delany and Scott 2006)<strong></strong>. Declines have been suggested for much of Africa (Rose and Scott 1997;<strong></strong> Simmons 1996)<strong></strong>, but are difficult to clarify owing to large-scale movements within the continent. It is adapted to respond to local environmental changes in sites by moving elsewhere, and thus depends on a network of suitable areas (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<em> </em><p></p>
106003771		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is itinerant and makes extensive movements in response to adverse environmental conditions (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Borello <em>et al.</em> 1998, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, McCulloch <em>et al.</em> 2003, Childress <em>et al.</em> 2007).<strong></strong> The Asian and southern African populations are partially migratory, with many making regular movements from their breeding sites inland to coastal wetlands when not breeding (McCulloch <em>et al.</em> 2003, <strong></strong><em></em><strong></strong>Jadhav and Parasharya 2004)<strong></strong>. The species breeds in huge colonies of many thousands of pairs often mixed with Greater Flamingo <em>Phoenicopterus roseus<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></em>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<em></em><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. The timing of breeding is irregular and varies geographically depending on the timing of the rains, with individual adults often not breeding annually (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1982). The species is an obligate filter feeder and feeds during the night and early morning when the surface of the water is calm, primarily by swimming and filtering the algae near the surface with a specialised bill that contains up to 10,000 microscopic lamellae<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). When necessary, the species forms large dense feeding flocks that create calm water for feeding near the centre of the flock<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species breeds on large undisturbed alkaline and saline lakes, salt pans or coastal lagoons, usually far out from the shore after seasonal rains have provided the flooding necessary to isolate remote breeding sites from terrestrial predators and the soft muddy material for nest building<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Brown and Root 1971, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, McCulloch and Irvine 2004)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It has a highly specialised diet consisting almost entirely of microscopic blue-green algae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Spirulina</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Oscillatoria</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lyngbya</span> spp.) and benthic diatoms (<span style="font-style: italic;">Navicula</span> spp., Bacillariophyceae) found only in alkaline lakes, salt pans and saline lagoons and estuaries<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). To a lesser extent, the species will also take small aquatic invertebrates such as rotifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachiomus</span> spp)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is built from mud substrates (<strong></strong>Brown and Root 1971, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1982)<strong></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>The species will breed successfully on artificial breeding islands in ideal conditions (Anderson 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003771		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 15,000-25,000 individuals in West Africa, 1,500,000-2,500,000 in East Africa, 55,000-65,000 in South Africa and Madagascar, and 650,000 in south Asia.
106003771		threats	eng	Only three main breeding sites exist in Africa, all facing threats and requiring protection (R. E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Proposed soda-ash mining and hydroelectric power schemes affecting the main breeding site, Lake Natron in Tanzania, although currently put on hold, could cause rapid overall population declines owing to disturbance and the introduction of an alien brine shrimp to clean the soda of algae (the species's food)<strong> </strong>(L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999). In 2008, these proposals were still on hold but had not been withdrawn (Anderson 2008). Other threats include land-claim, water pollution, and disturbance, and there are fears that the population at Lake Bogoria is suffering from malnutrition (R. E. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 1998, S. J. Tyler <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>D. Harper <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003772		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I. Breeding occurs in Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve, Peru (Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Salar de Atacama National Flamingo Reserve (del Hoyo 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Chile, Las Chinchillas Provincial Natural Reserve, Argentina, and Eduardo Avaroa National Faunal Reserve, Bolivia, with a protected non-breeding site at Laguna de los Pozuelos Natural Monument, Argentina (Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conservation actions, locally including habitat management, prevention of egg-collecting and raising public awareness, are being undertaken (Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveying high Andean salt-lakes (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to monitor known populations and locate additional ones. Protect more sites and raise the status of existing reserves (Rocha and Quiroga 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Guard unprotected nest-sites (Rocha and Quiroga 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003772		distribution	eng	<em>Phoenicoparrus andinus</em> occurs on the high Andean plateaus of <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Chile</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, with a resident population of c.100 at Laguna Mar Chiquita, Córdoba, lowland Argentina (Michelutti 1994, Cobos <em>et al.</em> 1999). It breeds at c.10 localities, notably Laguna Colorada and other salt-lakes in south-west Bolivia, Laguna de Salinas (Peru) and Salar de Atacama (Chile) (Rocha 1994, <strong></strong>Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Breeding has been recorded in Argentina (Laguna Brava), but may only occur during strong El Niño years (Bucher <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Population assessments are difficult and vary greatly (Hurlbert 1978, 1981, Scott and Carbonell 1986, Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong>, but 50,000-100,000 individuals (Rocha and Quiroga 1997)<strong></strong> may have been realistic until the mid-1980s. The 34,000 estimated in 1997 (Rocha and Quiroga 1997)<strong></strong>, suggests that it declined rapidly during the preceding 10-15 years (Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Breeding success appears to be consistently low (Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong>, and thus declines may continue for many years, because flamingos have a high longevity (20-50 years) (del Hoyo 1992), however data from International Simultaneous Census and Simultaneous Census of Network Sites, including over 38,000 individuals recorded in 2010 (Marconi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011) suggests that the population may have been stable during 1997-2010. <p></p>
106003772		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to high mountain alkaline and salt-lakes, at 2,300-4,500&#160;m. It may be nomadic in search of temporally patchy food supplies (mainly diatoms [del Hoyo 1992]). It breeds colonially, laying only one egg (unless first egg predated), mainly in December-February (del Hoyo 1992, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106003772		population	eng	The population estimate is derived from Rocha &amp; Quiroga (1997), Flamingo Specialist Group &amp; Grupo para la Conservaciande Flamencos Altoandinos in litt. (2005) to Wetlands International (2006); the total may be slightly higher as 38,675 individuals were counted in the 2010 International Simultaneous Census (Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
106003772		threats	eng	The collecting of eggs to sell as food was intensive in the mid-20th century and the early 1980s, with thousands taken annually (Johnson 1965, Hurlbert 1981<strong></strong>). Mining activities, unfavourable water-levels (owing to weather and manipulation), erosion of nest-sites and human disturbance may also affect productivity (Flamingo Action Plan Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong>. Outside protected areas in Bolivia, there is a low level of hunting for food, oils and feathers, especially targeting immatures and juveniles (Rocha and Quiroga 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000).<strong></strong><p></p>
106003773		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The key protected area is Eduardo Avaroa National Faunal Reserve, Bolivia (O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. International and national conservation programmes have been organised in all four countries (Flamingo CAP Questionnaire 1998) (O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and will hopefully continue to encourage population growth. CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue simultaneous surveys during breeding season to monitor population. Increase network of protected areas to include vital sites in Argentina (Caziani <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate feasibility of creating a trinational reserve integrating management of sites in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile to protect key breeding colonies and congregation sites (Caziani <em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
106003773		distribution	eng	<em>Phoenicoparrus jamesi</em> occurs on the high Andean plateaus of <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Chile</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, with small numbers occurring around the lowland Laguna Mar Chiquita, Argentina (Cobos <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Key sites include Laguna Grande and Lagunas de Vilama in Argentina, Laguna Colorada in Bolivia, and Salar de Surire in Chile; in 2010 these four wetlands held 50% of the total population (Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). In particular Laguna Colorada, within Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve, has held up to 41,000 birds (with over 25,000 in the reserve in 2010), and has been a key site for recruitment (Rocha 1994,<strong> </strong>Flamingo CAP Questionnaire 1998, Caziani <em>et al. </em>2007, Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. The population probably declined rapidly during the 20th century (Flamingo CAP Questionnaire 1998)<strong></strong>, but has started to increase (O. Rocha <em>in litt</em>. 2000), presumably owing to the success of conservation programmes, and a coordinated census in 2005 estimated the population to be 100,000 birds (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006) A total of 106,000 individuals counted in a coordinated census of similar coverage in 2010 suggests that the population may have stabilised (Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><strong></strong>, however breeding success varies greatly from year to year, with threats mostly impacting on productivity.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003773		habitat	eng	It is found mainly on saline lakes in the high Andean plateaus, where it feeds mainly on diatoms, but it is also a partial elevational migrant which moves to lower altitude lakes in the non-breeding season. <p></p>
106003773		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 106,000 individuals based on coordinated census in 2010 (Marconi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
106003773		threats	eng	Levels of diatoms may be affected by climate change to the detriment of flamingo food resources. Egg-collecting and hunting were intensive during the 20th century (Johnson 1965, Hurlbert 1981), but have been controlled in protected areas. Mining activity and the associated demand for water, as well as tourism are further threats to some wetlands. <p></p>
106003777		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersal movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and are considerably nomadic (Snow and Perrins 1998). In addition northern breeding populations are fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and may travel on a broad front (e.g. across the Sahara) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Northern and southern breeding populations breed during the local spring, whilst breeding elsewhere coincides with the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species nests in mixed-species colonies, either in small groups (e.g. 5-100 pairs in Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) or in large aggregations of thousands of pairs, and during the winter or dry seasons the species usually forages in small flocks (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of up to 30 indivduals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It often roosts communally at night in large groups (sometimes thousands of individuals) with other species, occasionally in trees far from wetland feeding sites (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species feeds in very shallow water (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) and nests in freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds or rushes) and low trees or bushes (Marchant and Higgins 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It shows a preference for marshes at the edges of lakes and rivers (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), as well as lagoons, flood-plains, wet meadows (Marchant and Higgins 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), swamps (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), reservoirs (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), sewage ponds, rice-fields and irrigated cultivation (Marchant and Higgins 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It less often occurs in coastal locations such as estuaries, deltas, saltmarshes (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) and coastal lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Roosting sites are often large trees that may be far from water (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> The diet of the species varies seasonally depending on what is available (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It takes adult and larval insects (e.g. aquatic beetles, dragonflies, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and caddisflies), worms, leeches, molluscs (e.g. snails and mussels), crustaceans (e.g. crabs and crayfish) and occasionally fish, frogs, tadpoles, lizards, small snakes and nestling birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of twigs and vegetation usually positioned less than 1 m above water (occasionally up to 7 m) in tall dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds or rushes), low trees or bushes over water (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003777		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) through drainage (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian <I>et al</I>. 2002), clearing, grazing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants (Marchant and Higgins 1990). It is also threatened locally by hunting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998), disturbance and pesticides (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003778		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,200,000 individuals.
106003779		distribution	eng	This species is found from the highlands of central Peru south to Bolivia, extreme northern Chile and north-west Argentina; it is also a non-breeding visitor to the Peruvian coast (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003779		habitat	eng	It is found in swampy areas, rushy pastureland, mudflats, pools and streams, but also occurs in bunch-grass on hills, sometimes far from water (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003779		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-15,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-10,000 mature individuals.
106003780		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
106003784		distribution	eng	This taxon consists of two subspecies: branickii occurs in the highlands of Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile and north-west Bolivia, and is a year-round resident. Melanopis occurs in southern Chile and Argentina, with an isolated population in coastal Peru, and the southern Chile and Argentina populations migrate in the non-breeding season to the Argentine pampas.
106003784		population	eng	Although the species has a large global population estimated to be 25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), subspecies branickii is described as 'uncommon and very local' throughout its range (Matheu and del Hoyo 1992).
106003786		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is predominantly sedentary, although it may make local nomadic movements in response to rainfall during periods of drought (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). It forages diurnally in pairs or small groups of between 5 and 30<B></B>individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) (occasionally in groups of 50<B>-</B>200) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), and roosts nightly in groups of up to 100 (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It often uses the same roost site year-round, year after year, although it will wander several kilometres away to forage during the day  (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species breeds in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), with breeding reaching a peak during or just after the rainy season (although in Gambia and Tanzania breeding is restricted to the dry season) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Habitat</B> This species inhabits wooded streams and river courses in open moist grassland and savanna woodland (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), and is attracted to man-made irrigated habitats (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), such as cultivated land, large gardens and playing fields (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). It less often occurs in marshes, flooded grassland, the edges of lakes and reservoirs, mangrove swamps, coastal beaches (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), open woodland and at forest edges (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Diet</B> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting largely of insects (especially weevils, Diptera, the pupae of Lepidoptera and the larvae of Coleoptera), as well as crustaceans, millipedes, centipedes, spiders, earthworms, snails and small reptiles (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a basket-shaped platform of sticks and twigs situated 1-12 m (usually 3-6 m) above the ground or above water on a horizontal tree branch, in bushes or on man-made structures such as telegraph poles (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), dam walls or pergolas (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). The same nest site is usually used year after year (but not necessarily by the same breeding pair) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982).
106003786		threats	eng	The species is threatened by extended droughts (which reduce food availability by causing damp soil to harden, making it more difficult to probe for insects) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). The population in South Africa declined markedly at the turn of the century due to hunting during colonial expansion (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003787		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary but may make local altitudinal movements within its Ethiopian range (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds during the short rainy season between March and May, or in the more substantial rains of July (occasionally also breeding during the dry season in December) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species usually breeds colonially, although it may also nest in solitary pairs or smaller groups of 2-3 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It feeds in flocks of varying magnitudes, sometimes reaching sizes of up to 50 to 100 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> The species is found in the highlands of Ethiopia between 1,500 to 4,100 m, where it inhabits river courses with rocky cliffs, and open country such as alpine moorland, swamps, cultivated land, plantations and open woodland (typically of olive, juniper and occasionally <I>Eucalyptus</I> stands) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet is unknown, but is most likely to consist of worms and insects (such as the adults and larvae of coprophagus beetles), as well as frogs and small mammals (young mice) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> When breeding colonially nests are placed on the eastern slopes of rocky cliffs (to obtain maximum morning sunlight for warmth) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), or on bushes protruding from cliff-faces, often up to 3,000 m in altitude (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). When breeding in solitary pairs or small groups however, nests are more likely to be placed on the tops of trees or on ledges of buildings at lower elevations (1,800 to 2,000 m) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). In both cases the nest is a platform of branches and sticks (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003787		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-17,000 mature individuals.
106003787		threats	eng	The species is currently threatened in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia, by overgrazing and tree-cutting, and is also potentially threatened by soil erosion, conversion to agriculture (farmers from the north of Ethopia have been relocated to the area) and extraction of groundwater (small scale extraction and irrigation has started and there are plans to expand the process) (Hughes 2006). The long periods of recent warfare and drought in Ethiopia also raise concerns for this species due to its very restricted range (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003788		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). It breeds in solitary pairs (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) and usually forages alone, in pairs or in small flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) of 5-12 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), roosting at night in trees (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits dense lowland forest (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), showing a preference for stands with little or no undergrowth and with large mature trees (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992) with dead tops for roosting in (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It foraging in glades in open sections of forest (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and in swampy or marshy areas (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), also occurring along streams and rivers, in swamp-forest (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), mangroves (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), regenerating forest over abandoned plantations in Gabon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and in montane forest up to the treeline (c.3,700 m) in Kenya and Tanzania (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Diet</B> Its diet is little known but includes adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles), worms, snails, snakes and occasionally plant matter (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of sticks constructed on a tree limb (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) c.7.5 m above the ground (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species is also said to nest in holes in cliffs although this is unconfirmed (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
106003788		threats	eng	</P>
106003789		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in the 295-km<sup>2</sup> Obô Natural Park, although there is no law enforcement within these areas. The park was established in 1992, but was not protected by law until 2006, and although a zoning and management plan was being developed in 2008, when the first directors were appointed, the park was still lacking sufficient personnel (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species has been ratified (M. Melo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2008, a training programme with NGOs Associação de Biólogos Saotomenses (ABS) and Monte Pico was initiated to involve locals in the study and conservation of São Tomean species, and this has since been achieved (Associação dos Biólogos Santomenses<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research is currently being carried out into the effects of agroforestry and the exploitation of wildlife resources on the island (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Borrow and Demey 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme, the Species Guardian ABS has begun training local community members in the implementation of site-based conservation; implementing an awareness raising campaign and carrying out field research and monitoring into the ecology, population status and threats to the species (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During an international workshop held in February 2008 to promote ecotourism in São Tomé e Príncipe, birdwatching was listed as an activity that should be encouraged and Ribeira Peixe was identified as a suitable site for a pilot project (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In July 2009, ABS promoted a short course for the training of local people as bird guides at Ribeira Peixe and efforts were on-going to promote the conservation of the area (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Advocacy and awareness raising for species and primary forest protection in São Tomé. Identification of key sites and training of staff to ensure their protection. Field research on Dwarf Olive Ibis (to improve knowledge on ecology, status and threats) and mapping of protection zone for the species. Formulate species conservation measures based on research findings and seek wider involvement in their implementation. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.  <p></p>
106003789		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>, where it is confined to the catchments of the São Miguel, Xufexufe and possibly the Quija rivers in the south-west, and along the Io Grande and Ana Chaves rivers in the centre of the island. It was known only from historical records and anecdotal evidence from hunters until a confirmed sighting in the valley of the rio Ana Chaves, in 1990  (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. More records followed: birds were seen in 1996; two pairs, an individual and two nests were seen near the basins of the Rios Ió Grande (200 m asl) and Martim Mendes (100 m asl) in May 1997 in an area where hunters reported killing 16 of the birds 6 months previously (S. d'Assis Lima <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; and during survey work in Ribeira Peixe in 2007 (Olmos and Turshak 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent fieldwork has resulted in 57 observations, including two nests with brooding females, in primary forest in the Monte Carmo area (Maia and Gascoigne <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most recent estimation suggests that the population is &gt;50 individuals but remains extremely small (M. Melo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is apparently relatively widely, if thinly, distributed in the south. There is one historical record from the north of the island, but no suitable habitat remains there (Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106003789		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is presumed to be sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds usually occur singly or in pairs (Borrow and Demey 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but roost together at night and can be identified as they call when flying to and from the roost (M. Melo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>The species is confined to primary forest below 450 m, although suitable habitat could extend up to 800 m. However, it has been found most frequently in recent years at the border between primary and secondary forest, sometimes near palm plantations (M. Melo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent observations from Monte Carmo were from mature or old second-growth forest (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on lowland forest floors in areas of bare ground or where there exists a sparse undergrowth of herbaceous plants, bracken and moss, or a covering of rocks and large stones (Christy and Clarke 1998<strong></strong>; Olmos and Turshak 2010). It is especially found in areas where the ground has been disturbed by wild pigs or in swampy areas bordering watercourses or small oxbow lakes  (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991; Christy and Clarke 1998; Borrow and Demey 2001; Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>Its diet consists of invertebrates, snails and slugs (Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>A nest was found in 1997 in a tree overhanging water<strong> (</strong>S. d'Assis Lima <em>in litt.</em> 1998) and a nest found in 2009 was also in a tree (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003789		population	eng	The most recent population estimate indicates that it is extremely small, and is best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals (M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2006). This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106003789		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of lowland forest were cleared for cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees (M. Melo <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. This does not currently affect primary forest, but may be a threat in the future (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Agricultural encroachment in the more accessible areas of Obô Natural Park was evident in 2007 and 2008, and hunting and palm-wine harvesting were widespread (Olmos and Turshak 2007, 2010)<strong></strong>, with shelters constructed inside the park<strong> </strong>(Olmos and Turshak 2010). Hunting may be the most serious current threat; the species is apparently very desirable for its meat and reports include 16 birds being killed in 1996-1997 (S. d'Assis Lima <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, and six birds killed on a single occasion by one hunter (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Hunting pressure is believed to be increasing in the Monte Carmo area of the Obô Natural Park, one of the main strongholds for the species, and a group of hunters were found with at least one ibis in April 2011 (R. Grimmett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Plans to develop coffee plantations and restore and extend 630 ha of abandoned palm-oil plantations (to cover more than 2,000 ha; ready for harvest in 2013) in the vicinity of the core zone of Obô Natural Park and encroaching into its buffer zone<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Tavares<em> in litt</em> 2010)<strong></strong> may result in the loss of suitable habitat and potentially have both positive and negative influences on levels of disturbance (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong></strong>. The palm-oil project, however, reportedly incorporates the protection of some primary and mature secondary forest (J. Tavares<em> in litt</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, mona monkey <em>Cercopithecus mona</em>, African civet <em>Civettictis civetta</em> and weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> are all potential predators. In particular, recent reports suggest mona monkeys may be having a serious impact on productivity. <p></p>
106003790		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in west African lowland forests from Liberia east to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.
106003790		habitat	eng	The species frequents forested streams and wooded swamps, always above or near water, in lowland forest (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The same trees are used for roost sites all year-round. It feeds on aquatic snails, worms, beetles, larvae and grubs, which it probes for in muddy banks and swamps. Nests are situated 1-6 m above the ground or overhanging water, and comprise a circular platform on top of several lateral tree branches, approximately 30 cm across. Two eggs are usually laid (Brown et al. 1982). The species is sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1992), with individuals remaining in an area all year round and using traditional roosting sites for sleeping (Hancock et al. 1992). It is likely to breed for most of the year (del Hoyo et al. 1992), especially during periods of peak rainfall (Hancock et al. 1992), but it does not breed during the long dry season when water levels are lowest (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The species nests in solitary pairs and forages singly or in pairs throughout the year (del Hoyo et al. 1992), small groups (e.g. 5-8 birds in same tree) often congregating at roosting sites to sleep (Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 1992). It is diurnally active, although it may also forage at night (especially in bright moonlight) (Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 1992. The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of beetles, larvae, grubs, aquatic snails and worms (Brown et al. 1982, Hancock et al. 1992, del Hoyo et al. 1992).  </P>
106003790		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be 200,000-510,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). Although uncommon over most of its range, it is regarded as common in Gabon and Congo (Borrow and Demey 2001)
106003790		threats	eng	Intense forest destruction in West Africa is probably the main threat to this species (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Utilisation Fishermen in Gabon are known to take nestlings from the nests of this species .
106003791		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999, an international advisory group IAGNBI was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice (Bowden 2001)<strong></strong>. An international species action plan was published in 2006. Over 1,000 individuals of the western population exist in captivity worldwide, but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (four Turkish zoos hold 20 birds and participate in an <em>ex situ</em> breeding operation<strong> </strong>(Böhm 2004)). An international studbook was discontinued in 1998<strong> </strong>(Böhm 2004). An <em>in situ</em> breeding programme at Birecik aims to establish a partially captive population of 150 birds to provide birds for release to the wild population if this action is agreed in future <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Böhm 2004)<strong></strong>. Colour-ringing of young at Birecik has begun and there are plans to attach satellite transmitters to a family party in July 2007 (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A captive breeding centre has been built at Ain Tijja-Mezguitem, northeastern Morocco, and is stocked with zoo-bred birds imported in 2000 and 2004 (WAZA www.waza.org). In 2004, an information centre was also constructed. Six pairs bred in 2006 and successfully reared six offspring. In 2007, the aviary contained 19 birds (13 adults and six juveniles). A reintroduction is planned once the population has reached around 40 birds (WAZA www.waza.org). Other captive breeding schemes exist or are planned in Austria, Spain and Italy, and programmes of releasing captive birds are either in progress or in the experimental phase in Bavaria, Spain, and Italy (N. Schaffer <em>in litt</em>. 2007; UNEP/CMS 2008; Fritz 2010)<strong></strong>. In southern Spain a total of 109 birds were released between 2004 and 2007. Although juvenile mortality has been high, the first breeding pair was formed on nearby cliffs in 2008. Further releases were planned for late 2008, and the organisers hoped the project would be continued until 2010 (Quevedo and Sánchez 2009)<strong></strong>. There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe (Zoufal <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. In 1991, the Souss-Massa National Park was designated specifically to protect nesting and feeding areas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bowden <em>et al.</em> 2003) and in 1994, a monitoring and research programme was set up involving local people (Bowden 1998)<strong></strong>. The provision of freshwater near the breeding colonies in the national park has been shown experimentally to increase productivity, buffering individuals against the impacts of low rainfall, and is now an ongoing conservation measure (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. The Palmyra project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities. Three birds were satellite-tagged there in June 2006 (Anon. 2006)<strong></strong>, and one in 2007; giving an indication of the migratory route of Syrian individuals. Syria's first local conservation society, the Palmyra Society for the Protection of Environment and Wildlife, aims to develop ecotourism in the area (Anon (2008)<strong></strong>. The breeding area in Syria was declared a protected area in 2004 by Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. It was also declared as an IBA by BirdLife in 2007. Ecotourism and awareness raising has been promoted throughout the range. Conservation action to date has focused on reducing the negative influences on breeding success, but it is recognised that for such a long-lived bird adult survival is also likely to be an important limiting factor on the population size. Plans to release young birds from the Birecik colony in Syria during 2009 were halted by delays in obtaining permissions from the Turkish authorities, although it was hoped that this would be possible in 2010<strong> </strong>(Anon 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements (Brindley <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bowden <em>et al.</em> 2003). Study threats along the migration route and in the non-breeding range of the Syrian population (Anon 2008)<strong></strong>. Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Bowden <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, making sure to involve local people (Serra <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>.<em> </em>Better demarcation and stricter enforcement is needed at the Syrian breeding site (Serra<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). Employ management techniques such as the provision of drinking water (Serra <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Raven populations around breeding sites should be controlled (Serra<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). Explore the possibility of reintroducing captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available) (Brindley <em>et al.</em> 1995; Mendelssohn 1994; Bowden 2001)<strong></strong>. Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Better link the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>; Serra <em>et al</em>. 2009). Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route (Anon. 2006)<strong></strong>. In Syria, address issues over land tenure and encourage the rehabilitation of pastures<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Serra <em>et al</em>. 2009). Develop a national action plan for the Syrian population<strong> </strong>(Serra <em>et al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>&#160;<br/><p></p>
106003791		distribution	eng	<em></em>The historical range of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Geronticus eremita</span> probably extended throughout North Africa and into the Middle East. Since the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, however, the species has been known from two disjunct populations: a western population in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Morocco</span> and an eastern population in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Syria</span>. In Morocco it is found at Souss-Massa National Park (Souss-Massa NP) (338 km<sup>2</sup>; three sub-colonies) and at nearby Tamri (one colony, half the breeding population) (Bowden 1998), with some movement of birds between these two. The eastern population was believed to have died out, however, in 2002, a tiny colony, consisting of just seven individuals, was rediscovered at Palmyra in Syria (Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Being migratory, the Syrian population is behaviourally distinct from the Moroccan one, with which it is thought to have separated long ago. During the six breeding seasons following the rediscovery (2002-2007), the three, and then two, pairs breed well and a total of 24 chicks fledged and left the breeding area successfully (Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Between 2004 and 2007, five immature ibises returned to the colony (Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In 2008, breeding failed with four chicks dying, probably due to predation by Brown-necked Raven <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus ruficollis</span> (Hirschfeld 2008). The causes of failed breeding in 2009 are uncertain, but intraspecific disturbance and low spring rainfall are possible factors (Murdoch 2010). In 2011, a single breeding pair fledged two young (R. Grimmett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Searches in 2003 for further colonies within the Syrian steppes proved fruitless (Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Satellite-tagging has revealed that this population migrates south through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Jordan </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Saudi Arabia</span>; six birds spent three weeks in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Yemen </span>(July-August), then wintering in central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>; migrating back to Syria, through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Eritrea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span>, Saudi Arabia and Jordan in February (Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009); four adults were located in Ethiopia in the winters of 2006-07, 2007-08 and 2008-09 (Serra and Wondafrash 2009). Records of untagged birds in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Israel </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Djibouti </span>in late 2007 may relate to immature birds from the Syrian colony or birds from an as yet undiscovered population (Hirschfeld 2008). In 1995, the Moroccan population was estimated at 300 individuals (74 breeding pairs that laid eggs) (Bowden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In 1998, it had declined to 59 pairs, following the mysterious death of 40 birds in 1996 (Bowden 1998, Touti<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1999), but by 2006 there were 95 pairs that laid eggs (El Bekkay and Oubrou 2004). Importantly, since 1980 there has been no overall decline in numbers at Souss-Massa NP (Bowden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Growing numbers, and good productivity (over 500 birds in the Moroccan population after the breeding season in recent years) give cause for optimism that former areas may soon be recolonised (C. Bowden<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2006). A semi-wild population numbering 91 individuals in 2006 exists at Birecik, Turkey (J. Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007), where birds are free-flying for five months, breeding on natural nest sites and nest-boxes on cliffs, but are taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent them from migrating (G. Eken <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2005; J. Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Three birds from the colony migrated in 2009 travelling via the Palmyra site. However, three were found dead in Jordan (Niemann 2009). Historically, the species occurred across parts of southern Europe, and captive populations have been maintained in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria </span>(at Grünau, 22 birds, now breeding) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, with a long-term aim to re-establish the species in parts of its former range. Around 30 birds have now been released in the La Janda area, Spain, and in 2008 a released pair laid two eggs, perhaps the first breeding of the species in the wild in Spain for 500 years (Hirschfeld 2008).<br/> <p></p>
106003791		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The small Syrian population is migratory, but the larger western population is dispersive (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in colonies of up to 40 pairs, beginning in mid-February, and eggs are laid in March-April (del Hoyo <em>et al</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Colonies are vacated in late June or early July, but migration and dispersal do not commence until August, with birds recorded on the breeding grounds as late as November (<strong></strong>Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>. Some reside in Souss-Massa NP and around Tamri throughout the year (Bowden <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Juveniles tend to disperse over the longest distances (del Hoyo <em>et al</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Movements appear to be to some extent determined by rainfall (Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. Migrating birds from the Syrian population do not arrive in their Ethiopian winter quarters before December (Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>. All return to their breeding colonies in February and March (Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>. The species forages in loose groups with birds well spread out (Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>, but commutes in flocks between the colony or roost and the feeding grounds (Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>. Winter flocks vary from a few individuals to over 100 (Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>. Breeding performance is highly variable from one year to the next (Bowden <em>et al.</em> 2003), but does not appear to be related to rainfall in the vicinity of the colonies as previously reported elsewhere. It is suggested that coastal fogs in the Souss-Massa region may buffer the adverse impacts of low rainfall, and may in part account for the year-round residency of the birds<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Bowden <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Colonies are usually situated in rocky areas, cliffs and escarpments  in remote arid regions (Cramp <em>et al</em>. 1977)<strong></strong>. In the past castles, ruins and walls were used as nest sites even in urban areas (<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. They are often located near the banks of rivers, along streams or on the coast (<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992). Birds may feed on dry ground and rocky slopes, as well as in wetlands, on coastal sandy strips, on river beds and in sandy banks on the sea shore<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. Roosts away from the breeding site can be in trees, on cliff ledges or sometimes in fields<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season it may be found in mountain meadows, stubble fields, short grass, rocky semi-arid ground, and damp ground in lower areas of high plateaus (<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992).<em> </em>It prefers areas with very sparse vegetation, but sometimes frequents pastures and cultivated fields (Aghnaj <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. It avoids tilled fields and pastures where the grass exceeds 25 cm in height<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992). Birds that migrate to Ethiopia during the non-breeding season feed on high moors, wet meadows and by fast-flowing mountain streams and lake margins up to 3500 m elevation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It has a broad diet, feeding on any available animal-life (Aghnaj <em>et al</em>. 2001) including insects, arachnids, scorpions, earthworms, snails and vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, lizards and snakes, small rodents and small birds, whether alive or dead<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992). It will also feed on vegetation including berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants (<strong></strong>Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992).  <p></p>
106003791		population	eng	In Souss-Massa National Park and Tamri, Morocco, 102 pairs (i.e. 204 mature individuals) nested, out of 277 adults in 2006 (C. Bowden in litt. 2006). In 2011, at least 100 pairs produced at least 130 fledged young, matching the breeding success of 2010, when 105 pairs fledged 138 young (R. Grimmett in litt. 2011). After the breeding season the total number of birds in the western population may exceed 500 (IAGNBI 2012). Only four mature birds remained in Syria in 2009 (IAGNBI 2012), and in 2011, a single breeding pair fledged two young (R. Grimmett in litt. 2011). The Turkish population now numbers around 100 individuals (IAGNBI 2012), but these managed birds are excluded from the total estimate.
106003791		threats	eng	It has declined for several centuries, perhaps partly owing to unidentified natural causes. However, the more recent rapid decline is undoubtedly the result of a combination of factors, with different threats affecting different populations. In Morocco, illegal building and disturbance close to the breeding cliffs and changes in farming on the feeding grounds are the threats that may have the most severe impact on the population. Hunting is the main threat to the tiny Syrian population, and overgrazing and collecting of firewood have reduced habitat quality in feeding areas. A well was under construction at a main feeding site in Syria in 2007. This is likely to increase disturbance to the species and might render this important site unsuitable in the near future (G. Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). Disturbance from other human activities is on-going, and this population is also potentially threatened by trophy hunters, combined with a lack of safe areas with water sources (Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The integrity of the protected area at the Syrian breeding colonies is potentially threatened by oil concessions, infrastructure development and plans for urbanisation (Serra<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009; Murdoch 2010). Satellite tracking of juvenile birds indicates that the main threat to the eastern population is mortality from hunting in the Arabian Peninsula. Three birds tagged in summer 2010 did not survive their first winter (R. Grimmett<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). Breeding productivity in Syria in 2005 was zero: local rangers reported predation as the cause. In Turkey, a major historical threat was poisoning and reduced breeding success caused by pesticides used against locusts and mosquitoes (Murdoch 2010). In Syria, the most serious nest predator is Brown-necked Raven <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus ruficollis</span>, however, predation by Egyptian Vulture <span style="font-style: italic;">Neophron percnopterus</span> on young ibis chicks is also suspected (Serra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The Birecik population has also suffered from losses to predation in some years (J. Tavares <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm</span>. 2008). At Souss-Massa NP, the most recent causes of breeding failure have been loss of eggs to predators and, more importantly, poor chick survival as a result of starvation and predation (Bowden<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003). A proposed tourist development at the national park could prove detrimental to the birds if it is not constructed in a sensitive way (Anon 2009). Poisoning was suspected to be the cause of death of three tagged individuals found in Jordan, however electrocution whilst standing on electricity pylons is now believed to have been the most likely cause (Anon 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003792		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has full legal protection in South Africa where it breeds in several protected areas. In Swaziland, Malolotja Nature Reserve holds a breeding colony. In Lesotho, it is recorded from Setlabathebe National Park. Roosts on pylons result in both the mortality of some birds and faults in powerlines, thus it has been recommended that bird guards be installed on the most affected pylons and anti-collision devices be fitted to the earth wire near roost sites (van Rooyen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess its status in Lesotho. Initiate range-wide monitoring to help clarify population trends. Protect as many of the larger breeding colonies and feeding areas as possible. Provide insentives for adopting ibis-favourable farming practices. Assess the impact of fitting bird guards and anti-collision devices to powerlines.  <p></p>
106003792		distribution	eng	<em>Geronticus calvus</em> is restricted to <strong>Lesotho</strong>, north-east <strong>South Africa</strong> and west <strong>Swaziland</strong>. The core range lies in the north-eastern Free State, Mpumalanga and the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg. It was formerly widespread in the Eastern Cape and there is evidence that it is starting to recolonize the area from Lesotho (Boshoff and van Niekerk 2007). In South Africa, there are over 1,500 breeding pairs at over 100 colonies, although c.25% of the breeding population occurs at just five colonies. In Swaziland, there are three main breeding colonies, supporting at least 10 pairs each, and a total population of c.110 birds. In Lesotho, the population, with several known breeding colonies, is probably in the low thousands. South African populations may have increased between the late 1960s and the early 1980s, but the Lesotho population may be declining. It has been suggested that 8,000-10,000 birds (including 2,000 breeding pairs) exist (Barnes 2000).<strong></strong><p></p>
106003792		habitat	eng	It prefers high rainfall (&gt;700&#160;mm&#160;p.a.), sour and alpine grasslands, characterised by an absence of trees and a short, dense grass sward. It also occurs in lightly wooded and relatively arid country. It forages preferentially on recently burned ground, also using unburnt natural grassland, cultivated pastures, reaped maize fields and ploughed areas. It has a varied diet, mainly consisting of insects and other terrestrial invertebrates. It has high nesting success on safe, undisturbed cliffs.<p></p>
106003792		population	eng	Barnes (2000) estimated a total population of 8,000-10,000 birds (including 2,000 breeding pairs i.e. 4,000 mature individuals).
106003792		threats	eng	Threats include human interference with breeding colonies and habitat loss through commercial afforestation, intensive crop farming, open-cast mining, acid rain and dense human settlement. Pesticide contamination is a potential threat as is exploitation for traditional medicinal/ceremonial purposes in Lesotho. Several predatory bird species have been recorded raiding colonies for adults and young. The species's habit of using electricity pylons as roost sites in certain areas results in some mortality from collisions with powerlines (van Rooyen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003793		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected from hunting by law, although it is still intensely hunted and trapped (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an estimate of the population size. Monitor rates of deforestation. Monitor rates of hunting, trapping and nest-robbing. Enforce legislation that protects the species from hunting. Place more areas of the species's habitat under protection. Conduct further research into its ecology.  <p></p>
106003793		distribution	eng	<em>Lophotibis cristata</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is widespread and locally common, occurring in all types of native forest from sea-level to 2,000 m, including 44 Important Bird Areas (52% of the national total)  (Dee 1986; Langrand 1990; ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003793		habitat	eng	In the east it seems relatively adaptable, having been recorded in secondary woodland habitats such as relict trees in and around vanilla and oil-palm plantations (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>, but only where these are close to areas of primary habitat (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits all types of native woodland, including humid forest in the north and east, and dry forest in the south and west (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It is occasionally seen in mangroves (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It usually feeds in pairs on the forest floor, eating invertebrates and small vertebrates including frogs and reptiles (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>, and it nests in large trees within the forest. Breeding occurs at the start of the rainy season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The nest is a large platform made of branches, usually in major forks of trees, 7-15 m above the forest floor. It may lay two eggs, but usually three. The species is presumed to be sedentary, although there are uncorroborated past claims that eastern populations are migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003793		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals.
106003793		threats	eng	It is universally known by hunters and others who live in forested areas, and is a favoured quarry species wherever it occurs (Dee 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds are caught by traps and snares, and eggs, nestlings and even adults are taken off the nest (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over-hunting may therefore threaten this species in the future. Its forest habitat is being destroyed, especially in the east, where deforestation is intense (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003794		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African migrant, making nomadic or partially migratory movements of several hundred kilometres to breed during the rains (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Populations north of the equator migrate northwards and those south of the equator migrate southwards (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), both groups returning towards the equator at the end of the breeding season (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). Some populations (e.g. in southern Africa) may also be sedentary (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). The species starts to breed during or shortly after the rains, although in flooded areas it also breeds during the dry season, usually nesting in large mixed-species colonies of 50-2,000 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It is a very gregarious species, often flying more than 30 km away from the colony to feed (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005). The species also roosts nightly in large numbers at breeding sites, on islets in rivers or flood-lands, on trees near dams, or in villages (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species mainly inhabits the margins of inland freshwater wetlands, sewage works (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), saltpans (Martin and Randall 1987), farm dams (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), rivers in open forest (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982), grasslands, and cultivated fields, as well as coastal lagoons, intertidal areas, offshore islands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and mangroves (Langrand 1990) (especially in the dry season) (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992). It may also occur in more human environments such as farmyards, abattoirs and refuse dumps on the outskirts of towns (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists largely of insects including grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, and aquatic beetles, although it will also take crustaceans, worms, molluscs, fish, frogs, lizards, small mammals, the eggs of Great White Pelican <I>Pelecanus onocrotalus</I> and crocodiles, nestling Cape Cormorants <I>Phalacrocorax capensis</I>, carrion, offal and seeds (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a large platform of sticks and branches built in trees or bushes, or placed on the ground on rocky islands (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992).
106003794		threats	eng	The population on Aldabra Island has declined due to hunting and disturbance by temporary workers (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (van Heerden 1974). <B>Utilisation</B> The eggs and young of this species are collected by local people in Madagascar (Langrand 1990, Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992).
106003795		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at Prek Toal (the only known breeding colony in South-east Asia) have been in place since the late 1990s, with permanent teams of protectors employed since 2001. Since 2001, c.95% of waterbird egg and chick collection has been prevented at Prek Toal.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range, particularly at important colonies. Asses the effects of the various threats on population levels.  Conduct local education programmes to discourage hunting and disturbance, and to encourage the protection of nesting areas.  <p></p>
106003795		distribution	eng	<em>Threskiornis</em> <em>melanocephalus </em>occurs in <strong>Japan</strong> (scarce non-breeding visitor), mainland <strong>China</strong> (probably breeds in Heilongjiang, but this is not confirmed; non-breeding visitors are rare along the east and south coasts, occasionally inland to Sichuan and Yunnan), <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) (regular winter visitor in small numbers with occasional summer records), <strong>Pakistan</strong> (scarce resident, principally in the Indus delta region), <strong>Nepal</strong> (frequent resident and summer visitor to the south-east), <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally common in the west, scarce in the east; possibly increasing locally due to the spread of man-made wetlands), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (common resident in the lowlands, particularly the dry zone), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (local visitor to coastal regions and the north-east), <strong>Philippines</strong> (rare non-breeding visitor to the south), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (uncommon but widespread non-breeding visitor, 730 counted in 1991), <strong>Thailand</strong> (formerly common resident, now uncommon winter visitor), Laos<strong> </strong>(only one record, a single bird prior to 1950), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously an abundant breeder, now a few large colonies remaining and still locally common), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (a fairly common resident in early 1960s; now scarce and local with small numbers breeding around Tonle Sap), Peninsular <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malaysia</span> (formerly occurred and probably bred in the west, but few recent records), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (scarce non-breeding visitor to Sumatra and northern Borneo, possibly breeding in Sumatra with c.2,000 birds estimated; numerous breeding colonies were recorded in Java early in the 20th century, but now local and declining (Collar <em>et al. </em>2000). The Sumatran population is thought to have undergone a very rapid decline in recent decades (Iqbal and Hasudungan in press). While the East Asian population is extremely small (Q. Wang<em> in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002), those in South-East Asia and South Asia probably number fewer than 10,000 individuals each <strong></strong>(Byers<em> et al. </em>1995). <em> </em><p></p>
106003795		habitat	eng	It inhabits freshwater marshes, lakes, rivers, flooded grasslands, paddy fields, tidal creeks, mudflats, saltmarshes and coastal lagoons, usually in extreme lowlands, but occasionally up to 950 m, tending to be nomadic in response to water levels and feeding conditions.  <p></p>
106003795		population	eng	The population is estimated to number up to 10,000 individuals in south Asia, plus up to another 10,000 in south-east Asia and up to 100 in east Asia (Q. Wang<em> in litt.</em> 2002). This is likely to total fewer than 20,000 mature individuals, and so the population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106003795		threats	eng	It is vulnerable to drainage, disturbance, pollution, agricultural conversion, hunting and collection of eggs and nestlings from colonies. A combination of these factors has probably caused the decline.  <p></p>
106003797		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000,000 individuals.
106003799		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas including Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary, Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary (documented breeding population), Mekong Ramsar site, Ang Trapeang Thmor, Seima Protection Forest, Srepok Wilderness Area (part of the Mondulkiri Protected Forest), Bengal Florican Conservation Areas, Cambodia, and Xe Pian National Protected Area (NPA), Laos. It is depicted on public awareness material distributed in Laos and Cambodia. The species is considered to be the most threatened large waterbird in South-East Asia and was a priority species during the designation of Cambodian IBAs and priority areas for conservation in the 'dry forest ecoregion' of South-East Asia (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Research has been conducted into the species's nesting ecology in Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary and PhD research (2008-2012) studied the value of traditional land management and the species's foraging and nesting ecology, focused primarily on Western Siem Pang, Cambodia. Nest protection schemes with incentives to local people for finding and protecting nest-sites along the Mekong central section, in Western Siem Pang and Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary have been established. A community-managed ecotourism initiative has been established at Tmatboey incorporating nest finding and monitoring, as well as an agricultural certification scheme known as "Ibis Rice". As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme the following actions are being implemented by the Species Guardian: 1. A proposal to establish a Protected Forest in Western Siem Pang has been prepared, reviewed, revised and approved by the Provincial Governor and the steering committee of Ministry Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries. The Governor of Stung Treng issued an official letter, and the steering committee of Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries have endorsed a draft sub-decree in support of the proposal to designate Western Siem Pang a Protected Forest (V. Bou <em>in litt.</em> 2009), and an operating protocol has been published (BirdLife International 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. 2. The government have been lobbied to complete the notification process, including through producing a poster about the international importance of Western Siem Pang for conservation and distributing this to all relevant governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. Large information boards were placed in five key villages within the IBA to inform local people about development plans and threats to their land from proposed concessions. 3. Research and monitoring<strong> </strong>continues to be carried out, focusing on the foraging ecology of the species, nesting and flock size at roost sites and examining the value of trapaengs to the assemblies of waterbirds at the site. 4. A Local Conservation Group<strong> </strong>at Western Siem Pang has been supported since August 2007, and conducts monthly patrols to the most important trapaengs to record key species and any illegal activities. A Site Support Group is being established in Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary in order to support management, protection and monitoring at the sanctuary. In 2009, one chainsaw, 6.834 m<sup>3</sup> of luxury wood, four guns, and one ox-cart were confiscated and destroyed in Western Siem Pang as result of information provided by the patrol team (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. Coordinated roost counts have taken place in the wet season since 2009 (Wright 2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Finalise the establishment of a Protected Forest in Western Siem Pang (Anon 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Continue monitoring the known populations in Siem Pang, Northern Plains, Mekong channel, Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary and in other parts of its range using coordinated roost counts (Wright 2012). Establish a species working group to assist coordination and cooperation between conservation stakeholders, as well as researching the ecological requirements of the species in the wet season, the impacts of the human harvesting of amphibians and the value of domestic livestock grazing in areas of low-intermediate livestock density (Wright 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Conduct further surveys in Borneo, central, northern and eastern Cambodia and the Satay area of Vietnam to quantify remaining populations, only in areas where conservation intervention is considered reasonable and there are grounds for considering a significant population might be found. Focusing on areas close to settlement with traditional rice cultivation may be more productive than for core areas of remote forest. Establish further protected areas or integrated conservation development projects covering landscape-level habitat tracts supporting populations, particularly in northern Cambodia, the Mekong channel and along the Mahakam river, East Kalimantan. Enforce strict protection at important sites. Promote widespread conservation awareness programmes aimed at reducing wetland disturbance and large waterbird exploitation in Indochina. <p></p>
106003799		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudibis davisoni</span> now occurs in northern and eastern <strong>Cambodia </strong>(c. 87-95% of the global population) (H. Wright <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>, extreme southern <strong>Laos</strong> and along one river in East Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It was previously widely but patchily distributed across much of Thailand, Laos, south and central Vietnam and Cambodia, parts of Myanmar, Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and south-west Yunnan, China, but has declined dramatically during the 20th century. It is extinct in Thailand and there are no recent records from Myanmar; and it has been described as the most threatened large waterbird in South-East Asia based on the widespread declines observed (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. It is almost certainly extinct as a breeding species in Vietnam and now only occurs as a rare non-breeding visitor. In Cambodia, significant populations are known from Western Siem Pang (262 individuals counted in September 2011 [Sum P. and H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012])<em></em>, Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary in Ratanakiri (at least 242 individuals counted in September 2011 [Sum P. and H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and along the Mekong river channel between Kratie and the Stung Treng towns (c.75-125 individuals [R. Timmins <em>in litt</em>. 2007], with 124 individuals counted along the central Mekong in October 2010 [Sum P. and H. Wright<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012])<strong></strong>. In 2009, 13 nests were found in Western Siem Pang, seven successfully fledging a total of 14 chicks (V. Bou <em>in litt.</em> 2009), increasing to 30 nests in 2011 with greater search effort<strong></strong> (H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Tmatboey, in the Northern Plains, Cambodia, supports a small breeding population (up to 5 nests per year) with a maximum of 39 individuals recorded in the wet season (H. Wright in litt. 2012) Additional groups (1-10 birds each) have been recorded elsewhere; along the Mekong between Stung Treng and the Laos border, eastern Siem, Pang district, the south-eastern shore of the Tonle Sap lake, Rovieng (Preah Vihear Province), Srepok river, Seima Protection Forest (Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and the O Te lowlands, Mondulkiri Province. Further birds may yet be found in Kompong Cham province along the Mekong (R. Timmins<em></em>; T. Clements, <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and around the edges of Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary and Mondulkiri Protected Forest. Counts at Western Siem Pang IBA have increased since 2003, but this is most likely due to increased survey effort and improved monitoring protocols at the site (R. Timmins; T. Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007; H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).&#160; During a coordinated survey of 37 roost sites in Cambodia in 2010, a record-breaking 429 individuals were recorded (BirdLife International 2010), suggesting a total national population of perhaps more than 500 birds (H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> BirdLife International 2010, Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012); however, this record was broken when, in September 2011, 644 individuals were recorded nationally (Sum P.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and H. Wright<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). In Kalimantan, the population at the main locality along the Mahakam River was estimated at 30-100 individuals, but recent studies reveal a decline following extensive El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-derived forest fires (Sözer and Nijman 2005)<strong></strong>.<em> </em><p></p>
106003799		habitat	eng	Wetlands and grassland, such as pools, marshes, open grasslands or watercourses including wide rivers with sand and gravel bars were formerly important for the species; however, at least in Indochina deciduous dipterocarp forest now appears to be of major importance (H. Wright <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Trapaengs (seasonal pools) are particularly favoured during the dry (breeding) season, with a shift to matrix sites such as long- and seasonally abandoned rice fields, grasslands (often inundated after high rainfall) and the dipterocarp forest itself after rainfall events (Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and in the wet season (H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. The species has been recorded along large rivers such as the Mekong in Cambodia and on the Mahakam in Kalimantan. It is also been recorded from the mosaic of shrub and grasslands on the Tonle Sap floodplain. In Cambodia, it has been recorded nesting during the dry season (December-May) in remnant dry forest close to seasonally abandoned wet season rice paddy, large contiguous areas of dry forest and in flooded forest within the Mekong channel. Two nests in Kalimantan were located at heights of 30 m and 40 m in tall trees along tributaries of the Mahakam river - the main breeding here may be during September-December at least (Sutrisno <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. It has been observed feeding in soft substrates on the forest floor as well as at small waterbodies (T. Clements pers. comm. 2006)<strong></strong>; also in sediment formations in river channels. Amphibians form the majority of their prey in the dry season, along with invertebrates such as molecrickets, insect larvae and occasionally eels, snakes and leeches, all of which are found at trapaengs (H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Wet season prey obtained from terrestrial habitats remains uncertain but ibis have been observed catching large worms and beetle larvae (Sum, P. and H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  In South-East Asia the species may be associated with large ungulates which may help to create and maintain seasonal pools within the dry forest landscape (T. Evans pers. comm. 2006)<strong></strong>, and its preference for trapaengs with bare substrate and low vegetation supports this theory (Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Large wild ungulates have now all but disappeared from the region, and the species may now be more closely associated with domestic livestock (Wright <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Traditional, anthropogenic fires are likely to influence habitat suitability at foraging sites in grassland and dipterocarp forest, increasing coverage of bare ground that the ibis prefers (Wright<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010, H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> &#160;2012). Available evidence gives no suggestion that the species undertakes major seasonal movements. The species aggregates into large flocks in the non-breeding season (the wet- and early dry seasons) (max. count of 185 individuals just south of Western Siem Pang IBA in September 2010 [H. Wright unpublished data]).  <p></p>
106003799		population	eng	The Indonesian population was estimated at 30-100 individuals but has apparently declined. Nationwide coordinated surveys for the species in Cambodia recorded a total of 644individuals in September 2011 (Sum P. and H. Wright <em>in litt.</em> 2012). Based on these survey data, a minimum population of 650 mature individuals seems appropriate, equivalent to at least 970 individuals in total.
106003799		threats	eng	It has declined as a result of habitat loss, through logging, widespread piecemeal clearance of lowland forest, conversion of wetlands for agriculture (most of the Mekong floodplain in southern Laos has been converted to rice-paddy) and agro-industrial and infrastructure development (BirdLife International 2010). The proposed Lower Srepok 3 Dam is expected to cause the flooding of a large area of Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary (BirdLife International 2010), and the Xavaburi Dam in Laos is expected to disrupt habitat in the Mekong River channel (Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). Logging, the encroachment of plantation agriculture and settlement&#160; through the granting of economic land concessions is a significant and widespread threat, affecting all of the four largest known populations at Western Siem Pang IBA (BirdLife International 2010), Kulen Promtep and Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuaries and the dry forest around the Mekong River channel (Wright 2012, H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Habitat loss has been compounded by hunting of adult birds, eggs and chicks for food, and disturbance, leading to the loss of secure feeding, roosting and nesting areas (T. Clements <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Hunting pressure is exacerbated by the fact that their primary habitats appear to also be a focus for people: large rivers, forest pools and grassland/field complexes with high densities of ungulates and domestic livestock. However, hunting may now be less of a threat in Cambodia following education initiatives and the confiscation of weapons (H. Wright <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. However poisoned baits set for hunting continue to affect some populations (Wright 2012). In addition, hunting may not be a serious threat in East Kalimantan, but fishing through poisoning and electro-fishing may negatively impact the population there (Sutrisno and Imanuddin 2002). Recent evidence suggests that forest fires in Borneo resulting from an El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event shifted the distribution of this species to unburnt stretches of rivers (Sözer and Nijman 2005)<strong></strong>. There is considerable evidence that the species is associated with large ungulates in South-East Asia, which create and maintain the short-sward grassland feeding areas that the ibises depend upon within the dry forest landscape (T. Evans pers. comm. 2006)<strong></strong>. Hence, the demise of wild ungulates within the region may have catalysed its rapid decline resulting in few remote refugia for the species (R. Timmins<em></em>; T. Clements, <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Moreover, its dependency on herbivore-altered habitats means that remnant areas are close to people and associated with domestic livestock, making it more vulnerable to human-induced habitat modification (R. Timmins<em></em>; T. Clements, <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and a large proportion of the population occurs outside of protected areas (Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Probably the most significant threats currently come from land concessions for logging or plantations, and infrastructure development such as dam construction, which threaten even those areas that currently have protected status<strong> </strong>(Wright <em>et al. </em>2012). <p></p>
106003800		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs at least seasonally in Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (NBCA) and Dong Khanthung proposed NBCA, Laos, and Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Preah Vihear Protected Forest and Kulen Prumptep Wildlife Sanctuary in Cambodia. Giant Ibis is depicted on public awareness materials in Laos and Cambodia as part of an on-going campaign to reduce hunting of large waterbirds. A predator-exclusion experiment in 2005-2006 found that nests with predator-exclusion devices (a smooth, hard plastic belt fixed around the base of the nest tree) were more likely to survive than those without (<strong></strong>Keo 2008). Most of the protected areas that the species occurs in have ongoing site-based protected area management projects with government and NGOs cooperating to raise funds and implement protection. Ongoing community nest protection activities are taking place in the Northern Plains where local community members are paid to protect Giant Ibis and other waterbird nests. This not only removes a primary threat to the population, but instils local ownership and pride in the charismatic large waterbirds in this landscape. This has stabilised Giant Ibis numbers and increased the populations of other species. Ecotourism projects in the Northern Plains landscape (Tmatboey, O Koki and Prey Veng) and marketing of certified wildlife-friendly agricultural produce ("Ibis Rice") should also benefit this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improved commitment to conserve protected areas in Cambodia is required by all stakeholders to stabilise the giant ibis population. Advocacy with the Cambodian government to raise the profile of the ecological needs of Cambodia’s national bird will help improve protection of the large undisturbed areas of deciduous dipterocarp forest that this species requires. Conduct further surveys to locate and quantify remaining populations in Laos and Cambodia. Investigate its breeding requirements (including breeding season foraging ecology), demography and seasonal movements. Establish further protected areas encompassing large tracts of habitat found to support populations of the species, including strict protection of suitable permanent wetlands, especially in the dry season. Consolidate and promote further public awareness initiatives to reduce hunting of large waterbirds and wetland disturbance. At key sites, designate some suitable pools as for use only by wildlife. Ensure some pools remain wet during the dry season (e.g. by preventing people from draining them for fishing, and also potentially managing pools to increase their depth) <strong></strong>(Keo 2008). Protect and install anti-predator belts on all nest-trees, and protect potential nest-trees <strong></strong>(Keo 2008). Monitor the abundance of frogs, eels and mole-crickets in the dry season (<strong></strong>Keo 2008), and the impact that local harvesting of frogs may have on prey abundance (H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Assess longer-term risk from climate change (T. Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <br/><p></p>
106003800		distribution	eng	<em>Thaumatibis gigantea</em> is mostly confined to northern <strong>Cambodia</strong>, where it is probably still fairly widespread but extremely rare; with a few birds from the same population observed in extreme southern <strong>Laos</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). There is a fairly&#160; recent record from Yok Don National Park, <strong>Vietnam </strong>(Anon 2003). Its historical range spanned southern Vietnam and south-eastern and peninsular Thailand, where it is now extinct. Available data suggest that it has a patchy distribution across Cambodia <strong></strong>(T. Clements <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt. </em>2007). Some areas of high density exist in the Northern Plains, including Preah Vihear Protected Forest and Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary (with 30-40 nests monitored annually [T. Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and Western Siem Pang IBA (possibly 40 pairs [H. Wright<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012]). Other areas appear to have relatively low density populations, which may be clustered in some cases (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Seima Protection Forest [Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, WCS/FA 2006], Mondulkiri Protected Forest [T. Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> per T. Evans] and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary [Claassen and Ou 2007]) <strong></strong>(T. Clements <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt. </em>2007, T. Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep.). Additional recent records have come from Veunsai proposed Protected Forest in Ratanakiri Province and the first observation south of Tonle Sap Lake since the 1920s was made by camera trap in 2011 (L. Perlman per T. Evans<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span>) Further surveys may confirm other localities in suitable habitat areas such as O Yadao Protected Forest and the unprotected areas west of Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary (T. Evans in litt. 2012). A conservative estimate of the number of breeding pairs at the seven locations is given as 5-10 pairs (T. Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt. </span>2012).<br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p></p>
106003800		habitat	eng	Singles, pairs or small parties occur in marshes, pools, wide rivers and seasonal water-meadows in open, predominantly deciduous, dipterocarp lowland forest, although it seems to be dependent on soft mud around seasonal pools (trapaengs). Its diet comprises a variety of invertebrates, crustaceans, eels, small amphibians and reptiles. It frequently feeds in soft mud, but forages on all substrates at trapaengs. It nests in trees, with a preference for large <em>Dipterocarpus</em> (Keo 2008), generally more than 4 km from human habitation (<strong></strong>Keo 2008). Females almost always lay two eggs per clutch in the wet season <strong></strong>(Keo <em>et al.</em> 2009). Pools and seasonally flooded grassland with earthworm mounds are important in the breeding season, from June to September <strong></strong>(Keo 2008). It appears to be largely resident, but apparently wanders widely in response to local disturbance and seasonal water-levels. Generally territorial, the species remains in pairs or small family groups year-round. However, in the dry (non-breeding) season it may be found in small flocks of up to seven individuals or more (H. J. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106003800		population	eng	Recent assessment of the available records suggests a minimum estimate of 115 pairs (40 at each of the two high density sites, 5-10 at each of seven low density sites) (T. Evans, H. Rainey, R. Vann and H. Wright <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). This is equivalent to a minimum of 230 mature individuals, and roughly 345 individuals in total.
106003800		threats	eng	It has declined as a result of hunting, wetland drainage for agriculture and deforestation. It relies on seasonal pools, which in the past were perhaps maintained by the now much depleted megafauna.&#160; Clearance of very large areas of lowland dry forest, including parts of the Northern Plains (Preah Vihear Protected Forest, Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary) and other areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Siem Pang IBA) where the species occurs, for agro-industry including rubber, cassava, wood pulp and teak plantations, has recently emerged as the greatest threat to this species. Generally the human population is increasing within the range of this species mostly through immigration from other provinces in Cambodia. Subsequent expansion of agricultural land and increasing hunting pressure and disturbance at feeding sites is causing the loss of breeding habitat for the species (An Dara 2008, Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep.). The species appears to be very sensitive to human disturbance<strong></strong>  (An Dara 2008), particularly during the dry season when both birds and  humans are concentrated around available waterholes rendering much  apparently suitable habitat unusable. Nest predation by common palm civet <em>Paradoxurus hermaphroditus </em>and/or yellow-throated marten <em>Martes flavigula</em> on two occasions in 2004 suggest that loss of nestlings to mammalian carnivores might be a significant constraint on breeding success <strong></strong>(Keo 2008), a theory supported by a study which found that the number of young fledged per nest was 50% higher for protected nests <strong></strong>(Keo <em>et al.</em> 2009). A prolonged drought in the 2009-2010 dry season appeared to dramatically lower the breeding success of giant ibis, by approximately 50%; climate change may therefore pose a long-term threat to the persistence of this species (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p>
106003801		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in China. Since the discovery of nesting birds in 1981, emergency regulations have been enacted to prohibit logging, the use of agrochemicals in rice-fields and the use of firearms for hunting. In 1987, 51 nest trees were declared state property and protected. In 1990, the Shaanxi Crested Ibis Nature Reserve was established (Ding Changqing 2010). At Yangxian, nest-sites are patrolled and guarded during the breeding season. Some rice-fields are maintained as feeding-sites in winter and loach are introduced to them. By 1986 a captive breeding programme had been initiated at Beijing Zoo with six fledglings taken from the wild (Ding Changqing  2010), and breeding programmes are now on-going at three zoos in China: Yangxian and Longauntai in Shaaxi Province, and at Beijing (Su Unshan 2007), with successful breeding occurring since 1989 (Ding Changqing  2010). In 2010, there were five captive populations in China, with a total of c.600 birds (Yu Xiaoping <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Ding Changqing 2010). Experimental releases of captive-bred birds in areas inhabited by wild conspecifics has been carried out since 2004, with satellite tracking results for 17 of the 23 sub-adults released in 2004-2005 suggesting that they have settled in the wild (Su Unshan 2007b, Ding Changqing  2010). In 2006, one released pair bred successfully and another released bird bred with a wild individual; both pairs raised one chick (Su Unshan 2007b). In May 2007, 26 birds (13 males and 13 females) were released in Ningshan County, Shaanxi Province, with a further 30 released subsequently (four females and two males in 2008, six females and eight males in 2009, and three females and seven males in 2011) (Yu Xiaoping <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Ding Changqing  2010, Yu Xiaoping <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). By 2009, five pairs in this population had bred successfully, and there were more than 20 birds surviving in 2010 (Ding Changqing  2010). By early 2012, a total of at least 10 breeding pairs had been recorded amongst the released population, producing 66 eggs and successfully fledging 33 young during 2008-2011 (Yu Xiaoping <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A further reintroduction programme is planned for Dongzhai Nature Reserve, Henan province (Yu Xiaoping <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In Japan, a reintroduction programme is underway on Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture, with associated awareness-raising and land management activities, and captive breeding efforts are on-going at other institutes, including Tama Zoo in Tokyo (Satoshi Matsuda 2008, Satoshi Yamagishi 2009). An International Symposium on the Re-introduction of Crested Ibis was  held in Japan in November 2007, being attended by nine delegates from  China, and discussions covered the idea of forming a specialist group  (Liu Dongping 2007). Reintroduction of the species is also being considered in South Korea.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Support intensive ecological studies of wild birds using radio telemetry. Establish protected areas encompassing wetlands along the Han Shui river, where it has been observed feeding in recent years. Examine the feasibility of reintroducing the species to other parts of its former range. Consider the provision of supplementary food in rice-paddies as a wider conservation measure (see Ding Changqing 2010). Consider widely encouraging rice cultivation practices that involve lower agrochemical inputs, one crop per year and extended periods of fallow flooding (see Li Xinhai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p>&#160;</p>  <br/><p></p>
106003801		distribution	eng	<em>Nipponia nippon</em> historically nested in the Russian Far East, Japan, and China, and was a non-breeding visitor to North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan (China), but is now extinct in almost all of its former range (Birdlife International 2001). The only known remaining population is in Shaanxi province in central mainland <strong>China</strong>, where it is a localised breeder. In May 1981, following three years of nation-wide surveys in China, a population of only seven birds (four adults and three chicks) were found in the wild. However, in the same year, the last five wild birds in Japan were captured and taken into captivity (Ding Changqing  2010), after which attempts at captive breeding were unsuccessful (Satoshi Matsuda 2008, Satoshi Yamagishi 2009). By June 2002, the wild population was maintaining a steady increase and numbered 140 birds, and the captive population (in two breeding centres) was over 130 birds. The most recent population estimate is of c.500 wild individuals in 2006 (Su Unshan 2007a)<strong></strong>, but it is unclear whether this yet comprises 250 or more mature individuals. Reproductive success is currently quite high (Yu <em> </em>Xiaoping <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>, both in the wild and captivity, and there are plans to begin reintroduction of birds to Sado Island, Japan, in 2008 (Chikatsuji 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003801		habitat	eng	It breeds in February-June (Su Unshan 2007b, Ding Changqing 2010), in areas with a combination of tall trees for nesting and roosting and wetlands or agricultural land for feeding. Clutch size is usually 3-4 eggs, and the incubation period is c.28 days (Ding Changqing  2010). Young birds reach reproductive maturity at 2-4 years (Ding Changqing  2010, Yu Xiaoping <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In winter, the main feeding habitats are rice-fields, river banks and reservoirs, mainly close to human settlements, and it appears to tolerate human activities in these areas. In general, the species's winters below 700 m and moves to higher elevations of up to 1,200 m during the breeding season (Ding Changqing  2010). Current breeding sites are at 470-1,300 m, but lowland sites may be optimal, as indicated by density-independent population growth, perhaps owing to higher food availability, compared to relatively suboptimal high elevation sites (Wang Guiming  and Li Xinhai 2008). It feeds on crabs, frogs, small fish (particularly loach), river snails, other molluscs and beetles. <p></p>
106003801		population	eng	The global population in 2006 was c.500 individuals (Unshan 2007), equivalent to c.330 mature individuals.
106003801		threats	eng	The species declined rapidly during the late 19th century and early to mid-20th century owing to the deforestation of woodlands used for nesting, over-hunting and loss of wetlands, as well as the use of agrochemicals in rice-paddies, especially during the 1950s, which causes reductions in the abundance and diversity of its prey (Li Xinhai  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Ding Changqing 2010). Its decline is also thought to have been exacerbated by the drying of rice-paddies during winter (Li Xinhai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and in its remaining range, the area of winter rice-fields has declined with conversion to dry wheat production, reducing the available area of feeding habitat. Most remaining rice-paddies are in mountain areas with poor irrigation facilities. Dissection has shown that 80% of birds found dead in the wild had very little food in their stomachs, and starvation (especially in winter) could be a significant cause of mortality. As the population increases and birds range more widely, controlling the use of agrochemicals at feeding-sites is likely to become more difficult. Birds are occasionally shot by hunters. Genetic diversity is very low, which given the very small founder population, is inevitable (Zhang Bei <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. Breeding success may be negatively impacted by reductions in areas of land used for rice cultivation owing to unusually dry weather (Su Unshan 2007b).  <p></p>
106003802		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Palearctic breeding populations are fully migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) but may only travel short distances (Snow and Perrins 1998) while other populations are resident and nomadic or partially migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). In the north of its range the species breeds in the local spring (e.g. from April) but in the tropics the timing of breeding coincides with the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species usually nests in monospecific colonies or in small monospecific groups amidst mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). When not breeding the species forages singly or in small flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of up to 100 individuals (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) and migrates in flocks of up to 100 individuals (Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998). It is most active during the morning and evening (although in coastal areas it forages at low tide regardless of the time of day) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), and often roosts communally up to 15 km away from feeding areas (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat </B>The species shows a preference for extensive shallow (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (less than 30 cm deep) wetlands with mud, clay or fine sand substrates, generally avoiding waters with rocky substrates, thick vegetation or swift currents (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It inhabits either fresh, brackish or saline (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) marshes, rivers, lakes, flooded areas and mangrove swamps, especially those with islands for nesting or dense emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) and scattered trees or srubs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (preferably willow <I>Salix </I>spp., oak <I>Quercus </I>spp. or poplar <I>Populus </I>spp.) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It may also frequent sheltered marine habitats during the winter such as deltas, estuaries, tidal creeks and coastal lagoons (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (e.g. waterbeetles, dragonflies, caddisflies, locusts and flies), molluscs, crustaceans, worms, leeches, frogs, tadpoles and small fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) up to 10-15 cm long (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It may also take algae or small fragments of aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (although these are possibly ingested accidentally with animal matter) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a platform of sticks and vegetation constructed on the ground on islands in lakes and rivers, or alternatively in dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), bushes, mangroves or deciduous trees (e.g. willow <I>Salix </I>spp., oak <I>Quercus </I>spp. or poplar <I>Populus </I>spp.) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) up to 5 m above the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species nests in colonies within which neighbouring nests are usually placed 1-2 m apart or touching (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). Breeding colonies are sited within 10-15 km of feeding areas, often much less (although the species may also feed up to 35-40 km away) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003802		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.66,000-140,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs, &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003802		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat degradation through drainage and pollution (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), and is especially affected by the disappearance of reed swamps due to agricultural and hydroelectric development (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). Over-fishing and disturbance have caused population declines in Greece (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), and human exploitation of eggs and nestlings for food has threatened the species in the past (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003804		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> The migratory patterns of this species are poorly known (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although it is likely to make nomadic movements in response to local rainfall rather than truly seasonal movements (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992). The breeding season varies throughout the range, and is also variable from year to year, being suspended in sites when the rains do not occur (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species breeds during the dry season from West Africa to eastern Sudan, in the rains (or sometimes in the dry season) in East and central Africa, and in winter or early spring in southern Africa (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It nests colonially with other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), usually in groups of 5-20 pairs (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), and occasionally in groups of up to 250 pairs or more (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It remains gregarious outside of the breeding season, usually in small parties of 3-30 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), roosting communally in trees or reedbeds (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005) and resting along the shores of inland shallow waters, sometimes in large numbers of up to 1000 (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits large, shallow inland waters such as lakes and rivers, seasonal and permanent pans, marshes, flood plains, sewage works (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005), reservoirs and artificial ponds (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992), less often occurring at coastal lagoons, salt-pans, creeks and estuaries (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small fish and aquatic invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) such as crayfish and water beetles (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a flat oval platform of sticks and reeds situated over water on partly submerged trees, in bushes or reeds, on the ground on rocky islets (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or on rocky ledges (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992). The species nests colonially in favoured nesting sites such as secluded lakes, river oxbows and islands of vegetation (Hockey <I>et al</I>. 2005).
106003804		threats	eng	In Madagascar the species is seriously threatened by the destruction of breeding colonies at Lake Kinkony, Lake Bemamba, Lake Ihotry and Lake Alaotra (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is also threatened by the drainage of wetlands in some areas (Hancock <I>et al</I>. 1992).
106003805		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea and Japan. Breeding sites in North Korea, at Taegam-do, Unmu-do, Sonchonrap-do and Tok-do, are designated as seabird sanctuaries and sites in China have been declared as non-hunting areas. Protected wintering sites include Tainan National Park (Taiwan), Mai Po and Inner Deep Bay (Hong Kong), Xuan Thuy and Tien Hai (Vietnam), and Manko (Japan). An action plan was published in 1995 and workshops involving all major range countries were held in 1996 and 1997. A second single species action plan was published in 2010 (Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Education material, satellite tracking and field survey results and management recommendation have been produced. Annual censuses have been conducted in recent years. In January 2006, the International Symposium on Research and Conservation of the Black-faced Spoonbill was held in Hong Kong (HKBWS 2007). In May 2007, the Macao Ecological Society held the 2007 Macao International Symposium on Black-faced Spoonbill, with the themes of city development and wetland protection (Choi 2007). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey coastal wetlands in China for additional wintering sites and summering sites for non-breeders. Ensure full protection of the wintering site at Tainan (Taiwan), new breeding sites in China, important wetland sites along the western and southern coast of South Korea, and wintering sites at Hakata Bay and Ariake Bay, Japan. Develop management plans and education programmes for all sites. As pollution has been heavily implicated in the major population reduction that this species suffered, environmental monitoring is recommended as a proactive step to prevent future pollution or disease outbreaks (Yeung <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Continue annual population censuses. <p></p>
106003805		distribution	eng	<em>Platalea minor</em> breeds on islets off the west coast of <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>, and Liaoning province in mainland <strong>China </strong>(Birdlife International 2001). Birds have been reported in the Tumen estuary of <strong>Russia</strong>, and breeding was recorded in South Primorye for the first time in 2006 (Litvinenko and Shibaev 2007)<strong></strong>. The three major wintering sites are the Tsengwen estuary of <strong>Taiwan</strong>, the Deep Bay area of <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), and the Chinese mainland and Hainan Island. It also winters in Cheju, South Korea, Kyushu and Okinawa, <strong>Japan</strong>, and Red River delta, <strong>Vietnam </strong>(Yu Yattung 2003), and there are recent records from <strong>Thailand</strong>, the <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Macau</strong> (China) and inland China (Yu Yattung and Swennen 2005)<strong></strong>. The key known stopover sites used during migration include Yueqing Bay, Wenzhou Bay and Sanmen Bay (Ding Ping 2002), as well as Chongming Dongtian, Shanghai (Yu Yattung <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. A recent study infers an historical population of c.10,300 individuals (Yeung <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, which fell to an estimated low of 288 individuals in 1988 but it appears to have recovered subsequently, with a total of 1,679 individuals counted during the 2006 International Black-faced Spoonbill Census (Yu Yattung and Wong Chichun 2006)<strong></strong>. The 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 censuses recorded totals of 1,695, 2,065, 2,041 and 2,347 birds respectively (Yu Yattung and Wong Chichun 2007, Yu Yattung 2008, 2009a,b; Nguyen Duc Tu 2009, Anon. 2011), and a new high was recorded during the 2012 census, with a total of 2,693 individuals (Yu Yattung <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), representing a steady increase on previous totals that may reflect genuine increases and result from successful conservation measures at a number of sites<strong></strong> (Yu Yattung 2008, Chan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Some uncertainty remains over whether census increases represent increased survey effort, displacement of birds from unknown wintering sites or genuine population increases, thus on the basis of on-going habitat loss and degradation the overall population is expected to decline in the near future. <p></p>
106003805		habitat	eng	It breeds in mixed colonies on small islands from March to August (Wei Guoan <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Breeding success is low. It is mainly a crepuscular feeder and utilises intertidal mudflats (Yu Yattung and Swennen 2004b)<strong></strong>; resting, sleeping and digesting occur at a variety of sites (trees, man-made structures, shallow water) within 2-3 km of feeding areas (Yu and Swennen 2004a)<strong></strong>. Spoonbills employ tactile feeding using lateral sweeps of the bill to locate fish and shrimp prey (Swennen and Yu Yattung 2005)<strong></strong>. Satellite tracking has shown that birds wintering in Hong Kong and Taiwan migrate along the coast of eastern China to northern Jiangsu, then over the Yellow Sea to the Korean peninsula. Wintering birds form large aggregations and it has been recorded amongst flocks of Eurasian Spoonbills <em>Platalea leucorodia </em>(Yu Yattung and Swennen 2005)<strong></strong>. It matures at five years of age and birds of at least 9.5 years old have been recorded in the wild (Yu Yattung 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003805		population	eng	The 2012 census recorded a new high of 2,693 birds, thus the total number of mature individuals is estimated at c.1,600, as adults appear to account for around 60% of the total population (Yu Yattung<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).
106003805		threats	eng	Recent speculation suggests that pollution from pesticides is most congruent with demographic history, in terms of scale and timing of declines and subsequent recovery, as an explanation of past population reduction (Yeung <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. However, habitat destruction is probably the biggest threat currently. The main wintering grounds are threatened by industrial development, particularly a key site in Taiwan and also in China, and reclamation, especially in South Korea, Japan and China. Economic development in China has converted many coastal wetlands into aquaculture ponds and industrial estates. Pollution remains a major threat to birds wintering in Hong Kong. An outbreak of botulism at one of the major wintering sites killed 73 birds representing 7% of the world population from December 2002 to February 2003 (M. C. Coulter <em>in litt. </em>2003<strong><sup> </sup></strong>, Yu Yattung 2003). Increasing levels of disturbance by fishers and tourists and also hunting are threats in China and Vietnam (Wei Guoan <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Fishers in China collect waterbird eggs at nesting sites. <p></p>
106003808		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A Single Species Conservation Action Plan is being developed in 2012, including a stakeholder workshop, with representatives of all range states. Steps are being taken in South Sudan to understand the population better and improve the status of protected areas.&#160; Several key shoebill sites are designated Ramsar sites in South Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia.   <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Agreed conservation actions for the species will be developed in 2012 and provided in the Shoebill Single Species Action Plan. Identify key areas for monitoring and conduct regular surveys. Select important areas for protection. Reduce disturbance and establish buffer zones in protected areas<strong> </strong>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Enforce legislation in protected areas<strong> </strong>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Create community-based environmental awareness programmes focussed on generating shoebill-pride to discourage hunting. Encourage further development of ecotourism based around this species. Investigate the potential occurrence of seasonal movements (Briggs 2007). Monitor rates of habitat conversion across its range. Re-submit the proposal to upgrade the species to CITES Appendix I, and implement trade control. Determine the Sudd swamps population size and trend (T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2002 to Wetlands International 2002), and refine the national and global population estimates. Assess the viability of the population in Gambella, Ethiopia, an area under high pressure from agricultural developments.  <p></p>
106003808		distribution	eng	<p><em>Balaeniceps rex</em> is widely but very locally distributed in large swamps from South Sudan to Zambia. Approximate national estimates proposed by T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> (2002) to Wetlands International (2002) are: <strong>South <strong>Sudan</strong></strong><strong>: </strong>c. 5,000 (50-80% of the total population [Briggs 2007]), <strong>Uganda</strong><strong>: </strong>100-150, (but possibly over 200 [Briggs 2007]),<strong> </strong>western <strong>Tanzania</strong>: 100-500 (this figure also proposed by Dinesen and Baker 2006)<strong>, Zambia: &lt;500 </strong>(though a later estimate of 1,760 with 1,296 in the Bangweulu Swamps alone is provided by Roxburgh and Buchanan<em> </em>2010), <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>DRC: &lt;1,000, <strong>Central African Republic</strong> (irregular), <strong>Rwanda</strong>: &lt;50<strong> </strong>and<strong> Ethiopia</strong>: &lt;50. In 1997, the population was estimated to be 12,000-15,000 individuals (Rose and Scott 1997), but a more recent review makes a conservative estimate of 5,000-8,000 individuals (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). This figure may prove too low, depending on research into the South Sudan populations (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). An estimate of 3,830 birds was given for the Sudd (including areas of Zeraf Reserve) by Fay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007). A total population of less than 10,000 individuals is supported by a literature review in which the extent of certain wetland habitats was found to have been significantly overestimated by previous studies. Surveys in September-October 2005 support the suggestion that there are a few hundred individuals in the Malagarasi region of Tanzania (Briggs 2007). There is little doubt that the species is declining in Tanzania, Zambia and Rwanda, with declines perhaps in Uganda as well, and the species may be more threatened than available information suggests<strong> </strong>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007).</p><p></p>
106003808		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mostly sedentary, although it may make some movements in order to find optimal feeding habitat as water levels vary (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. In South Sudan there are regular seasonal movements between feeding and breeding zones<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Guillet 1978)<strong></strong>. It is very solitary. Even within the pair, male and female will often feed at opposite ends of their territory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. Loose aggregations may occasionally occur where receding water levels and large numbers of fish become concentrated in a small area (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992). It breeds solitarily, usually maintaining a density of fewer than three nests per km<sup>2</sup> (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992). The breeding season is long. Eggs are laid at the end of the rains, as waters start to recede, and chicks fledge towards the end of the dry season (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It both breeds and forages in seasonally flooded marshes (Renson 1998)<strong></strong> where vegetation is dominated by a mixture of Papyrus <em>Cyperus papyrus</em>, reeds (eg <em>Phragmites</em>), cattails<em> </em>(<em>Typha</em> species) and grasses, particularly <em>Miscanthidium</em> (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992).<em> </em>It is often found in areas with abundant floating vegetation, often Papyrus (Baker 1996)<strong></strong>. It also uses permanent non-papyrus swamps in areas such as the Malagarasi (Tanzania) (Dinesen and Baker 2006) and Lake Victoria (Uganda)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <em>Non-breeding </em>It usually forages in shallow water (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong> where it makes use of clear channels among the vegetation that have been created by the movements of large mammals (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It tends to avoid areas where the vegetation is too dense to be penetrated easily, or is taller than the bird's back (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992). It is reported to prefer water that is poorly oxygenated, where fish are forced to surface to breathe, and are thus more easily caught (Guillet 1987)<strong></strong>, and it is for this reason that it is thought not to frequent swamps that are characterised by Papyrus alone (Guillet 1987). In South Sudan it has been known to forage on rice fields and other flooded plantations (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992).<strong> Diet </strong>When feeding, it shows a preference for lungfish <em>Protopterus aethiopicus</em>, but takes a variety of fish species including Senegal Bichir <em>Polypterus </em>senegalus, catfish (<em>Clarias</em> spp.) and tilapia (<em>Tilapia </em>spp.) (Guillet 1979, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It also preys on aquatic animals such as amphibians, young crocodiles and watersnakes (Briggs 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992), and may even take rodents and young waterfowl (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992). Diet seems to vary geographically: lungfish and catfish appear to be the main prey species in Uganda, while catfish and watersnakes were found to constitute the preferred diet in Zambia (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992).<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is grassy construction, up to three metres wide, on a mound of floating vegetation or a small island (Briggs 2007)<strong></strong>, and often among dense stands of Papyrus (Hancock, Kushlan and Kahl 1992). The maximum clutch-size is three, although usually only one nestling will survive. The species can live for around 50 years, takes three to four years to reach reproductive maturity and is monogamous.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003808		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at 5,000-8,000 individuals (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2002), and a total population estimate of fewer than 10,000 individuals is supported by Dinesen and Baker (2006). The range of 5,000-8,000 individuals roughly equates to 3,300-5,300 mature individuals.
106003808		threats	eng	Over most of its range, it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, disturbance, hunting, and capture for the bird trade (Baker 1996, T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2002) <strong></strong>. Suitable habitat is being converted for cultivation and pasture, and cattle have been known to trample nests (Briggs 2007)<strong></strong>. The species is hunted for food and cultural reasons, for example it may be viewed as a bad omen, and it is captured for the zoo trade, which is a problem especially in Tanzania, where trading of the species is still legal (Briggs 2007)<strong></strong>. Interviews with people in the Bangweulu Swamps (Zambia) indicate that eggs and chicks are taken for consumption and sale, probably to zoos or collectors (Roxburgh <em>et al. </em>2006). 5 chicks per month were estimated as taken for trade in one district in 2011, with only 2 individuals surviving the transit (D. Ngwenyama <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In 2007, an undisclosed number of specimens, illegally imported from Tanzania, were confiscated by the Danish authorities in Copenhagen<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007) and at least two birds were exported from Tanzania to a zoo in the USA (T. Dodman <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Small-scale trading poses a serious threat to small local populations rather than the global population (Briggs 2007)<strong></strong>, though recent reports suggest that levels of disturbance and trade are not sustainable in Zambia (T. Dodman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). In Zambia, fire and drought threaten habitat (especially in Bangweulu, where a decline is apparent) (T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, there is some evidence for trapping and persecution (T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, and nests are trampled by large herbivores feeding in the swamps (Renson 1998)<strong></strong>. Conflict in Rwanda and DRC has disrupted protected areas (e.g. Akagera National Park) that support the species (T. Dodman <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>; for example, the proliferation of firearms has greatly facilitated hunting of this species. In South Sudan, its stronghold, it has been said to be "very much endangered by destruction of papyrus swamps by cattle and fire" (Nikolaus 1987)<strong></strong>. Between 1952 and 1980 the area of the Sudd swamps of South Sudan increased (Howell <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong> from 6,700 km<sup>2</sup> to 19,200 km<sup>2</sup>. Whilst this habitat was earlier threatened by drainage due to plans for the Jonglei Canal, these plans are no longer supported, though canalisation and related schemes for the oil industry do pose a threat&#160; (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2008). The construction of several dams along the lower Nile will allow artificial manipulation of water levels in the Sudd (Briggs 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Malagarasi, large areas of Miombo woodland adjacent to swamps are being cleared for tobacco farming and agriculture, and the human population, which includes fishermen, farmers and semi-nomadic pastoralists, has increased very rapidly in recent decades (Dinesen and Baker 2006). In this region, dry-season burnings and cattle-grazing in the species's core area are severe and expanding, and the first rice paddies have appeared at the edge of the species's key swamps. Also in Malagarasi, a railway line has bisected swamps and rice paddies in some of its core areas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Records of birds outside their core areas may be due to the displacement of birds by fires in dry years <strong></strong>(Dinesen and Baker 2006).  <p></p>
106003809		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations of this species are fully migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and travel via important stop-over sites (Nelson 2005). Other populations are sedentary, dispersive (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Nelson 2005) or nomadic, flying over land to seek suitable feeding locations (Nelson 2005). The species nests in large colonies (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) of 200 to 40,000 pairs (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998, Nelson 2005) (occasionally with other species such as Dalmatian Pelican <em>Pelecanus crispus</em>) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), breeding in the spring in temperate zones, in all months of the year in Africa and from February to April in India (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). It usually fishes in flocks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) of 8-12 individuals (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982) (up to 123) (Johnsgard 1993) and migrates in large flocks of 50-500 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species regularly flies long distances from breeding or roosting colonies to feed (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), mostly fishing in the early-morning and early-evening (Johnsgard 1993). <strong>Habitat</strong> The species is associated with relatively large, warm, shallow fresh, brackish, alkaline or saline lakes, lagoons (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993), marshes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), broad rivers (Johnsgard 1993), deltas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993), estuaries and coasts of landlocked seas (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species requires secure areas (Johnsgard 1993, Snow and Perrins 1998) of extensive reedbeds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), wet swamps, mudflats and sandbanks (Nelson 2005) or gravel and rocky substrates (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Snow and Perrins 1998) for nesting on (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Nelson 2005). <strong>Diet</strong> The species is entirely piscivorous, preferentially taking fish of between 300 and 600 g in weight (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). <strong>Breeding site</strong> It nests on the ground either on a pile of sticks and vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) or in a simple shallow scrape (Nelson 2005) in single- or mixed-species colonies (e.g. with Dalmatian Pelican <em>Pelecanus crispus</em>) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), with a distance between neighbouring nests of c.70-80 cm (Nelson 2005). It shows a preference for nesting sites that are inaccessible to ground predators (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982). <strong>Management information</strong> In the Palearctic Region the installation of floating rafts or wooden platforms as safe nesting sites, and the stabilisation of natural nesting areas by reconstructing islands or installing nylon-encased concrete revetments have been successful measures for increasing breeding success (Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1991). Erecting markers on electricity powerlines or (preferably) burying the powerlines has been successful in significantly reducing deaths due to collision (Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1991). Installing a series of horizontal strings spaced at intervals over aquaculture ponds is also a successful measure in preventing the species from depredating farmed fish (Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1991)..
106003809		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction through drainage (Crivelli <I>et al.</I> 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005), the divergence of rivers for irrigation (Johnsgard 1993)7, agriculture development and industry (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It is also subject to climatic fluctuations that have a strong influence over water-levels in wetlands: floods leading to the inundation of nesting sites (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and lowering water-levels leading to the death of fish due to increased water salinity (Crivelli 1994). The species is threatened by persecution (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Johnsgard 1993) and hunting for sport because of its (minimal) depredation of fish from fish-farms (Crivelli <I>et al.</I> 1991). It also suffers mortality due to collisions with electric powerlines during migration, dispersal or on its wintering grounds and is often found drowned in fishing nets (Crivelli <I>et al.</I> 1991). Disturbance (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), 8 (e.g. from tourism) threatens breeding colonies (Crivelli <I>et al.</I> 1991), and pesticides, heavy metal contamination and disease could have devastating effects on large colonies in the future (Crivelli <I>et al.</I> 1991, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> Adults of this species are hunted and sold for food at markets in Egypt (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003810		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species makes little known (Ogilvie 1997) dispersive movements (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Nelson 2005) related to water conditions (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). It is locally nomadic in southern Africa in response to changing wetland conditions (Barnes 2000), and western African populations make northward movements into sub-Saharan steppe during the wet season, returning southwards in the dry season (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Johnsgard 1993). The species breeds all year round, although most start late in the wet season (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005). It is gregarious both during breeding and non-breeding (Langrand 1990), nesting in small groups or larger loose colonies of between 20 and 500 pairs (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Ogilvie 1997) (often alongside other species (Langrand 1990, Nelson 2005)). It roosts nocturnally in groups (Johnsgard 1993), but is more of a solitary feeder, preferring to fish singly or in small loose groups of less than 30 individuals (Langrand 1990, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005). It is chiefly diurnally active, especially during the morning and evening, although it may also fish on moonlit nights (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Langrand 1990). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits a wide range of aquatic habitats, but prefers to feed in quiet backwaters and weed-grown lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) where there is shallow water and emergent vegetation (Langrand 1990), generally avoiding steep, vegetated lake margins (Nelson 2005). It shows a preference for freshwater lakes, swamps, large slow-flowing rivers, and seasonal pools (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Langrand 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005), but also frequents reservoirs (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Johnsgard 1993), seasonally flooded land (Nelson 2005) and flood-plains near river mouths (Ogilvie 1997). It may occur on alkaline and saline lakes and lagoons (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Langrand 1990, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005), and can sometimes be found along the coast in bays (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992) and estuaries (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Langrand 1990, Nelson 2005) (although seldom on open seashore) (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, Nelson 2005). The species tends to roost and breed in trees (e.g. mangroves), but will also roost on sandy islands, cliffs, coral reefs and sand-dunes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). Nesting trees are often killed by repeated nesting, which forces breeding colonies to move (although birds will usually not move far) (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992). <B>Diet</B> The diet of this species consists entirely of fish (of any size up to 450 g, although usually in the range of 80-290 g) (Nelson 2005), with cichlids (especially <I>Haplochromis</I> and <I>Tilapia</I>) being preferred (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The species nests colonially in trees, reeds or low bushes along waterfronts (Brown <I>et al</I>. 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Nelson 2005) as well as (less often) on the ground on sandy islands and in mangroves (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992, Nelson 2005). The nest is small and constructed of sticks (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1992), and may be situated at elevations of 10-50 m above the ground (Johnsgard 1993). A single tree may contain many nests (Nelson 2005) that can be very close together (often touching) (Ogilvie 1997), and a single pair will refurbish and re-use the same nest from year to year if it has not collapsed (Nelson 2005).
106003810		threats	eng	This species is threatened by habitat loss in KwaZulu-Natal, as many suitable pans and flood-plains are being altered through drainage and cultivation, and the natural flooding regime of pans in the Pongolo system has been altered by the Jozini Dam (Barnes 2000). In southern Africa disturbance of the species is increasing at estuaries as these areas become more intensively used and developed (Barnes 2000). The species is also susceptible to bioaccumulation of toxins in their body tissue, which may lead to a decline in reproductive success (Barnes 2000). Destruction of nesting trees due to logging activities may be a local problem (Ogilvie 1997).
106003811		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. Conservation efforts have reduced the impact of the major threats in Europe<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1997). Marking and dismantling of power-lines<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, the provision of breeding platforms in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria and Romania and rafts in Greece and Bulgaria, together with wardening (Hatzilacou 1999), water level management and education programmes at key sites, have reduced mortality and increased breeding success. A European action plan was published in 1996 (S. Bugariu <em>in litt. </em>2007) and reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011).  A national species action plan for Romania was officially approved in 2009 (S. Bugariu <em>in litt. </em>2012).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor breeding, wintering numbers and ecological changes at key sites. Survey potential wintering grounds in central and east Asia. Sustainably manage wetlands. Establish wardened non-intrusion zones around breeding colonies. Bury power-lines or replace with more visible cable. Seek alternatives to traditional use of pelican bills in Mongolia (Hatzilacou 1999). Legally protect the species and its habitat in range states. Conduct public awareness campaigns and mediate potential conflicts with fishermen. Prevent poaching and overexploitation of fish. <p></p>
106003811		distribution	eng	<em>Pelecanus crispus</em> breeds in eastern Europe and east-central Asia, in<strong> Serbia and Montenegro</strong>, <strong>Albania</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Mongolia, Iran</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong> and <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>(Crivelli 1996). European breeders winter in the eastern Mediterranean countries, Russian and central Asian breeders in Iran, Iraq and the Indian subcontinent, and Mongolian birds along the east coast of <strong>China</strong> (Mix and Bräunlich 2000<span class="quotename"><strong></strong>), including<strong> Hong Kong (China)</strong>. Following massive declines during the 19th and 20th centuries, numbers have stabilised between 10,000-20,000 individuals (including c.4,000-5,000 breeding pairs; Hatzilacou 1993) and several colonies are increasing, including at the species's largest colony, at Lake Mikri Prespa in Greece, as well as in Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey <span class="quotename">(Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1997; A. Crivelli <em>in litt.</em> 2003, <span class="quotename">Onmus<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011, <span class="quotename">S. Bugariu i<span style="font-style: italic;">n litt. </span>2012<span class="quotename">)<strong></strong>. The majority of birds breed in the countries of the former Soviet Union (2,700-3,500 pairs; Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, although the largest colony is at Lake Mikri Prespa, Greece, with around 1,400 breeding pairs&#160;<strong></strong>(M. Malakou <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009) and there are around 450 pairs in the Danube Delta (S. Bugariu <em>in litt. </em>2007). The Mongolian population continues to decline and is "almost extinct"<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(S. Chan<em> in litt</em>. 2003) due to threats at all stages of the annual life cycl<span style="">e (Shi </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2008)</span>. <p></p></span></span>
106003811		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is dispersive in Europe, and migratory in Asia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It starts to breed in late March or April<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, sometimes solitarily but usually in dense colonies of up to 250 pairs<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Cramp <em>et al. </em>1977)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Adults form monogamous pair bonds (Mix and Bräunlich 2000<span class="quotename"><strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. It departs from the colonies between the end of July and September, although a few remain until November<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005). It is gregarious during the winter, often occurring in large flocks and foraging communally and cooperatively in small groups (Cramp <em>et al. </em>1977)<strong></strong>, although occasionally singly (Cramp <em>et al. </em>1977)<strong></strong>. The birds return to their breeding sites in late-January to April, depending on the region<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005).<strong> </strong>Immature birds and non-breeders may remain in the wintering grounds year round<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005), or may stay with the breeding colonies (Cramp <em>et al. </em>1977)<strong></strong>. They are often nomadic, especially in the Caspian Sea<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005).<strong> Habitat </strong>It occurs mainly at inland, freshwater wetlands but also at coastal lagoons, river deltas and estuaries (Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1997; Mix and Bräunlich 2000; Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on small islands in freshwater lakes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> or in dense aquatic vegetation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> such as reedbeds of <em>Typha </em>and <em>Phragmites</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Crivelli 1994; Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996; Pyrovetsi 1997;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, often in hilly terrain<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005). A few breed in Mediterranean coastal lagoons (Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. The species makes use of habitats surrounding its breeding sites, including nearby islands and wetlands<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005). <em>Non-breeding </em>On migration, large lakes form important stop-over sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005). It typically winters on jheels and lagoons in India, and ice-free lakes in Europe<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. It sometimes fishes inshore along sheltered coasts<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds almost entirely on fish, especially carp <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>, perch <em>Perca fluviatilis, </em>rudd <em>scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>, roach <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, and pike <em>Esox lucius</em> in freshwater wetlands<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, and eels, mullet, gobies and shrimps in brackish waters<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Crivelli 1994;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. In its winter quarters on the Nile it takes mostly Siluridae<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005). In the Mikri Prespa breeding colony in Greece it feeds predominantly on the endemic fish species <em>Chalcalburnus belvica</em> (Pyrovetsi and Economidis (1998). <strong>Breeding site </strong>Most nests are situated amongst aquatic vegetation on floating or stationary islands isolated from the mainland to avoid mammalian predators<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Crivelli 1994; Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996; Pyrovetsi 1997)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>. They are occasionally built on open ground (Hatzilacou 1993; Hatzilacou 1999;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. Nests usually consist of a pile of reeds, grass and sticks approximately 1m high and 0.5-1.5m in diameter<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992;<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Nelson 2005)<strong></strong>. It often tramples the vegetation between nests, and does not tend to nest in areas where such activities would generate deep mud<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Nelson 2005). The trampling activity damages the islands and therefore limits the number of years for which an island can be used for breeding (Catsadorakis and Crivelli 2001). On average sites in Greece were found to be used for three years in succession (Catsadorakis and Crivelli 2001). Artificial islands have proved successful as breeding sites in the past (Pyrovetsi 1997) and also in recent years (e.g. since 2008 in Romania [S. Bugariu<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012]).
106003811		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 4,350-4,800 individuals in the Black Sea and Mediterranean; 6,000-9,000 individuals in South-East Asia and south Asia, and 50 individuals in east Asia (Simba Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2005). This totals 10,000-13,900 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-9,300 mature individuals.
106003811		threats	eng	Former declines were primarily caused by wetland drainage, shooting and persecution by fishers<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Crivelli 1994;&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1997;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Mix and Bräunlich 2000)<strong></strong>. Cases of illegal shooting are still reported (e.g. four shootings in 2009 in the Danube Delta; <span class="quotename">B. Barov<span style=""> </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2009) and hunting is considered one of the main threats for the east Asian population (Shi </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2008; Yat-tung Yu and Chen Zhihong 2008). Other continuing threats include disturbance from tourists and fishers, wetland alteration and destruction, water pollution, collision with overhead power-lines and over-exploitation of fish stocks<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Crivelli <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hatzilacou 1993; Mix and Bräunlich 2000)<span class="quotename"><span style=""></span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Organochloride residues including DDT have been recorded in high levels in the eggs of this species and those of its prey (Albanis</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 1995)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Hunting by herders (for traditional use of the bill) continues to threaten the Mongolian po</span>pulation<strong></strong> (Mix and Bräunlich 2000<span class="quotename"><strong></strong>). Nest predation by wild boar at times of low water levels is the most important threat to the Bulgarian breeding colony<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(N. Petkov<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<span class="quotename"><strong></strong>. The breeding colonies in Mediterranean lagoons in Albania and Turkey are threatened by coastal developments and the alteration of the functioning of the lagoons (Peja <em>et al.</em> 1996)<span class="quotename"><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p></span></span></span>
106003812		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In India, several key breeding colonies are in protected areas and some local communities have pelican conservation initiatives. In Cambodia, the breeding colonies at Prek Toal and Moat Khla/Boeng Chhma are core areas of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. Conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at Prek Toal have been in place since the late 1990s. Eight out of 15 nesting sites in Tamil Nadu are protected. An awareness programme has been initiated in Sri Lanka as part of a project funded by the Conservation Leadership Programme. This has also set up research stations concerned with improving knowledge of the species (Weerakoon and Athukorala 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey colonies in Cambodia and any remaining in Myanmar. Afford strict protection to important nesting colonies and key feeding-sites. Promote strict control of pesticide use in important feeding areas. Continue and strengthen on-going conservation actions at the Prek Toal colony, Tonle Sap lake. Draft and enforce new legislation pertaining to large waterbird colony conservation around Tonle Sap lake. Expand conservation awareness programmes at key sites. Monitor the population for signs of avian influenza. <p></p>
106003812		distribution	eng	<em>Pelecanus philippensis</em> was formerly common across much of Asia, but suffered a widespread decline (BirdLife International 2001). However, owing to protection and increased knowledge its estimated population has been revised upwards from a low of 5,500-10,000 birds in 2002 to an estimated 13,000-18,000 individuals in 2006. Known breeding populations are now confined to <strong>India,</strong> <strong>Sri Lanka </strong>and<strong> Cambodia</strong>. The Indian population<strong> </strong>is thought to exceed 5,000 birds in the south owing to increases resulting from improved protection of the species (S. Subramanya <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, plus c.3,000 in Assam (Choudhury 2000)<strong></strong>. In southern India there are 21 known breeding colonies in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Subramanya 2006)<strong></strong>. One of these at Kokkare Bellur, Karnataka, has doubled in size in recent years (Subramanya 2006)<strong></strong>. However, another at Uppalapadu has declined from a historical high of 12,000 individuals, with only 1,500 observed in a recent count. The site is threatened by human encroachment (M. Akhtar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). In Sri Lanka, c.5,000 birds were thought to breed, possibly overlapping with the southern Indian populations (S. W. Kotagama <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2001)<strong></strong>. However, recent evidence from Sri Lanka suggests a breeding population of fewer than 1,000 pairs, with counts from the three known colonies totalling just 400 pairs (C. Kaluthota <em>in litt.</em> 2006). In South-East Asia, an estimated 1,000-1,500 breeding pairs (T. Clements <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong> occur at Prek Toal on the Tonle Sap lake. This population is thought to be increasing following protection of breeding birds at the site beginning in 2002 (T. Clements <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It probably breeds in small numbers on Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, but probably no longer in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (G. Chunkino <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Weerakoon and Athukorala 2007). There are recent records of migrants in <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>, but it no longer occurs in the Philippines and China. Numbers recorded in <strong>Thailand</strong> have increased in recent years (P. Round <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. This is thought to be as a result of improved protection of the nesting colonies in Cambodia. A juvenile, presumably a vagrant, individual has recently been recorded on Amami-Oshima Island, Japan (Hisahiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<em> <p></p></em>
106003812		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of deep and shallow wetlands, both man-made and natural, freshwater and saline, open and forested. It breeds colonially in tall trees or palms and feeds in open water, primarily on fish. Some populations appear to be sedentary. <p></p>
106003812		population	eng	S. Subramanya (<em>in litt.</em> 2006) has suggested that the population in South India now exceeds 5,000 birds owing to increases resulting from improved protection of the species. This would imply a total population of perhaps 7,000-10,000 individuals in South Asia, and 13,000-18,000 individuals globally, roughly equivalent to 8,700-12,000 mature individuals,
106003812		threats	eng	A crucial factor in its decline was the loss of the Sittang valley breeding colony in Myanmar through deforestation and loss of feeding-sites. Key threats are a combination of human disturbance at breeding colonies and wetlands, extensive felling of nesting trees, the impact of invasive plants on the species's wetland habitat, hunting and poaching of eggs and chicks. Additional threats include the loss of important feeding-sites through siltation, agricultural intensification, aquaculture development, building of power stations, drainage and conversion of wetlands, declines in wetland productivity as a result of pesticide use, and over-exploitation of fisheries (Chandrasekhar 2009). There is some persecution resulting from competition between the birds and fishers. A potential but as yet unqualified threat is posed by avian influenza (P. Round <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003814		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 180,000 individuals.
106003816		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends, particularly after El Niño years. Restrict access to important breeding colonies. Study the interactions between this species and the fisheries.  <p></p>
106003816		distribution	eng	This species<em> </em>is restricted to the coast of central <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong>. Although the population may currently exceed 500,000 mature individuals<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), this is a fraction of former numbers and numbers fluctuate greatly in association with El Niño, and with numbers of schooling anchoveta <em>Engraulis ringens</em>.  <p></p>
106003816		habitat	eng	It breeds in large colonies on rocky coasts, feeding in shallow offshore waters along the coast on small schooling fish<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992).  <p></p>
106003816		population	eng	The most recent population estimate places it at 100,000-1,000,000 individuals.
106003816		threats	eng	It is likely to have been as badly affected by the El Niño event of 1998 as other Humboldt Current species such as Inca Tern <em>Larosterna inca</em>, which declines over this period approached 30%. Pelicans are notoriously susceptible to disturbance at breeding colonies, either intentional (e.g. by fishermen), or unintentional (e.g. by tourists).  <p></p>
106003819		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 0.5-4.99 million individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008). Previously Ferguson-Lees <i>et al.</i> (2001) estimated 100,000 individuals.
106003821		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. A large-scale, integrated captive-breeding and reintroduction programme, managed by the Peregrine Fund (at the World Center for Birds of Prey), Los Angeles Zoo, Oregon Zoo and San Diego Wild Animal Park is preventing extinction in the wild. The success of the scheme has seen an increase from one chick hatched in 1988 to an annual hatch of 25-30 birds in recent years (Wallace 2004)<strong></strong>. The genetic diversity of the population has been maintained through careful distribution and representation of founder genotypes at each captive-breeding facility and reintroduction site. Consequently the current population retains 99.5% of the likely heterozygosity of a wild panmictic population (Ralls and Ballou 2004)<strong></strong>. "Aversion training" to avoid powerlines and humans is practised (USFWS 1996)<strong></strong>. A total of 154 condors were released into the wild between 1992 and 2003 (Wallace 2004)<strong></strong>. Clean carcasses are provided for reintroduced birds to help prevent lead-poisoning, and community education programmes aim to minimise persecution (Wilbur and Kiff 1980, Anon. 1998)<strong></strong>. A huge step has been taken towards eliminating the threat of lead-poisoning with the signing in 2007 of the Ridley-Tree Condor Preservation Act, which requires the use of non-lead ammunition within the species's range in California and was implemented in 2008. As of February 2009, 99% of hunters were compliant with the act. The Arizona Game and Fish Department is now distributing safer lead-substitute bullets free of charge to hunters within the foraging range of the condors; similar programmes are being initiated in California (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong> and planned in Utah (Flagstaff 2010)<strong></strong>. Publicity measures include a website and near-weekly condor articles in local newspapers (D. Cooper and J. Grantham<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. In 2008 an agreement was struck between the Tejon Ranch and five conservation organisations to preserve 240,000 acres of the 270,000 acre property as an open space in return for not opposing the development of the remaining land, providing a vast amount of foraging habitat for the condor (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Legislation coming into force in early 2010 makes it illegal for persons to enter a U.S. national park with a loaded firearm (Toops 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Continue the recovery plan to achieve two disjunct, self-sustaining populations of 150 individuals comprising 15 breeding pairs. Identify further potential release sites in southern New Mexico (Wilbur and Kiff 1980, USFWS 1996, Anon. 1998)<strong></strong>. Resume release programme in Mexico. Maintain and increase the productivity of the captive population. Continue releases of captive-bred birds<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Maintain suitable habitat (USFWS 1996, Anon. 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Continue supplemental feeding (Walters <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010). Continue and expand information and education programmes (USFWS 1996, Anon. 1998, Walters<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Continue supplying alternative lead-free ammunition to deer hunters. Advocate strongly for a ban on lead ammunition and lobby the Fish and Game Commission to ensure legislation is passed. Encourage the USFWS to promote the elimination of lead ammunition on land administered by other government agencies. Promote parent rearing of offspring (Walters <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
106003821		distribution	eng	This species declined rapidly throughout its historic range from British Columbia to Baja California during the 19th century and reportedly disappeared from outside California, <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, in 1937 (Wilbur and Kiff 1980, L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. The population had dropped to an all-time low of just 22 birds by 1981, and in 1983 eggs were first taken from wild nests for captive-rearing; in 1987 the species became extinct in the wild when the last of the six wild individuals was captured to join a captive-breeding recovery programme involving 27 birds (Wilbur and Kiff 1980,<em></em> Toops 2009)<strong></strong>. Due to intensive captive breeding efforts the population increased to 223 birds by August 2003, comprising 138 in captivity, and 85 reintroduced in California and northern Arizona (L. Kiff <em>in</em> <em>litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Breeding in the wild resumed in 2002, and by February 2009 56 nesting attempts had been recorded, from which at least 19 chicks have fledged and survived (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. By December 2006, there were 130 wild birds at five release sites (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2006, <strong></strong>Graham 2006)<strong></strong>, including at least 44 that were over six years old, the earliest age at which the species breeds (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, and in February 2012, the total population stood at 173 individuals in captivity and 213 in the wild, primarily in southern and central California (Carpentier 2009, C. N. Parish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. In January 2010, the number of released birds that had produced viable offspring stood at 44, with another 60 birds of breeding age (J. Grantham <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The reintroduction programme continues and has expanded its geographic coverage, with six birds released into the Sierra de San Pedro Martir in Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong> in 2002 (USFWS 2003)<strong></strong>. A new release site in Baja was established in October 2003, and in December 2003 birds were released at another new site in California at the Pinnacles National Monument where one pair were observed raising chicks in 2009 (Moir 2009)<strong></strong>. Releases in New Mexico have been abandoned due to lack of funding, and release priorities have shifted to identifying sites and partnerships in southern Sierra Nevada, California (Chu <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. The regular movements of the Arizona birds are confined to Coconnino County (Arizona) and Kane County (Utah), although one individual wandered north to Flaming Gorge (Wyoming) and localities in Colorado before returning to the Grand Canyon area. The California birds occur regularly in San Bernardino, Los Angeles, Ventura, Kern, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Monterrey, San Benito, and probably Santa Cruz counties. The Baja California birds are largely confined to the Sierra de San Pedro Martir (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>, where efforts are ongoing to increase the population to an anticipated carrying capacity of c.20 pairs (Wallace 2005)<strong></strong>. The first chick born in Mexico for over 75 years hatched in April 2007. It is hoped these birds will range widely enough to be effectively connected with birds in the southern U.S.A., and a recent success was recorded when a bird from the Baja population was seen in San Diego County in April 2007. Currently 46 chicks have fledged in the wild since reintroductions began. Second generation birds have recently matured to breeding age, but no population can be deemed sustainable, and without substantial reductions in the use of lead-based ammunition within the condor's range none are likely to become so (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2009, C. N. Parish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003821		habitat	eng	Its range includes rocky, open-country scrubland, coniferous forest and oak savanna<strong></strong>. Cliffs, rocky outcrops or large trees are used as nest sites (USFWS 1996)<strong></strong>.  It scavenges on the carcasses of large mammals and also feeds on the carcasses of small mammals, but perhaps only where there are sufficient numbers at one site (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Released birds have become increasingly independent in finding food and may range more than 400 km from release sites (Anon. 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003821		population	eng	There are currently 104 adults in the wild that are old enough to breed, and 44 have produced viable offspring (J. Grantham <em>in litt.</em> 2010). As mature individuals as defined by IUCN only includes individuals in the wild that are currently capable of reproduction, and re-introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals, the current global population <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu</span> IUCN is 44 mature individuals. The wild population currently numbers 213 individuals in total (C. N. Parish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106003821		threats	eng	The drastic population decline during the 20th century is principally attributed to persecution and accidental ingestion of fragments from lead bullets and lead shot from carcasses (C. N. Parish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), resulting in lead poisoning. Lead poisoning remains a threat for released birds and has caused many fatalities and resulted in the treatment of many more birds (Anon. 2001, Parish <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, Walters <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>; 9 of 13 birds released at the Pinnacles National Monument in California had to be recaptured and tested for lead poisoning after feasting on a field of squirrel carcasses shot by hunters using lead-shot in 2006. It is particularly prone to the threat of lead-poisoning owing to its longevity and delayed-onset breeding strategy, and given the distances it travels to forage, meaning lead can build up in the blood to dangerous levels over many years having been ingested over a broad area (Hunt <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007)<strong></strong>.  Shooting and accidental poisoning continue to be the principal threats to condors and at current levels threaten the long-term sustainability of reintroduced populations (Cade 2007)<strong></strong>, but lead ammunition is being banned within the species's range in California and there are increasing indications that the federal government will gradually phase out the use of lead across the U.S. Despite efforts to reduce the threat of lead-poisoning, it is reported that over 90% of condors released in Arizona still test positive for lead (Toops 2009)<strong></strong> and in January 2010 three birds were found to have died from lead-poisoning in northern Arizona (Flagstaff 2010)<strong></strong>. A study conducted recently in California, using samples collected in 2004-2009, suggests that around one third of condors there are experiencing toxicological effects from lead ammunition (M. Finkelstein unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. Publicity and awareness raising campaigns appear to have successfully reduced persecution. Ingested anthropogenic material was recently responsible for the deaths of two nestlings and strongly implicated in a number of other deaths<strong></strong>. The dead condors were found to have swallowed glass fragments, wire, plastic cartridge cases, etc. (Mee <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Two birds were shot in California in 2009. Both were alive as of April 2009, both being treated for lead poisoning (Anon. 2009)<strong></strong>. Puppet-reared birds may be more prone to exhibit problematic human-oriented behaviour such as tameness and vandalising property than parent-reared birds (Meretsky <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. However, there is no apparent difference in mortality between released birds that were puppet-reared and those which were parent-reared (Woods <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In the early 1990s a number of captive-reared birds were lost owing to collisions with power-lines, but this behavioural problem has been addressed using a conditioning programme with fake power poles (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. The spread of west Nile virus is not anticipated to be a problem for the species as most birds are vaccinated (L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Overall survival of released birds has been high, although without the capture, treatment and re-release of lead contaminated birds it is like that rates of mortality in the wild still exceed sustainable levels (Walters <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, L. Kiff <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003822		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/> CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II.<br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/> Census population based on use of photography/video to recognise individual birds at feeding stations (Ríos-Uzeda and Wallace 2007). Study extent to which species makes large-scale movements. Study potential impact on livestock and begin dialogue with farmers with the aim of reducing persecution.
106003822		distribution	eng	<em>Vultur gryphus</em> occurs throughout the Andes, in <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> south to <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong> (Houston 1994). It is threatened mostly in the north of its range, and is exceedingly rare in Venezuela and Colombia, where a re-introduction programme using captive-bred individuals is in operation (Hilty and Brown 1986, Houston 1994). A similar project is under way in Argentina (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt</em>. 1999).
106003822		habitat	eng	It is found principally over open grassland and alpine regions up to 5,000 m, descending to lowland desert regions in Chile and Peru (Houston 1994, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1996), and over southern-beech forests in Patagonia.
106003822		population	eng	This species is described as uncommon and probably declining. Its population is estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals in total (surely runs into five figures), roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals. Since 2000, declines have continued in Ecuador (c.65 birds in five disjunct populations remain [R. Williams <em>in litt</em>. 2002]), Peru and Bolivia, but it remains numerous and appears to be stable in northern Argentina (M. Pearman <em>in litt</em>. 2003). The largest known population is in north-west Patagonia and comprises an estimated c.300 individuals of which c.200 are adults (Lambertucci 2010). Populations in Venezuela&#160; (&lt;30 individuals [Cuesta and Sulbaran 2000], or fewer [Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008]) and Colombia may be maintained by reintroduction and feeding, but in Colombia at least the population may still be declining. The status of remaining populations is difficult to determine because its mortality, breeding frequency and success are so poorly known (Houston 1994).
106003822		threats	eng	It is clearly adapted for exceptionally low mortality and reproductive output, and is therefore highly vulnerable to human persecution, which persists in parts of its range owing to alleged attacks on livestock (Houston 1994). Increased tourism in parts of Chile and Argentina may have led to a reduction in persecution by demonstrating the ecotourism value of the species (S. Imberti <em>in litt</em>. 2003). The persecution of mountain lions and foxes through the illegal poisoning of carcasses may affect the species in some areas (S. Imberti <em>in litt</em>. 2003). In Argentina Condors are highly dependent on the carcasses of exotic herbivores, which form 98.5% of their diet, making them vulnerable to changes in livestock raising (Lambertucci <em>et al</em>. 2009). Interspecific competition for carcasses with Black Vultures <span style="font-style: italic;">Coragyps atratus</span>, which have recently begun to occupy the same areas, may have a deleterious effect on Andean Condor populations (Carrete <em>et al</em>. 2010).
106003823		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008). Ferguson-Lees <i>et al.</i> (2001) suggest it is likely to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003825		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Colonies are located in at least five protected areas in Sumatra and one each in Java, Sulawesi and Peninsular Malaysia. At Tonle Sap lake, Cambodia, large waterbird breeding colonies are designated core areas of the Biosphere Reserve, are proposed as Ramsar Sites, and have received active monitoring and improved enforcement of regulations since 1997. In Cambodia, posters depicting the species are used in promoting public environmental awareness. The Milky Stork Breeding and Re-introduction Programme, run by a number of stakeholders, coordinates the captive breeding and release of individuals into the Kuala Selangor Nature Park, Malaysia (Malaysian Nature Society 2005)<strong></strong>. Efforts are underway to effect legislative protection of the Matang Mangrove Forest Reserves in Perak, Malaysia, and advocacy is being used as an additional tool in the species's conservation (Malaysian Nature Society 2005). Successful breeding in captivity, survival of free-flying released birds, and attempted nesting in the wild by captive-bred individuals has been achieved in Malaysia (Malaysian Nature Society 2005). Successful hatching of two chicks occurred in 2010 (DWNP 2010). Surveys of the population in Sumatra are planned for 2008 (N. Brickle <em>in litt. </em>2007).<strong></strong>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys and research to locate additional colonies, monitor seasonal movements and clarify its ecological requirements. Monitor numbers and breeding success at all known important nesting colonies. Establish additional protected areas encompassing important nesting colonies and feeding areas, particularly in the Riau, Jambi and Sumatra Selatan provinces of Sumatra and Matang Mangrove Forest in Malaysia. Promote public-awareness initiatives highlighting its conservation importance. <p></p>
106003825		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteria cinerea</em> occurs in <strong>Cambodia</strong>, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Sulawesi and Buton, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Its population is estimated at fewer than 5,500 individuals. The majority are in Indonesia, with fewer than 5,000 on Sumatra and c.400 in west Java. A 2008-2009 survey estimated the Sumatra population at less than 1450 individuals (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). There are estimated to be c.10-20 pairs at Tonle Sap lake, Cambodia (J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. It is a vagrant to Thailand and Vietnam. Numbers have apparently declined, at least in some parts of its range, with counts from Malaysia falling consistently from over 100 individuals in 1984, to fewer than 10 birds in 2005 (Malaysian Nature Society 2005, Li <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Only a single wild bird was recorded in the Matang Mangrove Forest in 2010 (DWNP 2010). Its status in Indonesia has received less study, but although good numbers can still be found at some sites in southern Sumatra (Iqbal and Hasudungan 2008), there are reports that numbers have declined considerably (Li <em>et al. </em>2006, M. Iqbal <em>in litt. </em>2006, Iqbal and Hasudungan 2008)<strong></strong>. In June 2008, after a gap of eight years, a breeding colony was documented in South Sumatra at Kumpai lake, and was estimated to contain 100-115 nests (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Interviews with local people have produced evidence of other breeding colonies in South Sumatra (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). An apparently stable population of at least 278 birds has been noted around the village of Percut in North Sumatra (Shepherd and Giyanto 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003825		habitat	eng	It is a predominantly coastal resident in Indonesia and Malaysia, inhabiting mangroves and adjacent, less saline, swamps. It forages on tidal mudflats, in saline pools, freshwater marshes, fishponds and rice-fields. The species has been documented as eating fishes, prawns and crabs (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, 2009). Birds only occur inland in flooded forest around Tonle Sap lake in Cambodia, from where they disperse in the wet season, possibly to the coast (van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <p></p>
106003825		population	eng	Silvius and Verheugt (1989) estimated 5,000 individuals in Sumatra in the late 1980s, and M. Silvius (<em>in litt.</em> 2002) estimated 100-150 individuals in Java. The total in Indonesia is now likely to be in litt. 2005). Population in Malaysia estimated to be 10 in 2005, with 20-30 in Cambodia (H. Chamnan <em>in litt.</em> 2004). The overall population therefore likely to total c.5,000 individuals or fewer, roughly equating to 3,300 mature individuals.
106003825		threats	eng	In Indonesia, tidal forests including mangroves are threatened by agricultural conversion and development schemes, particularly large-scale fish farms and tidal rice cultivation, logging and related disturbance; as a result, mangrove clearance has been rapid. Hunting for food and trade also exerts a significant pressure throughout its range. In 1989, 40-50 birds were shipped to zoos across South-East Asia. Persecution and disturbance at nesting colonies are thought to be the main threat in Malaysia. The same is said to be the case in South Sumatra, where local people hunt the species and take chicks and eggs for food and domestication (Iqbal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In Cambodia, exploitation of waterbird eggs and chicks and snaring of adults, for food and trade, coupled with the increasing likelihood of conversion of flooded forest for agriculture, threaten the suspected Tonle Sap lake breeding colonies. Poisoning may be another significant, as yet unquantified, threat. Hybridisation with other stork spp. has been reported in the wild (Hong Chamnan <em>in litt</em>. 2004 to Wetlands International 2006), for example with Painted Stork<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. leucocephala</span> at Ang Trapeang Thmor Sarus Crane Reserve, Cambodia in 2007, as well as in captive populations, including free-flying birds (Eames 2007, Ding Li Yong <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, J. C. Eames <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106003826		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species makes irregular migratory, partially migratory or nomadic movements within Africa (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to areas where changing water levels increase fish availability (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some populations are also largely sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is seasonal and starts whenever food is most abundant according to local ecological conditions (e.g. when fish become concentrated in small wetlands or marshes [Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, this may either be towards the end of the rains or during the dry season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species breeds colonially, often with other species (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, usually in small groups of 10-20 pairs (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (exceptionally as many as 50 pairs [Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a gregarious species but never aggregates into very large flocks (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, being more often observed in pairs or small flocks of up to 50 individuals (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At night it forms communal roosts in favoured roosting sites (e.g. sandbanks or trees), which may attract individuals from a wide area (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits a variety of wetlands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with shallow water 10-40 cm deep for feeding (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and sandbanks or trees for roosting (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It frequents large swamps, the margins of rivers and lakes, lagoons (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, large marshes, small pools (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, flooded grassland (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, alkaline lakes, reservoirs, waterholes and rice-paddies (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, less commonly foraging on marine mudflats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in tidal pools along beaches (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or in estuaries (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species generally avoids areas of large-scale flooding and is rare in forested areas (although it may occur in wooded savanna [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992])<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small aquatic prey such as frogs, small fish (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, aquatic insects, worms, crustaceans and occasionally small mammals and birds (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of sticks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is positioned in small trees over water or high up in larger trees on dry land (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Accacia</em> spp., <em>Bombax</em> spp. [del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992]<strong><sup></sup></strong> or baobabs [Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). The species nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with up to 10-20 pairs per tree (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (occasionally up to 50 pairs [Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, neighbouring nests usually spaced 1-3 m apart (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003827		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas. Since 2004 the colony at Prek Toal, Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, has been successfully protected and monitored by MoE staff who work with former egg collectors. Data derived from tree-top platform based counts indicate that the population has grown from 1,000 to 2,300 nests from 2004 to 2011. However, overflights of the colony suggest that only 50% is visible from platforms, so there are now likely to be 4-5,000 nesting pairs (S. Mahood<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).&#160; <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor known colonies throughout the species range. Ensure complete and permanent protection of all breeding congregations. Encourage farming systems that create and not destroy suitable foraging habitat. Mitigate against development schemes which destroy sites where it is found. Conduct awareness campaigns involving local residents to engender pride in the species and other large waterbirds and prevent hunting.  <p></p>
106003827		distribution	eng	<em>Mycteria leucocephala</em> occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong> (scarce; mainly confined to the Indus delta region), <strong>Nepal</strong> (rare in terai; mainly a summer visitor), <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally common resident), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (former resident, now a straggler to coastal regions), <strong>Sri Lanka</strong> (locally abundant, particularly in the dry zone), <strong>China </strong>(previously a common summer visitor in south, probably breeding, but now rare and possibly extinct), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(former resident in central region and visitor throughout; current status unknown but clearly rare), <strong>Thailand</strong> (previously common breeder in south, now on verge of extinction, small numbers recorded sporadically elsewhere), <strong>Laos</strong> (previously widespread, now rare), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (formerly widespread resident, now a rare non-breeding visitor), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (local resident, 4-5,000 pairs breeding at Prek Toal, Tonle Sap Lake) and Peninsular Malaysia<strong> </strong>(previously regular, now a vagrant). There are an estimated 15,000 individuals in South Asia and fewer than 10,000 in South-East Asia<strong> </strong>(Perennou <em>et al.</em> 1994),  with populations declining throughout. Although it is considered one of the most numerous and secure of Asian storks, this is more a reflection of the rarity and endangerment of most storks in the region, than the security of this species.<em> </em><p></p>
106003827		habitat	eng	It frequents freshwater marshes, lakes and reservoirs, flooded fields, rice paddies, freshwater swamp forest, river banks, intertidal mudflats and saltpans.  <p></p>
106003827		population	eng	Perennou <em>et al.</em> (1994) estimated populations of 15,000 individuals in south Asia, and fewer than 10,000 individuals in South-East Asia, thus there are estimated to be a total of 15,000-25,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 10,000-17,000 mature individuals.
106003827		threats	eng	The increasing impacts of habitat loss, disturbance, pollution, wetland drainage and the hunting of adults and collection of eggs and nestlings from colonies are cause for concern. Hybridisation between free-flying Painted Storks and Milky Storks <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cinerea</span> at Singapore Zoo has apparently produced reproductively viable offspring, raising the question of whether these hybrids could pose a threat if they crossed over into mainland South-East Asia (Yong D. L. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), or if the rare interbreeding of these species observed in the wild (J. C. Eames <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) could also be a threat.<p></p>
106003829		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African trans-equatorial migrant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) making movements that are triggered by the rains (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds during in the rains when snails (its main prey items) are most readily available and nests in colonies of various sizes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) often with other species (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). Nesting may only occur in years when local food supplies are plentiful however, so may not occur regularly at the same site (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species feeds in loose groups (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) that may contain up to 50 well-dispersed individuals (flocks of over 7,000 may also occur in some seasons) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It migrates in flocks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and roosts communally in trees (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits freshwater wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) with shallow waters and a large abundance of aquatic molluscs (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) including marshes, swamps, rice-fields, flood-plains, the backwaters and margins of lakes or rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), ponds and streams (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It may also frequent moist savanna or burnt grassland as well as occasionally forest clearings (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), coastal mudflats and mangrove swamps (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> In many regions the species may depend entirely upon molluscs (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) such as aquatic snails (e.g. <I>Pila</I> spp. or <I>Lanistes ovum</I>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and freshwater mussels (<I>Ampullaria</I> spp.) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Other prey items taken include frogs, crabs, worms, fish and insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. locusts and beetles) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a small platform of sticks and vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) positioned in trees and bushes over water (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. inundated in standing water on flood-plains) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), or alternatively in reedbeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It nests colonially, often in mixed-species groups (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003829		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss, entanglement in fishing lines and environmental pollution (e.g. pesticides applied to water for mosquito control) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It also suffers from hunting, poaching and the destruction of breeding colonies by villagers on Madagascar (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003830		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a narrow front (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) along well-defined routes (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). Some breeding populations (e.g. in Spain) are also sedentary, and southern African breeding birds disperse locally after breeding (often with altitudinal movements) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is a solitary nester, the timing of breeding varying between populations but generally coinciding with the local spring in the Palearctic Region and southern Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). On migration the species may travel singly (Snow and Perrins 1998) or in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) of up to 100 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998), and on its wintering grounds it is normally observed singly or in small groups of less than 30 individuals (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) (although it may also roost communally in South Africa) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits old, undisturbed, open forests (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) from sea-level up to mountainous regions (e.g. 2,000-2,500 m in altitude) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It forages in shallow streams, pools, marshes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), swampy patches (Snow and Perrins 1998), damp meadows (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), flood-plains, pools in dry riverbeds (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and occasionally grasslands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) especially where there are stands of reeds or long grass (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It generally avoids large bodies of water and dense forest (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), but non-breeding birds may frequent the estuaries of tidal rivers in South Africa (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> It is predominantly piscivorous although it may also take amphibians, insects, snails, crabs, small reptiles, mammals and birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a large construction of sticks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) positioned between 4-25 m high (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) in large forest trees (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Lohmus and Sellis 2003) or on cliffs (southern Africa and Spain) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species shows a preference for nesting in trees that have canopies large enough to hold the nest away from the main trunk (e.g. trees 25 m high, 120 years old and with a diameter at breast height of 66 cm) (Lohmus and Sellis 2003). It nests solitarily, with pairs spread out in the landscape at a distance of no less than 1 km (even where the species is most numerous) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species may occupy the nests of other bird species such as <I>Aquila verreauxi</I> or Hamerkop <I>Scopus umbretta</I> and commonly reuses nests in successive years (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Management information</B> A study in Estonia found that the retention of large older trees during forest management is important in providing nesting sites for the species (Lohmus and Sellis 2003). Conservation measures aimed at increasing the species's breeding success and population density should cover large territories of predominantly deciduous woodland and should focus on managing the river quality as far as 20 km away from nesting sites, protecting and managing feeding habitats, and improving food resources by establishing shallow artificial pools in grasslands or along rivers (Jiguet and Villarubias 2004).
106003830		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.24,000-44,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;   c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan; &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs, &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Korea and &lt; c.100,000 breeding   pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003830		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Balian <I>et al.</I> 2002, Lohmus and Sellis 2003, Diagana <I>et al.</I> 2006). The area of suitable habitat available for breeding is being reduced in Russia and Eastern Europe through deforestation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (particularly the destruction of large traditional nesting trees) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, Lohmus and Sellis 2003), the rapid development of industry and farming (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), the building of dams (Diagana <I>et al.</I> 2006) and lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Balian <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species's wetland wintering habitats in Africa are further threatened by conversion (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), agricultural intensification, desertification and pollution caused by the concentration of pesticides and other chemicals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Diagana <I>et al.</I> 2006). The species is also occasionally killed by collisions with power-lines and overhead cables (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and hunting in southern Europe and tropical Asia (especially during migration) have caused population declines (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003831		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is an intra-African trans-equatorial migrant (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), making seasonal movements to coincide with rainfall (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). After breeding in the wet season of the northern tropics (between May and August), it moves east then south (West African populations), or south (East African populations), through the equatorial rain-belt (September-October), and arrives in the southern tropics early in the southern wet season (November-March) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It remains in this southern range until March (when the rains decrease), after which it moves north again through East Africa at the beginning of the long rains (March-April), arriving back in the breeding grounds in April and May before (or just as) the heavy rains begin (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species is gregarious and is rarely seen in groups of less than 10 (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), often traveling in vast flocks of c.10,000 (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). On migration it lands daily to feed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), both migrating and foraging diurnally (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It breeds in widely-scattered colonies, normally not exceeding 20 pairs (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) (although groups of between 30 and 50 are recorded occasionally) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, Adjakpa 2000). <B>Habitat</B> The species frequents open grassland, pastures, areas of cultivation (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and savanna woodland (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), often near water but also in semi-arid areas, gathering beside pools, water-holes, wells and swamps when not feeding (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), and roosting on trees or cliffs (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> The species is primarily insectivorous (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), its diet consisting almost entirely of large grassland insects such as swarming locusts, army worm <I>Spodoptera exempta</I> caterpillars, grasshoppers and crickets, although it will also take mice (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), frogs, lizards, small fish, molluscs, crabs (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), millipedes, scorpions, water rats and small birds (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Breeding site</B> The species breeds colonially, with nests being built from sticks and vegetation in trees or on cliffs, or on the roofs of huts in villages, and will often be used from year to year unless they collapse (although not necessarily by the same breeding pair) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982).
106003831		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by habitat degradation through urban development and agricultural activities (such as maize farming) which have reduced the available area of natural grassland (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997). In Namibia it is threatened by habitat degradation through overgrazing and bush encroachment (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997). The species may also be threatened by the control of its principle food source, locusts, either through direct poisoning (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997) (a mass mortality event in Sudan may have been the result of extensive use of pesticides) (Coulter <I>et al.</I> 1989), or through a reduction in the availability of food (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003832		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is predominantly sedentary, although it may make migratory north-south movements in Africa (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). In India the species tends to breed during the rains (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) (between July and September in the south and December to March in the north), whereas in Africa it mainly breeds during the dry season (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (apart from the population in northern Sudan which breeds during the rains) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species breeds in solitary pairs, although these pairs may nest close together in East Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and loose colonies of up to 4-5 nests are occasionally reported (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). When not breeding the species is normally seen solitarily or in pairs, rarely in small flocks (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), although it may collect in flocks of several hundred (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) on migration (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Groups of 20-40 individuals may also gather in communal nightly roosts in trees or on sandbanks (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), pairs often using the same tree night after night (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for natural wetland habitats (Sundar 2006) in savanna and grassland, including rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, water-holes, lagoons, dams, flood plains, marshes, and freshwater and peat swamp forests (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), although it will also use artificial habitats such as rice paddy-fields, flooded pastures, cultivated fields (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), golf courses, firebreaks and roads in tree and sugar-cane plantations (particularly when they are flooded) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005). It generally avoids forests, but is occasionally found in light woodland or forest clearings (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It also frequents coastal mudflats or coral reefs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), mangrove swamps and estuaries (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), and can be found up to 1,400 m in Sulawesi, 1,250 m in Nepal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and up to 3,000 m in East Africa (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> The species is predominantly carnivorous, its diet consisting of fish, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, large insects and larvae (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. termite alates and army worms <I>Spodoptera exempta</I>) (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), crabs, molluscs and marine invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a large stick platform built 10-30 m (and sometimes up to 50 m) above the ground or over water, on a fork of a horizontal branch in a tall tree (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005).
106003832		threats	eng	The main threat to this species in South East Asia is severe habitat fragmentation (Luthin 1987, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species has also suffered population reductions as a result of habitat destruction and shooting (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003833		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. It has been recorded in numerous protected areas, including at least five (and one proposed) in Kalimantan, at least four (and a further four proposed) on Sumatra (including Way Kambas) and up to five (including Taman Negara, Lower Kinabatangan and Malua Forest Reserve [A. J. Hearn <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008]) in Malaysia. A small-scale nest protection scheme and awareness campaign is ongoing in West Kalimantan including compensation payments to poachers for nest protection, allowing at least four chicks to fledge between 2009-11 (Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, P. Widmann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution, population and habitat requirements, particularly in Kalimantan. Establish further protected areas at sites supporting significant populations, including gazetting proposed reserves, particularly on Sumatra. Lobby for the cessation of logging in swamp-forests. Improve effectiveness of protection measures in protected areas in Indonesia. <p></p>
106003833		distribution	eng	<em>Ciconia stormi</em> is known from extreme southern <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Sumatra (<strong>Indonesia</strong>), and the island of Borneo, where it occurs in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), <strong>Brunei,</strong> and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It has been reduced to one tiny population and scattered individuals in Peninsular Malaysia, and was thought to be extinct in Thailand until an individual was camera trapped in the Klong Saeng-Khao Sok Forest Complex in April 2004 where a very small breeding population may remain<strong> </strong>(Cutter <em>et al</em>. 2007).  An important breeding population comprising at least 43 individuals was identified in the Lower Kinabatangan Floodplain, Sabah in 1999-2000<strong> </strong>(Abidin ben Ja'afar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).  The species was also recently recorded at Ulu Segama and photographed in Malua Forest Reserve, Sabah (A. J. Hearn <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). The core of the remaining population is in Sumatra (including on Siberut [Verbelen 2010]), Kalimantan and Brunei, where it still appears to be widespread, but rare. Overall, the population is now estimated to number 250-500 mature individuals. <p></p>
106003833		habitat	eng	It occurs at low densities in large, undisturbed blocks of level lowland forest, particularly freshwater and peat-swamp forests, on the floodplains of large rivers. It also frequents disturbed, recently burned and logged areas, and occasionally areas subject to tidal movements, although these may constitute suboptimal habitats. It is generally solitary, but is occasionally found in small groups. Two eggs are usually laid and the chicks are able to fly after c.90 days. <p></p>
106003833		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 150 individuals in Malaysia (Yeap Chin Aik <I>in litt.</I> 2002), and up to 250 individuals in Indonesia (M. Silvius <I>in litt.</I> 2002), totalling fewer than 500 individuals in total  (Y. Noor Rusila<I> in litt.</I> 2002). The population size is likely to lie between 400-500 individuals, roughly equating to 260-330 mature individuals.
106003833		threats	eng	The main threats are forest loss and fragmentation as a result of logging and dam construction and conversion to oil-palm plantations (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), combined with associated increases in disturbance. The impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 on Sumatra and Borneo is still unclear, but they are likely to have been significant. The development of lowland rivers as major transport routes is presumably a considerable threat. Incidental hunting and trade are minor threats.  <p></p>
106003835		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is a Palearctic migrant (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) that travels with the assistance of thermal updrafts, the occurrence of which restricts the migratory routes the species can take (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). For example the species must avoid long stretches of open water such as the Mediterranean Sea and must therefore bypass it on narrow fronts to the west or east (Snow and Perrins 1998, Van den Bossche 2002), after which it crosses the Sahara on a broad front (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). Once within Africa the species becomes considerably nomadic in response to changing abundances of food (e.g. locust swarms) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds from February to April in the Palearctic, whilst the tiny breeding population in South Africa breeds from September to November (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It nests in loose colonies of up to 30 pairs (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or solitarily (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The main departure from the European breeding grounds occurs in August (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) with the species travelling in large flocks (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) of many thousands of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998), generally arriving in Africa by early-October (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). It forages singly, in small groups of 10-50 individuals (Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005), or in large flocks if prey is abundant and on its wintering grounds it may gather in large numbers (hundreds or thousands of individuals) at abundant food sources (e.g. locust swarms or grass fires) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species feeds diurnally (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) and roosts communally at night in trees (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Habitat</B> The species inhabits open areas, generally avoiding regions with persistent cold, wet weather or large tracts of tall, dense vegetation such as reedbeds or forests (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), shallow marshes, lakesides (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), lagoons (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), flood-plains, rice-fields and arable land (Snow and Perrins 1998) especially where there are scattered trees for roosting (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter the species shows a preference for drier habitats (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) such as grasslands, steppe, savanna and cultivated fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), often gathering near lakes, ponds (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), pools, slow-flowing streams, ditches (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or rivers (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> The species is carnivorous and has a varied and opportunistic diet (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It takes small mammals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. voles, water voles, mice, shrews, young rats (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992)), large insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and locusts), adult and juvenile amphibians, snakes, lizards, earthworms, fish (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds, molluscs and crustaceans (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of sticks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and is commonly positioned up to 30 m above the ground (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982) in trees or on the roofs of buildings, as well as on pylons, telegraph poles, stacks of straw and other anthropogenic sites (including specially erected nesting structures), cliffs and occasionally among rushes on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species nests solitarily or in loose colonies, often using traditional nesting sites (there are records of individual nests being used every year for 100 years) (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Nesting sites are usually situated near foraging areas, but may be up to 2-3 km away (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> Intensively grazed (&gt; 1 cow per hectare) unfertilised grassland was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi <I>et al.</I> 2005), and traditional livestock-farming practices such as creating herb-rich meadows for stock grazing and hay production are thought to be beneficial (Goriup and Schulz 1990). A model used to study the impact of different land use patterns on the species found that sequential (asynchronous) mowing of grasslands may increase the food supply for nestlings, thereby increasing reproductive success (as sequential mowing generates a small number of high-quality foraging patches throughout the breeding season) (Johst <I>et al.</I> 2001). A report by the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) suggests that habitat management for the species should include the periodic flooding of meadows, the creation of a mosaic of native grasslands and meadows, and the retention or creation of ditches, ponds and lakes (Goriup and Schulz 1990). The report also advises management strategies in relation to electricity pylons (e.g. burying or marking aerial cables and preventing disturbance to nests during maintenance) to reduce the threats of electrocution and collision (Goriup and Schulz 1990). Due to the species's habit of defecating on its legs to regulate its body temperature in hot climates it is inadvisable to fit individuals with leg-rings for tracking purposes (dry uric acid builds-up on the legs and hardens around leg-rings, tightening them and leading to injuries) (Goriup and Schulz 1990). Other methods of monitoring movements such as satellite telemetry or patagial wing-tags are therefore advised (Goriup and Schulz 1990).
106003835		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat alteration including the drainage of wet meadows (Goriup and Schulz 1990, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), prevention of floods on flood-plains (by dams, embankments, pumping stations and river canalisation schemes) (Goriup and Schulz 1990), conversion of foraging areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), development, industrialisation and intensification of agriculture (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. mechanised ploughing of rough pastures to sow fertilised crops or swards of more productive grass varieties) (Goriup and Schulz 1990). It is also threatened by a shortage of nesting sites in some areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) as, for example, the roofs of new rural buildings do not support nests and nest structures on pylons are frequently destroyed during maintenance work (Goriup and Schulz 1990). During the winter in Africa there may be high rates of mortality due to changes in feeding conditions owing to drought, desertification and the control of locust populations by insecticides (Goriup and Schulz 1990, Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species may also suffer as a result of the excessive use of pesticides (e.g. in Africa) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Hockey <I>et al.</I> 2005) and through eating poisoned baits put out to catch large carnivores (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Another serious threat is collision with and electrocution from overhead powerlines (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), especially whilst on migration in Europe (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is hunted for food and sport (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), mainly on migration (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992) and in its winter quarters (Goriup and Schulz 1990).
106003836		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I, CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia, China, including Hong Kong and Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea and Japan. Protected areas in its breeding and wintering grounds include Lake Bolon, Lake Khanka and Khingansky (Russia), and Sanjiang, Honghe, Zhalong, Changlindao, Yanwodao, Xingkai Hu, Horqin, Shengjin Hu, Poyang Hu (more than 1,600 birds wintering since 2002 [Ji and Wang 2007]), Dong Dongting Hu and Chen Hu (China). Reintroduction programmes are underway in South Korea and Japan. In 2008, there were said to be c.100 individuals in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, following the re-introduction of the species using chicks from Russia (Matsuda 2008). A number of conservation actions have been implemented locally to protect birds breeding near Daqing City, Heilongjiang, China (Zou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Estimate levels of illegal capture. Establish protected areas on the Sanjiang plain, China. Expand the Khanka State Reserve, Russia, to include all existing and potential nest-sites. Maintain tall trees for nesting and add artificial nest poles to potential breeding sites. Control overfishing in its breeding and wintering grounds. Control human activities at nest sites between 25th March and 20th July. Campaign against the use of fire by farmers in the breeding grounds. Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Re-establish viable breeding populations in South Korea and Japan. Work to restore habitat adjacent to already-occupied habitat, rather than creating new habitat patches (see Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Compensate farmers for favourable land management in the species's breeding grounds (Wu Qingming <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003836		distribution	eng	<em>Ciconia boyciana</em> breeds in the Amur and Ussuri basins along the border of <strong>Russia</strong> and mainland <strong>China</strong> (BirdLife International 2001), and small numbers breed in the lower reaches of the Wuyuerhe river in Heilongjiang province (Wu Qingming <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is a summer vagrant in eastern Mongolia. The main wintering grounds are in the lower Yangtze basin and southern China, as far south as <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China). Small numbers winter in <strong>North Korea</strong>,<strong> South Korea</strong> and <strong>Japan</strong>, and irregularly in the Philippines, north-eastern India, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The population is estimated at 3,000 individuals (Xinzhong 1999, Zhiyong 1999)<strong></strong>, with significant declines in breeding birds reported in Russia. The 2005 Yangtze waterbird survey recorded 1,194 individuals (M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003836		habitat	eng	It nests on tall trees and artificial structures such as electricity pylons. It feeds on fish and small animals in open, usually fresh water, wetlands, and occasionally coastal tidal flats.  <p></p>
106003836		population	eng	The population was   estimated at 3,000 individuals by Xinzhong (1999) and Zhiyong (1999). The   2005 Yangtze waterbird survey recorded 1,194 individuals (M. Barter in litt.   2006). National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals   in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea and &lt; c.100   breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009). Overall then, the population is likely to number 1,000 to 2,499 mature   individuals.
106003836		threats	eng	Deforestation and drainage of wetlands for agricultural development are the main causes of decline in its breeding grounds. In Russia, spring fires threaten breeding sites and kill nest trees. Reclamation of wetlands, particularly in the Yangtze basin, has reduced the area of habitat for wintering birds and caused disturbance. Overfishing is a problem at many breeding and wintering sites in China. A satellite-tracking study indicated very high juvenile mortality on passage and in winter (Van den Bossche <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Wintering birds move large distances between sites (Van den Bossche <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Birds are hunted and collected for zoos, in Russia and China, despite legal protection. Dams on the Amur River and the forthcoming Three Gorges Dam in China are likely to have detrimental impacts upon the species, although they may affect this species less severely than others as they feed on fish and are therefore less susceptible to changes in water levels (M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. 2006, S. Chan <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003837		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In Australia the species is listed as rare in Queensland and Endangered in New South Wales. It has been upgraded to Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, giving it full protection. It is a conservation priority in Cambodia. It occurs in a number of protected areas including several national parks in Australia and India. Studies on the distribution and abundance levels of this species are presently ongoing in South-East Asia and India (K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An analysis subsequent to these studies is expected to provide improved population estimates. Detailed studies in at least one location have begun in Australia and will also provide improved population information (K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect remaining habitat, especially in South and South-East Asia. Try to mitigate in advance against the loss of habitat to sea-level rise in Australia. Carry out range-wide surveys to accurately determine the total population size and trends. Prevent birds being captured for trade to collections and zoos in Asia. Control hunting of the species. Study the importance of flooded rice paddies for dispersal and linkage of sub-populations through genetic and telemetry studies (Sundar 2004, K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In most areas of the species's range regulate landscape-scale farming practices and development projects to incorporate maintenance and preservation of natural wetlands, and reduce changes in land-use such as conversion to drier crops (Sundar 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out more research into its breeding biology and behaviour (Maheswaran 2003b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to monitor wetlands in northern Cambodia (using photo-traps) to help understand breeding biology and success (K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003837		distribution	eng	<em>Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus </em>occurs in South Asia, South-East Asia and Oceania. In South Asia it is found in <strong>Pakistan</strong> (previously frequent in lower Sind, breeding in the Indus delta until the 1970s, now a straggler), <strong>Nepal</strong> (rare resident and winter visitor to the <em>terai</em>), <strong>India</strong> (a widespread resident, but now generally rare and local, and may now be absent in many areas in the south [G. Maheswaran <em>in litt. </em>2003]<strong></strong>), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (likely as a non-breeder), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (former resident, now a vagrant), and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (fewer than 50 mature individuals resident, principally in the dry lowlands). In South-East Asia it occurs in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (formerly a widespread resident, current status unclear but certainly scarce), <strong>Thailand</strong> (formerly quite widespread, now a rare resident in the peninsula, almost extinct), <strong>Laos</strong> (previously a widespread non-breeding visitor, probably breeding in the south, but now extremely rare), <strong>Cambodia </strong>(previously fairly common; regular recent records, with small numbers breeding), and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (apparently once present in the Sundaic region, but now extinct there; population &gt;650 in south Papua, formerly Irian Jaya). The species was thought to be extinct in <strong>Vietnam</strong>, with no records since 1987, but in 2003, two individuals were recorded during a survey of Yok Don National Park (Anon. 2003)<strong></strong>. In Oceania, subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">E. a. australis </span>it is found in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> (very local, but occasionally not uncommon) and <strong>Australia</strong> (relatively large population in the north). The combined South and South-East Asia populations are thought to number fewer than 1,000 individuals (K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. While it is in decline in South Asia, in South-East Asia it has dwindled to the brink of extinction. However, a population of c.29 pairs studied in Uttar Pradesh (India) had high productivity and low mortality and has been judged to be at least stable, if not a source for neighbouring populations (Sundar 2003)<strong></strong>. The districts of south-western Uttar Pradesh are the species's stronghold in India (K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Between 1996 and 2003, the species was judged to be in decline at 32 (54%) of the 59 sites in India where it was recorded (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. It is probably stable in south Papua and Australia, although confirmation of the trend in south Papua is required. A recent estimate places the Australian population at up to 20,000 breeding individuals and secure, although it has been contested that this is unduly optimistic and that the figure may not exceed 10,000. These estimates have been used to extrapolate a global total of c.31,000 individuals (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. However, owing to the uncertainty surrounding this estimate, a range of 10,000-21,000 mature individuals is preferred as a conservative estimate of the total breeding population. <p></p>
106003837		habitat	eng	It inhabits freshwater marshes and lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Sharma 2007)<strong></strong>, pools in open forest and large rivers (Sharma 2007)<strong></strong> and flooded grassland (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, up to an altitude of 1,200 m (Sharma 2007)<strong></strong>. It<strong> </strong>occasionally uses mangroves and coastal habitats (Santiapillai <em>et al. </em>1997, Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sharma 2007)<strong>, </strong>such as estuaries and<strong> </strong>brackish lagoons (Santiapillai <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong></strong>. It also frequents artificial habitats such as reservoirs (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, sewage ponds and irrigation stores (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em>&#160; 1992, Sundar 2004)<strong></strong>. Although it shows a preference for natural wetlands throughout the year, it uses similar artificial habitats like rice paddies for a short period of time, particularly during and after the monsoon season, when natural wetlands may become too deep for foraging (Sundar 2004)<strong></strong>. It will also forage in wet or dry wheat fields and flooded fallow fields, the latter especially in summer when the extent of natural wetlands is reduced (Sundar 2004)<strong></strong>. In Uttar Pradesh, north-central India the species is common in agricultural landscapes, foraging in flooded rice paddies, irrigation canals and roadside ditches (Sundar 2011). It is carnivorous (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> and has high food requirements (Rahmani 1987, Maheswaran and Rahmani 2002, Maheswaran 2003b)<strong></strong>, tending to be largely territorial, being recorded in flocks very occasionally (Sundar <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, and becoming more aggressive as food is depleted (Maheswaran and Rahmani 2001)<strong></strong>. It feeds in shallow water up to 0.5m deep (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>, and takes fish (Garnett and Crowley 2000, Maheswaran and Rahmani 2001, Maheswaran and Rahmani 2002)<strong></strong>, reptiles and frogs (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong></strong>, some waterfowl (Verma 2003)<strong></strong>, turtle eggs (Chauhan and Andrews 2006), crabs, molluscs, insects and other arthropods (Ishtiaq <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Sundar 2011)<strong></strong>. It has been observed using tactile feeding methods most often (Maheswaran and Rahmani 2001, Maheswaran and Rahmani 2002)<strong></strong>, although visual methods are also used, depending on the habitat and prey-type (Maheswaran and Rahmani 2001)<strong></strong>. It is a territorial breeder (Rahmani 1987, Santiapillai <em>et al. </em>1997, Sundar 2004, Maheswaran and Rahmani 2005)<strong></strong>, and pairs stay together during successive seasons, some even after breeding is over (Sundar 2003, Maheswaran 2003b)<strong></strong>. Nests are built in old trees (Rahmani 1987)<strong></strong>. In India, it starts to nest from August onwards (Bhatt 2006)<strong></strong>, with earlier breeders in northern India timing their egg laying in September and October to coincide with the end of the monsoon season (Maheswaran 2003a)<strong></strong>. In New South Wales, Australia, eggs are laid from May to August, with fledging occurring between October and January (Sundar <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Breeding pairs generally raise one or two chicks and three is not uncommon, although four is rare (Sundar 2003, Sundar <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Chicks generally stay in natal territories until the subsequent breeding season, although they stay longer if adult birds do not breed in the subsequent year (Sundar 2003)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106003837		population	eng	There are thought to be 1,000 <em>asiaticus </em>(G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2002, 2006), plus possibly up to 20,000 breeding <em>australis </em>(S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006), giving perhaps up to 21,000 mature individuals and therefore up to c.31,000 individuals in total. In light of the uncertainty surrounding this figure, a conservative range estimate of 15,000-35,000 individuals is preferred.
106003837		threats	eng	It is threatened by a variety of factors across its range, including drainage of wetlands, felling of nest trees, development, encroachment of agriculture or aquaculture, overfishing, overgrazing, hunting and excessive capture for zoos. Consecutive years of drought can cause declines in the population (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> Family CICONIIDAE 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In India, the freshwater wetlands that this species relies upon are under great pressure from expanding human populations (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most frequent threat to the species in this country is fishing (Santiapillai <em>et al. </em>1997, Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which is so intensive in places that even 5-10 cm fishes are taken (Rahmani 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, followed by the affects of sedimentation on wetland quality (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, deterioration of foraging habitat through the conversion of wetlands into agricultural fields is also a major threat in India (Rahmani 1987, Maheswaran 2003a, Sundar 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the face of wetland reclamation, flooded rice paddies have become important and may be promoting the dispersal of young birds and preventing the fragmentation of sub-populations (Sundar 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs are taken in at least some parts of India (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance during the nesting season is a major threat (Rahmani 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Deaths due to collision with electricity wires are occasional (Sundar 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but deaths of younger birds due to wire fences in Australia are more common (K.S.G. Sundar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Additional threats in Sri Lanka include possible inbreeding in small populations, pesticide poisoning of wetlands and loss of mangroves to increasing salinity levels (Santiapillai <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.In Australia, the species is thought to be threatened by disturbance and habitat loss, but has not been greatly affected by the intensification of land-use in eastern Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sea-level rise is projected to have a negative impact upon coastal habitats. The frequent formation of mostly female-biased trios in Australia may indicate that the sex ratio of the species is skewed (Sundar <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p>
106003838		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> There is no evidence that this species undertakes any regular long-distance migration (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it is not altogether sedentary (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> as some populations make local nomadic movements to optimum foraging habitats (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> during periods of drought or when large rivers are in flood (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding starts late in the rains or in the dry season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, timed so that the young fledge at the height of the dry season when prey is concentrated and easier to obtain (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary pairs and usually remains solitary when not breeding (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it may occur in small family parties or in groups of up to 12 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits extensive fresh, brackish or alkaline wetlands (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in open, semi-arid areas (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and savanna (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with relatively high abundances of fish (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and with large trees nearby for nesting and roosting (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (although it avoids deeply forested areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992))<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include shallow freshwater marshes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, wet grasslands (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the margins of large or small rivers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, lake shores (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, pans (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and flood-plains (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish 15-30 cm long (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> up to 500 g in weight, as well as crabs, shrimps, frogs, reptiles, small mammals, young birds, molluscs and insects (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (e.g. large water beetles, termite alates (Hockey <em>et al.</em> 2005))<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large flat platform of sticks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> placed up to 20-30m (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in a tree near water isolated from other trees and sources of disturbance (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also nest on cliffs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Hancock <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> and in the abandoned nests of other bird species (Hancock <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003838		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-17,000 mature individuals.
106003838		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to disturbance and to wetland degradation (e.g. pesticide contamination) and conversion to agriculture (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003839		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-25,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700-17,000 mature individuals.
106003840		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Important nesting colonies are found in Kaziranga and Dibru-Saikhowa National Parks and Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam and D'Ering Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh. In Cambodia, the breeding colonies at Prek Toal and Moat Khla/Boeng Chhma are core areas in the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. Between 1997 and 1999, enforcement of regulations at Prek Toal appears to have reduced exploitation of breeding colonies. It is included in conservation awareness material in Laos and Cambodia. In parts of Cambodia financial incentives have been offered to local residents by conservation organisations if nesting attempts at known waterbird colonies are not disrupted<strong> </strong>(T. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2006). The species was the focus of recent studies in Nepal which estimated the national population size and threats, as well as making a number of conservation recommendations <strong></strong>(Gyawali 2004, Baral 2005). It was also revealed that the majority of Lesser Adjutant that breed in Nepal do so outside of protected areas <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>(Baral 2005). Recent initiatives in Assam include nest surveys, a nest-tree replanting scheme and conservation awareness campaigns. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor key colonies, and conduct searches for others. Protect nesting colonies outside protected areas. Promote control of pesticide use around feeding areas. Establish a wildlife protection office at Tonle Sap lake. Investigate alternative livelihoods for people dependent on harvesting eggs and chicks. Draft and enforce laws prohibiting hunting, trapping and poisoning. Expand conservation awareness programmes. Research the species's use of and dependence upon agricultural landscapes including rice paddies<strong> </strong>(Baral 2005). List the species in Nepal under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act <strong></strong>(Gyawali 2004, Baral 2005). Protect key sites in Nepal. <p></p>
106003840		distribution	eng	<em>Leptoptilos javanicus</em> has an extensive range across South and South-East Asia (BirdLife International 2001). Substantial populations remain only in <strong>India</strong> - mostly in Assam, with c.2,000 birds<strong> </strong>(Choudhury 2000), West Bengal and Bihar, where 42 nests had breeding confirmed in 2004 (<strong></strong>Mishra <em>et al</em>. 2004), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (c.2,000 in 1993, the majority on Sumatra) and <strong>Cambodia</strong> (1,000 individuals or 300 pairs (<strong></strong>T. Clements <em>in litt</em>. 2006). There are smaller breeding populations in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span>, where in 2003 c.50 birds were recorded in Royal Chitwan National Park and the national population was recently estimated at c.300 individuals following surveys in east, central and western Nepal <strong></strong>(Baral 2005,  Sharma 2006), <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> - where a small breeding colony was recently reported from North Bengal (S. H. Sourav <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong> - estimated at c.500 individuals (<strong></strong>Li <em>et al</em>. 2007), <strong>Brunei</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>. It has been recorded in <strong>Bhutan </strong>(Choudhary 2005), but is thought to be extinct in China and in Singapore. Formerly common and widespread, it has declined dramatically across its range and has been extirpated from many areas in recent decades owing to the persistent and unregulated harvesting of eggs and chicks at nesting colonies. However, some populations at least seem to be relatively stable, e.g. numbers in the Matang Mangrove Forest, Malaysia have remained relatively constant for 20 years <strong></strong>(Li <em>et al</em>. 2006).  The current population estimate is 5,000 birds; however, an increase in survey effort across much of the region has revised many national totals upwards. A recent analysis of Cambodian records estimated a national population of c.1,870 pairs (<strong></strong>Bird <em>et al</em>. 2007); precautionary interpretation of this figure suggests the previous national estimate of 1,000 individuals should be revised upwards considerably to 2,500-4,000 individuals. Therefore, overall the global population may be considerably larger than previous estimates.  <p></p>
106003840		habitat	eng	Inland, birds inhabit natural and human-modified wetlands, both open and forested. Coastal populations frequent mangroves and intertidal flats. It nests colonially in large trees, and historically on cliffs, often at traditional sites in or adjacent to wetlands. It utilises small wetlands within Asian dry forest, and can breed some distance from these; shrinking of pools during the dry season and limited availability can lead to overlap with human uses and resulting disturbance. <p></p>
106003840		population	eng	A total population of 5,000 individuals was estimated by Hancock (1993), Choudhury (2000) and, during analysis of all recent records, BirdLife International (2001). However, more extensive survey effort in recent years has led to upward revisions of some national totals: the Cambodian population can now be placed at 2,500-4,000 individuals rather than the previous estimate of c.1,000 individuals. Hence, the global population probably numbers 6,500-8,000 individuals or possibly more, roughly equating to 4,300-5,300 mature individuals.
106003840		threats	eng	Several threats are contributing to its decline, with their relative importance varying across its range. The loss of nest-sites through the felling of colony nest-trees is a major threat, particularly in Assam. In many areas, drainage and conversion of wetland feeding areas, agricultural intensification, increased pesticide use and disturbance, the collection of eggs and chicks and the hunting of adults are major threats. Coastal populations are threatened by large-scale development, including aquaculture and the clearance of mangroves. A recent, and very serious threat, recorded in Nepal and Cambodia, is the practice of poisoning pools to catch fish, which leads to incidental mortality of this species <strong></strong>(Gyawali 2004, S. Browne <em>in litt</em>. 2005). The extensive nesting colonies outside protected areas in Assam in the 1990s (Choudhury 2000) have recorded drastic declines owing to the cutting down of trees and drying up of some feeding sites (A. Choudhury<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106003841		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is sedentary or locally nomadic (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Populations in the north and south generally move towards the equator after breeding and other populations making dispersive movements in relation to water availablity (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or prey abundance (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). In the tropics the species begins to breed in the dry season, but in the equatorial zone the timing of breeding is more variable (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It breeds in colonies numbering from 20-60 up to several thousand pairs and often nests with other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). When not breeding the species often remains gregarious, feeding in groups and gathering at night in communal roosts of up to 1,000 individuals (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992). It may also associate with herds of large mammals in order to catch insects disturbed by their movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits open dry savannas, grasslands, swamps, riverbanks, lake shores and receding pools (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) where fish are concentrated (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992), typically foraging in and around fishing villages (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet </B>Its diet consists predominantly of carrion and scraps of fish discarded by humans as well as live fish, termites, locusts, frogs, lizards, snakes, rats, mice and birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. adult flamingoes <I>Phoenicopterus</I> spp.) (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is constructed of sticks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and is positioned 10-30 m above the ground in trees, on cliffs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or on buildings in towns and villages (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982). The species breeds colonially in single- or mixed-species groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), usually in close proximity (less than 50-60 km) to a reliable food source (Hancock <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003841		threats	eng	<B>Utilisation</B> This species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).
106003842		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Assam, it occurs in Kaziranga, Manas and Dibru-Saikhowa National Parks. Since 1991, there have been conservation awareness programmes in Assam. In Nagaon district, Assam, Green Guards (a local NGO) had a project to protect nesting trees and rehabilitate chicks fallen from nests but this has now stopped (A. Choudhury <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In Cambodia, the breeding colony at Prek Toal is a core area of the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. Greater Adjutants historically bred at other sites on the Tonle Sap, but these colonies were abandoned by 2001. Conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at Prek Toal have been in place since the late 1990s, with permanent teams of protectors employed since 2001. The small population in the Northern Plains is largely protected within Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary. Since 2001, c.95% of waterbird egg and chick collection has been prevented at Prek Toal. It is included in waterbird conservation awareness material in Laos and Cambodia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in Cambodia, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Investigate seasonal movements and threats. Protect nesting and feeding-sites outside protected areas, and plant trees in suitable areas; the nest payment system in Cambodia may be a suitable model. Rewarding the owners of nesting trees may be a means to encourage pride in the conservation of the species (A.R. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Promote strict control of pesticide use around feeding areas. Continue and strengthen on-going conservation actions at the Prek Toal colony, Tonle Sap lake. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Establish a wildlife protection office at Tonle Sap lake.<strong> </strong>Draft and enforce waterbird conservation legislation at Tonle Sap lake. Expand conservation awareness programmes. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Initiate a relief  programme and promote alternative livelihoods to communities dependent  on harvesting large waterbird colonies in Cambodia. Widely implement a policy of rescuing, rehabilitating and releasing chicks that fall from nests for natural reasons, such as during thunder storms (Singha and Rahmani 2006, Singha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and consider placing nets under nest-trees and conducting regular checks at colonies (Singha<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). <br/><p></p></span>
106003842		distribution	eng	<em>Leptoptilos dubius</em> was previously widespread and common across  much of South and continental South-East Asia but declined dramatically  during the first half of the 20th century  (Birdlife International  2001). It is known to breed in Assam, <strong>India</strong> (at least 650-800 birds, or more [Choudhury 2000]<strong></strong>), and at the Tonle Sap lake (c.75 pairs) and in Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary in the Northern Plains (c.15-20 pairs), <strong>Cambodia </strong>(T. Clements <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The species was reported to be breeding in Bihar, India, in 2004, and a small breeding population was discovered in the state on the Ganga and Kosi river floodplains in 2006 (Mishra and Mandal 2009). The population there appears to be increasing, with at least 156 estimated in 2008 and over 300 individuals in 2011, up from 78 in 2007 (Mishra and Mandal 2009, Kahn 2011). Recent records from <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, and <strong>Thailand</strong> are presumed to refer to wanderers from India and Cambodia. Huge numbers once bred in <strong>Myanmar</strong>, but there have been just two recent reports from Meinmahla Kyun in 1998 and Kachin State in 2006<strong> </strong>(G Chunkino <em>in litt</em>.  2006). There are no confirmed records from Laos in recent years.  Breeding success in recent seasons has been extremely poor in Assam: the  number of nests in colonies is declining sharply, but for unknown  reasons (Goswami and Patar 2006)<strong></strong>. Despite this, large  flocks of a few hundred birds are still noted around the city of  Guwahati, which may provide feeding areas for around half of the  species's world population (Choudhury 2008). Available data suggest that  Cambodian populations declined heavily in the decades up to and  including the 1990s. By 2001, several breeding sites recorded in the  1990s had been abandoned. Since 2001, protection measures at two known  breeding sites (Prek Toal on the Tonle Sap and Kulen Promtep in Preah  Vihear) have led to a stabilisation of national population declines and  possible minor recoveries (Clements <em>et al</em>. 2007a, b).<em> </em><p></p>
106003842		habitat	eng	While breeding in the dry season (October-May/June) it inhabits wetlands, nesting in tall trees, bamboo plantations and historically on cliffs. Breeding is thought to coincide with the dry season in order to take advantage of abundant prey as water levels recede (Singha <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In north-east India, it occurs close to urban areas, feeding around wetlands in the breeding season, and dispersing to scavenge at rubbish dumps, abattoirs and burial grounds at other times. In Cambodia, it breeds in freshwater flooded forest and areas of dry forest with ephemeral pools, otherwise dispersing to seasonally inundated forest, carcass dumps, tall wet grassland, mangroves and intertidal flats.  <p></p>
106003842		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 800-1,200 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,200-1,800 individuals in total. This is based on estimates of 650-800 birds in Assam, India, plus 150-200 birds in Cambodia, as well as at least 156 birds in Bihar state, India, which may have dispersed from the Assam population.
106003842		threats	eng	The key threats are direct exploitation, particularly at nesting colonies, habitat destruction, including some felling of nest-trees, and drainage, conversion, pollution and over-exploitation of wetlands. Additionally, the Indian population is threatened by reduced use of open rubbish dumps for the disposal of carcasses and foodstuffs. It has been suggested that recent nesting failures in Assam may be due to disease (Goswami and Patar 2006)<strong></strong>, which may have a negative impact upon the species in the future. Young birds may also become entangled in fishing nets and the species may suffer from the  disturbance of arboreal animals, competition for nesting  habitat from the Lesser Adjutant <span style="font-style: italic;">L. javanicus</span> and the exacerbation  of persecution levels owing to its pest status (Mishra and Mandal 2009). Poisoning of small wetlands to catch fish in the dry forests of northern and eastern Cambodia potentially poses a significant threat, and in Guwahati, India, pesticide use at open rubbish dumps where storks flocked to feed led to several mortalities in 2005. <br/><p></p>
106003843		distribution	eng	This species is distributed on the Pacific and Atalantic coasts of America, from California (<B>USA</B>) to <B>Ecuador</B> (including the Galapagos), and from Florida to south <B>Brazil</B>. One relict population breeds at <B>Cape Verde</B> off the coast of Africa. Outside the breeding season it is largely sedentary, with the dispersal of immature and non-breeding individuals.  </P>
106003843		habitat	eng	The Magnificent Frigatebird often nests in mangroves, but also in bushes and even on cactus. It can breed on the ground (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Data reveals it is almost continuously on the wing, with morphology and flight pattern resulting in extremely low costs of foraging, relying on prey driven to the surface by underwater predators such as tuna. Low cost of flight due to extensive use of thermals allows exploitation of tropical waters in which prey is scarce (Weimerskirch et al. 2003). It feeds mainly on flying-fish and squid, but also jellyfish, baby turtles, seabird eggs and chicks, offal and fish scraps (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003844		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A cat eradication programme has been in operation on Ascension for several years under the guidance of the RSPB and has already resulted in the return of some seabird species to the mainland, although this is not yet the case for Ascension Frigatebirds (N. Ratcliffe<em> in litt.</em> 2000, 2003, G. Hilton <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Ratcliffe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Boatswainbird is a bird sanctuary (Orta 1992a)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete and monitor the effects of cat eradication on Ascension. Use independent observers on longline vessels to investigate the numbers of this species killed (Ratcliffe 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Instigate measures to prevent future mortalities by long-lining if this is proven to be a threat (Ratcliffe 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure sustainable use of the fisheries around Ascension Island (Ratcliffe 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct further research on breeding behaviour of marked birds (Pickup 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor changes in distribution, productivity and long-term population trends. <p></p>
106003844		distribution	eng	<em>Fregata aquila</em> now breeds only on Boatswainbird Islet, a flat-topped, steep-sided rock, 250 m off the north-east coast of Ascension Island<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong> in the Atlantic Ocean. Since the early 1800s, when it bred on Ascension Island itself, the population has suffered serious declines and, in 1997, was estimated to lie between 5,000-10,000 individuals (Pickup 1998)<strong></strong>. Current estimates for breeding and mature females are 6,250 and 9,341 respectively, based on census data from 2001-2002; suggesting c.12,500 mature individuals, assuming an equal sex ratio (Ratcliffe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Determining population trends for this species is problematic due to difficulties in carrying out census work, poor baseline information and the high number of mature non-breeders in the population (Pickup 1998, Ratcliffe 1999)<strong></strong>. However, the use of a 'virtual ecologist' model on recent census data, alongside historic data, point to a stable population (Ratcliffe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It probably spends much time far from the island and has been recorded as a vagrant on the west African coast from the Gulf of Guinea to the mouth of the Congo (Ashmole <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003844		habitat	eng	It is a surface-feeder, feeding on fish, particularly <em>Cypsilurus</em> and <em>Hirundichthyes</em> and Flying-fish <em>Exocoetus volitans,</em> and newly hatched Green Turtles <em>Chelonia mydas</em>. Breeding occurs in four loose colonies (Orta 1992a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mainly on the summit plateau, especially on rougher areas with some groups of birds occupying ledges on the sides of the plateau (Ashmole <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding probably occurs year-round, but there is evidence of some seasonality with laying increasing from May and peaking in October, then declining to a minimum in February-April (Ashmole <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its clutch-size is one and breeding success is low. <p></p>
106003844		population	eng	The current population of mature females is estimated at 9,341 (95% CI: 8,587-10,113), based on census data from 2001-2002, suggesting there may be c.18,682 mature individuals, assuming an equal sex ratio. The confidence intervals for the number of mature females are doubled and rounded to provide a range estimate of 17,000-21,000 for the number of mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 25,000-32,000 individuals in total.
106003844		threats	eng	Historically, it has suffered severe declines due to predation by humans, introduced Black Rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> and most especially feral cats (Ashmole <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and there is still a threat of cats reaching Boatswainbird from Ascension Island (Orta 1992a)<strong></strong>. Despite the cat eradication programme that is ongoing on the main island, the species has failed to recolonize the main island in contrast to several other seabird species (Ratcliffe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Since 1988, a Japanese longline fishery has been operating in the area and could be causing significant mortality (Ratcliffe 1999)<strong></strong> although there is no direct evidence for this at present (N. Ratcliffe<em> in litt.</em> 2000, 2003)<strong></strong>. However, it is known to be caught on baited hooks of the local sport fishery, indicating potential vulnerability to bycatch mortality (Ratcliffe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Possible over-fishing of tuna could be an indirect threat, as predatory fish herd shoals of small fish to the surface where they become available to surface-feeding seabirds (Ratcliffe 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003845		distribution	eng	Major breeding populations of the Greater Frigatebird are found in tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian Ocean, as well as one population in the South Atlantic (Trinidade and Martim Vaz, <strong>Brazil</strong>). It is predominately sedentary, with immature and non-breeding individuals dispersing throughout the tropical seas with the exception of the east and central Atlantic. <p></p>
106003845		habitat	eng	The Greater Frigatebird breeds on small, remote tropical and sub-tropical islands, in mangroves or bushes and occaisionally on bare ground (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Fish, squid and chicks of other bird species (e.g. Sooty Terns) have all been identified as prey (Weimerskirch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It is frequently observed attempting to steal food from other bird species (kleptoparasitism) (Vickery and Brooke 1994). However, this behaviour represents a minor source of energy (Vickery and Brooke 1994, Weimerskirch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and they are frequently observed foraging at the coast or inland at most places where they breed (Weimerskirch et al. 2004).   <p></p>
106003846		distribution	eng	Major breeding populations of the Lesser Frigatebird are found in tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Ocean (excluding the east Pacific), as well as one population in the South Atlantic (Trinidade and Martim Vaz, <strong>Brazil</strong>). Outside the breeding season it is sedentary, with immature and non-breeding individuals dispering throughout tropical seas, especially of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003846		habitat	eng	The Lesser Frigatebird breeds on small, remote tropical and sub-tropical islands, in mangroves or bushes, and even on bare ground. It feeds mainly on fish (especially flying-fish) and squid, but also on seabird eggs and chicks, carrion and fish scraps (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Kleptoparasitic behaviour is observed in this species; however it is unlikely to be a major chick-provisioning resource (Congdon and Preker 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003847		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Listed as vulnerable under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Christmas Island National Park was established in 1980, and has since been extended to include two of the three current breeding colonies (90% of the population) (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recovery plan has been completed (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a study using satellite telemetry to study movements has been underway since 2005 (J. Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2008, <em></em>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s was initiated after 2000, including aerial baiting in 2002, and effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent) (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003, Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the ant population continued to increase, covering upwards of 500 ha by 2006. Despite continued control efforts, ants remained persistent in 2009, and perpetual baiting may be the only means of controlling them (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Efforts are underway to find alternative bait that is not toxic to invertebrates on the island (Olsen 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plans have been established to control the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions in order to reduce this food supply, but there remains no evidence that they are adversely affecting frigatebird colonies (Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A census of Christmas Island was planned for April 2010 (Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement the species recovery plan. Continue to control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Develop and implement appropriate techniques to monitor the total/breeding population size and population structure (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analyse existing data on breeding biology and success. Lobby to prevent mining close to colonies. Negotiate protection of all known and potential nesting habitat and appropriate buffers. If necessary, implement appropriate management in feeding habitat in South-East Asia to avoid bycatch etc. Maintain a quarantine barrier between Christmas Island and other lands to minimise the risks of new avian diseases establishing (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003847		distribution	eng	This species is endemic as a breeding species to <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong>. In 2003 it was estimated that there were 1,171 (± 58) breeding pairs. The number of nests was probably between 3% and 16% lower in 2003 than 1985 (one generation; 1985 estimates ranging from 1,320-1,620 pairs [Stokes 1988]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), but this may not be an accurate indication of population trends. Due to biennial breeding, the total breeding population is between one and two times the number of pairs nesting per annum (i.e. 1,200-2,400 pairs). An historical review of the extent and decline of the four sub-colonies suggests that the pre-settlement population was about 6,300 breeding pairs per annum, but declined to 4,500 by 1910, 3,500 by 1945, 2,500 by 1967, and 1,500 by 1978. If this reconstruction is correct, then the population declined by about 66% over three generations between 1945 and 2003 (James 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2003 there were four sub-colonies (since reduced to three) covering an area of c.49 ha (Stokes 1988, James 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Flying Fish Cove sub-colony probably contained c.50 ha of habitat in 1887; it underwent an almost complete decline in the early 1900s, and in 2003 it contained only c.10 ha of habitat and two nests. The Dryers sub-colony underwent an almost complete decline by the 1970s, and in 2003 contained c.62 ha of habitat and 20 nests. The Golf Course sub-colony lost c.13 ha (25%) in the 1940s, and in 2003 it contained c.25 ha of habitat and an estimated 828 (± 42) nests. The Cemetery sub-colony contained 46 ha of habitat and an estimated 321 (± 15) nests in 2003 (<strong></strong>James 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 2004 showed a significant increase in number of nests, with 767 nests in 244 nest trees at the largest colony (James 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but surveys in 2005 showed a return to 2003 levels, suggesting that inter-annual variation rather than population growth explains the increase in numbers in 2004. Breeding and non-breeding birds have been recorded foraging at low densities in the Indo-Malay Archipelago (<strong></strong>James 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> over the Sunda Shelf to the South China Sea, the Andaman Sea, the Sulu Sea, off south-west Sulawesi, and in the Gulf of Thailand (Catterral 1997, Vromant and Chau 2007, D. James <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Tebb <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, commuting directly over Java in the process (James 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When not breeding the species ranges widely across the seas of South-East Asia to Indochina and south to northern Australia (Stokes 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but its status in the Indian Ocean to the west is less well known.  <p></p>
106003847		habitat	eng	It nests in tall forest trees. <em>Terminalia catappa</em> and <em>Celtis timorensis</em> trees hold 65.5% of all nests (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong></strong>.It is only capable of raising a maximum of one fledgling every two years. It forages for flying fish, squid and other marine creatures, and is largely dependent on subsurface predators to drive prey to the surface. Most food is captured by plucking it from the sea surface while on the wing, but it is also an accomplished aerial kleptoparasite. Evidence suggests that breeding birds frequently forage hundreds or even thousands of kilometres from the colony. Satellite tracking showed that one female with a large chick undertook a non-stop 26-day 4,000 km return flight from Christmas Island via Sumatra and Borneo (James 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Replacement rate of pairs is thought to be extremely slow (15-25 years) rendering the population slow to recover following declines (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003847		population	eng	The most recent population census indicates a population of 2,400-4,800 mature individuals (D. James <i>in litt.</i> 2003), roughly equivalent to 3,600-7,200 individuals in total.
106003847		threats	eng	About a quarter of the breeding area was cleared before 1946 for phosphate mining, and the Flying Fish Cove colony was largely deserted because of continuing dust fallout from phosphate dryers. Future habitat loss is possible through clearance for mining. A new application to mine a 250 ha area of rainforest (P. Green <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> is currently under review. About two thirds of the nests are now located in a single colony, making the species vulnerable to cyclones. Poaching ceased in the 1980s. A possible threat is the introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or about 3,400 ha. Control measures have so far been unable to eradicate this non-native species, but to date frigatebirds have not apparently been adversely affected by them. However, ant super-colonies alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab Gecaroidea natalis, and by farming scale insects which damage the trees. This may alter the breeding habitat of the species in the medium- to long-term (Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Less specific threats include over-fishing and marine pollution, plus clearance of vegetation and hunting on non-breeding roost islands (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003, S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2003, James 2003, Jensen and Tan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Approximately 10% of the population nests outside the national park and does not have any formal protection (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance of vegetation within 300 m of nesting colonies should be avoided (Hill and Dunn 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Frigatebirds are highly susceptible to entanglement in fishing gear, so intense fishing pressure in the South-East Asian waters and severe marine pollution there represent significant threats to the species (James 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research is underway to establish whether a potentially new blood parasite poses a threat to the species (Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003848		distribution	eng	The King Penguin can be found on the <B>Falkland Islands</B> (<B>Islas Malvinas</B>) and <B>South Georgia </B>(<B>Georgias del Sur</B>) off the coast of South America, including the coast of southern <B>Argentina</B> during winter. Colonies are also present on Marion Island and Price Edward Island (<B>South Africa</B>), the Kerguelen Islands and Crozet Island (<B>French Southern Territories</B>), and Macquarie Island (<B>Australia</B>) in the Southern Ocean (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003848		habitat	eng	This marine species spends much of its time near breeding areas. It feeds mostly upon fish but will also take cephalopods. It captures prey by means of pursuit-diving, swimming at up to 12 km/h normally no deeper than 50 m. It arrives at colonies to breed between September and November, forming colonies on flattish beaches with no snow or ice which normally have easy access to the sea (del Hoyo et al. 1992)
106003849		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>The species is the subject of on-going international research. Human disturbance is strictly regulated.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Continue to improve on existing modelling work to better predict future population changes. Carry out further research into the species's ecology to improve understanding of how environmental changes will affect the population. Continue to carefully monitor the thickness, extent and persistence of Antarctic sea ice, and thus the availability of suitable breeding habitat. Continue international work to tackle the drivers of projected climate change.
106003849		distribution	eng	<em>Aptenodytes forsteri</em> has a circumpolar range, restricted when breeding to the coast of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Antarctica</span> where major breeding colonies can be found, amongst other places in the Ross Sea sector, along the coast of Queen Maud Land and Enderby Land (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992)<strong></strong>. A survey of satellite images from 2009 found 46  colonies containing c.238,000 breeding pairs, suggesting a total of  c.595,000 individuals (Fretwell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). This species's breeding colonies are predicted to decline in the northern part of its range by 2025-2052, owing to projected changes in sea ice thickness and extent, as influenced by wind strength and persistence&#160; (Ainley <em>et al</em>. 2010, D. Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010), although there are considerable uncertainties over this. Jenouvrier <em>et al</em>. (2009) predict a decline in the population  viability of the Terre Adelie colony (c.66°S) with increasing frequency  of warm events, which are defined by reduced sea ice extent.<br/><p></p>
106003849		habitat	eng	This species is marine and pelagic, feeding mainly on fish in Antarctic waters (although krill and cephalopods can be important dietary components in places). It nests almost exclusively on fast ice near the coast or on the coast itself, sometimes up to as much as 200 km from the open sea in large colonies. Only three colonies are known to occur on land (Trathan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It has an annual breeding cycle, arriving at colonies between March and April, with egg-laying between May and June (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003849		population	eng	A survey of satellite images from 2009 has confirmed the presence of 46 colonies containing c.238,000 breeding pairs, suggesting a total of c.595,000 individuals (Fretwell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012).
106003849		threats	eng	It is thought to be threatened by the effects of projected climate change, primarily through future decreases in sea ice concentration and thickness, as affected by wind speed and persistence, as well as changes in other climatic variables such as precipitation (Ainley <em>et al</em>. 2010, D. Ainley<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2010). Reductions in sea ice thickness are expected to impact the breeding population because of negative effects on the persistence of fast ice, which colonies rely upon through April-December (D. Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010). The decline of a colony on Emperor Island from c.150 pairs in c.1970 to fewer than 20 pairs by 1999 (at which time it occurred on land), with the apparent disappearance of the colony by 2009, has been linked to a decline in seasonal sea ice duration (Trathan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Disturbance is a threat in some areas, with problems to colonies caused by the proximity of scientific bases and aircraft movements (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992).
106003850		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue/extend long-term monitoring of breeding colonies. Minimize disturbance to breeding colonies. Minimize oil and other pollution in breeding and foraging areas.<br/><p></p>
106003850		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Pygoscelis papua</span> has a circumpolar breeding distribution that ranges in latitude from Cape Tuxon on the Antarctic Peninsula (65°16'S) to the Crozet Islands (46°00'S) (Lynch 2012). The three most important locations, containing 80% of the global population, are the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</span>: 115,327 individuals (Clausen and Huin 2003), South Georgia: 98,867 individuals (<span style="font-weight: bold;">South Georgia &amp; the South Sandwich Islands</span>) (Trathan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996) and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Antarctic Peninsula</span> (incl. South Shetland Island): 94,751 individuals (Lynch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. Unpublished). Other breeding sites include Kerguelen Island: 30,000-40,000 individuals (Weimerskirch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988) and Crozet Island: 9,000 individuals (Jouventin 1994) in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Southern Territories</span>, Heard Island (to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>): 16,574 individuals (Woehler 1993), South Orkney Islands: 10,760 individuals (Lynch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. Unpublished), Macquarie Island (Australia): 3,800 individuals, South Sandwich Islands: 1,572 individuals (Convey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999) and Marion Island (<span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span>): 1,100 (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Small numbers are also found on Prince Edward Island (South Africa) and on Martillo Island and Islas de los Estados in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina </span>(Bingham 1998, Ghys <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Populations on sub-Antarctic islands may have decreased substantially in the past—at Bird Island, South Georgia by c.67% in 25 years (J. P. Croxall<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 1999), at Marion Island by 11% over the period 1994-1997 (Barnes 2000) and on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) by c.45% from 1932-33 to 1995-95 (Bingham 1998)—but, now appear stable (Trathan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Bingham 2002, Clausen and Huin 2003, Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, Forcada and Trathan 2009). Populations may still be declining on Heard Island and on Kerguelen Island (Lescroël<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and Bost 2006). Populations are increasing at most sites where they are monitored on the Antarctic Peninsula, particularly at those sites at the southern extent of their breeding range (Lynch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Lynch 2012). Populations also appear to be increasing on the South Orkney (Forcada and Trathan 2009) and South Sandwich Islands (Convey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The global population was estimated at 314,000 breeding pairs (Woehler 1993), however, a more recent estimate of 387,000 pairs suggests that the population may be increasing, particularly in the south of its range (Lynch 2012). <br/><p></p>
106003850		habitat	eng	Nests on flat beaches or among tussock grasses in South Georgia and the Falkland Islands. Further south, on the Antarctic Peninsula, nests are typically on low lying gravel beaches and dry moraines. Colonies are much smaller than other Pygoscelids, with the largest including only c. 6,000 breeding pairs (Lynch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Opportunistic feeder, preying predominantly on crustaceans, fish, and squid. Preference for foraging inshore, close to the breeding colony.<p></p>
106003850		population	eng	Population trends are difficult to establish because of large year-to-year fluctuations in the size of the breeding population, however, it is believed that several populations have experienced significant declines in the past. The global population was estimated at 314,000 breeding pairs (Woehler 1993), however, a more recent estimate of 387,000 pairs suggests that the population may be increasing, particularly in the south of its range (Lynch 2012).
106003850		threats	eng	Historically, egg collection was widespread on the Falkland Islands (Clausen and Pütz 2002), and some legal egg collection still continues (Otley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Increasing oil exploration around the Falkland Islands is a growing concern (Lynch 2012). Disturbance from tourism has been shown to cause decreased breeding productivity (Trathan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008, Lynch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009) and the associated marine traffic is likely to impact penguins foraging in inshore waters (Lynch et al. 2010). Interactions with fisheries may also be a problem (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<p></p>
106003851		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>This is the most studied penguin species (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992), and is the subject of on-going research. Some colonies are located within protected areas. Human disturbance is strictly regulated.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an improved and more up-to-date population estimate. Continue to monitor population trends. Continue to closely monitor trends in the extent and persistence of sea ice, and associated climatic variables. Carry out further research into the species's ecology to improve understanding of how environmental changes and human activities, such as fishing, will affect the population. Improve predictions of future environmental changes and how these will impact the species's population, and conduct research into the potential effects of fish and krill extraction (D. Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Continue international work to tackle the drivers of projected climate change.
106003851		distribution	eng	<em>Pygoscelis adeliae</em> is found along the entire <span style="font-weight: bold;">Antarctic</span> coast and some of its nearby islands. Individuals are dispersive, moving towards areas of persistent sea ice to moult after breeding (<strong></strong>Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Numbers are increasing in the Ross Sea region and decreasing in the Peninsula region, with the net global population increasing overall (Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). However, analyses based on the modelling of climate effects suggest that the population could start to decline in a few decades (Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, D. Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Although these declines may only start after a warming of 2°C above pre-industrial levels is reached, and overall trends will potentially be positive before this point (D. Ainley<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), BirdLife International has precautionarily projected a population decline approaching 30% over the next three generations, factoring in the potential for negative impacts to take place within this timescale, as well as substantial uncertainties over climate predictions and the adaptability of the species.&#160; <br/><p></p>
106003851		habitat	eng	This species nests on ice-free rocky coasts, often in extensive open areas to accommodate typically large colonies which may be far from the open sea. Females lay two eggs, which are incubated by both sexes in alternating stints. It mainly feeds on krill, with smaller quantities of fish, amphipods and cephalopods. It captures such prey by pursuit diving, usually less than 20 m down (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003851		population	eng	The total number of breeding pairs is estimated at c.2.37 million (range  1.83-2.88 million), based on survey data collated and published by  Woehler (1993) and Woehler and Croxall (1997), equating to at least 4.74 million mature individuals.
106003851		threats	eng	It is thought to be threatened by the effects of projected climate change, primarily through future decreases in sea ice concentration, as affected by wind speed and persistence, as well as associated changes in other climatic variables such as precipitation (Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Reduced suitability of nesting habitat  could result from an increase in the incidence of severe snowfall. In  addition, annual migration and winter survival may be negatively  affected by decreases in sea ice coverage at northern latitudes where  the species requires a few hours of daylight in each 24-hour period  (Ainley <em>et al</em>. 2010, Ballard <em>et al</em>. 2010). The location of research stations near colonies has led to reductions in suitable ground for breeding, excessive visits to colonies and disturbance caused by aircraft movements (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1992), although the impact of disturbance in relation to environmental conditions appears to vary with location (Bricher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Oil-pollution and fishing (for krill and finfish) also pose threats (D. Ainley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003852		distribution	eng	This species has a circumpolar distribution, being found in Antarctica, the <strong>South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur)</strong>, the South Orkneys, South Shetland and <strong>South Georgia</strong> (<strong>Georgia del Sur</strong>), <strong>Bouvet Island</strong> (<strong>to Norway</strong>) and the Balleny Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003852		habitat	eng	This species is solely marine and is mostly found in zones with light ice pack. Its diet is comprised almost exclusively of Antarctic krill, but it will also take fish and other species of crustaceans when possible. Prey capture is apparently by pursuit-diving up to a depth of 70 m, but mostly less than 45 m. It breeds on irregular rocky coasts in ice free areas, forming large colonies of hundreds and thousands of birds and beginning laying in November at the earliest (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003852		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 8 million individuals.
106003854		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Open Bay Island population has been the focus of several recent studies. The Department of Conservation had planned to monitor all colonies for five years followed by five years rest, but, owing to difficulties censusing the species because pairs within colonies are well dispersed under tree-cover, and because disturbance by surveyors was thought to be increasing predation rate, only a selection of colonies are partially monitored every two years. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of coastline not surveyed in the 1990s. Quantify the effect of predators on island and mainland sites (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Eradicate <em>G. australis</em> from Big Solander Island (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Complete a detailed study on foraging ecology to identify potential competition with commercial fisheries and the effects of climatic variation (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Establish guidelines to control visitor access to colonies. Obtain legal protection for accessible colony sites (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003854		distribution	eng	<em>Eudyptes pachyrhynchus</em> nests on Stewart Island and several of its offshore islands, Solander Island and on the west to south-west coast of the South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population is estimated at 2,500-3,000 breeding pairs, mostly nesting on predator-free islands, and divided into 12 major, fragmented breeding sites with c.100 nests or more (McLean <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Numbers appear to be declining in some populations, principally those on the mainland where predators have the greatest impact. At Open Bay Island, there was a decline of 33% between 1988 and 1995 (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and at Dusky Sound there were "thousands" of birds in 1900 but only a few hundred in the 1990s (Russ <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-breeding dispersal patterns at sea are largely unknown. <p></p>
106003854		habitat	eng	It breeds in loose colonies along stretches of coastline in habitats ranging from mature temperate rainforest and dense scrub, to coastal caves and rocky shorelines. Penguins arrive at their breeding sites from mid-June onwards, with most nests established by mid-July. Two eggs are laid, which are incubated by both parents and hatch after 33 days (Warham 1974). Chicks fledge around mid- to late November. The diet is poorly known, but is thought to include fish, squid, octopus and krill (Heather and Robertson 1997). <p></p>
106003854		population	eng	The population has been estimated at c.5,000-6,000 mature individuals (McLean <em>et al.</em> 1997). <p></p> <p></p>
106003854		threats	eng	The endemic Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em> has been introduced to several islands where it preys on eggs and chicks - causing up to 38% of egg mortality and 20% of chick mortality on Open Bay Island (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other predators include dogs (particularly during moulting when adults are confined to the shore for 20-30 days), cats, stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and rats (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds are disturbed by humans at nest-sites, killed on roads, and may be accidentally captured in set-nets. Marine perturbations can cause substantial changes in prey abundance, and a future rise in sea temperatures could have a similar effect. Squid fisheries potentially compete for food (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A marine farm is planned for the Jackson's Bay area where 10% of the population of this species is found (Anon 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003855		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The islands are nature reserves and part of a World Heritage Site declared in 1998. Landing is by permit only (D. Houston <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census all breeding colonies during incubation period. Complete regular counts every 10 years to monitor trends in the population (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Turn World Heritage Site territorial seas (out to 12 nautical miles) into a marine reserve and restrict all fishing (B. Weeber<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003855		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Eudyptes robustus </span>breeds on the Snares Islands (3 km<sup>2</sup>), 200 km south of <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span>. The population was estimated at 23,250 breeding pairs in 1985-1986; 19,000 on North-East Island, 3,500 on Broughton and 750 on the Western Chain islets. In 2000, 25,861 pairs were counted on North-East Island and 4,000 on Broughton (Amey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The 2008 survey produced counts of 21,819 nests on North-East Island and 4,234 nests on Broughton, suggesting that the species had experienced a poor breeding year in line with that observed in the other seabird species present; a repeat survey in 2010 found 25,905 nests on North-East Island and 5,161 nests on Broughton (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population is considered stable (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The wintering range is largely unknown, although occasional records from the waters off Tasmania and South Australia suggest a movement towards Australia (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). <br/><p></p>
106003855		habitat	eng	It nests in dense colonies, of usually between 50 and 500 pairs (mean 200, range 1-1,305 [Department of Conservation unpubl. data]), mostly under the forest on North-East Island, but otherwise in the open (P. J. McClelland <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Chicks are fed on krill (60%), fish (30%) and squid (10%), and that there are indications that fish and squid play a more important role in the diet of adults  (Mattern <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In the breeding season, the species forages predominantly in the Subtropical Convergence Zone during the incubation period and within a 50-km radius to the north of the Snares Islands after hatching (Mattern 2012). It may first breed at four years of age and the oldest known bird lived to 20 years (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. The yellow crest of the species may serve as a condition-dependent indicator to conspecifics, thus potentially a signal of social status or attractiveness (McGraw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003855		population	eng	A survey in 2010 found 25,905 nests on North-East Island and 5,161 nests on Broughton (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), suggesting that there are c.31,000 pairs, or c.62,000 mature individuals. This is assumed to equate to a total population of c.93,000 individuals.
106003855		threats	eng	The main threats are commercial fisheries, oceanographic changes, and oil spills (Mattern 2012). There are no introduced predators on the Snares Islands and consequently the possibility of the accidental introduction of mammals is a continual concern (B. D. Bell verbally 1993)<strong></strong>. The Snares Islands are the site of a large squid fishery, which may be in competition with the species (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Other <em>Eudyptes </em>species in the region are presently undergoing major declines (<em>E. sclateri</em>, <em>E. chrysocome</em>), perhaps due to oceanic warming and the associated change in distribution of prey species (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003856		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cattle and sheep were eradicated from Campbell Island by 1984 and 1992 respectively (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> have been successfully removed from Campbell Island, although their effect on the colony was never studied (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves and part of a World Heritage Site designated in 1998. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census a sample of Antipodes Island colonies every five years, and re-photograph photopoints from 1978 and 1995 expeditions. Census Proclamation Island (Bounty Islands) every five years. Compare aerial and ground surveys of the Bounty Islands to ascertain the viability of using the former method for monitoring colonies (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct detailed studies to determine foraging ranges, commercial fisheries competition, and oceanographic or climatic changes (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003856		distribution	eng	<em>Eudyptes sclateri</em> breeds on the Bounty and Antipodes Islands (1 km<sup>2</sup> and 20 km<sup>2</sup> respectively), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1978, the population on the Bounty Islands was estimated at 115,000 pairs, spread over nine tiny islands (Robertson and van Tets 1982)<strong></strong>. A survey in 1997-1998 estimated a total of 28,000 breeding pairs (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1998, J. Amey <em>per</em> A. M. Booth <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Census methods differed, making comparisons less useful (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>; however, the 2011 survey shows a further 8% decline using the same methodology as in 1997-1998 (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population on the Antipodes in 1978 was believed to be of a similar size to the Bounty Islands in the same year. In 1995, ground surveys indicated c.49,000-57,000 pairs (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, representing a decline of c.50% in 20 years. The survey in 2011 shows a further decline, with c.41,000 pairs counted, representing a decline of 23% (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population on Campbell Island numbered 20-30 pairs in 1986-1987, but no breeding was seen. A few hundred birds bred there in the 1940s (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Winter distribution at sea is largely unknown, the only records being from the Cook Strait and off the east coast of the South Island (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003856		habitat	eng	It nests in large, dense, conspicuous colonies, numbering thousands of pairs, on rocky terrain, often without substantial soil or vegetation, from the spray zone to 75 m elevation (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on krill and squid, and occasionally takes small fish (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003856		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 130,000-140,000 mature individuals, based on estimates of 26,000 breeding pairs on the Bounty Islands in 2011 and 41,000 pairs on the Antipodes Islands in 2011 (J. Hiscock <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Based on the assumption that mature individuals account for around 2/3 of the total population, there are estimated to be c.195,000-210,000 individuals.
106003856		threats	eng	The reason for the large population declines is thought to be associated with marine factors affecting survivorship (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no mammalian predators on the Bounty or Antipodes Islands, except for mice on the main Antipodes Island. <p></p>
106003857		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Long-term monitoring programmes are in place at several breeding colonies (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most breeding islands are protected as reserves of various kinds and Heard and McDonald Islands are a World Heritage Site. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey or resurvey all main breeding populations at major breeding sites, and research its distribution outside breeding season. Maintain monitoring programmes at selected sites. Conduct research into its demography, reproductive performance and foraging ecology (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Investigate the impacts of disease outbreaks on Marion Island and elsewhere (see Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003857		distribution	eng	<em>Eudyptes chrysolophus</em> breeds in at least 216 colonies at 50 sites (Woehler 1993, <strong></strong>Woehler and Croxall 1999)<strong></strong>, including southern <strong>Chile,</strong> the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>, <strong>South Georgia (Georgia del Sur) </strong>and the<strong> South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur)</strong>, the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, <strong>Bouvet Island (to Norway)</strong>, Prince Edward and Marion Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard and McDonald Islands (<strong>to Australia</strong>) and very locally on the Antarctic Peninsula. The total population is c.9 million pairs, with main populations at Ile des Pingouins (Crozet), Heard and McDonald (c.1 million pairs each) Kerguelen (c.1.8 million pairs) and South Georgia (c.2.5 million pairs) (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The South Georgia and Bouvet populations probably increased substantially in the 1960s and early 1970s, but have subsequently decreased. Study populations at South Georgia decreased by 65% in 12 years (1986-1998) (J. P. Croxall unpublished data)<strong></strong> and the overall South Georgia population has probably halved over the last 20 years (Trathan <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Study populations on Marion decreased by 50% between 1979 and 1998 (R. J. M. Crawford unpublished data)<strong></strong>. Numbers in the two main colonies there declined by c.30% between 1994/1995 and 2008/2009, from c.430,000 pairs to c.290,000 pairs, with a decrease of c.50% in numbers at smaller colonies there during the same period (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, R. Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) Populations on Kerguelen increased by c.1% per annum between 1962 and 1985, and subsequent data from 1998 indicated that colonies were stable or increasing (<strong></strong>H. Weimerskirch <em>per</em> T. Micol <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Populations in South America may be stable but data are few. Satellite tracking of individuals during winter revealed that individuals from Kerguelen spent most of their time in a previously unrecognized foraging area, i.e. a narrow latitudinal band (47-49 degrees S) within the central Indian Ocean (70-110 degrees E), corresponding oceanographically to the Polar Frontal Zone (Bost <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. The estimation of a rapid overall decline in this species's population has recently been criticised because of the limited coverage of surveys, apparent changes in survey methodology, a lack of published data to support some local trends and the alleged overestimation of local declines (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2008).<br/><br/><p></p>
106003857		habitat	eng	It nests on level to steep ground, often walking hundreds of metres across steep screes to nest-sites. Breeding areas usually have little or no vegetation due to erosion by birds. It feeds mainly on small krill (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>, although individuals from the Kerguelen Islands foraging in the Indian Ocean during winter do not feed on krill, taking other crustaceans instead (Bost <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003857		population	eng	The total population is c.9 million pairs, with main populations at Ile des Pingouins (Crozet), Heard and McDonald (c.1 million pairs each) Kerguelen (c.1.8 million pairs) and South Georgia (c.2.5 million pairs).
106003857		threats	eng	Known threats at its main breeding grounds are those common to all Southern Ocean species, such as the existing and potential impact of commercial fishing, and ocean warming (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, although oil pollution is no longer considered a likely threat (I. C. T. Nisbet<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The numbers breeding in colonies on Marion Island have shown declines following disease outbreaks (Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003858		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Studies of foraging ecology and breeding biology have been completed. Monitoring of breeding population size and success is ongoing. Feral cats have now been eliminated from Macquarie Island. A rodent eradication programme was underway, but not completed in January 2012 (R. Gales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Tourists on breeding islands are managed to prevent disturbance.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Determine trends in numbers. Monitor rates and effects of marine debris ingestion. Monitor the effects of fishing. Establish demographic parameters, particularly survival of different age classes. Study the potential impacts of climate change. Control rat populations. <p></p>
106003858		distribution	eng	<em>Eudyptes schlegeli</em> is confined to Macquarie Island and nearby Bishop and Clerk Islands, <strong>Australia</strong>. However, small numbers of similar-looking birds appear at other sub-Antarctic islands, indicating that it may breed elsewhere. It was heavily exploited in the 19th century, but has recovered and, in 1984-1985, an estimated 850,000 pairs were breeding on Macquarie, with an earlier count of over 1,000 pairs on Bishop and Clerk. The population is believed to be stable. <p></p>
106003858		habitat	eng	It nests in huge colonies on bare, level, pebbly, rocky or sandy ground. When breeding, it feeds on euphausiids, fish and squid. Its ecology and movements during the winter when away from the island are unknown (<strong></strong>Christidis and Boles 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003858		population	eng	In 1984-1985, the breeding population on Macquarie Island was estimated at 850,000 pairs, with an earlier count of over 1,000 pairs on Bishop and Clerk Islands (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106003858		threats	eng	It has been argued that there is currently no plausible and serious threat to the species (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). On land, rats take some eggs and young. Breeding success can be reduced as a result of disturbance by researchers and tourists. Marine pollution, particularly ingested plastics, kills some birds. Fishing around sub-Antarctic islands may also adversely affect the species. The most likely long-term threat is the effect of climate change on sea-surface temperature and food supply. Disease outbreaks represent another potential threat to the species (R. Gales <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003859		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A wide range of research projects has been completed in the South Island. The Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust was formed to raise awareness and funds. Many mainland sites have been fenced to minimise trampling by farm stock. Predator trapping is intensive during the breeding season in several South Island sites, and habitat is being restored (Heather and Robertson 1997, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Distribution data were in the process of being published in early 2012 (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain accurate census data for the Auckland Islands. Census South Island colonies every five years, and study sites annually (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Eradicate predators from Auckland Islands. Investigate the impact of commercial fishing activity on Yellow-eyed Penguins (set-netting and because of evidence that bottom disturbance by trawling/dredging may influence penguin behaviour and food quality). Regulate tourist access to breeding colonies on South Island.  <p></p>
106003859		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Megadyptes antipodes</span> is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span> where it breeds on the South Island's south-east coast (523 pairs in 2010-2011 [D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), Stewart Island and offshore islands of Stewart Island (220-400 pairs in 1994, dropping to 178 pairs in 1999-2001 [Massaro and Blair 2003]), Auckland Islands (520-570 pairs) and Campbell Islands (405 pairs) (Moore 2001, D. Houston<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). Two severe mortality events in 1986 and 1990 each halved the number of South Island pairs, and in 2004 50% of chicks in South Island were killed by <span style="font-style: italic;">diptheritic stomatisis </span>(D. Houston<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). However, numbers have recovered to 1980 levels (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). The Catlins population (south-east coast of South Island) may have declined by 75% since the 1940s (Williams 1995, Heather and Robertson 1997). Numbers of individuals on Campbell Island declined between 1987 and 1998 (Moore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Adults are sedentary, but juveniles disperse north as far as the Cook Strait (Marchant and Higgins 1990).<br/><p></p>
106003859		habitat	eng	On islands it usually nests in forest, while in the South Island it tends to nest in scrub remnants (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. Nests must have surrounding vegetation that conceals them from visual contact with conspecifics for successful breeding (Seddon and Davis 1989)<strong></strong>. It is a solitary breeder. Two eggs are laid in mid-September to mid-October, with hatching occurring at the beginning of November. Chicks fledge from mid-February to mid-March (Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. It feeds primarily on red cod, opal fish, sprat (van Heezik 1990)<strong></strong>, silversides, ahuru, blue cod and squid (Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The species's generation length is estimated to be 5-7 years (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003859		population	eng	Moore (1992) estimated a total population of 5,930-6,970 birds in 1988/1989, comprising 3,560-4,180 breeders and 2,370-2,790 non-breeders (McKinlay 2001).<br/>      <br/><p></p> <p></p>
106003859		threats	eng	Introduced ferret <em>Mustela furo</em>, stoat <em>M. erminea</em> and cats are major predators in the South Island. On Stewart Island, the level of threat posed by cats is unclear because of a high rate of chick mortality through starvation and disease (King 2008). Cats are present on Auckland Island, but are absent from Campbell Island, Codfish Island and Enderby Island (D. Houston<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Predation by pigs on the main Auckland Islands is known to occur (B. McKinlay per D. Houston in litt. 2012), but the impact is not known and could be significant. Rogue female Hooker's sea lions eat 20-30 birds annually on the Otago Peninsula (Lalas <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Population crashes may be due to avian malaria or biotoxins (Anon 2004)<strong></strong>, and food shortages due to sea temperature changes may also be a periodic problem (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Disease appears to be a major problem in some populations in some years, with diptheritic stomatisis (caused by the bacteria<em> Corynebacterium amycolatum</em>) and a <em>Leucocytozoon</em> blood parasite (formerly only known from Fiordland penguins) major causes of mortality for chicks (<strong></strong>Houston 2005, <strong></strong>Hill <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Human disturbance, even from tourists at breeding colonies, negatively affects fledgling weight and probability of survival (McClung <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. Drowning in fishing nets and accidental fires are additional known threats (Rance 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003860		distribution	eng	The Little Penguin has a narrow distribution from the Chatham Islands (<B>New Zealand</B>) in the east to the south-western tip of <B>Australia<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003860		habitat	eng	This species occurs in temperate marine waters, mainly feeding on pelagic shoaling fish, cephalopods and occasionally crustaceans. It captures prey by pursuit diving, frequently swimming round a shoal of fishg in concentric circles before plunging into its midst. It is known to dive up to 69 m and usually feeds along. Breeding has been recorded in all month with the exact timing depending on locality and year. It forms colonies, nesting in burrows on sandy or rocky islands, often at the base of cliffs or in sand dunes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population in Australia is estimated as under 1,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003861		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. In South Africa, all breeding localities are national parks, nature reserves or otherwise protected. Collection of guano and eggs is prohibited within penguin colonies (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Oiled birds are rehabilitated with great success (Nel and Whittington 2003)<strong></strong>. More than 80% of birds admitted for rehabilitation are returned successfully to the wild (Nel and Whittington 2003)<strong></strong>. In one study it was found that the age at first breeding of five oiled and rehabilitated birds did not differ significantly from populations on Robben and Dassen Islands (Whittington <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Since 1995 there has been a captive breeding programme at an aquarium in Cape Town, where around six birds are bred annually, and a total of 14 have been released nearby (Lahana 2003)<strong></strong>. This programme has contributed to public awareness and education (Lahana 2003)<strong></strong>. Research into feeding behaviour involving the use of satellite-tracking and transponders is ongoing (Koenig 2007)<strong></strong>. On Dyer Island, the effects of guano collection in the past are being mitigated by the installation of small fiberglass igloos as nest-sites, with 200 put in place by 2006 and an eventual target of 2,000, roughly one for every pair in the colony (Hanes<em> </em>2006 theithacajournal.com)<strong></strong>. These artificial nest-sites are used by pairs very soon after installation, and if the programme is successful it will be expanded to other colonies in South Africa (Hanes<em> </em>2006 theithacajournal.com)<strong></strong>. A research project into the potential positive impacts of small marine no-take zones surrounding breeding colonies is underway, with results in the first year showing a decrease in adult foraging effort (Pichegru <em>et al.</em> 2010,<strong> </strong>L. Pichegru <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends at all colonies (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Continue and maintain the SANCCOB oil spill rehabilitation centre. Initiate research into the impacts of fishing and predation (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Protect Namibian breeding localities (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Develop plans to conserve pelagic fish resources (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, namely through management of the purse-seine fishery (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Prevent oilspills from illegal cleaning of ship tanks (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Eliminate feral cats from Bird, Dassen and Robben Islands and implement measures to preclude the introduction of rats to any colonies (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998, Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Investigate reintroduction techniques (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Assess whether climate change is a factor in the shifting of prey populations (Koenig 2007)<strong></strong>. Consider the idea of establishing no-fishing zones around breeding islands (Koenig 2007, L. Underhill <em>per</em> Koenig 2007)<strong></strong>. Consider translocating birds in reaction to shifts in food availability (L. Underhill <em>per</em> Koenig 2007)<strong></strong>. Maintain suitable breeding habitat (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Control the spread of disease (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Establish and then monitor 'trial colonies' close to current concentrations of food resources (R. Wanless <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003861		distribution	eng	<em>Spheniscus demersus</em> breeds at 25 islands and four mainland sites in <strong>Namibia</strong> and <strong>South Africa </strong>(Kemper <em>et al.</em> 2007)<sup></sup>. It has been recorded as far north as Gabon and Mozambique (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding on Neglectus Island, Namibia, was confirmed in 2001, following the absence of confirmed breeding since 1952 at least, and an increase in numbers since 1995 (Roux <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2003, there were thought to be 11 breeding pairs on the island (Roux <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the species colonised Stony Point and Boulders Beach on the South African mainland, and recolonised Robben Island (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Immigration to mainland sites in recent years has been attributed to an eastward shift in the species's prey populations (R. Crawford <em>per</em> Koenig 2007, <strong></strong>L. Underhill <em>per</em> Koenig 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Just seven islands now support 80% of the global population. The most important sites in South Africa are Dasssen island: 13,283 pairs, St Croix Island: 8,077 pairs, Robben Island: 3,697 pairs, Bird Island (Nelson Mandela Bay): 2,822 pairs, Dyer Island: 2,076 pairs and the Boulders: 1,075 pairs (Kemper et al. 2007). In Namibia, Mercury Island held 1,813 pairs in 2006 (Kemper et al. 2007). Its population at the beginning of the 21st century had fallen to about 10% of its numbers 100 years before. The total population was estimated at 141,000 pairs in 1956-1957, 69,000 pairs in 1979-1980, 57,000 pairs in 2004-2005 and 36,000 pairs in 2006-2007 (Kemper <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Declines have continued, with the global population in 2009 estimated at just 25,262 pairs (R. Crawford <em>in litt.</em> 2010, J. Kemper <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, equating to a decline of 60.5% over 28 years (three generations). <p></p>
106003861		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The adults of this species are largely sedentary but some movements occur in response to prey movements (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. They generally remain within 400 km of their breeding locality, although they have been recorded up to 900 km away (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. They breed and moult on land before taking to the sea where they remain for four months before returning to land for the next breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. Small crèches of up to five juveniles may form at the breeding site (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. On gaining independence, juveniles disperse up to 1,900 km from their natal colonies (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, with those from the east heading west, and those from the west and south moving north (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. Most birds later return to their natal colony to moult and breed (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>, although the growth of some island colonies has been attributed to the immigration of first-time breeders tracking food availability (Crawford 1998, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Adults nest colonially<strong></strong> and at sea forages singly, in pairs, or sometimes co-operatively in small groups if up to 150 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Hockey 2001, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. It breeds year round with peak months varying locally (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. In the north-west part of the range, peak laying occurs during the months of November to January, in the south-west it occurs between May and July and in the East Colonial between April and June (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>.  <strong>Habitat </strong>This species is marine, and is usually found in seas within 40 km of the shore, coming ashore on inshore islands or isolated areas of the mainland coast<strong></strong> to breed, moult and rest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992, Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>Breeding </em>Breeding habitats range from flat, sandy islands with sparse or abundant vegetation, to steep rocky islands with practically no vegetation, although the former is preferred (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. It is sometimes found close to the summit of islands and may move over a kilometre inland in search of breeding sites (Hockey 2001)<strong></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>At sea its distribution is restricted to the area influenced by the Benguela Current (Williams 1995)<strong></strong>. It usually feeds within 12 km of the coastline (Kemper <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> Adults feed on pelagic schooling fish of 50-120mm in length (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. Important prey includes sardines (<em>Sardinops sagax</em>), anchovies (<em>Engraulis capensis</em>), pelagic goby <em>Sufflogobius bibarbatus</em>, and herring (<em>Etrumeus teres</em>) (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 1985, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. In some localities cephalopods also represent an important food source (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 1985)<strong></strong>. Juveniles tend to prey on fish larvae (Hockey 2001)<strong></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is often built in burrows that are dug in guano or sand (Shelton <em>et al.</em> 1984, Hanes<em> </em>2006 theithacajournal.com)<strong></strong>. Nests may also occur in depressions under large boulders or bushes (Hockey 2001)<strong></strong>. Nesting in open areas has become increasingly common owing to the past harvesting of guano (Hanes<em> </em>2006 theithacajournal.com)<strong></strong>. At some sites artificial nest-burrows made from pipes and boxes sunken into the ground have been regularly used by the species (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. The average age at first breeding is thought to be 4-6 years (Whittington <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106003861		population	eng	The Namibian population was estimated at c.5,000 breeding pairs in 2008, and the South African population at c.21,000 breeding pairs in 2009 (R. Crawford <em>in litt.</em> 2010), thus, the figure used here is 52,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to 75,000-80,000 individuals in total.
106003861		threats	eng	Population declines are largely attributed to food shortages, resulting from large catches of fish by commercial purse-seine fisheries, and environmental fluctuations. A decrease in foraging effort at the St Croix Island colony following the establishment of a 20 km no-take zone provides some support for this theory (Pichegru <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An eastward shift in sardine and anchovy populations is also blamed, with the biomass of these species near the largest breeding islands west of Cape Town falling sharply since 2002 (R. Crawford <em>per</em> Koenig 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The abundance of these prey species is known to influence breeding success, which may often be too low to maintain population equilibrium (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Human disturbance and egg-collecting appear to have been additional factors in the species's declines (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Tourists may cause nest-burrows to collapse, and their presence in large numbers may deter young birds from breeding. Mortality from oil spills is serious and may increase if proposed development of harbours close to colonies proceeds. In addition, most of the population is confined to just two areas, both near to major shipping ports (Nel and Whittington 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of birds oiled since 1990: two individual oil spills (in 1994 and 2000) have killed 30,000 individuals, despite successful rehabilitation programmes (Nel and Whittington 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, breeding success on Robben island fell to 0.23 chicks per pair in 2000, compared with an average of 0.62 ±0.19 over the other 15 years from 1989 to 2004 (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Without continuing rehabilitation, the population is set to decrease 17-51% over the next 20 years (Nel and Whittington 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, rehabilitation does not necessarily prevent problems in the years after a spill. During 2001-2005, pairs involving at least one bird rehabilitated from the oil spill in 2000 achieved lower fledging success (43%), mostly owing to higher mortality in older chicks, compared to unaffected pairs (61%) and those involving at least one bird affected by a previous oil spill (71%) (Barham <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This may indicate physiological or behavioural problems that reduce the parents' ability to meet the food requirements of older chicks, perhaps owing to the toxicity of the heavy oil in the 2000 spill, or the effects of prolonged captivity and time between oiling and washing (Barham <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Guano collection has historically been a major cause of disturbance at many colonies and its removal has deprived penguins of nest-burrowing sites, causing birds to nest on open ground where they are more vulnerable to heat stress resulting in the abandonment of nests, flooding of nests by rain and increased predation (Hockey <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The cape fur seal <em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em> competes with penguins for food, displaces them from breeding sites and is a periodic predator. Limited mortality in fishing nets may increase if gill-nets are set near colonies (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recently the potentially major effects of individual storms on breeding colonies at certain sites has been highlighted (de Villiers 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sharks take birds at sea and Kelp Gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em> and feral cats prey on eggs and chicks at colonies (Crawford 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003862		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected (Vilina <em>et al</em>. 1995, Cheney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction (American Bird Conservancy <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan (Cheney 1998, P. Majluf <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Campaigning has prevented the construction of one coal mine at Punta Choros, though two more may still be built (G. Knauf <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population throughout its breeding range (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Create marine reserves around colonies (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998, American Bird Conservancy <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reduce fish harvests around major colonies (American Bird Conservancy <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and elsewhere during ENSO events (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve waste treatment in coastal regions (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003862		distribution	eng	<em>Spheniscus humboldti</em> occurs in coastal <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong> with vagrants recorded north to Colombia (Morales Sanchez 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been declining since the mid-19th century, but the 1982-1983 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000-21,000 birds to 5,180-6,080 (<strong></strong>Hays 1984,<strong> </strong>Hays 1986, <strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. By 1995-1996, this had increased to 10,000-12,000 birds (Cheney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The 1997-1998 ENSO resulted in further declines to 3,300 birds (P. Majluf <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 1996 (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but had recovered to six by 1999 (T. Valqui <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2000, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds was clustered in just five colonies (Paredes <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A survey in 2004 estimated a total population of around 5,000 individuals, with birds present at 21 sites, 16 of which were considered breeding sites, although only 6 of these held more than 200 birds (American Bird Conservancy <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984-1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the north and central coastal areas in 1999 (Paredes <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 2002 found nesting at 9 islands, with a total population of 9,000 pairs, 7,000 of which were at Chañaral Island. A repeat visit to Chañaral in 2003 recorded 20,000 individuals, mostly moulting (Ayala <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1998, a population and habitat viability analysis suggested that extinction was likely within 100 years (Cheney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003862		habitat	eng	<strong>Breeding site</strong> It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves (<strong></strong>Cheney 1998, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Reproductive behaviour</strong> Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in May and July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile (Cheney 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan) (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Migratory range</strong> There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru and occasionally over 600 km (Culik and Luna-Jorquera 1997, Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on schooling anchoveta <em>Engraulis ringens</em>, squid and other small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders travelling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years (<strong></strong>Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range</strong> Humboldt Penguins are central place foragers during the breeding season, since they must return to their nests between foraging trips. As a pelagic predator, the Humboldt Penguin is highly dependent on predictable food resources in coastal waters near its nesting sites (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It typically makes short, shallow dives within 30 m of the surface (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Isla Pan de Azúcar, Chile, it was found that maximum dive depth was 53 m. Mean distance travelled during foraging trips was 26.5 km, with a minimum and maximum distance of 8.1 and 68.7 km respectively. 90% of the birds remained within 35 km of their breeding colony (<strong></strong>Culik <em>et al</em>. 1998, Luna-Jorquera and Culik 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Punta San Juan, Peru, the average maximum distance from the colony of all foraging trips was 19.8 km (Boersma <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Following breeding failure, non-breeding birds take longer foraging trips, make deeper and longer dives and dive less often per hour at sea than do breeding birds (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2002). Mean and maximum foraging trip duration were both significantly longer in failed breeders than in breeding birds (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003862		population	eng	The population estimate of 3,300-12,000 individuals is derived from P. Majluf in litt. (1999). In light of this it is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106003862		threats	eng	The primary threats for this species are mortality caused by entanglement in artisanal fishery nets, illegal capture for consumption and the pet trade (American Bird Conservancy <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano (Williams, T. D. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Guano is still harvested in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probably relate to over-fishing of anchoveta <em>Engraulis</em> spp. stocks (Williams, T. D. 1995, Cheney 1998, Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other threats include capture for use as fish bait, use of explosives by fishermen, mining activities, human disturbance, predation by Andean fox, rats and cats, and marine pollution (Cheney 1998, <strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1998, Ayala <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One of the major breeding sites in northern Chile is currently threatened by the construction of two coal-fired power stations (G. Knauf <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003863		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Radio-tracking has shown that breeding birds regularly travel long distances, and were found to be frequenting shipping lanes, where many birds were getting oiled. Changes in Chubut provincial law moved the shipping lane after the findings were given significant publicity, and thus the oiling threat has been somewhat reduced<strong> </strong>(Boersma <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a population census in Chile. Monitor effect of the Argentinian anchovy fishery on the Punta Tumbo population. Reduce bycatch and oiling incidents. <p></p>
106003863		distribution	eng	<em>Spheniscus magellanicus</em> breeds on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South America, in <strong>Argentina</strong> (at 63 sites), <strong>Chile</strong> (at least 10 locations), and the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong> (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998), with some migrating north to southern <strong>Brazil</strong><strong></strong> (Frere <em>et al.</em> 1996). Vagrants have been found as far north as El Salvador in 2007<strong> </strong>(O. Komar <em>in litt. </em>2007), and south to Avian Island (67<span class="character">°, 46'S) on the Antarctic Peninsula (Barbosa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), as well as Australia and New Zealand. The world population is estimated at 1,300,000 pairs: 950,000 along the Argentinian coast, 100,000+ in the Falklands (Malvinas) and 200,000+ in Chile<strong></strong> (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<span class="character"><strong></strong>. Population trends differ between colonies. The two largest colonies in Argentina have both shown decreases during the last decade, but other small colonies have grown<strong></strong> (Schiavini et al. 2005)<span class="character"><strong></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>In Argentina, the Caleta Valdes colony increased from two pairs in the early 1960s to 26,000 pairs in the early 1990s; the Isla Deseado colony more than doubled between 1986 and 1996; the colony at Punta Tumbo has decreased almost 30% since 1987 owing to higher juvenile and young adult mortality; and the Cabo Virgenes colony has remained stable for at least the last 10 years<strong></strong> (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)<span class="character"><strong></strong>. It is reported that the Falkland Islands colonies have declined almost 50% since the 1980s, but data are insufficient to substantiate this<strong></strong> (R. Woods <em>in litt. </em>1999, Pütz <em>et al.</em> 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<span class="character"><strong></strong>. Overall, trends are uncertain but there are significant declines in some areas and substantial mortality owing to a variety of ongoing threats.  <p></p></span></span>
106003863		habitat	eng	Magellanic Penguins tracked by satellite and global location sensor tags during incubation typically foraged more than 100 km, and sometimes as much as 600 km from various colonies in Argentina<strong> </strong>(Boersma <em>et al. </em>2006). Individuals show high site fidelity, with nearly all birds returning to the colony in which they were born, and most adults using the same burrow year after year (Boersma 2009).<br/><strong><sup> <p></p></sup></strong>
106003863		population	eng	The world population is estimated at 1.3 million pairs: 950,000 along the Argentinian coast, at least 100,000 in the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and at least 200,000 in Chile.
106003863		threats	eng	The main threat appears to be oil pollution, which was thought to kill more than 20,000 adults and 22,000 juveniles every year on the Argentinian coast (Gandini <em>et al.</em> 1994) (also the wintering ground for the Falklands population<strong> </strong>[Pütz <em>et al.</em> 2000]), although this threat is now much reduced<strong>.</strong> (I. C. T. Nisbet<em> in litt</em>. 2010). Mortality may increase in the future if petroleum extraction is developed offshore of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). The expanding Argentinian anchovy fishery may threaten the largest known colony at Punta Tumbo, and there is no mechanism to quantify the impact of the fishery<strong> </strong>(BirdLife 2007). Penguins are hunted for bait in Punta Arenas, Chile, and are often caught in fishing nets, particularly in Patagonia (Gandini <em>et al.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Yorio and Caille 1999)<strong></strong>. Fisheries may be having an additional effect, as bycatch includes juvenile hake and anchovy, which are an important part of the species's diet  (Gandini <em>et al.</em> 1999, Pütz <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. Predation from foxes, rats and cats occurs on some islands. Egg-collection occurs at localised sites. El Niño Southern Oscillation events can cause range-wide disruption of breeding (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998). If precipitation regimes at nesting colonies change resulting in more than 2.5 inches of rain falling during a year, a possible consequence of climate change, most chicks will not survive due to burrow collapses and hypothermia (Boersma 2009). Tourism may also disturb individuals at breeding colonies (Boersma 2009). <p></p>
106003864		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The whole Galápagos Penguin population is found within the Galápagos National Park and Marine Reserve. The population is annually monitored and introduced predators are controlled by the Galápagos National Park Sevice. Research projects investigating the marine habitat use, diet, breeding activity and impact of introduced species were carried out between 2003 and 2005 (Vargas 2006, Steinfurth 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue long-term monitoring programmes. Improve fisheries management. Increase protection levels within the Galápagos Marine Reserve in areas of penguin breeding sites (fishery exclusion zones should be set up to a distance of 24 km in each direction from a colony along the coast and extending out to sea for 1.5 km). Investigate marine habitat use by non-breeding birds. Monitor and minimise effects of human disturbance in breeding areas. Monitor and minimise penguin mortality from alien species at breeding sites. Develop stronger regulations in the islands to prevent further mammalian predator introductions. Provide nest-boxes in predator-free areas to help monitor reproductive success. <p></p>
106003864		distribution	eng	<em>Spheniscus mendiculus </em>is endemic to the Galápagos Archipelago, <strong>Ecuador</strong> where its population is thought to number fewer than 2,000 individuals. Approximately 95 % of the Galápagos Penguin's population is found on Isabela and Fernandina Islands in the western part of the archipelago, with the remaining 5 % on Bartolomé, Santiago, Logie and Floreana Islands in the central-south area of the archipelago (Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vargas <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analysis of mark-recapture results indicates that past population estimates were too high. In 1971, 1,931 penguins were counted, equating to a population of 3,400 individuals (Boersma 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The 1982-1983 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population by 77%. After this, the population entered a slow recovery phase. However, the 1997-1998 ENSO induced a further decline of 66% (Mills and Vargas 1997, Boersma 1998,<strong></strong> Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Although the annual penguin census shows a relatively stable and even slightly increasing population trend over the last nine years, the current small population size (1,009 individuals counted in 2007) represents only a small fraction of that in the 1970s (Vargas <em>et al.</em> 2005, <strong></strong>Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al.</em> 2006,<strong></strong> Vargas <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main breeding range stretches along the coast of the two westernmost islands, encompassing approximately 402 km of coastline, where 96% of all nests are found (Steinfurth 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003864		habitat	eng	Located on the equator, the Galápagos Penguin<em> </em>represents the most northerly breeding penguin species. Nonetheless, its distribution is highly linked to the cool and nutrient-rich oceanic waters in the western archipelago that allows for a high density of prey year-round (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. It nests at sea-level, and appears to forage close to shore and at relatively shallow depths (Mills and Vargas 1997, Steinfurth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. Galápagos Penguins breed throughout the year, with two marked peaks from March to May and from July to September coinciding with variation in the upwelling (Steinfurth 2007)<strong></strong>. Recent studies show that during chick-rearing adult birds move up to 23.5 km from the nest, concentrating foraging within 1 km of the shore (Steinfurth <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. While breeding Galápagos Penguins show a high site-fidelity (&gt;80%), non-breeding Galápagos Penguins (adults and juveniles) tend to migrate away from their colony (max. 64 km) (Steinfurth 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003864		population	eng	The population was estimated at 1,800 individuals by Vargas <em>et al.</em> (2005),  Jiménez-Uzcátegui and Vargas (2007, which roughly equates to 1,200 mature individuals.  <p></p> <p></p>
106003864		threats	eng	In recent decades, this species has been influenced primarily by the effects of ENSO on the availability of shoaling fish (Boersma 1998, Vargas <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. This had been most evident in 1982-83 and 1997-98, when the penguin population underwent dramatic declines of 77 % and 65 %, respectively. After this, the population entered a slow recovery phase and annual penguin censuses indicate a relatively stable, and even slightly increasing, population trend over the last nine years, however the current population size is still 48 % below the pre-El Niño population levels (Mills and Vargas 1997, Boersma 1998,<strong></strong> Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998<strong></strong>, Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vargas <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Recovery from the 1982-1983 ENSO may have been slowed by the lower frequency of La Niña cold water events and above average surface water temperatures (Boersma 1998)<strong></strong>. Also, ENSO may have a disproportionate impact on females, which could result in a biased sex ratio, making population recovery slower (Boersma 1998)<strong></strong>. Climate change may lead to an increase in the frequency of ENSO events in the future, which will also reduce the species's resilience to other threats such as disease outbreaks, oil spills, or predation by introduced predators (Boersma 1998, Boersma <em>et al.</em> 2005, Steinfurth and Merlen 2005, Travis <em>et al. </em>2006, Vargas <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Local fishing boats operating in inshore waters in the western part of the archipelago are documented as incidentally drowning Galápagos Penguins due to floating nets and illegally-used bait fisheries in gill nets (Cepeda and Cruz 1994, Simeone <em>et al. </em>1999<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>. Recent plans to establish longline fisheries in the Galápagos raises additional concern. Aside from the impact of by-catch caused by this technique (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, in the case of Galápagos Penguins, it is likely that an increasing demand for bait fish will dramatically increase inshore bait fisheries with all its associated problems.  Contamination from oil spills poses a severe potential threat. Predation by introduced cats (<em>Felis catus</em>) on the Galápagos Penguin population at its main breeding site resulted in adult mortality of 49 % per year (Steinfurth 2007)<strong></strong>. feral cats are also vectors of parasites, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Toxoplasma gondii</span>, which has recently been found in Galapagos penguins (Deem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Mosquitoes (<em>Culex quinquefasciatus</em>) arrived on the Galápagos in the 1980s as a result of human actions. Since they are vectors for avian malaria, and penguins in the genus <em>Spheniscus</em> are highly susceptible to this disease these insects represent a potential new threat for the penguins (Travis <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Indeed, the Plasmodium blood parasite has recently been recorded in Galapagos penguins for the first time (Levin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Many of the above threats are exacerbated by an expanding human population and pressure from tourists visiting the islands. <p></p>
106003865		distribution	eng	The Red-throated Loon is a migratory species which breeds in the Arctic Regions of the northern hemisphere generally breeding north of 50°, and wintering along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America as far south as Florida and California (<strong>USA</strong>), on the coast of <strong>Portugal</strong>, in the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, and on the Pacific coast of Asia as far south as south-east <strong>China<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003865		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory, with inland populations moving south or to the coast after breeding (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species breeds from May onwards, nesting later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). It usually nests solitarily on smaller waters but may nest in loosely colonial groups on larger waters (e.g. several pairs nesting a few metres apart on the same lake) (Snow and Perrins 1998). On migration large flocks of 200-1,200 individuals may form, with similar concentrations occurring on rich marine fishing grounds during the winter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species is most commonly observed singly, in pairs or in small scattered flocks during this season however (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on freshwater pools or lakes in open moorland, blanket bogs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) or open and wet peatland habitats (Campbell 1987). It will nest on pools as small as 10-20 m long or on lakes up to 5 ha in area, showing a preference for those in treeless areas that have well-vegetated margins and low islets or promontories on which to nest (Snow and Perrins 1998). It generally avoids waters with dense floating or emergent vegetation and steep rocks above the water (Snow and Perrins 1998), and if feeding conditions are inadequate in the pool chosen for breeding the species may fly to the coast or to lakes with higher abundances of fish in order to feed (Snow and Perrins 1998). <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents inshore waters along sheltered coasts, occasionally occurring inland (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) on lakes, pools, reservoirs and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, molluscs, frogs, fish spawn (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), aquatic insects, annelid worms (Snow and Perrins 1998) and plant matter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small depression (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, Snow and Perrins 1998) or a mound of plant matter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) built in shallow water up to 10 m from the shore (Snow and Perrins 1998) or very near the water's edge (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) on islets or small promontories (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). Nesting pairs will often re-use the same site in successive years (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Management information</strong> In Scotland attempts have been made to implement education schemes for fishermen and land-owners to try to reduce disturbance and mortality of the species on breeding lakes (Campbell 1987). The introduction of floating artificial nesting rafts may also be successful in increasing the species's breeding success (Campbell 1987).  <p></p>
106003865		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.200,000-590,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt;c.50   individuals on migration and &lt;c.50 wintering individuals in China,   &lt;c.1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan, c.50-10,000 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003865		threats	eng	When breeding the species is threatened by water level fluctuations (Campbell 1987, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), acidification of breeding waters (Campbell 1987, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), heavy metal pollution (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and the afforestation of peatland or moorland habitats (Campbell 1987). It is also sensitive to human disturbance from recreational activities (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and shoreline development (e.g. construction work near breeding lakes) (Meek <em>et al.</em> 1993) and will desert sites if there is too much human activity (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in areas where large concentrations form (e.g. on rich fishing grounds) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), and is highly sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) during this season (Garthe and Huppop 2004). The species suffers mortality at sea and on large lakes due to entanglement and drowning in inshore fishing nets (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).  <p></p>
106003866		distribution	eng	This species has a wide range across northern latitudes, breeding on large, deep freshwater lakes in <B>Russia</B>, Scandinavia, Alaska (<B>USA</B>) and <B>Canada</B>. After breeding inviduals move southwards and towards the sea, wintering in sheltered coasts in the north-east Atlantic, and on the eastern and western coasts of the Pacific (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003866		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). It breeds in isolated solitary pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) from April onwards (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984), nesting later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). On migration the species often forms flocks of c.50 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), generally occurring singly, in pairs or small flocks during the winter (Snow and Perrins 1998) and occasionally forming large congregations in rich coastal fishing areas (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> It breeds on deep, productive, freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or extensive pools with islets, peninsulas and other inaccessible nesting sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is most common on inshore waters along sheltered coasts (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), occasionally also frequenting large inland freshwater bodies (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) such as natural lakes or barrages, lagoons and large rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diets consists predominantly of fish<B></B>although aquatic insects, molluscs, crustaceans and some plant matter may also be taken (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a heap of plant matter placed near the water's edge (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) on islets or hummocks emerging from the water, sometimes also on clumps of grass on the shore (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). <B>Management information</B> In Scotland the construction of floating artificial nesting islands (rafts) on lakes where breeding success was low and/or nests had been flooded succeeded in increasing the breeding success of the species in the area (Hancock 2000). In Sweden it was also found that nesting islands and areas of surrounding water should be included in sanctuaries for this species (Gotmark <I>et al.</I> 1989).
106003866		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.280,000-1,500,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106003866		threats	eng	During the breeding season the species is threatened by the acidification of breeding waters, heavy metal pollution and water level fluctuations (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) especially during the incubation period (Gotmark <I>et al.</I> 1989, Hake <I>et al</I>. 2005). It also suffers from lower reproductive success due to human disturbance (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. from tourists or wetland visitors) (Gotmark <I>et al.</I> 1989) and is indirectly affected by breeding habitat alteration (e.g. afforestation) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in rich fishing grounds where large congregation may occur, and is commonly caught and drowned as bycatch in fishing nets (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is also highly sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004) and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).
106003867		distribution	eng	The Pacific Loon can be found in the tundra regions of Alaska (<span style=font-weight: bold;>USA</span>) and northern <span style=font-weight: bold;>Canada</span>, and the far east of <span style=font-weight: bold;>Russia</span>. During winter its range expands to include the Pacific coast of Asia down to eastern <span style=font-weight: bold;>China</span> and North America down to Baja California (<span style=font-weight: bold;>Mexico</span>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).  <br/><p></p>
106003867		habitat	eng	This species breeds on fairy large, deep freshwater lakes and winters on inshore waters along sheltered coasts, as well as occasionally inland. It feeds mostly on fish, but also on aquatic insects, molluscs, crustaceans and some plant matter. Fish are caught under water by means of pursuit-diving. Breeding begins in March in the south of its range, and depends on the timing of spring in the north. Nesting is solitary on heaps of plant matter near the water's edge (del Hoyo et al. 1992).  <p></p>
106003867		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.930,000-1,600,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003868		distribution	eng	The Common Loon breeds in much of <B>Canada</B> and Alaska, parts of northern <B>United States</B>, southern parts of <B>Greenland</B> (to Denmark) and in <B>Iceland</B>. It winters on sea coasts or on larger lakes over a much wider area including the Antlantic coast of Europe from <B>Finland</B> to <B>Portugal</B> and the western Mediterranean, the Atlantic coast of North America down to northern <B>Mexico</B>, and the Pacific coast of North America from northern Mexico to the tip of Alaska (USA) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992).
106003868		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is strongly migratory, with inland breeding populations moving south or to the coast after breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992). The species breeds from May onwards in isolated solitary pairs, nesting later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992). Adults become flightless for a short time in late-winter when they moult their flight feathers (Godfrey 1979). During the winter the species occurs singly, in pairs or in small loose flocks in marine habitats (Godfrey 1979, Snow and Perrins 1998), occasionally also forming large congregations of c.300 (Godfrey 1979, del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> The species breeds on large, deep freshwater lakes in coniferous forest or on open tundra (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992), requiring clear water with visibilities of at least 3-4 m and small islands (less than 2.5 ha) for nesting (Rimmer 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> It winters along the coast on exposed rocky shores, sheltered bays (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992), channels and sheltered inlets (Snow and Perrins 1998) showing a preference for shallow inshore waters (Rimmer 1992). It may also be found inland (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992) on lakes and reservoirs during this season (Snow and Perrins 1998), although this is largely influenced by the weather (Rimmer 1992). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic insects, annelid worms, frogs, other amphibians<B></B>and plant matter (e.g. <I>Potamogeton</I> spp., willow <I>Salix</I> spp. shoots, roots, seeds, moss and algae) (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a mound of plant matter screened by vegetation (Snow and Perrins 1998) and placed near the water's edge (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992) on islands, islets or promontories (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information</B> There is evidence that introducing floating nesting platforms on lakes is successful in increasing the reproductive success of the species (Piper <I>et al.</I> 2002)7, and that nest losses caused by flooding can be reduced by controlling water levels during the nesting period (Rimmer 1992). Mortality from entanglement and drowning in fishing nets could also be reduced by using fish traps with openings at the top to allow birds to escape, or by checking traps more regularly for captured birds (Rimmer 1992).
106003868		threats	eng	When breeding the species is threatened by fluctuating water levels (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992) (e.g. due to the building of dams) (Rimmer 1992), acidification of breeding lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992, Piper <I>et al.</I> 2002)7, heavy metal pollution (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992, Rimmer 1992) (e.g. methylmercury contamination) (Piper <I>et al.</I> 2002) and lead poisoning from ingested lead fishing weights (Scheuhammer <I>et al.</I> 2003, Sidor <I>et al.</I> 2003). It is also highly sensitive to human disturbance (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992) such as shoreline development and human recreation (Piper <I>et al.</I> 2002)7, and may desert lakes after increases in human presence and activities (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992). During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in areas where large congregations form (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992), and entanglement in monofilament fishing lines (used for sport fishing) and commercial fishing nets causes significant mortality at sea and on larger lakes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992, Rimmer 1992). The species is also susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (del Hoyo <I>et al</I> 1992, Rimmer 1992).
106003869		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2006 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, working with a variety of native, state and federal partners, developed a conservation agreement to protect the species in northern and western Alaska, with an aim to eliminate or reduce current or potential threats (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Update the current population estimate and establish a monitoring programme to elucidate trends. Assess current levels of harvest and initiate control measures should they be unsustainable. Assess comparative ecology and possible impact of climate change.<br/><p></p>
106003869		distribution	eng	<em>Gavia adamsii</em> breeds in the Arctic in <strong>Russia</strong>, Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>), and <strong>Canada </strong>, and winters at sea mainly off the coasts of <strong>Nor</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">way</span> (&gt;1500 individuals [Bell and Håland 2008]), western North America, and the eastern coast of Asia, including the coasts of <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, and <strong>China</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The population is thought to number 16,000-32,000 individuals, with 3,000-4,000 in Alaska, 20,000 in Canada and 8,000 in Russia<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The breeding range in Russia has possibly contracted (K. Laing in litt. 2008). The westernmost breeding site in Russia is the south-western coast of Novaya Zemlya archipelago; the most dense (1.8 bp/10 sq km) and stable population is thought to be on Chukotka Peninsula; and the northernmost record is from the Upper Taimyra river mouth, Central Taimyr (see Håland 2008).<p></p>
106003869		habitat	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Behaviour</span> This species is fully migratory (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). It breeds from early June (largely depending upon the timing of the spring thaw) in solitary pairs, after which it travels southwards and towards the coast (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992) to its wintering grounds, where it is present between October and May (Snow and Perrins 1998). Outside of the breeding season the species occurs singly, in pairs or in small groups (Snow and Perrins 1998). Habitat Breeding The species may breed on low-lying Arctic coasts and estuaries but is more common on freshwater pools, lakes or rivers in the Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992), showing a preference for deep (Earnst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), clear lakes with stony or sandy substrates (Flint <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984) where water levels do not fluctuate (North and Ryan 1989). Optimum habitats include lakes where the water does not completely freeze, which have dependable supplies of fish and which have highly convoluted shorelines and aquatic vegetation providing habitats for fish and sites for nesting and brood rearing (Earnst<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). The species generally avoids forested areas (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992) but may fly long distances to feed away from breeding waters (Snow and Perrins 1998). Non-breeding Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits inshore waters (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992), fjords with muddy substrates (Byrkjedal, <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and inlets (Snow and Perrins 1998) along sheltered coasts (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992), generally avoiding ice-covered waters (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). <span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span> Its diet is little known but may consist predominantly of fish (e.g. Cottidae, <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgadus proximus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gadus morhua</span>) as well as crustaceans, molluscs and marine annelids (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). Breeding site The nest is a small depression (Flint <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984) in a mound of plant matter or turf (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)&#160; constructed on dry land (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1992, Flint <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984) 1 m away (North and Ryan 1989) from the edge of water (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1992, Flint <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1984), usually on the shores of lakes with deep (Earnst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), clear water and stony or sandy substrates (Flint <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984) in sites providing good visibility over the surrounding land and water (North and Ryan 1989).  <p></p>
106003869		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at 16,000-32,000 individuals.
106003869		threats	eng	The species is vulnerable to coastal oil spills in both its breeding and wintering ranges (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). It may be threatened by oil development activities on its Alaskan breeding grounds, as c.90% of birds nesting on the Arctic Coastal Plain are in the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, and 29% are on tracts that have already been leased for oil and gas exploration (North and Ryan 1989; K. Laing<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2008). Wintering individuals are also potentially threatened by heavy metal pollution and by drowning in fishing nets (particularly in the north Pacific [del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1992]). Although rates of harvest are currently thought to be at sustainable levels  (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009), exact harvest numbers are unknown, and a record of c.1,000 individuals taken in the Bering Sea region in 2007 indicates that this may pose the greatest threat to the species  (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009; M. Kirchhoff <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). Climate change is likely to be a future threat to the species (Gavrilo 2008). Threats are exacerbated by a low reproductive rate and very specific breeding habitat requirements  (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009, K. Laing <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003870		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored at South Georgia, Marion, Crozet and Macquarie Islands, and at Terre Adélie. Several breeding islands are nature reserves; Gough and Macquarie are World Heritage Sites. The population at Gough Island was censused in 2000-2001, and again in 2003, and a monitoring protocol has been devised (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring. Conduct surveys of major breeding sites. Minimise disturbance at breeding sites. Research movements and migration. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within its range, particularly via existing and proposed intergovernmental mechanisms under auspices of CCAMLR, CMS and FAO.  <p></p>
106003870		distribution	eng	<em>Macronectes giganteus</em> breeds on the<strong> Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)</strong>, Staten Island and islands off Chubut Province (<strong>Argentina</strong>), <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, the South Orkney (Orcadas del Sur) and South Shetland Islands (Shetland del Sur), islands near the Antarctic Continent and Peninsula, Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard Island and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), with smaller populations on Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> </strong>(<strong>St Helena to UK</strong>), Diego Ramirez and Isla Noir (<strong>Chile</strong>), Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), and four localities on the Antarctic Continent including Terre Adélie. In the 1980s, the population was estimated at 38,000 pairs (Hunter 1985), declining by 18% to 31,000 pairs in the late 1990s (Rootes 1988). Populations at Heard and Macquarie declined 50% between the 1960s and late 1980s (Woehler 1991, Woehler 2006). Many Antarctic Peninsula populations decreased to the mid-1980s (e.g. &gt;50% at Signy, South Orkneys) (Patterson <I>et al.</I> undated). The population at Terre Adélie declined from c.80 pairs in the 1960s to 10-15 pairs in 2000. However, recent data indicate a number of populations have stabilised or increased, e.g. Possession Island (Crozet) (Patterson <I>et al.</I> undated), Gough Island (Cuthbert and Sommer<I> in litt </I>2004)and Heard Island (Woehler 2006). A comprehensive 2004-2005 survey of all breeding colonies on the Falkland Islands recorded 19,523 breeding pairs (Reid and Huin 2005). This represents a dramatic increase over the previous estimate of 5,000-10,000 pairs in the Falkland Islands, and is thought to represent a combination of improved knowledge and a genuine population increase. Similarly, a comprehensive survey of all known breeding sites in the South Georgia archipelago, between 2005 and 2006, indicates a population increase since the 1980s (Poncet <I>et al. in litt. </I>2008), and the global population is now estimated at c.54,000 breeding pairs (Chown <I>et al. </I>unpubl. report 2008). Data from birds tracked from South Georgia indicate that breeders remain in the same ocean sector during the nonbreeding season (Hunter and Brooke 1982). By comparison, ringing recoveries suggest that juveniles disperse much more widely (Hunter 1984b). Males and females have distinct foraging ranges during the breeding season (Gonzalez-Solis and Croxall 2005).<em> <p></p></em>
106003870		habitat	eng	It typically nests in loose colonies on grassy or bare ground. However, in the Falkland Islands it can nest in large, relatively dense colonies (Reid and Huin 2005). Average age of first breeding is c.10 years, and mean adult annual survival at South Georgia is 90% (Hunter 1984a). It feeds on carrion, cephalopods, krill, offal, discarded fish and refuse from ships, often feeding near trawlers and longliners (Hunter and Brooke 1982, Hunter 1983). Males and females exhibit clearly defined spatial segregation in their foraging ranges (Gonzalez-Solis<I> et al.</I> 2000, Quintana and Dell' Arciprete 2002, BirdLife International 2004). <p></p>
106003870		population	eng	A total of 46,800 pairs and approaching 100,000 mature individuals (roughly equating to 150,000 total individuals) can be estimated from Patterson <em>et al.</em> (in press) and unpublished data from Falklands Conservation and British Antarctic Survey. This consists of an estimated 19,500 pairs on the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), 5,500 pairs on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), 5,400 pairs on South Shetland Islands (Shetland del Sur), 3,350 pairs on South Orkney Island (Orcadas del Sur) (British Antarctic Survey unpubl. data), 2,500 pairs on Heard and MacDonald Islands (DPIW unpubl. data), 2,145 pairs on Macquarie Island, 2,300 pairs in South America, 2,300 pairs on the Tristan da Cunha Islands, 280 pairs on the Antarctic Continent. In addition, Patterson <em>et al.</em> (<em>in litt.</em> undated) estimate 1,190 pairs on the Antarctic Peninsula, 1,550 pairs on the South Sandwich Islands, 1,800 pairs on Prince Edward Islands, 1,060 pairs on Iles Crozet and four pairs in Iles Kerguelen.
106003870		threats	eng	A total of 2,000-4,000 giant-petrels were estimated killed in illegal or unregulated Southern Ocean longline fisheries for Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> in 1997-1998 (CCAMLR 1997, CCAMLR 1998) and the species has been shown to be killed in trawl fisheries in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) (Sullivan <I>et al. </I>2006). However, improved mitigation in many longline fisheries appears to have reduced bycatch levels of this species around some breeding colonies (Quintana <I>et al. </I>2006). Localised decreases have also been attributed to reductions in southern elephant seal <em>Mirounga leonina</em> (an important source of carrion), human disturbance and persecution (Hunter 1984a, P. G. Ryan <I>in litt.</I> 1999, Pfeiffer and Peters 2006).  <p></p>
106003871		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of major breeding sites. Continue monitoring. Minimise disturbance at breeding sites. Research movements and migration. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within its range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations. <p></p>
106003871		distribution	eng	<em>Macronectes halli</em> breeds at <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes and Chatham Islands and, historically, on islets off Stewart Island (<strong>New Zealand</strong>). The world population in the 1980s was estimated at c.8,600 pairs<strong> </strong>(Hunter 1985). A more recent estimate (late 1990s) is 11,500 pairs, an apparent increase of 34%<strong> </strong>(Patterson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> undated), which may be partly attributable to better monitoring, but also probably reflects greater availability of carrion from expanding populations of fur seals <em>Arctocephalus gazella</em> and <em>A. tropicalis, </em>increased waste from commercial fishing operations (Patterson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> undated), and use of measures to reduce seabird bycatch around some breeding colonies, such as South Georgia (Georgias del Sur).<br/><br/><br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003871		habitat	eng	Where they co-exist at the same location, Northern Giant-petrels<B> </B>breed approximately six weeks before Southern Giant-petrels (Hunter 1987, De Bruyn <I>et al.</I> 2007). Birds feed on penguin and pinniped carrion, cephalopods, krill, offal, discarded fish and refuse from ships, often feeding near trawlers and longliners (Hunter and Brooke 1982, Hunter 1983). Males and females exhibit clearly defined spatial segregation in foraging ranges (Hunter 1983, Gonzalez Solis <I>et al.</I> 2000, Becker <I>et al.</I>2002, Gonzalez-Solis and Croxall 2005). During the breeding season, males exploit scavenging opportunities in and around seal and penguin colonies and are coastal in distribution, whereas females are much more dependent on pelagic resources (Patterson and Fraser 2003, BirdLife International 2004, Quintana and Dell'Arciprete). There is significant sexual dimorphism, with female mass approximately 80% that of males (Gonzalez-Solis 2004). Ringing recoveries indicate juveniles forage more widely than adults (Hunter 1984a). At some sites, its less colonial breeding habit may make it less sensitive to human disturbance than Southern Giant-petrel<I>, </I>though degree of coloniality does not differ on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), the largest breeding colony (R. A. Phillips <I>in litt.</I> 2008). On the Chatham Islands, regurgitations from the birds on the Forty-Fours indicate a reliance on natural food sources (esp.<I>Gnathophausia ingens</I>) rather than carrion - there being no penguin colonies in the Chatham Islands (C. J. R. Robertson <I>in litt. </I>2008). Average age of first breeding is c.10 years, and mean adult annual survival at South Georgia is 90% (Hunter 1984a).
106003871		population	eng	The largest population is on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), with c.4,500 pairs. followed by Chatham Islands (c.2000 pairs on the Forty-Fours and 80-100 pairs on Middle Sister), Iles Kerguelen (1,450-1,800 pairs), Iles Crozet (1,300 pairs), Macquarie Island (c.1,300 pairs), Prince Edward Island (650 pairs), Antipodes Island (230 pairs), Campbell Island (230 pairs) and the Auckland Group (50 pairs). In total, the population is estimated to number 11,000-14,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 17,000-21,000 individuals in total.
106003871		threats	eng	A total of 2,000-4,000 giant-petrels were estimated killed in illegal or unregulated Southern Ocean longline fisheries for Patagonian toothfish<I>Dissostichus eleginoides</I> in 1997-1998 (CCAMLR 1997, CCAMLR 1998). Improved mitigation in a number of Patagonian Toothfish longline fisheries around breeding colonies (including South Georgia {Georgias del Sur}) has led to a reduction in observed bycatch of this species in these areas. Secondary mortality (ingested hooks) and mortality associated with IUU fishing may still be a threat. On the Chatham Islands, fisheries bycatch returned by observers from NZ waters 1996-2005 returned only 17 birds (8 from trawl fisheries and 9 from longline) (C. J. R. Robertson <I>in litt. </I>2008).
106003872		distribution	eng	The Northern Fulmar is found breeding throughout the north Atlantic and north Pacific, ranging from <B>Japan</B> and the <B>United Kingdom</B> in the south, to the high Arctic in the north. Northern populations are migratory, travelling south as the sea freezes over. Southern populations are more dispersive, but do not usually reach zones of warm water. Young birds may make transoceanic crossing and general wander further than the less mobile adults (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003872		habitat	eng	The Northern Fulmar typically breeds on cliffs and rock faces, but also occasionally on flatter ground sometimes up to 1 km inland. It will also breed near human habitation, sometimes even on occupied houses along the seafront of towns. Its diet comprises of variable quantities of fish, squid and zooplankton (especially amphipods), and it will also feed on fish offal and carrion (e.g. whale blubber). Most of its food is obtained by surface seizing but it will also plunge (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Tracking at Bear Island (Norway) revealed breeders forage close to the colony, preferring the continental shelf. As chicks became older parents foraged further from the colony, eventually regularly embarking on long trips to the Norwegian coast (Weimerskirch et al. 2001).
106003872		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number c.2,800,000-4,400,000 breeding   pairs, equating to c.8,400,000-13,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so an initial estimate of the   global population size is c.15,000,000-50,000,000 individuals. However, del   Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (1992) estimated the global population to number   8,000,000-32,000,000 individuals and Brooke (2004) estimated the global   breeding population to number around 7,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to   21,000,000 individuals. Hence a revised global estimate is   15,000,000-30,000,000. National population estimates include: c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt;   c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Korea   and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt;c.10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003873		distribution	eng	This species breeds along the coast of Antarctica and outlying islands, including the <B>South Sandwich Islands </B>(<B>Islas Sandwich del Sur</B>), South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands, <B>Bouvet Island </B>(<B>to Norway</B>) and Peter Island. At sea it can range as far north as the coats of <B>South Africa</B>, <B>Australia</B> and <B>New Zealand</B>, and South America up to central <B>Chile</B> and southern <B>Brazil<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003873		habitat	eng	This marine species is usually assoaciated with cold waters fringing the ice pack. It feeds mostly on crustaceans, fish and cephalopods with the proportion of each varying locally. Most food is taken by surface-seizing whilst in flocks. It attends trawlers and will take galley refuse from ships. Breeding begins in November and it is highly colonial, breeding on steep rocky slopes and precipitous cliffs on sheltered ledges or in hollows. It is a migratory species, ranging widely over the Southern Ocean (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003873		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 4,000,000 individuals.
106003874		distribution	eng	This species is found along the whole Antarctic coastline, also breeding on nearby islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003874		habitat	eng	The Antarctic Petrel nests on snow-free cliffs and rock faces. Nesting sites are mostly coastal or on offshore islands, but it has been found to nest up to 250 km inland. The diet of this species is comprised mostly of krill, but also fish and squid. Prey is obtained mostly by surface-seizing but diving from the air and surface is also seen (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003874		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number between 10,000,000 and 20,000,000 individuals.
106003875		distribution	eng	During breeding season, Cape Petrels feed around Antarctica's shelf and during the winter they range further north, as far as <B>Angola</B> and the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <B>Ecuador</B>. They breed on many islands of Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands, some going as far as the Auckland Islands, the Chatham Islands, Campbell Island (<B>New Zealand</B>). Their main breeding grounds were on the Antarctic Peninsula, <B>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</B>, the Balleny Islands, the Kerguelen Islands<B> </B>(<B>French Southern Territory</B>), as well as islands in the Scotia Sea (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003875		habitat	eng	The Cape Petrel is marine and pelagic, especially in winter. It occurs mainly over cold waters beyong the continental shelf, but can be found over inshore waters during breeding. Its diet comprises mainly of krill, but also fish, squid, offal, carrion and refuse from ships, acquiring food by hydroplaning, dipping whilst on the wing and occaisionally diving. It has been seen associated with whales and other seabirds, and congregates in large flocks around trawlers. The breeding season starts in November with colonies or variable sizes being formed on cliffs or steep rocky slopes. It nests in shallow crevices, in scrape on rocky ledges, on stable beds of gravel or among boulders (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003875		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 2,000,000 individuals.
106003876		distribution	eng	The Snow Petrel is found exclusively on <strong>Antarctica</strong> and some neighbouring islands, including <strong>South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands </strong>(del Hoyo et al. 1992) . <p></p>
106003876		habitat	eng	This marine species is closely linked with pack ice, occuring mainly in areas with 10-50% ice cover. It feeds mainly on krill, fish, squid and carrion, feeding mainly on the wing by dipping but also by diving and surface-seizing. Breeding starts in November in most areas, forming colonies of variable size on cliffs and rock faces up to 325 km inland and at altitudes of as much as 2400 m (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003876		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 4,000,000 individuals.
106003877		distribution	eng	Kerguelen Petrel colonies are present on Gough Island (<B>St Helena to UK</B>) in the Atlantic Ocean, and Marion Island and Prince Edward Island (<B>South Africa</B>), and Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Island (<B>French Southern Territories</B>) in the Indian Ocean. Outside the breeding season its range is circumpolar, frequenting the subantarctic and Antarctic waters south to the ice pack all year round (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003877		habitat	eng	This species is marine and highly pelagic, being found in cold waters. It feeds mostly on squid, but also krill and fish. Squid are captured by surface-seizing at night, but dipping is also seen. Its breeding season starts in August, forming loose colonies near the sea on marshy ground, and also higher up on volcanic ridges up to 450 m. It nests in deep burrows dug in soft, wet soil (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003877		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated that the global population numbers around 1,000,000 individuals.
106003878		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Since 1996, there has been a campaign to quantify urban light-induced mortality and to rescue as many birds as possible (Le Corre 1999, Le Corre <em>et al.</em> 1999, Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The rescues have been successful, with over 90% of the petrels (of various species) found on Réunion<strong> </strong>being released again (Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. From 1996-2002, a public appeal aimed at rescuing downed birds produced eight petrels, of which seven were banded and released (<strong></strong>Le Corre et al 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, no concerted attempts involving supported, coordinated efforts have been made to assess the species's status on Réunion and predator control has not been trialled (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop an action plan for known breeding sites, and execute predator trapping, legal protection and monitoring of at least one or two burrows (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue rescue programme of young birds attracted by lights (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate light-reduction programmes either through light-shielding or light-restriction during the fledgling period (Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to search for further breeding grounds and, once found, evaluate population numbers, major threats and conservation action required (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003878		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudobulweria aterrima</em> is known from <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>, by subfossil remains on Rodrigues (Mauritius) and in 2002 a single roadkill specimen in Black Gorges National Park, Mauritius (Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The few records include four specimens collected in the 19th century, two birds found dead in the 1970s, and rare observations of birds in the waters south of Réunion since 1964. Recently, four more individuals, two of which died, were found attracted to urban lights of Réunion<strong> </strong>towns (Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Five breeding sites are known (9-10 pairs in total, including one loose colony with four pairs), all restricted to a small area which is unlikely to harbour more than c.40 breeding burrows in total (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Calls have been heard during the breeding season (austral summer) on cliffs at 1,000 m and fledglings have been caught in March (Tatayah<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011). It is possible that they nest in montane parts of the Black River Gorges, as the habitat is similar to that of their suspected nesting areas on Réunion (Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).  Data collected at sea during the period 1978-1995 suggested a population of c.1,000 individuals (Attie <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong> with perhaps 45-400 pairs (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>, although below 100 pairs is probably more likely (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and may only be a few dozen pairs (Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). A recent survey of the known breeding area on Réunion found 10 fledglings, indicating the species continues to breed successfully on the island (R. Martin <em>in litt. </em>2011).  <p></p>
106003878		habitat	eng	All known breeding sites are on cliffs, presumably in heathy vegetation. Recent information confirms austral summer breeding, with incubation around December, and fledging between February and March (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.They are thought to return to nest sites nocturnally to reduce chances of predation (Tatayah <em>et </em><span style="font-style: italic;">al.</span> 2011).   <p></p>
106003878		population	eng	From their at-sea counts, Attie <em>et al.</em> (1997) suggest that the population may be around 1,000 individuals, implying 250 (45-400) breeding pairs, although 50-100 pairs was considered more likely (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999), i.e. 100-200 mature individuals. However, recent estimates indicate that the breeding population may be just a few dozen pairs.
106003878		threats	eng	Like the threatened Barau's Petrel <em>Pterodroma baraui</em> (also endemic to Réunion), the main threats are likely to be predation by feral cats and rats (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>,the Lesser Indian Mongoose <span style="font-style: italic;">Herpestes javanicus </span>(Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) and urban light-induced mortality which mainly affects inexperienced juveniles. Four birds have been found recently in such conditions - two died and two were released successfully (Le Corre 1999, Le Corre <em>et al.</em> 1999,<strong></strong> M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>Le Corre et al 2003)<strong></strong>. Widespread light pollution such as street lamps and sport installations are responsible for the greatest majority of light-induced petrel mortality on Réunion (Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002, <strong></strong>Le Corre et al 2003); the roadkill specimen on Mauritius is further evidence of the problem<strong></strong> (Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Light-induced mortality of the juveniles of this rare petrel is likely to affect the long-term population dynamics but their longevity will cause a lag before real population declines are identified (Le Corre <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003879		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A molecular study of <em>P. becki </em>and <em>P. rostrata </em>is underway (T. Pym <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Scrutinise and photograph all <em>P. rostrata</em> types seen within the region. Survey far-flung atolls and reefs north of New Ireland and the Solomons. Survey high-altitude forest on Bougainville. <p></p>
106003879		distribution	eng	Until recently <em>Pseudobulweria becki</em> was only known from two specimens: a female taken at sea east of New Ireland and north of Buka, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, on 6 January 1928, and a male taken north-east of Rendova, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, on 18 May 1929 (Murphy and Pennoyer 1952)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Three birds probably of this species were seen off New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago in 2003 (H. Shirihai <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and in July and August 2007 an expedition recorded the species on seven days and at at least four localities off New Ireland, with at least 30 recorded in a day and a maximum of 16 together, finally confirming the species's rediscovery (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cape St George, at the southern end of the island, appeared the most favoured locality, where birds outnumbered Tahiti Petrel <em>P. rostrata</em>, recently fledged juveniles and moulting adults were seen close to land, and a freshly dead fledgling was found (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2008 at least 11 were seen off Western Bougainville and Eastern New Ireland in April (C. Collins <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and an expedition in July-August reported a minimum of 160 birds between New Britain and New Ireland (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It seems likely that the species breeds in the montane forests of southern New Ireland such as those around Mt Gilaut and the Hans Meyer range (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two were seen near Efate in the Vanuatu archipelago in February 2010 (P. Harrison <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while a possible record was seen and photographed from a boat crossing the Coral Sea east of Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 2006 (<strong></strong>A Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and due to the difficulty of reliable identification in the field a number of records of <em>P. rostrata</em> from the Solomons and Bismarck Archipelago (Coates and Swainson 1978, Coates 1985, Palliser 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, may also refer to <em>P. becki</em>. The extent of its breeding range and at-sea distribution is still unknown. <p></p>
106003879		habitat	eng	Like <em>P. rostrata</em> elsewhere in the Pacific, it probably nests on small islets and/or high mountains on larger islands. The recent records at sea off New Ireland suggest it may well breed in montane forest at the southern end of this island, around Mt Gilaut and the peaks further east and north, including the Hans Meyer range (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although close to the type-locality, the Nuguria Islands seem unsuitable for burrow-nesting petrels (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while the 2007 expedition found few birds north of New Ireland and local people did not know of the species in the main island in the Feni group, the only island in this group with substantial montane forest (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Off New Ireland it rarely followed boats for long periods but appeared more tolerant of them than <em>P. rostrata</em>, approaching boats more closely and for longer periods (<strong></strong>Shirihai 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this should not be assumed to be a general characteristic or means of identifying the two species. <p></p>
106003879		population	eng	The population is assumed to be very small, with the species only definitely known from two specimens taken in 1928 and 1929 until its rediscovery in 2007. However, estimates of at least 160 birds off New Ireland in 2008 suggest it may be more numerous than previously suspected. It is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals here, equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106003879		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by predation from introduced cats and rats on its unknown breeding grounds.<strong></strong><p></p>
106003880		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In New Caledonia a plan to reduce the impact of mining exploitation on the Koniambo massif has been recently proposed to the KNS Mining Society. On the same island SCO has begun a campaign to collect and release birds that are desoriented by lights. In June 2007, an at sea transect from Noumea to the Chesterfield was established; repeated surveys along this line will be used to monitor long-term population trends.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor key populations. Investigate whether the species nests on Taveuni. Quantify the levels of chick predation by black rats and other nest predators.  Continue to eradicate predators from known breeding islands. Discourage the killing of birds for their feathers for fishing lures, providing white chickens as a substitute. Implement projects to tackle the threat of light pollution.   <p></p>
106003880		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudobulweria rostrata</em><strong> </strong>breeds in the Marquesas, Society (race <em>rostrata</em>) and Gambier (recorded in 1995, probably <em>rostrata </em>[Thibault 1996, Thibault and Bretagnolle 1999]<strong></strong>) Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, <strong>Fiji</strong>, <strong>American Samoa </strong>and <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> (<em>trouessarti</em>). Genetic research may show that the Samoan population is genetically distinct (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. It used to breed in Vanuatu (V. Bretagnolle and M. Pandolfi Benoit <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and may breed on Rarotonga, Cook Islands (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong></strong>, as well as on other islands. In the Marquesas, it breeds on Nuku Hiva, Hiva Oa and Tahuata, totalling less than 500 pairs (Holyoak and Thilbault 1984)<strong></strong>, and birds have been heard at night (possibly breeding) at Ua Pou, Ua Huka (J.-C. Thibault unpublished data)<strong></strong> and Fatu Hiva (J.-Y. Meyer unpublished data)<strong></strong>. In the Society Islands, it breeds on Tahiti and Moorea (and perhaps Bora Bora [P. Raust <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong> and Raiatea to the southeast [Salducci 2007]), where the populations were estimated at less than 1,000 pairs and several thousand pairs respectively (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, although recent visits suggest a substantial decline (Bretagnolle and J.-C. Thibault unpublished data)<strong></strong>. In the Gambiers, there are 12-26 pairs on Mangareva, Akamaru and Manui (Thibault and Bretagnolle 1999)<strong></strong>. In Fiji, it breeds on Gau and Taveuni (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, while, in American Samoa, it breeds on Ta'u and Tutuila (Engbring and Ramsay 1989)<strong></strong>. Hundreds of pairs may nest on Taveuni, where &gt;150 were seen offshore in October 2003 and where the low open forest on steep unstable hill-sides is similar to nesting areas on New Caledonia (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Nesting may also occur on Gau Island, where &gt;20 individuals were seen following chumming in 2008 (Pym <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. In New Caledonia, it breeds on Grand Terre in unknown numbers, particularly in the high mountains such as Massif du Koniambo where there are at least 200-400 pairs, and it also breeds on 11 (out of 70) islets in the southern lagoon where there are estimated to be less than 100 pairs. There are signs of a substantial decline on at least one of these islets, with 50 pairs in 1986 reduced to less than 10 pairs in 1998 (Delelis <em>et al </em>2007, M. Pandolfi Benoit and V. Bretagnolle unpublished data)<strong></strong>. However, the extensive Whitney South Sea Expeditions only collected this species in French Polynesia, suggesting that the apparently large populations in New Caledonia and Fiji may have increased in the last few decades (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. In the non-breeding season it disperses widely, and birds have been recorded as far east as Peru, Mexico (<strong></strong>Onley and Scofield 2007), and Costa Rica (<strong></strong>Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010), and as far west as the Mozambique Channel (<strong></strong>Lambert 2004)<strong></strong>.   <em> <p></p></em>
106003880		habitat	eng	Eggs are laid in burrows on rocky slopes or in open upland forest. Breeding appears to occur throughout the year, although on Tahiti at least there appears to be a peak between March and July (Villard <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, most of the recently discovered colonies are small (&lt;10 pairs) and spread over large areas of several thousand square metres (Clunie <em>et al. </em>1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003880		population	eng	The overall population of the species probably does not exceed 10,000 pairs (i.e. 20,000 mature individuals) and 30,000 individuals. It is thus placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, and thought to number 20,000-30,000 individuals in total.
106003880		threats	eng	In the Marquesas and Society Islands, rat predation is an observed but unquantified problem. It is likely to have coexisted with black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>for decades and they perhaps do not pose a major threat (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Young birds are also attracted by lights at night, mainly on Tahiti in the urban areas around Papeete (P. Raust <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and in New Caledonia around Noumea, rural villages and active mining sites. Electric powerlines in the mountains of French Polynesia may also be a problem (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Grand Terre, wild pigs, feral cats and dogs, and rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. may pose a threat to remaining colonies (although rats have been eradicated from all islets in the southern lagoon [D. Bell and M. Pandolfi Benoit unpublished data]<strong><sup></sup></strong>).The newly discovered sites in New Caledonia are all in areas threatened by nickel mining (Delelis <em>et al </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In colonies where the soil is deep enough for Wedge-tailed Shearwaters to nest there can be intense competition for burrows (Villard <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Local people are known to take birds to use their white feathers for fishing lures (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003881		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The rarity and significance of this species has been promoted to local residents and it is featured on a Fijian bank note. It is protected under Fijian law. Repeated surveys in the 1980s attempting to find evidence of breeding failed and no further work was undertaken for 10 years. In 2003, a Recovery Plan for the Fiji Petrel was drawn up with the assistance of the National Parks and Wildlife Dept. of New South Wales. In 2004, the National Trust of Fiji initiated a year-long community awareness programme on the island in association with RARE, and together with the National Parks and Wildlife Dept. of New South Wales initiated a community-based awareness project to procure more information from grounded birds, together with an initiative to protect the Gau highlands where the petrel is believed to nest. Data from landed petrels have been collected in 2005, 2007 and 2009<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Priddel <em>et al</em>. in prep., Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. The most urgent priority remains locating the breeding grounds. A comprehensive scientific review of the Fiji Petrel and its conservation has been undertaken and recently published<sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></sup>(BirdLife International 2008)<sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></sup>. As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme NatureFiji-MareqetiViti have taken on the role of Species Guardian and are implementing the following actions: three full time staff, including a Project Officer, as well as many part time field assistants, are based on the island charged with implementing activities identified in the Fiji Petrel Recovery Plan; welfare and release procedures for grounded birds and the development of local expertise in the collection of scientific data following such incidents; initiation of feral pig control; nocturnal "listening" for Fiji Petrels over the new moon periods with playback of Tahiti and Mascarene Petrel calls; spotlighting and cold searches for nesting burrows; radio-telemetry to follow birds to burrows; and burrow examination using a burrow-scope. NFMV has just conducted the first systematic survey of rats in three different habitats on Gau Island and will be undertaking further surveys to confirm and extend the current investigation to gauge the potential threats of invasive rats to the Fiji Petrel. Data is also being collected on the extent of feral pigs on Gau<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(O'Conner 2010)<sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></sup>. Two petrel burrow detector dogs have been trained in New Zealand and have been working full time on Gau since July 2011 and have to date located two Collared petrel nests. It is planned that they will search for nesting Fiji Petrels using feathers from a dead specimen. NatureFiji-MareqetiViti have received a significant grant from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund to enable this work to be undertaken<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D.<strong> </strong>Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<sup><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></sup>, along with grants from the Mohamed Bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund and the BirdLife International Community Conservation Fund.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>On Gau, conduct surveys employing petrel specialists and using spotlighting, radio-tracking and trained wildlife searching sniffer dogs (SPREP 2000, Priddel <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. Develop local expertise to assist with, or carry out, surveys (SPREP 2000)<strong></strong>. Continue to raise awareness on Gau, and put in place a process for rapid alert to and acquisition of any grounded birds (Priddel <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. Assess the breeding success and threats to <em>P. brevipes</em>. Survey seas off other suitable islands.  <p></p>
106003881		distribution	eng	This species was previously known from just one immature specimen collected in 1855 on Gau Island, <strong>Fiji</strong>, but between 1984-2007 there were a total of 17 reports of grounded birds on Gau<strong></strong> (Priddel <em>et al.</em> 2008, Shirihai<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. Most records relate to immature birds that have landed on the roofs of houses in Nawaikama, Levukaigua or Nukuloa villages, a number of which have died, and four specimens have been obtained from these fatalities (Watling 2000, Priddel <em>et al</em>. in prep., Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. One further confirmed sighting concerns a bird that landed in Levuka village in April 2007 (Priddel <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. At sea, the only unequivocal sightings of the Fiji Petrel have been off Gau in May and October 2009 (a maximum of three birds together) (Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Kretzchmar <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It may occur on other islands in the vicinity, e.g. Taveuni (D. Watling verbally 2000)<strong></strong>. The population size remains unknown but it is speculated that it may be as low as &lt;50 pairs (Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <p></p>
106003881		habitat	eng	It is likely to breed amongst large numbers of Collared Petrel in the rugged terrain of interior Gau (where over 70 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable forest exists up to 715 m) (Watling and Lewanavanua 1985)<strong></strong>. There have been speculations concerning the length and timing of the breeding season (<strong></strong>Kretzchmar <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>, however conclusive data remains to be found; it is possible that the breeding season is protracted through most of the year with two peaks in activity (April-July and October-January) (Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003881		population	eng	The remaining population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on paucity of recent records (although these include eight since 1983).
106003881		threats	eng	The servicing of a recently constructed telecommunications transmitter on the summit of Gau may facilitate the movement of feral cats<span style="font-style: italic;"> Felis catus</span> and rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus sp.</span> to the breeding area (Watling 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, thereby increasing predation. Although Collared Petrel seems to nest successfully (and its seasonal breeding in the first half of the year may swamp cat predation), it is possible that Fiji Petrel has a more prolonged breeding season later in the year, and it could therefore suffer disproportionately (Watling and Lewanavanua 1985)<strong></strong>. A recent survey found Pacific rats  <em>Rattus exulans </em>in all major habitats on Gau, while <em>Rattus rattus </em>has so far only been found in and around villages (O'Conner 2010)<strong></strong>. Feral pigs <em>Sus domesticus </em>have recently become established in the forests of Gau and they may represent a serious additional threat (Priddel and Carlile 2004)<strong></strong>. Fiji Petrels are attracted to 'chum' and long-lining may pose a further threat: several Tahiti Petrels and a Kermadec Petrel with damaged wings, perhaps caused by entanglement with long-lines, were observed off Gau in 2009 (Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003882		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>South East Island has been managed as a reserve since 1954, and cattle, sheep and goats were removed in 1961 (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Intensive research, on-going since 1991, helped to identify the impact of <em>Pachyptila vittata</em>. As a consequence, artificial nest-sites have been provided and burrows have been blocked to prevent occupation by <em>P. vittata</em> during the absence of <em>Pterodroma axillaris</em>. <em>P. vittata</em> found occupying <em>P. axillaris</em> burrows are culled (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Since 2001, neoprene burrow flaps installed at burrow entrances have greatly reduced prion impacts during the period February to April (Sullivan and Wilson 2001)<strong></strong>. These measures have greatly improved breeding success (G. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, from 10-30% in early 1990s to 70-80% in the past 10 years. Intensive burrow searches have now located over 160 active breeding sites of the estimated 250 pairs using the island. All newly located burrows are converted to artificial nest sites and are safe-guarded from prion interference. In 2002, a second population was created in a predator free enclosure on the 40-ha Ellen Elizabeth Preece Conservation Covenant (EEPCC). Over a period of four years, 200 chicks were transferred to this site, and by 2006 four birds had returned with a pair successfully rearing a single chick for the first time (Taylor 2000, <strong></strong>Anon 2006)<strong></strong>. In 2006-2007, four pairs nested and four chicks were reared. This included one pair of unbanded birds that have been lured presumably to the site by the sound attraction system. In 2008, seven chicks fledged from the EEPCC. About 200 chicks were transferred to the 7.5-ha Sweetwater Conservation Covenant on the main Chatham Island between 2008 and 2011. In the 2011/2012 breeding season, a pair successfully raised a chick in  the Sweetwater Conservation Covenant, and several more burrows were  active (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> P. Scofield <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, G. Taylor i<span style="font-style: italic;">n litt</span>. 2012). In 2009/2010, 22 geolocation tags were applied to breeding Chatham petrels and 18 were recovered (Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor breeding burrows annually and mark all chicks.  Continue to protect nesting birds. Continue translocating birds to the Sweetwater Conservation Covenant on Chatham Island until a self-maintaining population is established. Use tiny geolocation tags to investigate the species's at-sea distribution across multiple years, and identify potential threats.  <p></p>
106003882		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma axillaris</em> is restricted to South East Island (= Rangatira) and Pitt Island and Main Chatham Island in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, having been reintroduced to both of the latter two (J. Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). Subfossils indicate that it was once more widespread, being present on Mangere Islands (A. J. D. Tennyson <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>P. Scofield<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The earliest estimate of 50 birds was later revised to 200-400 (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. A mark-recapture census in 2004 estimated that the global population stood at 1,000-1,100 individuals comprising 250 breeding pairs, a floater population of adults unable to breed each year owing to loss of partners or nesting sites, and juveniles aged up to five years (Taylor 2000, G. Taylor <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. The increase reflects an improvement in knowledge and since 2000, a marked response to successful management with over 100 chicks now fledging annually and many recruiting back to the island. Significant declines occurred during the 20th century and continued into the 1990s; an annual decline of 1% per annum has been crudely estimated and cautious interpretation suggests a gross decline of 40-50% or more may have occurred over the past three generations (G. Taylor <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Trends appear to have stabilised since 2000, prompted by successful conservation measures. Between 2002 and 2006, 200 chicks were moved to a newly created predator-free site on Pitt Island; successful breeding first occurred in 2006 (Anon 2006), and 17 pairs were present in 2012 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. About 200 chicks were transferred to the 7.5-ha Sweetwater Conservation Covenant on the main Chatham Island between 2008 and 2011. The first breeding attempt at this site occurred in 2012 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It migrates to the northern Pacific Ocean like the closely-related <em>P. nigripennis</em>, and has been recorded at sea to the south of the islands (Heather and Robertson 1997, R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Tracking research conducted in 2009/2010 using geolocators has shown that birds feed mainly south and east of the Chatham Islands during the breeding season, with the Bollons Seamount being important during chick rearing (Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012), and migrate to the eastern Pacific in winter to an area over and north of the Nazca sea ridge, about 1000-1500 km west of Chile and Peru  (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106003882		habitat	eng	It nests in burrows in very friable densely burrowed soils in lowland temperate forest and scrub, on flat to moderate sloping ground (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. Its diet is not well known but includes squid and small fish. Some young have returned to the island at two years old (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, and breeding has been recorded at the age of three, although most individuals do not breed until five years of age (G. Taylor <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Much of the life cycle is spent at sea; birds return to land only to breed. Visits to the colony occur after dark. <p></p>
106003882		population	eng	Based on an age at first breeding of three years, and an estimate that at least 75% of birds will be over three years old, the latest total population estimate from 2010 of c.1,400 individuals probably includes c.1,100 mature individuals (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003882		threats	eng	On South East Island, intense competition for burrows with the abundant Broad-billed Prion <em>Pachyptila vittata</em> (including lethal attacks on chicks and eggs, and occasionally adults) is the primary threat (Was <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Such competition may be the cause of the observed low breeding success and high rate of pair-bond disruption. On the other islands in the group, exploitation by humans for food and introduced predators were the probable causes of extirpation (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Predator-proof fencing has facilitated translocations to two Conservation Covenants on Pitt Island and Chatham Island; alien invasive mammals will remain a constant potential threat to these sites and on-going management will be required. <p></p>
106003883		distribution	eng	The Black-winged Petrel breeds in the south-west Pacific, from Lord Howe Island (<B>Australia</B>) and eastern Australia in the west, <B>New Caledonia</B> in the north, the Chatham Islands (<B>New Zealand</B>) in the south and Austral Islands (<B>French Polynesia</B>) in the east. Outside the breeding season it migrates to the north and east Macific, being common in the north-west Pacific in July - November, and particularly abundant between the Hawaiian Islands (<B>USA</B>) and <B>Peru<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003883		habitat	eng	This species is marine and highly pelagic, avoiding land except during breeding. Little is known about its diet, but it is known to include cephalopods and prawns which it catches mainly by surface-seizing and dipping, but also pattering. It has often been recorded feeding in association with other Procellariiformes. It breeds in colonies on oceanic islands, usually making burrows on high ground inland amongst scrub or tussock grass (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003883		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number 8,000,000-10,000,000 individuals.
106003884		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Goats were removed from Raoul and Macauley in 1984 and 1970, respectively. The eradication of rabbits from Phillip in 1985 may have resulted in the species colonising the island in the following years. Pacific rates were eradicated from Macauley in 2006 and cats and rats were eradicated from Raoul Island between 2002 and 2006 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Since 2009, automated sound attraction units have been installed on Raoul Island in an attempt to lure the species, although there is no evidence so far that this has worked (G. Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). A study area on Macauley was established in 1988 (G. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Kermadec Islands are nature reserves with access by permit only. Extensive searches were conducted for incubating birds of this species in the upper reaches of Long Valley, the main water catchment of Phillip Island (N. Carlile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Map populations on Macauley Island and complete a census. Monitor Macauley every five years to ensure that no establishment of predators has occurred. Monitor the recovery of vegetation on Macauley and any negative effects on the species. Recapture birds in study area to determine data on survival and longevity every five years.&#160;<em></em>Re-establish colony on Raoul (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Survey Vanua Lava and assess threats. <p></p>
106003884		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma cervicalis</em> breeds on Macauley Island in the Kermadec Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong> (c.50,000 pairs in 1988, possibly increasing), with a second small colony recently established on Phillip Island, off <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong> with nests increasing from six in 1994 to 20 in 2005 (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. It bred on Raoul Island, also in the Kermadec Islands, early in the 20th century (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The rare subspecies occulta breeds in small numbers on Vanua Lava, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vanuatu</span> (Totterman 2009). It migrates to the tropical and sub-tropical north and southwest Pacific Ocean (Heather and Robertson 1997, J. Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>, with a recent sighting off Gau Island, <strong>Fiji </strong>(Pym <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In February 2010, the rare sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">P. occulta</span> was photographed, 60 miles from the site of the original specimens, and only the second documented sighting since 1927; a total of 21 individuals were sighted over a three-day period, nine seen rafting before dusk (P. Harrison <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106003884		habitat	eng	On Macauley Island it nests in burrows, generally on high, gently sloping areas with sedges and grass. On Raoul, it nested below 300&#160;m on high-altitude ridges (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. On Phillip Island, it is a summer breeder, birds coming ashore as early as 11 November, but laying in January (Priddel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010), differing from the Macauley population by nesting among boulders and in crevices in rocky habitat with sparse understorey, below a canopy of mature white oaks that provide concealment from avian predators (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It has also been known to nest in artificial cavities. On Phillip, the only known nests are at the top of Long Valley, but other areas have potential nest sites (Priddel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010). It feeds mainly on squid (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Little is known of the breeding biology.<p></p>
106003884		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at c.100,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 150,000 total individuals.
106003884		threats	eng	The population on Raoul was probably destroyed by feral cats and brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus </em>(Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The Pacific rat <em>R. exulans</em> was formerly present on Macauley (eradicated in 2006), but does not apparently attack eggs or chicks (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. Feral goats were present on both Raoul and Macauley and trampled burrows. Rabbits were formerly present on Phillip, and extensive grazing and burrowing caused large-scale erosion (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. It remains vulnerable to the introduction of further mammalian predators, and also to fire and disturbance by visitors (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. The most recent visits to Macauley Island indicate that a dense successional stage of fern-dominated vegetation appears to be displacing the species from some colonies; however, population level impacts are not currently known (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: it is restricted to an island or islands with a maximum altitude of 238 m (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106003885		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor suitable colonies to assess population trends. Complete pest plan to prevent and enable rapid responses to new species introductions. Eradicate <em>G. australis</em> from Big Solander Island, and <em>G. australis</em> and <em>R. rattus</em> from Big South Cape Island, on agreement with owners. Asses the impact of the <em>P. griseus </em>harvest on populations.  <p></p>
106003885		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma inexpectata</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It breeds on islands off Fiordland, the Solander Islands, Foveaux Strait islands, islands around Stewart Island (including Titi islands, Codfish, Big South Cape Islands, and islets in Port Pegasus) and the Snares Islands (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It once bred throughout the North and South Islands, and possibly the Chatham, Bounty, Antipodes and Auckland Islands (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are c.10,000+ pairs on each of Big South Cape and Main Islands (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the Codfish population was estimated at 300,000-400,000 pairs in 1996 (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It migrates to the north Pacific as far as the subarctic front and Bering Sea and in summer can range as far south as the pack ice (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003885		habitat	eng	It breeds in burrows on remote offshore islands and otherwise ranges widely at sea.  <p></p>
106003885		population	eng	Brooke (2004) <p></p>
106003885		threats	eng	Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em> have been introduced to several colonies, and have caused significant losses on Codfish (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is present on Big South Cape Island, and may have a severe impact on breeding success. Some populations are on islands that are regularly harvested for Sooty Shearwater <em>Puffinus griseus</em> chicks, and the impact of trampling of burrows and incidental take is not known (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000). <p></p>
106003886		distribution	eng	The Bonin Petrel disperses widely over the subtropical north Pacific, nesting on the Bonin and Volcano Island (<strong>Japan</strong>) and on the western Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003886		habitat	eng	This species rarely approaches land except at colonies, feeding mostly at night on a diet predominately comprised of fish, as well as some squid, shrimps and sea skaters. It breeds on oceanic islands, creating burrows in areas of sandy soil or high sloping ground up to 918 m, usually amongst vegetation. Breeding starts in December, with individuals forming dense colonies (del Hoyo et al. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003886		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to approach c.1,000,000 individuals, while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106003887		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Cabbage Tree, <em>Pisonia</em> is being removed, rabbits have been extirpated (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), <em>S. graculina</em> and <em>C. coronoides</em> are controlled, and other predators are monitored (Carlile <em>et al. </em>2003, Priddel and Carlile 2009)<strong></strong>. As a result breeding success has increased from 20% to 50% (Priddel and Carlile 2007). Two hundred fledglings have been translocated from Cabbage Tree to Boondelbah where a small colony is now established (Priddle<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). In New Caledonia SCO have implemented an annual campaign to save petrels which are attracted to lights (SCO <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 2007, nine birds were found and five released alive, but numbers must be higher and SCO hopes to make this campaign a major event (SCO <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In New Caledonia, the local government previously funded a rat control program near a large breeding colony (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Poison was set in October each year, before the petrels arrive and before the wet season (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. This action has since been discontinued (N. Carlile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potential breeding areas in New Caledonia. Clarify its taxonomy. Assess breeding success and predation levels. Control introduced mammals. Monitor Australian populations biennially. In New Caledonia, study the impact of light pollution (and urbanisation) on the species. Increase the scope of the campaigns to save birds attracted to lights in the Noumea area. <p></p>
106003887		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma leucoptera</em> mainly breeds in <strong>Australia</strong> and <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. There is also a small colony on Raivavae, Austral Islands, <strong>French Polynesia </strong>(V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000). In Australia, <em>leucoptera</em> breeds on Cabbage Tree (0.3 km<sup>2</sup>) and adjacent Boondelbah (0.1 km<sup>2</sup>) Islands. It has also been recently found to breed on at least three sites on Broughton Island (1.3 km<sup>2</sup>) and Little Broughton Island (0.3 km<sup>2</sup>), 12 km northeast of Cabbage Tree (Carlile<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in press). On Cabbage Tree, population estimates indicated a decline from 2,004 birds in 1970 to 1,157 in 1993 (Priddel and Carlile 1997b)<strong></strong>. However, conservation action undertaken since 1993 has seen the number of nesting pairs increase annually from fewer than 250 to c.1,025 in 2001<strong></strong>, and numbers appear to be currently stable between 800-1000 pairs (Priddel and Carlile 2007, 2009). Following a translocation programme in 1999, approximately 50 pairs breed on Boondelbah (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, D. Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In New Caledonia, three main breeding sites of <em>caledonica</em> of 1,000-2,000 pairs are known between Mts Dzumac and Poya, at 350-650 m (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Based on sightings at sea off New Caledonia, there may be c.1,000-10,000 pairs in total, although more colonies may lie undiscovered in isolated massifs on New Caledonia (Meeth and Meeth 1983, Bretagnolle and Thomas 1990, V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Bretagnolle <em>in</em> Brooke 2004, V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Petrels known historically from Vanuatu (possibly still extant) may be this species (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, or an undescribed taxon (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Australian birds presumably disperse with New Caledonian birds to the Tasman Sea and the far east Pacific (Imber and Jenkins 1981, Meeth and Meeth 1983, Bretagnolle and Thomas 1990, <strong></strong>Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. Three individuals have been sighted over the waters around Fiji (T. Pyn <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, and four around the Windward Islands (Champeau 2010). There is also some evidence pointing to the presence of small colonies on Tahiti (Champeau 2010). Non-breeders forage in the Southern Ocean as far south as the Antarctic  coast (D. Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Recent tracking studies have revealed that during the  non-breeding season, both subspecies migrate across the Pacific, but use  different migration routes and over-winter in different regions of the  ocean; <span style="font-style: italic;">leucoptera</span> in the central Pacific south of Hawaii, and <span style="font-style: italic;">caledonia</span>  in the Eastern Pacific west of Ecuador (D. Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106003887		habitat	eng	It breeds in small, loose colonies of 10-50 pairs in burrows on steep, vegetated slopes on New Caledonia between 350 and 650 m, and among rocks and debris of cabbage tree palm <em>Livistona australis</em> in Australia (Priddel and Carlile 1997a,b; <strong></strong>V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Bretagnolle <em>in</em> Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. During breeding, it feeds mainly cephalopods, fish and crustaceans (McGee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. submitted), taken in the Tasman Sea and in the waters off southern Australia (D. Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Banded adult birds have lived to more than 40 years of age (D. Priddel <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003887		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number 3,000-21,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,000-14,000 mature individuals (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000; Garnet and Crowley 2000, Priddel and Carlile 2007).
106003887		threats	eng	The Cabbage Tree population declined as a result of predation by Pied Currawong <em>Strepera graculina </em>and Australian Raven <em>Corvus coronoides</em>, and entanglement in birdlime tree <em>Pisonia umbellifera</em> fruit (Priddel and Carlile 2007). Introduced rabbits have probably changed the island's vegetation to favour increased populations of <em>S. graculina </em>and <em>Pisonia </em>(Priddel and Carlile 1997b)<strong></strong>, as well as making the birds more susceptible to predation. On New Caledonia, introduced pigs excavate chicks from burrows (F. Hannecart <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and cats are another potential threat. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> have been found predating both eggs and adults and this may constitute a major threat: a previously rat-free colony declined from 125-250 pairs in 2002 to perhaps fewer than 20 nests in 2005 after the invasion of rats (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Tens of birds probably are accidentally killed annually between January and April around Noumea when they are attracted to lights, continuing urbanisation is likely to make this situation worse (SCO <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 1995, egg abandonment on Cabbage Tree suggested unidentified marine threats, although it coincided with an Australia-wide die-off of pilchards <em>Sadinops sagax neopilchardus </em>(Priddel and Carlile 1997b, Carlile <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003888		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cats were eradicated from Little Barrier by 1980, and <em>G. australis</em> was eradicated from Codfish between 1980 and 1985 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <em>R. exulans</em> was succesfully eradicated from Little Barrier Island in 2004, increasing fledging success from 5% to 70% (Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2007, Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). An eradication operation took place in August 1998 on Codfish - the outcome of which is unknown (D. V. Merton <em> in litt.</em> 1998). Translocation of chicks from Little Barrier to another potential nest site, Cape Sanctuary in Hawke’s Bay peninsula, is on-going (M. Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Chicks have been transferred at 50-60 days of age, 20 days before fledging, so that they have time to identify with their new location without needing prolonged feeding (Fallwell 2010). In early 2012, c.250 had been moved during three years (M. Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Codfish to locate new breeding burrows and colonies. Monitor breeding success and recruitment on Codfish, and map burrows at five-yearly intervals. Monitor the status of the population on Great Barrier: collect dead birds, tag and map active burrows, record locations of display areas. Implement appropriate pest control if a colony (more than five burrows) is found on Great Barrier. Reintroduce to mainland "islands" (areas of the mainland with intensive predator control) (<strong></strong>Imber <em>et al </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003888		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma cookii</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it breeds on Little Barrier, Great Barrier and Codfish Islands. On Great Barrier, only 12 burrows have been found during the last 25 years; there may be fewer than 20 pairs (Imber <em>et al </em>2003)<strong></strong> and it is extinct as a reproductively viable population, probably owing largely to the presence of rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus</span> spp. (M. Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). On Codfish the population declined from c.20,000 pairs in the early 1900s almost to extinction before predators were removed in 1982; it is now increasing and was estimated at 5,000 breeding pairs in 2007 (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997, Imber <em>et al </em>2003,<strong> </strong>Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), and in 2012 was thought to number c.5,000-6,000 breeding pairs (M. Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population on Little Barrier is also likely to be increasing (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, and modelling and spatial analysis has suggested that as many as 286,000 pairs may breed on the island annually (Rayner 2006); six times the number previously suggested (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong> Little Barrier/Hauturu Island supports 98% of the world population, with the remainder breeding on Codfish/Whenua Hau Island, off Stewart Island. In 2010, 50 chicks were translocated from Little Barrier to Hawke’s Bay peninsula, south of Cape Kidnappers (Fallwell 2010). The project aims to translocate 350 chicks to build up the colony by 2013, following the fencing of a 2.5-ha site against mice and other predators (Fallwell 2010). Birds migrate to the eastern Pacific Ocean, mainly between 34°S and 30°N (Heather and Robertson 1997). Behavioural, morphological and genetic analyses has produced evidence of a distinct population genetic structure (Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), and a recent study of year-round movements indicates two separate migration routes over historic timescales, with birds at Little Barrier migrating to the northern Pacific Ocean and birds at the Codfish Islands migrating to the Humboldt Current (Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). These data imply that the two populations may be best treated as different subspecies and represent separate management units (M. Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><br/><br/><strong></strong><p></p>
106003888		habitat	eng	It breeds in burrows on forested ridges and steep slopes at 300-700 m on Little Barrier and 4-350 m on Codfish; ideal breeding habitat is unmodified forest close to ridgetops with a low and open canopy and many large stems (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Rayner <em>et al </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It formerly bred in suitable habitat throughout New Zealand (Imber <em>et al </em>2003)<strong></strong>. It feeds mainly on squid, crustaceans and small fish (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003888		population	eng	M. Rayner (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) estimates over 650,000 mature individuals on Little Barrier in 2007 and c.15,000 mature individuals on the Cod Fish Islands in 2008, thus the total population estimate is rounded to c.670,000 mature individuals.
106003888		threats	eng	On Little Barrier, introduced cats were a major predator of chicks and adults. Although cats were eradicated, the number of petrel burrows with chicks declined from 32% when both cats and rats were present to just 9% following cat eradication because the population of <em>Rattus exulans</em> (also a predator of petrel chicks) increased dramatically (Heather and Robertson 1997, G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Taylor 2000, Rayner <em>et al </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Great Barrier, the population is severely threatened by cats, black rat <em>R. rattus</em> and Pacific rat <em>R. exulans</em>. On Codfish, the population declined owing to severe predation by the introduced Weka <em>Gallirallus australis </em>(Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003889		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Between 1987 and 1997, eradications of <em>R. exulans</em> were completed on Korapuki, Double, Stanley, Red Mercury, Lady Alice, Whatupuke and Coppermine Islands (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. As a result, breeding success has improved (as has that of <em>P. assimilis </em>[R. Pierce <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>). Study populations have been established on Red Mercury and Stanley Islands. Populations on the Chicken Islands group have been studied since 1992 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Chick translocations to Cuvier Island in 2001-2003 has resulted in a small breeding population (G. Taylor in litt. 2012). Hen Island (500 ha) was cleared of <em>R. exulans</em> in 2011 (to be confirmed in 2013) (G. Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Ririwha and Aorangi Islands to confirm breeding status and population size, and survey Fanal, Three Kings and Ohinau Islands for new colonies. Continue monitoring study burrows on Lady Alice, and monitor breeding density and burrow competition. Eradicate <em>R. exulans</em> from Ririwha Island if owners consent. Check all islands at least every five years to ensure that introduced predators have not established (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003889		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma pycrofti</em> breeds under forest on 12 offshore islands along the east coast of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, in the Poor Knights Islands, the Hen and Chicken Islands, the Mercury Islands, and Ririwha (= Stephenson). Chick translocations to Cuvier Island in 2001-2003 have resulted in a small breeding population (numbering 14 pairs in 2012) (G. Taylor in litt. 2012). Subfossils indicate that the species once bred on Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands (to Australia) (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Red Mercury Island (c.80% of total) supported 1,000-2,000 pairs in 1989-1991, and 2,000-3,000 in 1998. Surveys in 2010 indicate that this population has expanded to 5,000-10,000 pairs and is the dominant seabird on the island (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population at the Hen and Chickens is probably less than 500 pairs. Other populations are tiny. The total breeding population is estimated at c.10,000 pairs, with a total population of 30,000-40,000 birds (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. However, a banded adult found 5 May 2005 offshore Lelehudi Village, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea, may indicate some birds spend the non-breeding season in the Papua New Guinea region. The timing of the recovery does not rule out the possibility of a passing migrant (Pierce 2009). Studies utilising geolocators have shown that, when not breeding, birds disperse to the central and eastern tropical Pacific (M. Rayner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, G. Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003889		habitat	eng	It digs burrows on flat to steep coastal slopes below 150 m, often interspersed with other petrel colonies (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Adults return in Oct to clean out burrows, with egg-laying occurring in Nov-Dec, and young departing in Mar-Apr (Pierce 2009).  Its diet is not well known, although it is known to take squid (Heather and Robertson 1997) and crustaceans (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003889		population	eng	The total breeding population is estimated at 5,000-10,000 pairs, equating to 12,000-22,000 mature individuals, within a total population of 30,000-40,000 individuals (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003889		threats	eng	Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> has a significant impact on breeding success, taking eggs and chicks (Heather and Robertson 1997, Pierce 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The threatened endemic reptile tuatara <em>Sphenodon punctatus</em> is also a natural predator of eggs and chicks, but appears to have no major effect on populations (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Pierce 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Little Shearwaters <em>Puffinus assimilis</em> compete for nesting sites, and generally dominate when their populations are large (R. Pierce <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although they presently have little effect on breeding success (Pierce 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, competition may become problematic in the future as populations increase in response to a release from predator pressure (R. Pierce <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: it is restricted to an island or islands with a maximum altitude of 150 m (Birdlife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003890		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys during the breeding season to determine its status on all islands where it is known or suspected to have occurred. Clarify taxonomy.  Assess breeding success and predation levels on Gau. Consider controlling introduced mammals. <p></p>
106003890		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma brevipes</em> is presently known to breed only on Gau<strong> (Fiji)</strong>, and possibly on Viti Levu, Kadavu, Ovalau, Vanuabalavu (Fiji), Tau (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Samoa</span>), Raratonga (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Cook Islands</span>), and South Vanuatu and Makira (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands</span>) (J. Hobbs<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2009). On Gau island, 165 birds were attracted to lights on four nights in April-May 1984 (Watling 1985)<strong></strong>. However, in recent surveys for this species at the historical breeding site of Ovalau (July 2004) none were seen (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. A more recent survey at Mt Washington (=Nabukulevu) on Kadavu recorded fewer than five, although the visit was outside the breeding season (S. Cranwell and J. Bird <em>in litt)</em><strong></strong>. The species is a cryptic breeder, rarely seen from the coast, returning to land only after dark during the breeding season and often silent after pre-laying displays, so it may have been overlooked. The species may have been extirpated from Viti Levu and Vanua Levu through predation by introduced mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>. However, on Viti Levu, petrels have been seen flying inland during the day, one freshly killed specimen was found in 1971 (Watling 1986)<strong></strong>, and birds heard in the interior may have been of this species. The one other Fijian island with a historical specimen record but no mongooses, Vanuabalavu (Watling 1986)<strong></strong>, has not been surveyed in recent years, nor have other islands such as Taveuni and Moala which may hold this species (Watling 1986, D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>2000, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>.  There are a few at-sea records of this species from Fijian seas, with maximum recorded counts of eight birds (Jenkins 1986, D. Hobcroft <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Outside Fiji, there are historical breeding specimens from Vanuatu and Makira (Solomon Islands). A series of specimens from Vanuatu from 1859 to 1936 include breeding birds from the southern islands of Tanna and Aneityeum (=Anatom), and birds from Efate and at sea off Mere Lava (Banks Islands) (Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong>. The only recent records from Vanuatu are two off Efate on 11 March 1971 (Trodden in Bourne and Dixon 1975)<strong></strong> and some at sea in 2004 (D. Hobcroft <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. There have been no recent thorough surveys of the Vanuatu breeding islands but local people on Tanna reported that hole-nesting birds were very rare in 1998 (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. A visit to Tanna in July 2008 proved that the species still breeds in the mountains in the south-west of the island (S. Totterman pers. comm)<strong></strong>. The newly-described taxon <em>P. b. magnificens</em>, presumed to breed on Vanua Lava and possibly Gaua in the Banks Islands, was found to be relatively abundant during an expedition in 2009, with 180 sighted at sea (Bretagnolle and Shirihai 2010)<strong></strong>. Extensive work with local communities on Makira revealed no knowledge of the species but nine were seen at sea between Makira and the Santa Cruz islands on 3 October 2004 (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. The species previously nested on Rarotonga (Cook Islands), but only a small relict population remained in 1990, which is now reported to have gone extinct (McCormack 1992, M. Imber <em>in litt. </em>2006, <strong></strong>E. Saul <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. It may also breed on the Austral Islands (French Polynesia), Moorea and Tahiti, and Samoa, although there are no confirmed records (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>2005, M. Imber <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Reports from Tau in American Samoa may refer to the Herald Petrel <em>P. heraldica </em>(Engbring and Ramsay 1989)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested that the birds found in the Solomon Islands and French Polynesia may be <em>P. caledonica</em> rather than <em>P. brevipes</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>, although this is disputed (M. Imber <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Regardless of the taxonomic status of <em>P. brevipes</em>, it is undoubtedly rare, and its population has recently been estimated at 1,000-10,000 individuals (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>.<br/>The non-breeding range is thought to be tropical Pacific between 10°N and 10°S as far as the Galapagos Islands. Rollo Beck collected 6 small dark Collared Petrel specimens on the Whitney South Sea Expedition in 1927. In December 2009 Vincent Bretagnolle and Hadoram Shirihai observed and photographed this small dark form, which is now described as P.b. magnificens (J. Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009, Shirhai and Bretagnolle 2011).<br/><p></p>
106003890		habitat	eng	It nests on Gau, Fiji, between 100 and 500 m, in burrows on steep, well-forested slopes (MacGillivray 1860, Watling 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Young have been found in the nest on Fiji from May to August (MacGillivray 1860, Watling 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although on Vanuatu small downy young were found in February (MacGillivray 1860, Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is perhaps relatively sedentary, tending to remain close to the breeding islands, although some are recorded to have dispersed east between about 10<sup>o</sup>N and 15<sup>o</sup>S almost to the Galápagos (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet is little known, but is thought to consist chiefly of cephalopods and fish (MacGillivray 1860)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003890		population	eng	Unpublished data from the Fiji IBA project (G. Dutson in litt. 2005) suggest that the global population numbers 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106003890		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is thought to be predation by introduced mammals, especially the mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus </em>(G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also pigs, cats, dogs and rats. Habitat degradation by goats is also believed to be a problem. Local communities in the Banks Islands are reported to have heavily exploited petrels and especially shearwaters for many generations until the 19th century, but in recent years they have apparently only been infrequently harvested at most (Totterman 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Tanna, small numbers of young birds have been killed as part of a ritual (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kadavu, agricultural encroachment into forested areas has increased, particularly around Nabukulevu. <p></p>
106003891		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a biosphere reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997 (J.&#160;C.&#160;Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing (Hulm 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Remove all introduced mammals, initially within intensively managed, fenced, feasibility study areas. Survey to establish population size, local distribution and breeding productivity. <p></p>
106003891		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma defilippiana</em> is an east Pacific seabird, currently breeding on three or four islands off the coast of <strong>Chile</strong>. In the Des Venturadas Islands, 10,000 or more birds occurred on San Ambrosio in 1970, with an additional 150-200 pairs on San Félix. In the Juan Fernández Islands, it has possibly been extirpated on Robinson Crusoe, and the population on Santa Clara was suggested at hundreds, possibly thousands, in 1986, but available habitat was found for only 100-200 individuals in 1991. It ranges at sea in the nearby Peru Current, south of the equator (Roberson and Bailey 1991, Spear <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003891		habitat	eng	It breeds on sheltered cliff-ledges, crevices, caverns and amongst boulders at the foot of lava cliffs. It nests colonially, with eggs apparently laid July-September, chicks hatching in October and colonies abandoned in December-January. However, it has been reported breeding in February on San Félix. <p></p>
106003891		population	eng	The world population may be no greater than 20,000 individuals, possibly fewer. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106003891		threats	eng	Feral cats and coatis are blamed for the possible extinction on Robinson Crusoe, and cats have caused extensive mortality on San Félix. Rats have been cited as a predator but on which island is unknown. Santa Clara and San Ambrosio appear to be predator-free. <p></p>
106003892		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977, Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998, J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997 (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> which included goat control, but it concluded in 2003. The islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing (Hulm 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Park rangers have been trained in fighting fires, but there is only one ranger on Alejandro Selkirk (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sheep were removed from Alejandro Selkirk in 1983 (Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain and expand population monitoring plots (Hodum and Wainstein 2003, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine contemporary breeding population size. Eradicate introduced fauna (feral cats, rats, mice and goats) from Alejandro Selkirk. <p></p>
106003892		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma longirostris</em> breeds on Alejandro Selkirk Island in the Juan Fernández Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>. The population is estimated at 131,000 pairs (Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but more recent estimates suggest that it may be lower (Hodum and Wainstein 2003, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may be declining. It is a migrant to the north-west Pacific off Japan (<strong></strong>Roberson and Bailey 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds appear to move through a corridor south-east of Hawaii in April-June (<strong></strong>Roberson and Bailey 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with some straying as far south as North Island, New Zealand (Falla 1962)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There may be a clockwise movement through the north Pacific in late summer and autumn, with birds recorded off California, USA (<strong></strong>Roberson and Bailey 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003892		habitat	eng	It nests in burrows on slopes in <em>Dicksonia externa</em> fern-forest and adjacent grasslands at elevations of 700-1,1120 m (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding begins in November. One egg is laid in late November-early December with hatching in late January-mid February. Fledging occurs in May. It forms mixed-species colonies with <em>P. externa </em>(Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, typically forming small monospecific clusters of burrows in shallow soils within the larger <em>P. externa</em> colony (Hodum and Wainstein 2003, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds in pelagic waters primarily on squid and small fish (Hodum and Wainstein 2003, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003892		population	eng	In 1986, the population was estimated at 131,000 pairs, implying a world population in excess of 400,000 individuals.
106003892		threats	eng	Predation by feral cats, introduced brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus </em>(Jones <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and house mice <em>Mus mus</em> has been documented (Hodum and Wainstein 2003, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may be causing a population decline (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Hodum and Wainstein 2003, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In mixed colonies with <em>P. externa</em>, cats prefer to take the smaller <em>P. longirostris </em>(Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced goats (c.6,000) are destroying suitable breeding habitat (Hulm 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1995, a fire destroyed habitat within part of the colony (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it is not known if the species was nesting in that part of the colony. In 2002, a massive rainstorm caused multiple landslides within the colony, although the effects of this on the species were unquanitified (Hodum <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Decreased lobster catches near Isla Robinson Crusoe are displacing fishers to Alejandro Selkirk (where they live between September and May), resulting in an increase in human disturbance (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the size of the community has apparently not increased since 2001. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 2,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (1,649 m) (Birdlife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003893		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Kiritimati, a cat eradication programme has failed to limit predation by feral cats outside villages (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999, <strong></strong>E. A. Schreiber<em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. There are plans to attract the species to cat-free Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge (200 miles from Kiritimati) using acoustic playback recorders (Rauzon 1985)<strong></strong>. On Oeno and Ducie, <em>R. exulans</em> was successfully eradicated in 1997 (B. Bell verbally 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Marquesas there is on-going work to keep protected areas free of introduced predators (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of and monitor known colonies (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999, M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially in the Phoenix Islands (A. K. Kepler <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and search for new ones, e.g. in the Tuamotus (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess risks of rat introduction and effects of island development (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate rats and cats from existing colonies (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999, M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including throughout the Line and Phoenix islands (A. K. Kepler <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out plans to attract the species to cat-free Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge (200 miles from Kiritimati), using acoustic playback recorders.  <p></p>
106003893		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma alba</em> breeds in the Line and Phoenix Islands (<strong>Kiribati</strong>), Marquesas Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>), and <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK) </strong>(c.12-20 pairs on Oeno in 1997 and 1998 [Bell and Bell 1998, B. Bell verbally 1999]<strong></strong>). In the Line Islands, the stronghold is Kiritimati (= Christmas Island) where, in 1967, the population was estimated at c.6,500 adults (Schreiber and Ashmole 1970)<strong></strong> and, in 1980-1982, 20,000-25,000 (<strong></strong>Perry 1980, <strong></strong>Garnett 1984)<strong></strong>. Since then, it has apparently decreased, although previous estimates may have been too high (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In 2007, the population on Kiritimati was estimated at 2,300-3,800 pairs (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> J.-C. Thibault <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In 1957, motus Tabu and Upua (islets in the main lagoon) supported c.800 nests each (Gallager 1960)<strong></strong>, in 1993, 50 and 40 pairs respectively (Jones, unknown)<strong></strong>, and in 1999, 200 and 300 (<strong></strong>D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In the Phoenix Islands, there were 50+ pairs on Canton in 1987 (Teebaki 1987)<strong></strong>, but none were found in surveys in 1995 and 1996 (nor did residents recall seeing them) (<strong></strong>Flint and Bailey 1995, Flint <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, although, in 1999, it appeared common on Phoenix (A. D. Piazza <em>per</em> D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In the Marquesas, it was present on two motus off Ua Pou in 1989 and 1990, on Fatu Huku (five pairs) in 1990 (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong> and more than 250 pairs were recorded on Hatuta'a Island in 2007 (Gangloff<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009), although the population there in November 2010 was estimated at c.100 adults (J.-C. Thibault <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. At Fatu Huku, c.12 birds were observed flying and one incubating in July 2011 (J.-F. Butaud <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> J.-C. Thibault <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). At least one pair was found breeding on Hatu-Iti (=Motu Iti) (Marquesas Islands) in March 2010 (Champeau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). There are no recent confirmed records from the Tuamotus (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong> or Tonga (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. During the non-breeding season it disperses over much of the tropical Pacific as far north as Hawaii and as far south as the Kermadec Islands (Gangloff <em>et al.</em> 2009).<strong></strong><strong></strong><br/><p></p>
106003893		habitat	eng	It nests in colonies on islets or islands at low altitude, and feeds mainly on squid, supplemented by fish and crustaceans; it may obtain much food by following cetaceans (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003893		population	eng	While population details are often uncertain, it appears this is now a scarce species, perhaps numbering only 10,000 breeding pairs and 30,000 individuals.
106003893		threats	eng	Birds only appear to survive on islands without cats. The arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>on Kiritimati is a major worry and is likely to lead to a very rapid population reduction (Dovey 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by Polynesian rat <em>R. exulans</em> and subsistence hunting are additional threats of unknown effect (Holyoak 1975, Brooke 1995a, M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although rats do not appear to be affecting population levels on Hatuta'a Island (Gangloff et al. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kiritimati, a proposed satellite launch facility could have significant effects. <p></p>
106003894		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Since 1967, Brazilian law has afforded protection to all seabirds by forbidding persecution, killing, colony disturbance and the use of bird by-products (Antas 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The navy eradicated goats from Trindade by 2005 and are restoring forested natural habitats (da Silva 1995, F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Pigs and cats were eradicated from the island by 1970 (Williams 1984, F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is an ongoing study on the species's breeding biology (Murphy 1936, F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Designate the majority of Trindade as a federal reserve (Antas 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong> or national park (F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine the taxonomic status of the unidentified <em>Pterodroma</em> population on Round Island (Brooke <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct an impact assessment before any construction on Trindade. <p></p>
106003894		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma arminjoniana</em> breeds on Trindade and Martin Vaz Islands off the coast of Espírito Santo, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was considered abundant on Trindade in 1913 and 1986 (Murphy 1936, Filippini 1986)<strong></strong>. Surveys in the mid-1990s have indicated that the Trindade population numbers 2,000-5,000 individuals (F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and the global population was recently estimated at 15,000 individuals (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>, although recent estimates suggest the total may be as low as 1,130 individuals (Luigi <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Flocks have been noted flying around the Tunel, Pão de Açúcar, Farilhões and Crista de Galo peaks, but the most probable nest-sites are inaccessible without specialist equipment (Filippini 1986)<strong></strong>. It was first recorded breeding on the Martin Vaz Islands (three small islands and several associated stacks 45 km east of Trindade) in 1924-1925, when it was abundant on the middle island (Murphy 1936)<strong></strong>, although there is no recent evidence of breeding at this site (Luigi <em>et al.</em> 2008). Also recently identified, from what was previously an unidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterodroma </span>species, to be breeding on Round Island, 22 km north of Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean (Brown and Jordan 2009). There have been confirmed sightings of several birds at sea in the central south Atlantic (490 nm northeast of Tristan da Cunha), off the Azores and a single sighting off Cape Verde Islands (Flood 2010). Records suggest they may regularly forage in the central north Atlantic and in small numbers as far east as the Macaronesian islands (Flood 2010)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><em></em><p></p>
106003894		habitat	eng	It breeds year-round (all months) in crevices and other cliff-cavities in the highest parts of Trindade (Antas 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but sometimes down to sea level. The peak times for breeding activities (laying) are October and April (F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003894		population	eng	Luigi <em>et al</em>. (2008) have revised the previous population estimate of 15,000 individuals globally (Brooke 2004) to just 1,130 indviduals. <p></p> <p></p>
106003894		threats	eng	Introduced cats and pigs may have formerly restricted the breeding population on Trindade to inaccessible cliff sites (see item 'Ecology' above) (Williams 1984, F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it is also a surface nesting species, so low altitude populations might have been eliminated by feral pigs, cats and humans from the 1700s onwards, except those in small islets surrounding the main island. Hundreds of goats (&lt;500) and/or fire have largely removed forested habitats on the island (Murphy 1936, Olson 1981, F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the effect on breeding sites is undetermined. The Brazilian navy is possibly interested in building a small airbase on the island, which could pose threats in its construction and operation (F. P. da Fonseca Neto <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Experimental wind turbines and a tower for wind measurements have already been built on the island, with plans to build further wind turbines in the near future.  The Martin Vaz Islands have never been inhabited and are unlikely to harbour introduced mammals (Williams 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only disturbance to these populations has been the former use of the islands for occasional target practice by the navy (Williams 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003895		distribution	eng	The Herald Petrel is found predominately in the central and western Pacific, breeding on Raine Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), east to Easter Island (<strong>Chile</strong>). Two further colonies are found at Round Island (<strong>Mauritius</strong>) in the western Indian Ocean, and at the Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Individuals have been recorded as far north as the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) in the Pacific, and off the coast of northern <strong>Argentina</strong> in the Atlantic (del Hoyo et al. 1992). <p></p>
106003895		habitat	eng	This marine species is highly pelagic, rarely approaching land except at colonies. Very little is known about its diet, though squid have been recorded. Its breeding season is variable depending on location, with adults visiting colonies formed on oceanic islands, atolls or offershore stacks almost all year round. Colonies are loose, with nests being made in rocky crevices, on crags or on the ground up to 1000 m above sea level (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003895		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 150,000 individuals.
106003896		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. On Maui, there is a long-term monitoring programme in the Haleakala National Park (Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and efforts are made to control introduced mammals. In 1976, a perimeter fence was put up around the main colony to exclude feral goats and pigs from the habitat (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The predator exclosures placed around the national park may have facilitated an increase in the number of birds in eastern Maui (Cooper and Day 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The trapping of rats started in 1968, and since 1997 rodenticides have been used (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cats and mongooses have been controlled since 1981, and trapping of these species and rats continues to be carried out year-round (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On  Lâna`i: colony delineation surveys are continuing (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and as burrows are found they are included in basic breeding biology study; feral cats are being trapped and removed; studies on <em>Tyto alba</em> are being designed; a rat population assessment was due to begin in 2007, with control by rodenticide to be carried out subsequently; habitat restoration work may begin in January 2008; and public education projects will be implemented in 2008 (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2006, a fence was completed to encircle a large portion of the breeding habitat on Lâna`i; the purpose was to exclude ungulates that damage the vegetation thus impacting the island's water supply (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Simultaneously, a limited cat-trapping programme has been initiated in the fenced area (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Maui, Lâna`i, and Kaua`i, grounded fledglings are collected and released, although the benefit of doing this has yet to be confirmed as very few banded individuals have subsequently been encountered (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fencing erected for forest conservation has been modified to reduce collisions (Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, auditory surveys to detect colonies are ongoing, and have included documenting the first known nesting sites on Kaua`i in the Upper Limahuli Preserve (N. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Also on Kaua`i, street lighting is shielded in critical areas and lighting on some buildings has been modified to reduce collisions (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b, Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A ruling brought by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2006, under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, has enforced a campaign running since 2005, in which all non-essential lights on Kaua`i are required to be turned off or shielded between 15 September and 15 December when young birds leave their nests (Appel 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The island's electricity company is helping by darkening all of its 3,000 street lights, and shielding or turning some of them off. The company has also fitted large balls to power lines in an effort to reduce the number of birds that collide with the cables (Appel 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Significant improvements have beem made in reducing light attraction and collision, although there is still a considerable amount of new and existing infrastructure that requires modification (N. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Methods are currently being developed to quantify the population on each island<strong></strong>; surveys for colonies on West Maui are being carried out<strong><sup></sup></strong> and surveys on Moloka`i were planned to begin in Spring 2008 (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve radar sampling for use as a population monitoring technique (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007, J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Use passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags to study colony attendance by breeding pairs (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reduce collisions with power lines by making them more visible, burying them or moving them further inland where birds fly higher (Cooper and Day 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure lighting does not attract petrels (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control predators in known colonies (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and improve measures for the declining colonies at Mauna Loa, Hawai`i (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and West Maui (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor breeding success (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to retrieve grounded birds (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but conduct research to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation methods (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to search for additional breeding areas (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out further research into foraging range and feeding behaviour and investigate the species's vulnerability to human-induced mortality at sea (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the impact of the loss of tuna schools that the species depends upon for foraging (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Undertake research into the potential effects of climate change on the species (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003896		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma sandwichensis</em> ranges in the central Pacific and breeds on the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where an estimate, supported by pelagic surveys, put the total population at 19,000 (range 10,600-34,400), including a best estimate of 4,500-5,000 breeding pairs (Spear <em>et al.</em> 1995, Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the discovery of previously unknown colonies in 2006-2007 may bring the total population closer to the upper estimate of 6,500-8,300 pairs (Spear <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The observation of birds' movements by radar suggests that the total number on Maui exceeds the current estimate of 1,800 individuals (Cooper and Day 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Approximately 1,200 burrows are known in Haleakala Crater, Maui, although not all of these are used every year (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007),<strong><sup></sup></strong> and two small colonies are present in the West Maui Mountains<em></em><strong><sup></sup></strong> but they are so far unquantified (Cooper and Day 2003, J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with numbers perhaps in the tens or low hundreds (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Hawai`i, small numbers breed on Mauna Kea and 40-50 pairs were present on Mauna Loa prior to 1995 (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997a, Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, 1,600 pairs are indicated by observations of birds at a rafting site (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Moloka`i, 5-10 birds were heard calling in 1980, suggesting small numbers (Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there has not been a concerted effort to estimate numbers on this island (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 2006-2007 located a colony in the cloud forests of Lanaihale on the north side of Lâna`i (P. Baicich <em>in litt</em>. 2007, A. Wilson <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This population probably numbers several thousand birds, based on the volume of calling during night time listening surveys in April and May along the Lana`ihale ridge at the highest point in the uplands, although only 14 burrows had been found by October 2007 (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys have so far been hampered by weather conditions and the risk of habitat disturbance (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003896		habitat	eng	On Maui, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, nesting takes place mainly between 2,000 and 3,000 m, in lava cavities with little vegetation nearby (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere, for example West Maui (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> and Kaua`i (N. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, it nests at lower elevations, amongst dense shrubs and ferns (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, or in native grasslands with bracken (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997a, Simons and Hodges 1998, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Haleakala, Maui, birds nest in rock crevices and tunnels that are over 0.5 m deep, often exceeding two metres (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Generally, the nest chamber can be from one to nine metres deep (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Pairs nest in cavities in the volcanic terrain, in burrows beneath rocks or at the base of clay cliffs (N. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. At lower altitudes, they excavate burrows or nest in cavities often at the base of trees (Simons and Hodges 1998, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, N. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, although many burrows on Lâna`i are not at the base of trees (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On Lâna`i birds breed in dense uluhe fern habitat <span style="font-style: italic;">(Dicranopteris linearis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Diplopterygium pinnatum</span>) and start breeding in March whereas on Haleakala, Maui, birds begin breeding in early February (Penniman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It takes each bird five to six years to reach maturity (Hess and Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. Most eggs are laid in May and June, with most young fledging by December (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The diet comprises mostly fish and squid, with squid constituting c.50-75% of the food ingested (Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong></strong>. The species ranges in the north Pacific to around 50 N when foraging for chick provisioning (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. It has been found that at least some birds nesting on Lâna`i feed in waters around the Aleutian Islands, as shown through the use of tracking devices on several breeding individuals P. Baicich <em>in litt</em>. (2007<strong></strong>. The species usually forages in mixed species flocks, typically over schools of predatory fish species (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003896		population	eng	Spear<I> et al.</I> (1995) give a best estimate of 3,750-4,500 breeding pairs based on at-sea surveys. This roughly equates to 6,000-11,000 mature individuals, and 9,000-16,600 individuals in total. However, the discovery of possibly several thousand birds breeding on Lana`i during terrestrial surveys in 2006-2007 and two small colonies on West Maui (J. Penniman<I> in litt.</I> 2007), probably in the tens or low hundreds of birds (D. Ainley<I> in litt.</I> 2007), brings the estimated breeding population close to the upper estimate of 6,500-8,300 pairs calculated by Spear <I>et al.</I> (1995).
106003896		threats	eng	Historically the species suffered declines through harvesting by Polynesians after they arrived c.1,800 years ago (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species was eliminated from many islands in the archipelago, and it may already have been restricted to its current breeding range when Europeans arrived (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting habitat has since been lost to urbanisation and degraded by feral goats and pigs. Nest burrows are trampled by feral goats, mouflon sheep and potentially chital <em>Axis axis </em>(Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most serious current threat is predation by introduced vertebrates including feral cats, Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em>, rats, dogs, pigs and the small Asian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus</em> (although the latter is not yet established on Lâna`i). Nestlings are very susceptible to predation, as they cannot fly for more than 15 weeks after hatching (Hess and Banko 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population on Hawai`i is probably declining as a result, and the south-east Mauna Loa colony may soon be lost (Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is currently threatened with habitat disturbance by goats, pigs and cattle (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Lâna`i, habitat degradation caused by the invasive tree, strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, may be the biggest threat to the long term survival of the colony (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On occassion, fledglings become grounded after colliding with lights (Simons 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and mortality sometimes results from collisions with fences and powerlines (Cooper and Day 1998, Simons and Hodges 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Once on the ground, fledglings are unable to fly and are killed by cars or cats and dogs, or die from starvation or dehydration (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may be threatened by plans for a field of wind generators on Lâna`i (A. Wilson <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although following the discovery of large numbers nesting on the island measures to minimise and mitigate any impact on the species are being developed (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may be adversely affected by declines in the populations of large predatory fish that drive prey species to the surface (J. Penniman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, a significantly lower percentage of birds come ashore to nest during El Niño years (c.40% compared to c.65% normally) (C.N. Hodges <em>per</em> Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting that the species is sensitive to such disturbances in environmental conditions (Carlile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003897		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. In 1982, predator control commenced in the Cerro Pajas colony (c.2,000 pairs), Floreana (Cruz and Cruz 1996)<strong></strong>. Predator control involving intensive rat baiting around known colonies and petrel monitoring currently continues on Floreana, Santa Cruz, San Cristóbal and Santiago (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt. </em>2000, D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt,</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. In early 2009, it was confirmed that goats have been successfully eradicated from Santiago (American Bird Conservancy 2009)<strong></strong>. A small number of burrows have recently been discovered on Alcedo, Isabela (Cruz-Delgado 2005)<strong></strong>. The islands are a national park and, in 1979, were declared a World Heritage Site. World Heritage Site designation encourages Ecuador to work carefully to enact suitable conservation laws and implement existing laws to protect the unique fauna and flora of the Galápagos Islands. There were plans to hold a workshop for fundraising for rat eradication on Santiago in April 2007 (G. Allport <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. There are proposals to protect more marine key biodiversity areas within the Galápagos Marine Reserve by amending the existing marine zoning scheme to reduce the impact from fishing (Edgar <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The wind turbine development includes a series of mitigation and enhancement measures that will be instituted during implementation, many focusing on the petrel, and it is intended that these measures will not only act to minimise impacts but may actually help increase the population. A long-term monitoring programme is included as part of the project activity and ongoing operations (Anon. 2008)<strong></strong>.   Exotic vegetation is being controlled with the help of local landowners on Santa Cruz (Valarezo and Heitmann 2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor breeding success under various predator control regimes to determine most appropriate management (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue rat control programs on San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz, Floreana, and Santiago islands (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). On San Cristóbal, remove invasive plants such as blackberry and guava and reforest with native plants, particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Miconia robinsoniana</span> (Cruz-Delgado <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012); on Floreana continue to control <span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana</span>, and on Santa Cruz control <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinchona pubescens</span> and blackberries (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  Continue searching for nesting grounds in agricultural areas which are not protected through the park system on Santa Cruz and Isabela (B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Conduct a full census for the species as the last comprehensive surveys were in the 1980s and late 1990s (not complete).   Ensure wind-power plants are situated so that they do not affect nesting areas or sites with <em>Miconia</em>, and that power lines are buried to prevent aerial collisions as the birds return to their colonies at night. Implement a post-construction monitoring program on San Cristóbal to assess long-term effects of the turbines (Cruz-Delgado <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Determine potential effects of long-line fishing in the Galápagos Marine Reserve and elsewhere in the eastern Pacific and assess how to avoid them. Working with landowners in areas outside the park, create conservation easements to protect petrel nesting habitat. Create an education program in the agricultural areas to motivate and educate landowners in habitat conservation (Valarezo 2012, B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Create a species action plan involving local stakeholders (B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Conduct rodent control campaigns around colonies on San Cristóbal. Conduct a Galapagos Petrel pride campaign with the Galápagos National Park (B. Hennessey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008).<p></p>
106003897		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma phaeopygia</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, breeding on Santa Cruz, Floreana, Santiago, San Cristóbal, Isabela and possibly other islands in the archipelago (Cruz and Cruz 1987, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Between 1978 and 1980, populations on the islands were estimated at 9,000 pairs on Santa Cruz (Baker 1980)<strong></strong>, c.11,250 on Santiago, and c.6,750 on Floreana and San Cristóbal (Tomkins 1985)<strong></strong>. By 1985, the Santa Cruz population had plummeted to 1,000 pairs, that on Santiago to less than 500 pairs (Cruz and Cruz 1987)<strong></strong>, and numbers on Floreana and presumably San Cristóbal were estimated to have declined to c.2,000 pairs (Coulter <em>et al.</em> 1981)<strong></strong>. An extensive survey of Santa Cruz in 2005 located c.300 previously unknown nests, but the island population totalled just 700 pairs (Valarezo 2006)<strong></strong>; a further survey in 2010 calculated 1,135 pairs (Valarezo and Heitmann 2011). Estimates for 2008 suggested a total of 4,500-5,000 active nests on all five islands (<strong></strong>I. Guzmán <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Birds forage around the islands, but also disperse east and north towards South America and up to 2,000 km south (Spear <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106003897		habitat	eng	It breeds in the humid highlands at 300-900 m, in burrows or natural cavities, on slopes, in craters, sinkholes, lava tunnels and gullies usually in close proximity to <em>Miconia</em> plants (Baker 1980, Cruz and Cruz 1987, 1996)<strong></strong>. It feeds mostly on squid, fish and crustaceans (Castro and Phillips 1996)<strong></strong>. On San Cristóbal nests were primarily located along ravines in areas of dense <em>Miconia robinsoniana </em>and native fern cover, with the majority of egg-laying taking place between May and October, peaking in August (Cruz-Delgado <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003897		population	eng	The global population estimate is best placed in the range of 10,000-19,999 individuals, based on an estimate of 4,500-5,000 active nests (representing 9,000-10,000 mature individuals) in 2008 (I. Guzmán <em>in litt.</em> 2008).
106003897		threats	eng	Introduced dogs, cats and pigs take eggs, young and adults, and black and brown rats eat chicks. Predation by rats was found to be the primary cause of nest failure (72%) in a study of colonies on San Cristóbal in 2002-2003 (Cruz-Delgado <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Galapagos Hawk <em>Buteo galapagoensis </em>(Cruz and Cruz 1996)<strong></strong> and Short-eared Owl <em>Asio flammeus</em> may take adult birds. Nest-site destruction by goats, donkeys, cattle and horses is a major threat (Cruz and Cruz 1987, 1996, Valarezo 2006)<strong></strong>. Clearance of vegetation for agriculture and intensive grazing has severely restricted the breeding area on Santa Cruz, Floreana and San Cristóbal (Baker 1980, Tomkins 1985, Cruz and Cruz 1987, 1996, Valarezo 2006), and at least half the breeding range is still farmed on Santa Cruz (Baker 1980, Valarezo 2006)<strong></strong>. Invasive plants such as <em>Rubus</em> and <em>Cinchona</em> are a further threat to breeding habitat (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2008)<strong></strong>. Adult mortality occurs when birds are caught on barbed wire fences on agricultural land (Cruz and Cruz 1987)<strong></strong>, and collide with power lines, radio towers and guy wires (Cruz-Delgado and Wiedenfeld 2005)<strong></strong>. Development of a wind power project on Santa Cruz was a potential threat to many of the breeding colonies on that island, but the development plan aims to minimise effects on the species, and following construction an evaluation of collision risk suggested the turbines will be no more detrimental than other existing man-made structures (Cruz-Delgado <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Further development of buildings and other structures in the highlands of the islands threaten nesting colonies (Valarezo 2006). Long-line fishing in the eastern Pacific is a threat, but long-lining in the Galápagos Marine Reserve is particularly likely to affect foraging birds. El Niño events seem to have a detrimental impact on nesting and productivity. The species is potentially susceptible to climate change, which may affect food supplies (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012, BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003898		distribution	eng	The Kermadec Petrel ranges across the southern Pacific, from Lord Howe Island (<strong>Australia</strong>) and the Kermadec Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>) in the west to San Ambrosio Island, <strong>Chile</strong> in the east. Outside the breeding season it ranges over much of the tropical and subtropical Pacific, occuring in the north Pacific mainly between November and January (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003898		habitat	eng	This species is marine and highly pelagic, rarely approaching land except at colonies. Little is known about its diet, though squid and crustaceans have been recorded as prey. The breeding season is variable depending on locality, forming loose colonies on offshore islands, occupying cliffs or slopes with some vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003898		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number 150,000-200,000 individuals.
106003899		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a National Park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a Biosphere Reserve in 1977 (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998, J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997 (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing (Hulm 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reserve rangers have been trained in fighting fires, but there is only one ranger on Alejandro Selkirk (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sheep were removed from Alejandro Selkirk in 1983 (Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A Dutch funded goat eradication programme was unsuccessful. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish population monitoring plots (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve sustainable management of yellowfin tuna stocks. Eradicate introduced fauna (goats, cows, rats etc) from Alejandro Selkirk. Monitor effects of flash floods on colonies. <p></p>
106003899		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma externa</em> breeds on Alejandro Selkirk Island in the Juan Fernández Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>. It is very numerous, but could be declining (Schlatter 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although there is no firm evidence of this (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a transequatorial migrant, dispersing over the tropical and subtropical waters of the east Pacific, north to Hawaii, USA, and is regularly seen off west Mexico, with vagrants recorded in New Zealand and east Australia (Carboneras 1992d, Patterson 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further information may indicate declines that would warrant uplisting the species. <p></p>
106003899		habitat	eng	It is highly pelagic, rarely approaching land except at breeding colonies. It nests in burrows on slopes in <em>Dicksonia externa</em> fern-forest and adjacent grasslands at elevations of 600-1,000 m (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One egg is laid in October-November (Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and chicks hatch in Feb-March (Hodum and Wainstein 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is dependent on subsurface predators, especially yellowfin tuna, to drive prey to the surface (Au and Pitman 1986, Ballance <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003899		population	eng	In 1986 the population was estimated at 1,000,000 pairs, which extrapolates to a world population of at least 3,000,000 individuals.  There is no firm evidence of decline.
106003899		threats	eng	The goat population was reduced by a Dutch hunting control programme in the late 1990s through to 2003 (6,000 down to 2,000), but remains a problem in all breeding colonies. Given that the control programme is no longer active, the population will presumably rebound within the next few years. Goat impacts include habitat alteration through plant consumption and also, at times, direct collapses of burrows (Hulm 1995, J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999, Torres <em>in litt. </em>2007, Hodum <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral cat predation is thought to be causing a population decline, with a preliminary estimate of 2-3% annual mortality from cat predation. Brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus </em>also prey on chicks although the incidence appears low and restricted to certain habitat types (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999, Hodum <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Dogs may also be causing a population decline (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Flash flooding in 2002 caused severe localised habitat loss with an estimated 30,000 burrows destroyed (Hodum and Wainstein 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1995, a fire destroyed habitat at the edge of the principal colony and directly killed thousands of birds (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999, Hodum <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Decreased lobster catches near Isla Robinson Crusoe are displacing fishers to Alejandro Selkirk (where the species lives between September and May), resulting in an increase in human disturbance on the breeding grounds (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fisheries may be indirectly impacting upon the species by depleting stocks of subsurface predators. During the night there are some collisions of birds with the lights of the village on Alexander Selkirk (especially on misty nights). The village is inhabited from September to May, during the period of lobster exploitation (Hodum <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 2,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (1,649 m). <p></p>
106003900		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The local authorities have taken steps to stop shooting (Bretagnolle and Attié 1993, Thiollay 1996, M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1996, there has been a campaign to quantify urban light-induced mortality and to rescue as many birds as possible, with increasing success in finding and rescuing birds: over 604 in 1999 (Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 787 in 2001 (Ghestemme 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; around 90% are successfully released (Le Corre <em>et al.</em> 1996, Le Corre <em>et al.</em> 1999, M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2005, only 252 grounded birds were found and rescued, perhaps owing to poor food availability, predation at colonies, a global decline in numbers or weather conditions that favoured flights at higher altitudes (Fontaine 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Measures to reduce light pollution, especially during the April fledging, have been proposed (Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 2004, the community of Cilaos, close to the species's colonies, has taken part in efforts to reduce lighting, and there has been a corresponding decrease in the numbers of grounded birds (Fontaine 2005a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding colonies will be classified as a protected area with access authorised for conservation and research purposes only (Probst <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The trapping of rats is taking place at <em>P. baraui</em> colonies in an effort to study their population size and diet, and to gather knowledge in preparation for their control (Fontaine 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Control predators, particularly cats, at breeding colonies (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, V. Bretagnolle<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Cat control at breeding colonies is required year-round, particularly during the non-breeding season when efforts are likely to have the most effect due to the reduction of other available prey (Pinet <em>et al</em>. 2009). Legislative change is first required to allow the control of feral cats, as these are currently protected alongside domestic cats under French legislation (Pinet <em>et al</em>. 2009). Instigate a comprehensive education program to demonstrate the impact of feral cats to the local population (Pinet <em>et al</em>. 2009). Ensure that a protected area is declared as soon as possible to include all colonies (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Continue rescue programme of young birds attracted by lights (Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Investigate light-reduction programmes either through light-shielding or light-restriction during April and May (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, and consider adjusting its direction, intensity and colour, and the use of temporary black-outs (Salamolard <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003900		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pterodroma baraui</span> nests on the Massif of Piton des Neiges, Réunion (<span style="font-weight: bold;">to France</span>) and has been discovered breeding on Rodriguez (Van den Berg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991). It has been observed at sea north of Réunion, from the Oman Sea as far as Sumatra and around the Cocos Keeling Islands, and south-east towards Australia (Barré<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1996), as far as about 200 km south and 600 km east of Réunion (Van den Berg<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1991). Recent tracking data indicate they can travel much greater distances, migrating eastward up to 5,000 km from their breeding colony to the central and eastern Indian Ocean (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <p></p>
106003900		habitat	eng	It nests on cliff-ledges in volcanic ash soils beneath sparse, heathy vegetation such as <em>Philippia montana</em> associated with upland elfin forest (Probst <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It fishes over a wide area, sometimes associated with flocks of feeding seabirds, and occasionally near fishing boats (Barré <em>et al</em>. 1996, Probst <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. A study of grounded birds in 2005 suggested that most juveniles left their colonies over a period of eight days, beginning four days after the new moon in early April (Fontaine 2005a)<strong></strong>.  &#160;During the non-breeding season, it forages in regions characterised by warm sea surface temperatures and low productivity, consistent with strong and reliable easterly winds, between the western South Equatorial Current and the eastern Equatorial Counter Current (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Birds leave the colony late March, reaching wintering areas in mid-April, returning to the colony 5-15 September (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Both sexes, and breeders and non-breeders, show similar migration schedules, with males returning to the colony slightly earlier, and mean return dates coinciding with full moon phase, suggesting that birds use this cue to synchronise their activity (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Mean distances travelled per day on route to wintering areas was 110-600 km, once there this dropped significantly (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). There is considerable consistency in wintering areas year on year (Pinet<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011). It feeds at the surface, taking mostly squid and fish, foraging alone or in small flocks, often associating with sooty terns <span style="font-style: italic;">Sterna fuscata</span> and Audubon shearwaters <span style="font-style: italic;">Puffinus lherminieri.</span> Stable isotope data suggest that young and adults consume different prey (Pinet<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009).<p></p>
106003900		population	eng	In 1987, the population was estimated at 3,000 breeding pairs based on colony and coastal counts, and 15,000 individuals based on transects at sea.  In 1992, it was estimated that up to half the  breeding population may have been killed by illegal shooting. Although this may have been an overestimate, the population appears to have recovered to former levels (because of  large numbers of non-breeders) following the cessation of shooting (V.  Bretagnolle <i>in litt.</i> 1999). More recently, improved knowledge of the colonies indicates that 4,000-5,000 pairs may be a more accurate estimate of breeding numbers, although this could be optimistic (V. Bretagnolle<i> in litt.</i> 2007). In 2001, based on the discovery of new breeding colonies, 4,000 to 6,500 breeding pairs spread over 10 colonies was  estimated. The most reliable recent estimate available is that of 3,000-4,000 pairs given by V. Bretagnolle (<i>in litt.</i> 2007). This equates to 6,000-8,000 mature individuals, or roughly 9,000-12,000 individuals in total.
106003900		threats	eng	Cats predate adults and fledglings and rats may predate chicks and eggs, although no attempt has been made to quantify this due to the very rough topography (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, V. Bretagnolle<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Rats and/or cats and/or goats have been noted at all visited colonies (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In 2005, the remains of birds predated by rats and cats were found at a colony at 2,500 m, and cats were judged to be the main culprits (Fontaine 2005b)<strong></strong>. Similar findings were reported in 2009, where 58% of the birds killed by cats were adults and 42% were fledglings (Faulquier et al. 2009)<strong></strong>. The presence of only a few cats may pose a major threat to this species, due to the loss of adult birds rather than chicks and eggs (which is the major threat posed by rats) (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Thus if cat control led to an increase in rat density it may not lead to a decline in the petrel population (although further work on this is necessary) (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <br/>Juveniles are attracted by lights in urban areas, where some die of starvation or are taken by cats and dogs (Le Corre <em>et al.</em> 1996, Le Corre <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Light-induced mortality of the juveniles of this rare petrel is a considerable problem likely to affect the species long term populations dynamics. Widespread light pollution such as street lamps and sport installations are responsible for the greatest majority of petrel light-induced mortality on Réunion (Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested perhaps as many as 40-60% of young birds are disorientated and ultimately suffer light-induced mortality each year (Le Corre 1999, Le Corre <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Mountaineering is becoming a popular sport and could be a potential threat (Probst <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 1,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (3069 m). <br/>Population modelling has indicated that these threats (especially those reducing adult survival such as cat predation) may drive the species to extinction (Pinet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <br/> <p></p>
106003901		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although the species breeds at a small number of locations and may be declining at some of these, the recent eradication of rats on Ducie (Bell and Bell 1998)<strong></strong> secures the largest population. Following a feasibility study (Brooke and Towns 2008) a rat eradication  operation was carried out on Henderson Island in August 2011 (J. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the rat eradication. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the Ducie population. Continue searches for the species in the Tuamotus (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Continue the programme of Pacific rat eradication on Henderson.&#160;   <p></p>
106003901		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma ultima</em> breeds in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, the Tuamotu Archipelago, the Austral Islands (Garnett 1984)<strong></strong> and the Gambier Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>) (Thibault and Bretagnolle 1999)<strong></strong> and perhaps in the Cook Islands. In the Pitcairns, an estimated 2,500 (± 500) breed on Henderson, 12,500 (± 2,500) on Oeno, and 250,000 (± 29,000) on Ducie (Brooke 1995a)<strong></strong>. In the Tuamotus, colonies occur on Mururoa and Fangataufa (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, although these may have disappeared owing to nuclear tests and the recent construction of an airstrip (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999, J.-C. Thibault<em> in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. In the Australs, it breeds only on a limited number of islets off Rapa where the population was estimated at 10-100 pairs in 1990 (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong>. In the Gambiers, proof of breeding was found for the first time on Manui and numbers were estimated at 5-10 pairs (Thibault and Bretagnolle 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Cook Islands, a specimen was collected probably from Rarotonga or perhaps one of the other southern Cook Islands, between c.1899 and 1904 (Gill 1996)<strong></strong>. In 2009, 2 pairs were reported nesting on Easter Island (M. Martin in litt. 2011). Non-breeding dispersal is poorly known but mostly north as far as north-west Hawaiian chain in west, yet frequently seen in eastern tropical Pacific as far as Californian current.   <em> <p></p></em>
106003901		habitat	eng	Has been recorded nesting in rocky cliffs during March.   On Henderson Island, has been recorded nesting in woodland behind beaches or in low fern scrub close to the island’s cliffs. Nesting is seasonal, with egg-laying between late May and early July. 50-day incubation period is completed in three stints. The male takes the first stint, averaging 19.3 days, following a similar stint by the female, and then the male for the second time. Egg-hatching normally occurs towards the end of the male’s second stint (Brooke 2010). Off-duty birds calculated as having a foraging radius of 4,600 km, potentially accessing highly productive Antarctic Polar Front, 6,500 km to the south (Brooke 2010). Even rich waters off California, 6,500 km to north, could be reached if the birds flew for more than 12 hours a day and birds are seen most often in those waters during the incubation months of June and July (Brooke 2010). Breeding sites are completed abandoned during the non-breeding period, after November (Anon. 2007). They feed mainly at sea on cephalopods, fish and small crustacea (Anon. 2007).<p></p>
106003901		population	eng	Brooke (2004) <p></p> <p></p>
106003901		threats	eng	Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> is present on some islands, and causes low breeding success on Henderson in particular, less than 5% (Brooke 1995a, 2010)<strong></strong>. The Henderson population could be sustained through immigration from other colonies but there is no evidence that this occurs (Brooke 2010). The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: it is restricted to an island or islands with a maximum altitude of 33 m (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. There is no information on trends.  <p></p>
106003902		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Lord Howe Island group was designated a World Heritage Site in 1982. The control of rats has been taking place on Norfolk Island, however in 2006, the control measures were noted to be budget-constrained and limited in effectiveness (S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. A rat control program is also ongoing on parts of Lord Howe Island (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In 2006, a proposal was submitted to eradicate all mammalian predators from all, or at least a significant part, of Norfolk Island (Holdaway 1999)<strong></strong>. Such measures might involve the establishment of an exclosure in the National Park in which all mammals are eliminated, and where chicks are translocated (Holdaway 1999, S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the Lord Howe Island population at least once every five years, and the Phillip Island population every three years. Monitor breeding success on a 1-3 year basis. Eradicate cats and rat species from Norfolk Island (Holdaway 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or at least establish an exclusion area (Holdaway 1999, S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider translocation of chicks (Holdaway 1999, S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement bird-safe fishing practices in the Pacific Ocean fleet. Impose strict quarantine procedures on any vessels visiting Phillip Island and Lord Howe Island.  <p></p>
106003902		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma solandri</em> breeds in the southern section of Lord Howe Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and on Phillip Island, <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It was exterminated on Norfolk Island itself between 1790 and 1800, where it was once considered numerous. One million adults and young were harvested for food from 1790-1793 and numbers dropped to 15,000 by 1796, with complete extermination by 1800 (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The population on Lord Howe Island was estimated at 20,000 breeding pairs in the 1970s (Fullagar <em>et al.</em> 1974)<strong></strong>, however a more comprehensive survey during the 2002 breeding season estimated the population at just over 32,000 breeding pairs (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. Surveys also determined that its distribution has likely increased since the eradication of pigs on Lord Howe Island and it appears to be establishing itself in the lower elevations south of Mt Lidgbird (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. The Phillip Island population was discovered in 1985 and numbered at least 20 birds, with current estimates of 10-100 pairs (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Pigs, goats and rabbits all impacted Phillip Island, mainly through removal of vegetation causing large-scale soil erosion, until all were eradicated by the 1980’s, since when vegetation has increased (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Its non-breeding distribution is across the western Tasman Sea with some dispersing to the north and northwest Pacific Ocean perhaps as far north as the Bering Sea&#160;</span>(Nakamura and Tanaka 1977, <strong></strong>Cheshire and Jenkins 1981, <strong></strong>Tanaka 1986, <strong></strong>Marchant and Higgins 1990, J. Hobbs <em>in litt. </em>2009).</span>  <p></p>
106003902		habitat	eng	It nests in burrows or under rock cavities and occasionally between tree buttresses from sea level to 900 m (Bester <em>et al. </em>2002, Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. On Lord Howe, it breeds in forest, as once did the population of Norfolk Island, so the Phillip Island population is atypical, burrows being in eroded cliffs of soft volcanic tuff (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It is a winter breeder, with birds from Phillip Island breeding at the same time as Lord Howe Island (Priddel et al. 2010). Adults arrive at Phillip from mid-April (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), a single egg layed mid- to late May (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), hatching starts mid-July (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and chicks near-fledged by early November (Priddel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). Adults land during daylight, often about 1530 h (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). A study on Lord Howe Island, 2000-2001, determined 54% breeding success in burrows visited twice and contents not handled, with 34-36% success in burrows repeatedly visited (Bester<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Nests closest to burrow entrances had lowest breeding success, with the main causes of failure being flooding and predation of eggs and chicks by the endemic, threatened Lord Howe Rail <span style="font-style: italic;">Gallirallus sylvestris</span> (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It predominantly takes squid and fish with crustaceans less important. The most important prey item is bioluminescent fish from the genus <em>Electrona</em>; maximum diving depths have been recorded at 5 m (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. It also scavenges for food taking fish offal and has been recorded scavenging on a Shining Bronze-cuckoo <em>Chrysoccyx basilis </em>(Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. It only occasionally follows fishing boats (Kuroda 1955, Bester 2003)<strong></strong> but some fishing material has been reported in their diet (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003902		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 100,000 individuals.
106003902		threats	eng	On Norfolk Island, its demise was due to hunting and introduced species (Whitley 1934, Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. The presence of cats and rats on Norfolk Island continues to limit re-establishment (Holdaway 1999, S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. On Lord Howe Island, it has withstood the introductions of pigs, cats, goats, black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and Masked Owl <em>Tyto novaehollandiae castaneothorax</em>, the latter introduced in the 1920s in an attempt to control rats (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Pigs were eradicated from Lord Howe in 1981, where they had greatly reduced the lowland colonies (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The extent of impact of the remaining introduced species is unknown, although rat predation did account for a small proportion of breeding failures on Lord Howe (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). The low scale of impact may result from rountine rat control on parts of Lord Howe, reducing their potential impact (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Support for this theory comes from the high rates of rat predation on Whale Island, New Zealand in years when no control was done (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). . The main causes of death on Lord Howe Island are predation by the threatened Lord Howe Rail <em>Gallirallus sylvestris </em>and flooding of burrows (Bester <em>et al. </em>2007). </span>The endemic Lord How pied currawong <span style="font-style: italic;">Strepera graculina crissalis</span> is also known to kill chicks (Bester <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). On Phillip Island, competition for burrows from wedge-tailed shearwaters <span style="font-style: italic;">Puffinus pacificus </span>poses a serious threat, with chicks being killed or ejected from burrows (Priddel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). . Rat predation of eggs and chicks was not considered a problem during the 2001 and 2002 breeding seasons (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. It also risks death from drowning in longline fishing gear, but this cause of mortality is unlikely to be significant (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. Diet samples have contained traces of plastic; however, no obvious adverse affects have been detected (Bester 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003903		distribution	eng	The Great-winged Petrel breeds in the Southern Hemisphere between 30 and 50 degrees south with colonies on Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island (<B>St Helena to UK</B>), the Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Islands (<B>French Southern Territories</B>) the Prince Edward Islands (<B>South Africa</B>), and on the coasts of southern <B>Australia</B> and northern <B>New Zealand</B>. Outside the breeding season it dispereses widely in subtropical parts of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, mainly between 25 and 50 degrees south, though some birds will stray into the Antarctic zone (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003903		habitat	eng	This marine species is higly pelagic and has a widespread but sparse distribution at sea. It feeds mostly on squid, with some fish and crustaceans, most of which it obtains by dipping and surface-seizing. It feeds mainly at night and may locate some cephalopods by their bioluminescence. It can occasionally be seen following cetaceans and will associate with other Procellariiformes. Breeding occurs in winter, starting in April, nesting being either solitary or in small colonies on oceanic islands on ridges, slopes or flat ground. Breeding usually occurs below 400 m, but has been recorded as high as 1400 m on Tristan de Cunha. It nests in burrows or above ground in rock crevices, among tree roots or under scrub (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003903		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 1,500,000 individuals.
106003904		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Ten years of intensive searching led to its rediscovery in 1978, but no burrows were found (Crockett 1994)<strong></strong>. In 1987, radio-transmitters attached to the tail-feathers of birds finally led to the discovery of three burrows (Imber <em>et al.</em> 1994b)<strong></strong>, and trapping for predators was immediately commenced (Imber <em>et al.</em> 1994a)<strong></strong>. On-going searches located only three more burrows, but in 1999, at least 17 new burrows were discovered (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Breeding areas have been protected by the Tuku Nature Reserve (Stephenson 2006a)<strong></strong>. Predator control was intensified in 1996 (Imber <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. All burrows are monitored for breeding attempts (Imber <em>et al.</em> 1994a, Department of Conservation 1999)<strong></strong> and sometimes infra-red cameras are deployed at each nest to monitor activity and identify predators (Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2003). Since 2007, burrows have been monitored using automated PIT-tag readers, and all birds have been fitted with PIT-tags (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). Egg- and chick-rearing trials have been undertaken on the closely-related Grey-faced Petrel <em>P. macroptera</em>, and its diet analysed, to develop methods for captive rearing of <em>P. magentae </em>(Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The Chatham Island Taiko Trust was established in 1998 to provide legal  status to the continuing work (Department of Conservation 2007)<strong></strong>, and has since provided substantial funding to much of the conservation work focussed on this species (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In 2006, a 3-ha safe colony with predator-proof fence, wooden burrows, and playback sound system was established at the Sweetwater Secure Breeding Site, and chicks have been transferred here prior to fledging to form a new colony (Taylor 2000, Stephenson 2006b). Eight chicks were successfully moved and fledged here in April-May 2007, as were a further 13 in 2008 and 13 in 2009 (C. Miskelly <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong> The 1,200-hectare South Chatham Covenant, adjacent to the Tuku Nature Reserve and containing one known cluster of burrows, is now fenced, and is currently being surveyed to determine its actual area: as at Sweetwater ownership will remain with the existing landowners but the Covenant will ensure protection in perpetuity (C. Miskelly <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. The 2011 target is to establish a self-sustaining population of at least 250 individuals. Birds have been fitted with geolocators since 2008/2009 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A recent conservation action has been to catch birds through the use of spotlights to locate additional burrows and attempting to introduce known females to burrow clusters that contain unpaired males (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue ground searches and telemetry to locate further burrows, as well as night surveys for prospecting birds and to collect data on survival. Continue to use study holes at all active nest burrows to enable active intervention if chicks are undernourished or abandoned. Continue sustained predator and herbivore control. Continue to study the species's ecology, including its at-sea distribution. Consider maintenance of genetic diversity when planning future conservation actions (Lawrence <em>et al.</em> 2008b)<strong></strong>. Continue to translocate chicks to Sweetwater Conservation Covenant to build up secure population (M. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003904		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma magentae</em> was rediscovered in 1978 in the south-west corner of Chatham Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, 111 years after it was first collected at sea (Crockett 1994)<strong></strong>. Its prevalence in Moriori middens suggests it was once common and has undergone a massive historical decline (Imber <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In 1994, only four breeding pairs were known, although it was suspected that others remained undetected, and that the population was still declining at this time. In 2004, surveys indicated a population of 120 individuals, including 15 breeding pairs (Hilhorst 2000, <strong></strong>Brooke 2004,<strong></strong> G. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Just 16 chicks were known to have fledged from 1987-1988 to 2000 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, but in 2002, a total of seven chicks were fledged (<strong></strong>M. Ogle <em>in litt.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. By 2006, there were 35 active burrows, an estimated 25 breeding pairs, and 11 known chicks, taking the total number of chicks fledged since 1987 to 63 (Stephenson 2006b)<strong></strong>. A total of 17 pairs are believed to have laid in the 2009/2010 breeding season (C. Miskelly <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Between 2007 and 2011, a total of 59 chicks were successfully moved from the Tuku Nature Reserve in the south of Chatham Island to the nearby Sweetwater Conservation Covenant, where they all successfully fledged (C. Miskelly <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Inshore waters (1-2 km offshore from the colony) around Otawae Point are thought to be important for non-breeders visiting the colony and during courtship at night (Imber <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Its range at sea is known to extend across the entire South Pacific Ocean from the Tasman Sea to South America, based on recent tracking results using geolocators in 2008/2009 and 2010/2011 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). During the breeding season, birds feed mainly south and south-east of the Chatham Islands; they then disperse widely during the non-breeding  season, ranging from Tasman Sea to the west coast of South America (G. Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).&#160; <em> <p></p></em>
106003904		habitat	eng	It breeds in a fragmented colony under dense forest (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, 4-6 km inland. Burrows are up to 5 m long and breeding takes place from September to May (C. Miskelly <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Males occupy burrows for 1-3 years before pair formation and breeding; non-breeding females rarely visit the colony (Imber <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Its diet is not well known, but includes squid (Heather and Robertson 1997) and fish (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Recent ringing returns show that males return to the colony aged 3-10 years, females at 4-9 years, and first breeding is attempted at around five years of age (Department of Conservation 1999, Imber <em>et al.</em> 2005, G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The pairs form a life-long bond, one egg is laid per year, incubated by both parents, and fledging chicks climb trees from which they launch themselves to fly out to sea (C. Miskelly <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003904		population	eng	In 2012, the total population was estimated to number around 150-200 individuals, including 80-100 mature individuals (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003904		threats	eng	Introduced species (particularly three rat species, pigs, cats, Weka, possums and stray dogs [Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2003, Imber <em>et al.</em> 2005]<strong></strong>) take eggs, chicks and adults, or compete for, destroy or cause the desertion of burrows. Flooding of burrows may also lower breeding success (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Loss of forest habitat from accidental fire represents a threat (Aikman <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Historically, the pastoralisation of Chatham Island probably caused the final destruction of the major colonies. Prior to 1900, local Moriori and Maori caught thousands of chicks for food (Crockett 1994, Stephenson 2006b)<strong></strong>. Molecular analysis has found that, while the sex-ratio is approximately even in petrel chicks and breeding adults caught on the ground, 95% of non-breeding adults are male. This suggests that low population levels may be causing unpaired male birds difficulty in attracting a mate, as their calls are too spread out to attract the infrequent females which pass by (Lawrence <em>et al.</em> 2008a)<strong></strong>. There are no at-sea threats that are known to be seriously and imminently impacting this species (G. Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Some closely related species have been caught on long-lines, thus there may be impacts on this species. Longer term climate change impacts on oceans, such as acidification, may also become a threat. Its highly dispersed non-breeding movements lower risks to the species of localised threats such as oil spills (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/>  <br/><p></p>
106003905		distribution	eng	This species has a circumpolar range and is found throughout the Southern Oceans. It breeds on Macquarie Island (<span style=font-weight: bold;>Australia</span>), the Auckland Islands and Antipodes Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) and possibly on the Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).  <p></p>
106003905		habitat	eng	The White-headed Petrel is marine and highly pelagic, rarely approaching land except at colonies, but has been recorded inshore during stormy weather. It feeds mostly on squid and crustaceans, which is catches mostly at night by surface-seizing and dipping. Breeding starts in October in loose colonies, nesting in burrows dug in soft soil or scree near the coast or inland up to 300 m above sea level (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003905		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 600,000 indviduals.
106003906		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected under Portuguese law. The breeding sites have been designated a Special Protection Area (SPA)  under the EU's Wild Birds Directive and lie within the Parque Natural da  Madeira. A European action plan was published in 1996 and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Successful predator control and research has been carried out since 1986 by the Freira Conservation Project and the Parque Natural da Madeira, which has led to increases in the productivity of this species<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Zino <em>et al.</em> 2001, Carlile <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. This programme was expanded in 2001 with additional funding provided by a multidisciplinary European Union LIFE project, which also enabled the purchase of c.300 ha of land around the main breeding site<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Menezes and Oliveira 2003, Unwin 2004)<strong></strong>. A project on the identification of marine IBAs in Portugal may allow the species to be studied at sea<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(I. Ramirez<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Over 2007-2010, dataloggers were attached to 14 breeding birds to determine the distribution of the birds at sea and seasonal changes in distribution from the breeding to non-breeding season (Zino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The Parque Natural da Madeira and SPEA have been monitoring the colony intensively since the 2010 fire  and have developed an action plan for the breeding colony which includes immediate emergency measures to mitigate the consequences of the fire along with more long-term activities. As part of the emergency measures following the fires, anti-erosion  coconut mesh was installed on the breeding ledges to protect the soil in some of the  most critical places and c.100 natural nests were restored, while 60 new artificial nests were  built. A protective cordon was also built around the known breeding  areas, with cat traps and bait boxes (BirdLife International 2012, D. Menezes<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate novel methods of cat predator control and continue control of rats. Exclude grazing stock from potential breeding areas. Continue research to determine the species's population status and distribution, such as searching for new breeding ledges. Monitor the known breeding population. Establish a management plan for the Parque Natural da Madeira. Control human access and disturbance to breeding sites. Assess the potential impact of the proposed radar station. Assess the impact of the 2010 fires on the species population size and trends.<br/><p></p>
106003906		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma madeira</em> has an estimated breeding population of 65-80 pairs<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Menezes <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, in the central mountain massif of Madeira, <strong>Portugal</strong>, though subfossil remains elsewhere in Madeira and on the neighbouring island of Porto Santo (Zino <em>et al.</em> 2001) suggest that it was formerly more widespread. Currently, birds are only known to breed on six inaccessible ledges - with 53 of the 63 nests surveyed during the 2006 breeding season found to be active - although ongoing surveys may yet reveal more breeding sites (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <span class="normal">A massive forest fire in August 2010 at the  species's breeding colony killed several breeding adults and 65% of the  year’s chicks. 25 young and 3 adults were found  dead at the colony, and only 13 young fledglings were found alive in their underground  chambers (P. Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). As well as the dead birds, the fire exacerbated soil erosion,  with several nesting burrows having disappeared. Subsequently, as a result of  the ground being barren, making food for predators scarce and the petrel  chicks more vulnerable, of the 13 birds originally found alive, only one survived to fledging (BirdLife International 2012). <span class="normal">In 2011, 45 nests were found to be occupied <span class="normal"><span class="normal">with eggs laid in 43 of them. <span class="normal">A total of  19 nestlings hatched and 16 chicks fledged (BirdLife International 2012), however, th<span class="normal">e impact of the fires on the breeding population size is not yet known as the effects of the fire will likely be felt in subsequent years. Little is known about the species's range outside the breeding season.<span class="normal"><span class="normal"></span></span></span></span>
106003906		habitat	eng	It breeds in burrows on well-vegetated ledges at c.1,600 m. Birds return to their breeding grounds in late March or early April. A single egg is laid mid-May to early June, and young fledge in late September or early October. Breeding success has apparently improved since the 1980s, with a total of 29 chicks fledged in 2004 (Menezes 2004). Its diet probably consists of small squid and fish.<br/><p></p>
106003906		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 130-160 individuals, roughly equating to 90-110 mature individuals.
106003906		threats	eng	Following the removal of all livestock from the breeding areas, the ecosystem had been recovering well prior to the 2010 fire, although breeding only occurs on ledges that were never accessible to grazing animals (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The fire in 2010 (see Zino and Biscoito 2011) highlights the vulnerability of the species to such events, since it breeds on only six ledges at one location. As well as having a catastrophic impact on the survival of the year's fledglings and some adults, fires also increase soil erosion and make the habitat more barren, making the chicks more vulnerable to predation (P. Oliveira<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2010). Currently, the main threats are predation of eggs and chicks by introduced black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> and of nesting adults by feral cats <em>Felis catus</em>. The increasing number of visitors at night may also cause disturbance to breeding birds, although this is being carefully monitored by the relevant authorities (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The sole remaining breeding site is threatened by the construction of a NATO radar station on the summit of Mt Areeiro which began in November 2009. Although an Environmental Impact Assessment has been conducted to minimise the threat to the species, is it still feared that the construction and presence of the station will have a negative impact<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. The species is also potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 1,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (1,861 m) (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. Shepherds formerly collected juveniles for food, and egg-collectors have raided nest-burrows in the past.  <p></p>
106003907		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A European action plan was published in 1996 (Zino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996) and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). A national park was established at Chã das Caldeiras on Fogo (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The conservation of <em>Pterodroma feae </em>was incorporated into the park's agenda (Ratcliffe <em>et al. </em>2000; D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, but the park administration is having to deal with serious financial and operational problems (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Since 2006, an eradication programme for rabbits and mice has been in force, and is ongoing. As a result, their effect on the most sensitive areas is already negligible. A contingency plan for accidental introductions of invasive species is being developed. A goat eradication programme is ongoing and not yet complete. The threat from <em>L. cachinnans</em> is being monitored (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Natural vegetation has been replanted, anti-erosion blankets installed, wardening and monitoring conducted and artificial burrows installed on Bugio as part of a LIFE Nature project (Menezes 2007; Menezes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Geolocators were attached to some individuals from 2007 to investigate foraging ecology (Ramirez 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct coordinated surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate for the total breeding population. Continue annual surveys to monitor population trends. Study the at-sea distribution of the species. Complete control measures against goats. Continue control measures against rabbits and mice. Discourage off-take by people on the Cape Verde islands through awareness campaigns. Control cats and rats on the Cape Verde islands. Assess the impact of <em>L. cachinnans</em> through detailed research.  <p></p>
106003907		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma feae</em> breeds on four islands of <strong>Cape Verde</strong> (<em>P. f. feae</em>), Fogo (minimum 80 pairs; Ratcliffe <em>et al. </em>2000<strong></strong>), Santo Antão (minimum 200 pairs; Ratcliffe <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, São Nicolau (c.30 pairs; Ratcliffe <em>et al. </em>2000<strong></strong><strong></strong>) and small numbers on Santiago. It also breeds on Bugio in the Desertas off Madeira, <strong>Portugal </strong>(<em>P. f. deserta</em>). An estimated 500-1,000 pairs breed in Cape Verde (Hazevoet 1995; Ratcliffe <em>et al. </em>2000<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>, although this must be regarded as an absolute minimum as further colonies probably exist on Fogo and Santa Antão and individuals have also been observed breeding in the central mountain range of Santiago island (Ratcliffe <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Birds have been trapped on the Azores, but the existence of a breeding colony has never been confirmed (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Based on surveys in 2006-2007, a further 120-150 pairs breed on Bugio (a lower figure than previous estimates of 150-180 from 2001), although&#160; where the population appears stable (Ramirez 2008). The total population has been estimated at c.3,000 individuals (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. There is an ongoing review of the taxonomic status of the populations on Bugio and Cape Verde. If these populations are assigned species status, their threat status will need to be re-assessed. Birds may occur at considerable distances from the Cape Verde islands, even during the breeding season, with some birds moving south after breeding and others remaining in the region throughout the year (Hazevoet 1995)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003907		habitat	eng	The species breeds at 80-300 m, usually in burrows excavated in the soil, although recently nests were found in rock crevices in areas were soil is not present<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Birds return to their breeding grounds in early June and juveniles fledge throughout December (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003907		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at c.3,000 individuals, equivalent to c.2,000 mature individuals.
106003907		threats	eng	Historically, the species and its breeding sites have been affected by habitat degradation caused by introduced goats, rabbits and mice (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, rabbits and mice have been controlled since 2006 (D. Menezes and P. Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007) and goats are reported to only rarely visit the plateau where the breeding sites are located on Bugio (Ramirez 2008)<strong></strong>. Predation and disturbance by Yellow-legged Gulls <em>Larus cachinnans</em> are potential threats on Bugio. On the Cape Verde islands, birds are predated by cats and rats, collected by people for food and medicinal purposes, and breeding sites are limited by overgrazing by goats (Barov and Derhé 2011).  <p></p>
106003908		distribution	eng	The Soft-plumaged Petrel breeds on islands in the Southern Hemisphere, nesting on Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island (<B>St Helena to UK</B>), the Prince Edward Islands (<B>South Africa</B>), Crozet Islands (<B>French Southern</B> <B>Territories</B>) and on the Antipodes Islands (<B>New Zealand</B>). It disperses outside the breeding season, reaching eastern South America north to <B>Brazil</B>, South Africa, <B>Australia</B> and New Zealand (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003908		habitat	eng	This marine species is highly pelagic, rarely approaching land except at colonies. It feeds mostly on cephalopods but will also take crustaceans and fish, which is taken mainly by surface-seizing. Breeding starts in September in colonies on oceanic islands, occupying steep slopes with tussock grass or ferns, usually along the coast but also inland. Pairs nest in long burrows (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003908		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 5,000,000 individuals.
106003909		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Tristan, a programme to eradicate cats was successful in the 1970s. Gough is a nature reserve and World Heritage Site (Cooper and Ryan 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The first ever quantitative population survey was undertaken on Gough, 2000/1, coupled to research into breeding ecology and reproductive output (Cuthbert in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During 2003-6, further research on reproductive output and mouse predation was conducted. Searches on Tristan da Cunha have failed to locate any birds (Wanless <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate mice from Gough. Minimise the risk of further introduced species establishing on Gough, particularly any rat <em>Rattus</em> species (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Confirm the status of the population on Tristan da Cunha.  <p></p>
106003909		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma incerta</em> breeds only on Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha <strong>(St Helena to UK)</strong>. It is absent from Nightingale where there is no suitable habitat, and probably also from Inaccessible, although it is possible that a small number of birds could breed there because there have been no surveys during the winter breeding season (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and Tristan, where though the population was estimated to be 100-200 pairs in 1972-1974, there have been no records since then at it is now beleived to be extinct on that island (Richardson 1984, P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Gough, the first quantitative population estimate indicates a total of around 1.8 million pairs (Cuthbert in press)<strong></strong>, considerably larger than the earlier estimate of at least 20,000 pairs (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Recent evidence suggests that fledging success is very low, less than 20% during the last five years and perhaps as low as 2% in 2007, and this is likely to be driving a long term decline (Wanless <em>et al. </em>2007, R. Wanless <em>et al in litt. </em>2007, Cuthbert in press)<strong></strong>. At sea, it is practically restricted to the South Atlantic, occurring off the east coast of South America to the west coast of Africa (Enticott 1991, P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, occasionally rounding the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean (Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106003909		habitat	eng	It feeds mainly on squid with some fish and crustaceans (<strong></strong>Klages and Cooper 1997)<strong></strong>. It nests in burrows dug in peaty soils in fern-bush vegetation from 50-300 m on Gough and formerly, at higher elevations on Tristan. Nothing is known of age of first breeding, breeding frequency or survival (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Heavily affected by Hurricane Catarina in March 2004, 354 birds were recorded blown inland, all in heavy moult and near starvation (Bugoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Larger numbers of females among these were thought to be due to difference in at-sea distribution or in body condition (Bugoni<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Evidence suggests moult is completed during exodus period and before egg-laying, which occurs from 15 June to 21 July (Cuthbert 2004).<p></p>
106003909		population	eng	On Gough, Cuthbert <I>in litt. </I>(2001) estimated 1.8 million breeding pairs, suggesting a world population of around 5 million birds.
106003909		threats	eng	This species was once of major economic importance to the Tristan Islanders as it was one of the few sources of food in winter but, by the 1940s, the birds had become scarce (Richardson 1984)<strong></strong>. It is very unlikely to be exploited today (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Tristan, rats and are present and have probably driven it to extinction (Richardson 1984, R. Wanless <em>et al in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. On Gough, the only potential introduced predator is the house mouse <em>Mus musculus</em> and recent research reveals that mice are predating chicks and causing very low breeding success which is driving the long-term decline (Wanless <em>et al. </em>2007, <strong></strong>R. Wanless <em>et al in litt. </em>2007, Cuthbert in press, Cuthbert and Hilton in press)<strong></strong>. The large population of native Southern Skua <em>Catharacta antarctica</em> feed on seabirds including <em>P. incerta </em>(Richardson 1984)<strong></strong>. Night strikes (as a result of being attracted to lights) are a further threat. This has been ameliorated at the Gough meteorological station, but may still pose a problem on ships at sea (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The mortality associated with Hurricane Catarina points to a potential threat from hurricane activity in the South Atlantic, postulated to increase in frequency with global warming (Bugoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<p></p>
106003910		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. Since 1961, there has been management of nesting-grounds, including the creation of artificial burrows, periodic removal of rats and the elimination of nest-site competition from <em>P. lepturus</em> (by installing baffles over burrow entrances). As part of the Bermuda Conservation Programme, potential breeding islands (e.g. Nonsuch) have been reforested with native flora in an attempt to attract nesting petrels (Wingate <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The Castle Harbour islands are a National Park and Nature Reserve (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2004 and 2005 efforts were made to attract adult Cahows, displaced from low-lying nest burrows destroyed by hurricane Fabian, on the main breeding islet to a new artificial burrow complex built on a more elevated section of the islet. Using a combination of a sound attraction system set up among the new nests and physical translocation of adult Cahows from the destroyed sites, three pairs occupied burrows in the new complex by March 2005 (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A project is now underway to establish a new nesting colony on the Nonsuch Island Living Museum, which is much larger and contains more suitable breeding habitat than the present suboptimal breeding islets. The project involves physical translocation of chicks from the present breeding islets to a new complex of artificial burrows on Nonsuch, so that they will imprint on the new site and return when mature to establish their nests at the new location. In 2004, the trial year of the project took place with 14 chicks moved to Nonsuch, where they were fed and monitored every other day until departure, with all fledging successfully. In 2005, 21 chicks were translocated, with all again fledging successfully by mid-June. This project was scheduled to continue for three more years, with a target of 90 to 100 chicks in total being translocated over a five-year period (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2009, the first adult-fed Cahow for 400 years hatched on Nonsuch Island (Dobson 2009)<strong></strong>.  So far, 79 relocated chicks have fledged on Nonsuch, with only one fatality (Dickinson 2007). A Sound Attraction System was also set up in 2007 to help encourage birds to stay and prospect on Nonsuch, and overcome any tendency for young birds to be attracted back to the activity at the original nesting islets (Madeiros 2008). A total of 171 fledglings were ringed between 2002-2007, with 31 confirmed having returned (including 4 repatured on Nonsuch Island), representing cohorts from four nesting seasons, 2002 to 2005 (Madeiros 2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain all management activities at current nesting-grounds. Investigate whether contaminants are increasing egg failure (Wingate 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to manage the new breeding colony on Nonsuch Island (Wingate 1997, Madeiros 2003, J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the pelagic and foraging range of the species using new data logger technology (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003910		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma cahow</em> once bred abundantly throughout <strong>Bermuda (to UK)</strong>. It was thought extinct for almost three centuries, until reported (with specimens) during the first half of the 20th century. In 1951, 18 pairs were rediscovered breeding on suboptimal rocky islets (total area 1 ha) in Castle Harbour. Intensive management has resulted in slow but steady increases, and the population was estimated at 250 birds in 2005 (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, with 70 pairs fledging a record 40 young in 2003 (Madeiros 2003)<strong></strong>, and 71 pairs fledging 35 young in 2005 (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. More recently, 40 young fledged in 2008 from 85 established active nest sites and at least 35 chicks hatched in 2009 (Madeiros unpublished data)<strong></strong>. By 2011, the population reached 98 nesting pairs (Madeiros 2011). From 40 chicks on all islands in 2008, 21 chicks were translocated in May to Nonsuch, forming the last year of the translocation project (Madeiros 2008). Fourteen individuals fledging from Nonsuch Island after translocation in 2005 and 2006 were observed in 2009 returning to the island and entering artificial burrows. One chick was born on the island in 2009 (Madeiros unpublished data)<strong></strong>. By 2011, 22 translocated birds have returned to Nonsuch, and 8 more translocated birds returned to the original nesting islets. Non-translocated birds have also been recorded on Nonsuch indicating a sufficient nucleus of translocated birds to attract non-translocated individuals into the colony (Madeiros 2011). In the non-breeding season, birds probably move north into the Atlantic, following the warm waters on the western edges of the Gulf Stream (Wingate 1997)<strong></strong>. There are confirmed records off the coast of North Carolina, USA (D. S. Lee <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Wingate <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, and one bird was captured in the Azores in November 2002 and recaptured in November 2003 and December 2006 (Bried 2003, <strong></strong>J. Bried <em>in litt. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003910		habitat	eng	It formerly nested in soil burrows, but such habitat is not available on current breeding islands and it now nests in suboptimal, natural erosion limestone crevices and artificial burrows. The breeding season is January-June, and breeding success has increased from less than 5% per year in the 1950s to more than 25% per year in the 1990s (Wingate 1997)<strong></strong>. Ringing recoveries have shown that birds first return to breed four years after fledging (Madeiros <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. The breeding grounds are not visited by birds between mid-June and mid-October (Wingate 1997)<strong></strong>, with adults returning from mid-October (Madeiros 2008). Results from geolocational tags showed that individuals can cover in excess of 5,000 km during a foraging trip, following different courses from Bermuda but generally all foraging over the Gulf Stream (Madeiros unpublished data)<strong></strong>. During the non-breeding season they have been recorded in the Gulf Stream, north to the Bay of Fundy, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and over the Grand Banks, with one individual recorded 125-150 miles off southwest Ireland (Madeiros 2009).<p></p>
106003910		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250 individuals, including 71 breeding pairs and thus a minimum 142 mature individuals (J. Madeiros <I>in litt.</I> 2005).
106003910		threats	eng	The drastic population decline is attributed to habitat loss, exploitation and predation. Its recovery has been hampered by competition from White-tailed Tropicbird <em>Phaethon lepturus</em> for nest-sites and subadult predation from a single snowy owl (the first ever recorded in Bermuda) on Nonsuch Island, which was eradicated, having eaten 5% of the population (Dickinson 2007). Light pollution from a nearby airport and NASA tracking station adversely affects nocturnal aerial courtship (Wingate <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The threat of sea-level rise and increased storm activity appears real, with five or more major floods affecting burrows in the 1990s, after 25 years without significant problems (Wingate <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Category three hurricane Fabian in 2003 overwashed three of the four breeding islets, damaging or destroying a significant number of nest burrows (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Increasing egg failure may be attributable to contaminants (Wingate 1997)<strong></strong>.  Rats also swam to one breeding island in April 2005, but were successfully eradicated within two weeks without loss to the Cahows (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.   Unfortunately this pattern appeared to be repeated in March 2008, with four chicks killed on one of the nesting islets. Immediate baiting produced a dead black rat Rattus rattus. However, as the islands were all baited at the beginning of the nesting season, this incident pointed out the need for constant vigilance of reintroduction and a requirement to provide fresh bait on the islands throughout the nesting season (Madeiros 2008).<p></p>
106003911		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It breeds within national parks in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. On Guadeloupe, five surveys for the species have been conducted since the late 1980s (P. Feldmann and P. Villard <em>in litt </em>1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Efforts have been made to define the at-sea distribution off the USA (Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to accurately determine the status and distribution of the species and its habitat (Ottenwalder 1992a, Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Halt human exploitation. Develop measures to remove introduced predators. Effectively protect the species and its nesting grounds. List the species in the USA under the Federal Endangered Species Act (Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003911		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma hasitata</em> now breeds in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the Sierra de Baoruco region of the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>. There are an estimated 1,000 breeding pairs (D. S. Lee <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Lee 2000)<strong></strong>, mostly in the Massifs de la Selle and de la Hotte, southern Haiti (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but records at-sea suggest that the population is over 5,000 individuals (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. The area of suitable habitat in the Pic Macaya region of Massif de la Hotte is estimated to be 5 km<sup>2</sup>, with a similar area in La Visite, Massif de la Selle (the majority of colonies are found within a 10 km stretch spanning a 500 m elevational range on the north side of the ridge; two more colonies are located further to the east, span 5 km, again within a 500 m elevation range) (J. Gerwin <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Small numbers have been recently recorded on <strong>Dominica</strong> and in adjacent offshore waters, suggesting that it may still nest (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In May 2007, a breeding female was found in the village of Trafalgar in the Padu region of Dominica (A. James <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>, 2010). It now seems likely that small numbers breed in Cuba<strong><sup> </sup></strong>based on observation in the Sierra Maestra region (a congregation of 40+ individuals in the vicinity of shoreline, vocalisations heard overhead by landbased observers, and evidence of birds moving inland) (D. Demarest <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. It is believed extinct on Guadeloupe (to France) (where common in the 19th century) (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Black-capped petrel may have bred on Martinique (to France) (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Even during the breeding season it is highly pelagic, with breeding condition birds recorded off the North Carolina coast, USA (D. S. Lee <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Lee 2000)<strong></strong>. Birds disperse over the Caribbean and Atlantic from the north-east USA to north-east Brazil, with four records in European waters (Howell 2002)<strong></strong>, but the at-sea range has contracted in the north and west. <p></p>
106003911		habitat	eng	It nests (starting in December) colonially in cliff burrows, often within montane forest at 1,500-2,000 m, but up to 2,300 m in the Dominican Republic (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting birds commute large distances from breeding to foraging sites (Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, feeding on fish, invertebrate swarms, fauna associated with <em>Sargassum</em> seaweed reefs (Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and squid (Ottenwalder 1992a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is attracted to localised upwellings, where the mixing of surface and deep oceanic waters produces nutrient-rich areas (Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003911		population	eng	Brooke (2004) <p></p> <p></p>
106003911		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and hunting for food have caused this species's decline, and remain key threats in Haiti. Birds are also predated by introduced mammals. Urbanisation and concomitant increases in artificial lights may dazzle or disorientate birds into colliding with trees, wires and buildings (Ottenwalder 1992a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A telecommunications mast with stay wires erected in 1995 on  Loma de Toro in Sierra de Bahoruco (the only known nesting locality in the Dominican Republic) poses a collision hazard (Keith <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The proposed development of gas/oil fields off the coast of South Carolina, USA, could devastate this important feeding area (Lee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003912		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Jamaica Petrel Research Group initiated searches for the species in 1996, and this effort continued until at least 2000 (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but these failed to find any birds (Tobias<em> et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while an at-sea search in November-December 2009 failed to locate the species (H. Shirihai <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A further search including at-sea chumming and an expedition into the Blue Mountains of Jamaica is planned (H. Shirihai <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but dependent on the necessary funding. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search systematically above 1,000 m in the John Crow Mountains on Jamaica, coordinating searches at the beginning of the breeding season when the birds are most vocal (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000, Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Search on Dominica and Guadeloupe (Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue searches at sea. Photograph any dark <em>Pterodroma </em>petrels encountered in the Caribbean (Tobias<em> et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003912		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma caribbaea</em> was a plentiful seabird up to the middle of the 19th century, but has suffered a drastic decline in numbers. The last confirmed record is of 22 birds collected in 1879. The only proven nesting was in the Blue and John Crow Mountains of eastern <strong>Jamaica</strong>, where it may conceivably survive. It may also have nested on Dominica and Guadeloupe (Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Several searches since the mid 1990s have so far failed to locate any birds. <p></p>
106003912		habitat	eng	It nests in cliff burrows and holes under trees, above 1,000 m (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The courtship, mating and pre-laying period is October-December (when birds are most vocal), and young fledge by May (Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It visits nesting burrows nocturnally (Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feeding is expected to be crepuscular and nocturnal in oceanic waters, matching the habits of the closely related Black-capped Petrel <em>P. hasitata </em>(Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003912		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with the last confirmed records dating from 1879.
106003912		threats	eng	The presumed cause of this species's demise was predation by introduced rats (which took eggs) and mongooses (capable of taking incubating adults). Introduced pigs may also have been an important factor (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was hunted for food until the middle of the 19th century (Douglas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003913		distribution	eng	The Blue Petrel is found throughout southern Oceans. Breeding sites include the Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Island (<B>French Southern Territories</B>), Marion Island and Prince Edward Island (<B>South Africa</B>), Macquarie Island (<B>Australia</B>) and <B>South Georgia</B> (<B>Georgias del Sur</B>). Adults are perhaps mainly sedentary, though young birds are more dispersive (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003913		habitat	eng	Breeding begins in September, occuring in colonies where it nests in long burrows excavated in soft soil under grass tussocks (del Hoyo et al. 1992).<B> </B>Foraging during the chick-rearing period at the Kerguelen Islands involves regular alternation between short trips in the vicinity of the island and long trips to Antarctic waters. Short trips enable an increase of chick-feeding frequency at the expense of energy reserves built up during long trips. Diet comprises of crustaceans (especially krill), fish, squids and some insects (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Cherel et al. 2002).
106003913		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 3,000,000 individuals.
106003914		distribution	eng	This species breeds on Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha (<B>St Helena to UK</B>) in the south Atlantic, and on the Chatham Islands, <B>New Zealand</B> and south of New Zealand's south island. Adults are thought to remain in waters adjacent to colonies; however young birds occur north of the colonies to <B>Australia</B> and <B>South Africa<SUP>1</SUP>.</B>  </P>
106003914		habitat	eng	The diet of this species is comprised mostly of cruaceans (especially copepods), squid and some fish. It apparently takes more crustaceans in summer and small squid in winter. Prey is obtained usually by hydroplaning and by filtering or surface-seizing. Breeding starts in July or August and individuals are strongly colonial, nesting in burrows which are sometimes occupied by more than one pair. It breeds on a large variety of substrates and areas; coastal slopes, flat lava fields, offshore islets and cliffs, dry rocky soil, caves and scree (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003914		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 15,000,000 individuals.
106003915		distribution	eng	The Medium-billed prion is found breeding at the Prince Edward Islands (<B>South Africa</B>), Crozet Islands, Amsterdam Islands and St Paul Island (<B>French Southern Territories</B>). It ranges at sea from <B>South Africa</B> east to <B>New Zealand<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003915		habitat	eng	This marine species normally occurs offshore, and can be found in areas of upwelling outside the breeding season. Its diet is comprised mostly of crustaceans, especially krill, but also fish and squid, all of which it catches either by hydroplaning, surface-seizing or filtering. Breeding starts in October in huge colonies up to and above one million individuals strong. It nests in burrows, usually on islands, inland on highland plateaux or on slopes with grass or shrubs. It can also be found in caves or crevices (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003915		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 12,000,000 individuals.
106003916		distribution	eng	The Antarctic Prion breeds on islands in the southern oceans, including the the Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Island (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Macquarie Island and Heard Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), the Auckland Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), <strong>South Georgia</strong> (<strong>Georgias del Sur</strong><sup> </sup>), the <strong>South Sandwich Islands </strong>(<strong>Islas Sandwich del Sur</strong>), Scott Island and the Scotia Archipelago. All birds leave the colonies after breeding, dispersing from pack ice in Antartica to as far north as <strong>Peru</strong>, and also occuring off <strong>South Africa</strong> and <strong>Australia<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003916		habitat	eng	This species breeds on slopes under grass tussocks, in rock crevices or scree, or on cliffs. Its prey is mostly crustaceans (especially krill, copepods and amphipods), but also small quantities of fish and squid (del Hoyo et al. 1992). <p></p>
106003916		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 50,000,000 individuals.
106003917		distribution	eng	The Thin-billed Prion breeds the Crozet Islands and the Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), the <strong>Falkland islands</strong> (<strong>Islas Malvinas</strong>) and Noir Island, <strong>Chile</strong>. Outside the breeding season it can be found over much of the Southern Ocean, including the coasts of <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Australia</strong> and South America as far north as <strong>Uraguay</strong> and southern <strong>Peru<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003917		habitat	eng	This marine species can usually be found over pelagic waters but will feed inshore or in shallow offshore waters during the breeding season. It feeds mostly on crustaceans with a heavy dependance on amphipods (particularly <em>Themisto gaudichaudii</em>). It can also take small fish and squid. It catches prey mainly by surface-seizing, dipping and pattering at night. Breeding starts in October in loose colonies in costal areas with soft or stony soil and low vegetation. It nests in burrows (del Hoyo et al. 1992). <em> <p></p></em>
106003917		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 7,000,000 individuals.
106003918		distribution	eng	The Fairy Prion is found throughout oceans and coastal areas in the Southern Hemisphere. Their colonies can be found, amongst other places, on the Chatham Islands, Snares Islands and Antipodes Islands of <B>New Zealand</B>, the Bass Strait Islands of <B>Australia</B>, the Crozet Islands (<B>French Southern Territories</B>)<B> </B>in the south Indian Ocean and the <B>Falkland Islands</B> (<B>Islas Malvinas</B>) and <B>South Georgia </B>(<B>Georgia del Sur</B>)<B> </B>in the south Atlantic (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003918		habitat	eng	This marine species apparently occurs mainly offshore, but may move inshore during stormy weather. Its diet is comprised mostly of crustaceans (especially krill), but occaisionally includes some fish and squid. It feeds mainly by surface-seizing and dipping, but can also catch prey by surface-plunging or pattering. It often assocaites with other prions and storm-petrels when feeding around boats. The breeding season starts in September and the species is highly colonial, creating burrows in coastal sites on oceanic islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003918		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 5,000,000 individuals.
106003919		distribution	eng	The Fulmar Prion is pelagic and stays over the southern oceans close to colonies. When breeding they will come ashore, and nest on Heard Island (<B>Australia</B>) in the south Indian Ocean,  as well as the Auckland Islands, Chatham Islands, Bounty Island and Snares Island off the coast of <B>New Zealand<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003919		habitat	eng	This marine species occurs in both pelagic and inshore waters. Its diet comprises mostly of crustaceans but fish, squid and molluscs are also taken. Breeding occurs in colonies starting in October, nesting on coastal cliffs and boulder slopes in rock crevices and cracks (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003919		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global breeding population to number 50,000-100,000 pairs, equating to 150,000-300,000 individuals.
106003920		distribution	eng	Bulwer's Petrel is pantropical, being found in all three oceans outside the breeding season. Breeding sites include the eastern Atlantic from the Azores, <strong>Portugal</strong> to <strong>Cape Verde</strong>, and the Pacific from eastern <strong>China</strong> and the Bonin Islands (<strong>Japan</strong>), east to the Hawaiian Islands<strong> </strong>(<strong>USA</strong>), and the Marquesas Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992). <p></p>
106003920		habitat	eng	This species is marine and higly pelagic, usually being found far from land except during the breeding season. Its diet comprises mainly of fish and squid, with minor proportions of crustaceans and sea-striders, feeding largely at night by surface-seizing. The breeding season begins in April or May, with individuals forming colonies in a wide variety of habitats on offshore islands. Nests can be burrows, crevices, cracks or caves, under debris or vegetation cover (del Hoyo et al. 1992). <p></p>
106003920		population	eng	Brooke (2004)   estimated the global population to number c.500,000-1,000,000 individuals,   while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003921		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No actions are currently known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Devise methods for the estimation of the population size. Design and implement regular surveys for population monitoring. Search for other breeding colonies on the coast of Somalia, as and when this is feasible. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil spills. Investigate the impact of introduced predators.  <p></p>
106003921		distribution	eng	<em>Bulweria fallax</em> is a poorly known species of the north-west Indian Ocean, occurring widely offshore in the Arabian Sea and Gulfs of Aden and Oman, where it is often the commonest pelagic seabird (Porter <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>, although there are no numerical estimates of total population size or trend. . It occurs commonly east of 58°E in the Arabian Sea as far as the Maldive Ridge, regularly east to southern India and Sri Lanka, and incidentally further east (Van den Berg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991). During the summer monsoon (May-September) it congregates off the Socotra archipelago (<strong>Yemen</strong>), where a breeding colony of at least c.50 pairs was recently discovered (Taleb 2002)<strong></strong> and where c.3,000 pairs are now estimated to nest locally on mainland cliffs (Al Saghier <em>et al</em>. unpublished)<strong></strong>, and also off the Halaaniyaat islands (southern <strong>Oman</strong>), where it may nest (or on the Arabian mainland adjacent) (Gallagher 1985)<strong></strong>. Similar sea-cliffs within its range on the coast of Somalia deserve investigation for breeding colonies (PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003921		habitat	eng	It frequents open sea all-year-round, only approaching land during the breeding season, at dusk and after dark (Taleb 2002, PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its foraging areas are poorly known, but presumably related to highly productive areas of oceanic upwelling (PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It flies low, taking food from the surface of sea, probably mainly plankton e.g. fish eggs, ctenophores and polychaete worms (PERSGA/GEF 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003921		population	eng	This is not a particularly rare bird at sea, and the total population runs into thousands, if not tens of thousands. Based on this judgement, the population is placed in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106003921		threats	eng	Seabirds, including <em>B. fallax</em><strong><sup></sup></strong>, were formerly exploited for food and medicinal use (at a subsistence level [Al-Saghier <em>et al</em>. 2000]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) on the Halaaniyaat islands (Gallagher 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Socotra (Al-Saghier <em>et al</em>. 2000, Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this practice apparently no longer occurs due to the availability of cheap poultry and the danger of climbing the cliffs (Taleb 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-native predators (e.g. rats and cats) are probably a limiting factor (Al-Saghier <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although their impact on the Socotran subpopulation may have stabilised long ago, given that Socotra has been inhabited for at least 2,000 years and these mammals are likely to have been present since antiquity. Marine oil-spills are no longer considered likely to be a serious threat (I. C. T. Nisbet<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003922		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging ecology studies are being undertaken at South Georgia, Crozet, Prince Edward and Kerguelen (Poncet 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Several breeding sites are in protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue and extend monitoring studies. Where feasible, eliminate alien predators and reindeer from breeding islands. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as CCAMLR. Implement plans to remove rats and reindeer from South Georgia (R. Phillips <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Develop and implement plans to remove pigs from Auckland Island, rats, cats and reindeer from Kerguelen, and rats from Ile de la Possession, Crozet (R. Phillips <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106003922		distribution	eng	<p><em>Procellaria aequinoctialis</em> breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Auckland, Campbell and Antipodes Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), and in small numbers in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)</strong>. Recently revised population estimates give a global population of c.3 million individuals. This is based on estimates of 773,150 breeding pairs on South Georgia in 2007 (ACAP 2012), 23,600 breeding pairs (9,800 to 36,800) on Crozet (Barbraud <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt.</em> 2008), 186,000-297,000 pairs on the Kerguelen Islands (Barbraud <em>et al. </em>2009), at least c.100,000 on Disappointment (Auckland) in 1988 (ACAP 2012), 10,000 on Campbell in 1985 (ACAP 2012) and 58,725 on the Antipodes in 2011 (ACAP 2012). At least 55 pairs breed on the Falkland Islands, on Kidney Island, New Island and Bottom Island (Reid <em>et al</em>. 2007). On Bird Island (South Georgia), the population has apparently decreased by 28% over 20 years (Berrow <em>et al.</em> 2000), while in Prydz Bay (Antarctica), the number of birds at sea decreased by 86% during 1981-1993 (Woehler 1996). The species forages north to the subtropics and south to the pack-ice edge off Antarctica (Berrow <em>et al</em>. 2000, Catard <em>et al</em>. 2000, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 2006), and is distributed widely in all southern oceans (Croxall <em>et al</em>. 1984). </p>  <span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><p></p></span>
106003922		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong> It is a burrow-nesting annual breeder, laying in mid-October to mid-November (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Chicks usually fledge in late April (Barbraud <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Outside the chick-rearing period, White-chinned Petrels breeding on South Georgia travel to Patagonian Shelf waters to feed (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Satellite tracking and ring recoveries from birds on Crozet Islands show that they spend the non-breeding season off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia (Barbraud<em> in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Individuals from the Kerguelen Islands also winter off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia over the Benguela Current (Péron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010a)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>White-chinned Petrels feed on cephalopods, crustaceans and fish (Berrow <em>et al</em>. 1999, Catard <em>et al.</em> 2000, Delord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010)<strong></strong> and fisheries processing waste or discarded longline baits. Cephalopods were found to comprise the greatest component of the diet in one study (91% occurrence, 92% number, 90% mass) (Colabuono and Vooren 2007).  <strong>Foraging range</strong> Birds range widely when searching for food resources, travelling up to 8,000 km on feeding forays in the breeding season (Berrow <em>et al. </em>2000, Catard <em>et al.</em> 2000, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 2006, Delord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010a)<strong></strong>. Individuals breeding at the Crozet and Kerguelen islands display a bimodal foraging strategy, conducting either short trips to the surrounding shelf or long trips ranging from subtropical waters in the north to Antarctic waters in the south (Catard <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Individuals breeding at the Kerguelen Islands target the seasonal ice zone where melting sea ice is gradually broken into floes and forage almost exclusively in open water (Péron et al. 2010b).  <p></p>
106003922		population	eng	A global population of 1,200,000 breeding pairs, down from 1,430,000 pairs in the 1980s, is estimated based on figures from 1985-2011. This equates to an estimated global population of c.3 million mature individuals, based on the estimated number of breeding pairs extrapolated according to a ratio from Brooke (2004).   <p></p>
106003922		threats	eng	<em>P. aequinoctialis</em> constitute the majority of bird bycatch in Southern Ocean longline fisheries. It is one of the commonest species attending longline vessels off south-east Brazil during winter (Olmos 1997, Bugoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and off Uruguay (Jiménez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and constitutes virtually all the recorded seabird bycatch from the Namibian hake fishery (Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1997, Petersen <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In South Africa, White-chinned Petrels constitute 10% and 55% of the bycatch in pelagic and demersal longline fisheries respectively (Petersen <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Prior to the introduction of bird streamer lines as a vessel permit condition in August 2006, approximately, 10% of the 18,000 birds killed annually in the South African hake trawl fishery were White-chinned Petrels (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Indian Ocean, between 2001 and 2003 the legal longline fishery for Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> killed c.12,400 <em>P. aequinoctialis</em> per year (Delord <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Following the introduction of mitigation measures this figure dropped to approximately 2,500 birds in the 2005-2006 season (CCAMLR 2006), and to 740 birds in the 2008-2009 season (CCAMLR 2010)<strong></strong>. In addition, an estimated 31,000-111,000 and 50,000-89,000 seabirds in 1997 and 1998 respectively, c.60% of which were <em>P. aequinoctialis</em>, were thought to be killed by IUU vessels (CCAMLR 1997, <strong></strong>1998)<strong></strong>. In recent years (2006) this figure has fallen to 4,583 seabirds in total (CCAMLR 2006).<strong></strong> It is the second most common species caught in the Argentinean longline fleet, with an average capture rate for the period 1999-2003 of 0.014 ± 0.09 individuals per 1,000 hooks (Laich and Favero 2007). During autumn-winter most captures took place in the north of the Patagonian Shelf, whereas in spring-summer most were to the south, between 45-50 degrees South (Laich and Favero 2007). In the Australian Fishing Zone, more than 800 are potentially killed annually (Gales <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> and, in New Zealand between 2003 and 2005, 14.5% of all the seabirds caught in trawl and longline fisheries and returned for autopsy were <em>P. aequinoctialis </em>(Baird and Smith 2007)<strong></strong>. Barbraud <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) estimated that any additional source of mortality that approaches 31,000 individuals would result in a population decline at the Kerguelen Islands. Although only 30% of this number are killed in local waters, and even fewer are now killed due to the implementation of mitigation measures, more than 31,900 White-chinned Petrels are estimated to be killed each year by demersal longline fishing in the Benguela Current marine ecosystem where individuals from the Kerguelen Islands spend the winter. This may mean that the population at the Kerguelen Islands is decreasing, although the additional presence of non-breeders from the Crozet Islands at the Benguela Current means that further research is required to confirm the population decline (<strong></strong>Barbraud <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Dillingham &amp; Fletcher (2011)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>estimated that the potential for the world population to sustain additional mortality was 15,000 individuals.  Rats (<em>Rattus rattus </em>and <em>R. norvegicus</em>) are significant predators at some breeding sites, such as Crozet (<strong></strong>Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, and cats predate nests at Kerguelen (Barbraud<em> in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. At South Georgia, breeding habitat is extensively degraded owing to erosion by expanding populations of Antarctic fur seal <em>Arctocephalus gazella </em>(Berrow <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Introduced reindeer <span style="font-style: italic;">Rangifer tarandus</span> also degrade breeding habitat on South Georgia (Poncet 2007)<strong></strong>. Although no adverse effects have been proven until recently, there are now reports of relatively high frequencies of plastic ingestion (Ryan 2008, Colabuono <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), as well as the occurrence of persistent organic pollutants (Colabuono <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012) in this species.  <br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
106003923		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Cats were eradicated on Little Barrier Island by 1980. Between 1986 and 1990, 249 fledglings were transferred from Great Barrier to Little Barrier in an attempt to boost population size. Follow-up monitoring indicates mixed results (Imber <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. The colony on Little Barrier was monitored every breeding season until 2000 (Heather and Robertson 1997, E. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. A long-term population study was initiated on Great Barrier in 1996 to study populations annually to determine trends and assess breeding success (Taylor 2000, <strong></strong>Bell <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Tracking research has been completed on both Little Barrier and Great Barrier (E. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Feral cat trapping was undertaken on Great Barrier Island in 2011/2012 and is scheduled to continue in future breeding seasons, along with a rodent control programme (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> E. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus exulans</span> was eradicated from Little Barrier in 2004 (E. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete an accurate census of both islands and follow-up reports of mainland breeding sites. Monitor Great Barrier study populations annually to determine trends, and assess breeding success. Continue to develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Continue and expand control at Great Barrier if monitoring indicates that any predators are causing a population decline, and eradicate <em>R. exulans </em>from Little Barrier (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003923		distribution	eng	<em>Procellaria parkinsoni</em> breeds on Great and Little Barrier Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where the populations number c.1,300 pairs (E. A. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong> and 100 pairs respectively, equating to a total population of c.5,000 individuals (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The estimate of 1,300 pairs on Great Barrier Island is lower than previously thought but probably reflects improved information rather than a decline; however, it is not a complete survey and, although it covers the majority of the island's population, further research is needed to assess the true population size. It once bred in the mountains of the North and South Islands, but had disappeared from the mainland by the 1960s. On Little Barrier, it was abundant in the late 1800s but the population was decimated, mainly by feral cats, until predators were eradicated in 1980. On Great Barrier, the population may be in decline (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, E. Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. It migrates to the eastern Pacific Ocean between the Galápagos Islands, southern Mexico and northern Peru (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003923		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> It is a colonial burrow-nesting, annually-breeding species (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong> and can begin breeding at six years of age (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Most eggs are laid in December, hatch in February and chicks fledge in May at about three months old. Chick provisioning can continue until June (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. The youngest recorded bird returning to a colony was three years of age, and the age of first breeding has been recorded at five years of age (Bell<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. Feeding behaviour is characterised by surface feeding and shallow diving in groups of up to 300 individuals that are frequently seen to associate with fishing vessels and cetaceans. Preliminary geolocator data suggest that it preferentially forages on the continental shelf or at seamounts (ACAP 2008)<strong></strong>, with most foraging trips taking at least 15 days (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Further data suggest foraging areas are highly variable, although birds travel mainly west and east of northern New Zealand (Bell<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It nests in virgin podocarp and mixed broadleaf forest above 500 m. On the mainland, it reportedly bred up to 1,200 m, mostly in tall forest, but also in alpine tussock grasslands (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is dominated by squid and supplemented by tunicates, crustaceans and cyclostomes (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003923		population	eng	The total population is c.1,300 pairs on Great Barrier Island and c.100 breeding pairs on Little Barrier Island (Bell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), with an estimated total of c.5,000 individuals including non-breeding birds. This is roughly equivalent to 3,300 mature individuals.
106003923		threats	eng	Introduced cats decimated the Little Barrier population, killing up to 100% of fledglings in some years (Imber 1987)<strong></strong>, and taking adults. Introduced cats cause minor interference on Great Barrier, but breeding success is high (77% in 2007/2008) (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2011)<strong></strong>. Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> is present on Great Barrier Island but has little effect on this species. Pacific rats were eradicated from Little Barrier Island in 2004. Black rat <em>R. rattus</em>, stray dogs, feral cats and feral pigs may also be a threat on Great Barrier. The species is a common scavenger of fishing boat waste, and is caught by commercial longliners and recreational fishers in New Zealand waters, and may be at greater risk during migration to the east Pacific off Ecuador and Peru where it is a near-obligate associate of small crustaceans (Pitman and Ballance 1992)<strong></strong>. Birds have been caught on longlines in this region. El Niño fluctuations may also affect the population in this zone (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 1,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (621 m) (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003924		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. The breeding site is within the Paparoa National Park. A proposal to designate the colonies as the Westland Petrel Special Area was approved in 1999, and restricts public access. A long-term study has been in place since 1969, covering social organisation, behaviour, breeding biology and aspects of population dynamics. A demographic study was undertaken between 1995 and 2003 (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Predator and herbivore control has been carried out in the main breeding colonies since 1990 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census all burrows every 10 years, and continue annual monitoring of study burrows, and band chicks and adults. Identify and minimise hazards to birds flying to and from the colony. Continue sustained predator control and monitoring of nests to identify predation events, and respond accordingly, and continue sustained control of browsing mammals, particularly goats and possums. Fence colony boundaries to exclude stock (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Minimise the impact of tourist infrastructure through planning control (K.-J. Wilson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Maintain vigilance in assessing seabird-fisheries interaction data in New Zealand and other areas to ensure that changes in fisheries operations, gear types and areas of activity do not lead to concomitant changes in bycatch (B. Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).   <p></p>
106003924		distribution	eng	<em>Procellaria westlandica</em> breeds in the densely forested coastal foothills at Punakaiki, South Island, <strong>New Zealand </strong>(Best and Owen 1976). In 1958, the population was estimated at 3,000-6,000 birds, in 1972, 6,000-10,000 birds, and in 1982, 1,000-5,000 pairs (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. In 1974, however, only 818 occupied burrows were located (Best and Owen 1976)<strong></strong>. Recent estimates put the total population at fewer than 20,000 birds, and c.4,000 pairs (Heather and Robertson 1997, Adams 1998, Taylor 2000, ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Population modelling suggests a decline in numbers since 1985 (Freeman and Wilson 2002)<strong></strong>.  It migrates in summer to central Pacific and eastern New Zealand waters, the east coast of Australia and off South America (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Brinkley <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, and is regularly recorded off the coast of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile </span>extending into the South Atlantic to the east of Tierra del Fuego (Spear <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A large number were recorded in the area of the Golfo de Penas (400 individuals) and Canal Messier (850 individuals), Aisen, Chile, and all in heavy primary moult (Fraser 2009), potentially representing 10% of the world population of this species (Fraser 2009).<em><p></p></em>
106003924		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species is a colonial, winter breeder. Most eggs are laid in May, and hatch mostly in the last half of June. Chicks fledge from November to January (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. In any given year, a large proportion of the population skip breeding, however, there is no discernible pattern to this behaviour although it maybe linked with El Niño events (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Skipped breeders have lower survival rates, possibly owing to differences in the 'fitness' of individuals, although this could be biased by emigration. Juveniles return to the colony as young as three years, but the age of first breeding is six to seven years (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. During chick-rearing, satellite-tracking data indicate foraging principally on the continental slope off the West Coast of South Island, with one trip undertaken through Cook Strait to the Chatham Rise east of South Island (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>They nest on densely forested hills at 20-250 m. Burrows are usually concentrated in areas where the ground is relatively open, and where take-off areas are close by. This is one of the few remaining petrels still nesting on mainland New Zealand, possibly due to more aggressively resisting attacks from land-based predators (Brooks 2011). <strong>Diet</strong> Fisheries waste is an important dietary component, perhaps forming more than half of solid food eaten during the hoki fishing season (Freeman 1998)<strong></strong>. Subsequent satellite tracking studies have suggested that dietary analysis over-estimates the amount of food scavenged from trawlers and that the species continues to forage over wider areas than those occupied by the hoki fishery. Even individuals known to forage at fishing fleets acquire a large proportion of their food elsewhere (Freeman <em>et al. </em>2001, Freeman and Wilson 2002)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003924		population	eng	The population numbered c.20,000 individuals (roughly equivalent to 13,000 mature individuals) in 1982 and has remained stable, with c. 2,000 pairs breeding annually. The most recent population study has produced an estimate of 2,827  annual breeding pairs (95% CI: 2,143-3,510) (B. Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Scattered burrows exist throughout the 16-km<sup>2</sup> breeding area and populations in these areas may have been underestimated by up to 10%. On the basis of this information, the breeding population is not thought to exceed 4,000 annual breeding pairs (B. Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Based on this upper estimate of c.8,000 birds breeding each year, and assuming that 25% of breeding age birds may skip breeding in any one year (as derived from long-term data sets on similar species), there are probably c.10,700 mature individuals (B. Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), assumed to equate to a total population of c.16,000 individuals.
106003924		threats	eng	Introduced mammals and the native Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em> prey on eggs, chicks and adults, goats trample burrows, and contribute to the erosion of subcolonies (Best and Owen 1976, Marchant and Higgins 1990, A. J. D. Tennyson <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Taylor 2000, Waugh <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Mining and agriculture may have destroyed some available habitat but this has probably had little impact on the population as the birds breed on land too steep and difficult of access to be of interest to mining or farming (K.-J. Wilson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.  The coastal plain between the colonies and the sea is rich in ilmenite and, for 20 years, mining of ilminite has seemed likely and the processing plant was placed on their major flightpath. It appears that mining will not proceed (K.-J. Wilson <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2012)<strong></strong>. Birds are occasionally killed by flying into power pylons, and are attracted to lights and noisy machinery at dawn and dusk (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Punakaiki is a growing tourist destination, and lights from newly built hotels may pose a minor threat to the petrels (K.-J. Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is a bycatch species of tuna longliners in New Zealand and Australia (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, although the level of bycatch appears to be minimal (B. Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), and it is exposed to several longline fisheries off the coast of Chile. Birds regularly follow commercial trawlers and may be killed when nets are hauled (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Interactions with Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides </em>vessels in the Humboldt Current System are also undocumented (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003925		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Gough Island is a World Heritage Site. In 2001, a study was conducted on the Antipodes Islands on the feasibility of establishing long term monitoring plots. Brown rats were eradicated from Campbell Island in 2001. In 2006, the South East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SEAFO) passed a resolution to require all its longline vessels to use a tori line and to set lines at night. In 2007, the New Zealand government began a five year study of <em>Procellaria</em> petrels on Antipodes Island which will investigate issues such as population size and trends, annual survival rates of adults and breeding frequency. Geolocation loggers and other tracking devices will be applied to birds to determine foraging zones and migration routes (G. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the population on all the breeding islands. Conduct regular monitoring of a representative proportion of the population.  Determine if predation by mice is a serious threat on Gough Island. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies and the interaction with longline fisheries. Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations. <p></p>
106003925		distribution	eng	This species has a circumpolar distribution between 32-58 degrees South, but somewhat to the north in the Humboldt Current and off the east coast of South America (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. It breeds on Gough and other islands in the Tristan da Cunha group (<strong>St Helena, to UK</strong>), Prince Edward and Marion islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet, Kerguelen and Amsterdam islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Campbell and the Antipodes islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>). Its total population size is poorly known. Its largest breeding populations was believed to be in the Tristan da Cunha group: in the early 1970s, hundreds of thousands were guessed to breed at Gough Island (Richardson 1984)<strong></strong>. However, the most recent estimate for Gough suggests a population of &gt;10,000 pairs (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong></strong>, with pairs only sparse in the uplands (Imber 1983)<strong></strong>, and thus the population on Gough may be far lower than on the Antipodes (R. Cuthbert<em> in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. A small number of pairs also breed on Tristan da Cunha itself, 50-100 pairs estimated in 1972-1974 (Richardson 1984, in Angel and Cooper 2006). The largest population is therefore likely to be on the Antipodes Islands, with 53,000 pairs estimated in 2001 (Bell 2002)<strong></strong>. In addition, several thousand pairs are estimated at Prince Edward, Crozet and Kerguelen islands, a few hundred on Campbell Island (up to 100 pairs on the main island, and possibly a few hundred on offshore stacks) (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, and at least 59-80 pairs on Macquarie (Schulz <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. One recent estimate on the Kerguelen Islands gave a figure of 1,900-5,600 breeding pairs, though some nesting sites were not sampled. More recent figures from Crozet (in 2005) indicated the occurrence of 5,500 pairs (ACAP 2012). Only c.10 pairs breed on Amsterdam Island (J.C. Stahl <em>per</em> S. Bartle <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, although the fossil record indicates that one of the world's largest colonies probably occurred there (Worthy and Jouventin 1999)<strong></strong>. There is no population trend data for most of the sites, but based on a population model and data from fisheries, this population may be in decline due to bycatch (Barbraud <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106003925		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Birds return to the breeding colonies in the austral autumn, first appearing in February and March and often flying in to land during diurnal hours. Eggs are laid in late March and early April, and chicks fledge in late September to early December. The asynchrony in fledging dates within sites and years is thought to reflect food scarcity and variability during the winter rather than asynchrony in laying. The age of first breeding is not known. The species typically forages alone or in groups of three or four, but also occasionally in larger flocks over 50 birds (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests in burrows on well-drained areas, often dominated by <em>Poa </em>tussock grass, where the ground may be steep. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet has been documented by one study in which cephalopods were the main prey item, followed by fish remains (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Data obtained from seabird bycatch suggest that during the breeding season (austral winter), females forage further north than males, in waters north of the Subtropical Convergence, up to 1,460 km from their colonies on Sub-Antarctic islands (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003925		population	eng	Figures suggest a very tentative world population around 400,000 individuals, a figure that could be incorrect by a factor of 2-3 either way (Brooke 2004). A tally of the most recent figures, points to at least 80,000 pairs worldwide, but this figure is thought to be only a rough estimate.
106003925		threats	eng	In New Zealand waters, it is the most frequently killed species by the tuna-longline fishery (c.45,000 birds in total could have been caught in the last 20 years [S. Bartle <em>in litt. </em>2000]<strong><sup></sup></strong>)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and the selective mortality of adult females could be having a disproportionate impact on the breeding population (Bartle 1990, Murray <em>et al.</em> 1993, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Substantial incidental mortality has also been recorded in fisheries off Australia, and it may be caught in significant numbers in international waters in the southern Indian Ocean, for which little seabird bycatch information exists (Huyser <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Any additional source of mortality that approaches 300 individuals was predicted to result in a population decline at the Kerguelen Islands, well below the strict minimum of 755 taken in the Patagonian fisheries operating around the islands (Barbraud et al. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced predators on the breeding islands are a further serious threat, for example, cats and black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>on Crozet and Kerguelen, and, until their fairly recent eradication, cats on Marion Island. Brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus </em>were eradicated from Campbell Island in 2001. The introduction of rats to Antipodes Island would be a major threat (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cats and Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em> were probably responsible for extinction from Macquarie Island and brown rat and cats for its near extinction on Amsterdam. On Gough Island, recent evidence has indicated that introduced house mice <em>Mus musculus</em> are a significant predator of winter-breeding seabirds and are driving population declines of at least two species (Cuthbert and Hilton 2004, <strong></strong>Wanless <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A review of impacts of mice on Gough Island concludes that petrels are probably predated by mice (Angel and Cooper 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the impact of this on the population is currently unknown, if predation rates are similar to other winter breeding albatrosses and petrels on Gough then the population is likely to be declining. On Macquarie Island, high rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> numbers have destroyed vegetation and caused soil erosion at nesting sites. Rabbits may also disturb birds in burrows when nesting (Angel and Cooper 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003926		distribution	eng	Cory's Shearwater breeds on islands and cliffs in the Mediterranean, as well as having outposts in the Atlantic at the Canary Islands (<B>Spain</B>), Berlengas Islands and the Azores (<B>Portugal</B>). After breeding, birds from the Atlantic colonies predominantly winter off the coast of South America and southern Africa, with some individuals from the Mediterranean wintering in the area of the Canary current (Navarro and Gonz&aacute;lez-Sol&iacute;s 2009).
106003926		habitat	eng	Pelagic movements are easily divided into frequent foraging trips around the breeding areas, rapid, long-distance migrations, and smaller-scale movements within a well defined wintering ground (Gonz&aacute;lez-Sol&iacute;s et al. 2007). Breeding starts in April on barren offshore islands, occupying cliffs, caves and boulder fields (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Breeding individuals in the Canary Islands show a unimodel foraging strategy, concentrating on highly productive regions of the African continental shelf (Navarro and Gonz&aacute;lez-Sol&iacute;s 2009). Diet is mostly squid, which are obtained mainly by surface-seizing. It is regularly attracted to trawlers to feed on offal (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003926		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 270,000-290,000 breeding pairs, equating to 810,000-870,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 900,000-1,200,000 individuals. Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 600,000 individuals.
106003927		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>On Mikura-jima, some management actions have been carried out to control cats (both feral and domestic); these have included neutering and subsequent release; generally, cats are not destroyed because of concerns over the potential public reaction (N. Oka <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>M. Sato <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Monitor population trends at selected breeding sites throughout its range. Quantify the impacts of introduced predators on all affected breeding islands, and study the potential impact of fisheries bycatch. Implement robust control measures and strengthen existing management actions to alleviate, and if possible eliminate, the threat of introduced predators on all affected breeding islands. Carry out awareness-raising activities on breeding islands to reduce the impacts of human disturbance and introduced mammals.
106003927		distribution	eng	<em>Calonectris leucomelas</em> is found in the western Pacific, breeding on the coast and on offshore islands of <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, and on islands off the coasts of <strong>China,</strong> <strong>North Korea </strong>and<strong> South Korea</strong>. It migrates south during winter, being found off the coasts of <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>New Guinea</strong>, the <strong>Philippines</strong> and <strong>Australia </strong>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). The global population has been estimated to number  c.3,000,000 individuals (Brooke 2004). In Japan, where it is thought that the majority of the species’s world population breeds, there are 11 islands that are each inhabited by more than 10,000 breeding pairs (Oka 2004). According to islanders, the species appears to have been declining rapidly on Mikura-jima, but quantitative data are not available (S. Uematsu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The prevalence of threats from introduced predators suggests that the  species is in overall decline; however, further data  are required from throughout the species’s range to assess the  current population trend.<br/><p></p>
106003927		habitat	eng	This marine species can be found over both pelagic and inshore waters. It feeds mainly on fish and squid which it catches by surface-seizing and shallow plunges. It often associates with other seabirds and will follow fishing boats. Breeding begins in March in colonies on offshore islands, occupying burrows on forested hills. It undergoes transequatorial migration (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003927		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number  c.3,000,000 individuals, while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100,000-1,000,000 breeding pairs, c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003927		threats	eng	Some level of negative impact from introduced rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus</span> species can be expected on at least three of the Japanese islands occupied by the species (M. Sato <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It appears to suffer significant impacts from rats on Mikura-jima, which is populated by c.300 people and is popular with tourists, thus making an eradication programme problematic and the subsequent reintroduction of rats more likely (Oka <em>et al</em>. 2002, J. Croxall <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Feral cats may also be inflicting increasing mortality on the Mikura-jima population, through predation on chicks, young birds and adults (N. Oka <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> M. Sato<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012, S. Uematsu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Both black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> and brown rats <em>R. norvegicus</em> are potentially affecting a colony of c.150,000 individuals breeding on Okino-shima Island (M. Takeishi <em>per</em> M. Sato <em>in litt</em>. 2011). On Sasudo, South Korea, the species is threatened mainly by predation by <em>R. norvegicus</em> (Lee 2010).  Rats, cats and human disturbance may threaten the species on Socheong Island (Birds Korea 2010). In addition to these threats, the species is also susceptible to fisheries bycatch (Birds Korea 2010, J. Croxall <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Global climate change may be affecting the distances travelled to feeding sites, potentially impacting whole colonies, but further research is required (S. Uematsu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106003928		distribution	eng	The Wedge-tailed Shearwater ranges across from throughout the tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean roughly between latitudes 35&#176;N and 35&#176;S, breeding on a large number of oceanic islands and on the east and west coasts of Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003928		habitat	eng	This marine species can nearly always be found over pelagic waters except when at colonies. It feeds mostly on fish, with some cephaolopods, crustaceans and insects. It catches prey mainly on the wing by dipping but also by surface-seizing or pursuit-plunging. It will congregate with other seabirds and dolphins when around schooling fish, and will often attend trawlers and smaller fishing boats. Its breeding season is very variable nesting in burrows in colonies on offshore islands or atolls (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003928		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number  &gt; c.5,200,000 individuals, while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003929		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The eradication of pigs from Aorangi in 1936 caused a massive increase in the population, with the recolonisation probably coming from the nearby predator-free island, Tawhiti Rahi (<strong></strong>Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Fishing has been banned at the Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve since 1996 and entry onto the island reserve is prohibited (<strong></strong>Szabo <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) established the world's first mandatory "area to be avoided" (ATBA) for large shipping vessels, including oil tankers, around the islands in 2004 (<strong></strong>Szabo <em>in litt. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. Breeding islands have permanent poisoned bait stations and each island is checked every year for any evidence that rodents have arrived (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species has been the subject of tracking studies utilising geolocators, with further data collection planned for 2013 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete an accurate population census (including on Aorangi Island, to better assess breeding numbers [G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), assess the current status of breeding on Simmonds Islands and identify any signs of prospecting on other island groups. Establish monitoring plots on Poor Knights to determine the rate and pattern of colony expansion (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Quantify the impact of bycatch during fishing activities. If judged necessary, work with fisheries to develop bycatch reduction measures.  <p></p>
106003929		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus bulleri</em> breeds only at the Poor Knights Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The species is restricted to two main islands, Aorangi and Tawhiti Rahi, and five other islets and stacks (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. In the 1980s, one pair was found breeding on the Simmonds Islands, in the far north of New Zealand (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Between 1938 and 1981, the population on Aorangi increased from c.200 to c.200,000 pairs (Harper 1983, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. However, surveys in 2011 suggested that there were fewer than 200,000 burrows, and perhaps only c.50,000 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In 2011, breeding success on Aorangi Island was noted to be very low, with only 16 chicks found in the 150 burrows sampled (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The total population has been estimated at 2.5 million birds (Marchant and Higgins 1990), although this now regarded as too high (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It migrates to the northern Pacific Ocean, from Japan to North America and east to California, and is occasionally found off South America (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003929		habitat	eng	It nests in burrows or on rock-crevices and ledges, often under dense vegetation. It feeds on krill, small fish, salps and jellyfish (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003929		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 2.5 million birds (Marchant and Higgins 1990), although this is now likely to be too high (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106003929		threats	eng	It was previously caught in north Pacific drift-nets (Gould <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>, and is still potentially at risk from set-nets. It may be caught on longlines, in trawling operations and on hand and reel lines, but little documented evidence is available (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Domestic pigs were previously a threat (removed in 1936), and the species would be at risk of mammalian predators if introduced. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: it is restricted to an island or islands with a maximum altitude of 218 m (BirdLife International, unpublished data). Poor breeding success recorded on Aorangi Island in 2011 may have been related to a strong La Niña climate pattern in 2010-2011, but data from some birds fitted with geolocators indicated that incubation shifts were around twice the length of those published in the 1980s (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There has been intensive purse-seine fishing of pelagic fish in the Hauraki Gulf in recent decades, which may have impacted the species through food resource depletion, as it is known to feed in these areas and, perhaps connected to this, populations of Red-billed Gulls <span style="font-style: italic;">Larus scopulinus</span> on the Mokohinau Islands have crashed from c.20,000 birds in the 1960s to fewer than 500 birds in 2011 (G. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Further investigation is required. <br/><p></p>
106003930		distribution	eng	This species breeds on St Paul Island (<B>French Southern Territories</B>), Lord Howe Island (<B>Australia</B>), south-west mainland Australia, south Australia (at a single isolated colony), and North Island (<B>New Zealand</B>). In the non-breeding season it ranges north through the western Pacific Ocean to the Aleutian Islands (<B>USA</B>) with small numbers off North America, north through the Indian Ocean and west to the southern tip of Africa (del Hoyo et al. 1992).  </P>
106003930		habitat	eng	The Flesh-footed shearwater is a marine species mainly found offshore over continental shelves. Its recorded diet includes fish and squid, mostly caught by pursuit-plunging. Its breeding season begins in September or October, with colonies forming on vegetated hills or slopes facing the sea (del Hoyo et al 1992).
106003930		population	eng	Brooke (2004)   estimated the global population to number &gt; c.650,000 individuals. The   Lord Howe island population has been estimated at c.20,000-40,000 breeding   pairs, although anecdotal reports suggest that this population has declined   in recent years. National population sizes have been estimated at   c.25,000-50,000 breeding pairs in New Zealand (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>   1992) and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea (Brazil   2009).
106003930		threats	eng	Recent information from eastern Australia suggests that bycatch from the expanding tuna fishing industry may be significant, with 5,000-6,000 individuals being killed annually (B. Baker in litt. 2002). Fishing effort in western Australia has increased in recent years, with unknown effects on this species.  </P>
106003931		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997 (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing (Hulm 1995)<strong></strong>. The distribution on Robinson Crusoe and Santa Clara was determined in 2006. The colony on Mocha is within a national reserve, which has had a management plan since 1998 and two reserve guards (Guicking 1999, J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Harvesting of chicks is illegal (Guicking 1999)<strong> </strong>although this is unenforced. The species is listed as a Species of Common Conservation Concern by the Commission for Environmental Conservation (CEC). In 2007, Chile and Canada created national conservation plans for the species. The Juan Fernández Islands Conservancy has worked on the Juan Fernández Archipelago since the 2001–02 breeding season. Satellite tracking is underway to determine foraging areas and geolocators have been deployed to track migration routes (CEC 2005). Community-based education and conservation programmes are also underway (CEC 2005). &#160; <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Remove all introduced mammals, initially within a feasibility study area (D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Determine breeding population estimate for Isla Mocha, taking into account burrow occupancy. Conduct quantitative assessment of population-level impacts of chick harvesting and reduce chick harvesting (Guicking 1999)<strong></strong>. Replant native flora, initially within the feasibility study area but also at forest edges, using exclosures on Robinson Crusoe (D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Enforce grazing restrictions on national park land. Plant fast-growing, soil-binding trees along highly eroded slopes for short-term relief. Assess the threat posed by the fishing industry, especially in Chilean waters (Guicking <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong> </strong>and along migration routes, particularly in Peruvian waters. <strong><sup></sup></strong>Establish and maintain a population monitoring programme for Juan Fernández and Mocha breeding populations. <strong><sup> </sup></strong>Clarify the severity of threats faced in the non-breeding range. <strong><sup> </sup></strong>Build capacity for research and at-sea monitoring in Mexico.  <p></p>
106003931		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus creatopus</em> is an east Pacific seabird that breeds only on Robinson Crusoe (a few thousand pairs in 1986 [Brooke 1987<strong></strong>]; 2,750 occupied burrows in 2002 [Brooke 2004]<strong></strong>; 8,459 burrows in 2005-06, of which up to 60% [5,075] may be occupied [Hodum unpubl. data]<strong></strong>) and Santa Clara (2,000-3,000 pairs in 1991 [Brooke 1987]<strong></strong> and 3,470 breeding pairs in 2006 [Hodum unpubl. data]<strong></strong>) in the Juan Fernández Islands, and on Isla Mocha (13,000-17,000 pairs [Guicking 1999]<strong></strong>, but possibly up to 25,000 pairs [D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>) off the coast of Arauco, <strong>Chile</strong>. Recent evidence suggests another colony on Isla Guafo, south of Isla Mocha (Commission for Environmental Cooperation 2005). These sites combined indicate around 20,000 breeding pairs, which would imply a maximum of 100,000 individuals (Brooke 2004). Following breeding, it disperses northward along the west coast of South America towards North America (CEC 2005). The migration is evident by its increasing presence along the continental shelf from the Gulf of California in Mexico to British Columbia in Canada, during April and May each year. Numbers peak between August and October, followed by a rapid decline in November, as birds return to their breeding colonies (CEC 2005). A specimen has also been taken from the Atlantic coast of Argentina (Mazar Barnett and Navas 1998)<strong></strong> and there are records from New Zealand and Australia (Patterson 1991, D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Despite probable declines in the past, populations in the Juan Fernández group appear to have been more or less stable over the past 15 years (CEC 2005). In contrast populations on Isla Mocha may be declining owing to the effects of chick harvesting (CEC 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003931		habitat	eng	Birds arrive at the colonies in late October-November. Eggs are laid in December with fledging and dispersal in late April-early May (Guicking 1999)<strong></strong>. On Robinson Crusoe, nesting has been recorded in burrows scattered throughout badly eroded, generally sparsely vegetated but occasionally forested habitat at elevations of 150-300 m. On Santa Clara, the species breeds in scattered colonies in eroded terrain at elevations from 15-300m (Hodum and Wainstein 2004)<strong></strong>. On Isla Mocha, the colony is in forest (predominant tree <em>Aextoxicon punctatum</em>), with the highest burrow densities along mountain ridges and between the roots of old-growth trees up to 390 m (Guicking 1999, D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It feeds primarily in offshore waters over the continental shelf but also in pelagic waters (Hodum<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>, mostly on fish (sardines and anchovies [Becker 2000]), squid and to a lesser extent, crustaceans (D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999) .  Birds breeding on Santa Clara demonstrate a diet dominated by fish, with squid comprising a smaller proportion of the diet (CEC 2005).<p></p>
106003931		population	eng	There may be around 20,000 breeding pairs, which would imply a maximum of 100,000 individuals.
106003931		threats	eng	Predation by cats and coatis on Robinson Crusoe, and cats and dogs on Mocha (Guicking 1999)<strong></strong> may be the most significant threat. Additionally, rats predate chicks and eggs on Robinson Crusoe and possibly on Mocha (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Chicks are harvested by islanders on Mocha in March-May, with an estimated 20% of all chicks (3000-5000) taken in 1998 (Guicking 1999, Commission for Environmental Cooperation 2005)<strong></strong>. European rabbits compete with shearwaters for burrows on Robinson Crusoe but were eradicated from Santa Clara in 2003 (Hodum unpubl. data)<strong></strong>.  Soil erosion by goats and rabbits affects populations on Robinson Crusoe (Guicking 1999, J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Cattle in one colony on Robinson Crusoe cause soil erosion and burrow collapses (Hodum unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. Erosion due to vegetation loss causes burrow loss on Santa Clara (Hodum unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. Birds have been entangled in fishing gear near colonies and in the non-breeding range (Guicking 1999, D. Guicking and P. H. Becker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and this potentially poses a major threat (Guicking <em>et al</em>. 2001, Commission for Environmental Cooperation 2005)<strong></strong>. The distribution of longline commercial fishing activities overlap both spatially and temporally with the wintering range of the pink-footed shearwater over the continental shelf of North America, making the risk of interaction with the fishing fleet highly likely (CEC 2005). Contamination by chemical pollutants (e.g. mercury) may also be a threat (Becker 2000), as well as plastic debris and oil pollution. The species is known to raft on the water in large groups in both the breeding and wintering range, which increases the risk of severe mortality from spills, either chronic or major events (CEC 2005). The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 1,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (914 m) (Birdlife International unpublished data). <p></p>
106003932		distribution	eng	This species breeds at three main sites: Nightingale and Inaccessible islands in the Tristan da Cunha group, and Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha (to UK) (Snow and Perrins 1998, Carboneras 1992d). Birds also breed in small numbers in the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), where the only confirmed site is Kidney Island (no more than 15 pairs recorded in 1987 (Woods 1988)), though there is a slight possibilty of breeding near Wineglass Hill, East Falkland, where one has been caught (Woods and Woods 1997).
106003932		habitat	eng	Adults begin a transequatorial migration in April, moving north-west to South America, up to Canada, past Greenland and onto the north-east Atlantic before returning south in November to the breeding islands (Carboneras 1992d, Harrison 1983). The species breeds on sloping ground, mainly in areas of tussock grass or Phylica woodland. It feeds mostly on fish, squid and fish offal (attending trawlers, sometimes in large numbers), and also on some crustaceans (Carboneras 1992d).
106003932		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 15,000,000 individuals. A minimum of 5,000,000 pairs are thought to breed at Tristan da Cunha, and 600,000 to 3,000,000 pairs at Gough (Carboneras 1992d).
106003932		threats	eng	Several thousand adults and c.50,000 chicks are harvested every year from Nightingale Island by Tristan Islanders, which could lead to the collapse of the population without research into sustainable harvesting levels (Carboneras 1992d). Although there is no real evidence of threats to the tiny confirmed Falkland breeding population, predation by feral cats at Wineglass Hill would be a threat to any breeding there (R. Woods in litt. 1999).
106003933		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is monitored at some sites and has been extensively studied in parts of its range. Some breeding grounds are protected and have benefited from eradications of introduced predators. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring key colonies and migration bottlenecks. Research the key threats driving declines and assess appropriate responses. Buffer important colonies against invasive species invasions. <p></p>
106003933		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus griseus</em> is an abundant shearwater, breeding on islands off <strong>New Zealand</strong>, <strong>Australia</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong>, and the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>. In Australia there are colonies on 17 islands (all of less than 1,000 pairs), southern Chile (many colonies, some up to 200,000 pairs and up to 4 million birds on Isla Guafo; Reyes-Arriagada <em>et al.</em> 2007<strong></strong>) and the Falklands (10,000-20,000 pairs) and more than 80 colonies in New Zealand (totalling c.5 million pairs) (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. In 1970-71, the Snares Islands colonies were estimated to support 2,750,000 breeding pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. The total world population is thought to be over 20 million bird<strong><sup></sup></strong>s (Heather and Robertson 1997).  Although this is an extremely numerous species, there are persistent signs of a current decline (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. In New Zealand, the number of burrows in the largest colony (on the Snares islands) declined by 37% between 1969-1971 and 1996-2000, and burrow occupancy may also have declined, indicating that an overall population decline may have occurred (Warham and Wilson 1982; Scofield 2002)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere the mainland New Zealand, colonies are in decline and certain offshore colonies have not responded to predator control (Gaze 2000; Jones 2000).  In the California Current, Sooty Shearwater numbers have fallen by 90% in the last 20 years (Veit <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It remains uncertain whether this has resulted from population declines or distributional shifts (Spear and Ainley 1999)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106003933		habitat	eng	It nests on islands and headlands in large colonies. Burrows are dug for breeding under tussock grass, low scrub and on the Snares Islands under <em>Olearia</em> forest. Birds typically do not return to their natal colonies until age four. It feeds on fish, crustacea and cephalopods, caught while diving. Short (1-3 days) and long (5-15 days) provisioning trips are made by parents; longer trips allow foraging along the Antarctic Polar Front, reducing competition close to breeding grounds and allowing vast colonies to persist. <p></p>
106003933		population	eng	The global population is roughly estimated to number  &gt; c.20,000,000 individuals (Brooke, 2004), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &gt;c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and &gt;c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003933		threats	eng	Harvesting young birds or 'muttonbirding' currently accounts for the take of around a quarter of a million birds annually (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992; Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>,<strong> </strong>but is unlikely to account for the scale of the decline. Populations are no longer ravaged by pelagic drift-nets which formerly drowned up to 350,000 birds annually (Ogi <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. Longline fisheries are responsible for large numbers of deaths of this and many other seabird species. Some authorities postulate that the decline may be associated with climate change, as investigation into the biolgoical impact of recent climatic trends suggests eithe large-scale shifts in the forgaing distribution of the species during<span style=""> the boreal summer, or dramatic reductions in abundance and survival rate (Ainley et al 1995; Veit et al. 1996, 1997; Spear and Ainley 1999; Wahl and Tweit 2000; Oedekoven et al. 2001; Hyrenbach and Veit 2003; </span>Veit <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="">)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Rats (</span><em><span style="">R</span>attus rattus</em> and <em>R. Norvegicus</em>) have been shown to predate on eggs and chicks, altohough the extent of the impact is unknown (Jones <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003934		distribution	eng	This species breeds on Tasmania and off the coast of south <B>Australia</B>, with the bulk of the population in the south-east. It undergoes transequatorial migration, wintering north of <B>Japan</B> near the Aleutian Islands (<B>USA</B>), with some moving north of the Bering Strait. The return migration route incorporates the central Pacific, with some moving down the western coast of North America.  </P>
106003934		habitat	eng	Breeding occurs mainly on coastal islands, typically in areas of grassland or other vegetation, but sometimes cliffs or bare ground (del Hoyo et al. 1992).  It conducts a bimodal feeding strategy whilst breeding, alternating short foraging trips to local waters with long foraging trips (up to 17 days) to the Polar Frontal Zone. Short trips allow greater chick provisioning at the sacrifice of body condition, which is then recovered in richer sub-Antarctic waters. Diet includes fish (particularly mycotphids), crustaceans and squid (Weimerskirch and Cherel 1998). Feeding occurs in flocks of up to 20,000 birds, and it has been seen associated with cetaceans. It is a trans-equatorial migrant, wintering off Aleutian Islands, some moving north of Bering Strait (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003934		population	eng	Brooke (2004)   estimated the global population to number &gt; c.23,000,000 individuals,   while national population estimates include: &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan; &gt;c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and   &gt;c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106003935		distribution	eng	The Christmas Island Shearwater nests on remote islands in the central Pacific, from the Hawaiian Islands (USA) in the north, south to Phoenix Island (<B>Republic of Kiribati</B>), and east to the Marquesas Islands,<B> French Polynesia</B> and Easter Island (<B>to</B> <B>Chile</B>). Outside the breeding season it ranges across the Pacific, having been recorded off the coasts of <B>Mexico</B> and northern <B>Chile</B> in the east, to the Bonin Islands (<B>Japan</B>) in the west (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003935		habitat	eng	This species is marine and pelagic, occuring over warm waters and generally keeping away from land except near colonies. Its diet comprises mostly of fish and squid with only minor proportions of crustaceans. Prey is caught mainly by pursuit-plunging and pursuit-diving, but also by surface-seizing. Feeding in association with other shearwaters and also noddies (<I>Anous</I>) has been seen. Its breeding season is variable, beginning in March in Hawaii. Individuals form colonies on slopes among rocks or in lava fields on oceanic islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003935		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 150,000 individuals.
106003936		distribution	eng	The Manx Shearwater breeds in the north Atlantic, with major colonies on the Atlantic coasts of the <B>United Kingdom</B> and <B>Ireland</B>. Colonies are also present on <B>Iceland</B>, islets off Massachusetts (<B>USA</B>) and Newfoundland (<B>Canada</B>), as well as on the Azores, <B>Portugal</B> and the Canary Islands, <B>Spain</B>. It undegoes transequatorial migration, expanding the range in winter to include the Atlantic coast of South America below the equator and the south-west coast of <B>South Africa<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003936		habitat	eng	This marine species is mainly found on waters over the continental shelf, feeding mainly on small shoaling fish but also on some squid, crustaceans and offal. Prey is caught mainly by pursuit-plunging and pursuit-diving, either alone or in small flocks. Breeding starts in March, forming colonies on coastal or offshore islands, nesting in burrows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003936		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 350,000-390,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,050,000-1,170,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Brooke (2004) also estimated the   global population to be at least 1,000,000 individuals.
106003937		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>EU Birds Directive Annex I; Annex II of the Bern Convention. A new IBA project has been started in Malta. An EU Life/BirdLife Malta project aimed at conserving a colony of c. 500 pairs at Rdumtal-Madonna, Malta, has recently been completed. A rat eradication project is being implemented at Montecristo Island, Italy during 2011-2012 as part of the 2010 Montecristo LIFE project that aims to eradicate several invasive species from Montecristo and Pianosa (see http://www.montecristo2010.it/index.asp).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out population censuses at breeding colonies,<span style=""> particularly those in Sardinia, Sicily and Greece. Determine whether the species breeds in Turkey. Search for colonies at sites in Turkey, Greece and Tunisia. Carry out population censuses at breeding colonies for which there is currently little reliable, up-to-date population size data, particularly those in Sicily and Greece. </span>Continue breeding and non-breeding period counts at the Bosporus and conduct breeding and non-breeding counts at other bottleneck sites. Research ecological requirements and carry out extensive demographic monitoring. Research the impact of int<span style="">roduced predators across breeding range. Quantify extent of mortality from accidental bycatch. Research impact of predator control/ eradication programmes on annual survival and breeding success at different sites. As a precaution, control or if possible eradicate feral cats and rats at breeding colonies, according to a priority analysis and at sites with evidence of predation. Encourage policymakers to implement and enforce measures that reduce accidental bycatch of Yelkouan Shearwaters and other seabirds in commercial fishing operations in the Mediterranean and Black seas. Identify and implement measures to reduce/ mitigate the effects of light pollution on the species (e.g. Raine </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2007).    </span><p></p>
106003937		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus yelkouan</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean basin, but its precise distribution is not well known and numbers are disputed (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008). The main breeding colonies are concentrated in the central and eastern basin of the Mediterranean, from Corsica and Sardinia through the central Mediterranean, the Adriatic and the Aegean (Borg <em>et al.</em> 2010). The species is known to breed in <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span> (662-1,109 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy </span>(9,000-20,000 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malta</span> (1,190 - 1,680 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria</span> (8-10 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tunisia</span> (176-200 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia </span>(300-500 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania </span>(1-10 pairs), <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span> (4,000-7,000 pairs) and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span> (0-10 pairs), giving a global estimate of 15,300-30,500 pairs (Derhé 2012). Breeding is assumed in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey </span>on offshore islands or mainland cliffs in the Aegean and Mediterranean, but there is very little data on this. A small population may also breed on the eastern Balearic Islands in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, although the existence of the species here is somewhat controversial, given the taxonomic uncertainty of the birds breeding in Menorca (Arcos 2011, Curé <em>et al.</em> 2010).<em></em> Population trends in Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Turkey and  Tunisia are currently unknown, but declines are suspected in Croatia and Greece. The population is estimated to be declining rapidly in Italy (N. Baccetti <em>in litt</em>. 2011), France (Oppel <em>et al.</em> 2011) and Malta (Borg and Sultana 2002, Raine <em>et al.</em> 2009, Sultana <em>et al.</em> 2011), representing around three-quarters of the global population. Nine colonies have gone extinct over the last 60 years (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008) and since 2009, one breeding colony off Sardinia  (San Pietro Island) has been reported as absent, possibly extinct (N.  Baccetti <em>in litt</em>. 2011).<strong></strong> Most worryingly, breeding success at many colonies appears to be extremely low and adult  survival probabilities across the  western Mediterranean have been reported as too low to maintain stable  populations (Oppel <em>et al.</em> 2011). <p></p>
106003937		habitat	eng	It breeds on rocky coastal and offshore islets, and on the mainland. In the non-breeding season it disperses widely within the Mediterranean and Black Seas, often congregating in large flocks (Snow and Perrins 1998).<p></p>
106003937		population	eng	Figures point to a total of 15,337-30,519 pairs equating to 46,000-92,000  individuals based on a population assessment covering the species's entire range (Derhé 2012). This corresponds with preliminary counts conducted during the non-breeding season at the Black Sea in which up to 75,000 individuals have been sighted migrating through the Bosporus [J. Tavares and D. Sahin. <em>in litt</em>. 2012]). However, more surveys are needed to confirm to confirm this number, particularly in Turkey.<br/><p></p>
106003937		threats	eng	The most serious threat to the species is mortality from incidental fishing bycatch, followed by predation by invasive predators (predominantly rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>and to a lesser extent, feral cats <em>Felis catus</em>). A study in France and Malta (Oppel <em>et al.</em> 2011) implicated fishing bycatch as a critical cause of mortality for the species, since the majority of the adult mortality of birds breeding in Malta occurred during the non-breeding season. This pattern is consistent with the presumed cause of low adult survival probabilities in the Balearic shearwater (Oro <em>et al.</em> 2004, Tavecchia <em>et al.</em> 2008). Long-liners in particular affect the species (Louzao <em>et al.</em> 2011, Arcos <em>et al.</em> 2008), often on an irregular basis, but impacting fairly large numbers at a time. Since Procellariiforms are generally long-lived, their populations are highly sensitive to changes in adult survival. The increased adult mortality induced by accidental bycatch is therefore a significant danger to them and a highly important threat (Lebreton 2000).  Yelkouan Shearwaters have been shown to suffer substantial predation pressure by introduced mammalian predators on breeding grounds (Bourgeois <em>et al.</em> 2008; Bonnaud <em>et al.</em> 2009) with observed population declines in Italy being attributed to alien predators, predominantly rats (Capizzi <em>et al.</em> 2010, Sultana and Borg 2006), which heavily limit reproductive success by predation upon chicks and eggs. On the Tavolara archipelago, Italy, the colony size has been much reduced in the last 30 years and vast sectors of the islands have been deserted; breeding success was assessed for the first time in 2006 and it was found to be zero (due to rat predation) in several colonies (J. J. Borg <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Feral cats <em>Felis catus</em> are a major threat. On the Hyères islands (French Mediterranean coast), feral cats have been identified as the primary predator of  the species: shearwater remains were found in up to 6% of cat scats, representing hundreds of adults killed each year, especially during the pre-breeding period (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Increasing tourism and coastal urbanization in the Mediterranean create sound and light disturbances at colonies and damages fragile breeding habitats (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008, Oppel <em>et al.</em> 2011). Breeding success may be affected by reduced abundance of anchovies and  sprats due to competition from fisheries (Bourgeois and Vidal 2008)<strong></strong>. The gregarious  behaviour of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to oil spills and the  intense maritime traffic in the Mediterranean and Bosporus increases the risk of oil spills. Less prominent threats include competition for nest sites with Cory’s Shearwater, collisions with wind turbines, pollution and contaminants (e.g. plastic [R. Crnkovic <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012]), environmental events (such as toxic algal blooms and geological erosion) and illegal hunting (Derhé 2012).<br/>&#160;<p></p>
106003938		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1994, the Revillagigedo Islands were declared a Biosphere Reserve. There are plans to conduct surveys on Clarión and Socorro, with intensive cat-trapping taking place in 2007, but previous efforts have been poorly resourced (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J. Martínez-Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pigs and sheep were eradicated from Clarión in 2002, but attempted rabbit eradication failed. The installation of an automated playback system to assist the recolonisation of Clarión is under consideration (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Mexican Navy has reduced the sheep population to c.300 individuals (Martínez-Gómez and Jacobsen 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate introduced mammals on Socorro and Clarión. Determine whether a breeding population remains on San Benedicto. Assist the recolonisation of Clarión. Continue to monitor numbers on Socorro and at sea. Conduct high-level lobbying to raise awareness of the effect military operations may have on the species. <p></p>
106003938		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus auricularis</em> breeds around Cerro Evermann on Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. In 1981, there were an estimated c.1,000 pairs, with more found in the north of the island in 1990. In 1993-1999, the estimate was c.500 pairs (J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and fewer than 100 breeding pairs could be located in 2008 (J. Martínez-Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, 46,000 individuals (95% CI = 18,000-89,000), including 10,600 breeding birds, were estimated during at-sea censuses in 1980-1994 (Spear <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is clear that the breeding range has contracted, and threats indicate that numbers have declined. It formerly bred on Clarión and San Benedicto, but was almost certainly extinct on the former by 1988, and there has been no confirmed breeding on the latter since 1952. However, birds seen immediately north of San Benedicto in 1988 and 1990 provide some hope that a population remains. In the non-breeding season, it forages largely in waters over the continental shelf of Mexico (Spear <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003938		habitat	eng	On Socorro, it breeds in rocky burrows within dense bushy areas at the forest edge. Breeding is concentrated above 700 m (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but observations in 1981 suggested that the major breeding sites were at 500-650 m. Birds have been seen roosting in the naval base at Cape Rule (J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Clarión, it nested in burrows on grassy and bracken-covered slopes (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003938		population	eng	Surveys in 2008 found fewer than 100 breeding pairs on Socorro, suggesting that even accounting for immature and non-breeding birds the total global population may be as low as 250-999 mature individuals, and that previous at sea estimates (which were subject to a high degree of error) may have been too large (J. Martínez-Gomez <em>in litt.</em> 2008). This estimate equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003938		threats	eng	Cats were introduced to Socorro in the early 1970s, and more than 92% of cat scats above 500 m contain shearwater remains (J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reports that rats have recently colonised Socorro are not confirmed (J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sheep are destroying nesting habitat across some parts of its colonies, through overgrazing and soil compaction. Pigs were introduced to Clarión soon after 1979, and by 1988 numerous shearwater remains littered burrows destroyed by severe pig rooting. Sheep (introduced in c.1990) and rabbits have also destroyed habitat and nesting sites on Clarión. In 1952, a volcanic eruption obliterated the San Benedicto population. Potential developments on Socorro including the possibility of a new federal prison could destroy breeding habitat, increase light pollution and increase the risk of accidental introduction of other invasive species (Martínez-Gómez and Jacobsen 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Work to enlarge the airstrip in summer 2009 was believed to have caused the deaths of several birds which were attracted to lights during night-time construction works (J. Martínez-Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (Birdlife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003939		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the late 1970s, a cross-fostering experiment was carried out at Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge, in which 90 <em>P. newelli</em> eggs were placed in <em>P. pacificus</em> nests (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Subsequently, 30 young were fledged, and the four breeding pairs currently nesting there are believed to be descendents of fostered birds (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>.  Colony calls are being played and artificial burrows constructed to attract more nesting pairs to the refuge, where there is a low threat from collisions with artificial structures, and measures are being put in place to control alien species (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. There is an active programme to control lights, and disorientated fledglings are recovered and released, although few of these birds have subsequently been recovered (NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Lighting on some buildings has been designed to reduce collisions (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong>. A ruling brought by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2006, under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, has enforced a campaign running since 2005, in which all non-essential lights on Kaua`i are required to be turned off or shielded between 15 September and 15 December when young birds leave their nests (Appel 2006)<strong></strong>. The island's electricity company is helping by darkening all of its 3,000 street lights, and shielding or turning some of them off. The company has also fitted large balls to power-lines in an effort to reduce the number of birds that collide with the cables (Appel 2006)<strong></strong>. Significant improvements have been made in reducing light attraction and collision (T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>,  and 30,000 downed birds have been rescued through the Save Our Shearwaters (SOS) programme since the 1980s (Harrison 2009). In 2010, four environmental groups sued a hotel development, which was responsible for over one quarter of all downed birds as a result of light pollution. Several other suits have been brought for violations under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) (Harrison 2009).  However, there is still a considerable amount of developing and existing infrastructure that needs to be modified. It is not expected that the threat posed by artificial lighting will ever be eliminated (T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. There is an ongoing programme to identify new colonies suitable for terrestrial conservation efforts (predator control, habitat restoration), further refine ornithological radar and other monitoring methods (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reduce collisions with power-lines by making them more visible, burying them or moving them further inland where birds fly higher (Cooper and Day 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the affects of artificial lights on the species (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure lighting does not attract petrels (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control predators at a minimum of two colonies (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b, T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out further research into the causes of the decline on Kaua`i (Day <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Use radar observations to monitor population trends (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct long-term demographic studies (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop methods to monitor breeding success (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to retrieve grounded birds (T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to search for additional breeding areas and carry out further research into foraging range and feeding behaviour (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate studies into the potential effects of the tuna fishery on the species's populations, perhaps by modelling interactions (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop methods to evaluate the survival rates of released birds, and test alternative rehabilitation practices if required (NSWG 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003939		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus newelli</em> nests principally (90% of the population) (Hawkes 2009) on the mountains of Kaua`i, but small colonies exist on Moloka`I and Hawai`i and Lehua Islet (near Ni'ihau), and possibly also on O'ahu, Maui and Lana`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b, D. G. Ainley <em>in litt.</em> 1999, NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Evidence from radar observations indicate that it is present on Maui, possibly being most common in western Maui (Cooper and Day 2003)<strong></strong>. In 2004, a nesting site was observed in the upper Pi’ina’au headwater region in the Ko’olau Forest Reserve on East Maui due to activity vocalizing (Wood and Bily 2008). In the late 1970s, 90 eggs were transported from burrows inland to Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge and placed under incubating <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pacificus</span>. Of these, 67 fledged, and there are now four <span style="font-style: italic;">P. newelli</span> nests at the same site (Hawkes 2009). Estimates from pelagic surveys in the mid-1990s indicated c.84,000 birds (95% CI: 57,000-115, 000), from which the breeding population is estimated at 16,700-19,300 pairs (Spear <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. On Kaua`i, estimates range from the low thousands (King and Gould 1967)<strong></strong> to c.15,000 breeding pairs (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong></strong>. The species has undergone rapid historical declines and has been declining steadily on Kaua`i since 1992 (despite the fact that scattered colonies are regularly discovered [Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997a]<strong></strong>), with the most up-to-date information indicating a sudden drop in numbers (T. C. Telfer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Radar data from 13 sites indicate a significant (60-62%) decline between 1993 and 1999-2001 in numbers visiting Kaua`i (<strong></strong>Day<em> et al.</em> 2000, Day <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, while recoveries of stranded young birds showed a 72% decline between 1993 and 2001 (Day <em>et al.</em> 2003), and 75% decline from 1973 to 2008<strong></strong> (Harrison 2009). The decline appears to be associated with the impact of Hurricane Iniki in autumn 1992 (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>, although mitigation measures against the effects of lights may have contributed in part to the decline in stranded juveniles (Day <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. . In addition to declining numbers, studies show a breeding range contraction, with three colonies active from 1980-1994 found to be inactive in 2006-2007 (Troy and Holmes 2008). When compared with still active colonies, inactive ones were found to be lower in elevation and composed of less native vegetation, indicating in addition to light attraction and predation, breeding habitat modification by non-native plants may also play a role in its decline (Troy and Holmes 2008). Population models incorporating best estimates of breeding effort and success yielded a population decline of 3.2% annually (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 2001 in NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. When variables estimating the anthropogenic mortality suffered by the species (predation, light attraction, and collision) were included, these models predicted a population decline of 30-60% over 10 years (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 2001 in NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. As well as a decline in numbers, the breeding range may also be contracting potentially as a result of habitat modification by non-native plant species (Troy and Holmes 2008)<strong></strong>. Combining this with longer term declines owing to habitat loss, introduced predators, disorientation owing to urban lighting and collision with power-lines, the species is estimated to be declining at rates exceeding 50% over 47 years (three generations). <p></p>
106003939		habitat	eng	It breeds at 160-1,200 m, apparently exhibiting habitat segregation from the Wedge-tailed Shearwater <em>P. pacificus</em> which is confined to lower altitudes (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong>. It usually nests in burrows associated with the root structure of trees, including Ohia lehua <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>, and a dominant understory of densely matted uluhe fern <em>Dicranopteris linearis</em> in montane mesic forests on steep slopes (<strong></strong>Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b, T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, although a minority nest in tussock-grass (D. G. Ainley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Also recently found to nest in <em><u>Sadleria cyatheoides</u></em> dominated fern cover on East Maui (Wood and Bily 2008). Prior to the introduction of non-native predators, its nesting habitat was not restricted by the gradient of the slope (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong>. The breeding season begins in April, when birds return to prospect for nest sites and, following an exodus in late April, egg-laying in early June is highly synchronised (NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Pairs produce one egg, which is incubated for an average of 53-54 days, followed by a fledging period of 81-94 days (NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Most young fledge by November (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species's diet is not well known, although it is likely to consist of fish and squid (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It forages for hundreds of kilometres offshore, often in large, mixed species flocks associated with schools of large, predatory fish that drive prey species to the ocean surface (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. The age at first breeding is likely to be around six or seven years (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003939		population	eng	There is a pelagic estimate of 84,000 individuals (with a 95% confidence interval of 57,000-115,000) and from this the breeding population is estimated at 16,700-19,300 pairs.
106003939		threats	eng	On Kaua`i, hurricanes Iwa and Iniki devastated the forests in 1982 and 1992 (Pratt<em> et al.</em> 1994, Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong> and, since the latter, the species's population has been declining (T. C. Telfer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Given that a large proportion of the population breeds on Kaua`i, catastrophic events, like hurricanes, are a serious threat (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Subsequent and ongoing habitat modification by alien invasive plant species, such as strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, and feral pigs and goats, pose a significant threat (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005, Troy and Holmes 2008)<strong></strong>. This is likely to be a contributing factor at one known colony abandonment (T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The recent establishment of the two-spotted leafhopper <em>Sophonia rufifascia</em>, which feeds on <em>D. linearis</em>, could be a further problem (Cooper and Day 1998)<strong></strong>. Predation (e.g. by cats, rats, dogs, Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em> and pigs) is an additional threat (D. G. Ainley <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Predation of adults and juveniles by cats has been documented on Kaua`i, and rats are assumed to take eggs and chicks (NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Another potential predator, the small Asian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus</em>, has recently been discovered on Kaua`i (NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. An estimated 70 adults and 280 subadults each summer, and at least 340 fledglings each autumn, die as a result of collisions with power-lines and communications towers, or indirectly because of light attraction (Podolsky <em>et al.</em> 1998, Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Birds attracted by artificial lighting become exhausted and fall to the ground. Once on the ground, fledglings are unable to fly and many are killed by cars or cats and dogs, and some die from starvation or dehydration (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Between 1978 and 1981, more than 5,000 individuals were grounded on Kaua`i, and over 30,000 have been recovered since 1979 (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. On Kaua`i, approximately 1,500 fledglings are recovered annually after becoming grounded (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Nine communications towers have recently been constructed on the Hawaiian Islands without proper consultation, and these are now the subject of an ongoing lawsuit (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. A field of wind generators is planned for Lana`i (A. Wilson <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, where the species potentially breeds, although this is thought to be unlikely (T. Holmes <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. On Hawai`i, cinder mining has resulted in habitat loss at several colonies (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species may suffer indirect impacts from the over-fishing of tuna <em>Thunnus</em> species, which drive prey species to the ocean surface (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. This could have implications for the energetic costs of foraging, with potential impacts on chick growth and fledging success (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005, NSWG 2005)<strong></strong>. Fledglings have been found with pox lesions, suggesting that disease may be affecting breeding populations (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003940		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Natividad is a core area of the Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, where there is some active management. In 1997-1998, goats and sheep were removed with the cooperation of the local fishing community (Keitt 1998) Cats were controlled in 1998, and eradicated by 2002 (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Keitt <em>et al. </em>undated)<strong></strong>. In 1998-1999, introduced herbivores were eradicated from San Benito (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong>)</strong>. Guadalupe is designated as a biosphere reserve (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>, but there is little active management (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Prohibit future road construction on Natividad and remove rubbish (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Close the middle and west San Benitos Islands to visitors (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent future introductions of non-native predators and ensure all breeding islands remain cat-free (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003940		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus opisthomelas</em> breeds on six islands or small islets (including Guadalupe, San Benito and Natividad), off the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>. Recent censuses have found the population to be much larger than previously thought. On Natividad, the population was estimated at 76,000 pairs in 1997 (Keitt 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, compared with 5,000-10,000 pairs in 1991 (Everett and Anderson 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On San Benito, there are at least several thousand pairs (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but only 250-500 pairs were estimated in 1991 (Everett and Anderson 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Guadalupe, the population was estimated at 2,500 pairs in 1991 (Everett and Anderson 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The current world population is estimated between 55,000 and 95,000 pairs, with the vast majority of the world's population (&gt;95%) occurring on one island (Natividad) (B Keitt <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Natividad, there was a 15% decrease in habitat and a 13-20% loss in burrows between c.1970 and the mid-1990s, and the estimated population decline was 4% per annum (Keitt 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds disperse mainly to the north reaching central California, USA, and rarely British Columbia, Canada (Carboneras 1992d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106003940		habitat	eng	Breeding takes place in burrows in sandy soil and rocky crevices. Birds attend colonies for at least 10 months of the year, arriving nocturnally to reduce predation by Western Gulls <em>Larus occidentalis </em>(Keitt <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs are laid in March and hatching begins in early May (Keitt 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003940		population	eng	The total population is around 80,000 pairs, and therefore estimated here at 160,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 200,000-250,000 total individuals.
106003940		threats	eng	On Natividad, predation by c.20 feral cats reduced the population causing &gt;1,000 recorded deaths per month prior to their eradication which reduced mortality to less than 100 per month (Keitt <em>et al. </em>undated)<strong></strong>. Road construction and the establishment of a small fishing community have decreased breeding habitat and burrows (Keitt 1998)<strong></strong>, and trampled burrows and lights continue to cause some mortality (Keitt unpublished data)<strong></strong>. The Guadalupe population is thought to be predated by cats and dogs (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong>)</strong>. It is possible that cat predation has caused the extirpation, or at the very least, significantly reduced populations of this species from the main island of Guadalupe (Keitt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In 2003, remains were found on cliffs at the southwest edge of Guadalupe in excellent potential nesting habitat. It is not known if these observations indicate breeding or prospecting birds. The presence of habitat inaccessible to cats provides hope that this species may still breed in small remnant populations on the main island of Guadalupe (Keitt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Calls from prospecting adults in the cliffs of Melpomene Arroyo, indicate birds are readily available to recolonize the main island in the absence of cat predation (Keitt <em>et al.</em> 2006). On all islands, introduced herbivores (donkeys, goats, sheep and rabbits) have caused erosion (reducing soil for burrows), trampled burrows and destroyed vegetation, and rabbits may have displaced birds from burrows (Keitt 1998, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Gill-net fisheries may cause some mortality (Carboneras 1992d)<strong></strong>. Successful eradication of cats on Natividad has been demonstrated to dramatically lower breeding season mortality (Keitt <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003941		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Pacific rat Rattus exulans has been eradicated from at least 14 island colonies in the last 15 years, and rabbits, goats and cats have also been removed from islands. A long-term experiment to establish a new breeding colony by the translocation of chicks was commenced in 1991 (Bell 1995). Pairs have since established and breeding has occurred in consecutive breeding seasons since 1996 (Powlesland and Rickard 1992, B. D. and D. Bell in litt. 1999).<strong></strong>
106003941		distribution	eng	This species is a common and widespread New Zealand endemic. The larger colonies are found in the Three Kings group, Moturoa group, Motuharakeke (Cavalli Islands), north-west Chickens, Bream Islands, Mokohinau group, Channel Island, Mercury group, Ruamahuanui (Aldermen group) and Trio Islands and many other islands in Cook Strait. Fledglings, and possibly some adults, move towards the east and south of Australia in February, but most remain near to breeding colonies throughout the year (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Powlesland and Rickard 1992).
106003941		habitat	eng	This species breeds on small, vegetated islands and rock stacks. It nests in colonies in burrows under grass, scrub or coastal forest, but occasionally breeds in rocky cavities (Marchant and Higgins 1990). The breeding biology of the species is very poorly known, but laying is believed to begin in early September, and chicks fledge from late January (Powlesland and Rickard 1992). Birds feed mostly on fish and some coastal krill (Marchant and Higgins 1990).
106003941		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 100,000 individuals.
106003941		threats	eng	Historically, the species has been extirpated from several breeding locations by introduced feral cats, black rats Rattus rattus and brown rats R. norvegicus. The species presently survives mostly on mammal-free islands, but some support populations of Pacific rat R. exulans. These populations are relatively small, and the rats may be having a significant effect on breeding success. Saddle Island supports a R. rattus population. The species is frequently caught on hand and reel-lines in inshore waters, but the impact of this on populations is unknown. Potential threats also include inshore set netting and over-harvesting of inshore fish species.
106003942		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On-going control of browsing animals has resulted in a substantial improvement in vegetation cover (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, and a decrease in the number of burrows destroyed by trampling. A long-term project to monitor threats, and another to study population dynamics, have been established, and are on-going (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Pigs are controlled on the colony boundaries (Cuthbert 1999)<strong></strong>. A third population is being established on the Kaikoura Peninsula: 10 fledglings were transferred there in 2005, 80 in 2006, c.100 in 2007 and 100 in 2008 (Anon 2007, Ombler 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the population every five years using burrow plots and photopoints. Monitor focal burrows annually and correlate results with climatic and marine fluctuations. Commence nest protection if present research indicates predation is having a significant effect. Assess the impact of local fisheries on food availability (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Re-establish colonies at accessible sites along the flight path (Cuthbert 1999)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106003942		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus huttoni</em> breeds in the Seaward Kaikoura Range, north-east South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population comprises two main colonies (Kowhai Valley and Shearwater Stream), sited 10-18 km inland. These were estimated to consist of c.125,000 and c.10,000 pairs (Sherley 1992)<strong></strong>, but reworking of the original data indicated c.94,000 pairs is more accurate (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. More recently Sommer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) reported 106,000 pairs at Kowhai and 8,000 pairs at Shearwater Stream. The  total population is estimated to number 300,000-350,000 individuals (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. Numbers and distribution within the Kaikoura Ranges have decreased, with 8 of 10 known colonies having been extirpated this century (Cuthbert 1999)<strong></strong>. Six out of eight colonies discovered in the high Kaikoura mountains were extirpated by pigs, and feral pigs remain a potential threat the remaining two colonies (Harrow 2009). Since the rapid extirpation of colonies was detected, work has been underway to establish a third population on the Kaikoura peninsula through the translocation of 290 chicks (Anon 2007, Ombler 2010), and predator-proof fencing was introduced in 2010<strong></strong>. Individuals have been returning since 2008 (Ombler 2010). For many years this species has been considered to be in a long-term decline (Sherley 1992, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, but a major study has indicated that the population was stable from at least 1990-2000 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Recent evidence even points to a long-term increase in the population for the Kowhai Valley, at an annual rate of 1.7% over the last 20 years, based on burrow density (Sommer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In the non-breeding season birds migrate to waters off southern, western and north-western Australia (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003942		habitat	eng	It digs its burrows on gentle to steep mountain slopes at 1,200-1,800 m, under tussock grass or low alpine scrubland (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. First breeding is thought to occur at 4-6 years of age. It feeds mostly on small fish and krill (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Birds gather food for chicks as far south as the Otago Peninsula and often fish around Banks Peninsula bays (Harrow 2009). Kapiti Island and Cook Strait are common feeding areas in the north and they have been recorded near the Chatham Islands (Harrow 2009). Frequently diving to feed at c.25 m, they have been recorded as deep as 36.6 m (Harrow 2009). Burrow occupancy levels in both original colonies in 2006/2007 was found to be similar to the 1990s. In contrast, breeding success in both main colonies was thought to be due to poor at-sea feeding conditions, rather than increases in stoat predation, due to a lack of evidence pointing to the latter (Sommer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). Annual adult survival, breeding success, and burrow occupancy averaged 93%, 47% and 71%, respectively (Sommer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Low levels of breeding success, particularly at Shearwater Stream colony, point to the possibility of the colony levels being maintained by immigration from the more successful Kowhai Valley colony (Sommer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<p></p>
106003942		population	eng	Cuthbert and Davis (2002) estimated 106,000 breeding pairs, and Brooke (2004) estimated a total population of 300,000-350,000 individuals.
106003942		threats	eng	Introduced stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em> were thought to be the primary cause of decline (Sherley 1992, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Long-term research, however, has indicated that only a very small proportion of adults is taken, and breeding success is not significantly affected (Cuthbert 1999, Cuthbert and Davis 2002)<strong></strong>. A more likely cause of current poor breeding success, and a potential threat to future population stability, is the availability of high quality prey at sea (Sommer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Modelling has demonstrated that colonies are most vulnerable to the loss of breeding adults and therefore maintaining high survivorship is paramount (Cuthbert <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Habitat destruction and predation by feral pigs, along with heavy browsing by a range of introduced herbivores may have been the cause of the complete destruction of some subcolonies by erosion (Sherley 1992, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Feral pigs and cats are considered the greatest potential threat, but are normally absent from the two remaining colonies (Cuthbert 1999, 2002; Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, although it is likely that predation and habitat destruction by feral pigs may have been the key factor in the range contraction of the species in the past (Sommer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Heavy snowfall can crush burrows, and late snow cover can delay or prevent breeding. Birds are sometimes caught in set-nets and inshore longliners, and as many as 80 have been reported to be caught in a single net (Harrow 2009). The impact of long-term over-harvesting of some inshore fish species may be severe (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its altitudinal distribution falls entirely within 2,000 m of the highest mountain top within its range (2,885 m) (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003943		distribution	eng	Audubon's Shearwater ranges across the Indian Ocean as far north as the Arabian Sea, throughout the northeast and central Pacific (including the Galapagos Islands), and in western Atlantic including the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003943		habitat	eng	This species breeds on oceanic islands, coral atolls and rocky offshore islets, mainly on cliffs and earthy slopes. Its diet comprises of mainly fish, squid and crustaceans which it obtains by pursuit-diving, pursuit-plunging, pattering and surface-seizing. This species is occasionally seen attending small fishing vessels (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003943		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 500,000 individuals.
106003944		distribution	eng	The Little Shearwater is found throughout the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere south of the Tropic of Capricorn, with the exception of the south-east coast of South America. It is also found of the north-west coast of Africa, breeding on <B>Cape Verde</B>, the Azores, <B>Portugal</B> and the Canary Islands, <B>Spain<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003944		habitat	eng	This marine species is found over warm tropical and subtropical waters, more frequently on inshore wanters then pelagic. Squid, fish and crustaceans have all been recorded in its diet. It breeds mostly during the local summer in colonies on offshore or oceanic islands, on grassy slopes or amongst rocks up to 15 km inland. Most populations are considered fairly sedentary with some dispersal (mainly immature individuals) (del Hoyo et al. 1992)
106003944		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number over 900,000 individuals.
106003947		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the timing of breeding seasons and best survey techniques at Kolombangara. Survey all mountainous islands within its range at dawn and dusk for breeding birds. Survey numbers at sea off Bougainville. Monitor numbers off Kolombangara. Assess the presence of introduced mammals in suspected breeding grounds. Investigate breeding grounds for dead birds and other evidence of predation. If appropriate, initiate control measures against introduced mammalian predators.  <p></p>
106003947		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus heinrothi</em> is known from the Bismarck Archipelago and the seas around Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and Kolombangara in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> (Coates 1985, 1990, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995). The few historic specimens are from Watom near New Britain suggesting breeding there, but there have been no recent records from this island and only a few records of up to 20 birds in the Bismarck seas, ranging to Madang on the north coast of New Guinea (Coates 1985, 1990, Bailey 1992, Clay 1994, Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two individuals, one recently fledged, caught inland on Bougainville indicate breeding there (Hadden 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This is supported by a number of recent observations in the seas around Bougainville, including one flock of 250 birds between Buka and Kieta (Coates 1985, 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a recent sighting of 11 birds off Central Bougainville. It undoubtedly breeds on Kolombangara, where small groups form in the evening offshore before flying inland (P. Scofield <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gibbs 1996, Onley and Scofield 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It presumably also breeds on the nearby island of Rendova where one bird was seen flying out of the mountains at dawn (M. Iles verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is believed to be a relatively sedentary species and its total population may not be above a few hundred. The population trends are unclear; the only suggestion of any decline is the absence of recent records around Watom.. <p></p>
106003947		habitat	eng	The only observations of this species ashore, and a comparison with closely-related species, suggest that it breeds in high mountains. <p></p>
106003947		population	eng	The population size is estimated not to be above a few hundred by BirdLife International (2000), based on analyses of recent records and surveys. It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals here, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106003947		threats	eng	Although it is likely to breed on high, inaccessible mountains, all these islands have introduced rats, cats and dogs. Rats have been seen to at least 900 m on Kolombangara and are a potential threat to this burrow-nesting species (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, although cats are perhaps a greater threat (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The logging of accessible areas of its suspected nesting habitats is a potential long-term threat (C. Collins<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
106003948		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All colonies are in reserves but only La Vieja has trained guards (Jahncke <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. There have been searches for additional colonies in Chile (Vilina 1992)<strong></strong>. In December 2009, 22 guano islands, 11 peninsulas (guano reserves) and adjacent waters, covering about 140,000 ha including 3 km offshore, were added to Peru’s national protected area system (Harrison 2009).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Address the complex issue of guano extraction (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Provide artificial burrows (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control predators on breeding islands. Survey islands close to Corcovado Island, Peru with similar characterisitics for breeding sites (Valverde 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish permanent monitoring of the largest colony at La Vieja Island (García-Godos and Goya 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106003948		distribution	eng	<em>Pelecanoides garnotii</em> formerly bred on offshore islands from Isla Lobos de Tierra, <strong>Peru</strong>, to Isla Chiloé, <strong>Chile</strong>. It was numerous (e.g. c.100,000 pairs, and perhaps more, on Isla Chañaral, Chile, in 1938 [Vilina 1992]<strong></strong>), but has declined significantly. In Peru, there were c.12,000-13,000 pairs on San Gallán and La Vieja Islands in 1995-1996 (Jahncke and Goya 1998)<strong></strong>. This is considerably higher than the c.1,500 individuals estimated in the early 1990s, probably because of improved information rather than an actual increase. In May-Aug 2010 a new survey of La Vieja Islands documented 102,343 active nests (c. 95% on La Vieja), of which 36,450 were occupied, indicating at least a three-fold increase in pairs since 1996, and possibly significantly more (C. Zavalaga <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). Two small colonies were found on Corcovado Island, Peru in 2005, extending the current breeding distriubtion c.700 km north of La Vieja, its main breeding centre (Valverde 2006)<strong></strong>. A colony may also be present again on the Lobos de Afuera Islands where two individuals were sighted in 2003 and 2004 (Figueroa and Stucchi 2008)<strong></strong>. In Chile, 220 nests were found on Isla Pan de Azúcar in the late 1980s, where 500+ were seen offshore in November 1993 (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and 300 nests were reported on Isla Choros in the late 1980s, which had increased to an estimated 1,550 active nests in 2001-2003 (<strong></strong>Simeone <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. It has been recorded throughout the year near Isla Chañaral, and may still breed there or on small islands to the south (Vilina 1992)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003948		habitat	eng	It excavates deep burrows in thick guano for nesting, but may also burrow in sandy soils or use natural rock-crevices. Breeding has been recorded throughout the year (Riveros-Salcedo and Jahncke Aparicio 1990, Jahncke and Goya 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with least activity in November. There are two breeding periods, with some evidence that individual birds breed twice annually (Riveros-Salcedo and Jahncke Aparicio 1990, Jahncke and Goya 1998, M. de L. Brooke verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it occurs close to breeding islands in the rich upwelling waters of the Humboldt Current. In Peru, it feeds, even in heavily fished areas, on small crustaceans and small fish (mostly larvae) (Jahncke <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At La Vieja Island, Peru, Peruvian anchovy <em>Engraulis ringens </em>(33.9%), the small krill <em>Euphausia mucronata</em> (26.8%) and squat lobster <em>Pleuroncodes monodon </em>(24.3%) were the most important prey species (García-Godos and Goya 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. High monthly variability in the main prey suggests an opportunistic feeding behaviour associated with prey avaliability (García-Godos and Goya 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p>
106003948		population	eng	In Peru, there were c.12,000-13,000 pairs on San Gallán and La Vieja Islands in 1995-1996; these numbers are supplemented by additional, though small, colonies off Chile.
106003948		threats	eng	Guano extraction is probably responsible for the massive historical declines. La Vieja is still harvested every 5-7 years, when the species is also exploited for food, but extraction and hunting are probably most significant on San Gallán (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been extirpated by introduced predators on Chañaral (foxes) (Vilina 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and probably San Lorenzo and El Frontón (rats and cats) (Jahncke <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are dogs on San Gallán and possibly rats on the Chilean breeding islands. Such predators probably prevent recolonisations. Heavy commercial fishing reduces food availability and causes mortality through incidental bycatch. These threats magnify the detrimental effects of natural predation and the increasingly frequent El Niño Southern Oscillation. At Choros, fishermen hunted European rabbits <em>Oryctolagus cunniculus</em>, usually by chasing them, potentially damaging burrows (<strong></strong>Simeone <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance from tourism and illegal landings is a problem at Choros (<strong></strong>Simeone <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003949		distribution	eng	The Magellanic Diving-petrel is found on the southern tip of South America, from south-central <B>Chile</B> to the extreme south of <B>Argentina<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003949		habitat	eng	This species is found mainly over inshore and offshore waters, feeding by diving under water both from the surface and the air. Breeding begins in November or December in colonies, mostly on small inshore islands in channels and fjords. It has been recorded up to 128 km from land (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992).
106003949		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of individuals.
106003950		distribution	eng	The South Georgia Diving-Petrel has a circumpolar distribution, breeding on <B>South Georgia</B> (<B>Georgias del Sur</B>) in the south Atlantic and on the Prince Edward Islands (<B>South Africa</B>), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<B>French Overseas Territories</B>) and Heard Island (<B>Australia</B>) in the southern Indian Ocean. In <B>New Zealand</B>, it breeds on Codfish Island (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003950		habitat	eng	This marine species is found offshore or in cool pelagic waters. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans, particularly krill, but will also feed on some small fish and young cephalopods. Prey are caught under water in a pursuit-dive or by surface-seizing. It breeds between October and February in colonies on oceanic islands amongst scree or volcanic ash above the tree line, or under sand dunes in areas of relatively flat ground. It nests in burrows with an end chamber. Little is known about its movements but it is presumably sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003950		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 15,000,000 individuals.
106003951		distribution	eng	The Common Diving-petrel has discrete ranges surrounding oceanic islands in the south Atlantic at <B>South Georgia</B> (<B>Georgias del Sur</B>), the <B>Falkland Islands</B> (<B>Islas Malvinas</B>), Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island (<B>St Helena to UK</B>), in the south Indian Ocean, south and east of <B>New Zealand </B>(e.g. Antipodes Islands), and also on New Zealand's north island and Tasmania (<B>Australia</B>). Very little is known of their range when not breeding, but they are thought to be fairy sedentary, remaining in coastal waters adjacant to colonies (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003951		habitat	eng	This species can normally occurs over inshore waters but can also be found over offshore waters. Diet comprises mainly of planktonic crustaceans which are caught under water in pursuit-diving either from the surface or after plunging. Its breeding season is variable according to locality, forming colonies with up to 1500 individuals in burrows on steep slopes and also on flat ground of oceanic islands. Colonies are normally coastal, but may occur well inland (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003951		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 16,000,000 individuals.
106003952		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies are being undertaken at South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), the Prince Edward Islands, Crozet, Kerguelen and Macquarie. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has introduced measures which have reduced bycatch of albatrosses around South Georgia by over 99%. Recently, other Regional Fisheries Management Organisations, including the tuna commissions, have taken initial steps to reduce seabird bycatch rates. The Prince Edward Islands are a special nature reserve and Macquarie is a World Heritage Site. Large parts of the breeding colonies on the Crozet and Kerguelen Islands are now part of a Nature Reserve. On Macquarie, cats have been eradicated (Quin 2008) and an operation targeting rabbits, rats, and mice commenced in winter 2010.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue population monitoring programs at all sites to allow assessment of population trends, survival and production rates. Continue tracking studies to determine spatial and temporal overlap with fisheries for populations and life stages where these data do not exist. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations.   <p></p>
106003952		distribution	eng	<em>Diomedea exulans</em> breeds on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) (c. 25% of the global breeding population), Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>) (c. 40% of the global population), Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) (approximately 10% of the global population) and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>) (approximately four pairs breeding per year), with a total global population of c. 6,100 pairs breeding in any given year <em></em><strong></strong>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. At South Georgia, the population declined by 1.8% per annum between 1984 and 2004 (Poncet <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The population on Crozet declined by 54% between 1970 - 1986. From the mid 1980s to late 1990s, the Crozet, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands populations appeared to be stable or increasing (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997, Weimerskirch and Jouventin 1998, Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2003, Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, but declines have recently been detected (P. Ryan <em>in litt </em>2008, H. Weimerskirch <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Overall declines are estimated to exceed 30% over 70 years. Recovery is believed to be impeded by a decline in recruitment rate  (Weimerskirch <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Non-breeding and juvenile birds remain north of 50°S between subantarctic and subtropical waters with a significant proportion crossing the Indian Ocean to wintering grounds around the southern and eastern coast of Australia <em></em><strong></strong>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. A significant proportion of the Crozet and Kerguelen populations disperse into the Pacific and the western coast of South America (H. Weimerskirch <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003952		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> <em>Diomedea exulans </em>is a biennial breeding species, although about 30% of successful and 35% of failed breeders (on average) defer breeding beyond the expected year. Adults return to colonies in November, and eggs are laid over a period of 5 weeks during December and January. Most eggs hatch in March, and chicks fledge in December. Birds usually return to colonies when 5-7 years old, though can return when as young as 3 years old. Birds can start breeding as young as 7 or 8 years old (<strong></strong>ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Wandering Albatross typically forages in oceanic waters, however considerable time is spent over shelf areas during certain stages of the breeding season (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite tracking has revealed that juvenile birds tend to forage further north than adults (Weimerskirch <em>et al. </em>2006, British Antarctic Survey unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, bringing them into greater overlap with longline tuna fleets which may be driving falls in recruitment rates (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Females may also be at greater risk of being caught in tuna fisheries since they tend to forage further north than males (Nel <em>et al.</em> 2002, <strong></strong>Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 2003, Pinaud and Weimerskirch 2007)<strong> </strong>and show lower survival (Xavier <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is mostly a diurnal breeder, taking most prey by surface-seizing (<strong></strong>ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Wandering Albatross nests in open or patchy vegetation near exposed ridges or hillocks (Carboneras 1992b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Adults feed at sea mainly on cephalopods and fish, often following ships and feeding on offal and galley refuse (Carboneras 1992b, Cherel and Klages 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides </em>is the primary fish species in the diet, potentially obtained as discarded offal (<strong></strong>ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>This wide ranging species has a circumpolar distribution, and both breeding and non-breeding birds have very large foraging ranges. Satellite tracking data indicate that breeding birds forage at very long distances from colonies (up to 4,000 km) and that foraging strategies change throughout the breeding season (<strong></strong>ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recent fledgling covered 6,590km in 28 days after leaving the colony on Marion Island (Clokie 2007).<p></p>
106003952		population	eng	In 1998, the total annual breeding population was estimated at 8,500 pairs, equivalent to c.28,000 mature individuals (Gales 1998). However, current estimates are 1,553 pairs on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) (Poncet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), 1,800 pairs on the Prince Edward Island (Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), c.2,056 pairs on Marion Island (R. Crawford<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2010), c.340 pairs on Iles Crozet (CNRS Chinzè Monitoring Database 2010), c.354 pairs in Iles Kerguelen (CNRS Chinzè Monitoring Database 2011), and 4 pairs on Macquarie Island (DPIWPE 2010, unpublished data), making a total of c. 6,107 annual breeding pairs. Using the same ratio as Gales (1998) for estimating the number of mature individuals, this would equate to approximately 20,100 mature individuals.<br/><p></p> <p></p>
106003952		threats	eng	The observed decline of this species has been shown to be driven largely by incidental catch in fisheries, which has reduced adult survival and juvenile recruitment (Rolland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The vast foraging range means that birds encounter many different longline fleets (<strong></strong>BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. Fisheries were responsible for a 54% decrease in numbers on the Crozet Islands between 1970 and 1986 (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. The South Georgia population disperses throughout the Southern Ocean during the nonbreeding season, although may be most at risk from longline fisheries operating in the south-west Atlantic throughout the year, whereas the Crozet and Prince Edward Island populations are most vulnerable to pelagic longline fishing in the Indian Ocean and Australian region (Weimerskirch 1998, Nel <em>et al. </em>2002c)<strong></strong>. The apparent recovery of populations from the Crozet and Prince Edward Islands during the early 1990s was ascribed to reduced fishing effort and relocation of fisheries away from foraging grounds, however increased effort in the late 1990s at various different localities may once again be impacting these populations (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997, Nel <em>et al. </em>2002b)<strong></strong>, as even low bycatch rates will affect the species due to the small population size (<strong></strong>ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. The Macquarie population was harvested extensively by sealers and, although it recovered in the early 20th century, experienced subsequent declines that were also attributed to longline fisheries (de la Mare and Kerry 1994)<strong></strong>. Chicks are vulnerable to the accumulation of anthropogenic debris and fishing hooks (Nel and Nel 1999)<strong></strong>. In 2007 a survey of Wandering Albatross chicks on Bird Island revealed that half had ingested fishing hooks (British Antarctic Survey unpublished data)<strong></strong>. On Kerguelen, in some years certain colonies have complete breeding failure owing to predation of young chicks by cats (H. Weimerskirch <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. There has been extensive habitat loss and degradation at South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) due to the activities of Antarctic fur seals <em>Arctocephalus gazella </em><strong></strong>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003953		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. All birds are banded and the population is censused and monitored every year (Micol and Jouventin 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and some birds have been fitted with satellite transmitters. In 1987 the number of cattle was reduced and a fence erected to seal off part of the island. In 1992 a second fence was erected with the aim of providing complete protection for the high plateau from possible incursions by cattle (Micol and Jouventin 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A resolution in June 2008 from the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission requiring long-line vessels to use preventative measures to avoid by-catch of seabirds may be important for this species (<strong></strong>Hirschfeld 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A national plan of action for the species is being prepared which should commence in 2011 (H. Weimerskirch <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prevent the spread of disease. Continue detailed monitoring of the population. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP,  FAO and appropriate Regional Fisheries Management Organisations. <p></p>
106003953		distribution	eng	<em>Diomedea amsterdamensis</em> breeds on the Plateau des Tourbières on Amsterdam Island (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) in the southern Indian Ocean. It has a total population of c.170 birds including 80 mature individuals, with c.26 pairs breeding annually, showing an increase since 1984, when the first census was carried out (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997, <strong></strong>Inchausti and Weimerskirch 2001, H. Weimerskirch <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2010, Rains <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. The population was probably formerly larger when its range was more extensive over the slopes of the island (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Satellite tracking has recently shown that adult birds range from the coast of eastern South Africa to the south of western Australia in non-breeding years (<strong></strong>Hirschfeld 2008)<strong></strong>, and possible sightings have been reported from Australia (Environment Australia 1999)<strong></strong> and New Zealand (<strong></strong>Carboneras 1992b)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003953		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Breeding is biennial (when successful) and is restricted to the central plateau of the island at 500-600 m, where only one breeding group is known. Pair-bonds are lifelong, and breeding begins in February (<strong></strong>Hirschfeld 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most eggs are laid from late February to March, and chicks fledge in January-February the following year (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Immature birds begin to return to breeding colonies between four and seven years after fledging but do not begin to breed until they are nine years of age (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its exact diet is unknown, but probably consists of fish, squid and crustaceans (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1989, Jouventin 1994b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>During the breeding season, birds forage both around Amsterdam Island and up to 2,200 km away in subtropical waters (H. Weimerskirch unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003953		population	eng	The population on Amsterdam Island was estimated at c.170 birds in total, including 80 mature individuals, with c.26 pairs breeding annually (Rains <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Between 2001 and 2007 there were c.24-31 pairs breeding annually (Rivalan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), so the population is now likely to be around 100 mature individuals for this biennially breeding species.
106003953		threats	eng	Degradation of breeding sites by introduced cattle has decreased the species's range and population across the island (<strong></strong>Inchausti and Weimerskirch 2001)<strong></strong>. Human disturbance is presumably also to blame (Jouventin 1994b)<strong></strong>. Introduced predators are a major threat, particularly feral cats (<strong></strong>Inchausti and Weimerskirch 2001)<strong></strong>. Interactions with longline fisheries around the island in the 1970s and early 1980s could also have contributed to a decline in the population (<strong></strong>Inchausti and Weimerskirch 2001)<strong></strong>. Today the population is threatened primarily by the potential spread of diseases (avian cholera and <em>Erysipelothrix rhusiopathidae</em>) that affect the Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross <em>Thalassarche carteri</em> population 3 km from the colony (Weimerskirch 2004). Infection risks are very high and increased chick mortality over recent years suggests the population is already affected (Weimerskirch submitted)<strong></strong>. The foraging range of the species overlaps with longline fishing operations targeting tropical tuna species, so bycatch may also still be a threat (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>, and a recent analysis has suggested that bycatch levels exceeding six individuals per year would be enough to cause a potentially irreversible population decline (Rivalan <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003954		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Cattle and sheep have been removed from Campbell, and cattle, rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby. Rats were eradicated from Campbell in 2001, and an expedition in 1993 found no evidence of them persisting (P. Moore <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Almost 36,000 birds have been banded on Campbell since the 1940s, but since 2006 bands are being removed, except in two study colonies. Two study areas on Campbell were monitored annually in the 1990s (P. Moore <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves and, in 1998, were declared a World Heritage Site.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the Campbell and Enderby colonies at 10-year intervals. Monitor vegetation change on Campbell and Enderby and assess its effect on habitat availability. Eradicate pigs and cats from Auckland Island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003954		distribution	eng	<em>Diomedea epomophora</em> breeds on Campbell Island (99% of the total population), on Adams, Enderby and Auckland Islands (Auckland Islands group), and on Taiaroa Head (Otago Peninsula, South Island), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The Campbell population was estimated at 7,800 breeding pairs in 2004-2008 (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2001, 69 pairs were present on Enderby (Childerhouse <em> et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, and c.20 breed on Auckland and Adams Islands combined (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong>. No pure-bred <em>D. epomophora</em> are present at Taiaroa Head (Heather and Robertson 1997, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. The species circumnavigates the Southern Ocean after breeding (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong>, but is most commonly recorded in New Zealand and South American waters (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. Breeding adults forage from the South Island southwards to the Campbell Plateau (Waugh <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong> and north to the Chatham Rise. Non-breeding birds forage on the west and east coast of South America (Moore and Bettany 2005)<strong></strong>, generally between 30-55°S (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Whole island censuses on Campbell Island in 1994-1995 and study plot censuses in 1996-1997 indicate that the population is likely to be stable, or possibly increasing (Moore <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003954		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Breeding is biennial if a chick is successfully reared. Birds return to colonies in October and eggs are laid from late November to late December. Chicks hatch from early February to early March, and fledge in early October to early December. Age of first return to colonies is at least 5 years and the age of first breeding is thought to be around 6-12 years old (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests on tussock grassland slopes, ridges, and plateaus (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds primarily on squid and fish, supplemented by salps, crustacea and carrion (Imber 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>During incubation, breeding birds from Campbell Island foraged mostly within 1,250 km of the colonies over shallow (&lt;1500 m deep) shelf and shelf break waters of the Campbell Plateau north to southern New Zealand and over the Chatham Rise, commuting directly to locally productive sites (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003954		population	eng	The Campbell population is estimated at 7,855 breeding pairs between 2004-2008 (ACAP 2009). In 2001, 69 pairs were present on Enderby (Childerhouse <em>et al. </em>2003), and c.20 breed on Auckland and Adams Islands combined (Croxall and Gales 1998). An estimate of c7,900 annual breeding pairs is equivalent to c.27,200 mature individuals, based on the ratio used by Croxall and Gales (1998).<br/><p></p> <p></p>
106003954		threats	eng	The population is thought to be recovering after human predation, farming and introduced mammals caused reductions in all populations until the 1930s, extirpating the Enderby and Auckland Islands populations by the late 1800s (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pigs and cats still take eggs and chicks on Auckland Island. On Campbell and Enderby <em>Dracophyllum</em> scrub is spreading, possibly due to climatic warming, and may reduce breeding habitat. A possible decrease in the population during the 1970s - early 1980s coincided with the peak in long-line fishing in the New Zealand region (Moore and Bettany 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Southern Royal Albatross are caught by longliners and trawlers in Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans, and off the east and west coasts of South America (Taylor 2000, Moore and Bettany 2005, ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Although reported bycatch numbers of <em>D. epomophora</em> in New Zealand fisheries have been relatively low, with 14 individuals observed killed in surface longlines and trawls between 1998 and 2004, observer coverage in this period was less than 5% of total fishing effort. Similarly, mortalities observed in the Argentine longline fleet along the Patagonian Shelf between 1999 and 2001 comprised on average 1.4% (0-6.1%) of the 901 seabirds caught in total. However, the estimated annual seabird bycatch in this fishery may be in the thousands (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003955		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Española is part of the Galápagos National Park and Marine Reserve. Industrial, but not artisanal, longlining is prohibited in the Galápagos Marine Reserve (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site. Española is well protected and has no alien fauna (goats having been eradicated in 1978 [Anderson and Cruz 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and tourism is well regulated (Carboneras 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A tortoise breeding programme has released over 2,000 tortoises on the island in the last 30 years; as the only native herbivore these animals may play a key role in vegetation control and maintaining suitable habitat for breeding albatrosses (<strong></strong>Jahncke 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Isla de la Plata is part of Machalilla National Park, but is insufficiently protected (Carboneras 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels organised workshops in Peru and Ecuador in 2007 and 2008 to develop an Action Plan for Waved Albatross. There are proposals to protect more marine key biodiversity areas within the Galápagos Marine Reserve by amending the existing marine zoning scheme to reduce the impact from fishing (<strong></strong>Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the breeding population regularly and establish a baseline to ascertain trends. Further evaluate the threat of incidental and deliberate take in fisheries within the species's range.  Adopt appropriate interim techniques to minimise bycatch. Assess the suitability of Isla de la Plata for breeding (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve protection for the Isla de la Plata colony.   <p></p>
106003955		distribution	eng	<em>Phoebastria irrorata</em> breeds on south Española Island in the Galápagos Islands, and (perhaps) on Isla de la Plata off Manabí province, <strong>Ecuador </strong>(Croxall and Gales 1998)<sup></sup>. Breeding adults travel to the Peruvian upwelling region to feed (Anderson and Cruz 1998, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in the non-breeding season birds move mainly east and south-east into the waters of the Ecuadorian and Peruvian continental shelf (Tickell 1996, Anderson and Cruz 1998, BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rarely seen north of the equator, they are occasionally sighted off the coasts of Columbia and Panama (Jahncke 2007). On Española, the overall breeding population was considered to have been stable until recently. It was estimated at c.12,000 pairs in 1970-1971 (Harris 1973)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 15,600-18,200 pairs in 1994 (Croxall and Gales 1998, Douglas 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and at least 34,694 adults in 2001 (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although there has not been a global population estimate since 2001, surveys at two principal breeding sites on Española in 2007 demonstrated a decrease in the number of breeding birds since 2001, an overall population decrease (including non-breeders) at these sites since 1994 (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding distribution has changed owing in part to vegetation regrowth following the eradication of goats (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding no longer occurs at two inland sites, perhaps through redistribution to the coast (Anderson and Cruz 1998, Douglas 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Isla de la Plata, there are probably fewer than 10-20 pairs (Anderson and Cruz 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and long-term data are too sketchy to assess population trends (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2001, three adults were seen there with no evidence of breeding and a further 11 non-breeding adults were found on Isla Genovesa (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent evidence has shown a 2-3% reduction in annual adult survival compared with that in the 1960s, which is thought to have driven recent dramatic declines in the breeding population (Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2006, J. Croxall <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analysis of birds caught as intentional and incidental take in inshore fisheries has revealed that a disproportionate number of males are taken, which will result in further decreases to the effective population size given that this species has obligate bi-parental care (Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Even if immediate action was taken to curb adult mortality the population will continue to decline for a decade or so until the current cohort of juveniles reach breeding age (J. Croxall <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding sites may be constrained by the extent and location of take-off points, which are in turn limited by dense vegetation (Gibbs and Woltz 2010).<p></p>
106003955		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds annually, arriving at colonies in late March (with  males arriving earlier than females, and older birds earlier than  younger birds) (Jahncke 2007)&#160; and laying from mid-April to late June.  Chicks fledge between late December and early January. The are  considered annual breeders, even though some pairs defer breeding  (Jahncke 2007). Chicks fledge between late December and early January. The age of first breeding is at four-six years of age, but individuals return to colonies, typically late in the season, from two years of age (Hirschfeld 2008, ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests on sparsely vegetated areas with lava surrounded by boulders (Harris 1973)<strong></strong> but also, more recently, in thick scrub vegetation (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on squid, fish and crustaceans (Harris 1973)<strong></strong>, but recent studies have shown that scavenging food items that other species (such as cetaceans and boobies) have disgorged may be an important feeding strategy (Merlen 1996, Anderson and Cruz 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003955		population	eng	On Española, the breeding population was estimated at c.12,000 pairs in 1970-1971, 15,600-18,200 pairs in 1994 and at least 34,694 adults in 2001. On Isla de la Plata, there are probably fewer than 10-20 pairs.
106003955		threats	eng	Recent studies indicate lower adult annual survival during 1995-2005 than estimates from the 1960s as the species is suffering mortality within some inshore fisheries through intentional harvesting for human consumption and incidental bycatch (Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This is supported by reports which suggest that the level of harvesting by fishers to supply food and feather markets has increased dramatically in recent years (G. Allport <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Around the Galápagos Islands, the transition from traditional to more modern fishing techniques such as longlining may pose a threat, as there is recent evidence of an increasing propensity for the species to follow fishing vessels (Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Longline fishing operations along the Peruvian and Ecuadorian coasts may therefore also threaten the species (Guillén <em>et al.</em> 2000, H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analysis of birds caught as intentional and incidental take in inshore fisheries has revealed a disproportionate number of males are taken, and this appears to be at least partly responsible for a female-biased sex ratio (1.188 females per male) in adults (Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The tiny population on Isla de la Plata is threatened from nest-predation by rats and cats, as well as illegal collection of eggs and young (Carboneras 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Movement of eggs by parents (frequently resulting in death of the egg) and mass desertions of eggs are yet to be fully explained (Anderson and Cruz 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An oiled albatross was found on Española during 2001 (Anderson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has shown susceptibility to El Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) events, perhaps owing to increased adult mortality or increased negative interactions with fisheries under these conditions (Awkerman <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plastic ingestion appears to be a relatively minor threat in comparison with some other albatrosses (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increased abundance of mosquitoes during warm El Niño events has caused mass abandonment of eggs in the past (<strong></strong>Jahncke 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.Two hillside colonies disappeared entirely by 1994 due to dense vegetation, and overall declines in population in other inland areas have also been attributed to habitat loss associated with vegetation regrowth since goats were eradicated in 1978 (Jahncke 2007).<p></p>
106003956		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan, Canada and the USA. A draft recovery plan has been developed (USFWS 2005)<strong></strong>. Mitigation measures have been established in the Alaska demersal longline fishery and in the Hawaii-based pelagic longline fishery (NOAA 2008)<strong></strong>. Streamer lines (both heavy weight lines for large boats and lightweight lines for smaller vessels) have been designed to keep birds from longline hooks as they are set, and these are being distributed free to the Alaskan longline fleet (USFWS 2005)<strong></strong>, though they are not deployed in near-shore waters. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission passed a measure which requires large tuna and swordfish longline vessels (&gt;24m long) to use a combination of two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. Torishima has been established as a National Wildlife Protection Area. In 1981-1982, native plants were transplanted into the Torishima nesting colony in order to stabilise the nesting habitat and the nest structures. This has enhanced breeding success, with over 60% of eggs now resulting in fledged young. Decoys have been used to attract birds to nest at another site on Torishima since 1993 and the first pair started breeding at this new site in November 1995. The number of chicks fledged from this new colony has increased from one chick in 2004; four chicks in 2005; 13 chicks in 2006; 16 chicks in 2007. In October-November 2007, 35 eggs were laid at this new site (Sato<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2009). In 2007, the Japanese government approved a project to translocate chicks from Torishima to Mukojima, 300 km away. All ten chicks of the first translocations in March 2008 fledged (Jacobs 2009)<strong></strong>. If successful, this project will translocate at least ten chicks per year for five years. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to promote measures designed to protect this species from becoming hooked or entangled by commercial fishing gear. Re-establish birds within historic range as insurance against natural disasters on primary breeding colony. Promote conservation measures for the Minami-kojima population. Continue research into the at-sea distribution and marine habitat use through satellite telemetry studies. Continue land-based management and population monitoring. <p></p>
106003956		distribution	eng	<em>Phoebastria albatrus</em> breeds on Torishima (<strong>Japan)</strong>, and Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands),<strong> </strong>that are claimed jointly by Japan, mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Chinese Taipei</strong>. Historically there are believed to have been at least nine colonies south of Japan and in the East China Sea (Piatt <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Its marine range covers most of the northern Pacific Ocean, but it occurs in highest densities in areas of upwelling along shelf waters of the Pacific Rim, particularly along the coasts of Japan, eastern Russia, the Aleutians and Alaska (Piatt <em>et al.</em> 2006, Suryan <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. During breeding (December - May) it is found in highest densities around Japan. Satellite tracking has indicated that during the post-breeding period, females spend more time offshore of Japan and Russia, while males and juveniles spend greater time around the Aleutian Islands, Bering Sea and off the coast of North America (Suryan <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Juveniles have been shown to travel twice the distances per day and spend more time within continental shelf habitat than adult birds (Suryan et al. 2008). The species declined dramatically during the 19th and 20th centuries owing to exploitation for feathers, and was believed extinct in 1949, but was rediscovered in 1951. The current population is estimated, via direct counts and modelling based on productivity data, to be 2,364 individuals, with 1,922 birds on Torishima and 442 birds on Minami-kojima (G.R. Balogh <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 1954, 25 birds (including at least six pairs) were present on Torishima. Given that there are now c.426 breeding pairs on Torishima (G.R. Balogh <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, the species has undergone an enormous increase since its rediscovery and the onset of conservation efforts. In addition, in 2010, one nesting pair was observed on Kure Atoll (Hawaii, <span style="font-weight: bold;">USA</span>), but was probably female-female and unsuccessful, and one chick was produced on Midway Atoll (M. Naughton pers. comm. 2011). A tsunami which hit Midway Atoll in March 2011, did not impact on the single pair nesting on Eastern Island (U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003956		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong><em>Phoebastria albatrus </em>is a colonial, annually breeding species, with each breeding cycle lasting about 8 months. Birds begin to arrive at the main colony on Torishima Island in early October. A single egg is laid in late October to late November and incubation lasts 64 to 65 days. Hatching occurs in late December through January. Chicks begin to fledge in late May into June. There is little information on timing of breeding on Minami-kojima. First breeding sometimes occurs when birds are five years old, but more commonly when birds are aged six. It forages diurnally and potentially nocturnally, either singly or in groups primarily taking prey by surface-seizing (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the breeding season, individuals nesting off Japan forage over the continental shelf (Kiyota and Minami 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Historically, it preferred level, open, areas adjacent to tall clumps of the grass <em>Miscanthus sinensis</em> for nesting.<strong> Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on squid, but also takes shrimp, fish, flying fish eggs and other crustaceans (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded following ships to feed on scraps and fish offal.   <p></p>
106003956		population	eng	At the end of the 2006-2007 breeding season, the global population was estimated to be 2,364 individuals, with 1,922 birds on Torishima and 442 birds on Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands). This estimate is based on: direct observation of breeding pairs on Torishima; an assumption on numbers of non-breeding birds; an estimate for the Minami-kojima population that is based upon a 2002 estimate and an assumption of population growth rate (which, together, puts the Minami-kojima population at about 15% of the global population [G.R. Balogh <em>in litt</em>. 2008]). More recently, Brazil (2009) estimates the population in Japan at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration. The population is taken here as likely to number 2,200-2,500 individuals based on these estimates, roughly equating to 1,500-1,700 mature individuals.
106003956		threats	eng	Its historical decline was caused by exploitation. Today, the key threats are the instability of soil on its main breeding site (Torishima), the threat of mortality and habitat loss from the active volcano on Torishima, and mortality caused by fisheries. Torishima is also vulnerable to other natural disasters, such as typhoons. Introduced predators are a potential threat at colonies. Environmental contaminants at sea (oil based compounds) may also be a threat (G.R. Balogh <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Threats at sea (fisheries, oil pollution) are exacerbated by the fact that birds concentrate into predictable hotspots (Piatt <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Modelling work has showed that even a small increase in low level chronic mortality (such as fisheries bycatch) has more of an impact on population growth rates than stochastic and theoretically catastrophic events, such as volcanic eruptions (Finkelstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <em>Phoebastria albatrus </em>has the greatest potential overlap with fisheries that occur in the shallower waters along continental shelf break and slope regions, e.g., sablefish and Pacific halibut longline fisheries off the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia. Although, overlap between the distribution of birds and fishery effort does not mean that interactions between birds and boats necessarily occur, <em>P. albatrus </em>are known to have been killed in U.S. and Russian longline fisheries for Pacific cod and Pacific halibut. In addition, birds on Torishima have been observed with hooks in their mouths of the style used in Japanese fisheries near the island (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003957		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All Hawaiian breeding localities are part of the US National Wildlife Refuge system or State of Hawaii Seabird Sanctuaries. In 1991, a 50 Nautical Mile Protected Species Zone was established around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. No longline fishing is allowed in this zone. In 2006, the Papahânaumokuâkea Marine National Monument was established. Nearly 80% of the breeding population is counted directly or sampled every year. All sites except one have been surveyed since 1991 (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Hawaiian longline fishing vessels are required to use a range of measures to reduce seabird bycatch. In December 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission passed a measure to require large tuna and swordfish longline vessels to use at least two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. The FVOA which represents the longlining captains in the halibut and sablefish fisheries along the US West Coast has instructed its members to use streamer lines when fishing in Washington, Oregan and Californian waters. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring population trends and demographic parameters. Continue satellite-tracking studies to assess temporal and spatial overlap with longline fisheries. Adopt best-practice mitigation measures in longline fisheries within the species's range. Revaluate the location of the current boundary (23<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>o</sup></strong> N) for required use of seabird mitigation measures in the U.S. pelagic longline fisheries (Hyrenbach and Dotson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003957		distribution	eng	<em>Phoebastria nigripes</em> breeds on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), the <strong>US Minor Outlying Islands</strong> and three outlying islands of <strong>Japan</strong>, colonies having been lost from other Pacific islands (Whittow 1993, Cousins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In total there are estimated to be 64,500 pairs breeding each year (Flint 2007, Naughton <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> in at least 14 locations. The largest populations are c.24,000 and 21,000 pairs on Midway Atoll and Laysan Island respectively, which together account for 73% of the global population (Flint 2007, Naughton <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Torishima, 914 chicks were reared from 1,219 pairs in 1998, compared with just 20 in 1964 (Cousins and Cooper 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species disperses widely over the north Pacific Ocean, particularly to the north-east, towards the coastal waters of North America. There have been occasional records in the southern hemisphere (<strong></strong>Carboneras 1992b, Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hyrenbach and Dotson 2001, BirdLife International 2004, Hyrenbach <em>et al.</em> 2006, Scott Shaffer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106003957		habitat	eng	It breeds on beaches and slopes with little or no vegetation, and on short turf. The species feeds mainly on flying fish eggs, squid, fish and crustaceans (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1983)<strong></strong>, but also on fish offal and human refuse (<strong></strong>Cousins 1998)<strong></strong>. During the brooding period, birds at Tern Island forage predominantly within the vicinity of the island. This foraging range expands during the rearing period to include the distant and more productive Californian Current (<strong></strong>Hyrenbach <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003957		population	eng	Counts in the 2006-2007 breeding season produced population estimates of 64,500 pairs, equivalent to 129,000 breeding individuals (Flint 2007). This estimate is based on standardized surveys at Midway Atoll, Laysan Island and French Frigate Shoals in 2006 (551,940 pairs; 25,780 95% CI; Flint 2007). These three colonies support 90% of the global breeding population. Estimates for the other colonies are the most recent available (1982-2006). There are c.23 pairs breeding on the Bonin Islands in Japan, and c.400 pairs on islands offshore from Mexico (primarily Isla Guadalupe, 337 pairs estimated in 2005; Hyrenbach and Dotson 2003).
106003957		threats	eng	Its populations declined significantly owing to feather and egg collecting in the late 1800s and early 1900s. The population then recovered during the first half of the twentieth century, but has shown a declining trend in the last 15 years (Naughton <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Between 1978 and 1992, the population experienced elevated mortality from interactions with high seas drift-nets in the North Pacific (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. Bycatch estimates from driftnets put yearly bycatch (at least in 1990) at c.4,000 birds per year. Currently, the species interacts with longline fisheries in the North Pacific. In 2003, mortality was estimated to be at least 2,000 birds per year in U.S.-based fisheries and a further 6,000 in Japanese/Taiwanese fleets (Lewison and Crowder 2003)<strong></strong>.  Recent estimates indicate a significant reduction in U.S. longline bycatch from previous years that is very likely attributable to the use of effective seabird avoidance measures, with an average of 130 birds killed per year in longline fisheries in Alaska and Hawaii between 2004 and 2006 (Kim Rivera <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Bycatch rates in the Japanese and Taiwanese longline fleets are still largely unknown. However, studies on this species have confirmed the impact of fisheries bycatch on survival (Verán <em>et al</em>. 2007) and the annual population growth rate (Niel and Lebreton 2005). Satellite tracking studies show that post-breeding birds disperse over large distances to the oceanographic 'transition zone' where they are susceptible to bycatch in the U.S. and foreign pelagic longline fleets (Hyrenbach and Dotson 2003, BirdLife International 2004, Hyrenbach <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>.  Within this area, tracking revealed that fishing effort was heavy in the habitats utilised by the species, and that there may be a male bias in the individuals affected by bycatch<strong></strong>.  Other threats include pollution (including organochlorines and heavy metals) (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1996, Auman <em>et al.</em> 1997, Finkelstein <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, loss of nests to waves (<strong></strong>Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong>, introduced predators (Hasegawa 1984) <strong></strong>(notably the Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans </em>[Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008]<strong></strong>), plastic ingestion (though this may not affect chick growth rate [I. C. T. Nisbet <em>in litt</em>. 2010]<strong></strong>) and volcanic eruption on Torishima (Harrison 1990)<strong></strong>. Oil pollution is no longer considered a likely threat (I. C. T. Nisbet <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003958		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All of the major Hawaiian breeding localities are part of the US National Wildlife Refuge system or State of Hawaii Seabird Sanctuaries and, in 2006, the Papahânaumokuâkea Marine National Monument was established, encompassing all of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Three breeding sites, supporting over 90% of the breeding population, are either counted directly or sampled at regular intervals. In 1991, a 50 Nautical Mile Protected Species Zone was established around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (primarily to protect monk seals). No longline fishing is allowed in this zone. Awareness programmes and mitigation trials have been started in several major longline fleets operating within the foraging range of this species. The Hawaiian longline fishing fleet is required to use measures to reduce bycatch of seabirds. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission adopted a measure to require large longline vessels to use at least two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. Predator control programs are conducted at colonies in Mexico and the Main Hawaiian Islands.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring population trends and demographic parameters. Continue satellite-tracking studies to assess temporal and spatial overlap with longline fisheries. Adopt best-practice mitigation measures in longline fisheries within the species's range. Continue and enhance awareness programmes in all longline fleets. Re-evaluate the location of the current boundary (23<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>o</sup></strong> N) for required use of seabird mitigation measures in the U.S. pelagic longline fisheries (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Continue and enhance control/eradication programs for <em>Verbesina</em> in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and introduced predators in Hawaii and Mexico. Continue and enhance lead-based paint removal from sites (e.g. USWFS 2005-2008 efforts to remove paint from c. 14 out of 95 structures with lead-based paint on Sand Island; Finkelstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
106003958		distribution	eng	<em>Phoebastria immutabilis</em> breeds at 16 sites (nine with populations of greater than 100 pairs), mostly in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) and <strong>US Minor Outlying Islands</strong>, with additional small colonies in <strong>Japan</strong> and <strong>Mexico</strong>. The population is estimated to be <em>c</em>.590,926 breeding pairs, with the largest colony at Midway Atoll, followed by Laysan Island, both in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands  (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Population sizes at monitored colonies increased between 1980 and 1995 but have never reached the densities observed prior to large-scale harvests for feathers in the early 1900s. Data indicated a 32% decline during 1992-2002 (3.2% per annum) of birds breeding on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, where 99% of the global population is found (<strong></strong>Gilman and Freifeld 2003, US Fish and Wildlife Service data <em>per </em>B. Flint 2003)<strong></strong>, though data from 2004 and 2006 indicate that the breeding population then rebounded, and that the overall population trend for 1992-2005 is stable  (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. On Oahu, Hawaii the small population has increased 27% annually since 1991, and numbered 365 adults in 2008, due primarily to immigration with some local recruitment (Young et al. 2009). A population began nesting in Mexico in the 1980s and has been increasing since then. The current population is about 400 pairs at four sites (46 pairs on Clarion Island in 2002, Wanless <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), though this represents less than 0.1% of the global population  (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding populations were extirpated from Wake and Johnston atolls (USA) and Minami Torishima (Japan) in the central Pacific. Ship-based observations, satellite tracking and fisheries bycatch reveal the wide distribution of Laysan Albatross in the North Pacific, ranging from the Bering Sea to tropical waters in the South (15-20 degrees North) (Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2001, Hyrenbach <em>et al. </em>2002, Shaffer <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003958		habitat	eng	Laysan Albatross is an annual breeder though,<strong> </strong>like other albatross species, each year a proportion of birds will skip a breeding season. Nests vary from a simple scoop in the sand to more elaborate nests where vegetation allows. A Laysan Albatross has been recorded breeding aged 55 years (USFWS unpublished data). High rates of mate change (14%), super-normal clutches, and same-sex pairing (31% of pairs), observed on Oahu, Hawaii are all previously unreported for the species (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, 2009). The high rates of same-sex pairing is thought to result from a slightly skewed sex ratio (57% female) (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Diet analysis indicates that it feeds primarily on cephalopods (Pittman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006)<strong></strong>, though also on a variety of fish, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Tickell 2000)<strong></strong>. Satellite tracking has revealed the large journeys made even while breeding  (Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2001, Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007, <strong></strong>S. Shaffer<em> in litt </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding birds at Tern Island switch from a local unimodal foraging strategy during brooding, to a bimodal foraging strategy incorporating more distant, highly productive subarctic waters during the rearing period (Hyrenbach <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Reproductive success has been linked to foraging location, with pairs fledging chicks two years in a row not foraging near continental shelves (Edwards and Parrish 2008). It is thought that this ability may be influenced by information gathered during the non-breeding season (Edwards and Parrish 2008).<br/><p></p>
106003958		population	eng	The population is estimated to number c.591,000 breeding pairs, equivalent to  c.1.18 million mature individuals (likely to equate to at least 1.7 million total individuals) (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007). This estimate is based on standardized surveys at Midway Atoll, Laysan Island and French Frigate Shoals in 2006 (551,940 pairs; 25,780 95% CI; Flint 2007). These three colonies support 90% of the global breeding population. Estimates for the other colonies are the most recent available (1982-2006). There are c.23 pairs breeding on the Bonin Islands in Japan, and c.400 pairs on islands offshore from Mexico (primarily Isla Guadalupe, 337 pairs estimated in 2005) (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007). Data from Hawaiian colonies suggests that a proportion of the breeding population do not breed each year, and as such the population may be greater than estimated here (L. Young <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population in Japan at
106003958		threats	eng	Historically, populations were greatly reduced by feather and egg collecting in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and by high seas drift nets for squid and salmon that were active between 1978 and 1992. Prior to its closure, the high seas driftnet fishery killed over 17,500 <em>P. immutabilis </em>in 1990 alone (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>.  Current key threats are being caught as bycatch in  pelagic (<strong></strong>Crowder and Myers 2002)<strong></strong> and demersal longline fisheries (Stehn <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong> in the North Pacific as well as in illegal high seas driftnet operations. Analyses in 2001 estimated that pelagic longliners in the North Pacific may kill 5,000-18,000 Laysan Albatross per year, with 8,000 thought the most likely figure, while demersal longline operations in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska groundfish fisheries were estimated to kill c.715 birds per year (<strong></strong>Crowder and Myers 2002)<strong></strong>. However, more recent estimates indicate a drastic reduction in bycatch from previous years (83 birds estimated taken in 2005) that is very likely attributable to the use of effective seabird avoidance measures (K. Rivera <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The bycatch rates in Japanese and Taiwanese pelagic longline fisheries in the North Pacific are still largely unknown. Other threats include organochlorine contamination, invasive species, plastic ingestion, lead poisoning, human disturbance and conflicts with aircraft (Harrison 1990, Ludwig <em>et al.</em> 1998, Finkelstein <em>et al</em>. 2003, Finkelstein 2006). Chicks with large volumes of proventricular plastic have been reported to have fledging weights significantly lower than chicks with low amounts of plastic, and there is some evidence to suggest it may have affected survival in 1986, when the volume of plastic ingestion was at its highest (Sievert and Sileo 2008). Oil pollution is no longer considered a likely threat (I. C. T. Nisbet<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Up to 10,000 chicks per year are potentially affected by lead poisoning from paint on buildings at Midway Atoll (Finkelstein 2006), and<strong></strong> (7% of chicks on Sand Island fail to fledge from lead poisoning each year, with a predicted impact of 16% reduction in population size over the course of 50 years equating to 190,000 less birds, Finkelstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).. Avian pox virus affects chicks on Midway and the Main Hawaiian Islands where introduced mosquitoes are present, but studies on O'ahu colonies show that fledging success was not reduced (Young and VanderWerf 2008)<strong></strong>. Dogs kill adults and chicks on inhabited islands in Hawaii. <em>Verbesina encelioides</em> is an aggressive weed that degrades nesting habitat in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and introduced predators (notably the Polynesian Rat <em>Rattus exulans </em>[Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008]<strong></strong>) are an issue for colonies in Mexico and on the Main Hawaiian Islands. In 2002, observations on Clarion Island, Mexico reported zero breeding success from the 46 nesting pairs, largely as a result of predation by several endemic species (eg. Clarion raven <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus corax clarionensis</span> and Clarion racer <span style="font-style: italic;">Masticophis anthonyi</span>, Wanless<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Observations from Guadalupe Island, Mexico, in December 2002 recorded 35 out of 490 adults killed by cats (7% of the total island breeding population that year, and 30% of the Punta Sur colony) (Keitt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Cats were also responsible for a tripling in nest failure rate at this colony (49%) compared with the nearby cat free Negro Islet colony (13%) (Keitt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Cat control around the colony from Jan-Mar 2003 removed 18 cats and curtailed adult mortality from cat predation, although cats continued to be seen around the colony after the breeding season ended (Keitt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is likely that the population here had not experienced high levels of predation prior to 2002, as it would have been extirpated.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106003959		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored at South Georgia, Kerguelen, Campbell, Diego Ramirez and the Falkland Islands. Most breeding sites are reserves. Heard and McDonald, Macquarie, and the New Zealand islands are World Heritage Sites. An initial census of Chilean islands has been completed (Lawton <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring and research programmes at all sites. Conduct complete censuses at all sites at regular intervals (South Georgia, Chile, Falkland Islands [Islas Malvinas] and French Southern Territories). Assess the impact of trawl fisheries bycatch . Continue to develop mitigation strategies for trawl fisheries, notably on the Patagonian Shelf and South Africa. Promote adoption of a) monitoring of seabirds bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms under the auspices of ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as CCAMLR and the tuna commissions of the Atlantic Ocean (ICCAT). <p></p>
106003959		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche melanophrys</em> has a circumpolar distribution ranging from subtropical to polar waters (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>, breeding in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)</strong>, Islas Diego Ramirez, Ildefonso, Diego de Almagro and Isla Evangelistas (<strong>Chile</strong>), <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard and McDonald Islands<strong> </strong>and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and Campbell and Antipodes Islands, <strong>New Zealand </strong>(Croxall and Gales 1998). Two breeding sites are also found in southern Chile on islets in Tierra del Fuego and in the Mallaganes region (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. One colony was also recorded on Snares Island in 1986 (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. The total breeding population was estimated at c.680,000 pairs in 1998, 80% at the Falkland Islands, 10% at South Georgia and 3% in Chile (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong>. More recent data revised this to c.575,151 pairs, 70% in the Falkland Islands, 10% at South Georgia and 20% in Chile. Numbers in the Falklands apparently  increased substantially during the 1980s, but have since declined at 0.7% per annum (Huin and Reid 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; though some colonies have increased in size, the trends are not consistent between years and sites, and even between sub-colonies within the sites. In addition, some colonies surveyed using aerial photography have reportedly shown increases between 21 and 141%<strong></strong>. The small population on Heard Island (c.600 pairs) appears to have increased over the past 50 years. Trends  are still uncertain for the populations in Chile. Adult survival on South Georgia decreased from 93% pre-1970 to 89% in  1987, and breeding success also decreased over the same period (from 36%  to 18%) (Croxall 2008). Very rapid ongoing declines are suspected overall.<br/><p></p>
106003959		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This is a colonial, annually breeding species, although only 75% of successful breeders and 67% of failed breeders breed the following year. Individuals arrive at colonies in September, laying in early October with chicks hatching in December and fledging between April and May. Immature birds begin to return to land at the age of two with the numbers of returning birds increasing up to the age of six. The median age of first breeding is 10 years (range 8-13) (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. During incubation, breeding birds tend to remain in areas adjacent to or to the north of their colonies in the shelf, shelf-break and shelf-slope waters (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. At Campbell Island, Black-browed Albatross show a unique bimodal foraging strategy, alternating between short trips to shelf areas around the breeding site and long trips to the Polar Front (Waugh et al. 1999)<strong></strong>. Birds foraging over the Benguela Current during the winter also showed a bimodal feeding strategy, alternating trips over deep, oceanic waters with trips over the continental shelf (Petersen et al. 2008)<strong></strong>. During incubation on the Falkland Islands, satellite tracking reveals males and females forage in different areas with almost no overlap (Phillips et al. 2004)<strong></strong>. After breeding, birds from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) winter on the Patagonian Shelf (N. Huin <em>in litt</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, whereas birds from South Georgia predominantly migrate to South African waters, spending the first half of the winter in the highly productive Benguela Current (<strong></strong>Phillips <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. Black-browed Albatross from Chile make use of the Chilean Shelf, the Patagonian Shelf, and some spend the non-breeding season around north New Zealand. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>The species nests colonially on steep slopes with tussock grass, sometimes on cliff terraces, but the largest colonies in the Falklands are on flat ground along the shore line. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on crustaceans, fish and squid, and also on carrion and fishery discards (Cherel <em>et al. </em>2002, <strong></strong>Arata <em>et al. </em>2003, <strong></strong>Xavier <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. A Wilson’s Storm-petrel was recorded in the stomach contents of a bycaught individual on the Patagonian Shelf (Seco Pon and Gandini 2008), and while various Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes have been found in the stomachs of albatrosses, penguins tend to be recorded more frequently, although none are typical prey items (Seco Pon and Gandini 2008). The exact composition of its diet varies depending on locality and year (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.<strong> Foraging Range </strong>During chick-rearing, breeding <em>T. melanophrys </em>initially stay in shelf to shelf-slope areas very close to their colonies (within c. 500 km). Later, birds from Chile and South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) may also travel up to c. 3,000 km from their breeding sites, especially to the Antarctic Peninsula and South Orkney Islands, but birds from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and Kerguelen continue to remain close to their colonies (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003959		population	eng	The total population of 593,447 breeding pairs (equating to 1.15 million mature individuals) is made up of 399,416 pairs in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) (Huin and Reid 2007), 74,296 pairs in South Georgia (Poncet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) 114,608 pairs in Chile and other populations (Antipodes, Campbell, Heard and MacDonald, Crozet, Kerguelen, Macquarie, Snares) (Gales 1998). If an assumption is made that the South Georgia population is declining at the same rate as the colony on Bird Island (c.4% pa) then the population there may have declined to c.56,000 pairs by 2012.
106003959		threats	eng	Declines may be attributable to increased longline fishing effort and/or the development of new longline fisheries over much of the Patagonian Shelf, around South Georgia, off the southern African coast, and in the Southern Ocean (Tuck and Polacheck 1997, Prince <em>et al.</em> 1998, Schiavini <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stagi <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Indeed, it is one of the most frequently killed species in many longline fisheries including tuna longliners off southern Africa, the pelagic longline swordfish fishery off Chile and Argentine longliners targeting toothfish and kingclip on the Patagonian shelf (Murray <em>et al. </em>1993, Gales <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong>Ryan and Boix-Hinzen 1998, Schiavini <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stagi <em>et al.</em> 1998, Ryan <em>et al. </em>2002 Reid<em> </em>and Sullivan 2004, Bugoni et al. 2008)<strong></strong>. Capture rates can vary greatly according to season, number of hooks and type of longline (Bugoni et al. 2008)<strong></strong>. Over recent years, mortality in trawl fisheries has been identified as a major source of mortality for this species over the Patagonian Shelf (Sullivan and Reid 2002)<strong></strong> and South Africa (Watkins <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, with an estimated minimum 5,000 killed per annum across the deep-water hake trawl fishery in south African waters during winter (Watkins et al. 2008)<strong></strong>. Recent large-scale volcanic eruptions at Heard Island (2003-2004 in particular) may have caused most birds to desert nesting sites (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. The explosion in European rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> numbers on Macquarie Island since 1999 has led to an extensive destruction of habitat and soil erosion at nesting sites. An eradication programme targeting rodents commenced in 2010. Cats (<em>Felis catus</em>) are thought to impact upon colonies on the Kerguelen Islands at Jeanne d'Arc Peninsula (ACAP 2009).<strong></strong>   <p></p>
106003962		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. In 1985, 1,000 fledglings were banded (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but only one has been recovered (G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1995/1996, a long-term population study was initiated on the Snares population (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves, except for The Pyramid and The Forty-Fours, which are privately owned. In 1998, the Snares and Bounty Islands were declared part of a World Heritage Site. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) adopted a measure which will require all tuna and swordfish longline vessels to use at least two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing south of 30 degrees South. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census all the Bounty Islands intensively for baseline population estimates. Census two islands in the Bounty and Snares Islands for two consecutive years at 10-year intervals. Obtain information from South African and South American observer programmes on bycatch levels. Further develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch in trawl and pelagic longline fisheries. Remote tracking data is required for both breeding and non-breeding birds to further understand the level of interaction with longline and trawl fishing fleets (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003962		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche salvini</em> breeds on the Bounty Islands (nine islands and islets), Western Chain islets (Snares Islands), and The Pyramid and The Forty-Fours (Chatham Islands), <strong>New Zealand </strong>(Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000, Miskelly <em>et al.</em> 2006) and has bred at least once on Ile des Pingouins (Crozet Islands,<strong> </strong>French Southern Territories), with four pairs recorded (Jouventin 1990, Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. In 1998, the population on the Bounty Islands (99% of total) was estimated at 30,750 pairs (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1998, A. M. Booth <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, compared to an estimate in 1978 of 76,000 breeding pairs (Robertson and van Tets 1982)<strong></strong>. Both estimates were based on counts on Proclamation Island and aerial photographs of all other islands (Robertson and van Tets 1982, Clark <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but census methods differed, making comparisons difficult. In 1984, the population on the Snares Islands was estimated at less than 650 pairs. More recently, the population on the Snares Islands increased to 1,111 pairs, with 829 pairs counted on Toru in 2011 and 282 on Rima in 2010 (Sagar <em>et al</em>. 2011). In 1995, two nests on The Pyramid were occupied, and single chicks were observed at The Pyramid in 2006, and the Forty-Fours in 2007 (C.J.R. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. It ranges widely through the south Pacific (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong> and large numbers of birds are found along the Peru Current (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Recent incidental observations have recorded this species in the Cape Horn region (Arata 2003)<strong></strong> and off Argentina (Seco Pon <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. One of the individuals nesting on the Crozet Islands had previously been caught and ringed on South Georgia, in 1982, and returned for several years thereafter. These observations indicate that the species has a more extensive range than previously thought, although the core range is believed to be between Australasia and the west coast of South America (C.J.R. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. A vagrant was recorded on Midway Atoll (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. A count on Proclamation Island in November 2004 recorded 2,634 nests, which may indicate a 14% drop since the 1998 estimate (Arata 2003)<strong></strong>; however, this island represents only one of the 20 in the Bounty Island group, and further information is needed (including information on the comparability of estimates) before a population trend can be estimated. It is thought that the Snares Island population may have been stable between 1984 and 2009 (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. The overall population trend is therefore uncertain. <p></p>
106003962		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>It<em> </em>is a colonial, annual-breeding species. Eggs are laid from August to September, hatching begins in the third week of October and chicks probably fledge in March-April (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds mostly on small, bare rocky islands (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a muddy pedestal made of dried mud, feathers and some bird bones (Robertson and van Tets 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mainly on cephalopods and fish (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003962		population	eng	Clark <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated 30,750 breeding pairs on the Bounty Islands, which represents 99% of the global population; this is equivalent to 61,500 mature individuals, or roughly 90,000 total individuals.
106003962		threats	eng	No introduced predators are present on the islands, but they are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events. Small numbers are caught on tuna longliners in New Zealand waters, but it may also be exposed to longline operations elsewhere in the Southern Ocean. Trawlers within New Zealand waters are currently estimated to kill more Salvin's Albatross than longliners (Baird and Smith 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. From 1996-2005, 247 were returned from fisheries observers with 150 from longliners and 197 from trawl fisheries. Salvin's Albatross constituted approximately 15% of all albatrosses returned by New Zealand fisheries observers 1996-2005 (C.J.R. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Limited data indicates that <em>T. salvini</em> are also killed by the pelagic longline swordfish <em>Xiphias gladius</em> fishery operating off the coast of Chile, with most birds seen off South America being adults (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is also potentially threatened by climate change because it has a bounded distribution: it is restricted to islands with a maximum altitude of 340 m (Birdlife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003963		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. In 1995 detailed population studies commenced, and a five year study funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries began in 2006. The islet is privately owned (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2008 New Zealand government introduced compulsory measures to mitigate the effects of long-lining on seabirds.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue accurate ground census over three consecutive years. Repeat census at five-year intervals. Correlate aerial and ground counts. Resolve issue of chick harvesting with local community. Discuss protection options with the owners of The Pyramid. Develop and effectively implement mitigation techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch, particularly by longliners. <p></p>
106003963		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche eremita</em> breeds only on The Pyramid, a large rock stack in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Aerial photographs indicated that the breeding population was between 3,200 and 4,200 pairs (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, but ground counts between 1999-2003 and in 2007 revealed c.5,300 occupied sites (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2003, <strong></strong>C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Counts in recent years and aerial photographs from 1973, 1974 and 1991 suggest that the population is stable (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite tracking (1997-1999) and other observations indicate that it disperses within the south Pacific Ocean west to Tasmania and east to Chile and Peru. During April-July (the non-breeding season) birds migrate to the south-west coast of South America and transit northwards with the Humboldt Current into Peruvian coastal waters, as far north as 6°S (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2003, BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Up to 90% of the wintering time (3-4 months) is spent in the territorial waters of Chile and Peru, which, based on at-sea data collected between 1980 and 1995, support c.73% of the estimated global population (Spear <em>et al</em>. 2003, BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (3,900-6,790 birds were estimated to be using the Humboldt Current each autumn, with very few there during the spring) (Spear <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An estimated 1,200-1,500 chicks fledged each year between 1993 and 1995, 2,100 of which were banded (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003963		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Eggs are laid September-October, hatching November-December and fledging in March-April (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The earliest recorded breeding age is seven years, but birds return to the colony at the age of four (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It usually nests on rocky ledges and steep slopes. At sea the species appears to be largely pelagic, showing less preference for waters along the continental shelf than congeners. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet has not been well studied but it is thought to feed mostly on cephalopods and fish (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003963		population	eng	Ground counts between 1999-2003 revealed c.5,300 occupied sites (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 2003), and further counts in 2007 and 2010 gave similar figures (5,247 and 5,245 occupied sites, respectively) (Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008, Fraser <em>et al.</em> 2011). This gives a total estimated global population of c.11,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to c.16,000 individuals in total.<br/><p> </p>
106003963		threats	eng	In 1985, a reduction in the extent and condition of vegetation on the islet occurred due to an extreme storm, with a resultant loss of soil cover. As a result, there was an increased probability of nest collapse, due to reduced moisture retention (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, though the impact was not as severe as that on Northern Royal Albatross <em>Diomedea sanfordi</em> on the Sisters and Forty-Fours Islands (P. Scofield <em>in litt..</em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1998, there has been some improvement in soil and vegetation cover (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Parts of the colony that have been exposed to recent storms have had very low productivity (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, although overall c.60% of nests hatched young between 1997-2000 (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mortality has been recorded in pelagic and demersal longline fisheries in New Zealand (New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with one incident involving 12 birds among 36 albatrosses killed by one longline vessel in the Chatham Rise area in 2007 (Anon 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds also attend trawlers off both the east (mainly) and west coast (rarely) of New Zealand, and have been caught in trawl wires. Three banded or tagged birds have been reported as caught by coastal longline fisheries in Chile and Peru, 1995-1999 (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and mortality levels in these regions are potentially the most serious threat to the species. Illegal harvesting of chicks may occur occasionally and, although numbers are apparently small, this may have some effect on the population (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003964		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies are being undertaken at South Georgia, Diego Ramirez, Marion, Macquarie and Campbell Islands. Macquarie and Campbell are World Heritage Sites and the Prince Edward Islands are a Special Nature Reserve.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue existing monitoring and commence at poorly-known sites (Environment Australia 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine migration patterns in off seasons from other populations and overlap with fisheries, particularly those operating in the southern Indian Ocean. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, CCAMLR and FAO.   <p></p>
106003964		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche chrysostoma</em> has a circumpolar distribution over cold subantarctic and Antarctic waters (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. It breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>,  Islas Diego Ramirez and Ildefonso<strong> (Chile), </strong>Prince Edward and Marion Islands<strong> (South Africa), </strong>Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands<strong> (French Southern Territories), </strong>Campbell Island<strong> (New Zealand) </strong>and<strong> </strong>Macquarie Island<strong> </strong>(<strong>Australia</strong>). The annual breeding population is c.96,000 pairs, equivalent to a total population of c.250,000 mature individuals in this biennially breeding bird (Croxall and Gales 1998, Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>.  Approximately half the global population occurs on South Georgia (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Its range at sea while breeding lies largely within or south of the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone (Prince <em>et al</em>. 1998, Phillips <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. At South Georgia the population has declined by at least 20.9% between 1985 and 2004, and at a possibly even greater rate due to declines of 2.2% in mixed colonies with <em>T. melanophrys</em>. The trend for Bird Island, South Georgia shows an even greater decline of 2.9% decrease per annum between 1991 and 2004 (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Adult survival on South Georgia decreased from 95% pre-1970 to 93% in 1987, and breeding success also decreased over the same period (from 40% to 39%) (Croxall 2008). At Marion Island the population increased by 2.5% per annum between 1975 and 2007, increasing at a slower rate of 0.6% from 1988, and the trend over 1988-2011 was estimated at a 1.2% increase per year over the period (BirdLife International unpublished data). Annual survival probability for adults at Marion Island was determined to be 0.951 ± 0.006 (SE). At Campbell, the population has declined by 79-87% since the 1940s (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. Trends are unknown for the Chilean islands. The small population at Macquarie Island was stable between 1995 and 2007, and is likely to have been so since the mid-1970s (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Documented declines to date suggest the population has decreased by 15% since the mid-1980s, and projected future population declines amount to c.49% over three generations (90 years) (BirdLife International unpublished data). This overall decline could prove higher if colonies assumed to have maintained stable populations are also declining.  During the non-breeding season South Georgia birds have been recorded making one or more global circumnavigations, the fastest in just 46 days (Croxall <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. All New Zealand banded birds have been recovered west of New Zealand in Australian zone (G. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106003964		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour         </strong>This species is a biennially breeder, although         5.4% and 1% of successful breeders on Marion Island and Bird Island         respectively, attempt to breed annually. Birds return to colonies         between late September and early October, laying occurs in October and         chicks hatch by December. Chicks fledge from April to May, returning to         breeding colonies at the earliest at 3 years of age but generally at 6         or 7 years old. First breeding can begin as early as 7 years old, but         the average age on Campbell Island is 13.5 years old and the modal age         on South Georgia is 12 years old. It feeds by surface-seizing but can         also dive up to depths of 6 m (ACAP 2009). Substantial segregation in         foraging areas is apparent for male and female Grey-headed Albatross         during incubation at South Georgia, with males travelling on average         further than females (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 2004). At Iles Kerguelen,         Campbell Island and South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur), the species         is principally an oceanic forager, concentrating in the Antarctic Polar         Frontal Zone and associated oceanic upwellings. However, in years of         low availability, chick-rearing birds from South Georgia (Islas         Georgias del Sur) forage mainly in Antarctic shelf-slope waters around         the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. Prey         biogeography also indicates some neritic foraging around Iles Kerguelen         and Campbell Island during chick rearing (ACAP 2009). On Marion Island,         incubating birds foraged in the Sub-tropical Frontal Zone and the         Subantarctic Zone in association with what are most likely eddies. In         contrast, during chick rearing, foraging was concentrated in the         Subantarctic and Polar Frontal Zones to the south-west of the island,         also in association with eddies (Nel <em>et al. </em>2000, Nel <em>et al. </em>2001).         <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on steep slopes or cliffs,         generally with tussock-grass. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is variable with         locality and year (ACAP 2009). It feeds mainly on cephalopods and fish,         but crustaceans, carrion and lampreys are locally important (Prince         1980, Cherel <em>et al.</em> 2002, Xavier <em>et al.</em> 2003, Arata <em>et         al.</em> 2004). It actively scavenges longline baits.
106003964		population	eng	There are an estimated c.96,000 pairs breeding per year of this biennial species, based on annual breeding population estimates of 48,000 pairs on South Georgia (Poncet &lt;I&gt;et al&lt;/I&gt;. 2006), c.7,295 pairs on Marion Island in 2011 (ACAP 2012, although noting that number of pairs fluctuates between years), 2,000 pairs on Prince Edward Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ryan et al.</span> 2009), 7,800 pairs on Campbell Island (Moore 2004), 17,187 pairs in Chile (ACAP 2012), and populations on Macquarie Island, Crozet and Kerguelen as given in Gales (1998) (84, 5,946 and 7,905 pairs respectively). This sums to an estimate of c.96,000 pairs breeding each year, equivalent to at least 250,000 mature individuals (Croxall and Gales 1998, Brooke 2004).
106003964		threats	eng	As this species generally forages over oceanic waters it is less likely to encounter longline fisheries targeting Patagonian toothfish in shelf areas, although mortality of breeding birds is still recorded in these fisheries (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. In Australian waters, up to c.400 individuals (&gt;80% juvenile) were killed annually in 1989-1995 by Japanese longliners (Gales <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In the Indian Ocean, illegal or unregulated fishing for Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> killed an estimated 10,000-20,000 albatrosses (mainly this species) in 1997 and 1998 (CCAMLR 1997,<strong> </strong>CCAMLR 1998)<strong></strong>. At Campbell, the long-term decline, which began well before local longline fishery development, appears to be caused by environmental factors, possibly rising sea-surface temperatures resulting in food shortages, but longline fisheries beyond the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) may also contribute (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The species is not caught on fishing vessels monitored by New Zealand observers within the EEZ (G. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Outside of EEZs, due to its circumpolar distribution, <em>T. chrysostoma</em> is potentially vulnerable to Southern Ocean pelagic fisheries worldwide. The extensive use of the Subtropical Convergence and Sub-Antarctic Zones by incubating birds from Marion Island, especially females, bring them into contact with intense southern bluefin tuna <em>Thunnus maccoyii</em> longline fishing activity in international waters (40-45°) (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003965		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored on Gough Island. Gough and Inaccessible Islands are nature reserves. Gough Island is a World Heritage Site. A population census was conducted in 2000-2001, and a repeatable monitoring protocol was devised (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remote-tracking of the Gough population took place during 2004-2005, to determine at-sea distribution. Remote-tracking of the Tristan da Cunha population is being undertaken in 2007-2008. Limited counts were made in a few areas of  Tristan da Cunha during 2004 and limited monitoring is ongoing. In 2006 the South East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SEAFO) passed a resolution to require all its longline vessels to use a tori line and to set lines at night. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census the population on all the islands in the Tristan da Cunha group. Conduct regular monitoring of a more representative proportion of the population and continue monitoring on Gough Island. Assess recent population trends, demographic parameters and modelled trajectory of population. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the interaction with longline fisheries. Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species' range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations, including the Atlantic tuna commission (ICCAT) and the South East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SEAFO).   <p></p>
106003965		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Thalassarche chlororhynchos</em> breeds on Gough and islands in the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, Tristan da Cunha,<strong> St Helena (to UK)</strong>. On Gough, the population was estimated at c.5,300 breeding pairs in 2000-2001 (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004a). In the Tristan da Cunha Island group, the number of breeding pairs per year was estimated to be 16,000-30,000 on Tristan da Cunha Island in 1974, 4,500 on Nightingale Island in 1974, 40 on Middle Island in 2010 (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2011), 210 on Stoltenhoff Island &#160;in 2010 (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2011), and 1,100 on Inaccessible Island in 1983 (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988). A count in 2007 on Nightingale Island re-estimated the population at 4,000 breeding pairs (ACAP 2009). These data give a total of 27,500-41,600 breeding pairs per year, equating to 55,000-83,200 mature individuals. However, given that the Tristan da Cunha data are now over 30 years out of date, there is considerable uncertainty around the overall population estimate. Trend data from study colonies on Tristan was used to produce a revised estimate of c.3,250 pairs in 2001 (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004), equating to a reduction of 80-89% from 1974 levels to 2001. This figure suggests an updated population estimate of c.13,900 breeding pairs, equating to 21,000-32,000 mature individuals, may be more appropriate. </span>Demographic data have been collected from two study colonies on Gough  Island and Tristan da Cunha.  Annual variation in the number of breeding birds was strongly correlated  between the two islands and over the whole study period both study  populations have decreased at around 1.1-1.2% per year (Cuthbert <em> et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  However, population modelling predicts annual rates of decrease of  between 1.5-2.8% on Gough Island and 5.5% on Tristan da Cunha (Cuthbert <em> et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  On Inaccessible Island, a partial count in 1999-2000 suggests that the  population may have decreased since the late 1980s (Ryan and Moloney  2000)<strong></strong>. In the non-breeding season it disperses  throughout the South Atlantic Ocean, mainly between 25°S to 50°S, and  has been recorded off the coast of Argentina, Brazil and the west coast  of southern Africa (Harrison 1983)<strong></strong>. A single bird collected at Middle Sister Island (Chatham Islands) in the 1970s had recently laid an egg.  <br/><p></p>
106003965		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an annual breeder. Nests are a pedestal made of mud, peat, feathers and vegetation. Eggs are laid September to early October, and chicks fledge in late March to April. Young birds return to colonies from five years of age, and experienced breeders will attempt to breed in two of every three years. Breeding success ranges from 62-72% and 62-76% for Gough Island and Tristan de Cunha respectively (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. It usually breeds singly or in loose aggregations. It feeds by surface-seizing and occasionally diving, and also feeds in association with marine mammals or gamefish which bring baitfish to the surface. It is strongly attracted to fishing vessels and studies from shelf waters have shown scavenged food can comprise a large proportion of stomach contents. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It builds nests built on tussock grass, on rocks and under trees. <strong>Diet </strong>When not scavenging, its diet is largely comprised of fish, but also cephalopods (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. In one study, cephalopods were predominant in the diet of birds caught by longlines, representing 73% of the total mass (Colabuono and Vooren 2007).  <p></p>
106003965		population	eng	On Gough Island, the population was estimated at c.5,300 breeding pairs in 2000-2001 (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004). In 1974, the number of breeding pairs in the Tristan da Cunha group was estimated to be 16,000-30,000 on Tristan da Cunha Island, 4,500 on Nightingale Island, 100-200 on Middle Island, 500 on Stoltenhoff Island (all data from 1974: Richardson 1984), and 1,100 on Inaccessible Island (in 1983, Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988). However, these data are now &gt;30 years out of date and there is considerable uncertainty around the overall population estimate. It is likely that most populations are considerably reduced since 1974 counts, particularly on Tristan da Cunha Island (estimated to be c. 3,250 in 2001), based on population trend data from study colonies (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004). This equates to a reduction of 80-89% from 1974 levels to 2001. More recent data reports 40 pairs on Middle Island and 210 on Stoltenhoff Island in 2010 (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2011). Based on the recent trend figures, a more appropriate estimate of total breeding pairs might be 13,900, equating to 27,800 mature individuals (and a range of 21,000-32,000).   <p>&#160;</p>    <p>&#160;</p>
106003965		threats	eng	This species is commonly caught as incidental bycatch in longline fisheries within its range. In particular, there is an estimated mortality of at least 900 birds per annum off the coast of south-east Brazil, where it is known to be one of the commonest species attending longline vessels (Olmos <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It is also known to attend trawlers and longlining vessels off the west coast of southern Africa (Harrison 1983, Olmos 1997, Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where mortality has been recorded (Ryan <em> et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is thought to be one of the most frequently killed species in pelagic and longlining fisheries off Namibia where assessments of seabird bycatch are just emerging (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The harvest of chicks and adults on Tristan, previously permitted under a local ordinance, is now illegal and poaching is now probably rare. Although house mice <em>Mus musculus</em> and black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> are present on some breeding islands they have no known effects on breeding success. Inaccessible Island no longer has feral pigs <em>Sus scrofa</em>, which would likely have impacted adults, chicks and eggs (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003967		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies are being undertaken at Possession, Amsterdam and Marion. The species is protected in Tristan da Cunha (J. Cooper <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Gough is a World Heritage Site and the Prince Edward Islands are a Special Nature Reserve. Inaccessible and Gough Islands are nature reserves. A population estimate was made at Gough during 2000-2001, and a repeatable monitoring protocol was devised (<strong></strong>Cuthbert and Sommer 2004b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitoring has been repeated in 2003 and 2006 at Gough. Gough and Tristan birds have also been remotely-tracked to determine at-sea distribution. A project on Tristan da Cunha (2004-2006) is undertaking population counts. In 2007, Crozet, Amsterdam and Kerguelen Islands were declared Nature Reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat standardised population surveys at all key sites, most notably Gough and Tristan da Cunha. Determine foraging distribution of the species and its overlap with longline fisheries. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, CCAMLR, FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as the tuna commissions in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (ICCAT, IOTC).  <p></p>
106003967		distribution	eng	<em>Phoebetria fusca </em>breeds on islands in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The total annual breeding population is estimated at 13,200 - 14,500 pairs (<strong></strong>Ryan <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, consisting of <em>c</em>.5,000 pairs on Gough Island (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004a)<strong></strong>, 3,157 pairs in the Tristan da Cunha group (<strong>to UK</strong>) (ACAP 2012)<strong></strong>, c. 1,450 pairs on Prince Edward and c. 1,700 pairs on Marion Island (<strong>South Africa</strong>) (ACAP 2012)<strong></strong>, 2,080-2,200 pairs on the Crozet Islands (Delord <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, and 470 pairs on Amsterdam Island (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) (Delord <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. The pelagic distribution is mainly between 30°S and 60°S in the southern Indian and Atlantic Oceans, with a southern limit of c. 65°S near Antarctica and a northern limit of c. 20°S. Adults move north in winter from sub-Antarctic to subtropical seas, whereas immature birds tend to remain in subtropical seas year round. The species infrequently disperses eastward to the Tasman Sea and New Zealand waters (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. On Possession Island (Crozet), the population declined by 58% between 1980 and 1995 (Weimerskirch and Jouventin 1998) and continues to decline, although at a slower rate. This equates to an 82% decline between 1980 and 2006 (Delord <em>et al.</em> 2008). On Marion Island, the population declined by 25% from 1990-19988. On Gough Island (c.36% global population), the population appears to have decreased by over 50% from 1972-2000 (<strong></strong> Cuthbert and Sommer 2004a), although recent counts of breeding birds on Gough in 2000, 2003 and 2005 indicate no change in breeding numbers. Limited counts have been made on Tristan and Inaccessible, and indicate a population of c.3,157 (ACAP 2012). Overall, these declines equate to 60% over three generations (90 years), with a trend start date of 1960.<br/><p></p>
106003967		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>It breeds in loose colonies of up to 50-60 nests (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season extends through summer, eggs are laid in October and November, hatch in early to mid-December and chicks fledge in May (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Successful pairs seldom breed in the following summer (Ryan 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  A single egg is laid, with no replacement laying. Adults make a combination of long commuting flights early in the incubation period, looping searching flights later in incubation and linear searching during chick brooding (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on cliffs or steep slopes where it can land and take off right next to the nest (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Squid, fish, crustaceans and carrion all feature prominently in the diet, although proportions of each vary between years and locations (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003967		population	eng	The total annual breeding population is estimated at c.14,000 pairs, consisting of c.5,000 pairs on Gough Island (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004a), 3,157 pairs in the Tristan da Cunha group (ACAP 2012), c.1,450 pairs on Prince Edward and 1,701 pairs on Marion Islands (Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, ACAP 2012), 2,174 pairs on the Crozet Islands (Delord 2008), fewer than five pairs on Kerguelen Island, and 300-400 pairs on Amsterdam Island (Carboneras 1992b).
106003967		threats	eng	Both adults and juveniles have been caught as bycatch by Japanese longline vessels fishing inside and beyond the Australian Fishing Zone (Gales <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> and at least some are killed on tuna longlines off southern Africa (<strong></strong>Ryan <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. However, only one bird (of 1,500 examined) is known to have been killed by vessels with observers in the Prince Edward fishery (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. One banded bird has been caught by a Chinese Taipei longline vessel fishing in the Indian Ocean (Delord <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. The population on Possession Island, Crozet Islands has nevertheless been found to be significantly and negatively affected by fisheries bycatch, particularly adult survival rates (in the absence of fishing effort, predicted adult survival was 0.902 as opposed to 0.884) (Rolland<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010). Adult survival was found to be low and more variable than in similar species, which is very likely the cause of their decline (Rolland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Introduced rats and cats on the Kerguelen Islands are not known to affect the species, but cats and rats on Amsterdam Island are known to impact the species sufficiently to cause population-level changes (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. The harvest of chicks and adults in the Tristan group is banned and illegal poaching is now probably very rare (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The species could be affected by avian cholera and erysipelas bacteria on Amsterdam Island (<strong></strong>H. Weimerskirch 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003969		distribution	eng	The breeding range of Wilson's Storm-petrel includes subantarctic islands from Cape Horn (<B>Chile</B>) east to the Kerguelen Islands (<B>French Southern Territories</B>), and also includes coastal Antarctica. It undergoes trans-equatorial migration, spending the off-season in the middle latitudes of the north Atlantic and north Indian Ocean. A lower number of individuals also migrate to the Pacific.  </P>
106003969		habitat	eng	Wilson's Storm-petrel breeds on rocky islets, on cliffs and amongst boulder scree. It prefers to feed mainly in cold waters over continental shelves or inshore, with a diet of comprised mainly of planktonic crustaceans (especially krill) and fish (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Its diet shifts from mainly crustaceans during egg formation to an increased proportion of fish during chick-rearing and moulting (Quillfeldt et al. 2005).
106003969		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global breeding population to number 4,000,000-10,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,000,000-30,000,000 individuals.
106003970		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for breeding colonies on small rocky islets from Chile north to the Galápagos. Census population on Isla Chungungo and evaluate threats to the colony.  <p></p>
106003970		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanites gracilis</em> occupies tropical waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean, where it is numerous. Prior to 2003, only one nest had ever been found, on Isla Chungungo, <strong>Chile</strong> (where rats and fire may have caused a decline). During surveys of the island on 6-11 January 2002 three crevices containing perhaps 11 nests were located in the north-east part of the island<strong> </strong>(Hertel and Torres-Mura 2003). Suitable sites are limited on the island, and alternative sites may be too disturbed by nesting Humboldt Penguins <em>Spheniscus humboldti</em><strong> </strong>(Hertel and Torres-Mura 2003). No evidence of rodents or marsupials was found, although the presence of the Short-tailed Snake <em>Tachymenis chilensis </em>may be cause for concern<strong> </strong>(Hertel and Torres-Mura 2003). A breeding population (subspecies <em>galapagoensis</em>) of several thousands is suspected for the Galápagos, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Trends and total population estimates for the species therefore remain unknown.   <p></p>
106003970		habitat	eng	It is numerous in the eastern Pacific Ocean and presumably breeds on small rocky islets from Chile north to the Galápagos<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al.</em> 2006). <p></p>
106003970		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 30,000 individuals.
106003970		threats	eng	Unknown, but breeding colonies are potentially vulnerable to predation by invasive species. <p></p>
106003971		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct standardised population surveys at all key sites. Determine foraging distribution and overlap with fisheries. As a precaution, eradicate introduced predators at breeding sites.  <p></p>
106003971		distribution	eng	<em>Phoebetria palpebrata</em> has a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean. It disperses over cold Antarctic waters in summer as far south as the pack ice (Weimerskirch and Robertson 1994)<strong></strong> but ranges north into temperate and sub-tropical seas in winter. It breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Auckland, Campbell and Antipodes islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), Amsterdam, St Paul, Crozet and Kerguelen islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard Island (<strong>Heard and MacDonald Islands (to Australia)</strong>), Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and Prince Edward and Marion islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>).<br/><p></p>
106003971		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a biennial breeder usually nesting solitarily or in small colonies. Most eggs are laid in October-November, hatch in December-January and chicks fledge in May-June (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Egg laying is highly synchronous within each colony. Young birds are philopatric, returning to their natal colonies after 7 to 12 years (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding birds from Macquarie Island typically forage in shelf waters around the island; they also utilise sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters south-west of Macquarie (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During chick-rearing, adults from South Georgia feed in Antarctic shelf and shelf-slope areas along the southern Scotia Arc and to a lesser extent in oceanic waters in the mid Scotia Sea (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It employs a variety of feeding strategies, including surface-seizing, surface filtering and plunging. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It nests on cliff ledges, on a pedestal nest of mud and peat, lined with grass. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet is primarily composed of cephalopods and euphausiids, but birds also take fish and carrion (Thomas 1982, Cooper and Klages 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Five satellite-tracked incubating birds from Macquarie Island foraged south of the Antarctic Polar Front, an average of 1,500 km from their breeding sites. Four breeding birds from South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) followed a typical flight path (38 trips) involving a clockwise route to and from high latitude waters along the southern Scotia Arc, on average travelling 3,800 km, to a maximum range of 920 km from the colony (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003971		population	eng	Information on population status and trend is most well known on Possession Island (Crozet Islands), where there were 916 pairs in 2006 (Delord <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) There are c.1,949 pairs in the Crozet group, 1,250 pairs on Macquarie Island (ACAP 2012), 5,000-7,500 pairs on South Georgia, 3,000-5,000 pairs on Kerguelen, c.5,000 pairs on the Auckland Islands, at least 1,600 pairs on Campbell Island, 170 pairs on the Antipodes Islands, 200-500 pairs on Heard Island (Croxall and Gales 1998; Taylor 2000), and 350 pairs on Marion Island and 129 pairs on Prince Edward Island (ACAP 2012). The total annual breeding population is estimated at 19,000-24,000  pairs, roughly equivalent to 58,000 mature individuals (and 87,000  individuals in total) in this biennially breeding species - Croxall and Gales (1998) estimated c. 21,600 pairs.
106003971		threats	eng	Reports from New Zealand, Australia and Japan indicate that it is caught in tuna longline fisheries (39 returned from observers in New Zealand fisheries in 1996-2005, but only three since 1996) (C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although data on bycatch are sparse compared to other albatross species. Introduced predators are present at all New Zealand colonies except Campbell Island and they may affect breeding success and colony distribution (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cats also affect breeding success on the Kerguelen Islands (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003972		distribution	eng	The White-faced Storm-petrel breeds on remote islands in the south Atlantic, such as Tristan da Cunha (<B>St Helena to UK</B>) and also on the coast <B>Australia</B> and <B>New Zealand</B>. There are north Atlantic colonies on the <B>Cape Verde Islands</B>, Canary Islands, <B>Spain</B> and Savage Islands, <B>Portugal</B>. Outside the breeding season birds from the Atlantic have been seen off the east coast of North America and South America, and off the western coast of Central Africa. Breeds from Australia and New Zealand range as far as the northern Indian Ocean and the north-west coast of South America (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003972		habitat	eng	This marine species can normally be found over pelagic waters except when at breeding colonies. It feeds mostly on planktonic crustaceans and small fish, but will also feed on some squid. It feeds mainly on the wing by pattering and dipping at night. It rarely follows ships, but is known to follow cetaceans. It generally breeds in the local spring and summer, forming colonies or burrows in flat sand areas with low herbaceous vegetation, but also in rocky areas and on slopes. Movements are variable with the population, but all populations disperse post-breeding and tend to travel far (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003972		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 4,000,000 individuals.
106003973		distribution	eng	The Black-bellied Storm-petrel has a circumpolar distribution from islands of the Scotia Archipelago, through the southern Indian Ocean to the Antipodes Islands (<B>New Zealand</B>). Outside the breeding season it migrations north into the subtropical and tropical zones of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, regularly occurring north up to the equator (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003973		habitat	eng	This species rarely associates with land, except when breeding, and may be associated with cool currents where its diet appears to consist of squid and small fish (data lacking). Its breeding season begins in November, forming loose colonies on bare rocky slopes, in thick vegetation or peat of offshore islands or stacks. It lays one egg in burrows or rocky crevices (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003973		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 500,000 individuals.
106003974		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely over most oceans in the southern Hemisphere, breeding on Lord Howe Island (<B>Australia</B>), the Kermadec Islands (<B>New Zealand</B>), the Austral Islands (<B>French Polynesia</B>) and Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, <B>Chile</B> in the Pacific Ocean, Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island (<B>St Helena to UK</B>) in the Atlantic Ocean, and &Icirc;le Saint-Paul (<B>French Southern Territories</B>) in the Indian Ocean (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003974		habitat	eng	This marine species is highly pelagic and rarely approaches land except when near colonies. It feeds mostly on squid with some crustaceans which it catches on the wing by pattering and dipping. It has been recorded feeding in the company of other seabirds and following ships. It forms loose colonies on offshore islands or stacks, generally amonst boulder scree or on grassy slopes up to 450 m above sea level, nesting in rock crevices or burrows (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003974		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 300,000 individuals.
106003975		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Kiritimati, a cat eradication programme has failed to limit predation by feral cats outside villages (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999, <strong></strong>E. A. Schreiber <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but, at Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge (200 miles from Kiritimati), a colonisation programme has been successful and, in March 2000, three <em>N. fuliginosa</em> were observed displaying (Flint and Aycock 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A total of 23 motu in the central lagoon area have been targeted for rat eradication, with more eradication on additional motu planned for the future (R. Pierce and D. Brown <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, the Société Calédonienne d'Ornithologie was due to implement a rat eradication program on 18 islets including the site of the only previously known colony in 2007-2008 to restore suitable breeding conditions for the species (V. Chartendrault <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rabbit and rat eradication occurred on McKean and Phoenix Island in 2008, though the results have not been confirmed (R. Pierce <em>et al. in litt. </em>2008, R. Pierce <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all nesting islets (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> including those off the main Samoan islands (<strong></strong>SPREP 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate rats and cats from key small islets within its breeding range, e.g. Temoe Island (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999, G. Wragg <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and throughout the Line and Phoenix Islands (A. K. Kepler <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003975		distribution	eng	<em>Nesofregetta fuliginosa</em> breeds in the Line and Phoenix Islands (<strong>Kiribati</strong>), Austral, Society (formerly Tahiti), Gambier and Marquesas Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>), <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> (3-4 pairs in 1996-1997 [V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999]<strong></strong>, although repeated visits in 2007 failed to produce any records pointing to local extinction [J. Baudat-Franceschi <em>in litt. </em>2007]<strong></strong>, but since sighted twice off the northern tip and may possibly breed on atolls off the northern end of the island [C. Collins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011]), Sala y Gomez (<strong>Chile</strong>) (100 pairs in 1997 [Vilina and Gazitua 1999]<strong></strong>) and, historically (perhaps even currently), in Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji. In the Line Islands, c.1,000 pairs were present on Kiritimati (= Christmas Island) in the 1960s and early 1970s (Garnett 1983)<strong></strong> but, in 1993, the population was estimated at several hundred (M. Rauzon <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>, supported by observations in 1999 and 2009 (D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>1999, R. Pierce <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. In the Phoenix Islands, c.1,400 birds were present on Phoenix and McKean Islands, but the total population on the two islands is now thought to be 40-100 and c.10 individuals respectively (Garnett 1983, R. Pierce <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. In the Australs, tens of pairs occurred on Rapa and surrounding islets (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, and the situation was unchanged in 1990 (Thibault and Varney 1991)<strong></strong>. However, following Cyclone Oli in February 2010, 36 dead birds were found in the port of Tubuai, (possibly through the combined effects of light-attraction and strong winds), which may have had a significant impact on the small local population around Rapa and the long-term survival of the species in French Polynesia (Anon. 2009). In the Gambiers, 100-200 pairs occurred on Motu Teiku and 100-300 pairs on Manui in 1996, but it may have become extinct on two further islands (<strong></strong>Thibault and Bretagnolle 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Marquesas, one pair was found on Ua Pou in 1989 (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. No evidence was found of this species during a survey of the historical nesting site of Mt Washington (=Nabukulevu) on Kadavu (Fiji) in August 2004. There has been only one unconfirmed sighting in Fijian waters in the last three decades, and it is thought to be very unlikely that it still breeds in Fiji (D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106003975		habitat	eng	It usually nests in loosely formed colonies throughout the year, peaking at different times on different islands (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Carboneras 1992c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Burrows are often dug in sand (and can be extremely fragile) (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it also nests under vegetation or in rock-crevices (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on small fish, cephalopods and crustaceans (Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Carboneras 1992c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003975		population	eng	The current known population is as low as c.1,000-1,600 mature individuals, equivalent to c.1,500-2,400 individuals in total. However given that some surveys date back to the mid-1990s, and significant declines have been observed in previous strongholds, it is possible that the population may be lower than this. It is clear that data is lacking and a comprehensive survey needs to be conducted to assess the true population size.
106003975		threats	eng	Birds do not appear to survive in the presence of rats or cats (Garnett 1983, Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation of eggs and small chicks by house mouse <em>Mus musculus </em>(E. Flint <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, human exploitation (Carboneras 1992c)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and increasing cultivation of islets, e.g. on Rapa (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, are additional threats. <p></p>
106003976		distribution	eng	About 90% of the known breeding population is concentrated in the Faroe Islands (<B>Denmark</B>; 150,000-400,000 pairs), <B>United Kingdom</B> (20,000-150,000 pairs), <B>Ireland</B> (50,000-100,000 pairs) and <B>Iceland </B>(50,000-100,000 pairs), with smaller colonies in <B>France</B> (400-600 pairs), <B>Greece</B> (10-30 pairs), <B>Italy</B> (1,500-2,000 pairs), <B>Malta</B> (5,000 pairs), <B>Norway</B> (1,000-10,000 pairs), <B>Spain</B> (1,700-2,000 pairs) and a further 1,000 pairs on the Canary Islands, Spain. The species winters off western and southern Africa.  </P>
106003976		habitat	eng	This is a marine species feeding mainly on small fish, squid and crustaceans, but it will also feed on medusae and offal. It feeds mainly on the wing by pattering and fishing, and will occaisionally follow ships and attend trawlers. Breeding starts in May and June, resulting in the formation of colonies on rocky ground on offshore islands and stacks that are largely free of mammalian predators (del Hoyo et al. 1992).<B>
106003976		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 430,000-510,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,290,000-1,530,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004); Brooke (2004) also estimated the   total population to number around 1,500,000.
106003976		threats	eng	The accidental introduction of predators is the main threat to this species, particularly in southern Europe and the Mediterranean. In some areas, increases in numbers of skuas and large gulls appear to have increased the rate of predation. There may be some risk from eating contaminated food items or taking indisgestible matter but, by feeding in flight, the species is less vulnerable to oil spills than some other seabirds (Newbury et al. 1998, Tucker and Heath 1994).
106003977		distribution	eng	This species breeds on islands in the Gulf of California and on the western coast of Baja California (<B>Mexico</B>). Its range stretches from California (<B>USA</B>) to as far south as <B>Colombia</B> and <B>Ecuador<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003977		habitat	eng	This species is marine and often pelagic, mainly occuring over warm waters away from land. Its diet is comprised mostly of small planktonic crustaceans, particularly the larvae of the spiny lobster. It feeds on the wing, by pattering, and by surface-seizing whilst on the water. Breeding starts in June or July, forming colonies on small islands or rocky stacks and nesting in rock crevices (del Hoyo et al. 1992)
106003977		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number hundreds of thousands of individuals, possibly millions.
106003978		distribution	eng	This species can be found off the coast of North America and South America, from Baja California (<B>Mexico</B>) in the north to central <B>Chile</B> in the south. It breeds on the Galapagos Islands, <B>Ecuador</B>, and on Pescadores and San Gallan Islands, <B>Peru<SUP>1</SUP></B>.    </P>
106003978		habitat	eng	This marine species can be found over pelagic waters usually well offshore except when near colonies. It feeds mostly on small fish, squid and crustaceans caught on the wing by pattering and dipping, or by surface-seizing while sitting on the water. It feeds mainly at night. During breeding it forms colonies on cliffs or lava fields, nesting in rock crevices or under vegetation cover (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003978		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 500,000 individuals.
106003980		distribution	eng	Leach's Storm Petrel has an extensive global range. Breeding colonies are confined to the northern hemisphere, from the South Kuril Islands (<B>Japan</B>) round to Baja California (<B>Mexico</B>) including the Aleutian Islands, Alaska (<B>USA</B>) and <B>Canada</B> in the Pacific, and in the north-east North America, <B>Iceland</B>, northern <B>United Kingdom</B> and <B>Norway</B> in the Atlantic. Northern populations migration south into the tropics in winter, reaching the equator in the Pacific and as far south as south <B>Brazil</B> and <B>South Africa</B> in the Atlantic (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003980		habitat	eng	This species is marine and pelagic, often occuring in areas of convergence or upwelling or over continental shelves, rarely coming near land except at colonies. Its diet comprises mainly of small fish, squid, planktonic crustaceans and offal which is catches on the wing by dipping, skimming or snatching from the surface.It sometimes follows marine mammals feeding on left overs or faeces. Its breeding season is variable depending on locality, forming colonies on offshore islands on high ground or slopes, usually among rocks but also in soft soil between trees (del Hoyo et al. 1992)
106003980		population	eng	Brooke (2004)   estimated the global population to number &gt; c.20,000,000 individuals,   while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106003981		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The main colonies in South Korea are already dependent on active  conservation measures, including the eradication of invasive alien species  and prevention of disturbance (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The main breeding colony on Verkhovsky island has been protected since 1984 which has stopped disturbance of nests by tourists.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed<br/></strong>Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Implement measures to control invasive species at as many affected colonies as possible. Mitigate the impact of tourism at relevant sites. Implement and enforce controls on landings by fishing boats.<strong><br/></strong>
106003981		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma monorhis</em> breeds on Verkhovsky Island (7,500 pairs), south of Vladivostok, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Japan</span> (a minimum of 1,000 pairs). There are little-known populations in <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Taiwan </span>(China),<span style="font-weight: bold;"> North Korea</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span>, and records suggest that breeding possibly occurs in the North Atlantic. In winter, it migrates south and west to the northern Indian Ocean (<strong></strong>Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. Sato <em>et al</em>. (2010) also estimate the world population at a minimum of 130,000 pairs, confirming that the species has a very large population. However, Birds Korea (2010) state that c.100,000 pairs nest on Gugeul Islet, implying that possibly over 75% of the global population breed on one very small island. The species nests at six or seven breeding islets in South Korea (Chang-Yong Choi<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). There is apparently anecdotal evidence that some colonies are in decline (N. Moores <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<p></p>
106003981		habitat	eng	This marine species can be found over pelagic and inshore waters. Its feeds mainly on the wing by dipping and does not patter. Breeding starts in April forming loose colonies on offshore islands in burrows (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003981		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number  c.100,000 individuals, while Sato <em>et al</em>. (2010) estimate the world population at a minimum of 130,000 pairs; national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003981		threats	eng	Sato <em>et al</em>. (2010) describe threats at breeding sites as including mining operations, introduced predators and tourism. On Koyashima, Fukuoka (Japan), the breeding colony was decimated by accidentally introduced brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (Takeishi 1987 in Sato <em>et al</em>. 2010) and has not fully recovered despite predominantly successful eradication efforts (Sato <em>et al</em>. 2010, Takeishi <em>per</em> M. Sato <em>in litt</em>. 2011). The island of Okinoshima, only 1 km away, is inhabited by both black rats <em>R. rattus</em> and brown rats and is likely to be a source for the accidental introduction of rats to Koyashima in the future (M. Takeishi <em>per</em> M. Sato <em>in litt</em>. 2011). On Chilbaldo, South Korea, the species has been severely impacted by introduced plants, such as Mugwort <em>Artemisia vulgaris</em> and <em>Achyranthes japonica</em>, that, if tall and dense, prevent birds from entering their burrows (Lee 2010).  In addition, <em>Achyranthes japonica</em> acts like a mass of hooks when the plants mature in September, and hundreds of <em>O. monorhis</em> perish when they fly into the plants and become trapped. Although work has been undertaken in the past to remove introduced plants from parts of the island, the problem posed by <em>Achyranthes japonica</em> now appears to be getting worse (Lee 2010). Invasive plants apparently affect all known breeding colonies in South Korea (Chang-Yong Choi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Some colonies in Japan are threatened or potentially threatened by the activities of recreational visitors in warm seasons (Sato <em>et al</em>. 2010 and references therein). Disturbance from tourists visiting Gageo Island, South Korea, is increasingly likely to impact birds nesting on the nearby Gugeul Islets (Birds Korea 2010). Furthermore, Bentenjima Islet, Shiriyazaki (Japan), has been connected to the mainland to facilitate the mining of limestone, and breeding there is thought to have ceased (Sato <em>et al</em>. 2010). Intense fishing operations near the species’s breeding sites probably result in occasional landing by fishermen, increasing the risk of rats being introduced to other breeding colonies. In addition to anthropogenic threats, rocky islands with shallow soil that are inhabited by the species, such as the Kutsujima Islands, could suffer severe erosion during a typhoon or other heavy rainfall event, which would probably seriously affect colonies. Competition for nesting sites from species such as Streaked Shearwater <em>Calonectris leucomelas</em>, could negatively impact <em>O. monorhis</em>. Predation by gulls is another potential threat (Sato <em>et al</em>. 2010). Threats to the main breeding colony on Verkhovsky Island include predation by crows Corvidae and migrating owls Strigidae.
106003982		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Guadalupe is designated as a Biosphere Reserve (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but until recently there was little active management (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nearly 35,000 goats were removed in 1970 and 1971 (P. Sweet <em>in litt</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but many remained until 2004 when a comprehensive programme was carried out, resulting in the complete eradication of goats from the island (<strong></strong>Garcillán <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is potential to remove other introduced species by 2010 with fundraising for cat eradication underway (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A grant has been made available to fund searches for the species on Guadalupe (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the entire island during the breeding season to ascertain if it is still extant. Eradicate introduced predators and herbivores. Birders on pelagic trips off California should be aware of this species and its identification. <p></p>
106003982		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma macrodactyla</em> may persist on Guadalupe, <strong>Mexico</strong>, 280 km west of Baja California. It was abundant in 1906, but the last record of a breeding bird was in 1912. Searches in 1922, 1925 and the early 1970s failed to find the species. However, there has been no thorough survey in the appropriate season since 1906. Relatively recent reports of storm-petrels calling at night and the apparent persistence of breeding Leach's Storm-petrel <em>O. leucorhoa</em> on the island raises some hope that it may survive, although this is unlikely unless it is able to nest in rock crevices in areas inaccessible to cats (Keitt <em>et al</em>. 2009).  <p></p>
106003982		habitat	eng	It nested in burrows at high elevations in soft soil under pines <em>Pinus radiata</em> var. <em>binata</em> and cypress <em>Cupressus guadalupensis</em> groves. Eggs are known to have been laid between early March and late June. <p></p>
106003982		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals).
106003982		threats	eng	The main cause of its demise is thought to be heavy predation by feral cats, compounded by goats destroying and degrading nesting habitat. <p></p>
106003983		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Limited research has been carried out into the species's life history and ecology. Most of the known breeding population is protected by the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, which is devoid of human inhabitation, except when researchers are present (Marks and Leasure 1992)<strong></strong>. A recent research project has investigated the potential threat from introduced ants (E. VanderWerf<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.Rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>eradications were attempted on Muko-jima and (Muko)tori-jima in 2008 but failed, and so must be considered as candidates for any future eradication plans for the islands (M. Sato <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Plans to eradicate rats from these islands, among others, are underway with results expected Feb-Mar 2012 (M. Sato <em>in litt. </em>2011).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Expand research efforts into its ecology. Monitor population trends. Improve knowledge of its status on Japanese islands. Quantify the effect of <em>Telespiza cantans</em> and <em>T. ultima</em> on breeding success (Marks and Leasure 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Take every effort to prevent the introduction of predators to breeding sites.  <p></p>
106003983		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma tristrami</em> breeds in the Hawaiian archipelago (<strong>USA</strong>), on Nihoa (2,000-3,000 pairs), Necker, French Frigate Shoals (max 280 pairs), Laysan (500-2,500 pairs), Pearl and Hermes Reef (1,000-2,000 pairs), and may also breed on Midway, Lisianski and Kure (Rauzon <em>et al.</em> 1985, Harrison 1990, Enticott and Tipling 1997, Baker <em>et al.</em> 1997, McClelland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. It also breeds on a few small predator-free islets of the Bonin and Izu Islands,<strong> Japan </strong>(McClelland<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008),  including six islands in the Bonin group, three of which were newly identified as part of a survey that concluded in 2005. They were not detected on the Volcano Islands, where the species bred before WWII (Chiba <em>et al. </em>2007). . These estimates suggest that the world population is no greater than 30,000 birds, including 10,000 pairs (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. This species is difficult to monitor due to its high sensitivity to human disturbance during the incubation phase (Marks and Leasure 1992)<strong></strong> and due to its habit of breeding in the winter months when access to its remote breeding colonies is more difficult. Little is known about its post-breeding dispersal, but some move north to the seas east of Japan (Carboneras 1992a, Enticott and Tipling 1997)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106003983		habitat	eng	The species feeds while pattering on the sea surface, principally consuming squid and fish (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in burrows in sand or guano, under clumps of vegetation or in recesses in scree (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Hawaii, first egg laying occurs in December with the last chicks fledging in June (McClelland et al. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has been known to live for at least 14 years (Marks and Leasure 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106003983		population	eng	Population estimates for breeding colonies suggest that the world population is no greater than c.10,000 pairs (i.e. c.20,000 mature individuals) and c.30,000 birds (Brooke 2004), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106003983		threats	eng	The most serious threat to the species is the potential introduction of rats or other predators to any of its primary breeding sites (Harrison 1990)<strong></strong>: a large population of <em>O. tristrami</em> which bred on Torishima Island until the early 1960s was apparently exterminated by introduced cats and rats (Carboneras 1992a, Enticott and Tipling 1997)<strong></strong>, and potentially large colonies could have been extirpated from the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands for the same reason (C. S. Harrison <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It is known to breed on only a very few rat-free islets in Japan, indicating a high degree of susceptibility to introduced predators on its natal colonies. It is thought that rats may predate on both adults and chicks in burrows (Chiba <em>et al. </em>2007). Predation and irritation by introduced tramp ants <span style="font-style: italic;">Monomorium pharaonis </span>could pose a problem for the species (E. VanderWerf<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, although studies on Laysan Island indicate that impacts on breeding success are minimal, with nest failures attributable to ants recorded as 1% (n=116) (McClelland and Jones 2008). Nest failures were due to aggravation rather than direct predation, with chicks abandoning nest sites (McClelland and Jones 2008). Nests most likely to be affected were situated under vegetation (McClelland and Jones 2008). On Laysan, the species's eggs are predated by Laysan Finches <em>Telespiza cantans</em> and on Nihoa, possibly by Nihoa Finches <em>T. ultima</em><strong> </strong>(Marks and Leasure 1992). <em>T. cantans</em> is known to routinely check <em>O. tristrami</em> burrows. A study on Laysan confirmed <em>T. cantans</em> as an effective egg predator, depredating 90% of unattended eggs, and despite this vulnerability egg neglect was observed in 10% of nests (McClelland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. The same process is expected on Pearl and Hermes Reef where <em>T. cantans</em> has been introduced, possibly resulting in a reduction in nesting success (Marks and Leasure 1992)<strong></strong>. Other native species, including the Bonin Petrel <em>P. hypoleuca</em>, Laysan Albatross <em>P. immutabilis</em>, and particularly the Wedge-tailed shearwater <em>P. pacificus</em> may hamper reproductive success on Laysan and Tern Island (McClelland<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Extreme weather events can affect breeding; in 1913, birds on Laysan suffered heavy losses owing to the flooding of burrows, followed by sandstorms (Warham 1990)<strong></strong>. Light pollution and the contamination of the sea with plastics and other litter are no longer considered likely threats to this species (I. C. T. Nisbet<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003984		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for breeding colonies in Iquique region, Chile (especially around Salar Grande) between January-May, listening for adults flying near colonies at night and checking for active burrows during the day<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006). Monitor the colony at Paracas. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106003984		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma markhami</em> breeds on the Paracas peninsula, <strong>Peru</strong>, and additional colonies are likely on other islands and in the coastal desert of Peru and <strong>Chile</strong> (Carboneras 1992c, <span style="">Clements in prep.</span>). It occurs in tropical waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean, spending July-September (and possibly longer) in warm equatorial waters, and January-July in the cooler waters of the Peru Current (Pyle 1993). Data on overall numbers, trends and threats are lacking, but a minimum of 2,305 pairs were present on the Paracas peninsula in 1992<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006).<em> <p></p></em>
106003984		habitat	eng	Birds on Paracas breed in small, dispersed colonies up to 5 km from the sea on sloping ground, usually where saltpetre deposits offer fissures and holes for nesting<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006). While Paracas birds fledge in November, grounded fledglings are mostly found near Iquique, Chile, in March-April (M. L. de Brooke <em>in litt.</em> 2000). They feed opportunistically both inshore and offshore on fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Garcia-Godos <em>et al. </em>2002). <p></p>
106003984		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 50,000 individuals.
106003984		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106003985		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census and monitor known colonies. Study its ecological requirements. Carry out research into potential threats. Search for further breeding colonies on Japanese offshore islands. <p></p>
106003985		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma matsudairae</em> is only known to breed on the Volcano Islands (=Kazan Retto), southern <strong>Japan</strong>. It breeds at least on Minami-iwo-jima, and perhaps formerly on Kita-iwo-jima (Chiba <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has also been recorded around the Ogasawara Islands and is assumed by some to breed there (Brazil 1991, 2009), but this requires confirmation. After the breeding season, it is thought to move south across the equator, perhaps to the Timor Sea off north-west Australia, and then west into the Indian Ocean, where it winters mostly in the equatorial belt around the Seychelles and west to Somalia and Kenya. Some birds may winter off north-east New Guinea. No quantitative data are available on its population, although it is reported to be locally common in its breeding range, and its abundance in the Indian Ocean has led to the suggestion that the global population numbers a minimum of 20,000 individuals (Brooke 2004).<em> <p></p></em>
106003985		habitat	eng	It is colonial, nesting in burrows on high ground (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>. Breeding is thought to begin in January, with most fledging taking place in June (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>. In the non-breeding season it is generally pelagic, occurring far from the coast (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003985		population	eng	It is described as not especially rare in the Indian Ocean, perhaps suggesting that the global population numbers a minimum of 20,000 individuals (Brooke 2004), thus the number of mature individuals is preliminarily estimated at c.20,000.
106003985		threats	eng	The is considerable uncertainty over current potential threats to this species. Its apparent absence from Kita-iwo-jima since World War II could be due to egg predation by black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em>, which are likely to have been introduced before the war (Sato 2001 in Chiba <em>et al.</em> 2007). In contrast, no rats have been detected on Minami-iwo-jima (Tsukamoto 1983 in Chiba <em>et al</em>. 2007). The main island in the Volcano group, Iwo-jima, is uninhabited apart from the presence of military personnel, and it is unclear whether military activities pose potential threats to the species on Minami-iwo-jima, and perhaps Kita-iwo-jima, either through disturbance or the accidental introduction of alien predators. Given the inaccessibility of its nesting colonies, human activities are unlikely to pose a direct threat.<p></p>
106003986		distribution	eng	This species breeds on islands off the coast of southern Calfornia (<B>USA</B>), the Baja Peninsula and the Gulf of California (<B>Mexico</B>). During winter it disperses south and can be found off the coasts of <B>Colombia</B> and <B>Ecuador<SUP>1</SUP></B>.  </P>
106003986		habitat	eng	The Black Storm-petrel can be found foraging inshore and offshore, feeding on planktonic crustaceans (particularly larvae of the spiny lobster) but also small fish and offal. It breeds on islands adjacent to the coast and sometimes in rocky areas, generally nesting in disused auklet (Alcidae) burrows or in rocky crevices. It forms colonies to breed, which begins in May (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003986		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 500,000 individuals.
106003987		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of the Californian population nest on protected and specially managed islands. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate introduced predators from nesting islands, and ensure they remain free of introduced species. Conduct studies to determine the magnitude of threats posed by native predators, as well as pollution in foraging areas. Investigate effects of artificial lights from commercial and recreational vessels on predation and breeding success at colony sites. Continue long-term population monitoring at the South Farallon Islands, including analysis of recent mist-netting data at Southeast Farallon Island to determine recent population trends. Monitor populations in the Channel Islands. Monitor the effects of global warming on populations at sea and on breeding colonies. <p></p>
106003987		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma homochroa</em> breeds on a small number of island groups and offshore rocks within the California Current System, the northernmost being off Mendocino County, California (<span style="font-weight: bold;">USA</span>) (~39°N) and the southernmost at Los Coronados Islands off northern Baja California, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>(~32°N) (Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data, McChesney <em>et al</em>. 2000, Brown <em>et al</em>. 2003, S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Breeding has been confirmed at only six major island groups (South Farallon, San Miguel, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, San Clemente, and Los Coronado Islands) and three groups of offshore rocks (Castle Rock/Hurricane Point, Double Point, and Bird Rocks) (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Major colonies, containing the vast majority of the world population, occur on the South Farallon Islands in central California and the Channel Islands in southern California, primarily at Prince Island off San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Island, and Santa Cruz Island (Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is also suspected at one mainland site in California (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At sea, Ashy Storm-petrels remain within the central and southern California Current System year-round, preferring continental slope waters (200-2000 m deep) that are within a few kilometers of the coast in some areas (e.g. Monterey Bay) and more than 50 km offshore in other areas (e.g. Gulf of the Farallones) (Ainley 1995, Howell and Webb 1995a, S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  High densities are known to congregate in some areas, e.g. the continental shelf-break in the western Santa Barbara Channel, and in the Santa Cruz Basin that separates Santa Cruz, San Nicolas, and Santa Barbara Islands (Carter <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Autumn congregations of 4000-6000 birds have been recorded in Monterey Bay (Ainley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding population has been estimated at 5,200-10,000 individuals (Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data, Ainley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with about half breeding on the South Farallon Islands (Sydeman <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and half in the Channel Islands (Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A study on the South Farallon Islands found declines in breeding birds of 42% in 1972-1992 (Sydeman <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, equivalent to c.23% in 10 years or 78% over three generations. On Santa Cruz Island, nest-site monitoring during 1995-2006 showed declines in the number of breeding birds at two of five monitored sites (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Variation in per capita breeding productivity is thought to be related to fluctuating oceanographic conditions (Sydeman <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but consistent declines in productivity were noted on Southeast Farallon between 1990 and 2006 (Ainley <em>et al</em>. 1990, S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting a genuine temporal decline. Recent population trends have not been determined.   <p></p>
106003987		habitat	eng	Breeds in rock crevices and burrows in colonies on offshore islands. The breeding season is protracted, and eggs are laid asynchronously, with some pairs laying eggs while other pairs are in the midst of chick-rearing. At Southeast Farallon Island, Ashy Storm-petrels visit the colony year-round, and most breeding activity is concentrated in February through October (Ainley <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  At Santa Cruz Island, Ashy Storm-petrel nesting activity spans March through December (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds feed at sea on planktonic crustaceans and small fish and visit the colony at night. Foraging during the breeding season occurs mainly over continental shelves (92 - 98%), with aggregations coinciding spatially and seasonally with the spawning aggregations of sardines and anchovies (Adams and Takekawa 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003987		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 5,200-10,000 individuals, equivalent to 3,500-6,700 mature individuals.
106003987		threats	eng	Foraging areas are threatened by organochlorine and oil pollution (Coulter and Risebrough 1973, Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data, Sydeman <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Anacapa Islands, introduced rats have probably reduced colony size (Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data, Ainley 1995, Sydeman <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, though these rats have now been eradicated (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by expanding Western Gull <em>Larus occidentalis</em> populations, as well as Burrowing Owls <em>Speotyto cunicularia</em> and Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em>, may be partly responsible for keeping numbers low at South Farallon, Santa Barbara and Anacapa islands (Ainley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Bright lights used by near-shore squid fishing and other commercial and recreational vessels during the breeding season could increase predation levels (Carter <em>et al.</em> 1992 unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as cause mortality by attraction to lighted structures (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ashy Storm-petrels are sensitive to human disturbance at their nest sites and may abandon their nests with frequent disturbance (McIver 2002).<strong><sup></sup></strong> Consequently, disturbance from sea kayaker visits is a potential threat to nesting birds (McIver 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Future changes in climate could also affect this species, for example through declines in primary productivity associated with warming and reduced upwelling, sea level rises affecting nest site availability, or the effects of ocean acidification (caused by increasing carbon dioxide absorption) on crustacean prey species (S. Wolf <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106003988		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for breeding colonies on offshore islands, coastal cliffs and the arid hinterland of the Antofagasta region in March-July, looking for burrows and signs of nesting, listening for night-time flight calls and following up reports of dead or grounded fledglings inland<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006).  <p></p>
106003988		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma hornbyi</em> has been observed in thousands in the eastern Pacific Ocean, along the coast of <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong> (Carboneras 1992c). Data on overall numbers and trends are lacking, and the breeding grounds have never been found (Carboneras 1992c, Brooke 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. At-sea distribution and observations of grounded birds indicate that it nests between 20° and 25°S in Chile and perhaps north into Peru (Brooke 1999). Birds may breed on offshore islands or mainland cliffs, but the coast of north Chile is distinctly bereft of islands and the cliffs are largely devoid of deep rocky crevices or soil in which petrels might burrow (Brooke 1999). It is most likely to nest in the Atacama Desert, and there are reports of mummified adults and fledglings found up to 50 km inland and 1,500 m above sea level<strong> </strong>(Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006).<em> <p></p></em>
106003988		habitat	eng	It may breed on offshore islands or mainland cliffs, but is most likely to nest inland in the arid Atacama Desert. <p></p>
106003988		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least thousands of individuals (possibly up to tens of thousands of individuals). It is thus estimated to range between 1,000-90,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-60,000 mature individuals.
106003988		threats	eng	Until the breeding grounds are found, the extent to which it is threatened by mining-related activity will remain unknown (Brooke 1999). <p></p>
106003989		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout the North Pacific, with sites ranging from the Californian coast (<B>USA</B>) in the east, the Alaskan coast in the north and the Kuril Islands (<B>Russia</B>) in the west. Outside the breeding season it disperses over adjacent waters.  </P>
106003989		habitat	eng	The Fork-tailed Storm-petrel breeds on offshore islands in grassy areas, on rocky hillsides or amongst trees - sometimes far from sea (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It generally forages on continental shelves (Crossin 1974, Harris 1974), foraging closer to the shore whilst breeding (Boersma et al. 1980). Despite foraging in nearshore areas, chicks frequently go unfed for several nights (Boersma et al. 1980). Its diet comprises mainly of planktonic crustaceans, small fish and squid, and it can feed on the wing or by surface-seizing (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
106003989		population	eng	Brooke (2004)   estimated the global population to number &gt; c.6,000,000 individuals, while   national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106003990		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106003991		distribution	eng	<em>Xenicus longipes </em>was endemic to the three main islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, with <em>variabilis</em> of Stewart Island last recorded in 1965, <em>stokesi</em> of the North Island in 1949, and the nominate race of the South Island in 1972<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <p></p>
106003991		habitat	eng	On the mainland, it was a species of dense, montane forest, while on offshore islands it was found in coastal forest and scrub<strong> </strong>(Robertson 1985).  <p></p>
106003991		threats	eng	Its decline was presumably caused by introduced predators<strong> </strong>(Robertson 1985), to which it was particularly vulnerable, being a ground-nester<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106003992		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In January 2005, the Department of Conservation relocated 24 individuals from the Murchison Mountains to predator-free Anchor Island in Dusky Sound. Monitoring of this translocated population has followed (Weston 2006),<strong></strong> and a translocation to Secretary Island was planned for 2008.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to verify population estimates and identify key sites for this species. Carry out predator control programmes at key breeding sites, especially during plague years. Continue the programme of translocation, including considering translocations to Secretary Island in Doubtful Sound.  <p></p>
106003992		distribution	eng	<em>Xenicus gilviventris</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Once found in the North Island prior to European settlement, it is now restricted to the South Island, where it ranges from north-west Nelson, down through Westland and the Southern Alps, to Fiordland (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. It was described as locally common (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>, but its distribution is fragmented, and a recent analysis of sightings indicates that about 20% of known localities have had no sightings in the past 20 years (P. Gaze <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Its population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (<strong></strong>R. Hitchmough<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Its range continues to decline (Michelsen-Heath and Gaze in press)<strong></strong> and a 40% decline in abundance over a 20-year period occurred in the Murchison mountains (Willians 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106003992		habitat	eng	Populations are confined to alpine and subalpine habitat, on mountain ranges and in valleys above the timberline, between c.920 m and 2,900 m (mostly 1,200 to 2,400 m). It inhabits rocky slopes, including talus, open scree, glacial moraine and rocky outcrops, usually vegetated with alpine and subalpine low shrublands. It nests among loose rock or debris, on bluffs or rocky ledges, always close to vegetation. It is insectivorous, but will occasionally take fruits and seeds from alpine vegetation (<strong></strong>Higgins <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Flight is relatively weak, although birds still range over extensive areas of steep mountain terrain (R. Hay <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106003992		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals (R. Hitchmough<I> in litt.</I> 2005).
106003992		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is predation by introduced mammals, house mice <em>Mus musculus</em> and stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em>, particularly in years when <em>M. erminea</em> populations are high in response to mouse plagues (R. Hay <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The only study on nesting in this species showed significant levels of egg and chick loss to mice and stoat (Michelsen-Heath 1989)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106003993		distribution	eng	<em>Traversia lyalli </em>is only known from recent times from Stephens Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong> (Greenway 1967), although it is common in fossil deposits from both of the main islands<strong> </strong>(Worthy and Holdaway 1994). It was extinct by November 1895, but it had survived into that year, with Travers finding a cat-caught specimen in February (Tennyson and Martinson 2006).<p></p>
106003993		habitat	eng	The species was flightless and restricted to the rocky ground<strong> </strong>(Millener 1989).  <p></p>
106003993		threats	eng	Construction of a lighthouse on Stephens Island in 1894 led to the clearance of most of the island's forest, with predation by the lighthouse keeper's cat delivering the species's coup-de-grace<strong> </strong>(Tyrberg &amp; Milberg 1991).  <p></p>
106003994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare or very rare in most localities though occasionally locally common  (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106003995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very abundant (for example in Louang, Laos) to rare (north-eastern Bangladesh). Areas where it is common make up only a small part of its range (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106003996		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous (north Annam) to very rare, for example in Hainan (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106003997		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be from common (Burma, Malaysia) to very rare, for example in Yunnan province of China (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106003998		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1931. There are recent records from Kerinci-Seblat National Park and the Bukit Dingin/Gunung Dempu Protection Forest. There are over 20 protected areas in the Barisan Mountains, but most of these receive no management. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys for the species (ensuring familiarity with its vocalisations to aid detection) to establish its distribution, status and ecological requirements. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Ensure effective management for Sumatran protected areas. Promote a widespread conservation awareness campaign in the Barisan Mountains aimed at reducing rates of forest loss through shifting cultivation. <p></p>
106003998		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta schneideri</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where its known range spans a large part of the Barisan range (from Gunung Sibayak, North Sumatra, to Gunung Dempu, South Sumatra) (BirdLife International 2001). Historically it was very common in the Gunung Kerinci area, but a period of over 70 years followed before it was rediscovered on the mountain in 1988 (Hurrel 1989). Camera trapping at Bukit Barasan Selatan National Park has recorded the species as often as Banded Pitta <em>Pitta guajana</em>, which is not considered to be a rare species. However, camera trapping at Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP) in west-central Sumatra failed to record the species (Dinata <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). True distribution and abundance remain poorly understood owing primarily to a lack of survey effort in many areas of potentially suitable forest, but improved knowledge of its call may lead to further sites being discovered in the future. <p></p>
106003998		habitat	eng	It inhabits the floor and undergrowth of primary and selectively logged, tropical lower and upper montane rainforest, from 900 m to 2,400&#160;m. It is generally unobtrusive, being encountered singly or in pairs (unless with accompanying young) in tangled undergrowth or along forest trails. It is assumed to be resident, although it may perhaps make local altitudinal movements.<p></p>
106003998		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106003998		threats	eng	The main pressure is imposed by habitat destruction. At least a third of montane rainforest on Sumatra has already been lost as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging. This is affecting large areas of lower montane rainforest, even within protected areas. Kerinci-Seblat National Park, for example, was cited in 1984 as one of the 10 most threatened protected areas in the Indo-Malayan Realm, owing to illegal encroachment of farming. At Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900 m as early as 1917, and indeed all recent records are from areas of broken forest with a high pressure from agriculture on their peripheries. In addition, this species may be susceptible to hunting with air-rifles and snares set for mammals and larger ground-foraging birds. <p></p>
106003999		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.<br/><p></p>
106003999		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta caerulea</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (not recorded this century), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is scarce or rare throughout its range, although it may be overlooked due to its shy nature. It occurs at low densities, even in optimal habitat (BirdLife International 2001, Yong Ding Li <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <em> </em><p></p>
106003999		habitat	eng	This species occurs mainly in primary and tall secondary forests in lowlands and hills, up to 1,200 m. It is most often found in dense, swampy areas, although there are records from overgrown rubber estates, scrub and secondary thickets. Little is known of its precise habitat requirements.  <p></p>
106003999		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce to rare.
106003999		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The expansion of oil-palm cultivation is an increasing threat (Yong Ding Li <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion. Poaching is said to be a potential threat in parts of peninsular Thailand (Yong Ding Li <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).  <p></p>
106004000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be from abundant (Bolovens plateau, Cambodia) to very rare, for example in Yunnan province of China (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon, though very rare in some areas (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004003		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Following its rediscovery in Thailand, a series of breeding season censuses were conducted in 1987-1989 to locate and quantify populations in peninsular Thailand. The most important of these, Khao Nor Chuchi, was designated a Non-Hunting Area in 1987, and upgraded to a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1993. The Khao Nor Chuchi Lowland Forest Project was established in 1990 and engaged the local community in participatory management, education programmes and ecotourism, to help reduce pressure on remaining forest. However, this has met with limited success as economic incentives continue to govern land-use decisions. A tree nursery has been created by the project in Thailand, with a Treasure Tree programme initiated with local schoolchildren to encourage involvement in environmental activities such as tree-planting, and run activities such as bird and tree identification (Anon. 2009). A species recovery plan was produced for Thailand in 2002. The capacity for emergency measures is now in place in case the Thai population falls below five pairs; this would involve captive breeding and supplementary feeding. Research is underway to identify the key tree species associated with the birds' habitat in Thailand (Donald 2008). A project in Myanmar aimed at conserving remaining lowland forest in southern Tenasserim commenced in 2004. There are currently no protected areas in this region (BirdLife International 2003)<strong></strong>, but the proposed Lenya National Park would protect a large area of suitable habitat (J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys at known sites. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's known range. Monitor levels of trapping. Establish and effectively protect Lenya National Park as a matter of urgency. Extend strict protected area status to all remaining suitable habitat currently outside Khao Nor Chuchi Wildlife Sanctuary boundaries. Establish an <em>in situ</em> protection unit with direct responsibility for safeguarding all remaining habitat, to facilitate cooperation with sanctuary officials and strengthen management and community participation.  <p></p>
106004003		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta gurneyi</em> occurs in<strong> </strong>southern Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar </strong> and adjacent peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>. Formerly common across much of its range, there were no field observations in Thailand between 1952 and 1986 <strong></strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Since 1986, intensive surveys have found it in at least five localities, although it has disappeared from all but one of these, Khao Nor Chuchi. This population has declined from 44-45 pairs in 1986 to just nine pairs in 1997, most of which are outside protected-area boundaries. Detailed work in 2003-2007 recorded birds at 27 sites in Khao Nor Chuchi, and a further survey of the area in 2009 found 12 individuals responding to tape playback (Anon. 2009, Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The outlook for the population in Thailand is regarded as pessimistic (J. Eames <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A search for it in Myanmar in 2003 was successful and discovered the species at four sites with a maximum of 10-12 pairs at one location (BirdLife International 2003, Eames <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. It was found to be not uncommon at some sites, and on the basis of previously reported population densities and extent of suitable habitat, the population was estimated to number 5,152-8,586 pairs (Eames <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. It may number considerably more than this, but no further quantification has been made and so the estimate is precautionarily retained.&#160; In 2007-2008, the species was recorded at 101 census points in Myanmar (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In 2010, a follow-up survey in the country found 13 individuals, at six different survey points (Anon. 2010). In general, even during intensive survey work the species is likely to be under-recorded owing to its low detectability (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106004003		habitat	eng	It occurs in secondary, regenerating, lowland semi-evergreen forest, usually below 160 m in flat areas with slopes less than ten degrees, with an understorey containing <em>Salacca</em> palms, in which it nests. Recent research suggests the species uses different habitat types in Thailand and Myanmar, which is encouraging for habitat restoration work (Donald 2008). Territories are centred on gulley systems where moist conditions prevail year-round, usually with access to water, and often close to forest edge. It is likely to show "a heavy reliance on earthworms", in line with other members of the genus. It breeds during the wet season, between April and October. <p></p>
106004003		population	eng	In Myanmar, on the basis of previously reported population densities and extent of suitable habitat, the population is estimated to be 5,152-8,586 pairs, equating to 10,300-17,100 mature individuals, or roughly 15,000-26,000 individuals in total.
106004003		threats	eng	The key reason for its decline has been the almost total clearance of lowland forest in southern Myanmar and peninsular Thailand through clear-felling for timber, unofficial logging and conversion to croplands, fruit orchards, coffee, rubber and oil-palm plantations. By 1987, only 20-50 km<sup>2</sup> of forest below 100 m remained in peninsular Thailand and this area continues to decline. The rate and extent of conversion of flat forest to oil-palm plantation in Myanmar in the next ten years is open to speculation, but most land is already assigned to plantations and, were foreign companies to become more involved, it could become very rapid (<strong></strong>J. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. An added complication is that future deforestation rates will also be strongly influenced by internal politics in the region and the strength of the insurgency groups (P. Donald <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In Thailand at least, snare-line trapping for the cage-bird trade is also a serious threat. Predation by cat snakes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Boiga</span> spp.) appears to limit reproductive success in Thailand. These predators are native, but may be present at a higher-than-natural density, having been favoured by habitat fragmentation in the area (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106004004		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas: Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks, Kalimantan, as well as Sepilok (Sabah), Ulu Barito, Tabin, Samunsam, Gunung Lotung/Malimau and Gunung Mulu Reserves. The degree of protection that these designations actually offer is not known but law enforcement is required.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey lowland forest throughout Borneo to clarify the range, status and ecological requirements of this species, and assess the scale of threats that it faces. Formulate a management strategy for birds largely reliant on lowland forest in the Sundaic region. Promote the effective management of existing protected areas and the expansion of the protected-area network in Borneo. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forests. Ensure that existing protected areas are adequately protected. <p></p>
106004004		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta</em> <em>baudii</em> occurs throughout the lowlands of Borneo, in Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Although sometimes locally common, its population is fragmented, being confined to extreme lowland forest on level ground. The species has undoubtedly declined owing to extensive deforestation of lowlands within its range. <p></p>
106004004		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to mature, lowland evergreen forest (including regenerating selectively logged forest and old secondary forest), usually extending upslope to 600 m, rarely to 1,200 m. While it occurs in secondary forest, it appears to be most abundant in, and possibly reliant on, primary habitat. It generally keeps to dense cover. <p></p>
106004004		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106004004		threats	eng	Loss of low-altitude dryland forest is the primary threat to this species. Kalimantan as a whole lost 90,000 km<sup>2</sup> of this habitat in the period 1985-1997, representing just under 25% of its 1985 cover, because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). Furthermore, protected areas are by no means exempt: Gunung Palung National Park, for example, has been 80% hand-logged in recent years. The scale of lowland deforestation and destruction throughout Borneo, due to logging, drought and fire, suggests that the overall population of this species continues to decline precipitously. <p></p>
106004005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be relatively common in parts of its range but rare or localised in other areas (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004006		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004007		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey elsewhere on Manus. Interview local villagers about this species's distribution and population trends. Map territories around Rossun and relate to habitat types. Investigate feeding and breeding ecology around Rossun. Investigate impact of introduced predatory species. Monitor numbers calling around Rossun. Encourage designation of large community-based conservation areas. Use as a flagship species in encouraging ecotourism initiatives with local landowners. Use as a flagship species in general provincial conservation awareness programmes. <p></p>
106004007		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta superba</em> is endemic to Manus in the Admiralty Islands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It has an enigmatically patchy distribution and probably occurs at low population densities. Four pairs have been found in recent years around Rossun village, whilst in 2002 three birds were heard within a small area of forest 10 km inland from the north-western coast (Williams <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, however by 2007 only one bird could be located<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Whilst most of Manus remains unsurveyed and this bird may be largely silent and thus overlooked, it is absent from several seemingly suitable areas (Dutson and Newman 1991, D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994<strong></strong>, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997, A. Mack <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. During eight visits to Manus between 2002 and 2005, the birds were found to be absent from areas close to where they had previously been recorded and at most sites the birds were either absent or present at very low densities (A. Mack<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Interviews with local people during these visits also found that many local people were unfamiliar with the species (A. Mack<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012), although such interviews should be interpreted with caution. A total of 29 specimens were collected in two months in 1913 (Rothschild and Hartert 1914)<strong></strong>, suggesting either that this species's favoured haunts have not been rediscovered or that it has undergone a steep decline. <p></p>
106004007		habitat	eng	Virtually all recent records of this very shy species are of calling birds. Records are from primary forest and patchy forest with areas of secondary forest and garden regrowth at 100-200&#160;m. It has not been recorded on steep slopes or in the slightly submontane forest of interior Manus. Possible habitat preferences which have been suggested include bamboo thickets or open hilltop forest near a reasonably large river with stones, which are used as anvils to break mollusc shells (Dutson and Newman 1991, D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106004007		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004007		threats	eng	Large areas of Manus have been logged or are under logging concessions. However, as its habitat requirements are unclear, it is not known whether this species is threatened by habitat degradation (Dutson and Newman 1991, D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Its habitat is also suffering from intense pressure from a growing human population (A. Mack <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012. It is possibly threatened by introduced species such as cats and dogs but the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has decimated birds on Guam, is thought to be native to Manus (Dutson and Newman 1991, R. E. Beck <em>in litt.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. A proposal to build a space station on Manus is currently shelved (I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004008		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in one protected area, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, and recent management efforts appear to be minimising the pressures on this park. It also occurs in the Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve, although this area is threatened by a pending application to allow mineral extraction in the surrounding area. No protected area is currently proposed for Bislig but work is on-going between the Philippine Eagle Foundation and the City Government of Bislig for the declaration of a 7,000-ha Philippine Eagle nesting site as "critical habitat" under a new Philippine Wildlife Law, and similarly at Mt Hamiguitan. Azure-breasted Pitta has been reported from both sites. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Samar, Leyte and in poorly-known areas of Mindanao, to establish its current distribution and population status. Research its ecological requirements, particularly its association with limestone and tolerance of degradation. Formally designate Rajah Sikatuna National Park as a strict protected area and continue management activities there to minimise habitat disturbance. Propose additional key sites (following surveys) for establishment as protected areas. Ensure that existing protected areas are adequately protected and enforced. <p></p>
106004008		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta steerii</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte, Bohol and Mindanao (BirdLife International 2001). Historical evidence indicates it was always rather local and uncommon but since 1980 it is has been recorded at just three sites, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, where it is locally common, Bislig, and a location on the Zamboanga peninsula on Mindanao. Its current status on Samar and Leyte, where it was last recorded in 1969 and 1964 respectively, is not known. <p></p>
106004008		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest on limestone karst or forest liberally scattered with limestone boulders, up to 750 m. It has also been encountered in stunted and secondary formations in close association with limestone. Recent surveys found it in association with stunted, highly endemic iron-wood (<em>Xanthostemon verdugonianus</em>) forests on the eastern slopes of Mount Hilong Hilong in Mindanao and in "bonsai" or pygmy forests in the lowlands of Mount Hamiguitan <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The ecological significance of its preference for limestone is not clear.  <p></p>
106004008		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004008		threats	eng	Its whole range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000 m. Most remaining lowland forest is now leased to logging concessions or mining applications. Estimates from 1989 were that as little as 433 km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained on Samar and Leyte. Just 4% forest cover is thought to remain on Bohol. Local pressures at Rajah Sikatuna National Park include limited illegal tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion. Forest at Bislig is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Mining for chromite and nickel represents the most significant threat to many remaining forest areas <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106004009		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Mt Isarog and Mt Pulog National Parks and the Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park. All forest above 1,100 m elevation is protected by law, and there are additional strict protection zones for montane forest in Isabela province and most of Cagayan province, although law enforcement is often weak (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecological requirements (to identify its optimal habitat), conduct comparative studies of breeding regimes in the Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre, and investigate its migratory habits/dispersive capability, to facilitate conservation planning. Extend the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to incorporate Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Following consultation with indigenous people, formally protect further key sites (e.g. Mts Cagua, Cetaceo, Polis and the Angat watershed). <p></p>
106004009		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta kochi</em> is endemic to Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is restricted to the mountains of the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre in the north, and the Bicol region in the south (BirdLife International 2001). Formerly judged to be rare and local overall, there have been a number of records, from at least 13 widely spread localities, since 1990. Although recent survey evidence shows it to be locally common, it is presumably declining overall, and populations in Bicol are likely to be highly threatened <strong></strong>(D. Allen <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012). <p></p>
106004009		habitat	eng	It chiefly inhabits montane forest, tolerating degraded and selectively logged areas. Records span a wide altitudinal range (360-2,200 m), with highest densities found at 900-1,400 m. It appears to prefer closed-canopy, primary montane, oak dominated forest, frequently on steep slopes. Its movements are poorly understood. Records from south Luzon (which may refer to wintering individuals) suggest that there is some intra-island migration. <p></p>
106004009		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106004009		threats	eng	The chief threat is habitat loss, compounded locally by hunting with snares. In 1988, an estimated 24% of Luzon remained forested. In the Cordillera Central, montane forest is threatened by logging, agricultural encroachment and mining (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Large areas in the southern Cordillera Central have been converted for cultivation, and the species is likely to be rare or locally extinct there; however, the northern Cordillera Central is sparsely populated, and there are large areas of undisturbed forest. Surveys indicate that the species is not presently threatened by forest conversion in Apayao province (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s; however, illegal logging activities in the Sierra Madre target lowland tree species, rather than montane species, and there is reportedly no agricultural encroachment above 800 m in the northern Sierra Madre, suggesting that the species could be secure there (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Major road-building plans pose a further threat. Several key sites are suffering serious habitat degradation (e.g. Mt Diapalayag, Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park and Mt Isarog). Snaring is a problem in some areas, such as Mt Polis (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><p></p>
106004010		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common locally for example, parts of Luzon, Bacan, Obi and Australia to apparently rare or overlooked on other parts of Luzon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004011		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.<br/><p></p>
106004011		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta dohertyi</em> is endemic to the Banggai and Sula Islands (Peleng, Banggai, Taliabu and Mangole), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is local and generally uncommon (BirdLife International 2001). <em> </em><p></p>
106004011		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland evergreen forest, apparently not ascending above 200 m. There are also records from degraded selectively-logged forest.  <p></p>
106004011		population	eng	The population size of this taxon has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon and local.
106004011		threats	eng	The clearance, disturbance and degradation of lowland forests is increasing in this species's small range, and its population is therefore likely to be declining.  <p></p>
106004012		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rarer than other pittas in Sabah, uncommon or rare in Sarawak and rather rare in Kalimantan (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004014		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1931. It occurs in Kerinci-Seblat and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks, and there are at least 20 protected areas in the Barisan mountain range, although most receive scant protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys for the species (ensuring familiarity with vocalisations to aid detection) in remaining tracts of hill dipterocarp and lower montane rainforest in Sumatra to establish its distribution, status and ecological requirements. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Ensure effective management for Sumatran protected areas. Promote a widespread conservation awareness campaign aimed at reducing rates of forest loss through shifting cultivation. <p></p>
106004014		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta venusta</em> is endemic to the highlands of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Records are infrequent, and the species was thought to be rare or very local, occurring in pockets. The apparent paucity of records and known sites may largely reflect a lack of widespread survey coverage. Increasing knowledge of the species's call has led to records at a number of new sites, suggesting that it may not be as rare as previously thought <strong></strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Given the destruction of lowland and lower-montane forest in Sumatra, it must have declined. <p></p>
106004014		habitat	eng	It inhabits the floor and undergrowth of hill dipterocarp and lower montane rainforest from 400 m to 1,400&#160;m, frequenting dark, damp areas, in particular ravines under dense cover. It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements. In general, it is extremely skulking and difficult to observe.<p></p>
106004014		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004014		threats	eng	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are undoubtedly the main threats, as all have been extensive on Sumatra. At least two-thirds to four-fifths of original lowland forest cover and at least one-third of montane forest has been lost, primarily to agricultural encroachment by shifting cultivators, a factor currently affecting large areas of hill dipterocarp and lower montane forest, even within protected areas. In 1984, Kerinci-Seblat National Park was cited as one of the ten most threatened protected areas in the Indo-Malayan Realm, owing to illegal encroachment of farming. At Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900 m as early as 1917, and indeed most recent records are from areas of broken forest with a high pressure from agriculture on their peripheries. <p></p>
106004015		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004018		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in mainland China, Taiwan, Japan, North Korea and South Korea. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, notably Keoje Island Natural Monument, the main breeding site in South Korea. BirdLife International and the Wild Bird Federation Taiwan have successfully lobbied against gravel extraction at Huban-Hushan IBA in the past and are now campaigning against the proposed Hushan Dam Project at the same site. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey its breeding range to establish its population size, distribution and occurrence in protected areas. Research its ecology, including its habitat requirements, with the aim of developing appropriate forest management regimes in protected areas where it occurs. Protect remaining areas of forest where this and other threatened species occur and ensure they are suitably managed. Ensure adequate protection of forest in existing protected areas holding this species and prevent hunting and trapping within them. Continue to lobby against the proposed Hushan Dam project. <p></p>
106004018		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta nympha</em> breeds in north-east Asia in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), and winters mainly on the island of Borneo, in east <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia </strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It has been recorded on passage in northern Taiwan (W. Hsu <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) and, most recently, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span> (BCST Bird Record Committee 2009). It appears to be localised in its breeding range, but occurs at relatively high densities at some localities. Preliminary estimates based on playback surveys by the Taiwan Endemic Species Research Institute suggest that up to 2,000 individuals may breed in Taiwan (Fang Woei-Horng <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Survey effort in Jiangxi (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2003)<strong></strong>, Guangxi (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2002a,b) and Hainan (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2001)<strong></strong> Provinces, China, has identified a number of new locations. Overall, its population is unlikely to be more than a few thousand individuals and it is thought to be declining, although the Japanese Ministry of Environment report in 2004 shows that it was recorded in a greater number of survey squares during 1997-2002 distributional surveys of Japanese animals compared with their 1974-1978 figures (Y. Kominami <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. The total population is likely to fall between 3,000 and 5,000 individuals (Wild at Heart Legal Defence Association undated).<br/><p></p>
106004018		habitat	eng	It breeds in subtropical forest, where its localised distribution suggests that it has specialised habitat requirements. Peak breeding season in Taiwan is in May and June. In Japan, it breeds primarily in broadleaved evergreen forest near the coast (mostly below 500 m), although breeding has been recorded from plantations and the species appears to be adaptable to modified forest habitats. In South Korea, it breeds in dense moist forest and broadleaved forest near the coast, up to 1,200 m. The nest is usually built in crevices or foliage 1-5 m above the ground. It forages amongst leaf-litter for invertebrates, also occasionally taking snakes, lizards and small rodents (Wild at Heart Legal Defence Association undated). <p></p>
106004018		population	eng	BirdLife International (2001) estimated the total population to be not more than a few thousand or tens of thousands of individuals. This is precautionarily placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106004018		threats	eng	The key threat is extensive lowland deforestation in its breeding range, particularly for development and gravel extraction  (Wild at Heart Legal Defence Association undated). In south-east China, most forest has been cleared or modified through conversion to agricultural land and logging for timber. Uncontrolled fires have further reduced remaining forest cover. The area of forest in Japan is gradually increasing, but mature forest is rare and most is regenerating secondary forest or plantations cut on a 15-30 year cycle. It was extensively trapped for the cage-bird trade in the past in Taiwan and hunting is a threat in China. Human disturbance is a problem in Taiwan, South Korea and particularly on its breeding grounds in Japan, where the species suffers disturbance from photographers (Yukihiro Kominami <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Huben-Hushan IBA in Yunlin County, Taiwan, supports the largest known breeding population of the species, but it is seriously threatened by the proposed Hushan Dam Project, which would flood 422 ha of key habitat. Despite opposition from conservation groups this project has not been stopped and disturbance at the construction site saw the number of breeding birds drop to 18 in 2007, from 32 the previous year (Fang Woei-Horng <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004020		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across its range to determine the magnitude of declines. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of coastal mangrove woodland throughout its range.   <p></p>
106004020		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta megarhyncha </em>occurs in <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(probably a very local resident in the Sundarbans, common at Khulna); its presence in the Sundarbans of <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span> has also recently been confirmed with photographic evidence (S. K. Sen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009); it also occurs in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (scarce to locally common), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (uncommon to locally common in west), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it is now considered uncommon, East Malaysia (one record), <strong>Singapore</strong>, where it is rare, and <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it ranges south from the Riau archipelago, through the eastern lowlands of Sumatra to Bangka  (Choy and Wee 2010). It is restricted to coastal mangroves, suggesting that its population is likely to be moderately small. <em> <p></p></em>
106004020		habitat	eng	This species occurs in coastal mangroves, as well as in mangrove and <em>Nipa</em> palm stands along tidal rivers, and freshwater swamp forest. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs and terrestrial insects in drier mud at the bases of mangroves. Nesting has been recorded between May and June (Choy and Wee 2010).<br/><p></p>
106004020		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally scarce to locally common.
106004020		threats	eng	Coastal mangrove forests are suffering severe pressure through clearance for fuelwood, charcoal production and construction materials, as well as for the development of fish and shrimp ponds.  <p></p>
106004021		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004022		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare in New South Wales and locally moderately common in Queensland (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004024		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An ecotourism facility proposed for Tirotonga will help to underline the importance of conserving this species.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for this species away from Tirotonga with the aid of tape-recordings. Survey Bougainville once the island opens to research. Interview inland villagers across its range. Monitor numbers calling around Tirotonga. Map occurrences around Tirotonga in relation to forest-types. Investigate basic ecology at Tirotonga. Aid establishment and marketing of ecotourism at Tirotonga. Initiate public awareness programmes, initially on Santa Isabel. <p></p>
106004024		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta anerythra</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and Choiseul and Santa Isabel, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It was formerly reasonably common, at least on Bougainville, where 40 specimens were collected before 1938 (Erritzoe and Erritzoe 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was then not recorded until 1994 when it was found to be fairly common at Tirotonga on Santa Isabel (Gibbs 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with up to three birds heard calling simultaneously (Gibbs <em>in litt</em> 1994, Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Searches and interviews on Choiseul and Bougainville (until the island became closed to visitors) have been unsuccessful (Gibbs <em>in litt</em> 1994, K.&#160;D.&#160;Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1997, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are unconfirmed reports from Kolombangara and Vangunu (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; although these islands neighbour Choiseul, they are in a different biogeographic subregion and thus this species is unlikely to breed there. <p></p>
106004024		habitat	eng	At Tirotonga, it is found in primary forest, and also small forest remnants and regrowth thickets within a patchwork of gardens between 400-600 m. Here it is more common in the secondary thickets of the gardened areas and less common in large tracts of primary forest. Two nests found in 1998 were in tiny fragments of closed-canopy forest next to gardens and thickets, one in 1999 was in primary forest (M.&#160;Hafe verbally 1998, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Whitney expeditions found this species in forested mountain valleys and coastal and alluvial plains (Rothschild and Hartert 1905, Mayr 1945)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004024		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004024		threats	eng	At Tirotonga, it occurs beside settlements with cats, dogs and rats which may indicate that it is not susceptible to introduced mammalian predators (Gibbs <em>in litt</em> 1994, Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M.&#160;Hafe verbally 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. However, the lack of recent records from Bougainville and Choiseul is concerning (K.&#160;D.&#160;Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It may have a very patchy distribution or it may have declined severely away from Tirotonga. Some of the historical specimens were taken in alluvial valleys (Mayr 1945<strong></strong>) and this habitat is threatened by the extensive logging of lowland forests. <p></p>
106004025		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004026		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. the species is poorly known but has been described as frequent to common in well-studied parts of its range (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally frequent to common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004028		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is very well-protected in Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Kahuzi-Biéga National Park embraces much habitat west of Lake Kivu, but is under threat (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the Itombwe Mountains are not protected. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Evaluate its distribution and status within the projected range, once the security situation permits this. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends, once the security situation is conducive. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its projected range. As and when feasible, increase efforts to effectively protect Kahuzi-Biéga National Park. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, particularly in the Itombwe Mountains. <p></p>
106004028		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocalyptomena graueri</em> is known from only two areas in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, the Itombwe Mountains and the mountains west of Lake Kivu, and one area in south-west <strong>Uganda</strong>, Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest. The species is not considered common in Bwindi Forest, where density is probably one per km<sup>2</sup>, and recent surveys have been unsuccessful in locating the species in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park (A. Plumptre <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004028		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary rainforest (up to 20 m off ground, but usually in middle strata in Bwindi), and also occurs in forest edge and isolated trees in cleared ground (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, M. Carswell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, flowers, buds, fruit, beetles, larvae and snails (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only recorded nest was found 11 m up in a 20 m tree in the outermost branches overhanging a stream, situated in a valley floor with open shrubby vegetation (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Bwindi, fledged young were being fed in March (M. Carswell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004028		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004028		threats	eng	Deforestation and forest degradation are the most likely threats throughout its range. Forest in the Itombwe Mountains and Kahuzi-Biéga is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997, Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998, Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The human population in this volatile area is increasing rapidly and thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997, Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998, Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture, particularly along the southern and western edges of gallery montane forest, has increased dramatically in the past few years as maize crops have failed, causing famine (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004029		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the greater Sundas and northern Thailand. In peninsular Thailand and Malaysia the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004030		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in one protected area, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, and recent management efforts appear to be minimising the pressures on this park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey remaining tracts of lowland forest on Samar, Leyte and Bohol to establish its current distribution and population status. Conduct research into its ecological requirements, including tolerance of disturbed habitats. Formally designate Rajah Sikatuna National Park as a strictly protected area and continue management activities there to minimise habitat disturbance. Propose additional key sites (following surveys) for establishment as protected areas. <p></p>
106004030		distribution	eng	<em>Eurylaimus samarensis</em> is endemic to the Eastern Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte and Bohol (Collar<em> et al.</em> 1999). It was patchily abundant on Samar in the 19th century and may have remained moderately common there until at least the 1960s. However, there is a very limited area of forest remaining within its range. Despite this, it was recorded on Samar in 2005 and 2011 (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The majority of post-1980 records come from Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, where observations are not infrequent. Elsewhere on Bohol it appears to be scarce, although it is unobtrusive and almost certainly under-recorded. Its current status on Leyte is not known. <p></p>
106004030		habitat	eng	It is restricted to primary lowland forest, occurring up to 750&#160;m, and appears to tolerate only minimal habitat disturbance. Some, if not all, areas are characterised by limestone outcrops. However, this apparent preference for forest growing on limestone karst may simply reflect the fact that forest remains in such areas because they are too rocky to cultivate and there is no water for drinking or irrigation.<p></p>
106004030		population	eng	Given the species's scarcity, its population is suspected to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004030		threats	eng	The chief threat is lowland deforestation. In 1989, it was estimated that on Samar and Leyte as little as 433 km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained. Just 4% forest cover (c.151 km<sup>2</sup>) is thought to remain on Bohol. Much remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions, and mining applications pose an additional threat. Local pressures at Rajah Sikatuna National Park include limited illegal tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion. <p></p>
106004031		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. the species is reported to be relatively common in the Sunda islands except Java where it is rare. In Indochina the species is reported to be uncommon in the southern lowlands to extremely rare, for example the species has not been seen in northern Thailand since 1945 (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004032		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.<br/><p></p>
106004032		distribution	eng	<em>Eurylaimus ochromalus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is recorded from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It remains locally common in areas of suitable habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
106004032		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of forest types including primary lowland evergreen forest, mixed dipterocarp forest, swamp forest and forest edge, as well as secondary growth and adjacent plantations. It occurs mainly in the lowlands, up to 1,200 m in some areas. Persistence in logged forests, secondary habitats and plantations is dependent on the presence of many remnant tall trees.   <p></p>
106004032		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106004032		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary forest.  <p></p>
106004033		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from three protected areas: Mt Apo Natural Park, Pasonanca Natural Park and Siargao Island Protected Landscape. In addition, there are pre-1980 records from Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve, the Basilan Natural Biotic Area and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which is proposed for national park status. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts, particularly on Siargao and around Mts Hilong-hilong, Sugarloaf, Matutum and Mayo (on Mindanao) to establish its current distribution and status. Investigate its reported use of mangroves and research its ecological requirements. Propose sites supporting key populations for protection, where appropriate. Ensure that proposed protected areas are gazetted and adequately protected. <p></p>
106004033		distribution	eng	<em>Eurylaimus steerii</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Mindanao and neighbouring Dinagat, Siargao and Basilan (including the islets of Poneas and Malamaui) (Collar<em> et al.</em> 1999). Formerly widespread and fairly common, documented records since 1980 derive from just five sites, three on Mindanao (southern Zamboanga Peninsula, Mt Apo and Bislig) and one on each of Poneas and Siargao, indicating that it is now uncommon and local. <p></p>
106004033		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower and middle storeys of primary and adjacent or admixed secondary forest, generally well below 1,000 m, but occasionally up to 1,200 m. There are occasional records from mangroves and even scrub forest on dry, rocky substrates. <p></p>
106004033		population	eng	A preliminary population estimate of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals is used here, but this requires further documentation. <p></p>
106004033		threats	eng	Its entire range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000 m. Most remaining lowland forest is now leased to logging concessions or mining applications. Dinagat has been virtually totally deforested owing to illegal logging and chromite surface-mining and little forest remains on Siargao, Basilan or Malamaui. Much of the forest at the key site of Bislig was cleared under concession by 2005 when deforestation&#160; under concession ceased, although forest loss there has since accelerated owing to illegal settlers and illicit logging (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Forest fires, associated with insurgency, are a problem on the Zamboanga Peninsula.  <p></p>
106004034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common in much of its range though in the north-western part it appears to be rarer (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004036		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.   <p></p>
106004036		distribution	eng	<em>Calyptomena viridis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan (including the Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally common to fairly common in suitable habitat. <em> </em><p></p>
106004036		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in the understorey of primary evergreen and mixed dipterocarp forest in the lowlands, principally below 800 m, but occasionally to 1,700 m. It is also found in tall secondary forest and other secondary habitats if primary forest is adjacent. These habitats may only be used for foraging. Studies have revealed marked declines in density following logging activities <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2003).  <p></p>
106004036		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered fairly common to locally common.
106004036		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).  <p></p>
106004037		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against logging and other threats.<br/><p></p>
106004037		distribution	eng	<em>Calyptomena hosii</em> is patchily distributed in Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is apparently quite common in the Baram drainage, very common in Liang Kubung and recorded in upper Telen, but absent or rare on intervening mountains.  <em> </em><p></p>
106004037		habitat	eng	It occurs in the upper zone of mixed dipterocarp forest on hill slopes, and in lower montane forest. Most records are between 600 and 1,220 m, occasionally up to 1,680 m.  <p></p>
106004037		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106004037		threats	eng	Forest loss in the Sundaic region has been rapid and widespread, and is likely to have affected the lower altitudinal range of this species. However, its presence in sloping montane forest suggests that it is not imminently threatened, although logging activities in these habitats are increasing.  <p></p>
106004038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).
106004039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004040		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in the following protected areas: Andavahoera Classified Forest, Ankarafantsika Natural Reserve, Bemarivo Special Reserve, Kasijy Special Reserve, Maningoza Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and National Reserve, and Tsingy de Namoroka Natural Reserve (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. <p></p>
106004040		distribution	eng	<em>Philepitta schlegeli</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar </strong>(Langrand 1990)<sup></sup>. It occurs in north-western regions, from Andavakoera in the north, south to c.70 km north of Morondava in the west (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004040		habitat	eng	This species ranges from sea-level to 800 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is commonest in the moist and transition forests of the Sambirano region of the north-west, occurring only locally within the western dry forests, particularly in limestone areas (Langrand 1990, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small fruits and nectar, often foraging in the canopy but also coming down to the middle and lower strata (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest-building has been observed in October-December (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is probably polygynous, with dispersed male leks. Its nest is globular in shape and suspended from a low branch of an understorey tree. It is constructed from moss, bark and leaf strips, held together with spiders' webs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004040		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as rather scarce.
106004040		threats	eng	All forest habitats in Madagascar are under intense human pressure. Dry forests within this species's range are threatened by burning and cattle-grazing as well as by the extraction of wood for fuel and construction (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Artisanal gold-mining in the Sambirano has destroyed some areas of moist forest and has also led to much increased immigration into the region, thus increasing clearance of forest for subsistence farming (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, its centres of abundance in pinnacle karst massifs, such as Namoroka and Bemaraha, are naturally protected.  <p></p>
106004041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004042		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is known from the following protected areas: Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Ranoma National Park, Tsaratanana Strict Reserve, Zahamena National Park (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct studies to estimate its population size. Investigate its ability to utilise degraded habitats. Work with pastoralists to change grassland burning practices. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106004042		distribution	eng	<em>Neodrepanis hypoxantha</em>, endemic to the higher-altitude parts of eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, is difficult to distinguish from its only congener, <em>N. coruscans</em>. It is known from 13 specimens collected before 1933 and from recent observations. Now that identification criteria are known for this species, its true distribution is becoming clear. It is known from the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud massifs in the north to the Andohahela massif in the south and is common above 1,200-1,400 m, up to the limit of woody vegetation, e.g. 2,500 m on Tsaratanana (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is probably present at all intact sites within the eastern forest block that are higher than about 1,200 m (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its total population size is very difficult to guess, but is potentially more than 10,000 mature individuals. <p></p>
106004042		habitat	eng	This species is found in low, mossy, humid, upper montane, evergreen woodland, preferring areas with shrubby vegetation (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; it has also been recorded from rather sclerophyllous forest. It moves hyperactively in the canopy and subcanopy, feeding on nectar from a wide variety of plant genera and on arthropods, also catching flying insects from the tops of low shrubs (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and sometimes associating with mixed-species flocks (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Males display aggressively at intruders (even humans) by bowing low over a branch and displaying their brilliant yellow throat. Nesting has been observed between November and January (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004042		population	eng	The total population size is very difficult to guess, but it is potentially more than 10,000 mature individuals, thus a preliminary estimate in the range 10,000-19,999 mature individuals is used here. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. Further documentation is required.
106004042		threats	eng	Most higher-elevation forests in eastern Madagascar are relatively less threatened than other forest-types on the island, as they tend to occur in the most remote and unproductive areas, and are thus the last cleared for agriculture. In addition, they have no commercially useful timber (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, they are highly fragmented and vulnerable to fire (from the deliberate burning of adjacent grasslands for livestock), and thus some areas of the species's habitat burn in dry years. <p></p>
106004043		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004044		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004045		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004046		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004048		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004049		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004050		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>
106004050		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptopogon taczanowskii</span> is endemic to the east Andes of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>. It ranges from Amazonas and San Martín  southwards as far as Cuzco, including presence in Río Abiseo National Park, Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park, Apurímac Reserved Zone, Alto Mayo Protected Forest and Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary. It is considered uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004050		habitat	eng	This is an upper montane forest species, preferring cloud-forest at 2,000-2,900 m. It is occasionally found at forest edges or in secondary growth (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
106004050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004050		threats	eng	Some areas occupied by the species have already been affected by widespread forest conversion for cultivation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network; it is strongly susceptible to degradation and fragmentation due to its reliance on primary forest (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011).
106004051		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004053		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004055		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004058		distribution	eng	This species is uncommon and very local in south Madre de Dios and adjacent north-east Cuzco, south-east Peru (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106004058		habitat	eng	The species is strictly confined to dense bamboo thickets in tropical lowland evergreen forest, up to 1,050 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996).
106004058		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004058		threats	eng	The species region is subject to some selective logging and is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining and associated road-building and human colonisation, including poorly planned and uncontrolled ecotourism, resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein et al. 1995, H. Lloyd in litt. 1999).
106004059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004062		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004063		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004066		distribution	eng	This species is uncommon with a very patchy distribution in the white-sand forests, terra firme and igapó of east Amazonian Brazil and north-east Bolivia up to 450 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). Until recently, it was only known from eight specimens collected at four localities on the east bank of the rio Tapajós, west Pará, Brazil (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), but it has since been found at two localities in Brazil (near Alta Floresta, Mato Grosso and along the rio Negro, Amazonas), and in Bolivia, at Versalles, north Beni and three localities in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, north-east Santa Cruz (Parker et al. 1991, D. Stotz in litt. 1991, Bates et al. 1992, J. Hornbuckle per R. Brace in litt. 1999, Killeen and Schulenberg 1998).
106004066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004066		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to human disturbance and is suffering from widespread deforestation in Pará, Amazonas and particularly Mato Grosso, which has increased markedly since the 1960s due to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development (Cleary 1991, Stotz et al. 1996). The principal threat has been the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction (Cleary 1991). However, as road building patterns have changed in the 1990s, the rate of forest clearance has fallen in some parts of its range.
106004067		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas including Patrimônio Natural de Volta Velha Special Reserve (Santa Catarina), Serra Paranapiacaba Biosphere Reserve and Tijuca National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect protected areas where the species occurs. Research its ecology and ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Carry out surveys at known sites and attempt to quantify decline. <p></p>
106004067		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriccus orbitatus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo, south Minas Gerais and São Paulo to north-east Rio Grande do Sul), typically up to 600 m, occasionally to 1,000 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996; Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>, where it is locally uncommon to relatively common.<em> <p></p></em>
106004067		habitat	eng	It is resident in the lower and middle growth of lowland evergreen forest and mature secondary woodland<strong> </strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994). <p></p>
106004067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004067		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004068		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004070		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-east Brazil (south Bahia to São Paulo).
106004070		habitat	eng	The species is found at elevations up to 900 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996) in a wide variety of habitats, including forest edge, plantations, gardens, low restinga and degraded second growth (R. Parrini and J. Minns in litt. 1999), mostly in foothills (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106004070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004070		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests; current threats are urbanization, industrialization, agricultural expansion, colonization and associated road-building (Dinerstein et al. 1995, Fearnside 1996).
106004071		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004072		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004073		distribution	eng	This species was rediscovered in 1992 (161 years after the collection of the type-specimen) in campina forest on the east bank of the rio Negro, c.45 km north of Manaus, Brazil, extending its range by c.1,000 km east-south-east of the rio Içana type-locality (Whittaker 1995). It has subsequently been found in several other areas further up the rio Negro on two right-bank tributaries, the rio Apuaú and rio Cuieras, c.80 km north-west and 60 km west of the 1992 records (Whittaker 1995), and appears to be relatively common in white-sand and igapó forests on the east bank of the rio Negro (M. Cohn-Haft in litt. 1999).
106004073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004074		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004075		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Designate and effectively protect areas of foothill forest within its range. Promote conservation of forests among local people. Study the species's ecology and determine its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey suitable habitat within its potential range. Attempt to quantify any declines in population. <p></p>
106004075		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriccus rufigularis</em> occurs disjunctly in the east Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo, Morona-Santiago, Sucumbíos<strong> </strong>[T. Schulenberg <em>in litt. </em>2001] and Zamora-Chinchipe), <strong>Peru</strong> (San Martín and from Huánuco south to Puno) and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz, extreme south-west Beni and west Santa Cruz)<strong> </strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is uncommon and very local.<em> <p></p></em>
106004075		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to vine tangles within humid foothill forest on isolated low massifs at 750-1,500 m (<strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994; <strong></strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001; Schulenberg <em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
106004075		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106004075		threats	eng	In Peru, much of its habitat is relatively intact above 900 m, but there has been widespread destruction of foothill forests elsewhere in its range<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994), where the effects of extensive agricultural conversion and logging have been amplified by road-building and human colonisation (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004076		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected within the 3,100 ha Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva Private Conservation Area (PCA) and also occurs in the 6,700 ha Abra  Patricia-Alto Nieva Conservation Concession (D. Lebbin  <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Designate and effectively protect areas of montane forest within its range. Promote conservation of forests among local people. Study the species's ecology and determine its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey unexplored parts of the Cordilleras del Cóndor and Colán. <p></p>
106004076		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriccus cinnamomeipectus</em> is known only from a few localities on remote and isolated mountain ranges in extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is rare to uncommon <strong></strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001; Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). There are records from the south Cordillera del Cóndor (Zamora-Chinchipe) and recently at Naytza (Morona-Santiago)<strong> </strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Ágreda <em> et al.</em> 2005)<sup><strong></strong></sup>, Ecuador, and Cajamarca, Peru, and from the Cordillera de Colán (Amazonas) and Abra Patricia (San Martín), Peru (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).<em> <p></p></em>
106004076		habitat	eng	This poorly known flycatcher is restricted to the undergrowth of dense, mossy montane forest, at 1,700-2,200 m (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).  <p></p>
106004076		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as rare to uncommon.
106004076		threats	eng	The Cordillera de Colán is being deforested very rapidly for cash crops, particularly marijuana and coffee (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. In the Cordillera del Cóndor in Ecuador, silica mining<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Ágreda <em> et al.</em> 2005)<sup><strong></strong></sup> or gold mining (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001) are currently the main threats; some areas of the Cordillera del Cóndor in which the species previously occurred have been entirely denuded by gold mining (N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and new open pit developments will destroy further habitat in which the species has been recorded (J. Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004077		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant areas are being reforested with native trees at Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, where protection is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities (<strong></strong>A.&#160;Studer <em>per</em> A.&#160;Whittaker <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The effectiveness of the Serra do Baturité Environmental Protection Area is unclear, but local hotels protect some habitat (A.&#160;Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also persist in Tapacurá Ecological Station.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Tapacurá, upland areas in Ceará and other potential sites to ascertain the species's presence and status. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of remaining habitat in the Serra do Baturité. Protect habitat in the Serra da Ibiapaba, and at Areia, Garanhuns and Lagoa do Ouro. Continue conservation efforts at Pedra Talhada. <p></p>
106004077		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriccus mirandae</em> has an apparently disjunct range in north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is known from Serra da Ibiapaba and Serra do Baturité in Ceará, Areia in Paraíba (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Garanhuns, Tapacurá and Lagoa do Ouro in Pernambuco<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and Pedra Talhada and Murici (T. Mark <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in Alagoas. It has been described as very common over an extensive range<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> but it has also been considered fairly common in Serra do Baturité, uncommon at Pedra Talhada (A.&#160;Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and there are few documented records from elsewhere within its highly fragmented range. <p></p>
106004077		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in dense, tall vine-tangles within seasonally dry, semi-deciduous woodlands. These are concentrated on isolated serras at elevations of 600-900&#160;m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It has also been observed in the understorey of rather humid forest and dry forest with many tall <em>Orbignya</em> palms, and is apparently adapted to secondary formations such as degraded capoeira. It forages at 1.5-10&#160;m above ground, most often at 2-5&#160;m, actively scanning for arthropod prey.<p></p>
106004077		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004077		threats	eng	There has been massive deforestation within its disjunct and fragmented range. Only 1% of original forest remains in Serra do Baturité, largely as a result of clearing for "sun" coffee since the early 1970s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (<strong></strong>R.&#160;Otoch <em>per</em> F.&#160;Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the situation is similar in Serra da Ibiapaba. Remaining habitat is threatened by the construction of holiday homes, and fires (<strong></strong>R.&#160;Otoch <em>per</em> F.&#160;Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Only 2% of original forest cover remains in Alagoas and Pernambuco and 6% in Paraíba<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Brown and Brown 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with most forest replaced by sugarcane plantations. Remnant patches are highly fragmented and threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations. <p></p>
106004078		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law, and is known to occur in one protected area in Paraná, at APA of Guaratuba, owned by Paraná state government and one in Santa Catarina, the privately-owned RPPN Volta Velha (15 km<sup>2</sup>). The APA of Guaratuba is the stronghold of this species in Paraná state and this area shelters the largest known population of the species (Bencke <em>et al. </em>2006;&#160;<strong></strong>Bornschein &amp; Reinert unpublished data;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys of potentially suitable localities are continuing (<strong></strong>R. Belmonte-Lopes <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Slow rates of deforestation. Survey remaining patches of lowland forest in Santa Catarina and adjacent areas of Paraná to clarify distribution and status (<strong></strong>Collar <em>et al. </em>1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey forest within the vicinity of Brusque, which has not been visited subsequently<strong> </strong>(Naka<em> et al.</em> 2000). Investigate ecological requirements of the species at current localities. Expand the Bracinho State Ecological Station at Santa Caratina, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural de Volta Velha, APA de Guaratuba and the National Park Saint-Hilare/Lange at Paraná state to incorporate adjacent patches of the species's lowland forest habitat.  <p></p>
106004078		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriccus kaempferi</em> is now known from 11 localities in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>  (<strong></strong>R. Belmonte-Lopes <em>in litt. </em>2009): Salto Piraí (<strong></strong>Collar <em>et al. </em>1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Clock 2004; Fitzpatrick 2004; Bencke <em>et al. </em>2006;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Bornschein &amp; Reinert unpublished data) Brusque<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Teixeira <em>et al. </em>1991)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, the RPPN Volta Velha near Itapoá (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2000; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong> </strong>Naka<em> et al.</em> 2000; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>Clock 2004;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Fitzpatrick 2004; Bencke <em>et al. </em>2006; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Ghizoni-Jr and Azevedo 2006) São Francisco do Sul municipality, Barra Velha municipality, Blumenau municipality, Piçarras/Itajuba (Piçarras municipality), Morro do Bau (Ilhota municipality), Sanepar bridge (São João river), and National Park Saint-Hilare/Langue (C. Hesse <em>per</em> A. B. Hennessey<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; all in Santa Catarina; and at Guaraguaçu Ecological Station in south-east Paraná<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Bencke <em>et al. </em>2006;&#160;Carrano 2006; <strong></strong>Bornschein &amp; Reinert unpublished data; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data). The species is apparently very rare, but has been recorded in recent years from all of the locations listed above except Brusque. Recent records have extended the known range considerably, though within its range it has never been recorded from c.80% of the area and appears to be severely fragmented (Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data).<em>  <p></p></em>
106004078		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid, heterogeneous, lowland evergreen Atlantic forest and secondary growth (<strong></strong>Collar <em>et al. </em>1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2000; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data; <strong></strong>Bornschein &amp; Reinert unpublished data) 4-15 m tall<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data)<strong></strong>. At APA of Guaratuba the species was also observed in forests dominated by <em>Calophilum brasiliensis</em> (Guanadizais) or <em>Tabebuia cassinoides</em> (Caxetais) (<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data; Bornschein &amp; Reinert unpublished data)<strong></strong>. The favoured habitat appears to be narrow patches of alluvial forest along rivers at 0-50 m<strong> </strong> (<strong></strong>R. Belmonte-Lopes <em>in litt. </em>2009). It feeds predominantly in the midstorey, from 1-4 m, hover-gleaning and sallying during flights of 0.3-3.5 m and also gleaning and reaching (Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data)<strong></strong>. At some sites at APA of Guaratuba, the species forage in dense tangles of lianas, often over small rivers (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data). It does not join mixed species flocks (<strong></strong>Collar <em>et al. </em>1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2000;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Ghizoni-Jr and Azevedo 2006; <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data)<strong></strong>; instead, pairs appear to remain in well defined territories<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Collar <em>et al. </em>1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data)<strong></strong>. A nest under construction was found in October 1998, at a height of c.6 m above ground-level, 2-3 m inside primary forest at an elevation of 250 m (<strong></strong>Collar <em>et al. </em>1992;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004078		population	eng	The estimate of 9,000-18,500 individuals (roughly equivalent to 6,000-12,000 mature individuals) is based upon survey data (Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data) which estimated 20-40 individuals/km<SUP>2</SUP> over 460 km<SUP>2</SUP> (10% of the Extent of Occurrence).
106004078		threats	eng	Deforestation has been extensive in the Atlantic forest, and lowland forest remaining in the vicinity of all sites continues to be cleared. The main threats for the species are apparently banana, rice and timber plantations and the urbanisation of the coastal plain (Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Potential construction of a new road system (BR 101) would lead to further fragmentation of all the remaining areas, and sea level rise is a longer-term threat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (<strong></strong>R. Belmonte-Lopes <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004079		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law, and occurs in seven protected areas: Desengano State Park, Itatiaia National Park (J. F. Pacheco <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Ubatuba Experimental Station, Serra do Mar State Park, Cairuçu Environmental Protected Area (Buzzetti 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Desengano State Park, and Serra Bonita Private Reserve<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(B. Whitney &amp; J. F. Pacheco <em>in litt.</em> 2003). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat, particularly between the two disjunct populations, to clarify distribution and status. Investigate ecological requirements, especially the purported link to large-leaved bamboo. Consolidate key protected areas, such as Serra do Mar State Park. Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest at Boa Nova. Survey historical localities such as Matodentro, São Paulo and the portion of Serra do Mar State Park south of Ubatuba that have significant forest remnants.  <p></p>
106004079		distribution	eng	<em>Hemitriccus furcatus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> in Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. The Bahia population was only discovered in 1993 (<strong></strong>Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, extending its known range northwards by c.1,000 km. Several new localities have recently been discovered, with one in the Serra do Mar south of Ubatuba extending its known range southwards (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The occurrence of the species south of Ubatuba at the Boracéia Biological Station (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> has not been confirmed, although there is good and extensive habitat in the entire Serra do Mar.<em> <p></p></em>
106004079		habitat	eng	It is found in the undergrowth of humid forest borders and second growth, especially where there are dense thickets of bamboo (particularly large-leaved species) and vine-tangles. It persists in degraded forest, and often occurs in fairly open places with only scattered trees that barely form a continuous canopy. Territories appear to be small (c.100 m<sup>2</sup>). Birds forage singly in the lower and middle storeys, and rarely join mixed-species flocks. Insects, including small caterpillars and katydids, are gleaned primarily from bamboo leaves during short sallying flights. The only breeding data concerns a recently fledged juvenile following a pair at Itatiaia National Park, Rio de Janeiro in September, and at Boa Nova, Bahia, in November, both at c. 900 m (G.&#160;M.&#160;Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999; <strong><sup></sup></strong>Kirwan 2009). <p></p>
106004079		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004079		threats	eng	Although some deforestation may lead to a short-term increase in areas with bamboo, forest clearance has been so extensive throughout its range that it is likely to have greatly reduced numbers. Smallholder farms are rapidly encroaching on the remaining forest at Boa Nova, Bahia (A.&#160;Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004080		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004081		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004083		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004084		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004085		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004086		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004087		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004088		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004089		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology and threats, particularly its tolerance to habitat degradation and fragmentation. Survey to obtain accurate population and trend estimates. Designate protected areas in remaining suitable habitat within its range. <p></p>
106004089		distribution	eng	<em>Todirostrum viridanum</em> occurs in coastal Falcón and Zulia, north-west <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994,  Hilty 2003).<em> <p></p></em>
106004089		habitat	eng	It is fairly common in arid lowland thorn scrub and deciduous woodland at elevations up to 200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Hilty 2003). <p></p>
106004089		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as fairly common.
106004089		threats	eng	Although expanses of suitable habitat remain within its limited range (Huber and Alarcón 1988, Forero 1989)<strong></strong>, substantial areas have been destroyed, principally around Lago de Maracaibo, as a result of burgeoning tourism, development pressures, overgrazing, firewood-gathering and pollution (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In Zulia, activities associated with the oil industry have caused localised clearance and degradation of its xeric habitat (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
106004090		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004091		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004094		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004095		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004096		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004100		distribution	eng	This species inhabits the arid interior of east Brazil (south Piauí, south Goiás, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Distrito Federal and east Mato Grosso do Sul) and north-east Paraguay (Concepción and possibly Amambay) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106004100		habitat	eng	Although virtually unknown, the species has been found foraging mostly in the canopy and subcanopy (but also the understorey) of gallery and tall dry forest (where it frequently joins mixed species flocks) within the cerrado region at elevations of 700-1,000 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996), and the tropical dry forests of the São Francisco drainage (da Silva 1996).
106004100		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and very local (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004100		threats	eng	This species may be suffering from the extensive destruction of cerrado habitats for agricultural conversion (especially through overgrazing and Eucalyptus plantations), and may be affected by fire spreading from adjacent grasslands and farms. Its dry forest habitats are also under constant pressure of deforestation mainly for the charcoal industry, agriculture and Eucalyptus plantations.
106004101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004102		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004103		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas including Itatiaia National Park, Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve and Intervales State Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census and monitor populations to assess the global population and demographic trends and to refine the distribution and locate strongholds. Investigate its ecology and ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Effectively protect the protected areas within its range.  <p></p>
106004103		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllomyias griseocapilla</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (east Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to east Santa Catarina) where it is uncommon to relatively common but patchily distributed<strong> </strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994; Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em> <p></p></em>
106004103		habitat	eng	It is resident in the borders of lowland and montane evergreen forest, and shrubby clearings with scattered trees at 750-1,850 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994; Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004103		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004103		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106004104		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004105		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004107		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004109		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004110		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004111		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004112		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004112		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zimmerius cinereicapilla</span> has a local distribution in the east Andean foothills (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is very rare in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, known only from a single specimen taken in west Napo, a few observations in and around the Archidona Natural Reserve, and one reliable record from the Loja-Zamora road in the south-east (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>it is more numerous, ranging from Amazonas, San Martín, Junín and Ayacucho south to Cuzco and Madre de Dios. Its distribution reaches La Paz department, north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, where sound recordings have been taken in Serranía de Establón (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004112		habitat	eng	<p>This is a species of humid montane and foothill forest, from 750-1,350 m. It prefers edges and openings, but also occurs in the interior. It generally remains in the canopy. Insects constitute the bulk of its diet, but it also feeds on fruits including those of the mistletoes (Loranthaceae) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/></p>
106004112		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004112		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin, with much of its range coming under pressure from logging, mining, agriculture and road building (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106004115		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004116		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004117		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004118		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004122		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cocos has been designated as a national park, but no substantive measures have been taken to reduce populations of introduced mammals (F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Estimate the population. Study the impact of introduced mammals. Eradicate introduced mammals where feasible.<p></p>
106004122		distribution	eng	<em>Nesotriccus ridgwayi</em> is common throughout Cocos Island, c.500 km off the coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong>. <p></p>
106004122		habitat	eng	It occurs in most habitats from sea-level to the highest hills, including the upper understorey and lower canopy of forests (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <em>Hibiscus</em> scrub, <em>Annona</em> swamp, and wooded ravines. It is regularly observed in second growth (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but degraded habitat may not sustain the species through its life-cycle. The diet consists of insects and, at least seasonally, fruits (Sherry 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding probably takes place between January and May.<p></p>
106004122		population	eng	The population has been estimated at several tens of thousands of individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2004), but has conservatively been placed in the range band for 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004122		threats	eng	Rats and cats are potential predators, and feral deer, pigs and goats graze suitable habitat. Pigs especially devastate the lower strata and understorey of native forests and inhibit forest regeneration (Sherry 1985, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On many other islands, this combination of feral mammals has caused the extinction of numerous endemic plant and animal species. There is also low-level disturbance from increasing tourism (Sherry 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004124		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004126		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004129		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004131		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004135		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004136		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004137		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106004138		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004139		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004140		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Fernando de Noronha is a Marine National Park, although the actual protection that this confers is unknown. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to provide a more accurate estimate of population size. Clarify the species's habitat requirements (A. Schulz Neto <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Study any problems caused by introduced species and assess methods for their control (A. Schulz Neto <em>in litt.</em> 1999). If appropriate, initiate control measures against introduced species. Effectively protect areas of occupied habitat from development and any other threats. Reduce persecution by children through awareness campaigns.  <p></p>
106004140		distribution	eng	<em>Elaenia ridleyana</em> is confined to the Atlantic archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is known from the main island and Ilha Rata, the largest associated islet (Olson 1994)<strong></strong>. It is reportedly the least common of the three resident landbirds. Population estimates vary between slightly over 100 (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong> and c.1,000 individuals (Oren 1984)<strong></strong>. Probably the most comprehensive survey estimated a population of c.480 birds<strong> </strong>(Antas <em>et al.</em> 1990), although a more recent estimate has suggested a population of c.750 birds (<strong></strong>T. Mark <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004140		habitat	eng	It inhabits scrub, woodland and gardens. The diet is insects and small fruit, particularly those of the endemic tree <em>Ficus noronhae<strong></strong></em><strong> </strong>(Antas <em>et al.</em> 1990). Breeding presumably occurs between February and May<strong> </strong>(Antas <em>et al.</em> 1990). The nest is constructed with the tendrils of <em>Cucurbitaceae</em> and a few twigs, and located in the bare branches of a <em>Burra</em>, <em>Erythrina</em> or cashew-nut tree<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Oren 1982<strong></strong>). <p></p>
106004140		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 500 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 750 individuals in total (T. Mark <I>in litt. </I>2003).
106004140		threats	eng	It was presumably historically more numerous as the island was reportedly covered in forest when discovered in 1503 (Olson 1981)<strong></strong>. All large trees have been cut and all remaining vegetation is secondary (Olson 1981). There are proposals to further develop tourism and this would cause yet greater damage to its habitat. It may suffer predation from introduced mammals such as rats and cats (A. Schulz Neto <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Children target birds with slingshots and presumably kill some individuals of this species (Olson 1994)<strong></strong>. Fire may pose a credible threat, and an introduced vine is reported to threaten remaining preferred habitat (<strong></strong>T. Mark <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004143		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004144		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004147		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004150		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004151		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004153		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004155		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004156		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004157		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004165		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004169		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'frequent' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004170		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004173		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is very rare in the actively managed Huascarán National Park (<strong></strong>Wege and Long 1995, <strong></strong>G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Byers 2000)<strong></strong>. Public awareness campaigns in Cuzco, Peru, have been locally successful (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Small numbers have been found within Río Abiseo National Park, La Libertad, and Cotapata National Park, La Paz (A. B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999, G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Vogel and Hennessey 2002). The Madidi and Apolobamba National Parks protect part of the Cordillera Apolobamba, probably the most important area for the species in Bolivia (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its distribution in Bolivia (A. B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999; I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong></strong>, the Cordillera Vilcanota, Cuzco (G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999, G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>and Laraos, south Lima (<strong></strong>G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue management of Huascarán National Park. Protect <em>Polylepis</em> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota, Peru and Cordillera Real, Bolivia (<strong></strong>G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999, I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007) Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Encourage local people to develop land-use management and restoration schemes  (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Conduct studies to ascertain its precise ecological requirements, habitat requirements, population and distribution (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004173		distribution	eng	<em>Anairetes alpinus</em> occurs locally in the high Andes of <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Subspecies <em>alpinus</em> occurs in the cordilleras Central and Occidental (La Libertad [G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2000]<strong></strong>, Ancash and Lima), Peru. Subspecies <em>bolivianus</em> occurs in the Cordillera Oriental (Apurímac and Cuzco), Peru, and the Cordillera Real (La Paz), Bolivia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Maynard and Waterton 1998, G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Vogel and Hennessey 2002, I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong></strong>. Confirmation is required for a report near Laraos (Lima), Peru<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It is relatively common in the Runtacocha highland, Apurímac, and the Cordillera Vilcabamba, Cuzco (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>, with the population at Abra Málaga estimated as c.20-30 birds (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Bolivia it is locally common at the north end of the Cordillera Real in the Cordillera Apolobamba, and the total Bolivian population was estimated at 150-300 birds in 2007 (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong></strong>. The total population is perhaps in the mid- or upper hundreds, but estimates vary, and there have been several recent discoveries that have extended the known range of this species (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2000; <strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Maynard and Waterton 1998, G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Vogel and Hennessey 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004173		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-humid, mixed <em>Polylepis-Gynoxys</em> woodland at 3,700-4,500 m. In the Runtacocha highland stronghold, <em>Polylepis</em> woodland is mature and has several strata that may provide a richer supply of insects. In Bolivia it is known only from <em>Polylepis pepei</em> forests (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007). It typically moves in pairs or groups of three individuals, sometimes with other species, searching for invertebrates on the outermost branches (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Immatures have been collected in March and July, a pair feeding young were recorded in December and in the Cordillera Apolobamba an active nest was found in November (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007). Territory size has been estimated at between 1 and 2 ha, and the species does not appear to persist in forest fragments smaller than 1 ha (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004173		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 individuals (G. Servat <I>in litt.</I> 1999, G. Engblom <I>in litt.</I> 2000). This equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106004173		threats	eng	The main threats are heavy grazing (especially in Ancash) and the uncontrolled use of fire, which combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal also occurs (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. The change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming, erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification and afforestation, especially where exotic tree species (e.g. <em>Eucalyptus</em>) are planted (<strong></strong>Fjeldså and Kessler 1996), are further contributory factors. The extent of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland in Cuzco halved during the 1980s. <p></p>
106004174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004177		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a biosphere reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997 (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing (Hulm 1995)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor population to detect any trends. Implement control measures against cats. Study possible effects of predation by Red-backed Hawk and develop eradication plan if necessary.  <p></p>
106004177		distribution	eng	<em>Anairetes fernandezianus</em> is endemic to Isla Robinson Crusoe in the Juan Fernández Islands, <strong>Chile</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is apparently common within this restricted range, and the population was estimated at a stable and secure 5,000 birds in the mid-1980s (Brooke 1987)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106004177		habitat	eng	It is found in all wooded habitats: undisturbed forest, luma <em>Nothomyrica fernandeziana</em> parkland (even where the understorey has been heavily degraded by cows), <em>Eucalyptus</em> woodland, and even (although not commonly) among the miscellany of exotic vegetation in Cumberland Bay (Brooke 1987)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004177		population	eng	The population was estimated at 5,000 individuals in the mid-1980s (del Hoyo et al. 2004)
106004177		threats	eng	Threats include predation by cats (Brooke 1987)<strong></strong> and possible, but unquantified predation, by introduced Red-backed Hawk <em>Buteo polysoma </em>from Isla Alejandro Selkirk (<strong></strong>Hahn and Römer 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004180		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Paraguayan law where it is considered Vulnerable on a national level<strong></strong>. Guyra Paraguay and Entidad Binacional Yacyreta are currently studying threatened grassland species at Reserva Isla Yacyreta <strong></strong>and other IBAs in the south of the country (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study migratory habits of sub-populations in order to devise conservation efforts for this species. Conduct surveys to assess population size and rate of declines. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status, including the establishment of effectively protected areas in southern Paraguay<strong></strong>. Secure other private properties inside Cerrado de Laguna Blanca IBA where the Laguna Blanca private nature reserve is failing to protect the species (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
106004180		distribution	eng	<em>Culicivora caudacuta</em> occurs in east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, La Paz, Santa Cruz), extreme north and south-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Amapá, south-west Bahia, south Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, central Goiás, Distrito Federal, Minas Gerais, west Paraná, São Paulo), east and south-west <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (east Formosa, east Chaco, Corrientes, north Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, south Misiones) (Armonía 1995; Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991; Hayes 1995; Ridgely and Tudor 1994; Sick 1993; J. M. C. da Silva <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Souza 1999)<strong></strong>. In Brazil it is found mostly in the upland cerrado of the Planalto Central, Central, a more restricted distribution compared to other cerrado birds. It is now mostly rare and very localised but there are recent range extensions from Entre Ríos (Pearman and Abadie 1995) and La Paz (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong> and it continues to be observed frequently at known locations in Paraguay<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004180		habitat	eng	It inhabits campo cerrado and open grassland, mainly in dry grassland and occasionally in shorter, scrubbier and wetter areas (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and sometimes frequents the transitional zone between these habitats (D. R. Capper <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt. </em>2000; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, breeders (October-March) are apparently confined to dry grassland (Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998; Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, with nests in Formosa mostly located in clumps of <em>Vernonia chamaedrys</em> (Di Giácomo 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004180		population	eng	Although this species is rare and localised, it has a very large range, and numbers are likely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals. It is thus placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, which equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106004180		threats	eng	Conversion to soybeans, exportable crops and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (encouraged by government land reform) has severely impacted campo cerrado habitats<strong> </strong>(Parker and Willis 1997), with the greatest impact is in the southern part of the biome. Grasslands in south Paraguay and Argentina are additionally threatened by extensive cattle ranching<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996; Pearman and Abadie 1995). Observations from Canindeyú department, Paraguay (towards the edge of the species's range), demonstrated an apparent preference for older campo cerrado habitats that had not experienced a spring burn and where <em>Loudetia</em> grass species sprout up to c. 2 m tall during the summer months. This taller vegetation does not occur under an annual (or more frequent) burn regime, as occurs at many cerrado localities (<strong></strong>R. Pople <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This lack of availability of preferred habitat along with the frequent occurrence of fires is a possible threat.   <p></p>
106004181		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas including Canaima National Park, Venezuela; Sipaliwini Savanna Nature Reserve, Suriname; Tatí Jupí Reserve, Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve, Sombrero Private Reserve and San Rafael National Park, Paraguay; Otamendi Reserve, San Juan de Poriahú Private Reserve and Mburucuyá National Park, Argentina; and Das Emas and Chapada dos Guimarães National Parks, Brazil. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Remove incentives encouraging habitat loss, especially the planting of <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees on grasslands. Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Survey and monitor populations to obtain a global population estimate and trend estimates.  <p></p>
106004181		distribution	eng	<em>Polystictus pectoralis</em> has a very localised and disjunct distribution in the Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it was known from the upper río Dagua valley (Valle del Cauca), and Bogotá swamp (Cundinamarca) (race <em>bogotensis</em>); north-east Colombia (Meta), <strong>Venezuela</strong> (from Barinas to Bolívar in the south; also Carabobo), <strong>Guyana</strong>, south <strong>Suriname</strong> (Sipaliwini), north <strong>French Guiana</strong> (Sinnamary), and extreme north <strong>Brazil</strong> (Roraima, north Pará, and Amapá) (race <em>brevipennis</em>); central-south Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, south Goiás, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, but relatively few sites (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> (uncommon in the extreme south Oriente, but generally rare and unrecorded in extreme eastern regions (Hayes 1995), south <strong>Uruguay</strong> and east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (several old specimens from Santa Cruz) (nominate race)<strong> </strong>(Collar and Wege 1995)<strong></strong>. It is an austral summer visitor to central-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (south to Mendoza, La Pampa and west Buenos Aires) (Collar and Wege 1995)<strong></strong>. Although widespread and fairly common at a few localities, it is generally scarce with no recent records from Bolivia. There have been no confirmed records since the 1950s of Colombian race <em>bogotensis</em>, and it is now considered extinct<em> </em>(Collar and Wege 1995, Donegan 2004)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106004181		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of grassland types, all with varying amounts of shrubby vegetation, with the presence or proximity of water apparently an important factor (Collar and Wege 1995, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004181		threats	eng	Conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have had a severe impact on its habitat in Brazil (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>, where two-thirds of cerrado had been heavily or moderately altered by 1993 (<strong></strong>Conservation International 1999)<strong></strong>, with most destruction having occurred since the 1950s (Cavalcanti 1999)<strong></strong>. Grasslands in Paraguay and Argentina face similar threats combined with extensive cattle-ranching (Pearman and Abadie 1995, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996). Elsewhere, intensive grazing and frequent burning has reduced suitable habitat to a few scattered sites (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004182		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>It is common in Cara&ccedil;a National Park and also occurs in Serra da Canastra and Serra do Cip&oacute; National Parks.  </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey and monitor populations to assess trends. Effectively protect large areas of suitable unaltered habitat.   </P>
106004182		distribution	eng	<I>Polystictus superciliaris</I> occurs very locally in east <B>Brazil</B> from Morro do Chap&eacute;u in central Bahia to the Serra do Bocaina in north S&atilde;o Paulo (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <I>et al.</I> 1996, Vasconcelos 1999, Vasconcelos <I>et al.</I> 1999), where it is uncommon within its large range.<I>
106004182		habitat	eng	It is resident in arid montane scrub (campo cerrado) and rocky outcrops in savannas and grassland (campo rupestre) at 900-1,950 m (Parker <I>et al.</I> 1996, Stattersfield <I>et al.</I> 1998) and has also been found in abandoned pastures.
106004182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon'.
106004182		threats	eng	Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found there in the 19th century, and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. Increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching is currently the principal threat, although it persists in partially degraded areas (WWF/IUCN 1994-1997, Stattersfield <I>et al.</I> 1998, Vasconcelos 1999).
106004183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004185		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The stronghold is Bañados del Río Dulce and Laguna de Mar Chiquita Natural Park (Argentina). In the non-breeding season it occurs in San Antonio Private Nature Reserve and Tacuara National Park, Paraguay. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements. Survey known populations and search potential non-breeding habitat. Effectively protect wetlands within its range. <p></p>
106004185		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudocolopteryx dinellianus</em> occurs within a discrete range in north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Córdoba, and possibly Salta), with presumed wintering records from north Formosa, Argentina (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1995, 1999)<strong></strong>, adjacent <strong>Bolivia</strong> (two specimens collected in Tarija, 1926) and <strong>Paraguay</strong> (seven records, four from the Chaco and three from the Oriente)<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is more or less common in Córdoba, where the major global stronghold is protected by the Bañados del Río Dulce and Laguna de Mar Chiquita Natural Park, and frequent in Santiago del Estero, but there are no recent records for Tucumán. In some areas it may be declining due to agricultural conversion; however, extensive areas of suitable habitat remain in its breeding and wintering ranges, and the population seems relatively stable.<em> <p></p></em>
106004185		habitat	eng	It inhabits periodically flooded rushy and grassy marsh vegetation and shrubbery near watercourses in lowland scrub, with nests found in bushes, rushes and tall grass.   <p></p>
106004185		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106004185		threats	eng	Canalisation may affect the wetlands of Bañados del Río Dulce and Laguna de Mar Chiquita (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1995, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there are other modifications to wetlands occurring within its range (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Where it inhabits drier savanna-type vegetation, it is probably under some pressure from agricultural conversion. <p></p>
106004187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004188		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is found in most protected areas in the Cerrado, including recently decreed ones such as Nascentes do Rio Parnaíba National Park, and Jalapão State Park<strong> </strong>(Braz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, J. F. Pacheco and R. Silva <em>in litt. </em>2003). It also occurs in Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station, an area adjacent to Jalapão State Park  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known sites to obtain population density estimates. Remove incentives encouraging habitat loss, especially the planting of <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees on grasslands. Study the species's ecology to assess possible reasons for its rarity. Survey north Mato Grosso and north Bolivia (da Silva <em>et al</em>. 1997), Suriname and adjacent parts of Brazil, and north-east Paraguay. Search for this, and other threatened grassland specialists, in the Espinhaço Range and Campo das Vertentes, Minas Gerais  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Create a large conservation unit at Campo das Vertentes for the conservation of grassland habitats  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Enforce environmental legislation for the protection of Areas for Permanent Preservation (APPs), which cannot be used for high impact activities such as plantations, cattle-ranching and mining  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Stop mining of refractory clay at the headwaters of rio Uberabinha and rio Claro, where representative tracts of <span style="font-style: italic;">covoais </span>still persist  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Restrict sugarcane, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>plantations to already cleared land in order to avoid conversion of pristine <span style="font-style: italic;">cerrado </span>and campos. Create a seal of environmental certification for biofuel activities, especially for sugarcane (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Expand the Serra do Rola Moc, a State Park, incorporating large tracts of well-conserved grasslands around Retiro das Pedras  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106004188		distribution	eng	<em>Euscarthmus rufomarginatus</em> was probably once widespread, but is now recorded at scattered areas in central <strong>Brazil</strong> (with an isolated population at Serra do Cachimbo, southern Pará), north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Serranía de Huanchaca in Santa Cruz, and east of Riberalta in Beni [S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1994, 1999]), and north-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (one record from Concepción in 1944). There are outlying populations (race <em>savannophilus</em>) in south <strong>Suriname</strong> (Sipaliwini savanna) and north Brazil (Amapá) (da Silva <em>et al</em>. 1997). The global stronghold is probably Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivia, which has c.3,000-4,000 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong> </strong>(Killeen and Schulenberg 1998), with a possibly notable population in the 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> Sipaliwini Nature Reserve, Suriname. It is often absent in apparently suitable habitat, which suggests that the reasons for its rarity are not yet understood.<em> <p></p></em>
106004188		habitat	eng	It occurs in pristine, shrubby campo and campo cerrado, and feeds on insects and fruit. Bamboo scrub may provide some temporary refuge after fires (Parker and Willis 1997), and it colonises recently burned areas  (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Young birds were being fed by the parents in January and February at Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Stomach contents of these individuals contained almost equal proportions of small fruits and insects (Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<p></p>
106004188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as rare and patchily distributed. However, in January and February 2008 it was the most common flycatcher in campo sujo and cerrado ralo at Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station, central Brazil.
106004188		threats	eng	Habitat loss in the Cerrado is probably the major factor explaining its current rarity. By 1993, two-thirds of the region had been heavily or moderately altered (Conservation International 1999), with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950 (Cavalcanti 1999). There has been extensive conversion to agriculture for livestock farming, <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and exportable crops, encouraged by government land reform in Brazil (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong></strong>. However, unlike many other cerrado birds it is not restricted to the upland cerrado of the Planalto Central, and occurs further north and in savanna enclaves in the Amazon. These Amazonian savannas, especially in Serra do Cachimbo and Amapá, are not as threatened as the southern ones, and it may also occur in other areas such as savanna enclaves in Amazonas and Rondônia, Brazil. <p></p>
106004189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004190		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in San Esteban, Henri Pittier, Macarao, El Avila and Guatopo National Parks, Pico Codazzi Nature Monument and several other protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines. <p></p>
106004190		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes venezuelanus</em> occurs in the Cordillera de la Costa from Carabobo east to Distrito Federal, and on cerro Golfo Triste in south Aragua and cerro Negro in south Miranda, north <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hilty 2003), where it is still fairly common in some areas but has suffered from severe deforestation in others.<em> <p></p></em>
106004190		habitat	eng	It is fairly common in the lower and middle growth of montane humid forest and forest edge at elevations of 850-1,400 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994<strong></strong>, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004190		threats	eng	Although there is still extensive forest cover in parts of its limited range, deforestation has been severe around Caracas, and many other areas have also been degraded<strong></strong> (Huber and Alarcón 1988<strong></strong>, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004191		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in the small (c.1 km<sup>2</sup>) Río Claro Natural Reserve, which also buffers adjacent forested areas from colonisation<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). The c.4 km<sup>2</sup> forest at Monte del Diablo has been preserved by local people for hunting, while that at La Victoria is a 0.2 km<sup>2</sup> watershed reserve<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995<strong></strong>, Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in any potentially suitable habitat, e.g. the interior of the Serranía de las Quinchas, and isolated remnants at the northern tip of the central Andes. Protect such areas if found<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995<strong></strong>, Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). Conduct surveys within the known range to clarify its distribution and conservation status. Study its ecological requirements. <p></p>
106004191		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes lanyoni</em> occurs locally on the east and north slopes of the central Andes in Caldas and Antioquia, and on the west slope of the east Andes in Cundinamarca, Boyacá and Santander, <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known from the type-series, taken in the lower Cauca Valley at the northern tip of the Andes in 1948, and a few modern localities in the middle and upper Magdalena Valley. It has been seen on several occasions at Río Claro Natural Reserve, and recently also at Anará (Renjifo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002), Antioquia, as well as near La Victoria, Caldas. It is respectively uncommon and common at El Vergel, Cundinamarca, and Monte del Diablo, Boyacá<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong> and is also present in Yacopi and La Palma municipalities, Cundinamarca<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106004191		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-deciduous foothill-forest at 450-900 m (Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Observations have been made in tall second growth, regenerating, natural tree gaps, and disturbed remnant forest<strong> </strong>(O. Cortes <em>in litt. </em>2007). It is often in mosaics of these habitat-types and pastoral or cultivated land (Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999), although this use of habitat may reflect availability rather than preference. Nesting has been recorded in March<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999), with four birds in a family group seen in June (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). It often joins mixed-species flocks<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004191		population	eng	This species's global population is estimated at a few thousand individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004191		threats	eng	Logging, livestock-farming, arable cultivation, infrastucture development, oil extraction and mining have all played a part in the destruction of habitat in its range (Stiles <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). The northern tip of the central Andes has been progressively settled and deforested since the 19th century, although some extensive forests survive<strong> </strong> (Forero 1989, <strong></strong>Wege and Long 1995). The middle Magdalena Valley was rapidly opened up, colonised, logged and farmed during the 1960s and 1970s, with nearly 40,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest cleared in little over a decade, although regeneration has begun following land abandonment in some areas (Stiles <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). <p></p>
106004192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004197		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004197		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phylloscartes gualaquizae</span> occurs in the forests of the east Andes (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, it ranges southwards from north Sucumbíos and west Napo; it is generally rare in the country, but fairly common at Serranías Cofán and also present in the Podocarpus National Park (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is also known from San Martín, north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, where it is fairly common in the río Afluente region. It is thought that its distribution could extend northwards into south Colombia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004197		habitat	eng	This is a humid forest species of the montane and upper tropical forest zones in the Andean foothills. It generally remains below the cloud forest zone, occurring between 700-1,400 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004197		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin, with many of its native forests threatened by logging, mining, agriculture and road building (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106004198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004199		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law but no other measures have been taken. There is a record from Cavernas do Peruaçu National Park (Raposo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Considerable survey effort has occurred within the species range resulting in a revised conservation status assessment and improved knowledge of the species's range and requirements. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue survey work to improve knowledge of the species's range. Urgently protect the known area near Pirapora, as well as other suitable habitat patches. Conduct an environmental awareness campaign directed at landowners, local communities and schools. Reinforce the protection of the region's gallery forests (Raposo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004199		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes roquettei</em> is known from the São Francisco and Jequitinhonha valleys, in north and central Minas Gerais, east-central <strong>Brazil</strong>. The type-specimen was collected in July 1926 near Januária, now Brejo de Amparo, and birds were seen again in 1977 on both sides of the rio São Francisco (Willis and Oniki 1991)<strong></strong>. Searches in 1985, 1986 and 1987 were unsuccessful, but the species was located at Várzea da Palma, near Pirapora (c.190 km south of the type-locality) in 1993 and found to be very rare at the site in 1998, 1999, 2002 and 2005 (Raposo <em>et al</em>. 2002; de Vasconcelos <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kirwan <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. A male specimen was taken at Francisco Dumont (c.250 km south of the type-locality) in 1995 (Raposo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. An overlooked specimen taken in 1990 at the Fazenda Cana Brava along the rio Pardo Grande has recently come to light (de Vasconcelos <em>et al</em>. 2008). It was recorded at the Projeto Jaíba, Mocambinho in September 1996. Recent surveys discovered the species at several new localities along the São Francisco river valley (Lopes <em>et al</em>. 2008) and from the Jequitinhonha river basin (Luiz <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. These new records increased the known extent of occurrence to [PENDING REMAPPING TO INCLUDE BAHIA RECS] <span style="">33,500 km</span><sup><span style="">2</span><strong>&#160;</strong></sup> (Lopes <em>et al</em>. 2008). Conjecture that the species may occur in contiguous habitat in south-west Bahia (de Vasconcelos <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> was confirmed by dos Santos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2009) who describe five new localities within the state; nesting has also been documented (Albano 2009). There appears to be suitable habitat to the northeast and north-northwest of its current distribution (Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The population size has not been assessed; the only previous estimate was based on extrapolation across the known range at the time of just 50 km<sup>2</sup>, given the revised EOO the population is unlikely to be small. Similarly population trends have not been assessed, but there are a number of severe threats to cerrado habitats within the species's range that suggest a rapid decline is likely. <p></p>
106004199		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in dry forest, riparian forest and semi-deciduous forest within the cerrado including in secondary growth and forest fragments (Lopes <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. In the dry season of 1977, it was almost always observed in pairs, 10-20 m up in the few green trees and bushes (Willis and Oniki 1991)<strong></strong>. Birds occasionally also descended to the green cotton <em>Gossypium</em> bushes of a plantation (Willis and Oniki 1991)<strong></strong>. In both dry and gallery forests, it appears to prefer the upper branches of taller, emergent trees, where it sallies for insect prey (Raposo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Nest building has been observed in October (Kirwan <em>et al</em>. 2004, Albano 2009), and presumed incubation in November, with a fledgling in December (Albano 2009)<strong></strong>. It occurs at low densities and can be difficult to detect, even at known sites. Its ability to disperse is unknown; given that cerrado habitats are under threat and increasingly fragmented, it is likely that many populations are increasingly isolated. <p></p>
106004199		population	eng	No empirical data is available, however, despite it apparent low population density and ongoing habitat degradation and fragmentation within the species's range, an extensive area of potentially suitable habitat remains that suggests the previous population estimate of 50-250 individuals needed revision. It is instead estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004199		threats	eng	Its habitat is probably the most threatened in central Brazil owing to its valuable aroeira <em>Astronium urundeuva</em> wood and relatively fertile soils. Charcoal-burners were fully active at the type-locality in 1986, where there was also extensive forest cutting for pasture and agricultural development. The São Francisco basin is also threatened by limestone quarrying and a large-scale irrigation project that has already resulted in the loss of large areas of forest (Raposo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cattle ranching has resulted in forest clearance across large parts of the state of Minas Gerais within its range (Lopes <em>et al</em>. 2008). These same threats are impacting upon recently discovered locations and are exacerbated when remaining forest is highly fragmented<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Lopes <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004200		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is fairly common at Intervales State Park, Iguaçu National Park and Ilha do Cardoso State Park, Brazil. It is also present in Caaguazú, San Rafael and Ybycuí National Parks, Paraguay; and Iguazú National Park, Argentina, as well as several other (at least nominally) protected areas<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. <p></p>
106004200		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes paulista</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil, it is found in the Atlantic forests of Espírito Santo south to Santa Catarina (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>do Rosário 1996; Naka <em>et al</em>. 2011<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>, and is considered fairly common in some protected areas, including the "Paranapiacaba fragment" (the 120,000 ha mosaic of Alto Ribeira, Intervales and Carlos Botelho state parks) and the Ilha do Cardoso (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong> in São Paulo and Iguaçu in Paraná. In eastern Paraguay it has been recorded from Canindeyú south to Itapúa (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hayes 1995,  Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996), but is uncommon. All Argentine records are from Misiones, where it is rare in Iguazú (Saibene <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>. Due to its inconspicuous voice, its presence is likely to be overlooked, and it probably has a continuous distribution along the slopes of the Serra do Mar and Serra de Paranapicaba massifs at least between southern Rio de Janeiro (Parati) and Paraná.<em> <p></p></em>
106004200		habitat	eng	It inhabits the middle storey of the lowland Atlantic forest interior, principally below 400 m, but locally up to 1,000 m (Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998; <strong></strong>Naka <em>et al</em>. 2011), and will also use secondary forest. <p></p>
106004200		population	eng	The global population probably numbers fewer than 10,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2004). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004200		threats	eng	Less than 20% of the original extent of this habitat remains intact (<strong></strong>Brown and Brown 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> owing to agricultural conversion and deforestation for coffee, banana and rubber plantations (Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remaining forest suffers from increasing urbanisation, agricultural expansion and associated road building (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but habitat destruction in the Brazilian range of the species has slowed significantly (although continuing in places), and the prospects of future losses are not as dire as in the last decades. Also, the species is known to use second growth, making it less vulnerable to the loss of mature forest. <p></p>
106004201		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Intervales State Park and Mata dos Godoy State Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use habitat loss data from mapping to give estimate of declines. <p></p>
106004201		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes oustaleti</em> occurs in east <strong>Brazil</strong> at Boa Nova, Bahia (Tobias <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>, and Espírito Santo south to east Rio Grande do Sul (Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>. Although primarily known from the Serra do Mar, it is locally uncommon to fairly common throughout its range.<em> <p></p></em>
106004201		habitat	eng	It is resident in the canopy, subcanopy and borders of mid-altitude evergreen forest, typically at 500-900 m, but locally to lower altitudes (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004201		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests (Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004202		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Itatiaia National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use habitat loss data from mapping to give estimate of declines. <p></p>
106004202		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes difficilis</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo and south Minas Gerais to north-east Rio Grande do Sul) at 900-2,150 m, where it is uncommon.<em> <p></p></em>
106004202		habitat	eng	It is resident in the lower growth of montane evergreen forest and edge (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004202		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004202		threats	eng	Its montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland areas, but the isolated patches in the north of its range have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pasture and cultivation. <p></p>
106004203		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, where significant areas are being reforested with native trees (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Land at Murici remains privately-owned and a number of conservation initiatives have so far failed to halt forest loss (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recently also recorded at Reserva Privada do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca (630 ha) in Pernambuco (<em>Cotinga</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey sites with any remnant patches of habitat in Alagoas (such as Usina Serra Grande) and Pernambuco. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. Continue the reforestation programme and <em>de facto</em> protection at Pedra Talhada. Designate Mata do Estado and Pedra Dantas as protected areas (<strong></strong>S. Roda <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004203		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes ceciliae</em> is known from ten localities in Alagoas and Pernambuco states, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was discovered at Murici in 1983 and subsequently found at Pedra Talhada in 1987. Forest patches at both these sites are extremely small and severely fragmented. It has since been found at Pedra Branca, Frei Caneca/Pedra Dantas, Brejo dos Cavalos, Mato do Estado, Agua Azul and Gravatá in Pernambuco, and at Quebrângulo and Mata do Engenho Coimbra in Alagoas. At Pedra Branca, it was considered rather common, but 15 days of observations between 1996-1999 found the species on only three occasions<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106004203		habitat	eng	It occurs in upland humid forest at 400-550&#160;m, often joining mixed-species flocks in the mid-storey and subcanopy, 6-15&#160;m above ground. The diet consists of small insects taken from the surface of leaves and branches. Breeding is likely to take place from September to February. A nest was found in a rather open area in 1990.<p></p>
106004203		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004203		threats	eng	There has been massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. Forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a mere 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The site is severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations, and further logging with new roads were evident in January 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999; A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106004204		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004205		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004207		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to uncommon' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004214		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004215		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004218		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004221		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106004222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004224		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004227		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004229		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004234		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor all records of the species to gain a clearer picture of its distribution and population size for future conservation work (M. Pearman <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further clarify its habitat requirements. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106004234		distribution	eng	<em>Platyrinchus leucoryphus</em> occurs at low densities in primary and old secondary Atlantic forest in lowlands, mountains and interior tablelands of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (central Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, north-east Santa Catarina and north-east Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (recent records from four protected areas in Canindeyú, Caazapá, and Itapúa (Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996; Madroño <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (five undocumented records in Iguazú National Park, Misiones<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[Mazar Barnett and Pearman 2001] and one undocumented in Salto Encantado Provincial Park [Giraudo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008]). Recent surveys in Paraguay have virtually failed to find new populations of the species and documented populations are now known to be less extensive than originally postulated, however important populations remain in three protected areas, most notably San Rafael National Park in Itapúa (<strong></strong>Esquivel <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The species was not found during searches made with playback in appropriate habitat in northern and central Misiones, including Iguazú National Park, Argentina during 2003 - 2011 (A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. The Río Iguazu is perhaps a natural barrier to this species and this could account for a continuing lack of records from Argentina (M. Pearman <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.         <p></p>
106004234		habitat	eng	In Paraguay, <em>Platyrinchus leucoryphus</em> appears to prefer forest with an open understorey, with small saplings providing a shady canopy but little undergrowth, and numerous lianas providing perches between flycatching sallies<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It eats arthropods and has been recorded taking katydids, moths and spiders (<strong></strong>Pizo 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent evidence shows that it is largely reliant on primary forest, but it has also been found in disturbed forest and in an isolated 1 ha forest patch with an open understorey created by cattle grazing<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>Esquivel <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It typically occurs at low densities (e.g. 3 territories in 50 ha in São Paulo state, Brazil (<strong></strong>Pizo 2003)<strong></strong> and 4 territories in 100 ha in San Rafael National Park, Paraguay (<strong></strong>Esquivel <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Nesting has been recorded in November in Paraguay and Brazil. A nest in São Paulo state was built 4.5 m above the ground in an understorey tree in old-growth forest (<strong></strong>Pizo 2003)<strong></strong>, while in San Rafael National Park and nest was prominently situated at a height of 2.5 m in a fork of a lone sapling in primary forest (Clay &amp; Madroño 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>.  <p></p>
106004234		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004234		threats	eng	<p>The species appears to be reliant on areas with an open understorey and dense canopy typical of primary Atlantic forest. There is extensive and continuing loss and degradation of Atlantic forest throughout its range, through forest clearing and selective logging, which therefore constitute serious threats to this species. </p>  <p></p>
106004235		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106004236		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in six protected areas: Río Palenque Scientific Centre, Jauneche Biological Reserve Station, Machalilla National Park, Cerro Blanco Protection Forest and Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>, and probably also within Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest, Cañar, Ecuador (Wege and Long 1995). The 776 km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chongón-Colonche Protected Forest may support the species, however the reforestation here focuses on non-native and/or commercially valuable trees such as <em>Cedrela odorata</em> and <em>Prosopis juliflora</em> and provides little or no incentive to maintain or enrich existing native forest (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2007)<strong></strong>. The Pro-Forest Foundation has successfully restored approximately 150 ha of habitat in the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2012). The species is included in field identification cards and posters of threatened bird species of the Ecuadorian Dry Tropical Forest, which has been distributed to more than 3,000 school children in the Cerro Blanco buffer zone (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Native forest remnants have been identified in six properties and work has begun with landowners to protect ravines with springs, which is the preferred habitat of this species (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2012). .<br/><br/><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of known and potential occurrence (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Exclude roaming livestock from known sites (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent further loss and degradation of habitat within protected areas. Map forest within the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche to identify sites for future protection (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
106004236		distribution	eng	<em>Onychorhynchus occidentalis</em> occurs in west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (from Esmeraldas south to El Oro) and immediately adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes), where it is restricted to small, isolated forest patches. It is scarce (J. Hornbuckle <em> in litt</em>. 1999; E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2007; Ridgely and Tudor 1994; Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, apparently naturally occurring at low densities. It appears to be on the verge of extinction in most of its range (Parker and Carr 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004236		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid and deciduous lowland forest below 600m, with exceptional records as high as 900 m<strong></strong>  (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). At least in the Cerro Blanco area it appears to favour semi-deciduous forest in ravines (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it has also been recorded in degraded secondary scrub (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2007; Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It is possible that it may forage in a wide range of habitats, but is reliant on intact, moister forest during the breeding season (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages from the understorey to subcanopy, and is often recorded within low-level mixed-species flocks (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Nests are suspended from branches and vines above shady streams (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and have been found in January and April, with a juvenile collected in May.  <p></p>
106004236		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004236		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong></strong>. It is therefore particularly threatened because it only occurs below c.900 m. Persistent grazing by goats and cattle prevents forest regeneration, and is a serious threat (Clements and Shany 2001; Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rapid habitat loss is ongoing, and will soon remove almost all unprotected forest. Threats also apply to protected areas, with logging occurring in Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Machalilla National Park and Tumbes Reserved Zone are affected by illegal settling and deforestation, livestock-grazing, and habitat clearance by people with land rights. Uncontrolled forest fires started by to clear land for agriculture, or to clear vegetation to kill ticks and improve pastures for grazing, are a major threat in the Cordillera Chongon-Colonche (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2007). It may be able to survive temporarily in degraded forest (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <p></p>
106004237		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from several protected areas, including: Monte Pascoal<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999), Itatiaia and Serra da Bocaina (<strong></strong>J. M. Goerck verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> National Parks, Intervales State Park (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Ubatuba Experimental Station<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 2000), the Guaricana Forest Reserves (Guaratuba and Morretes) (F. Costa Straube <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Salto Morato private reserve (Guaraqueçaba)<strong> </strong>(Mikchi and Bernils 2004), Pico do Marumbi State Park (Mikchi and Bernils 2004), Saint Hilaire-Lange National Park<strong> </strong>(Mikchi and Bernils 2004)<strong></strong>, Fazenda Monte Alegre private reserve, and a private reserve at Piquete (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remaining suitable habitat within its known range to clarify distribution and status. Study its ecological requirements, with Itatiaia National Park perhaps a suitable locality. Increase the area of suitable that has protected status.  <p></p>
106004237		distribution	eng	<em>Onychorhynchus swainsoni</em> is confined to the dwindling forests of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and possibly an old record from Goiás), where it was very poorly known. It has not been recorded in the Serra dos Órgãos (Rio de Janeiro) at least since 1940’s (Mallet-Rodrigues <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). However, there have been recent records from at least seven new sites in Paraná (Mitroszewski <em>et al</em>. 2004; Mikchi and Bernils 2004)<strong></strong> and four new sites in São Paulo (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2004;  L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 2004;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Buzzetti 2000)<strong></strong>, with the spread of records suggesting a fairly continuous extent of occurrence along the Atlantic forest belt in eastern São Paulo and Paraná, from the border with Rio de Janeiro to at least Guaratuba bay, and inland to the Ribeira valley and Paranapiacaba and Mantiqueira ranges  (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. In Santa Catarina state it was known only historically until 2006 when one was seen at Volta Velha (<strong></strong>Mallet-Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 2006). A report of its occurrence in south-east Paraguay (Graves (1990)<strong></strong> is erroneous (M. S. Foster <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Three areas are particularly important: near Estacão Vera Cruz, south Bahia, Itatiaia National Park, Rio de Janeiro/Minas Gerais, and a number of sites in the Serra do Mar, São Paulo. <p></p>
106004237		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of lowland and lower montane Atlantic forest where it often perches motionless for long periods. At Intervales State Park, it is found most frequently in the proximity of small watercourses<strong> </strong>(L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 2000). The diet appears to be insectivorous. It sometimes joins mixed-species flocks and has been noted associating with foliage-gleaners (R. S. R. Williams verbally 1998)<strong></strong> and fire-eyes (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. A juvenile has been seen in January in Rio de Janeiro, suggesting breeding in the austral spring. At Intervales State Park nest-building was recorded during October, and two eggs were laid in November (A. C. De Luca <em>in litt.</em> 2007; Kirwan 2009). <p></p>
106004237		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004237		threats	eng	The widespread clearance, degradation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest are the principal threats to this naturally rare tyrannid. <p></p>
106004238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004242		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004244		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Tapichalaca Reserve and Podocarpus National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect existing protected areas. Study its ecology and ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Survey sites with potentially suitable habitat. Study population trends by surveying known sites and using data on habitat loss. <p></p>
106004244		distribution	eng	<em>Myiophobus lintoni</em> has a tiny range on the east slope of the Andes in Morona-Santiago, Azuay and Loja, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and on Cerro Chinguela in Piura, extreme north <strong>Peru </strong>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Clements and Shany 2001).&#160;<em> <p></p></em>
106004244		habitat	eng	It is resident in the mid-levels and canopy of humid montane forest and ridgetop elfin forest at 2,250-3,200 m<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Nephelomyias </span>forage for small arthropods, and possibly some fruit, by making short sallies into the air or to foliage and by perch gleaning. They usually travel in small groups, often accompanying mixed foraging parties (Ohlson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106004244		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' and local (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996). However, it has been found to be common in the Cordillera del Condor (C. Witt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106004244		threats	eng	Its habitats have been heavily degraded, and suitable forest is still being actively felled, with some areas suffering both forest loss and understorey degradation by grazing livestock<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106004245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004248		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004256		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lathotriccus euleri</span> occurs in South America, with a range covering areas of<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Trinidad and Tobago</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uruguay</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">flaviventris</span> of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Grenada</span> has not been recorded since 1950 and is likely to be extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004256		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004257		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas, including Machalilla National Park, Cerro Blanco Protected Forest and Jauneche Reserve, Ecuador, and Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape, Coto de Caza El Angolo, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Laquipampa, Salitral – Huarmaca Regional Conservation area,&#160;Refugio de vida silvestre Bosques Nublados de Udima (recognised in part due to the presence of the species), Angostura - Faical Regional Conservation area, Peru (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The 776 km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chongón-Colonche Protected Forest may support the species, however the reforestation here focuses on non-native and/or commercially valuable trees such as <em>Cedrela odorata</em> and <em>Prosopis juliflora</em> and provides little or no incentive to maintain or enrich existing native forest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. von Horstman <em> in litt</em>. 2000, 2008)<strong></strong>.<span lang="EN-AU"><span lang="EN-AU"> The Pro-Forest Foundation has restored approximately 250 ha of potential <span style="font-style: italic;">Lathrotriccus </span>habitat in the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest, using 35 native tree species, and also maintains an ongoing environmental education programme for the c.3,500 annual visitors and 2,500 school children in the reserve buffer zone (E. von Horstman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its distribution, particularly in the Marañón and Chinchipe valleys. Research its ecological requirements, seasonal movements and tolerance of habitat disturbance. Strengthen protection in all protected areas holding the species. Identify sites for future protection within the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. Von Horstman <em> in litt</em>. 2000, 2008)<strong></strong>.&#160;<p></p>
106004257		distribution	eng	<em>Lathrotriccus griseipectus</em> is confined to west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Manabí, Los Ríos, Guayas, Cañar, Azuay, El Oro and Loja) and north <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque and Cajamarca), on the Pacific slope of the Andes and in the Marañón and Chinchipe valleys on the east slope. It is apparently relatively common at two localities in Ecuador (Jauneche Reserve and Machalilla National Park [Parker and Carr 1992]<strong></strong>), and two in Peru (near San José de Lourdes, Cajamarca in 1968, and<span lang="EN-AU"> Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape, [formerly Tumbes Reserved Zone], Tumbes<strong> [</strong>R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Walker 2002]), but is otherwise rare and local (<strong></strong>Clements and Shany 2001,<strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994). <span lang="EN-AU">In Peru it is common in Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge (Lambayeque) and in Quebrada Limon, Frejolillo (Piura) (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p></span>
106004257		habitat	eng	It is confined to the understorey of tropical deciduous, semi-deciduous and moist forest, from sea-level to <span lang="EN-AU">as high as 1830 m at Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge and 2000 m at Udima Wildlife Refuge, &#160;Zaña Valley (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), with an additional specimen from 2,200 m (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). At least in the Cerro Blanco area appears to favour semi-deciduous forest in ravines<strong> </strong>(E. Von Horstman <em> in litt</em>. 2000, 2008). Some seasonal movements may be undertaken and, although their exact nature is unclear, it may move to moister forest in the dry season<strong> </strong>(Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is usually found alone or in pairs, perching inconspicuously in shady vine-tangles, from which it makes aerial sallies into sunlit gaps. Immatures have been collected in March, with breeding assumed to take place during the wet season, in January-May.<br/><p></p>
106004257		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004257		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss continues, at least in unprotected areas of both Ecuador and Peru, and will soon have removed almost all lowland forest. Disturbance and degradation through heavy grazing by goats and cattle also pose a significant threat to the understorey of deciduous forests. Even protected areas are affected by illegal settling, deforestation and livestock-grazing. Uncontrolled forest fires started by to clear land for agriculture, or to clear vegetation to kill ticks and improve pastures for grazing, are a major threat in the Cordillera Chongon-Colonche<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. Von Horstman <em> in litt</em>. 2000, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004258		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Rincón de la Vieja National Park and La Selva Biological Reserve, Costa Rica (McDade <em>et al.</em> 1994, P.&#160;Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and potentially Braulio Carillo National Park, Costa Rica, and Río Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve, Nicaragua. Rancho Naturalista is an ecotourism lodge where the species receives protection under current management practices (M.&#160;Reid <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J.&#160;VanderGaast <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess its population and distribution, especially in Nicaragua. Determine the extent to which it can use and maintain a population in unnatural habitats. Increase the area of suitable habitat within governmental and private protected areas.  <p></p>
106004258		distribution	eng	<em>Aphanotriccus capitalis</em> occurs on the Caribbean slope in north <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and south <strong>Nicaragua</strong>. All Nicaraguan records are historical specimens collected near Lake Nicaragua or its outflow, río San Juan (Specimens in NHM <em>per</em> T. E. H. Stuart <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. However, three specimens taken in 1896 are labelled "Río Coco", which, unless there are two Coco rivers, forms the border with Honduras and considerably extends the range northwards (Specimens in NHM <em>per</em> T. E. H. Stuart <em>in litt.</em> 2000). In Costa Rica, it is known from Volcán Orosí (northern tip of the Cordillera de Guanacaste), south to the Río Reventazón drainage, in the foothills between the Cordilleras Central and de Talamanca. It is not common anywhere, with most recent observations at Rancho Naturalista (east of Turrialba), La Selva Biological Reserve and their environs (Stiles and Skutch 1989,<strong></strong> Costa Rica Gateway 1998, R.&#160;Behrstock <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P.&#160;Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1999, K.&#160;Erb <em>in litt</em>. 1999, N.&#160;Newfield <em>in litt</em>. 1999, M.&#160;Reid <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> J.&#160;VanderGaast <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Van Gausig <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004258		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature secondary and evergreen forest, usually in dense understorey vegetation on the forest edges, along forest streams and in natural forest clearings (Stiles and Skutch 1989<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J.&#160;VanderGaast <em>in litt</em>. 1999). In La Selva, it has been recorded in cocoa plantations and similar "semi-open" areas (McDade <em>et al.</em> 1994), but is not known from small forest fragments. It ranges from the low foothills to c.900 m, and locally to 1,050 m (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Nicaraguan localities are apparently in the lowlands, but specimens could have been collected in nearby hilly areas. Nests have been found in hollows of fairly large trees and in large, non-native bamboo stems (J.&#160;VanderGaast <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004258		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004258		threats	eng	Logging, conversion to banana plantations and cattle-ranch expansion have resulted in widespread forest clearance and severe fragmentation, particularly in Costa Rica (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Harcourt and Sayer 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004259		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Darién National Park, Panama. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an estimate of the species's population size. Carry out surveys at regular intervals to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss within its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106004259		distribution	eng	<em>Aphanotriccus audax</em> is restricted to east <strong>Panama</strong> (Panamá and Darién) and north <strong>Colombia</strong> (from north Antioquia to Guajira)  (Hilty and Brown 1986; Ridgely and Gwynne 1989), where it is uncommon to locally common and perhaps overlooked. It appears to require intact, primary closed-canopy forest<strong> </strong>(Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996). In Colombia, the species is suspected to have declined by c.30% over the last 11 years (three generations) (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004259		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid forest undergrowth and mid-storey near streams and swampy areas, in lowlands and foothills at 100-600 m (Hilty and Brown 1986;&#160;Ridgely and Gwynne 1989; Fundación ProAves in press). <p></p>
106004259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon'.
106004259		threats	eng	The species is probably in decline owing to habitat destruction and conversion to agriculture following road-building (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Deforestation in the Caribbean lowlands of Colombia has been severe (T. Donegan<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Lowland forest in other areas of Colombia is being rapidly cleared for agriculture, but also for palm oil plantations in Chocó department and gold mining in Serranía de San Lucas (T. Donegan<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is estimated that at least half of the species's known range in Panama has been deforested within the last 30 years and this is continuing rapidly (G. R. Angehr<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The factors driving severe deforestation throughout much of its range are expected to cause future declines in the species's population (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004260		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species; however, it occurs in El Sumidero National Park (Chiapas, Mexico) and Montecristo National Park (El Salvador) (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, at least. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the total population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Protect suitable habitat. <p></p>
106004260		distribution	eng	<em>Xenotriccus callizonus</em> is uncommon and locally distributed in south <strong>Mexico</strong> (Chiapas), <strong>Guatemala</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>El Salvador </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995)<sup></sup>. It is most common at El Sumidero, Chiapas, and not well known beyond this location (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004260		habitat	eng	This species is found in dense scrubby (and especially oak) woodland at elevations of 1,200-2,000 m&#160; (Howell and Webb 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, searching from a low branch and then sallying out to capture its prey in the air or from foliage (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its nest, in which it lays three eggs, is a cup made of fine grass and other plant fibres, situated in a fork of a shrub (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004260		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106004260		threats	eng	Suitable habitat is undergoing widespread clearance throughout the region, owing principally to coffee cultivation (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and logging, as well as uncontrolled fires (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its favoured habitats, pine-oak forest and woodland, have suffered heavy deforestation throughout its range (K. Eisermann <em>in litt</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004261		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are very few protected areas within the species's restricted range to mitigate threats to its habitat (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the total population size. Assess the species's potential occurrence in Guatemala. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status.  <p></p>
106004261		distribution	eng	<em>Xenotriccus mexicanus</em> is found in the interior of south-west <strong>Mexico</strong> from central Michoacán and Morelos to Oaxaca (Howell and Webb 1995)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Reports from Laguna del Tigre National Park, <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Guatemala</strong>, are thought to be erroneous (Eisermann and Avendaño 2007)<strong></strong>. It is common at Monte Albán, Oaxaca, in summer, but rare or absent in winter when birds may migrate into the Balsas drainage (Howell and Webb 1995)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is also reported to be common during summer in scrub and oak woodland around Oaxaca city and in Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve, ranging north of Cuernavaca (M. Grosselet <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010).&#160; <br/><br/><p></p>
106004261		habitat	eng	This species is fairly common at 900-2,000 m in arid montane scrub, and particularly mesquite in arid scrub (Howell and Webb 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). It feeds on insects, foraging from a low branch and sallying out to capture prey from the air or foliage (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its nest, in which it lays two or three eggs, is made of grasses and other plant fibres, and is bound to a fork in a low thorny thicket using spider silk (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <p></p>
106004261		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band for 20,000-49,999 mature individuals.
106004261		threats	eng	Most habitat has been affected by agricultural expansion, including coffee and citrus plantations and cattle-ranching (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004262		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004264		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species specific actions are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify causes behind the declines. Develop and implement relevant actions once this first step has been completed.  <p></p>
106004264		distribution	eng	<em>Contopus cooperi</em> breeds across <strong>Canada</strong> (overlapping into eastern <strong>USA</strong>) and Alaska, and down the west coast of the <strong>USA</strong> as far as northern <strong>Mexico</strong>. There are also isolated populations in several states in the eastern USA<strong> </strong>(Altman and Sallabanks 2000). It winters primarily in <strong>Panama</strong> and the Andes Mountains, from north and west <strong>Venezuela</strong> south through <strong>Ecuador</strong> to south-east <strong>Peru</strong> and west <strong>Bolivia</strong><strong> </strong>(Altman and Sallabanks 2000). Casual wintering also occurs in the <strong>Guianas</strong>, <strong>Trinidad</strong>, south <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong> and south <strong>Peru</strong><strong> </strong>(Altman and Sallabanks 2000). Based on data from the Breeding Bird Survey the population has declined by 3.5% annually since 1980, equating to a 30% decline over a ten year period, but a 20.6% decline for the period 1993-2002. Given the apparent benefits to the species of some forest management practices in north America, populations may be being affected by loss or alteration of habitat in their wintering grounds.   <p></p>
106004264		habitat	eng	It breeds along forest edges and openings, semi-open forest, water edges and harvested forest where some structure has been retained. Prominent trees serve as singing and foraging posts, and both sexes are aggressively territorial<strong> </strong>(Altman and Sallabanks 2000).  <p></p>
106004264		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <p></p>
106004264		threats	eng	Habitat loss and alteration of forest management practices may limit breeding success<strong> </strong>(Altman 1997). However, numerous studies suggest that several types of harvested forest are beneficial to the species (possibly recreating preferred post-forest fire habitat mosaics)<strong> </strong>(Altman and Sallabanks 2000). Unknown threats may be affecting the species on its wintering grounds.  <p></p>
106004266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004271		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004272		distribution	eng	This species has a very patchy distribution in northern South America, occurring locally on the eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador and eastern Peru (San Martín, Amazonas, Huánuco and Cuzco (Clements and Shany 2001)), and very locally in southern Guyana and eastern Amazonian Brazil with sightings from south-east Pará, Serra das Carajás and Maranhão (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106004272		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the canopy and borders of humid forest in hilly areas up to 1,200 m altitude, although in its western range birds are restricted to the foothills of the Andes, above 400 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). Birds are generally seen in pairs, along streams or in other openings in tall forest, and when feeding make long aerial sallies, usually returning to the same perch (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106004272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004272		threats	eng	Deforestation may threaten this species (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004273		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004274		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004280		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004285		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004288		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004290		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004294		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrocephalus rubinus</span> occurs throughout much of the Neotropics, with a range covering south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belize</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uruguay </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">dubius</span>, endemic to San Cristóbal in Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, has not been recorded since the 1980s despite recent searches and is now considered extinct (Wiedenfeld 2006).
106004294		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004295		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004296		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004297		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004298		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004299		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004300		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004301		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004303		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004304		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are no protected areas within the small range of this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its current range, population size and ecological requirements. Research threats. Protect appropriate habitat. <p></p>
106004304		distribution	eng	<em>Ochthoeca piurae</em> occurs locally in the Andes of Piura south to Ancash, north-west <strong>Peru</strong><strong></strong>.  It has been recorded in Palambla (in Piura), Porculla (Lambayeque), Samne and Sincicap (La Libertad), and Colcabamba, Wiñapatun, Noqno and San Damian (Ancash) <strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Fitzpatrick <em>et al</em>. 2004, I. Franke <em>in litt.</em> 2004, Valqui 2004).<strong> </strong>However, it is apparently absent from other areas in north-west Peru where appropriate habitat exists, and it has been suggested that the present distribution of the species is limited to relatively good populations in the department of Ancash and southern La Libertad and small populations around Porculla Pass and Amotape, and that the northern populations have nearly disappeared<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(I. Franke <em>in litt.</em> 2004).  <p></p>
106004304		habitat	eng	Its ecological requirements are poorly known (Best and Kessler 1995)<strong></strong>.  It occurs at the edge of semihumid forest, in montane scrub  (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), on shrubby arid hillsides, and in riparian thickets (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Fitzpatrick <em>et al</em>. 2004), at 1,400-2,850 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), occasionally to 3,300 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Its diet is unknown, but is presumed to consist of insects<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Fitzpatrick <em>et al</em>. 2004). <p></p>
106004304		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon, or rare and local.
106004304		threats	eng	It is not as threatened as many forest-dependent species in the region (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but ongoing habitat clearance and degradation of montane scrub and riparian thickets, in conjunction with overgrazing, are presumably causing population declines.  <p></p>
106004305		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey at a number of different sites to estimate population size. Research the effects of grazing and wood cutting on populations of the species. Protect significant areas of forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106004305		distribution	eng	<em>Tumbezia salvini</em> is endemic to extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, from Tumbes south to La Libertad, where it is often considered uncommon (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. However it is widespread in suitable habitat, for instance a survey along the Quebrada Fernandez between Tumbes and Piura, along a transect of 35 km found the species at 23 out of 27 sites sampled (F. P. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007). In 2008, it was recorded near the town of Zapotillo <em></em>in south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, very close to the Peruvian border (Davies and Miller 2009).&#160;<em> <p></p></em>
106004305		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland Algarrobo <em>Prosopis pallida</em> forests at 25 masl, arid scrub, arid scrub with scattered Algarrobo trees from lower parts of the hills of the west slope of the Andes, to dense deciduous dry forests at 700 m (F. P. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007). It has been considered to usually occur near watercourses (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it has also been found in areas where the nearest water source is about 25 km away and on heavily grazed, deforested, arid and low density type forests without vine tangles (F. P. Angulo <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It perhaps undertakes local seasonal movements (Barrio 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004305		population	eng	Angulo (<I>in litt.</I> undated) states that Lambayeque department definitely holds more that 100 pairs. If only a 1000 ha area holds at least five individuals (we can estimate a rough density of one individual/200 ha), and the available habitat in Lambayeque [between 50-700 m elevation] can be roughly estimated at 250,000 ha, the population would be at least 1,250 individuals. In Quebrada Frejolillo (the famous place to see the White-winged Guan in the wild) in an area of approximately 300 ha, there are at least six birds, which gives an estimate of one bird/50 ha. With this number, the Lambayeque population would be 5,000 individuals and the whole population 20,000 (considering that Lambayeque and Piura together have 1,000,000 ha of suitable habitat). In light of this the population is best considered to number 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equivalent to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000.
106004305		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the principal threat, with logging, understorey clearance and loss of riverine thickets to irrigated agriculture, and over-grazing by goat the main processes (Best and Kessler 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004306		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004307		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004310		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is protected by two national designations and is an international Biosphere Reserve (IUCN 1992), but this formal legislation has not conserved the massif's ecosystems effectively. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey its range to better determine its current population and distribution. Research its ecological requirements (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Strengthen and improve the conservation measures in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve, at least where important populations of this species are found. Work with local communities and regional institutions to identify and prioritise conservation and management strategies (Salazar and Strewe undated). <p></p>
106004310		distribution	eng	<em>Myiotheretes pernix</em> occurs on the north slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Magdalena, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is localised and uncommon (Hilty and Brown 1986). The only area from which there are recent records is the San Lorenzo ridge, e.g. (Hilty and Brown 1986, G. M.&#160;Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1998,&#160;P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002), although there have been few recent surveys near the two historical eastern localities, or in other parts of its projected range. <p></p>
106004310		habitat	eng	It is most commonly seen in shrubby forest and second growth borders, along road cuts, and on overgrown hillsides, from 2,100 to 2,900&#160;m altitude. It occurs within forest, at tree gaps or forest edge, making aerial sallies to catch insects (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it has been observed near pine plantations, it has never been seen feeding at such sites (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). <p></p>
106004310		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004310		threats	eng	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains, albeit largely on the north slope where this species occurs<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993). The main past and continuing threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations (L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993,&#160;<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993, J.&#160;Fjeldså verbally 2000, L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo verbally 2000)<strong></strong>, which was compounded by spraying of the slopes with herbicides (L.&#160;G.&#160;Olarte <em>in litt</em>. 1993,<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1993). It is not known whether this activity is still undertaken by the Colombian authorities (L.&#160;M.&#160;Renjifo verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Less significant threats, which followed human immigration to the area from the 1950s onwards, are agricultural expansion (e.g. coffee at lower altitudes and livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. pines) (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Salazar and Strewe undated). <p></p>
106004311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004312		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004313		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004317		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004318		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004319		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor population within its small range for any indication of a decline. Research potential future threats. Develop a species action plan to be implemented if its restricted habitat becomes threatened. Consider protecting an area of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106004319		distribution	eng	<em>Neoxolmis salinarum</em> is locally uncommon to fairly common around Salinas Grandes and Salinas de Ambargasta, north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (north-west Córdoba, extreme south Catamarca, south-west Santiago del Estero and east La Rioja).<em> <p></p></em>
106004319		habitat	eng	It is restricted to semi-open scrub growing in salt-impregnated soil at elevations of 100-200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<strong></strong>). <p></p>
106004319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004319		threats	eng	There is small-scale salt extraction in parts of Córdoba but this does not directly affect this species's habitat (J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its moderately small range is concerning, but no other threats are known. <p></p>
106004320		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Argentina, it has been recorded in Chaco, Mburucuyá and El Palmar National Parks, San Juan Poriahú and Campos del Tuyú Private Reserves and Ribera Norte Municipal Reserve (Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>, but only a few of these protected areas support significant breeding populations (Fraga 2003)<strong></strong>. In Brazil, it is known from Aparados da Serra and São Joaquim National Parks, the general area of Serra Geral National Park (Parker and Goerck 1997, <strong></strong>Bencke and Kindel 1999)<strong></strong>, and Taim Ecological Station (Mahler <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. In Uruguay, it is legally protected, and resident in Bañados del Este Biosphere Reserve and Laguna de Castillos, Potrerillo de Santa Teresa and Los Indios Reserves (A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology to establish appropriate land-management practices. Remove incentives for planting trees on grasslands. Protect key populations in Corrientes and Rio Grande do Sul. Assess the impact of brood-parasitism by <em>M.&#160;bonariensis<strong></strong></em> (A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. The following has been proposed from fieldwork in the Aguapey river basin in Corrientes province, Argentina: maintain the current connectivity of grasslands so that there is a functional corridor for this and other fauna; c<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>reate new protected areas to include the better conserved habitats along complete vegetation and topographic gradients; design integrated land use plans to conserve the remaining biodiversity in conjunction with a variety of agricultural activities; avoid large  (&gt;50 ha) blocks of forest plantation to ensure connectivity between open habitats; halt government support for afforestation projects that lack and adequate land use plan that includes the requirements for threatened species conservation and long-term monitoring of grassland bird populations; and carry out more detailed studies on the breeding biology, habitat use, and movements of populations of threatened grassland birds so that critical habitat patches can be identified.  (Di Giacomo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<p></p>
106004320		distribution	eng	<em>Xolmis dominicanus</em> occurs in <strong>Brazil</strong> (São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (recently from Paysandú, Canelones, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Rocha, Treinta y Tres and Cerro Largo [A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Codesido and Fraga 2009]<strong></strong>), <strong>Argentina</strong> (recently from Corrientes, Entre Ríos and Buenos Aires [Fraga 2003, Codesido and Fraga 2009<strong></strong>) and there are unconfirmed reports for Paraguay (Contreras 1995)<strong></strong>. It has undergone a catastrophic decline since c.1850. The current stronghold is possibly south-east Uruguay, where the population is estimated at 1,500-2,200 breeding birds, mostly in Rocha (A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. In Brazil, it remains numerous only in south-east Santa Catarina, and north-east and south-east Rio Grande do Sul. It has declined notably in Argentina, especially in Buenos Aires, where it was previously common (Narosky and DiGiacomo 1993)<strong></strong>, and most records are now in Corrientes and Entre Ríos (Pearman and Abadie 1995, Fraga 2003, Codesido and Fraga 2009)<strong></strong>. Although populations may still persist in southern Misiones, there are no recent reliable records from Santa Fe, Chaco or Formosa (Fraga 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004320		habitat	eng	It inhabits scrubby grasslands, especially near marshes. In Entre Ríos and Corrientes, it has occurred in old paddy-fields that were unused for over five years (Pearman and Abadie 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it occasionally visits cultivations with Saffron-cowled Blackbird <em>Xanthopsar flavus</em>. In Corrientes, it is relatively common in recently burnt areas (J.&#160;C.&#160;Chebez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests have been found in vegetation within boggy swales (Suertegaray Fontana 1997, A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding activity in Argentina has been noted during September-December (Fraga 2003). <p></p>
106004320		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004320		threats	eng	Agriculture, and especially livestock-grazing, has modified grasslands since the 16th century, and intensely since the 1870s (Bucher and Nores 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Very recently, afforestation with non-native trees has begun to radically alter remaining grasslands, especially in Entre Ríos and Corrientes (Pearman and Abadie 1995). Anthropogenic fires have destroyed nests (A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. In Uruguay, one study has shown very high levels of brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> (A.&#160;B.&#160;Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004322		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004323		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from Huascarán National Park, Peru, and Lauca National Park, Chile.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor known populations. Survey to identify additional populations. Study the ecology to establish threats, perhaps at Lauca, Chile, or in Azuay and Loja, Ecuador. <p></p>
106004323		distribution	eng	<em>Agriornis albicauda</em> occurs in the high Andes from <strong>Ecuador</strong> to northern <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, but the population is small and probably declining. Subspecies <em>andicola</em> occurs in Ecuador (Imbabura, Pichincha, Napo, Chimborazo, Cañar, Zamora-Chinchipe and Loja provinces), and was found at four new sites in 1995-1999 (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1996,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Howell and Webb in prep., <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> N. Simpson <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000). The nominate subspecies <em>albicauda</em> occurs in <strong>Peru</strong> (Cajamarca, La Libertad, Huánuco, Ancash, Pasco, Cuzco, Lima, Arequipa and Ayacucho) with 16 records since 1952 (Clements 1998,<strong></strong> N. Simpson <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, Begazo <em>et al. </em>2001,<strong></strong> D. Geale <em>in litt.</em> 2005, M. Ugarte-Lewis <em>in litt.</em> 2005); <strong>Bolivia</strong>, where there are records from La Paz in 1941, Oruro in 1967 and 1991, Potosí in 1967, Chusquisaca in 1991 (Fjeldså and Mayer 1996)<strong></strong> and Cochabamba in 1997<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Herzog <em>et al</em>. 1999); north Chile in Tarapacá and Antofagasta, with recent records from the precordillera and altiplanos of Arica (Howell and Webb 1995b,<strong></strong> Howell and Webb in prep.), and north-west Argentina in Sierra de Aconquija and Tucumán, with one record from Catamarca in 1918 (Chebez 1994, Blendinger 1998, H. Povedano <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). <p></p>
106004323		habitat	eng	It was thought to exclusively inhabit the páramo and puna zones, high above the treeline at 3,500-4,300 m. However, in south Ecuador, it has been found in semi-arid, bushy country, especially in areas with large <em>Puyas</em>, at 2,400-3,100 m&#160; (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It favours open areas with sparse vegetation and scattered rocks, particularly near old buildings and walls<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Vuilleumier 1994), and has been recorded from rocky <em>Polylepis</em> groves (Vuilleumier 1994). There are two records from open farmland with hedgerows and introduced <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees (Krabbe <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong> N. Simpson <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000), one from agricultural land (crops and pasture) with introduced pine trees (M. Ugarte-Lewis <em>in litt.</em> 2005), and one from cactus scrub with <em>Eucalyptus</em> (B. Knapton <em>in litt. </em>2003). <p></p>
106004323		population	eng	This species is poorly known. It appears to be very rare to rare and very local throughout its range. Collar<em> et al.</em> (1992) described it as exceedingly rare. Given this, the total population is estimated to fall below 10,000 individuals, despite its large range. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. Further information is required to validate this however.
106004323		threats	eng	The reasons for this species's scarcity are unclear. Open (albeit modified) grassland habitats have been expanding for centuries owing to burning and grazing (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996,<strong></strong> Kessler and Herzog 1998, T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It may historically have been out-competed by <em>A. montana</em>, and this may continue<em></em> (B. Knapton <em>in litt. </em>2003), although the two have coexisted for at least a million years (T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999). It could be unusually predator-prone (Krabbe <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996)<strong></strong>. However, such threats provide unlikely explanations for the species's rarity. <p></p>
106004324		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004328		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004329		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004330		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004332		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004334		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004337		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004340		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004342		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004347		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004348		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004350		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The only protected area harbouring dry forests where the species may occur, Terra Ronca State Park (57,018 ha near São Domingos, Goiás), has yet to be fully implemented. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in areas of potentially suitable habitat in Goiás and Bahia. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status and complete the designation of Terra Ronca State Park.  <p></p>
106004350		distribution	eng	<em>Knipolegus franciscanus</em> occurs in <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is known from ten locatities: Vale do Rio Palmeiras, Tocantins (Pacheco and Olmos 2006); Pirapora, Januária, Itacarambi, Manga and Montalvânia in Minas Gerais; Iaciara, Serra Geral (untraced) and Nova Roma (<strong></strong>Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1997;<strong></strong> F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in Goiás; and São Tomé near Campo Formoso and near São Félix do Coribe (<strong></strong>F. Olmos and R. Silva e Silva pers. obs. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in Bahia (Lima 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><em> <p></p></em>
106004350		habitat	eng	All localities, except São Tomé, are in dry forest patches associated with limestone outcrops of the Bambuí formation. The species is associated with rocky outcrops, although seasonal movements to forest areas have been noticed<strong> </strong>(J. F. Pacheco per. F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2004). <p></p>
106004350		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004350		threats	eng	Limestone-derived soils are the most fertile in the region so clearance (including state-sponsored projects in Bahia) for pasture and irrigated cultures has been widespread. Around São Felix do Coribe in western Bahia, remaining dry forest patches are very small (all areas less than 200 ha) and this is the case throughout the limestone region. Remaining forest is exploited for timber, mostly for fence poles (<strong></strong>Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1997<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Satellite imagery from the Paranã valley in Goiás has shown that dry forests declined from 15.8% of the region in 1990 to only 5.4% in 1999, and less than 1% of the remaining fragments are over 100 ha, although they make up 48% of the remaining forest (Andahur 2001)<strong></strong>. Most of the remaining forest is associated with rocky outcrops where cultivation or pastures are not viable, and vegetation make-up there differs to that of forest on flatter ground.  <p></p>
106004351		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004352		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004353		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004354		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004355		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004357		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004358		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Brazil, it is locally common in Emas National Park in Goiás<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1998, R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011), Gama-Cabeça de Veado Environmental Protection Area, Brasília National Park in Distrito Federal, Serra da Canastra National Park and São Miguel Wildlife Sanctuary in Minas Gerais<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998)<strong></strong>. In Paraguay it is protected by law, and occurs in San Rafael National Park (where Guyra Paraguay protects the site at Kanguery), Serranía San Luis National Park, Tapytá Private Nature Reserve (Clay <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998)<strong></strong>, Morombi Private Reserve and on a protected private estancia at La Graciela (H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2012<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong>. In 2008, Asociación Armonía, with the support of the American Bird Conservancy and World Land Trust-U.S., created the Barba Azul Nature Reserve in Beni Province, Bolivia, protecting habitat occupied by the species in the Beni savanna (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>. A tiny population in Jaguariaíva County, Paraná state, where the species is rare, was monitored in 2007-2008, and will be searched for in the future (R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2011).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to clarify status. Define seasonal abundance within protected areas. Control dry season burning within and close to protected areas. Encourage farmers to set aside areas of tall grass. Secure San Rafael National Park, Paraguay. Review farmers' expansion plans and secure other private properties away from current protected areas, inside the Cerrado Laguna Blanca IBA (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106004358		distribution	eng	<em>Alectrurus tricolor</em> has become very scarce and local over a large range in north and east <strong>Bolivia</strong>, occurring in<strong> </strong>a few scattered localities in La Paz and Santa Cruz (Parker <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1991, <strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Brace<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997) and frequently in the pampas of north and west Beni (Parker <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1991, Ridgely and Tudor 1994,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Brace<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1997, <strong></strong> M. Herrera <em>in litt. </em>2007), but being inexplicably absent from large areas (Parker <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1991, Brace <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997); central and southern <strong>Brazil</strong> (R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011), in Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás, Distrito Federal, Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo south to Paraná, where there are few records (Santos 2007, R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em>. 2011), and possibly Rio Grande do Sul<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998,&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000); east <strong>Paraguay</strong>, in<strong> </strong>Concepción, San Pedro (Robbins <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999<strong></strong>, M. B. Robbins <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000<strong></strong>, H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007), Cordillera (Lowen <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1996), Caazapá (Clay <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998), Itapúa (M. Velázquez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007, Codesido and Fraga 2009) and Misiones (H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007, Codesido and Fraga 2009), and <strong></strong>north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina</span>, where a<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>few old specimens were taken in north-east Corrientes and south Misiones (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), but the species has not been recorded since September 1979, despite searches in suitable habitat (Pearman and Abadie 1995). In Brazil it remains locally common only in a few scattered protected areas in Goiás, Distrito Federal and Minas Gerais (Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998)<strong></strong>, while in Paraguay it is generally very rare (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>R. Clay<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but locally common and apparently a stable breeding resident at Estancia Laguna Blanca in San Pedro; Estancia La Graciela in Misiones, and Kanguery in San Rafael National Park, Itapúa (H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007).<p></p>
106004358		habitat	eng	It inhabits seasonally wet and dry grasslands, known as "campo limpo" and "campo sujo" respectively<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Parker <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1991, Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Silveira 1998)<strong></strong>, favouring areas of taller vegetation (30-100 cm) and, in Bolivia, especially areas of <em>Trachypogon</em> (Parker <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1991). In southern Brazil, the species has been recorded in humid grassland dominated by Cyperaceae, as well as Poaceae, species (R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. Although it normally disappears from burnt sites (Cavalcanti 1988)<strong></strong>, it has been observed feeding on the ground in recently burnt areas (Lowen <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1996)<strong></strong>. It is generally insectivorous, though a female has been observed feeding small fruit to two fledglings<strong></strong>. In Serra da Canastra it is migratory, arriving between mid-August and September and departing in December and January (Silveira 1998)<strong></strong>, but it appears to be resident at several sites in Paraguay (H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong>. Breeding occurs at the start of the wet season in September and October (Parker <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1991, M. B. Robbins <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000).<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>In southern Brazil, it has been recorded nesting on the ground in a very wet area of grassland (R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011). <p></p>
106004358		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size (e.g. the lower end of such estimates is 1 / km<sup>2</sup>) and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied.
106004358		threats	eng	Grassland habitats throughout its range are threatened by agricultural development, livestock-farming, plantations and mining<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Machado <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>R. Clay<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. Its dependence on tall grasslands make it especially sensitive to intensive grazing, trampling by cattle and frequent burning (Parker <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1991, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>R. Clay<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em>, cattle ranching and the introduction of invasive jaragua grasses are key threats to the population at Cerrado Laguna Blanca, Paraguay, where a recently instated reserve has failed to protect the species (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Uncontrolled burning and the introduction of exotic grasses are major threats elsewhere in the country (H. del Castillo <em>in litt. </em>2007<strong style="font-weight: normal;">,</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>R. Clay<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The conversion of grassland to soy plantations is an on-going threat in Brazil at least (R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. In Paraná, Brazil, habitat loss and modification are severe, driven largely by conversion to pine plantations (R. E. Fernandes Santos<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. The recently instated Reserva Natural Privada Laguna Blanca in Paraguay, within the IBA Cerrado de Laguna Blanca, failed to protect the species, which is threatened with the continuous conversion of natural grasslands into pastures with exotic African grass and Eucalyptus plantation inside the IBA. <p></p>
106004359		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. The most important and continuous population occurs in Argentina at Reserva Natural del Ibera, Corrientes, a provincial reserve that is established on state and private lands (<strong></strong>Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004)<strong></strong>. It is also protected at Mburucuyá National Park, Corrientes. In Formosa province it is protected at Pilcomayo National Park, El Bagual Private Reserve (where there is a population of 150 individuals), and Guacolec Private Reserve (Di Giacomo 2005)<strong></strong>. In Chaco province a small population is protected in El Cachape Private Reserve. Its population ecology and the effects of different management regimes are being studied in Formosa and Corrientes provinces (A. S. Di Giacomo and A. G. Di Giacomo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Paraguay it occurs at low numbers in the proposed San Rafael National Park, where is protected in a Guyra Paraguay reserve and occurs in others several unprotected areas (mostly cattle ranches). The Grassland Alliance, a conservation initiative acting in Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, is working to encourage cattle ranchers to keep natural grasslands in their properties (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><br/><strong><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/></strong>Conduct quantitative censuses in Chaco and Formosa. Establish a Biosphere Reserve in the southern grasslands of Paraguay. Remove incentives for planting trees on grasslands. Conduct an educational campaign alongside those aimed at protecting the Atlantic Forest to discourage the planting of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>as "reforestation". Implement the management plan for the Reserva Natural del Ibera to facilitate sustainable land use on private lands. Secure San Rafael National Park (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Search for the species at new sites in suitable habitat. Study cattle ranching management best practices on the critical breeding grounds in Argentina (Esteros de Ibera, Corrientes). A population of about 50 birds had been reduced to 10-20 after the construction of a new paved road in the Arroyos and Esteros IBA, Paraguay; farmers inside the IBA should be encouraged to join the Grassland Alliance (H. del Castillo<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).  <strong>  <p></p></strong>
106004359		distribution	eng	<em>Alectrurus risora</em> now occurs primarily in south <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Presidente Hayes, Amambay, Central, Cordillera, Alto Paraná, Paraguarí, Guairá, Misiones, Itapúa and San Pedro) and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004) (Corrientes, eastern Formosa, and rarely in Chaco and Misiones). There has perhaps been a catastrophic loss of range in <strong>Brazil</strong>, the last record coming from Rio de Janeiro in 1974 (Pearman and Abadie 1995<strong></strong>), with older records from Mato Grosso, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul; <strong>Uruguay</strong>, where it was formerly an uncommon breeder, but has only yielded one unconfirmed record since 1986 (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999<strong></strong>), and Argentina (Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, Córdoba, San Luis and Buenos Aires). In 1993, the population in Corrientes was estimated at c.23,000 birds, but recent records indicate that numbers in Chaco and Formosa are considerably lower (di Giacomo and di Giacomo 2004).   <p></p>
106004359		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet grasslands near or within marshes. It apparently requires relatively tall grasses, mostly over 1-1.5 m (Pacheco and Gonzaga 1994, Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004). Breeding occurs in the austral spring. It feeds on invertebrates. It was formerly partially migratory in north-east Argentina with birds reaching Buenos Aires province in the breeding season and Brazil during the winter, but remnant populations are resident (Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Paraguay it is sedentary, remaining even when grassland has been recently burned (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007). It has been observed following army ants <em>Labidus praedator </em>and armadillos <em>Euphractus sexcinctus</em> to forage for insects (Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The mating system is complex (lek-like), involving breeding groups with monogamous and polygamous males that can be maintained for more than 10 years (A. S. Di Giacomo and A. G. Di Giacomo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It is gregarious, commonly being found in groups of 20 and exceptionally up to 50 birds (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004359		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size (the lower limit of such estimates for tyrannids is one individual/km<sup>2</sup>), and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals here.
106004359		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and over cattle-grazing of natural grasslands are the principal threats to remaining populations in Argentina (Di Giacomo and Krapovickas 2002, Clay <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> in prep.). Early declines in the Pampas of Argentina were caused by the spread of&#160; corn, wheat and soybean monocultures (<strong></strong>Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004)<strong></strong>. Later declines in the central Chaco of Argentina were caused by the establishment of cotton crops (<strong></strong>Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Corrientes and Formosa, cattle ranching has not caused critical modifications of natural grasslands. However, spring and summer fires for improving pastures affects reproductive success in Corrientes (A. S. Di Giacomo and A. G. Di Giacomo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Other short-term threats come from the spread of soybean and rice crops, and pine and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>plantations in some traditional cattle ranching areas (<strong></strong>Di Giacomo and Di Giacomo 2004)<strong></strong>. In Corrientes, afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp., encouraged by government incentives (Di Giacomo and Krapovickas 2002, Clay <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> in prep.)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, is even affecting wet valley bottoms since trees are often planted adjacent to, or within, inundated grasslands, regardless of their subsequent poor growth and unsuitability for the market (R. Davies verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. In Paraguay the main threats are loss of grassland habitats for afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em>, cattle ranching and the introduction of invasive grasses, and excessive burning. Conversion of wetlands and grasslands for rice fields is a rapidly increasing threat in Eastern Paraguay (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Its preference for tall grasses suggests that it is intolerant of even biannual burning. Pesticides, fertilisers and other chemicals are widely used<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and must have profound effects on suitable grasslands (Clay <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> in prep.)<strong></strong>. It is apparently not disturbed by extensive cattle ranching (H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106004360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004361		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004365		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004366		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004367		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in two large protected areas, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, and Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve, Peru, and two smaller reserves, Río Palenque Scientific Centre and Jauneche Biological Research Station, Ecuador. Historical specimens have been taken in the area now protected as Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, and there are possible records from other reserves in north-west Ecuador<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(K.&#160;S.&#160;Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess its population and distribution. Determine its status in the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve. Strengthen habitat protection in the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve and Machalilla National Park. Protect the Cordillera de Celica. <p></p>
106004367		distribution	eng	<em>Attila torridus</em> is known mainly from west <strong>Ecuador</strong> in Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Manabí, Los Ríos, Guayas, Cañar, El Oro and Loja (Wege and Long 1995). In Tumbes, <strong>Peru</strong>, there are several records from the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve. The only record for <strong>Colombia</strong> is a single individual in Nariño, in 1958 (Webster and Rowlett 1998, C.&#160;Bushell <em>in litt</em>. 1999). There is a concentration of known localities on the west slope of the Cordillera de Celica, Loja (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is rare or uncommon in all but a few areas, and numbers have decreased considerably. <p></p>
106004367		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid and semi-humid forest, also secondary forest and occasionally cocao plantations, from sea-level to 1,000&#160;m, occasionally as high as 2,400&#160;m (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). Some seasonal movements are thought to occur, but the nature of these remains unclear. The diet consists of fruit and arthropods, especially spiders, although vertebrates (frogs and lizards) made up nearly half of the food fed to nestlings (Greeney 2006). Breeding is thought to occur in the wet season, between January and March, and a nest has been found in February (Greeney 2006). <p></p>
106004367		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004367		threats	eng	Below 900&#160;m, only 4.4% of the original forest cover remains in west Ecuador, with most of this destruction since c.1960 (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. High levels of habitat loss are continuing, at least in unprotected areas of both Ecuador and Peru, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest if effective action is not taken urgently. In higher parts of the species's range, rates of habitat destruction are not as great, but logging, conversion of land for agriculture and plantations continue (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance and degradation of remaining forest patches through heavy grazing by goats and cattle also poses a threat, particularly in deciduous forests. Even some of the protected areas are affected by illegal settling and deforestation, as well as livestock-grazing and habitat clearance by people with land-rights. <p></p>
106004368		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004369		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004371		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004372		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004373		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004374		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004375		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004376		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004377		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106004378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004380		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in the Santuario Hist<span class="st">órico Bosque de Pomac (R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<span class="st"><strong></strong></span> and Coto de Caza El Angolo<span class="st"><span class="st"> (</span><span class="st">F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2012<span class="st"><span class="st">). Surveys across theo species' range are being undertaken in 2011 and 2012, including habitat and threat analysis. A Zona Reservada (possible future national protected area) has been declared at the Illescas Peninsula, where the species is present  (C. Devenish<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).</span><br/><br/><span class="st"><span class="st"><span class="st"><span class="st"><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey more widely within the species historical range to determine current distribution and reassess its threat status. Advocate that areas of <em>Prosopsis</em> and <em>Acacia</em> woodland are protected and grazing by goats and fuelwood collection be prohibited. Raise awareness over the species's status and encourage bee-keepers not to kill flycatchers. </span></span>Research its natural history <span class="st"><span class="st"> (</span><span class="st">F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2012</span><span class="st"><span class="st">)</span>. <span class="st"><span class="st"><span class="st"><span class="st"><p></p></span></span>
106004380		distribution	eng	<em>Myiarchus semirufus</em> is endemic to the Tumbesian lowlands of <strong>Peru</strong> where the area of suitable habitat around all known localities totals c.2,100 km<sup>2</sup>. Formerly the species occurred further south along the strip of lowlands between the coast and the Andes, to the Ria Pativilca c.200 km north of Lima. The species's range seems to have contracted northwards, with no records from Lima Department for many years, and it has not been recorded around Trujillo in La Libertdad Department since the 1960s (R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007), despite field work around Paijan, La Libertad in 2011 (C. Devenish<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). However, the species was recorded at Nepeña and Pañamarca north of Casma, Ancash Department, in 2004 which is the only record away from a more northerly centred distribution (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2007). All other recent records are derived from a handful of locations: Olmos, Mocupe, Rafan, the Rio Zaña, Apurlec, Chaparri and Bosque de Pomac near Chiclayo, Lambayeque Department; Sechura, Chulucanas, Talara, El Angolo and the Bayovar /Illescas Peninsula, Piura Department (R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007, P. Hosner <em>in litt</em>. 2007, T. Mischler <em>in litt</em>. 2007, R. Williams <em>in litt</em>. 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> S. Mahood <em>in litt</em>. 2007,&#160;D. G. Olaechea <em>in litt</em>. 2007, I. Franke <em>in litt</em>. 2007). This species has certainly declined and experienced a significant range contraction. It now appears to be genuinely patchy in its distribution, but there is almost certainly a bias in observer effort, with most birdwatchers visiting the same sites, and more widespread effort in the comparatively large areas of potentially suitable habitat north and south of the known localities may reveal that the species remains more widespread and common than current evidence suggests. <p></p>
106004380		habitat	eng	This species favours thorny desert, xerophytic steppes and mesquite savannas; open thorn-woodland dominated by mesquite (<em>Prosopsis</em>) and acacia (<em>Acacia</em>) where trees are widely separated by sparse ground cover of grasses and herbs. It will occur in agriculture reserves and other modified/planted habitats such as hedgerows and patches between fields  (C. Devenish<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012), and is occasionally found in isolated <em>Prosopsis</em> groves (where it was formerly more common<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> [</strong>R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007]) in otherwise barren desert. Nesting has been recorded in December-May, but northern populations may breed later than southern ones. Artificial nest-boxes for swallows have been used in Bosque de Pomac (F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2012).&#160;</span>It has apparently been recorded up to 500 m but is typically below 350 m.<br/><br/><p></p>
106004380		population	eng	The species's density in suitable habitat has been crudely estimated at 1 individual per km<SUP>2</SUP> in suitable habitat (F. Angulo Pratolongo <I>in litt</I>. 2007). The area of suitable habitat around known sites is c. 2,800 km<SUP>2</SUP> but may be much larger. Hence, the population is estiamted to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004380		threats	eng	Human population density has increased considerably in the past three decades. There has been an expansion of large plantations, particularly of sugar cane,  within its range and in some cases suitable habitat has been destroyed (C. Devenish<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Goat density has increased concomitantly and grazing pressure threatens dry scrub and wooded habitats. Daily collection of firewood by the many households in the region, cutting both live trees and dead, is causing a gradual reduction in the extent and density of scrub and woodland<span class="st"> (R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007). At Chaparri community residents are specifically prohibited from cutting live wood, which is placing additional pressure on the continuing existence of dead limbs and snags; nesting in cavities and recesses, Rufous Flycatchers may well thereby be being put under additional pressure through the loss of nest sites<span class="st"> (R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Bee-keeping for honey production has been encouraged for the last several decades through various aid programmes. The larger tyrant flycatchers of the region have reportedly become habitual predators of the bees around the hives, and local people apparently try to kill then (with slingshots) at any opportunity. All such larger flycatchers have declined markedly in most areas including especially the Rufous Flycatcher<span class="st"> (R. Ridgely and F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p></span>
106004381		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106004383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004384		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004385		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004387		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004392		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004395		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004398		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004399		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004400		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to uncommon' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004402		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106004403		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004404		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004405		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004406		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004407		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004414		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004418		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A project to discover more about its breeding ecology has been completed in the Sierra de Najasa and the results published (Regalado 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to define the species's precise distribution, especially around Moa and at historic locations in Pinar del Río province (including the rarely-visited Guanahacabibes Peninsula) (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue the project in the Sierra de Najasa and make further efforts to better define its ecological requirements (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect remaining habitat wherever it still survives (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004418		distribution	eng	<em>Tyrannus cubensis</em> is endemic to <strong>Cuba </strong>where although always scarce it has become increasingly rare, for largely unknown reasons. It is now very locally distributed, and is most common (still few recent records) around Moa (<strong></strong>Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Rompré <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also known from the Sierra de Najasa (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with recent records from the mountains south-east of Moa (Rompré <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, near Trinidad in Sancti Spíritus province (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and near Caimito in La Habana province (Suárez 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been no recent records from historic localities in Pinar del Río province or the Zapata Swamp (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are old records from the south Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK), but surveys of the larger uninhabited islands in the Turks and Caicos in 1999 failed to find the species, and it is presumed locally extinct (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004418		habitat	eng	Although sometimes recorded in woodland, especially pine forest, and even in low elevation (c.400 m) cloud-forest on serpentine soils (Rompré <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, this species prefers the ecotone between forested and open areas, such as grassland and swamps, as well as riparian forest and open forest with tall trees in montane areas (Regalado 2002)<strong></strong>. It feeds on large insects, lizards (especially <em>Anolis </em>spp) , other birds' fledglings and, during the dry season, significant quantities of fruit (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Regalado 2002)<strong></strong>. Pair bonds are life-long and birds occupy large territories (mean size 27.5 ha) (Regalado 2002)<strong></strong>.  The breeding season is March-June (A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and the nest is usually sited on the horizontal branch of a large tree, usually <em>Ceiba pentandra</em><strong> </strong>(Regalado 2002).  <p></p>
106004418		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004418		threats	eng	The precise reasons for this species's decline are unclear, but habitat loss, and especially loss of large trees suitable for nesting, from logging and agricultural conversion is presumably at least a contributory factor. <p></p>
106004419		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004421		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004422		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004426		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004426		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Conopias cinchoneti</span> has a disjunct range in the Andes of north-west South America (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">icterophrys </span>has a very local distribution<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, recorded in Sierra de Perijá, west Mérida, west Trujillo and north-west Barinas (Hilty 2003, del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is also found locally in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, including Tambito Nature Reserve, and Carchi in extreme north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cinchoneti</span> is generally uncommon in east Ecuador, although it is fairly common at Serraníos Cofán and also present in the Podocarpus National Park <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This taxon is also found in San Martín, Huánuco, Junín and Cuzco in the Andes of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, its range there including occurrence in the Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004426		habitat	eng	This is a species of clearings and edges in montane cloud-forest, and is thought to be tolerant of some forest degradation. It generally ranges from 700-1,900 m. It feeds on insects and small fruits. There is little information on breeding, although individuals have been observed at an old Russet-backed Oropendola <span style="font-style: italic;">Psarocolius angustifrons</span> colony, and may have bred in the disused nest sites (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004426		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004426		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106004427		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004430		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004433		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number more than 50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.
106004434		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004435		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004436		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004438		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number more than 50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.
106004439		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004440		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004441		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004442		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004443		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004444		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004445		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004446		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004447		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004448		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004449		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004451		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004452		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004453		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004454		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Apart from the Tumbes Reserved Zone (part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) in Peru where it is uncommon, it has not been recorded from any other protected area that is sufficiently large to support a viable population.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species in the Marañón drainage. Establish its ecological requirements. Effectively protect the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve. Establish additional protected areas for the species. <p></p>
106004454		distribution	eng	<em>Pachyramphus spodiurus</em> is rare and very local in the west lowlands of <strong>Ecuador</strong> (from Esmeraldas and Pichincha south to Loja) and extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, north Piura, Cajamarca and Amazonas). There have been very few recent records, particularly in Peru and the north of its Ecuadorian range, and it appears likely that it has suffered a serious decline. <p></p>
106004454		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous, semi-deciduous and humid woodland, shrubby clearings with scattered tall trees, patches of evergreen shrubbery and second growth within humid forest, mostly below 750 m, but locally as high as 1,100 m (Best and Kessler 1995, Clements and Shany 2001, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). It forages in the canopy of semi-deciduous forest, where the mean height of trees is c.10 m. Its habits are largely unknown, although its diet is presumed to be insects and fruit. Like other species of the same region, it is believed to breed in the rainy season (January-March) and a nests have been found in February (Rheindt 2008) and April (Gelis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <p></p>
106004454		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004454		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Significant habitat loss continues in both Ecuador and Peru, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon have removed almost all lowland forest, unless effective action is taken urgently. Heavy grazing by goats and cattle causes disturbance and degradation of the understorey in remaining deciduous woodland.  However, the species has been reported to persist in some areas that have been subject to a substantial degree of habitat degradation (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001).   <p></p>
106004456		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004458		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004459		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004460		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004461		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004462		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004463		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004464		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004467		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is numerous in Itatiaia and Serra dos Órgãos National Parks. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population in strongholds at Itatiaia and Serra dos Órgãos National Parks. Quantify rates of habitat loss in montane Atlantic forest. Ensure effective protection of Itatiaia and Serra dos Órgãos National Parks. <p></p>
106004467		distribution	eng	<em>Tijuca atra</em> occurs in Rio de Janeiro, extreme east São Paulo and adjacent south Minas Gerais, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong><strong></strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). Despite this highly restricted range, habitat destruction of its montane Atlantic forest has been much less extensive than in adjacent lowland areas<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).  As a consequence, it is numerous in the upper reaches of Itatiaia and Serra dos Órgãos national parks, and locally fairly common in the canopy and middle levels of montane forest elsewhere within its range (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).<em> <p></p></em>
106004467		habitat	eng	It occurs in the canopy and middle levels of montane Atlantic forest at 1,100-2,100 m. <p></p>
106004467		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004467		threats	eng	Destruction of its montane Atlantic forest has been much less extensive than in adjacent lowland areas<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).  It is occasionally hunted for food. <p></p>
106004468		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Three of the populations occur within protected areas: (Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Tinguá Biological Reserve, and Araras Biological Reserve). The population at Nova Caledônia is not in an effective protected area. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its status within the protected areas. Quantify potential threats. Protect the species under Brazilian law.  <p></p>
106004468		distribution	eng	<em>Tijuca condita</em> was thought to be restricted to the Serra dos Órgãos and the Serra do Tinguá in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro city, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it occurs in naturally fragmented habitat, but recent surveys have doubled the known range and found the species in the Serra das Araras and at Nova Caledônia (Alves <em>et al.</em> 2008). The area is difficult to survey, owing to the inaccessibility of suitable habitat, but only small numbers of birds have ever been recorded and it appears to occur at very low densities (Alves <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population is estimated to be between 1,000-2,499 individuals.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106004468		habitat	eng	It occurs in patches of extremely humid, elfin cloud-forest, rich in bromeliads and with a rather even canopy 5-10 m high, both on exposed ridges and sheltered slopes above the main treeline. It is usually found at 1650-2,010 m, but there is one record from Serra do Tinguá at 1,370 m (Alves <em>et al.</em> 2008, S. Pimm, M. A. Alvez and C. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It appears to be very localised within its narrow elevational range, and the extent of suitable habitat may be as little as  200 km<sup>2</sup> (Alves <em>et al.</em> 2008, S. Pimm, M. A. Alvez and C. Jenkins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A female caught in mid-November had a well developed brood-patch suggesting breeding at that time. Little is known about its diet, but one bird has been seen eating small red berries.<br/><p></p>
106004468		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004468		threats	eng	Although there are no obvious threats to its habitat at three of the four known sites, both disturbance and fires caused by hikers have been considered potential threats. The newly discovered population at Nova Caledônia is more accessible and vulnerable to disturbance, and logging is a potential concern here. In September 1993, a major forest fire was noted in or adjacent to Serra dos Órgãos National Park, indicating that this threat could be particularly significant. Similarly, a major forest fire burned at least 25% of suitable habitat at Nova Caledônia in  2011 (J. King <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004469		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve and Intervales and Serra do Mar State Parks<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines. <p></p>
106004469		distribution	eng	<em>Carpornis cucullata</em> is restricted to south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo south to Rio Grande do Sul)<strong></strong> (Sick 1993, <strong></strong> Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is apparently rather uncommon but may be overlooked due to its inconspicuous behaviour.<em> <p></p></em>
106004469		habitat	eng	It is restricted to lowland and montane evergreen forests and palm groves at 400-1,600 m. In the north of its range (Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro), it is almost entirely restricted to montane forest.  <p></p>
106004469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004469		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests (Fearnside 1996) and has destroyed the majority of suitable lowland habitat in the north of its range. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106004470		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. It survives in a number of protected areas: Monte Pascoal and Ilha do Superagüi national parks; Córrego Grande, Sooretama and Boracéia biological reserves; Linhares Forest Reserve; Duas Bocas State Biological Reserve; Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station; Intervales, Jacupiranga and Ilha do Cardoso state parks; Sete Barras State Reserve, and Guaragueçaba Special Protection Area (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey using tape-playback in areas of suitable habitat to locate additional populations. Investigate its ecological requirements. Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of all reserves where it is currently known to occur. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. <p></p>
106004470		distribution	eng	<em>Carpornis melanocephala</em> is found in the lowlands of east <strong>Brazil,</strong> in Alagoas (Murici); Bahi, where it has been recently recorded from four sites (<strong></strong>J. Minns and R. Parrini <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999<strong></strong>); Espírito Santo; Rio de Janeiro, where it has been recently recorded from two sites; São Paulo, and Paraná. Its range is now fragmented, and remaining populations are largely restricted to protected areas. The population must have declined significantly, but it remains relatively common in a few areas, notably Murici, Linhares Forest Reserve, Intervales State Park (<strong></strong>Aleixo and Galetti 1997,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong> and the Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station, São Paulo (Develey 2004).  <p></p>
106004470		habitat	eng	This frugivore frequents the mid-storey of primary, lowland Atlantic forest. At Linhares, birds favour areas of dense vegetation with high liana and spiny-palm densities, on dry sandy soils away from water. It also occurs in tall "restinga" (coastal moist broadleaf forest) on Ilha Comprida (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Calling birds tend to be aggregated, although individual birds are at least 50 m, often more than 100 m, apart. The diet consists primarily of fruit, mainly of Myrtaceae at Intervales (<strong></strong>Aleixo and Galetti 1997)<strong></strong>, with one bird observed eating a stick insect.<br/><p></p>
106004470		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004470		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation is continuing in this region and this species is now largely dependent on a few key protected areas. The harvesting of palmito palms <em>Euterpe edulis</em> may also be a threat (<strong></strong>Aleixo and Galetti 1997)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A widespread fire in July 1995 destroyed most of the forest at one site in Bahia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004471		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Podocarpus National Park, Guandera Biological Reserve (Cresswell <em>et al. </em>1999) Llanganates National Park<strong> </strong>(Henry 2008), and possibly Cotopaxi National Park<strong> </strong>(M. Honick <em>in litt.</em> 2003), Ecuador, and Cañon del Quindío Natural Reserve, Colombia<strong> </strong>(Renjifo 1994<strong></strong>, Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1994b)<strong></strong>. A community initiative aims to protect the forested watershed on Cerro Mongus (Wege and Long 1995). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its status, distribution and annual ecological requirements. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Regulate the use of fire (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
106004471		distribution	eng	<em>Doliornis remseni</em> was first recorded in 1989, and is now known from at least nine localities in the East Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> and the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. As yet there are no known records from Peru, but it is likely to occur there. Known localities are: Cañon del Quindío Nature Reserve (Quindío), Colombia; Guandera (Carchi), Cerro Mongus (Carchi), Llanganates National Park (Tungurahua/Pastaza/Cotopaxi/Napo), Gualaceo-Limón (Morona-Santiago), Cajanuma-Podocarpus National Park (Loja/Zamora-Chinchipe), and the Cordillera de Lagunillas - Cajamarca (Zamora-Chinchipe), Ecuador<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Renjifo 1994<strong></strong>, Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1994b<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>,<strong> </strong>N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1999,<strong> </strong>J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004<strong></strong><strong></strong>, Freile and Santander 2005, Henry 2008,<strong> </strong>Jiguet <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. There is also an unconfirmed report from the Cotopaxi National Park (Cotopaxi) but it has not been found here subsequently (M. Honick <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003, Freile and Santander 2005, Henry 2008). It occurs at low densities with 0.3 individuals found per 10 km of transect in Colombia<strong> </strong>(Renjifo 1994), and the total Colombian population has been estimated at up to 1,950 individuals<strong> </strong>(Renjifo <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, it is probably under-recorded owing to its soft call and occurrence in remote areas<strong> </strong>(Henry 2008).&#160;<p></p>
106004471		habitat	eng	This secretive species is confined to dense thickets on the páramo-forest ecotone at elevations of 2,875-3,650 m. Typical habitat in Ecuador consists of dense, moist montane forest comprising trees 5-10 m tall, heavily covered with epiphytes, mosses and lichens and interspersed with thick bushes<strong> </strong>(Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1994b, </span>Henry 2008). In Ecuador, most records are from the crown of <em>Escallonia</em> spp., but these trees are not a common feature of treeline forest in Peru<strong></strong> (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1994) which may explain the lack of records from there. <em>Escallonia</em> seeds and a large, unidentified fruit were taken from specimens, and <em>Miconia chlorocarpa</em> fruit are eaten in Colombia<strong> </strong>(Renjifo 1994<strong></strong>, Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1994b)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><p></p>
106004471		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004471		threats	eng	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing for millennia, primarily through human use of fire<strong> </strong>(Kessler and Herzog 1998). Pre-Columbian sustainable land-use systems were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques during the colonial period<strong> </strong>(Kessler and Herzog 1998). Regular burning of páramo grassland adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres. Large areas of suitable habitat have been, and continue to be, destroyed in this way<strong> </strong>(Kessler and Herzog 1998). In Colombia, less than 10% of original timberline habitat is estimated to remain, and the degree of human pressure is currently increasing<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Recent estimates of loss of habitat in Colombia are as high as 78% in the last 10 years<strong> </strong>(Renjifo <em>et al.</em> 2002), but significant quantities of continuous habitat remain in Ecuador<strong> </strong>(J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004). Grazing and regular burning take place, even within some of the protected areas in its projected range<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Henry 2008). Other threats include firewood-gathering and potato cultivation<strong> </strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106004472		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004473		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004474		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Murales forest is protected as an Archeological Reserved Zone and strict wardening has maintained habitat. However,<strong> </strong>government intervention has been necessary to prevent further sales of land for agricultural conversion (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000<strong></strong>, Flanagan and Villavicencio 2000)<strong></strong>. A "Save the Algarrobo" (<em>Prosopis</em>) campaign, including regeneration of grazed areas and replanting, is supported by the sugarcane producer at Rafán (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000). Searches for the species have been made at all historical localities, and many other remnant forests have been surveyed (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000<strong></strong>, Flanagan and Villavicencio 2000, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. Surveys and population assessments are currently being implemented (C. Devenish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species was named as an emblematic species in the Talara municipality, where eco-clubs were set up to create awareness. A similar scheme is being implemented in Paijan, La Libertad, where the species is also being used to create awareness of conservation issues in the area  (C. Devenish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A “reserved area” future national protected area has been declared at the Illescas Peninsula, where the species is present  (C. Devenish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A new “regional conservation area” is being implemented in Piura (C. Devenish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Ensure the integrity of Murales forest and improve legal protection (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000). Effectively protect forest in the Rafán area. Initiate environmental education and ecotourism at Rafán (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000) and other areas. Work with oil companies in the Talara region to protect the extensive tracts of habitat (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000).<br/><p></p>
106004474		distribution	eng	<em>Phytotoma raimondii</em> occurs in coastal north <strong>Peru</strong>, where it was formerly known from numerous localities from possibly as far north as Tumbes (type specimen listed from here) south to Lima. The species has been recorded historically from 53 sites (Flanagan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but post-1990 records originate from 34 of these, in Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca and Ancash (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000,<strong> </strong>Flanagan and Villavicencio 2000, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><strong></strong>Flanagan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), with the majority of sites in the former three departments, (Flanagan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). At least three strongholds can be listed: around Talara, particularly to the east and south-east of the town, where the local population is estimated to be 400-600 individuals (Flanagan and Villavicencio 2000, Flanagan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009); the sanctuary at Bosque de Pomác historical site in Lambayeque, holding c.488 individuals (Nolazco and Roper 2011), and around Paijan, La Libertad, where some 200-400 individuals may exist in some 200-300 ha of dry scrub as well as in very small patches of suitable habitat amongst farmed land. The well-known site at Rafán (G. Engblom <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1998, 1999, 2000, Begazo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001) may support some of the highest population densities—at least 10 birds were observed in 1.5 hours in 1999 (Begazo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001)—but there was as little as 100 ha of suitable habitat in 1998 and high pressure from logging since then will undoubtedly have reduced suitable habitat yet further (Flanagan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106004474		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 550 m in desert scrub, riparian thicket and low (dense and open [G. Engblom <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1998, 1999, 2000]) woodland, usually dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Prosopis </span>trees, with some <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>. A shrub layer, including&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis avicenniifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis scabrida</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scutia spicata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus </span>among others is apparently required. It feeds on leaves of <span style="font-style: italic;">Prosopis </span>and shrubs, and fruit (G. Engblom <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1998, 1999, 2000). It breeds between January and April (C. Devenish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and lays two or three eggs in a shallow twig nest 1.2-2.5 m up in <span style="font-style: italic;">Prosopis </span>trees (Flanagan and Millen 2008, Rosina and Romo 2010). The species has been reported recently from Samanco, Ancash, in a wetland, an habitat previously unknown for the species (P. F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It has been recorded in Lambayeque, from scrub adjacent to sugar cane plantations (P. F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is a very vocal species.<br/><p></p>
106004474		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,500 individuals, roughly equating to 670-1,600 mature individuals.
106004474		threats	eng	The near-complete conversion of coastal river valleys to cultivation—especially large-scale sugar and rice plantations—has extirpated the species from numerous localities (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000). Grazing by goats and burning have removed or heavily degraded the shrub layer in many remaining woodlands (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000). Illegal subsistence logging for firewood and charcoal (especially to provide fuel for chicken grill restaurants in Lima) are now highly significant factors (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000, Flanagan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and the roots of older <em>Prosopis </em>tree are also used in wooden art craft (Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001). Near the Talara stronghold <em>Prosopis</em> was felled as fuel for commercial squid processing (Flanagan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), but this has apparently stopped with a decrease in squid fishing (C. Devenish <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Land rights to part of Murales forest were sold for agricultural conversion in 1999<strong> </strong>(Flanagan and Villavicencio 2000). A considerable proportion of habitat close to Rafán is degraded, and parts of this area were converted to sugar production in the 1990s (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, 2000).<br/><p></p>
106004475		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004476		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004477		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been surveys of <em>Polylepis</em> and high-altitude habitats and conservation measures proposed<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). The north of the species's range (but not Oyón) is mostly within Huascarán National Park, Ancash, but cutting continues, to supply the local furniture industry and firewood for a gold-mining camp<strong> </strong>(Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Ayacucho, protects a small population, but is poorly enforced<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999,J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Zarate Forest, Lima (a non-breeding site), has been recently gazetted as a reserved zone (T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999, F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Determine its year-round distribution and population, and the extent of <em>Polylepis</em> in the central Cordillera Occidental<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Implement the management plan for Huascarán<strong> </strong>(Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Protect <em>Polylepis</em> forests north of Oyón and in the Santa Eulalia Valley. Plant <em>Polylepis</em> in degraded areas. Plant buffer zones of firewood trees below <em>Polylepis</em> and supply coal for industry<strong></strong>. Encourage local people to take leading roles in land-use management and restoration schemes<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Prevent over grazing by goats in the Pacific slope cloud forest non-breeding habitat<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). <p></p>
106004477		distribution	eng	<em>Zaratornis stresemanni</em> is patchily distributed in the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes in <strong>Peru</strong> (La Libertad, Ancash, Lima and Ayacucho), with most records on the west slope. It has been observed at Tayabamba, La Libertad, in the Cordillera Central, where it may be resident, seasonal or vagrant. A recent observation at El Molino, also in La Libertad, suggests its range may be greater than previously thought (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is common north of Oyón, with an estimated 500 birds in this district<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996); in the Cordillera Huayhuash area<strong> </strong>(Maynard and Waterton 1998), and in the upper Santa Eulalia Valley, where it numbers upwards of 250 birds<strong> </strong>(Maynard and Waterton 1998, G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It is also fairly common in parts of the río Cañete drainage, Lima<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<strong>, </strong>Maynard and Waterton 1998, G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1992, the population was estimated at c.3,000 individuals; actual numbers are probably between 1,500 and 6,000.<em> <p></p></em>
106004477		habitat	eng	It mainly inhabits <em>Polylepis</em>-<em>Gynoxys</em> woodland at elevations of 3,800-4,400 m<strong> </strong>(Clements and Shany 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>, but, in the dry season (between August and November), occurs to 2,700 m in mixed woodland and casually to 2,000 m. These seasonal movements may mean it is only able to maintain high populations in valleys with a continuum of oligothermic to mesothermic forest<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). It apparently feeds primarily on two genera of mistletoe, for which it is the main seed-dispersal agent. Nest-building has been recorded in March, and nests with eggs and young have been found in May.   <p></p>
106004477		population	eng	The species is rare and local. A population size of 1,500-6,000 was estimated by Collar <em>et al.</em> (1992). This is roughly equivalent to 1,000-4,000 mature individuals.
106004477		threats	eng	Uncontrolled fires and heavy grazing prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration. Cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal is locally destructive, but could be sustained if regeneration were allowed<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996) The Pacific slope cloud forest which is occupied in the non-breeding season is threatened by grazing goats which prevent forest regeneration<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007). Other factors may include the change from camelid to sheep-farming and cattle-farming, and the inadequacy of afforestation projects, in particular the use of exotic plants<strong> </strong>(Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
106004478		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004479		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004480		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004482		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004485		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Occurs in Sangay National Park, Ecuador. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Search for the species at new sites and monitor population at known sites. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use GIS habitat loss data to produce accurate estimate of declines. <p></p>
106004485		distribution	eng	<em>Pipreola chlorolepidota</em> occurs in the east foothills of the Andes from south <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong> to north and central <strong>Peru</strong>, south to Pasco (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is known only from west Caquetá, Cauca and Putumayo in Colombia (Hilty and Brown 1986, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and is rare in Ecuador (Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Peru<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1982), but locally uncommon at some sites<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1982).<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106004485		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower and middle growth of humid forest, principally at 600-1,200 m, but has been observed at 300 m in Ecuador and Peru (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It was recently recorded in the Cerros del Sira of Peru at 1,450-1,500 m<strong> </strong>(Mee <em>et al.</em> 2002). <p></p>
106004485		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon and patchily distributed, or rare to uncommon.
106004485		threats	eng	Many of its foothill forests are under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations, oil exploration and logging, with widespread destruction being caused by peasant farmers and tea and coffee growers (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106004486		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004487		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004489		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004490		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. It survives in a number of protected areas: Desengano and Serra do Mar State Parks, Serra dos Órgãos National Park and Ubatuba Experimental Station<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995), and was recently recorded in Augusto Ruschi Ecological Station, Forno Grande and Pedra Azul State Parks. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat to clarify distribution and status. Study ecological requirements and seasonal movements. Secure key sites, notably around Ubatuba in São Paulo, and Murici and Usina Serra Grande in Alagoas. Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest at Boa Nova.  <p></p>
106004490		distribution	eng	<em>Iodopleura pipra</em> is found in north-east and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, in Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas<strong></strong> (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999), Bahia, Espírito Santo (E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999), Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. The species's distribution may be continuous in the forested belt from mid Rio de Janeiro to southern São Paulo at Iguape and Registro. The provenance of two specimens from Demerara, Guyana is problematic but they probably originated from Brazil.<em> <p></p></em>
106004490		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy of mainly coastal, lowland and foothill Atlantic forest, and can tolerate secondary and disturbed growth, forest under-planted with cocoa, and clearings with scattered trees. There is some evidence that the species may be associated with a single species of tall, fine-leafed leguminous tree, which is widespread and locally common, and often supports the clumps of mistletoe on which it primarily feeds. Apart from mistletoe berries, insects are consumed, being caught by upward sallying (Whittaker &amp; Kirwan 2008). Breeding has been recorded in August (with the egg laid in mid-July), September<strong></strong> (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and (in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo) October<strong></strong> (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Whittaker &amp; Kirwan 2008), with a singing male recorded in December in Espírito Santo. <p></p>
106004490		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
106004490		threats	eng	Loss of Atlantic forest is the main threat, since this habitat is rapidly being cleared for agricultural and real-estate development. Possible migratory movements to adjacent montane areas in the austral summer will be disrupted by the increasing fragmentation of Atlantic forest. <p></p>
106004491		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004492		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004493		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law. The sightings in 1996 were on the edge of the Serra dos Órgãos National Park. Some areas of apparently suitable habitat are protected within the park, and there are adjacent tracts of forest to elevations of c.50 m. Suitable habitat also occurs within the Reserva Ecologica Guapiaçu (Lambert 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop and follow a standardised survey protocol involving focal watches at suitable fruiting trees, focusing particularly in suitable habitat in the Serra dos Órgãos including the Reserva Ecologica Guapiaçu, and in the Serra do Mar near Ubatuba (Ridgely and Tudor 1994; Lambert 2007). Protect all remaining low-altitude forest in the vicinity of the rediscovery site. Continue to search for extant populations in the state of São Paulo.  <p></p>
106004493		distribution	eng	<em>Calyptura cristata</em> has apparently declined to near-extinction within a very restricted range to the north of Rio de Janeiro city, <strong>Brazil</strong>. From the evidence of skins and one sight record, it was not uncommon, even in secondary habitat, in the mid-19th century. However, although there have been several rumours and unverified reports, the species was unrecorded during the 20th century until two birds were observed in the Serra dos Órgãos on several days in October 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Pacheco and Fonseca 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been no reliable records of the species since 1996 despite searches in the Reserva Ecologica Guapiaçu, the Teresopolis area, the foothills of the Serra do Mar, Ubatuba and between Nova Friburgo and Soumidoura in September to November 2006, which investigated several unconfirmed reports (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2003;&#160; Lambert 2007). A specimen of this species, collected somewhere in the state of São Paulo between May 1819 and April 1820, was discovered in the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, in 2007 and extends the area over which the species is known to have at least formerly occurred<strong> </strong>(Stopiglia <em>et al. </em>2009).   <p></p>
106004493		habitat	eng	It is apparently restricted to foothill forest, but tolerates secondary habitats, and the 1996 birds were in secondary growth (Lambert 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, secondary growth supports far fewer epiphytic plants and bromeliads (which retain quantities of suspended water that significantly alter the microclimate within a forest); hence large areas of secondary forest may be unsuitable for the species (Lambert 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Seasonal altitudinal movements are suspected, which might explain the lack of post-1996 records in the Serra dos Órgãos. This tiny, inconspicuous species is probably easily overlooked, perching in the canopy where it actively explores clumps of bromeliads, apparently avoiding treetops. It has been recorded eating fruit, seeds and insects, though the 1996 sightings suggest that it may specialise on mistletoe <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>C. E. Carvalho verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004493		population	eng	The single known remaining population, rediscovered in 1996 after more than 100 years, is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals).
106004493		threats	eng	Deforestation appears to have brought this species to the brink of extinction - historically driven by gold and diamond mining and the creation of coffee plantations in areas where the species was initially collected (Lambert 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If it is an altitudinal migrant, the lack of remaining forest below 1,000 m is likely to be a particular threat. Development within forest around the edges of the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, particularly at the site of the 1996 rediscovery, is concerning<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>C. E. Carvalho verbally 1998). The harvesting of bromeliads, mistletoes and orchids from the forest of the region may further threaten the species by reducing food supply, but also by altering habitat structure and microclimate (Lambert 2007). <p></p>
106004494		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004494		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Snowornis subalaris </span>is locally distributed on the east slopes of the Andes in north-west South America (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It is rare to uncommon in south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, it was locally numerous in the south of Madre de Dios in the 1980s, and is also found in San Martín and Pasco (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
106004494		habitat	eng	This is a humid forest species of the Andean foothills. It occurs between 500-1,400 m elevation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
106004494		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004494		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106004495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004496		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004497		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in the extreme north-west of Carrasco National Park, Cochabamba, in Cotapata National Park, La Paz<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999<strong>, </strong>J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Alto Urubamba in the newly-created Megantoni National Sanctuary, Cusco, Peru<strong> </strong>(B. P. Walker <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for new localities and population strongholds, concentrating on Yungas forests of SE Peru and Bolivia at 1,500-3,000 m. Conduct research into habitat requirements and possible seasonal movements<strong></strong> (Hennessey and Gomez 2003). Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106004497		distribution	eng	<em>Lipaugus uropygialis</em> is confined to the subtropical Yungas (east slopes of the Andes) of central and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (eight known localities in Cochabamba and La Paz) and south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (Abra de Maracunca, Puno and Alto Urubamba, Cusco)<strong></strong><strong></strong> (Remsen <em>et al</em>. 1982, <strong></strong>B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999, Bryce <em>et al. </em>2005, <strong></strong>B. P. Walker <em>in litt. </em>2007). Recent records from Madidi National Park, La Paz and the north-east side of the Cordillera Cocapata, Cochabamba<strong></strong> (Hennessey and Gomez 2003, Bryce <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong> suggest that it occurs in the two largest expanses of previously unexplored Bolivian and Peruvian Upper Yungas. Gaps in its range may reflect observer coverage<strong> </strong>(J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999), or may be genuine gaps in distribution as in e.g. Southern Helmeted Curassow <em>Crax unicornis</em><strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999). Described as uncommon and local<strong></strong> (Snow 1982, Ridgely and Tudor 1994), like other Andean pihas it appears to be a naturally low-density species (J. V. Remsen <em>in litt</em>. 1986). <p></p>
106004497		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid, subtropical, montane forest at 1,800-2,750 m<strong></strong> (Remsen <em>et al</em>. 1982<strong></strong>, J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Old-growth forest may be required at some stage in its life-cycle, although it has been seen in degraded forest at the Peruvian site<strong> </strong>(J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999, Bryce <em>et al. </em>2005). Within primary forest it is apparently restricted to specific spots, often associated with ridges, suggesting it may have unknown microhabitat requirements and therefore may not occur in all apparently suitable forests within its range (Bryce <em>et al. </em>2005). It is absent from some areas of former occurrence that have now been affected by forest disturbance associated with road construction<strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999). It has been seen accompanying mixed-species flocks<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994<strong></strong>, J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Stomach contents of one specimen comprised berries and fruit (Snow 1982), and it has been recorded eating fruit, flycatching and eating a caterpillar<strong> </strong>(J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999, Bryce <em>et al. </em>2005). It is unobtrusive but responds to tape playback<strong> </strong>(B. P. Walker <em>in litt. </em>2007). It has been observed in groups of up to four birds, especially when displaying, but appears to be genuinely rare and local even in pristine forest (Bryce <em>et al. </em>2005, <strong></strong>B. P. Walker <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106004497		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals (J. V. Remsen <i>in litt.</i> 1986).
106004497		threats	eng	Road construction, low-intensity agriculture, selective logging and, at lower altitudes, clearance for plantations of tea, coffee and coca affect its habitat, although extensive areas of largely undisturbed forest remain<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, <strong></strong>B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999). These threats are likely to increase. Furthermore, the species may require old-growth forest, making selective and small-scale logging a more serious threat than it is to other birds endemic to the Yungas<strong> </strong>(B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>1999). Areas near the Peruvian locality have been extensively or completely deforested, owing to thousands of years of human land-use<strong> </strong>(J. Balderama, T. Gallick, S. K. Herzog, M. Kessler, R. S. Ridgely, J. Rossouw, T. S. Schulenberg, B. P. Walker and B. Woods<em> per </em>B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<br/><p></p>
106004498		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004499		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004500		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in several protected areas, notably Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve and and Intervales State Park, with further populations in Monte Pascoal and Serra dos Órgãos National Parks and Rio Doce and Serra do Brigadeiro State Parks (F. Olmos and P. Martuscelli <em>in litt.</em> 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect remaining areas of Atlantic forest where the species occurs. Continue to search for the species at new localities. Monitor known strongholds such as Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve. <p></p>
106004500		distribution	eng	<em>Lipaugus lanioides</em> occurs in Atlantic forest from Bahia to Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The species was assumed to be rare and local, and is known to have vanished from areas such as Itatiaia National Park despite the presence of good habitat there. Nevertheless, it is known to occur in logged forest (where it may become more common compared to undisturbed sites), and even in areas of old undergrowth growing in derelict <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations. In areas such as the Paranapiacaba range of São Paulo, it is fairly easily found and seems to be so in most of the Ribeira de Iguape valley in São Paulo and neighboring Paraná. In recent years it has been located in a number of unreported localities, and it is likely that the species has a continuous range over most of the Serra do Mar from southern Rio de Janeiro to Paraná and, perhaps, Santa Catarina. <p></p>
106004500		habitat	eng	It occurs in foothill and montane forests but is able to persist in logged forest and has been found in derelict <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations. Birds are most frequently observed 5-25 m above ground-level in the forest shade<strong></strong> (Willis and Oniki 1998). The diet includes more than twenty (commonly palm) fruit species as well as insects<strong> </strong>(Aleixo and Galetti 1997), whereas nestlings are fed primarily large insects, and less frequently fruit<strong></strong> (Willis and Oniki 1998). Males sing from September to March at solitary display territories (E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999) or small leks of two or three birds. Altitudinal movements may occur, at least in the south of its range where the species has been recorded near sea-level.   <p></p>
106004500		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals.
106004500		threats	eng	The most significant threat is the extensive destruction and fragmentation of Atlantic forest throughout its range. The harvesting of <em>Euterpe</em> palms may further affect some populations.<br/><p></p>
106004501		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004502		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004503		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106004504		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Carara Biological Reserve and Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the north-west of its range to locate extant populations. Promote sensitive management of habitats in the Santa Clara area, Panama, and (in particular) discourage the conversion of shade coffee plantations to sun coffee (Angehr and Jordán 1998, Angehr <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004504		distribution	eng	<em>Cotinga ridgwayi</em> inhabits the Pacific slope of central and west <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and westernmost <strong>Panama</strong>, where it is generally rare and local. Historically, it occurred from west Chiriquí, Panama, west to Pozo Azul de Pirris, westernmost Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Recent records are from the Santa Clara area west of Volcán and El Chorogo (singles in 1998-1999, a pair in 2000), Panama  (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, <strong></strong>Angehr and Jordán 1998,&#160;G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Snow 1982, Angehr <em>in litt. </em>2003) and in Costa Rica, in the eastern foothills, the Osa Peninsula and Carara Biological Reserve (which is the only modern locality known in the north-west half of its range) (Wege and Long 1995, Costa Rica Gateway 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, deducing its current distribution is complicated by its irregular occurrence at some sites (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004504		habitat	eng	It occurs in the canopy and borders of humid forest, secondary growth, and tall trees in shade coffee plantations (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Panama, it occurs mainly between 1200 and 1600 m (sometimes lower), but it occurs mainly below 900 m (it has been recorded as high as 1,850 m) in Costa Rica (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989) (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Angehr <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs are laid around March (Snow 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004504		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004504		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion has resulted in near-complete deforestation in its Panamanian range, and there is similar large-scale habitat destruction in Costa Rica. <p></p>
106004505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004506		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004508		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and protected by Brazilian law. It is present in four protected areas of which the Estação Veracruz in Bahia and the Sooretama Biological Reserve and adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo may be of critical importance. It is also found in the threatened Monte Pascoal National Park, Bahia, and may possibly occur in the Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais. 400 ha of forest at Bandeira, Minas Gerais has recently been protected<strong> </strong>(P. Develey and A. C. De Luca <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of suitable habitat within its range to locate further populations. Continue protection of Linhares and Sooretama, and plant native trees in surrounding areas. <p></p>
106004508		distribution	eng	<em>Cotinga maculata</em> occurs in south-east Bahia and north Espírito Santo, with two recent records from northeast Minas Gerais (Santa Maria do Salto and Bandeira municipalities) (Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2004, Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2005) and none since the 19th century in Rio de Janeiro, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It has declined significantly in abundance and distribution and is confined to a few protected areas, notably Sooretama, RPPN Estação Veracruz (formerly Porto Seguro) and Linhares Forest Reserve. It was not common even in the early 20th century and, given its fragmented distribution, overall numbers cannot be high. <p></p>
106004508		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy of primary, humid, lowland Atlantic forest, and is often observed along the edge of clearings, though this may reflect observational bias. The diet has been recorded as seeds, berries and fruit, but also includes caterpillars and other insects. A nest (a flimsy cup-shaped structure of twigs placed in the fork of an almost horizontal branch in the canopy) attended by an incubating female was found in October (Gonzaga and Collar 2010). It has also been reported nesting inside an arboreal termite nest, although this requires confirmation (Snow 2004, Gonzaga and Collar 2010). Local movements, at least of part of the population, may have occurred in the past, but this is apparently no longer the case.<p></p>
106004508		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004508		threats	eng	The extensive and continuing deforestation within its range has isolated populations in a few key protected areas. In the past, birds were collected for feather-flower craftwork by local Indians and Bahian nuns. Capture for the cage-bird trade has also been considered a threat. The apparent scarcity of the species in trade during recent decades is probably a consequence of its rarity. One of the species's strongholds, Estação Vera Cruz, was recently purchased by a paper-producing company whose plans to clear the forest have apparently now been abandoned<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<strong></strong><p></p>
106004509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004511		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106004511		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xipholena lamellipennis </span>is endemic to Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, ranging from the lower Rio Tapajós, Pará, east to north Maranhão. It is not considered common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
106004511		habitat	eng	This is a canopy species of humid lowland forest, occurring up to 400 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al, </span>2004). It shows some tolerance to secondary habitats and fragmentation (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).
106004511		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004511		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).&#160;Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106004512		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. It is largely dependent on 13 protected areas, notably those at Pedra Talhada, Una, Monte Pascoal, Sooretama, Desengano and Linhares.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all remnants of forest within its range. Monitor the population. Effectively protect key sites, especially the privately-owned Murici, Estação Vera Cruz and Linhares. Plant native trees in areas surrounding Sooretama and Linhares. <p></p>
106004512		distribution	eng	<em>Xipholena atropurpurea</em> is now virtually confined to 13 protected areas in east <strong>Brazil</strong>: Paraíba (old specimens and a few recent records), Pernambuco (a few recent records), Alagoas (recent records from two sites), Sergipe, Bahia, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro (recent records from two sites).&#160;<p></p>
106004512		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary lowland and adjacent foothill Atlantic forest (up to 900 m), mostly in forests near the coast. In the northern part of its range it is found in dense primary forest, more open forest and semi-deciduous forests, but also occurs in selectively logged primary and secondary forests, as well as fragmented woodlots. The diet consists of fruit, especially Moraceae, Myrtaceae and Lauraceae, taken in the forest canopy or around clearings, and some insects (larval Lepidopterans and Orthoptera). It is mostly solitary, gathering only at fruiting trees, though, in south Bahia, birds have been observed associating with <em>C.&#160;maculata</em> and thrush <em>Turdus </em>spp. Males display between November and February, and nests (placed high in the fork of a branch) have been found in October and November. <p></p>
106004512		population	eng	Teixeira and de Almeida (1997) estimated the population to number 5,110-19,546 individuals, rounded here to 5,100-19,500 individuals. This is roughly equivalent to 3,400-13,000 mature individuals. Censuses at Estação Vera Cruz (formerly CRVD Porto Seguro), Bahia, estimated a mean of 12.42 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> and a mean population of 748 which, extrapolated to the 13 protected areas (covering an area of 992 km<sup>2</sup>), totals 12,322 individuals.
106004512		threats	eng	This species is threatened by extensive and continuing deforestation, with nearly 60% of suitable habitat disappearing in the period 1980-1997. Many of the protected areas in which it occurs are still under threat and inadequately protected, such as Monte Pascoal in Bahia. Thirteen out of 29 fruiting trees included in its diet are exploited for timber. However, the species is rarely found in bird markets, and is only opportunistically hunted. A widespread fire in July 1995 destroyed most of the forest at one site in Bahia (E.&#160;O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki in <em>litt</em>. 1999), and such instances are a potential threat to many sites. <p></p>
106004513		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Costa Rica, it occurs in Carara Biological Reserve and Golfito Wildlife Refuge, with seasonal wanderers in Corcovado National Park. In Panama, Cerro Batipa is a private reserve and the Playa de la Barqueta Agrícola Wildlife Refuge protects a small area of mangroves where the species may occur (Angehr 2000, 2003). It also almost certainly occurs in the Golfo de Montijo Wetland of International Importance protected area, since there is a recent sighting from nearby (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cutting mangroves is illegal in Costa Rica, but this law is widely ignored. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at the known strongholds. Survey mangroves in Panama to assess the species's distribution. Monitor the population at Cerro Batipa to assess the impact of tree cutting on the population. Protect major mangroves (e.g. the estuaries of the río Sierpe and río Tárcoles, and those south of David) (Capper <em>et al.</em> 1998,&#160;F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Angehr 2000, Angehr 2003). Plant vegetation corridors between remnant forest patches in south Chiriquí, Panama (Angehr 2003).<br/><p></p>
106004514		distribution	eng	<em>Carpodectes antoniae</em> occurs on the Pacific coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and westernmost <strong>Panama</strong>. The northernmost records are from the mouth of the río Tárcoles and the nearby Carara Biological Reserve. About 40 km to the south, it has been recorded at Parrita and the nearby estuary of the río Palo Seco. The stronghold is probably the area of the Golfo Dulce and the Osa peninsula. The río Sierpe and its estuaries are probably the principal nesting areas, and it also occurs at Golfito, Rincón, Puerto Jimenez, and in small number at ríos Esquinas and Coto and possibly at Carara (E. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).. In Panama, it has been recorded infrequently on the Burica Peninsula, but these non-coastal records are thought to refer to wandering individuals (Angehr 2000, 2003). In 1997, a resident population was discovered at Cerro Batipa and the adjacent David Mangroves, Chiriquí,<strong> </strong>and the species may also occur in other smaller mangrove areas nearby, such as the Playa de la Barqueta Agrícola Wildlife Refuge (Angehr 2000, 2003). There is a recent sighting from the Golfo de Montijo to the east (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In the 1920s, a (now lost) specimen was apparently taken near Aguadulce, Panama, c.200 km east of the currently known range. <p></p>
106004514		habitat	eng	It primarily occurs in extensive mangroves, but also lowland forest or scrub adjacent to mangroves and occasionally isolated trees in nearby clearings or pastures. Post-breeding wanderers have been found in foothill forest, and there is one record of displaying males at 760 m. The breeding season is probably March-June. It feeds on a variety of fruits, including those of the pava tree <em>Schefflera morototoni</em> (Angehr 2000, 2003). <p></p>
106004514		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106004514		threats	eng	Mangroves are being cut down and converted to shrimp nurseries, salt ponds, rice cultivation and ranching, and are used for charcoal production and as poles for light construction. Dyke and road construction have affected the hydrology at several sites. Lowland and foothill forests inland from mangroves have largely been removed, especially in Panama (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Though rates of mangrove deforestation seem to have slowed in recent years, protection of the habitat is still very minimal and ineffective (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The stronghold of the species in the rio Sierpe area is threatened by tentative plans to build an international airport at the headwaters of the river (E. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In addition, the forest adjoining the mangroves where where the species breeds&#160; is privately owned and so could be developed in the future. At Cerro Batipa, the forest has been cut in recent years which may have a negative effect on the population (E. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004516		distribution	eng	The species is known from at least five localities in Madre de Dios and Balta in south Ucayali, and the río Caimisea, Cuzco, south-east Peru (including Manu National Park) (H. Lloyd in litt. 1999, 2000, Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and is reasonably common on the upper rio Tejo and rio Juruá near Taumaturgo, Acre, extreme west Brazil (Whittaker and Oren 1999).
106004516		habitat	eng	The species is found in the subcanopy of seasonally flooded swamp or floodplain forest, and terra firme forest, up to 300 m, rarely to 450 m and once to 700 m (Snow 1982, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stattersfield et al. 1998, H. Lloyd in litt. 1999, 2000).
106004516		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004516		threats	eng	Though its lowland forests are relatively intact (Stotz et al. 1996), the region has been subject to selective logging and is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining, and associated road building and human colonisation, resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein et al. 1995).
106004517		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004520		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004521		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Breeding by this species has been recorded inside several protected areas,  including Reserva Albeto Manuel Brenes Mesen, Reserva Privada Bosque Eterno de los  Niños, Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, and it also presumably breeds in Braulio Carrillo and La Amistad National  Parks, Fortuna Forest Reserve and Palo Seco Protection Forest (Stiles and Levey 1994, Fogden and Fogden 1997, <strong></strong>Angehr and Jordán 1998, Angehr 2003, Chaves-Campos <em>et al</em>. 2003, Chaves-Campos <em>in litt</em>. 2007,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>G. Angehr <em>in litt. </em>2007, Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it has been recorded in the San San Pond Sak Wetlands Ramsar Site and at La Selva Biological Station (Stiles and Levey 1994,<strong> </strong>Angehr and Jordán 1998,&#160;Angehr 2003). A new protected area has been declared in the lowlands (Maquenque National Park, on the border with Nicaragua), but it is separated from the breeding range by large areas of deforested habitat. However, there is an on-going initiative to create a biological corridor between Maquenque and La Selva biological station which would allow the birds to utilise this protected habitat (Chaves-Campos <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys throughout its range to estimate the total population size, paying particular attention to its suspected breeding range in Panama. Establish a system of lowland protected areas to conserve this species in the non-breeding season (Wege 1993, Chaves-Campos <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Monitor the population at key breeding sites (e.g. Monteverde area) to assess population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss throughout its range. Encourage further reforestation schemes in the lowlands, at least in Costa Rica, with the aim of restoring habitat corridors.<br/><p></p>
106004521		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopterus glabricollis</em> breeds locally on the Caribbean slope of the Cordilleras de Guanacaste, Tilarán and Talamanca in <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, and contiguous mountains in <strong>Panama</strong>, east to the Fortuna area, Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992). In the non-breeding season, it descends to the foothills and lowlands of the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica and southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span> (Múnera-Roldán<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007), and in Panama it occurs east to Veraguas and Coclé (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong></strong>. Isolated records from the Dota mountains, Costa Rica (Slud 1964)<strong></strong> and from the Cordillera de Tolé, Panama (Wege 1993) likely correspond to the Caribbean side of those mountains or to the continental divide. It is now uncommon to rare and local throughout its range (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong></strong>. This species’s breeding population in Costa Rican Important Bird Areas (IBAs) was assessed in 2007 and estimated at 740-1,430 mature individuals (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2007); however, in 2009 this was revised to 190-330 mature individuals (Sánchez <em>et al.</em> 2009). In contrast, the 2007 estimate for the breeding population in the IBAs of Panama was given as 1,050-4,245 mature individuals, which is regarded by some as an overestimate (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2007), and is limited by a lack of sufficient data from the core of its likely range in Panama, La Amistad International Park, where its breeding areas are mostly inaccessible (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). On the basis of this information, the species's total population is conservatively estimated at fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, and it is suspected to be in rapid decline owing to on-going forest clearance and degradation (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p>&#160;</p><p></p>
106004521		habitat	eng	It breeds in mature subtropical forest at elevations of 800-2,100 m, and spends the non-breeding season in lowland forest (Fogden and Fogden 1997, Chaves-Campos <em>et al</em>. 2003, Garrigues and Dean 2007, Angehr and Dean 2010)<strong></strong>, males generally at 100-500 m, and females chiefly below 200 m (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season (March-June in Costa Rica [Garrigues and Dean 2007]; April-September in Panama [Angehr and Dean 2010]), males defend display arenas at 'exploded leks' (Crenshaw 2002)<strong></strong>. A study in Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve found that birds only occupied 20-30% of apparently suitable habitat (Fogden and Fogden 1997)<strong></strong>. These birds left the breeding areas in late July or August, and returned in March (Fogden and Fogden 1997, Chaves-Campos <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The diet is largely frugivorous, but can also include anoles, frogs and large insects (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Crenshaw 2002, Chaves-Campos 2005) Altitudinal movements of radio-tagged birds in Costa Rica apparently coincided with peaks of fruit abundance (Chaves-Campos <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004521		population	eng	This species's breeding population in Costa Rican Important Bird Areas  (IBAs) has been estimated at 190-330 mature individuals (Sánchez <em>et al.</em> 2009). The 2007 estimate for the breeding population in the IBAs of Panama was  given as 1,050-4,245 mature individuals, which is regarded by some as an  overestimate (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2007), and is limited  by a lack of sufficient data from the core of its likely range in  Panama, La Amistad International Park (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.  2011). On the basis of this information, the species's global population  is conservatively placed in the band for 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, probably equivalent to a total population of 1,500-3,800 individuals.
106004521		threats	eng	Lowland non-breeding habitat has been greatly reduced and is severely threatened, especially in the north of Costa Rica where 35% of the remaining forest was removed in 1986-1992 (Powell <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. Primary causes are conversion to banana and, more recently, to pineapple plantations, expansion of cattle-ranches and logging. Habitat corridors linking the species's breeding and non-breeding areas have thus been lost, and remaining forest fragments in the lowlands are being degraded through logging (Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In Panama, remaining lowland and foothill forests on the Caribbean slope are threatened by clearance for agriculture, even in legally protected areas such as the San San Pond Sak Wetlands Ramsar Site (Angehr and Jordán 1998, Angehr 2003). Deforestation may have accelerated within the species's range, owing to the construction of a highway between Punta Peña near Chiriquí Grande and Almirante, and increased subsistence agriculture and cattle-raising within the Ngobe-Bugle Comarca (G. Angehr <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Since c.2001, severe deforestation has been taking place within perhaps half of the species’s range in Panama (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). This has been particularly severe along the cordillera within the Comarca Ngobe-Bugle, in both breeding areas in the highlands and non-breeding areas in the foothills and lowlands, and deforestation has now reached the continental divide in some areas. Forest clearance may even be affecting potential non-breeding areas in La Amistad National Park in Panama (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The elevation limits of this species's breeding range imply that it may be negatively affected by projected climate change.<br/><p>&#160;</p><p></p>
106004522		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The<strong> </strong>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological-Reserve, Esmeraldas, may hold one of the largest subpopulations (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Jatun Sacha Bilsa Reserve and the neighbouring Mache-Chindul Ecological-Reserve (Esmeraldas) hold significant numbers (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species is also present in the Buenaventura Reserve<strong></strong> (El Oro)<strong> </strong>(Greeney <em>et al. </em>2006), Gran Reserva Chachi<strong></strong> (Esmeraldas) (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007), Awacachi Corridor (Esmeraldas), Canandé Reserve (Esmeraldas), Protective Forest Mindo-Nambillo (Pichincha), as well as in the private reserves at Milpe and Sachatamia (Pichincha) (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Two national parks, Los Farallones de Cali (Valle de Cauca) and Munchique (Cauca) are probably important, owing to their large size (Hilty and Brown 1986, Wege and Long 1995, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, although there are no modern records from the latter. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey foothill forests in its range, especially within the two Colombian National Parks (Wege and Long 1995).  Consolidate protection of the Awacachi Biological Corridor to maintain link between Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and the surrounding buffer zone (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Designate the Awá reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn and Mena 2002b)<strong></strong>. Sustainably manage the buffer zone to the Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn and Mena 2002b)<strong></strong>. Implement population monitoring programmes (Jahn and Mena 2002b). Consolidate protection of the Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas ecological reserves through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonization inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106004522		distribution	eng	<em>Cephalopterus penduliger</em> occurs on the Pacific slope and adjacent lowlands of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Chocó to Nariño) and west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas to El Oro), as well as in Ecuador's coastal cordillera (Esmeraldas and northern Manabí). In recent decades its distribution in lowland Ecuador has contracted greatly, but a few leks survived at altitudes as low as 80m at least until the early 2000s<strong> </strong>(O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). There are concentrations of records in the far north of the known range in Valle de Cauca<strong></strong> (Hilty and Brown 1986, Wege and Long 1995<strong>, </strong>N. Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1999), east and west Esmeraldas and adjacent parts of Imbabura and Nariño, although this is likely to be a reflection of observer coverage and the species presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these areas (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). The rapidly declining population (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> is currently estimated at 7,290-48,600 mature individuals (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007).<em> <p></p></em>
106004522		habitat	eng	This lekking species is found in humid and wet forest from 80-1,800 m altitude (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>Jahn and Mena 2002b). In some areas, it is believed to make seasonal altitudinal movements<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hornbuckle <em>et al</em>. 1997, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, although there are records throughout the year from lowland and foothill locations<strong></strong> (K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999). It feeds on palm-nuts, insects, amphibians and reptiles such as lizards <em>Anolis </em>spp (Hornbuckle <em>et al</em>. 1997, K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999,<strong> </strong>Karubian <em>et al. </em>2003, <strong></strong><strong></strong>Greeney <em>et al. </em>2006). Nests have been recorded in June and January, at the top of a tree fern <em>Cyathea </em>sp. 5 m in height and 4.5 m above the ground in a vine tangle, both in secondary forest<strong> </strong>(Karubian <em>et al. </em>2003, <strong></strong>Greeney <em>et al. </em>2006). Although it appears somewhat tolerant of degraded habitats and human activity when selecting nest sites, it may prefer mature forest for feeding and lekking (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999<strong></strong>, Jahn 2001, <strong></strong>Jahn and Mena 2002b<strong>, </strong>Karubian <em>et al. </em>2003).<br/><br/><strong></strong> <br/><p></p>
106004522		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004522		threats	eng	Hunting pressure is rapidly increasing due infrastructural development and advancing colonization frontiers (Jahn and Mena 2002b, Cárdenas 2007)<strong></strong>. It is easy to locate the traditional lek sites and to approach the displaying males, making it an easy bag for hunters (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn and Mena 2002b). Rapid deforestation rates have continued to affect Esmeraldas and Nariño during the 1990s ( Salaman 1994, WWF/ IUCN 1994-1997, Salaman and Stiles 1996, Sharpe 1999)<strong></strong>. By 1996, in western Ecuador the remnant cover of evergreen lowland and premontane forests was only 18% and 40% respectively. (Sierra 1999). In Esmeraldas, annual deforestation rates in the lowlands (&lt;300m)  were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest &gt;38% during the last  decade (Cárdenas 2007). During the same period, the cover of primary premontane forest (300-1300m) was reduced by 7% (Cárdenas 2007). At higher altitudes and in Cauca and south Valle de Cauca, Colombia, deforestation has been slower and more habitat remains<strong> (</strong>Dodson and Gentry 1991<strong></strong>, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). However, plans to colonise and develop remoter areas are progressing through infrastructural improvements, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, which have increased the impact of logging, small-scale agriculture, illegal coca plantations, gold mining and hunting (Ridgely and Tudor 1994,  Salaman 1994,  WWF/ IUCN 1994-1997, Salaman and Stiles 1996, Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, which is already affecting some key protected areas (Jahn and Mena 2002b, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela<em> </em>in litt. 2007)<strong></strong>. Intensive agricultural development is a major threat, especially oil palm and banana plantations and livestock-farming (<strong></strong>Dodson and Gentry 1991, WWF/ IUCN 1994-1997, P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>Sharpe 1999). Since 2004, some indigenous communities within the Awá Ethnic Reserve have converted their forest into oil palm plantations (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). It also suffers from trade (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>: in the Ventanas area of Esmeraldas, they are highly prized as domestic birds, and local people capture them as pets, for sale to third parties and to eat (Sharpe 1999). <p></p>
106004523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004524		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004525		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several highland reserves, notably Sierra de Agalta National Park (Honduras) (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Monteverde Biological Reserve (Costa Rica) and La Amistad International Park (Costa Rica and Panama) (Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-breeding sites include Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve (Nicaragua [C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong></strong>; and presumably adjacent Barra del Colorado Faunal Refuge and Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica), Corcovado National Park (Costa Rica), San San Pond Sak Wetlands Ramsar Site and Coiba Island National Park (Panama) (Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong></strong>. Its complex seasonal movements have been studied in Costa Rica (Powell and Bjork 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to delineate range and numbers, particularly outside Costa Rica (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further study the ecology, especially seasonal movements (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Confirm breeding status and range in Honduras. Designate new protected areas, especially in the moist Pacific slope and lowlands of Costa Rica. Ensure the protection of Indio-Maiz Reserve, Nicaragua. <p></p>
106004525		distribution	eng	<em>Procnias tricarunculatus</em> breeds in central <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong> (with a small population on the Nicoya peninsula) (Stiles and Skutch 1989, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999<strong></strong>), north-west <strong>Nicaragua</strong> (Monroe 1968, Stiles and Skutch 1989), and almost certainly the Sierra de Agalta, <strong>Honduras</strong> (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998). In 1976, it was common on Isla Coiba, Panama (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong></strong>, where it presumably breeds and is potentially resident. It winters on the Caribbean slope and adjacent lowlands in Honduras and south-east Nicaragua (Monroe 1968, Howell and Webb 1995a, Powell and Bjork 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>, and in lowland and foothill forests on both slopes in Costa Rica and Panama. Records from the upper río Plátano may refer to transients (Vallely <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In Panama, most birds now winter on the Caribbean slope, presumably because of deforestation in the Pacific lowlands (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). A few recent records in the Canal zone perhaps refer to birds displaced from former wintering areas (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). <p></p>
106004525		habitat	eng	It breeds in foothill and highland moist forest at 1,200-2,100 m, and occasionally down to 750 m (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is probably March-September (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1999), but varies between years and locations (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, birds undertake complex migrations ranging up to 3,000 m (in Costa Rica), and then descending to the foothills and lowlands on both the Pacific and Caribbean slopes (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Powell and Bjork 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It can utilise small habitat fragments near to larger forest blocks where it often feeds on the fruit of vines (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Powell and Bjork 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004525		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004525		threats	eng	There is ongoing habitat loss, especially in lowland wintering areas (G. R. Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Caribbean lowlands are suffering conversion to banana plantations, cattle-ranches and logging, even in the important Indio-Maiz Reserve, Nicaragua (Powell and Bjork 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>. In north Costa Rica, 35% of remaining forest was eliminated in 1986-1992 (Powell <em>et al. </em>1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pacific coastal habitats in Costa Rica utilised by bellbirds in the non-breeding season are very poorly represented in the protected area system (Powell and Bjork 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the Caribbean slope in Panama, even some reserves are threatened by clearance for agriculture (Angehr and Jordán 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004526		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004527		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004528		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Iguazú National Park (Herrera undated) and Reserva de Biosfera Yaboty (Reserva de uso Multiple Guarani and Reserva Natural Cultural Papel Misionero [A. Bodrati and J. I. Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), but birds may only occur there on migration. No parks in Argentina protect a stable population (Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In Paraguay, there are few protected areas with populations of this species<strong> </strong>(A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007). In Brazil it occurs in Parque Estadual Intervales during part of the year. Around Reserva de Bosque Mbaracayu, Paraguay, the species is featured in outreach campaigns by high school students.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reduce trapping for the cage bird trade through monitoring and awareness campaigns. Evaluate status in Establecimiento San Jorge and neighbouring Iguazú National Park and Urugua-í Provincial Park, Misiones, Argentina, to determine whether the species occurs regularly or only passes through<strong> </strong>(Bodrati and Cockle 2006).  Protect sites in Paraguay where there are still populations of the species. <p></p>
106004528		distribution	eng	<em>Procnias nudicollis</em> is known from a wide area of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Alagoas south to Rio Grande do Sul and inland to south Mato Grosso), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, with one record in Corrientes) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (west to Concepción) (<strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Bertonatti 1997). The species is considered extinct from remnant forest patches of north-eastern Brazil north of the São Francisco river, where it was formerly known from the Murici area<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003). It is locally relatively common in Brazil<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003) and Paraguay (especially in Canindeyú, San Pedro, and Amambay)<strong> </strong>(A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007), but rare in Argentina<strong> </strong>(Bodrati and Cockle 2006), in the canopy and borders of Atlantic forest up to 1,000 m. The species is believed to be migratory in south-east Brazil, although its migratory patterns are poorly-known and likely to be complex. Similarly, there are only August and September records in Misiones, Argentina, suggesting that it is only transient in this country (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, A. Bodrati <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Only in north-eastern Paraguay is the species believed to be resident (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996), where it is locally common at a few isolated sites. <p></p>
106004528		habitat	eng	Where migratory <em>Procnias nudicollis</em> probably follows a complex migration route that may be linked to fruit production, with males calling, and thus apparently acting territorially, en route (Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The only records of multiple individuals from Argentina were in September, in forest with <em>Euterpe edulis</em> and <em>Aspidosperma polyneuron</em>, a habitat where the species is also found in Paraguay<strong> </strong>(Bodrati and Cockle 2006, A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007).<br/><p></p>
106004528		population	eng	Although locally fairly common, it is rare at many sites; its population probably closer to the upper limit of the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, which is rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. This population estimate is provisional and requires confirmation.
106004528		threats	eng	The population has unquestionably declined owing to deforestation and heavy trapping pressure for the cage-bird trade, particularly in Brazil (Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1993, Tobias <em>et al.</em> 1993<strong></strong>, M. Guimarães Diniz <em>in litt. </em>2003, Ridgely and Tudor 1994). Trapping pressure may be particularly heavy in southern Bahia, São Paulo and Santa Catarina and the population size is therefore difficult to assess in these areas<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003). Numerous individuals were seen in cages between Serra das Lontras and Una Biological Reserve, southern Bahia<strong> </strong>(A. C. De Luca <em>in litt. </em>2007). In north-east Paraguay deforestation was 20% between 1997 and 2001, and appears to be continuing at a similar rate. The Paraguayan population is also coming under increasing pressure from trapping (historically a localised threat), with both males and females readily available in Asunción every year. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitat (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106004529		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004530		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004531		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004532		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004535		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004538		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004539		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004541		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004543		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004544		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106004544		distribution	eng	This species occurs in two disjunct populations in east Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>: the Belém area of east Pará, east to north-west Maranhão and south to the Rio Xingu area, north-east Mato Grosso; and on the eastern side of the lower Rio Tapajós, west Pará (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106004544		habitat	eng	The species is found in the lower growth of humid forest and mature secondary woodland, mainly or entirely in "terra firme" forest (with no flooding), below 200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It appears to show some tolerance of habitat degradation (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). A female has been found with a fully-formed egg in her oviduct in August in east Pará, which constitutes the only available data on breeding (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004544		threats	eng	The species is threatened by continuing deforestation (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). There have been very high rates of deforestation in Mato Grosso (23.6% of forest cleared by 1988) and Maranhão (19.2%), with large areas also being cleared in Pará (9.6%), due to road building, ranching and land speculation (Cleary 1991). The rate is projected to accelerate in the near future as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network, destroying over 50% of the available habitat within its known range (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106004545		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in several large protected areas<strong> </strong>(A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2011). The type-locality is within an area of 400,000 ha at Serra do Cachimbo, belonging to the Brazilian air force, which is one of the best-conserved areas in southern Pará (Olmos and Pacheco 2003). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to establish the species's status, especially within the Mundurucânia Forest Reserve. Carry out further surveys to assess the limits of its distribution. Clarify the extent of forest destruction at, and near, the type-locality. Improve the management of Jamanxim National Forest. Increase the extent of habitat protection. <p></p>
106004545		distribution	eng	<em>Lepidothrix vilasboasi</em> was known until recently only from the type-locality at the headwaters of the rio Cururu, a right-bank tributary of the rio Tapajós, in the Serra do Cachimbo, south-west Pará, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where five specimens were taken in 1957. In 2002, a male was observed and mist-netted on the west bank of the rio Jamanxim, near Novo Progresso, c.200 km north-east of the type-locality (Olmos and Pacheco 2003), but this site has now been logged<strong> </strong>(A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2011). In 2006, two exploded leks were found in selectively logged forest 20 km from the 2002 site, and it has now also been found at two further localities on the far side of the rio Jamanxim<strong> </strong>(A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2011). It has been suggested that the species ranges between the rios Tapajós and Jamanxim, and that the southern limit of its range lies along the north edge of the Serra do Cachimbo (Olmos and Pacheco 2003), but surveys in the Serra do Cachimbo have so far only found Snow-capped Manakin <em>L. nattereri</em><strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2007). There is no evidence to suggest that it occurs sympatrically with Opal-crowned Manakin <em>L. iris</em> or <em>L. nattereri</em><strong> </strong>(M. Cohn-Haft <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Olmos and Pacheco 2003). <p></p>
106004545		habitat	eng	The type-series was collected in primary <em>terra firme</em> forest. The first specimen was seen and collected 6 m up in a thin sapling at the edge of a stream in dense, tall forest. Stomach contents of the specimens contained fruit and insects. The male in 2002 was captured in <em>terra firme</em> forest adjoining a dirt road (Olmos and Pacheco 2003), and the lekking birds in 2006 were in forest which had been selectively logged around five years previously<strong> </strong>(A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2011). It may be able to survive in small fragments of habitat as the closely related <em>L. nattereri</em> occurs in well-preserved forest fragments as small as 50 ha. <p></p>
106004545		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004545		threats	eng	The extent of deforestation in the vicinity of the type-locality remains unknown, but the region is being developed for cattle-ranching (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). Forest at the 2002 locality has already been destroyed and clearance is increasing rapidly in response to the increasing demand for cattle pasture from colonists (Olmos and Pacheco 2003), with the Novo Progresso area currently experiencing one of the highest rates of deforestation in the Amazon<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2007). Current plans to pave the BR 163 Cuiabá-Santarém road will bring even greater habitat destruction, opening up soya markets in the Mato Grosso for rapid transfer to Santarém, unless strong government action is taken (Olmos and Pacheco 2003, <strong></strong>A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2011). However, an increase in selective logging is perhaps a more likely consequence, which would pose a lesser threat given that the species is likely to be tolerant of moderate levels of habitat disturbance and degradation<strong> </strong>(A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2011). Part of the theoretical range is included in Jamanxim National Forest, which is supposed to be logged in a sustainable way, but unsustainable clearance is also occurring here<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2007). An analysis of the impact of future infrastructure development on Amazonian birds predicts that  loss of forest will cause <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidothrix vilasboasi</span> to become Critically Endangered by 2020 (Vale <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106004546		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004547		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004547		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidothrix isidorei </span>has a disjunct range, occurring on the eastern slopes of the Andes in north-west South America (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">isidorei </span>occurs rarely in Boyacá, Meta and Cauca departments, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. It is more common in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, especially in the río Bombuscaro area of Podocarpus National Park (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">leucopygia</span> is a rare endemic to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, occurring in San Martín and northern Huánuco (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).
106004547		habitat	eng	This is a humid forest species of the Andean foothills, occurring from 500-1,700 m elevation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106004547		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004547		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106004548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004550		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004551		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004552		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004553		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004554		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004556		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004557		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004558		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Costa Rica and fairly common to common in Panama (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004560		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004561		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004562		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004563		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004564		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004567		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004568		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004569		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004570		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004571		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs.  Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats.  Use GIS habitat loss data to produce estimate of declines. <p></p>
106004571		distribution	eng	<em>Xenopipo flavicapilla</em> is locally distributed in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is known from both slopes of the West Andes, in Cauca and Valle del Cauca, the west slope of the north Central Andes in Antioquia, and at the head of the río Magdalena valley in Huila (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. It also occurs on the east slope of the Andes in west Napo and, at least formerly, Tungurahua, <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<sup></sup>. It is patchily distributed and rare to uncommon in suitable habitat (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. There are relatively few recent records, though it is very inconspicuous and perhaps overlooked (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106004571		habitat	eng	It is confined to the lower growth of montane forest and mature secondary woodland (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> from 1,200 to 2,400 m. It is found 1-8 m up in vegetation, occasionally associating with mixed-species flocks (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004571		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation. Fieldwork in Cañón del río Barbas y Bremen IBA calculated a density of 0.013 individuals/ha (O. H. Marín-Gómez<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).
106004571		threats	eng	Much of its range is within prime agricultural land, some of which has already been cleared, and the rest is probably threatened (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004572		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004574		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106004575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004577		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004579		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Sooretama and Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserves in Espírito Santo<strong> </strong>(Whitney <em>et al.</em> 1995b), Rio Doce State Park and Acauã Ecological Station in Minas Gerais (de Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Chapada da Diamantina National Park in Bahia<strong></strong> (B. Forrester <em>in litt</em>. 1990). However, only the closely related Pale-bellied Tyrant-manakin <em>N. pallescens</em> has been recorded at the latter recently<strong> </strong>(Whitney <em>et al.</em> 1995b). The Divisópolis population is near to where the 50,000 ha Mata Escura Biological Reserve has been just decreed.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to identify new localities and provide more recent records from historical localities<strong> </strong>(Whitney <em>et al.</em> 1995b). Confirm its presence in Chapada da Diamantina. Estimate populations in Sooretama and Augusto Ruschi. Protect the known site in Rio de Janeiro. <p></p>
106004579		distribution	eng	<em>Neopelma aurifrons</em> is found in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with recent records from the vicinity of Salvador (Chapada da Diamantina National Park in 1990<strong></strong> [B. Forrester <em>in litt</em>. 1990], although not since then [Parrini <em>et al</em>. 1999]) and Camamu, Bahia, south to Espírito Santo (three localities, including the lower Rio Doce), east Minas Gerais (including Divisópolis) and Rio de Janeiro (one locality near Anil just north-east of Rio de Janeiro city). It was recently found in the Rio Doce State Park (following an old specimen at this site), Acauã Ecological Station and a forest fragment adjacent to Acauã, all in Minas Gerais<strong></strong> (de Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is one of the least known Atlantic forest birds, partly as a consequence of being treated as a subspecies until 1995. It was listed as uncommon in Sooretama Biological Reserve during fieldwork in 1981, but there has been only one subsequent sighting, and it is apparently quite local within Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve<strong> </strong>(Whitney <em>et al.</em> 1995b). However, recent population and trend estimates suggest that the species is not as rare as previously thought.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106004579		habitat	eng	It inhabits the interior of undisturbed and lightly disturbed lowland forest (usually numerous trees greater than 50 cm diameter at breast height nearby), sometimes foraging near forest edges, at elevations below 1,000 m. Singing individuals perch on thin, horizontal branches in relatively open shaded areas in the understorey, usually 3.5-7 m above ground. Its diet is primarily comprised of fruit, but an individual has been seen to take a stick insect (suborder Phasmodea). It may nest beneath banks and under hanging roots, but this has yet to be confirmed<strong> </strong>(Whitney <em>et al.</em> 1995b). <p></p>
106004579		population	eng	Population estimate = 2.1-8.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 360 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 756-2,880, i.e. probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range is lowest to lower quartile of six estimates for three species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Neopelma </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tyranneutes </span>in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <p></p>
106004579		threats	eng	It is threatened since its range is within an area that has been severely deforested over a long period of time<strong> </strong>(Whitney <em>et al.</em> 1995b). Its lowland forests have been historically threatened by agricultural conversion, deforestation for mining and plantation production (Fearnside 1996). Current key threats to these forests are urbanisation, agricultural expansion, dam construction, colonisation and associated road building<strong> </strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong>de Vasconcelos <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106004580		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004582		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in Brazil and occurs in Itatiaia, Serra da Bocaina and Aparados da Serra National Parks and Campos do Jordão State Park. In Argentina it is only known to occur in Caa Yarí Provincial Park and the adjacent Guaraní Multiple Use Reserve and Papel Misionero Natural Cultural Reserve, all in the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009, 2010). Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná (Fundacion de Historia Natural Felix de Azara) and Ministry of Ecology of Misiones are searching for additional sites in Misiones<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009), and raising awareness about the importance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea pulchella</span> forest through talks for park rangers and activities at rural schools (A. Bodrati and K. Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical localities (especially in Paraná) and other areas of suitable habitat (sites with <em>Ocotea pulchella</em> along rivers in Misiones, especially within Yabotí Biosphere Reserve, and mixed forest with <em>Ocotea pulchella</em> in Iguazú National Park, Paraná<strong> </strong>[Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009, 2010]), with the aid of tape-playback. Determine precise habitat requirements and whether the species migrates altitudinally in Brazil. Ensure complete protection of the species's habitat (<em>Ocotea pulchella</em> forest) in Guaraní Multiple Use Reserve and adjacent Papel Misionero and other lots<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009, 2010).  <p></p>
106004582		distribution	eng	<em>Piprites pileata</em> is rare and very sparsely distributed in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil it has been found in Minas Gerais (Itatiaia massif and adjacent areas), Rio de Janeiro (recently only from Itatiaia except for a record from Visconde de Mauá in 1988), São Paulo (Serra da Bocaina and Campos do Jordão), Paraná (recently from Fazenda Santa Rita<strong></strong> [Anjos <em>et al</em>. 1997]), Santa Catarina (recently in the São Joaquim area) and Rio Grande do Sul (Fazenda das Amoreiras and Aparados da Serra). In <strong>Argentina</strong>, there is a specimen collected at Tobuna, Misiones, in 1959 and records since 2006 from the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve, Misiones<strong> </strong>(Maders <em>et al. </em>2007, Bodrati <em>et al. </em>2009, 2010). <p></p>
106004582		habitat	eng	It largely inhabits the canopy of montane Atlantic forest in the <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> and <em>Podocarpus lamberti</em> domain. Observations in Itatiaia National Park suggest that it may be an altitudinal migrant (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999). If true, it may require continuous tracts of forest within its altitudinal range of 900-2,000 m in Brazil. In Argentina, it has been found from 500 to 600 m, and it does not migrate; individuals were observed year-round at the same sites in Caa Yari Provincial Park and Guaraní Multiple Use Reserve<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009). All recent records in Argentina (seven territories) are from a cluster of sites along the Arroyo Paraíso in the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve<strong> </strong>(Maders <em>et al. </em>2007, Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009, 2010). While <em>Ocotea pulchella</em> is present at all sites and frequented by this manakin, <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> is present at only two of the sites<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009). Pairs or single birds forage in the canopy and subcanopy of dense forest, sometimes accompanying mixed-species flocks when these pass through their territories<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009). The diet consists of arthropods, especially larvae<strong> </strong>(Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009), (gleaned or hover-gleaned) and fruit. Pairs were seen displaying from September to November, and a nest was under construction in October<strong> </strong>(Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2009).<em> <p></p></em>
106004582		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004582		threats	eng	<em>Araucaria </em>forests have been much reduced in extent. In Paraná, the original extent has been estimated at 73,780 km<sup>2</sup> but, by 1965, only 15,932 km<sup>2</sup> remained<strong> </strong>(Hueck 1978). However, it does not appear to be a true <em>Araucaria</em> specialist, and population declines in the north of its range may be mitigated by forests within its altitudinal range having suffered considerably less destruction than adjacent lowlands. The population in Argentina is very small and localized in a specific habitat </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea pulchella</span> forest), which is not subject to any specific protection and thus vulnerable to forest disturbance including selective logging, forest clearing for agriculture, and accidental forest fires (Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <br/><p></p>
106004583		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004584		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004585		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004586		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004587		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004588		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004589		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004590		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004591		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004592		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004593		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004595		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004598		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004600		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas: Itatiaia, Serra dos Órgãos and Iguaçu national parks, Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station (Develey 1997)<strong></strong>, Intervales, Serro do Mar and Desengano state parks, all in Brazil, and Yabotí Biosphere Reserve (A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, Iguazú National Park, and Cruce Caballero, Piñalito, and Urugua-í provincial parks, in Argentina (Wege and Long 1995,<strong></strong> Bodrati and Cockle 2006).  Proyecto Selva de Pino Paraná is raising local awareness of this species and its dependence on <em>Guadua trinii</em> around San Pedro and Tobuna, Misiones.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to estimate population densities and clearly delineate the distribution of this species using tape-playback. Study its dependence on <em>Guadua</em> bamboo, particularly in Brazil where other genera are reportedly used (A. Bodrati and K. Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Determine its response to massive bamboo die-off events, to advise the creation of networks of protected areas capable of sustaining the species through full cycles of bamboo growth and die-off. Determine the minimum size of bamboo stands needed to support a territory. Study the ecology and life cycle of <em>Guadua</em> bamboos. Assess the distribution of its bamboo habitat. Target populations of <em>Biatas nigropectus</em> when creating or enlarging protected areas in Argentina, e.g. Cruce Caballero Provincial Park (Bodrati and Cockle 2006)<strong></strong>. Protect key areas in Santa Catarina and Paraná. In Misiones, raise local awareness and provide technical support to promote soil conservation on small-holder farms, especially around parks, to avoid clearing of <em>Guadua</em> bamboo for crops.  Conservation strategies for the Atlantic forest should include measures to conserve the complex spatio-temporal dynamics of bamboo stands and their inhabitants (A. Bodrati and K. Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106004600		distribution	eng	<em>Biatas nigropectus</em> is rare in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> and uncommon in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. All Argentine records are from Misiones, where the largest series of specimens has been obtained. The species persists in stands of <em>Guadua trinii</em> bamboo throughout northern and eastern Misiones from Iguazú National Park to the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve, and especially in the area from the northern half of the Yabotí Biosphere Reserve to Santa Rosa and Piñalito Sur (Bodrati and Cockle 2006, A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007). Between 2003 and 2011, more than 300 individuals have been detected in Misiones using tape playback (Bodrati and Cockle 2006, A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007, A. Bodrati and K. Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In Brazil, most records are from Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, with Itatiaia National Park and Intervales State Park particular strongholds. There are further records from Minas Gerais, from Itatiaia on the border with Rio de Janeiro, and at Itabira and São Domingos do Prata in the mid-1980s; Paraná, from Iguaçu National Park, Fazenda Santa Rita and the Tibagi River Basin (Anjos <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>, and Santa Catarina, from Araranguá (do Rosário 1996)<strong></strong>. Evidence from the 19th century indicates that this was always a rare bird, but it is presumably declining in response to habitat loss.  <p></p>
106004600		habitat	eng	It inhabits stands of bamboo in lowland and montane Atlantic forest up to 1,200 m, occurring primarily in openings and along edges where thickets are most extensive and tall. In Argentina, it is an extreme habitat specialist, found only in stands of <em>Guadua</em> bamboo, with nearly all records in <em>Guadua trinii</em> (Bodrati and Cockle 2006, A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007). In Argentina, it inhabits stands of <em>Guadua trinii</em> bamboo even on small-holder farms where all other forest vegetation has been removed (A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007). The diet includes insect larvae, spiders, small ants and seeds (Bodrati <em>et al.</em> 2005). Breeding is probably between October and January. It is usually very hard to observe, individuals being hidden among foliage in the bamboo canopy and rarely vocalising spontaneously (Bodrati and Cockle 2006, A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p>
106004600		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004600		threats	eng	In Brazil, there has been rapid destruction and fragmentation of Atlantic forest for agriculture, mining, and coffee, banana and rubber plantations (Fearnside 1996)<strong></strong>. Remaining forest in Brazil suffers from urbanisation, associated road-building and agricultural expansion (Dinerstein <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1995)<strong></strong>. In Argentina, the species depends on <em>Guadua trinii</em> bamboo (Bodrati and Cockle 2006), which has a 30 year cycle of growth, mast seeding, and massive die-off (Parodi 1955)<strong></strong>. It is not known how <em>Biatas nigropectus</em> responds to these bamboo cycles, but strong population fluctuations are suspected, with bottlenecks during periods of bamboo die-off, increasing the species's vulnerability to stochastic extinction (A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007). It is a species that could easily "fall through the cracks" of current conservation policies, because its bamboo habitat is rarely contemplated in conservation strategies for the Atlantic forest. In Misiones, most <em>Guadua trinii</em>, and hence most records of <em>Biatas nigropectus</em>, are outside of parks, often near houses, plantations and roads, where the bamboo has colonised degraded forest and is at considerable risk of being cleared (A. Bodrati <em>in litt. </em>2007, A. Bodrati and K. Cockle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p>
106004601		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106004602		distribution	eng	This species has a restricted distribution in south-west Ecuador and north-west Peru, occurring in El Oro and Loja provinces, Ecuador, and Tumbes, Piura and northern Lambayeque departments, Peru (Sibley and Monroe 1990). The species occurs in the North-west Peru Biosphere Reserve where it is uncommon to rare (Parker et al. 1995), and in the small El Tundo Nature Reserve in Loja province, Ecuador, where it is fairly common (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998).
106004602		habitat	eng	The species is found mainly in scrub, secondary woodland and forest borders in both arid and semi-humid regions (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and has been recorded from thickets of Chusquea bamboo (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998). Most records come from between 500 and 1,500 m altitude, but birds have been seen as high as 2,300 m in Ecuador (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It often joins mixed species flocks, foraging mainly in relatively dense vegetation not far above ground level (Parker et al. 1995, I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998). Breeding probably takes place during the wet season (Brown 1941).
106004602		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004602		threats	eng	Much of the land within the species's rather restricted altitudinal range has been cleared for agriculture, and destruction of habitat is ongoing (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998).
106004603		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004606		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004607		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the status of populations and habitats at known sites. Conduct surveys in surrounding areas to determine the full extent of the range. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106004607		distribution	eng	<em>Thamnophilus praecox</em> was known only from the type-specimen until 1991, when it was rediscovered close to the presumed type-locality, along the río Lagarto in east Napo, and subsequently near La Selva on the north and south sides of the Río Napo, east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Zimmer 1937, Ridgely and Tudor 1994). In 1991, it was considered quite common, but very local.  <p></p>
106004607		habitat	eng	It occurs in lower growth and borders of frequently flooded <em>várzea</em> forest, primarily in thickets along small streams. It is apparently limited to blackwater drainages, at 200-250 m (R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt.</em> 1991, Ridgely and Tudor 1994).  <p></p>
106004607		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004607		threats	eng	Although deforestation is relatively extensive in east Ecuador and the region is threatened by oil exploration and extraction, with all the Ecuadorian portion of the Napo open for oil leasing (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the species's habitat is probably relatively secure owing to the area's very limited agricultural potential (R. S. Ridgely and P. Greenfield <em>in litt.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004608		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106004608		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thamnophilus nigrocinereus</span> is a polymorphic species of the Amazon Basin, generally locally common throughout its range. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cinereoniger</span> occurs on the drainages of río Meta, in north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, the upper Orinoco River, in south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, and the lower Rio Uaupés and Rio Negro, in north-west Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. This taxon is present in a number of protected areas, including Rio Negro State Park (Brazil), Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare Biosphere Reserve and Yapacana National Park (both Venezuela). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tschudii</span> is found along the lower Rio Madeira in eastern Amazonas, west-central Brazil. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">huberi </span>occurs along the lower Rio Tapajós in western Pará, east-central Brazil; it is fairly common in the Tapajós National Park. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nigrocinereus</span> occurs in east Brazil, ranging along the Amazon River and its tributaries from the mouth of  Rio Tapajós eastwards to Amapá. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">kulczynskii</span> ranges from extreme northern Amapá into adjacent east <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004608		habitat	eng	This is an understorey and middle storey species of "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest), gallery forest and "cerrado" (dry savanna woodland). It is also known, less commonly, from upland forest and mangroves (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004608		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is thought likely to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). </p>
106004609		conservation	eng	<p>  </p><p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106004609		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thamnophilus cryptoleucus</span> is fairly common<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>along the rivers of lowland Amazonia. In north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>and north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, it is found locally on río Napo, río Marañon, río Santiago and río Ucayali. From there its range continues east along the Amazon River in west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, as far as the mouth of Rio Negro (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004609		habitat	eng	This is an understorey and middle storey species of "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest), and the tall growth on islands in white-water rivers. It is also known from the edges of older forest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004609		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004609		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is rendered particularly susceptible because of its reliance on islands: changes in flooding patterns caused by deforestation, or changes in the flow regime driven by river dams, could have serious effects on the species (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). It also thought to be generally vulnerable to fragmentation (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>
106004610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004613		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004614		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004615		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in the Guayana Shield and northern Amazonia, with several apparently disjunct populations that include: along the eastern base of the Andes in western Venezuela and in Colombia; in the the Rio Huallaga drainage of northern Peru; and in the Rio Marañon drainage of northern Peru and southernmost Ecuador.
106004615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "fairly common to common" through much of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003), although the subspecies in Peru and Ecuador are relatively rare, and their habitat is under threat.
106004616		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004620		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004622		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004624		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several specimen localities are now within Paramillo (Antioquia and Córdoba) and Perijá (Zulia) National Parks. It occurs in the recently purchased ProAves Recurve-billed Bushbird Reserve at Agua de la Virgen and by the Cerulean Warbler Reserve in the Serranía de los Yariguíes. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for it using tapes of the song and calls, as well as mist-nets, targeting any areas of extensive, well-developed secondary growth at 150-1,750m, especially where bamboo abounds. Assess its status in Paramillo and Perijá (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> National Parks, particularly the relatively inaccessible and unexplored southern part of the latter. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106004624		distribution	eng	<strong></strong><em>Clytoctantes alixii</em> is known only from extreme north-west <strong>Venezuela </strong>and north <strong>Colombia</strong>.  Known historical localities are the Sierra de Perijá, Zulia, Venezuela, and in Colombia, the foothills of the Magdalena valley: in Santander and Cesar (north-east); the Serranía de San Lucas, Bolívar (north-west); Caldas (south-west); and four foothill sites north of the Andes in Antioquia and Córdoba. It was known from specimens taken between the 19<sup>th</sup> century and the 1950s, but following sightings in 1965 in the Serranía de Abibe there were no further reports until its rediscovery in Venezuela in 2004. The security risk posed by paramilitary groups and narcotics traffickers, together with the species's inconspicuousness and the lack of knowledge of its voice hindered rediscovery of a species which, judging by the large series of museum specimens and the scatter of reports from a fairly wide area, was once fairly common. It was finally refound in April 2004 in the Sierra de Perijá, Venezuela (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Shortly afterwards, in 2005 it was rediscovered in Colombia, at Ocaña, Norte de Santander (O. Laverde <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Here it appeared to be fairly common (6-7 pairs heard along a 2-km stretch of road) between 1,600 m and 1,750 m, much higher than previous records (O. Laverde <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. In 2007 it was found above San Vicente de Chucuri in the Serranía de los Yariguíes, Santander (D. Willis <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and in Antiquoia (R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Colorado 2008)<strong></strong>. It may well turn out to be more common and widespread than previously thought, especially as it appears to favour areas of secondary growth (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<em> <p></p></em>
106004624		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and foothill forests (185-1,750 m), favouring dense undergrowth, thickets, forest borders and young secondary growth. In Venezuela it has been found in the dense understorey of secondary habitats such as old swidden plots (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and seems to favour steep slopes with high water runoff in decaying secondary woodland (D. Ascanio <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The observations at Ocaña were in mature secondary growth with a strong bamboo component between 1,600 m and 1,750 m (O. Laverde <em></em> <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, but in the Serranía de los Yariguíes it was observed in an overgrown boulder-strewn gulley with no bamboo (D. Willis <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Antioquia, it has been found at 300-800m in second growth with a dense understorey (Colorado 2008). In the west, breeding occurs during April-May. It feeds on insects obtained by pecking open hollow stems and branches (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2006, D. Ascanio <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004624		population	eng	Based on the smalll number of birds recorded at the two known locations, e.g. with 6-7 pairs heard along a 2 km stretch of road at Ocaña (O. Laverde <em>in litt</em>. 2006), the total is probably best placed precautionarily in the band 250-999 individuals. This equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals. Further surveys may show that the population is larger than this though.
106004624		threats	eng	The lower Magdalena valley had largely been converted to agricultural land as early as the 18th century, and the middle portions were rapidly opened up, colonised, logged and farmed during the 1960s and 1970s, although regeneration is beginning following land abandonment in some foothill areas (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Similarly, the lower Cauca valley and foothill areas at the northern end of the West and Central Andes have long been deforested, although some extensive forests survive (Forero 1989)<strong></strong>. This includes Paramillo National Park, where human settlement and activity pre-dates creation of the park and continues to threaten the forest (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The species had been not uncommon in the vast, pristine forest of the Serranía de San Lucas. However, a gold-rush began in 1996, and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted to agriculture and coca production (A. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Dávalos <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Donegan and Salaman<em> </em>1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Sierra de Perijá there has been severe deforestation below 2,000 m for cattle-ranching and narcotics cultivation (<strong></strong>C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1997, 2000)<strong></strong>. However, if the species does in fact favour secondary growth then increased farming of middle elevations in the Sierra de Perijá, although detrimental to primary forest specialists, may in fact be creating more suitable habitat for the species (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. For the Antioquia population, the major short-term threat is the proposed construction of the Pescadero-Ituango hydroelectric dam on the Cauca river. If approved, this project would flood most of the habitat in this area  (Colorado 2008). It is considered nationally Endangered in Colombia (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002) and Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106004625		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The vicinity of type-locality has been extensively surveyed but the incredible paucity of information makes effective conservation action difficult. The state government of Amazonas, Brazil , as part of its Programa Zona Franca Verde, has created a mosaic of nine conservation areas protecting  c. 3,070,000 ha of mostly forested land in the south of the state, including the important Madeira/Tapajós interfluvium (Whitney 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Reassess forest state and species's status at the type-locality. Survey for the species elsewhere in Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Amazonas. The call has recently been recorded and playback should be used during future surveys. Establish reserves in this area of the Brazilian Shield to protect this and other threatened species. Eliminate incentives for cattle-ranching and other inappropriate forms of agriculture within the region. <p></p>
106004625		distribution	eng	<em>Clytoctantes atrogularis</em> was known from a single female specimen and two sightings of males at the type-locality on the west bank of the rio Ji-paraná in Rondônia, <strong>Brazil</strong>, in 1986, and a possible sight record of a male along the rio Teles Pires, at Alta Floresta, north Mato Grosso, in 1989 (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997a)<strong></strong>. Subsequently, in 2004, a pair of <em>Clytoctantes</em> bushbirds, almost certainly this species, was found near the rio Sucunduri, Amazonas (Whitney 2005)<strong></strong>, in May 2006, a pair was seen and tape-recorded in Reserva Biológica do Jarú, at Ji-Paraná, Rondônia, close to the border with Mato Grosso (D. Buzzetti <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, and in 2006 a female was found near the Rio Roosevelt Lodge, Amazonas (Whittaker 2009). It has apparently also been recorded at the Parque Estadual Igarapés do Juruena, Mato Grosso (Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009 per A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Its centre of distribution is probably the upper rio Madeira/Tapajós interfluvium (Whitney 2005).<br/><p></p>
106004625		habitat	eng	It is very poorly known. Its habitat is mature <em>terra firme </em>forest dominated by dense vine-tangles, where it appears to feed 0.2-5 m above ground. It may be naturally rare as the three records from the type-locality were the result of several thousand days fieldwork in the area. The species appears to be resistant to some degree of forest degradation and occurs in man-made second growth and probably evolved in successional forest habitats (Whitney 2005). <p></p>
106004625		population	eng	New records have massively increased this species's Extent of Occurrence, however it is likely to be very rare within its range. Its population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004625		threats	eng	The principal threats are the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction (Cleary 1991)<strong></strong> (which has declined in the 1990s) and commercial logging (which is increasingly significantly) (M. Cohn-Haft <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Although its range includes adjacent parts of Amazonas and Mato Grosso, deforestation in Rondônia proceeds apace (Skole and Tucker 1993)<strong></strong>, at the rate of 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> per year. Fortunately, a dam project designed to flood the Cachoeira Nazaré has been abandoned, but other hydroelectric schemes in Rondônia are apparently proceeding (Whitney 2005).<br/><p></p>
106004626		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Panama, it has been recorded in Chagres and probably in Portobelo National (ParksAngehr and Jordán 1998, G.&#160;R.&#160;Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998). The Kuna Yala Indian Reserve affords some protection around Nusagandi (Whitney and Rosenberg 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey apparent gaps in its distribution and old localities, particularly in the east (Remsen 1997, Adsett and Wege 1998). Estimate population densities. Grant protected status to additional occupied sites and areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106004626		distribution	eng	<em>Xenornis setifrons</em> occurs locally in east <strong>Panama</strong> and north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. Twelve sites are known in the Serranías de San Blas, Darién, Tacarcuna (Panama) and Baudó (Colombia) (Adsett and Wege 1998). There is also an unverified report from a relatively well-known site in the Serranía de Pirre, Panama (Engleman 1993, G.&#160;R.&#160;Angehr <em>in litt</em>. 1998). Its distribution is inexplicably patchy, with gaps in apparently suitable areas of habitat (Adsett and Wege 1998). Surveys in 1992 found it fairly common (although difficult to detect) at Nusagandi, San Blas<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It has not been reported from east San Blas or Darién since 1964 (Adsett and Wege 1998), possibly reflecting a dearth of fieldwork. However, in the west, a number of new populations were discovered during the 1990s (Adsett and Wege 1998). In Colombia, two specimens were collected in 1940 in the Serranía de Baudó, but recent surveys on the west slope have not found the species<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106004626		habitat	eng	It favours the lower growth of humid foothill forest at 120-800&#160;m, but mostly above 350&#160;m  (Adsett and Wege 1998). Most sites are on steep slopes or in ravines, but it has been found in flatter areas where these exist (Adsett and Wege 1998). It is insectivorous and frequently joins mixed-species foraging flocks (Adsett and Wege 1998). Two nests were found in low, tangled vegetation near streams in May (Christian 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004626		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004626		threats	eng	Clearance for agriculture is reducing and fragmenting suitable habitats<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the human population is low over large parts of its range where threats are consequently minimal (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Mining, the completion of the Pan-American highway and the impact of rising human population resulting from such projects are potentially important future threats (Adsett and Wege 1998).<strong></strong><p></p>
106004627		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004628		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends at known sites to determine rates of decline. Conduct studies to determine whether this species is tolerant of habitat degradation, or fully dependent on primary habitats. Ensure the protection of remaining primary forest habitats within the range. <p></p>
106004628		distribution	eng	<em>Dysithamnus stictothorax</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Bahia south to Santa Catarina) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, from where there are only three records). It can be common within the appropriate forest habitats (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<strong></strong>).  <p></p>
106004628		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical lowland evergreen and montane evergreen forest with vines at elevations up to 1,200 m (Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004628		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996).<strong><sup></sup></strong>  <p></p>
106004629		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004630		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004632		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004633		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004633		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dysithamnus leucostictus</span> has two separate ranges in north-west South America, and is generally uncommon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tucuyensis</span> is endemic to northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, occurring in the coastal mountains from Falcón and Lara to Monagas. This taxon is present in Henri Pittier National Park; it is most regularly found near Rancho Grande Biological Station in Aragua, and is now rare near Caripe (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Hilty 2003). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">leucostictus</span> is found in the east Andes, ranging from Meta in central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, southwards through east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>to northern Amazonas and Cajamarca in extreme north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004633		habitat	eng	This is an understorey species of lowland evergreen forest, usually below 600 m. It forages in pairs or alone, usually within 2 m of the ground in dense tangles of vegetation. The diet of this species is not well known, but it is likely to consist of insects, such as katydids and stick-insects, and other arthropods. It is sometimes associated with mixed species flocks. It is thought likely to breed between August and December, and the only published record of a nest comes from August (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004633		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004633		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It appears to be restricted to little-disturbed primary forest, and as such is likely to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). </p>
106004634		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. Its stronghold is probably within Sooretama Biological Reserve. It is much less common in the adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve. There are additional records from Rio Doce State Park, Feliciano Abdalla Private Nature Reserve, Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999, R. Raby <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009)<strong></strong> and Duas Bocas State Biological Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known sites to ascertain its status. Survey other forested areas within its range to clarify its current distribution. Monitor known populations, especially those at Sooretama and Rio Doce. Ensure the integrity of protected areas where it does occur.<p></p>
106004634		distribution	eng	<em>Dysithamnus plumbeus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Bahia (E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999) (with recent records from Serra do Teimoso Private Reserve at Jussari [B. M. Whitney, J. F. Pacheco, R. R. Laps and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Serra Bonita Private Reserve [B. M. Whitney and J. F. Pacheco <em>in litt.</em> 2003]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) through east Minas Gerais and central Espírito Santo, to southern Espírito Santo (recorded from Cafundo Private Reserve at Cachoeiro de Itapemirim [Bauer 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and extreme north-west Rio de Janeiro (in forest fragments around Itaperuna and Raposo). It is generally considered uncommon and local, and appears to be common at very few sites (notably at Sooretama Biological Reserve, although possibly in a very limited area). However, its range in southern Bahia may be more extensive than recorded as some large forest remnants remain to be surveyed. <p></p>
106004634		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower stratum of tall primary or little-disturbed, lowland Atlantic forest (up to 800 m at Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve [E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Pairs or singles generally forage within 2&#160;m of the ground (occasionally to 4 m when associating with mixed-species flocks) in dense tangles, especially in shaded, old treefalls overgrown with vines and saplings. The diet consists of arthropods, including katydids, stick insects, pupas and insect eggs, gleaned from leaves and twigs. Territories appear to be fairly small (less than 1.5&#160;ha) and fixed, with pairs exceptionally occurring within 75&#160;m of each other. A nest with two eggs being incubated has been found in August. <p></p>
106004634		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004634		threats	eng	The fragmentation of the species's range by extensive forest clearance has been and remains the one significant threat. It is now primarily restricted to a small number of protected areas, several of which remain to be consolidated, and from where recorded numbers are low.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004635		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Volcán Sumaco area is within Sumaco-Galeras National Park, Napo, which protects a large area of pristine habitat above 1,000&#160;m. Remaining forest on the Cordillera de Guacamayos is part of the Antisana Ecological Reserve (Best <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1996). The privately protected forests of Cabañas San Isidro and the Yanayacu Biological Station near Cosanga (Napo) are known to protect a breeding population (Greeney 2002, 2004, Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Most Colombian sites are within or close to protected areas: La Planada Nature Reserve, in Nariño (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>; Munchique National Park and adjacent Tambito Nature Reserve, both in Cauca (Wege and Long 1995, Donegan <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998, Donegan and Dávalos 1999, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999), and Farallones de Cali National Park, in Valle del Cauca, which protects a large area of pristine forest (Wege and Long 1995, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in Los Farallones de Cali National Park (Wege and Long 1995), Munchique National Park (Renjifo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong> and other areas within its projected range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Ensure robust protection of existing protected areas, especially those threatened by human settlement and clearance of adjacent habitat. Lobby against the hydroelectric project in Colombia. <p></p>
106004635		distribution	eng	<em>Dysithamnus occidentalis</em> has been recorded from four regions of the Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>,  from one region in north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, and from at least four regions in east Ecuador (Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Whitney 1992, Krabbe and Palacio 1999, Ágreda<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The nominate subspecies occurs on Pacific slope of the west Andes (Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Nariño), Colombia, particularly in Munchique National Park and surrounding areas, and there is a single record presumably of this subspecies from the west slope in Carchi, Ecuador (Krabbe and Palacio 1999, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador the subspecies <em>punctitectus</em> occurs in the eastern cordillera of the Andes, mainly on the east slope (Napo and Morona-Santiago) and has recently been found as far south-east as the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago (Ágreda<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. It is generally rare, although it has been found at reasonable densities on Volcán Sumaco, Ecuador. It is likely to be declining in numbers.<em> <p></p></em>
106004635		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey of wet montane forest mainly above 900 m, and up to 2,800 m (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Dense growth around tree falls, land slips or other light gaps is apparently preferred, but it has been observed in fragmented woodlots and in mature secondary palm forest in the vicinity of primary forest (Donegan and Dávalos 1999, R. Strewe <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong>. It forages on or near the ground for arthropod prey, sometimes accompanying small, understorey flocks (Agreda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The nesting biology has only been studied in north-east Ecuador, where nest-building is reported in March and October, incubation in November (Greeney 2004, Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), and nests with nestlings found in undisturbed forest in November and December (Greeney 2002, Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), while a juvenile was found accompanying two adults in August (Harris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<p></p>
106004635		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004635		threats	eng	It has suffered substantial habitat loss to agriculture, especially in Ecuador, where much suitable habitat has been cleared, except on the Cordillera de Guacamayos and Volcán Sumaco. Even these areas are being encroached upon gradually, notably by families growing naranjilla. In Colombia, Munchique National Park and adjacent Tambito Nature Reserve are threatened by human settlement, and the construction of a hydroelectric plant. Widespread deforestation on the west slope in Nariño has left La Planada Nature Reserve largely isolated (Wege and Long 1995). At altitudes below 2,000 m, south-west Colombia has been transformed by logging, mining and conversion to livestock-farming and crop plantations (Salaman and Stiles 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999, 2000), notably coca (Anon. 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004637		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004638		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004641		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004642		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Ensure that remaining tracts of <em>várzea</em> forest receive adequate protection.  <p></p>
106004642		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula klagesi</em> occurs in Roraima, Amazonas and Pará, <strong>Brazil</strong><strong></strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It is known from only a few areas, and there are no recent records for Pará, but it is common to abundant on the large and protected Anavilhanas Archipelago in the rio Negro<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, M. Cohn-Haft <em>in litt</em>. 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<br/><p></p>
106004642		habitat	eng	This small insectivore inhabits the canopy and borders of <em>várzea</em> forest in the lowlands. <p></p>
106004642		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and its population size has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common to common.
106004642		threats	eng	Intensive logging and selective exploitation of kapok trees <em>Ceiba pentandra</em> are accelerating deforestation of the <em>várzea</em> forests where it may occur, and the presence of an established industrial timber infrastructure suggests that rates of logging are likely to be maintained<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995,<strong></strong> Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004644		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106004644		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmotherula surinamensis</span> has a large range in the Guyana Shield region of South America, and is generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, it occurs in southern Delta Amacuro, Bolívar (where it is uncommon and local) and Amazonas, including presence in Yapacana National Park, Duida National Park, La Neblina National Park and Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare Biosphere Reserve (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Hilty 2003). It is found across <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, being frequent in the latter two (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, it ranges from eastern Roraima eastwards as far as Amapá (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004644		habitat	eng	This is an understorey and middle storey species of Amazonian lowland "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest), "igapó" (permanently flooded forest) and shrubby secondary growth, occurring up to 550 m. It forages in&#160; tangles and other dense foliage overhanging water, usually in pairs or individually, but occasionally in mixed-species flocks. It is usually confined to the bands of shrubby vegetation that immediately border rivers, streams and oxbow lakes (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "fairly common" (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).
106004644		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is thought that it may be particularly susceptible to forest fragmentation (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106004645		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004646		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004649		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004650		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106004650		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmotherula gutturalis </span>occurs across the Guyana Shield region of northern South America, and is fairly common throughout its range. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, it is found east of río Caroní in Bolívar, and is present in Imataca Forest Reserve and el Dorado, and Canaíma National Park . It ranges across <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, it is known to occur in Brownsberg Nature Park and Raleigh Falls-Voltzberg National Park. Its distribution continues through <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, and into north-east Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, where there are populations in various protected areas including Ducke Reserve (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004650		habitat	eng	This is a lowland and foothill forest species occurring up to 1,000 m, but more usually below 600 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). It is restricted to the interior of humid and wet "terra firme" forest (with no flooding) (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Hilty 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106004650		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004650		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin, with logging, mining, human colonisation and subsistence agriculture being the major drivers within the Guyana Shield (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). This species is likely to be particularly susceptible to forest fragmentation and edge effects (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011).<u></u> Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106004651		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004652		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004655		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004656		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004657		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004658		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Guapi Açu Ecological Reserve encompasses 74 km<sup>2</sup> of privately-owned land at an altitudinal range of 35-2,000 m, 10 km<sup>2</sup> of which is within the species's known altitudinal range. The 20 km<sup>2</sup> Fazenda Serra do Mar forms the core of this reserve, and the adjacent seven landowners are expected to sign buffer-zone management agreements (Knapp 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A DNA analysis to determine whether <em>M. fluminensis</em> represents a hybrid between <em>M. axillaris</em> and <em>M. unicolor</em> proved inconclusive (N. Collar <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine whether the type-specimen and birds at Guapi Açu represent the same taxon and determine the taxonomic validity of <em>fluminensis. </em>If it is a valid species, assess its status at Guapi Açu. Survey suitable habitat in the surrounding areas to clarify distribution and status. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements.  <p></p>
106004658		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula fluminensis</em> was discovered in 1982, when a single individual was mist-netted near Santo Aleixo, Majé, in central Rio de Janeiro state, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It has not been seen there since, and is unlikely to survive. The only subsequent reports come from the Serra do Mar Ecological Reserve (now called the Guapi Açu Ecological Reserve, or REGUA), from 1994 onwards (<em>Cotinga</em> 7 1997: 9-10, S. Knapp <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2000)<strong></strong>, but even these remain unconfirmed. Birds matching the description of <em>fluminensis</em> seem vocally indistinguishable from White-flanked Antwrens <em>Myrmotherula axillaris </em>of the eastern Brazil race <em>luctuosa</em>, and it is possible that <em>fluminensis </em>is a local variant of the White-flanked Antwren or perhaps a hybrid between it and Unicolored Antwren <em>M. unicolor</em> (Zimmer and Isler 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004658		habitat	eng	The type-specimen was collected in a partially isolated and highly disturbed woodlot. The subsequent possible sightings have typically been in young secondary forest (up to 25 years old) adjacent to old clearings, at elevations of 35-200 m (S. Knapp <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds have most frequently been observed in mixed-species flocks with other insectivorous species, including Unicoloured Antwren <em>Myrmotherula unicolor</em>, but typically forage lower than the latter species, mainly within 2 m of the ground, among dense vine-tangles (S. Knapp <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004658		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106004658		threats	eng	The virtually complete loss of all lowland forest on the coastal plain south of the Serra dos Órgãos has likely deprived this species of almost all habitat within its probable range. At the Guapi Açu, there is a maximum of only 10 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat within the species's known elevational range (S. Knapp <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004659		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004662		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Rio de Janeiro, it occurs in Poço das Antas and Tinguá Biological Reserves. The unprotected Fazenda União (J.&#160;F.&#160;Pacheco<em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> is the only site where it occurs with Band-tailed Antwren <em>M. urosticta</em> and Unicolored Antwren <em>M. unicolor. </em>In São Paulo, most remaining forest in Serra da Bocaina National Park is at inappropriate altitudes, and Serra do Mar State Park is not adequately protected (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station (Develey 1997, L.&#160;F.&#160;Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and Jurupará State Park (Develey 1997),<strong><sup> </sup></strong>São Paulo, and Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Espírito Santo (E.&#160;O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor any decline in or degradation of its remaining habitat. Protect Fazenda União. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of reserves, especially Serra da Bocaina and Serra do Mar. Promote environmental awareness in communities near reserves (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004662		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula minor</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with most recent records in the Serra da Bocaina and Serra do Mar in south Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. There are also records from Minas Gerais (one site), Espírito Santo and north-east Santa Catarina (one old specimen and one recent record [Naka <em>et al</em>. 2000]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), with possible records from Bahia. Although it has been listed for north-east Peru, until there is some undisputed evidence of its occurrence outside the Atlantic forest region, <em>M. minor</em> must be considered restricted to south-east Brazil. Its current range is highly fragmented and it is now rare, with recent records from only a small number of localities (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004662		habitat	eng	It inhabits the interior of undisturbed and old second growth forest in humid regions where trees are festooned with mosses, bromeliads and other epiphytic growth. Second growth is only tolerated if adjacent to essentially mature forest. It is almost always found near water, either in swampy forest, or close to fast-flowing streams (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. Individuals are rarely observed away from mixed-species flocks<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Whitney and Pacheco 1997, Aleixo and Galetti 1997, J.&#160;F.&#160;Pacheco<em> in litt</em>. 1999,&#160;L.&#160;F.&#160;Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and forage from ground-level to 12 m, although generally in the range 2-8 m (Whitney and Pacheco 1997). Three pairs in lowland forest at the Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station had home ranges of 2.2 ha, 3 ha and 5.8 ha (Develey 1997). Most recent records have been below 300 m (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>, although it regularly occurs at 800 m in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (E.&#160;O.&#160;Willis and Y.&#160;Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106004662		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004662		threats	eng	Virtually all lowland Atlantic forest outside protected areas has been deforested within its historical range, and even some of the protected areas in which it occurs are not secure (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. There is almost no suitable habitat remaining in Espírito Santo below 700&#160;m, and the lowlands and foothills of south Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo have become easily accessible to humans since the 1970s, with most of the forest below the base of the slopes cleared or heavily degraded (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004663		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004664		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A significant proportion of its range is protected in Amboró National Park (Santa Cruz), Carrasco National Park (Cochabamba), Isiboro Sécure National Park (Beni/La Paz), Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory and Madidi National Park (La Paz) (Wege and Long 1995, Perry <em>et al</em>. 1997, S. K. Herzog <em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remaining forests in upper tropical zone in Bolivia. Maintain the integrity of Amboró and Carrasco National Parks to ensure their integrity, particularly with respect to encroachment by settlers.<p></p>
106004664		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula grisea</em> is restricted to the Yungas (east Andean foothills) of La Paz, Beni, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, central and west <strong>Bolivia</strong>, and has recently been found in extreme south-west Puno, <strong>Peru </strong>(Herzog <em>et al. </em>2008). In 2007 and 2009, birds were captured in the upper Urubamba Valley, Cusco, Peru, some 500 km north-west of this (Robbins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It occurs more or less continuously in suitable habitat across its range, and a recent study on Cordillera Mosetenes, which appears to hold over half the total population, estimated a density of 15 individuals per km<sup>2</sup><strong> </strong>(Herzog <em>et al.&#160;</em><em></em>2008).<strong></strong> <p></p>
106004664		habitat	eng	It occurs in foothill forest with a dense, structurally complex understorey, often with <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo, at 600-1,500 m, but is apparently most numerous in a narrow elevational zone above the normal upper limits of its congeners White-flanked Antwren <em>M. axillaris</em> and Grey Antwren <em>M. menetriesii</em> (S. K. Herzog <em> in litt</em>. 1999, Herzog <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. It occurs in a variety of habitats, having been recorded in extremely wet evergreen forest (S. K. Herzog <em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, vine-tangles in the transitional zone between semi-deciduous or dry forest and riparian forest (Perry <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong>,</strong> and in relatively dry, semi-deciduous forest (S. K. Herzog <em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106004664		population	eng	Herzog <em>et al. </em>(in press) estimated the population to be 70-80,000 individuals.
106004664		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation within its small geographic and elevational range, especially in La Paz and Cochabamba. Its preferred forest habitats are more accessible and easier to burn than true montane forest, with soils suited to the cultivation of staple food and export crops. Consequently, the region is a favoured target for colonists from the altiplano, and encroachment into protected areas is occurring. Exploration for natural resources takes place in Bolivia's national parks, making mining a potential future threat (B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nevertheless, vast amounts of pristine forest remain in inaccessible areas within the species's elevational range, although it may be excluded by the harsh climate in some of these areas (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999, B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004665		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Gazette remaining tracts of primary forest for future protection. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Serra da Bocaina National Park and Serra do Mar State Park. Promote environmental awareness in communities near reserves (Whitney and Pacheco 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004665		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula unicolor</em> is largely restricted to the lower slopes and coastal plain seaward of the Serra do Mar in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, with records also from Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995, do Rosário 1996,<em></em> Naka <em>et al</em>. 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. More recently, the species has been recorded from a number of new localities, and sites where it is present include: Torres, Itati (Rio Grande do Sul) (Bencke <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>; Salto do Piraí (Naka <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>, environs of Babitonga bay (Naka <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong> and Serra do Tabuleiro state park (BirdLife International 2000)<strong></strong> (Santa Catarina); Guaratuba area (Paraná) (Straube 1990)<strong></strong>; throughout the forests of the Serra de Paranapiacaba and Serra do Mar ranges (São Paulo); Ilha Grande State Park (Buzzetti 2000)<strong></strong>, lowlands of Serra da Bocaina National Park and Cairuçu Environmental Protection Area (Buzzetti 2000), Tijuca National Park<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>, Tinguá Biological Reserve (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>, União Biological Reserve<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>, Serra dos Órgãos National Park (Scott &amp; Brooke 1985)<strong></strong>, Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (Scott &amp; Brooke 1985)<strong></strong> and Desengano State Park<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong> (Rio de Janeiro). There are historical records from Paraná and extreme north Rio Grande do Sul<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106004665		habitat	eng	It inhabits both undisturbed and second growth humid forest, with a canopy height of 8-10 m and an abundance of vines and suspended dead leaves in the undergrowth. It also occurs in coastal <em>restinga</em> woodlands with a canopy of c.8-12 m but, in south São Paulo, it is largely found in the taller, humid forests that replace <em>restinga</em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it reaches elevations of 500 m, most records are below 200 m<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. It frequently associates with mixed-species flocks<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995, Whitney and Pacheco 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004665		population	eng	Based on the discovery of additional localities and an improved understanding of its range and status, the population is now estimated to exceed 10,000 individuals (Birdlife International 2007). <p></p>
106004665		threats	eng	Virtually all lowland Atlantic forest outside protected areas has been deforested within its historical range, and even some of the reserves where it occurs are not secure. The lowlands and foothills of south Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo have become easily accessible to humans since the 1970s, with most of the lower forest cleared or heavily degraded<em></em> (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. Recreational developments in São Paulo severely threaten the integrity of sand-ridge restingas (Willis and Oniki 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004667		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in six protected areas, three of which (Sooretama Biological Reserve, Monte Pascoal National Park and Una Biological Reserve) are afforded the highest legal protection (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Appropriate habitat within these reserves is limited, but some secondary growth may regenerate sufficiently (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. The unprotected Fazenda União, Rio de Janeiro, is the only site where the species occurs with both Salvadori's Antwren <em>M. minor</em> and Unicolored Antwren <em>M. unicolor</em>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an estimate of the species's population size. Monitor the decline and degradation of suitable habitat. Protect Fazenda União. Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of existing reserves by hiring, training and maintaining guards from local communities. Actively pursue all measures to stimulate environmental awareness in communities near reserves. <p></p>
106004667		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula urosticta</em> occurs in east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from 25 km north of Valença, east-central Bahia, south through south-east Bahia, Espírito Santo, to Fazenda União, near Rocha Leão, east-central Rio de Janeiro, with one old specimen from extreme east Minas Gerais. It appears to be largely dependent on forest at nine or ten sites in south-east Bahia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Develey and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 2003, P. C. Lima <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Sooretama Biological Reserve and Linhares Forest Reserve, north Espírito Santo. Even at these sites its range is restricted but, where present, it is uncommon to fairly common (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. Recently discovered sites in Bahia include: the Serra das Lontras, Helvécia - rio Peruíbe, forests between Ituberá and Camamu (southern Bahia) and the remnant forests of Santo Amaro and Cachoeira (in the Reconcavo area of Bahia)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Develey and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 2003, P. C. Lima <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004667		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower growth of primary or moderately disturbed coastal Atlantic forest (below 100&#160;m), but not second growth with a canopy height of less than c.15-20&#160;m. It is encountered almost exclusively with mixed-species flocks, foraging from 3-9 m above ground, mostly 5-7 m, in live vegetation and vines (Whitney and Pacheco 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is much more common at Sooretama (situated on a plateau with sandy soil and with a variable dry season) than the adjacent Linhares (very slightly lower-elevation forest), but the significance of this is unknown (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004667		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004667		threats	eng	Virtually all lowland Atlantic forest outside protected areas has been cleared within its historical range, and even some of the protected areas in which it occurs are not secure (Whitney and Pacheco 1995)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its habitats are historically threatened by agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production, and current key threats are urbanisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996).  <p></p>
106004668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004669		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004672		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has recently been discovered in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Martín Dillon and (Sánchez Vega 1999, B. P. Walker<em> per </em> T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999). However, this designation appears to have had little or no effect on the rate of deforestation within its boundaries (Sánchez Vega 1999)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to elucidate the species's status near Abra Patricia. Census areas adjacent to the mountain ridge near Jesús de Monte to estimate the population and improve knowledge of the species's distribution (Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001). Create a reserve on this isolated mountain ridge. Enforce the protection of habitat in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and ensure that high-altitude forest is included within its boundary (Sánchez Vega 1999, <strong></strong>Hornbuckle 1999b, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Several proposals are set out in Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008).   <p></p>
106004672		distribution	eng	<em>Herpsilochmus parkeri</em> was discovered in 1983, near Jesús del Monte, on an isolated mountain ridge between the ríos Mayo and Paranapura, San Martín, north <strong>Peru</strong>, where it was found to be relatively common in 1998 (C. Bushell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and 1999 (Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001). In July 1999, one individual was found above Afluente, near Abra Patricia, San Martín (B. P. Walker<em> per </em> T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999), the first record away from the type-locality.  <p></p>
106004672		habitat	eng	It is locally fairly common at 1,250-1,450 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The type-locality is a low isolated mountain ridge at 1,350&#160;m, vegetated by a mosaic of humid montane forest and savanna-like habitat with transitional, semi-stunted forest, and edaphic stunted forest. The observation near Abra Patricia was at 1,450&#160;m (B. P. Walker<em> per </em> T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The species favours the mid- and upper-levels of the tallest forest, in areas with a relatively closed canopy and many epiphytes, but is also seen regularly at the savanna-forest ecotone (C. Bushell <em>in litt.</em> 1998). Birds move around in pairs, often with mixed-species flocks, feeding on invertebrates. Breeding is most likely to take place from May to September or October. <p></p>
106004672		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004672		threats	eng	Its tiny geographic range is coupled with widespread deforestation of the adjacent lowlands in the río Mayo valley. Forest clearings are gradually encroaching further up onto the mountain ridge. Coca and coffee are widely cultivated in this region. Around Afluente, remaining areas of suitable habitat are gradually being cleared for timber, agriculture, and to secure ownership of the land (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Recent surveys have confirmed that habitat destruction in the region continues unabated, albeit more extensively at lower altitudes (Sánchez Vega 1999). Abra Patricia is under pressure owing to road improvements, recent immigration and population growth in the area (Sánchez Vega 1999, Hornbuckle 1999b, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106004673		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004673		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Herpsilochmus motacilloides</span> is endemic to the eastern Andes of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>. It ranges from Huánuco southwards to Cuzco, and is considered fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004673		habitat	eng	This is a canopy and subcanopy species of humid montane forest, ranging from 1,000-2,500 m. It prefers dense, tall evergreen forest, with heavy moss and epiphytic growth on the trees (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004673		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). The species is considered highly sensitive to human disturbance, and as such is likely to suffer strong effects from forest fragmentation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). </p>
106004674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004675		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>No targeted actions are known but the species occurs in several protected areas.    </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Ensure that remaining areas of pristine <I>caatinga</I> habitat receive adequate protection.    </P>
106004675		distribution	eng	<I>Herpsilochmus sellowi</I> occurs in interior north-east <B>Brazil,</B> being recorded from Barra do Corda in central Maranh&atilde;o, Serra do Cachimbo in south Par&aacute;, Chapada de Araripe and V&aacute;rzea Formosa in Cear&aacute;, and several localities in central and south Bahia (Ridgely and Tudor 1994) and north Minas Gerais (Raposo 1997, de Vasconcelos <I>et al</I>. 2006). It is described as very common in some areas (C. Albano <I>in litt</I>. 2010).
106004675		habitat	eng	This species is reported to be localised in occurrence, and inhabits <I>caatinga</I> scrub and deciduous woodland up to 1,000 m.  </P>
106004675		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common.
106004675		threats	eng	The relatively small number of known localities is combined with general disturbance of its habitat - the extent of agricultural expansion, grazing and burning is testimony to the prevalence of human pressure throughout its range (Stattersfield <I>et al</I>. 1998). Human population pressure has increased within the range since the 1970s: the Brazilian oil company, Petrobr&aacute;s, has built roads into the <I>caatinga</I> providing access for the settlement of new areas, and government agencies have relocated many families to the region (Hart 1991). This has been one contributory factor in the increase in agricultural expansion, grazing and burning in <I>caatinga</I> habitats. The species's occurrence in secondary habitats (C. Albano <I>in litt</I>. 2010), however, suggests that it is tolerant of some habitat degradation.
106004676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004677		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004678		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004679		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004680		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Serra de Itabaiana Ecological Station, Sergipe, and Chapada da Diamantina National Park, Bahia (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Logging trucks were observed extracting timber from the latter in February 1996 (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, indicating that protection is inadequate. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to improve knowledge of its distribution and habitat requirements. Survey Serra de Itabaiana for this and other threatened species. Map and ecologically evaluate extant patches of deciduous forest (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially in Bahia. Conduct long-term studies on the ecology of this species's forests (e.g. succession and selective logging) to develop viable strategies for economic utilisation (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong></strong>. Create a system of conservation units (following surveys and mapping) that adequately protects the species, including the site 23 km from Jeremoaba in Bahia, an area in central Maranhão and the <em>de facto</em> protection and expansion of Chapada da Diamantina National Park to include known sites just outside the park's boundaries. <p></p>
106004680		distribution	eng	<em>Herpsilochmus pectoralis</em> possesses an unusual and highly fragmented range in north-east Maranhão (most recently, Axixá in the 1980s, Bacabal in 1974 [E. O. Willis <em>in litt</em> 1999]<strong></strong> and Fazenda do Caimbo in 1972), east Rio Grande do Norte (Natal in 2005 [Sangster <em>in litt</em>. 2005]<strong></strong>), Sergipe (Itabaiana in 1991), Paraiba (first state record in Guaju in 2004 [Perreira <em>et al</em>. 2005]<strong></strong>) and north-east Bahia (eight localities, five with records since 1980 [J. M. C. da Silva <em>in litt.</em> 1995, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong></strong><strong></strong>), north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is clearly extremely local but, although overall numbers are presumably not high, it is fairly common at some sites in Bahia.<em> <p></p></em>
106004680		habitat	eng	It inhabits gallery forest and deciduous forest in Maranhão, and tall caatinga woodland and closed, old secondary forest in Bahia. It survives in remnant woodlots characterised by numerous trees over 10 m, and often 15-20 m, but is not found in adjacent habitats with smaller trees. Some of these woodlots are moderately grazed, but it only occurs where there is still a fairly well developed understorey.  <p></p>
106004680		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004680		threats	eng	It is still insufficiently known to determine precise threats, but clearance for irrigated and dry field agriculture has removed extensive tracts of deciduous forest (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The high biomass of these forests makes them important sources of charcoal for Brazil's steel and pig-iron industries, and supposedly substitute plantations of <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp. are being used by the paper pulp industry (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong></strong>. Intensive grazing and extensive burning are widespread throughout its range. <p></p>
106004681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004682		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004682		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Herpsilochmus axillaris </span>is a polytypic species of north-western South America's eastern Andes, each subspecies having an isolated range. It is generally uncommon. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">senex</span> is endemic to the Andes of west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, from Riseralda south as far as Cauca. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">aequatorialis</span> occurs in east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, where it is present in Podocarpus National Park and Sumaco Protection Forest,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>. This taxon is isolated from subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">puncticeps</span> by río Marañón; the latter ranges from there south to Junín. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">axillaris </span>is endemic to south-east Peru, ranging from Cuzco east as far as Puno. This taxon occurs in the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004682		habitat	eng	This is a subcanopy species of humid montane forest, ranging from 500-1,900 m. It forages on arthropods in the crown of subcanopy trees and the tangled growth of the middle storey. Perch-gleaning is the main feeding method, but it is also known to hover-glean (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004682		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004682		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation for human colonisation, logging and agriculture (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is considered highly sensitive to human disturbance and as such is likely to suffer acutely as a result of forest fragmentation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). </p>
106004683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004684		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004685		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Acaua Ecological Station protected area, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Neto and de Vasconcelos 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is protected under Brazilian law. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Designate a forest reserve of <em>mata-do-cipó </em>in conjunction with an experimental agricultural station or as a community-level conservation initiative (Tobias <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. Research its precise ecological requirements, with particular reference to levels of tolerance of secondary, disturbed or fragmented habitats. Investigate the feasibility of protecting forest patches at Boa Nova. Conduct further surveys to locate additional sites for the species.   <p></p>
106004685		distribution	eng	<em>Formicivora iheringi</em> is known from nine sites in eastern Bahia (Senhor do Bonfim, Iramaia, Novo Acre, Jagaquara, Boa Nova, Jacobina [R. Parrini and J. Minns<em> in litt</em>. 1999]<strong></strong>, Serrinha [B. M. Whitney <em>per</em> F. Brammer <em>in litt</em> 1998]<strong></strong>, south of Jequié and three localities in the Chapada Diamantina National Park [R. Parrini and J. Minns<em> in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999]) and eleven sites in north-east Minas Gerias (Almenara, Divisópolis, Pedra Azul<strong></strong> and recently Araçauí<strong></strong>, Botumirim<strong></strong>, Turmalina<strong></strong>, Fazenda São Miguel, Fazenda do Senhor Onofre Sandinha, Campo Limpo, Catutiba and Mendanha [E. O. Wiilis and Y. Oniki<em> in litt.</em> 1999<strong>,</strong> Neto <em>et al.</em> 2001, Vasconcelos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006]), east <strong>Brazil</strong>. Recent findings in Minas Gerias suggest a larger extent of occurrence than previously thought, and show the species is able to use several types of forest (Neto <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. Population size is not known, but the species is considered common at Boa Nova and around Vitoria da Conquista, where recent surveys found it common in all forest fragments visited, and it is described as relatively abundant at Aracuai and Botumirim.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106004685		habitat	eng	It typically inhabits tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest (250-1,050 m) (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, apparently favouring <em>mata-de-cipó</em> interiors with vine-tangles and patches of terrestrial bromeliads. It forages for invertebrates singly or in pairs, sometimes with flocks, generally 3-8 m above the ground (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004685		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004685		threats	eng	Its habitats are being rapidly cleared for cattle pasture in central-south Bahia, and much of the forest in north-east Minas Gerais and adjacent south Bahia has been cleared for coffee plantations. At Aracuai, tourmaline miners have disturbed all caatinga vegetation (Neto <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Natural habitats are reduced to hilltops around Boa Nova (Whitney 1996b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and remaining forest patches are highly disturbed by livestock and subject to local exploitation of trees for firewood and fenceposts (Tobias <em>et al.</em> 1993). However, observations at Boa Nova suggest it is able to cope with forest fragmentation, persisting in small areas.   <p></p>
106004686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004687		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004688		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004689		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in the buffer-zone of the Serra da Bocaína National Park. It may occur in Tamoios Environmental Protection Area, but the limits of this reserve are unclear on the ground (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations. Designate protected areas in Mambucaba and Ariró. Ensure that the Tamoios Environmental Protection Area encompasses part of this species's range. Devise strategies for habitat management that favour this species. <p></p>
106004689		distribution	eng	<em>Formicivora erythronotos</em> survives in a narrow coastal strip around the Baía da Ilha Grande in south Rio de Janeiro, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Although known from c.20 specimens collected in the 19th century, it was unrecorded for over 100 years until its rediscovery in 1987. It has been subsequently found at a further seven sites (Buzzetti 1998, E.&#160;Mendonça and L. P. Gonzaga <em>in litt</em>. 2000). The main localities are Ariró (densities of 89 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>) and Vale do Mambucaba (156 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>) (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b). Smaller numbers have also been recorded at Bracuí, Frade, São Gonçalo, Taquari and Barra Grande (Buzzetti 1998, Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>E.&#160;Mendonça and L. P. Gonzaga <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106004689		habitat	eng	<em> </em>It was rediscovered in a swampy patch of secondary forest near the forest-mangrove ecotone. Subsequent records have found the species to occur mostly in the lush understorey of modified restinga, early successional habitats such as second growth and the understorey of old second growth (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1998, Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b), and sometimes abandoned banana plantations (E.&#160;Mendonça and L. P. Gonzaga <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These areas are dominated by pioneer species, including <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Cecropia</em> sp., <em>Morus</em> sp., <em>Rubus</em>, <em>Vernonia</em> sp. and grasses (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b). It has once successfully colonised fields two months after burning, where there was little regenerating vegetation (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b,&#160; Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999a)<strong></strong>. Nests have been found in second growth from mid-August to early February, with eggs producing an average of 0.23 young (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999a)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004689		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004689		threats	eng	It cannot tolerate many of the human activities occurring within its range. Development of the narrow coastal plain for tourism and beachside housing has been extensive and threatens the small remnant patches of suitable habitat, especially at Fazenda Ariró where there are plans for a large hotel complex (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b, E.&#160;Mendonça and L. P. Gonzaga <em>in litt</em>. 2000). There is widespread clearance of <em>Euterpe</em> sp. palms for pasture and plantations, both of which provide unsuitable habitat for this species (Mendonça and Gonzaga 1999b). Such plantations have reduced available habitat in the Vale do Mambucaba (E.&#160;Mendonça and L. P. Gonzaga <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106004690		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004691		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004693		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Ensure that remaining tracts of suitable habitat receive adequate protection. <p></p>
106004693		distribution	eng	<em>Drymophila genei</em> occurs in montane forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Espírito Santo, south-east Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and north-east São Paulo) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1996). It has been recorded at eight sites, most of which are isolated patches of habitat (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106004693		habitat	eng	It is common at 1,000-2,200 m in bamboo-dominated lower growth of montane Atlantic forest and secondary woodland.  <p></p>
106004693		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004693		threats	eng	Montane forests have not suffered the same extensive loss as adjacent lowlands, but there has been some clearance for pasture and cultivation, especially in the north of its range (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> <p></p>
106004694		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Ensure that remaining tracts of suitable habitat receive adequate protection.  <p></p>
106004694		distribution	eng	<em>Drymophila ochropyga</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo and south-east Minas Gerais to south-east São Paulo and Santa Catarina) (Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span>do Rosário 1996, J.&#160;M.&#160;Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Ridgely and Naka <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <em> <p></p></em>
106004694		habitat	eng	It is uncommon to locally fairly common at 600-1,300 m in bamboo-dominated understorey of lowland and montane evergreen forest, second-growth woodland and edge  <p></p>
106004694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004694		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996). <strong><sup> <p></p></sup></strong>
106004695		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004696		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004699		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004700		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, where significant areas are being reforested with native trees (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Although land at Murici remains privately-owned and vulnerable to clearance, international efforts to effect its conservation are ongoing (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Frei Caneca is a private reserve protecting 630 ha of forest (<em>Cotinga</em> 2003 20:13)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Novo Lino and any other remnant patches of habitat in Alagoas and Pernambuco to ascertain the species's presence, and identify suitable areas for conservation action. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Murici Ecological Station, and protect Mata do Estado and Pedra Dantas (S. Roda <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue the reforestation programme and <em>de facto</em> protection at Pedra Talhada. <p></p>
106004700		distribution	eng	<em>Terenura sicki</em> has been recorded at eight localities from the south-east escarpment of the Borborema plateau in Alagoas, north along this coastal range to Pernambuco, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>.  It is fairly common in the small and fragmented forests at Murici and regularly recorded at Pedra Talhada, and more numerous at Usina Serra Grande/Engenho Coimbra (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, S. Roda <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, Água Azul, Mata do Estado (Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003, S. Roda <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and Frei Caneca/Pedra Dantas in 2003 (<em>Cotinga</em> 2003 20:13<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> S. Roda <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It was also recorded from Novo Lino in 1986.<em> <p></p></em>
106004700		habitat	eng	It inhabits the upper strata of upland humid forest at 400-700&#160;m, although there is a recent record from lowland forest at 76 m (Albano 2009). Despite occurring in forests that have suffered severe selective logging, it is not present in degraded secondary growth. It is usually seen following mixed-species flocks, even during the breeding season, but isolated pairs have been observed. The diet includes insects such as beetles and cockroaches. Breeding probably occurs from November-February. A nest has been found in the dense foliage of a middle-stratum tree, c.10-12&#160;m above the ground. <p></p>
106004700		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004700		threats	eng	There has been massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas and Pernambuco, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. Forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a mere 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The site is severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations and further logging (new roads were evident in January 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Just one pair has been encountered here in recent years, and the species  is feared to be disappearing from the reserve (Albano 2009). There is significant (and largely unsurveyed) forest remaining at Usina Serra Grande<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the current condition of forest at Água Azul and in Novo Lino is unknown. <p></p>
106004701		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004702		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004703		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The late 19th century specimen locality in Peru lies within what is now the Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone. It probably occurs in Madidi National Park (Bolivia) (Remsen and Parker 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and at higher elevations of the serranías Beu and Cuchillo in Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory, La Paz. The Chapare site is within 5 km of the western boundary of Carrasco National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey forests in areas of the upper tropical zone at and between the known localities. Support and strengthen the effective protection of protected areas in the lower Yungas. <p></p>
106004703		distribution	eng	<em>Terenura sharpei</em> is endemic to the Yungas (east Andean foothills) of <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz and Cochabamba) and immediately adjacent <strong>Peru</strong> (Puno and Cusco). It is rarely seen but has been recorded at the Cochabamba-Villa Tunari road, Chapare, Cochabamba, in 1979; in the Serranía Bellavista north of Caranavi, La Paz, in 1979-1980 (Remsen <em> et al</em>. 1982)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and 1997 (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>, although playback surveys at the start of the breeding season in 2005 failed to find it and it may no longer be present there (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>; Cerro Asunta Plata, La Paz in 1993<strong> </strong>(Brumfield and Maillard 2007); Rio Paracti, Chapare, Cochabamba in 2000 (Kreft <em>in litt. </em>2003, Brumfield and Maillard 2007), and between San Juan del Oro and Putina Punco, Puno in 2007 (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. It may have been overlooked to some extent, and it may possibly occur in reasonably high density along the Manu road (Tobias <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it occurs above its congener <em>T. calliota</em> in the only known area of overlap (B. Walker <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A population estimate exceeding 10,000 individuals has been suggested (Tobias <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the species does appear to be naturally rare and patchily distributed, and playback surveys in several areas of prime habitat have failed to find it (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. Numbers have almost certainly declined substantially owing to recent deforestation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004703		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid, montane forest, at 1,000-1,850 m, where it forages 10-20 m up in the dense outer edge of the canopy (Remsen <em> et al</em>. 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A male was seen in a mixed-species flock passing through the canopy of a shade coffee plantation adjacent to undisturbed forest (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding appears to coincide with the rainy season and begins in November, at which time the species is quite vocal and territorial (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004703		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004703		threats	eng	Accessible areas with suitable habitat (including north of Carañavi) are being cleared for cultivation of coffee, citrus fruit and, at lower altitudes, coca and tea (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. The soils on which its preferred forest grows are relatively rich, and are being exploited for small-scale agriculture by immigrants from the Bolivian altiplano. <p></p>
106004704		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004705		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004706		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the species's known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Conduct further studies to determine whether this species can genuinely tolerate secondary or disturbed habitats. Protect areas of primary forest occupied by the species.  <p></p>
106004706		distribution	eng	<em>Cercomacra brasiliana</em> is known from a few localities in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from central Bahia, south through extreme east Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to south Rio de Janeiro. It is nowhere common, and is generally rare and local (Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994). <em> <p></p></em>
106004706		habitat	eng	In common with congeners, this species favours thick undergrowth, such as caatinga tangles and bamboo thickets (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, within forest and edge habitats up to 950 m.  <p></p>
106004706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1996).
106004706		threats	eng	Although presumably threatened by deforestation (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>, this species's apparent tolerance of secondary habitats (Sick 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong> may reduce the impact of habitat degradation and fragmentation. <p></p>
106004707		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106004708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004709		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Much of the range of this species falls within the Araguaia National Park (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003). The degree of protection afforded by this national park is unknown. No specific action known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Undertake necessary surveys to establish range and population numbers.  Undertake research into the natural history of the species in order to identify its ecological requirements.  Pass legislation to limit developments along rivers.  Lobby the government to revise plans for hydroelectric plants.   <p></p>
106004709		distribution	eng	<em>Cercomacra ferdinandi</em> is endemic to <strong>Brazil</strong>, occurring along both banks of the Araguaia river from Ilha do Bananal up to at least Araguatins, on both margins of the Tocantins river between Palmeirante and Babaçulândia (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pacheco and Olmos in prep.) and on the right bank as far as <span><span dir="ltr">São Pedro da Água Branca municipality (Vasconcelos and de Souza Werneck 2008), on the right bank of the Manoel Alves Grande<strong></strong> (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2005<span><span dir="ltr"><strong></strong>) and along other smaller tributaries of the Araguaia and Tocantins (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2005<span><span dir="ltr"><strong></strong>)<span><span dir="ltr"><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Localities are in Tocantins, Mato Grosso, Pará and Maranhão states (Central Brazil)<strong></strong> (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2005<span><span dir="ltr"><strong></strong>)<span><span dir="ltr"><strong></strong>. Until recently it was thought to be restricted to the Araguaia basin, but is now known to be an endemic of the Tocantins-Araguaia basin (Olmos 2008). At sites such as Córreo Mango it is one of the commonest species in its specialised habitat<strong></strong> (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2005<span><span dir="ltr"><strong></strong>)<span><span dir="ltr"><strong></strong>. Its potential range appears to be larger than its currently known distribution since there are several suitable regions in the north-northeastern, southeastern, and especially western parts of its distribution (Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106004709		habitat	eng	This species is found in riparian thickets and forest undergrowth near water (frequently in seasonally flooded areas and oxbow lakes). Breeding and feeding ecology are poorly known. Feeds individually, in pairs, or in small family groups on a variety of invertebrate prey. Forages in thick vegetation but occasionally pursues flushed prey in flight (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003). <p></p>
106004709		population	eng	Although restricted in range and extent of suitable habitat, it is common where it occurs. The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. However, this population estimate is preliminary and requires confirmation.
106004709		threats	eng	The specialised habitat makes the species susceptible to changes in hydrological management, and there are on-going plans to build a series of large hydroelectrical plants along the entire Tocantins river (two have already been flooded and a third is being built) and most of the Araguaia river. These developments are already inferred to be causing population declines (F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004712		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys have clearly delimited the species's range (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b, Vale <em>et al. </em>2007), but no other measures have been taken. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the impact of recent fires on the species. Protect river-island habitat, especially Ilha Boa Água and Ilha São Jose with adjacent gallery forest on the mainland. Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.   <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>
106004712		distribution	eng	<em>Cercomacra carbonaria</em> is limited to middle sections of the rio Branco and some of its tributaries in Roraima, extreme north <strong>Brazil</strong>, and adjacent <strong>Guyana</strong>. It ranges from Caracarai in the south, along the rio Branco and rio Tacutu to the Ireng river in Guyana, less than 2 km from its confluence with the rio Tacutu (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been found on the rio Mucajaí, and also along the rio Parime and the rio Uraricoera (Grosset and Minns 2002,&#160; Vale <em>et al. </em>2007). Given the recent increase in records from a wider geographic area the estimated extent of available habitat has been increased to 723 km<sup>2</sup>, it is fairly common within this range, (c.80 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>) extrapolations indicate that the population is c.15,000 individuals<strong> </strong>(Vale <em>et al. </em>2007).  <p></p>
106004712		habitat	eng	On the mainland, it apparently only occurs in dense thickets along the river edge, where suitable habitat is restricted to within 0.5 km<sup>2</sup> of the rivers (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong>. On Ilha São Jose, it largely inhabits interior, densely wooded forest, with trees 20-30 m in height (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b). It has also been found in dense second growth, consisting mostly of overgrown manioc plantations with widely scattered, 20-30 m trees (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b). The diameter of territories is 100-150 m, and breeding is probably in the wet season (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004712		population	eng	Vale et al. (undated) extended the range to 723 km<sup>2</sup>. Assuming a population density of 80 individuals / km<sup>2</sup> gives a total population estimate of c.15,000 individuals, so it is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004712		threats	eng	There has been some conversion to agriculture, especially rice cultivation, and some trees in the gallery forest are selectively logged (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong>, and burning of habitat may be a significant threat. In 1998, c.75% of Ilha São Jose was burnt, and widespread fires in Roraima in 1999 probably had a severe impact on its river-edge habitats (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The primary threat is now thought to be accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).  <p></p>
106004713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004716		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004717		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect the patches of forest at localities in the vicinity of Santa Luzia de Itanhi. Survey all suitable habitat within range to establish occurrence. Investigate its ecological requirements. <p></p>
106004717		distribution	eng	<em>Pyriglena atra</em> is known from the narrow belt of Atlantic forest in the vicinity of Salvador, coastal Bahia (west of the town of Santo Amaro), including forest patches along the "Linha Verde" highway, from Saubara north to southern Sergipe (in the vicinity of Crasto and Santa Luzia de Itanhi [Pacheco and Whitney 1995, J. Minns <em>in litt.</em> 1998, B. M. Whitney <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 2000]), <strong>Brazil</strong>. Recent fieldwork has shown that this distribution is not as disjunct as previously thought, as the species occurs in the remaining forest and secondary-growth patches along the northern coast of Bahia at Conde and Jandaíra (Souza 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Substantial habitat loss must have significantly reduced the population, but its preference for dense secondary growth means its range, whilst still small, is likely to have been underestimated.<em> <p></p></em>
106004717		habitat	eng	It inhabits the tangled undergrowth of lowland forest at 20-250 m, where it appears to favour second growth and other semi-open habitats with horizontal perches near the ground. In 1974, the species was very common at Santo Amaro in tall second growth, uncommon in tall forest, and rare in patches of second growth where most of the undergrowth had been removed (Willis and Oniki 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been found in fragments of around 50 ha, but disappeared with two years when one area was reduced from 150-200 ha to 400 ha (S. Sampaio <em>in litt.</em> 2003, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found in pairs and small groups of up to 26, rarely joining mixed-species flocks, but regularly following army-ant swarms. Breeding appears to occur between October and March.&#160; <p></p>
106004717		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004717		threats	eng	Habitat loss within its known range has been substantial, even of the second growth in which it appears to be most abundant. It has been reported more frequently from larger forest fragments (S. Sampaio <em>in litt.</em> 2003, 2007), and remaining tracts are destined to become ever smaller and more isolated. <p></p>
106004718		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. A conservation project began in 2004 at Boa Nova aiming to involve the local community with focus on research into the species' ecology, environmental education and awareness campaigns and implementing sustainable land-use practices (<strong></strong>E. Luiz <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 2010 a 10,000 ha national park and a 17,000 ha  wildlife refuge were created at Boa Nova (<strong></strong>E. Luiz <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish further protected areas within the species' range, especially at Salto da Divisa, Minas Gerais (<strong></strong>E. Luiz <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>. Regulate land use within Boa Nova national park and restore habitats there (<strong></strong>E. Luiz <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106004718		distribution	eng	<em>Rhopornis ardesiacus</em> occupies a small range in east Bahia (from Brejões south to Potiraguá [E. Luiz <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]) and north-east Minas Gerais (Fazenda Santana, near Salto da Divisa [Ribon and Maldonado-Coelho 2001]<strong></strong>), <strong>Brazil</strong>. Although it can be locally common, it is very rare and presumably declining owing to the rapid loss and fragmentation of its restricted habitat.<br/><p></p>
106004718		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry forest (mata-de-cipó) between 100-900 m, in areas characterised by a fairly open understorey with an abundance of lianas and patches of the huge terrestrial bromeliads of the genera <em>Aechmea</em> and<em> Ananas</em>. Pairs seem to have small home ranges (possibly as little as 50 m across, with estimates of 0.9 to 2 ha at Boa Nova [E. Luiz <em>in litt. </em>2007]<strong></strong>), but as suitable bromeliad patches are seldom close together, territories are usually separated by 100 m or more. The birds feed on the ground, on low branches and in the bromeliads, where they toss leaves searching for invertebrate prey, principally small termites but also including grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches and spiders. They have also been observed following army ant swarms. Breeding occurs primarily in October-December. A nest was found resting on a bromeliad leaf at ground level in a patch of terrestrial bromeliads in November (Luiz 2008). <p></p>
106004718		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. However, censuses in forest fragments in Boa Nova revealed an average density of 0.9 individuals / hectare and suggests that the populations exceeds 2500 birds (E. Luiz <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106004718		threats	eng	Dry forest in east Bahia has been reduced to scattered fragments by rapid and continuing clearance for cattle pasture as well as clearance for firewood by local communities. Cattle and goats trample seedlings and prevent forest regrowth, and in some areas bromeliads are harvested for sale (E. Luiz <em>in litt. </em>2007). Fragments totalled about 965 km<sup>2</sup> in the early 1970s and, by 1990, 5-20% (nearer 5%) of primary dry forest was estimated to remain in this part of Bahia. However, much of what remains is apparently unsuitable for the species since many woodlots are highly disturbed by livestock. Furthermore, it has not been found in several areas of relatively pristine habitat. <p></p>
106004719		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004720		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.</p>
106004720		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmoborus lugubris </span>is a polytypic river edge species of central Amazonia, and is fairly common. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">berlepschi</span> occurs in Loreto in north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, and in extreme west Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>from Rio Solimões eastwards to Tocantins. The other races are all found in Amazonian Brazil. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">stictopterus</span> ranges along the Rio Negro and nearby Rio Solimões, and is present in Rio Negro State Park's Anavilhanas Archipelago. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">femininus</span> is restricted to the lower Rio Madeira. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lugubris</span> is distributed along the Amazon River through Amazonas and Pará, from the junction with Rio Madeira in the west, eastwards as far as Baía do Guajará (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004720		habitat	eng	This is an understorey species of lowland "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest) and "igapó" (permanently flooded forest) up to c.125 m. It mainly occurs on river islands in white water, favouring <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span> forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Heliconia</span> thickets. Birds forage as individuals, pairs or family groups (not usually mixed-species flocks), mostly within 1 m of ground level. In seasonal habitats it breeds when the water level is low, constructing a cryptic nest of dead leaves on the forest floor (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004720		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is thought to be particularly susceptible to forest fragmentation and edge effects (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106004721		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004722		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been found during inventories of Pacaya Samiria Reserve, but this is a multiple-use area, with nature conservation primarily oriented to support economic activities<strong></strong> (Begazo and Valqui 1998, Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Ensure that remaining tracts of suitable habitat receive adequate protection. Conduct further studies to determine the precise habitat requirements of this species.  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). <p></p>
106004722		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmoborus melanurus</em> is known from a relatively small range along the ríos Aypena (at its confluence with the Marañón), Tigre, Samiria, Pacaya, Ucayali and upper Amazonas, in Loreto, north-east <strong>Peru</strong><strong></strong> (<strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Begazo and Valqui 1998, Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and adjacent <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>(right bank of río Javari, extreme W Amazonas). Appropriate habitat is extensive on these rivers, as well as the Pastaza and Napo, and the species will almost certainly be found at further locations in their drainages<strong></strong> (Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999). It is generally considered rare to uncommon, despite widespread knowledge of its voice and habits<strong></strong> (Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).  <p></p>
106004722		habitat	eng	This species occurs in seasonally flooded humid lowland forest<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> at elevations up to c.200 m. At most sites, it has been recorded in low bushy forest with profuse vine tangles, on river islands, around oxbow lakes, along small rivers and creeks<strong></strong> (Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Along the río Tigre, it has been recorded on the margins of black water oxbow lakes with stunted forest, and in swampy forest dominated by <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> palm trees<strong></strong> (Alonso and B. M. Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1999).   <p></p>
106004722		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004722		threats	eng	Large tracts of suitable habitat remain, but deforestation is occurring within its range, especially near Iquitos. The region is under threat from oil exploration and extraction, while associated road-building has facilitated further human colonisation (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995).   <p></p>
106004724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004727		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004729		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004730		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004734		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes
106004734		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Percnostola lophotes</span> has a restricted range within western Amazonia. It occurs in western Acre, in extreme south-west Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, including parts of the Serra do Divisor National Park. In south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, it is found in east Junín, Cuzco, Madre de Dios and Puno, known to be present in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, and Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone. Its range extends to Pando and northern La Paz, in north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, including occurrence in Madidi National Park (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004734		habitat	eng	This is an understorey species of river edges in "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest) and transitional forest, usually characterised by the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ochroma</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Erythrina</span> trees. It prefers lowlands below 750 m, with occasional records from up to 1,450 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004734		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004734		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is thought to be particularly susceptible to forest fragmentation and edge effects (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106004735		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004736		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004738		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004739		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, occurs in Pedra Talhada and Sooretama Biological Reserves, and may persist at Saltinho and Córrego do Veado Biological Reserves, and Tapacurá and Serra dos Cavalos UFPE Ecological Stations. There is a reforestation scheme and active protection at Pedra Talhada (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remnant habitat patches in the north-east, and Córrego do Veado. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. Effectively protect other forest fragments, especially in north-east Brazil. Continue conservation measures at Pedra Talhada. Investigate protecting the newly discovered site on the rio Mucuri. <p></p>
106004739		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmeciza ruficauda</em> has a disjunct range in north-east and east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The nominate race is known from Córrego do Veado (in 1986) and Sooretama (uncommon), Espírito Santo, and the rio Mucuri (first recorded in 1997), Bahia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(E. O. Willis <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Other recent records from Bahia include the region of Vitória da Conquista<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Boa Nova<strong></strong>. It was discovered near Salto da Divisa, in extreme north-east Minas Gerais, in 2001 (Marini <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong> but prior to this the only state record was from the rio Doce in 1930. The race <em>soror</em> is fairly common at Murici and there are recent records from Pedra Talhada, Usina Serra Grande (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, Usina Utinga Leão and Engenho Coimbra<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, Alagoas, and Água Azul, Saltinho and Usina Frei Caneca, Pernambuco<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003). There are other records from Usina Sinimbu, Fazenda Canoas, São Miguel dos Campos, Usina Serra Grande and Usina Utinga Leão in Alagoas; Tapacurá, Serra dos Cavalo, Usina São José, Fazenda São Bento and Brejo dos Cavalos in Pernambuco; and five birds were collected from Paraíba in 1957.  <p></p>
106004739		habitat	eng	The nominate race frequents undergrowth close to the ground, often favouring the interior of tall drier forest near treefall gaps, where vegetation is characterised by an abundance of vines and small tree trunks. The race <em>soror</em> seems largely terrestrial, favouring light gaps and fairly open areas near dense cover in mature forest. It has been found in degraded second growth. A ground nest with two eggs has been found. Territories appear small (&lt;1 ha) but well spaced. The race <em>soror</em> breeds following the heavy rains in midwinter, with nests having been found in September and October, although a nest has also been found in April, suggesting the species may lay two clutches within a single season<strong> </strong>(Buzzetti and Barnett 2003). The nominate race probably breeds in October-December. <p></p>
106004739		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004739		threats	eng	In the north-east, logging and clearance for sugarcane and pasturelands has reduced remaining forests to isolated and fragmented patches. Murici is severely threatened by logging and fires spreading from adjacent plantations (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further south, little forest remains because of conversion to plantation agriculture (Brown and Brown 1992, Fearnside 1996).<strong></strong><p></p>
106004740		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004741		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004743		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004745		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common within its restricted range and habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004749		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004751		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004752		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Populations occur in four protected areas, El Tundo Nature Reserve, Ecuador (Dodson and Gentry 1991), Cerros de Amotape National Park and Tumbes National Reserve (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve), and the Bosques Nublados de Udima Wildlife Refuge, Peru (Angulo 2009, F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  </span><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey for the species in suitable habitat within and adjacent to its known range. Protect additional forest within its range. Fence El Tundo Nature Reserve to exclude livestock (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Research the association with bamboo and what  importance this has to the species's conservation. In Peru, search for the species in protected areas such as Salitral – Huarmaca Regional Conservation Area and Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).   <p></p>
106004752		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmeciza griseiceps</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of the Andes in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (El Oro and western Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura,&#160; Lambayeque and Cajamarca [Angulo 2009]). It is rare to locally uncommon (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and overall numbers must be very small.  <p></p>
106004752		habitat	eng	This poorly-known antbird is confined to <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo and dense undergrowth in semi-deciduous moist forest, cloud-forest and, occasionally, deciduous forest, at 600-2,900 m. In Peru there are records in disturbed and secondary forests (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It keeps to dense vegetation, rarely above 4 m, where it tends to forage in pairs or family groups, often within mixed-species understorey flocks. In Peru, it occurred at a density of 0.43 pairs per ha with an average territory size of 0.47 ha (Kikuchi 2009). The diet is unrecorded, but it probably takes invertebrates. Its breeding ecology is virtually unknown, although two juveniles were taken in June, suggesting that it nests during the wet season, in January-May. This is supported by observations that it is much more vocal in the early wet season.<br/><br/><p></p>
106004752		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004752		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Significant habitat loss is ongoing, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all extant lowland forest unless effective action is taken urgently. Intense trampling and grazing by goats and cattle damage the understorey and prevent tree regeneration in closed-canopy forest (Dodson and Gentry 1991,<strong> </strong>Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>, and recent information suggests that cattle grazing may have caused a decline in the species at El Tundo Nature Reserve<strong> </strong>(R. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 2003). At higher elevations within its range, habitat destruction is not as severe, but logging, agricultural conversion and plantations are destroying and degrading forest (Dodson and Gentry 1991). However, this species appears to thrive in bamboo-dominated second-growth that grows back once pasture is abandoned (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). Cutting of bamboo for pack-animal food is a problem. These threats have already led to fragmentation of available habitat. </span>In Peru the principal threat is habitat destruction and degradation, including cattle damage to forest understorey, agricultural expansion and wood extraction (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).   <p></p>
106004753		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004754		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004755		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. The west bank of the Rio Morona are part of the Zona Reservada Santiago Comaina, created in 1999 (Lane <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey outside the Santiago-Marañon-Morona area to determine the extent of its range. Survey <em>terra firme</em> and <em>varillal</em> habitats extensively in the area surrounding the type locality and recent records, to determine its precise habitat requirements. Protect large areas of forest at appropriate sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106004755		distribution	eng	<em>Pithys castaneus</em> was known from a single specimen collected in September 1937 in the Amazonian forest lowlands, at Andoas on the lower río Pastaza, in what is now <strong>Peru</strong>. It was rediscovered in July 2001 on the río Morona in western Loreto, northern Peru, and field photographs and specimens were obtained (<strong></strong>T. S. Schulenberg<em> in litt</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has since been found c.116 km to the south-west, near Chicais, Amazonas, a village on the west bank of the Marañon, and has also been collected on the north bank of the Marañon river, east of the Kanpankis Range, south of Tierra Blanca (J. Alvarez <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The type-locality is a source of confusion, but it has recently been suggested that it may refer to the Tunigrama River, which was known for hundreds of years as the Andoas River (T. Mark <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004755		habitat	eng	It is an obligate ant-follower of the understorey of low elevation forest. It was rediscovered in an area of <em>varillal </em>and was thought perhaps to be a white-sand specialist, although it was also twice observed in hilly <em>terra firme</em>,<em> </em>c. 300m from <em>varillal</em>. The second site where it was recorded consists of hilly <em>terra firme</em> on heavily leached, and therefore rather poor, soil.   <p></p>
106004755		population	eng	Given its relatively small range and specialised habitat requirements, there are thought to be less than 10,000 individuals, and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004755		threats	eng	Rates of habitat loss within its known range are poorly known, but its habitat has been damaged by the construction of an oil pipeline, and several roads are planned. Obligate ant-followers are usually some of the first species to be lost from fragmented forests so this species is likely to be declining due to these pressures.  <p></p>
106004756		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004758		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004759		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004760		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004761		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106004761		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. t. torquata</span> occurs in the eastern foothills of the Andes and in Amazonia in southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, NE <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> north of the Amazon, SE <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, and in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> extreme W Amazonia (W Amazonas N of Amazon), N Amazonia and S Amazonia (from E Rondônia E to N Mato Grosso and S Pará). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. t. stictoptera</span> has a disjunct range in SE <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span> and eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span> just into NW Colombia.
106004761		habitat	eng	Ground dwelling in lowland and foothill humid evergreen forest below 900m. Seem to prefer shaded interior forest with well-developed leaf-litter, often on slopes. Often in pairs, or family groups foraging very inconspicuously on the forest floor by turning over leaves in a methodical manner. Feeds on small arthropods. Not known to attend ant-swarms, or join mixed-species flocks. Breeding records between March-May and July-October in French Guiana; also October in Surinam and Panama. Normal clutch a single egg, juvenile still closely attended by female 30 days after hatching. <br/>Presumed to be resident.
106004761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004761		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Deforestation and fragmentation of lowland forest throughout much of the range coupled with the apparent low density of the species in apparently suitable habitat may render it prone to local extinctions and potentially dramatic range contractions. This species was found to be highly extinction-prone in fragmented forest in a study of Amazonian terrestrial insectivores (Stratford and Stouffer 1999). In Brazil, proposed changes to the Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106004762		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004764		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p> A significant proportion of the range of the species now lies within  Protected Areas (A. Lees in litt. 2011), including the Pacaás Novos  National Park in Rondônia.</p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106004764		distribution	eng	This species occurs from the east bank of the rio Madeira south and east through Rondônia to west Mato Grosso on the Serra dos Parecís and Serra das Ararasin in central Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>.
106004764		habitat	eng	The species is found at elevations up to 300 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and is common in undergrowth of tropical lowland evergreen forest. It is considered to be an obligate ant-following species, obtaining virtually all of its prey items from attending primarily <span style="font-style: italic;">Eciton burchelli</span> swarms and seizing arthropods that are flushed by the ants. Breeding is thought to take place during the rainy season, with fledging occurring from February onwards.
106004764		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004764		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The species is highly sensitive to human disturbance and is suffering from widespread deforestation, particularly in Mato Grosso and Rondônia, which has increased markedly since the 1960s owing to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development (Cleary 1991, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). The principal threats are the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction (Cleary 1991) and commercial logging, which is increasingly signficant (M. Cohn-Haft in litt. 1999). Although the rate of highway construction declined in the 1990s, clearance of forest for cattle ranching and other agriculture has continued throughout Rondônia and Mato Grosso, and fragmentation of the remaining forest is likely to further reduce the effective range size of the species.
106004765		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004766		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106004766		distribution	eng	This species is found in undergrowth of tropical lowland evergreen forest in east Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, mainly between the east bank of the lower rio Tapajós and west bank of the lower rio Xingu in Pará, south to Alta Floresta in north Mato Grosso (Lees &amp; Peres 2010).
106004766		habitat	eng	The species is found at elevations up to 400 m (Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). It is an obligate ant follower, requiring swarms of army ants, primarily <span style="font-style: italic;">Eciton burchelli</span>, which flush the small arthropods that the species feeds upon. Pairs or families search through the forest early in the morning in order to locate the ants. Once located the swarm is usually followed for the rest of the day. <br/>Nesting is thought to coincide with the onset of the rainy season (Nov-Dec), a begging juvenile was observed being fed at the end of January. Presumed to be resident.<br/>Minimum forest patch size for the species has been reported as 1907 ha (Lees &amp; Peres 2010).
106004766		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004766		threats	eng	The species is suffering from widespread deforestation in Pará and, particularly, Mato Grosso, which has increased markedly since the 1960s due to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development (Cleary 1991, Stotz et al. 1996). The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). This is a particularly acute threat for this highly fragmentation sensitive species (Lees &amp; Peres 2010). A population became extinct in a 230 ha forest patch 17 years after the fragment became isolated, due to the extinction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eciton burchelli</span> swarms (A. Whittaker; in<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Lees &amp; Peres 2010). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106004767		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004768		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004769		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004773		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004774		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004775		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004776		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded recently in Brasília, Chapada dos Veadeiros, Serra da Canastra and Emas National Parks (I. P de Faria <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range, particularly in Paraguay, to determine its true distribution and abundance. Promote the conservation of remaining primary cerrado habitats.   <p></p>
106004776		distribution	eng	<em>Geositta poeciloptera</em> occurs within interior south-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (from São Paulo, where it is now considered extinct, north to Minas Gerais, Goiás and Mato Grosso), north-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (north-east Santa Cruz in the Serranía de Huanchaca), and a specimen was collected in <strong>Paraguay</strong> in 1938 (J. M. Bates <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ridgely and Tudor 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Sick 1993).<em> </em>Although it may be locally common in places such as Serra da Canastra National Park after late dry-season fires, it is generally uncommon and has declined as large areas of cerrado are converted for agriculture, cattle-ranching and plantations .<em> <p></p></em>
106004776		habitat	eng	It is rare to temporarily relatively common in open campo cerrado, where there are at most a few scattered trees, mainly at 500-1,200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is often most numerous on recently burnt terrain, even where the ground is still smoking (Ridgely and Tudor 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>de Vasconcelos <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has disappeared from some areas of São Paulo owing to a lack of fires in the cerrado (Willis and Oniki 1993).<br/> <p></p>
106004776		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed'.
106004776		threats	eng	There has been extensive conversion of cerrado habitats to mechanised agriculture, cattle ranching and plantations of non-native tree species (da Silva 1995, Parker and Willis 1997). Two thirds of cerrado habitats had been moderately or extensively altered by 1993 (Conservation International 1999)<strong></strong>, with most destruction having occurred since 1950 (Cavalcanti 1999)<strong></strong>. Suppression of fires on cerrado caused the disappearance of this species from some areas of São Paulo. Open cerrados on flat ground (such as plateau tops) are prime sites for conversion so this species may have suffered particularly badly. It does not adapt to artificial grasslands/pastures and is not found in frequently-burned savannas (L. E. Lopes <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004777		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004778		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004779		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004782		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004786		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004787		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the arid montane scrub and deciduous woodland of west Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, La Paz, Potosí and Chuquisaca, south Bolivia (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Armonía 1995, Herzog et al. 1997).
106004787		habitat	eng	The species has an elevational range of 1,450-2,960 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994) but mostly inhabits intermontane valleys below 2,000 m.
106004787		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004787		threats	eng	Further human settlement and agricultural expansion seriously threaten remaining woodland fragments, but the species is also found in sparsely vegetated areas with terrestrial bromeliads that are typical of severely overgrazed areas (Herzog et al. 1997).
106004788		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004790		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004791		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004793		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004794		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004795		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004797		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004798		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within Serra do Cipó, Aparados da Serra and Serra Geral National Parks and the proposed São Joaquim National Park.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect remaining temperate grassland within the species's range. Assess the rate of habitat conversion and future proposals for <em>Pinus</em> plantations. Obtain a reliable global population estimate, especially in the light of the discovery of the disjunct population in Serra do Cipó. Research the species's resilience to habitat modification.  <p></p>
106004798		distribution	eng	<em>Cinclodes pabsti</em> is confined to south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it occurs in south-east Santa Catarina state, north-east Rio Grande do Sul state and (disjunctly, 1,000 km to the north) the Serra do Cipó in central Minas Gerais (Freitas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The species is apparently rare in the areas surrounding Aparados da Serra and Serra Geral national parks (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, it is reportedly quite common within the proposed São Joaquim National Park (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its global population size has not been estimated. <p></p>
106004798		habitat	eng	It inhabits temperate grassland, pastures and agricultural land in higher areas; open grassland, often rocky and often near houses, usually near water. There are also records from urban areas and along roadsides (J. F. Amorim <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It can persist for over two years after an area is planted with <em>Pinus</em>, but it is displaced by the time the trees have reached 7 m (I. Accordi <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004798		threats	eng	The species is threatened by rapid habitat conversion into <em>Pinus</em> plantations across much of its range, with up to 60% of grassland converted in some areas (C. S. Fontana <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Similarly an increase in the area of vineyards and apple orchards poses a threat.   <p></p>
106004799		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004802		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004803		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004805		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004806		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004807		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's distribution and population dynamics were studied between 2008 and 2010 (J. Barrio<em> in litt</em>. 2010, 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to conduct surveys to better determine its current distribution and population size, especially in the highlands north central Huancavelica (J. Barrio<em> in litt</em>. 2012). Assess its precise ecological requirements to determine reasons for this species's apparently restricted range and rarity. Designate reserves to provide legal protection for known areas. Monitor changes in habitat caused by increasing peat extraction, and their effects on populations (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004807		distribution	eng	<em>Cinclodes palliatus</em> is rare and very local in the high Andes of <strong>Peru</strong> in Junín, immediately adjacent Lima and (at least formerly) Huancavelica. Between 1952 and 2008, the majority of records came from six sites, confined within an area of c.24 km diameter, with a specimen from the Cordillera de Huayhuash, Lima (L. Salinas <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and a single sighting of a stray bird near Lago de Junín (Junín) in 1978 (Harris 1980, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). The type-specimen was collected at Montaña de Vítoc in the large massif west of La Oroya, Junín, drained by the río Vítoc. There have been no subsequent records the localities in Huancavelica where specimens were collected in the 1930s and 1940s (Harris 1980), despite detailed surveys in 2009 (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A large survey from 2008 to 2011, throughout the distributional range indicated that a 40 km strip in the central area of the distribution is the stronghold for the species, with 75% of the bogs there inhabited by White-bellied Cinclodes (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is rare and local, being absent from large areas of apparently suitable habitat, and may be declining. In 2003, 28 individuals were counted at six known sites (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, and given the number of suitable bogs within its range it was suggested that the global population may potentially number as many as 200-1,000 individuals (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003), but probably closer to the lower figure (J. Barrio in litt. 2009, R. E. Gibbons in litt. 2009). From 2008 to 2011,  104 bogs were searched yielding 113 individuals at 18 of these (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Given the number of suitable bogs within its range it is now believed that the global population may number less than 300 individuals, which would include fewer than 250 mature individuals (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Further searches of suitable habitat have failed to find any record of the species between Huancavelica and Ayacucho departments, where it was incorrectly reported (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106004807		habitat	eng	It inhabits boggy terrain from 4,430 m to the snowline at c.5,000 m (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003, J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. It appears to have very specific habitat requirements: mineral-rich, well-watered cushion-plant (e.g. <em>Distichia</em>) bogs with rocky outcrops and stony slopes nearby, often below glaciers (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. Birds are usually seen in pairs or small groups of 3-4 individuals (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>, with a maximum of 6-7 birds in a group, rarely up to 12&#160; (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). When feeding it probes vegetation for worms, small frogs and insects. Its breeding ecology is unknown, except that the nest is placed in a crevice or under rocks (J. Barrio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004807		population	eng	The population was estimated at between 200 and 1,000 individuals in 2003 (G. Engblom <i>in litt.</i> 2003). Further surveys have failed to find records of the species at additional localities, hence the population is thought to be at the lower end of this estimate or perhaps even lower (J. Barrio <i>in litt.</i> 2009; R. E. Gibbons <i>in litt.</i> 2009). Therefore, the population is best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106004807		threats	eng	Suitable habitat was previously subjected to relatively little human disturbance owing to its high altitude. However, the use of peat for mushroom-growing, private gardening and public parks in Lima has increased in the past ten years (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Some suitable habitat is apparently being overgrazed by alpacas, llamas and sheep (J. Barrio <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Mining operations are also causing habitat degradation through the dumping of deposits in bogs and lakes, and through the deliberate draining of some bogs, an activity that is estimated to be affecting over 50% of suitable sites<strong> </strong>(J. Barrio <em>in litt</em>. 2012). In addition, wetland areas in its range are threatened by water extraction for agriculture<strong> </strong>(C. Aucca Chutas <em>in litt</em>. 2008). The chances of this species surviving will greatly diminish if peat extraction and habitat alteration continue. Furthermore, having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106004808		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004810		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004812		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004813		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004814		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004815		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004816		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004817		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fernández Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977. Sheep were removed from the island in 1983 (Carboneras 1992d)<strong></strong>. A goat control programme was undertaken from 1998-2003 but has only continued on a sporadic basis since (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997 (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong>, but that effort concluded in 2003. The islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing (Hulm 1995)<strong></strong>. There is one ranger posted on Alejandro Selkirk (J. C. Torres-Mura <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, but there are plans to begin having two rangers working on the island. Eighty-one nest boxes were installed in a variety of habitats in 2006 (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006)<strong></strong>, with at least three having been used during the 2006-2007 breeding season. Other monitoring work is ongoing and efforts continue to improve current population estimates and knowledge of the species's ecology and habitat requirements, to quantify threats and to develop a conservation plan for the species (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. Educational materials including posters and community talks have been produced by Juan Fernández Islands Conservancy and Oikonos (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008, 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate goats from Alejandro Selkirk. Establish a continuous monitoring scheme of the species's population and its reproductive success (Hahn and Römer 2002)<strong></strong>. Study the species to gain a better understanding of its reproductive biology (I. Hahn <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Compare with the ecological requirements of Thorn-tailed Rayadito <em>A. spinicauda</em> on the mainland, and other Juan Fernández Islands endemics to develop management strategies (Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004). Eradicate feral cats and rats from the island (this action has the potential to benefit all bird species breeding on the island). Eradication of introduced is the highest priority conservation action for Alexander Selkirk Island as it is critical to ensure the persistence of multiple endemic species and subspecies, including rayaditos and petrels. Continue educational programmes to increase awareness of the species, both in the islands and more broadly to the general public. Extend control programme and fully eradicate three important invasive plant species: murtilla <em>Ugni molinae</em>, elm-leaf blackberry <em>Rubus ulmifolius</em> and maqui <em>Aristotelia chilensis</em> (unlike on Robinson Crusoe, the populations of these three species are still quite manageable on Alejandro Selkirk and could realistically be eradicated). Establish canelo <em>Drimys confertifolia </em>seedlings and increase the area covered by canelo trees.<em> </em>Use nest boxes to increase the availability of nesting sites<em> </em>  (<strong></strong>Tomasevic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<p></p>
106004817		distribution	eng	<em>Aphrastura masafuerae</em> is endemic to Alejandro Selkirk (Más Afuera) in the Juan Fernández Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>. The population was estimated at c.500 individuals in the mid-1980s (Brooke 1988)<strong></strong>. Its size is now uncertain, with estimates in 2002 (I. Hahn, P. Hodum and M. Wainstein <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2003)<strong></strong> and 2011 (I. Hahn <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) both putting the population at c.140 individuals (representing a 72% decline since the 1980s), but survey work in between (2006-2007) estimating a population similar to the c.500 individuals estimated 20 years previously (Tomasevic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><p></p>
106004817		habitat	eng	This gleaning insectivore is found primarily in <em>Dicksonia externa</em> fern forest, and has a strong association with canelo <em>Drimys confertifolia</em>, an endemic species of tree. It also regularly occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophosauria quadripinnata</span> dominated slopes in the upper elevations of the island (P. Hodum <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It is most common along stream courses where luxuriant <em>Dicksonia</em> grows to a height of 5 m. There are records at elevations as low as 600 m, but it occurs primarily at 800-1,300 m in the austral summer (Hahn and Römer 1996)<strong></strong>. The species has a minimum territory size of 4 ha per pair in optimal habitat, although most are larger due to poorer habitat quality, and it nests in natural and man-made cavities, particularly in small natural holes in steep rocks (Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008, Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nesting occurs from early December until late January (Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004) and fledglings have been noted in January and February (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, 2012)<strong></strong>. Only four natural nests have ever been found (Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010), but three complete and four incomplete nests were constructed in nest boxes (Tomasevic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). All known nest sites have shown a strong association with canelo <em></em>(Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010, Tomasevic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The nests found in nest boxes had a supporting structure of canelo and tree-fern <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicksonia</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> externa</span> rootlets and a soft cup of petrel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pterodroma externa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. longirostris</span>) feathers (Tomasevic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Adults fed nestlings with arthropod prey, particularly lepidopteran larvae (Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010). It is typically skulking and found in pairs, or family groups during the summer months (P. Hodum <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004817		population	eng	The current population size is uncertain, with some survey techniques yielding estimates of c.140 individuals (I. Hahn <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), with others giving estimates closer to 500 individuals. It is precautionarily placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals, which equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106004817		threats	eng	It is probably secure as long as mature tracts of the ferns <em>Dicksonia</em> and <em>Lophosauria</em> remain intact, but a large proportion of natural vegetation on the island has been degraded and fragmented by goat-trampling, fire and timber-cutting (I. Hahn <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004, Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004, Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Mature trees are important for foraging, roosting and probably provision of nesting cavities (P. Hodum <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007, 2008, 2012)<strong></strong>. Introduced mammalian predators are thought to have a significant impact on the population, with rats (<em>Rattus</em> spp.) and possibly mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>) impacting on brood survival, and feral cats impacting on juvenile and adult survival (Hahn and Römer 2002, Tomasevic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Significantly, it is absent from the lowlands, where the forest understorey has already been destroyed. An unusual increase of native Red-backed Hawk <em>Buteo polyosoma</em> during the last decade, as illegal hunting of this species by fishermen has ceased and the hawk population has benefited from preying upon introduced mammals (Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004), may have contributed modestly to any recent declines, with several cases noted of hawks preying on rayaditos (I. Hahn <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, Hahn <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004<strong></strong>). Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is also potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004818		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004821		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004822		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004823		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004824		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been some attempts to draw local attention to the plight of <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands in Cuzco, Peru. In the Runtacocha highland, local families have been advised by a Cuzco-based conservation group, and appear positive towards better environmental control (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys of <em>Polylepis</em> and high-altitude habitats have been conducted and suggestions for the conservation of these habitats have been published (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recent joint programme aims to protect <em>Polylepis</em> forests and develop alternatives for local consumption of fuel and timber. It provides <em>Polylepis</em> saplings for forest regeneration and <em>Eucalyptus</em> saplings for use as an alternative timber species, and villagers are paid to plant the saplings in a community aid programme (Rome 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey remaining <em>Polylepis</em> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Protect Yanacocha forest and other <em>Polylepis</em> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Expand the <em>Polylepis</em> planting programme, and plant buffer zones below <em>Polylepis</em> woodland with firewood species to provide an alternative fuel source (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004824		distribution	eng	<em>Leptasthenura xenothorax</em> has a very restricted and severely fragmented range in the Runtacocha highland (Apurímac), the Nevado Sacsarayoc massif and the Cordillera Vilcanota (Cuzco), south-central <strong>Peru</strong>. Significant populations of c.35-70 individuals were estimated at three sites in Cuzco in 1987-1989, but declines have been observed at some of these, and the population density is very low in the Runtacocha highland (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. The patchiness and scarcity of its habitat, which may now occupy less than 3% of the estimated potential cover in large parts of Cuzco (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>, suggests that the total population must now be very small (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>, with one recent estimate of 500-1,500 individuals (Engblom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004824		habitat	eng	It occurs in small, often widely scattered, patches of humid <em>Polylepis</em> woodland at elevations of 3,700-4,550 m. An adult was observed attending a nest-hole in a <em>Polylepis</em> tree in November 1997 (C. Bushell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and recently fledged young were observed in December 2003 (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but its breeding ecology remains very poorly known. It forages in pairs or small family groups of three or four, picking insects from the bark, moss and lichens on twigs, branches and trunks, often in mixed-species flocks. <p></p>
106004824		population	eng	Engblom <i>et al.</i> (2002) estimate the known population to be c.500 birds, with a potential total population of c.1,500. The number of mature individuals is therefore likely to fall between 250 and 999.
106004824		threats	eng	Uncontrolled fires and heavy grazing prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal is locally destructive, but could be sustained if regeneration were not prevented (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Other factors are the change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming, and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (in particular the use of exotic tree species) (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. The extent of <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands in Cuzco halved during the 1980s. <p></p>
106004825		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004826		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004827		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Ensure that remaining tracts of <em>Araucaria </em>woodland receive adequate protection.    <p></p>
106004827		distribution	eng	<em>Leptasthenura setaria</em> inhabits southern temperate and secondary forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Rio de Janeiro to north Rio Grande do Sul) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones).<em> <p></p></em>
106004827		habitat	eng	This species occurs in temperate and secondary forests at 750-1,900 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is entirely dependent upon, and relatively common in, stands of <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em>, even occurring in commercially planted groves around buildings and in gardens (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The overall population in commercial plantations in Argentina appears to be large (&gt;7,000 birds), suggesting that such <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> plantations play an important role in the conservation of this species (Cabanne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<p></p>
106004827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004827		threats	eng	It is threatened by the destruction of <em>Araucaria</em> forest, which in the state of Paraná, Brazil, alone was reduced from an estimated original cover of 73,780 km<sup>2</sup> to 15,932 km<sup>2</sup> in 1965 as a result of clearance for pastureland and cultivation (Hueck 1978, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Misiones, afforestation with <em>Araucaria</em> has resulted in the species colonising new areas, but there are fluctuations in area occupied, and <em>Araucaria</em> plantations are now regularly replaced with <em>Pinus</em> (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <p></p>
106004828		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> Some of its range is formally protected by Sierra de Perijá National Park, Venezuela, but there is no active management<strong> </strong>(A. Viloria <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). Cerro Pintado lies to the north of the park, but the inhabitants of the Villanueva village, Colombia, attempt to protect the natural habitat<strong> </strong>(A. Viloria <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998). <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Estimate the population size<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe, J-P. Rodrígiez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). Determine its global distribution (Sharpe and Lentino 2008). Study its ecological requirements<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe, J-P. Rodrígiez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Assess habitat availability using aerial photographs<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe, J-P. Rodrígiez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Manage and effectively protect Sierra de Perijá National Park<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). <p></p>
106004828		distribution	eng	<em>Asthenes </em><em>perijana</em> only occurs in the Sierra de Perijá (and particularly Cerro Pintado) on the border of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Guajira) and <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Zuila)<strong> </strong>(Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004828		habitat	eng	It inhabits subparámo and shrubbery vegetation at elevations of 3,000-3,400 m<strong> </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>, A. Viloria <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Hilty 2003, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). There have been suggestions that it may favour bamboo<strong> </strong>(A. Viloria <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998), but its close relative, the White-chinned Thistletail <em>A. fuliginosa</em>, does not inhabit bamboo stands<strong> </strong>(F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Birds are often seen in pairs, foraging for arthropods and occasionally berries<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). Immatures and breeding-condition adults have been recorded in July<strong></strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). <p></p>
106004828		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106004828		threats	eng	Habitat below 2,000 m in the Sierra de Perijá is threatened by narcotics cultivation, uncontrolled colonisation, cattle-ranching and mineral exploitation, which are all facilitated by the many roads approaching the sierra from the Colombian side<strong> </strong>(C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2000, <strong></strong>A. Viloria <em>per</em> J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). The species's high-elevation habitat was thought to be less affected by these developments, but the area of suitable habitat is now believed to be fragmented and declining as a result of illegal cultivation (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002, C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2003). Only patches of montane forest remain on the steepest slopes of the Cerro Pintado. Forest is still being lost to burning and the cultivation of Papaver. Security problems are making access very difficult<strong> </strong>(R. Strewe <em>in litt. </em>2003). <p></p>
106004829		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004830		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004831		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004832		distribution	eng	This species is relatively common within its range. Many areas of suitable habitat within the area have not been surveyed, and the range and population may be larger than currently thought (H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004832		habitat	eng	The species occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Chusquea </span>bamboo patches at the forest edge, particularly at the treeline, at 3,030-3,710 m. It is most common in secondary and degraded forest areas. Little is known of how tolerant this species is of habitat disturbance, but some populations are known to persist in heavily populated areas, e.g. along the Satipo road (H. Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007).
106004832		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species may be relatively common within this range. Many areas of suitable habitat within the area have not bee surveyed, and the range and population may be larger than currently thought (H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106004832		threats	eng	Until very recently, it was not considered to be under threat, but recent searches have failed to locate the species at a number of sites, and found that its preferred habitat is being burnt and converted to potato fields (G. Engblom <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). Furthermore, <em>Escallonia</em> woodland at higher elevations is being cut for firewood, and there are no protected areas in the region and no ongoing conservation projects (G. Engblom <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). <p></p>
106004833		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004834		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004834		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Asthenes helleri</span> has a restricted range in the Andes of western South America, described as uncommon to fairly common throughout. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>it is limited to the areas of Cuzco and Puno, and is present in the Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> Its distribution also touches into extreme north La Paz, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004834		habitat	eng	Above the timberline, this species occurs in "páramo" (high tropical montane grassland) and elfin forest; below, it prefers dense undergrowth at the edge of cloud-forest. It is found between 2,800-3,600 m elevation. Its diet consists of arthropods, taken from understorey foliage (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004834		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004834		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation; it is thought likely to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It has probably always had a small population, and has also been declining as a result of grazing and burning in its Andean timberline habitat (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).<br/></p>
106004835		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004836		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004837		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004838		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004839		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004840		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004841		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The <em>Podocarpus</em> forest above Abancay, Apurímac, is protected as the Ampay National Sanctuary. Reforestation is underway, but threats to the forest are yet to be alleviated (T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999, W.-P. Vellinga <em> in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Assess the impact of current activities on the status of this species. Develop a conservation education programme at Ampay National Sanctuary<strong></strong> and erect signposts to discourage damaging activities (T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Conduct further surveys for the species outside the sanctuary. Complete a full population census. <p></p>
106004841		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis courseni</em> is known from several locations in south-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It was previously thought to be restricted to the Ampay National Sanctuary, where it was thought to have a population of 600-800 mature individuals (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. However, there have been several sightings outside the sanctuary, including at Huayrapata, Pacaypata, Cerro Turronmocco (above Quisuar) and above Yanama town in the Vilcabamba Mts on the way to Toruyocpampa (C. Aucca <em>in litt.</em> 2007, H. Lloyd and B. Walker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). The species has been described as common on Ampay Massif and on the road leading to Huanipaca (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 2007, H. Lloyd and B. Walker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007, H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010), and its current population is thought to be roughly 1,000 individuals within the sanctuary (J. Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The population size in other areas is unknown.<br/><p></p>
106004841		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth, vines and bamboo in <em>Podocarpus</em> woodland, as well as adjacent shrubbery, mainly at elevations of 2,450-3,500 m. It is usually found in pairs or family groups, foraging for insects in dense vegetation near the ground. Adults in breeding condition have been recorded in December, and immatures have been seen in March (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. Records from highly fragmented cloud forest landscape dominated by agriculture (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2007, H. Lloyd and B. Walker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong> indicate that the species may be tolerant, to a degree, of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation and degradation. <p></p>
106004841		population	eng	The population within the Ampay National Sanctuary has been estimated to number almost 1,000 individuals. Although there are records outside of the sanctuary, it is not thought to be present in significant numbers in these areas (J. Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Therefore, a population band of 1,000-2,499 individuals is currently assumed, though a full population census may revise the figure upwards. This estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004841		threats	eng	<em>Podocarpus</em> trees continue to be cut on the Nevada Ampay (T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Large numbers of people visit the sanctuary at the weekend, some with slingshots, and disturbance is considerable (T. Valqui <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Grazing is an additional threat, with livestock farming commonplace even inside the protected area (J. Valenzuela <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004843		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004844		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004845		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004846		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004847		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve. Land at Murici remains privately-owned and a number of conservation initiatives have so far failed to halt forest loss (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are more promising developments at Pedra Talhada, where significant areas are being reforested with native trees (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. There are recent records from Caetés Ecological Reserve and Frei Caneca Private Reserve (Roda 2002), and older records from UFPE Ecological Reserve and Saltinho Biological Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey sites with historical records of this species and any other remnant patches of habitat in Alagoas and Pernambuco. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. Continue the reforestation programme and <em>de facto</em> protection at Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve.<p></p>
106004847		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis infuscata</em> is found at Murici and Pedra Talhada in Alagoas, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is locally common, and has recently been recorded elsewhere in Alagoas at Usina Serra Grande (Silveira <em>et al</em>. in press.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Mata da Salvia (Silveira <em>et al</em>. in press.)<strong></strong>, Quebrângulo (Roda 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Engenho Coimbra (Roda 2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been recorded from a number of localities in Pernambuco, including Frei Caneca Private Reserve, Engenho Água Azul, Taquaritinga do Norte, Mata do Estado, Caetés Ecological Reserve and Caruaru/Brejo dos Cavalos (Roda 2002)<strong></strong>. These recent findings show the extent of occurrence of the species is not as restricted as has been suggested, and that several populations remain. <em> <p></p></em>
106004847		habitat	eng	It has been found in patches of Atlantic forest suffering various degrees of disturbance. There are observations in second growth at the forest edge and in a coffee plantation mixed with second growth near a remnant forest patch. Singles or solitary pairs forage very near the ground in dense tangles and thickets, probing in clusters of dead leaves and perch-gleaning.   <p></p>
106004847		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106004847		threats	eng	There has been massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas and Pernambuco, and it is estimated that only 2% of the original forested area remains in the range of the species. Also, most forest fragments the species occur are smaller than 500 ha. The extent of forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a mere 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. In January 1999, new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are still severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999).  <p></p>
106004848		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004848		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synallaxis moesta </span>is uncommon and local within its distribution in the east Andean foothills. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">moesta</span> occurs from south Casanare south to north-west Meta, central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">obscura</span> is found in Caquetá and Putumayo, south Colombia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">brunneicaudalis</span> occurs insouth-east Nariño, extreme south Colombia; the species is apparently scarce throughout the country (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). From here <span style="font-style: italic;">brunneicaudalis</span> ranges through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>to the states of Amazonas, San Martín and possibly Loreto, in north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004848		habitat	eng	This is a species of dense undergrowth at the forest edge, usually hilly lowland forests but also sometimes secondary forest and bamboo thickets. It generally ranges from 250-1,350 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004848		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004848		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is thought to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects: as a true forest species it is not found in heavily deforested areas (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Its habitat is generally under intense pressure from agricultural development (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004849		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004850		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004850		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synallaxis cabanisi </span>is a locally-distributed South American species, with two subspecies. The nominate subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> cabanisi</span> ranges from Huánuco south to Puno, and possibly west Ucayali, in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>'s Andean foothills (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). A completely disjunct population, discovered in north Mato Grosso, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>in 1997, is also currently ascribed to this subspecies, although it may well represent a distinct species (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">fulviventris</span> occurs in Andean foothills in La Paz, Beni and Cochabamba states, north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004850		habitat	eng	This is a species of dense undergrowth, preferring the edges of lowland evergreen forest and hilly tropical forest, but also occurring in secondary growth. It is found at 200-350 m elevation (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004850		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004850		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin; it is thought likely to be particularly sensitive to fragmentation and edge effects (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).
106004851		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004852		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Of the nine recent localities, five are protected: Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru, Machalilla National Park (large but requires stronger protection), Cerro Blanco Protection Forest (recently enlarged to 50&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Arenillas Military Reserve (the largest intact area of dry forest and thorn-scrub in south-west Ecuador) and Algodonal Reserve, all Ecuador (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The latter is a very small (0.35&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) part of a larger, disturbed dry forest (c.30&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) at Hacienda Jujal, with even larger forested areas in adjacent Peru (Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of known and potential occurrence (Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the population viability in degraded habitats. Strengthen habitat protection in Tumbes Reserved Zone and Machalilla National Park. Work with local communities around Hacienda Jujal to enlarge the conservation area and secure extant forest from external threats (Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004852		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis tithys</em> occurs in the Tumbesian region of south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manabí, Guayas, El Oro and Loja) and immediately adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes). Extant suitable habitat is highly fragmented, making the species's distribution patchy. It is generally uncommon, but locally relatively common (Lowen 1998, Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>).<strong></strong><p></p>
106004852		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth, occasionally the midstorey, of deciduous and evergreen forest, from sea-level to 1,100&#160;m (Lowen 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Studies during the dry season have found it in heavily degraded secondary forest and hedgerows within cultivation (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It favours vine-tangles, foraging alone or in pairs, and sometimes joining mixed-species flocks (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to undertake seasonal movements. Insects constitute the majority of its diet. A juvenile was trapped in August (Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, with egg-laying apparently in March.<p></p>
106004852		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004852		threats	eng	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade, but in the higher parts of its range, deforestation has been slower and a greater proportion of forest remains (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It does not occur above c.1,100&#160;m, thus it must be one of the most threatened Tumbesian forest species. All forest-types within its range have greatly diminished owing to agricultural clearance (Wege and Long 1995). Persistent grazing by goats and cattle removes understorey, prevents forest regeneration and is a serious current threat (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997, Jiggins <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rapid habitat loss continues, and will soon remove almost all extant forest. <p></p>
106004853		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004854		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004855		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further studies to determine how tolerant this species is of secondary or disturbed habitats, and determine precise ecological requirements. Encourage the protection of native <em>caatinga</em> habitats.  <p></p>
106004855		distribution	eng	<em>Gyalophylax hellmayri</em> inhabits several types of dry <em>caatinga</em> in extreme north Minas Gerais, north Bahia, west Pernambuco, Piauí, with an old specimen record from west Ceará, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Whitney and Pacheco 1994, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Recent records in Bahia and Pernambuco have shown it to be locally common, even in areas disturbed by goats and cattle grazing (A.&#160;Whittaker and K. Zimmer <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <em> <p></p></em>
106004855		habitat	eng	This species was thought to be largely restricted to vegetation with the abundant, large and terrestrial bromeliad <em>Bromelia laciniosa </em>(Whitney and Pacheco 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this is apparently not true (A.&#160;Whittaker and K. Zimmer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in a variety of dry <em>caatinga</em> habitats, including grazed areas.   <p></p>
106004855		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common and fairly widespread.
106004855		threats	eng	Despite being more widespread and less habitat-restricted than previously thought, it is still threatened by conversion for agriculture, intensive grazing and burning, and exploitation of woody <em>caatinga</em> for charcoal.  <p></p>
106004856		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey for undiscovered populations and determine whether the paucity of recent records in the south of the species's range is caused by lack of observer coverage or local extinctions. Develop land management strategies and protection for forests near Tamborapa (H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.    Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).<p></p>
106004856		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis maranonica</em> occurs in dry portions of the Marañón drainage, north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Cajamarca) and extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Zumba area of Zamora-Chinchipe) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001). At least formerly, it was uncommon to locally fairly common in suitable habitat within its restricted range (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It appears to have declined south of Jaen, Cajamarca (R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett <em>in litt</em> 1998, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it is still locally common in some areas of disturbed forest near Tamborapa and may possibly be abundant at more pristine sites (H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004856		habitat	eng	It inhabits the undergrowth of deciduous woodland, forest and forest edge, occasionally venturing into humid forest, regenerating secondary scrub and riparian thickets. It has been recorded at 450-1,800 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Birds usually forage in pairs on or near the ground, but have also been recorded foraging higher up in the trees (Ridgely and Tudor 1994,&#160; H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004856		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004856		threats	eng	Much of its woodland habitat has progressively deteriorated owing to widespread and long-term cultivation of land within the Marañón drainage. The spread of oil-palm plantations, cattle-ranching and logging all seriously threaten its remaining habitat, with oil extraction a potential future problem (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It does appear to tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance, however accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network, is predicted to cause extremely rapid population declines (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011).<strong> <p></p></strong>
106004857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004860		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to determine whether this species is genuinely highly localised, or simply overlooked. Conduct ecological studies to determine its precise habitat requirements and tolerance of secondary or fragmented habitats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106004860		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis cherriei</em> has three subspecies: the nominate occurs disjunctly in south Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rondônia, Mato Grosso and south Pará); equally disjunct populations of the race <em>napoensis</em> are scattered through the Andean foothills in south-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (Putumayo) and east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo), while <span style="font-style: italic;">saturata </span>is found in east <strong>Peru</strong> (two sites in San Martín and Ayacucho) and (presumably this subspecies) Pando, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(Tobias and Seddon 2006).<em> <p></p></em>
106004860		habitat	eng	This species is found at 200-1,100 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Clements and Shany 2001), although a recent record from San Martín was at c.1,450 m (Begazo <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. It is rare to occasionally relatively common, but inexplicably very local, in the undergrowth of secondary woodland and the borders of humid forest. Although no association with bamboo has been observed in Colombia, Ecuador or most of Peru, birds from Alta Floresta (Mato Grosso, Brazil), Cocha Cashu (Manu, Peru) and Pando (Bolivia) are <span style="font-style: italic;">Guadua </span>bamboo specialists (Zimmer <em>et al</em>. 1997a, Clements and Shany 2001,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Tobias and Seddon 2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004860		threats	eng	Relatively extensive deforestation has occurred within its east Ecuador and south-east Colombian range, which is a region threatened by oil exploration and extraction, with resultant habitat degradation and fragmentation from associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Peru, extensive areas of its habitat are undergoing land clearance, agricultural conversion and logging, the effects of which are amplified by road-building and human colonisation (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Brazil, nearly 25% of forest cover in Rondônia and Mato Grosso disappeared in 1975-1988, principally as a result of highway construction, with ranching, smallholder agriculture and mining as contributory factors (Cleary 1991)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004861		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004862		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004863		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is found within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research is currently being carried out on the conservation of habitats for birds resident to the sierra (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, in part by increasing the limits of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park to include the whole altitudinal gradient within the three departments (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Estimate the population size, particularly in Guajira and Cesar (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004863		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis fuscorufa</em> is endemic to the Santa Marta mountains of north <strong>Colombia</strong>, with records from Cesar, Guajira and Magdalena departments. It has a small range, and its population size is currently unknown (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. It is described as common in humid shrubby forest borders, overgrown clearings and forest undergrowth.  <p></p>
106004863		habitat	eng	<em>Synallaxis fuscorufa </em>is found in the undergrowth of montane forests, as well as along forest edges, in altered habitat and in shrubs in open habitats (Hilty and Brown 1986, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. It is principally recorded at 2,000-3,000&#160;m, but occasionally to 900&#160;m (Hilty and Brown 1986). Its behaviour is similar to that of other <em>Synallaxis </em>species. It feeds as it moves energetically within shrubs and small branches principally 0.5-7 m above the ground. It is observed in pairs or family groups, which accompany mixed-species flocks. Breeding seems to occur between January and June (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004863		population	eng	The species is fairly common within its tiny range and its population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. The population estimate requires confirmation.
106004863		threats	eng	Habitats are seriously threatened by illegal agricultural expansion, logging and burning (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Only 15% of the sierra's original vegetation is currently unaltered<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, and the species has lost 59% of its habitat (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. The best known area, the Cuchilla de San Lorenzo, is not within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004864		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It does not occur in any protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to identify priority areas for conservation action within its range and further define its current distribution. Assess populations at known sites. Establish at least one protected area to benefit the species. <p></p>
106004864		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis zimmeri</em> has a small range on the Pacific slope of the Andes in west-central <strong>Peru</strong>. There are records from Llaguén (La Libertad) and six localities in the Cordillera Negra (Ancash) (Franke and Salinas 2000)<strong></strong>. It has been described as fairly common in a 10-ha habitat patch above Chacchan in 1983, but not detected at the site in 1988, uncommon at San Damián forest in 1980 and 1985, but present in 1998 and 1999, and fairly common in Noquo forest in 1988 (<strong></strong>B.&#160;P.&#160;Walker <em>in litt.</em> 1995, <strong></strong>J.&#160;Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160;Hunnybun 1999, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001). <p></p>
106004864		habitat	eng	It inhabits scrub and dense undergrowth with scattered small trees, at elevations of 1,800-2,900&#160;m. Usually encountered in pairs, birds forage for insects in moss clumps and along vines and branches. Juveniles and an active nest have been collected in May (Franke and Salinas 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004864		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004864		threats	eng	Dense undergrowth habitat within its range is severely threatened by cattle-grazing and clearance for farm expansion. <p></p>
106004865		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004866		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004867		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004868		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004869		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Rice producers were evicted from the San Marcos Indigenous Reserve, which is thought to confer some protection for the species (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the impact of recent fires on the species. Protect known areas along the rio Tacutu. Provide support to indigenous peoples seeking to prevent habitat destruction within their reserves.  <p></p>
106004869		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis kollari</em> was, until recently, known from six specimens and a small number of observations along the rio Cotingo, rio Surumu, rio Tacutu, rio Uraricoera and the upper rio Branco in north Roraima, <strong>Brazil</strong> and adjacent <strong>Guyana</strong> (Forrester 1995). Although it is locally common, it has a highly fragmented range in patches of suitable habitat which total no more than 206 km<sup>2<strong></strong></sup> (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007). It was long known only from records (mostly since 1956) on the rio Tacutu within 2 km of the Brazil-Guyana border (Forrester 1995,&#160;Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but it has subsequently been recorded on the rio Surumu in 1998, the rio Cotingo in 2001 (Grosset and Minns 2002)<strong></strong>, the Ireng river near its confluence with the the Tacutu in 1993-1996 (<strong></strong>Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, on the east bank of the rio Uraricoera, 45 km north-east of Boa Vista in 2001 (Grosset and Minns 2002), on islands in the <strong></strong> rio Uraricoera (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and on the rio Parime in 2004 (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007). It has been extirpated from the type locality, and it is apparently absent from south of Fortaleza de São Joaquim on the rio Branco (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106004869		habitat	eng	Most recent observations have been in seasonally flooded riverine forest with an understorey of dense thickets and vines (Forrester 1995, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The sightings along the rio Uraricoera in 2001 were from riverine thickets that were not subject to annual flooding (Grosset and Minns 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suitable habitat is probably restricted to within 0.5 km<sup>2</sup> of the rivers (Zimmer <em>et al.</em> 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been found in fairly disturbed gallery forest (L. Silveira <em>in litt. </em>2007). A bird was seen entering an apparently incomplete nest in July (Grosset and Minns 2002). <p></p>
106004869		population	eng	Vale <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) state that there is 206 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat, with a species population density of 60 individuals / km<sup>2</sup>. This gives a population size of c.5,000 individuals, and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004869		threats	eng	The gallery forests within the species range are being rapidly converted into rice plantations (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The rice plantations are concentrated on the margins of the rio Branco's main tributaries and rely heavily on fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007). Bird and fish die-offs have been reported near these plantations (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007). The margins of the rio Tacutu, rio Surumu and rio Mau have been completely converted to rice plantations (Vale <em>et al. </em>2007). Burning of vegetation, such as the fires that spread through Roraima in 1999 (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, may be another major threat. Forest loss across the species's range is likely to become extremely rapid (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011).<br/><p></p>
106004870		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004871		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004872		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004873		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004874		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004875		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004875		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cranioleuca curtata</span> is a polytypic species found in the east Andes of western South America. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">curtata</span> is endemic to central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, from south-east Santander south as far as Huila. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cisandina </span>occurs south from west Caquetá, south Colombia, through east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, where it spreads south as far as Pasco. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">debilis </span>ranges from Ayacucho and Cuzco in central Peru, south to west Santa Cruz in central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). It has been considered generally uncommon, but is frequently overlooked and may be more abundant than records suggest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106004875		habitat	eng	This is a species of montane and lower montane humid forest, and some secondary habitat. It usually ranges from 900-1,700 m. It feeds on arthropods. The only breeding information is a record of a fledgling from March in north Ecuador (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004875		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004875		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation ; it is thought to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).
106004876		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004877		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004878		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004879		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004880		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004881		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106004881		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cranioleuca marcapatae</span> is endemic to Cuzco, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, where it is present in the Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">weskei</span> occurs in the Vilcabamba Mts, and the nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">marcapatae </span>in the Vilcanota and Carabaya ranges. It is generally uncommon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004881		habitat	eng	This is a species of humid montane and elfin forest from 2,400-3,500 m, often found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Chusquea </span>bamboo. It feeds on arthropods. A nest thought to be of this species was oval in shape, made from moss, bark and twigs and suspended from the edge of a branch 9 m from the ground. Fledglings have been recorded in December, April and May (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106004881		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004881		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation; it is thought to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).
106004882		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004883		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004887		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106004887		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cranioleuca muelleri</span> is endemic to the east Amazon River, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. It ranges from extreme east Amazonas, east to south Amapá and Mexiana Island (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004887		habitat	eng	This is an undergrowth species of Brazilian "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest). It ranges from 0-200 m elevation. One possible nest has been found, described as a globular mass of sticks, placed in a tree (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004887		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106004887		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network; it is thought likely to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106004888		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004889		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004890		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004891		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004892		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004893		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004894		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004895		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004896		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Los Cardones National Park, Argentina<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's precise habitat requirements and tolerance of habitat fragmentation. Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against clearance and degradation.   <p></p>
106004896		distribution	eng	<em>Asthenes heterura</em> occurs in central Cochabamba and La Paz, with recent records in Potosí, Tarija and Chuquisaca, <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996,&#160;Fjeldså and Mayer 1996), and there are six records from Jujuy and Salta, north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Mazar Barnett and Pearman 2001). It has probably been overlooked (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996, T. Hjarsen <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>S. Mayer <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>), and in Argentina has almost certainly been confused with Lesser Canastero <em>A. pyrrholeuca</em>,<em> </em>which it resembles morphologically (M. Pearman <em>in litt. </em>2001). <em> <p></p></em>
106004896		habitat	eng	It is fairly common to uncommon in dense arid montane scrub and open <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus</em> woodland with grasses and mixed scrub (e.g. <em>Gynoxys</em> and <em>Baccharis</em>), at elevations of 2,500-4,200 m (Vuilleumier 1969, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Mazar Barnett <em>et al.</em> 1998a, T. Hjarsen <em>in litt.</em> 1999). A specimen collected at 1,600 m in Bolivia in June 1914 suggests that it may descend in altitude during the winter months (M. Pearman <em>in litt. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been found in tall clumps of <em>Festuca</em> bunchgrass, intermingled with areas of short turf and even patches of bare soil (Mazar Barnett <em>et al.</em> 1998a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and shrubbery and hedgerows away from <em>Polylepis</em> (S. Mayer <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <p></p>
106004896		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004896		threats	eng	Although not entirely dependent on <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands, their destruction through clearance for cultivation, firewood-collection and burning for pasture undoubtedly threatens some populations (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations are replacing suitable native vegetation (T. Hjarsen <em>in litt.</em> 1999), but some populations (e.g. around Alto Calilegua, Argentina) receive protection by their remoteness from human habitation. <p></p>
106004897		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004898		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004899		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The type-locality is adjacent to Serra do Cipó National Park, but the species was not found within the reserve until 1997 (Chaves Cordeiro <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded in the Parque Estadual do Pico do Itambé, Parque Estadual do Rio Preto and Sempre Vivas National Park (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009, <strong><sup></sup></strong>Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to provide a better delimitation of its range and more accurate assessment of its status (Chaves Cordeiro <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Study the effects of parasitism by <em>M. bonariensis</em> and investigate potential control measures. <p></p>
106004899		distribution	eng	<em>Asthenes luizae</em> was only discovered in 1985, from a tiny area just north-east of Jaboticatubas within the Serra do Cipó, Minas Gerais, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Surveys in 1996-1998 found the species at four additional localities in south Minas Gerais (Chaves Cordeiro <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. These are the Serra da Bandeirinha on the central plateau of Serra do Cipó National Park, the Serra do Intendente (where it is fairly common), the Serra Talhada and the Serra do Gavião (Chaves Cordeiro <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It has since been found in the 4,700-ha Pico do Itambé State Park at Serra Azul, Minas Gerais, and at Campina do Bananal, Botumirim municipality, in northern Minas Gerais  (Vasconcelos 2002, Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2002), about 170 km north of the nearest record, and has recently been found in several new localities along the Espinhaço range, Minas Gerais, including a new protected area: Rio Preto State Park (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009, Vasconcelos and D'Angelo Neto 2007). In addition, it was recently found in the newly-created Sempre Vivas National Park, Minas Gerais (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009, Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species's range is therefore larger than previously believed, and there appears to be extensive suitable habitat in the Espinhaço range that is not declining in quality or extent (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009, Vasconcelos and D'Angelo Neto 2007). It appears to be more abundant in the northern part of its range, especially in Diamantina Plateau and Central Espinhaço, both areas located in central-northern Minas Gerais state (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009). <p></p>
106004899		habitat	eng	It inhabits isolated rocky outcrops and associated dry vegetation on tablelands between 1,000 and 2,000 m (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009). It is mainly terrestrial preferring the steepest and most vegetated slopes. Territories of 150-300 m (Vasconcelos 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong> are centred on rocky outcrops. The diet consists of invertebrates taken from rocks, crevices and shrubs. Pairs have been recorded holding territory in July and August, and observed with dependent young in December. <p></p>
106004899		population	eng	The species's population was recently estimated at c.100,000 individuals, based on an estimated 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat and a density of 10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (M. F. de Vasconcelos <i>in litt.</i> 2007); however, this may be an overestimate (L. E. Lopes <i>in litt.</i> 2009), thus the population is placed in the band 50,000-99,999 individuals pending further study.
106004899		threats	eng	The type-locality is a degraded area, beside a road, where <em>A. luizae </em>is uncommon and subject to brood-parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> which has recently colonised the region, presumably in response to agricultural expansion, infrastructure development and the associated expansion of tourism (L. E. Lopes<em> in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Shiny Cowbird is only common close to human settlements, as in the type-locality. It has been shown to inflict intense brood-parasitism in some areas (L. E. Lopes<em> in litt</em>. 2009). However, it is a very rare species in the remote and well preserved rocky areas and should not represent a threat to <em>A. luizae </em>in its overall range. There is no agriculture in the rocky outcrop habitat favoured by the species, since it is impossible to grow crops or plantations. There are small numbers of cattle scattered along the Espinhaço mountains but they are not present on the steep slopes or rocky areas (M. F. de Vasconcelos<em> in litt.</em> 2003, 2007, 2009). Fires could also pose a serious threat to the species, as may disturbance from birdwatchers visiting the type-locality (L. E. Lopes<em> in litt</em>. 2009). <p></p>
106004902		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct wider surveys for this species in surrounding areas, particularly north of the río Consata. Ensure the protection of key sites supporting suitable habitats within the range. <p></p>
106004902		distribution	eng	<em>Asthenes berlepschi</em> is apparently common within a restricted range in the semi-arid slopes of the Consata valley and its tributaries in La Paz, north-west <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Its known range is c.200 km<sup>2</sup>, but it is suspected to occur in unsurveyed areas north of the río Consata, which would increase its range size to 450 km<sup>2</sup>. <em> <p></p></em>
106004902		habitat	eng	Recent surveys have recorded the species in open, degraded <em>Polylepis</em> forest, <em>Baccharis pentlandii</em> scrub and completely converted habitat, with fields, large areas left fallow, shrubs and low scrub, scattered <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees and some soil erosion at 2,300-3,700 m<strong><sup> </sup></strong> (Herzog <em>et al.</em> 1997). In December 1991, 3-4 nests were found c.500 m apart in <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees between agricultural fields (Mayer 1995).  <p></p>
106004902		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106004902		threats	eng	Despite surviving well in highly modified habitats, it must be considered at some risk owing to its tiny range in one small montane basin, its restricted elevational distribution, and the small amount of available habitat.  <p></p>
106004903		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Salta, Catamarca, Tucumán, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis, Mendoza and Neuquén, central-west Argentina (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Parker et al. 1996, M. Babarskas verbally 1998).
106004903		habitat	eng	The species inhabits well developed, semi-arid temperate hillside scrub from 650-3,000 m. Its desert-scrub habitat is characterised by plants such as Larrea species, Cercidium praecox, Geoffroea decorticans and Trichocereus terscheckii (M. Babarskas verbally 1998, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).
106004903		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004903		threats	eng	Settlement and agricultural conversion have altered habitat in small parts of the species range, and grazing by cattle and goats may pose some threat (Stattersfield et al. 1998). However, extensive tracts of suitable habitat remain unaffected and the species occurs in several protected areas (M. Babarskas verbally 1998, Chebez et al. 1998).
106004904		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004905		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004906		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004907		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004909		distribution	eng	The species has an apparently disjunct range: a population in north-west Patagonia (west Neuquén, west Río Negro and west Chubut, Argentina, and adjacent Chile in Ñuble, Malleco, Aysén and Concepción) may be geographically isolated from a southern population inhabiting the Patagonian mainland (south Santa Cruz, Argentina and Magallanes, Chile) and north Tierra del Fuego and Gable Island in the Beagle channel (Collar et al. 1992, Vuilleumier 1997, S. Imberti in litt. 1999). It is apparently partially migratory with birds recorded north to Valparaíso in Chile (Collar et al. 1992).
106004909		habitat	eng	The species occurs most frequently up to 1,500 m in mesic shrub-steppe receiving 350-450 mm of rain per year (but as little as 180-250 mm in the southern parts of its continental range (S. Imberti in litt. 1999)), with an upper stratum of shrubs and a ground stratum of tussock-grasses (Vuilleumier 1997).
106004909		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004910		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A population exists in the well-protected Carrasco National Park, Bolivia (S.&#160;K.&#160;Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance.  Campaign for the protection of high-altitude native habitats within the range. <p></p>
106004910		distribution	eng	<em>Asthenes urubambensis</em> occurs locally, and probably discontinuously, on the east slope of the Andes. The race <em>huallagae</em> occurs in San Martín, La Libertad, Huánuco and Pasco, north and central <strong>Peru</strong>, with the nominate race in Cuzco and Puno, south Peru, and La Paz and Cochabamba, west <strong>Bolivia </strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<sup></sup>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106004910		habitat	eng	This species is rare to uncommon in páramo grassland, <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, elfin forest and mossy slopes with scrub at 2,750-4,300 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106004910		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004910		threats	eng	Although some montane habitats in Peru are still relatively pristine (Fieldjså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in Bolivia native habitats have been extensively degraded by livestock grazing, burning and firewood collection (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Heavy grazing by livestock and the uncontrolled use of fire also combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal occurs (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004911		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004912		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004913		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004914		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted actions are known to have been implemented. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor rates of habitat loss throughout its range. Conduct regular surveys to track population trends. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives formal protection. <p></p>
106004914		distribution	eng	<em>Asthenes hudsoni </em>occurs in eastern <strong>Argentina</strong> (Santa Fe and Entre Rios, south to Rio Negro and southern Buenos Aires), extreme south-eastern <strong>Brazil </strong>(south-eastern Rio Grande do Sul) and <strong>Uruguay </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<sup></sup>. Throughout much of its range it is uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, in Uruguay it is very rare (J. Aldabe<em> in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The largest populations are found in the Bahia de Samborombón and the watershed of the Rio Salado in Buenos Aires, Argentina (L. Pagano and A. Bodrati<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004914		habitat	eng	The species inhabits southern temperate grasslands, including areas with tall wet grass (e.g. <em>Paspalum quadrifarium</em>) and sedges near wetlands, from sea-level to 950 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In north-eastern Buenos Aires at least, its preferred habitat is seasonally inundated grassland dominated by <em>Spartina densiflora </em>(L. Pagano and A. Bodrati<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also found by roads where its habitat is maintained and is noted to show some tolerance to cattle grazing (L. Pagano and A. Bodrati<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It is insectivorous, reportedly feeding on Lepidoptera larvae, Coleoptera, Pentatomidae (shield-bugs), Orthoptera and Hymenoptera, which it probably gleans from the ground or low vegetation. It breeds during the austral spring and summer, with eggs and nestlings recorded in November-December. The nest is constructed on or near the ground in dense vegetation. Its clutch size is usually three or four eggs, perhaps ranging from two to five (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004914		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common.
106004914		threats	eng	Although this species persists in cattle pastures (L. Pagano and A. Bodrati<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, its density may be negatively affected by livestock grazing (J. Aldabe<em> in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is primarily threatened by the on-going and accelerating loss of suitable grassland through drainage and conversion to cultivation and urban areas (L. Pagano and A. Bodrati<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Rio Lujan watershed, Argentina, the species was formerly common; however, since the end of the 1970s all suitable habitat in the area (thousands of hectares) has been lost. In the 250 km between Partido de San Nicolas and Capital Federal, the species has lost 70% or more of its habitat during the last 30 years (L. Pagano and A. Bodrati<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is probably also susceptible to pollution (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004915		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Sipapo Forest Reserve encompasses its known distribution, but provides little effective protection for riverside habitats (Colvee 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess its distribution and population size. Assess its ecological requirements. Improve protection of riverine habitats in Sipapo Forest Reserve. Grant protected status to any other occupied sites outside Sipapo Forest Reserve. <p></p>
106004915		distribution	eng	<em>Thripophaga cherriei </em>was known from just six specimens taken in 1899 and 1970, and observations since 1999 of up to three individuals (Colvee 2000, D. Willis<em> in litt.</em> 2003), all along the caño Capuana, a low-lying affluent of the upper río Orinoco in <strong>Venezuela</strong>. In 2007, a survey of the area found it to be common along the caños Capuana, Guacharaca and Grulla as well as along the nearby río Orinoco (Lentino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). There is also a possible historic record from Junglaven on the río Ventuari, but there have been no further records at this site (D. Willis <em>in litt. </em>2006). There are no other records despite surveys in adjacent areas (Colvee 2000). It could occur over a much larger area as its habitat appears to be widespread, but if this is the case it is perhaps surprising that its loud call has not led to its discovery elsewhere.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106004915		habitat	eng	It occurs at c.100 m altitude, in the understorey of riverine and humid forest, adjacent to rivers (Colvee 2000)<strong></strong>. Territories appear to be small, occupying 30-50 m along a creek (Lentino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It has been found in flooded creek-side forests, as well as riverine scrub (Lentino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Other aspects of its ecology are very poorly known.<br/><br/><p></p>
106004915		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. However, it may prove to be much more abundant: in 2007, 25 individuals were recorded along 4 km of creeks (Lentino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160;
106004915		threats	eng	The principal threat appears to be loss of habitat through unsustainable, shifting cultivation practices (Colvee 2000). <br/><p></p>
106004916		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. Populations exist in four protected areas: Sooretama Biological Reserve, Serra Bonita Private Reserve (B. Whitney and J. F. Pacheco<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Una Biological Reserve (R. Laps <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Desengano State Park, although the numbers recorded are low. Its apparent absence from the Linhares Forest Reserve, adjacent to Sooretama, is surprising, and a further indication of its apparent patchy distribution. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat to locate additional populations. Monitor known populations. Ensure continued protection of the four reserves where it occurs. Protect other key sites for the species. <p></p>
106004916		distribution	eng	<em>Thripophaga macroura</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest region of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Bahia south of Salvador through east Minas Gerais to Espírito Santo and north Rio de Janeiro. Formerly known from just seven locations it has recently been found in a number of new localities: forests between Ituberá and Camamu; Usina Paineiras; Serra Bonita Private Reserve (RPPN) (B. Whitney and J. F. Pacheco<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>; Una Biological Reserve (R. Laps <em>in litt. </em>2003) and two sites in the Jequitinhonha valley (Ribon <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may well occur in all the remaining lowland forest in southern Bahia. It is locally not uncommon, but occurs very patchily and is apparently absent from large areas of mature forest where vine-tangles are scarce. <p></p>
106004916		habitat	eng	It inhabits the interior of humid, primary and little-disturbed forest, but also occurs along forest edge and in degraded and secondary forest up to 1,000 m, where it appears to be closely associated with subcanopy vine-tangles. Although seemingly able to tolerate some degree of disturbance, it appears unable to survive in young secondary growth and other non-forest habitats. Birds forage in dense vine-tangles from c.2.5-7 m above ground, gleaning arthropods from vines, twigs, branches and sometimes leaves. Nesting has been reported in August-January (Mazar Barnett and Kirwan 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The relatively small territories (less than 1.5 ha) encompass a number of large, vine-covered trees. <p></p>
106004916		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106004916		threats	eng	Widespread and continuing habitat destruction has severely fragmented this species's range. Although it has been observed in degraded forest, it may be dependent on the presence of dense vine-tangles, which are likely to occur only in little-disturbed and mature secondary forests. <p></p>
106004917		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Río Abiseo National Park (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to improve knowledge of this species's status and distribution. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Regulate the use of fire (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004917		distribution	eng	<em>Thripophaga berlepschi</em> is rare and locally distributed in the Andes of north <strong>Peru</strong>, from east Piura, through west Amazonas and San Martín, to south-east La Libertad. It has been recorded on Cerro Chinguela (Piura), La Peca Nueva, Leimebamba, Atuén, Lluy, San Cristóbal and near Florida-Pomacichas (Amazonas), La Montañita and Río Abiseo National Park (San Martín) and Mashua (La Libertad) (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997, Clements and Shany 2001, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001, G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 2001), and is probably also present in the northern Cordillera de Col (Dauphiné<em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and possibly at Abra Patricia. There are large areas of unsurveyed forest at Leimebamba which may hold the species (H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004917		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane and elfin forest, often just below the treeline, at elevations of 3,050 to 3,400 m, locally as low as 2,500 m (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It appears to persist in small forest fragments but the minimum size needed is not known (H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Pairs and small groups are sometimes seen accompanying mixed-species flocks in the understorey (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, subcanopy and canopy (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Immatures and juveniles have been seen in July and September, and breeding probably takes place during the dry season (June-September). <p></p>
106004917		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106004917		threats	eng	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the colonial period, sustainable land-use systems established by Pre-Columbian cultures were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques, including widespread burning (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. Regular burning of páramo grassland adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and continues to destroy large areas of this species's habitat (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. Small and fragmented remnant elfin forests are additionally threatened by clearance for agriculture and grazing, with an alarmingly high rate of conversion to cash-crops in the (until relatively recently pristine) Cordillera de Colán (Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1995, Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. Road construction has increased pressure from grazing and selective logging, and there is ongoing rapid habitat clearance in the Leimebamba-Abra Barro Negro area (H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004918		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004919		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine this species's precise distribution. Study its habitat requirements. Assess the impact of threats. Protect suitable habitat against clearance and degradation.  <p></p>
106004919		distribution	eng	<em>Siptornopsis hypochondriaca</em> occurs on the slopes above the dry upper río Marañón valley in south Amazonas, south-east Cajamarca, east La Libertad and north Ancash (one specimen taken in 1932), north <strong>Peru</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is currently known from four locations: around Balsas (Amazonas/Cajamarca) (Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, above Chagual (La Libertad) (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1998) and at two sites near San Marcos (Cajamarca) (N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001). There is suitable habitat along the Cajabamba-San Marcos road from Ichocan to the Rio Crisnejas, but none on the Cajabamba side of the river (N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may be locally common in less disturbed areas (H. Lloyd <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004919		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid/desert scrub and low dry forest, often with <em>Acacia</em> trees, at elevations of 2,000-3,000&#160;m (Braun and Parker 1985,&#160;J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1998, N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Stream gullies with running water seem to be preferred at one site, where there were also numerous stacks of cut firewood (N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The positive or negative effects of cutting for firewood on the species are unknown (N. Simpson <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004919		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004919		threats	eng	It is highly likely that this species's habitat is under pressure (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Marañón drainage has been under cultivation for a long time and habitat in the valley has progressively deteriorated. The spread of oil-palms, cattle-ranching and logging are all serious threats to remaining habitat, with oil extraction a potential future problem (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004920		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004921		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004922		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004923		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004924		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004925		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. Proposals for key sites to be protected are found in Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the species's distribution and population. Research its natural history, including basic information such as vocalisations. Ensure the protection of areas around Hacienda Limón. Establish at least one protected area within the species' range (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106004925		distribution	eng	<em>Phacellodomus dorsalis</em> occurs on the east slope of the west Andes in the upper Marañón valley, south Cajamarca and La Libertad, north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Clements and Shany 2001). There is also a sighting on the east slope of Cordillera Blanca in Ancash (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is fairly common around Hacienda Limón in Cajamarca (R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but is generally considered uncommon (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004925		habitat	eng	It is found in arid to fairly humid, dense, tangled thorn-scrub, pastures and hedgerows on bushy slopes with scattered<span style="font-style: italic;"> Acacia macracantha </span>trees (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Most records are at elevations of 2,000-3,100&#160;m (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), but, in the Cordillera Blanca, it was recorded at 3,400&#160;m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. Around Hacienda Limón, it occurs in areas with substantial disturbance, including along dry streambeds and eroded gullies adjacent to agricultural areas (R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett<em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Nests tend to be placed in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. macracantha </span>trees and are made from twigs of the same tree (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
106004925		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004925		threats	eng	Habitat in the Marañón drainage has deteriorated progressively under a prolonged period of cultivation. The species apparently tolerates some degree of habitat alteration, but whether it can complete its life-cycle or occur at existing densities in heavily cultivated areas is not known. Fire and clearance of land for agriculture are the principal threats (F. Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106004926		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004928		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Caaguazú National Park and Ypetí Private Nature Reserve (Paraguay) (Chebez 1994)<strong></strong>, Iguazú National Park, San Antonio Strict Nature Reserve, Urugua-í Provincial Park (Argentina) (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Iguaçu National Park (Brazil). It may also occur in São Joaquim National Park, Santa Catarina. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's precise habitat requirements, as well as its tolerance of secondary and fragmented habitats. Survey areas of suitable habitat within and surrounding the known range in order to determine true distribution and abundance. Protect suitable habitat around Urubici to prevent further habitat degradation (Naka <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004928		distribution	eng	<em>Clibanornis dendrocolaptoides</em> was considered very local and scarce throughout its range in south <strong>Brazil</strong>, south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. It was almost certainly previously overlooked, and there has been an increase in records now that its voice is known, and as a result its population is now believed to exceed 10,000 mature individuals.  <em> <p></p></em>
106004928		habitat	eng	This species occurs in various forest habitats up to 800 m. Dense bamboo and other vegetation over water is considered by some to be optimal habitat (B.&#160;M.&#160;Whitney <em>in litt</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it appears not to be restricted to large-leaved bamboo, and the bamboo relationship may be coincidental.   <p></p>
106004928		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004928		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened by the rapid destruction and fragmentation of Atlantic forest. However, it is reported to persist in small forest fragments (F. Straube pers. comm. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which suggests that it is unlikely to be undergoing a rapid population decline. Depending on its ecological requirements, the cutting of bamboo thickets could have a serious effect. In Argentina, the building of dams has flooded parts of its former range.  <p></p>
106004929		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Campaign for the protection of suitable wetland habitats within the range, including the gazetting of protected areas at key sites. <p></p>
106004929		distribution	eng	<em>Spartonoica maluroides</em> occurs in extreme south <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong>, and central <strong>Argentina</strong> (east Formosa, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos and Buenos Aires west locally to Córdoba, Santiago del Estero and Mendoza, and south to Río Negro) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Chebez <em>et al.</em> 1998,&#160;J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It is an uncommon, but regular winter visitor to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Paraguay </span>(R. Clay <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009). It is uncommon to locally fairly common, but probably overlooked. <em> <p></p></em>
106004929		habitat	eng	This species occurs up to 900 m in brackish and freshwater marshes with extensive growths of <em>Eryngium</em> and <em>Scirpus</em>, and may associate with <em>Spartina</em> grass (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Pearman and Abadie 1995, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>A. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding biology is described by Llambías <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009).<br/><p></p>
106004929		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004929		threats	eng	This species is limited to wetland habitats, and is therefore highly threatened by marsh drainage and the drying effects of <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> plantations, particularly in east Entre Ríos and north-east Corrientes (Pearman and Abadie 1995).  <p></p>
106004930		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004931		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004932		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites in order to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Encourage the conservation of wetland habitats within the range, including the gazetting of protected areas at key sites. <p></p>
106004932		distribution	eng	<em>Limnoctites rectirostris</em> occurs in extreme south <strong>Brazil</strong> (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), south <strong>Uruguay</strong> and east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Entre Ríos and extreme north-east Buenos Aires) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Babarskas and Fraga 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>. It is very locally distributed, but locally common in appropriate habitats.  <em> <p></p></em>
106004932		habitat	eng	This species occurs up to 1,100 m, in small marshes and swales, as well as short trees and shrubs bordering wet areas. It is closely associated with the spiny apiaceous herb "caraguata" <em>Eryngium</em> spp., which is abundant in marshes throughout its range<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs locally away from water in upland thickets of <em>Epyngium pandanifolum</em>.  <p></p>
106004932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004932		threats	eng	In Argentina, and particularly in the heavily populated Buenos Aires province, its habitat is threatened by house-building, rubbish dumps and water pollution (Chebez 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is presumably also threatened by intensive grazing, marsh drainage, extensive willow <em>Salix</em> plantations and, particularly in east Entre Ríos, the drying effects of <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp. plantations (Pearman and Abadie 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004933		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004934		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004935		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to uncommon' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004936		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004937		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004938		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004939		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance.  Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's precise habitat requirement, as well as tolerance of disturbance and fragmentation. Protect significant areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106004939		distribution	eng	<em>Xenerpestes singularis</em> occurs in the east Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Napo) south to north Cajamarca, <strong>Peru</strong>, with a disjunct population in north San Martín (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Peru. It is generally considered rare to uncommon, but may be overlooked due to its canopy-dwelling habits.<em> <p></p></em>
106004939		habitat	eng	It is rare and local (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in the canopy and borders of foothill forest with abundant epiphytes and bromeliads, at 1,000-1,700 m (Parker and Parker 1980)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004939		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004939		threats	eng	Its habitats are under intense pressure from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, with widespread destruction caused by peasant farmers, and tea and coffee growers (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004940		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004941		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004943		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Guácharo National Parks. The latter reserve was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong> </strong>(Gabaldón 1992). The Turimiquire massif is a Protective Zone, but in practice the legal status is not enforced (Sharpe and Lentino 2008). It is similarly considered Vulnerable at the national level in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey El Guácharo National Park, Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio, Serranía de Turumiquire, Cerro Azul and other suitable areas<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995, Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995<strong></strong>, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J-P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Develop alternative agricultural techniques for areas adjacent to Paria Peninsula National Park (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995).<p></p>
106004943		distribution	eng	<em>Premnoplex tatei </em>occupies a restricted range in the mountains of north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>. It occurs on the Paria Peninsula, Sucre, and in the Turimiquire Massif (both the Serranía de Turimiquire west of the San Antonio valley, and the Cordillera de Caripe  to the east) on the borders of Sucre, Anzoategui and Monagas. In the Serranía de Turimiquire, it has been recorded on cerros Peonía, Turimiquire, Macanillal<strong> </strong>(Colvee 1999) and Negro<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995) and, on the Paria Peninsula on cerros Humo, El Olvido and Azul. Apart from records in 2005-2006 on cerros Turimiquire, Quiriquire ("Piedra 'e Mole'") and Macanillal in the Turimiquire massif and from the Paria Peninsula&#160; (Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), there have been few recent records, and none from cerros Peonía or Azul. <br/><p></p>
106004943		habitat	eng	In the Cordillera de Caripe, it is known from 1,200-2,400&#160;m. On Cerro Humo, it occurs at 1,100-1,200&#160;m and, on Cerro El Olvido, at 800-885&#160;m. It inhabits the understorey (up to 2&#160;m from the ground) of montane humid forest, where there is extensive epiphytic growth. <p></p>
106004943		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals in total, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 individuals. In 1988, 2.4 pairs per hectare were estimated on Cerro El Olvido (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989) and, in 1993, 0.8 individuals per hectare were found in Cerro Humo<strong> </strong>(Evans <em>et al</em>. 1994a). The population on the Paria Peninsula has been estimated at 3,600 individuals  (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989).
106004943		threats	eng	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe. Even in El Guácharo National Park there is clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995). There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana, and citrus plantations in the Turimiquire Massif, but extensive forested areas remain<strong> </strong>(Colvee 1999, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. <br/><p></p>
106004944		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004945		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining primary forest patches within the altitudinal range. <p></p>
106004945		distribution	eng	<em>Margarornis stellatus</em> occurs on the west slope of the West Andes from west <strong>Colombia</strong> (south Chocó) south to Carchi, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, with small populations in Antioquia, Colombia, and Chimborazo, Ecuador (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is rare in Ecuador (Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and, although formerly considered relatively common in Colombia (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the extent of habitat destruction within its range (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998) suggests that it has declined.  <em> <p></p></em>
106004945		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, especially mossy cloud forest, from the midstorey to the canopy, at 1,200-2,200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but principally above 1,600 m (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004945		threats	eng	It is primarily threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation in the Chocó region, largely owing to intensive logging, human settlement, cattle grazing, mining and coca and oil palm cultivation, with destruction particularly severe within its elevational range (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004946		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Serranía de Majé is unprotected, but the remainder of the species's range falls within the Darién National Park (IUCN 1992, Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, this legal designation has not halted habitat loss (Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the total population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Improve the management (effective habitat protection) of Darién National Park.  <p></p>
106004946		distribution	eng	<em>Margarornis bellulus</em> has a restricted distribution in the highlands of east <strong>Panama</strong>, where it is rare on Cerro Quía and in the Jungurudó, Pirre, Tacarcuna and Majé mountain ranges (Wetmore 1972, Robbins <em>et al.</em> 1985, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996, Angehr and Jordán 1998, <strong></strong>G. R. Angehr <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004946		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane cloud forest on summits and higher ridges, mostly at 1,350-1,600 m, but to 900 m on Cerro Quía (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on arthropods, gleaning prey from branches and epiphytic vegetation, mostly in the subcanopy (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004946		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004946		threats	eng	Habitat in the region is being cleared and degraded for mining, agriculture and cultivation of coca (Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but probably not yet within the altitudinal range of this species. Completion of the Pan-American Highway link through Darién could be highly detrimental to this species (Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004947		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004948		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004950		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004951		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004953		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004954		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004955		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004957		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004958		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004959		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004960		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004961		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Populations are protected within the small El Tundo Nature Reserve (c.1.5 km<sup>2</sup>) where it is common (Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the adjacent 8,000 ha Jatumpamba-Jorupe Protected Forest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, near Sozoranga; and the small Utuana reserve, Loja, Ecuador<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in two protected areas in Peru: Chiñama Forest, Lambayeque, and Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) (Best and Kessler 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which lies at the lower end of its elevational range, and where it is uncommon or rare (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect some remaining highland forest in west Loja. Secure continued protection of Chiñama Forest. Survey its population and range. <p></p>
106004961		distribution	eng	<em>Syndactyla ruficollis</em> occurs on the foothills and slopes of the west Andes in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque and Cajamarca). Although generally common at some sites, e.g. El Tundo Nature Reserve (Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999) and forest patches around Celica, Ecuador, the population has probably declined substantially in recent decades, owing to loss of suitable habitat from a large proportion of its already naturally restricted range (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004961		habitat	eng	It inhabits evergreen, semi-deciduous and deciduous forests at 400-2,900 m, being most abundant above 1,600 m. It tolerates considerable forest disturbance, tending to forage alone or in pairs (occasionally small groups), often with mixed-species flocks. In Bosque de Cuyas, Peru, it occurs in secondary growth as well as pristine forest (Vellinga <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It generally keeps high in trees, foraging on large branches and probing bases of bromeliads and ferns, but is also occasionally recorded flicking leaves on forest floor. The nest is unknown, but breeding is thought to take place during the wet season, in January-May. <p></p>
106004961		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106004961		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss is ongoing, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest unless effective action is taken urgently. Intense trampling and grazing of extant forest by goats and cattle prevent tree regeneration, especially in deciduous forest. At higher elevations within its range, rates of habitat destruction in most areas are not as great, but logging, agricultural conversion and plantations are replacing and degrading forest (Dodson and Gentry 1991, Jiggins <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and habitat loss remains high at higher elevations in areas such as Celica, Alamor and Catacocha<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2008). Cutting of bamboo for pack-animal food is also a problem. <p></p>
106004962		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004966		distribution	eng	This species occurs in interior south Brazil (south Mato Grosso and Goiás south to west Paraná and south-west Minas Gerais) and extreme north-east Paraguay (Concepción and Amambay), where it has been recently recorded only from San Luis National Park, north-west Concepción (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Robbins et al. 1999).
106004966		habitat	eng	The species is found in the lower and middle growth of humid and gallery forest and woodland, favouring dense undergrowth and vine tangles.
106004966		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004966		threats	eng	The species is presumably threatened by agricultural conversion of forested areas within the Brazilian planalto, and more information is required regarding population size and trends.
106004967		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004970		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004971		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in Itatiaia National Park and Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Brazil. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Re-visit known sites to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Ensure that remaining patches of suitable habitat receive adequate protection. <p></p>
106004971		distribution	eng	<em>Anabacerthia amaurotis</em> occurs in the Atlantic forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Espírito Santo locally to north Rio Grande do Sul), south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Alto Paraná, Caazapá, Itapúa) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106004971		habitat	eng	It is rare to locally fairly common in the lower growth of montane and lowland evergreen forest at 100-1,600 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but is predominantly a montane species in Brazil (Tobias <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106004971		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004971		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it is now largely confined to a number of protected areas.  <p></p>
106004972		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004973		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004974		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004975		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. International and national efforts to ensure the effective protection of Murici resulted in the creation of the Murici Ecological Station in 2001, encompassing 6,116 ha (J. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Frei Caneca is a private reserve protecting 630 ha of forest (<em>Cotinga</em> 2003 20:13)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. SAVE Brasil purchased a property adjacent to the Frei Caneca Private Nature Reserve, increasing the area of protected forest at the Serra do Urubu to 1,000 ha (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 2005, P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009). A population census of the species at Serra do Urubu was planned for early 2008 (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Efforts to begin environmental education initiatives and to provide local people with a viable alternative to charcoal production are underway. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey any remnant patches of upland Atlantic forest in Alagoas (such as Usina Serra Grande) and Pernambuco for this species. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Murici Ecological Station and forest on the Serra do Urubu. Estimate the population on the Serra do Urubu (Frei Caneca and SAVE Brasil protected area). Study the species's ecology and breeding biology. Implement environmental education programmes. Monitor population trends at known sites.  <p></p>
106004975		distribution	eng	<em>Philydor novaesi</em> has only ever been recorded at two sites in Alagoas and Pernambuco, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was first discovered at Murici (Alagoas) in 1979, when it was described as relatively conspicuous and easy to locate. Subsequent surveys found the species to be rare, and there were no confirmed records between 1992 and 1998. Single individuals were found in 1998 and 1999 (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, four birds in 2000 (J. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000), a further individual in early 2007 and television footage of one individual in 2009 (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009), indicating that the species is (barely) extant. It was discovered at Frei Caneca Private Reserve (Pernambuco) in April 2003 (<em>Cotinga</em> 2003 20:13<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Mazar-Barnett <em>et al. </em>2005), and at the adjacent Jaqueira (Frei Caneca) Reserve (recently purchased by SAVE Brasil) where two individuals were observed in 2007/2008 (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009) and the species could still be located there in late 2010. These two areas are located on the Serra do Urubu (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009). The total global population is presumed to be extremely small. <p></p>
106004975		habitat	eng	It inhabits the edges of clearings in interior upland forest at 400-550 m, from the understorey to the subcanopy, and has been observed in selectively logged and old secondary forests. Birds have been found singly, in pairs or small groups, and often join mixed-species flocks. Food is gleaned from leaves, bark, crevices and debris, and consists of insects, including larvae taken from dead wood, beetles, grasshoppers and ants. There is little breeding information, but an immature was collected in January, and birds in February were moulting (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One of the individuals at the Jaqueira (Frei Caneca) Reserve in 2007/2008 was observed in secondary forest (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009).  <p></p>
106004975		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106004975		threats	eng	Forest at Murici has been reduced from 70 km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to c.30 km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999 (J. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. In January 1999, new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Frei Caneca private reserve and adjacent SAVE Brasil protected area are still suffering from ongoing illegal charcoal exploitation (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, 2009). The massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas and Pernambuco has left few other sites likely to support populations of this species. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004976		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Occurs in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, as well as Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone in Peru. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys within and adjacent to the known range in order to determine its true distribution and abundance. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest within its known range, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106004976		distribution	eng	<em>Simoxenops ucayalae</em> has a fragmented range, with a core population in south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (south Ucayali and Madre de Dios) and extreme north-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Camino Mueden in Pando), and three isolated populations in Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong> (Alta Floresta, north Mato Grosso, near the east bank of the lower rio Xingu, south of Altamira, Pará, and at two sites on the upper rio Juruá, Acre) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Whittaker and Oren 1999).&#160;<em> <p></p></em>
106004976		habitat	eng	It is rare to locally uncommon to 1,300 m, in the undergrowth of lowland evergreen, floodplain and river-edge forest, primarily in or near thickets of <em>Guadua</em> bamboo (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Kratter 1997).   <p></p>
106004976		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon'. A tentative population estimate of c.2,000 pairs has been suggested for Peru.
106004976		threats	eng	It appears tolerant of small-scale timber extraction and selective logging. Habitat within its core range is relatively intact, but the region, including those areas under legal protection, is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining, and associated road-building and human colonisation, including uncontrolled tourism, resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995,&#160;H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106004977		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory, La Paz (B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Carrasco National Park, Cochabamba (B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Amboró National Park, Santa Cruz (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is predicted to occur in Madidi National Park, La Paz (Remsen and Parker 1995, B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor rates of deforestation within its range. Maintain the integrity of Amboró and Carrasco National Parks, particularly with respect to encroachment by settlers. <p></p>
106004977		distribution	eng	<em>Simoxenops striatus</em> is restricted to the Yungas (east Andean foothills) of La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, central and west <strong>Bolivia</strong>, and extreme south west Puno, <strong>Peru</strong>. Although it was previously thought to be rather rare, and indeed was "lost" for 48 years, a recent study has found it to be not uncommon in the Cordillerea Mosetenes, where its occurs at a density of 20 pairs per km<sup>2</sup>&#160; (Herzog <em>et al. </em>2008).<strong><sup></sup></strong>  <p></p>
106004977		habitat	eng	It inhabits foothill evergreen forests in a narrow elevational band between 640 and 1,500 m&#160; (B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Despite reports to the contrary, it shows a strong association with <em>Guadua </em>bamboo (Herzog <em>et al. </em>2008). However, it is not an obligate bamboo specialist and persists (albeit at much lower densities) in humid and semi-deciduous forest without <em>Guadua</em> bamboo, where it forages in dense understorey or vine tangles, often near treefall gaps (Herzog <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106004977		population	eng	Herzog <em>et al.</em> (undated) calculated the population to be c.100,000 individuals, which is precautionarily placed in the band 50,000-99,999 individuals.
106004977		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation within its small geographic and elevational range, especially in La Paz and Cochabamba. Its preferred forest habitat is more accessible and easier to burn than true montane forest, and the soils are suited to domestic agriculture and the cultivation of cash crops. Consequently, the region is a favoured target for colonists from the altiplano, and encroachment into protected areas is occurring. Exploration for natural resources is undertaken in Bolivia's national parks, making mining a potential future threat (B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Nevertheless, vast amounts of pristine forest remain in inaccessible areas within the species's elevational range, although it may be excluded by the harsh climate in some of these areas (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999, B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106004978		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004979		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004980		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004981		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106004982		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004984		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004985		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004986		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004988		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004989		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004990		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004991		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004993		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106004994		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the interior of Brazil (south Bahia and central Minas Gerais west through Goiás to south Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, and south to south-west and eastern São Paulo (Betini et al. 1998) and north-west Paraná) and north-east Paraguay (scarce to uncommon in north Concepcíon with records for one site in San Pedro) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hayes 1995).
106004994		habitat	eng	The species is found in the undergrowth of gallery forest and patches of deciduous woodland.
106004994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004994		threats	eng	The species is presumably threatened by selective logging and agricultural conversion of forested areas within the Brazilian planalto, and more information is required regarding population size and trends.
106004995		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant populations occur in three protected areas, Machalilla National Park and Cerro Blanco Protection Forest, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru (Best and Kessler 1995) and it was recently discovered in the Laquipampa Reserved Zone, in east Lambayeque (J. Flanagan <em>in litt.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in the large (&gt;45,000 ha) Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve, and the smaller Loma Alta Communal Reserve, Tumbesia-La Ceiba Natural Reserve and Jatumpamba-Jorupe Protected Forest (J. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The 776 km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chongón-Colonche Protection Forest forms the nucleus of a reforestation project (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000), and may support the species.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate additional populations, especially in Piura and Lambayeque. Research its ecology, particularly seasonal movements and the extent to which viable populations can persist in secondary and degraded habitats. Strengthen effective habitat protection in Tumbes Reserved Zone and Machalilla National Park. Map forest in the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche to identify sites for future protection (E. Horstmann <em>in litt</em>. 2000). <p></p>
106004995		distribution	eng	<em>Hylocryptus erythrocephalus</em> occurs in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manabí, Guayas, El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque). Probably the largest population occurs in Peru, on forested ridges between the río Tumbes and the Ecuadorian border (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is rare to uncommon and very local, being moderately common in only a few areas of suitable habitat (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106004995		habitat	eng	It inhabits understorey in deciduous, semi-deciduous and moist evergreen forest, at 150-1,350 m, occasionally to 1,800 m (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<sup></sup>. It persists in secondary woodland and forest edge, occasionally even narrow woodland strips along watercourses and disturbed scrub near forest (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but viable populations cannot persist in severely degraded habitats (J. Freile <em>in litt. </em>2008). It may undertake seasonal elevational movements. It is insectivorous, and characteristically forages on the forest floor or in dense vine-tangles, tossing dead leaves and twigs and probing leaf clusters. It is usually seen alone or in pairs. It nests at the end of a c.1 m-long burrow in an earth bank, principally during the wet season, in January-May. <p></p>
106004995		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106004995		threats	eng	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong></strong>. Significant habitat loss is ongoing, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest. Disturbance and degradation through heavy grazing by goats and cattle also pose a significant threat to the understorey of deciduous forests. Even protected areas are affected by illegal settlement and deforestation, livestock-grazing and habitat clearance by people seeking land rights. The propensity of this species to nest in banks causes many nests to be built along road-cuts.&#160; Even in protected areas (such as Jorupe Reserve), traffic along such roads may cause disturbance to active nests. If road-cuts act as an artificial sink-habitat for nesting, they may pose a threat to populations which otherwise have suitable habitat nearby (H. F. Greeney <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
106004996		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106004997		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004998		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>   <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><br/></p><p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106004998		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sclerurus albigularis </span>is a polytypic Neotropical species, with a patchy distribution (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">canigularis </span>occurs in the foothills of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> and west Chiriquí, western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">propinquus </span>is a scarce endemic of the Santa Marta Mts, north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">albigular</span><span style="font-style: italic;">is</span> occurs in Colombia's Perijá Mts, as well as further south in the east Andes of the country, as far as east Cauca, and in the Macarena Mts; however it is scarce throughout. The same subspecies is fairly common in the Andean foothills of west and north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, ranging east as far as Sucre on the Paria Peninsula; it is known to occur in the Henri Pittier National Park (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Hilty 2003). This taxon is also found in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Trinidad and Tobago</span>, where it is present at Trinidad's Asa Wright Nature Centre; it is considered uncommon in the country. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">zamorae</span> is very rare in the Andean foothills of west Napo, in eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, ranging from there south through Cajamarca, central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, to Pasco (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">albicollis</span> is known from Ucayali in south-east Peru, Acre and north Rondônia in south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, and the Andes of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, from La Paz and Beni south to north-west Santa Cruz and Tarija. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">kempffi</span> is endemic to the Serranía de Huanchaca in north-east Santa Cruz, Bolivia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004998		habitat	eng	This is a species of montane and lowland tropical forest, mostly occurring from 600-2,000 m (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106004998		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106004998		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation, particularly in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network; it is thought likely to be particularly susceptible to fragmentation and disturbance (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). </p>
106004999		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005001		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005003		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005004		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005005		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005006		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005007		distribution	eng	This species is a caatinga endemic, which occurs in the interior of north-east Brazil in Ceará, Piauí, Pernambuco, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Distrito Federal and Goiás (Collar et al. 1992, Olmos 1993, J. M. C. da Silva in litt. 1993, 1995, Whitney and Pacheco 1994, G. M. Kirwan in litt. 1995, J. Wall in litt. 1995, M. Marini per T. A. de Melo Júnior in litt. 1999, A. Whittaker in litt. 1999).
106005007		habitat	eng	The species may primarily inhabit fairly dense caatinga woodland, often on poor, very sandy soils (Whitney and Pacheco 1994), but is known to tolerate degraded and burnt caatingas, where it can be locally common. It has been found within mixed species flocks (L. Silveira in litt. 2003, F. Olmos in litt. 2003), and has been observed foraging in burnt areas with low bushes in Serra da Capivara (Olmos 1993), and grazed and disturbed caatinga near Lago Grande in Pernambuco (A. Whittaker in litt. 1999).
106005007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably fairly common in parts of its range. The species is fairly common in Serra da Capivara National Park, Piauí (Olmos 1993), and Chapada do Araripe National Forest, Ceará, and common at Palmas de Monte Alto, Bahia (J. M. C. da Silva in litt. 1993, 1995). It was common at Coribe, Bahia, in 1987, but habitat loss probably extirpated it from this site by 1993 (da Silva and Oren 1997).
106005007		threats	eng	Although the species has a large range, populations are localised, and there has been rapid habitat loss in parts of its range, especially in the Jaíba region of Minas Gerais (M. Marini per T. A. de Melo Júnior in litt. 1999), owing to conversion to irrigated and dry field agriculture, logging for charcoal production and intensive grazing (da Silva and Oren 1997). International financing agencies have accelerated the rate of forest destruction in the south of its range by underwriting irrigation projects (da Silva and Oren 1997).
106005008		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005009		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005012		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005013		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005014		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005015		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106005015		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Deconychura longicauda</span> is a polytypic Neotropical species, disjunctly distributed in Central America, where it is quite rare, and South America, where it is also uncommon. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">typica</span> is known from an isolated site in south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, where the only record dates from 1953. The rest of its population ranges from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span> east as far as Veraguas in central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span>, where it is most often seen in the Canal Zone; it has possibly been extirpated from Chiriquí. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">dariensis </span>is found in east Panama and adjacent north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">minor</span> is endemic to Santander, north-central Colombia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">longicauda</span> is uncommon in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, and has only been recorded a few times in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Its range extends into north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, between Rio Negro and Amapá (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">connectens</span> occurs in western Amazonia, from east Colombia and south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>; it is rare and local in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>and spreads south to east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>and the upper Rio Negro in north-west Brazil<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">pallida </span>of south Amazonia ranges from eastern Peru, east to Rio Tapajós, Brazil, and south to north <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>and the north of Brazil's Mato Grosso state. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">zimmeri</span> is endemic to south-east Amazonian Brazil, occurring from Rio Tocantins east as far as Maranhão (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106005015		habitat	eng	This is a species of humid forest, most often found in "terra firme" forest (with no flooding), but also in "igapó" (permanently flooded forest). It occurs in both lowlands and foothills, generally below 500 m in Amazonia, but up to 1,700 m in the Andean foothills (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106005015		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005015		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is particularly susceptible to habitat modification and fragmentation, and is naturally rare in spite of its extensive distribution (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). </p>
106005016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005017		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005018		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common, although rare in eastern Bolivia (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106005020		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005021		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005022		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005024		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005025		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005026		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law and has been found in the Serra do Baturité State Environment Protection Area, Ceará<strong></strong>, and the Peruaçú Special Protection Area, Minas Gerais. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey, and seek the creation of new reserves, on the left bank of the rio São Francisco, from Barra in Bahia to Itacarambi in Minas Gerais, including patches along the rios Grande and Preto in north-west Bahia, and in south Piauí and central Maranhão (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Map and ecologically evaluate extant patches of dry forest (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct long-term studies on the ecology of dry forests (e.g. succession and the effects of selective logging) to develop viable strategies for future economic utilisation (da Silva and Oren 1997). Create a system of conservation units (following mapping) that maximises the representation of the original dry forest fauna and flora (da Silva and Oren 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005026		distribution	eng	<em>Xiphocolaptes falcirostris</em> has a wide but highly fragmented distribution in the interior of north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>: east Maranhão (recent records from Tuntun and Sambaíba), Piauí (the only recent record is from Fazenda Bom Recreio, in 1987), Ceará (only recently from Guaramirangá, in 1987), west Paraíba (Coremas, in 1957), Pernambuco (Fazenda Campos Bons, in 1971), Bahia (abundant at Coribe in 1988, but perhaps now extirpated, though found near<span class="l"><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>São Desidério [Olmos 2008]) and north Minas Gerais (Fazenda Olhos d'Água, Brejo do Amparo and Peruaçú)<strong></strong> (da Silva and Oren 1997)<span class="l"><strong></strong>. A specimen labelled Posse, Goiás, is probably from the rio São Fransisco valley in Bahia<strong></strong> (da Silva and Oren 1997)<span class="l"><strong></strong>. It has certainly declined and is now extremely local and uncommon. <p></p></span>
106005026		habitat	eng	It inhabits the interior of intact and slightly disturbed dry forests, which grow on relatively rich soils. These forests are wetter and taller than is typical of the Caatinga. It feeds on insect larvae, ants, snails and beetles. Breeding is probably in the austral summer. <p></p>
106005026		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005026		threats	eng	Clearance for irrigated and dry field agriculture has removed extensive tracts of forest that are also an important source of charcoal for steel and pig-iron industries (da Silva and Oren 1997). <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp. plantations were farmed as a substitute source of charcoal, but the recent rise in the value of these plantations for the paper pulp industry has increased pressure on native forests for charcoal. Forest at Coribe was extensive and undisturbed in 1987, but had been entirely destroyed by 1993 (da Silva and Oren 1997). International financing agencies have accelerated the rate of deforestation in the south of its range by underwriting irrigation projects (da Silva and Oren 1997). <p></p>
106005027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005028		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005029		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106005029		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrocolaptes hoffmannsi</span> is a little-known species endemic to south Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. It ranges from Rio Madeira east to Rio Tapajós and its headwaters at Rio Juruena, and south at least as far as Rondônia and south-west Mato Grosso. Most recent records have come from Borba on Rio Madeira, and the Amazonia National Park on Rio Tapajós (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106005029		habitat	eng	This is a species of humid lowland forest up to c.300 m, occurring both in "terra firme" forest (with no flooding) and on floodplains. Although it prefers the interior of primary forest, it is known to visit edges and occur on old secondary growth. It presumably feeds mostly on arthropods. The only information available on the species's breeding comes from an individual in breeding condition seen in Mato Grosso in late September (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
106005029		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005029		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation within its restricted range in the Amazon basin (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). It is thought to be highly sensitive to human disturbance, and its natural rarity and preference for primary forest are likely to make it particularly susceptible to threats (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
106005030		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005031		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005032		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005033		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106005033		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dendroplex kienerii</span> occurs along the Amazon River in inland South America, and is generally fairly common. It is distributed from extreme south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>and north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil </span>to the mouth of Rio Tapajós. Its range extends up the major Amazonian tributaries Solimões, Negro, Juruá, Purús and Madeira, but the species is generally rarer the further along these tributaries it is found, and reaches a southern limit in north-west Mato Grosso (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). It is also thought likely to occur along the río Napo to Ecuador (Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106005033		habitat	eng	<p></p>This species occurs below 200 m in the "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest) and "igapó" (permanently flooded forest) habitats of major Amazonian rivers. It is often associated with the successional environments of river islands (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
106005033		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently fairly common to common, at least in the centre of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106005033		threats	eng	<p>  </p><p>  </p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Although probably tolerant of disturbance to an extent because of its association with successional habitats, the extent of fragmentation projected is likely to cause significant declines (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, A. Lees<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2011).  Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106005034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005036		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005041		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005043		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005044		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005045		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005046		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005051		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005052		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys within the range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Campaign for the protection of remaining forest habitats within the altitudinal range. <p></p>
106005052		distribution	eng	<em>Campylorhamphus pucherani</em> is rare, local and patchily distributed in the Andes of south <strong>Colombia</strong> (West Andes in Cauca and Valle del Cauca, principally on the west slope, and above the upper Río Magdalena valley in Huila), north-west (west Pichincha) and north-east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (few records, including one on the summit of Cerro Sur Pax in Sucumbios province, Schulenberg <em>in litt. </em>2001<strong></strong>), and east <strong>Peru</strong> (rare and local in Amazonas, San Martín, Huánuco, Ayacucho and Cuzco)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Clements and Shany 2001)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005052		habitat	eng	Although very poorly known, this species is considered rare in open cloud, elfin and humid montane forest at 900-3,250 m, primarily above 2,000 m <strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005052		threats	eng	Within its Colombian range, unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have reduced forest cover by 40% and deforestation is accelerating<strong></strong> (Salaman 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all threaten the remaining forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Its habitat throughout the east Andes of Ecuador and Peru are under intense pressure from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>Salaman 1994, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005053		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005055		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005058		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005059		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant populations are protected within Manu National Park and Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone in Peru (H.&#160;Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's precise habitat requirements. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.   <p></p>
106005059		distribution	eng	<em>Formicarius rufifrons</em>  was formerly known only from the río Madre de Dios and its tributaries, <strong>Peru</strong>, but during the 1990s it was found on the upper rio Juruá in Acre, <strong>Brazil </strong>(Whittaker and Oren 1999)<sup></sup>, río Tahuamanu in Pando, <strong>Bolivia </strong>(L.&#160;Jammes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, T.&#160;S.&#160;Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and río Urubamba in Cuzco, Peru (H.&#160;Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 1999, N.&#160;Gerhart <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, greatly extending its known range.  It is generally rare and localised within this range. <p></p>
106005059		habitat	eng	This species is a rare and rather unpredictably distributed inhabitant of riverine floodplain thickets, where tall forest with shaded understorey lies adjacent to second-growth vegetation with a dense understorey (Kratter 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> of, for example, <span style="font-style: italic;">Guadua </span>bamboo or <span style="font-style: italic;">Heliconia </span>(Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).   <p></p>
106005059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005059		threats	eng	In some areas, it is threatened by actual and impending human settlement and agricultural development, but most parts of the range are remote and as yet undisturbed.   <p></p>
106005060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005062		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005063		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005065		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005068		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005069		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known historical sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Ensure measures are taken to protect remaining lowland Choco forests.  <p></p>
106005069		distribution	eng	<em>Pittasoma rufopileatum</em> occurs in the Pacific lowlands of north Chocó, <strong>Colombia</strong>, south to Esmeraldas and Pichincha, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106005069		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid forest up to 1,100 m, where it is usually seen following army-ant swarms (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is generally considered rare to locally uncommon.  <p></p>
106005069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005069		threats	eng	Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating (Salaman 1994, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all pose threats, and forest destruction is most severe within its elevational range (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106005070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005071		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>If the Colombian race <em>lehmanni</em> is extant, it probably occurs in Puracé National Park, where it was collected in 1941 (Wege and Long 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Searches for the species at La Planada Nature Reserve in the 1990s were unsuccessful (de Soye <em>et al</em>. 1997, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>hylodroma</em> is protected in the Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest and Maquipucuna, Otonga and Río Guajalito Reserves in Ecuador, and may occur in other protected areas (Robbins and Stiles 1999,&#160;Wege and Long 1995, J. F. Freile <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2002, 2007). There are no records from the large Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological  Reserve, north of Pichincha, and only two recent records from the surrounding areas of Illinizas Ecological Reserve, but distribution models predict the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">hylodroma </span>in both protected areas (Freile <em>et al.</em> 2010). The nominate race is protected at San Isidro Lodge and at least partially at Antisana Ecological Reserve (J. F. Freile <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2002, 2007).&#160;<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to reconfirm historical, and locate additional, sites for the species (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Estimate population densities at known sites. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106005071		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria gigantea</em> has three subspecies in the Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> and south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. In Colombia, subspecies <em>lehmanni</em> is known from historical specimens taken on both slopes of the Central Andes in Cauca and Huila, while both recent records (1988 and 1989) are from La Planada Nature Reserve, Nariño (subspecies unknown) (de Soye <em>et al</em>. 1997). In Ecuador, the only recent records of the nominate subspecies are from west Napo, but older records exist from eastern Carchi and Tungurahua; and the subspecies <em>hylodroma</em> is known from a few localities on the west slope of the Andes in Pichincha and Cotopaxi (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1994b<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). Some uncertainty surrounds the origin of two old specimens described as <em>hylodroma</em> from El Tambo (probably in western Cañar province) and Cerro Castillo, western Pichincha (J. F. Freile <em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2002, 2007).<br/><p></p>
106005071		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest in the upper subtropical to temperate zones, with <em>lehmanni</em> known from 3,000 m, <em>gigantea</em> from 2,200-2,600 m or above, and <em>hylodroma</em> from 1,200-2,000 m. It frequents swampy areas in humid cloud-forest understorey, but has also been recorded in adjacent pastures (presumably only for brief foraging periods) and secondary forest (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1994b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Observations of <em>hylodroma</em> and <em>gigantea</em> indicate that giant earthworms <em>Rhynodrilus</em> are important dietary components, with beetle larvae and slugs also eaten (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1994b, de Soye <em>et al</em>. 1997). Information on nesting is provided by Solano-Ugalde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009).<br/><p></p>
106005071		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106005071		threats	eng	At the latitude where subspecies <em>lehmanni</em> occurred, land use on both slopes of the Central Andes has been almost wholly agricultural at lower to mid-elevations since the early 20th century or before, and forest loss continues at higher altitudes where the species may persist. Cloud-forests in the West Andes of Nariño, Colombia have suffered extensive deforestation through logging and conversion to agriculture and narcotics plantations, while logging and agricultural conversion have also lead to extensive deforestation in Pichincha, Ecuador. Habitat destruction continues throughout the Pacific slope (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1998, Robbins and Stiles 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000).. The east slope forests in Ecuador are more intact and secure but deforestation is occurring in at lower altitudes (around 1,000 m). <p></p>
106005072		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its range falls within Sierra de Perijá, Sierra Nevada and Yacambú  National Parks and Pico Codazzi Nature Monument. Sierra de Perijá National Park formally protects one subpopulation, but there is no active management<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, A.&#160;Viloria <em>per</em> J.&#160;Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Using tape-playback, survey to assess its current distribution and ecological requirements, and identify appropriate conservation measures<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Sharpe and Ascanio 2008). Determine whether this taxon is a valid species. Survey the upper elevations of the Coastal Cordillera for <span style="font-style: italic;">G. e. phelpsi</span>, which has gone unrecorded for decades (P. Boesman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Employ nets in the lower elevations of Guaramacal NP where the voice of G. undulata / exelsa can often be heard, to establish which of the two species is present (P. Boesman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Initiate active management of Sierra de Perijá National Park. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Evaluate the taxonomic status of <span style="font-style: italic;">phelpsi </span>(Sharpe and Ascanio 2008).<br/><br/>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Interesting also would be to establish whether there are objective criteria to distinguish voice of G. exelsa from G. undulata, which would facilitate greatly survey&#160;fieldwork</p>  <br/><p></p>
106005072		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria excelsa</em> occurs in the mountains of north <strong>Venezuela</strong>: in the Andes of Sierra de Perijá (north-west Zulia and possibly adjacent Colombia) and the Cordillera de Mérida (from east Táchira, through Mérida, to south-east Trujillo and south-east Lara), as well as the Cordillera de la Costa (Aragua)<strong></strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978<strong>, </strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. Though until recently virtually unknown in life (with some older records referring to misidentified Undulated Antpitta <em>G. squamigera</em> and Plain-backed Antpitta <em>G. haplonota</em><strong> </strong>[C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 1997, Sharpe and Ascanio 2008]), it is now recorded with some regularity in at least one site in Yacambú National Park. However, it is likely to be rare and localised throughout its range. There are apparently no recent records of the distinctive Coastal Cordillera subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">phelpsi</span>.<br/><p></p>
106005072		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest with a dense understorey at 1,700-2,300&#160;m, but particularly above 2,000&#160;m <strong> </strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994<strong></strong>, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J. P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Sharpe and Ascanio 2008). Nesting takes place in May-June, and one or two eggs are laid (Kofoed and Auer 2004). Nests are built 3.8 - 12 m above the ground in trees where dense clusters of aroid plants, epiphytes, and lianas secure them to either a vertical fork or against the trunk itself (Kofoed and Auer 2004). They are large, bulky, open-cups made from mosses, rootlets, wet leaves, small stems, detritus, and fern fronds, and lined with a thick mesh of black rootlets and rhizomorphs (Kofoed and Auer 2004). <br/><p></p>
106005072		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005072		threats	eng	Some large tracts of forest remain in the Cordillera de Mérida and Cordillera de la Costa, but deforestation has been locally severe<strong></strong><strong> </strong>(Huber and Alarcón 1988, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 1997). Agricultural colonisation represents a significant threat in the Sierra de Perijá, Cordillera de Mérida and Cordillera de la Costa, and many areas have already been cleared for cultivation, both commercial and subsistence<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, Sharpe and Ascanio 2008). The Sierra de Perijá has been extensively deforested for narcotics cultivation, uncontrolled colonisation, cattle-ranching and mineral exploitation<strong> </strong>(C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 1997, A.&#160;Viloria <em>per</em> J.&#160;Fjeldså <em>in litt.</em> 1998). It is considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106005073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005074		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005075		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Subspecies <em>andaquiensis</em> is known from Maquipucuna Reserve (Pichincha), Mindo Protected Forest, Rio Guajalito, Cofán-Bermejo and La Otonga Reserves,  and Cueva de los Guácharos and possibly Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (Krabbe and Coopmans 2000, J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008), The recently created Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park should prevent habitat loss from reaching the altitudes inhabited by the species in Napo. Ucumarí Regional Park holds a population of the nominate subspecies and it may occur in the adjacent Otún-Quimbaya Fauna and Flora Sanctuary and Alto Quindío Acaime Natural Reserve, both in Quindío (Krabbe and Coopmans 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On the east slope of the Andes in Ecuador its range is fairly well covered (ca. 60%) by five protected areas (Cofan-Bermejo, Cayambe-Coca and Antisana Ecological Reserves, and Sumaco-Napo Galeras and Llanganates National Parks) (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008, Freile <em>et al. </em>2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey (with knowledge of its vocalisations) areas of suitable habitat, perhaps especially on the east slope of the Andes from Tungurahua, Ecuador north to Caquetá, Colombia, and also in central Ecuador in the large and extensively forested Sangay National Park (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008). Focus efforts to protect montane forests and help local communities to manage the land sustainably on the Pacific slope in Pichincha and northern Cotopaxi (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106005075		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria alleni</em> is known from the west slope of the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong>, and both Andean slopes in north <strong>Ecuador</strong>. The nominate subspecies was collected near Salento, Quindío, in 1911, and has been recorded in nearby Ucumarí Regional Park, Risaralda, Colombia, several times during 1994-2000 (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, C. Downing verbally 2000, Krabbe and Coopmans 2000). The subspecies <em>andaquiensis</em> was described from a specimen taken on the west slope of the southern East Andes in Cueva de los Guácharos National Park, Huila, Colombia, in 1971 and, during the 1990s, has been found at single sites in Napo and Cotopaxi (<strong></strong>Freile and Chaves 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and at four sites in Pichincha, Ecuador<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (J. Lyons <em>in litt</em>. 1998, N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 1998, <strong></strong>Krabbe and Coopmans 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Suitable habitat covers an estimated 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> in Ecuador (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1998), but it is unclear how much of this is occupied. Recent surveys in Ecuador found at least 4-6 territories along three 1 km transects (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are several new localities where the species has been recorded in Ecuador, mostly concentrated on the western slopes of Pichincha province (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008), and the species has recently been discovered to be much commoner and more extensively distributed in Colombia than previously thought (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The paucity of earlier records is related to the fact that its vocalisations were unknown until recently.  <p></p>
106005075		habitat	eng	It occurs in wet, mossy cloud-forest, usually at 1,800-2,500 m in ravines or on steep slopes (Krabbe and Coopmans 2000). It has been seen on the ground and perched up to 3 m in the understorey (Krabbe and Coopmans 2000). Nests with nestlings have been found in March and December (i.e. during the wet season) (Freile and Renjifo 2003, Greeney and Gelis 2006)<strong></strong>. Food items recorded being taken to the nest include earthworms and katydids (Greeney and Gelis 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005075		population	eng	This species is described as rare and essentially unknown; its population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005075		threats	eng	Since the 17th century, most if not all cloud-forest in the upper Magdalena valley (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong> and the Central Andes, Colombia, has been logged, settled and converted to agriculture. The west Andean slopes in Ecuador have also been altered and fragmented, particularly in Pichincha (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1998, J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008). A large area of intact habitat exists on Volcán Sumaco in Napo but, in 1990, the human population was growing and forest clearance for agriculture was having an impact at c.1,000 m and above. Cueva de los Guácharos is increasingly threatened by encroaching human settlement and opium production (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. However, the species has been shown to use secondary forest freely within parts of its Colombian range and occurs in mature secondary forest at Cotopaxi (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em>. 2004, 2008, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. More extensive and well-protected forest remains in the eastern Andes but records here are still sparse (Freile <em>et al.&#160;</em><em></em>2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005076		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The type-locality is within El Tamá National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys (especially in May-June when it should be most vocal) in the vicinity of the type-locality to attempt to relocate the species and assess its current status and ecological requirements (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, P.&#160;Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). Reassess the potential impact of deforestation. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of El Tamá National Park (Sharpe and Lentino 2008). Determine its taxonomic status (Sharpe and Lentino 2008, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <p></p>
106005076		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria chthonia </em>is known only from the type-locality, at Hacienda la Providencia on the río Chiquito in south-west Táchira, west <strong>Venezuela</strong>, where four specimens were collected in 1955-1956. The type locality has since been deforested, although there is still forest in the vicinity; specific searches in September 1990 and December 1996 failed to find the species (M.&#160;Pearman <em>in litt</em>. 1995, Boesman 1998, P.&#160;Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005076		habitat	eng	All specimens were collected in dense cloud-forest at elevations of 1,800-2,100 m. <p></p>
106005076		population	eng	The population is precautionarily estimated to number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals, for consistency with other species of similar status.
106005076		threats	eng	In 1990, habitat at the type-locality was reportedly undisturbed above 1,150&#160;m, but deforestation was proceeding rapidly in the area (M.&#160;Pearman <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1996, the río Chiquito valley was entirely coffee plantations below 1,600&#160;m, with much habitat at 1,900-2,200&#160;m converted to grow potatoes and other vegetables (P.&#160;Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). The next valley to the west had some habitat at c.1,850&#160;m, and there is presumably habitat in between these two valleys (P.&#160;Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Some 17% of the El Tamá National Park has been affected by agriculture, especially coffee plantations, and small-scale cattle raising (Sharpe and Lentino 2008). This species is considered Critically Endangered at the national level in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106005077		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005078		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005079		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>It occurs in Manu National Park, Peru.  </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's precise habitat requirements. Ensure that remaining tracts of suitable habitat receive adequate protection.     </P>
106005079		distribution	eng	<I>Grallaria eludens</I> occurs in south-east <B>Peru</B> in Ucayali (Balta and on the Cordillera Divisor), and probably Madre de Dios (Manu National Park and Cerro Pantiacolla (P. Champlin <I>in litt.</I> 1998)), and has recently been discovered on the upper rio Juru&aacute;, <B>Brazil</b> (Whittaker and Oren 1999). <I>
106005079		habitat	eng	It occurs in humid <I>terra firme</I> forest with dense undergrowth, from 150 to 500 m  (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is otherwise essentially unknown (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <I>et al.</I> 1996).
106005079		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare'.
106005079		threats	eng	Although its forests within its range are still relatively intact (&#160;Stattersfield <I>et al.</I> 1998), the region is subject to some selective logging and is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining, and associated road-building and human colonisation resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein <I>et al.</I> 1995).
106005080		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species was recently the focus of a project supported by the Conservation Leadership Programme, which looked at its abundance, distribution and habitat use (Cortes <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> undated)<strong></strong>. Some awareness work was also carried out (Anon. 2012). No other targeted actions are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in suitable habitat throughout its range (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. Protect habitat in the known range (Stiles 1992)<strong></strong>, including the relatively intact Farallones de Medina area.  Monitor population and study habitat selection in Monterredondo (O. Cortes-Herrera <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005080		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria kaestneri</em> is restricted to the eastern slope of the east Andes in Cundinamarca, <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is currently known from south-east of Bogotá, from near Monterredondo, above Guayabetal (M. Alvarez<em> per </em>F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999,&#160;T. Mark<em> per </em>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003, O. Cortes-Herrera <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and at Farallones de Medina (O. Cortes-Herrera <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>, and it presumably ranges into Meta department between these sites. It occurs at reasonably high densities near Monterredondo, and may occur along the eastern slope of the east Andes wherever there are still suitable tracts of forest remaining at appropriate elevations (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Recent surveys found the species to occur at an estimated density of 2-3 birds/ha (Cortes <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> undated). <p></p>
106005080		habitat	eng	It inhabits very wet primary and secondary cloud-forest, at upper subtropical elevations from 1,800-2,300 m  (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. It is a relatively terrestrial antpitta, preferring dense understorey vegetation below tree gaps (natural or otherwise), where it forages in leaf-litter and on soft ground, mainly for insects, particularly Coleoptera and Orthoptera (O. Cortes-Herrera <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and also spiders and earthworms<strong></strong>. It breeds between September and November, during the mid to late rainy season (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003, O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005080		population	eng	Recent surveys recorded the species at a density of 2-3 birds/km<sup>2</sup>; estimates based on this data place the population at 500-1,200 individuals (O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), roughly equivalent to 330-800 mature individuals.
106005080		threats	eng	There is fairly extensive disturbance of forest at suitable altitudes on the east slope in Cundinamarca, mostly in the form of timber extraction. However, selective logging may even favour the species, in contrast to clear-cutting, which is clearly a threat and has generally occurred up to altitudes of 1,500-2,000 m on the east slope (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. It has been noted that the species occurs in areas regenerating after landslides (Fundación ProAves in press). Clearance for agriculture and grazing by goats are threats in some areas (O. Cortes-Herrera <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Near the type-locality, large areas of primary forest remain away from the Monterredondo-El Calvario road, around which logging and scattered pastures reach their most extensive levels. The Farallones de Medina area, previously a stronghold for the species&#160; (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, has now been deforested, and recent searches there have not recorded the bird (O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106005081		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is found within Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine more accurately its geographic and altitudinal range in the Sierra Nevada<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct censuses to estimate the density and state of the population, thus enabling an assessment of suitable habitat and the design of conservation measures<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005081		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria bangsi</em> is endemic to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, on the borders of Cesar, Magdalena and Guajira, north <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is described as common along the San Lorenzo ridge, but local and uncommon within the San Salvador valley on the northern slope, and the Río Frio valley on the western slope<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Strewe <em>in litt.</em> 2003), although accurate population densities are unknown (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002).  <p></p>
106005081		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest and intervening forest edge at 1,200-2,400&#160;m <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002), but is most common above 1,600&#160;m (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is principally terrestrial, sometimes perching on low horizontal branches, and is generally less retiring and easier to see than congeners (Hilty and Brown 1986). <p></p>
106005081		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005081		threats	eng	The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is increasingly being destroyed and fragmented by illegal agricultural expansion, logging and burning<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). Only 15% of the sierra's vegetation is unaltered, and this species has probably lost 51% of its habitat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). The south-east slope of the sierra is extensively deforested, whilst the west slope has been largely cleared for illegal marijuana plantations, and subsequently sprayed with herbicide by the government (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005083		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation measures underway</strong>&#160;     <br/>It is found within Funcación Jocotoco’s Jorupe Reserve in Ecuador and the El Angolo Reserve in Peru (D. Lebbin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation measures proposed</strong>
106005083		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Grallaria watkinsi </span>is a Tumbesian endemic with a restricted range in south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador </span>(mainly El Oro and Loja provinces) and extreme north-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>(Tumbes department), with an isolated population on the coastal cordillera of south-west Manabi and western Guayas, Ecuador (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106005083		habitat	eng	The species generally keeps to dense vegetation where it usually stays on or near the ground (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It inhabits semi-deciduous forest (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996), forest edge (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998) and regenerating secondary scrub (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and although it also occurs in areas of dry deciduous forest, it tends to keep to the greener, denser vegetation in narrow ravines (Parker et al. 1995). It can inhabit dense regenerating scrub and secondary forest (Freile <em>et al</em>. 2010). It may sometimes associate with mixed species flocks of brush-finches and seedeaters (Parker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). It has been recorded from 600 to 1,400 m (Stotz et al. 1996), and sometimes as high as 1,700 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). Some seasonal altitudinal movement seems likely to take place, but the exact nature of this is unclear (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998).
106005083		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106005083		threats	eng	Clearance of forest and scrub for agricultural land, plus the loss of dense understorey through intense grazing by cattle and goats may adversely affect this species (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998). However, it is known from several protected areas including Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone which is part of the North-west Peru Biosphere Reserve (Parker and Carr 1992, Parker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).
106005084		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is well protected in Puracé National Park (Cauca), Ucumarí Regional Park and Los Nevados National Park (Risaralda), Navarco and Alto Quindío Acaime Reserves (Quindío) (Wege and Long 1995, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine better its population and conservation status. Assess habitat cover throughout its range and search for additional populations. Protect the significant areas of pristine forest on the east Andean slopes (Renjifo 1991b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure continued effective protection at existing reserves. <p></p>
106005085		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria rufocinerea</em> occurs on both slopes of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (south Antioquia to west Putumayo) and north <strong>Ecuador </strong>(Sucumbíos). The subspecies <em>romeroana</em> is found in Putumayo and Cauca, Colombia, and was discovered in adjacent Sucumbíos, Ecuador in 1999 (Nilsson <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nominate subspecies has been found most frequently on the Volcán Ruíz-Tolima massif, but there are also historical records at two localities in Antioquia. In two protected areas on the south-west slope of Volcán Tolima, densities were estimated at 1.6-5 birds per 10 km of transect (Renjifo 1991b)<strong></strong> and 3.7-5.7 birds per km of transect (Kattan and Beltran 1999)<strong></strong>. The population is presumed to have declined significantly during the 20th century. <p></p>
106005085		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, humid montane forest and secondary growth near the treeline, at 2,200-3,150&#160;m, locally as low as 1,950&#160;m (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Two studies have found it most abundant in lower parts of its altitudinal range (Renjifo 1991b, Kattan and Beltran 1999)<strong></strong>. Most records are from forest with many small palms, ferns, vines and epiphytes, but it seems to tolerate considerable disturbance as long as forest cover is maintained. It apparently prefers primary to secondary forest (Renjifo 1991b)<strong></strong>, and closed-canopy secondary forest (or plantations with an open understorey) to dense vegetation in the early stages of regeneration (Kattan and Beltran 1999)<strong></strong>. In Navarco Reserve, it was found in remnant natural forest patches within conifer plantations (F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Inspection of mist-netted birds suggests that breeding occurs in March-May<strong> </strong>(Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). <p></p>
106005085		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005085		threats	eng	Widespread deforestation for agriculture and human settlement has taken place within its range, including the immediate vicinity of known locations. Forest east of Medellín, Antioquia, has long since been cleared. In the Toche valley, most forest clearance has taken place since the 1950s, primarily for coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing, leaving scattered patches of mature secondary forest and natural vegetation covering only c.15% of land between 1,900 and 3,200&#160;m (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In west Putumayo, continuing improvements to the road network have attracted many immigrants who have settled, logged and farmed previously uninhabited areas<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Donegan and Salaman 1999).<strong></strong><p></p>
106005086		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005087		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005088		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005089		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005090		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005091		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106005091		distribution	eng	Limited to the C Andes of <strong>Peru</strong>&#160;in the states of Amazonas, San Martin and La Libertad.
106005091		habitat	eng	On the ground and low understorey of humid montane forest between 1,700-2,750m. Most common above 2,150m. Known to feed on insects (n=1). No specific breeding information.
106005091		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005091		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Road improvements and an increasing population within the range of the species has seen continuing or increasing forest clearance for small-scale agriculture, firewood and to establish rights to land ownership. It is likely to be sensitive to fragmentation and edge effects in addition to direct habitat loss within its small range.
106005092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005094		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005095		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005096		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance.  Ensure that remaining tracts of suitable habitat receive adequate protection.   <p></p>
106005096		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria blakei</em> is very patchily distributed in the Andes of north and central <strong>Peru</strong> where it is generally uncommon (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. Disjunct populations occur in San Martín, Amazonas, Huánuco and Pasco (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hornbuckle 1999b)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106005096		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest and secondary woodland, generally on or near the ground, preferring areas with a dense bamboo understorey (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although largely recorded in a very narrow altitudinal band, 2,150-2,475 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>, it occurs at 1,850 m in the Cordillera de Colán (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and was recently recorded at 2,400-2,900 m at Abra Patricia, San Martín (D. Lane <em>in litt.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005096		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005096		threats	eng	It is primarily threatened by habitat destruction. In the Cordillera de Colán, deforestation is proceeding at an alarming rate, with most forest in this area already cleared, and what remains rapidly being converted to cash crops, particularly marijuana and coffee<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005098		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005099		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Significant numbers are well protected in Ucumarí Regional Park, Risaralda (Kattan and Beltrán 1997). There are several protected areas adjacent to Ucumarí, but it has not been recorded within them (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Toche valley, it occurs in La Carbonera, a small private nature reserve (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct additional surveys of the Volcán Ruíz-Tolima massif and adjacent areas of the Central Andes. Protect suitable habitat in the Toche valley (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005099		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria milleri</em> occurs in the Volcán Ruíz-Tolima massif of the Central Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>, (Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío and Tolima). Ten specimens were collected in Caldas and Quindío between 1911 and 1942. It was next recorded in May 1994, in Ucumarí Regional Park, Risaralda (Kattan and Beltrán 1997). Surveys carried out in 1994-1997 caught and banded 11 birds, and estimated that 106 individuals were present in a 0.63 km<sup>2</sup> area (Kattan and Beltrán 1997, Kattan and Beltrán 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Further observations have been made on the south-east slope of Volcán Tolima in the río Toche valley during 1998-2000, where it is considered uncommon and local (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000,&#160;B.&#160;López-Lanús <em>in litt</em>. 2000, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). In 1999 and 2000, it was also found in the río Blanco catchment (Caldas) and near Roncesvalles (Tolima) (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). A misidentified <em>Grallaria </em>specimen taken at Santa Elena, 8km east of Medellín, Antioquia in 1878 has provisionally been described as a new subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. m. gilesi</span> (Salaman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Its type locality is 140 km north of the nearest occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. m. milleri </span>and no longer appears to have habitat to support a population (Salaman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Recent surveys suggest the subspecies is likely to be extinct (P. G. W. Salaman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).<br/><p></p>
106005099		habitat	eng	In Ucumarí, it has been recorded from three types of habitat: early secondary growth vegetation with a high density of herbs and shrubs; the understorey of 30-year-old alder (<em>Alnus</em>) plantations; and the understorey of 30-year-old secondary forest (Kattan and Beltrán 1997), with no significant difference in population density between the three. Primary forest in Ucumarí is inaccessible (Kattan and Beltrán 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ten historical specimens were taken at 2,745-3,140&#160;m and, in the Toche valley, it occurs at 1,800-2,600&#160;m (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). In Ucumarí, all records in 1994-1997 were in a narrow elevational band of 2,400-2,600&#160;m (Kattan and Beltrán 1997, Kattan and Beltrán 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. A radio-tracked individual in Ucumarí used a territory of 4.1 ha (Kattan and Beltrán 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Vocal activity apparently peaks in May-June in the Toche valley (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005099		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005099		threats	eng	Most forest below 3,300 m in the Central Andes has long been converted to agricultural land-use. In the Toche valley, this has primarily taken place since the 1950s, mostly for coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing (López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Some forest clearance continues and mature secondary forest patches are now scattered. Natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c.15% between 1,900 and 3,200 m, with most remnants occurring above 2,200 m&#160;(López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Searches for <span style="font-style: italic;">G. m. gilesi </span>in remnant forests have so far failed, suggesting that this taxon may already be extinct (Salaman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<p></p>
106005100		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005102		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005103		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine the precise habitat requirements of this species, as well as levels of tolerance of secondary habitats and fragmentation. Survey known sites in order to determine population trends and rates of range contraction. Grant protected status to areas of suitable habitat and manage to prevent the encroachment of threats.  <p></p>
106005103		distribution	eng	<em>Hylopezus ochroleucus</em> is scarce and local in the interior of north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> in Piauí and Ceará south to south Bahia and north Minas Gerais (Sick 1993, Whitney <em>et al</em>. 1995). <em> <p></p></em>
106005103		habitat	eng	It occurs in tall, lush caatinga woodland and semi-tropical deciduous forest at 500-1,000 m, where it frequents dense tangles (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but persists in degraded areas (R. Parrini <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005103		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106005103		threats	eng	Deforestation for agricultural expansion and logging, as well as understorey degradation by intensive grazing must have adversely affected the species. The extent of these threats has accelerated since c.1970, with the Brazilian oil company, Petrobrás, building roads in the core of its range and opening up new areas to settlers (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005104		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005105		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005107		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106005107		distribution	eng	<em>G. f. costaricensis </em>occurs from <strong>Costa Rica</strong> to western <strong>Panama, </strong><em>G. f. brevis </em>in&#160; eastern <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Panama</strong>, <em>G. f. ochraceiventris / mindoensis / zarumae&#160;</em>along the western Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <em>G. f. flavirostris </em>along the Amazonian slope in <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Colombia</strong> and <strong style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(and presumably northern <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Peru</strong>), <span style="font-style: italic;">G. f. similis</span> in <strong>Peru</strong> south and east of Rio Marañón<em>&#160;</em>to Pasco, <em>with G. f. boliviana </em>from southeast <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Peru</strong> to central <strong>Bolivia</strong><strong>.<br/></strong>
106005107		habitat	eng	Occurs in the understorey of humid and wet montane forest. Most frequently between 900-2200m, records between 500-2750m. Feeds on insects (n=1), usually within a metre of the ground using trunks and vines. Not with mixed-species flocks. Apparent courtship feeding observed in May (Delgado-V 2002) in Colombia, and a female ready to lay collected in August in NW Ecuador. Apparently breeds during wetter months in Costa Rica and Boliva, whereas nests have been found in both wet and dry seasons in Ecuador (Greeney <em>et al. </em>2008).&#160;Nest 2.4m (n=4) above ground in small/medium tree; cup-shaped, made of moss and lined with twigs. Clutch size 1-2, incubation 17-21d, nestling period estimated 14-16d.&#160;Presumed to be sedentary. May be overlooked.
106005107		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005107		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), particularly towards the lower portion of its altitudinal range. In the Andes significant threats come from clearance for timber, agriculture and to establish land ownership rights.
106005108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005110		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in San Esteban, Henri Pittier and El Avila National Parks, Venezuela. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's habitat requirements, as well as its tolerance of secondary habitats and fragmentation. Ensure that measures are taken to protect remaining areas of suitable habitat within the range. <p></p>
106005110		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaricula loricata</em> occurs in the mountains of the Sierra de Aroa, Yaracuy and along the Cordillera de la Costa from Carabobo and Aragua to Distrito Federal, north <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hilty 2003). <em> <p></p></em>
106005110		habitat	eng	This species is locally common (Verea 2004, C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, Verea and Solórzano 2011) in the lower growth of montane humid forest at elevations of 1,200-2,100 m, although mostly at 1,440-1,700 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hilty 2003). It feeds on small arthropods such as crustaceans (Isopoda), arachnids (Aranae), and insects (Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera) (Verea 2004). The species is thought to be monogamous, and breed from March to November, with moulting taking place from August to December (Verea 2004).    <br/>  <br/><br/><p></p>
106005110		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon. However, since its easily-overlooked song was first recorded in 2004, it has been seen regularly at several different locations within Henri Pittier National Park (Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2011). During surveys in suitable habitat, it was found to be common, comprising 2.4-3.5% of the bird community and being recorded in 80-83% of surveys.
106005110		threats	eng	Although there is still extensive forest cover in parts of its limited range, deforestation has been severe around Caracas, and many other areas have been degraded (Huber and Alarcón 1988, Stattersfield <em>et al</em> 1998).  <p></p>
106005111		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Podocarpus National Park (Freile <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys  of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range, using mist nests and tape recordings if possible, to determine its true distribution and abundance. Ensure that remaining areas of suitable habitat receive adequate protection.    <p></p>
106005111		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaricula peruviana</em> is rare and very local on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north <strong>Peru</strong>. There are recent records from the Cordillera de Cutucú and the Gualacio-Limón road (Morona-Santiago), Podocarpus National Park (Zamora-Chinchipe) and Cabañas San Isidro, 3 km west of the town of Cosanga (Napo) in Ecuador, and Chaupe (Cajamarca) and Cerro Chinguela (Piura) in Peru (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Greeney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). <em> <p></p></em>
106005111		habitat	eng	It apparently inhabits dense to moderately open undergrowth of montane forest at 1,680-2,100 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1985,&#160;Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998), but most available data are from mist-netted individuals (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. Information on the only known nest is provided by Greeney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004).<p></p>
106005111		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005111		threats	eng	Its habitats are under intense pressure from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, with widespread destruction caused by peasant farmers, and tea and coffee growers (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005112		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs near the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Martín, but it is unclear whether the high-elevation forests are protected under this designation  (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999, Hornbuckle 1999) In any case, the protected status appears to have had little or no effect on the rate of deforestation (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999)<strong></strong>. The newly-designated Abra Patricia-Alto Nieva Private Conservation Area aims to protect this species and <em>Xenoglaux loweri</em>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of suitable habitat on each of the isolated ridges in the region. Conduct basic biological research on the species<strong> </strong>(Hornbuckle 1999). Enforce the protection of habitat in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and ensure that high-altitude forest is included within its boundary  (Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999, Hornbuckle 1999)<strong></strong>. Establish a protected area in the Cordillera de Colán<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005112		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaricula ochraceifrons</em> was discovered in 1976, and is known from three localities in the east Andes of Amazonas and San Martín, north <strong>Peru&#160;</strong> (Graves <em>et al.</em> 1983,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong><strong></strong>Hornbuckle 1999). In the Garcia area below Abra Patricia, San Martín, two specimens were collected in 1976, and a female trapped in 1998. The Abra Patricia area has since been visited by numerous ornithologists, with nine further specimens collected there in 2002<strong> </strong>(D. Lane <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002).  In the Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas, two specimens were collected in 1976<strong> </strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Hornbuckle 1999, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. It was recorded near Yambrasbamba, Amazonas, in 2011. Recent surveys suggest that the species is generally uncommon (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106005112		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth of epiphyte-laden, humid cloud-forest (Graves <em>et al.</em> 1983)<strong></strong>, with records between 1,850-2,500 m (<strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Hornbuckle 1999,&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>D. Lane <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is extremely poorly known, owing mainly to a complete lack of field observations (Graves <em>et al.</em> 1983<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Ridgely and Tudor 1994, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>, although its voice has now been documented (D. Lane <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002, <strong></strong>Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <p></p>
106005112		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106005112		threats	eng	The remaining areas of suitable habitat are being cleared for timber, agriculture and to secure ownership of the land, gradually around Abra Patricia, but more rapidly in the Cordillera de Colán<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997, Dillon and Sánchez Vega 1999,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1998). More recent surveys have confirmed that habitat destruction in the region continues unabated, albeit more extensively at lower altitudes<strong> </strong>(Garcia-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 1997). Abra Patricia is under pressure owing to road improvements, recent immigration and population growth in the area<strong> </strong>(Garcia-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 1997, Hornbuckle 1999, <strong></strong>J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt.</em> 1998). Mining activity around Yambrasbamba contributes to habitat destruction both directly and by encouraging road-building in the vicinity (F. Angulo Pratolongo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106005113		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Purace National Park, Colombia, and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Ecuador. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance.  Ensure that remaining tracts of suitable habitat receive adequate protection. Conduct studies to determine the level of tolerance of secondary habitats, particularly in areas where primary habitat is extirpated. <p></p>
106005113		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaricula lineifrons</em> is known from few localities on the west slope of the Central Andes in south <strong>Colombia</strong> (east Cauca), and on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo, south-east Carchi, Cañar and north Loja) (Lehmann <em>et al.</em> 1977, Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It is considered rare to locally uncommon within this range, although its cryptic habits may disguise its true status (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106005113		habitat	eng	It occurs in the undergrowth of epiphyte-clad montane evergreen forest, elfin forest and adjacent secondary woodland, on relatively steep slopes, at 2,900-3,400 m (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996).   <p></p>
106005113		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005113		threats	eng	Although apparently well protected at two sites (in east Cauca and north Loja) (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>, widespread and severe deforestation of montane forest within its range has occurred owing to agricultural expansion, and further degradation is projected (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Lowering of the tree-line through cutting and burning for pasture is a major threat in Ecuador<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Some parts of its range are also threatened by burning and timber extraction for charcoal (Freile and Santander 2005).<p></p>
106005114		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Colombia, it is numerous in Cueva de los Guácharos (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and occurs in Ucumarí Regional Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(W. Beltrán <em>per</em> C. Downing <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Tatamá National Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Silva <em>per </em>N. Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Picachos National Park and Otún-Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also occur in Farallones de Cali National Park. In Venezuela, it occurs in El Tamá National Park (Hilty 2003, Sharpe 2008).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Elucidate the species's range by surveying poorly-known areas of habitat, e.g. in Farallones de Cali<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995). Quantify the population and research its ecology, especially the poorly-known subspecies <em>venezuelana</em> (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C. J. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Sharpe 2008). Strengthen the effectiveness of national parks, notably Cueva de los Guácharos (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1995,1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005114		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaricula cucullata</em> is known from a few scattered localities in <strong>Colombia</strong> and west <strong>Venezuela</strong>. The nominate subspecies occurs in Colombia on both slopes of the West Andes, at two sites in Valle del Cauca<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Silva <em>per </em>N. Gómez <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>C. Downing and J. Hickman<em> in litt. </em>2003), and one in Cauca, although this latter sighting requires confirmation (<strong></strong>Wege and Long 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1995,1999)<strong></strong>. On the west slope of the Central Andes, it formerly occurred near Medellín, Antioquia, and has recently been found in Valle del Cauca (V. Rojas <em>per</em> N. Goméz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Risaralda<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(W. Beltrán <em>per</em> C. Downing <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. At the head of the Magdalena valley, all recent records are from Cueva de los Guácharos National Park, Huila. Known sites for the subspecies <em>venezuelana </em>are are on the east slope of the East Andes in east Cundinamarca, Colombia (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in Apure and Táchira, Venezuela.  <p></p>
106005114		habitat	eng	It inhabits the more open parts of otherwise dense cloud-forest, chiefly around 1,800-2,135 m, but perhaps down to 1,500 m and up to 2,700 m. One specimen was coming into breeding condition in May, and others taken in Huila in July and Antioquia in September contained eggs. <p></p>
106005114		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005114		threats	eng	It is threatened by human settlement, logging and conversion of its habitat to agricultural land use. In many areas, including Medellín and the upper Magdalena valley, most forest has been cleared. Human development of land continues, generally following the construction of new roads, and even affects national parks, including Tatamá and El Tamá. Opium poppy cultivation results in deforestation of remote areas, chosen to avoid detection (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1995,1999)<strong></strong>. Cueva de los Guácharos is threatened by poppy cultivation and encroaching human settlement (Wege and Long 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1995,1999<strong></strong>). Agricultural activities such as coffee cultivation, and livestock raising affect 17% of Venezuela's El Tamá National Park (Sharpe 2008).  <p></p>
106005115		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005116		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005117		distribution	eng	This species occurs east of the rio Tocantins in north Brazil, in Pará, Ceará (where it may persist only in Gorupi reserve), Maranhão and Piauí.
106005117		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland humid forest and is very common in mature second growth in east Pará (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).
106005117		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005117		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation east of the rio Tocantins, including within protected areas (Stotz et al. 1996, M. and P. Isler in litt. 1999), and understorey degradation may be adversely affecting this poorly known species. However, it persists in small woodlots east of São Luís, Maranhão, but it presumably cannot disperse between isolated woodlots and such fragmentation probably has long-term consequences (Collar and Andrew 1988).
106005118		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005119		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005122		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005124		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005126		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005127		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005129		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005131		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005134		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine whether this species can genuinely tolerate secondary or disturbed habitats. Re-visit  known localities to determine rates of population change and habitat loss. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106005134		distribution	eng	<em>Melanopareia maranonica</em> occurs in north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (local in the upper río Marañón valley of Cajamarca) and extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Zumba region of south Zamora-Chinchipe) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). <em> <p></p></em>
106005134		habitat	eng	It is uncommon and local in dry deciduous forest, arid lowland scrub and riparian thickets at 200-800 m, where it apparently tolerates a degree of disturbance (Ridgely and Tudor 1994,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996,&#160;Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, R.&#160;Webster and R.&#160;A.&#160;Rowlett <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005134		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as local and uncommon.
106005134		threats	eng	Its habitat in the Marañón drainage has progressively deteriorated during a prolonged period of cultivation (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while the spread of oil palm plantations, cattle-ranching and logging are all serious threats within its small range (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Oil extraction is a potential future problem (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106005135		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance.  Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's precise habitat requirements. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.   <p></p>
106005135		distribution	eng	<em>Psilorhamphus guttatus</em> in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais south to Paraná), and at lower elevations in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is rare to locally uncommon (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>, but probably overlooked because it rarely sings and has retiring habits. <em> <p></p></em>
106005135		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland humid forest and secondary woodland up to 900 m. As its English name indicates, it is mostly confined to large stands of bamboo (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also occurs in vine tangles and other dense vegetation away from bamboo (J.&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005135		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005135		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996).  <p></p>
106005136		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure that remaining areas of suitable habitat receive adequate protection. Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends.    <p></p>
106005136		distribution	eng	<em>Merulaxis ater</em> occurs in south Bahia (one 19th century record), Espírito Santo (few records), Rio de Janeiro, east São Paulo, east Paraná and east Santa Catarina (two records), south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106005136		habitat	eng	This species is uncommon to locally relatively common in thickets within montane and lowland evergreen forest and mature secondary woodland, typically at 800-1,800 m but locally to 100 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Naka <em>et al</em>. 2011), although it is almost entirely montane in Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro (Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994).   <p></p>
106005136		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005136		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996). Its montane forests have suffered less destruction, but isolated forests in the north of its range have virtually disappeared due to the expansion of pasture and cultivation, and remaining patches are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading from cultivated areas (Gonzaga <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005137		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law. The sighting in 1995 was in a privately-owned fazenda adjacent to the 5,400 ha Una Biological Reserve. A reforestation project aiming to create a biological corridor between Una and Serra das Lontras is planned (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Ten percent of  the forest tract where the species was discovered in Macarani County in 2005 (the 400 ha Mata da Balbina in Jequitinhonha valley, Bandeira and Macarani municipalities) was purchased by the Fundação Biodiversitas, a local NGO from Minas Gerais, with funds from the American Bird Conservancy, and is managed as Reserva do Passarinho, a Private Natural Heritage Reserve (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, Anon 2008, Whitehouse and Ribon 2010). Within an initial three-year period targets are to create an initial infrastructure, investigate the conservation status of <em>M. stresemanni</em>, and enhance the institutional presence in the area (Anon 2008). A further 194 ha section of forest was purchased in March 2009, along with infrastructure improvement and the hiring of a reserve manager (American Bird Conservancy 2009, SAVE Brasil <em>in litt.</em> 2010). All the remaining forest (c.4,300 ha) is virtually unprotected and needs urgent protection (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Surveys are being carried out to assess the population size of the species (Fundação Biodiversitas<em> in litt</em>. 2010, SAVE Brasil <em>in litt.</em> 2010).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys including playback in the Jequitinhonha valley to determine the size and status of this population. Search for additional populations in all fragments of lowland forests in and around Bahia, using the voice cut now available, and determine the size and status of the remaining population. Safeguard the remaining unprotected 4,300 hectares of forest in the Jequitinhonha valley, and all remaining tracts of humid forest in Bahia. Create corridors to connect small tracts of pristine forest currently disconnected from the largest tract on the Bandeira-Jordânia-Macarani border. Regulate use of playback on tiny known population, whilst maintaining potential for ecotourism.<br/><p></p>
106005137		distribution	eng	<em>Merulaxis stresemanni</em> was known until recently from just two specimens, the type, collected near Salvador in the 1830s, and a second taken near Ilhéus in 1945, in coastal Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>. In 1995, it was rediscovered in the wild when a male was observed and tape-recorded at Fazenda Jueirana, near Una Biological Reserve, Bahia (Baudet 2001). Subsequent searches there have failed to produce further records (Baudet 2001, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2003). However, the species was subsequently found in the Jequitinhonha valley, Minas Gerais, near the border with Bahia (Ribon<em> et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Here, too, the future of the species seems to hang in the balance: it lives in a strip of humid valley-floor forest, much of which has recently been cleared to make room for agriculture (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> and pasture (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.&#160;<p></p>
106005137		habitat	eng	Very little is known, but its behaviour and habitat preferences appear similar to those of <em>M. ater</em> (Baudet 2001). The male in 1995 was observed foraging on the ground and on fallen tree trunks in an area of drier forest between two humid valleys (Baudet 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was found in humid forest at 700-800 metres along the Jequitinonha and Pardo River valleys (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The species has subsequently been observed apparently feeding on insects on dry litter and under fallen logs (Fundação Biodiversitas<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds are very responsive to play-back, approaching the observer to 2 m (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The average territory size of three birds was 2.36 ha, based on initial studies, but more data are required (Fundação Biodiversitas<em> in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p>
106005137		population	eng	In the Jequitinhonha valley (the sole currently known population), at least four birds were found in a 100 ha area, but it was thought unlikely that this density could be extrapolated for the whole 5,000 ha partly fragmented patch of forest (R. Ribon <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The latest surveys of the Macarani / Bandeira area near Balbina (Sossego do Arrebol Forest) found just six individuals: five females and a single male (Fundação Biodiversitas<em> in litt.</em> 2010), with likely no more than 10-15 birds in total and none found in other forest fragments surveyed (R. Ribon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It is therefore now suspected that there may be fewer than 50 birds remaining, and the population is placed in the band 1-49 mature individuals.
106005137		threats	eng	Most humid forest in Bahia has been cleared or converted to cacao plantations, and remaining patches are disappearing very rapidly. Forest in the Minas Gerais and Bahia border area is being cleared for small (mostly in Jordânia county, Minas Gerais) and large scale cattle ranching (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Forest is also degraded by loggers from Bahia state (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Intentional or accidental fires are set every year, degrading the border of the remaining pristine forest (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005138		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally fairly common, although common in the southern part of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106005139		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005143		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Darién National Park, Panama, protects all but the small Colombian part of its range<strong> </strong>(Wege 1996). However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at lower altitudes<strong> </strong>(Wege 1996). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey for the species throughout the Serranía de Tacarcuna where feasible. Develop active conservation management schemes to control activities that threaten birds in Darién<strong> </strong>(Wege 1996). Extend Los Katíos National Park to include the high-altitude part of the Tacarcuna ridge in Colombia<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em> in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106005143		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus panamensis</em> is known from Cerros Tacarcuna and Mali, adjacent mountains on the Serranía de Tacarcuna in east Darién, <strong>Panama</strong>, and north Chocó, <strong>Colombia</strong><strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). It has a very small range, but is common in suitable habitat<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996). <p></p>
106005143		habitat	eng	It inhabits the undergrowth of humid, mossy forest, between 1,020 and 1,460&#160;m altitude<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989<strong>, </strong>Wege 1996). <p></p>
106005143		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106005143		threats	eng	Its small range puts it at inherent risk from any habitat loss or degradation. Habitat in this region is being cleared and degraded for mining, agriculture and cultivation of coca<strong> </strong>(Wege 1996), but probably not yet within the altitudinal range of this species. Completion of the Pan-American highway link through Darién could lead to severe, long-term damage to the forests in Darién and adjacent Chocó (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994, Wege 1996). <p></p>
106005144		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106005149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005150		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is known from six protected areas (Wege and Long 1995, Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of range contraction and population trends. Conduct further studies to determine whether this species can tolerate secondary or disturbed habitats or fragmentation.   <p></p>
106005150		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus novacapitalis</em> occurs in swampy gallery forest and dense streamside vegetation in Goiás, Distrito Federal and west Minas Gerais, central <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is mostly rare, occurring at low densities, but can be locally common (Silviera 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is known from six protected areas (Wege and Long 1995, Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998), and suitable habitat has been less affected by clearance for agriculture than adjacent campo cerrado habitats. Nevertheless, the annual burning of adjacent grasslands must limit the availability and extent of suitable habitat (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998). Wetland drainage and the sequestration of water for irrigation schemes is further reducing habitat (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998).  <p></p>
106005150		habitat	eng	This species occurs in swampy gallery forest and dense streamside vegetation at 800-1000m. It is strongly associated with permanently flooded areas dominated by <em>Blechnum</em> ferns and <em>Euterpe</em> palms (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005150		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005150		threats	eng	Due to the low agricultural potential of this species's favoured habitat, it has not been greatly affected by clearance for agriculture. Nevertheless, the annual burning of adjacent grasslands must limit the availability and extent of suitable habitat (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Wetland drainage and the sequestration of water for irrigation schemes is further reducing habitat (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998).  <p></p>
106005151		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Reserva Ecológica da Michelin covers 3,000 ha and is patrolled by four forest guards who have been effective in reducing hunting pressure significantly and in stopping cutting and clearing of the forest, as well as recording the species (K. Flesher <em>in litt.</em> 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. A study was due to begin there in 2011, and will focus on the distribution and ecology of the species within and around the reserve (K. Flesher<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). The Una Biological Reserve has recently been enlarged to 7,100 ha (A. De Luca <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue studying the known populations at Ituberá and Una. Search for the species in other fragments of remaining habitat in the area. Determine its population size and status at the known localities. Study the species's ecology, including habitat requirements, and breeding biology. Effectively safeguard Una Biological Reserve and the habitat at Ituberá. Initiate sustainable development projects within the species's range.  <p></p>
106005151		distribution	eng	<em>Eleoscytalopus psychopompus </em>was, until recently, known only from three specimens taken at two localities in coastal Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>: a male collected in July 1944 at Ilhéus and a pair obtained in October 1983 at Valença (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992, Krabbe and Schulenberg 2003). The species is no longer present close to these towns, but it has been found at Reserva Ecológica da Michelin of the Plantações Michelin da Bahia, Igrapiúna municipality, near Ituberá, Bahia, and Una Biological Reserve, Una municipality where small populations survive (C. Gatto <em>in litt</em>. 2006, P. C. Lima <em>in litt</em>. 2006,&#160;F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2006, K. Flesher <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. During thorough surveys near Ituberá, following the discovery, just four territories were identified (C. Gatto <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Surveys by BirdLife/SAVE Brasil have now recorded the species in a further four municipalities: Ilhéus, Maraú, Taperoá and Valença (C. Gatto <em>in litt</em>. 2006, P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The bird is extremely shy and retiring and difficult to detect during surveys; factors that no doubt influence our perception of its status.<em> <p></p></em>
106005151		habitat	eng	This species occurs at 15-200 m and apparently requires mature wet lowland forests in the Una and Igrapiúna areas, although recent records in Reserva Ecológica da Michelin are from degraded pioneer vegetation along waterways (K. Flesher <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is restricted to patches in river and stream valleys with small swamps around the main river course or swampy parts of the river itself, up to a maximum of c.50 m from the river channel (C. Gatto <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Its preferred micro-habitat appears to be areas with dense agglomerates of vines and shrubs, covered by trunks and branches of fallen trees (C. Gatto <em>in litt</em>. 2006).  <p></p>
106005151		population	eng	Birds at Itubera are rare and patchily distributed (P. C. Lima <em>in litt.</em> 2006); the population at Una is estimated to number 64-68 pairs (c.125 mature individuals), and it is here placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals, equating to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals. Recent records from a number of new locations, and records in degraded habitats, may lead to an upward revision of the total population estimate in the near future.
106005151		threats	eng	The destruction of coastal Atlantic forest has been extensive in Bahia, south of Salvador, and only small fragments remain, totalling perhaps 10% of their original extent in the area (Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is presumed to be at great risk from the continuing loss of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106005152		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Itatiaia National Park, Fazenda Intervales State Reserve and Augustio Ruschi Biological Reserve<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure that protected areas supporting suitable habitat continue to receive adequate protection. Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance.  <p></p>
106005152		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus indigoticus</em> is rare to locally relatively common in coastal east <strong>Brazil</strong>, being recorded in east-central Bahia, west Espírito Santo, east Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, south São Paulo, east Paraná and Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 1995). <em> <p></p></em>
106005152		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid forest understorey, edge and second growth below 1,000 m, but in the north of its range it occurs exclusively in foothill forest (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005152		threats	eng	It must have suffered from the large-scale destruction and fragmentation of forest within its elevational and geographic range.  <p></p>
106005153		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce to locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005155		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005156		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005157		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south-east Australia, where it occurs in south-east Queensland and the east of New South Wales, and it is widespread but scattered in and east of the Great Dividing Range.
106005157		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forests and woodlands, along watercourses and in gullies, to c.1,500 m, and its densities are highest in wet sclerophyll forests in the gullies of foothills and dry sclerophyll forests on ridges in mountainous areas. It is almost entirely insectivorous, and lives in territorial pairs or groups of 3-4 adults that breed co-operatively and forage together loosely (Higgins et al. 2001).
106005157		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005157		threats	eng	The species has disappeared from several peripheral habitats as a direct result of forest clearing and fragmentation, and has also declined in some wet forest habitats, probably as a result of logging and the progressive collapse of large old trees damaged by previous wildfires. However, in their preferred mature mixed species forest habitat there has been little change in abundance (R. Loyn in litt. 2003).
106005158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005161		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A study of the habitat distribution and population density has been completed. Whian Whian State Forest, which was formerly threatened with conversion to Eucalyptus plantations, became protected as part of the Whian Whian State Conservation Area in July 2003. Voluntary conservation agreements on private land have given greater protection to suitable habitat (including Nature Refuge designation in Queensland), several state forests where the species occurs have been converted to national park status in Queensland, and a Border Ranges Rainforest Biodiversity Management Plan has been developed, encompassing the entire distribution of the species and identifying actions to enhance the quality and extent of habitat. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the extent of isolation between forest patches. Undertake habitat restoration to provide greater extent and quality of habitat and improved connectivity between remnants. Protect more habitat on private land through voluntary conservation agreements. Carry out regular population monitoring. Ensure adequate fire protection is in place, particularly in dry years. <p></p>
106005161		distribution	eng	<em>Menura alberti</em> is confined to a relatively small area of rainforest between Blackwall Range, New South Wales, and Mistake Range, Queensland, <strong>Australia</strong>. New South Wales is thought to support less than 800 pairs, with highest densities at Whian Whian State Conservation Area in Nightcap Range. Subpopulations are also found along Tweed, McPherson and Richmond Ranges. An isolated group of less than 10 birds persists in the Blackwall Range. In Queensland, the population may be of a similar size, although possibly smaller, and occurs patchily from Lamington National Park around Main Range to Mistake Range, with a small population on Tamborine Mountain. In optimal habitat, territories are widely spaced with a density of approximately five pairs/km<sup>2</sup>.  <p></p>
106005161		habitat	eng	It lives in moist forest, mostly above 300 m with highest densities on poorer soils which develop a deep leaf-litter. It favours areas with Antarctic Beech <em>Nothofagus</em> <em>moorei</em> and wet sclerophyll forest with a dense understorey of rainforest plants, but is absent from some rainforest types, including complex notophyll vine forest on high nutrient soils and from dry sclerophyll forest. It feeds on terrestrial invertebrates.  <p></p>
106005161		population	eng	Garnett and Crowley (2000). <p></p>
106005161		threats	eng	Much of the species's habitat was cleared in the 19th century. Until recently, the major threat was intense forest management, particularly in what was Whian Whian State Forest where proposals existed to allow replacement of optimal wet sclerophyll habitat with unsuitable <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. This area is now protected in the Whian Whian State Conservation Area (I. Gynther <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Previously disturbed areas may support a dense growth of lantana <em>Lantana camara </em>which reduces habitat suitability. Most subpopulations are now under relatively secure tenure, although the isolated populations at Blackwall Range and Tamborine Mountain are threatened simply because they are so small, and densities are unusually low near areas of closer settlement. Greater protection of suitable habitat on private land is occurring through the establishment of voluntary conservation agreements and this will help secure some subpopulations. Fire could be a threat in exceptionally dry years, especially to outlying subpopulations, although fire at intervals of several centuries is a natural feature of these environments. Nevertheless, the impacts of climate change on fire frequency and intensity, as well as on habitat quality in general, may need to be considered for the species in the future. <p></p>
106005162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common where habitat remains (Morcombe 2000, Higgins et al. 2001).
106005163		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Logging has been stopped in an area known to contain territories, and the vast majority of remaining birds are within protected areas. Some monitoring has been initiated  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys using similar methodology and develop a monitoring protocol for birds and habitat. Determine the effect of fire on territory occupation and determine the appropriate fire regime to maintain habitat suitability. Develop and implement fire management plans for all subpopulations. Maintain the ban on logging in all known territories. Assess whether experimental habitat manipulation is justified. Identify fire refugia at local and landscape levels (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/>  <p></p>
106005163		distribution	eng	<em>Atrichornis rufescens</em> occurs in isolated populations in north-eastern  New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland, <strong>Australia</strong>. <em>A. r. rufescens </em>occurs in the Gibraltar Ranges, Border Ranges, the northern part of the McPherson Range and in parts of the Main Range, but formerly occurred in lowland habitats of the Rich­mond and Tweed River basins. <em>A. r. ferrieri </em>occurs on Barrington Tops, Hastings Range and in the Dorrigo/ Ebor area (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). he species is mostly confined to areas above 600 m but an observation at 240 m has been documented. In the early 19th century, the population size may have been c.12,000 pairs, but surveys from 1979-1983 estimated it at c.2,500 pairs, <em>A. r. rufescens </em>numbering 730 pairs and <em>A. r. ferrieri </em>1,720 pairs at a density of about 6 pairs/ km<span class="A10"><sup>2</sup> (Ferrier 1984, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Declines are suspected in both sub­species (Ekert 2005, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Some subpopulations of <em>A. r. rufescens </em>are thought to have disappeared within the last 2 decades, including those at Mt Warning and Spicers Gap, while declines in&#160;<em>A. r. ferrieri </em>are inferred because of a reduction in area occupied by calling males in New England National Park (Garnett and Crowley 2000).<br/><p></p>
106005163		habitat	eng	The species requires dense, metre-high ground cover, a moist microclimate and deep leaf-litter, as found in rainforest and adjacent wet eucalypt forest above 600 m. The habitat used in rainforests is usually associated with canopy openings caused by natural tree-falls, selective logging, or watercourses. It forages on small invertebrates, including snails and insects, on the ground and over fallen logs, amongst leaf-litter and on other ground vegetation and debris, within the dense understorey (Higgins <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/>  <p></p>
106005163		population	eng	Holmes (2007) estimated that the population may number as many as 12,000 pairs. Probably best placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
106005163		threats	eng	Most of the bird’s lowland habitat was cleared in the 19th century, and, while clearance itself is not a continuing threat with almost all birds being in protected areas, the subdivision of a small population into even smaller fragments makes each subpopulation more susceptible to random events.   The suitability of remaining eucalypt forest, although, estimated to support 65% of the present population, is potentially threatened by inappropriate burning and logging practices, and may be threatened by wild fires during dry periods. Declines in density may also occur naturally as vegeta­tion matures and ground cover provides less shelter, so some fire or other disturbance such as storms may be necessary to maintain suitable habitat. There has also been an unexplained retreat of the southern part of the population to higher altitudes, even from uncleared forest, and this may be related to drying caused by climate change; it is not known if this retreat is continuing. In the longer term, the viability of some small remaining subpopulations may be questionable.<br/><p></p>
106005164		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species has undergone 35 years of intense research, monitoring and management, including protection from fire and translocation. The population at Mt Manypeaks was established following translocations in 1983 and 1985 (Comer 2002, Comer and Burbidge 2006)<strong></strong>. Following a fire at Mt Manypeaks a project was started in March 2005 to begin long-term monitoring of the species's recovery, including studies on invertebrate food resources and the vegetation associated with its habitat, as well as increased fox control, cat trapping and improved fire management capabilities (Danks and Comer 2006)<strong></strong>. Between June and August 2006, eight males were translocated from the Mermaid-Waychinicup area to karri forest in Porongurup National Park, and fitted with radio transmitters during the process (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Radio-tracking proved unsuccessful (Berryman 2007)<strong></strong>, but call monitoring was carried out (Anon. 2007, Berryman 2007)<strong></strong>, revealing that one male moved 1.2 km from the release site (Berryman 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2008 only one male from the translocation was still being heard (Tiller 2009). Similarly translocations took place in Gull Rock National Park in 2007 but only one bird could be located the following year (Tiller 2009). The search for potential translocation sites continues, and in 2009 Jane National Park was being considered as a possible site for future releases if suitable fire protection could be implemented (Tiller 2009). The recovery of this species is being managed by the South Coast Threatened Birds Recovery Team (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish populations where appropriate habitat persists throughout its former range. Maintain active fire protection and habitat management at all sites. Survey and monitor all known populations at five-year intervals. Continue to support coordination of management by the South Coast Threatened Birds Recovery Team.<br/><p></p>
106005164		distribution	eng	<em>Atrichornis clamosus</em> is found on the south coast of Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>. Between 1961, when it was rediscovered, and 1976, it was largely confined to the Mt Gardner area of the Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve, 40 km east of Albany. As a result of translocations, and recolonisation from the Mt Gardner population, the range has since increased (Comer 2002)<strong></strong>. Natural colo­nists and translocations have created one extensive subpop­ulation at a handful of locations from Two Peoples Bay to Cheyne Beach, as well as an introduced population at Bald Island (59 calling males in 2004 [A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2004]<strong></strong>, increasing to 99 territorial males in 2010 [Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011]), and a reintroduced population near Drakesbrook, the type locality, south of Perth. However, breeding near Drakesbrook has not been confirmed, despite the reintroduction of 100 individuals (S. Garnett <em>in litt</em>. 2004, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. In the Albany management area, the number of singing males increased from 569 in 1999 to 733 in 2001 (Comer 2002, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. However, a series of fires in the Two Peoples Bay-Manypeaks area between December 2000 and December 2004 reduced the number of singing males to c.278 in 2005, with a small increase to 370 in 2006 (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106005164		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat contains dense clumps of sedges, shrubs or piles of debris for nesting cover, interspersed with small, open areas with a thick accumulation of leaf-litter and a well-developed litter fauna for feeding (Danks <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). It mainly eats terrestrial arthropods (Danks and Calver 1993). Most occupied sites have not been burnt for at least 10 years, the sites on Mt Gardner having a post-fire age of over 50 years, and on Bald Island of over 120 years (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Some sites on Mt Manypeaks that were burnt in 2004 had been recolonised by 2006, but only in areas where the fire was less severe and vegetation regeneration has been rapid (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Historically, the species may have occu­pied the ecotone between swamp vegetation and forest dominated by Jarrah <em>Eucalyptus marginata </em>and Marri <em>E. calophylla </em>(Smith 1985), although such habitat is rare within the species’s current range. It apparently disperses along corridors of closed vegetation. It crosses roads readily, although not cleared land.  <p></p>
106005164		population	eng	The population was estimated at c.1,500 breeding birds by Garnett and Crowley (2000), however a series of fires in the Two Peoples Bay-Mt Manypeaks area between December 2000 and December 2004 has severely impacted this, the species's largest, subpopulation (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Its population is now estimated to number 1,000-1,500 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,500-2,300 individuals in total.
106005164		threats	eng	The historical disappearance of the species from most of its former range has been attributed to changes in fire regime following the disruption of Aboriginal fire management before the 1880s. In 1976, the single, remnant population survived in an area protected from fire by the terrain. The frequent burning of swamps to make them more suitable for cattle-grazing, as well as their drainage and clearance for horticulture, would have had major impacts. Extensive high-intensity bushfire is the major current threat, s the species depends on long unburnt habitat and has limited dispersal abilities. In 1994, a fire at Mt Taylor destroyed most of a recently translocated population, with remaining birds disappearing within the subsequent year. The largest subpopulation was formerly on Mt Manypeaks, following a remarkable recovery since translocations began in 1983, however in summer 2004/2005, a fire there burnt a 4,500 ha block of habitat (Comer and Burbidge 2006)<strong></strong>, amounting to the loss of one third of the suitable habitat for the species in the Albany area (Danks and Comer 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2005 revealed a 55.6% reduction in the number of singing males in the Albany Management Zone compared to numbers in 2001, largely as a result of the loss of birds from within the burnt area at Mt Manypeaks (Danks and Comer 2006)<strong></strong>, with the loss of almost all of the birds (c.1,000) in the 427 territories counted in 2001 (Comer and Burbidge 2006)<strong></strong>. The species has the ability to recover there, but it could be up to 10 years before the habitat is suitable again (Danks and Comer 2006)<strong></strong>. The loss of 4,500 ha of optimal habitat during summer 2004/2005, and the loss of c.4,000 ha of habitat during fires since 2001, means that only c.4,500 ha of optimal habitat for the species remain in the Albany area (Comer and Burbidge 2006)<strong></strong>. Almost all birds are now on protected land, but habitat clearance on private land could cut corridors, fragmenting populations and preventing dispersal. Breeding success is relatively good, but various native and introduced mammals and reptiles may raid nests and kill adults (Danks <em>et al. </em>1996). The reasons for the decline in the sub­population at Mt Gardner, and the disappearance of the self-established subpopulation around Lake Gardner, are unknown but could be related to the length of time since fire, increased predation by feral cats <em>Felis catus </em>or the removal of birds for translocation (Danks 1997).<br/><p></p>
106005165		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005166		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common and widespread.
106005167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to moderately common (Coates 1990).
106005168		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.
106005168		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforests, mainly between 600-1,400 m. It is also found in small remnant pockets bordering agricultural land (Blakers et al. 1984).
106005168		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Morcombe 2000).
106005168		threats	eng	Although some of its habitat has been cleared for agriculture, large area remain, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005171		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as widespread and common.
106005172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally moderately common (Coates 1990).
106005173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common, at least locally (Coates 1990).
106005174		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Foya Mountains north of the Idenburg River in northern Irian Jaya, Indonesia.
106005174		habitat	eng	The species occurs between 1,000 and 2,000 m (Diamond 1982, Beehler et al. 1986, Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106005174		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at a few thousand or less (Diamond <i>in litt.</i> 1982), and is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005174		threats	eng	The Foya Mountains are uninhabited, and with no record of any human encroachment before 1979 (Diamond 1982, Diamond 1985), they are presumed to be largely secure. In addition, they are entirely encompassed within the huge (10,000 km2) Foya Nature Reserve (Sujatnika et al. 1995).
106005175		distribution	eng	The species is widely if patchily distributed in the Atherton region in north-eastern Queensland, Australia.
106005175		habitat	eng	The species is in rainforests above 700 m, including rainforests that have been selectively logged and others isolated by forest clearance (Garnett 1992).
106005175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005175		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005177		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all forest blocks at suitable altitude. Estimate population densities. Ascertain population structure across isolated forest blocks. Assess hunting pressure. Research rate and trends of forest clearance. Investigate whether all occupied locations are suitable for agriculture. Research tolerance of secondary forest. Establish public awareness projects. Support visitor facilities at lodge above Salemben village. <p></p>
106005177		distribution	eng	<em>Sericulus bakeri</em> is endemic to the Adelbert Mts in central north <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> where it has a very restricted range (R. D. Mackay <em>in litt.</em> 1986, Coates 1990)<strong></strong>. It can be locally moderately common in suitable habitat within its small range (Coates 1990, B. Beehler and K. Vang <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005177		habitat	eng	It mainly occupies a narrow altitudinal band at 1,200-1,450 m, rarely dropping to 990 m (R. D. Mackay <em>in litt.</em> 1986, Coates 1990, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000, <strong></strong>G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. It is replaced at higher altitudes by the widespread <em>A. macgregoriae</em>. It forages for fruit, especially figs, and insects in the forest canopy, visiting suitable fruiting trees in secondary growth close to forest (Gilliard 1969, R. D. Mackay <em>in litt.</em> 1986, Coates 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005177		population	eng	It is restricted to altitudes of 1,200-1,450 m (rarely to 990 m). The numbers of bowers found per km<sup>2</sup> documented by Frith and Frith (2004) for other species in the genus are 15/50 km<sup>2</sup> and 24/48 km<sup>2</sup> (with the maximum from 23 studies of all bowerbirds being 36/2.5 km<sup>2</sup>). It seems likely that the total population numbers fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (G. Dutson<i> in litt.</i> 2009), and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005177		threats	eng	Although this mountain range is not heavily populated, this species occurs at the optimum altitude for indigenous agriculture and villagers rely substantially on hunting for food (R. D. Mackay <em>in litt.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the people of Salemben village do not hunt this species (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and much of its range remains inaccessible and is unlikely to be logged in the near future (B. Beehler &amp; K. Vang <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population pressure (currently 2-3% increase per year in Papua New Guinea) will lead to increasing rates of deforestation but there are few data on current levels and trends of hunting and deforestation, and if most of the resulting clearance is for small-scale garden agriculture the species may not be adversely affected (<strong></strong>G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005180		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be only locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally moderately common (Coates 1990).
106005184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in Papua New Guinea and locally fairly common in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce, local and infrequently seen (Coates 1990).
106005186		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon within its main altitudinal range, otherwise scarce (Coates 1990).
106005187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in appropriate habitat (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in southern Australia and common to abundant in parts of south-western Australia (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005198		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Australia. Subspecies coronatus is found along seven river systems in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Its distribution is severely reduced, and it is no longer found on parts of the Pentecost and Fitzroy rivers. Subspecies macgillivrayi is found in eastern Northern Territory and north-west Queensland.
106005198		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be 10,000-28,000 individuals (Higgins et al. 2001). Subspecies coronatus numbers c.12,000; subspecies macgillivrayi numbers c.18,000 across 12 subpopulations.
106005198		threats	eng	Livestock eat and trample the species habitat, seeking access to water. Fires are increasing in frequency since the advent of pastoralism, and have been detrimental in some places. These processes expose soil, leading to erosion and, ultimately, denudation and weed invasion of river banks which are then abandoned by the species. This has been ameliorated along some parts of the Victoria River where several large pastoral stations have excluded stock from riparian areas. The high and increasing densities of weeds along many rivers may eventually have an adverse effect (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but locally patchy (Higgins et al 2001, Coates 1990).
106005200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005202		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An extensive reserve system incorporates most of its remaining range, including Hattah-Kulkyne and Wyperfeld National Parks, Murray-Sunset National Park, the Big Desert Wilderness in Victoria and Ngarkat Conservation Park in South Australia. Studies into this species's population and ecology have been ongoing and a student started a PhD project on this species in 2006 (S. Mustoe <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the current range. Establish monitoring of known populations. Establish a fire management programme that will ensure the conservation of the species within its existing range. Re-establish the species in areas from which it has been eliminated by fire. <p></p>
106005202		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Stipiturus mallee</span> has a severely fragmented distribution in the Victorian and South Australian mallee regions, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, south and east of the Murray River. It is currently found in Hattah-Kulkyne National Park, patchily distributed across the Murray- Sunset reserve complex and extremely rare in a small area in the eastern part of Wyperfeld National Park (Clarke and Brown 2007). In South Australia it occurs at a few small sites in Ngarkat National Park and, though last recorded from Billiatt Conservation Park in 1987, a few birds persist at the park’s edge (S. Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Birds are unlikely to disperse more than 5 km, meaning that this species's subpopulations are effectively isolated (D. Paton<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2006). It was last recorded in Bronzewing Flora and Fauna Reserve in 1997 and is considered extinct from Annuello and Wathe Fauna and Flora Reserves (Clarke and Brown 2007, Watson 2011). The population has been estimated at 15,307 (7,672–35,584) mature individuals (taking into account a male-skewed sex ratio), 14,300 of which are in the Murray-Sunset region with 500 in Hattah Kulkyne, &lt;50 in Wyperfeld and 100 in Ngarkat (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), with the last 2 sites at least unlikely to be viable. The extent of the species's range in Ngarkat, appears to have declined by 95% (c. 90% of the range in South Australia) from about 2000 km<sup>2</sup> in the early to mid-1990s, and numbers have gone from perhaps 'thousands' to no more than 100 individuals (D. Paton per Mustoe 2006, D. Paton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). Similar patterns of decline have been reported in Victora (D. Paton per Mustoe 2006), of 868 playback survey sites covering the Murray Mallee Reserve System the species was only recorded at 15 sites in the Murray-Sunset National Park and one in the Big Desert (Clarke 2006). Its status in South Australia is now considered critical (Mustoe 2006). The total area of suitable habitat was estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> by Garnett and Crowley (2000), but conservative estimates have put this at less than 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> more recently (Mustoe 2006) . The species is expected to continue to decline over the next 10 years, as pressures from fire and drought have not altered (Mustoe 2006).<br/><p></p>
106005202		habitat	eng	It occupies habitats containing hummock grassland <em>Triodia</em>, usually within low woodland dominated by mallee eucalypts <em>Eucalyptus</em> and cypress pine <em>Callitris</em>. It also occurs in heath containing banksias <em>Banksia</em> or casuarinas <em>Allocasuarina</em>. In Ngarkat, it can disperse at least 6 km into vegetation recovering from fire, 3-4 years after it has been burnt. Highest densities occur 8-10 years after fire, although it persists in vegetation 50 years old. Much apparently suitable habitat is unoccupied. Throughout its range it appears to be confined to relatively small discontinuous fragments of habitat (Mustoe 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Anecdotal evidence suggests that habitat suitability may be influenced by rainfall through its affect on the health of <em>Triodia</em>, and in turn on the abundance of insect prey. Annual rainfall increases as a gradient heading east, and may explain why eastern areas of its range seem to be a stronghold (Mustoe 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Occasional increases in adult mortality may be offset by a meta-population structure which is bolstered by cooperative breeding (S. Mustoe <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005202		population	eng	It appears to have declined heavily in recent years; wildfires have  wiped out remnant subpopulations. The population has been estimated at  c.15,307 (7,672–35,584) mature individuals (taking into account a  male-skewed sex ratio), 14,300 of which are in the Murray-Sunset region  (perhaps the last viable subpopulation) (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
106005202		threats	eng	Past clearance for agriculture and livestock grazing has fragmented habitat, and the greatest current threat is large-scale wildfires within remnants, such as occurred in Billiatt Conservation Park. Recent declines in South Australia coincided with droughts and a sequence of extensive fires (D. Paton <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This population may not be able to persist or reclaim its former distribution because it is surrounded by large areas of recently burnt heath (D. Paton <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Following fires, mallee-heath requires 5-10 years of regeneration before it is suitable for the species (D. Paton <em>per</em> Mustoe 2006, D. Paton <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Relatively small changes in habitat quality could cause sudden local declines, and the loss of, or changes to peripheral habitat may affect core habitat (S. Mustoe <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mallee-heath is used in the east of the species's range, and may mean that the strongholds of the species are at most risk from loss to single fire events (Mustoe 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's habitat is now so fragmented that any single fire event could be catastrophic (Mustoe 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The use of strategic fire-breaks has been unsuccessful in protecting subpopulations of this species (D. Paton <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Drought also puts pressure on the species, especially in the west of its range, where populations may be thinly distributed as a result (Mustoe 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a long term drought could result in a crash in local populations (S. Mustoe <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat fragmentation has taken place within the area of Hattah-Kulkyne National Park and adjacent Crown land; the area is bisected by the Calder Highway and a railway line, and a swathe of habitat has been removed beneath power lines. Other developments threatening further fragmentation include plans submitted for an industrial toxic waste facility at Nowingi in an area of densely occupied habitat (D. Paton <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in a location which is key to the species's long-term survival (S. Mustoe <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the Mildura fire plan has proposed to burn a 250 m wide strip down the west side of the Calder Highway. If suitable habitat does not become available to replace current habitat that deteriorates through old age, as compounded by drought and fires, then numbers of this species have the potential to decline sharply within decades (S. Brown <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005203		distribution	eng	This species is found in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia, Australia. Nominate barbatus has a restricted distribution of c.100 km2 on the floodplain of the Bulloo River on the New South Wales-Queensland border. Subspecies diamantina is found in the Lake Eyre Basin, south-western Queensland and north-eastern South Australia.
106005203		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be  rare in Queensland and South Australia and vulnerable in New South Wales (Higgins et al. 2001). The nominate barbatus may number c.15,000 individuals.
106005203		threats	eng	Cattle grazing is considered a threat, particularly in dry years, but stock numbers have probably been higher in the past. Diversion of water from the Bulloo River may be a threat in the future but is not currently planned (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Though subspecies diamantina's habitat of swampy shrubland is fragmented, it is extensive, and does not appear to have been degraded by pastoralism, the primary land-use (Garnett 1992).
106005204		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Baseline surveys have been completed. About 35% of the species's range is contained within Kakadu and Nitmiluk National Parks<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat past surveys at known sites. At known sites, determine the fire history, and make recommendations on appropriate conservation management. Determine the extent of movement between populations, using banding and genetic analysis. Continue intensive fire management of Kakadu National Park. Promote and support traditional fire management throughout western Arnhem Land. <p></p>
106005204		distribution	eng	<em>Amytornis woodwardi</em> is endemic to the Northern Territory, <strong>Australia</strong>. It is found in north-western Arnhem Land, on and around the Arnhem Land sandstone massif, between Katherine and Maningrida. Woinarski (1992) estimated a total population of c.5000–10 000  individuals and Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) suggest that the population  contains no more than 10,000 mature birds. The reporting rate from the best-known site at Gunlom has declined through the 2000s (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011).&#160; The small amount of available habitat is severely fragmented and degradation is likely to continue, resulting in a continuing decrease in the number of individuals.<br/><p></p>
106005204		habitat	eng	It is found on bare, flat plateaux and stepped or terraced hillsides along broad valleys, with or without narrow rocky gullies. Its habitat is characterised by mature spinifex <span style="font-style: italic;">Triodia microstachya</span>, which is used for nesting, and bare rock, with most sites surveyed containing bare pavement and/or boulders, sometimes with open shrubland or woodland overstorey. The diet comprises invertebrates, seeds and other vegetable matter (Noske 1992). Breeding occurs from December to June, and territory size is around 10 ha (Noske 1992).<p></p>
106005204		population	eng	Woinarski (1992) estimated a total population of c.5000–10 000  individuals and Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) suggest that the population  contains no more than 10,000 mature birds, equivalent to c.15,000 individuals in total.
106005204		threats	eng	Although the rocky plateau and escarpment habitat offers some protection from most fires, recent changes in fire regime, to a higher frequency of extensive hot fires at the end of the dry season, and, in some areas, the progressive replacement of <em>T. microstachya</em> by annual sorghum, means that this protection may not last. <p></p>
106005205		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring at a selection of known sites. Monitor fire patterns from satellite imagery and model impact on habitat.   Determine the effect of <em>Cenchrus ciliaris</em> invasion on habitat occupancy and fire patterns. Develop and encourage the adoption of fire management that favours the species, creating a mosaic of spinifex ages by burning &lt;10% of the total area each year, burning any site at intervals of &gt;10 years, each fire &lt;20 km<sup>2</sup> and mostly late or very early in the wet season (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).    <p></p>
106005205		distribution	eng	<em>Amytornis dorotheae</em> has a limited range in the hilly parts of north-western Queensland and eastern Northern Territory, <strong>Australia</strong>. It is known to have occurred in four separate areas between the Tawallah Range/Limmen Bight River, Northern Terri­tory, and Gunpowder, north-west Queensland (McKean and Martin 1989 and Murphy <em>et al. </em>2011, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), which may have been a single subpopulation within the last century. There have been no records from the subpopulation around Borroloola, including Limmen National Park, since 1986, despite several targeted surveys in the last decade. No suitable unburnt habitat could be found in 2009 (Harrington <em>et al. </em>2009). The Wollogorang subpop­ulation survives in two small locations in the Northern Territory but there have been no records in the adjacent area of Queensland since 1986, or from the China Wall area to the south since 1974 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Visits in the late 2000s found severe burning and no suitable habitat (Harrington <em>et al. </em>2009, Perry <em>et al. </em>2011). The Boodjamulla (Lawn Hill) subpopulation was exposed to very extensive fires in 2003 and 2006, but survives in greatly reduced numbers (Harrington <em>et al. </em>2009). The total population is estimated ato number 14,000 mature individuals, 13,000 of these at Mount Isa at 500 each at Boodjamulla and Wollogorang (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
106005205		habitat	eng	In the northern part of its range the species inhabits sandstone outcrops in mature <em>Triodia</em> hummock grassland, spinifex, which is highly flammable. Further south it occupies long-unburnt <em>Triodia</em> with stony areas between the hummocks on which grow a range of short grasses, forbs and patchy low trees and shrubs. It shows a preference for long-unburnt hummock grass, which occurs in rugged terrain offering protection from fire. Recolonisation after fire can occur after four years, or three in the north where higher rainfall enables faster regeneration (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It forages on the ground for insects and seeds.<br/><p></p>
106005205		population	eng	A population of 4,500 (range 3,000-10,000) breeding pairs is estimated based on survey data and an estimated pair territory of 1.5 km<sup>2</sup>, giving a population estimate of 6,000-20,000 mature individuals (G. Harrington <em>in litt.</em> 2009). This equates to 9,000-30,000 individuals in total.
106005205		threats	eng	Fire appears to be a major threat to the species, having caused the extirpation one subpopulation, greatly reduced two others and probably responsi­ble for the separation of the subpopulations in the first place. Rainfall in the northern part of the historical range has increased over the last century (Woinarski <em>et al. </em>2007 in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) because the wet season has been starting earlier (Garnett and Williamson 2010 in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). This allows spinifex to recover from fire more quickly but also enables fires to be more frequent and extensive. The extent of control burning may also have declined. An average of 28% of the area of the Borroloola subpopulation burned annu­ally between 2004–2010 (41% in 2004), 24% across Wollogorang (48% in 2004), 11% across Boojamulla (51% in 2006) and 4% across Mount Isa (maximum of 11% in 2010; Murphy <em>et al. </em>2011 in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The frequency and scale of fires is likely to increase as the exotic pasture species buffel grass <em>Cenchrus ciliaris</em> fills the stony ground between hummocks, allowing fires to spread more frequently and completely even in the rocky areas that have become the species's refuge. There may be ongoing but localised threats from mining and associated development. The species may be adversely affected by global climate change, which may cause even more unfavourable fire regimes if rainfall and fuel loads continue to increase.<br/><p></p>
106005207		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be still common in some areas (Flegg and Madge 1995, Higgins et al. 2001).
106005208		distribution	eng	This species has an extensive distribution in shrublands in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. The nominate subspecies underwent a massive decline in the early 20th century that left it restricted to the Shark Bay region, Western Australia. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">myall </span>is moderately common in suitable habitat throughout its historical range in the Gawler Range, South Australia. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">modestus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu stricto</span> (Black 2010), is now extinct from its range in the south Northern Territory. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">macrourus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">inexpectatus</span> are also now extinct (Black 2011a, b) .
106005208		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be 20,000-50,000 individuals (Flegg and Madge 1995, Higgins et al. 2001).The nominate subspecies has two remaining populations, numbering c.21,500 individuals; subspecies myall may number c.10,000; subspecies modestus could number c.20,000.
106005208		threats	eng	The extirpation of modestus and textilis from parts of their range has been attributed to overgrazing by livestock, and while it is a potential threat to all three subspecies, appears to be having no significant effect at present. The reasons for the patchy distribution of modestus are not understood. Its range is almost all under pastoral management, and it is absent from apparently suitable habitat but can survive in sparsely-covered, degraded habitat (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005210		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Initiate regular monitoring at a selection of known sites. Study the effect of fire by investigating relationship between fire histories in occupied and unoccupied habitat patches.Maintain and enhance habitat suitability through fire management (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
106005210		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, from Admiralty Gulf south through the Mitchell Plateau, Roe, Prince Regent, Glenelg and upper Charnley rivers, to Manning Creek. Much of its range occurs in Aboriginal reserves, vacant crown land or conservation reserves including the Prince Regent River Reserve which covers c.6,340 km<sup>2.</sup> This species was once considered scarce, but this was primarily because few ornithologists visited its remote, largely inaccessible habitat. It has since been reported to be moderately common to common e.g. 16 pairs counted in a 2 km transect along a creek in sandstone near Mertens Falls (Johnstone and Storr 2004), with a total population of 15,000 mature individuals postulated (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It may have been extirpated from Manning Creek by fire, and an increase in large scale anthropogenic fires late in the dry season is inferred to be driving a decline in the range and population.
106005210		habitat	eng	The species is found in hummock grassland habitat, being moderately common in dense porcupine-grass <span style="font-style: italic;">Triodia </span>spp. in low open woodland, tall shrubland or tall open shrubland (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It is mainly found in dissected sandstone areas with massive boulders (Rowley and Russell 1997, Johnstone and Storr 2004), and feeds on insects, other invertebrates and seeds of grasses and sedges (Johnstone and Storr 2004).
106005210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species may be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Higgins et al. 2001).
106005210		threats	eng	The primary threat is the increased extent and frequency of fire. Fire frequency may have increased partly because of an increase in rainfall over the last 100 years that is accelerating recovery of the spinifex following fire and increasing fuel loads. There have also been changes in how people in the region use and manage fire. From 1990–1999, an average of 31% of the North Kimberley region was burned each year, mostly in hot dry-season burns (Fisher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). However, parts of its range are naturally protected by the extremely rugged terrain that breaks up fire and protects the old spinifex. The ecologically similar Carpentarian Grasswren <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dorotheae</span> may not re-occupy areas until at least three years after a fire (Harrington <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Grasswrens are relatively poor dispersers and recolonisation is dependent on a nearby source population and hence dependent on the size, intensity and pattern of recent fires.
106005211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005212		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out ornithological surveys of the Louisiade Archipelago. Study the species's ecological requirements, tolerance of habitat degradation and threats.  <p></p>
106005212		distribution	eng	<em>Myzomela albigula</em> is a little-known species from the smaller islands of the Louisiade Archipelago (Bonvouloir Islands, Conflict Group, Deboyne Islands, Rossel but not Misima) in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. No ornithologists have visited these islands in recent years and whilst the most closely related myzomelas are common and adaptable species, this species's population, habitat and threats are completely unknown (Coates 1990, LeCroy and Peckover 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005212		habitat	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106005212		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005212		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106005213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to common (Coates 1990).
106005214		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005215		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to moderately common (Coates 1990).
106005216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005218		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005219		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor occupied sites to determine whether declines are occurring. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106005219		distribution	eng	<em>Myzomela kuehni</em> is known from Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was found regularly in a recent survey (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). A recent record from nearby Alor may represent another population of this species, or possibly a different species altogether (C. Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<em> <p></p></em>
106005219		habitat	eng	This species occurs predominantly in lowland forest and wooded gardens, with a recent record from an area of coastal scrub, overgrown cultivation and tall secondary woodland.<br/><p></p>
106005219		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, although it has been assumed to be moderately small. Recent observations imply that it is more abundant than previously thought (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
106005219		threats	eng	Although extensive forest still remains on the island, it must be assumed that Wetar, which is relatively small, is undergoing some deforestation as a result of human developments. Illegal logging and gold mining could become increasing threats in the near future, in addition to the on-going threats of agricultural expansion and road building (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
106005220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Coates 1990
106005222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005224		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as moderately common in Tanimbar Islands.
106005225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005227		population	eng	The population of subspecies <i>asuncionis</i> is estimated to number 1,821 individuals on Sarigan alone, as well as occurring through the rest of the northern and central Northern Mariana Islands (to U.S.A.); subspecies <i>saffordi</i> has an estimated total population size of 63,120 individuals; subspecies <i>kobayashii</i> had an estimated total population size of 59,690 in 1991; subspecies <i>kurodai</i> is common, with a total population estimated to number 109,360 individuals; subspecies <i>major</i> has a total population estimated to number 165,440 individuals; subspecies <i>dichromata</i> has an estimated total population size of 358,070, and the nominate subspecies <i>rubrata</i> has a total population estimated to number 136,360 individuals. In total then the total population is estimated to number 850,000-900,000 individuals (the sum of individual estimates being 893,861).
106005228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as Common throughout its range (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005229		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Fijian law. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a baseline survey of the species to produce a population estimate. Collect information on its feeding and breeding requirements. Assess populations on all offshore islets. Investigate connectivity between populations on the main island and offshore islets. Investigate the affect of rats on the population. Advocate strong quarantine controls to prevent the establishment of exotic predators. Promote the species as a figurehead for conservation on Rotuma. <p></p>
106005229		distribution	eng	<em>Myzomela chermesina</em> is endemic to Rotuma and offshore islets (including uninhabited Uea), <strong>Fiji</strong>. There are no population estimates but, in 1985 and 1992, it was common (Clunie 1985, D. Watling <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005229		habitat	eng	It occurs in all habitats on the main island, including forest edge and plantations. It is primarily nectivorous but is also strongly insectivorous for a myzomela (Clunie 1984, Clunie 1985, D. Watling <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005229		population	eng	The global population has been estimated to number 10,000-19,999 mature individuals by Clunie (1985) and D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>(2000). This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106005229		threats	eng	Nearly all native forest on Rotuma has long since been cleared for shifting cultivation and plantations - however, there is extensive secondary bush (Clunie 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the species appears to tolerate this habitat. Its abundance and wide habitat tolerance reduces its risk from the affects of cyclones, and none in the last ten years have been serious (D. Watling <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> is already present (Clunie 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and black rat <em>R. rattus </em>is perhaps present (V. Masibalavu <em>in litt </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the introduction of further alien predators is a potential future threat.  <p></p>
106005230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106005232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005235		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at a network of sites. Study its tolerance of degraded habitats. Ensure protection of primary forest at sites where it occurs.   <p></p>
106005235		distribution	eng	<em>Myzomela malaitae</em> is endemic to Malaita in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a scarce inhabitant of forest, although it is more common in hills and mountains (P.&#160;Schofield <em>in litt.</em> 1994, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997,<strong></strong> Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong></strong>&#160;<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is absent from secondary forest habitats in many areas (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but may be more tolerant in other areas (P.&#160;Schofield <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005235		habitat	eng	It is found in forest and forest edge throughout Malaita, being more common in primary forest above 1,000 m (Dutson 2011).  <p></p>
106005235		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce or uncommon.
106005235		threats	eng	Lowland and hill forest throughout Malaita is extensively being degraded through logging and clearance for gardens for a burgeoning human population. However, much of this species's population is above the altitudes threatened by logging or clearance.  <p></p>
106005236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005237		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common to abundant.
106005238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally moderately common and locally very common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates 1990).
106005241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005242		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Morcombe 2000).
106005243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005244		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally fairly common at Biaru (Coates 1990).
106005245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally fairly common at Lohiki (Coates 1990).
106005246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).
106005247		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common, especially in foothills (Coates 1990).
106005249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare and local (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005251		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally uncommon.
106005252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005253		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common and widespread.
106005254		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106005256		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common at higher elevations (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005257		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005258		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, especially at higher elevations (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005259		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor occupied sites to determine whether declines are occurring. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable primary habitat. <p></p>
106005259		distribution	eng	<em>Lichmera notabilis</em> is restricted to Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was recently found to be more common than previously thought (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<em> <p></p></em>
106005259		habitat	eng	This species is found in all tropical forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalptus </span>woodland, being especially common in lowland monsoon forest (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It also occurs in disturbed and anthropogenic habitats, such as lush gardens (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), coastal scrub, overgrown cultivation and tall secondary woodland. <br/><p></p>
106005259		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been regarded as probably moderately small. However, recent observations imply that it is more abundant than previously thought (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
106005259		threats	eng	Although extensive forest still remains on the island, it must be assumed that Wetar, which is relatively small, is undergoing some deforestation as a result of human developments. This appears to be the case in coastal areas even though the interior forest has so far proved inaccessible to developers. Illegal logging and the development of gold and copper mines could become increasing threats in the near future, in addition to the on-going problems of agriculture and road building (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
106005260		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).
106005261		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be infrequently observed (Coates 1990).
106005262		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106005263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common at higher elevations and less common at lower elevations (Coates 1990).
106005264		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon, though locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Coates 1990).
106005267		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable habitat on Tagula. Study its ecological requirements, tolerance of habitat degradation and threats. <p></p>
106005267		distribution	eng	<em>Meliphaga vicina</em> is endemic to Tagula (= Sudest) Island (c.700 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Louisiade Archipelago of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. Two were seen on the only recent visit to the island, a 10-day trek from the north coast up to Mt Riu in 1992 (I. Burrows <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong></strong>. Although most closely related congeners are common and adaptable, this species's habitat tolerance is unknown.<em> <p></p></em>
106005267		habitat	eng	It is believed to inhabit forest and forest edge in the lowlands to 800 m <strong></strong> (Schodde 1978, Coates 1990)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005267		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005267		threats	eng	Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to the remaining lowland forest (Beehler 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare (Coates 1990).
106005271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).
106005272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005273		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally widespread and common on Timor.
106005274		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as moderately common to common.
106005275		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 550,000 individuals on American Samoa. This probably constitutes 25-49% of the species's range, so a very preliminary estimate of the total population is 1-2.5 million individuals. It is best placed in the corresponding population band.
106005276		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally common above 2,000 m.
106005277		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally numerous (Coates 1990).
106005278		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the rainforests of the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.
106005278		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforest.
106005278		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Morcombe 2000).
106005278		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005279		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rainforests of the Clarke Range in central-eastern Queensland, Australia. Most of its range is included in some form of conservation reserve.
106005279		habitat	eng	This species is found in rainforest.
106005279		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Morcombe 2000).
106005279		threats	eng	There are no obvious threats (Garnett 1992).
106005280		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 100,000 individuals (S. T. Garnett <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).
106005283		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005284		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Morcombe 2000).
106005285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparse to common (Morcombe 2000).
106005286		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).
106005287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the nominate race is described as common and race cassidix is described as rare (Morcombe 2000).
106005289		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).
106005290		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005291		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).
106005292		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005293		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Morcombe 2000).
106005294		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005295		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005296		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant at lower elevations and scarce at higher elevations (Coates 1990).
106005297		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005298		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005299		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as very common.
106005300		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common at high altitudes.
106005301		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan. The Ogasawara Islands are a National Wildlife Protection Area, established primarily for this species. An active conservation programme is underway there, including the propagation and reintroduction of threatened native plants. Feral cat eradication is on-going on Haha-jima. Invasive trees are being removed from Haha-jima and its satellites. Rat eradication is planned for Imotojima and Mukohjima.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey islands in its range to determine population trends and identify islands that still support populations. Establish a monitoring programme on Haha-jima Island. Promote habitat protection and restoration of forest with well-developed undergrowth on Haha-jima Island and other smaller islands where populations persist. Study the reasons for its extinction on previously occupied islands, and evaluate current threats to extant populations. Study the feasibility of reintroduction to other islands in Ogasawara. <p></p>
106005301		distribution	eng	<em>Apalopteron familiare</em> is endemic to the Ogasawara Islands, <strong>Japan</strong>, where it has been recorded from all three island groups, the Muko-jima, Chichi-jima and Haha-jima Islands. The nominate subspecies is now probably extinct, having been confined to Muko-jima and not observed since the 1930s (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. The species has also been extirpated from Chichi-jima (Suzuki and Morioka 2005). On Hahajima, it occurs on the main island and two small satellite islands—Imotojima and Mukohjima (Kawakami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The majority of the population is found on the main island with only a few hundred individuals present on the two satellite islands. Analysis of DNA reveals that dispersal between the islands is very rare and that they should be regarded as three distinct populations (Kawakami <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recent estimates, based on quantitative methods, suggest that the total population numbers 10,000-15,000 mature individuals (Kawakami <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Following considerable historical losses, the range and population are now thought to be stable.<br/><p></p>
106005301		habitat	eng	It inhabits low secondary forest, forest edge, bushes, plantations and gardens. On Haha-jima, it favours forest with well-developed undergrowth, feeding mainly 2-6 m above the ground, mostly on invertebrates. Nests are situated in tree forks and occasionally in tree cavities (Kawakami and Higuchi 2002b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005301		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number c.2,500-9,999 mature individuals (based on estimate of 3,000-4,000 individuals on Haha-jima island [Kato <em>et al</em>. 1995], plus information from the other islands [BirdLife International 2001]). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. In contrast, Brazil (2009) estimates the population in Japan at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
106005301		threats	eng	Virtually all the original subtropical forest has already been cleared from the Ogasawara Islands, leading to extinction on several islands, presumably as a result of the wholesale destruction of its habitat. Economic development on Haha-jima Island, including developments for tourism, and a consequent reduction in forest cover is an important threat. Further invasions by exotic species remain a threat. Predation by domestic and feral cats may pose a minor threat (Kawakami and Higuchi 2002a)<strong></strong>. Nest predation by introduced black rat is probably a threat (Kawakami <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Competition with introduced Japanese White-eye <em>Zosterops japonicus</em> was found to have little or no negative effect on this species (Kawakami and Higuchi 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005303		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005304		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common in Australia.
106005307		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005309		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The first translocations in the 1980s failed, but by 2012 attempts has been successful at four of eight locations (J. Ewen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt</span>. 2012). Translocated birds are given supplementary food, and nest boxes are usually provided. Research to identify factors limiting the new populations indicates that translocation methods, population establishment and availability of food were not key issues on Mokoia&#160; (Armstrong <em>et al.</em> 1999, Armstrong and Perrott 2000)<strong></strong>, but population viability remained poor and the last birds were removed in 2002 (J. Ewen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt</span>. 2012). Food shortages and competition for food with endemic honeyeaters may be a problem on Kapiti and Tiritiri Matangi (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1994a)<strong></strong>. Further sites are being assessed for translocations. A small captive population is held, but numbers have gradually declined (Rasch <em>et al.</em> 1996), and the project is to be discontinued (J. Ewen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The population on Little Barrier Island is monitored and efforts are on-going to generate an accurate population assessment. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect, monitor and, where necessary, enhance populations on existing transfer sites. Research the species's requirements to aid establishment of additional populations. Establish at least one more self-sustaining population. Survey the population on Little Barrier and establish viability and trends. Raise public awareness (Armstrong 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005309		distribution	eng	<em>Notiomystis cincta</em> was once widespread over the North Island and adjacent offshore islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Little Barrier Island (31 km<sup>2</sup>) is now the last natural population, with a minimum of 3,000 birds (J. Ewen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Translocated populations exist (in the 2011/2012 breeding season) of c.150 adult birds  on Kapiti (20 km<sup>2</sup>), c.150 adult birds on Tiritiri Matangi (2 km<sup>2</sup>) Island, 65 adult birds in Karori Wildlife Sanctuary on mainland North Island and 71 adult birds at Maungatautari also on mainland North Island (J. Ewen et al. in litt. 2012), but they are not yet self-sustaining and only increasing as a result of intensive and on-going management (S. Boyd <em>in litt</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In 2005, 60 birds were translocated to Karori Wildlife Sanctuary on the main North Island (current population estimated at 37 in October 2006) and 60 birds were translocated to Cascade Kauri Park in the Waitakere Ranges near Auckland in 2007, where they have now bred successfully and have access to sufficient natural food resources (Sumich 2009). All translocated populations rely on supplementary feeding and in the case of the mainland population, intensive predator control. <p></p>
106005309		habitat	eng	It is found in most forest-types, but requires mature forest for breeding as it nests in tree cavities. It feeds on nectar, fruit and arthropods, depending on availability and requirements (Angehr 1984, Castro <em>et al.</em> 1994b)<strong></strong>. It has a highly variable breeding system, and is the only bird species known to mate facing each other (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Forced copulation by males occurs during the breeding season (Low 2005)<strong></strong>. It lays between three and five eggs.  <p></p>
106005309		population	eng	The population is estimated to number a minimum of 3,000 mature individuals (J. Ewen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt</span>. 2012), assumed to equate to a total population of c.4,500 individuals.
106005309		threats	eng	Its extinction on the mainland may have been due to the introduction of black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> or avian disease (Angehr 1984)<strong></strong>, although it probably also declined owing to forest loss in parts of its range (Department of Conservation 2005)<strong></strong>. Factors limiting the translocated populations have not yet been confirmed (D. P. Armstrong <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but declines in the translocated population on the island of Mokoia were attributed to aspergillosis and the discontinuation of supplementary feeding (Castro <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, and recent declines on Tiritiri Matangi have been attributed to an outbreak of salmonella (Ewen <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The recovery of translocated small island populations may be hindered by inbreeding depression (Brekke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  It appears to require large expanses of mature forest to survive which represents a major hurdle to conservation efforts (I. Castro <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although easily over-looked (Coates 1990).
106005311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as patchily fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005312		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally not uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005313		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to scarce (Coates 1990).
106005315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005317		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its range is protected.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to determine the full extent of distribution and abundance. Monitor occupied sites to determine whether declines are occurring. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Ensure the continued protection of the Foja Nature Reserve.<br/><p></p>
106005317		distribution	eng	<em>Philemon brassi</em> is endemic to northern Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It was discovered in 1939 on a single lagoon on the Idenburg River which may not have been visited subsequently (Rand 1940, Beehler 1985, J. M. Diamond <em>in litt</em> 1987), and has recently been found along the lower Mamberamo River (B. M. Beehler <em>in litt</em>. 1990, Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), the Tirawiwa and Logari rivers, 250 km from the Idenburg site <strong></strong>(Mack and Alonso 2000), and probably on the Rouffaer river <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2000). This region is very poorly known and it may be widespread, but perhaps localised, along the huge Mamberamo, Rouffaer and Idenburg rivers.  <em> </em><p></p>
106005317		habitat	eng	On the Idenburg river, this species was common in small parties in flooded cane grass and dense second growth around a lagoon at c.50 m <strong></strong>(Rand 1940). On the Tirawiwa and Logari rivers, it was locally common in trees beside the rivers and other disturbed areas at 80-275 m <strong></strong>(Mack and Alonso 2000).   <p></p>
106005317		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005317		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by various large-scale timber and agricultural schemes and a proposed dam on the Mamberamo gorge <strong></strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995), but all the known populations are currently safe, as much lowland forest and floodplains of the Mamberamo and Idenburg rivers is encompassed within the c.10,000 km<sup>2</sup> Foja Nature Reserve <strong></strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), and the region remains largely inaccessible and undisturbed.  <p></p>
106005318		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as perhaps common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005319		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No direct measures are known. However, it may occur in the Lalobata and Ake Tajawe proposed protected area, which embraces c.3,550&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of all forest-types on the north-east peninsula of Halmahera, or the Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve on Bacan, although this site is seriously threatened by agricultural encroachment and gold prospecting. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and record its vocalisations to aid its detection (if they differ significantly from those of <em>O. phaeochromus</em>). Conduct extensive surveys (especially within proposed or established protected areas) to establish its distribution, status, ecological requirements and altitudinal limits. Support the establishment and management of a protected area at Lolobata-Ake Tajawi (Halmahera) and Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve (Bacan), should the species be found to occur there. Initiate conservation awareness campaigns to solicit local support for forest conservation. <p></p>
106005319		distribution	eng	<em>Philemon fuscicapillus</em> may be endemic to the island of Morotai (doubts have been raised over previous reports from Halmahera from where no specimens originate and no records can be traced to Bacan) in North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It was considered "very common" on Morotai in 1945. Assessment of its true status on Halmahera is severely hampered owing to visual mimicry by <em>O. phaeochromus</em>, and the possibility that it is largely overlooked in the canopy of tall trees.  <p></p>
106005319		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in the canopy of primary and logged forest. It has also been found commonly in "secondary vegetation (bush)" and coconut plantations. Most records appear to be from the extreme lowlands (below 120 m), although it ascends rarely to 600 m.  <p></p>
106005319		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005319		threats	eng	Although it may be tolerant of quite severe habitat degradation, the primary threat is presumed to be forest loss, especially given its predilection for low elevations. It was reported in the 1990s that most of North Maluku, including around 90% of Halmahera and Bacan, remained forested. However, forest loss and fragmentation has accelerated greatly, through exploitation of economically valuable trees, and most remaining forest is now under timber concession. In addition, plans for agricultural development threaten further losses of original habitat. <p></p>
106005320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common on Buru and common on Kai (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and very common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005322		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in its preferred habitat (Coates 1990).
106005324		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).
106005325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common at lower elevations (Coates 1990).
106005326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its preferred altitudinal range (Coates 1990).
106005327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005328		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered fairly common to very common throughout its range.
106005329		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered scarce to common throughout its range.
106005330		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare and local, although fairly common on the northern slopes of the Snow Mountains (Coates 1990).
106005332		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally uncommon.
106005333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the most abundant bird species within its altitudinal range (Coates 1990).
106005334		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant within its preferred habitat (Coates 1990).
106005335		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally fairly common to abundant.
106005336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to abundant (Coates 1990).
106005337		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of montane forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the island. <p></p>
106005337		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where it is widespread at high altitudes, although usually uncommon (Dutson 2011). Although most forest loss has been in the lowlands, it is still thought to have declined in recent years (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005337		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest from 1,200-1,800 m, occasionally down to 850 m (Dutson 2011). Its tolerance of habitat degradation is poorly known. <p></p>
106005337		population	eng	Buchanan et al. (in press) estimated the population at 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 mature individuals.
106005337		threats	eng	On New Britain, lowland forest clearance for conversion to oil palm plantations has been intense in recent decades and the island accounts for approximately half of Papua New Guinea's timber exports. Although most deforestation has been in the lowlands, it is thought that this species's habitat is now being cleared, albeit slowly (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be less common than M. belfordi (Beehler et al. 1986).
106005339		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all forest blocks at suitable altitude. Extend surveys to mountains immediately outside recorded range. Estimate population densities. Ascertain population structure across isolated forest blocks. Establish rate and trends of forest degradation. Investigate whether any occupied locations are threatened by agriculture. Research tolerance of burnt forest. Establish public awareness projects addressing basic forest conservation. <p></p>
106005339		distribution	eng	<em>Melidectes princeps</em> has a restricted range in the highlands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is known only from Mt Giluwe, Mt Hagen, the Kubor Range, Mt Wilhelm, Mt Michael and in the Mt Kaijende Highlands of Enga Province, 70 km north west of Mt Hagen, although it presumably ranges west to the Strickland River gorge (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is reported to be fairly common within this range (Mayr and Gilliard 1954, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Coates 1990, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong> but there are no published indications of numbers or population trends. <p></p>
106005339		habitat	eng	It has been recorded from mossy forest and copses near the treeline and in scrubby forest clumps in alpine grassland, mostly between 3,000-3,800 m, but down to 2,750 m in the Kubor Range (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Coates 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is probably excluded from adjacent mountain ranges by congeners (Diamond 1972, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests have been found in June and July, the late wet season and early dry season (Coates 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Congeneric honeyeaters are noisy, pugnacious birds of the forest canopy, feeding in pairs or small groups on nectar, insects and some fruit. <p></p>
106005339		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005339		threats	eng	This species is believed to be threatened by habitat degradation (J. M. Diamond <em>in litt.</em> 1987, B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>, but because it is an edge specialist it may conversely be unaffected (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This region of the Highlands has a dense human population and although cultivation stops below this species's altitudinal range, there may be some habitat degradation from fires, usually started in the dry-season by hunters (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2000, B. Whitney <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. The main potential future threat is climate change, as this is one of New Guinea's high elevation specialists, and may lose its subalpine habitat with climate change (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>; however, the species may move upwards in response to habitat shifts (Beehler and Sine 2007).<br/><p></p>
106005340		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common (Coates 1990).
106005341		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally uncommon in Kumawa Mts.
106005342		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).
106005343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).
106005345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common around areas of cultivation and otherwise rare (Coates 1990).
106005346		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common to abundant.
106005347		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005348		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in mountain forests on the central mountain ranges in New Guinea (Coates 1990).
106005349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).
106005350		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005351		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005352		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>The species is protected under Fijian law. It occurs in nearly all protected areas with good forest including Tomaniivi and Ravilevu Nature Reserves, Bouma and Koroyanitu Heritage Parks, Waisali and Colo-i-Suva Forest Parks and the Garrick Memorial Park (D. Watling in litt. 2000).<p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>•Develop a monitoring programme for the forest birds of the Fiji Islands as declines in population and the initiation of threatening processes could well be going unnoticed (SPREP 2000). •Develop in-country training in survey techniques (SPREP 2000). •Initiate management in gazetted nature reserves (D. Watling in litt. 2000). •Assess population densities in various forest-types. •Advocate the creation of community-based forest reserves.  •Carry out surveys to determine the status of G. v. viridis on Vanua Levu and Taveuni.
106005352		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the three largest islands of Fiji, occurring as subspecies brunneirostris on Viti Levu and viridis on Vanua Levu and Taveuni. On Vanua Levu and Taveuni the species has not yet been surveyed. It may be restricted to western and central Vanua Levu and is apparently absent from the Natewa peninsula ( J. S. Kretzschmar in litt. 2000).
106005352		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in the canopy of mature forest, where it is more often heard than seen (Pratt et al. 1987). Recent studies show that it has a greater degree of tolerance for degraded forest than was previously supposed (G. Dutson in litt. 2005), but appears intolerant of heavily logged forest. Territory size has been estimated at 6.6-7.9 ha (Kretzschmar 2000). It feeds on nectar, fruit, caterpillars, insects, spiders and lizards, and may sally beyond the forest fringe to flowering or fruiting trees (Clunie 1984). There is little information on breeding which occurs at least from June-October (Clunie 1984).
106005352		population	eng	Line transects were surveyed for the species in lowland forest and mahogany plantations at Colo-I-Suva (Viti Levu) in 2003. If the species occurs at similar densities elsewhere on Viti Levu, extrapolation would give a total population of 130,000 calling birds for the whole island (D. Jackson <i>in litt.</i> 2005). Two other recent surveys, based on triangulated point-counts and estimates of territory size respectively, gave extrapolated figures of 25,000 pairs and 50,000 pairs for Viti Levu (White <i>in litt.</i> 2005).
106005352		threats	eng	The main threat to this species comes from continuing loss and deterioration of its mature forest habitat. Although industrial logging has ceased on Viti Levu and Taveuni, forests on all three islands are being slowly degraded by logging for domestic use and agricultural expansion, with only c.50% of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu remaining forested (Watling 2000).
106005353		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A species recovery plan has been published (MNRE 2006)<strong></strong>. It occurs in some proposed and a few existing protected areas, but these have suffered cyclone damage and the O Le Pupu Pu`e National Park on `Upolu is threatened by logging and cattle-farming (Beichle and Maelzer 1985,<strong></strong> Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong>. Field surveys were carried out in 2005 and 2006 identifying priority areas for the species (U. Beichle<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2006). Ongoing research is being carried out (2010-2013), looking at reproductive success and the effect of habitat modification on nest predation (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys, monitor its distribution and population numbers and gather further information on its life-history and habitat requirements (Freifeld 1999)<strong></strong>. Investigate threats (Freifeld 1999)<strong></strong>. Identify important sites and establish a network of long-term monitoring stations in areas of protected forest (Freifeld 1999)<strong></strong>. Increase local involvement in its study and conservation (Freifeld 1999)<strong></strong>. Address the problem of introduced plants (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and of government reforestation with exotic species (Beichle in prep.)<strong></strong>. Survey suitable habitat on Tutuila, American Samoa, to investigate its status there. Assess the possibility of developing a captive breeding programme.<p></p>
106005353		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnomyza samoensis</em> occurs on Savai`i and `Upolu, <strong>Samoa</strong>, and may have occurred formerly on Tutuila, American Samoa (it was collected there in the 1920's). In 1984, it was common in preferred habitat on `Upolu (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but, more recently, it appears to have become rarer. For example, it was not recorded by two main-island surveys (<strong></strong>Lovegrove <em>et al</em>. 1992,<strong></strong> Park <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>nor by offshore island surveys in 1999 (Freifeld <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and only one individual was recorded at the proposed conservation area at Uafato in 1997 (Beichle 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Targeted surveys in 2005-6 indicate that it is widespread in native forest, though now largely absent from the lowlands. The population is thought to be little more than 500 individuals (Tipamaa <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is concern that small, increasingly fragmented subpopulations may not be viable (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005353		habitat	eng	This large nectarivore occurs in foothill and montane forest, being found in greatest densities in craters at high altitude in the least disturbed forest (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong>. It has also been observed in an area of cinder cone, heathland scrub, at forest edge, in wet forest at 760 m (Reed 1980)<strong></strong> and on steep slopes along rivers (Beichle in prep.)<strong></strong>. It has been observed feeding on a wide range of flowers trees including the flowers of the coral trees<span style="font-style: italic;"> Erythrina </span>spp., mistletoe, heliconia, ginger, banana and some orchids species (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Insects are also an important part of the diet and are the main food source in the dry season. During breeding a simple nest is constructed in a tree, at varying heights, and a single egg is laid. In the nest, the chick is feed invertebrates insects and geckos. The chick continues to be fed 2 months after fledging (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).  <br/><p></p>
106005353		population	eng	Tipanaa (<em>in litt.</em> 2007) indicates a population size of c.500 individuals, which is best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106005353		threats	eng	Slash-and-burn cultivation threatens remaining areas of upland forest, as farmers use forestry roads from heavily logged lowland forests to gain access to formerly inaccessible land (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong>. The species is also likely to have suffered following cyclones Ofa and Val in 1990 and 1991, when canopy cover was reduced from 100% to 27% <strong></strong>(Elmqvist <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Forest quality is further reduced by the invasion of highly aggressive non-native trees, whose spread is aided by hurricanes (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and by reafforestation with exotic trees like <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> instead of native trees (Beichle in prep.)<strong></strong>. Ongoing research has found that forest loss and degradation has continued within the species range, and that predation rates by introduced rats appear to be higher in areas with modified habitat  (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Predation by introduced rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus </span>spp.is likely to be having a significant impact on the species (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).   <br/><p></p>
106005354		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Hunting and capture is prohibited. A breeding monitoring project conducted basic ecological research in the protected Parc Provincial Rivière Bleue from 2001 to 2005, including the radio-tracking of adults and video monitoring of nests (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Létocart 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys were conducted in 2003-2006 by the Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien (IAC) to establish the status of forest birds across New Caledonia (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. In 2010, the Société Calédonienne d'Ornithologie (SCO) conducted surveys in the Massif du Sud IBA in 17 areas identified as priority areas to survey for the species. A detailed assessment of the results is planned for 2011 to calculate density estimates for the area. Another project, undertaken at Mt Paine in the north of New Caledonia, resulted in the locating of the species in a site where it has not been documented for some years (M. O'Brien <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011, R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. 2</span>012)<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other localities within its extent of occurrence and keep searching for the species outside its known extent of occurrence. Urgently research basic habitat requirements, breeding ecology and success at Rivière Bleue. Investigate the presence of the species on Mont Panié Panié and Parc des Grandes Fougères. Further investigate the possibility of rat predation on nests. Research dispersal and subpopulation structure. Monitor numbers annually in two study sites in Rivière Bleue (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Control rats close to nest sites and protect nesting trees from rats (in Rivière Bleue park at least). Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.   Develop a country-wide recovery plan for the species. Under take local conservation education programs.<p></p>
106005354		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnomyza aubryana</em> is endemic to <strong> New Caledonia (to France)</strong> where it is now mainly restricted to small populations scattered throughout the south of the island. Extensive surveys in 2003-2006 only found it in the Parc de la Rivière Bleue area, the slopes of the Kouakoué (J Theuerkauf <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, Pourina and Ouiné valleys, Rivière Blanche and Mont Pouédihi slopes. The total area where the bird has been recorded now covers less than 400 km<sup>2</sup> (Létocart 2006)<strong></strong>. The only relatively recent records from the north are from Mt Panié (Ekstrom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, 2002), with  one individual seen during a survey in 2011 (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012) and Pouembout (N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2003). It appears to be localised and uncommon even in favoured areas, although c.18 pairs known in the study area of Rivière Bleue, each occupying c.1 km<sup>2</sup> of forest, is extrapolated to 160 pairs across this protected area (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. This estimate has been considered over-optimistic (N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, particularly if pairs require c.1 km<sup>2</sup>, and may not be representative of the density elsewhere (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. The total population was estimated at 1,000-3,000 birds in 2000, based on territorial areas of c.0.25 km<sup>2</sup> and a patchy distribution across c.1,200 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable forest (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, however in 2007 it was thought to have dropped to a few hundred (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006)<strong></strong>. Even allowing for an overestimate in 2000, the species is thought to have undergone a serious decline in recent years. It was last seen at the often-visited Mt Koghis in 1974, and it appears to have declined in Rivière Bleue since 1980 (Vuilleumier and Gochfeld 1976, Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. While precautionarily a revised population estimate in the low hundreds is now adopted, the species's real population size and trends remain somewhat unclear. There remain large areas of potentially suitable habitat that have not been searched, it occurs outside the forest matrix and reasons behind apparent population declines are not well understood.  <p></p>
106005354		habitat	eng	It inhabits a humid forest/ <span style="font-style: italic;">maquis</span> matrix, including small isolated forest patches, usually on ultrabasic soils, 100-850 m, historically in the hills to 1,000 m (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and has also been recorded in dry forests at Pouembout (S. Sirgouant verbally 1998, N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. It can be found up to 2 km from forest in the <span style="font-style: italic;">maquis</span> scrub (Dutson 2011). It is an unobtrusive species seen singly or in pairs in the canopy or midstorey, feeding on invertebrates and nectar (Warner 1947, Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Nests are built in open forests and are very poorly camouflaged, leaving them open to predation (Létocart 2006)<strong></strong>. Radio telemetry revealed that a pair (n-1) occupies a territory of 100 ha (Létocart 2006)<strong></strong>. Birds appear to maintain the same territory and from year to year nests appear to be situated close together in the core of the territory. Each simply constructed nest contains only a single egg or chick. No pair has been recorded producing more than one chick in a breeding season (R. Stirnemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106005354		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied, and may even be an overestimate given that densities are lower outside the Rivière Bleue valley (the species's stronghold) where the local population was estimated at 18 pairs by Létocart (pers. comm. 2000) in 1998. The estimate equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106005354		threats	eng	Forest loss and degradation caused by logging, nickel mining and fires is likely to be a threat (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, potentially having had a considerable impact in the <em>côté oubliée</em> from where the species now appears to be absent (V. Chartenrauldt <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. The apparent decline at Rivière Bleue must be caused by other factors; with the species apparently subjected to severe predation pressure by introduced rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus </span>spp.(Ekstrom <em>et al</em>. 2002, N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2003, Létocart 2006)<strong></strong> and possibly cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span> (R. Stirnemann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). No successful nests or juvenile birds were seen until 2004 at Rivière Bleue, suggesting that the limiting factor affects its breeding success (Y. Létocart <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. However, in 2004 and 2005, 2 chicks fledged successfully and were tracked visually for a few days. Nesting areas were heavily poisoned for rat population control which may explain the nesting success but another nest, found in 2005, and also in an area where rats were controlled failed with the chick disappearing during the first week (Létocart 2006)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Other possible nest predators include native endemic predators such as New Caledonian Crow<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span class="st"><span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus moneduloides</span> and White-bellied Goshawk Accipiter haplochrous</span>; nests are poorly camouflaged and presumably easy to locate (Létocart 2006)<strong>. </strong>One of the 2 chicks visually monitored after fledging was usually moving between trees on the forest floor, this could mean that the species is also vulnerable to cats, dogs and pigs (Létocart 2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106005355		distribution	eng	<em>Moho braccatus</em> was endemic to Kaua'i, Hawaii, <strong>USA</strong>. It was common in the 1890s, but declined drastically during the early 20th century<strong> </strong>(Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). By the 1970s, it was confined to the Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve<strong> </strong>(Pratt 1994). In 1981, a single pair remained, the female of which was not found after Hurricane Iwa in 1982, the male being last seen in 1985<strong></strong>. The last report, of vocalisations only, was in 1987, and the species has not been recorded during subsequent surveys of Alaka'i<strong> </strong>(Conant <em>et al</em>. 1998).  <p></p>
106005355		habitat	eng	It was common in forests from sea level to the highest elevations.  <p></p>
106005355		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and the introduction of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, pigs and disease-carrying mosquitoes to the lowlands were the probable causes of this species's extinction<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). <p></p>
106005356		distribution	eng	<em>Moho apicalis </em>was restricted to forest on O'ahu, Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong> (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). It is known from only about seven specimens, the last three of which were collected by Deppe in the hills behind Honolulu in 1837. None of the collectors visiting O'ahu between 1890 and 1900 found any trace of it<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967).  <p></p>
106005356		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have been similar to the other members of the genus.  <p></p>
106005356		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably caused by a combination of habitat destruction and the introduction of disease-carrying mosquitoes<strong> </strong>(Pratt 1994). <p></p>
106005357		distribution	eng	<em>Moho bishopi </em>was a forest bird endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, <strong>USA</strong> (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). It was last recorded on Moloka'i in 1904 by Munro<strong></strong> (1944), who received local reports of its survival until 1915, but could find no more birds despite numerous further searches up until 1949. There is very little historical information about its occurrence on Maui, and although a single bird believed to be this species was observed in 1981 on the north-east slope of Haleakala<strong> </strong>(Sabo 1982), there have been no further confirmed records despite intensive searching<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994) and the species is presumed extinct (Reynolds and Snetsinger 2001).  <p></p>
106005357		habitat	eng	It occurred in low and high altitude moist forest.  <p></p>
106005357		threats	eng	Habitat destruction caused by conversion to agriculture and grazing by feral mammals inevitably initiated the species's decline, with introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and the spread of disease carried by introduced mosquitoes blamed for the population crash early in the 20th century<strong> </strong>(Pratt 1994). <p></p>
106005358		distribution	eng	<em>Moho nobilis </em>was only found in forest on the Big Island of Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong> (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). It was last collected in 1898 and last seen in 1934<strong> </strong>(Munro 1944).  <p></p>
106005358		habitat	eng	It was found in moist montane forest.  <p></p>
106005358		threats	eng	Its decline to extinction was presumably caused by both habitat destruction and disease. While it has been shown that the feathers of this species were used in early Hawaiian ornaments, it is thought that collection played only a minor role in its extinction relative to other factors (Amante-Helweg and Conant 2009). <p></p>
106005359		distribution	eng	<em>Chaetoptila angustipluma </em>is known historically only from the Big Island of Hawaii, <strong>USA</strong>, although fossil remains are also known from Oahu and Maui<strong> </strong>(James and Olson 1991). Only four specimens were ever collected, between 1840 and 1859<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106005359		habitat	eng	It was restricted to montane plateau forest and fed on nectar (Amante-Helweg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
106005359		threats	eng	Deforestation, introduced predators and the rapid spread of avian malaria are all likely to have contributed to this species's extinction.  <p></p>
106005360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005361		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106005362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).
106005364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005365		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as commonest in mountain areas (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005366		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005367		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).
106005368		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005369		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as rather uncommon.
106005370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005371		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005372		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Morcombe 2000).
106005373		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Legislation to prevent the large-scale clearing of woodlands in New South Wales was introduced in 1997 (H. Ford<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ecology of the species has been well studied during a PhD thesis. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out studies into site fidelity and patterns of movement, and acquire a better understanding of its ecology during the non-breeding season. Carry out long-term monitoring. Protect occupied woodland from clearing and monitor compliance biennially. Secure all sub-populations found on public land through conservation management, and use incentives to encourage private land owners to carry out beneficial management. Within the species's range manage woodlands on public or private land maintaining a diverse woodland community with mature trees and adequate mistletoe populations (Barea 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control firewood collection from occupied areas and reduce grazing densities. Research the importance of Brigalow and other semi-arid woodlands, and protect as appropriate (Oliver <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005373		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Grantiella picta</span> is sparsely distributed from southern Victoria and south-eastern South Australia to far northern Queensland and eastern Northern Territory, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. The species is a vagrant to Western Australia, with the first published record of one in 2002 at West Kimberley (Schoenjahn 2003). The greatest concentrations, and almost all records of breeding, occur south of 26°S, on the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range between the Grampians, Victoria, and Roma, Queensland (Higgins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Barrett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). After April, birds migrate to semi-arid regions, including north-eastern South Australia, central and western Queensland and central Northern Territory. The only recent records from South Australia are from Gluepot station in 2000 (J. O'Connor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008), and the species has also declined in abundance in western New South Wales, central Victoria and probably from north-central Queensland. The New South Wales population is estimated to be fewer than 2,000 pairs. Numbers in Queensland may be similar, but are poorly known. Much smaller numbers nest in Victoria (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).&#160; The total population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals (Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011). The maximum documented count was 74 birds in 4 days of surveys in Culgoa floodplain, New South Wales (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). During atlas surveys the reporting rate of this species has actually increased, but this is a result of more targeted searching for the species. The number of 10 minute grid cells from which it was reported has decreased from 164 in 1977-1981 to 142 in 1998-2003 and 90 in 2003-2008 (J. O'Connor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). In Queensland much suitable habitat was cleared historically (only 11% of the Acacia <span style="font-style: italic;">harpophylla</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">cambagei </span>woodland remained in 1999), but annual rates of forest loss remained high at an estimated 5% in the late 1990s and early 2000s (Wilson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). A similar trend is likely in New South Wales, but in Victoria forest has not been cleared as rapidly (P. Menkhorst <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008); therefore it is difficult to estimate an overall rate of decline.<br/><p></p>
106005373		habitat	eng	The most specialised of Australia’s honeyeaters, being largely dependent on mistletoe fruits. The species lives in dry forests and woodlands dominated by Acacias. During breeding it requires berries from just two species, needle-leaved mistletoe <span style="font-style: italic;">Amyema cambagei </span>and grey mistletoe A. quandang, which grow on nitrogen-fixing hosts such as Acacias and Casuarinas (D. Watson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007, Barea 2008). It also feeds on nectar and arthropods (the main type of arthropods fed to nestlings have been observed to be orb-weaving spiders) (D. Watson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). Recent evidence suggests that mistletoe nectar is an important food resource in the breeding season or when the birds are moving through sub-optimal habitat (D. Watson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007, Barea 2008), especially when fruit is scarce, and may influence habitat choice (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Thus, its breeding distribution is influenced by the presence of mistletoes and the seasonality of mistletoe fruiting; positive relationship has been observed between the abundance of mistletoes per tree and per unit area and the presence of this species (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It prefers woodland areas that contain a higher number of mature trees, as these host more mistletoes (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). They also prefer wider blocks rather than strips of woodland, although they breed in quite narrow roadside strips if ample mistletoe fruit is available (D. Watson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2007). They have been recorded in Brigalow <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia harpophylla</span> and other woodlands on parts of the northern floodplains region of New South Wales, possibly using this area because the habitat there has been less cleared and fragmented than other parts of the species's range (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><p></p>
106005373		population	eng	Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) estimate a declining population of between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 3,750-15,000 individuals in total.
106005373		threats	eng	Much of its breeding habitat has been cleared altogether or has been reduced to ageing, widely-spaced trees, particularly box-ironbark and boree woodlands. Its non-breeding habitat is still being cleared for agriculture and habitat remnants in both the breeding and non-breeding ranges continue to be degraded by grazing (Barea 2008). Despite legislation to stop the large-scale clearing of woodlands in New South Wales, 640,000 ha was approved for clearing in that state between 1998 and 2005, and although not all of this was cleared, an estimated 30,000 ha was illegally cleared in 2005 alone (H. Ford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). The regeneration of semi-arid woodlands dominated by Gidgee <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia oswaldii</span> and Rosewood <span style="font-style: italic;">Alectryon oleofolium</span> is threatened by overgrazing by exotic herbivores in parts of western New South Wales (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). The main woodlands which the species is associated with in New South Wales are dominated by Yarran <span style="font-style: italic;">Acasia homalophylla </span>and Boree <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia pendula</span>, both of which are also frequently favoured by graziers (D. Watson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007). The protection of these woodland types may have a greater impact than conservation efforts focused on temperate box-ironbark and box-gum woodlands at the southern edge of its range that are already degraded (Oliver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><p></p>
106005374		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys of range and abundance are conducted annually. Detailed research has been conducted on breeding biology. Restrictions have been placed on grazing and timber extraction at some important sites. Extensive replanting of habitat trees has occurred. Captive colonies have been established, and in 2008 27 birds (fitted with radio transmitters) were released in Chiltern National Park (Anon. 2008). A recovery plan is being implemented. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor wild birds at all recently used sites. Determine trends using existing sightings database and bird atlas project, largely through assistance of community-based surveys coordinated by the Regent Honeyeater Recovery Team and the Threatened Bird Network. Determine movement patterns and degree of isolation between breeding populations. Determine impact of <em>M. melanocephala</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. corniculatus </span>on population stability. Establish and maintain a reintroduced/translocated population. Prepare regional guidelines for habitat management, and research silvicultural techniques to accelerate maturity in key food species. Continue to restore habitat at a landscape scale.  Protect all regularly-used breeding and feeding sites on public land including Travelling Stock Routes.  Conduct a public education programme. Determine and monitor habitat quality. Continue to support conservation management through the Regent  Honeyeater Recovery Team and its operations groups. Continue to support  community, particularly landholder, involvement in the recovery programme. Study genetic variability, particularly the extent to which the captive population is representative of wild variability.<br/><p></p>
106005374		distribution	eng	<em>Xanthomyza phrygia</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>Australia</strong>, where it now has an extremely patchy distibution within a range stretching from south-east Queensland to central Victoria. Most sightings come from a few sites in north-eastern Victoria, along the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, New South Wales, and the central coast of New South Wales. It has become extinct in South Australia and has declined to vagrant status in central and western Victoria, and Gippsland. Historically, the species occurred from Adelaide to 100 km north of  Brisbane within 300 km of the coast, and was formerly very numerous with  'great' or 'immense' numbers recorded in the 19th century (Higgins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Birds concentrate at a small number of sites when breeding, but numbers fluctuate greatly between years and sites, and movements outside the breeding season are poorly understood. Key breeding areas are the Chiltern section of Chiltern–Mt Pilot  National Park, in northeastern Victoria (Menkhorst 2003), Capertee  Valley in central eastern New South Wales and Bundarra-Barraba region in  northern NSW (Oliver and Lollback 2010) with a few birds breeding in  other areas, such as the Wangaratta-Mansfield region in Victoria,  Warrumbungle National Park, Pilliga forests, the Mudgee-Wollar region,  and the Hunter and Clarence Valleys (NSW Scientific Committee 2010). In 1997 the population in New South Wales was estimated at a maximum of 1,000 birds but far fewer birds have been recorded since, with a maximum of just 40 there in 2009, while in Victoria there are probably fewer than ten pairs (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). While the species has regional variation in calls (Powys 2010), banded  birds have been recorded moving between all main sites so the species is  considered to have a single subpopulation (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106005374		habitat	eng	It is usually observed within box-ironbark eucalypt associations, seeming to prefer wetter, more fertile lowland sites. It also uses riparian forests of river she-oak <em>Casuarina cunninghamiana</em> in New South Wales, especially for breeding. The other major environment used regularly is wet lowland coastal forests dominated by Swamp Mahogany <em>Eucalyptus robusta</em> or Spotted Gum <em>Corymbia maculata</em>. It requires a diet of nectar, principally from a few key species such as Yellow Box <em>E. melliodora</em>, White Box <em>E. albens</em> and Mugga Ironbark <em>E. sideroxylon</em>, as well as insects, particularly when breeding (Regent Honeyeater Recovery Team 1998, C. Tzaros <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. It also feeds on sugary exudates. In poor years, it is not clear whether birds fail to nest or shift elsewhere to breed. Nests are usually built in the crowns of tall trees, mostly eucalypts and sometimes among mistletoe (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <br/><p></p>
106005374		population	eng	The breeding population was previously estimated at 1,500 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,200-2,300 individuals in total, but following very rapid declines there were thought to be just 350-400 mature individuals remaining in 2010 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
106005374		threats	eng	About 75% of its habitat has been cleared for agricultural and residential development. Much of the preferred lowland habitat on the most fertile and productive sites has been cleared or substantially modified and this has resulted in poorer and unreliable nectar-sources through the reduction of large mature trees (C. Tzaros <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>.  Remnants, including much of what currently exists in the conservation reserve system, have been heavily cut-over and degraded, and this practice is continuing in many areas, including hardwood production forests. These remnants are highly fragmented and often degraded by removal of larger trees and ongoing declines in tree health. The recent dramatic population decline coincides with a 12-year period of reduced rainfall in south-eastern Australia. Fragmentation has apparently advantaged more aggressive honeyeaters, particularly Noisy Miner <em>Manorina melanocephala</em> and Noisy Friarbird <span style="font-style: italic;">Philemon corniculatus</span> which may be excluding the species (Regent Honeyeater Recovery Team 1998, C. Tzaros <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. What was once a very large population has declined so quickly that a severe loss of genetic variability must now be a threat (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106005375		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106005376		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005377		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in the north of its range and uncommon in the south (Morcombe 2000).
106005378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).
106005379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005380		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005381		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In reaction to the species's very low numbers in the mid-1990s, a colony of seven males and two females was taken into captivity in order to establish a captive breeding colony (Clarke 2007)<strong></strong>. Management actions completed or underway include genetic studies, regular surveys and monitoring, the study of habitat preference in Victoria, the purchase of leases within Riverland Biosphere Reserve, the adoption of a policy of rapid fire suppression within mallee in Victoria and South Australia, research into reproductive biology and ecology, establishment of a captive population, colony translocations, generation of community support and the establishment of a recovery team (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. The threat of <em>M. flavigula</em> is tackled by the closure and revegetation of dams, and strategic removal of colonies (Clarke 2007)<strong></strong>. Between 1996 and 2002 intensive field studies located a previously unknown population and a number of isolated colonies throughout the species's historic range (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. These searches identified what is now known to be the largest population of the species, in the Riverland Biosphere Reserve  (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2003, 45 captive reared birds were released in the Bronzewing Flora and Fauna reserve, Victoria, and unsuccessful breeding attempts occurred within days of release (Clarke 2004)<strong></strong>. In 2005, surveys revealed that unsuccessful breeding attempts were still taking place amongst at least 11 surviving captive-reared birds and other unringed birds, and observations suggested that successful breeding had occurred, with a possible offspring from a previous nest acting as a helper (Clarke 2006)<strong></strong>. A Black-eared Miner Recovery Team has been formed.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study rate and mechanisms for genetic introgression. Determine and monitor habitat quality. Increase number and quality of colonies in Victoria. Develop and test a population viability model. Total suppression of fires to increase the carrying capacity of protected areas (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure habitat protection (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue translocation efforts (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider strategy of limiting the spread of wildfire at key sites, especially in long unburnt areas that will become suitable over the next two decades (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005381		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Manorina melanotis</span> is endemic to the Murray Mallee region of South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, and is thought to have been distributed throughout most of this region prior to European settlement (Clarke 2007). Range and numbers declined dramatically during the 1990s. In 1995, it was reported that just 28 birds were known in the wild, in north-west Victoria. Searches for the species in South Australia during the 1980s and New South Wales in 1993 were unsuccessful in locating the species (Clarke 2007). Conservation measures have since assisted the species's recovery. Extensive surveys during 2000-2002 found that the Riverland Biosphere Reserve (formerly the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve) in South Australia supported c.3,750 individuals, although the effective population size was only 390 (210-726) due to a skewed sex ratio (adults: 1 female: 1.81 males) and the species's complex social organisation (Clarke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). This represented over 95% of the species's total effective population. These surveys were conducted during an upward population fluctuation (Clarke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), following a series of good seasons, and the population may now stand at the lower end of these estimates owing to a drought in the region and a fire in 2006 (R. Clarke<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007). A smaller population of 53 (32-85) colonies of pure and hybrid birds (from interbreeding with the Yellow-throated Miner <span style="font-style: italic;">M. flavigula</span>) persists in the Murray Sunset National Park and a number of other small scattered colonies exist at Scotia Sanctuary and Tarawi Nature Reserve in western New South Wales, and Bronzewing Flora and Fauna Reserve in northwestern Victoria (Baker-Gabb 2007). Only those in Riverland and Murray-Sunset are now considered sufficiently pure to be worth conserving (D. Baker- Gabb pers. comm.).<br/><p></p>
106005381		habitat	eng	The species occupies semi-arid mallee habitats, that is, eucalyptus woodland in which individual trees are multi-stemmed from ground level and seldom taller than 10 m (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Densities are highest in areas containing mallee-<em>Triodia </em>associations, or mallee with an open understorey, situated at least 2 km from clearings that exceed 100 ha (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup>,</strong> that has not been heavily grazed or burnt for 45 years. The species occupies mallee that has remained unburnt for at least 20 years (Clarke 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it is unknown whether there is a maximum age after burning when habitat becomes unsuitable. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that mallee unburnt for at least 150 years (becoming park-like open woodland) is only occupied by <em>M. flavigula</em>. The required area of intact mallee for a viable population may exceed 13,000 ha (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's distribution in Victoria is positively correlated with stable dunefields with a relatively high loam level, amount of decorticating bark (from which it obtains much of its insect food), tree density, stem density, canopy cover and litter cover. The presence of a mosaic of burn types may have facilitated the genetic isolation of the species from <em>M. flavigula</em>. Populations can breed continuously for over 12 months given favourable conditions such as periods of above average rainfall (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A study of one colony found that 81.8% of females and only 13.9% of males bred per season (E. Moysey <em>per</em> Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a cooperative breeder with up to 13 helpers, mostly males, assisting the nest of a breeding pair (E. Moysey <em>per</em> Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Colonies may wander over areas of 8-10 km<sup>2</sup> in the non-breeding season, although they show high breeding-site fidelity (Clarke 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Their diet consists of invertebrates and lerp and also nectar. <br/><p></p>
106005381		population	eng	Despite the Riverland Biosphere Reserve (formerly the Bookmark Biosphere  Reserve) supporting an estimated 3,760 individuals, this is thought to  equate to an effective population size of only 390 (210-726) mature  individuals owing to a skewed sex ratio and a complex social  organisation (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005). This population represents  over 95% of the total effective population, hence, given the broad  confidence intervals the population is probably best estimated to fall  within the band 250-1,000 mature individuals. The surveys for the  estimates by Clarke <em>et al.</em> (2005) were carried out following a  series of good breeding seasons, and the population may now stand at the  lower end of the estimates owing to a drought in the region (R. Clarke<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) suggest a total population of 500 mature individuals.
106005381		threats	eng	The fundamental reason for its decline is the clearance of the majority of favourable habitat. Although European settlers reached the Murray Mallee region in 1860s, it was not until the early 20th century that widespread clearing for cropping and pasture began, and in the 1930s pastoralists dug dams and drains and cleared vegetation to increase water flow (Clarke 2007)<strong></strong>. This has resulted in displacement of <em>M. melanotis</em> in habitat remnants by <em>M. flavigula</em>, and interbreeding between the two species is now the greatest threat to <em>M. melanotis</em>. The purity of the Riverland Biosphere Reserve colony is only maintained through active removal of hybrids, while both the Murray-Sunset colonies have Yellow-throated Miner among them. Recent introgression is particularly evident in isolated colonies that occur in small areas of remnant habitat (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A study of specimens of <em>M. melanotis</em> and <em>M. flavigula</em> from museums world wide, suggests that hybridisation increased markedly around the middle of the 20th century as dam construction and mallee clearance further increased (Clarke 2007)<strong></strong>. Isolated colonies have a low rate of recruitment, either as a result of elevated rates of nest-predation or as a result of emigration from the natal colony. Much remaining habitat in Victoria and New South Wales has been burnt within the last 25 years. The populations at Riverland Biosphere Reserve (formerly the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve)  and Murray Sunset National Park are at high risk of extinction from large-scale wildfire (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A single large fire in Murray Sunset NP rendered over half of the remaining prime habitat unsuitable for the species between 1980 and 1990 (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, and habitat fragmentation now means that fires can burn whole reserves (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A fire in the Riverland Biosphere Reserve in late November and early December 2006 burnt 115,000 ha of mallee habitat, including much of the core area for the species and reducing the area of available habitat for the species by about a third, or possibly more, but creating a natural fire break for unburnt areas (R. Clarke<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The modern ability to suppress fires has likely resulted in a reduction in the proportion of fires at a moderate scale (100 ha - 10,000 ha), which tend to burn at a variety of intensities providing patchiness and fire refuges (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is thought to be prone to fluctuations in response to variable climatic conditions, with extended periods of drought limiting breeding and periods of above average rainfall promoting extended breeding (R. Boulton <em>per</em> Clarke <em>et al. </em>2005)<strong></strong>; observations suggest the average change in colony size could be c.50% either way (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005382		population	eng	The population is estimated to number c.600 individuals on Cuvier Island. This constitutes a tiny proportion (much less than 5%) of the species's range, and so the total population is likely to number 12,000 individuals at the very least, but probably considerably more. It is precautionarily placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106005383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Morcombe 2000).
106005384		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified.
106005385		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000; del Hoyo et al. 2008).
106005386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005387		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common except in western Tasmania (Coates 1990).
106005388		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 278 mature individuals on Rangatira Island. This constitutes a tiny proportion (much less than 5%) of the species's range, and so the total population is likely to number 5,560 mature individuals at the very least, but probably considerably more. It is precautionarily placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sometimes numerous (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be normally quite scarce but occasionally numerous (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005391		distribution	eng	This species is found throughout most of tropical Australia. Subspecies macgregori has a tiny population on Curtis Island. It is endemic to the central Queensland coast, though its extirpation from the mainland is unexplained. Subspecies tunneyi is restricted to a small area of coastal and subcoastal floodplains from the Mary to East Alligator rivers, Northern Territory. Nominate crocea is found throughout the Kimberley, northern tableland and gulf country, and the Lake Eyre basin (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005391		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007). Subspecies macgregori has a tiny but stable population of 50 birds; subspecies tunneyi may number 500 birds and is probably declining; nominate crocea is regarded as common (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005391		threats	eng	Some parts of subspecies tunneyi habitat have been affected by salt incursion as a result of buffalo damage, but this has now ceased. The major current threat to the subspecies is invasion by the weed Mimosa pigra, which probably renders the habitat unsuitable.
106005392		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005393		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005394		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in mallee woodland, although less common in the south-west of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005395		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A key site on north Bruny Island has been acquired and declared a state reserve for the species with an approved management plan. Key sites have also been acquired on Flinders Island. Guidelines have been established for production forestry within 5 km of the coast between Bicheno and Southport and for the Maria Island National Park Management Plan. Further <em>E. viminalis</em> clearance in or near existing colonies is forbidden. A community network has been established on Bruny Island. A recovery plan has been implemented and a new integrated plan prepared. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor populations at 10-year intervals. Map <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span> communities in greater detail. Determine relationship between site variables and food productivity. Determine juvenile dispersal, home range and colony dynamics. Re-establish <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span> at sites within 5 km of the coast between Bicheno and Southport, particularly near existing colonies. Manage existing stands by limiting grazing and firewood-collection and managing fuel levels with a mosaic of low-intensity burns. Develop a management strategy for <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span> forest. Ensure habitat regrowth (on Bruny Island) is permitted (Brown and Rounsevell undated). Monitor colonies on Bruny Island, with priority given to those over 50 birds (Brown and Rounsevell undated). Maintain community awareness of the species and involvement in recovery actions. <p></p>
106005395		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Pardalotus quadragintus</span> is endemic to Tasmania, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, and some larger offshore islands. It is present in all available habitat on Maria (974 individuals in 2009) and Bruny Islands (450 individuals in 2009), which contain over 90% of the population. Small remnant colonies remain on Flinders Island (c.70 birds between 1993-1997, however, following extensive bushfires in 2002, just 14 individuals were estimated in 2009), and on the mainland of Tasmania at Tinderbox Peninsula (46 individuals in 2009), Howden (10 individuals in 2009) and Coningham (6 individuals in 2009) (Bryant and Tzaros 2010). Colonies found previously at Lime Bay and Mt Nelson were not found in the most recent surveys and may have expired. The population was thought to be stable: In 1986, a census counted 3,520 individuals in 110 colonies in 38 km<sup>2</sup>. In 1994-1997, 3,840 individuals were counted in 121 colonies in 41 km<sup>2</sup> (Garnett and Crowley 2000). However, in 2009 only 1,486 birds were found at 54 of the 102 colonies surveyed, representing a loss of 47% of colonies (Bryant and Tzaros 2010).<br/><p></p>
106005395		habitat	eng	It is found exclusively in open white gum <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus viminalis</span> forest or woodland. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span> provides most of its food in the form of invertebrates, lerp secretions and manna, as well as hollows for nesting.<p></p>
106005395		population	eng	In 1994-1997, 3,840 individuals were counted (Garnett and Crowley 2000).  However, the population has recently declined by &gt;50% and in 2009  only 1,486 birds were counted (Bryant 2010). The number of mature  individuals is therefore likely to be between 1,000-1,500.
106005395		threats	eng	About 60% of occupied habitat is reserved, but on private land, habitat continues to be lost because of clearance, sheep-grazing (preventing <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span> regeneration), subdivision and urban development. During the 1985 breeding season it was noted that timber clearance was underway or had taken place in or adjacent to six colonies on Bruny Island (Brown and Rounsevell undated). Extended periods of low rainfall have resulted in habitat degradation, and in the long-term climate change may be the greatest threat (Bryant and Tzaros 2010). The Noisy Miner <span style="font-style: italic;">Manorina melanocephala</span> and introduced Laughing Kookaburra <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacelo novaeguineae</span> are potential competitors or predators. Wildfire that retards regrowth of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. viminalis</span> can also be a threat, particularly for isolated populations. Human disturbance is likely to have contributed to its decline in urban and public use areas (Bryant 2010).<p></p>
106005396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common except in the east of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be in places patchy or erratic and elsewhere locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005398		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I.<strong> </strong>Surveys have been completed over the range of the species, and populations are protected from fire as much as possible, particularly in association with the other threatened taxa of the Two Peoples Bay-Manypeaks area. In 1999-2000 and 2007, 18 birds were translocated to a site west of Albany, but the translocation appears to have been unsuccessful and there was no evidence of breeding (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. Further translocations are planned (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The population in the Two Peoples Bay-Mt Manypeaks area is being monitored (Danks and Comer 2006, A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The recovery of this species is being managed by the South Coast Threatened Birds Recovery Team (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and monitor populations at five-year intervals and search for new subpopulations. Maintain active fire protection and management at all sites. Continue habitat management and threat abatement of all occupied areas within an adaptive management framework. Further investigate habitat requirements, in particular in relation to fire age, vegetation structure and food availability. Study the effect of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>dieback caused by <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora cinnamomi</span>, and the extent of predation by invasive species. Establish populations throughout former range where appropriate habitat persists. Continue the translocation programme. Continue to support coordination of management by the South Coast Threatened Bird Recovery Team (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106005398		distribution	eng	<em>Dasyornis longirostris</em> was formerly found in coastal south-west Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>, from Perth to Ravensthorpe. It is now restricted to in and around Fitzgerald River National Park and to a small area just east of Albany at Two Peoples Bay  Nature Reserve, Betty’s Beach, Mt Manypeaks to Bluff Creek. Eighteen  birds were translo­cated in 1999–2000 and 2007 from Two People’s Bay to  near Walpole, west of Albany, but there was no evidence of breeding. A population of c.620 pairs in 2001 was reduced by fires to c.320 pairs in 2005 (Burbidge <em>et al. </em>2010), estimated to comprise c.1,000 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The density of birds is greater  in the Manypeaks-Waychinicup areas than in the Fitzger­ald River  National Park, but reasons for this are unknown. The Albany to Mt  Manypeaks area population declined from c.500 pairs in 2001 to 200–315  pairs in 2005 and 2006, largely as a result of wildfires, although the  cause for the decline in some areas is unclear. The Fitzgerald River National Park subpopulation numbered c.125 pairs in 2005 (Burbidge <em>et al. </em>2010).<br/><p></p>
106005398		habitat	eng	It is terrestrial and sedentary with a preference for dense, low heaths. In Two Peoples Bay, it occurs in dense, closed heath 1-1.5 m high. Near Waychinicup River and in the Fitzgerald River National Park, it is found mainly in closed heath 0.5 m high, sometimes with scattered patches of mallee eucalypts. Unburnt swampy vegetation, predominantly sedges and thickets, may be important refuges after fires. At Two Peoples Bay, it can reoccupy heaths less than 3 years after fire, although breeding may not occur until later. It may not reoccupy heaths in drier areas until 11-14 years after fire. It was found in heaths 5-12 years after fire from Boulder Hill to east of Waychinicup River, and 14-28 years after fire in the northern part of Fitzgerald River National Park.<br/><p></p>
106005398		population	eng	In 2005, the known breeding population was estimated at 300-450 pairs, probably equating to a total of 1,000 mature individuals (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
106005398		threats	eng	It is particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction and alteration. Wildfire is the principal threat, particularly large-scale wildfires, the incidence and extent of which have been increasing in recent years,  despite increased skills, capacity and effort to stop them. Fires at less than 5-10 year intervals may lead to local extinctions, and such fires are almost certainly the main cause of its historical range contraction. At the other end of the scale, some coastal heath (at least at Two Peoples Bay) remains suitable habitat for at least 50 years after fire, although the carrying capacity may be reduced with time. A series of fires in the Two Peoples Bay-Mt Manypeaks area between December 2000 and December 2004 impacted the local population of this species (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Numbers of calling males were reduced from about 500 in 2001 to 200 in 2005 (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. While most of this decline was clearly attributable to large-scale wildfires, some of the decline was most likely due to other, unknown factors (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Predation by introduced mammals, particularly foxes <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes</span> and feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span>, may be significant (Gilfillan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009; Burbidge <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Other potential threats include dieback caused by the plant pathogen <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora cinnamomi</span>, disturbance by introduced animals (particularly hard-hoofed animals), weed invasion and changes in hydrological regimes (Gilfillan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Clearance for grazing and agriculture caused historical range  contractions, but is no longer considered a threat as almost all  bristlebirds now occur in protected areas.<br/> <br/> <p></p>
106005399		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The northern population has been the focus of extensive conservation actions. Fences and fire-breaks have been constructed. Some pig and cat control is undertaken. Vegetation monitoring sites are being established. Genetic samples have been analysed. All known territories in Queensland have been mapped. This population is now the focus of an intense captive breeding programme with the aim of re-establishing the species at several sites. The three main southern populations in New South Wales (Barren Ground-Budderoo, Jervis Bay-Booderee and Nadgee Nature Reserve) have undergone surveys and initial ecological research. Habitat mapping has been conducted at Jervis Bay. Research has been conducted over three years into the ecology and translocation of 50 birds from Bhewerre Peninsula to Beecroft Peninsula in the Jervis Bay region, including habitat selection by the species after fire. Currently, there is a study to look at a future translocation of approximately 50 birds from Barren Grounds Nature Reserve to Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA) lands. Other fire ecology research has been conducted. Research on the southern population has shown that not all habitat needs to be constantly maintained as greater than 14 years unburnt, as long as large, adjacent and long unburnt (for over 20 years) areas are protected for emigration from and recolonisation of more recently burnt areas (Bain and McPhee 2005)<strong></strong>. Annual monitoring is carried out at Jervis Bay National Park, Barren Grounds Nature Reserve and Nadgee Nature Reserve. At Nadgee, habitat monitoring is conducted every two years. Fox control is carried out for the Jervis Bay-Booderee and Barren Grounds-Budderoo populations. Weed control, particularly of Bitou Bush has been undertaken at Booderee National Park, though recent studies have shown that the species can utilise Bitou Bush as post-fire refugia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Northern population: Continue to survey for a new population in the vicinity where the species once occurred. Release captive-bred birds into areas with small populations and where the species has been recently recorded. Southern population: Monitor populations annually. Monitor habitat every two years. Define and map suitable habitat on Sydney Catchment Authority lands as part of the proposed future translocation from Barren Grounds Nature Reserve. Control foxes and weeds. Reduce the impacts of traffic at Jervis Bay and Booderre National Parks on the Bhewerre Peninsula. Develop contingency plans for fire and conduct ecologically sensitive hazard reduction burns at central populations (Barren Grounds-Budderoo and Jervis Bay-Booderee National Parks) to reduce the impacts of large intense fires. Encourage public participation and provide information. Minimise the loss of habitat on private land from future residential and commercial developments in the Jervis Bay area. Retain and manage known or potential habitat corridors between reserves (Bain and McPhee 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to monitor the density of the species in long unburnt habitat <strong><sup> </sup></strong>and study the relationship between the species and the post-fire age of habitat (Bain and McPhee 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Both populations: Determine a suitable fire management strategy. Continue studies on population genetics. Control weeds, foxes and cats.<br/><p></p>
106005399		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Dasyornis brachypterus</span> is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. There are two subspecies; a northern race (<span style="font-style: italic;">monoides</span>) in south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales and the nominate southern race (<span style="font-style: italic;">brachypterus</span>) in eastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria. <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. monoides</span> is now Critically Endangered, falling from c.206 pairs in 1988 to c.16 pairs in 1997-1998 and c.13 pairs in 2006-2007 (D. Stewart <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). There are currently thought to be fewer than 50 mature individuals in total (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. brachypterus</span> are stable at c.2,500 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2011). <span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. brachypterus s</span>ubpopulations include about 1,250 mature individuals at Barren Grounds, 1,200 at Jervis Bay and 300 at Nadgee/Howe Flat. There are newly established subpopulations at Cataract of 50 individuals and about 10 at Red Rocks. <br/><br/><p></p>
106005399		habitat	eng	The species is a ground-dwelling, semi-flightless passerine (Bain and McPhee 2005). The northern population (<span style="font-style: italic;">D. b. monoides</span>) usually inhabits grass tussocks in open forest-woodland, close to rainforest which provides fire refuge. The southern population (D. b. <span style="font-style: italic;">brachypterus</span>) lives in dense, low vegetation, particularly heath, but also in surrounding woodlands. Surveys have noted birds in shrubland dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca </span>spp. or <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptospermum grandifolium</span>, heath dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Hakea teretifolia</span> and Eucalyptus woodland (Bain and McPhee 2005). It is eliminated for at least three years after fire, with density increasing until at least 15 years post-fire (Bain and McPhee 2005). This increase is slower for sites with a post-fire age of over 14 years, compared with sites less than 10 years post-fire, suggesting that after 14 years, sites are reaching their carrying capacity (Bain and McPhee 2005). Feeds near the ground, mainly on small invertebrates with some seeds and small fruits (Gibson and Baker 2004). Breeds annually in spring, laying two eggs (Higgins and Peter 2002). They breed readily in captivity and appear to have high survival rates after translocation or captive breeding and release (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106005399		population	eng	Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) estimate that the declining northern race  (<span style="font-style: italic;">monoides</span>) has a population of less than 50 mature individuals and the  southern race (<span style="font-style: italic;">brachypterus</span>) is stable at c. 2,500 mature individuals.  The overall population is therefore estimated at around 2,550 mature  individuals, roughly equivalent to 3,800 individuals in total.
106005399		threats	eng	The main threat to the northern population is an inappropriate fire regime resulting in unsuitable habitat. If fires are too frequent they eliminate tussocks and enable the invasion by introduced woody weeds. However, when fires are too infrequent the vegetation becomes too dense for nesting. Extensive fire is the main threat to the southern population. Fire removes dense understorey vegetation, which is the species's preferred habitat (Bain and McPhee 2005). The species was lost from 10 of 11 known locations in Victoria from fire during 1978–1994 (Clarke and Bramwell 1998). In new South Wales, fires almost eliminated it from Barren Grounds in 1968 and from Nadgee in 1980 (Baker 1998). Single fires could be catastrophic across Howe Flat and Nadgee or Barren Grounds and Budderoo (J. Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Habitat is also degraded by feral pigs <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span> and domestic livestock. Other threats to the species include overgrazing, invasion of habitat by exotic weeds and predation by foxes <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes</span> and feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span>. Birdwatching may be a threat to the northern population, with repeated playback of calls having the potential to disturb breeding birds.<br/><p></p>
106005400		distribution	eng	This taxon is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. Nominate <span style="font-style: italic;">broadbenti </span>occurs in near-coastal environments from Port Fairy, Victoria, to the mouth of the Murray River, South Australia. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">caryochrous </span>was thought to be largely confined to the coast between Peterborough and Point Addis east of Anglesea, Western Victoria, but is now known to occur extensively within the Otway Range. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">litoralis</span>, endemic to Western Australia, is extinct, probably as a result of fire, and was last seen in 1940 (Glauert 1944).
106005400		habitat	eng	The species occurs in scrub, heathland and forest.
106005400		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 4,000-28,000 individuals, roughly equating to 2,700-19,000 mature individuals.
106005400		threats	eng	Historically, the range of the species has declined as a result of clearance for agriculture; habitat fragmentation has already resulted in the isolation of some subpopulations of broadbenti. On top of this, grazing by rabbits and modification by exotic weeds could have long-term effects for broadbenti, and concern has been expressed about its rates of infertility. Coastal urban development has also destroyed habitat, and is the greatest threat facing caryochrous, which, given its essentially linear distribution, is particularly vulnerable to fragmentation. For caryochrous, effects of fragmentation are likely to be exacerbated by periodic wildfire from which the habitat takes at least six years to become suitable again. The species may also be vulnerable to cat and fox predation (Garnett and Crowley 2000, Seymour et al. 2003).
106005401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005402		distribution	eng	This taxon is the only bird species endemic to New South Wales, Australia. It is abundant through a large area of the Hawkesbury Sandstone both north and south of Sydney. A recent decline of 65% in reporting rate for this species in its core bioregion, the Sydney basin, based on atlas survey work, is not associated with a contraction in range and is believed to be an artefact of observer behaviour, as during the second atlas survey birders visited fewer forest fragments where the species occurs.
106005402		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005402		threats	eng	The species has suffered from urban developments on the edges of its range near Sydney (Blakers et al. 1984), however, most of its habitat is now protected within national parks and reserves (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005403		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.
106005403		habitat	eng	The species lives on the rainforest floor above 600 m (Blakers et al. 1984).
106005403		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005403		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has since stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005404		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be mostly common to very common, though scarce in some areas (Coates 1990).
106005405		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rare, though locally not uncommon within its confined range (Coates 1990).
106005406		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually common, though scarce in some areas (Coates 1990).
106005407		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005409		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite widespread and fairy common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005410		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the upland rainforests of the Atherton region in north-eastern Queensland, Australia, where it has a disjunct distribution between mountain tops (Garnett 1992).
106005410		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to upland rainforest.
106005410		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005410		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has since stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005411		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in Papua New Guinea and locally common in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005412		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005413		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over a wide area of New Guinea (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather common in the north of its range and scarce in the south (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in mid montane forests in Vogelkop (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005416		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005418		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).
106005419		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005421		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Australia. It is found in southern arid and semi-arid habitat from south-western Queensland, western New South Wales and north-west Victoria, through South Australia and southern Northern Territory to the west coast of Western Australia south of North-west Cape.  Habitat clearance has extirpated it from the south-east fringes of its historical range.
106005421		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to be as large as 3,000,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005421		threats	eng	The species is threatened through overgrazing of chenopods by livestock.
106005423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and occasionally locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and occasionally locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005426		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005427		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common above 3,000 m but scarce at lower elevations (Coates 1990).
106005428		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Atherton region of Australia (Blakers et al. 1984).
106005428		habitat	eng	The species is found in rainforest above 450 m.
106005428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005428		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has since stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread, although race archiboldi is possibly extinct, since it has not been seen since 1971 (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005433		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to South Australia and Western Australia, Australia. The nominate subspecies is widespread through the arid and semi-arid regions of both states. Although there has been a recent contraction in the east of its range, its extensive range outside the agricultural zone appears to be unaffected. Subspecies rosinae has a very restricted distribution, with three principle populations along the northern shore of the Gulf of St Vincent, from St Kilda to Ardrossan. Subspecies hedleyi has a fragmented distribution, primarily across Big and Little Deserts, Victoria, and Ninety Mile Plain, South Australia.
106005433		population	eng	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size as follows: approximately 100,000 individuals of subspecies liredalei,  approximately 10,000 individuals of subspecies rosinae and approximately 24,000 individuals of subspecies hedleyi, giving an overall total of 134,000 individuals. (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005433		threats	eng	Much of the chenopod shrublands used by iredalei are degraded by grazing sheep and rabbits. However, a reduction in grazing on the Nullarbor of both sheep and rabbits may be allowing some recovery of habitat. Subspecies rosinae is threatened by recreational and industrial use of saltflats, and future coastal developments. Clearance for agriculture has affected hedleyi in South Australia, particularly in the 1980s, but has now largely ceased, though large-scale fires are frequent and may be affecting abundances. Its populations in the Big and Little Deserts appear fragmented despite large areas of protected, suitable habitat (Garnett and Crowley 2000).
106005434		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005435		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005436		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sometimes common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005438		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005439		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005440		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).
106005441		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally fairly common but often considered scarce in Papua New Guinea and often quite common near the coast in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005442		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to locally fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005443		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but locally fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005444		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to very common (Coates 1990).
106005447		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be probably locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005448		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and often common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005449		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in most of its range (Coates et al. 1997).
106005450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently common in most of its range (Coates et al. 1997).
106005451		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Casuarina groves and fairly common but inconspicuous in forest (Coates 1990).
106005452		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common in Australia and locally fairly common but usually scarce in  Papua New Guinea (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005453		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but locally common in the south-west of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005454		distribution	eng	<em>Gerygone insularis </em>was an abundant endemic to Lord Howe Island, <strong>Australia</strong>, until the island was colonised by rats from a shipwreck in 1918<strong></strong>. It was heard frequently in 1928 (Sharland 1929) but could not be found on a visit in 1936<strong> </strong>(Hindwood 1940), and there are no subsequent records<strong> </strong>(Recher and Clark 1974).  <p></p>
106005454		habitat	eng	It was a canopy-dwelling forest species (Hull 1909), feeding on small insects and spiders (Sharland 1929).  <p></p>
106005454		threats	eng	Presumably its extinction resulted from nest predation by rats<strong> </strong>(Recher 1974). Disease from introduced passerines may also have been a factor (McAllan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/><p></p>
106005455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common in northern parts of its range though often scarce towards the south (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005456		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Norfolk Island National Park was declared in 1986, and encompasses the main remaining stands of native forest on the island. Although the control of mammalian predators takes place within the Norfolk Island National Park, in 2006, it was noted that the control of rats was budget-constrained and limited in its effectiveness (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. There is an ongoing programme to control exotic shrubs within native forest in the National Park (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The Norfolk Island Region Threatened Species Recovery Plan (Director of National Parks 2010) recommends a set of recovery measures required to reduce or remove threats to native species on the island.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population through the analysis of birdwatchers' records. Install predator-proof fencing around the national park and other important habitat and remove introduced predators from within these areas (R. Ward, M. Christian and R. Holdaway <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The elimination of mammalian predators from the island or at least significant sections of it, with measures to prevent their reintroduction (Director of National Parks 2010)<strong></strong>, may benefit the species, despite them not being a serious threat.<em> </em> <p></p>
106005456		distribution	eng	<em>Gerygone modesta</em> is endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It is widespread and abundant on the island, and is thought to number c.10,000 individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The population is probably stable (R. Ward, M. Christian and R. Holdaway <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005456		habitat	eng	It is found only in remnant areas of tree or shrub growth on the island, such as rainforest, thicket, gardens and white oak pasture, and is common in weedy forest dominated by the exotic red guava <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span> and African olive <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea africana</span> but at a density about half that in native forest (G. Dutson pers. obs.). It is scattered and much less common in patchy forest and scrub away from the National Park (G. Dutson pers. obs.). <br/><p></p>
106005456		population	eng	The population within Norfolk Island National Park is estimated at at least 3,800 pairs (G. Dutson pers. obs.), with many more hundreds outside the park. The total population is therefore estimated at c.10,000 mature individuals (Garnett et al. 2011).
106005456		threats	eng	Although clearing for timber, cultivation, pasture and ongoing development (R. Ward, M. Christian and R. Holdaway <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> has removed some habitat, there are no apparent serious threats that are likely to affect the viability of the population in the foreseeable future, but its restriction to such a small area could make it susceptible to catastrophe such as newly-introduced predators or disease. The population may be affected by the clearing of hedges and vacant land for the development of domestic and commercial buildings (R. Ward, M. Christian and R. Holdaway <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It coexists with the introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and cats, and its behaviour and the positioning of its domed nests reduces the probability of predation (Garnett and Crowley 2000).<br/><p></p>
106005457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005458		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the forested parts of southern Chatham Island and five smaller offshore islands and islets in the Chatham Island group off the east coast of New Zealand. Subfossils indicate that the range once included several more islands in the group.
106005458		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant (Heather and Robertson 1997).
106005458		threats	eng	Rats Rattus, feral cats and habitat reduction have caused a decline this century on Chatham Island (Heather and Robertson 1997).
106005459		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite common on most islands (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005460		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005461		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine trends in abundance, particularly in relation to land use. Monitor population every five years. Draw up a management agreement with pastoral managers and traditional owners to keep the habitat in good condition. Work with land managers to implement fire control measures.  <p></p>
106005461		distribution	eng	<em>Aphelocephala pectoralis</em> is widely but patchily distributed in central and northern South Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>. A survey in 1990 estimated a population of 6,000 mature individuals, and indicated a loss of suitable habitat and the associated extirpation of birds from a number of locations. Birds were recorded at 14 locations, including only 7 out of 33 historical sites. Despite evidence of these past declines, abundances on a repeat survey in 1999 showed no significant change. A survey of Mt Lyndhurst in March 2007 indicated that the population there remains stable (Pedler <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005461		habitat	eng	The species's preferred habitat is open terrain in hilly areas such as tablelands, with a stony landscape and a patchy cover of perennial chenopod shrubs. The species is most frequently seen in areas where the topographic relief gives rise to creek lines, in which there tends to be denser shrubby vegetation. It feeds on the ground and takes seeds and arthropods. <p></p>
106005461		population	eng	A survey in 1999 revealled that abundance was similar to that found in a survey in 1991, from which a population of c.6,000 mature individuals was estimated based on the frequency of observation over northern South Australia. This estimate is still thought to be appropriate (L. Pedler <I>in litt.</I> 2007), and roughly equates to 9,000 individuals in total.
106005461		threats	eng	Grazing by livestock and rabbits is the primary long-term threat as it reduces the recruitment of perennial shrubs, particularly low bluebush <em>Maireana astrotricha</em>, upon which the species depends<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Heavy grazing of the chenopod shrubland has almost certainly caused the species to vacate previously used sites. Ironically, a recent reduction in rabbit numbers may have allowed a sufficient build up of fuel for fire to be a threat, particularly if occurring over a large area simultaneously. Some patches of habitat are threatened by opal mining. There has been a large increase in mining activity in South Australia in recent years, some of which is known to have directly impacted areas that have supported relatively high densities of the species<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005462		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005463		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to scarce or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005464		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to rare, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005465		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common though often scarce (Coates 1990).
106005466		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be normally scarce or absent from settled areas but locally quite common elsewhere (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005467		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends on occupied islands. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106005467		distribution	eng	<em>Microeca hemixantha</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in the Tanimbar Islands (Yamdena, Loetoe and Larat) (BirdLife International 2001). It apparently remains common within its small range. <em> <p></p></em>
106005467		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest and mangroves in the lowlands.  <p></p>
106005467		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its very small range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005467		threats	eng	Much habitat apparently remains secure, although there is significant logging in the south of Yamdena.  <p></p>
106005468		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually fairly common to common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to very common (Coates 1990).
106005471		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common but sometime scarce (Coates 1990).
106005472		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (Coates 1990).
106005473		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005474		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The 14,300 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong> Lorentz reserve protects suitable high altitude habitat. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable mountain peak habitat in the Snow Mountain range. Study its ecological requirements and potential threats. <p></p>
106005474		distribution	eng	<em>Petroica archboldi</em> is endemic to Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known only from the highest peaks of the Snow Mountains - Mts Jaya (Carstensz) and Trikora (Wilhelmina) (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong></strong>. There is a report of few individuals seen in or close to Gunung Lorentz reserve (S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106005474		habitat	eng	It is reported to be a conspicuous inhabitant of rocky habitats well above the tree line, from 3,850-4,150 m (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005474		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species was originally described as common.
106005474		threats	eng	Habitat at this altitude should be safe but it may be threatened locally from mines (A.&#160;Mack <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may suffer from global warming which has melted the ice-cap on Mt Trikora in the last few decades (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005475		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005476		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005477		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequently quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005478		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Analyse existing data to determine the extent and distribution of the decline, and correlate with environmental variables. Carry out monitoring at selected sites. Coordinate recovery actions with those of other woodland birds of the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Address the causes of climate change on a national and international basis.  <p></p>
106005478		distribution	eng	<em>Petroica phoenicea</em> occurs in upland areas of south-east continental <strong>Australia</strong> and in Tasmania. It breeds throughout Tasmania, on Bass Strait islands and the high country of southern and north-eastern Victoria and along the Great Dividing Range in eastern New South Wales and south-eastern Queenland, as far north as 30<sup>o</sup>S. In winter some birds migrate from Tasmania to the mainland and from upland areas to lowland plains. Although still numerous, with a population likely to exceed 1 million individuals, a strong decline in reporting rate has occurred over the last 25 years combined with a contraction from the fringes of its winter range. It is now scarce in South Australia and less common in the Victorian lowlands, but remains common in Tasmania and the high country of the Great Dividing Range. Its density has probably not yet halved.   <p></p>
106005478		habitat	eng	The species breeds in eucalypt forests and woodlands, with access to open areas, such as subalpine woodland, recently burnt forest, recently logged forest and pine plantations. In winter the species feeds in open areas such as pasture, and shelters and roosts in orchards and remnant vegetation.  <p></p>
106005478		population	eng	This species is locally common, with a population probably numbering c.1 million mature individuals, roughly equating to c.1.5 million total individuals.
106005478		threats	eng	The most likely explanation for this species's decline is a rise in temperature, which has been greater in south-eastern Australia than anywhere else on the continent. The species is also likely to have declined because of the clearing, cultivation and degradation of its winter habitat. In contrast, much of the species's breeding habitat is managed, open upland forests, and the availability of such habitat has probably increased as a result of clear-felling. Recent reductions in clear-felling may lead to a reduction in habitat availability, as regrowth results in felled areas becoming unsuitable within five years. An increase in predation by Pied Currawongs <em>Strepera graculina</em> could cause an increase in the already high rates of nest loss, and feeding habitat in open woodland may be degraded by grazing and other processes.  <p></p>
106005479		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005480		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be occasionally fairly common in Tasmania but uncommon elsewhere (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005482		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1976, following forest deterioration on Little Mangere Island, the seven surviving birds were relocated to Mangere Island. Prior to reintroduction, thousands of trees were planted to provide sufficient habitat. In 1979, after no breeding and the loss of two birds, a regime of supplementary feeding, and the protection of nests from Common Starlings<em></em> and seabirds was initiated. In 1980-1981, eggs and chicks were cross-fostered to Chatham Island Warbler <em>Gerygone albofrontata</em>, but this proved unsuccessful. In 1981-1982, "Old Blue's" eggs were cross-fostered to Tomtits <em>P. macrocephala</em>. The three surviving chicks were reintroduced to Mangere Island. This technique was continued, and in 1983, <em>P. traversi</em> was introduced permanently to South East Island. In 1989, intensive management ceased (D. V. Merton <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Heather and Robertson 1997). Annual monitoring of numbers, reproductive success and distribution within habitats continues in both island populations (E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Reforestation on both islands is on-going, and both island habitats are subject to strict quarantine measures to avoid introducing predators, pathogens and other threats. Further research into genetic threats is on-going, and reproductive success is being measured through the closer study of a large population sample on one island (E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population and demographic trends. Restore forest habitat on Mangere Island. Protect populations on Mangere and Rangatira Islands. Establish a third population within the Chatham Islands. Reintroduce birds to Little Mangere Island with landowners' support (H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue to work with landowners and Department of Conservation to provide safe habitat on Chatham Island.<br/><p></p>
106005482		distribution	eng	<em>Petroica traversi</em> is endemic to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It declined rapidly during the late 1800s, and by 1980, the population had fallen to five birds, comprising three males and two females. Intensive management has resulted in a continuous increase in numbers: from seven birds in 1981, to c.116 in 1990, c.170 in 1995 (Butler and Merton 1992, D. V. Merton <em>in litt.</em> 1994), 226 in 1998 and 254 in 1999 (Aikman <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>, including 178 mature birds (S. O'Connor <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The population is now restricted to Mangere (1 km<sup>2</sup>) and Rangatira (= South East, 2 km<sup>2</sup>) islands. The population was feared to be declining, based on census results in 2008, but it seems that the counts gave an underestimate due to weaker methodology and a decline in the species's detectability (E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). In 2011-2012, approximately 230 adults were counted in pre-breeding censuses of both island populations (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012<em></em>). <br/><p></p>
106005482		habitat	eng	It lives in low-altitude scrub forest remnants. It is entirely insectivorous, and feeds on the forest floor and low branches. It usually lays two eggs, and re-lays if a clutch is lost. Young normally begin to breed at two years of age. Birds generally pair for life. Survivorship between 1980 and 1991 indicates a mean life expectancy of four years. "Old Blue", however, the sole breeding female in 1980, lived for over 12 years (Butler and Merton 1992, Heather and Robertson 1997). <p></p>
106005482		population	eng	Full population surveys in spring 2011 found 190 mature individuals on Rangatira Island, and 34 on Mangere Island. This gives a total population size of 224 mature individuals (<span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), with 260 individuals estimated in total (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).
106005482		threats	eng	The introduction of rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and cats, following human settlement, extirpated the birds from all but Little Mangere Island (Butler and Merton 1992). The accidental introduction of mammalian predators to the islands where it currently survives could cause local extinctions. Introduced Common Starlings <span style="font-style: italic;">Sturnus vulgaris</span>, which now number over 1,000 pairs on Rangatira,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>may provide a serious future threat through introduced disease, competition for nest sites and direct predation (Waugh 2009). Other predators include introduced mice <span style="font-style: italic;">Mus</span> spp. and pigs <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>, as well as the native Weka <span style="font-style: italic;">Gallirallus australis</span> (E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A potential future threat to this highly inbred species is the arrival of new pathogens. Fire, catastrophic storm events and natural processes of forest recovery, exacerbated perhaps by climate change, are key extrinsic threats to habitat quality and extent. Chronic inbreeding and extensive loss of genetic diversity appear to compromise reproductive output and may yet threaten long-term viability in unforeseen ways. Hybridisation with congeneric Chatham Island Tomtits <em>P. macrocephala</em> <em>chathamensis</em> remains a concern, although the probability of recurrence may be low. The species remains susceptible to outright loss owing to stochastic events (E. S. Kennedy <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).&#160; <br/><p></p>
106005483		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanodryas cucullata </span>is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, where it has a wide range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">melvillensis</span>, of the Tiwi Islands, has not been found by exhaustive recent searches and is now considered extinct (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106005483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005485		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common or scarce on Papua New Guinea and common  (though very restricted) in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005486		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere common but more frequent in the north of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005487		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005489		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005490		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005491		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005492		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005493		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005495		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Protect significant areas of primary forest, both at sites where it is known to occur, and more extensively within its known range. Conduct searches to discover additional sub-populations.   <p></p>
106005495		distribution	eng	<em>Poecilodryas placens</em> is very patchily distributed in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has been recorded from Batanta Island, Wandammen Mountains, Fakfak Mountains, Kumawa Mountains, Weyland Mountains, Keku near Madang, Lake Kutubu, Mt Bosavi, Karimui, and a number of sites in Central Province (Diamond 1985, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Coates 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The one well-known site, at Veimauri, near Port Moresby, is being logged (P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are new recent records from Crater Mountain (A. Mack <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it is patchily abundant, and in limestone hill forest from Moro to Gobe, Gulf Province, where it is locally common (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may prove to be more widespread through the central mountains but is believed to be absent from many intervening areas (Diamond 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005495		habitat	eng	It is a hill forest species, occurring between 100 and 1,450 m; it is often more common at lower altitudes. It occupies primary forest and frequents shady areas with an open understorey.   <p></p>
106005495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
106005495		threats	eng	Although the small total population may be isolated into sub-populations, some of which may be threatened by logging, its extensive and often inaccessible range suggests that there may be more, safe sub-populations yet to be discovered.  <p></p>
106005496		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread, although generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005497		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).
106005498		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005499		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common, otherwise scarce or absent (Coates 1990).
106005500		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but locally common (Coates 1990).
106005503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990).
106005504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106005505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon, although generally scarce. The species is described as common on the Cape York peninsular (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005506		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range, although locally uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005508		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed </span><br/>Carry out regular surveys to monitor the species's population trend. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat in protected areas. Improve the effectiveness of existing protected areas.
106005508		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Irena cyanogastra </span>is endemic to the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>, where it is found on Luzon, Cataduanes, Polillo, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Dinagat, Mindanao and Basilan (Kennedy <em>et al</em>. 2000, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species appears to occur at low densities in most occupied habitats (Ding Li Yong <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population is thought to be in overall decline as a result of on-going forest clearance and degradation.
106005508		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in closed-canopy broadleaved evergreen forest, but also forest edge and perhaps secondary growth, ranging up to 1,500 m (Kennedy <em>et al</em>. 2000, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>). The species has been found to be very uncommon in secondary forest (Ding Li Yong <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), suggesting that it shows only low tolerance of habitat degradation.
106005508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).
106005508		threats	eng	<p>The wholesale clearance of forest habitats in this species's range is taking place as a result of logging, conversion to agriculture and mining activities. Major road building plans pose a further threat. Illegal logging is frequent in some protected areas. Most remaining lowland forest is now leased to logging concessions or mining applications, and there are current explorations in high elevation areas. Mining for chromite and nickel represents a significant threat to many remaining forest areas (J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). On Dinagat, forest is being rapidly cleared for surface-mining (D. Allen <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Logging operations on Basilan in the 1960s, followed by clearance for agriculture and increased hunting, have undoubtedly impacted the species.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Forest in some areas, especially in the lowlands, is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Soil erosion is also a problem in some areas. Anecdotal evidence that the species is affected by deforestation comes from the vast concession held by Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines (PICOP), where it has declined tremendously over the last 10 years and is now  difficult to find (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/></p>
106005509		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been no records from protected areas since 1966. Prior to this, it was recorded from sites now encompassed within Mt Kitanglad National Park, where most forest below 1,200&#160;m has now been cleared, Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve and the Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which has been proposed as a national park.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Samar, Leyte and in poorly known areas of Mindanao, to establish its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites (following surveys) for urgent establishment as protected areas. Study the habitat requirements of the species, with particular reference to the extent of reliance on primary forest habitats. <p></p>
106005509		distribution	eng	<em>Chloropsis flavipennis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte, Cebu and Mindanao (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been variously considered rare or very rare (historically) to uncommon but secretive (recently). However, there are post-1980 records from just two localities, Bislig, where it appears not uncommon, and Lake Sebu (both on Mindanao). On Samar and Leyte its current status is unknown. It was last recorded on each island in 1970 and 1964 respectively. It is presumed extinct on Cebu where it was last seen in 1920. <p></p>
106005509		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forest but also frequents secondary forest, forest edge and degraded habitats below 1,000&#160;m, although there are three records up to 1,270&#160;m.<p></p>
106005509		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106005509		threats	eng	Its whole range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000 m. Most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions or mining applications. In 1989, it was estimated that on Samar and Leyte only 433 km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained. The near-total clearance of forest on Cebu undoubtedly caused its extinction there. At the key site of Bislig, forest is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. <p></p>
106005510		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005511		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce. Race zosterops is described as common where habitat remains (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005512		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106005512		distribution	eng	<em>Chloropsis cyanopogon</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Banggi Island) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally fairly common in forest to 700 m. <p></p>
106005512		habitat	eng	Canopy and high edge of lowland evergreen forest, including peat-swamp forest, mature and regenerating secondary forest, also fruiting trees and shrubs in clearings and high shade cover of plantations. It occurs up to 700 m in most of its range but occasionally to 1,100 m in Malaysia. Birds in breeding condition have been recorded in February-August. <p></p>
106005512		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common where habitat remains (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005512		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia, and in Thailand and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), but the species's ability to survive in second growth and forest edge implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106005515		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common in substantial parts of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106005516		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the rate of forest loss within its altitudinal range using remote sensing techniques. Ensure that adequate areas of lower montane forest are protected within its range. <p></p>
106005516		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is restricted to the hills and lower montane areas of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, occurring throughout the uplands that run along the western spine of the island. <p></p>
106005516		habitat	eng	It inhabits hill and lower montane evergreen forest at 600-1,500 m. It also occurs in well-regenerated secondary growth and at the forest-edge. It feeds on fruit, seeds and arthropods.  <p></p>
106005516		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon to sparse (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
106005516		threats	eng	It is judged to be generally uncommon and sparse but forest loss on lower slopes is reducing the lower elevation ranges of several rare Sumatran endemics, and is likely to be causing a decline in this species also (BirdLife International 2001, Wells 2005. <p></p>
106005518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005520		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005521		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common  (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005524		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare   in China and Russia, relatively common in Korea, uncommon in Japan and   locally uncommon to common throughout its non-breeding range (Harris and   Franklin 2,000). Brazil (2009) estimates that there are: c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; &lt; c.100   breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106005525		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2,000), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005526		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6,300,000-13,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 18,900,000-39,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 38,600,000-156,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005527		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005528		population	eng	The global   population has not been quantified, though national population estimates   include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &gt; c.10,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005529		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005530		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005531		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005532		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the north and less common in the south (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2,000), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106005534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005535		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of habitat occupied by the species and safeguard against future threats.  <p></p>
106005535		distribution	eng	<em>Lanius validirostris</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it occurs on Luzon (nominate <em>validirostris</em>, in Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre), Mindoro (race <em>tertius</em>) and Mindanao (race <em>hachisuka</em>, including on Mt Kitanglad, Civolig, Mt Malindang and Mt Apo) (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <em> </em><p></p>
106005535		habitat	eng	This species is found in clearings within forest in the highlands, above 1,000 m.  <p></p>
106005535		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon.
106005535		threats	eng	Although its area of occupancy must be small, its habitat is apparently secure and it is present in a high proportion of suitable patches.   <p></p>
106005536		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 620,000-1,500,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,860,000-4,500,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,510,000-9,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005539		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2,000), while national population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although less common to rare in the extreme west of its range (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005541		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although less common in the extreme south of its range (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005543		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106005544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although uncommon in the far east of its range (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005545		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005546		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in the 295-km<sup>2</sup> Obô Natural Park, although there is no law enforcement within these areas and the lack of data about the species's ecological requirements makes it difficult to assess the benefits of these areas. The park was established in 1992, but was not protected by law until 2006, and although a zoning and management plan was being developed in 2008, when the first directors were appointed, the park was still lacking sufficient personnel (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species has been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2008, a training programme with NGOs Associação de Biólogos Saotomenses (ABS) and Monte Pico was initiated to involve locals in the study and conservation of São Tomean species, and this has since been achieved (Associação de Biólogos Saotomenses<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions Programme, the Species Guardian ABS has begun training local community members in the implementation of site-based conservation and has been conducting an awareness-raising campaign (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>. During an international workshop held in February 2008 to promote ecotourism in São Tomé e Príncipe, birdwatching was listed as an activity that should be encouraged and Ribeira Peixe was identified as a suitable site for a pilot project (Olmos and Turshak 2010). In July 2009, ABS promoted a short course for the training of local people as bird guides at Ribeira Peixe and efforts were on-going to promote the conservation of the area (Olmos and Turshak 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats, including possible predation by introduced mammals, in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law. Actively manage and protect the recently gazetted protected areas. Continue to promote the conservation of the Ribeira Peixe area. Closely monitor the impacts of projects to develop and restore plantations. <p></p>
106005546		distribution	eng	<em>Lanius newtoni</em> is endemic to the island of São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>. Previously known only from records in 1888 and 1928, it was rediscovered in 1990, with the observation of a single bird near the source of the rio Xufexufe, in the south-west of the island (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong>. Since 1994, there have been regular records from the Xufexufe catchment (Christy and Clarke 1998), a record of two birds from Valverde in the valley of the rio Ió Grande in the centre of the island (S. d'Assis Lima <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, five birds from an area of primary forest near the Ió Grande<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Scollaert and Willem<em> </em>2001)<strong></strong> in the south-east and a single bird south of Formoso Pequeno, in the Bombaím area. Surveys in 2007 and since have recorded birds at Ribeira Peixe and Ana Chaves (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, Olmos and Turshak 2007, <strong></strong> Associação de Biólogos Saotomenses<em> in litt</em>. 2010, <strong></strong>H Maia <em>et al</em>.<em> in litt</em>. 2010), and the species was recorded at Estação Sousa (at c.1,400 m) in 2008 (Maia and Alberto 2009, Leventis and Olmos 2009). Its population is unknown, but is likely to be tiny given the limited area of suitable habitat. However, a number of recent sightings have expanded its known range, hence the population may be greater than previously thought (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Anecdotal reports suggest that it has declined in some areas as human disturbance increased (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>, but these claims need substantiating. <p></p>
106005546		habitat	eng	All records are from primary lowland and mid-altitude forest up to c.1,400 m (Maia and Alberto 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in sites with little or no undergrowth, but with bare ground and rocks (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998). Many records are from ridgetops<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Scollaert and Willem<em> </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and along watercourses, so the species may have a linear or patchy distribution (Olmos and Turshak 2007, Olmos and Turshak 2010). Its apparent association with watercourses may indicate a preference for open areas in forest, such as gullies and riversides (Olmos and Turshak 2010). The breeding season is unknown but may be early in the year, prior to the dry season (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005546		population	eng	A number of recent sightings have expanded its known range, hence the population may be greater than previously thought (A. Gascoigne <i>in litt.</i> 2010). However, given that a full population survey has yet to be conducted, it is precautionarily assumed to have a tiny population of fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals, given the limited area of suitable habitat.
106005546		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of lowland and mid-altitude forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future. Suitable habitat, including that in protected areas, is affected by disturbance through hunting and palm-wine harvesting activities (Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds may have declined in the Bombaim area as disturbance has increased owing to people harvesting for palm-wine (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Agricultural encroachment in the more accessible areas of Obô Natural Park, such as Bom Sucesso, was evident in 2008, and hunting and palm-wine harvesting were widespread, with shelters constructed inside the park (Olmos and Turshak 2010). Plans to develop coffee plantations and restore and extend 630 ha of abandoned palm-oil plantations (to cover more than 2,000 ha; ready for harvest in 2013) in the vicinity of the core zone of Obô Natural Park and encroaching into its buffer zone (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong> are likely to result in the loss of suitable habitat and potentially have both positive and negative influences on levels of disturbance (Olmos and Turshak 2010). The palm-oil project, however, reportedly incorporates the protection of some primary and mature secondary forest (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, mona monkey <em>Cercopithecus mona</em>, civets and stoats are potential predators (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong> and feral pigs are present (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005547		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 breeding pairs, roughly equating to 30,000 individuals.
106005548		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 480,000-1,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,440,000-3,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1,950,000-7,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005549		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 35,000-100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 105,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 142,000-600,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005550		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005551		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005552		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106005553		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to very common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106005554		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005556		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005557		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005558		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005560		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Colombia, it is protected in the  Las Tangaras Nature Reserve, Chocó and El Pangan and Río Ñambí Community Nature Reserves, Nariño (Salaman and Stiles 1996,&#160;Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003, 2012<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). Although the population at Alto Pisones remains unprotected, the area may be included in the proposed Caramanta National Park, a management plan for which is in preparation (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador, populations may exist within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Some of the occupied area at Alto Tambo is protected as an extractive reserve by Fundación para el Desarrollo Forestal, indicating that the suitability of the area for this species may depend on future forestry practices (intensive <em>vs</em>. selective harvesting schemes; natural-forest management <em>vs</em>. plantations of exotic timber tree species) (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the montane forests between the known locations in both Colombia and Ecuador. Surveys should aim to determine presence and population densities across the region, with emphasis on existing reserves, e.g.  Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve. Protect the population at Alto de Pisones effectively and enforce protection of Río Ñambi Community Nature Reserve (Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure future protection of Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007). Encourage sympathetic management of extractive forest reserves close to Alto Tambo, owned by Fundación para el Desarrollo Forestal (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106005560		distribution	eng	<em>Vireo masteri</em> is restricted to the Pacific slope of the West Andes of <strong>Colombia </strong>and north-western <strong>Ecuador</strong>. It is known from half a dozen locations in Colombia (Alto de Pisones, Risaralda, and two in the Junín area, Nariño [Salaman 1994, Salaman and Stiles 1996, Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003<strong></strong>]),<strong> </strong>and Ecuador (Alto Tambo [Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007] and El Cristal, Esmeraldas, and the Maphi road, Pichincha [D. Brinkhuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010]).&#160;<p></p>
106005560		habitat	eng	In Colombia, it has only been recorded in wet (&gt;5,000 mm per year) primary cloud-forest, usually on steeply sloping terrain with a rather broken canopy and natural tree-fall gaps (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). Areas with abundant palms, epiphytes, ferns and moss between 1,100 and 1,600 m are favoured (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Ecuador, the species has been found in a wider range of habitats, including wet primary forest on level ground and steep slopes, as well as forest edges bordering pastures, roads, and railways, and re-growth of intensively logged forest, between 800 and 1,500m (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Colombia, up to five territorial singing males were encountered per kilometre of transect (Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, whilst densities of 15.9 ±1.4 territories/km<sup>2</sup> were estimated within suitable habitat in Ecuador (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007). Encountered in pairs, individuals and family parties, it primarily forages in the canopy, or occasionally lower down in clearings and tree-falls. It is often found accompanying mixed-species flocks (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003, Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007). Breeding takes place during the dry season, from June to October, and adults have been seen feeding juveniles in August (Salaman and Stiles 1996). It is a very active forager, feeding on invertebrates (Salaman and Stiles 1996). <p></p>
106005560		population	eng	Its potential global population was estimated to be as high as 78,000  ±7,000 mature individuals based on estimates of the area of forest cover  within its range. However, the two occupied areas in Colombia are 520  km apart, and although the species may occur in appropriate habitat in  between these sites (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>,  searches of the intervening area have completely failed to find the  species, despite excellent knowledge of its vocalizations and its  reliable response to playback (Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong></strong>.  Therefore, a precautionary population size estimate was made of 15,600  ±1,400 mature individuals based upon a figure of 20% occupancy within  the Extent of Occurrence (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007).  The total population is estimated to number 20,000-25,000 individuals,  based on population density data from Ecuador extrapolated over the  species's known range. Population size is thought to be declining owing to loss and fragmentation of its habitat.
106005560		threats	eng	The Chocó region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s. Plans to colonise and develop the region are progressing through infrastructural improvement, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, and are increasing the impact of logging, small-scale agriculture and gold mining (Salaman 1994, Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996). Coca cultivation is a growing problem at lower altitudes (Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Colombia, Río Ñambi Community Nature Reserve is threatened by logging, and disputes over land ownership, <strong><sup></sup></strong>but the population is currently secure (Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong></strong>. Alto de Pisones remains unprotected and largely deforested (Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, 2003)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador, the species is presumed to occur within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha; altitudinal range 80-4,900 m), Esmeraldas. However, the reserve is threatened by incursions from local communities, as well as colonists from Colombia and other regions of Ecuador (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007, Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Forests around Alto Tambo are largely unprotected and threatened by clearance for cattle ranching and forestry projects<strong></strong> (Jahn <em>et al</em>. 2007, Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005561		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005562		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Trapping cowbirds can significantly reduce brood parasitism (Collins <em>et al. </em>1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is a standard management tool in one California study area (<strong></strong>Beezley and Rieger 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect key habitats for the species and manage others in a beneficial way. Continue to monitor trends and ascertain whether it is still declining. Identify the key threats and develop appropriate actions to tackle them. <p></p>
106005562		distribution	eng	<em>Vireo bellii</em> summers in central and south-western <strong>USA </strong>and northern <strong>Mexico</strong>. Its winter range extends from south Baja California along the west coast of Central America, through <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong> and <strong>Honduras </strong>(<strong></strong>Brown 1993)<sup></sup>. The species has shown a decline of 2.7% per year since 1966 (J. Wells and K. Rosenberg <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005562		habitat	eng	It frequents dense, low, shrubby vegetation in its breeding range where it has been extensively studied (<strong></strong>Brown 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, very little is known about its density, ecology or habitat use in the winter grounds. <p></p>
106005562		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <p></p>
106005562		threats	eng	Habitat loss and modifications through agricultural spread, logging and housing developments have caused declines and continue to threaten the species. Secondarily, rates of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (<em>Molothrus ater</em>), have caused reductions in breeding populations in south-west USA (<strong></strong>Brown 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005563		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Conservation actions are occurring on public and private land. Management programs to restore vegetation and manage cowbirds have occurred at various locations including Balcones Canyonlands National Wildlife Refuge (Sexton 1997), Fort Hood (Kostecke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), Ker Wildlife Management Area, and Wichita Mountains (Grzybowski 1995). On private land, conservation has occurred through various programs including Habitat Conservation Plans, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department’s Wildlife Management Plans, the Landowner Incentive Program, and the Leon River Restoration Project. Research is ongoing on breeding and wintering areas in Mexico and USA.  <span class="hps"><strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the status and trends in occupancy, abundance, or both to determine abundance and trend. <span class="hps">Clarify the distribution in Mexico and estimate breeding numbers.<span style=""></span> Develop  conservation actions through engagement with private landowners to balance conservation actions with other land uses. <span class="hps">Assess threats on wintering grounds (J. Lyons <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Coordinate a range-wide action plan (J. A. Grzybowski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Restore suitable habitat within its breeding range. Locate and protect wintering habitats, focusing primarily on sites linked to rivers and streams /or fresh water resources in tropical dry forest. Establish a monitoring program for the wintering population in key areas.<span class="hps"><span class="hps"><span class="hps"><br/></span></span></span>
106005563		distribution	eng	<em>Vireo atricapilla</em> once bred from Kansas through Oklahoma to south-west Texas, <strong>USA</strong>, into central Coahuila and southern Nuevo Leon, <strong>Mexico</strong>, wintering along the Pacific coast of western Mexico from southern Sonora (Río Yaqui, Alvaro Obregón Dam) to Oaxaca (Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast and Matias Romero, and inland) (Grzybowski 1995, Howell and Webb 1995, S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. The species's distribution in Texas was assessed on private and public land in 57 counties across the state and found 13% of 10,700 point survey locations were occupied (McFarland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). The species was found to be more&#160; common in the western part of the state (McFarland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). In Oklahoma <a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>it is now restricted to a few sites in the Witchita Mountains<a style="mso-comment-reference:AC_2;mso-comment-date: 20120402T1335"> where breeding habitat is</a> fragmented (Grzybowski 1995). The total wintering area has been calculated to be 141,000 km2 (Rivera<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011).<p></p>
106005563		habitat	eng	It nests in low, very dense deciduous shrubland maintained by disturbances, such as fire, and in forest-grassland ecotone in Oklahoma, northern, and central Texas (Grzybowski 1995). Oaks <em>Quercus</em> spp. and densely foliaged shrubs (such as <em>Dyosporus texana</em>, <em>Rhus virens</em> and <em>Sophora segundiflora </em>[M. Lockwood <em>in litt.</em> 1999]) frequently occur in the species's habitat<span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>. In west Texas, it occurs in xeric thornscrub vegetation (Smith<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2012). In Mexico, it breeds at elevations of 1,000-2,000&#160;m&#160; (Howell and Webb 1995). It winters from the lowlands up to 1,600&#160;m (Howell and Webb 1995), often in arid deciduous scrub and bushy thickets associated with various woodland-types (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1998). Wintering density in Sinaloa has been calculated to be 7.68 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (González-Medina <em>et al</em>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106005563		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 8,000 individuals, equating to 5,300 mature individuals, having declined to c.6,000-10,000 by 2003. However, numbers for south-west Texas and Mexico are uncertain (J. Lyons <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The decline is not uniform: numbers are stable in the southern 25-30%  of the historic breeding range, and management has arrested declines elsewhere (J. A. Grzybowski <em>in litt.</em> 1999).
106005563		threats	eng	Fire suppression is probably the most serious threat, but urban development and agricultural conversion (especially to pasture) have caused significant habitat loss in Oklahoma, northern and central Texas (Grzybowski 1995, J. Lyons <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Intensive grazing by livestock and native grazers has further degraded habitat (Grzybowski 1995). The wintering habitat has been modified by changes in land use by reducing the potential suitable area or causing habitat fragmentation and reduced quality of winter habitat (González-Medina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009)<span class="hps"></span>. Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> inflict high rates of brood-parasitism, as high as 100% of nests, in some locations (Grzybowski 1995, Farrell 2011). Rates of nest predation are as high as 50% in some locations; primarily from snakes, fire ants <em>Solenopsis </em>spp. and mammals (Stake and Cimprich 2003, Campomizzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Frequency of parasitism and nest predation have been documented in &lt;50% of locations in west Texas where the most common nest predators were brown-headed cowbirds, snakes, and greater roadrunners (<em>Geococcyx californianus</em> [Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012]). The high return rates of birds to breeding territories suggests few threats on the wintering grounds (Grzybowski 1995). However, only 7.1% of its predicted wintering area is protected (Rivera <em>et al</em>. 2011).  <br/><p></p>
106005564		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005568		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005569		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005570		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005571		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005572		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2000, the San Andrés &amp; Providencia Archipelago was declared as the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve. In 2003, and education project was carried out carried out an education Project to increase awareness about the species (Moreno and Devenish 2003). There are ongoing projects investigating the species's biology and breeding ecology. (Gomez and Moreno 2008, Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In 2006 the Chincherry bird reserve was established for this species (C. Gómez-Montes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its distribution, abundance and ecological requirements. Assess the extent and status of native habitat remaining. Identify realistic plantation management practises that will favour this species. Monitor changes in land use and consider active measures to protect remaining habitat. Dry scrubland habitat, which is vital for breeding and currently unprotected, should be conserved (Gómez-Montes and Moreno 2008). <p></p>
106005572		distribution	eng	<em>Vireo caribaeus</em> is endemic to San Andrés, <strong>Colombia</strong>, an island in the west Caribbean, east of Nicaragua. It is apparently now restricted to 17 km<sup>2</sup>, where it is common. A study estimated between 8,200 and 14,800 individuals on the island (Rosselli 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005572		habitat	eng	Highest densities occur in coconut plantations with scattered trees and scrub, dry lowland woodland and inland mangrove swamps, but lower densities occur in mesophytic woodland and brushy pastures (Rosselli 1998, Moreno and Devenish 2003). Within this wide range of habitats it has a preference for areas of dense understorey vegetation (Rosselli1998)<strong></strong>. Breeding territory size ranges from 0.22 to 0.50 ha (Russel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979, Gómez-Montes and Moreno 2008). Breeding takes place from February to June (Gómez-Montes and Moreno 2008, Gomez et al. 2010) and seems to be triggered by photoperiod and by the first significant rains after the dry season (Gomez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Nests are built suspended from the forks of branches, in both mangroves and shrubby bushes (Barlow and Nash 1985). Dry scrub with a ground cover of dead leaves is the preferred nexting habitat (Gómez-Montes and Moreno 2008). Next failure rates of 47% have been recorded, with most failure due to abandonment of eggs (Gómez-Montes and Moreno 2008). It gleans actively for caterpillars and other arthropods and feeds fruit to its chicks as well as insects (Rosselli 1998, Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106005572		population	eng	The species was estimated at 8,200-14,700 by Rosselli (1998); however, this be considered as preliminary as the methodology did not account for detectability differences between habitats nor did it account for the effective population percentage (Gómez-Montes 2011). As such, the population is precautionarily placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005572		threats	eng	San Andrés is densely populated and developed, with little remaining natural vegetation. The northern 20% of the island is urbanised, with tourist developments south of the urban zone. Habitat on most of the remainder of the island has been converted for agriculture and coconut-palm cultivation but, within this area, small and scattered patches of remnant habitat (mostly associated with inland mangroves) and scrub are found. The human population, tourism and agriculture are all expanding. Coastal mangroves are also being destroyed by waste oil and a hot-water outflow, although the extent to which the species is affected is unknown. Suitable habitats for the San Andrés population are highly fragmented. Exceptional events during the breeding season such as slash and burn and hurricanes may have an impact on the breeding population (Rosselli 1998).  <p></p>
106005574		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005577		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Puerto Rico (to USA). It does not occur east of a line betwen Loiza Aldea, Caguas and Patillas (Raffaele 1983).
106005577		habitat	eng	The species occurs chiefly in forest and undergrowth on limestone hills, and also in coffee plantations (AOU 1983). It also occurs in mangroves at Torrecilla-Piñones, but rather strangely is not found in any other mangrove areas on the island (Raffaele 1983). Breeding takes place from March to June (Raffaele et al. 1998).
106005577		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005577		threats	eng	Nest parasitism by Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus bonariensis has been shown to reduce breeding success to the extent that in 1990-1993 only 5% of active study nests fledged young vireos (Faaborg et al. 1997).
106005578		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect national parks and other protected areas. Create a national park in Cockpit Country. Encourage coffee farming practices which allow the persistence of the species. Effectively monitor key populations.   <p></p>
106005578		distribution	eng	<em>Vireo osburni</em> is endemic to <strong>Jamaica</strong> where it is uncommon; however it occurs singly and is secretive, so may conversely be largely overlooked (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs widely in upland forest, such as in the Blue and John Crow Mountains, Cockpit Country and Mt. Diablo (Downer and Sutton 1990, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005578		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet limestone and montane forests at 500-2,200 m.   <p></p>
106005578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005578		threats	eng	Widespread habitat destruction has resulted in significant range contractions, but it has been found in upland woods and coffee plantations, suggesting some tolerance of habitat degradation (Bond 1984, Haynes <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong></strong>. Habitat loss has been primarily caused by the establishment of plantations (mostly coffee and Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em>), small-scale farming and clearance for development (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005586		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends on Fernando de Noronha. Ensure that sufficient remaining secondary forest habitats receive adequate protection. <p></p>
106005586		distribution	eng	<em>Vireo gracilirostris</em> is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean island of Fernando de Noronha (18.4 km<sup>2</sup>), <strong>Brazil</strong>, with sporadic records on secondary islands (Olson 1994, A. Schulz Neto <em>in litt.</em> 1999). An informal census along road systems counted 90 individuals in 2003 (T. Marks <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, and preliminary censuses along the trail to Mirante dos Golfinhos e Baia do Sancho in 2003 counted 84 birds (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total population has not been quantified, but is believed to number more than 1,000 individuals.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005586		habitat	eng	This species is common in forest, gardens or scrub, particularly where there are small fig trees, and is abundant around Morro do Pico and in the western quarter (Oren 1982, Olson 1994)<strong></strong>. It is absent from cleared areas, but persists readily in secondary habitats.  <p></p>
106005586		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 670 mature individuals (T. Mark <em>in litt.</em> 2003).
106005586		threats	eng	Its absence from cleared areas suggests that this species was presumably historically more widespread, as the island was reportedly covered in forest when discovered in 1503 (Olson 1994). All large trees have long since been cut and all remaining vegetation on the island is secondary (Olson 1994). However, this appears to have had little effect on the viability of the population. Given the tiny range of this species, it could be at risk from major wildfire events (T. Marks <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005588		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005591		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005592		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005593		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005595		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005598		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005600		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005602		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005603		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005604		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106005604		distribution	eng	On the E slope of the Andes in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, from Napo south to Zamora-Chinchipe and in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> in San Martin and Huanaco to N Junin.
106005604		habitat	eng	Found alone or in pairs feeding in forest edge, clearings and second growth between 600-1700m. Occasionally observed with other species, usually inconspicuous. Recently fledged young seen in June in Peru, apparently sedentary. Local and patchy across range, generally uncommon.
106005604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005604		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
106005605		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005606		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005607		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search areas where the species has been recently reported as well as historical sites and other areas of potentially suitable habitat. Study its voice, ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106005607		distribution	eng	<em>Androphobus viridis</em> is a poorly-known species known from only five sites on New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It was collected at, but there have been no recent records from, Mt Goliath, the Lake Habbema/Ibele River region and the Weyland Mountains (all in the Snow Mountains) (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. There are a series of recent sightings at Ambua, near Tari (Eastwood and Gregory 1995,<strong></strong> P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1999, G. Dutson<em> in litt</em>. 2010,<strong></strong> P. Gregory <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>, in Wapoga in Papua (Mack and Alonso 2000)<strong></strong> and a distinctive and unknown song recorded in the Star Mountains in 1992 may have been this species (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong></strong>. As the Snow Mountains and the intervening range is little visited, it may occur more widely. Although it appears to occur at low population densities, it is secretive and likely to be overlooked unless singing (Mack and Alonso 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005607		habitat	eng	Records are from montane forest at 1,400-2,700 m. <p></p>
106005607		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare.
106005607		threats	eng	The montane forest from which it is known is unlikely to be threatened by extensive logging. Many areas occupied by the species, including steep mountainsides (B. Beehler<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, will be inaccessible to loggers. <p></p>
106005608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005609		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Following a fire at Mt Manypeaks in 2004-2005, a monitoring project was started in March 2005, which aimed to complete base-line post fire surveys of the species (Danks and Comer 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The project also involved increased fox control, cat trapping and improvements to fire management capabilities. Most of the remaining habitat on Kangaroo Island is protected. The population of <em>nigrogularis</em> has been surveyed, and all sub-populations are actively protected from fire, particularly those at Two People's Bay. The recovery of this subspecies is being managed by the South Coast Threatened Birds Recovery Team. Samples for analysis of the genetic relationship of the subspecies were being collected in 2007 and it was anticipated that analysis would occur in 2007-2008 (A. Burbidge <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Subspecies <em>leucogaster, lashmari, nigrogularis</em>: Study the effects of fire including the subspecies' ability to survive it, and the re-establishment of sub-populations in relation to post-fire age. Establish a fire control/management programme that will benefit each subspecies. Subspecies <em>leucogaster</em>: Re-establish the species where fire has eliminated it. Subspecies <em>oberon</em>: Cease clearance of habitat. Rehabilitate habitat fragments. Determine characteristics of important fragments. All subspecies: Clarify genetic relationships of subspecies. Survey ranges and carry out population monitoring on known sub-populations. <p></p>
106005609		distribution	eng	<em>Psophodes nigrogularis</em> is found in four isolated sub-populations in south-west and southern <strong>Australia</strong>. Nominate <em>nigrogularis</em> is restricted to a small area east of Albany where the population is c.500 mature individuals and decreasing (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Subspecies <em>oberon</em> is found in scattered localities in southern Western Australia and numbers c.5,000 mature individuals, and is probably declining. Subspecies <em>lashmari</em> on Kangaroo Island has a stable population of c.2,000 mature individuals. The fourth, <em>leucogaster</em>, has a declining population of c.6,000 mature individuals, and is restricted to a small number of widely scattered localities in southern South Australia and north-western Victoria. Following a series of fires in the Two Peoples Bay-Manypeaks area between December 2000 and December 2004, the number of singing males detected in censuses dropped from over 400 in 2001 to about 200 in 2005 (A. Burbidge <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. There was a further decrease in the number detected in 2006 (about 175) but, while it is clear that fire had a major impact, it is not clear how much of the variation between years is attributable to survey technique or other causes (A. Burbidge <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Fitzgerald River National Park, <em>oberon</em> is subject to population fluctuations in response to wildfire (A. Burbidge <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005609		habitat	eng	Overall, the various subspecies occupy mallee eucalyptus, heath, shrubland or acacia vegetation, often near coasts. They feed by foraging on the ground for invertebrates.   <p></p>
106005609		population	eng	The combined total for the populations of each subspecies given in Garnett et al. (2011) is 13,500 mature individuals.
106005609		threats	eng	Past clearance of mallee and heath vegetation for agriculture has been responsible for the substantial contraction and fragmentation of the species's range. About half of the habitat on Kangaroo Island that was suitable for <em>lashmari</em> has been cleared for agriculture. Over half of the habitat used by <em>oberon</em> has also been cleared for this purpose. Fire is currently the major threat in most areas. Fires are likely to further fragment populations and may have led to local extinctions of <em>nigrogularis</em>. The population increase of <em>nigrogularis</em> at Two Peoples Bay has been attributed to the exclusion of fire from the area since 1970. In 2004-2005, a fire at Mt Manypeaks had a significant impact on the local population of <em>nigrogularis</em><strong> </strong>(Danks and Comer 2006). It is not known at what stage post-fire habitat is suitable for the species, but the Manypeaks fire was patchy and left a mosaic of burn intensities that may benefit the species in the future. The species has the ability to recover from this fire, as there are established populations nearby, and the recovery of vegetation had already begun in the winter of 2005, aided by high rainfall (Danks and Comer 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many of the relatively widespread populations of <em>oberon</em> are likely to become extinct over time as a result of random processes from which they can no longer recover because they cannot recolonise.    <p></p>
106005610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005612		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cinclosoma punctatum</span> occurs in south-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, including Tasmania (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">anachoreta</span> of the Mt Lofty Ranges was last recorded in 1983 and is likely to be extinct (Paton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).
106005612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and generally scarce (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005613		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but patchy and only locally at all common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005614		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the east of its range and locally quite common in the west of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005616		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).
106005619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005620		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species,. although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding its range to determine the full extent of distribution and measure rates of population decline or range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland broadleaved forest throughout the Sundaic region.   <p></p>
106005620		distribution	eng	<em>Eupetes macrocerus</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is scarce to fairly common throughout this range, and probably under-recorded as a result of its marked shyness. <em> <p></p></em>
106005620		habitat	eng	This species is found in tall lowland broadleaved forest and logged forest with closed canopy, layered structure and a well vegetated floor. Also found in swamp and heath-forest. It is most abundant in lowlands, with a few records from the base of lower montane forest. Records are from up to 1,060 m in Peninsular Malaysia and 900 m on Sumatra and Borneo.   <p></p>
106005620		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to fairly common over much of its range, although locally numerous. The species is described as rare in Taman Negara, Malaysia (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106005620		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of tall logged forest. However, it is likely to be very sensitive to higher levels of logging disturbance or clearance.  <p></p>
106005621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common though thinly distributed in many places (Coates 1990).
106005622		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005624		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Australia and uncommon or locally common on New Guinea (Coates 1990, Morcombe 2000).
106005625		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather rare and elusive, although locally common on Mt Tafa (Coates 1990).
106005626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Kapiti and Little Barrier islands and moderately common in forested areas of the north island of New Zealand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005627		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A monitoring programme, initiated in 1983, covers 14 populations at 12 key sites (O'Donnell 1996)<strong></strong>. A range of studies assisting the species's management has been completed and several are on-going. Intensive trapping is carried out in key habitats for the control of <em>M. erminea</em> during years of heavy seeding (O'Donnell 1993)<strong></strong>. Birds have been successfully translocated to three habitats free of mammalian predators, including on Codfish Island in 2003, where the following breeding season was successful (Anon. 2004)<strong></strong>. A captive population has recently been established (C. O'Donnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for new, undiscovered populations. Improve management techniques for effective predator control over large geographic areas. Improve understanding of factors that impact on populations. Manage key wild populations. Undertake further island transfers, including re-establishing birds in podocarp/hardwood forest-types. Continue development of captive-management potential (C. O'Donnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005627		distribution	eng	<em>Mohoua ochrocephala</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong> where it was formerly widespread in the South and Stewart Islands. It has disappeared from 75% of its former range since the arrival of Europeans and introduced predators (O'Donnell 1996, O'Donnell <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, and is now extinct on Stewart Island, having also gone from several areas of large, unmodified forest on the South Island (O'Donnell 1996)<strong></strong>. Strongholds are in the Fiordland and Mt Aspiring National Parks, with c.10 other small, fragmented populations (Elliott and O'Donnell 1988)<strong></strong>. The total population numbers 2,000-3,000 individuals (A. Grant <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, mostly in Fiordland, and is declining rapidly, being also subject to severe fluctuations (Heather and Robertson 1997, R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. During 1982-1993, out of 14 monitored populations, one became extinct, five seriously declined (three to the verge of extinction), one increased and seven did not change significantly. The species was also seriously affected by rat irruptions in 1999-2000, with two populations undergoing local extinction and three more having significant population crashes. However, some populations have now been established on offshore islands (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005627		habitat	eng	Its preferred habitat is lowland red beech <em>Nothofagus fusca</em> forest on river terraces (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it was once present in podocarp/hardwood forests (Elliott 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is primarily insectivorous, but occasionally feeds on fruit when in season. It nests in small cavities in large, old trees (Elliott <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It usually lays three eggs in two clutches per season (Elliott 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its life expectancy is five years, although two wild birds are at least 16 years old (C. O'Donnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005627		population	eng	The population has been estimated to number 1,000-2,499 mature individuals (A. Grant per R. Hitchmough <I>in litt.</I> 2005). This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000.
106005627		threats	eng	Approximately every four to six years, <em>Nothofagus</em> trees produce prolific seeds, and insect, then mouse, then stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> numbers irrupt. <em>M. erminea</em> take eggs, chicks and a disproportionate number of adult females. In such years, breeding success and the number of adult females in some populations can decrease by 50-100% (Elliott 1996, O'Donnell and Phillipson 1996, O'Donnell <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The period between population crashes is generally insufficient for full recovery (Elliott and O'Donnell 1988, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> are also implicated (O'Donnell <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, and caused serious recent population crashes. <p></p>
106005628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005629		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005630		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005632		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in higher parts of its altitudinal range (Coates 1990).
106005633		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to common at higher elevations and otherwise uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).
106005634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although apparently locally quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005635		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in the north of its range and commoner in  the south (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005637		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species, but the majority of remaining populations are in protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor trends in major sub-populations, and rates of recovery from fire. Minimise the frequency and scale of fire in occupied sites. Monitor populations at key sites, especially where management is taking place, and study the distribution and numbers outside protected areas. Research the extent of genetic isolation of geographically separated populations and the potential need for active translocations, and develop a reintroduction programme if necessary. Study the efficacy of herbivore and fox control, and the impact of broombush harvesting operations, amending harvesting protocols if necessary. Manage total grazing pressure, especially from introduced herbivores. Work with landholders outside protected areas to manage their land appropriately (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106005637		distribution	eng	<em>Pachycephala rufogularis</em> is restricted to eastern South Australia and adjacent north-western Victoria, <strong>Australia</strong>, with outlying populations in mallee isolates in New South Wales. The largest remaining population, in the Riverland Biosphere Reserve is estimated to  contain c1,000 mature individuals, with 100-200 pairs in the Ngarkat /  Big Desert / Wyperfield complex and 100 pairs in the Murray-Sunset /  Hattah complex. Given that there are thought to be only small numbers in  Scotia and central New South Wales, the total population is estimated  to be no greater than 2,000 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Fires have driven ongoing population declines in much of the former range.<br/><p></p>
106005637		habitat	eng	The species breeds in mallee eucalypts 5-8 m tall that form an open canopy over a moderately dense and diverse shrub layer, and is usually found in habitats with spinifex <span style="font-style: italic;">Triodia </span>hummock grassland or tall open heath, especially mallee unburned for 21-44 years or heath-dominated mallee unburned for 10-24 years (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Other woodland habitats are occupied outside the breeding season. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates and forages on or close to the ground. <br/><p></p>
106005637		population	eng	The population in the Riverland Biosphere Reserve is estimated to contain c1,000 mature individuals, with 100-200 pairs in the Ngarkat / Big Desert / Wyperfield complex and 100 pairs in the Murray-Sunset / Hattah complex. Given that there are thought to be only small numbers in Scotia and central New South Wales, the total population is estimated to be no greater than 2,000 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106005637		threats	eng	Clearance of mallee in the 19th and 20th centuries caused the loss of over half the historic range of the species. In remaining habitat, fires represent the primary current threat as the species prefers a vegetation age of at least five years after fire. Fires made 90% of Billiate Conservation Park unsuitable in 1988, as well as large tracts of Ngarkat Conservation Park and the Big Desert in 1986-1988, and a large fire burnt a substantial proportion of Taylorville Station, Riverland Biosphere Reserve in the 1990s. Over a period of 20 years, the species has been replaced by Gilbert's Whistler <em>P. inornata</em> at Chapman's Bore and parts of the western Murray Mallee, probably as a result of changes in habitat, however competition between the two species is thought to be secondary compared to other threats (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Grazing by mammalian herbivores including livestock, feral goats <span style="font-style: italic;">Hircus capra</span> and rabbits <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryctolagus cuniculus </span>may cause habitat degradation in some areas and predation by Red Fox <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes </span>is a further potential threat (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Harvesting of broombush <span style="font-style: italic;">Melaleuca uncinata</span> continues at some sites and may have negative local effects on whistler habitat (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Most sub-populations are now in areas managed for conservation.  <p></p>
106005638		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparsely distributed and usually rare (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005639		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in India and the Andaman islands and uncommon to locally common in South-East Asia, although scarce in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant locally and often more common over 1000 m (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005641		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon and rare on Mindanao (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106005642		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be locally fairly common but otherwise scarce or absent (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common and otherwise scarce (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005645		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range, especially at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005646		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common within its very small range, although very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005651		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005652		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997, Coates 1990, Doughty et al. 1999).
106005653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common within its main altitudinal range and scarce at lower elevations (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005655		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005656		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106005657		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Pratt et al. 1987).
106005658		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate population size so that future trends can be elucidated.  Compare the abundance of the species on islands with different predator suites so that their relative effects can be evaluated.  Instigate a community education programme to promote animal husbandry practices which minimise disturbance to native forests.  Consider protecting a suitable tract of native forest.   <p></p>
106005658		distribution	eng	<em>Pachycephala jacquinoti</em> is endemic to the Vava'u group of islands in <strong>Tonga</strong>, where it is reportedly common and widespread (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Steadman <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  More precise data on population size and trends would be very desirable.   <p></p>
106005658		habitat	eng	It is an understorey omnivore and forest obligate, and occurs in successional habitats only when adjacent to mature forest (Steadman <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since only very limited areas of native forest remain, it now occurs primarily in very steep or inaccessible places, coastal littoral areas and swamps (Thistlethwaite <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005658		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
106005658		threats	eng	A varying set of non-native mammals occurs on each of the 16 islands of Vava'u, including Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and black rat <em>R. rattus</em> which are likely predators, and ungulates which over-browse native understorey vegetation (Steadman <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. If deforestation outpaces forest regrowth, the population of <em>P. jacquinoti</em> will surely decline (Steadman <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant in the middle to higher parts of its range but scarce at lower elevations (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common on Bougainville and Guadalcanal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106005662		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to very common (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005663		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).
106005664		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Yamdena (Coates et al. 1997).
106005665		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the western highlands but very local and scarce elsewhere on New Guinea (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).
106005666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce and local but patchily common (Coates 1990).
106005667		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Doughty et al. 1999).
106005668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005669		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as rare.
106005670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106005671		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.
106005671		habitat	eng	The species is usually found in rainforest-covered mountains above 250 m (Blakers et al. 1984).
106005671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005671		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
106005672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005674		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered moderately common to common.
106005675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common in some areas and rare or absent in others (Coates 1990).
106005676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005677		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey in suitable habitat between the two known locations to locate additional sub-populations. Monitor habitat trends at the two known sites. Protect significant areas of forest at the two sites where it is currently known to occur.  <p></p>
106005677		distribution	eng	<em>Pitohui incertus</em> is known from two tiny areas of New Guinea: about 90 km up the Noord River in Papua, formerly Irian Jaya (<strong>Indonesia</strong>) and 320 km to the east, between Kiunga and the Palmer Junction on the Fly River (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) (Diamond and Raga 1978, Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Coates 1990)<strong></strong>. It may prove to be widespread across the northern Trans-Fly region since studies in its habitat have been restricted to these two locations (Diamond and Raga 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to be common in the two known localities (P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1996, Eastwood 1998,<strong></strong> B. Whitney <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005677		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally flooded lowland forest, usually with a broken canopy and open middle storey, on flat subcoastal plains; in areas of high annual rainfall (more than 3,750 mm).  <p></p>
106005677		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally fairly common to common.
106005677		threats	eng	Its habitat is not thought to be under threat at present, but if it is only present in these two sites, any degradation of the habitat at either site would be detrimental the long-term survival of the species.  <p></p>
106005678		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005679		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally fairly common but otherwise scarce (Coates 1990).
106005680		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Coates 1990).
106005681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to rare (Coates 1990).
106005682		distribution	eng	<em>Turnagra capensis</em>, according to Buller, was common until 1863 on the South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, from where it is known from numerous specimens<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). However, the species declined very rapidly in the 1880s, and the definite record was from 1905 (Tennyson and Martinson 2006). There have been unconfirmed reports since, including in 1963<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994). <strong> </strong> <p></p>
106005682		habitat	eng	It was observed foraging in native forest undergrowth.  <p></p>
106005682		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably mainly due to predation by introduced rats<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), but habitat destruction is likely to have been a contributing factor.  <p></p>
106005683		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106005683		distribution	eng	<em>Platylophus galericulatus</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally uncommon throughout this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106005683		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland evergreen forest, both primary and tall secondary, up to 1,500 m.   <p></p>
106005683		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered locally common.
106005683		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill and submontane forests, which are under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106005684		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106005684		distribution	eng	<em>Platysmurus leucopterus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (rare), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Bangka) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread but uncommon) (BirdLife International 2001). <em> <p></p></em>
106005684		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dense lowland evergreen forest, swampy woodland, tall secondary forest, forest edges and mangroves, up to 800 m.   <p></p>
106005684		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon.
106005684		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary and hill forest.  <p></p>
106005685		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No new policies are in place, whilst old ones are no longer implemented (Balda 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify suitable areas of pinyon-juniper habitat for protection. Promote suitable land-management practices. Encourage land-owners to take advantage of funding opportunities to create, restore and maintain suitable habitat on their land. Reclassify high-quality, contiguous patches of pinyon juniper woodland as ecologically valuable and protected; most Pinyon Jay habitat is on public land, and management plans focused on preserving this forest are essential (R. Benford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <br/><p></p>
106005685		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus</em> is a permanent resident of the foothills and lower mountain slopes of the western and south-western <strong>U.S.A.</strong> and northern Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong>.  In the U.S.A., it is found from central Oregon east to western South Dakota and south to central New Mexico and western Oklahoma<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In years when pine crops fail it becomes irruptive, with individuals often dispersing far outside their normal range (Madge and Burn 1993, Balda 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Owing mainly to habitat loss, this species is estimated to have suffered a population decline of 36.9% per decade since 1966 (and 59% per decade between 1993 and 2002), but these estimates are unreliable owing to small sample sizes (Sauer <em>et al.</em> 2003,<strong></strong> J. Wells <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005685		habitat	eng	This species is a highly social cooperatively-breeding bird, forming permanent flocks of typically 250 individuals (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong></strong>, but which may number over 500 (Balda 2002)<strong></strong>. Many birds spend their entire lives in their natal flocks, and individuals that do disperse (mostly young females) generally travel short distances. Dispersal habits are affected by changes in local habitat, and by fluctuating operational sex ratios within and among flocks (R. Benford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Although omnivorous, it has a mutualist relationship with the pinyon pine of western North America, dispersing the large wingless seeds long distances and reaping the reward of an energy and nutrient rich food source. Individuals have excellent spatial memories, giving them uncanny recovery accuracy when digging up food stores months after caching, even through snow. It is one of the earliest nesting passerines in the U.S.A., commencing breeding in the winter in areas where the pine-seed crop was abundant the previous autumn. One population in New Mexico breeds in autumn when pinyon pine cone crops are available (Balda 2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005685		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <p></p>
106005685		threats	eng	The major threat to this species is the destruction of its major habitat type, pinyon-juniper woodland. Land managers have followed a policy to eradicate this woodland, with the U.S. Forest Service classifying it as "non-commercial" and placing it in a "no-value" category. During the 1940s-1960s, major programmes to eradicate the entire habitat were carried out, during which possibly millions of <em>G. cyanocephalus</em> died owing to habitat destruction. Currently herbicides, mechanical ploughing and fire are used to turn pinyon-juniper woodland into pasture land for cattle. Fire-suppression policies in south-west U.S.A. have led to huge, uncontrolled wildfires that consumed large areas of suitable habitat in the late 1990s (Balda 2002)<strong></strong>. A "catastrophic" drought in the early 2000s also caused considerable mortality (Benford 2008). The decline of pinyon pine and associated encroachment of juniper associated with global warming are primary factors restricting habitat and limiting reproductive success (R. Benford <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106005688		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Conservation action is now controlling introduced sheep and pigs, and in many areas the vegetation is recovering dramatically, but the impact of these ecological changes on the status of this species requires careful monitoring. A programme of vaccination against West Nile virus amongst the population was initiated in 2008 (Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011), with at least 100 birds vaccinated so far (The Nature Conservancy 2011). However, this is considered a precautionary early measure using a vaccine that has been tested on Western Scrub-jay <em>A. californica </em>with only modest success (Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011, Wheeler <em>et al</em>. 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to implement a vaccination programme, with the aim of establishing a stable sub-set of several hundred vaccinated birds. Continue to monitor the population for any signs of decline. Eradicate rats from the Channel Islands. Manage the threat of wildfire.<br/><p></p>
106005688		distribution	eng	<em>Aphelocoma insularis</em> is endemic to the California Channel Islands, <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, being extant only on Santa Cruz Island (250 km<sup>2</sup>). Evidence suggests that the species could have been extant on Santa Rosa Island until perhaps the early to mid-20th century (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The species’s population was previously estimated to number c.9,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), of which 7,000 were thought to be breeders (Kelsey and Collins 2000, Rich <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004). However, survey results from 2008 and 2009 suggest there may actually be fewer than 3,000 individuals, and perhaps only c.2,400, probably including fewer than 1,000 breeding pairs, but with no clear evidence of a decline (Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011, The Nature Conservancy 2011, S. Sillett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106005688		habitat	eng	It occurs throughout nearly all of the woody vegetation on the island, but is especially abundant in canyons and on north facing slopes dominated by <em>Quercus</em> trees.  <p></p>
106005688		population	eng	The species's population was previously estimated to number c.9,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), including c.7,000 breeders (Kelsey and Collins 2000, Rich <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004). However, the analysis of survey results from 2008 and 2009 suggests there may actually be fewer than 3,000 individuals, and perhaps only c.2,400, probably including fewer than 1,000 breeding pairs (Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011, The Nature Conservancy 2011, S. Sillett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Based on this information, the number of mature individuals is estimated at c.2,000.<br/><p></p>
106005688		threats	eng	Very little is known about the species's historic status or ecology; however, there is evidence to suggest that it was lost from Santa Rosa Island in the early to mid-20th century owing at least partly to the impacts of livestock on native vegetation (Morrison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Vegetation on Santa Cruz has been severely degraded by introduced sheep and pigs, but is recovering since their control. It may be susceptible to catastrophic fires and the introduction of diseases. There is particular concern over the potential danger from West Nile virus, which arrived in mainland southern California in 2003, but has not yet become established on Santa Cruz Island (c.30 km from the mainland) (Boyce <em>et al</em>. 2011, Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011). It is unclear whether this is simply because a vector, most likely an infected bird, has not yet carried the virus to the island or because the climate there is too cool for efficient virus replication in mosquitoes, potentially providing the island’s avifauna with a thermal refuge (Boyce <em>et al</em>. 2011, Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011). If this latter explanation is correct, it may be only temporary, owing to the potential effects of projected climate change (Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011). The establishment of West Nile virus on Santa Cruz Island is expected to be catastrophic for the species, assuming a lack of adequate intervention, as it is likely to be at risk of high mortality from the virus, given the lethal impacts in other corvid species (e.g. Kilpatrick <em>et al</em>. 2007, LaDeau <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has been recommended that over 100 individuals in the population be vaccinated each year (Boyce <em>et al</em>. 2011). Climate change may also make the island’s vegetation more susceptible to wildfire. In addition, the species is potentially susceptible to the introduction of rats (<em>Rattus</em> spp.), which are absent from Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands, but are extant on three of the other six Channel Islands, having been eradicated from another (Morrison <em>et al</em>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106005690		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been studied since 1969 and this continues, especially at and near the Archbold Biological Station (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998). A long-term study at Kennedy Space  Center has been running for &gt;20 years, focusing on linking demography to habitat management decision making (e.g. Breininger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). A species recovery plan was published in 1990 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990) and the species is included in the Multi-Species Recovery Plan for South Florida (1999). There are now four populations of colour-banded jays that are monitored (R. Bowman <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Habitat management by burning is still too site-specific (R. Bowman <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Supplementary feeding at Archbold Biological Station in south-central <span class="hit">Florida from 2000 to 2007 resulted in <span class="hit">a marked improvement of <span class="hit">reproductive output (Schoech <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) which has potential impacts for local populations as well as potential translocated populations.<strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Regularly determine the extent of habitat (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Research the causes of variation in birth rates, death rates, and spatial/temporal movement patterns, in both natural and human-modified habitats (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Maintain long-term ecological studies (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Breininger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009<span class="hit"><span class="hit"><span class="hit">)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Acquire and actively manage a protected-area network (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Burn patches of habitat based on habitat states and predicted trajectories<span class="hit"><span class="hit"><span class="hit"> (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Breininger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<span class="hit"><span class="hit"><span class="hit"> <p></p></span></span></span></span></span>
106005690		distribution	eng	<em>Aphelocoma coerulescens</em> was known from scattered localities in 39 of 40 peninsula counties in Florida, <strong>USA</strong>, but has declined since the mid-19th century and most rapidly since 1950. The current range is local and fragmented from Flagler, Marion and Levy counties to Collier, Glades and Palm Beach. The breeding population was 4,000 pairs in 1993, but has continued to decline by &gt;25% since then (Boughton and Bowman 2011) and is now estimated at c.3,000 family groups (Boughton and Bowman 2011, R. Bowman<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). In many areas, average group size is below three, thus the global population is suspected to be 6,000-9,000 individuals. <br/><p></p>
106005690		habitat	eng	It is entirely restricted to scrub and shrubby flatwoods (a xeromorphic shrub community dominated by a layer of oak <em>Quercus</em> spp. rarely more than 2 m high). Ground cover is sparse with bare sand patches for foraging and acorn-caching. It rarely uses scrub with more than 15% pine cover. Habitat structure and composition are maintained by frequent fires, and optimal habitat occurs 5-15 years post-fire. Fire frequency for coastal scrub should be greater than that for inland scrub as open sandy areas do not persist in coastal areas for more than a few years (D. Breininger <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It is permanently territorial, with habitat fragmentation decreasing territory size and resulting in increased predation and reduced reproductive success. Dispersal is inhibited by more than 8 km of open, non-scrub habitat or 1 km of forest. First brood eggs are laid from March-May, and true second brood attempts are rare. Some nests benefit from helpers, which increase reproductive success (Franzreb 2007)<strong></strong>. It feeds mainly on arthropods, acorns and small vertebrates (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106005690		population	eng	The breeding population was 4,000 pairs in 1993 (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996, G. E. Woolfenden<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 1998), but has decline by &gt;25% since then (Boughton and Bowman  2011) and is now estimated at c.3,000 family groups (R. Bowman<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). In many areas, average group size is below three, thus the global population is suspected to be 6,000-9,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 4,000-6,000 mature individuals.
106005690		threats	eng	Fire suppression in remaining habitat has been identified as a major continuing threat because it causes scrub to overgrow and pine density to increase, rendering habitat unsuitable. Declines on lands specifically protected for the species are largely the  result of reduced habitat quality, caused by disrupted fire regimes (Breininger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, 2006, 2009, 2010). In addition, extensive habitat fragmentation has  led to a high degree of genetic differentiation (Coulon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and  additional land protection to increase connectivity within existing  genetic units is likely necessary to prevent further fragmentation and  loss of genetic diversity (Coulon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, 2012).    Housing developments and citrus-groves have replaced much suitable habitat (G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  The rate of development in Florida has increased markedly since the  1960s as the human population almost doubled between 1960 and 1980 (Cox  1987)<strong></strong>. Direct human disturbance and feral cats affect the increasing number of territories adjacent to housing (Cox 1987)<strong></strong>. Birds in roadside territories are frequently killed by vehicles (Dreschel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990, Mumme <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Several species of snake, bird and mammal are native predators (Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1996)<strong></strong>. Nocturnal predators, including yellow rat snakes <span style="font-style: italic;">Elaphe obsoleta</span>, are a particular threat since breeding birds do not appear to be vigilant to, or defend against, nocturnal predators and brooding females are also at risk from being killed (Carter<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). Hatching failure has been linked to below-average rainfall during the breeding season (Wilcoxen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) and so droughts are likely to pose a threat to the species. The recent spread of West Nile virus to Florida may pose a threat to the species (Chu <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. An observation of nest-predation by invasive fire ants <span style="font-style: italic;">Solenopsis invicta</span> was reported in south-central Florida in 2009 (Wilcoxen and Rensel 2009) and may be a threat to the reproductive success of the species. Climate change may pose a threat to the species.<br/><p></p>
106005692		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005693		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005695		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106005695		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. v. viridicyanus </span>occurs in NW <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. v. cyanolaema</span> in SE <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> (Cuzco and Puno) and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. v. jolyaea</span> in N and C Peru (from Junin to Amazonas).
106005695		habitat	eng	Montane forest up to stunted elfin forest between 1600m and 4000m, though primarily up to 3000m. Also recorded in secondary growth where bamboo and tree-ferns are abundant. Forages in the canopy and subcanopy, investigating epiphytes and leaf clusters along branches.<br/>Sedentary, breeding undocumented, though video of pair nest-building shows an medium sized open cup nest made primarily of small branches at mid-level.
106005695		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005695		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
106005696		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005697		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Cerro Golondrinas Reserve, Carchi, Ecuador (Freile 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range in order to determine its current status, as well as quantify population trends. Campaign for the rigorous protection of remaining forests within its altitudinal range. <p></p>
106005697		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanolyca pulchra</em> is rare and local, occurring along a narrow elevational band of extremely wet foothill and premontane forest on the Pacific slope of west <strong>Colombia</strong> (north to extreme south Chocó) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (south to Pichincha). At Río Ñambi, Colombia, its population is estimated at just 2-3 pairs in 5 km <strong>(</strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Ecuador, it appears to have declined for unknown reasons since the 1970s <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005697		habitat	eng	This species is rare and local in pluvial and wet subtropical forests at 900-2,300 m, but mostly between 1,400 and 1,800 m (<strong></strong>Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Salaman 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996,<strong></strong> Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It favours dense understorey, particularly along watercourses and in marshy areas<strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005697		threats	eng	This species is extremely sensitive to human disturbance and appears almost exclusively dependent upon primary forest<strong><sup></sup></strong><strong></strong> (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Unplanned colonisation, following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions are major threats to its habitat, with cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation also posing problems<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Since 1960, over 40% of Chocó forests have been cleared or degraded, and deforestation is accelerating (Salaman 1994)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005698		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005699		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cerro San Felipe is officially within Benito Juárez National Park, but the boundaries of this relatively small reserve have never been demarcated (Salas <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it offers the species little protection (A. T. Peterson<em> in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess more precisely the extent of its distribution. Demarcate and effectively protect the boundaries of Benito Juárez National Park. Protect sites where the species has been recently recorded. <p></p>
106005699		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanolyca nana</em> is known historically from Veracruz adjacent to the border with Puebla and the Sierras Juárez, Aloapaneca and Zempoaltepec in Oaxaca south-east <strong>Mexico</strong>. It was feared extinct throughout this range except for the Cerro San Felipe in the Sierra Aloapaneca, where it remains quite common. However, it is now known to be more widespread. There are records from Tangojó in extreme east Querétaro, north Hidalgo, central Veracruz and La Chinantla in north Oaxaca, and it may be locally common where suitable habitat persists (M. Angel Martínez, E. Ruelas and R. Sanchez pers. comm. to A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998, A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Rojas-Soto <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005699		habitat	eng	It has been observed in several humid montane forest-associations, but most abundantly in pine-oak-fir associations and areas with an even mix of pine and oak. Laurel and abundant epiphytic growth are characteristic of these associations. Lower densities occur in oak-dominated forest, and its occurrence in secondary growth depends on the predominance of the preferred tree-associations and nearby tracts of primary forest. Suitable breeding habitat has a sufficiently open canopy to allow the development of a dense subcanopy. It forages mostly from the lower subcanopy to the higher shrub layer, where it gleans invertebrates from and around epiphytes. It occurs at elevations of 1,400-3,200 m (Rojas-Soto <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but only above 1,670 m in the centre and south of its range. This is plausibly a natural altitudinal distribution, but it may have been extirpated from the lower elevations in the south of its range. The breeding season begins at Cerro San Felipe in early April. <p></p>
106005699		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106005699		threats	eng	Logging, agricultural expansion, firewood-gathering, road and tourist developments, sheep-ranching, intense grazing and intensive urbanisation have resulted in extensive and continuing destruction and fragmentation of its habitat (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is prone to nest-desertion following human disturbance, suggesting that there are few predators of adult birds. The continuing spread of West Nile virus is not thought to pose a serious threat, and no related mortality has been detected in this species (P. Escalante <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005700		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in one protected area, the Omiltemi State Ecological Park in the Sierra de Atoyac.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat in the Sierras de Miahautlán and de Yucuyacua. Extend the Omiltemi State Ecological Park over the mountains to the lowlands of the Sierra de Atoyac. Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Miahuatlán encompassing the range of this species (Hernández-Baños <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005700		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanolyca mirabilis</em> is locally fairly common to common in the Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero and Oaxaca, south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>. In Guerrero, it is common at Omiltemi, fairly common just north of Nueva Delhi and common between Nueva Delhi and Cerro Teotepec. In Oaxaca, it is known from only three localities in the Sierras de Miahautlán and de Yucuyacua, but there have been no records from San Andrés Chicahuaxtla since 1964 (A. T. Peterson and A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005700		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to undisturbed tracts of humid montane forest, favouring cloud (near Cerro Teotepec) (G. Spinks <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, oak and pine-oak forests, but has been found in disturbed habitats. It occurs at elevations of 1,525-3,500 m in Guerrero and 2,000-2,600 m in Oaxaca, but there is very little suitable habitat below 1,800 m. It tends to forage in pairs or small groups, but sometimes joins mixed-species flocks in non-breeding season. Breeding has been recorded in April-August. <p></p>
106005700		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005700		threats	eng	Many of the remaining forests within its range are under clearance for timber and large-scale agricultural expansion. Corn, fruit (notably citrus fruit in the Sierra de Miahautlán [Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and coffee cultivation is replacing lower montane forests, and logging is removing pine-oak forests (Navarro 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The continuing spread of West Nile virus is not thought to pose a serious threat, and no related mortality has been detected in this species (<strong></strong>P. Escalante <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005701		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005702		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005703		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005704		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005705		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106005706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005707		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining primary forest areas within the range. <p></p>
106005707		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanocorax caeruleus</em> is rare to locally common in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south São Paulo south to Rio Grande do Sul), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones and north Corrientes). A small number of records exist for Paraguay <strong></strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Chebez 1994,<strong></strong> Hayes 1995, J. C. Chebez <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but these are not considered credible (Guyra Paraguay 2004)<strong></strong>. Populations have apparently declined substantially, particularly in the west of its range, and it is now most common in south-east Brazil <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005707		habitat	eng	It is rare to locally common up to 1,000 m in lowland evergreen, southern temperate, white-sand and secondary forest and, at least seasonally, is most numerous in <em>Araucaria</em> forest <strong></strong>(Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <strong></strong>Sick 1993, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996<strong></strong>).   <p></p>
106005707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005707		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threaten its habitat, with current key threats from urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, <strong></strong>Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005713		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it is being studied in some areas  (<span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables.">C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to better assess the species's population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Protect suitable habitat. Introduce regulations to require that logging take place during the species's non-breeding season (<span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables.">C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Carry out research to assess the threat from droughts associated with climate change. Conduct awareness-raising activities to reduce persecution. <br/><p></p></span></span>
106005713		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanocorax dickeyi</em> is restricted to montane areas of north-west <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is fairly common on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental, with the core of its range from Sinaloa and Durango to north Nayarit (Crossin 1967,<strong></strong> Howell and Webb 1995a,<strong></strong> Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1994-1995 extended the known north-south distribution of the species from 210 km to 295 km, by finding it north of the río de Presidio, and probably to the San Lorenzo/Los Remedios river complex (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. More recent records further extend its known range, with a new site found in 2011 in Baborigame, Chihuahua, as well as new localities found in Durango and Nayarit since 2009 at least (<span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables."><span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables.">C. Villar-Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<span title="Javier Cruz et al comentan al respecto:"><span title="** Se cuentan con 3 nuevos registros globales de distribución de la especie."><span title="En 2011 se localizó un nuevo sitio en Baborigame, Municipio de Guadalupe y Calvo en el estado de Chihuahua."><span title="En Durango en el Municipio de San Dimas y en Pueblo Nuevo."><span title="Así mismo se documento la persistencia de la especie en el Ejido el Maguey, en las cercanías de Las Bufas."><span title="Xicoténcatl Vega Picos y Carlos Villar Rodríguez comentan al respecto:"><span title="***Al respecto, en los últimos años se ha identificado la presencia de la Chara pinta en diferentes sitios en el estado de Nayarit fuera de su rango de distribución conocido."><span title="Se ha reportado su presencia desde el año 2009 en el Municipio Del Nayar, en las coordenadas UTM 521710 de longitud oeste y 2450564 latitud norte con una elevación de 1,900 msnm; región compuesta por un ecosistema de tipo bosque de encino-pino con vegetación secundaria,"><span title="próximo a un manantial."><span title="Tambien en el 2010 en la UMA Guadalupe Ocotan del Municipio La Yesca, sitio con elevaciones mayores a los 1,500 msnm en un ecosistema de bosque de pino y pino-encino, donde se observó la presencia de nidos, ubicada en las coordenadas UTM 561519 de longitud"><span title="oeste y 2405278 latitud norte."><span title="En el"><span title="19"><span title="2011 en la Comunidad Indígena de San Andrés Milpillas, Municipio de Huajicori, en el Estado de Nayarit se registro a Cyanocorax dickeyi en una zona de encinos y pinos con una elevación entre los 1,500 y 1,800 msnm en las coordenadas UTM 483686 de longitud oeste y 2525258"><span title="latitud norte."><br/><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106005713		habitat	eng	The species largely inhabits humid canyons within semi-deciduous and pine-oak forests at elevations of 1,350-2,150 m (Madge and Burn 1993, Howell and Webb 1995a,<strong></strong> Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Flocks occasionally wander into the mesa forests at higher altitudes, but do not seem to avoid selectively logged areas (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It spends most of its time in the canopy, rarely descending to the ground (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet comprises invertebrates, fruits, berries and acorns. It is a cooperative breeder, with breeding groups consisting of one breeding pair of adults and several non-breeding immature birds. Three to five eggs are laid in April and early May. Its nest is a bulky structure of sticks and twigs, lined with finer twigs and plant material, and situated 5-15 m above the ground in the dense canopy of a tree. The incubation period is 18-19 days, followed by a fledging period of c.24 days (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005713		population	eng	BirdLife International estimates the species's EOO at 13,400 km<sup>2</sup>, based on information provided by Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996). It is estimated that 65-90% of the species range is occupied by home ranges (M. Lammertink<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2010) , resulting in an estimate of 8,700-12,000 km<sup>2</sup> of occupied habitat. An estimate of 3 km<sup>2</sup> per territory is derived from Croisin (1967) by M. Lammertink (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010), suggesting that there are 2,900-4,000 groups in total. Each group has two adults and 9.3 individuals (n=7), implying that there are 5,800-8,000 breeding adults within a population of 27,000-37,200 individuals. Based on the supposition that there are more than two mature individuals per group, the population is placed in the band for 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.
106005713		threats	eng	Canyon forest is relatively inaccessible and not as susceptible to logging and conversion to agriculture as surrounding areas (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 1996, J. M. Lammertink <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 2010)<strong></strong>. Some of the species's habitat is cleared for the cultivation of narcotics, although it may be able to tolerate such limited and localised fragmentation (J. M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), but it is though likely that the species suffers some persecution from those people who attend such crops (J. M. Lammertink <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010). It is also hunted by children (J. M. Lammertink <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>,  and it may suffer some reduced reproductive success owing to direct  persecution of nesting birds, usually directed towards crows (Corvidae) in  some locations (C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species's food resources have been reduced in some areas by heavy droughts in recent years, forcing birds to forage in new areas, and the population could potentially undergo rapid declines owing to the prolonged droughts that could be associated with projected climate change (C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Breeding groups may be affected by the uncontrolled felling of pine-oak forest, which occurs predominantly in the dry season (and can extend from October to May), and thus coincides with the species's breeding season <span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables."> (C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Suitable habitat is also destroyed and degraded by forest fires, which may affect large areas of forest, owing to altered fire regimes. Road construction has fragmented habitat and is likely to impact the species. Some of the springs used by family groups have been lost to human activities <span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables."> (C. Villar Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables.">.<span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables."><span title="Javier Cruz et al comentan al respecto:"><span title="**El hábitat continúa degradándose por el impacto de incendios forestales generando una trasformación del bosque y afectaran grandes extensiones de bosques derivados de la alteración del régimen de incendios."><span title="La apertura de carreteras ha impactado a la población por coliciones y ha fragmentado el hábitat."><span title="Las manantiales que han usado los grupos familiares de Cyanocorax dickeyi se secan con mayor frecuencia, entrando en conflicto con actividades humanas."><span title="siendo el estado de Durango el mayor productor de madera en el país."><span title="Considerando que un segmento importante de esta producción se originó en los bosques de pino-encino presentes en esta región, esta producción forestal es preocupante para la supervivencia de esta y otras especies de flora y fauna que ocupan este tipo de hábitat."><span title="Para tener un mejor manejo de esta especie se sugiere que el aprovechamiento forestal se acoten a la temporada no reproductiva de la especie."><span title="Por lo que el aprovechamiento forestal, deberían incluir criterios que consideren restringir las actividades y no afectar sitios con presencia de Chara pinta, en particular durante las épocas reproductivas."><span title="Los disturbios que pueden impactar a estos grupos incluyen la tala sin control de árboles de pino encino, estos se realizan, predominantemente, durante la temporada de secas (se puede extender de octubre a mayo), para aprovechar las condiciones de los caminos de terracería,"><span title="que coinciden con la temporada de reproducción, situación que las hace extremadamente vulnerables."><br/><p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106005714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005716		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005719		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005720		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005721		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6,000,000-13,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 18,000,000-39,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 36,700,000-156,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005722		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common, although less so in Nepal (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005723		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan. Yuwandake on Amami-ooshima was established as a National Wildlife Protection Area, mainly for the conservation of this species and Amami Thrush <em>Zoothera major</em>. Several surveys and ecological studies have been completed. Introduced small Indian mongoose has been controlled within its range in recent years and as a result the species may now be stable or increasing. The increase in numbers of Large-billed Crows <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus macrorhynchos</span> on Amami-ooshima has been halted by improvements in refuse management (K. Ishida <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to ascertain whether the population is in fact stable or recovering. Conserve and restore remaining areas of mature forest on Amami-ooshima. Provide nest-boxes in areas where there is a shortage of suitable natural nesting sites. Control alien predators on Amami-ooshima. <br/><p></p>
106005723		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulus lidthi</em> is<em> </em>endemic to the islands of Amami-ooshima, Kakeroma-jima, Uke-jima, Edateku-jima, part of the Nansei Shoto Islands, <strong>Japan</strong> (BirdLife International 2001, K. Ishida <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Its population was estimated at c.5,800 birds in the 1970s, but it may have declined through to the 1990s. It is precautionarily treated as undergoing a continuing decline overall, although it may have begun to increase since 2000, owing to alien predator control and natural forest regeneration (Yukihiro Kominami <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and may now be stable (K. Ishida <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Some observations indicate a population increase in the northern Kasari peninsula of Amami-ooshima (M. Takashi <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> K. Ishida <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106005723		habitat	eng	It occurs from sea-level into the hills, in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest, coniferous forest, and in woodland around cultivation and human habitation, showing a significant preference for mature forest. It feeds on and caches the acorns of <em>Castanopsis cuspidate</em>, <em>Quercus glauca</em> and other oaks when they are available; if this food supply is exhausted birds will feed in agricultural fields (Yukihiro Kominami <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Sweet potato, insects, spiders, seeds, fruits, reptiles, including Okinawa pit-viper <em>Trimeresurus flavoviridis</em>, and birds are also included in its diet. It forages in trees and on the ground. Breeding takes place from late January or early February until May.  <p></p>
106005723		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.5,800 individuals (Nishidi 1974 in Brazil 1991), equivalent to c.3,900 mature individuals. It has been suggested that the population now exceeds 5,800 individuals (K. Ishida <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012); however, further research is required. The population is presently assumed to form one sub-population, but future genetic research (K. Ishida <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) is expected to confirm whether this is the case.
106005723		threats	eng	In some years, a high proportion of nests are predated by crows and mammals, and the small Asian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> and snakes have been reported to prey on young birds and eggs. However, it is not known whether this apparently increased predation pressure will have a long-term effect on the population. The numbers of Large-billed Crow <em>Corvus macrorhynchos </em>on Amami-ooshima have recently increased, probably because of increased garbage disposal on the island. The effect of logging on its population is probably relatively small. <p></p>
106005724		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 340,000-710,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,020,000-2,130,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,080,000-8,520,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005725		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has only been recorded from one protected area, Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve in Sichuan. This has an area of 200 km<sup>2</sup>, where the natural habitats are apparently in excellent condition, but are under pressure from large-scale tourism. The species was the focus of a study in Jone (Zhouni) County, Gansu in 1999-2002 (Yu <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its habitat requirements and altitudinal range. Study its population status and survey protected areas in or near its known range. Support recommendations to control logging, control fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Strengthen protection and control tourism at Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve and link it to other important protected areas in the Min Shan. List it as<em> </em>a nationally protected species in China. <p></p>
106005725		distribution	eng	<em>Perisoreus internigrans</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from eastern Tibet, south-east Qinghai, southern Gansu and western Sichuan (BirdLife International 2001). Most records have involved a small number of individuals and it has been described as rare. Given the relatively small number of documented localities and its apparently low population density, it could have a small population, which is likely to be declining. <p></p>
106005725		habitat	eng	It appears to favour high-altitude (3,000-4,270 m), dry coniferous forest of mature spruce, and mixed fir and rhododendron forest, often with a poorly developed understorey. It forms small flocks in autumn, usually of five or six birds, but sometimes more than 10, and feeds on invertebrates and fruit. It breeds very early, with clutch completion estimated to occur in March or April (Yu Jing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106005725		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005725		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest, including substantial areas of the upper temperate and subalpine zone forests in Sichuan, through logging for timber and conversion to agriculture and pasture. Forest cover may also be declining on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau because the climate is progressively becoming drier. <p></p>
106005727		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging which has effectively stopped continuous habitat loss in Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya - KDN complex and forests remain in the Knuckles massif (S. Kaotagama <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys (2004-2006) found the species in a total of 38 designated forest patches. Of those locations, 60% are either within Proposed forest Reserves-PR (42%) or Other State Forests-OSF (18%) categories, which can be vulnerable to encroachment. The remaining 40% of forest patches are within the existing protected area system: <em>viz</em> Forest reserves-FR 26%; National Heritage Wilderness Area -NHWA 3%; National Parks-NP 3%; Sanctuary-S 5%; Strict Nature Reserves- SNR 3% (S. Kaotagama <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Ratnayake 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecology, particularly brood-parasitism by <em>E. scolopacea</em>, and continue on-going work to determine demographic, habitat and other factors that affect population viability. Encourage protection of important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on logging of wet zone forests, with a particular aim to maintain forest corridors that facilitate movement of the species between forest fragments. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. <p></p>
106005727		distribution	eng	<em>Urocissa ornata</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is restricted to the central mountains and foothills of the wet zone. Its population has apparently been declining and becoming more fragmented since the late 19th century. Surveys in 2004-2006 identified the species in 38 forest patches restricted to six main forest complexes: Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya - KDN complex, Sinharaja, Delwala, walankanda, Central Highland, Knuckles and Bambarabotuwa (Ratnayake 2008)<strong></strong>. The combined area of suitable habitat remaining was calculated as 2,025 km<sup>2</sup> supporting an estimated 14,000 individuals (Ratnayake 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005727		habitat	eng	It is found in tall, undisturbed, primary forest in the hills and adjoining lowlands of the wet zone, from 2,135 m to below 150 m and has occasionally been recorded from disturbed areas. <p></p>
106005727		population	eng	Extensive surveys in 2004-2006 estimated a total population of 10,181-19,765 individuals. However, the species is a cooperative breeder with a monogamous mating system, so the effective population size and the number of mature individuals may be considerably fewer. Hence we retain a lower estimate of 9,500-19,500 for mature individuals.
106005727		threats	eng	The main threats are the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, owing to conversion to agriculture, especially tea plantations (S. Kaotagama <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Logging, fuelwood collection, gem mining, settlement and fire all contribute to forest encroachment, the loss and degradation of riparian forests and fragmentation of remaining forest complexes. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. Forest die-back in montane areas, perhaps a result of air pollution, is a potential threat. Hunting probably contributed to its historical decline but is unlikely to be a major threat today. There is some evidence to suggest that it is prevented from colonising disturbed areas by high rates of brood-parasitism by the Asian Koel <em>Eudynamys scolopacea</em>. In the hill country, biocides may be contributing to its decline. <p></p>
106005728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2,000), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106005729		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common or locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005730		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common throughout most of its range (Madge and Burn 1993), while   national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs in China and &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil   2009).
106005731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very rare (Madge and Burn 1993, Robson 2000).
106005732		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively uncommon to locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon in Vietnam, rare in China and uncommon and very local in Thailand (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005735		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 260,000-460,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 780,000-1,380,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the   global population size is 3,250,000-27,600,000 individuals, although further   validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt; c.100 introduced breeding   pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs in Japan and possibly c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106005736		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to very common, though rare in Vietnam (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Madge and Burn 1993), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106005738		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common on Sumatra and common on Borneo (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005740		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005741		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations across the species's range, as well as trends in human activities and habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to determine levels of tolerance of secondary, disturbed or fragmented habitats. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against potentially increasing threats. <p></p>
106005741		distribution	eng	<em>Dendrocitta bayleyi </em>is endemic to the Andaman archipelago, <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is uncommon to locally fairly common and while habitat on the Andamans remains relatively intact it is probably secure. <em> <p></p></em>
106005741		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in pairs or parties of up to 20 birds, or in mixed flocks in tall trees in dense broadleaved evergreen forest.  <p></p>
106005741		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered common.
106005741		threats	eng	Human population pressure and rates of habitat loss may be increasing in the Andaman archipelago, suggesting that natural habitats within the small range of this species might rapidly shrink and become fragmented.   <p></p>
106005742		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005743		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining extensive tracts of forest on the Irwaddy plains.   <p></p>
106005743		distribution	eng	<em>Crypsirina cucullata</em> is endemic to the dry zone of central <strong>Myanmar</strong>, on the plains of the Irrawaddy and Sittang Rivers (BirdLife International 2001). It was formerly common, but has declined sharply as a result of habitat loss through agricultural development. However, recent surveys have found it to remain locally common in extensive areas of suitable habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
106005743		habitat	eng	This species occurs in dry dipterocarp forest, dry thornscrub, secondary growth and the edge of agricultural land in the lowlands to 1,000 m.   <p></p>
106005743		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered common in suitable habitats.
106005743		threats	eng	The forests of the Irrawaddy plains are now largely cleared for agriculture, and remaining patches are threatened by further clearance and subsistence logging.  <p></p>
106005744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in Vietnam (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005745		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 3,400,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7,500,000-19,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 22,500,000-57,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 45,900,000-228,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (possibly introduced) in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005746		threats	eng	Yellow-billed magpie numbers in California may be declining due to habitat loss/conversion, rodent poisoning, and West Nile virus (Airola<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007, Crosbie<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).
106005747		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A detailed study of the species's ecology is currently underway (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2007), and in 2012 a detailed study of its likely responses to climate change will commence. Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary, which was designated in 1985, has recently been replaced by Yabello National Park, the boundary of which has yet to be finalised. Current management plans for the new National Park aim to promote sustainable resource management across the wider landscape and strict formal protection at key sites (Donald <em>et al</em>. 2012). A species management plan is in the process of being written as part of a wider project on southern Ethiopian endemic birds.  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2012) propose the following key actions: <span style="font-weight: bold;">1</span>. Ensure that the new National Park encourages the sustainable use of its resources in areas of importance to the Bush-crow and does not exclude people and their grazers; <span style="font-weight: bold;">2</span>. Establish a monitoring protocol to assess changes in the range and population of the Bush-crow in response to habitat and climate change; <span style="font-weight: bold;">3</span>. Secure and increase the area of grassland by clearance of woody cover, with burning or perhaps by using camels, within the area of climatic suitability, and strengthen traditional <span style="font-style: italic;">gada </span>rangeland management; <span style="font-weight: bold;">4</span>. Ensure the retention of taller vegetation, even single trees (particularly large acacias and <span style="font-style: italic;">Balanites</span>), in newly cleared areas; <span style="font-weight: bold;">5</span>. Control the spread of agriculture into grasslands; <span style="font-weight: bold;">6</span>. Undertake further work on the species to understand better its ecology, threats and requirements.<br/><p></p>
106005747		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Zavattariornis stresemanni</span> is confined to the area around Yabello, Arero, and Mega, southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ethiopia</span>. The nucleus of the species’s range is in the southern part of the Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary (Borghesio and Giannetti 2005). It has a highly restricted distribution, occurring only patchily within an area that extends just 160 km from north to south and less than 100 km from east to west (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). The species’s area of occupancy appears to be defined by a unique climate pocket that is cooler, dryer and more seasonal than the surrounding area (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). Within this limited climate window it favours a park-like landscape of grazed pasturelands interspersed with taller vegetation. Models predict an area of just 6,000 km<sup>2</sup> to be climatically optimal, of which perhaps 4,500 km<sup>2</sup> has suitable vegetation (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012). There is no historical data on the population size or distribution of the species but brief surveys in 1989 suggested densities had remained constant through the 1980s. Surveys in 1996 found the species to be common within its restricted range (EWNHS 1996). However, 80% declines in encounter rates on roadside counts in the Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary between 1989 and 2003, suggested that the population was decreasing very rapidly (Borghesio and Giannetti 2005), although doubt has been expressed about the severity of these apparent declines (Mellanby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012) and local people report that the population has remained stable (P. Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106005747		habitat	eng	It is found in open, semi-arid areas of short-grass savanna with scattered low Acacia bushes at c.1,700 m (EWNHS 1996), and is common in the vicinity of human settlements (P. Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1998, Gedeon 2006). It feeds mostly on arthropods (Gedeon 2006, Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012) and, outside the breeding season, is gregarious (EWNHS 1996). It mainly feeds by extracting pupae and larvae from soil or from under cattle dung; however it also feeds on flying insects such as Lepidoptera, and may search for larvae in rotten branches and pick parasites from cattle (Gedeon 2006). The species exhibits a range of complex behaviours, including play, allopreening, allofeeding, cooperative nesting and sentinel duty (Gedeon 2006). Breeding takes place in February/March, and can involve cooperation with usually one, but possibly up to four, extra-pair individuals, which each may help more than one nesting pair (Gedeon 2006). The normal nest-site is in the top of an Acacia bush (2.5-10 m high) (Gedeon 2006) and clutch-size is up to six. It has been recorded breeding in May/June, which would indicate either that birds are double-brooded or have an extended breeding season. Breeding pairs range for about 2 ha during nest building (Gedeon 2006).<br/><p></p>
106005747		population	eng	Based on nest-counts, Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.   (2012) estimate a global population of at least 9,000 breeding pairs,   however, as active nests typically have several nest-helpers there may   also be a significant additional non-breeding population. It is placed here in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, but may well prove to be larger.
106005747		threats	eng	Analysis of satellite imagery between 1986 and 2002 indicates that there has been an increase in vegetation density in Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary through bush encroachment, probably as a result of increased grazing pressure from livestock, the enforcement of fire suppression in the sanctuary and the disappearance of wild herbivores (Borghesio and Giannetti 2005)<strong></strong>. As the species prefers more open habitat, this is likely to be the primary cause of any population declines. Political and administrative intervention has encouraged more maize cultivation in the species's range, in an effort to develop a monetary economy and promote self-sufficiency and the constitution of food stocks in an area that was dominated by nomadic pastoralism 10-20 years ago (<strong></strong>Gedeon 2006)<strong></strong>. Expanding cultivation is thought to have caused population decreases near Mega (Borghesio and Giannetti 2005)<strong></strong>, and is driving the large-scale clearance of <em>Acacia</em> stands near Derido and Yabello (<strong></strong>Gedeon 2006)<strong></strong>. The partial clearance of dense <em>Acacia</em> scrub to allow grass-growth for cattle does not appear to have affected the species and may even benefit it (<strong></strong>P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. However, recent research indicates that tall <em>Acacia</em> bushes, in which this species nests, are being cleared intensively (for both firewood and grazing land), and this may now be having a negative impact on the species (A. Shimelis <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <em>Acacia</em> stands in areas surrounding villages tend to occupy land that is particularly suitable for cultivation, and with a rapid increase in the human population, the continued loss of the species's habitat is predicted (<strong></strong>Gedeon 2006)<strong></strong>. Over recent years Yabello has become an administrative centre for Borena Zone, with a continually expanding residential area, signifying human population growth and land use changes in an important area for the species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>Gedeon 2006). However, given the species’ specialised climatic requirements, the greatest threat to its long-term survival is likely to be climate change (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2012).<strong></strong><p></p>
106005748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very rare in Kazakhstan, uncommon in Mongolia and probably relatively uncommon in China (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005749		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat, especially desert poplar, at key sites.  <p></p>
106005749		distribution	eng	<em>Podoces biddulphi</em> is known from Xinjiang, western <strong>China</strong>, where it occurs in the Taklimakan Desert (and there is a recent sight record well to the east of this area, near Golmud in Qinghai) (BirdLife International 2001). It was described as being common in 1929-1930, but it was scarce and difficult to locate in the same areas in 1988. However, it has recently been found to be widespread and locally common in the interior of the Taklimakan Desert. <em> <p></p></em>
106005749		habitat	eng	This species is found in sandy desert, scrub and desert poplar.  <p></p>
106005749		population	eng	The total population of this species is estimated to number c.10,700 individuals, equivalent to c.7,133 mature individuals.
106005749		threats	eng	This species is probably declining because of the fragmentation and degradation of desert habitats through the intensive grazing of goats and camels, extraction of fuelwood and the conversion of huge areas to irrigated land.   <p></p>
106005750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively numerous in virgin desert (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005751		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally quite numerous.
106005752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be  quite common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005754		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 400,000-860,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,200,000-2,580,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,450,000-10,300,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005755		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 43,000-110,000 breeding pairs, equating to 129,000-330,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 263,000-1,320,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106005756		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 130,000-310,000 breeding pairs, equating to 390,000-930,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 796,000-3,720,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005757		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005758		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5,200,000-15,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 15,600,000-45,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 21,100,000-90,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005759		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally quite common (Madge and Burn 1993). National population estimates   include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals   in China; &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005760		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005761		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation measures have been implemented but populations occur in protected areas such as Rivière Bleue Park (Warner 1947, Hannecart and Létocart 1980, G. Dutson per. obs. 1999).<strong></strong>
106005761		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Caledonia (to France) and has been introduced to the neighbouring island of Maré (Loyalty Islands (to France)).
106005761		habitat	eng	Although it is a forest species it has been reported from niaouli savanna. It usually forages in pairs or family parties, but flocks of up to 30 have been seen. It is omniviorous and has a unique habit of using tools to extract food items from holes and crevices.
106005761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005761		threats	eng	The clearance and degradation of forests across New Caledonia is a threat to this species.
106005762		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally moderately common in hill-forest (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005764		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Searches in 2004, 2006 and 2007 successfully rediscovered the species. A team of local residents are now leading an awareness campaign and promoting the adoption of sustainable agriculture, while hunting of the crow has apparently ceased (M. Indrawan <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Discussions have taken place with local governments over planned forest protection initiatives (M. Indrawan <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to search for the species throughout the archipelago (paying close attention to the use of vocalisations to aid detection) to improve knowledge of its range, distribution, population status, habitat requirements and potential threats. Identify its conservation needs based on results of surveys, and thereby work towards the establishment of appropriately sized and situated protected areas, through community-based forest protection (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, that support viable populations of this and other threatened species known to occur on the islands. Closely monitor potential mining activity and begin dialogue with mining companies where appropriate. Continue to work with local communities to promote the conservation of this species, concentrating at first on farmers and hunters (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010). On Peleng, monitor <em>C. enca</em> as a potential competitor (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010). Involve local people in research efforts, including studies into the species's diet in order to establish that it is not an egg predator (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage sensitive ecotourism that incorporates volunteer work or other contributions to local stakeholders (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005764		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus unicolor</span> was previously known from two specimens taken on an unspecified island in the Banggai archipelago, immediately east of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. A sighting of the species on the western slopes of Peleng in 1991 remained unconfirmed until searches of the island in 2004, 2006 and 2007 confirmed this species survives, although only in forest on the mountain slopes of western Peleng and in small numbers at lower levels in the central isthmus of the island (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009; Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Sound recordings were made and two specimens were taken (M. Indrawan <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008; Masala <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. It is thought unlikely that the species is extant on Banggai Island, with only Slender-billed Crows <em>Corvus enca</em> encountered during a 3-day visit in 2005 and an apparent lack of sufficient habitat for <em>C. unicolor </em>(King 2009)<strong></strong>. Local hunters on Peleng estimate densities of up to 50 birds in a 3- to 4-km radius, thus very rough estimates suggest a global population of up to 500 individuals, with 50-200 birds in the western Peleng Mountains. The montane forests of Buko and Bulagi districts are thought to be the remaining strongholds (M. Indrawan <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008; del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Interviews with local people strongly suggest that the species is present in mountains in the far west of Peleng, although this region is heavily deforested and it is unlikely to be abundant there (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010).  <p></p>
106005764		habitat	eng	Relatively little is known of the species's ecology and life history. Sightings have been in remnant hill forest to 900 m on the western side of Peleng and at lower levels in the centre of the island (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>, with the species distributed principally at 500-900 m (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It is reported to have occurred near sea-level in western Peleng around 40 years ago (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It occurs in mosaics of forest and cultivation, but not in completely deforested areas, and the species may forage in areas of dry cultivation. Observations suggest that it maintains group territories and probably has extensive home ranges. The species is a branch nester and the nest trees observed so far have been tall (c.12-30 m) forest species, including a Bombaceae, a <em>Calophyllum</em> species, a <em>Canarium</em> species and a <em>Palaquium</em> species; the species probably also nests in <em>Lithocarpus</em> species (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010). Nests are constructed of sparse dry sticks and branches, lined with finer branches and sticks, forming a depressed platform or slightly inverted cone. A given nest tree may contain up to seven nests, although these are probably from different seasons, as the species does not appear to be a colonial nester, with the closest nest trees being 100-200 m apart. Nesting appears to take place during or at the end of the wet season. At least two clutches have been observed so far, of one and three eggs. Following the wet season, juveniles stay with the adults, apparently travelling in family parties. There is one observation of a fledgling being fed arthropods, which may be the species's main food source, and local hunters report that it feeds on winged isopteran termites (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005764		population	eng	The species's total population has been estimated at close to 500 individuals, including 50-200 birds in the western Peleng Mountains. Given uncertainty over its population densities and the lack of surveys to confirm its presence in some areas suspected to be occupied by the species, coupled with its tendency to travel in family groups, the number of mature individuals is precautionarily estimated to fall into the band 50-249.
106005764		threats	eng	Habitat destruction remains the greatest threat for this rediscovered species. In the past it may have been severely impacted by extensive deforestation, as by 1991 logging had begun in the last remaining areas of primary habitat, which will probably led to further encroachment by shifting cultivators as a result of improved access. <em>C. enca</em> appears to have become dominant in more disturbed habitats and may be a competitor (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010). Exploration by mining companies is a serious potential threat in the near future (M. Indrawan <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Although subsistence hunting occurs on Peleng, the species is not sought-after by hunters (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010).  The perception by some farmers that the species takes poultry eggs is probably unfounded (Indrawan <em>et al</em>. 2010), but may result in some persecution.  <p></p>
106005765		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two recent surveys have been conducted on Flores, with <em>C. florensis</em> being a species targeted for study. It has been recorded in the Wolo Tadho Strict Nature Reserve and Wae Wuul Nature Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in central and eastern Flores (particularly in northern Ende, where moist, deciduous monsoon-forest is reported to be extensive) to establish its current distribution and population size. Conduct ecological research to assess its success in different forest-types and the impact of cuckoo parasitism. Extend Wolo Tadho Strict Nature Reserve and support the establishment of further protected areas in western Flores (including Tanjung Kerita Mese, Golo Bilas and Nanga Rawa). <p></p>
106005765		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus florensis</em> is endemic to the islands of Flores and Rinca (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known chiefly from the lowlands in the western half of Flores (BirdLife International 2001). It seems likely that it has always been relatively uncommon, although locally frequent in undisturbed habitat. Overall, it is acknowledged to occur only at low densities, with most encounters involving single birds, and appears to have declined.<br/><p></p>
106005765		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-evergreen forest and degraded, moist, deciduous monsoon-forest (especially along watercourses) from sea-level to 950 m, where it generally frequents the canopy or subcanopy. In coastal areas it occurs in open bamboo and "open monsoon woodland or scrub" which constitutes "very dry, lightly wooded terrain". It evidently tolerates some forest degradation and will feed at the forest edge and in adjacent vegetable cultivation, but its general absence from small, relict forest patches suggests it may not adapt well to habitat fragmentation. <p></p>
106005765		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106005765		threats	eng	The primary threat is further habitat loss and fragmentation, driven principally by small-scale agricultural encroachment, which is already extensive on Flores, and has presumably resulted in a substantial decline in numbers and contraction of the species's range. Although it appears fairly tolerant of forest degradation, and of drier formations, it is basically forest-dependent. The large tract of lowland moist deciduous forest at Golo Bilas (one of two sites where the species is described as frequent) is also being cleared for firewood and construction materials. An additional minor threat may be posed by cuckoo parasitism, as the species is a host for Asian Koels <em>Eudynamys scolopacea</em>, and probably much less frequently for Channel-billed Cuckoos <em>Scythrops novaehollandiae</em><em></em>. <p></p>
106005766		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Guam, a national wildlife refuge was established in 1993 to preserve remaining forest (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, and birds are being translocated from Rota in an effort to maintain the wild population on the island.  A 40 ha snake-free area created on North-west Field is available for the introduction of crows, and an adjacent larger area is being readied for translocation (Beck and Savidge 2000)<strong></strong>. A predation control experiment will soon be starting on Rota, which may include demographic work in the future. A grant has been obtained for a habitat conservation plan for Rota's agricultural homesteads, which will increase the amount of land in protected areas (T. de Cruz <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Biological control for the brown tree snake is also being investigated (Beck and Savidge 2000)<strong></strong>. On Rota, life history studies are currently being conducted and there are proposals to protect vital tracts of forest under a habitat conservation plan (National Research Council 1997, G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Research is being conducted into the fate of nests through the use of remote cameras and the fate of juveniles by using radio-tags (Ha <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement stringent measures to prevent the spread of <em>B. irregularis</em> from Guam to Rota (National Research Council 1997, G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Continue research including study of population biology and health of marked birds and conduct annual censuses using standardised methodology (National Research Council 1997, Morton <em>et al.</em> 1999, G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>.  Continue nest protection and increase trapping of <em>Rattus </em>spp. and <em>Varanus indicus </em>in adjacent areas. Begin control of <em>Dicrurus macrocercus</em> and feral cats<em>. </em>Facilitate the enactment of the proposed habitat conservation plan (National Research Council 1997, Morton <em>et al.</em> 1999, G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Conduct a public education programme to reduce persecution (National Research Council 1997)<strong></strong>.  Introduce more stringent controls for construction projects. Study the causes of nest failure and first-year mortality. Assess the feasibility of a captive-breeding programme (Ha <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005766		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus kubaryi</em> inhabits <strong>Guam (to U.S.A.)</strong> and Rota in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to U.S.A.)</strong>. On Guam, it was formerly common but, since the 1960s, declined in numbers and area inhabited<strong></strong>, with an estimated 350 birds in 1981 (Engbring and Pratt 1985)<strong></strong>, fewer than 40 in 1995 (Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and 7 in 1999. Following introduction of birds from Rota the population rose to 16 in 2001 (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>, but&#160; had declined again to 2 (both male) by 2008 (R. Berry<em> in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The most recent sighting on the island was in 2011 and the species may now be extinct on Guam (F. A. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). On Rota, the population was thought to be stable at 1,318 birds in 1982 (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>, but has since declined to 592 in 1995 (Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and then to 234 in 1998 (Morton <em>et al.</em> 1999, Plentovich <em>et al </em>2005)<strong></strong>; in 2007 there were c.50 confirmed pairs and a few more suspected (G. Rodda <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and the population in 2008 stood at around 85 pairs (Amar <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. One bird remains in captivity (J. Morton <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, F. A. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Surveys on Rota between 1982 and 2004 indicated a decline of 93% (Amar <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Apparent survival analysis of birds ringed between 1990 and 2010 revealed that the rate of first-year survival fell from 70% to 40% over that period, roughly equivalent to a doubling in the rate of mortality; this was accompanied by a slight decrease in adult survival over the same period<strong></strong>. Population modelling using the most recent estimate for apparent survival in first-year birds predicts extinction of the species in 75 years, with models that incorporate the removal of birds for captive breeding and the impact of catastrophic events projecting more rapid declines (Ha <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005766		habitat	eng	It inhabits mature and second-growth forest and coastal strand vegetation (Michael 1987)<strong></strong>, but probably only nests in native forest (Morton <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It forages in the forest canopy and understorey, and occasionally on the forest floor, for seeds, fruit, arthropods and lizards (Michael 1987)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005766		population	eng	In 2008 only two males remained on Guam (Berry <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2008). On Rota, the population was estimated at 234 mature indiviuals in 1998 by Plentovich (2005) and there were only 60 confirmed pairs recorded in 2008 (Berry <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2008), hence the band 50-249 mature individuals seems appropriate. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106005766		threats	eng	On Guam, its decline was due to predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> and, despite protection of nest-sites by electrical tree barriers, the population is now down to only two individuals (R. Berry<em> in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. On Rota, recent typhoons have devastated forest habitat and forest has been cleared for homestead development, resort and golf-course construction and agricultural settlement; actions which are often accompanied by direct persecution (National Research Council 1997, <strong></strong>Plentovich <em>et al. </em>2005, J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999, G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>.  Additional threats include nest-predation/disturbance by introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and monitor lizard <em>Varanus indicus</em>, competition with introduced Black Drongo <em>Dicrurus macrocercus</em>, and disease (Morton <em>et al.</em> 1999, Amar <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Feral cats, amongst other predators, have been implicated in the falling apparent survival rate of first-year birds (Ha <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. The brown tree snake is not yet established on Rota, but if a snake population does invade then an even more serious decline is likely. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005767		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively numerous in forest on Halmahera (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005768		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bougainville and the satellite islands of Buka (Papua New Guinea) and the Shortland Islands (Solomon Islands).
106005768		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to lowland forest at elevations up to 1,600 m but does feed in coconut plantations and degraded habitats close to forest (Schodde 1977, Coates 1990).
106005768		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in forests (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005768		threats	eng	The species will be under threat from potential large-scale logging operations when Bougainville opens to commercial exploitation (G. Dutson in litt. 1999).
106005769		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the islands of Choiseul, Santa Isabel and Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.
106005769		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest and some degraded forest habitats to an altitude of 1,000 m, occasionally 1,250 m.
106005769		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in forests (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005770		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106005770		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus fuscicapillus</em> is endemic to eastern <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where its known distribution is highly fragmented, presumably related to some unknown habitat specialisation. There are records from the Lower Mamberamo River and Nimbokrang (near Jayapura) in northern Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), where it may prove to be more widespread, Waigeo and Gemien in the West Papuan islands, and the Aru islands (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Gibbs 1993, Diamond and Bishop 1994, Eastwood 1996b)<strong></strong>. It is widespread, but occurs in low numbers, on the Aru islands (Diamond and Bishop 1994)<strong></strong>, and is quite common at Nimbokrang (Gibbs 1993)<strong></strong>. Although the paucity of records suggests that this species may be rare and locally declining, it is judged to be safe in the large areas of forest without any immediate threats within its range. <em> <p></p></em>
106005770		habitat	eng	This species mostly inhabits primary forest, but is also found in mangroves and occasionally second growth, but rarely occurs in open habitats and never on the coast or outlying islands. It occurs in lowlands and hills up to 500 m (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Diamond and Bishop 1994)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005770		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally rare. The number of mature individuals probably approaches as few as 10,000 and so it is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106005770		threats	eng	Forest within its range is threatened in places by logging, a cobalt mining concession on Waigeo, and a dam proposed across the Mamberamo River, although much of the forest remains intact and relatively secure, and includes some protected areas (WWF-IUCN 1994-1995, Dekker and McGowan 1995, Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005772		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common or abundant but often very localised (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005773		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10,000,000-18,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 30,000,000-54,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 61,200,000-216,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005778		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106005780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106005781		distribution	eng	This species is resident on Cuba and the Isle of Pines, and in the Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK) on North Caicos and Grand Caicos (Bond 1979).
106005781		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forest and wooded areas, but appears to be remarkably tolerant of habitat degradation (Madge and Burn 1993), occurring frequently in semi-cleared forest and sparsely-wooded cultivation, as well as villages and settlements with numerous trees (Bond 1979, Madge and Burn 1993). Birds tend to gather in flocks, separating into pairs in the breeding season (Raffaele et al. 1998). It is omnivorous, eating a variety of fruits, seeds, crops, reptiles, frogs and other items (Raffaele et al. 1998). The nest is built high among palm fronds, and breeding takes place primarily in April and May (Raffaele et al. 1998).
106005781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106005782		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Los Haitises, Jaragua and Sierra de Baoruco National Parks in the Dominican Republic. There are no plans to introduce the species to Puerto Rico owing to concerns about negative impacts on the Puerto Rican Parrot <em>Amazonia vittata</em><strong> </strong>(R. Rodriguez <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the extent of declines in numbers and range. Effectively protect reserves in the Dominican Republic. Consider reintroducing the species in Puerto Rico (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Monitor the effects of the increasing population of Pearly-eyed Thrasher on the species range and abundance.   <p></p>
106005782		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus leucognaphalus</em> is now confined to <strong>Haiti</strong>, the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> and the offshore islands of Gonâve, Saona and Vache (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, T. Brooks <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was once abundant on Puerto Rico (to USA), but was last recorded there in 1977 (<strong></strong>R. Rodriguez <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Hispaniola, it was considered locally common even in the early 1980s, but there has been a subsequent population decline (to less than 10,000 individuals) and range contraction. Sizeable populations are now restricted to Los Haitises and Jaragua National Parks, and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, and it remains quite common on Île-à-Vache (T. Brooks <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005782		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and montane wooded regions, where it probably favours old, mature forest (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is intolerant of degraded habitats or areas opened up by forest clearance (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The diet is mainly fruit and seeds, but also vertebrates and large insects (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests high in large trees or palms between the end of February and May (Madge and Burn 1993, Wiley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005782		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106005782		threats	eng	The extinction of this species on Puerto Rico, and the more recent decline on Hispaniola, are attributed to habitat loss for timber and agricultural conversion, and hunting for food and as a crop pest.  However, the species tolerates degraded habitat and it is probable that the Pearly-eyed Thrasher <em>Margarops fuscatus, </em>a nest predator which spreads into degraded areas and has recently arrived on Dominican Republic and is established at Los Haitises National Park, contributed to the extinction of the crow on Puerto Rico and may accelerate its decline on Hispaniola (Wiley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> </em> <p></p>
106005783		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7,000,000-17,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 21,000,000-51,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 42,900,000-204,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106005784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be everywhere common if not abundant (Madge and Burn 1993), while national population estimated include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous or abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005786		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005787		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005788		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although more scarce in the arid interior and along the east coast of Australia (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005792		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs at a number of IBAs and the roost at Deep Bay (Hong Kong) is regularly monitored by WWF staff.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey throughout its former range to asses the extent and magnitude of the decline. Monitor populations at keys sites across its range to determine current trends. Study the effects of agricultural intensification on population density. Provide incentives to farmers to farm in a manner that is sensitive to this species.  <p></p>
106005792		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus torquatus</em> was historically fairly common over a large area encompassing southern <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong>, <strong>Taiwan</strong> and northern <strong>Vietnam</strong>. However, it is undergoing a continuing decline in numbers across its range and is now only regular at a few sites in southern China, such as coastal Fujian, Nanjing, Shenzhen (Guangdong) and in the Plover Cove and Deep Bay areas, Hong Kong ( S. Chan <em>in litt. </em>2007, P. Leader <em>in litt. </em>2007, R. Lethwaite <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The latter site appears to be the stronghold, and the only location where recent counts have reached 100 individuals (P. Leader <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In most areas where there were hundreds of birds 15 years ago, such as on Kinmen (an offshore island near Fukien, China) where in 1989 up to 176 individuals could be found, it has declined to such an extent that single figure counts are now the norm (Y. Cheng-te <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In Taiwan, it is now considered no more than a very rare resident or vagrant. There were only three recent records from Vietnam (J. C. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007, J. Tordoff <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, until the sighting in late 2011 of up to 10 groups, each of c.12 birds, in northern Cao Bang province, northern Vietnam (J. Wright<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011).  <p></p>
106005792		habitat	eng	It occurs in open areas with scattered trees, particularly near water and most often close to the coast.  <p></p>
106005792		population	eng	The number of mature individuals is thought to exceed 10,000, based on an estimate of c.200 in Hong Kong (S. Chan <i>in litt.</i> 2007), thus the population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and the population in Taiwan at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
106005792		threats	eng	It is likely to be declining as a result of agricultural intensification, particularly the excessive use of pesticides and rodenticides, which has killed most potential invertebrate and vertebrate prey items. Direct persecution by humans, including its use for target practice by children, is likely to have exacerbated the decline.  <p></p>
106005793		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Between 1993 and 2007, over 90 birds were hatched in the captive breeding programme (Lieberman and Kuehler 2009)<strong></strong>. Captive-raised individuals were released into lightly-managed habitat and monitored (Kuehler <em>et al.</em> 1994, Lieberman 1997, Banko 2009)<strong></strong>, but releases were stopped after January 1999 due to increasing mortality (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009).<span style=""> About 75 birds need to be maintained in the captive flock for future reintroduction attempts to take place</span> (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In 2011, the captive population stood at 94 individuals, including 39 birds used as breeders  (Switzer 2011). Introduced mammalian predators were trapped in the Kona Forest Unit and, although this no longer takes place, predators will be managed at any future reintroduction sites (J. Burgett<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Some areas of its former range are now fenced and free of feral ungulates, and the exclusion of ungulates will be extended into other areas (J. Burgett<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Relocation of problematic <em>B. solitarius</em> failed because the birds homed back from over 32 km (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong>. Two reintroduction sites have now been identified (Nelson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The first, and smaller, site is now largely fenced and ungulate-free and contains good habitat and food conditions. The second, larger site requires fencing, ungulate removal, and habitat restoration. Reintroduction at the smaller site could begin as early as 2014 depending on acquisition of funding needed for small predator removal, hack tower construction, and personnel to release and monitor the birds (Nelson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A recovery plan was prepared in 1982 and revised in 2009<strong></strong>,  outlining recovery actions including expanding the captive propagation  to minimize loss of genetic diversity,  protecting suitable habitat and  managing threats to the species,  establishing new populations in  managed habitat, establishing a program  to increase public support, and  continuing research and adaptive  management practices for species  recovery (USFWS 2009). Each year, around 2,000 school children and students attend the environmental education programme and see <em>C. hawaiiensis</em> in captivity at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Centre (Faike 2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Restore and manage a significant proportion of remaining habitat within the species's historical range. Deal creatively with the problem posed by <em>B. solitarius</em><strong></strong> (Maxfield 1998, P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). Reintroduce birds to habitat managed to reduce major threats. Exclude ungulates from more areas of habitat. Control potential predators and vectors of disease in the species's former range.  <p></p>
106005793		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus hawaiiensis</em> was distributed historically on Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where the last individuals were found in and around the Kona Forest Unit of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. Bones of this or a closely related species have been found on Maui, indicating a wider distribution before Western contact (Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Banko 2009)<strong></strong>. In 1992, there were only 11 or 12 birds in the wild (Maxfield 1998, Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Banko 2009)<strong></strong>, and the last two individuals were last seen in June 2002. Nesting by the last known wild birds was probably confined to higher elevations on Mauna Loa in South Kona (Faike 2006, Banko 2009)<strong></strong>. The last known wild chick fledged in 1992, and the last viable wild egg was laid in 1996 (Faike 2006)<strong></strong>. The species persists in captive breeding facilitie<span style="">s, with development of a reintroduction programme in progress (</span>Lieberman and Kuehler 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<span style="">. C</span>aptive breeding started in the 1970s, but few fledglings were produced until eggs from wild nests were harvested and hatched in captivity during 1993-1996 (Lieberman and Kuehler 2009, Banko 2009). A total of 27 captive-reared juveniles, originating from eggs laid either in the wild or in captivity, were released during 1993-1999 (Banko 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). By 1999, 21 released birds had died and the remaining six were captured to protect them and preserve genetic diversity (Maxfield 1998, Conrow 1999, Banko 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). In 2011, the captive population stood at 94 individuals (49 at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center, 44 at the Maui Bird Conservation Center, and 1 at the San Diego Zoo), including 39 birds used as breeders (Switzer 2011).<br/><p></p>
106005793		habitat	eng	It once inhabited dry to moist `ohi`a-koa forest and woodlands, but it later became confined to high mountain forest. It is omnivorous, but primarily feeds on the fruit of native understory plants (Maxfield 1998, USFWS and Hawai'i DLNR 1999)<strong></strong>. As well as fruits and berries, the species feeds on eggs, young birds, insects and carrion (Faike 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Captive-reared birds have been observed using twigs as tools to access food (Faike 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest construction usually begins in March and the first clutches are laid in April (Banko <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005793		threats	eng	It has suffered from extensive habitat alteration, particularly reduction of understory food-plants as a result of the activities of feral ungulates, logging, agriculture and the loss of pollinators and dispersers (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). Problematic ungulates include feral cattle, mouflon sheep, feral sheep and goats (J. Burgett<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The impact of shooting has probably been substantial, even in recent decades. In the late 19th Century, the species was persecuted as a pest, and it became unpopular with pig hunters for alerting animals to their presence (Faike 2006)<strong></strong>. The species was confiding and easily attracted by imitated calls, making it an easy target (Faike 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. During breeding the species is sensitive to human disturbance <strong></strong>(Faike 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, including nest-monitoring operations (Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, Walters 2006)<strong></strong>. Other documented threats include predation by introduced rats, the small Asian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus </em>and<em> </em>the native Hawaiian Hawk <em>Buteo solitarius </em>(classified as Near Threatened), as well as avian malaria and pox carried by introduced mosquitoes (Maxfield 1998) <strong></strong>and <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> carried by feral cats (Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, J. Burgett<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007, Banko 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong>. Feral cats are ubiquitous in the species's habitat and are also potential predators (J. Burgett<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Fledged chicks remain near the ground for several days before they can fly properly and are at particular risk from predation (Faike 2006, Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). Captive-reared birds have suffered from disease, with at least one dying from a bacterial infection, and diseases may have made others more vulnerable to predation (Maxfield 1998, Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Banko 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). The captive population is inbred (Faike 2006, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and this may be reducing reproductive success. West Nile Virus, which could potentially be introduced by migrating shorebirds and waterfowl or commercial transport, and is spread by mosquitoes (Faike 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, could threaten reintroduction efforts in the future. West Nile Virus is presumed to be highly lethal in <em>C. hawaiiensis</em>, owing to a reduction in the population of the American Crow <em>C. brachyrhynchos</em> in mainland North America by 45% over eight years due to the virus (J. Burgett<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005796		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005797		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt; c.16,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Korea and possibly c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range and locally abundant in western Arabia and Ethiopia (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005799		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (Madge and Burn 1993).
106005801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005802		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be seemingly rare and very local. However, the apparent rarity of this species seems to be due largely to its preference for an environment (karst) which is usually avoided by field workers. The species has been found to be locally fairly common in the Fakfak mountains (Coates 1990).
106005803		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites. Study its ecology to attempt to determine the reasons for its absence from areas of seemingly suitable habitat. Protect primary forest at suitable altitudes in areas where it is known to occur.   <p></p>
106005803		distribution	eng	<em>Loboparadisea sericea</em> is patchily distributed along the Central Ranges of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is locally common, for instance in primary montane forest at 1,400-2,000 m on Crater Mountain (A. Mack and D. Wright 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but often uncommon or absent from seemingly appropriate habitats for unknown reasons, and may be split into isolated sub-populations. However, it may be overlooked because of its unobtrusive habits and rugged, rarely visited habitat.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005803		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest, rarely visiting secondary habitats, from 600-2,000 m but mostly above 1,200 m (K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005803		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106005803		threats	eng	Although locally threatened in sites such as the Ok Tedi Mine (P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>, the majority of its range is safe from logging and large-scale habitat degradation (K.&#160;D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common wherever researchers have mist-netted in its habitat (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005805		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears common and widespread throughout its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005806		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is protected by law in both countries. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey unvisited mountains within range. Estimate range and populations at known sites. Monitor numbers at most accessible sites. Research population structure and dispersal between locations. Investigate population trends through interviews with local hunters. Investigate hunting levels and attitudes to control amongst hunters. Create large, locally-managed forest reserves with an enforced hunting ban. Run awareness and education programmes for landowners. Enforce existing legislation. Use as a flagship species for any high-altitude ecotourism initiatives. <p></p>
106005806		distribution	eng	<em>Macgregoria pulchra</em> is distributed in small disjunct populations in the highest mountains of New Guinea, namely the Snow, Oranje and Star Mountains of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and the Wharton and Owen Stanley ranges of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It remains common and tame above 3,000 m in the Star Mountains, where the Ketengban people protect the species for cultural reasons (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but is rare on Mt Albert Edward in the Whartons, with only one record since 1933 (Safford and Smart 1996)<strong></strong>. The species was found to be fairly common in this area, but moved with apparent changes in fruiting and habitat (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There are no population estimates but most records are of only one to three birds. Its occupied range has been estimated at less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> with minimal interchange between the isolated subpopulations (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005806		habitat	eng	It is restricted to subalpine forest, including patches within alpine grassland, dominated by its major food-plant, the podocarp <em>Dacrycarpus compactus</em>. Its partial nomadism and its breeding cycle are tied to the unpredictable fruiting of this tree (Beehler 1981,<strong></strong> Beehler 1983,<strong></strong> Beehler 1991a,<strong></strong> b, Hicks and Burrows 1992, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. Birds also forage for other fruits in low bushes and on the ground, and in epiphytes and foliage, presumably for arthropods (Clapp 1986, Safford and Smart 1996, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. It is most commonly recorded between 3,200-3,500 m, but occasionally from 2,700-4,000 m (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106005806		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005806		threats	eng	Its absence from great swathes of the central highlands suggests historic extinctions from habitat changes and hunting pressures (Barker and Croft 1977, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is a popular gamebird, being tame, conspicuous and site-faithful (Beehler 1981, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. However shotguns are essentially no longer available in New Guinea making hunting (with traditional means) more difficult. The threat from hunting is exacerbated by its nomadism and its small, fragmented populations. Whilst much of its range is remote and inaccessible to hunters, new roads such as one in Wamena in Papua, are enabling much easier access and it has declined greatly at this site (P.&#160;Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999, D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Climate change and associated impacts on vegetation may impact  negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for  breeding.<br/> <p></p>
106005807		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in all habitats (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005808		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common over much of its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005810		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to abundant (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005811		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005812		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare at certain localities and locally common in others (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005813		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common on Halmahera and Bacan (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005814		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is one large protected area in the Arfak mountains, which has been proposed for extension (Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine whether the currently undescribed <em>Paradigalla</em> taxon from the Fakfak Mountains belongs to this species. Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106005814		distribution	eng	<em>Paradigalla carunculata</em> is endemic to the Arfak Mountains in the Vogelkop peninsula of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where there are few records but it is probably not uncommon (Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. An undescribed <em>Paradigalla</em> taxon discovered in the nearby Fakfak Mountains, and possibly occurring on other mountain ranges in the Vogelkop, may be this species, although it shows some features of Short-tailed Paradigalla <em>P. brevicauda </em>(Gibbs 1994, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005814		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane forest and forest edge from 1,400 to 2,100 m (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005814		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005814		threats	eng	This species may be declining locally through forest loss but is probably secure in most of its range. The extensive forests within its small range remain largely undisturbed owing to their geographical isolation and the low density and traditional lifestyle of the human population, although deforestation is occurring in the hills (Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005815		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005816		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected by law in both countries. However, 93% of landownership rests with traditional custodians, presenting a challenge to the species protection. <br/><strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Run an awareness campaign educating people about the species and its conservation and promote alternative materials for use in traditional head-dresses. Survey gaps within the known range. Estimate population densities and sizes at known sites. Research rates of forest loss in preferred altitudinal range. Monitor numbers at the most accessible sites such as Ambua Lodge. Monitor effects of hunting bans at Ok Tedi and Crater Mountain. Monitor trade prices and quantities. Investigate hunting levels and attitudes to control amongst hunters. Create large, locally-managed forest reserves with an enforced hunting ban. Run awareness programmes for landowners. Enforce existing legislation. Utilise as a flagship species for ecotourism ventures. <p></p>
106005816		distribution	eng	<em>Epimachus fastuosus</em> is patchily distributed in the mountains of western and central New Guinea, from the Vogelkop of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to the Torricelli and Bewani Mountains in <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>and in the central ranges eastward to the Kratke Range. It is unknown from large areas - in some cases these areas have never been surveyed, in others it is definitely absent (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. It is generally scarce to rare or locally absent, and often where reported to be locally common, for instance on Mt Bosavi, it occurs at low population densities (Coates 1990, Frith and Beehler 1998, I. Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Tamrau Mountains on Vogelkop it is thought to be common (B. Beehler <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>, as well as in the highly populous Tari Valley of central Papua New Guinea (including sightings in coffee gardens and close to cultivated and populated areas) and the Foja Mts of western New Guinea (B. Beehler <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Most of its range in Papua has not been surveyed recently but it may prove to be locally common, as in the Arfak Mountains (<strong></strong>D. Gibbs verbally 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005816		habitat	eng	It is restricted to mid-montane forest at 1,800-2,150&#160;m, occasionally from 1,280-2,550&#160;m (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. It is usually found in primary forest, and is less often recorded in adjacent secondary growth and garden edges (B. Whitney <em>in litt.</em> 2000, B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. It forages equally for fruit and small animals in the forest canopy, often probing moss and epiphytes for arthropods (Beehler and Pruett-Jones 1983, Kwapena 1985, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106005816		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005816		threats	eng	It is hunted for its tail feathers and for food; however, t<span style="">here has been a reduction in hunting due to a law preventing</span> the killing of birds with non-traditional means (i.e. shotguns)<span style=""> (B. Beehler </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style="">  2012). </span> Hunters target adult males and, although the species persists in areas lacking these males, breeding success has not been investigated (B. Whitney <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Hunting occurs mainly for collection of feathers for  traditional customary practices, although birds or feathers are occasionally sold  <span style="">to tourists (van den Bergh  2009), even though it is illegal to take them out of the country. </span><span style="">Although the species is hunted for its plumes, it is not worn as  commonly as other species and is not frequently sold (particularly in  the highlands). However, a few tribal groups still use the species’s  plumes and so hunting is likely to be concentrated in certain areas (B.  Beehler </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012, M. Supuma </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012).</span> Forest in the favoured geographic and altitudinal range is under pressure for clearance for agriculture by the large and increasing human population. This species may be intolerant of secondary forest, both caused by shifting agriculture and logging (Diamond 1972, Kwapena 1985, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>; however, there remains substantial rugged inaccessible  habitat for this species in both eastern and western New Guinea (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/>   <p>  </p>   <p></p>
106005817		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant over most of its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005818		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005819		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the populations at selected sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded forest.  Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest within its range.    <p></p>
106005819		distribution	eng	<em>Epimachus bruijnii</em> is a poorly known species which ranges along the north New Guinea coast from the south-east coast of Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, east to Vanimo, just across the border into <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is widespread and usually common within this fairly small range, with one male ranging over 15 ha in a week-long study.  <em> <p></p></em>
106005819		habitat	eng	It is relatively common in selectively logged forest, but most records are from forests below 180 m (Beehler and Beehler 1986, Whitney 1987, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005819		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005819		threats	eng	Lowland forests throughout its range are under pressure from timber extraction and development schemes (N. Bostock <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Sujatnika <em>et al. </em>1995)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005821		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005822		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is considered to be reasonably common on the southern slopes of the Bismarck mountains (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005823		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005824		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common within its preferred altitudinal range (Coates 1990).
106005825		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected by law in Papua New Guinea. The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project is working in and proposing a large conservation area in northern Huon (W.&#160;Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other mountain ranges on the Huon peninsula which have not been visited recently. Estimate population densities and sizes at known sites. Investigate tolerance of secondary habitats for both foraging and breeding. Assess forest clearance rates between 1,100-1,700&#160;m. Investigate population trends through interviews with local villagers. Discuss creation of locally-managed forest reserves. Run awareness and education programmes for landowners.<p></p>
106005825		distribution	eng	<em>Parotia wahnesi</em> is known from the mountains of the Huon Peninsula and the Adelbert Mountains in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. Its abundance varies from locally common in the Cromwell range (Coates 1990, W.&#160;Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and regularly encountered in the YUS ecosystem of the Saruwaged range (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), to rare in the Adelberts (Pratt 1982, Eastwood and Gregor<span style="">y 1995)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Records from Satop report three birds seen in three days in 1994 (compared to 16 </span><em style="">A. rothschildi</em><span style="">) (Eastwood and Gregory 1995). This spe</span>cies has a very narrow elevational distribution, most of which in the Huon Peninsula remains old growth forest.<br/><p></p>
106005825		habitat	eng	It is found in mid-montane forest between 1,100-1,700 m on the Huon Peninsula and between 1,300-1,600 m in the Adelberts. It forages actively and noisily in the subcanopy, probing ephiphytes and moss for arthropods, and also feeds on fruit. One or more adult males display on a cleared arena on the forest floor.<br/><p></p>
106005825		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005825		threats	eng	These mid-montane altitudes are favoured by local people for settlement and agriculture. Whilst this region does not have a high population density, the human population is expanding rapidly and clearing areas of forest within the species's range (I.&#160;Burrows <em>in litt.</em> 1994, W.&#160;Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. However, this forest loss currently remains fairly minimal (B. Beehler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). It is known to forage near active gardens and appears to be tolerant of human activities (W.&#160;Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, as is the better-known Lawes's Parotia <em>P. lawesii</em>. However, these observations may just represent feeding excursions from nearby undisturbed forest. There is no evidence that it is hunted for plumes or food<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Frith and Beehler 1998, W.&#160;Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999, B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106005826		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be mostly common throughout its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be mostly common throughout its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005828		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its remaining habitat (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005829		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. It is found from the Bunya Mountains southwards along the highlands of the Great Dividing Range, and in the Calliope Range.
106005829		habitat	eng	The species lives in rainforest that is dominated by Nothofagus and adjacent Eucalyptus forest. It was once found in lowland forest but this has now been mostly cleared for agriculture (Blakers et al. 1984).
106005829		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be still common in the northern part of its range but would appear to be less abundant in the south (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005829		threats	eng	Much of the species former lowland habitat has been cleared for agriculture, however all logging has since stopped (S. Garnett in litt. 2000).
106005830		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005831		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  Pulau Waigeo nature reserve, established in the late 1980s, covers 1,530 km<sup>2</sup> om Waiego, but there are reports that it may be substantially reduced in size (Holmes 1989, Dekker and McGowan 1995)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within its range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Ensure the future integrity of existing protected areas, e.g.  Pulau Waigeo nature reserve. <p></p>
106005831		distribution	eng	<em>Cicinnurus respublica</em> is endemic to the Papuan islands of Waigeo and Batanta off north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it reported to be frequent in suitable habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
106005831		habitat	eng	This species occurs in hill forest, generally above 300 m, although it is often heard even at low altitude (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b)<strong></strong>. It feeds mainly on fruits and arthropods (Plantema 2011).   <p></p>
106005831		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005831		threats	eng	Waigeo's rugged relief and lack of infrastructure suggest that there may be no serious immediate threats to its forests. Selective logging has been reported in the north of Waigeo, the south-east corner of the island was ravaged by fire in 1982, and there are concerns over a cobalt mining concession on the island (Dekker and Argeloo 1993, WWF-IUCN 1994-1995, Dekker and McGowan 1995, Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. Logging on Batanta (where the sole protected area is only 100 km<sup>2</sup>) is resulting in major habitat degradation, but this species appears to be moderately common in logged forest and it is probably safe at higher altitudes (Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. As well as declining slowly through habitat loss, it is hunted in some areas for skins (D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106005832		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005833		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is one relatively substantial protected area in the Arfak and Tamrau mountains, the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve, which currently covers 683 km2 but has been proposed for extension (Stattersfield et al. 1998). In addition there is a huge protected area proposed for the Tamrau mountains, the Pegunungan Tamrau Nature Reserve (Sujatnika et al. 1995).<strong></strong>
106005833		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Arfak and Tamrau Mountains of the Vogelkop peninsula in north-west Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005833		habitat	eng	The species is a rather poorly known inhabitant of montane forest, between 1,700-2,250 m (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005833		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at higher elevations near Manokwari (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005833		threats	eng	The extensive rainforests within the species range remain largely undisturbed owing to their geographical isolation and the low density and traditional lifestyle of the human population, although deforestation is occurring in the hills of the Tamrau and Arfak mountain ranges (Sujatnika et al. 1995). Adult males are hunted locally for their skins (Gibbs 1993).
106005834		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread in the area of Okbap (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005835		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the populations at selected sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded forest across an altitudinal gradient. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest.    <p></p>
106005835		distribution	eng	<em>Astrapia mayeri</em> has a small range in the central mountains of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, from the Strickland River to Mt Hagen and Mt Giluwe, c.130 km west. Its western limits require further surveying. It is generally fairly common, even in degraded forest. At a new site, Kumul Lodge in the west of its range, it is reported to be abundant (Salvadori 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106005835		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane forest between 2,400 and 3,400 m, sometimes down to 1,800 m and also in degraded forest.  <p></p>
106005835		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common to locally abundant.
106005835		threats	eng	It is locally threatened by hunting for tail plumes and by large-scale logging and forest degradation but it is safe in the inaccessible portions of its range (Coates 1990, P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Previous concerns of genetic swamping through hybridisation with Stephanie's Astapia <em>A. stephaniae</em> in the far east of its range are now discounted.    <p></p>
106005836		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in some areas but sparse in others (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005837		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in forest at Ogeranang (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005838		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005839		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005840		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Pulau Waigeo nature reserve, established in the late 1980s, covers 1,530 km<sup>2</sup>, but there are reports that it may be substantially reduced in size (Holmes 1989, Dekker and McGowan 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Ensure the future integrity of existing protected areas within the species's range, e.g. Pulau Waigeo. <p></p>
106005840		distribution	eng	<em>Paradisea rubra</em> is endemic to the West Papuan islands of Waigeo, Batanta, Gemien and Saonek off north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106005840		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest and forest edge in the lowlands and hills, up to 600 m (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005840		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common in suitable habitats.
106005840		threats	eng	Waigeo's rugged relief and lack of infrastructure suggest there may be no serious immediate threats to its forests. Selective logging has been reported in the north of Waigeo, the south-east corner of the island was ravaged by fire in 1982, and there are concerns over a cobalt mining concession on the island (Dekker and Argeloo 1993, WWF-IUCN 1994-1995, Dekker and McGowan 1995, Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Logging on Batanta (where the only protected area is only 100 km<sup>2</sup>) is resulting in major habitat loss but this species's tolerance of logged forest is poorly known. As well as possibly declining from habitat degradation, this species is hunted locally for skins and possibly cage-birds (Frith and Beehler 1988, D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005841		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005843		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).
106005844		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded forest. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest. Lobby against large-scale development of forested areas on the islands where it occurs. <p></p>
106005844		distribution	eng	<em>Paradisaea decora</em> is restricted to Fergusson (1,340 km<sup>2</sup>) and Normanby (1,040 km<sup>2</sup>) in the D'Entrecasteaux archipelago of east <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It has been described as fairly common (LeCroy <em>et al.</em> 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, recently acquired information suggests that the population may number as few as c.650 individuals (D. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys of two sub-populations indicate declines of c.20% from c.1997 to 2007 (D. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005844		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest between 300 m and at least 700 m. It appears to inhabit secondary regrowth and forest edge, suggesting some tolerance of logging (Coates 1990,<strong></strong> Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005844		population	eng	The population is preliminarily suspected to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, but may possibly be as low as c.650 individuals (D. Mitchell <em>in litt. </em>2007).
106005844		threats	eng	Although there are no imminent plans for large-scale logging on these islands, both have been targeted by multi-national logging companies and there is a proposal to convert large areas of Normanby to cash crops (Ingram 1994, Loney 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species suffers negative effects from the conversion of forest to gardens (D. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005845		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Further research its reported tolerance of degraded forest, and its interactions with <em>P. raggiana</em>. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest on the Huon peninsula.   <p></p>
106005845		distribution	eng	<em>Paradisaea guilielmi</em> is endemic to the Huon peninsula of <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where it is widespread and relatively common. Although it is reported to be tolerant of secondary and degraded forest (Coates 1990, Frith and Beehler 1998, W. Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, forest degradation around Boana village has led to a major decline, coincident with an increase in Raggiana Bird-of-paradise <em>P. raggiana </em>(P. Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106005845		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest from 670-1,350 m, sometimes from 450-1,500 m, throughout the peninsula.   <p></p>
106005845		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common.
106005845		threats	eng	Forest within its range is under continuing threat from both commercial logging and cultivation for the rapidly increasing human population (Coates 1990, Frith and Beehler 1998, W. Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest degradation appears to bring it into contact with the competitively dominant <em>P. raggiana</em>, which eventually replaces it. There appears to be a small demand for its plumes by local people and traders, but leks still survive within villages (W. Betz <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If it proves to be unable to survive in large areas of logged forest, it could be threatened by any increase in logging, exacerbated by agricultural clearance.   <p></p>
106005846		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and protected by law in Papua New Guinea. It is illegal for non-citizens to take birds-of-paradise without a permit from the Department of Environment &amp; Conservation and to kill birds-of-paradise with anything other than traditional means (Beehler in litt. to van den Bergh 2009, Sekhran &amp; Miller 199<span style="">6). While all Birds of Paradise are protected by the Papua New Guinea Fauna Act (1968), the enforcement of this protection is challenging, considering that over 93% of landownership rests with traditional custodians (M. Supuma </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012). In addition, there is a distinct lack of funds to support enforcement officers to monitor the trade of the species.  </span><strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>  <p>Survey western boundary of range. Survey historical sites in north and east of range. Estimate population densities and sizes at known sites. Investigate tolerance of secondary forest and degraded areas for both foraging and breeding, including the mapping and monitoring of male song-perches in populous mid-montane valleys (such as the Wahgi and Tari valleys). Research rates of forest loss in preferred altitudinal range. Monitor numbers at most accessible sites such as Ambua Lodge. Monitor trade prices and quantities. Investigate hunting levels and attitudes to control amongst hunters. Create large, locally-managed forest reserves with an enforced hunting ban. Run awareness and education programmes for landowners and highland inhabitants. Raise awareness of the conservation status of the species amongst tourists. Encourage traditional land custodians to conserve their existing plumes using effective storage methods. Enforce existing legislation. Utilise its well-known image as a flagship species for ecotourism and conservation ventures.&#160;</p><p></p>
106005846		distribution	eng	<em>Paradisaea rudolphi</em> occurs in the eastern Central Ranges of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, from Mt Sisa south of Tari to the Owen Stanley range. It is patchily distributed and absent in many areas, including in seemingly suitable habitat in eastern Papua New Guinea, but nowhere common (Frith and Beehler 1998, K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2000, B. Beehler in litt. 2012). Advertising males were spaced at about every 200 m along one suitable forest ridge, and 400 m along another, and three radio-tagged birds had home ranges of 5, 17 and 33 ha over c.50 days (Pruett-Jones and Pruett-Jones 1988). At another study site, males were less dense, occupying up to 100 ha, perhaps owing to the more patchy forest or the higher hunting pressure at this site (Whiteside 1998). The species can also be found in degraded forest remnants, at the edges of gardens and in copses of planted trees in upland valleys of central Papua New Guinea. Singing adult males have been reported in the highly populous Tari Valley, including in areas with little original forest, suggesting a tolerance of highly degraded forest (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  <br/><p></p>
106005846		habitat	eng	It occurs in lower montane forest, from 1,400-1,800 m, but occasionally from 1,100-2,000 m, especially female-plumaged birds. Although displaying males usually use patches of primary forest, they have also been reported singing in the highly populous Tari valley, in areas with little remaining primary forest (B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span style="">. The species is able to tolerate highly degraded habitats, occurring in garden mosaics, copses of planted trees in upland valleys (B. Beehler</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012, G. Dutson</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012), forest edge and nearby disturbed areas (</span>van den Bergh 2009). However, it may be excluded from more degraded habitats as a result of hunting of males and competition with the more adaptable Raggiana Bird-of-paradise <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raggiana</span>. The favoured elevational zone continues to be degraded by intensified agriculture and a growing rural population. It is largely a canopy species feeding mainly on fruit (Coates 1990, Mack 1992, Frith and Beehler 1998). <p></p>
106005846		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005846		threats	eng	The major threat is hunting for its pectoral and tail feathers (Beehler 1985, Coates 1990, Frith and Beehler 1998)<strong></strong>. Although hunting occurs mainly for collection of feathers for traditional customary practices, birds or feathers are occasionally sold <span style="">to tourists (van den Bergh 2009), even though it is illegal to take them out of the country. Despite a reduction in hunting due to a law preventing</span> the killing of birds with non-traditional means (i.e. shotguns), there are many more children than 40 years ag<span style="">o, who shoot fairly significant numbers of birds on the nest, using slingshots (B. Beehler </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012). Although the species is hunted for its plumes, it is not worn as commonly as other species and is not frequently sold (particularly in the highlands). However, a few tribal groups still use the species’s plumes and so hunting is likely to be concentrated in certain areas (B. Beehler </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012, M. Supuma </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2012).  Remaining forest, including the species’s favoured elevational zone, is under pressure for clearance for agriculture by the increasing human population. However, agriculture-related habitat alteration does not necessarily preclude the species from these areas as it has been found to occur in highly degraded forest remnant/garden mosaics and can survive in human-dominated ecosystems (B. Beehler</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt</span><span style="">. 2012, G. Dutson</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012). There are still significant areas of its range which are inaccessible and largely uninhabited (Coate</span>s 1990, Frith and Beehler 1998, B. Beehler <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).   <br/><p></p>
106005847		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005848		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005849		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106005850		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable habitat on Tagula. Study its ecological requirements, tolerance of habitat degradation and threats. <p></p>
106005850		distribution	eng	<em>Cracticus louisiadensis</em> is endemic to Tagula (= Sudest) Island (c.700 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong>) in the Louisiade Archipelago of <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>(Coates 1990). Ten were seen on the only visit to the island in recent years, during a 10-day trek from the north coast up to Mt Riu in 1992 (I. Burrows <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong></strong>. Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to all the lowland forest (Beehler 1993)<strong></strong> although it may be similar to the allospecific Hooded Butcherbird <em>C. cassicus</em> is common and adaptable in forest edge habitat.<em> <p></p></em>
106005850		habitat	eng	Its population and ecology are virtually unknown but it is likely to be similar to the allospecific Hooded Butcherbird <em>C. cassicus,</em> which is a common and adaptable species, occurring in all forest edge habitats including gardens and savanna (Beehler <em>et al. </em>1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005850		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005850		threats	eng	Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to all the lowland forest (Beehler 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005851		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005852		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Coates 1990, Morcombe 2000).
106005853		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in coastal and agricultural areas, although sparse in the arid interior (Morcombe 2000).
106005854		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Strepera graculina</span> is endemic to eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span> and its offshore islands (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">ashbyi </span>of south-west Victoria became extinct through hybridisation during the 20th century (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
106005854		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).
106005855		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005856		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in optimum habitats and uncommon to rare in arid regions (Morcombe 2000).
106005857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the east of its range, fairly common in the centre and uncommon elsewhere (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106005858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to scarce (Coates1990).
106005861		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally fairly common to common, but mostly scarce or absent (Coates 1990).
106005862		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106005863		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005864		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005865		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005866		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).
106005867		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered locally common.
106005868		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to measure rates of population decline or range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of peatswamp forest on Borneo.  <p></p>
106005868		distribution	eng	<em>Pityriasis gymnocephala</em> is restricted to Borneo, where it occurs patchily in lowland forests of Sabah and Sarawak,  East <strong>Malaysia,</strong> <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong><em> </em><p></p>
106005868		habitat	eng	This species is found principally in peatswamp forest, but is also recorded from primary evergreen forest, logged forest and tall secondary forest up to 1,000 m. It is a noisy and social species, moving in small groups through the canopy and feeding on invertebrates, small reptiles and amphibians.  <p></p>
106005868		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon.
106005868		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the lowlands of Borneo have been rapid, particularly in Kalimantan, where the forests have suffered a recent escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998), with peatswap forests being particularly affected. The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of logged, secondary and hill forest, although more research is required to determine the full habitat requirements of this unique species.  <p></p>
106005869		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon locally (Coates 1990).
106005870		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common though mostly scarce (Coates 1990).
106005871		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally uncommon.
106005872		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Buru and moderately common on Tanimbar (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005873		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005874		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005875		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Coates 1990).
106005876		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Coates 1990).
106005877		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).
106005878		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway<br/></strong>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><strong><br/></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations throughout the species's range to identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct further ecological studies to determine whether populations can persist in secondary habitats in the absence of adjacent primary forest. Protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106005878		distribution	eng	<em>Oriolus xanthonotus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan, Sumatra (including Mentawai and Bangka islands) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Calamian Islands and Palawan, south-west <strong>Philippines </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is fairly common and widespread in suitable forest habitats. <em> </em><p></p>
106005878		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in primary lowland evergreen forest to 1,220 m. It also occurs in tall secondary forest and peatswamp forest.  <p></p>
106005878		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common and widespread.
106005878		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary and sloping hill forest.  <p></p>
106005879		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oriolus steerii</span> is endemic to the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">assimilis</span>, of Cebu, has not been definitely recorded since 1906 and is likely to be extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).
106005879		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106005880		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106005881		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Ambabok, where the species was recorded in 2003, 2004 and 2012, is located within the NSMNP, although there is no active law enforcement in this area. The Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay protected area, which supports up to 50 km<sup>2</sup> of forest, probably encompasses one of the historical localities. Exploratory surveys in 2007 of the eastern side of the NSMNP upstream of the Palanan River and along the Pacific coast in Palanan, Divilacan and Maconacon, at 0-1,000 m, failed to find the species <strong></strong>(M. van Weerd <em>in litt</em>. 2012). In early 2012, a new survey project (by students at the University of the Philippines, Isabela State University and the Mabuwaya Foundation) was planned for 2012 and 2012, with the aim of visiting all historical locations for the species in the Sierra Madre and Bataan, and to survey suitable habitat in San Mariano municipality in the Sierra Madre. This project is to include an awareness-raising campaign targeting government officials, park management authorities and local communities in the Sierra Madre, with information about the species and its status. The project is expected to produce a conservation strategy for the species, to be implemented by national and local government departments (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys, particularly in bamboo forests, around historical sites in Bataan, the Mariveles Mountains and Mt Cetaceo, around Mansarong, and also Diffun (Quirino Province) where it has recently been reported. Propose key sites found for formal protection. Lobby for active on-the-ground protection of the NSMNP. Raise awareness among local people and local government about the species in an effort to implement conservation measures. <p></p>
106005881		distribution	eng	<em>Oriolus isabellae</em> is endemic to Luzon in the <strong>Philippines </strong>(Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is known from three localities in Bataan province and five in the north-east of the island. Eleven birds were collected near San Mariano in the Sierra Madre mountains in 11 days in 1961, indicating that it may not have been particularly rare in suitable habitat. However, in the north-east it has been recorded recently at just three localities (in Quirino province and Cagayan province, and in 2003-2006 and February 2012 at Ambabok and nearby Dunoy, San Mariano municipality, Isabela province <strong></strong>[van Weerd and Hutchinson 2004, M. van Weerd <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012]), despite an increasing number of fieldworkers attempting to locate it. There have been no observations in Bataan since 1947 and surveys in relatively undisturbed forest along the eastern coast of the Sierra Madre in 2006 failed to locate the species <strong></strong>(M. van Weerd <em>in litt</em>. 2007). This indicates considerable rarity and that its distribution is probably patchy. <p></p>
106005881		habitat	eng	It frequents the canopy and middle storeys of forests, especially thick bamboo forest, but also forest edge, from 50-440 m. Constraints on its distribution and relative abundance are unknown, but it appears to tolerate secondary growth. Two of the localities that have produced recent records (Ambabok and  Dunoy) are characterised by degraded and secondary forest (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It was recently observed in mixed-species flocks in fruiting trees.<br/><p></p>
106005881		population	eng	The population is precautionarily estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, and so it is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106005881		threats	eng	It may be a lowland specialist and lowland forest destruction is assumed to be its primary threat. Since the 1930s, forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% and by the late 1980s only 24% of Luzon was estimated to remain forested, with most remaining areas under logging concession. There is virtually no forest left near Disulap, a key historical site, and one of the recent records was from a degraded forest tract of only 100 km<sup>2</sup>, isolated from the Sierra Madre forests and offering no long-term prospects for the species. Illegal logging and agricultural encroachment in the western part of the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (NSMNP) threatens remaining habitat, and habitat protection and law enforcement are very weak in San Mariano municipality&#160; (M. van Weerd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Competition with the closely related White-lored Oriole <em>O. albiloris</em> may impact this species <strong></strong>(van Weerd and Hutchinson 2004).<br/><p></p>
106005882		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3400000-7100000 breeding pairs, equating to 10200000-21300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 20800000-85200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106005883		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in Mauritania (Fry and Keith 2000).
106005884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy <em>et al</em>. 2,000), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50   individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106005885		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in Nepal, uncommon in India and locally fairly common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998)
106005886		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to uncommon in Kenya and common in Tanzania (Fry and Keith 2000).
106005887		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> has been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Legislation for the creation of Obo National Park has also been ratified (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> has been proposed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size and distribution. Study its ecological requirements. Identify the key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law. <p></p>
106005887		distribution	eng	<em>Oriolus crassirostris</em> is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>. It is widely distributed over much of the island, except the north-east, and is most abundant in the south-west and on the central massif, occurring everywhere at low densities, with old estimates of one to two birds per 25 ha (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, <strong></strong>Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong></strong><p></p>
106005887		habitat	eng	It is most abundant in primary forest (up to 1,600 m), but also occurs in undisturbed secondary forest. It occurs occasionally in dry forest in the north but is generally absent from cocoa plantations (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, <strong></strong>Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong><p></p>
106005887		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106005887		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees and may be a threat to this species where it occurs in secondary habitats. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Construction for the country's developing oil industry, including the established idea of building 'free ports' (free economic zones) (M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, was seen as a potential threat to the species's habitat. However, prospecting on land was unsuccessful, and any construction is likely to be offshore (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005888		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (Borrow and Demey 2001).
106005889		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent to common in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia and common to abundant in southern Ethiopia (Fry and Keith 2000).
106005890		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common, although scarce in south-east Ethiopia (Fry and Keith 2000).
106005891		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common (Fry and Keith 2000).
106005892		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (Borrow and Demey 2001).
106005893		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106005894		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known to occur within protected areas, including Kayan Mentarang National Park in east Kalimantan (Orenstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within its range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106005894		distribution	eng	<em>Oriolus hosii</em> is endemic to Borneo. In Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, it is restricted to montane forest at 900-2,000 m, and has been historically recorded from Gn Kalulong, Gn Mulu, Gn Dulit, the Usun Apau Plateau, Gn Derian, Gn Murud Kecil, Batang Patap, Ulu Sabai and Tutoh. The species was recently seen in&#160; Sarawak for the first time since 1991, during an International Tropical Timber Organisation survey of Batu Lawi. It is also known from east Kalimantan, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, near to the border with Sarawak. It is rarely recorded and little is known; being usually noisy where it does occur, this paucity of records is thought to reflect genuine rarity (Orenstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <em> <p></p></em>
106005894		habitat	eng	This species is apparently restricted to mossy transitional forest around 1,100-1,200 m on the sandy north side of the Dulit range.  <p></p>
106005894		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005894		threats	eng	Habitat clearance through logging and agricultural development is now encroaching into montane areas within the species's range.  <p></p>
106005895		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on the Malay Peninsular (Wells 2007).
106005896		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (Grimmett <I>et al</I>. 1998, Robson 2,000), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106005897		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is legally protected in Thailand. It has been recorded from at least seven protected areas in China and six in Thailand. Some forestry practices, such as leaving strips of primary forest along ridge-tops and replanting with native broadleaved trees, may benefit it. Surveys in southern Sichuan have improved knowledge of its distribution and ecology.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its status, distribution, habitat and conservation requirements. Protect new important sites revealed by surveys. Establish a network of four protected areas in Sichuan, proposed for Sichuan Partridge <em>Arborophila rufipectus</em>, but which would also benefit this species, especially if they include the Erbagou forests in northern Leibo County where there are breeding records. Enforce regulations, link and extend, where possible, protected areas in China where it occurs. Manage protected areas in Thailand and Cambodia, to prevent degradation by the surrounding human population. Encourage beneficial practices in logging areas. List it<em> </em>as a nationally protected species in China. <p></p>
106005897		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Oriolus mellianus</span> is recorded in summer from south-central Sichuan, southern Guizhou, northern Guangxi and northern Guangdong, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China </span>(BirdLife International 2001). Despite a massive increase in coverage of forest sites in these and adjacent areas and much higher levels of reporting than in the 1990s, no new populations have been found and populations at known sites have all declined since about 2001, such that a serious decline is apparent (R. Lewthwaite<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Whereas surveys in 1988 found it to be locally common in south-central&#160; Sichuan, with a notable record of a flock of 40 birds, the highest count&#160; there subsequently is 10 in June 2006 (COS 2007). One at Maolan, southern Guizhou in May 1984 remains the only summer record for the province. In Guangxi, there are no records since August 1998 when four individuals were found at Maoershan (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden); the absence of records at Dayao Shan, a historically important site, is also striking. In Guangdong, peak day counts at Ba Bao Shan/Nanling NNR were 20 in 1998 and 10 (including nine males) in 2001; but the highest count since then is four in May 2007 (COS 2008, R. Lewthwaite <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There are also records in China of single birds on passage at Nankun Shan, southern Guangdong in August 1995, Weining, west Guizhou in September 1984 and Ningming, southwest Guanxi in October 1958; one at Ximeng, southern Yunnan on an unknown date was presumably also on passage (R. Lewthwaite <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is a non-breeding visitor to southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia</span>. Records of wintering birds in Thailand have declined through the 1990s although survey effort in the far north of the country has been limited. An increase in ornithological surveys in Cambodia has yielded recent records from the Cardamom Mountains and Bokor (Pilgrim and Pierce 2006). Most winter records have involved males, and it may prove to be the case that females winter further north, and possibly occur in southern Myanmar (Pilgrim and Pierce 2006). Given the limited area of remaining habitat, it is likely to have a small and declining population.<br/><p></p>
106005897		habitat	eng	It breeds in evergreen broadleaved forest, mainly at c.600-1,700 m. In Sichuan, it was recorded in 1997 in higher densities in secondary and replanted forest than in primary forest. However, these surveys were early in the breeding season, so some records may have involved newly arrived migrants in habitats where they do not breed, and it may be easier to locate in secondary habitats. In Thailand, it frequents evergreen forest at c.600-1,300 m. <p></p>
106005897		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005897		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss and fragmentation of forest in its breeding and wintering ranges through timber extraction, conversion to agriculture and uncontrolled fire. Many remaining areas of forest are degraded or under intense pressure. Almost all of the remaining primary forests in southern Sichuan, where it was recently recorded, were scheduled for logging, although a ban on commercial logging in this part of China since 1998 has reduced the pressure from logging in this part of its range. Hunting may also be a factor in Cambodia and in southwest Guangxi, where there’s a strong bird-trapping culture (R. Lewthwaite <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106005898		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within its range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland woodland on Wetar.   <p></p>
106005898		distribution	eng	<em>Sphecotheres hypoleucus</em> is restricted to Wetar, <strong>Indonesia. </strong>Although "never abundant", it was recorded at most forest sites in a recent survey of the island (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<em> <p></p></em>
106005898		habitat	eng	This species occurs in most forest types, preferring the forest edge and dry forest. It feeds mainly on figs (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106005898		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106005898		threats	eng	Extensive forest remains on Wetar, but deforestation may have increased in recent decades, with illegal logging and gold and copper mining operations threatening to affect remaining habitats, as well as on-going pressure from agriculture and road building (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
106005899		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the Moluccas and common in Australia (Coates and Bishop 1997, Morcombe 2000).
106005900		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106005901		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005902		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the 1990s in north and western mountain ranges in Sumatra and on Borneo from Kinabalu to the Mueller range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005903		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Himalayas of north-eastern Pakistan, uncommon in Bhutan, fairly common to common in Nepal, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh and fairly common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). Other national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106005904		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species was regarded as widespread and fairly common in the 1990s (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005905		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).
106005906		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to sparse and very uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).
106005907		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common Halmahera and locally common on Seram (Coates et al. 1997).
106005908		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation.  <p></p>
106005908		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina fortis</em> is restricted to Buru, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). In 1921-1922, it was regarded as unobtrusive but not particularly rare; in late 1989, it was sufficiently rarely encountered for no density estimates to be formulated; and in 1995-1996 a mere 14 birds were encountered at three localities, all reinforcing the notion that it is actually very local.  <em> </em><p></p>
106005908		habitat	eng	This species appears to be most abundant in higher-altitude primary forest with an open understorey (up to 1,500 m), although it is also recorded from disturbed habitats, lowland and monsoon forests.  <p></p>
106005908		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known. In 1981-1982 the species was described as unobtrusive but not particularly rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005908		threats	eng	As this species is tolerant of disturbed habitats and prefers high-altitude areas, it is probably little affected by current habitat changes.  <p></p>
106005909		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare and local on Bougainville island (Coates 1990, Doughty et al. 1999).
106005910		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005911		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005912		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in hill and montane forests in Central Sulawesi and uncommon on the north and eastern peninsulars on Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005913		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coracina striata</span> ranges from <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>'s Andaman Islands through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Thailand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malaysia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brunei </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia </span>to the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). The race <span style="font-style: italic;">cebuensis</span>, endemic to the Philippine island of Cebu, became extinct in the early 20th century (Rabor 1959).
106005913		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Phillipines (Robson 2000).
106005914		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106005914		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina bicolor</em> is restricted to Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, Muna, Buton and the Sangihe and Talaud islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally uncommon, with a fragmented distribution, being apparently absent from many areas within this range, e.g. central and eastern Sulawesi. It is uncommon on Buton, and there are only two records from Sangihe <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em> </em><p></p>
106005914		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland primary forest and hill forest with clearings up to 900 m, although in many places it is only found much lower. It is also recorded from scrub and mangroves.  <p></p>
106005914		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as genreally uncommon to rare on Sulawesi, common in northern Sulawesi and uncommon on Buton (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005914		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline.  <p></p>
106005915		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005916		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in lowland areas (Coates 1990).
106005917		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common on Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005918		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Papua New Guinea to uncommon or rare in eastern Indonesia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106005919		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often scarce but locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005920		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon in lowland areas but more numerous above 700 m (Coates et al. 1997).
106005921		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).
106005922		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is present in Parc de la Rivière Bleue. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at key sites.  Ensure the protection of significant areas of primary mountain forest.  Research the impact of introduced predators.  Protect important areas from nickel mining. Investigate dispersal between isolated forest blocks.   <p></p>
106005922		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina analis </em>is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France) </strong>where it occurs on the islands of Grande Terre and Ile des Pins. The global population has been estimated at 10,000-20,000 individuals, based on surveys from 2003-2006, and it is suspected to be declining (Chartendrault and Barré 2005, 2006). It is described as "fairly common" (Dutson 2011), being frequent in the south of Grande Terre but rarer in the north (Chartendrault and Barré 2005,&#160;<strong> </strong>2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005922		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense forest and scrub, primarily above 600 m but also down to 200 m in some areas (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2005, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>, and is usually restricted to larger forest fragments. <p></p>
106005922		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106005922		threats	eng	As an inhabitant of large fragments of primary forest, it is presumably sensitive to habitat modification as well as potential microclimatic changes resulting from climate change. Mining of nickel, chromium, cobalt and iron is suspected to be causing habitat loss and degradation in some areas, and although core areas of habitat in the species's stronghold in the south of Grande Terre are currently unaffected there is an increasing potential threat to these sites in the medium and longer term, especially as population density of the species appears to be twice as high on soils suitable for mining (V. Chartendrault <em>in litt. </em>2009, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2009, C. Meresse <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fire is an additional threat to primary forest on Grande Terre (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005923		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to uncommon in the north of its range, rare in Rwanda and Kenya, common in Angola, uncommon south from Malawi and rare in South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005924		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the north of its range and uncommon in the south (Keith et al. 1992).
106005925		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent to common (Keith et al. 1992).
106005926		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Protect important habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106005926		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina graueri</em> is known from the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>where it is restricted to the east of the country from Djugu and Mongbwalu (west of Lake Albert) to south of Lutunguru (west of Lake Edward), also being found on Mt Kahuzi and south to Kitongo. It has recently been recorded from <strong>Uganda. </strong> It is extremely local and uncommon.   <p></p>
106005926		habitat	eng	It is found in montane and transitional forest from 1,150-1,900 m (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it forages in the understorey as well as in the upper branches of canopy trees (Lippens and Wille 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, feeding mainly on caterpillars (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed to lay its eggs at the end of the rainy season, in January, May and June (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005926		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely local and uncommon within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005926		threats	eng	Its habitat, particularly transitional forest, is threatened by clearance for slash-and-burn agriculture, and unregulated logging (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat in Madagascar and uncommon on the Comoros (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005928		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Black River National Park covers most of its range. It has responded well to rehabilitation of native ecosystems in Conservation Management Areas, which has included exclusion of introduced animals and replacement of exotic plants with native species (Safford and Jones 1998, C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a full population census and calculate densities in relation to habitat-types (C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue rehabilitation of native forests and development of Conservation Management Areas (R.&#160;Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999, C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Start translocating pairs to the Bambous Mountains (C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>: an apparently suitable area, too isolated for natural recolonisation (Safford 1997a, Safford and Jones 1997)<strong></strong>. Eventually, translocate individuals to Mauritian islets, after rehabilitation of islet ecosystems and trial translocations of captive-reared birds over the next few years (Safford and Jones 1998, C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005928		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina typica</em> is endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, occurring at Macchabé, Brise Fer, Black River Peak and the southern scarp from Bel Ombre to Combo (Safford and Beaumont 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1993, the total population was c.260 pairs, with about one third at Macchabé-Brise Fer. Highest densities (25&#160;territories/km<sup>2</sup>) were estimated on Macchabé Ridge, and on the plateau 1&#160;km east of Brise Fer Peak (Safford 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Currently there are probably c.300-350 pairs (C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1975, the population has increased by expansion into lowland areas in the Black River Gorges and Combo (areas contiguous with the previous range), and by an increase in density in traditional areas (Safford 1997a, C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005928		habitat	eng	It inhabits the forest canopy and appears to be strictly territorial throughout the year (Cheke 1987b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is mostly found in native, moist, upland, tropical evergreen forest above 460&#160;m (Cheke 1987b, Safford and Beaumont 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also in adjacent areas of degraded or altered forest. Its distribution within forest seems to be linked to food availability (Safford 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet consists mainly of large, arboreal arthropods and geckos (Safford and Beaumont 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005928		population	eng	Currently there are probably c.300-350 pairs (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000), which is interpreted as indicating a population of 600-700 mature individuals, roughly equating to 900-1,100 individuals in total. However, caution may be necessary as the number of pairs is based on counts of singing males, and doubling these numbers may be misleading (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 2007). It is possible that the species exhibits a skewed sex ratio, in which case the effective breeding population would be lower than presently assumed (R. Safford<em> in litt.</em> 2007).
106005928		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation, through invasion by exotics and poor regeneration of native plants, has caused this species to decline since human colonisation (Lorence and Sussman 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and will remain a long-term threat (R.&#160;Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is circumstantial evidence that organochlorine pesticide-use in the 1950s and 1960s caused a population decline, from which it is now recovering (Safford and Jones 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced predators and, to a lesser extent, cyclones take a heavy toll on nests. The introduced Common Mynah <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> eats similar food to <em>C. typica</em>, and may compete (Cheke 1987b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005929		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1999, the 38 km<sup>2</sup> reserve of Roche Ecrite was established, incorporating 95% of the current range of <em>C. newtoni</em> (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Habitat management involves a logging ban, control of exotic plants, fire breaks, better control of hunting, curbing of tourism (Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>, and action to reduce deer numbers (Le Corre and Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Maturing plantations of <em>Cryptomeria</em> are being progressively replaced with native <em>Acacia</em> (Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>. In 2006, an awareness campaign to reduce littering and promote recycling had been planned (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. In 2004, a species action plan was published with the aim of reversing the trend towards extinction by increasing the numbers of females in the population, eventually doubling the number of females over the course of 10 years and achieving a viable population of 125 pairs (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Experimental rat and cat control was initiated in the Roche Ecrite reserve prior to the 2005-2006 breeding season (Ghestemme 2005b)<strong></strong>, through the setting of poisoned baits, accompanied by the trapping of rats and cats to monitor their populations (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2006). In the 2005-2006 breeding season, four out of five pairs in sites with predator control raised young, compared with two out of six pairs in uncontrolled sites (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The control programme was carried out at 11 nest sites during the 2006-2007 breeding season; however three females disappeared, and six out of the eight remaining pairs produced young (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. In 2007, the total number of young fledged increased to 22, with a breeding success of 91% at sites with predator control (compared to around 30% at those without) (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. In 2010, predator control measures by Société d'Etudes Ornithologiques de La Réunion (SEOR), with some support from the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions Programme, were on-going (D. Fouillot<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. A revised species action plan for 2012-2016 was being finalised in 2012 (A. Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Thoroughly research the ecology of this species. Continue habitat management. Continue and expand predator control by protecting nests from rats using poisoned baits and metallic bands around tree trunks. Control rats, cats and deer (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Assess the conditions needed for successful establishment of a new population. Consider experimental translocation to a suitable lowland site such as Marelongue Nature Reserve (Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>, as well as other areas suspected to have been formerly occupied by the species (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Ensure that the action plans for the nature reserve and conservation of the species are consistent and compatible (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Study the species's genetics and demography (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004, Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Combat poaching, in part through education campaigns (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Prevent actions by people that exacerbate the predator problem, including the dropping of litter, through awareness campaigns (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Protect additional habitat both presently and potentially occupied by the species (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Carry out research into the threat of disease (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Consider supplementary feeding trials (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Control invasive plants (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Restore burnt areas (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004). Take measures to reduce disturbance (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004).    <p></p>
106005929		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina newtoni</em> is endemic to <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>, and restricted to two very small areas in the north-west (Plaine d'Affouches and Plaine des Chicots) (Thiollay and Probst 1999, Le Corre and Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. The population was estimated at 120 pairs after surveys in 1991, suggesting that numbers had been stable since 1974. However, the population was estimated at 100 singing males in the 2003-2004 breeding season, indicating that the species had declined (Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2003-2004, surveys revealed a skewed sex ratio, with 27% of males unpaired, and poor reproductive success, with only a third of females producing young (Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2004-2005, the proportion of surveyed males without mates had risen to 48%, with 30% of females producing young (Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong>, and there was evidence that the species had declined in the east of its range (Ghestemme 2005a)<strong></strong>; the proportion of surveyed males without mates increased further to 57% in 2005-2006 (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2006), and 64% in 2006-2007 (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Males are thought to now outnumber females by two to one, and in 2007 there were thought to be as few as 25 breeding pairs, but there are early indications that predator control is proving successful, with an increase in female survival and improved breeding success (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008)<strong></strong>, and a sex ration in 2010 of 1.88:1 in favour of males (SEOR 2012). In 2011/2012 31 breeding pairs were observed, of which 11 were successful, raising a total of 18 young (SEOR 2012).<br/><p></p>
106005929		habitat	eng	It has been conjectured that it primarily occupied lowland forest in the past (Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>. The species now occurs between 1,000 and 1,800 m (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004), and is strictly associated with closed-canopy natural forest, occurring in mixed evergreen subtropical forest that also often includes areas of heath <em>Philippia montana</em> and tamarin <em>Acacia heterophylla</em> (Morgan and Kershaw 1990, Probst 1996, Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>. Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> plantations are only rarely visited and seasonal records in the heath forest are attributed to post-breeding dispersal. It is chiefly insectivorous but also eats the fruits of some native trees (Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurs between September and February, and it has an incubation period of 15-17 days and a fledging period of 20-23 days (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004).  <p></p>
106005929		population	eng	The population perhaps numbered as few as 25 breeding pairs, or 50 mature individuals, in 2007 (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt. </em><em>2007). This roughly equates to 75 individuals in total.</em>
106005929		threats	eng	Nest predation by black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em>, and to a lesser extent brown rats <em>R. norvegicus</em> and feral cats appears to be the primary reason for poor reproductive success; and it is possible that this explains the skewed sex ratio (Thiollay and Probst 1999, <strong></strong> M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004, B. Devuax <em>per</em> Poudroux undated)<strong></strong>. The dropping of litter in the Roche Ecrite Nature Reserve by visitors inadvertedly supports the proliferation of the rat population<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ghestemme 2005b, Poudroux undated)<strong></strong>. Other major threats include poaching for trade and for food (Thiollay and Probst 1999,&#160; M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and disease (Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong>. The species is also threatened by disturbance from recreational activities, fire, cyclones, invasive alien vegetation, potential competition with other bird species and habitat degradation caused by rusa deer <em>Cervus timorensis rusa</em> (Salamolard and Ghestemme 2004, Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007). The population may be limited by habitat quality and food resources (Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong>. In addition, intrinsic factors such as limited dispersal and low genetic variability may affect the population (Ghestemme and Salamolard 2007)<strong></strong>. Since the remaining population seems unable to colonise new areas, habitat changes, such as degradation by the invasion of exotic vegetation or forest fires, could be catastrophic (Probst 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>. Construction of roads and hotels for tourism were thought to be potential problems (V. Bretagnolle and C. Attié <em>in litt.</em> 1993)<strong></strong> but there are currently no such projects within the breeding range of the species nor in its vicinity (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Nests are also vulnerable to adverse weather conditions (Barré <em>et al.</em> 1996, Thiollay and Probst 1999)<strong></strong>, and, having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106005930		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coracina coerulescens</span> is endemic to the northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">altera</span> of Cebu went extinct in the early 20th century (Rabor 1959)
106005930		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106005931		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though fairly common on Halmahera and in the Trans-Fly region (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106005932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005933		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Taliabu lowlands but uncommon in highland areas (Coates et al. 1997).
106005934		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against any threats.  <p></p>
106005934		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina dispar</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs on the islands of Romang, Damar, Tanimbar, Kai, Seram Laut/Watubela and Banda. It is apparently generally uncommon, but may be locally numerous and is easily overlooked.  <em> </em><p></p>
106005934		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest, forest edge and secondary woodland, up to 1,400 m.  <p></p>
106005934		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon but easily overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005934		threats	eng	The status of forest habitats on many of the islands within this species's range is wholly unknown.  <p></p>
106005935		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its occurrence in protected areas has not yet been analysed. No species-specific conservation actions are in place at present. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Tape-record its vocalisations and use playback to establish its current distribution and population status in remnant lowland forest tracts. Campaign for the effective protection of important sites and propose further key sites found to support populations for formal protection. <p></p>
106005935		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina mindanensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Five subspecies occur: <em>lecroyae</em> on Luzon (considered very rare), <em>elusa</em> on Mindoro, <em>ripleyi</em> on Samar (rare), Biliran, Leyte and Bohol (rarely recorded in Rajah Sikatuna National Park), nominate <em>mindanensis</em> on Mindanao (formerly fairly common at the PICOP concession, Bislig, but has declined since 2007 [R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]) and Basilan, and <em>everetti</em> on Jolo, Lapac, Tawitawi and Bongao. There has been uncertainty over its status because, although it is generally rare, it is widespread and elusive, and may be overlooked in the forest canopy.      <p></p>
106005935		habitat	eng	It is probably highly elusive, sitting singly and silently in the forest canopy, but on Mt Malindang in 1956 it seemed to prefer forests of lower elevation, down to the lowlands, and indeed throughout its range the great majority of records are from well below 1,000 m. It is known from secondary growth but its degree of tolerance of such habitats is unclear. <p></p>
106005935		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106005935		threats	eng	Its preference for low altitudes suggests that it must have suffered population losses with the loss of lowland forest in the Philippines through logging, agricultural encroachment, urban development, and conversion to oil-palm or wood pulp plantations.  <p></p>
106005936		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005937		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common on Buru and Seram to apparently uncommon on Obi (Coates et al. 1997).
106005938		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).
106005939		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990).
106005940		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the lowlands but uncommon to rare at higher elevations (Coates 1990).
106005941		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005942		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites. Study its tolerance of degraded forest. Protect primary lowland and hill forest at suitable sites where it is known to occur.   <p></p>
106005942		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina holopolia</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and six islands in the <strong>Solomons Islands</strong>. It is generally scarce, although most common in the hills. Its tolerance of logged and degraded forest is poorly known<strong></strong> (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Schodde 1977, Coates 1990, Webb 1992, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Schofield <em>in litt.</em> 1995, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998).<br/>  <em> <p></p></em>
106005942		habitat	eng	It occupies the canopy of hill and lowland forest from sea-level to 950 m.   <p></p>
106005942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce but common on Bougainville and Buka islands (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005942		threats	eng	Lowland forest throughout the region is threatened by increasingly widespread logging, but as a large proportion of this species's population appears to inhabit forest unsuitable for logging, it is probably declining only relatively slowly.  <p></p>
106005943		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against clearance.  <p></p>
106005943		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina mcgregori</em> occurs on Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is present in at least eight general localities, namely Mt Mayo, Daggayan, "Claveria" in Misamis Oriental, Mt Kitanglad, Lake Sebu at Sitio Siete, Mt Busa, Mt Malindang and Mt Lamut (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is described as common within the confines of its range and this is confirmed by the number of specimens obtained in short periods of time at various localities, e.g. 27 in 34 days on Mt Malindang in 1956, and 11 in 19 days on Mt Busa in 1993 .  <em> </em><p></p>
106005943		habitat	eng	This species inhabits montane-mossy forest and forest edge at 1,000 to 1,900 m.  <p></p>
106005943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005943		threats	eng	Much forest above 1,300 m is now seriously threatened by clearance at Mt Kitanglad, but in general forest at this altitude is fairly secure. As a species of montane areas, it is potentially threatened by the effects of projected climate change on the extent and distribution of its habitats.<br/><p></p>
106005944		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mt Canlaon Natural Park (Negros) and the North Negros Forest Reserve, which only receives nominal protection. It also occurs in the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park, which reportedly contains the largest block of remaining forest in the Western Visayas, and Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes (Negros), which both benefit from conservation funding. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay, to identify further key populations. Gazette the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park and propose further key sites on Negros and Panay for urgent establishment as formal protected areas. Promote more effective protection measures for the North Negros Forest Reserve. Encourage careful reforestation activities around remaining forests. <p></p>
106005944		distribution	eng	<em>Coracina ostenta</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Panay, Negros and Guimaras (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Formerly widespread on Negros, it is now restricted to seven known localities, although it is still locally common. It appears much scarcer on Panay, where there are recent records from just three localities in the west. It is presumed extinct on Guimaras, where it has not been recorded for over a century. Given that Panay and Negros are largely deforested in the lowlands, it is inferred that it occupies a small, fragmented range. <p></p>
106005944		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and mid-montane forest, usually below 1,100&#160;m, but very occasionally up to 2,150&#160;m. It also occurs at lower densities in secondary forest. It frequents the upper storey of large trees. Significant populations are unlikely to persist in montane forest.<p></p>
106005944		population	eng	Formerly widespread on Negros, it is now restricted to seven known localities, although it is still locally common. It appears much scarcer on Panay, where there are recent records from just three localities in the west. It is presumed extinct on Guimaras, where it has not been recorded for over a century. In total the population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals, equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106005944		threats	eng	Chronic deforestation led to its presumed extinction on Guimaras. Habitat degradation, particularly selective logging of large trees, continues to pose a serious threat to remaining fragments throughout its limited range. The main drivers behind deforestation have been agricultural conversion, wood pulp plantations, oil-palm plantations, commercial logging and urban encroachment. <p></p>
106005945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in all parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005946		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare and local in Pakistan, frequent in Nepal, locally fairly common in India, common in Bhutan, fairly common in South-East Asia, and uncommon to locally common in China (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). Brazil (2009) estimates the population of China at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration.
106005947		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon although reasonably common in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005948		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in Nepal, locally fairly common in India and uncommon and local in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005949		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but often scarce or absent (Coates 1990).
106005950		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106005951		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as regular and common on the south and westernern coastal plains of Peninsular Malaysia, locally common to uncommon in southern Thailand, fairly common in the Greater Sundas, uncommon to rare in the nicobar islands and elsewhere local and uncommon to rare. (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005952		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common on Sulawesi and common on Taliabu (Coates et al. 1997).
106005953		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005954		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106005955		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common on Halmahera (Coates et al. 1997).
106005956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del hoyo et al. 2005).
106005957		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990).
106005958		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (Pratt et al. 1987, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates 1990).
106005959		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005960		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in Pupe-pu'e National Park.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate population size to establish a baseline against which trends can be assessed.  Manage and protect Pupu-pu'e National Park.  Conduct a community education programme to promote animal husbandry practices which have minimal impact on the forest.   <p></p>
106005960		distribution	eng	<em>Lalage sharpei</em> is endemic to <strong>Samoa</strong> where it is found on Savai'i (race <em>tenebrosa</em>) and Upolu (nominate <em>sharpei</em>). In a survey during 1984, it was nowhere common in the O le Pupu-pu'e National Park on `Upolu (Beichle and Maelzer 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it is regarded as uncommon overall.  There are no published population estimates. <p></p>
106005960		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary and secondary forest and forest edge above 600 m on Savai'i (race <em>tenebrosa</em>) and at least to 200 m on `Upolu (nominate <em>sharpei</em>). It also occurs (rarely) in cattle pastures where there is undergrowth and trees, and in traditional plantations with few permanent houses (Beichle in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruits and invertebrates (Beichle in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005960		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).
106005960		threats	eng	Pupu-pu'e National Park on `Upolu, which is unmanaged, was severely damaged by cyclones and is threatened by logging and cattle farming (Beichle and Maelzer 1985, <strong></strong>Bellingham and Davis 1988,<strong></strong> Elmqvist <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. These threats are likely to be operating throughout its range.  It is likely to be a sedentary species and requires the protection of primary forest to secure its survival<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Beichle in prep.)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005961		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lalage leucopyga</span> is endemic to Melanesia, occurring in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vanuatu </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France) </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The nominate subspecies formerly occurred on Norfolk Island (to Australia), but it was last recorded in 1942 and is now considered extinct (Schodde <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1983).
106005961		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del hoyo et al. 2005).
106005962		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106005963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106005964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).
106005965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).
106005966		conservation	eng	<strong></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p> Taï National Park is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest, and Gola Rainforest National Park in Sierra Leone is another large area that is also now well-protected (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Conduct further surveys to determine the species's status in Gola Forest (H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Conduct surveys to evaluate its presence and status in Ghana (Holbech 1992, 1996). Obtain an up-to-date total population estimate. Monitor rates of forest clearance across the species's range.. In Taï National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land-use changes outside the park (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Taï National Park and Gola Rainforest National Park, ensure that future conservation includes support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Ensure forest connectivity is maintained between Gola Rainforest National Park in Sierra Leone and Gola National Forest in Liberia</span> (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Ensure effective management of Taï National Park and peripheral forests (e.g. Haute Dodo and Cavally Forest Reserves) (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Lobby for inclusion of Nzo Faunal Reserve within Taï National Park boundaries (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007). </p>  <br/><p></p>
106005966		distribution	eng	<em>Campephaga lobata</em> is endemic to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, where it is known from <strong>Ghana</strong> (very few recent records, but reported from Kakum National Park in 2010 [H. Bouman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010]), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (Taï and Marahoué National Parks, Mopri, Mt Nimba and Haute Dodo Forest Reserve [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (widespread), <strong>Guinea</strong> (several observations in Ziama Forest in 1992 [Bützler 1996]<strong></strong> and Pic de Fon and Mont Béro Forest Reserves [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>) and <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (Gola Forest, where it would appear to have suffered a serious decline [Allport <em>et al.</em> 1989]<strong></strong>). In Liberia, it has recently been described as a locally rare to uncommon resident, and the population in 1997 was estimated to be a minimum of 20,000 pairs (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. In Côte d'Ivoire, recent sightings in Taï National Park suggest that the species is secure there (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. In Sierra Leone, surveys of Gola Forest in 1988-1989 indicated a population decline (Allport <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong></strong> and in 2007, the species was seen there twice during extensive surveys, with both records from the southern part of Gola North (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.J. Dowsett <em>per</em> E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007), but not recorded since (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Although the species is now considered rare at this site, it may be overlooked owing to its discreet behaviour (E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106005966		habitat	eng	It is found in the canopy of tall trees in lowland rainforest, up to 600 m in Pic de Fon and Mont Béro Forest Reserves in Guinea (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, sometimes near to rivers, and also in open swamp-forest (Allport <em>et al.</em> 1989, Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gatter 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it would seem to tolerate some habitat alteration, as observations in Liberia have been in both primary and logged forest (usually at heights of between 30-50 m [Gatter 1997]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and, in Côte d'Ivoire, it has been observed in <em>Terminalia ivorensis</em> plantations, natural managed forest and disturbed forest (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, during surveys in 2007, one bird was observed in a patch of Gola Forest that had been seriously damaged by hurricanes (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.J. Dowsett <em>per</em> E. Klop<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also known to breed in mature logged forest (Allport <em>et al.</em> 1989, P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Diet includes caterpillars, grasshoppers and small black seeds.  <p></p>
106005966		population	eng	In Liberia, the population has been estimated at a minimum of 20,000 pairs (Gatter 1997), and thus the total population has been placed in the range 20,000-49,999 individuals, however the number given for Liberia may be a significant overestimate (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), in part because the species may be absent from apparently suitable forest, and the overall population may have experienced serious declines over the past three generations (14 years). New data are therefore much needed required to refine this population estimate.
106005966		threats	eng	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and smallholder agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance in Gola Forest has compromised areas of habitat once considered primary forest (J. Lindsell<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106005967		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its distribution, ecological requirements, threats and tolerance of degraded habitats. <p></p>
106005967		distribution	eng	<em>Campephaga oriolina</em> is known from the equatorial forests of south <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, the <strong>Congo</strong> (Dowsett-Lemaire 1997), south-west <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, east and north-eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>but from a very few sightings throughout this range. A sighting in 1988 from <strong>Nigeria </strong>is now considered confirmed (though made before it was split from Western Wattled Cuckoo-shrike <em>C. lobata</em>) (Ash <em>et al.</em> 1989, Butchart 2007)<strong></strong>. Despite its potentially wide range, the species is undoubtedly very rare, but the reasons for this are unclear (F.&#160;Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt. </em>1997)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106005967		habitat	eng	It is found at low altitude, inhabiting the tops of mature trees in primary, secondary, and transition forest, and is also recorded from the edge of logged forest in Gabon (Lippens and Wille 1976, Brosset and Erard 1986, Dowsett-Lemaire 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106005967		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to very rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005967		threats	eng	It is not immediately threatened by habitat loss as it appears to prefer secondary forest. <p></p>
106005968		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in Myanmar and China, genereallyrare in the Indian Subcontinent, very local and rare in Pakistan, rare in Bhutan and fairly common no-breeding visitor to Thailand and Laos (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005969		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in China, locally common to sparse in Thailand and uncommon in its non-breeding range in South-East Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration.
106005970		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 migrating individual in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106005971		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106005972		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in suitable habitat over much of the Indian Subcontinent, widespread and locally common in Bangladesh, local in Pakistan, rare in Bhutan andcommon in much of South-East Asia but uncommon on Java and Bali (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005973		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends throughout the species's range to clarify threat status. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat requirements and tolerance of secondary habitats or fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106005973		distribution	eng	<em>Pericrocotus igneus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Palawan, <strong>Philippines </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is uncommon in parts of the range (Thailand, Borneo) and fairly common in others (Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra). <em> </em><p></p>
106005973		habitat	eng	This species is found in broadleaved forest and forest edges, mature secondary growth, dry coastal forest, mangroves and occasionally overgrown plantations and gardens. It is recorded up to 1,220 m, but is principally found below 600 m.   <p></p>
106005973		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon, extinct in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005973		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary forest.  <p></p>
106005974		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106005975		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very local and uncommon to rare in India and uncommon to rare in Myanmar 9del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005976		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range but scarce in Nepal (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106005977		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam and scarce and local in Bangladesh (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
106005978		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common in Myanmar, north-west Thailand, Laos, and north Vietnam, uncommon in China and scarce in the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005979		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known although quite common in Java and locally common in Sumatra in the 1980s and early 1990s (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005980		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in Nepal, locally common in India, Bangladesh and China, common in Bhutan and Sri Lanka, common in South-East Asia (except central Thailand) common in the Phillipines and scarce in Singapore (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population of China at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
106005981		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the Indian subcontinent, common in Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka; locally common in South-East Asia and common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005982		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106005983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although uncommon to locally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005984		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005985		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005986		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005988		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005989		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005990		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of the Indian Subcontinent and uncommon to fairly common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005991		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005992		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common in Peninsular Malaysia, although rare in Taman Negara; generally common in Sumatra and Borneo and very rare on Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005993		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106005994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in rainforests and casuaria woodland and less common in other woodland types (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106005996		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected. <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of all islands in the group to determine its current status and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to assess its resilience to habitat degradation and loss. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106005996		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura fuscorufa</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Babar and the Tanimbar Islands) (BirdLife International 2001). It is common within its very small range. <em> </em><p></p>
106005996		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forest and mangroves at low elevations.   <p></p>
106005996		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its very small range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106005996		threats	eng	There is significant logging in the south of Yamdena, the largest island in the group, and possibly in other parts of the species's range.  <p></p>
106005997		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine population trends. Determine habitat requirements and susceptibility to logging. Ascertain the area of forest and rates of clearance across the islands within its range. Ensure protection of significant areas of lowland forest on each of the islands where it occurs.  <p></p>
106005997		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura cockerelli</em> occurs on Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and most of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> where it occurs at low population densities (Schodde 1977, Blaber 1990, Webb 1992,<strong></strong> Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, Hornbuckle 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106005997		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and closed secondary forest and forest edge to about 1,150 m.It is fairly uncommon and intolerant of degraded forest.<br/><p></p>
106005997		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to common in lowland forests throughout its range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106005997		threats	eng	Most of the lowland forests across the Solomons have been logged or are threatened with logging and this species would be threatened by any increase in the rate of deforestation. <p></p>
106005998		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to very common (Coates 1990).
106005999		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to fairly common (Coates 1990).
106006000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common but often scarce or absent (Coates 1990).
106006001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106006002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106006003		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).
106006004		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally common but otherwise scarce (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006005		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhipidura fuliginosa</span> now only occurs on <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cervina</span>, endemic to Australia's Lord Howe Island, went extinct in the 1920s (Hindwood 1940).
106006005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Flegg and Madge 1995, Heather and Robertson 1997).
106006006		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant within its very small range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006007		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine population trends. Determine habitat requirements and susceptibility to logging. Ascertain area of forest and rates of clearance across the island. Monitor numbers at sites across the island. Ensure protection of significant areas of lowland forest on Makira.  <p></p>
106006007		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura tenebrosa</em> is endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) in the <strong>Solomon Islands </strong>where it is relatively uncommon and restricted to closed-canopy forest (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Hornbuckle 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106006007		habitat	eng	It is restricted to closed-canopy lowland forest, to a maximum of 700 m. Commonest in hills (Dutson 2011). <br/><p></p>
106006007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon and little known (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006).
106006007		threats	eng	The lowlands of Makira are largely logged or under logging concessions. It is far less common in logged forest and further research may show it have a small total population which is in decline or to be threatened by logging (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, R.&#160;James <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006008		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006009		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006010		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law in Fiji. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys to determine population size and trends. Advocate for strong and long-term protection of remaining forest habitat<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006010		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura personata</em> is endemic to Kadavu and the satellite island of Ono, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Fiji</span>. Recent surveys found this species to be fairly common in native forests, with 36 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours at a mixed lowland and montane site and 13 birds in 15 hours at a montane site. Estimating an average pace of 1 km/hour and an effective detection distance of 25 m each side of the trail suggests that around 31 and 17 birds were detected per km<sup>2</sup> at these sites. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting that the total population falls in the band 2,500-10,000 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes second sub-population as fantails rarely cross the sea, totaling about 5% of the total population. This species is probably declining at the rate of forest loss and degradation on Kadavu, which is estimated to be 0.5-0.8% per year across Fiji (Claasen 1991)<strong></strong>, but is probably higher on Kadavu which has suffered extensive fires in recent years (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.     <p></p>
106006010		habitat	eng	An insectivorous bird of primary and secondary moist forest, it generally forages in the substage or lower canopy, making brief sallies after flying insects or gleaning in the foliage (Watling 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006010		population	eng	Recent BirdLife Fiji surveys found this species to be fairly common in native forests, with 36 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours in a mixed lowland and montane site and 13 birds in 15 hours at a montane site. Estimating an average pace of 1 km / hour and an effective detection distance of 25 m each side of the trail suggests that around 31 and 17 birds were detected per km<sup>2</sup> at these sites. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, which must be treated as very provisional. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting that the total population falls in the band 2,500-9,999 birds (unpublished data from Fiji IBA project via G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. The species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes second sub-population as fantails rarely cross the sea, totalling about 5% of the total population.
106006010		threats	eng	Habitat loss and degradation caused by fires and agricultural encroachment are the main threats to the species. <p></p>
106006011		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread on Upolu island and uncommon and more restricted on savai'I island (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006012		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106006013		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).
106006014		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106006015		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates et al. 1997).
106006016		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106006016		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura opistherythra</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is found only on the Tanimbar Islands (Yamdena, Larat and Maroe) (BirdLife International 2001). It is moderately common in suitable habitat within this range.<em> </em><p></p>
106006016		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the interior of primary and secondary forest.  <p></p>
106006016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in the interior of forests (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006016		threats	eng	Significant logging has been reported in southern parts of Yamdena, the largest island in the group.  <p></p>
106006017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on Peleliu, common on most other islands although uncommon on Koror (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006018		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to fairly common (Coates 1990).
106006019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce and locally common (Coates 1990).
106006020		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research to determine population size. Conduct surveys and interview local villagers to determine population trends. Determine habitat requirements. Ascertain area of forest and rates of clearance across the island. Monitor numbers at sites across the island. Publicise this species's range and status through public awareness discussions. <p></p>
106006020		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura matthiae</em> is endemic to Mussau (400 km<sup>2</sup>) in the St Matthias Group of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106006020		habitat	eng	It is a fairly common forest species which appears to be able to tolerate degraded habitats (Eastwood 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, Hornbuckle 1999)<strong></strong>.  It is found in forest, especially forest edge and tree-fall gaps, including secondary regrowth and scrub (Dutson 2011). Its habits are typical of a fantail.  <p></p>
106006020		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106006020		threats	eng	Most of Mussau has been logged or is under logging concessions and this species may be threatened if it proves to be poorly tolerant of large areas of degraded habitat. It might potentially be threatened by introduced predators.  <p></p>
106006021		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other mountains in the vicinity. Re-survey the two known locations. Colour-ring birds at these sites to help assess population sizes and longevity. Survey all montane sites for introduced mammalian predators. Assess human impact on forests above 600&#160;m. Discuss the species's status and distribution with local villagers. Negotiate regular access to Arullange with landowners. Use as a figurehead in discussion of island endemism in public awareness programmes. <p></p>
106006021		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura malaitae</em> is endemic to the high mountains of Malaita, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It must have been locally common as the Whitney expedition collected a total of 37 specimens from each of the three mountains visited in 1930 (Mayr 1931b)<strong></strong>. Subsequently, few ornithologists have visited these mountains but it appears to be very localised and rare. In 1990, one was seen at 750 m on the slopes of Mt Ire (P.&#160;Scofield <em>in litt.</em> 1992, 1994)<strong></strong>, in 1994, a single bird was seen at 1,100 m above Arullange village (Gibbs 1996)<strong></strong>, and in 1997, a pair was seen at 1,160 m above Arullange (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>. None were seen in 1997 on the 940 m summit of Mt Alsa'an (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>. It remains uncertain whether this species has declined or whether it remains locally common on mountains unvisited in recent years. <p></p>
106006021		habitat	eng	The 1930 specimens were recorded as taken at 600-1,200 m but searches in 1994 and 1997 only found it above 1,100 m, the highest altitudes reached. All the recent records have been of singles or pairs in mixed-species feeding flocks in montane forest. It appears to be a typical fantail in all respects except its rarity (<strong></strong>Mayr 1931b,<strong></strong> P.&#160;Scofield <em>in litt.</em> 1992, 1994, Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997).<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006021		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2000), equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106006021		threats	eng	It occurs at altitudes where the only human disturbance is from hunters and other people using cross-island trails. Other possible threats are introduced disease, mammalian predators and natural causes. <p></p>
106006022		population	eng	This is a poorly known taxon and no population estimates are available.
106006023		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhipidura rufifrons</span> has a wide range in the south-west Pacific, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Northern Mariana Islands (to U.S.A.)</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Federated States of Micronesia</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Papua New Guinea</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">urianae</span> was endemic to Guam (to U.S.A.), but it has not ben recorded since 1984 and is now considered extinct<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106006023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally very common (Pratt et al. 1987, Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106006024		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other small islands in the Admiralties. Interview local villagers about population trends on each island. Confirm status on Lou island. Interview local villagers across Manus about this species's present or historic occurrence. Determine habitat requirements. Ascertain area of forest and rates of clearance on all occupied islands. Assess distribution, population level and trends on Rambutyo. Assess population size on Tong. Monitor numbers on Tong. Investigate possible causes of decline through comparing distribution with that of various introduced and predatory species. Publicise this species's range and status through public awareness discussions. Investigate the cause of its disappearance from Manus.<br/><p></p>
106006024		distribution	eng	<em>Rhipidura semirubra</em> is endemic to the Admiralty Islands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It was historically common on Manus where it was noted to be "common everywhere in true forest and secondary bush" but there are no records from Manus since 1934 (Dutson and Newman 1991)<strong></strong>. In the last few years it has only been seen on a handful of small islands in the archipelago: Rambutyo, Tong, , San Miguel, Pak, Anobat (in the San Miguel Islands) and Sivisa (in the Fedarb Islands) (Silva 1975, Tolhurst 1993, D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> K.&#160;M.&#160;Kisokau <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. It is likely to occur on other small islands which have not been visited by ornithologists. On Tong at least, it is common (e.g. 40 seen in six hours in 1997 [G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997])<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006024		habitat	eng	Historic records from Manus and recent records from Tong indicate that it is a forest species tolerant of extreme habitat degradation, including scrub and overgrown coconut plantations (Silva 1975, Dutson and Newman 1991, D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. In all other respects, it is a typical member of the Rufous Fantail <em>R. rufifrons</em> group (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006024		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006024		threats	eng	The reason for this species's disappearance from Manus is unknown. It is likely to be related to an introduced species or disease. This uncertainty is worrying since the same threat could potentially impact the remaining population. The brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has exterminated similar species on Guam, is apparently native to Manus and should not be a threat (Dutson and Newman 1991, R.&#160;E.&#160;Beck <em>in litt.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. Islanders suggest that its absence from Manus is a result of high numbers of White-naped Friarbird <em>Philemon albitorques</em> (this species occurs on Manus only), in the increased area of villages and gardens (D.&#160;Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. However, it seems unlikely that these two species did not coexist historically given that <em>R. semirubra</em> was so common and widespread. The populations on the smallest islands such as Anobat and Sivisa may be threatened by complete clearance of natural vegetation. <p></p>
106006025		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).
106006026		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (Fry and Keith 2000).
106006027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Borrow and Demey 2001).
106006030		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Aldabra is protected as a nature reserve under Seychelles legislation (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Eradicate introduced predators (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and exclude native predators from nest-sites. Protect additional habitat on other islands and islets.  <p></p>
106006030		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus aldabranus</em> is found on all four main islands of the Aldabra atoll and neighbouring islets, <strong>Seychelles </strong>(Penny 1974, G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<sup></sup>, and also on the larger lagoon islands of Ile Esprit (where breeding has been reported), Ile Moustique, Gros Ilot, Ile Michel and Ile aux Cèdres (A. Skerrett <em>in litt</em>. 1999, G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its extent of occurrence is less than 150 km<sup>2 </sup>(Stoddart and Westoll 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1983, the total population was estimated at c.1,500 individuals. It is widely distributed but generally uncommon (Stoddart and Westoll 1979)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006030		habitat	eng	This species frequents mixed scrub, mangroves and <em>Casuarina</em> coastal forest (Penny 1974, Stoddart and Westoll 1979, Threadgold and Johnson 1999, G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but prefers to breed in the latter two habitats, perhaps because the taller trees provide better nesting sites (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Territory size ranges from 2.25 ha in <em>Casuarina</em> woodland to 4.5 ha in mixed scrub (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on a variety of insects and small vertebrates such as geckos. Breeding has been recorded between October-November and March-May, and is timed to coincide with the rainy season from December to March. Its nest, in which 1-3 eggs are laid, is a perfectly round cup made from intertwined fine plant fibres bound with spider webs, situated in a fork near the end of a thin horizontal branch, usually 2-8 m above the ground. The species usually nests in tall trees such as <em>Casuarina</em> and mangroves (e.g. <em>Rhizophora mucronata</em>), but also in <em>Ficus</em> spp. in scrub. The incubation period is 16-18 days, followed by a fledging period of 15-19 days. Juvenile birds are dependent for at least several weeks after fledging, and then remain with their parents until at least the following breeding season (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006030		population	eng	In 1983, the total population was estimated to number c.1,500 individuals, equivalent to c.1,000 mature individuals.
106006030		threats	eng	It has a high rate of nest failure, probably largely due to introduced predators (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Up to 8/10 studied nests are predated at the egg stage, mainly by crows <em>Corvus</em> spp., rats and bulbuls (Pycnonotidae), as observed or suggested by artificial nest experiments (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no known threats to its habitat, but its small range and population put it at risk from catastrophic events, such as disease or cyclones (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006031		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been proposed, but is not yet forthcoming (Louette and Stevens 1992, Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct more field surveys to establish the current population, range and status of the species (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Investigate possible limiting factors (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala, extending below the native forest edge in the south, in order to encompass most of the known range of this species (Louette and Stevens 1992, Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Develop a land-use strategy for the island (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Consider reforestation of grasslands on the central ridge (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Develop an environmental education programme on the island (Louette and Stevens 1992)<strong></strong>. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area (Safford 2001).<strong></strong>  <br/><p></p>
106006031		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus fuscipennis</em> has a highly localised distribution around Mt Karthala, Grand Comoro (= Ngazidja), <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>, and is rare even there. The majority are thought to occur between 500-1,000 m around Nioumbadjou in the south-west, but birds have also been recorded at lower elevations down to almost sea level on the southwest coast, near Zikaledjou, Singani, the Denga-denga river bridge, Salimani and Mvouvouni. It is also found at Malakoff and Hantsangoma on the northern side of the mountain, and around Kourani, Tsinimouachongo, Djoumouachongo, Boboni, Mvouni and Mlima Manda on the western side (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In 1985, the total population was estimated at around 100 individuals, although the true figure may be slightly higher (R. Demey <em>in litt.</em> 1999).<br/><p></p>
106006031		habitat	eng	It is primarily found within a 100-1150 m altitudinal zone at the lower edge of Mt Karthala forest, although it has also been found at lower elevations on the south-west coast. It appears to show a preference for forest clearings, forest edge and adjacent areas, such as plantations and fields with a well developed bush layer but few high trees, but has also been recorded in under-planted forest with a tall canopy still present, and in coconut and cacao plantations (C. Marsh<em> in litt</em>. 2007; del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>)<strong></strong>. It forages singly or in pairs on large flying insects (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988), and is observed singly, in pairs or in small family groups, perching relatively high in the trees, generally in a very visible post and sallying out to catch prey on the wing (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Analysis of four stomach contents revealed the consumption of beetles, grasshoppers, cockroaches and mantids, and also fruit (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The nest is a neat cup, built on a small fork at the end of an outer branch, with breeding taking place from September-December and possibly beyond (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The reasons for this species's rarity are unknown, but the fact that it occupies now mainly degraded vegetation with exotics suggests that its optimal native habitat may have already disappeared at lower altitudes and that it may now be restricted to marginal habitats (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <br/><br/><p></p>
106006031		population	eng	In 1985, it was estimated that little over 100 individuals existed, but a few more birds have since been found in the south-west (R. Demey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The estimate of 100 individuals is treated as a minimum, equating to a minimum of 70 mature individuals.
106006031		threats	eng	Most habitat has already been degraded within the known range of this species (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988, Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Since it can persist in exotic vegetation it might be expected to be abundant, and therefore the main threat to its survival is probably still unknown (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Safford 2001). It has been suggested that some localities from which it is known could be marginal habitats (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong>. The main threats to native forest on Mt Karthala are clearance for agriculture, invasion of exotic plant species and commercial logging on the south-west slopes. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Introduced rats are abundant in the forest and may predate nests; civets <em>Viverricula indica</em> and mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus </em>are also potential predators  (Safford 2001; del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006032		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range except the treeless areas of the central plateau in Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006033		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although forest cover has declined (6,000 ha, 25% of Mayotte's forests, disappeared between 1949 and 2002), a network of forest reserves  totalling c.4770 ha now covers all remaining natural forests (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. The most important of these for <em>D. waldenii</em> are probably Combani (3 km<sup>2</sup>), Majimbini (13 km<sup>2</sup>), Dzoumonyé (4 km<sup>2</sup>), Tchaourembo, Voundzé, and Hajangoua (Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. A bird monitoring scheme began in 2008 initiated by the Direction de l'Environnement et du Développement Durable of the Collectivité de Mayotte, which should soon provide the first population trend for the species (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue field surveys to establish the population, range and status of the species. Monitor the population through regular surveys. Study the species's ecology. Investigate possible limiting factors. Draw up conservation plans. Develop an environmental education programme to alleviate inevitable increases in pressure on remaining native habitat, and use the species as a flagship symbol of the need to preserve forest (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce protection of forest reserves. <p></p>
106006033		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus waldenii</em> occurs sparsely and locally on <strong>Mayotte (to France)</strong> in the Comoro island group. It is fairly widespread in the humid northern and western parts of the island, but may have a restricted ability to disperse between patches. It is found commonly over 200 m around Mts Hachiroungou, Mtsapéré, Combani and Bénara, Sohoa Forest, and at lower altitude along the west coast. It is also found at lower densities in areas of degraded habitats between the four mountains, and in mangroves at Dzoumonyé-Bouyouni, Miréréni-Chirongui and Tsingoni-Mroale-Soulou. It is absent from the entire southern peninsula, Mt Choungui and the lowland dry forests of Dapani-Sazilé (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research up to 1994 showed it to be more abundant than Grand Comoro Drongo <em>D. fuscipennis</em>, with a population of at least 100 individuals (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1993, M. Louette <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Stevens and Louette 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, point counts and surveys of density conducted in 2002-2004, indicate a minimum population size of 2,500 pairs (Rocamora 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006033		habitat	eng	It occurs at the margins of evergreen forest (Benson 1960)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in secondary forest, thickets and plantations (Safford and Evans 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and also on the coast in mangroves and littoral woodland (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1993, R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs at low densities in areas with forest patches alternating with Ylang-ylang plantations, orchards, forest clearings and agricultural fields (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent research suggests that the species prefers higher altitude, possibly wet, locations and is more abundant in larger forest patches, and those with a higher percentage cover of tall trees (Stevens and Louette 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is insectivorous, and cicadas make up almost half of the prey items taken (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also take small vertebrates, although this is yet to be recorded (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting has been observed between September and February. The nest is a solid round cup made of intertwined plant fibres built on a fork in a variety of tree species. It has a clutch-size of one-three eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The incubation period is 19-21 days, followed by a fledging period of 17-25 days (M. Louette<em> in litt</em>. 2007, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Juveniles are dependent for one month after fledging and then remain with their parents until the start of the next breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006033		population	eng	Point counts and surveys of density conducted in 2002-2004, indicate a minimum population size of 2,500 pairs or 5,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 7,500 individuals in total.
106006033		threats	eng	Deforestation for cultivation and timber is probably the greatest threat given that Mayotte's dense human population is growing steadily and the majority are involved in traditional food cultivation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Furthermore, the network of reserves protecting its range do not have formal protection under French law (G. Rocamora <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The mangroves around Baie de Bouéni are threatened by heavy sediment loads from the deforested interior. Devastating cyclones seem to occur about every ten years (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988, Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. The potential introduction of new nest predators is an important threat, and nest failure due to predation may already be as high as 75% (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout the Indian Subcontinent, although uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett <I>et al</I>. 1998). National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout the Indian Subcontinent, although uncommon in Bangladesh (Grimmett <em>et al</em>. 1998). National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006036		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common below 305 metres in Nepal, generally uncommon in India and common in the lowlands in Sri Lanka (Grimmett et al. 1998)
106006037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to locally frequent throughout the Indian Subcontinent (Grimmett et al. 1998)
106006038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and locally common in Bhutan (Grimmett <I>et al</I>. 1998). Brazil (2009) estimated that population of Taiwan at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
106006039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in India and Bhutan and locally frequent between 915 and 1800 metres in Nepal (Grimmett et al. 1998)
106006041		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against logging and agricultural encroachment.  <p></p>
106006041		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus sumatranus</em> is restricted to Sumatra (with race <em>viridinitens</em> on the Mentawai Islands), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is fairly widespread, and has been described as a relatively common member of mixed species foraging parties in mid-elevation forests. <em> </em><p></p>
106006041		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland, hill and lower montane forest and tall secondary forest up to 800 m, and possibly to 1,500 m. It has been recorded (rarely) in Way Kambas National Park (highest point 16 m), but appears to be more common at mid altitudes. It regularly joins mixed species foraging parties.   <p></p>
106006041		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally relatively common.
106006041		threats	eng	The loss of lowland forest in Sumatra has been extensive as a result of both regulated and illegal logging, as well as conversion to agriculture.  <p></p>
106006042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106006043		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106006044		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106006045		population	eng	The population in Australia is estimated to number 500,000 individuals (S. J. Garnett and G. C. L. Dutson <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006046		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation measures underway<br/></span>None is known<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span><strong>Conservation measures proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Conduct surveys to establish estimates of its population size.  Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Safeguard the species's habitat.
106006046		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus megarhynchus</em> is endemic to New Ireland (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New  Guinea</span>), where it is found in primary lowland forest, hill forest,  stunted mossy montane forest and tall secondary growth (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009, Dutson 2011). It is suggested that &gt;50% of the population occurs in the contiguous tract of montane  forest extending down into the lowlands of southern New Ireland (G. Dutson and B. Beehler<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).
106006046		habitat	eng	It is found in primary lowland forest,  hill forest, stunted mossy montane forest and tall secondary growth  from sea-level to c.1,800 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009). Fairly shy, but loud and active, often chasing each other, in mid-storey and lower canopy. Usually in pairs (Dutson 2011).
106006046		population	eng	The population is estimated to be 'in the hundreds of thousands' (G. Duston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), best placed in the band 100,000-499,999 individuals, based on density estimates and size of remaining suitable habitat.
106006046		threats	eng	Logging and clearance of habitat for  subsistence agriculture is the primary threat to the species, with c.21% of forest cover having been lost  in New Ireland between 1972 and 2002 (Shearman <em>et al</em>. 2009).
106006047		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor rates of population change and habitat trends. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Ensure the protection of remaining forest habitats on the Andaman Islands. <p></p>
106006047		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus andamanensis </em>is endemic to the Andaman archipelago, <strong>India</strong>, and Coco Island, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, where it is a common resident of forests (BirdLife International 2001).  <em> </em><p></p>
106006047		habitat	eng	This species inhabits monsoon forests in lowlands and hills, where it is described as common.  <p></p>
106006047		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common.
106006047		threats	eng	Although its range is very small, forested habitat is relatively intact on the Andamans and insufficiently disturbed or fragmented to be of immediate concern. However, there are signs that pressure on forests is increasing on the islands through increasing human populations and consequent conversion of habitat to cultivation, grazing, increased logging and development.   <p></p>
106006048		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (Grimmett et al. 1998)
106006049		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006051		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006053		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).
106006054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).
106006055		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006058		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).
106006059		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106006059		distribution	eng	<em>Hypothymis helenae</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it is distributed widely but patchily, on Camiguin Norte (race <em>personata</em>), Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes and Samar (nominate <em>helenae</em>), Dinagat, Siargao and Mindanao (race <em>agusanae</em>) (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is generally rare, with very few records on Luzon and Mindanao. Reportedly common historically on Camiguin Norte and Dinagat, although a repeat visit to the latter in 1994 failed to confirm this. It is reported to be common on Samar and may be locally so on Luzon. <em> </em><p></p>
106006059		habitat	eng	This species is poorly known, but is reported to occupy the understorey of forest below 1,000 m.  <p></p>
106006059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare everywhere within its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006059		threats	eng	Habitat loss, through regulated and illegal logging as well as conversion to agriculture, is likely to have affected this species, although there is little information on the magnitude of these threats. <p></p>
106006060		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recently recorded in one protected area, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, and two further sites proposed for conservation funding, on Tawitawi and Dinagat, where a three-year community resource management programme began in 1996.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys in remaining suitable habitat, particularly sites with historical records (e.g. Mts Hilong-hilong, Mayo and Sugarloaf on Mindanao, Mt Capoto-an on Samar and Mt Cetaceo on Luzon) to assess its current distribution and identify further key sites. Promote more effective protection of lowland forest in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and other key sites. Use it as a promotional flagship for lowland forest conservation (e.g. through posters and postcards). <p></p>
106006060		distribution	eng	<em>Hypothymis coelestis</em> is a widespread endemic of the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Negros, Sibuyan, Samar, Dinagat, Mindanao, Basilan and Tawitawi <strong></strong>(Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, B. Tabaranza <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Early collectors generally considered it rare, but it was reportedly commoner on Basilan and Sibuyan than it was on Negros in 1959. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">rabori</span>, endemic to the Visayas, is likely to be extinct: it has not been recorded on Negros since 1959 and was not found in searches of Sibuyan in the early 1990s or subsequently (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species may also have been extirpated from Basilan. Recent records derive from fewer than 10 sites, on Luzon, Dinagat, Mindanao and Tawitawi. A considerable decline is likely, although its apparent patchy distribution and the ease with which it may be overlooked, suggest that it may be less rare than available evidence suggests. <p></p>
106006060		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy and middle storeys of lowland forest, forest edge and secondary growth up to 750 m, although generally much lower. It has been postulated that it may be a riverine specialist, particularly in areas with a marked dry season, which could account for its seemingly patchy distribution. However, whilst this is possibly the case on Luzon, it is not true on Mindanao (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106006060		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006060		threats	eng	Widespread, continuing deforestation, particularly in the lowlands, had reduced original forest cover to an estimated 4% on Negros by the late 1980s, to 24% on Luzon (where forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s) and 29% on Mindanao. Moreover, much remaining lowland forest throughout its range is under logging concessions or consideration for mining applications. Habitat is also threatened by road development plans in the Sierra Madre and illegal logging. Forest at Bislig, the site of the only recent records on Mindanao, was widely cleared under concession and planted with exotic trees for  paper production. Since the paper operation finished in 2005, the area  has been overrun by illegal settlers and loggers (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>  2012, R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Remaining beach forest on Mantibuan, Tawitawi where it may have been recorded in 2007 is threatened by plantations for cassava, coconut and banana (B. Tabaranza <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). There is little remaining forest elsewhere on Tawitawi.<br/><p></p>
106006061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally widespread and common throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006062		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties. As a result, plans are in progress to reclassify the existing 4 km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Sahengbalira (which supports several other threatened and endemic species and subspecies) as a wildlife reserve, with core areas as a strict nature reserve. There is now a small bird tourism industry on the island which, it is hoped will provide an economic incentive to island residents to conserve remaining forest (Whitten 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Furthermore, the Wildlife Conservation Society began four years of project work on Sangihe in 2007, which will provide further opportunities to protect remaining habitat. The Wildlife Conservation Society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding Gunung Sahengbalira (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A local resident and former bird guide is monitoring the loss of native forest for plantations of exotic tree species and trying to raise awareness of the threat this poses to <em>E. rowleyi</em> (Sykes 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to quantify the population and monitor trends. Support proposals for the rapid establishment of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue education programmes emphasising the value of forest-cover to water retention and the benefits of sound farming practices on already cleared slopes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island. <p></p>
106006062		distribution	eng	<em>Eutrichomyias rowleyi</em> is endemic to the island of Sangihe, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). For over a century it was known only by the type-specimen and was presumed extinct when searches in 1985 and 1986 failed to locate it (although a reported observation in 1978 later came to light). The survival of the species was confirmed in October 1998, followed in due course by the discovery of a population of at least 19 birds at five localities around the base of Gunung Sahendaruman. The total population is thought to lie between 19 and 135 birds (Riley and Wardill 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006062		habitat	eng	It is a sedentary insectivore, resident in primary forest (less often in old secondary growth) on steep-sided valley slopes and valley bottoms with streams. Observations have also been made in ridge-top scrub close to a steep, forested gully. It generally feeds in the canopy and sub-canopy of c.15-m tall trees but will also descend to feed in the low understorey. Prey is taken in active flight, perch-gleaning, by undertaking looping sallies and by descending to the ground.  <p></p>
106006062		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 19-135 individuals, roughly equating to 13-90 mature individuals.
106006062		threats	eng	Virtually<strong> </strong>the entire island of Sangihe has been deforested and converted to agriculture, leaving very little habitat for the species, particularly as it appears to prefer lower elevations. The total area of forest available is not thought to exceed 8 km<sup>2</sup>, and within this area it is restricted to steep valley habitat (Riley and Wardill 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest continues to be cleared at its fringes by shifting cultivators. Harvesting of forest products and hunting may constitute minor threats (Riley and Wardill 2001)<strong></strong>. In 2009, it was reported that new government initiatives to plant alien tree species were resulting in the clearance of native forest (Sykes 2009). At first, planting was restricted to areas below 500 m; however, more recent reports indicate that planting is now taking place at higher elevations, in areas at 700-900 m (Sykes 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006064		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106006064		distribution	eng	<em>Terpsiphone bedfordi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>where it occurs as two disjunct populations, one in north-east Ituri and the other west of Itombwe (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further studies may reveal this species to be conspecific with Red-bellied Paradise-flycatcher <em>T. rufiventer </em>(Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; the two are known to hybridise wherever they meet (Prigogine 1980)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although they may differ ecologically (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006064		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland and transitional forest at altitudes of 980-1,500 m and exceptionally in montane forest up to 1,800 m. It prefers primary evergreen forest where it is rare to frequent and is occasionally found in deciduous forest (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on a variety of insects, including bugs, moths and grasshoppers, often foraging in the lower understorey, and avoiding the upper storey and canopy, unlike <em>T. rufiventer </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Itombwe, the species breeds throughout the year. It is monogamous and territorial. One nest has been described for this species, in which two eggs had been laid. It was a deep, well-made open cup of moss, lined with fine grasses (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to frequent in two disjunct areas in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006064		threats	eng	The consequences of recent warfare within its range is likely to have increased the rate of deforestation (Kanyamibwa 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, principally due to clearance for shifting cultivation. This and its apparent inability to survive in secondary forest put it at long-term risk.  <p></p>
106006065		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to frequent throughout its entire range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread on Sao Tome island (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006068		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common on Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006069		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A 0.1 km<sup>2</sup> area of mature woodland was established as a nature reserve on La Digue in 1991 (Shah 1995)<strong></strong>. Wardening staff have been recruited, a few pools established to increase standing water, an education centre constructed, and public awareness programmes initiated (Shah 1995, Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. This population was surveyed in 2007 and productivity is routinely monitored. A further 13 ha of marshland was purchased in 2002 increasing the reserve to 21 ha. Pollution monitoring has been ongoing for some time (S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>- a sluice gate was built to protect water quality in the wetland (Shah 1995)<strong></strong> and the groundwater supply was protected when a new landfill site was established (Shah 1996)<strong></strong>. The introduced <em>P. stratiotes</em> is routinely removed from marshland (S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A programme was completed to assess the best islands to which future translocations could be considered (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003, <strong></strong>N. J. Shah<strong> </strong><em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2008)<strong></strong>. Habitat restoration is ongoing on the now predator-free Denis Island (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>, and this has been accompanied by a 'social marketing' campaign to raise awareness on La Digue (<strong></strong>Anon 2007, R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. 23 individuals were translocated to Denis Island from La Digue in November 2008, and the first chick successfully fledged in 2009 (BirdLife International 2009)<strong></strong>. These efforts were carried out during a three-year project funded by the Darwin Initiative and implemented by a partnership of NGOs and the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources titled <em>Investing in island biodiversity: restoring the Seychelles Paradise Flycatcher</em>. A follow up social marketing project began in 2011 funding through Birdlife Preventing Extinctions Programme<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete reintroduction onto Denis. Conserve woodland habitat on La Digue, and consider replanting native forest (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Reforestation should focus on large patches to minimise the level of predation (Currie <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Continue population and nest monitoring and research into territory quality and food requirements (Shah 1996, S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Assess the impact of habitat loss, predation and historical changes in land-use (Shah 1996)<strong></strong>. Encourage placement of new development away from the western plateau or in areas with no existing woodland (Rocamora 1997a, Neufeld 1998)<strong></strong>. Continue removal of invasive water plants on La Digue (Gerlach 1996, S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Consider future translocation to a suitable large island with a large area of suitable high canopy (damp) plateau forest eg Praslin or Silhouette (despite the presence of alien and native adult and nest predators), if tr<strong>a</strong>nslocation of flycatchers to Denis continues to prove successful (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003, D. Currie <em>in litt. </em>2012).</span>   <p></p>
106006069		distribution	eng	<em>Terpsiphone corvina</em> was thought to remain only on western La Digue, <strong>Seychelles</strong>. A few birds have been found on neighbouring Marianne (Ladoucer 1997, Neufeld 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this, along with birds on Praslin (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, may represent a non-viable overspill (Parr 1998b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and birds seem unable to establish populations on these neighbouring islands (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sightings on Félicité have also been reported (S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Comprehensive surveys on La Digue show that the population is increasing: 69-83 pairs (c.150-200 birds) in 1995-1996 (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 104-139 pairs in 2000 (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The translocation of 23 adult birds to Denis Island was conducted in November 2008, with the hope of eventually establishing a population of 40-50 birds on the island (N. J. Shah<strong> </strong><em>in litt.</em> 2000, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The first chick successfully fledged on Denis Island in 2009 (BirdLife International 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006069		habitat	eng	It requires mature stands of indigenous badamier <em>Terminalia catappa</em> and takamaka <em>Calophyllum innophylum</em> trees (Watson 1981, 1991, Currie <em>et al</em>. 2003). It appears to be strictly insectivorous, and birds can breed at one year of age (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002). Nesting was generally believed to be dependent on a proximity to wetland areas (Rocamora 1997a). However there is a non-random association between surviving native plateau forest and wetland areas (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002). Native high canopy plateau forest is important for both nesting and foraging: territories are generally smaller where native tree density is high (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species occurs densely (60% of all territories) on the forested (typically high canopy) plateau areas of La Digue. It is not observed in areas of native (low canopy) dry forest (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003).   <p></p>
106006069		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 210-278 individuals, roughly equating to 140-190 mature individuals.
106006069		threats	eng	Alarming rates of habitat loss and fragmentation, due to tourism and private housing developments, may be the greatest threats on La Digue (Gerlach 1996, S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A wilt disease affecting <em>C. innophylum </em>has lead to increased woodland clearance on the La Digue plateau (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Plants such as water lettuce <em>Pirtia stratiotes</em>, introduced to La Digue's marshes, may possibly have reduced favoured invertebrate prey (Gerlach 1996)<strong></strong>, although this is unproven. Alien mammals and also some endemic bird species have recently been shown to be nest predators, although <em>T. corvina</em> can resist their impacts more effectively than other endemic birds in the Seychelles (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2002, Currie <em>et al</em>. 2003, Currie <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. The level of nest predation is highest at the forest edge (Currie <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, compounding the already negative impact of habitat fragmentation.<br/><p></p>
106006070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common on Reunion in the 1970s but no recent data and much less common on Mauritius (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006071		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.100 breeding   pairs in Korea and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006072		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Breeding population is present in Kirishima-Yaku National Park (Japan). Forests for the Japanese Flycatcher initiative set up, involving conservation of a key breeding site in Japan, a passage site in Taiwan and a wintering site in Sumatra. So far results have been positive (Anon. 2008, Yu 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within both the breeding and wintering range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable wintering habitat. <p></p>
106006072		distribution	eng	<em>Terpsiphone atrocaudata</em> breeds in the humid forests of southern Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and the Nansei Shoto islands in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, <strong>North Korea, Taiwan</strong> (China) (including Lanyu Island) and the extreme northern <strong>Philippines</strong>. The population on Taiwan is largely resident, but all others are fully migratory. Migration route covers parts of mainland <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), northern <strong>Thailand</strong>, central and eastern <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, Philippines, <strong>Malaysia </strong>and<strong> Singapore. </strong>Main wintering areas are in Peninsular Malaysia, northern and western Philippines, and on Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. A recent survey detected a steep decline in part of the Japanese breeding population, although it is still apparently a common breeder on Ryukyu and Batan islands. <em> <p></p></em>
106006072		habitat	eng	This species breeds in mature deciduous or mixed forest and plantations on low hills and mountains, up to 100 m. In central Japan, wooded valleys at lower elevations are preferred. On the wintering grounds, records are from various forest habitats up to 700 m, including mangroves. On migration, it is also recorded from open woodland, suburban parks and gardens in lowlands.  <p></p>
106006072		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species race <em>illex</em> is described as a common breeder on Ryuku island and race <em>periophthalmica</em> is described as common on Batan island (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006). National population estimates include: &lt;1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and &lt;100 breeding pairs in Taiwan;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea   and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in   Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006072		threats	eng	Declines have presumably occurred because of forest loss and degradation in its wintering range.   <p></p>
106006073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon on the Philippines and generally common on Talaud island (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006074		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Campaign for the long term protection of remaining tracts of lowland woodland on Palawan.   <p></p>
106006074		distribution	eng	<em>Terpsiphone cyanescens</em> is endemic to the Palawan group (Palawan, Busuanga, Culion and Bantac) <strong>Philippines</strong>, and appears to be fairly common (100 records, 1964-1970) throughout the island (including St Paul's Subterranean River National Park) (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). <em> </em><p></p>
106006074		habitat	eng	This species is confined to primary and secondary forest, mostly in the lower-lying areas. It does not occur in isolated tracts of secondary growth.  <p></p>
106006074		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common throughout Palawan (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006074		threats	eng	As a forest specialist, this species is threatened by habitat conversion, which is occurring at an increasing rate within its range as a result of logging and agricultural development.  <p></p>
106006076		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The valleys where the species survives (called the Takitumu Conservation Area) are managed by three landowning families who are developing an ecologically and commercially sustainable ecotourism venture. Intensive rat control is carried out during the breeding season, including fortnightly poisoning (H. Robertson verbally 1999, Robertson 2000)<strong></strong>.  An insurance population has been established on Atiu and is breeding well in a variety of habitats (Robertson <em>et al</em> 2006, Saul <em>et al </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The species's survival remains dependent on the continuation of such intensive conservation action.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style=""></span><span class="says">Continue monitoring the population. Continue rat control in designated areas. <span class="says">Maintain the existing management programme. Maintain and (wherever possible) increase the training of local Cook Islanders in implementing the management programme. <span class="says">Win community support for occasional further translocations to Atiu to maintain genetic diversity in that population (Robertson<em> et al</em>. 1994, SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>.  Ensure new predators do not become established on Rarotonga. Monitor to ensure no predators become established on Atiu.   <p></p></span>
106006076		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea dimidiata</em> is endemic to Rarotonga, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, where it is largely restricted to the Totokoitu, Turoa and western Avana Valleys. It was common until the middle of the 19th century, but thought to be extinct in the early 1900s (Robertson<em> et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. A survey in 1983 located only 20 birds and two nests, and estimated a population of 35-50 birds <strong></strong>(Hay 1986, H. Robertson<em> in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. A recovery plan initiated in 1987 has improved breeding success and recruitment, and decreased mortality of adults, resulting in 177 birds in 1998, 196 in 1999, 222 in 2000, 255 in 2001, 289 in 2002 and 308 in 2003 (H. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 2001, ten birds were translocated from Rarotonga and released on Atiu, 200 km north-east; similar numbers, consisting of one to two-year-old birds, were translocated to Atiu in 2002 and in 2003 (Robertson <em>et al</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Four fledglings were recorded on Atiu in autumn 2003 (World Birdwatch 2003)<strong></strong>. By August 2004, at least 281 birds were found on Rarotonga, and 25 on Atiu, giving an overall estimated population of 306 individuals<strong></strong>. However, five cyclones passed through the southern Cook Islands in five weeks in summer 2005 and though direct mortality was less than expected, a very poor breeding season followed, with the population estimated at 291 individuals in August 2006; 255 on Rarotonga and 36 on Atiu (Robertson and Saul 2007)<strong></strong>. By 2007, the population had increased to 314 birds; 271 on Rarotonga and 43 on Atiu (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) and by August 2011 (supplemented by data from July 2011),  the population was estimated at c.380 birds, including 69  yearlings (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2011, H. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 2011), suggesting a population of c.310 mature individuals.<br/><p></p>
106006076		habitat	eng	It prefers steep-sided, wet, forested, small valleys sheltered from south-east trade winds in the headwaters of streams. It feeds mainly on small caterpillars, flies, beetles and bugs. Clutch-size is two. Usually only one brood is raised each year (McCormack and Künzle 1990, Sanders<em> et al</em>. 1995, <strong></strong>Saul<em> et al</em>. 1998, <strong></strong>E. Saul<em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Before intensive predator control began, annual adult mortality was 24.3% and life expectancy was 3.6-6.0 years for males and 2.4 years for females. Since intensive management, annual mortality has dropped significantly to 14.2% and life expectancy has increased to 7.6 years for males and 6.3 years for females (H. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The species<span style=""> is reportedly capable of breeding at one year old, but more recently, it is rare for  yearlings to breed (&lt;5%), and most do not start breeding until 3-4  years old (H. Robertson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106006076		population	eng	The population was estimated at 296-300 in August 2004, but a subsequent series of devastating cyclones in early 2005 lead to a decline, especially on Rarotonga. The total population began to increase in 2007 due to good recruitment on Atiu (where 30 birds were transferr<span style="">ed in 2001-2003) and a stable population on Rarotonga. In 2011 the population was estimated at c.380 birds, including 69  yearlings (Robertson </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2011, H. Robertson </span><em style="">in litt</em><span style="">. 2011), suggesting a population of c.310 mature individuals.</span><br/><br/><span style=""></span>
106006076		threats	eng	The species's highly localised distribution leaves it vulnerable to cyclones, invasion of weeds and forest clearance. It continues to be threatened by black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>and cats <em>Felis catus</em>. Predation by Long-tailed Cuckoo <em>Eudynamys taitensis</em>, a winter migrant from New Zealand, remains a possibility. The introduction of avian diseases could have a major impact, as could invasion by new predators (e.g. snakes and mongooses) (Robertson<em> et al</em>. 1994, H. Robertson verbally 1999, E. Saul<em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Despite passing through a bottleneck of 29 birds, the genetic diversity  in the species is moderately good and in line with the population being  near that bottleneck size for only a short period of time and so inbreeding effects and loss of genetic diversity are not thought to be a threat (H. Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<span class="says"><p></p>
106006077		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1998, rat control around known nests (using poisoning and tree-banding) was initiated by the Société d'Ornithologie de Polynésie MANU (Blanvillain 2000)<strong></strong>. Rat control was more successful when conducted throughout the year and over the entire valle<span style="">y (Gouni 2006). However, when control was confined to monarch</span> territories only, re-invasions occurred on a regular basis (Blanvillain <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. The number of areas controlled for rats has increased since 2008 and improvements are on going (Ghestemme 2011). Rat control in Maruapo upper valley has improved&#160; in recent years with 28 bait stations set in 2011 (Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Some control of invasive <em>Miconia </em>and <em>Spathodea</em> is ongoing in accessible valleys (<strong></strong>Raust 2010)<strong></strong>. In 2009-2011, 13 Tahiti Kingfishers were captured in the Papehue valley and moved to areas away from monarch populations with the aim of reducing competition. Following removal of the kingfishers, new colonisation of these areas by young monarchs was observed (Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. An immature Tahiti Monarch found at a degraded site was translocated to a valley with suitable habitat and a low existing population (Ghestemme 2011)<strong></strong>. An action plan has also been produced (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and the feasibility of translocation is being assessed: a recent feasibility study found that it would be possible to introduce the species to the island of Rimatara, based on the absence of Black Rat, Common Myna, Red-vented Bulbul and Swamp Harrier, and the availability of suitable nesting habitat (Portier 2010). Introduction of the first young birds to Rimatara is planned for 2013 (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A recovery group, shared with Fatuhiva Monarch<em> P. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">whitneyi</span>, has been established to formulate a conservation strategy (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, and plans are underway to implement a site support group created in 2010. Between 2009 and 2011, 21  individuals have been colour-banded.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor known territories in the four valleys, including searching for nests, searching for birds in previously known locations and surveying possible new areas (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue rat control using a combination of poisoning and tree-banding (SPREP 1999, Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999, Blanvillain 2000)<strong></strong>. Conduct experiments to improve the quality of the habitat in a couple of valleys by encouraging the growth of young mara trees and removing African tulip trees (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Confirm the impact of introduced birds and investigate their control (SPREP 1999, Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999, Blanvillain 2000)<strong></strong>. If essential, take surviving birds into captivity, increase this population through captive breeding and release once a suitable site/island has been identified/restored (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999, Blanvillain 2000)<strong></strong>. Animate the Monarch Recovery Group by submitting the synthesis on different aspects of Tahiti monarch conservation including the translocation procedure. Develop the Operational Plan for the introduction of Monarch to Rimatara island. Locate and survey more intensively birds selected for being transferred on Rimatara<p></p>
106006077		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea nigra</em> is endemic to Tahiti in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. It was apparently rare throughout the 20th century and, during the period 1986-1991, was noted in only four valleys (several pairs at each locality) out of 39 visited (Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. In September 1998, 27 birds (12 pairs) were located within these four lowland valleys. This figure has remained stable or perhaps increased slightly and in 2006 there were 12 territories occupied by 19 adult or subadult birds in accessible parts of the valleys, with new pairs even becoming established in abandoned territories, and the total population estimated at 40-45 individuals (P. Raust <em>in litt.</em> 2005,<strong></strong> Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The known population of mature birds numbered 35 individuals in 2010 (Anon 2010, Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), and 40 individuals (including 7 fledglings) in 2011 (Ghestemme<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011). <br/><p></p>
106006077		habitat	eng	It is only found between 80 m and 400 m in altitude, and the tree "mara" <em>Neonauclea forsteri</em> is a common feature of the four valleys where it survives (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Nesting sites are often situated at the bottom of valleys, close to permanent or temporary streams, with habitat dominated by alien plant species (Portier 2010). It is highly territorial, foraging both in the canopy and the undergrowth for insects (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006077		population	eng	The known population in 2011 was 40 individuals (Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), and the  population is best placed the band &lt;50 mature individuals.
106006077		threats	eng	Its decline on Mt Mara`u might be related to the replacement of the high, dense forest by shrubs of the botanical pest <em>Miconia calvescens</em>, introduced in 1937, whose progression was partly facilitated by a hurricane in 1983 (<strong></strong>J.-C. Thibault <em>in litt. </em>1993)<strong></strong>. A decline in habitat quality is a likely threat elsewhere, as forest is largely composed of introduced invasive species, such as the African tulip tree <em>Spathodea campanulata</em>, and usually confined to a narrow strip along the floor of steep basalt canyons (Gaze 1998)<strong></strong>. Predation by rats, particularly Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, is probably the main threat (Blanvillain 2000, Thibault <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, and goat grazing is leading to habitat degradation in some areas (Ghestemme 2009)<strong></strong>. A three-year study showed that significantly more Red-vented Bulbul <em>Pycnonotus cafer</em> and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> were present in territories that experienced nest failure or early fledgling death (<strong></strong>Blanvillain <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, while other potential predators include cats and Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans </em>(Ghestemme 2009)<strong></strong>. Common Myna has been implicated in the predation of eggs, and chicks while in the nest and probably following fledging. Red-vented Bulbul has been implicated in reducing chick survival by disrupting the reproduction of paired Monarchs, and competing for food and territories. Unnatural nest failures during 2008-2010 were related to mynas, although bulbuls are apparently responsible of the unique failure of 2011 (Ghestemme 2011, Ghestemme<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).  Tahiti Kingfisher <em>Todiramphus veneratus </em>is an aggressive competitor which has been observed driving several monarchs off their territory (Ghestemme 2009)<strong></strong> and preventing colonisation of suitable sites by young monarchs (Ghestemme 2011). <p></p>
106006080		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The population has been regularly checked since the 1970s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>. Conservation efforts have increased owing to the recent rapid decline in the population. Rat control has been on-going at accessible territories since 2008. It focuses on the Omoa Valley (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), but work is being extended gradually to additional areas (A. Gouni <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>: in 2011 all known accessible territories (29 individuals in 12 valleys) were being protected against rats, with significant improvements including spreading bait with catapults to reach previously inaccessible areas (Ghestemme <em>et al. </em>2011)<strong></strong>. No nest predation has been recorded in rat controlled areas since January 2010 (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Feral cat control has been underway since August 2010 (Ghestemme <em>et al. </em>2011)<strong></strong>. A feasibility study was carried out to assess the suitability of other islands for translocation: without further rat eradications, Rimatara was found to be the only suitable island and due to the small amount of suitable habitat for the Fatuhiva Monarch, translocation of&#160; Tahiti Monarch <em>P. nigra </em>was considered preferable here (Ghestemme <em>et al. </em>2011, A. Gouni <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. A recovery group, shared with <em>P. nigra</em>, has been established to formulate a conservation strategy (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, and a site support group was created in August 2010 (Ghestemme <em>et al. </em>2011)<strong></strong>. An awareness campaign is being run, targeted at local people, with an aim to educate about the status of the species, and a poster and t-shirt have been produced as part of the process (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Population banding began in late 2009, with nine birds colour-banded by the end of 2011 (Ghestemme <em>et al. </em>2011, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010, 2012)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>A species action plan is being formulated.<strong><strong> </strong></strong>The Ministry of Health and Environment is working to reduce bushfires during times of drought and increasing regulation of agricultural tracks that would impact the species's habitat (Raust 2010).<br/><strong><strong><br/></strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Continue and improve rat control in areas where this work is already ongoing, and expand control to other areas<strong> </strong>(Thibault and Meyer 2000, Thibault <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><strong></strong>. Examine the feasibility of complete rat eradication. Produce a more detailed action plan (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Conduct surveys elsewhere on the island using the same methodologies and continue to monitor the known population through banding </strong>(Gouni 2006, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><strong></strong>. Consider translocation, either to another island or by creating another, larger controlled area in an accessible part of Fatu Hiva which would allow birds to be translocated to it from valleys where protection is impossible </strong>(Anon. 2010)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><strong></strong>. Continue the public awareness programme </strong>(Gouni 2006, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><strong></strong>. Continue and extend cat control and assess its effect on the species </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>(T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>.  <p></p></strong>
106006080		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea whitneyi</em> is endemic to Fatu Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. In 1975, the population was estimated at several hundred pairs and, in 1990, it was still common <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984, Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong>. In February 2000 the total population was estimated at 400-1,000 individuals (Thibault and Meyer 2001, Gouni 2006)<strong></strong>. Unlike in 1975, no birds were observed in the groves of mango on the slopes and ridges up the Omoa Valley, and the lack of adults with immatures indicated low breeding success (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>. Repeat visits in 2003 and 2006 only found the species using three from eight potentially suitable valleys above Omoa, and just one from seven near Hanavave<strong></strong>. Furthermore, the encounter rate during surveys declined from 0.35 individuals per point count in 2003 to 0.23 individuals in 2006, a decline of 35% in the number of monarchs detected during that period (Gouni 2006)<strong></strong>. These catastrophic declines have continued, with a five-month survey in 2009 finding only 0.11 individuals per point count (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, and totals of 13 territories and 41 birds found. The total population in 2009 was estimated to be as low as 67 individuals (Le Barh 2009, T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. In 2011, an estimated 65% of the birds were restricted to a region of 2 km² in the Omoa Valley (Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<p></p>
106006080		habitat	eng	It occurs in dense, native forest from 50 m to 700 m, with some non-breeding birds found up to 775 m on a crest below the highest summit on Mt Touaouoho in native wet forest (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects (e.g. Coleoptera), spiders and seeds <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nests are placed in a thin tree fork <strong></strong>(Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006080		population	eng	The population was estimated to number 67 individuals in 2009 (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). Based on a 30% decline in territories since this estimate, it is now thought to number c.50 birds, roughly equivalent to 33 mature individuals (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106006080		threats	eng	Fatu Hiva is a relatively well preserved, well forested island (with no overgrazing or destruction of vegetation by fire). Black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>was observed for the first time on the island in February 2000 (Thibault and Meyer 2000)<strong></strong>. Identified as a serious threat as its presence is strongly correlated with the decline and extinction of monarch populations (Thibault <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong>, rats already appear to have caused an extremely rapid population decline and represent the principal threat <strong></strong>(Gouni 2006)<strong><strong></strong></strong><strong></strong>. Their density remains very high (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  Successful recent breeding has only very rarely been noted except in areas cleared of rats; elsewhere the lack of juveniles indicates a rapidly aging population, with at least 4 of the 10 protected pairs confirmed as sterile in 2011 <strong></strong>(Anon. 2010, Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. Feral cats also appear to be a significant threat to the species as two adults were sighted without tails, typically a sign of a cat predation attempt. Cats are apparently released in agricultural areas near to where the monarch is found (T. Ghestemme <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, and have been found in every part of the island (T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). They are presumably capable of impacting the monarch even in areas where rats have been cleared <strong></strong>(Anon. 2010)<strong></strong>. Bush fires during the dry season, forest clearance and the establishment of non-regulated agricultural tracks in the species's habitat are also increasing threats (Raust 2010, T. Ghestemme <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106006081		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Fijian law. Vulaga island is a possible translocation island (as <em>M.&#160;lessoni</em> does not occur there) if a critical situation should arise on Ogea Levu (Watling 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Resurvey the islands. Assess population densities in forest and degraded forest. Investigate hybridisation with <em>M. lessoni</em>. Use as a figurehead species for conservation on Ogea Levu. Advocate strong quarantine controls to prevent the establishment of exotic predators. Control existing feral predators.   <p></p>
106006081		distribution	eng	<em>Mayrornis versicolor</em> is endemic to Ogea in the southern Lau Group, <strong>Fiji</strong>, occurring on the two principal islands, Ogea Levu and Ogea Driki (13 and 5 km<sup>2</sup> respectively, 2 km apart), and on the smaller island of Dakuiyanuya (immediately adjacent to Ogea Levu). In 1986, it was estimated to have a total population of c.2,000 individuals (Watling 1988)<strong></strong>. Surveys conducted on Ogea Levu and Ogea Driki in July 2011 (following Watling's [1988] methodology) recorded 49 individuals, equating to 19.22 per 10 ha (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012), compared with 10.68 per 10 ha in 1986 (Watling 1988). Crude extrapolation from these data yields a current estimate of 3,204 individuals compared with 1,780 in 1986 (Watling 1988). However, this is based on surveys conducted over three days and so  it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about the true population size and whether this apparent change in the population size represents a genuine increase or simple variation in the population. <br/><p></p>
106006081		habitat	eng	It is restricted to forest (possibly preferring the more limited successional and edge habitats). It feeds on insects. It has been observed to be territorial, but little is known of its breeding ecology; a recently fledged juvenile has been observed in July and it is possible that breeding was well under way at this time (Watling 1988)<strong></strong>. Its ecological separation from <em>M.&#160;lessoni</em> is unknown. Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2012) reported that the species is most often observed in groups of 2-3 individuals, possibly representing family groups, and are often in mixed-species foraging flocks in the sub-canopy. <br/><p></p>
106006081		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,000-3,000 indiviauls, based on Watling (1988) and Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2012). This equates to 1,333-2,000 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,300-2,000 mature individuals.<br/><p></p>
106006081		threats	eng	There are no indications that it (or the forests) have been greatly affected by the cyclones of 1973, 1975, 1979 or 1985. Forest clearance is unlikely to occur on these limestone islands since the soil is too poor for agriculture or even coconut plantations. While selective timber-felling for house construction and traditional crafts may increase, this is unlikely to affect the species, which may even benefit from an increase in secondary habitat (Watling 1988)<strong></strong>. There is some evidence of occasional hybridisation with the more widespread <em>M. lessoni </em><strong></strong>(Mayr 1933b), although it is unlikely that this is a significant threat. Its population appears to have been stable since 1986, despite the occurrence of invasive feral cats (<em>Felis silvestris</em>) and rats (<em>Rattus spp</em>.) (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012). Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em> and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> are potential predators (Watling 1988)<strong></strong>. Given the remoteness of the island group there are no grounds to suspect there will be subsequent invasions by new mammalian predators e.g. Small Asian Mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>).<br/><p></p>
106006082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006083		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population. Protect remaining tall forest on Vanikoro from logging.  <p></p>
106006083		distribution	eng	<em>Mayrornis schistaceus</em> occurs on the island of Vanikoro (170 km<sup>2</sup>) and its small satellite island of Buma in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. The total population is estimated to be a few thousand birds (based on 90 encounters in 1997) and not currently declining. More information on the species's population size is needed.<em> <p></p></em>
106006083		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, occurring in forest, forest edge and regrowth adjacent to forest, to at least 450 m (Dutson 2011). Tolerant of old logged forest but not scrubby or open habitats (Parker 1963, Gibbs 1996, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006083		population	eng	The global population size is described as being 'a few thousand individuals' in del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2006) and so has been placed in the range of 1,000-2,499 individuals.
106006083		threats	eng	Although there are no plans for large-scale commercial logging, there is ongoing pressure from multinational logging companies to exploit the forests of Vanikoro (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006084		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known but apparently fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006085		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known but apparently fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006086		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's status is reported to vary from common to rare in different parts of its range (Watling 2001).
106006088		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006089		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is the state bird of Chuuk and may obtain some conservation benefit from this recognition. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out comprehensive surveys to assess the current population size. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. Protect forest habitat, including the small patches of native forest remaining on the high islands, the atoll forest on the outer reef islands, and the more extensive stands of mangrove (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. Assess the threat posed by direct persecution. Conduct awareness-raising activities to discourage persecution. <br/><p></p>
106006089		distribution	eng	<em>Metabolus rugensis</em> is widely but sparsely distributed on all, or nearly all, of the high lagoon islands, as well as some of the outer reef islets of Chuuk (= Truk), <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, with highest densities reported from Tol South. It has probably never been abundant in historic times. In 1984, numbers were estimated at 2,168 (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. It subsequently appears to have become much rarer according to a population estimate in 2001 (G.<strong> </strong>Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. On Tol South, no birds were found in a visit in 1991 and only 3-4 birds in 1993, although birds were seen again in 2005 (C. Collins <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. It was thought to have been extirpated from Weno after a major fire destroyed the patch of forest where it was uncommon in the 1970s (H. D. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>; however, two males were seen in Sopo Forest in 2005 (C. Collins <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. The species now appears to be rare on Weno (C. Collins <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and according to local people it is becoming rarer on Tol South (D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In addition, the species was not successfully located in December 2010 in an area on Dublon Island where it had been seen in December 2008 (D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
106006089		habitat	eng	It occurs at highest densities in small patches of upland native forest, but is also found in well-developed stands of mangrove, thickets, atoll strand and (rarely) plantations along scrubby slopes, often covered by hibiscus <em>Hibiscus tiliaceus</em> or along steep ridges or cliffs (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990, D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>. It favours areas with a thick, leafy understorey where it is found in small family groups gleaning insects, lizards and other prey from the foliage (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. It appears to be strongly territorial, nesting in trees with dense foliage<strong></strong> and nesting has been recorded from April to July (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006089		population	eng	The population estimate of 1,000-2,499 individuals is derived from Engbring <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1990) and H. D. Pratt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. (1994). This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006089		threats	eng	It is likely to have declined dramatically in the 1940s, owing to extensive agricultural development during the Japanese administration, and may still be gradually declining, most likely due to the rapidly expanding human population (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong> and consequent further loss of its habitat. Although it shows some flexibility in its habitat requirements, the species appears to prefer native forest, which on Tol South is now restricted to the summit plateau (D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). There are also second-hand reports that the species has been targeted with slingshots on Weno (C. Collins <em>in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
106006090		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though locally common (Coates 1990).
106006091		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Coates 1990).
106006092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates 1990, Coates et al. 1997).
106006093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106006094		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in the north of its range and scarcer elsewhere (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006095		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Bougainville and the small islands of Buka (Papua New Guinea) and the Shortlands (Solomon Islands).
106006095		habitat	eng	The species is found in forest bird up to 1,300 m. It is not known how well it tolerates secondary habitats but it is probably common in degraded forest like the closely-related Chestnut-bellied Monarch M. castaneiventris (Schodde 1977, Coates 1990).
106006095		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006095		threats	eng	All the lowlands of Bougainville are susceptible to logging when the island opens up to commerce (G. Dutson in litt. 1999).
106006096		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006098		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106006099		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106006100		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).
106006102		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106006103		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106006104		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two recent surveys have targeted this species and other threatened birds on Flores. One key site, Tanjung Kerita Mese, is proposed for establishment as a protected area.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to clarify its status and habitat use, with a view to formulating an appropriate conservation strategy and proposing effective protected areas. Support the rapid gazetting of Tanjung Kerita Mese proposed protected area, along with an additional stretch of forest at Golo Bilas. Initiate awareness campaigns to solicit the support of local people in protecting forests. <p></p>
106006104		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha sacerdotum</em> is endemic to the western half of Flores, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it appears to be extremely local and largely uncommon, with very tentative density estimates of 2.3 (± 0.8) birds per hectare in suitable habitat, made during fieldwork in 1993 (BirdLife International 2001). However, recent surveys estimated the total population at three forest blocks (Mbeliling, Sano-Nggoang and Nggorang-Bowosie) to be 1,855-6,659 birds, at a density of 8.52-23.98 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (Ora 2002). Within the last decade there are records from Puarlolo Telkom ('frequent'), Paku ('uncommon'), Cereng ('frequent'), Golo Bilas ('rare') and Bari <strong></strong>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). This last site is a northward range extension and increases the area of suitable forest habitat within its range by c.200 km<sup>2</sup>. Remaining areas of forest within its range appear to be under considerable pressure and the species is thought to be in decline as a result. <p></p>
106006104		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary semi-evergreen rainforest from 350 m to 1,000&#160;m, and also occurs in moist deciduous monsoon forest. It has been recorded in old secondary and partially degraded forest, indicating some tolerance of degradation, although the vast majority of records derive from primary forest, implying that it may not adapt well to modified habitats. There appears to be some mutual exclusion between this species and the closely related <em>M. trivirgatus</em>, presumably as a result of ecological overlap.<p></p>
106006104		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006104		threats	eng	Forest loss and fragmentation (chiefly as a result of shifting cultivation, dry season burn-off and road-building) is already extensive on Flores, and has presumably resulted in a substantial decline in numbers and contraction of range. No semi-evergreen forest below 1,000 m is included within gazetted protected areas and the large tract of lowland moist deciduous forest at Golo Bilas through to Bari-Rego (also important for the threatened Wallace's Hanging Parrot <em>Loriculus flosculus</em> and Flores Crow <em>Corvus florensis</em>) is currently being cleared for firewood and construction materials. As a species of foothill and montane elevations, it is potentially threatened by the effect of projected climate change on the extent and distribution of suitable habitats.<br/><p></p>
106006105		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further fieldwork to identify the most important areas for this species and its tolerance of habitat degradation. Determine and implement appropriate conservation measures based on these surveys, including establishment of an appropriate protected area if necessary. <p></p>
106006105		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha everetti</em> is endemic to the island of Tanahjampea in the Flores Sea, between the southern peninsula of Sulawesi and the island of Flores in Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Historical records indicate that it was relatively common and widespread on the island, and this was confirmed during a brief survey in 1993. A total of 43 birds were seen in two days in and around Labuhanmarege (including along the road up to the microwave station at the highest point of the island). <p></p>
106006105		habitat	eng	It is presumably a sedentary resident. In 1993, it was found to be quite common in logged evergreen forest and less common in scrub and mangroves with scattered big trees, indicating that it is tolerant of some habitat degradation. Often two individuals, rarely up to four, were seen together, and the species was commonly observed associating with mixed foraging flocks. <p></p>
106006105		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006105		threats	eng	The main threat probably comes from deforestation. In September 1993, up to half (i.e. c.75 km<sup>2</sup>) of the island was still forested, although all the forest seen had been extensively logged. "Relatively large volumes of timber" were continuing to be logged to support the settlement, construction and boat building needs of the island's population (reported to number c.100,000 in 1993). It was thought that any large-scale increase in logging would have serious consequences for the species. <p></p>
106006106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106006107		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted measures have been taken, other than the survey to relocate the species in the early 1990s. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys on Boano (and the neighbouring islands of Kelang and Manipa which may prove to support the species) to establish its range, distribution and status, and assess its habitat requirements and threats. Assess the suitability of Gunung Tahun (the site of rediscovery) as a protected area. Devise and implement a conservation strategy for the species involving the establishment of an appropriate protected area if necessary. <p></p>
106006107		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha boanensis</em> is confined to the island of Boano off north-west Seram, South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it appears to occupy a very limited area (probably no more than 20%) of the mountainous part (c.70 km<sup>2</sup>) of the island (BirdLife International 2001). Known from just one specimen collected at an unspecified locality in 1918, it was rediscovered in 1991, in a foothill gorge of Gunung Tahun. Observations at the same locality in 1994 led to an estimate of 5-10 birds in a 5-ha patch of forest.  Based on the extent of suitable habitat this was extrapolated to give a population estimate of 100-200 individuals <strong></strong>(Moeliker and Heij<em> </em>1995).  The first record since 1994 came in 2011, when at least 12 individuals were seen and around 20 more were heard in an area of cut-over forest where none had been seen on the 1994 expedition <strong></strong>(J. Eaton <em>in litt. </em>2011). <p></p>
106006107		habitat	eng	It is presumably a sedentary resident, and is believed to be restricted to the higher parts of the island (c.150-700 m), although recent observations come from dense secondary semi-evergreen forest, comprising trees up to 20 m high, in a gorge between 150 m and 200 m. Foraging was noted low (generally below 2 m) in lush undergrowth consisting mainly of <em>Ficus</em> and <em>Coffea</em> spp. and thickets of bamboo (<em>Dendrocalamus </em>spp<em>.</em>). Individuals also associated with mixed-species flocks in the lower-middle storeys. <p></p>
106006107		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 100-200 individuals, roughly equating to 70-130 mature individuals.
106006107		threats	eng	Forests on the island of Boano have long been exploited for human needs. Although recent cutting is deemed to have irreversibly affected the island's ecosystem, patches of valley-bottom forest remain wherein the monarch persists. However, its extremely low estimated population size, and the apparent ease with which forest at the single known site could be cleared or burnt, renders it highly vulnerable to extinction. <p></p>
106006108		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations to assess trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106006108		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha leucurus</em> is restricted to the Kai Islands, in the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is apparently common in all woodland habitats within its range, but recent population and habitat trends are unknown.  <em> </em><p></p>
106006108		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland primary and secondary forests, including coastal monsoon forest, mangroves and hill forest, up to 625 m. It is also recorded from woodland on the edges of cultivation.   <p></p>
106006108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006108		threats	eng	This species may be vulnerable to forest loss within its small range, as a result of logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106006109		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and tolerance of degraded habitats. Obtain an accurate population estimate and set up population monitoring to assess trends. Protect a core area of remaining lowland forest. <p></p>
106006109		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha julianae</em> is endemic to the 144-km<sup>2</sup> island of Kofiau in the West Papuan islands off north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is common and widespread in lowland forest, including secondary forest <strong></strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1994). However, most of Kofiau has been selectively logged since the 1970s, and there is currently no protected area <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1994, 2000). The remaining forest is declining in area, and although the species is tolerant of selective logging, the population is suspected to be declining.<em> </em><p></p>
106006109		habitat	eng	This species is most common in primary and closed-canopy secondary forest, where is has been described as abundant. Adults also persist in traditional shaded subsistence gardens, although the ability of these gardens to support the species is unknown. It can generally be found at heights of 1-30 m, foraging within trees, rather than at the tips of branches, by hover-gleaning, making quick short hops along a branch, and working vertically up a tree or vine <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
106006109		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006109		threats	eng	Much of Kofiau has been selectively logged, and currently the island has no protected area <strong></strong>(K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1994, 2000). The remaining forest is in decline owing to slash-and-burn agriculture, both for subsistence gardens and coconut groves, and small-scale timber extraction <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). Agricultural clearings are estimated to have increased by 30% between 2002 and 2007 <strong></strong>(Diamond <em>et al.</em> 2009). Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions <strong></strong>(BirdLife International unpublished data).  <p></p>
106006110		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce and local (Coates 1990).
106006111		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara (110&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Pulau Supiori (420&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Nature Reserves (Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on both islands to establish its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat requirements. Afford formal protection to further key sites where appropriate. Control logging on Supiori (Bishop 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006111		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha brehmii</em> is endemic to the twin-islands of Biak-Supiori in Geelvink Bay, West Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986). It was clearly scarce historically (Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939)<strong></strong> and there are only twelve records, including six since 2008 (van Balen <em>in litt.</em> 2012<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>. However, there has been little recent ornithological exploration of the forests of interior Biak-Supiori, where it may prove to be more common and widespread (<strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006111		habitat	eng	The recent observations are from lowland forest, one bird in a lichen-covered limestone riverbed in thick, lowland rainforest at c.60&#160;m (Bishop 1982)<strong></strong>, another record from logged lowland forest with a mixture of highly degraded and pristine areas (Gibbs 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a third from a tiny patch of tall forest within secondary growth and plantations (S. van Balen <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106006111		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size; the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied, and the species's rarity as judged by recent surveys. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006111		threats	eng	Large areas of forest on Biak have been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, particularly the southern plains, and the remainder is under pressure (Bishop 1982<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Furthermore, forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which are likely to be safe from habitat degradation. <p></p>
106006112		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research to determine the population size. Regularly monitor the population at certain sites. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest from logging. Investigate the taxonomic status of the two races.   <p></p>
106006112		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha infelix</em> is endemic to the Admiralty Islands of Manus, Rambutyo, Tong and Lou in <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>(Coates 1990,<strong></strong> Dutson 2011)<sup></sup>. It is a scarce forest species with a small overall population. It appears to be poorly tolerant of degraded forest and is inferred to be declining in logged areas (Coates 1990, Dutson and Newman 1991, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Eastwood 1995,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997,<strong></strong> Hornbuckle 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006112		habitat	eng	It is a primary forest species, occurring in closed-canopy forest, but rare in secondary, mangrove and submontane forest. Pairs and singles actively glean, sometimes fluttering, in undergrowth to subcanopy of forest (Dutson 2011).<br/><p></p>
106006112		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006).
106006112		threats	eng	Large areas of Manus have been logged or are under logging concessions but most forest on this island is presently safe (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006113		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research to determine population size. Regularly monitor the population at certain sites. Study its tolerance of degraded forest. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest from logging.   <p></p>
106006113		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha menckei</em> is endemic to Mussau Island (400 km<sup>2</sup>) in the St Matthias group of <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where it is currently considered common; however, it is likely to have a small overall population (Eastwood 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006113		habitat	eng	It is a common forest species which appears to tolerate degraded habitats including secondary regrowth (Eastwood 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997<strong></strong>, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006113		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006).
106006113		threats	eng	Most of Mussau has been or is scheduled to be logged. It may be threatened if it proves to be poorly tolerant of highly degraded habitat.  <p></p>
106006114		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common, otherwise scarce (Coates 1990).
106006115		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research to determine population size. Regularly monitor the population at certain sites. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Set aside and protect significant areas of remaining primary forest from logging on all islands where it occurs. Further investigate the taxonomic status of the two races.   <p></p>
106006115		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha barbatus</em> occurs in two races, <em>barbatus </em>is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>and Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Guadalcanal, and other small islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, while <em>malaitae</em> is restricted to Malaita (Solomon Islands). It is a relatively uncommon species throughout its range and apparently has little tolerance of degraded forest (Dutson 2011).  <em> <p></p></em>
106006115		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and old-growth closed-canopy secondary forest to at least 1,200 m (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Schodde 1977, Coates 1990, <strong></strong>Webb 1992, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Dutson 2011<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>). It is rare in flat lowland forest and heavily degraded forest (Dutson 2011).<br/><p></p>
106006115		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006).
106006115		threats	eng	Large areas of the lowland forest across the region have been logged or are under logging concessions but as much of the population is in the hills, this species is probably declining at a moderate rate.  <p></p>
106006116		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the populations of all races at selected sites. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest from logging on all islands where it occurs. Fully investigate the taxonomic status of the four races.   <p></p>
106006116		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha browni</em> is endemic to the New Georgia group of islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a low-density forest species with a small total population, described as "rather uncommon" (Dutson 2011). It occurs as four quite distinct races, some of which are single island endemics. In particular the distinct subspecies <em>ganongae</em> on Ranongga (where there is little remaining forest), and <em>nigrotectus</em> on Vella Lavella (where logging is extensive) and Bangga, are naturally scarce and therefore highly threatened (Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Hornbuckle 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106006116		habitat	eng	It is a primary forest species, rarely found in degraded forest habitats, to a maximum of 600 m.   <p></p>
106006116		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common. Race nigrotectus is described as uncommon and race ganongae is described as rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006116		threats	eng	Widespread logging across the area is causing a decline, but it has strongholds in forest reserves on Kolombangara and unlogged areas on other islands (Blaber 1990,<strong></strong> Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Hornbuckle 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and does not yet have a fragmented distribution. Any significant increase in the areas being logged on these islands could render the species threatened.  <p></p>
106006117		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in the lowlands and becoming more common in mountain forests (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006118		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway<br/></strong>None is known<br/><strong><br/></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population to determine trends.  Ensure <em>B. irregularis </em> does not become established on any of the Yap islands.   <p></p>
106006118		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha godeffroyi</em> is endemic to the islands of Yap, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, occurring on Yap, Gagil-Tomil, Rumung (presumably) and Maap, where it is widespread.  In 1984, it was estimated to number 26,961 individuals (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006118		habitat	eng	It inhabits virtually all forest types including mangroves and secondary growth (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006118		population	eng	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990) published a population estimate of at least 27,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to at least 40,000 individuals.
106006118		threats	eng	It is unlikely to be affected by habitat degradation as it is able to ultilise the scrubby vegetation which often invades forest-cleared sites. However, given its small range, it is at risk from the accidental introduction of alien species, especially brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA) (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006119		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The northern two-thirds of Tinian are leased to the U.S. Navy who only use it intermittently and this has allowed the regeneration of much of the native flora, which has undoubtedly benefited the species (Balis-Larsen and Sutterfield 1997, Lusk <em>et al.</em> 2000b)<strong></strong>. In 1994, a year-and-a-half banding study obtained extensive information on the species (Balis-Larsen and Sutterfield 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1996 and 2008, surveys of the entire island were conducted to obtain an accurate population estimate (Lusk <em>et al.</em> 2000b, Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press)<strong></strong>. A five-year monitoring program, which includes surveys and survival studies, was undertaken as part of the removal of this species from the U.S. Endangered Species List; the study apparently indicated a continuing decline in monarch populations on Tinian (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005, F. A. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012, P. Radley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>.  A brown tree-snake barrier is now operational at the Tinian port to assist with interdiction efforts (N. Hawley <em>in litt.</em> 2007, F. A. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. A small population has been taken into captivity as part of the Marianas Avifauna Conservation Project (P. Radley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Preserve the remaining limestone forest habitat on Tinian (Balis-Larsen and Sutterfield 1997)<strong></strong>. Attempt to increase the amount of native forest (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Take precautions to prevent the introduction of <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, such as traps and monitors around the airport and especially the harbour (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106006119		distribution	eng	<em>Monarcha takatsukasae</em> is endemic to Tinian in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to U.S.A.)</strong>. It has also been reported as a breeding bird in the <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, but there is no recent evidence of its occurrence  there.  <p></p>
106006119		habitat	eng	It inhabits all types of forest, including introduced tangan-tangan <em>Leucaena leucoephala</em> thickets. Although it appears to be adaptable to recovering forest patches, limestone forest remains crucial<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1995 found over 60% of nests in native tree species with far greater nesting success in remnant native forest, probably due to the greater availability of insects and greater protection from fire and storms<strong></strong>. Although it is assumed to breed year-round, there appears to be distinct seasonality in nesting activity and success, with little nesting occurring during periods of low rainfall (Balis-Larsen and Sutterfield 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006119		population	eng	Extrapolations from density estimates made in 2008 suggest a population of 38,449 individuals (P. Radley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here to account for the uncertainty associated with these extrapolations.<p></p>
106006119		threats	eng	By 1945, native forest had been reduced to 5-7%, owing to development for sugarcane production and the construction of infrastructure to support military activities in Second World War (Balis-Larsen and Sutterfield 1997, Lusk <em>et al.</em> 2000b)<strong></strong>. Most or all remaining native forest is now on rugged limestone slopes (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Typhoons and fire continue to cause damage to remaining forest habitat, and inclement weather is the main cause of nestling mortality (Balis-Larsen and Sutterfield 1997)<strong></strong>. In addition, increased military activities on Tinian are impacting the remaining habitat, as is forest clearance for cattle farming and (possibly) tourism developments (P. Radley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The potential introduction of the exotic brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> from the nearby island of Guam is an increasing concern, especially as development on the island (U.S. Dept. of Defence 2007)<strong></strong> necessitates the importation of large amounts of building materials (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Pox-like lesions were found on some birds during a recent banding study, indicating that avian disease is likely to threaten the species (F. A. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt, </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106006120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (Coates 1990).
106006121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).
106006122		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (Coates 1990).
106006123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006124		distribution	eng	<em>Myiagra freycineti </em>was endemic to <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong>, where it was common until the 1970s<strong> </strong>(Jenkins 1983). However, it plummeted to extinction<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994) in 1983, along with most of the island's native birds<strong> </strong>(Jaffe 1997).  <p></p>
106006124		habitat	eng	It inhabited forest.  <p></p>
106006124		threats	eng	Its rapid decline to extinction was due to the depredations of introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em><strong> </strong>(Savidge 1987).<em> <p></p></em>
106006125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout the larger Palau islands (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006126		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in all habitats (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006127		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006128		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106006128		distribution	eng	<em>Myiagra atra</em> is endemic to Biak-Supiori, Numfor and Rani in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986). Observations from recent visits suggest that it may be fairly common on Biak <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>Gibbs 1993, N. Bostock <em>in litt.</em> 1993, Eastwood 1996a, B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <em> </em><p></p>
106006128		habitat	eng	It is apparently largely confined to the interior hills, inhabiting primary, secondary and logged forest up to c.400 m, but is also occasionally recorded in mangroves <strong></strong>(Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, <strong></strong>Gibbs 1993).   <p></p>
106006128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006128		threats	eng	On Biak and Numfor, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000).   <p></p>
106006129		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Halmahera, moderately common on Obi and Seram and uncommon on Buru (Coates et al. 1997).
106006130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006131		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon on Bougainville and Buka islands and fairly common and more widespread throughout the Solomon Islands (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006132		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research to determine population size and trends. Regularly monitor the populations at certain key sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded forest across an altitudinal gradient. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest on Makira.   <p></p>
106006132		distribution	eng	<em>Myiagra cervinicauda</em> is endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal), including Ugi and Santa Ana in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is not uncommon but is inferred to have a relatively small total population. <em> <p></p></em>
106006132		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest to 700 m and is very uncommon in degraded habitats (Cain and Galbraith 1956, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Hornbuckle 1999, Dutson 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still quite common on mountains.
106006132		threats	eng	Much of the lowlands on Makira have been logged or are under logging concessions.   <p></p>
106006133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite common on New Caledonia and evidently fairly common throughout the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common (Watling 2001).
106006135		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from the proposed conservation areas at Sataoa-Sa`anapu and Uafato on `Upolu (Beichle 1997a, b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends. Conduct surveys to update information on density and distribution (U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify important sites in native forest (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the home-range size to determine the size of forest patches needed for long-term viability (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure the protection of the proposed conservation areas at Sataoa-Sa'anapu and Uafata.   <p></p>
106006135		distribution	eng	<em>Myiagra albiventris</em> is widespread on Savai`i and `Upolu, <strong>Samoa</strong>, where it was considered common (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It underwent a severe decline in the 1990s and became uncommon by the end of the decade (U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, surveys conducted in 2009 suggest that it has since experienced at least a moderate and localised recovery, with 'healthy' populations of 20-30 birds recorded in potential Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and anecdotal observations of birds along roadsides and near habitation (Schuster 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The numbers recently recorded in potential IBAs, however, may not be representative of the species's status overall, owing to the high quality of the habitats at these sites (M. O'Brien<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's population size has not been formally estimated, but it is thought to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (G. Dutson<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006135		habitat	eng	This species is an insectivore found alone or in pairs at all elevations (but predominantly in the lowlands). It prefers shrubby forest with many young trees, and is also reported from cultivated land (U. Beichle <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, forest edge and clearings, along roads (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and in the mid-understorey or subcanopy of relatively mature forest (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Freifeld <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs fairly commonly in degraded and altered habitats, including regenerating forest (G. Dutson<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and near human habitation (Schuster 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is thought to be little exchange between the sub-populations on Savai`i and `Upolu (G. Dutson<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006135		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006135		threats	eng	It was apparently affected by the severe cyclones of 1990 and 1991, when canopy cover was reduced from 100% to 27%<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Elmqvist <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has only recently shown signs of recovery (Schuster 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main threat is now small-scale deforestation for shifting agriculture (G. Dutson<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it is also threatened by the reduction of forest quality owing to the invasion of highly aggressive non-native trees, whose spread is aided by hurricanes (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006136		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not as common as the Vanikoro flycatcher but quite regularly observed in suitable habitats (Watling 2001).
106006137		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common in Australia, generally scarce in Papua New Guinea and locally common to moderately common throughout Wallacea (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106006138		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be commonest in the south of its range (especially Tasmania) and scarce in the north (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006139		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106006140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106006141		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Britain and New Ireland (and the smaller islands of New Hanover, Mussau and Djaul) in Papua New Guinea.
106006141		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and tall secondary evergreen forest to 1,500 m (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, Coates 1990, Clay 1994, K.D. Bishop in litt. 1996, G. Dutson in litt. 1999, Hornbuckle 1999a).
106006141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably not uncommon locally (Coates 1990).
106006141		threats	eng	Most lowland forest within the species range has been logged or is under logging concessions but this is not the case at higher altitudes.
106006142		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected under Fijian law. On Vanua Levu, a Silktail reserve has been proposed (Lees 1989, Thorpe<em> et al.</em> 1990, J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, it has not been gazetted and parts of it are being converted to mahogany plantation (D. Watling<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Taveuni, it occurs in the established but unmanaged Ravilevu Nature Reserve and in the Bouma National Heritage Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine population size and trends, incorporating training of people from local communities in survey techniques. In the Natewa Peninsula, advocate the cessation of mahogany planting. Implement the existing reserve proposal and raise awareness of the threat to the species within local communities (SPREP 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On Taveuni, initiate management in the Ravilevu Nature Reserve (D. Watling<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006142		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprolia victoriae</em> is endemic to<strong> Fiji</strong>, being common and widespread on Taveuni (nominate <em>victoriae</em>) but highly localised on Vanua Levu (subspecies <em>kleinschmidti</em>), where it is restricted to the Natewa Peninsula and does not occur in remaining apparently suitable habitat in the south-east (J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1973 and 1975, it was readily found in groups of 2-5 (Heather 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1990, a total of 235 birds were located (Thorpe<em> et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. More recently, its population in the Natewa Peninsula was estimated at 3,000-6,000 pairs (J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  On Taveuni, where relatively little forest has been lost, 5,000-8,000 pairs were estimated in 2000 (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.       <p></p>
106006142		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet, mature rainforest, forest pockets, logged forest and (at lower densities) plantations close to intact forest (Thorpe<em> et al.</em> 1990, J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small arthropods and worms in the leaf-litter and insects in the lower canopy (Clunie 1984)<strong></strong>. On Vanua Levu, it occupies similar feeding zones to those of Fiji Shrikebill <em>Clytorhynchus vitiensis</em>, this overlap resulting in the larger <em>C. vitiensis</em> displacing the smaller <em>L. victoriae</em> and perhaps contributing to its rarity whilst, on Taveuni, it mainly occupies the undergrowth, thus reducing competition with <em>C. vitiensis </em>(Langham 1989)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006142		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 16,000-28,000 individuals in total, roughly equating to 11,000-19,000 mature individuals (J. S. Kretzschmar <I>in litt.</I> 2000).
106006142		threats	eng	On Vanua Levu, the Natewa Peninsula is already extensively logged and habitat continues to be lost due to logging, clearance for agriculture and conversion of logged forest to exotic plantations (Thorpe<em> et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Exploitation of existing mature mahogany plantations is a further risk (J. S. Kretzschmar<em> in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the rate of conversion of old-growth native forest to mahogany plantations has slowed significantly, with the rate of forest loss estimated to have returned to the underlying rate of 0.5-0.8 % per annum (Claasen 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it has nevertheless been estimated that c.100-130 km<sup>2</sup> of the existing range could be lost within the next 10 years (J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Taveuni, there was some logging during the 1990s and forest continues to be cleared for agriculture, albeit slowly (Watling 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.      <p></p>
106006143		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Coates 1990).
106006144		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990).
106006145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common (Morcombe 2000)
106006146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce (Coates 1990).
106006147		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in northern India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006149		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys in areas within and surrounding the species's range to measure rates of population decline or range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106006149		distribution	eng	<em>Aegithina viridissima</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, where it occurs from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally fairly common to common within this range. <em> </em><p></p>
106006149		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangroves and primary, tall secondary and logged forests, up to 825 m.  <p></p>
106006149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in areas of continuous forest canopy (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006149		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of logged and secondary forests.  <p></p>
106006150		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon and only locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006153		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006155		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006156		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006157		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006159		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally uncommon.
106006161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon in North Africa and uncommon to locally common in the rest of Africa (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally uncommon in the north of its range to fairly common in the south (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006165		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the nominate race is described as generally uncommon and the other three races are rare (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006167		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It may occur within the Quicama National Park (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements. Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest-cover and identify potential areas of suitable habitat for surveying. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106006167		distribution	eng	<em>Laniarius brauni</em> is known from the northern escarpment zone of <strong>Angola</strong>, from two sites in Cuanza Norte and from Quicama, Bengo Province where it occurs at Dondo, just outside the national park boundary (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species was first collected at Quiculungo in 1939, with subsequent specimens collected at Canzele in 1954 and 1957, Camabatela in 1955 and Bolongongo in 1957 (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In January 2005, three pairs were recorded near Uige town, Uige Province (Sinclair <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is considered rare at all known sites (Dean 2001, W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, though it may be locally common (Sinclair 2005, Sinclair <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006167		habitat	eng	It inhabits the undergrowth of secondary and gallery forest (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been observed in the canopy of degraded forest (Sinclair 2005, Sinclair <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006167		population	eng	The population is estimated at 498-996 individuals (1-2 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 498 km<sup>2</sup> [10% EOO]), i.e. within the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. 2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> is the lowest of nine estimates for seven congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, but this species is considered rare at all known sites, so 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> may be more appropriate.
106006167		threats	eng	Deforestation on the escarpment has proceeded steadily in recent decades (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the coffee plantations of the area have been neglected in recent years and it is possible the species has benefited from this (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat destruction, through increases in slash-and-burn cultivation and removal of timber trees, could be a major problem (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the species occurs in degraded and disturbed forest, which is not thought to be threatened (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006168		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area of 50 km<sup>2</sup> was recommended for the area in the early 1970s (Dean 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but this has not been established, and the possibility of protecting any habitat for the species by c.2017 is judged to be very uncertain (M. Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution and population size. Study the species's habitat requirements. Designate protected areas to safeguard suitable habitat. Implement a conservation strategy for the Angolan escarpment in reaction to the resumption of commercial activities (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Promote ecotourism as a viable supplement to agriculture (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Preserve Kumbira Forest through official protection and community-based conservation (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006168		distribution	eng	<em>Laniarius amboimensis</em> was formerly known only from a restricted area around Gabela on the escarpment zone of <strong>Angola</strong> (Dean 2000); however, surveys conducted in 2005 have extended its known range (Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. After 1960 there were no records until single pairs were found twice in three days in September 1992, in mixed-species flocks. In 2003, it was found to be common in thickets in secondary forest and primary forest at Kumbira, and heard in forest near the Sumbe-Gabela road (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In January 2004, the species was recorded in Kumbira Forest and by a nearby road (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>. During surveys conducted in 2005, it was recorded c.30 km north of Gabela and as far south Gungo (Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. There is also a specimen at Lubango Museum from Egito, Benguella (Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. The species is judged to be uncommon, and its population is estimated to include fewer than 1,000 mature individuals; however, this may be overly conservative and further surveys are required.<br/><p></p>
106006168		habitat	eng	It is found in the undergrowth of drier evergreen forest above 730 m, and shows some tolerance of habitat modification, having been recorded in overgrown coffee plantations (Mills 2010) and secondary thicket with dense understorey and lower canopy vegetation (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005, Mills 2010).  <p></p>
106006168		population	eng	The population is estimated at 350-980 individuals (2.5-7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 140 km<sup>2</sup> [45% EOO]), i.e. within the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. Density range is up to the lower quartile of nine estimates for seven congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet.
106006168		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss through the encroachment of subsistence and slash-and-burn agriculture (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005, Mills 2010), which has been estimated to possibly affect 30% of forest in the Kumbira area (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>. In some areas, 20-70% of canopy trees and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes (Dean 2001)<strong></strong>. The removal of the all understorey vegetation renders habitat completely unsuitable for the species (Mills 2010). In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy has been removed to plant cassava and maize (Dean 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The cultivation of manioc and maize is now very prevalent within the species's range (F. Olmos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Since the 1930s, shaded coffee plantations have been developed in the forests of the escarpment (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>. With the return of peace, commercial activities on the Angolan escarpment (such as coffee growing) (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong> are expected to resume (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The marketing of local produce is currently limited by the poor state of the Sumbe-Gabela road (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. However, this is a priority for reconstruction, which would contribute to increased development and agriculture in the area (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Most of Kumbira Forest was selectively logged before the civil war (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong> and, although there is no evidence of on-going logging, the forest continues to be a source of firewood (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Current activities such as selective logging and shaded coffee-gowing may not seriously threaten the species, as it is tolerant of fairly degraded habitats (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004, Mills 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006170		distribution	eng	This species is a bird of the Sudan-Guinea savanna and degraded farm bush to the north-west of the West African forest zone in Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone (Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993).
106006170		habitat	eng	In northern Sierra Leone the species is common in well wooded savanna but also occurs in grassland savanna where there are scattered trees remaining, and even occurs in gardens in urban areas (P. Robertson in litt. 1998). It can apparently withstand a good deal of habitat modification.
106006170		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, and the species's abundance varies greatly across Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common, although rare or over-looked in Liberia (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally fairly common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006177		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor threats to wetlands occupied by the species. Protect suitable habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106006177		distribution	eng	<em>Laniarius mufumbiri</em> has a local distribution in north-eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, eastern <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong> and western <strong>Kenya</strong>. Within its range it is restricted to papyrus swamps (up to 1,600 m), where it is locally common in Kenya (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and abundant in eastern Rwanda (Vande weghe 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species population has been estimated to be approximately 2,000,000 adults (Maclean 2004).   <p></p>
106006177		habitat	eng	The species is confined to papyrus <em>Cyperus papyrus</em> swamps and beds, in meandering river valleys and along lake-shores (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on ants, beetles, weevils, small flies, Hymenopterans, catepillars, snails and fruit (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006177		population	eng	A recent estimate puts the total population at c.2 million adults, roughly equivalent to 3 million individuals in total.
106006177		threats	eng	This species may not be immediately threatened, but its highly specialised habitat requirements make it susceptible to threats such as drainage, burning and over-exploitation of wetlands.   <p></p>
106006178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006180		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to rare, although possibly not uncommon in west Africa since it is easily over-looked (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006184		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
106006185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006186		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent and locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified; the species is described as widespread but local, and uncommon to frequent.
106006190		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is an ongoing conservation and development project at Mt Kupe. Forest in the southern sector of Banyang Mbo is relatively intact and protected due to its inaccessability, and the wildlife sanctuary there is the focus of a major conservation programme (R. Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other areas where the species could occur. Conduct research to confirm the altitudinal range and status of the species in the Bakossi mountains (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary to establish the species's status there (R. Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Conduct surveys to clarify the species's ecological requirements<strong> </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c). Investigate the species's feeding ecology and territory size through colour-ringing studies<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Dowsett-Lemaire 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106006190		distribution	eng	<em>Telophorus kupeensis</em> was thought to be endemic to the small forest (c.21 km<sup>2</sup>) on Mt Kupe, western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where only seven pairs were known to be present, but has now been discovered at two additional localities. The first includes two sites in the Bakossi Mountains: one near Kodmin<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>N. Borrow <em>in litt.</em> 2002) and the other near Lake Edib, where the area of suitable habitat is about eight times that on Mt Kupe (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d). The second locality is the southern sector of the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, where a single bird was seen in May 1999 (R. Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. If the altitudinal range and status of the species near Lake Edib are similar to the situation on Mt Kupe, the population in central Bakossi could be in the order of c.50 pairs (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d). In 1999, the species was not located during surveys on nearby Mt Nlonako, north Bakossi Mountains, or on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba<strong> </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c, Fotso <em>et al.</em> 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Dowsett-Lemaire 2004), nor was it located on Mt Manenguba during surveys in March 2000 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000b, Dowsett-Lemaire 2004)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. <p></p>
106006190		habitat	eng	It is found in primary forest and, on Mt Kupe, has only been observed in areas where the understorey is relatively open. Its altitudinal range is 950-1,450&#160;m on Mt Kupe, 1,000-1,250&#160;m near Lake Edib (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000b,&#160;Faucher 1998)<strong><sup> </sup></strong> and the single dead individual found at Kodmin was at 1,485 m<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>N. Borrow <em>in litt.</em> 2002). It feeds on insects.  <p></p>
106006190		population	eng	If the altitudinal range and status of the species near Lake Edib are similar to those on Mt Kupe, the population in central Bakossi could be c.50 pairs, thus the population is best placed in the range 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106006190		threats	eng	On Mt Kupe, forest is being cleared for farmland, particularly on the south, south-west and east slopes, in some areas up to 1,500&#160;m (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt. </em>1999) and up to 1,100-1,200&#160;m on the northern slopes (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d). Forest is still open to logging concessions in the Bakossi Mountains (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d) and a road was under construction which would open the area up to small-scale logging activities (C. Bowden <em>in litt</em>. 2003). Plans for a 70,000 ha palm oil plantation threaten to significantly  fragment large areas of suitable habitat in the southwestern Cameroon  if approved (Linder <em>et al.</em> 2011).  <p></p>
106006191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006193		population	eng	The population size of this taxon has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106006194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006195		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded in several protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat which has protected area status.  <p></p>
106006195		distribution	eng	<em>Malaconotus lagdeni</em> has a disjunct distribution in West and Central Africa, from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong> and <strong>Togo</strong> in the west and <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong> and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) in Central Africa (Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The type specimen was collected from forest near Kumasi in Ghana in the 1884, but following this there were no confirmed sight records in the country during the 20th century (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In February 2005, two birds were located in the proposed Kyabobo National Park, on the border with Togo in eastern Ghana (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Togo, there is a sight record on the Pagala to Ghana road in 1990 (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Sierra Leone it is rare, in Liberia it has been estimated there may be over 6,000 pairs (Gatter 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while in Côte d'Ivoire it is rare in Taï National Park (M. Gartshore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and scarce in Yapo Forest (Demey and Fishpool 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda, it is very rare, but is more common in the drier forests of Gishwati to the north and in Bwindi Forest in Uganda (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the eastern DRC it occurs in montane forest from 1,400-3,300 m where it is quite rare (Lippens and Wille 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006195		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the middle strata and canopy of evergreen rainforest, in lowland areas in West Africa and montane areas in Central Africa (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Rift Valley mountains it is found up to 2,500 m (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two birds recorded in the proposed Kyabobo National Park in 2005 were in semi-evergreen rainforest at 300-500 m (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is most numerous in undisturbed forest, but nevertheless occurs in lightly and sometimes heavily logged forest (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages by gleaning branches for invertebrates and also takes small vertebrates, including frogs, lizards and birds. The only nest seen well was a bowl of dry leaves and bracken, 3.5 m above the ground in the forks of a small tree. Its clutch-size may be two. The species's breeding season is unclear, but observations from across its range suggest breeding activity from July to January, at least (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006195		population	eng	In Liberia, the population is estimated to number c.6,000 pairs, roughly equivalent to 18,000 individuals. Conservatively, this is taken to constitute 25-49% of the species's range, so a very preliminary estimate of the overall population size is 36,000-72,000 individuals. It is precautionarily placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
106006195		threats	eng	It it expected that the species is affected by commercial logging operations in the Upper Guinea region (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in particular, and clearance for agriculture and subsistence-level timber harvesting across its range. In the Upper Guinea region logging operations attract settlers, who in turn increase the threat of forest encroachment for small-holder cultivation (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006196		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Mount Cameroon National Park was created in December 2009, covering c.58,000 ha (WWF 2010). In the Bakossi Mountains, forests are still waiting to be classified, probably partly as forest reserves (open to timber concessions) and partly as protected areas (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong></strong>. On the Obudu Plateau, a small patch of forest has been established as a reserve and it is hoped to extend protection to other forest areas on the plateau (P.&#160;Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. In Cameroon, conserve montane forest sites through legal protection or community forestry (F.&#160;Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In Nigeria, protect additional areas of forest on the Obudu Plateau (P.&#160;Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006196		distribution	eng	<em>Malaconotus gladiator</em> occurs at low densities in western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (Mt Cameroon, Rumpi Hills, Bakossi Mountains, southern slopes of Mt Manenguba [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Mt Kupe, Mt Nlonako, Mt Oku, and at four further localities in the Bamenda-Banso Highlands [Njabo and Languy 2000]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Obudu Plateau). The species must be on the verge of extinction on Mt Oku, as there is almost no forest remaining within its altitudinal range (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is uncommon on Mt Nlonako and has not been found in the north Bakossi Mountains or the highlands of Banyang Mbo, despite searches (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c, R.&#160;Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, in 1998, it was found to be locally common in central Bakossi Mountains, with six territories located in &lt;1&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and this is undoubtedly the most important site for the species (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1999 and 2000, it was found on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba, where it was also fairly common (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006196		habitat	eng	This insectivorous species is found in montane forest, both primary and old secondary forest, favouring the edge of natural clearings or gaps (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and forest/grassland mosaic from 950 to 2,300 m. Altitudes vary with locality, for example, in the Bakossi Mountains it is found down to at least 1,100 m, whilst on Mt Manenguba it is mainly found between 1,500 and 2,200 m (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000b)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006196		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006196		threats	eng	There is already considerable loss of habitat in the Bamenda Highlands, where remaining forest is severely threatened by clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood collection and extraction of timber, whilst forest loss on the Obudu Plateau continues at an alarming rate (P.&#160;Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Plans for a 70,000 ha palm oil plantation threaten to significantly  fragment large areas of suitable habitat in the southwestern Cameroon if  approved (Linder <em>et al.</em> 2011).  <p></p>
106006197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006198		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys in Angola to determine the distribution of the species and to better assess how threatened it is and to recommend suitable sites for nature reserves, and conduct surveys to confirm the species's occurrence on Mt Kupe and its continued existence on Mt Cameroon (E. M. O'Kah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation in its range. Protect areas of suitable habitat.<br/><p></p>
106006198		distribution	eng	<em>Malaconotus monteiri</em> is known only from a small number of records from a few sites on the escarpment zone of <strong>Angola</strong> (although surveys in 2005 found it to be more widespread than previously thought, with records from eight of the 13 sites visited, ranging from Dande River in the north, to Canjala [Egito] in the south [Mills and Dean 2007, Mills 2010]<strong></strong>) and <strong>Cameroon</strong> (including a 19th century specimen from Mt Cameroon). The acquisition of adequate information on this species has been hampered by difficulties in distinguishing it from the very similar Grey-headed Bush-shrike <em>M. blanchoti</em> (Mills 2010). Records from Mt Moco, Quipeio and Chitau are thought to relate to <em>M. blanchoti</em>, and recent records from Cameroon are perhaps best considered unconfirmed (Mills 2010). In 1992, it was not found during survey work on the Angolan scarp, but a single bird believed to be <em>M. monteiro</em> was seen on Mt Kupe, Cameroon. It may occur in Reserva do Ambriz, north of Luanda, Angola, but no bird lists are available from there (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Surveys are needed to confirm its occurrence on Mt Kupe and its continued existence on Mt Cameroon (E. M. O'Kah <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106006198		habitat	eng	It occurs in drier forest above and below the main scarp, but not in the moister forest on the main scarp, and appears to be locally fairly common (Mills 2010). It shows some tolerance of habitat modification and transitional habitats, having been recorded in forest under-planted with coffee, moist secondary growth, coffee plantations, thickets and riverine forest (P. Vaz Pinto <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106006198		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106006198		threats	eng	Considerable forest loss was noted to have occurred during survey work on the Angolan scarp in 1992 and the loss of habitat to subsistence agriculture is continuing; at Gabela 20-70% of canopy trees in places and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy is being removed to plant cassava and maize (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. During a visit to the species's range in 2008, it was found that large areas of overgrown shade coffee plantations and secondary growth in Kumbira Forest and around Seles were being converted to manioc, banana and maize cultivation by subsistence farmers (F. Olmos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <p></p>
106006199		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The population stronghold of this species is in the Uluguru Nature Reserve. Boundaries have been marked and planted around most of this reserve (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Conservation action in the Ulugurus focuses on assisting local initiatives and increasing the involvement of local communities in forest management (Buckley and Matilya 1998)<strong></strong>. The Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania, using funding provided by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, confirmed the species's presence in a section of the reserve previously known as Uluguru South and is involved in follow-up work (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme, the Species Guardian Jasson John is leading the implementation of the following actions (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>: surveys in the area previously known as the Uluguru South Forest Reserve have been carried out and will provide a more precise understanding of the species's total population size; monitoring of preferred habitat continues in the area formerly designated as Uluguru North Forest Reserve; community sensitisation seminars and workshops have been conducted in order to raise awareness and address illegal activities taking place in the region. Habitat restoration, involving the development of a nursery and planting of indigenous trees, has been carried out in collaboration with the Forest and Bee-keeping Division (FBD), Tanzania's forest protection authority, and its coverage of local communities was due to be expanded (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Forest patrols are carried out by village environmental committees to assess, monitor and control the illegal harvesting of forest products and other potential threats (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2010) These patrols are due to be intensified with the aid of additional equipment, whilst the apparent involvement of some community members with criminals has necessitated surprise patrols, the results of which will be assessed (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Publish existing population estimates from 2000 and 2006 and thereafter monitor population status. Increase efforts to reduce firewood collection and timber harvesting within the reserve (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Plant new forest below 1,500 m (this would also be beneficial for watershed management). Estimate the number of individuals within the area previously known as Uluguru South. <p></p>
106006199		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Malaconotus alius</em> occurs only in the Uluguru Mountains, <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Its core habitat is within the newly formed Uluguru Nature Reserve (previously split into the Uluguru North, Uluguru South and Bunduki Forest Reserves) and an adjacent unprotected forest area, however this may now have lost most of its habitat. In 1999-2000, a census estimated a population of 1,200 pairs (Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2001); repeat surveys in 2006 and 2007 found that the population had not changed in numbers significantly (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2007), but located the species in the southern end of the Ulugurus, extending the known range (J. John unpubl. data).<p></p>
106006199		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy <strong></strong> of moist submontane and montane forest, seeming to prefer areas where precipitation is highest and the forest least disturbed, but has also been found in degraded forest at the edge of forest reserves or where mature and tall trees still remain<strong></strong>. Its core habitat is probably the submontane and lowest montane zone (1,200-1,800 m)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Svendsen and Hansen 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2001, J. John <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). It probably forages alone and in pairs, possibly joining mixed-species flocks (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>, feeding on large arthropods (Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong></strong>. Nothing is known of its breeding ecology (Baker and Baker 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006199		population	eng	A survey in 1999-2000 estimated the population at 1,200 pairs or 2,400 mature individuals, and repeat surveys in 2006 and 2007 found that it had not changed significantly (J. John <em>in litt.</em> 2007). This total roughly equates to 3,600 individuals in total.
106006199		threats	eng	In the Ulugurus, much of the terrain on the main mountain is on steep slopes (Baker and Baker 2001)<strong></strong>, which was believed to be slowing deforestation. However, forest area declined from 300 km<sup>2</sup> in 1955 to 230 km<sup>2</sup> in 2001 (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, caused by clearance of forest outside the Uluguru Nature Reserve for farms by an expanding human population on the lower slopes, . Most of this clearance occurred between 600 and 1,600 m, largely in submontane forest (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, the preferred habitat of <em>M. alius</em>. The remaining forest is mainly within the Uluguru Nature Reserve, which is managed for the catchment of rivers that provide water for the 3.5 million people of Dar-es-Salaam. Despite the importance of the reserve, slow but continuous loss and degradation of habitat remains a threat (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. This consists mainly of cutting for firewood and some timber, leading to loss of tree cover and consequent increases of thicket tangles and invasive brambles (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Threats identified by local forest patrols include fires that spread from nearby farmland, tree-cutting for poles and construction material, but also timber extraction by local people reportedly employed covertly by larger operations, firewood collection and collection of medicinal plants (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2010, 2011). <p></p>
106006200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006201		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its range is peripheral to most protected areas, but the buffer zones of the Masai Mara National Park (Kenya), which are currently managed in a similar way to the main reserve, should contain this species. It also occurs in Lake Nakuru National Park (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Serengeti National Park (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, at least. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out range-wide surveys to obtain information on its overall distribution and population size (L. Bennun <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Survey the population around Lake Naivasha as soon as possible, to assess its distribution and numbers (L. Bennun <em>in litt. </em>1999, D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <strong></strong> Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor the extent of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.   <p></p>
106006201		distribution	eng	<em>Prionops poliolophus</em> occurs in a restricted area of south-west <strong>Kenya</strong> and adjacent areas of northern <strong>Tanzania</strong> (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999). One study, in one of the best-watched areas of Kenya, indicated that it was genuinely scarce, and that it might have an extremely large foraging range when not breeding (Bennun 1994)<strong></strong>. However, other reports indicate that it is quite common in the extreme north of the Serengeti National Park, and that the Rift Valley population is both large and widespread (D. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006201		habitat	eng	It occupies open woodland with <em>Acacia dephanolobium</em> and <em>Tarconanthus</em>, riparian woodland with <em>A. xanthophloea</em>, <em>A. abyssinica</em> and <em>Protea</em> and wooded grassland and bushland, at 1,200-2,200 m (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. It is a social, gregarious species, occurring in focks of up to 12. It is a cooperative breeder, with all members of a group, including juveniles, helping with breeding activities (Malaki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The nest is cup-shaped and made of grass and spiders' webs. The species is largely sedentary, but following breeding some foraging parties move north-east in the Rift Valley from the presumed Mara-Narok breeding area to Lake Nakuru National Park, Longonot, Naivasha and Menengai Crater and remain there during October-February (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. In a study at Lake Naivasha sixteen nests were found between September-December and were exclusively placed in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. xanthophloea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. camphoratus</span> (Malaki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.<br/><p></p>
106006201		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally scarce.
106006201		threats	eng	Increasing densities of livestock and cultivation of marginal land are degrading the species's habitat (L. Bennun <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Two groups of birds observed in Lake Nakuru National Park in 2008 appeared to contain hybrids with White-crested Helmet-shrike <span style="font-style: italic;">P. plumatus</span>, suggesting that hybridisation may potentially represent a new or previously unnoticed threat (N. Borrow <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008). <br/><p></p>
106006202		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the Itombwe Mountains there are projects run by WWF, WCS and ARCOS (Albertine Rift Conservation Society) (A. Plumptre <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These organisations are working with ICCN (Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature)<em> </em>to delimit the boundary of a newly created community reserve (A. Plumptre <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. ARCOS has initiated youth education in the area and has facilitated training in biodiversity assessment and monitoring techniques for a local team in Eastern DRC (http://www.wcmc.org.uk/arcos/bb1.html#ALBERTINE)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size, utilising the recent recordings of the species's calls. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends, as long as the region is safe enough. Continue to monitor the clearance of forest within the species's range. Facilitate conservation initiatives in Itombwe, in collaboration with traditional authorities to limit further degradation (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997, Omari <em>et al.</em> 1999, http://www.wcmc.org.uk/arcos/bb1.html#ALBERTINE)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate habitat management and environmental education through the Albertine Rift Conservation Society. <p></p>
106006202		distribution	eng	<em>Prionops alberti</em> is known from four mountain ranges (west of Lake Edward, west of Lake Kivu, Itombwe, and Misotshi-Kabogo, formerly Mt Kabobo [Plumptre <em>et al</em>. 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) in the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, a record from Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest in Uganda being rejected. Surveys in southern and central Itombwe in 1996 recorded the species on multiple occasions west of the central savanna plateau, but it is apparently absent from similar habitat to the east (Omari <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006202		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane forest above 1,400 m, being recorded between 1,700 m and 1,900 m in Itombwe in flocks of 5-8 birds (Omari <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and between 1,770 m and 2,474 m in the Misotshi-Kabogo and Muganja Hills area in flocks of 3-8 birds (Plumptre <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006202		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006202		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest clearance for smallholder agriculture throughout its range. This is a serious threat in Itombwe where human population densities are high and a blight has reduced yields of maize since the early 1990s, forcing farmers to clear new farms in the forest (Omari <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All these problems are exacerbated by domestic and neighbouring civil unrest and large numbers of refugees in the area (http://www.wcmc.org.uk/arcos/bb1.html#ALBERTINE)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for cattle pasture is also a threat in Itombwe, particularly at higher altitudes (Omari <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite image data suggest that the Itombwe region has lost at least 5-6% of its forest since 1980 (Plumptre <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; the true figure may be much higher. <p></p>
106006203		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006205		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006206		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within the Kissama National Park (M. Mills <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A protected area of 50 km<sup>2</sup>, recommended for the area in the early 1970s, has not been established (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements. Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and identify potential areas of suitable habitat for surveying. Implement a conservation strategy for the Angolan escarpment and surrounding area in reaction to the resumption of commercial activities (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote ecotourism as a viable supplement to agriculture (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006206		distribution	eng	<em>Prionops gabela</em> was previously known only from a small area near Gabela, to the south of Mumbondo, on the escarpment of <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is uncommon (Dean 2000)<strong></strong>. There had been no records since the mid-1970s, until 2003, when one group of eight birds was recorded in open woodland between Kumbira and Seles at the foot of the escarpment (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. It was noted that this habitat is widespread, especially at lower elevations (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In 2005, 10 groups were recorded in the Kissama, Bimbe and Bango areas, at around 300 m, in a narrow belt of dry forest below the main escarpment (M. Mills <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Mills and Dean in prep., Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006206		habitat	eng	It is found in the canopy of forest (including forest underplanted with coffee), and is recorded in "dry thicket and cultivation" (Hall 1960)<strong></strong>, gallery forest and thicket sand-forest (Mills and Dean in prep.)<strong></strong>, with all recent records coming from dry forest at around 300 m (M. Mills <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Mills 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006206		population	eng	The population is estimated at 1,856-2,784 birds (4-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 464 km<sup>2</sup> [10% EOO]), so is best placed in band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. Density range is up to the lower quartile of seven estimates for two congeners, and at lower end of range of 122 estimates of 32 species of shrikes and bushshrikes in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet.
106006206		threats	eng	The main threat to the species is charcoal production and clearance for small-scale agriculture, which are driving the clearance of dry forest near the escarpment at a rapid rate, even within Kissama National Park (M. Mills <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. It may also be threatened by activities on the escarpment. Habitat loss to subsistence agriculture possibly affects 30% of forest in the Kumbira area (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>. In some areas, 20-70% of canopy trees and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes (Dean 2001)<strong></strong>. In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy is being removed to plant cassava and maize (Dean 2001)<strong></strong>. Relict coffee plantations, abandoned since the mid-1970s after the onset of civil war (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>, are now being encroached by subsistence agriculture (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. With the return of peace, commercial activities on the Angolan escarpment (such as coffee growing) (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong> are expected to resume (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, including the likely replacement of shade-grown coffee with sun-tolerant varieties (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The marketing of local produce is currently limited by the poor state of the Sumbe-Gabela road (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. However, this is a priority for reconstruction, which would contribute to increased development and agriculture in the area (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006207		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106006208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).
106006209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006210		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the eastern rainforests of Madagascar.
106006210		habitat	eng	The species occurs in primary and adjacent secondary forests. It is common in suitable habitat between sea level and about 1,500 m and is usually seen singly or in pairs. It often joins mixed species flocks in the upper strata and canopy where it fly-catches for insects.
106006210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as patchily distributed and does not occur in great densities (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006210		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat destruction resulting from clearance for subsistence cultivation and commercial logging (Morris and Hawkins 1998, ZICOMA 1999).
106006211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).
106006218		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Niger (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not well known, although probably fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006224		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006225		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Monte Alen National Park (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Dzangha-Ndoki National Park (<strong></strong>P. Christy <em>per </em>F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, at least. A large block of forest at Minkébé, north of Makokou, has recently been proposed as a protected area (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain further estimates of density, and thus a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status.  <p></p>
106006225		distribution	eng	<em>Batis minima</em> is found in <strong>Gabon</strong> where it is known from the provinces of l'Estuaire (western Monts de Cristal), Ogooué-Ivindo (Makokou, Bélinga, Minkébé) and Ngounié (Mbigou) (P. Christy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong> where it occurs in the lowland Dja area, continental <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong> where there are recent records from Monte Alen National Park and Monte Mitra (now included in the Monte Alen National Park) (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it has recently been discovered in Dzangha-Ndoki National Park in the extreme south of the <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, representing quite a range extension to the east (P. Christy <em>per </em>F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its density in Makokou forest is 1.0-1.5 pairs per km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(Brosset and Erard 1986). The species would appear to be rare, but it may prove to be more widespread in Gabon (it is difficult to locate and has possibly been confused with West African Batis <em>B. occulta</em>)<strong> </strong>(P. Christy <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <p></p>
106006225		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland forested areas mainly below 800 m, but not primary forest except within 500 m of the edge (Brosset and Erard 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In north-east Gabon, it favours secondary forest with a dense low understorey and a dense discontinuous canopy, also inhabiting old, uncleared cocoa and coffee plantations where the tree layers are beginning to disappear (Brosset and Erard 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It avoids open cultivated land even with scattered trees (Brosset and Erard 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on arthropods, mainly beetles, but also Hymenoptera and spiders (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is monogamous and territorial, having been observed to defend a territory of 18-21 ha all year. Egg-laying in Gabon probably takes place in September-February. Young birds may stay with their parents almost until the following breeding season (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as  rare and local in Cameroon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006225		threats	eng	Forest is being cleared within the species's small range. The causes of deforestation are presumed to be encroachment for small-scale cultivation and small-scale logging for timber.  <p></p>
106006226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Ituri Region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and fairly common in the Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006227		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).
106006229		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon, although its status is poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006231		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Local communities are actively engaged in conserving the montane forest, with support from the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project. More sustainable farming techniques are being used to take pressure off the remaining forest. The condition of the Kilum-Ijim forest and its endemic birds is monitored, as well as the overall extent of forest cover in the Bamenda Highlands. Community-based conservation activities were extended to other forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands in 2000 (J. DeMarco <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Following changes to conservation projects in this region over recent years, forest patrols by local people stopped in areas such as Oku (F. Maisels <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct more intensive surveys at Kilum-Ijim to ascertain population numbers of the species (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998c, F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Take measures to prevent forest fires (F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect as many as possible of the remaining forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands (J. DeMarco <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop strategies for restoring larger blocks of natural forest and connecting corridors (J. DeMarco <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006231		distribution	eng	<em>Platysteira laticincta</em> is restricted to the Bamenda Highlands of western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and is only likely to survive if the Kilum-Ijim forest, the largest remaining forest area in the region, is preserved (D. Thomas <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research in 1994-1995 found the species in most remaining forest or forest remnants in the Bamenda Highlands and seemingly able to persist in very small forest fragments (&lt;1 km<sup>2</sup>) (McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, in 1999 and 2000, follow-up surveys found some of these forest fragments had almost completely disappeared, with <em>P. laticincta </em>either absent or only a few pairs remaining (Njabo and Languy 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Preliminary research in 1994 estimated the Kilum-Ijim population at 3,000 birds (McKay 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006231		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forest, dominated by species such as <em>Podocarpus</em>, <em>Schefflera</em> and <em>Prunus</em>, where it inhabits thick forest understorey and seems to favour streams or dry stream courses (McKay 1994, McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong></strong>. Below 1,800&#160;m it is replaced by its congener the Scarlet-spectacled Wattle-eye <em>P. cyanea</em><strong></strong> (McKay and Coulthard 1996). It breeds in the early dry season, January-March (McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong></strong>, with nest-building starting in November (F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106006231		population	eng	Preliminary research in 1994 estimated the Kilum-Ijim population at 3,000 birds, however the species is also found in most of the remaining forest in the Bamenda Highlands, putting the population somewhere in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006231		threats	eng	It is under very serious threat from forest clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood and timber, with birds surviving in forest fragments in imminent danger of extinction (McKay and Coulthard 1996)<strong></strong>. In 2002, it was observed that <em>Podocarpus</em> trees had been felled at Oku and intensive grazing was taking place on montane grasslands (F. Maisels <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Forest fires in the dry season are the most serious threat, particularly as the species inhabits thick undergrowth and nests close to the ground (F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. In March 2000, c.500 ha of forest were burnt around Lake Oku (J. DeMarco <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Uncontrolled burning takes place as a result of fires for forest clearance, cooking fires in the forest, people tending hives, and discarded cigarettes. Plans for a 70,000 ha palm oil plantation threaten to significantly fragment large areas of suitable habitat in the southwestern Cameroon if approved (Linder <em>et al.</em> 2011).  <br/><p></p>
106006232		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Search for the species in Congo and DRC. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Designate areas of important habitat as protected areas. <p></p>
106006232		distribution	eng	<em>Platysteira albifrons </em>is endemic to (and locally common in) <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is found from the mouth of the Congo River in the Zaïre province south along the coastal plain to Benguela, and also from Cuanza Norte and Cuanza Sul Provinces (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It possibly occurs in Congo and southern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (e.g. Kwango River; records from Ngombe Lutete unconfirmed) (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006232		habitat	eng	It is found in dry thicket in woodland, gallery forest and at the edges of mangrove forest and is common in <em>Croton</em> thickets on the plateau in Quiçama National Park (Dean 2000)<strong></strong>. In a recent survey of central scarp forests it was only found in drier habitats above the main scarp and in the dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Adansonia</span>-dominated forests and thickets on flatter areas below the scarp at c.250-300 m (Mills 2010). It feeds on small arthropods by foliage-gleaning (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. The species is monogamous and territorial, but nothing else is known of its breeding behaviour (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. Juveniles have been observed in November (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and occurring sparsely within its large range.
106006232		threats	eng	Mangrove forest around Luanda is being exploited for building timber by people in informal settlements (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and some forest areas in its range are being cleared for subsistence agriculture (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006237		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common and common on Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006241		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on hunting and logging within such protected areas. Determine its habitat association and generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Calculate population trends by mapping forest cover and rates of loss using remote sensing of satellite imagery. <p></p>
106006241		distribution	eng	<em>Philentoma velata</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>; peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>; Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong> (very scarce). <p></p>
106006241		habitat	eng	It inhabits broadleaf evergreen lowland and lower montane primary and secondary forest, as well as mixed deciduous forest, transitional forest and established <em>Albizia</em> plantations. It occurs up to 800 m in Java, 1,500 m elsewhere and 1,650 m in the Kelabit Highlands, northern Borneo. It feeds in pairs or small family groups in the middle and upper canopy, gleaning insects and sallying after them on short flights. It breeds in March-June.  <p></p>
106006241		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce or locally common.
106006241		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), but the species's use of submontane forests implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106006242		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (Harris and Franklin 2,000), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).
106006244		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in primary western deciduous forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the nominate race is described as commonest in Western Madagascar and race cetera is common in spiny forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common at Ifaty (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006248		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Both Ankarafantsika and Analamera are protected areas (Strict Reserve and Special Reserve respectively), but their long-term future is not certain (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct population estimates in different habitats in Ankarafantsika and Analamera. Evaluate extent of habitat loss within key habitats due to human occupation and uncontrolled bushfires. Put measures in place to ensure the long-term protection of Ankarafantsika Strict Reserve and Analamera Special Reserve. Grant protected status to other sites that are found to be occupied by the species.  <p></p>
106006248		distribution	eng	<em>Xenopirostris damii</em> is currently known from only two sites (Ankarafantsika and Analamera) in north-west <strong>Madagascar</strong>. However, there is much suitable habitat between the two sites that has not been thoroughly surveyed (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is considered the island's rarest and most threatened vanga (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006248		habitat	eng	The species is found at low altitude only in, or adjacent to, undisturbed, dry, deciduous forest (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it forages for invertebrates in dead wood and leaf clumps (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, often joining other vangas (particularly Rufous Vanga <em>Schetba rufa</em>) and other insectivores in mixed-species flocks (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season starts in October and extends until January at least (Morris and Hawkins 1998, Mizuta <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch size at 3-4 is large for a <em>Xenopirostris </em>vanga, with other congeners having two (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding pairs occupy widely separated, non-contiguous home ranges of 5-8 ha (Mizuta <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting approximate densities of 4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>.  <p></p>
106006248		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 2,272 individuals, thus it may lie at the lower end of the range 2,500-9,999 individuals. This range equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. Mizuta <I>et al.</I> (2001) estimate territories of 5-8 ha, non-contiguous separated by c.200m, thus giving a 100m extra buffer around each territory. Hence an 8 ha territory takes up 24 ha. This is equivalent to 4 pairs/km<SUP>2</SUP>, or 8 indivs/km<SUP>2</SUP>. Habitat area: 20% of 1420 km<SUP>2</SUP> = 284 km<SUP>2</SUP>. Total Population: 8 x 284 km<SUP>2</SUP> = 2272 indivs. This estimate may be an optimistic minimum because the Jardin Botanique study site of Mizuta <I>et al.</I> (2001) is likely to have been chosen for ease of study.
106006248		threats	eng	The species's habitat is declining in both extent and quality, due to the clearing and burning of forest for subsistence maize cultivation, uncontrolled bushfires, commercial logging and exploitation for charcoal and firewood (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006249		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No direct conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Protect important areas of habitat for the species. <p></p>
106006249		distribution	eng	<em>Xenopirostris polleni</em> is patchily distributed in primary humid evergreen forest throughout eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It is fairly common between Andohahela and Ranomafana, from sea-level to 1,950 m, but seems to be much scarcer in the northern half of its range (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1997, Hawkins and Goodman 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106006249		habitat	eng	This species occupies the middle and upper levels of undisturbed rainforest (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It often joins other large vangas in mixed-species flocks, foraging for invertebrates (e.g. caterpillars, insects and spiders) on dead wood, especially under dead bark and in twigs (Langrand 1990, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting has been observed in October-December, and its clutch-size is two eggs.  <p></p>
106006249		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered locally common to scarce.
106006249		threats	eng	The species's forest habitat is threatened by slash-and-burn cultivation for subsistence farming (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and commercial logging (A. F. A. Hawkins <em>in litt. </em>1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If present trends continue, much of the remaining forest, especially at lower altitudes, will disappear within decades (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in or near forests in western Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006253		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006254		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is known from Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Betampona Strict Reserve, Bezavona Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Mangerivola Special Reserve, Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park and Zahamena National Park (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The three National Parks are particularly important for this species as they still contain significant areas of suitable habitat (Thorstrom and Watson 1997, ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Verify presence in lowland forests around Vondrozo and further south, including Midongy-South National Park. Conduct surveys in order to assess the population size. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, continue to carry out surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor the clearance and degradation of forest within the species's range. Improve awareness of conservation and the implications of widespread forest loss among local people.  <p></p>
106006254		distribution	eng	<em>Oriolia bernieri</em> is known from many sites between Marojejy in the north and Zahamena in the centre-east of <strong>Madagascar</strong> (although there is a single, as yet unconfirmed, record from Vondrozo). It is scarce and patchily distributed throughout its range. <p></p>
106006254		habitat	eng	This species is restricted to undisturbed, primary tracts of humid evergreen forest. Studies in 1988 in Marojejy found it to be remarkably localised, but fairly common in the south-west area of the reserve (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found either in isolated pairs or in mixed-species flocks made up principally of vangas (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages by searching the leaves, and rooting around in the leaf-bases, of pandanus <em>Pandanus</em>, ravenala <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> and palms, also levering rotten bark and moss off large tree-branches with its wedge-like bill, in search of large invertebrates, e.g. beetles, crickets and spiders (Langrand 1990, Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006254		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006254		threats	eng	The principal threat to primary, lowland rainforest is posed by subsistence slash-and-burn cultivation, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest (Jenkins 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population (Jenkins 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest (especially at lower altitudes) will disappear within decades (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006255		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is known from the following protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Betampona Strict Reserve, Bezavona Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park, Tsaratanana Strict Reserve and Zahamena National Park (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in order to assess its population size. Compare population data from protected and unprotected habitat (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Compare population trends in protected and unprotected habitat (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation. Determine its home-range size and its dispersal capability across deforested areas, in order to clarify the impact of forest fragmentation on its population structure. Improve awareness of conservation and the implications of widespread forest loss among local people. <p></p>
106006255		distribution	eng	<em>Euryceros prevostii</em> is restricted to the northern part of the humid evergreen forests of eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from Tsaratanana south to Mantadia in the centre-east (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is only known from primary forest, generally below 800&#160;m, where it is uncommon (Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and patchy in distribution.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006255		habitat	eng	It is a bird of primary, mainly lowland rainforest, occupying the middle stratum in areas with large trees (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, often occurring in mixed-species groups with other vangas (Vangidae) (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on large insects and other invertebrates, sally-gleaning from branches and trunks as well as from the ground (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106006255		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006255		threats	eng	Low-altitude forest in Madagascar is a critically threatened habitat, largely due to clearance for shifting agriculture but also owing to commercial exploitation of timber (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's inability to survive outside this habitat puts it at risk. <p></p>
106006256		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Further clarify the taxonomic validity of the species. Carry out further surveys in the Eminiminy area. <p></p>
106006256		distribution	eng	<em>Hypositta perdita</em> was discovered and named on the basis of two specimens collected in primary forest and grassland in 1931 near Eminiminy, a village north of Taolañaro (Fort Dauphin) next to (but outside) Andohahela National Park in south-east <strong>Madagascar</strong> (Peters 1996). No information is available on the taxon's appearance and behaviour in the field, although it is considered most similar to Nuthatch Vanga <em>H. corallirostris</em>, a tree-climber of humid evergreen forest (Peters 1996)<strong></strong>. A faunal inventory of Andohahela in 1995, which included forest near Eminiminy, found only <em>H. corallirostris</em><strong></strong> (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1997b, Hawkins and Goodman 1999). It is possible that since 1931 <em>perdita</em> may have become extinct (Peters 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, although forest survives at Eminiminy (R. J. Safford <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. In any case, the taxonomic validity of this form needs to be further evaluated, especially as the type-specimens are both recently fledged juveniles (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>, and for this reason the taxon is treated as Data Deficient. If it proves to be a valid species, it can be inferred to have a tiny population and range, and thus should be treated as Critical.<em> <p></p></em>
106006256		habitat	eng	From its morphology, it would appear that <em>perdita</em> was not ground-living and was probably confined to trees and scrub, but was seemingly not specialised in climbing (Peters 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is therefore probable that this taxon and <em>H. corallirostris</em> were ecologically separate and may have co-existed (Peters 1996, Hawkins and Goodman 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006256		population	eng	This species is only known from two specimens and as such no population estimates are available.
106006256		threats	eng	The principal threat to the forests of this region is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers. <p></p>
106006257		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106006258		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of the remaining habitat is protected and almost all key subpopulations are managed for the control of <em>R. rattus</em> and <em>T. vulpecula</em>. Recent research shows that "pulsing" poison bait delivery (at least three managed years every 10) is likely to be the most effective way of dealing with the predator threat once managed populations have reached a certain size (Bassé <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Birds have been introduced to four islands (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Young females have also been introduced to two managed remnant male/predominantly male populations on the mainland (I. A. Flux <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and several new populations (in areas of their previous range) have been established through translocation of adults to sites at which predators are controlled. Two small captive populations are held (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Populations are encouraged to stay in protected areas using playback of their calls, attracting individuals to key areas (Anon. 2008). Genetic research has been undertaken to ensure sufficient genetic diversity in each subpopulation (Bain 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve the understanding of the Te Urewera population, and modify management developed in smaller forest blocks, to assist large-scale protection and enhancement. Develop sustainable long-term management practices by research and mathematical modeling, and implement them. Reintroduce birds to newly-managed forest areas (I. A. Flux <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006258		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The last confirmed sightings of the South Island subspecies <em>cinereus</em> were in 1967 (Clout and Hay 1981); it is now considered extinct<strong></strong>, with recent reports not deemed to be credible (Bain 2009). The North Island subspecies <em>wilsoni</em> was formerly common throughout the island's forests, but now only survives in the Hunua Ranges, Mataraua, Kaharoa, Rotoehu, Pureora and Mapara forests, and Te Urewera National Park (Rasch 1991, Moore and Innes 1996)<strong></strong>. In June 2008, 747 pairs were recorded, giving a total population estimate of 1,650 individuals (Anon. 2008). Populations are increasing in areas of intensive conservation work including the establishment of translocated populations at Secretary Island and Omaio/East Cape (J. Innes <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>, but continue to decline elsewhere, with those at most unmanaged sites now extinct. Observed rates of decline have been as high as 50% in three years in some areas (I. A. Flux <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Innes <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Subpopulations are entirely isolated by fragmentation (I. A. Flux <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. This species is entirely conservation-dependent, each population requiring on-going annual pest-management until at least 25 breeding pairs are present, followed by at least three years of management every 10 years to maintain population growth. Although the population is now increasing thanks to the intensive management conducted for the species, the number of locations where it is found continues to decline as unmanaged populations disappear, and over the past three generations the global population has certainly shown a very rapid decline. <p></p>
106006258		habitat	eng	The species prefers lowland, tall podocarp/hardwood forests with a high diversity of plant species. It is rarely found in modified forests, including selectively logged forests (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. Its diet varies seasonally. It prefers fruit, but also eats leaves, invertebrates, buds, flowers and nectar (Powlesland 1987)<strong></strong>. Shrub hardwoods are a particularly important food source (Rasch 1991). It breeds mainly from October to March, usually laying three eggs (Heather and Robertson 1997, Bain 2008)<strong></strong>. In years of high food availability, pairs will raise several clutches. The average age of parents at Mapara is 6.3 years, but this may be an underestimate of the global average as the population is young owing to intensive management (I. A. Flux <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006258		population	eng	In 2008 the global population contained 769 breeding pairs (J. Innes <i>in litt.</i> 2009). The number of mature individuals is higher, but the population has a surplus of adult males, thus the effective population size is lower. It is estimated here to number at least 1,000 mature individuals, equivalent to 1,500 individuals in total.
106006258		threats	eng	The historical decline was due to large-scale habitat destruction, fragmentation and the introduction of predators and competitors. Predation of eggs and chicks by black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> and brush-tailed possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> is the main cause of nest failure, whereas deaths to nesting adult females were caused by stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em><strong> </strong>(Flux <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006). These introduced predators are currently the primary threat to the species. At Mapara Wildlife Management Reserve, just 8% of nesting attempts successfully fledged young in the absence of predator control, versus 61% when predators were intensively trapped (Flux <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <em>T. vulpecula</em> also competes for many preferred food items, and introduced goats and deer destroy favoured understorey food-plants (Innes <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Historical forest destruction for logging has also been important,  especially as the species is thought to require fairly large tracts of  forest. These two threats were largely contemporaneous and so their  relative importance is not completely clear (Rasch 1991).<p></p>
106006259		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Intensive management of surviving populations has helped this species to recover and its range has increased in recent years through reintroduction. Predator and weed control and exclusion at mainland sites has helped the species, and island eradications have also been an important component in the recovery to date (Roberts 1994). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue predator control at mainland sites to facilitate further introductions. Monitor potential threats including any evidence of reduced fitness as a result of low genetic diversity. Continue to survey the population size at known localities (Roberts 1994). Drain concrete-based reservoirs on Long Island and replace with alternative water source, to prevent the breeding of disease-carrying mosquitoes. Monitor the Long Island population closely to track the spread of malaria (Hale 2008). Continue to promote conservation of this species and garner public support (Roberts 1994).<br/><p></p>
106006259		distribution	eng	<em>Philesturnus carunculatus</em> was once widespread over the North and South Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and some offshore islands, but by the early 1900s, was extinct on the mainland. The North Island subspecies <em>rufusater</em> survived only on Hen Island, and the South Island subspecies <em>carunculatus</em> was reduced to three islets off Stewart Island (Merton 1975, Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1964, <em>rufusater</em> has been introduced successfully to surrounding islands, and its population now numbers over 6,000 birds on 12 islands, with the capacity to increase to over 19,000 birds (Hooson and Jamieson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1964, <em>carunculatus</em> has been established on 15 islands (Hooson and Jamieson 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the three original "donor" island populations have become extinct. The population has increased to over 1,200 birds, with the capacity to increase to 2,500 birds (Hooson and Jamieson 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In June 2002, 39 <em>rufusater</em> were released into the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary, a 250 ha patch of native forest surrounded by a predator-proof fence on the New Zealand mainland (Hooson and Jamieson 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plans are also underway to release <em>carunculatus</em> into the Rotoiti Nature Recovery area, an intensively managed and pest-controlled beech forest in the Nelson district (Hooson and Jamieson 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006259		habitat	eng	It inhabits native forest, nesting in tree holes, rock crevices, tree-fern crowns and dense epiphytes, usually close to the ground. Whilst it also occurs in replanted forest, it is thought that mortality is higher in this habitat (Brunton and Stamp 2007). It forages in leaf litter and deadwood, predominantly on invertebrates, but will also take fruits and nectar (Taylor and Jamieson 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> It is not a strong flier and bounds between branches or along the ground rather than taking long flights. It usually raises one brood in October-January but will nest up to four times at recently colonised sites where resources are not limiting. <p></p>
106006259		population	eng	Hooson and Jamieson (2003). <p></p>
106006259		threats	eng	Introduced carnivorous mammals probably caused its extinction on the mainland. The arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> on the three Stewart Island islets in 1963 caused the rapid extinction of the populations. Both subspecies are unable to coexist with brown rat <em>R. norvegicus</em>, and <em>carunculatus</em> cannot coexist with Pacific rat <em>R. exulans</em><strong></strong> (Lovegrove 1996). The accidental introduction of such species to further islands is an ever-present threat. Fire is also a threat, particularly with the combination of resident people, peat soil and windy conditions on some islands (Roberts 1994). Avian malaria and avian pox have been identified in individuals on Long Island, although at present they appear restricted to this population; both could pose a major threat if the diseases spread (Hale 2008).<br/><p></p>
106006260		distribution	eng	<em>Heteralocha acutirostris </em>was endemic to the southern portion of the North Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It was intensively studied by Buller in the second half of the 19th century<strong> </strong>(Phillipps 1963), and is known from numerous specimens<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), but declined to extinction around the turn of the century with the last confirmed record being in 1907<strong> </strong>(Myers 1923).  <p></p>
106006260		habitat	eng	It appears to have required large tracts of primary, native forest.  <p></p>
106006260		threats	eng	The cause of its extinction is unclear but it was probably primarily due to habitat loss, especially of dead trees on which they depended for extracting beetle larvae<strong> </strong>(Burton 1974), possibly along with hunting and disease<strong> </strong>(Myers 1923). <p></p>
106006263		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Following the rediscovery of the species in Ghana by museum collectors from the U.S.A. in March 2003 (Marks <em>et al.</em> 2004, Anon. 2006), the Ghana Wildlife Society has begun to determine the status of the species in the country (R. Dowsett<em> in litt.</em> 2005, Anon. 2006, A. Asamoah<em> in litt</em>. 2007) and efforts are underway to protect the species in the reserves where it has been located (Marks <em>et al.</em> 2004). Some important nesting sites have been identified, and monitoring of the population and breeding activity at an active nesting area in Adansi South district is being carried out (A. Asamoah<em> in litt</em>. 2007). A <em>Picathartes</em> working group has recently been formed, to promote research and conservation action (H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999). An international action plan for the species was published in 2004, following an international stakeholder workshop, with the aim to stabalise or increase its populations at its strongholds in all range states within five years (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). A one-year programme to initiate population monitoring, recruitment and training of wardens (resulting in the establishment of a wardening system around all known colonies) and awareness-raising activities has been carried out in the Western Area Peninsula Forest, Sierra Leone (H. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Anon. 2008), <em>Picathartes</em> are protected (on paper) by national law in some states (e.g. Ghana, Sierra Leone, Cameroon) (Thompson and Fotso 2000), but enforcement is minimal (Thompson 2004b, R. Fotso and E. Owusu <em>per</em> Thompson 2004b). Although a high proportion of the populations in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire occur in nominally protected areas, the population of Liberia occurs almost wholly in unprotected habitat (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). An ongoing conservation programme is working towards the upgrading of Gola Forest to a national park (H. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 2007). A memorandum of understanding has been signed by the Liberian government to significantly increase the size of the country's protected area system (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is protected by local religious beliefs in some areas (Thompson and Fotso 1995).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Undertake surveys to estimate population sizes (Holbech 1996, Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004) and distribution particularly in mountains of western Cote d'Ivoire, which may have many small colonies in remaining unlogged forest reserves (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007). In Ghana a PhD field study has determined the spatial distribution of the species (Asamoah 2011) and other actions are on the way to determine the full extent of distribution and population size and trend.&#160; There are also plans to work with local communities to secure major nesting areas. Conduct long-term monitoring of breeding success at strongholds and study the factors that affect this (Thompson 1997, Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Improve breeding success at selected strongholds by mitigating against limiting factors (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Monitor and assess the impact of human-related activities on the species and its sites (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Assess the legal status of human activities threatening sites and enforce the law where appropriate (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Develop and implement management plans for the species's strongholds (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Determine the area around the species's sites required to ensure survival and lobby for legal protection (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Employ wardens at key sites (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Incorporate the species's international action plan into national conservation strategies (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Protect large breeding colonies, where feasible, through agreements/collaboration with local people. Incorporate the species into management plans and exclude logging from the immediate vicinity of active nesting sites (Asamoah 2011). Conduct genetic studies using samples from different subpopulations to assess effective population size and degree of inbreeding. Raise awareness of the species amongst all stakeholders, especially local communities (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). Expand the potential for ecotourism based around this charismatic species (Thompson and Fotso 2000), taking care to minimise disturbance at the most easily accessible sites (Salewski <em>et al</em>. 2000). Develop sustainable income-generating activities near strongholds (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004).
106006263		distribution	eng	<p><em>Picathartes gymnocephalus</em> is known from <strong>Guinea</strong> (six sites; population probably declining [Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004]), <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (18 sites), <strong>Liberia</strong> (six sites; population probably declining [Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004]; most records in northern highlands [Gatter 1997]), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (six sites; population likely to be declining [Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004] as forest is being cleared and logged in areas which have not been surveyed [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]), and <strong>Ghana </strong>(many records into the 1960s, then none confirmed [H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999] until 2003 [Marks <em>et al.</em> 2004], and now known from seven sites; population has probably rapidly declined in last 30 years [Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004, A. Asamoah <em>in litt. </em>2012]). It was thought to be extinct in Ghana until one was trapped at Subim Forest Reserve (Anon. 2006) in the Brong-Ahafo Region. Follow-up surveys in the Subim and adjoining Ayum and Bonsam Bepo forest reserves located 13 active nests and two individuals (Anon. 2006). Further investigations have since located seven major nesting areas within the high forest zone (Asamoah 2011). In Sierra Leone, numbers are estimated at c.1,400, with populations in forest reserves close to the minimum for long-term viability, and surveys of the Western Area Peninsula Forest indicating a decline of 20% in the number of nests between 1997-2007 (Anon 2008). In Liberia, the minimum population is estimated at 1,000 pairs (Gatter 1997). The global population in the Upper Guinea forest is almost certainly far fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, and this is supported by estimates for range states provided by various sources (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p><p></p>
106006263		habitat	eng	<p>It is found in lowland primary and secondary forest, forest clearings, and gallery forest (Thompson 1997, 1998, L. D. C. Fishpool <em>in litt.</em> 1999) mainly in rocky, hilly terrain (up to 800 m on Mt Nimba) (Gatter 1997, Thompson 1998) but has survived at highly degraded sites (Salewski <em>et al</em>. 2000) and close to urban centres (Thompson and Fotso 2000), perhaps indicating a fairly high tolerance of disturbance (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is found in the proximity of flowing streams and rivers, where wet mud may be gathered for nest construction (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). A study of the ecology and distribution of the species in Ghana indicated that it uses fresh earthworm mounds to construct its nest (Asamoah 2011). It is known from montane forests in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds mainly on invertebrates, usually singly and largely within one metre of the forest floor (Thompson and Fotso 1995). They frequently follow army ant columns (Thompson 1998) to capture flushed prey (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). They take beetles, termites, ants and grasshoppers, as well as earthworms, spiders and vertebrates such as frogs and lizards (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is some evidence that vertebrates in the diet during the breeding season may be fed largely to nestlings (Thompson 1997). It breeds in colonies of up to 40 pairs (although the majority consist of only 2-5, and many nests stand alone [Thompson 2004b]), on rock-faces, cliffs, cave roofs and walls and infrequently in large, fallen hollow trees (Thompson and Fotso 1995, Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1996b, Gatter 1997, Thompson 1998); rocky sites are the most common, however. In lowland forest breeding follows rainfall and maybe be once or twice yearly as a result (Thompson and Fotso 2000). The species appears to be monogamous (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004). The nest is a cup-shaped mud construction in which dried leaves, fibres and twigs are embedded (Thompson 2004b). In Sierra Leone, egg-laying occurs from early June until late December, and chicks occupy nests from August to January (Thompson 2004a, b) Egg-laying in Ghana starts from early March and continues through to mid-December (Asamoah 2011). Clutch size is one or two and breeding success is low (Thompson 1997). In Sierra Leone, the most common clutch size was found to be two, with incubation lasting for 17-23 days and the fledging period lasting for 23-29 days (Thompson 2004b). Nest mortality was caused by predation and infanticide by other adults, and breeding success was only 0.44 chicks fledged per pair. Natural nest predators probably include cobras <em>Naja</em> species, monitor lizards <em>Varanus niloticus</em>, forest sun squirrels <em>Heliosciurus</em>, raptors and colobine monkeys <em>Procolobus</em> species. The low breeding success of the populations studied in Sierra Leone suggest that they are in decline, that is unless adult survival exceeds 90% and the species is very long-lived (Thompson 2004b).&#160; </span></p>  <p></p>
106006263		population	eng	The total population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 individuals. This figure is supported by estimates for range states provided by various sources. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006263		threats	eng	It is threatened throughout its range primarily by commercial logging for timber. Most sites identified in Ghana are in productive forest reserves, where commercial logging takes place periodically (Owusu and Asamoah 2008, Asamoah 2011)<strong></strong>. In Ghana, the species is also threatened by bush-burning and conversion of degraded forests to plantations (Asamoah 2011)<strong></strong>. Many nesting areas in Ghana, especially those outside protected areas, have been destroyed through clearance for agriculture and bush-burning (Asamoah 2011)<strong></strong>. In this country it may also be threatened by mining for gold, manganese and bauxite (<strong></strong>Holbech 1996, Asamoah 2011)<strong></strong>. In Sierra Leone, abandonment of colonies has been associated with habitat degradation (Thompson 1997)<strong></strong> and low breeding success at some sites is associated with human disturbance (Thompson 1998)<strong></strong>. Small populations near urban centres in Sierra Leone are very seriously threatened by conversion to farmland (Thompson and Fotso 2000)<strong></strong>. Logging and other forms of forest clearance may threaten presently unknown sites for the species, particularly in the mountains of western Côte d'Ivoire and south-eastern Guinea (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Nest-predation and competition from conspecifics (e.g. for limited nest-sites) (Thompson 1997)<strong></strong> are other factors. Some opportunistic trapping with noose traps and wire snares may occur e.g. for zoo-collecting (R. Fotso <em>per</em> M. Gartshore <em>in litt.</em> 1999, H. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>). In Sierra Leone, children have recently been observed taking eggs (Thompson 2004b)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006264		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. It is fully protected by national law in Cameroon, but although it cannot be killed, it may be captured and held in captivity under special licence (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Enforcement of this law, however, is minimal (Thompson 2004,<strong></strong> R. Fotso and E. Owusu <em>per</em> Thompson 2004)<strong></strong>. The Cameroon Biodiversity Conservation Society has been preparing a National Important Bird Areas Conservation Strategy, which should include a monitoring plan for globally threatened bird species. Following an international stakeholder workshop, an international action plan for the species was published in 2006, with a five-year plan to stabilise or increase current populations at key sites (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey one or more known areas to establish baseline population density (H. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 2000), and conduct more extensive surveys in south-east Nigeria (Ash 1991). The low density and often rugged habitat preferred by <em>P. oreas</em> makes traditional sampling methods (such as using line transects to estimate nest site density) ineffective and novel methods need to be developed, such as using camera trap arrays (R. Whytock <em>in litt.</em> 2012). Carry out annual monitoring of previously surveyed sites following the acquisition of baseline data and provide training for potential surveyors (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Study genetics using samples from different subpopulations to assess effective population size and degree of inbreeding. Obtain distribution and trend data for the species's populations throughout its range (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Provide better protection and management at key sites (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Assess the impact of human activities on the species and reduce the threat of stress caused by human presence and activities (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Reinforce local capacity for the study of the species (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Increase the awareness of tourists, researchers and investors about their impacts on the species, <strong></strong>develop an environmental education programme centred on the species and raise awareness amongst stakeholders of its importance (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Train local guides to minimise disturbance to the species (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006). Restrict access to sites through the use of legislation (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>, and establish safe viewing regimes at suitable sites to promote ecotourism as an alternative income-generating activity (Awa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).   <p></p>
106006264		distribution	eng	<em>Picathartes oreas</em> occurs in <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Cross River State, c.1,000 and probably declining), western and southern <strong>Cameroon </strong>(localised, fewer than 4,000 and probably declining)<strong></strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong> (fewer than 1,000 and stable)<strong></strong>, and south-west Bioko and continental <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong> (fewer than 500 and stable) (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. A sighting of this species at Mayombe Forest  in <strong>Congo</strong> in December 1994 was recently published (Mamonekene and Bokandza-Paco 2006)<strong></strong>, and the species is expected to be resident in the north-western tip of the country (potentially a few hundred) (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. It has recently been found on the Boumba river, south-eastern Cameroon, but it is not as yet known from the intervening area, and in 2009 six nests were found c.140 km to the east near Bayanga in the Dzanga Sangha Reserve, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Central African Republic</span> (Cassidy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. In March 2000, it was discovered on Mt Doudou in south-west Gabon, which represented a considerable southern range extension (P. Christy <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, until the publication of the record from Congo in 1994, which now stands as the southernmost record (Mamonekene and Bokandza-Paco 2006)<strong></strong>. The species was studied in the Old Oyo National Park, Nigeria (Adeyemo and Ayodele 2005)<strong></strong>, representing a significant extension of its known range in the west. Such range extensions indicate that it is more numerous than once thought (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c)<strong></strong>, however the majority of colonies comprise no more than 10-15 individuals (<strong></strong>R. Fotso <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and the total population is almost certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals (C. Bowden <em>in litt.</em> 1999, R. Fotso <em>in litt</em>. 1999, H. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Most of the species's breeding colonies are isolated and close to the minimum for long-term viability (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys in the north-west part of Mbam Minkom forest, southern Cameroon,  found apparent declines from 40 breeding individuals in 2003, to 20 in  2007 (Awa 2009). Its distribution is highly fragmented owing to its specialised habitat requirements and the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat loss (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006264		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed-canopy, primary rainforest, but may have a greater tolerance for degraded habitat than previously believed (Thompson and Fotso 2000, R. Fotso<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on invertebrates (Brosset and Erard 1986, Adeyemo and Ayodele 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, is a strong follower of ant columns, and also takes small vertebrates, primarily frogs and lizards (Thompson and Fotso 2000, Bian <em>et al. </em>2006, French 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as fruits and flower buds (Adeyemo and Ayodele 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Additionally, it commonly feeds on a variety of invertebrates such as grasshoppers, beetles, weevils, earthworms, slugs and snails (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is recorded at 45-2,100 m in Cameroon (Butynski <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but at 250-900 m on Bioko. It nests in caves and on rock-faces and cliffs (although there is a recent report of a nest in the buttress of a large <em>Piptadeniastrum</em> tree [<strong></strong>Waltert and Mühlenberg 2000, Bian <em>et al. </em>2006]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and appears to have very specific breeding habitat requirements, including overhanging rock to protect the nest from rain, and sheer rock and often a seasonal river below to protect it from predators (<strong></strong>Tye 1987, Dowsett-Lemaire 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been recorded nesting under concrete bridges in Lopé National Park, Gabon (Christy and Maisels 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds colonially where nest-sites are limited (<strong></strong>Tye 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a half-cup of dried mud impregnated with dry grass fibres and dead leaves, in which it lays one to three, but usually two, eggs (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The incubation period is 21-24 days and the fledging period is about 24 days (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Dja Reserve, southern Cameroon, nesting occurs between August and October, with activity peaking in September (French 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, however nesting occurs more widely from March to November in the country, with the peak in August-November (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006264		population	eng	The total population is almost certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals (C. Bowden<I> in litt.</I> 1999, R. Fotso <I>in litt. </I>1999, H. Thompson<I> in litt. </I>2000), and it is thus placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006264		threats	eng	<p>It remains seriously threatened by forest clearance and increasing human disturbance throughout much of its range, and at many sites in Cameroon survives only in poor quality habitat (Thompson and Fotso 1995). Forest clearance takes place for agriculture, largely crop fields and cocoa plantations (T. Awa<em> in litt</em>. 2007, R. Fotso<em> in litt</em>. 2007). In many non-protected areas where the species occurs, in Cameroon for example, disturbance is caused by activities such as logging and slash-and-burn agriculture (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006, Awa <em>et al. </em>2009). In protected areas, encroachment by farmers, hunters and loggers means that these populations are also under threat. In Gabon and Bioko, there is only minimal habitat loss and the species is unlikely to be affected by human activity in the near future, as in these parts of its range it inhabits extremely rugged and inaccessible areas. Adults may be hunted to a limited extent for trade and, on Mt Kupe and the Ebo forest at least, it is often caught in spring-traps set for mammals (Bian <em>et al. </em>2006, R. Fotso<em> in litt</em>. 2007, R. Whytock <em>in litt.</em> 2012). The lack of suitable breeding sites, particularly of suitable rocks, may also partly account for its scarcity. However, work in the Ebo forest, Cameroon has shown that nest site availability may not always be a limiting factor for <em>P. oreas</em> populations (Whytock, unpub. data. 2012). Abandoned nests can remain unused for many years on suitable rock faces and population estimates may be unreliable where densities are are derived from nest counts (R. Whytock <em>in litt.</em> 2012). In addition, cannibalism and predation probably contribute to low breeding success (Brosset and Erard 1986, Bian <em>et al. </em>2006). For example, low nests in Korup are known to be destroyed by chimpanzees <em>Pan troglodytes</em> and drills <em>Papio leucophaeus </em>(Bian <em>et al. </em>2006). Disturbance resulting from human visits to breeding sites, especially by birdwatchers within the growing ecotourism sector, is becoming a major concern and it can lead to disproportionate effects on breeding success if safe viewing regimes are not put in place (T. Awa<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Awa <em>et al. </em>2009).</p><p></p>
106006265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006266		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006270		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.3,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006271		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed in Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations and therefore EU import levels are monitored.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor levels of international trade in this species. Monitor rates of forest loss on the species's breeding grounds. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements throughout the annual cycle. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against logging and development.  <p></p>
106006271		distribution	eng	<em>Bombycilla japonica</em> breeds only in the far east of <strong>Russia</strong>, where it has been found nesting in eastern Yakutia, Khabarovsk and Amur (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally uncommon, but locally common on the breeding grounds, and its total population may be moderately small. It is a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is uncommon and sporadic, <strong>North </strong>and <strong>South Korea</strong>, where it is irregular and uncommon, mainland <strong>China</strong>, where it is uncommon in the north and rare in the south, and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China).   <p></p>
106006271		habitat	eng	It breeds in forested areas (favouring conifers), requiring fruiting trees to meet its dietary requirements. In winter, it occurs in deciduous and mixed forest but also more open habitats including parks and gardens if fruit trees are present. Also feeds on insects while breeding. The species breeds late in the boreal summer, laying eggs in June-July. It undertakes a relatively short migration, appearing to move in response to variable fruit crops. <p></p>
106006271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006271		threats	eng	It has presumably been affected by the logging and development of its forest habitat, particularly on the breeding grounds. Since 1998, 5,390 wild individuals have been imported into EU countries alone, the majority exported from China (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, a level of trade that might be a significant threat to the species.  <p></p>
106006273		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cinclus cinclus</span> is patchily distributed across Eurasia, occurring in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.K.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Belgium</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Luxembourg</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liechtenstein</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Austria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kosovo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Morocco</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tunisia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Armenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Azerbaijan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Georgia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iran</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Iraq</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lebanon</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Syria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kazakhstan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uzbekistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kyrgyzstan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkmenistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tajikistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Afghanistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mongolia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bhutan</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">olympicus</span>, formerly endemic to Cyprus, became extinct in 1945 (Flint and Stewart 1983).
106006273		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 170000-330000 breeding pairs, equating to 510000-990000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1040000-3960000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006274		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common and widespread on suitable watercourses throughout its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while national population estimates include: &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in   China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006276		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006277		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Baritú and Calilegua National Parks and Portrero de Yala Provincial Park, Argentina, and Tariquía National Reserve, Bolivia (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's ecology is being studied in Tarija (Ergueta and Morales 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish a river management system enabling birds to access rivers with high water quality and adjacent alder <em>Alnus</em> areas. Redesign and implement the planned national park in the Nevados del Aconquija to include part of its range. Survey rivers between known localities and Campo de los Alisos National Park, Tucumán (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a public awareness campaign related to land-use and the protection of watersheds. <p></p>
106006277		distribution	eng	<em>Cinclus schulzi</em> occurs on the east Andean slope in south <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Tarija and Chuquisaca) and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Catamarca). It can be quite local, and most subpopulations appear to be very small. Estimates of the Bolivian population vary from up to 500 pairs (Ergueta and Morales 1996) to over 1,000 pairs (Tyler and Tyler 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The latter figure is based on its widespread occurrence on permanent streams near Tarija, and it being locally common south of Narvaez (Tyler and Tyler 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Argentine population has been estimated at no more than 1,000 pairs (Tyler 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006277		habitat	eng	It inhabits rivers and streams 5-15&#160;m in width with relatively stable channels, cascades, waterfalls, mid-river rocks, and rocky cliffs or banks (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b, Tyler and Tyler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds in the alder <em>Alnus acuminata</em> zone at 1,500-2,500&#160;m, descending to larger rivers at c.800&#160;m during frosts (Tyler and Tyler 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been found above and below the <em>Alnus</em> zone, and on streams running through pastureland in Bolivia (S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it may breed (Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998b). Nests have been found in September-January, with territories of 500-1,000&#160;m in length on suitable stretches of river (Tyler and Tyler 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006277		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 3,000-4,000 individuals, roughly equating to 2,000-2,700 mature individuals.
106006277		threats	eng	In Argentina, reservoir construction, hydroelectric and irrigation schemes and eutrophication threaten riverine habitats (Tyler and Tyler 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, with pollution, reduced flows and river channel modifications most prevalent at lower altitudes (Tyler and Tyler 1996, S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. If forest is required for breeding, logging, livestock-grazing and subsequent soil erosion are significant problems (Tyler and Tyler 1996, S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The introduction of exotic sport fish (e.g. trout) probably has a negative effect (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, much habitat is protected by its inaccessibility (Ergueta and Morales 1996), and, in Bolivia, these threats have limited effects on few rivers (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006279		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006280		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106006281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Keith et al. 1992).
106006282		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the forests of Madagascar. There are two subspecies: M. s. sharpei occurs in the Sambirano region of the north-west and relict forests of the high plateau (Langrand 1990), whilst M. s. bensoni (formerly considered a separate species) has a relatively broad range in south-central and south-western Madagascar (Langrand and Goodman 1996). Populations are found in numerous protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Ankeniheny Classified Forest, Betampona Natural Reserve, Bezavona Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Kalambatritra Special Reserve, Mangerivola Special Reserve, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Masoala National Park, Mindongy-South National Park, Onive Classified Forest, Ramanofana National Park, Tsaratanana Natural Reserve, Vondrozo Classified Forest, Zahamena National Park, Isalo National Park and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park (Langrand and Goodman 1996, ZICOMA 1999). In 1994 the population density of M. s. sharpei was estimated at 94-216 singing birds per km2 in Ajanaharibe-sud between 1,260 m and 1,950 m (Hawkins et al. 1998), and in 1995 at 38-162 singing birds per km2 in high-altitude forest at Zahamena (Hawkins 1995).
106006282		habitat	eng	M. s. sharpei is found in mid-altitude and montane rainforest where it is fairly common, but it is also found on the edges of forest and in open scrubby areas adjacent to high-mountain forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998, ZICOMA 1999). M. s. bensoni inhabits semi-arid rocky country, e.g. cliffs and gorges (Langrand 1990), with adjacent arborescent vegetation which may be bushy or scant, but which also includes remnant dry deciduous forests in the west of its range (Langrand and Goodman 1996). It appears to be able to re-colonize areas of burned ground and regenerating tree-heath Philippia (Langrand and Goodman 1996).
106006282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common, although restricted to eastern Madagascar(del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006282		threats	eng	Both subspecies are threatened by habitat destruction for commercial logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture, uncontrolled sapphire mining, with concomitant increases in fire frequency, general hunting and disturbance (A. F. A. Hawkins in litt. 2000).
106006284		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant, although limited to a small range within southern Malagasy spiny forest (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in South Africa and Swaziland, although also locally uncommon in South Africa and uncomon in Lesotho (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006286		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common above 1,500 m in South Africa and common above 2,500 m in Lesotho (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006289		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely common in the southern savannahs of Itombweregion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; locally common thorughout the central plateau of Angola and fairly common throughout Zambia and Mozambique (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006290		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100,000-320,000 breeding pairs, equating to 300,000-960,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 612,000-3,840,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006291		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to comon in Ethiopia, very common in Eritrea, locally common in Somalia and uncommon and local in east Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006292		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in northern Pakistan and generally common throughout the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006293		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in North Korea (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006294		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly or locally common (Clement and Hathway 2,000), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106006295		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 120,000-260,000 breeding pairs, equating to 360,000-780,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 735,000-3,120,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and possibly c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006296		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve and Dothalugala Man and Biosphere Reserve (V. Samarawickrama <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to clarify its status and produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research the effects of pesticide pollution on this and other species associated with upland streams. Encourage protection of important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. Provide an alternative source of heating or fuel to reduce pressure on firewood (C. Kaluthota <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Ensure the continuing protection of Dothalugala Man and Biosphere Reserve (V. Samarawickrama <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006296		distribution	eng	<em>Myophonus blighi</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is restricted to the central mountains. It has always been considered scarce and is thought to have a declining, increasingly fragmented population of no more than a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006296		habitat	eng	It is a secretive, ground-dwelling bird confined to dense mountain forests above c.900 m, usually close to streams, especially in ravines and gorges. Breeding is from January until May, and possibly again in September, on rock ledges next to waterfalls or rapids and also in the forks of trees.<p></p>
106006296		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that it is unlikely that it currently numbers more than a few thousand individuals. This estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006296		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of montane forests through conversion to agriculture, firewood collection, particularly around Nuwara Eliya, Maskeliya and Bogowantalawa, and gem mining, which represents a serious threat as activity tends to be concentrated in the species's favoured habitat (C. Kaluthota <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Conversion to timber plantations was a further historical driver, but has now been outlawed. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and are suffering further fragmentation. It has been affected by reductions in food supply because of replacement of natural forests, containing fruiting trees, with monoculture plantations. Run-off from vegetable farms is polluting streams within its range. Forest die-back in the montane region, perhaps as a result of air pollution, is a potential threat. Birdwatchers using tape play-back may adversely affect breeding success at Horton Plains National Park. Human intrusion and nest robbing may also affect breeding success (V. Samarawickrama <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006297		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006299		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in Fraser's Hill Wildlife Reserve and the Malayan Nature Society Boh Tea Estate Centre; however, it is uncertain how strong the protection of habitat is in these areas (Collar 2005)<strong></strong>. The Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary has been degazetted (Yeap <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species in suitable habitat and where there have been previous records. Carry out surveys and monitoring in order to estimate the population size and rate of decline. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Lobby for increased restrictions on tourist developments. <p></p>
106006299		distribution	eng	<em>Myophonus robinsoni</em> is endemic to the highlands of the Main range, central peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, at least historically ranging from the Cameron Highlands south to the Genting Highlands, and probably remaining uncommon to more or less common (Wells 2007). It has been recorded in at least six areas (BirdLife International 2001, Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a, 2010b)<strong></strong>, with post-1980 records from only four of these: Bukit Larut, the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary, Tanah Rata and Fraser's Hill (Collar 2005, Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010b)<strong></strong>. However, identification of the species has been hampered by a previous lack of diagnostic criteria for separating it from the dull southern subspecies of Blue Whistling-thrush <em>M. caeruleus dicrorhynchus<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></em><strong></strong>(Wells 2007, Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a). A recent study of <em>Myophonus</em> species in peninsular Malaysia confirmed that <em>M. c. dicrorhynchus</em> occurs in montane areas, an aspect of its distribution over which there had been some uncertainty and could lead to confusion with <em>M. robinsoni</em><strong> </strong>(Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a, 2010b). The surveys for this study, conducted in 2009-2010, failed to find <em>M. robinsoni</em> in the Cameron Highlands, calling into question the reliability of sight records since the indisputable trapping of the species there in the 1950s and 1960s (Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a)<strong></strong>. It appears that the only site from which the species has been recorded with certainty since 1980 is Fraser's Hill, where the species was recently trapped and sighted (Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a, 2010b)<strong></strong>, but more searches are needed and the species may still be present in the Cameron Highlands (Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010b)<strong></strong>, or even northward from there, where there is suitable habitat for it (Wells 2007). In the absence of sufficient data, the population is presumed to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (Collar 2005), an estimate that recent survey results suggest is realistic (Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a)<strong></strong>; however, further research is required.<br/><p></p>
106006299		habitat	eng	This species is resident in the ground and lower storey of hill and montane evergreen forest, usually near streams, at c.750-1,750 m. It is very shy, occasionally frequenting quiet mountain roadsides at dawn and dusk. It probably feeds on insects (Wells 2007). Nests with eggs (clutch-size 1-2) and young have been found in March and September, described as "massive half-cup" structures, which have been found in roots, ferns and behind waterfalls (Wells 2007, Teo and Wee 2009). <p></p>
106006299		population	eng	The population size has not been formally estimated, but recent surveys by Bakewell <i>et al.</i> (2010a) found no evidence against Collar's (2005) presumption that there are fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006299		threats	eng	There are still extensive areas of intact habitat (Wells 2007)<strong></strong>, with the majority of suitable habitat in the Titiwangsa Range remaining largely undisturbed (D. Bakewell<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. However, the species appears to be threatened by small-scale habitat loss and degradation (Yeap <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a, 2010b)<strong></strong>. Conversion of forest for agriculture around its lower altitudinal limits may be causing some declines (Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a, 2010b)<strong></strong>. Habitat degradation is caused by the sedimentation and pollution of waterways - largely as a result of infrastructure development, pesticide run-off and fly-tipping of waste, as well as tree-felling for construction (largely driven by tourism), the introduction of non-native plant species, the illegal collection and hunting of fauna and flora and the local climatic effects of over-development and vegetation removal (Yeap <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007, Bakewell <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010a, 2010b)<strong></strong>. Plans for a proposed north-south road linking the hill stations of Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Cameron Highlands, which would have caused considerable danger to the species, have now been shelved. <p></p>
106006300		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in the Western Ghats, although less so in the Eastern Ghats (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006301		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but thinly spread (Clement and Hathway 2000), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common and widespread (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006303		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known, although there are a number of protected areas on Sulawesi that may offer protection to its forest habitat. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the impacts of introduced mammals on bird populations and productivity within its range. Use the results to guide appropriate action. If judged appropriate, implement control measures against cats.  <p></p>
106006303		distribution	eng	<em>Geomalia heinrichi</em> is restricted to parts of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is unrecorded in the east peninsula and south Sulawesi. <p></p>
106006303		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary montane forest with dense undergrowth, moss forest and dwarf forest at 1,700-3,400 m. It is an agile and wary species, feeding (typically singly) on arthropods on the forest floor.  <p></p>
106006303		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although apparently locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006303		threats	eng	The number of feral domestic cats observed in Lore Lindu at night in 1999 suggest that declines may have resulted from this predation pressure. Forest loss is unlikely to have had serious impacts yet within its altitudinal range. <p></p>
106006304		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Map forest loss over time within the species's range. Research the species population density and habitat preferences to inform a global population estimate. During fieldwork assess threats to the species and recommend conservation actions appropriately. Protect significant areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106006304		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera schistacea</em> is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands (Larat and Yamdena), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It has been described as generally common, but it is likely to be declining owing to on-going forest loss within its very small range. It is inferred to have a relatively small population owing to the small size of its range. <p></p>
106006304		habitat	eng	It inhabits the undergrowth and subcanopy of lowland forests (primary and secondary), preferring dense vegetation along watercourses. It has also been found in degraded forest on the edge of cultivation. It forages on the forest floor, though it is not as terrestrial as other thrushes of the region and will sit high in the subcanopy and middle storeys if flushed. It is sometimes seen in small groups. It is considered to be more active during the wet season. <p></p>
106006304		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006304		threats	eng	Logging in the south of Yamdena probably represents the most severe threat. <p></p>
106006308		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor domestic trade in songbirds within Indonesia. Raise awareness about the damaging impacts of trade and promote sustainable practices and alternative livelihoods. Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on hunting and logging within such protected areas. Determine its habitat association and generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. <p></p>
106006308		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera dohertyi</em> is restricted to three Endemic Bird Areas (Northern Nusa Tenggara, Sumba, and Timor and Wetar) in <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>.  It is considered generally uncommon to rare, only locally common at higher elevations, and is probably already extinct on Lombok and close to extinction on Sumbawa.  <p></p>
106006308		habitat	eng	It occurs at 400-1,700 m in semi-evergreen, lower montane and montane forest, occurring at highest densities within primary forest. It is usually solitary but may assemble when at a food source. It has been recorded associating with Chestnut-capped Thrush <em>Z. interpres</em>. It is generally less shy and retiring than other <em>Zoothera</em> thrushes in the region. It typically forages on the ground. Juveniles have been recorded from July-September but singing within this period suggests an extended breeding season. <p></p>
106006308		population	eng	Variably common, the species has declined to near (if not total) extinction on Lombok and Sumbawa. The total population is estimated to fall within the band 24,600-47,300 individuals.
106006308		threats	eng	It has been traded in very high volume within Indonesia in recent years because of its voice, and its apparent preference for lower elevation forests on Flores and Sumbawa may render it susceptible to deforestation. Trapping within its range for Chestnut-capped Thrush <em>Z. interpres</em> has been intensive and <em>Z. dohertyi</em> may have suffered "bycatch" as a result. <p></p>
106006309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006310		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and nominal protection is afforded by the national park status of Mts Makiling and Quezon. On Mindoro, it is known from San Vicente, which is targeted for reforestation and rattan plantation by concession holders. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into its seasonal movements. Propose key sites for designation as formal protected areas (e.g. Angat Watershed on Luzon and Puerto Galera on Mindoro). Extend the Sierra Madre Mountains Natural Park to include Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Introduce measures to restrict bird-trapping at Dalton Pass. <p></p>
106006310		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera cinerea</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from north and central Luzon and northern Mindoro. It is considered uncommon overall and was found to be scarce in the Sierra Madre mountains during surveys in the early 1990s. A recent review mapped just 25 locations, of which only 15 involved post-1980 records. At Dalton Pass on Luzon, 130 birds were trapped between 1964 and 1970. It is tolerant of secondary habitats, and is known to be secretive and therefore probably under-recorded, so it could prove to be more abundant than previously thought.  <p></p>
106006310		habitat	eng	It inhabits the floor, in particularly open patches of primary, selectively logged and secondary forests, mainly in the lowlands (e.g. 90-360&#160;m on Mindoro). It has been recorded up to 1,100&#160;m in the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon. The large numbers caught at the Dalton Pass (1,560 m) migration funnel suggest either post-breeding dispersal or regular movement between the Sierra Madre and Cordillera Central, in response to differences in the rainy season.<p></p>
106006310		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006310		threats	eng	Deforestation is the chief threat. In 1988, an estimated 24% of Luzon remained forested. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by c.80% since the 1930s and most remaining areas are under logging concession. Major road building plans pose a further threat. Illegal logging is frequent at Angat Dam and Quezon National Park, two key sites for the species. In 1988, an estimated 8.5% (c.120&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) of Mindoro remained forested, most at too high an altitude for the species. It may also suffer from hunting with snares in the Sierra Madre and illicit bird-trapping at Dalton Pass may exert a considerable pressure. <p></p>
106006311		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor domestic trade in songbirds within Indonesia. Raise awareness about the damaging impacts of trade and promote sustainable practices and alternative livelihoods. Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on hunting and logging within such protected areas. Determine its habitat association and generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. <p></p>
106006311		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera peronii</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it is generally common on Roti and West Timor (race <em>peronii</em>), Timor-Leste, Wetar and Romang, Babar and Damar (race <em>audacis</em>). <p></p>
106006311		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 1,200 m in forest (including monsoon forest). Although it has been found in degraded patches, it appears to favour areas with closed-canopy forest, which are constantly diminishing. It is largely terrestrial and solitary but will aggregate in small numbers if feeding in fruiting trees. Seen in the mid and upper canopies as well as on the ground. <p></p>
106006311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006311		threats	eng	Primary lowland forests are exploited within the species's range and the number of fragments continues to decrease. Heavy trade in <span style="font-style: italic;">Zoothera</span> species in West Timor is likely to be affecting this species, although it appears to be safe from this threat in some parts of its range, such as Wetar (Trainor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<p></p>
106006312		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement and Hathway 2000), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106006313		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in Sabah under the Wildlife Conservation Enactment.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on hunting and logging within such protected areas. Determine its habitat association and generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. <p></p>
106006313		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera everetti</em> is restricted to Borneo, where it is endemic to Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>. It inhabits submontane forest on Mt Kinabalu, Mt Murud, Mt Mulu, Mt Dulit, Mt Trus Madi and the Kelabit uplands, where, despite its highly secretive nature, it may be genuinely rare and declining in some areas with loss of forest at lower altitudes. <p></p>
106006313		habitat	eng	This extremely secretive species inhabits undergrowth and lower levels of trees and vegetation in submontane deciduous forest at 1,200-2,300 m. It forages on invertebrates on the ground, particularly in moist patches and along the edges of streams. A nest has been found in May under dense undergrowth. <p></p>
106006313		population	eng	This species appears to be genuinely rare within a restricted range. Hence, its population is provisionally estiamted to number c.10,000-19,999 individuals, but density estimates are needed to inform a more accurate global population estimate. This estimate equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006313		threats	eng	This species may be suffering from forest loss owing to agricultural encroachment, subsistence logging and forest fires at lower elevations within its restricted range. <p></p>
106006314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006316		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006319		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Protect suitable habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106006319		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera crossleyi</em> is found in south-eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (on the Obudu and Mambilla Plateaux and Gotel Mountains), <strong>Cameroon</strong> (from Mt Cameroon and the Rumpi Hills in the south-west to Mt Tchabal Mbabo on the Adamawa Plateau [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), southern <strong>Congo </strong>and north-east <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Nigeria, it was found to be common at Chappal Waddi in the Gotel Mountains but less numerous elsewhere in 1988 (Ash <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Cameroon, it was quite common to very common in the north Bakossi Mountains in 1998 and on Mt Nlonako in 1999 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and was also discovered on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba in 1999 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and seen again there in 2000 (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106006319		habitat	eng	It inhabits mid-altitude forest, at 1,000-2,300 in Cameroon, 500-600 m in Congo and 960-1,850 m in DRC (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, preferring wetter parts of primary forest, particularly ravines (<strong></strong>Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It feeds mainly on insects and also takes seeds, foraging on the ground in deep cover (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Breeding probably occurs during the rainy season. In Cameroon, the species may undertake altitudinal migrations, but the extent of this is unknown (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006319		threats	eng	The species is susceptible to forest loss within its relatively small and increasingly fragmented range. In DRC, the species's habitat is being encroached by banana plantations (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006321		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species, but it there are protected areas within its range (Gottschalk undated). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor habitat loss and degradation. Protect suitable habitat for the species. <p></p>
106006321		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera oberlaenderi</em> has been recorded in the Ituri Forest, where it is uncommon (Plumptre and Mutungire 1996); the Semliki Valley, and the Itombwe Mts in <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, as well as in the Semliki (Bwamba) and Bwindi (Impenetrable) forests in <strong>Uganda</strong>. It has possibly now been extirpated from parts of Ituri and Semliki, with the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park the only area in Uganda at which the species is known to remain extant (Gottschalk undated).<br/><p></p>
106006321		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland and transitional riparian forest at altitudes of 700-2,000 m where it feeds on insects and slugs on the forest floor (Urban <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1997, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, Gottschalk and Pomeroy 2010, Gottschalk undated)<strong></strong>. At Ituri, the species is apparently restricted to mono-dominant forest, not being recorded from mixed-species or secondary forest (Plumptre and Mutungire 1996)<strong></strong>. It probably breeds during the rainy season and at the end of the dry season (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. A concealed, open-cup nest is constructed from dry grasses, strips of vegetation, and plant fibres (Gottschalk and Ampeire 2008). The species is thought to be mostly sedentary, possibly with local movements (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as known from only five areas from within its small range.
106006321		threats	eng	The species is sensitive to forest alteration (degradation) and deforestation (Plumptre and Mutungire 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which are extensive and ongoing within its range, mainly for cultivation, pasture and timber (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These processes are therefore the main threat, especially at Semliki and Itombwe (Wilson and Catsis 1990, Butynski and Kalina 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006322		distribution	eng	This species is found in western and central Africa, and occurs as three subspecies. The nominate camaronensis is found in southern Cameroon, discontinuously from Korup National Park and the western Bakossi Mountains, Mt Cameroon, and the coastal forests at Efulen, Kribi, Ndian, Campo and Grand Betange; at Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea; and also in north-east Gabon. Subspecies graueri is known from Ituri Forest in north-east Democratic Republic of Congo, and Budongo and Bugoma forests in western Uganda. Subspecies kibalensis is only known from two adult males collected in Kibale forest, south-west Uganda (Clement and Hathway 2000, Fishpool and Evans 2001, Urban et al. 1997).
106006322		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the dense undergrowth of lowland and temperate forest, up to 1,700 m in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Uganda it is known to occur in low herbaceous ground vegetation in pristine mature forests of ironwood and mahogany. Its nest and eggs are unknown, but it probably nests at the end of the dry season and in the long rains (Clement and Hathway 2000, Urban et al. 1997).
106006322		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare to rare and very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006322		threats	eng	Due to its distinct preference for lowland forest, in Cameroon it is threatened by habitat loss, and Kibale forest in Uganda is severely threatened by deforestation. Ituri Forest has also suffered severe deforestation during the last decade of disturbance in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The species is absent from large areas of apparently suitable habitat, and appears to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance (J. Lindsell in litt. 2005).
106006323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare, although locally common in parts of Liberia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006325		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. In KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), 22 provincial nature and forest reserves include suitable habitat (Barnes 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but funding is being reduced and many are no longer patrolled (T. B. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Malawi, all sites are Forest Reserves, but this confers little protection. In Kenya, a project is aiming to conserve wintering habitat at Arabuko-Sokoke Forest through sustainable use. The forest is also protected by the Forests Act, and the management of several other forests in Kenya is subject to a memorandum of understanding between the Kenya Wildlife Service and Forest Department (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.The two breeding sites in Tanzania (Litipo and Rondo Plateau Forest Reserves) are part of a coastal forest conservation programme. In May 2003, a workshop of international experts, comprising 16 participants from NGOs and governments, was held in Watamu, Kenya (Anon. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the workshop an International Conservation Action Plan was developed and an International Spotted Ground Thrush Working Group was set up to coordinate the implementation of the plan. Recommended actions included raising awareness, research and monitoring, and effective management of forest habitats (Anon. 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Discussions covered the importance of involving local communities and other stakeholders adjacent to the species's sites (T. Mbuvi <em>per</em> Anon. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the use of the species's presence as an indication of high forest quality, and the benefit to local communities of ecotourism associated with the species<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which already takes place at some sites (C. Jackson <em>per</em> Anon. 2003, Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Actions proposed for the Blue Swallow <em>Hirundo atrocaerulea</em> may complement those suggested for <em>Z. guttata</em> at sites such as Upemba National Park (DRC) and Mt Mulanje (Malawi) (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study the species's ecology, including habitat requirements, breeding success, population dynamics, migration routes and survival rates (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the species's populations (Anon. 2003, Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Search for the species in areas where it is suspected to occur, such as northern Mozambique, northern Uganda and northeastern DRC: identify all potential sites and rank their importance (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify and protect breeding sites and migration "stepping stones" for <em>Z. g. fisheri</em> in Tanzania and Mozambique. Investigate the current status of its forest habitat in South Africa and improve protection of provincial nature and forest reserves (T. B. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate a campaign in Malawi of land reform and conservation of water resources through the maintenance of remaining forest reserves (M. Dyer <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the current status of the subspecies in Sudan and DRC, when the security situation allows. Study local knowledge of and attitudes towards the species, and raise awareness about it and its threats amongst communities and stakeholders (Anon. 2003, Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement forest management that favours the species (Anon. 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and involve local communities and other stakeholders (T. Mbuvi <em>per</em> Anon. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reduce illegal activities at sites by 20% (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Provide alternative resources and economic activities for local communities in order to alleviate pressure on forests (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage ecotourism associated with the species (C. Jackson <em>per</em> Anon. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Stabilise the population by 2010 (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p>
106006325		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera guttata</em> has a wide but discontinuous distribution (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, with migratory coastal subspecies in <strong>Kenya </strong>and <strong>Tanzania</strong> (<strong></strong>Bennun 1985, Bennun and Njoroge 1999) (<em>fischeri</em>; c.200 pairs and probably decreasing in both countries) (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2008)<strong></strong>, and <strong>South Africa </strong>(Barnes 2000) (<em>guttata</em>; 400-800 pairs and thought to be stable in KwaZulu-Natal) (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, a resident subspecies in <strong>Malawi </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1988)<sup> </sup>(<em>belcheri</em>; 30-40 pairs and thought to be decreasing on Mt Soche, at least) (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong> and two subspecies known from single specimens, in <strong>South Sudan</strong> (<em>maxis</em>) and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (<em>lippensi</em>) (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>Z. g. guttata</em> has been recorded in <strong>Mozambique </strong>(J. Curverwell <em>per</em> Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005, Parker 2005), and <em>fischeri</em> and <em>belcheri</em> are suspected to occur in other parts of this country (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>per</em> Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 2007 it was discovered on Mt Namuli (Ukalini and Manho), where it appears to be very rare (perhaps due to competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. gurneyi</span>)&#160;  and in 2008 song apparently of this species was heard on Mt Mabu, where  the species is also reported to occur by local hunters (Dowsett-Lemaire  2010). It also appears rare on Mabu (although <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. gurneyi </span>is not known to occur there). The estimates provided for some known populations suggest that the world population numbers less than 2,500 individuals.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106006325		habitat	eng	It occurs in deep shade in a variety of forest types with deep leaf-litter, from dry <em>Cynometra</em> thicket in Arabuko-Sokoke at sea-level (non-breeding birds) to moist evergreen forest at 1,200-1,700 m in Malawi (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1988)<strong></strong>. The species winters in tall coastal forests, with <em>fischeri</em> preferring coral rag forests, and <em>guttata</em> possibly using coastal dune forest (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species avoids disturbance-prone areas. It forages amongst the lower branches of leafy trees, on rotting logs and on the forest floor by scratching at leaf litter. It feeds on seeds, fruits, insects and their larvae, and land molluscs (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It has a home range of at least 0.14 ha (<strong></strong>Bennun 1985)<strong></strong> in the non-breeding season, but this is not known for breeding pairs. Clutch-size is 2-3 (<strong></strong>Bennun 1985)<strong></strong>. Its nest is described as a cup or bowl constructed from vegetation, small twigs and mud, lined with plant material and feathers; the exact composition of materials is dependent on the habitat and thus differs between subspecies (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The species does not conceal its nests well, and they tend to be very exposed and easy to find (Chittenden 2003, Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, leading to a low breeding success rate, with about 85% of nests recorded as failing by one observer in South Africa (Chittenden 2003)<strong></strong>. Nests may be re-used after a brood has fledged or even after the nest has been depredated, despite the clear indication that it is at risk. This may be a time- and energy-saving strategy (Chittenden 2003)<strong></strong>. Snakes, raptors and domestic cats are the main nest predators, and contribute to nearly 50% of breeding failures (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Laying has been noted in November in Malawi and in September-March in South Africa (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005, Chittenden 2005 in Hockey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006325		population	eng	The estimates provided for some known populations (<I>guttata</I> 400-800 pairs; <I>fischeri</I> c.200 pairs; <I>belcheri</I> 30-40 pairs) suggest that the world population numbers less than 2,500 individuals, therefore it is placed in the range bracket for 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006325		threats	eng	In Tanzania, coastal forest patches that are probably "stepping stones" during migration are under heavy pressure and becoming increasingly fragmented. Pugu Forest is being degraded as a result of charcoal production (N. Burgess<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Wintering habitat in Kenya is also under heavy pressure, particularly the smaller sites (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. In Malawi, forest is being cleared at all four known sites and there will soon be very little habitat remaining (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. At Mt Mulanje (Malawi) exotic species accompany the threats of encroachment, deforestation and possibly bush fires (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In South Africa, mining has destroyed much wintering habitat and may affect more forest in the near future (T. B. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, while habitat disturbance is increasing in many protected areas (Barnes 2000)<strong></strong>. The species's recovery is limited by its low breeding success, which is largely due to vulnerability of nests and resultant high rates of predation, perhaps exacerbated by domestic cats where they are present (Chittenden 2003, Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. This species occasionally suffers mortality from collisions with skyscrapers, probably due to the disorientating effect of city lights during nocturnal migration (Oatley 2007)<strong></strong>.     <p></p>
106006326		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging, but encroachment continues. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on logging and agricultural encroachment within wet zone forests. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. <p></p>
106006326		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera spiloptera </em>is an endemic resident in southern <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>. It occurs mainly in the wet zone of the island and although its range is highly restricted it is locally common within it. <p></p>
106006326		habitat	eng	It favours lowlands and hills of the wet zone from 300-1,220 m. It inhabits the leaf-litter of damp, dense, wooded areas and occasionally gardens near forest, also occurring sporadically in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, although there are no recent records from this part of the island. It is apparently most abundant in primary habitat, and although also recorded in selectively logged forest, forest edges or near tea cultivation and scrub, it may be dependent on relatively intact forest remaining nearby. It forages for terrestrial invertebrates, spending c.90% of time on the ground during the day, but will also sally for insects in the air. It breeds in March-May and July-January. <p></p>
106006326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006326		threats	eng	Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <p></p>
106006327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Philippines and west java, locally fairly common on Sumatra and Enggano island and generally uncommon to rare in the Lesser Sunda islands (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006328		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (Clement and Hathway 2000).
106006329		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common, although uncommon in Myanmar and China and scarce to uncommon in South-East Asia in the winter (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006333		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on hunting and logging within such protected areas. Determine its habitat association and generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by assessing rates of forest loss using satellite images and remotes sensing. <p></p>
106006333		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera machiki</em> is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands (Yamdena and Larat only) in the Banda Sea, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Previously known from just three specimens, in the past 15 years the species has been found to be locally common. <em> <p></p></em>
106006333		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest and scrub, showing a preference for primary forest, but occasionally using secondary scrub, and sometimes concentrating in recently burned areas. It forages on the ground but is not shy and can be seen in the morning along tracks and watercourses.  <p></p>
106006333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006333		threats	eng	Logging in the south of Yamdena has continued apace since 1992 and is presumably causing a decline in the population of this species. <p></p>
106006334		population	eng	The species is described as common and the population has been estimated as 12,000 breeding individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006335		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in New Guinea, locally fairly common on Mussau and moderately common in Australia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006336		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of montane forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Research the effects of introduced predators on populations. Re-discover the subspecies <em>atrigena</em>. Investigate the taxonomic status of the two taxa.  <p></p>
106006336		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera talaseae</em> is a very infrequently recorded species of Umboi, New Britain and Bougainville islands in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It has only been recorded once on Umboi, at 1,300 m (Diamond 1976)<strong></strong>, and from about four mountains between 580-1,430 m on New Britain (Coates 1990, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, <strong></strong>D.&#160;Gibbs verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. The subspecies <em>atrigena</em> of Bougainville, which may prove to be a separate species, is known only from the type-locality at 1,500 m&#160; in one region in the Crown Prince Range (Hadden 1981, <strong></strong>Ripley and Hadden 1982)<strong></strong>. As with other <em>Zoothera</em> spp., it is a very secretive species and is likely to have been under-recorded. However, it does appear to have a moderately small total population size.  <p></p>
106006336		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest between 600 - 1,500 m. Singles recorded on ground, flushing off with low fast whirring flight. The subspecies <em>Z. atrigena</em> has been reported to feed in gardens of taro (Araceae crops) within montane forest (Dutson 2011).<br/><p></p>
106006336		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006336		threats	eng	Although its montane forest habitat is relatively secure, its terrestrial habits may render it susceptible to introduced mammalian predators. The species has a high dependence on primary forest, and so forest loss and degradation may be a low threat. Buchanan<em> et al. </em>(2008) calculated the rate of forest loss within the species's range on New Britain as 4.5% over three generations.<br/><p></p>
106006337		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A conservation area has been established on the central area of Makira Island, covering approximately 63,000 ha of largely undisturbed indigenous vegetation and including a large number of villages still engaged in traditional lifestyles and resource use.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size. Quantify the impact of <em>R. rattus. </em>Regularly monitor the population at well known sites. Enforce the protection afforded by the conservation area. Research its tolerance of logged and degraded forest.  <p></p>
106006337		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera margaretae</em> is endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. Since 2000, it has been recorded in the Hauta area, including reliable sightings from local villagers (G. Dutson pers. obs. 2002, R. James <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is still very poorly known and probably has just one small sub-population. Its hill forest habitat is relatively secure and it appears to be relatively common and not declining at one well-known site (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gibbs 1996,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006337		habitat	eng	It appears to be widespread but patchily distributed and restricted to mid-montane forest in hills and lower mountains with records from 400-700 m (Mayr 1945, Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gibbs 1996,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Hornbuckle 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and one report at 200 m (Gibbs 1996)<strong></strong>. It prefers shady gulleys in closed-canopy forest (R. James <em>in litt. </em>2003), but has also been reported in overgrown gardens (Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006337		population	eng	This are no population estimates are available but the species is reported to be locally fairly common in surveyed areas (Dutson 2011).
106006337		threats	eng	As a terrestrial species, it may be declining as a result of predation by cats and dogs, exacerbated by slow but chronic forest loss. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> appears to have only recently colonised the island (Flannery 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and may be an additional threat.    <p></p>
106006338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006340		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera terrestris </em>is only known from four specimens (now in Frankfurt, St Petersburg, Leiden and Vienna) collected in 1828 on Ogasawara-shoto (Peel Island, Bonin), <strong>Japan</strong>. It could not be found when the island was next visited by an ornithologist, in 1889, nor subsequently<strong></strong>. Nothing is known of the species's ecology or extinction<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967).  <p></p>
106006340		habitat	eng	Presumably it was confined to forest floor.  <p></p>
106006340		threats	eng	Whalers started to use the island in the 1830s and it was probably driven to extinction by introduced rats and cats shortly after<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106006341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006342		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cats were a major problem on Tristan, but have been eradicated (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Assess the impact of predation by rats. Control rat numbers on Tristan, and prevent further introductions of mammalian predators. Legislate against the transportation of the species between islands.  <p></p>
106006342		distribution	eng	<em>Nesocichla eremita</em> is endemic to <strong>Tristan da Cunha (to UK)</strong> in the South Atlantic Ocean, where it is found on Tristan, Inaccessible, Nightingale, Middle and Stoltenhoff islands with distinct subspecies on each of the three main islands. In 1972-1974, island population sizes were estimated as follows (in pairs): Tristan 40-60; Inaccessible 100-500; Nightingale 300-500; Middle 20-40; and Stoltenhoff 10-20 (Richardson 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the Inaccessible population was revised to 850 pairs, and the total population for the group to 6,000 birds (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. More recently, the Tristan population has been estimated (very crudely, but conservatively) as at least several hundred birds (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006342		habitat	eng	The species uses virtually all available habitats including boulder-strewn shorelines, tussock grassland, fern-bush and wet heath. It feeds opportunistically on dead birds, fish offal, kitchen scraps and the eggs and fledglings of other birds as well as earthworms and invertebrates taken from leaves and detritus (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1994, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in September-February (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its nest is a rough cup of woven tussock fronds and grass stalks with some moss and leaves, placed on or just above the ground. It lays two or three, sometimes four, eggs. The fledging period is c.20 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006342		population	eng	In 1972-1974, island population sizes were estimated as follows (in pairs): Tristan 40-60; Inaccessible 100-500; Nightingale 300-500; Middle 20-40; and Stoltenhoff 10-20. In the 1980s, the Inaccessible population was revised to 850 pairs, and the total population for the group to 6,000 birds. More recently, the Tristan population has been estimated (very crudely, but conservatively) as at least several hundred birds (P. G. Ryan <I>in litt</I>. 2000). It is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006342		threats	eng	On Tristan, predation by black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> is a possible threat. Translocations of birds between islands, a common practice in the past, resulting in hybridisation, is another concern (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006343		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Morne Diablotin and Morne Trois national parks, as well as the Northern and Central forest reserves on Dominica (J. Arlington <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, Guadeloupe National Park on Guadeloupe and various forest reserves including Edmond on St Lucia. On Montserrat, remaining habitat in the Centre Hills area is protected and highly unlikely to suffer any further anthropogenic habitat destruction (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The species is monitored annually in the Centre Hills, with large-scale censuses in 1997 and 1999 (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the status and seasonal requirements of the species on each island. Implement a specific hunting ban. Conduct an awareness campaign to limit hunting. <p></p>
106006343		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus lherminieri</em> is endemic to the Lesser Antilles, where it is uncommon on <strong>Montserrat (to U.K.)</strong>, <strong>Dominica</strong> and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong>, and rare on <strong>St Lucia</strong>. It appears to have declined significantly throughout its range in recent years (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). The range on Montserrat was reduced by two-thirds in 1995-1997 by the effects of volcanic eruptions (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. However, in December 1999, the population was estimated at 3,100 birds (Arendt <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, representing an increase of c.50% since December 1997, with further increases up until 2006 (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2000, <strong></strong> 2007)<strong></strong>. The reasons for these dramatic increases are not known, neither is it known how well the population is recovering in the regenerating forest in the area destroyed by the volcanic eruption (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On St Lucia, it is now very rare with just one recent record (at Des Chassin in 2007), but was considered numerous in the late 19th century, indicating a serious decline (Keith 1997, <strong></strong>L. John <em>in litt. </em>2007). On Guadeloupe, it occurs at low densities (P. Feldmann and P. Villard <em>in litt.</em> 1998, A. Levesque and B. Ibene <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and discussions with hunters indicate it is declining on Grande-Terre, although the population on Basse-Terre is apparently stable and does not appear threatened (P. Villard <em>in litt. </em>2007, E. Arnoux <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. On Dominica it also occurs at low densities, and has been observed in suitable habitat in the northern, western, central, south-eastern and southern regions (J. Arlington <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006343		habitat	eng	It mostly inhabits the undergrowth and edge of mid-altitude and high-altitude primary and secondary moist forest, but can be exceedingly shy where hunted (Bond 1979,&#160;Keith 1997, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). However on Montserrat, although it occurs at all altitudes, the species is most common in lower altitude dry forest (Young 2008)<strong></strong>. Pairs feed on insects and berries from ground-level to the forest canopy (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. On St Lucia, it previously gathered in large numbers in autumn to feed on berries (Keith 1997)<strong></strong>. Breeding has been recorded between March and August. <p></p>
106006343		population	eng	Young (2008) estimated a population of 3,100 individuals on Montserrat. The species is considered rather rare elsewhere, and is probably best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 individuals.
106006343		threats	eng	Habitat loss has occurred throughout the species's range, but has been particularly acute on Montserrat<strong></strong>. Volcanic activity was much reduced during 1998-1999 (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, but a further major volcanic eruption in 2001 caused heavy ash falls across large areas of the remaining habitat<strong></strong>. Threats on other islands include brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>; competition with Bare-eyed Thrush <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Turdus nudigenis</em>, which are increasing on Guadeloupe (A. Levesque and B. Ibene <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and predation by mongooses and other introduced mammals (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is still legally hunted on Guadeloupe (P. Feldmann and P. Villard <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, and illegal hunting for food continues on other islands (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106006347		distribution	eng	<em>Myadestes myadestinus</em> was endemic to Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It was the most common of the forest birds in 1891 but, by 1928, had disappeared from the lower altitudes and became restricted to dense montane forest in the Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve<strong> </strong>(Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986). During 1968-1973, its population was estimated at 337 individuals (USFWS 1983) while, in 1981, an estimated 24 (±20) individuals were present<strong> </strong>(Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986). The last reliable sighting was in 1985, with unconfirmed reports until 1991 (Gorresen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The lack of confirmed detections despite numerous intensive surveys in areas formerly occupied, particularly in 1995 and 1997<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Reynolds and Snetsinger 2001, Foster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>, make it now appropriate to classify this species as Extinct<strong> </strong>(S. Fretz, R. Camp, E. VanderWerf and M. Gorresen <em>in litt.</em> 2003). However, it is worth noting that <em>M. palmeri</em> went many years without being seen, but then began to reappear in small numbers<strong> </strong>(USFWS 2003). <p></p>
106006347		habitat	eng	Originally inhabited forest at all elevations, but since 1920s restricted to dense montane forest.  <p></p>
106006347		threats	eng	Disease carried by introduced mosquitoes and the destruction and degradation of forests are likely to have been the chief causes of extinction<strong> </strong>(USFWS 1983). The advance of feral pigs into pristine upland forests degraded habitat and facilitated the spread of mosquitoes<strong> </strong>(Pratt 1994). Competition with introduced birds may have exacerbated the problems faced by this species<strong> </strong>(Wakelee and Fancy 1999), and introduced predators are likely to have also played a part (Woodworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Deprived of lowland forest the species was also exposed to the effects of hurricane damage in upland forest, which severely disrupted portions of native forest and allowed the germination and expansion of noxious weeds (Pratt 1994, Conant <em>et al. </em>1998). Also potentially detrimental to the remaining suitable habitat are introductions of new alien invertebrates, such as the two-spotted leafhopper (<em>Sophonia rufofascia</em>), which may threaten many food plants of <em>M. myadestinus</em><strong> </strong>(USFWS 2003).     <p></p>
106006348		distribution	eng	<em>Myadestes woahensis </em>is known only from the type, collected on O'ahu, in Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong>, by Bloxam in 1825, at which time he reported that the form was common<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). The specimen was lost, and subsequently relocated in Tring<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994). Fossil remains have also been collected on the island<strong> </strong>(James and Olson 1991).  <p></p>
106006348		habitat	eng	According to Bloxam, it occured in forest.  <p></p>
106006348		threats	eng	The cause of the species's extinction is unknown<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), but habitat destruction and avian malaria  are likely causal factors.  <p></p>
106006349		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Kamakou Preserve and neighbouring land have been partially fenced and control programmes exist for feral ungulates (H.&#160;Baker and P.&#160;Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Oloku'i Natural Area, established in 1986, protects pristine native forest (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong> where <em>M. lanaiensis</em> may persist (Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong></strong>. Should it be rediscovered, consideration should be given to establishing a captive population at high elevation on East Maui, where the habitat is relatively intact and free of threat from mosquitoes and avian disease (USFWS 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to locate any remaining populations and, if found, urgently assess action required for its recovery. <p></p>
106006349		distribution	eng	<em>Myadestes lanaiensis</em> is endemic to the central Hawaiian Islands, <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, where it is (or was) known from Maui, Lana'i and Moloka'i. . The nominate subspecies of Lana'i was last seen in 1933 and is now extinct. The race <span style="font-style: italic;">rutha</span> of Moloka'i and Maui is also likely to be extinct (Clement and Hathway 2000). It had been extirpated from Maui before ornithologists arrived, but possibly survived until the mid-19th century (J.&#160;Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong>.</strong> Most of the historical range on Moloka'i in Kamako'u-Pelekunu has been resurveyed and the species has probably been extirpated from that area (DOFAW and PIERC 1995, Reynolds and Snetsinger 2001 unpubl. data); the last well-documented record from Moloka'i was in 1980. However, it cannot yet be presumed to be Extinct because the remote Oloku'i Plateau has not been resurveyed recently and could conceivably still harbour some birds. Any remaining population is likely to be tiny.  <p></p>
106006349		habitat	eng	It is a shy and retiring bird of the montane forest canopy, although in the late 1800s it was reported as ubiquitous in forests from the lowlands to the higher elevations on Moloka'i and Lana'i (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Like its congeners, it is primarily frugivorous (Wakelee and Fancy 1999, <strong></strong>K.&#160;Wakelee <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106006349		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no records (confirmed or otherwise) since the late 1980s
106006349		threats	eng	This species's drastic decline is probably attributable to the introduction of disease-carrying mosquitoes and habitat destruction. Mosquitoes were, until recently, restricted to the lowlands, but have followed the penetration of feral pigs into remote native rainforests over the last 25 years (Pratt 1994)<strong></strong>, and Moloka'i's uplands are probably too small to provide disease-free refugia. Pigs also modify native forests as they carry alien weeds to new areas and their rooting destroys the shrub layer (Pratt 1994)<strong></strong>, and introduced axis deer <em>Axis axis</em> are an additional problem (Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006350		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of important and well managed protected areas, such as the Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park (Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the 1990s, efforts were made to reduce the feral pig population by Hawaiian conservation authorities and private landowners (Anderson and Stone 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and control of mammalian predators was being attempted in some areas (Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although this has now ceased (R. Camp <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reforestation of upland pastures is ongoing (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is considerable interest in re-establishing the species on the western slopes of the island (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate for the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Control mammalian predators, including cats, mongooses and rats, effectively and continuously because of rapid rates of recolonisation and reproduction (Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate feral ungulates, including cattle and pigs, and exclude them from protected areas of forest (K. Wakelee <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Consider reintroducing the species to several montane sites in the Kau and Kona districts to increase the number of subpopulations, increasing the resilience of the species, and potentially speeding up the recovery of important understorey plants (L. Pejchar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006350		distribution	eng	<em>Myadestes obscurus</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) where it formerly occurred almost throughout the island. It is now restricted to the southern and eastern slopes of the island, largely above 1,000 m, c.25-30% of its former range (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Here the species is encountered regularly in forests with some native tree component (R. Camp <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population may be divided by the deforested rangeland of the Kapapala Tract, and a third possibly disjunct population exists above 2000 m on Mauna Loa (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it is widespread in suitable habitat (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1976-1979, it was estimated to total c.170,000 birds (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and thought to exceed that figure in 1995 (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At lower elevations there is strong selection pressure for disease resistance, and lineages exhibiting these traits may be expanding (Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006350		habitat	eng	It favours mesic and wet native forests, but is also found at much lower densities in scrub and savanna habitats, especially where `ohi`a and koa trees are present. It occurs in some areas where introduced plants dominate, but is absent in others, its range being negatively correlated with the widespread exotic banana poka. It feeds primarily on fruit and berries, but also on insects (especially caterpillars), snails and fleshy flower bracts of the `ie`ie vine (Berger 1972, Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species plays an important role as a seed disperser of native plants and its absence from areas where it once occurred may be limiting the regeneration of native understorey (L. Pejchar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006350		population	eng	In 1976-1979, the population was estimated to total c.170,000 birds, and it was thought to exceed that figure in 1995.
106006350		threats	eng	Habitat clearance for firewood, timber, croplands and pasture inevitably caused considerable contractions in this species's range, with most forests below 800 m having been converted to agricultural or urban uses. The spread of feral ungulates into native forests has caused habitat degradation, and in some areas non-native plants have replaced the natural habitat (USFWS and Hawai`i Forest Bird Recovery Team 1982, Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral pigs are particularly disruptive and facilitate the spread of introduced, disease-carrying mosquitoes (USFWS and Hawai`i Forest Bird Recovery Team 1982, Anderson and Stone 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pigs also damage and destroy understorey plants that provide the fruit resources that the species depends upon (L. Pejchar <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced mammalian predators are a further significant limiting factor (Wakelee and Fancy 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006351		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve. Rat poison bait stations have placed near a few nests with moderate success (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Bait stations are also placed around the release sites for captive-bred individuals at the time of release. Several types of rodent-resistant nest boxes have been installed in nesting habitat, and one pair was documented to nest successfully in one box. Control of feral ungulates has proved difficult in less accessible areas of the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve, which is rarely visited by hunters, and alternatives are expensive and of limited effectiveness (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An ungulate exclusion fence is planned for a portion of the Alaka'i plateau, which will include 5-10% of the species's range. A captive population was established in 1996, and 14 birds were released into the wild in 1999 (Lieberman and Kuehler 1998, <strong></strong>Conrow 1999,&#160;USGS News Release 1999, T. Snetsinger <em>in litt.</em> 2000). In subsequent years, between 5 and 19 birds have been released annually for a total of nearly 180 released as of autumn 2008 (Hirschfeld 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The captive-bred birds have bred with each other and with wild birds (USGS News Release 1999)<strong></strong>. Results of the releases have been mixed, with birds released in 1999-2001 surviving better than birds released from 2002-2006. The release strategy for 1999-2001 was highly successful, with 31 out of 34 released birds surviving at least one month after release and confirmed breeding occurring in the wild (USFWS 2003)<strong></strong>. From 2002 through 2007, roughly half of released birds survived for one month or longer.  Research on the factors limiting the species and the potential of management actions is ongoing. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Conduct research to determine the impacts of predation and habitat degradation by alien species. Protect the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve from the invasion of introduced plants and feral ungulates (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remove rats and cats from the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve (J. M. Scott <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Continue captive breeding and release efforts. <p></p>
106006351		distribution	eng	<em>Myadestes palmeri</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where recent records are all from the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve. It has recently been lost from the Waiau and possibly the Halekua drainages (T. Snetsinger <em>per</em> P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but may be expanding its range in the Mohihi drainage (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It formerly occurred in lowland habitats, but probably only locally, and was extirpated from these areas by the end of the 19th century (J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>Burney <em>et al</em>. 2001). During 1998-2000, the population was estimated at c.200, possibly up to 300, wild individuals (Lieberman and Kuehler 1998, <strong></strong>Conrow 1999,&#160; Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>T. Snetsinger <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Few birds were detected after two recent hurricanes, but the current population size is likely similar to pre-hurricane numbers (Pratt 1994, <strong></strong>Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong> Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A captive-breeding programme began in 1996 and has facilitated the successful reintroduction of individuals into the wild annually since 1999, with almost 180 individuals released as of autumn 2008 (Hirschfeld 2008), resulting in successful breeding in the wild by captive-bred birds. <p></p>
106006351		habitat	eng	It is now restricted to high-elevation `ohi`a forests. It is a ravine specialist, favouring stream banks with a rich understorey (Kepler and Kepler 1983, <strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Many recorded nests have been placed in cliffs above streams. It is primarily frugivorous, with arthropods (particularly insects) forming an important dietary component (Kepler and Kepler 1983, <strong></strong> Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. At least one bird died after malaria infection in the wild, but some birds may be disease resistant (Herrmann and Snetsinger 1997, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It has potentially high but variable productivity, with pairs producing 0.4 to 4.9 young per year in three years of observation (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  It is now the sole native frugivore on Kauai, and probably plays a major role in seed dispersal within its range. <p></p>
106006351		population	eng	The population estimate is derived from Conrow (1999), Lieberman & Kuehler (1998), Snetsinger et al. (1999), T. Snetsinger in litt. (2000), and P. Roberts in litt. (2007). The estimates total 200-500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 130-330 mature individuals.
106006351		threats	eng	The destruction of the understorey by feral pigs has been implicated in this species's rarity (Kepler and Kepler 1983). Avian pox-like lesions have been observed on a mist-netted bird<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Herrmann and Snetsinger 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and avian malaria is suspected to cause some mortality (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999, K. Wakelee <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although hurricanes have caused serious damage to its habitat, the species appears to recover relatively well, probably because ravines are better sheltered (Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong> Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Predation by native Short-eared Owls <em>Asio flammeus</em> and alien mammals (e.g. rats) suppresses productivity and competition for food with introduced insects, birds and mammals may also have negative impacts (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Snetsinger <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Several plants, including blackberry (<em>Rubus argutus</em>)<em>, </em>Australian tree fern (<em>Cyathea cooperi</em>),<em> </em>Kahili ginger (<em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em>) daisy fleabane (<em>Erigeron annuus</em>) and strawberry guava (<em>Psidium cattleianum</em>) have significantly altered areas currently and recently occupied by Puaiohi, and have the potential to convert the forest canopy, understorey and cliffs used for nesting substrate to unsuitable habitat (P. Roberts <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006353		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006354		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect forest in its stronghold of Pinar del Rio province.  Discourage the conversion of native forest to cash-crops.  Monitor the population.   <p></p>
106006354		distribution	eng	<em>Myadestes elisabeth</em> is locally quite common on <strong>Cuba</strong><strong></strong>. In west Cuba, it is found only in Sierra de los Organos, Sierra del Rosario and Sierra de la Güira but is more widely distributed in the east<strong></strong>. The race <span style="font-style: italic;">elisabeth</span>, endemic to the Isle of Youth, was driven to extinction in the 1930s<strong></strong> (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006354		habitat	eng	It is found in dense montane humid forest and nests on steep limestone cliffs and in tree cavities shielded by bromeliads (Wells and Mitchell 1995, <strong></strong>Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000).   <p></p>
106006354		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106006354		threats	eng	Throughout much of its range, forest is under conversion to cultivation and pasture, and there has been a recent expansion of cacao, coffee and tobacco production (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, habitat in the population stronghold of Pinar del Rio province is considered relatively secure (Wells and Mitchell 1995, <strong></strong>Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998).  <p></p>
106006355		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006357		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006358		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006359		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006361		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006364		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006365		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006366		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006367		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006368		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006369		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006375		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006376		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006377		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006380		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally uncommon and rare at the edge of its range at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006382		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006383		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2005 local inhabitants of the Daloh area were enthusiastically defending remaining juniper woodland from potential wood cutters (<strong></strong>Miskell <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish how much of its habitat remains. Assess the size and trend of its population. Support local inhabitants in their defence of juniper woodland.  <p></p>
106006383		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus ludoviciae</em> occurs in mountain-top woodlands in northern <strong>Somalia</strong>. It was considered to be locally common in 1979, most notably in Daloh Forest Reserve where it was still very common (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>, and was still common in the same location and at Mt. Wagar in 2005 (Miskell <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. There is also a report from Gacaan Libex in 1999 (Miskell <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006383		habitat	eng	It is found in juniper woodlands and neighbouring open areas of mountain-tops at 1,300-2,000 m (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It often feeds in small parties, sometimes in groups of up to 30 birds when feeding on fruiting juniper (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Four nests have been found, all containing two eggs, and several pairs have been observed feeding young in the nest in May (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006383		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006383		threats	eng	Even in 1979 the species's habitat was greatly threatened by forest destruction, including burning, felling and cattle-grazing, against which Forest Reserve status provides no protection in the current political situation (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>. Although there were reports in 1998 that the juniper woodlands in the species's range had been completely felled (J. S. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, in 2005 there was still intact juniper woodland at its known sites (Miskell <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006384		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Forest Department is now safeguarding the remaining forest fragments of the Taita Hills, which have been designated as an IBA. At present, efforts are being undertaken (ban of cattle grazing, enrichment planting with seedlings) to restore indigenous forest fragment Chawia; while it remains to be seen what affect this has on the thrush population, unringed juveniles have been seen. An ongoing collaborative research project includes a large ornithological component, which aims to provide the necessary ecological data to plan conservation policies for this and other endemic species in the area. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme for this species and Taita Apalis, Species Guardian Mwangi Githiru has begun to implement the following actions: 1. Tree nurseries are being established by local community-led Environmental Committees. Indigenous trees will be used to restore degraded habitat and enhance the connectivity of scattered forest fragments, whilst on adjacent agricultural land fast-growing non-native species will be planted to provide a buffer zone. 2. Income-generating activities, including bee-keeping and butterfly-rearing have been initiated and farmers have been educated in environmentally responsible agriculture practices. 3. In order to secure the long-term survival of the Chawia population a translocation project is being developed. 4. Nature Kenya has initiated the development of local capacity through catalyzing the formation of a Site Support Group (SSG) with the aim of enabling local people to constructively engage in conservation of the IBA (M. Githiru <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to remove non-native trees from within indigenous forest (Brooks 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and continue to reforest cleared areas with native trees (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further develop sustainable forest-use schemes, based on ecotourism and harvesting forest products (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and outreach programmes to local communities (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Githiru <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Strengthen the population at Chawia through carefully managed translocations (M. Githiru <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009, 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006384		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus helleri</em> is confined to four tiny forest patches in the Taita Hills, southern <strong>Kenya</strong>: Mbololo (c.200 ha), Ngangao (c.92 ha), Chawia (c.50 ha) and Yale (2 ha) (Brooks 1997, Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1998, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Waiyaki and Samba 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although there have been reported sightings at Mt Kasigau, 50 km south-east of the Taita Hills, survey work in 1998 did not record the species there (Brooks 1997, Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research in 1997 indicated a total population of c.1,350 birds, with c.1,060 in Mbololo, 250 in Ngangao and 38 in Chawia (Galbusera <em>et al</em>. 2000, Waiyaki and Samba 2000, Waiyaki <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the effective population size is likely to be lower owing to a male-biased sex ratio. In 2009 surveys confirmed continued presence of the species in Mbololo and Ngangao fragments (M. Githiru <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006384		habitat	eng	It is confined to montane cloud-forest (Waiyaki and Samba 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, not venturing into secondary growth, scrub or cultivated areas (Zimmerman <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the areas where it occurs have been heavily logged in the past (Brooks 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite much research, very few inter-fragment movements have been recorded (Waiyaki and Samba 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers well-shaded areas with a dense understorey, high litter-cover and little or no herbaceous cover (Waiyaki and Samba 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and consequently is found at greater density in Mbolobo, the least disturbed forest area, and is rarest in Chawia, which has a more open canopy and a very shrubby understorey (Brooks 1997, Waiyaki and Samba 2000, Waiyaki <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. It rarely ascends more than 2 m above ground (Zimmerman <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The diet is predominantly fruit (Brooks 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is monogamous and terrestrial, with overlapping home ranges (Waiyaki and Samba 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and breeding between January and July. The clutch-size is 1-3 (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Orange Ground-thrush <em>Zoothera gurneyi</em> often occurs in exactly the same areas as <em>T. helleri </em>(Brooks 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006384		population	eng	Waiyaki and Samba (2000) estimate the population to number 1,400 individuals, roughly equivalent to 930 mature individuals.<br/><p></p> <p></p>
106006384		threats	eng	Most indigenous forest has been cleared in the Taita Hills for cultivation or reforestation with non-native timber, and the remaining tiny area is under serious threat from both clearance and degradation (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1998, Mulwa 1998, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, although habitat quality in the largest two fragments remains good (Waiyaki and Samba 2000, Rogers <em>et al.</em>2008)<strong></strong>. A highly male-biased sex ratio in Chawia (only 10% of birds were female) might have significant negative consequences for the subpopulation's long-term survival (Lens <em>et al.</em> 1998, Waiyaki and Samba 2000, Waiyaki <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. The species's reproductive rate may thus be lower than expected (Lens <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Where habitat disturbance leads to deteriorations in body condition, the long-term survival of sub-populations may be put at risk (Lens <em>et al.</em> 2001).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong><sup><p></p></sup></strong>
106006385		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are many traditional rangeland reserves (mahjur) in south-west Arabia, where trees and ground plant cover are protected by private or communal ownership-rights from excessive exploitation, in order to provide fodder in times of drought (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the management of these areas has been widely neglected or abandoned since the advent of more convenient supplies of supplemental feed (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. The species occurs in at least two protected areas in Saudi Arabia: Raydah Reserve and Asir National Park (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988, Newton and Newton 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Encourage non-intensive agroforestry practices. Conduct field surveys to estimate its population size. Study the effects of different forestry practices on species density and breeding success.   <p></p>
106006385		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus menachensis</em> is endemic to the south-western Arabian peninsula, occurring in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong>, north to 21°N (Bowden 1987)<strong></strong>. It is strictly montane (Porter <em>et al</em>. 1996) and has a very local distribution, being generally scarce (Bowden 1987) where it occurs (although occasionally numerous in some areas [Stagg 1984, Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988,&#160;Newton and Newton 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>]). Given that so much of its range contains unsuitable habitat, its population seems likely to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. However, the population has been estimated at c.10,000 pairs (Jennings 2010), implying that there is a population of c.20,000 adults (M. Jennings <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), thus the population estimate used in this assessment may need to be revised.<br/><p></p>
106006385		habitat	eng	It is confined to areas with a dense cover of native trees and shrubs - thus occurring in woodlands, thickets, copses, orchards and large gardens, although foraging in more open habitats if dense wooded cover is nearby (Stagg 1984, Bowden 1987, Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988, Newton and Newton 1996, Porter <em>et al</em>. 1996). At the lowest altitudes, it is restricted to such vegetation along watercourses. At most localities it appears to be sedentary, but there may be altitudinal or latitudinal movements in the north of its range (Stagg 1984). The diet includes fruit (e.g. <em>Rosa</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Ficus</em>) and terrestrial invertebrates (Phillips 1982, Bowden 1987). Breeding occurs from March to June, the nest being 1-2 m above ground in a bush or tree-fork, usually in dense cover (Bowden 1987)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006385		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006385		threats	eng	Lopping and cutting of trees and shrubs, for fuel, fodder and building material, are proceeding at unsustainable levels in many parts of Yemen (Bowden 1987, <strong></strong> Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong> (where the human population is expanding rapidly), and are likely therefore to be causing a net loss of dense wooded cover. Abandonment of wooded agricultural terraces at lower altitudes in the species's range is leading to massive loss of topsoil and further reduction of wooded cover (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. Loss of well-wooded land to building, infrastructural and agricultural developments may also be a threat in Saudi Arabia. Altogether, these threats imply that the species's population is likely to be decreasing. A lack of tree regeneration, owing to high levels of grazing and browsing by livestock, has been observed at several sites and may be a problem.<br/><p></p>
106006386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006387		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common during the breeding season in Russia and China, rare in North Korea, uncommon and local in South Korea, common to abundant in Hong Kong outside of the breeding season and uncommon to fairly common in Vietnam outside the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the western Himalayas and uncommon in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but local (Clement and Hathway 2000), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China, c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006391		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006392		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 310,000-670,000 breeding pairs, equating to 930,000-2,010,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106006393		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its breeding range, rare in China and an uncommon resident in northern Laos and northern Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006394		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 40,000,000-82,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 120,000,000-246,000,000 individuals (BirdLife   International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very   preliminary estimate of the global population size is 162,000,000-492,000,000   individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National   population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt;   c.50 wintering individuals and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Taiwan   and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Korea (Brazil 2009).
106006395		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Turdus poliocephalus </span>ranges widely across the islands of the Pacific, with populations in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Taiwan</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Philippines</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malaysia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brunei</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Timor-Leste</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Papua New Guinea</span>, the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Solomon Islands</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vanuatu</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Caledonia (to France)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Fiji </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Samoa </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Subspecies from Norfolk Island (to Australia) (nominate <span style="font-style: italic;">poliocephalus</span>), Australia's Lord Howe Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">vinitinctus</span>) and New Caledonia's Maré Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">mareensis</span>) have all gone extinct (Hindwood 1940, Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011, G. Dutson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
106006395		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs   (Brazil 2009).
106006396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Pakistan, common in China and common to scarce in Myanmar and northern Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather rare, although rare to locally common in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006398		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It has been recorded in several protected areas in its breeding range including Pangquangou National Nature Reserve in Shanxi, Lao Ling Nature Reserve in Hebei and Baihuashan Nature Reserve in Beijing. There are several other protected areas in Shanxi and Hebei where it could occur, notably reserves established for the conservation of Brown-eared Pheasant <em>Crossoptilon mantchuricum</em>. Several wintering sites are protected, including Natma Taung National Park (Mt Victoria-Myanmar), Doi Suthep-Pui and Doi Inthanon National Parks and Om Koi Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), and Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Laos). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine whether it occurs in other reserves established for Brown-eared Pheasant. Research its ecology to establish its breeding habitat requirements and altitudinal range, with the aim of developing appropriate forest management regimes in protected areas where it occurs. Promote the extension of Pangquangou National Nature Reserve, and strengthen protection at Lao Ling and Baihuashan Nature Reserves (China). Reforest suitable degraded areas (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). List as a protected species in China. <p></p>
106006398		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus feae</em> breeds in the mountains of north-east <strong>China</strong>, in Shanxi, Hebei and Beijing, where it is known from only a few scattered records. It has been recorded in winter from West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur, north-east <strong>India</strong>; <strong>Myanmar</strong>; north-west <strong>Thailand</strong>, and <strong>Laos</strong>. Its relatively small breeding range and the limited area of habitat remaining within it indicate that its population could be small. In the past, it was described as not rare in north-east India in winter, but there is only one recent record, which may indicate that it has declined. However, it is a frequent and annual visitor in small numbers to the mountains of north, west and north-east Thailand (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<strong></strong><p></p>
106006398		habitat	eng	It breeds in temperate zone deciduous oak <em>Quercus</em> forest and pine <em>Pinus</em> forest in the mountains, between c.1,000-1,900 m. It winters in evergreen forest, mostly between c.1,500-2,600 m, although there are records down to 600 m.<p></p>
106006398		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on an analysis of records by BirdLife International (2001), who concluded that given the relatively small number of recent records and its apparent low population density, this species could have a small total population, i.e. fewer than 10,000 individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at 100-10,000 breeding pairs and 50-1,000 individuals on migration.
106006398		threats	eng	It is threatened by the continued loss and fragmentation of its habitat, principally in its breeding range. In China, deciduous broadleaved forest in Shanxi and Hebei is estimated to cover less than 20% of its original extent. Forests in Thailand and Myanmar have been affected by shifting agriculture, wood-collection and fires, but the extent of these threats has declined in this area and some forest is regenerating (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106006399		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006400		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates   include: c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering   individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; possibly c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; &lt; c.100   breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly rare (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population estimates include: c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006402		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan. The entire Izu Archipelago has been designated as a national park and several important sites as Special Protected Areas. There is a small sanctuary on Miyake-jima. A recent awareness campaign has been carried out (Y. Yamamoto <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecology, especially the migratory movements of the Tokara Islands population. Maintain and enhance areas of suitable forest and woodland on the Izu Islands. Plan new development on the Izu Islands to minimise their negative effects on the habitats of this and other endemic species. Strengthen the infrastructure and human resources of the national park on the Izu Islands to improve enforcement of habitat conservation measures. Control predators, particularly Siberian weasel and Large-billed Crow. Instigate new controls on the dumping of garbage to reduce the numbers of Large-billed Crow.  <p></p>
106006402		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus celaenops</em> is endemic to <strong>Japan</strong>. The majority of the population is resident on the Izu Islands between Oshima and Aogashima, but a few birds move to adjacent parts of Honshu and the Shikoku Islands during winter. There are also small numbers on the islands of Yaku-shima and Tokara in the northern Nansei Shoto Islands. Given that the total area of the Izu Islands is only c.300 km<sup>2</sup>, it is unlikely that the population ever exceeded more than a few thousand individuals and it is now declining rapidly.  <p></p>
106006402		habitat	eng	It inhabits deciduous woodlands with a well developed canopy and sparse shrub layer, avoiding understoreys with bamboo. On Yaku-shima, it occurs in mixed juniper-rhododendron forest. It also feeds outside forest along roadsides, in ploughed fields and undisturbed gardens, foraging for fruit, seeds and, in summer, mainly invertebrates. <p></p>
106006402		population	eng	The global population is estimated to be in the band c.2,500-9,999 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2001), equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. The population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006402		threats	eng	Nest-predation by Siberian weasels <em>Mustela sibirica,</em> Large-billed Crow <em>Corvus macrorhynchos</em> and domestic cats is the main threat. Its population on Miyake-jima declined rapidly following the introduction of Siberian weasels in the 1970s. The population of Large-billed Crow on Mikake-jima and the other Izu Islands has increased as a result of the dumping of raw garbage. During a survey on Miyake-jima in 1992, a total of 22 nests were found containing eggs, all of which hatched, but all nestlings were subsequently predated. The effects of predation are likely to have been compounded by habitat loss, associated with timber production, tourist developments and road construction. Volcanic eruptions on Miyake-jima in 2000 had a negative effect on the population on that island (Y. Yamamoto <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106006403		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5000-20000 breeding pairs, equating to 15000-60000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106006404		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006405		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14,000,000-24,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 42,000,000-72,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44,700,000-96,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006406		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 16,000,000-21,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 48,000,000-63,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 65,000,000-130,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006407		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 20,000,000-36,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 60,000,000-108,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 81,100,000-216,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common and poorly known (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt;   c.100 breeding pairs, 50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106006409		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,000,000-7,400,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,000,000-22,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12,200,000-44,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006410		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006411		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus ravidus </em>is known from four collections (21 specimens in total) from Grand Cayman, <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong>. The last specimens were collected (by Brown) in 1916, and the last sight record (by Lewis) was in 1938<strong> </strong>(Johnston 1969). It was extinct by 1965 (Bradley 2000).<br/><p></p>
106006411		habitat	eng	Its habitat was dense "knife-edged coral-rock, swamp, and mangroves, with patches here and there of the poisonous manchineel tree and of climbing cactus" (Savage English 1916). <p></p>
106006411		threats	eng	It presumably declined as the island's habitat was progressively cleared<strong> </strong>(Johnston 1969).  <p></p>
106006412		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006413		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006416		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006421		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006422		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006426		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006427		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006428		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006433		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006435		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,500,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'frequent' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </P>
106006435		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'fairly common' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006436		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 88,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </P>
106006436		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but the species has been described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006437		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Occurs in Beni Biosphere Reserve and Isiboro Secure National Park, Bolivia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to fully determine the distribution and abundance of this species. Monitor threats to key habitats within the range. Ensure the effective protection of protected areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
106006437		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus haplochrous</em> is known from only a few localities in south-east Beni and west Santa Cruz, north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, White <em>et al.</em> 1995), and is apparently rare and local even within suitable habitats.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006437		habitat	eng	It occurs in seasonally flooded riverine forest (<em>várzea</em>), gallery forest, semi-open forest and semi-deciduous woodland at 250-350 m (White <em>et al.</em> 1995, D. Lane <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006437		population	eng	In the absence of sufficient data, this species is suspected to have a moderately small population, preliminarily estimated at 10,000-19,999 individuals, as it only occurs at a few locations and has been described as 'uncommon'. This estimate equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006437		threats	eng	The habitat occupied by this species is widespread in the Bolivian lowlands and is not currently subject to particular threat (White <em>et al.</em> 1995). However, the very small and patchy range implies that future changes in land-use could rapidly cause an increase in threat status.  <p></p>
106006438		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006439		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006440		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006443		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Sierra de Baoruco and Armando Bermudez National Parks, Dominican Republic, and La Visite National Park, Haiti. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its status in Haiti (especially in La Visite National Park) and the Sierra de Neiba. Effectively protect existing reserves. <p></p>
106006443		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus swalesi</em> is endemic to Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>). It can be locally fairly common, but is now mostly restricted to isolated habitat patches (S.&#160;Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The nominate race occurs in the Massif de la Selle, Haiti, and Sierra de Baoruco, Dominican Republic. The race <em>dodae</em> occurs in the Sierra de Neiba and Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. It was formerly common in La Visite National Park, Haiti, and appears still to occur at higher densities in the Massif de la Selle than elsewhere within its range (Dávalos and Brooks 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006443		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly above 1,300 m in the dense understorey of moist montane broadleaf forest. It is occasionally found in pine forest, but only where there is a very well-developed broadleaf understorey (a habitat that is now extremely rare in the Dominican Republic) (S.&#160;Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding has been reported from May-July, and 2-3 eggs are laid (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is a bulky cup structure constructed principally of moss, and placed low in a shrub, bush or low tree (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Clement and Hathway 2000). It mainly forages on the ground for earthworms, insects and fruit  (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006443		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006443		threats	eng	There has been massive habitat loss in Hispaniola, and remaining patches are severely threatened by ongoing deforestation for agriculture and timber. In the Dominican Republic, suitable habitat has generally disappeared except in the Sierra de Baoruco, remote portions of the Cordillera Central and very small patches in the Sierra de Neiba (S.&#160;Latta <em>in litt.</em> 1998, N.&#160;Klein <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Suitable forest has disappeared from much of the species's range in Haiti, with La Visite National Park containing one of the last significant fragments. <p></p>
106006445		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006446		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Gunung Dulit (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006447		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and local and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006448		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Namdapha National Park and the Mehao, Dibang and Kamleng wildlife sanctuaries in north-east India, and in Hponkanrazi and Hukaung Valley wildlife sanctuaries in northern Myanmar. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study the ecology and threats that may face this species. Identify key areas and important populations, and recommend their integration into protected areas if necessary. Support initiatives seeking to reduce levels of forest destruction and degradation. <p></p>
106006448		distribution	eng	<em>Brachypteryx hyperythra</em> is endemic to the eastern Himalayas, where it is currently known from West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (and perhaps Nagaland), <strong>India</strong>, north <strong>Myanmar</strong>, and north-west Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>. Data suggest it is scarce and local, but this may in part be due to its remote, inaccessible range, which is also likely to include Bhutan, and possibly Nepal and south-east Tibet. There are a number of recent records from northern Myanmar which suggest that the species may be commoner and more widespread than previously thought (J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2006, T. Htin Hla <em>in litt.</em> 2006, S. Myers <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006448		habitat	eng	In May and June (the presumed breeding season) it has been found in dense undergrowth and <em>Arundinaria</em> ("ringal") bamboo in broad-leaved evergreen forest from 1,800-3,000 m. During winter, it frequents dense reeds, thick secondary scrub, forest undergrowth and well-vegetated gulleys, from foothills at 450 m to at least 2,950 m. It has recently been recorded at much lower elevations down to c.150 m, inhabiting tall "elephant type" grass (T. Htin Hla <em>in litt.</em> 2006, S. Myers <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is probably resident, making seasonal altitudinal movements, although it possibly migrates short distances. <p></p>
106006448		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006448		threats	eng	Without a more complete knowledge of its habitat preferences and breeding and wintering ranges, it is difficult to identify particular threats. However, forest loss and degradation owing to logging, smaller-scale cutting for fuelwood, clearance for tea plantations, shifting agriculture and livestock-grazing of forest understorey are all problems within its known range, especially at lower altitudes. <p></p>
106006450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the western Himalayas and China to very common in north-eastern India (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
106006451		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to very common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and (for the subspecies <em>goodfellowi</em>) c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006452		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common to abundant at higher levels of its elevational range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006453		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).
106006454		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Nguus, Tanzania (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006456		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several sites in Malawi are Forest Reserves, but in reality this provides negligible protection. Forest on Mt Namuli and Mt Chiperone is not protected, although efforts were underway in early 2008 to protect some of this habitat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008). If access to Mt Namuli improves, it is a potential site for ecotourism-based conservation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(K. Barnes <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main stronghold in Malawi of this near-endemic is undoubtedly Mulanje Mountain, which is now the centre of a major GEF programme which will hopefully ensure the survival of the mist-belt forests circling the mountain (J. Haugaard <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Initiate a campaign in Malawi of land reform and conservation of water resources through the maintenance of remaining forest reserves (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, M. Dyer <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Protect forest on Mt Namuli from logging<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Carry out extensive surveys on Mt Mabu and Mt Chiperone and other areas in northern Mozambique, such as Mt Morrumbala and the highlands near Njesi Plateau (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Conduct surveys to re-assess the species's status on Mt Namuli<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Once initial surveys have been conducted in all potential areas, assess the species's population size across its range. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, continue to monitor population trends. Monitor the rate of forest clearance and extent of habitat degradation.   <p></p>
106006456		distribution	eng	<em>Alethe choloensis</em> is known from 16 areas of forest, 13 of them in south-eastern <strong>Malawi</strong> (east of the Shire river), plus three in adjacent <strong>Mozambique</strong> (Mts Namuli [Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992], Chiperone [Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008] and Mabu [Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008]. The species probably occurs on mountains between Mts Namuli and Mabu<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Its world population was thought to be in the range of c.2,500-5,000 mature individuals. However, in 2005, the species was discovered on Mt Mabu, where the population is conservatively suspected to number c.2,000 individuals<strong> </strong> (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Malawi, there were c.1,500 pairs in 1983, mostly on Mt Mulanje (1,000 pairs) and Mt Thyolo (200 pairs) (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989), but the population has almost certainly decreased since then (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, P. Kaliba and L. Luhanga <em>in litt. </em>2003). Recent reports (2003) suggest that the Malawi population is now confined to five areas and that two historical sites (including Thyolo) have been lost to encroachment by agriculturalists (P. Kaliba and L. Luhanga <em>in litt. </em>2003, Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. The most important remaining populations in Malawi are likely to be on Chikala Hill and in the Ruo and Chisongeli forests on Mt Mulanje (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>per</em> Spottiswoode <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Although c.1,000 pairs were estimated on Mt Namuli<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>in 1998 (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999) these figures may be far too high, and Dowsett-Lemaire (2010) estimated &lt;50 pairs for Namuli, excluding the unexplored plateau south of the Malema River. In November 2007, the species was recorded as reasonably common in Ukalini Forest (Mt Namuli), at c.2 pairs/10 ha (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). The population in Manho Forest (Mt Namuli) was estimated at 'a few dozen pairs' in 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008).  On Mt Chiperone, the population is conservatively suspected to number c.800 individuals<strong> </strong> (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008), and on Mabu it is common above 1,200 m and may number at least 1,000 pairs (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). <p></p>
106006456		habitat	eng	It is a terrestrial bird of submontane evergreen forest, and breeds at mid-altitudes (mainly above 1,200 m, but some as low as 950 m on Mabu), but can occur lower in the non-breeding season (March-October)<strong> </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire 1989). Its population density is closely tied to the presence of ant-nests. Pairs can persist in forest patches as small as 0.5 ha if there is an ant-nest, but the density is usually much lower (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000).<br/><p></p>
106006456		population	eng	The world population was thought to be in the range of c.2,500-5,000 mature individuals, however in 2005 the species was discovered on Mt Mabu in Mozambique, where the population is conservatively suspected to number c.2000 individuals, and there are other areas of this country that could hold the species. Thus on the basis that further exploration is required before a reliable estimate of the total population can be made, the population is placed in the range bracket for 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006456		threats	eng	Deforestation at its sites in Malawi is intense; between the 1970s and early 1990s, at least three of its localities were completely cleared, e.g. the 40 km<sup>2</sup> Chisongeli Forest (Mt Mulanje) (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000). Deforestation of Chisongeli Forest had stabilised at c.1,600 m in 2007, with nearly all forest cleared below this altitude, and only c.20 km<sup>2</sup> remaining between 1,600 and 2,000 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008). During 1995-1996, severe fires destroyed much of its habitat at Lisau (Mt Chiradzulu) as well as parts on Zomba (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000) which hold the second largest population of this species (J. Haugaard <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Over the period 1999-2003, Thyolo Forest Reserve was completely cleared for subsistence agriculture, reducing forest on the mountain to a single small fragment on private land (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Soche Mountain has lost 30-40% of its remaining mist-belt forest (J. Haugaard <em>in litt.</em> 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>P. Kaliba and L. Luhanga <em>in litt. </em>2003) and forest at Ndirande was completely cleared in the 1990s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. During the late 1990s, selective logging started at Mt Namuli, and a road passing close to the summit was being built, which was expected lead to large-scale forest exploitation from the densely-populated lower slopes<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(V. Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1998). In November 2007, it was noted that the extent of mid-altitude forest on the eastern slopes of Mt Namuli was in decline and that suitable habitat for the species was almost gone<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. The threats on Mt Namuli include fires, encroachment by settlements and iron-smelting. Limited encroachment (c.5 ha in November 2007) of Ukalini Forest has taken place, small areas of Manho Forest have been cleared for cultivation, and both Ukalini and Manho Forests are threatened by the extraction of <em>Faurea wentzeliana</em> for the trade in construction material. The gaps left by such extraction are detrimental to the species, as it requires a shaded understorey<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Encroachment by subsistence farmers and logging is expected to occur on Mt Chiperone in the near future<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(V. Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1998), although this may slow at higher altitudes because of steep terrain and local spiritual beliefs (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008). At Mt Mabu, commercial tea farming will reportedly resume in the near future on abandoned tea estates at low altitudes, and this could lead to a human population influx (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, however the forest is currently under much less pressure than at Namuli (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). There will soon be very little habitat remaining for the species across its range (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 2000, J. Haugaard <em>in litt.</em> 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Kaliba and L. Luhanga <em>in litt. </em>2003). <p></p>
106006458		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006459		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common to abundant although scarce at the northern limit of its range in Sudan and Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006460		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006461		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006462		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006464		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and abundant or common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006465		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006466		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006467		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006468		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon or common to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006469		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006470		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common in Uganda and frquent and locally common in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006471		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Sierra Leone, Gola Rainforest National Park is currently well  protected (J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2012). There are attempts to  improve the protection of Gola National Forest in Liberia and ensure  connectivity with Gola Rainforest National Park in Sierra Leone (J.  Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Taï National Park and periphery habitat in south-west Côte d'Ivoire is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest and probably contains one of the largest remaining populations given habitat clearance elsewhere and its rarity in Ghana (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct population surveys (H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, particularly in eastern Liberia (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Carry out ecological studies, particularly to learn more of its breeding ecology (H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In Taï National Park, take measures to conserve the park and adjoining forest reserves including reducing encroachment (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Taï National Park and Gola Forest, ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006471		distribution	eng	<em>Melaenornis annamarulae</em> is endemic to the Upper Guinea rainforest block of West Africa, where it is known from <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>,<strong> Liberia</strong>,<strong> </strong><strong>Côte d'Ivoire </strong>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ghana</span>. In Guinea, the species was previously known from Ziama (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997), Déré Forest Reserve in 2003 (R. Demey<em> in litt</em>. 2007, H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and Pic de Fon, before a search in the south-east of the country in 2010 found a total of 15 pairs at four of seven sites surveyed: Douama (Binikala sous-préfecture), Sengbedou-Macenta sous-préfecture, Tétini Forest Reserve and Mount Béro Forest Reserve (Condé and Soumah 2010). In Sierra Leone it occurs in Gola Forest (two records in the late 1980s, c.475-690 birds estimated [Allport <em>et al.</em> 1989]<strong></strong>; only one record in 2005-2007, thus very rare [E. Klop <em>in litt</em>. 2007, <strong></strong>J. Lindsell<em> in litt.</em> 2007]<strong></strong>), while in northern <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Liberia</strong> there are few records, including the foot of Mt Nimba, Grebo (R. Demey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, Glaro and Wologizi (Gatter 1997<strong></strong>). In <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Côte d'Ivoire</strong> it is known from Taï National Park, Mont Péko National Park, Haute Dodo Forest Reserve (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, La Téné Forest Reserve, Mopri (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995) and Marahoué National Park (P. Christy <em>per</em> L. D. C. Fishpool verbally 1998) and <strong style="font-weight: normal;">in Ghana </strong>it was discovered in Atewa Range Forest Reserve in June 2006, followed by further records in 2007 and 2010 (Demey and Hester 2008, Borrow 2010)<strong></strong>). In Taï National Park, it occurs at an estimated four birds per km<sup>2</sup> (with a record from degraded land at the edge of the park) (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It is generally rare throughout its range and difficult to detect, as it is a canopy species (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006471		habitat	eng	It is found in the upper strata and canopy of closed-canopy lowland primary forest (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in Liberia, occurring up to 600 m (Gatter 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Côte d'Ivoire, it is also found in large leafless trees on inselbergs and in clearings planted with maize (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and has been observed in disturbed primary forest in Mont Péko National Park (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may be limited by the availability of emergent trees on which it forages, which are characteristic of transitional and deciduous lowland rainforest (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and breeding is believed to take place during the wet season in July and August. <p></p>
106006471		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006471		threats	eng	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and small-holder agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong></strong>. Déré Forest Reserve in Guinea is highly threatened by clearance for small-holder farms, with an estimated 90% of the forest already destroyed in November 2003 (R. Demey<em> in litt</em>. 2007, H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Ghana, Atewa Range Forest Reserve has been logged in the past, transects have been cut for mineral exploration, and now mining for bauxite is being considered (Demey and Hester 2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006472		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006473		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006474		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006475		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study the species habitat preferences and determine its reliance on forest habitats. Generate appropriate population estimates based upon the findings and reassess its status accordingly. If necessary devise appropriate conservation responses. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106006475		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias addita</em> is restricted to Buru, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is a relatively widespread and common upland species. Threats to the species are not severe, but it is restricted to a small range. <p></p>
106006475		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and montane forest at 500-1,500 m, having been described as a rare bird of the higher mountain regions. It was found to be moderately common in logged and primary forest inland at Fogi.  <p></p>
106006475		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106006475		threats	eng	Large parts of Buru's coastal lowlands have been disturbed and selectively logged, and others are targeted for conversion.  <p></p>
106006476		population	eng	The population size ihas not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common. There are estimated to be over 86,000 individuals on Sumba island (del Hoyo et al. 2006), so the total is likely to fall in the range of 100,000-499,999 individuals.
106006477		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. In its Chinese breeding grounds, it has been recorded in or near 12 protected areas and has been recorded in 2 protected areas in Thailand. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in south-east China to determine which protected areas are most important for its conservation and to identify any other important areas that should be protected. Conduct surveys on its wintering grounds in peninsular Malaysia and the Greater Sundas, to help clarify its non-breeding range, determine its habitat requirements and altitudinal range, and identify key sites for its conservation, taking into account climate change projections. Research its breeding habitat requirements and altitudinal range with the aim of developing appropriate forest management regimes in the nature reserves where it occurs. Strengthen protection, enforce regulations, and enlarge and link protected areas in China where it occurs. List it as a protected species in China.  <p></p>
106006477		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias brunneata</em> breeds in south-east mainland <strong>China</strong> where it appears to be scarce and locally distributed, but is probably under-recorded. Outside the breeding season, it occurs in <strong>Thailand</strong>, as a rare passage migrant; peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it is a winter visitor and possibly the whole population occurs on passage, and <strong>Singapore</strong>, where it is a rare passage migrant and winter visitor. There is a single record from Brunei, and it presumably occurs in parts of Indonesia and east Malaysia, on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. Its status on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, is unclear. <p></p>
106006477		habitat	eng	It breeds in dense bamboo undergrowth or low bushes in subtropical broadleaved evergreen forests between 600-1,600 m and does not utilise logged forest or artificial plantations. In peninsular Malaysia, it winters almost exclusively in mature primary forest on flat lowland plains (D. Wells <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In Thailand, passage migrants have been recorded in lowland semi-evergreen rainforest, mixed deciduous forest, and <em>Avicennia</em> mangrove/beach scrub.  <p></p>
106006477		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size (such estimates span 10-90 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>) and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006477		threats	eng	It is threatened by the continued loss and fragmentation of habitat in both its breeding and non-breeding ranges. In south-east China, most natural forest has been cleared or modified through timber extraction and conversion to agricultural land. Lowland forest has been particularly badly affected. Its requirement for mature primary lowland forest during the non-breeding season makes it particularly susceptible to habitat loss, as very little of such forest now remains. Habitat degradation along the migration route may also be an issue. Birds are captured for food in some areas (e.g. Guangxi), with traditional glue bird-basin techniques giving way to mist-nets which may have higher impact. <p></p>
106006478		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon although common on Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006479		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known but a number of protected areas lie within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106006479		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias umbratilis</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>; Kalimantan and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is locally not uncommon and occurs within small forest fragments. Nevertheless, declines are inferred in the past owing to the extensive loss of forest cover in lowland South-East Asia. <p></p>
106006479		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary broadleaved forests, coastal peatswamp forest, <em>Melanorrhoea</em> heath-forest and overgrown rubber plantations to 1,160 m. Breeding has been recorded between January and August, with one nest described as a cup-shaped structure concealed inside a large <span style="font-style: italic;">Macaranga</span> leaf (Li and Chuah 2008).  <p></p>
106006479		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally scarce to uncommon, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006479		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia, and in Thailand and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), but the species's use of submontane forests, second growth and plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106006480		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006481		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106006481		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias colonus</em> is restricted (if one excludes dubious records from East Sulawesi attributed to the race "<em>subsolanus</em>") to Banggai (where subspecies <em>pelingensis </em>occurs on Peleng) and the Sula Islands (where the nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">colonus</span> occurs on Taliabu, Seho, Mangole and Sanana), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. As well as having a restricted range, it has probably declined owing to extensive clearance of lowland forest, and is apparently generally uncommon throughout its range.  <p></p>
106006481		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest up to 300 m. Although it has been found in degraded forest, its preferred habitat appears to be undisturbed forest.  <p></p>
106006481		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006481		threats	eng	Ongoing forest loss and degradation through logging and agricultural encroachment, combined with its restriction to the lowlands, is a cause for some concern. <p></p>
106006482		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006483		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mt Pulog National Park, and the recent record from the Mt Los Dos Cuernos suggests that a healthy population could persist in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, as well as in the nearby Penablanca Landscape and Seascape Reserve (M. V. Duya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys using mist-nets to determine its current distribution and status in the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre mountains. Extend the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to incorporate Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Propose further known key sites, including Mt Polis, for establishment as formal protected areas. Control habitat degradation, including the expansion of vegetable cultivation, in Mt Pulog National Park. <p></p>
106006483		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias insignis</em> is endemic to the mountains of northern Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from various sites in the Cordillera Central and from Mt Los Dos Cuernos and Mt Palali in the Sierra Madre. It is generally shy, quiet and difficult to observe, but recent trapping studies revealed it to be common at Balbalan-Balbalasang National Park, and also on Mt. Amuyao (L. Heaney <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may have been previously under-recorded owing to its furtive nature, and could be more widespread than currently thought. However, trapping studies at various montane sites outside the Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre between 2000 and 2007 failed to find it (L. Heaney <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106006483		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of montane or mossy forest above 950 m (principally above 1,500 m), apparently favouring thick, shady patches in areas dominated by oaks. However, it has also been recorded in forest with little undergrowth and also in second growth adjacent to oak-dominated primary forest. <p></p>
106006483		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006483		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the chief threat. In 1988, an estimated 24% of Luzon remained forested and forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s. Mossy forests of the Cordillera Central are threatened by conversion to agricultural land, primarily for vegetable production (M. Poulsen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Several areas on Mt Pulog are being cleared for agriculture, with occasional selective logging also occurring there. Deforestation is creeping up the slopes of Mt Polis, and Mt Data is now almost devoid of forest (M. Poulsen <em>in litt.</em> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106006484		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Panay, it occurs in the tiny (0.5 km<sup>2</sup>) Sampunong Bolo National Park, and two proposed national parks, North-west Panay Peninsula and Central Panay Mts. The latter reportedly contains the largest block of remnant forest in the Western Visayas. On Negros, it has been recorded recently in North Negros Forest Reserve, and also Mt Canlaon Natural Park, although it is thought little suitable habitat remains. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys, including mist-netting, particularly on Panay (e.g. Bulabong Puti-an National Park on Panay) and also in remaining forest tracts on Negros, to establish its distribution and current status. Establish the proposed Central Panay Mts and North-west Panay Peninsula national parks and propose further key sites for designation as formal protected areas. Seek to obtain stronger protection of remaining forest areas on Panay and Negros, including securing funding to increase the number of forest rangers, as well as strengthening enforcement measures to prevent illegal logging (E. Curio <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006484		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias albigularis</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Negros, Guimaras and Panay. Formerly widespread (though always scarce on Negros), it has been recorded less often in recent years, although still occurs throughout primary forest on Panay and is probably under-recorded in general owing to its secretive habits (E. Curio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Habitat clearance may already have eliminated some local populations, e.g. at Ban-ban and Mambucal (A. Bucol<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.&#160; It was last recorded on Guimaras in 1887 and is presumed extinct there.  <p></p>
106006484		habitat	eng	It inhabits the shady lower storeys of lowland and mid-mountain forest, generally at or below 950&#160;m but occasionally up to perhaps 1,350&#160;m. Although it prefers primary forest, it has been recorded in secondary growth and even in a tree nursery.<p></p>
106006484		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006484		threats	eng	The major threat is continuing forest destruction. Chronic deforestation led to its extinction on Guimaras. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988, most of it above 1,000 m. Remaining lowland forest is likely to shrink further through clearance for shifting cultivation, charcoal production and timber extraction. At Ban-ban (Negros), illegal logging and harvesting of forest products (e.g. tree ferns and rattans) was a major problem in 1991 and forest at the site has now been completely removed (A. Bucol<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006485		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species, and assess the potential threats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106006485		distribution	eng	<em>Rhinomyias goodfellowi</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from six upland localities in the centre of the island: Civolig (near Gingoog City), Daggayan (inland from Gingoog City), Mt Kitanglad, Mt Apo, Lake Sebu and Mt Busa. It was regularly encountered in 1992 and 1993 on Mt Kitanglad, and no fewer than 31 specimens were collected in 22 days of fieldwork in 1993. It appears, therefore, to be reasonably numerous within the confines of its range. <p></p>
106006485		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane dipterocarp and moss forests above 1,000 m. It is usually solitary or in pairs and sits unobtrusively within 10 m of the ground. Breeding birds or fledged juveniles have been recorded between February and April, and in September and October. <p></p>
106006485		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006485		threats	eng	It is mainly at risk owing to its apparent rarity and restricted range rather than any direct threats that are known to be impacting the population. <p></p>
106006486		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14,000,000-22,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 42,000,000-66,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 85,700,000-264,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006487		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare to uncommon in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006488		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon in north-eastern China, rare or scarce in Russia and fairly common in most of its non-breeding range, except for north and central Borneo (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006). National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and possibly c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006489		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006490		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally common in much of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006491		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in one protected area, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. It has also been recorded recently at Eastern Cuernos de Negros, which lies within the Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area. Although not afforded legal protection, this area has been proposed for conservation funding. Recent environmental awareness campaigns have been conducted there. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Comprehensively re-examine museum specimens of <em>Muscicapa</em> flycatchers from the Philippines to check identification, in order to resolve its anomalous distribution. Conduct surveys using mist-nets, to investigate further its true distribution and population status. Extend the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to incorporate Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Afford formal protection to additional key sites (e.g. Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes on Negros). <p></p>
106006491		distribution	eng	<em>Muscicapa randi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it is known from Luzon, Negros and Samar. This unusual biogeographic distribution indicates that it could be more widespread than is currently known. Historically, it was considered very rare. This has been confirmed during recent extensive surveys in the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon and on Negros. However, mist-netting may reveal it to be commoner than field observations indicate. <p></p>
106006491		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forests, generally below 1,000&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. It probably frequents the understorey and appears to tolerate some habitat degradation, with records from disturbed forest and a clearing in selectively logged forest. Birds caught in August and September at Dalton Pass, Luzon, suggest that it may undertake intra-island movements, but possibly little more than post-breeding dispersal.<p></p>
106006491		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006491		threats	eng	Extensive and continuing lowland deforestation is the main threat. In 1988, it was estimated that as little as 4% of original forest remained on Negros, 24% on Luzon, where forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s, and 33% on Samar. On Luzon, most remaining lowland forest is under logging concession and is further threatened by major road-building plans. Illegal logging is common at Angat Dam (Luzon) and slash-and-burn agriculture is devastating the lower slopes of Eastern Cuernos de Negros (Negros) from both of which there are recent records.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006492		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106006492		distribution	eng	<em>Muscicapa segregata</em> (split from Asian Brown Flycatcher <em>M. dauurica</em>) is restricted to Sumba, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Previously thought to be rather scarce and local, a more recent assessment considered it uncommon and sparse, perhaps rare, although quiet and unobtrusive. The most recent observations confirm that it is widespread in remaining patches of both primary and secondary forest, albeit declining with steady habitat clearance. <p></p>
106006492		habitat	eng	It occupies lowland primary forest, including forest edges bordering cultivation, and secondary forest from sea-level to 500 m. It forages on insects in the understoreys of forest and pursues insects in flight. Usually solitary, spending long periods sat unobtrusively on a perch.  <p></p>
106006492		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006492		threats	eng	Ongoing habitat clearance through agricultural expansion and subsistence logging represent the main threats. <p></p>
106006493		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common in north-western and northern India, scarce in eastern India, locally common in Pakistan and Nepal, rare or scarce in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and locally common in south-west India during the winter (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006494		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce to fairly common and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China, c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006496		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006497		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006498		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006499		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006500		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its habitat in Bwindi Forest is well-protected by the Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (T. Butynski <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the Itombwe Mountains and Lendu Plateau are not protected (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The northern third of Kakamega Forest is designated as a national reserve and is somewhat better protected than the rest of the forest. A local guides' group in Kakamega, KABICOTOA, has started a programme of environmental education and awareness activities, targeting forest-adjacent schools (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Isecheno Nature Reserve (incorporating the southern fraction of the main forest patch at Kakamega), the presence of forest guards and their surveillance has protected near-pristine, indigenous and presumably suitable habitat for the species (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Overall, effective conservation of the species's forests in Kenya will require a major programme (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Initiate a major conservation programme for Kakamega and Nandi Forests in Kenya (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey its population density and status in Kakamega, North Nandi and Bwindi Forests, and evaluate its status in Itombwe when the security situation permits this. Study its ecology, including breeding and population dynamics, territory size, territoriality and dispersal (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and determine its habitat requirements. Confirm whether it occurs in Nyungwe. Re-evaluate its taxonomy, especially in relation to <em>M. olivascens </em>(Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Kakamega Forest, for example, improve management practices for the retention of tall indigenous trees, and plant indigenous trees to create habitat corridors between fragments (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct further research into appropriate conservation measures (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Check for its presence in Kisere National Reserve (Kakamega) and develop a continuous monitoring scheme for the species (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation at all known sites.  <p></p>
106006501		distribution	eng	<em>Muscicapa lendu</em> appears to be rare throughout its fragmented range. It is known from a narrow band in the Itombwe Mountains (subspecies <em>itombwensis</em>) and on the Lendu Plateau (the nominate subspecies) in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (Prigogine 1957, 1971, 1978, 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest in <strong>Uganda </strong>(Keith and Vernon 1969)<sup></sup>, and has been recorded from Kakamega and North Nandi Forests in <strong>Kenya </strong>(Zimmerman 1972)<sup></sup>. There had been few recent records from the latter two localities (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, until 17 birds (13 singles and two pairs) were recorded in Kakamega Forest during surveys between November 2002 and February 2003 (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Following these surveys, the total population in Kakamega Forest was estimated at c.200 birds (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is one sight record from Nyungwe Forest (Rwanda), but this requires confirmation (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006501		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense montane forest (Prigogine 1957)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Itombwe Mountains, it occurs between 1,470 and 1,820 m (Prigogine 1957, 1971)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but in North Nandi it has occurred up to 2,150 m. It feeds on insects (Prigogine 1957, 1971)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Itombwe, it breeds during March-September, and may also lay during January-February (Prigogine 1971)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds recorded in Kakamega Forest during surveys in 2002 and 2003 were seen perched 12-22 m above the ground, on bare branches of tall indigenous trees with a mean canopy height of 27 m (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Observations at Ikuywa River Forest (Kakamega) (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> suggest that the species can tolerate certain levels of forest degradation. <p></p>
106006501		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006501		threats	eng	It is threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and timber. In the DRC, the Lendu Plateau is now largely deforested (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while increased forest clearance for cattle-grazing and cultivation is a major threat at Itombwe, driven by political instability and crop failure (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Kenya, the Kakamega and North Nandi Forests are very seriously threatened by encroachment, uncontrolled tree-felling, charcoal making and firewood collection<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while intense pressure from cattle-grazing is affecting the structure and regeneration of forest in Kakamega (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The fragments of Kakamega Forest are distant from one another, and this could render the species's population at this site susceptible to deleterious genetic and demographic processes and events (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forests in the species's range are threatened by fires, which are often started for the collection of honey or for the production of charcoal (Plumptre <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006502		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally frequent to common over much of its range, although scarce in Zambia and rare in Eritrea (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).
106006504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006505		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and common to uncommon and sometimes rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006506		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in a number of protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in forest at different degrees of perturbation to determine its abundance and status in degraded forest. Protect large areas of forest at sites where it is known to be not uncommon.  <p></p>
106006506		distribution	eng	<em>Muscicapa tessmanni</em> is found in West Africa where it is known from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>;<strong> Liberia</strong>; <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong>; <strong>Ghana</strong>; <strong>Nigeria</strong>, from which there have been no recent records (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>; <strong>Cameroon</strong>; the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>,<strong> </strong>and mainland <strong>Equatorial Guinea </strong>(Dowsett 1993). It is reportedly rare throughout its range although it is locally common in at least some areas, e.g. in and around Bia National Park, west Ghana (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2005)<strong></strong>. It has possibly been overlooked owing to its similarities with Dusky-blue Flycatcher <em>M. comitata</em>, the two species often occurring together, although <em>M. tessmanni</em> has a more restricted range and is much less common (Holbech 1996, F.<strong> </strong>Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The two species are often confused and this identification issue clouds its status (F.<strong> </strong>Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Although it is wide ranging, it is only locally common and its apparent rarity over much of its range is as yet unexplained.   <p></p>
106006506		habitat	eng	It occupies mid-levels of forest edge and small gaps in primary forest (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999a,<strong></strong> 2000a)<strong></strong>, with a record from thicket on the edge of a small swamp in a large area of intact forest (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1998, F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. It has never reliably been recorded far from areas of primary forest (<strong></strong>F.<strong> </strong>Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>; although there are unconfirmed reports of the species from a large <em>Raphia</em> swamp (Holbech 1996)<strong></strong> and disturbed secondary growth (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, these could feasibly refer to <em>M. comitata</em> (Butchart 2007).<p></p>
106006506		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare throughout its range, although possibly overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006506		threats	eng	With conversion of forest to more intensive farms and plantations, small populations could be disappearing throughout its range (M. Gartshore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106006510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106006511		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been proposed, but has not yet materialised (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988, Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the ecology of this species to assess its ability to adapt to degraded habitats. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala to encompass the known range of the species, and develop a land-use strategy (Louette and Stevens 1992, Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. Consider reforestation of grasslands on the island's central ridge (Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop an environmental education programme on the island (Louette and Stevens 1992)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area (Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006511		distribution	eng	<em>Humblotia flavirostris</em> occurs only on the slopes of Mt Karthala, an active volcano, on Grand Comoro (= Ngazidja) in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. <p></p>
106006511		habitat	eng	This insectivorous species is present throughout forest on Mt Karthala over a wide altitudinal range (Louette and Stevens 1992)<strong></strong>. It is limited to areas with remaining tall trees but seems tolerant of shrubby, cultivated or open areas in the forest - it has even been observed in pure <em>Philippia</em> tree-heath above the forest belt (Louette and Stevens 1992). The only known nest was a cup in the upper branches of a 12-15 m high tree in pioneer woodland where at least two young were seen (Herremans <em>et al.</em> 1991b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006511		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006511		threats	eng	With this island's large, increasing human population (Herremans <em>et al.</em> 1991b), the major threat to this species is the clearance of forest for agriculture, which is occurring on all but the poorest soils. Since 1983, intact forest may have declined by over 25% as agriculture has advanced steadily up the slopes of Mt Karthala. Secondary forest in the agricultural belt is dominated by exotic plants, particularly strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, which could spread into and degrade remaining native forest. Commercial logging occurs in a 50 km<sup>2</sup> concession on the south-west slopes. The tree-heath zone is threatened by browsing cattle and by fire used to stimulate growth of palatable shoots. Introduced rats and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> may act as nest predators. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated (Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006512		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12,000,000-20,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 36,000,000-60,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 38,300,000-80,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006513		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 1,400,000-2,400,000 breeding pairs, equating to 4,200,000-7,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106006514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>EU Birds Directive Annex I. CMS Appendix II. Bern Convention Resolution 6. Species action plan for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficedula semitorquata</span> in the European Union was published in 2009 (Georgiev and Iankov 2009). BirdLife International project mapping of Biologically Important Forests in Bulgaria and Romania. Similar project implemented in Greece in 2008.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a monitoring programme to assess population size and trends. Assess threats to the species and develop appropriate responses. Ensure forest management practices within the distribution area of the species take into account the habitat requirements of the species. Ensure Natura 2000 sites and protected areas that include&#160; the species are protected from damage and have management plans under implementation.<br/><p></p>
106006514		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula semitorquata</em> breeds in south-east Europe - in <strong>Albania</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>FYR Macedonia</strong>, <strong>Russia </strong>and <strong>Turkey </strong>- as well as in north-eastern <strong>Iran</strong> (Cramp and Perrins 1993; Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997). In parts of its range the exact distribution is poorly documented and is  deduced from sporadic observations of (possible) breeding pairs in  suitable habitat.Little information is available regarding wintering behaviour of the species. It winters in a comparatively small region of East Africa, from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sudan</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">South</span> <strong>Sudan </strong>through western <strong>Kenya</strong>, eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong> to <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Following a decline during 1970-1990 (Tucker and Heath 1994)<strong></strong>, the European population - which is estimated at 15,000-53,000 pairs (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong> - continued to decline across much of its range during 1990-2000 (including key populations in Turkey and Russia) (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006514		habitat	eng	Within its breeding range, it favours forest belts, mainly on mountain slopes up to about 2,000 m altitude, occupied by mature deciduous trees (notably oak <em>Quercus</em> and hornbeam <em>Carpinus</em>) as well as temperate riverine<span style=""> and swamp forests of </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Fraxinus oxycarpa</span><span style="">; and in plane </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Platanus orientalis</span><span style=""> galleries (Handrinos, 1997). Occasionally, the species breeds in old or abandoned orchards, groves and tree plantations, urban parks and large gardens or forested peripheral parts of towns, villages and industrial sites (Iankov, 2007). It  breeds in tree hollows created by woodpeckers, but will also use nest  boxes. However, nest boxes </span>cannot compensate for the loss of suitable habitats and especially as terminal stages of the logging rotation is reached.<br/><p></p>
106006514		population	eng	The European population is estimated at 15,000-53,000 breeding pairs. The size of the population in Iran unknown, but Europe is estimated to constitute 50-74% of the global breeding range, so a preliminary estimate of the global population size is 40,000-210,000 individuals.
106006514		threats	eng	The species suffers from habitat destruction in some areas, which is likely to be responsible for recent declines. Lowland oak (<em>Quercus spp.)</em> forests in Bulgaria (its favoured habitat in this country) have been overexploited for timber, and riparian forests have been cleared for riverbed corrections. In eastern Turkey, its riparian forest habitat is threatened by ongoing dam projects, and the rapid loss of other <em>Quercus</em> forests may also be having a negative impact (S. Isfendiyaroglu <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006515		population	eng	The population size is unknown, though national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006516		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common or locally abundant on Sakhalin island, common and widespread throughout much of Japan and fairly common in north-eastern China (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia and (for the subspecies <I>elisae</I>) c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and (for the subspecies <I>owstoni</I>) c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006517		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common in its breeding areas and locally very common to scarce and uncommon in its non-breeding range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006518		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare to fairly common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration   (Brazil 2009).
106006519		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common and widespread in the central and eastern Himalayas, although scarce in the western Himalayas; uncommon in Nagaland, and China, fairly common to common in western and northern Myanmar and a rare non-breeding visitor to Bangladesh (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006521		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It breeds commonly in Overa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kashmir. Security problems across much of its breeding range have precluded effective conservation activities for some time. It occurs in a few protected areas in Sri Lanka.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys across its breeding range to establish its current population status, although security issues may currently preclude this. Conduct detailed research into its breeding habitat requirements, particularly its tolerance of habitat degradation. Identify key breeding and wintering sites and campaign for their protection where appropriate. Provide increased support and resources for more effective protected-area management within its breeding range. <p></p>
106006521		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula subrubra</em> is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, breeding in the north-west Himalayas, the Neelum Valley and Kaz-i-nag Range in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, Kashmir, and the Pir Panjal range in <strong>India</strong>. The species migrates south to winter chiefly in the hills of central-southern <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, and also the southern Western Ghats, particularly in the Nilgiri Hills north of the Palghat Gap, India (Zarri 2003), and also Siruvani Reserve Forest and Silent Valley National Park in the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve (Sashikumar <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.</span> 2011). It occurs on passage in <strong>Nepal</strong> and, as a vagrant, in Bhutan. Formerly common within its restricted breeding range, it has declined in many areas.  <p></p>
106006521		habitat	eng	It breeds from May-June in temperate, mixed deciduous forests, particularly comprising hazel <em>Corylus</em>, walnut <em>Albizia</em>, cherry <em>Prunus</em>, willow <em>Salix</em> and <em>Perrottetia</em> species, with a dense shrubby understorey, between 1,800-2,700 m. It nests in natural hollows and holes, most commonly low down in <em>Perrottetia</em> trees, and also willows. It winters in gardens, tea estates, forest edge and disturbed areas within forest, generally above c.750 m. On the Nilgiri Plateau, it winters mainly in wattle (<em>Acacia </em>sp.) plantations (Zarri and Rahmani 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most individuals leave the breeding grounds in September, arriving in Sri Lanka in October and departing again in late March. Pair-bonds appear to be maintained throughout the winter, and winter territories are occupied in successive years, suggesting strong winter site fidelity (Zarri and Rahmani 2004). <p></p>
106006521		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of available records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that it is unlikely that it currently numbers more than a few thousand individuals. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006521		threats	eng	The major threat is loss and degradation of its breeding habitat as a result of commercial timber extraction, conversion of land for agriculture, livestock-grazing which has substantially altered forest understorey structure and composition, and tree-lopping for animal fodder, fuelwood and construction materials. In the Nilgiri Plateau, the low economic feasibility of existing wattle plantations has led to increased rates of clearance, bringing reductions in the area of suitable wintering habitat (Zarri and Rahmani 2004).  <p></p>
106006522		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006523		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006524		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and reasonably common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006525		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species specific actions are known but a number of protected areas lie within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106006525		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula dumetoria</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>; Kalimantan, north Sumatra and principally west Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. <p></p>
106006525		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey and bamboo within lowland and lower montane forest. Its altitudinal range varies across its range, occurring locally to 800 m in the Malay Peninsula, to 1,200 m in Borneo, at 600-1,500 m on Sumatra, at 1,000-3,000 m on Java, 300-600 m on Lombok, 500-1,400 m on Sumbawa and at 600-1,900 m on Flores. It breeds between April and September, with one nest found in dense undergrowth near to a stream (Li and Chuah 2008). It forages low down in dense vegetation, often near streams, and frequently pursues insects in flight.  <p></p>
106006525		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006525		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia, and in Thailand and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), but the species's use of hill and submontane forests implies that it is not immediately threatened, and the recent discovery of it nesting in the immediate vicinity of a road suggests the species is fairly tolerant of human disturbance (Li and Chuah 2008)..<br/><p></p>
106006526		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the Dumoga-Bone National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106006526		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula rufigula</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (although it is absent on the east peninsula), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is locally common and widespread. <p></p>
106006526		habitat	eng	It occurs in the undergrowth of primary lowland and hill forest up to 600 m, occasionally to 1,000 m. It is also recorded from swamp-forest and secondary forest. It is very skulking, usually occurring in pairs, often in dense rattan thickets. Adults with recently fledged chicks have been seen at the end of September. <p></p>
106006526		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common and widespread although secretive and rarely seen (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006526		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. <p></p>
106006527		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to moderately or locally common on Buru and Seram and uncommon and local on Kai Besar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006528		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded recently in Mts Apo and Malindang National Parks. In addition, there are pre-1980 records from the Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve and the Basilan Natural Biotic Area.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Tape-record its vocalisations and use playback combined with mist-netting to establish its current distribution and population status in remnant lowland forest tracts, particularly in areas from which the species is known historically, including Mt Lobi, (Leyte) and Mts Diwata and Dapiak (Mindanao). Conduct studies to determine its ecological requirements, with specific reference to the level of tolerance of disturbed and secondary habitats. Campaign for the effective protection of important sites and propose further key sites found to support populations for formal protection. <p></p>
106006528		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula basilanica</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Samar, Leyte, Dinagat, Mindanao and Basilan. It is known from numerous widely scattered records within this range and was considered fairly common on Mindanao and Basilan in the early 20th century. It now appears to be rare, with post-1980 records from fewer than 10 localities, all on Mindanao. However, recent mist-net surveys in eastern Mindanao indicate that it may remain patchily frequent in suitable habitat and is probably under-recorded during observational fieldwork. In addition, there have been very few recent ornithological visits to other islands within its range.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006528		habitat	eng	It inhabits the dense understorey of lowland primary and secondary forest, usually below 900&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. It tolerates selectively logged forest and also frequents forest on limestone karst. It is unobtrusive, always remaining close to the forest floor.<p></p>
106006528		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006528		threats	eng	Its entire range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000 m. Most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions or mining applications. In 1989, it was estimated that Samar and Leyte had as little as 433 km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remaining. Dinagat has lost virtually all of its lowland forest through illegal logging and chromite surface-mining. On Mindanao, one recent locality, Samal, is due for conversion to a golf course, and forest at Bislig is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. <p></p>
106006529		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known, although a protected area has been proposed on the island.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Evaluate the proposed protected area on Damar in terms of suitability for the protection of this flycatcher, and other threatened species, proposing an alternative area if necessary. Monitor changes in forest cover through remote sensing, in the absence of field visits. <p></p>
106006529		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula henrici</em> is endemic to the small island of Damar (total area c.200 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Banda Sea, eastern Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from 14 specimens collected at three localities in late 1898. The island was recently visited by an ornithologist for the first time since its discovery, and the species was reported to be relatively common and widespread (Trainor 2002, Edwards 2008)<strong></strong>. Given approximately 150 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat, extrapolation of density estimates gives an overall population estimate of 20,000-30,000 individuals (Trainor 2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006529		habitat	eng	Recent observations indicate that this species is confined to lowland evergreen forest up to at least 400 m, where it frequents the understorey (Trainor 2002, 2007)<strong></strong>. Although it occasionally used gardens and groves, it is absent in highly modified habitats and apparently intolerant of forest conversion (Trainor 2007). It generally perches within 1 m of the ground while feeding, though will forage on the ground among rocks and leaf litter. <p></p>
106006529		population	eng	The total population is estimated to lie within the band 20,000-49,9999 individuals, based on recent survey data estimating density and area of occupancy (C. Trainor<I> in litt.</I> 2006).
106006529		threats	eng	About 70-80% of the island is still covered in semi-evergreen and dry tropical forest. Small-scale logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture occurs at low-levels but is expected to increase in future as human population levels rise (Trainor 2002)<strong></strong>. Volcanism and earthquakes represents a potential threat on the small island, given its location, and introduced rats may be predating on the native avifauna (Trainor 2007). <br/><p></p>
106006530		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as moderately common within its tiny global range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006531		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The entire island of Palawan was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in one protected area, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, which may soon be significantly extended to the east. The Iwahig penal colony is managed by the Bureau of Prisons but lacks official protection and management.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forests, using mist-netting and tape-playback to aid detection, in order to clarify its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat preferences, including tolerance of degradation. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. Formally protect forests at Iwahig and other key sites in the Victoria and Anapalan ranges. <p></p>
106006531		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula platenae</em> is endemic to Palawan and some of its satellite islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Since the late 19th century it has generally been described as uncommon or rare. Since 1980, there have been records from fewer than 10 sites. It may be easily overlooked during brief surveys and is likely to be localised (F. Lambert<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Three specimens obtained on Mt Victoria in three days in 1990, and several birds heard over a few days in 1997 at Iwahig penal colony, as well as more recent observations (F. Lambert <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) at Iwahig penal colony, again suggest that it may have been under-recorded.  <p></p>
106006531		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower storeys, up to 10&#160;m from the ground, of lowland primary forest up to at least 650&#160;m, possibly favouring areas rich in rattan, bamboo and understorey palms; suggesting it may tolerate secondary or degraded forests (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). However, although it has also been recorded in secondary growth, observations suggest it is sensitive to habitat modification.<p></p>
106006531		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006531		threats	eng	Lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation have been extensive and are ongoing on Palawan and logging and mining concessions have been granted for most remaining forest tracts on the island. Illegal logging is thought to persist across much of the south. Forest at Iwahig penal colony, a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. The small populations on the tiny islands of Pangulasian and Lagen appear relatively secure.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006532		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006533		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Calculate the net rate of loss of all forest types within its range to see if even secondary growth is being cleared. Assess other potential threats and if none are apparent consider revising its status. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106006533		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula disposita</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was considered threatened but is no longer regarded as particularly rare, with records from above Crow Valley, Mt High Peak, Zambales, Minuma, Siagot, Talisis Valley, Dinalongan, Aurora, two sites on the coastal road near Debutunan Point, and Angat Dam. It has now been found (on voice) to be relatively common, e.g. in forest along the main coastal road between Baler and Dinalongan in Aurora.  <p></p>
106006533		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland dense secondary-growth forest and appears to survive well in selectively logged and degraded areas below 700 m. It usually forages singly or in pairs within 5 m of the ground. Birds in breeding condition with recently fledged young have been encountered in May. <p></p>
106006533		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006533		threats	eng	Continuing forest loss poses the main threat, although this may be minor given the species ability to adapt to secondary and degraded forest. <p></p>
106006534		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. However, 200&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Lompobatang (which is heavily disturbed below 1,000-1,700&#160;m, but rises to 3,000&#160;m) has been proposed for establishment as a nature reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys in the Lompobatang massif to identify all remaining forest tracts supporting populations. Establish a strict protected area to encompass as much remaining forest on the massif as possible. Promote effective enforcement of protected-area regulations to minimise alternative land-use development and control further exploitation of the area. Initiate local directives for forest protection and promote a widespread education programme highlighting the importance of the Lompobatang massif as the major water catchment area supplying the large cities of Ujung Pandang and Maros. <p></p>
106006534		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula bonthaina</em> is only known from the Lompobatang massif at the southern tip of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Although only known historically from two localities, it was evidently common until at least the 1930s, when a large series of specimens was collected. Since then, however, there has been just two records, in 1995 of two birds (possibly a pair) and in 2004, when two or three birds were observed in a brief visit to forest above Malino (Eaton, J. <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The paucity of observations suggests that it may now occur only at low densities, and considering the severe loss of habitat within its restricted range, it must have undergone a dramatic decline. <p></p>
106006534		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical lower and upper montane rainforest above 1,100&#160;m. The only recent observations were in the dense, heavily shaded understorey (below c.4.5&#160;m) of disturbed forest dominated by saplings and <em>Pandanus</em> palms, with a discontinuous canopy caused by tree-falls. It apparently avoids adjacent forest with a more open understorey. It is not known whether the species is subject to any altitudinal movements, but this could be crucial to its survival prospects.<p></p>
106006534		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals (Alstrom <i>in litt.</i> 2000).
106006534		threats	eng	The environs of the Lompobatang massif are one of the most densely populated areas of Sulawesi and all forest below 1,000-1,500&#160;m, and locally up to 1,700&#160;m, has disappeared as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, commercial logging and both shifting and plantation agriculture. Remaining forest continues to be threatened by human activities.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006535		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon in Nepal, locally common in India and Bhutan, scarce in Bangladesh, locally common in Thailand and common in Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006536		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common and widespread to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006537		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006538		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon in north Indian Subcontinent, rare in China and uncommon in Myanmar, Laos and north Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006539		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research threats to the species and monitor any emerging threats identified. Produce density estimates to inform a global population estimate as a baseline. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106006539		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula nigrorufa </em>is an endemic resident in the Western Ghats of southern <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally common.<em> <p></p></em>
106006539		habitat	eng	It inhabits shola forests with dense undergrowth (bamboo, <em>Strobilanthes</em> and rattan) and plenty of leaf-litter, cardamom and coffee plantations, and moist thickets in ravines from 700 m to the highest summits. It forages low down and on the ground, hopping in damp, dense undergrowth. Breeding is between March and July. <p></p>
106006539		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006539		threats	eng	While its range is small, its tolerance for modified habitats suggests that it is not immediately threatened. However, an increasing human population has led to increased illegal encroachment into Western Ghat forests, livestock grazing and the harvesting of fuelwood, notably for use in tea factories (J. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011), and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes. Furthermore, hydroelectric power development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas. These factors require monitoring as, left uncontrolled, they will threaten the area's endemic avifauna.  <p></p>
106006540		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop methods (possibly using playback or mist-netting) to determine its population density and likely status on the island of Timor. Protect areas of lowland forest. Assess rates of decline of forest cover using satellite imagery and remote sensed data in the absence of field surveys. <p></p>
106006540		distribution	eng	<em>Ficedula timorensis</em> is restricted to Timor, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it appears to be uncommon or locally common, but may be frequently overlooked. <p></p>
106006540		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 1,200 m in the dense undergrowth of monsoon forest, apparently preferring areas with limestone boulders and rocky scree slopes. Although it has been found in degraded forest patches, it shows a preference for primary habitats. It typically forages alone or in pairs, within 2 m of the ground in dense undergrowth, gleaning insects or making short sallying flights. <p></p>
106006540		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006540		threats	eng	It appears to favour areas with closed-canopy forest, which are constantly diminishing. The ground vegetation in suitable patches of forest is frequently grazed by cattle. <p></p>
106006541		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as an uncommon to rare non-breeding visitor to the Malay peninsular, Singapore and the Philippines and a rare non-breeding visitor to Sumatra (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and  &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006542		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106006543		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known, but a number of protected areas occur within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess rates of forest loss within its altitudinal range by remote sensing satellite images. Infer trend estimates based upon the findings. Generate density estimates within different habitats and use these to inform a global population estimate. If appropriate recommend the protection of key forest patches within its range. <p></p>
106006543		distribution	eng	<em>Eumyias sordidus </em>is an endemic resident in the uplands of <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is generally common within its altitudinal range, but scarce at lower altitudes. <p></p>
106006543		habitat	eng	It occurs in well-wooded areas, at forest edges and sometimes in shady gardens from 1,220-1,830 m. During the non-breeding season it is occasionally recorded down to 450 m in the wetter lowlands. It forages for insects and berries, low down amongst undergrowth, but also on the ground among rocks. Breeding takes place between mid-March and September. <p></p>
106006543		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common, especially at higher altitudes (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006543		threats	eng	While it is resilient to forest degradation because of its preference for edge habitats, total clearance of habitat is a potential threat in its limited range. Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <p></p>
106006544		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally common to locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006545		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known, although it does occur within shade-coffee plantations, providing a good incentive for this practice in preference to sun coffee. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor threats to the species in order that emerging ones can be acted upon and mitigated as early as possible. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106006545		distribution	eng	<em>Eumyias albicaudatus </em>is an endemic resident in the Western Ghats of southern <strong>India</strong>, where it can be common in suitable habitat. While its range is small, its tolerance for disturbed habitats suggests that it is not immediately threatened by habitat modification. <p></p>
106006545		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen hill forests and woodlands favouring forest edges, clearings, dense vegetation near streams, shade coffee and cardamom plantations and sholas, from 600 m to the summits, being most numerous above 1,200 m. It forages alone or in loose association with other flycatchers in the lower storeys of vegetation on insects and berries. It breeds from February until June. <p></p>
106006545		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common, especially at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006545		threats	eng	An increasing human population has led to increased illegal encroachment into Western Ghat forests, livestock grazing and the harvesting of fuelwood, notably for tea factories (J. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011) and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes. Furthermore, hydroelectric power development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas which may impact this species.<br/><p></p>
106006546		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to fairly common and locally abundant in Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006547		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006548		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common to common or uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006549		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common in south China and uncommon in north Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006550		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce and local in north Pakistan, common in Nepal, fairly common in north India and Bhutan, uncommon in China and fairly common in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006551		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006552		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the race <I>oatesi</I> is described as uncommon in south China and rare in north-east India (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006553		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The eastern part of its known distribution is largely enclosed in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, covering 280&#160;km<sup>2</sup> between 100 m and 1,970&#160;m. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish its true range, distribution and population status, particularly in the unexplored mountains immediately to the west of its current known distribution. Identify areas supporting significant populations and propose their establishment as protected areas. Initiate awareness programmes to reduce habitat loss resulting from shifting cultivation. <p></p>
106006553		distribution	eng	<em>Cyornis sanfordi</em> is endemic to northern Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from four localities in the mountains of the Minahasa peninsula. It is thinly distributed, but may be more numerous in the western part of its range, considering the relatively large number (nine) originally collected. Observations in 2002 at a new site for the species (Gunung Banga) suggested that it was moderately common there (Lambaihang<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> <em>et al. </em></strong>2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006553		habitat	eng	It is a presumed resident (perhaps making very local altitudinal movements) in primary lower and upper montane rain forest and moss forest above 1,400&#160;m. It is apparently identical in habits, ecology, vertical distribution, behaviour and vocalisations to Blue-fronted Flycatcher <em>C. hoevelli</em>, which is usually unobtrusive but sometimes conspicuous, frequenting the lower storey or forest canopy of medium-sized and tall trees, and occasionally joining mixed-species flocks. It also occurs in disturbed forest (Riley and Mole 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006553		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006553		threats	eng	The main threat stems from habitat loss along the peripheries of the mountain range on the Minahasa peninsula, as a result of clearance for transmigration settlements and shifting agriculture. However, this is only a localised threat at the lower limit of its altitudinal range, with most forest at higher elevations remaining largely untouched. Logging concessions at lower altitudes also pose a threat.  In Indonesia new regional autonomy laws were enacted in 2000, which empowered regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has been a significant increase in the rate of logging in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi. <p></p>
106006554		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006555		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and uncommon on Timor and unknown status on Wetar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006556		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce to very locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006557		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. This species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. The Wildlife Conservation Society is currently actively trying to locate this species in the lowlands surrounding Gunung Leuser National Park, and hope to expand this work in the future once additional funding has been secured (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Examine the two skins in detail to improve understanding of its taxonomic status, and indeed (by consideration of wing length) to determine the likelihood of its being migratory. Conduct surveys (including use of mist nets) for the species between January and April in remaining forest patches ranging out from the two historical locations. Develop a conservation plan for the species, pending results of these surveys, including the establishment of protected areas, where appropriate, at any sites supporting populations. <p></p>
106006557		distribution	eng	<em>Cyornis ruckii</em> is known from two specimens collected in 1917 and 1918, at Tuntungan and Delitua in the lowlands of northern Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Two further specimens are purportedly from Malaysia, but their provenance has been questioned. The species must have always been very rare or local, given the failure of all but one zoological collector to obtain specimens. <p></p>
106006557		habitat	eng	Its ecology is virtually unknown. Specimens were collected at 150 m and 200 m in "exploited forest", suggesting it may tolerate some habitat degradation. The fact that they were taken in January and April raises the possibility that the species may be migratory. Judging by its morphology, its closest relatives are to be found in the Hainan Blue-flycatcher <em>C.</em> <em>hainanus </em>group of China and South-East Asia: birds of tangled understoreys and secondary forest. However, as the species's taxonomic relationships remain unclear, a broad outlook should be maintained on its likely ecology. <p></p>
106006557		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on a lack of records, despite searches, since two specimens were collected in 1917-1918.
106006557		threats	eng	There is apparently no remaining forest cover at the two known collecting localities (they are situated on the outskirts of a large city: Medan), and its range may therefore have shrunk considerably. However, the description of its habitat as "exploited forest" raises the possibility that it may persist in adjacent disturbed wooded areas. <p></p>
106006558		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006559		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common or fairly common, although uncommon to rare in Hong Kong and uncommon in Cambodia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006560		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to uncommon or scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006561		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common, although uncommon in Bhutan and Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006562		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon in most of its range, although frequent in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006563		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as a scarce and local summer visitor to Pakistan, locally common in India during the summer and  fairly common to uncommon throughout its South-East Asian range  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006565		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded within St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine net rates of forest clearance (primary and secondary) within Palawan using remote sensing. Survey habitats to generate density estimates for the species and estimate the global population based on these findings. Protect remaining fragments of lowland forest within its range. <p></p>
106006565		distribution	eng	<em>Cyornis lemprieri</em> is endemic to Palawan, Balabac, Culion and Calauit, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is uncommon to locally common in suitable habitat. There are records from St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Iwahig Penal Colony and Mt Mantakinghan, with a breeding record from Mt Mananangob and a good population at Singnapan. <p></p>
106006565		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland submontane dry primary forest and second growth, to 1,000 m. It forages in the understorey of forests and birds in breeding condition have been observed in April-June.   <p></p>
106006565		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006565		threats	eng	Forest loss on Palawan has been severe and despite this species's ability to tolerate secondary growth it has undoubtedly been affected. <p></p>
106006566		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon and very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006567		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in various protected areas throughout its range, including Sepilok Forest Reserve (Sabah), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Kutai National Park (Kalimantan), Kerinci-Seblat and Way Kambas National Parks (Sumatra).<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to investigate its population size and trends, ecological requirements and determine whether any specific conservation measures are needed. Provide support for the conservation and management of lowland protected areas in Sumatra and Borneo. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forest in the Sundaic region. <p></p>
106006567		distribution	eng	<em>Cyornis</em> <em>caerulata</em> occurs on Borneo (including <strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) and Sumatra, Indonesia, where it is resident in humid lowland evergreen forest, ascending foothills locally to mid-altitudes. It appears to be rather patchily distributed, occurring at relatively low densities and generally uncommon.<strong></strong><p></p>
106006567		habitat	eng	It frequents the middle and understoreys of primary, selectively logged and mature secondary dryland rainforest, tending to occur in more dense or tangled areas or at edges of clearings. Although the species has been found to tolerate selectively logged and secondary rainforest, it occurs at much lower densities in these habitats (Ansell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, Derhé<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2010, Hua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). It is often replaced in riverine forest by Malaysian Blue-flycatcher <em>C. turcosa</em>.<p></p>
106006567		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006567		threats	eng	The species has been reported to occur at lower population densities in  secondary and selectively forests than in primary forests (Ansell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, Derhé<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2010, Hua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Given its preference for primary lowland forest and restriction to Sumatra and Borneo, it is likely to be in steep decline from habitat loss, primarily through agricultural conversion following industrial-scale logging (even in some protected areas). Kalimantan lost just under 25% of its 1985 lowland forest cover in the subsequent 12 years, resulting in the prediction that this habitat-type could be eradicated from the entire province by 2010 if changes in policy and management were not forthcoming. Rates of loss on Sumatra were even higher, with 30% of lowland forest loss in the same 12-year period. Fire is also a threat to the species's habitat, with the major fires of 1997-1998 affecting 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Sumatra and Borneo and damaging at least 17 of Indonesia's parks and reserves. Following previous major conflagrations in 1972 and 1982-1983, the 1997-1998 fires accelerated the desiccation of the forest environment, halting regrowth and rendering unburnt adjacent areas ever more vulnerable to fire and ever poorer in biodiversity. <p></p>
106006568		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas including Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra and Separi Forest Reserve and Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Calculate relative population densities in primary, logged and secondary forest. Also assess net forest loss within the Sundaic lowlands and infer population trends. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106006568		distribution	eng	<em>Cyornis turcosus</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>; Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is common and widespread in Borneo, but rare and local elsewhere. <p></p>
106006568		habitat	eng	It occurs in bamboo, swamp and evergreen forest, usually in association with waterways, locally to 500 m in Borneo, but to no more than 60 m in the Malay Peninsula. It forages in the lower storeys of riverine and streamside forest by making short aerial sallies after passing insects. Breeding takes place from April until at least July. <p></p>
106006568		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare and local in Peninsular Malaysia and common in Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006568		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia, and in Thailand and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), but the species's use of secondary forest and brushwood of abandoned plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106006569		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006570		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to fairly common throughout much of its range, although rare on Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006571		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006572		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although scarce in Nepal and rare in north-west Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006573		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006574		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally fairly common in the Philippines and variably uncommon to very common on Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106006575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in cocoa plantations and forest re-growth and less common in coconut plantations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106006576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).
106006577		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the Udzungwas, the majority of this subpopulation is found within protected areas (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Ndundulu Mountains lie within the 135,000 ha Kilombero Nature Reserve, which is contiguous with Udzungwa Mountains National Park (N. Burgess<em> in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Conservation projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>, and to link the forest patches together through a network of corridors (N. Burgess<em> in litt</em>. 2007); the Derema forest corridor<strong></strong> has now been gazetted as a Forest Reserve with work undertaken including financial compensation and provision of alternative farmlands and livelihood supporting projects  (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in prep.). In Zimbabwe, Chirinda Forest, Stapleford Forest, Banti Forest and part of Bvumba where the bird occurs are protected areas gazetted by law (C. Chirara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the numbers and distribution of this species in Zimbabwe (S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and obtain an estimate for the total population. Conduct further studies in the mountain highlands between the Udzungwas and the Usambaras to search for populations in yet unexplored areas (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor population trends. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation across its range. Protect its habitat in Zimbabwe and on Mt Gorongosa (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, Parker 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate why it is submontane in most areas but occurs only at low altitudes in the East Usambaras (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006577		distribution	eng	<em>Swynnertonia swynnertoni</em> is restricted to a few mountains in eastern <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In Zimbabwe, the nominate subspecies occurs at Chirinda and a few other tiny forest patches on the border with Mozambique. In Mozambique, subspecies <em>umbratica</em> is common (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999, T. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> on Mt Gorongosa (c.125 km<sup>2</sup> of forest in 1970 [T. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>), and there are possibly no more than 1,000 individuals in central Mozambique (Parker 2005)<strong></strong>. The species was found 350 km north-east of Gorongosa on Mt Mabu in northern Mozambique in 2008, where there are perhaps 100-200 pairs in 800 ha of forest (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). In Tanzania, subspecies <em>rodgersi</em> is found 1,100 km to the north in the Udzungwa Mountains, where it is rare to common locally, with densities exceptionally as high as 25 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> in secondary forest (Butynski and Ehardt 2003)<strong></strong>, and <em>rodgersi</em> also occurs another 400 km to the north in lowland patches within the East Usambara Mountains (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>, where the subpopulation is probably small (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong>. The population in the Udzungwa Mountains is thought to number no more than 1,000 birds (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.It appears to be absent from other Eastern Arc mountains, despite apparently suitable habitat being available (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p>
106006577		habitat	eng	All subpopulations are found solely in montane forest (850-1,850 m), apart from in the East Usambaras where it probably occurs only in lowland evergreen forest (130-550 m) (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. On Mt Mabu it occurs from c.1,340 m to the upper limits of the main forest (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). It favours dense undergrowth with a high density of saplings, or rank growth near streams (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). In the Bvumba mountains it was found at 1,200-1,850 m in 2007 (C. Chirara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The species is very intolerant of disturbance and will disappear swiftly from a site if disturbed too often or if vegetation is cut (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The breeding season for the southern population is October-January (Clancey 1996, Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Udzungwas, the breeding season is strongly correlated with the rainy season, which begins in early to mid-November and lasts until April, with juveniles seen as late as February (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The clutch-size is two. <p></p>
106006577		population	eng	Given that the only estimations for any one of this species's subpopulations are for no more than 1,000 individuals, e.g. central Mozambique and the Udzungwa Mts (L. Hansen <em>in litt.</em> 2007), the total population is placed in the range band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006577		threats	eng	Forest is being cleared on Mt Gorongosa (Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997, T. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The East Usambara subpopulation is threatened by pole-cutting, firewood-collection, cultivation, illegal pit-saw logging and gold mining (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1997, L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Bvumba, Zimbabwe, the species is threatened by changes in the forest understorey owing to the spread of the non-native <em>Hedychium</em>, an ornamental ginger (S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and by clearance for gardens by the new  settlers (C. Chirara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).&#160; Uncontrolled fires are also a big problem in the Bvumba (C. Chirara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Forest at higher levels on Mount Mabu is currently under relatively little pressure (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010).<br/><p></p>
106006580		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant, although rare to locally common in west Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006583		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006584		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several Tanzanian sites are forest reserves (M. Msuha verbally 1998, N. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Projects in the east Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest in protected areas. In Kenya, the Shimba Hills is a national reserve, and in Arabuko-Sokoke an ongoing project aims to promote sustainable forest management (Matiku <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In Malawi, remaining forest on the lakeshore plain is mainly in four small forest reserves, while escarpment forest, although not protected, is in a largely uninhabited area (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2000)<strong></strong>. Some forest sites are protected by virtue of their remoteness or water catchment value (Fjeldså <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Help the Malawi Forest Department with the conservation of established reserves on the lakeshore (M. Dyer <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. Enforce legislation controlling forest-use in both Arabuko-Sokoke and the east Usambaras. Increase protection for Tanzanian coastal forests. Investigate its responses to habitat alteration (L. Bennun <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Assess the population size and trend in the Nguu Mts (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong></strong>. Conduct surveys in southern Tanzania and Mozambique (M. Dyer <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, T. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006584		distribution	eng	<em>Sheppardia gunningi</em> occurs as four subspecies in scattered forests in south-east <strong>Kenya </strong>(Nemeth 1996, Bennun and Njoroge 1999, Matiku <em>et al.</em> 1999, Nemeth and Bennun 1999, Oyugi and Amutete 1999), eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong><sup> </sup>(Evans 1997b, Archer and Iles 1998, N. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a, Mlingwa <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> in press), northern <strong>Malawi </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire 1989) and <strong>Mozambique </strong>(Clancey 1996). The area of occupied suitable habitat may total less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given that it totals c.470 km<sup>2</sup> outside Mozambique. At least 7,500 pairs occur in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest (Kenya) alone (Nemeth 1996, Matiku <em>et al.</em> 1999, Nemeth and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. This population appears to be stable (C. Jackson <em>in litt.</em> 2006, P. Matiku <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> and recent records of juveniles (possible dispersers) outside the principal forest block suggest it may be near carrying capacity.  The population at Chinizuia in Mozambique may have been extirpated through deforestation (C. Spottiswoode <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. A new population has recently been discovered at Mt Mabu in Mozambique (C. Spottiswoode <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. In Tanzania the species is under severe pressure: the largest population is thought to occur in Ruvu South Forest Reserve; a long isolated population in the Nguu Mts is small and under pressure; the population in Jozani forest on Zanzibar occupies a tiny habitat; a population discovered in Nyumburuni Forest Reserve in 2003 was under severe pressure at the time of discovery despite an IUCN programme in Rufiji District, and a plantation of Mvule on the Rondo Plateau which supports a healthy population of akalats was under threat of being clear felled (N. Baker and E. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006584		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed, moist forest in the Tanzanian mountains (Evans 1997b, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong></strong>, lowland and mid-altitude humid forest in Malawi (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>, and tracts of mixed woodland and open, dry forest in coastal / lowland areas (Nemeth 1996)<strong></strong>. In Kenya, it is not found in degraded forest (L. Bennun <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, but in Tanzania and Malawi it can also be found in secondary forest (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989, Nemeth 1996, Evans 1997b, N. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, although it is generally restricted to the forest interior (N. Baker and E. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>, where males retain year round territories. In Tanzania it largely inhabits coastal forests below 300 m, apart from a montane subspecies in the Nguu Mts (Fjeldså <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. The birds discovered at Mt Mabu, Mozambique, were found at 530 m in tea forest (Spottiswoode <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The species mainly feeds on insects, but has also been observed to take berries and seeds (Fjeldså <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. Birds typically require dense cover, which they retreat into and use to conceal the nest (N. Baker and E. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Mozambique, a pair in breeding condition were found in December (Spottiswoode <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p>
106006584		population	eng	Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in Kenya is believed to support c.7,500 pairs or around 15,000 mature individuals. Other subpopulations in Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique are not thought to be large, hence the global population is best treated as moderately small, at 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total.
106006584		threats	eng	In coastal forests, extraction of timber and deadwood and clearance for agriculture are major and increasing threats (L. Bennun <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, while elephant damage is a threat in the Shimba Hills, Kenya (N. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Lowland sites in Malawi are under increasing human pressure (T. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Forest within its range in Mozambique is also under severe and increasing pressure from the expanding human population (T. Oatley <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The population at Chinizuia in Mozambique may have been extirpated following forest clearance (C. Spottiswoode <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere, habitat at Mt Mabu is being encroached for maize cultivation. If commercial tea production resumed in this area, which would necessitate cropping of existing tea trees, this could also reduce the species's available habitat (Spottiswoode <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Where joint forest management allows deadwood collection people typically target the deadwood thickets that this species relies upon for nesting (N. Baker and E. Baker <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006585		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area of 50 km<sup>2</sup> in the region was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not been established (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the population size and ascertain its presence in other forest patches. Survey forest cover in the Gabela region by studying satellite imagery, in order to improve the population estimate (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Designate the forest at Gabela as a protected area (the only effective conservation action possible) (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement a conservation strategy for the Angolan escarpment in reaction to the resumption of commercial activities (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote ecotourism as a viable supplement to agriculture (as tourism becomes possible) (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's territory size by radio-tracking individuals (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Preserve Kumbira Forest through official protection and community-based conservation (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006585		distribution	eng	<em>Sheppardia gabela</em> is known only from a few forest patches within 40 km of Gabela, on the escarpment of western <strong>Angola</strong>. A recent brief survey (2003) found that the forest around Gabela has largely been transformed, but three individuals of this species were recorded at a single, large forest block which survives near the village of Kumbira, in regenerating coffee and in secondary bush near the town of Seles (<strong></strong>C. Cohen, M. Mills and C. Spottiswoode <em>in litt. </em>2003, Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004, Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2005 found the species at two additional sites within the known range (Mills 2010). It may possibly occur in other relict patches of forest on the escarpment, but suitable habitat is severely restricted. The species's global range of 1,090 km<sup>2</sup> and the estimated local deforestation rate of 20-70% can be used to estimate the area of available habitat at 327-872 km<sup>2 </sup>(Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. With this information, and assuming a territory size of 3 ha per pair (maximum for well-studied <em>Sheppardia</em> species), the minimum global population is estimated to number 21,800 mature individuals (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>. However, the area of available habitat is probably much smaller than the estimate used (M. Mills <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, thus this is considered a maximum population estimate. This calculation may include unsuitable forest habitat, and the deforestation rate may be over 70%, however countering this, the species is common in some modified habitats (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006585		habitat	eng	It is found in the dense understorey of a few remaining primary and secondary forest patches at or above 1,100 m, but as low as 810 m (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed in scrubby edges of managed "coffee forest", but is probably dependent on nearby, more intact forest. It has been observed mostly at heights of 4-6 m above the forest floor (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is probably exclusively insectivorous, gleaning insects from leaves and branches of undergrowth. Its breeding ecology is unknown although birds in breeding condition have been found in September. Two immature birds were trapped in Kumbira Forest in January 2004, probably constituting the first breeding record for the species (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Territory size is probably in the range of other well-studied <em>Sheppardia</em> species, at around 0.5-3 ha per pair (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006585		population	eng	Using an estimate of the area of available habitat of 327-872 km<sup>2</sup>, and assuming a territory size of 3 ha per pair the minimum global population is estimated to number 21,800 mature individuals. The area of suitable habitat is probably much smaller than the estimate used (M. Mills<i> in litt.</i> 2007), so this may well be an overestimate: the population is thus precautionarily placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106006585		threats	eng	It is threatened by loss of habitat from subsistence agriculture, which possibly affects 30% of forest in the Kumbira area (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In some areas, 20-70% of canopy trees and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy is being removed to plant cassava and maize (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since the 1930s, shaded coffee plantations have been developed in the forests of the escarpment (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is likely that suitable habitat has increased since the mid-1970s, as civil war has forced out commercial farmers<strong><sup></sup></strong> and resulted in the abandonment of shaded coffee plantations (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004, Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, however, relict coffee plantations are now being encroached by subsistence agriculture (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. With the return of peace, commercial activities on the Angolan escarpment (such as coffee growing) (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> are expected to resume, presenting a serious threat to the species (Mills <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In particular, the replacement of shade-grown coffee with sun-tolerant varieties could pose a serious threat (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The marketing of local produce is currently limited by the poor state of the Sumbe-Gabela road, however this is a priority for reconstruction, which would contribute to increased development and agriculture in the area (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most of Kumbira Forest was selectively logged before the civil war (Sinclair <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, although there is no evidence of ongoing logging, the forest continues to be a source of firewood (Sekercioðlu and Riley 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106006586		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of its range lies within Forest Reserves. Some forest areas in the west Usambaras have developed community management plans (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but the outcomes and effectiveness of these is not known. In February 2000 a three-year evaluation of forest health, land-use change and information sharing in the Eastern Arc forests was established (Madoffe <em>et al.</em> undated, see www.easternarc.org)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite imagery, permanent sample plots and stakeholder interviews are being used to evaluate forest health (Madoffe <em>et al.</em> undated, see www.easternarc.org)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct fieldwork to establish its population size. Commence population monitoring. Assess and monitor potential threats, especially the extent and rate of loss or degradation of its habitat. Work with organisations such as Tea Estates to conserve forests in the West Usambaras, such as at Ambangulu (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006586		distribution	eng	<em>Sheppardia montana</em> has a very small range of c. 930 km<sup>2</sup> in the West Usambara Mountains, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, of which it is thought to occupy just c. 140 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat. The total population was conservatively estimated to be 28,000 birds at the beginning of the 1980s (van der Willigen and Lovett 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006586		habitat	eng	This is a largely ground-dwelling bird of montane forest undergrowth, thickets and degraded forest with some remaining canopy, replacing Sharpe's Akalat <em>S. sharpei</em> at higher altitudes and in drier forests (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on the forest floor (often following driver-ant swarms), as well as on trunks and lianas, and by sallying in mid-air (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown, but there are indications that the breeding season is from October to March, with a peak in November-December (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, N.&#160;Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006586		population	eng	The total population has been conservatively estimated at 28,000 birds.
106006586		threats	eng	Formerly its habitat was being converted to softwood plantations, although probably no longer (N.&#160;Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encroachment for subsistence agriculture is still ongoing. Although this has been regarded as a minor threat (N.&#160;Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in some forests wood extraction is still a very serious issue (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's population is therefore assumed to be declining and becoming fragmented. <p></p>
106006587		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A large proportion of the species's range (in the Udzungwa Mountains) is protected in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and in several forest reserves. Forest reserves in the Ukaguru Mountains are reasonably intact owing to the steep terrain. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the Rubeho Mountains, Mahenge and Imagi Forests (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and habitat around Njombe (D. Moyer<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, to see if it occurs there. Conduct a baseline survey to assess the total population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Strengthen protection measures for protected areas that are under threat.  <p></p>
106006587		distribution	eng	<em>Sheppardia lowei</em> is known from only a small number of forested areas in the Ukaguru Mountains, Udzungwa Mountains and the Southern Highlands (Njombe District) of <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Within this range it is fairly common in places, with as many as 15 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> in the Udzungwas (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where there is possibly only 100-160 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable forest. The population in the Udzungwas is known from eight localities and is guessed to exceed 10,000 individuals (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although the total population of Nyumbanitu and Ndundulu Forests and Udzungwa National Park has been estimated at possibly no more than 2,500 individuals (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006587		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forest and thickets (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is tolerant of some habitat disturbance. It is generally more abundant at higher altitudes (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Largely ground-dwelling, it forages in leaf-litter and sometimes gleans from trunks, vines and branches (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also a frequent visitor to cleared trails (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It regularly attends army-ant swarms and feeds on tiny insects flushed by the ants (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season seems to follow the beginning of the first heavy rains, often in early to mid-November in the Udzungwas, and juveniles are seen until early April at least (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006587		population	eng	The population in the Udzungwas is known from eight localities and is guessed to exceed 10,000 individuals (L. Dinesen<I> in litt</I>. 2007), although the total population of Nyumbanitu and Ndundulu Forests and Udzungwa National Park has been estimated at possibly no more than 2,500 individuals (L. Hansen <I>in litt</I>. 2007). The range of 10,000-19,999 individuals therefore remains as a preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006587		threats	eng	It is not threatened in the Udzungwa Mountains, where the majority of the population is found, owing partly to its preference for higher altitude forests where logging is much less severe (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it may be threatened by forest destruction in the Southern Highlands, where forest patches are smaller and under greater pressure (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, D. C. Moyer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An ever increasing threat in the Njombe area is agricultural expansion, which has resulted in the near total clearance of forest patches between Njombe and Kipengere (D. Moyer<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although there is pressure on village forest reserves around Mufundi, the species is considered secure here owing to adequate protection of other areas of habitat (D. Moyer<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006588		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 43,000,000-83,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 129,000,000-249,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 137,000,000-332,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006589		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates   include: &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50   wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006590		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is considered Vulnerable in the most recent national Red Data Book for Japan (Ministry of the Environment 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It makes use of artificial nest boxes that have been erected. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the species in order to detect populations declines. If declines are evident consider appropriate management actions including predator control and reducing commercial logging. Calculate its range size and the area of suitable habitat. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106006590		distribution	eng	<em>Erithacus komadori</em> is the most abundant of the endemic birds restricted to the Nansei Shoto archipelago, <strong>Japan</strong>. Three subspecies are currently recognised: subspecies <em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>subrufa</em>, which occurs on the islands of Ishigaki, Iriomote and Yonaguni (where it is poorly known and may be of doubtful validity); subspecies <em>namiyei</em>, which is endemic to the northern part of Okinawa Island, and subspecies <em>komadori</em>, which inhabits the southern islands of of Kagoshima and Okinawa. The population is considered to be around 80,000-90,000 individuals (S. Chan <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. It remains common on Amami-oshima, Toku-noshima and the northern part of Okinawa, but steep declines have been reported from some islands.<em> <p></p></em>
106006590		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth in damp areas within riparian broad-leaved evergreen forest and nests in crevices or among the roots of trees from May to August. It occurs from 100-600 m in different parts of its range. It is a partial migrant and in the winter many birds relocate to the southern islands of the archipelago (Brazil 1991)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006590		population	eng	The global population size has been estimated at c.80,000-90,000 individuals (S. Chan <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs.
106006590		threats	eng	Threats include predation by introduced mongoose (Okinawa) and weasels (Nakanoshima), and habitat loss resulting from commercial logging. <p></p>
106006591		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population estimates include: c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006592		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,700,000-6,900,000 breeding pairs, equating to 11,100,000-20,700,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 15,000,000-41,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006593		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,200,000-12,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,600,000-36,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17,000,000-72,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 800-1,000 breeding pairs, equating to 2,400-3,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming   &lt;5% of the global range. National population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106006595		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in the Tien Shan and Pamir Alai mountains and very common in northern Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006596		population	eng	Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et   al.</span> (2004) estimate the global population to number 2,000,000   individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number   4,500,000-7,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 13,500,000-23,400,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004), while national population   estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50   wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106006597		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but this species's distribution and abundance in these areas is poorly known. It has been recorded from Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve and Wanglang Nature Reserve, Sichuan, and Taibai Shan National Nature Reserve in Shaanxi.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range, and seek to determine its winter range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status and in particular determine its utilisation of successional habitats and modified forest, as well as habitat requirements in wintering grounds. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a protected species in China.  <p></p>
106006597		distribution	eng	<em>Luscinia ruficeps</em> is known to breed at four sites in north-central Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, south-west <strong>China</strong>. In Jiuzhaigou National Park, six singing males were heard along 3-4 km of the valley near Nuorilong in 1991, and four singing males and two females were seen along c.400 m of trail in the valley above "Pearl Shoal waterfall" in June 1995. It has been recorded once in winter in peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>. The paucity of records suggests that it probably has a localised distribution and a small population. <p></p>
106006597		habitat	eng	In its breeding range, it occurs in temperate mixed coniferous and deciduous forest and deciduous scrub, particularly associated with narrow river valleys between 2,400-2,800 m, where it may be specialised to areas of successional scrub in valley bottoms which develop following flash-floods. The single winter record is from ericaceous scrub at 2,030 m. <p></p>
106006597		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on an analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001), who noted that it can occur at high densities in suitable habitat, but the paucity of records suggests that it is probably highly localised in distribution and could have a small total population, i.e. fewer than 10,000 individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006597		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, through timber production and conversion to cultivation and pasture, and it is assumed that substantial areas of temperate forest have been lost. In one of the valleys where it was recently recorded in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve, limited cutting and lopping of wood had occurred, and in two valleys flood-control dams have been constructed. Dam construction is likely to be negatively affecting the wintering grounds, as well as habitat used on migration (J. Hornskov<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012), and possibly successional habitats utilised during the breeding season. If it winters in primary lowland forest in the Sundaic region, it is likely to experience intense pressures from habitat loss. <p></p>
106006598		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Thailand. A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these areas is poorly known. It has been recorded from Jiuzhaigou and Baihe nature reserves (Sichuan) and Taibai Shan National Nature Reserve (Shaanxi).  A survey in 2011 reported 14 new sightings in two breeding areas in the  Qinling Mts, Shaanxi province. Seven males were recorded each in  Foping and Changqing national nature reserves during the study (Davies 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its population status. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. List it as a protected species in China. <p></p>
106006598		distribution	eng	<em>Luscinia obscura</em> breeds in the mountains of western <strong>China</strong> (B. King <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), where it was, until recently, known only from a handful of scattered records from Sichuan, Gansu and Shaanxi, together with several presumed non-breeding records from southern China and northern <strong>Thailand</strong>. A survey in 2011 reported 14 new sightings in two breeding areas in the Qinling Mts, Shaanxi province. Seven males were recorded each in Foping and Changqing national nature reserves during the study (Davies 2011). The results of the 2011 survey, as well as the paucity of records, suggests that it probably has a localised distribution and a small population. Numerous recent surveys of potentially suitable sites in southern Sichuan have failed to record this species (S. Dowell <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006598		habitat	eng	Its habitat requirements and altitudinal range are poorly known. In Gansu, there are historical records from bamboo thickets on the tops of ridges dividing valleys at 3,050-3,350&#160;m. More recent records in Sichuan are from temperate zone forest. Almost all of the individuals found during the 2011 survey in Shaanxi were on mountain slopes at 2,400-2,500 m in large, dense expanses of bamboo in open coniferous  and mixed coniferous-broadleaved forest (Davies 2011). Outside the breeding season, it has been recorded at 400 m in Thailand.<br/><p></p>
106006598		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on an analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001), who noted that it is probably highly localised in distribution and could have a small total population, i.e. fewer than 10,000 individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006598		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, through exploitation of timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture, and substantial areas of temperate forest have been lost. Nong Bong Khai, Thailand, supported significant areas of secondary forest when the species was collected there, but the area has since been completely deforested for intensive agriculture and tourism.  <p></p>
106006599		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. All recent records originate from Wolong Nature Reserve, Sichuan. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey within its known breeding range to determine habitat preference and density estimates. Use these to identify other potentially key areas, survey these and generate population estimates. Assess the impacts of forest loss within its breeding and inferred wintering ranges using satellite imagery and remote sensing. Protect key breeding strongholds. Collate available winter records and analyse patterns of distribution  and habitat use to improve knowledge of its winter distribution. <p></p>
106006599		distribution	eng	<em>Luscinia pectardens</em> breeds in Sichuan, Yunnan and south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, and is a non-breeding visitor to the mountains of Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya, <strong>India</strong>, northern <strong>Myanmar </strong>and <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It appears to be very rare, with the only recent records on the breeding grounds from Wolong Biosphere Reserve in Sichuan, although it must be greatly under-recorded as much of its range is remote and seldom visited by ornithologists. <em> <p></p></em>
106006599		habitat	eng	It breeds in dense thickets and scrub in valley bottoms and along stream-sides, within montane forest, at 2,800-3,700 m. It forages on arthropods on the forest floor. <p></p>
106006599		population	eng	This species is very poorly known andthe only recent records are from one site in China. Although the rest of its possible range has not been well surveyed it is possible that the species is genuinely rare and therefore it is perhaps best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006599		threats	eng	It has presumably been affected by deforestation from logging and agricultural expansion on both the breeding and wintering grounds. <p></p>
106006600		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range, except for northern Vietnam, where it is rare (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005),  while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006602		population	eng	The global population   size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding population is   estimated to number 10,000-21,000 breeding pairs, equating to 30,000-63,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming &lt;5% of the   global range. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000   wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006603		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Pakistan, locally common in the central and eastern Himalayas, common in Bhutan and uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the eastern Himalayas, uncommon in China and scarce in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in the eastern Himalayas, rare in China and fairly common in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006606		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006607		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 410,000-920,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,230,000-2,760,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2,510,000-11,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and commonest at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006609		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant, particularly along stream sides (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on mount Mulanje and the Nyika plateau and scarce elsewhere in its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006613		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006614		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to locally common, although uncommon in Sudan and rare in Korup National Park, Cameroon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but generally scarce (Keith et al. 1992).
106006616		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common throughout its range except at the fringes of its range, for example southern Somali where it is very uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally very common (Keith et al. 1992).
106006619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as sparse in Angola frequent to common in Ethiopia and locally fairly common in western Kenya (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006620		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Bombo-Lumene was established as a Game Reserve in 1968, and in 1976 a Fauna and Forest Reserve was established within its borders. However, the site is poorly staffed and equipped (Demey and Louette 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine its population size, distribution and the degree to which it is threatened (when the security situation permits). Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation in the areas in which it occurs. Establish suitable sites as nature reserves. <p></p>
106006620		distribution	eng	<em>Cossypha heinrichi</em> is known from only two small areas: c.30&#160;km north-east of Calandula (formerly Duque de Braganza) in northern <strong>Angola,</strong> and from 500&#160;km to the north at Bombo-Lumene Forest Reserve, and nearby Nkiene and Nguma (near Kinshasa) in the western <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (Keith <em> et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The Nguma locality was discovered in May 1998, when four specimens were collected (Mayr and Peters 1999)<strong></strong>. Birds have been seen at four other sites within a 15&#160;km radius of Bombo-Lumene and there is an unconfirmed sight record 550&#160;km still further north, near Mbandaka (Keith <em> et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The species remains very poorly known and the scarcity of records indicates it is rare, though future surveys may prove it to be more widely distributed (Mayr and Peters 1999)<strong></strong>. <strong></strong><p></p>
106006620		habitat	eng	In northern Angola, the species has been found in dense undergrowth of gallery forests along rivers and brooks at 1,250&#160;m, occasionally entering surrounding savanna areas. In the western DRC, it is known from a few isolated, thick (not gallery) forest patches in the savanna. It is insectivorous, feeding especially on driver ants. In Angola, there are possibly two breeding seasons, in February and October. In the DRC, the breeding season is September-November, coincident with the start of the rainy season.<p></p>
106006620		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006620		threats	eng	In the DRC, forest patches from which it is known are extremely small and deforestation (for charcoal) is widespread at Bombo-Lumene due to the proximity of Kinshasa (Demey and Louette 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A large part of the Bombo-Lumene Reserve is currently used for agricultural and pastoral activities (Demey and Louette 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Angola, its habitat may be threatened by clearance for agriculture and uncontrolled fires from slash-and-burn cultivation (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006621		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered sparse to common.
106006622		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006623		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor potential threats to the species's habitat. Afford protection to known sites.  <p></p>
106006623		distribution	eng	<em>Xenocopsychus ansorgei</em> has an extremely localised distribution on the escarpment of western <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is confined to four areas, eastern Namibe and Huila, N'Dalatando in Cuanza Norte, Mt Soque in Huambo and the Gabela area in Cuanza Sul (<strong></strong>Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is common where it occurs. <p></p>
106006623		habitat	eng	The species is present at 690-2,200 m (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found in caves and on rocky grassland slopes and cliffs with nearby forest, feeding on insects. The species is reportedly also seen in riverine forest and thick undergrowth on forested slopes (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on or near the ground. Breeding takes place in September-November, with pairs producing two broods in rapid succession. The nest, in which 2-3 eggs are laid, is an open cup of twigs, grasses and dead leaves, lined with plant material, and situated on a rock ledge under an overhang (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006623		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106006623		threats	eng	This species's limited range may make it vulnerable to alterations to its habitat. This would probably be most likely driven by the spread of small-scale cultivation and livestock farming.  <p></p>
106006624		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather local and confined to its specific habitat, although often common within that habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106006625		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and common throughout the escarpment zone in Angola (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106006626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range, especially along dry watercourses (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106006627		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Keith et al. 1992).
106006628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006629		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006630		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to common (Keith et al. 1992).
106006632		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006633		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 32,000-96,000 breeding pairs, equating to 96,000-288,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 196,000-1,150,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006635		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common across the Sahel, very common across central Sudan and common in central Yemen (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006637		distribution	eng	This species occurs from extreme south-west Angola south to west-central Namibia (Harrison et al. 1997b). A population of 2,000 birds occurs in Namib-Naukluft Park, Namibia, and there is also a population in Iona National Park, Angola (Harrison et al. 1997).
106006637		habitat	eng	This species inhabits rocky hills, mountains and inselbergs where it is associated mainly with Commiphora-Acacia scrub and occurs from 700-1,100 m, principally on south-facing hillsides (Harrison et al. 1997b).
106006637		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but in prime habitat the species is abundant, reaching densities of 15 birds per km2, and the Namibian population is estimated at 108,000 birds (Harrison et al. 1997b, Robertson et al. 1995). In parts of its range the species is described as rare  (Keith et al. 1992).
106006638		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A scheme to eradicate feral cats was initiated on Frégate in the early 1980s, however, despite its success, the population of <em>C. sechellarum</em> stayed critically low for the remainder of the decade<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Edwards undated). A recovery programme was initiated in 1990<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and, since 1998, has been managed locally. Meetings of the Seychelles Magpie Robin Recovery Team happen twice a year on Praslin, involving stakeholders in reviewing and planning conservation efforts<strong> </strong>(Millet and Shah 2001); this has helped domestic financing, with the islands of Cousine, Cousin and Aride all funding their own monitoring work<strong> </strong>(Parr <em>et al</em>. 1999). Translocations have taken place to four small, predator-free islands (Parr 1998a; Parr <em>et al</em>. 1999), habitat restoration activities are underway on several islands, but it may be several years before they are suitable for further translocations (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2005). Nesting success has been boosted by habitat creation, supplementary feeding<strong> </strong>(Njoroge <em>et al</em>. 2001), nest defence, provision of nest boxes, and reduction of <em>A. tristis</em>. Supplementary feeding was first initiated in the early 1990s to increase reproductive rate and the survival of young birds, however as the populations grew and habitat improved, it was phased out on Cousin in the 1990s and on Frégate and Cousine in 2001-2002<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. By 2007, supplementary feeding was still taking place on Aride where the population was introduced in 2002 (G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Nest boxes are adapted to prevent predation by native predators. The populations of <em>T. alba</em> on Cousin, Cousine and Aride are controlled, however they are supplemented by immigration from Praslin<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <em>A. tristis</em> has been eradicated on Aride and Cousin, leaving a controlled population on Frégate and a small population on Cousine. Brown rats were eliminated from Frégate in 2000. The use of insecticides (particularly containing organophosphates) on all islands where the species resides has been banned or is subject to a restricted use policy<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Research has been conducted to establish alternatives for indoor insect control that are not toxic to birds<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Edwards undated)<strong></strong> with pyrethrum-based insecticides and hydroponics systems now preferred (Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Genetic studies have been carried out to investigate inbreeding<strong> </strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and research on factors affecting territory quality, with implications for habitat management, has been undertaken <strong></strong>(Parr and Shah 1999). An integrated pest management programme is being implemented on Frégate<strong> </strong>(S. Parr and N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Fieldwork in summer 2006 included a full population survey, the ringing of unringed birds and replacement of old rings<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>(Bristol and Ward 2006). In addition, biometric measurements and blood samples were taken for molecular sexing and records. It was noted on Fregate in 2006 that habitat had continued to improve owing to management<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>(Bristol and Ward 2006). In 2008 20 birds were transferred to Denis Island and there were several successful breeding attempts within six months of the release<strong> </strong>(N. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Anon. 2009). North Island should be considered for future transfers since rats and cats have now been eradicated and forest habitats are being actively restored<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify at least three new islands for future translocations, eradicate introduced mammals and restore natural habitat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999<strong></strong>; Shah and Parr 1998). Establish self-sustaining breeding populations on at least seven islands by 2012<strong> </strong>(G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Resolve problems restricting establishment of this species on Aride <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Continue development of local expertise, ownership and management of the recovery programme<strong> </strong>(N. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Develop a veterinary holding operation for emergency situations<strong> </strong>(Parr and Shah 1999). Translocate birds to North Island (G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106006638		distribution	eng	<em>Copsychus sechellarum</em> was orginally present on eight (possibly 13) islands<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Millett and Parr (undated; in Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005))<strong></strong> in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>, but in 1965, only 12-15 birds remained on Frégate (Gaymer <em>et al.</em> 1969). A small introduced population on Alphonse survived until about 1960<strong> </strong>(Edwards undated). The Frégate population numbered c.40 birds in 1977/78, however by 1981 this had been reduced to c.20 birds, and numbers remained around this level until the 1990s<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Edwards undated). In 1994, following the advent of a recovery programme, the population had increased to 48, with two birds translocated to Aride. In 2000, following further translocations, the population reached 86 (comprising 46 on Frégate, 23 on Cousin, 15 on Cousine and two on Aride) (Millett <em>et al.</em> 1999; Millet and Shah 2001). The population has continued to increase since 2000, with a total of 110 individuals in 2003 (<strong></strong>R. Bristol <em>in litt.</em> 2003), 136 individuals in 2004 (including 90 mature individuals)<strong> </strong>(R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2004), and an estimated 150 in 2005 (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2005). In 2006, the population had increased to 178 birds (including 82 on Frégate, 46 on Cousin, 32 on Cousine and 18 on Aride)<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(N. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Three of the four populations are now at carrying capacity, with only small population increases anticipated as habitat continues to improve<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. However, one bird emigrated from Aride to Denis Island in August 2004<strong> </strong>(R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2005;  J. Millett <em>in litt</em>. 2004), demonstrating that the species is capable of dispersing to peripheral cays. In 2008 20 birds were translocated to Denis and within six months there were at least two successful breeding attempts on the island, and by early 2009 the total population on the five islands was estimated at c.200 individuals (Anon. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106006638		habitat	eng	Its original habitat was mature coastal forest which provided a rich feeding ground in the leaf-litter<strong> </strong>(McCulloch (1996). Today it forages in mature woodland on central plateaus, plantations and vegetable gardens. The preferred habitat structure includes a tall, closed canopy with a sparse understorey and ground vegetation but abundant leaf litter<strong> </strong>(Millett and Parr (undated; in Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005)). It feeds predominantly on small soil invertebrates (c.95% of food items, Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005<strong></strong>, mostly cockroaches, Millett and Parr undated; in Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005), but fruit, fish dropped by tree-nesting terns<strong> </strong>(Le Maitre 2002; Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005), vertebrates, including skinks and geckos, eggs and human food scraps are also taken<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Territories are 1-2.5 ha, depending on the habitat quality, and are held by dominant breeding pairs, which may tolerate the presence of related or unrelated subordinate birds<strong> </strong>. It breeds year-round, with a clutch-size of one<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Edwards undated) (rarely two)<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Incubation takes 17-18 days<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Nests are sited in holes in large trees or in the crowns of coconut palms. Reintroduced populations have suffered from a male-biased sex ratio, largely because of the higher mortality of adult females, the cause of which is unclear<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong>(Gerlach and Le Maitre 2001). The juveniles of this long-lived species take between four weeks and three months after fledging to reach independence<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Birds that survive to adulthood have a life expectancy of 6-10 years, though some are known to live for over 14 years, and for 17 years in one case<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005).  <p></p>
106006638		population	eng	The population in 2006 was 178 birds (including 82 on Frégate, 46 on Cousin, 32 on Cousine and 18 on Aride) (N. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2006). This number is roughly equivalent to 120 mature individuals.
106006638		threats	eng	On Frégate, predation by cats may have caused the initial decline, but the population failed to recover after their eradication in the 1980s (McCulloch 1996<strong></strong>; Edwards undated<strong></strong>; Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). The introduced population on Alphonse was wiped out in c.1960<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Edwards undated) following the introduction of cats in the 1950s<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Predation by rats and habitat loss are also implicated in the species's decline<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Edwards undated). Declines in the quality and quantity of habitat on Frégate have been linked with the commercial production of crops such as banana and cocoplum <strong></strong>(Edwards undated)<strong></strong>. Factors compounding the species's recovery include: other introduced predators and competitors (Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005), Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> (Mee 1996b; Edwards undated; Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005), black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, and brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005)), the encroachment of dense cover and invasive plants following the abandonment of plantations<strong> </strong>(McCulloch 1996; Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005), lack of abundant food close to nest-sites <strong></strong>(Edwards undated), pesticides (used to control insects in hotels and houses)<strong> </strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>(Parr and Shah 1999; Edwards undated), accidental mortality due to the species's inquisitive behaviour, and, on Aride, infection by pathogenic bacteria<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Lucking <em>et al.</em> 1997). Pesticides may be ingested when birds consume dead cockroaches, and this may have been causing the higher rates of adult mortality that have been noted near human habitation <strong></strong>(Edwards undated). Following the complete eradication of cats and rats on Frégate, the species was thought to be limited by its native predators, including Wright's skink <em>Trachylepis wrightii</em> and snake species, which are nest predators and probably responsible for almost all egg and small chick losses<strong></strong> (Edwards undated)<strong></strong>. There is evidence that fewer invertebrates are found amongst alien leaf litter than under native trees<strong> </strong>(Bristol <em>et al.</em> 2005). Future risks potentially include predator reintroduction and sea-level change<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Millett <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Introduced fungal diseases may have a detrimental effect on forest habitats, but may result in a net habitat gain as affected areas can be replanted with native species (the introduction of a vascular wilt disease to Frégate has not impacted the population there)<strong>&#160;</strong> (J. Millett <em>in litt</em>. 2004; J. Gerlach <em>in litt</em>. 2005).  <p></p>
106006639		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant, although generally uncommon in the Philippines (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.10,000   introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although perhaps locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006645		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>During the 1980s, the species was the subject of an intensive population survey and an awareness campaign in the local press. It occurs at Tabunan within the Central Cebu National Park, which was declared a Strict Protection Zone in 1996. The felling of trees is prohibited in the reserve, but this confers little or no effective protection. In 1997, a three-year management plan was produced for the site, aiming to ensure long-term sustainability. In 2004-07, detailed surveys and public outreach campaigns were carried out by Cebu Biodiveristy Conservation Foundation Inc. (Jakosalem <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. On-going detailed ecological research<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>is being conducted to determine population density, distribution of breeding habitat, breeding habitat requirements and breeding behaviour. Intensive survey work<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>has been conducted to quantify the population size, with preliminary results presented in the 2008 governance meeting with relevant stakeholders in Cebu. An action plan has been developed to facilitate planning and management.&#160;Both Nug-as and Dalaguete are managed by organized local communities supported by the municipal government. Forest wardening schemes are in placed in Nug-as, Dalaguete and Argao forest patches. The local government of Carmen in the northern part of Cebu is directly involved in protecting existing patches of secondary forests.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/><span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Conduct detailed ecological  research to determine threats and their level of impact. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Disseminate  information on detailed ecological research conducted to facilitate  conservation planning and management. Continue monitoring &#160;populations in all forest patches on Cebu to quantify all existing subpopulations and disseminate findings. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Prevent habitat destruction at key sites. Ensure the long-term protection of remaining forests at Nug-as, Dalaguete, Argao, Alegria-Badian, Catmon-Carmen and Tuburanas, well as Tabunan and Consolacion. Initiate management programmes involving wardening, education and tourist development at Alegria-Badian and &#160;Carmen-Tuburan Forests, including resolving the issues of land claims with illegal settlers. <br/><p></p></span>
106006645		distribution	eng	<em>Copsychus cebuensis</em> is endemic to the island of Cebu in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It has always been considered rare, but intensive fieldwork in 2004 has revealed it to be significantly more widespread than was previously known. There are post-1990 records from at least 28 sites, including six records within highly urbanised areas such as Cebu City (L. M. Paguntalan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012), although very small numbers were recorded at most of these, with observations usually totalling one to five individuals at each. However, in 2004, work at Nug-as Forest, the largest remaining tract of mature secondary forest (700ha), discovered a much larger population, with 85 individuals sighted across 7 km of transects. Extrapolations based on these sightings suggest that up to 2,500 individuals could be present at Nug-as (Jakosalem <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006645		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forest and the dense undergrowth of secondary habitats (e.g. along steep ravines), particularly along ridge-top and valley-bottoms with a high percentage of canopy cover. Previous studies have also reported the species in scrub and cut-over forests, plantations, and bamboo groves, although Jakosalem<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2005) report that the species prefers forest habitats and may only tolerate degraded habitats as there are very few remaining forest patches in Cebu. An ongoing radio-tracking study found that the breeding territory in forest-edge habitats was 0.2-0.5 km<sup>2</sup> (n=3 [L. M. Paguntalan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012]). There are also reports of the species being observed within highly urbanised areas, including Cebu City (L. M. Paguntalan<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106006645		population	eng	A new population estimate of 1,000-5,000 individuals is based on recent surveys at Nug-as Forest. Distance sampling was used to estimate densities of 17.5 individuals / ha in valley bottom forest (300 ha in total) and 3.5 individuals / ha in ridge-top forest (400 ha in total), giving an overall population estimate of 6,650 individuals. This was precautionarily scaled to 2,500 individuals. Numbers at the 15 other sites are much lower, in the range of 5-50 individuals. In terms of mature individuals, the estimate equates to 670-3,300.
106006645		threats	eng	As early as the 1890s, the small amount of forest remaining on Cebu was being rapidly cleared. A century later, Cebu retained barely 0.03% (or 15 km<sup>2</sup>) of its original vegetative cover, and even highly degraded secondary habitats are scarce and under considerable pressure. The only remaining tall forest (at Tabunan) covers just 3 km<sup>2</sup>, of which just 0.3 km<sup>2</sup> is closed-canopy. All forests are threatened by illegal settlement, shifting cultivation and illicit logging by up to 24 families and habitat clearance for mining. The population near Casili is threatened by a nearby housing development.<br/><p></p>
106006646		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species specific actions are known, although it does occur in a number of protected areas within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on agricultural encroachment and logging within such protected areas. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate population trends by calculating rates of forest loss within its range using satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques. <p></p>
106006646		distribution	eng	<em>Trichixos pyrropyga</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. Although widespread, the species is generally described as uncommon within its range, and it has certainly declined owing to the extensive loss of lowland forests within the region. <p></p>
106006646		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland (including peatswamp, ultrabasic, burnt alluvial and mixed dipterocarp) and hill-slope broadleaf evergreen forests to 1,200 m. It is commoner in primary forest, but will tolerate logged habitat and there is one record from a rubber plantation. It has been recorded breeding from February until June in various parts of its range. <p></p>
106006646		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered scarce to uncommon.
106006646		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia, and in Thailand and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover). Although the species has almost certainly experienced a population decline in the past decade owing to habitat loss, it is not considered threatened because it occurs in relatively less threatened forests on slopes. <p></p>
106006647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout the Indian Subcontinent south of the Himalayas, uncommon to rare in Nepal and very common in the dry zone in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006648		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in the Helan Mountain Nature Reserve, and in or near to Yanchiwan Nature Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve knowledge of its habitat requirements and life history and use this information to delimit its geographic range. Calculate density estimates within suitable habitat and generate a global population estimate. Assess the threats to the species and if appropriate examine the rate and impact of forest loss within its altitudinal and geographic range. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106006648		distribution	eng	<em>Phoenicurus alaschanicus</em> is known from Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia, <strong>China</strong>, with presumed non-breeding records from Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei and Beijing. Its breeding range and habitat requirements remain poorly understood because of the sparse ornithological coverage of much of its range. <p></p>
106006648		habitat	eng	It breeds on dense scrub-covered hillsides with loose rocks, in bush-dotted riverine plains in the upper coniferous montane forest belt from c.3,300 m to the treeline, and it makes a short distance altitudinal migration, wintering down to 2,000 m. It apparently feeds extensively on berries in the autumn. <p></p>
106006648		population	eng	This species is assumed to have a moderately small population because it has a restricted range within which it is not recorded commonly. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006648		threats	eng	It has presumably been affected by habitat loss.  <p></p>
106006649		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally abundant in southern Russia, rare in China and locally frequent in winter in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006650		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Afghanistan, locally common in northern Pakistan, northern India and eastern India; less common in Nepal and uncommon in the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai areas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006651		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,000,000-8,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,000,000-26,400,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 24,500,000-106,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006652		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6.8-16 million breeding pairs, equating to 20.4-48 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 27.6-96 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in the Himalayas (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006655		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its breeding range, although rare on the northern edge of its range and abundant in south-western Transbaikalia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). National population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006656		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006657		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 2,100-6,000 breeding pairs, equating to   6,300-18,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming   &lt;5% of the global range. The population in China has been estimated at   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106006658		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in northern parts of south-east Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in northern Pakistan and India and scarce to locally common in south-east Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006661		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Balbalasang<span class="st">-Balbalan National Park in Kalinga, Mt Pulog National Park and the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park on Luzon, and Mt Iglit-Baco National Park on Mindoro. There is also a recent record from the Maria Aurora Memorial National Park, which receives nominal protection.<br/><span class="msoIns"><strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct comprehensive surveys of suitable mountain streams to clarify its range, distribution, population status and the influence of pollution / siltation on population persistence. Research its ecological requirements and seasonal movements to facilitate conservation planning. Propose further known key sites, including Mts Cetaceo and Polis for establishment as formal protected areas. Promote stricter enforcement of legislation controlling river pollution through logging, agricultural intensification and especially ore mining. Monitor water quality and habitat conditions in areas downstream of mining operations. Campaign for a ban on mining in key areas for this species. <p></p></span>
106006661		distribution	eng	<em>Rhyacornis bicolor</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs principally in the Cordillera Central <span class="msoDel"><span class="msoIns">and also the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon. There are two recently discovered 1960s records from central Mindoro. Overall it is uncommon and probably declining, owing to its restricted habitat use within a limited range. Nevertheless, it appears to be locally common, with pairs separated by intervals of only 200-300&#160;m along suitable streams on Mt Polis, and reports of it being common in Kalinga (D. Allen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). although evidence suggests that in some places its occurrence may be spatially and temporally patchy. <strong></strong><p></p></span>
106006661		habitat	eng	It inhabits the margins of clear, undisturbed, fast-flowing and rocky-sided mountain streams and rivers, above 300&#160;m. Adjacent habitat includes tropical montane forest, pine forest or just scrub and scattered trees. Records from Dalton Pass, between August and December, indicate that some birds wander post-breeding.<p></p>
106006661		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006661		threats	eng	Stream pollution and siltation caused by mining and logging are threats, as is the increasing use of agro-chemicals, all of which negatively affect water quality and prey abundance. A provincial ban on mining was recently rescinded, placing many streams at high risk from toxic pollution in the near future (D. Allen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. As a result, gold mining has become more widespread in recent years, along with the  use of mercury in the refining process, which can lead to the pollution  of watercourses.  In addition to current mining activities, watercourses may also have been polluted by past mining operations (D. Allen <em>in litt.</em> 2012). Within Mt Pulog National Park, cultivation and clearing of forest are common, both of which are likely to cause erosion and siltation in due course. There is also increasing use of fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides by local farmers. Very few suitable, forest-flanked watercourses remain in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park (Mindoro), whilst Mt Data (Luzon) is almost devoid of forest, although some trees were preserved along streams to limit erosion. A vast proportion of Benguet province is now under intense cultivation, although forest areas with poor road access are likely to have survived (D. Allen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006662		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in the Himalayas and rare to uncommon in Myanmar, northern Laos and northern Vietnam (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt;   c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106006663		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally common in India (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006664		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in Sumatra and uncommon on Java (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006665		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant in the Himalayas and uncommon to locally common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006667		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai areas, locally frequent, although generally uncommon in Pakistan and fairly common in Nepal (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Sumatra and much rarer in Java (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006669		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species-specific actions are known but a number of protected areas lie within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on hunting and logging within such protected areas. Determine its habitat association and generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Calculate population trends by mapping forest cover and rates of loss using remote sensing of satellite imagery. <p></p>
106006669		distribution	eng	<em>Enicurus ruficapillus</em> is patchily distributed through the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>; peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It has a patchy distribution and can be locally common in some areas. <p></p>
106006669		habitat	eng	It occurs along rivers and streams in lowland and hill forests to 1,300 m. It will tolerate logged forest and secondary habitats. It forages along stream edges on and among rocks, along streambeds and round the margins to pools. Feeds mainly on insects but has been recorded eating small snakes. <p></p>
106006669		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered uncommon to common.
106006669		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in submontane forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106006670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Nepal and Myanmar and uncommon in north-western Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Sumatra and in parts of Borneo (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although scarce to locally fairly common in Myanmar and northern Vietnam (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Nagaland, rare in China and scarce throughout its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare or rarely seen (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt; c.100 breeding pairs (Brazil   2009).
106006676		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in two protected areas, Gunung Kerinci/Seblat National Park (which encompasses an area of nearly 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>, primarily forest, between 50 m and 3,800&#160;m), from where there are recent records, and Gunung Singgalang (covering c.96.5 km<sup>2</sup> between 1,000 m and 2,877&#160;m), from where two historical specimen records derive but little suitable habitat remains. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys for the species (surveyors should be familiar with its vocalisations to aid detection) in remaining tracts of lower montane rainforest in the Barisan Mts to establish its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Promote a widespread conservation awareness campaign in the Barisan Mts, aimed at reducing rates of forest loss. <p></p>
106006676		distribution	eng	<em>Cochoa beccarii</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from just four specimens and a few sight records (from five sites) along the Barisan Mts. However, observer coverage in likely areas across the remainder of the range has been extremely low. Little is known about its population status, but it appears to occur at low densities, in common with its congeners, and was considered very rare by collectors in the early 20th century. It is very unobtrusive, but is recorded regularly in suitable habitat once calls are known (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It may be  declining owing to loss of habitat in the lower portion of its altitudinal range, although the majority of populations should be relatively secure. <p></p>
106006676		habitat	eng	It inhabits the middle and upper storeys of tropical lower montane forest between 1,000 m and 2,200&#160;m (although two specimens were reportedly collected on or near the ground). It is thought likely to be largely sedentary, but may make some local seasonal movements.<p></p>
106006676		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006676		threats	eng	At least a third of montane rainforest on Sumatra has already been lost, primarily as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging. These factors are affecting large areas of lower montane rainforest, even within protected areas. At one of the historical localities, Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900 m as early as 1917, and indeed all known localities are in areas with a high pressure from agriculture on their peripheries. However, much of the forest within suitable altitudinal limits is thought to be relatively secure, as it is uneconomical for both logging and agriculture<strong></strong>. This species has been recorded in the international bird trade, and may be traded locally, albeit in low numbers (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Hunting with air rifles is also common within the range. <p></p>
106006677		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in two protected areas, Gunung Gede/Pangrango National Park and Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve (now Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park), both of which provide hope for a range of threatened species endemic to Java. The two areas cover over 500 km<sup>2</sup> of forest between 500 m and 3,000 m. A substantial nature reserve has been proposed for Gunung Slamet (an historical site for the species), and a small nature reserve exists on Gunung Tangkuban Prahu, from where there are also historical records. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species at all mountains potentially within its range to clarify its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Cooperate with local authorities and relevant companies to minimise the impact of tourism and development projects on forested mountains within its range. <p></p>
106006677		distribution	eng	<em>Cochoa azurea</em> is endemic to the mountains of west and central Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the higher peaks within a range spanning from Gunung Halimun to Gunung Slamet. There are recent records from just four localities. It appears to occur at low densities, although it is perhaps more unobtrusive than genuinely rare. Its population is nevertheless likely to be undergoing a steady decline as Javan montane forests become increasingly isolated by deforestation on lower slopes. <p></p>
106006677		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane rain forest between 900 and 3,000&#160;m, where it is rather tame, moving quietly or sitting motionless for long periods, often in the lower and middle storeys, but also in the canopy. It is presumed to be largely sedentary, but may make local seasonal movements.<p></p>
106006677		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006677		threats	eng	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, through widespread agricultural encroachment and localised development (e.g. holiday resorts and geothermal projects), is becoming an increasing threat in the lower altitudinal range of the species (900 m -1,500 m). The area above this zone is still relatively secure (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2012). It has also been recorded the domestic bird trade, albeit in very small numbers (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/>  <p></p>
106006678		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5400000-10000000 breeding pairs, equating to 16200000-30000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17200000-40000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006679		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Its occurrence has been confirmed from various protected areas in recent years, including the Desert (breeding likely) and Keoladeo National Parks and Ranthambore Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan, and Velavadar National Park in Gujarat, and Lala Bustard Sanctuary in Kutch. Extensive surveys have been conducted throughout its Indian range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor its distribution, population status and seasonal movements. Conduct further detailed investigations into its ecology, and identify significant breeding populations. Investigate the impact threats, including canal irrigation, on the species and its habitat. Develop a conservation strategy for the species based on these surveys, including the gazetting of strictly protected areas, perhaps in combination with areas designated for the conservation of the Great Indian Bustard <em>Ardeotis nigriceps</em>. <p></p>
106006679		distribution	eng	<em>Saxicola macrorhynchus</em> is endemic to the north-west Indian subcontinent. Its historical distribution included Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat, <strong>India</strong>, adjacent parts of Punjab and Sind, Pakistan (probably now extinct) and Afghanistan (now extinct). Formerly locally distributed but sometimes common or extremely abundant, it appears to have declined. Recent records are from parts of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan and neighbouring Gujarat (Rahmani 1996), in many areas of the Little Rann of Kutch (Nikhil Devasar pers. comm. 2009 to Rahmani in prep.),  as well as numerous records from the Don grasslands in Kutch (B. Harvey <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, Hissar District, Haryana (Harvey 2002, Sharma and Sangwan 2005) and two records from Maharashtra (Deshmukh 2006, Rao 2007)<strong></strong>. In 1993-1994, four intensive surveys located c.86 birds in 18 localities, including 25 over a 45 km stretch on one day, suggesting that it remains common at certain localities (Rahmani 1996). There are recent regular and maybe breeding records of this species from Tal Chhapar in Churu district (Rahmani in prep.).<p></p>
106006679		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry, sandy semi-deserts and desert plains with low herbs and scattered shrubs, where ground-cover ranges between 25% and 50%. In Pakistan, it also inhabited arid subtropical thorn-scrub and perhaps irrigated cultivation and tall grass, though these are thought to be suboptimal habitats. Its movements are poorly understood. Most records are from the winter period (November-March), and it is thought likely that birds move to the deserts of central and western Rajasthan to breed with the onset of the rains in June. <p></p>
106006679		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006679		threats	eng	The key threat is agricultural intensification and encroachment, primarily through the introduction of irrigation schemes to semi-arid areas and their subsequent conversion into croplands. Overgrazing by livestock may also reduce the extent of suitable habitat. Intensive use of chemical pesticides in cotton crops may negatively affect this species in Kutch (Tiwari <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. These trends are expected to continue with the development of the Rajasthan Canal and widespread application of modern agricultural techniques.<br/><p></p>
106006680		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Wintering populations regularly occur in several protected areas, including Kaziranga, Corbett and Manas National Parks, India, and Lumbini Crane Sanctuary, Chitwan National Park and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, the latter site supporting perhaps the highest recorded concentrations.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species across its breeding and wintering range to identify important sites and potential threats. Extend, upgrade and link (where possible) existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to adequately conserve remaining tracts of natural grassland. Promote grassland regeneration. Control livestock-grazing in relevant protected areas. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds. <p></p>
106006680		distribution	eng	<em>Saxicola insignis</em> breeds very locally in the mountains of <strong>Mongolia</strong> and adjacent parts of <strong>Russia</strong>. It has been recorded on passage in northern and western <strong>China</strong> and Tibet (Simba Chan <em>in litt</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and winters in the terai of northern <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Nepal</strong>, with one spring record from <strong>Bhutan</strong>. Although once common, it is now rare and local in its wintering range. In 1998, the wintering population in Nepal was estimated at just 110 individuals. Little is known about populations in its breeding grounds. <p></p>
106006680		habitat	eng	It breeds (c.June) in alpine or subalpine meadows and scrub in mountains. It winters (October-May) in wet and dry grasslands, reeds and tamarisks along riverbeds, and also in sugarcane fields, in open terrain below 250&#160;m. On migration, it occurs up to 4,500&#160;m. Optimum grassland habitat appears to comprise a mosaic of disturbed (burned or grazed) and undisturbed habitat, although it is absent from apparently suitable sites. <p></p>
106006680		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006680		threats	eng	The major threat appears to be rapid and extensive loss and modification of grasslands in its wintering grounds, as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (although it appears to have partially adapted to sugarcane), overgrazing, grass harvesting for thatch production and inappropriate grassland management within protected areas. Recent heavy flooding in the valley of the Brahmaputra, compounded by forest destruction in its catchment, has destroyed further suitable habitat. <strong></strong><p></p>
106006681		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An action plan was produced in 1999 (Illera 1999)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup></sup>. </strong>Various studies of the species's habitat usage (Illera 2001; Illera <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, breeding biology (Illera and Díaz 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and dispersal (Illera and Díaz in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong> have been undertaken since 1998. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop, approve and implement a national Conservation Plan for the species (Illera 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct a complete population census and remap the species's distribution (Illera 1999, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a monitoring programme (Illera 1999, 2004). Identify and protect key areas of optimal habitat for the species, and reduce the number of "coastal goats" in these areas (Illera 1999, 2001, 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Raise awareness of the species among the resident and tourist populations, particularly the threat from off-road driving and introduced mammals (Illera 1999, 2004). Attempt to control predators at key sites where their impact on breeding success is particularly severe (Illera 2004). <p></p>
106006681		distribution	eng	<em>Saxicola dacotiae</em> is endemic to the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>, where it breeds only on Fuerteventura (with occasional records from southern Lanzarote) (Martín and Lorenzo 2001)<strong></strong>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">murielae</span> formerly occurred on the islands of Alegranza (where it was fairly common) and Montaña Clara, but these it went extinct in the first half of the 20th century due to a combination of natural factors and predation by introduced mammals (Bibby and Hill 1987, Martín and Lorenzo 2001, Illera <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Its population was estimated at 650-850 breeding pairs in 1985 (Bibby and Hill 1987)<strong></strong>. More recent observations indicate that the current figure may be higher, but this almost certainly reflects differing survey methods, rather than a real increase in numbers. The extrapolation of survey results obtained in 2005-2006 put the population at 14,436 individuals (95% CI: 13,376-15,492) (Seoane <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Studies involving more recent fieldwork have provided much lower estimates of 1,035 individuals (95% CI: 832-1,287) (Garcia-del-Rey 2009)<strong></strong>, which may be an underestimate owing to the methods used (Seoane <em>et al</em>. 2010), and 550-950 pairs, which may have been affected by drought conditions during part of the study period (Nicolai 2010; B. Nicolai <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Further research, involving comprehensive fieldwork, is required in order to obtain a more accurate population estimate. Optimal habitat continues to be impacted by rapid development for tourism, although its rate may have decreased in recent years, and it is likely that the population has declined since 1985, and continues to do so as predation by introduced mammals and excessive grazing continues and increases (Illera 2004; A. Iñigo<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006681		habitat	eng	It is found on rocky hillsides and "barranco" (= ravine) habitats with shrubby vegetation cover (Illera 2001), typically of aulaga <em>Launaea arborescens</em>, saltwort <em>Salsola vermiculata</em> and box-thorn <em>Lycium intricatum</em>. These habitats support a high abundance of invertebrates, and provide suitable nesting sites and perches from which the species can forage for arthropods (Illera 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs on the edge of vegetated "malpaíses" (= lava flows), dry and flowing watercourses, cultivated areas and gardens (Martín and Lorenzo 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Individuals appear to show strong site fidelity, potentially as a consequence of low spatial variance in the habitat characteristics determining reproductive success (Illera and Díaz in press)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006681		population	eng	The extrapolation of survey results obtained in 2005-2006 suggests a population size of 14,436 individuals (95% CI: 13,376-15,492), although this figure may be optimistic. Studies involving more recent fieldwork have provided much lower estimates of 1,035 individuals (95% CI: 832-1,287), which may be an underestimate owing to the methods used, and 550-950 pairs, which may have been affected by drought conditions during part of the study period (B. Nicolai <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Until further research is carried out, an estimate of 13,400-15,500 individuals is used here, roughly equivalent to 8,900-10,000 mature individuals.
106006681		threats	eng	Recent rapid increases in infrastructural development, such as tourist and residential centres, road building, industrial plants, mineral operations and golf courses, are destroying the habitat of this species (particularly on the Jandía peninsula in the south of Fuerteventura) (Illera 2004)<strong></strong>. Additional threats include excessive and increasing livestock grazing (A. Iñigo<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>, including cattle and extensively-ranched, semi-feral "coastal" goats (which accelerates desertification and reduces vegetation cover and food availability (Illera and Díaz 2006)), and nest predation by feral cats <em>Felis catus</em> (Medina and Nogales 2009)<em> </em>and other introduced mammals, such as rats<em> Rattus </em>spp. (Illera 2004; Illera and Díaz 2006)<strong></strong>. High fidelity to particular sites may exacerbate the problem of the destruction and degradation of optimal habitats (Illera and Díaz in press)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006682		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,000,000-4,600,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,000,000-13,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 25,000,000-276,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006683		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the small Indian Ocean island of Réunion.
106006683		habitat	eng	This species readily adapts to degraded and secondary growth habitats.
106006683		population	eng	The global population has estimated as 180,000 individuals in 1983 and 'well over 100,000 pairs' in 1987 (del Hoyo et al. 2005) it has therefore been placed in the population band 100,000-499,999 individuals.
106006684		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006685		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very sparse inmost of its range, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006687		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006688		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. Estimate the area of suitable habitat and assess threats to the species. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106006688		distribution	eng	<em>Saxicola gutturalis</em> is restricted to Timor, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, and its satellite islands of Roti and Semau (the nominate subspecies <em>gutturalis</em> occurs on Timor and Roti, with subspecies <em>luctuosa</em> on Semau). Given its restricted range the total population is not thought to be large. <p></p>
106006688		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 1,200 m in monsoon forest and scrubby savanna. In West Timor it is present even in very small remnant pockets of woodland, but is largely excluded from savanna and open scrub by the Pied Bushchat <em>S. caprata</em>. It forages on insects by gleaning and sallying in the canopy and in tall shrubbery beneath. It nests mainly in October and November, but also in May and June. <p></p>
106006688		population	eng	Although locally common, the species occupies a restricted range and as a consequence its total population size may not be large. It is likely to number between 10,000-19,999 individuals, which roughly equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106006688		threats	eng	Forest loss on Timor has been extensive owing to agricultural expansion and logging. <p></p>
106006689		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006690		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant in suitable habitat, although rare in parts of Tunisia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006691		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in Egypt, scarce in south-eastern Israel, where the population is estimated as 100-200 pairs and scarce on the Arabian Peninsular (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although scarce in Pakistan. The population in the United Arab Emirates is estimated as 1,000-10,000 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006693		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,100-16,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,300-48,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 25,100-192,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006695		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006696		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 3,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,600,000-13,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 13,800,000-39,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 28,200,000-156,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally locally common to abundant in north Africa, although scarce in Morocco and Tunisia and common in Israel and north-eastern and eastern Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006700		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100,000-310,000 breeding pairs, equating to 300,000-930,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1,250,000-18,600,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006701		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006702		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although scarce in Tunisia and extremely rare in Israel (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006703		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,400,000-3,300,000 breeding pairs, equating to 4,200,000-9,900,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 5,680,000-19,800,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006704		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 32,000-140,000 breeding pairs, equating to 96,000-420,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 400,000-8,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106006705		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 18,000 individuals, roughly equating to 12,000 mature individuals (K. Kohls <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 110-1,100 breeding pairs, equating to 330-3,300 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106006708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006709		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,100,000-6,300,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,300,000-18,900,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 26,300,000-378,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common. Race frenata is described as uncommon in Eritrea and southern Ethiopia and locally common to abundant in the west, central and south-east highlands of Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006716		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but different populations of the species vary noticeably in abundance (Keith et al. 1992).
106006717		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common, although scarce in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006718		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Awash National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable habitat in east-central Ethiopia and Somalia. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106006718		distribution	eng	<em>Cercomela dubia</em> is a rare and little-known species from east-central <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and <strong>Somalia</strong>. In Ethiopia, there are records from the Awash Valley, including Awash National Park, eastwards, while in Somalia there is a single old record from Mt Wagar, at which it has not been found subsequently despite searches (J. Miskell <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. There is no recent information on the status of the species in Somalia; it is also uncertain how many records from Awash have involved confusion with the very similar Brown-tailed Chat <em>C. scotocerca</em> (Butchart 2007).<em> <p></p></em>
106006718		habitat	eng	The species seems to favour areas of rock and scrub (EWNHS 1996)<strong></strong>, in common with the closely related Brown-tailed Chat <em>C. scotocerca</em> and Blackstart <em>C. melanura</em>, so it may have been overlooked.  <p></p>
106006718		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106006718		threats	eng	Reports that refugee camps may have caused at least local declines (P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> are erroneous as the camps are not in suitable habitat for this species (J. S. Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No other threats are currently known. <p></p>
106006719		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common and very common in desert areas of Israel (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's abundance is reported to vary with altitude, being most abundant at higher altitudes (Keith et al. 1992).
106006721		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006722		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at 1,500 m-3,000 m (Keith et al. 1992).
106006723		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be commonest in open grassy country (Keith et al. 1992).
106006724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common locally and commoner at higher altitudes (Keith et al. 1992).
106006725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).
106006726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006727		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although abundant in Burundi and rare to uncommon in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006730		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent to common in Ethiopia and uncommon in Eritrea and parts of Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006732		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Protect significant areas of primary forest at appropriate altitudes on all the islands throughout its range. Research its tolerance of logged and degraded forest.   <p></p>
106006732		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis zelandica</em> is endemic to Nendo and Vanikoro in the Santa Cruz islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> and most of <strong>Vanuatu</strong> south to Efate. Its tolerance of degraded forest is poorly known and it appears to be rare (Hadley and Parker 1965, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Dutson 2011<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006732		habitat	eng	It is a forest species of the lowlands on smaller islands and uplands on the larger islands on Vanuatu (Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong>, but is also often recorded in gardens and degraded forest on Nendo and Vanikoro (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to over 1,000 m, but is usually commoner in hills, especially on Santo (Dutson 2011).<br/><p></p>
106006732		population	eng	The population has not been estimated but there are thought to be over 1,000 individuals on both Nendo (Solomon Islands) and Santo (Vanuatu).
106006732		threats	eng	The lowland and hill forests across the species's range are potentially threatened by logging, however it persists in degraded forest and gardens on Nendo and Vanikoro, and the Vanuatu highland population is presumably safe.  <p></p>
106006733		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other mountains in the vicinity. Re-survey the three known locations - local reports that the species is widespread and common in suitable habitat need to be confirmed. Colour-ring birds at these sites to help assess population sizes and longevity. Survey all montane sites for introduced mammalian predators. Discuss the species's status and distribution with local villagers. <p></p>
106006733		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis santovestris</em> is endemic to Espiritu Santo, <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. It has been recorded from three of the highest mountains<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Mt Watiamasan, Mt Tabwemasana and Peak Santo, in 1934, 1961, and 1991 (Harrison and Marshall 1937, Reside 1991, Bregulla 1992)<strong></strong>. Local villagers have reported it to be widespread in the western mountain ranges (S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No more than one pair has ever been seen and several observers have trekked to these altitudes and failed to find the species, an expedition in 2006 failed to find the species on Mt Tabwemasana, although their party did not include an ornithologist (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although some local villagers report the species to be common, it appears to occur at low population densities and to be very localised (Harrison and Marshall 1937, Reside 1991, Bregulla 1992, S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006733		habitat	eng	It forages in singles and pairs in the understorey of cloud-forest above 1,200 m on the highest peaks. It is rarely recorded more than 6 m above the ground and is reported to nest in holes low down in trees (Harrison and Marshall 1937, Reside 1991, Bregulla 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006733		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106006733		threats	eng	The Man Hill people at Matantas Big Bay report regularly eating this species (S. Maturin <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, however they rarely visit high altitudes and the validity of this report has been questioned (S. Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Overall, the number of people living at high altitudes on Santo has decreased through the last few decades (Pickering 1985, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest on Santo remains largely intact, and has only partially been altered by clearings for pastures and coconut plantations (N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A number of other montane starling species from the Pacific have become extinct, presumably through the introduction of predatory mammals or disease (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Santo has no native land mammals but cats, dogs and rats are now widespread. <p></p>
106006734		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2007, the Conservation Society of Pohnpei and Island Conservation conducted a trial rat eradication on 5 small islands in Pohnpei to test and perfect rat eradication methods. A four day survey ('Operation Finding Mountain Starling') was carried out in October 2008 (J. Millett <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. During a week-long expedition in 2010 and a thorough survey of Pohnpei in 2012 (conducted by the University of Missouri and the Conservation Society of Pohnpei), the species remained undetected (BirdLife International 2011, D. Kelser <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to search exhaustively for this species and investigate any records of its presence (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong>. Protect upland forests (Buden 1996, G. Wiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006734		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Pohnpei, <strong>Federated States of</strong> <strong>Micronesia</strong>, where it declined drastically sometime after 1930, when about 60 specimens were collected in a three-month period. It was not located in a survey conducted in 1983 (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong>, and has been considered extinct by some authorities. However, since the 1970s, there have been several possible records (<strong></strong>D. Buden <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>, unconfirmed sightings and reports from local people and, on 4 July 1995, a specimen was collected (Buden 1996)<strong></strong>. In October 2008, surveys apparently produced three records, although there is neither documentation nor evidence, in the form of skins, photographs, field notes, or anything similar for these sightings (J. Millett <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. A seven-day expedition to the high ridges of the island in late 2010 did not produce any sightings of the species (BirdLife International 2011)<strong></strong>.  A thorough survey of Pohnpei was conducted in 2012, including multiple point transects throughout the island, during which the bird was not detected (D. Kelser <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106006734		habitat	eng	This is reputedly a species of dark, damp montane forest above 425 m, although it has also been observed in plantations (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there are records from lower altitudes and unconfirmed reports from local residents that it was formerly more widespread, occurring in the lowlands and possibly on the adjacent Ant and Pakin atolls (Buden 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most recent specimen was taken at 750 m in dwarf forest (Buden 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It usually occurs in pairs, feeding on insects and fruit. Small berries from shrubs form a large part of the diet, although seeds and grubs are also taken from the ground (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is reportedly placed in the hollows of trees, but this has not been confirmed (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All three reports of the species from the 2008 survey were of birds in a large native tree <em>Campnosperma brevipetiolata </em>(J. Millett <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006734		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with just three unconfirmed sightings, local reports and a single salvaged specimen since the 1970s.
106006734		threats	eng	The reason for the decline of this species is unknown, although habitat loss, bird hunting (a common practice among Pohnpeians), and predation by introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. are all possible contributory factors (Buden 1996)<strong></strong>. Overall, there was a reduction of undisturbed upland forest on Pohnpei of over 60% from 1975 to 1995 (Buden 1996, 2000, B. Raynor <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 2012). The majority of the island's forests have been to various degrees converted or at least degraded to mixed forest (native species mixed with lowland secondary species), largely attributable to the cultivation of sakau (= kava) <em>Piper methysticum</em> as a major cash-crop (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012). The fragmentation of such forest by sakau clearings also introduces and encourages the spread of invasive species in isolated areas throughout the forest. Although efforts over the past 20 years to reduce the amount of clear-cutting for sakau plantations have resulted in the slowing of native forest conversion rates, the trend remains negative (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012).<p></p>
106006735		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006736		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis corvina </em>was endemic to Kosrae, Caroline Islands, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong> (Greenway 1967). It is only known from two specimens, both collected by Kittlitz in 1828<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994), and both now in St Petersburg<strong> </strong>(Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). It was extinct by the time that Finsch visited the island in 1880<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106006736		habitat	eng	It inhabited mountain forests.  <p></p>
106006736		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably a result of depredation by introduced rats, which were accidentally introduced by whalers and are abundant on the island.  <p></p>
106006737		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis mavornata </em>is known only from the type specimen, collected on Mauke, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>,<strong> </strong>by Bloxam in 1825<strong> </strong>(Olson 1986a), and not on Cook's voyages<strong></strong> (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987). The island was not visited by ornithologists until nearly 150 years after Bloxam's collection, by which time the species had become extinct<strong> </strong>(Olson 1986a). <p></p>
106006737		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, but like other members of the genus it is likely to have inhabited the islands forests.  <p></p>
106006737		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably as a result of predation by introduced rats.  <p></p>
106006738		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species presumably benefits from conservation measures carried out for the Rarotonga Flycatcher <em>Pomarea dimidiata</em> (classified as Endangered) in the south-east of the island, including intensive rat control. Recent surveys have provided more precise population size estimates.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate possible threats.  Ensure the protection of an area of upland forest.  Control <em>R. rattus </em>and <em>A. tristis </em>in key sites.   <p></p>
106006738		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the rugged interior of Rarotonga, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>. It was regarded as abundant early in the 19th century and still not uncommon in 1973, but estimates made in 1984 put the population at 100 birds (Hay 1986)<strong></strong> and 1,000-3,000 birds (Holyoak and Thibault 1984). The population was later estimated at c.500 individuals (McCormack 1997)<strong></strong>, although some observers consider it may be more than this (G. McCormack <em> in litt </em>2007)<strong></strong>. More recently, the population has been estimated at 1,200 individuals in 2010 (based on a detailed survey of one location and extrapolating to suitable habitat [Tiraa 2010]) and 2,350 individuals in 2011 (based on distance sampling in nine inland valleys [Easby 2011]). It is likely to have been lost from the lowlands in the last 40 years and, although the population is assumed now to be stable, it could be declining undetected (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. It was reported to be relatively localised and not evenly distributed in the latest survey (Easby 2011).<br/><p></p>
106006738		habitat	eng	This is a shy and inconspicuous inhabitant of undisturbed, native montane forest and fringing disturbed forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong></strong> from 150-200 m up to the highest areas of the island at 600 m (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>. Although a recent survey indicated that they also frequent areas as low as 30 m (A. Tiraa <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup> </sup></strong> they no longer seem to frequent coastal areas as much as they did in the past (A. Tiraa <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. It is found either alone or in pairs, foraging in the canopy (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong></strong> and appears to have a varied diet, feeding on nectar, fruit and insects (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>. A nest has been observed in the cavity of an old tree (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong>, and birds seem to prefer to nest in native trees such as koka <em>Bischofia javanica</em>, mato <em>Homalium acuminatum</em> and turina <em>Hernandia moerenhoutiana</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Tiraa <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Surveys have reported that valleys of low starling abundance have high proportions of hibiscus <span style="font-style: italic;">Hibiscus tiliaceus</span> and lack suitable vegetation for food and nesting, such as the Rarotonga fitchia <span style="font-style: italic;">Fitchia speciosa</span> and Polynesian chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Inocarpus fagifer</span> (Easby 2011). This species lays more than one egg per clutch, uses the same nest in subsequent years, breeds between August and December and holds territories (A. Tiraa <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106006738		population	eng	Latest population estimates range from 1,200 (Tiraa 2010) to 2,350 individuals (Easby 2011) and so the population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006738		threats	eng	The introduced Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> is aggressive and widespread and is often blamed for the demise of the native landbirds (McCormack 1997)<strong></strong>. It may be implicated in the loss of this species from the lowlands, but it is not thought to have penetrated the forested uplands (A. Tiraa <em>in litt. </em>2003, G. McCormack <em> in litt </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>may reduce nesting success or take incubating birds in the uplands, although their effect is likely to be negligible (G. McCormack <em> in litt </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The introduction of exotic avian diseases, to which local birds have no immunity, is another possible threat (McCormack 1997)<strong></strong>. Other <em>Aplonis</em> spp. have become extinct or exceedingly rare for unknown reasons (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> and so monitoring of the species is required. This species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data) since it has a distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range.<p></p>
106006739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on many islands (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006740		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106006741		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis fusca </em>was endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia) </strong>and Lord Howe Island,<strong> Australia</strong> (Garnett 1993).<strong> </strong>On Lord Howe Island, the population of subspecies <em>hulliana</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Garnett 1993)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>tumbled to extinction from numbering thousands in 1913-1915 - it was not seen after 1918<strong> </strong>(Hindwood 1940) and was certainly extinct by 1928 (Sharland 1929). The nominate subspecies on Norfolk Island was last recorded in 1923<strong> </strong>(Garnett 1993), although its absence was not noted until 1968 (Smithers and Disney 1969). <p></p>
106006741		habitat	eng	Though it is likely to have inhabited forest and scrub it also fed on fruit and crops, and was even regarded as something of a pest. It nested in tree hollows (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). <p></p>
106006741		threats	eng	The extinction of the Lord Howe Island population was probably due to the arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> on the island in 1918. The reasons for the extinction of the Norfolk Island population are less clear cut because <em>R. rattus</em> did not reach the island until the 1940s<strong></strong>. It may have become extinct as a result of habitat destruction<strong> </strong>(Garnett 1993). If it did persist undocumented until the 1940s, rats would have most likely played a part in its extinction (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).&#160; <br/><p></p>
106006742		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous (Feare et al. 1998).
106006743		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends and habitat status in the Tanimbar group. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106006743		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis crassa</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs only on the Tanimbar group. It is common within this small range. <em> <p></p></em>
106006743		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of forest habitats, including mangroves, secondary growth and edge.   <p></p>
106006743		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common in suitable habitat.
106006743		threats	eng	Significant logging is occurring in the south of Yamdena, but little is known of the status of habitats on the other islands. As it persists in secondary and edge habitats, it is unlikely to be declining at a rapid rate.  <p></p>
106006744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006745		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Re-survey small islets across the species's range. Re-survey distribution of this species and <em>A. cantoroides</em> on the Ninigos. Ascertain area of forest and rates of clearance on all occupied islands. Ascertain habitat requirements. Assess distribution, population level and trends on Nissan. Investigate competition and ecological segregation with <em>A. cantoroides</em>. Relate distribution to that of introduced predatory species. Monitor population trends on Nissan. Advocate retention of natural forest reserves on all islands, regardless of their size. Initiate public awareness and education programmes regarding this species and the threats of introducing exotic species. Assess isolation of sub-populations through comparison of specimens. <p></p>
106006745		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis feadensis</em> is an extreme small-island specialist, occurring on a number of tiny atolls in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It breeds on islands in the Ninigo (3 km<sup>2</sup>), Hermit (8 km<sup>2</sup>), Tench (less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>), Nissan (37 km<sup>2</sup>), Nguria (5 km<sup>2</sup>) and Ontong Java groups (10 km<sup>2</sup>). It is fairly common on these islands (Bayliss-Smith 1972, <strong></strong>Bell 1975, Finch 1986,<strong></strong> Coates 1990)<strong></strong>, with day-counts of c.30 birds on Tench and Nissan in 1998 (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong> and 15 on Tench in 1999 (Hornbuckle 1999)<strong></strong>. There is no indication of changes in the population. <p></p>
106006745		habitat	eng	It is a largely frugivorous starling, usually foraging in pairs in the canopy, but also raiding gardens for bananas and other fruit (Bayliss-Smith 1972, <strong></strong>Bell 1975, Finch 1986,<strong></strong> Coates 1990, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its dependence on natural forest or tree species is not known. It nests in holes in old and damaged trees and coconut palms (Dutson 2011). Its dispersal abilities are not well-known beyond flying between islands within a group, but inter-island morphological variation suggests limited gene flow (Coates 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006745		population	eng	The species is described as having a small population and is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals.
106006745		threats	eng	It is threatened by natural causes such as cyclone damage and colonisation of its islands by Singing Starling <em>A. cantoroides</em>, exacerbated by ongoing habitat changes. It is generally assumed to be unable to compete with <em>A. cantoroides </em>(Bell 1975,<strong></strong> Coates 1990)<strong></strong>, although it coexists with <em>A. metallica</em> on Nissan and apparently with <em>A. cantoroides</em> on some of the Ninigo islands; however, the latter situation may be unstable (Bell 1975,<strong></strong> Coates 1990)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. All the islands except Nissan are tiny and have a high human population pressure on the remaining small and fragmented forested habitats. As well as clearance for agriculture, large areas have been cleared for coconut plantations. It is not known how tolerant it is to habitat change, but its dependence on holes for nesting may be a limiting factor. It is potentially at risk from climate change, as most of the islands it inhabits only rise a few metres above sea-level (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006746		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).
106006747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106006748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106006749		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Mindanao and frequent on Java and Bali (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006751		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant, although uncommon or rare on the Tanimbar islands and Sulu Islands in Indonesia (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006753		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006754		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Attempt to study movement patterns of individuals to better understand movements and habitat requirements. Protect significant areas of primary riverine and alluvial lowland forest, both at sites where it is known to occur, and more extensively within its known range. Research its tolerance of logged and degraded forest. Raise awareness of the scarcity of this species locally and find ways to prevent the felling of nesting trees.   <p></p>
106006754		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis mystacea</em> has a scattered range across New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) but is easily overlooked and may prove to be more widespread (Beehler <em>et al. </em>1986, Coates 1990,<strong></strong> Burrows 1993<strong></strong>, Beehler and Bino 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a generally scarce and probably nomadic.   <em> <p></p></em>
106006754		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland forest, usually in riverine or alluvial lowlands, but also occurs in the hills to 580 m (Beehler and Bino 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006754		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106006754		threats	eng	This species may have a naturally small and scattered population threatened locally by logging and hunting. The one known breeding colony (of c.200 birds) was in a single large tree in a sparsely populated area, which was cut down in order to eat the eggs and chicks (Safford 1996)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006755		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mt. Austen is within the Queen Elizabeth National Park but this area receives no protection and is highly degraded. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys across its range, particularly on Choiseul, Rendova and Bougainville. Search for nesting colonies to study. Interview local villagers about the species and breeding colonies. Assess tolerance of degraded forest habitats. Interview local villagers to investigate consumption of nesting colonies. Research basic ecological requirements at Mt Austen. Advocate re-creation of Queen Elizabeth National Park or equivalent in forest close to the capital. Encourage creation of extensive forest reserves on all major islands. <p></p>
106006755		distribution	eng	<em>Aplonis brunneicapillus</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and Choiseul, Rendova and Guadalcanal, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is rare and patchily distributed and may yet be discovered on other islands. On Bougainville, single specimens were taken in 1938 (Danis 1938)<strong></strong> and 1944 (Beecher 1945)<strong></strong>, and a colony of at least 10 pairs was found in 1985 (Finch 1986, Kaestner 1987)<strong></strong>, but it could not be found in 1987 (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Choiseul, it was recorded in 1994 at one site (Gibbs 1996)<strong></strong>. On Rendova, one specimen was taken in 1943 (Amadon 1943)<strong></strong> and there are recent records of two birds in the 1980s and some in the 1990s (Blaber 1990, D. Gibbs verbally 1996, M. Iles verbally 1997, N. P. Dreyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Guadalcanal, 41 specimens were collected in 1953 at Betilonga (Beecher 1945, Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong></strong>, where it now appears to be extirpated (D. Gibbs verbally 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>. There have been a few recent records at Mt Austen (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, M. Iles verbally 1997, Dutson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong> and Komarindi (van Oosten and Wyant 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006755		habitat	eng	It has been recorded breeding colonially in both lowland swamp and hill forest. It is not known whether it usually nests in isolated trees or whether colonies were originally in closed forest (Coates 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Foraging birds have been recorded in forest, forest edge and secondary growth, feeding on fruit, sometimes in flocks (Beecher 1945, Finch 1986, Gibbs 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006755		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied, especially given the species's rare status. This estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006755		threats	eng	Villagers at the Guadalcanal colony in 1953 reported that they felled nesting-trees to eat the fledglings (Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This tradition may well continue as wild sources of meat are highly prized in most Melanesian villages. Most lowland forest and much hill forest throughout the species's range has been or is scheduled for logging (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and rates of deforestation are increasing across the Solomon Islands (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006756		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006757		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006758		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006759		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006760		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in the east of its range and common in the west (Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2000).
106006761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006762		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in most areas (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006764		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on the Horn of Africa and Socotra island (Fry and Keith 2000).
106006765		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Socotra, Yemen.
106006765		habitat	eng	This species is social, highly mobile and apparently adaptable, being recorded from a broad range of habitats, although it appears to prefer methodical foraging in trees rather than on the ground (Porter and Martins 1996). The diet consists of fruit, seeds and insects (Porter and Martins 1996, Ripley and Bond 1966). It is often seen together with the more abundant Somali Starling O. blythii, which is a more conspicuous generalist and reasonably assumed to be a more recent colonist (Ripley and Bond 1966), but the possibility that the two species may be competing, to the detriment of O. frater, remains unproven speculation (Forbes-Watson 1964).
106006765		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but surveys in 1993, 1999 and 2000 have found it widespread and locally frequent all over the island (up to 1,500 m), with a mean population density (based on transects) of c.7 birds/km2 in the post-breeding season (Davidson 1996, Kirwan et al. 1996).
106006765		threats	eng	Extreme overgrazing and browsing might possibly have an impact on populations, but this seems unlikely to occur in the foreseeable future.
106006766		population	eng	The species is described as widespread, and locally common; its population is estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals.
106006767		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006768		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006769		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006770		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine this species tolerance to forest degradation. Assess the numbers of birds in trade. Initiate a year long study at a single site to learn patterns of seasonal movement and abundance. Protect suitable habitat if appropriate. <p></p>
106006770		distribution	eng	<em>Coccycolius iris</em> is known from west and south-east <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone </strong>and west-central <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong>. In 1970, it was described as having a localised distribution, but being quite common where it occurred (Hall and Moreau 1970);<strong><sup>&#160;</sup></strong> in Sierra Leone, non-breeding flocks of up to 50 birds are sometimes recorded (Wilkinson in press)<strong></strong>. It is now considered localised and generally scarce (Butchart 2007). Recent reports have included flocks of up to 100 at Mt Sangbé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, in spring 2001 (Demey 2001)<strong></strong> and June 2002 (Demey 2003)<strong></strong>; a single bird plus a flock of 10 in wooded savannah at two sites in Pic de Fon Forest Reserve, Guinea, in November and December 2002 (Demey and Rainey 2004)<strong></strong>, and several records from Sierra Leone including a flock at Bumbuna in 2005, and another two flocks on the Bumbuna-Magbuaka road in 2006 (Butchart 2007).  <p></p>
106006770		habitat	eng	It is found in orchard bush and wooded and open savanna, where it keeps to the tops of tall trees, often using dead trees for perches (<strong></strong>Hall and Moreau 1970, P. Robertson verbally 1998, Wilkinson in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It avoids forests but is occasionally found at the edge of gallery forest (Wilkinson in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It frequently feeds on fruit, particularly <em>Ficus</em> and <em>Harungana</em> berries and seeds and, less frequently, on insects, particularly ants, foraging in bare ground in areas that have been burnt (Hall and Moreau 1970, Wilkinson in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006770		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106006770		threats	eng	There are reports of this species being caught for the wild bird trade: from 1981-1984 large numbers, probably from Guinea, were kept by bird traders in Monrovia, Liberia (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>, and birds have been reported to trade at c.£50 per pair. This relatively low price implies a large volume of the species are in trade, and the effects of this on the wild population have not yet been assessed (R. Wilkinson <em>in litt. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006771		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in Taï National Park (M. Gartshore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Mt Peko National Park (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor populations through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. <p></p>
106006771		distribution	eng	<em>Lamprotornis cupreocauda</em> is restricted to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, from southern <strong>Guinea</strong> through south-eastern <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong> and southern <strong>Côte d'Ivoire, </strong>to south-western <strong>Ghana </strong>(to just east of Atewa, Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). There is a single unconfirmed sight record from Togo (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). It is generally common, with 2-4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> recorded in mature forest in Liberia (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. In Côte d'Ivoire,<strong> </strong>it is abundant in Taï National Park (M. Gartshore <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, in 1985-1990, it was quite common in Yapo Forest (Demey and Fishpool 1994)<strong></strong> and recently it was noted as fairly common in Mt Peko National Park (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Ghana, it appears common and widespread but may occur in moderate numbers only, with only small flocks of 5-10 individuals recorded in recent surveys (<strong></strong>Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106006771		habitat	eng	It is a species of forest, forest edge, and gallery forest (<strong></strong>Gatter 1997, <strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It has been reported to benefit immediately following forest burning when some emergents remain, but to decline in secondary habitats thereafter (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects, figs, berries and other fruits (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. The species nests in holes in dead trees and branches, and the clutch-size may be three. Observations suggest breeding activity between August and February (Fry <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006771		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally common.
106006771		threats	eng	Destruction of forest throughout its range, resulting from commercial logging and clearance for cultivation, is likely to be causing widespread declines.   <p></p>
106006772		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006773		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Feare et al. 1998).
106006774		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and often abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006775		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common except in arid areas (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006776		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006777		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (Feare et al. 1998).
106006778		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the north of its range (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006779		population	eng	The population in central Mozambique is estimated to number more than 10,000 individuals. This only constitutes 5-24% of the species's range, so a very preliminary estimate of the total population size is 40,000-200,000 individuals. It is probably best placed in the band 50,000-99,999 individuals.
106006780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest glossy starling in some areas (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be seasonally abundant (Feare et al. 1998).
106006782		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).
106006785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most areas (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006786		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006787		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006788		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Feare et al. 1998).
106006789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006790		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006791		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006792		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Forest Reserves on Mt Kenya cover 1,995&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, including about 1,400&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest and forest/bamboo/scrub mosaic (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. The Forest Department is able to exert very little control over the management of Kikuyu Escarpment Forest Reserve (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt Kenya are both National Parks, and the former protects most of the forest cover whereas only higher altitudes of Mt Kenya are protected, leaving much lower altitude forest unprotected (N. Cordeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology, especially its nesting and breeding requirements (Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Estimate its population size (Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, conduct regular surveys in order to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation at known sites. Support existing forest-conservation programmes within its range, and initiate new schemes at other key sites (Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006792		distribution	eng	<em>Cinnyricinclus femoralis</em> is found in a few montane forest localities in <strong>Kenya</strong> and northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. It is generally scarce and local in forest on Mt Kenya (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but common in Kikuyu Escarpment Forest in the southern Aberdare Mountains (375&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where flocks of up to 40 have been seen (Taylor and Taylor 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there have been few recent records from the Kikuyu Escarpment, possibly suggesting a decline in numbers (Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been recorded from the isolated Chyulu Hills (old records of flocks of up to 100 birds on fruiting trees [Lewis and Pomeroy 1989]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but no recent records) and Taita Hills (recent records [Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), suggesting that it may make substantial movements between forests (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Tanzania, it is found on Mt Kilimanjaro where it was considered quite common above 1,800&#160;m, in 1977 (Turner 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there have been few recent records (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it was regarded in 1991 as probably rare (Cordeiro 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also known from forests on Mt Meru, where it is scarce and may be only seasonal in occurrence (Turner 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Flocks of 20-25 were seen at 1,600&#160;m in Kindoroko Forest Reserve in the North Pare Mountains in July 1993 (Cordeiro and Kiure 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006792		habitat	eng	This little-known frugivore occurs in the canopy of highland forest, being present throughout the year in at least some locations (e.g. the Aberdares), albeit with seasonal fluctuations (Taylor and Taylor 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106006792		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006792		threats	eng	Forest loss and degradation are likely to pose a threat over most of its range. Illegal logging and agricultural encroachment have been major problems in Mt Kenya Forest and the Kikuyu Escarpment Forest (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. Encroachment for cultivation and cattle-grazing continues at Kikuyu, however encroachment of the forest edge at Mt Kenya has ceased, whilst cultivation of forest glades continues (K. Mwangi<em> in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. As this species nests in holes in trees, it is probably sensitive to the cutting of mature trees. Forest Reserves in the North Pare Mountains did not appear to be under any immediate threat in 1993, although there was some pit-sawing and encroachment by cattle (Cordeiro and Kiure 1995)<strong></strong>. Since then however, fires, hunting and tree-cutting have escalated and have become severe in parts of the North Pares (N. Cordeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008). <br/><p></p>
106006793		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout its range (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006794		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Zimmerman et al. 1996).
106006795		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in western Angola (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006796		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006797		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (Feare et al. 1998).
106006798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although very localised (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006799		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2000).
106006801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (Langrand 1990).
106006802		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006803		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006804		distribution	eng	<em>Necropsar rodericanus </em>is known only from bones from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong> (Cowles 1987), which are presumably referable to the birds "<span style="font-style: italic;">Testudophaga bicolor</span>" (Rothschild 1907) described by Tafforet from Ile du Mât in 1726. These constitute the last records and no birds were seen by Pingré  in 1961 (Cheke 1987).  <p></p>
106006804		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although a travellers account of a bird which fed on the contents of the eggs of seabirds and turtles may refer to this species.  <p></p>
106006804		threats	eng	The reason for this species's extinction is unknown (Cheke 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but hunting, habitat destruction and the depredations of introduced mammals must surely all have contributed.  <p></p>
106006805		distribution	eng	<em>Fregilupus varius </em>was endemic to <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>. It was described by most visitors to the island from 1669 onwards, and was apparently common as late as the 1830s<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). However, the last specimen was shot in 1837, and the species became extinct between 1850 and 1860. Nineteen specimens survive<strong> </strong><strong> </strong>(Berger 1957). <p></p>
106006805		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it is likely to have been a forest species.  <p></p>
106006805		threats	eng	Reasons for its extinction are unclear but may possibly be due to an introduced disease, combined with changing population pressure due to the emancipation of slaves in 1848, forest fires, drought and deforestation<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). It has been described as tame and easy to knock down with sticks, so hunting may have also played a part.  <p></p>
106006806		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a comprehensive survey to clarify its distribution and status and to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its ecology, particularly movement between forest patches. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. <p></p>
106006806		distribution	eng	<em>Sturnus albofrontatus</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka, </strong>where it is restricted to the wet zone in the south-west of the island. It appears to have always been scarce, although possibly under-recorded, and is declining, with an increasingly fragmented population of no more than a few thousand individuals. <p></p>
106006806		habitat	eng	It is confined to undisturbed moist forest in the lowlands and foothills from 460-1,220&#160;m. There are occasional records from forest-edge sites. It feeds on tree fruit, invertebrates and the nectar of the red cotton tree, commonly foraging in the upper canopy of tall trees in large mixed-species flocks. Little is known of its breeding ecology. It does not undertake seasonal movements, but is believed to cover long distances between its roosting and feeding-sites.<p></p>
106006806		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001), who concluded that it is unlikely that it currently numbers more than a few thousand individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006806		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. As a primarily canopy dwelling species, it has been particularly badly affected by selective logging. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation.  <p></p>
106006807		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common below 1370 m in Nepal, locally common in India, frequent in Bhutan, common in Bangladesh and rare in Sri Lanka (Grimmett <em>et al</em>. 1998), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at   &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006808		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and erratic in Pakistan, frequent in western Nepal and uncommon in the centre and south, locally common in India and rare in Sri Lanka (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106006810		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   not uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2,000), while national population   estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan and   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals   in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006811		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common (Feare <em>et al</em>. 1998), while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in   Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006812		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is generally   described as uncommon in the Philippines, rare on the Chinese mainland,   common on Taiwan and scarce on the Kurile islands and Sakhalin (Feare and   Craig 1998). National population estimates include: c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-100,000   breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106006813		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006814		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 58000-210000 breeding pairs, equating to 174000-630000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 355000-2520000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006815		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.310,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in Korea and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt;   c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006816		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,100,000-3,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,300,000-9,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 8,510,000-18,600,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006817		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in Japan and common in China (Feare and Craig 1998), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006818		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to fairly common, although rare and local in Pakistan (Grimmett <em>et al</em>. 1998), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and   c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006819		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106006820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon in Thailand and rare in western Yunnan, China (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006821		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1979. It occurs in at least three protected areas, Baluran National Park and Pulau Dua Reserve, Java (B. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2007),<strong></strong> and with a maximum population of 24 birds at Bali Barat National Park, Bali, (Muchtar and Nurwatha 2001)<strong></strong>. Two conservation projects have been carried out on Java: a breeding programme at the Chikananga Wild Animal Rescue Centre in Sukabumi, West Java, and future reintroduction of birds in Cikepuh Nature Reserve (Braasch 2007).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct intensive research into the year-round ecology of the species to clarify its requirements, and the role of trapping and pesticides in causing declines. Promote widespread, strict and effective enforcement of capture and trade regulations (including CITES listing), focusing activities on protected areas and bird markets. Control use of agricultural pesticides (if these are found to be a significant constraint), especially in key areas for the species. <p></p>
106006821		distribution	eng	<em>Sturnus melanopterus</em> is endemic to the islands of Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, also occurring on adjacent Madura and Nusa Penida, and (perhaps only as a vagrant or escapee) on Lombok. Its range has changed little over recent decades (and may indeed have expanded owing to increased cultivation), but it has undergone a widespread rapid decline since at least the 1960s. It was formerly common in the plains of East Java, and locally common in central and west Java, but is now rare and very localised throughout. A similar decline has also occurred on Bali and Nusa Penida, and there are very few records from Madura or Lombok. A survey of 33 historical locations revealed just 32 individuals at only three locations (Muchtar and Nurwatha 2001)<strong></strong>. Despite regular checks of several bird markets in Java this species is rarely recorded, and according to sellers they are now very difficult to find (J. Eaton <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>, and only small numbers were sighted in 2009 at Pulau Dua, Baluran National Park, Alas Purwo National Park (all on Java), and at the Menjangan Jungle Beach Resort and Uluwatu on Bali (J. Eaton <em>in litt.</em> 2009, M. Iqbal <em>in litt. </em>2009, S. Mahood <em>in litt.</em> 2009, S. Winnasis <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. In 2007 it was been reported as having declined to "a few hundred individuals" on Java (Braasch 2007). Regular sightings from Muara Angke in Central Jakarta (Java), probably relate to escaped individuals (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006821		habitat	eng	Small flocks forage on the ground in a variety of habitats, particularly agricultural and livestock-grazed areas, chiefly in the extreme lowlands, although occasionally up to c.1,300&#160;m in West Java and 2,400&#160;m in East Java. It also inhabits primary and secondary monsoon forest, including teak forest (where it was locally abundant), forest edge and open woodland, uncultivated bushy valleys, and even (formerly at least) urban suburbs. Some flocks on Bali were thought to make significant local movements, following the flowering and fruiting of trees.<p></p>
106006821		population	eng	The population is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals, based on estimated declines of 80% over the past 10 years (three generations), and an assessment of records and surveys listed in BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals. Surveys are urgently required to accurately assess the global population size.
106006821		threats	eng	Capture for trade is the primary threat, and the main cause of its decline. However, the numbers currently entering trade are worryingly low (Muchtar and Nurwatha 2001,&#160; J. Eaton <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. This species is one of the most popular cage-birds on Java, an island famed for its huge bird markets and very high cage-bird ownership. It has also been suggested that excessive use of pesticides may present a significant threat, as the species habitually forages in open agricultural areas. Finally genetic integrity has been lost due to the widespread mixing of the the three subspecies when birds escape (Muchtar and Nurwatha 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006822		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1970, while the remaining world population occurs entirely within Bali Barat National Park. Since 1983, the Bali Starling Project has helped to improve the guarding of the park, bolstered the wild population through release of captive-bred birds, and provided the foundation for the development of the Bali Starling Recovery Plan. A population was introduced to Nusa Penida Island (apparently not part of its native range) by <span class="style12">Begawan Foundation, derived from captive individuals. Reintroduction has continued through the work of the Friends of the National Park Foundation (<span class="style12">I. G. N. Bayu Wirayudha <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<span class="style12">, and it also appears to be benefiting from efforts within the Nusa Penida Bird Sanctuary (G. Dijkman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Plans are being developed to legalise breeding and trading of Bali Starling to open up the market and undermine illegal trade (P. Wood <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In addition, the Wildlife Conservation Society continues to operate wildlife crime market/trade surveillance and enforcement at key trading hubs in Indonesia (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007).  <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends closely, in particular to determine whether released birds are breeding successfully. Improve genetic diversity of released populations by introducing unrelated individuals. Commence strict implementation of the Bali Starling Recovery Plan. Continue to monitor the success of the release on Nusa Penida, in particular investigating interactions with native flora and fauna, as well as those with local agricultural activity<span class="style12">. Encourage community work to improve habitat conditions<span class="style12"> (I. G. N. Bayu Wirayudha <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<span class="style12"><p></p></span></span></span>
106006822		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it formerly ranged across the north-west third of the island. It has perhaps long been uncommon (numbers in the early 1900s, the period of discovery, have been retrospectively guessed at 300-900, although this is thought to be a gross underestimate), but has declined drastically in population and range. Illegal poaching reduced numbers to a critically low level in 1990, when the wild population was estimated at c.15 birds. Conservation intervention coupled with the release of a few captive-bred birds raised this to between 35 and 55. However, despite excellent breeding success and continuing conservation efforts, the population continues to fluctuate and fell to six birds in 2001 (P. Benstead verbally 2003)<strong></strong>. Continuing releases have raised numbers in West Bali National Park, such that surveys in March 2005 found 24 individuals (P. Wood <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong> and in 2008 the population here was believed to be around 50 birds (G. Dijkman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008). However, it is uncertain how many of these released birds have bred successfully in the wild and therefore can be regarded as "mature individuals" following IUCN guidelines. A population has been introduced on Nusa Penida Island (apparently not part of the native range) derived from captive individuals. The population appears to have adapted to the island and is breeding, with a total of 65 adults and 62 young present in 2009 (G. Dijkman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Around 1,000 individuals are believed to survive in captivity. There was an apparent sighting of a pair of birds in East Java, but this has not been confirmed and is likely to be escaped or released captive birds (A. Blakemore <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106006822		habitat	eng	In the breeding season (usually October and November), it inhabits fire-induced open shrub, tree and palm-savanna and adjacent closed-canopy monsoon-forest (tropical moist deciduous), below 175 m. In the non-breeding season, birds disperse into open forest edge and flooded savanna woodland. In the past they also occurred, and even nested, in coconut groves near villages. Previously thought to rely on cavities excavated and vacated by other birds, released individuals on Nusa Penida have nested in sugar palm, coconut and fig trees (G. Dijkman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008). <p></p>
106006822		population	eng	There were an estimated c.50 individuals in the West Bali National Park in 2008 (Dijkman <em>in litt.</em> 2008). On Nusa Penida, the population was recorded as 65 adults and 62 juveniles in 2009 (C. Kenwrick <em>in litt.</em> 2009). However, given that the population estimate should only comprise of mature individuals, and the IUCN stipulates re-introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals, the current population of 115 individuals should be considered a maximum, and as such the population is precautionarily assumed to be fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
106006822		threats	eng	Its decline to virtual extinction in the wild is primarily attributable to unsustainable, illegal trapping in response to worldwide demand for the cage-bird trade. This threat continues despite the fact that the whole population is now confined within a national park and has been the subject of a specific conservation programme. The park and programme have, however, suffered from repeated mismanagement and corruption. In 1999, while black-market prices soared (US$2,000 in mid-1990s), an armed gang stole almost all the 39 captive individuals in the park awaiting release into the wild. These serious problems are compounded by habitat loss. With the population now at such a critically low level, other threats may include genetic erosion, interspecific competition, natural predation and disease. <p></p>
106006823		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006824		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common although uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett <em>et al</em>. 1998), while national population sizes have been estimated at   &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and possibly c.100-10,000   introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006825		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Feare <em>et al</em>. 1998), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at &lt; c.10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006826		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common throughout its range (Feare and Craig 1998), while national population   estimates include: &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and (for   the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">javonicus</span>) c.10,000-1 million introduced   breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan   (Brazil 2009).
106006827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006828		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered very local to locally common.
106006829		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common throughout its range (Feare and Craig 1998), while national population   estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; &lt;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding   pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106006830		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Robson 2000).
106006831		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106006832		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006833		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006834		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat, particularly in the Sula lowlands, and protect against disturbance and other threats.   <p></p>
106006834		distribution	eng	<em>Basilornis galeatus</em> is restricted to the Banggai (Peleng, Banggai) and Sula Islands (Taliabu, Seho and Mangole), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106006834		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and montane forest and tall trees in reedswamps up to 1,000 m. In the Banggai Islands, at least, it can be found in secondary forests.  <p></p>
106006834		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce to locally common.
106006834		threats	eng	This species may be relatively secure in montane regions as a result of the inaccessibility of its habitats to humans. However, in the Sula lowlands it is becoming uncommon and is increasingly vulnerable to the loss of the least disturbed forest, its preferred habitat.  <p></p>
106006835		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally numerous (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106006836		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat, especially at lower elevations within the species's altitudinal range, and safeguard against logging and encroachment.   <p></p>
106006836		distribution	eng	<em>Basilornis mirandus</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is common within suitable habitats, including at Daggayan, Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo. <em> <p></p></em>
106006836		habitat	eng	This species is found above 1,250 m in forest and forest edge, even in cut-over areas.  <p></p>
106006836		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common at some sites.
106006836		threats	eng	The habitats occupied by this species are apparently secure as a result of their rugged and inaccessible nature. However, some logging and clearance for agriculture may have occurred in lower parts of the elevational range.  <p></p>
106006837		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006838		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway<br/><br/><br/></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106006838		distribution	eng	<em>Streptocitta albertinae</em> occurs in the Sula (restricted to Taliabu and Mangole only) and Banggai Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106006838		habitat	eng	This species is found in tall trees in lowland forest and agricultural land up to 250 m. It appears to be more tolerant of degraded forest than Helmeted Myna <em>Basilornis galeatus</em>, but it is uncommon, occurs over a smaller area and has a narrower elevational range.  <p></p>
106006838		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as widespread and fairly common to common.
106006838		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected by forest clearance and degradation as a result of logging activities and agricultural conversion. However, it is apparently tolerant of secondary and heavily degraded habitats, suggesting that declines are unlikely to be severe.   <p></p>
106006839		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106006840		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Grant protected status to areas of forest occupied by the species.  <p></p>
106006840		distribution	eng	<em>Gracula ptilogenys </em>is endemic to the wet zone of <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is common to very common in lowlands and hills wherever forest persists.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006840		habitat	eng	This species prefers natural forest and well-wooded country, although it also visits gardens and plantations if forest is nearby. It appears to be relatively tolerant of habitat degradation.   <p></p>
106006840		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon and local.
106006840		threats	eng	Forest on Sri Lanka has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue.  <p></p>
106006841		distribution	eng	This species occurs Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India, east and north-east India east to southern China, and south through south-east Asia to Palawan (Philippines), Borneo, and Flores (Indonesia). There are also introduced populations in several places, including Puerto Rico (to USA). The introduced population on Christmas Island (to Australia) has died out.
106006841		habitat	eng	This species occurs in moist or semi-evergreen forest in lowlands, hills and mountains. It is known for its ability to mimic noises including human speech.
106006841		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).
106006841		threats	eng	This species is tolerant of some degree of habitat degradation. However,it has been heavily traded: from 1994-2003, over 170,000 wild-caught individuals were exported from range states (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, October 2005.). It is one of the most popular avian pets in Asia, due to its ability to mimic noises and human speech. Trade, acting in conjunction with habitat loss throughout the species' range, appears to have seriously impacted this species, with significant population declines due to trade noted in China, Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (all major declines), the Philippines, and parts of India and Laos (Pilgrim et al. in prep.). In all of these cases, the major trade demand has been domestic, rather than international. As a result of concerns about international trade, this species was included in CITES Appendix III at the request of Thailand in 1992 and subsequently included in Appendix II in 1997 on the recommendation of the Netherlands and the Philippines.
106006842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106006843		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106006844		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in national parks and protected areas (Fry and Keith 2000).
106006845		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2000).
106006847		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Siwa Ban Reserve was designated in 1998 expressly to protect the population on Caye Caulker but it is unclear whether this has provided adequate protection (B. W. Miller<em> in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Belize Caye Development policy grants protection to littoral forest; however, in reality this may not be enforced (E. McRae <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a considerable area of mangrove has been cleared on Ambergris Caye since the mid-1990s (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Although it is common in the Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, all of the coastal land is private and house construction is permitted in most areas (B. Roldán Clarà<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2009, research was underway to study the genetic and vocal divergence of populations on Cozumel and in the Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve.<strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the species's tolerance to habitat degradation. Adequately protect the important population on Cozumel Island. Enforce the protection afforded to the species by the Siwa Ban Reserve. <p></p>
106006847		distribution	eng	<em>Melanoptila glabrirostris</em> occurs on the Yucatán peninsula, in <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, and <strong>Guatemala</strong>. It is a common to fairly common resident on Cozumel Island and from east Quintana Roo, Mexico, to Ambergris Caye, Belize; common to uncommon on Caye Caulker, Lighthouse Reef and Glover's Reef, Belize. Fieldwork on the north coast of the Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve has shown the species to be common there (B. Roldán Clarà<em> in litt</em>. 2008). It is only a scarce and perhaps seasonal or accidental (mainly November-May) visitor over much of the Yucatán peninsula, west to Campeche, Mexico, south to Belize and into Petén, north Guatemala (Phillips 1986, <strong></strong>Howell and Webb 1995,&#160;B. W. Miller<em> in litt</em>. 2007, B. W. Miller <em>in litt</em>. 2008). At least 39 small breeding colonies (c.20 pairs) have been located in the interior of the Yucatán peninsula (including 31 in Yucatán - for example in the Hunucmá area, Izamal and Dzonot Carretero, 6 in Quintana Roo and 2 in Campeche) (B. McKinnon de Montes<em> in litt</em>. 2008, 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no records from <strong>Honduras</strong> since the type-specimen was purportedly collected at Omoa in 1855 or 1856, leading to speculation that the specimen may have been mislabelled<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong></strong>. A precipitous decline from c.2003 to 2008 has been reported from Caye Caulker (B. W. Miller <em>in litt</em>. 2008).
106006847		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid to semi-arid scrubby woodland and forest edge, including seasonally flooded and deciduous forest and secondary growth (P. A. Wood<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but also mangrove and littoral forest on cays (E. McRae <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006847		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006847		threats	eng	Tourism and housing development and conversion to coconut plantations are causing habitat loss and fragmentation in the core of its range on the Quintana Roo coast, Cozumel, and the cays in Belize (Miller and Miller 1991, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, E. McRae <em>in litt</em>. 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It is also potentially threatened by periodic hurricanes, particularly if their frequency and intensity increase; however, impacts from hurricanes have so far not been serious and the species persists in secondary habitats (P. A. Wood<em> in litt</em>. 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>R. Curry <em>in litt</em>. 2008). <br/><p></p>
106006848		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006849		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006851		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006852		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006853		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006854		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006855		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006856		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006860		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A 10-year action plan was developed in 2007, with plans to take active measures to safeguard existing populations, and to create suitable conditions for reintroduction to Floreana (Charles Darwin Foundation 2007b,&#160;G. Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>in litt. </em>2007, Anon. 2008a)<strong></strong>. A ringing study is on-going to determine survival rates of the species; another study aims to assess the impacts of the parasite <span style="font-style: italic;">Philornis downsi</span> on the mockingbird population (Ortis-Catedral 2012). The reintroduction plan is supported by an emergency plan, to enable rapid response to critical downward population trends (Anon. 2008b)<strong></strong>, the Introduced Rodent Eradication Program initiated in 2007 and the initiation of Project Floreana, aimed at the restoration of the island (Anon. 2008a)<strong></strong>. The Galápagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site (Jackson 1985)<strong></strong>. The Charles Darwin Foundation is plans to reintroduce the species to Floreana, however no translocation occurred in 2010 as an El Niño event was expected which would have made rat and cat control on the island very difficult (P. Hoeck <em>in litt. </em>2010, G. Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and environmental conditions on both islands, preferably annually (Grant <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Minimise the risk of chance introductions of predators and disease. Reintroduce to Floreana if eradication of rats, cats, anis, pigs, goats and donkeys is successful. Investigate possibility of reintroduction to other islets, or areas of Floreana, where black rat<em>s </em>and cats<em> </em>are absent (G. Jiménez-Uzcátegui <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106006860		distribution	eng	This species survives in low numbers on Champion (0.1 km<sup>2</sup>) and Gardner-by-Floreana (0.8 km<sup>2</sup>) islets in the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador </strong>(Grant <em>et al.</em> 2000). It became extinct on the much larger Floreana (173 km<sup>2</sup>) between 1868 and 1880<em> </em>(Curry 1986, Steadman 1986)<strong></strong>. In 1966, the population was estimated to be no more than 150 birds (Harris 1968)<strong></strong>. Between 1980 and 1991, annual counts showed that there were 8-12 (average 10) territories on Champion, with 24-53 birds in total (Grant <em>et al.</em> 2000). On the same island between 2003 and 2008, numbers of birds varied from 20-52, but overall there was a downward population trend with 12 adults left in 2006 (Charles Darwin Foundation 2007b, Jiménez-Uzcátegui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). A similar trend was noted on Gardner-by-Floreana during the same period, with the number of birds on that island varying between 65 and 179, and the number of adults in 2007 falling to 29 (Charles Darwin Foundation 2007b, Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2007,  Jiménez-Uzcátegui <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. The population recovered in 2008 due to good weather conditions and may have reached record numbers for the last decade, however such population highs are likely only to be temporary as the islands cannot support such numbers and the populations are still extremely prone to climate-induced fluctuations (Hoeck 2009, Charles Darwin Foundation <em>in litt. </em>2009, D. Wiedenfeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010<strong></strong>). A population viability analysis of the Champion population suggested that there is less than a 50% chance of the bird persisting on the island for another 100 years. <p></p>
106006860		habitat	eng	It inhabits the large cactus <em>Opuntia megasperma </em>and other stands of vegetation, including <em>Parkinsonia</em>, <em>Croton</em> and <em>Cordia</em><em> </em>(Curry 1986)<strong></strong>. It feeds mostly on terrestrial insects, but also takes arboreal insects, fruit, nectar, pollen, centipedes, crabs, lizards and regurgitated food of boobies <em>Sula</em> spp. It is a cooperative breeder, with a variable mating system (Curry and Grant 1991)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006860		population	eng	Between 2003 and 2008, the population on Champion Island numbered 20-52 indviduals, with 65-179 on Gardner-by-Floreana. Both populations reached lows in 2007 following very bad weather conditions in 2006, with a total population of just 46 mature individuals remaining. Numbers then recovered in 2008 due to good, wet weather conditions (D. Wiedenfeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010). However, given that the population fluctuates, a population band of fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals is precautionarily retained.
106006860		threats	eng	Extinction on Floreana was probably caused by the depredations of introduced black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em>, feral<strong></strong> cats and feral dogs, with introduced goats causing habitat loss<em> </em>(Harris 1973, Curry 1986, Grant <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). Higher adult mortality occurs in the unusually dry La Niña years (Grant <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>; dry years are increasing in frequency, and this is thought to be driving fluctuations in the population size (as seen in 2007 and 2008) which leave the species prone to extinction (D. Wiedenfeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The Smooth-billed Ani <em>Crotophaga ani </em>is known to predate other bird species on the archipelago and has been seen on Champion and Gardner-by-Floreana (G. Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Increased mortality on Champion during the 1982-1983 El Niño event is thought to have been the result of avian pox virus (Grant <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and the invasive parasite <em>Philornis downsi </em>has been recorded (Wiedenfeld and Jimenez-Uzcategui 2008)<strong></strong>. There are black rats present on nearby islets whose accidental introduction to either of the breeding islands poses an ever present threat (G. Jiménez-Uzcátegui <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The loss of immigration from the now extinct Floreana population has raised concerns for the long-term survival of the two remaining populations, as they are believed to have lost a significant amount of genetic diversity (Grant <em>et al.</em> 2000, <strong></strong>Hoeck <em>et al. </em>2009).   <p></p>
106006861		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Galápagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site (Jackson 1985).<strong><sup></sup></strong> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Estimate population size as a baseline to determine trends. Minimise chance introductions of predators (e.g. rats <em>Rattus</em> spp.) and disease (H. Vargas and F. Cruz<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research breeding ecology and adult survival in relation to climatic variation, with particular reference to drought events. <p></p>
106006861		distribution	eng	<em>Mimus macdonaldi</em> is endemic to Española Island and the small adjacent islet of Gardner-by-Española, in the south-east Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Castro and Phillips 1996). It is considered common (Harris 1982, Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996), but nothing is known of population trends, and there are no recent population estimates. <p></p>
106006861		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid lowland scrub and deciduous forest (Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on carrion and seabird eggs (Harris 1982). It is a co-operative breeder, with a variable mating system, and territorial groups averaging nine adults (Curry and Grant 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting is very synchronised, taking place in March and April, with a single egg usually laid (Harris 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it gathers in groups of up to 40 individuals, which forage together (Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006861		population	eng	There is no recent information on population size. Gardner-by-Española is a tiny island, a few hectares in size, and is less than 1 km from Española, so the population there may not represent a discrete subpopulation. The total population is thought to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006861		threats	eng	This species is inherently susceptible owing to its extremely limited range. It may be affected by the regular and extreme weather events that have been shown to cause significant fluctuations in the population of Floreana Mockingbird <em>N. trifasciatus</em> (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez 2008). It is also at constant risk of the introduction of pest species (e.g. rats <em>Rattus</em> spp.), parasites (Wiedenfeld <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and diseases to occupied islands, although none of these pests are now present (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106006862		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Galápagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site (Jackson 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population to determine trends.  Research relative importance of different threats in order to identify effective conservation actions.  Research into methods of control or eradication of the parasite <em>Philornis downsi</em> (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Avoid further introduction of alien species. <p></p>
106006862		distribution	eng	<em>Mimus melanotis</em> is endemic to the island of San Cristóbal in the central Galápagos islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Sibley and Monroe 1990). Its population has recently been estimated at c.8,000 individuals, on the basis that it occupies c.25% of the 552 km<sup>2</sup> area of the island, with occupied areas holding approximately 0.6 birds/ha (R. Curry <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006862		habitat	eng	It occupies a wide range of habitats from lowlands up to the island summit at 715 m, including arid open lowland scrub, mangroves, scrubby woodland with scattered trees (<em>Bursera</em> spp.) and arborescent cacti (<em>Opuntia</em> spp.), low woodlands of introduced guava (<em>Psidium guajava</em>) and taller patches of forest.  It tends to avoid dense lowland forest, taller, wetter woodland, grassland and urban areas (Cody 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The species forages on the ground for arthropods, also taking fruit and berries and occasionally picking ticks (Acarina) off marine iguanas (<em>Amblyrhynchus</em> spp.).  It breeds in January to April, apparently not cooperatively, in contrast to other <em>Nesomimus</em> spp. (Cody 2005)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106006862		population	eng	R. Curry (<em>in litt.</em> 2005) estimated that this species occupies c.25% of the 552 km<sup>2</sup> area of San Cristobal, i.e. 138 km<sup>2</sup>. The density of birds in occupied habitat is 0.6 birds / ha, giving a total population size estimate of 8,280 birds, perhaps best rounded to c.8,000 individuals. This roughly equates to c.5,300 mature individuals. However, the population may be significantly smaller than this (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106006862		threats	eng	Several threats are suspected to be causing population decline, including introduced species (diseases, parasites and predators), habitat degradation, and human disturbance (Vargas 1996, Wiedenfeld and Jiménez 2008, <strong></strong>R. Curry <em>in litt</em>. 2005,&#160;H. Vargas <em>in litt.</em> 2005,&#160;A. Tye <em>in litt.</em> 2005, D. Wiedenfeld <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The presence of the Dipterid nestling parasite <em>Philornis downsi</em> is likely a significant threat (Wiedenfeld <em>et al</em>. 2007). A number of disease vectors have been introduced, including <em>Culex quinquefasciatus</em> (vector of avian malaria) and  <em>Simulium bipunctatus</em> (Peck <em>et al.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span>Vargas and Bensted-Smith 2000, Whiteman <em>et al.</em> 2005), and chickens in the growing number of chicken farms have brought in new diseases and may act as intermediary hosts (Gottdenker <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The incidence of parasites and diseases could be more important in the future with the increase in frequency and intensity of El Niño events and the more humid conditions in the islands (H. Vargas <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Wiedenfeld <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Habitat loss and degradation is caused by invasive introduced plants (<em>P. guajava, Eugenia jambos</em>, <em>Rubus niveus)</em> (Vargas 1996), overgrazing by goats, and increased human settlement.  Black rats and feral cats have been introduced and are thought to be responsible for high nest predation rates (Curry 1989)<strong></strong>. The relative importance and impacts of these different threats are not yet known. <p></p>
106006863		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1994 (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is an ongoing control programme in the region (the Mexican navy has effectively reduced the sheep population to c. 300 heads), and there are plans to eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996, B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement a vegetation and soil restoration plan after sheep have been removed (Martínez-Gómez<em> et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a research monitoring station on Socorro (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the population, especially before and after the proposed eradications. <p></p>
106006863		distribution	eng	<em>Mimus graysoni</em> is endemic to Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It was the most abundant and widespread landbird in 1925, and was still abundant in 1958. By 1978, it had declined dramatically and was feared on the verge of extinction. Subsequent surveys have estimated the population at 50-200 pairs in 1988-1990 (Castellanos and Rodríguez-Estrella 1993, Wehtje <em>et al.</em> 1993, Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and c.350 individuals in 1993-1994, with the highest densities in the sheep-free dwarf forests of Cerro Evermann (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Of 170 birds ringed in 1994, 56% were subadults (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting that productivity is high and the population would be capable of increasing if habitat quality improves across the island (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006863		habitat	eng	It occurs principally in moist dwarf forest and ravines with a mixture of shrubs and trees at elevations above 600 m (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Vegetation in these areas is dominated by the trees <em>Ilex socorrensis</em>, <em>Guettarda insularis</em> and <em>Oreopanax xalapensis</em> and the understorey species <em>Triumfetta socorrensis</em> and <em>Eupatorium pacificum </em>(Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996, Martínez-Gómez<em> et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is very rare at low and mid-elevations (0-500 m), and absent from areas of <em>Croton masonii</em> scrub near sea-level and sheep-damaged habitat in the south-east half of the island (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996, Martínez-Gómez<em> et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but is common within fig <em>Ficus cotinifolia</em> patches in the north-west of the island (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fig groves may act as regeneration nuclei for the species, supporting birds when a suitable understorey is present (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting may occur from November-July with a peak in March-April (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Three eggs are laid and the incubation period is no more than 15 days (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Food includes crab remains, small invertebrates and fruit, particularly those of <em>Ilex</em> <em>socorrensis</em> and <em>Bumelia socorrensis </em>(Castellanos and Rodríguez-Estrella 1993, Martínez-Gómez<em> et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006863		population	eng	Martinez-Gomez &amp; Curry 1996 calculated a total population of 353 (287-419) individuals based upon comprehensive ringing data. Visits by the author to the same sites during 2006 &amp; 2007 reported a similar population. The estimate is best applied to the area of the island where ringing took place. This implies that the total population of the island may be larger (J. E. Martinez-Gomez  <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). This roughly equates to 190-280 mature individuals.
106006863		threats	eng	Sheep had intensively grazed almost one third of the island by 1990 (Castellanos and Rodríguez-Estrella 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, leaving no suitable nesting or foraging habitat in the south of the island (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by feral cats was initially thought responsible for the species's decline, but cats were introduced some time after 1972 (Martínez-Gómez<em> et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and examinations of cat stomach contents and scats have not provided any substantive evidence (Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, they are likely to prey upon dispersing individuals that move into areas with little or no understorey (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Competition with the immigrant <em>Mimus polyglottos</em> is probably not a factor because <em>Mimus graysoni</em> is much larger, has different habitat preferences and is not outcompeted in undisturbed habitats (Castellanos and Rodríguez-Estrella 1993, Martínez-Gómez and Curry 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 1994, c.30 ha of forest have been lost owing to a now permanent locust <em>Schistocerca piceifrons </em>swarm on the island which irrupts twice yearly. Its effects are thought to be more severe owing to the degradation of native vegetation by introduced grazing mammals, and the suppression of native bird populations (which typically exert top-down control of insect populations on the island) by introduced cats. Locusts cut leaves, flowers and fruit from trees and thus represent a serious threat to fruit eaters such as Socorro Mockingbird (J. E. Martínez-Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Potential developments on Socorro including enlargements to the airstrip and the possibility of a new federal prison could destroy breeding habitat and increase the risk of accidental introduction of other invasive species.  <p></p>
106006867		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been several recent searches for the species (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998, D. Brewer <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Macouzet and Escalante Pliego 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and efforts are ongoing to determine the remnant population size and distribution, and to evaluate the threats and reasons behind its decline (Curry and Martínez-Gómez 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently survey in the breeding season (when it is most conspicuous) to determine whether the species is still extant and identify appropriate conservation measures. Investigate its former status and ecology through interviews with local people to ascertain the reasons for its decline. Conduct an awareness raising campaign to raise the profile of this species and educate visitors about the potential to damage the island's ecosystem (Curry and Martínez-Gómez 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish formal protection for interior lands on Cozumel (Curry and Martínez-Gómez 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006867		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Cozumel Island, <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it was formerly fairly common to common (AOU 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It became rare immediately after Hurricane Gilbert in September 1988, Howell and Webb 1995a, S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Macouzet and Escalante Pliego 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with only four records obtained during monthly visits to the island during August 1994-August 1995 (Macouzet and Escalante Pliego 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Only a few sightings were been recorded after Hurricane Roxanne in 1995, the most recent being four observations of what is presumed to have been the same individual during extensive surveys in 2004 and a record from a different site during the same year (Curry <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There remains only one possible sighting made in 2006 since two further devastating hurricanes hit the island in 2005 (P. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006867		habitat	eng	Recent records originate from semi-deciduous forest and deciduous forest away from scrubby areas (Macouzet and Escalante Pliego 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it was formerly reported to inhabit scrubby woodland and thick undergrowth bordering fields (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the edges of tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest (Howell and Webb 1995a, S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is typically known to skulk on or near the ground, but often sings from conspicuous perches (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is May-July (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006867		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), given the low number of records during the past decade.
106006867		threats	eng	Hurricane Gilbert appears to have had a severe effect on the species, whose status may have deteriorated further following Hurricane Roxanne in 1995, and Hurricanes Emily and Wilma in 2005 (Macouzet and Escalante Pliego 2001, Curry <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further hurricanes are likely because Cozumel lies within the area of Mexico most frequently hit by hurricanes (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and may extirpate any surviving, small populations. However, this seems an unsatisfactory explanation of its current rarity because it must have evolved with a relatively high hurricane frequency. The reasons behind its decline are poorly understood, but boa constrictors introduced in 1971 and introduced cats are the leading hypothesised threat (Curry <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Having a distribution on a relatively low-lying island, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006868		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been classified as a "Species of Special Concern" by California Department of Fish and Game, and protected from take. No information exists on other management actions (<strong></strong>England and Laudenslayer 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species occurs within a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its ecology and determine key habitat requirements. Research the benefits of an increase in scattered junipers from grazing. Study potential competition with Curve-billed Thrashers. Avoid disturbance to and development of important habitats. Determine the taxonomy of Baha Californian populations. <p></p>
106006868		distribution	eng	<em>Toxostoma bendirei</em> is found in south-west <strong>USA</strong> and north-west <strong>Mexico</strong>, from southern Nevada, southern Utah and south-western Colorado south to central Sonora. Its status in Baja California is unresolved (England and Laudenslayer 1993, Brewer and MacKay 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Within this range its distribution is patchy and in some cases poorly known (owing to low observer density in desert regions and confusion with other similar <em>Toxostoma</em> species) (England and Laudenslayer 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Individuals in the northern portion of the range migrate south in the winter and overlap with more southern residents (England and Laudenslayer 1993, Brewer and MacKay 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is now so rare that trends cannot be estimated reliably from Breeding Bird Survey data (J. Wells, K. Rosenberg and E. Inigo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but declines between 1966 and 2003 equate to 34.5%. <p></p>
106006868		habitat	eng	It is found in sparse desert habitats from sea level in Sonora to approximately 1,800 m in Utah (England and Laudenslayer 1993, Brewer and MacKay 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Throughout its range, breeders favour relatively open grassland, shrubland or woodland with scattered shrubs or trees; it is not found in dense vegetation. It forages primarily on the ground, probing for insects and other arthropods, but will also eat seeds and berries (England and Laudenslayer 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also digs with its bill, but less frequently, not as powerfully nor as efficiently as other thrashers (England and Laudenslayer 1993)<strong></strong>. In the Mojave desert, California, migration begins as soon as breeding finishes, with breeding grounds vacated by late August (Brewer and MacKay 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006868		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <p></p>
106006868		threats	eng	Populations have been eliminated by dense urbanisation around Tucson and by large scale agriculture along the Gila River. In California potential threats may include harvesting of Joshua trees and other yuccas, overgrazing and off-road vehicle activity. However, there have been suggestions that clearing and agricultural activities actually favour this species (England and Laudenslayer 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Competition with the Curve-billed Thrasher <em>Toxostroma curvirostre</em> for a depleted food supply may have contributed to a decline in the population.  <p></p>
106006869		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006871		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006875		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006876		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106006877		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The well-protected (albeit small) Caravelle Nature Reserve covers part of the species's range on Martinique. It is legally protected on St Lucia, but none of its St Lucian range falls within a protected area. On both islands, studies have been carried out to assess the population and threats, and on Martinique a plan exists to control introduced predators (Bulens <em>et al.</em> 1994, Temple 2005, P. Feldman and P. Villard<em> in litt.</em> 1998). Banding birds has facilitated detailed ecological and population research (Temple 2005, P. Feldman and P. Villard<em> in litt.</em> 1998, J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160;<strong></strong>H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor both island populations to assess trends. Establish protected areas and effectively protect coastal dry woodland and scrub within the thrasher's range on St Lucia, and prevent further habitat losses on Martinique. Allow adjacent farmland to regenerate into scrub woodland, providing additional habitat and allowing populations to expand.  Conduct further research into the impact of predators on Martinique, and implement the predator control plan if deemed necessary. Control predators on St. Lucia (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Enact legislation on St Lucia to protect critical wildlife sites.  Consult with the hotel developers on St Lucia to protect suitable areas of thrasher habitat in a private reserve (P. Cosgrove <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Safeguard patches of dry forest to the west and north of the Le Paradis tourism development site in Mandelé. Quantify the impact of the Le Paradis development. Preserve mature dry and riparian forest within the tourism development site in Mandelé (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  Research the taxonomic status of the two subspecies.   <p></p>
106006877		distribution	eng	<em>Ramphocinclus brachyurus</em> occurs as two subspecies which differ in plumage and call notes. The nominate race is restricted to the Caravelle Peninsula on <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong> (Bulens <em>et al.</em> 1994, Temple 2005, P. Feldman and P. Villard<em> in litt.</em> 1998,&#160;H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003), an area of c.5km<sup>2</sup>, and race <em>sanctaeluciae</em> occurs on the north-east coast of <strong>St Lucia</strong> between the Marquis River Valley and Frigate Island Refuge (Keith 1997, <strong></strong>J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  Until 1993, the thrasher was thought to be restricted to the northern part of this area (Marquis-Dennery Knob), and population estimates and censuses in 1971, 1987, 1992 and 2003 suggested that the population in this northern area may be declining (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999, H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. In 1993, thrashers were discovered near the Frigate Island Refuge, and recent research suggests that this site holds the bulk (c.75%) of the global population. A comprehensive programme of searches on Martinique found no new subpopulations anywhere else on the island. Surveys in 2003 and 2004 indicated a global population of 1,300-2,600 breeding adults, 1,100-2,400 on St Lucia and c.200 on Martinique (H. J. Temple 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2006 and 2007, the St Lucia population still numbered about 1,200 individuals (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). By 2011, the population on Saint Lucia appeared to be fewer than <a style="mso-comment-reference:M_1;mso-comment-date: 20120416T1247">900 </a>birds, with under 800 in the southern population  (M. Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).        <p></p>
106006877		habitat	eng	On both islands, it inhabits dry and semi-dry woodland and scrub with abundant leaf-litter, often in areas with a clear understorey but sometimes in dense thickets. In the northern part of its range on St Lucia (Petite Anse-Dennery Knob) it tends to occur along ravines and river-valleys, but in the rest of its range on St Lucia and Martinique it also occurs on dry hillsides well away from streams. It tolerates a degree of habitat degradation and is often found in secondary woodland and scrub, but although it is occasionally seen in clearings and smallholders' crop-fields, it does not breed in these man-made habitats (Temple 2005)<strong></strong>. It typically forages on the ground for invertebrates, small frogs and lizards, also taking berries (Keith 1997, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Breeding apparently coincides with the onset of the rainy season, and the bulky open-cup nest is placed 0.5-3 m from the ground, usually in the fork of a thin sapling (Keith 1997, J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003). Eggs (usually two) are laid from May until August, and thrashers may rear more than one successful brood in a season (Keith 1997, <strong></strong><strong></strong>J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999,&#160; H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003). The specie sometimes breeds cooperatively - around one-third of nests have helpers, which are apparently retained offspring from previous years, and may be either male or female (Temple <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003). Chicks leave the nest before fledging, and continue to be fed on the ground (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On St Lucia, nesting success was 44% in 1997, 55% in 2001,  74% in 2002 and 44% in 2003, suggesting normal levels of nest predation for a tropical passerine (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999, H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003). It is highly sedentary, and may reside permanently on or near breeding territories (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It occurs at high densities within its restricted range (Temple 2005), suggesting that it may be at carrying capacity, with population increases being unlikely to occur unless more habitat is created (H. J. Temple <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006877		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1,300 mature individuals, equivalent to over 1,900 individuals in total.
106006877		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, perhaps compounded by the impact of predation by introduced mammals. On Martinique, habitat loss during the colonial era means that the species now has a tiny population restricted to a very small area (Temple 2005). Most of this is effectively protected, although some losses to agriculture, charcoal-burning and housing development continue (H. J. Temple <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. On St Lucia, on-going habitat degradation and loss is caused by agriculture, charcoal-burning and wood-cutting, and there are potentially devastating plans to build a highway through the centre of the thrasher's range (J. D. Gilardi <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Le Paradis resort and golf course is being constructed on St Lucia on a site that is estimated to hold c.25% of the global population (Temple 2005)<strong></strong>, and tourism development companies will soon own land equivalent to 35% of the global Extent of Occurrence (Young <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  By 2008, 84 ha (12% of the range of St Lucia's southern sub-population) had been cleared for golf course/hotel construction (M. Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Construction was then halted, but still has planning permission; were it to continue, a projected 248 ha (35% of the southern range) would be lost (M. Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In the northern part of the range on St Lucia, planning permission is being sought for 2 large estates the development of which would result in approximately 1,000 ha (60%) of the northern range being lost (M. Morton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  Small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> and rats <em>Rattus </em>spp. have been present on both islands since before 1900, implying that the thrasher is able to coexist with these predators, but they may place an unwelcome additional burden on an already small population. Nest-monitoring on St Lucia suggests that levels of nest predation are not excessive, but the situation could be different on Martinique, where rats and mongoose may be more abundant: further research is required. Because the thrasher is confined to narrow areas along the Windward coast, a major hurricane could have a severe impact (H. J. Temple<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.  Additionally, studies  have shown the species to be a poor disperser, and it is likely that individuals cannot pass between the two subpopulations on St Lucia, limiting the potential for one population to "rescue" the other from a significant decline (<strong></strong>Temple <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106006878		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Margarops fuscus </span>is endemic to the Lesser Antilles, with populations on <span style="font-weight: bold;">St Martin</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">St Barthelemy</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">St Kitts and Nevis</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Antigua and Barbuda</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Montserrat (to U.K.)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guadeloupe (to France)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Dominica</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Martinique (to France)</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Grenada</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">St Lucia</span> and the island of St Vincent, <span style="font-weight: bold;">St Vincent and the Grenadines </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">atlantica</span>, endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Barbados</span>, has not been located in recent searches and is likely to be extinct (Brewer 2001).
106006878		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006879		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006880		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7,500,000-19,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 22,500,000-57,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 45,900,000-228,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006881		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006882		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-western India and fairly common in Nepal (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006883		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in India and Nepal and locally fairly common to common in Indochina (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Himalayas and elsewhere fairly common to rare (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006885		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mt Victoria falls within Natma Taung National Park, although no management activities have yet been initiated and it is unclear how effective protection is likely to become. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in montane forest in the southern Chin Hills to determine the exact range, status and conservation requirements of this species. Lobby for the increased protection and improved management of natural habitat in Natma Taung National Park, particularly at the lower forest fringes occupied by this species. Promote conservation awareness initiatives in Chin Hills communities aimed at reducing habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from shifting cultivation. Enforce regulations on logging, shifting cultivation and hunting within Natma Taung National Park. <p></p>
106006885		distribution	eng	<em>Sitta victoriae</em> is only known from the southern Chin Hills of <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Historical records are all from the Mt Victoria area. There have been recent records from this site where it appears to be scarce, with 14 birds recorded in 1995, five records in a two-week period in April 2000, and 45 sightings during four months of fieldwork in 2001-2002 (Naing 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other sightings include three birds recorded at nearby Mindat in 1995. Recent surveys of the adjacent central Chin Hills failed to find this species, suggesting that it is genuinely restricted to the Mt Victoria range (T. Htin-hla <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006885		habitat	eng	Birds exhibit a preference for oak <em>Quercus semicarpifolia</em> and <em>Rhododendron arboreum</em> forest between 2,300-3,000 m (Naing 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, feeding in mixed flocks, generally in the outer branches of large trees. It appears to be most common below 2,500 m. <p></p>
106006885		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006885		threats	eng	Forest up to 2,000 m has been almost totally cleared on Mt Victoria and some habitat from 2,000-2,500 m has been heavily degraded, but most above 2,300 m (the species's lower limit) remains secure from logging. The only major threat is slash-and-burn clearance for agriculture, which sometimes reaches these elevations (T. Htin Hla <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106006888		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known, though its national status of Near Threatened in France may afford some protection (IUCN 2008)<strong></strong>. Almost the entire global population occurs within the Natural Regional Park of Corse (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Work is being conducted by forest managers to evaluate the carrying capacity of Corsican pine forests for the species.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the minimum size of a Corsican pine stand required to support a viable population. Prevent the logging of mature Corsican pine. Develop a plan to prevent forest fires. Prevent the clearance of dead and rotting trunks in managed forests. <p></p>
106006888		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Corsica, <strong>France</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. It has a limited and fragmented breeding range which follows the distribution of Corsican pine <em>Pinus nigra laricio</em>, occuring on inland mountain ridges from Tartagine south to Ospedale and Mt Cagna, with main concentrations around the mountains of Cinto, Rotondo, Renoso and Incudine (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Thibault<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2010) estimated that Corsican Nuthatch territories occupy c.185 km<sup>2</sup> of pine stands on Corsica. The population was thought to number 1,500-4,500 pairs in 2000 and its population and range were thought to be stable between 1970-2000 (Tucker and Heath 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. A survey throughout its range between 1997 and 2008 estimated a population of 1,557-2,201 pairs, and estimated that the population had declined by c.10% in the last ten years due to fire and logging (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106006888		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Forages singly or in pairs, though may join mixed-species flocks outside the breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Seeds are cached from late autumn to early spring during periods of sunny weather (when the cones are open) and retrieved during wet or cold weather (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Its breeding season stretches from April to May, laying a clutch of 5-6 eggs, with mated partners remaining on their territory all year (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.It is generally sedentary except for some dispersal of immature and unmated birds to lower altitudes in winter (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>Optimal habitat for this species is mature stands of Corsican pine with abundant dead and rotting trunks for nest sites, at elevations of 1,000-1,500 m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Densities vary between 0.2-3.8 pairs/10 ha, and correlate with tree height, vegetation density and dead tree distribution (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Suboptimal habitats include forests where Corsican pine is associated with cluster pine <em>P. pinaster</em>, balsam fir <em>Abies alba</em> or beech <em>Fagus sylvatica</em>, and younger, exploited stands of Corsican pine at elevations of 600-1,700 m (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.Dispersing birds may be found in holm oak <em>Quercus ilex</em> and sweet chestnut <em>Castanea sativa</em> forests, gardens and orchards (Thibault and Bonaccorsi 1999, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Feeds largely on insects and spiders during May-August, switching to seeds, especially those of the Corsican pine, during the rest of the year (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006888		population	eng	Thibault <em>et al.</em> (unpublished data) estimated that the population comprised 1,554-2,196 territories/pairs, hence the population is estimated at c.3,100-4,400 mature individuals. This is equivalent to c.4,600-6,600 individuals in total.
106006888		threats	eng	Forest fires and logging of mature Corsican pine stands appear to be the primary threats to this species. Large trees suitable for the species are also favoured by the logging industry and since the 1970s local foresters have attempted to rejuvenate the pine forest by shortening the logging rotation, reducing the size of trees available for the species (Bourcet 1996)<strong></strong>. It has been estimated that 78-122 territories have been destroyed by logging since 1998, and that a further 50-63 territories were lost during the large forest fires of 2000 and 2003, which severely affected another 47-80 territories (Thibault <em>et al.</em> 2010, Thibault <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. It has been predicted that whenever an area &gt;2 ha is logged in a  forest stand suitable for the species, a potential territory is likely  to disappear for more than a century due to the slow growth of Corsican  Pine (Thibault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<strong></strong> This species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (affecting Corsican pine distribution), however this is not expected to be a serious direct threat (Barbet-Massin and Jiguet 2011; BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. Climate change may also cause an increase in fire frequency and intensity and so could be a serious future threat to the species (Barbet-Massin and Jiguet 2011, J.Baudat-Franceschi <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Climate change may increase interspecific competition between Corsican pine and Maritime pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus pinaster</span> as well as Mediteranean shrub species which in turn could have a negative effect on the species's range (Thibault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, J. Baudat-Franceschi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106006889		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is well protected in the Taza National Park (Harrap and Quinn 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Collaborate with local communities to explore different forest management techniques on Mt Babor. Establish plantations outside the present forest perimeter to alleviate pressure for firewood. Conduct a reforestation programme on the southern slopes of Mt Babor. Control grazing by livestock. Implement fire control measures. Model potentially suitable habitat to predict population size and better target searches of sites where the species may occur (D. Monticelli <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106006889		distribution	eng	<em>Sitta ledanti</em> maintains populations at four known sites in <strong>Algeria</strong>. There are c.350 birds within the Taza National Park on the Guerrouch massif, c.80 pairs on Mt Babor (where optimum habitat covers only 2.5 km<sup>2</sup>) and two further populations adjacent to those in the Taza National Park (uncounted, but evidently not larger than the Taza population) survive at Tamentout and Djimla. Searches elsewhere in the region have been unsuccessful, although it is likely to be present at other oakwoods in Lesser Kabylie (Isenmann and Moali 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All four known sites are within 30 km of each other, although separated by tracts of unsuitable habitat (Harrap 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is possible that the total population does not exceed 1,000 birds (Harrap and Quinn 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006889		habitat	eng	It is found in summit forest (c.2,000 m), in oak forest from 350-1,120 m, and in poorly regenerating oak forest between 900 and 1,400 m. Low altitude (c.800 m) habitats in Tamentout Forest consist of cork oak dominated-forest stands where nuthatch densities are likely to be much lower than at higher altitudes (c.1000 m and above) where cork oaks are replaced by pure deciduous oak species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus canariensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. afares</span>) (Monticelli and Legrand&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2009). In summer, it forages on tree trunks and in the twigs and outer branches of oaks, feeding on insects (mainly caterpillars and beetles) and spiders. In winter, it feeds largely on nuts and seeds of which the four seed-producing trees on Mt Babor appear to ensure a constant supply (Harrap and Quinn 1996)<strong></strong>. In Tamentout and Mt Babor, the breeding season is May-June, depending on weather conditions or possibly abundance of food, and perhaps generally later at higher altitude sites (D. Monticelli <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In Taza National Park, the breeding season is known to finish by late June (Harrap and Quinn 1996)<strong></strong>. Nest-holes are usually located 3-15 m up in dead fir trees and also in cedar and oak snags. <p></p>
106006889		population	eng	The population size may not exceed 1,000 birds. It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106006889		threats	eng	The summit forests of Mt Babor (although in a national park) have been reduced by fire, which also changes the habitat from rich mixed forest to a poorer cedar-dominated succession (Harrap and Quinn 1996)<strong></strong>. Large numbers of livestock cause lack of regeneration and an impoverished understorey (Harrap and Quinn 1996)<strong></strong>. The construction of a motorable track in the 1970s has led to erosion in the area and an increased risk of fire. Human disturbance occurs in the area in the form of military activity against terrorist groups (P. Isenmann<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Illegal deforestation takes place on Mt Babor and Tamentout (D. Monticelli <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).<br/><p></p>
106006890		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>EU Birds Directive Annex I. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a Species Action Plan. Develop a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Assess threats to the species and develop appropriate responses. Follow up on ongoing research work and adopt recommendations as appropriate. <p></p>
106006890		distribution	eng	<em>Sitta krueperi</em> is endemic to Europe, where it is found in southernmost European <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong> and the island of Lesbos, <strong>Greece</strong>. Its breeding population is estimated to be 80,000-170,000 pairs, with the majority - an estimated 60,000-120,000 breeding pairs - in Turkey (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the small population in Greece is believed to have remained stable (at c.700-1000 individuals (HOS <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>), the populations in Turkey and Russia - which together constitute over 95% of the known global population - both declined during 1990-2000 (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Russia, significant declines have been observed in the Karachay-Cherkessia, whereas numbers in the Krasnodar region appear to be stable (A. Mischenko <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006890		habitat	eng	The species inhabits temperate coniferous forest, from sea-level up to c.2,400 m. In Turkey, it occurs mostly between 1,000-1,600 m, mainly in forests of black pine <em>Pinus nigra</em> (average density: 12.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>), fir <em>Abies cilicica</em> (11.6 ind./km<sup>2</sup>), cedar <em>Cedrus libani</em> (8.5 ind./km<sup>2</sup>), red pine <em>Pinus brutia</em> (7.8 ind./km<sup>2</sup>) and juniper <em>Juniperus</em> spp. (Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2006; T. Albayrak <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Caucasus, it occurs mainly in the zone of spruce <em>Picea</em> forests between 1,000 and 2,000 m, mostly in old stands of Caucasian fir <em>Abies nordmanniana</em>, but also in pine <em>Pinus</em> forest. Nests in Antalya, south-western Turkey, were found in slightly decayed old tree trunks or cavities already excavated by woodpeckers in natural (non-planted) middle- or old-aged conifer forest (Albayrak and Erdogan 2005a; Albayrak and Erdogan 2005b)<strong></strong>. The most significant factors limiting breeding success were the felling of dead trees and the occupation of nest sites by forest dormouse <em>Dryomys nitedula</em>, bats, bees and other insects (Albayrak and Erdogan 2005a)<strong></strong>.<strong> <p></p></strong>
106006890		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 80,000-170,000 breeding pairs, equating to 240,000-510,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106006890		threats	eng	In Turkey, forestry is placing considerable pressure on the species's mature coniferous forest habitats (T. Albayrak <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Development for tourism is also a threat, particularly in coastal areas where the species was once numerous (<strong></strong>S. Isfendiyaroglu <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A law for the promotion of tourism came into force in Turkey in 2003, further exacerbating the threat from habitat loss (<strong></strong>S. Isfendiyaroglu <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Urbanisation and the construction of summer houses is also a growing problem in the Mediterranean part of its range (<strong></strong>S. Isfendiyaroglu <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106006891		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes   have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea (Brazil   2009).
106006892		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites.  <p></p>
106006892		distribution	eng	<em>Sitta yunnanensis</em> is known from south-east Tibet, southern Sichuan and northern Yunnan, and the western extreme of Guizhou, <strong>China</strong>. It is locally common, but it has disappeared from several of the localities where it was recorded in the early 20th century. <em> <p></p></em>
106006892		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open mature pine forest (avoiding other types of coniferous forest) with little undergrowth or scrub, mainly from 2,400-3,400 m. <p></p>
106006892		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106006892		threats	eng	This species is presumably continuing to decline as a result of logging and forest fires, although it does appear able to adapt to degraded and secondary forest.  <p></p>
106006894		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common in India and Pakistan and rare in China and Tibet (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006896		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,000,000-6,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,000,000-18,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 6,380,000-24,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106006897		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 22,000-100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 66,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms   &lt;5% of the global range.
106006898		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and even abundant in optimum habitat (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006899		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas such as Bawangling and Jiangfengling<strong> </strong>nature reserves in Hainan, Chu Yang Sin and Ngoc Linh nature reserves in Vietnam, and Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Laos.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect forest within the protected area network.   <p></p>
106006899		distribution	eng	This species is known from three or four widely disjunct areas: the Hoang Lien Son mountains in north-west Tonkin, the Da Lat plateau in southern Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, the Kon Tum plateau of Vietnam and south-east <strong>Laos</strong>, and Hainan island, south-east <strong>China</strong>. There are recent records from Hainan, several localities on the Da Lat plateau, where surveys since 1990 have recorded small numbers, and the Xe Sap region in Laos.  <em> <p></p></em>
106006899		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and logged evergreen forest at 900-2,500 m.   <p></p>
106006899		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. Anecdotal accounts suggest it is not as rare as previously thought in north-west Vietnam, it may be rather common on the Da Lat Plateau, and it is not uncommon in good forest on Hainan. Its status on the Kon Tum Plateau is uncertain (del Hoyo et al. 2008).
106006899		threats	eng	The major threat throughout the range of this species is deforestation. Forest cover on Hainan fell from an estimated 8,630 km<sup>2</sup> (25.7%) in 1949 to c.2,420 km<sup>2</sup> (7.2%) in 1991, and much of the Da Lat plateau is being cleared by shifting cultivation, charcoal burning and fuelwood collection, factors that are intensifying after government re-settlement programmes.   <p></p>
106006900		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006901		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006902		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in numerous protected areas, including various nature reserves in China (Han Lianxian <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and Doi Chang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary and Doi Khun Tan National Park, Thailand. A public awareness program, involving leaflets, posters and community outreach, has been initiated in Yunnan (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to establish its distribution, estimate population size and assess the level of threat to its habitat. Establish further protected areas around sites supporting healthy populations and ensure pine stands are maintained. Control large-scale logging of commercially valuable pine species on which it depends. Tighten and enforce restrictions on the scraping of mature pine trees for resin and firewood, in order to reduce incidental tree mortality. Continue awareness programmes and promote alternative livelihoods in areas where shifting cultivation and pine felling is damaging habitat. <p></p>
106006902		distribution	eng	<em>Sitta magna</em> is endemic to the mountains of south-west <strong>China</strong>, central and east <strong>Myanmar</strong> and north-west <strong>Thailand</strong>. The majority of records are from Yunnan (China), with only two known localities in Myanmar, both of which are thought to have lost the species in the last 20 years, and nine known localities in Thailand, at which it is declining. Recent comprehensive surveys in Myanmar's Shan states have been unsuccessful in locating the species (T. Htin Hla <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys in Yunnan found the species to be present at low densities in most areas of mature pine forest visited (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. Overall, its population is likely to be declining and becoming increasingly fragmented. <p></p>
106006902		habitat	eng	It is resident in mature conifer or open mixed conifer/broadleaf forest, being almost entirely confined to areas with large, mature <em>Pinus kesiya,</em> often with a major component of oak <em>Quercus</em> spp., at 1,000-2,500 m (Han Lianxian <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is generally found in pairs, usually foraging high in pines, although nests have been found in oaks. <p></p>
106006902		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006902		threats	eng	Pine forest habitats are being destroyed or degraded by commercial logging and exploitation for fuelwood and kindling. In Yunnan, although mass logging has been banned in many forest areas, scraping of bark for pine resin and lightwood are known to be causing widespread mortality of mature trees (Anon. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Shifting cultivation has already cleared substantial tracts of suitable habitat and uncontrolled burning poses a significant threat, as conifers are more highly combustible than other forest trees. Older pines are especially vulnerable to frequent burning. It has also been recorded for sale in wildlife markets, although this is unlikely to represent a significant threat. <p></p>
106006903		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Populations are known to occur in several protected areas, including Thrumshing La National Park (Bhutan), Namdapha National Park, Eagle's Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Sessa orchid Sanctuary and Buxa Tiger Reserve (India), Nakai-Nam Theun, Nam Xam and Phou Louay National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (Laos), and also Huanglianshan Nature Reserve (China). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species in current "gaps" within its broad range to clarify its current distribution and population status. Identify sites supporting key populations of this and other threatened montane species, and make recommendations for their establishment as protected areas, proposing linkage to existing reserves where possible. Campaign against further large-scale montane timber extraction within its range. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities aimed at reducing habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from shifting agriculture. <p></p>
106006903		distribution	eng	<em>Sitta formosa</em> has a broad range encompassing <strong>Bhutan</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, west, north and east <strong>Myanmar</strong>, south-east Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>, East (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and West Tonkin, north <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and north and central <strong>Laos</strong>, with a few records from extreme north-west <strong>Thailand</strong>. It is rare and very locally distributed throughout this range. Recent records suggest that Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh in India, north Myanmar and Laos support the most important populations. <p></p>
106006903		habitat	eng	It occurs in mature broadleaved forests, although it has been reported from open country with scattered trees in Myanmar. It frequents the middle and upper canopies of large trees draped in mosses, lichens, orchids and other epiphytes. In central Laos it appears to be associated with <em>Fokienia</em> trees. It is essentially resident, but occurs from 1,500-2,400&#160;m in the breeding season, descending at other times, generally not below 600&#160;m, although it has been recorded as low as 300&#160;m in the eastern Himalayas.<p></p>
106006903		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on an assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106006903		threats	eng	The main threat is forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, predominantly as a result of shifting cultivation, but more locally large-scale timber extraction (e.g. logging of the valuable <em>Fokienia hodginsii</em> in central Laos and north Vietnam), and overgrazing, burning and wood cutting (north-east India). High hunting pressure in parts of its range is unlikely to be more than a minor threat. <p></p>
106006904		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 38,000-100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 114,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 233,000-1,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106006907		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2.7-11.7 million individuals.
106006908		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in Central Asia, fairly common in the western Himalayas and uncommon in China (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006909		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in the Himalayas (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006911		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce and patchily distributed in India and northern Africa but sometimes locally common and commoner in the southern African tropics (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106006912		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006913		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006915		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006916		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, e.g. Ría Celestún, San Felipe and Río Lagartos National Parks.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor development proposals and rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Lobby against damaging development proposals. Raise awareness of the species's status amongst members of local government, the tourist industry and tourists themselves. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. <p></p>
106006916		distribution	eng	<em>Campylorhynchus yucatanicus</em> is confined to the northern coast of Yucatán and the extreme north-west of Campeche in <strong>Mexico </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995, <strong></strong>Brewer and MacKay 2001)<sup></sup>. Within its range it appears to be quite abundant, but this range is extremely limited (Brewer and MacKay 2001, <strong></strong>S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006916		habitat	eng	This species is found only in a narrow strip of low coastal arid scrub, typically consisting of scattered bushes with occasional <em>Opuntia</em> cacti (Howell and Webb 1995, <strong></strong>Brewer and MacKay 2001)<strong></strong>. It also inhabits bushy edges of pastures, where it is less common, and it seems to tolerate some disturbance (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. However, it nests exclusively within coastal scrub and its transition to mangrove forest, a vegetation zone extending less than 1 km inland (Vargas-Soriano <em>et al.</em> 2010). It forages in pairs and family groups on the ground and in low vegetation, although its diet is apparently unknown. It breeds from April to July (Vargas-Soriano <em>et al.</em> 2010). Its nest is an ovoid ball of grass with a side entrance, usually situated c.2-3 m above the ground in a bush (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006916		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006916		threats	eng	Habitat within the species's range is being destroyed and fragmented by increasing development (Brewer and MacKay 2001, <strong></strong>S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt. </em>2003, Vargas-Soriano <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. This is driven by the tourist industry, and if the focus for holiday-resort development shifts from the Cancún-Playa del Carmen area to coastal stretches further north and west, the species will be adversely affected (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. The species’s breeding  success may be threatened by firewood collection by local people (Vargas-Soriano <em>et al.</em> 2010). <br/><p></p>
106006917		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006918		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006919		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006920		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006921		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006922		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006923		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006924		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006925		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006926		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006927		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106006927		distribution	eng	Central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> (south of the Amazon in eastern Amazonas and Pará, south to eastern Rondônia and central Mato Grosso) and eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>.
106006927		habitat	eng	Tropical lowland forest from near sea level to 500m, presumed to eat invertebrates. Forages in upper canopy and often associates with mixed-flocks. <br/>Female in breeding condition on 1st September in Bolivia, no other breeding information known.
106006927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006927		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network; it is patchily distributed and strongly susceptible to degradation and fragmentation due to its reliance on primary forest (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).<p></p>
106006928		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salpinctes obsoletus</span> is a North American species, distributed from western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada </span>through western <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">El Salvador</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">exsul</span>, endemic to Mexico's San Benedicto Island, was driven extinct by a volcanic eruption in 1952 (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).
106006930		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess its population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Study the impact of habitat loss and degradation on the species. Work with mining companies and farmers to preserve pockets of suitable habitat. Designate areas of suitable habitat as protected areas. <p></p>
106006930		distribution	eng	<em>Hylorchilus sumichrasti</em> is restricted to c.12 sites in west-central Veracruz, north Oaxaca and extreme east Puebla, south <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is fairly common but local (Howell and Webb 1995, Gómez de Silva 1997)<strong></strong>. It occupies a limited area of suitable habitat within a small range<sup> </sup>(Howell and Webb 1995, Whittingham and Atkinson 1996, Gómez de Silva 1997)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106006930		habitat	eng	The species inhabits naturally patchy limestone outcrops in steep hilly country covered by lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen forest at elevations of 75-1,000 m (Howell and Webb 1995, Whittingham and Atkinson 1996, Gómez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in shade coffee plantations and adjacent to quarrying operations, and two pairs are known to have had their territories in less than 0.5 ha of habitat, indicating some tolerance of habitat degradation, disturbance and fragmentation (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Gómez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on invertebrates, but also takes small fruits (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest-building has been observed in March, nests with eggs have been found in May, and adults have been recorded feeding fledglings in July and August. Of three known nests, two were in rock crevices and the other in the roof of a cave. The species lays three eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006930		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number &lt;50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008); however, this is likely to overestimate the population, thus it is here placed in the band for 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.
106006930		threats	eng	The forested limestone outcrops inhabited by the species are poor for cultivation compared with the surrounding flatter land and have been spared complete conversion to maize fields and cattle pasture (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, M. G. Pérez-Villafaña <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is more threatened by the expansion of limestone-quarrying, although its habitat is increasingly threatened by encroaching cultivation and cattle ranches (Gómez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some habitat has undoubtedly been lost to the extensive Presa Miguel Alemán reservoir in north Oaxaca (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no populations within protected areas (Pérez-Villafaña <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and given its relatively narrow ecological tolerance, this could be a cause for concern. <p></p>
106006931		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Selva El Ocote Special Biosphere Reserve, but there is very little suitable habitat within this protected area (Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An important area of habitat is within the proposed Chimalapas-Uxpanapa Biosphere Reserve (Whittingham and Atkinson 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey "islands" of habitat between Selva El Ocote and the Cañon de Sumidero (J.&#160;Morales-Pérez <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Formally designate the proposed Chimalapas-Uxpanapa Biosphere Reserve (Whittingham and Atkinson 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006931		distribution	eng	<em>Hylorchilus navai</em> has a restricted range in easternmost Veracruz (six sites in the Uxpanapa region, at the mid-point of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), with records from one site in west Chiapas, and two in east Oaxaca, south <strong>Mexico </strong>(Gomez de Silva 1997)<sup></sup>. The total extent of its range was initially estimated at 4,800-4,900 km<sup>2</sup>, within which it is fairly common but local (Howell and Webb 1995a, Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, further mapping indicates that the known range is likely to be considerably smaller. In 1992, a crude density estimate of c.20 birds/km<sup>2</sup> was calculated at El Ocote in Chiapas (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006931		habitat	eng	It is restricted to limestone outcrops in the shade of primary lowland evergreen forest, mainly at 75-800 m (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Howell and Webb 1995a, Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This habitat is naturally patchy, with outcrops occurring every c.4 km<sup>2</sup> in the west and central parts of the Uxpanapa region (Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fortunately, it seems able to survive in patches of forest as small as 8 ha (Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It gleans invertebrates from the lichen-covered surface of the limestone and in the cracks and crevices of boulders (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006931		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106006931		threats	eng	Settlement and cattle-ranching following road-building have fragmented forests within its range (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although limestone outcrops are generally not suitable for ranching, deforestation has left them isolated and threatened by firewood extraction (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This has important implications since such small birds with rounded wings are (predictably) poor dispersers (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Gomez de Silva 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006935		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in El Cocuy National Park, Boyacá, and in Sumapáz National Park, Cundinamarca (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey and monitor known populations. Census and study the poorly-known páramo population (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially within national parks (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. Protect wetland habitats<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the taxonomic status of the páramo population. Control Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> populations at breeding sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure the continued protection of páramo habitats within existing national parks. <p></p>
106006935		distribution	eng	<em>Cistothorus apolinari</em> is found locally in the East Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Boyacá and Cundinamarca). Current strongholds are at Laguna de Tota (Boyacá) and Laguna de Fúquene (Cundinamarca) - the population in each probably exceeding 50 pairs - and several populations of up to 20 pairs are present in the remnant wetlands around Bogotá<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been extirpated from at least two sites since 1950, and numbers have fallen at several formerly important sites. <p></p>
106006935		habitat	eng	It inhabits tall, dense, emergent vegetation fringing marshes and lakes (mostly reedbeds), between 1,800-3,600 m, but principally above 2,500 m (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In páramo habitats, it is limited to areas with riparian vegetation, especially <em>Espletia</em> spp. <strong>(</strong>Cortes-Herrera &amp; Briceño 2004, <strong></strong>O. Cortes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It gleans aquatic insects from reed stems, and is usually found in pairs or family groups. Breeding seems to occur between February and October, and eggs have been found in July, although nests under construction in the forks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Escallonia myrtilloides</span> trees have been found in December and January<sup><strong> </strong></sup>(Cortes-Herrera &amp; Briceño 2004)<sup><strong></strong></sup>.<br/><p></p>
106006935		population	eng	There are no new data on population size. The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size (e.g. the lower quartile of such estimates is 8.5 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>) and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006935		threats	eng	It is declining rapidly owing to the drainage and burning of wetlands for agriculture, mainly onion cultivation, but also cattle-farming<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Siltation, because of erosion on deforested hillsides in the region<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and pollution by agrochemicals and sewage alter the wetland vegetation, and insecticide use may reduce food availability or directly poison birds. In the Bogotá area, several relict wetlands are threatened by human settlement and highway projects (Wege and Long 1995, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reed-harvesting and tourism are possibly minor threats, and nest parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> may increasingly be a threat (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Degradation of páramo habitats continues even within protected areas, e.g. El Cocuy National Park (Cortes-Herrera &amp; Briceño 2004, O. Cortes <em>in litt.</em> 2007).<strong></strong> <p></p>
106006936		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006938		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thryomanes bewickii</span> is a North American species, whose main range spreads from south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada </span>through western and central <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2005) . The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">brevicaudus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">leucophrys<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>, of Guadalupe Island (Mexico), and San Clemente Island (U.S.A.), respectively, are both now extinct (Anthony 1901, del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2005).
106006939		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The eradication of sheep was planned for 2008-2009 (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Eradicate sheep from Socorro. <p></p>
106006939		distribution	eng	<em>Troglodytes sissonii</em> inhabits arid lowland scrub and semi-deciduous forest on Isla Socorro (c.150 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico </strong>(Howell and Webb 1995)<sup></sup>. It was described as the second most common landbird on the island in 1991 (Santaella and Sada 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and remains very common at all elevations (J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006939		habitat	eng	This species inhabits woodland and brushy hillsides (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its diet is unknown, but it has been observed foraging low in vegetation, on the ground, and on tree trunks. Families with fledged young have been observed in April, suggesting early breeding. One nest has been found in the knothole of a decayed tree (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106006939		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006939		threats	eng	The proliferation of sheep on the island since the 19th century has led to deforestation of large parts of the southern lowlands, where the species is no longer common (J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Until sheep are eradicated from the island or effectively controlled, the continuing effect of intensive grazing may reduce its already very small range. There is no direct evidence that it is preyed upon by Socorro Mockingbird <em>Mimodes graysoni </em>(J. Martínez Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1998 contra Parkes 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006940		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Areas of the Zapata Swamp have protected status, but regulations are often not enforced (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys for this species were undertaken in 1998 (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to accurately determine range, numbers and threats (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Enforce the legal protection of the Zapata Swamp.   <p></p>
106006940		distribution	eng	<em>Ferminia cerverai</em> is known only from the northern and central parts of the Zapata Swamp, <strong>Cuba</strong>. It was reported as common at the time of its discovery in 1926, but anecdotal evidence suggests that it has subsequently declined. A survey along the Hatiguanico and Guareira rivers in 1998 recorded 24 wrens in three new localities (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106006940		habitat	eng	It occupies freshwater marshes with extensive fields of sawgrass <em>Cladium jamaicensis </em>and patches of shrubs seasonally flooded to a depth of 0.5 metre (Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, spiders, small snails, lizards and berries (Raffaele <em> et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are placed in sawgrass tussocks, and the breeding season is apparently January-July (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106006940		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106006940		threats	eng	Dry-season burning, wetland drainage and agricultural expansion destroy and degrade suitable habitat, and it is possibly predated by introduced mongooses and rats (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006941		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006944		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006946		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006947		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006948		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006949		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006950		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006951		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006952		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006953		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006954		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006955		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006957		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006959		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006960		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by the Yariguies national park (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Project Chicamocha has been working for the conservation of Niceforo’s Wren since 2004 (M. Beltrán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In 2009 Niceforo's Wren Natural Bird Reserve was established by project Chicamocha in Zapatoca, Santander; run by Fundación ProAves, the reserve comprises 1,400 ha of the species's tropical dry forest habitat, protecting a population of 21 individuals discovered in Santander province in 2008 (M. Beltrán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Project Chicamocha has subsequently been carrying out research on the effects of territory size and habitat quality in the physical condition of Niceforo’s Wren (Parra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Fundación Conserva is updating the geographical distribution and population size of Niceforo’s Wren and searching for new areas for its protection (M. Beltrán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Surveys have been conducted to search for the species in a number of new areas, and more are planned for the future.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys to determine its population size and distribution. Study its ecological requirements and natural history. Assess threats to the species. Use any new data collected to draft and execute a conservation strategy for the species. Raise the profile of this species in Soata and promote an environmental pride campaign to facilitate its conservation (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Protect areas of dry forest within its range.  <br/><p></p>
106006960		distribution	eng	<em>Thryothorus nicefori</em> occurs on the western slope of the East Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong>. The only known site was the type-locality at San Gil on the río Fonce south of Bucaramanga, where ten specimens were collected between 1944-1948 (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. There were no further records until two birds were observed and recorded in 1989, and then again in 2000 (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Subsequently it has been recorded in Soata, Boyacá c.100 km south and in the Yariguies mountains 50 km to the west (Balchin 2007, Cortes <em>et al</em>. in press)<strong></strong>, and was then found in the municipalities of Curiti, Zapatoca, Barichara, Jordan, Galan, Socorro and Floridablanca, Santander (Parra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). A 2008 survey in the department of Santander discovered a population of 21 individuals, which is now protected by the Niceforo's Wren Natural Bird Reserve. In addition it was recorded at Tipacoque, Susacon, Guacamayas, El Espino, Santa Rosa de Viterbo and Capitanejo (O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A further 56 individuals have been recorded in other regions, giving a known global population of 77. An approximate estimate places the population as high as 250 individuals, although its accuracy needs to be confirmed (S. Valderrama <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106006960		habitat	eng	The species occurs in dry forest habitat at 800-2,100 m, and its presence was found to be significantly correlated with that of <em>Tricanthera gigantea</em>,<em> Acacia farnesiana,</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">Sapindus saponaria</span>  and <em>Pithecellobium dulce</em> (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. It has also been recorded along the edges of shaded coffee and cacao plantations between 1,100 and 2,100 m (Valderrama <em>et al</em>. 2007a, O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. All territories of individuals in the Santander population were located along water courses where vegetation is dense and perennial, and individuals were absent from areas devoid of a dense understorey due to grazing by goats (S. Valderrama <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Structural variables like abundance of lianas, trees and leaf litter are important components of the bird's habitat (Parra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).  It constructs an elongated nest in close association with wasps' nests (Valderrama <em>et al</em>. 2007a)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nests have been noted in hedges in agricultural lands <em></em> (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2012).<strong></strong><p></p>
106006960		population	eng	Surveys between 2004 and 2008 recorded 77 individuals. An approximate estimate based on these surveys and other records gives a total global population of 250 individuals (S. Valderrama <em>in litt.</em> 2010). However, until this is confirmed to be accurate, the population band of 50-249 individuals seems appropriate. This equates to 33-166 mature individuals, rounded here to 30-200 mature individuals.
106006960		threats	eng	This species is a habitat specialist, and its distribution is limited to <span style="font-style: italic;">Tricanthera </span>spp and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pithecellobium dulce</span> premontane forest along the River Chicamocha (O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) . The greatest threat to the survival of this species is the destruction of these forests. The current threats to habitat in Chicamocha area are: cattle grazing, which has probably restricted the <span style="font-style: italic;">Tricanthera </span>woodlands to steep slopes, inaccessible to cattle, and caused major fragmentation of the forest; burning for agriculture, which has caused a considerable reduction in the amount of vegetative cover; landslides; and firewood cutting, which has been one of the factors causing the destruction of the chicamocha forest in the past and present (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<em>. Acacia</em> scrub is threatened by goat- and cattle-grazing, seasonal burning for farming (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and cutting for fuelwood (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Cortes <em>et al</em>. in press). Areas grazed by goats near to the Santander population were devoid of the species due to a lack of dense understorey and leaf litter (S. Valderrama <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006961		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006962		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006966		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006967		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006968		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 40,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 23,000,000-40,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 69,000,000-120,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 288,000,000-2,400,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106006969		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number &gt;50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.
106006970		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994 (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a plan to eradicate introduced herbivores from Clarión; pigs and sheep have already been eradicated but rabbits remain (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Wanless <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Mexican navy restricts access to the island and helps to prevent further introductions (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999, B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Eradicate introduced rabbits from Clarión. Continue to prevent the introduction of mammalian predators.  <p></p>
106006970		distribution	eng	<em>Troglodytes tanneri</em> is endemic to Isla Clarión in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. Only 20 individuals were recorded in 1986 (Everett 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but subsequent visits to the island have found the species to be common (Howell and Webb 1989, Santaella and Sada 1991, Wanless <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population was estimated at 170-200 pairs in 1988, with the highest densities around buildings and adjacent areas (Howell and Webb 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006970		habitat	eng	It occurs in all habitats throughout the island from rocks on the beach to shrubbery at the highest elevations (Santaella and Sada 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are built in bushes, cacti, buildings and derelict vehicles (Santaella and Sada 1991, Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106006970		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 340-400 individuals, roughly equating to 230-270 mature individuals.
106006970		threats	eng	Introduced herbivores have extensively modified the native vegetation on Clarión (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this has not had an impact upon this species. However, introduced rabbits <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus </em>may subsidise native predators, such as Burrowing Owl <em>Athene cunicularia </em>and racer snake <em>Coluber </em>sp. and increase their impact on wren populations. The introduction of a mammalian predator would have extremely serious consequences. The possibility of a cat introduction is small, but mouse or rat introductions are more likely (B. Tershy <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there is no active introduction prevention plan in place (B. Tershy and B. Keitt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006971		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006972		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006973		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's range lies within indigenous reserves and some protection may be provided by the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park. Further efforts to search for the species on the most intact western slopes were being pursued in early 2011 (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>There is an urgent need to conduct surveys to assess the range and abundance of this species in order to generate a population estimate. Improve the level of habitat protection throughout its range, particularly within Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park. Monitor changes in population size in relation to continuing habitat degradation. Immediately seek to supply local people with firewood, in order to avoid further habitat destruction (N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106006973		distribution	eng	<em>Troglodytes monticola</em> is endemic to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is known from collections made in 1922 and from one recent record in the upper río Frío Valley, at 3,600 m, where a pair was observed and tape-recorded in a small montane forest patch (c.2 ha) amidst heavily burned and overgrazed páramo (R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Searches on the southern slopes and at the only other intact forest patch in the area have failed to locate the species (R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). As a consequence, there are currently no known viable populations (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). However, the lack of recent reports may reflect the fact that the species is not found in the only area of the Santa Marta massif regularly visited (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106006973		habitat	eng	The species is reportedly found in low, thick shrubbery at the timberline and in sheltered spots high in the páramo zone, from 3,200 to 4,600 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may actually be restricted to the timberline ecotone, rather than being a páramo specialist (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). <p></p>
106006973		population	eng	The species's population size has not been formally estimated and, in the absence of sufficient data, it is preliminarily estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals; however detailed research is urgently required. This estimate equates to 75-379 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106006973		threats	eng	Less than 15% of the original forest cover remains within the massif, and despite substantive protection status on paper, in reality high rates of habitat loss continue owing to human colonisation and cultivation. In some areas deforestation has reached the species's elevation range (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and streamside vegetation is unsustainably cut for firewood in some places (N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The wren's habitat within Río Frío valley is extremely isolated, owing to burning and overgrazing, and more information is required concerning the habitat condition of other páramo and high montane forests elsewhere on the massif (Strewe and Navarro 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106006974		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006975		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006976		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006977		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006978		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006979		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006980		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies aimed at identifying the habitat requirements of this species, as well as determining whether it is tolerant of habitat degradation or fragmentation. Ensure that key sites supporting suitable habitats receive adequate protection. <p></p>
106006980		distribution	eng	<em>Henicorhina leucoptera</em> has a very restricted range in north <strong>Peru</strong> (La Libertad, San Martín, on the Cordillera del Cóndor in Cajamarca, with a single record from Amazonas) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <strong></strong>Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997, Clements and Shany 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (the north end of the Cordillera del Cóndor [Krabbe and Sornoza 1994]<strong></strong>). <em> <p></p></em>
106006980		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense, mossy cloud forest at 1,350-2,600 m, especially favouring the understorey of stunted elfin forest on exposed ridges (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).   <p></p>
106006980		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006980		threats	eng	Although its habitats are reasonably intact (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, this species has a small, apparently disjunct range, with elfin forest in the south of its range readily accessible from the páramo and clearly vulnerable to grazing and burning (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).<p></p>
106006981		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106006982		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006984		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006985		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006986		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006989		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106006990		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006991		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006997		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006998		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106006999		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys of known sites to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Campaign for the rigorous protection of remaining tracts of lowland Atlantic coastal forest. <p></p>
106006999		distribution	eng	<em>Polioptila lactea</em> occurs in the lowland Atlantic Forest (up to 500 m) of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, south Mato Grosso do Sul, north Rio Grande do Sul), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, Corrientes) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindeyú south to Itapúa) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found mainly in the Paraná basin, where it is most common in south-east Paraguay (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and locally in Argentina (J.&#160;C.&#160;Chebez and J.&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it is now very rare across much of its historical range. There have been no records from São Paulo since 1905 (Willis and Oniki 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, in south-east Brazil, it is only regularly found at a handful of sites (Tobias <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106006999		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the canopy and sub-canopy of lowland primary forest, although it also occurs in degraded forest and secondary growth (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106006999		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106006999		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production are historically important factors in the destruction of its habitats, and current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996).  <p></p>
106007000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007004		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be neither rare nor numerous in Central Asia and scarce to rare in Krasnoyarsk, south-east Russia (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in China, common in Mai Po, Hong Kong and an uncommon to locally fairly common winter visitor to western Japan (Harrap and Quinn 1996). Addtional population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea (Brazil 2009).
106007006		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to locally abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
106007007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon, or even rare (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007008		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although easily over-looked (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007009		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007010		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in southern Africa, although uncommon in Botswana and scarce in the Transvaal and uncommon and local in east Africa (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007012		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although locally uncommon in Zimbabwe and uncommon to rare in the Orange Free State, South Africa (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007013		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather scarce and uncommon (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007014		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007017		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 24,000,000-42,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 72,000,000-126,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 147,000,000-504,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia and (for the subspecies <I>songara</I>) c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China (Brazil 2009).
106007022		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be generally uncommon, but may be locally common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon but very local (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007024		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 2,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 870,000-1700,000 breeding pairs, equating to 2,610,000-5,100,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10,900,000-102,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common, fairly common in Nepal and uncommon in north-western China (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007028		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Himalayas, Burma and Tibet, and uncommon or rare in other areas (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007031		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Harrap and Quinn 1996), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007032		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007033		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007033		distribution	eng	<em>Parus amabilis</em> occurs on Palawan, Balabac and Calauit, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is generally considered uncommon (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <em> <p></p></em>
106007033		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary evergreen forest in the lowlands, and its occurrence at higher elevations remains to be confirmed. Levels of tolerance of secondary or logged forest are also poorly understood.  <p></p>
106007033		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007033		threats	eng	Logging and agricultural conversion are increasing in some areas of Palawan. Deforestation rates in the province reached 11% between 2000 and 2005, and numerous pending mining applications threaten to increase the rate of forest clearance (Mallari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106007035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be fairly common in the eastern Himalayas but uncommon in the western Himalayas, south-eastern Tibet and south-west China although very numerous in northern Sichuan. (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007038		population	eng	The population in South Africa is estimated as 10,000,000 individuals and the population in Mozambique has been estimated as 500,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common, although rare in south-east Nigeria (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007040		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be poorly known (Urban et al. 1997).
106007041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or common in Guinea, Sudan and Uganda; scarce in Sierra Leone and Cameroon and locally rare in Ivory Coast and Ghana (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally common to fairly common in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007044		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007045		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007046		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common and poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007048		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007049		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparse throughout its range (Urban et al. 1997).
106007052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Harrap and Quinn 1996), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007053		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are records from two protected areas, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu and Anshi National Park, Karnataka. However, recent surveys have failed to find the species in either park, and Anshi apparently does not support any suitable habitat (S. Subramanya <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It may occur at Baludhara Jessore Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Gujarat.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor sites across the species's range to determine rates of habitat loss and population decline. Establish a network of protected areas encompassing tracts of dry thorn-scrub forest supporting significant populations. Promote and integrate conservation initiatives within rural development schemes to reduce the exploitation of dry thorn-scrub forest (particularly dead and decaying trees), e.g. through the introduction of fuel-efficient stoves and (in Kutch) the provision of toothbrushes and paste/powder. Consolidate knowledge of the status, distribution and movements of this species in southern India in order to target conservation activities. Survey <em>Acacia</em> plantations along the Indira Gandhi Canal Project in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan. Conduct molecular analyses to determine the relationship between the two populations. <p></p>
106007053		distribution	eng	<em>Parus nuchalis</em> is endemic to <strong>India</strong>, where it occurs in two isolated populations: one in central and southern Rajasthan, Kutch and northern Gujarat in the north-west, and the other in the Eastern Ghats of southern Andhra Pradesh, northern Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the south. It is a rare species, with a maximum of 165 records pertaining to 250 individuals over the last 150 years (Trivedi 2009). It appears to have declined substantially. Most recent records are from Gujarat and Rajasthan, where it is patchily distributed and found at low densities in Kutch, Palanpur, Pali, Jodhpur, Jalore, Sirohi, Ajmere, Jaipur and Nagaur (Tiwari 2001)<strong></strong>. There are recent records from only one site in Karnataka (Lott and Lott 1999)<strong></strong>, and none in Tamil Nadu (Sumbramanya <em>et al.</em> undated)<strong></strong>. There are three recent sightings from Arogyavaram, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh (Jones 2007)<strong></strong>, involving a maximum of just two individuals. The South India population may now be very small. Previous reports from Wynaad District, Kerala, are  thought to be erroneous (J. Praveen  <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. A recent sighting of the species in Thar Desert of Rajasthan (Dookia 2007) suggests that a population could persist in extensive <em>Acacia</em> plantations along the Indira Gandhi Canal Project.  <p></p>
106007053		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical, dry thorn-scrub forests, particularly those dominated by <em>Acacia</em> species, from the lowlands and foothills up to at least 700 m, occasionally straying into gardens, vegetated streambeds and irrigated crop fields during drought years. The species has been observed to feed on the fruits of <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis decidua</span>, although it is unclear whether this is because of the fruits themselves or the insects that live within them (Joshua <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It has elsewhere been observed to take insects, the fruits of <span style="font-style: italic;">Maytenus emarginatus</span> and inflorescences of <span style="font-style: italic;">Butea monosperma</span> (Trivedi 2009).&#160; The southern population also occurs in dry deciduous forest. It breeds in tree cavities, and may be restricted to forest areas with sufficient dead or dying trees (Tiwari 2001)<strong></strong>. It breeds during the monsoon (May-August), some populations then dispersing. <p></p>
106007053		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, from analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001), who concluded that the distribution was very patchy, the species occurred at low densities, and overall numbers must be very low, i.e. fewer than 10,000. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007053		threats	eng	The most serious threats are those driving the loss, degradation and fragmentation of tropical thorn-scrub forest, such as lopping and cutting for fuelwood and illegal charcoal making, clearance for agricultural land and settlement construction, and over-grazing. The species nests in cavities in old trees, many of which are now felled, leading to nesting failure; it often uses old nest holes made by Yellow-crowned Woodpecker <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrocopos mahrattensis</span>, and the low abundance of this species at some sites may be limiting the population (Trivedi 2009). In Kutch, an estimated 100 <em>Acacia</em> trees per day are felled for the collection of twigs for toothbrush manufacture (Tiwari 2001)<strong></strong>. Remaining areas of suitable habitat are further threatened by proposed cement factories, stone quarrying and gypsum mining, including within existing protected areas. The spread of the non-native shrubs <em>Prosopis glandulosa</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. chilensis</span> is also having deleterious effects on dry thorn-scrub. There is a lack of awareness of these threats among enforcement staff (Trivedi 2009). <p></p>
106007054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007055		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be from common (various localities in China) to scarce and local in the eastern Himalayas (Harrap and Quinn 1996), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007056		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Monitor rates of trapping for the bird trade. Ensure the effective protection of protected areas which harbour this species.  <p></p>
106007056		distribution	eng	<em>Parus holsti</em> is confined to the mountains of central<strong> Taiwan</strong> (China) (BirdLife International 2001). It is generally found at low densities. <em> <p></p></em>
106007056		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary broadleaved forest and occasionally secondary growth at 700-2,500 m. <p></p>
106007056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007056		threats	eng	This species was reportedly captured regularly during large-scale netting of wild birds for export. However, much of its habitat is secure, as c.11% of Taiwan is protected in national parks, nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries.  <p></p>
106007060		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parus varius</span> occurs in the eastern Palearctic, distributed from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Russia</span>'s Kuril Islands through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Japan </span>to <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Korea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">North Korea</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Taiwan</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">orii</span>, of Daito-jima, has not been recorded since 1938 despite searches and is now considered extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
106007060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally very common to abundant in southern Japan and the Kuril islands; uncommon in northern Japan, rare in north-eastern China (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007). Additional population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007061		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007061		distribution	eng	<em>Parus semilarvatus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines,</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>where it occurs on Luzon (race <em>snowi</em> in the northern Sierra Madre, nominate <em>semilarvatus</em> in the central and southern Sierra Madre and a few other sites to the south and west) and Mindanao (race <em>nehrkorni</em>, known from some eight localities) (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is generally characterised as rare and local, although it is moderately common in the Sierra Madre. <em> <p></p></em>
106007061		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary forest, edge and secondary growth in lowlands and hills, up to around 1,150 m.  <p></p>
106007061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare or uncommon, although locally common in the Sierra Madre, Luzon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007061		threats	eng	The rapid and large-scale destruction of forests in recent years in the Philippines has undoubtedly reduced the area of available habitat for this species.   <p></p>
106007066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common in most of its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007). The population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare in the western Himalayas to quite common in the eastern Himalayan foothills, lower Kachin hills and Hukawng valley in northern Burma (Harrap and Quinn 1996). Brazil (2009 has estimated the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007068		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5,000,000-12,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 15,000,000-36,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 30,600,000-144,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Afghanistan, locally common in Pakistan and scarce or even rare in Kashmir (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to abundant (Harrap and Quinn 1996), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007071		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common  in India and rare and local in Nepal and Pakistan (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007072		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the Himalayas and northern Myanmar, uncommon in China, although very common in south-western Sichuan province and abundant in Tibet (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather uncommon (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007075		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
106007076		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys, particularly in D.R. Congo, to determine true range and abundance. Regularly monitor the species at known migration sites in Gabon to determine trends. Research the extent and nature of the threat caused by hunting. Protect large areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007076		distribution	eng	<em>Pseudochelidon eurystomina</em> breeds in the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (middle and upper Congo River and lower Ubangi River) (Chapin 1953)<strong></strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong> (Gamba [Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992]<strong></strong>, Animba near Port-Gentil and, recently discovered, near Libreville itself; also potentially throughout the coastal areas south of Point Pongara, as far as the border with the Congo( [P. Christy <em>in litt.</em> 1999])<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and <strong>Congo </strong>(several hundred birds discovered in 1996 in the Conkouati Reserve) (Dowsett-Lemaire 1997a, Maisels and Cruickshank 2000)<strong></strong>. The total population size is unknown; in the late 1980s, it appeared to be common, if local, and large numbers have been seen on migration in Gabon (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong></strong>, such as the Ogooué River and Makokou where, in 1997, a flock of c.15,000 were observed (Sinclair 1998)<strong></strong>, and a mixed flock of this species and Rosy Bee-eater Merops malimbicus at Igeula, Loango, in September 2005, was estimated to number 100,000 birds (Barnes 2005)<strong></strong>. However it is particularly poorly known in the DRC and it is not known if there is any relationship between the birds breeding in the DRC and those breeding in coastal areas of Gabon and Congo (P. Christy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Birds from the Congo migrate westwards across Gabon (main passage from June to early September) (<strong></strong>Erard 1981)<strong></strong>, arriving at Gamba on the coast from mid-August onwards and on the coast of the Congo from mid-September (<strong></strong>Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1991)<strong></strong>. After breeding in the coastal areas, they depart from late October-November (<strong></strong>Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1991)<strong></strong> with the main passage back across Gabon from December to March (<strong></strong>Erard 1981)<strong></strong>. At Odzala in northern Congo, birds have been observed flying west towards coastal breeding grounds in August, returning in late January, but the numbers involved are much lower than those observed in Gabon (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1994, three or four birds were observed on passage at Ngotto in the Central African Republic (Dowsett <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007076		habitat	eng	It breeds in large colonies (up to c.800 individuals) along forested rivers, on islands with sandy shores and on beach ridges in coastal savanna (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest holes are dug into sandbars which are exposed when river levels are low (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season it roosts in reed-beds or riverine vegetation (P. Christy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007076		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106007076		threats	eng	In the 1950s, the species was caught and eaten in large quantities in the DRC by the local population (Chapin 1953)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and this practice could be on the increase (<strong></strong>F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding colonies in river sandbars are liable to flooding (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the incidence of flooding could increase with trends in deforestation.  <p></p>
106007077		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Beung Boraphet has been declared as a Non-Hunting Area. Several unsuccessful searches have been made for it at this site since its discovery. In 1969, a survey, based on village interviews, of the Nan Yom and Wang rivers in northern Thailand did not reveal any further information. Similarly, a brief survey in 1996 of rivers in northern Laos was unsuccessful, and in 2008 a BirdLife/RSPB funded project consisting of speedboat surveys and village interviews at the site of the 2004 claim in Cambodia also proved fruitless (Seng Kim Hout 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a poster campaign to trace potential sightings by local people to focus survey efforts. Conduct surveys for the species along all major rivers within its putative range (particularly northern Thailand and Myanmar, but also potentially southern China, Laos, and Cambodia) and search alternative habitats such as forests and limestone cave systems. If a population is rediscovered, immediately implement appropriate conservation measures.  <p></p>
106007077		distribution	eng	<em>Eurochelidon sirintarae</em> is only known as a probable non-breeding visitor to one area of central <strong>Thailand</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It was discovered in 1968, at or near Beung Boraphet lake, near the town of Nakhon Sawan. It is known from 12 specimens collected amongst roosts of wintering hirundines, with rumours of many more sold in local markets, one field observation at Beung Boraphet in 1978, and two unconfirmed reports, the last of which was in 1986. Its population must be tiny and the lack of reliable records for over 20 years strongly suggests that it has undergone a decline. The species may be extant within South-East Asia, where survey effort has increased in recent years. There have been unconfirmed reports from Cambodia recently where potentially suitable habitat remains (Anon 2006)<strong></strong>, but searches in the Sre Ambel area in March-April 2008 failed to find the species, and the habitat was degraded and apparently unsuitable (Seng Kim Hout 2008)<strong></strong>. Myanmar may be a more likely refuge of any remaining population. <p></p>
106007077		habitat	eng	Its ecology is almost totally unknown. It has only been recorded between December and February roosting in reedbeds. By inference from behaviour of the related African River-martin <em>Pseudochelidon eurystomina</em>, it may breed on sand-bars of large rivers and feed over forested country. It has been speculated that, if it nests in Thailand, it would do so from February-April, after which monsoon rains raise water-levels above its postulated nesting habitat. However, there is some evidence that it might breed earlier than this, be partially nocturnal and perhaps not be associated with rivers. <p></p>
106007077		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), based on the lack of confirmed records at the only known site since 1978.
106007077		threats	eng	There has been a massive decline in the number of swallows roosting at Beung Boraphet as a result of intensive trapping for food and roost habitat destruction, primarily through burning of reeds for conversion to lotus cultivation. A number of threats could have contributed to its overall decline, including disturbance of riverine sand-bars, flooding upstream and the alteration of downstream hydrology caused by dams, extensive deforestation, and agricultural intensification. Following its discovery, its decline may have been exacerbated by demand for birds as zoo exhibits or for private collections. <p></p>
106007080		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007081		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007084		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A nest box scheme was initiated on Grand Bahama in 1995 to remedy the lack of suitable nest-holes (Allen 1996, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998). A total of 227 boxes were erected at several sites and three were occupied (Allen 1996, A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all suitable breeding habitat and assess the status of the species and its habitat; gathering empirical evidence to clarify population trends is a priority. Assess winter distribution and habitat requirements. Study the impacts of fire suppression on the species. Maintain natural nest-sites through a pine snag management programme (Allen 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and potentially fire management. Assess and monitor the success of the nest box scheme. Protect remaining forest in the Bahamas and minimise the area lost to housing development and logging. Assess the impact of starling and house sparrows on the population and develop appropriate measures to reduce the threat. <p></p>
106007084		distribution	eng	<em>Tachycineta cyaneoviridis</em> breeds on Grand Bahama, Great Abaco and Andros in the northern <strong>Bahamas </strong>(AOU 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). It may be extinct as a breeding bird on New Providence (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998), but a few birds are seen each breeding season suggesting the presence of a relict but severely threatened population (A. White <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The winter distribution is poorly defined, but there are a number of records from the southern Bahamas and eastern <strong>Cuba</strong>, and small numbers appear to be resident on the breeding islands (A. White <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On migration, it occurs irregularly in the lower Florida Keys and through southern Florida, <strong>USA</strong><strong> </strong>(AOU 1998). The area of breeding habitat is c.2,000 km<sup>2&#160;<strong></strong></sup> (Allen 1996), and a population of 2,400 pairs was crudely estimated in the late 1980s (Smith and Smith 1989)<strong></strong>. There are no empirical data to confirm population trends, but anecdotal reports suggest that the species has declined considerably in numbers and is now a scarce species even in suitable habitat (J. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2009, D. Moore <em>in litt</em>. 2009, F. Rivera-Milan <em>in litt</em>. 2009). <p></p>
106007084		habitat	eng	It nests in natural cavities and old woodpecker holes in pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em> woodlands (Smith and Smith 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs locally in towns and around human habitation, where it nests in artificial cavities and other human structures (Allen 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It tends to feed in open areas such as clearings in woodland, marshes, fields and along coastlines (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in April-July (Turner and Rose 1989, Allen 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Movements are poorly known, but some birds undertake  small-scale migrations during winter. <p></p>
106007084		population	eng	Smith and Smith (1989) previously estimated a global population of 2,400 pairs, i.e. 4,800 mature individuals. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the population has declined substantially since then and available survey data suggests the species occurs at low densities, even in apparently suitable habitat; consequently we cautiously assume a population of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106007084		threats	eng	Logging of pines in the northern Bahamas has probably had a major impact (Smith and Smith 1989)<strong></strong>. Logging was terminated in the early 1970s, but much of the secondary forest is now approaching maturity and there are opportunities for renewed logging (Allen 1996). Planned housing developments could eliminate 8% of remaining breeding habitat (Allen 1996) and there is potential for considerable future building developments on Grand Bahama (L. Gape <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, though in recent decades habitat loss has been modest (J. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is competition for nest-sites with introduced cavity-nesters such as House Sparrow <em>Passer domesticus</em> and European Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em> (Allen 1996). The small area of remaining habitat exacerbates the risk of hurricane-induced habitat loss (Allen 1996); the only notable habitat loss in recent years has resulted from saltwater intrusion associated with large storm surges following hurricanes in 2004 (J. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The frequency of hurricanes within the species's range may increase in coming years as a consequence of global climate change. Fire management may be important for the species as fire suppression may render areas of forest unsuitable over time (J. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2009). <p></p>
106007085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Jamaica (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong></strong>. Remaining forest in Cockpit Country is mostly protected, and habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mts is a national park (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. These reserves are not managed and habitat protection is inadequate (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but funding is actively being sought for the effective conservation of Cockpit Country (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Montane forest is poorly represented in the Dominican Republic's protected-areas system (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but 15 new areas have been recently proposed, including six in montane forest. In Haiti, it occurs in both La Visite and Macaya national parks (Woods and Ottenwalder 1986)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to identify breeding sites throughout its range (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Officially designate the proposed protected areas in the Dominican Republic (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong></strong>. Consider the provision of carefully designed and sited nest-boxes (Turner and Rose 1989, Townsend <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Design and implement management plans for key reserves. <p></p>
106007085		distribution	eng	<em>Tachycineta euchrysea</em> is known from the Greater Antilles. The nominate subspecies of <strong>Jamaica</strong> is probably extinct, having not been recorded since 1989 (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, D. Wege <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). It was known from Colfax County and the Blue Mts (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The race <em>sclateri</em> is locally common in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, especially in the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Bahoruco (Turner and Rose 1989, Dod 1992)<strong></strong>, Massif de la Hotte (Rimmer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) and Massif de la Selle (Dávalos and Brooks 2001)<strong></strong>. The populations of both subspecies have declined dramatically (King 1981,<strong> </strong>Downer 1982, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007085		habitat	eng	It nests in montane humid and pine forests, at elevations of 800-2,000&#160;m on Hispaniola, but (primarily in winter) to sea-level on Jamaica. It has been found in good secondary forest on Jamaica, and sometimes feeds over cane-fields and open country (Osburn 1858, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong>BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nests are traditionally built in old woodpecker and other holes in dead pines, but have been recorded in caves (Osburn 1869)<strong></strong>, boulders in an old bauxite mine (Townsend <em>et al.</em> 2008, G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1998) and in the eaves of buildings (Wetmore and Lincoln 1933)<strong></strong>. Six nests in an abandoned bauxite mine in the Sierra de Baoruco contained 2-4 eggs, and hatchlings took 21-24 days to fledge; half of these nests were predated (Townsend <em>et al.</em> 2008). It flies in singles or small groups, feeding on small insects (Osburn 1858, 1869)<strong></strong>. Birds forage over Hispaniolan pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus occidentalis</span> and mixed pine-broadleaf forests, and occasionally open agricultural areas and natural savannahs (Townsend <em>et al.</em> 2008). <p></p>
106007085		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007085		threats	eng	Shifting agriculture has caused severe forest loss and fragmentation on Hispaniola (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Reasons for declines in Jamaica are unknown (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, but habitat loss has been implicated.  Competition for nest-sites with introduced Common Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em> has been suggested as a possible cause (King 1981, Turner and Rose 1989) but this is unlikely, as starlings only occur at lower elevations (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007086		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007088		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007089		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007090		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the breeding range to map its extent and assess the size of the breeding population (<strong></strong>Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006, Lethaby and King 2010). Special attention should be given to areas with post-1980 records (Lethaby and King 2010). Attempt to locate wintering population in South America and assess threats there. Thoroughly check mixed non-breeding roosts of <em>Progne </em>martins in Amazonia for this and <em>P. dominicensis</em>, perhaps through mist-netting (Tobias <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007090		distribution	eng	<em>Progne sinaloae</em> breeds in pine-oak forest and semi-open habitat at nine sites on the west slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It still appears to occupy its traditional breeding range from Sonora to Michoacán, with recent records from Guerrero (Lethaby and King 2010). Breeding has been recorded historically in Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Nayarit , Jalisco and Michoacán states, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Phillips 1986, Lethaby and King 2010); of these, it is still known to breed in Sinaloa and Jalisco (Lethaby and King 2010). It has been recorded on migration in Mexico and casually in <strong>Guatemala </strong>(Turner and Rose 1989, Howell and Webb 1995) and <strong>Belize</strong> but its wintering range, conservation status and population trends are unknown.<br/><br/><em> <p></p></em>
106007090		habitat	eng	This very poorly known species breeds in small colonies in pine-oak forest and semi-open habitat in mountainous areas (Turner and Rose 1989, Howell and Webb 1995)<strong></strong> but its wintering grounds (and habitats) are unknown. Historical and contemporary records are compiled and analysed by Lethaby and King (2010).<p></p>
106007090		population	eng	Lethaby and King (2010) consider it unlikely that the  population numbers more than a few thousand, and based on current  knowledge, a population estimate of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals seems realistic.
106007090		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106007091		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106007093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007094		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106007095		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007096		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106007097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007098		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007099		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007100		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007103		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007104		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Turner and Rose 1989).
106007105		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.50,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia and (for the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">diluta</span>)   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China   and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common breeding bird in many parts of its range but sometimes only locally so. The species is reported to be common in Pakistan (Grimmett et al. 1997, Turner and Rose 1989).
106007107		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in parts of east Africa and frequent in Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007109		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but locally distributed on Madagascar and abundant on Mauritius and Reunion (Turner and Rose 1989).
106007110		distribution	eng	This species is found in west-central Africa where it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo from Bolobo and Kwamouth, south-east to Kananga, Lubilashi and Lubishi Rivers, near Salonga National Park (Mills and Cohen 2007), Luluabourg and elsewhere in the Kasai (Keith et al. 1992), southern Congo from the Congo River at Nganchu (near Ngabé), Gamakala (north of Brazzaville), and further away from the Congo River at Djambala (F. Dowsett-Lemaire 1997b), and the central highlands of Angola (Keith et al. 1992, Mills and Cohen 2007).
106007110		habitat	eng	the species is found near rivers and, in the non-breeding season, often associates with Lesser Striped-Swallow Hirundo abyssinica feeding over rivers on flying insects, e.g. termites (Chapin 1953). It nests in small groups in tunnels in sandy river-banks, the breeding season being July-October, at the beginning of the wet season before river-levels rises sufficiently to flood the nest-sites (Chapin 1953). It is not known to migrate (Chapin 1953). It appears to utilise open habitats, is suspected to be tolerant of some human-induced alteration of habitat.
106007110		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007110		threats	eng	Although few large colonies are known and it is almost undoubtedly subject to some human predation (F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt. 1997), its large range and tolerance of degraded habitats probably mean that it is not under any immediate risk.
106007111		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant, though rare in Nigeria (Turner and Rose 1989).
106007112		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 120,000-370,000 breeding pairs, equating to 360,000-1,110,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 720,000-4,440,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106007113		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common in Jordan, common in Egypt and scarce in Pakistan (Snow and Perrins 1998, Grimmett et al. 1998).
106007114		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in Botswana and Namibia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007115		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in India and uncommon in southern China (MacKinnon and Phillipps (Turner and Rose 1989).
106007116		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.190,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, &gt; c.10,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-1 million   breeding pairs and &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-1   million breeding pairs, &gt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007117		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common and sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007118		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007119		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007121		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it was described as generally common when considered conspecific with <i>H. tahitica</i>.
106007122		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2004), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007124		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Africa, common in Pakistan and locally common in India (Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp, Keith et al. 1992).
106007125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent in Africa (Keith et al. 1992).
106007126		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common, for example in Mwinilunga district, Zambia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007127		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. In 1986, an international working group was established for the conservation and recovery of the species throughout its range (Anon. 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The group has helped to prevent afforestation of the species's grasslands and wetlands in five key areas, successfully lobbied for grasslands in eight areas to be rehabilitated, and succeeded in blocking prospecting and mining in two key areas in South Africa (M. McNamara <em>per </em>Anon. 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A workshop was held in South Africa in June 2002, followed by the publication of an international action plan (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A South African working group has been formed to coordinate and encourage conservation of the species (Evans 2000, Holroyd and Quinn undated)<strong></strong>. In Malawi, Nyika National Park and the Mulanje area are considered secure from agricultural encroachment in the long term, owing to the cold climate and poor soils (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Zimbabwe, c.200 pairs breed within Nyanga National Park (S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and less than 50 pairs breed in Chimanimani National Park (S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Ruma National Park is a stronghold for the species in Kenya (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The majority of the few known pairs in Swaziland breed in Malolotja Nature Reserve (Parker 1994, Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with two pairs in recent years on Sibebe Mountain, which has been the focus of a community-based conservation project (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, artificial nest cavities have been dug (Wakelin 2004, Anon. 2005b, S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007) to encourage the species into previously unoccupied areas where there are no natural nest sites (Anon. 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and some remain in use (Wakelin 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Of the 44 artificial nest sites created in KwaZulu-Natal, 18 have been used once or more, but 26 remain unused (Anon. 2005b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research is underway in South Africa to investigate the minimum size of grassland required by breeding pairs through the use of radio-tracking and wing-marking studies (Wakelin 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's breeding success in South Africa is monitored anuually (Mattison 2003, S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In South Africa, a national count (Mattison 2004, Arnott 2004, Anon. 2005a) and breeding survey in KwaZulu-Natal (Mattison 2003, Arnott 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Mpumalanga (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> are carried out annually in October-November. Environmental education programmes are ongoing in the regions of South Africa where the species breeds (M. McNamara <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify key wintering sites and conserve them (L. Bennun <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey and monitor breeding population size and trend at less well-studied sites (M. Dyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999, S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Control and remove non-native plants at breeding sites (S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess effects of grassland fires on spread of non-native plants. Prevent further loss of grassland habitat in Kenya (Ndang'ang'a 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the species's entire range in Swaziland to obtain data on its breeding population (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Swaziland, increase the area of protected grassland above 1,300 m (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider the burning of grassland patches to prevent shrub and tree encroachment and encourage swarms of insects for the species to feed on (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate a conservation strategy for the Busia Grasslands that can incorporate development (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Raise public awareness of the species's plight and importance of its habitat (M. McNamara <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent any further significant loss of suitable habitat in South Africa (M. McNamara <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Reduce disturbance by tourists and land-owners. Study habitat use in its wintering range (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine the characteristics of drainage lines used or foraging (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify migration routes used between breeding and wintering grounds (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study breeding biology in greater detail (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate for southern Tanzania (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's demography and longevity (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the genetics and taxonomy of the species (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007127		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hirundo atrocaerulea</span> is an intra-African migrant that breeds in <span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span>, west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Swaziland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zimbabwe</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Malawi </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999, 2000, Holroyd and Quinn undated), north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Zambia</span>, south-western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tanzania </span>(N. Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999, D. Moyer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999), west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mozambique</span>, and south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Democratic Republic of Congo</span> (DRC) (Keith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). It is a non-breeding visitor to north-east DRC, south <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uganda </span>(M. Carswell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999) and west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya </span>(Keith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). 74% of the total breeding population occurs in Zimbabwe, Malawi and southern Tanzania. Uganda and Kenya host an estimated 73% of the non-breeding population (Evans and Bouwman 2010). It is uncommon to rare in Zambia and Zimbabwe and close to extinction in Swaziland and South Africa (Evans and Barnes 2000) where its population is estimated at around 100 pairs (Monadjem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species range in South Africa and Swaziland is thought to have contracted by 74% (Evans and Bouwman 2010). It is reported that no active nests were located in Swaziland in 2006 (J. Wakelin<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007). There were thought to be 84 pairs in South Africa in 2005 (Anon. 2005b, M. McNamara <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2006). The species was not recorded in Limpopo Province during national surveys in 2003 (Mattison 2004, Anon. 2005a) and 2004 (Anon. 2005a, Anon. 2005b), and it is not thought to have nested in the province during those seasons (Anon. 2005b). The total population has declined by an estimated 36–56% since the 1850s, and is now estimated at 1,006 pairs or 2,012 individuals (Evans and Bouwman 2010). <br/><p></p>
106007127		habitat	eng	This species breeds in montane grassland (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, Berruti <em>et al.</em> 1995, Holroyd and Quinn undated)<strong></strong>, preferring high rainfall, undulating areas such as mist belt grasslands of South Africa (Evans 2000)<strong></strong>. It favours grassland with interspersed with drainage lines in gullies or valleys, and also frequents wetland systems such as pans and small dams (Anon. 2005b)<strong></strong>. The species requires such wetlands among grassland patches for foraging (Anon. 2005b)<strong></strong>. In Swaziland, its breeding sites have been restricted to grasslands above 1,200 m, with most above 1,300 m (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. In its non-breeding range it favours open grassland, often with bushes and trees (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, Ndang'ang'a 2004, Ndang'ang'a 2007) and marshy areas (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong></strong>. Its nest is usually attached to the roof or side of a hole in the ground (relatively free of vegetation) (Turner and Rose 1989, Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, Johnson 1996)<strong></strong>. Nest-sites in South Africa and Swaziland include underground sinkholes or disused aardvark <em>Orycteropus afer</em> burrows (Mattison 2003, Wakelin 2004, Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, as well as artificial and artificially altered holes (Mattison 2003, Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> such as old mining and prospecting shafts (Meikle 2010)<strong></strong>. Birds use the same nest-site for up to 30 years (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, as long as the cavity remains stable (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>, although it is not known whether these are the same birds returning (J. Wakelin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The nest consists of a cup of mud, mixed with fine grass and rootlets, and lined with feathers, and is repaired each year (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>. The species has been recorded breeding cooperatively in some parts of its range (facultative cooperative breeder) (Wakelin 2004, S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, it is not known whether helpers are related to the breeding pair (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>. Nesting occurs between October and March (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. A successful pair may produce two broods per breeding season (Wakelin 2004, Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, with three clutches fledged from one nest in KwaZulu-Natal (J. Wakelin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It lays two or three eggs, normally three; incubation lasts about 15 days and the chicks fledge after about 22 days (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>. The total number of active nests seems to be positively correlated with rainfall prior to breeding, probably through its influence on the abundance of insects, which the species feeds on (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Blue swallow often forage in dense fog. They are well adapted to these conditions, having the most water repellent plumage of any terrestrial bird species (Rijke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Kylin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
106007127		population	eng	The total population has declined by an estimated 36–56% since the   1850s, and is now estimated at 1,006 pairs or 2,012 individuals (Evans   and Bouwman 2010). Estimated numbers of breeding pairs should be treated  with caution, as when nests are surveyed they are assumed to indicate  one breeding pair each, which may not be the case in this facultative  cooperative breeder, and it has been observed that some nests are not  used after construction (J. Wakelin <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to  1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000  individuals.
106007127		threats	eng	Grassland in many parts of its range is being lost to afforestation (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>, intense human settlement, cultivation (especially sugarcane [Evans 2000]<strong></strong>), intensive livestock-farming, intense grazing, intensive grass-burning (Nasirwa and Njoroge 1997)<strong></strong>, invasion by non-native trees and bracken (S. L. Childes <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong> and (potentially) small-scale mining (S. W. Evans verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. Grasslands are burnt annually or sometimes biannually to stimulate new growth for grazing; annual burning and grazing alters the composition of plant species and reduces their cover, accelerating soil erosion, reducing the organic content of soil and thus insect abundance and reducing the productivity and diversity of grasslands (S. W. Evans <em>in litt</em>. 2007, J. Wakelin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The drainage of wetlands also threatens the species (Anon. 2005b)<strong></strong>. More than 60% of the South African Grassland Biome Habitat has already been irreversibly transformed (Evans 2000)<strong></strong>. Only 0.24% of montane grassland in KwaZulu-Natal is protected (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>. At five study sites in KwaZulu-Natal, 55% of the suitable grassland habitat was transformed between 1980 and 2000, and the number of active nests also halved (Wakelin 2004, M. McNamara <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. At these sites, in addition to afforestation which doubled in area over the 20 year period and also accounted for half of the total land-use of the study area, grassland was also altered by the encroachment of woody vegetation, as a result of a lack of fuelwood harvesting by displaced communities and changes in fire regimes and timber plantation management (Wakelin 2004, J. Wakelin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In Mpumalanga, 61% of suitable habitat in the North-eastern Mountain Sourveld has been transformed (M. McNamara <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Nesting attempts by the species in Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces (South Africa) were thought to be adversely affected by cold, dry conditions in October and November 2004 (Anon. 2005b)<strong></strong>, probably as a result of a low abundance of insects. In Swaziland, 42% of potentially suitable grassland above 1,300 m has been transformed or heavily degraded since the 1950s (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Suitable breeding habitat in this country has been lost mostly to afforestation for exotic timber plantations, as well as urbanisation to a lesser extent (Monadjem <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>.  The Busia Grasslands (Kenya) have lost over 60% of their grassland cover since the mid-1990s (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong></strong>. They are surrounded by intensive agriculture, mainly maize and sugarcane (Ndang'ang'a 2004, Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong></strong>, and are grazed by livestock (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong></strong>. The grasslands are severely and immediately threatened by fragmentation, agriculture and overgrazing (Ndang'ang'a 2004)<strong></strong> from the large, rapidly increasing human population (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong></strong> in adjacent settlements, some of which are highly populated (Ndang'ang'a 2004)<strong></strong>. Local people in Busia commonly trap swallows for food, and this may include <em>H. atrocaerulea</em><strong> </strong>(Ndang'ang'a 2007, P. K. Ndang'ang'a<em> in litt</em>. 2007). The loss of grasslands outside the Ruma National Park (Kenya) is severe, with almost every available area cultivated, heavily grazed or settled (Ndang'ang'a 2007)<strong></strong>. The species's nest-site fidelity (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong> may increase its susceptibility to the affects of habitat transformation. Breeding birds are known to abandon their nests in reaction to human disturbance from excessive tourism (Mattison 2003)<strong></strong> and land-owners (Wakelin 2004)<strong></strong>. At the Blue Swallow Natural Heritage Site (BSNHS), South Africa, nesting success has been reported to decline during years with increased fog (Evans and Bouwman 2000). Blue Swallows are well-adapted to flying in dense fog and have the most water repellent plumage of any terrestrial bird species (Rijke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Kylin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2011) hypothesise that elevated concentrations of sulphonates in the fog, caused by a combination of increased air pollution from the Johannesburg area and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released from exotic trees, may have increased the wettability of the blue swallow plumage and lowered nesting success.<p></p>
106007128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Keith et al. 1992).
106007129		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Yabello Sanctuary (c.2,500 km<sup>2</sup>) was designated in 1985 to protect this species and Ethiopian Bush-Crow <em>Zavattariornis stresemanni</em>, but it has not yet been gazetted and there is no active management. Responsibility for protected areas has now passed to the Regional Government, so it is hoped that collaboration between Regional and Zonal Governments and local communities may result in more substantive protection (P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in order to obtain a population estimate. Establish the regularity and seasonality of occurrence on the Liben Plains, and survey between Negele and Arero to establish whether there is a continuous population (Gabremichael <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of <em>Acacia</em> clearance and conversion to cultivation. Better define the species's habitat requirements. Determine why it is restricted to such a small range. Determine whether it is affected by the clearance of thorn-scrub for rangeland development. Formerly gazette Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary and initiate active management. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.<br/><p></p>
106007129		distribution	eng	<em>Hirundo megaensis</em> has a restricted range around Mega and Yabello in southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>. No survey-based population estimate has been made, but while one survey in 1989 suggested densities had remained constant through the 1980s, another established slightly larger geographical and altitudinal ranges but recorded lower numbers. Field surveys in 1996 found it to be fairly common in small numbers (P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2005 found less than two individuals per 15 minute point count or 500 m transect (R. Mellanby <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In June 2006 small numbers were observed on the Liben Plains east of  Negele, c.120 km northeast of the previously-known range. Further  sightings have since been made there in October-December 2006, February  2007 and January 2008 (Gabremichael <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).  It is not yet confirmed to breed on the Liben Plains and has not been  recorded there in April-May, but the spread in seasonality of sightings  so far suggests that the species may prove to occur regularly in the  area. The population is estimated to number less than 10,000 individuals because the species probably occurs at relatively low densities across its range, (N. J. Collar <em>in litt</em>. 2003), , although it is no longer believed to be dependent on termite mounds to  nest as it has since been found to nest in traditional houses and  wells.<br/><p></p>
106007129		habitat	eng	The species is found in open, semi-arid country above 1,500 m with short grass and low <em>Acacia</em> thorn-scrub (dense to sparse) with some clearings (EWNHS 1996, P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998<strong></strong>, Mellanby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. It occurs less commonly over farmland (R. Mellanby <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Mellanby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Sightings on the Liben Plains come from open grassland at c.1,650 m (Gabremichael <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It breeds during the main rainy season (April-May), with nests being found in early May. It has been suspected of breeding in termite mounds, but the only confirmed breeding records come from rafters in houses, and deep traditional wells (EWNHS 1996, Mellanby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007129		population	eng	The population is estimated to number less than 10,000 individuals because the species probably exists at relatively low densities across its range, although it is no longer believed to be dependent on termite mounds to nest as it has since been found to nest in traditional houses and wells (N. J. Collar <I>in litt.</I> 2003). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007129		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by the conversion of <em>Acacia</em> thorn-scrub to grazing land, and pastoralism to crop agriculture (N. Collar <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 2005 found it at lower densities in farmland (R. Mellanby <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting that the species's population is declining in the face of such increases in grazing pressure and conversion to crops. The Ethiopian Bush-crow <em>Zavattariornis stresemanni</em>, which is endemic to a similar area and habitat, has declined significantly over the last ten years, probably owing to fire suppression in Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary leading to increased vegetation cover (L. Borghesio <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually scarce, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007131		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although scarcer in the north and west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007138		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Where possible survey Red Sea hills of Sudan and Eritrea as well as the coastal hills of western Saudi Arabia north of Jedda (Madge and Redman 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007138		distribution	eng	<em>Hirundo perdita</em> is known only from the type-specimen, found dead in May 1984 at Sanganeb lighthouse, north-east of Port Sudan, <strong>Sudan</strong> (Fry and Smith 1985). It is judged most likely to be found in the Red Sea hills of Sudan or Eritrea, or possibly (because two pale-rumped swallows were seen flying out over the Red Sea towards Jedda, just before the discovery of the type) in the coastal hills of western Saudi Arabia north of Jedda (Madge and Redman 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Unidentified cliff swallows, possibly of this species, have been seen at Lake Langano (c.20 birds) and in Awash National Park (3-8 birds) in the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, plus three more recent sites (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although they are more likely to represent an undescribed taxon. There is no other information on the species's range, population size and trend, preferred habitat and potential threats.<em> <p></p></em>
106007138		habitat	eng	The species' preferred habitat is unknown, but its morphology is similar to the `cliff swallow' group of species, whose other members prefer open country (e.g. grassland or mountainous areas), often near to cliffs and/or water and/or human habitation. <p></p>
106007138		population	eng	This species is only known from its type specimen and as such no population estimates are available.
106007138		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106007139		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Keith et al. 1992).
106007140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to breed commonly (Keith et al. 1992).
106007142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106007145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106007146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007147		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Pakistan and locally common in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106007148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon but poorly known (Keith et al. 1992).
106007150		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 9,900,000-24,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 29,700,000-72,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary   estimate of the global population size is 60,600,000-288,000,000 individuals,   although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in   China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106007151		population	eng	National population   estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common in Nepal and locally fairly common in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106007153		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to rare, although common in Liberia and locally common in Gabon, Ghana and north -eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007154		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to a small area including Mt Cameroon in Cameroon, the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria and Bioko, Equatorial Guinea (Keith et al. 1992).
106007154		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest interior, clearings and edges as well as montane grassland, farmland and human settlements (Stuart 1986). Records from the Obudu Plateau are from montane forest (Elgood et al. 1994). It does not appear to be limited to forest within its small range (Stuart 1986).
106007154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).
106007155		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although race suffusa is uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to locally abundant, although not common in the lower Congo Basin, west Sudan, south Zambia and central Zimbabwe (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common, although rare to not uncommon in Liberia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106007165		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Regulus calendula</span> occurs throughout North America, in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">obscurus</span>, endemic to Mexico's Guadalupe Island, was last recorded in 1953 and is now considered extinct (Barton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
106007168		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in the highlands of Myanmar and northern Thailand and scarce in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007173		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected in Thailand and occurs in numerous protected areas, including at least two on Sumatra (although possibly extirpated [B. van Balen<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), at least four in Kalimantan and several (including Taman Negara) in Peninsular Malaysia.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's current range and population size. Monitor levels of capture for trade. Monitor levels of trade in this species. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Advocate increased patrol frequency in and around protected areas supporting populations. Increase policing of bird markets, particularly in Indonesia. Tighten controls on imports and exports of live birds in the region. Extend stronger legal protection to this (and other equally popular) cage-birds.  <p></p>
106007173		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus zeylanicus</em> is known from Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar </strong>(status unknown), south through Peninsular <strong>Thailand </strong>and <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong> to Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei </strong>and Sabah and Sarawak<strong> </strong>(Malaysia) (BirdLife International 2001). It was widespread, common, and even locally abundant across much of this range, until as recently as two decades ago. However, it is thought to be extinct in Thailand (where only feral populations remain) and Java, and is virtually extinct on Sumatra (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In Kalimantan, it is largely confined to areas furthest from human habitation. It may only remain in moderately healthy numbers in peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and remote Kalimantan. <p></p>
106007173		habitat	eng	It occupies successional habitats bordering rivers, streams, marshes and other wet areas, where seasonal flooding prevents the establishment of climax communities. These include secondary and disturbed primary evergreen forest, plantations, gardens and cultivation fringe, scrub and, locally, reedbeds and mangroves. It is most frequent in lowlands, but has been recorded (historically) up to 1,100 m and, locally (on Borneo and Sumatra), up to 1,600 m. It is sedentary, generally occurring in pairs or family parties of up to five. <p></p>
106007173		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007173		threats	eng	The quality of its songs makes it a very popular cage-bird, which has resulted in extensive trapping for both domestic and international trade. Its lack of shyness and habit of roosting and nesting in easily accessible locations has compounded its vulnerability to trapping. A single bird cost over US$20 in 1987, after which prices have increased exponentially, and individuals have recently been seen on sale in Medan (Sumatra) for US$1,300. Despite its tolerance of secondary habitats, clearance of lowland forest along rivers has probably contributed to its decline. <p></p>
106007174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in mid-elevation forests, although generally uncommon in north Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007176		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007176		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus tympanistrigus</em> is restricted to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). In the early 1990s, it was known by few records and appeared to be very local, but it is now known to be relatively common and widespread, albeit still declining because of habitat loss. <em> <p></p></em>
106007176		habitat	eng	This species inhabits hill and lower montane forest at 600-1,400 m.  <p></p>
106007176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as occurring widely in areas of remaining forest in the Barisan range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007176		threats	eng	This species is at risk from deforestation in its lower elevation range, as most of its populations occupy areas below 900 m. In the period 1985-1997, Sumatra lost c.29% of its forest cover (Holmes 2002).   <p></p>
106007177		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly the causes of nomadic movements, as well as levels of persistence in secondary and fragmented habitats. Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007177		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus melanoleucos</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where is it known from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Mentawai Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). In is generally scarce, although it is sporadically fairly common in parts of Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. It may undertake nomadic movements. <em> <p></p></em>
106007177		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest (including selectively logged forest), mixed-dipterocarp forest, secondary growth and forest edge, from lowlands up to at least 1,830 m. It is also recorded from luxuriant gardens and cultivation, peatswamp forest and overgrown plantations. Its nomadic tendencies suggest a degree of specialisation in its foraging niche, although further research is needed to determine its habitat requirements.  <p></p>
106007177		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Malaysia and Borneo and rather rare in Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007177		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion. However, as a nomadic species, it may be more susceptible to the effects of habitat fragmentation.  <p></p>
106007178		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from about 33 Important Bird Areas (IBAs); however, the majority of them are unprotected non-breeding sites with various levels of degradation (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong></strong>. It is present in nearly all wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserves in Kerala (<strong></strong>J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Instigate the formation and amalgamation of protected areas throughout its range to ensure that enough suitable habitat is protected (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong></strong>. Ensure effective legal protection of protected areas (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Prevent the extensive extraction of reed-bamboos (<em>Ochlandra</em> spp.) from lower altitudes, especially during the breeding season (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Accurately assess the current population size and establish regular surveys to quantify population trends. <p></p>
106007178		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus priocephalus</em> is found in the Western Ghats and Palni Hills in south-west <strong>India </strong><em></em>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is patchily distributed, but it is thought to be not uncommon in suitable habitat (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Balakrishnan 2007, J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Suitable habitat at lower habitats has largely been cleared, and continued clearance is suspected to be causing on-going population declines (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Balakrishnan 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007178		habitat	eng	This species uses two distinct elevation zones during the breeding and non-breeding seasons. During the breeding season, individuals are restricted to the mid-elevation evergreen forests (700-1,400 m). During the non-breeding season, it is present in lower altitude moist deciduous and scrub forests. Reed-bamboos (<em>Ochlandra</em> spp.) are thought to be an important nesting plant, and it is not seen in shola forests and altered habitats such as plantations, suggesting that it is a habitat specialist. Individuals show local migration during breeding and non-breeding seasons in response to the variation in fruit abundance and adverse climatic conditions (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong></strong>. It breeds from March to July and the female lays a clutch of one or two eggs. Its diet consists of berries and other fruit, and also a small proportion of insects. It forages at all levels of forest and in tall vine-laden shrubs, often singly or in pairs, but sometimes in groups of four to eight individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population is thought to occur at low densities in suitable habitat which is patchily distributed throughout its range.
106007178		threats	eng	The principal threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation as forest is converted into plantations, reservoirs, crops and human settlements (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Balakrishnan 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although there are no reliable estimates of the total forest loss for the Western Ghats, several regional studies using satellite data suggest that only about 20% of the natural forest vegetation remains and is in a highly fragmented state (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong></strong>. Extensive extraction of reed-bamboos, used in pulp and paper industry and traditional cottage industries such as basket and mat-weaving, is thought to be an important factor causing population decline (Balakrishnan 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its range, although very rare in southern China and rare in India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007180		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007181		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007181		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus squamatus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong></strong>  <em> <p></p></em>
106007181		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and hill forest to 1,000 m.   <p></p>
106007181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and locally fairly common in foothill forests, although often scarce in Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007181		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106007182		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it does occur in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007182		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus cyaniventris</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Mentawai Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally fairly common to common in suitable habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
106007182		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest in the lowlands, although it may be commoner in hill forest above 400 m, with an upper limit of 1,200 m. It generally avoids plantations or other non-native woodlands, although it does occur in tall secondary forest or logged forest, provided that some high canopy cover remains (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common, although rare in southern Myanmar and generally uncommon in Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007182		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, as well as some secondary habitats.  <p></p>
106007183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas, abundant in south and west India and very common in Hong Kong (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described abundant in many regions, such as Hong Kong (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007186		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been legally protected in Taiwan since 1995. It is common in Kenting National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the distribution and spread of hybrids within the wild population, in order to aid the development of conservation measures. Examine the possibility of establishing a refuge for genetically pure individuals with a buffer zone in which all hybrids and <em>P. sinensis</em> are removed. Carefully examine the feasibility of a captive-breeding programme and, if established, closely monitor and coordinate it. Alert the government and the public of Taiwan of the potential for extinction of this species in order to establish support for conservation measures, particularly the maintenance of a refuge, and to discourage further releases of <em>P. sinensis</em>. <p></p>
106007186		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus taivanus</em> is endemic to <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) (BirdLife International 2001). It is found in eastern Taiwan in the coastal plains and hills of Haulien county and Taitung county, in the Huatung valley and as far west as Litao and north to Chungta and Hojen, in southern Taiwan at Hengchun and Kenting in southern Pingtung county, and as far north as Fangshan and Fengkang on the south-west coast of Taiwan. Although it is considered locally very common in parts of its range (Fang Woeihorng <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), with recent counts of over 100 at several sites, its population and range are thought to be declining and the genetic purity of several sub-populations is in doubt. Indeed, genetically pure birds may be limited to the coastal mountains and Tungho and Luye in Taitung county.<br/><p></p>
106007186		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including secondary forest, scrub, agricultural areas and gardens. Large flocks form in autumn and winter, but it is territorial in the breeding season, which lasts from March through to July. Its diet includes fruit, flowers and insects. <p></p>
106007186		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009). It is precautionarily placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007186		threats	eng	The key threat is hybridisation with the closely related Chinese Bulbul <em>P. sinensis</em>, which is spreading as a consequence of habitat alteration. The ranges of both species increasingly overlap, as both species occur in agricultural habitats, resulting in frequent hybridisation (Fang Woei-Horng <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This process has been accelerated by releases of <em>P. sinensis</em> for religious purposes. It is possible that genetically pure populations will be lost within 20 years. Habitat alteration for agriculture and urbanisation are threats throughout its range, and extinction has already occurred in Ilan county, where it has been completely replaced by Chinese Bulbul (Fang Woei-Horng <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant. The population in Liberia is estimated as 3 million individuals and In southern Mozambique, the population is estimated as 5-10 million individuals. However, these countries cover only a small percentage of the species's total range so the global population is likely much higher (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widely distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007193		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6,000-18,000 breeding pairs, equating to 18,000-54,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 75,000-1,080,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common; abundant in Nepal, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh and rare in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Hong Kong and Java and fairly common in southern China and south-east Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population in China at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
106007198		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007198		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus eutilotus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Bangka Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is uncommon to fairly common in suitable habitat within this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007198		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest, with most records at plains-level or on lower slopes, with an upper limit of 400 m. It is recorded in disturbed and logged forests, provided that some canopy cover remains, and also occurs in secondary forests and overgrown plantations, although potentially only in areas with adjacent primary forest.  <p></p>
106007198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007198		threats	eng	This species is largely restricted to mature forests on low-lying plains, and is therefore at a heightened risk from deforestation. Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).   <p></p>
106007199		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out a genetic study of the two specimens and examine specimens of other <em>Pycnonotus</em> to help clarify taxonomic status (Williams 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007199		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus nieuwenhuisii</em> is known from north-east Kalimantan (one specimen collected at 600 m in 1900) and Sumatra (one specimen collected at 700 m in 1937), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where single birds were seen on five occasions in 1992 in Batu Apoi National Park (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is unusual for a species of bulbul to be widespread but to occur at such low densities, so this form may represent an extremely rare morph of another species or else hybrids, although it could be a genuinely rare habitat specialist that is occasionally forced to search other areas for food (Williams 2002)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106007199		habitat	eng	The Sumatran specimen was collected in secondary scrub in pasture land, while the 1992 Brunei sightings occurred in lowland dipterocarp forest at c.60 m.  <p></p>
106007199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007199		threats	eng	It is unknown whether the species is currently affected by any threats, but it is potentially threatened by habitat loss. <p></p>
106007200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although uncommon in northern Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007202		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although rare in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007203		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Tracts of habitat that support the species at Adichunchanagiri, Anaimalai Hills, Biligiri Rangana Hills, Devarayanadurga, Gingee, Horsely Hills, Ragihalli State Forest, Shevaroys and Tirumala Hills are afforded nominal protection, although many are still under heavy human disturbance, and there are few protected areas in the Deccan Plateau and Eastern Ghats, where the majority of the population occurs (Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In some areas, natural vegetation is recovering owing to the changing lifestyles of villagers, who are slowly converting from the using firewood to cooking gas (S. Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys across its range to assess population sizes in existing protected areas and to identify substantial areas of undisturbed and unprotected habitat supporting populations, with a view to affording strict protected-area status to representative portions. Lobby against further large-scale granite quarrying operations in areas supporting significant populations. Promote conservation awareness initiatives in these areas, aimed at reducing habitat degradation, integrated if possible with rural development schemes (e.g. through the provision of fuel-efficient stoves, reducing local communities' dependence on fuelwood). Ensure protection of important habitats from encroachment, and promote the regeneration of native vegetation in areas previously affected by grazing. Areas in the Deccan Plateau and Eastern Ghats should be a priority, and connectivity should be maintained between reserves (Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). <br/><p></p>
106007203		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus xantholaemus</em> is endemic to southern <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally distributed in southern Andhra Pradesh, eastern Karnataka, eastern Kerala and  northern Tamil Nadu (Subramanya 2004)<strong></strong>. It could also occur in Orissa, where there is suitable unsurveyed habitat (Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It is known from c.80 localities, with all recent records from hills south of 16°N and east of 76°E (Narayanan <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. The southern limit of its known range was recently extended southwards by c.30 km, when birds were recorded on the eastern slopes of Devarmala (Sandeep Das) (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> P. Jayadevan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is still locally common, but appears to be declining. Recent surveys of 75 localities found that it had totally disappeared from six historical sites, and at most occupied sites it is considered scarce (Thejaswi 2004)<strong></strong>. Many areas of suitable habitat within the species's range remain unsurveyed.<br/><p></p>
106007203		habitat	eng	It is a largely sedentary resident, generally associated with boulder-strewn hillsides or  rocky outcrops with dense undergrowth, usually under either thorn-scrub, scrub jungle, mixed dry or moist deciduous forest at 300-1,800 m. It is quite tolerant of denuded habitat, although not found on completely bare hills<strong>.</strong> Some local or altitudinal movements may be made in response to the abundance of fruiting trees. It is encountered in pairs or small groups of six or more. Berry-bearing shrubs, particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Securinega</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Toddalia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Erythroxylon</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Solanum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Santalum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ziziphus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Canthium</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllanthus</span> and <em>Lantana</em>, are important food sources (S. Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It also feeds on insects. Evidence suggests that the species breeds in the south-west monsoon, between June and August (Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). <em></em><br/><p></p>
106007203		population	eng	Although this species has a large EOO (210,000 km<sup>2</sup>), it is very patchily distributed. Surveys of 18 sites showed it to be common in intact suitable habitat, but this was 'very limited'. Analysis of the detailed account in BirdLife International (2001) suggests that the total population may well be below 10,000 individuals, so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals here. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007203		threats	eng	The key threats are habitat loss and degradation owing to commercial quarrying for granite, cutting and lopping of trees for fuelwood, clearance for cultivation and intensive browsing of berry-bearing shrubs by domestic livestock. Mining activities in Karnataka have increased rapidly in recent years (S. Subramanya <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Periodic fires are also thought to degrade its habitat. Road widening at Devarayanadurga has caused local losses of habitat in the State Forest (A. Ahmed<em> in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Unregulated tourist traffic may cause detrimental disturbance at some sites (Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. Quarrying and human disturbance are also cited as threats by Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006).<br/><p></p>
106007204		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007204		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus penicillatus </em>is an endemic resident in the wet zone highlands of <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is common to abundant in suitable habitats (BirdLife International 2001).  <em> <p></p></em>
106007204		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest and nearby gardens, at middle and higher elevations, generally 900-2000 m.   <p></p>
106007204		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in the central provinces of Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007204		threats	eng	Forest on Sri Lanka has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. It is feared that habitat loss will continue in the hills and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring.  <p></p>
106007205		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant throughout much of its range, although locally uncommon at the edges of its mainland range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007207		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range and abundant in lowland and mid-altitude areas of Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in most of its range, although rare in southern Myanmar and extinct in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007213		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Gashaka-Gumti Reserve in Nigeria, and in Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, and Rumpi Hills and Bali-Ngemba Forest Reserves in Cameroon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected. Encourage alternative income sources such as ecotourism.  <p></p>
106007213		distribution	eng	<em>Andropadus montanus</em> is endemic to the highlands of west <strong>Cameroon</strong> and the Obudu plateau and Mt Gangirwal in eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong>. In Nigeria, it is reportedly still relatively common (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Cameroon, it is reportedly not uncommon on Mt Oku (F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, scarce on Mt Cameroon (Stuart 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, locally common in the Rumpi Hills, common in the Bakossi Mountains (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and very common on Mt Manenguba, and has recently been found on nearby Mt Nlonako (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106007213		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest edge, clearings, secondary habitat and scrubby thickets with fruits (Stuart 1986, Bowden 1998, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Mt Manenguba, it is especially common in scrubby <em>Maesa</em> forest and on Mt Nlonako in thickets of fruiting <em>Harungana</em> on rocks (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs mainly at 1,000-2,500 m, but is recorded from 500 m on the slopes of Mt Cameroon in the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit, seeds and insects, foraging generally low in dense shrub layers, but occasionally up to 10 m. In Cameroon, nesting has been recorded in March and May, with birds in breeding condition noted in January-February and November, and juveniles recorded in February-April. The species is probably largely resident, although there is evidence of some seasonal movements to lower altitudes during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as variously scarce to common in different parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007213		threats	eng	Although found in secondary habitat and apparently still common where it occurs, forest within its small range is threatened by exploitation for timber and firewood and agricultural encroachment (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007215		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely common across almost all of its range. The population in Liberia has been estimated as 4,000,000 individuals, although this represents only a small proportion of the global population. (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (Keith et al. 1992).
106007220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).
106007221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant along the coast and common inland (Keith et al. 1992).
106007223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often the most abundant bulbul (Keith et al. 1992).
106007224		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and sometimes abundant across much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007229		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (Keith et al. 1992).
106007230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common  (Keith et al. 1992).
106007231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Keith et al. 1992).
106007232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Keith et al. 1992).
106007234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Keith et al. 1992).
106007235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (Keith et al. 1992).
106007236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common. The population in Mozambique has been estimated as 40,000 individuals, although the global population is likely to be much higher, since Mozambique represents only a small part of the global range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007237		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106007238		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known and neither the Lendu Plateau nor the Beni-Butembo area is currently protected. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known sites to determine the extent of remaining habitat. Conduct surveys to determine its distribution more accurately and to assess its population size. Protect remaining areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106007238		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorocichla prigoginei</em> is known from two sites: the Beni-Butembo area north-west of Lake Edward (14 specimens) and on the Lendu Plateau (1 specimen) in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. In February 1994, the first observations since 1981 were made in Djugu Forest (a known locality) on the Lendu Plateau. There are thought to be as few as 40-50 individuals on the Lendu Plateau, following the loss of forest there, and it has been suggested that the total population may possibly number no more than 250 individuals. However, surveys are required to confirm the size of populations at known sites and the extent to which it is restricted to these sites, as the species could occur over a larger area in the region than is known (L. Fishpool<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007238		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest patches, thickets and gallery forest along the upper courses of rivers at intermediate elevations (1,300-1,800 m), where it inhabits the dense understorey. More recently, birds have been located in a patch of slightly degraded, damp, montane forest on the Lendu Plateau (Pedersen 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, fruit and small caterpillars (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007238		population	eng	The population is estimated at 2,352-4,704 (6-12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 392 km<sup>2</sup> [45% EOO]), i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Density from that recorded for congener<em> Chlorocichla flaviventris</em>, and up to the lower quartile of three estimates of eight African greenbuls.
106007238		threats	eng	The status of the forest in the Beni-Butembo region is unknown but it is likely to be under serious threat from local encroachment and logging. Similarly, the Lendu Plateau habitat was reported to be under serious threat from encroachment from surrounding villages, including widespread and uncontrolled local logging (Pedersen 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1994, only c.20 ha of forest was seen to remain. Now, all forest on the Lendu Plateau is reported to be gone (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007242		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and abundant over much of its range, although possibly extinct in Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007244		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but sometimes local (Keith et al. 1992).
106007245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon, although its status is unclear (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common but generally scarce (Keith et al. 1992).
106007248		distribution	eng	This species was previously poorly known, but its call is now known and it has been found in several new locations. It is now known to occur from Guinea, through north-western Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana (where it is probably widely distributed and common) and Togo to south-eastern Nigeria. It seems likely that the species will be found at more localities across its range, and may occur in Benin and the extreme west of Cameroon. It occurs in a number of protected areas .
106007248		habitat	eng	The species appears to be restricted to mid-altitude forest at c.500-1,100 m, often on hill and mountain slopes, at lower altitudes mostly occurring in gallery forest and thicket on the fringes of the forest zone. It is apparently tied to the forest-savanna ecotone across much of its range, entering more deeply into lowland forest-secondary grassland mosaic habitats only in the far west of its range. It is found in mid-altitude forest and associated clearings and farmbush at 500-1,100 m, often on hill and mountain slopes both within and beyond the limits of the lowland forest zone, and also at lower altitudes down to sea level in gallery forest and thickets, including exotic Lantana and Chromolaena. Despite reports in the literature, there is no evidence that it occurs in lowland rainforest. It is probably often overlooked or misidentified owing to its skulking behaviour, lack of obvious field characters and occurrence in degraded habitats.
106007248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare, or rarely recorded (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly widespread and not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in a few forests but generally scarce (Keith et al. 1992).
106007252		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary and Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve in Cameroon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of habitat that is protected. <p></p>
106007252		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllastrephus poliocephalus</em> is restricted to the montane forests of eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> and western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where it was discovered on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba in the 1990s (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong></strong>, but is not found in the Bamenda Highlands (Stuart 1986)<strong></strong> (earlier records from Mt Oku are now known to be in error [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998]<strong></strong>). It is common to very common in suitable habitat (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000)<strong></strong>.     <p></p>
106007252		habitat	eng	It inhabits tall, mature rainforest at intermediate elevations (Stuart 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and also occurs in secondary forest and secondary growth but always near primary forest (Rodewald <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found at 500-1,800 m, rarely to 2,000 m, being most abundant at 1,200-1,800 m on Mt Kupe (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, and forages mainly in middle-strata and canopy,  periodically descending to 3-4 m. Observations from Cameroon suggest that breeding takes place in November-April (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007252		threats	eng	Forest within the species's range is threatened by unsustainable exploitation for timber and firewood, uncontrolled burning and encroachment for agriculture (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007256		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in some parts of its range and scarce and rare in others (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007257		distribution	eng	Subspecies P. i. lorenzi (formerly considered a separate species) is apparently scarce, and is restricted to the eastern lowlands of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and also at Ntandi in Semliki Forest in Uganda (Keith et al. 1992). In the DRC, there is a somewhat isolated record from Bambesa as well as populations in the Semliki/Ituri Forests and from the lowland parts of the Itombwe Mountains (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106007257		habitat	eng	It is a species of lowland and transitional forest at altitudes of 700-1,800 m (Stattersfield et al. 1998), where it occurs in mid-levels in small groups and in mixed-species flocks (Keith et al. 1992).
106007257		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007257		threats	eng	Forest habitats occupied by the range-restricted subspecies P. i. lorenzi are threatened by clearance for shifting cultivation and degradation through the removal of understorey tree species to create cacao plantations (Howard 1991).
106007258		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The civil war prevented research or conservation efforts for a number of years; with the return of stability, further efforts to re-locate the bird and to re-assess the quality and extent of remaining habitat are priorities. Work is underway to clarify its taxonomic status, and funding is currently being sought to search for the species in the near future. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish the extent of remaining habitat and estimate the population and distribution (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Carry out more intensive surveys of known sites and adjacent sites in the dry season (e.g. Cavally and Goin-Debe Forest Reserves in Cote d'Ivoire) to assess habitat quality and species status (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Molubah and Garbo 2010)<strong></strong>. Effectively manage protected areas in range or adjacent to range (e.g. Sapo NP in Liberia) (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Review its taxonomic status to establish conclusively whether it is a good species or merely an aberrant form of Icterine Greenbul <em>Phyllastrephus icterinus</em>. <p></p>
106007258		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllastrephus leucolepis</em> is a relatively recently described (1985) and obviously very rare species. It is known only from two forest patches 20 km north-west of Zwedru, near Cavalla river, Grand Gedeh County, south-east <strong>Liberia</strong> (Gatter 1985), in the Upper Guinea rainforest. Despite much fieldwork in Liberia before the civil war, and some since, as well as in adjacent countries, there have been no further records. Targeted searches of the two known sites in July 2010 were unsuccessful (Molubah and Garbo 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007258		habitat	eng	This is a rainforest species found in the transition zone between evergreen and semi-deciduous forest, where it joins mixed-species flocks and forages on branches near trunks 4-8 m above ground.  <p></p>
106007258		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007258		threats	eng	Forest in the region of the type-locality is being logged and cleared for smallholder agriculture and is already highly fragmented (Gatter and Gardener 1993)<strong></strong>. The civil unrest undoubtedly contributed to the short-term exploitation of these resources.  <p></p>
106007259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007260		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally common.
106007261		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally common throughout its range.
106007262		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Zombitse-Vohibasia Forest has been gazetted as a National Park (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analavelona is unprotected but may be included in the activities of the WWF Zombitse-Vohibasia Conservation Project in the future (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct studies to estimate its population size (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. Carry out surveys for the species at Upper Mangoky and Ankazohabo Forests (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Design and carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends (starting in Zombitse Forest near Andranamaitso, perhaps as a responsibility of the park guards, who should receive survey training) (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Study the impact of moderate to high levels of forest exploitation on the species (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation within its range. Target conservation efforts on Ambiamena Forest (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Promote ecotourism and use revenues to fund surveys (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Regularly liaise with the more isolated communities in the Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park to help reconcile their needs and aspirations with conservation efforts (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Carry out surveys to determine whether it has a largely continuous distribution between Zombitse-Vohibasia-Isoky, Analavelona, and Salary Bay, and study birds at these sites at different seasons (including genetic analysis and/or banding) to determine whether there are seasonal movements between sites or whether they are isolated subpopulations (Langrand and von Bechtolsheim 2009).<p></p>
106007262		distribution	eng	<em>Bernieria apperti</em> is a relatively recently discovered species with a very localised distribution in south-west <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It was known from only two sites: Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park (type locality) and Analavelona Classified Forest, a montane forest 50 km to the west, where it is reported to be common (ZICOMA 1999);  but was observed at a third in 2009<strong></strong> when two birds matching the description of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. apperti </span>were observed 90 km from Analavelona in dry spiny forest at Salary Bay in 2008 (Langrand and von Bechtolsheim 2009). During surveys of Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park in 1996 the species was considered common at Ambiamena and Andranamaitso and rare in Vohibasia Forest (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It was not recorded during extensive ornithological surveys of the northern part of the Mikea Forest (Raherilalao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) but may prove to be more widespread than currently thought.<br/><p></p>
106007262		habitat	eng	This species is found in family groups of 2-8, sometimes associating with flocks of <em>P. madagascariensis</em><strong> </strong>(Langrand 1990). At Zombitse-Vohibasia it is found in the dense underbrush of undisturbed, dry, deciduous forest at about 600-800 m (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Analavelona is a tract of relict evergreen forest on an isolated massif at about 1,300 m (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. The species feeds on small invertebrates gleaned from the leaves and branches of low shrubs and on the ground (Langrand 1990, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Observations suggest that the species tolerates low levels of selective exploitation (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. The sightings at Salary Bay in 2009 were made in low altitude coastal dry spiny forest thicket, raising the possiblity that the species is either a resident with a broader habitat tolerance than previously known, or possibly that it undertakes localised altitudinal movements (Langrand and von Bechtolsheim 2009).<br/><p></p>
106007262		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106007262		threats	eng	Forest clearance for maize and manioc and some charcoal production (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> is the main threat to this species although, owing to conservation efforts, there has been no new clearance at Zombitse-Vohibasia since 1994 (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Parts of the national park have been heavily selectively logged in the past and some areas of forest are exploited for building materials and used for cattle-grazing (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Burning is carried out in some open areas to encourage grass regeneration for grazing, and there is a danger of fire spreading to nearby areas of degraded forest. If fires penetrate and destroy gallery woodland such areas would be at risk of losing surface water and consequently could experience desertification. During surveys in the Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park in 1996, it was noted that the species was encounted most frequently in an area that had a recent history of intensive selective logging, perhaps indicating that it benefits from such habitat alteration, at least temporarily (Mustoe <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Analavelona is not managed as a protected area, but is relatively isolated, and forest clearance is not thought currently to present a threat. <p></p>
106007263		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is known from only three eastern Malagasy IBAs (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including the following protected areas: Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park, Zahamena National Park (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate other populations. Establish habitat requirements and other factors limiting its distribution/population, in order to better predict its likely distribution and population size. Monitor the clearance and degradation of forest within its potential range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007263		distribution	eng	<em>Bernieria tenebrosa</em> is found only in lowland rainforest in eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is apparently extremely scarce (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. The species has been widely misidentified and only recently have the key identification criteria been elucidated (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. The only reliable records in recent years have been from Marojejy (800 m), Masoala (200 m) and Zahamena (500 m), but it is probably present in all large blocks of suitable habitat (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. If many apparently spurious reports from Ranomafana and Perinet-Analamazaotra are discounted, it has the most restricted range of the eastern Malagasy rainforest species (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. Specimens are known from the central-east (Forêt Sihanaka, near Zahamena, and Mantadia [ZICOMA 1999]<strong></strong>). During inventories of protected areas at Andringitra, Anjanaharibe-South, Andohahela and Marojejy, the species has been recorded only once and never mist-netted, despite around 10 months of survey effort and substantial mist-netting effort (ZICOMA 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007263		habitat	eng	This still-mysterious species is found in the understorey of both lowland and mid-altitude (up to 950&#160;m) undisturbed, humid, evergreen forest. It forages for small insects, larvae and small spiders, both on the ground and in low shrubs (Randriamanindry 1995, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. It often occurs with other ground or low-understorey species, and has been observed recently in mixed-species foraging flocks, where there were usually fewer <em>B. tenebrosa</em> than Spectacled Tetraka <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>B. zosterops</em> or Common Tetraka <em>B. madagascariensis </em>(Randriamanindry 1995, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<p></p>
106007263		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007263		threats	eng	Its habitat is being reduced in extent, the principal threat coming from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest (Jenkins 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population (Jenkins 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas (A.F.A. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest will disappear within decades (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007264		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of national parks and other protected areas, including Marojejy, Mantadia, Ranomafana and Andohohela (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.   <p></p>
106007264		distribution	eng	<em>Bernieria cinereiceps</em> is found along the entire length of the eastern rainforest belt in <strong>Madagascar</strong>, being rare or completely absent below 800 m (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Within its high-altitude habitat it is common (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species probably has a relatively small population, given its restricted distribution. <p></p>
106007264		habitat	eng	This species inhabits primary montane forests, being especially abundant at higher elevations (1,400 m-1,800 m), although it appears to be absent from slightly drier forests in rain-shadow (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is not found in disturbed forest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds chiefly in the understorey on small insects gleaned from mossy tree-trunks (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded in November and juveniles have been seen in November-December (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A record of three adults feeding two chicks at a single nest suggests it is a cooperative breeder. Its nest, in which is lays three eggs, is bowl-shaped and made from moss, lined with dry grass and palm fibres, and situated 1-2 m above the ground on a horizontal fork or small branch (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007264		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common in parts of its range.
106007264		threats	eng	Any significant decline or loss of its forest habitat, e.g. through slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, could seriously affect the species.  <p></p>
106007265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be secretive and maybe underestimated (Keith et al. 1992).
106007266		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Taï National Park and periphery habitat (including Haute Dodo and Cavally Forest Reserves) in Côte d'Ivoire is the largest and best-preserved area of Upper Guinea forest (Gartshore <em>et al. </em>1995)<strong></strong>, but management needs to be improved (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The Gola Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone is a protected area, as are the Kangari Hills and the Western Area Peninsular Forest, but the legal protection is not always enforced (Okoni-Williams <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. The species is described as still fairly common in the Oban Hills sector of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria (P. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In Ghana, it occurs in a number of protected areas, including Bia, Ankasa and Kakum national parks, Dadieso Forest Reserve and Boin River Forest Reserve (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor rates of forest clearance across the species's range. Increase the total area of suitable habitat that is protected. Improve the management of, and investment in, protected areas where necessary.<br/><p></p>
106007266		distribution	eng	<em>Bleda eximius</em> is found in the Upper Guinea forests from south-eastern <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (localities include Gola Forest, the Western Area Peninsular Forest and Kangari Hills Forest Reserve [Okoni-Williams <em>et al.</em> 2001]<strong></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (common resident from the coast to the northern border at Voinjama [Gatter 1997]<strong></strong>), <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (Taï National Park [Gartshore <em>et al. </em>1995]<strong></strong>, Yapo Forest, where rare in 1993 [Demey and Fishpool 1994]<strong></strong>, Cavally Forest Reserve, where rarely observed [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>, Mt Nimba and, in 1999, found in the Bossematié area [Waltert <em>et al.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and southern <strong>Ghana</strong> (with a continuous range from Cape Three Points and the Côte d’Ivoire border, north to Bosumkese Hill, east to the Atewa Range and Worobong South Forest Reserves, and south-east to Kakum National Park where it is common; it is also described as abundant in the Western Region [Holbech 1992, 1996]<strong></strong>, e.g. Boi-Tano, Draw River and Krokosua [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>). It vocalises relatively infrequently outside the rainy season (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>, and most observers and fieldworkers visit suitable habitat when the species is less vocal, resulting in underestimates of local abundance (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2010, 2011). The species is suspected to be in decline owing to habitat loss; however, the rate of decline may not be as rapid as once thought, as evidence suggests that it is tolerant of forest degradation, such as caused by logging and road-building (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2009, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007266		habitat	eng	The species's optimal habitat may be closed-canopy lowland forest up to 1,400 m, in Ghana preferring undisturbed, wet evergreen forest (Holbech 1992, 1996)<strong></strong>, and it appears to have more restricted habitat requirements than the Yellow-bearded Greenbul <em>Criniger olivaceus</em><strong> </strong>(H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007). However, in Liberia, it is found in high forest and also mature secondary forest (Gatter 1997), and it shows tolerance to forest degradation, as caused by  logging and road-building, for example (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett  2009, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It forages mainly on the ground in dense understorey vegetation, and is a follower of ant columns (P. Robertson <em>in litt</em>. 1998, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007266		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.
106007266		threats	eng	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and smallholder agriculture (Fauna and Flora International 2000)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture (Fauna and Flora International 2000)<strong></strong>. Overall, there has been a slight decrease recently in the rate of forest loss in the Upper Guinea Region, mostly owing to a decrease in Côte d'Ivoire, where the return of peace may allow the rate to increase again (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Forests on the Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire border, on and near Mt Nimba, have little effective protection and clearance for agriculture, industry and logging is taking place rapidly (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common. The population in Liberia has been estimated as 240,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population in southern Mozambique has been estimated to number over 10,000 birds (Fry and Keith 2004).
106007270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Keith et al. 1992).
106007272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Keith et al. 1992).
106007273		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007274		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Taï National Park and periphery (including Haute Dodo and Cavally Forest Reserves) in Côte d'Ivoire is the largest and best-preserved area of Upper Guinea forest, but management needs improvement (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Sierra Leone Gola Rainforest National Park was officially designated in 2010.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Improve management of Taï National Park and periphery (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out surveys in order to assess the species's population size, once the security situation is conducive. Monitor rates of forest clearance across the species's range. In Taï National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land-use changes outside the park (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Taï National Park and Gola Forest, take action to limit forest clearance and incorporate local people in to development of effective management plan including development of land use regulations, alternative livelihoods, ecotourism and other activities which will limit encroachment into park (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Effectively motivate forest guards to carry out patrols (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007274		distribution	eng	<em>Criniger olivaceus</em> is known from several sites in southeast <strong>Guinea</strong> (L. Fishpool<em> in litt</em>. 2007, 2012, H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>),<strong> Sierra Leone</strong> (areas include Gola Forest where locally common, population 750-1,600 birds, Loma Forest [Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1996b]<strong></strong> and the Kangari Hills [P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998]<strong></strong>), <strong>Liberia </strong>(from the coast to the northern border at Nimba, population c.120,000 pairs [Gatter 1997]<strong></strong>),<strong> Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (Taï National Park where frequently recorded during surveys in 2001-2002 [H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>, Yapo Forest where common [Demey and Fishpool 1994, H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong></strong>, Haute Dodo and Cavally Forest reserves where rarely observed [H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>, Mabi Forest [Waltert <em>et al.</em> in press]<strong></strong>, Mopri and possibly in Mont Peko National Park [H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>), and <strong>Ghana</strong> (rediscovered in the 1980s, and restricted to the wetter evergreen forests of the southwest). In Ghana in particular, the species was found to be more common than originally thought (Holbech 1992, 1996, Ntiamoa-Baidu and Owusu 2001)<strong></strong>. However, some sightings may relate to misidentifications (L. Fishpool<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007274		habitat	eng	It is found in the midstorey of lowland primary forest. In Liberia, it is also known from mature secondary forest, forest-grassland mosaic and gallery forest and is found in the northern mountains up to 800 m (Gatter 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Côte d'Ivoire, it is found in most primary forest in Taï National Park, but is more common in the evergreen forest of Yapo Forest, possibly owing to the greater prevalence of dense understorey and epiphytes (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is mainly insectivorous. <p></p>
106007274		population	eng	The total population is conservatively suspected to number somewhere in the region of 100,000-499,999 individuals based on a population of c.120,000 pairs in Liberia alone.
106007274		threats	eng	The largest remaining area of Upper Guinea forest (43%) is now found in Liberia, where it is under intense pressure, particularly since the end of the civil war in 1996, when there was a sharp increase in commercial logging activities (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large scale deforestation (in 1990 estimated to be c.6% annually) has already taken place in Côte d'Ivoire, particularly since the mid-1970s, and has been encroaching on protected areas (Chatelain <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forests on the Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire border, near Mt Nimba, have little effective protection and clearance for agriculture and logging is taking place rapidly (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The rate of forest loss in the Upper Guinea region appears to have declined slightly in recent years, owing mostly to a decrease in the rate of deforestation in Côte d'Ivoire, which may increase with the return of peace (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Across the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rarer than C. calurus (Keith et al. 1992).
106007276		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys within the range to assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat to safeguard populations against future levels of logging and encroachment. <p></p>
106007276		distribution	eng	<em>Alophoixus finschii</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, in extreme south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> </strong>Sumatra (one record) and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is a little known and seldom recorded species, and is probably scarce and local throughout much of its range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007276		habitat	eng	Most records of this species come from primary evergreen forests in the lowlands, up to 750 m in peninsular Malaysia, 650 m in Sumatra and 900 m on Borneo. It occurs in selectively logged forest and tall secondary growth, but apparently avoids heavily logged areas or younger regrowth. There are records from overgrown plantations and forest edge, although these habitats are perhaps only used when adjacent primary habitats are present.  <p></p>
106007276		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007276		threats	eng	This species is likely to be significantly affected by deforestation, as it occurs primarily in closed-canopy forests in the lowlands. Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). However, the presence of populations in hill forest, as well as logged and secondary habitats, suggests that these threats are not particularly significant at present.  <p></p>
106007277		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range, although rare in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007278		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most parts of its range and very common in southern China and Hainan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007279		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout its range and extremely common in southern Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007280		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common to very common throughout it range, although sometimes uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout Seram (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007283		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Klias Forest Reserve, Sabah (F. Lambert <em>in litt</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, Similajau National Park and Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak), Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks (Kalimantan) and Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve (Sumatra). There is an old record and several unconfirmed recent reports from Kayan-Mentarang National Park (East Kalimantan), whilst there is an old unconfirmed report from Danu Sentarum National Park (West Kalimantan), and a number of confirmed records in 2008-2009 from an area immediately to the south of the park (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Nevertheless, only c.7% of remaining peatswamp-forest is under actual or proposed protection, whilst almost all protected areas containing this habitat continue to be threatened by logging, drainage and development. Attempts have been made to slow the conversion of peatswamp forest on Borneo through legislation and efforts by various organisations (B. van Balen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution, status and ecological specialisation, with a view to compiling an effective conservation strategy. Gazette all pristine peatswamp fragments on Borneo (and some on Sumatra) as protected areas, and restrict use of all remaining degraded peatswamps. Ensure relevant protected areas receive strong management. Impose a moratorium on all peatswamp development, pending survey work and research. <p></p>
106007283		distribution	eng	<em>Setornis criniger</em> is confined to Borneo (including Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Bangka (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally common on Borneo, perhaps rarer in the north and appears always to have been relatively rare and restricted in range on Sumatra. On both islands it is likely to be in steep decline owing to the destruction of its habitat. <p></p>
106007283		habitat	eng	It is strongly associated with nutrient-poor vegetation on acid soils. These include peatswamp (lowland evergreen forest characterised by low tree species diversity and strong adaptation to a fluctuating water-table and heath forest (<em>kerangas</em>, dense, low forest of thin-boled, small-leaved and often sclerophyllous trees). It has also been recorded in abandoned rubber plantations, ridge-top heath forest (to 1,000 m), sometimes tolerating secondary forest, but generally avoiding dryland primary forest.  <p></p>
106007283		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007283		threats	eng	Peatswamp forest on Borneo and Sumatra is now under extreme pressure through logging and agricultural, industrial and residential development, particularly oil palm plantation agriculture (G. Davidson <em>in litt</em>. 2007, B. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. It is rendered more vulnerable by its restriction to coastal lowlands. In addition, recent forest-fires have destroyed vast swathes of primary peatswamp vegetation. Even in protected areas, such as Tanjung Puting National Park, industrial-scale illegal logging is proceeding at sufficient pace that most peatswamp forest is likely to disappear in the next decade.<br/><p></p>
106007284		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as mostly very local and locally rare in India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007286		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007287		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Increase the area of suitable primary forest with protected status and safeguard against on-going clearance. Improve the management of existing protected areas in the species's range. Designate forestry reserves in which only selective logging takes place. Encourage secondary growth and forest restoration in logged areas. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.  <p></p>
106007287		distribution	eng	<em>Iole olivacea</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna and Anamba islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally a common bird in suitable habitats (BirdLife International 2001). <em> <p></p></em>
106007287		habitat	eng	This species is found in broadleaved evergreen forests in lowlands and hills, up to 825 m. It occurs in logged and secondary forests, as well as overgrown plantations and peat-swamp forest. It is most commonly encountered at forest edges or light-gaps within forest.   <p></p>
106007287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although very scarce in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007287		threats	eng	This species's tolerance of secondary and edge habitats suggests that it is not at immediate risk from habitat loss. However, it is inevitably affected by wholesale habitat clearance, which is occurring across large parts of the Sundaic region, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998).  <p></p>
106007288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common throughout the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka and abundant in Goa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007289		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007290		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common or very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007291		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat is protected.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>There is an urgent need to conduct surveys within the species's range to assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the establishment of a protected area on the Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao.  <p></p>
106007291		distribution	eng	<em>Ixos rufigularis</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from around Lake Lanao and the Zamboanga Peninsula, plus Basilan including Malamaui (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although previously described as common in forest and forest edge, recent searches have produced very few sightings, including an almost fruitless search in the Zamboango City watershed. This suggests that it is now uncommon within its restricted range. It appears to be restricted to primary forest or secondary forest with tall trees and is therefore likely to have declined (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<em> <p></p></em>
106007291		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest and forest edge, and is apparently commonest in intact areas of primary forest.  <p></p>
106007291		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007291		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in the Philippines is occurring on a large scale, particularly in the lowlands, as a result of logging and forest clearance for agriculture.  <p></p>
106007292		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Siquijor, the remaining four patches of forest are in state-controlled reserves but the protection afforded in real terms is uncertain. On Tablas (in Romblon province), there is one reserve (the Calatrava-San Andres-San Agustin Watershed Forest Reserve) which offers some protection. The species was rediscovered within the tiny Central Cebu National Park which was declared a Strict Protection Zone in 1996. It is also reported to occur at Alcoy in the south of the island. An education video on the birds of Siquijor has been produced (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate the taxonomic status of the three subspecies as a matter of urgency. On Siquijor, Romblon and Cebu, promote improved management of the existing reserves to prevent further habitat deterioration. Designate further protected areas as appropriate, particularly on Tablas. Promote forest restoration and regeneration on Tablas.<br/><p></p>
106007292		distribution	eng	<em>Ixos siquijorensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs in three subspecific populations on four widely separated islands:<em> cinereiceps</em> on Tablas and Romblon,<em> siquijorensis </em>on Siquijor and<em> monticola</em> on Cebu (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). This fragmented range suggests that it may be an old, relict species. It was formerly common to abundant, but has evidently declined. Fieldwork conducted during the early 1990s only produced records at single sites on Romblon and Tablas, and four sites on Siquijor. However, it was described as numerous wherever suitable habitat remained, and a population of several thousand birds was estimated for Siquijor (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys on Tablas have revealed that it remains fairly common in areas that still retain native forest (A. Pierce<strong> </strong>verbally 2001)<strong></strong>.  Although considered extinct on Cebu for many years it was recently rediscovered at Tabunan (A. Pierce<strong> </strong>verbally 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007292		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, forest edge and secondary growth. It tolerates degraded habitat, but at lower densities, and only when adjacent to forest. <em>I.&#160;s.&#160;monticola</em> may be restricted to hill forest, as it has never been seen in open habitats. <p></p>
106007292		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on information in BirdLife International (2001). This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007292		threats	eng	Despite its tolerance of degraded habitats, deforestation is the principal threat to this species. Interspecific competition with the Philippine Bulbul<em> I. philippinus</em> on Cebu and Yellow-vented Bulbul<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pycnonotus goiavier</span>  on Cebu and Tablas appears be a problem (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation. In 1992, only a few small tracts of degraded cover remained on Tablas. Siquijor retains only four forest patches totalling less than 8 km<sup>2</sup>, and logging and encroachment continue unabated. Cebu has retained just 0.03% (c.15 km<sup>2</sup>) of its original cover, and even the most degraded secondary habitats are scarce.The species is likely to be benefitting from large areas of regenerating forest on Siquijor<br/><p></p>
106007293		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in South Korea and common in the Philippines (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007294		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007295		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of existing protected areas within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007295		distribution	eng	<em>Ixos malaccensis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (vagrant), Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It remains fairly common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106007295		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mature broadleaved evergreen forest in lowlands and foothills, occasionally up to 1,200 m, but generally lower. It is also found in tall secondary forest, forest edge and peatswamp forest.  <p></p>
106007295		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007295		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill and secondary forest.  <p></p>
106007296		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce and local, although locally common in northern Thailand, Laos and Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007297		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007298		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range, although rare or possibly extinct in Bangladesh (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005). The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007299		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in highland areas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007300		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant. The population on Aldabra atoll is estimated as 8,000-16,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007301		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007303		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the small Indian Ocean island of Réunion (to France).
106007303		population	eng	The population is estimated as 41,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007303		threats	eng	Illegal trapping still occurs (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007304		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Black River National Park partly covers its range (Jones and Hartley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also responded well to rehabilitation of native ecosystems in Conservation Management Areas, which has included exclusion of introduced animals and replacement of exotic plants with native species (Safford and Jones 1998, C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct population surveys, assessing distribution in relation to habitat-type and quality (C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue rehabilitation of native forest (R.&#160;Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eventually, translocate birds to Mauritian islets, after rehabilitation of islet ecosystems and trial translocations of captive-reared birds over the next few years (Safford and Jones 1998, C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007304		distribution	eng	<em>Hypsipetes olivaceus</em> is endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, and is widespread at low densities over central and southern parts of the plateau. It was judged to have been reduced to c.200 pairs in the mid-1970s. In 1993, there were estimated to be 280 pairs, with the range and population probably stable since 1975 (Safford 1997c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007304		habitat	eng	It occurs in nearly all native forests, favouring evergreen broadleaved forest (Cheke 1987b, Safford 1997c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also forages in forest margins, degraded forest remnants with exotic trees, secondary scrub and exotic plantations (Safford 1996b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is largely frugivorous but also takes some insects and geckos (Cheke 1987b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests have been found in low bushes (Cheke 1987b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, more recently, 6-9&#160;m up in Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica<strong> </strong></em>(Safford 1996b). Densities are low (rarely over 10&#160;pairs/km<sup>2</sup>), and are highest between Mt Cocotte and Combo (Safford 1997c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and down into lower Bel Ombre (C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This is explained by the presence of wet, evergreen forest (C.&#160;Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007304		population	eng	In 1993, there were estimated to be 280 pairs (=560 mature individuals). This equates to roughly 840 individuals in total.
106007304		threats	eng	Habitat degradation, through invasion by exotic plants, is the major threat in the long term (R.&#160;Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest-predation and competition from introduced rats, crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, <em>P.&#160;jocosus</em> and Common Mynah <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> are also threats. Competition may restrict <em>H.&#160;olivaceus</em> to native forest (Jones 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007305		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to very common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2005), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007306		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The whole of Tillanchong island is uninhabited and protected as a wildlife sanctuary. All the islands in the Nancowry group are designated tribal reserves, which legally prohibits commercial exploitation of natural resources, along with settlement or ownership of land by non-tribal people. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor population size and trends on each island of occurrence. Conduct research into its ecological requirements, and its interactions with Red-whiskered Bulbul. Support proposals to designate the entire Nancowry island group a Biosphere Reserve and establish strict protected areas on the islands of Camorta and Katchall. Control the population of Red-whiskered Bulbul if competition with that species is proven to constitute a threat.  <p></p>
106007306		distribution	eng	<em>Hypsipetes nicobariensis</em> is endemic to the Nancowry island group, part of the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>. It occurs on Camorta, Trinkat, Nancowry, Katchall, Teressa, Bompoka and Tillanchong. It is declining locally, although it remains common in some areas of Katchall. <p></p>
106007306		habitat	eng	It is a sedentary resident, inhabiting primary and secondary forests and forest edge. It also occurs in gardens, coconut and rubber plantations, around human habitation and occasionally grasslands, suggesting it is tolerant of some habitat degradation. It is usually found singly or in pairs, but one recent observation concerned a loose flock of over 100 individuals. <p></p>
106007306		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007306		threats	eng	Clearance and conversion of forests for plantation agriculture (particularly rubber, coconut and cashew cultivation) and infrastructure development (including roads, human settlements and defence establishments) are the most serious long-term threats. Over 6 km<sup>2</sup> of forest have been lost on Katchall to rubber plantations. Competition with the introduced Red-whiskered Bulbul <em>Pycnonotus jocosus</em> may have contributed to its decline, but as yet there is no evidence to confirm this. There is no evidence that it was significantly affected by the 2004 tsunami (R. Sankaran <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007307		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
106007309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and locally moderately common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007313		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the west of its range and scarce in the south and east (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout much of its range, although scarce in Angola (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007317		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007318		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly numerous (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the south of its range and less common towards the north (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007324		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's abundance varies widely across Africa (Urban et al. 1997).
106007326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007329		distribution	eng	This species was described as recently as 1991, and was previously known only from southern Chad, northern Cameroon, north-west Nigeria, northern Côte d'Ivoire (C. Chappuis 1999 per F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt. 2000) and the Gambia (Barlow et al. 1997). However it has recently been demonstrated that the taxon C. ruficeps guinea, whose voice was previously unknown, is conspecific with this species (Dowsett-Lemaire et al 2005). It is therefore now known to also occur in Mali, Togo, Ghana, Niger, Benin, Senegal and Sudan (Dowsett-Lemaire et al 2005).
106007329		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007329		threats	eng	The species is tolerant of habitat degradation.
106007330		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007332		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007334		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Further examine type-material to clarify taxonomic status. Carry out further surveys of potentially suitable habitat within the lower Tana River basin. <p></p>
106007334		distribution	eng	<em>Cisticola restrictus</em> is known from a small number of specimens, all collected in the lower Tana River basin (at Karawa, Garsen, Ijole, Mnazini and Sangole [Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) in eastern <strong>Kenya</strong>, though it may also be found in Somalia. Recent attempts to locate the species in the field have been unsuccessful, and it has not been seen since 1972. Speculation over the validity of the taxon has shifted into rejection, but further examination of the type-material is desirable for a final conclusion.<em> <p></p></em>
106007334		habitat	eng	The species was collected in semi-arid, sandy <em>Acacia</em> bushland from the lowlands to 500 m. <p></p>
106007334		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as data deficient and possibly extinct (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007334		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106007335		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007337		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007342		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its range in the Aberdare Mountains is entirely within the Aberdare National Park. Elsewhere, its habitat is poorly conserved by the protected-area system (Lens <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fieldwork took place in 2000 as part of a project to study the species's altitudinal distribution and the effects of fire in the Aberdare central moorlands (Eshiamwata and Karimi 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its status on the Mau Narok/Molo grasslands and initiate conservation measures there (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate a scheme to monitor its population and distribution. Monitor threats to the species, and collect nest records to assess the danger from trampling (Eshiamwata and Karimi 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the Kinangop Plateau for its presence. Study the species's tolerance of land-use changes (P. Adhiambo<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Work with farmers to change land management practices. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007342		distribution	eng	<em>Cisticola aberdare</em> is found in central <strong>Kenya</strong> where it is locally common in suitable habitat (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> on both sides of the Rift Valley, at Molo, Mau Narok and the Aberdare Mountains. Recent studies confirm the presence of the species in very low numbers at 2,400 m-2,700 m on the Kinangop Plateau, at the base of the Aberdare Mountains (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, P. Adhiambo in litt. 2008). Simple extrapolation of density figures in the Aberdares indicates a population there of c.50,000 birds (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, W. Gatarabirwa <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. In 2000, 1,750 ±60 individuals were estimated at Mau Narok and Molo (P. Adhiambo<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A 2011 survey found the species in fairly good numbers in suitable habitat, with 137 individuals counted within an area of 35.6 ha (c4 birds/ha) (Malaki <em>et al. </em>2011), however the rapid loss of grassland at Mau Narok and Molo, which now covers less than a third of the extent estimated in the late 1990s (P. Adhiambo<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, suggests that the population is experiencing a rapid, ongoing population decline.    <p></p>
106007342		habitat	eng	It inhabits moist highland grassland above 2,300 m (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although in the Aberdares it occurs only on moorland above c.3,000 m. It is often the most abundant cisticola species present (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with a mean density of 3.2 birds/ha in the Aberdares (W. Gatarabirwa <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and overlaps with the closely-related <em>C. robustus</em> in several places, at around 2,300-2,400 m (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Five clutches (four of two eggs and one of one egg) have been found between early March and mid-June (W. Gatarabirwa <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. A nest found on moorland in 2000 was described as a ball of woven soft grass tussocks (<em>Deschampsia flexuosa</em>), lined with the cotton-like seed-head of a thistle species <em>Carduus chamaecephalus</em>, with a side entrance near the top (Eshiamwata and Karimi 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was sandwiched in grass about 30 cm off the ground amongst tough grass tussocks and <em>Alchemilla argyrophylla</em><strong> </strong>(Eshiamwata and Karimi 2003).  <p></p>
106007342		population	eng	Simple extrapolation of density figures in the Aberdares indicates a population there of c.50,000 birds (L. Bennun <I>in litt.</I> 1999, 2000, W. Gatarabirwa <I>in litt.</I> 1999, 2000), thus the population is placed in the range bracket for 50,000-999,999 individuals.
106007342		threats	eng	In the Mau Narok/Molo grasslands, this species is probably threatened by rapid habitat loss and fragmentation due to expanding cultivation and intensified livestock production (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992, Lens <em>et al.</em> 1996, P. Adhiambo<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Many areas of grassland, especially in Mau Narok, are subjected to burning by farmers to improve grazing quality, often repeatedly with the onset of the rainy season, which may destroy grass tussocks used for nesting (P. Adhiambo<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Fires in the dry season (late January to March), possibly started by illegal honey-gatherers, sometimes burn large areas of moorland in the Aberdare National Park, and may be a further threat, given that densities are much lower in recently burned areas (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, W. Gatarabirwa <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. The nests may be vulnerable to damage by livestock and tractors (Eshiamwata and Karimi 2003, P. Adhiambo<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007346		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>If possible, search for the species in climax miombo woodland in north-east Angola and south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Study its ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106007346		distribution	eng	<em>Cisticola melanurus</em> is poorly known in north-east <strong>Angola</strong> from Malanje to western Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul provinces (Dean 2000) (recently in July/August 2010 7.5km southeast of Cacolo [Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011], and in 2005, c.30 km north of Calandula [Sinclair <em>et al</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>) and south-eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> from Gungu in Kwango (Pay Kikwanga) and Shaba (upper Lufupa River and Nasondoye) (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It is generally uncommon but the extent to which it is threatened is unknown.<em> <p></p></em>
106007346		habitat	eng	It occurs in climax miombo woodland where it is found in grassy patches and in the canopy of smaller trees (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and forages in pairs for insects (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and data deficient (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007346		threats	eng	It is not clear to what extent it may be suffering from habitat destruction. <p></p>
106007347		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007348		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007350		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007352		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 230,000-1,100,000 breeding pairs, equating   to 690,000-3,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe   forming &lt;5% of the global range. National population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in   Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007353		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Extensive surveys in 1993, 1999 and 2000 have discovered several of the most important areas for the species (Dymond and Porter 1996, Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.), and these have been incorporated into the conservation zoning plan of the Environmental Protection Council's masterplan for the development of the archipelago (Zandri 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveying coastal and lowland habitats to establish the species's range and population, especially in areas where optimal habitat remains (Dymond and Porter 1996). Clarify the status of the montane population. Continue to identify and monitor key sites and ensure that these are incorporated in the island's Conservation Zoning Plan. Carry out impact assessments for any development projects proposed at key sites. Investigate the effect of goats on population density and breeding success.   <p></p>
106007353		distribution	eng	<em>Cisticola haesitatus</em> is endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Socotra, <strong>Yemen</strong>. During extensive surveys of the island in 1993, 1999 and 2000, the species was found to be widely but patchily distributed in the lowlands, along the coast and inland. However, it was relatively common where it occurred, with up to 53 birds recorded per locality, and transect-generated population density estimates of c.35-45 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (depending on the survey season/year) in occupied areas (Davidson 1996, Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.). An additional 1,000 pairs were discovered at higher altitude on the Plateau of Ma'la above Qalancia during February 2004 (O. Al-Sagheir <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, putting the total population estimate at around 4,000 pairs (R. Porter verbally 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is no evidence for recent or current population declines (Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <p></p>
106007353		habitat	eng	The majority of breeding localities are on plains below 100 m<strong><sup>&#160;</sup></strong> (Dymond and Porter 1996, Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mainly along the coastal periphery, apart from the recently discovered population on the Plateau of Ma'la (O. Al-Sagheir <em>in litt</em>. 2004, R. Porter verbally 2004) and one record from 850 m in the Hajhir (Hagghier) mountains (Forbes-Watson 1964)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In recent surveys it has been found solely in low, dense dwarf-shrubland on silt or sand, reaching its highest densities along the coastal zone in halophytic vegetation (Dymond and Porter 1996, Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Scattered larger shrubs of <em>Tamarix</em> and <em>Suaeda</em> are sometimes present. The distribution of such habitat on Socotra appears to determine the species's distribution, individual habitat patches being small and disjunct, and the total extent of suitable habitat is likely to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. The only data on breeding is that a family group has been observed in mid-April (Forbes-Watson 1964)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007353		population	eng	An additional 1,000 pairs were discovered in the Plateau of Ma'la above Qalancia during February 2004 (Omar Al-Sagheir <I>in litt.</I> 2004). The discovery of this new population puts the total population at around 4,000 pairs (Richard Porter verbally 2004), or 8,000 mature individuals, equivalent to about 12,000 individuals in total.
106007353		threats	eng	No threats are known currently. In the longer term, land development in the coastal zone and on inland plains (e.g. for infrastructure or agriculture) would pose a threat, if sited incorrectly, through destruction and degradation of the species's habitat. The species's habitat is grazed by goats; it is not known if this is limiting the extent of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106007354		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout Madagascar and abundant on Cosmoledo and Astove atolls (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007355		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common with up to 1 male per hectare recorded in the Western Cape, South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007357		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon but becoming locally common in the Congo, Uganda and northern Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007358		distribution	eng	This species is known from north-east Angola in south Lunda (Missão de Luz) and north Moxico (Lakes Cameia and Dilolo), southern Democratic Republic of Congo in north-west Kasai (near Banda) and Shaba (Dilolo and Kamina to Upemba and the Marungu Highlands) and north-west Zambia in Mwinilunga and Balovale (Minyanya Plain).
106007358		habitat	eng	The species is found in open, short, seasonally wet grasslands and watershed plains (Urban et al. 1997).
106007358		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007359		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007361		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Baker 1997).
106007363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon and local (Baker 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Korea (Brazil 2009).
106007364		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been the subject of monitoring at Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (Rajan Kumar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and it occurs in a number of other protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution, local abundance, total population size and population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, with a particular focus on levels of tolerance of secondary habitats in subspecies <em>cinerascens</em>. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. Conduct further research to understand the taxonomy of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nepalicola</span>.<p></p>
106007364		distribution	eng	<em>Prinia burnesii</em> appears to have three disjunct populations, with subspecies <em>burnesii</em> in the plains of the Indus in <strong>Pakistan</strong> and adjacent north-west <strong>India</strong><em></em>, subspecies <em>cinerascens </em>in the plains of the Brahmaputra River, Assam and western Bihar in north-east India and adjacent northern <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(with possibly no records in Bangladesh since the early 1970s [P. Thompson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011]), and subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nepalicola</span>, discovered in April 2005 and restricted to islands in the Koshi River in Nepal, although birds in Bihar (India) may also belong to this subspecies<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(T. Inskipp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. The population in Pakistan and north-west India is locally common or abundant in its restricted habitat in the Punjab and northern Sind, much less so in southern Sind, and the eastern population was also formerly locally common, but with few recent published records. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cinerascens</span> now appears to be very localised or present at very low densities along the Brahmaputra River, perhaps owing to specialised habitat requirements (J. Eaton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, R, Kumar Das <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The population in Nepal (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nepalicola</span>) was estimated at c.500 birds in 2007, although flooding in 2008 may have impacted its habitat (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<em><br/><p></p></em>
106007364		habitat	eng	This species is found in long grasslands, sometimes where mixed with acacias and tamarisks, mainly in the vicinity of large rivers and their tributaries and in swamps. In Pakistan and north-west India, subspecies <em>burnseii</em> is able to utilise some agricultural habitats, occurring around lakes, irrigation channels and watercourses. The spread of these habitats has apparently allowed it to colonise new areas. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cinerascens</span> may have  very specialised habitat requirements that result in a very localised  distribution or low population densities (J. Eaton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, R. K. Das <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In Nepal, subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nepalicola</span> is known to inhabit grassland patches of about five years of age, and is absent from heavily disturbed grasslands (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
106007364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally numerous in the Indus floodplain in Pakistan and locally frequent in parts of India (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), while it is evidently very scarce and localised in other areas (e.g. J. Eaton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, R. K. Das <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).
106007364		threats	eng	The destruction and modification of grassland and wetland habitats for agricultural development is on-going throughout the species's range. The effects of these changes are unclear - populations in Pakistan and India (<em>burnesii</em>) are apparently able to tolerate some agricultural habitats. The population in Bangladesh and north-east India is poorly known and seldom recorded, and may be less tolerant of habitat change. There are unlikely to be any patches of suitable year-round habitat remaining in Bangladesh, as most floodplain grasslands are harvested before complete innundation during the monsoon (P. Thompson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Monitored birds near Dibru-Saikhowa National Park suffered almost total habitat loss in 2010 when local villagers cleared grassland for agriculture, and birds have since been seen in open grassland nearby (R. K. Das <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It is probably also threatened by the impacts of livestock grazing in reserves such as Dibru Saikhowa (J. Eaton <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The known population of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nepalicola </span>may have suffered habitat alteration caused by severe monsoon flooding in 2008 (C. Inskipp and H. Baral<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106007365		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally numerous throughout most of its range except for Afghanistan, where it is little known (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006). National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007366		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon (Baker 1997).
106007367		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but local (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007368		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from Corbett Tiger Reserve, India, Chitwan and Parsa Wildlife Reserves, Nepal and Manas National Park, Bhutan. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations in suitable habitat throughout the species's range to establish population trends. Survey  areas of suitable habitat in intervening areas between known sites in order to clarify the distribution and population size. Extend, upgrade and link existing protected areas to conserve remaining tracts of suitable habitat. Control livestock-grazing, degradation of forest and encroachment in protected areas. Conduct widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland and forest in and around protected areas. <p></p>
106007368		distribution	eng	<em>Prinia cinereocapilla</em> has been recorded in the terai of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam, <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001), and was recently also found at Sukhna, along the Haryana-Punjab state border (Singh 2006) and at Pangot, Nanital and Dehradun in Uttarakhand (Sondhi 2011, A. P. Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<em></em> In <strong>Nepal</strong>, it formerly occurred from Kanchanpur district in the west to Ilam district in the east, but it has declined and is now confined to three protected areas: Chitwan National Park, and in adjoining areas of Parsa Wildlife Reserve and Bardia National Park and buffer zone (H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Baral (2001) found it fairly common in Chitwan National Park and in adjoining areas of Parsa Wildlife Reserve. The Nepalese population is currently estimated at between 950-2,375 individuals (H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It is also known locally from <strong>Bhutan</strong>, where it is considered rare. <p></p>
106007368		habitat	eng	It primarily inhabits grassland with scrubby undergrowth, scattered trees and shrubs, particularly grasslands dominated by <em>Themeda</em> species, which typically occur close to Sal forests (Baral 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in open forest and secondary growth, being more arboreal than other species of its genus. It is presumably resident from the lowlands up to 1,350 m, apparently breeding around June, although no confirmed nest has been reported. <p></p>
106007368		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106007368		threats	eng	The key threat is the loss of shrubby grasslands and open forests in the terai through conversion to agriculture, collection of fuelwood, overgrazing of livestock, and burning and harvesting of grass for thatch. As it seems to occur naturally at low densities throughout much of its range the deleterious effects of habitat fragmentation may be more pronounced. In Chitwan National Park it is threatened by the invasive alien <span style="font-style: italic;">Mikania micrantha </span>which can smother grasslands (H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<strong></strong><p></p>
106007369		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007371		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007372		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,000-4,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000-12,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106007373		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally quite common in India and uncommon and very localised in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007374		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common on Java and Bali and not uncommon on Sumatra (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).
106007375		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007376		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007377		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).
106007379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007380		distribution	eng	The species has been found in north-west Senegal, at Lake Guier, Parc National des Oiseaux de Djoudj and the inundation zone of the Senegal River delta (Urban et al. 1997), Niger along the Niger River (although its precise distribution here is unclear (J. Brouwer in litt. 1999)) and in the south-east, possibly also occcurring along the Komadougou Yobé River near Lake Chad, Mali, Chad, at N'Djamena, the shore of Lake Chad and the lower Chari River (Urban et al. 1997), and northern Cameroon, but it is likely to occur throughout the contact area between the Sahelian and Sudanese biogeographic zones, from Senegal to Ethiopia.
106007380		habitat	eng	The species is found in riverine and swamp vegetation, by permanent water, ponds and old cultivation (Urban et al. 1997), and does not appear to be restricted to primary streamside vegetation (Robertson et al. 1998). In Senegal it occurs in dense, thornless Tamarix senegalensis shrubs 3-4 m high on humid salt soils, and occasionally in reeds but avoiding dense reed-beds (Urban et al. 1997).
106007380		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007380		threats	eng	The species is not believed to be facing any serious threats.
106007381		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007382		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007384		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Loma and Tingi Mountains are both protected areas, but there is little enforcement of the regulations (Okoni-Williams 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The forests on Mt Nimba and Pic de Fon are technically protected in strict reserves in Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire, but there are plans for development of iron ore mines (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Additional ornithological surveys of Pic De Fon funded by the mining company were scheduled to start in late November 2007 (R. Demey <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest on the Liberian side of Mt Nimba is unprotected.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys, and include unstudied sites near Mt Nimba and Pic de Fon, particularly Mt Bero and the Simandou range (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate a monitoring programme. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation across the species's range. Work with mining companies to mitigate the effects of their activities (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007384		distribution	eng	<em>Prinia leontica</em> occurs in <strong>Guinea</strong> (Mt Nimba [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997]<strong></strong>, Pic de Fon [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>, Dalaba and probably elsewhere in the Fouta Djalon massif [Barlow <em>et al.</em> 2006]<strong></strong>, Pic de Tibé and Mt Tétini [R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009]), north-eastern <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (including Loma Mountains and Tingi Hills [Okoni-Williams 2001]<strong></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (recently described as a common, but local resident restricted to Mt Nimba, also occurring in other ranges of northern Nimba County, e.g. Mts Kitoma and Bele, and probably Mt Wuteve [Gatter 1997]<strong></strong>) and western <strong>Côte d'Ivoire </strong>(Man, Sipilou and possibly Mt Nimba [Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997]<strong></strong>). Recent fieldwork has revealed it to be extremely local and uncommon (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. A pair in breeding condition near Dalaba (Guinea) in October 1999 constituted the first breeding record for the species (Barlow <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. A total of just 35-40 pairs has been estimated at Pic de Fon, with perhaps 20-30 pairs at Pic de Tibé (R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).<p></p>
106007384		habitat	eng	It inhabits thickets bordering streams, mountain gallery forests (apparently being commonest in mountain ravines), forest which has been disturbed by treefalls and fire, and natural forest edge between 700-1,600 m (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong>. Surveys in Guinea found it invariably occurred in the transition zone between submontane forest and submontane grassland, and to a lesser degree in more or less open areas within submontane forest that had similar vegetation  (R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).  It occurs at the upper forest edge on Mt Nimba, where the forest has become fragmented as a result of mining activities. It feeds on insects (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.  Territory size appears to be variable: although the species has been found in relatively small forest patches of c.1–1.5 ha), larger patches did not necessarily hold more than one pair (R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). The species usually occurs in pairs or small groups (presumably family parties) of three to four birds (R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). It normally keeps within dense vegetation, restlessly foraging low down and occasionally perching in the open (R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009). The nest has never been found.<br/><p></p>
106007384		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007384		threats	eng	Mining for iron ore is the greatest and most urgent threat to this species, as two sites (Mont Nimba and Pic de Fon), which probably hold the largest area of remaining habitat, are under imminent threat from such mining (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007, R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Shifting cultivation, small scale logging and overgrazing by cattle in the forest patches appears to be a threat at Mt Tétini, and the latter threats are very likely also to occur in the Fouta Djalon, a region which supports a dense human population (R. Demey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).The Liberian side of Mount Nimba was destroyed by mining prior to the civil war and plans are being developed to rehabilitate the railway to Mt Nimba to enable extraction of iron ore from the Guinea side. This would also facilitate export of iron ore from the Pic de Fon mine (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The largest remaining area of Upper Guinea forest (43%) is now found in Liberia, where it is under intense pressure, particularly since the end of the civil war in 1996, when there was a sharp increase in commercial logging activities (Anon. 2000)<strong></strong>. The largest remaining forest blocks in Liberia are being opened up by logging roads, and consequent human settlement and agriculture, and are becoming increasingly fragmented (Gatter 1997, Robinson and Suter 1999)<strong></strong>. Large-scale deforestation (in 1990 estimated to be c.6% annually) has already taken place in Côte d'Ivoire, particularly since the mid-1970s, and is now encroaching on protected areas (Chatelain <em>et al. </em>1996)<strong></strong>. Similarly, agricultural encroachment and wood-cutting in the Loma Mountains Reserve, Sierra Leone, is currently moderate, but may intensify and there is no clear reserve boundary (Okoni-Williams 2001)<strong></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong></strong>.<br/><p>&#160;</p>  <br/><p></p>
106007385		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon with ne group per 15 hectares recorded in Gabon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007391		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007392		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007393		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in south-west Cameroon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007394		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although uncommon in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007395		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007398		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Forest Department is now safeguarding the remaining forest fragments of the Taita Hills. An international collaborative research project is ongoing and includes a large ornithological component, which aims to provide the necessary ecological data to plan conservation policies for this and other restricted-range bird species in the area (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The Taita Hills have been designated as an IBA and Nature Kenya are committed to conserving the area. Recent conservation work in the Taita Hills has resulted in the reduced attrition of indigenous forests, and with plans to carry out reforestation and connect forest patches, there is optimism that the habitat will improve. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme for this species and Taita Thrush, the following actions were planned (BirdLife International 2008)<strong></strong>: 1. Tree nurseries to be established by local community-led Environmental Committees. Indigenous trees will be used to restore degraded habitat and enhance the connectivity of scattered forest fragments, whilst on adjacent agricultural land fast-growing non-native species will be planted to provide a buffer zone. 2. Income-generating activities including bee-keeping and butterfly-rearing have been initiated and farmers have been educated in environmentally responsible agriculture practices. 3. Data from the first in-depth study on the Taita Apalis is being analysed and should provide valuable insights into the ecology of the species, aiding effective conservation. 4. Nature Kenya has initiated the development of local capacity through catalyzing the formation of a Site Support Group (SSG), which aims to enable local people to constructively engage in conservation of the IBA. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology and continue to monitor its population size (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Initiate an outreach programme to local communities, in particular to discuss the benefits of conserving the remaining forests (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Draw up management plans based on the results of the ongoing ecological surveys, in close conjunction with the Forest Department and local communities (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Remove non-native trees from within indigenous forest and continue to reforest cleared areas with native trees (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue sustainable forest-use schemes based on ecotourism and the harvest of forest products (Brooks 1997, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Estimate the species's population trend and, if a severe decline is confirmed, carry out research into the possible causes. Evaluate the possibility of strentghening the very small Chawia population with translocated individuals (L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Protect the currently ungazetted Msidunji forest (L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).    <p></p>
106007398		distribution	eng	<p>This species is now restricted to a small number of forest fragments in the Dabida and Mbololo massifs, Taita Hills, <strong>Kenya</strong> (Samba <em>in litt</em>. 1997). Surveys in 1996 found the species only in Ngangao (120 ha), Chawia (86 ha), Fururu (8 ha) and Vuria (1 ha) forest fragments (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1998). Analysis of unlimited point count data collected in 2001 suggests that the global population numbered 310-654 individuals (Borghesio <em>et al</em>. 2010). The same surveys found it occurred at much lower density in Chawia than in Ngangao and Vuria (Samba <em>in litt</em>. 1997, Borghesio <em>et al</em>. 2010). Surveys in 2009-2011 located the species on the Mbololo massif (200 ha of forest remaining), and at Fururu and Yale (16 ha of indigenous forest with a 98 ha plantation), as well as at Ngangao, Chawia and Vuria. Moreover, one small subpopulation of the species was discovered in 2011 in Msidunji (8 ha), a previously unmapped forest fragment (L. Borghesio <em>in litt. </em>2012). Data collected during surveys in 2009, 2010 and 2011 strongly suggest that the species has undergone a severe decline since 2001, with the population estimate now preliminarily put at 100-150 individuals including the newly discovered Msidunji population (Githiru and Borghesio 2010, BirdLife International 2010, L. Borghesio<em> in litt</em>. 2012). The reasons for the apparent decline are uncertain, as illegal logging and disturbance have been significantly reduced, although a serious drought in 2009 may have been a factor.</p><p></p>
106007398		habitat	eng	The species inhabits the understorey of montane forest, favouring gaps and edges with thick undergrowth, where it gleans insects from vegetation mainly between 0-2 m above ground (Samba <em>in litt</em>. 1997, M. Githiru <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It shows a preference for areas with a high cover of climbers and, to a lesser extent, of <em>Dracaena</em>, although in general the species's occurrence in forest fragments shows only a weak relationship with habitat characteristics such as structure and floristics (Borghesio <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The high frequency of this species in the disturbed, scrub-like vegetation of Vuria suggests that it is tolerant of wood-cutting and disturbance by humans (Borghesio <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It normally moves singly or in pairs (rarely in small family parties of 3 to 4 individuals), searching leaves, twigs, branches and tree-trunks, sometimes descending to the ground and flycatching, feeding on small invertebrates and occasionally berries and seeds (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997, M. Githiru <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is territorial, with a clutch-size of 2-4 (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007398		population	eng	<p>Analysis of data from unlimited distance point counts carried out in 2001 suggests that the total population numbered 310-654 individuals (Borghesio <em>et al.</em> 2010), roughly equating to 210-430 mature individuals, which is the estimate used here; however, surveys conducted in 2009-2011 suggest that a severe decline has recently taken place, and that the population may now number only 100-150 individuals (BirdLife International 2010, L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Further study and analyses are required to confirm the population trend and new population estimate. </p>
106007398		threats	eng	Most of the original forest in the Taita Hills has been cleared for cultivation or reforested with non-native, timber-tree species, and the remaining tiny area is under serious threat (Urban <em>et al</em>. 1997, Brooks <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Lack of clear boundary demarcations for some protected forest fragments may compromise conservation efforts. Wildfires have also been recorded as one of the threats to the forest fragment at Vuria, and a serious drought in 2009 may have been a factor in the apparent recent population crash. Nest predation in the Taita hills may be high due to edge effects compounded by the small size of forest fragments (Spanhove <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), which may also be affecting the species. Remaining forest fragments have been reasonably well protected and habitat loss is unlikely to have caused recent declines. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007399		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mt Namuli is one of the most important sites for bird conservation in Mozambique, but no conservation measures are in place yet. If access to the area improves, it is a potential site for ecotourism-based conservation (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish and enforce formal protection from commercial logging for forest areas on Mt Namuli, including the more remote southern forest as a core wilderness area (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the possibility of an ecotourism-based conservation programme involving local people for the Ukalini Forest area (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct longer-term ecological studies on the species. <p></p>
106007399		distribution	eng	<em>Apalis lynesi</em> is known from the Namuli and Mabu massifs, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, where it was common on Mt Namuli (the main peak) in 1932 (Vincent 1933-1935)<strong></strong>. Mt Namuli was not surveyed again by ornithologists until 1998, when a one-week survey estimated this species's total population at more than 5,000 pairs, extrapolating from point-counts that found local densities in excess of 5 pairs/ha (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999, P. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. A more recent survey considered that this estimate appears excessive, and a density of around 5 pairs/10ha in continuous forest was considered a minimum, giving a population estimate of at least 600-700 pairs (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). Longer-term, larger-scale population studies in Malawi have found much lower densities of the related<em> A. thoracica</em><strong> </strong>(Dowsett-Lemaire 1983, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The population at Mount Mabu is considered to number perhaps a few dozen pairs (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). <br/><p></p>
106007399		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary forest, woodland, remnant forest patches and secondary regrowth, principally along edge habitat and in the lower mid-stratum, occasionally in the canopy (V. Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It moves in pairs or small family parties of 4-6, searching leaves, twigs, branches and tree-trunks, often descending to the ground and frequently fly-catching, feeding on small invertebrates and occasionally berries and seeds (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is territorial, building a domed nest of moss, sited one metre or more above ground (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only breeding record is from late November (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> - <em>A. thoracica</em> breeds during October-March and this species is probably similar. <p></p>
106007399		population	eng	A one-week survey of Mt Namuli in 1998 estimated this species's total population at more than 5,000 pairs (P. Ryan <I>in litt.</I> 2000), or 10,000 mature individuals. Thus it is best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007399		threats	eng	Forests above 1,400 m on Mt Namuli are, at present, largely intact, but the slopes lower down have mostly been cleared for small-holder agriculture (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ability of this species to persist in even small areas of forest and in secondary growth means that forest degradation is unlikely to threaten it in the immediate future. However, a road to the area, which could allow access for trucks and lead to commercial logging, is currently being improved (V. Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007400		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).
106007401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007402		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Tanzania, conservation action in the Uluguru Mountains is aiming to assist local initiatives and increase the involvement of local communities in forest management (Buckley and Matilya 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Udzungwa Mountains National Park is supported by a community forestry programme. Several other parts of its range in the Udzungwas are protected in forest reserves, and participatory forest management activities are supported at several sites, although pressure on some forest patches continues to increase (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Kenya, some lower Tana river forests, where this species may still occur, are part of a major conservation programme. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Initiate a campaign in Malawi of land reform and conservation of water resources through the maintenance of remaining forest reserves (M. Dyer <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the lower Tana river forests to clarify whether it still occurs there. Assess its status on Mt Chiperone (V. Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct further surveys on Mt Namuli to determine the exact location of the main population there (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a programme to monitor its population and habitat on a regular basis in Tanzanian and Malawian forests.  <p></p>
106007402		distribution	eng	<em>Apalis chariessa</em> has a disjunct range in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kenya </span>(possibly extinct), <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong> and <strong>Mozambique</strong>. In Kenya, the nominate subspecies is known only from the lower Tana river, but has not been seen since 1961 (Butynski 1994, L. Bennun <em>in litt</em> 1999, Oyugi and Amutete 1999)<strong></strong>. In Tanzania, subspecies <em>macphersoni</em> is found in the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains, where a density of 17 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> was recorded at one site, otherwise being uncommon to relatively common at other sites (Svendsen and Hansen 1995, Butynski 2003)<strong></strong>. The Udzungwas hold the largest population of the species, occurring at nine localities, with a best guess of 'a couple of thousand' individuals (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. This race also occurs in a small area of forest on Mt Chiperone in Mozambique (Benson 1950)<strong></strong>, as well as at nine main sites in south-eastern Malawi (500-1,550 m), where the total population was c.100 pairs in 1983 (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989)<strong></strong>, but has certainly declined since then (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. At Mt Namuli, the species is restricted to strips of riparian forest on the lower slopes (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. It is very rare on Mt Mulanje, with two records on the southern slopes at 1,000 m and 1,300 m in 2006 (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007402		habitat	eng	This is a leaf- and twig-gleaning insectivore of the forest canopy and edge. It is most frequent in tall, wet, luxuriant forest, generally below 1,600 m (Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but up to 2,000 m (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It inhabits forest dominated by <em>Albizia</em> and <em>Newtonia</em> spp., being most abundant on the edges of forest or in riparian strips, and avoiding substantial blocks of primary forest (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is often seen feeding in <em>Albizia</em> trees, and has been observed to forage almost exclusively in the canopy up to 35 m above the ground, but on a few occasions, has been seen down to 3-4 m in light gaps (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007402		population	eng	Forests in the Udzungwas contain the largest population of the species, with a best guess of 'a couple of thousand individuals'. In Malawi, the population is thought to be around 100 individuals or more (L. Dinesen <I>in litt</I>. 2007), in Mozambique the species only occupies a small area of forest, and in Kenya it may be extinct. In light of this information, the species is placed in the range band for 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007402		threats	eng	The lower Tana river forests are threatened by encroachment for agriculture and unsustainable tree-felling for poles and canoes (L. Bennun <em>in litt</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its population in south-eastern Malawi is under severe threat, with forest clearance continuing at all sites, there will soon be very little habitat remaining (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> outside some small patches on private tea-estates (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest on Mt Chiperone is untouched at present, but clearance for small-scale agriculture and logging is likely to occur in the near future (V. Parker <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Udzungwas, several forest fragments are under increasing pressure, although the species's survival is not immediately threatened in this area (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No protection measures are planned for the habitat occupied by the species on Mt Namuli, and it is expected to disappear from the area (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007403		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local and uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).
106007404		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007405		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007407		population	eng	The populations of this species are crudely estimated to number more than 10,000 individuals in southern Mozambique, 1,000 in Swaziland, in excess of 7,000 in KwaZulu-Natal and 4,750 in the north-eastern Kruger National Park, South Africa.
106007408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007411		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Cameroon, where recent survey work has found its overall range to be more extensive than previously thought, occurring at more than 100 sites (Bobo et al. 2001). It apparently occurs in two populations: in the west extending from Dschang, north to between Batibo and Bali, and south to Tonga (though it has recently been found on Mt Mbam (Njabo and Languy 2000) and in the Mbam and Djerem National Park (Bobo and Languy 2000), West Province, which extends this population further eastwards); and in the east extending from Matsari (south of Yoko), up through the Adamawa Plateau (where recent survey work found it not uncommon) to Tchabal Gandaba in the north-west (Bobo et al. 2001). The area between the two populations corresponds to an area of lowland forest (500-700 m) where the species is replaced by Buff-throated Apalis A. rufogularis (Bobo et al. 2001). Its range in the east may extend into the Central African Republic (Bobo et al. 2001).
106007411		habitat	eng	The species is found from 750-2,050 m (Bobo et al. 2001), where its preferred habitat is gallery forest, typically narrow belts of 10-15 m high trees. It is also found in secondary growth and isolated trees near forest, riverine thickets and forest relicts in farmland (Urban et al. 1997), and in degraded habitat, including farmland dominated by eucalyptus, avocado and mango trees with maize cultivated beneath (Bobo et al. 2001).
106007411		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare (Urban et al. 1997).
106007412		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).
106007415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007416		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at least locally (Urban et al. 1997).
106007417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007418		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007420		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Serengeti National Park now appears to hold the bulk of the species's Tanzanian population (Shaw 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has also been recorded from Maswa Game Reserve (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Tarangire National Park (P. Shaw <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  In Uganda it occurs in Kidepo National Park. Aside from surveys carried out in Tanzania in 2003 (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and 2005-2006 (Shaw 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, there have been no conservation or research programmes specifically targeting this species or its habitat. Surveys in Uganda are difficult because of security problems in the north-east. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>When feasible, determine its status in Uganda, initially by surveying sites occupied in the past (P. Shaw <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Serengeti National Park maintain conditions likely to promote the continued expansion of <em>Acacia </em>woodland, i.e. high grazing pressure and controlled burning, which limits the frequency of damaging 'hot burns', and low browsing pressure on <em>Acacia</em> seedlings (Shaw 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the population size and distribution in Maswa and Grumeti Game Reserves (Shaw 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine whether suitable habitat remains within the area separating the Wembere Steppe from the Serengeti ecosystem (particularly the Yaeda Valley), providing a potential habitat corridor linking the two apalis populations (P. Shaw <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the rate and pattern of change in scrub cover bordering the Wembere Steppe (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote the retention and regeneration of <em>A. drepanolobium</em> cover in the Wembere Steppe, through advocacy and/or the provision of incentives to subsistence farmers (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Kenya conduct a survey in the Masai Mara National Reserve and adjoining group ranches (P. Shaw <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify ecological factors limiting the species's range, which is much less extensive than that of its main habitat (P. Shaw <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007420		distribution	eng	<em>Apalis karamojae</em> occurs mainly in north-east <strong>Uganda</strong> and northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. An individual was recorded in southern <strong>Kenya</strong> in August 2004, north of the Masai Mara, between Narok and Sekenani (Boy 2004, Shaw 2007)<strong></strong>, 105 km north-east of the nearest known Tanzanian location. Up to two pairs have since been recorded several times at the same site (P. Shaw <em>in litt.</em> 2005, 2006, 2007, Shaw 2007)<strong></strong>. In Uganda, the nominate subspecies (Stuart and Collar 1986)<strong></strong> is known from four sites: Kanatorok (only one bird was seen during survey work in 1998 [Rossouw 2001]<strong></strong>), Mt Moroto, Mt Kamalinga (Mt Napak), and Mt Kadam (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It could not be found at a fifth known site, Napianyenya, in August 1996 (H. J. Rainey verbally 1999, Rainey undated)<strong></strong>. During the 1960s the subspecies <em>stronachi</em><strong> </strong>(Stuart and Collar 1986) was known from at least four sites in Tanzania, all of them in, or near to, the Wembere Steppe: at Ngongoro, Itumba, Ndala, and between Nzega and Igunga. A survey in 2003 showed that the species's range in and adjacent to the Wembere Steppe was less extensive than had been assumed, with records spanning an area of 102 km north-south by 53 km east-west (Shaw and Mungaya 2006)<strong></strong>. Since 1993 (and possibly as early as 1983) the species has also been recorded in the Serengeti ecosystem, initially near to Ndutu (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, Moru Kopjes and the edge of Maswa Game Reserve (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Since 2000 the species became increasingly widespread in the Western Corridor of Serengeti National Park, which now appears to be its main Tanzanian stronghold (Shaw 2007)<strong></strong>. Records from the Serengeti during 1993-2007 spanned 123 km north-south by 123 km east-west (Shaw 2007)<strong></strong>, but there are indications that the range there may now have started to decline following recent reductions in the density and survival of its preferred <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> woodland in the northern Serengeti (Shaw 2009). There is also a single record from Tarangire National Park (P. Shaw <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007420		habitat	eng	In Tanzania the species is encountered almost exclusively in <em>Acacia drepanolobium </em>and <em>A. seyal,</em>50% of individuals in the Wembere Steppe being found in the tallest, densest stands of <em>A. drepanolobium</em>, which accounted for less than 6% of the study area (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shaw and Mungaya 2006)<strong></strong>. Even in extensive patches of <em>A. drepanolobium</em> the population density was low: c.3-7 pairs km<sup>-2</sup> (Shaw and Mungaya 2006)<strong></strong>. Suitable habitat usually occurs in riverine areas, along seasonal watercourses and in seasonally inundated land. The species's distribution and abundance in Serengeti National Park has increased since the early 1990s, perhaps owing to vegetation changes associated with high grazing pressure, following an increase in wildebeest numbers in the 1970s (reducing the volume of combustible dry grass, thus limiting the damage caused by 'hot burns'), and reduced browsing pressure on <em>Acacia </em>seedlings, following a decline in the elephant population since the 1980s (Shaw 2007)<strong></strong>. The species forages in small family parties, with juveniles accounting for 18% of birds encountered in the Wembere Steppe in July (Shaw and Mungaya 2006)<strong></strong>. It occasionally forages in mixed-species flocks (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, searching for food mainly at a height of 1.5-2.5 m in <em>A. drepanolobium</em> trees over 2 m high (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shaw and Mungaya 2006)<strong></strong>. It forages for invertebrate prey by gleaning and sally-gleaning from pseudo-galls, spines and leaves (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shaw and Mungaya 2006)<strong></strong>. Its feeding and breeding ecology are largely unknown. So far it has been observed within an altitudinal range of 1,050-1,580 m (P. Shaw <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007420		population	eng	Surveys of the Wembere Steppe and Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania suggest a total population in the range 300-1,500 birds (P. Shaw <I>in litt.</I> 2007). No estimates are available for the Ugandan population. The preliminary estimate of 10,000-19,999 individuals is retained pending further information. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106007420		threats	eng	In Tanzania, it is at risk from habitat loss linked to an expanding human population, and because much of its restricted range lies outside protected areas. The area between the Serengeti ecosystem and the Wembere Steppe is now under great pressure from pastoralists and farmers, and is thought to have retained little suitable habitat, inhibiting exchange between the two areas. In the Wembere Steppe, <em>A. drepanolobium</em> is cleared for cultivation, cut and pruned for firewood and hedging material, browsed by goats and trampled by cattle, all of which limits regeneration, as does incidental burning from grass fires set to improve grazing quality (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. These pressures are predicted to intensify as human and livestock populations increase (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The human population in districts encompassing the Wembere Steppe increased by 2.2-3.7% per year between 1978 and 2002, and in Igunga District, where bulk of the species's Wembere population resides, the human population increased by 4.3% per year between 1988 and 2002 (Shaw <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Increasing cultivation and livestock farming may also be threatening the species in Uganda (H. J. Rainey verbally 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1996, it was noted that large amounts of cultivation and wood-cutting were threatening to reduce potential habitat for the species in the Mt Kadam region, and evidence of the over-grazing of trees and bushes was observed at Napianyenya (Rainey undated)<strong></strong>. Although the species appears to have benefited from changes in ungulate populations in the Serengeti, which have influenced burning intensity and hence tree regeneration, its range now appears to be declining following a recent reduction in the density and annual survival of <em>A. drepanolobium</em> in the northern Serengeti (Shaw 2009).<p></p>
106007421		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007422		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007426		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007427		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007433		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The<em> </em>&#160;Mount Cameroon National Park was created by the Government of Cameroon in December 2009, covering approximately 58,178 hectares (WWF 2010<a href="http://www.panda.org/"></a>).</span><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the current population size (E. M. O'Kah <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and exact distribution on Mt Cameroon (F. Njie<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Take measures to control forest-fires (E. M. O'Kah <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007433		distribution	eng	<em>Speirops melanocephalus</em> is restricted to Mt Cameroon, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where it is common within a narrow altitudinal belt.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007433		habitat	eng	It is found at 1,800-3,000 m in the canopy and mid-strata of more open parts of the forest and in scattered trees within the grassland (C. Bowden <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, avoiding denser, closed-canopy areas. At its lower altitudinal limit it is found only in clearings. It is very noticeable at the upper forest-grassland boundary, above this occurring in patches of bush and thicket. <p></p>
106007433		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106007433		threats	eng	While fire is a naturally occurring phenomenon on Mt Cameroon and lava-flows occur about every 20 years, the regular burning of grassland by hunters, which extend to destroy large areas of forest, is probably the greatest threat to the species within its narrow altitudinal belt (J. Acworth <em>in litt</em>. 1999, E. M. O'Kah <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007434		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2000).
106007435		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Pico Basilé is a restricted area as the radio mast at the summit of the mountain has been designated a security zone (R. A. Cheke <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Bioko Conservation Project has initiated regular research in the forests of the island and increased its international recognition (http://www.bioko.org/)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a baseline survey to obtain a population estimate, map its range more accurately and check for its presence on Caldera de Luba. Monitor the species periodically to ascertain any population and/or range trend. Protect habitat on Caldera da Luba if the species is found there.  <p></p>
106007435		distribution	eng	<em>Speirops brunneus</em> is known only from Pico Basilé (formerly de Santa Isabel), on Bioko, <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>. It is possible that it could also occur on the nearby (much smaller) Caldera de Luba (Pérez del Val 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in the early 1990s found the species to be common within its range (Pérez del Val 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007435		habitat	eng	It is found on the higher slopes (above 1,900 m), where it inhabits lichen forest and montane heathland. It occurs in groups of four to five, searching for insects amongst the lower branches of <em>Hypericum lanceolatum</em> trees and also takes fruit and seeds (Pérez del Val 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007435		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106007435		threats	eng	The main threat could be fires set by hunters, but no evidence of this was seen in 1996 (R. A. Cheke <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A visit to the area in 1996 confirmed that habitat at Pico Basilé remained intact (R. A. Cheke <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reports up to 2005 indicate that the accelerated rates of deforestation occurring on the island had not affected Pico Basilé (R. Cheke<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Images of Caldera da Luba and the southern forests taken in 2005 do not indicate any encroachment in these areas (R. Cheke<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007436		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the total population size. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Study the impact of changing land-use on the species. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. Promote conservation and ornithology to local people.<br/><p></p>
106007436		distribution	eng	<em>Speirops leucophoeus</em> is endemic to Príncipe, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe.</strong> There is limited evidence of a possible decline between the 1970s, when it was described as abundant, and the 1990s (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong>. It is now considered poorly known (Olmos and Turshak undated). However, it remains common in all habitats where it occurs (J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007436		habitat	eng	It occurs in all forested habitats, including plantations, up to 800 m. It is most abundant in forest regrowth, trees and bushes in farmland and shaded cocoa and coffee plantations under the shade of large <em>Eurythrina</em> trees (Fry <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. In primary forest it occurs mainly in the middle strata. Its diet consists of insects, spiders, berries, seeds and other plant matter. The nest is an openly woven cup slung between two twigs, made of grasses, twigs, moss and petioles. One nest was observed to contain two eggs (Fry <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007436		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is described as frequent to common but somewhat local.
106007436		threats	eng	The decline between the 1970s and 1990s was possibly as a result of pesticide use in plantations (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong>. Land privatisation is presently causing an increase in the number of small farms on the island and a consequent reduction in tree cover. This may have an impact on its population in the near future, particularly as secondary forest habitats are encroached. The proposed establishment of an economic free-trade zone would have been a serious threat but it appears unlikely to go ahead (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2000).
106007438		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Fry and Keith 2000).
106007439		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zosterops mayottensis</span> is restricted to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mayotte (to France)</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">semiflavus</span> once occurred in the Seychelles, but it became extinct around 1900 (Penny 1974).
106007439		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered common to fairly common.
106007443		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2000).
106007444		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2000).
106007445		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106007446		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been proposed, but has not yet materialised (Louette and Stevens 1992, Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat clearance and degradation. Research the ecology of this species to aid conservation plans. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala to encompass the known range of this species, and develop a management strategy (Louette and Stevens 1992, Safford 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop an environmental education programme on the island (Louette and Stevens 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007446		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops mouroniensis</em> is restricted to, although common in, the upper reaches of the actively volcanic Mt Karthala, Grand Comoro (= Ngazidja), <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. In 1988, the population was estimated to be "a few thousand birds at most" (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2005 indicated that densities had remained stable since 1985 (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, the population is suspected to have declined since 1985 owing to a reduction in the extent of habitat as a result of volcanic activity. The extent of habitat is expected to recover through natural regeneration (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007446		habitat	eng	It is confined to a single small area of <em>Philippia</em> heath woodland around the crater of Mt Karthala. During surveys in 2005 is was recorded at 1,870-2,180 m, with a few individuals encroaching into the upper limits of the forest (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It can be seen in large groups foraging in bushes or flying just over vegetation, and has been observed with <em>Z. maderaspatanus</em><strong> </strong>(Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988, C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is a fruit- and insect-eating bird. One nest has been found 4 m above the ground and another 1 m from the top of a <em>Philippia</em> bush. <p></p>
106007446		population	eng	The range estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals is supported by recent surveys that estimated densities of 1,500 birds/km<SUP>2</SUP>, suggesting the population size is towards the high end of this range (C. Marsh<I> in litt.</I> 2007). This estimate equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007446		threats	eng	Large patches of heath near the summit of Mt Karthala were burnt in 1958, probably as a result of volcanic activity (Benson 1960)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Following eruptions in 2005, a reduction in the area of <em>Philippia</em> habitat was observed, particularly within and just around the crater above 2,500 m (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A future eruption could be catastrophic for the species. Tree-heath is threatened by browsing cattle and by fire used to stimulate growth of palatable shoots (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2005, cattle grazing was judged to be limited in extent (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. With this island's large, increasing human population (Louette <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, clearance of forest for agriculture is occurring on all but the poorest soils. Since 1983, intact forest may have declined by over 25% as agriculture has advanced steadily up the slopes of Mt Karthala towards the habitat of this species. Secondary forest in the agricultural belt is dominated by exotic plants, particularly strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, which could spread into and degrade remaining native forest. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced rats may act as nest predators or food competitors (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The lower boundary of <em>Philippia</em>, and thus the species's range, may be pushed upwards by an expansion of the forest owing to a future rise in global temperatures (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007447		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species (A. Gascoigne<em> in litt.</em> 2000, M. Melo<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> has been ratified (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Legislation for the creation of Obo National Park has also been ratified (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> has been proposed.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size and distribution. Study its habitat requirements. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law. <p></p>
106007447		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops ficedulinus</em> is confined to São Tomé<strong> </strong>(subspecies <em>feae</em>)<strong> </strong>and Príncipe (subspecies <em>ficedulinus</em>), <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>. On Príncipe, it appears to have always been rare and is confined to the central massif, with a recent record from the south-east (J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On São Tomé, its status is unclear. Various surveys have shown it to be patchily common, others that it is rare. Overall, it appears to be uncommon, being most abundant in the central massif and less so in the south-west with a spatially and temporarily variable distribution (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was thought to have declined between 1970 and 1990, but there is little evidence for this continuing. <p></p>
106007447		habitat	eng	On São Tomé, it<strong> </strong>prefers mid- to high-altitude forest up to 1,600&#160;m, but also occurs in the lowlands. It utilises primary forest, old secondary growth and shade-forest in former cocoa plantations (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The subspecies on Príncipe is confined to primary forest and forest edge (J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is usually found in small groups, often in mixed-species parties and is insectivorous. <p></p>
106007447		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007447		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of primary forest, on both islands, were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest, but may be a threat in the future (J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range on São Tomé, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection (Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts of São Tomé are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Construction for the country's developing oil industry, including the established idea of building 'free ports' (free economic zones) (M. Melo<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, was seen as a potential threat to the species's habitat. However, prospecting on land was unsuccessful, and any construction is likely to be offshore (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007448		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No actions have been taken.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess population (A.Tye <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct research into its ecology (A.Tye <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Produce conservation recommendations if required (A.Tye <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007448		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops griseovirescens</em> is endemic to the very small Gulf of Guinea island of Annobón (<strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>), where it is abundant and possibly increasing (Harrison 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007448		habitat	eng	It occurs wherever bush or tree cover exists, including primary forest, secondary forest, plantations and cultivated areas. It may have benefited from an increase in the area of secondary habitats. It forages in parties of 2-10 birds, taking invertebrates from the surface of vegetation (Harrison 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106007448		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106007448		threats	eng	The population is vulnerable to decline or extinction through stochastic events because of its very small range. There has been some clearance and modification of habitat for fruit, oil-palm and sugarcane cultivation, particularly in the north, although many plantations have been abandoned (Harrison 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007449		population	eng	The population was estimated at 465,000 individuals in 1983 (Barré et al. 1996).
106007450		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Indian Ocean islands of Réunion and Mauritius.
106007450		population	eng	Barré et al. (1996) estimate a population of 150,000 individuals
106007451		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has long been protected by law. The Black River National Park partly covers the species's distribution. Habitat around Bassin Blanc may be bought by compulsory purchase in the future (Jones and Hartley 1995, R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999). A species recovery programme was initiated by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation in September 2005, in which territories identified in the most recent survey were revisited and the breeding behaviour of these birds was closely monitored<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Cole <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Between 2005-2008 an intensive management plan was applied, involving wild population monitoring, predator control at nest sites, rescue/harvest of wild nests, artificial incubation and hand-rearing of offspring, and a trial release of birds to the predator-free, restored offshore islet Ile aux Aigrettes in December 2006<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Cole <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The aims of this programme are to increase knowledge of the species and its current threats, and investigate management techniques with a view to designing a long-term management strategy<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Cole <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Rehabilitation of native vegetation in small plots has been initiated through exclusion of exotic plants and animals, and there is ongoing research to assess benefits to native birds (Safford and Jones 1998)<strong></strong>. A total of 38 individuals, all originating from wild nests, were released onto Ile aux Aigrettes between 2006 and 2008<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Cole <em>in litt</em>. 2007, G. Maggs <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The Ile aux Aigrettes sub-population is closely monitored and provided with supplementary food, and the first fledglings were produced in 2008 (G. Maggs <em>in litt.</em> 2010). In 2010, 14 fledglings were produced from five breeding pairs, and the total population currently stands at 25 individuals (G. Maggs <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Several individuals from rescued nests were hand-reared by a team from Chester Zoo, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Sørensen 2005), but it is now thought that releases to predator-free islets and effective management of upland habitat are more viable options for conserving the Mauritius Olive White-eye (R. Cole <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Releases and nest rescues are now set to cease, and intensive research regarding habitat use, feeding ecology and nesting success will be carried out to highlight major limiting factors for the species and refine management techniques (G. Maggs <em>in litt.</em> 2010).     <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue population monitoring and ringing. Continue rehabilitation of native forest in appropriate areas to improve food sources for the species. Continue monitoring of accessible nests at Combo and Ile aux Aigrettes (Anon 2011). Develop Conservation Management Areas (CMAs) within the species's current range which have high densities of important nectar-producing plants and where predators are strictly controlled (Nichols <em>et al</em>. 2005). Initiate studies to investigate habitat requirements with view to developing habitat enrichment programmes and future species management techniques. Continue to search the Black River National Park and other suspected areas in Mauritius to identify new sub-populations (Anon 2011). Continue and extend the use of poison grids around nest sites to reduce rat predation (Anon 2011).<br/><p></p>
106007451		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops chloronothus</em> is endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>. It declined rapidly from 350 pairs in the mid-1970s, to c.275 pairs by the mid-1980s. Intensive fieldwork during 1990-1993 indicated a further reduction to an estimated 200 pairs (Safford 1997c)<strong></strong>, and fieldwork between 1998 and 2001 concluded that the global population size lay within the range 93-148 pairs (R. Switzer <em>in litt. </em>2003, Nichols <em>et al. </em>2004, Anon 2006) within an area of less than 25 km<sup>2</sup> located in the southwest of the Black River Gorges National Park. It is widespread in upland native forest, but largely absent from the whole Macchabé-Brise Fer area and Fouge Range (Safford 1997c)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The species's core distribution has contracted since 1975 - it has disappeared from three outlying sites (Tamarin Falls, Jouanis and Monvert) and the core area has decreased by 50% (Nichols <em>et al</em>. 2005). Its status in central Mauritius (Montagne Lagrave and the central plateau relics) remains uncertain (R. Switzer <em>in litt. </em>2003, Nichols <em>et al. </em>2004), although one was seen on Mt Lagrave in the breeding season in 2011/2012 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Highest densities are between Montagne Cocotte and Combo Forest with up to 10 pairs/km<sup>2</sup><strong> </strong>(C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Birds exploit isolated habitats over a wide area of the central plateau, including many relict patches of native vegetation (Safford 1997c)<strong></strong>. Following twenty years of conservation work on Ile aux Aigrettes, 16 white-eyes were released on the predator free island between December 2006 and March 2007 (Anon 2006). A further release of around 20 birds in December 2007 aimed to further the establishment of a small sub-population on Ile aux Aigrettes, and birds have since successfully fledged young there in the 2007/08, 2008/09 and 2010/11 seasons (nine pairs and a total of six fledged young) (Anon. 2011). In March 2011 the population on Ile aux Aigrettes stood at 25 (Anon. 2011), with 26 individuals in March 2012 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).
106007451		habitat	eng	It is restricted to the wettest native upland forests. It feeds on both nectar and insects, and travels considerable distances to productive flowers (Cheke 1987b)<strong></strong>. Some introduced plant species have become extremely important nectar sources (Safford 1991)<strong></strong>. High densities may be associated with mosaics of small plantations of exotic trees, where nest-predation may be low, interspersed with native vegetation for foraging (Safford 1997c)<strong></strong>. They have large non-exclusive home ranges but aggressively defend a territory around a favoured flower or nest-site against conspecifics and Mauritius Grey White-eye <em>Z. borbonicus mauritianus</em> (Nichols <em>et al</em>. 2005). In recent decades pairs on the mainland have not generally fledged more than one offspring per nesting attempt and productivity was 7-17% during three study seasons (Nichols <em>et al</em>. 2005). In more recent study seasons (2005-2008) productivity has been higher, particularly on Ile aux Aigrettes, and pairs have often been seen to fledge two chicks per nesting attempt. Harvests/rescues of wild nests have shown that the clutch-size is 1-3 eggs<strong> </strong>(R. Cole <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106007451		population	eng	The population estimate of 190-296 mature individuals is derived from Nichols <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) and R. Switzer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. (2003). The mainland population is believed to contain over 90% of mature individuals, but this may change if the population on Iles aux Aigrettes increases in future.
106007451		threats	eng	<em>Z. chloronothus</em> has suffered chronically from continuing habitat destruction and degradation as a result of invasion by exotic plants. Nest predation by introduced mammals and birds is considered a major threat (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Nichols <em>et al</em>. 2005): a study of Mauritius Grey White-eye<em> </em>found only 8% of nests resulted in fledglings, with predation by native Mauritius Black Bulbul <em>Hypsipetes olivaceus</em> and probably the invasive Red-whiskered Bulbul <em>Pycnonotus jocosus</em> the most frequent cause of nest failure<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Sørensen 2005). 56 monitored nesting attempts in the Combo area in 2010/11 produced a total of only seven fledglings, but experimental poison grids were found to significantly improve nest success (Anon 2011).
106007452		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None of the species's current sites on Mahé lie within the Morne Seychellois National Park (Mellanby <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Intensive monitoring and research, is still underway mainly on Frégate, North &amp; Cousine that host transferred populations (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In July 2000, the Ministere de l'Environnement started 'cat and rat' eradication on several islands including Frégate; subsequently 31 individuals were transferred to Frégate (Rocamora <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>, an island which models suggest could support a population of more than 500 individuals (Rocamora <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. Almost all of the translocated birds have been regularly resighted, and by 2007 there were c.100 birds on the island. Breeding on Frégate extended beyond the normal breeding season indicating favourable conditions on the island. In 2007, 25 individuals were transferred from Conception to North Island, following successful rat eradication in 2005, whilst 20 were transferred from Conception and three from Mahé to Cousine (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Intensive habitat restoration has been carried out on North Island and Cousine, with the species attempting to breed there in November 2007 (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Predator control and nest monitoring have been conducted on Mahé since 2006, and population monitoring is being carried out on the five islands where the species now occurs (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends in all islands occupied by the species (both source and transferred populations). Create a protected area, and manage the habitat (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong> to preserve the key population on Conception (Rocamora 1997a, N. J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Encourage preservation of large garden trees in residential areas where the species is present on Mahé to help their short-term survival there (Gerlach 1996, Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. Continue rat control and protection of nests in the two main Mahé subpopulations (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Consider translocation to other suitable predator and competitor-free islands (Gerlach 1996, Rocamora 1997a, N. J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999, A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue to mix individuals from different source populations during translocations, thus recombining genetic variation in the species (Rocamora and Richardson 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007452		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops modestus</em> was thought to survive only in three tiny areas on Mahé, <strong>Seychelles</strong> and appeared to be declining inexorably towards extinction. In 1996, only 25-35 individuals were known (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. In 1997, a previously unknown population was discovered on Conception (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. In 1997, this island was estimated to hold "at least 250" individuals (Rocamora and Francois 1999)<strong></strong>, with c.50 more on Mahé (G. Rocamora <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The population on Conception was estimated at c.275 (244-336) individuals in 1999 and at c.230 (189-266) in 2006, and may be fluctuating or slightly decreasing (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2004, G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The population on Mahé was estimated at c.50 birds in 1997 (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup> </sup></strong> and at c.60 birds in 2006, and appears to have slightly increased (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The transfer of 37 individuals from Conception to Frégate Island in 2001 and 2003 have resulted in the establishment of an estimated population of c.100 individuals there in 2007 (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and an estimated total of c.400 individuals in 2007. Further translocations took place in 2007, when 25 birds were transferred to North Island, and 23 to Cousine (Rocamora and Henriette-Payet 2009). Habitat quantity and quality are both increasing (due to rat eradications and restoration programmes in the islands where the species has been transferred) (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Results from a monitoring programme started since 1996 indicate a moderate increase in the total population (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007), which was estimated at c.400 birds in 2007 (Rocamora and Henriette-Payet 2009). <p></p>
106007452		habitat	eng	Data from a recent study have suggested that the populations on Mahé and Conception are genetically isolated from each other (&lt;1-2 migrants per generation), and that one does not represent a subsample of the other (Rocamora and Richardson 2003)<strong></strong>. They probably became isolated following the decline of the Mahé population, caused by human disturbance, 100-200 years ago, and retain different genetic fragments of the original population. The populations on both Mahé and Conception show low levels of genetic variability, comparable with the inbred island populations of other species (Rocamora and Richardson 2003)<strong></strong>. The ecology of two populations differs, with those on Conception holding territories in dense mixed woodland with an abundance of native fruiting trees, whereas birds on Mahé show flexibility in habitat choice (Rocamora and Richardson 2003)<strong></strong>. On Mahé, it is predominantly found in man-made habitats, such as farms, residential areas, orchards, forest edge and mixed secondary forest (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>, seeming to prefer particular exotic tree and shrub species (Mee 1996a, 1997, Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. It principally eats insects, but also berries and nectar (Rocamora 1997b)<strong></strong>. On Mahé, its productivity in the 1990s was poor and recruitment very low, and it is possible that more widely dispersed populations have been lost in the past as productivity has declined (Mee 1997, Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. It is a cooperative breeder, and on Conception breeding groups and clutch sizes tend to be bigger than on Mahé, with adult birds on Conception also showing low fidelity to particular nests. The trapping of birds has indicated a possible deficit of females on both Mahé and Conception, although the tape luring methods used are more likely to attract males (Rocamora and Richardson 2003)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007452		population	eng	The total population is estimated at c.350-450 individuals (R. Bristol <em>in litt.</em> 2004, G. Rocamora<em> in litt.</em> 2007), but the population is conservatively retained in the band 50-249 mature individuals pending evidence that there have been over 250 mature individuals for at least five years.
106007452		threats	eng	Loss of native vegetation - particularly large trees - may have been a factor in its decline (Gerlach 1996)<strong></strong>. However, there is no recent evidence of a significant decline in habitat quantity or quality (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, although invasion by alien plants continues on Mahé (J. Gerlach <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Nest-predation, by the introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em>, is the biggest threat on Mahé (Rocamora 1997a, Rocamora <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, while fire or disease are the main threats on Conception (Rocamora 1997a, Rocamora 1997b, G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Conception was inhabited by <em>R. norvegicus</em> but an eradication operation was conducted in August 2007 (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. On Mahé, abundant Seychelles Bulbul <em>Hypsipetes crassirostris</em> predates nests (Rocamora 1997a, 1997b, Rocamora and Francois 1999)<strong></strong>. Given its extremely small and fragmented range, the species is vulnerable to sudden stochastic events. Health screening done during 2007 transfers revealed the presence of a widespread Microfileria in the Conception population, although presence of such blood parasites in white-eye populations is common and normally not considered a significant threat (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007453		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106007454		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106007456		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Shimba 2007), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and possibly c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy <I>et al</I>. 2000), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007458		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it was considered abundant in 1983.
106007461		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species was listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act in 2004 and in October 2006 c.1,600 ha of critical habitat was designated for the species (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2004, 2006). The US Fish and Wildlife Service published a recovery plan in 2007 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007)<strong></strong>. Funding was acquired in 2003 to start a nest predation study and experimental trapping of predators observed raiding nests but additional work is still needed (T. de Cruz <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. In addition, funding in 2005 was provided to begin a foraging ecology study on the species to help determine reasons for its limited distribution and further work on nesting ecology was conducted in 2009 (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. Funding for a snake barrier at the Rota port has also been provided but planning and construction are still in their early phases (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>.  Plans are underway for the population to be surveyed in April 2012  (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Control and monitor population of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>. Control <em>Rattus </em>spp. and <em>D. macrocercus</em> if these are established to present a major threat (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007)<strong></strong>. Enact the an island-wide Habitat Conservation Plan or similar agreement, including the protection and replanting of native forest in the Sabana region (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Research its breeding ecology and life history in order to determine its habitat preferences and reasons for decline (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Assess the need to establish an additional wild population in a predator-free site (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007)<strong></strong>. If brown tree snake becomes established the establishment of a captive population will become a priority as an insurance measure against the likely rapid declines that could occur in the wild population. Develop a public awareness and education programme including community outreach activities to involve communities in native forest restoration (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007461		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops rotensis</em> is endemic to Rota in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, where it was once thought to be common and widespread, but is now largely restricted to the upper escarpments of the Sabana plateau (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>, where it is found in mature wet forest above 200 m. In 1982, it was estimated to have a population of 10,763 individuals (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. Since then, surveys have estimated 300-1,500 birds (1990) (Craig and Taisacan 1994)<strong></strong>, 1,165 birds with 94% of the population restricted to four patches of forest covering only 259 ha (1996) (Fancy and Snetsinger 2001)<strong></strong>, and 1,092 birds (1999) (F. A. Amidon<em>. </em>2000, Williams 2004)<strong></strong>. Thus the population has declined by a rate equivalent to 74% over 10 years, however there are anecdotal reports that the population has increased since the 1990s<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. From 2005 to 2008 the Rota Sabana region was searched for presence/ absence of white-eyes; they were located in 298 ha spread over 6 primary areas on the Sabana tabletop and ridges between 100m and 490m elevation (L. Zarones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The recovery plan presents a long-term goal of restoring the population to a stable 10,000 individuals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).<br/><p></p>
106007461		habitat	eng	Its ecological requirements are poorly known. It may favour native, mature, wet limestone forest (Fancy and Snetsinger 2001)<strong></strong>, appearing to prefer <em>Hernandia labyrinthica</em> mixed forest and <em>Merrilliodendron megacarpum</em> forest, although this apparent relationship could simply be a factor of its decline in recent decades (Amidon<em> </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Within the Sabana region of Rota, it was observed to favour tall limestone forest, and avoid grassland, low limestone forest, and secondary pandanus vegetation types (L. Zarones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2008).&#160; The species favours forest with more mid-sized stems, more foliage density, more epiphytes, greater total canopy cover, and fewer overal plant species (Zarones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>submitted). It feeds on insects, seeds, and fruit, and perhaps nectar (F. A. Amidon<em>. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Adults have been observed feeding young and incubating partners on the nest with moths and caterpillars, as well as possibly snails, spiders, beetles, mayflies&#160;and katydids (S. Faegre<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2009). Its absence from some areas of apparently suitable native forest (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong> is unclear, but may relate to prey availability (Amidon<em> </em>2000) and/or forest structure (Zarones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in review). Nesting has been recorded from December to August, although nest building has been recorded in September,  and clutch-size is one to two eggs (Amidon <em>et al</em>. 2004, Berry and Taisacan 2008), though a nest was recently observed with three eggs (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. During 2005-2008 the species was located on the Sabana tabletop and ridges in the Rota Sabana region  between 100m and 490m elevation (L. Zarones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008). The average number of fledglings from successful nests is 1.5 (n = 4) (Berry and Taisacan 2008). <p></p>
106007461		population	eng	The population was esimated at c.1,100 individuals in 1999. This is roughly equivalent to 730 mature individuals.
106007461		threats	eng	The recent rapid declines and the current localised distribution are most likely to be primarily a result of habitat loss and degradation owing to agricultural activities, development, typhoons (Fancy and Snetsinger 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and use of pesticides (USFWS 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The recent introduction of the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> on Saipan is a serious concern. If the snake becomes established on Rota serious future declines are likely (A. Saunders <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats <em>Rattus </em>spp. and Black Drongo <em>Dicrurus macrocercus</em> has been implicated in its decline (Craig and Taisacan 1994, Craig 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>: Among eight nests observed during a nest success/predation study one was predated by Mariana Crow <em>Corvus kubaryi</em> during the nestling stage and a nest with eggs was predated by a rat <em>Rattus </em>spp., although in this case the nest may have already been abandoned (Berry &amp; Taisacan 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A 2009 study of 18 nests found that 33% of the nests were depredated and the native Micronesian Starling <em>Aplonis opaca </em>is a nest predator (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2010, 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007462		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Periodically monitor populations to establish trends.  Take measures to ensure <em>B. irregularis </em>never reaches Yap.   <p></p>
106007462		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops hypolais</em> is endemic to the four islands of Yap, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, where it is common, and, in 1984, was estimated to have a population of 86,864 individuals (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <p></p>
106007462		habitat	eng	It is found in nearly all forest and vegetation types, including brushy thickets in open savannas and meadows.  <p></p>
106007462		population	eng	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990) estimated the population to number 86,864 individuals, which is rounded to 86,900 individuals here.
106007462		threats	eng	It appears to be in no particular danger but, given its small range, it will always be at some risk from stochastic events, including exotic introductions such as the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA) (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007463		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered uncommon to common.
106007464		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally very common on high mountain tops in Sumatra.
106007465		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the Philippines (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007466		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007467		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007468		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Christmas Island National Park was established in 1980, and has since been extended to cover more than 60% of the island (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The introduced population on the Cocos (Keeling) Island might serve as an insurance population. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent) (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and hand-baiting measures have been ongoing. Aerial baiting commenced in September 2002 and proved to be successful against major colonies (Olsen 2005)<strong></strong>, eliminating over 98% of ants (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007), however the ants have since recovered (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong> and perpetual baiting may be the only means of controlling them (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The bait used so far is known to be toxic to invertebrates, including crabs, and although alternatives have been trialled, an effective replacement has not been found (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Control of the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions has been suggested, in order to reduce this food supply (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006, <strong></strong> D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Control of the ants may have allowed the species's population to stabilise (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor abundance. Improve regulation of mining. Continue to control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>.  <p></p>
106007468		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops natalis</em> was confined to <strong>Christmas Island (Australia)</strong>, in the Indian Ocean, until some time between 1885 and 1900, when it was introduced to <strong>Cocos Keeling Islands (to Australia)</strong>. On Christmas Island, it is the most abundant bird species, numbering c.20,000 individuals, and is believed to be stable (S. Garnett<em> in litt. </em>2005, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. On Cocos-Keeling Islands, it apparently persists only around the settlement. On Christmas Island it forages over virtually all of the 137 km<sup>2&#160;<strong></strong></sup> (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2005 and 2006 confirmed the species's high abundance, with the species recorded during 99% of counts and at 100% of survey sites (James and Retallick 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007468		habitat	eng	It is found in all forested habitats on Christmas Island up to 360 m (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It also occurs in suburban gardens and weeds fields in abandoned mine sites (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is no other species competing for food in its niche between the canopy and the lower-bole zone.  <p></p>
106007468		population	eng	The species is abundant and the population has been estimated at 20,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011), and as high as high as 80,000-170,000 (Beeton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010); the conservative figure of 20,000 is maintained pending more accurate estimates.
106007468		threats	eng	Approximately a third of forested habitat has been destroyed on Christmas Island as a result of mining operations. The species appears to tolerate a degree of habitat modification. In 2007, significant patches of mature secondary forest were cleared for mining (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Also in 2007, a new application to mine a 250 ha area of rainforest (P. Green <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> was turned down (J. Hennicke <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, but has since gone to appeal (D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em>, which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or about 3,400 ha, but was controlled over about 2,900 ha in September 2002, was thought to be a potential threat. In 2006, the ants were regarded as widespread and patchily common (T. Low <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>.&#160; It was thought that ants might prey directly on nestlings, and that they would alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, which otherwise inhibits understorey plant growth and the spread of weeds by eating the seeds and seedlings of both native and invasive species (P. Green and D. O'Dowd <em>in litt. </em>2003, S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2003,&#160; D. James<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Fears that the white-eye would be affected by the <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ants<em> </em>appear to have been proved wrong however: counts and foraging success of the white-eye were higher in places where ants were present, because of an increase in scale insects (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Black Rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus </span>and feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span> are present but are not currently thought to be causing declines (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106007469		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine the response of this species to habitat degradation and fragmentation. Monitor population and habitat trends throughout the range. Protect significant areas of suitable forest at sites where it is known to be common. <p></p>
106007469		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops flavus</em> is restricted to Java and southern Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with one record from Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>. The population on Java is restricted in range (but apparently very common where it does occur) while recent records from Kalimantan suggest the species might be locally common in mangrove on the south coast. <em> <p></p></em>
106007469		habitat	eng	This species occurs in mangroves, coastal scrub, relict coastal forest and scattered trees.   <p></p>
106007469		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106007469		threats	eng	This species is likely to be threatened by the destruction and degradation of mangrove forests and other forest habitats, although further studies are needed in order to determine whether it persists in degraded habitats.  <p></p>
106007470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and locally abundant (Coates et al. 1997).
106007471		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common in the Lesser Sundas, although scarce in the Torres Strait Islands (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).
106007472		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population and habitat trends on Ka Cecil. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and response to forest disturbance or fragmentation. Protect significant areas of forest on Kai Kecil in community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007472		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops grayi</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs on Kai Kecil only. It is moderately common. <em> <p></p></em>
106007472		habitat	eng	This species inhabits a variety of forest and scrub habitats.  <p></p>
106007472		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as moderately common in all wooded habitats.
106007472		threats	eng	This species may be vulnerable to forest loss within its small range, although little is known of the current status of habitats on Kai Kecil.  <p></p>
106007473		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations on Kai Besar and Tual, as well as rates of habitat loss or degradation. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat requirements. Protect significant areas of forest and scrub habitat on both islands in community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007473		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops uropygialis</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs on the islands of Kai Besar and Tual only. It is moderately common within this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007473		habitat	eng	This species inhabits forests, scrub and cleared land with scattered trees.  <p></p>
106007473		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce to rare.
106007473		threats	eng	This species may be vulnerable to forest loss within its small range, although recent habitat trends are poorly known.  <p></p>
106007474		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and poorly known (Coates et al. 1997).
106007475		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007476		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007477		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although very rare on Sangihe (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106007478		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common on Halmahera and Bacan and uncommon on Obi (Coates et al. 1997).
106007479		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106007480		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable habitat on Tagula. Study its ecological requirements, tolerance of habitat degradation and threats. <p></p>
106007480		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops meeki</em> is confined to Tagula (= Sudest) Island (c.700 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong>) in the Louisiade Archipelago of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. None was seen on the only recent visit to the island, during a 10-day trek from the north coast up to Mt Riu in 1992 (I. Burrows <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to all the lowland forest (Beehler 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, most white-eye <em>Zosterops</em> species are tolerant of degraded and secondary habitats and this species may prove to be relatively common and secure.<em> <p></p></em>
106007480		habitat	eng	It is believed to be a species of lowland forest and forest edge to an altitude of 300 m (Schodde 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007480		population	eng	This species is described as virtually unknown, and no population estimates are available.
106007480		threats	eng	Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to all the lowland forest (Beehler 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in the lowlands, fairly common from 800 m-1,450 m and uncommon at higher elevations in New Britain, very scarce in lowland areas and abundant at high elevations in New Ireland and fairly common to common in Manus (Coates 1990).
106007482		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in the 110 km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area (B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular surveys to monitor populations and habitat trends on Biak and Supiori. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat requirements and determine whether this species is genuinely able to persist solely in degraded habitats. Effectively protect the the Biak-Utara protected area.  <p></p>
106007482		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops mysorensis</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori off Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Beehler <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1986), where it has been described as "abundant in small flocks" of 3-12 birds (Bishop 1982)<strong></strong>. However, more recent visits have recorded it in small numbers (N. Bostock <em>in litt.</em> 1993, Eastwood 1996a, B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000) or failed to find this species (Gibbs 1993, M. van Beirs <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106007482		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest up to 675 m, including forest edge, secondary forest, and even low secondary growth (Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007482		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106007482		threats	eng	On Biak, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori (Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to scarce (Coates 1990).
106007484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007485		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population and habitat trends on Ambon. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise the habitat requirements of this species, as well as its response to disturbance and fragmentation. Protect significant areas of forest on Ambon in community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007485		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops kuehni</em> is restricted to Ambon Island, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is relatively common in suitable habtiats. <em> <p></p></em>
106007485		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forest, scrub and gardens up to 500 m, or remnant patches of secondary forest and woodland and lightly wooded cultivation to 300 m.   <p></p>
106007485		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as moderately common on Ambon.
106007485		threats	eng	Wooded habitats are diminishing on this densely populated and relatively small island and the population of this species is thus likely to be declining gradually.  <p></p>
106007486		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990).
106007487		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106007488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant on Nissan and elsewhere probably fairly common or common (Coates 1990).
106007489		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007490		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Protect significant areas of primary forest on Vella Lavella. Research its tolerance of logged and degraded forest.   <p></p>
106007490		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops vellalavella</em> is endemic to the small island of Vella Lavella (630 km<sup>2</sup>) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is very poorly known, although it has been considered common. The only count is 29 birds seen in six hours in 1998, suggesting a small total population.    <em> <p></p></em>
106007490		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest, usually forest edge but also primary forest, logged forest (Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Hornbuckle 1999) <strong></strong>and in regrowth, including coconut plantations with some undergrowth and scattered old trees (Dutson 2011).<br/><p></p>
106007490		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common.
106007490		threats	eng	The majority of Vella Lavella has been or is scheduled to be logged and this may cause this species to decline (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007491		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are some community-based conservation projects on Ranongga. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Map forest habitats on Ranongga. Assess rates and causes of forest clearance. Calculate relative population densities in various habitats. Monitor number of singing males in discrete forest blocks or village areas. Assess breeding success in secondary habitats. Support sustainable forest-use programmes. Coordinate all conservation action through public awareness discussions. Publicise this species as endemic to Ranongga. <p></p>
106007491		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops splendidus</em> is endemic to Ranongga (= Ganongga) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It appeared to be fairly common in most suitable habitat on three day-trips to this island in the 1990s (Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998,<strong> </strong>Hornbuckle 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1998, 17 birds were recorded in six hours (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998). During a two-day netting session (targeting white-eyes) in forest edge in 2004, three birds were captured across eight mist-nets; and during a two-day netting session in secondary growth adjacent to gardens in 2005, six birds were captured across six mist-nets (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). This approximates to a total population of a few thousand birds if the habitat visited was representative of the overall island. <p></p>
106007491		habitat	eng	It appears to be common in forest and forest edge, but also old-growth forest and regrowth and thickets with scattered old trees (Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. As with the allopatric Ghizo White-eye <em>Z. luteirostris</em>, it may be able to tolerate a wide range of degraded natural habitats. However, observations in 1998 suggested it may not survive in cleared and scrubby habitats far away from forest or without remnant large trees (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. It sometimes feeds in flowers of coconuts (Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007491		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007491		threats	eng	Forest is largely restricted to steep slopes and rocky, hilly areas on Ranongga and is slowly being cleared for gardens. Gardens are used to grow food for the nearby urban market of Ghizo as well as for Ranongga villages. However, following the tsunami in 2007, the island has been raised by c.2 m, providing suitable areas for gardening that were previously underwater (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Much of the remaining forest is on terrain unsuitable for gardening, although trees are likely to be felled for local timber demand (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/>  <p></p>
106007492		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. The species is likely to respond very positively to fairly minimal forest restoration efforts if they are imposed island-wide (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Map the species distribution across Ghizo. Map and assess changes to forest habitats on Ghizo. Relate distribution to habitat-types. Monitor numbers along line-transects. Monitor number of singing males in discrete forest blocks. Assess breeding success in various habitats. Improve forest protection laws and enforcement. Support expansion of suitable forestry plantations. Coordinate all conservation action through public awareness discussions. Publicise this species as endemic to Ghizo and ensure government engagement in conservation efforts.<br/>  <p></p>
106007492		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops luteirostris</em> is endemic to Ghizo in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where the remaining tall or old-growth forest is very fragmented and totals less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>. Birds were found to be locally common in these forest patches but less common elsewhere (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998,<strong></strong> M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. A maximum of 14 have been seen in one patch of forest, and 20 from a cross-island transect (extrapolated to a population density of 46 birds per km<sup>2</sup>) (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It has declined with past and ongoing habitat degradation, forest clearance and human habitation, which has increased markedly since the 2007 tsunami, particularly in the interior of Ghizo (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Areas around  Gizo Town, which previously supported the species, have been further  degraded since the tsunami, and were not found to support the species in  2012 (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Comprehensive surveys have not yet been conducted in the interior, but are urgently needed to assess the status of the species and determine the magnitude of the suspected decline. <p></p>
106007492		habitat	eng	It is most common in forest edge, regrowth and mature secondary forest, and less common in scrub close to large trees and in plantations. It is not known whether these latter two habitats support sustainable breeding populations (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007492		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007492		threats	eng	The very little tall old-growth forest left on Ghizo is still under some threat from clearance for timber (for local use), firewood and gardens. The areas of other secondary growth, suboptimal habitats for this species, are under considerable threat from clearance for agricultural land and extensive development on this very densely populated island. The area of and future plans for the plantations are unknown (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007493		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common to abundant.
106007494		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon above 900 m (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007496		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very uncommon below 900 m and fairly common above this altitude (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007497		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007498		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007499		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007501		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops strenuus</em><em> </em>was endemic to lowland forests on Lord Howe Island, <strong>Australia </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was very common before 1918 (McAllan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), with the last records coming from 1908 (Hull 1909), but it plummeted to extinction following the arrival of black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> on the island (Hindwood 1940). It could not be found in 1928<strong> </strong>(Sharland 1929).<p></p>
106007501		habitat	eng	It inhabited lowland forest, palm glades and the scrubby vegetation of more open and settled areas. It probably fed on fruit, insects, flowers and other birds' eggs (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).  <p></p>
106007501		threats	eng	The cause of its extinction was predation by black rats.  <p></p>
106007502		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Norfolk Island National Park was declared in 1986, encompassing most of the main remaining stands of native trees on the island. Rat baiting and cat trapping is carried out within its boundaries. In 2006, it was noted that control measures for rats were budget-constrained and limited in their effectiveness (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Responsible cat ownership is being encouraged, through sponsorship of a cat neutering clinic. The Norfolk Island Region Threatened Species Recovery Plan (Director of  National Parks 2010) recommends a set of recovery measures required to  reduce or remove threats to native species on the island. Rabbits have been removed from Phillip Island. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor trends in the population through analysis of birdwatchers' records. Consider introducing the species to Phillip Island. Install a predator-proof fence around the national park, Hundred Acre Reserve and other important areas of habitat, and remove introduced predators from within these areas (M. Christian<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Eliminate mammalian predators from the entire island, or at least significant sections, and prevent reintroduction (Director of  National Parks 2010). Carry out research into the impacts of introduced predators (M. Christian<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007502		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops tenuirostris</em> is found on <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>, where it is thought to number c.4,500 mature individuals, mostly restricted to the Norfolk Island National Park. It underwent declines since the 1960s, particularly outside the park, which continued in the period 1987-1997, however numbers since appear to have stabilised.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007502		habitat	eng	It lives in rainforest and tall secondary growth. It uses its long, down-curved bill to probe fissures in bark for insects, although it also takes fruit, including those of exotic species. It is also observed feeding on nectar from flowers of the endemic <em>Pittosporum bracteolatum </em>(M. Christian<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages in parties and appears to have a different ecological niche to that of the self-introduced Silvereye <em>Z. lateralis</em>. <p></p>
106007502		population	eng	A survey in 2010 estimated a population of c.4,000 birds in the National Park on the basis of 74 records in point counts at a density of c.900/km2; the total population has therefore been estimated at 4,500 mature individuals (Garnett et al. 2011).
106007502		threats	eng	The species has gradually disappeared from all parts of the island that have been extensively cleared for timber, cultivation, pasture and continued development (M. Christian<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. This species is also presently threatened by the replacement of cleared native forest with invasive weeds (M. Christian<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Its decline was probably exacerbated by the arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. Cats are opportunistic predators of adult birds (R. Ward<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007503		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I.<strong> </strong>Surveys were carried out for the species, without success, in 2009 (G. Dutson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<strong> </strong>Rat baiting, cat trapping and control of other invasive plants and animals is occurring in Norfolk Island National Park. Responsible cat ownership is being encouraged through sponsorship of cat neutering clinics. The species is being considered in a multi-species management plan for Norfolk Island National Park. Possibilities of captive breeding and securing additional funding to finance recovery efforts are being pursued<strong></strong>. A predator exclusion fence has been proposed for Norfolk Island National Park to create a predator free "island" within the park (B. Watson <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>, and the proposal is now supported by the WWF and the Norfolk Island government<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Australian government has recently rated Norfolk Island very high on its list of the Australian islands in which they are considering the eradication of invasive rodents, with a possible $20 million investment in the chosen islands over a number of years (M. Christian <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine a method for finding the birds reliably and conduct thorough surveys to estimate the remaining population size. Survey both native and introduced vegetation, as some recent reports refer to the latter (R. Holdaway <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Establish cooperative rodent control programmes throughout Norfolk Island, with a view to rat eradication throughout the island (G. Dutson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Enhance rat baiting and cat trapping on Norfolk Island and monitor their efficacy. If birds are located, perhaps consider whether establishing a captive-breeding population is feasible. Continue to restore native habitat across Norfolk Island. Introduce to Phillip Island following revegetation. Gain support and funding from external sources to facilitate conservation actions. <p></p>
106007503		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops albogularis</em> is endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It was reported as "very plentif<span style="">ul" by Hull (1909) and 12 specimens were taken in one week in 1926 by Correia. However, the population is thought to have fallen below 50 individuals by 1962</span><span style=""> (Mees 1969)</span><span style="">, and by the 1970s it had become confined to weed-free indigenous forest in and around the Norfolk Island National Park. Although formal searches have failed to find any in the last three decades, there have been scattered sightings throughout this period (Schodde</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 1983),&#160; including one in 1987, two in 1991, four in 1994 and one</span> in 2000. Since then a number of unconfirmed reports have been logged from the Norfolk Island National Park, most recently in 2006 (B. Watson <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006, G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2009, 2010)<strong></strong>. The remaining population, if any exists, is likely to be very small; a comprehensive three-week survey in November 2009 based on 353 point counts failed to find the species and concluded there was a 90% chance that it was functionally extinct (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2009, 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007503		habitat	eng	It appears to occur mostly in weed-free indigenous forest, feeding high in shrubs and trees. However, there are old records of it nesting in orchards (Hull 1909), in red guava<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pisidium cattleianum</span> trees, and feeding on olive fruits (Mees 1969).<br/><p></p>
106007503		population	eng	The remaining population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with only scattered sightings since 1978
106007503		threats	eng	The principal threat is probably predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, which is thought to have been introduced in the mid-1940s. The effects of predation have been exacerbated by the clearance of much native forest and invasion of the remainder by exotic weeds. As a result, favoured habitat has been reduced to less than 1% of the area of the island. Competition from the self-introduced Silvereye <em>Z. lateralis</em>, which was first recorded on the island in 1904, may also have contributed to the decline, and recent drought years may have stressed the population further (R. Ward <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. Predation by feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus </span>may also be a threat. The species may be vulnerable to climate changes and appears to fare poorly during dry years. <p></p>
106007504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Watling 2001).
106007506		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007509		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mt Silisili Park, a unique area of montane cloud-forest in central Savai`i, is a refuge for the species (Beichle and Maelzer 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size, distribution and ecology (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Ensure the protection of Mt Silisili Park.   <p></p>
106007509		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops samoensis</em> is endemic to Savai`i, <strong>Samoa</strong>. In 1987 and again in 1991, it was found to be not uncommon (even though the latter survey was after the severe cyclone "Ofa") (Bellingham and Davis 1988,<strong></strong> S. Ericsson <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. However, though it is thought to be moderately common in suitable habitat (D. Hobcroft 2007)<strong></strong>, groups of birds are constantly moving (at least outside the breeding season) and thus numbers could be overestimated; in 1999, it appeared uncommon (Beichle in prep.)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007509		habitat	eng	It occurs in the highlands mainly above 900 m where it has been recorded in flocks of 15-20 birds in the canopy of prime upland forests, but has been recorded as low as 780 m, and also in open scrub-like alpine habitat (Bellingham and Davis 1988,<strong></strong> S. Ericsson <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. It requires a big territory as food-blossoms are very limited and because of competition with other nectarivorous birds (e.g. honeyeaters) (Beichle in prep.)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007509		population	eng	The population is thought to number fewer than 2,500 individuals, and so is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106007509		threats	eng	Slash-and-burn cultivation threatens remaining areas of upland forest, as farmers use forestry roads from heavily logged lowland forests to gain access to formerly inaccessible land (Bellingham and Davis 1988)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Black rat <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span> may also pose a threat to the species (D. Hobcroft <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106007510		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly numerous.
106007511		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common on both Pohnpei and Kosrae.
106007512		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain a new population estimate and carry out regular monitoring to determine trends.  Educate local people about the effects of dry-season fires on the species.  Limit the use of fire in the dry season.  Take measures to prevent the introduction of <em>B. irregularis</em> to Yap.   <p></p>
106007512		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops oleagineus</em> is endemic to the four islands of Yap, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>. In the 1970s, it could be readily found in any forest area (H.&#160;D.&#160;Pratt <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1984, it was estimated to have a total population of 19,619 individuals and was expected to remain common (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, more recently, it appears to have become scarcer (H.&#160;D.&#160;Pratt <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007512		habitat	eng	It is widely distributed in all types of forest and woody vegetation, including mangroves, but shows a preference for better-developed forests (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007512		population	eng	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990) estimated 19,619 individuals, which is rounded to 19,600 individuals here, roughly equivalent to 13,000 mature individuals; it is thought to have become scarcer since.
106007512		threats	eng	Loss of habitat from fire is a threat as local people set fire to large areas of savanna during the dry season (B.&#160;Raynor <em>in litt. </em>1995)<strong></strong>. The species is also at risk from the accidental introduction of alien species, particularly brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extinction of many bird species on Guam (to USA)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007513		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to monitor population trends. Protect the most important areas of forest for this species. Take measures to ensure <em>B. irregularis </em>never reaches Pohnpei.   <p></p>
106007513		distribution	eng	<em>Rukia longirostra</em> is endemic to the island of Pohnpei, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, where, in 1983, it was common throughout the uplands but also present in the lowlands. The total population was estimated at 31,623 birds and its previously reported scarcity was thought to be the result of its inconspicuous nature and the inaccessibility of its montane habitat (Engbring and Pratt 1985, Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. However, in 1994, a repeat survey recorded a significant decrease in encounter rate in both the lowland and uplands, with nearly 90% of the sightings on c.10% of the land area (Buden 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007513		habitat	eng	It occurs in palm and broadleaf forest, rarely using plantations (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on nectar, but also takes insects and sometimes fruit (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its affiliation with the uplands may be the result of its nectarivorous feeding habits, which have allowed it to subsist on the nectar of the abundant native palm, and it may also be excluded from the lowlands by competition with other native passerines (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007513		population	eng	Engbring and Pratt (1985) estimated a population size of 31,623 individuals, which is rounded here to 31,600.
106007513		threats	eng	Overall, there was a reduction of undisturbed upland forest on Pohnpei of over 60% from 1975 to 1995 (Buden 1996, 2000, B. Raynor <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 2012). The majority of the island's forests have been to various degrees converted or at least degraded to mixed forest (native species mixed with lowland secondary species), largely attributable to the cultivation of sakau (= kava) <em>Piper methysticum</em>, a major cash-crop (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012). The fragmentation of such forest by sakau clearings also introduces and encourages the spread of invasive species in isolated areas throughout the forest. Although efforts over the past 20 years to reduce the amount of clear-cutting for sakau plantations have resulted in the slowing of native forest conversion rates, the trend remains negative (B. Raynor <em>in litt. </em>2012). Long-standing tradition and custom surround the use of sakau, but this has given way to more widespread recreational use with the result that clear-cutting 1-2 ha plots for sakau has increased in recent years, reaching to the edge of cloud forest at c.600 m in some areas (Buden 2000)<strong></strong>.  Since it is a single island endemic it is also at risk from to the accidental introduction of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis.</em><br/>   <p></p>
106007514		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known, although a stamp featuring the species was issued by the Republic of Naurau in 2005. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish the current population size and trends. Protect suitable habitat, including native forest on Polle and above 250 m on Mt Winipot (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Promote local awareness of this endemic species through an education programme (J. Lepson<em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007514		distribution	eng	<em>Rukia ruki</em> has a tiny occupied range (c.4 km<sup>2</sup>) being recorded from four tiny islands in the Faichuk Group of the Chuuk (= Truk) lagoon, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong> (numbers in brackets after each island indicate estimated population in 1984): Tol South (382), Wonei (19), Pata (32) and Polle (93) (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The population is still thought to number in the hundreds (G.<strong> </strong>Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2003), and it is described as still common and easily found in native forest on the summit plateau of Tol South (D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Its population is thought to be in slow decline owing to continued habitat degradation.<br/><p></p>
106007514		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in old and secondary-growth stands of native forest, particularly the rich and well-developed forest above 400 m on Mt Winipot (Tol South), where fig trees <em>Ficus</em> spp., native palms <em>Clinostigma</em> spp., <em>Parinarium</em>, <em>Randia</em> and the endemic poison tree <em>Semecarpus kraemeri</em> predominate, the latter possibly playing an important ecological role in the species's survival (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990, C. Collins <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is also found in areas of native trees mixed with plantations (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990, D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but densities are much lower (J. Lepson<em> in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It feeds by foraging for insects in the foliage (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is territorial; breeding has been observed in April, and the only recorded nest was in a <em>S. kraemeri</em> tree, supporting the premise that a commensal and possibly mutual relationship exists between the two species (Pyle and Engbring 1988)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007514		population	eng	The total population in 1984 was estimated at c.530 individuals (Engbring <em>et al. </em>1990), perhaps including c.350 mature individuals. <p></p>
106007514		threats	eng	Deforestation has occurred across much of Chuuk Archipelago, but forests on the plateau of Tol South, where this species lives, are apparently old-growth and relatively undisturbed (C. Collins <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Access to the plateau is difficult (D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) and hence the threat posed to the species is low. In addition, superstitious beliefs apparently inhibit islanders from trying to visit the plateau (C. Collins <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Observations from Tol South suggest that little in the way of logging is now taking place there and that only subsistence-level timber extraction is occurring, owing to the topography of the island and areas of difficult terrain (C. Collins <em>in litt</em>. 2011, D. Scott <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The potential introduction of alien species to the islands is a concern, particularly brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA) (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1990)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  The species is potentially threatened in the future by the effects of projected climate change, such as shifts in habitat distribution and rising sea levels. <br/><p></p>
106007515		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although not directed solely at the conservation of this species, extensive efforts are underway to determine the status of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> on Saipan and should an established population be identified, to control it immediately (N. Hawley <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Efforts are also underway to develop captive breeding techniques for the species. Golden white-eyes were translocated to the island of Sarigan in 2011 and a second translocation is proposed for 2012 (<strong></strong>Berger <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2007 and 2008 a total of 46 birds were taken into captivity as part of the Marianas Avifauna Conservation Plan with the intention of beginning captive breeding in the near future (A. Tieber <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. As of 2010 there are currently 38 chicks dispersed throughout six institutions in the U.S., all developing captive breeding protocols. Two chicks were produced in 2009, though only one survived (A. Tieber <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses (G. Wiles <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Continue to control <em>Boiga irregularis </em>population by trapping at ports and monitor its spread. Develop and implement techniques to control small incipient populations of <em>B. irregularis </em>(F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Continue to develop techniques for establishing a captive population and establish new wild populations, as appropriate (F. Amidon <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Continue to monitor the translocated population on Sarigan.<p></p>
106007515		distribution	eng	<em>Cleptornis marchei</em> is endemic to the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, occurring on Saipan where, in 2007, the population was estimated at 71,997 birds, and on the uninhabited Aguijan (4 km<sup>2</sup>), where the population was estimated at 1,169 birds (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.). Populations on Saipan have declined since 1982 while surveys conducted in 2008 indicate that densities  on Aguijan were significantly greater in 2008 than in 1982 (Camp<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009, Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep). On Saipan, estimated densities from surveys during 1991-1992 were among the highest ever reported for birds (up to 2,095 birds/km<sup>2</sup>), suggesting that numbers were likely to be at carrying capacity for the island (Craig 1996)<strong></strong>.  Island-wide surveys on Saipan in 1997 indicated that the population may  have been declining but no population estimates were calculated (USFWS  1999)<strong></strong>. Population densities were recalculated for 1982 and calculated for surveys conducted in 1997 and 2007 (Camp <em>et al</em>. 2009).&#160; Population densities (birds per km<sup>2</sup> ±SE) on Saipan declined from 1,287.2 ± 191.0 in 1982, 995.5±160.0 in 1997 and 711.8±112.1 in 2007 (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<p></p>
106007515		habitat	eng	On Saipan, it occurs in all wooded habitats, including the native limestone forest (which is restricted to steep slopes and cliffs and covers c. 5% of the island), and introduced tangan tangan <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> thickets on flat lowlands and plateaus (c. 28% of land cover), and also urban areas (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Craig 1990, A. Tieber <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it is decidedly more common in limestone forest than in disturbed areas (Craig 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and higher nesting densities are recorded in limestone forest than tangan tangan thickets (Sachtleben 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages predominantly in the foliage of trees, particularly <em>Cynometra ramifolia</em>, feeding on invertebrates, flying insects, nectar, fruit and flowers and also taking insects from tree bark (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Craig 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is typically seen in small groups of 2-4 individuals, thought to be family groups (A. Tieber <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007515		population	eng	The species occurs on Saipan (71,997 individuals) and Aguijan (1,169 individuals) (Camp<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009, Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.), equating to a global population of c.73,000 individuals.
106007515		threats	eng	The species's ability to utilise different habitats may help to explain its persistence despite periodic typhoon damage and extensive, human-caused habitat change (Craig 1990)<strong></strong>. The potential establishment of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis </em>on Saipan poses a major threat to the population (Rodda and Savidge 2007) and would likely lead to extremely rapid declines, as has been the case amongst the endemic avifauna of Guam (to USA) (A. Saunders <em>in litt.</em> 2003,<strong> </strong>Wiles <em>et al.</em> 2003, Williams 2004)<strong></strong>, but there are no data as yet on predation of the white-eye (A. Tieber <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Aguijan is difficult to get to and it is unlikely that snakes will be accidentally introduced there (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong> - as of 2008 there had been no reports of snakes on the island (A. Tieber <em>in litt.</em> 2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007516		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common within its restricted altitudinal range (Coates et al. 1997).
106007517		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>One recent survey on the island accessed suitable habitat for the species. All known records come from a proposed protected area: Gunung Kelapatmada (M. Poulsen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys in hill and montane forest in the west and east of the island to establish its full distribution, population status and habitat preferences, and to identify the most important areas for its conservation. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Following surveys  determining most important areas for conservation of this and other Buru  endemic species, gazette reserves around key sites.  Support the establishment of the proposed Gunung Kelapatmada protected area.<span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content"><p></p></span>
106007517		distribution	eng	<em>Madanga ruficollis</em> is endemic to the island of Buru in South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from four specimens collected prior to 1920, and recent records from localities in mountains in the west and centre of the island (BirdLife International 2001, Rheindt and Hutchinson 2007). Its total population size is entirely unknown. However, given that the area of habitat available is fairly extensive, at least several hundred birds, and very possibly several thousand, would be expected to survive. Nonetheless, its range is very small, and current evidence indicates that it is either highly elusive, very localised, or occurs at very low densities.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007517		habitat	eng	The birds seen in 1995 were following a mixed-species feeding flock in  montane forest, and climbing up and down mossy tree-trunks in the manner  of nuthatches <em>Sitta</em> spp. It has been recorded between 820 m and 1,750 m; however, it is suspected to also occur at higher elevations, and it is possible that the lower elevation of 820 m is erroneous, as the species appears to be strongly tied to montane forest (Rheindt and Hutchinson 2007, R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements.<p></p>
106007517		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on the analysis by BirdLife International (2001) that the population numbers at least several hundred, and very possibly several thousands. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007517		threats	eng	This bird is primarily at risk owing to its highly restricted range and, based on current evidence, apparent natural scarcity. Thus, although montane forests on Buru are still largely undisturbed, even a small perturbation of its habitat might have serious consequences, and none of its habitat currently receives formal protection. Some habitat destruction is thought to be on-going as a result of logging and conversion to small-scale agriculture; however, montane forest is less threatened compared to that in lowland areas (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106007518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common at higher altitudes (MacKinnon 1988).
106007519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106007520		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is described as fairly common but local.
106007521		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106007522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common but local (Coates et al. 1997).
106007523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in moist primary forest and uncommon to rare in degraded forest, tall secondary forest, lightly wooded cultivation and scrub (Coates et al. 1997).
106007524		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally quite common.
106007525		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007526		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Designate areas of suitable habitat as protected areas.   <p></p>
106007526		distribution	eng	<em>Heleia muelleri</em> is restricted to Timor, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it is generally uncommon and local, although it can be moderately common in ideal habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
106007526		habitat	eng	This species occurs up to 1,300 m in monsoon forest. It appears to favour lower-lying areas with closed-canopy forest, and may not persist in secondary habitats.  <p></p>
106007526		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon and local.
106007526		threats	eng	The closed-canopy forests inhabited by this species are constantly diminishing in extent as a result of logging, clearance for agriculture and mining activities.  <p></p>
106007527		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common above 1600 m (Smythies 1999).
106007528		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).
106007529		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Protect significant areas of primary forest on Nendo. Research its tolerance of logged and degraded forest. Support the islanders in their "ecoforestry" schemes.   <p></p>
106007529		distribution	eng	<em>Woodfordia lacertosa</em> is endemic to Nendo (505 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Santa Cruz islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. The population size is not known, but the very few observations on this island suggest that it is uncommon in degraded forest (Gibbs 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs 1997, <strong></strong><strong></strong>T. Leary <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <em> <p></p></em>
106007529		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, favouring primary forest but also occurring in degraded and secondary forests with some remaining large trees (Dutson 2011).   <p></p>
106007529		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon to fairly common.
106007529		threats	eng	Whilst there still appears to be large areas of closed-canopy forest on Nendo, this species would be threatened by any large-scale logging. There are no current plans for commercial logging on Nendo where the inhabitants presently favour small-scale "ecoforestry" schemes (G. Dutson pers. obs 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007530		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations to determine trends.  Conserve important areas of habitat on both islands.  Ensure <em>B. irrelgualris </em>does not reach Ngeruktabl and Peleliu.   <p></p>
106007530		distribution	eng	<em>Megazosterops palauensis</em> has a peculiar distribution in <strong>Palau, </strong>occurring on<strong> </strong>the islands of<strong> </strong>Ngeruktabl and Peleliu only (Engbring 1988,<strong></strong> Engbring 1992)<strong></strong>. In 1991, its total population was estimated at 13,876 birds <strong></strong>(Engbring 1992). Considering its abundance on these two islands, its absence on similar, nearby islands is puzzling<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007530		habitat	eng	It is found in limestone forest, in dense vines and introduced tangan-tangan <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> thickets (Engbring 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007530		population	eng	Engbring (1992) estimated the total population to number 13,876 individuals, which is rounded here to 13,900 individuals. This is roughly equivalent to 9,200-9,300 mature individuals.
106007530		threats	eng	The species could be declining owing to slow habitat loss. Given its small range, it is at risk from the possible accidental introduction of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA).<em> <p></p></em>
106007531		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007532		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007535		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).
106007536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to very common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in remaining forest patches on Timor and common on Wetar (Coates et al. 1997).
106007538		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common bird above 2,000 m (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).
106007539		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common (Baker 1997), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and locally abundant (Baker 1997).
106007541		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   fairly common and locally abundant. The species is reported to be abundant on   Oahu where it was introduced (Pratt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987, Baker   1997). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &gt; c.10,000   individuals on migration and &gt; c.10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but in its non-breeding range, the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common. Race <em>restricta</em> is now considered to be extinct. The introduced populations on Hawaii are now considered to be common to abundant on Oahu and spreading to other islands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007543		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007545		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its single-island range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007546		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common but frequently overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007547		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common on Sumatra, uncommon on Borneo, locally not uncommon on Java and Bali, common on Timor, less common on Lombok and locally common on Palawan (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995, Coates <I>et al</I>. 1997, Kennedy <I>et al</I>. 2000). National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally abundant on Sumatra, fairly common to locally common on Borneo, uncommon on Java, Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa; widespread and common on Timor except the east of the island and common on mount Mantalingajan, Palawan (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007549		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends and rates of habitat loss on Yamenda. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of primary forest and safeguard against future threats.  <p></p>
106007549		distribution	eng	<em>Cettia carolinae</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is found only on Yamenda in the Tanimbar Islands. It is common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106007549		habitat	eng	This species is common in the dense undergrowth of primary and secondary forests and scrub.   <p></p>
106007549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is poorly documented but reputedly scarce (Baker 1997).
106007549		threats	eng	There has been significant logging in the south of Yamenda. This species's tolerance of secondary habitats suggests that it may not be at great risk at present.   <p></p>
106007550		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007551		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007553		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (BirdLife International 2004).
106007554		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 600,000-1,600,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,800,000-4,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3670,000-19,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007556		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its habitat is protected in Lopé National Park and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Both Nki and Lobéké Reserves are likely to receive national park status in the near future (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to determine the extent of suitable <em>Rhynchospora</em> habitat within its probable range and estimate its population densities. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor potential threats to its habitat. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Carry out research into the species's ecology and behaviour.   <p></p>
106007556		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus grandis</em> is known from a total of eight localities in south-eastern <strong>Cameroon,</strong> <strong>Central African Republic</strong> (where it has been discovered in Dzangha-Ndoki National Park in the extreme south [P. Christy <em>per</em> F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000]<strong></strong>), and <strong>Gabon</strong>. It was previously thought rare and restricted but since its vocalisations have become known it has been recorded with greater frequency; in addition its preferred swamp habitat does not appear rare, but rather inaccessible and little visited. In Cameroon, one pair was recently recorded in the Nki Reserve (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000a)<strong></strong>, nine territories were identified in Lobéké (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000a)<strong></strong> where a population of at least 100 pairs is estimated (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000a)<strong></strong>, and it is known from Bitye (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. In Gabon, it is known from, Mimongo and M'Bigou in the Massif du Chaillu (Urban <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong></strong>, from the Lopé National Park and most recently from Langhoué where at least eight singing birds were recorded (Fontaine 2003)<strong></strong>. It was previously thought rare in Gabon, but is now thought to be more common and widespread in the north of Gabon as suitable habitat there is extensive (P. Christy <em>in litt</em>. 1994, 1999, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Fontaine 2003)<strong></strong>. There are reportedly hundreds of suitable areas of <em>Rhynchospora</em> swamp in the forests of south-east Cameroon, eastern Gabon, northern Congo, and southern Central African Republic, but most are not easily accessible, and this is likely to explain the paucity of records (Fontaine 2003)<strong></strong>.      <p></p>
106007556		habitat	eng	It is found at 400-800 m and was thought to be a bird of contact zones between forest and open areas such as savannas and river borders, also occurring in tall elephant grass <em>Pennisetum</em><strong></strong> (Urban <em>et al. </em>1997). However, recent research indicates that it is only found in dense sedges of <em>Rhynchospora corymbosa</em>, thus restricting it to small, isolated swamps in the forest zone (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2000a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its feeding and breeding ecology are unknown (Urban <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007556		population	eng	Fontaine (2003) suggests its population is 'not more than a few thousand individuals', and so it is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals here. This is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106007556		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by forest clearance accompanied by the drainage of adjacent swamps (Urban <em>et al. </em>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, this is not believed to be a threat at present.  <p></p>
106007557		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in river systems in central and eastern Rwanda (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007558		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Uganda, Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park is well protected, and since 2004 the RSPB and NatureUganda have been working to conserve Echuya Forest Reserve (Arinaitwe 1996, T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Mwambu 1999, Anon. 2011)<strong></strong>. Work at Echuya has included development of a management plan, Collaborative Forest Management arrangements, planting of tree and bamboo seedlings to reduce pressure on the forest, income-generating activities to improve local livelihoods, environmental education, local empowerment, training and capacity-building, and watershed management (Anon. 2011). In Rwanda, reports suggest that Nyungwe Forest Reserve has suffered little encroachment recently, due to human emigration following conflict in the area (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. In DRC, the only protected swamps are in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and on Mt Tshiaberimu, and the former area is not secure (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Since July 2006, a team have been monitoring the species in the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. An international and two national (Uganda and Rwanda) action plans have been developed for the species (Anon. 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor the species's population across its range. Monitor habitat trends across the species's range. Ensure the continued protection of Rugezi Swamp in Rwanda (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. Continue to assess the current status of the main swamp areas in Nyungwe Forest. Confirm its absence from the Itombwe massif (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue to search for nests and carry out research into its breeding biology in order to aid surveys and habitat management (P.K. Ndang'ang'a <em>per</em> Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007558		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus graueri</em> is found in <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) and south-western <strong>Uganda</strong>. In Rwanda, it occurs in Rugezi Swamp (Vande Weghe 1983)<strong></strong> (probably the largest subpopulation), in the marshes between the Virunga volcanos (Vande Weghe 1983)<strong></strong>, and in Nyungwe (Rugege) Forest (Vande Weghe 1983, Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong></strong>. In Burundi, in 1984, the national population was estimated at only c.10 pairs, however at least 30 singing birds were estimated from Mwokora, Kibira National Park, in 2011 (Anon. 2011). In the DRC, it is known from at least six locations west of Lakes Edward and Kivu (Chapin 1953, Friedmann and Williams 1968, T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In Uganda, it occurs in Echuya Forest Reserve (the 700 ha Muchuya swamp formerly thought to hold large numbers, but c.50 pairs estimated here by Ellison [2009]) and Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (c.400 birds) (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 1996, T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The density at Kamiranzovu Swamp, Nyungwe, is about 13 birds per ha based on surveys of singing birds (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The swamp is c.25 km<sup>2</sup>, resulting in an estimate of 33,000 birds at this site alone (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The species's total area of occupancy is probably c.200-250 km<sup>2</sup> <strong></strong>(Arinaitwe 1996, Mwambu 1999). <p></p>
106007558		habitat	eng	It is found in a wide variety of montane marshes, usually dominated by grass or sedge (Chapin 1953, Vande Weghe 1983, Dowsett-Lemaire 1990, Mwambu 1999)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small beetles, caterpillars, spiders and small seeds (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is monogamous and territorial. In Uganda there was some evidence of breeding activity in February-May (Mwambu 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it may breed in March in the eastern DRC (Chapin 1953)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At least two nests have been found in Rwanda; one in Rugezi Swamp and the other in Kabatwa Swamp in the Volcanoes National Park (Anon. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The latter was described as a small cup-shaped nest constructed from <em>Poa leptocrada</em> and other sedges, and perched in foliage 35 cm above the ground (C. Nsabagasani<em> per </em>Anon. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007558		population	eng	The density at Kamiranzovu Swamp, Nyungwe, is about 13 birds per ha based on surveys of singing birds; the swamp is c.25km<SUP>2</SUP>, resulting in an estimate of 33,000 birds at this site alone (A. Plumptre<I> in litt</I>. 2007). Therefore the total population is conservatively estimated to be somewhere in the range 20,000-49,000 individuals.
106007558		threats	eng	Rugezi Swamp was formerly unprotected and was being encroached by agriculture and progressively degraded by cutting and burning of vegetation during the dry season (Kanyamibwa 2001)<strong></strong>. However, it is now better protected as it supplies water to the hydroelectric dam at Lake Bulera, which provides power to Kilagi (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Following power cuts in 2005-2006, the government has moved people away from the swamp to ensure the protection of this water supply (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Marsh habitat in Nyungwe Forest was formerly threatened by gold-mining, but by 1989 this threat had disappeared (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong></strong>. In DRC, many parts of the range are densely settled and many montane marshes have been drained for cultivation or pasture (Sarmiento and Butynski 1997)<strong></strong>. In Burundi habitat at Mwokora is threatened by cutting for mats and thatching, and other valley swamps in Kibira National Park are threatened by encroaching agriculture (Anon. 2011). A climate change modelling exercise identified the species as one of the Albertine Rift endemics likely to be most severely affected by climate change (Anon. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106007559		distribution	eng	This taxon comprises two subspecies. The nominate is known from west Ethiopia at Didessa (Shoa Province), Bulcha forest (Sidamo Province) and Gambela, south Sudan, from Gilo where is was frequent in 1997, the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, from the plateau west of Lake Albert and Rwenzoris south to the mountains north-west of Baraka, Bunia (Ituri District), Nyangabo (South Lendu plateau) and Lwiro and Dipidi in Upemba National Park, although it may also occur in the south-east of the country, and west Uganda, at Bugoma Forest and Mubuku Valley. Subspecies kungwensis occurs in west Tanzania at Mount Kungwe and Mount Mahari, with an isolated population in Mwinilunga District, north-west Zambia, and is rare and localized throughout its range, although the reasons for its rarity remain obscure (Urban et al. 1997, Collar and Stuart 1985).
106007559		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide variety of habitats, mainly bamboo but also areas of high grass and dense cover both in and outside forest and in forest edge, from 1,100-2,300 m, and from 525-1,260 m in Ethiopia (Sibley and Monroe 1990, Urban et al. 1997). In the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia it occurs in a complex mosaic of riverine marshland, Combretum/Terminalia savanna, crops, and mixed deciduous woodland, also occurring near villages (Urban et al. 1997). In Sudan it inhabits grassy secondary growth and in Zambia moist evergreen forest (Urban et al. 1997). Its breeding ecology is unknown (Urban et al. 1997). It keeps to the ground stratum, mainly below 1.5 m, feeding on insects (Urban et al. 1997).
106007559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and localised throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007560		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Table Mountain subpopulation falls within the boundaries of the Cape Peninsula Protected Natural Environment, but a large proportion occurs in suburbia. It is also frequently recorded in the Tsitsikamma National Park, and the scarce Eastern Cape population probably occurs at Dwesa and Cwebe Nature Reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct thorough surveys of singing males in the breeding season to clarify distribution and abundance. Conduct research into its habitat preferences, reproductive capacity and dispersal. Assess genetic divergence between the widely separated Eastern and Southern Cape races. Preserve suitable native habitat. Prevent clearance of non-native brambles, if this will negatively affect core populations. <p></p>
106007560		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus sylvaticus</em> is endemic to <strong>South Africa</strong>, being restricted to remnant forest patches in coastal regions of the Eastern and Western Cape. The population is highly fragmented, with four main isolated subpopulations. These are concentrated upon: the coast between Port St Johns and Dwesa Nature Reserve, the Southern Cape, from Tsitsikamma to Sedgefield, the south slopes of the Langeberg Mountains, near Swellendam, and the east slopes of Table Mountain. It also formerly occurred around Durban. Estimates of a population of hundreds of thousands in 1992 have been revised by the paucity of atlas records, which strongly suggest that it is far rarer, and probably numbers c.2,500 individuals. Some of the atlas data may, however, be misleading as the area between Durban and East London in the former Transkei was not well covered, giving the impression of a discontinuous distribution<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(N. Smith<em> in litt</em>. 2007). The small and most westerly population, located on the Cape Peninsula and now isolated by urbanisation, is believed to have halved in size since the late 1980s and may now number as few as 25-30 pairs (Pryke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
106007560		habitat	eng	It typically occurs in thick, tangled vegetation along the banks of watercourses, or covering drainage lines in fynbos forest patches, or on the edges of afromontane forest. It occurs at the base of vegetation, and appears to frequently forage on the ground. It has adapted well to thickets of non-native brambles <em>Rubus</em>, and on the Cape Peninsula has retreated from natural, protected forests and colonised narrow belts of suburban riverine woodland, which may provide the dense understorey vegetation which appears critical for nesting (Pryke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Despite this, there are absolutely no records of range extension, suggesting that it either has very poor dispersal ability or very poor reproductive capacity.<br/><p></p>
106007560		population	eng	The paucity of atlas records strongly suggests that it is far rarer than previously thought, and probably numbers c.2,500 individuals. Some of the atlas data may, however, be misleading as the area between Durban and East London in the former Transkei was not well covered, giving the impression of a discontinuous distribution (N. Smith <I>in litt.</I> 2007), thus it is probably best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007560		threats	eng	Habitat loss, which resulted in the demise of the Durban population, is the primary threat and is largely a result of clearance of coastal forests. Burning of fire-breaks adjacent to forests is also causing habitat loss, and may prevent uncontrollable wildfires - like those recently on the Cape Peninsula - which could burn substantial areas of habitat. Conversely, the lack of a natural fire regime may also prove detrimental, as fynbos vegetaion may eventually become replaced by forest and the understorey vegetation required for nesting may become more sparse (Pryke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Removal of non-native brambles, the subject of several eradication campaigns, may ironically have negative impacts. Inbreeding depression may become a problem, particularly in the tiny, fragmented Eastern Cape subpopulation. <p></p>
106007561		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007563		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007564		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most highland areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007567		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys during periods of peak vocal activity in order to determine its distribution and status. Collect ecological data in order to understand its habitat requirements and identify potential threats. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against degradation. Work with pastoralists to adapt land use practices to favour the species. <p></p>
106007567		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus major</em> occurs in the western Himalayas, in Xinjiang, western <strong>China</strong> (very rare, occurring in the Kunlun Mountains of Xinjiang and west Tibet) and the eastern Pamir mountains in Tajikistan (perhaps only a vagrant), northern <strong>Pakistan</strong> (few recent records and distribution imperfectly known) and north-west <strong>India</strong> (fairly common, but extremely local). Its range is apparently contracting in Kashmir, possibly owing to changes in agricultural practices. This species is poorly known and infrequently recorded, although this is at least in part due to its highly secretive behaviour and the current inaccessibility of its range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007567		habitat	eng	This species breeds from 2,400-3,600 m (probably moving downslope in winter to 1,200 m) on open slopes in terraced cultivation, low thorny scrub, rank grass and bracken, often near forest edges.   <p></p>
106007567		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather scarce (Baker 1997).
106007567		threats	eng	Agricultural expansion and overgrazing (especially by goats), as well as firewood cutting, are likely to threaten this species in many parts of the range.  <p></p>
106007568		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common (Baker 1997), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in China and &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and possibly &lt;   c.1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007569		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007571		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A core population is protected within Horton Plains National Park  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to assess its current distribution and abundance, as well as identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007571		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus palliseri </em>is an endemic resident in <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>. It occupies a small range, within which it is apparently rare. However, it is very unobtrusive, and has been found to be fairly common in suitable habitat.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007571		habitat	eng	This species inhabits grassy hollows or margins, preferably with bamboo or <span style="font-style: italic;">Strobilanthes </span>intermixed, within or adjacent to forests with dense undergrowth or wet oak forest, particularly above 1,500 m, but also recorded down to 350 m.   <p></p>
106007571		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007571		threats	eng	Forest habitats within the range are currently being affected by clearance for agriculture and logging, although this is occurring only at very low rates. However, should fragmentation or degradation increase, as seems to be the case at lower altitudes, its threat status could increase rapidly.  <p></p>
106007572		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a familiar bird between 2,000 m and 3,600 m (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).
106007573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its preferred altitudinal range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007574		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common though elusive or uncommon (Morris and Hawkins 1998, Sinclair and Langrand 1998).
106007575		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar.
106007575		habitat	eng	The species is found in montane rainforest. It feeds on small insects while foraging close to the ground among dense damp herbaceous growth, often running in preference to flying (Morris and Hawkins 1998). Although a very shy, skulking species which can be difficult to detect, it is fairly common in suitable habitat within the altitudinal range of 800-2,500 m (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106007575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007575		threats	eng	Forest destruction, for subsistence agriculture and commercial logging, may cause the population to rapidly decline in the future.
106007576		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor deforestation and forest degradation across its range. Protect suitable habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106007576		distribution	eng	<em>Bathmocercus cerviniventris</em> has a fragmented range from <strong>Guinea</strong> (one record from Sérédou but locally common on the Ziama Massif [Bützler 1996]<strong><sup></sup></strong>; also recorded from Pic de Fon and Mont Bero Forest Reserves [H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (the Nimini Hills, Kono district, also Sandaru and probably Kankordu, and the Kangari Hills [Okoni-Williams&#160;<em></em>2001]<strong></strong>, but apparently highly local [P. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (from the coast to the northern highlands, being frequent on Mt Nimba) (Gatter 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> (Mt Nimba and Sipilou in the west, Taï National Park where its preferred habitat is rare [Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Marahoué National Park [P. Christy <em>per </em>L. D. C. Fishpool verbally 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Gagnoa and Lamto in the south), and <strong>Ghana</strong> (very few records). In Côte d'Ivoire, future surveys may well locate the species in Mt Peko National Park and mountains east of Mt Nimba (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1997, in Liberia, on the basis of survey density estimates, the population was calculated to be at least 60,000 pairs (Gatter 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; however, throughout much of its range it would appear to have an extremely local distribution.   <p></p>
106007576		habitat	eng	It is found in dense secondary vegetation bordering small creeks and rivers in various forest types (primary and secondary forest, swamp forest, gallery forest, sub-montane forest) and, more rarely, lowland forest (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gatter 1997, Urban <em>et al</em>.<strong> </strong>1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the Ziama Massif, Guinea, it occurs in humid, open sites near old clearings within mature forest (Bützler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages near the ground, always in pairs, on invertebrates (Bützler 1996, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A recently-fledged chick was observed in Sierra Leone during late June, suggesting laying in May (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007576		threats	eng	Due to its specific habitat requirements the species is probably not at high risk from lowland commercial logging activities. However, such logging will affect adjoining habitat and may cause disturbance, as well as potentially damaging catchment areas and affecting habitat through run-off (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007577		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007578		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Uluguru forests are included in the Uluguru Nature Reserve (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. There are two water PES projects doing some agricultural work and also a reforestation project by WCST in the Bunduki gap (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<strong></strong>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a survey to estimate its population size and range. Establish a scheme to monitor trends in its population and range. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Continue to involve local people in forest management practices that will benefit the species.  <p></p>
106007578		distribution	eng	<em>Bathmocercus winifredae</em> is found in four mountain forests in eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In the Uluguru and Ukaguru Mountains, it is widespread within a very narrow altitudinal belt (Evans and Anderson 1993, Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong></strong>, although the density of territories is variable (Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong></strong>, while in the Udzungwas there is a single record from Mwanihana Forest, where it has not been recorded since the late 1980s, despite much searching (J. Fjeldså<em> in litt</em>. 2007, 2012, L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007), and the sole record is now thought to have probably been an error<strong></strong> (J. Fjeldså<em> in litt</em>. 2012). In Ukwiva Forest Reserve (100 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Rubeho Mountains, between the Udzungwas and Ukagurus, the species was found to be fairly common (Fjeldså <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, but probably localised and patchy in occurrence (J. Fjeldså<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007578		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey of montane forest, and prefers disturbed areas where there is very dense undergrowth or lush herbaceous vegetation, e.g. natural clearings, near streams, areas disturbed by landslides, elephants and buffalo (Fjeldså <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, and even heavily disturbed, low forest (Fjeldså <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. It is often trapped in mist-nets at 1-1.5 m above the ground (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates. The breeding season is from October to March, but the nest and clutch-size are not known to science. <p></p>
106007578		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106007578		threats	eng	Extremely inaccessible terrain within the Uluguru Nature Reserve has protected the main montane forest block in the Ulugurus, but forest here only covers c.120 km<sup>2</sup> and the lower slopes are being steadily cleared for farming (J. Fjeldså<em> in litt</em>. 2007, N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012)<strong></strong>. Most parts of the Rubeho mountains have high human populations and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland on the slopes is maintained by frequent burning&#160; (Bowie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>; the highlands may have been more extensively cleared in the past (J. Fjeldså<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Bowie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Forest reserves in the Ukagurus are protected by their inaccessibility. While the species depends entirely on forest for its survival, it may tolerate considerable human disturbance in the forest interior as long as dense herbaceous vegetation is allowed to regenerate (J. Fjeldså<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, since clearings are its natural habitat (Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007579		distribution	eng	<em>Nesillas aldabrana </em>was endemic to Ile Malabar, Aldabra, <strong>Seychelles</strong> (Hambler <em>et al</em>. 1985). The species was only discovered in 1967<strong> </strong>(Benson and Penny 1968), and the last records were in 1983 when it seemed only males remained<strong> </strong>(Hambler <em>et al</em>. 1985, Skerrett and Disley 2011). Intensive fruitless searches in 1986<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994) and 2003-2004<strong> </strong>(Anon 2006) confirmed that the species was extinct<strong> </strong>(Roberts 1987). <p></p>
106007579		habitat	eng	It inhabited dense coastal vegetation.  <p></p>
106007579		threats	eng	There is little suitable habitat on Aldabra, which is likely to have played a part in its extinction. It is likely that rat and cat predation was more important though, as well as degradation of its habitat by tortoises and goats<strong> </strong>(Hambler <em>et al</em>. 1985, Skerrett and Disley 2011). <p></p>
106007580		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007583		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007584		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007585		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout the north tropical Guinean savannah belt and less common and localised throughout the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007587		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007588		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 50,000-100,000 breeding pairs, equating to   150,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe   forming &lt;5% of the global range. National population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in   China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in   Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007589		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 0.84-2.2 million breeding pairs, equating to 2.52-6.6 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3.41-13.2 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007590		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant (Baker 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007591		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common and locally abundant (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea;  &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt;   c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs   and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007592		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. One of its wintering sites is protected at the Mai Po Marshes Nature Reserve, which is also included inside the Mai Po Marshes Ramsar Site. A long-term ringing programme at this site has contributed to knowledge of its winter habitat requirements and abundance.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey small islands within its potential breeding range and suitable habitat within its wintering range to clarify its population, distribution, habitat requirements and threats. Extend the boundaries of the Far Eastern Marine Reserve, in Peter the Great Bay (Russia), to include islets where it breeds. Strengthen protection of buffer zones around Mai Po Marshes Nature Reserve and control development where possible. <p></p>
106007592		distribution	eng	<em>Locustella pleskei</em> is a localised breeder on small islands in Peter the Great Bay in the extreme south of far eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, the Izu Islands and islands off Kyushu, <strong>Japan</strong>, and islands off <strong>South Korea</strong> and probably North Korea. It has also recently been recorded breeding on islands of the coast of eastern <strong>China</strong> (Qiao <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006), where it also occurs as a passage migrant, and presumably winters in coastal wetlands in south China, although the only confirmed records are from <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China). Recent winter sightings in north-eastern <strong>Vietnam </strong>suggest that this may also be a significant wintering area (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. The population is unlikely to be more than a few thousand individuals, although it is poorly known, as many offshore islands remain unsurveyed and it is relatively difficult to detect. <p></p>
106007592		habitat	eng	It breeds in open, wet areas of thick grasses and reeds and in areas of low bushes. In its wintering range, birds have been found in extensive reedbeds, low shrubs near reedbeds and mangroves. It probably holds territories in winter. On the Izu Islands, it breeds from May-June with clutch-sizes ranging from 3 to 6 eggs. It is skulking and reluctant to fly.<p></p>
106007592		population	eng	The global   population size is 'unlikely to be much more than a few thousand individuals'   (BirdLife International 2001), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in China;   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009). The total population is placed in the band   2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded   here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007592		threats	eng	The main threats are likely to be habitat loss and degradation, although the extent to which these are affecting it is currently unclear. Degradation of wintering habitat may not be of high concern, as the species is known to occur in a fragment of degraded mangrove forest in Vietnam; however, better quality habitat has not been adequately sampled for comparison (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In Russia, and possibly North Korea, the large-scale Tumangan Project could lead to increased human disturbance and pollution, possibly affecting islands where it breeds. A camping ground or marine park is planned for Toga Point on Miyake-jima (Izu Islands), which would destroy an important area of habitat. A volcanic eruption on Myiake-jima in 2000 led to a halving of the population on that island (Fujita <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. There is continued extensive loss of wetlands in its wintering range and the reedbeds in Deep Bay, Hong Kong, may be one of the largest areas of such habitat left in south China. Illegal trapping using mist-nets is common in some coastal areas in China during migration seasons and probably results in some mortality in this species (Liu Yang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106007593		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,900,000-4,600,000 breeding pairs, equating to 5,700,000-13,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 6,060,000-18,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007594		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 530000-800000 breeding pairs, equating to 1590000-2400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2150000-4800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007595		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common (BirdLife International 2004), while national population   estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000   wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan   and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007596		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 150000-300000 breeding pairs, equating to 450000-900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 918000-3600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007597		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in all countries of its breeding range except Ukraine and Russia (U. Malashevich <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). All key breeding sites in Belarus, Germany, Hungary and Poland are located within protected areas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999, U. Malashevich <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Habitat is actively managed in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, Hungary and Germany. All breeding range states but Russia have monitoring programmes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999, M. Flade and L. Lachmann <em>in litt. </em>2007). A study to identify the wintering range of the species was conducted in 2007 (Flade 2008). Studies on halting succession have been conducted in Belarus, Poland and Ukraine (M. Kalyakin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A European action plan was published in 1996 and updated in 1998, 2003 and 2008 (Flade and Lachmann<em> </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The species was put into agenda of the Conference of Parties for the CMS in November 2011, where a special resolution on African-Eurasian landbirds was adopted, which applies to Aquatic Warbler (U. Malashevich<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2011).<br/>    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement a monitoring programme in Russia. Protect key breeding sites and develop management plans. Promote protection of the species and its habitat in wintering areas and along the migration route. Ensure full legal protection. <p></p>
106007597		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus paludicola</em> breeds across a highly fragmented range at fewer than 50 regular breeding sites in the following countries, with numbers given of singing males between 2002 and 2011: <strong>Poland</strong>, 2,670-3,850; <strong>Belarus</strong>, 3,940-6,300; <strong>Ukraine</strong>, 2,000-4,600; <strong>Germany</strong>, fewer than 25, and <strong>Lithuania</strong>, 110-309 (M. Flade and L. Lachmann <em>in litt. </em>2007, U. Malashevich <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On migration, it has been recorded in c.15 European countries, mainly in the west and southwest of the continent (U. Malashevich <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It winters in the Sahelian belt of sub-Saharan West Africa, mainly along the lower Senegal River, where it was discovered in January 2007 within and to the north of Djoudj National Park (Bargain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Flade 2008, U. Malashevich <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and in 2011 found in smaller wetlands in south-west Mauritania and at the inner Niger Delta in Mali (U. Malashevich <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Two-thirds of the known population has been discovered since 1995, and the total population is estimated at 12,100-14,700 singing males. Since 1970, it is likely to have declined significantly as a result of the destruction of 80-90% of its habitat in the river systems of upper Pripyat, Yaselda (Belarus) and Biebrza/Narew (Poland). These systems hold approximately 75% of the European population<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Owing to extensive conservation projects, the decline has been stopped in its central European strongholds in eastern Poland, Belarus and Ukraine, but continues in the Pomeranian population of northwest Poland and northeast Germany. In Hungary, the population collapsed in 2002-2007<strong></strong>. The tiny Siberian population is on the brink of extinction and has probably already disappeared, in which case the species has become a European endemic breeder (M. Flade and L. Lachmann <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007597		habitat	eng	It breeds in large open lowland marsh habitats with low grassy vegetation (mostly sedge fen mires) with water mostly less than 10 cm deep<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999)<strong></strong>. It winters in similar habitats (the grassy saline <em>Scirpus, Eleocharis </em>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryza</span><em> </em>marshes of the Senegal and Niger deltas) and, on migration, favours coastal habitats with low stands of sedge and reed near open water (Flade <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).  <p></p>
106007597		population	eng	The population is estimated at 11,000-16,000 singing males (M. Flade <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), equivalent to 22,000-32,000 mature individuals or 33,000-48,000 individuals in total.
106007597		threats	eng	The most important threats are loss of breeding habitat owing to drainage for agriculture and peat extraction, damming of floodplains, unfavourable water management and the canalisation of rivers<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>. Habitat degradation is widespread where traditional fen management has ceased allowing succession to unsuitable overgrown reedbed, scrub or woodland<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999). Commercial reed cutting can maintain suitable breeding habitat for the species in central Europe, but this is threatened by changes that are likely to occur along with the implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (Tanneberger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Uncontrolled fires in spring and summer pose a direct threat to birds and nests, and can burn out the upper peat layer of fens<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999). In the wintering grounds, agricultural cultivation and irrigation (creation of rice and sugar cane plantations), drought, wetland drainage, intensive grazing, succession to scrub, desertification and salinisation of irrigated soils are all potential threats<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Aquatic Warbler Conservation Team 1999, M. Flade and L. Lachmann <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Recent work has suggested the species may have suffered disproportionately from radiation following the Chernobyl disaster, though the reasons for this are unclear (I. Burfield <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106007598		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,400,000-7,400,000 breeding pairs, equating to 13,200,000-22,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17,800,000-44,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007599		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. All bird species are legally protected in the Philippines. Candaba Marsh has been proposed as a Ramsar Site and education material has been prepared; however, most habitat there has now been converted (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A four-day survey by a team from the Wild Bird Club of the Philippines (WBCP) and the Wetland Trust was conducted at Candaba in late April 2008, with the aim of locating the species; however, it was not recorded and the survey documented a lack of extensive suitable habitat (Round 2008, P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). The species had been recorded a few days before the survey, representing the first confirmed record there for seven years. A mist-netting survey was carried out at Candaba and other wetland sites in March 2009 in which one individual of this species was trapped and subsequently appears to have been the first published record of moult in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sorghophilus</span> (Round and Allen 2010). An expedition to Dalton Pass in October 2009 did not record the species (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>Sykes 2009). WCBP have been working to encourage the local government of Candaba to raise awareness amongst local communities and stop the burning of vegetation (M. C. Lu <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Attempt to locate the breeding areas in north-east China and adjacent areas of Russia, particularly using call-playback; survey wetlands in the Philippines to try and locate further wintering sites; and initiate a new ringing programme at Dalton Pass and other migrant trapping locations. Investigate whether marshland in the vicinity of Candaba should be included under a Ramsar designation. List it as a protected species in China. <p></p>
106007599		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus sorghophilus</em> occurs on passage in Liaoning, Hebei, Hubei, Jiangsu, Fujian and Beijing in eastern <strong>China</strong>, and <strong>Taiwan </strong>(China), where there are eight confirmed records (Yang Liu <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It winters in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is local and uncommon, with records from Candaba and Dalton Pass (Luzon), although there have been no records from Dalton Pass since 1970 and the species has been very scarce at Candaba since the mid-1990s (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008), despite increasing observer effort (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There has also been an increase in observer effort at migration watch sites in eastern China, but records remain scant (D. Allen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). It is presumed to breed in north-east China, (probably in Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces) and adjacent areas of Russia, namely the Amur region (Kennerley and Pearson 2010), and there was a recent record of a singing male at Muraviovka (Russia) (P. Fabien <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, although a subsequent search of the site failed to find any individuals (<strong></strong>P. Leader <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. There have been very few records of this species on passage since the late 1990s, with only about five noted in Beijing and Hebei during migration seasons in the four-year period 2008-2011 (Yang Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The frequency of records is declining, with 18 sightings of a total of 69 birds in 1981-1990, compared with only 11 sightings of 22 birds in 1991-2007 (Round and Allen 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007599		habitat	eng	On passage, it has been recorded from millet crops and a marsh, and in winter it occurs in reed and grass marsh, often near water. It potentially uses willow scrub and reedbeds in its breeding range (Kennerley and Pearson 2010). It probably feeds largely on invertebrates, and may also consume seeds, although this requires confirmation (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Spring passage in China is from late May to early June and autumn passage from late August to early September. All Philippine records are from September to June.<br/><p></p>
106007599		population	eng	The global population is assumed to be small, i.e. fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, based on lack of known breeding records in China, and hence presumed small breeding range. However, the paucity of records implies that the population could be much smaller than this (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106007599		threats	eng	Habitat destruction on the wintering grounds is likely to be causing a decline. At Candaba, almost all marshland has been destroyed through conversion to rice cultivation and fishponds. In addition, local people there burn reeds and other native vegetation to encourage new shoots for livestock to graze on (P. Round<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2008). The banks of Laguna de Bay are being occupied by settlers and factories so that the reedbeds are becoming highly fragmented and greatly reduced in area and, at Bukal, Laguna, most reedbed has been drained for conversion to poultry-processing factories. The conversion of wetlands for agricultural use in north-eastern China may also be contributing to a population decline (Kennerley and Pearson 2010).<strong></strong><p></p>
106007600		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally numerous (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China;  &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt; c.100,000   breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 470000-880000 breeding pairs, equating to 1410000-2640000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the global range.
106007602		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as a locally fairly common breeder in the western Himalayas; a rare summer visitor in Pakistan and uncommon in South-East Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006). The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106007603		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2700000-5000000 breeding pairs, equating to 8100000-15000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10900000-30000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007605		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,000,000-5,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,000,000-15,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12,200,000-60,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007606		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,200,000-6,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,600,000-20,400,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10,200,000-27,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007607		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1500000-2900000 breeding pairs, equating to 4500000-8700000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9180000-34800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in much of its range, although uncommon in Myanmar and the Philippines (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007609		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. The population in Israel is being monitored intensely and the population in the Lower Marshes of Iraq is also subject to a monitoring program. A large-scale restoration of the Mesopotamian marshes began following the 2003 invasion and successfully reinundated large areas of habitat, however these successes are now threatened by drought and upstream dam projects. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm whether <em>Acrocephalus griseldis </em>breeds in the marshes of Khuzestan, Iran<strong> </strong>(D. Scott<em> in litt. </em>2003<strong style="font-weight: normal;">; </strong>M. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2003<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong>. Continue to monitor migrating birds at Ngulia (Kenya) to assess population trends (D. Scott<em> in litt. </em>2003; D. Pearson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong style="font-weight: normal;">; </strong>M. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2003<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. Conduct surveys to assess whether the species<em> </em>now breeds in sub-optimal habitats, e.g. further up the Euphrates/Tigris north of Baghdad<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>M. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2003<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong><strong></strong>. Investigate possibilities for habitat restoration. <p></p>
106007609		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus griseldis</em> breeds in the Mesopotamian marshes of south-east <strong>Iraq</strong> (between Baghdad and Basra, though also observed in 2006 close to the Tigris north of Baghdad)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Maltby 1994; O. Fadhel <em>in litt. </em>2007) and probably in south-west Iran in the Hawr Al Hawizeh marsh complex of Khuzestan<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. Scott<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, two pairs have recently been found breeding in the Hula Valley, <strong>Israel</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shanni and Labinger 2007). It winters in <strong>Sudan, South Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, south <strong>Somalia</strong>, south-east <strong>Kenya </strong>(Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997), east <strong>Tanzania</strong>, south <strong>Malawi</strong> (few records) and <strong>Mozambique</strong>. It is regular on passage in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> and <strong>Kuwait</strong> (where it may breed)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Porter <em>et al.</em> 1996), and one in Syria in April 2006 was most likely a migrant (Yésou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)<strong></strong>. Although presumably still common in the breeding habitat that remains <strong></strong>(Maltby 1994)<strong></strong>, and thought now to be common locally due to re-flooding of the marshes following the fall of Saddam's government, there was massive loss of its shallow, marshy wetland habitat within its breeding range since the 1950s. The maximum area of suitable habitat that is estimated to remain within the main Mesopotamian marshlands is 759 km<sup>2</sup> (c.7% of the original marshland area, as of the mid-1970s)<strong> </strong>(UNEP 2003). At Ngulia ringing station (Kenya), the average decadal ringing total for this species has been declining over the last three decades relative to the average decadal total for all Palearctic passerine migrants (by c.20% per decade) (D. Pearson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong></strong>. This suggests that a decline of up to 70-80% may have taken place since the 1970s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. Scott<em> in litt. </em>2003<strong></strong>; M. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2003). However, the ringing methodology has changed somewhat during this period (D. Pearson verbally 2000, <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong></strong> and even fewer birds might be expected in Kenya given the very high rate of destruction of the Mesopotamian marshes<strong> </strong>(D. Pearson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong></strong>. Following the regeneration of habitat in southern Iraq, surveys indicate that the species increased between 2006 and 2007<strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>O. Fadhel <em>in litt. </em>2007), and a total of 180 birds ringed at Ngulia in November-December 2005 was the second highest annual total at the site (R. Porter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2006), however it is as yet uncertain&#160; whether the species has undergone a genuine recovery.           <p></p>
106007609		habitat	eng	<em>Acrocephalus griseldis </em>breeds in aquatic vegetation in or around shallow fresh or brackish water, still or flowing, mostly in <em>Typha </em>beds, although it forages extensively in adjacent dense reedbeds <em>Phragmites austoralis</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>O. Fadhel <em>in litt. </em>2007). Newly fledged birds are often observed feeding in <em>Typha </em>along the dry edge of marshes and also in adjacent <em>Tamarix </em>scrub<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>O. Fadhel <em>in litt. </em>2007). It is found in low reeds above water, mangroves and gardens on migration, whilst in winter it has been recorded in dense <em>Typha </em>beds, coastal dense <em>Suaeda monoica </em>saltbushes, moist dense green thickets with tall rank grass and sedges near or over wet or drying ditches, swamps, lakes and flood pools and occasionally in herbaceous woodland undergrowth<strong> </strong>Walther <em>et al </em>2004). It occurs mostly singly or in pairs, but during migration it has been recorded in loose groups (Baker 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007609		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007609		threats	eng	Since the 1950s there has been considerable loss of its shallow, marshy wetland habitat due to large-scale hydrological projects throughout the Euphrates and Tigris river-basins <strong></strong>(Maltby 1994). The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) resulted in extensive damage to reedbeds in the main Mesopotamian marshes in southern Iraq<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Maltby 1994)<strong></strong>. In the 1980s, the construction of upstream dams smoothed out the annual flood pulse from the Zagros Mountains snow-melt which until then was probably an important factor affecting reedbed distribution and growth from year to year<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. Pearson <em>in litt. </em>2003; M. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2003; G. Backhurst <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Large-scale hydrological engineering works in the main Mesopotamian marshes had, by 1993, prevented water from entering up to two-thirds of the area, with huge expanses of lake drying up<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Evans 1993; Pearce 1993). Improvement in access to the region, with consequent increases in settlement, has resulted in increased disturbance and water pollution<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Maltby 1994)<strong></strong>. Until 1997 perhaps as much as one third of the original extent of suitable habitat remained on the Iran-Iraq border where the dominant water supply to the area (unregulated rivers from Iran) had not yet been controlled or reduced<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Maltby 1994). By 2000, however, the main Mesopotamian marshes had been reduced to just 1,294 km<sup>2 <strong></strong></sup><strong></strong>(UNEP 2003), and by 2003 a further third of this area had been drained, leaving a maximum of 759 km<sup>2</sup> of wetland extant<strong><sup> </sup></strong><strong></strong>(UNEP 2003). The amount of suitable reedbed habitat within this wetland area is probably significantly smaller<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>M. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2003<strong style="font-weight: normal;">)</strong>. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq a major project aiming to restore the marshes began, and as of late 2006 58% of the original marshes had been reinundated.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes#cite_note-11"><span></a></sup> However, recent drought and continued upstream dam construction and  operation in Turkey, Syria and Iran have reduced the marshes to around  30% of their original size by 2009 (Anon. 2012).<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes#cite_note-bbcmar-1"><span></span></a></sup> The 130,000 ha Tana River Delta in Kenya, a key wintering site, is <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">threatened by large-scale conversion for agriculture (food and biofuels), including Kenyan based organisations wanting to establish huge sugar cane  plantations on over 70,000 ha of land, companies from  Canada and the UK wanting to grow oil seed crops on over 60,000 ha, possible  mining in the sand dunes and prospecting for oil and gas. <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">Kenya's  National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) approved these  projects after considering their Environmental Impact Assessments, and i<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">f they go ahead they will convert an area of over 110,000 ha<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">  into plantations (RSPB 2012). <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">In 2011 a high level meeting resulted in the launch of the Tana Delta planning  initiative, with the process to take place ofver the forthcoming 18 months and the output to be a long-term strategic land use plan  representing a 'truly sustainable' future to the Delta, informed by  Strategic Environmental Assessment (RSPB 2012). <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32"><span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32"> <p></p></span></span></span>
106007610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007611		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan exists (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998) but there has been little or no active management for the species to date and the milestones in the plan are now out of date. However, provisions to protect habitat and mitigate loss have generally been included in major land development projects. In 1989, a goat removal programme was begun on Aguijan but, by 1995, goat populations had begun to rebound with reduced hunting pressure. Trap lines for snakes are maintained at ports, night searches are conducted and a sniffer dog programme has recently been established. Publicity campaigns were conducted to raise the general awareness of island residents, including port workers, about the dangers of snake colonisation (USFWS 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Repeat surveys have been conducted on Saipan in 1982, 1997 and 2007; on Aguijan in 2000, 2001, 2008, and 2009 <span style="">(USFWS 1998, Esselstyn </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2003, Camp </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009b); and on </span>Alamagan<span style=""> in 2000 and 2010 (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the populations on all three islands (USFWS 1998)<strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Protect Saipan, and also Alamagan, from snake colonisation</span><strong style=""></strong><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Control feral ungulates and predators, including </span><em style="">B. irregularis </em>(USFWS 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <span style="">Continue control of </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Coccinia grandis</span><span style=""> with particular emphasis on reed-warbler nesting sites.</span> Identify and protect essential habitat and conduct basic research, e.g. on population dynamics and validity of subspecies, to assist in appropriate recovery efforts (USFWS 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Establish additional populations on other islands (USFWS 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Clarify the status of <em>B. irregularis</em> on Saipan and mitigate the potential effects should its number increase. <p></p>
106007611		distribution	eng	This species is historically known from Guam (to USA), Saipan, Alamagan, Aguijan and Pagan in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, and from a specimen thought to have come from Yap, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Federated States of Micronesia</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">yamashinae</span> of Pagan was extinct by the late 1970s, and <span style="font-style: italic;">astrolabii</span>, whose type specimen is thought to be from Yap, is also extinct (Reichel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Kennerley and Pearson 2010). The species has also been extirpated from Guam. A tiny population was reported to occur on uninhabited Aguijan (1-6 birds) but has not been observed on the island since the mid-1990s despite extensive surveys in 2000, 2001, 2008, and 20<span style="">09 (</span><span style=""><span style="">USFWS 1998, Esselstyn </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style=""><span style="">2003, Camp </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009b<span style="">), and so is unlikely to number more a few individual</span>s, if any (Marshall <span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008). A population exists on Alamagan, numbering 1,125 (95% CI = 504 - 1,539) individuals in 2000 and 946 (95% CI = 428-1,762) individuals in 2010 (Marshall</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al.</span><span style=""> 2011)</span>. The majority of the population occurs on Saipan. Abundance (density * the area of Saipan, 115.39 km<sup>2</sup>) with 95% Confidence Intervals declined from 6,658 birds (5,331-8,054) in 1982 down to 4,639 (3,669-5,689) birds in 1997, and has continued to decline to 2,742 birds (1,686-3,956) in the 2007 survey (Camp <em>et al</em>. 2009a)<strong></strong>. This represents a 59% decline in the species since 1982. Over three generations this equates to an overall population decline of 47%, but this rate of decline has been increasing such that the rate recorded between 1997 and 2007 corresponds to a three generation decline of 60%. The rapid human expansion on Saipan in the 1990s has been slowing since c. 1998, but the U.S. military is expanding its presence and operations which could lead to further habitat conversion and degradation, if this expansion occurs on Saipan or Alamagan. Furthermore, persistent reports from the island of Saipan suggest that <em>Boiga irregularis</em> may be in the process of becoming established there<em></em> (Rodd and Savidge 2007). This is cause for concern given the catastrophic declines it caused on Guam's birds.<p></p></span>
106007611		habitat	eng	On Saipan, it occurs in thicket-meadow mosaics, forest edge, reed-marshes and forest openings (Craig 1996)<strong></strong>. A recent study on Saipan found nests in upland introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Leucaena leucocephala</span>  forest, a native mangrove wetland and a native reed wetland (Mosher and Fancy 2002)<strong></strong>. On Alamagan, it inhabits open forest with brushy understorey and wooded ravine forest adjacent to open grasslands. On Aguijan, it inhabits formerly disturbed areas vegetated by groves of trees and thickets. On Guam and Pagan, it was almost exclusively found in freshwater wetland and wetland edge vegetation (Engbring <em>et al</em>. 1982,<strong></strong> Reichel <em>et al.</em> 1992, USFWS 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007611		population	eng	Three island populations currently exist: Aguijan (1-2 indidivuals [Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008]), Alamagan (946 individuals [Marshall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011]) and Saipan (2,742 individuals [Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009a]). This equates to a global population of c.3,700 individuals. However, given the rapid decline occurring on Saipan and that a proportion of the population will be immature birds this is cautiously interpreted as 2,000-2,499 mature individuals.&#160;
106007611		threats	eng	On Guam, several factors in combination are likely to have caused the species's extirpation, including wetland destruction, predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, pesticide-use and major fires. On Saipan, available habitat has been reduced for agriculture, home-building and tourist-related facilities. Persistent reports from the island of Saipan suggest that the brown tree snake may be in the process of becoming established there (<span style="">Rodd and Savidge 2007</span>) and unless it can be controlled, the reed-warbler population is likely to be extirpated rapidly once snake numbers have reached the point where they impact bird populati<span style="">ons. Ivy Gourd </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Coccinia grandis</span><span style=""><span style=""> became established in the mid-1990s and has effectively invaded &gt;90% of forest stands on Saipan (S. Mosher</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> in litt</span><span style="">. 2012). This species covers forest canopies, effectively smothering the canopy to the point of killing trees to causing the collapse of the canopy, therefore reducing the canopy height that is important for nesting reed-warblers (</span><span style=""><span style="">S. Mosher </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012).  The habitat on Alamagan is heavily degraded from grazing by feral ungulates (F. Amidon </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt.</span><span style=""> 2012, N. Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Introduced predators, including feral cats <span style="font-style: italic; ">Felis catus</span><span style=""> and rats </span><em style="">Rattus</em><span style=""> spp., and possibly monitor lizard </span><em style="">Varanus indicus</em><span style="">, may be a large factor in the reported high proportion of nest failures (USFWS 1998, Mosher 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.  </span><br/><p></p></span>
106007612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in at least part of its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007613		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Re-survey the population regularly to monitor trends. Provide training to local people so that an on-going monitoring programme can be established (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the profile of this endemic bird to raise conservation awareness on Nauru (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007613		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus rehsei</em> is endemic to the tiny island of <strong>Nauru</strong>, in the western Pacific Ocean. In 1993, it was found to be widely distributed throughout the island and relatively common (B.  Fletcher <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong></strong> and in 2006 the population was estimated at 5,000 individuals and it was still considered common (Buden 2008)<strong></strong>. There is little information on trends.  <p></p>
106007613		habitat	eng	It occurs at highest densities in remnant forest on the steep sides of the island escarpment, but is also frequently found in gardens and rural areas in coastal areas and in previously mined, but now regenerating areas of scrub, thickets, and remnant forest patches on the central plateau (B.  Fletcher <em>in litt</em>. 1995, Buden 2008)<strong></strong>. In coastal areas, it forages for insects in the crowns of coconut trees (B.  Fletcher <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong></strong> and has been observed apparently gleaning insects from foliage in shrubs and among the branches of small trees as well as  sallying from a low perch and apparently foraging on the ground in open, sparsely vegetated areas (Buden 2008). Stephen (1936) reported this species nesting on the ground; however Buden (2008) observed disused nests 2-8 m high in shrubs and trees.<br/><p></p>
106007613		population	eng	Buden <em></em>(2008) estimated the population at 5,000 individuals. This estimate is equivalent to 3,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 3,000 mature individuals.
106007613		threats	eng	Nearly 80 years of phosphate mining has caused devastating environmental damage to the island (Anderson 1992)<strong></strong>, but extraction is now carried out on only a small scale and the species has proved able to colonise regenerating areas (B.  Fletcher <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. There is no information on other possible threats, such as predation by introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. which have caused severe declines in other small-island <em>Acrocephalus</em> species.  Buden (2008) reports an apparent incident of a nest that may have been predated by rats, but this is purely speculative. The species might be at risk from cyclones, given its small range, however its broad habitat preferences suggest a high resistance to such events.<br/><p></p>
106007614		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Nihoa is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010).  Legal access is controlled by a permit system that restricts access to biologists, other researchers, and native Hawaiian cultural practitioners. Strict biosecurity protocols are followed to ensure that legal visitors do not accidentally introduce new species via seeds, eggs or arthropods travelling on clothes and equipment. Visiting scientists make efforts to control alien plants by hand weeding (H. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. A scoping document for translocations was produced in 2007, identifying Laysan, Kure and Lisianski as the most suitable islands on the basis of island size, elevation and a lack of predators.  Development of detailed translocation, release, and monitoring methods (Farmer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011b) has resulted in a successful in 2011 (Farmer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011a) and a second translocation is scheduled for 2012.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring. Improve monitoring methods (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Remove newly discovered population of the highly invasive plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Cenchrous echinatus</span> that was discovered in September 2011 (Vanderwerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Ensure strict protocols prevent further accidental introductions of alien species. Carry out additional translocations to establish populations on other islands (e.g. Kure and Lisianski) as appropriate (S. Conant <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007614		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus familiaris</em> is endemic to the steep, rocky island of Nihoa in the North-western Hawaiian Islands, <strong>U.S.A.</strong> It previously occurred on Laysan also, where the nominate race was estimated to number 1,500 birds in 1915, but became extinct between 1916 and 1923. On Nihoa, existing monitoring methods, and data recorded intermittently since the late 1960s, do not yield precise population estimates or trends for this species (Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997, H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. However, the existing data do suggest that Millerbird numbers on Nihoa have experienced pronounced fluctuations and have likely ranged between fewer than 50 and more than 800 individuals (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, with the most recent estimates of 507 ± 295&#160; individuals in September 2010 and 775 ± 298 individuals in September 2011 (Kohley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010 VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). These fluctuations have had a significant impact on the genetic diversity of the remaining population, with the effective number of breeders being estimated as between 5 and 13 individuals (using samples collected in 2007 and 2009 [Addison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011]). The vegetated area of Nihoa is just 0.43 km<sup>2</sup> (68% of the island), and Millerbirds are distributed patchily within this area (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. A first translocation was undertaken in September &#160;2011 when 24 Millerbirds were moved from Nihoa to Laysan, a distance of 1,037 km (Farmer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011a). Upon arrival at Laysan the 24 birds were released and each was resighted at least once during the initial three-week period. During the first breeding season on Laysan, nesting birds on Laysan produced at least five fledglings (Kohley and Rutt 2012, J. Vetter, unpublished data).  <br/><p></p>
106007614		habitat	eng	It is found in dense cover near the ground, particularly around the shrubs <span style="font-style: italic;">Sida fallax</span> , <span style="font-style: italic;">Solanum nelsonii</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Chenopodium oahuense</span> on Nihoa (VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011), and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scaevola taccada</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eragrostis variabilis</span> on Laysan (Kohley and Rutt 2012). On Nihoa the main foods include small beetles, spiders, roaches and larvae (M. A. MacDonald<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2008). The extinct Laysan population was thought to have fed primarily on moths (Morin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), however the species is thought to be a catholic feeder, feeding on the most readily available prey items (H. Freifeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010). Forthcoming results of research will include a comparison of potential Millerbird prey on Nihoa and Laysan islands (M.A. MacDonald in prep.), Pairs show year-to-year fidelity in specific territories, with nesting apparently correlated with precipitation and most breeding taking place in the winter months (peaking January-March), although the breeding period may be extended in years of high summer rainfall (M. A. MacDonald in prep). Nests are located in dense shrubs <a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" href="#_msocom_1" name="_msoanchor_1"></a><a style="mso-comment-reference:UF&amp;WS_2;mso-comment-date:20120503T1341">and</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" href="#_msocom_2" name="_msoanchor_2"></a> two eggs are generally laid (Morin<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997).<p></p>
106007614		population	eng	The population was estimated at 507 ± 295&#160; individuals in September 2010 and 775 ± 298 individuals in September 2011 (Kohley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010 VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Considering the population appears to fluctuate, the band 250-999 mature individuals seems appropriate. This estimate equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007614		threats	eng	The species is suffering extensive and strikingly low levels of genetic  diversity as a result of recent severe bottlenecks caused by  climatic events, anthropogenic influences and the introduction of exotic mammals,  plants and insects. Its extinction on Laysan in the early 20th century was ultimately caused by the introduction of rabbits and livestock, which denuded the island of vegetation (severe declines in the species's invertebrate prey and suitable habitat). On Nihoa, the population size is probably regulated primarily by precipitation levels, which affect the abundance of arthropod prey (extended droughts for example, are likely to have a negative impact).  Severe weather events such as hurricanes may cause direct mortality of Millerbirds; a single severe storm could extinguish the entire population (H. Freifeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <span style=""><span style="">Since  the species has an extremely  small range and has severely low levels  of genetic diversity, it is particularly vulnerable to extinction  through exposure to disease. In the past, population outbreaks of grasshoppers (e.g. </span><span style="">the gray bird grasshopper<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Schistocerca nitens</em><span style=""><span style="">) denuded  90% of the island's vegetation, especially the shrubs in which  Millerbirds nest. Outbreaks such as these may have been responsible for  reductions in the  bird population to well below 200 individuals in  1994, 1996, and 2005 (</span><a style="" class="ref">Latchininsky 2008</a><span style="">). Fire is a past and potential threat (Morin </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 1997)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style=""> and introduction of detrimental non-native species is a permanent possibility. Nihoa Finches </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">Telespiza ultima</span><span style=""> may prey upon the eggs of Millerbirds, but since the two species evolved together, it is unlikely to present a significant threat (M. A. MacDonald </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span><span style="">2008).  </span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106007615		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A survey for the species gathered information on baseline population density, habitat preference and threats in 2007. This survey has made a number of recommendations for further conservation work (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out annual monitoring in May-June to determine whether the population is in decline and if so, where and what are the causes, and what contingency plan is best implemented (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2007, Pierce 2010)<strong></strong>. Identify suitable habitat that supports the species. Advocate for protection of key habitats from fire, development etc, e.g. by engaging with key landowners, community and Government to identify risks, opportunities, solutions, etc and gaining better community buy-in (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2007, Pierce 2010)<strong></strong>. Continue with rodent eradication from Kiritimati motu and monitor outcomes for seabirds and warbler (Pierce and Brown 2009). Use external advice to address biosecurity issues, e.g. spread of <em>Pluchea </em>and the potential arrival of invasive ants (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. All surveyed sites should have the habitat described and rat trapping surveys completed. Implement rat trapping at important sites. Investigate the feasibility of emergency translocations to another island, e.g Orona in Phoenix Islands (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007615		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus aequinoctialis</em> is endemic to Kiritimati (Christmas Island) and Teraina (Washington) islands in the Northern Line Islands, <strong>Kiribati</strong>. It remained common on Teraina in 1980 (Gupta 2007)<strong></strong>. It formerly occurred on Tabueran (Fanning), but was apparently extirpated in 1972. It was described as 'common' on Kiritimati in 1966 (Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong></strong>, but just 400 individuals were estimated there in 1972 and it was 'scarce in the vicinity of settlement' by 1980 (Sherley 2001)<strong></strong>. Surveys on Kiritimati in 2007-2011 indicate that the species is widespread  and locally common on the mainland and individuals occasionally visit  small motu in the lagoons (R. Pierce<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Distribution on Kiritimati<em></em> is  patchy, e.g. there are large  areas in the south-east of the island where the warbler is absent  due to unsuitable habitat. Densities of up to 50 birds/km<sup>2</sup> have been reported on Kiritimati (Pierce<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).<p></p>
106007615		habitat	eng	It occurs in vegetated areas with scattered dominant <em>Tournefortia argentea</em> trees (growing 4-6 m) and <em>Cassytha filiformis</em> <em></em>mixed with dense <em>Scaevola </em>and many other indigenous shrubs, and sometimes with introduced coconut palms (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>), but not in areas with dense coconuts palms. It is absent from areas that have been cleared or recently burned (R. Pierce<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). Birds will cross relatively open grassy areas or sandflats and cross up to 300 m to access motu that have recently been cleared of <em>Rattus exulans</em> (R. Pierce <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The species has also been sighted in gardens close to human habitation (T. Mark<em> in litt. </em>2010). It feeds on insects, including flies and dragonflies; and small lizards. It spends much of its time foraging on the ground, in low ground cover, and in dead or low branches close to ground level. It is sedentary and a weak flier. Breeding occurs from at least February-July. It is reportedly monogamous; females incubating 2-4 eggs in nests placed just below the canopy of <em>Tournefortia argentea</em>. The territory size is reportedly 1.8-2.3 ha. Maximum densities recorded in 2007 were 0.5 birds/ha (R. Pierce <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  <br/> <p></p>
106007615		population	eng	<p>Pierce<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2007) recorded densities of up to 50 birds/km<sup>2</sup> on Kiritimati and pairs reportedly occupy a territory of 1.8-2.3 ha, which coarsely equates to 100 mature individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. Combined, the islands of Kiritimati and Teraini have a land area of 336 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting they could support a maximum of c.16,000-30,000 mature individuals. However, the species is absent from considerable areas of these two islands, likely due to unsuitable habitat, and occurs at lower densities, especially where invasive predators are present. Consequently a global population of 2,500-9,999 mature individuals is suspected, though this may prove to be an overestimate and further surveys are required. This is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.</p>
106007615		threats	eng	The land areas of Kiritimati and Teraina are 322 km<sup>2</sup> and 14 km<sup>2</sup> respectively, and both support introduced rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus </span>spp.and cats<span style="font-style: italic;"> Felis catus</span> (A.Wegmann <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>, although the spread of black rats<span style="font-style: italic;"> R. rattus</span> on Kiritimati appears to have slowed or possibly stopped, with black rats being relatively rare beyond the inhabited areas of the island and outer beaches (R. Pierce in litt. 2012).   Although the rate of spread of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. rattus </span>has been unusually slow, it does need monitoring. The successful management of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. argentea</span> trees is likely to be a significant factor for the species (T. Mark <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). Hunting by children with slingshots may also pose a threat (A.Wegmann <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Kiritimati Atoll is also suffering from poorly planned immigration leading to widespread degradation of remaining habitats (J. Millet <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>; principal threats include habitat loss from fires, clearing for coconuts, development and habitat modification (e.g. proliferation of the weed <em>Pluchea indica</em> following fire [Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2007]).<p></p>
106007616		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys are ongoing in the Papenoo Valley (C. Blainvillain verbally 2000)<strong></strong>.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Resurvey the species in order to establish trends (C. Blainvillain verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control the exploitation of bamboo.  Monitor numbers in easily accessible key sites. Investigate the severity of the threat caused by <em>A. tristis</em> and other predators.  Consider control of predators at sites known to be important to the species.  Protect important sites from habitat clearance through road and dam building and degradation by off-road vehicles.   <p></p>
106007616		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus caffer</em> is found on Tahiti in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, having probably formerly occupied all the high islands in the group. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">longirostris</span> is probably extinct on Moorea although there have been at least two unconfirmed reports since 2000 (A. Gouni <em> in litt. </em>2007, Cibois <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, A. Gouni <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">musae</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> garretti</span> both went extinct on the islands of Raiatea and Huahine respectively, in the late 1800s or early 1900s. The species is absent from the Tahiti peninsula (Tahiti Iti) and has been rare and local throughout the 20th century, being recorded in six valleys during the period 1920-1923 (out of 14 visited) and 12 during 1986-1991 (out of 39), and estimated to number a few hundred individuals (Monnet <em>et al.</em> 1993b)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007616		habitat	eng	It occurs in bamboo thickets and second growth forests in river valleys and hillsides to 1,700 m. It feeds on insects but also takes lizards, small fish, crayfish, snails and nectar (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Thibault 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is thought to breed exclusively in bamboo thickets (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007616		population	eng	The population is estimated to number a few hundred individuals by Monnet <em>et al.</em> (1993b). It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007616		threats	eng	The development of hydro-electricity opened up the interior of the island with new roads and tracks (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This increased access has lead to a considerable increase in the exploitation of bamboo as well as invasion by the neotropical weed <em>Miconia</em> and an increase in tourists in four-wheel drive vehicles. These factors have modified the habitat considerably, and most worryingly have caused a loss of breeding habitat, as well as causing disturbance to birds (P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>1999, P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The introduction of&#160;feral cats <em>Felis cattus</em>, rats <em>Rattus </em>spp.&#160;(A. Gouni<em> in litt. </em>2012) and&#160;many alien bird species, including the aggressive Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em>, may also contribute to its rarity (Thibault 1988, Seitre and Seitre 1991).<strong><sup></sup></strong>  <p></p>
106007617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on five of the six major islands in the Marquesas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007619		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The feasibility of eradicating <em>A. tristis </em>has been evaluated; it is thought possible at the cost of $100,000 and has the support of local people<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out a survey to determine population size so that future trends can be revealed.  Implement the planned eradication of <em>A. tristis </em>on Mangaia<em>.  </em>Train local people in animal husbandry techniques which will minimise negative impacts on the forest.  Set aside and protect an area of forest on each island.  Investigate the taxonomic status of the populations on the two islands.   <p></p>
106007619		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus kerearako </em>remains common on the two tiny islands of Mangaia and Miti'aro, <strong>Cook Islands </strong>(McCormack 1997)<sup></sup>.  <p></p>
106007619		habitat	eng	It inhabits a variety of habitats including reeds, gardens and woodland (<strong></strong>Pratt <em>et al. </em>1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common and numerous on both islands in its range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106007619		threats	eng	On Mangaia, there are a variety of introduced species including the aggressive Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> (numbering c.9,000 birds), cats and rats (both Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and black rat <em>R. rattus</em>), and clearance for agriculture and browsing by goats causes habitat loss and fragmentation (Rowe and Empson 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007620		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A population survey and assessment of the threats have been conducted (Thibault and Cibois 2006a,b)<strong></strong>.   Biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction of black rats <span style="font-style: italic;">R. rattus</span> to Rimatara are in place at the wharf, managed by the agriculture officer with support from SOP Manu.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue regular monitoring of the population to assess trends.  Implement a programme to ensure that <em>R. rattus</em> and <em>A. tristis </em>are not accidentally introduced (McCormack and Künzle 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Set aside an area of native habitat for protection.  Consider controlling feral cats in breeding habitat.   <p></p>
106007620		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus rimatarae</em> is endemic to Rimatara in the Austral Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. In 1989, it was found to be common and widespread at lower elevations (Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong>, and in 2004 population density was estimated at just over 3 birds per hectare in good habitat (Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>.  Population estimates vary widely depending on the methods used: some place the population at between 1,777 and 2,567 individuals, whilst others believe the number of individuals to be much lower: 740 (2002) or 675 (2004) (Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>. Recent observers consider it to be abundant over much of the island and relatively stable (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
106007620		habitat	eng	The species is found throughout the island, even in swamps and the central fern-covered hills (Thibault and Cibois 2006a,b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Breeding however mainly occurs in wooded areas such as the undergrowth of coconut groves, mixed horticulture, coastal forests and natural forest on limestone substrates (Thibault and Cibois 2006a,b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007620		population	eng	Various population estimates have been made which differ widely depending on methods used. Thibault and Cibois (2006) estimated the population to be between 1,777 and 2,567 in 2004, in the same publication they report on other recent estimates, notably 740 (in 2002) and 675 (in 2004), without commenting on the relative accuracy of these estimates. This range of estimates approximately 680-2,600 individuals) roughly equates to 450-1,700 mature individuals.
106007620		threats	eng	Since the species requires forest for nesting, habitat destruction is a concern; the recent construction of an airport destroyed over a third of remaining native forest (Thibault and Cibois 2006)<strong></strong>, although much suitable breeding habitat still remains (J. Millett <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  Feral cats are likely to cause some mortality (Thibault and Cibois 2006a,b)<strong></strong>.  The introduction of alien species, particularly Common Myna <em>Acridotheris tristis, </em>is a grave concern given the species's very small range and the declines it has caused in populations of other Pacific <em>Acrocephalus </em>species (Thibault and Cibois 2006a,b)<strong></strong>. Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and brown rat <em>R. norvegicus</em> are present on the island, but not black rat <em>R. rattus </em>(McCormack and Künzle 1996, P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>, implicated in the decline and extinction of many birds on oceanic islands; its arrival might be a cause for concern, although other Pacific <em>Acrocephalus </em>species coexist with it (Seitre and Seitre 1991)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007621		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The feral cat eradication was successful in 1997(M. Brooke <em>in litt </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Domestic cats were reintroduced to the wild by the island residents in 1999 - stating it was to control the rats after the failure of the rat eradication (E and D Bell <em>in litt.</em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A programme to eradicate rats in 1997-1998 (Bell and Bell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> was unsuccessful. The increases in numbers of <em>A. vaughani</em> in 1998-1999 were no doubt the result of temporarily reduced predation pressure. Numbers of feral cats have since increased (M. Brooke <em>in litt </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population.   Involve the Pitcairn Islanders in the monitoring program. If socially acceptable, re-attempt the eradication of Pacific rats and feral cats (B. and D. Bell verbally 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control rats and feral cats in key areas for the species.  Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced.  Set aside an area of forest for protection.   <p></p>
106007621		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus vaughani</em> is endemic to the tiny volcanic island of Pitcairn in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>. In 1998-1999, its population was estimated at c.2,000-3,000 and increasing dramatically following the partial, but temporary control of feral cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis cattus </span>and Pacific rats <em>Rattus exulans </em>(B. and D. Bell verbally 1999, M. Brooke <em>in litt </em>2005)<strong></strong>.  However by 2005 numbers of <em>R. exulans</em> and feral cats had recovered (M. Brooke <em>in litt </em>2005), which may have been accompanied by a reduction in numbers of the species<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106007621		habitat	eng	It is most common in patches of tall forest, and present in low numbers around dwellings and in scrubland, but absent from cliffs and patches of open ground (Pratt <em>et al. </em>1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is insectivorous, rarely foraging at ground-level perhaps because of the presence of cats and humans. It appears to breed only in pairs, unlike Henderson Reed-warbler <em>A. taiti</em> which forms breeding groups, possibly related to the greater disturbance and consequent year-to-year instability of the habitat on Pitcairn (Brooke and Hartley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, more recently, breeding in groups has been noted (B. and D. Bell verbally 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007621		population	eng	The total population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals (E. Bell <em>in litt.</em> 2007), equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007621		threats	eng	Vegetation on the island has been greatly modified and today only remnants of forest remain with scrub and grassland elsewhere. In recent years there has been an increase in the spread and range of Rose Apple which without control will threaten the native Pitcairn vegetation (E and D Bell <em>in litt.</em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance of native vegetation for gardening and browsing by goats also decreases the range of available habitat for the bird as does the subsequent spread of lantana, grass and other weed species (E and D Bell <em>in litt.</em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is likely to be predated by Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans </em>and feral cats, however after two unsuccessful eradication attempts there may be little public support for a third attempt.  <p></p>
106007622		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Following a feasibility study (Brooke and Towns 2008) a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island in August 2011 (J. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). A follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the rat eradication.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson.<br/><p></p>
106007622		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus taiti</em> is endemic to Henderson, an uninhabited island in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>. In 1987, it was found to be abundant throughout the island, with an estimated total population of c.10,800 and available habitat apparently saturated (Graves 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1991-1992 surveys estimated the population at 9,500 individuals and in both 2003 and 2011, there was no striking change evident (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population is assumed to be stable.<p></p>
106007622		habitat	eng	This is a forest species, typically found in family groups, foraging at all levels, and has a varied diet, which is known to include several species of land snails, ants, flies, beetles, cockroaches, large wasps, seeds and fruit pulp (Graves 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has a well-defined breeding period from late August to early January, nesting in a wide variety of tree species in the lower canopy of forest. The species breeds either in pairs or trios, commonly of unrelated birds, probably a consequence of the island's stable habitat and climax forest, where young birds may be more able to secure a nesting territory when belonging to a trio than a pair (Brooke and Hartley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch-size is two to three<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and, once hatched, most chicks fledge (Brooke and Hartley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007622		population	eng	Graves (1992) estimated the population at 10,800&#160;individuals,&#160;equating to c.7,200 mature individuals.<p></p>
106007622		threats	eng	Although Pacific rat <em>R. exulans</em>&#160;was, until recently, common throughout the island, and has been observed in the upper branches of trees, the warbler has apparently adapted to its presence or is at least able to coexist with it (Graves 1992)<strong></strong>. However, the temporary recovery of&#160;<em>A. vaughani</em>&#160;on Pitcairn Island, after the removal of feral cats and reduction of rats, indicates that rats probably suppress the population (B. Bell verbally 1999)<strong></strong>.&#160;In August 2011, a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island to eradicate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. exulans </span>from the island (J. Hall <em>in litt</em>. 2012).&#160;The accidental introduction of other predators (especially black rat <em>R. rattus</em>) and diseases remain a threat as the island, although isolated, is visited by the passengers and crew of passing ships (Graves 1992)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007624		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Wildlife Protection Laws, proposed in the late 1980s, have still not materialised and, as of 2007, the species still has no legal protection<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C.J. Hazevoet<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further searches on Brava to determine whether the species is definitely extinct there (Hazevoet <em>et al.</em> 1999). Encourage local farmers on São Nicolau to plant stands of <em>A. donax</em> cane amongst their fruit trees, by means of agricultural subsidies, to increase the area of available habitat (however, this would be extremely difficult to implement) (Hazevoet <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out large-scale and long-term education and information programmes, directed at both the local authorities and general public (Hazevoet 1999b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's distribution<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hering and Hering 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research its habitat requirements<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hering and Hering 2005). Investigate what threats it faces<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hering and Hering 2005). Conduct research into possible conservation actions<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hering and Hering 2005). Focus research efforts on the recently discovered population on Fogo<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hering and Hering 2005).    <p></p>
106007624		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus brevipennis</em> was once believed to be confined to Santiago, <strong>Cape Verde Islands</strong>, where it is now only locally distributed, mainly in the interior, with a few isolated sites in the south and west. It has apparently died out on Brava (no records since 1969 and formerly scarce) and was believed to have died out on São Nicolau (where it was formerly numerous). However, a previously unreported specimen collected on São Nicolau in October 1970 was discovered in the collection of the Centro de Zoologia, Lisbon, providing the impetus for a thorough search of the island (Hazevoet 1999a)<strong></strong> and, in 1998, surveys located eight territories confined to the north-west of the island (though its long-term prospects for survival here are poor) (Hazevoet <em>et al.</em> 1999). In October 2004 a population was discovered on Fogo, and it has since been found to be widespread across the northern half of the island between 200-975 m, with the total population on the island conservatively estimated at 500 pairs (Hering and Hering 2005, Hering and Fuchs 2009). In addition, the species may have formerly occurred on Santo Antão (Hazevoet 1995)<strong></strong>. On Santiago, the species was recently reported from Tarrafal, far to the north of the species's known range<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C.J. Hazevoet<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The total population was estimated at c.500 pairs in the early 1990s (Hazevoet 1995)<strong></strong>, and thought to number 1,000-1,500 birds based on its known range in 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C.J. Hazevoet<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However the discovery of relatively large numbers on Fogo means that the total is probably considerably higher.<br/><p></p>
106007624		habitat	eng	Its original habitat was probably scrub on mountain slopes and reedbeds in valleys (Hazevoet 1993)<strong></strong>. It is now found in a broad range of habitats up to 1000 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Hering and H. Hering<em> in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong> (though mostly lower, and formerly only thought to range to 500 m&#160; (Hazevoet 1995)<strong></strong>). The habitats occupied at lower elevations include well-vegetated valleys (especially with patches of reeds), reedbeds, woodland, agricultural areas, and gardens in villages and small towns, notably near running water (Hazevoet 1995)<strong></strong>. In 2004, a population in the interior of Santiago was noted inhabiting Eucalyptus forest with dense, bushy undergrowth at 800-1000 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Hering and H. Hering<em> in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. On São Nicolau, it inhabits small, dense stands of cane <em>Arundo donax</em> along dry riverbeds, often with shrubs and fruit trees (Hazevoet <em>et al.</em> 1999). On Fogo, it inhabits coffee plantations with scattered fruit trees and maize fields with coffee bushes in areas characterised by narrow, shrub-filled ravines at 490-950 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hering and Hering 2005, Hering and Fuchs 2009). It breeds mainly in August-November, but the breeding season may be extended in response to local rainfall (Hazevoet 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007624		population	eng	The population was estimated at c.500 pairs in the early 1990s, and was thought to number 1,000-1,500 birds based on its known range in 2007 (C. J. Hazevoet <i>in litt.</i> 2007). However, conservative estimates of 500 pairs on Fogo mean that the total population is likely to be higher, likely numbering 1,500-2,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,200-3,000 individuals in total.
106007624		threats	eng	Habitat loss due to the combined effects of successive droughts and an increasing human population may be responsible for the population decline and restriction of its distribution on Santiago (C.J. Hazevoet <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This is almost certainly the cause of its decline on São Nicolau and extinction from Brava, where continuing desiccation has restricted agricultural productivity (Hazevoet 1993)<strong></strong>. In addition, disease and enviromental catastrophies are potential threats to these island populations (Hazevoet <em>et al.</em> 1999).  <p></p>
106007625		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in southern Sudan, scarce in north-western Lesotho, rare in western Chad and common in Ethiopia, south Somalia, west and southern Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007627		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in the Amur and Ussuri river valleys and common during its non-breeding season in South-East Asia and the Indian Subcontinent (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006). National population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Korea   and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007628		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Habitat protection and reforestation, spurred by the need for watershed protection, have been key to the recovery of this species, aided by the recent absence of catastrophic cyclones. However, much reforestation has involved exotic trees, although native ecosystem rehabilitation has been started at some sites, including nearby islands and the two Conservation Management Areas: Grande Montagne and Anse Quitor (both 0.1 km<sup>2</sup>). Sites are fenced to exclude grazing animals and woodcutters, exotic plants removed and native species replanted. There has been an accompanying public awareness campaign (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue a consistent long-term monitoring programme. Initiate further research into habitat use and breeding success (Showler 1999)<strong></strong>. Assess the effects of nest predation by introduced species (Showler 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue rehabilitation of the near-shore island reserves of Ile aux Cocos and Ile aux Sables, plus Anse Quitor (WWF/IUCN 1994, Showler 1999) and Grande Montagne (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. Investigate the potential of Ile aux Cocos, Ile aux Sables and Anse Quitor to support this species (WWF/IUCN 1994, Showler 1999)<strong></strong> and consider translocations if appropriate. <p></p>
106007628		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus rodericanus</em>, having once been very common on Rodrigues, <strong>Mauritius</strong>, declined steadily until 1979, when eight pairs and a singleton were counted (but others probably overlooked). Since 1982, there has been a steady increase in range (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. In 1999, the population was estimated to be at least 150 individuals (Showler 1999, Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong> - surveys up until 2004 suggest there has been no change since (A. Cristinacce and C. Jones <em>in litt</em>. 2005), however the population has since been reported to have risen extremely rapidly to number over 3,000 individuals<strong></strong> (3,100-3,900) by 2010 (C. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010, Steward 2010, V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). <p></p>
106007628		habitat	eng	It is a territorial insectivore adapted to dense thickets in remaining, largely exotic, vegetation. The low intensity of vegetation cutting by humans appears to promote such dense growth. In 1999, a survey found 78% of the population in habitat dominated by introduced jamrosa <em>Syzygium jambos </em>where the highest densities (2.3 individuals/ha) are found (Showler 1999)<strong></strong>. The species is also known at lower densities (0.5/ha) in plantations of <em>Swietenia</em>, <em>Tabebuia</em> and <em>Araucaria</em> sp. However other factors, incompletely understood, greatly influence its distribution as demonstrated by the areas of apparently suitable habitat as yet uncolonised (Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Restored native forests were found to support the highest densities of the species (Steward 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007628		population	eng	In 1999, the population was estimated to be no less than 150 individuals, and it remained at this level until 2004 at least (A. Cristinacce and C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The population has since been reported to have risen rapidly to number over 3,000 individuals by 2010 (C. Jones <em>in litt. </em>2010, V. Tatayah <em>in litt. </em>2011) and close to 4,000 by 2012 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Confirmation of this would result in a revised population estimate, but this is currently precautionarily retained as 150 individuals, equating to a minimum of 100 mature individuals.
106007628		threats	eng	Timber harvesting, subsistence farming and feral livestock have reduced the native habitat to savanna with scattered trees. Currently, the main threat is predation and/or competition from introduced animals such as rats and feral cats (Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Sustained periods of drought (reducing invertebrate levels), cyclones, and the destruction and further degradation of remaining suitable habitat are additional problems (Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. It has survived alongside the Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> for a long time (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, but nest predation by this species was believed to be a major factor suppressing its population recovery (Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. In addition, the fledging success of undisturbed nests appears low, possibly due to food availability (Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Human disturbance may be an additional problem at some localities (Showler 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007629		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's action plan aimed to increase its range to five islands and its population to over 3,000 individuals by 2006<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Bristol 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The spectacular recovery of this species has followed management of Cousin as a nature reserve, including the regeneration of <em>Pisonia</em> woodland, and cessation of intensive management of coconut <em>Cocos nucifera</em> plantations<strong> </strong>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). This resulted in territories reaching a saturation level of c.115 in 1981 and the population reaching a carrying capacity of c.320 birds by 1982 (Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong>. A new management plan for Cousin has been drawn up, which continues to place a high priority on habitat management (Shah <em>et al.</em> 1999). Aride is also managed as a nature reserve. In 1988 and 1990 respectively, new populations were established by moving 29 birds to both Aride (9 km from Cousin) and Cousine (1.6 km from Cousin)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong>. By 2006, the populations on Aride and Cousine were close to their carrying capacities<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In May and June 2004, one month before the main breeding season, 58 subordinate individuals (27 females and 31 males) were moved from Cousin to Denis to establish a breeding population, following successful predator eradication and habitat management <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Bristol 2005<strong></strong><strong></strong>; Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). They were observed nest-building within three days of release (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, and they have since bred successfully<strong> </strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(Bristol 2005<strong></strong>; Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). By August 2005, the population had increased to 75 birds<strong> </strong>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). The translocation left 35 vacant territories on Cousin, and all but three of these were occupied in an average of 5.4 days (range 1-20 days) by subordinate birds<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All populations are currently monitored<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>; Bristol 2005<strong></strong>; Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006), and research is being carried out into genetic variation, parentage analyses, egg-predation and sex ratio bias<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population on Cousin has been intensively studied since 1985, whilst those on Aride, Cousine<strong> </strong>(Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong> and Denis (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006) have been studied from establishment. Breeding ecology and behaviour is monitored annually for nearly all breeding attempts on Cousin<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue population monitoring<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue to carry out research<strong> </strong>(Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, including further investigations into the species's cooperative breeding behaviour<strong></strong> (Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong>. Continue appropriate management and habitat conservation (Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Consider additional translocation to other islands, free from introduced predators<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007629		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus sechellensis</em> was present on several islands in the <strong>Seychelles</strong> until human disturbance in the 20th century reduced the species to one population on the tiny (0.3 km<sup>2</sup>) island of Cousin between 1920 and 1988 (Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong>. The population on Cousin reached an all time low of less than 30 individuals in 1968, but it has recovered following favourable management and conservation policies<strong> </strong>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006), and the species has since been translocated to the islands of Aride, Cousine and Denis (Bristol 2005<strong></strong>; Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). In 1997, its population on Cousin was 323 birds and stable, and on Cousine and Aride 137 and 1,600 birds respectively, and increasing (Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997). In September 2005, the population on Cousin stood at 371 individuals, including 322 independent birds, and in August 2005 the population on Denis was 75 birds and increasing<strong> </strong>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). In 2007, the total population probably numbered over 2,500 birds (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurred historically on Marianne and Cousine<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there are unconfirmed reports from Felicité<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Dijkstra 1997<strong><sup></sup></strong>; Komdeur 1996b). <p></p>
106007629		habitat	eng	It appears to require scrub habitat and tall, scrub-like vegetation dominated by large trees like <em>Pisonia grandis </em>and<em> Ficus reflexa<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></em>(G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is insectivorous, gleaning 98% of its insect food from leaves<strong> </strong>(Dijkstra 1997). Males and females form long-term breeding pairs and are highly territorial year-round<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Dijkstra 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with a complex system of cooperative breeding and the ability to bias the sex ratio of offspring<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur 1996a<strong><sup></sup></strong>; Lloyd 1998). Although it can breed independently in its first year, some birds, mostly females, remain in their natal territory as subordinates and help to feed the young (Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This system of cooperative breeding is thought to be a product of habitat saturation<strong> </strong>(Komdeur 1992). It usually has a one-egg clutch and high adult survival<strong> </strong>(Komdeur 1996b; Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997) (81% adult survival<strong> </strong>(Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong>; average life expectancy at fledging 5.5 years (Komdeur and Daan 2005)). Pairs may reside in a territory for up to nine years<strong> </strong>(Komdeur 2003). The gender of the egg appears to be modified in reaction to territory quality and the need for new helpers<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding success of pairs is highly dependent on the quality of territory<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Komdeur 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> as breeding sometimes continues year-round if insects are abundant<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dijkstra 1997; Komdeur 1996c). Most birds on Cousin breed during the South-east monsoon season (April-September), when the quality (foliage cover and insect availability) of most territories peaks, whilst most birds in territories in the south-east of the island breed every six months, both during the South-east monsoon season, when their territories are very poor quality and the North-west monsoon season (October-March) when the quality of their territories increases slightly<strong> (</strong>Komdeur and Daan 2005). This results in a main breeding season in June-August and a minor breeding season in December-February (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006). These patterns suggest that food availability and weather conditions primarily influence the timing of breeding on Cousin, with periodicity being a secondary factor<strong> </strong>(Komdeur and Daan 2005). Inter-island dispersal by the species is extremely rare, with only two out of 1,924 ringed birds (0.1%) known to have flown between islands, despite the species's physical adaptations for such flights, the saturation of Cousin, and the potential for higher reproductive success elsewhere<strong> </strong>(Komdeur 2003<strong><sup></sup></strong>; Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is perhaps because all islands previously occupied by the species were once saturated and such dispersal behaviour was not favoured (Komdeur 2003<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>; Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <p></p>
106007629		population	eng	In 2007, the population probably numbered over 2,500 birds (G. Rocamora<I> in litt.</I> 2007), roughly equivalent to a minimum of 1,700 mature individuals.
106007629		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and predation by introduced predators are thought to be the main reasons for its very limited range and extremely small population in the past<strong></strong>. Seychelles Fody<em> Foudia sechellarum</em> and skinks take warbler eggs but it is unlikely that this is having a major impact on population levels (Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997<strong></strong>; R. Lucking <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Genetic erosion through inbreeding is a possible future threat<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Komdeur <em>et al.</em> 1997), and the lack of inbreeding avoidance through active mate choice implies that inbreeding must occur in the Cousin population (Eikenaar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Fewer breeding attempts occurred on Cousin in 2004 compared to 2003, probably owing, at least in part, to the scarcity of rain and the resulting decrease in foliage and insect abundance<strong> </strong>(Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2006), indicating that the species is vulnerable to relative drought. Avian malaria may affect survival (van Oers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><p></p>
106007630		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 30,000-80,000 breeding pairs, equating to 90,000-240,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size
106007631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as Common to abundant in Central Asia and local in Arabia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007633		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000-37000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000-111000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size
106007634		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 11,000-23,000 breeding pairs, equating to 33,000-69,000 individuals   (BirdLife International 2004).
106007635		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,000,000-3,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000,000-9,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3,190,000-12,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007636		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,500,000-7,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 10,500,000-21,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 11,200,000-28,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007637		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007638		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007639		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its ecology is being studied at Yala Swamp in Kenya (Nasirwa <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Uganda, there is a substantial area of papyrus within Lake Mburo National Park and part of Lake George is within Queen Elizabeth National Park. Lakes Edward and Bunyonyi, and the Butiaba area on Lake Albert, may be suitable for community-based conservation projects (J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its current distribution and status throughout its range (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, D. Pomeroy <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out surveys to monitor population trends. Prepare an action plan for the conservation of papyrus-swamp in the Kenyan sector of Lake Victoria (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect Rugezi Swamp in Rwanda (Kanyamibwa 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out research to further investigate the uncertain taxonomy of the species, paying particular attention to differences in song (Maclean <em>et al.</em> 2003, Maclean 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor rates of wetland destruction and degradation across its range.  <p></p>
106007639		distribution	eng	<em>Chloropeta gracilirostris</em> has a severely fragmented range in the Great Lakes region of Africa. The nominate race occurs in western <strong>Kenya</strong> (Nasirwa and Njoroge 1997), western <strong>Uganda</strong> (Chapin 1953, J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 1999, D. Pomeroy <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and adjacent areas of <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (Chapin 1953)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong> extending just into north-west <strong>Tanzania</strong> (Vande weghe 1981), and it may also occur in unsurveyed areas of west and north-west Tanzania (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The race <em>bensoni</em> is known only from Lake Mweru at the mouth of the Luapula river in <strong>Zambia</strong>, and also occurs in adjacent swamps in the neighbouring DRC (Maclean 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species can be locally common (Keith and Vernon 1969, Vande weghe 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but seems to be scarce in many areas of apparently suitable habitat (although it is easily overlooked). <p></p>
106007639		habitat	eng	It is found mainly in papyrus-swamps but occasionally in other marshy habitats, especially reeds (Chapin 1953, Nasirwa and Njoroge 1997, Leonard and Beel 1999, P. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown, but individuals of the nominate race have been recorded in breeding condition between April and June (Chapin 1953, Britton and Harper 1969)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106007639		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007639		threats	eng	Its wetland sites are threatened by drainage for the cultivation of crops (Maclean <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, such as rice (Maclean 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and dairy farming (Maclean <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ongoing drainage of Yala Swamp, the most important site in Kenya, will reduce the national area of occupancy by about a third, despite the poor agricultural performance of already drained areas (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All other papyrus-swamps in Kenya are threatened both by human pressure, owing to an expanding population, and by man-made ecological changes in Lake Victoria itself, including infestation by water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em><strong></strong> (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999). This latter problem has caused the collapse of the Lake Victoria fisheries, forcing local people to seek other sources of income (Maclean <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such problems, and a shortage of productive land, create pressure through the encroachment of agriculture and over-harvesting of papyrus for use as fuel or in local crafts (Maclean <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Similar problems may affect it in Uganda. In Rwanda, its wetlands are being progressively degraded through cutting and burning of papyrus in the dry season (Kanyamibwa 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the situation is probably similar in Burundi. Its habitat in Zambia may be at risk from fire (Leonard and Beel 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while its current status in the DRC is unknown. One site in Kenya is threatened by the expansion of a nearby town (Maclean 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007641		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007642		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007643		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two current projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas. In particular the Amani Nature Reserve has an active conservation programme which attempts to engage with local stakeholders such as plantation owners (Cordeiro 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2009, a stakeholder's awareness meeting was held at Amani Nature Reserve, which involved village leaders, tea companies, private landowners, the energy sector, government institutions and non-governmental organisations, amongst others, and garnered substantial support for the species's conservation and recognition of the zonation of the reserve (Kyonjola and Njilima 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A population monitoring programme of this species by the Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania and The Field Museum has begun. A Darwin Initiative funded project run by the Mulanje Mountain Conservation Trust and working in the mountains of northern Mozambique may visit the Njesi plateau in the future. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme the following actions are underway: 1. Extensive surveys have been carried out in the Amani Nature Reserve and its immediate vicinity, and have been extended towards the eastern and northern parts of the East Usambaras to cover the Derema Corridor as well as the Ngua and Ndola areas. Each known territory of the Long-billed Tailorbird is being monitored every two months. 2. Implementation of an education and awareness scheme for local landowners and other key stakeholders is in progress. Educational materials including posters and leaflets, have been designed in both English and Swahili. 3. Work is currently underway to identify key conservation areas for the Long-billed Tailorbird and incorporate these as part of the Amani Nature Reserve Management Plan. All territories discovered are logged by GPS and their coordinates plotted, and territory marking is taking place in areas with high densities. In 2010, work planned for the future included the removal of juvenile <em>Maesopsis</em> and replanting with native gap-dependent species, and the introduction of more efficient wood stoves that reduce the need for tree-cutting and firewood removal (Kyonjola and Njilima 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Revisit the Njesi Plateau and nearby areas to assess its status and population size. Search for the species at Monte Sanga, the areas between Monte Gatala and Chiconono, the Lupilichi Highlands and the Serra Juzagombe (Ryan and Spottiswoode 2003). Evaluate the effectiveness of selected forest-management techniques that could benefit this species<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Baker and Baker 2001, Cordeiro 2000). Engage stakeholders on the Amani Plateau in forest management and raise awareness of this species's status. Consider methods to reduce disturbance in and around tea plantations (Cordeiro 2000)<strong></strong>. Conduct ecological surveys to understand why it is apparently so rare and thinly distributed<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Baker and Baker 2001)<strong></strong>. Test techniques to control the expansion of <em>Maesopsis eminii</em> in indigenous forest and to restore heavily invaded forest tracts (L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Sensitize local farmers to conserve patches of bushy and regenerating vegetation in farms located along forest edges in Amani, Derema and Nilo.  <p></p>
106007643		distribution	eng	<em>Artisornis moreaui</em> occurs at low density in two widely separated forests, the East Usambaras in <strong>Tanzania</strong> (nominate subspecies) and the Njesi Plateau in northern <strong>Mozambique</strong> (subspecies <em>sousae</em>), where it was recently rediscovered (Ryan and Spottiswoode 2003)<strong></strong>, not having been visited since 1945 (Benson 1946)<strong></strong>. These two subpopulations are 1,000 km apart, and despite much recent fieldwork, there are still no records from any of the intervening forests (Baker and Baker 2001)<strong></strong>. In the East Usambaras it is more common than previously suggested (Cordeiro 2000)<strong></strong>, but still somewhat local and infrequent. Recent records from Mt Nilo were followed by the discovery of territories around Zirai in May 2009, and later surveys located a total of 10 territories in Nilo Nature Reserve, in the areas of Nkombola, Kweng'wiza, Kilangangua and Kiziga and northward to Lutindi (Kyonjola and Njilima 2010)<strong></strong>. The species occurs over ten broad localities near Amani (Cordeiro 1998, Baker and Baker 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>; Amani Nature Reserve was conservatively estimated to hold 150-200 individuals in 2000 (Cordeiro 2000)<strong></strong>, and surveys in 2008-2009 found around 80 territories at Amani and in the surrounding area. Further survey work has since identified further territories, including 20 in the Nilo Nature Reserve; Mt Nilo covers 43.6 km<sup>2 </sup>and may hold up to 75% of the total East Usambaras population, which has been estimated to number at least 371 indviduals (N. Cordeiro <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011) but these numbers have yet to be confirmed. Only c.110 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat remains in the East Usambaras. Given that it is uncommon, elusive and exists at low densities, it may yet be found in other forests of the Eastern Arc (Baker and Baker 2001)<strong></strong> now that the microhabitats and vocalisations are known (Cordeiro 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>McEntree <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><p></p>
106007643		habitat	eng	<p>In the East Usambaras, its primary habitat is forest edge and large canopy gaps (Cordeiro 2000). It has been found in submontane and montane forest (Baker and Baker 2001), chiefly in open forest edge-type habitat with a high density of vines and climbers (Cordeiro 2000<strong>, </strong>McEntree <em>et al</em>. 2005) such as clearings and drainage lines (Ryan <em>et al</em>. 1998), in addition to glades on the edge of, or deep inside forest (Cordeiro 2000<strong>, </strong>McEntree <em>et al</em>. 2005, Borghesio unpubl. data). It can also be found in degraded forest (Baker and Baker 2001<strong>,</strong> Kyonjola and Njilima 2010), in habitats buffering tea plantations (e.g. secondary <em>Lantana</em> growth and Eucalypt plantations) (Cordeiro 2000<strong>, </strong>Borghesio unpubl. data), but never far from indigenous forest, as none of &gt;80 currently known territories is more than 100 m from forest edge (Borghesio unpubl. data). However forest areas consistently disturbed by humans, such as agricultural fields that are burned or weeded regularly, are clearly not favoured (Cordeiro 2000). Its preference for early successional habitats may mean it is dependent on some form of recurrent disturbance to create forest gaps (Borghesio <em>et al. </em>2008). It is often absent from large areas of apparently suitable habitat. It forages alone but can sometimes be found in mixed-species parties in the lower and middle storeys (up to 18 m) (Cordeiro 2000<strong>, </strong>Borghesio unpublished data), preferring the tangled vegetation nearer the ground where it searches foliage for invertebrates (Cordeiro 1998) avoiding sunlit places (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997, McEntree <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is apparently territorial; one probable male colour-ringed in 2000 has maintained the same territory at the headquarters of Amani Nature Reserve up to 2007 (Cordeiro unpubl. data). Its breeding ecology remains poorly known (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997). In an initial population assessment, 26% of records were of pairs (Cordeiro 2000). <em>A. m. sousae</em> has been confirmed to inhabit the forest canopy<strong> </strong>(Benson 1946, Ryan and Spottiswoode 2003).</p><p></p>
106007643		population	eng	Cordeiro (2000) esimated 150-200 in Amani Nature Reserve. The populations on Mount Nilo and the Njesi Plateau are unknown, but may be small, so the global estimate is placed precautionarily in the band 50-249 individuals. This equates to 33-166 mature individuals, rounded here to 30-200 mature individuals.
106007643		threats	eng	Despite favouring some open forest-edge habitats, it remains vulnerable to forest destruction, especially as it may not cross open spaces easily (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997). Although the extent of protected forest in the East Usambaras has recently been increased, there is heavy pressure on most unprotected forest, especially for mining, pole-cutting, cultivation and firewood-collection (Evans 1997b,&#160;Kessy 1998, Doggart <em>et al</em>. 2004). As this forest becomes depleted, pressure on smaller forest reserves is likely to increase (Evans 1997b, Kessy 1998). In addition, the harvesting of plants for medicinal purposes may cause some disturbance, clearance of vegetation along powerlines has resulted in the loss of some territories. Introduced species, such as the tree <em>Maesopsis eminii</em>, appear to reduce habitat suitability (Kyonjola and Njilima 2010). Nothing is known of the recent status of this species in forests in northern Mozambique. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data).   <p></p>
106007644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007645		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007646		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007647		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007649		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007650		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007651		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather scarce and local (Baker 1997).
106007652		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Baker 1997).
106007653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007654		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range (particularly on Samar and Leyte) to assess its current distribution and abundance, as well as identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation.  <p></p>
106007654		distribution	eng	<em>Orthotomus samarensis</em> is endemic to Samar, Leyte and Bohol, <strong>Philippines</strong>. Historically, this species was thought of as the rarest member of its genus in the Philippines, and was reported to be rare or very rare on Bohol and Samar. However, it is very shy and recent surveys have found it to be moderately common Bohol, at least in Rajah Sikatuna National Park.  <p></p>
106007654		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland forest and forest edge in dense undergrowth, sometimes along stream beds or watercourses.  <p></p>
106007654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common on Bohol (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007654		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and degradation continues to occur in many lowland areas of the Philippines, and this species is likely to have been affected by the wholesale clearance of forest habitats in some areas. <p></p>
106007655		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare or uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007656		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007657		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Assess the status of the population and its habitat on Bioko. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Protect important habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106007657		distribution	eng	<em>Poliolais lopezi</em> is restricted to the Obudu Plateau, eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Elgood <em>et al. </em>1994),<strong> </strong>the mountains of western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (Stuart 1986) and the island of Bioko (<strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>)<strong></strong> (Perez del Val 1996). It is locally common in its mainland range, but its status on Bioko is uncertain following reports of widespread deforestation since 1990 (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007657		habitat	eng	It is found in dense, moist understorey of mid-altitude and montane forest, also in forest edge and clearings (Stuart 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occurring always in small numbers (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers thick bush and tangled undergrowth, especially where <em>Oreacanthus manni</em> is growing (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs at 800-2,200 m on Mt Cameroon, 1,950-2,200 on Mt Manenguba and at 900-1,900 elsewhere in Cameroon, and is found up to 1,600 on Bioko. It feeds mainly on insects, foraging close to the ground. Breeding occurs in October-February in Cameroon and November-January on Bioko. It is probably monogamous and territorial. The nest is a ball or bag of moss with a side entrance, hung 1-1.5 m above the ground from a fern or herb. One or two eggs are laid (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007657		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007657		threats	eng	Forest within the species's range is threatened by unsustainable exploitation for timber and firewood, uncontrolled burning and encroachment for agriculture (Stattersfield <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007658		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).
106007659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon, although common in Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007662		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest member of its genus throughout the west African Guinean and Soudanian savannah belts (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007664		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout most of its range, although scarce and local in South Africa and parts of Zimbabwe and uncommon to locally common in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007665		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as wide-ranging, but nowhere common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007667		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The northern third of Kakamega Forest is designated as a national reserve and is somewhat better protected than the rest of the forest. A local guides group in Kakamega has started a programme of environmental education and awareness activities, and there are moves to begin similar work around South Nandi (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, effective conservation of the forests would require a major project (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Initiate major conservation projects for Kakamega and South Nandi Forests (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's ecology and life history. Assess its status in Kakamega (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (using same methods as in South Nandi survey [Kosgey 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Evaluate its distribution and status in DRC and near the Ugandan border, once the security situation permits this. In Kenya, enforce ban on logging of indigenous trees.  <p></p>
106007667		distribution	eng	<em>Eremomela turneri</em> has a patchy distribution which is very poorly known. In western <strong>Kenya</strong>, the nominate subspecies occurs in Kakamega and South Nandi Forests (Kosgey 1998)<strong></strong>, and there are historical records from the Yala river (van Someren 1920)<strong></strong> (where the type-specimen was taken) and from near the south of Mt Elgon (<strong></strong>van Someren 1920)<strong></strong> (no specimen and its presence there has never been confirmed). Subspecies <em>kalindei</em> has been found in east-central <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) at five locations in the south-eastern corner of the equatorial forest belt (Prigogine 1958)<strong></strong>. There is also one record of this subspecies from north-east DRC and one from extreme south-west Uganda (Chapin 1953)<strong></strong>, but there are no recent observations from either location, the second of which was probably deforested in the 1960s or 1970s (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Its stronghold appears to be South Nandi Forest, where the population has been estimated at c.13,900&#160;birds (Kosgey 1998), and c14,400 birds in 2009 (Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007667		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland and mid-altitude forest, mostly in the canopy of large trees (Prigogine 1958, Kosgey 1998)<strong></strong> but also along streams, at forest edges and in mature trees remaining in cleared areas (Prigogine 1958)<strong></strong>. At South Nandi, more than half of sightings were of groups of four (but groups of up to 15 have been recorded from DRC [Prigogine 1958]<strong></strong>) and it showed a very strong preference for one large tree species, <em>Croton megalocarpus</em>, occurring in areas of relatively tall, dense canopy (Kosgey 1998)<strong></strong>. Density of the species in South Nandi appears to be negatively affected by logging (Otieno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).  <p></p>
106007667		population	eng	The population in South Nandi Forest has been estimated at c.13,900 birds, thus as a preliminary population estimate the species is placed in the range bracket for 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. Further documentation is required.
106007667		threats	eng	In Kenya, both Kakamega and South Nandi Forests are very seriously threatened by encroachment for cultivation, uncontrolled tree-felling and charcoal making (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. In Kakamega, intense cattle-grazing from small-scale farms is affecting forest structure and forest regeneration (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. In South Nandi, commercial logging is extracting large volumes of timber in a highly destructive manner, despite a general Presidential ban on logging of indigenous trees, and is targeting this species's preferred tree, <em>C. megalocarpus</em><strong> </strong>(Bennun and Njoroge 1999). Initially covering c.22 000 ha, South Nandi is now so seriously reduced in extent that only c.11 000–12 000 ha is covered by canopy forest.<br/><p></p>
106007668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007669		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007670		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the eastern rainforests of Madagascar (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106007670		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland and mid-altitude forest at altitudes up to 1,200 m or, more rarely, to 1,500 m (Morris and Hawkins 1998). It frequents the canopy of undisturbed forest where it is often seen accompanying mixed species flocks (Langrand 1990).
106007670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in rainforests in eastern Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007670		threats	eng	Much of the species forest habitat is being rapidly lost and fragmented, mainly through subsistence agriculture and commercial logging.
106007671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in middle altitude and montane forests in Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in native forests throughout Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007674		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is known from the following protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Ankeniheny Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Marojejy National Park and Zahamena National Park (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Tsitongambarika eastern rain forest (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate other populations. Establish its habitat requirements and other factors limiting its distribution/population, in order to better predict its likely distribution and population size. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation within the species's range. Improve protection of lowland forest on the east coast through community conservation and management of protected areas. <p></p>
106007674		distribution	eng	<em>Newtonia fanovanae</em> remained known only from the type-specimen, collected in December 1931 near Fanovana, eastern-central <strong>Madagascar</strong>, until its almost simultaneous rediscovery in Andohahela National Park in October 1989 and Ambatovaky Special Reserve in February 1990. It is now known from low-altitude forests between Marojejy and Andohahela, in seven eastern Malagasy rainforest Important Bird Areas (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and was recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest, in the extreme south-east, in 2005 (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It thus seems to be scarce and patchily distributed, only present in large, unbroken tracts of forest. Its density was estimated to be between 38 and 219 singing birds per km<sup>2</sup>, in low-altitude forest in Zahamena National Park, in 1995 (A. F. A. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007674		habitat	eng	The species is restricted to areas of tall trees in lowland, humid evergreen forest where it appears to inhabit the middle and upper strata (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to be rare or absent above 800&#160;m and at several sites appears to be absent above 500&#160;m - if this altitudinal preference holds throughout its range, it is the only species restricted to true lowland forest in Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is usually seen in mixed-species flocks (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and its breeding ecology is unknown.  <p></p>
106007674		population	eng	The population is placed in the range 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on recent data (F. Hawkins<I> in litt. </I>2003). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007674		threats	eng	The principal threat throughout its range is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest (Jenkins 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population (Jenkins 1987)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas (A. F. A. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest, especially at the lower altitudes preferred by this species, will disappear within decades (Du Puy and Moat 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common to fairly common. The species is described as abundant in Liberia where the population is estimated at 400,000 pairs  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Liberia, northern Gabon, Congo, Ivory Coast and Ghana and uncommon and local in Uganda (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007679		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over most of it range, although locally common to uncommon in west Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007680		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey semi-desert in Somalia and adjacent parts of Ethiopia. Study ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106007680		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvietta philippae</em> is found in north-west and west <strong>Somalia</strong> and adjacent parts of <strong>Ethiopia</strong> (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997) up to 80 km from the border (<strong></strong>L. D. C. Fishpool <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but may be more widespread in Ethiopia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Ash 1982). There are also several records in the Bogol Manyo area in south-east Somalia (J. Ash <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Somalia it has been described as widespread but not particularly common, and given the size of its range it may not be at risk (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007680		habitat	eng	It is a bird of semi-desert, frequenting fairly dense thickets of <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Commiphora</em> on rocky ground and red sandy soil, where it feeds on minute beetles and other insects (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been noted as fairly common at about 300 m elevation, and ranges up to 900 m (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007680		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007680		threats	eng	At one site in Ethiopia the species is possibly threatened by exploitation of its scrub habitat for charcoal production and extraction of gum and resin (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As it appears to be restricted to denser areas of thicket it could be sensitive to habitat alteration through fuelwood collection or grazing. <p></p>
106007681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common ,though uncommon in Gabon and Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007682		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in southern Somali and uncommon in northern Somalia and Kenya (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007684		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the north of its range and common in the south (Urban et al. 1997).
106007685		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to fairly common and fairly common at between 1,630 m and 2,300 m in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in much of its range, although locally common in Liberia where the population is estimated to be 300,000 pairs.
106007687		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007688		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007689		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A protected area of c.20&#160;km<sup>2</sup> at Chongoroi was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not yet been established (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine its status. Designate a protected area at Chongoroi.  <p></p>
106007689		distribution	eng	<em>M</em><span style="font-style: italic;">acrosphenus pulitzeri</span> is known from the escarpment of western Angola. It is very common in disturbed areas and its range is almost certainly continuous between Kumbira Forest and Chongoroi (M. Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007, Mills 2010), probably occurring in a number of relict forest patches and thickets on the escarpment. Records from 2003 came from a large forest block which survives near the village of Kumbira and in secondary bush near the town of Seles (C. Cohen, M. Mills and C. Spottiswoode <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2003). It has been found to be common in both the Bango and Gungo areas (M. Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007, Mills 2010), and is probably more numerous and less threatened than previously feared (Mills 2010). <p></p>
106007689		habitat	eng	It is found in dry evergreen forest, secondary growth, dry thickets and abandoned coffee plantations at 800-1,030 m (M. Mills<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Mills 2010)<strong></strong>. It feeds low down, almost to ground-level, on insects. <p></p>
106007689		population	eng	The population is estimated at 612-6,120 individuals (1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 612 km<sup>2</sup> [45% EOO]), i.e. may fall in band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. No density estimates for congeners, but density range is up to the lower quartile of 42 estimates for 18 <em>Apalis</em>, <em>Camaroptera</em>, <em>Calamonestes</em> and <em>Eremomela</em> spp. in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. According to Mills (2010) it occurs over a length of c.370 km of scarp c.10 km wide, giving it a range size of c. 3700 km<sup>2</sup>, and it can be common in secondary growth. Mills (2010) therefore concluded that the population is almost certainly greater than 1,000 individuals.
106007689		threats	eng	From the 1930s until the 1970s, an estimated 95% of forest on the escarpment was under coffee production (which leaves the canopy mostly intact) (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This has now been largely abandoned and subsistence agriculture is a threat (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At one locality in particular, Chongoroi, frequent fires from uncontrolled slash-and-burn agriculture threaten the species (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007690		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mwanihana forest falls within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park. Two current projects aimed at reconciling conservation and development in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas. The forests at Uluguru are included in catchment forest reserves (Stattersfield et al. 1998).<strong></strong>
106007690		distribution	eng	This species is known from south-east Kenya (one record from Kitovu Forest, possibly a vagrant), east Tanzania, from Mt Kilimanjaro, Moshi and the Usambaras south to the Ngurus, Ulugurus and Udzungwas (Mwanihana and Magombera forests), on the coast in Kiono, Pugu, Kazimzumbwe and Kiwengoma forests and in the south-east at Mikindani, and from north Mozambique at Netia (Urban et al. 1997).
106007690		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland and intermediate forest up to 1,800 m, where it is found in dense, tangled cover from undergrowth to mid-stratum under tall trees in the forest interior, and also in forest edge and coastal thickets. It occurs singly, in pairs, or in parties of 5-6, also joining mixed species parties with bulbuls, flycatchers, puffbacks and drongos foraging for insects in the leaf litter. It is extremely elusive and hard to see although it sings continuously. Its breeding ecology is unknown, although birds in breeding condition have been found in Tanzania in February and April (Urban et al. 1997).
106007690		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Netia, Mozambique; otherwise uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007690		threats	eng	Forest destruction is prevalent in parts of the species's range. In the Usambaras the large human population is putting increasing pressure on land and the forests are highly fragmented (Stattersfield et al. 1998). In the Ulugurus the main montane forest block has been protected by its extremely inaccessible terrain, but forest here only covers c.120 km² and the lower slopes are being steadily cleared, again as a result of an increasing human population (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106007691		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000, M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> has been ratified (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Legislation for the creation of Obo National Park has also been ratified (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> has been proposed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the valleys of the rivers Mussacavú, Martim Mendes, Lembá and Cantador. Research its ecology, particularly whether it is restricted to river edge habitats (P. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest.  <p></p>
106007691		distribution	eng	<em>Amaurocichla bocagei</em> is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>, where it occurs in the central and southern parts of the island, excluding the central massif around the Pico de São Tomé, from the Formoso Grande and the banks of the Io Grande and Ana Chaves rivers to the valleys of the São Miguel, Xufexufe and Quija rivers (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong></strong>. Known from only six records prior to 1928, it was rediscovered in 1990, in the valleys of the Xufexufe and Ana Chaves rivers (4.1-6.3 pairs and 5.6 pairs per km of river, respectively) (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong>. In 1997, it was reported to be seen and heard in almost every forested river basin in the Agua Ribeira near Formoso Grande and around São Miguel (S. d'Assis Lima <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Once thought to be restricted to forest below 600 m, it has since been found to occur at over 1,000 m in the headwaters of the Ana Chaves river (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007), and to be fairly common in some montane forests above 1,300 m (<strong></strong>Maia and Alberto 2009, Olmos and Turshak 2010). Its population size is unknown. The overall population is thought to be stable, although it is reported that the species has deserted areas of habitat near Bombaim (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, perhaps indicating a local decline. <p></p>
106007691		habitat	eng	This species appears quite common in humid forest, possibly preferring boulder strewn micro-habitats where it forages for invertebrates on rocks, moss-covered stones and fallen branches (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong></strong>. Once thought to be restricted to lowland forest below 600 m, and associated with water, it has since been found to be fairly common in montane forests over 1,300 m<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, with some records coming from steep terrain, and showing no association with water in either low elevation or montane forest (Olmos and Turshak 2010). Although primarily occurring on the forest floor and lower strata, it has also been observed flying up to the mid-storey in ridgetop forest (N. Borrow <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007691		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007691		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of lowland and mid-altitude forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future (Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong></strong>. The species has apparently abandoned areas of habitat near Bombaim, after the locality began to be heavily used for harvesting palm-wine, resulting in the presence of many people (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>The introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> are potential predators of adults and nests (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Construction for the country's developing oil industry, including the established idea of building 'free ports' (free economic zones) (M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, was seen as a potential threat to the species's habitat. However, prospecting on land was unsuccessful, and any construction is likely to be offshore (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Former commercial plantations were ceded to an international oil-palm producing company in 2009, who apparently plan to restore c2,000 ha of plantations on the south coast, potentially either reducing hunting and other pressures on the forest through creating local employment, or alternatively increasing impacts as people move to the area n search of work (Olmos and Turshak 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in most of its range and common to abundant in Liberia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007693		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007694		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon (Baker 1997).
106007695		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007696		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007699		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at Kakamega (Kenya) and uncommon to frequent elsewhere (Urban et al. 1997).
106007700		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007701		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 56,000,000-100,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 168,000,000-300,000,000 individuals (BirdLife   International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very   preliminary estimate of the global population size is   343,000,000-1,200,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this   estimate is needed. The population in Russia has been estimated at &lt;   c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil   2009).
106007702		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 30000000-60000000 breeding pairs, equating to 90000000-180000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 184000000-720000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007704		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007706		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14,000,000-22,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 42,000,000-66,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44,700,000-88,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007707		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common (Baker 1997), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Korea; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally scarce (Baker 1997).
106007709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106007711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite scarce (Baker 1997).
106007712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106007713		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common (Baker 1997), while national population estimates include:   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea;   &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007718		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007719		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5000-35000 breeding pairs, equating to 15000-105000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the global range.
106007720		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 30,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,500,000-8,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 13,500,000-24,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 56,300,000-480,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007721		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12,000,000-15,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 36,000,000-45,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 150,000,000-900,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106007722		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   quite common (Baker 1997), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; possibly &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000   breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Korea and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007723		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though national population estimates   include: &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Korea;c.100-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-100,000   breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106007724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common during the breeding season in north India, Nepal and Bhutan; scarce and local in Pakistan, uncommon in central Myanmar and northern China and very common in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Brazil (2009) has estimated the population of China at  &lt; c.10,000 breeding   pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007725		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the breeding range to assess its current distribution and abundance, as well as identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct wider surveys in areas surrounding known winter sites to determine the full extent of the winter range. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation in both winter and summer ranges. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites on both breeding and wintering grounds, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007725		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscopus tytleri </em>breeds in the western Himalayas in <strong>Pakistan</strong> and Kashmir, <strong>India</strong> (generally from 2,000-3,600 m), passes through <strong>Nepal</strong> in small numbers during migration and winters mainly in the Western Ghats and Deccan hillocks of peninsular India (Praveen 2007). It is scarce to locally common in Pakistan and Kashmir, rare in Nepal, and infrequently recorded in its wintering range, partly due to identification difficulties.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007725		habitat	eng	During the breeding season, this species inhabits coniferous forest, as well as subalpine dwarf willows and birches. In winter, it prefers shola forest in the Western Ghats, and frequents altitudes above c.900 m in the Deccan hillocks, where there is suitable tree cover (Praveen 2007).<br/><p></p>
106007725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007725		threats	eng	In its breeding range, forests are under constant threat from timber extraction, excessive cutting for fuelwood and animal fodder, livestock grazing and burning. In its wintering range, increasing encroachment into forests, livestock grazing, hydroelectric power development, road-building and the harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes are causing reductions in forest cover in the Western Ghats.  <p></p>
106007726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007727		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106007728		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Japan. The entire Izu Archipelago has been designated as a national park and several important sites have been designated as Special Protected Areas. However, there are no rangers in the national park, and loss and modification of habitats continues on many islands. There is a small sanctuary on Miyake-jima. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its winter distribution. Study the possible impact of pesticide use on the invertebrate prey of this and other species on the Izu Islands. Designate the Mariveles Mountains, Philippines, as a protected area. Maintain and enhance areas of suitable forest and woodland on the Izu Islands. Plan new development on these islands to minimise their negative effects on the habitats of this and other endemic species. Strengthen the human resources of the national park on the Izu Islands. Enforce legal protection in areas affected by trappers. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Encourage surveys of  potential wintering areas in Taiwan, the Philippines, Nansei Shoto  Islands and intervening areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106007728		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscopus ijimae</em> is endemic to <strong>Japan</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It breeds on the Izu Islands, between Oshima and Aogashima, and was recently discovered nesting on Nakano-shima in the Tokara Islands. There are non-breeding/passage records from Honshu, Kyushu and the Nansei Shoto Islands, where it probably winters. It is also reportedly a regular migrant on the Osumi peninsula in Kagoshima ken (F. Crystal <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong> and Wakayama-ken (Y. Odaya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It may also winter in <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) (two specimens collected) and the <strong>Philippines</strong> (one record [several specimens] from Luzon). It has declined markedly since the 1970s. <p></p>
106007728		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in the canopy of deciduous, mixed and evergreen subtropical forests, but also in tangled scrub, alder <em>Alnus</em> thickets and scrub around habitation. Migrants on the Osumi peninsula were seen in evergreen forest at 850-930 m (F. Crystal <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It arrives in the Izu Islands in late March or early April and leaves in late September and October.  <p></p>
106007728		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number a few thousand based on an analysis by BirdLife International (2001). It is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. National population sizes have been estimated at c.50 individuals on migration and c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan, and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Japan.
106007728		threats	eng	It is threatened by habitat loss in the Izu Islands. On Miyake-jima, large areas of natural forest have been replaced with the fast-growing softwood <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> for timber production. Road construction and developments for tourism are damaging its habitat on Miyake-jima and Mikura-jima. On Mikura-jima, there is a long-term plan to relocate a village, or build a new village at Nango, close to an important nesting area. However, the rate of habitat loss in its breeding range does not appear sufficient to account for its recent decline, suggesting that deforestation in its wintering grounds may also be an important threat. Another contributory factor to its decline may be the increased use of pesticides and other agrochemicals in its breeding range. The eruption in 2000 of Mt. Oyama destroyed or degraded 60% of the forest on Miyake Island, however, the population is thought to have recovered (Y. Odaya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Further eruptions remain a major threat on Miyake, and there are also active volcanos in the Tokara islands, on the main breeding island of Kuchinoshima and the nearby Suwanosejima island, which currently holds the second biggest population in the chain (F. Crystal <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Trapping may also be a threat for migrants passing the Osumi Peninsula (F. Crystal <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, but is not thought to be a major threat  (Y. Odaya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106007730		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Bawangling, Jianfengling, Wuzhishan and Diaoluoshan National Nature Reserve, Nanweiling Forest Area and Jiaxi, Yinggeling and Limushan Nature Reserves. Recent surveys from Exianling and south-east Hainan have added considerably to knowledge of its distribution and abundance. Hainan Wildlife Conservation Centre (HWCC) of the Hainan Forestry Department, supported by Kadoorie Farm &amp; Botanic Garden in Hong Kong, has worked hard to protect remaining natural forests including the large central Yinggeling Nature Reserve.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure effective forest protection across all protected areas in its range. Conduct surveys of its distribution, with the aim of determining whether existing protected areas are adequate for its conservation and, if not, to identify additional areas that need to be protected. Research its habitat requirements. Extend and link existing protected areas within the range. At Jianfengling Nature Reserve, enlarge the reserve to link up with Houmiling; at Wuzhi Shan Nature Reserve, reconstruct forest corridors to link this reserve with Qizhiling Nature Reserve; consider linking Limu Shan Nature Reserve with Fanjia Nature Reserve; at Jiaxi Nature Reserve, extend the reserve to Houmiling and strengthen forest protection.  <p></p>
106007730		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscopus hainanus</em>, described in 1993, is known from only eight localities in the mountains of Hainan Island, <strong>China </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Although it is locally common, with flocks of up to 40 recorded (Anon. 2002)<strong></strong>, it is absent from some apparently suitable forest sites and is probably declining. <p></p>
106007730		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary, selectively logged and secondary forest and scrub at 640-1,500 m. It may previously have occurred at lower elevations where very little forest now remains. Fledged young and a nest have been found in April, with breeding apparently completed by May.<p></p>
106007730		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007730		threats	eng	Forest loss and fragmentation is the main threat. The area of natural forest on Hainan decreased from 16,920 km<sup>2</sup> in 1943 to 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> in 1994, mainly as a result of timber extraction, the replacement of forest by rubber plantations, slash-and-burn agriculture and the unrestricted cutting of wood for fuel and other uses. Much of the remaining forest is disturbed or modified, although some large primary tracts remain (J. Fellowes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather local and thinly distributed (Baker 1997).
106007732		distribution	eng	<I>Phylloscopus ricketti</I> is native to <B>China</B>, <B>Laos</B>, <B>Vietnam</B> and <B>Thailand</B>. It may be fairly widespread but extremely localised during the breeding season in China (P. Leader <I>in litt.</I> 2007, G. Carey <I>in litt.</I> 2010).
106007732		habitat	eng	This species primarily inhabits forests, but it has also been recorded in open, somewhat degraded woodland and scrubland with scattered conifers, and in gardens and tea plantations adjacent to close-canopy secondary forest (P. Leader <I>in litt.</I> 2007, G. Carey <I>in litt.</I> 2010). It may inhabitat a fairly narrow altitudinal range (800-1,100 m) (G. Carey <I>in litt.</I> 2010).
106007732		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather local and thinly distributed (Baker 1997; G. Carey in litt. 2010), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106007733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007734		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007735		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on peninsular Malaysia, locally abundant in the Greater Sundas and common in the Philippines (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2000, Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007736		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common on Flores and common and widespread on Timor (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007738		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in Papua New Guinea, locally moderately common in the Moluccas and uncommon in the Solomon islands (Coates 1990, Coates et al. 1997).
106007739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its tiny global range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007740		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The montane forest has been declared a forest reserve by the company which has logging rights to most of the island (M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. The entire island above 400 m elevation is now under strict protection for biodiversity values by a partnership between the forestry company, KFPL, and a legally registered customary landholder organization, the Kolombangara Island Biodiversity Conservation Association (KIBCA). The area is slated to be recognized in the new national Protected Areas Act when regulations are fully gazetted for the act.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish a more accurate population estimate. Compare population densities in forests on inner and outer slopes of caldera. Map and measure the area of different forest-types. Monitor numbers in the most accessible areas. Investigate potential impacts of climate change on the species's range. Develop reforestation and habitat recovery actions for high elevation habitat. Investigate the occurrence of and threats posed by introduced predators. If found to be appropriate, begin control measures against introduced mammals. <br/><p></p>
106007740		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscopus amoenus</em> is endemic to the extinct volcano of Kolombangara, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where it has been recorded above c.1,200 m and is presumed to occur to the summit at 1,740 m, at least on the Northeastern side (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Its total range is therefore 21 km<sup>2</sup>, although much of this is unsuitable, being open forest on the inner slopes of the volcanic caldera. No more than two pairs have been recorded on any one visit, but it is estimated that the population could number 1,000-2,000 individuals. At the highest elevations on Kolombangara this bird appears to be the second most abundant passerine, behind Hermit White-eye <span style="font-style: italic;">Zosterops murphyi,</span> with loose groups of 6-8 individuals encountered at times (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). There is no evidence of any long-term population changes (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998,<strong></strong> Hornbuckle 1999a)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007740		habitat	eng	It inhabits mossy forest and has not been recorded from the large areas of open forest and scrub growing on landslide-damaged areas of the very steep crater. Singles and pairs forage low in the stunted forest, sometimes on moss-covered tree-trunks and on the ground; often in mixed species foraging flocks. Its nest is unknown (Buckingham <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1998, M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007740		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 700-1300 individuals, roughly equating to 470-870 mature individuals.
106007740		threats	eng	Although the montane forest is under no threat from forestry, it is often damaged by landslides so that the (small) population can be expected to fluctuate with habitat availability. It may be threatened by introduced mammalian predators such as feral pigs and rats which have been recorded from montane forest on Kolombangara (M.&#160;Iles verbally 1998)<strong></strong>. The species does not seem to descend to elevations lower than 1,400 m and so habitat may be very limited (C. Filardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Climate change may further narrow the species's range. <br/><p></p>
106007742		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in the core of its range although uncommon in the west and east of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007743		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007745		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106007746		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in Malaysia, common on Sumatra and Borneo and uncommon in the Philippines (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2000, Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).
106007748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007749		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Baker 1997), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China, c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007751		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two current projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas. However, the high population density and demand for land and timber in the area makes this difficult<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Kessy 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Further investigate the validity of this taxon (should include surveys using canopy mist-netting at Kisiwani) (Evans 1997b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the species's habitat and altitudinal preferences. Study the species's tolerance to habitat alteration. Survey its population density. Improve the protection of reserves to prevent forest degradation within their borders. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106007751		distribution	eng	<em>Hyliota usambara</em> is a little known and probably overlooked species of north-east <strong>Tanzania</strong> (Cambridge-Tanzania Rainforest Project 1994<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997, Evans 1997b, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>recorded mainly from the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains, where it appears to be uncommon, and from a single sighting at Dindira in the West Usambaras (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>S. Stuart<em> in litt. </em>2003) at 1,000 m. There is one other reference to a specimen taken between 1904 and 1907 along the Ruvu river, although this is now thought to refer to <em>H. flavigaster</em> (Sclater and Moreau 1933<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> L. Hansen <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong> but at present insufficient information is available to determine the exact localities or altitudes referred to. Given that there is only c.370 km<sup>2</sup> of forest remaining in its stronghold of the East Usambaras, and that the species apparently occurs very patchily within forest, preferring the lowlands, both its Area of Occupancy and total population are probably very small. <p></p>
106007751		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forest canopy, forest edge and coffee plantations at mid-altitudes (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is flycatcher-like in habits, flycatching and gleaning inconspicuously in the crowns of the tallest trees, often in trees bare of leaves, keeping to small branches and twigs and feeding on insects (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong>. It is found alone, in pairs or in mixed-species flocks (Cambridge-Tanzania Rainforest Project 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although recorded in plantations, it is probably dependent on mature forest for successful breeding. Given that it appears to be associated with the canopy of mature trees, it may well be highly sensitive to habitat alteration (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007751		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106007751		threats	eng	The main threats to forest in the East Usambaras are pit-sawing (outside reserves), and cultivation and pole-cutting (within reserves) (Evans 1997b<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Kessy 1998). All are likely to increase in the near future (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Lowland and foothill forest faces much greater and more immediate threats than the comparatively safe submontane and montane forest of the Usambaras. <p></p>
106007752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007753		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007754		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally not uncommon in Liberia, frequent to common in Ghana and rare to uncommon in most of West Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007755		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon but easily over-looked so possibly under-estimated (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007756		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in reserves in Japan, where breeding sites at Hachiro-gata and Ogata-sogen are protected, and Hotoke-numa was designated as a RAMSAR Site in 2005 (K. Kato <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. It has been recorded from protected areas at Lake Khanka (Russia), and Zhalong, Shuangtai Hekou, Poyang Hu and Dong Dongting Hu (China). A large population occurs within the Nanjishan National Nature Reserve (Jiangxi province, China). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potential breeding grounds in Russia, China and North Korea. Survey potential wintering grounds to improve understanding of winter range and habitat requirements. Develop habitat management plans in order to maintain suitable breeding habitat at key sites. Maintain and suitably manage known breeding sites. Ensure legal protection of all important sites. Ensure the legal protection of this species in all range countries.  <p></p>
106007756		distribution	eng	<em>Locustella pryeri </em>is known to breed at six localities on Honshu, in the prefectures of Aomori, Akita, Ibaraki and Chiba, <strong>Japan</strong>; in Jiangxi, Jiangsu and probably in Heilongjiang and Liaoning, <strong>China</strong>, and at Lake Khanka, <strong>Russia</strong>. Surveys in 2007 at Poyang Lake, Jiangxi, China indicated the presence of a potentially large population, estimated to be up to 5,000 pairs, 1,500 of which are within Nanjishan National Nature Reserve (He Fen-qi <em>in litt.</em> 2007, X. Huang <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and it has recently been found breeding on the Yangtze estuary (Jiangsu province) (S. Chan <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong> and in the Shanghai area (H. F. Cheung <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In 2001 it was breeding in Japan at Lower Iwaki-gawa (c.37-142 breeding males), Hotokenuma (35-448 breeding males), lower reach of Tonegawa (69-375 breeding males), Byoubusan area (nine singing males) and Ukishima (68-30 individuals in 1998) (Ueda 2003, K. Kato <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Its population at Ogata-sogen (58-122 breeding males in the late 1970s) has declined and recently disappeared (K. Kato <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>. It winters in Honshu and the Shikoku Islands, Japan and the Yangtze basin, China. There are a few records from eastern <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>South Korea </strong>and it almost certainly occurs in North Korea. The population in Japan is estimated to be c.2,500 birds (Ueda 2003, K. Kato <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007756		habitat	eng	Breeding birds prefer dense, mid-height reeds and grasses in shallow water for nesting, with some taller plants for singing posts. It is very sensitive to habitat structure and does not tolerate vegetation that is too short or too tall. Wintering birds favour reedbeds. It is generally very reluctant to fly.<p></p>
106007756		population	eng	Survey work in Nanjishan National Nature Reserve has estimated a population of c.1,500 pairs in the reserve and at least 5,000 pairs around the lake as a whole (X. Huang <em>et al.</em> in litt. 2007), giving a global population exceeding 10,000 individuals but likely below 15,000. This roughly equates to 6,700-10,000 mature individuals. National population estimates include: &lt;   c.10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and   &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in   Russia.
106007756		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss and degradation of marshes in its breeding and wintering grounds. Potential breeding sites at Lake Khanka are being converted to agriculture. Wetlands along Nen Jiang river, China, are threatened by oilfield development, reed harvesting for pulp, and alteration of water-levels through irrigation. In the Yangtze basin, wetlands are being destroyed and degraded. In Japan, many breeding sites are in abandoned rice-fields which would be lost if they were brought back into agricultural production. The key breeding site in Japan, Hotoke-numa, is threatened with conversion to pasture. Pollution and hunting are potential threats in China.  <p></p>
106007757		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in uplands but scarce and local in lowland areas of Papua New Guinea, generally uncommon but locally common in Wallacea and locally common but generally uncommon in Australia (Coates 1990, Coates et al. 1997, Morcombe 2000).
106007758		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
106007759		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the contiguous protected areas of Wasur National Park in Irian Jaya and Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey unvisited areas of Trans-Fly and Pulau Dolak. Survey other parts of Wasur National Park. Estimate population densities in known sites. Establish rate and trends of habitat degradation. Investigate effect of deer-grazing. Monitor populations at three sites at least. Monitor populations and habitat effects of deer. Include a species-specific component into the management plan for Wasur National Park and Tonda Wildlife Management Area. <p></p>
106007759		distribution	eng	<em>Megalurus albolimbatus</em> is known from a few localities in the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>), including Wasur National Park, small areas along the Bensbach River and a handful of sites on the middle Fly River (Coates 1990, Gregory and Jaensch 1995, N.&#160;Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is thought to have a patchy, perhaps relict, distribution, but may prove to be more widespread in the largely unsurveyed Trans-Fly or on Pulau Dolak (=&#160;Frederick Henderik Island) (P.&#160;Gregory <em>in litt.</em> 1996, K.&#160;D.&#160;Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is reported to be locally numerous in tiny scattered areas (Coates 1990, N.&#160;Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but most recent records in Papua New Guinea have been of very few individuals (Finch 1980, Eastwood and Gregory 1995, Gregory and Jaensch 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007759		habitat	eng	It is apparently highly specialised in its breeding habitat requirements. On the Fly River, it inhabits a mixture of reeds, floating grass and lotus lilies growing on deep waterways and lakes (Rand 1938, Gregory and Jaensch 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the Bensbach River, it inhabits thick stands of sedge <em>Cyperus</em>, which are absent from the middle Fly sites, on the fringes of the lower river and its bays and inlets (Finch 1980)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is replaced by Clamorous Reed-warbler <em>Acrocephalus stentoreus</em> in other habitats such as the much more extensive <em>Phragmites</em> reedbeds (N.&#160;Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds breed during the dry season and may have more catholic habitat requirements in the flooded, non-breeding season. <p></p>
106007759		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007759		threats	eng	Introduced rusa deer <em>Cervus timorensis</em> overgraze and destroy suitable habitat and are thought to be the cause of its absence from Merauke National Park (Coates 1990, K.&#160;D.&#160;Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994, N.&#160;Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Scrub and swamp woodland is encroaching through unknown reasons, perhaps related to introduced deer and pigs (N.&#160;Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Grasslands in Irian Jaya suffer from clearance and drainage for agriculture around transmigration settlements (N.&#160;Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007760		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Morcombe 2000).
106007761		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Heather and Robertson 1997).
106007763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally quite common (Morcombe 2000).
106007764		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).
106007765		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Morcombe 2000).
106007766		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates et al. 1997).
106007767		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Extensive surveys were conducted in 2003-2006 by the Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien (IAC) to establish the status of poorly known and threatened New Caledonian birds including <em>Megalurus mariei (</em>N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2002, Chartendrault &amp; Barré 2005, Chartendrault &amp; Barré 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the species's status and distribution. Assess the impact of cats and rats. If judged to be apprporiate, implement control measures against cats and rats. <p></p>
106007767		distribution	eng	<I>Megalurulus mariei</I>, endemic to <B>New Caledonia (to France)</B>, is secretive and often overlooked, but recent surveys have found it to be numerous and widely distributed. It is under-recorded by traditional survey methods but it is now considered common in all the massifs of the center from Hiengh&egrave;ne (Todine Gaitada) to the Humbold massif (V. Chartendrault <I>in litt. </I>2007, 2009), also occurring on 50% of mountain massifs in the north of the island and 37% of those in the south (Chartendrault & Barr&eacute; 2005, <B> </B>Chartendrault & Barr&eacute; 2006). It is absent from the Ile des Pins and the Loyalty Islands.
106007767		habitat	eng	It is usually very secretive, rarely venturing into the open, but sometimes seen in short flights over vegetation. It is present in the "maquis minier" (mining bush) at high elevations (450-900 m on the Koniambo; 900-1000 m on the Koghis, Mont Mou; 400-500 m in the small talwegs of the Col d'Amos) where it favours habitats composed of a mixture of shrubs, grassy weeds and ferns, including <em>Hibbertia altigena</em>, <em>Knightia deplanchei</em>, <em>Costularia</em> and <em>Gleichenia</em>. The <em>Gleichenia </em>fern produces a dense cover and seems to be well correlated with the presence of the bird. This is apparently a pioneer plant associated with bush fire, which may indicate that the extent of suitable habitat may be increasing. But the bird is much more common in grassy/shrubby areas of non-ultramafique massifs, i.e. <em>Melaleuca</em> savannas and grasslands, and has also been found to be common at lower elevations (&lt; 50 m) around rural dwellings and in secondary bushy (<em>Goyava</em>) vegetation and in tall grass/small trees at 200-300 m.  <p></p>
106007767		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007767		threats	eng	Rats (<I>Rattus rattus </I>and <I>R. exulans</I>) and cats are widespread and common even on remote elevated mountains, but there is no evidence that these are causing a decline and the species remains common in close proximity to villages, suggesting it is not particularly susceptible to predation (V. Chartendrault <I>in litt. </I>2007, 2009). Natural regeneration of forests could locally reduce available habitat but bush fires, grazing and human modification mean the extent of open habitat in New Caledonia is not under threat and is probably increasing, and the species remains common in anthropogenic habitats.
106007768		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of montane forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Conduct searches to rediscover this species.   <p></p>
106007768		distribution	eng	<em>Megalurulus grosvenori</em> is known from two specimens from the island of New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. These were collected in 1959 in the Whiteman Mountains; after the first specimen was collected, only one other pair was found during four days of specific searching (Gilliard 1960)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other historic collectors and recent observers (<strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> Clay 1994, D. Gibbs <em>in litt.</em> 1994,<strong></strong> G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong></strong> have failed to find this species. However, very few observers have reached the necessary altitudes and thicketbirds are skulking and rarely seen unless calling. It is likely to be replaced at lower altitudes by Rusty Thicketbird <em>Ortygocichla rubiginosa</em> which has been seen up to 1,400 m (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and it may yet occur on New Ireland although recent expeditions there have failed to find it (B. Beehler <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007768		habitat	eng	It occurs in undergrowth with bamboo in montane forest on karst limestone at or above 1,580 m. Known to hop on the ground, low stems and up to one metre in bushes (Dutson 2011). The specimens were collected in montane forest on karst limestone at c.1,700 m.  <p></p>
106007768		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106007768		threats	eng	Forest at the altitudes this species probably inhabits is little threatened by logging or clearance, although small scale habitat degradation has been noted above 1,600 m (Buchanan <em>et al. </em>2008). This species may possibly be at risk from introduced predatory mammals. <p></p>
106007769		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm the identity of the songster assumed to be this species. Conduct population surveys in Crown Prince Range and assess the species's distribution. Conduct research into the species's ecology. Assess whether introduced mammals are significant predators. If judged to be appropriate, implement control measures against introduced mammals.  <p></p>
106007769		distribution	eng	<em>Megalurulus llaneae</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. The only definite records are from c.1,500 m in the Crown Prince Range in the south of the island (Diamond 1975, <strong></strong>Hadden 1983)<strong></strong>. However, a song, possibly of this species, has been heard more widely, including on Mt Balbi in the north and down to 900 m (Hadden 1981, 1983)<strong></strong>. Although it has a small range and presumably a small population, this species is not threatened by habitat change but may be at risk from introduced predatory mammals. <p></p>
106007769		habitat	eng	Occurs in montane forest, perhaps favouring bamboo thickets, above 1,200 m (Dutson 2011). Nests assumed to be of this species have been observed in niches in a steep sided creek bed. They were constructed of roots and tree fern fibres with an interior lining of paler fibres (Hadden 1981)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007769		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007769		threats	eng	It is presumably not threatened by habitat loss, but may be at risk from introduced predators, particularly rats and cats.   <p></p>
106007770		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on Guadalcanal to determine the species true distribution. Protect high-altitude forest on Santo and Guadalcanal. Research the effects of introduced predators on nest success.  <p></p>
106007770		distribution	eng	<em>Megalurulus whitneyi</em> is endemic to the mountains of Espiritu Santo in <strong>Vanuatu</strong> and Guadalcanal in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. On Santo, it is usually found at 500-1,500 m but occasionally down to 150 m. Although there are few records of this shy species, it appears to be fairly common (Medway and Marshall 1975, Bregulla 1992, <strong></strong>G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998, Dutson 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Guadalcanal, it is only known from three records at the type locality at 1,200-1,550 m (<strong></strong>Galbraith and Galbraith 1962,<strong> </strong>Gibbs 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997-1998) but is likely to be more widespread (Dutson 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007770		habitat	eng	It occurs in upper montane forest with dense undergrowth at 500-1,550 m, rarely down to 160 m in wet forest on Santo, and at 1,200-1,550 m in forest with both dense bamboo undergrowth and sparse undergrowth on Guadalcanal (Dutson 2011).<p></p>
106007770		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably locally relatively common but its status is difficult to determine because of its shy and retiring nature (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006).
106007770		threats	eng	As a terrestrial species, it may be threatened by feral cats on montane Guadalcanal (Leary 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and this may also apply on Santo (Dutson 2011).  <p></p>
106007771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually considered scarce but locally fairly common (Coates 1990).
106007772		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Fijian law. The largest known population occurs in the Sovi Basin, a proposed protected area (D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It also occurs in Wabu Forest Reserve (BirdLife International 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys at likely sites, especially on Vanua Levu. Investigate breeding success at Wabu and a more disturbed area such as the Monasavu roadside to identify any threats and necessary conservation actions. Most important is active long-term conservation of the key sites, notably Wabu Forest Reserve, the Rairaimatuku Highlands and Sovi Basin (BirdLife International 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Consider control of introduced predators.    <p></p>
106007772		distribution	eng	<em>Trichocichla rufa</em> is endemic to Viti Levu and Vanua Levu on <strong>Fiji</strong>, where it is known historically from four old specimens and a handful of unconfirmed sightings on Viti Levu, and one specimen in 1974 from Vanua Levu (Kinsky 1975)<strong></strong>. During surveys in 2002-2005 and in February 2012, the species was reported at several sites: Wabu Forest Reserve (12 territories in 2003, 16 in 2012); Sovi Basin (three pairs at Wainasa Creek in 2005, 20 territories in 2012); Monasavu (two sites each comprising c.2 pairs in 2002-2005, 25 territories in 2012); Namosi (two territories in 2012); Mt  Korobaba (heard on three occasions in 2003, one territory in 2012); and Tomaniivi (no records in 2002-2005, two territories in 2012) (G. Dutson and V. Masibalavu <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2006, V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012). At these locations, it was locally common in ideal habitat but very patchy and absent from most forest. On Vanua  Levu, 22 days were spent surveying five sites in the same mountain range as the type locality of <em>T. r. clunei</em>, but none was recorded although its call was described by local villagers at Valovoni (G. Dutson<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. This subspecies remains known only from the type-specimen and another individual seen at the same time. The total population is thought to be very small, although there is no evidence that the species has declined.     <strong></strong> It is easily overlooked unless singing. Territories have been reported to comprise of anything from several pairs with&#160; juveniles to lone pairs or a singing bird (G. Dutson and V. Masibalavu <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2006).<br/><p></p>
106007772		habitat	eng	All recent records have been from old-growth forest close to small streams or creeks between 80 and 800 m. Most locations were on steep slopes with unstable land-slide areas where pioneer vegetation, including herbs, <em>Piper</em> spp. and tree-ferns, created a dense understorey. The Wabu birds were on flatter terrain but the climatic and edaphic effects of the altitude may lead to similar habitat on gentle terrain at 800 m as on very steep slopes at 300 m (BirdLife International 2006)<strong></strong>. The species was reported at its lowest elevation at Sovi Basin (80 m and 110 m). Pairs and family groups forage unobtrusively close to the ground and are best located by their song (BirdLife International 2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106007772		population	eng	The species is currently known from six sites, and may occur in more. Based on extrapolations from density estimates produced by fieldwork, the population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106007772		threats	eng	As a ground-dwelling bird it is suspected to be at a high risk of predation by introduced small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus </em>and black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>on both islands, however birds were found breeding successfully in Wabu alongside these predators. Montane forest is being logged in some areas which leads to increased numbers of these alien species, but probably does not affect its preferred habitat (BirdLife International 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007773		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from several protected areas, including Sultanpur National Park, Haryana, Manas, Rajiv Gandhi Orang and Kaziranga National Parks, Assam, Okhla Bird Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand, and Chitwan National Park, Sukla Phanta and Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserves, Nepal. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to establish its current distribution and population status relative to its historical range. Investigate its ecology and seasonal movements, both inside and outside protected areas, to clarify how changes in land-use patterns may affect survival. Identify the most important sites for the species and make management recommendations for these localities and, where appropriate, campaign for their gazetting as protected areas. Regulate harvesting of grass, overgrazing and encroachment at key sites. <p></p>
106007773		distribution	eng	<em>Chaetornis striata</em> is endemic to the Indian Subcontinent, where it is patchily and locally distributed in <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, and <strong>Pakistan</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Formerly described as common in at least Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal (India), and parts of Bangladesh, it has evidently declined. Recent records come from Pakistan, the terai of Nepal, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat and Assam, as well as Delhi, Punjab, Maharashtra and Kerala, India. The species was recorded in Gujarat in August 2010, apparently for the first time since 1876 (indianaturewatch.net). Recent photographs from Katampally and Kole Wetlands in February-March indicate that the species winters as far south as Kerala, and has evaded detection owing to its secretive behaviour (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Praveen J. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is now usually found in small numbers.<br/><p></p>
106007773		habitat	eng	<em> </em>It inhabits tall grassland (often dominated by <em>Imperata</em> and <em>Saccharum</em> species) and reed <em>Phragmites</em>, particularly in riverine and swampy areas, and intermixed with low thorny scrub or standing crops of rice. In Nepal, it occurs in relatively open, short grasslands, mostly on dry soils, but also in moist areas with tall reeds and scattered bushes. It is generally encountered singly or in pairs and is difficult to observe, except when song-flighting or breeding in May-September. In Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand, pairs have been observed in courtship in May, with the presence of juvenile birds recorded in July (M. Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species has been recorded breeding in Uttar Pradesh during  August-October, and observations suggest that some males may be  polygamous (Arya 2010). It nests on the ground in dense vegetation (Arya 2010). It makes some nomadic local movements in response to rainfall patterns, often appearing at sites for only a few months then disappearing again. <br/><p></p>
106007773		population	eng	The population size of this species is difficult to estimate because it is easily overlooked outside of the breeding season. An analysis of detailed accounts in BirdLife International (2001) tentatively suggests that total population may number fewer than 10,000 individuals, and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007773		threats	eng	Large tracts of natural swamp and wet grassland have been destroyed or degraded across its range, as a result of drainage and conversion for agriculture, and most remaining habitat is subject to intense pressure from human encroachment, fire, grass harvesting, grazing by domestic livestock, commercial forestry plantations, dam projects and irrigation schemes.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007774		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Kaziranga, Chitwan, Sukila Phanta, Tappu and Bardia national parks.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey extensively in its former range, particularly in south-east China, to determine current status. Research the effects of different threatening processes and grassland management regimes. Increase the effectiveness of protected areas where it is known to occur. Protect additional areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. Clarify the taxonomic status of the species in light of a suggested recent split between the Chinese and Indian population (Leader <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007774		distribution	eng	<em>Graminicola bengalensis </em>is known from the terai of northern <strong>India </strong>(highly localised but common at a few sites from Uttar Pradesh eastwards to the Brahmaputra lowlands), southern <strong>Nepal </strong>(c.2,000 pairs), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (rare and highly local in the north), mainland <strong>China </strong>(rare resident in Guangxi, north Guangdong and Hainan), <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (formerly resident in Tenasserim, current status unknown), <strong>Thailand </strong>(former resident in the central region, last record in 1923, probably extinct) and <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Vietnam</strong>, where it was a former resident in east Tonkin (P. Leader <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Although still common at a few sites, including Chitwan National Park, Nepal, it has apparently disappeared from many previous localities although it is easily overlooked when not singing and maybe under-recorded in much of its range (Sagar Baral <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007774		habitat	eng	It occurs in tall (taller than 1 m) lowland wet grassland, reed-swamp and other emergent vegetation in or bordering freshwater swamps or along banks of rivers in lowlands (Sagar Baral <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In China it also occurs in areas dominated by dwarf bamboo (P. Leader <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007774		population	eng	M. J. Crosby (<i>in litt.</i> undated) estimated that, although known populations total just a few thousand birds, the global population probably exceeds 10,000 individuals, given the limited survey effort in northern India, Myanmar and south-east China. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals here, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106007774		threats	eng	It is restricted to undisturbed grassland and is therefore susceptible to modification of grassland and wetland habitat. Drainage, burning, over-grazing and conversion to agriculture are the most pertinent threats. <p></p>
106007775		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common but rather local (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007776		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Bramhagiris Wildlife Sanctuary, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys during the early monsoon period to establish its distribution and identify key sites supporting significant populations. Determine its habitat requirements and seasonal movements and identify its main threats. Repeat surveys in order to determine population trends and clarify the extent of decline. Following surveys, make recommendations for its conservation, including the establishment of protected areas, linked to existing reserves where appropriate. Extent protection to high-altitude areas currently outside protected area network. Conduct an awareness campaign with both local communities and local Forest Department staff in the Western Ghats, focussing on raising the profile of grassland conservation in the area used by this species and Nilgiri Pipit <em>Anthus nilghiriensis</em>. Conduct studies to determine the taxonomic status of dark and light colour forms throughout its range (Subramanaya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007776		distribution	eng	<em>Schoenicola platyurus</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats, <strong>India</strong>, where it is known from Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu (BirdLife International 2001). It was formerly locally common in hills and mountains, and the relative lack of recent records could be indicative of declines. However, most suitable areas for this species are difficult to reach during the monsoon period, when individuals are easier to detect, so few sites have been surveyed (Subramanaya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Recent sightings have come from Maharashtra and Karnataka (<strong></strong>Subramanaya <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and there is an unconfirmed record from Sri Lanka. It occurs at low densities across most of its range, with perhaps less than 5 individuals per Km<sup>2</sup> (S. Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). However, densities in excess of 25 breeding pairs per Km<sup>2</sup> are perhaps possible at key sites (S. Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106007776		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, tall grass and reeds, interspersed with patchy scrub and bushes on open hillsides, sometimes on steep slopes, but particularly marshy or damp depressions around hilltops, at 900-2,000 m. At one site it has been seen to inhabit grass clumps overgrown by invasive Bracken, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteridium </span>sp. (most probably <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aquilinum</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eupatorium </span>sp. (probably <span style="font-style: italic;">E. adenophorum</span>) (S. Subramanya <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). It also occurs in dense screw pine <em>Pandanus</em> swamps, lemon grass and dwarf dates and at the edges of forest. It is generally very difficult to detect, except during the breeding season (April-September) when it climbs to prominent perches and performs song-flights. Although it could be at least partially migratory, the lack of records from long-term mist-netting studies in surrounding areas suggest that this is unlikely (Subramanaya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, a recent photograph from near sea-level at Manipal (Ramit Singal) suggests that the species might disperse to lower altitudes post-breeding (J. Praveen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106007776		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007776		threats	eng	This species is threatened by the mismanagement of native <em>shola</em> grasslands, as these habitats are little valued and many areas have been planted with exotic tree species (Subramanaya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Grazing of grasslands is also detrimental, particularly as grazed areas are often burnt in order to encourage fresh growth, preventing the establishment of tall grass swards. <em>Shola</em> grasslands are also being encroached by invasive plant species, including<em></em> <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteridium </span>sp. (most probably <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aquilinum</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eupatorium </span>sp. (probably <span style="font-style: italic;">E. adenophorum</span>), which may have a detrimental impact (Subramanaya <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Grasslands are poorly represented in the protected-area system within its range, giving cause for concern. Tourism is also a significant threat, with several resorts recently constructed near to protected areas.<p></p>
106007777		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out in 1991-1996, and research has been carried out on the micro-habitat requirements of this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to clarify its distribution and status and to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its life history and ecology, particularly the effects of forest fragmentation on its population and distribution. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. Implement strict law enforcement to prevent encroachment into existing protected areas (C. Kaluthota <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106007777		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax cinereifrons</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is confined to the lowlands and adjacent hills of the wet zone in the south-west of the island. Little is known of its population, but it appears never to have been abundant and now has a declining, increasingly fragmented population of probably no more than a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007777		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both edge and interior of primary and logged humid forests, up to 1,520 m. It is a 'gap-edge' specialist, being almost invariably associated with canopy gaps, even in deep areas away from forest boundaries (Siriwardhane 2007)<strong></strong>. In its apparent stronghold, the Sinharaja Forest, the species occurs in higher densities in the 20 year old selectively logged forest than in the unlogged forest (Siriwardhane 2007)<strong></strong>. It forages among litter and in understorey vegetation, usually in monospecific or mixed-species flocks, often with Orange-billed Babbler <em>Turdoides rufescens</em>. Its diet consists of small vertebrates (e.g. frogs), small invertebrates in leaf-litter and seeds. It also plucks ripe fruit from understorey trees and herbs and possibly picks fallen ripe fruits as well. Breeding season is probably extended since nests have been found even in December (Siriwardhane 2007)<strong></strong>, but mainly April to September. <p></p>
106007777		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on a detailed analysis in BirdLife International (2001), who concluded that its total population numbers no more than a few thousand individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007777		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood-collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. It could benefit from low levels of selective logging, as this may increase the number of small light gaps that provide suitable habitat for this species. However, wholesale clearance and fragmentation is likely to be highly detrimental, as it is probably unable to move between isolated patches. Much fragmentation is driven by clearance (of forest and home gardens) for small-scale tea cultivation, and although illegal, encroachment into government-owned forests is on-going, as they lack proper conservation status and are often considered proposed forest reserves (C. Kaluthota <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106007778		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007779		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor its presence in bird markets within the region, as well as population and habitat trends across the range. Campaign for the legal protection of this species and controls on rates of trapping.  <p></p>
106007779		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax rufifrons</em> is restricted to the mountains of west and central Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Formerly common within this range, it is now uncommon in many areas as a result of trapping for the cagebird trade.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007779		habitat	eng	This species is found in broadleaved evergreen and montane forests at 900-2,400 m.  <p></p>
106007779		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007779		threats	eng	This species is heavily exploited as a cagebird, which has rendered it uncommon in most of its range. Its forest habitats remain moderately secure due to the remote and rugged nature of the terrain, although some loss and degradation is likely to have occurred in lower areas.  <p></p>
106007780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent in much of its range, although uncommon in central Nepal (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent in much of its range, although uncommon in Nepal (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at possibly c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon although common at Bukit Fraser in Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007786		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007787		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant and widespread in Bhutan, locally common in Nepal and India and uncommon to locally common in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007789		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a few protected areas, including Dong Ampham<strong> </strong>NBCA<strong> </strong>(Laos), Ngoc Linh, Kon Ka Kinh and Kon Cha Rang nature reserves<strong> </strong>(Vietnam).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007789		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax milleti</em> is confined to the Da Lat and Di Linh plateaus, <strong>Vietnam </strong>(locally common), and the Kon Tum plateau of Vietnam (fairly common around Ngoc Linh) and <strong>Laos </strong>(locally<strong> </strong>fairly<strong> </strong>common in Xe Kong and Attapu provinces). It is locally fairly common in suitable habitat across this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007789		habitat	eng	This species is usually found in flocks in dense undergrowth of broadleaved evergreen forest between 800 and 1,650 m, although it has been found in remnant patches of forest in Laos.   <p></p>
106007789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007789		threats	eng	As this species occurs at relatively low altitudes, it is vulnerable to habitat destruction through agricultural encroachment, charcoal burning and fuelwood collection, particularly as the human population of the area is increasing, partly because of government re-settlement programmes.   <p></p>
106007791		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007792		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Surveys are required to establish its current distribution and population size, the extent of habitat and threats faced by this species. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106007792		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax nuchalis</em> occupies a restircted range in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Nagaland, north-east <strong>India</strong> and northern <strong>Myanmar</strong>. There have been few recent records and its current status is poorly known, although this is at least in part because much of its range is infrequently visited by ornithologists.<em> <p></p></em>
106007792		habitat	eng	This species inhabits secondary growth, thickets, tall grasslands with scattered shrubs or dense bushes in stony scrub-covered ravines and hills, from the lowlands up to c.900 m.   <p></p>
106007792		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally not uncommon (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007792		threats	eng	Little is known of the status of this species. It may be threatened by habitat degradation through increased grazing and agricultural conversion, as well as firewood cutting.   <p></p>
106007793		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at &lt; c.100 introduced breeding   pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007794		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally locally common. The population in Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve in Vietnam is estimated to be 34,010 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007796		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007797		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon throughout its large range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007799		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has been recorded from Jiuzhaigou, Wanglang and Baihe Nature Reserves (Sichuan). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Ensure protection of occupied areas and link these, where possible, to any newly discovered populations. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a nationally protected species in China. <p></p>
106007799		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax sukatschewi</em> occupies a restricted range in the Min Shan mountains in southern Gansu province and adjacent parts of north-central Sichuan province, south-west <strong>China </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Records indicate that it may occur at moderate densities in suitable habitat, but its localised distribution and the small number of localities from which it is known suggest that it could have a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats to its habitat.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007799		habitat	eng	Its habitats and altitudinal range are poorly known. It has been recorded from a variety of temperate zone forest-types, including mixed, evergreen and broadleaved, usually where there is undergrowth of bamboo and scrub. Most records are from c.2,000-3,500 m. It feeds on the ground where it forages amongst moss and leaf-litter for invertebrates, seeds and berries. <p></p>
106007799		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on a detailed analysis in BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that this species may have a small total population, i.e. fewer than 10,000 individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007799		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, through exploitation for timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture, and it is assumed that substantial areas of temperate forest have been lost.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Myanmar and uncertain in India, with few recent records (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt; c.10,000   introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally frequent in Nepal and rare in parts of India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007802		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007803		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has not been recorded in any protected areas. However, there are several reserves in Yunnan which probably contain suitable habitat including Baima Xue Shan National Nature Reserve, Haba Xue Shan, and Bitahai and Yulong Xue Shan nature reserves.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey protected areas and areas of suitable habitat in or near to its known range to determine whether in occurs in any of them. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Examine the feasibility of establishing a protected area for it in the Ma Hung Valley (Sichuan). List it as a protected species in China. <p></p>
106007803		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax bieti</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from the mountains of north-west Yunnan and south-west Sichuan. Its population and range are poorly known, but it can occur at quite high densities in suitable habitat; e.g. a 2008 visit to Muli County, Sichuan, reported as many as six  territories in one day in a 1 km long valley of primary mixed forest with dense bamboo undergrowth (Anderson and Dymond  2008). However, the paucity of records suggests that it probably has a highly localised distribution and a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats to its habitat. <strong></strong><p></p>
106007803		habitat	eng	Its habitats and altitudinal range are little-known. It appears to occur mainly in undisturbed forest, including mixed forest, thickets, spruce-fir, and fir-rhododendron forest, particularly those with dense bamboo understorey, in the upper temperate and subalpine zone from 2,500-4,270 m, and possibly as high as 4,570 m. A 2008 visit to Muli County reported that the species was only recorded in unlogged mixed forest with a rather dense undergrowth of bamboo (Anderson and Dymond 2008). Its diet includes fruit and invertebrates.<p></p>
106007803		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on a detailed analysis in BirdLife International (2001), who concluded that this species may have a small total population, i.e. fewer than 10,000 individuals. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007803		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover in Yunnan declined from c.55% of the land area in the early 1950s, to c.30% in 1975, as a result of logging, and has also declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, because of logging for timber and conversion to agriculture and pasture. It is assumed that substantial areas of upper temperate and subalpine zone forests have been lost. Virtually all forest at Kianwu Liangsi, where it was seen in 1989, had been logged. Hunting and trapping may also represent a threat (B. Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p>
106007804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007805		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout most of its range and frequent in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007806		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in central and eastern Nepal, frequent in Bhutan, uncommon to fairly common in the Himalayas and uncommon in northern Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007808		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007811		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to very numerous (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007815		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007816		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in Myanmar to rare in Assam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007817		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and local in Nepal, frequently recorded in Bhutan, uncommon in the Himalayas, although more common in the north-eastern hills and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007818		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and frequent in central Nepal to scarce in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007819		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in China and probably rare and local in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007821		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007822		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007823		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007825		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve, which was included in the list of protected areas endorsed by the Government of Vietnam for establishment in 1986. However, no protection measures currently exist.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its habitat requirements, population size and local distribution. Gazette an extension to, and initiate management activities in, Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve. Establish further protected areas containing populations of the species and other Da Lat endemics, including on Mount Lang Bian and Ho Tuyen Lam, where sustainable management of charcoal production and ecotourism could be effectively promoted. Minimise further immigration into Lac and Krong Bong districts on the Da Lat plateau. <p></p>
106007825		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax yersini</em> is endemic to the Da Lat plateau, <strong>Vietnam</strong>. It is known from 11 localities, with recent records from eight of these, the most important of which appear to be Mount Lang Bian, Mount Bi Doup and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve. It is localised and generally uncommon.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007825		habitat	eng	It is resident in dense undergrowth of primary and logged montane evergreen forest, secondary growth and scrub bordering forest, occupying a narrow altitudinal band from 1,500-2,440&#160;m. It is generally encountered in monospecific flocks of 4-8 individuals. Juveniles have been collected between April-June, suggesting the main breeding season is probably from March-May.<p></p>
106007825		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007825		threats	eng	A government resettlement programme has greatly increased human pressure on the Da Lat plateau, increasing problems of forest degradation and fragmentation through logging, shifting agriculture, fuelwood-collection and charcoal production. On Mount Lang Bian, all land below 1,500 m is now logged or under cultivation. The species has also been reported in the illegal domestic bird trade in Vietnam, with a specimen recorded for sale (online) in the Da Lat area in 2006 (Anon 2008).<br/><p></p>
106007826		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon to rare (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007828		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007829		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is a protected species in Sichuan. Since 1999, the export of wild birds from China has been banned, but this legislation may be difficult to enforce. It occurs in or near several protected areas, including the Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site, and Mabian Dafengding, Mamize, Heizhugou and Laojun Shan nature reserves. Emei Shan is a sacred mountain and has therefore only been subject to limited forest clearance. Laojunshan, Mamize and Heizhugou nature reserves have received support to train and equip staff and to encourage alternative livelihoods and sustainable management practices amongst local communities through the Sichuan Forest Biodiversity Project, a collaboration between the Sichuan Forest Department, Chester Zoo and Liverpool John Moores University (S. Dowell <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, Jie Wang <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys and ecological studies of this and other threatened species in its habitat, to clarify its population, distribution and habitat requirements, with the aim of producing management recommendations for forests where it occurs. Support recommendations to establish a network of at least four protected areas for the Sichuan Partridge <em>Arborophila rufipectus</em>, including an extension to Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve, as this will also protect habitat for this species. Support proposals to upgrade  Laojunshan and Mamize nature reserves to national status.  Jointly manage Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve with Meigu Dafengding Reserve. Gazette Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site as a nature reserve, control tourism and strengthen research work. List it as a protected species in China.  <p></p>
106007829		distribution	eng	<em>Liocichla omeiensis</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from mountain ranges in south-central Sichuan, and has more recently been found in extreme north-east Yunnan. It has been found to be locally common at some localities (e.g. Laojunshan and Wawushan) in the Liaoliangshan and Daxiangling ranges. However, the latest research shows that its geographic range is probably declining (Fu Yiqiang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <strong></strong><p></p>
106007829		habitat	eng	It is found in pairs or small groups in the undergrowth of subtropical and temperate montane broadleaved forest and in secondary forest, scrub and bamboo, mainly from 1,400-2,400 m in summer, but generally from 500-1,400 m in winter (Fu Yiqiang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Its diet includes fruit and invertebrates. <p></p>
106007829		population	eng	This species occurs at high densities at some sites (mean 60 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> at two localities), but it is 'very local', and the detailed analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) concludes that 'its total population may be rather small' i.e. 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007829		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss and fragmentation of forest within its range, much of which has already been cleared or degraded, through logging and conversion to agriculture. Remaining areas of forest are under some pressure from localised wood cutting and logging, although there has been a recent ban on large scale commercial logging in this part of China, and the species is tolerant of logged forest habitats, surviving in secondary growth and bamboo. Disturbance from people collecting bamboo shoots and other forest products, and from grazing livestock and trapping for export as cage-birds may be minor threats<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Jie Wang <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007830		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to very common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007831		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to abundant and especially numerous at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007832		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambaras has been gazetted and covers 84 km<sup>2</sup>, including forest owned by private tea companies. Two conservation and development projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest in protected areas, including all lowland remnants (Tye 1993)<strong></strong>. The subspecies <em>sanjei</em> occurs within several protected areas, although these are under pressure from logging and burning<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Udzungwa Mountains community-based forest management has resulted in the exclusion of commercial logging, although some cutting and clearing  for bean-fields and marijuana continues (J. Fjeldså <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation at known sites. Protect forest on Mt Namuli from commercial logging. Establish whether it occurs in the remote southern forests of Mt Namuli and, if so, designate as a core wilderness area<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Survey other sections of forest at Mabu, and other peaks near Namuli with forest patches, and Mt Chiperone (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). Assess possibility of ecotourism-based conservation programme involving local people at Ukalini Forest on Mt Namuli<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><p></p>
106007832		distribution	eng	<em>Modulatrix orostruthus</em> is found on Mt Namuli and Mt Mabu in <strong>Mozambique</strong> and in the East Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In Mozambique, the nominate subspecies is relatively common, with densities of up to 2-3 singing birds/ha reported in Ukalini Forest (c.80 ha)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but rare on Mt Mabu (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). It may also occur in the southern forests (c.1,220 ha) between Mt Namuli and Gurue<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999), but is not known from Mt Mulanje (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010)<strong></strong>. The population in Manho and Ukalini might be 300-500 pairs (assuming densities of 3-5 pairs /10 ha), and there may be a few dozen-100 pairs on Mt Mabu (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). In the East Usambaras, subspecies <em>amani</em> had a population between several hundred and several thousand in 1990, possibly nearer the former<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong> (Newmark 1991), however surveys of the southern East Usambaras in 2006 recorded only one individual; although numbers may have been underestimated, the total population in the East Usambaras was considered to possibly only number a few pairs (Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Subspecies <em>sanjei</em> is uncommon to fairly common in seven forested areas on the Udzungwa escarpment (D. C. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999, L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Butynski in press), e.g. at Uhafiwa, where the density was up to 31 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> in 1990 (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>. The population on the Udzungwa escarpment alone was estimated at probably over 10,000 individuals<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Dinesen <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, however this may be optimistic (L. A. Hansen per J. Fjeldså <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The overall population is thought to be declining. <p></p>
106007832		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet montane forest at mid-elevations (mostly 1,300-1,700&#160;m (Butynski in press)<strong></strong>), preferring closed-canopy areas with a dense growth of wild ginger (Zingiberaceae) and saplings on the ground. Here it moves through corridors of thick growth around light gaps and along streams, foraging for insects in the leaf-litter. At Namuli it is confined to forest above 1,500 m, and occurs up to 1,870 m in Ukalini and Manho, while on Mabu it is rare and local above 1,380 m (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010).<br/><p></p>
106007832		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. However, the total population may be smaller, as it is apparently common in only a few locations in the Udzungwas (L. A. Hansen per J. Fjeldså <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).
106007832		threats	eng	Forest on Mt Namuli is, at present, largely intact, but selective logging has commenced and the lower slopes are densely settled. Encroachment is now taking place above 1,500 m, with two small areas of Manho Forest cleared for potato crops in 2007 and many more cleared for gardens over the following year (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). Timber extraction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Faurea wentzeliana</span> takes place in both Ukalini and Manho forests, creating gaps in the canopy (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). The forest at Mt Mabu (where the species is rarer) is under less pressure as the human population in the foothills is smaller and more scattered: dry season bush fires are the main current threat to the forest here (Dowsett-Lemaire 2010). In the Usambaras, the large human population is putting increasing pressure on forests both outside and within forest reserves, and forest is now highly fragmented<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong> (Newmark 1991); the species may be close to extinction here ( (J. Fjeldså <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Forest in several areas of the Udzungwa Mountains is still being cleared for timber and agriculture, however the rate of loss has slowed thanks to improved management, and there is some regeneration in places. Nevertheless, core (mature forest) habitat continues to decrease<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Fjeldså <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<em></em> <p></p>
106007833		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to assess its current distribution and abundance, as well as identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007833		distribution	eng	<em>Trichastoma rostratum</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, in south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>; peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; <strong>Singapore</strong> (rare); Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">;</span><strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including northern islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is fairly common, though localised, throughout this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007833		habitat	eng	This species is found near water in lowland evergreen forest and secondary growth, as well as mangroves and peatswamp forest, up to 500 m. It has also been recorded in overgrown plantations, beach-strand scrub and stunted forest on islands. It is often regarded as a riverine forest specialist.  <p></p>
106007833		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common although uncommon in Sumatra and rare in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007833		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary growth and logged forest.  <p></p>
106007834		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007835		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007836		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably common on all higher mountains in Mindanao (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007837		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in much of its range, although very rare and local in most of Nepal and rare in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007838		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common although rare in Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007840		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. Perhaps surprisingly there have been no recent searches for the species, presumably owing, at least in part, to the long period of uncertainty over its taxonomic status. There are two nature reserves in South Kalimantan that are situated near to the (presumed) area of the type-locality, Pleihari Tanah Laut and Pleihari Martapura. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive surveys for the species, ranging out from the probable area of the type-locality (including Pleihari Tanah Laut and Pleihari Martapura Nature Reserves), to establish its range, distribution, population status and level of threat, and assess its habitat requirements. Identify its conservation needs and thereby devise and implement appropriate protective measures, including the establishment and management of protected areas. <p></p>
106007840		distribution	eng	<em>Malacocincla perspicillata</em> is known by a single specimen of uncertain provenance, but reputedly from South Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. The collecting locality is not known, but most likely to be around Martapura (or, slightly less likely, Banjarmasin), dating from between 1843 and 1848. Nothing is known about its population, except that numbers are likely to have decreased in line with habitat loss in recent decades. <p></p>
106007840		habitat	eng	The type-specimen appears to have been taken in lowland forest, and the relatively short tarsus suggests that it might be rather more arboreal than its congeners. Nothing further is known. <p></p>
106007840		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as possibly extinct and known only from a single specimen (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007840		threats	eng	The vague type-locality lies within an area of agricultural development and heavy logging, and the original natural habitat may have now disappeared entirely. Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, as a result of large-scale commercial logging, even within protected areas, and widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm are the likely main threats, assuming it is a forest bird. The full impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 has still to be assessed, but drought fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity. Together with on-going logging, they are likely to lead to the near complete removal of dryland lowland forest in Kalimantan in the next few years. <p></p>
106007841		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of any protected areas within the species's range that are suffering encroachment. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.   <p></p>
106007841		distribution	eng	<em>Malacocincla malaccensis</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, accurring in south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>; peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> Singapore</strong>; Kalimantan (including Natunas and Anamba islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally very common in suitable habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
106007841		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland evergreen forest, including swamp forest, up to 1,000 m. Although it is most frequent in primary forest, it is also recorded from secondary growth, overgrown plantations, scrub and streamside thickets.   <p></p>
106007841		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007841		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of logged forest and secondary habitats.  <p></p>
106007842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007844		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Borneo, although uncommon in Sabah; scarce in west Java (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007845		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007846		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent records come from Dibru-Saikhowa, Manas and Kaziranga National Parks, both in Assam, and also West Bhanugach Reserve Forest in Bangladesh, although this is not a strictly protected area. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat, perhaps using call playback, to establish its current distribution and status. Conduct research into its habitat use and seasonal movements to clarify the relative importance of different habitats and altitudes. Extend, upgrade and link existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to conserve remaining tracts of natural grassland. Promote regeneration of suitable grassland habitats wherever possible. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of tall grassland loss and degradation. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds. <p></p>
106007846		distribution	eng	<em>Pellorneum palustre</em> is endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplain, its associated tributaries and adjacent hill ranges in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya, <strong>India</strong> and eastern <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is poorly known, but was formerly described as locally common. There are recent records from just five sites, at one of which it is described as common.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007846		habitat	eng	It is resident in extensive reedbeds and tall grass, sometimes mixed with scrub and scattered trees, on marshy ground or adjacent to swamps and rivers, from the plains up to 800&#160;m. It has also been encountered in damp forest scrub. It is very inconspicuous, but has distinctive vocalisations, and is generally found in pairs or small parties, skulking on or near the ground. It breeds during the rainy season from May onwards.<p></p>
106007846		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007846		threats	eng	The rapid and extensive loss and modification of tall grasslands and reedswamp throughout its limited range is the main threat. This is occurring as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, mustard and tea plantations), overgrazing by domestic livestock, harvesting of grass for thatch production, inappropriate grassland management within protected areas, damming of marshes and, recently, heavy flooding in the Brahmaputra valley caused by run-off from its increasingly denuded catchment. <p></p>
106007847		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007848		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007849		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007850		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in most of its range, although rare in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007851		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of any protected areas within the species's range that are suffering encroachment. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.   <p></p>
106007851		distribution	eng	<em>Malacopteron affine</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia;</strong><strong> </strong>Sumatra (including Banyak and Bangka) and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally common in lowland forests. <em> <p></p></em>
106007851		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary evergreen forests, where it is an edge specialist, occupying naturally-occurring light gaps and riverine areas. It is found in the lowlands and foothills, up to 700 m. It is also recorded from peat-swamp forest, selectively logged forest, tall secondary growth and overgrown plantations.   <p></p>
106007851		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007851		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary habitats and logged forest.  <p></p>
106007852		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007853		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of any protected areas within the species's range that are suffering encroachment. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.   <p></p>
106007853		distribution	eng	<em>Malacopteron magnum</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>; peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including Bangka), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei.</strong> It is generally common in suitable habitats within this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007853		habitat	eng	This species occurs in lowland primary evergreen forest, up to 1,000 m in places but usually lower than 450 m. It is also found in selectively logged forest, tall secondary forest, mixed-dipterocarp forest, swamp forest and overgrown plantations, although its highest densities are in primary habitats.   <p></p>
106007853		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007853		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of logged and secondary forest.  <p></p>
106007854		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland woodland on Palawan.   <p></p>
106007854		distribution	eng	<em>Malacopteron palawanense</em> is endemic to Palawan and Balabac in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, with records on Palawan (including from Tanabag, Iwahig Penal Colony and Puerto Princesa), Inagauan, Quezon (including from Tabon and Bungalon), Taguso, Pulot, Brooke's Point, Singnapan, and adjacent areas. It is described as uncommon, although surveys in the 1990s found it to occur at good densities in remaining pockets of suitable habitat. It is apparently absent from St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, despite the presence of apparently suitable habitat, and currently the best protection appears to be afforded by the Iwahig Penal Colony. <em> <p></p></em>
106007854		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and old secondary lowland evergreen forest, bamboo and forest edge. It may be an extreme lowland specialist, and its absence from apparently suitable areas in St Paul's Subterranean River National Park suggest that an unidentified habitat specialisation may influence its distribution. It is recorded most frequently in vine tangles within the middle and upper strata of low trees (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007854		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007854		threats	eng	Lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are the major threats. Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive and logging and mining concessions have been granted for almost all remaining forests on the island. Illegal logging is thought to persist in the remaining extensive forest of the south. Forest at Iwahig Penal Colony, a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite.  <p></p>
106007855		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of any protected areas within the species's range that are suffering encroachment. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.  <p></p>
106007855		distribution	eng	<em>Malacopteron albogulare</em> is restricted to Sabah, Sarawak, and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> </strong> Sumatra (including Batu Islands and Lingga archipelago) and Kalimantan, <strong></strong><strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brunei</span>. There are few recent records from many apparently suitable areas, e.g. North Selangor Peat Swamp Forest, Panti Forest Reserve, Pondok Tanjong Forest Reserve, and South Pahang Peat Swamp Forest, Malaysia (D. L. Yong <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, which suggests that it is now rare and declining. <em> <p></p></em>
106007855		habitat	eng	This species occurs primarily in the understorey of lowland forests on poor soils, particularly freshwater peatswamp and heath forests on alluvial plains or terraces. In some areas it is restricted to lowland peatswamps and kerangas, although it is also recorded from mixed dipterocarp and dryland forests, lightly-logged forests and forests on sandy or rocky terrain. Its absence in many areas of apparently suitable habitat suggest that it may have specific and unidentified habitat requirements that influence its distribution.  <p></p>
106007855		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007855		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). Peatswamp forests are being lost at a particularly high rate, and currently receive relatively scant protection from reserve networks.  <p></p>
106007856		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106007857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant to common, although uncommon in the Imatong mountains in south-eastern Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007858		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in Taï National Park (Gartshore 1989)<strong></strong>, Mt Peko National Park, Mt Sangbe National Park and Boi-Tano and Krokosua forest reserves (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>, at least.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Survey areas where the species has been recorded in Benin and Senegal, and re-evaluate the records from these countries. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007858		distribution	eng	<em>Illadopsis rufescens</em> is restricted to the Upper Guinea Forests Endemic Bird Area of West Africa, ranging from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea</span>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong> and <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> to <strong>Ghana</strong><strong> </strong>and western<strong> Togo</strong> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It has also been<strong> </strong>recorded from Senegal and Benin (Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993)<strong></strong>, but doubt has been cast over these records (F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It has been considered generally common, with a density of 4-8 pairs / km<sup>2</sup> having been recorded in Liberia (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong> and, in 1989, been thought likely to be quite common in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Gartshore 1989)<strong></strong>. Whilst it is still moderately common in Mt Peko National Park and in gallery forest in Mt Sangbe National Park (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007), surveys in Western Region, Ghana, have found it to be absent from most small forest reserves (smaller than 100 km<sup>2</sup>) and to be present only in small numbers where it occurred (Holbech 1996)<strong></strong>, being uncommon in Boi-Tano Forest Reserve and rare in Krokosua Forest Reserve (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Modern accounts describe the species as "generally uncommon to rare" (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
106007858		habitat	eng	This species is widespread in the forest zone, occurring in primary forest, mature secondary regrowth, coastal thickets and, less commonly, logged and disturbed forest (Gatter 1997, del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It occurs at 760-1,220 m in Sierra Leone and 535-1,400 m in Liberia (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It forages on the ground and low down in the understorey (Gatter 1997)<strong></strong> for beetles, grasshoppers, termites and other insects, as well as small snails and small amphibians. It appears to breed year-round (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106007858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified: it was estimated to number 9,604 individuals in Gola Forest in 1989. The forest covers less than 5% of the species's range, and so the population can be preliminarily estimated to number at least 190,000 individuals. Given the considerable uncertainty associated with this estimate, it is best placed in the band 100,000-499,999 individuals.
106007858		threats	eng	It is threatened throughout its range by forest clearance due to commercial logging and agricultural encroachment and, in Ghana, it may suffer severe reduction in numbers if logging intensifies (Holbech 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be probably overlooked and therefore under-recorded (Fry and Keith 2004).
106007860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007861		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007862		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007864		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007865		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106007866		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007867		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Bangladesh, rather uncommon in China and generally fairly common to common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007869		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007871		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007872		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Peninsular Malaysia, uncommon in Sabah and common in Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007874		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon ,though locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007875		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007876		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007877		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA in Laos, Ke Go, Vu Quang and Pu Mat nature reserves in Vietnam.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the species's range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106007877		distribution	eng	<em>Jabouilleia danjoui</em> is known from east Tonkin, north, central and south Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where small numbers have been recorded at many sites, and central <strong>Laos</strong>, where a fairly large population apparently survives near the Vietnamese border. In East Tonkin, it is found very close to the border with China and probably occurs in suitable habitat there also (Vogel <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Race <span style="font-style: italic;">naungmungensis</span> has been described from the Naung Mung area of Kachin State, northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar</span> (Rappole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is very localised in occurrence and absent from areas of apparently suitable habitat (R. Craik <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<em> <p></p></em>
106007877		habitat	eng	In south Annam, subspecies <em>danjoui</em> is found in montane evergreen forest between 1,500 and 2,100 m, but the northern subspecies <em>parvirostris</em> is mainly found in lowland forest between 50 and 900 m, ascending locally to 1,650 m. This species frequents the lower storey, often foraging on the ground.   It is noted to tolerate some habitat modification as it is able to survive in secondary forest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <p></p>
106007877		population	eng	The global population size has not been formerly quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The number of mature individuals is preliminarily estimated at fewer than 20,000.
106007877		threats	eng	This species is threatened by deforestation and forest degradation throughout its range, particularly in areas where it occurs at lower elevations. The occurrence of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">danjoui </span>at higher elevations may render is susceptible to the effects of projected climate change.<br/><p></p>
106007879		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It<strong> </strong>occurs in Kayan-Mentarang (Kalimantan), Gunung Palung (Kalimantan) and Similajau (Sarawak) National Parks and Danum Valley Conservation Area (Sabah), as well as Tabin, Samunsam, Gunung Mulu and Pleihari-Martapura Reserves.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey lowland forest throughout Borneo to clarify the range, status and ecological requirements of this species, and assess the scale of threats that it faces. Formulate a management strategy for this species and a suite of other birds largely reliant on lowland forest in the Sundaic region. Promote the effective management of existing protected areas in this region and the expansion of the protected-area network. Lobby for reduced logging and sustainable logging practices throughout its range.<span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content"><p></p>
106007879		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilocichla</em> <em>leucogrammica</em> is endemic to the island of Borneo where it occurs in Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It appears to be generally scarce and local, but occasionally fairly common in favourable habitat.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007879		habitat	eng	This species frequents lowland, tropical evergreen forest and sometimes peat swamp forest, ascending into the foothills locally to 900 m. It is usually found in pairs on the ground in dark and shady understorey vegetation. <p></p>
106007879		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007879		threats	eng	Loss of low altitude dryland forest is the primary threat to this species. Kalimantan as a whole lost 90,000 km<sup>2</sup> of this habitat in the period 1985-1997, representing just under 25% of its 1985 cover. Furthermore, protected areas are by no means exempt: Gunung Palung National Park, for example, has been at least 80% hand-logged. The scale of lowland deforestation and destruction throughout Borneo owing to logging, drought, fire and clearance for agriculture and human developments suggests that the overall population of this species is declining precipitously. <p></p>
106007880		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although fairly common in Rajah Sikatuna National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007881		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The whole of Palawan was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration is extremely difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in one protected area, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, which may soon be significantly extended to the east, where it is also likely to occur.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forest tracts to establish its true distribution and population status, with a view to proposing further key sites for establishment as protected areas. Assess its ecological requirements, particularly its sensitivity to habitat modification. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, and afford formal protection to forests at Iwahig. <p></p>
106007881		distribution	eng	<em>Ptilocichla falcata</em> is endemic to Palawan in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from 11 localities spread across the island and was formerly locally common (Collar<strong> </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). There are post-1990 records from five<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> sites, Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Iwahig penal colony, the Ilog river, Mt Mantalinghan (in 2005 [R. Hutchinson<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012]) and Mt Victoria (in 2011 [R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]). Although this distribution probably reflects observer site-bias, reports indicate that it has become generally rare at these sites. Given that it appears to be reliant upon primary lowland forest, it is likely to have declined substantially. However, undiscovered populations may exist in the largely unsurveyed north of the island.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007881		habitat	eng	It inhabits the floor and undergrowth of primary lowland forest, particularly near to streams, gullies and ridge-tops. It has been recorded up to 1,350 m on Mt Victoria (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Recent observations suggest that it may be very sensitive to habitat modification, although it reportedly frequents thickets, which is likely to mean dense secondary undergrowth and bamboo forest. <p></p>
106007881		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106007881		threats	eng	Lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are the major threats. Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive and logging and mining concessions have been granted for almost all remaining forests on the island. Illegal logging is thought to persist in the remaining extensive forest of the south. Forest at Iwahig penal colony, a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. <p></p>
106007882		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends across know sites and determine rates of habitat loss throughout the range. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of protected areas encroached by logging and agriculture within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.   <p></p>
106007882		distribution	eng	<em>Kenopia striata</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>; Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>; Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is now extirpated in Singapore. Although widespread, it is generally uncommon throughout this range, occurring at low densities even in suitable habitats.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007882		habitat	eng	This species is found on the ground and in the lower storey of broadleaved evergreen forest, including lightly-logged areas, swamp forest and heath forest, up to 1,500 m (but usually below 650 m).   <p></p>
106007882		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although fairly common in Taman Negara and frequent in most of Borneo, except for Sabah (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007882		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forest, which is under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106007883		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007883		distribution	eng	<em>Napothera macrodactyla</em> is known from the Sundaic lowlands, occurring in peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), and Sumatra and Java (few records), <strong>Indonesia. </strong><em> <p></p></em>
106007883		habitat	eng	This species is generally found in dense thickets in the understorey of primary broadleaved evergreen forests, with records up to 1,200 m (but generally much lower). It has been recorded in selectively logged forests and may occur in mature secondary forests.   <p></p>
106007883		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia and extinct in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007883		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill and submontane forests, which are under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106007884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007885		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Protect significant areas of forest at key sites.  <p></p>
106007885		distribution	eng	<em>Napothera atrigularis</em> is restricted to Borneo, occurring in the Sundaic lowlands of Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>;<strong> </strong>Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is generally scarce and occurs at low densities even in suitable habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
106007885		habitat	eng	This species is found on the ground and in the lower storey of broadleaved evergreen forest from lowlands up to 1,500 m, with most records below 500 m. It is also recorded from mature secondary forest and logged forest (rarely) and extends into submontane forests in some areas. <p></p>
106007885		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Sabah (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007885		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary, hill and submontane forests, which are under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106007886		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local on Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007887		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally locally common across its range, although local and uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007888		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007889		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Sabah, common in mount Kinabalu National Park and Gunung Niut Nature Reserve (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007891		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common across its range, although Rare in India and Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007893		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and fairly common (Grimmett et al. 2000).
106007894		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in Nepal, fairly widespread at low densities in Bhutan and fairly common in India (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007895		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007895		distribution	eng	<em>Spelaeornis caudatus</em> occurs in <strong>Nepal </strong>(very rare in the east), <strong>Bhutan </strong>(uncommon) and <strong>India</strong> (where it is locally common in Sikkim, northern West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh). As it is a highly skulking species and easily overlooked, further research may reveal it to be more widespread and abundant than current records imply. <em> <p></p></em>
106007895		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense undergrowth of moist evergreen forest, often in steep gullies, especially where ferns, mossy rocks and fallen trees abound, from 1,500 m to 2,500 m, perhaps occasionally to 3,100 m.   <p></p>
106007895		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare in Nepal, frequently recorded in Bhutan, and locally common in India (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007895		threats	eng	Within its limited range, this species is threatened by the destruction and fragmentation of forest, chiefly through logging and shifting cultivation.   <p></p>
106007896		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. However, the Dibang, Mehao and Walong Wildlife Sanctuaries are close to the type-locality and may support undiscovered populations. <strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys for the species across Lohit and Dibang districts, Arunachal Pradesh, including Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary, and also adjacent China and north-west Myanmar, to establish its distribution, status, habitat requirements and threats. Conduct studies to determine the extent of tolerance of secondary habitat, focussing in particular on whether populations persist in areas where primary habitat has been completely removed. Make recommendations for its conservation, based on survey findings, including the establishment of protected areas supporting populations of this and other threatened species, linked if possible to existing reserves. Promote conservation-awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities, aimed at reducing shifting agriculture and promoting sustainable exploitation of natural resources. <p></p>
106007896		distribution	eng	<em>Spelaeornis badeigularis</em> was known from one specimen, collected at Dreyi in the Mishmi Hills of eastern Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>, in 1947. It was rediscovered in 2004 along Mayodia Pass in the Mishmi Hills, where it was recorded as common (King and Donahue 2006)<strong></strong>. This remains the only known location for the species, but its use of roadside secondary growth suggests that it may occur more widely in eastern Arunchal Pradesh and other north-east Indian hills (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The species appears to be tolerant of secondary habitats, and given the extent of forest within eastern Arunchal Pradesh it is unlikely to be declining rapidly (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007896		habitat	eng	The type-specimen, an adult female, was collected in moist subtropical forest at 1,600 m in winter (January). It has since been recorded in dense undergrowth 1-3 m high in secondary forest, often with a broken canopy, within an elevation range between 1,800 and 2,550 m. This vegetation is typical of road-cuts and ravines. It is very active, typically remaining within 1 m of the ground. <p></p>
106007896		population	eng	This species is known from only one locality, where it is reported to be common. It may be more widespread, but a precautionary population estimate of 2,500-9,999 individuals is currently deemed appropriate. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007896		threats	eng	Timber extraction in Dibang and Lohit districts in Arunachal Pradesh, combined with forest loss and degradation as a result of shifting agriculture, are the most significant potential threats. In 1992, an estimated 61% of the state was still forested, but rates of habitat destruction are rapidly increasing in parallel with increases in the human population of Arunachal Pradesh, which doubled between 1970 and 1990. However, given that the species inhabits secondary growth in upland areas, deforestation is unlikely to have a dramatic impact on the population in the near future. <p></p>
106007897		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and local (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).
106007898		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007900		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known, although the Barail, Pulie Badge and Intanki protected areas might support populations.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct comprehensive surveys for the species in north-east India, to establish its range, distribution and population status, whilst assessing its habitat requirements and identifying threats. Make recommendations for conservation, based on survey findings, including the establishment of protected areas around any new sites found to support populations (probably in the Khasi Hills), and link these to existing reserves where appropriate. Ensure stronger regulation of any future large-scale montane timber extraction within its range. Conduct widespread conservation awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities, aimed at reducing shifting agriculture and promoting sustainable exploitation of natural resources. <p></p>
106007900		distribution	eng	<em>Spelaeornis longicaudatus</em> is endemic to hills south of the Brahmaputra river, north-east <strong>India</strong>, including the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, North Cachar Hills of Assam, and Naga Hills of Nagaland (BirdLife International 2001). Formerly, it was quite common and widespread within this limited range (particularly in the Khasi Hills), but there are very few recent records. However, this partly reflects a paucity of ornithological fieldwork because of security problems. <p></p>
106007900		habitat	eng	It is probably sedentary in dense undergrowth of moist broadleaved evergreen (particularly oak <em>Quercus</em> and <em>Rhododendron</em> forests) or pine <em>Pinus</em> forests, favouring ravines and steep, rocky, boulder-strewn hillsides covered with moss, ferns and orchids, between 1,000-2,000&#160;m. It is insectivorous, mainly terrestrial, occurring solitarily or in pairs, and is silent and unobtrusive. Breeding takes place during April-June.<p></p>
106007900		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007900		threats	eng	The main threat is presumed to be forest clearance, degradation and fragmentation, primarily as a result of shifting cultivation, but also through burning, cutting for fuelwood collection and, more locally, commercial timber extraction. This occurs both within and outside protected areas, where enforcement of regulations is often absent or impossible. Overgrazing of forest undergrowth by domestic livestock (which is a problem throughout its range) may pose a serious threat, given its reliance on understorey habitats.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007902		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007903		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007904		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in much of its range, although uncommon in the south east (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007905		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Protect important areas of habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106007905		distribution	eng	<em>Neomixis flavoviridis</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong> where it occurs in most areas of the eastern rainforest (apart from the Sambirano region) (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106007905		habitat	eng	It is most common in rainforest at mid-altitudes, between 600 and 1,400 m, being scarce or absent in most lowland forest and apparently absent from mossy forest at higher altitude (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a frequent member of mixed-species flocks, feeding in the understorey on insects which are gleaned from leaves (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in January (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest, in which two eggs are laid, is an oval ball constructed with grass and other vegetation, with an entrance near the top, suspended 1-2 m above the ground (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007905		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as nowhere common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106007905		threats	eng	Mid-altitude forest is less threatened than most other forest-types in Madagascar, but is still decreasing steadily, due to forest destruction for subsistence agriculture and commercial logging, so the species could become threatened in the near future, given that it has a patchy distribution and is not particularly common within its restricted altitudinal range.    <p></p>
106007907		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007908		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007909		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106007910		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106007911		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare and local in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007913		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007913		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris dennistouni</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, in Ilocos Norte and the northern Sierra Madre mountains from Cape Engaño south (including Palanan, Los Dos Cuernos and Minuma) to Aurora province (Dingalan, Maria Aurora and the Talaytay watershed), where it is fairly common in suitable habitats.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007913		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary evergreen forest, logged forest and edge habitats, including adjacent tall grass areas, but only below 1,000 m.  <p></p>
106007913		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007913		threats	eng	Deforestation is occurring throughout the region within the elevational range of this species. Logging, agricultural conversion and mining operations are the main threats to remaining habitats. <p></p>
106007914		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106007915		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007916		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mt Canlaon Natural Park (Negros) and the North Negros Forest Reserve, which only receives nominal protection. It also occurs in the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park, which reportedly contains the largest block of remaining forest in the Western Visayas, and Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes (Negros). Both sites benefit from conservation funding.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study habitat requirements, with specific reference to the species's capacity to persist in secondary habitats, particularly in areas where primary habitat has been completely removed. Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay and around Mts Silay and Mandalagan in north Negros, to locate additional important sites. Gazette the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park and propose further key sites on Negros, e.g. forest at Ban-ban, and on Panay for urgent establishment as formal protected areas. Promote more effective protection measures for the North Negros Forest Reserve. Encourage careful reforestation activities around remaining forests. <p></p>
106007916		distribution	eng	<em>Dasycrotapha speciosa</em> is endemic to the islands of Negros and Panay in the <strong>Philippines </strong>(Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). On Negros, it was formerly fairly common and widespread but is now generally uncommon and declining. Surveys in 1991 yielded tentative estimates of 22 birds per km<sup>2</sup> on Mt Canlaon, although only a few square kilometres of suitable forest remain. In 1987, it was discovered on Panay and is now known from five localities in the central mountains. However, it appears very uncommon and/or has a very patchy distribution.  <p></p>
106007916		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest, forest edge and secondary growth below 1,000&#160;m, occasionally occurring up to 1,180&#160;m. Highest densities have been recorded in the thick undergrowth of degraded secondary forest and observations invariably come from the lower strata (up to 8&#160;m), where birds stay in deep cover and are consequently unobtrusive unless singing.<p></p>
106007916		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007916		threats	eng	Continuing forest destruction is the main threat. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988. Habitat degradation, particularly selective logging of large trees, continues to pose a serious threat to remaining fragments throughout its limited range. Very little lowland forest remains at Mt Canlaon, a key site for the species. <p></p>
106007917		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007918		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends and rates of habitat loss throughout its range. Campaign for the protection of remaining areas of lowland forest on Luzon <p></p>
106007918		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris striata</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there are records from Lamao, Bataan, Mt Mariveles, Cape Engaño, Cagayan, Mt Cagua, Penablanca, Cagayan, Minuma, Siagot, Los Dos Cuernos, Mt Cetaceo, San Mariano ("Molino"), Isabela, Dilalongan, Aurora and Angat Dam. It has been described as rare and local within this range, although it may be overlooked.  <em> <p></p></em>
106007918		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest, logged forest and secondary growth. It also persists in heavily degraded forest and overgrown clearings. It is primarily a bird of forest floor and understorey, although it is sometimes also found in the middle and upper storeys. It mainly occupies forest below 500 m, although in the Sierra Madre it is locally common up to 1,000 m.   <p></p>
106007918		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007918		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected by the wholesale clearance of forest habitats as a result of logging, agricultural conversion and mining activities occurring within the range.  <p></p>
106007919		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends at known sites throughout the range. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007919		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris latistriata</em> is endemic to Panay, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Mt Baloy, Mt Madja-as, and Dagsalan, upper Aklan River. It is common (described as the most abundant bird species) in montane mossy forest on Mt Baloy, as well as on Mt Madja-as. It is likely to occupy this habitat throughout the estimated 700 km<sup>2</sup> of Panay's remaining closed-canopy high-elevation forest. <em> <p></p></em>
106007919		habitat	eng	This species is known from montane mossy forest from 1,100 m to 1,900 m.  <p></p>
106007919		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007919		threats	eng	This species is likely to be affected by the wholesale clearance of forest habitats as a result of logging, agricultural conversion and mining activities occurring within the range. <p></p>
106007920		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area has been proposed for conservation funding. This area includes c.40 km<sup>2</sup> of high-altitude forest afforded nominal protection through the Negros Geothermal Reservation. Environmental awareness campaigns have been conducted near Mt Talinis itself. The Mt Canlaon Natural Park may afford some protection if the species persists there. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the status of the species on Mt. Talinis, as well as Mt Hapono-haponon in Mantikil, Siaton. Urgent need to clarify the status of the species on Mt Canlaon. Research the habitat requirements of the species, and determine the extent to which secondary habitats are tolerated. Promote stricter enforcement of existing legislation to curb deforestation at higher elevations on Mt Talinis. Expand environmental education initiatives around Mt Talinis.  <p></p>
106007920		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris nigrorum</em> is endemic to Negros in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from the vicinity of Mt Talinis in the south and from Mt Canlaon in the north (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). It was also recently sighted at Mt Hapono-haponon in Mantikil, Siaton (A. Bucol <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is common around Mt Talinis, where surveys in 1991 recorded 76 individuals in a day, making it the second most frequently recorded species. However, it is likely to be declining within this very restricted range. There is only one (recent) record from Mt Canlaon, despite considerable subsequent fieldwork there, casting doubt over the importance of this site to the species. <p></p>
106007920		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest between 950 and 1,600 m, chiefly occurring between 1,050 and 1,400 m, generally favouring the lower storey. It seems to tolerate degraded habitats, having been recorded in recently degraded forest, secondary forest and dense bushes at the forest edge and in forest opened up for agriculture. However, it appears to be limited to areas with some remaining forest cover (A. Bucol <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007920		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106007920		threats	eng	In 1988, it was estimated that a mere 4% of Negros remained forested. Deforestation, owing to agricultural encroachment and logging activities, has reached 1,250 m on Mt Talinis, higher than any other site on Negros. In 1993, a large proportion of the forest was protected by a single guard who, in response to threats from slash-and-burn farmers, was confining his patrol work to the road up the mountain. <p></p>
106007921		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites and survey surrounding suitable areas to determine the full extent of the range. Monitor rates of habitat conversion within the altitudinal limits of the species. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106007921		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris hypogrammica</em> is endemic to Palawan, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Mt Victoria, Mt Mataling, Mt Borangbato, Mt Mantalingajan at the peak and at Magtaguimbong. Various reports have suggested that it remains common within its limited range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007921		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary montane forest areas (above 1,000 m) in the south of the island.  <p></p>
106007921		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007921		threats	eng	The montane habitats occupied by this species are unlikely to be at imminent threat from development, although rates of deforestation are increasing on Palawan. <p></p>
106007922		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys within eastern Java to determine whether further populations exist in suitable mountainous areas. Monitor populations and habitat trends at known sites. Ensure the continuing protection of forests on Gunung Halimum.  <p></p>
106007922		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris grammiceps</em> is restricted to Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is known from 22 sites, largely in the western part of the island (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. It is common within suitable habitats, and is one of the commonest birds on Gunung Halimum, with a density calculated at 332 birds per km<sup>2</sup> in primary and slightly disturbed forest between 750 and 1,100 m (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it has declined or disappeared from a number of historic strongholds as a result of the clearance and fragmentation of forests. <em> <p></p></em>
106007922		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and hill forest at 30-1,500 m, but mostly below 1,000 m. It is commonest in forests with some degree of degradation, allowing increased luxuriant lower growth around light-gaps and edges (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is mainly found in rugged, sloping areas with steep topography.   <p></p>
106007922		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007922		threats	eng	Lowland forests on Java are now drastically reduced and fragmented as a result of logging and conversion to agriculture. Remaining areas of habitat continue to be threatened by development, as well as increasing encroachment and disturbance from expanding human populations. Even remote sites such as Gunung Halimum are now under increased pressure from human activities (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106007923		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>This species occurs in a few protected areas: Hin Nam No, Khammouane Limestone and Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Areas, Laos and Phong Nha Nature Reserve, Vietnam.    </P><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, and assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly the importance of forests in lower karst areas, where deforestation is proceeding more rapidly. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest (particularly in lower parts of karst areas) at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.    </P>
106007923		distribution	eng	<I>Stachyris herberti</I> was historically known from only two lowland localities in central <B>Laos</B>, where it was collected in 1920. However, in 1994 it was found to be not uncommon in primary forest at a single locality in central Annam, <B>Vietnam</B>. Recent observations suggest that it is locally common in central Laos over a fairly wide area (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 2007). <I>
106007923		habitat	eng	This species frequents stunted evergreen forest in limestone gullies, steep cliffs and adjacent rock, at 230-610 m, foraging in small groups for small invertebrates (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 2007).
106007923		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007923		threats	eng	This species is presumably threatened by lowland deforestation, although this is proceeding at an extremely slow rate in the inaccessible karstic regions it occupies. Deforestation is occurring in the lower parts of karst areas, and these forests could be an important habitat component for this species. However, the majority of its habitat is protected because the karst hills on which it grows are difficult to penetrate (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 2007).
106007924		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007925		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007926		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The only known substantial population is in Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, although it probably occurs in adjacent Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in suitable habitat to establish its range, distribution and population status and to assess its habitat requirements and main threats. Make recommendations for its conservation, based on survey findings, including the establishment of protected areas, linked to existing reserves where appropriate. Discourage further large-scale montane timber extraction within its range. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities, aimed at reducing shifting agriculture. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Support proposals to establish a 100-km<sup>2</sup> buffer zone along the western lowland boundary of Namdapha National Park and effectively protect core areas.  <p></p>
106007926		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris oglei</em> is endemic to the Patkai and Mishmi Hills of eastern Arunachal Pradesh, north-east <strong>India</strong> and adjacent northern <strong>Myanmar</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is rather poorly known, in part because little ornithological work has been conducted within its range. Historical collectors considered it rare and very local. However, a healthy population has recently been discovered in Namdapha National Park (Arunachal Pradesh), suggesting that it may be locally common.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007926		habitat	eng	It breeds during April and May in moist, dense scrub in rocky ravines up to 1,800&#160;m, and winters from 400&#160;m to at least 900&#160;m in bamboo and undergrowth of primary evergreen forest on rocky hillsides. It is generally encountered in winter in monospecific flocks of up to 20 individuals and is quite vocal, but wary and skulking.<p></p>
106007926		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007926		threats	eng	Its tolerance of habitat degradation is not known, making identification of specific threats difficult. However, habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of commercial logging, clearance for tea cultivation and shifting agriculture are all possible threats. Forest in and around Namdapha National Park is becoming increasingly denuded owing to overgrazing of domestic livestock and collection of firewood. In 1992, an estimated 61% of Arunachal Pradesh remained forested, but rates of habitat destruction have increased along with the growing tribal population within the state, which doubled between 1970 and 1990. <p></p>
106007927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally common in its South-East Asian range and locally common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007928		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.   <p></p>
106007928		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris leucotis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei. </strong>It is generally scarce within this range, occurring at low densities even in ideal habitat. However, mist-net studies on Borneo suggest that it is commoner than observational records suggest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106007928		habitat	eng	This species is found in primary evergreen forest, including logged forests and edge, from lowlands up to 1,000 m. It is generally found in hilly areas, and is suspected to be a slope specialist.   <p></p>
106007928		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare to scarce across its range (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007928		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of hill forests, which are under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106007929		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements and response to fragmentation. Monitor population trends and rates of habitat loss across the range. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007929		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris nigricollis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei. </strong>It is uncommon to fairly common across this range, being most abundant in degraded forests of lowland Borneo. <em> <p></p></em>
106007929		habitat	eng	This species occurs in primary and secondary evergreen forest, including freshwater and peatswamp forest, from lowlands up to 1,000 m.   Although it is perhaps most abundant in lightly disturbed forests with luxuriant lower-storey growth (e.g. Edwards<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011), evidence from Singapore suggests that it is unable to persist in secondary forest fragments long term (Castelletta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).  In addition, the species is not found in heavily degraded and disturbed  habitats such as degraded peat swamp forest (Posa 2011), plantations  and scrub  (Peh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) or in highly fragmented forest (D. L. Yong<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<p></p>
106007929		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common, although common in Borneo and extinct in Singapore (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).
106007929		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). As this species persists in secondary and logged forests, it may not be  under immediate threat from selective logging and may be relatively secure in areas where habitat clearance is incomplete, but complete forest  clearance (e.g. for plantations and agriculture) remains a real threat.<p></p>
106007930		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007931		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population and habitat trends throughout the range. Conduct ecological studies to determine its response to habitat fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007931		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris maculata</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is generally common within suitable habitats across this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106007931		habitat	eng	This species is found in broadleaved evergreen forest, including primary, secondary and logged formations, peatswamp and heath forest and overgrown plantations. It is largely restricted to lowlands, with an upper limit of 800 m.   <p></p>
106007931		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although extinct in Singapore (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007931		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary and logged forests.  <p></p>
106007932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007933		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007934		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106007935		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007937		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in Java (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007938		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007939		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007940		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends across the range. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and response to fragmentation. Improve the management of any protected areas suffering encroachment within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Implement measures to reduce the number and severity of forest fires.     <p></p>
106007940		distribution	eng	<em>Macronous ptilosus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan (including Anamba Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is locally very common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106007940		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland evergreen forests, including freshwater swamp forest, secondary growth and bamboo, up to 700 m. Although this species is fairly tolerant of degraded forest, being recorded at relatively high densities within selectively logged forests with luxuriant lower-storey growth (e.g. Edwards<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2011), evidence from Singapore suggests that it is unable to persist in secondary forest fragments long term (Castelletta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). In addition, the species is not found in heavily degraded and disturbed habitats such as degraded peat swamp forest (Posa 2011), plantations and scrub  (Peh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) or in highly fragmented forest (D. L. Yong<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106007940		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).
106007940		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). As this species persists in secondary and logged forests, it may not be under immediate threat from selective logging, but forest clearance (e.g. for plantations and agriculture) remains a real threat.<br/><p></p>
106007942		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local in Pakistan, local to fairly common in Nepal and widespread and locally common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007944		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Kaziranga, Manas and Dibru-Saikowa National Parks, India, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve and Chitwan National Park, Nepal. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to establish the species's current distribution and status, particularly in Myanmar and Bangladesh. Campaign for increased representation of swamps and wet grasslands within protected-area systems throughout its range. Identify the most important conservation sites for the species and conduct research into grass burning/harvesting regimes in order to develop optimum management strategies. Regulate harvesting of grass, overgrazing and encroachment at key sites, particularly within protected areas. Conduct education programmes throughout its range to promote grassland conservation and regeneration. <p></p>
106007944		distribution	eng	<em>Chrysomma altirostre </em>occurs in three disjunct populations, along the River Indus and its tributaries in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, in the terai of <strong>Nepal</strong> (where it has only recently been discovered), and the Brahmaputra floodplain in north-east <strong>India </strong>(BirdLife International 2001).<strong> </strong>It is known historically from the Irrawaddy-Sittang plains of <strong>Myanmar</strong>, and possibly Bangladesh. Recent records from Assam, its stronghold in India, suggest it has declined and in Pakistan it is uncommon and local. There are no recent records from Myanmar or Bangladesh. <p></p>
106007944		habitat	eng	It is a presumed resident, inhabiting river floodplain tall grassland and reedbeds (2-4 m high), often seasonally inundated or in close proximity to rivers and pools, and predominantly comprising species of <em>Imperata</em>, <em>Saccharum</em>, <em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em>. It prefers dense, contiguous, undisturbed stands of grass and generally avoids drier, semi-open, short grassland habitat with scattered bushes. It is unobtrusive and usually encountered in pairs or small groups.  <p></p>
106007944		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007944		threats	eng	Large tracts of natural swamps and wet grassland have been destroyed or degraded throughout its range as a result of drainage, conversion for agriculture and grazing by domestic stock. This has been exacerbated in Pakistan by the construction of large barrages on the Indus, accelerating rates of land reclamation and conversion to cultivation. Most remaining habitat is subject to intense pressure from further drainage for agriculture, human encroachment, excessive burning and cutting, domestic livestock-grazing, and, more locally, commercial forestry plantations. The political situation in Myanmar has largely precluded intensive surveys for the species. <p></p>
106007945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007946		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent and fairly widespread (Grimmett et al. 2000).
106007947		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south-east Iraq and south-west Iran (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106007947		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the reedbeds of the Mesopotamian marshes, and is also found in rural habitats along rivers and irrigation canals (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106007947		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common; common in Basra and Baghdad provinces of Iraq (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007947		threats	eng	There has been considerable loss of wetlands within its range due to large-scale projects for flood control, drainage and irrigation (Maltby 1994). These apparently prevented water from entering up to two-thirds of the marshes during 1992-1993, and satellite images show huge areas drying up (Evans 1993, Pearce 1993). The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) resulted in extensive burning, heavy bombing and the use of chemical weapons in the marshes (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The increase in settlement and improvement in access to the region has resulted in further disturbance, with levels of pollution increasing substantially through the use of insecticides (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106007948		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106007949		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106007950		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007951		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known to occur in two protected areas, Chitwan National Park, Nepal and Kaziranga National Park, India, both of which are thought to support significant populations.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat throughout its range to establish its current distribution and population status. Extend, upgrade and link existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to adequately conserve remaining tracts of grassland. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of tall grassland loss and degradation. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on grassland regeneration and sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds. <p></p>
106007951		distribution	eng	<em>Turdoides longirostris</em> has a fragmented distribution in the terai of central <strong>Nepal</strong> and north and north-east <strong>India </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). Although described as locally common in the 19th century, recent records come from just three areas, in Nepal (where its declining population is estimated at 1,440-2,160 individuals, based on surveys in 2005 [C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), at Gorumara NP and Singalila NP in Bengal (M. Prince <em>in litt.</em> 2002, P. Lobo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, and also in Assam. There are unconfirmed historical reports from Bangladesh and Myanmar. <p></p>
106007951		habitat	eng	It is a sedentary resident of tall grasslands in the lowlands, where it is usually found near water, and at least historically on grassy plateaux at 900-1,200&#160;m in Meghalaya, India. It is gregarious, but generally shy and difficult to observe, except during the breeding season, March-June, when it is more vocal and conspicuous.<p></p>
106007951		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals, based on a detailed analysis of historical and recent records in BirdLife International (2001). The largest remaining population, in Chitwan National Park, is estimated to number 1,000 individuals, but there have been few recent surveys elsewhere in its range. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. The estimate equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007951		threats	eng	The rapid and extensive loss and modification of tall grasslands and reedswamp throughout its limited range is the main threat to the species. This is occurring as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, sugarcane, mustard and tea plantations), overgrazing by domestic livestock, over harvesting of grass for thatch production, untimely cutting and burning of grass, inappropriate grassland management within protected areas and heavy flooding in the Brahmaputra valley, as a result of run-off from an increasingly denuded catchment. It is also threatened by the growth of invasive alien plant species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Mikania micrantha</span>, which can overrun grasslands and other habitats and render areas unsuitable (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106007952		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106007953		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common Israel (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007954		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent, although rare in Senegal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007955		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106007956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007957		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the north of its range and fairly common in Kerala and western Tamil Nadu (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007958		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007959		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends across the range. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and response to fragmentation. Protect significant areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106007959		distribution	eng	<em>Turdoides rufescens </em>is endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is fairly common to common in the wet lowlands, usually rare on adjacent hills but occasionally common above 700 m. <em> <p></p></em>
106007959		habitat	eng	This species appears to be almost restricted to primary forest in some areas (usually where Yellow-billed Babbler <em>T. affinis</em> is present), but is sometimes common in selectively logged or secondary forest, scrub or tea plantations. It is a characteristic component of mixed-species flocks, with up to 45 individuals counted in a group. It is generally found in lowlands, but occurs locally up to 2,100 m.  <p></p>
106007959		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in wet lowlands and rare on adjacent hills (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007959		threats	eng	Forest on Sri Lanka has suffered degradation and fragmentation in recent decades due to excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging.  <p></p>
106007960		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106007961		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007962		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in east Sudan, fairly common in south-east Sudan and frequent to common in the Ethiopian highlands (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007966		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007967		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007968		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and widespread in Rwanda and Burundi (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007969		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007970		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded from Mwea National Reserve (P. Njoroge <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and rediscovered in Meru National Park (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, but only about 8% of birds found during surveys in 1994 and 2000-2001 were recorded in these protected areas (Shaw <em>et al. </em>2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Kamiti 2003, P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005). It is also known from Wajee Camp, a small private sanctuary in the Mukurweini area (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, which provides a useful extra focus for conservation efforts. A site support-group has been established at Mukurweini, which actively monitors babbler numbers and breeding success within parts of the site, and has carried out a tree-planting initiative (P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005, Anon 2007)<strong></strong>. In the species's core range, high agricultural productivity, the pattern of land tenure and a high human population density limit opportunities for statutory site protection (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). A draft Species Action Plan has been prepared<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>, but an Action Plan support group has yet to be convened (P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A survey for the species had been planned at land near Juja, following the confirmation of its presence in 2003 (Boy 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct an awareness-raising campaign in agricultural areas of its range, perhaps through local site support-groups for Important Bird Areas (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>2003b)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Convene an action plan support group to update and finalise the plan, and to pursue agreed actions (P. Shaw<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Manage a 100 m-wide strip along each watercourse, within which thicket cover is allowed to exceed 10% (in high rainfall areas) or 30% (in low rainfall areas)<strong><sup> </sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. Retain thicket cover near the confluence of watercourses, facilitating dispersion between valleys<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. Identifying ways of providing incentives to farmers to help achieve management targets<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. Monitor abundance and habitat quality at managed sites, and compare these with matched, unmanaged sites<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. Conduct a survey of the Nyambeni Hills, which may support a significant population (P. Shaw<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Search for the species at sites from which it is thought to have been extirpated (Nziu, Athi River and Ol Donyo Sapuk)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. After a suitable interval, re-survey sites surveyed in 2000-2001, to determine trends (P. Shaw<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine the impacts of group size on breeding success, and whether recruitment levels at example sites are sufficient to maintain the population<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. Determine whether genetic diversity varies between sites, indicating whether some are now effectively isolated, as appears to be the case (P. Shaw<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Assess the feasibility of establishing habitat corridors between sites (Kianyaga and Mukurweini)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. Determine feasibility of re-establishing babbler groups in suitably prepared areas within its former range (e.g. at Runjenges and Chuka, NE of Kianyaga)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Shaw and Musina 2003b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007970		distribution	eng	<em>Turdoides hindei</em> occurs only in central <strong>Kenya</strong>. Its range is centred on the foothills of the Aberdares and Mt Kenya, at Mukurweini and Kianyaga respectively, with an outlying population at Meru National Park and the adjacent Nyambeni Hills to the north, Machakos to the south, and Kitui to the south-east (Plumb 1979, Turner 1992, Njoroge and Mutinda 1996, Njoroge <em>et al.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Njoroge <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Bennun and Njoroge 1999, Njoroge and Bennun 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005, P. Shaw<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Its continued existence at Athi River has not been confirmed recently (P. Njoroge <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005), and it has not been recorded at Nziu since 1932 (Kamiti 2003). Since 1994, it has been recorded from six main sites: Mukurweini; Kianyaga; Mwea National Reserve; Machakos; Kitui; and Meru National Park (P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In addition, 1-2 groups have recently been reported each from Thika (Boy 2003, <strong></strong> Kamiti 2003, P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>), and from Juja, south-east of Thika and close to Ol Donyo Sapuk National Park (Boy 2003, <strong></strong>P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2006). The subpopulation at Meru NP and adjacent Nyambeni Hills is almost certainly isolated from the rest of the population, while those at Machakos and Kitui are probably isolated from each other and from all other subpopulations to the north <strong></strong>(P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2006). Surveys at the six main sites during 1994 and 2000-2001 yielded a minimum population of 665 birds in 157 groups (Shaw <em>et al. </em>2003, Kamiti 2003, P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005), with about 77% of these found in the core areas of Mukurweini, Kianyaga and Mwea (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Kamiti 2003)<strong></strong>. The overall population is estimated to be towards the lower end of 1,500-5,600 individuals (Shaw <em>et al. </em>2003). There have been no broad-scale estimates of population trend but, given the c. 30-52% contraction in its area of occupancy evident since the mid-1900s (Shaw <em>et al. </em>2003), its population has almost certainly decreased in the past 30-40 years (P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106007970		habitat	eng	This species is a group-territorial, cooperative breeder (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). In June-July, following the end of the long rains, groups typically comprise 3-4 adults, often accompanied by 1-2 fledglings or immatures (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). It occurs in two contrasting habitats: thickets and woodland within semi-arid areas (e.g. Machakos and Mwea); and moist, fertile land largely cleared for agriculture, but with fragments of scrub, mainly of the exotic shrub <em>Lantana camara</em> (Mukurweini and Kianyaga) (Njoroge and Mutinda 1996, Njoroge <em>et al.</em> 1998, Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). In both situations they are normally found in close proximity to dense vegetation associated with streams and rivers, and are more abundant in higher rainfall (perhaps more invertebrate rich) areas that have retained some thicket cover (Njoroge <em>et al.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Njoroge and Bennun 2000, Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Mukurweini and Kianyaga, abundance was found to increase where thicket cover exceeded 3%, while breeding success improved where thicket cover exceeded 9% (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). Nest records peak in March to May and September to October, coinciding with the main periods of rainfall (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). Clutches of 2-3 eggs are laid in nests built at 1-3 m, usually in thickets (Njoroge and Mutinda 1996). Productivity generally appears similar to its congeners, with fledglings and immatures together accounting for about 16% and 20% of birds aged during surveys in 2000 and 2001 respectively (Shaw and Musina 2003a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Kamiti 2003).  <p></p>
106007970		population	eng	The total population is estimated to be towards the lower end of 1,500-5,600 individuals, based on surveys in 1994 and 2000-2001. This range is roughly equivalent to 1,000-3,700 mature individuals.
106007970		threats	eng	A rapidly increasing human population and intensive farming within its range mean that remaining patches of thicket are being cleared rapidly, with little land left fallow or unweeded, and the thickets that remain are becoming increasingly fragmented (Njoroge <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Thickets may also have been destroyed by rice irrigation and dams along the Tana River. Loss of thicket may have been partly mitigated by the spread of the exotic <em>Lantana camara</em>, which provides thicket cover in previously cleared areas. Its presence has probably slowed the species's decline, and may even have enabled it to colonise or re-colonise intensively farmed land (Njoroge and Bennun 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disturbance during the breeding season may result in low breeding success (Njoroge and Mutinda 1996, Njoroge <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Inbreeding and competition from Northern Pied-babblers <em>T. hypoleucus</em> do not appear to be threats to this species, although formerly suspected as such (Njoroge <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. However, hunting for food is a serious threat in some areas (e.g. Kianyaga) (Njoroge and Mutinda 1996, Njoroge and Bennun 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). Other potential threats are pesticide use, predation, brood parasitism (from Jacobin Cuckoo <em>Clamator jacobinus</em>) and low genetic diversity (P. Shaw<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007971		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007972		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007973		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007974		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Angola and uncommon to locally common in Namibia, where the population is estimated as 53,170-104,970 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007975		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2,000), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007976		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly its tolerance of fragmentation and human degradation. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106007976		distribution	eng	<em>Babax waddelli</em> occurs in southern Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, and extreme north-eastern Sikkim, <strong>India</strong>. It is generally scarce across this range, although it may be locally common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106007976		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense deciduous scrub above the treeline, particularly around stands of willow (<em>Salix</em> spp.), sea buckthorn (<em>Hippophae rhamnoides</em>) and prickly oak (<em>Quercus </em>spp.), and the edges of coniferous and mixed forests. Records are from 2,700-4,600 m. <p></p>
106007976		population	eng	The current global population is estimated to be 120,000 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007976		threats	eng	This species is presumably declining because of deforestation, although extensive pine and mixed coniferous forests with prickly oak and rhododendron still remain to the east of Lhasa. <p></p>
106007977		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and habitat trends across its range. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and response to fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against future threats.  <p></p>
106007977		distribution	eng	<em>Babax koslowi</em> is restricted to the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, in eastern Tibet and southern Qinghai, <strong>China</strong>, where several large valleys cut into the plateau, including those of the Tongtian river (the upper reaches of the Chang Jiang or Yangtze), the Lancang Jiang (the upper Mekong) and the Nu Jiang (the upper Salween). It is known by just a few scattered records in this inaccessible and poorly known area, but it appears to be genuinely rather scarce and localised. <em> <p></p></em>
106007977		habitat	eng	This species is found in juniper forest and scrub, mixed fir and juniper forest and scrub bordering agricultural land at c.3,650-4,500 m.   <p></p>
106007977		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce and localised (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106007977		threats	eng	Some logging of forest is occurring within the range of this species, but rates are slow and it does not appear to be immediately threatened by habitat loss.  <p></p>
106007978		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although locally rare in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007979		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal <I>et al</I>. 2002), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106007979		threats	eng	This species has been heavily traded: since 1997 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 227,517 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106007981		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007982		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest shrike-babbler (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Nepal to rare and local in Pakistan (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007984		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007985		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in India to generally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007986		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, the boundaries of which were established in 1999.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in Laos and Vietnam to determine its total range, distribution, approximate population size and habitat requirements. Undertake management, monitoring, training and education activities at Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve and support expansion of this protected area into Quang Nam province. <p></p>
106007986		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Actinodura sodangorum</span> is currently known from just seven associated localities in Kontum province in the western highlands of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vietnam</span>, and two localities in south-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Laos</span>—Dakchung Plateau and Xe Sap (BirdLife International 2001, T. Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is predicted to occur at other locations in the Xe Kong and Attapu provinces of south-east Laos and Quang Nam province in Vietnam. It appears to be locally distributed, but not uncommon within its known range.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007986		habitat	eng	A resident in Vietnam and Laos, it occurs primarily in evergreen forest and also adjacent secondary growth from c.1,000-2,400&#160;m, including small forest fragments with banana groves amid shifting cultivation and scrub on steeply sloping hillsides. In Laos, it has been found in tall, damp grassland and scrub adjacent to evergreen forest and open pine woodland at 1,150&#160;m, but not in evergreen forest and secondary growth nearby. All sightings have been of single birds or pairs, with one record of association with Black-headed Sibia <em>Heterophasia melanoleuca.</em> <p></p>
106007986		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106007986		threats	eng	Further information is required on its habitat utilisation before specific threats can be identified. Shifting cultivation may be the greatest potential threat. In Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Vietnam, 13% of evergreen forest was lost between 1976 and 1995. However, given that it also occurs in seral forest formations, tall grass and scrub, it is unclear if it is seriously threatened by deforestation. A significant potential threat is a proposed major road development that will improve access to its range in Vietnam. <p></p>
106007987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local in central Nepal, frequent in Bhutan and locally fairly common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007988		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007989		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (Grimmett et al. 2000).
106007990		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common in India and very rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007991		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007992		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common resident (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106007993		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106007996		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Robson 2000).
106007997		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from several protected areas including Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve, Labahe Nature Reserve, Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site (Sichuan), Laojunshan Nature Reserve, Mamize Nature Reserve and Dayao Shan Nature Reserve (Guangxi). Emei Shan is protected as a sacred mountain. Most records from the Sichuan part of its range, however, are in forest areas that are currently unprotected (e.g. in forests near Xining in Leibo county) (S. Dowell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Some forestry practices, notably leaving strips of primary forest along ridge-tops and replanting with native broadleaved trees, may be beneficial. Survey work has improved knowledge of its distribution, population and ecological and conservation requirements. Laojunshan and Mamize Nature Reserves have received support to train and equip staff and to encourage alternative livelihoods and sustainable management practices amongst local communities from the Sichuan Forest Biodiversity Project (a collaboration between the Sichuan Forest Department, Chester Zoo and Liverpool John Moores University). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known sites and other areas of suitable habitat, including gaps in the current known range in Guizhou and north Guangxi, to determine population size and trends. Conduct surveys and ecological research with the aim of producing management recommendations for forests where it occurs. Gazette new protected areas where appropriate. Support recommendations to establish a network of protected areas for Sichuan Partridge <em>Arborophila rufipectus</em>, including areas in the north of Leibo county, as this will also protect habitat for this species. At Labahe Nature Reserve, reconstruct forest corridors to the Qionglai Shan Conservation Unit. Jointly manage Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve with Meigu Dafengding Reserve. Gazette the Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site as a nature reserve, control tourism and strengthen research work. Control logging and the planting of star anis at Dayao Shan Nature Reserve. Maintain strips of primary forest along ridge-tops, continue replanting with native broadleaved trees, and increase linkage between isolated montane sites. <p></p>
106007997		distribution	eng	<em>Alcippe variegaticeps</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from south-central Sichuan and the mountains of northern Guangxi, although it presumably occurs in some of the intervening areas (BirdLife International 2001). Its population is inferred to be small and declining given the limited area of suitable habitat and the threats to it.<strong></strong><p></p>
106007997		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical and montane broadleaved forest, usually with extensive shrub and bamboo undergrowth, often in small stream valleys, at c.700-2,000 m. It feeds on insects and spiders, and forages on mossy branches.  <p></p>
106007997		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106007997		threats	eng	The main threat is the loss and fragmentation of forest within its range, much of which has already been cleared or degraded through logging, conversion to agriculture and, in Guangxi, uncontrolled fire. Remaining forest is under intense pressure: until recently, almost all primary broadleaved forests in southern Sichuan had been scheduled for logging in the next 20-25 years, although there has been a recent ban on large-scale logging in Sichuan, in the western part of this species's range. Collection of bamboo shoots and grazing of livestock in forests causes disturbance during the breeding season. Climate change could pose a threat to the suitability of montane refuges in future (J. Fellowes <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106007998		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000, Robson 2000).
106008001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008004		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in eastern Bhutan, locally fairly common in India and south-east China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common in the Himalayas in India; uncommon in China and generally scarce to locally common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008006		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Bhutan, locally common in north-east India, uncommon in China and generally fairly common to common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008008		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population and habitat trends across the range. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise the habitat requirements of this species, as well as its response to disturbance and fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat from logging and encroachment.   <p></p>
106008008		distribution	eng	<em>Alcippe brunneicauda</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including Batu Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is fairly common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106008008		habitat	eng	This species occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest, mature secondary growth and logged forests, from lowlands up to 1,000 m.   <p></p>
106008008		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106008008		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary, hill and submontane forests, which are under less pressure from logging and agricultural conversion.  <p></p>
106008009		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally very common to uncommon in India, locally common in Bangladesh and china and generally common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008010		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in west Java (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008012		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally very common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in China and c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008013		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).
106008014		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Giant's Castle Game Reserve and Monk's Cowl Nature Reserve, in KwaZulu-Natal (del Hoyo<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor habitat loss throughout its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106008014		distribution	eng	<em>Lioptilus nigricapillus</em> ranges from the north Eastern Cape, through New Griqualand, the Drakensberg and mistbelt forests of KwaZulu-Natal, the eastern Free State and Mpumalanga to the Northern Province in eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>, as well as western <strong>Swaziland</strong>. It is generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), within a small range of less than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The South African population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals, with between 500 and 1,000 estimated to be in reserves. Swaziland is thought to hold a resident breeding population of 40 individuals.   <p></p>
106008014		habitat	eng	This species prefers major stands of mature forest in ravines fringed with thickets of <em>Leucosidea</em> and <em>Buddleia</em>. This habitat is often surrounded by grassland. It usually occurs at 750-1,825 m, but is recorded down to 600 m during the winter months, and seen at the coast in May when it occupies coastal forests and valley bushveld, and occasionally ferns and shrubs in gardens (del Hoyo<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small berries, fruits and invertebrates. Breeding takes place between October and January. The nest, in which 2-3 eggs are laid, is a cup of grass, leaves, fine twigs, roots, forbs and tendrils, lined with rootlets, bark strips, fine twigs and animal hair, and placed 1-6 m above the ground in a fork in the subcanopy of a tree or bush. It is a resident, and a partial altitudinal migrant (del Hoyo<em> et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008014		population	eng	The South African population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals and Swaziland is thought to hold a resident breeding population of 40 individuals. The range of 1,500-5,000 individuals roughly equates to 1,000-3,300 mature individuals.
106008014		threats	eng	Some of its scrub and forest habitat has already been lost to commercial afforestation. With the majority of its habitat expected to become severely afforested, this species may undergo serious declines in the future.  <p></p>
106008015		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is an ongoing conservation and development project at Mt Kupe. However, the forest still has no legal protection and there has been a slow extension of farmland on the northern slopes (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The forests of the Bakossi Mountains are still waiting to be classified as part of a national park (R. Fotso<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary is the focus of a major conservation programme (<strong></strong>R. Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A small area of montane forest is protected on the Obudu Plateau (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into the species's ecology and life history. Verify if the Foto forest near Dschang still exists and, if so, recheck the status of the population there (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the size of the total population. Once a baseline estimate has been obtained, monitor trends in the total population. Monitor habitat trends in the species's range. Designate more protected areas in its range (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including a national park for the Bakossi Mountains.  <p></p>
106008015		distribution	eng	<em>Kupeornis gilberti</em> is restricted to a few localities in western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (Rumpi Hills, Bakossi Mountains, Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary [R. Fotso <em>in litt.</em> 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Mt Kupe, Mt Manenguba (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Mt Nlonako, Foto near Dschang), and eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Obudu Plateau). It is common on the Obudu Plateau (Elgood <em>et al</em>. 1994, P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, in 1999, was found to be very common on Mt Manenguba (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the two most important sites for the species are the Bakossi Mountains and Rumpi Hills, because of the area of suitable forest remaining (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1998, the estimated population in Bakossi was several thousand individuals (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008015		habitat	eng	It appears to be dependent on primary montane forest with high rainfall, but has also been seen in mature secondary growth, including 10&#160;m tall, scrubby but mossy <em>Maesa</em> forest on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c),<strong></strong> and conifer trees around cattle-ranch buildings on the Obudu Plateau (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It occurs between 950-2,130&#160;m, but its distribution (particularly the altitude) seems well correlated with that of thick epiphytic moss (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It is mainly insectivorous, searching for food in moss, epiphytes and crevices in bark. It has been recorded breeding in west Cameroon from June to November, and on the Obudu Plateau in April.<p></p>
106008015		population	eng	In 1998, the population in Bakossi, Cameroon, one of the most important sites for the species, was estimated at several thousand individuals, thus as a preliminary population estimate the species is placed in the range bracket for 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. Further documentation is required.
106008015		threats	eng	Undisturbed forest throughout its range is under pressure from exploitation for timber and firewood, intensive grazing, fire and clearance for agriculture. Plans for a 70,000 hectare palm-oil plantation threaten to significantly fragment large areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Cameroon if approved (Linder <em>et al.</em> 2011).  <strong></strong><p></p>
106008016		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Protect suitable habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106008016		distribution	eng	<em>Kupeornis rufocinctus</em> occurs in the Albertine Rift mountains in <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uganda</span> and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) where it is known to occur in the Itombwe Mountains, Mt Kabobo, Nyungwe Forest, and Mt Heha / Ijenda and Teza Forests (Stattersfield <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1998)<strong></strong>. This is a species with a restricted range and, although it can be locally very common, it is known from only a few sites.    <p></p>
106008016		habitat	eng	It is a species of montane forest and bamboo at altitudes of 1,500-3,200 m<strong></strong>. Gregarious, it is found in groups of 3-15 individuals which forage together on the trunks and branches of trees, taking insects and occasionally small fruits<strong></strong> (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990, del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species prefers very moist areas where the trees are covered in mossy epiphytes; in such favourable habitat it can occur at high density, with each group having a home range of 20-25 ha<strong></strong>. However, it is rare or absent from drier areas (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects and occasionally small fruits. Nest-building takes place in April and May, and dependent young have been observed between June and August in Rwanda (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008016		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as occurring at high densities in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008016		threats	eng	The level of threat to its few known sites, particularly as a result of clearance for shifting agriculture (Stattersfield <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998)<strong></strong>, means that this species's long-term future is far from secure.   <p></p>
106008017		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Protect suitable habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106008017		distribution	eng	<em>Kupeornis chapini</em> is endemic to the Albertine Rift mountains of the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, where it is known from the Lendu Plateau, mountains west of Lake Edward, mountains west of Lake Kivu, and the Itombwe Mts. It has a relatively small range and is considered "rather rare" (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).    <p></p>
106008017		habitat	eng	It is a species of transitional forest from 1,000-1,650 m where it occupies the upper stratum (Lippens and Wille 1976, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Its diet is unknown, but it has been observed foraging in the middle and upper storeys of forest, associating with other species, particularly bulbuls. Breeding takes place in May and June (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as evidently rather rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008017		threats	eng	This species's habitat is under threat as a result of clearance for shifting agriculture (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106008018		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008019		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common across its range. The species is described as rare in Gambia and Benin, common in Senegal and frequent on the Freetown Peninsular, Sierra Leone and frequent to rare from Nigeria to the Central African Republic (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008020		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in one protected area, Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve, which was included in the list of protected areas endorsed by the Government of Vietnam for establishment in 1986. The final boundaries of the reserve have yet to be been agreed and no protection measures exist. However, this site is currently under less pressure from logging and hunting than most other areas on the Da Lat Plateau.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in areas likely to support the species and identify those of high importance (BirdLife International 2009). Monitor population size and habitat changes at known sites in order to determine population trends. Gazette an extension to, and initiate management activities in, Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve. Establish further protected areas containing populations of the species. Minimise further immigration into Lac and Krong Bong districts. Promote sustainable management of charcoal production on Mt Lang Bian and Ho Tuyen Lam and promote ecotourism there. <p></p>
106008020		distribution	eng	<em>Crocias langbianis</em> is endemic to the Da Lat Plateau, southern <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it is known from the Lam Dong and Dak Lak provinces. Previously known from only five specimens collected at two localities in 1938-1939, it was rediscovered in 1994. It appears to be very locally distributed and is considered fairly common only at Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve, one of three sites with recent records. A survey in Lam Dong province in 2009 resulted in the discovery of the species at three previously unknown sites, with two pairs in Da Nhim Watershed Protection Forest, three pairs in D'Ran Watershed Protection Forest and seven pairs in forest compartments of Don Duong Forest Company, which is being logged on a 35-year rotation (Anon. 2009).<strong></strong><p></p>
106008020		habitat	eng	It is resident in closed-canopy, tropical montane evergreen forest from 900-1,700&#160;m (most recent observations come from a narrow altitudinal band from 910-1,130&#160;m). Generally encountered in singles, pairs, and occasionally small groups of up to five, it is arboreal and forages with mixed-species flocks for invertebrates, particularly caterpillars, primarily in the outer canopy of broadleaved evergreen and coniferous trees.<p></p>
106008020		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. There is not sufficient evidence available to downlist the species.
106008020		threats	eng	A government resettlement programme has greatly increased human pressure on the Da Lat Plateau, exacerbating problems of forest degradation and fragmentation through logging, shifting agriculture, fuelwood-collection and charcoal production. Frequent use of fire to clear land for cultivation prevents evergreen forest regeneration and promotes unsuitable fire-climax pine-dominated woodland. These activities threaten all known sites for the species. Fieldwork in 2009 identified two new localities for the species which are currently being cleared for a hydroelectric project that started in 2008. Areas of primary evergreen forest within the altitudinal range of the species in the Da Nhim Watershed Protection Forest is also being threatened with forest clearance for coffee and Japanese horseradish plantations (Anon. 2009), which is likely to represent a serious threat to the species. On Mt Lang Bian, all land below 1,500 m is now logged or under cultivation. At Chu Yang Sin, a road has been constructed that virtually reaches the 900 m contour.<br/><p></p>
106008021		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys within eastern Java to determine whether further populations exist in suitable mountainous areas. Monitor populations and habitat trends at known sites. Conduct ecological studies to identify the precise habitat requirements of this species. Monitor the presence of this species in the local bird trade and control if necessary. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce trapping.   <p></p>
106008021		distribution	eng	<em>Crocias albonotatus</em> is restricted to west Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is moderately common on Gunung Gede-Pangrango but seemingly rare on Gunung Halimun, suggesting that it may have specific habitat requirements that are as-yet unidentified.  <em> <p></p></em>
106008021		habitat	eng	This species is found in the canopy and edge of broadleaved montane forest at 900-2,400 m.   <p></p>
106008021		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park, west Java and seemingly rare in Gunung Halimun National Park, west Java (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
106008021		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to forest loss and perhaps trapping in lower parts of its elevational range.  <p></p>
106008022		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local in Nepal, uncommon and local in Bhutan, generally scarce but locally frequent in India, uncommon to locally common in China and generally uncommon to fairly common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008023		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest and most widespread sibia in the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008024		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in India and Myanmar and very local in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008026		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008027		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in north-east India, although rare in Nagaland; frequent in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, India and uncommon in Myanmar and China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008028		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008030		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout its range and locally very common at Gunung Niut Nature Reserve (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008031		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).
106008032		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest Yuhina in the Himalayas, although locally uncommon to rare at low elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008033		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally common and scarce to uncommon in west Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008034		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in Nepal, abundant in Bhutan and common to uncommon in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008035		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in China and locally fairly common in Myanmar and Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008036		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and China and uncommon to common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008037		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in the central highlands of Taiwan (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008038		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to scarce or rare (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008040		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly scarce, uncommon in Nepal, frequent in the temperate zones of Bhutan, locally common in India, uncommon in Myanmar and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in humid forest in east and north Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008042		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in most protected areas within its range and is common in Tsaratanana Strict Nature Reserve, and Marojejy, Mantadia, Ranomafana, Andringitra and Andohahela National Parks (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor potential threats to the species's habitat. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106008042		distribution	eng	<em>Crossleyia xanthophrys</em>, a distinctive babbler in its own genus, is a fairly common resident throughout eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from Tsaratanana in the north to Andohahela in the south (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008042		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane rainforest at 900-2,300 m. It is mainly terrestrial, foraging for insects in the leaf-litter and among herbs (Langrand 1990, Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is usually found in pairs, or as family groups in mixed-species flocks with other small insectivores (Langrand 1990, Evans <em>et al</em>. 1992, Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds in September-December, with juveniles observed in November-January (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest, in which three eggs are laid, is a deep cup of interwoven grasses or bamboo leaves and moss, on a bulky base of leaf litter or in a dense liana tangle (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008042		threats	eng	The species is potentially threatened by the significant reduction or fragmentation of its habitat (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The activities that it is presumed would drive deforestation and forest modification are the encroachment of small-holder cultivation and livestock farming and both small- and large-scale logging for timber. <p></p>
106008043		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106008044		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 240,000-480,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 720,000-1,440,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of   the global population size is c.1,440,000-5,760,000, although this estimate   requires further validation. The population in China has been estimated at   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals (Brazil   2009).
106008045		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce throughout its range, although locally not uncommon, particularly in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008046		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008047		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce; rare in Bhutan and fairly common in parts of China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008049		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from four protected areas in north-east India: Kaziranga, Manas (Choudhury 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Dibru-Saikhowa National Parks and D'Ering Wildlife Sanctuary. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat throughout its range to establish its current distribution and status. Research habitat use and seasonal movements. Extend, upgrade and link, where possible, existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to adequately conserve remaining tracts of grassland. Promote regeneration of grasslands throughout its historic range. Strictly regulate burning of tall grassland in protected areas. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of loss and degradation of tall grassland. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland bird species. <p></p>
106008049		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxornis flavirostris</em> is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, where it is known from the plains and foothills of the Brahmaputra valley in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, north-east <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Historically, it was also recorded in Bangladesh and possibly eastern Nepal. Formerly described as locally common, there are recent records from just four sites, one in Arunachal Pradesh and three in Assam, at one of which it appears to be common. <p></p>
106008049		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense reed thickets and mixed tall grassland, predominantly on wet substrates, along lowland river floodplains and adjacent hills, where it also occurs in grassy forest clearings. It is found up to at least 900&#160;m generally in small flocks, except during the breeding season (April- July). It is presumably resident, although there is some indication that it makes local seasonal movements in response to the rainy season.<p></p>
106008049		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008049		threats	eng	The rapid and extensive loss and modification of tall grasslands and reedswamp throughout its limited range is the main threat. This is occurring as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, mustard and tea plantations), overgrazing by domestic livestock, grass harvesting for thatch production and inappropriate grassland management within protected areas. Burning of grassland in protected areas is also a major threat (Choudhury 2011). Extreme flooding events in the Brahmaputra valley, associated with rapid run-off from an increasingly denuded catchment, could damage grasslands, although some flooding may be beneficial to grassland quality. <p></p>
106008050		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very widespread and generally fairly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008051		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).
106008052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and very widespread. Feral populations are becoming established in Italy. (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007). National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008053		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its natural range. The species has recently become established in north-west Italy (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008055		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A number of protected areas established for the giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has been recorded from Emei Shan Protected Scenic Area, Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve and Meigu Dafengding Nature Reserve (Sichuan), and Caohai (Guizhou). Emei Shan is protected as a sacred mountain. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Conduct detailed  environmental assessments on the impacts of increased  development and visitors on the species. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered; in particular gazette as a nature reserve the Emei Shan Protected Scenic Area, link and jointly manage Mabian Dafengding and Meigu Dafengding Nature Reserves and gazette the Washan proposed nature reserve. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. List it as a protected species in China.<br/><p></p>
106008055		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxornis zappeyi</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from the mountains of south-central Sichuan and western Guizhou. It is locally common around the summit of Emei Shan and a flock of 10 was reported from a site in Guizhou. Nine nests and 40 individuals (at least 18 pairs) were recorded in 2003 at Wawushan Natural Reserve, Sichuan (Yingxin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Records indicate that it exists at fairly high densities in suitable habitat, but its localised distribution suggests it could have a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats present.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008055		habitat	eng	It occurs in small flocks in scrub, bamboo and rhododendron in open, temperate zone conifer forest on exposed peaks and ridges near mountain tops, usually between c.2,350-3,450 m, but with one record from c.1,000 m. It may make seasonal altitudinal movements, and movements in response to bamboo die-off. The species nests in bamboo thickets, constructing nests from bamboo  leaves, fibrous roots, and moss (Yingxin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106008055		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008055		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest, although it is unclear how extensive habitat loss has been at high altitudes. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, as a result of exploitation for timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture. It is possible that the periodic flowering and die-off of&#160; bamboo, in combination with forest fragmentation, may affect this species. On Emei Shan, suitable habitat was cleared in 1998 for a tourist railway, which may have also lead to disturbance as the number of tourists visiting the summit increased. The promotion of tourism has also resulted in construction of a ski slope at Wawushan, Sichuan with the number of visiting tourists reaching c.300,000/ year (Yingxin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). This has led to destruction of suitable habitat and increasing disturbance.<br/><p></p>
106008056		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A number of protected areas established for the giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has only been recorded from one protected area, Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a nationally protected species in China. <p></p>
106008056		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxornis przewalskii</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it has been recorded from only four localities in the Min Shan mountains in southern Gansu province and adjacent parts of north-central Sichuan province (BirdLife International 2001). In Gansu, it was described as rare in the late 19th century. Prior to 2007, there had been no records since 1988, when up to 15 were seen in Jiuzhaigou National Park, indicating that it may be rather numerous in suitable habitat. In July 2007, the species was again recorded at Tangjiahe Nature Reserve (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> J. Hammar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.2011). In May 2011, five birds, including two pairs, were seen at the same site (J. Hammar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The paucity of records suggests that it probably has a localised distribution and a small population, which is likely to be declining given the potential threats to it.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008056		habitat	eng	Its ecology is poorly known. Historical records are from sparse larch woods, tussocks on a steep hillside and a bamboo thicket, at c.2,440-3,050 m. Recent records are from dense bamboo undergrowth in mixed coniferous forest and a bamboo thicket at 2,800 m. Five birds observed in May 2011, at Tangjiahe Nature Reserve, were present in a narrow altitudinal band at c.2,700 m, in bamboo just below the treeline (J. Hammar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Its diet is mainly insects. Given that it appears to be particularly associated with bamboo, it may be forced to move in response to periodic bamboo flowering and die-off.<p></p>
106008056		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008056		threats	eng	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, as a result of exploitation for timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture. Substantial areas of the temperate zone forests have been lost. It is possible that the periodic flowering and die-off of the bamboo, in combination with the fragmentation of temperate zone forests, may affect its population. <strong></strong><p></p>
106008057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008058		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally not uncommon yet uncommon to locally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in China and Vietnam and very scarce and difficult to observe in other locations (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007). Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs.
106008061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon, although fairly common at some scattered sites (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008062		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon, although fairly common at some scattered sites (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
106008063		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population and habitat trends across its range. Campaign for the protection of lowland reedbed habitats, particularly in eastern China.   <p></p>
106008063		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxornis heudei</em><strong> </strong>is known from Lake Khanka in Primorye, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Mongolia</strong>, and Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, Shandong, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang and Jiangxi, <strong>China</strong>, where it is locally common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106008063		habitat	eng	This species is found in reedbeds bordering rivers, lakes and the coast.   <p></p>
106008063		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, but totally dependent on reedbeds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007).
106008063		threats	eng	Several of the sites where this species has been recorded recently in eastern China are under severe threat from development and reclamation, as well as reed harvesting. Reedbeds appear to be under pressure everywhere in China, as well as other parts of the range.  <p></p>
106008064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106008065		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106008066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Kennedy et al. 2000).
106008068		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are many traditional rangeland reserves (mahjur) in south-west Arabia, where the vegetation (including trees) is protected by private or communal ownership rights from excessive exploitation, in order to provide fodder in times of drought (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. However, the management of these areas has been widely neglected or abandoned since the advent of more convenient supplies of supplemental livestock feed (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991)<strong></strong>. The species occurs in at least two protected areas in Saudi Arabia: Raydah Reserve (Newton and Newton 1996)<strong></strong> and Asir National Park (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Encourage non-intensive agroforestry practices. Collect more data on its range and distribution, in order to better explain its highly localised occurrence. Conduct a closer study of its strong association with the tree <em>Acacia origena</em>. <p></p>
106008068		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvia buryi</em> is a very local resident in montane south-west Arabia from 1,500-2,900 m<em> </em>(Brooks 1987, Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988)<strong></strong>. It occurs from 19°30'N in the southern Asir mountains in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, south to 13°55'N at Jiblah in <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong>Yemen</strong><em> </em>(Brooks 1987). The species can be locally common<em> </em>(Brooks 1987), and population densities (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988, <strong></strong> Newton and Newton 1996) probably fall within the range of 1-100 mature individuals per km<sup>2</sup> at the sites where it occurs. On this basis, its population is inferred to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. <p></p>
106008068		habitat	eng	In Yemen it is closely associated with woodland dominated by the tree <em>Acacia origena </em>(Brooks 1987), which generally occurs as copses, hedgerows and scattered trees in highland landscapes of terraced cultivation, while in Saudi Arabia it also occurs within well-developed <em>Juniperus </em>woodland (Stagg 1984, Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1988,&#160; Newton and Newton 1996)<strong></strong>. The species occurs in pairs for much of the year and is strongly territorial (Shirihai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). It nests in a bush or tree, with breeding recorded from March to July (Jennings 1995)<strong></strong>.&#160;  <p></p>
106008068		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008068		threats	eng	Lopping and cutting of trees and shrubs - for fuel, fodder and building material - are proceeding at unsustainable levels in many parts of Yemen<em> </em>(Brooks 1987,&#160; Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991) (where the human population is expanding rapidly), and are likely therefore to be causing a net loss of dense wooded cover. Loss of well-wooded farmland to infrastructural development and agricultural intensification may also be a threat in Saudi Arabia (Newton and Newton 1996). Together, these threats imply that the species's population is likely to be decreasing, since woodland regeneration is poor over much of its range (Scholte <em>et al</em>. 1991). <p></p>
106008069		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Ethiopia and more scarce elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008070		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008071		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008072		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common and widespread in favourable habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008073		population	eng	Shirihai <i>et al.</i> (2001) estimated the population to exceed 10 million individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 25-49 million breeding pairs, equating to 75-147 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 79.8-196 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008074		population	eng	Shirihai <i>et al.</i> (2001) estimated the population to exceed 10 million individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 17-31 million breeding pairs, equating to 51-93 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 54.3-124 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008075		population	eng	Shirihai <i>et al.</i> (2001) estimated the population to exceed 10 million individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14-25 million breeding pairs, equating to 42-75 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 56.8-150 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008076		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,800,000-7,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 14,400,000-23,400,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 29,400,000-93,600,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008077		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008078		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably locally common, although poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008079		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,000-5,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000-15,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106008080		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 460,000-1,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,380,000-3,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1,860,000-6,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008081		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 170,000-480,000 breeding pairs, equating to 510,000-1,440,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population
106008082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent in Africa (Urban et al. 1997).
106008083		population	eng	In Europe (which covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 200000-610000 breeding pairs, equating to 600000-1830000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008084		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sylvia melanocephala</span> ranges throughout the Mediterranean region, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Andorra</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serbia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Kosovo</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Albania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Greece</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bulgaria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Romania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Libya</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tunisia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Algeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mauritania</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Senegal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Sahara</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lebanon</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Israel </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Egypt</span>. The race <span style="font-style: italic;">norrisae</span> of the Fayyum area in central Egypt has not been seen since 1939, and is now extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
106008084		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,100,000-8,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,300,000-24,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12,600,000-48,600,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008085		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 70,000-140,000 breeding pairs, equating to 210,000-420,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008086		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,400,000-3,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 4,200,000-9,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4,470,000-12,800,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008087		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 43,000-150,000 breeding pairs, equating to 129,000-450,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms   &lt;5% of the global range.
106008088		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 180,000-440,000 breeding pairs, equating to 540,000-1,320,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population
106008089		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008090		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Population trends are monitored in parts of the species's range and it occurs in a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out specific research on drivers of declines, particularly the link with habitats. Research trends elsewhere within its range, particularly France and North Africa. Develop programmes which subsidise farming practices which promote healthy populations of the species.  <p></p>
106008090		distribution	eng	<em>Sylvia undata </em>is restricted to southern and western Europe and north-west Africa, where it is patchily distributed but locally common to very common in <strong>Spain</strong> (including Balearic Islands), <strong>Portugal</strong>, <strong>Andorra</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>. <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>France</strong> (including Corsica), <strong>United</strong> <strong>Kingdom</strong> and <strong>Italy</strong> (including Sardinia)<em> </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The European breeding population, which constitutes more than 95% of the  global population, underwent a large decline during 1970-1990 (<strong></strong>Tucker and Heath 1994)<strong></strong>. The stronghold is located in Spain whi<span style="">ch holds </span>983,000-1,750,000 pairs (<span style=""><span style="">V. Escandell </span><em style="">in litt. </em><span style="">2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, but the population here decreased by 4.6 % per year between 1998-2011 (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">V. Escandell </span><em style="">in litt. </em><span style="">2012)</span><strong></strong>.   France holds the next largest population (150,000-600,000 pairs) but   the trend here is unclear. Trends are unknown in Portugal  (10,000-100,000 pairs), <span style="">Italy (10,000-30,000 pairs) and </span><span style=""><span style="">Andorra (c.20-30 pairs) (BirdLife International 2004)</span><span style="">. </span><span style=""> In the UK it has recently increased rapidly  and extended its range<span style=""> northwards, reaching a total of 3,214 territories in 2006 (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Wotton </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">.  If trends in Spain are reflected elsewhere in Europe, the European  breeding population may have declined nearly 30</span>%<span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>over the last 12.3 years (three generations).<span style=""><span style=""></span><span style=""></span><p></p></span></span></span>
106008090		habitat	eng	It favours dense, homogeneous scrub, garrigue and low maquis c.0.5-1.5 m in height and dominated by species such as <em>Ulex</em>, <em>Erica</em>, <em>Rosmarinus</em>, <em>Genista</em>, <em>Cistus</em> and <em>Quercus coccifera </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is largely sedentary but undertakes some short-distance dispersive movements and some European birds spend the non-breeding season in north-west Africa<em> </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is primarily a lowland species in the north of its range but occurs to 1,800-2,000 m in the Pyrenees and north-west Africa<em> </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008090		population	eng	In Europe (which covers more than 95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 1.1-2.5 million breeding pairs, based on 983,000-1,750,000 pairs in Spain (<span style=""><span style="">V. Escandell </span><em style="">in litt. </em><span style="">2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, </span>150,000-600,000 pairs in France, 10,000-100,000 pairs in <span style="">Portugal, </span><span style=""></span><span style="">10,000-30,000 pairs in</span><span style=""> Italy</span><span style="">, c.20-30 pairs in </span><span style=""><span style="">Andorra (BirdLife International 2004)</span><span style=""> and </span><span style=""><span style="">3,214 territories in France (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Wotton </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2009)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span>This equates to 3.3-7.5 million individuals.</span>
106008090		threats	eng	Reasons for the recent Spanish decline are still unclear. It is vulnerable to severe winters, particularly in the northern part of its range<em> </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Cold spells in December 2001 and the winter of 2004-2005 caused high mortality in Spain (<strong></strong>J. J. R. Encalado <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, while the UK population was reduced to 11 pairs after the severe winter of 1962-1963<em> </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Increasing densities of cattle on the Spanish <em>dehesa</em> are causing severe habitat degradation through overgrazing (<strong></strong>J. J. R. Encalado <em>in litt. </em>2007), which may be affecting the species. Afforestation has decreased the amount of suitable habitat in parts of France and Iberia (Shirihai <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. Changes in the pattern and frequency of wildfires may be a threat, although the species often colonises early successional habitat created by such fires<em> </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Postfire forest management can negatively affect the species through the removal of burnt trees as the species has been shown to favour a moderate coverage of logging remnants after fires (Herrando <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. 2</span>009).<br/><p></p>
106008091		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 29,000-75,000 breeding pairs, equating to 87,000-225,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008092		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008093		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Keith et al. 1992).
106008094		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous in Australia, common in the Lesser Sundas, uncommon in the Philippines and rare in China (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997, Robson 2000, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000, Kennedy et al. 2000).
106008095		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Encourage grassland management that favours the species.  <p></p>
106008095		distribution	eng	<em>Mirafra cheniana</em> is primarily restricted to <strong>South Africa</strong>, with a few small, scattered populations in <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> and <strong>Botswana</strong>. In South Africa, its range is centred on the northern portion of the Eastern Cape and the Free State, but populations are fragmented and patchy. It also occurs at scattered localities through the Northern Province, North West Province, Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal. Atlas data suggest it has a maximum range of 110,400 km<sup>2</sup>.   <p></p>
106008095		habitat	eng	The species inhabits grassland slopes, preferring open areas with open spaces between tussocks, typically where grass is shorter than 50 cm, but avoids wetter lowlands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on the ground, feeding on seeds, mostly of grasses, but also taking some insects. Breeding in South Africa takes place in September-March, mostly in November-January, and in January-March in Zimbabwe. It is probably monogamous and territorial. The nest is a domed structure with a side entrance, constructed with coarse grasses and lined with finer grass leaves. Its clutch-size is 2-4 eggs. It is generally resident, although there are seasonal fluctuations and local movements in response to dry-season fires (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008095		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008095		threats	eng	It appears to be sensitive to overgrazing, and has disappeared from heavily grazed areas in the Northern Cape and in KwaZulu-Natal at Matatiele, where it was common in the early 1900s. Crop-farming and industrialisation have also transformed a large proportion of its favoured grassland habitat. Land-use changes in the next 20 years may severely impact this species. Some habitat in Zimbabwe has been lost to bush encroachment (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may be threatened by climate change, as its preferred grassland habitat requires a specific rainfall regime (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008096		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in parts of east Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008098		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008099		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology, distribution, threats and population parameters. <p></p>
106008099		distribution	eng	<em>Mirafra williamsi</em> is endemic to northern <strong>Kenya</strong> where it is found in two disjunct populations, one in the Didi Galgalla Desert (north of Marsabit) and the second between Isiolo and Garba Tula (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is easiest to locate at dawn after the rains, when males engage in very long song flights around their territories (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species was not discovered until 1955 and its ecology, distribution, threats and population parameters remain little known (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106008099		habitat	eng	The Marsabit population inhabits scattered short-grass areas with low shrubs growing on rocky desert plains and red lava soils, while the Isiolo population inhabits uniform stands of low <em>Barleria</em> shrubs on rocky lava desert (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> at 600-1,350 m (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and seeds but nothing is known of its breeding ecology (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008099		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106008099		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106008100		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all historical sites and other potentially suitable habitat, focusing on its distinctive song. Study its abundance, ecology, seasonal movements and possible threats. <p></p>
106008100		distribution	eng	<em>Mirafra pulpa</em> is a very poorly known species. In <strong>Kenya</strong>, it is known from six specimens and a few sight records (although these include an observation of at least 150 individuals), principally from Tsavo East and West National Parks (Lack 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The type specimen was collected in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> in 1912 (Lack 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it has only been seen there once since, in 1998 (J. Ash and D. Turner <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are also several records from Mkomazi Game Reserve in <strong>Tanzania</strong> during 1994-1996 (Lack 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a single record from south of Arusha in August 1998 (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are no known threats to the species but it is apparently rare. It is best identified by its characteristic song: a single long drawn-out 'hoo-ee-oo' note, with a slight emphasis on the middle part, repeated at 1-2 second intervals. This is given during undulating display flights, or from the tops of small bushes, and is also often given at night (Lack 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is solitary and rather wary. Further information is required about this lark's abundance, ecology, seasonal movements and possible threats.<em> <p></p></em>
106008100		habitat	eng	It appears to prefer fairly dense grassland with bushes, possibly avoiding drier areas (Lack 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and feeds on grass seeds, small grasshoppers and beetles (Lack 1977)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the species is migratory since birds have been found among other migrants attracted to the lights of Ngulia Safri Lodge in Tsavo West, and it is only found at certain times of year (e.g. during the rains in Tsavo) (Lack 1977, 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there is no information on the extent or pattern of any movements. <p></p>
106008100		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as extremely rare.
106008100		threats	eng	None are known <p></p>
106008101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common within suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008102		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008103		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation action or fieldwork relating to this species has been undertaken for many years, due to the political instability in the area.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its distribution and population size and trend (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's ecology. Investigate the effects of grazing-levels to assess potential threats. Protect suitable habitat from development. Legislate to reduce the hunting of wild ungulates. <p></p>
106008103		distribution	eng	<em>Mirafra ashi</em> remains known from only one small area just north of Uarsciek (80 km north of Mogadishu) in south-eastern <strong>Somalia</strong>, between 2°00'N and 2°30'N, where it is locally common (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has not been reported from the coast to the south-west of this site, where there has been intensive ornithological fieldwork. It is possible that it may occur north along the coast at least to 3°N (increasing its range to c.3,000 km<sup>2</sup>) as this area is virtually unexplored ornithologically (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nine other species of lark occur in the area, and <em>M. ashi</em> could easily have been overlooked among Red-winged Larks <em>M. hypermetra hypermetra</em> and Somali Long-billed Larks <em>M. somalica rochei</em>. <p></p>
106008103		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species, which is found on semi-arid (350 mm rainfall), open, grassy coastal plains with a few, small, scattered bushes (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Like <em>M. somalica</em>, it often runs across open ground between grass tussocks before perching on top of them (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008103		population	eng	The population is estimated at 3,460-6920 (10-20 individs/km<SUP>2</SUP> x 346km<SUP>2</SUP> [20% EOO]), i.e. in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. The species is described as locally common, so use the median to upper quartile of ten estimates of seven <I>Mirafra</I> spp. in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet.
106008103		threats	eng	If its range is indeed restricted to this single locality, it may be seriously threatened by new coastal developments reported from the area (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ecological relationship of this species with grazing animals is unknown, but it has been suggested that reduced numbers of domestic stock due to drought and loss of wild ungulates due to over-hunting may adversely affect its habitat.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008104		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008106		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008108		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008109		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008110		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008111		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008112		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008114		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in some parts of its range, although generally scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008116		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008119		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Keith et al. 1992).
106008121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sporadic, irregular and local (Keith et al. 1992).
106008122		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The type locality was visited briefly in May 2008 but no birds were located (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If the bird is found again, then some land could be legally purchased and protected (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish its range, distribution and population status: Intensive searches are needed along the Ethiopian-Somali border, perhaps in April-May when it may be singing and more conspicuous. When it is re-discovered, investigate how it is affected by grazing. Purchase land for appropriate management. <p></p>
106008122		distribution	eng	<em>Heteromirafra archeri</em> is known from a very restricted area from Jifa Medir to Ban Wujaleh, west of Hargeisa in north-west <strong>Somalia</strong>, along the Ethiopian frontier. It was not seen at its original site, or in the area of Ethiopia adjacent to its range in Somalia, during five visits to the region between the 1970s and 1990s (J. S. Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, nor on ten occasions during 1996-2006 (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although a possible sighting was reported from there in 2003 (G. Mulholland <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and another was claimed in Jijiga, extreme eastern <strong>Ethiopia</strong> in 2004 (H. Shirihai <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In June 2010, a search for the species in the Wajalle Plains and surrounding area in Somalia was unsuccessful, raising the possibilities that the species is locally extinct or that original locations were recorded erroneously<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Jama<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, its secretive habits make it very difficult to observe.<em> </em> <p></p>
106008122		habitat	eng	This species is found in an area with 300-400 mm rainfall per year. Habitat at its two known sites varies: one is open grassland and the other fairly open, rocky country with scattered and sparse bush and limited grass cover (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It avoids open spaces, creeping through grass cover, and flies reluctantly (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>. Its diet is unknown. Nests have been observed in June, and clutch-size is three (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008122		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals, based on a lack of confirmed sightings since 1955 despite several recent searches, and subsequent changes in the habitat at the species's type locality. The estimate equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106008122		threats	eng	The original grassland site in Somalia was settled and cultivated by refugees (J. S. Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, resulting in the disappearance of the tussocky perennial grasses described as the species's habitat in 1922 (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The refugees left 19 years ago, but the area is now more intensively farmed and grazed than ever before (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, A. Jama<em> in litt</em>. 2010). People have staked out land claims on the plain, and these plots are being surveyed and registered, and the owners issued with title deeds (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat has also been lost and degraded through the establishment of settlements, fires and invasion of alien shrubs and herbs<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Jama<em> in litt</em>. 2010).   <p></p>
106008123		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Fieldwork has been taking place since 2007 to investigate the species's status (M. Wondafrash<em> in litt</em>. 2007; Donald <em>et al</em>. 2010). A workshop in 2009 involving key stakeholders resulted in the creation of an intersectoral committee to manage the restoration of the Liben Plain, an agreement to oppose any further agricultural expansion and a willingness to work with conservation organisations to preserve pastoralism<strong> (</strong>N. J. Collar <em>in litt. </em>2009), and further stakeholder meetings have taken place since. Work to clear scrub, establish non-grazing areas and prevent of further conversion of grassland on the plain is imminent, and capacity-building work training young Ethiopian nationals is ongoing  (N. J. Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys (during the breeding season, when birds are likely to be singing and hence most conspicuous) throughout the Negele Plateau to establish its range and population, and determine whether there is a significantly biased sex ratio. Investigate the causes of bush encroachment in the area<strong> </strong>(L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Undertake detailed socioeconomic research to identify the drivers of grassland conversion. Urgently determine the most appropriate means to safeguard areas of suitable habitat from further degradation and disturbance. Identify key areas where livestock and disturbance can be kept to a minimum and the natural fire regime is maintained. Raise awareness of the local communities and authorities of this important endemic taxon. Investigate the use of exclosures to eliminate grazing from some areas of the Liben Plain, and the possible need to employ ploughing and re-sowing of local grass species to restore suitable habitat<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Donald <em>et al</em>. 2010). Clear encroaching <em>Acacia</em> thorn scrub from parts of the Liben Plain<strong> </strong>(Donald <em>et al</em>. 2010). Assess the possibility of using hyena dung to create small ungrazed areas with suitable nesting cover.  <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Clarify taxonomy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteromirafra </span>at Jijiga, and assess range, population size, trend and threats there.<p></p>
106008123		distribution	eng	<em>Heteromirafra sidamoensis</em> was for some time known only from two specimens collected at adjacent sites near Negele in the former Sidamo province (now Guji Zone), southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, in May 1968 and April 1974. Since 1994 there have been subsequent sightings of small numbers (&lt;10 on each occasion) in the Negele area. Analysis of these locations on satellite images and recent fieldwork suggests that the species is restricted to a very specific habitat (tall-grass prairie) in the calcareous plateau east and south of Negele<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2005, Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. Between 1973 and 2002 the area of tall-grass prairie decreased by about 30%, and in 2003 much of it was being rapidly encroached by agriculture and shrubs (<em>Acacia drepanolobium</em> and others) that are probably favoured by excessive grazing pressure and the suppression of seasonal fires <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. Remaining grassland is being heavily degraded by overgrazing<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Spottiswoode <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. By 2007-2008 it appeared to be restricted to a single grassland patch 30-36 km<sup>2</sup> in area, and the global population was estimated at just 90-256 mature individuals, with the effective population size perhaps even smaller owing to a potentially skewed sex ratio caused by predation of females on the nest <strong></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Spottiswoode <em>et al. </em>2009). Results of survey work to date indicate that the species has fewer than 100 territories (the number of pairs is unknown: females seem to be much scarcer than males, so many territories may be held by bachelors) (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010, N. Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).   Compared with a survey in June 2007, fieldwork in May 2009 recorded a decline of 40% in the number of birds present along repeated transects and a contraction of 38% in the area of the Liben Plain occupied by the species<strong> </strong>(Donald <em>et al</em>. 2010). Predictive modelling based on the characteristics of the Liben Plain suggests that apart from a smaller and highly politically unstable area c.500 km to the north-east near the Somalian border, there is no other suitable habitat for the species within the Horn of Africa (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The prediction of suitable habitat in eastern Ethiopia is remarkable because the area is adjacent to the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteromirafra archeri </span>(not seen since 1922) and is just 30 km from two fairly recent sightings of unidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteromirafra </span>larks. It is very possible that the two taxa will prove to be conspecific, but the area is likely to remain inaccessible for some time owing to extreme political instability, during which time any remaining population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteromirafra </span>larks may well become extirpated (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Thus the focus remains on the Liben Plains as the sole known location for the species  (Donald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010), and without urgent and concerted intervention global extinction is likely within the next few years<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Spottiswoode <em>et al. </em>2009). <p></p>
106008123		habitat	eng	All reliable records appear to fall within or near grassland areas<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong></strong>. A possible sighting in 1971 in dense <em>Acacia</em> woodland seems doubtful<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><strong></strong>. It has been found to avoid woody vegetation, very short grass and bare ground (all symptomatic of degraded rangelands), and to favour a grass sward of intermediate height (5-15 cm)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Spottiswoode <em>et al. </em>2009). It has never been recorded from croplands<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Spottiswoode <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. The nest is a grass bowl on the ground (Collar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><p></p>
106008123		population	eng	The total range appears to be a single grassland patch just 30-36 km2 in area, and its population density is an order of magnitude lower than previously suspected, inferring a global population of 90-256 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 130-390 individuals in total.
106008123		threats	eng	The Negele plateau is being degraded by human activities, leading to loss of grassland habitat and encroachment of bush, mainly <em>Acacia drepanolobium</em><strong> (</strong>Coppock 1994; M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Shrub encroachment has probably been exacerbated by the fire suppression that has been enforced in the area since the 1980s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Refugees from drought-stricken and tribal conflict areas are augmenting the dense local human population, and nomadic pastoralism is giving way to permanent cultivation, which is the principal threat to the species (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2005). A watering point has been developed in the core of the species's range, leading to concentrations of livestock and consequent disturbance, overgrazing and trampling<strong> </strong>(M. Wondafrash <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Remaining grassland had become even more degraded between the 2007 and 2008 surveys, leaving no real cover for the species, and potentially leading to high predation of females on the nest, reducing breeding success to zero and further lowering the effective population size<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>N. J. Collar <em>in litt. </em>2009). Further fieldwork in 2009 confirmed that habitat degradation was continuing, probably due to overgrazing, and that grassland was still being lost to cultivation<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Donald <em>et al</em>. 2010). Between 2010 and 2011, around a third of the grassland on the northern side of the Liben Plain was lost to agriculture (P. F. Donald in litt, 2012).  The operation of a military training area (near the Bogol Manya crossroads) was previously listed as a potential threat (I. Sinclair <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but this had been abandoned by July 2005 (L. Fishpool <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Drought, such as that ongoing in the Horn of Africa in 2011, may compound these threats, and rising temperatues may pose a pose a longer-term threat to the survival of the species. <br/><p></p>
106008124		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Verloren Valei Nature Reserve, which was recognised as a Ramsar site (Ramsar Directory: http://www.wetlands.org/RDB/Ramsar_Dir/SouthAfrica/ZA017D02.htm), may now no longer support the species (D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. The developing land stewardship programme centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom is estimated to hold c.85% of the global population (Barnes 1998, A. Burns <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than conversion, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption. Provide incentives for landowners to manage grassland appropriately<strong></strong>. Survey the eastern Free State for this species. Continue research into its ecological requirements and the effects of management practices. Investigate the scale and effect of uncontrolled agricultural expansion, and its effect on the species (A. Burns <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Study changes in land-use at sites where this species is now absent (D. Maphisa <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008124		distribution	eng	<em>Heteromirafra ruddi</em> is an endemic resident of east <strong>South Africa</strong>. Although records are spread over a large area, its distribution within this area is patchy. The core of its restricted range is centred on south-east Mpumalanga, north-west KwaZulu-Natal and the north-east Free State. Small, isolated populations are found farther north in the Dullstroom-Machadodorp district, farther south at Matatiele in west KwaZulu-Natal, and at Ncora Dam and Molteno in the Eastern Cape. The overall population was not thought to have decreased significantly since the mid-1990s (P. Ryan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, however its absence has been noted at former strongholds, suggesting it is now in decline (D. Maphisa <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and comparison of data in South African Bird Atlas Project 1 and 2 indicates a reduction in area of occupancy of over 50% (D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Specimens from Warden in the Free State and sight records from the Memel-Vrede-Warden-Harrismith arc suggest that there may be a substantial, previously overlooked, population in the eastern Free State. The global population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals (Siegfried 1992)<strong></strong>. A lower limit of 2,500 individuals has been suggested as more realistic (Barnes and Tarboton 1998)<strong></strong>, but it has been suggested that the lack of new sites and disappearance from former strongholds mean the total population may be much lower (D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
106008124		habitat	eng	It is found within open, grazed, level grassland without forb invasion, in high rainfall (&gt;600 mm p.a.), sour grassland regions. It favours stone-free areas of natural grassland on flat or gently-sloping hilltop plateaux, with short (4-9 cm) to medium (6-8 cm) grass cover, avoiding areas with tall, dense or insufficient grass cover (Maphisa 2004)<strong></strong>. Relatively high abundances are found at severely grazed sites, although few birds breed in such habitat, where breeding success is low (D. Maphisa <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It also favours edges of pans and vleis. Recent research indicates that the species would best be conserved under controlled mixed stocking rates of sheep and cattle with burning carried out every second year (Maphisa 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The species requires habitat heterogeneity for nest concealment and foraging during the breeding season. The most suitable breeding habitat appears to be moderately to lightly grazed unburned or burned sites. The nest is a cup covered with a dome, constructed from old grass and lined with fresh dry grass. Egg laying occurs from October to April, with peaks in January and February (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. The clutch size is two to four, but most commonly three, eggs (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The incubation period is 13-14 days and the fledging period is c.13 days (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Nestlings are fed on young locusts, other insects, worms and arachnids (Maphisa 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008124		population	eng	Siegfried (1992) suggested a global population of 1,500-5,000 individuals. Estimates for the proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve suggest that 2,500 individuals is a more realistic lower limit for this species. This range is roughly equivalent to 1,700-3,300 mature individuals, however the total may be significantly lower as no new populations have been found (D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)
106008124		threats	eng	Habitat loss and fragmentation, as a result of agricultural intensification, inappropriate pasture management and afforestation, have resulted in local population reductions. Grasslands are modified into fields for cultivation and grazing or claimed for housing (Maphisa 2004)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Further commercial afforestation may take place below the escarpment, and poses little threat to the species (D. Maphisa <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  Human settlement and other developments are considered a major threat to the species's habitat (D. Maphisa <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Uncontrolled ploughing of pristine/near-pristine habitat as part of agricultural initiatives to alleviate food shortages has also been reported (A. Burns <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. The other primary are unsuitable fire regimes and grazing practices. It is also threatened by mining, although plans for the exploration of  three sites in the Wakkerstroom area for torbanite and coal by Delta  Mining Consolidated (Verdoorn 2008) have apparently since been scrapped. Late burning of grassland might shorten the potential breeding season and force a peak in breeding that coincides with high predator numbers (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Extensive wildfires in Mpumalanga and Free State in 2007 may have caused a decline in the species's population (N. Smith<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Within South Africa as a whole, 60-80% of grassland has been irreversibly transformed. All of South Africa's maize crop and much of its wheat is produced in former grassland areas, illustrating the magnitude of threats this species faces today. The loss of the species's habitat over the next 10 years could be moderate (&lt;50%) unless planned intervention takes place. Predation has been observed as the main cause of nest loss, with mongooses, rodents and snakes identified as the main predators (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008126		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Consider government incentives to farmers in southeast Botswana to maintain traditional agricultural methods<strong> </strong>(C. Brewster <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Carry out regular monitoring of the core population in Botswana as well as that in South Africa. <p></p>
106008126		distribution	eng	<I>Certhilauda chuana</I> has two disjunct populations: one on the Pietersburg Plateau in the Northern Province, <B>South Africa</B>, and a larger population in south-eastern <B>Botswana</B> and the North-west Province, South Africa. This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>.  The South African population numbers 500-5,000 individuals, and there may be over 20,000 pairs in Botswana, which is thought to hold 80-90% of the total population (C. Brewster <I>in litt</I>. 2007). The species may have undergone a localised range contraction and population reduction in South Africa, although its distribution may also be influenced by seasonal or eruptive movements and it appears to be stable within its core range in Botswana (C. Brewster <I>in litt</I>. 2007).
106008126		habitat	eng	It prefers open habitat, sparsely vegetated with short grass and scattered trees or bushes, particularly where grass has been severely grazed. In South Africa it is associated with <I>Tarchonanthus</I> bushveld. In Botswana it is restricted to areas under traditional agricultural regimes, especially fallow land with coppiced <I>Acacia tortilis</I> and heavy livestock grazing (Harrison <I>et al.</I> 1997b).
106008126		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 20,000 pairs within the species's core range in Botswana, thought to hold 80-90% of the total global population (C. Brewster <em>in litt.</em> 2009). The total global population is therefore estimated to lie within the band 50,000-99,999 individuals.
106008126		threats	eng	Changes in agricultural policies that favour bush thickening or the reduction of open, lightly-grassed habitat could reduce populations significantly (Penry 1994, Barnes 2000). In southeastern Botswana Short-clawed Lark is almost completely confined to fallow land that has been cultivated for field crops using traditional agricultural practices. In recent years there has been a large decline in the area of land cultivated with sorghum and maize using traditional practices (C. Brewster <I>in litt</I>. 2007). This decline, if it continues, has the potential to have an adverse impact on Short-clawed Lark in southeastern Botswana However, despite large-scale habitat alteration occurring in many areas, the eastern population in Botswana is apparently stable (C. Brewster <I>in litt</I>. 2007), and it remains fairly common in suitable habitats (W. Borello <I>in litt.</I> 2007).
106008127		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008129		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Important populations are found in private reserves at Black Mountain Mine Nature Reserve (700-900 pairs, including the adjacent Haramoep farm), Mattheus-Gat Conservation Area (200-300 pairs) and Bitterputs Conservation Area (150-250 pairs). None of these areas are protected by the state but all have been recently identified as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) (Barnes 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the population size. Monitor population trends. Monitor grazing pressure, especially in the Koa river valley. Establish managed reserves. Offer incentives to private landowners with important dunes in order to limit grazing . Re-establish suitable grass and forb communities to increase populations in some areas. Ensure conservation plans cover the three main habitat zones - the north-western dunes, the south-central alluvial plains and the eastern dunes. <p></p>
106008129		distribution	eng	<em>Certhilauda burra</em> is confined to the Northern Cape Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, where it occurs from east of Steinkopf, east to Aggenys and south to the Kliprand area. From there, it occurs south to Klein Soutpan, where it is found on sand-dunes from east of Verneukpan and Fortuinkolksepan south and east to Brandvlei and isolated dunes in the Brospan area. Two records from south Namibia are regarded as questionable. It mostly follows the distribution of red sand-dunes south of the Orange river, with the majority of the population found in the fossil Koa river valley. Only c.5% of its range contains suitable habitat, and most (75%) has been overgrazed and degraded, leaving an area of occupancy of c.1,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Although there is no evidence to suggest that the limits of its range have contracted, there is evidence for local population declines. <p></p>
106008129		habitat	eng	It occurs on dune ridges and eroded dunes, alluvial plains, and even clay-pans with pebbles. It favours areas where large-seeded tussock-grasses are dominant. It requires territories in multi-layered vegetation, with annual large-seeded grasses for food, perennial grasses with plumed awns for nest material and nest-sites, and taller shrubs and trees to provide perches. It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and fruit.<p></p>
106008129		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at 9,400 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,300 mature individuals.
106008129		threats	eng	The species has lost 75% of its habitat in the past 100 years. Domestic livestock, chiefly sheep, have caused loss and fragmentation of sensitive dune vegetation. Extensive ranching may have resulted in trampling and grazing which has changed vegetation structure and reduced plant cover, causing erosion and shifting of dunes. All remaining suitable habitat is under continuing grazing pressure from domestic livestock. <p></p>
106008130		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and south-west Angola, where it is sparse and local on the central plateau and common in the arid south-west; Namibia, where it is widespread and common; Botswana, where is is widespread but absent from the north-east; and South Africa, where it is widespread and often common on the Transvaal highveld, local in Natal, widespread and common to fairly common in Orange Free State, widespread in Cape Province, and particularly common in the Karoo, with isolated records from the Pietersburg plateau (Keith et al. 1992). An isolated population occurs in Tanzania near Kingerete, 30-50 km north of Arusha (Zimmerman et al. 1996).
106008130		habitat	eng	The species is found in a range of habitats from well-grazed high rainfall grasslands (Keith et al. 1992) and overgrazed, treeless plains (Zimmerman et al. 1996), to shrublands in the Karoo, lawns and sports fields, desert margins and gravel plains (Keith et al. 1992). It occurs in pairs or groups of up to 10 birds (more commonly three to five) (Keith et al. 1992). It feeds on ants, termites, beetles, other invertebrates and seeds (Stipagrostis grasses and forbs Monsonia umbellata) (Keith et al. 1992). It has been recorded breeding cooperatively (Keith et al. 1992). The nest is a cup of dry grass and rootlets, placed in a scrape in sandy soil at the base of a grass tuft or shrub, usually on a base of stones, earth or sticks; clutch size is 2-3. The breeding season varies with the region (Keith et al. 1992). Adults are preyed on by the Red-necked Falcon Falco chicquera (Keith et al. 1992).
106008130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).
106008131		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout most of its range, although scarce at the periphery of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range and locally super-abundant after good rains (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008135		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common and can be locally abundant if conditions are favourable (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008137		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Pakistan and common in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008138		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare on Fogo island, Cape Verde and uncommon in Jordan and abundant on Sal, Boavista, and mayo, Cape Verde and very common in central Saudi Arabia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008139		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in the north of India (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 30-300 breeding pairs, equating to 90-900 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the global range.
106008141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but local (Keith et al. 1992).
106008142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008143		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008144		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to sparse (Keith et al. 1992).
106008145		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000000-24000000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000000-72000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 61200000-288000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008146		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,000,000-2,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000,000-6,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12,500,000-132,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008147		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2004), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106008149		distribution	eng	This species breeds in the steppe belt that extends east from the Volga River through Kazakhstan to Mongolia, but winters more widely in the steppe region to the north and west of the Black Sea, with Europe holding more than 50% of the global wintering range.
106008149		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 20,000-65,000 breeding pairs, equating to 60,000-195,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range.
106008150		distribution	eng	This species has a large global population, including an estimated 4,000-7,000 pairs in Europe, in south-eastern European Russia, which accounts for less than a quarter of its global range (BirdLife International 2004a). Populations in the most suitable habitat in central Kazakhstan have been estimated to be in the hundreds of thousands, and maybe even millions of breeding pairs (Timothy Barabashin <I>in litt.</I> 2005). Interpretation of the limited available information on population trends is complicated by the species's nomadic nature and large interannual fluctuations in abundance and distribution. The European population declined by 20-50% during 1970-1990, and over 50% during 1990-2000, as a result of steppe cultivation and overgrazing (Tucker and Heath 1994, BirdLife International 2004a). In the Volgograd Region (Russia and western Kazakhstan), there has been a steady decrease in the species's numbers from the mid-1960s to 2000 (Lindeman and Lopushkov 2004). Spring surveys in the Uzen Limans area (western Kazakhstan) revealed declines exceeding 99% between 1985 and 1995 (V. Mosejikin <I>in litt.</I> 2005). In parts of the Kostanay region (northern Kazakhstan), where the species was once widespread and numerous, its distribution and abundance have decreased noticeably over the past 25 years, and in 2005 large numbers were seen in only two areas (Evgeny Bragin and Todd Katzner <I>in litt.</I> 2005). However, in other areas of north-central Kazakhstan, the species was relatively common in 2005, especially in the taller steppe vegetation (Paul Donald <I>in litt.</I> 2005, Timothy Barabashin <I>in litt.</I> 2005). In summary, in Kazakhstan, the species appears to have a relatively stable population and is common in suitable habitats (although not dispersed evenly, with empty areas) (unpublished expert communications to S. Sklyarenko 2005). In wintering areas in Uzbekistan, numbers are weather-dependent, but generally stable (unpublished expert communications to S. Sklyarenko 2005).
106008150		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,000-7,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,000-21,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). However, europe forms only 5-24% of the global range. Populations in the most suitable habitat in central Kazakhstan have been estimated to be in the hundreds of thousands, and maybe even millions of breeding pairs (Timothy Barabashin in litt. 2005).
106008150		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the loss of steppe to cultivation and livestock farming (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008151		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 7,300,000-14,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 21,900,000-42,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate   of the global population size is 91,300,000-840,000,000 individuals, although   further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates   include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Korea and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant in the south of its range and more local and uncommon in the north (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008155		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in China,  frequent to scarce in Pakistan, common in Nepal, common in Ladakh, not very common in Sikkim and rare in Bhutan ( Grimmett et al. 1998, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).
106008156		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1600000-4000000 breeding pairs, equating to 4800000-12000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9800000-48000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008157		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 10,000-30,000 breeding pairs, equating to   30,000-90,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming   &lt;5% of the global range. National population sizes have been estimated at   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and   c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the south of its range and more sporadic in the north (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008162		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Study the species's status in Namibia. Monitor population and range trends through regular surveys. Study the impact of livestock farming on the species. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat in both strictly protected areas and multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106008162		distribution	eng	Most records of <em>Spizocorys sclateri</em> come from the Nama Karoo in central and north-western Cape Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, with relatively few records from southern <strong>Namibia</strong>. Within this range, it is uncommon and local, and appears nomadic at the edge of its range, moving in response to rainfall patterns. There is no actual evidence of range contraction or population decline. However, populations are severely fragmented.   <p></p>
106008162		habitat	eng	It inhabits arid and semi-arid gravel and stony plains with scattered shrubs and grasses on shale soils, and sparse dwarf-shrublands on clays, but is usually found within accessible distance of surface water. It generally seems to be a highly predictable breeder, nesting in the same patch and at the same time each year, irrespective of rainfall. It feeds on insects and seeds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place primarily in August-December, sometimes from June. The species is monogamous and lays one egg. The incubation period is 11-13 days, and the fledging period is 10-12 days, occasionally 14 days (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008162		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as scarce and local.
106008162		threats	eng	The effects of the increased use of its habitat by livestock are unknown; the species may benefit from the presence of stock water-points, but grazing may have a deleterious impact.   <p></p>
106008163		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out population census of sand dune habitat within its known range. Study its ecological requirements, threats and population trends. <p></p>
106008163		distribution	eng	<em>Spizocorys obbiensis</em> is restricted to a narrow coastal strip in south-eastern <strong>Somalia</strong>, where it is known to occur along c.570 km of coast, from Halhambe to 47 km south of Jiriiban (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is restricted to a strip only about 1 km wide in the south, but occurs up to 40 km inland in the north (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The most recent sighting was in April 2006, when several pairs were seen in Ceel Dheer and Mareeg (J. Miskell <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has been reported as abundant, being found in pairs, small parties and occasionally flocks of up to 30 individuals (Keith <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there have been no recent surveys and therefore its status is uncertain.<em> <p></p></em>
106008163		habitat	eng	It is found in large, fixed and vegetated dunes. Breeding has been recorded in May, June and November, with a clutch size of 2-3 (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008163		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008163		threats	eng	Although this species can survive in heavily grazed habitat (Keith <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it is possible that further intensification of grazing and increased demand for fuelwood, particularly in areas close to Mogadishu will lead to the destabilisation of dunes and consequently the destruction of the species's habitat (Hutchinson 1991, Robertson in prep.)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008165		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is not known to breed in any protected area. However, its preferred habitat is close-cropped grassland as found on livestock farms, particularly with sheep, which crop freshly burnt grass close to ground (Maphisa <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. The proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom, and particularly the Amersfoort-Bethal-Carolina District (identified as an Important Bird Area [Barnes 1998]<strong></strong>), are believed to hold extremely important numbers of this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Promote land management practices such as monitored livestock farming in the Moist Clay Highveld Grassland areas. Designate areas to be managed for this species. Raise awareness of and involve landowners in management practices for this species outside of protected areas (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Survey the eastern Free State for this species. Monitor its population trends. Research its ecology and breeding requirements. Study its response to different grazing and burning regimes, and how fragmentation is affecting genetic integrity. Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than conversion for argiculture, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption. Prevent or minimise deleterious management regimes. Encourage a management regime that favours both this species and Rudd's Lark <em>Heteromirafra ruddi</em>; burn early in the breeding season following the rains, with subsequent heavy grazing, which should be stopped in December-March (Maphisa <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106008165		distribution	eng	<em>Spizocorys fringillaris</em> is an endemic resident of <strong>South Africa</strong>, with a very restricted distribution centred on south Mpumalanga and the eastern Free State. The global population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals. It is generally uncommon, but where it is locally common it can be found at densities of up to 1/km<sup>2</sup>. Habitat loss suggests a concomitant population decline, and there is substantial evidence for local decreases and possibly local extinction events. Sight records from the Memel-Vrede-Warden-Harrismith arc, and near Kroonstad and Wesselbron (although no recent records to confirm presence here, D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), suggest that there may be previously overlooked populations in the eastern Free State. Less than 1% of the global population is currently within protected areas (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008165		habitat	eng	It is restricted to well-grazed upland grasslands, mostly coincident with black clay soils, known as Moist Clay Highveld Grassland. During breeding, it prefers short, dense, severely grazed natural grassland on plateaux and upper hill slopes, avoiding rocky areas, taller grass in bottomlands, vleis, croplands and planted pastures. It makes local movements in small parties outside the breeding season, favouring fallow land and severely grazed, seasonally burnt and trampled patches in low-lying areas (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1999, Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009). Maphisa <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates and seeds, and appears dependent on surface water (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. The average clutch size has been recorded as two (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. The incubation period is 13-14 days followed by a fledging period of c.13 days (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008165		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,000-3,300 mature individuals.
106008165		threats	eng	Arable agriculture and, to a lesser extent, forestry have transformed nearly 80% of suitable habitat. Commercial afforestation was considered a serious potential threat, especially along the Mpumalanga escarpment, but is belied to have largely ceased (D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It is also threatened by mining, although plans for the exploration of three sites in the Wakkerstroom area for torbanite and coal by Delta Mining Consolidated (Verdoorn 2008) have apparently since been scrapped. The grassland biome is the least conserved biome in South Africa (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Importantly, its favoured habitat is intensively grazed areas as found on livestock farms. The population may have experienced a recent decline owing to annual burning of grassland in KwaZulu-Natal and Free State in 2007 (N. Smith<em> in litt</em>. 2007, D. Maphisa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. The late burning of grassland may shorten the potential breeding season and force a peak in breeding that coincides with high predator numbers (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Predation is the main cause of nest loss, with mongooses, rodents and snakes identified as the main predators (Maphisa <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant in its core range, although less so towards the periphery of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Keith et al. 1992).
106008168		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>An EU Species Action Plan was published in 2008 (Inigo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). The species has been studied in Spain and Morocco and was included as "Endangered" in the Spanish Red Data Book. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring Spanish and Moroccan populations. Adopt methods used in Spain and Morocco to survey populations elsewhere in North Africa. Determine appropriate levels of grazing to maintain habitat. Work with farmers and pastoralists to ensure that levels of grazing benefit the species.  <p></p>
106008168		distribution	eng	<em>Chersophilus duponti</em> has two subspecies: the nominate is found in <strong>Spain </strong>(mainly east Castilla y Leónand Aragón, also west Castilla y Leónnear Portugese border, east Castilla-La Mancha and south-east Andalucía), <strong>Morocco </strong>(mostly in north-east, east of Midelt and the river Moulouya, also recent records from south of Great Atlas) and north <strong>Algeria </strong>(Hauts Plateaux); <em>margaritae </em>is found in Algeria (south slopes of Atlas Mountains east to Biskra), south-east <strong>Tunisia</strong>, northern <strong>Libya </strong>and coastal west <strong>Egypt</strong>. It is sparsely distributed and uncommon in most areas of its relatively small and fragmented range. Currently in Europe, the species is only found in continental Spain, which hosts aro<span style="">und 13% of the global population of the (</span><span style=""><span style="">Suárez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2008). This Spanish population declined by more than 20% during 1970-1990 (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Tucker and Heath 1994)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, but this rate of decline was thought to have slowed during 1990-2000 (BirdLife International 2004)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">, with the total Spanish population estimated at 13,000-15,000 pairs following surveys in 1988 (Garza and Suárez 1990)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. However, the original survey may have dramatically overestimated the size of the Spanish population, which may have comprised as few as 1,900 pairs in 1988 (</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">Garza </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2003)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Based upon census data collected in 2004-2007, the population was accurately assessed as 3,500-4,200 singing males (Suárez and Garza 2007) with declines noted in most areas (Vicente </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2006)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Taking into account that the sex ratio is approximately 0.61 (</span><span style=""><span style="">Suárez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et  al. </span><span style="">2009), these results would mean the existence of roughly  2,200-2,700 pairs. Some authors consider that the sex ratio is even more  biased towards males (Tella et al., 2004; Vögeli et al., 2007) which  would lead to an even smaller population estimate. In Morocco, the species has a scattered and uneven distribution, and is not recorded in large areas of apparently suitable habitat. Recent work in Morocco calculated the extent of occurrence at 11,000 km</span><sup>2</sup> including an effective area of occupancy within suitable habitat of 1,645 km<sup>2</sup><span style=""><span style=""><span style=""> </span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">(García </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. in press). This area was estimated to support a population of 15,400 singing males (García </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. in press). The number of birds in eastern populations is not known, but it appears the global population numbers a minimum of 35,000 individuals and may be considerably higher than this. There is some evidence of a skewed sex ratio suggesting that the effective population size may be lower (Tella </span><em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2004; </span><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">Vögeli et al. 2007</span><span style=""><span style=""><span style="">)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. As well as declines noted in Spain, habitat loss has been recorded within the Moroccan breeding range, but its impact and overall trends are not well understood. Further information on population size and trends from the remainder of its North African range is needed, and this may lead to the species's reclassification in the future. </span><p></p></span></span></span></span>
106008168		habitat	eng	It typically occupies open plains, shrub-steppe and high steppe dotted with wormwood (<em>Artemisia </em>spp.) and alfalfa (<em>Stipa </em>spp.) on hard or pebbly soils, avoiding sand (<strong></strong>Isenmann and Moali 2000; Thévenot <em>et al</em>. 2003; Isenmann <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. In Spain, it occurs in areas with low bushes. It also occurs in cereal fields outside the breeding season. It is found from 50-1,550 m but mainly over 1,000 m. It feeds on the ground on insects and seeds. Breeding takes place in March-July.<br/><p></p>
106008168		population	eng	García <em>et al.</em> (in press) estimate 15,400 singing males in Morocco, and Suárez and Garza (2007) estimate 3,500-4,200 singing males or 2,200-2,700 pairs in Spain. As the species's range extends patchily across North Africa, the minimum global population is likely to be 36,000 individuals.
106008168		threats	eng	In parts of its range, overgrazing or undergrazing and agricultural development have caused a reduction in its preferred habitats and a considerable decrease in numbers (Isenmann <em>et al</em>. 2005;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>M. Smart<em> in litt</em>. 2004). Reforestation schemes also lead to a loss of suitable habitat and infrastructure development has led to fragmentation of habitat, particularly by the constriction and development of windfarms in Spa<span style="">in.The limited dispersal  capabilities of the species reduce the exchange of individuals between  populations and increases their extinction risk</span>. Since gene flow between Iberian and African populations is extremely low (García<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008 ) it is important that conservation plans for Iberian populations do not rely on the existence of the African populations of the same subspecies. A recent Spanish study has shown that the species' occurrence is principally determined by geographic isolation (extinction events were exclusively related to isolation), landscape matrix and patch size, rather than habitat quality (Vögeli et al. 2010). Isolation of local populations and reduced patch size has a compounding effect on population density since smaller populations suffer reduced singing repertoires which in turn reduce the rescuing<span style=""> from others (receiving immigrants), thus  compromising population persistence (Laiolo and Tella 2008).</span><br/><p></p>
106008169		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 3,600,000-7,600,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 10,800,000-22,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary   estimate of the global population size is 22,000,000-91,200,000 individuals,   although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population   sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and &lt;   c.10,000 breeding pairs in Korea (Brazil 2009).
106008170		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1500000-2100000 breeding pairs, equating to 4500000-6300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9180000-25200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and occasionally abundant in Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008176		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1300000-3300000 breeding pairs, equating to 3900000-9900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4150000-13200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008177		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 40,000,000-80,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 120,000,000-240,000,000 individuals (BirdLife   International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very   preliminary estimate of the global population size is 245,000,000-960,000,000   individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National   population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Pakistan, locally common in India and fairly common in Nepal (Grimmett <I>et al</I>. 1998). Additional population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008180		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Raso Lark has been officially protected under Cape Verde law since 1955 (Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, and in 1990 Raso was declared a national park (Hazevoet 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. To date there has been limited enforcement of these laws on the ground (Hazevoet 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys have revealed the absence of cats on the island. Collecting of young and eggs has now been halted by the activity of a local NGO, Biosfera (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Annual population monitoring has been carried out since 2001, and future research is planned to understand the conditions needed to enable successful breeding (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong></strong>. The practicalities and desirability of a possible translocation project are being investigated (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct research into other potential nest predators. Investigate the suitability of  Santa Luzia as a potential location for the establishment of a second population by conducting appropriate ecological research (Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Raise awareness amongst tourists and tour operators visiting Raso to ensure precautions are taken to avoid the accidental introduction of alien species and safeguard the fragile island ecology. Maintain good relations with fishers using the island and engage them in conservation activities. Continue regular monitoring of the population and the status of introduced predators. Prevent the establishment of non-native mammalian predators and plants on Raso. <p></p>
106008180		distribution	eng	<em>Alauda razae</em> is restricted to the very small (7 km<sup>2</sup>), arid, uninhabited island of Raso in the <strong>Cape Verde Islands</strong>, although evidence from sub-fossil bone deposits suggests that the species also occurred on Santa Luzia, São Vicente and Santo Antão prior to human colonisation in the 15th Century, after which extinction on these islands appears to have been rapid (Mateo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. It is likely that the species also occurred on Branco, which formed a single island with São Vicente, Santa Luzia and Raso during the last glacial low 18,000 years BP. Suitable breeding habitat covers less than half the area of Raso. The lark's population is believed to fluctuate in response to climate and continues to do so. From the mid 1960s to the early 1980s, the population was estimated at only 20-50 pairs (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In early 1985, however, a survey showed at least 150 birds to be present. Subsequent day visits resulted in the following estimates: 75-100 pairs in early 1986 and early 1988, c.250 birds in late 1988, c.200 birds in early 1989, c.250 birds in early 1990 and 1992. Complete censuses of the island in 1998 and 2003 found 92 and 98 birds respectively, restricted to the south and west of the islet (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999, P. Donald <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, but following rain in 2004 the population rapidly increased to 130 individuals in 2005 (Donald and Brooke 2006)<strong></strong>, 190 in November 2009 (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010), and 1,490 in November 2011 (Brooke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2012). When the population is low only a third of birds are female (P. Donald <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Donald and Brooke 2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008180		habitat	eng	It is found on level plains with volcanic soil and is associated with small vegetated patches along dry stream beds in which it feeds and breeds (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999). There is significant difference in bill size between males and females, enabling the species to exploit limited food resources, with both sexes having relatively larger bills than congeners (Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003, Donald and Brooke 2006). A number of desert-dwelling larks have evolved long bills, apparently to aid digging for food in a sandy environment (Donald and Brooke 2006). Flocks have also been observed feeding among rocks close to the sea, and the birds (particularly males) excavate holes in sandy soil to extract the small bulbs of nutsedges <em>Cyperus bulbosus</em> or <em>C. cadamosti</em> (Donald and Brooke 2006). Breeding is erratic and governed by the slight and irregular rains (Hazevoet 1995, Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003). The population changes rapidly in response to rain; a prerequisite for breeding, (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999, Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003, Donald and Brooke 2006) and has fallen to extremely low levels during droughts (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999, Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003, Donald and Brooke 2006). At times the population has been strongly male-biased (P. Donald <em>in litt</em>. 2003, M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2012). During the non-breeding season birds aggregate into flocks (Donald and Brooke 2006) and can be found in other parts of the island. Adult survival appears to be high and the species is thought to be relatively long-lived (Brooke <em>et al.</em> 2012). Breeding success is sometimes very low, due to high predation by the near-endemic gecko <em>Tarentola gigas</em>.   <p></p>
106008180		population	eng	The population was estimated at 1,490 individuals in November 2011 (Brooke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012), which equates roughly to 990 mature individuals. However, when the population is lower it can be strongly male-biased, meaning the effective population size is smaller than it first appears (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, Brooke <em>et al.</em> 2010), and the population is therefore placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals.
106008180		threats	eng	Drought over successive breeding seasons reduces the population. Given the species's sensitivity to drought, long-term desertification in the Cape Verdes is clearly a major threat (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999). In addition, nest predation (probably by a near-endemic gecko) is high in some years (Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003). Ground-nesting makes it extremely vulnerable to the potential accidental introduction of rats, cats and dogs brought to the island by fishers (C. J. Hazevoet <em>in litt. </em>1995). The danger of such introductions (and the potential impact of non-native plant introductions) is now exacerbated by increased tourist activity in the Cape Verde Islands. Evidence of cats (Ratcliffe <em>et al.</em> 1999, Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003) and dogs (Donald <em>et al.</em> 2003) on the island was found during surveys in 1998 and 2001 but these populations did not appear to establish themselves and the island is currently mammal-free. Global climate change is likely to threaten this highly-restricted and precipitation-dependent species.   <p></p>
106008181		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.140,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population sizes have been   estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common in most parts of its range, although scarce in some parts and locally abundant in Western Sahara (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008186		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare on Sumatra, Java and Borneo, although commoner at higher altitudes on Borneo and uncommon in Thailand (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in Borneo (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008190		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine population densities within different habitats and use these to assess the impacts of forest loss, differentiating where possible between primary and secondary forest types. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106008190		distribution	eng	<em>Prionochilus thoracicus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and north Sumatra (including Lingga archipelago and Belitung), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001, Wells 2007). It is considered widespread and fairly common within the region. <p></p>
106008190		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland dry-land forest (including peatswamp and heath forest) to 1,280 m. It is recorded from mature secondary and logged forest, and visiting fruits in pioneer regenerating growth. In the Malay Peninsula, the only habitat in which it is numerous is peatswamp forest. It is frugivorous. <p></p>
106008190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Thailand and the lowlands of Borneo, and rare in Sumatra (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106008190		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of some secondary habitats. <p></p>
106008191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008194		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the species's status outside of Borneo. Confirm a reported preference for secondary habitats and assess its abundance. Review the threats to the species. <p></p>
106008194		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species occurs in the lowlands of Sarawak, Sabah (several reports but no specimens) and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, the Natuna Islands and Riau archipelago, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is apparently uncommon or rare throughout its range, particularly in Peninsular Malaysia and the Riau archipelago, but on Borneo it has a patchy distribution. <p></p>
106008194		habitat	eng	It is recorded from forest (including swamp forest, heath forest and secondary forests), shade coffee plantations and gardens to 1,100 m.  <p></p>
106008194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare through its range (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106008194		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), but the species's use of submontane and secondary forests, gardens and coffee plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106008195		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Estimate net forest loss within its altitudinal range. Determine its population density, and use this to inform population estimates. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106008195		distribution	eng	<em>Dicaeum proprium</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is found at Mt Mayo, Mainit, Manticao, Misamis Oriental, Mt Kitanglad on the lower slopes of Mt Nangkabulos, Mt Piapayungan at Saronayan, Lumba-Bayabao, Mt Apo, Lake Sebu, Mt Matutum at Tupi, and Mt Sugarloaf at Burakan Hill. Although previously considered an uncommon, low-density species, and hence as threatened, recent evidence of its occurrence on Mt Kitanglad and on Mt Apo, Mindanao's two largest mountains, suggests that its overall numbers may be moderately high. <p></p>
106008195		habitat	eng	It is found in primary forest, forest edge and second growth above 800-900 m. <p></p>
106008195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common in forest edge and secondary growth above 900 m on Mindanao (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106008195		threats	eng	Despite its ability to survive in second growth, and its absence from the lowlands, forest loss is assumed to have had some impact at the lower limit of its altitudinal range. <p></p>
106008196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in India, uncommon in Myanmar and Borneo and rare in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Bali and Java (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to frequent (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008198		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area and Peak Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out a comprehensive survey in order to clarify its distribution and status and to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Research its ecology, particularly the effects of forest fragmentation on its population and distribution. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. <p></p>
106008198		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is confined to the wet zone in the south-west of the island, with a few records from the intermediate zone. Although it remains locally common and survives in many forest blocks it probably has a declining, increasingly fragmented population of several tens of thousands of individuals.  <p></p>
106008198		habitat	eng	It is mainly confined to lowland and foothill tall, moist forest up to 2,300 m. It has recently been recorded from disturbed sites close to primary forest probably because of the abundance of fruiting and flowering shrubs, on which it feeds, in such secondary habitats. Observations of birds crossing large forest openings and gaps between forest patches, suggest it may be able to move between forest blocks. <p></p>
106008198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common below 900 m (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
106008198		threats	eng	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. <p></p>
106008199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common up to 2,000 m (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008201		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate potential threats and quantify more precisely the population size of the species. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against deforestation.  <p></p>
106008201		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is found on the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it occurs on Luzon at Mt Polis, Mt Puguis, Mt Tabuan and Dipalayag (race <em>anthonyi</em>), and on Mindanao at Mt Pasian, Daggayan, Mt Kitanglad, Mt Kampalili, Mt McKinley and Mt Apo (race <em>kampalili</em>) and at Mt Malindang (race <em>masawan</em>). It is in relatively secure habitat but appears to occur<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> naturally at low densities, and hence is a very uncommon species. <p></p>
106008201		habitat	eng	It occupies mossy forest above 800 m.  <p></p>
106008201		population	eng	This species is apparently rare, occurring at low densities within a restricted range. Hence, its population is not thought to be large: perhaps 10,000-19,999 individuals, equating to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. Further information is needed to improve this estimate.
106008201		threats	eng	As a forest associated species, deforestation may have had an impact at the lower limits of its altitudinal range. <p></p>
106008202		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008203		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Nug-as Forest is managed and protected by three People's Organisations with Community-based Forest Management Agreements with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. From 1999 until 2004, the Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation conducted habitat rehabilitation activities using native species and forest protection activities in Tabunan, controlling timber poaching and forest clearing and encouraging regeneration of secondary growth areas. The initiative also maintained the remaining mature secondary forest cover and increased the native vegetation cover through regeneration of secondary growth habitats (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Reforestation in areas near and adjacent to Tabunan Forest is on-going (R. S. S. Ybañez <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Habitat rehabilitation activities are now largely concentrated in the southern part of Cebu where the larger forests of Alcoy lie in close proximity to four other remaining forest patches. The establishment of corridors has been initiated to link up Nug-as forest to Dalaguete and in the Malabuyoc-Alegria area (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. Forest cover has been increased by the planting of at least 10 ha each year and protection of secondary growth areas, and at least six municipalities have conducted habitat rehabilitation activities. Local forest wardens regularly conduct forest patrols in both Nug-as and Dalaguete forest patches, and are supported by the Municipal Government under the Forest and Wildlife Protection Program (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Malabuyoc, which may hold this species, is within the borders of a cement company reserve (<strong></strong>L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Mt. Lantoy was declared as a Watershed Forest Reserve (Presidential Proclamation no. 414 dated 29 June, 1994) and was considered as part of the initial component of National Integrated Protected Area System Act (NIPAS Act). A Protected Area Management Board was created and manages the protected area. In December 2006, a new Executive Order was issued by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo reducing the watershed reserve area coverage from 7,265 ha to 3,000 ha (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The Central Cebu National Park, together with four other Watershed Forest Reserves, was consolidated to form the Central Cebu Protected Landscape (CCPL) under Republic Act 9486 or Central Cebu Protected Landscape Act of 2007. A Protected Area Management Board handles the management of the consolidated protected area (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Field research into the species's ecology is on-going (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A project document on Saving the Cebu Flowerpecker was being finalised in late 2010 ready for submission to stakeholders (R. S. S. Ybañez <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify all remnant forest tracts on Cebu and urgently survey them for remaining populations. Research the species's ecology, particularly interactions with<em> D. australe</em>. Continue to fund and implement management activities at Tabunan. Support the proposal to designate Mt Lantoy as a national park, and urgently propose all remaining forest tracts on Cebu, including Nug-As, for strict formal protection. <p></p>
106008203		distribution	eng	<em>Dicaeum quadricolor</em> is endemic to the island of Cebu in the<strong> Philippines</strong> (Collar<em> et al</em>. 1999). In the late 1800s it was known from just two localities, where it was considered not uncommon. Early in the 20th century, it was feared to have become extinct because all the island's forest was thought to have been cleared. However, it was rediscovered in 1992 at Tabunan (80 ha, plus another 40 ha of surrounding fragments) where it was seen most recently in 2007 (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Since 1992 it has been found at three further sites, Nug-As (700+ ha) (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, Dalaguete (80+ ha) (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and Mt Lantoy (30+ ha). In 2010, there were at least two sightings of this species by forest wardens in the Alcoy area, including a pair in the vicinity of human habitation (R. S. S. Ybañez <em>in litt</em>. 2010). Three other areas of forest exist, but the species has not yet been reported from them: Caurasan-Mt. Kapayas (100+ ha) (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>; Tuburan (300 ha including exotic plantations) (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>; and Malabuyoc (30 ha) (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Population declines are now likely to be fairly slow because so little forest remains, and that which does is on areas difficult to cultivate or without water (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The maximum number seen together at any of these four sites is just four birds, and the current population is estimated at c.100 individuals, with 50-60 at Nug-As, 25-30 at Tabunan, and 10-15 at Dalaguete (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008203		habitat	eng	Historically, it was considered to be strictly confined to forest. Recent observations clearly indicate an association with the tallest remaining forest patches up to c.500 m, most of which are on karst limestone. It evidently frequents secondary and selectively logged areas, but always next to a larger patch of native vegetation (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It has been observed feeding on mistletoe-like plants (<em>Loranthus </em>sp.), small, ripe <em>Ficus </em>fruits (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005) and a flowering native tree, <span style="font-style: italic;">Callopyhllum </span>sp<strong></strong>. (P. G. Jakosalem <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Breeding is suspected to take place between February and August (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008203		population	eng	In 2005 the population was estimated at 85-105 individuals. (L. M. J. Paguntalan <em>in litt.</em> 2005), roughly equivalent to 60-70 mature individuals.
106008203		threats	eng	In the 1890s, the small amount of forest remaining was rapidly being cleared. A century later, Cebu retained barely 0.03% (c.15 km<sup>2</sup>) of its original cover, and even the most degraded secondary habitats were scarce. The few remaining tracts of forest are variously threatened by illegal settlement, road construction, shifting cultivation, illicit logging, charcoal making, firewood collection and habitat clearance for mining. Interspecific competition with <em>D. australe</em> may have accelerated the species's decline given the extreme shortage of available habitat. <p></p>
106008204		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from Bulabong Puti-an and the tiny (0.5 km<sup>2</sup>) Sampunong Bolo National Parks on Panay, Mt Canlaon Natural Park and the North Negros Forest Reserve, which receives only nominal protection. It has also been recently recorded in the Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area, which has been proposed for conservation related funding. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay and Guimaras, to assess its status and identify additional appropriate areas for protection. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Gazette further areas of forest for protection, following surveys to identify key populations. Promote more effective protection of the North Negros Forest Reserve and other remaining lowland forest tracts in the Western Visayas. <p></p>
106008204		distribution	eng	<em>Dicaeum haematostictum</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines </strong>(Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Formerly widespread and common on Negros at least, it appears to have undergone a steep decline, with surprisingly few recorded during recent surveys, although it was reportedly abundant around Mt Talinis in 1991-1992, and was recorded at Simpang Forest, Sipalay in 2005 (J. Hornbuckle <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Bucol <em>in litt</em>. 2007), with records from multiple sites in 2011<strong></strong> (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Its status on Panay is unclear. Despite a number of recent records, no birds were recorded from Mt Madja-as during a month of fieldwork in 1991. It is presumed extinct on Guimaras, although this requires verification. <p></p>
106008204		habitat	eng	It occurs in a variety of habitats in the lowlands and hills, up to 1,250 m on Mt Talinis (A. Bucol <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but generally below 1,000 m in other areas. These include primary and secondary forests, heavily degraded forest, scrubby habitats and even gardens, where it frequents fruiting or flowering trees. <p></p>
106008204		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008204		threats	eng	Chronic deforestation has led to its presumed extinction on Guimaras and its decline on Negros; however, its ability to tolerate substantial habitat modification may alleviate the overall level of threat posed. <p></p>
106008205		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The forest at Siburan is effectively part of the Sablayan penal colony and is included in the F. B. Harrison Game Reserve. Site-conservation actions and a Forest Management Plan were produced by the local stakeholders for the Sablayan forests (including Mt. Siburan) and these are now being implemented. More conservation actions are planned for Mt. Siburan with support from Jenzen foundation, EU, CEPF, Body Shop and BirdLife International Species Guardians. IBA Monitoring System was set up in the Mt. Siburan area in May 2007 involving the local partners: LGU Sablayan, DOJ-SPPF, DENR, SASAMAKA (a local NGO) and Haribon Foundation.  Funding has also been provided for conservation initiatives at Puerto Galera and a conservation education programme has been started at Malpalon. It has been recently recorded in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park (Mindoro), the nominally protected North Negros Forest Reserve, the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park and the Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area on Negros, which has been proposed for conservation-related funding. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to establish its distribution and status on Negros and Panay. Establish formal, managed protected areas to conserve remnant forest at Malpalon and Puerto Galera. Extend Mt Iglit-Baco National Park to encompass remaining lowland forest tracts. Devise and implement a management plan for the forest at Siburan that reconciles biodiversity conservation with its role as a prison. <p></p>
106008205		distribution	eng	<em>Dicaeum retrocinctum</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it was thought endemic to Mindoro until the early 1990s when it was surprisingly discovered on Panay and Negros (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). On Mindoro it was formerly abundant and still considered fairly common as recently as the 1980s. Data from 1991 surveys show that it remains common in one or two remnant forest tracts on the island but has declined steeply elsewhere. Numbers on Negros, where it is known from just two sites, may be very small. The size of the Panay population is unknown. <p></p>
106008205		habitat	eng	It inhabits closed canopy forest, chiefly below 1,000&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. It also occurs in secondary and logged forest, forest edge and occasionally well-cultivated areas. However, it appears generally intolerant of highly degraded habitat, although it does frequent fruiting or flowering trees in forest patches and scrub.<p></p>
106008205		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008205		threats	eng	Extensive lowland deforestation has occurred on all three islands. In the late 1980s, it was estimated that just 120&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest remained on Mindoro, with a very small proportion below 1,000&#160;m. On Negros 4% and on Panay 8% of the land area remains forested. Several key sites on Mindoro are threatened. Siburan suffers from encroaching slash-and-burn agriculture by locally resettled people and occasional selective logging. Dynamite blasting for marble is a threat to forest at Puerto Galera. <p></p>
106008206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common, although rare in Myanmar (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008207		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, not uncommon in Myanmar and locally abundant in India (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although very rare on Borneo (Cheke <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although inconspicuous and easily overlooked (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008214		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008215		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at lower altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008216		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008217		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common in canopy in central New Britain.
106008218		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although rare at lower altitudes in Myanmar (Cheke <I>et al</I>. 2001), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008224		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread at mid-elevations on Java and Bali, common on Sumba, common at higher elevations on Flores and uncommon on Timor (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to moderately common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008227		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although very common in Thailand and rare in Nepal and Bhutan (Cheke <I>et al</I>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Java and Bali and uncommon on Sumatra and Lombok (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008229		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Togo and Angola (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008231		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is recorded from a few protected areas, including Pande Forest Reserve, Kiono Forest Reserve (N. Baker <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Gona-re-Zhou National Park (Zimbabwe) (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, at least. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of deforestation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106008231		distribution	eng	<em>Anthreptes reichenowi</em> has a disjunct distribution, with one subpopulation in the coastal lowlands of <strong>Kenya</strong> and north-eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, and another in <strong>Mozambique</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989). In Kenya, it is uncommon in lowland forest below 500 m, from the lower Tana River south to Tanga and inland to the Shimba Hills, reaching highest densities in Arabuko-Sokoke forest (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Tanzania, it occurs up to 1,000 m in the East Usambaras (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> and south to Kiono Forest Reserve (where common) and Pande Forest Reserve (where rare) (N. Baker <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In southern Mozambique, it is uncommon (total population fewer than 500 birds) and declining (Clancey 1996, <strong></strong>V. Parker <em>in litt. </em>1999). In south-eastern Zimbabwe, there are only a few records, which should, however, be treated with caution, as the species is often confused with Variable Sunbird <em>Nectarinia venusta</em>, having very similar markings during some stages of its eclipse plumage (V. Parker <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it is widely distributed, it remains little-known and nowhere common. It is certainly declining in some areas. <p></p>
106008231		habitat	eng	The species generally occupies lowland forest, thick bush, gallery forest, forest edges and gardens (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is usually found near the coast, but occasionally in inland riverine forest running through savanna (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>. It occurs in dense coastal forest and ironwood <em>Androstachys</em> forests in Mozambique (Clancey 1996, V. Parker <em>in litt. </em>1999). Records in south-eastern Zimbabwe, are from <em>Acacia</em> bush, riverine thicket and riparian forest (Irwin 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on invertebrates, taking lepidopteran larvae, termites and spiders, and possibly feeds on nectar (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>. Egg-laying occurs in March-May and July-November in East Africa, June and October-November in Mozambique, November in Tanzania and September-November in Zimbabwe. The nest, in which 2-3 eggs are laid, is an oval pouch made of grass, twigs, bark and leaves, bound with spiders' webs (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008231		threats	eng	In southern Mozambique, it is in decline owing to deforestation (Clancey 1996, <strong></strong>V. Parker <em>in litt. </em>1999), and it may be at risk from the clearance of lowland forest throughout its range. <p></p>
106008232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Miombo woodland in Angola, locally common in Zambia, uncommon in Malawi and not uncommon in Tanzania (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common on Borneo and Sumatra uncommon in Thailand and very rare in Myanmar (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008235		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the species population density in a variety of habitats in different parts of its range. Calculate recent rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands. Protect remaining areas of suitable habitat for this and other threatened species. <p></p>
106008235		distribution	eng	<em>Anthreptes rhodolaemus</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>  and Palawan, <strong>Philippines</strong>. It appears to be generally uncommon to rare throughout its range (BirdLife International 2001, Cheke and Mann 2001).  <p></p>
106008235		habitat	eng	It occurs in various forest types, including lowland and hill dipterocarp forests, heath forest, peatswamp and secondary forest, <em>Albizia</em>, wood pulp and cacao plantations, clearings and coastal vegetation to 790 m. Breeding has been recorded in June-September. <p></p>
106008235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in southern Thailand, very uncommon in Borneo and rare on Sumatra (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106008235		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane and secondary forests and forest edge implies that it is not immediately threatened. <p></p>
106008236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Thailand, Sabah and the Indian Subcontinent, locally common in Bangladesh, very rare in Nepal, rare in Bhutan and uncommon on Sumatra (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008237		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Kenya (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although common in Gabon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008242		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Arabuko-Sokoke is the focus of a project to promote long-term forest conservation through sustainable management and community participation (Fanshawe 1997)<strong></strong>. In the East Usambaras, three conservation and development projects are active and the species occurs in three of the focal protected areas (which cover at least 121 km<sup>2</sup>). Populations possibly of this species in the Udzungwas are relatively well-protected by their isolation, but are also benefited by joint forest management activities, as well as promotion of the extention of Udzungwa Mountains National Park (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Enforce legislation controlling forest-use in both Arabuko-Sokoke and the East Usambaras (C. Jackson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Set up a consistent monitoring programme to gather population estimates for the species in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and the East Usambaras (Davis 2005)<strong></strong>. Ensure that local people benefit from the conservation of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and forest in the East Usambaras, perhaps through ecotourism (Davis 2005)<strong></strong>. Better define its habitat and breeding requirements, in particular its tolerance of habitat alteration. Confirm the taxonomic identity of birds in the Udzungwas. Confirm its occurrence in other forest fragments in the East Usambaras. Enlarge Nilo Forest Reserve and establish clear boundary markers<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong></strong>. Monitor the species's population across its range. Monitor habitat trends across the species's range. Continue awareness activities in the Udzungwas (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Continue management activities in the Udzungwas (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Evaluate options for extending Udzungwa Mountains National Park (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.     <p></p>
106008242		distribution	eng	<em>Anthreptes pallidigaster</em> is found in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in <strong>Kenya</strong> and in the East Usambara Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. The taxonomic status of similar birds seen in the Udzungwa Mountains (Tanzania) remains uncertain (J. Fjeldså <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In Arabuko-Sokoke in 1999, there were an average of 1.4 birds/km of transect (Davis 2000)<strong></strong> in its occupied area of c.67 km<sup>2</sup>, where the population was estimated at 2,900-4,700 pairs in the 1970s (Britton and Zimmerman 1979)<strong></strong>. The transect data from 1999 were used to conservatively estimate the population in 77 km<sup>2</sup> of <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland at 2,818 individuals (95% CI: 1,739-4,565), possibly indicating a decline since the 1970s, despite a difference in methods between the surveys (Davis 2005)<strong></strong>. In the East Usambaras, it has been recorded in four areas (totalling 124.5 km<sup>2</sup>) at 200-1,250 m (Evans 1997b<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>1999b)<strong></strong>. In the Udzungwas, birds possibly of this species occur very locally in two areas (totalling 295 km<sup>2</sup>) at 1,350-1,550 m (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 1993), and are probably absent from the south-western section (Fjeldså 1999)<strong></strong>, and the population is thought to number 'some hundred' individuals (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106008242		habitat	eng	It occurs in pairs or family groups, often joining mixed-species flocks (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 1993,<strong> </strong>Cordeiro 1998,&#160; Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong></strong>, in the canopy of mature trees in intact <em>Brachystegia</em> forest, often 30-35 m above ground, and in sub-montane evergreen forests in the East Usambara and Udzungwa Mountains (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, it has also been recorded outside intact, unlogged forest, visiting flowers only a few metres above ground in clearings, gardens and very degraded forest (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 1993, Evans 1997b, <strong></strong>Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a). During 2006 surveys in the East Usambaras it was found in cultivated areas, including nesting in a <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> plantation, but was not found further than 800 m from forest (Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The diet includes nectar (e.g. mistletoes <em>Loranthus</em> and <em>Erythrina</em>), insects and other arthropods (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 1993, C. Jackson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a). Aggressive interactions with Collared Sunbird <em>A. collaris</em><strong> </strong>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a) suggest that competition with this species may contribute to its restricted distribution. <p></p>
106008242		population	eng	The species is known to occur in three areas. Its population in the <em>Brachystegia </em>woodland of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya, has been estimated at 2,818 individuals (95% CI: 1,739-4,565) in an area of 77 km<sup>2</sup>. The remaining occupied range in the East Usambara and Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania, totals 420 km<sup>2</sup>, with the population in the Udzungwa Mountains probably numbering 'some hundred' individuals. Its population is therefore suspected to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008242		threats	eng	At Arabuko-Sokoke, widespread felling of trees (often illegally) (Bennun and Njoroge 1999, Davis 2005)<strong></strong> for poles, carving and fuelwood is altering the forest structure (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong> and probably having a negative impact on the species, since it shows a significant preference for primary forest here (Fanshawe 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Throughout the East Usambaras, the main threats to forest extent and integrity are clearance for cultivation, excessive pole-cutting, and pit-sawing outside reserves (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong>. All are likely to increase in the near future<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong></strong>. In the Udzungwa Mountains, the forests are considered less threatened, although there have been several illegal logging attempts locally (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The species, however, may be able to tolerate some forest degradation (Evans 1997b<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008244		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The East Usambara Catchment Forest Project has curbed much forest destruction and much of the remaining unprotected forest has been incorporated into reserves, e.g. Mt Nilo Forest Reserve now contains a significant area of mid-altitude forest, although lack of jurisdiction over the neighbouring Public Lands Forest threatens its long-term prospects. In the Udzungwas, it occurs in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve. In the Ulugurus, conservation projects are aiming to assist local initiatives and increase involvement of local communities in forest management (Buckley and Matilya 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey further areas of the Nguu Mountains to establish its distribution in the Forest Reserves (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out reseach into the species's ecology in the Usambaras (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and assess why it is more common in parts of the East Usambaras than elsewhere. Search for it in the Ulugurus<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess the total population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends, particularly in the Usambaras (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation in the areas in which it occurs. Improve the protection of forests and buffer zones (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Prevent settlements in forests, especially in the Usambaras (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008244		distribution	eng	<em>Anthreptes rubritorques</em> is found in five areas of forest in eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong>: the Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains. It is only considered common in parts of the Usambaras, being elsewhere uncommon to rare (Evans 1997b, Cordeiro 1998, <strong></strong> <strong></strong>Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b). The population in the Udzungwas is guessed to number c.1,000 individuals (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, or more conservatively 'some hundred' individuals, and has been recorded at only three localities (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Uluguru population is known from only five specimens and any remaining population is likely to be found in the North Forest Reserve, since suitable habitat is generally absent elsewhere. The species was not located in the Ulugurus during surveys in 1999-2001 (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. However, there are still areas in the south Ulugurus that are unexplored and there may be other sites within Ulu where the species occurs (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008244		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in rainforest at mid-altitudes (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996, Evans 1997b), in the canopy and (more frequently) in forest-edge habitats - e.g. large glades, disturbed or secondary forest with some surviving large trees, gardens and exotic plantations - perhaps because it is easier to see in such open areas (Cordeiro 1998)<strong></strong>, however surveys in 2006 in the East Usambaras found that the species showed a  preference for edges and smallholder agriculture with sufficient large  trees, including nesting by a roadside in open habitat, suggesting that  it may be less dependent on primary forest than previously thought  (Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The species is likely to show seasonal shifts in habitat preference, in reaction to changes in food abundance, probably showing a preference for forest edge habitats during the dry season and then moving to dense forest in the rainy season (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The diet includes nectar, small berries and fruits (Cordeiro 1998, 2008, <strong></strong>N. Baker <em>in litt</em> 1999<strong></strong>). During the breeding season it will also take small insects and spiders to provide protein for nestlings (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Breeding has been recorded from 300 to 800 m, although it occurs from 200 to 1,500 m. It is possible that the species undertakes altitudinal migrations, in which case habitat at lower elevations may be more vital to the species than previously thought (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A nest was 15 m up in the crown of a leafless tree, deep in the forest (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106008244		population	eng	The population in the Udzungwas might only number c.1,000 birds (L. Hansen <I>in litt.</I> 2007), with a more conservative guess being 'some hundred' individuals (Dinesen <I>et al.</I> 2001), thus the total population is placed in the range band for 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008244		threats	eng	It is threatened over most of its range, by forest loss and degradation, as a result of clearance for agriculture, replacement of natural forest with plantations, and tree-cutting for timber and firewood (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The fact that lower altitude forest is cleared first impacts the species (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Usambaras, the large human population is putting increasing pressure on land and the forests are highly fragmented (Evans 1997b)<strong></strong>. In the Ulugurus, inaccessible terrain protects the main montane forest block, but the lower slopes, around the species's optimal altitude, are being steadily cleared. Forest in the Ulugurus declined from c.300 km<sup>2</sup> in 1955 to c.230 km<sup>2</sup> in 2001, mostly due to clearance for cultivation below 1,600 m (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Thus, the population in the Ulugurus might be extirpated as a result of an increasing human population. Forests in Nguru are not currently considered threatened because of their precipitous terrain and the low human population. In the Udzungwas, some areas of potential forest habitat are under pressure and shrinking (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
106008245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be overlooked (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008253		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although not uncommon locally in South Africa (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008254		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Cameroon, locally very common in the Congo, elsewhere often rare (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008256		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008257		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000, M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2003) has been ratified (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Legislation for the creation of Obo National Park has also been ratified (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> has been proposed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size and distribution. Study its ecological requirements. Investigate key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.  <p></p>
106008257		distribution	eng	<em>Nectarinia thomensis</em> is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>, where it occurs on the central massif, north towards Ponta Figo, south-west to the area around the rivers São Miguel, Xufexufe and Quija and east to Formoso Grande and the Formoso Pequeno and the valley of the Ana Chaves river (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998). It is locally common, but its population is probably small given the area of available habitat.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008257		habitat	eng	It occurs in both lowland and montane primary forest up to at least 2,000 m, with occasional records from forest-edge cultivation. It feeds on invertebrates, both from moss and lichen-covered branches and from probing in bark, and also on nectar from flowers. Nests have been found in late December and early January (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998).<p></p>
106008257		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106008257		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of lowland and mid-altitude forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and clearance of trees. This is not thought to currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong>. Construction for the country's developing oil industry, including the established idea of building 'free ports' (free economic zones) (M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, was seen as a potential threat to the species's habitat. However, prospecting on land was unsuccessful, and any construction is likely to be offshore (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2000).<strong> </strong> <p></p>
106008258		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant, although apparently locally scarce (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008260		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008261		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008262		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon throughout much of its range, although rare in Togo and widespread and common in Equatorial Guinea (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008263		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Socotra, Yemen. The highest recorded density and numbers (50 individuals) recorded during the 1993 survey of eastern Socotra were at Wadi Ayhaft (Porter et al. 1996) in the northern foothills of the Hagghier (=Haghir) range.
106008263		habitat	eng	This species occurs from sea level to at least 1,370 m in all major habitat types and plant associations, including parkland dominated by the endemic tree Dracaena cinnabari (Showler and Davidson 1996), and is recorded at the highest densities and numbers in mixed subtropical and drought-deciduous mesic-montane woodland and scrub, where it is usually seen in pairs (Porter and Martins 1996, Showler and Davidson 1996, Davidson 1996). There is limited recent information on its breeding biology, although observations of juveniles would suggest eggs are laid at the beginning of March (Showler and Davidson 1996). However, young have been found in a nest as late as May (Forbes-Watson 1964). The nest is dome-shaped, usually hidden in a tree fork, with an oval shaped entrance, constructed of woven grass and cobwebs and lined with silky plant material (Showler and Davidson 1996). Food consists mainly of arthropods with occasional fruit and berries. Nectar seems to be a less important food source than might be expected (Showler and Davidson 1996).
106008263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008263		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and diminishment through grazing may impact upon population levels; much of the climax vegetation on Socotra has been destroyed through intense grazing and wood clearance for timber.
106008264		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Suitable habitat, although rare in Nigeria and uncommon in Sudan (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant and widespread in savannah woodland (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and widespread (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008273		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008274		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008276		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008278		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008279		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008280		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Mayotte (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008283		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008284		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from Nta Ali (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and Rumpi Hills (Rodewald <em>et al. </em>1994, Cheke and Mann 2001) Forest Reserves, at least. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of deforestation within its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected area status. <p></p>
106008284		distribution	eng	<em>Nectarinia ursulae</em> is restricted to Mt Manenguba (discovered on the southern slopes in 1999 [Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), Mts Kupe and Nlonako, forest near Dschang, the Bakossi Mountains, Rumpi Hills and Mt Cameroon, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and Bioko, <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong> (Perez del Val 1996). On Bioko, the species is known from only a few records (Perez del Val 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 1991 and 1992 found it to be common in the Rumpi Hills (Rodewald <em>et al. </em>1994)<strong></strong>. In 1998, it was found to be common in the Bakossi Mountains (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the 1980s, it was recorded as being frequent to common on Mts Cameroon and Nlonako (Stuart 1986)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and throughout the 1990s it is known to have been common throughout the forest on Mt Kupe (Bowden 1998a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008284		habitat	eng	The species generally inhabits primary and secondary forest, as well as low shrubs at forest edges and in upland habitat (Cheke and Mann 2001). On Bioko, the species is known only from primary forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m (Perez del Val 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Cameroon, it is a species of intermediate altitudes, from 950-2,050 m, where it is found in mature forest and forest clearings (Stuart 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded down to at least 1,100 m in the Bakossi Mountains (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates, including ants and spiders, as well as nectar and seeds (Cheke and Mann 2001). The nest, in which 1-2 eggs are laid, is made from moss, roots and spiders' webs, with a side entrance, and is situated on a low branch, creeper, liana or shrub (Cheke and Mann 2001).  <p></p>
106008284		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although probably overlooked (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008284		threats	eng	Although the species is not immediately threatened, it does appear to be dependent on largely undisturbed forest within quite a small range, and so is potentially at risk from further forest clearance.  <p></p>
106008285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008286		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be easily overlooked (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008289		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although rare and local in Bhutan (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008290		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008291		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008292		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon in Tanzania, locally common in Angola, common in Zimbabwe and uncommon in Zambia (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008293		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008297		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008298		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008300		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A large proportion of its range in northern KwaZulu-Natal falls within nature reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of logging and afforestation with exotic species across its range. Protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106008300		distribution	eng	<em>Nectarinia neergardi</em> occurs from just south of Richard's Bay in northern KwaZulu-Natal, <strong>South Africa</strong>, to Inhambane, southern <strong>Mozambique </strong>(Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997)<sup></sup>. It is restricted to the coastal belt, but atlas data do not suggest any range retraction. In Mozambique, it has two widely separated populations; one south of Maputo and the other north of the Limpopo River (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008300		habitat	eng	This species is a sometimes common, but nomadic, species of woodland, especially dry, dense forest on sandy soil. It also inhabits coastal scrubland and has been recorded in isolated trees in clearings and villages (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>. It is found only at low elevations and apparently avoids fragmented coastal forest (Clancey 1985)<strong></strong>. It consumes nectar, small insects and spiders (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>. The nest, in which a clutch-size of two has been recorded, is suspended from a tree and made of cream-coloured fibrous material, feathers and down, and camouflaged with insect larvae and other debris. Observations suggest that breeding activity occurs in September-January and possibly July (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008300		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008300		threats	eng	In southern Mozambique, the species's coastal forest habitat is highly threatened, particularly by commercial logging and afforestation with non-native tree species<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Parker 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008301		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and sometimes abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and not uncommon, although rare in Nigeria and mainland Equatorial Guinea (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008303		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008304		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The full range of the species now comes under the protection of the Uluguru Nature Reserve, which was created by the government in 2009 and linked three existing reserves, known as Uluguru North, Uluguru South and Bunduki Forest Reserves. The boundaries of the Uluguru Nature Reserve have been cleared and planted in recent years, and management agreements have been made with surrounding communities (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2012).&#160; The deforested Bunduki ‘corridor’ that links the northern and southern forest blocks within the Uluguru Nature Reserve is in the process of being replanted with native tree species (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2012).</span>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys to obtain a more accurate estimate of the population. Conduct repeat surveys to monitor the species's population trends. Monitor the clearance and degradation of forest in its range. Conduct research to further clarify the tolerance of this species to habitat degradation. Improve management effectiveness of the Uluguru Nature Reserve.  <p></p>
106008304		distribution	eng	This species is entirely confined to the Uluguru Nature Reserve (previously split into Uluguru North, Uluguru South and Bunduki Forest Reserves) in <strong>Tanzania</strong>, although it may occasionally wander to Shikurufumi and Kasanga Forest Reserves<strong></strong>. The global population size has been estimated at between 21,000 and 166,000 individuals, with a likely figure of 37,000 individuals (Tøttrup <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008304		habitat	eng	This species prefers sub-montane to montane forest between 1,200 and 2,560 m in altitude (A. Tøttrup <em>in litt.</em> 2005, Tøttrup and Larsen 2005), and appears to be rather intolerant of habitat degradation (N. Cordeiro <em>in litt.</em> 2006, A. Tøttrup <em>in litt.</em> 2006), although it has been known to wander into, and occasionally breed in, non-forest habitats (Cheke <em>et al.</em> 2001, N. Cordeiro <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The breeding season is believed to be protracted, lasting from at least August to March (Tøttrup and Larsen 2005)<strong></strong>. Closed nests contain two or three eggs, are made of grass and moss, and are hung from branches several metres (mean 3.1 m, range 1.5-10 m) above the ground (Tøttrup and Larsen 2005). Observations suggest that only the female incubates the eggs (Tøttrup and Larsen 2005). The diet is comprised largely of nectar, supplemented with insects (Cheke <em>et al.</em> 2001, Tøttrup and Larsen 2005)<strong></strong>. The species is often gregarious around flowering plants and trees, but also feeds alone and in pairs, and joins mixed flocks (Tøttrup and Larsen 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008304		population	eng	The total population has been estimated at between 21,000 and 166,000 individuals, with a likely figure of 37,000 individuals.
106008304		threats	eng	Extensive habitat loss, mostly due to conversion to cultivation, has occurred in the Ulugurus (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), but this has so far generally been at lower altitudes than those preferred by this species (Tøttrup <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Slow loss and degradation of forest habitat within the Uluguru Nature Reserve in the main threat to this species (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2012). This has consisted of cutting for firewood and some timber, leading to loss of tree cover and consequent increases of thicket tangles and invasive brambles (N. Burgess <em>in litt.</em> 2006). It is unclear how much effect such slow degradation is having on the species's population, but it is presumed to be declining as a result. <p></p>
106008305		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within the well-protected Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Butynski in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an estimate of the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat destruction and degradation across its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected. <p></p>
106008305		distribution	eng	<em>Nectarinia moreaui</em> has a small range, being known only from the Nguru, Nguu, Uvidunda, Ukaguru and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Surveys in the Nguu and Ukaguru Mountains suggest that there are healthy numbers present (Evans and Anderson 1993, <strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999), and the species is locally very common in suitable habitat (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008305		habitat	eng	It is a bird of montane forest, occurring from 1,300 to 1,850 m at most locations (Evans and Anderson 1993, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999), but up to 2,500 m in the Udzungwas (Butynski in press)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar from flowering creepers<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its nest is a small domed purse made from leaves or dry grasses and silk from an insect's nest, with an entrance hole near the top. It is suspended from bracken, a shrub or tree at varying heights (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Observations suggest breeding activity in August-December, at least (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008305		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008305		threats	eng	Forests in the Nguu and Ukaguru Mountains are considered to be not immediately threatened because of their precipitous terrain and low human population density. However, the species does appear to be forest-dependent and is likely to be sensitive to destruction or degradation of forest habitat elsewhere in its limited range<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999). The driving factors for these threats are clearance for agriculture and the gathering of firewood (Cheke and Mann 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008306		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's habitat is protected in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, west of Lake Kivu. Itombwe Forest has recently been gazetted as a community reserve, although the boundaries still need to be defined (A. Plumptre<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other parts of the Itombwe Mountains currently have no protected status. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size (when the security situation permits). Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends (as long as the security situation is conducive). Carry out research to determine what threats, if any, the species faces (only carrying out fieldwork once it is safe to do so). Investigate the status of Kahuzi-Biéga National Park. Search for the species at Rwegura and Nyungwe. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106008306		distribution	eng	<em>Nectarinia rockefelleri</em> occupies a very small range in the northern Itombwe Mountains and mountains to the north and west of Lake Kivu in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. A record from Rwegura in Burundi requires confirmation (Gaugris <em>et al.</em> 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as well as a single, isolated sight record from Nyungwe in Rwanda (Dowsett-Lemaire 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008306		habitat	eng	This is mainly a species of gallery bamboo forest at higher altitudes, apparently preferring thickets along streams rather than bamboo forest itself. It also occurs in montane forest down to 2,050&#160;m and afro-alpine moorland. <p></p>
106008306		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106008306		threats	eng	The species would presumably be more threatened if forest destruction became serious within its restricted range, although this may not be immediately likely given the very high altitudes involved. Armed militia groups mining for Coltan (fuelled mainly through the mobile phone industry) entered Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in 2001 and have caused disturbance through local deforestation, unregulated mining and illegal hunting<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008307		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant throughout most of its range, although rare in Mauritania (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008309		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All its known locations are protected within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and various forest reserves in Iringa and Mufindi Districts, although, as stated, these areas remain under threat from logging, fires and encroachment (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a baseline survey to establish its population size and density. Initiate a monitoring programme. Effectively conserve forest habitat through participatory management activities (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extend the national park (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
106008309		distribution	eng	<em>Nectarinia rufipennis</em> is restricted to the Udzungwa Mountains, in the Iringa, Mufindi and Kilombero Districts of <strong>Tanzania</strong>. It occurs in Mwanihana and Iwonde forests in Udzungwa Mountains National Park (T. Butynski <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, in forests at Ukami, Ndundulu and Nymbanitu in the West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, and in Katemele, Kiranzi-Kitungulu and Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserves (D. Moyer and E.A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The species's population in the Udzungwas is estimated at c.6,850 individuals (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001). <p></p>
106008309		habitat	eng	It is found in the forest interior and at the edge of gaps in natural forest, most commonly between 1,500-1,700 m. It feeds on nectar, especially from tropical mistletoes (Loranthaceae), and small insects, 2-8 m above the ground, but is seen occasionally in the canopy up to 30 m high (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It aggressively defends clumps of flowers against other sunbird species (D. Moyer and E.A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and undergoes marked seasonal movements in response to local food-resource peaks (D. Moyer and E.A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999). During the cold (non-breeding) season (June-August), the majority of birds move to lower elevations (below 1,500 m) and vocal activity and territoriality are greatly reduced (D. Moyer and E.A. Mulungu <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008309		population	eng	The population in the Udzungwas is estimated at c.6,850 individuals. Therefore, the total population is placed in the range band for 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008309		threats	eng	The three main threats to evergreen forests both within and outside forest reserves are commercial logging, clearing for cultivation and bushfires started to maintain cleared, uncultivated land as open grassland (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007), whilst other activities that are likely to contribute to habitat degradation include charcoal production, exploitation for non-timber forest products and hunting (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest reserves and forests in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, are under pressure from these activities, and fragmentation is ongoing<strong></strong> (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001, L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may be threatened by clearance of unexplored forest patches just east of the south-east corner of Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, which are thought to be suitable for the species and are close to localities that the species is known to occupy (D. Moyer<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Logging in Iyondo Forest Reserve is a potential threat, although this forest is thought to be at unsuitably low altitudes for the species (D. Moyer<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in montane areas (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008312		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008313		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in afro-alpine moorland (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008317		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally common at mid-elevations in Tanzania (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008318		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although locally abundant in Ethiopia (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Uganda (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008322		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008324		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although less common at high altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008328		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008329		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Kenya, uncommon in Somalia and rare in Ethiopia (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008330		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Calculate rates of forest loss within its altitudinal and restricted geographic range. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against future threats. <p></p>
106008330		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is fairly common to common including on Mt Hilong-hilong (race <em>diuatae</em>), Mt Kitanglad, Civolig, Daggayan, Mt Lamut, Mt Apo and Lake Sebu (nominate race). <p></p>
106008330		habitat	eng	It occurs in forest and forest edge above 1,000 m. <p></p>
106008330		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common.
106008330		threats	eng	Although its area of occupancy must be very small, its habitat is apparently secure (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1999, Cheke <em>et al</em>. 2001). <p></p>
106008331		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine whether habitat loss poses any threat within its altitudinal range. Survey to quantify the population size. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against future threats.  <p></p>
106008331		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is fairly common at sites including on Mt Malindang (race <em>malindangensis</em>), Mt Kitanglad, Mt Apo, Mt Pasian and Lake Sebu (nominate <em>boltoni</em>), and Mt Busa and Mt Matutum (race <em>tibolii</em>); this latter taxon ranging on Busa from 1,300 m upwards and on Matutum from 820 m upwards. <p></p>
106008331		habitat	eng	It generally occurs in flowering trees and shrubs in stunted (and mossy) forest above 1,500 m. It has been recorded breeding in January-July. <p></p>
106008331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its very small range (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).
106008331		threats	eng	Although its area of occupancy must be very small, its habitat is apparently fairly secure. <p></p>
106008332		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008334		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Forest on<strong> </strong>Gunung Sahendaruman is nominally conserved, although few measures have been taken. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has conducted fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes and developed ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties. As a result, plans are in progress to reclassify the 4&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Gunung Sahengbalira "protection forest" as a wildlife reserve. Some forest in the Kentuhang valley is protected as the watershed for a hydroelectric scheme. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to monitor population trends and locate key remnant forests with a view to affording them protection. Investigate the ecological requirements of the species so that an effective conservation strategy can be devised. Ensure effective protection of habitat on Gunung Sahendaruman. Support proposals for the rapid establishment of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue conservation education programmes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island. <p></p>
106008334		distribution	eng	<em>Aethopyga duyvenbodei</em> is currently known from Sangihe, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, although there is an historical record from nearby Siau (BirdLife International 2001). In 1995, it was found to be regular at low densities at seven localities and in 1998-1999 it was the most commonly encountered forest species at Gunung Sahendaruman, suggesting locally high population densities. It was also found to occur at low densities in secondary habitats well isolated from primary forest, suggesting resilience to habitat loss (Riley 2002)<strong></strong>. It is, however, absent from large areas of the island, and continuing loss of both primary and secondary forest habitat suggests that populations continue to decline. <p></p>
106008334		habitat	eng	It is a resident in primary forest, forest edge, adjacent low scrub and plantations (when hardwoods persist in the vicinity and a scrubby understorey is available) at 75-1,000 m. It is usually encountered singly or in pairs, often within mixed-species flocks.<p></p>
106008334		population	eng	Surveys carried out in 1998-1999 found high densities in both primary forest and adjacent secondary habitats. Low densities were also recorded in secondary habitats that were isolated from primary forest. As such, the population estimate was revised to take into account both higer abundance in key habitats, and presence in larger areas of secondary habitat, resulting in an increased estimate of 18,900-43,800 individuals, roughly equivalent to 13,000-29,000 mature individuals.
106008334		threats	eng	Original forest on Sangihe has been almost completely cleared. This species is now known to survive in secondary habitats without adjacent primary forest patches (Riley 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but agricultural intensification is reducing the available area of even these modified habitats. The tiny remaining area of primary forest, around which the main population is centred, receives inadequate protection and continues to suffer from agricultural encroachment at its lower fringes. Forest-cover on the volcanically active island of Siau is extremely limited and the species is either extinct there, or survives in tiny numbers. <p></p>
106008336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in Bhutan, not uncommon in Myanmar, widespread and uncommon in Nepal and generally uncommon in India, although locally common in the east (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008337		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially at higher altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in South-East Asia (Cheke <I>et al</I>. 2001), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008340		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Myanmar, widespread and frequent in Nepal, fairly common in India, uncommon in Thailand and possibly extinct in Bangladesh (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common although rare to uncommon on Buton island (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008342		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common at higher altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Borneo and Thailand and rare on Sumatra (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although common at sea-level on Java (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008347		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008348		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon on Sumatra, rare in west Java and very scarce on Borneo (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008350		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008351		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and little-known (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008352		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to frequent (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008353		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).
106008354		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted actions are known. The species has been recorded in Varirata National Park (P. Gregory<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical sites and potentially suitable habitat. Study its ecological requirements, tolerance of habitat degradation and threats. <p></p>
106008354		distribution	eng	<em>Melanocharis arfakiana</em> is known from two specimens and a series of more recent sight records from New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). The specimens were collected in 1867 in the Arfak Mts and in 1933 from 950 m near the upper Angabunga River (Coates 1990)<strong></strong>. The recent sightings have been from 640-1,100 m in the Tabubil area, where it is not uncommon, Boana on the Huon Peninsula, where it is common in degraded forest, Keki Lodge near Madang, and the Kokoda Trail near Port Moresby (Murray 1988, Coates 1990, Gregory 1993, Gregory 1995a, B. Whitney <em>in litt. </em>2000, P. Gregory<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. Specimens from Tabubil and Boana differ slightly in plumage but are probably both of this species (P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1999, B. Whitney <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It may be a genuinely extremely rare species, perhaps compressed into a narrow altitudinal belt between ecologically similar congeners (Coates 1990, P. Gregory <em>in litt. </em>1994)<strong></strong>; however, although existing records suggest that the species is patchy and localised in occurrence, it could have been overlooked in many areas owing to its cryptic nature<strong></strong>, and may in fact be widespread (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008, P. Gregory<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008354		habitat	eng	It is a montane forest species, ranging from 640-1,100 m, and appears to be tolerant of secondary habitat. It feeds on berries and probably arthropods. It is thought to breed between May and October  (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<p></p>
106008354		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008354		threats	eng	Forests in these geographical and altitudinal ranges are under some threat from logging and clearance for agriculture. Habitat at Tabubil is being heavily degraded (P. Gregory<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. Consequently, the species may be undergoing a slow decline (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. However, its tolerance of degraded forest and recent discovery in widely scattered sites suggest that it is not threatened (B. Whitney <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008355		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106008356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce or locally common (Coates 1990).
106008357		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to fairly common (Coates 1990).
106008358		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Coates 1990).
106008359		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as very uncommon to rather rare.
106008360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common or abundant, especially at higher altitudes (Coates 1990).
106008361		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106008362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the most abundant birds in lowland and hill rainforest (Coates 1990).
106008363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).
106008364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common within its prefered altitudinal range (Coates 1990).
106008365		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although abundant at higher altitudes (Coates 1990).
106008366		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or abundant (Clement 1999).
106008367		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  &gt; c.540,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008368		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,800,000-6,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 8,400,000-18,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17,100,000-74,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008369		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common, although uncommon in northern Kenya (Clement 1999).
106008371		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common or locally common, although scarce in some parts of its range (Clement   1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.100   breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008372		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or scarce in some areas (Clement 1999).
106008373		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 900-3,000 breeding pairs, equating to 2,700-9,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 11,300-180,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008374		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008375		distribution	eng	<I>Passer rufocinctus</I> is a resident breeder of the Rift Valley highlands from central Kenya to northern Tanzania (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
106008375		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>Breeding occurs in all months, but mainly between April and June, and November and December (coninciding with the rains). The nest is bulit by both sexes, and the female lays a clutch of 3-5 eggs. <B>Habitat</B> Occupies dry <I>Acacia</I> savanna, open wooded country, cultivated land, villages and towns, at 1000-3000 m. It usually forages in pairs, but sometimes in small groups of up to about ten individuals outside the breeding season. <B>Diet</B> Its diet includes grain, small seeds and domestic scraps. Insects are fed to unfledged young (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
106008375		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
106008378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally very common (Clement 1999).
106008379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Clement 1999).
106008380		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008381		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008382		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement 1999).
106008383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).
106008385		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 20,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 26,000,000-48,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 78,000,000-144,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 159,000,000-576,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in China; c.100,000-1 million breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Clement 1999).
106008387		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 500-2,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,500-6,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106008391		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008392		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008393		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,700,000-3,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 5,100,000-11,400,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 21,300,000-228,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008394		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7,000-18,000 breeding pairs, equating to 21,000-54,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 0.875-1.08 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008395		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 520,000-1,600,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,560,000-4,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3,180,000-19,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to scarce (Clement 1999).
106008397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (Clement 1999).
106008398		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to generally scarce (Clement 1999).
106008399		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common to abundant (Clement 1999).
106008400		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement 1999).
106008401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008402		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2,000), while national population   estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals   on migration in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration and &lt; c.50   wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000   individuals on migration in Korea and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008403		population	eng	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 200,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 13000000-26000000 breeding pairs, equating to 39000000-78000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 163000000-1560000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008405		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   less common in central and northern Hokkaido (Brazil 1991), while national   population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.10,000 breeding pairs in Korea   and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008406		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common , although scarce in Bangladesh (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008407		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range, although common to uncommon in west Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008409		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread, although rare in the south of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008410		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 210,000-520,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 630,000-1,560,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).   Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the   global population size is 2,630,000-31,200,000 individuals, although further   validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been   estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration (Brazil 2009).
106008411		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7900000-14000000 breeding pairs, equating to 23700000-42000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 48400000-168000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008412		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 740,000-1,600,000 breeding pairs, equating to 2,220,000-4,800,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9,250,000-96,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008413		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent on suitable watercourses throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in north-western and southern Somalia, locally common in Kenya and Tanzania and uncommon in southern Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon in suitable habitat throughout its range, although scarce in Senegal and the Gambia and rare in Mali (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008416		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range, although uncommon in the lowlands of KwaZulu-Natal (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008418		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for the species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Study the impact on the species of changing land-use. Carry out research into the species's ecology. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106008418		distribution	eng	<em>Macronyx flavicollis</em> is endemic to the highlands of <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, where it is absent only in the extreme north and west (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is widespread, but was described as uncommon at all of the nine sites where it was recorded during a survey of Important Bird Areas during 1995-1996 (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Previously it had been described as "locally scarce to abundant" (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and a survey in 1989 suggested that it was less common than in the 1970s (Ash and Gullick 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008418		habitat	eng	It is a bird of open grassland, including tussock-grassland on moorland, and has once been found nesting in crops (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs from 1,200 to 4,100 m and is commonest between 1,800 and 2,750 m (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species forages on the ground and its diet comprises insects and other invertebrates (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurs mainly in June-August, occassionally in February. The nest, in which 2-3 eggs are laid, is a grass cup lined with fibre or horsehair, situated on the ground amoung young crops or grass (del Hoyo<em> et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008418		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it was considered uncommon in the 1990s.
106008418		threats	eng	If its sensitivity to habitat alteration is similar to that of related species such as Sharpe's Longclaw <em>Macronyx sharpei</em>, then it could well be declining as a result of the increasing levels of cultivation and grazing that are a consequence of the continuing expansion of Ethiopia's human population.  <p></p>
106008419		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Somalia and common in Kenya (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008421		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys, particularly in D.R. Congo, to determine true range and abundance. Monitor the effect of grassland management regimes at known sites. Study its niche separation from other sympatric longclaw species. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at a number of sites across its range.  <p></p>
106008421		distribution	eng	<em>Macronyx grimwoodi</em> is known from the south-western <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), central and eastern <strong>Angola</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>Zambia</strong> (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is common in places in north-west Zambia (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> (e.g. an estimated one pair every 300 m on Chitunta plain [P. M. Leonard <em>per</em> R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), where no threats are known (R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but its specific habitat requirements are not properly understood and there is no recent information on its population or potential threats in the core of its range in Angola or DRC (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008421		habitat	eng	It is a species of moist grassland, occurring particularly near streams, rivers, drainage lines and in grassy depressions at 800-1,500 m (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occupies moister habitats than the sympatric Fulleborn's Longclaw <em>M. fuelleborni</em> and is larger than Rosy-breasted Longclaw <em>M. ameliae</em>. It feeds on small beetles, weevils, grasshoppers and bugs (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008421		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered locally common to common.
106008421		threats	eng	Threats are poorly known, but may include burning and other un-favourable grassland management regimes.  <p></p>
106008422		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The bulk of its population occurs on private farmland that is outside protected areas (Lens <em>et al.</em> 1996, Muchai 1998, Ngari 2004)<strong></strong>. A local volunteer environmental group has begun an awareness campaign focused on this species (<strong></strong>L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Proposals are also being developed to improve milk-cooling facilities, to decrease the incentives for land conversion (<strong></strong>L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a)<strong></strong>. It may be necessary to preserve a network of critical habitat through land purchase and land-management agreements (Lens <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. By early 2012 Nature Kenya and World Land Trust had secured 58 ha of grassland, leading to the creation of Leleshwa Nature Reserve. A local conservation group Friends of Kinangop Plateau will manage the reserve and employ a warden. It will demonstrate land management that favours the species and provides better economic returns from livestock, and is hoped to encourage the establishment of new reserves by schools and other organisations. Since 2004 Friends of Kinangop Plateau have been working to survey and monitor the species, and have carried out a variety of educational projects and workshops to develop alternative livelihoods in the area (Moores 2009).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the species's population trends across its range. Monitor the rate of grassland conversion to pasture and cultivation. Study the socio-economic factors underlying land-use changes (<strong></strong>L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a)<strong></strong>. Evaluate grazing regimes to establish which is optimal for maintaining tussock grassland (Muchai 1998, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a)<strong></strong>. Raise awareness among farmers within its range (Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a)<strong></strong>, perhaps using the proposed reserve on the Kinangop Plateau as an example of beneficial management (Ngari 2004)<strong></strong>. Improve milk processing facilities to make dairy farming more attractive (Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002b)<strong></strong>. Investigate the economic benefits of maintaining tussock grass habitat (Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002b)<strong></strong>. Establish a network of large pastoral farms (&gt;30ha) to act as longclaw reserves (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>; well managed reserves could hold up to 85 individuals/km<sup>2</sup><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Lens <em>et al.</em> 2001). Encourage ecotourism, perhaps using the proposed reserve on the Kinangop Plateau as an example (Ngari 2004)<strong></strong>. Carry out further surveys on and around Lake Ol Bolossat grasslands (Wamiti <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Protect Lake Ol Bolossat grasslands (Wamiti <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Carry out reforestation of degraded catchment areas with native vegetation and encourage ecotourism at Lake Ol Bolossat grasslands (Wamiti <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008422		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Macronyx sharpei</em> is endemic to <strong>Kenya</strong>. The bulk of its population occurs in three locations: the Kinangop Plateau (40 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in 1996 [Muchai 1998]), Mau Narok, and the grasslands on the North Eastern side of Mt Kenya (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000; L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Based on 2009 surveys, the Uasin Gishu subpopulation has now almost disappeared due to rapid habitat conversion in the last decade (L. Borghesio<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Surveys of Lake Ol Bolossat grasslands in August 2007 confirmed the presence of the species, with 29 birds recorded at densities of c.0.03-0.37 birds/ha (Wamiti <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is still locally common where suitable habitat persists (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000). It is also known from the eastern slopes of Mt Elgon, where it was observed in September 2009 (L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and the Aberdare Mountains (but with no recent records, and none located in a three-day search in Aberdare National Park in 2008; L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, L. Borghesio <em>in litt. </em>2008). A small subpopulation was discovered in the Cherangani Hills in September 2009 (L. Borghesio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  <br/><p></p>
106008422		habitat	eng	This very sedentary species is restricted to high-altitude grassland, although it is rare above 2,800&#160;m (Muchai 1998, Muchai <em>et al. </em>2002c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Tussocks (required for nesting [<strong></strong>Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a]<strong></strong>) are an essential feature of its habitat, short grass is preferred to long, and it is absent from cultivation or woodlots (Muchai 1998, Lens <em>et al. </em>2000, Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a, Muchai <em>et al. </em>2002c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears able to coexist with livestock, so long as adequate tussock cover remains (grazing may actually be necessary to maintain optimal habitat) (Muchai 1998, <strong></strong>L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has a mean home range of c.0.5&#160;ha (Muchai 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008422		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. However, further work is needed to refine this estimate, as it has been suggested that the total population may now be as low as 2,000 individuals (D. Kimani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2009).
106008422		threats	eng	<p>Its grassland habitat (currently estimated to cover between one-third and half of its historical extent [Lens <em>et al. </em>2000]) is being replaced by cultivation and woodlots (Muchai 1998, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Lens <em>et al. </em>2000, Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002b). This is driven by the settlement of small-scale farmers (Ngari 2004). Rates of replacement at Kinangop were 6-9% per annum in 1995-1996 (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Lens <em>et al. </em>2000). The species occurs almost exclusively on privately-owned grasslands, which are likely to be converted to agriculture (Ngari 2004). On the Kinangop Plateau, cultivation is becoming more attractive than livestock-rearing (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000, Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002b), generally because of unreliable payments by large-scale milk purchasers and a decrease in the frequency of frosts (Ngari 2004). Consequently, most farmers plan to convert their land from a pastoral to an arable system (Muchai <em>et al</em>. 2002a). Many remaining pastures are ploughed every few years to remove unpalatable tussock-grass (Rayment and Pisano 1999, Ngari 2004). It was predicted that by 2010, only 20% of the Kinangop Plateau would be covered by tussock grasslands (Ndang'ang'a <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, grasslands already cover only 50% of the plateau, and only 30% of these are tussock grasslands (Ngari 2004). The increasing human population density has resulted in the subdivision of farms and increasing stocking rates (Rayment and Pisano 1999). Consequent heavy grazing leads to open, short-grass fields that are unsuitable for <em>M. sharpei</em> (Rayment and Pisano 1999, L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000). Around 60% of tussock grasslands are highly fragmented because they are found in small land parcels (2-10 ha) divided amongst small-holders (Ngari 2004). The Lake Ol Bolossat grasslands are threatened by encroachment and settlement, quarrying for rocks, overgrazing, water abstraction, poor soil and water management practices and eucalyptus plantations on neighbouring farms (Wamiti <em>et al</em>. 2007). The fragmentation of its habitat may result in population decreases that are disproportionately greater than the amount of grassland lost (Muchai 1998, Muchai <em>et al. </em>2002c). Low densities near the highest end of the elevation range (&gt;3,000m, Mt Kenya, Mt Elgon) might in part be due to shrub encroachment driven by insufficient herbivore grazing and fire suppression. The possible disappearance of the species from the Aberdare Range (where it was not found during a 3-days survey in 2008) might also be due to heavy encroachment of the grasslands by shrubs (L. Borghesio <em>in litt</em>. 2012).</p><p></p>
106008423		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several publicly-owned nature reserves, but only one - Natal Drakensberg Park - holds a substantial population (c.200-500 individuals). The proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom is estimated to hold a highly significant proportion of the global population (500-2,000 pairs). In Lesotho, the Sehlabathebe National Park supports 60-80 pairs. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys and monitoring to clarify population numbers and trends. Research its ecological requirements and the effects of various management practices. Provide incentives to landowners to manage existing grasslands beneficially. Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than forestry, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption. <p></p>
106008423		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus chloris</em> is a resident and partial migrant of eastern <strong>South Africa</strong> and, marginally, <strong>Lesotho</strong>. The core range is centered on the KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga Drakensberg. Small isolated populations are found farther south in the north-east Eastern Cape to the Drakensberg foothills, and in the eastern Free State. Fewer migrants are now recorded in coastal KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape, suggesting a population decline and a slight range contraction. It also used to occur in the Vaal Basin, west to Potchefstroom, but a local extinction event may have occurred. It is assumed that range reductions are concomitant with population declines, and there is evidence for local population decreases and extinction events, particularly in Lesotho. <p></p>
106008423		habitat	eng	It holds breeding territories in submontane, undulating grasslands, favouring lush, almost meadow-like conditions, where it frequents areas of tussock and grassy slopes. It avoids recently grazed or burnt areas, unlike many <em>Anthus</em> species. Clutch-size is usually three, laid during the rains. After breeding, some remain in the breeding quarters and spend winter on the snowline. Others are found at lower elevations, often in pasture and fallow lands.<p></p>
106008423		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 2,500-6,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,700-4,300 mature individuals.
106008423		threats	eng	Historical population reductions seem due to habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of intense grazing and burning. Present threats, particularly in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, include rapid afforestation of montane grasslands (notably in the Wakkerstroom district, a major stronghold), agricultural intensification, and unsuitable fire regimes and grazing practices.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).
106008425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent to common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008429		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although uncommon to locally common in Wallacea (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008432		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008433		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008434		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).
106008435		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Carry out research into the impact of changes in land-use on the species. Protect areas of suitable habitat for the species.  <p></p>
106008435		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus melindae</em> has a restricted and relatively small range, being endemic to the coastal strip from Mombasa in <strong>Kenya</strong> north to 3°N in southern <strong>Somalia</strong> and along the lower reaches of the Tana, Jubba and Shabeelle valleys (Keith <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed to be locally common in both countries (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996, Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
106008435		habitat	eng	It inhabits low-lying, short grassland subject to seasonal flooding, where it feeds on insects and other arthropods (Keith <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Kenya, it is most numerous in coastal grasslands, and is widespread but less numerous in riparian grasslands (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In southern Somalia, it is most numerous around flood-pans and cultivation, with the subspecies <em>mallablensis</em> being restricted to coastal dunes (Keith <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong></strong>. Egg-laying takes place in April-June, during the rainy season in Kenya, and a record of two half-grown nestlings in Somalia in early June suggests similar timing (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. This species is monogamous and territorial. Its nest, in which 2-3 eggs are laid, is a deep, thick-walled grass cup, situated in a grass tussock (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008435		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered rare to abundant.
106008435		threats	eng	This species avoids rank grassland, thus any decrease in grazing and burning could render grasslands unsuitable (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Demand for arable and grazing land in Somalia is high, placing increasing pressure on diminishing water-resources, with high levels of grazing (Ash and Miskell 1988)<strong></strong>. It is not clear how this species responds to such habitat change, but there is no evidence yet that its population is becoming severely fragmented. The Tana River Delta is <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">threatened  by large-scale conversion for agriculture (food and biofuels),  including Kenyan based organisations wanting to establish huge sugar  cane  plantations on over 70,000 ha of land, companies from  Canada and  the UK wanting to grow oil seed crops on over 60,000 ha, possible   mining in the sand dunes and prospecting for oil and gas. <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">Kenya's   National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) approved these   projects after considering their Environmental Impact Assessments, and i<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">f they go ahead they will convert an area of over 110,000 ha<span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">  into plantations (RSPB 2012). <span id="_SE_CP" _se_c="tcm:9-228564" _se_cp="tcm:9-228564" _se_ct="tcm:9-204350-32">In  2011 a high level meeting resulted in the launch of the Tana Delta  planning  initiative, with the process to take place ofver the  forthcoming 18 months and the output to be a long-term strategic land  use plan  representing a 'truly sustainable' future to the Delta,  informed by  Strategic Environmental Assessment (RSPB 2012). </span></span><br/><p></p>
106008436		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,000,000-1,900,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000,000-5,700,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 6,120,000-22,800,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in its breeding range and locally common in India during the winter (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2004), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106008438		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 20,000-100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 60,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008441		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008443		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008444		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as localised and generally uncommon, although not uncommon in Angola (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008445		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Arabuko-Sokoke is the focus of a project to promote long-term conservation of the forest through sustainable management and community participation in forest conservation (Fanshawe 1997)<strong></strong>. The bulk of Kiono/Zaraninge forest is included within the Sadaani National Park in Tanzania, and is now well protected (N. Burgess<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Another site, Kaya Gandini, is among the coastal "kaya" (sacred) forests targeted by the Coast Forest Conservation Unit (National Museums of Kenya/WWF). This project encourages local communities to re-establish effective national control over forest resources. Pugu Hills and Ruvu South are also subject to ongoing conservation projects through local NGOs, although forest loss continues (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census and monitor the population sizes at different sites (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. Study its response to forest alteration<em> (Brachylaena</em> removal, etc.). Continue to press for Dakatcha Woodland to be gazetted as a Forest Reserve or area of equivalent protected status (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. Survey Ruvu South Forest Reserve (Tanzania) for the presence of the species (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008445		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus sokokensis</em> has been recorded from several sites along the East African coast in <strong>Kenya</strong> (Bennun and Njoroge 1999, Waiyaki and Bennun 1999, Mlingwa <em>et al</em>. 2000) and <strong>Tanzania</strong> (<strong></strong>Mlingwa 1996), but is extremely rare (and may even be extinct) at some of these. In Kenya, Arabuko-Sokoke Forest has been estimated to support c.13,000 individuals (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008445		habitat	eng	In Arabuko-Sokoke, it occurs in <em>Brachystegia</em> forest, unevenly and at low densities in disturbed (logged-over) habitat (0.9 birds/ha), but evenly and at high densities in dense, undisturbed forest (2.8 birds/ha) (Mlingwa 1996, Musila <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. The species in general is highly sensitive to disturbance (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. All records from the Pugu Hills are from the edge of thickets (<strong></strong>Mlingwa 1996)<strong></strong>, but at Zaraninge it was found on open forest floor in mature forest (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991). It lives mainly on the forest floor, preferring areas with bare ground, high litter-cover, and high densities of ants and termite mounds (<strong></strong>Musila <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>, feeding among sparse grass on insects, including termites and beetles (Keith <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008445		population	eng	In Kenya, Arabuko-Sokoke Forest has been estimated to support c.13,000 individuals. There are no estimates for Tanzanian populations, but the sites where the bird occurs are small, and most are very heavily degraded (N. Burgess <I>in litt.</I> 2007). The total population is therefore placed in the range band for 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008445		threats	eng	One site, Dakatcha Woodland, is being damaged by cutting of <em>Brachylaena</em> trees (in great demand for fuelwood and carving timber) and by extensive clearing of the hilltops for the cultivation of pineapples (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. It is particularly threatened because it has no formal conservation status (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong></strong>. Arabuko-Sokoke is suffering continued forest damage from both illegal logging and licensed wood removal. There is also some political pressure for degazettement of the Kararacha-Mpendakula section of the forest, which contains prime habitat for the species (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. Its habitat faces similar threats at other sites: breakdown of traditional systems of conservation, encroachment, selective logging, pole-cutting and elephant damage (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong></strong>. There is no forest remaining at Vikindu Forest Reserve owing to intensive charcoal burning and cutting, with only low thicket left (N. Burgess<em> in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. There is very little forest remaining in the Pugu-Kazimzumbwe forest due to intensive charcoal burning and cutting for building materials (N. Burgess<em> in litt</em>. 2007), with Ruvu South Forest Reserve now similarly affected (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008446		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 27,000,000-42,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 81,000,000-126,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 165,000,000-504,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in Russia has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106008447		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 25,000-50,000 breeding pairs, equating to   75,000-150,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming   &lt;5% of the global range. National population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008448		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 1,000-10,000 breeding pairs, equating to   3,000-30,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming   &lt;5% of the global range. National population sizes have been estimated at   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in China   and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008449		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7-16 million breeding pairs, equating to 21-48 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 22.3-64 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008450		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 2,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,000,000-3,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,000,000-9,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12,500,000-180,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008451		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although an uncommon non-breeding visitor to Myanmar and Thailand (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2004), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
106008452		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 110,000-290,000 breeding pairs, equating to 330,000-870,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008453		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 640,000-2,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,920,000-6,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 8,000,000-120,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in China has been estimated at c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106008454		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt; c.20,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in India, Nepal and scarce to rare in Pakistan (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2004), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008456		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Like all wild birds in India, it is protected under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and is listed in Schedule IV. It is found within many well-known Protected Areas. The species was the focus of a recent PhD thesis which recommended a review of its threat status. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys to obtain a more accurate population estimate. Monitor population trends. Map the species's Area of Occupancy by calculating the area of suitable habitat above 1,000 m. Identify threats to its habitat and whether declines are likely. Monitor trends in the extent and condition of habitat. Strict protection of all natural grasslands in the Western Ghats, especially those in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Incorporate Upper Bhavani and Bison Swamp areas into adjacent Mukurthi National Park. Stop plantation of exotic trees in all grasslands. Control the spread of the invasive Scotch Broom. Avoid livestock grazing and fire in the nesting habitat during the breeding nseason. begin an awareness programme for local people and policy makers about the importance of conserving the grasslands of the Western Ghats.<br/><p></p>
106008456		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus nilghiriensis </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, southern <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally fairly common within its small range, particularly above 2,000 m (Vinod 2007)<strong></strong>. Surveys conducted in 2002-2004 found the species to be almost extinct at some former sites (U. J. Vinod<em> in litt</em>. 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>, suggesting that the population is in decline. Following these surveys, the total population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals; however, data on the species's population density in suitable habitat receiving protection (0.1 birds/ha) and an estimate of the remaining area of montane grassland in its range (400 km<sup>2</sup>) (Vinod 2007, U. J. Vinod<em> in litt</em>. 2010, 2011)<strong></strong> suggest that even an estimate of c.4,000 mature individuals is optimistic. <p></p>
106008456		habitat	eng	It occurs on grassy upland slopes interspersed with bushes and trees, mainly above 1,500 m, and is commonest over 2,000 m, but sometimes descends to c.1,000 m. The species has been observed to feed mostly on creeping grass in valleys, but to nest in marshy grasslands with slightly taller grasses and sedges, particularly near streams (Vinod 2007)<strong></strong>. In marshy areas, the species nests predominantly in <em>Andropogon polypticus</em> and feeds mainly in <em>Mariscus cyperinus</em><strong> </strong>(Vinod 2007). It is usually found singly or in pairs, even in the non-breeding season. The species breeds from February to June, with a peak in April (Vinod 2007)<strong></strong>. Clutch size is usually two and incubation, exclusively by the female, lasts for 14-15 days. Average territory size has been recorded as 0.15 ha (n = 9; range 0.06-0.25 ha). It feeds on invertebrates, mostly Coleopteran species, and seeds, strongly favouring invertebrates in the breeding season, and switching to a preference for seeds during the non-breeding season. The timing of breeding appears to be associated with higher temperatures and increased invertebrate abundance. It has been recorded consuming the seeds of grasses (<em>Eragrostris nigra</em>, <em>Isachnae kunthiana</em> and <em>Isachaemum ciliare</em>) and a herb (<em>Cyanotis wightii</em>)<strong> </strong>(Vinod 2007). <p></p>
106008456		population	eng	Recent surveys suggest that the species occurs at a density of c.0.1 birds/ha in suitable, protected habitat, and that the total area of montane grassland in its range may be only 400 km2 , not all of which will be suitable for the species (U. J. Vinod in litt. 2010). Assuming that the majority of birds recorded in the surveys were breeding adults, these data imply that an optimistic population estimate would be c.4,000 mature individuals. However, given the uncertainty around these numbers, the population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008456		threats	eng	Its grassland habitat is gradually being converted to plantations of tea, eucalyptus and silver wattle <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia dealbata</span>. The unintentional spread of wattle and invasive scotch broom <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus scoparius</span> to grasslands is another long-term threat (Zarri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Tea planters use <span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon polypticus</span> to cover tea plants during the winter. This activity threatens Nilgiri Pipit as it nests in the clumps of <span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon polypticus</span> and hence many nests are destroyed (A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Livestock grazing and frequent fires also pose threats to the species (Vinod 2007). During fieldwork conducted in 2002-2004, the species was found to be more abundant within protected areas compared to suitable habitat receiving no protection, suggesting that it is affected by disturbance (Vinod 2007). Disturbance may be increasing as ever higher resorts are constructed in the sholas that border areas of montane grassland. As the species often occupies habitat at the very top of hills, it is potentially threatened by the effects of climate change. <br/><p></p>
106008457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008458		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although precautions are taken to prevent the introduction of rats to several important sites, their remote location renders regulation of all visitors to all sites impossible in practice (J. P. Croxall <em>in litt.</em> 2000, McIntosh and Walton 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Maintain measures to prevent the introduction of rats.  <p></p>
106008458		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus antarcticus</em> is endemic to the sub-Antarctic island of <strong>South Georgia (Georgia del Sur)</strong>, with a total population estimated as 3,000-4,000 pairs (McIntosh and Walton 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is confined to c.20 small, rat-free offshore islands and islets, and to a few mainland areas (&lt;10% of total habitat), enclosed by sea-level glaciers, in which brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> is currently absent (Pye and Bonner 1980, Prince and Croxall 1983, Croxall 1987, Prince and Poncet 1996)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106008458		habitat	eng	It breeds in low altitude tussock grassland, wintering mainly on ice-free shorelines (Prince and Croxall 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects in tussock habitat, and insects and crustaceans along tidelines (J. P. Croxall <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In typical habitat it is common and productive, but winter survival of juveniles is low. It has almost no natural predators, remains of birds very occasionally turning up at middens of Brown Skua <em>Catharacta lonnbergi</em><strong> </strong>(J. P. Croxall <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <p></p>
106008458		population	eng	The population has been estimated at 3000-4000 pairs, equivalent to 6,000-8,000 mature individuals and c.9,000-12,000 individuals in total.
106008458		threats	eng	The projected continuing recession of glaciers at South Georgia threaten its remaining mainland habitats with invasion by rats (J. P. Croxall <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Accidental introduction of rats to offshore islands is a perpetual risk.   <p></p>
106008459		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is listed as Threatened in Canada (COSEWIC 1999)<strong></strong>. Most habitat is unprotected but there are large areas in military reserves, national parks and on Prairie Farm Rehabilitation lands (Prescott and Davis 1998)<strong></strong>. These are relatively well protected against conversion to non-native cover. Agriculture censuses have provided some information on land-use trends, and breeding distribution and post-fledging movements are relatively well studied in Canada where monitoring programs and radio-tracking are underway (S. Jones <em>et al. in litt. </em>2003, Davis and Fisher 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine breeding distribution, centres of winter abundance, population size and decline rates. Monitor habitat conversion rates. Assess threats on wintering grounds. Protect large tracts of native grasslands (Dechant <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The size of habitat required is disputed, with a minimum size of 145 ha suggested (S. Jones <em>et al. in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Manage grasslands by removing invasive woody vegetation, and graze to maintain good to excellent range condition. A short burning rotation may be beneficial in more mesic areas or where growing conditions are good, but would have negative consequences in more arid locations/conditions and at sites with unproductive soils (S. Jones <em>et al. in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Delay hayfield mowing until 15 July (if this habitat is found to be important for breeding birds), allowing &gt;70% of nests to fledge. Restore altered upland communities to a natural state (Dechant <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008459		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus spragueii</em> breeds relatively commonly in grasslands of south-east Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, south-west Manitoba and occasionally southern British Columbia, <strong>Canada</strong>, and north and central Montana, North Dakota, and locally South Dakota, casually to north-west Minnesota, <strong>USA </strong>(Prescott 1997, Prescott and Davis 1998, Robbins and Dale 1999). It winters throughout southern USA and northern <strong>Mexico</strong> to Guerrero and Veracruz (Prescott and Davis 1998)<strong></strong>. The population has declined annually by 3.9% since 1966 (Prescott 1997, Prescott and Davis 1998, D. R. C. Prescott <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but the most significant declines probably occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. In the USA, the decline was greatest (7.8% per year) during the 1960s and 1970s, but in Canada, the annual decline rate has slowed to 3.6% since 1980 (Sauer <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008459		habitat	eng	It inhabits well-drained native grasslands, usually in patches of at least 145 ha (Davis 2004)<strong></strong> with density increasing with pasture size (Davis 2004)<strong></strong>, especially with sparse to intermediate grass densities, moderate litter depths, few visual obstructions and little woody vegetation (Dechant <em>et al.</em> 1999, Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. It also breeds in planted grasslands in some parts of its range, predominantly those with similar vegetation characteristics to native grasslands. In particular, planted fields with a low amount of alfalfa and suitable vegetation  height (20–30 cm) are likely suitable breeding sites (Fisher and Davis 2011). On migration, it also occurs in stubble and fallow fields, arriving late April to mid-May on the breeding grounds, and late September to early November on the wintering grounds (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. Its numbers fluctuate from year to year based on precipitation rates from up to three years previously. <p></p>
106008459		population	eng	Rich <em>et al.</em> (2003). <p></p>
106008459		threats	eng	Conversion of prairie to seeded pasture, hayfields and cropland, and inappropriate grazing are responsible for habitat loss, degradation of remaining grassland and rapid declines in population (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. Since 1900, c.75% of native Canadian prairies and c.80% of aspen parklands have been converted (Prescott 1997)<strong></strong>. Strip-mining for tar sands is expected to increase in the future, with  up to 300,000 ha of Canada's boreal forest and wetland predicted to be  directly affected over the next 30 to 50 years (Wells <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Birds may respond to edge to area ratio (Davis 2004)<strong></strong> or distance to crops/hay (Koper and Schmiegelow 2006)<strong></strong> as much as to area. Linear anthropogenic changes are associated with lowered densities (roads [Sutter <em>et al</em>. 2000]<strong></strong>, gas wells, pipelines and trails [Linnen <em>et al</em>. 2006])<strong></strong>. The large-scale introduction of Eurasian plant species and their subsequent invasion of native prairie have reduced breeding densities (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. Grazing and burning can have positive or negative impacts on suitable habitat depending on moisture, soil-types, plant species, intensity and frequency (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. Nests are destroyed by haying prior to the fledging period. Virtual cessation of burning in the breeding zone and intensive grazing in the wintering zone has led to encroachment by shrubs and trees (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>, and the preferred short prairie grass in wintering areas such as Texas is not conserved (J. Grantham <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> is comparatively low, but is highest in fragmented habitat (Robbins and Dale 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008460		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008461		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008462		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008463		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008464		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008465		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law in Brazil and Paraguay. It occurs in Serra da Canastra National Park (Brazil)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. A. de Melo Júnior <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, San Juan Poriahú Private Reserve (Argentina) (Fraga 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the nominally protected Yabebyry, Isla Yacyretá, San Rafael National Park and Tapytá (Paraguay) (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998,<strong> </strong>R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The preference for burnt areas in Brazil means that it disappears from strictly protected reserves such as Itirapina (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A study of the ecology of this species is under way at Isla Yacyreta (Paraguay) (Lesterhuis, A.J. &amp; del Castillo, H. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical Brazilian localities (with knowledge of its voice), especially Carazinho and São Francisco de Paula in Rio Grande do Sul. Monitor populations under different management schemes, with particular reference to fire regimes and grazing intensities. Create a reserve network to protect Paraguayan and Argentine populations. Ensure the protection of grasslands within San Rafael National Park, Paraguay. Remove incentives for afforesting grasslands. Conduct further studies of distribution, abundance and trends in Paraguay. <p></p>
106008465		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus nattereri</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), south <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Paraguarí, Misiones, Itapúa, Caazapá, Ñeembucu and one record from Presidente Hayes), north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes) south to 28°34’S (Codesido and Fraga 2009) and, since 2004, north and central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uruguay </span>(Azpiroz &amp; Menéndez 2008). It was widespread in Brazil, but has declined dramatically with recent sightings from Serra da Canastra, Alfenas and Poços de Caldas (Minas Gerais), and near Itirapina (São Paulo)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. A. de Melo Júnior <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with a possible record from Lages (Santa Catarina). In Paraguay, surveys in 1995-1998 discovered important populations at Yabebyry (Misiones), Isla Yacyretá<strong></strong><em></em><strong><sup></sup></strong>, Ñu Guazú (both Itapúa)<strong></strong> and Tapytá (Caazapá) (Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998, R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong>, with singing males at a further 10 sites (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These sites, with San Juan Bautista (Corrientes) and Serra da Canastra, may now represent the species's strongholds. However, recent fieldtrips to Yabebyry (Misiones) and Isla Yacyreta (Itapúa) resulted in no observations of the species. It has however recently been found at two new localities: Estancia Lago Ypoa (Paraguarí) and Estancia Guazú Cuá (Ñeembucu) (Codesido and Fraga 2009). <br/><p></p>
106008465		habitat	eng	It primarily inhabits dry grasslands, occasionally wandering into inundated areas. Displaying males have been found in new (but not more mature) <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears to tolerate (and may actually prefer) short grass regenerating after grassland burns or lightly grazed pastureland (Coutinho 1982, <strong></strong>Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, <strong></strong>Fraga 2001,<strong><sup></sup></strong> Codesido and Fraga 2009). However, it cannot tolerate annual burning of grasslands (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is probably biannual, and has been reported in October in Argentina (Fraga 2001). <p></p>
106008465		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008465		threats	eng	By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered, mostly since 1950<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Conservation International 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Brazil, intensive grazing, invasive grasses, annual burning and conversion to <em>Eucalyptus</em>, soybeans and exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have had a severe impact (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Argentine and Paraguayan grasslands are similarly threatened, especially by conversion to <em>Eucalyptus</em> and flooding caused by the Yacyretá dam (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>Pearman and Abadie 1995, Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong></strong>. Conversion of grasslands to ricefields and increasing fire frequency are also considered serious threats in Paraguay<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Lesterhuis, A.J. &amp; del Castillo, H. <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008466		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106008467		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100,000-180,000 breeding pairs, equating to 300,000-540,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 612,000-2,160,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008468		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not numerous, though in places common in the Southern former USSR, fairly common in northern India and Nepal and uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett et al) (Flint et al. 1984, Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local in Pakistan, common in northern India, fairly common in Nepal and uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett et al) (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent in Pakistan, common in northern India, fairly common in Nepal and common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008471		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 100-500 breeding pairs, equating to   300-1500 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming   &lt;5% of the global range. The population in Russia has been estimated at   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008472		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 11,000-33,000 breeding pairs, equating to 33,000-99,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size
106008473		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population at known sites to detect trends.  Survey to locate addtional populations.  As a precaution, effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106008473		distribution	eng	<em>Prunella fagani</em> is endemic to the high-altitude western mountains of <strong>Yemen</strong>, where it is very local, being known from only six localities (1,850-3,000 m) during the breeding season: Kawkaban; Manakhah; head of Wadi Bana; Sumara pass; near Ibb; and Jabal Sabir (Redman 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its small breeding range lies in a high-rainfall zone that has been densely settled and heavily cultivated for millennia. A few winter records from slightly south of its breeding range (Martins <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> suggest that some birds may move to lower altitudes in winter (Redman 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs at fairly low density at its known localities (Redman 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, being relatively common at only one of them.  <em> <p></p></em>
106008473		habitat	eng	Its habitat is open, stony slopes with a relatively dense cover of short perennial grasses and dwarf-shrubs (e.g. <em>Rumex</em>, <em>Acanthus</em>), frequently associated with near-vertical rocky features such as scree, cliff-faces and field terrace-walls (Redman 1987, Porter <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106008473		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008473		threats	eng	There is no evidence for a decline, nor is one suspected currently. Major reduction of the vegetation cover at its known sites, e.g. by extreme overgrazing or over-collection of dwarf-shrubs for fuel, would threaten the species, as might climate change (e.g. aridification), but there is no evidence for these potential threats in the near future.  <p></p>
106008474		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Central Asia, locally common in winter in Pakistan, locally common in northern India and common in north-western Nepal (Flint <I>et al</I>. 1984, Grimmett <I>et al</I>. 1998), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008475		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1500-2500 breeding pairs, equating to 4500-7500 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 18800-150000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008476		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as probably rare, although its status is uncertain (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106008477		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 12,000,000-26,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 36,000,000-78,000,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008478		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Brazil 1991), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008479		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rare in China and scarce in northern India and Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).
106008480		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008482		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008485		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008486		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008487		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008489		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally very common.
106008490		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008491		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008492		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008493		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Local communities are actively engaged in conserving montane forest at Mt Oku, with support from the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project (J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is an ongoing programme to monitor the condition of forest there, as well as the overall extent of forest cover in the Bamenda Highlands (J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Community-based conservation activities was extended to other forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands in 2000 (J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000). A small area of forest is protected on the Obudu Plateau, and the montane area within the Gashaka-Gumti National Park, adjacent to Mambilla Plateau, affords good protection to the species (P.&#160;Hall <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys on the Mambilla and Obudu Plateaux in Nigeria to ascertain the species's status there (P.&#160;Hall <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Conduct surveys in forest patches and other suitable habitat in the Cameroon mountains which are as yet unsurveyed (F.&#160;Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 1998, J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Assess the total population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of forest clearance and degradation within its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is covered by protected areas and community-based conservation management. <p></p>
106008493		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus bannermani</em> occurs in western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (chiefly in the Bamenda Highlands, notably at Mt Oku, also Mt Tchabal Mbabo on the Adamawa Plateau) and eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (on the Obudu and Mambilla Plateaux, where 12-40 were seen per day in 1988). In 1999, it was found to be common in suitable habitat on the crater of Mt Manenguba, south-west Cameroon (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c) and, in 1998, rare or local at Kodmin in the nearby Bakossi Mountains, this latter representing a small range-extension to the south-west (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008493		habitat	eng	It occurs at 1,100-2,900&#160;m, occupying forest edge and dense, shrubby habitat in more open parts of montane forest (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998c)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and even farmland, where there are some natural trees and shrubs (J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000). On the Obudu Plateau, it occurs along the edges of narrow strips of forest in deep ravines. It would appear to tolerate a certain amount of forest degradation (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding has been observed in December and January at Lake Manengouba, and in November in Danko Forest Reserve, Nigeria. <p></p>
106008493		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008493		threats	eng	There is considerable loss of habitat in the Bamenda Highlands due to clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood-collection and timber-extraction (J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Forest fires are probably responsible for the greatest proportion of habitat loss (P. Forboseh<em> in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, for example c.500 ha of forest was burnt around Lake Oku in March 2000 (J.&#160;DeMarco <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. However, the status of forest patches in Manenguba Crater is satisfactory and under very little human pressure (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999c)<strong></strong>.  Plans for a 70,000 ha palm oil plantation threaten to significantly  fragment large areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Cameroon if  approved (Linder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106008494		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Dja Reserve, Douala-Edea Forest Reserve and Mt Kupe are all protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct field surveys to locate and assess populations. Study ecology to determine limiting factors. Protect key areas identified from studies. <p></p>
106008494		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus batesi</em> is a rarely-recorded species from southern and western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, occurring in a narrow belt from Limbe, at the foot of Mt Cameroon (Taylor 1981)<strong></strong>, east to Moloundou. In recent years, it has only been seen twice near the Dja Game Reserve (at Somalomo on the north-west boundary of the Reserve in 1995, and at Shwani, 12 km from Somalomo, in 1996) (R. Fotso <em>in litt</em>. 1999) and remains known from only a few localities, including Mt Kupe (two records in 1990, but none since, despite intensive searches). In 1998-2001, surveys in western and south-eastern Cameroon failed to relocate the species (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008494		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland rainforest, although all recent records come from secondary forest and forest edge, particularly degraded forest around villages<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(R. Fotso <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). It has been recorded on Mt Kupe up to 900 m. In 1979, a single bird was observed moving in a zig-zag manner up a creeper-covered tree-trunk (Taylor 1981)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it has been observed recently foraging under the canopy (R. Fotso <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs singly and in pairs, and one record was in a mixed-species flock; it appears to forage on insects, bark-gleaning in the manner of Preuss's Weaver <em>P. preussi</em>, with which it could conceivably compete. <p></p>
106008494		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106008494		threats	eng	Since it is a bark-gleaning species it may be in competition with Preuss's Weaver <em>P. preussi</em><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Despite the records from secondary habitat, its rarity may be attributable to the loss of some specific habitat feature. Plans for a 70,000 ha palm oil plantation threaten to significantly fragment large areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Cameroon if approved (Linder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106008495		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Bailundu Highlands of western Angola, on the Batéké Plateau in the Congo and in eastern Gabon around Lekoni.
106008495		habitat	eng	This species inhabits wooded grassland dominated by Hymenocardia acida 6-8 m high. It is mainly found between 500-700 m on the Batéké Plateau, but above 1,500 m in the Bailundu Highlands.
106008496		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in most areas (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008497		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Udzungwa mountains of Tanzania and commoner in the Uluguru and Ukaguru mountains, Tanzania (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008498		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but localized (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008499		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its habitat is protected in the south of Gabon<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Christy <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A proposal to protect the mangroves north-east of Libreville (Akanda area) would safeguard the colonies found there<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Christy <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Habitat along the Cabinda coast is well protected (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine the distribution of the species (for example, at Conkouati, Congo, where habitat is suitable) and assess its numbers. Study the species's habitat requirements using data from population and distribution surveys. Monitor the destruction of suitable habitat within its range. Assess the threat from oil-spills and employ measures to mitigate such an event. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, including mangroves north-east of Libreville. <p></p>
106008499		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus subpersonatus</em> is known from the coastal strip from <strong>Gabon</strong>,<strong> Congo</strong> and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>into Cabinda <strong>(Angola)</strong>. It has only recently been discovered in the Congo at two small coastal swamps, including one on the edge of Pointe-Noire (P. Bulens<em> per</em> F. Dowsett-Lemaire<em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Throughout its range it is rare and occurs at low densities<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Christy <em>in litt. </em>1999, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong> Dean 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008499		habitat	eng	In coastal Cabinda, it is found in rank grass in clearings in secondary forest and at the edge of marshes (Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Gabon, it appears to be confined to coastal savanna, between coastal mangrove forest and forest inland, nesting in palms <em>Phoenix reclinata</em> or <em>Caesalpinia bonduc</em><strong><sup> </sup></strong>and has apparently adapted to secondary habitat, including vegetation surrounding small coastal villages<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Christy <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. It is generally found within 3 km of the coast (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but is recorded further inland along major rivers such as Boma in Cabinda, 75 km up the Congo River. <p></p>
106008499		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008499		threats	eng	In Gabon, coastal bush around Port Gentil and Cap Lopez is being converted into allotments. There is potential danger from oil-spills from offshore rigs (W. R. J. Dean <em>in litt.</em> 1999) which may be set to increase due to new oil interests in the area, particularly from US companies (J. Ekstrom <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008500		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008501		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   uncommon to very common (Fry and Keith 2004), while national population sizes   have been estimated at &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan,   c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008502		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (Hall and Moreau 1970, Roberts 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2001, Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002).
106008503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common, though uncommon over the greater part of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008506		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and sparsely distributed (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the commonest birds on Principe (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008511		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon and common on the coast (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008512		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in coastal areas (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008513		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008514		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to south and east Africa, where it occurs in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
106008514		habitat	eng	This is a social species which breeds in papyrus, reedbeds and shrubbery overhanging water, at around 1,750 m elevation (van Perlo 1995). Colonies of up to 300 nests have been found in areas of suitable habitat.
106008514		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in much of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008514		threats	eng	Disturbance of its wetland habitat threatens the species in south Mozambique and Botswana (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008516		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Kilombero Valley has recently been declared a Ramsar site, with funding allocated from the Wildlife Department (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It was formerly designated a Game Controlled Area, which only restricted the hunting of large animals, and not land-use (e.g. commercial agriculture) that might be deleterious for this species. Game Controlled Areas have been replaced by Wildlife Management Areas. However, the status of the valley is uncertain (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys in order to assess the species's population size. Establish a scheme for monitoring its population. Assess its habitat requirements. Evaluate the potential effects of increased pesticide- and fertiliser-use and of dry-season burning. Lobby government for improved status of the Kilombero Valley protected area as its current status is seen to be failing conservation and wildlife (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Carry out management planning in the valley including zoning plans for industry, agriculture, livestock grazing and wildlife (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008516		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus burnieri</em>, first discovered in 1986, has a very small range, being confined to the Kilombero river floodplain in south-central <strong>Tanzania</strong> (Baker and Baker 1990). It has a patchy and restricted distribution within its range, but is abundant in suitable habitat (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106008516		habitat	eng	It occurs in extensive riverside swamps fringed with tall reedbeds <em>Phragmites</em>, generally in areas away from trees (possibly related to competition with the African Golden-Weaver <em>P. subaureus</em>) (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). It has been observed foraging in groups on the ground prior to flooding (Baker and Baker 1990). The diet includes flowering and fruiting grass-heads, as well as dried fish and domestic refuse (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Nests are in loose groups of up to 20 (occasionally 30), each being attached to a single reed-stem, frequently overhanging water, in areas of seasonal flooding (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch-size is apparently 1-2 (Baker and Baker 1990)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008516		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008516		threats	eng	The extent of dry-season cultivation in the centre of the floodplain is increasing and use of the central portion of the Kilombero Valley by pastoralists is increasing rapidly (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). As well as the resulting habitat loss, dry-season burning, to clear fields and to promote growth of new grass for cattle, may have a negative impact (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Grazing may also affect habitat directly (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. A expanding area of unknown size in the north of the Kilombero Valley has been converted for large-scale sugar cane cultivation (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2007, <strong></strong> H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, with up to 200 km<sup>2</sup> predicted to be converted in the near future (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Individual farmers supply the sugar cane processing plant and are less likely to be limited by any pesticide or planning laws than the industrial plantations (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Additionally, rice farming is expanding and could affect the species's habitat (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Increases in pesticide- or fertiliser-use in the catchment may have negative impacts on the species and its habitat (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 1999). However, apparently no studies of the effects of pesticides or fertilisers on wildlife have been carried out (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Although the extent of the impacts on this species are poorly known, it has such a restricted range that threats could affect a large proportion of the population at once and lead to very rapid declines. <p></p>
106008517		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant (Ash and Miskell 1998, Fry and Keith 2004).
106008518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in Sudan, south of Khartoum (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008521		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008523		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008524		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Lake Lufira and estimate population. Study ecological requirements and threats. <p></p>
106008524		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus ruweti</em> is restricted to Lake Lufira in the southern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo,</strong> where it was common in 1960 (when the type-specimen was collected) and readily observed on recent "rediscovery" visits (Louette and Hasson 2009, Craig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).<em> <p></p></em>
106008524		habitat	eng	It is found in the swamps bordering Lake Lufira, where it occurs in reedbeds of <em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em> (usually in <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeschynome elaphroxylon</span> trees standing in water, rather than on the reeds themselves), interspersed with bushes and <em>Sesbania leptocarpa</em>, as well as on dry land in the trees bordering cultivated maize fields. It is generally restricted to within 100 m of the water's edge. The breeding season lasts from January until April, and colonies vary in size from 3-20 nests; nests are often found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> trees  (Craig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Birds normally raise two broods per breeding season. <p></p>
106008524		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008524		threats	eng	There is no information on threats to its habitat. <p></p>
106008525		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008526		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008527		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008528		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008529		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Lake Opeta borders Pian-Upe Wildlife Reserve, set up in consideration of traditional cattle-grazing practices in the area (Byaruhanga <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor the extent of wetland drainage and habitat degradation. Study the impact of potential threats. Carry out detailed research into the species's ecology. Increase the area of suitable habitat in protected areas. <p></p>
106008529		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus spekeoides</em> is a poorly recorded species known from a restricted area of seasonally flooded wetlands in northern <strong>Uganda</strong> (Collar and Stuart 1985, Byaruhanga <em>et al</em>. 2001,&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>A. Byaruhanga <em>in litt</em>. 2003). The species has been recorded at two Important Bird Areas, Lake Bisina (250 km<sup>2</sup>) and Lake Opeta (570 km<sup>2</sup>), and is found in the marshland habitat stretching between these lakes. There are also records from Rhino Camp in Arua and from the environs of Lake Kyoga near Nakasongola. In August 1996, 47 nests of this species were counted around Lake Bisina, since when it has not been recorded breeding (Byaruhanga <em>et al</em>. 2001). <p></p>
106008529		habitat	eng	This species's ecology and breeding habits are largely unknown. It has been described as locally common in bushed and wooded grassland in swampy areas (Collar and Stuart 1985). It consumes seeds and probably insects (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Uganda, it breeds in June-July. It is a colonial breeder, and constructs an oval nest, consisting of roughly woven grasses (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008529		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008529		threats	eng	Some wetland areas have been drained in its range, including those around Nariam, where the type-specimen was collected (Byaruhanga <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over 20,000 head of cattle move to the Opeta region each dry season (October-February), a factor degrading wooded grasslands upon which the species is dependent for breeding (Byaruhanga <em>et al</em>. 2001, A. Byaruhanga <em>in litt</em>. 2003). The importance of such degradation as a threatening process is unclear. Lake Bisina is poorly known, does not fall within the Karamoja protected-area complex and there are no conservation measures proposed or enacted for the site (Byaruhanga <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008530		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008531		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and seasonal (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008532		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the focus of a project to promote long-term conservation of the forest through sustainable management and community participation in forest conservation (Fanshawe 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Gazette Dakatcha Forest as a forest reserve or area with similar protected status (Bennun and Njoroge 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce legislation controlling forest-use in Arabuko-Sokoke. Better define its habitat and breeding requirements, in particular its tolerance of forest degradation. Census and monitor its population size. Improve knowledge of its distribution. Continue efforts to conserve Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. <p></p>
106008532		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus golandi</em> is known only from southeastern <strong>Kenya</strong>. Most records are from the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest (350 km<sup>2</sup> occupied by this species [Bennun and Njoroge 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), but it is also recorded from the Dakatcha area near Malindi to the north of the Sabaki river (300 km<sup>2</sup>&#160; [Bennun and Njoroge 1999]<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>), and from the eastern edge of Galana Ranch east to Marafa and Hadu (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The population was estimated to be not more than 1,000-2,000 pairs in the early 1980s and there has not been a more recent assessment. The species may not breed in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, since it appears to be largely absent during April-July, reappearing with young in August and thence regularly seen into November, with few records from December-February (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is believed to have bred north of the Sabaki river in 1994, when many juveniles were observed near Dakatcha in mid-July (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008532		habitat	eng	Outside the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the species is confined to lowland <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Within the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, it has been recorded from all forest habitats, although it is commonest in <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland. Occurs in noisy but somewhat erratic flocks of 5-30 birds and also sometimes observed in mixed species flocks (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong></strong>. It feeds high up in the canopy on beetles and caterpillars. It presumably nests at low densities in the tops of tall trees, probably in March, with the onset of the rains (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008532		population	eng	The population was estimated to be not more than 1,000-2,000 pairs (2,000-4,000 mature individuals) in the early 1980s, and there has not been a more recent assessment. This estimate is roughly equivalent to 3,000-6,000 individuals in total.
106008532		threats	eng	Clearance of woodland for agriculture is the main threat to the species, e.g. at Dakatcha where hilltops are being extensively cleared for cultivating pineapples, and where woodland is also being damaged by cutting of <em>Brachylaena</em> trees (in great demand for fuelwood and carving-timber) (Bennun and Njoroge 1999). Forest at Arabuko-Sokoke continues to be degraded by both illegal logging and licensed wood removal. There is also some political pressure for degazettement of the Kararacha-Mpendakula section of this forest (Waiyaki and Bennun 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over much of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon generally though locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008535		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008538		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Epulu lies within the Okapi Faunal Reserve (Blom 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its status in Semliki National Park is unknown. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Extend the northern part of the Virunga National Park westwards, to include the eastern part of Ituri Forest. Conduct surveys to ascertain the present status of the species in the DRC when the security situation permits. Investigate the species's status in Semliki National Park. Confirm the validity of the taxon (it has been suggested that records may refer to occasional hybrids, perhaps between <span style="font-style: italic;">Ploceus nigerrimus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tricolor</span>, or an undescribed subadult plumage of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">P. tricolor</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; Craig  2005). <p></p>
106008538		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus aureonucha</em> is known from a small part of the Ituri Forest, between Mawambi, Irumu and Beni in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>(DRC), where it had not been seen since 1926 until encountered several times during 1986, including a flock of 60 at Epulu (M. C. Catsis <em>in litt</em>. 1989)<strong></strong>, where a pair feeding two young were also observed in 1993 (M. Languy <em>in litt</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. There was a recent observation of a pair in Semliki National Park, <strong>Uganda</strong>, in August 2006, extending the species's known range 80 km to the east (M. Wilson <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The paucity of records has led to the suggestion that it may possibly  not be a valid species - records instead representing occasional hybrids (perhaps between <span style="font-style: italic;">Ploceus nigerrimus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tricolor</span>), or perhaps more likely an undescribed subadult plumage of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">P. tricolor</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Craig  2005) - however it is uncertain why hybrids, or an undescribed subadult plumage, should be known only from a tiny part of the the easternmost fringe of the ranges of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ploceus nigerrimus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tricolor</span> (L. D. C. Fishpool <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aureonucha </span>may well prove to be a valid species which occurs at very low densities in a poorly-known region.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106008538		habitat	eng	It is found in the canopy of lowland rainforest, with most records coming from dense primary forest, though it has been recorded from forest edge and old secondary growth with many tall trees remaining. It has been sighted in a flock of up to 60 birds, and it is possible that the species normally occurs in parties. It feeds on fruit and insects. An adult in breeding condition has been collected in September, though juveniles have also been found in the same month. <p></p>
106008538		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106008538		threats	eng	Its habitat is in serious danger from forest clearance (mainly for agriculture). It is likely that the rate of deforestation has increased in recent years as a result of warfare (Kanyamibwa 1995)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008539		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008541		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in humid forest in the north-west, north and east of Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106008542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106008543		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although rare in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka and rare in Nepal and Bangladesh (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008545		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to common, although rare in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008546		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss. Monitor levels of trapping and nest-robbing. Tackle songbird trapping in Asia through: awareness raising, alternative livelihoods, education. <p></p>
106008546		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus hypoxanthus </em>occurs in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (scarce to locally common in the centre, south, south-west and Tenasserim), <strong>Thailand</strong> (local and uncommon in north and centre), <strong>Laos</strong> (local in south), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (scarce to locally fairly common in south Annam and Cochinchina), <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (rare resident in Sumatra, previously widespread but now local and uncommon on Java and restricted to the west) (Robson 2000, BirdLife International 2001).  <p></p>
106008546		habitat	eng	It inhabits marshes, grassland, reeds and rice paddies, always close to water in the lowlands where large flocks sometimes form around colonies. <p></p>
106008546		population	eng	The species is thought to have a moderately small global population owing to its habitat requirements and population declines. It is placed in the band for 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, probably equating to total population of c.15,000-30,000 individuals.
106008546		threats	eng	It is threatened by conversion of wetland habitat to agriculture and also by persecution. It is commonly trapped (particularly in Java) and colonies are robbed and destroyed. <p></p>
106008547		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in India, and trapping and trade of the species has been banned since 1991. It has been recorded from Kaziranga, R. G. Orang, Dibru-Saikhowa and Manas National Parks, Assam, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal, Corbett National Park (or at least nearby), Uttar Pradesh, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct widespread interviews with bird-trappers to identify population centres, followed by field surveys in remaining habitat to establish its distribution and status. Extend, upgrade, link (where possible) existing protected areas and establish new ones in order to conserve remaining tracts of natural grassland across its range. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of habitat loss and degradation. Promote conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Upgrade its legal protection status to Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.<br/><br/><p></p>
106008547		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus megarhynchus</em> is endemic to the terai of the northern Indian subcontinent, where it is known from disjunct populations in Delhi and northern Uttar Pradesh, <strong>India</strong> and adjacent extreme western <strong>Nepal</strong>, and from eastern Nepal to Assam (BirdLife International 2001). It has always been very locally distributed, and the disappearance of several colonies in recent decades indicates that it is declining. The population in Nepal is estimated at fewer than 50 birds and declining (C. Inskipp and H. Baral <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The global population is currently put at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals; however, it has been suggested that there could be fewer than 3,000 mature individuals (R. Bhargava <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106008547		habitat	eng	It inhabits terai marshes and extensive stands of <em>Imperata, Narenga,</em> and <em>Saccharum</em> grassland, particularly those that are seasonally inundated, with well-scattered trees, and occasionally interspersed with patchy rice and sugarcane cultivation. It is gregarious, foraging in flocks and breeding (May-September) in colonies. Nests are built in trees, reedbeds, or extensive stands of tall grass. Whilst its movements are poorly understood, populations appear to wander erratically.<p></p>
106008547		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on an analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) suggesting the population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 individuals and may well fall well short of this. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. However, it has been suggested that the total population could number fewer than 3,000 mature individuals (R. Bhargava <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> A. Rahmani <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
106008547		threats	eng	The main threat is the rapid and extensive loss and modification of its habitat. This has occurred as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, sugarcane, mustard and tea), overgrazing by domestic livestock and grass harvesting for thatch production. These threats are compounded by capture for the live bird trade.<br/><br/><br/>During the last 60 years, the Terai region has been almost totally converted to human-dominated landscape with agricultural farms, orchards, factories, canals, roads, expanding villages and cities, and very rapid human population growth. The rising population of crows (<em>Corvus splendens</em> and <em>Corvus macrorhynchos</em>), related to garbage and human habitations, is another threat to the nesting colonies (Bhargava 2000). </span><br/><p></p>
106008548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008550		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Cameroon and rare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008551		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Conservation action at some sites focuses on assisting local initiatives and increasing the involvement of local communities in forest management (Buckley and Matilya 1998, L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Udzungwa localities fall within forest catchment reserves or have national park status (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a survey to assess the species's population size across its range, and survey the Rubeho Mountains to confirm previous reports of the species's occurrence. Monitor population and habitat trends. Establish a coordinated management scheme for Mt Nilo Forest Reserve and adjacent forest in the East Usambaras (Cordeiro 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve the management of existing protected areas within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is covered by protected areas or community-based forest management.  <p></p>
106008551		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus nicolli</em> occurs at low densities in the East and West Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In the West Usambaras, the nominate subspecies occurs in small numbers at Shume, Magamba and Mazumbai (N. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, it is fairly common at two sites within the Nilo Forest Reserve (Cordeiro 1998, Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong><sup></sup></strong> - probably the subspecies's last remaining stronghold (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong></strong>. <em>P. n. anderseni</em> is found in the Uluguru Mountains (three records, all from Uluguru North Forest Reserve (Svendsen and Hansen 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but not recorded during surveys in 1999-2001 [Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2002]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and the Udzungwa Mountains, including Udzungwa National Park, Ndundulu Forest and the Nyumbanitu Mountains, as well as in a tiny patch of forest c.95 km east of Iringa and in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (D. Moyer <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a possible record from the Rubeho Mountains, but this has not been confirmed (Fjeldså <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total population has been guessed to number over 1,000 individuals (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong></strong>. However, the population in the Udzungwas alone might number 1,000-2,000 individuals (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although it has been conservatively guessed at 'some hundred' (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008551		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane evergreen forest, as well as forest edge (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and disturbed forest (Cordeiro 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds have also been seen in plantations and in cultivated areas, but only where mature trees still exist (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It usually occurs in mixed-species parties, often with <em>P. bicolor</em>, feeding in the upper canopy, gleaning insects from epiphyte-covered branches (Svendsen and Hansen 1995, Cordeiro 1998)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106008551		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106008551		threats	eng	The increasing human population throughout its range is clearing or altering forest for agriculture, replacing natural forest with plantations, cutting timber and collecting firewood, resulting in loss, degradation and fragmentation of the species's habitat (Svendsen and Hansen 1995, Cordeiro 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the main montane forest block (120 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Ulugurus is protected by its inaccessible terrain, the lower slopes are being steadily cleared. Forest in the Ulugurus declined from c.300 km<sup>2</sup> in 1955 to c.230 km<sup>2</sup> in 2001, mostly due to clearance for cultivation below 1,600 m (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. In Nilo Forest Reserve, understory cultivation (mainly of cardamom) occurs in c.36% of the forest, and a further 6% is cultivated for arable crops (Cordeiro 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat in the Nyumbanitu Mountains, Ukami and Ndundulu Forests and Udzungwa National Park has recently been affected by the clearing of broad tourist trails, allowing easier access by hunters and predatory mammals (L. Hansen<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Aside from this degradation, the species's habitat in the Udzungwas is not seen as being immediately threatened, although pressure is increasing (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008552		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in at least 10 protected areas (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1997, 2000, Dowsett <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an estimate of the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Effectively protect habitat at all sites where it is known to breed.  <p></p>
106008552		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus olivaceiceps</em> is known from scattered areas in <strong>Malawi</strong> (nine main locations, all of which are legally, but not effectively, protected) (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1997, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong> (apparently localised, but perhaps more widely distributed, in suitable habitat along the Malawi border, including at least one protected area [Dowsett <em>et al.</em> 1999a]<strong></strong>), <strong>Tanzania</strong> (uncommon in Songea District [Britton 1980]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and recently recorded from the north, south of Lake Victoria [T. Oatley <em>in litt. </em>1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Karumwa [Fry and Keith 2004]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, suggesting that it may occur at low density in a huge area of intervening habitat in west Tanzania [T. Oatley <em>in litt. </em>1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and northern and southern <strong>Mozambique</strong> (Clancey 1996, Nuttall 1998, Parker 2001). The total population in 1998 was estimated to be c.20,000 pairs (Parker 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106008552		habitat	eng	The species is associated with mature <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland (up to 1,700 m [F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1997, 2000]<strong></strong>) where <em>Usnea</em> lichen is abundant (Nuttall 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found in the canopy, sometimes in mixed-species flocks. It feeds on a variety of insects, including lepidopterans (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species is a solitary and monogamous breeder, and pairs remain together all year. Its nest, in which 2-3 eggs are laid, is constructed entirely from <em>Usnea</em> and always placed in a thick clump of lichen. Egg-laying occurs in August-October (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008552		population	eng	The total population was estimated at 20,000 pairs in 1998, roughly equating to 60,000 individuals.
106008552		threats	eng	It is considered threatened throughout Mozambique (Parker 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where slash-and-burn agriculture is rapidly transforming woodland into farmland (Parker 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and its woodland sites in Malawi face the same pressures for land and fuel (Nuttall 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, despite legal protection (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett <em>in litt. </em>1997, 2000)<strong></strong>. Since similar threats are likely to be affecting its habitat in Tanzania and Zambia, and intensifying, there is a risk that it may suffer a rapid decline in the future.  <p></p>
106008553		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008554		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008556		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008557		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Okapi Faunal Reserve.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Extend the northern part of the Virunga National Park westwards, to include the eastern part of the Ituri Forest. Conduct surveys to ascertain the present status of the species (once the security situation allows this) (Butchart 2007)<strong></strong>. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends (as long as the security situation is conducive). Monitor rates of deforestation within its range. Carry out research into the condition of habitat and presence of threats (once the security situation allows this) (Butchart 2007)<strong></strong>. Clarify the taxonomic status of the species (it has been suggested that it could represent occasional hybrids between <span style="font-style: italic;">Ploceus nigerrimus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. albinucha</span>, Craig 2005).<br/><p></p>
106008557		distribution	eng	<em>Ploceus flavipes</em> is known only from central and eastern Ituri Forest in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, where it would appear to be uncommon (J. Hart <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. It occurs from Avakubi east to Simbo and Campi y Wanbuti, south to Ukaika, and then east to Lima, Tungudu and Makayobe. There are fewer than ten known specimens, taken between 1910 and 1959, and only two sight records since, from Okapi Faunal Reserve in 1990 and 1994. The paucity of records has led to the suggestion that it might possibly not be a valid species - records instead representing occasional hybrids, most likely between <span style="font-style: italic;">Ploceus nigerrimus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. albinucha </span>(Craig 2005) - however it is uncertain why hybrids should apparently only occur in a tiny part of the the easternmost fringe of the ranges of the putative parents (and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nigerrimus </span>is not a bird of intact forest) (L. D. C. Fishpool <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). It may prove to be a valid species which occurs at very low densities in a poorly-known region.<br/><p></p>
106008557		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to lowland rainforest where it is found in the tops of tall and medium-sized trees. Its diet includes caterpillars. The breeding season may start around September.<p></p>
106008557		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008557		threats	eng	Its habitat is in serious danger from forest clearance (mainly for agriculture). It is likely that the rate of deforestation has increased in recent years as a result of warfare (Kanyamibwa 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008558		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in the Central African Republic (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008560		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Sierra Leone, Gola Rainforest National Park is currently well protected but the known area occupied by the species is extremely small and the entire range is likely to be much less than the total forest area (J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2012). There are attempts to improve the protection of Gola National Forest in Liberia and ensure connectivity with Gola Rainforest National Park in Sierra Leone (J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2012). Taï National Park in south-west Côte d'Ivoire is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest but its status there is uncertain.  <br/><p></p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> Search rainforest west of Taï National Park to determine whether the species occurs there (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995). Conduct further surveys in Gola North and Gola East where it may occur in primary forest (E. Klop <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Conduct surveys of the overall population to estimate density. Carry out ecological studies, particularly to learn more of its breeding ecology (H. S. Thompson <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and reasons for its restricted distribution even where it occurs. In Guinea, conduct further surveys of Ziama Forest Reserve to verify rumours of presence and also further surveys in Diecke to assess extent of distribution (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Survey any remaining forest patches, particularly in Guinea Nimba to assess presence (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Upgrade Gola National Forest in Liberia to National Park status.</p>  <p></p>
106008560		distribution	eng	<em>Malimbus ballmanni</em> is confined to parts of the Upper Guinea rainforest block of West Africa in <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (Gola Forest, considered very rare [E. Klop <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> and <strong>Côte d'Ivoire </strong>(first found near but not in Taï National Park), and <strong>Guinea</strong> (Diecke Forest Reserve, where four groups containing nine individuals have been recorded [<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong></strong>). Fieldwork in 1988-1989 in Gola Forest failed to relocate the species, but it was relocated in Gola North in February 2007 (E. Klop <em>in litt</em>. 2007, J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It has not been seen again in Taï National Park. Field work in Cavally Forest Reserve, north-east of Taï National Park failed to relocate this species in 2002 (<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> (it had previously been found to be common there [Gatter and Gardner 1993]<strong></strong>). Surveys in Liberia have shown that it survives in two populations, one in western Liberia in an area of 200-300 km<sup>2</sup> (population size unknown) including in Gola National Forest which is probably contiguous with the population in Sierra Leone (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012) and one in eastern Liberia (Grand Gedeh/Sinoe County). This eastern population extends into western Côte d'Ivoire (Goin Débé and Cavally Forest Reserves) covering an area of at least 18,000 km<sup>2</sup>, where it is locally common and the population has been estimated to lie in the region of 20,000-50,000 birds (<strong></strong>Gatter and Gardner 1993)<strong></strong>. However, this estimate is considered optimistic (<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and extrapolated data for the total population must be treated with caution as the species appears to be very rare and localised in the western part of its range (J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In 1999, two possible sightings from the Krahn-Bassa National forest region in south-east Liberia may extend the known range of its eastern population westward and southward (Robinson and Suter 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008560		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland primary forest, lightly logged high forest and very old secondary forest between 4-20 m (<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, where it forages for insects (Gatter and Gardner 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is seasonally adapted, with indications of a minor breeding season in the short, intermediate dry season in July/August and a major breeding season in October/November (Gatter and Gardner 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008560		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals. The eastern population extends into western Côte d'Ivoire (Goin Débé and Cavally Forest Reserves), covering an area of at least 18,000 km<sup>2</sup>, where it is locally common; the population has been estimated to lie in the region of 20,000-50,000 birds. However, this estimate is considered optimistic (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 2007). and extrapolated data for the total population must be treated with caution as the species appears to be very rare and localised in the western part of its range (J. Lindsell <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106008560		threats	eng	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and small-holder agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Illegal logging in western Côte d'Ivoire, particularly around northern Taï in Cavally and Goin-Debe Forest Reserves is believed to have become severe after the outbreak of civil conflict in 2002 (<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture (Anon. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Stability has returned to some areas, but the current state of these forests and any current logging activities is unknown (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008561		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Nigeria and not common in Cameroon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008562		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008563		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>200 ha of regrowth forest habitat is protected at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, near Ibadan (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. However its habitat requirements are either poorly understood or of little relevance to this species's conservation. Most of the forest patches within the species's current range are community-owned forests and their preservation is dependent upon local communities (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. A PhD project on malimbe species in Nigeria from 1999 to 2002 collected important survey data for the species (Peach 2005)<strong></strong>. The new site at Ifon is a Forest Reserve and has been proposed as an IBA.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further population surveys to monitor trends throughout the species's known range (S. Manu <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Monitor the clearance and degradation of forest within the species's range. Identify habitat requirements for feeding and breeding (Ash 1991)<strong></strong>. Assess the determinants of breeding success, particularly the possible competition with other weaver species (Manu 2001)<strong></strong>. Conduct taxonomic studies into the relationship of the species within the Black-throated Malimbe <em>M. cassini</em> complex. Protect all existing forest patches within and close to its known range (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Increase the number and extent of forest patches within and around the species's range (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Conduct surveys for the species in additional forest blocks in western Nigeria such as Omo Forest (2,328 km<sup>2</sup><strong><sup></sup></strong>), most of which remains unsurveyed (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005, A.U. Ezealor<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Provide incentives for the protection of community-owned forests (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008563		distribution	eng	<em>Malimbus ibadanensis</em> was known only from a small area circumscribed by Ibadan, Ife, Iperu and Ilaro in south-western <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994). In December 2006, the species was discovered in Ifon Forest Reserve, where six sight records were obtained during a 10-day survey (A.U. Ezealor<em> in litt</em>. 2007, Ajagbe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Foraging pairs were seen on two separate occasions and lone males were recorded twice (A.U. Ezealor<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and there were further records from the reserve in 2007 and 2008 (Anon. 2008). Records of this species from Kakum National Park, Ghana, in February 2002, September 2004 and February 2005 are yet to be confirmed (R. Cruse <em>in litt.</em> 2005, R. Thomas <em>in litt.</em> 2005, L. Fishpool <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Between the 1970s and early 1990s there were very few records (Ash 1991)<strong></strong>. It was not seen from 1980 until November 1987 (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>, when only four birds were recorded in 10 days of intensive searching at Ibadan. Records in the late 1990s were all from the grounds of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) near Ibadan, as searches were concentrated in this area (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Nine birds (two pairs and five females) were seen there between October 1998 and April 1999 (plus one female at Akanran, 15 km east of Ibadan) (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Transect surveys were conducted in 1999-2002 at a total of 52 forest patches in south-west Nigeria (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005, Peach 2005)<strong></strong>, and on the basis of the results the population was estimated at 2,469 individuals (95%CI: 1,401-4,365) in 112 km<sup>2</sup> of remaining forest (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. This can be considered a reasonable maximum estimate of the world population since the survey covered almost all remaining forest fragments within the species's historical range (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. It was found at only 19 of the 52 sites surveyed (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005, Peach 2005)<strong></strong> and the results suggest that the species's range in south-west Nigeria has declined by c.66% compared with its range in the 1950s-1970s (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008563		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest patches, forest edge, secondary woodland, and possibly even highly degraded farmland and gardens. The species's abundance in forest patches decreases with increasing isolation, although it seems to be unaffected by the area of forest fragments and can persist in patches as small as 0.2 km<sup>2</sup> (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The forest reserve at IITA is 30 year old regrowth forest in various stages of maturity (Manu 2001)<strong></strong>. Moniya, where the species was recorded during recent surveys, is a disused cocoa farm with some regrowth, subjectively similar to secondary forest (Manu 2001)<strong></strong>. All sightings of the species in Ifon Forest Reserve in December 2006 were at the edge of secondary forest along logging tracks (A.U. Ezealor<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Habitat type or degradation does not appear to explain in any way the distribution of this species (Manu 2001)<strong></strong>. Birds have usually been observed 5-15 m up in trees, especially oil-palms. It appears to have an extended breeding season, with nesting recorded in February, May, June, July, September, October and December. Notably the species is normally seen in association with several other malimbe and weaver species (Manu 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008563		population	eng	Data from transect surveys in most forest patches within the majority of the species's known range were used to estimate the population at 2,469 individuals (with a 95% confidence interval of 1,401-4,365), which can be considered a maximum estimate of the world population. The confidence intervals for this estimate are taken for the species's population range. roughly equating to 930-2,900 mature individuals.
106008563		threats	eng	Widespread forest clearance for subsistence agriculture is cited as a possible cause of the species's decline since the 1970s, and human pressure on forests within its range is ongoing (Peach 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest is currently being fragmented and degraded by poorly regulated and indiscriminate logging (primarily for fuelwood [W. Cresswell<em> in litt</em>. 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and for subsistence farming of cassava and yam, plantain and cocoa plantations, and the large-scale illegal cultivation of <em>Cannabis sativa</em><strong></strong> (A.U. Ezealor<em> in litt</em>. 2007). The species's sensitivity to the isolation of forest patches may be due to low dispersal distances or small home ranges compared to its congeners, and would suggest that it has experienced large declines in range and abundance due to deforestation (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There may be other factors that negatively influence the species's abundance. Despite its use of secondary habitats, it is possible that these are suboptimal or that some specific environmental constraint is operating. Competition with other malimbe and weaver species is a possibility (Manu 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such species, preferring secondary habitats, may have increased in modern times due to habitat modification. As a result, competition with these weavers sharing a similar niche may be at least partly responsible for the current rarity of the species (Manu 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increased nest destruction by children and during fuelwood collection (W. Cresswell<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> has also been suggested as a causal factor in the species's decline (Manu 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008564		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in the Central African Republic and rare in Angola (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008567		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008568		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008569		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008570		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon though locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008571		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008572		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as possibly the most abundant bird in the world (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106008574		population	eng	The population on Aldabra is estimated to number 1,000-3,000 pairs, roughly equivalent to 3,000-9,000 individuals. Aldabra is likely to constitute 5-24% of the species's range, and so a very preliminary estimate of the total population size is 12,500-180,000 individuals. It is probably best placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
106008575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
106008576		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Rats and macaques were controlled as part of a programme to rehabilitate plots of native vegetation (Safford and Jones 1998), however macaque control has since dropped to nearly nil (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012)<strong></strong>. A captive-rearing programme implemented by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, the Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Santuary and the National Parks and Conservation Service is proving highly effective and in 2005 produced 47 individuals from captive parents (25) and hand reared wild born chicks (22) (Anon. 2005)<strong></strong>. Protocols for captive husbandry and artificial propagation were developed to facilitate the translocation objectives (R. Switzer <em>in litt.</em> 2003), and supplementary feeding and control of nest parasites were used to aid establishment (Cristinacce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The Black River National Park partly covers its range, and the habitat around Bassin Blanc, not originally included within the boundary, is a priority for compulsory government purchase in the future (Jones and Hartley 1995, R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but this had not happened by 2012. Research into the species's ecology is ongoing, and prospective surveys to assess the suitability of Round Island for translocation were conducted; initial releases on the island began in 2010 (L. Garrett <em>in litt</em>. 2007, C. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010) but proved unsuccessful due to predation. <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study fecundity differences between pine plantations, <em>Cryptomeria</em> and native forest. Develop a Conservation Management Area at Combo, stocked with favoured nectar-producing plants and with predator controls. Increase breeding productivity by supplemental feeding, double clutching and captive-rearing of harvested wild clutches (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Continue releases on offshore islands, including Flat Island when management allows, and monitor the population on Ile aux Aigrettes. Advocate for the compulsory purchase of land separating Bassin Blanc from the Black River National Park and ensure that the national park boundary is extended and appropriate management activities implemented. <p></p>
106008576		distribution	eng	<em>Foudia rubra</em>, restricted to south-west <strong>Mauritius</strong>, suffered rapid population declines since 1975, descending from 247-260 pairs to c.108-122 pairs in late 2001 (Nichols 2002)<strong></strong>; no doubt following long-term historic population declines owing to heavy predation by invasive mammals. Between 1975 and 1993, a 55% decline in both population size and Area of Occupancy occurred (Safford 1997c)<strong></strong>, and the number of locations fell from six in 1975 to three (R. Nichols<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, with the main population covering a range of just 15km<sup>2</sup> in 1993. However, since 1993, the population has been stable (Cristinacce 2007)<strong></strong>, and an increase in range has been recorded in the main breeding subpopulation (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, R. Nichols <em>per</em> C. Jones <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong> </strong>which probably represents dispersing juveniles setting up new territories (Nichols 2002)<strong></strong>. The tiny Mare aux Vacoas subpopulation has remained stable (four pairs), but numbers and range have continued to decline in the Bel Ombre subpopulation (five pairs) (Nichols 2002)<strong></strong>. The long term viability of these small subpopulations is in doubt (R. Nichols<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. In 2005, 45 hand reared chicks were released onto Ile aux Aigrettes (where the species apparently occurred historically, V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010), where two pairs from previous releases have raised chicks (Anon. 2005)<strong></strong>. Following that success, in 2006, c.40 young fledged on Ile aux Aigrettes and the total population on the island stood at 140 individuals in 2008 (L. Garrett <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Cristinacce <em>et al</em>. 2009a) a<strong></strong><strong></strong>nd 217 in September 2011 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011), but declined to 165-170 birds in early 2012 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It is hoped that the population will increase further in the coming years as it expands on Ile aux Aigrettes, and a second translocation to Round Island began in 2010 (V. Tatayah <em>in litt</em>. 2009); <strong></strong>however of 32 birds released here between October 2010 and January 2011 all had died by early 2012, most or all having been predated by Round Island boas (V. Tatayah <em>in litt</em>. 2011, 2012). <p></p>
106008576		habitat	eng	It holds territories in all types of native forest, including degraded forest, and it shows an increasing reliance on non-native plantations that afford some protection from nest predators (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Cristinacce <em>et al</em>. 2009b)<strong></strong>; its use of exotic vegetation (pine and <em>Cryptomeria</em>) increased markedly during the recent increase in range between 1994 and 2003 (Cristinacce <em>et al</em>. 2009b)<strong></strong>. Its diet is comprised primarily of insects, but also fruit and nectar (Cheke 1987b)<strong></strong>. Breeding on Ile aux Aigrettes takes place between July-February (Cristinacce <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p>
106008576		population	eng	The mainland population was estimated at 216-244 individuals in 2002, with a minimum of 108 breeding pairs, and the population was estimated to have remained at 108 pairs in 2012 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). This is roughly equivalent to 140-170 mature individuals. It has since increased following the release of birds on Ille aux Aigrettes in 2006 with a total of 110 adults there in 2012, but the pre-release population estimate will be retained until the population is confirmed to have sustained itself above 250 mature individuals for five years.
106008576		threats	eng	Historically, clearance of upland forest, particularly for plantations in the 1970s, catastrophically affected this species. Introduced predators, notably black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, have caused almost total breeding failure in most areas (Safford 1997d, 1997e)<strong></strong> and nest predation is regarded as the major cause of present-day decline in this species (R. Switzer <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Introduced Madagascar Red Fody <em>Foudia madagascariensis</em> may restrict its range (Cheke 1987c), but different ecological requirements may allow the two to coexist (Garrett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007)<strong></strong>. It has unexpectedly disappeared from areas of apparently intact habitat, possibly 'sink' regions of severe nest-predation, previously sustained by relatively predator-free 'source' areas which have now been degraded and can no longer supply new recruits (Safford 1997b, 1997c)<strong></strong>. The species also suffers from the general degradation of native habitats on Mauritius caused by introduced animals and plants (Nichols 2002)<strong></strong>. Released birds on Round Island in 2010 suffered predation by Round Island boas, with none surviving by early 2012 (V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p>
106008577		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Cousin, encouraging regeneration of natural woodland, dominated by <em>Pisonia grandis</em>, may have allowed the substantial population increase in recent years (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. On Cousine, habitat management has probably also helped (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In February 2002, Nature Seychelles translocated 64 fodies to Aride Island where the population has at least doubled in the last 13 months (Wagner 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In February 2003, Nature Seychelles introduced 47 fodies to Denis Island, where a self-sustaining population has now established (Bristol 2005)<strong></strong>. Assessment of the extent of hybridisation on D'Arros through DNA analysis is underway (<strong></strong>L. Wagner <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue collection of data on population status (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Continue to assess threats to the species (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue management and habitat conservation on Cousin and Cousine, and extend to Frégate (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. Avoid further introductions of <em>F. madagascariensis</em><strong> </strong>(<strong></strong>N. J. Shah and S. Parr <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Consider translocation to other predator-free islands, taking account of those with populations of other threatened birds since it predates on eggs and may compete for food resources (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008577		distribution	eng	<em>Foudia sechellarum</em> now occurs on six islands in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>: Cousin, Cousine, Frégate, D'Arros (introduced), Aride (reintroduced) and Denis (introduced). The former range included Marianne, possibly La Digue, and it may have been widespread throughout the Praslin group (Watson 1984, A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Population estimates are: Cousin c.1,000 birds in 1997 and stable since 1985 (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>; Cousine: 560 birds in 1996 (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>; Frégate: at least 1,500 birds (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>; D'Arros: c.200-300 birds in 1995 (Skerrett 1995)<strong></strong>; Aride: 124 individuals and 27 breeding territories (Wagner 2003, <strong></strong>N. J. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>; Denis: at least 14 introduced birds and 10 island-bred birds present in May-July 2005 (Bristol 2005)<strong></strong>. Several island-bred birds have been seen with fledglings, including a pair of island-bred birds, indicating that the population is now self-sustaining (Bristol 2005)<strong></strong>. In all, the total population of this species was estimated at c.3,500 individuals in 2004 (Wagner 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008577		habitat	eng	It probably originally occupied natural woodland, but has adapted to man-made habitats such as gardens and coconut plantations (Lloyd 1973, Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. It has a varied diet including insects and invertebrates, seeds, nectar and fruits (Bathe and Bathe 1982, Brooke 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also depredates eggs of other species, especially seabirds (Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears largely non-territorial, ranging widely, but occasionally defends a small territory in the breeding season (Bathe and Bathe 1982, Brooke 1985, Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. They may breed several times a year, and even newly translocated birds to Aride have managed up to three breeding attempts in the 13 months since translocation (Wagner 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008577		population	eng	In all, the total population of this species is now estimated at c.3,500 individuals, equating to c.2,300 mature individuals.
106008577		threats	eng	Historically, slaves killed these birds as they were thought to pose a threat to crops (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This persecution, combined with habitat destruction, probably reduced the distribution of the species (Rocamora 1997a)<strong></strong>. Today, the main threat may be competition and predation from introduced species (A. Skerrett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species appears to have some degree of tolerance to introduced cats (on Frégate, Cousine and D'Arros) and brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (on Frégate and D'Arros) (J. Millett <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> pose a significant threat (J. Millett <em>in litt.</em> 2004, Bristol 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although they are unlikely to become established on islands that this fody inhabits (Wagner 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>F. madagascariensis</em> is not a major competitor (Crook 1961, Rocamora 1997a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, an introduced female <em>F. sechellarum</em> produced hybrid offspring with <em>F. madagascariensis</em> on Aride before the bird was removed (Lucking 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some colour variation in the D'Arros population may be a result of hybridisation with <em>F. madagascariensis</em><strong></strong> (Rocamora 2003, <strong></strong>L. Wagner <em>in litt.</em> 2004).<em> <p></p></em>
106008578		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Habitat protection and reforestation, spurred primarily by the need for watershed protection, have been key to the recovery of this species, aided by the recent absence of catastrophic cyclones. However, much reforestation has involved exotic trees, although native ecosystem rehabilitation has been started at some sites, including the two Nature Reserves, Grande Montagne and Anse Quitor (both 0.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>). Sites are fenced to exclude grazing animals and woodcutters, exotic plants removed and native species replanted. There has been an accompanying public awareness campaign. <em>F.&#160;flavicans</em> has been bred in captivity, but releases have not been needed  (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there are now no captive birds held<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is also a watershed protection and reafforestation programme with exotic and native species.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Habitat management to enhance populations should focus on protecting existing wooded valleys to allow forest maturation and expansion of afforested areas (Impey <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop further Nature Reserves (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Instigate a long-term monitoring programme (Impey 1999, C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Collect data on reproductive success (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate long-term possibilities of controlling or excluding rats and cats (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue restoration of native forest as an enduring safeguard (Impey 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008578		distribution	eng	<em>Foudia flavicans</em>, having once been abundant on Rodrigues, <strong>Mauritius</strong>, declined drastically to 5-6 pairs in 1968. By April 1983, it had recovered to c.110 birds on the island's northern slopes. Populations have increased in line with the recovery and expansion of native and exotic woodland (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Safford 2001)<strong></strong>. In 1999, the population was estimated at a minimum of 334 pairs and 911 individuals (Impey 1999, 2002)<strong></strong>, and maximum of 500 pairs and 1,200 individuals (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, but by 2010 it was reported that the total population had risen extremely rapidly and numbered over 8,000 individuals (C. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010, Norfolk 2010, V. Tatayah <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106008578		habitat	eng	It occupies most areas of mature canopy, mixed woodland taller than 5 m in height<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Highest population densities are found in forest of greatest tree height, canopy cover and tree species diversity (Impey <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may preferentially hold territories close to areas of Norfolk Island pine <em>Araucaria cunninghamii</em>, showing high adaptation to some exotic vegetation (Impey 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, spiders, nectar, seeds and some fruit<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Cheke 1987d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008578		population	eng	In 1999, the population was estimated at a minimum of 334 pairs and 911 individuals, and a maximum of 500 pairs and 1,200 individuals (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000), but by 2010 it was reported that the total population had risen extremely rapidly and numbered over 8,000 individuals (C. Jones <em>in litt. </em>2010, Norfolk 2010, V. Tatayah <em>in litt. </em>2011, 2012). Until it is confirmed that the population has remained over 1,000 mature individuals for at least years, the previous estimate, a population range of 668-1,000 mature individuals (roughly equivalent to 1,000-1,500 individuals in total), from 1999 is maintained.
106008578		threats	eng	Forest destruction, subsistence farming and the impacts of free-ranging livestock have resulted in the complete destruction of native forest such that only scattered individuals of most native trees survive (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Loss of habitat, competition with introduced Madagascar Red Fody <em>F.&#160;madagascariensis</em>, cyclones and a severe drought caused a huge decline in the population by the 1970s (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is a predator of eggs and chicks, but <em>F.&#160;flavicans</em> has survived alongside it for hundreds of years. Feral cats are potential predators. Competition with <em>F.&#160;madagascariensis</em> may be significant when food is in short supply (i.e. droughts and cyclones), and probably restricts <em>F.&#160;flavicans</em> to forest habitat. Habitat destruction and degradation are no longer major threats (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008579		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008580		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008583		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout its range (Fry and Keith 2004), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008584		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008585		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008586		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern and central Angola, where it occurs along the coastal plain from Benguela and Cuanza Sul to Luanda, Bengo and southern Cuanza Norte, and inland along the Cuanza River to Dondo.
106008586		habitat	eng	This species occurs on floodplains and rank vegetation in savanna woodland on the coastal plain, and also in Acacia scrub and abandoned cotton fields (Traylor 1960). It may make small seasonal movements from wet to drier habitat.
106008586		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Borrow and Demey 2001).).
106008586		threats	eng	Although the species has a relatively small range, suitable habitat (such as the flood plain of the Cuanza River and other low lying marshes in the area) is extensive and not easily impacted upon. However, during seasonal movements, it could be susceptible to habitat changes at the drier end of its range (Stattersfield et al. 1998, Dean 2001).
106008587		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare in the middle Zambezi valley (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008588		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008589		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008590		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in east and south-east Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008591		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in south-eastern Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008592		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008593		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008595		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Tanzania, virtually all its habitat is protected, for example in the Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area (N. Baker <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an estimate of the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor the conversion and degradation of montane grasslands. In Kenya, increase the area of montane grasslands that are protected.  <p></p>
106008595		distribution	eng	<em>Euplectes jacksoni</em> is a resident of the highlands of west and central <strong>Kenya</strong> and north-east <strong>Tanzania</strong>. It is locally common over much of its relatively small range, from Eldoret and Nandi east to Laikipia and Mt Kenya, and south to the Aberdares, Loita and Nguruman Hills, north Serengeti National Park, Loliondo and the Crater Highlands (Zimmerman <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. However, in a survey of the Kinangop Plateau, Kenya, it was recorded in only 14 out of 40 plots (Lens and Bennun 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008595		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open grassland from 1,500-3,000 m (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also feeds in agricultural land and is found in tall grassland in some areas. It breeds in drier grasslands than Long-tailed Widowbird <em>E. progne</em>, with which its range overlaps (Lewis and Pomeroy 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on grass seeds, particularly those of <em>Themeda triandra</em> and <em>Panicum</em>, as well as termite alates (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is polygynous and highly territorial. The species's breeding sites are traditional, and may be used for a number of years. Breeding appears to take place throughout the year. Its nest, in which 2-4 eggs are laid, is a domed ball of woven grass with a side entrance, lined with grass seedheads, situated within 10 cm of the ground in a tuft of grass, with living grass bent down over it to form a bower. The incubation period is 12-13 days, followed by a fledging period of 17 days (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008595		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common.
106008595		threats	eng	This and other restricted-range species of the grasslands of the Kenyan highlands are threatened by destruction and fragmentation of montane grasslands, as a result of intensified agricultural development and livestock production (Lens <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Fires, started by pastoralists to control ticks, are common in the dry season (between September and November), and temporarily destroy most suitable habitat (M. Msuha <em>in litt. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. Montane grasslands are poorly covered by the protected area system in Kenya (Lens <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or scarce, although locally common in eastern and southern Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to scarce (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008600		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common (Clement 1999).
106008601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008602		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008603		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008606		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008607		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008609		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and little known (Clement 1999).
106008612		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be difficult to observe. Therefore it may be common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008613		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008614		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon, although easily over-looked (Clement 1999).
106008615		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon, although easily over-looked (Clement 1999).
106008616		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in part of its range, including the Virunga National Park in the DRC, Nyungwe Forest Reserve in Rwanda, and Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. A research project on crimson-wings, including this species, is underway at Bwindi Forest (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007, D. Pomeroy <em>in litt</em> 2007), and further fieldwork is planned for Bwindi, Mgahinga Gorilla National Park and Rwenzori Mountains National Park, dependent on funding (E. Meyjes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to estimate the population size. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Investigate declines or fluctuations in the population, in order to assess threats. Survey and monitor the extent of habitat. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106008616		distribution	eng	<em>Cryptospiza shelleyi</em> is known from many parts of the mountains of the Albertine Rift, including the Itombwe Mountains, Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and mountains west of Lake Kivu in <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, Nyungwe, Gishwati, Makwa and Mukura Forests in <strong>Rwanda</strong>, Bururi Forest and elsewhere in <strong>Burundi</strong>, the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest in <strong>Uganda</strong>, as well as the Virunga Mountains (2,200-3,000 m) on the border between DRC, Rwanda and Uganda. It is generally rare (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, only being common in a few threatened forests (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, and shows unexplained fluctuations in abundance. In Uganda, the species has only been encountered rarely during recent surveys (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007, D. Pomeroy <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, possibly because it is much rarer than previously thought, or perhaps because it is very difficult to locate (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Surveys targeted specifically at mist-netting crimson-wings in Bwindi  Impenetrable National Park and in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park in  2009-2010 failed to locate the species (Krüger and du Toit 2010), however in August 2010 there  were reports of up to four birds seen on two days by  local bird guides leading visitors in the Ruhija sector of Bwindi (http://bwindiresearchers.wildlifedirect.org/2010/11/18/rare-shelleys-crimsonwing-was-spotted-in-ruhija/). Between the late 1970s and the early 1990s, it may have suffered population declines locally (Catterall 1992)<strong></strong>, although it is not a well-known species and there are few baseline data (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106008616		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of closed-canopy moist forest, often in lush valley bottoms near water, as well as low secondary growth at forest edges, forest clearings and glades dominated by large herbs, bamboo thickets and the upper forest/moorland ecotone.<p></p>
106008616		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008616		threats	eng	Any decline in the species's population is most likely related to deforestation and forest degradation (Catterall 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which are prevalent throughout its range, both for agriculture and for timber, and have increased recently as a result of war. Forest in the Itombwe Mountains and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998, Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998, Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for agriculture has increased dramatically in the past few years as maize crops have failed, causing famine (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is also some localised forest loss in Itombwe as a result of gold-mining (R. Beyers <em>in litt</em>. 1993)<strong></strong>. In contrast, reports suggest that there has been been very little encroachment at Nyungwe in recent years, due to the conflict-related emigration of local people (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008620		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Clement 1999).
106008621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon though locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008622		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008624		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008625		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce and little known (Clement 1999).
106008627		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008628		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008629		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008630		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common and abundant locally (Clement 1999).
106008631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement 1999).
106008632		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Clement 1999).
106008633		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common within its limited range (Clement 1999).
106008634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or local (Clement 1999).
106008636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008638		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread, although nowhere common (Clement 1999).
106008639		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or occasionally abundant (Clement 1999).
106008640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Clement 1999).
106008641		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008642		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008645		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce and easily over-looked (Clement 1999).
106008646		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Angola the species occurs in Iona National Park and possibly also Chimalavera Regional Nature Park, as well as in proposed protected areas at Chongoroi and Tundavala (Dean 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an estimate of the population size and locate nesting areas (Simmons and Brown 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's breeding ecology (Simmons and Brown 2006)<strong></strong>. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Assess the impact on the species of the proposed hydroelectric dam. Lobby for the proposed hydroelectric development to be abandoned, and harness local support in the process.   <p></p>
106008646		distribution	eng	<em>Estrilda thomensis</em> was originally described in error as being from the island of São Tomé but is in fact restricted to south-western <strong>Angola</strong> (Namibe Province, north and east to south-west Huila Province and north to Fazenda do Cuito in Huambo) (Dean 2000)<strong></strong> and extreme north-western <strong>Namibia </strong>(up to 50 km from the lower Cunene or Kunene River) (Harrison <em>et al. </em>1997, C. Hines<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Overall, it has a large Extent of Occurrence of 95,400 km<sup>2</sup>. It is rare in Namibia, probably numbering fewer than 2,000 birds in total (Simmons and Brown 2006)<strong></strong>.      <p></p>
106008646		habitat	eng	In Angola, it is locally common to frequent in thornbush, scrub, open mopane woodland and riverine <em>Acacia</em> woodland from 200-500 m (Clement <em>et al</em>. 1993, Dean 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Namibia, it is restricted to mopane and riverine woodlands of the Cunene River system and its drainages, being rare in<em> Acacia</em> woodland (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is apparently resident in Angola, but subject to substantial local movements in Namibia after rain. It feeds on grass seeds and other small seeds, flowers, insects and possibly nectar. Nest-building in Namibia has been noted in late November to December, after the first rains. Its nest in captivity has been described as a large ball of grass and coconut fibres with a narrow, down-sloping entrance tube. Two clutches of 3-4 eggs may be laid. The incubation period is 12.5-14 days, followed by a fledging period of 17-21 days (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106008646		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008646		threats	eng	The species's habitat is generally threatened by habitat degradation caused by overgrazing and trampling by cattle and goats (C. Hines<em> in litt.</em> 2005, Simmons and Brown 2006)<strong></strong>, and clearance (often using fire) for subsistence agriculture. More pastoral agriculturalists are likely to be attracted by the permanent water that the proposed dam would produce (Simmons and Brown 2006)<strong></strong>. Increases in human inhabitation at springs and small tributaries south of Cunene River, with associated wood-cutting, over-grazing and over-utilisation of water, is seen by some as a greater threat than direct habitat destruction by the dam (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong></strong>. The proposed development of a hydroelectric plant on the Cunene River at  Epupa Falls threatened the species's survival in Namibia; covering  around half of the species's habitat in the country and - by altering  river dynamics - probably changing insect biodiversity relied on by the  species during feeding of young (Harrison <em>et al. </em>1997, Simmons and Brown 2006)<strong></strong>. The project would also have removed habitat on the Angolan side (R. Simmons <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.  Opposition to development at this site resulted the original proposal  being abandoned in 2008 and led to a new proposal to dam the river c40km  downstream of Epupa Falls at Baynes, which was also opposed by local  people and was still undergoing consultation in late 2011 (Anon 2011). <p></p>
106008648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008649		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct population surveys to determine its distribution more precisely. Conduct detailed ecological studies to determine the species's habitat requirements (J. Lindsell <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Collect data on the species's breeding biology (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Assess any potential threats, starting at the site of the most recent sighting involving a large flock (J. Lindsell <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study its behaviour, voice and DNA to clarify its taxonomic relationship with the closely-related Fawn-breasted Waxbill <em>E. paludicola</em><strong></strong> (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire 1993). <p></p>
106008649		distribution	eng	<em>Estrilda poliopareia</em> was thought to be restricted to a few localities in southern <strong>Nigeria</strong> until several individuals were photgraphed in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Benin</span> in 2010. Although reportedly common at one locality (Onitsha) in 1954, there have been only limited records since 1980 despite considerable search effort, including one of two (perhaps five) birds at Onitsha in 1987, and most recently a flock of 40 birds in the grounds of a nursing home at Tombia, south of Yenagoa in 2002. In addition, groups of 1-30 birds were observed at 12 sites in the Niger Delta, on nine dates between March 2001 and April 2002 (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong></strong>. The first sightings for Benin came in August and October 2010, when up to three or four birds were observed and photographed 40 km north of Cotonou at Sèdjè-Dénou feeding on seeds near the river Ouemé (W. Plomp and B. Portier <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010).  Simple extrapolation from the numbers observed between these dates suggests a total population of at least 500 individuals (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong></strong>; the population appears to remain very small despite large areas of apparently suitable habitat (J. Lindsell <em>in litt. </em>2002)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106008649		habitat	eng	It occurs in long grass along rivers, lagoon sandbanks, swamps and within or on the edges of open deciduous forest (Clement <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been observed in cassava plantations (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is often seen close to human habitations and activity (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds principally on grass seeds taken from seedheads (Clement <em>et al</em>. 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed feeding on the seeds of <em>Kyllinga</em>, <em>Fimbristylis</em>, <em>Cerastium</em>, <em>Digitaria</em> and <em>Panicum</em>, often on river and estuarine sandbanks, and it seems to occur where these plants are present, however it also feeds on the seeds of weeds in yam plantations and takes the young seeds and flowers of tall elephant grass <em>Pennisetum</em> during flood periods (October-November) when sand banks are covered (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may also nest in stands of <em>Pennisetum</em>, with nest construction appearing to take place in April (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong></strong>. One bird collected in June was coming into breeding condition. It is a brood host to the parasitic Pin-tailed Whydah <em>Vidua macroura</em><strong></strong> (Clement <em>et al</em>. 1993). It was thought likely to make short-distance movements following flooding in severe rainy seasons, however observations at Tombia in late October 2001 suggest that this may not be the case, at least in some areas (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008649		population	eng	Simple extrapolation from the numbers observed in the Niger Delta between March 2001 and April 2002 suggests a total population of at least 500 individuals, thus the population is placed in the range bracket for 250-999 individuals. This equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106008649		threats	eng	The species's habitat does not appear to be threatened and no other threats are known (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the low numbers of recent records from a heavily inhabited region must raise the concern that an as-yet unidentified factor may be working against the species. The species's dependence on weeds associated with disturbance and its tolerance of human activity suggest that it will not be negatively impacted by the dredging of the River Niger or other sources of disturbance (Roux and Otobotekere 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008650		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008652		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is  described as   common or locally common to abundant (Clement 1999),  while national   population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.10,000  introduced breeding   pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced  breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil   2009).
106008653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008654		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Saudi Arabia and Yemen. It occurs in the mesic uplands of the Tihamah foothills (occasionally straying onto the lowland Tihamah proper (Jennings 1995)), including the eastern fringe of the montane plateau in Yemen (Christensen and Porter 1987). It is most frequently recorded in the southern Tihamah foothills and the lower slopes and Wadis of the western escarpments in Yemen. It is also found locally along the south coast of Yemen east to Wadi al-Jahr and, apparently disjunctly, in the extensively irrigated intensive agricultural areas of Wadi Hadramawt between Shibam and Tarim (Martins et al. 1996).
106008654		habitat	eng	This species is highly social, and occurs from 250-2,500 m in fertile cultivated Wadis, plains, rocky hillsides and terraced slopes, usually with a dense cover of trees and bushes (Meinertzhagen 1954). The species roosts communally in this dense vegetation, and recently fledged juveniles have been recorded in May (Martins et al. 1996). It has become closely associated with regularly irrigated agricultural areas (especially cereal cultivation) which provide accessible drinking water. In a survey between July and September 1982-85, 73.5% of observations were in areas with flowing water. Modern irrigation techniques (increasing farmed areas adjacent to surface water) are beneficial to the species.
106008654		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in southern Saudi Arabia and southern Yemen and slightly commoner in North Yemen (Clement 1999).
106008654		threats	eng	Recent use of imported agricultural machinery in Yemen has destroyed some traditional sites (Christensen and Porter 1987), particularly those in the Tihamah foothills (an area characterised by seasonally heavy precipitation and with a water table close to ground level for short periods annually) where local environmental factors used to maintain localised small marshes and damp areas with Typha stands until c.1985 when agricultural techniques began to change. Regular roost sites are being destroyed through burning and land-use change.
106008655		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and local (Fry and Keith 2004), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008656		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   widespread and common (Clement 1999), while the population in Taiwan has been   estimated at &lt; c.10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008657		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of the population is probably within the Upemba National Park, but it is not clear to what extent habitat here is protected (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify its taxonomic status. Survey to clarify distribution, population and habitat requirements. <p></p>
106008657		distribution	eng	<em>Estrilda nigriloris</em> is restricted to an area judged less than 2,600 km<sup>2</sup> around the Lualaba River and Lake Upemba in the southern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, with no records since 1950. Taxonomic studies are needed to clarify its status (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire 1993)<strong></strong> and, if it proves to be a good species, surveys are needed to determine its distribution, population and habitat requirements.<em> <p></p></em>
106008657		habitat	eng	Historical records were in grassy plains with tall grasses and bushes, where it occurred in small flocks. <p></p>
106008657		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and very little known (Clement 1999).
106008657		threats	eng	Unknown.<p></p>
106008658		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common and abundant in some areas (Clement 1999).
106008661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008662		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008663		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common or locally common (Clement 1999), while national population sizes have   been estimated at &lt; c.10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and   c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008664		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in India, and trapping and trade have been banned since 1981. The impact of trade was assessed between 1992 and 1994. There are recent records from four protected areas, the Desert National Park, Taal Chappar Wildlife Sanctuary, Mt Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary  in Rajasthan, Kahna National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Melghat Sanctuary in Maharashtra. TRAFFIC India has worked extensively on bird trade in India, including Green Avadavat, and a trade report is in preparation.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct widespread interviews with bird-trappers to identify locations of remaining populations, followed by extensive field surveys in suitable habitat to establish more clearly its current distribution and population status. Investigate its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor trade and develop more effective measures to combat it. Develop a community-based conservation and development project to promote sustainable livelihood options. Upgrade the species's legal protective status to Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and CITES Appendix I.<br/><p></p>
106008664		distribution	eng	<em>Amandava formosa</em> is endemic to central <strong>India</strong>, where it is known from southern Rajasthan, central Uttar Pradesh, southern Bihar and West Bengal (historically), south to southern Maharashtra and northern Andhra Pradesh  (BirdLife International 2001). Records from Kerala, as well as isolated records from Delhi and Lahore, Pakistan, should be treated with caution, and may relate to escaped cage-birds (J. Praveen<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Formerly locally common, perhaps even abundant, its distribution has apparently always been patchy. However, it is now scarce, very local and erratic, although it remains common around Mt Abu, Rajastan (Mehra and Sharma 2004, Mehra <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tiwari and Tiwari 2005, Mehra 2011)<strong></strong>. Average counts at Mt Abu are 620 individuals in 2006, 682 individuals in  2007, 757 individuals in 2008, 820 individuals in 2009 and 832  individuals in 2010 (Mehra 2011). The recent occurrence of up to 2,000 birds in markets indicates that sizeable populations still occur locally in other areas, but are presumably rapidly declining, especially as trappers report that it is steadily becoming more difficult to find.<br/><br/><p></p>
106008664		habitat	eng	It inhabits grass and low bushes, sugarcane fields, open, shrubby forest and boulder-strewn scrub jungle, often near water, generally in lowlands and foothills. It has also been seen in sparsely vegetated, stony, arid wasteland and a mango orchard. It nests in small colonies between May and January. <p></p>
106008664		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008664		threats	eng	It has been traded since the late 19th century, and was recently found to be one of the most popular cage-birds in domestic markets. An annual minimum of 2,000-3,000 birds are smuggled out of India to Europe and America. It is susceptible to stress, and a high mortality has been noted in trapped birds. Trapping for trade has extirpated several populations and is almost certainly the greatest threat to the species. The species is still regularly traded in the months of June and July.  According to field surveys by TRAFFIC India in 2011 more than 500 birds  were recorded in Kolkata in West Bengal and Patna in  Bihar, all thought to be coming from Orissa-Madhya Pradesh border.  Similarly, in the year 2010 and 2009 a total of about 600 and 800 Green  Avadavat were recorded at these markets. Unfortunately, most of the wild caught birds are smuggled out of India to the&#160; Middle East either via Bangladesh or Nepal and finally through  Pakistan. On Mt Abu, Rajastan, individuals may also be trapped by local tribal communities for medicinal use (Mehra <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tiwari and Tiwari 2005), however, this is not confirmed. Widespread destruction and alteration of natural scrub and grassland habitats, through conversion for agriculture, is also likely to contribute to declines. Increased application of pesticides and insecticides is a potential threat, whilst increases in fire frequency may affect some populations (Tiwari and Tiwari 2005)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106008665		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally or seasonally common (Clement 1999).
106008668		distribution	eng	This species occurs southwards from south-east Cameroon (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005), Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo (P. Hall in litt. 2003), through Zambia (where widespread (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005, P. Leonard in litt. 2005)), Angola, Tanzania, Malawi (where widespread and locally common in the Central Region (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005)) and Mozambique, to Zimbabwe (where it is uncommon, but may be overlooked) and Botswana (V. Parker in litt. 2003). Recent observations, in need of confirmation, have located at least two pairs breeding on the Jos Plateau in northern Nigeria, representing a very significant range extension (P. Hall in litt. 2003). In Zimbabwe, the moist habitats that it requires still remain, but may be insufficient to sustain a viable population (V. Parker in litt. 2003). In Mozambique and Zimbabwe it occurs only at a handful of localities within its supposed range (V. Parker in litt. 2003).  The range may have contracted as a result of droughts in the 1980s, and populations may fluctuate in response to rainfall (Harrison et al. 1997).
106008668		habitat	eng	This species may be outcompeted by the Quail Finch O. atricollis in some suitable habitat in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (V. Parker in litt. 2003).
106008668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008668		threats	eng	This species may be threatened by the cagebird trade and by loss of marshland habitat (V. Parker in litt. 2003), partly due to fire in dry periods (P. Leonard in litt. 2005).
106008669		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce or rare, although locally common and commoner in Tasmania than on the Australian mainland (Clement 1999).
106008671		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the forests and coastal thickets of south-western Western Australia.
106008671		habitat	eng	This species is closely associated with riparian vegetation.
106008671		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008671		threats	eng	Much of this species' habitat has been cleared for agriculture, degraded by salinisation, or destroyed during the construction of water storage dams. It was feared that local extinctions would occur in the fragmented habitat remnants as a result of fire or other random processes as it was a sedentary species. However, it is now known to disperse more widely, and still occurs over most of its former range (Garnett 1992).
106008672		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1997, legislation was introduced to prevent the large-scale clearing of habitat in New South Wales (H. Ford <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine why species is susceptible to fragmentation. Protect all occupied woodland from clearing, and monitor compliance biennially. Ensure that all sub-populations on public land are placed under secure conservation management. Within the species's range manage at least 15% of the pre-European woodland on public or private land for conservation, using incentives where necessary. Promote sound management of habitat by land-holders, using appropriate incentives. Promote retention of native grasslands, and encourage greater connectivity between sub-populations. Promote re-vegetation and land reclamation that recreates the species's habitat. Control firewood collection from areas occupied by the species, and reduce grazing densities where necessary. Carry out long-term monitoring of remnant sub-populations. <p></p>
106008672		distribution	eng	<em>Stagonopleura guttata</em> is found in eastern <strong>Australia</strong>, from Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, to south-eastern Queensland, mostly on the slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Overall, there has been a decline in density throughout the range, and many remaining populations may now be isolated. The species may number c.200,000 mature individuals and is continuing to decline, particularly in the more intensively developed parts of its range.  <p></p>
106008672		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a wide range of eucalypt-dominated vegetation communities that have a grassy understorey, including woodland, forest and mallee.  <p></p>
106008672		population	eng	The species is thought to number c.200,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 300,000 total individuals.
106008672		threats	eng	Much habitat has been cleared, with remaining fragments gradually becoming unsuitable as a result of competition with invasive species, predation of adults or young, alteration of vegetation structure through over-grazing, weed invasion, salinisation and other flow-on processes. Despite legislation to stop the large-scale clearing of habitat in New South Wales, 640,000 ha were approved for clearing in that state between 1998 and 2005 and, although not all of this will have been cleared, an unknown amount was cleared illegally (H. Ford <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The severity of most degradation is correlated with the area of the fragment. Factors that have been postulated to be adversely affecting this species in particular include the loss of key food plants and habitat as a result of invasion by exotic grasses more suitable for flock-foraging Red-browed Finch <em>Neochmia temporalis</em>, whose expansion in some areas may have disadvantaged <em>S. guttata</em>. In the north of the range, a change in fire and grazing regimes may have played an important part in the decline. Isolated subpopulations may be susceptible to illegal trapping. <p></p>
106008673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be probably not uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008676		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys were conducted to estimate the population and trends of the eastern subspecies <em>clarescens</em>. An understanding of the natural fire regime is being built up. All three subspecies are listed separately in the Action Plan for Australian Birds: <em>ruficauda</em> as possibly extinct, <em>clarescens</em> as endangered and <em>subclarescens</em> as near threatened. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine whether subspecies <em>ruficauda</em> remains extant. Monitor remaining populations in order to detect trends. Manage key sites by maintaining natural fire regimes and preventing overgrazing, which together lead to invasion of grasslands by alien invasive plants and a loss of native seed diversity. <p></p>
106008676		distribution	eng	<em>Neochmia ruficauda</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. Subspecies <em>subclarescens</em> occurs in three separate sub-populations, from Pilbara, Fitzroy River Valley and Gibb River, Western Australia to the Northern Territory/Queensland border. It may number 200,000 individuals, and may be declining in density, particularly in the east of its range. However, the subspecies remains common in the Victoria River District of the Northern Territory and at Kununurra in association with the Ord River Irrigation Scheme, with no evidence of decline in these areas (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. It is patchily distributed in the Pilbara and the lower Fitzroy River valley. Subspecies <em>clarescens</em> has a stable population of c.3,500 individuals located on the Cape York Peninsula and is suspected to be stable (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Subspecies <em>ruficauda</em> probably numbers less than 50 individuals and may be extinct, with the last reliable sighting c.1994 (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><em> <p></p></em>
106008676		habitat	eng	Principally inhabits low, dense, damp grasslands and sedgelands bordering estuarine areas, watercourses, swamps and other freshwater-bodies. Also found in grassy, open savanna type sclerophyll woodland. It probably survives in towns and irrigated areas because seeding, weedy grasses are not grazed. Patterns of burning during the year may be important during the wet season when fallen seed is in short supply, and where these patterns have been altered, <em>subclarescens</em> and <em>clarescens</em> may be less able to survive. It is granivorous, typically foraging in vegetation just off the ground. It often feeds on the ground, almost entirely so in the dry season (M. Todd<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species forms large flocks but is sedentary or resident with some local dispersal. <p></p>
106008676		population	eng	The eastern subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">ruficauda </span>may be extinct, and surveys of <span style="font-style: italic;">clarescens </span>(confined to Cape York) estimated the population to number c.3,500 individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), however <span style="font-style: italic;">subclarescens </span>is very common at Kununurra in association with the Ord River Irrigation Scheme and moderately common in the Victoria River District of the Northern Territory (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Therefore, the global population has been crudely estimated at c. 200,000 individuals.
106008676		threats	eng	The overgrazing of grasslands near water by livestock is probably the principal threat to <em>subclarescens</em>, removing essential cover, as well as sources of food. Selective grazing of perennials during the dry season may also remove grasses that are needed for survival during the wet season. While livestock damage habitats through trampling and grazing, they are naturally excluded from some nesting sites in the north by seasonal flooding. Subspecies <em>ruficauda</em> disappeared before the process of decline could be described. The grasslands occupied by <em>clarescens</em> are also being invaded by woody weeds (such as <em>Melaleuca </em>species [S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006]<strong></strong>) at a rate of c.10% per decade, probably also due to cattle grazing and altered fire regimes (Todd <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These processes could potentially increase in the future, threatening this subspecies's disjunct populations (T. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sea-level rise across northern Australia, as predicted for the next 30 years, will result in the inundation of coastal refuges used by some populations early in the wet season, including three sites used by <em>clarescens</em><strong> </strong>(S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Depending on the extent of sea-level rise some populations abutting estuarine areas may even be at risk of extinction. Subsistence trade in cage birds may have occurred in the past or be continuing at low levels. <p></p>
106008677		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common and occasionally abundant (Clement 1999).
106008678		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally abundant (Clement 1999).
106008679		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008680		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008681		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008682		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan has been prepared for subspecies <em>cincta</em> with habitat of the species conserved near Townsville. Unsuccessful searches for remnant subpopulations in New South Wales have been completed.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Subspecies <em>cincta</em>: Determine the characteristics of habitat and land management where the subspecies is persisting, ideally as a Ph.D. project. Document the locations of the remaining wild birds. Monitor remaining population on an annual basis. Determine the ownership of land occupied by the remaining population and discuss managment with landowners. Secure a buffer from clearing of at least 1 km around occupied habitat, ensuring that it contains a full range of local ecosystems. Subspecies <em>atropygialis</em>: determine cause of decline in pastoral lands. <p></p>
106008682		distribution	eng	<em>Poephila cincta</em> once occurred in grassy woodlands throughout north-east <strong>Australia </strong>from Cape York Peninsula to north-east New South Wales. Substantial declines occurred in the southern nominate subspecies throughout the twentieth century with the last populations in south-east Queensland disappearing in the 1990s. This subspecies was previously thought to be declining at a rate of 20% every 10 years, but this is no longer thought to be the case (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). However, in the last 25 years a decline in density and extent of occurrence has been noted in the northern <em>P.c.atropygialis</em>.   <p></p>
106008682		habitat	eng	The southern subspecies <em>P. c. cincta</em> inhabits grassy woodland dominated by eucalypts, paperbarks or acacias. It is apparently sedentary and feeds on seeds. <em>P. c. atropygialis</em> occurs in eucalypt and <em>melaleuca</em>-dominated savannas, feeding on a wide variety of grass seeds.  <p></p>
106008682		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common and less common in the south of its range (Clement 1999).
106008682		threats	eng	Reasons for the decline of both subspecies appear to be associated with the spread and intensification of pastoralism, changes in fire regime and increases in the density of native woody weeds in grassy savannas. They have been under pressure from the clearance of woodland but is also declining in uncleared savanna. The decline began in the southern part of the species's range, where sheep grazing dominates land-use and feral rabbits are prevalent. The decline has been less extreme in the north where clearing has been less extensive and cattle dominate. The substantial contraction in range in the north coincided with intensification of cattle grazing and changed fire regimes. Trapping for the bird trade may historically have caused local extinctions after populations had already been reduced.  <p></p>
106008683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Clement 1999).
106008684		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although seasonally or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008685		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from two protected areas, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay. Given its nomadic habits, occurrence in protected areas does not necessarily confer continual protection.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct regular fieldwork, including mist-netting, in areas where it potentially survives to assess its current status and attempt to understand its movements. Research the ecology and distribution of the bamboos upon which it relies, particularly their response to deforestation. Afford protection to key sites found to support populations and favoured bamboos. <p></p>
106008685		distribution	eng	<em>Erythrura viridifacies</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known chiefly from Luzon and also from two sites on Negros and one on Panay (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1999). Since 1980, there have been records from just five localities, four on Luzon and one on Panay, together with a recent report from Alcoy Forest, Cebu (D. Allen <em>in litt.</em> 2003, Paguntalan and Jakosalem 2008)<strong></strong>. Its status is difficult to assess, although it must have declined as a consequence of habitat destruction. It is nomadic and occasionally irruptive and can therefore seem locally common, with flocks numbering over 100 recorded from Luzon. Its status on other islands is unclear and records may relate to immigrants from Luzon. Areas of bamboo have expanded as a result of logging, suggesting that there may now be more suitable habitat available, especially east of San Mariano, Isabela (D. Allen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106008685		habitat	eng	It frequents forested habitat mosaics, including degraded areas, forest edge and even savanna, often above 1,000 m, but occasionally irrupting into the lowlands. It is closely associated with flowering or seeding bamboos, which are a key dietary component. Although its exact movements in relation to food supply are unclear, it is probably normally solitary and sedentary, although flocks of up to 35 have been observed at Hamut (D. Allen <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may concentrate in numbers at temporarily rich food patches and suddenly irrupt into new areas when resources are unavailable. <p></p>
106008685		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008685		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is the key threat as it is dependent on a spatially and temporally patchy resource (bamboo seeds) within forest. Although it benefits from initial forest disturbance, as this improves conditions for bamboo, subsequent clearance to monocultures removes food sources. Forest cover in the late 1980s was estimated to be as low as 24% on Luzon, 4% on Negros and 8% on Panay. The international cage-bird trade may also have had a serious effect on the population. In 1935, the species was caught in large numbers in many districts of Manila and exported by the hundreds to the USA. <p></p>
106008686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).
106008687		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 20,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 13,000 mature individuals (S. T. Garnett <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106008688		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor emerging threats that may impact the species. Delimit its range and generate a population estimate based upon density estimates in different habitats. <p></p>
106008688		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is endemic to Mindanao in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where until very recently it was documented from only two or three localities but is now known from as many as seven, as follows: Mt Hilong-hilong at Siwod; Mt Pasian, Bislig; Mt Puting Bato, Davao del Norte; Mt Kitanglad at Malaybalay, at Mt Kaatoan, at Mt Nangkabulos, and at Kinubalan, with unspecified sublocalities; Mt Piapayungan at Siwagat; Mt Apo; Mt Parker, T'boli; Mt Three Kings; Mt Busa on the south slope at Binati. It is described as moderately common but very local, although is probably present on every mountain in central Mindanao. It is very unobtrusive and secretive, and its high-pitched call (typical of the genus) is easily overlooked. On voice, however, it appears to be not uncommon at Kitanglad.<em> <p></p></em>
106008688		habitat	eng	The species inhabits forest understorey and edge, secondary growth and grassy clearings over 1,000 m, and is common inside and near forest. Unlike the Green-faced Parrotfinch <em>E. viridifacies</em>, it does not appear to be strongly allied to bamboo, and is therefore less irruptive, unpredictable and inherently vulnerable than that species. It feeds on the ground and in vegetation on seeds, grasses, herbaceous plants and bamboo. <p></p>
106008688		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or very uncommon within its very small range (Clement 1999).
106008688		threats	eng	Within its altitudinal range there do not appear to be any pertinent threats, but owing to its small range size it is inherently vulnerable to changes in the future. <p></p>
106008689		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or generally uncommon and very little known (Clement 1999).
106008690		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008691		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008692		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008693		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the proposed Lake Letas Reserve on Gaua (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Local people have prevented people catching the species for the bird trade in the past on Tongoa, in the hope that the birds' presence will attract ecotourists (Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey islands with old records. Survey Tongoa and Emae to assess population densities. Survey Santo mountains to assess approximate population densities. Determine tolerance of logged forest and use of fig trees in parkland habitats. Investigate requirement for certain fig species. Investigate feeding and breeding ecology for use in habitat management plans. Ascertain rate of forest loss across range. Investigate any trapping for trade, especially on Tongoa and Emae. Monitor numbers at known sites on Tongoa and Emae. Advocate creation of forest reserves on each major island. Support establishment and management of Lake Letas Reserve. Promote ecotourism initiatives involving this species on Tongoa.  <p></p>
106008693		distribution	eng	<em>Erythrura regia</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. It has been recorded from most islands in the archipelago but has not been observed for many years on several islands, such as<span class="st"> Aneityum, and may be locally extinct on these (Medway and Marshall 1975, Bregulla 1992, Birchenough<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003)<strong></strong>. There are recent records, often of single birds, on Gaua, Espiritu Santo, Efate and Epi, but involving larger numbers on the small islands of Tongoa and Emae where it is still common (Bregulla 1992, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998, A. Birchenough and S. M. Evans <em>in litt.</em> 1999, SPREP 2000,  Birchenough<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003, Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. However it is difficult to detect and may be often overlooked (Totterman <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The only population estimate is of 200-300 birds in upland Tongoa (Bregulla 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008693		habitat	eng	It is most common at mid-altitudes on the larger islands such as Santo, usually occurring above 300 m, but descends to sea-level on small islands such as Emae (Bregulla 1992, Bregulla 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Singles, pairs or small groups feed on figs in the forest canopy. It has been recorded only rarely in degraded habitats with fig trees and is excluded from open habitats by <em>E. trichroa </em>(Diamond and Marshall 1977, Bregulla 1998)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested that an increased number of fruiting figs has enabled high numbers to survive on Tongoa and Emae (Bregulla 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008693		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008693		threats	eng	Lowland and mid-altitude forest is under considerable threat from commercial logging and there is significant clearance of forest for gardens on small islands such as Tongoa with high human populations (Bregulla 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are worrying reports of small-scale and erratic trapping of this highly valued species for the domestic and international trade (G. Dutson pers. obs. 1998)<strong></strong>. On most islands people carry catapults and shoot small birds for fun, though it is not known if this species is affected by that practice (<strong></strong>I. Moreley <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008694		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Fijian law. It has been recorded in the protected watershed forest near Suva.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct forest surveys and threat assessment (<strong></strong>SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, resurveying all known sites. Develop local expertise in survey methodology (<strong></strong>SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify suitable areas for conservation (<strong></strong>SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and ensure preservation of the watershed forest near Suva. <p></p>
106008694		distribution	eng	<em>Erythrura kleinschmidti</em> is endemic to Viti Levu, <strong>Fiji</strong>, where it has always been considered rare, though may only be unobtrusive and patchily distributed (<strong></strong>Clunie 1984)<strong></strong>. All records are from the wetter centre and east of Viti Levu (N. Bostock <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Watling 2000, D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, where recent surveys suggest that the species is widespread at low densities (D. Liley <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. There have been incidental reports that the species is more frequently encountered than previously (i.e. five years ago) at some sites (Sovi Basin, Monasavu and Tomaniivi), but these are not confirmed  (V. Masibalavu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). A provisional population density of 2.8 birds/km<sup>2</sup> was recently estimated. The species was recorded at 60% (8/13) of recent survey sites on Viti Levu but these sites were pre-selected to have the densest old-growth forest. A provisional population size of 2,500-10,000 mature individuals has been estimated (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005, D. Liley <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106008694		habitat	eng	It is mainly found in mature, wet forest up to 1,000 m, although there are records from secondary scrub and plantations. It has even been recorded breeding at the edge of secondary forest, but is nevertheless regarded as dependent on mature forest (Watling 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds at mid-height along tree-trunks and branches, usually alone or in pairs but also joining mixed-species flocks, feeding primarily on insects, but also flower buds and fruit (Watling 1982, Pratt <em>et al</em>. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Juveniles have been observed in August-September and January-February (Clunie 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may be nomadic, as other parrotfinches, but repeated observation in the same spots suggests that it could be sedentary. <p></p>
106008694		population	eng	During 108.5 km of standardised transects, six individuals were recorded within 10 m of the observer, giving a density of 2.8 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, but this figure is based on very little data and should be treated with considerable caution. The species was recorded at 60% (8/13) of recent survey sites on Viti Levu but these sites were pre-selected to have the densest old-growth forest, suggesting that the species's area of occupancy may be up to 2,400 km<sup>2</sup> (60% x 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> of high- and medium-density rainforest on Viti Levu). This implies that total numbers of mature individuals falls in the band 2,500-9,999 (unpublished data from Fiji IBA project via G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005). This roughly equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008694		threats	eng	On Viti Levu, only c.50% of the island remains forested (Watling 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and there is ongoing, small-scale logging and clearance for agriculture. The most reliable site, Joske's Thumb, was logged in the early 1980s with a dramatic decline in the number of sightings (D. Watling <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008695		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Management actions completed or under way include the implementation of a recovery plan, the establishment of regional operations groups, detailed research on fire, food and movements at Mornington Wildlife Sanctuary, Kimberley, the collation and maintenance of a database of all known sight records and a review of the patterns of the distribution, habitats, potential threats and conservation status of savanna granivorous birds. Attempts at reintroduction have so far had equivocal results (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is an ongoing monitoring programme at four sites (J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007, S. Legge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Define the response of grasses and <em>E. gouldiae</em> to a range of pastoral and fire management regimes (O'Malley 2006, J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Work with landholders to implement those management regimes that are neutral or beneficial (O'Malley 2006, J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor abundance at key sites throughout its current range, and responses to enhanced management (J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote the recovery programme and evaluate performance. Control feral herbivores (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Work with the Jawoyn Aboriginal Corporation in implementing fire regimes and control of feral herbivores (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Refine reintroduction methods and investigate factors limiting survival through trial reintroductions at sites in Queensland (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disseminate information on the recovery programme to stakeholders (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008695		distribution	eng	<em>Erythrura gouldiae</em> is found in northern <strong>Australia</strong>, with scattered records from Cape York Peninsula through north-west Queensland, but there are more records from the northern region of the Northern Territory to the Kimberley region of Western Australia. In Queensland, it is only known with regularity from one site, although there are irregular reports from elsewhere in its former range. Birds are more numerous in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. The population has been conservatively estimated to be fewer than 2,500 mature individuals at the start of the breeding season, however more optimistic estimates have placed the total population as closer to c.10,000 mature individuals (J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The results of an expert panel review process concluded that the population was c2,400 mature individuals in 2010, which potentially falls to an annual minimum close to 1,000 individuals during the wet season (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Monitoring of the population size at the best-known site near Katherine has demonstrated population stability (O. Price <em>per</em> Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Similarly, monitoring at Mornington Wildlife Sanctuary in central Kimberley has shown no evidence of a decline over four years from 2004 to 2007 (S. Legge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and the overall population is estimated to be stable or increasing (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <p></p>
106008695		habitat	eng	It lives in open, tropical woodland with a grassy understorey, nesting almost exclusively in tree-hollows. Known breeding habitat in the Northern Territory and Western Australia is characterised by rocky hills with smooth-barked gums <em>Eucalyptus brevifolia</em> or <em>E. tintinnans</em> within two to four kilometres of small waterholes or springs that persist throughout the dry season (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it may occur in a slightly wider variety of woodland habitats. Throughout the year, it feeds mostly on grass seeds, sometimes taking invertebrates (S. Legge <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Dry season feeding habitat is dominated by annual spear grasses or native sorghum <em>Sarga</em> species (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the wet season birds shift to scattered patches of cockatoo grass <em>Alloteropsis semialata</em>, golden beard grass <em>Chysopogon fallax</em> or spinifex <em>Triodia</em>-dominated communities. Other important wet season grasses include giant spear grass <em>Heteropogon triticeus</em>, white grass <em>Sehima nervosum</em>, ricegrass <em>Xerochloa laniflora</em> and kangaroo grass <em>Themeda triandra</em><strong> </strong>(O'Malley 2006). <p></p>
106008695		population	eng	The population has been conservatively estimated to be fewer than 2,500  mature individuals at the start of the breeding season, however more  optimistic estimates have placed the total population as closer to  c.10,000 mature individuals (J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  The results of an expert panel review process concluded that the most plausible  population size was c2,400 mature individuals in 2010, which potentially  falls to an annual minimum close to 1,000 individuals during the wet  season (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)
106008695		threats	eng	Grazing and altered fire regimes are thought to be the main threats. Cattle and other livestock cause changes in grass species composition and phenology, with the most severe impact probably due to a reduction in the abundance of grass species that set seed earliest in the wet season (J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Wet season grasses that are essential to the species are grazed by cattle, horses and feral pigs, whilst cattle and buffalo can degrade waterholes used by the species through trampling and grazing of the surrounding vegetation (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Current fire regimes may be exacerbating the impact of herbivores, obliterating the mosaics of burnt and unburnt habitat the birds require. Fire is known to impact the seed productivity of key wet season grasses that the species relies on during the period of food scarcity that occurs early in the year, and the species also tends not to nest in burnt tree-hollows (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The modern fire regime in northern Australia is dominated by frequent, extensive, hot, late dry season wildfires over large tracts of land (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Trapping may have had a local effect in the past. Infection with the parasitic mite <em>Sternostoma tracheacolum</em> was long thought to be one of the principal reasons for decline. However, it is now considered that it may be indicative of stress to the birds resulting from a broader change at the landscape level that has affected a range of granivore species. Nevertheless, recent short-term increases may represent recovery after an epidemic of the mite (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Climate change is predicted to affect the timing and quantity of wet season rainfall, potentially increasing the frequency or intensity of wildfires, altering the abundance of important grass species and changing the availability of surface water during the dry season (O'Malley 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008696		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008697		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008698		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008699		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008700		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).
106008701		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008702		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008703		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008704		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008705		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Clement 1999).
106008706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Clement 1999).
106008707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant, common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or locally scarce (Clement 1999).
106008709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant, common or locally common (Clement 1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008714		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or local (Clement 1999).
106008716		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008717		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its very restricted range (Clement 1999).
106008718		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008719		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known. The Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve in the Arfak Mountains may support suitable habitat (Sujatnika <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and survey suitable habitat in north-east Papua to establish its range, distribution and population status. Assess its habitat requirements and threats.  Monitor numbers at Anggi Gigi. Incorporate key wet grassland and marshland sites, especially Anggi Gigi, into the protected-areas system. Establish whether the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve supports the species. <p></p>
106008719		distribution	eng	<em>Lonchura vana</em> is endemic to the Arfak Mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula in north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Hoogerwerf 1971, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is poorly known, but could be restricted to a single location - grasslands around the lake Anggi Gigi (D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other reports that it occurs elsewhere in the Arfaks, such as the Tamrau Mountains (Hoogerwerf 1971, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> appear to be unsubstantiated, and there are no records from around the neighbouring lake, Anggi Gite. Its possible occurrence elsewhere is limited by the scarcity of its habitat (N. Bostock <em>in litt</em>. 1993, D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the Arfaks have not been well-explored and it may prove to occur elsewhere (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008719		habitat	eng	It is a shy inhabitant of mid-mountain wet grassland and marshland, where it has only been recorded between 1,900&#160;m and 2,000&#160;m (Hoogerwerf 1971, Beehler <em>et al</em>. 1986, Restall 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small flocks have been seen on low weeds in recently abandoned agricultural plots, sometimes near human settlements, but at that time the species was "strangely enough not found on the wide plains covered with high grasses and similar vegetation, round the Anggi Lakes" (Hoogerwerf 1971)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, perhaps suggesting seasonal variation in habitat use. <p></p>
106008719		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number no more than 10,000 individuals, and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008719		threats	eng	Its naturally scarce habitat has been reported to be suffering some drainage for conversion to agriculture (D. Gibbs <em>in litt</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. However, it has been recorded on agricultural land and may be able to survive in this habitat (Hoogerwerf 1971)<strong></strong>. Although it has been reported in the international cage-bird trade, the Arfaks are very remote and this is likely to have been a misidentification (Restall 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008721		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or common (Clement 1999).
106008722		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008723		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008726		distribution	eng	This species is found in the eastern Kimberley Region, Western Australia and north-west Northern Territory, Australia. Information regarding changes in its range in the Kimberley Region is contradictory, with speculation that it may have contracted, or expanded from arid areas towards the coast. There is no evidence for either scenario, and abundance has not apparently changed.
106008726		habitat	eng	This species is found in open riparian woodland.
106008726		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 20,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 13,000 mature individuals (S. T. Garnett <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106008726		threats	eng	Hybridisation and competition with Chestnut-breasted Mannikin L. castaneothorax have been mooted as threats, but the species remains common in the agricultural areas around Kununurra with little evidence of intermediate forms. Degradation of habitat by stock has also been suggested as a threat, particularly along rivers, but the effects of degradation have not been translated into range contractions (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Recent reports suggest that slashing and spraying of weeds and long grass along tracks and irrigation channels where the species was common may have cause local declines, for example in Kununurra (I. Rudd in litt. 2003), but there is no evidence to suggest that such trends are more widespread.
106008727		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008728		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size. Quantify the impact of trapping<em>. </em>Control the trade in this species. Regularly monitor the population at well-known sites. Research its relative abundance in different habitats.   <p></p>
106008728		distribution	eng	<em>Lonchura stygia</em> is known from a small area of the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea, from Mandum (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) to Lake Daviumbu (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is reportedly locally common in flocks of up to 20 birds; however, it is less common than the largely sympatric Grey-crowned Munia <em>L. nevermanni,</em> and only one was seen in four months of fieldwork in its Papuan range (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106008728		habitat	eng	It inhabits savannas, marshes and riverine grasses, often on floating islands, but sometimes visiting rice crops (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986, Coates 1990, Gregory 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008728		threats	eng	It may be threatened as a result of destruction of reedbeds by introduced rusa deer <em>Cervus timorensis</em> and by encroachment of woodland on grasslands, possibly promoted by the activities of pigs (although woodlands might also represent suitable habitat for this species) (N. Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1993, <strong></strong>N. Stronach <em>in litt.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. In the dry season, birds concentrate around drinking pools and are susceptible to trapping for the cage-bird trade; 250 were being exported from Merauke Airport in August 1993 (N. Bostock <em>in litt.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. Since 1998, over 1,200 individuals have been imported into EU countries (the species is listed in Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations and therefore EU import levels are monitored) (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106008729		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008730		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common within its very limited range (Clement 1999).
106008731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its limited range (Clement 1999).
106008732		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008733		distribution	eng	This species is found in northern Australia, between the Fitzroy River Valley, Western Australia, and the upper Burdekin and central-western Cape York Peninsula, Queensland.
106008733		habitat	eng	The age ratio in flocks at Mornington Station ranged from 1 adult to every 20 juveniles to 1 adult to every 40 juveniles highlighting the temporal variability in the species's population size.
106008733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common. In 2006 the species was abundant at Mornington Station, central Kimberley (S. Legge <i>in litt.</i> 2006) and large flocks were seen in Nathan River National Park, south-west Gulf of Carpentaria (D. Hooper <i>in litt.</i> 2006).  Numbers have been roughly estimated at c.50,000 individuals but this appears to fluctuate greatly.
106008733		threats	eng	An increase in the incidence of airsac mite, which also affects the threatened Gouldian Finch Erythrura gouldiae, may be indicative of a decline or of environmental stress from other causes. Changes in the burning regime, and the introduction of stock including cattle, sheep and horses, are likely to have affected the species, but the mechanism by which this has occurred is unknown. Owing to the lack of firm evidence for population trends, further moitoring of population size and potential threats are warranted.
106008734		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. An embargo was placed on the capture quota for Java and Bali in 1995. The species occurs in only a very few protected areas, with recent records from only four: Cikepuh Wildlife Reserve, Baluran and Meru Betiri National Parks on Java, and Bali Barat National Park on Bali.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate the relative importance of current threats (excessive trade, persecution, pesticides, competition). Promote strict enforcement of trade restrictions in wild birds, and devise means of meeting market demands from captive breeding. Develop and initiate programmes to protect remaining populations. <p></p>
106008734		distribution	eng	<em>Padda oryzivora</em> is a native endemic of the islands of Java, Bali, and probably Madura, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, although it has been widely introduced, with feral populations now established in many parts of the world. It was formerly widespread and abundant in its native range, but  numbers have crashed disastrously. It can now be difficult to find, particularly on Java (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012); a recent survey looked at 64 former locations and  located only 109 individuals at 17 sites (Muchtar and Nurwatha 2001)<strong></strong>. The majority of documented recent records derive from east Java and Bali. Feral populations (in Indonesia at least) have also apparently declined precipitously. Information from elsewhere is insufficient to estimate its status as a feral species, and all conservation efforts should focus on its original native range. <p></p>
106008734		habitat	eng	It is usually a lowland species, chiefly found below 500&#160;m but occurring locally up to 1,500&#160;m. It has been recorded in many habitats, including towns and villages (where it was formerly one of the most common species), cultivated land (particularly rice-growing areas), grassland, open woodland, tree savanna, beach forest and even mangroves. It is gregarious, especially outside the breeding season. Post-breeding flocks appear to make substantial short-distance movements in response to local food supplies.<p></p>
106008734		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.2,500-9,999 individuals (Population   estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys detailed in   BirdLife International 2001). This estimate equates to 1,667-6,666 mature   individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. National   population estimates include: c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs in   China; &lt; c.100 introduced breeding pairs in Taiwan and &lt; c.10,000   introduced breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008734		threats	eng	Trapping for the domestic and international cage-bird trade has probably been occurring for centuries, peaking in the 1960s and 1970s, and is the main cause of the decline. Its flocking tendency, particularly at roost sites, renders it especially susceptible to mass trapping. Ironically, even feral populations, originally introduced through trade, have subsequently been decimated for the same reason. Historically, it was regarded as a rice crop-pest, and consequently persecuted. Hunting for local consumption, possibly increased use of pesticides, and competition with the ecologically similar Tree Sparrow <em>Passer montanus,</em> are additional threats. <p></p>
106008736		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Clement 1999).
106008738		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local (Hall and Moreau 1970, Roberts 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2001, Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002).
106008739		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).
106008740		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as generally uncommon.
106008742		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106008743		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Newman 1983).
106008744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is little known (Borrow and Demey 2001).
106008745		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon.
106008746		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally fairly common.
106008747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in some years and almost absent in others (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).
106008750		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).
106008751		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).
106008752		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, though the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008753		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally fairly common.
106008755		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 130,000,000-240,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 390,000,000-720,000,000 individuals (BirdLife   International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very   preliminary estimate of the global population size is   c.527,000,000-1,440,000,000 individuals, although this estimate requires   further validation. The population in China has been estimated at &lt;   c.1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106008756		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been legally protected from hunting, capture, trade, egg or chick collection since 1980. Key areas on Gran Canaria have been protected since 1982 and El Teide forest on Tenerife and six important areas on Gran Canaria were designated as National Parks or Natural Areas in 1987. A conservation programme was initiated in 1991 and a captive breeding programme began in 1992. An action plan was published in 1996 (González 1996). Captive breeding on Gran Canaria was started anew in 2005, and the first chicks were expected to be released in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong>. Fire prevention measures are implemented, particularly during the summer, and access to suitable habitat is limited on Gran Canaria. There is also an ongoing project that focuses on the restoration of fire-damaged pine forest on Gran Canaria. Control measures against alien species are being implemented on Tenerife and cats have been controlled on Gran Canaria since 1996. Research is being conducted into the potential threat of inbreeding in the population on Gran Canaria (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitoring and research should be continued and expanded. An official governmental action plan should be produced to detail conservation requirements such as habitat restoration, prevention of forest fires and eradication of illegal trade. In addition, the species should be included under CITES and adequate protection should be ensured under the Countryside Law and Wildlife Protection Law. Forest management should focus on thinning areas of dense pine trees (as in García-del-Rey<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2010) where no undergrowth persists and reafforesting areas within the former range of pine forests on the islands (García-del-Rey and Cresswell 2005)<strong></strong>. Carry out further work to divert recreational activities from important sites. Conduct public awareness campaigns. Protect drinking sites. <p></p>
106008756		distribution	eng	<em>Fringilla teydea</em> is found only on Tenerife (subspecies <em>teydea</em>) and Gran Canaria (subspecies <em>polatzeki</em>) in the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. The total population is estimated to be 1,800-4,500 individuals, with the majority on Tenerife and approximately 250 individuals on Gran Canaria. On Gran Canaria it occupies a tiny range which is declining: it is restricted to patches of woodland totalling 3.6 km<sup>2</sup> at Ojeda, Inagua and Pajonales. However, as the Gran Canaria race is such a small proportion of the total population, the species's overall range and population are effectively increasing due to positive trends in the area of suitable habitat on Tenerife (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The subspecies on Gran Canaria continues to require intensive conservation efforts if it is to persist. <p></p>
106008756		habitat	eng	It is largely dependent on Canary pine <em>Pinus canariensis</em> and will inhabit reforested areas where these fall within the natural distribution of this tree. Although Canary pine seeds constitute its main food source, birds occasionally feed outside pinewoods during severe weather. During the breeding season, it is found in pinewoods at 1,000-2,000 m with a high proportion of broom <em>Chamaecytisus proliferus</em> in the understorey. The species selects sheltered sites for feeding during the non-breeding period, with the selection of less sheltered sites mediated by pine seed availability (Garcia-del-Rey<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). It is been recorded from 800 to 2,300m at other times. The breeding season lasts from April to early August. Two eggs are generally laid. The main cause of breeding failure is predation, mostly by the Great Spotted Woodpecker <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendrocopos major </span>(Rodríguez and Moreno 2008).<br/><p></p>
106008756		population	eng	The population was estimated at 1,000-2,500 pairs in 2004, equating to 2,000-5,000 mature individuals and roughly 3,000-7,500 individuals in total.
106008756		threats	eng	It suffers from being captured and kept in cages, and possibly also still from illegal trade, primarily to Italy, Germany and Belgium, which may have an effect on population levels. Its pinewood habitat has been subject to intense commercial exploitation which has resulted in habitat fragmentation and population isolation, particularly on Gran Canaria. Forest fires have been important in the destruction of pinewoods on Gran Canaria, most recently in the summer of 2007 when significant areas were destroyed including one of the most important sites on Gran Canaria. Protected areas are heavily used for recreation and leisure on Gran Canaria and this may cause disturbance. Inbreeding may also be a significant threat in the Gran Canaria population (Barov and Derhé 2011)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008757		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 13,000,000-22,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 39,000,000-66,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary   estimate of the global population size is 79,600,000-264,000,000 individuals,   although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population   estimates include: c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &gt;   c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; &gt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in   Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008758		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 280,000-820,000 breeding pairs, equating to 840,000-2,460,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3,500,000-49,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008759		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 8.3-20 million breeding pairs, equating to 24.9-60 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 26.5-80 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008760		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. The main breeding locations in Jordan and Israel, and three such areas in Lebanon, are protected (Evans 1994)<strong></strong>. Monitoring at the Jordanian breeding area (the only well-studied site) started in 1995. Awareness-raising activities have been carried out around the Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve IBA in Lebanon (Dakdouk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out baseline surveys of population size and distribution in Syria and Lebanon. Institute monitoring of populations outside Jordan. Monitor, investigate and reverse the population decline in Jordan. Further investigate impact of livestock grazing on its habitat in south-west Jordan (Khoury 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008760		distribution	eng	<em>Serinus syriacus</em> has a restricted range, breeding in mountains (900-1,900 m) in<strong> Lebanon</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong> (Mount Hermon) and <strong>Jordan</strong> (Evans 1994, Baumgart 1995, Khoury 1998, Ramadan-Jaradi and Ramadan-Jaradi 1999). The small population comprises 1,000-1,250 mature individuals in Jordan (Khoury 1999)<strong></strong> and 100-360 in Israel (Evans 1994)<strong></strong>, but there are no national population estimates for Syria ("local" [Baumgart 1995]<strong></strong>) or Lebanon (described as "very common" with an estimate of 3,500 pairs in total at Qammouha, Horj Ehden, Tannourine and Arz Al-Chouf protected areas [Ramadan-Jaradi and Ramadan-Jaradi 1999, 2002]<strong></strong>). In winter, birds in Jordan disperse locally (Khoury 1998)<strong></strong>, while the breeding grounds in Lebanon, Syria and Israel are completely vacated (Evans 1994, Baumgart 1995, Ramadan-Jaradi and Ramadan-Jaradi 1999)<strong></strong> for wintering grounds that probably comprise desert and semi-arid country at lower altitudes (near water) throughout the Levant and as far afield as <strong>Egypt</strong> (Sinai and Nile valley)<strong> </strong>and <strong>Iraq</strong> (Evans 1994, Baumgart 1995, Khoury 1999, Ramadan-Jaradi and Ramadan-Jaradi 1999). The Jordanian breeding population is declining: the Al-Barrah population in the Dana Nature Reserve has declined by c.20% and their area of occupancy has decreased by 25% since 1996. In addition, marginal areas of their breeding distribution in 1996 were unoccupied in 1999 (<strong></strong>Khoury 2000)<strong></strong>. This suggests a decrease in population size and the population was estimated as 500 pairs, with 480 in Al-Barrah in the 1999 breeding season. Previous population estimates in Jordan were in the range 1,000-1,250 mature individuals (Khoury 1999)<strong></strong> and this recent estimate therefore represents a decline of c.20%. During the 1999 breeding season no Syrian Serins were recorded in other areas of south-west Jordan (e.g. Al-Hishi woodland) or northern Jordan (Mediterranean woodland) that would have been suitable as alternative feeding sites to avoid the drought. The decline in population size therefore does not seem to represent a shift in population distribution.   <p></p>
106008760		habitat	eng	It breeds in rocky tracts of open or semi-arid Mediterranean woodland, usually dominated by conifers such as <em>Cedrus</em>, <em>Pinus</em>, <em>Abies</em> and <em>Juniperus </em><strong><sup></sup></strong>(Evans 1994, Baumgart 1995, Khoury 1998, Ramadan-Jaradi and Ramadan-Jaradi 1999). It is a tree-nester that feeds on the seeds of low annual and perennial grasses and herbs and requires daily access to drinking water (Khoury 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008760		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008760		threats	eng	The species is potentially seriously affected by excessive tree-cutting, grazing and water abstraction. Breeding numbers in 1999 were low (Khoury 1999)<strong></strong> and the population was estimated to have decreased by c. 20% since 1996 to 500 breeding pairs (Khoury 2000)<strong></strong>. This decline is likely to be partly due to reduced survival rates following a severe drought in the winter 1998-1999, which caused a decline in seed production and in the number of water pools. The drought conditions further enhance declines in habitat quality caused by grazing pressure and wood cutting. Hunting may be a potential threat in some parts of the range.<br/><p></p>
106008761		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 20000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 60000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008762		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 250,000-320,000 breeding pairs, equating to 750,000-960,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008765		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008766		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).
106008767		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).
106008768		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).
106008769		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008770		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as occasionally common and very poorly known (Clement 1999).
106008771		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008772		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008773		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008774		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in Awash National Park, but the extent of protection that this confers is limited. No species-specific conservation action or fieldwork is being undertaken at present. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of its distribution and population numbers, in order to evaluate its conservation status (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study its habitat preferences and feeding requirements, to help evaluate its conservation status (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine whether the population in Awash National Park is contiguous with that at Aliyu Amba-Dulecha (Vivero<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Improve the protection of Awash National Park. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106008774		distribution	eng	<em>Serinus flavigula</em> was known from three century-old specimens (the most recent dating from 1886) taken in one small area (only 30 km<sup>2</sup>) of Shoa province, eastern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, until its rediscovery within this range in March 1989, when at least seven birds were found and the species judged uncommon (Ash and Gullick 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1996, the species was found in two more locations: Awash National Park (an IBA), where it was judged to be not uncommon, with 25+ birds seen on Mt Fantalle; and Aliyu Amba-Dulecha (an IBA) in the eastern lowlands, where it was uncommon (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has also been reported from Aigaber, Ambokarra, and Melka Jebdu, most of them in Shoa province (Vivero<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; two of these sites are so close together that they should be considered the same locality (Vivero<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is likely that the species is restricted to the present area, as it is an established centre of endemism. <p></p>
106008774		habitat	eng	Little is known of this species's ecology, but it would seem to prefer semi-arid desert scrub, savannah with scattered trees, thick patches of scrub on rocky hill sides, and grasslands, especially those with the tussock-grass <em>Cymbopogon</em> and small shrubs like <em>Lavandula</em>, its favoured food (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded along the valley of a small stream at 1,400-1,500 m. The species has never been recorded from cultivated or highly degraded land and seems highly susceptible to habitat alteration and human disturbance (Vivero<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only reported nest was found on top of a small <em>Acacia</em> bush on the rim of Mt Fantalle crater in Awash National Park in 1999 (Vivero<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008774		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106008774		threats	eng	The major threat is habitat alteration and disturbance, for which the species appears to have little tolerance (Vivero<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Considerable portions of its range are affected by fire and conversion to farmland (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Awash National Park is threatened by increasing human pressure and has been threatened by tribal conflicts (EWNHS 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. As of November 2007, there were no tribal conflicts in the species's range (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Such conflicts typically last for short periods of time and are not thought to significantly threaten the species (M. Wondafrash <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pastoralists and their livestock have now moved into Awash National Park and fires are a regular occurrence (EWNHS 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008775		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Arero Forest, Anferara Forest and Mankubsa-Weleno Forest are protected areas on paper. However, on-the-ground protection is scant (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys to better determine the species's range, population size and trend. Assess possible threats. Determine the species ecological requirements. Investigate the potential for a programme promoting community forestry, soil conservation and watershed management within its range. Assess the potential impacts of habitat alteration and disturbance by cattle and humans and the species's ability to tolerate such processes.  <p></p>
106008775		distribution	eng	<em>Serinus xantholaemus</em> is known from central Harar, northern Bale and central Sidamo provinces (central Borena zone), <strong>Ethiopia</strong>. There have been at least 30 reliable records since 1900 (J. S. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, among which post-1970 records have come from Sheik Hussein, Sof Omar, Arero Forest, Anferara Forest and Mankubsa-Weleno Forest, Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary (EWNHS 1996, J. Vivero <em>in litt.</em> 2003, Shimelis undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although uncommon at presently known sites, it may prove to be fairly widespread and not uncommon in a huge area that is very poorly known in ornithological terms (J. S. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. Vivero <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p>
106008775		habitat	eng	The species seems to favour scrubby vegetation (1,000-1,500&#160;m), and has been recorded in <em>Acacia</em>-<em>Commiphora</em> woodland (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and juniper <em>Juniperus</em> woodland (including scrubby and degraded areas) (Shimelis undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008775		population	eng	The population is placed in the range bracket for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on information from J. Vivero (<I>in litt. </I>2003). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008775		threats	eng	At nearly all sites, an increasing human population is leading to the expansion of subsistence agriculture into previously uncultivated wooded habitats (EWNHS 1996, Shimelis undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Cutting of trees and bushes (for fuel and building wood) and intense grazing also occur at a number of sites (Shimelis undated)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it is open to question to what extent disturbance as a result of high cattle and human pressure may affect the species, considering its relative tolerance to them (J. Vivero <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. While the species's tolerance of such habitat changes is unknown, its population may well be declining. At Anferera, opencast gold-mining is a potential threat (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, as is hotel construction at Sof Omar and Sheik Hussein (related to popular shrines there) (J. S. Ash <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p>
106008776		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to northern Ethiopia and Eritrea (Clement et al. 1993), where it is known from Lalibela, Gonder, Ankober, Tissisat Falls near Bahar Dar, and Jemmu Valley.
106008776		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local (Clement 1999) and common in at least parts of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008779		distribution	eng	This species is found in southern Malawi, south-east Zimbabwe, and southern Mozambique to Zululand and northern Natal, South Africa. It has also been recorded in Zambia.
106008779		habitat	eng	The species is found in lowland palm savannas, clearings in dry woodland, Brachystegia scrub, grassland, gardens, road verges and edges of cultivation, invariably below 750 m.  It is gregarious and often forms flocks with Yellow-fronted Canary S. mozambicus, and in the non-breeding season nomadic flocks move at random in search of feeding areas of flowering grasses. It is strongly associated with Ilala palms Hyphaene natalensis over most of its range.
106008779		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon within its limited range, although occasionally abundant (Clement 1999).
106008779		threats	eng	At least 2,000 individuals are exported from the population in south Mozambique annually (Parker 1999). The Ilala palms Hyphaene natalensis, with which the species is associated, are commonly used in furniture manufacture, at least in Zimbabwe (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008780		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common to locally abundant (Clement 1999, Fry and Keith 2004), while the   population in Taiwan has been estimated at &lt; c.100 introduced breeding   pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008780		threats	eng	Since 1985, over 2,600,000 wild birds have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).
106008781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008782		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce (Clement 1999).
106008783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008784		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common and abundant in some coastal areas (Clement 1999).
106008785		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008786		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as a common resident in the Great Karoo (Clement 1999).
106008788		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008790		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008791		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Clement 1999).
106008792		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008793		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Simien Mountains National Park offers reasonable protection for the species. Guassa Reserve (c.100 km<sup>2</sup>) is managed by the local community, who control grazing and the timing of grass-cutting within the reserve<span style="font-weight: bold;"> (</span>Shimelis 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Otherwise there is little relevant conservation work in most of its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue surveys to better determine the species's range, population size and trend. Assess possible threats. Search for this species in the eastern mountain escarpments from Ankober to Simien, including Abuye Meda, Amba Farit, Mt Guna, and perhaps Choke Mountains (J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the potential for a programme promoting community forestry, soil conservation and watershed management within its range (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008793		distribution	eng	<em>Serinus ankoberensis</em> has a very restricted range in the highlands of central and northern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, being known from four locations in Amhara Regional State, northern Shoa Province: around Ankober, including Goshmeda, Kundi and a ravine south of Debre Sina (up to 60 birds per visit; EWNHS 1996, Shimelis 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; Deneba Wereda (13 birds in one visit; Shimelis 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; Koreta, a very small area within Guassa Reserve (more than 100 birds in this area alone during a two-week survey of the reserve; Shimelis 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; and in Chennek Camp and Bhawit in Simien Mountains National Park (up to 50 birds or more per visit) (Anon. 1997b, Shimelis 1999, J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. In 2002, 300 birds were found in three days between 2,800 and 4,300 m in the Abuna Yosef mountains (Wello region; J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may occur in all ecologically similar habitat throughout the highland massif of Amhara Regional State and parts of Tigray. It is likely the species is found all along the eastern mountain escarpments from Ankober to Simien, including Abuye Meda, Amba Farit, Mt. Guna and perhaps Choke Mountains<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008793		habitat	eng	This gregarious species occurs along the escarpment rim of the Ethiopian highlands (EWNHS 1996, Shimelis 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> in open terrain that includes broken hill-tops, near-vertical cliffs, steep, vegetated slopes and earth banks. It prefers to perch on lichen-covered rocks, bare earth and short-grazed pasture, ploughed land and feeds on seeds of grasses and herbs (EWNHS 1996, J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A nest has been found inside a vertical hole underneath an overhanging earth bank. Very sociable, with birds roosting, perching and feeding together. Often found in company of, or loosely associated with, Streaky <em>S. striolatus</em> or Brown-rumped <em>S. tristriatus</em> Seedeaters (J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Alights on no vegetation other than grass (J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place between October and March, although it possibly breeds during any season following heavy rain (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clutch-size is three. <p></p>
106008793		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008793		threats	eng	Much of its habitat is well-protected due to the steepness of the terrain. However, habitat in the Ankober area is under pressure from increased grazing and cultivation (EWNHS 1996, J. Vivero <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat encroachment is increasing due to grazing and cultivation of new lands, both aspects closely related to increasing human and livestock population. <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations represent a serious problem in some areas. <p></p>
106008796		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008797		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but race thomensis is described as common and the nominate race is described as scarcer than thomensis (Clement 1999).
106008798		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some montane forest is protected in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and various forest reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey of all parts of its projected range to assess its distribution, population size and trend. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Investigate reasons for its restricted range. Study the species's ecology. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected.  <p></p>
106008798		distribution	eng	<em>Serinus melanochrous</em> is endemic to <strong>Tanzania</strong> where it is confined to the Njombe highlands and the Udzungwa Mountains (N. Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found on Mt Rungwe, north and south of Little Ruaha River near Iringa, and south of Mtandika (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is fairly common in Chita Forest at 1,700 m, and Kigogo Forest and Dabaga at 1,800 m. It also occurs at Mufundi and in the Kisinga Rugaro Forest Reserve in the West Ndundulus, where it is not uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may also occur in forests near the Zambian and Malawian borders.  <p></p>
106008798		habitat	eng	It is a bird of high forest and bushland, occurring from 1,500 to 3,000 m (Clement <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit and hard seeds of trees and shrubs and also forages on the ground (Clement <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008798		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008798		threats	eng	Forest within its range is threatened as a result of clearance for agriculture, replacement with plantations, and selective cutting for timber and firewood (N. Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although the species's current status is unknown, these threats (combined with its very restricted range) put it at some risk. <p></p>
106008799		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008801		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or local (Clement 1999).
106008803		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very scarce or rare (Clement 1999).
106008805		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in Obo Natural Park, although there is no law enforcement within these areas and the lack of data about the species's ecological requirements makes it difficult to assess the benefits of these areas. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas has been ratified<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). The bird occurs in a relatively remote area used only by hunters who do not represent a threat to the species. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian Associação dos Biólogos Santomenses (ABS) have begun training local community focal points in the implementation of site-based conservation and implementing an awareness-raising campaign<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Steinheimer 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Establish transects and conduct regular surveys in the south-west forests of São Tomé. Ensure designated protected areas are actively protected. List it as a protected species under national law.&#160;<p></p>
106008805		distribution	eng	<em>Neospiza concolor</em> was, until relatively recently, known from just one 19th century specimen from southern São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe </strong>(Steinheimer 2005). It was rediscovered in 1991, close to the rio Xufexufe in the south-west of the island<strong> </strong>(Sargeant <em>et al.</em> 1992). Since then it was sighted near the Xufexufe in 1997<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Kaestner <em>in litt.</em> 1998; <strong></strong>Sinclair <em>in litt.</em> 1998), and sightings continue to be reported from the Xufexufe, Ribeira Peixe (Monte Carmo) and São Miguel areas (N. Borrow <em>in litt.</em> 2003; <strong></strong>M. Dallimer <em>in litt.</em> 2002;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Olmos and Turshak 2007; F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, Olmos and Turshak 2010)<strong></strong>.&#160; Given the limited area of suitable habitat and the paucity of records it probably has a tiny population. <p></p>
106008805		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland, closed-canopy primary forest. It is probably a canopy species and is reportedly quite silent, which could partly explain why it has so rarely been seen<strong> </strong>(Christy and Clarke 1998), although the call has been recorded and some birds respond to playback (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). It seems to move in pairs or alone and comes to the forest understorey to feed on seeds that it crushes with its powerful bill<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008).  <p></p>
106008805		population	eng	The species is assumed to have a tiny population (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) because all fieldwork has found it to be very rare and it is regularly recorded from just one area.
106008805		threats	eng	Historically, large areas of lowland forest were cleared for cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future. Signs of palm-wine harvesting, hunting and other extractive activities are now becoming evident in the core of the Monte Carmo area (Olmos and Turshak 2010). Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. Gascoigne <em>in litt</em>. 2000).<strong> </strong>Plans to develop coffee plantations  and restore and extend 630 ha of abandoned palm-oil plantations (to  cover more than 2,000 ha; ready for harvest in 2013) in the vicinity of  the core zone of Obô Natural Park and encroaching into its buffer zone  (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong> are  likely to result in the loss of suitable habitat and potentially have  both positive and negative influences on levels of disturbance (Olmos  and Turshak 2010). The palm-oil project, however, reportedly  incorporates the protection of some primary and mature secondary forest  (J. Tavares <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong>. </strong>Introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, Mona monkey <em>Cercopithecus mona</em>, African civet <em>Civettictis civetta</em> and weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> are potential predators.<br/><p></p>
106008806		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008808		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14,000,000-32,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 42,000,000-96,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44,700,000-128,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration, c.50-1,000 wintering individuals and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008810		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or very common (Clement 1999).
106008811		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008812		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and monitor emerging threats to the species and its habitat. Protect areas of suitable pine forest and safeguard from clearance and degradation. Work with managers of production forests to ensure practices that benefit the species.  <p></p>
106008812		distribution	eng	<em>Carduelis monguilloti </em>is endemic to the Da Lat plateau of south Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it is locally common. The area of suitable habitat for this species is actually thought to be  increasing as a result of deforestation, which leads to increases in  the area of scrub and Khasi pine <em>Pinus</em> <em>kesiya </em>forest, the growth of which is  stimulated by fire (BirdLife International 2001, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>.  2010).<br/><p></p>
106008812		habitat	eng	It occurs in open pine forest, including <em>Pinus</em> <em>kesiya </em>forest, secondary growth, and forest edges near to cultivation from 1,050-1,900 m, although it has been reporteed as low as 600 m (S. Mahood<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). As well as feeding on seeds from <em>Pinus</em> trees it has been seen flycatching recently hatched termites. <p></p>
106008812		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
106008812		threats	eng	Much of the Da Lat plateau is being deforested through clearance for shifting agriculture, charcoal production and logging. However, this species is suspecting to be benefiting from the increase in <em>Pinus</em> <em>kesiya</em> pine forest (as its growth is stimulated by fire clearance) and is therefore perhaps secure. Most pine forest is nevertheless allocated to production forest where logging is permitted and the potential for rapid clearance of this habitat remains. <p></p>
106008813		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10,000,000-18,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 30,000,000-54,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 31,900,000-72,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008815		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106008816		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106008817		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and legally protected in Brazil and Venezuela. In Brazil, it has been recorded in Pedra Talhada, Serra Negra and Saltinho Biological Reserves, Serra da Capivara National Park and Tapacurá Ecological Station. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its current range,  abundance and ecological requirements, especially in Alagoas and Pernambuco. Determine its current status in Venezuela (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Rojas-Suárez and Sharpe 2008)<strong></strong>. Investigate the impact of pesticides on food availability and condition of the birds (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Rojas-Suárez and Sharpe 2008). Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. Enforce legal measures on trapping and trade. <p></p>
106008817		distribution	eng	<em>Carduelis yarrellii</em> is known from two widely disjunct regions 3,500 km apart in north <strong>Venezuela</strong> and north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. In Brazil, remaining populations appear to be concentrated in Alagoas, with recent records from Pedra Talhada, Murici and Usina Laginha. There are recent records from more than 20 sites in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (S. Aline Roda<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, including Saltinho, Sierra Grande Caramarigbe, Bitury, Caetes, Caruaru, Ibimirim and Serra Negra in Pernambuco, Serra da Capivara in Piauí (Olmos 1993)<strong></strong>, and near Jeremoabo in Bahia. There have been no records from Ceará or Paraíba since 1958 and 1957, respectively. It was considered locally common in Pernambuco and Alagoas, but rare elsewhere, in the 1980s. There are just two recent records from Pernambuco (S. Aline Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, one of which may have involved individuals released after confiscation by inspectors of the illegal animal trade. Very few birds observed were at Murici in 1996-1999 (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999). This suggests a sharp decline in range and numbers. The population in Venezuela is confined to two sites in south-east Carabobo (Rojas-Suárez and Sharpe 2008) and is likely derived from escaped cagebirds (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011); indeed, several other exotic cagebird species have become established as feral populations in the same area (e.g. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). There are additional unverified reports from Carabobo (R. Restall <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> and from Monagas and southern Bolívar states  (Rojas-Suárez and Sharpe 2008). <p></p>
106008817		habitat	eng	It has been found in caatinga, forest edge, second growth, plantations, croplands and even large urban centres at elevations below 550 m. Very little is known of its ecology but it may, like its congener the Red Siskin <em>C. cucullatus</em>, need to utilise forest seasonally or even daily. In Saltinho, nests were found in exotic pine <em>Pinus </em>spp<em>. </em>trees (S. Aline Roda<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008817		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106008817		threats	eng	It suffers from high volume, illegal trade on both national and international markets. In the 1980s, up to 700 birds were seen at the Fortaleza bird market, and 60-100 appeared seasonally at the Caxias market in Rio de Janeiro. It may also be threatened by pesticide applications (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Rojas-Suárez and Sharpe 2008). <p></p>
106008818		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in Venezuela, and has recently been declared legally protected in Guyana. The Environmental Protection Agency in Guyana has designated South Rupununi Conservation Society (SRCS) the lead agency for protection and conservation of the species.  SRCS is currently conducting research on red siskins in partnership with members of local communities. Much of the known Guyanese range is on a cattle ranch, the managers of which are conservation-minded (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. In Venezuela, it is reputed to have occurred in Guatopo and Terepaima National Parks but there have been no records for many years (J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. A planned reintroduction project on Trinidad has been suspended because of disease problems (J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2000). Some education and control programmes undertaken in the past have led to an increase in pressure from trade (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995)<strong></strong>. A captive breeding project exists in the US (American Federation of Aviculture 2003), now run by the National Finch and Softbill Society (NFSS) under the Finch Save Program. The NFSS maintains an on-line database of captive bred birds for for private breeders, and conducts an annual on-line census of private captive breeding stock (P. Hansen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It has been identified as one of the four highest priority bird species for conservation in Venezuela (Rodríguez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess current status in national parks (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Survey known range in Venezuela (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Colombia and Puerto Rico, as well as intervening areas of suitable habitat. Coordinate captive-breeding efforts internationally (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Raise public awareness (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Improve the legislation  for the protection of this species (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Investigate the possibilty of captive breeding and reintroduction programmes (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Develop an effective management plan to ensure the protection of the Guyanese population (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008818		distribution	eng	<em>Carduelis cucullata</em> was common in the early 20th century but has become extremely rare in a now fragmented range. It once occurred throughout the foothills of northern <strong>Venezuela</strong> (15 states), but recent sightings are restricted to just seven states (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C. J. Sharpe<em> in litt</em>. 2000,<strong><sup></sup></strong> Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has disappeared from Trinidad, where it was never anything other than rare, and a small population persists in Norte de Santander, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where a record in February 2000 (López-Lanús 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> was apparently the first since 1986. A population in <strong>Puerto Rico </strong>(<strong>to</strong> <strong>USA</strong>), derived from escaped cage-birds, has undergone a marked decline and there are very few recent records (J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2000, R. Perez Rivera per J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt.</em> 2000). In 2000, a new population was discovered in southwestern <strong>Guyana</strong>, c.950 km from the nearest Venezuelan locality, is estimated to number in the low hundreds to low thousands (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003, Janki, M. <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. The remaining population elsewhere has been estimated in the high hundreds or low thousands, but the paucity of recent records indicates that this may be an overestimate. In Venezuela its distribution and population are estimated to be less than 20% of the original sizes (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<p></p>
106008818		habitat	eng	It is found between 100-1,500&#160;m (Rojas-Suárez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), moving semi-nomadically and altitudinally (seasonally and daily) between moist evergreen forest, dry deciduous woodland and associated edge habitats, shrubby grassland and pastures. The main breeding period is from April to early June, with a secondary period in November and December. The nest is placed in clumps of <em>Tillandsia</em> bromeliads in tall trees and, in Guyana, in dense terminal clusters of leaves in the crown of <em>Curatella</em> trees (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003). Breeding territories in Guyana were densely packed, apparently due to a superabundance of fruiting mistletoe (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The diet also includes fruit (e.g. <em>Ficus</em> spp.), flower buds, and seeds of grasses and herbaceous plants (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003). <p></p>
106008818		population	eng	A previous estimate of a population in the low thousands in Guyana, based on the observation of 127 individuals, may be too high, with the actual population potentially numbering in the low hundreds (M. Janki <i>in litt.</i> 2005). The Venezuelan population is likely to be 250-1,000 individuals, although there are more optimistic estimates of up to 4,000 birds. The total population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008818		threats	eng	It is subject to enormous, long-term (and since the 1940s, illegal) pressure from trappers, primarily because of its capacity to hybridise with canaries. Although trappers are active in the area of the Guyanese population, they claim that there is no active market for the species (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2003). Intensive agriculture continues to reduce the extent of available habitat. Captive-breeding programmes are hampered by disease and hybrid stock (J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2000). It is considered nationally Critically Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106008819		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106008820		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008821		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in six protected areas in Ecuador: Machalilla National Park and Pacoche Marine and Coastal Wildlife Refuge in Manabí  (Solano <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and Cerro Blanco Protection Forest, Guayas, Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve, National Recreational Area of Parque Lago and Isla Santay National Recreational Area, Guayas (Wege and Long 1995; A. Agreda <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In Peru it is found in  the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve, Tumbes (Wege and Long 1995).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research its habitat requirements, ecology and distribution  and better determine its conservation status based on its dependence on deciduous forest<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong></strong>. Investigate the nature of seasonal or nomadic movements (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong></strong>. Ensure strict management of Machalilla National Park (Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong></strong> and other national reserves in western Ecuador. <p></p>
106008821		distribution	eng	<em>Carduelis siemiradzkii</em> is confined to south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manabí, Santa Elena, Guayas and Loja) and adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes). It is uncommon to rare, being considered relatively common in only two areas.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008821		habitat	eng	It inhabits semi-arid scrub and dry forest, also forest-edge tall grass and scrub, from near sea-level to 750&#160;m. It has also been recorded in grassland and semi-humid forest edge (A. Agreda <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). During fieldwork in July-September 1996, it was not encountered within intact forest, and it is reasonably tolerant of heavily disturbed habitats, with records from central Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. However, it may depend on deciduous forest during part of its life-cycle. Most localities appear to be close to the forest-arid scrub interface (Ridgely <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, with the exception of records on the coast of Tumbes, Isla Puná, Guayas and a locality about which there is some confusion - Balzar Mountains, Manabí. Breeding is apparently during the wet season in January-May. It may undertake seasonal or nomadic movements, and may respond to climatic events such as El Niño (Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is generally seen in groups, sometimes as large as 30 individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008821		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008821		threats	eng	Threats to this little-known species are unclear but, if it is dependent on deciduous forest during part of its life-cycle, it is probably seriously threatened by deforestation. Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade, as a result of clearance for agriculture, and intense grazing by goats and cattle (<strong></strong>Dodson and Gentry 1991, Pople <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Even if the species is not entirely dependent on deciduous forest during part of its life-cycle, the complete loss of forest patches is still likely to be leading to declines in overall habitat suitability<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Dodson and Gentry 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Changes in agricultural practice, e.g. pesticide use, could also influence this species if it uses semi-agricultural habitats. <p></p>
106008822		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008823		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106008824		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008825		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106008826		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106008827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106008830		distribution	eng	This species breeds in central and southern California and western Arizona, USA, and in northwestern Baja California, Mexico (AOU 1983). Its wintering range extends through and beyond its breeding range, into northern California, central Arizona, southwestern New Mexico and formerly extreme western Texas, USA (AOU 1983), and Sonora and probably Chihuahua in Mexico (Howell and Webb 1995a).
106008830		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid to semi-arid open deciduous pine-oak woodland, oak woodland, chaparral, and pinyon-juniper vegetation, often near water (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a). The species occurs from sea level to 2,500 m (Howell and Webb 1995a).
106008831		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106008832		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12,000,000-29,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 36,000,000-87,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73,500,000-348,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008835		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 170,000-760,000 breeding pairs, equating to 510,000-2,280,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population
106008836		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10,000,000-28,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 30,000,000-84,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 40,500,000-168,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008837		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008838		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Although Daalo is a Forest Reserve, the current political situation in Somalia means that this provides no legal protection whatsoever. No conservation action or fieldwork has been undertaken in recent years. In 2010 there were efforts in place to control erosion at Daalo (N. Borrow <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010)<strong></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Once conditions permit, conduct surveys to establish the species's range, distribution and population status. Investigate its habitat requirements. Identify any threats to its existence. When feasible, protect any remaining areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106008838		distribution	eng	<em>Carduelis johannis</em> is recorded from two small areas (Daalo and Mashacaleed) of the northern <strong>Somalia</strong> highlands, where it has been described as common but very local (Ash and Miskell 1998)<strong></strong>. The range appears to extend from an unknown distance west of the Daalo junction on the Ceerigaabo-Maydh road, and to the east through Mashacaleed and at least as far as Moon (J. E. Miskell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). It is found in some numbers around Mt. Surad Cad and Daalo IBA, but juniper forest is more degraded and the species is much less common in the  Mashacaleed-Moon area (J. E. Miskell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010).<strong></strong><p></p>
106008838		habitat	eng	The species occurs in both open country and juniper woodland<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Daalo, birds were recorded arriving at the locality an hour and a half after sunrise and leaving by midday, spending the morning feeding on seeds of grasses and sage <em>Salvia</em>, drinking, and also spending much time sitting in elevated dead branches on trees (<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the Moon/Ragad site, birds have been recorded drinking from a stream and alighting on a vertical cliff-face (<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although this species has been recorded as being associated with junipers, no preference for junipers was observed (<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Daalo, all 19&#160;birds netted were males (<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Earlier field studies have also found no females at Daalo, suggesting they may be incubating eggs some distance away. The breeding biology of the species remains unknown (<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008838		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106008838		threats	eng	Reports from 1998 that juniper woodland in this species's range has been completely cleared (<strong></strong>J.&#160;S.&#160;Ash <em>in litt</em>. 1999) appear to have proved unfounded, as a visit in 2010 found the forest to be in reasonable condition, with little evidence of tree-felling (N. Borrow <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The chronic and continuing political crisis in Somalia may be causing as yet undocumented loss of habitat.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008839		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Clement 1999).
106008840		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and abundant in some areas in the non-breeding season (Clement 1999).
106008841		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common or locally common and abundant in some areas in the non-breeding   season and during migration (Clement 1999), while national population   estimates include: &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000   wintering individuals &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008842		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number &gt;&#160; c.200,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while the population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008844		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for species at the type-locality and on other high altitude plateaux in the area. <p></p>
106008844		distribution	eng	<em>Leucosticte sillemi</em> has been described from two specimens collected in 1929 on a barren plateau at 5,125 m in southern Xinjiang Autonomous Region, <strong>China</strong> (in an area under Chinese administration but also claimed by India). Its population is unknown, but it is presumably localised and scarce. One of the birds collected was a juvenile with wings not yet fully grown and the collector considered that the birds had either bred close to where they were collected or on the nearby peaks in the Kunlun Shan range.<em> <p></p></em>
106008844		habitat	eng	The type-locality is a barren plateau at 5,125 m. It is probably resident at the type-locality, as the adult collected was in full moult in September. <p></p>
106008844		population	eng	This species is only known from two specimens and as such no population estimates are available.
106008844		threats	eng	No threats are known and there are unlikely to be any in the remote area from which it is known. <p></p>
106008845		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to scarce (Clement 1999).
106008847		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 11,000-21,000 breeding pairs, equating to 33,000-63,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms   &lt;5% of the global range.
106008848		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 520-5,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,560-15,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106008849		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,000-6,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,000-18,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106008850		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although rare or scarce in some places (Clement 1999), while national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China; possibly c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008851		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or rare and little known (Clement 1999).
106008852		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008854		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,000,000-6,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,000,000-18,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 37,500,000-366,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population sizes have been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008855		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the population and its trends. Determine what the threats to the species are and develop appropriate conservation actions. Work with owners and managers of montane pine forests to ensure that logging practices are beneficial to the species.  <p></p>
106008855		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Carpodacus</em></span><em> <span class="SpellE">cassinii </span></em>is found throughout the conifer belts of North         America's western interior mountains, from southern British Columbia         and southern Alberta in <strong>Canada</strong>, south through the Rocky         Mountains of the <strong>USA</strong> to wintering populations in northern <strong>Mexico</strong> (Clement <em>et al.</em> 1993, Hahn 1996).         Migration is erratic, dependent on food supply in the breeding range (Clement <em>et al.</em> 1993, Hahn 1996). Population trends should therefore         probably be viewed with some caution, due to apparent lack of site         fidelity (Hahn 1996), but the species has declined by 2.3%         annually from 1966 to 2002 (J. Wells and K. Rosenberg <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </em>2003). </span>
106008855		habitat	eng	Inhabits montane pine forests. <p></p>
106008855		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. PIF North American Landbirds Conservation Plan (2004).  <p></p>
106008855		threats	eng	There         is little information on potential threats to <em>C. <span class="SpellE">cassinii</em>,         but a preference for open forest habitat suggests that selective logging         or small-scale clear-cutting will not be deleterious to this species (Hahn 1996).         </span>
106008856		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpodacus mexicanus</span> is a North American species, with a native distribution ranging from southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada </span>through the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span>. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">macgregori</span> was endemic to the island of San Benito, Mexico, but became extinct in the mid-1900s (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).
106008857		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over much of its range (Clement 1999).
106008858		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very little known and rare (Clement 1999).
106008859		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008860		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or uncommon (Clement 1999), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008861		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce, although locally common in winter (Clement 1999).
106008862		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008863		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   locally common or scarce (Clement 1999), while national population estimates   include: &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000   wintering individuals in Korea; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008864		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or uncommon, although locally common in winter (Clement 1999).
106008865		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008866		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008867		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008868		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008869		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5,100-10,000 breeding pairs, equating to 15,300-30,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106008870		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008871		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and little known (Clement 1999).
106008872		distribution	eng	<em>Chaunoproctus ferreorostris </em>is only known from specimens collected in 1827 and 1828 on Chichi-jima, Ogasawara-shoto (Peel Island, Bonin), <strong>Japan</strong> (Brazil 1991). It could not be found on Peel by Simpson in 1854, but may have survived until 1890, when it was reported to Holst by locals<strong> </strong>(Morioka 1992).  <p></p>
106008872		habitat	eng	Nothing is known of its ecology<strong> </strong>(Morioka 1992) apart from Kittlitz's description (Greenway 1967), "this bird lives on Bonin-sima, alone or in pairs, in the forest near the coast. It is not common but likes to hide, although of a phlegmatic nature and not shy. Usually it is seen running on the ground, only seldom high in the trees."<strong></strong><p></p>
106008872		threats	eng	It seems reasonable to surmise from its ecology that its extinction resulted from the deforestation of the islands, and the introduction of cats and rats<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106008873		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.4,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in China, c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in   Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008874		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008875		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008876		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 260,000-1,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 780,000-3,300,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008877		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A UK Biodiversity Action Plan is being implemented. A survey was conducted in 2008 to assess the current population size (Summers and Buckland in press). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further studies to establish whether <em>L. scotica </em>is best adapted to native Scots pine or to plantations of non-native species (and therefore establish the degree of threat it faces). <p></p>
106008877		distribution	eng	<I>Loxia scotica</I> occurs in Scotland, <B>UK</B>, where it is mainly restricted to the eastern Highlands within which core areas are Nairn, Moray and Banff, extending down into lower Deeside, and in Sutherland (Summers and Buckland in press). It is likely that there are shifts in the distribution of the population in response to regional fluctuations in the cone crops of conifers, particularly those of Scots pine <I>Pinus sylvestris</I>  (Tucker and Heath 1994, I. Bainbridge and R. Summers <I>in litt. </I>1999). The population size was estimated at 1,500 adult birds in the early 1970s and at estimate of 300-1250 pairs in 1988. Surveys during 1995-2003 using an apparently diagnostic excitement call to locate the species found it in 94 woods during the breeding season (Summers <I>et al. </I>2004), but as birds are likely to move seasonally and this study was carried out over several years it is hard to be sure how much duplication is involved. Using the same diagnostic excitement call, a recent study has estimated its population to number 13,600 post-juvenile individuals (Summers and Buckland in press).
106008877		habitat	eng	It inhabits both semi-natural stands of Scots pine <em>Pinus sylvestris</em> and conifer plantations. <p></p>
106008877		population	eng	A survey using playback has estimated the population at 13,600 mature individuals. This roughly equates to 20,000 individuals in total.
106008877		threats	eng	Suitable semi-natural habitat has declined from approximately 15,000 km<sup>2</sup> to fragments totalling 160 km<sup>2</sup> over the last 5,000 years. However, the amount of plantation woodland has increased substantially during the 20th century. <p></p>
106008878		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 15,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5,800,000-13,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 17,400,000-39,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 72,500,000-780,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000   wintering individuals in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   possibly c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding   pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008879		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         The vast majority of the population is in Sierra de Baoruco National         Park, but there is no active protection and clearance for agriculture         is widespread, especially in the border region (Clement <em>et al.</em> 1993, Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000). It has also been found in Armando         Bermudez National Park in the Cordillera Central (D. C. Wege <em>pers. obs.</em> 1999)         and Macaya Biosphere Reserve (Rimmer et al 2004). A recovery plan was         published in 1992 (Ottenwalder 1992b). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Determine accurately the status and distribution of the species and its         habitat (Ottenwalder 1992b). Protect large tracts of mature pine forest         over a range of elevations and geographic locations (Benkman 1994, Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000). Work with local communities to ensure         the protection of the Sierra de Baoruco National Park.
106008879		distribution	eng	<em>Loxia         megaplaga</em> occurs primarily in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican         Republic</strong>, where it was not recorded from 1930-1970 (Dod 1978, Clement <em>et al.</em> 1993). Several birds were found in the Blue         Mountains of Jamaica in the early 1970s, but there have been no         subsequent records (Dod 1978). In Haiti, it is known from the         Massifs de la Selle (Bond 1979) and de la Hotte (Woods and Ottenwalder 1986, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Dávalos and Brooks 2001), including the Macaya Biosphere         Reserve where small flocks were recorded in 2004 (Rimmer et al 2004).         In the Dominican Republic, it occurs mostly in the Sierra de Baoruco,         with occasional records from the Cordillera Central (Smith 1997).         Numbers presumably declined between the mid-1920s and mid-1960s in         response to habitat loss, but by 1978 the species was thought to be         recovering (Woods and Ottenwalder 1986). The population apparently fluctuates         depending on food availability (Benkman 1994, Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000),         but was estimated as c.3,375 individuals following surveys in the         Sierra de Baoruco between 1996-1999 (Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000).
106008879		habitat	eng	It         is restricted to pine <em>Pinus occidentalis</em> forests, mostly at high         elevations, and feeds exclusively on pine-seeds (Woods and Ottenwalder 1986).         There is a large pine-cone crop about every three years, but crops in         other years are small or fail altogether (Benkman 1994).         Fluctuations in pine-cone abundance are not synchronous, and birds are         nomadic in response to food availability, the species has been recorded         as low as 540 m and as high as 2,600 (Benkman 1994, Latta <em>et al.</em> 2006). It breeds         between January and April, with the timing probably depending on the         cone crop (Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000, Latta <em>et al</em>. 2002). The nest is         usually built high up in the branches of pine trees (Bond 1979, Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000).
106008879		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 600-3,375 individuals, roughly equating to 400-2,300 mature individuals.
106008879		threats	eng	Logging          has been reduced since the mid-1960s, but clearance for  small-scale         agriculture continues to fragment remaining habitat (Dod 1978,  Bond 1979, Woods and Ottenwalder 1986, Ottenwalder 1992b). This  presumably isolates         populations, making them susceptible to local pine-cone failures  (Benkman 1994).         Parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> may be a         problem (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998), but this seems unlikely since <em>M.         bonariensis</em> is primarily a coastal species in the Sierra de Baoruco (Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000).         The principal threat may now be uncontrolled stand replacement fires,         which burn more of the remaining pine habitat than can be replaced         through regeneration (Latta <em>et al</em>. 2000).
106008880		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008881		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008882		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common (Clement 1999).
106008883		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008884		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common, although very rare in Sikkim and Bhutan (Clement 1999), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Taiwan (Brazil 2009).
106008885		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7300000-14000000 breeding pairs, equating to 21900000-42000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44700000-168000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008886		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected under Portuguese law. Pico da Vara/Ribeira do Guilherme has been designated as a Special Protected Area, and this was enlarged to 6,067 ha in 2005 (LIFE Priolo Project 2007)<strong></strong>. Ecological research was conducted during 1991-1993 and habitat management began in 1995. A short booklet on the species has been distributed to schools in São Miguel. A species action plan was published in 1996, and a second action plan was produced in 2009 (Teodósio <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. A number of actions have already been implemented as part of an ongoing EU LIFE-Nature project for the species, including the development of a management plan for the SPA, the clearance of invasive plant species and replanting with native species in over 70 ha in the core of the species's range and the planting of traditional fruit trees at lower altitudes (LIFE Priolo Project 2007; Teodósio 2005;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Teodósio 2006). During 2005-2007, 156 individuals were captured and colour-ringed (Ceia 2008), and 'visual recapture' monitoring of these birds continues (SPEA 2009)<strong></strong>. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian SPEA (Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves) are implementing the following actions (SPEA 2009): habitat management including the creation of fruit tree orchards, clearance of alien invasive plant species and planting native species in the core area and buffer zones; raising public awareness through production of a website, CD-ROM, brochures and school kits, and through collaboration with the regional Ministry of Tourism on nature trails and tourist information; evaluating the economic benefits of the project and analysing the ecosystem services offered by the protected area; establishing an interactive Environmental Interpretation Centre with displays about the species, native laurel forest and the threats both face; and researching and monitoring population size, distribution and habitat quality. The first complete census took place in 2008, involving 48 volunteers surveying all suitable habitat in a single day (<strong></strong>SPEA2009)<strong></strong>. The São Miguel Natural Park, including Pico de Vara SPA, was classified in July 2008, and a management plan is to be developed by the regional government. In September 2006, recently fledged juveniles were seen at Salto do Cavalo (R. Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue and expand the population monitoring scheme. Investigate the possibility of breeding at Salto do Cavalo. Continue the removal and exclusion of exotic flora. Continue the replanting of native vegetation (particularly key food plants). Monitor the species's response to ongoing habitat restoration. Promote land use changes in the buffer areas around the SPA. Investigate the impact of rat predation on nesting success. <p></p>
106008886		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhula murina</em> is endemic to the Azores, <strong>Portugal</strong>, where it is confined to the east of the island of São Miguel. It was locally abundant in the 19th century, when it was regarded as a pest of fruit orchards, but became rare after 1920 as a result of forest clearance and hunting. It was previously thought that the species was almost entirely confined to c.6 km<sup>2</sup> of native forest on the slopes around Pico da Vara. However, a more complete survey in 2008 revealed that the species occupies only 83km<sup>2</sup>, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 144 km<sup>2</sup> (Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011a). Estimates based on annual point count surveys between 2002 and 2005 range between 203 and 331 individuals (Ramos <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, whereas analysis of ringed birds between 2005 and 2008 gives a total population estimate of 1,608 ± 326 mature individuals (Monticelli <em>et al.</em> 2010), and a study using distance-sampling methods in 2008 gave an estimate of 1,064 ± 304 individuals (Ceia<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2011a).<br/><p></p>
106008886		habitat	eng	This species appears to depend on the native laurissilva forest during the winter and spring , although seeds from the &#160;exotic <span style="font-style: italic;">Clethra arborea</span> may be a critical food in December-January (Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 20<span style="">11b</span>). In the summer and autumn (May-November) its habitat use is more conservative, and birds utilise bare ground, vegetation less than two metres high and also forest margins. Exotic vegetation such as plantations of Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> within 200 m of native forest are also used during summer (Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).  The diet comprises of at least 37 different plants of which 13 are known to be important (Ramos 1995). The species appears entirely dependent on native forest for food during many months of the year (Ramos 1995, Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011b). Movements of up to 5.8 km between native forest patches have  been recorded as birds move to feed on ripening seeds (Ceia 2008). Birds breed from mid-June to late August, with a clutch size of 3 eggs (Teodósio <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
106008886		population	eng	Based on the probability of re-sighting ringed birds and observations between 2006-2008 the population has been estimated at 1,608 ± 326 mature individuals, or c.800 pairs, roughly corresponding with a 2008 estimate of 1,064 ± 304 individuals  obtained through distance-sampling methods and range size analysis, thus a population of c.1,300 individuals is estimated, roughly equivalent to 860-870 mature individuals.
106008886		threats	eng	The historical decline and its extremely small range are believed to be a consequence of the widespread clearance of native forest for forestry plantations and agriculture. The spread of alien invasive plant species (especially <em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em>, <em>Clethra arborea</em> and <em>Pittosporum undulatum</em>), which have largely overrun the remaining patches of natural vegetation, suppress the natural fruit, seed and bud food supply to the species (G. Hilton <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The species exhibits a preference for non-invaded laurel forest habitat (Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), and is entirely absent from highly invaded areas (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. undulatum</span> copses; Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Food shortages are potentially a problem throughout the year, but are most severe in late winter (Ceia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011b). Random environmental and demographic factors can affect such small populations and inbreeding may reduce reproductive output. Predation by introduced rats and mustelids may also be affecting nesting success (G. Hilton <em>in litt</em>. 2006; Ceia 2008; Teodósio <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106008887		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,400,000-4,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 7,200,000-12,600,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 14,700,000-50,400,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008888		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   locally common, scarce or irregular (Clement 1999), while national population   estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.50   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Japan and   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106008889		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as   common or locally common and abundant in some places (Clement 1999), while   national population estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals   in China; &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Korea; c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in   Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008890		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).
106008891		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common, local or scarce (Clement 1999).
106008892		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Clement 1999).
106008893		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
106008895		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106008896		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local, fairly common or rare (Clement 1999).
106008897		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Nihoa is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and the Papahânaumokuâkea Marine National Monument, and legal access is controlled by a permit system that is restricted largely to biologists, researchers and cultural practitioners. Strict protocols are followed to ensure that permitted visitors do not accidentally introduce new species via seeds, eggs or insects travelling on clothes and equipment. Visiting scientists make regular efforts to control one of the three species of alien plant on Nihoa by hand weeding (Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. An attempted introduction to French Frigate Shoals in 1967 failed (Berger 1972)<strong></strong>.  A process to evaluate and prioritise potential translocation sites throughout the archipelago for this species (and the other two Northwestern Hawaiian Island passerines) is currently underway.  Disease susceptibility may preclude reintroduction of the Nihoa Finch to the Main Hawaiian Islands, and translocation efforts may focus on the Northwestern Islands.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring. Ensure strict protocols prevent further accidental introductions of alien species. Introduce a population to Kure atoll and (following removal of mice and mosquitos) to Midway atoll. Restore another island for future translocation. Determine whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Cenchrus echinatus</span> occurs on Nihoa and if so, remove it and and monitor the situation closely.<br/>  <p></p>
106008897		distribution	eng	<em>Telespiza ultima</em> once occurred at least on the island of Molokai in the Main Hawaiian Islands, but was extirpated in prehistory probably by a combination of predation by introduced mammals and habitat loss (Morin and Conant 2002)<strong></strong>.  Today, this species is restricted to the steep, rocky island of Nihoa in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) (Berger 1972, Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Numbers fluctuate (James and Olson 1991, Morin and Conant 2002), although some variation may be due to differences in survey methods and time of year. Numbers on Nihoa have ranged from 6,686 in 1968 to 946 in 1987 (James and Olson 1991, Morin and Conant 2002). The most recent population estimate based on surveys in 2007 is 2,807 (± 744, 95% CI) individuals.<br/><p></p>
106008897		habitat	eng	It occurs in low shrubs and grasses covering some two-thirds (0.43 km<sup>2</sup>) of the island (Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, invertebrates, other plant parts and eggs (Berger 1972, Morin and Conant 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in cavities in cliffs, rock crevices or in piles of loose rock (Berger 1972, Morin and Conant 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008897		population	eng	Surveys conducted in March 2007 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recorded 2807 ±744 (95% CI) individuals, which is rounded here to 2,060-3,550 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,400-2,400 mature individuals.
106008897		threats	eng	It is thought that the presence of the introduced grasshopper <em>Schistocerca nitens</em> on Nihoa, and its periodic irruptions which lead to the virtual defoliation of the island, may be a significant threat to the species. Other potential threats include the introduction of detrimental non-native species and diseases and stochastic events (Berger 1972, James and Olson 1991, Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997, H. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, such as droughts, storms and hurricanes. Fire is a past and potential threat (Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997, J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. There has been a report that the invasive weed <span style="font-style: italic;">Cenchrus echinatus </span>has been sighted on Nihoa island (E. VanderWerf pers comm. to M. Morin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). This plant reduces habitat quality and so is a potential threat to the species.  <p></p>
106008898		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Laysan is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. The alien grass <em>Cenchrus echinatus</em> is believed to have been eradicated (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003)<strong> </strong>and native bunchgrass is recovering in response (M. Reynolds <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring on Laysan. Census the population on Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Ensure strict procedures to prevent the accidental introduction of exotic plants and animals by visitors. Eradicate exotic plants and invertebrates<strong></strong>. Restore the indigenous plant community (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. Establish two more wild populations (S. Conant <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008898		distribution	eng	<em>Telespiza cantans</em> is confined to Laysan in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>U.S.A.</strong>), as well as on two very tiny islands in the Hermes and Pearl Atoll, with around 30-50 birds, down from 772 in 1986 (Morin and Conant 2002<strong></strong>), persisting from an introduction in 1967 (S. Conant <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. On Midway Island, an introduced population succumbed to rats during the 1940s (Fisher and Baldwin 1946)<strong></strong>. In 1903, the introduction of rabbits to Laysan led to a serious decline in population size, but the species recovered rapidly after the rabbits were exterminated in 1923. The population numbered 1,000 individuals in 1928, c.5,000 in 1951 (Berger 1972)<strong></strong>, and apparently fluctuated between 5,000 and 20,000 over the period 1968-1990, with a mean of 11,044 (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003); this apparent fluctuation may be due, at least in part, to differing methods and seasons of censuses (Morin and Conant 1994)<strong></strong>. There has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of Laysan Finch on Southeast Island, at Pearl and Hermes Reef, since the successful invasion of golden crown beard <em>Verbesina encelioides</em>,<em> </em>which provides sheltered nesting habitat and additional food. The negative impacts of <em>Verbesina </em>on seabirds, which become entangled in the plants when returning to nest sites, dictates however that it be removed from the atoll in spite of its apparent benefits for <em>T. cantans </em>(S. Conant<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008898		habitat	eng	It is a primarily herbivorous omnivore (Berger 1972, Conant 1988)<strong></strong>, feeding on <strong></strong> insects, flowers, fruits, stems, seedlings and roots (Morin and Conant 2002)<strong></strong>. It survived the defoliation of Laysan by introduced rabbits, apparently by feeding on bird eggs, persistent seeds and carrion (Berger 1972, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. On Laysan Island it nests almost exclusively in bunchgrass <em>Eragrostis variabilis</em>, but on Pearl and Hermes Atoll where bunchgrass is uncommon, the introduced birds nest in other plants or in man-made debris that floats ashore (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008898		population	eng	The species's population fluctuates widely, probably averaging around 5,000 birds. Carrying capacity for the species has been estimated at 10,000 individuals (M. Morin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and so its population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106008898		threats	eng	Today, the primary forces regulating this species's population are storms and drought, which can cause almost total nest failure (<strong></strong>Morin 1992a)<strong></strong>. Global warming is a further cause for concern, given that the maximum altitude on Laysan is only 12 m and that, as well as predicted sea-level rises of 0.5-2.0 m by 2100, the frequency and severity of hurricanes and droughts are expected to increase as a consequence (McNeely <em>et al.</em> 1995, Moulton and Marshall 1996)<strong></strong>. In the past, invasive alien plants have reduced nesting habitat (Gagné 1988, Morin <em>et al.</em> 1997, M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. Additional potential threats include the accidental introduction of non-native plants, animals and diseases (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2003)<strong></strong>. A population crash followed the first attempts at <em>Verbesina</em> eradication in the Pearl and Hermes Reef Atoll, although <em>Verbesina</em> is now recovering.<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong> <p></p>
106008899		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent reports of this species come from three protected areas (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A Rare Bird Search Project was implemented to find the species and make recommendations for its conservation, but none were located (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral pig elimination is being carried out in a number of protected areas in Hawai`i (Anderson and Stone 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong> which could hold remnant populations. The Kaua`i Watershed Alliance and The Nature Conservancy are considering fencing (to exclude herbivores and possibly other predators) the north-eastern section of the Alakai Plateau on Kaua`i, where the species was last recorded. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Perform further surveys to locate any remaining populations, following up unconfirmed reports as a priority. Manage ecosystems intensively in areas where the species could still occur (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plant and encourage food-plants in areas where they have been extirpated (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remove feral ungulates (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If birds are found, attempt to increase the population by captive propagation (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. If found, protect nests (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008899		distribution	eng	<em>Psittirostra psittacea</em> was originally widespread in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>),<strong> </strong>but<strong> </strong>was extirpated from O`ahu, Maui, Moloka`i and then Lana`i between 1899 and 1931 (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, it survived in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve into the mid-1970s, with c.62 birds being present during 1968-1973 (USFWS 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but only a few in 1981 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, two in 1989 and none since. On Hawai`i, several populations were present in the early 1980s, with c.394 estimated during 1976-1983 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but, in 1984, a lava-flow from Mauna Loa passed through the Upper Waiakea Forest Reserve, the species's stronghold (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the last confirmed sighting was in 1987 (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, since 1995 there have been unconfirmed reports from Koai`e Stream, Alaka`i (Kaua`i) and Pu`u Maka`ala Natural Area Reserve and Kapapala-Ka`u Forest Reserve (Hawai`i) (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998, J. Lepson <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The prognosis is poor, especially given the species's preference for lower elevations where habitat loss and the impacts of introduced disease and predators have been most severe, but it cannot yet be presumed to be Extinct until the last areas have been intensively surveyed (S. Fretz, E. Vanderwerf, R. Camp and M. Gorresen <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Any remaining population is likely to be tiny.   <p></p>
106008899		habitat	eng	It is restricted to wet to mesic `ohi`a forest between 800 and 1,900&#160;m, mainly 1,200-1,500&#160;m (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its bill is adapted to feeding on `ie`ie, an understory vine, and outside the `ie`ie fruiting season, it is nomadic in response to seasonal fruit and invertebrate abundance (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106008899		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with unconfirmed reports since 1995, but no confirmed records since 1987.
106008899		threats	eng	Habitat has been lost and modified by logging and agriculture, and `ie`ie has declined because of pressure from introduced rats and ungulates (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral pigs, in particular, are pervasive habitat degraders (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Anderson and Stone 1993, Pratt 1994)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and their activity benefits the introduced mosquito vectors of avian diseases which are implicated in the rapid decline of this species (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt 1994, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially given that its nomadic behaviour may increase its exposure to disease (Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population has been decimated by hurricanes on Kaua`i and lava-flows on Hawai`i (Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998, Snetsinger <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008900		distribution	eng	<em>Dysmorodrepanis munroi </em>is known from only a single specimen collected in 1913, and from single sightings in 1916 and 1918, on Lana'i, Hawaii, <strong>USA</strong> (Munro 1944).  <p></p>
106008900		habitat	eng	It inhabited in montane dry forest at 600-800 m.  <p></p>
106008900		threats	eng	Much of Lana`i was cleared for pineapple plantations in the 1910s, and this, along with predation by cats and rats, presumably drove the species to extinction<strong> </strong>(Snetsinger <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106008901		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's population has been monitored since 1980 (Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. In 1979, 1987 and 1998, federal courts ordered the eradication of feral goats and feral and wild sheep species from the species's habitat on Mauna Kea, and these rulings have remained in effect despite six legal challenges (Banko 2006, P. Banko <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009)<strong></strong>. Forest regeneration has improved as a result, although current efforts to reduce sheep have not been sufficient to allow the complete recovery of mamane forests (Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. Despite such efforts, the species's strong site-tenacity might prevent recolonisation of areas of recovered forest. In 1993, some birds were translocated to a new site where predators were controlled and, although many homed back to their capture site, at least two pairs stayed and bred successfully (Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Six additional translocations have taken place since, and by the end of 2006, 188 wild birds had been translocated from the western to the northern slope of Mauna Kea (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Approximately 34% persisted for longer than two months, and a small colony of up to c.23 birds remained on the northern slope and bred successfully until 2010. Although F2 generation offspring were observed, the colony was not sustainable without additional management (Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and it was extirpated by 2011 (P. Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Egg-laying occurred in 2004, and independent juveniles were produced in every year from 2005-2007 (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. This translocation programme has been aided by a captive breeding programme initiated at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center in 1996 (USFWS 2003, Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. Of 28 captive-reared birds released in 2003-2009, at least 10 persisted in the reintroduction area for at least one year, with 2 males breeding with translocated wild females in the north slope colony before its extipration (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. The construction of a highway through unoccupied, federally designated critical habitat was approved in 1999. A mitigation plan accompanied the development, including the suspension of cattle grazing in pastures adjacent to the species's range. The species's conservation is the subject of detailed research, and funding from the mitigation plan supported translocation research and enabled the expansion or continuation of studies into the species's ecology and limiting factors, mamane ecology, food availability, predator ecology and management, and fire ecology. Habitat restoration and research into restoration methods are on-going (D. Leonard <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Work is being carried out to restore habitat by controlling fountain grass <em>Pennisetum setaceum</em>, which increases the frequency and intensity of fires, and Cape ivy <em>Delairea odorata,</em> which reduces the vigour of native trees (<strong></strong>American Bird Conservancy 2010)<strong></strong>. Hawaii State and federal agencies have begun programmes to control cats and rats (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Reforestation is also taking place on the northern slope of Mauna Kea (American Bird Conservancy 2010)<strong></strong>. Goats have been virtually removed from the mountain (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and the plan to build an 87-km-long fence enclosing all of Palila's critical habitat to prevent the ingress of sheep and goats has been completed (G. Wallace <em>in litt. </em>2009, <strong></strong>American Bird Conservancy 2010)<strong></strong>. The fence is c.2 m high and encloses c.94 % of the species's habitat<strong></strong>. In 2010, a comprehensive fire management plan was being developed for the Mauna Kea area (American Bird Conservancy 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish protocols and make preparations to control fire (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997). Intensify control of mammalian predators (especially feral cats) and grazing ungulates (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, H. Baker and P. Baker <em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, P. Banko <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Continue to expand the application of translocations and captive propagation for introducing the species to currently unoccupied sites within the former range (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and areas where alien grasses and grazing threaten mamane (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Carry out forest restoration research to find ways to accelerate the rehabilitation and regeneration of mamane trees within the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve<strong></strong>. Remove and fence out ungulates from all critical habitat and the mitigation parcels (Banko 2006, C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Continue to restore forest above Hakalau Wildlife Refuge (Benning<em> et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008901		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Big Island in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>U.S.A.</strong>), where it was abundant, although locally distributed, until the beginning of the 20th century, and evidence from the fossil record suggests that the species occurred throughout the archipelago prior to human settlement (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 1997, it occupied an estimated 78 km<sup>2</sup> and numbered 4,396 birds,<strong><sup> </sup></strong> mostly on the western slope of Mauna Kea, where 20.5 km<sup>2</sup> was estimated to hold 72% of the total population (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1997, Banko <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Comparison of annual counts from 1980-2007 suggests that the population size has historically been subject to fluctuations (1,007-6,356 individuals), but since 2003 it has undergone a consistent and rapid decline (58% in the core population between 2003-2007 and projected to reach 96.6% over three generations or 14 years)<strong></strong> (<strong></strong>Leonard <em>et al. </em>2008). In 2007, the population was estimated at 3,866 individuals (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and has been declining since, with data from 2008 estimating a population of 2,640 individuals (<strong></strong>Leonard <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong> and data from 2009 indicating a population of 2,512 individuals (G. Wallace <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Survey results from 2010 suggest that the decline is worsening, with the estimated population size down to only c.1,200 individuals (American Bird Conservancy 2010)<strong></strong>. The species's range remains centred on the western slope, and it has contracted such that c.96% of the population is found in 3,000 ha of forest (G. Wallace <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. It has not been found in annual surveys on the east slope since 2004 (P. Banko <em>in litt.</em> 2007, C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. A small colony of reintroduced individuals has been extirpated on the northern slope (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008901		habitat	eng	It is confined to altitudes of c.2,000-3,000 m, favouring dry mamane and mamane-naio forest. It feeds primarily on mamane seeds, flowers, and insects (Banko <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the availability of mamane seeds affecting productivity and adult survival. In drought years, most birds do not attempt to breed (Jacobi <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species exhibits low rates of reproduction (Banko 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, laying fewer eggs and taking longer to raise its young compared with mainland songbirds (Hess and Banko 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008901		population	eng	Survey results from 2010 suggest that the population numbered c.1,200 individuals, thus the number of mature individuals is estimated to fall in the range of 250-999.
106008901		threats	eng	The most significant declines in this species's range and population are thought to have been caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation and predation by introduced rats prior to Western settlement (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The subalpine forest habitat of this species has been severely overbrowsed by feral and domestic ungulates, and nests and adults are preyed upon primarily by feral cats but also by introduced black rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>, Short-eared Owl <em>Asio flammeus</em>, and rarely Hawaiian Hawk <em>Buteo solitarius</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007, P. Banko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Up to 11% of nests are depredated by feral cats each year (Hess and Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. Grazing by cattle was a historical factor in the species's decline, although cattle are now limited to pastures that are unsuitable for <em>L. bailleui </em>(C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Alien grass cover is high in much of the species's range (Banko 2006)<strong></strong>,  suppressing mamane regeneration and potentially increasing the threat of fire. Increasing human activities, such as military training, could further increase the chances of fire (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2006-2007, there were numerous fires on and near Mauna Kea, and fires in August and September 2010 affected c.560 ha of suitable habitat  on the southern slope of the mountain (American Bird Conservancy 2010)<strong></strong>. A fire in the species's core area could potentially affect 50-90% of the population<strong></strong>. The recent opening of trails for all-terrain vehicles in the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve is a concern (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and may cause disturbance and habitat degradation. Continuing threats include grazing by feral sheep, wild sheep <em>Ovis gmelini musimon</em>, and their hybrids, which slows mamane regeneration (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, Banko 2006, C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and alien insects preying on and parasitising native insects (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, Banko 2006)<strong></strong>, particularly at low elevations (Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. Native caterpillars are an important source of protein for nestlings, and possibly breeding females; however, they are preyed upon by yellow-jacket wasps <em>Vespula pensylvanica</em> and several ant species, particularly Argentine ants <em>Linepithema humile</em>, whilst parasitoid wasps kill the caterpillars by laying their eggs on or inside them (Banko 2006)<strong></strong>. In addition to the aforementioned threats, this species's very restricted range means it could be extirpated by extreme events such as drought and storms (Banko 2006)<strong></strong>, and drought is thought to be contributing to the species's recent decline (C. Farmer <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Demographic patterns of mamane mortality are under investigation, as mamane may be under threat from pathogens (USFWS 2003)<strong></strong>. Climate change may pose a long-term future threat to the species, as drought frequency and intensity are expected to increase at higher elevations (Benning <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Giambelluca and Luke 2007). <p></p>
106008902		distribution	eng	<em>Rhodacanthis flaviceps </em>was probably very rare when discovered and is known from only a handful of skins (now in New York and London) from Kona, Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was last recorded in 1891, and Perkins failed to find it on a visit two years later<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). This or a similar species is also known from the fossil record of O'ahu and Maui<strong> </strong>(James and Olson 1991). <p></p>
106008902		habitat	eng	It inhabited montane koa forest.  <p></p>
106008902		threats	eng	The cause of its extinction is unknown<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), but habitat destruction and the spread of avian malaria are likely to have been responsible.  <p></p>
106008903		distribution	eng	<em>Rhodacanthis palmeri</em> was endemic to Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was considered common by Palmer, Munro and Perkins in the late 19th century, but the latter's specimens from 1896 were the last, and even only ten years later it could not be found by Henshaw<strong> </strong>(Amadon 1950). There are specimens in Cambridge, Harvard, London, New York and Philadelphia<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106008903		habitat	eng	It inhabited koa forest above 1,000 m .   <p></p>
106008903		threats	eng	Though the causes of its extinction are not known, habitat destruction and the introduction of avian malaria are likely to have been responsible.  <p></p>
106008905		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Life history, genetic and demographic studies have been on-going since 2005 (D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The East Maui watershed is cooperatively managed with fencing at c.1,070 m and removal of feral ungulates (Loope and Medeiros 1995, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, conservation practices additionally combat the establishment of alien plants and, since the late 1980s, feral pigs have been controlled <strong></strong>(Loope and Medeiros 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. As a result, the forest understorey has recovered well and non-native plant invasions have slowed (Loope and Medeiros 1995, T. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Rats are being poisoned (J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, although only in a tiny area (H. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. A small population exists in captivity, having bred for the first time in 2000 (Maxfield 2000)<strong></strong>, and numbered 10 individuals (3 males and 7 females) in 2003<strong></strong>. Progeny from this flock will be used for a pilot release programme in the mesic forests of leeward East Maui where weather conditions may result in higher productivity (USFWS 2003)<strong></strong>. The Leeward Haleakala Watershed Restoration Partnership has been established to restore the south side of Maui's forests, and the state of Hawaii is working on fencing the leeward side which still contains some old growth koa - it is possible this may become a further suitable site for the establishment of a population (H. Mounce <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Continue studies of life-history features (D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Complete and routinely check ungulate exclusion fences (Stone and Loope 1987, Lockwood <em>et al.</em> 1994, Loope and Medeiros 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Conduct research to assess the impact of ungulate exclusion. Complete ungulate eradication programme (Loope and Medeiros 1995, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Control alien plants, including outside the three wildlife protection areas (Loope and Medeiros 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Continue to replant koa forest in areas adjacent to its current distribution (Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Improve techniques for successful captive breeding and release. Begin public outreach concerning the importance and benefits of controlling rodents, and initiate rodent control at important sites (D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106008905		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>U.S.A.</strong>), where it is found on the north-eastern slopes of Haleakala, although fossil evidence indicates that it once occurred in the lowlands and on Moloka'i. During 1976-1983, it was estimated to number c.500 individuals, of which 71% (c.355) occurred above 1,500 m (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. Density surveys in 1997 and 2001 suggested similar numbers in the 35 km<sup>2</sup> of remaining suitable habitat above 1,525 m (Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997, D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>, and the number of birds detected on point counts since 1980 has not altered significantly, but further work is needed to confirm whether the population has genuinely remained stable (H. Mounce <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008905		habitat	eng	It is now restricted to montane mesic and wet forest at 1,200-2,350 m (mainly 1,500-2,100 m), and is absent from adjacent areas dominated by exotic trees (Mountainspring 1987, T. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 1999, D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. This habitat is probably marginal, as heavy rainfall leads to drastic losses during the breeding season (Simon <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. It feeds mainly on the larvae and pupae of wood- and fruit-boring beetles, moths and other invertebrates (Mountainspring 1987, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Range size is c.2.26 ha and territories are defended year-round<strong></strong> (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. The nest is cup-shaped and placed in the outer canopy forks of mature ohia (<em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>), a situation that may afford some protection from introduced predators (Simon <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season (between November and June), one chick is usually raised per year and young are dependent on parents for 5-8 months (Lockwood <em>et al.</em> 1994, T. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. C. Simon <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Simon <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008905		population	eng	Extrapolating density estimates from 2001 over the species's estimated range gives a population estimate of 380-800 birds, roughly equivalent to 250-540 mature individuals (D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).
106008905		threats	eng	From 1945-1995, the invasion of feral pigs on Haleakala caused chronic habitat degradation (Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong></strong> and facilitated the spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes into remote rainforests (Pratt 1994)<strong></strong>. Most of the species's range is now fenced, and the species may respond positively as a result. However, the interaction between malaria and climate change is a potential future threat, as modelling has suggested a possible population decline of c.75% by 2090 (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>Furthermore, having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. Weather influences the survival of young and thus potential recruitment rates (Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997, Becker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. Other limiting factors include predation and competition from exotic bird and insect species (Mountainspring 1987, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Rats have been observed high in native 'olapa trees and are both a potential predator of eggs and young and a potential source of competition for berries (Maui Forest Bird Recovery Project 2008)<strong></strong>. Nest predation by Short-eared Owl (<em>Asio flammeus</em>) has been observed, though its extent and effect is unknown. Removal of small mammal nest predators may result in owl populations switching to a greater proportion of birds in their diet (Mounce 2008)<strong></strong>. Invasive plants represent a threat to habitat and require constant monitoring (D. Leonard <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106008906		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its habitat is partially protected from development by the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and the Kôke`e State Park (P. Roberts<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although so far there has been little or no active management for bird species in these protected areas (R. Camp <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This is changing, however, with the fencing of the top portion of the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve, from within which ungulates will be removed (R. Camp <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct long-term population monitoring (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct research into its biology and limiting factors (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control introduced plants, predators, herbivores, competitors and mosquitoes, especially in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Designate more native forests as legally protected (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reforest some areas with native trees (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008906		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus kauaiensis</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It is common in the uplands including the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and especially in Kôke`e State Park, and an isolated population occurs in the Makaleha Mountains (USFWS 1983, Pratt 1993, Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Historically it ranged down to coastal elevations, as indicated by fossil evidence (P. Roberts<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During 1968-1973, surveys estimated the population at 10,743 (± 970 standard error), with 76% of the population in the "west of Alaka`i" study compartment (USFWS 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Subsequent population estimates suggested that the population was greater than 15,000, possibly up to 20,000 birds, and increasing (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1992, Hurricane Iniki devastated forests throughout Kaua`i and all bird populations on the island appeared to have been drastically reduced (Pratt 1993, 1994)<strong></strong>. However, population estimates suggest that this species has recovered (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998, P. Donaldson <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Foster <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the estimated population in the Alaka`i and Kôke`e areas increasing significantly to around 42,000 individuals in 2000 (Foster <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008906		habitat	eng	Originally, it occurred in native forests throughout Kaua`i. Today, it occurs above 600 m in `ohi`a forest, but is commonest in western koa-`ohi`a forest (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Preference for koa-`ohi`a may be attributable to koa itself (Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, or the abundance of the introduced banana poka in the western parts of its range (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds by gleaning insects from trunks and branches (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and takes insects and nectar from flowers, apparently thriving on banana poka nectar (USFWS 1983, Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It is also an active excavator, hammering and flaking off bark to locate arthropods underneath (T. Snetsinger <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008906		population	eng	The population in the Alaka'i and Koke'e areas alone was estimated at around 42,000 individuals following surveys in 2000, thus the population is placed in the range band for 50,000-99,999 individuals.
106008906		threats	eng	Clearance of the lowland forests on Kaua`i removed most of the habitat used by this species (USFWS 1983, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Current threats include primarily threats introduced by humans, such as cats and rodent predators, disease (carried by introduced mosquitoes), ongoing habitat degradation by ungulates and invasive plants<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and (probably) competition from non-native birds (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. M. Scott <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. Roberts<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increased temperatures and changes to altitudinal rainfall patterns anticipated as climate change progresses, will likely lead to increased disease prevalence within remaining habitat (Benning <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. High densities of this species in an area containing avian malaria suggests some level of resistance (Foster <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The restricted range of this species and its dependence on canopy species makes it vulnerable to catastrophic events such as hurricanes (P. Roberts<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106008907		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Douglas Pratt 2005).
106008908		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Its habitat is protected in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and to some extent in the Kôke`e State Park. An upper portion of the Alaka`a Wilderness Preserve is due to be fenced and ungulates will be removed from inside the fenced area, however other areas of the preserve and state park apparently lack active management (R. Camp <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Control and prevent further introductions of non-native animals and plants, particularly in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Restore habitats (Lepson 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify and encourage disease-resistant lineages, e.g. by translocation, captive propagation (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, provision of supplementary resources, nest protection and introduced predator/competitor control.  <p></p>
106008908		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus parvus</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it occurred almost throughout the island in the 19th century but, by 1900, had become uncommon to rare in lowland forests (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1968-1973, surveys estimated 24,230 birds, largely restricted to upper elevations (USFWS 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys of the Alaka`i and Kôke`e areas in 2000 yielded an estimate of c.34,500 individuals in these areas (Foster <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1992, Hurricane Iniki devastated forests throughout Kaua`i and all bird populations on the island appeared to have been drastically reduced (Pratt 1993, 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it would seem that this species has recovered and appears to be increasing (Pratt 1994, <strong></strong>Foster <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2003, the total population was put at 44,359 individuals (USFWS <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106008908		habitat	eng	It inhabits `ohi`a and native mixed forest mainly above 600 m, but has been found as low as 100 m (especially in the north-west of the island) (USFWS 1983, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Lepson 1997)<strong></strong>, although it is not known whether this is still the case (J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is able to tolerate considerable habitat disturbance, but at lower population densities (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar and arthropods (especially caterpillars and spiders) and nests in `ohi`a trees (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008908		population	eng	The current population has been put at 44,359 individuals (USFWS <I>in litt.</I> 2003), and this is rounded to an estimate of 44,400 individuals.
106008908		threats	eng	From the late 1890s, significant declines have been associated with habitat loss and degradation (either owing to clearance for timber and agriculture, or to introduced herbivores), and the spread of avian diseases (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ongoing development in the Kôke`e area continues to diminish the amount of habitat available, and the spread of exotic plants into native habitats, although tolerated, is associated with lower densities (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced mosquitoes, which spread avian pox and malaria, are now common at 900 m, and may be breeding as high as 1,200 m elevation (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Under a 2<sup>o</sup>C warming scenario and an increase in rainfall over high-elevation forests during the next 100 years, in keeping with climate model predictions for the region, the prevalence of malaria on Kaua`i is predicted to increase within the remaining habitat (Benning <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The 17 <sup>o</sup>C isotherm, below which <em>Plasmodium</em> prevalence peaks, is predicted to shift upwards by around 300 m, decreasing the area of forest where <em>Plasmodium</em> prevalence is limited by 85% (Benning <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral pigs facilitate the spread of both alien plants and mosquitoes and, with other ungulates, continue to degrade native forests (Pratt 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by introduced animals (rats and possibly cats and Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em>) is an additional pressure (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, while other introduced taxa (especially the Japanese White-eye <em>Zosterops japonicus</em>, wasps and ants) compete for arthropod resources (Lepson 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Invasive plants have degraded significant portions of Kôke`e State Park and threaten the remainder of the habitat (P. Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species's restriction to Kaua`i and dependence on canopy species makes it vulnerable to catastrophic events such as hurricanes (P. Roberts <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106008909		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus sagittirostris </em>was only found along the Wailuku river above Hilo on Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong> (Lindsey <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was discovered in 1892<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), and last recorded in 1901<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106008909		habitat	eng	It was restricted to dense, moist ohi'a forest at 152-1220 m.  <p></p>
106008909		threats	eng	This forest was cleared for sugar cane, causing the species's extinction<strong> </strong>(Amadon 1950).  <p></p>
106008911		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Maui, fencing and feral pig eradication has been completed in a c.650&#160;ha area where the male was recorded in 1994 (Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997, P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. In Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, efforts have been made to combat the establishment of alien plants (Loope and Medeiros 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, the Koai`e Stream area has been intensively managed to conserve Puaiohi <em>Myadestes palmeri</em>, and may have helped any <em>H. lucidus</em> that remain in the area (<strong></strong>Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong>Wakelee <em>et al.</em> in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to locate any remaining populations.  If any birds are found, attempt to increase the population by captive propagation (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research competition from exotic bird and insect species (M. Morin <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008911		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus lucidus</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, <strong>U.S.A.</strong><strong> </strong>The nominate subspecies, of O'ahu, went extinct in the mid-late 1800s.<strong> </strong>On Kaua'i, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">hanapepe</span> probably became confined to the Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, <strong></strong>Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>where it was apparently recorded a few times in 1984-1998, although at least some, if not all, of these sightings appear to refer to <em>H. kauaiensis </em>(P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999,  Pratt and Pyle 1999, Pratt and Pyle 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent surveys on Kaua'i have failed to find it, and it seems likely to be extinct (Reynolds and Snetsinger 2001, R. Camp<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Maui, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">affinis </span>was found on the eastern and north-eastern slopes of Haleakala, where there were several unconfirmed detections in 1986-1998, although a single male seen in 1995 (seen by more than one qualified observer and backed up by detailed field notes [Pratt and Pyle 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) in the same place as a report from 1994 provided strong evidence of its persistence (Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 1995, P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999,  Pratt and Pyle 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been no other confirmed sightings since then despite extensive effort in a large proportion of the historic range, including annual surveys by the National Park Service (NPS), two State sanctioned surveys, monthly surveys in Hanawi, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) surveys and efforts by the Maui Forest Bird Recovery team. Although not all of these programmes surveyed locations where the species was last observed, many surveyed highly likely locations (Pratt and Pyle 2000, R. Camp<em> in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (in review) concluded that in all probability this subspecies, and indeed the species, is extinct or functionally extinct. In addition, a recent statistical analysis of physical evidence and independent expert opinion, as part of a study into the burden of proof required for controversial sightings of possibly extinct species, concluded that this species has probably been extinct since the early 20th century; however, when controversial sightings are included in the analysis, the species's extinction is estimated to have occurred since the late 1990s (Roberts <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This discrepancy occurs because some authors regard all sightings since 1900 as unconfirmed and thus controversial (Pratt and Pyle 2000, Roberts <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species, however, should not be reclassified as Extinct until further surveys have eliminated any reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. If any population remains, it is likely to be tiny. <p></p>
106008911		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, wet `ohi`a forest and the higher parts of mesic koa-`ohi`a forest (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Maui, all recent sightings were between 1,450 and 2,000&#160;m, mostly at the lower end of that range (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, the Koai`e Valley (where it was seen in 1995 [<strong></strong>Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998,  Pratt and Pyle 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) is at 1,000-1,300&#160;m (Pratt 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on wood-borers, spiders and beetles (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, <strong></strong>Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987, Conant <em>et al.</em> 1998, Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
106008911		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no confirmed records since 1996, despite surveys.
106008911		threats	eng	The lower-elevation koa forests (possibly the species's key habitat) have been nearly eliminated by cattle-ranching (Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remaining higher-altitude forests are degraded by introduced ungulates (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Loope and Medeiros 1995, Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral pigs facilitate the spread of alien plants and introduced disease-carrying mosquitoes (Pratt 1994, Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong></strong>. On Kaua`i, all bird populations appeared to have been drastically reduced after Hurricane Iniki in 1992 (Pratt 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although some have since recovered. It has been extirpated from the koa-`ohi`a forests of Koke`e, suggesting that it is sensitive to perturbation. Other suggested limiting factors include predation and competition from exotic bird and insect species (P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>Wakelee <em>et al.</em> in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008912		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Populations occur within Ka`u Forest Reserve, the Keauhou Ranch, Olaa/Kilauea partnership area, Kapapala Forest Reserve, Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1996,  J. Lepson <em>in litt</em>. 1999, L. Pejchar<em> in litt</em>. 2007, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and the Kahuku Unit of Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park (acquired in 2003) (Tweed <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat restoration work is underway for this species (S. Fretz, E. Vanderwerf, R. Camp, M. Gorresen and B. Woodworth <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Removal of sheep and mouflon from Mauna Kea has permitted regeneration of mamane forest habitat (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the species is now extinct there (L. Pejchar<em> in litt</em>. 2007, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Removal of cattle and fencing of the Kapapala Forest Reserve and the Pu`u Wa`awa`a Forest Bird Sanctuary has occurred; although the species does not occur in the latter reserve, it could serve as a site for reintroduction (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The removal of cattle, mouflon sheep and pigs from the Kahuku Unit of the national park is expected to benefit the species (T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extensive replanting of koa has occurred at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (~ 4,000 ha) and on Keauhou Ranch<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005, L. Pejchar<em> in litt</em>. 2007, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Both sites have been fenced and ungulates have been removed from significant portions of each site (L. Pejchar<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological research, including demography in different habitat types, partly in preparation for reintroduction to unoccupied restored habitat (T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate how to protect and restore habitat effectively at a landscape level, connecting fragmented populations, and publish the results as an action plan. Conduct research into the impact of alien insect competition for invertebrate food resources (M. Morin <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect remaining old-growth `ohi`a and koa forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur (Ralph and Fancy 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remove feral ungulates from remaining high elevation and old growth forests to allow natural regeneration and possibly increase density of <em>H. munroi</em> populations (USFWS 2003, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Replant koa on exotic grasslands, such as extensive pastures in protected areas, at high elevations (above the disease line) (Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop captive propagation techniques to help speed recovery (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure that protected areas include an adequate number of preferred sap trees ("Aki trees") (Pejchar and Jeffrey 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Incorporate the need for a supply of suitable sap trees (Pejchar and Jeffrey 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> into long-term habitat restoration efforts. Monitor the species's populations in new koa plantations that are replacing exotic grasslands in Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Work with land-owners to combine habitat restoration and the commercial growing of koa trees (Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008912		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus munroi</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA)</strong>, where it was formerly widespread. In 1976-1979 and 1983, surveys estimated c.1,500 birds, with 900 in Hamakua, 500 in Ka`u, 50 on Mauna Kea, and 20 in central Kona (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. In 1990-1995, surveys estimated 1,163, representing a decline of c.22.5% over 13 years, with 1,105 in Hamakua (fragmented into two, possibly four, distinct subpopulations at Keauhou-Kulani, c.312 birds, and north Hamakua, c.793 birds), c.44 in Ka`u, fewer than 10 on Mauna Kea (and only a few males by 1999 [T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong></strong>), and perhaps fewer than 10 in Kona (Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The Mauna Kea population became extinct in 2002 and the species has not been seen in Kona since the late 1990s (L. Pejchar<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Surveys from 1977 to 2003 indicate that the species may have declined in the Keauhou-Kulani area (Gorresen <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. In the Ka`u District of Hawai`i, surveys from 1976 to 2005 indicate that the species has been extirpated from habitat below 1,500 m, with no change in the density of populations at high elevations (Gorresen <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong style=""></strong><span style="">. The species's population in Ka`u was estimated at 1,073 individuals (95% CI: 616-1,869) in 2005 (Gorresen </span><em style="">et al</em>. 2007). It should be noted that this higher population estimate in <strong></strong><span style="">Ka`u</span> does not represent a genuine population increase, but an improvement in survey methodology. Surveys conducted during 2003-2004 in the Kapapala Forest Reserve reported 35 individuals (including 14 families) in c. 650 ha of the reserve (Pratt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106008912		habitat	eng	It occurs mainly in old-growth mesic and wet koa <em>Acacia koa</em> and `ohi`a <em>Metrosideros polymorpha </em>forest between 1,300 and 2,100 m in Ka`u, Hamakua and perhaps still in Kona (Ralph and Fancy 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It formerly occupied dry mamane and naio woodlands from 1,900 to 2,900 m on Mauna Kea (Ralph and Fancy 1996, L. Pejchar<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent research suggests that it occurs in high densities and forages and nests successfully in secondary growth koa in regenerating forests<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is found at its highest densities in koa plantations and forests with a high percentage of koa trees (Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is the only species on Hawai`i to exploit the woodpecker niche, but is rare despite the lack of competition (Ralph and Fancy 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on lepidopteran and cerambicid larvae under the bark of koa trees, and it only occasionally feeds on nectar (Pejchar and Jeffrey 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its preference for koa trees is evident despite the relative scarcity of this tree species in the environment<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Pejchar<em> et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. As an apparent alternative to nectar the species regularly feeds on sap from `ohi`a trees all year round, perhaps to supplement insect larvae, whose populations fluctuate. The species acquires sap by drilling 3-5 mm deep holes into the phloem of suitable trees and drinking the sap that emerges. The preferred trees (known as "Aki trees") are rare (2 ha<sup>-1</sup>), spatially clustered and defended by the species. Selected trees are probably used by successive generations (Pejchar and Jeffrey 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pairs occupy very large home ranges (0.25-0.30 km<sup>2</sup> [E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999])<strong><sup></sup></strong> and produce only one chick per year (T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which has a long dependency period (Ralph and Fancy 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008912		population	eng	In 1990-1995, surveys estimated a population of 1,163 individuals. This is rounded to an estimate of 1,200 individuals, roughly equivalent to 800 mature individuals.
106008912		threats	eng	The chief threats are thought to be habitat modification through grazing and logging (particularly of koa), predation by introduced rats, feral cats and native raptors, and avian diseases spread by introduced mosquitoes, which restrict it to high altitude (Ralph and Fancy 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predators may have been the primary threat to the now extinct Mauna Kea population, while disease may be responsible for declines in protected areas (Fancy <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Due to its low reproductive rate this species may be particularly vulnerable to these threats and slow to recover (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008913		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve but has declined dramatically within this area. The Zoological Society of San Diego is developing techniques for rearing <em>Oreomystis</em> creepers from eggs and breeding them in captivity, using the related Hawai`i Creeper, at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Hawai`i Creeper has been successfully propagated in captivity, and release of the captive population is planned (USFWS 2003, P. Roberts <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Captive breeding of Akikiki was due to begin in 2008. Starting in April 2007, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources conducted population surveys of forest birds on Kaua'i to determine trends which were being analysed in late 2007. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service announced in 2005 that the Akikiki should be officially designated an endangered species, but declined to move forward with the listing for budgetary reasons. It has been a candidate species since 1994 and was again proposed in 2007 (Vanderwerf and ABC 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Kaua'i Watershed Alliance and The Nature Conservancy are considering fencing the north-eastern section of the Alakai Plateau on Kaua'i where the species was last recorded to exclude herbivores and possibly other predators.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve from the invasion of introduced plants and feral ungulates (Scott <em>et al</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and restore degraded areas. Continue to monitor its population status and distribution. Develop the programme for captive rearing and release, before the population falls to a critical level. <p></p>
106008913		distribution	eng	This species was common and widely distributed in the 1890s on Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). During 1968-1973, the total population was estimated at 6,832 (±966 standard error), when it was recorded on the Laau ridge and was fairly widespread in Koke'e (USFWS 1983)<em></em><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since then, the population has declined and the species has retreated from the Koke`e region and the fringes of the Alaka`i region, and is now uncommon to rare in the Alaka`i (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987, Pratt 1993, <strong></strong>1994)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent unpublished survey data indicate dramatic declines (85-89% since 1968-1973) and a decline of c.64% in its core area in the Alaka`i Swamp from 1970 to 2000 (Anon 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most recently the population was estimated to number 1,312 ± 530 birds, based on surveys conducted in April and May 2007 (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife and USGS, unpublished.data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, occupying an area of just 36 km<sup>2</sup> (Foster <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008913		habitat	eng	It is found in high-elevation `ohi`a and koa-`ohi`a forest, but the latter is mainly distributed in the Koke`e region, from where it is retreating (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al</em> 1986, Pratt 1993)<strong></strong>. The Alaka`i stronghold is at 1,000-1,600 m. However, the 1968-1973 surveys found the species at lower altitudes in a few areas, and it may not occur above 1,500 m (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates (Scott <em>et al</em> 1986, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong></strong>, and has been observed excavating rotting wood from the centre of a twig, presumably for insect larvae (VanderWerf and Roberts 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Both parents have been observed bringing food to the nest, with the male providing some food for the female, though the female does also foraging independently. A nesting pair in 2007 had a juvenile from a previous nest, indicating the species will attempt to raise two broods (VanderWerf and Roberts 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008913		population	eng	Most recently the population was estimated to number 1,312 ±177; 530 birds, based on surveys conducted in April and May 2007 (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife and USGS unpublished data). This is rounded to 780-1,840 individuals here, roughly equivalent to 520-1,200 mature individuals.
106008913		threats	eng	Lowland forests have been cleared for timber and agriculture, with feral livestock causing further degradation and destruction (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral pigs continue to be particularly detrimental, additionally dispersing alien plants and facilitating the spread of introduced mosquitoes which transmit avian malaria and avian pox (Scott <em>et al</em> 1986, Pratt 1994, Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Domestic and introduced birds provide reservoirs for these diseases, to which there is little resistance in Hawaiian honeycreeper populations (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al</em> 1986, Pratt 1994, Lepson 1997)<strong></strong>. Predation by introduced animals and competition for arthropod resources by introduced taxa (especially Japanese White-eye <em>Zosterops japonicus</em>, wasps and ants) are additional threats (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al</em> 1986, Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Lepson 1997)<strong></strong>. Introduced plants such as Kahili ginger (<em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em>), blackberry (<em>Rubus argutus</em>), strawberry guava (<em>Psidium cattleianum</em>), Australian tree fern (<em>Cyathea cooperi</em>) and firetree (<em>Myrica faya</em>) have degraded much native forest in Koke'e, and threaten the remaining habitat. Hurricanes have had major impacts on population size in the past; in 1992 Hurricane Iniki devastated forests throughout Kaua`i, and all bird populations on the island appeared to have been drastically reduced (Pratt 1993, 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although some have since recovered. Hurricanes are now thought to displace birds from the small area of suitable habitat at altitude and push them into the lowlands where avian malaria is prevalent (Anon 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A growing concern is that rising temperatures could allow mosquitoes to survive at higher altitudes and further transmit avian malaria and avian pox (Anon 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008914		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge was established to protect some of the best remaining habitat for this and other threatened honeycreepers (<strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Ralph and Fancy 1994)<strong></strong>. The species has become extinct in the montane sections of the Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. However, in 2003, the Kahuku unit was added to the national park, incorporating much of the species's habitat in the Kau area (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The fencing and eradication of feral goats began in the national park in 1971 (Stone and Loope 1987)<strong></strong>, and the removal of cattle, mouflon sheep and pigs from the Kahuku unit is expected to benefit the species (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. During the 1990s, efforts were made to reduce the feral pig population by Hawaiian conservation authorities and private landowners (Anderson and Stone 1993)<strong></strong>. Planting of koa and other native plants began in the early 1990s, and at the Kapapala Forest Reserve and the Pu`u Wa`awa`a Forest Bird Sanctuary, cattle have been removed and fences erected (USFWS 2003)<strong></strong>. The Zoological Society of San Diego is developing techniques for rearing <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreomystis </span>creepers from eggs and breeding them in captivity, including the Hawai`i Creeper, at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center (USFWS 2003). The Hawai`i Creeper has been successfully propagated in captivity, and release of the captive population is planned (USFWS 2003, P. Roberts <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007). <br/>  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the species's total population size. Continue to monitor population trends. Protect higher-altitude native forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur (<strong></strong>Ralph and Fancy 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Expand the programme for fencing and control of feral ungulates in native forests. Rodent control should be pursued and registration for aerial broadcast of rodenticides should be aggressively sought, with studies being undertaken to assess its efficacy and public health implications (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008914		distribution	eng	<em>Oreomystis mana</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it was formerly widespread, but now occurs as three disjunct populations. Surveys in 1976-1983 estimated the population at c.12,500 individuals with 2,100 in Kau, 10,000 in Hamakua, 75 in central Kona, and 200 on north-west Hualalai (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The small Hualalai population has since disappeared (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, the low elevation (700 m) Hamakua population may have disappeared (or perhaps is just seasonal there [<strong></strong>J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 2000])<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the two other smaller populations are thought to be declining (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Kau population still occupies the extent of range recorded in the 1970s,  but it has contracted from higher elevations (T. Pratt<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the species appears to have declined between 1977 and 2003 in some parts of the Central Windward region (Gorresen <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008914		habitat	eng	It occurs principally in wet and mesic koa-`ohi`a forest mainly between 1,000 and 2,300 m, with the highest densities mainly between 1,500 and 1,900 m (<strong></strong>Ralph and Fancy 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Historical and occasional recent sightings in dry mamane forest suggest that some individuals may move seasonally, or that a very small population may inhabit dry forest year-round (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Snetsinger 1995-1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests in koa trees (in cavities and open cup nests [<strong></strong>J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 2000])<strong><sup></sup></strong> as well as in  tall `ohi`a trees, and the species has successfully bred in disturbed woodland (VanderWerf 1998a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008914		population	eng	Surveys in 1976-1983 estimated the population at c.12,500 individuals, however this number has since declined overall (E. VanderWerf <I>in litt.</I> 1999). The population is therefore estimated in the range 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106008914		threats	eng	It may have declined owing to habitat loss and degradation (<strong></strong>Ralph and Fancy 1994, VanderWerf 1998a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although its ability to breed in some types of disturbed forest suggests that habitat alteration is not the primary factor limiting its current distribution (VanderWerf 1998a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Feral ungulates, particularly pigs, have severely degraded native forests and facilitate the spread of alien plants and disease-carrying mosquitoes (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1992, there were pox and malaria epidemics among birds at Hakalau and at mid-elevations (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, VanderWerf 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest-predation by introduced rodents and nest-site limitation are additional threats (<strong></strong>Ralph and Fancy 1994, VanderWerf 1998a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008915		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The core areas where this species reaches its highest population densities are within three protected areas: Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, where fencing and control of feral ungulates is already resulting in the slow regeneration of native `ohi`a forests (Loope and Medeiros 1995, <strong></strong>Lepson and Freed 1997, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997, USFWS and Hawai`i DLNR 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat restoration in PoliPoli State Park is proposed to include 65% native tree species and is expected to benefit the species (H. Mounce<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further research into the effect of diseases (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study its population dynamics and demography (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect habitat from feral ungulates and rodents (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extend plant control to areas outside the three wildlife protection areas (Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Encourage the regeneration of native high-elevation forests (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. When possible, translocate the species to establish several widely distributed populations (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including on the leeward side of east Maui or mountains in west Maui (H. Mounce<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Routinely monitor the East Maui watershed conservation programme (P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008915		distribution	eng	<em>Paroreomyza montana</em> is endemic to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands, <strong>U.S.A.</strong> The nominate subspecies formerly occurred on Lana'i, but it became extinct around 1937. On Maui, it is now found only in two locations in the east, including Waikamoi Preserve to Kipahulu Valley (abundant), and Polipoli State Park and nearby areas south-west of Haleakala peak (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (no longer common, but exact status unsure [H. Mounce<em> in litt.</em> 2007]<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>). Population densities decline below 1,600 m elevation: in 1980, surveys recorded none below 900 m (<strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, in 1997, there was an almost total absence below 1,480 m, with only 40 km<sup>2</sup> of occupied good quality habitat above 1,525 m (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1980, the early 1990s and 1997, the total population was estimated at c.35,000 birds (<strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Baker and Baker 2000)<strong></strong> (but &lt;8,550 breeding pairs), suggesting overall stability, although the range has contracted in this time (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2002, it was reported that koa forest in South Haleakala was being degraded by feral goats, prompting suspicions of a population decline (<strong></strong>S. Fretz, R. Camp, E. Vanderwerf, M. Gorresen and B. Woodworth <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in 2007, a fire in PoliPoli State Park destroyed an area of the species's habitat and probably a proportion of the population (H. Mounce<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys after the fire found some surviving birds, but the lack of baseline surveys before the fire has prevented an analysis of the impact on the population (H. Mounce<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008915		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, wet forests dominated by `ohi`a trees, but occurs in a variety of other forest, scrub and savanna habitats dominated either by native or introduced plants. It feeds on invertebrates and nectar (<strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It lives in small family groups of 2-6 birds (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008915		population	eng	In 1980, the early 1990s and 1997, the total population was estimated at c.35,000 birds, including fewer than 8,550 breeding pairs, therefore giving a maximum estimate of 17,100 mature individuals. However, following a fire at PoliPoli State Park (H. Mounce <I>in litt.</I> 2007), the population may have declined further. The estimate is here placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. This equates to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
106008915		threats	eng	Clearance of lowland forest has inevitably resulted in range contraction, but its absence from suitable habitat at lower elevations is attributed to the presence of disease-carrying mosquitoes. Feral ungulates, especially pigs, have also caused extensive habitat loss and degradation (<strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Loope and Medeiros 1995, USFWS and Hawai`i DLNR 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and mosquitoes have followed the spread of feral pigs into upland areas (Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat response models indicate that this species is associated with forest interiors that are less damaged by feral pigs (<strong></strong>Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A number of introduced mammals, birds and insects are potential predators and competitors. Koa forest in South Haleakala is now being degraded by feral goats, with deer being a further imminent threat (<strong></strong>S. Fretz, R. Camp, E. Vanderwerf, M. Gorresen and B. Woodworth <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A fire at PoliPoli State Park in 2007 is thought to have impacted the local population (H. Mounce<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008916		distribution	eng	<em>Paroreomyza flammea </em>was endemic to Moloka'i, Hawaii, <strong>USA</strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was common in 1907, but declined rapidly afterwards and was rare by the 1930s (Gorresen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  The last record was in the Kamako'u Preserve in 1961-1963<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Surveys from 1979 onwards have failed to locate the species (Gorresen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
106008916		habitat	eng	This species was an insectivore, foraging in wet `ohi`a forests above 500 m (USFWS 2003).     <p></p>
106008916		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably due to habitat destruction and disease<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994). It is not thought to have been collected for ornament (Amante-Helweg and Conant 2009).  <p></p>
106008917		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys have been carried out during the 1990s to search for this species, but have failed to find any birds (Pratt 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A "Rare Bird Discovery Protocol" has been developed which could be applied to this species in the event of its rediscovery (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to conduct intensive and extensive surveys to locate any remaining populations (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, following similar methods to the Hawaii Rare Bird Search (Reynolds and Snetsinger 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If any birds are found, start intensive monitoring, including the collection of data on vocalisations, foraging and breeding behaviour (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. If active nests are found, ensure localised predator control (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consider captive propagation, following development of specific techniques (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008917		distribution	eng	<em>Paroreomyza maculata</em> is endemic to O`ahu in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where fossil evidence indicates that it once occurred in the lowlands (Olson and James 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the past few decades, there have only been a few confirmed sightings, with several of these from the area around North Halawa Valley, Ko`olau range (Pratt 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, many recent records are viewed with doubt because of its close similarity with <em>Hemignathus flavus</em>. The last well-documented observation was of two birds on 12 December 1985 on Poamoho Trail during the Waipi`o Christmas Bird Count (Bremer 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; the last specimen was taken in 1968 and some consider this the last definitive record (<strong></strong>Roberts <em>et al. </em>2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been several reports from different areas since, but details of the observations have been inconclusive and the birds were never relocated. However, it cannot yet be presumed to be Extinct until further surveys have confirmed that there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. If any population remains, it is likely to be tiny. <p></p>
106008917		habitat	eng	In the 1890s, it was reported to eat quantities of carabid beetles, most likely wood-borers, as it was seen feeding on the dead branches of koa trees (Berger 1972)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent sightings have been between 300 and 650 m in remnant native, lowland mesic to wet forest (Baker and Baker 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One nest with two eggs was collected in late January 1901 (Berger 1972)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008917		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with the last probable sighting in 1985, despite recent searches for the species.
106008917		threats	eng	Some native forests remain on O`ahu, so habitat loss and alteration cannot fully explain the decline of this species (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Disease spread by introduced mosquitoes is prevalent in the lowlands (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and is a likely contributory factor. Circumstantial evidence links declines of some native birds on O`ahu with the spread of introduced birds, but there is no direct evidence for their impact (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, as this species probably feeds primarily on wood-boring insects, introduced birds are unlikely to be significant competitors. The construction of the H-3 freeway (for which the US Congress gave specific exemption from the Endangered Species Act) destroyed habitat around North Halawa Valley, from which some of the most recent confirmed sightings have come (Pratt 1993, J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008918		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Much of the current range is protected by Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and, to some extent, by Koke`e State Park. In April 2007, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources began to conduct population surveys of forest birds on Kaua`i to verify anecdotal evidence of a recent crash in the species's numbers (Holmer 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to conduct population surveys, especially in peripheral parts of its range. Research basic ecology. Prevent further habitat degradation and restore habitat. Control and prevent further introductions of alien species; fence out and remove invasive species (Holmer 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Identify and translocate disease-resistant birds to parts of the historical range that are affected by disease-carrying mosquitoes (Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Initiate a captive breeding programme (Holmer 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. List under the Endangered Species Act as a matter of emergency (Holmer 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008918		distribution	eng	<em>Loxops caeruleirostris</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It was common throughout upper elevation forests in the late 19th century and was thought to be stable at c.20,650 individuals up until the mid 1990s, although its habitat declined in extent over this time period (USFWS 1983, Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Lepson and Pratt 1997, S. Fretz <em>et al. in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. However, in 2000, surveys indicated that the population was 7,839 ±704 individuals, which has since decreased to 5,669 ± 1,003 individuals in 2005 and to 3,536 ± 1,030 in 2007. Even allowing for the large error estimates this indicates a dramatic decline (Holmer 2007, D. Kuhn <em>per</em> Holmer 2007, D. Pratt <em>per</em> Holmer 2007, VanderWerf 2007)<strong></strong>. It occurs at the highest density in the remote Alaka`i region, and also occurs in the upper Waimea and Koke`e regions, and an isolated population persisted in the Makaleha Mountains until at least the early 1970s (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106008918		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet `ohi`a, `ohi`a/olapa and diverse mesic forest, appearing to tolerate considerable habitat disturbance if sufficient `ohi`a remains. It is found at 600-1,600 m, mostly above 1,100 m, and apparently never occurred in lowland forests. It feeds primarily on spiders and insects, taking nectar very rarely. Breeding occurs at least in March and April, possibly February to June, and all known nests have been in `ohi`a trees (Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008918		population	eng	Survey results predict the population to number 2,500-4,566 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,700-3,000 mature individuals.
106008918		threats	eng	Development is reducing habitat availability in the Koke`e region, while the spread of exotic plants and feral ungulates is degrading remaining areas (Loope and Medeiros 1995, Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong></strong>. Avian pox and malaria probably cause mortality because introduced mosquitoes (vectors for these diseases) are now common at 900 m, may breed at 1,200 m, and appear to be encroaching on the Alaka`i plateau (Herrmann and Snetsinger 1997, Lepson 1997, Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong></strong>. There is concern that rising average temperatures could allow mosquitoes to survive at higher elevations and increase the exposure of birds to disease (Holmer 2007)<strong></strong>. A small increase in temperature is predicted to eliminate much of the mosquito-free zone on Kaua`i (U.S. Geological Survey <em>per</em> Holmer 2007)<strong></strong>. Food resources may be limited by alien wasps and ants which greatly reduce populations of native arthropods (Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong></strong>. Introduced birds may also be competitors and introduced predators (particularly rats) probably cause some mortality (Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong></strong>. Adverse weather may be a significant limiting factor, e.g. prolonged, heavy rains which can result in nesting failure and cause massive mortality among fledglings and juveniles (Lepson and Pratt 1997)<strong></strong>. Two recent hurricanes resulted in serious damage to Kaua`i's forests (Pratt 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008919		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Hawai`i, a large population is protected in Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge and, to a lesser extent, in Ka`u Forest Reserve, Kulani Prison, Kilauea-Keauhou forests, Kona Forest National Wildlife Refuge and Pu`u Wa`awa`a State Wildlife Preserve (Lepson and Freed 1997, J. M. Scott <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fencing, removal of feral pigs and cattle, and planting of koa seedlings and other native plants have all been carried out (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Artificial nest-cavities and nest-boxes have been erected (Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and, in 1999 and 2000, c.10% of 60-70 boxes were used successfully (J. Lepson <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Captive propagation techniques have been developed in case they are needed to re-establish wild populations (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has been studied continuously at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge since 1987 (Freed <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research potential limiting factors. Research response to habitat restoration (Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Preserve unprotected native forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur (Ralph and Fancy 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control rodents to reduce competition for nest-sites and to reduce predation of chicks and eggs from artificial boxes (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008919		distribution	eng	<em>Loxops coccineus</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, <strong>U.S.A.</strong> On Hawai'i, the only remaining subspecies (<em>L. c. coccineus</em>) occurs in three populations totalling c.14,000 individuals. The core populations have been stable, with peripheral ones declining, and one on Hualalai Volcano has apparently disappeared since 1978 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt 1993, Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong></strong>. A comparison of data collected in 1987-1993 and 1999-2005 from Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai`i, suggested the Akepa population crashed in this high-density site in 2006, after being non-viable from 2000 to 2005 (Freed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). A decline in the population, a reduction in nesting success and survival of fledglings and, in birds younger than two years, a very male-biased sex ratio (almost 10:1) were reported to have led to the collapse (Freed <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conversely, annual monitoring data between 1987-2007 from a larger area within Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge indicates stable to increasing trends in the population at the open forest study area, and increasing short-term trends (since 1999) in the closed forest study area (<strong></strong>R. Camp <em>in litt. </em>2007, <strong></strong>Camp <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On O'ahu, subspecies <em>wolstenholmei </em>is extinct (Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, having been last recorded in 1930.   On Maui, subspecies <em>ochraceus</em> is likely also to be extinct (H. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; it was last recorded in 1988 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Stone and Loope 1987, Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106008919		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet and mesic forest, primarily of koa-`ohi`a at 1,100-2,100 m (mostly above 1,500 m) (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong></strong>. On Hawai`i, it is an obligate cavity-nester and the highest densities are in old-growth forests, although it is also numerous in some disturbed forests with sufficient large trees. It feeds on small insects (including caterpillars) and spiders (Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and forages in the foliage of `ohi`a trees <em>Metrosideros polymorpha </em>(Freed <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has a long incubation and nestling period (14-16 and 16-20 days, respectively), a four-month fledgling period, and high annual adult survival of 0.80 (Lepson and Freed 1995,1997).<br/><p></p>
106008919		population	eng	On Hawai`i, the nominate subspecies occurs in three populations totalling c.14,000 individuals, equivalent to c.9,300 mature individuals. The other two subspecies are extinct (H. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2000).
106008919		threats	eng	Its habitat has been destroyed by logging and agriculture, and by commensal animals which have invaded montane forests (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt 1994, Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong></strong>. The slow growth of `ohi`a trees suggests that the large trees used for nesting are very old and so may take a long time to replace (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research has demonstrated that structural changes to habitat have affected food availability for this species (Fretz 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Avian diseases are readily transmitted by introduced mosquitoes whose spread is facilitated by feral pigs (Pratt 1994, Jacobi and Atkinson 1995)<strong></strong>. Introduced birds are reservoirs for diseases, and potential competitors for food (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Pratt 1994, Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced rats, cats, Barn Owls <em>Tyto alba</em> and possibly small Indian mongooses <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> are predators (Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An outbreak of introduced yellow-jacket wasps coincided with a year of poor reproductive success, and introduced ants probably also compete for native arthropods at lower elevations (Lepson and Freed 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent research has suggested that competition from the Japanese White-eye <em>Zosterops japonicus </em>was driving a population decline (Freed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), however analysis of long-term surveys and a review of the research refute the theory (<strong></strong>R. Camp <em>in litt. </em>2007, Freed <em>et al.</em> 2008, <strong></strong>Camp <em>et al.</em> in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008920		distribution	eng	<em>Ciridops anna </em>was endemic to Hawaii, <strong>USA</strong>. It is only known from five specimens, in Harvard, Honolulu, New York and Tring<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), the latter with two<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994), and a possible sight record in 1937<strong> </strong>(Munro 1944). Fossils of the genus have been found on Kaua'i, Moloka'i and O'ahu<strong> </strong>(James and Olson 1991). The last specimen was collected in 1892<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Greenway 1967).  <p></p>
106008920		habitat	eng	It inhabited `ohi`a and loulu palm<em> Pritchardia </em>forest on both the windward (Hilo District and the Kohala mountains) and leeward (Kona District) sides of Hawai`i. Tongue morphology suggests thatit fed on nectar.  <p></p>
106008920		threats	eng	Nothing is known about the causes of its extinction<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), although deforestation and avian malaria are likely to have been contributing factors. Habitat change may have exposed the population to unusually high numbers of rats (W.E. Banko and P.C. Banko 2009).<br/><p></p>
106008921		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is the subject of population trend analysis and detailed studies into the effects of avian malaria by the U.S. Geological Survey Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Centre. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete assessment of current population trends. Study the factors driving the decline. Attempt to mitigate against the decline.  <p></p>
106008921		distribution	eng	<em>Vestiaria coccinea</em> formerly occurred on all the main islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago (<strong>USA</strong>) but it is now extinct on Lana'i and relict populations (probably fewer than 50 individuals [J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>2000]) remain on O`ahu and Moloka`i (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, P. Donaldson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Recent population estimates are: c.385,000 individuals, excluding birds on O`ahu, during 1976-1983 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and more than 350,000 individuals in the early 1990s following recent declines in several populations (Jacobi and Atikinson 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is now evidence from monitoring (much of it unpublished) that the species has declined throughout the Hawaiian islands, except on windward Mau`i and at Hakalau, Hawai`i, where the populations appear to be stable (D. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The numbers of individuals detected during monitoring have fallen at both mid and low elevations (D. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The apparent decline appears to have been most pronounced in western Hawai`i, although there is little quantitative data for this area (D. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008921		habitat	eng	This species was formerly found in forests at any elevation, and still occurs in a variety of native, disturbed and unnatural habitats from 300 to 2,900 m (Berger 1972, Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The greatest densities are found at 1,300-1,900 m, and low elevation populations may be sustained primarily by dispersal from mid-elevation populations (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986). <p></p>
106008921		population	eng	An estimate of more than 350,000 individuals was made in the early 1990s&#160;(Jacobi and Atikinson 1995).
106008921		threats	eng	The exact causes for the decline are uncertain, although it is known that the species is very susceptible to avian malaria, carried at low elevations by introduced mosquitos (Jacobi and Atikinson 1995, D. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other factors which are likely to be contributing to its decline include habitat degradation and predation by introduced mammals such as cattle, pigs, cats and rats.  <p></p>
106008922		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanis pacifica </em>was endemic to the big island of Hawai`i, <strong>USA,</strong> and was last recorded in 1898 above Hilo<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967) and in 1899 near Kaunana<strong> </strong>(Pratt <em>et al. </em>1987).  <p></p>
106008922		habitat	eng	It inhabited forest, especially `ohi`a forest<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), where it was observed feeding on insects, although it probably fed mainly on nectar.  <p></p>
106008922		threats	eng	It was heavily trapped by Hawaiians for its feathers<strong> </strong>(Rose <em>et al</em>. 1993), but it is more likely that habitat destruction and disease were the ultimate causes of the species's extinction<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106008923		distribution	eng	<em>Drepanis funerea </em>was only ever seen in forest understorey on Moloka`i, Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong>, although fossils are known from the adjacent Maui<strong> </strong>(James and Olson 1991). The species was last collected in 1907 and intensive searches in the subsequent few decades could find no sign of it<strong> </strong>(Richardson 1949).  <p></p>
106008923		habitat	eng	It inhabited the understory of wet forests where it fed on nectar.  <p></p>
106008923		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably largely caused by the destruction of its understorey habitat by introduced cattle and deer, and predation by rats and mongooses<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
106008924		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cooperative management of the East Maui watershed includes fencing at c.1,070 m and removal of feral ungulates (Loope and Medeiros 1995, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, conservation practices combat the establishment of alien plants and, from the late 1980s, feral pigs have been controlled (Loope and Medeiros 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research into captive breeding is underway, and six individuals have been hatched from late-stage wild eggs (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A banding study investigating productivity and survival began in 2008 (Maui Forest Bird Recovery Project)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Preserve remote and ecologically diverse areas, especially on the northern slopes of Haleakala (<strong></strong>Berlin and VanGelder 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extend plant control to areas outside reserves, especially at mid-elevations (Loope and Medeiros 1995, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Complete and routinely monitor the East Maui watershed habitat conservation programme (P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. C. Simon <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish a population in historically occupied habitat to reduce the threat from catastrophes that could wipe out a single population (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Continue monitoring of captive-breeding efforts.  <p></p>
106008924		distribution	eng	<em>Palmeria dolei</em> occurs on Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) and is extinct on Moloka`i (last confirmed observations in 1907). On Maui, it remains moderately common within 58 km<sup>2</sup> on the north-eastern slopes of Haleakala, with a population estimated at c.3,800 birds in 1980 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in the 1990s to 1997 indicate stability, although areas outside protected areas were not necessarily covered (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Berlin and VanGelder 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008924		habitat	eng	It occurs in mesic `ohi`a-koa and wet `ohi`a forest from 1,100-2,300 m (99% above 1,500 m, mostly below 2,100 m). It primarily feeds on `ohi`a nectar, also taking invertebrates, especially caterpillars. When `ohi`a bloom is at its seasonal low, it feeds on subcanopy and understorey flowers and fruit (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, Berger 1972, P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. C. Simon <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Average adult male home range is 0.56 ha, giving rise to density figures of 2.9 birds/ha (Pratt <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All known nests have been in `ohi`a trees (Berlin and VanGelder 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It raises 1-2 young per nest, usually nesting twice seasonally (November to June [<strong></strong>Simon <em>et al. </em>2001]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and has a relatively high success rate (J. C. Simon <em>in litt.</em> 1999, <strong></strong>Simon <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Adult survivorship is similarly high (<strong></strong>Simon <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds, perhaps especially immatures, may disperse to lower elevations (<strong></strong>Berlin and VanGelder 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008924		population	eng	Scott <em>et al. </em>(1986) estimated the population to number 3,800 individuals in total, roughly equivalent to 2,500 mature individuals. <p></p> <p></p>
106008924		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and modification and the rapid spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes in the lowlands are thought to be responsible for past declines. The species may be particularly vulnerable to mosquito-borne diseases because it migrates altitudinally in response to varying `ohi`a flowering physiology, potentially increasing exposure to mosquitoes at lower elevations (USFWS 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. From 1945 to 1995, the spread of feral pigs on Haleakala caused chronic habitat degradation (Loope and Medeiros 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and facilitated the spread of mosquitoes into remote rainforests (Pratt 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Hanawi Natural Area Reserve, there was a 473% increase in pig activity, as indexed by ground-cover disturbance, during 1970-1997 (Rosa <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and this reduced alternative food sources to `ohi`a bloom (Berlin and VanGelder 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats, cats and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> and possibly small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> is a further limiting factor (Berlin and VanGelder 1999,  J. M. Scott <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. C. Simon <em>in litt.</em> 1999,  E. VanGelder <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008925		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Himatione sanguinea </span>is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">freethii</span> was endemic to Laysan, but became extinct in 1923 (E. VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).
106008925		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the most abundant Hawaiian honeycreeper (Douglas Pratt 2005).
106008926		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1986, the 30 km<sup>2</sup> Hanawi NAR was created to protect this species and, during 1990-1997, all feral pigs were systematically eradicated from three fenced areas (Anderson and Stone 1993, Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, Reilly 1998, Rosa <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An environmental assessment has been produced and a management plan proposed (USFWS and Hawai`i DLNR 1999, Groombridge <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two wild birds were briefly united when one was caught and moved into the home range of another. However, after just one day the translocated bird had returned to its own territory (Groombridge <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One of three known individuals was captured in September 2004 but died in captivity on 28 November 2004 (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006). The 2006 East Maui Forest Bird Survey covered 216 stations on 8 transects within Po'ouli habitat, and failed to locate any birds. In 2006, the East Maui Watershed Partnership (EMWP) completed a c. 5000 ha fenced unit adjacent to and east of Hanawi NAR incorporating the Ko'olau Forest Preserve, Haiku Uka and Waikamoi Forest Preserve, between about 1,000m and 2,400 m elevation. Feral pig control is the next phase, some of which has already been implemented by The Nature Conservancy in the Waikamoi Preserve portion.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all remaining `ohi`a forest on East Maui (P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Extend the new EMWP lower-elevation fence line west and below the existing Hanawi NAR fence-line to help prevent the spread of invasive weeds and mosquitoes into upper elevation forests and abet the restoration of more lower elevation habitat (Reilly 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Intensify habitat management in areas adjacent to Hanawi NAR including removal of feral pigs from the new fenced unit.  <p></p>
106008926		distribution	eng	<em>Melamprosops phaeosoma</em> is endemic to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it was discovered in 1973 in the Ko`olau Forest Reserve on the north-eastern flanks of Haleakala (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, Rosa <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, and estimated to number fewer than 200 birds. During 1975-1985, there was a rapid decline in density in the upper Hanawi watershed (Mountainspring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>, the last area from which it was known. In 1995, only five to seven birds were known but, by mid-1997, only three individuals could be found (two male, one possibly female), each with distinct home ranges in Hanawi Natural Area Reserve (NAR) and the immediately adjacent Haleakala National Park (Baker 2000)<strong></strong>. One of three known individuals was captured in September 2004 but died on 28 November 2004 (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006, VanderWerf <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The two other individuals may both have been male, but neither have been seen since 2003 and 2004 (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> and are likely to have now died (if alive, both birds would be a minimum of 12 years old in 2008 [K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006]<strong></strong>). No other individuals have been located since 1998 despite almost constant presence of researchers in the field in recent years (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, but it is still possible, albeit unlikely, that a few unlocated individuals may exist in the wild (VanderWerf <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008926		habitat	eng	It is found in remote `ohi`a forest (T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> at 1,400-2,100&#160;m, but this may be suboptimal habitat as subfossil evidence indicates that it occurred in much drier habitat at 300-1,500&#160;m (Mountainspring <em>et al.</em> 1990, Reilly 1998, P. Baker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It feeds primarily on snails, insects, and spiders, and occasionally fruit (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997, M. Collins <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The two known nests were found in `ohi`a trees (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
106008926		population	eng	One of the last three known individuals died in captivity in 2004. The other two have not been seen since 2003 and 2004 respectively. No new individuals have been found since 1998 (K. Swinnerton <I>in litt.</I> 2006). If any birds remain, the population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals).
106008926		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and modification, and the rapid spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes in the lowlands are thought to be responsible for past declines, and the latter continues to be a threat (Mountainspring <em>et al.</em> 1990, T. Pratt <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The precise causes of the recent population decline are unknown (Rosa <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, although a correlation with a concurrent 473% increase in pig activity within the Hanawi NAR has been hypothesised, as indexed by ground-cover disturbance (Mountainspring <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong></strong>. Predation by introduced rats, cats and small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> is also possible. Rats and the introduced garlic snail (<em>Oxychilus alliarius</em>) have been blamed for the decline of native land snails, an important food source for the Po'o-uli (Groombridge <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008927		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare or uncommon and very little known (Clement 1999).
106008928		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (Byers <I>et al</I>. 1995), while the population in China has been been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008929		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as perhaps not rare (Byers <I>et al</I>. 1995), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008930		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 18,000,000-31,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 54,000,000-93,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73,000,000-186,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008931		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 50-100 breeding pairs, equating to 150-300   individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe forming &lt;5% of the   global range. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000   wintering individuals in Korea; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008932		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).
106008933		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 2,000,000-5,200,000 breeding pairs, equating to 6,000,000-15,600,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
106008934		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey for the species in and around its restricted known range. Research its habitat requirements and assess the potential threats. <p></p>
106008934		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza koslowi</em> is restricted to the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, in eastern Tibet and southern Qinghai, <strong>China</strong>, where several large valleys cut into the plateau, including those of the Tongtian river (the upper reaches of the Chang Jiang or Yangtze), the Lancang Jiang (the upper Mekong) and the Nu Jiang (the upper Salween). It is known by just a few scattered records in this inaccessible and poorly known area, but it appears to be genuinely rather scarce and localised. <p></p>
106008934		habitat	eng	It inhabits barren areas, juniper and rhododendron scrub on valley slopes above the treeline at c.3,600-4,600 m. It rather unusually builds a domed nest and appears to breed late, with young hatching in mid-July (Thewlis and Martins 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106008934		population	eng	The species is very rare, with a population suspected to number 10,000-19,999 individuals, probably including c.6,000-15,000 mature individuals.  The figure requires clarification and may be an overestimate.
106008934		threats	eng	It does not appear to be immediately threatened by habitat loss. <p></p>
106008935		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,300,000-4,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 3,900,000-12,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 7,960,000-49,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008936		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000, Robson 2000), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106008937		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common (Byers <I>et al</I>. 1995), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008938		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected in Russia and North Korea. Part of its former breeding range in Russia is protected within the Khasanskiy Nature Park and a population is protected in Xianghai Nature Reserve in<strong> </strong>China, although there were recent signs of habitat destruction in Xianghai (R. Christensen <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Efforts have been made to promote more favourable management of habitat at Tumiji (Hale 2010). There were plans for further survey work in 2012 (M. Hale <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to locate suitable habitat and breeding populations in Russia, North Korea and Heilongjiang (China), with the aim of establishing new protected areas and suitable habitat management regimes for it. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Restore its habitats within the Khasanskiy Nature Park. Implement the management plan for Xianghai Nature Reserve. Consider the designation of new nature reserves to protect breeding populations in Jilin. Seek to influence forestry practices for the benefit of this species. List it as a nationally protected species in China. Conduct research into dispersal patterns and the genetic structure and diversity of the population (Wang Haitao  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106008938		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza jankowskii</em> breeds in extreme north-eastern <strong>North Korea</strong> and in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Jilin, <strong>China </strong> (BirdLife International 2001). In China, it disperses south and west outside the breeding season, when there are historic records from Liaoning, Hebei and Beijing. In Russia, it was previously locally common in southern Primorye, with a population estimated at several hundred pairs, but had disappeared from its former breeding sites by the early 1970s, and there have been no subsequent records. In the past, it was not uncommon within its small range in North Korea, but there is little recent information. In China, the breeding population at three sites in Jilin province was estimated at 330-430 pairs in 1994, and in the first half of the 20th century it was locally common in Heilongjiang; however, there are very few recent records and it appears to have disappeared or drastically declined at most of its known sites. It is believed to be extinct in eastern Jilin, and in 2008 breeding was known from a total of only four sites (Jiang Yun-Lei  <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. At Huichin (south-western Jilin) 350 pairs were recorded in 1994 but none could be found in 2005 (Wang Ruiqing and Li Fei 2008)<strong></strong>. No birds have been recorded at Xianghai Nature Reserve since 2003, while at Baicheng the population declined from 100 individuals in 2001 to only two in 2008<strong> </strong>(Wang Ruiqing and Li Fei 2008)<strong></strong>. The species's known breeding population is now restricted to Tumiji and Maanshan in Zhalaite Qi in Inner Mongolia, Dagang Forest Farm in Zhenlai County, western Jilin, and the Keerqin area, reportedly Xiergen and Xinjiamu in Keerqinyouyiqian Qi (Wang Haitao <span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010). At Dagang, the population crashed between 1999-2002 from c.55 pairs to c.15 pairs and remained relatively constant at around 15 pairs in 2002-2006 (Jiang Yun-Lei  <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, falling to c.10 pairs in 2010 (Wang Haitao  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). At Maanshan, the population has declined from c.11 pairs in 2001 to around three pairs in 2008 (Wang Haitao  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The only other currently known sites are Tumiji, with possibly fewer than 50 birds, and the Keerqin area, where two pairs were recorded in 2009 and up to seven birds were seen in 2010 (P. Holt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010). A record of 43 individuals at Keerqin, resulting from a brief survey in 2008<strong> </strong>(Wang Ruiqing and Li Fei 2008), is thought to refer to Meadow Buntings <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cioides</span> (Hale 2010)<strong></strong>. Although it has recently been sighted at two new locations<strong> </strong>(J. Hornskov <em>in litt.</em> 2009) the total population is likely to number fewer than 500 pairs, even assuming that there are currently unknown populations remaining elsewhere, but may now be considerably fewer than 200 pairs<strong> </strong>(Wang Ruiqing and Li Fei 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008938		habitat	eng	It breeds in a variety of open habitats at low altitudes, usually grassland with scattered scrub or small trees on a sandy substrate, within a narrow semi-humid transitional zone between the Manchurian deciduous forest and Mongolian steppe-vegetation zones. The breeding season extends from late April to late July (Jiang Yun-Lei  <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.Clutch size ranges from four to seven eggs, with an incubation period of 11-14 days, followed by a nestling period of 10-13 days (Wang Haitao  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106008938		population	eng	The total   population is likely to be fewer than 500 pairs, assuming that there are   currently unknown populations remaining elsewhere, but may now be   considerably fewer than 200 pairs (Wang Ruiqing and Li Fei 2008). It is   placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499   individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. National   population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in   China and &lt; c.100 breeding pairs and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in   Korea (Brazil 2009).
106008938		threats	eng	The main threat appears to be the conversion of its habitats for agricultural land and pasture, particularly in China, and possibly also forestry. However, forestry can result in areas of young trees which are temporarily suitable habitat until dense forest develops. At Tumiji, which is protected as a reserve and is one of the few sites known to retain a population, the species's habitat is threatened by inappropriate management, including forage-harvesting, such that in May 2010 only c.1 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat remained there (M. Hale <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010, Hale 2010). In Russia, its decline may have occurred because fires, started for agricultural purposes, affected its habitat and prevented breeding. Potentially suitable habitats remaining in Russia (and presumably also North Korea) are threatened by the implementation of the large-scale Tumangan Development Project. Birds at Dagang Forestry, western Jilin suffered a high degree of nest abandonment, which may have been caused by a combination of disturbance by grazing livestock and predation by snakes and rats (Jiang Yun-Lei  <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. European suslik <em>Citellus citellus </em>and Amur Falcon <em>Falco amurensis</em> are also potential nest predators (Jiang Yun-Lei  <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Human populations are rapidly expanding within the species's range, and activities such as grazing, digging up medicinal plants and picking the fruits of Siberian apricot <em>Armeniaca sibirica</em> have increased, altering vegetation structure and increasing the probability of nest-robbing by fruit-pickers and shepherds (Jiang Yun-Lei  <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Reproductive success in the species is negatively impacted by disturbance, and low reproductive success may be causing the loss of some populations and inhibiting the recovery of others (Wang Haitao <span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106008939		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6,400-20,000 breeding pairs, equating to 19,200-60,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 0.8-1.2 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008940		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is legally protected under Greek and Turkish law<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2003). One of the breeding sites on Lesbos is partially protected as a Natural Monument and Wildlife Refuge<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2003). An international action plan was published in 2003<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2003). The species's potential winter distribution has been modelled using GIS-based techniques<strong></strong> (Walther <em>et al</em>. 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat within the putative wintering grounds (Walther <em>et al</em>. 2004; Walther 2006). Develop a Species Action Plan. Develop a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Assess threats to the species and develop appropriate responses. <p></p>
106008940		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza cineracea</em> breeds on the islands of Skyros<strong></strong> (Hölzinger 1995), Lesbos and Chios, <strong>Greece</strong> (115-305 pairs<strong></strong> [BirdLife International 2004]), and western <strong>Turkey</strong> (race <em>cineracea</em>), as well as in south-east Turkey and south-west <strong>Iran</strong> (fewer than 100 pairs in the Zagros mountains; race <em>semenowi</em>) (Byers <em>et al.</em> 1995; Cramp and Perrins 1994). Statements regarding potential breeding in northern Syria and Iraq are of uncertain validity<strong> </strong>(Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2003). The winter distribution remains poorly known, but includes <strong>Eritrea</strong> and <strong>Yemen,</strong> and potentially also Ethiopia, north-east Sudan and south-west Saudi Arabia (where records may solely relate to individuals on migration) (Walther <em>et al</em>. 2004; Walther 2006). In addition, there are passage records along the species's two, well-separated migration routes: Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestinian Authority Territories and Egypt (predominantly race <em>cineracea</em>); and Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Oman (race <em>semenowi</em>). The Turkish breeding population - which at 2,500-7,500 pairs probably constitutes over 90% of the global population - was suspected to have declined by 0-19% during 1990-2000 (BirdLife International 2004). <p></p>
106008940		habitat	eng	The species breeds on dry rocky slopes and uplands with shrubby vegetation and sometimes conifers. It is migratory, wintering in dry open country with short grass, semi-desert, low rocky hills, bare cultivated land and dry scrub, often in coastal areas. Migrating birds are regularly recorded in lowland agricultural land and semi-deserts. <p></p>
106008940		population	eng	Based on estimates of 2,600-7,800 breeding pairs in Europe and less than 100 pairs in Iran, the population is estimated to number 5,400-15,800 mature individuals, roughly equating to 8,000-24,000 individuals in total.
106008940		threats	eng	Changes in grazing pressure by sheep and goats could affect the population size. High grazing pressure could result in the trampling of nests, whereas too little grazing could reduce the area of open feeding sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2003). Remaining habitat in western Turkey is being developed rapidly for tourism<strong></strong> (Tucker and Heath 1994). Suitable habitats in south-east Turkey have been flooded by dam construction, resulting both in direct habitat loss and the relocation of displaced villagers to new, currently unpopulated areas (Albayrak <em>et al</em>. 2003). <p></p>
106008941		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5,200,000-16,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 15,600,000-48,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 21,100,000-96,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008942		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 140000-230000 breeding pairs, equating to 420000-690000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 447000-920000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually uncommon, although locally common or even abundant (Byers et al. 1995).
106008944		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common (Byers et al. 1995).
106008945		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common and numerous (Byers et al. 1995).
106008946		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Extensive surveys in 1993, 1999 and 2000 have discovered several important areas for the species (Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 1996, Morton 1996, Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the presumed main breeding area (the higher parts of the Hajhir range) lies within one of the main conservation zones of the Environmental Protection Council's masterplan for development of the archipelago (Zandri 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out a comprehensive survey of the highlands to better understand its distribution, population and breeding biology (Morton 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the event of extensive habitat loss or modification in the highlands, appropriate interventions should be made (e.g. impact assessments, increased protection of key areas). <p></p>
106008946		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza socotrana</em> is endemic to the island of Socotra, <strong>Yemen</strong>, where it is known from very few localities. In the highlands, there are records from fifteen localities in the breeding season, most in the Hagghier range and in the montane extreme west of the island (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, including Adho Dimelho (including Adala) (Ogilvie-Grant and Forbes 1903, Forbes-Watson 1964, Ripley and Bond 1966, Kirwan 1998)<strong></strong>, Diksam (Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>, near Skand (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>, near Rookib (Kirwan <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> (all in the Hajhir [Hagghier] range) and the Ma'lih plateau (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>; and in the lowlands it is known from near Qaysuh (near Kallansiya) (Forbes-Watson 1964, Ripley and Bond 1966)<strong></strong>. There is some evidence of dispersal to coastal areas in the west and north of the island in the non-breeding season, when flocks have been encountered in the littoral zone but the extent and frequency of altitudinal movements is unknown (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The species has been discovered at several new localities since the late 1990s and following the initiation of a comprehensive survey of the island's biodiversity, its population has been assessed as probably numbering fewer than 500 pairs (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Porter and Suleiman (in prep.) estimated the population at c.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>300 pairs or 1,400 individuals.&#160;  <p></p>
106008946		habitat	eng	This species breeds in highland areas, probably at 500-1,200 m, apparently preferring rugged terrain with cliffs and boulders in the vicinity of granite peaks (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In these areas it occurs within relatively luxuriant vegetation dominated, at least locally, by <em>Hypericum</em> and <em>Cocculus </em>shrubs, but also in alpine meadow-like habitat (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It has been observed foraging on ledges of steep precipices, in areas of short grass, boulder-strewn areas with short scrub and scattered trees but also near the shore in the non-breeding season (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  Food is poorly described but it has been seen to take seeds of various types, including grass seeds taken from seed heads, stomach contents have also contained grass seed and grit, the latter presumably ingested accidentally (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  The nest and eggs have not been described. It is suspected that the nesting requirements (still unknown) are an important factor in restricting this species to high altitudes when breeding (Forbes-Watson 1964)<strong></strong>. It may be semi-colonial when breeding (singing males in November were distinctly clumped together) (Porter <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008946		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals (G. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2007). This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. Porter and Suleiman (in prep.) estimated the population at c.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>300 pairs or 1,400 individuals; however, the analysis of transect data collected up to 2004 suggests that the population may be higher than this, with a likely minimum of 3,000 individuals (R. Porter<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), although a lower estimate is retained here pending the finalisation of this analysis.
106008946		threats	eng	It is rare and local, although apparently not declining. The species's range and population do, however, require careful monitoring, given its restricted distribution in the breeding season.  One possible threat is that, were livestock grazing to become more widespread and intensive within the species's high-altitude breeding range, for example through improved water supply and the importation of fodder, habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss may occur; this requires monitoring. As an oceanic-island species (probably ground-nesting) with a small or very small population, it is permanently vulnerable to the impact of alien invasive species, and its population may already be limited in some way by well-established invasive predators on Socotra such as feral cat <em>Felis catus,</em> brown rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> or Small Indian Civet <em>Viverricula indica</em>. The ring road around the coast of the island has not yet damaged any breeding habitats, but could do if it extends to the western end of the island, when it would transverse the limestone plateau and cliffs, which are an important area for this species (R. Porter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106008947		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (Byers et al. 1995).
106008948		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in forest with dense underbrush (Byers <em>et al</em>. 1995), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan and   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008949		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2,000), while national population estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008950		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 5,000,000-8,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 15,000,000-24,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary   estimate of the global population size is 30,600,000-96,000,000 individuals,   although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population   estimates include: c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan; &lt;   c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in   Korea; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals   in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008951		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in most of its range (Byers <em>et al</em>. 1995), while national population estimates include: c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Taiwan and c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Korea (Brazil 2009).
106008952		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 6,100,000-10,000,000 breeding   pairs, equating to 18,300,000-30,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International   2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary   estimate of the global population size is 37,300,000-120,000,000 individuals,   although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population   estimates include: c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000   individuals on migration in Taiwan; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in   Korea; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000   breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106008953		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be   fairly common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000), while national population   estimates include: c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on   migration and &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in China; &lt; c.1,000   individuals on migration and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan;   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs, c.50-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs,   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals   in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals   on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008954		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is counted occasionally as part of ongoing IBA monitoring in a few sites. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Design a program of co-ordinated range wide monitoring to determine the magnitude of the decline. Implement the monitoring program at breeding, passage and non-breeding sites. Through awareness campaigns, reduce the demand for the species, both as a snack and a mascot. Research its precise habitat requirements on the wintering grounds. Protect sites which still hold large numbers on the wintering grounds.  <p></p>
106008954		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza aureola </em>breeds across the northern Palaearctic from <strong>Finland</strong>, <strong>Belarus</strong> and <strong>Ukraine</strong> in the west, through <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong>, to far eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Korea</strong> and northern <strong>Japan</strong>. In the autumn, birds stop-over in large numbers to moult in the Yangtze Valley, China before continuing on to their winter quarters. It winters throughout a relatively small area in southern and south-east Asia which includes eastern <strong>Nepal</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, southern China, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong> (Byers <em>et al.</em> 1995). It was formerly one of the most abundant breeding passerines across vast swathes of Siberia, but although there have been no systematic surveys, a severe decline has been noted in most breeding areas and it has completely disappeared from parts of its former breeding range over the last twenty years. No birds have bred in Finland in the last three years and its range has contracted northwards by 300 km in Kazakhstan over the last 15 years. It is estimated to have declined by at least 70% during 2000-2010 in European Russia<strong></strong>, with declines reported in the Moscow, Novgorod, Kostroma, Ulyanovsk and Baikal regions (A. Mischenko <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), as well as very rapid declines in Tyumen region reported in 2011 (J. Kamp <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), suggesting a massive decline in an area of the core range during 2000-2011 (M. Flade<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007). Severe declines have also recently been noted in Hokkaido, Japan and Mongolia (S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2003, O. Goroshko <em>in litt. </em>2003, Tamada 2006, M. Gilbert <em>in litt. </em>2007, A. Mischenko <em>in litt. </em>2007, J. Kamp <em>in litt. </em>2007). It no longer occurs as "swarms" at migration watch-points such as Beidaihe, China, and although a range-wide survey is required, numbers at wintering sites throughout its range have also shown rapid declines over the last twenty years (S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2003, M. Williams <em>in</em> <em>litt.</em> 2003,&#160;J. W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">,&#160;</span>N. Moores <em>in</em> <em>litt</em>. 2003, T. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2007, M. Gilbert <em>in litt. </em>2007, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>M. Williams <em>in litt. </em>2007, S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2007).<br/><p></p>
106008954		habitat	eng	It breeds<em> </em>in wet meadows with tall vegetation and scattered scrub, riverside thickets and secondary scrub. It winters in large flocks in cultivated areas, rice fields and grasslands, preferring scrubby dry-water rice fields for foraging and reedbeds for roosting (T. Gray <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p></p>
106008954		population	eng	In Europe, the   breeding population is estimated to number 20,000-100,000 breeding pairs,   equating to 60,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe   forms 25-49% of the global range. National population estimates include:   c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in   China; &lt;c.100,000 breeding pairs and &lt;c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008954		threats	eng	Since many populations on pristine breeding grounds have dropped rapidly, the decline is likely to be driven by excessive trapping at migration and, in particular, wintering sites (S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2003,&#160;P. Round <em>in litt.</em> 2003,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>M. Williams <em>in litt. </em>2007, S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2007) Roosting flocks in reedbeds are disturbed and then caught in mistnets, they are cooked and sold as "sparrows" or "rice-birds"; this practice was formerly restricted to a small area of southern China, but has now become more widespread and popular owing to increasing affluence, and hunters now have to travel widely to find sufficient birds (M. Lau <em>in litt. </em>2007, <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>M. Williams <em>in litt. </em>2007, S. Chan <em>in litt.</em> 2007). From 1992 onwards, an estimated several thousand Yellow-breasted Buntings were caught for the  annual food festival in Sanshui City, southern China (Gao Yuren 1996). This practice was banned in 1997, but a black market in birds still persists  and a huge number of birds are still sold annually,  including around 10,000 birds sold daily in a single market in Sanshui  (Chan 2004). In China, thousands of males are also stuffed and sold as mascots, since their presence in the home is thought to confer happiness (A. Mischenko <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>. At least locally, birds are trapped for "merit release" in temples<strong> </strong>(J. C. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007). Agricultural intensification, the shift to irrigated rice production and consequent loss of winter stubble has reduced the quality and quantity of wintering habitat, and the loss of reedbeds has reduced the number of available roost sites (T. Evans <em>in litt. </em>2007,&#160;J. Tordoff <em>in litt. </em>2007, J. C. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007). Declines caused by pressures on the wintering grounds are compounded by a reduction in habitat quality on the breeding grounds in parts of its range, particularly drying of meadows caused by changes in the flow pattern of rivers, a result of dam construction upstream (O. Goroshko <em>in litt. </em>2003, J. Kamp <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106008955		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common or common (Byers <em>et al</em>. 1995), while national population sizes have been estimated at &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan   (Brazil 2009).
106008956		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as never really common, although one of the most widespread African buntings (Byers et al. 1995).
106008957		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008958		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to rare (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008959		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).
106008960		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,800,000-9,300,000 breeding pairs, equating to 8,400,000-27,900,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 11,400,000-55,800,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008961		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 250-1,000 breeding pairs, equating to 750-3,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the   global range.
106008962		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan, North Korea and Hong Kong. It occurs in some National Wildlife Protection Areas in central Honshu, Japan, including Asama (Gunma and Nagano prefectures), the North Alps (Toyama, Nagano and Gifu prefectures) and Katano Duck Pond (Ishikawa prefecture). Some of its breeding and staging grounds are also protected as prefecture protection areas, such as Nikko (Tochigi prefecture), Myoko-san (Niigata prefecture), Nojiri-ko (Nagano prefecture), Matsunaga-wan (Hiroshima prefecture) and Kakara-jima (Saga prefecture).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the status of its breeding population and carry out surveys to establish its main wintering area. Coordinate a study of the decline and conservation requirements of migratory passerines in Asia. Ensure it is legally protected across its entire range. Study its habitat requirements during winter and make land management recommendations (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Assess the level of threat posed by nocturnal trapping during migration (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
106008962		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza sulphurata</em> breeds in <strong>Japan</strong>, and is thought to winter mainly in the <strong>Philippines</strong> (where its stronghold may be Ilocos Norte [D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), although some birds have wintered in Japan and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) in the past (BirdLife International 2001). There are non-breeding records, mainly of birds on passage, from <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) and the coast of mainland <strong>China</strong> and Taiwan. It is generally uncommon in its restricted breeding range in Japan, and it appears to have declined significantly during the 20th century. <p></p>
106008962		habitat	eng	It breeds from c.600-1,500 m, in deciduous and mixed forests, on wooded slopes and in high valleys, around woodland edges and in park-like areas with shrubs and thickets. It nests in bushes or on the ground. On migration, it occurs in shrubby clearings in open woodland, in low secondary growth and open cultivated land with bushes and thickets, and sometimes in open grasslands. In its wintering range, it is found in grasslands, scrub, pine forest and cultivated areas, up to 1,500&#160;m.<p></p>
106008962		population	eng	The global   population is roughly estimated to be in the band c.2,500-9,999 mature   individuals (BirdLife International 2001). This equates to 3,750-14,999   individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. National   population estimates include: &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration and &lt;   c.1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   and &lt; c.50 wintering individuals in Taiwan and &lt; c.100,000 breeding   pairs and &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration in Japan (Brazil 2009).
106008962		threats	eng	Its decline has probably been a result of a combination of habitat loss, high levels of pesticide use and trapping for the bird trade.<strong></strong><p></p>
106008963		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in moist shrubby undergrowth (Byers <I>et al</I>. 1995), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.50-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Brazil 1991), while national population sizes have been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008965		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 80,000-150,000 breeding pairs, equating to   240,000-450,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe   forming &lt;5% of the global range. The population in Russia has been   estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration   and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals (Brazil 2009).
106008966		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,800,000-8,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 14,400,000-26,400,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 29,400,000-106,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
106008967		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population to identify trends and its status. Research the potential threats that may be driving declines and take appropriate measures to reduce these. Protect areas of important habitat. <p></p>
106008967		distribution	eng	<em>Emberiza yessoensis</em> breeds in Primorye in extreme south-east <strong>Russia</strong>, Honshu, Kyushu and formerly Hokkaido, <strong>Japan</strong>, Heilongjiang in north-east <strong>China</strong>, and in <strong>Mongolia</strong>, and it is a passage and/or winter visitor to <strong>North Korea</strong> (where it is also likely to breed), <strong>South Korea</strong> and the coast of eastern China. It is considered to be uncommon or rare in all parts of its range. <p></p>
106008967		habitat	eng	It breeds in reedbeds and edges of marshes along rivers and lakes, but in highlands also in wet meadows and drier grasslands. It winters in coastal marshes. Breeding occurs from May to July. Seeds constitute a major part of its diet but it will take insects and berries in the summer.  <p></p>
106008967		population	eng	The species is   thought to have a moderately small population owing to its apparent rarity   within its range. National population estimates include: c.100-10,000   breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; 50 wintering   individuals in China; &lt; 1,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.100-10,000 breeding pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and &lt; 50 wintering individuals in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009). Overall, the   global population may number c.10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to   6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature   individuals.
106008967		threats	eng	It was reportedly more abundant a century ago. While the reason for its apparent decline is not known it is presumably declining still because of the loss and degradation of wetland habitat within its breeding range, and the destruction of coastal marshes in its Asian wintering grounds. <p></p>
106008968		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7.9-22 million breeding pairs, equating to 23.7-66 million individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 32-132 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
106008970		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number  c.150,000,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004), while national population estimates include:   &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals in Korea; &lt; c.1,000 wintering   individuals and &lt; c.50 individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-100,000   breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil   2009).
106008972		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been the focus of a number of studies on the breeding grounds, but no species-specific management actions are in place. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring the species, if necessary using a methodology more appropriate than the Breeding Bird Survey. Identify key migration stopovers and wintering sites, and threats to these areas. Ascertain winter habitat requirements and preferences. Develop suitable methods and incentives to restore native prairie habitats. Maintenance of native prairie grasslands is essential for this species.  <p></p>
106008972		distribution	eng	<em>Calcarius ornatus</em> breeds in the Great Plains (north and central <strong>USA</strong>) and the Canadian Prairie Provinces (southern central <strong>Canada</strong>), and winters in south-central and south-western <strong>USA</strong> and north-central <strong>Mexico</strong> (Hill and Gould 1997). It has undergone long-term population declines so that it is now rare or extirpated as a breeding species in a number of States formerly occupied. Breeding Bird Survey data record significant declines since 1980 in South Dakota which remains a stronghold of the species. Given that populations already have been drastically reduced in neighbouring Minnesota and Nebraska, South Dakota populations, in particular, should be closely monitored (Hill and Gould 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its decline measured by the Breeding Bird Survey equates to 7.4% per year (53.5% per decade) over 1993-2002, 3.9% per year (32.8% per decade) over 1980-2002, and 2.4% per year (31.6% per decade) over 1966-2002.    <p></p>
106008972		habitat	eng	It is a native-prairie specialist (Anstey <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, its breeding range restricted to short-grass and mixed-grass prairie regions, and its wintering range restricted to dry grasslands and deserts, where it feeds on grains in high density flocks (Hill and Gould 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It prefers native grasslands recently disturbed by fire, grazing or mowing, and will avoid nesting in areas protected from grazing or cultivated fields (Maher 1973, <strong></strong>Owens and Myres 1973)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008972		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <p></p>
106008972		threats	eng	As a result of conversion of native prairie to croplands and urban developments it has disappeared from much of its historical breeding range (e.g. in Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota). The wintering range has also contracted: this is presumed to have resulted from a population decline. Brown-headed cowbirds parasitise this species and there is a high level of predation by native predators (Hill and Gould 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It can be vulnerable to disturbance (Hill and Gould 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008973		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number &gt; c.40,000,000 individuals (Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), while national population sizes have been   estimated at &lt; c.1,000 wintering individuals and &lt; c.50 individuals on   migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Russia   (Brazil 2009).
106008974		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>A survey of the breeding grounds is needed to determine population density and to assess whether populations are stable or threatened. Ensure continued protection of the breeding grounds.   <p></p>
106008974		distribution	eng	<em>Plectrophenax hyperboreus</em> breeds on the Hall and St Matthew islands (totalling 300 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Bering Sea, <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, and occasionally on St Lawrence and probably St Paul islands. It winters along the west Alaska coast from Kotzebue to the tip of the Alaska Peninsula, irregularly on the south coast of Alaska, occasionally to the Aleutian Islands and accidentally in British Columbia, <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Canada</strong>, and Washington and Oregon, U.S.A.<p></p>
106008974		habitat	eng	On the breeding grounds, it inhabits vegetated and rocky tundra, mostly in coastal lowlands, and typically nests on shingle beaches. It winters on coastal marshes, shingle beaches and agricultural fields with exposed vegetation. <p></p>
106008974		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,600-1,700 mature individuals.<p></p>
106008974		threats	eng	Although under no immediate threat, it would be susceptible to devastation by any introduced rats <em>Rattus </em>spp., weasels <em>Mustela</em> spp. or foxes <em>Vulpes</em> spp.. <p></p>
106008977		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melospiza melodia</span> occurs throughout southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada </span>and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span>, and in parts of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">graminea</span> of California's Santa Barbara Island went extinct in the 1960s (Fuller 2000).
106008980		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106008985		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008991		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ammodramus maritimus</span> is endemic to south-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> and extreme north-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">nigrescens</span> recently went extinct, the last record coming from 1980 (Walters 1992).
106008992		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A recent project developed population estimates for sites in Connecticut. Using survey data from throughout the species's range this project will estimate the total population size (C. Elphick <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Research into threats to the species, especially the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise is on-going (C. Elphick <em>in litt. </em>2007), as are developing population and trend estimates, monitoring and habitat management<strong></strong>. The species occurs within a number of protected areas supporting coastal habitat, and restoration of tidal marshes is on-going (C. Elphick <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><br/><p></p>
106008992		distribution	eng	<em>Ammodramus caudacutus</em> is confined to a narrow Atlantic coastal strip of the <strong>U.S.A.</strong> from Maine southwards to the Delmarva Peninsula, with a southward shift in winter as far as Florida and north to Maryland and Massachusetts (Greenlaw and Woolfenden 2007, J. S. Greenlaw <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. It is common to abundant in saltmarshes in the core of its range (J. S. Greenlaw <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and has been estimated to number c.250,000 individuals (<strong></strong>Rich <em>et al.</em> 2003, P. Comins <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>; more recent estimates from Connecticut suggest a figure of c.30,000 individuals is more appropriate (Elphick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Its highly fragmented range is c.20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, within which it occupies an area of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> of appropriate habitat (P. Comins <em>in litt.</em> 2003, C. Elphick <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106008992		habitat	eng	<em>Ammodramus caudacutus </em>is found in tidal coastal marshes where there is dense cordgrass, blackgrass or saltmeadow grass. Home ranges preferentially include <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina patens </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus gerardii</span> cover (Shriver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and nesting success is positively correlated with the presence of the latter (Gjerdrum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Nesting takes place from mid May through to early August and males sing occasionally (C. Elphick <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) during this time. Nests are placed 6-15 cm above the ground and usually 3-5 greenish white to greenish blue eggs, speckled with reddish brown, are laid. They are not territorial and are not usually found in mixed species flocks (Rising 1996)<strong></strong>, apart from with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nelsoni</span> when on migration (J. S. Greenlaw <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).   <p></p>
106008992		population	eng	Rough extrapolations from more detailed work in Connecticut suggest a global population of c.30,000 individuals, a significantly lower figure than the 250,000 individuals estimated in 2003.<p></p>
106008992		threats	eng	Localised populations have suffered throughout its range from the historical loss and fragmentation of marshes owing to urban development (Greenlaw and Rising 1994, Sibley 1996, C. Elphick <em>in litt. </em>2003, 2012)<strong></strong>. Further on-going threats include degradation from chemical spills and other pollutants, invasive species (particularly <em>Phragmites</em>, which makes the habitat completely unsuitable) and sea level rise (C. Elphick <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The amount by which sea level will rise owing to climate change remains uncertain but <em>Spartina patens</em> dominated marsh (high marsh) may disappear or be greatly reduced in size as the large amount of development along the coast means that there is limited scope for marshes to migrate inland (C. Elphick <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Minimum projections suggest 40-75% of this habitat will be lost (C. Elphick <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In addition, this species appears to be extremely vulnerable to a slight rise in sea-level, when nests are lost due to flooding (Bayard and Elphick 2011). To date the species has not been recorded nesting outside of high marsh habitats; the implications of sea-level rise and loss of high marsh habitats are therefore extremely serious.   <p></p>
106008994		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is monitored within the North American Breeding Bird Survey and Christmas Bird Count. It is listed as an Endangered species in Canada, and within its U.S. breeding range is considered Endangered in seven states, Threatened in five, and of Special Concern in four. Some grassland conservation activities will be undertaken as part of the national Partners in Flight bird conservation efforts. The Conservation Reserves Programme, while not specifically intended to benefit this species, has provided a large area of undisturbed grassland habitat, and Henslow's Sparrow has colonised these fields in many areas. Creation of large areas of undisturbed grasslands through this programme appears to have been responsible for recent reversal of long-term population declines. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends and determine its responses to grassland management regimes. <p></p>
106008994		distribution	eng	<em>Ammodramus henslowii</em> breeds in the eastern <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, from Minnesota (primarily in the south-east) east to southern Ontario and New York, and extending south-west to north-east Oklahoma, and south-east to north-western Kentucky and West Virginia. Isolated breeding populations also exist in north-east Virginia and north-east North Carolina. It is extirpated or a rare breeder in the north-east U.S. states, from Vermont south to Delaware. It winters in coastal states from south-east North Carolina south to Florida (except for the southern tip) and west to eastern Texas (AOU 1983, Sibley and Monroe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  It was once common in unploughed, periodically burnt tall-grass prairie, which originally stretched from Illinois west to Kansas and Nebraska (<strong></strong>Rising 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but these populations have declined over the last three decades, with the greatest declines being in the northern and eastern portions of the range (AOU 1983)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Southern populations, however, have tended to increase (<strong></strong>Rising 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, apparently in association with the creation of undisturbed grassland habitat by the Conservation Reserve Program, and the current population is estimated to be 79,000 individuals (Rich <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106008994		habitat	eng	During the breeding season, the species is typically found in grassland with tall and dense grass, dead trees and thick leaf-litter. On their wintering grounds, though, birds prefer recently burned areas, with low densities of litter and near-ground vegetation. They are often associated with longleaf pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus palustris</span> savanna at this time, but also occur in saline soil barrens (Holimon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Mowed fields are generally avoided, as are fields with a lot of woody vegetation (Rising 1996, Holimon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106008994		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <p></p>
106008994		threats	eng	Wetland draining and destruction of grassland habitat through fire suppression, conversion to agriculture or pine plantations and earlier and more frequent cutting of hayfields (Rising 1996, Federal Register 1998, Pruitt 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> all represent threats, and in combination they have caused population declines.  <p></p>
106008995		distribution	eng	This species breeds in the prairies of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada, and North and South Dakota, Montana and Minnesota, USA, and winters in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, USA, and Sonora, Durango, Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico (Jones et al. 1998).
106008995		habitat	eng	This is a grassland species.  It is reported to depend on habitat structure rather than species composition, and occurs in non-native habitats, although its breeding success in these habitats is unknown (C. Hyslop in litt. 2000).
106008995		threats	eng	Conversion of prairie to agriculture has drastically reduced the occupied range and population, but it remains abundant where suitable prairie habitat persists (Jones et al. 1998).
106008997		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008998		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106008999		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys have found new localities, identified the important areas for protection, investigated the breeding ecology and censused the population at La Cima (Cabrera 1999, Cabrera and Escamilla 2000, Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. CONABIO, UNAM and CORENA have been working on a community-based species conservation project since 2008 with  the support of Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. The project is  focused on preserving and restoring habitat with the involvement of landowners and managers. In 2011 members of the community were trained  for bird monitoring in order to participate in 2012 in an effort  conducted by CONABIO to assess the current population status of the  species (H. Berlanga<em> </em><em>et al. </em><em>in litt.</em> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor remaining populations (L. Cabrera <em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey suitable habitat in Durango. Integrate local people in developing appropriate grassland management strategies, including fire management (L. Cabrera <em> in litt.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure that grain storage prevents potential infection by micotoxins (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect remaining habitat fragments. <p></p>
106008999		distribution	eng	<em>Xenospiza baileyi</em> was known from disjunct areas in north Jalisco, south Durango, and around the Distrito Federal-Morelos border, <strong>Mexico</strong>, but is now confined to the latter two areas, over 800 km apart. In this very small area, it is most regularly recorded from around El Capulín-La Cima and Santa Ana Tlacotenco, but there are other recent records from north-east of Volcán Yecahuazac, east and north of Volcáns San Bartolito and Comalera, north of Volcán Tuxtepec, west of Volcán Tulmiac, north of Acopiaxco (Cabrera 1999, Cabrera and Escamilla 2000)<strong> </strong>and north-east of Coexapa (H. Gómez de Silva <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001, Oliveras de Ita and Gómez de Silva 2002)<strong></strong>. A record at Los Dinamos, Distrito Federal in 1993 (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong> refers to a misidentified juvenile Song Sparrow <em>Melospiza melodia</em><strong> </strong>(H. Gómez de Silva <em>in litt</em>. 1999).<strong> </strong>The species went unrecorded in Durango from 1951 until it was rediscovered there in 2004 (J. M. Lammertink <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. A recent survey concluded that the species is now confined to just two locations: Ejido Ojo de Agua-El Cazador, southern Durango, where there are at least three breeding pairs concentrated in an area of 0.5 ha within an 80 ha marsh; and the fragmented grasslands of "sur del Valle de México" centered around La Cima and Milpa Alta, Distrito Federal, where there are perhaps 5, 5,380-6,150 adults equating to 2,300 breeding pairs (Oliveras de Ita and Gomez de Silva 2007, M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The northern population was found to be restricted to a single locality having disappeared from three historical sites (Oliveras de Ita and Rojas-Soto 2006)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106008999		habitat	eng	It inhabits medium to tall bunch-grass meadows (zacatón) mostly at elevations of 2,800-3,050 m, but populations in Durango were as low as 2,285 m. Specifically, its preferred habitat is primary tall fodder grass areas dominated by <em>Muhlenbergia macroura</em>, <em>M. affinis</em>, <em>Festuca amplissima</em> and <em>Stipa ichu</em> which are subject to agriculture and cattle activities. It feeds in agricultural fields and birds have been seen singing from the tops of zacatón clumps in a heavily grazed and poorly drained field. It lays a brood of 2 to 4 eggs. Nesting success is c.36% at La Cima, with nests constructed low down in bunch-grass tussocks (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106008999		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, based on a 1997 estimate of 5,380-6,150 adults occupying the key site for this species. There were reportedly a small number of individuals at other locations. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Densities of 2.9 territories/ha have been recorded at La Cima (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>.
106008999		threats	eng	There is widespread anthropogenic burning of habitat, mostly to promote new growth of grazing pasture for sheep and cattle (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. There is also conversion to agriculture (mainly oats), bunch-grass is sometimes cut for thatch and brushes and a degree of urban encroachment is occurring. Most remaining habitat is close to volcanic rock outcrops or on slopes where it is difficult to operate a tractor (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. However, rock extraction at La Cima suggests that many of these areas are likely to be converted to agriculture (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. La Cima has been planted with pines and, if these survive, the sparrow will be extirpated from this site (M. Grosselet <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Autopsies on two individuals showed that organ systems had collapsed as a result of mycotoxins from contaminated grain (Oliveras de Ita <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. There is a high level of nest failure owing to heavy predation which may be exacerbated by habitat fragmentation (P. Escalante<em> in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009006		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The north side of the valley near at Tanque de Emergencia (Rancho los Angeles), is managed appropriately by the Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, using a rotational grazing regime to ensure that the grass is always high in several pastures (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. The La India locality has been proposed as a protected natural area within the category of "sanctuary" by the Museo de las Aves de Mexico, Saltillo. Pronatura Noreste have fenced an important winter foraging locality for this species (M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to identify additional breeding sites. Monitor known populations. Assess precise ecological requirements and understand local movements (<strong></strong>Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Implement rotational grazing regimes at known sites (Wege <em>et al.</em>1993)<strong></strong>. Identify main predators and their impact over the reproductive success of the species<strong></strong>.  Develop an environmental education programme to promote the value of the ecosystem (<strong></strong>Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and the importance of appropriate grazing regimes. <p></p>
106009006		distribution	eng	<em>Spizella wortheni</em> has suffered a major range contraction and currently only breeds at sites in Coahuila and Nuevo León: La India, where it was discovered in 2004 (Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>; San José del Alamito (Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010),<strong></strong> and Tanque de Emergencia, where 100-120 individuals were found in January 1998 (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998) in Coahuila; and Las Esperanzas (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993, Behrstock <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, La Carbonera and San Rafael in Nuevo León. Wintering flocks have been observed in Erial (100 individuals observed in February 2006), La Carbonera and San Rafael in Nuevo León, and Rancho los Angeles in Coahuila, where 60 individuals were observed in February 2006 (Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Thorough surveys may find additional sites because suitable habitat remains within its historical range (<strong></strong>M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It was first described from New Mexico, U.S.A. in 1884, but it has only been recorded in <strong>Mexico</strong> since that date<strong></strong>. There are records from eight states, but it was last recorded in Puebla in 1893, Tamaulipas in 1924, San Luis Potosí in 1951, Veracruz before 1957, Chihuahua in 1959 and Zacatecas in 1961. The few records from San Luis Potosí, Zacatecas, Puebla and Veracruz were in the non-breeding season, and may refer to migrants, isolated individuals or extirpated populations. However, since birds move only locally in the non-breeding season in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon and there has been a large breeding range contraction in the north, it seems more likely that these represent extirpated populations (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009006		habitat	eng	It is confined to open, arid shrub-grassland at elevations of 1,200-2,450 m (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993, Behrstock <em>et al.</em> 1997) where breeding sites have been found in associations of tarbush (<em>Flourensia cernua</em>), creosotebush (<em>Larrea tridentata</em>), fourwing saltbush (<em>Atriplex canescens</em>) and short grassland (Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007, Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. It probably keys-in on certain vegetational structural components, such as open areas with low (grazed) grasses for foraging and a moderate complement of low, dense shrubs for cover and nesting (Behrstock <em>et al.</em> 1997, Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007, Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. Taller shrubs and trees may serve as observation or song perches, but a lack of shrubs over 0.5 m is not a deterrent to habitat occupancy (Behrstock <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. There are indications that it prefers the open-wooded area ecotone, but this is not the case at Las Esperanzas (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993, Behrstock <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. In recently discovered breeding areas, 57 characterized nests showed a preference mainly for tarbush and <span style="font-style: italic;">Opuntia</span> as nesting shrubs (Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Nests of 3-5 eggs have been found between May and August (<strong></strong>Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007, Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Single-species flocks form after the breeding season (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993)<strong></strong> and are apparently strongly attracted to permanent water (Behrstock <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>.<em></em><br/><p></p>
106009006		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 70-80 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 100-120 individuals in total (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1998).
106009006		threats	eng	Open shrub-grasslands have been greatly reduced by agriculture and grazing, and the rate of habitat conversion is increasing, primarily for production of potatoes (<strong></strong>M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. There has been a progressive loss of habitat even on the Coahuila-Nuevo León border, especially in the El Potosí Valley (<strong></strong>M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Grazing and the use of chemicals modify and reduce the quality of the habitat and disturb nesting birds (Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It seems unlikely that large tracts of habitat remain near the currently known sites (Wege <em>et al.</em> 1993, Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007, Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Reported reproductive success is very low, only 14% in La India and 0% in Carbonera; predation (Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007, Canales del Castillo and González-Rojas in prep.)<strong></strong> and livestock disturbance (Canales del Castillo <em>et al</em>. 2010<em></em>) seem to be the main causes, but it is not known how this affects populations (<strong></strong>Garza de Leon <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Snakes and coyotes are thought to predate nests (M. A. Cruz-Nieto <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009013		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009014		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009015		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009016		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Study the species's ecology, including habitat use. Assess the impact of the Pan-American Highway and habitat degradation on the species. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat. <strong><sup> <p></p></sup></strong>
106009016		distribution	eng	<em>Peucaea </em><em>sumichrasti</em> has a small range on the Pacific slope of south-east Oaxaca (west to Las Tejas and through the río Tehuantepec basin to Rancho las Animas) and extreme south-west Chiapas, <strong>Mexico</strong> (Binford 1989, Howell and Webb 1995, AOU 1998).  <p></p>
106009016		habitat	eng	This species is fairly common to common up to 900 m in arid lowland scrub and on the edge of, and openings within, tropical deciduous forest (Howell and Webb 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009016		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009016		threats	eng	The Pan-American Highway has led to fragmentation of habitat within its restricted range (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many forest areas are now degraded or secondary, but whether this has had a detrimental impact on this species is unclear.  <p></p>
106009017		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009018		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009019		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Management practices for Red-cockaded Woodpecker <em>Picoides borealis</em> were also thought to benefit this species, but there is now evidence that this is not the case. Efforts to restore understorey plant communities in pine flatwoods have proven difficult so far and as such little suitable habitat has been restored. However, prescribed burning has been identified as a more cost-effective method of maintaining proper understorey and grass communities than mechanical or chemical control of vegetation<strong></strong>. Furthermore, timber management changes since 2000 within the species's range may provide more habitat in future. Managing for large trees (sawtimber) is becoming increasingly viable for forest land-owners as opposed to pulpwood; in managing for sawtimber, planting densities are reduced and stand improvement activities maintain grass understorey better than pulpwood plantations (Askins <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Restore habitat, reinstating a natural fire regime. Continue to monitor the population and its trends. Determine the key threats to the species.  <p></p>
106009019		distribution	eng	<em>Peucaea </em><em>aestivalis</em> occurs on the coastal plain and Piedmont of south <strong>U.S.A.</strong>, from extreme south Virginia to central Florida and east Texas. Occasional birds are reported north to south-central Missouri, Kentucky and Tennessee, and it formerly occurred as far north as south-west Pennsylvania, south Ohio, Illinois and Indiana. Only the northern populations were migratory, reaching as far as North Carolina. In 1890-1915, its range expanded dramatically in response to the clearance of old pine forests and the abandonment of Mid-west farms. This expansion peaked in 1915-1920, and a gradual decline in the north of its range began in the 1930s, mostly occurring before the 1960s, because of forest succession. Maximum densities of singing males in South Carolina were 0.41-0.48/ha in occupied patches of suitable habitat, but many populations are isolated and prone to local extinction (Dunning 1993, J. B. Dunning <em>in litt.</em> 1999, C. E. Shackleford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Since 1980, declines have been estimated at 1.7% per year, equating to 15.8% over a 10 year period. These declines and the contraction of the species's range are continuing. <p></p>
106009019		habitat	eng	It breeds in early succession pine woodlands or in mature longleaf pine.  Also found occasionally in open habitats with dense grasses and forbs.   <p></p>
106009019		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <p></p>
106009019		threats	eng	It is now absent over most of its northern range and uncommon in most of the south because of timber harvesting practices, fire suppression and fragmentation of suitable habitat meaning many suitable patches of habitat are not occupied. It is also subject to disturbance by birdwatchers in parts of its range. <p></p>
106009020		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106009022		distribution	eng	This species occurs from south-central Arizona (USA) to Sonora and Sinaloa states, Mexico (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a).
106009022		habitat	eng	The species occurs mainly in open, flat grassy areas with scattered thorn bush, bunch-grass, mesquite or cholla, between sea level and 1,200 m (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a). The nest is built in the edge of a bush, and nesting takes place from late April to mid-September, triggered by summer rains (Rising 1996).
106009023		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aimophila ruficeps</span> occurs in south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> and much of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>(del Hoyo et al. 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sanctorum</span> of Mexico's Todos Santos Islands has not been observed on recent visits and is likely to be extinct (Wilbur 1987).
106009024		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Protect suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106009024		distribution	eng	<em>Aimophila notosticta</em> is locally fairly common in the interior valleys of Oaxaca and possibly also adjacent Puebla, <strong>Mexico</strong>.   <p></p>
106009024		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid to semi-arid oak-thorn scrub, brushy ravines and adjacent overgrown grassy areas at elevations of 1,600-1,900 m (Byers <em>et al.</em> 1995, Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009024		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band for 20,000-49,999 mature individuals here.
106009024		threats	eng	Significant tracts of dry forest and arid scrub remain, but are under pressure from cutting of vegetation for timber and firewood, and clearance for cattle-ranching. However, most of its habitat is situated on very steep slopes, thus limiting the impact of these threats (M. Grosselet <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
106009025		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009026		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Each of the three subspecies has been recorded in a protected area, but none receives <em>de facto</em> protection (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The British Birdwatching Fair funded surveys of the eastern race <em>inexpectata</em> that revised the population estimate upwards significantly.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey to define the range and population of each subspecies, particularly investigate areas of apprantly suitable habitat to the east of the known range of <em>inexpectata</em> (Kirkconnell and Suarez 2005). Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of existing reserves (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Investigate the extent of proposed developments and take mitigating measures (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>.  Develop a scheme whereby farming and conservation of the species are compatible.   <p></p>
106009026		distribution	eng	<em>Torreornis inexpectata</em> occurs in three distinct populations in <strong>Cuba</strong>: the nominate race has a stable population (Wells and Mitchell 1995, E. Abreu <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> of more than 250 birds in a small area of the Zapata Swamp; race <em>varonai</em> is numerous within its very restricted range on Cayo Coco in the Camagüey Archipelago; and race <em>sigmani</em>, restricted to a small stretch of the south-east coast in Guantánamo, was thought to number only 110-200 individuals, but has recently found to have a slightly larger range and may number 600-700 indiviudals (Kirkconnell and Suarez 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009026		habitat	eng	The nominate race inhabits scrub grassland as well as xerophytic coastal vegetation and mangroves (E. Abreu <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The race <em>varonai</em> occurs in semi-deciduous forest, coastal xerophytic thorn-scrub and mangrove, and the race <em>sigmani</em> inhabits dry scrub. Birds are usually seen in pairs or groups of three, but are occasionally also in larger groups of 10-12 (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the dry season, it appears to feed primarily on seeds and flowers, but takes insects, spiders, snails and their eggs and even small lizards in the wet season (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is constructed in a tussock, and the breeding season is March-June. <p></p>
106009026		population	eng	Kirkconnell and Suarez (2005) increased the population estimate of the race <span style="font-style: italic;">sigmani </span>from 100-200 to 600-700. In total the species's population is now estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009026		threats	eng	Drainage and dry-season burning affect habitat in the Zapata Swamp. Cayo Coco is under development for tourism. Burning of habitat, subsequent grass invasion and fencing for sheep-rearing threaten the population on the Guantánamo coast. <p></p>
106009027		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009029		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009034		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009035		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009036		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009037		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009038		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009040		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009041		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009042		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009044		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009045		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009046		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009049		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009051		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009052		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009053		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009054		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Action for Yellow-eared Parrot <em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> has increased public awareness and community involvement in conservation issues in the Río Toche area (Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which should also help <em>A. flaviceps.</em> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potential habitat in the upper Magdalena valley, the La Plata Vieja valley and intervening areas. Determine the extent of dependence on secondary vegetation, and sensitivity to vegetational succession and habitat destruction (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106009054		distribution	eng	<em>Atlapetes flaviceps</em> occurs on the east slope of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is has been recorded once in the La Plata Vieja valley, Huila, in 1967. The type-series was collected in Toche valley, Tolima, where it is still locally common (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009054		habitat	eng	At the only currently known locality, it seems to have adapted well to degraded forest, thick secondary vegetation (especially where vines and remnant forest trees are present) and bushy, overgrown bean-fields at 1,300-2,500&#160;m (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Observations have been made of a juvenile with parents in June, adults collecting nesting material in October (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and immature birds in November. <p></p>
106009054		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106009054		threats	eng	Parts of the upper Magdalena valley have been converted to agricultural land since the 18th century (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, when the type-series was collected, the higher valleys of the Toche area, Tolima, were heavily forested. Since the 1950s, much of the original habitat in these valleys has been cleared and used for agriculture, including coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Mature secondary forest patches are scattered, and natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c.15% at elevations of 1,900-3,200&#160;m, most of it occurring above 2,200&#160;m (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Some forest clearance continues in remaining patches (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, López-Lanús <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong>.</strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> <p></p>
106009055		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in suitable habitats in surrounding areas to determine the full extent of the range. Study the ecology of the species to identify habitat requirements and potential threats. Protect areas of primary and secondary habitats occupied by the species to safeguard against agricultural encroachment.  <p></p>
106009055		distribution	eng	<em>Atlapetes fuscoolivaceus</em> occurs on the west slope of the East Andes and east slope of the Central Andes, south-central <strong>Colombia,</strong> at the head of the upper Magdalena valley in Huila (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Serranía de los Churumbelos in Cauca (Salaman <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is localised but common in suitable areas. <em> <p></p></em>
106009055		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane evergreen forest edge habitats at 1,600-2,400 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It can persist in second growth and degraded forest.  <p></p>
106009055		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009055		threats	eng	Although it is tolerant of some habitat degradation, the head of the Magdalena valley is now characterised by unsuitable and extensive coffee, banana and sugarcane plantations (Wege and Long 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009057		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009059		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009060		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009061		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009062		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009063		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Research studying the species's life history and habitat use is on-going (M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Management for this species has been extremely successful and very probably saved the species from extinction. The remaining 27 ha of suitable habitat, where it was observed in 1998, was purchased in 1999 and securely fenced off to remove grazing pressure (Sornoza Molina 2000, N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Cowbird removal in 2003 resulted in a strong increase in reproductive output; 16 chicks fledged in the Yunguilla Reserve in 2003 compared to only 5 in 2002 (Schmidt and Schaefer 2003)<strong></strong>. Removal of this parasitic species is on-going (M. Juiña <em>in litt.</em> 2008, N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. A habitat management scheme was implemented in November 2002, in order to halt vegetation succession and create suitable habitat by selective thinning of dense thickets<strong></strong><strong></strong>. This has mostly been successful, although some succession has occurred and at least one territory has been lost (M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A habitat occupancy monitoring scheme was set up in 2004 to assess the success of this habitat management (Schmidt and Schaefer 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The reserve now encompasses between 150 and 200 ha and holds over 90% of the known brush-finch territories (M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Further land purchases, mainly immediately to the north of the reserve, are planned. There are plans to establish a second reserve and move some birds there, once the present population has reached 200 pairs (N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to study the species and its habitat to facilitate successful land management (Agreda <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong></strong>. Maintain habitat through selective cutting in the non-breeding season  (N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Continue the control of Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em><strong> </strong>(M. Schaefer and V. Schmidt <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2002), concentrating on the peak laying period of mid-February to mid-April (Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Establish environmental education programmes around the known site.<p></p>
106009063		distribution	eng	<em>Atlapetes pallidiceps</em> occurs in the río Jubones drainage, in Azuay and Loja, south <strong>Ecuador</strong>. There were no records between 1969 and 1998, when intensive studies found five pairs and two presumed immatures in two habitat patches in the Yunguilla Valley, near Girón, Azuay, and a further 1-2 pairs that were suspected to be supported by habitat in small ravines in the 1 km between the two patches (Agreda <em>et al.</em> 1999a, <em></em>1999b)<strong></strong>. Despite repeated searches, it is unknown elsewhere within its presumed historical range (Agreda <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999b)<strong></strong>. The breeding population in 2003 was conservatively estimated at 33 pairs, with 17 pairs in the Yunguilla Reserve, 4 pairs immediately adjacent to it and 12 further pairs in the next valley (Schmidt and Schaefer 2003); it has since shown a consistent increase owing to intensive conservation management, reaching an estimated total of 113 pairs in 2009 (Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The population may have effectively reached saturation point within the available habitat (D. Wege <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>, although this is contested and saturation may occur at between 150 and 200 occupied territories (Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 2010, N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. Increases beyond this may be constrained by high land prices and the difficulty of exercising cowbird control in areas the cowbirds can access from several directions. <p></p>
106009063		habitat	eng	Its habitat is typical of regenerating landslides and fallow fields, with the species occurring at 1,650-1,950 m (Agreda <em>et al.</em> 1999a, 1999b)<strong></strong> in the transition between arid and humid areas with dense low scrub (Schmidt and Schaefer 2003)<strong></strong>, which is interspersed with small clearings and some patches of 2-3 m tall <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo (Krabbe 2004). Birds feed on invertebrate prey, fruits and flowers during the rainy season (M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), the rest of the year also taking a variety of fruit and seeds (Agreda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999a, Oppel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Krabbe 2004, M. Juiña unpubl. data). It often gleans prey from twigs of the composite bush <span style="font-style: italic;">Steiractinia sodiroi</span> (Krabbe 2004). It is usually seen in pairs, mainly foraging on and within 2 m of the ground (Agreda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999a, Schmidt and Schaefer 2003, Krabbe 2004). Historical records are all from the edges of arid intermontane valleys, at 1,500-2,100 m (N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Nests are placed within dense thickets of small bushes or bamboo (Schmidt and Schaefer 2003)<strong></strong>. A single clutch is raised every year, unsuccessful birds relaying (Oppel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Egg-laying takes place between late February and mid-April (N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), with a few relaying as late as May (Oppel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012, M. Juiña unpubl. data), and young are fledged by late May (N. Krabbe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Recent studies have investigated its breeding ecology and habitat usage (M. Schaefer and V. Schmidt <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002, Schmidt and Schaefer 2003)<strong></strong>. It coexists with Rufous-naped Brush-finch <span style="font-style: italic;">Atlapetes rufinucha </span>and Stripe-headed Brush-finch <em>Arremon torquatus</em>,<em> </em>but is subordinate to the latter (Krabbe 2004, Oppel <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004b, M. Schaefer <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009063		population	eng	There were 113 territories recorded in 2009 (D. Wege <em>in litt.</em> 2009), hence the total population appears to number 226 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 340 individuals in total.
106009063		threats	eng	Brood parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> has a significant impact on breeding success (M. Schaefer and V. Schmidt <em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong>, with an overall parasitism rate of 42% in 2002 (Schmidt and Schaefer 2003, Oppel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004b)<strong></strong>. The positive population trend observed in <em>A. pallidiceps</em> since the initiation of cowbird control in 2003 adds further weight to the significance of this threat (Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The impacts (positive and negative) on the species of livestock grazing are not well understood and require further study. Fires potentially threaten the species (J. Freile <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011, M. Schaefer <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>, but also result in an improvement to its habitat (N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. An annual turnover of 40% in singing males, as calculated from data obtained in 1999-2007 (Krabbe <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>, indicates that the impact of a change in management or a new threat would be rapid. <p></p>
106009064		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Huascarán National Park, Ancash, but until recently habitat degradation was continuing even within this reserve (Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). However, there is now active management of remaining <em>Polylepis</em> patches (Byers 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine tolerance of disturbed habitats and levels of dependence on declining native woodlands. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <p></p>
106009064		distribution	eng	<em>Atlapetes rufigenis</em> has a patchy distribution in the Andes of west <strong>Peru, </strong>mostly in the drainage of the upper río Marañón, from south Cajamarca to Huánuco and Ancash (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). It is apparently locally fairly common (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990) and common near Tantamayo (W.-P. Vellinga <em>in litt</em>. 1999). In the Cordillera Blanca, it is found in c.20 remnant patches of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland (J. Fjeldså verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009064		habitat	eng	This species occurs at elevations of 2,700-4,600 m in <em>Polylepis </em>woodland, mixed <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Polylepis</em> groves, montane evergreen forest edge, montane scrub and secondary growth (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, <strong></strong>G. Servat <em>in litt. </em>1999, Clements and Shany 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It has also been found in park-like surroundings around agricultural fields (W.-P. Vellinga <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009064		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106009064		threats	eng	Cutting for firewood and a lack of regeneration caused by burning and intensive grazing are reducing mixed <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Other factors include the change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, and erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification, road construction and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (particularly the use of <em>Eucalyptus</em> and other exotic tree species) (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106009065		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009066		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009067		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009068		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009069		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009070		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009073		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009074		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009075		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Fortuna Forest Reserve and Santa Fe National Park<strong></strong> (Angehr 2003). It may also occur in Omar Torrijos Herrera National Park<strong></strong> (Angehr 2003). The Panama Audubon Society has discussed a protected area with representatives from the Comarca, but no action has been taken as yet<strong> </strong>(G. Angehr <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its population and distribution, especially in areas between known sites. Research the species's ecological requirements. Enforce better protection of known sites. Monitor the extent and rate of deforestation. <p></p>
106009075		distribution	eng	<em>Pselliophorus luteoviridis</em> is restricted to west and central <strong>Panama</strong> in the Serranía de Tabasará (Chiriquí, Veraguas and probably Bocas del Toro and Coclé). It has been recorded at Fortuna Forest Reserve, Cerro Flores and Cerro Colorado (adjacent peaks of the Cerro Santiago massif), and above Santa Fe and Chitra (Cerro San Antonio) (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Angehr and Jordán 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Angehr 2003), where it is scarce and poorly known. It probably also occurs in Omar Torrijos Herrera National Park<strong></strong> (Angehr 2003).  <p></p>
106009075		habitat	eng	It inhabits highland cloud-forest, borders and clearings, at elevations of 1,200-1,800 m. <p></p>
106009075		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009075		threats	eng	Only isolated patches of forest remain in east Chiriquí, and the Serranía de Tabasará is generally threatened by clearance for coffee plantations, cattle-grazing, overuse of pesticides and fires<strong></strong> (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994). The core of its range around Cerro Santiago (in the Ngobe-Bugle Comarca (indigenous homeland)) is undergoing increasingly rapid deforestation owing to subsistence agriculture and cattle raising, and deforestation has now reached the continental divide. Deforestation is now occurring at the higher elevations favoured by the species, even within the boundaries of protected areas<strong></strong> (Angehr 2003). <p></p>
106009076		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009077		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106009077		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Arremon castaneiceps </span>is found in the western Andes of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia </span>(mostly W slope, E slope in Nariño), both slopes in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span> to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> where also on the E slope from Pasco to Cuzco.
106009077		habitat	eng	Dense understorey in humid lower montane forest and vine tangles in ravines and at forest edge between 750-1800m. Usually found near streams, particularly mossy ravines. Forages on or close to the ground. In Napo, Ecuador, breeding takes place mostly in March and April with most nests found in vine tangles and comprising a large green sphere of moss, rootlets and live fern leaves. Clutch of 2 eggs. <br/>Resident.
106009077		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009077		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
106009078		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         CITES Appendix II. In Argentina, it occurs in Sierra de las Quijadas,         Lihue Calel and El Palmar (where it is possibly extinct) national parks, and         Chancaní Provincial Reserve (Wege and Long 1995, Chebez <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998).         In Uruguay, a captive-breeding programme is being established (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999).         In southern Brazil a captive-breeding programme with specimens seized         from poachers is being established. </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Protect the Montiel area and Pay Urbe (J. C. Chebez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Designate         protected areas in the core of its Argentine range. Protect <em>Prosopis</em> woodlands in west Uruguay (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). Draft and enforce         legal measures against trappers. Organise awareness campaigns to         sensitise consumers.
106009078		distribution	eng	<em>Gubernatrix         cristata</em> was formerly widespread and common throughout         much of <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Uruguay</strong>, with a few records from         Rio Grande do Sul, <strong>Brazil</strong>, as a non-breeder. In Argentina, it is         now rare except very locally in San Luis, Buenos Aires, La Pampa and         Río Negro, and especially between General Conesa, San Antonio Oeste and         Viedma. There are further important populations in Pay Urbe         and Estancia San Antonio, Corrientes; the Montiel area,         Ceibas and Estancia la Choza, Entre Ríos, and  Chancaní, Córdoba (Chebez <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998).         There are pre-1975 records from Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero,         Santa Fe and San Juan, and it has been listed without details for         Formosa, Chaco, La Rioja and, mistakenly, Misiones (Chebez 1996).         In Uruguay, it was historically known from 13 departments, but recently         from only Paysandú, Río Negro, Florida and Rocha (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, G. Rocha <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). In 1999, the Uruguayan population was         estimated at fewer than 300 mature individuals, mostly concentrated in         the río Uruguay basin (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999), while any populations in         southern Brazil are probably now extinct (C. Martins-Ferreira <em>in litt. </em>2007). Two         specimens collected from Paraguay in 1905 probably refer to escaped         cagebirds (Hayes 1995). The total global population was estimated         at 1,500-3,000 individuals in 2007 (C. Martins-Ferreira <em>in litt. </em>2007).
106009078		habitat	eng	It inhabits open woodland (including <em>Prosopis</em> woodland), savanna, scrub and shrubby steppe, up to c.700&#160;m. Breeding occurs in the austral spring, with nests containing three eggs found in November.  <p></p>
106009078		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 1,500-3,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,000-2,000 mature individuals (Martins-Ferreira <em>in litt.</em> 2007).
106009078		threats	eng	Constant         and chronic exploitation as a songbird for the cagebird market remains         the most significant threat (Pessino and Tittarelli 2006). It         presumably suffers from timber extraction for firewood and furniture (Chebez 1994)         and, especially, rapid afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999).         Conversion to cattle pasture may be another potential threat.         Hybridisation with Common Diuca-finch <em>Diuca diuca</em> has been         recorded (Bertonatti and Guerra 1997, Bertonatti and López Guerra 2001).
106009079		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <I>et al</I>. (1996), while the population in Japan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 introduced breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
106009080		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009082		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009083		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009084		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is currently no action being taken for this species. Searches within the large expanses of suitable habitat that remain on the wintering grounds would be costly and most probably futile (A.&#160;Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Systematically search the small areas of remaining breeding habitat (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, A.&#160;Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009084		distribution	eng	<em>Vermivora bachmanii</em> is known to have bred in Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Alabama and South Carolina, <strong>USA</strong>, and there are breeding-season records from various other south-east states. Birds wintered in <strong>Cuba</strong> and occasionally Florida, USA. The last nest was found in 1937, but there have been recent (unconfirmed) sightings (K. Rosenberg <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small areas of suitable habitat remain, and the species may still survive (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009084		habitat	eng	It bred in seasonally flooded swamp-forest, always near standing water (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, apparently showing a strong association with canebrakes of the bamboo <em>Arundinaria gigantea</em>. Winter habitat requirements are much less specific, with records from dry forest, wetlands and urban areas (Hamel 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but apparently favouring wooded areas with flowering <em>Hibiscus</em> trees (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding occurred from March-June, with the nest constructed in the shelter of a dense bush or tangle of vegetation (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009084		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with the last (unconfirmed) sighting in 1988.
106009084		threats	eng	The drainage of river-bottom swamplands (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the near-total clearance of canebrakes in the USA, combined with the conversion of much of Cuba to sugarcane plantation, offer the best explanation for the disappearance of this species. <p></p>
106009086		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring population trends. Identify the principal threats and develop management actions to remedy them. Management to maintain or create suitable habitat; a forty-year cycle of burning 10-20 ha units of habitat has been proposed. Investigate the control and  removal of nest parasite (Brown-headed Cowbird) populations. <p></p>
106009086		distribution	eng	<em>Vermivora         chrysoptera</em> breeds from southern Manitoba, Ontario and         Quebec, <strong>Canada</strong>, and northern New York, southern Vermont and         eastern Massachusetts, <strong>USA</strong>, south through the eastern USA to         Tennessee, Georgia and South Carolina (AOU 1983, Buehler <em>et         al</em>. 2007). Birds winter from the Yucatán Peninsula (<strong>Mexico</strong>         and <strong>Belize)</strong> and <strong>Guatemala</strong>, south through <strong>El Salvador</strong>,         <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong>         to northern and eastern <strong>Colombia</strong> and northern <strong>Venezuela</strong> (AOU 1983);         wintering birds are occasionally recorded from the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>,         <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, <strong>Haiti</strong> and <strong>Puerto         Rico</strong> (Bond 1979). Although it had increased and expanded its         distribution for more than a century, evidence from the North American         Breeding Birds Survey suggests that it is declining in its southern         range, from Georgia to New England (where decline has been particularly         severe) (D. A. Buehler, R. A. Canterbury and J. L. Confer <em>in litt. </em>2003, Buehler <em>et al</em>. 2007). It increased         over the last c.30 years in the northern part of its breeding range (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994, D. A. Buehler, R. A. Canterbury and J. L. Confer <em>in litt. </em>2003), although recently declines have been         recorded (Buehler <em>et al. </em>2003). Estimates suggest a current population of         c.210<span class="GramE">,000 birds (<span class="GramE">Rosenberg and Blancher 2003, </span><span class="GramE">Rich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).
106009086		habitat	eng	Breeds         in open deciduous woodland, secondary growth, brushy pastures and bogs (AOU 1983),         apparently favouring a particular stage in woodland succession (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994).         When the habitat passes this stage, birds move on (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994). All         kinds of woodland and scrub are used during migration, and birds         generally winter in secondary growth forest or forest edge with a good         understorey (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994). Most records come from below 2,000 m,         and right down to sea-level (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994). The well-hidden nest is         usually on or close to the ground, and breeding takes place in May and         June (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994).
106009086		population	eng	Rich <em>et al.</em> PIF North American Landbirds Conservation Plan (2004). <p></p>
106009086		threats	eng	Local         declines correlate with advancing succession and reforestation, and the         invasive range expansion of Blue-winged Warbler <em>Vermivora pinus</em> (Confer 1992).         Other possible causes of population declines are loss of wintering         habitat (especially forest edge and open woodland) through agricultural         expansion and clearance for plantations, nest parasitism by         Brown-headed Cowbird <em>Molothrus ater</em> and hybridisation with <em>V.         pinus</em> (Confer 1992).
106009091		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range to determine trends. Research the effects of grazing and wood cutting on populations of the species. Examine the effects of Brown-headed Cowbird parasitism at the population level. Protect significant areas of forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106009091		distribution	eng	<em>Vermivora crissalis</em> is a fairly common but local breeder, occurring from Coahuila to north-east Zacatecas and northern San Luis Potosí, <strong>Mexico</strong>, and extreme south-west Texas, <strong>USA</strong> (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, Howell and Webb 1995a). It winters in west Mexico from south Sinaloa south to Guerrero and Morelos (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009091		habitat	eng	It breeds in pine-oak, oak and pinyon-juniper woodland, between 1,500 and 3,000 m (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is commonest in pine-oak woodland with a ground cover of bunchgrass (Wauer 1994)<strong></strong>. It winters in brushy understorey of humid to semi-humid montane forest from 1,500 to 3,500 m (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  The nest is usually on the ground, and eggs have been found in May (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009091		population	eng	Rich et al (2003) <p></p>
106009091		threats	eng	Grazing by goats, sheep and other exotic herbivores, increases in the populations of feral cats and dogs, and nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> are potentially severe threats to populations of this warbler in Mexico (Wauer 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009095		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009096		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009107		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In the USA, it is listed as Endangered and has a recovery plan (Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong></strong>. There is a cowbird trapping programme in Balcones Canyonlands National Wildlife Refuge, Texas (Sexton 1997, Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong></strong> and regional habitat conservation plans have been approved or are under development in Travis, Hays, Comal, and Williamson counties, Texas (Ladd and Gass 1999, J. Lyons <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Various reserves are managed for the species in Texas (J. Lyons <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 1993-1995 improved knowledge of its wintering distribution (Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong></strong>. It is known or suspected from Rancho Nuevo and Lagunas de Montebello National Parks, Mexico, Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala, and Celaque, Cusuco and Santa Bárbara National Parks, Honduras (Thompson 1995, Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong></strong>. Currently there is an ongoing effort involving Pronatura Sur, Defensores de la Naturaleza, and Salva Natura to gather information on the warbler south of the US, including details on its wintering habitat, and a community education initiative is underway. Surveys to monitor breeding populations are ongoing. The Leon River Restoration Project in central Texas is working on a habitat restoration project with Golden-cheeked Warbler and Black-capped Vireo as the primary focus.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor winter distribution and habitat quality. Monitor breeding populations. Better define ecology and habitat availability (Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Control cowbird populations where appropriate. Protect a highland pine-oak corridor in Mexico and north Central America (Lyons 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Implement community education schemes in the breeding range (Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Restore connectivity between northern and southern breeding populations to promote gene flow (<strong></strong>Lindsay <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009107		distribution	eng	<em>Dendroica chrysoparia</em> is a local breeder in  mature juniper-oak woodlands in the Edwards Plateau, Lampasas Cut Plain and Central Mineral Region, Texas, <strong>USA </strong> (Ladd and Gass 1999). It occurs at an average density of 15 males/km<sup>2</sup> in c.350 km<sup>2</sup> of occupied habitat, and the population was estimated to number 21,000 individuals in 2004 (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. There was a 25% loss in available territories between 1962 and 1981 (Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong></strong>, and the population has clearly declined. It winters in southern <strong>Mexico</strong> (Chiapas), <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, and <strong>Honduras</strong>, where it is uncommon to fairly common (Ladd and Gass 1999, Jones and Komar 2007)<strong></strong>. There are recent reports/records from <strong>Costa Rica </strong>(Garigues 2002) and <strong>Panama </strong>(Jones and Komar 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009107		habitat	eng	It breeds in juniper-oak woodlands, where it depends on Ashe Juniper <em>Juniperus ashei</em> bark for nesting material (Lockwood 1996)<strong></strong>. Nest building begins in late March, and eggs may be laid until mid-May (Ladd and Gass 1999, J. Reidy<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In winter, it occurs in mixed-species flocks, foraging at sites with a high density of "encino" oaks (in comparison to pines and other oak species) at 1,500-3,000 m (Thompson 1995, Ladd and Gass 1999, Rappole <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. It was thought to have a wider winter habitat tolerance (and may be tolerant of moderate levels of logging and grazing [Rappole <em>et al</em>. 1999]<strong></strong>), but this requires substantiation (J. Sterling <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009107		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004).  There is no reliable current estimate (J. Reidy in litt. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009107		threats	eng	Breeding habitat is under clearance for land development and agriculture (Ladd and Gass 1999)<strong></strong>. Fragmentation impairs gene flow (Lindsay <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> and nest survival decreases with increasing forest edge density (Peak 2006, Reidy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>. However, the main cause of decline may be logging and firewood-extraction, and agricultural conversion for cattle reducing pine-oak habitats in southern Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras (Ladd and Gass 1999, J. Lyons <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Rappole <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ecoregional Plan for conservation of Central American pine-oak forest and its birds 2007)<strong></strong>. Predation of incubating females by rat snakes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Elaphe </span>spp.) appears to be an important contributor to adult mortality, accounting for perhaps 15% of breeding female deaths (Reidy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
106009111		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009112		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009114		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         CMS Appendix I. Management replicating the effects of natural fires has         expanded potential breeding habitat to c.516 km<sup>2</sup>  (Richter 1996, Sykes 1997).         Since 1972, a cowbird trapping programme has reduced parasitism from         70% to 3% (Anon. 1996). Education and ecotourism initiatives in         Michigan include an annual Kirtland's Warbler Festival (Richter 1996).         Surveys have been undertaken in the Bahamas, most recently in 1998 (Haney <em>et al.</em> 1998, D. Ewert <em>in litt.</em> 1999).         There is a project in progress to establish the principal wintering         habitat (G. Hilton <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Virtually the entire population breeds         within the 140,000-acre Kirtland's Warbler Management Area which         includes the Huron National Forest, the Kirtland's Warbler National         Wildlife Refuge and various Michigan state forests. </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Maintain periodically-disturbed suitable habitat on its wintering grounds in the Bahamian archipelago (Wunderle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Continue existing initiatives, which will require $1 million per year (R. Rustem <em>in litt.</em> 2003).         Study the effects of management on breeding ecology).         Implement prescribed burning for all breeding habitat (Sykes 1997).         This is not possible in many areas, where it has been replaced by         commercial clearouts, followed by a replant or re-seed (R. Rustem <em>in litt.</em> 2003).         Increase the area of jack pine - this is difficult to maintain due to         the cost, and its future is uncertain because of the loss of the carbon         sequestration program (R. Rustem <em>in litt.</em> 2003). Investigate more economical         cowbird control (Sykes 1997).
106009114		distribution	eng	Almost the entire population of <em>Dendroica         kirtlandii</em> breeds in north and central Michigan (Anon. 2008), with         small numbers (and occasional breeding) in Michigan's Upper Peninsula         and Wisconsin, <strong>U.S.A.</strong> Breeding was also recorded in <strong>Canada</strong>         in 2007 for the first time since 1945 (Eskelsen 2007). Breeding         habitat has declined by 33% since the 1960s, but is more extensive than         the 18 km<sup>2</sup> occupied in 1994 (Nelson and Buech 1996). It has a         very small winter range in the <strong>Bahamas</strong> and the <strong>Turks and         Caicos Islands (to U.K.)</strong>, either concentrated in the northern islands         or spread throughout the Bahama Archipelago (Haney <em>et al.</em> 1998, Sykes and Clench 1998).         There were major declines in c.1900-1920 and 1961-1971 (Haney <em>et al.</em> 1998),         with the population numbering just 167 singing males in 1974 and 1987 (Anon. 1996).         Numbers have recovered to 1,697 singing males in Michigan in  2007 (Line 2008), the         highest since surveys began in 1951  (http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,1607,7-153--72725--,00.html,  National Wildlife Refuge Association <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006).
106009114		habitat	eng	Its optimal         breeding habitat is fire-maintained homogeneous stands of 1-5 m tall         jack pines <em>Pinus banksiana</em> on sandy soil (Mayfield 1992, Sykes 1997, Anon. 2008).         Eggs are laid in May and June (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994). It winters in early-successional disturbed habitat (Wunderle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), either stands of Caribbean pine <em>P. caribbaea</em> (Haney <em>et al.</em> 1998),         or natural and secondary scrub, and saline/upland ecotone (Sykes and Clench 1998).         It feeds on arthropods and abundant fruit during this time (Wunderle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Birds move from patch to patch in the wintering grounds as food         supplies are depleted and areas dry out, eventually concentrating in         small patches where they maintain small and overlapping home ranges (Wunderle <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006).
106009114		population	eng	The population size continues to increase, with latest estimates putting it around 3,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 2,300-2,400 mature individuals.
106009114		threats	eng	If         scrub is the preferred winter habitat, key threats are fire suppression         and brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> in         Michigan (Sykes and Clench 1998). If Caribbean pine is preferred, habitat         loss on the wintering ground is probably more important.         The latter is considered likely because of the species's failure to occupy all         breeding habitat, and changes in population have occurred contemporaneously         with the degradation and recovery of the north Bahamas pine ecosystem (Haney <em>et al.</em> 1998).         Recently however the fourfold population increase between 1990 and         2000, coincident with a tripling of the available habitat through         management, would appear to indicate that currently population levels         are closely linked to habitat availability (Probst <em>et al. </em>2003).         Consequentially, the current breeding range is too large for fire to         affect the whole population rapidly.
106009116		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Endeavour to locate proposed developments in sub-optimal or unoccupied habitat.  Monitor the populations of all three subspecies.   <p></p>
106009116		distribution	eng	<em>Dendroica vitellina</em> occurs as three subspecies. The nominate race is common on Grand Cayman, the race <em>crawfordi</em> is very common on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong>, and <em>nelsoni</em> was (at least formerly) common on the Swan Islands, <strong>Honduras</strong> (Monroe 1968, Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, Bradley 1995). The total extent of the range is less than 270 km<sup>2</sup>, but only half of this area holds suitable habitat.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009116		habitat	eng	It is most common in low scrubby woodland, but is also found in arid mixed woodland, clearings, coastal scrub and thickets, and even urban areas (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, Bradley 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009116		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1996).
106009116		threats	eng	Proposed habitat conversion threatens populations in the Caymans, and the Swan Islands were formerly used for the training of Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries.  <p></p>
106009120		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is listed as a species of concern on the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service website where full details of the species's status and conservation actions are listed. Current activities include planning projects that use estimates of minimum tract size for the species as criteria for habitat acquisition and protection, land protection and acquisition projects to increase the amount of forest in certain areas such as the Interior Low Plateaus and Coastal Plain of Tennessee, and the Cerulean Warbler Atlas Project, an information gathering project managed by Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology (Hamel 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A symposium was held in 2006 to address the species's conservation (Dawson 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, followed by a summit in 2007 focussing on the development and implementation of conservation actions (Anon 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A reserve was created specifically for the species in Colombia managed by ProAves Colombia, the first reserve in South America specifically for a neotropical migrant landbird. Shade grown coffee is promoted as Cerulean warbler friendly. Over 1 million acres of bottomland forest in the USA have been replanted with native hardwoods. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Understand fully the requirements of the species in terms of ideal or high quality breeding habitat. Develop and test forest-stand management techniques that result in "ideal" or "high quality" habitat. Protect intact primary forest ecosystems to maintain wintering populations. Prevent the conversion of shade coffee agroecosystems (which support high densities of wintering Cerulean warblers) into cattle lands (C. Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). </span>Urgently protect key sites for the species in its breeding and non-breeding range. Conduct thorough environmental impact assessment prior to any mining operations to ensure that measures are taken to avoid destroying habitat and to mitigate against any negative impacts.  <p></p>
106009120		distribution	eng	<em>Dendroica cerulea</em> breeds from Quebec and Ontario (<strong>Canada</strong>), east to Nebraska and south to northern Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia (<strong>USA</strong>) (A.O.U. 1983)<strong></strong>. A four year study from 1997-2000 identified several seemingly key sites that support large populations (<strong></strong>Rohrbaugh <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. These included the Cumberland Mountains north-west of Knoxville, Tennessee; the Montezuma wetlands complex and adjacent areas in central New York; the Kaskaskia River Valley and Shawnee National Forest in south eastern Illinois; Big Oaks National Wildlife Refuge (formerly Jefferson Proving Ground), Morgan-Monroe and Yellowwood state forests, and Hoosier National Forest of southern Indiana (Register and Islam 2008</span>); Queens University Biological Station in south eastern Ontario; the Kalamazoo River of south western Michigan; the Eleven Point and Upper Current rivers in Missouri; the Shenendoah National Park and Blue Ridge Highway in western Virginia; and the Delaware River Valley and adjacent highlands of north western New Jersey. These  areas may represent primary areas for population monitoring and conservation (<strong></strong>Rohrbaugh <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>. It migrates south through the south-eastern USA, the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, the Caribbean slope of <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong>, and winters from <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Venezuela</strong> south, mainly east of the Andes, to eastern <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south-eastern <strong>Peru</strong> and perhaps occasionally to northern <strong>Bolivia</strong> (A.O.U. 1983, Herzog <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Breeding Bird Survey results show declines equating to 26% per decade over the period 1980-2002, but longer-term declines are even more severe (Sauer <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009120		habitat	eng	Breeds in mature deciduous forest (A.O.U. 1983,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Sibley and Monroe 1990)<strong></strong>, often in the vicinity of swamps (Curson <em>et al</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Birds preferentially locate territories in forests with higher canopy height, greater canopy cover (c. 85%) and larger trees (Roth and Islam 2008). Wintering birds are found in Andean submontane forest, mainly between 1,000 and 2,000 m (Curson <em>et al</em>.  1994). Traditional shade coffee plantations are an important wintering  habitat supporting densities of cerulean warblers 3-14 times higher&#160;  than those of neighbouring primary forest (Bakermans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Migrating birds are recorded from a variety of forest woodland, secondary growth and scrub habitats (A.O.U. 1983)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. and dead birds have been found in páramo at 3550 m </span>around Laguna de Mucubají, Mérida (Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The nest is built on the branch of a tree, and breeding takes place between May and July (Curson <em>et al</em>. 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009120		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <p></p>
106009120		threats	eng	Degradation of habitat through land use change is the major threat to this species. Conversion of mature deciduous forest to agricultural or urban areas, fragmentation and increasing isolation of remaining mature deciduous forest, the change to shorter rotation periods and even-aged management, and loss of key tree species to disease are all breeding season constraints (Hamel 2000)<strong></strong>. Mountaintop mining constitutes a known but as yet uncontrolled threat on  the breeding grounds, primarily in West  Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee  and Kentucky (G. Butcher <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Wintering habitat is also threatened by conversion to other land uses such as pastureland, subsistence crops and coffee plantations, and is converted into coca plantations which have a detrimental effect on suitable primary forest habitat. Conversion from shade to sun coffee reduces habitat quality for cerulean warblers; Colombia has converted 70% of its plantations, while Venezuela lost 38% of its plantations between 1950 ansd 1990 (Bakermans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Attempts to eradicate coca plantations will also potentially damage forests (Hamel 2000).&#160; <p></p>
106009121		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009122		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009123		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions <span class="GramE">Underway<br/>         </strong>Both known areas area protected, and the species is probably secure as long as         suitable habitat is maintained in these reserves (Cruz and <span class="SpellE">Delannoy 1984). In July 2011 Sociedad Ornitológica Puertorriqueña (SOPI), in collaboration with BirdLife, started a project which aims to carry out surveys for the bird in the Carite Commonwealth Forest and surrounding, privately-owned, potential habitat to determine the presence of a potential third population (V. Anadon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). <br/></p>           <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Ensure the complete protection of the two sites where it persists.         Assess the current distribution (especially by surveying away from         known sites) and population. Research factors limiting range and         population, and attempt to determine why it disappeared from parts of         its former range. Protect private land where the species occurs through cooperative agreements with landowners (USFWS).
106009123		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Dendroica</em><em> <span class="SpellE">angelae</em> was only discovered in 1968 and is endemic to         <strong>Puerto Rico </strong>(to <strong>USA</strong><span class="GramE">) (<span class="SpellE">Raffaele 1983).         It was formerly considered to occur at four <span class="SpellE">disjunct         localities: in the east, the Sierra de <span class="SpellE">Luquillo         (El Yunque National Forest/<span lang="EN-AU">Bosque Nacional del Caribe<span class="SpellE"><span class="GramE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE">) and the Sierra de <span class="SpellE">Cayey         (<span class="SpellE">Carite State Forest) and, in the west, the         Cordillera Central (<span class="SpellE">Maricao and Toro Negro         Commonwealth Forests), but its existence at some of these sites has         been questioned and it is now thought to be restricted to two widely         separated locations: the Sierra de <span class="SpellE">Luquillo         and <span class="SpellE">Maricao State Forest (<span class="SpellE">Anadon-Irizarry 2006, <span class="SpellE">Delannoy 2006). In optimal habitat it can be locally         common, and although the population was previously thought to be no         more than c.300 pairs (<span class="SpellE">Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994), more accurate counts put the         population at 1,830 individuals.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106009123		habitat	eng	Although         it inhabits elfin or <span class="SpellE">montane dwarf forest on         ridges and summits, <span class="SpellE">montane wet forest, and         sometimes ranges to lower-elevation wet forest, it reaches its highest         densities in <span class="SpellE"><em>Podocarpus</em><em> </em>dominated         forest (Cruz and <span class="SpellE">Delannoy 1984, <span class="SpellE">Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, <span class="SpellE">Delannoy 2006). Preferred areas         have a dense canopy with vines, high <span class="SpellE">subcanopy         and sparse understorey (<span class="SpellE">Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, <span class="SpellE">Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998).         It shows a string preference for undisturbed forest, but has been         recorded in secondary habitats and plantations (Cruz and <span class="SpellE">Delannoy 1984).         Breeding takes place in March-June, and the nest is built in aerial         leaf-litter trapped in vegetation or vines, usually close to the trunk,         or in a tree cavity (<span class="SpellE">Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, <span class="SpellE">Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Rodriguez-<span class="SpellE">Mojica 2004).</span></span></span></span></span></span>
106009123		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1,800 mature individuals, based on censuses conducted using playback methods. This is roughly equivalent to at least 2,700 individuals in total.
106009123		threats	eng	By         the late 1940s, the natural vegetation of Puerto Rico had been reduced         to c.6% of the island's land surface, but rapid regeneration of forest increased         this figure to 31% in the early 1980s, a change which will probably         benefit this species (Cruz and <span class="SpellE">Delannoy 1984). However, <span class="SpellE"><em>Podocarpus</em><em>         </em>dominated forest, which may be crucial to this species survival,         makes up a tiny percentage of the total remaining forest and continues         to <span class="GramE">destroyed by infrastructure projects,         including tourism developments in protected areas (R. Rodriguez <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </em>2007).         Natural disasters will continue to be a threat while the <span class="SpellE">species's population and range remain so small.</span></span>
106009124		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The population was surveyed in 1973 and 1986 (Andrle and Andrle 1976, Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Much of the central part of St Vincent was designated as a wildlife reserve in 1987, and an extensive environmental education programme has been developed (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many highland areas outside this reserve comprise very rugged and inaccessible terrain of negligible economic importance, and are not particularly susceptible to human disturbance (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Protect remaining habitat to prevent further reduction and fragmentation. <p></p>
106009124		distribution	eng	<em>Catharopeza bishopi</em> is endemic to St Vincent (<strong>St Vincent and the Grenadines</strong>) in the Lesser Antilles, where it primarily occurs at Colonaire and Perserence valleys, and Richmond Peak (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A total of 1,500-2,500 singing males was estimated in 1986 (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The extent of suitable habitat has diminished from 140 km<sup>2</sup> in the 1900s to c.80 km<sup>2</sup> in 1986 (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009124		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth and vine-tangles in primary rainforest, palm brake, elfin forest, secondary growth and borders (Andrle and Andrle 1976, Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rainforest and palm brake are the most important, holding c.80% of the population (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found at elevations of 300-1,100 m, but probably mostly below 600 m (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The nest is built low in a sapling, and eggs are laid between April and July (Andrle and Andrle 1976, Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009124		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 3,000-5,000 individuals, roughly equating to 2,000-3,300 mature individuals.
106009124		threats	eng	Reductions in habitat have been caused by shifting agriculture, selective logging for charcoal production and illegal cultivation of cannabis (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mt Soufrière has erupted twice since 1900 (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009138		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Recent surveys have improved knowledge of the species's distribution (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999, Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008, Pronatura <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. The IBA Estero de San José del Cabo, a 42 ha freshwater coastal lagoon at the southern tip of the peninsula of Baja California, incorporates habitat for Belding's Yellowthroat, and was designated as a RAMSAR site in February 2008. Angeles del Estero and Agrupación Ciudadana Ecologista, two small local NGOs in the adjacent town of San José del Cabo, have a history of involvement in the conservation of the IBA. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions Programme, Species Guardian Pronatura Noroeste are implementing the following actions (C. Devenish<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>: a conservation area plan for the Estero de San José del Cabo was developed to identify conservation targets, assess the viability of these targets, identify critical threats and develop conservation strategies; research and monitoring is underway to determine current status and threats in the Estero de San José del Cabo Ecological Reserve, and at other sites historically important for the species; clean-up days have been conducted; educational sign boards were erected at the San José del Cabo reserve; two bird festivals have been held and outreach materials have been distributed to local schools, and local bird guides are being trained (86 by the end of 2009) to raise the species's profile and strengthen livelihood links with its conservation. A conservation action plan was published in 2011 (Palacios and Galindo-Espinosa 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Use standardised survey techniques to survey all potential nesting habitat in Baja California Sur and adjacent south-eastern Baja California, identifying potential new locations using satellite imaging. Conduct a thorough census of each site by counting singing males in spring in order to ascertain the current population, and repeat at regular intervals to detect local and regional trends.  Conduct a formal dispersal study in order to design long-term management actions for the Belding's Yellowthroat metapopulation system. Undertake genetic studies to address questions concerning such issues as the validity of recognising two subspecies or the genetic consequences of population patchiness and potential bottlenecks (Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Incorporate marsh creation into plans for the development of golf courses and resorts within this species's range (Erickson 2006, Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Prohibit burning and cutting of the water-edge vegetation at all sites (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Initiate a public awareness programme. Promote bird tourism to generate income for protecting key sites. Increase the capacity of San José del Cabo in water treatment and quality monitoring. Ensure an adequate supply of water to the oasis at San José del Cabo through water rights<strong></strong>. Implement an education and outreach programme on the importance and environmental services of the watershed at San José del Cabo<strong></strong>. Promote better cattle ranching practices and law enforcement (C. Devenish<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009138		distribution	eng	<em>Geothlypis beldingi</em> has a fragmented distribution on the Baja California peninsula, <strong>Mexico</strong>. The nominate race is known from at least 15 sites (C. Devenish<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong> with important concentrations of 70 birds at Punta San Pedro, 178-442 at Santiago (C. Devenish<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>, and 219-480 at San José del Cabo. The race <em>goldmani</em> is now known from at least 12 sites including large numbers at San Ignacio (537-648 birds) and La Purísima (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999, Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The population at San José del Cabo increased in 2009 to an estimated 487-700 adults, probably related to a chance increase in the quality of habitat (Pronatura <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. It is common at most of these sites, but the area of suitable habitat is probably very restricted (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It appears to have been extirpated from at least one site, El Triunfo (Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. However, in 2009 up to three adults were present at El Oro. This might be the location referred to as El Triunfo, where the species was collected in 1924 (C. Devenish<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Another small breeding population was recently found at Las Cuevas (Erickson <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008)<strong></strong> and San Dionisio (Pronatura <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>, near Santiago. <p></p>
106009138		habitat	eng	It occupies oases of reeds, cattails and tule, fringing permanent, lowland, freshwater marshes or rivers, and has been found occasionally in brackish coastal marshes (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>, and recently in at least one newly created marsh in a hotel district, near active agriculture (Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Birds are mostly located within 15 m of the water's edge, and never more than 50 m from water (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The nest is up to 1.5 m above the ground, in cattails or tule, and eggs are laid between March and May (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. Birds have been recorded c.200 km from the known breeding range suggesting it is capable of dispersing over reasonably large distances (Erickson 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009138		population	eng	The current known population includes important concentrations at Punta San Pedro (70 birds), Santiago (310 birds) and San José del Cabo (487-700 adults in 2009) (Pronatura <em>in litt.</em> 2009). Although the total population size has not been precisely estimated, it is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106009138		threats	eng	The oases of Baja California are under high human pressure, especially in the south. Accidental and induced fires, reed-cutting for tourism facilities and house construction, and drainage for agriculture and cattle-ranching have decreased suitable habitat (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Such apparently  isolated and disjunct populations are probably vulnerable to stochastic events, with hurricanes frequently eliminating portions of reedgrass vegetation in August-October (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>; however, this may underestimate the species's dispersal capabilities (Erickson <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>, which might make it more resilient to such threats. <p></p>
106009139		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A study into its ecology and current status will be started in the next few years; this will enable the production of a species action plan (R. Straub <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey any remaining patches of freshwater marsh within its known range. Protect known sites and any other important sites found during surveys. Discourage the draining of small marshes on private land. <p></p>
106009139		distribution	eng	<em>Geothlypis flavovelata</em> is resident in central Tamaulipas, extreme east San Luis Potosí and north Veracruz, north-east <strong>Mexico</strong> (J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2000). It is fairly common to common but is now somewhat localised (Howell and Webb 1995a, S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The total population is presumed to be small owing to the patchy distribution and limited extent of its preferred freshwater marsh habitat. The largest known populations are at Presa Vicente Guerrero/Laguna Champayán in Tamaulipas, north-east of El Naranjo in San Luis Potosí, inland from Tecolutla in Veracruz and it has been recently found near Aldama in Tamaulipas (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Howell 1999, J. Clinton-Eitniear <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. It formerly occurred in the Laguna de Tamiahua area and in the vicinity of Tamuín and Ebano, San Luis Potosí, but has not been recorded from these localities recently (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009139		habitat	eng	It inhabits freshwater marshes (not coastal marshes and salt-lagoons <em>contra<sup> </sup></em>Curson <em>et al.</em> [1994]<em><sup><strong></strong></sup></em>), typically with cattail <em>Typha</em> reedbeds, from small ponds and irrigation ditches (e.g. Presa Vicente Guerrero) to large reedbeds (e.g. Tecolutla) (Howell 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009139		population	eng	This species is restricted to a specialised habitat (freshwater marshes) within its fairly large range. Many such patches of habitat have been lost. Given the total area of remaining suitable habitat is likely to total only a few hundred km<sup>2</sup>, even densities of up to 20 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (the species is described as common to fairly common) would yield a total population of &lt;10,000 birds, so the global estimate is best placed precautionarily  in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. Further surveys are required to  validate this.
106009139		threats	eng	Loss of habitat has extirpated several local populations (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994). Freshwater marshes have been heavily modified throughout its range, primarily for cattle-ranching (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the species appears able to persist in small parcels of habitat (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Howell 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Perhaps more serious is recent industrial development in the region. This has resulted in considerable drainage since the 1970s, making the future of the Laguna Champayán uncertain (Collar and Andrew 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009140		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the northern Bahamas (Bond 1979). The nominate subspecies rostrata occurs on Andros and New Providence, tanneri is found on Grand Bahama and Abaco, while coryi occurs on Eleuthera and Cat Island (Curson et al. 1994).
106009140		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense low scrub and bracken (Bond 1979, Curson et al. 1994). The nest is built very close to the ground, either in dense vegetation or a tree stump (Curson et al. 1994).
106009140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is reported to be common on Grand Bahama, Abaco, Eleuthera and Cat Island, uncommon on Andros and rare on New Providence (Raffaele et al. 1998). Therefore, as the species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (Raffaele et al. 1998), the population is believed to be large.
106009141		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009142		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census populations in the four known areas and produce recommendations of the most suitable areas for protection. Survey any suitable habitat near Lago Zumpango. <p></p>
106009142		distribution	eng	<em>Geothlypis speciosa</em> is currently known from only four areas in the states of Guanajuato, Michoacán and México, central <strong>Mexico</strong>. None of these areas have been censused since the 1980s (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, when it was quite abundant at Lago Cuitzeo, Michoacán, and still common on the upper río Lerma around Lerma da Villada, San Mateo Atenco and San Pedro Techuchuco, México (an area where it was historically abundant). There are further small populations at Lago Yuriria, Guanajuato, and Lago Pátzcuaro, Michoacán. It has been extirpated from Lago Texcoco, México, and there have been no records from Lago Zumpango, México, or Presa Solis, Guanajuato, since 1966. <p></p>
106009142		habitat	eng	It is restricted to lakeshore and river marshes comprising cattails and hard-stemmed bulrushes. It appears to require extensive reedbeds and is not found in degraded habitats like many other <em>Geothlypis</em> species (S.&#160;N.&#160;G.&#160;Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. The nesting period is probably March-June. <p></p>
106009142		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009142		threats	eng	The marshes within its range have been greatly reduced in size, having been drained and planted with crops. The marshes in the upper río Lerma are fragmented as a result of drainage and water extraction to supply México City and Toluca. The water-levels of Lagos Yuriria, Pátzcuaro and Cuitzeo are falling through drainage and a natural build-up of organic material. <p></p>
106009143		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009144		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009145		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009147		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009149		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been no targeted searches for the species in recent years. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to locate any remaining population. <p></p>
106009149		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Leucopeza</em></span><em> <span class="SpellE">semperi</span></em> is endemic to <strong>St Lucia</strong>, where it is         extremely rare and there have been no confirmed records for many years.         It eluded almost all 20th century efforts to find a population. There         are a mere handful of reports since the 1920s and no certain records         since 1961. Sightings in 1965, 1989, 1995 and 2003 have not been         confirmed (Keith 1997, H. Temple <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</em> 2003). It was         apparently more abundant in the 19th century, and has clearly undergone         a significant decline (Keith 1997). It possibly remains extant         because some suitable habitat remains and searches have not been         adequately extensive. </span>
106009149		habitat	eng	It is known from the undergrowth of montane and elfin forest. The ecology is virtually unknown, but it is apparently largely terrestrial and possibly even nests on the ground. <p></p>
106009149		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with the last confirmed record in 1961.
106009149		threats	eng	The         introduction of mongooses in 1884 portended the disappearance of this         species, as they probably preyed on adults (Keith 1997),         nestlings and eggs (<span class="SpellE">Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994). The decline may have been         compounded by habitat loss, but suitable forest still remains on the         island. Having a <span class="SpellE">montane</span> distribution that is         close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is         potentially susceptible to climate change (<span class="SpellE">BirdLife International unpublished data). </span>
106009152		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at 1,400,000 individuals.
106009154		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009155		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Rancho Nuevo Ecological Protection Zone has been heavily grazed and recently taken over as a military training ground<strong></strong>. Cerro Huitepec Biological Station is very small and surrounding forest is being rapidly cleared, leading to concerns that the reserve itself may not be large enough to support a viable population (Wilson and Will 1997)<strong></strong>. Protected areas cover 33% of Guatemala, including much of the range of this species, however this protection is ineffective (K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable habitat to establish the species's precise distribution and population<strong></strong>. Protect Volcán Tacaná and its surroundings (Wilson and Will 1997)<strong></strong>.  Improve management of protected areas in the Guatemalan highlands and support habitat restoration especially in the Guatemalan IBAs Antigua Guatemala, Atitlán, Volcano Santiaguito, Tacaná-Tajumulco, Cuilco, and Cuchumatanes. <p></p>
106009155		distribution	eng	<em>Ergaticus versicolor</em> is resident in the mountains of central and extreme south-east Chiapas, <strong>Mexico</strong> and western <strong>Guatemala</strong>. Over the bulk of its range in Guatemala and on Volcán Tacaná in south-east Chiapas, it was historically very common and remains locally common (Wilson and Will 1997, Eisermann and Avendaño 2007)<strong></strong>. However, in central Chiapas, it was very rare in the mid-1980s, but became slightly more numerous at Cerro Huitepec and Rancho Nuevo from the late 1980s (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong></strong>. There are are about 3,800 km<sup>2</sup> of potential habitat in Guatemala and it has been recorded in nine IBAs, being most common above 2,500 m in the Tacaná-Tajumulco, Santiaguito Volcano, and Atitlán IBAs (K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Trends in the 1990s are difficult to determine, but it is likely that the populations throughout its range have declined in response to a reduction in available habitat, and numbers in central Chiapas have not increased further (Wilson and Will 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009155		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid to semi-humid pine-oak-alder, pine, cypress and forest with undisturbed understorey, as well as high-elevation scrub and cloud forest, at 1,800-3,500 m, but is most common above 2,800 m (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, Howell and Webb 1995a, K. Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. It can tolerate forest edge and disturbed forest with a damaged understorey (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but this is likely to be suboptimal habitat (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009155		population	eng	In Guatemala, the species is common in oak-alder-conifer forest above the elevation of 2,300 m, but less common in cloud forests at the same elevation. In high-elevation (2,000-2,500 m) cloud forest on the Atlantic slope, a density of 0.25 individuals/ha was estimated. A rough GIS analysis using a national vegetation cover mapping (1:50,000) based on aerial imagery from 2003 indicates that there are about 3,800 km<sup>2</sup> of potential habitat in Guatemala. Within this area it has been reported within nine IBAs. The total population in the recently defined Guatemalan IBAs is assumed to be between 19,000 and 54,000 individuals (K. Eisermann unpubl. data). The species occurs also in disturbed forests and adjacent scrub. Data quality is poor, but most likely the total population is larger than previously estimated. It is precautionarily placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
106009155		threats	eng	Cloud-forest habitats in Chiapas and Guatemala have been severely fragmented. Only 400 km<sup>2</sup> of cloud-forest remain in central Chiapas, which is fragmented into 18 widely scattered pieces (Bubb 1991)<strong></strong>, many at altitudes unsuitable for this species (Wilson and Will 1997)<strong></strong>. In Guatemala, 900 km<sup>2</sup> of cloud-forest remains, representing 3% of the original extent (Bubb 1991)<strong></strong>, but probably only 400 km<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><sup>2</sup></strong> are occupied (J. F. Hernandez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998)<strong></strong>. Much of the remaining habitat in Chiapas has been altered by intense human use such as coppicing for charcoal production, timber extraction, farming, flower production, animal-grazing and subsistence wood-cutting (Wilson and Will 1997)<strong></strong> and, in Guatemala, road construction is likely to lead to further human disturbance (J. F. Hernandez <em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1998)<strong></strong>. Human population in Guatemala increased 35% from 1994-2002 (INE 2002) and is estimated to double between 2010 and 2050 to a total of 28 million (CEPAL 2010). Most people live in the highlands with their favourable climate and fertile soils; human pressure on the habitat of this species is going to increase (K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The dense human population, consisting mainly of small-scale farmers, causes extensive disturbance in the forest understorey (including in protected areas) by an extensive collection of firewood, collection of leaf litter as organic fertiliser, and straying dogs, probably negatively affecting nesting success of this ground-nesting warbler. About 50% of the range in Guatemala is located within areas used or planned for exploration and opencast mining  (K. Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The low numbers in Chiapas in the mid-1980s may have been the result of the eruption of Volcán Chichonál in 1982, which carpeted large areas with volcanic ash (Howell and Webb 1995a)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009157		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009160		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of its range is formally protected by the Paria Peninsula National Park, but this has not entirely halted habitat degradation. In fact, this national park has always been chronically underfunded, even though it has been the target of some (admittedly rather ineffectual) international protected area strengthening programmes (Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It still has no management plan, has insufficient budget, too few staff (three park guards), and inadequate means of transport and communications (Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011). The park has apparently been expanded slightly on to the southern slope of Cerro Humo (a critical area for the species), but this has not been confirmed officially<strong> </strong>(C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 2000, 2003). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population on Cerro Humo. Urgently survey cerros Patao, Azul, and El Olvido. Study its ecological requirements<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe 2008). Initiate programmes to develop economic alternatives to reduce agricultural encroachment in villages adjacent to the national park<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe 2008, Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106009160		distribution	eng	<em>Myioborus pariae</em> is endemic to the Paria Peninsula in Sucre, north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>. It is apparently fairly to very common on Cerro Humo, with 4-6 birds regularly encountered on one day in the field. However, suitable habitat on Cerro Humo is restricted to c.15&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, and there are relatively few records further east. On Cerro Azul, a specimen was taken in 1948 and, given low levels of habitat loss, the species presumably still occurs here. On Cerro El Olvido, only one bird was recorded in June-September 1988 (Bond <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989), but a small number of individuals were found relatively easily in 1991 (Sharpe 2008) and 1999 (Hayes <em>et al</em>. 2003). Cerro Patao has been mentioned as a locality, but the evidence for this is uncertain.  <p></p>
106009160		habitat	eng	On Cerro Humo, it has been found at elevations of 800-1,150&#160;m, with records further east at 920&#160;m on Cerro Azul, and as low as c.400&#160;m on Cerro El Olvido (Hayes <em>et al</em>. 2003). Birds have been found foraging (alone and in pairs) for insects at 1-5&#160;m in upper and lower montane humid forest, open coffee groves (under the forest canopy), secondary growth and especially at the forest edge. <p></p>
106009160		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009160		threats	eng	Increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco" (<em>Xanthosoma sagittifolium</em>) and "ocumo chino" (<em>Colocasia esculenta</em>), since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. Cerros Humo and Patao have been worst affected, with the east of the peninsula fairly undisturbed. A new paved road from Güiria to Macuro will almost certainly lead to increased habitat clearance<strong> </strong>(C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 2000, 2003). It is considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<p></p>
106009161		distribution	eng	This species occurs on cerros Guanay, Yaví and Sipapo in south Venezuela (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stattersfield et al. 1998, Stotz et al. 1996).
106009161		habitat	eng	This species occurs in montane humid forest and forest edge at elevations of 900-2,250 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989).  Little is known of its ecology.
106009161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably fairly numerous (Hilty 2003).
106009161		threats	eng	Owing to the largely inaccessible nature of the isolated tepuis region, its habitat remains relatively undisturbed (Huber and Alarcón 1988). However, many of the endemic plants of the tepuis harbour flammable secondary compounds which help to spread fire and, given its relatively small range, this could affect available habitat. Any such habitat loss would be absolute as montane forests on the tepuis tend not to regrow but be replaced by bracken Pteridium (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106009162		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The entire species's range is protected by Cerro Guiquinima Nature Monument. Recent surveys have clarified this species's current distribution and habitat preferences, and assessed potential threats<strong></strong> (C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor habitat trends and threats within the range. Ensure that remaining forests on Cerro Guiaquinima receive adequate protection. <p></p>
106009162		distribution	eng	<em>Myioborus cardonai</em> occurs on the talus slope and summit of Cerro Guaiquinima, west-central Bolívar, <strong>Venezuela</strong><strong></strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Ridgely and Tudor 1989<strong></strong>, Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000). There is an estimated 500-600 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>of potentially available habitat, within which the species is common<strong></strong> (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <em> <p></p></em>
106009162		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane humid forest and edge, gallery forest and dense scrub at elevations of 1,200-1,700 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989<strong></strong>, Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Hilty 2003).  <p></p>
106009162		population	eng	The species is poorly known, and data is currently insufficient to make a population estimate. The species has a tiny range, but is considered common within it.
106009162		threats	eng	There has been mining for many years at the base of Cerro Guaiquinima but this has a negligible (if any) impact on this species<strong></strong> (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000). There is no agriculture on the cerro<strong></strong> and there is no indication of previous human habitation (C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000). The wet climate and surrounding large river valleys suggest that the spread of human-induced fire into existing habitat is unlikely<strong></strong> (C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe and J.&#160;Perez <em>in litt.</em> 2000).  <p></p>
106009163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009165		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009166		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies of this species to determine its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to habitat fragmentation. Repeat surveys of known sites to determine population trends and rates of range contraction. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106009166		distribution	eng	<em>Myioborus albifrons</em> is fairly common in the Cordillera de Mérida in the Andes of Táchira, Mérida and Trujillo, west <strong>Venezuela</strong><strong></strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Ridgely and Tudor 1989<strong></strong>).  <em> <p></p></em>
106009166		habitat	eng	This species occurs in wet montane and elfin forest, and forest borders at elevations of 2,200-3,200 m<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is fairly common to common within suitable habitats.   <p></p>
106009166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009166		threats	eng	Although some large tracts of forest remain within its limited range, deforestation has been locally severe with logging continuing to expand to higher areas<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). The east slope of the Cordillera de Mérida is being cleared for extensive cattle-ranching. Agricultural colonisation, mining concessions and road-building pose further threats to remaining habitat<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).  <p></p>
106009167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009168		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009169		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009170		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009175		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Large areas of habitat persist within El Guácharo National Park, and the reserve has been expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest (<strong></strong>Gabaldón 1992), although much of this is too low for this species (J. Pérez-Emán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. A programme of research into basic ecology and conservation needs is being carried out at the Central University of Venezuela (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It is considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey historical localities and any significant tracts of forest remaining in the cordillera. Conduct studies of habitat requirements in order to determine levels of tolerance of disturbed habitats (<strong></strong>Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe 2008). Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, especially in the Turimiquire massif, where some of the most seriously threatened forests in Venezuela are found (Sharpe 2008) and where the species appears to be most common (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, J. Pérez-Emán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
106009175		distribution	eng	<em>Basileuterus griseiceps</em><em> </em>occupies a restricted range in north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>  in the Turimiquire Massif (both in the Serranía de Turimiquire the  west of the San Antonio valley and the Cordillera de Caripe to the east)  on the borders of Sucre, Anzoategui and Monagas. Since the 1960s, it has been recorded on eight mountains: cerros La Pizarra, Turimiquire, El Guamal and Quiriquire ("Piedra 'e Mole'") in the in the Serranía de Turimiquire, and cerros Macanillal, Negro, El Gobierno and Cumbres de San Bonifacio in the Cordillera de Caripe (Colvee 1999, Azpúrua 2007, C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Of these, it appears to be most numerous at Cerro Quiriquire ("Piedra 'e Mole'") (Azpúrua 2007, C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong>.</strong> On Cerro Negro, no more than ten small patches of suitable habitat remain (Boesman and Curson 1995, T. Brooks <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. One patch was only 2 km<sup>2</sup> and probably held 2-5 pairs (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. In 1993, one individual was observed on Cumbres de San Bonifacio (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. <br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106009175		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense understorey in the interior or edge of undisturbed subtropical forest and natural clearings (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. It apparently survives in disturbed forest if there is a dense understorey (of e.g. <em>Heliconia</em>)<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>, and is thought to be fairly generalist in habitat requirements (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, a recent survey found that abundance was higher in less fragmented forest (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>. The majority of specimens have been taken at 1,400-2,100 m, but it has been recorded up to 2,440 m, and as low as 1,200 m (Boesman and Curson 1995, Colvee 1999)<strong></strong>. Breeding seems to occur from May to July, with juveniles fledging in August (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. The only known nest was found in May in secondary vegetation around an old treefall gap (Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <br/><p></p>
106009175		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009175		threats	eng	The entire Turumiquire Massif is under severe human pressure, which, through widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture, has resulted in extensive degradation of its montane forests. Even in El Guácharo National Park (incorporating Cerro Negro), there is forest clearance, burning and removal of the understorey for coffee (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. Shade-coffee cultivation safeguards some trees but destroys the understorey upon which this bird depends (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana, and citrus plantations in the Serranía de Turumiquire, but extensive forested areas remain<strong> </strong>(Colvee 1999, C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011). However, on Cumbres de San Bonifacio there are only two peaks above 1,400&#160;m (Boesman and Curson 1995)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106009176		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish the state of the population and its ecological requirements (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a management and conservation strategy for the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, particularly for montane forests (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002).  <p></p>
106009176		distribution	eng	<em>Basileuterus basilicus</em> occurs in a fragmented habitat in montane areas in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, north <strong>Colombia</strong>, where its abundance varies between sites from rare to locally common (Ridgely and Tudor 1989<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). <p></p>
106009176		habitat	eng	<strong> </strong>It inhabits the understorey and borders of stunted, humid montane forest and secondary woodland (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, frequently alongside small mountain streams and ravines (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002), as well as in scrubby chaparral above the treeline (C. Downing <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also strongly associated with dense stands of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. All records are from 2,100 to 3,000 m, with the majority above 2,300 m (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994,&#160;<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). It is apparently able to tolerate moderate degradation of its habitat (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). <p></p>
106009176		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009176		threats	eng	Despite possibly tolerating some habitat degradation, it is threatened by extensive deforestation, and has lost 21% of its habitat (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). The principal causes of deforestation are the development of cattle ranches and <em>Pinus </em>plantations, for example at La Cuchilla de San Lorenzo (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). Illegal agricultural expansion, logging and burning (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995,&#160; Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002) have altered all but 15% of the sierra's original vegetation (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). The north slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is the most degraded area, and this area corresponds to where the majority of birds are found. Although this species is found in two protected areas, this has not prevented extensive and continuing deforestation<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002). Populations may also persist above the treeline in scrubby habitats, suggesting that the species may show a degree of resilience to deforestation (C. Downing <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106009177		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor the species at selected sites across its range to determine trends. Research the effects of understorey removal and other forms of habitat degradation on populations of the species. Protect significant areas of forest, in both strictly protected areas and community zoned multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106009177		distribution	eng	<em>Basileuterus cinereicollis</em> is local and uncommon to rare throughout most of its disjunct range in the Andes of extreme west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (western Mérida and Táchira) and north-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (south to Cundinamaca and west Meta); it is fairly common in the Sierra de Perijá on the Colombia-Venezuela border<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994, C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>, but its habitat on these slopes has now been severely degraded below 2,000 m (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009177		habitat	eng	It is found in the dense understory in montane evergreen forest undergrowth, forest edge and secondary growth at 800-2,100 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998<strong></strong>, Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999, Hilty 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009177		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species has been described as uncommon and rare and/or local.
106009177		threats	eng	The Colombian East Andes have been extensively degraded with progressive deforestation of its lower montane habitats, largely for intensive agricultural cultivation and pasture<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Understorey removal for shade-coffee production is perhaps the most important threat at present<strong></strong> (Wege and Long 1995). In Venezuela, the Sierra de Mérida is also being cleared as a result of commercial and subsistence agricultural colonisation (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106009178		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Campaign for the protection of remaining forests in the Sierra Marta mountains, including the gazetting of key sites as protected areas. Conduct ecological studies to determine the habitat requirements of the species, as well as tolerance of habitat degradation and fragmentation. <p></p>
106009178		distribution	eng	<em>Basileuterus conspicillatus</em> is relatively common in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, north <strong>Colombia </strong>(Hilty and Brown 1986)<sup></sup>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009178		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid montane forest, forest borders and well-developed second growth and shade-coffee plantations at 450-2,200 m (R. Strewe <em>in litt. </em>2003), where it forages at low to mid-levels, principally in the undergrowth and understorey<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It appears tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998, R. Strewe <em>in litt. </em>2003).   <p></p>
106009178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009178		threats	eng	All remaining forest in the Santa Marta mountains is seriously threatened by agricultural expansion, logging and burning. Only 15% of the sierra's vegetation is unaltered, with the south-east slope extensively deforested, and the west slope, between 800 and 1,600 m, largely cleared for coffee and illegal marijuana plantations and subsequently sprayed with herbicide by the government (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998).  <p></p>
106009179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009180		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009182		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009184		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009186		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Panamanian part (i.e. the majority) of its range lies entirely within Darién National Park (Wege 1996)<strong></strong>. However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at lower altitudes (Wege 1996)<strong></strong>. In Colombia, it may be found to occur within Katíos National Park (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop active conservation management schemes to control activities threatening birds in Darién (Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the Cerro Pirre area and Serranía de Tacarcuna (the Panamanian part has not been studied since the 1970s). Determine its status within Katíos National Park (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. Investigate the creation of a protected area in the Colombian sector of Cerro Tacarcuna (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009186		distribution	eng	<em>Basileuterus ignotus</em> is confined to a very small range, estimated at c.180 km<sup>2</sup>, on Alturas de Nique and Cerro Tacarcuna in Darién, <strong>Panama</strong>, and north-west Chocó, <strong>Colombia</strong> (Wetmore 1984, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). Within this range it is thought to occupy an area of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat (Wege 1996)<strong></strong>. It is generally uncommon (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong></strong>, but was found to be fairly common above 1,400 m on Alturas de Nique (above Cana) in 1985 (Robbins <em>et al.</em> 1985)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009186		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower growth of humid elfin forest, where it is mainly recorded between 1,350 and 1,650&#160;m, but sometimes as low as 1,200&#160;m (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding behaviour is virtually unknown, but recently fledged young have been seen in July (Robbins <em>et al.</em> 1985)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009186		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009186		threats	eng	Its small range puts it at inherent risk from any habitat loss or degradation. Habitat in the region is being cleared and degraded for mining, agriculture and cultivation of coca (Wege 1996)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, but probably not yet within the altitudinal range of this species. Completion of the Pan-American highway link through Darién could lead to severe, long-term damage of forests in Darién and the adjacent Chocó (Alvarez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 1994, Wege 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009187		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009195		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009196		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009198		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas including Pic Macaya and (at least formerly) La Visite National Parks, Haiti, as well as Sierra de Baoruco and Armando Bermudez National Parks, the Dominican Republic. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the status of the population, especially in Haiti (Ottenwalder 1992c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Determine its precise habitat requirements and the status of this habitat (Ottenwalder 1992c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure that the protected-areas network adequately protects this species (Ottenwalder 1992c)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Enforce the protection afforded to the species habitat by Sierra de Baoruco National Park.   <p></p>
106009198		distribution	eng	<em>Xenoligea montana</em> is known from the Massifs de la Hotte and de la Selle, <strong>Haiti</strong>, and the Sierras de Baoruco and de Neiba, and the Cordillera Central in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>. The population size has been estimated to be approximately 3,300 adults (<strong></strong>Maclean 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is extremely threatened in Haiti, and may already have been extirpated from much of the country, including the Massif de la Selle (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Dávalos and Brooks 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but there are recent records from Pic Macaya National Park where it is fairly common in wet karst limestone forest (P. Bayard and E. Fernandez <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Latta <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Dominican Republic, it is still locally common, but is presumably declining. <p></p>
106009198		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense stands of montane broadleaved vegetation including low trees, open thickets and humid shrubbery, and sometimes pines. It occurs between 875 and 2,000 m, but mostly at 1,300-1,800 m in moist montane forest of broadleaf or mixed broadleaf and pines (Latta <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages for insects and seeds in low, dense vegetation and is particularly associated with the Florida trema <em>Trema micrantha, </em>which produces one of its favourite fruits (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998,<strong> </strong>Latta <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It probably nests on or near the ground in April-May (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009198		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009198		threats	eng	Habitat loss for agriculture and timber is probably the principal threat since large areas of montane growth have been cleared on Hispaniola. Predation of nests by introduced mongooses may have contributed to this species's decline (Curson <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009199		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009202		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p>In Colombia <span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. bicolor </span>occurs  in Salamanca National Park and probably Corales del Rosario National  Park. In Venezuela the species occurs in Morrocoy National Park and in  Suriname at Wia-Wia and Galibi National Parks.</p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106009202		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. bicolor</span> Coastal from N <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span> E along coast, including Margareta Island and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Trinidad</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> French Guiana</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span> and locally along the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> coast to Sao Paulo. Also locally along the Rio Branco in Brazil<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. minus </span>in shrubby younger successional stages of vegetation on river islands and riverbanks of the River Amazon, and a few major tributaries in NE <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span>, SE Colombia and Brazil<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>possibly to the mouth of the Amazon.
106009202		habitat	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. bicolor</span> is closely associated with mangroves even if occasionally seen in adjacent low flooded forest. Occurs in pairs or small family parties and not associated with mixed-species flocks. May be competitively excluded by or exclude the resident individuals of Yellow Warbler (<span style="font-style: italic;">Setophaga petechia</span>) in mangroves, apparently the two species do not occur together. Typically in mid to upper levels of foliage foraging for small arthropods amongst leaf clusters. Breeds between February and May in N Colombia. The nest is a deep cup of grass mixed with feathers 0.3-4m up in mangrove, clutch of 2 eggs. In Trinidad often parasitized by Shiny Cowbird <span style="font-style: italic;">Molothrus bonariensis.&#160;</span> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. minus</span> gleans for small arthropods in foliage on river islands and may investigate damaged Cecropia leaves. <br/>Apparently resident.
106009202		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009202		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011); destruction of mangrove outside of protected areas is the most significant threat for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. bicolor</span>, whereas the rather ephemeral river island habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. b. minus </span>may be at relatively low risk of significant habitat destruction. Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106009203		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes. </p>
106009203		distribution	eng	This species is very locally and disjunctly distributed along the upper Amazon in north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> (near the mouth of the Río Napo in Loreto and E to the vicinity of Iquitos) and along the middle Amazon in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> from near the mouth of the Rio Jamunda to near the mouth of the Rio Negro (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Sick 1993). Also an isolated record from near the junction of the rivers Beni and Iténez in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>. May occur patchily along the length of the river Amazon and major tributaries but erratic due to the ephemeral nature of the species habitat.
106009203		habitat	eng	A river island specialist along the Amazon and major tributaries. The species occurs in lines of largely middle-aged <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia </span>trees that occupy a particular successional stage following tall cane <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynerium </span>and preceding figs <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus (</span>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011)<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Seems not to use secondary growth that is younger or significantly more diverse, nor scrubby vegetation. Seen in pairs or small groups that rapidly work through the leafy canopy of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cecropia</span>, believed to concentrate on areas where leaf damage is extensive. Presumed to feed on small arthropods. Recorded between sea level and 150m. Populations exceptionally dynamic with a relatively narrow successional stage apparently utilised, numbers increasing rapidly in a suitable area before dispersal by individuals to find new river island habitat.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>
106009203		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009203		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). May be somewhat buffered from deforestation and selective exploitation as its habitat is a short-lived successional vegetation that arises through seasonal flooding. This also suggests that the species is well-adapted to frequent dispersal events and capable of colonizing new habitat as it becomes suitable. Intensive logging and selective exploitation are accelerating deforestation within its várzea forest habitat and there appears to be an extensive industrial timber infrastructure to maintain the logging (Dinerstein et al. 1995, WWF/IUCN 1997). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106009204		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009205		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Tamarugo was almost extirpated when the Chilean government began a replantation programme in the 1930s. By the 1970s, 146&#160;km<sup>2</sup> had been reforested. Breeding habitat is currently protected and expanding in Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve (Estades 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population<strong></strong>. Study the effects of tamarugo management strategies. Assess the likely effects of water-pumping<strong></strong>. Develop management strategies that benefit the tamarugo ecosystem and local communities. Research alternatives to the control of <em>L.&#160;trigemmatus</em>, and economically assess the cost of not controlling populations (Estades 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009205		distribution	eng	<em>Conirostrum tamarugense</em> is largely restricted to two populations within Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve in Tarapacá, <strong>Chile </strong>(Estades 1996).  It also occurs in tamarugo forest south of Arica in the Chaca (Vitor) valley between the Panamerican highway and the coast, and breeding presumably occurs here (<strong></strong>A. P. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  It may also occur further upstream from here although this area is more heavily agricultural.  Breeding could take place near Zapiga (Estades 1996, C. Estades <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, and in other large areas of forest in Pampa del Tamarugal to the south of its known range (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>.  There are recent records further south along the Loa River, where active singers have been found in May and December at Quillagua and near Maria Elena (eBird 2012, F. Schmitt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The southermost record of an immature bird is from San Pedro de Atacama (R. Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). It migrates north to Arequipa, Tacna and Moquegua in south <strong>Peru</strong>. In 1993, the population was estimated at just over 35,000 individuals, breeding in 108 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat, and possibly increasing with the expansion of suitable habitat (Estades 1996)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009205		habitat	eng	In Chile, it mostly inhabits plantations or isolated patches (A. P. Jaramillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) of mature tamarugo trees <em>Prosopis tamarugo</em>, which are probably important for breeding (Estades 1996<strong></strong>), as well as riverine scrub, agricultural land and citrus groves, up to 2,950 m. In Peru, it occurs primarily in arid <em>Gynoxys</em> and <em>Polylepis</em> at 3,400-4,050 m, but has been recorded as low as sea level during migration (Høgsås <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002, Peredo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, eBird 2012)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs between September and December, followed by migration northwards and upwards. Breeding coincides with the seasonal blooming of tamarugo flowers, which provide food for <em>Leptotes trigemmatus</em> caterpillars and, in turn, this bird (Estades 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009205		population	eng	Estades (1996). <p></p>
106009205		threats	eng	Tamarugo is managed mainly for the production of sheep forage.  There are ongoing attempts to control <em>L. trigemmatus</em> with chemicals or parasitoids.  Water for tamarugo plantations comes from aquifers, which also supply the city of Iquique.  The consequences of this water removal are not known, but decreases in supply to the plantations could have serious impacts on the species and local communities (Estades 1996)<strong></strong>.  A favoured area in the Chaca (Vitor) Valley was burned in 2006 (A. P. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  Wintering sites suffer activities such as the widespread cutting of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, although the species is not dependent on the presence of <em>Polylepis</em><strong> </strong>(Estades 1996, A. P. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106009206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009207		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009210		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites and repeat surveys throughout the range to determine rates of range contraction and population decline. Campaign for the protection of remaining <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands, as well as appropriate reforestation programmes. Manage existing <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands by minimizing grazing and fire near fragments, controlling wood extraction and increasing the size of existing <em>Polylepis</em> fragments (Cahill and Matthysen <em></em>2007).<br/><p></p>
106009210		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Oreomanes</em><em> <span class="SpellE">fraseri</em> is rare and local within a relatively large         range in the high Andes (<span class="SpellE">Vuilleumier 1984, <span class="SpellE">Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <span class="SpellE">Fjeldså and <span class="SpellE">Krabbe 1990)         of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño [<span class="SpellE">Hilty and Brown 1986], but perhaps         extirpated), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (three sites in Azuay, Pichincha, and on         the Pichincha/Napo border [Best <em>et al.</em> 1996]), <strong>Peru</strong> (Ancash         south to Puno and Tacna [Clements 1998]) and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La         Paz, Cochabamba and Potosí [<span class="SpellE">Armonía 1995]), with recent records         from north <strong>Chile</strong> (Howell and Webb 1995b) and Salta, <strong>Argentina</strong> (Mazar Barnett <em>et al.</em> 1998a).</span></span></span></span>
106009210		habitat	eng	This         species is restricted to <span class="SpellE"><em>Polylepis</em>         woodland, which is now highly fragmented (<span class="SpellE">Ridgely and Tudor 1989). It occurs         at 2,700-4,850 m  [Clements in prep.], usually above the timberline, but         is not numerous even in apparently optimal habitat (<span class="SpellE">Ridgely and Tudor 1989).         It is highly dependent on stands of <span class="SpellE"><em>Polylepis</em>         with dense canopies and tall trees, and may be limited to larger         patches due to an avoidance of the dense foliage found in woodland edge         habitats (Cahill <em>et al</em>. 2006, Cahill and <span class="SpellE">Matthysen         2007). Nests are <span class="SpellE">sited in the interior of         forest fragments, and breeding takes place from October to December         (Cahill <em>et al</em>. 2008).</span></span></span>
106009210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as uncommon and patchily distributed. Home range size averages between 6.13 ha and 7.15 ha.
106009210		threats	eng	Its         decline is attributed to the destruction and fragmentation of <span class="SpellE"><em>Polylepis</em> woodland as a result of         uncontrolled use of fire, firewood collection, intense grazing         (particularly by sheep and cattle), unsound agricultural techniques and         <span class="SpellE">afforestation with exotic tree species         (especially <em>Eucalyptus</em><span class="GramE">) (<span class="SpellE">Fjeldså and Kessler 1996).</span></span>
106009211		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout the range to determine its current distribution and abundance, as well as understand seasonal movements. Monitor populations at known sites in order to determine population trends. Conduct ecological studies to identify precise habitat requirement and responses to habitat degradation or fragmentation. Protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites.  <p></p>
106009211		distribution	eng	<em>Orchesticus abeillei</em> is uncommon to fairly common in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Bahia to north Santa Catarina, with an isolated population in central Minas Gerais) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <strong></strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, do Rosário 1996). Birds apparently migrate from Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro to south Bahia in the austral winter (Isler and Isler 1987)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009211		habitat	eng	This species occurs at 750-1,600 m in the middle and upper strata of montane evergreen forest and its borders.  <p></p>
106009211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009211		threats	eng	Its montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland areas, but isolated patches in the north of its range, particularly within its Bahia wintering grounds, have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pasture and cultivation, and those remaining are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading from cultivated areas (Gonzaga <em>et al.</em> 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009212		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009214		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed studies to identify key habitat requirements and likely threats. Repeat surveys of known and historic sites to determine rates of decline and range contraction. Protect significant areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106009214		distribution	eng	<em>Neothraupis         fasciata</em> occurs in the cerrado of east and south <strong>Brazil</strong>         (south Maranhão and Piauí south to Minas Gerais and north São Paulo,         and west to south Mato Grosso), east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz) and         north-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (recently from single sites in Canindeyú and         San Pedro but historically south to Caaguazú) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Hayes 1995, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, R.&#160;P.&#160;Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000).         It is uncommon to fairly common within suitable habitats.
106009214		habitat	eng	This         species occurs in dense <em>cerrado</em>, and has been found in <em>cerradão</em>,         occurring less frequently in savannas and disturbed areas (Isler and Isler 1987).
106009214		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009214		threats	eng	Conversion         to soybeans, exportable crops and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations         (encouraged by government land reform in all three countries) has         severely impacted cerrado habitats (Parker and Willis 1997), with grasslands         in Paraguay additionally threatened by extensive cattle-ranching (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996). One         study in Brazil (Duca <em>et al</em>. 2009) suggests that fire suppression         is the most cost-effective management option for increasing         populations.
106009215		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009216		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys to determine seasonal movements, with a particular focus on identifying whether breeding populations occur on the east slope of the Andes. Conduct studies to identify precise habitat requirements and responses to habitat degradation or fragmentation. Protect areas of suitable habitat (in addition to the private reserves the species probably occurs in). <p></p>
106009216		distribution	eng	<em>Conothraupis speculigera</em> breeds on the west slope of the Andes up to 1,800 m in west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (south-west Pichincha, Azuay and Loja), and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura south to La Libertad), migrating to Amazonia where it is found very locally on the east slope in east Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, San Martín, Loreto, Ucayali and Madre de Dios)<strong></strong> (Isler and Isler 1987<strong></strong>, Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong>. It is rare to uncommon throughout its range. <em> <p></p></em>
106009216		habitat	eng	This species breeds during February-May in deciduous woodland, gallery forest and riparian thickets up to 1,950 m west of the Andes  (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), with its occurrence in north-west Peru dependent on whether sufficient rain has fallen for vegetation to develop<strong></strong> (O'Neill 1966). After breeding it migrates to Amazonia where it is found in forest-edge, second growth and river-edge forest from June to September (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<p></p>
106009216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009216		threats	eng	It is threatened by deforestation and understorey degradation<strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998), which may be further isolating populations within its already disjunct range.  <p></p>
106009217		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is only known from Emas National Park, located between the states of Goiás and Mato Grosso do Sul in the Center-West Region of Brazil, and along the Alto Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso. Emas is reportedly well protected and does not face immediate threats from the surrounding human population (Buzzetti <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is illegal to clear gallery forest in Brazil but this regulation is poorly enforced on many private lands. A proposal has been submitted to survey the Cone-billed Tanager population in detail in the Bacia do Alto Juruena area, mapping its range, habitat usage and the extent of damage a planned hydroelectric project will have on the species. Surveys were also due to take place in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in Bolivia in September 2008 (B. Hennessey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. <strong> </strong> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the status, distribution, ecology and habitat requirements of the species in the Emas National Park and Alto Rio Juruena. Survey using tape-recordings of the song in remnant cerrado woodland and gallery forest in other areas, especially in the Iquê-Juruena Ecological Station, Serra das Araras Ecological Station, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park and elsewhere between Emas and eastern Bolivia. Conduct surveys in deciduous and semi-deciduous woodland, including those in Mato Grosso do Sul and northern Mato Grosso, including Serra de Ricardo Franco. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, particularly in the upper Juruena basin (Candia-Gallardo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Lobby against the proposed hydroelectric project.  <p></p>
106009217		distribution	eng	Until recently, this species was known only from the type-specimen collected in 1938, c.400 km north-west of Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, <strong>Brazil</strong>. The type locality was thought to be in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso, but it has proved very difficult to trace with certainty. Searches in this area have failed<strong></strong>. In 2003, the species was rediscovered in gallery woodlands in Emas National Park, Brazil, and since then there have been six sightings at four different locations in the park (Buzzetti and Carlos 2005, D. Buzzetti <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The total suitable area that may be able to support the species at Emas National Park has been estimated at a maximum of 1,500 km<sup>2&#160;<strong></strong></sup> (Buzzetti <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2006, another population, estimated to number perhaps up to 100 individuals (at least 40 birds were recorded), was found 900 km away along the Alto Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, Candia-Gallardo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. One of the sites surveyed in this area, Juruena Telegraph Station, where the species was recorded in 2007, may be the type locality (Candia-Gallardo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The species is probably rare, having avoided detection for so long, but new information on its identification and vocalisations may help to aid the discovery of other extant populations. <p></p>
106009217		habitat	eng	The type-specimen was taken amidst bushy vegetation in dry forest in the transitional zone between Amazonian rainforest and central Brazilian cerradão (closed-canopy cerrado). The closely related Black-and-white Tanager <em>C. speculigera</em> is rather nomadic, and this species could have similar tendencies. Evidence from Emas National Park suggests Cone-billed Tanager favours gallery forest and is strongly associated with water (Buzzetti <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Observations of the Alto Rio Juruena population strongly suggest that the species is associated with permanently or seasonally flooded areas of forest or grassland near rivers, and that it generally avoids unflooded cerrado savanna and gallery forest (Candia-Gallardo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species appears to be territorial and perhaps monogamous, and it has been observed sallying for small flying insects and feeding on seeds, including those of bamboo and exotic grasses (Candia-Gallardo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009217		population	eng	The population is assumed to be extremely small as the species avoided detection for so long. In Emas National Park it is now known from six sightings at four different locations; given that c. 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat exists within Emas, it is unlikely that the population is below 50 individuals. In Alto Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso, the population may number perhaps up to 100 individuals (P. Develey <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Total numbers are precautionarily estimated at 50-249 mature individuals, but further fieldwork may well show that there are more than this. This estimate equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106009217		threats	eng	The rarity of this species suggests that some unknown factors have affected its status. At least until recently, there appears to have been extensive areas of the various possible habitats. The rediscovered population is in gallery forest, and if dependent on this habitat it is likely to have suffered from clearance and degradation through agricultural expansion and mechanisation in the region. The spread of soya cultivation in particular poses a serious threat outside Emas National Park (Buzzetti <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. If the species does indeed rely on flooded riverside habitats, its population may be naturally fragmented owing to the fragmented and linear nature of suitable areas; however, in this case habitat loss would be a major threat (Candia-Gallardo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. An impending hydroelectric project planned for Bacia do Alto Juruena and involving the construction of five hydroelectric plants will flood the Juruena river area, which appears to be the global stronghold for the species. <p></p>
106009218		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009219		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009221		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009222		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p>Occurs in several larger protected areas including Tamá, Cueva de los  Guácharos and Puracé National Parks in Colombia, Podocarpus National  Park in Ecuador and Tingo Maria National Park in Peru.</p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>
106009222		distribution	eng	Occurs in the Andes from SW <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, locally on both slopes in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, on the W slope in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span> and the E slope in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> (south to Junin).
106009222		habitat	eng	Humid and wet montane forest especially mossy higher elevation forest. Most numerous between 1700 and 2700m, has been recorded between 1400-3200m. Recorded as feeding on both vegetable matter and insects, apparently paper wasps (<span style="font-style: italic;">Vespidae</span>) may be an important dietary component. Found in groups of 4-8, though occasionally up to 20 travel together, and the species is usually not with mixed flocks although may be found with jays <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvidae</span> or caciques <span style="font-style: italic;">Cacicus</span>. May have very large home ranges, foraging in the canopy or upper levels of a particular group of trees before often flying several hundred metres. Nesting observed in January, large weakly constructed cup nest of rootlets and pale fibres hidden by fronds. Possibly makes seasonal movements in some parts of its range, eg. in Colombia only noted between Jan-Apr and in Jun in Cueva de los Guácharos National Park.
106009222		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009222		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
106009223		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009224		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009225		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009226		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009227		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009228		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009229		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009231		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Farallones de Cali National Park and El Pangan Nature Reserve, Colombia (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000,&#160;R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Ecuador, it is present in the Awacachi Corridor (Krabbe and Nilsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Jahn et al. in press, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007), Canandé Reserve (F. Sornoza Molina verbally 2006), and at least close to the Milpe Reserve (Krabbe and Nilsson 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Pacific foothill-forests (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially between the three known areas of occurrence, and in unstudied parts of Los Farallones de Cali (Wege and Long 1995). Designate protected areas in the Pacific foothills (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Consolidate protection of the Awacachi Biological Corridor to maintain link between Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and the surrounding buffer zone (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Sustainably manage the buffer zone to the Awá Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Consolidate protection of the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonization inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in its buffer zone (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <p></p>
106009231		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorospingus flavovirens</em> occurs on the lower Pacific slopes of the Andes in north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas and Pichincha) and south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño and Valle del Cauca [Hilty 1977]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). In Esmeraldas, it is known from El Placer, Awacachi Corridor (Krabbe and Nilsson 2003), Alto Tambo (B. Palacios verbally 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, Jahn et al. in press), and the Canandé Reserve (F. Sornoza Molina verbally 2006). In Pichincha, it occurs along the Milpe road (Krabbe and Nilsson 2003). In Colombia, there is a cluster of four sites in Nariño and two sites in Valle del Cauca (also close to each other), and there are large areas of mostly intact habitat between these two areas (R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). It is fairly common to common at a few localities (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). <p></p>
106009231		habitat	eng	It inhabits wet mossy forest, forest edge and tall trees in clearings at 450-1,100 m. It usually occurs in pairs or groups of 3-6 individuals, often associated with mixed-species flocks, mostly at midstorey and subcanopy levels. Nests have been found in March and April, and nest-building has been recorded in August. Its diet consists primarily of fruit, but also includes flowers and insects (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009231		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009231		threats	eng	The Chocó region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997). Infrastructural development, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, in the region is increasing the extent of logging, small-scale agriculture and gold mining (Salaman 1994,&#160;Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997). There is intensive agricultural development, especially coca and banana plantations at lower altitudes, and cattle-farming (Salaman 1994, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, <strong></strong><strong></strong>Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). International investment in the region has been lacking in concern for the environment (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Overall, the rate of deforestation is high and increasing, particularly in Ecuador, Nariño, and along new roads, with forest degradation compounding the situation (Salaman 1994, Salaman and Stiles 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). By 1996, the remnant cover of evergreen premontane forest (300-1300m) in western Ecuador was only 40% (Sierra 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Esmeraldas, the cover of this forest type was reduced by 7% in the last decade (Cárdenas 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Esmeraldas, is threatened by incursions from local communities and colonists from Colombia and other regions of Ecuador (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Forests around Alto Tambo are largely unprotected and threatened by clearance for cattle ranching and forestry projects (O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007).   <p></p>
106009232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009234		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009236		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106009236		distribution	eng	Found only in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru, </span>within the Bolivian and Peruvian Upper Yungas EBA. <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>
106009236		habitat	eng	Occurs in humid upper montane forest and elfin forest with patches of Chusquea bamboo at or near tree-line, 2750-c3500m. Feeds on arthropods gleaned from within bamboo and leafy understorey in groups of 3-9 individuals, usually in mixed flocks (often with Citrine Warbler <span style="font-style: italic;">B. luteoviridis</span>). Breeding probably occurs from July. Probably resident. May replace Black-capped Hemispingus <span style="font-style: italic;">H. atropileus </span>at upper elevations.
106009236		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009236		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon Basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011).</p>
106009237		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009238		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites in order to monitor population trends and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of a sites incorporating the full mosaic of montane forest habitats within the range. <p></p>
106009238		distribution	eng	<em>Hemispingus reyi</em> occurs from northern Táchira through Mérida to Trujillo on the Cordillera de Mérida in the Andes of west <strong>Venezuela</strong><strong></strong> (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Hilty 2003). It is fairly common. <em> <p></p></em>
106009238		habitat	eng	This species is found in or near <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo in montane and elfin forest and shrubby forest edge at elevations of 2,150-3,000 m <strong></strong>(Hilty 2003).   <p></p>
106009238		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as fairly common.
106009238		threats	eng	Although some large tracts of forest remain within its limited range, deforestation has been locally severe with logging continuing to expand to higher areas (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). The east slope of the Cordillera de Mérida is being cleared for extensive cattle-ranching. Agricultural colonisation, mining concessions and road-building pose further threats to remaining habitat (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).  <p></p>
106009239		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009241		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of its range is within Sierra Nevada and Páramos del Batallón y La Negra National Parks<strong> </strong>(Wege and Long 1995, Sharpe 2008), but none provide adequate protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey Páramos de Aricagua and La Negra to determine its persistence in these areas. Survey tracts of habitat connecting known areas. Survey habitat to the north-east of its known range, e.g. in Sierra de la Culata National Park. Survey elfin forest on  the eastern slopes of the Mérida Andes (C. Rengifo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Study the species's ecology to determine its dependence on bamboo (Sharpe 2008). Assess the current impact of threats to its habitat. Provide adequate protection for Sierra Nevada and Páramos del Batallón y La Negra National Parks.&#160;<p></p>
106009241		distribution	eng	<em>Hemispingus goeringi</em> occurs in the south-western half of the Cordillera de Mérida in Táchira and Mérida, west <strong>Venezuela</strong>. It is locally uncommon along the higher reaches of the Pico Humboldt trail in Sierra Nevada National Park, and has regularly been seen on Páramo Batallón since first reports in 1998 (Boesman 1998) and Páramo Zumbador&#160;<strong></strong>(with records in the 1980s and in 2003<strong></strong>) (C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2003, Hilty 2003). In      2011, it was found to be "strikingly common" in elfin forest at Boca de Monte at 2855 m on the eastern slope of the Mérida Andes (C. Rengifo<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). It has been recorded from just two other discrete areas, but not since 1950. Nevertheless, habitat loss is unlikely to have extirpated it from these areas, and it presumably also occupies contiguous tracts of habitat.<br/><br/>   <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><em> <p></p></em>
106009241		habitat	eng	It inhabits cloud and elfin forest, mainly at elevations of 2,600-3,200 m, but in some areas down to 2,300 m (Hilty 2003). It is most common towards the treeline, and in areas of scattered trees at the edge of humid páramo. It was particularly common in elfin forest at  Boca de Monte at 2855 m on the eastern slope of the Mérida Andes where   several individuals were caught in mist nets and more than ten      observed  (C. Rengifo<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). It forages for insects and berries on or near the ground, usually under dense cover and apparently closely associated with bamboo. Birds are typically encountered in pairs or small groups, sometimes in the company of mixed-species flocks  (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, C. Rengifo<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106009241		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009241		threats	eng	There has been extensive habitat loss in the Cordillera de Mérida for agricultural conversion, potentially to be compounded by proposed mining and road construction<strong> </strong>(M.&#160;L.&#160;Goodwin <em>in litt.</em> 1993<strong></strong>, C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 1997, 2003)<strong></strong>. However, this destruction has been concentrated in areas below the species's altitudinal range, although it may begin to affect its montane forests significantly in the near future. It has been classified as nationally Vulnerable in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106009242		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It presumably occurs in Río Abiseo National Park.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine more accurately its distribution. Confirm existence in Río Abiseo National Park. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Regulate the use of fire (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
106009242		distribution	eng	<em>Hemispingus rufosuperciliaris</em> is restricted to the east Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is uncommon and locally distributed in the Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas, and the Cordillera Central, south to east La Libertad and the Carpish Mountains, Huánuco (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990,&#160; Clements and Shany 2001). <p></p>
106009242		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense undergrowth in humid elfin forest near and just below the timberline, and shows a marked preference for extensive thickets of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All records are at elevations of 2,500-3,500 m, but mostly above 2,800 m (Parker<em> et al</em>. 1996,&#160; Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Birds tend to forage in pairs, perch-gleaning berries and insects in the undergrowth and on the ground (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). It occasionally associates with lower-storey, mixed-species flocks (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009242		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. The species is rare and local throughout its range.
106009242		threats	eng	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the colonial period, sustainable land-use systems established by Pre-Columbian cultures were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques, including widespread burning (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. Regular burning of páramo grassland, adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and continues to destroy large areas of this species's habitat (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. The human population density in large areas of the species's range is low (T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, indicating that some of its populations may be relatively secure at present, however there is a marked increase in number of cattle in northern Peru (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In more populated areas, small, fragmented remnants of elfin forest are additionally threatened by clearance for agriculture and grazing, with an alarmingly high rate of conversion to cash-crops in the (until relatively recently pristine) Cordillera de Colán (Barnes <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106009243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009244		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009246		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009247		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009253		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009254		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009256		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009257		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009258		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009259		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         It is protected under Brazilian law. The owners of Fazenda Pindobas IV have         expressed interest in protecting the remaining native forest on their         property (Venturini<em> et al.</em> 2002). The site of the 1941 record in Itarana is         listed as an IBA owing to its importance for Atlantic forest endemics.         Searches for the species have been conducted in other parts of Espírito         Santo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states (Venturini <em>et al</em>. 2005). A         research project into the species's ecology was recently completed, and         there is an Action Plan for the long-term conservation of the species (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008).         In 2010 a 37,000 ha corridor was designated for the species with an         objective to connect forest remnants through the development of forest         conservation and restoration actions, promotion of sustainable         activities and adequate soil management (BirdLife International 2010). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Monitor the population at Pindobas IV and Mata do Caetés (Anon. 2007).         Survey the montane region of south Espírito Santo, and adjacent Minas         Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, concentrating on elevations between 850 and         1,250 m and those sites which have previously been identified as potentially         suitable for the species. Research ecology and seasonal abundance.         Promote the creation of a Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural at         the private farms where the species occurs (Anon. 2007). Raise         awareness of environmental issues among local communities. Study         alternative agricultural and wood production systems (Anon. 2007).
106009259		distribution	eng	<em>Nemosia         rourei</em> is currently known from Espírito Santo, <strong>Brazil</strong>,         where small numbers have been recorded in Fazenda Pindobas IV since its         rediscovery there in 1998, and in the Mata do Caetés area, Vargem Alta         municipality, where up to nine individuals were recorded during visits         in 2003-2007 (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2012, Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000, Venturini<em> et al.</em> 2002, Venturini <em>et al</em>. 2005). Until         its rediscovery, it was only definitely known from the 19th century         type-specimen collected at Muriaé, Minas Gerais (though it has been         hypothesised that this locality was actually Macaé in Rio de Janeiro [Pacheco 1999]),         and a 1941 sighting of eight birds in Itarana municipality, Espírito         Santo. Other sites are Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (Santa Teresa)         and Santa Maria de Jetibá/Itarana montane areas, and there is a         probable sighting from Fazenda Pedra Bonita, Minas Gerais (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000).         However, subsequent surveys at the latter site have not been successful (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000).         There is evidence that Rio de Janeiro National Museum once held two         (now lost) additional specimens (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000). The general paucity         of records must be a reflection of this species's extreme rarity and         very patchy distribution; for example, during one year of recent         research into its ecology, only 11 records were obtained.
106009259		habitat	eng	It         occurs primarily in the canopy of humid montane forest at elevations of         850-1,250 m (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000, Venturini<em> et al.</em> 2002, P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008). The         type-locality, Muriaé (if correct [Pacheco 1999]), is at 210 m.         Altitudinal movements are plausible but the species is apparently         resident at Fazenda Pindobas IV (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000) and in Vargem Alta         municipality (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008). Birds forage in the interior of the         crowns of tall trees, occasionally lower towards the forest edge (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000),         and appear to favour moss and lichen-encrusted branches (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000).         Between one and ten individuals are typically found together and it is         associated with mixed-species flocks having been recorded with over 30         different species (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000, Venturini<em> et al.</em> 2002, Venturini <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008).         Individual birds have been observed apparently acting as sentries for         conspecifics within a flock (Venturini <em>et al</em>. 2005). The diet is reportedly         arthropods (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 2000). Nest-building has been observed in late         November (Venturini<em> et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded living to over six         years of age (Venturini <em>et al</em>. 2005).
106009259		population	eng	This species has now been recorded from three locations with a minimum of 14 individuals known from Pindobas IV and Mata do Caetés, and confirmation that it occurs in Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve. Additional forest occurs adjacent to these known sites which requires further survey work; hence the population is estimated at 50-249 individuals. This equates to 33-166 mature individuals, rounded here to 30-200 mature individuals. However, if further work either locates the species at additional sites or supports the assertion of Venturini <em>et al.</em> (2005) that the population may number fewer than 50 individuals, this estimated will require revision.
106009259		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation within its range must have had an impact on this species. Forest within Itarana where the species was recorded in 1941 has since been reduced to a number of small fragments. However, the species has been recorded in <em>Eucalyptus </em>spp and <em>Pinus </em>spp plantations using this suboptimal habitat while moving between fragments. <p></p>
106009260		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009261		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect habitat within the species's range, especially in Haiti.  Discourage agricultural practices which lead to clearance of native forest.  Monitor key populations.   <p></p>
106009261		distribution	eng	<em>Phaenicophilus poliocephalus</em> is common but local on the southern peninsula of <strong>Haiti</strong> and on the satellite islands of île-à-Vache, Grande Cayemite and Gonâve. In the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, it is rare on the north and south slopes of the Sierra de Baoruco and on the southern part of Loma de Toro and Hoyo de Pelempito (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009261		habitat	eng	It has relatively wide habitat tolerance, occurring in humid forest, forest edge, thickets, mangroves, open areas and gardens up to 2,400 m (Isler and Isler 1987, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009261		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106009261		threats	eng	There has been severe loss of natural forest habitats (mainly resulting from shifting agriculture) within its very restricted range in the Dominican Republic (Schubert 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the situation is worse in Haiti (Paryski <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009263		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Macaya and La Visite National Parks, Haiti, and Sierra de Baoruco National Park and Ebano Verde Scientific Reserve, the Dominican Republic. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess whether the races <em>abbotti</em> and <em>frugivorus</em> are still extant. Effectively protect existing, and establish new, reserves. Resolve whether this taxon comprises one, two or more species-level taxa. <p></p>
106009263		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Calyptophilus</em><em> <span class="SpellE">frugivorus</em> occurs in four subspecies in Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong>         and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>). The races <span class="SpellE"><em>abbotti</em>,         from <span class="SpellE">Gonâve Island, Haiti, and <span class="SpellE"><em>frugivorus</em>, from the <span class="SpellE">Samaná         Peninsula in the north-eastern Dominican Republic, are both likely to         be extinct, with no confirmed records of either since the early 1980s; <span class="SpellE"></span></span></span><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE">Gonâve though has not been extensively surveyed and so subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">abbotti</span> could possibly survive (N. Khwaja <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)</span><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE">. The race <span class="SpellE"><em>neibae</em>         in the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic has apparently         undergone a dramatic decline (<span class="SpellE">Raffaele <em>et         al.</em> 1998), and recent records derive solely from the Sierras de         Neiba (S. <span class="SpellE">Latta <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</span></em> 1998), where it is locally common (<span class="SpellE">Rimmer <em>et al. </em>2003),         and <span class="SpellE">Ebano Verde Scientific Reserve (<span class="SpellE">Almonte and <span class="SpellE">Fernández 2002).         The race <span class="SpellE"><em>tertius</em> occurs in southern         Haiti and south-west Dominican Republic, including the Sierra de <span class="SpellE">Baoruco and remains locally secure. <p></p></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106009263		habitat	eng	It is largely terrestrial in broadleaf forest and dense thickets, especially in ravines and near water, but inhabits semi-arid scrub on Gonâve Island. It is primarily a montane species, occurring above 1,000 m, but locally to 800 m, e.g. at Las Mercedes (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1998). However, the races <em>abbotti</em> and <em>frugivorus</em> occurred in areas below 600 m. Breeding probably occurs between May and July (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998). It feeds chiefly on invertebrates, rather than fruit as implied by its specific name. <p></p>
106009263		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009263		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and logging are the principal threats to its habitat. <p></p>
106009264		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009271		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009273		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009274		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009275		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009276		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009277		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009278		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009279		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009280		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009283		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009284		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009286		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009287		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009289		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009290		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009291		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey known and likely sites within and surrounding the range to determine the full extent of distribution, as well as estimate rates of population decline and range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat associations and tolerance of habitat destruction. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106009291		distribution	eng	<em>Habia gutturalis</em> has a restricted range within northern <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it occurs in the upper Sinú valley at the north end of the west Andes, and east along the north base of the Andes to the middle Magdalena valley (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite a report that it may benefit from forest destruction (Willis 1972)<strong><sup></sup></strong> it is now considered rare across its range (S. L. Hilty <em>in litt.</em> 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009291		habitat	eng	This species occurs in undergrowth in tall secondary and patchy woodland at 100-1,100 m (Isler and Isler 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, often beside streams. It is highly insectivorous (Isler and Isler 1987), with pairs or small family groups following swarms of army ants or joining mixed-species flocks (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009291		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common'.
106009291		threats	eng	Suitable habitat within its range is unprotected and relatively reduced (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The middle and lower Magdalena valley has been extensively deforested since the 19th century (for agriculture), and clearance of its foothills has been near total since the 1950s (Forero 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Deforestation in the Caribbean lowlands of Colombia has been severe (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2009). In addition to clearance for agriculture, deforestation is being driven by gold mining in the Serranía de San Lucas (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2009). However, the species shows some resilience to habitat fragmentation, can persist in patches of mature secondary growth and frequents forest borders (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009292		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Corcovado National Park is a very important site for this species (Wege and Long 1995, Capper <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The Golfito Faunal Refuge also holds a significant population (G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the habitat is disturbed and fragmented (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the Golfito Faunal Reserve to determine the status of this species (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect any remaining habitat outside existing protected areas.<p></p>
106009292		distribution	eng	<em>Habia atrimaxillaris</em> has a highly restricted range on the Osa Peninsula and around the Golfo Dulce in south-west <strong>Costa Rica</strong>. This range has approximately halved since 1960, and it has become increasingly scarce in the fragmented habitat outside Corcovado National Park and Golfito Faunal Refuge. However, populations appear stable in these protected areas (G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it remains common in Corcovado (Capper <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009292		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of dense lowland forest, advanced secondary growth, streamside woodland, and occasionally selectively logged forest, palm trees and beach-front scrub (Capper <em>et al.</em> 1998, Slud 1964, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in pairs or small family groups, sometimes accompanying mixed-species flocks (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on insects and probably other arthropods, but also on melastome berries (Slud 1964, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.Breeding takes place from mid-January to May and nesting at a mature secondary forest site is described by Sandoval and Gallo (2009).<br/><p></p>
106009292		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009292		threats	eng	The vast majority of the forest to the north and east of the Golfo Dulce has been logged (G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and habitat loss is continuing outside protected areas. <p></p>
106009293		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009294		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009295		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009297		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009300		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009301		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009303		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009304		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009305		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009306		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009307		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009310		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106009311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009312		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
106009313		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009316		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites to monitor population trends and patterns of habitat destruction. Conduct ecological studies to fully determine its habitat preferences and levels of tolerance of secondary habitats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites.  <p></p>
106009316		distribution	eng	<em>Thraupis cyanoptera</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo and east Minas Gerais south to north Rio Grande do Sul, mostly on the coastal slopes of the Serra do Mar)&#160;<em> </em>(Isler and Isler 1987, Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reports from other localities almost certainly refer to Sayaca Tanager <em>T. sayaca </em>(Isler and Isler 1987, Bushell 1995). It is uncommon to fairly common, but local, within this range. <em> <p></p></em>
106009316		habitat	eng	This species is found in the canopy and borders of montane and lowland evergreen forest and second growth at 200-1,200 m, occasionally to 1,600 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996).   <p></p>
106009316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009316		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production are historic threats to its lowland forests (Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009317		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009318		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009322		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009323		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess its total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Carry out further research into the species's ecology. <p></p>
106009323		distribution	eng	<em>Bangsia arcaei</em> occurs in three disjunct populations: on the Caribbean slope of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> from extreme south-east Guanacaste to Cartago; in central Bocas del Toro, central Chiriquí, Veraguas, and Coclé, <strong>Panama</strong>; and in the Cerro Jefe/Cerro Brewster area of east Panamá province and extreme west San Blas, Panama (Ridgely and Gywnne 1989, Isler and Isler 1999)<strong></strong>. It has also been reported from the Serranía del Darién in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Its range probably includes the serranías de San Blas and del Darién in Panama (Ridgely and Gywnne 1989)<strong></strong>, the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, and contiguous mountains in west Panama, but it has yet to be recorded in these areas (Ridgely and Gywnne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The population estimate for Costa Rican Important Bird Areas is 2,500-3,900 mature individuals (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, Sánchez <em>et al</em>. 2009), implying that there are fewer than 10,000 mature individuals in total<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009323		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland and montane evergreen forest, forest edges and gaps at elevations of 300-1,500 m, but mostly at 700-1,050 m (Ridgely and Gywnne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It typically forages in the canopy, feeding on fruit, insects and spiders, and occasionally extracting nectar by removing and damaging flowers (Isler and Isler 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed to nest in moss clumps. Breeding has been noted in April in Costa Rica and July in Panama (Isler and Isler 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009323		population	eng	The population estimate for Costa Rican Important Bird Areas is 2,500-3,900 mature individuals (J. Criado <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007, Sánchez <em>et al</em>. 2009), implying that there are fewer than 10,000 mature individuals in total<strong></strong>, thus the population is placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, probably equivalent to a total population of 3,700-15,000 individuals.
106009323		threats	eng	There has been widespread destruction of its foothill and montane forests, primarily as a result of burning, logging and other conversion leading to intensive agricultural use (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>, and intact habitat is now patchy (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The species's range in Costa Rica is now regarded as fairly well protected (Unión de Ornitólogos de Costa Rica <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<em></em>. However, areas around Cerro Jefe in Panama have been partially deforested despite being in national parks (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. The Caribbean slope in Panama was still extensively forested in the mid-1990s (Harcourt and Sayer 1996)<strong></strong>; however, since 2000, severe deforestation is reported to have been taking place within perhaps half of the species's range in Panama and has now reached the continental divide in some areas (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). In addition, this species's narrow altitudinal range is likely to render it susceptible to the effects of projected climate change (G. Angehr <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<p></p>
106009324		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Tatamá National Park, and two of the three sites with recent records in Antioquia are within protected areas (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A management plan for Alto de Pisiones is in preparation, and a local organisation hopes to execute it, in spite of the paramilitary activity (Stiles 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Furthermore, the area may be gazetted within the proposed Caramanta National Park (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Risaralda, studies and monitoring are underway in sites where the species is found, alongside environmental eduction activities for local communities (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey unexplored parts of the population's range to improve the information for distribution and altitudinal extent (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. In particular, study the Espíritu Santo gorge in Yarumal, which is near to where the species was originally seen, and has one of the few remaining forested areas in the region. Establish studies to determine its ecological requirements and the state of the population (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Improve and enforce the application of protective measures in Tatamá National Park (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Extend the park's boundaries to below 2,000 m and clarify the ownership of land (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. <strong><sup> </sup></strong> <p></p>
106009324		distribution	eng	<em>Bangsia melanochlamys</em> occurs in two disjunct areas of western <strong>Colombia</strong>. The first is on the north and west slopes of the Central Andes in Antioquia, where it had not been recorded since 1948, until rediscovered in 1999 to the west of the Nechí river. This recent study found it to be the most common species in the Reserva la Serrana (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The second area is on the Pacific slopes of the West Andes in Chocó, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca, around Cerro Tatamá and Mistrató, including Alto de Pisones, where it is also common (Pearman 1993, Stiles 1998, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002<strong></strong>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009324		habitat	eng	It is found at elevations of 1,000-2,285 m (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>(more recently only 1,400-1,750 m [Pearman 1993, Stiles 1998]<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>), and based on seasonal differences in relative abundance (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, apparently moves to higher altitudes after breeding. It inhabits subtropical humid cloud-forest, and probably cannot persist without primary forest but, in adjacent areas, it forages in secondary and disturbed habitats (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong>, forest borders and fragments, and in cultivated land. It is observed individually, in pairs and occasionally in mixed-species flocks (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Nest-building has been observed in April, and a juvenile has been recorded in June (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong>. It feeds on a variety of fruit, seeds and (when foraging in mixed-species flocks) insects within the undergrowth and canopy (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Stomachs of collected birds contained 75-100% fruit (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009324		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009324		threats	eng	Principal threats to this species are those that increase fragmentation and destruction of its habitat, including deforestation, cattle ranching, mining, small-scale agriculture and road building (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Tatamá have been severely deforested and primary forest, on which the species may be dependent, is disappearing in many areas, particularly below 1,500 m. The species occurs in effectively intact habitat above c.1,500 m in the Mistrató area, and in a large forest block at 800-1,000 m upwards to above 2,000 m around Alto de Pisiones (Wege and Long 1995, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the species displays altitudinal movements when breeding, and in none of the protected areas where it is found is the full altitudinal variation represented (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. A highway is to be built near Alto de Pisiones, opening up the area to logging, mining and human settlement (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong>. Although the region is inhabited by Embera Indians, further colonisation will inevitably lead to deforestation (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Stiles 1998, F.&#160;G.&#160;Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Paramilitary activity within its range has prevented recent survey work, and renders government action and research difficult (Stiles 1998, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009327		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Tatamá National Park protects the type-locality, and is just north of Alto de Galápagos (Wege and Long 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the recently discovered populations remain unprotected. It also occurs in Las Orquídeas National Park (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A management plan for Alto de Pisiones is in preparation, and a local organisation hopes to execute it in spite of the political instability (Stiles 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Furthermore, the area may be gazetted within the proposed Caramanta National Park (Stiles 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other mountain ridges of the Caramanta massif (Stiles 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect forest at Alto de Pisones effectively. Initiate conservation measures at Alto de los Galápagos (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009327		distribution	eng	<em>Bangsia aureocincta</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of the West Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>. Four specimens were collected in the vicinity of Cerro Tatamá (Risaralda/Chocó/Valle del Cauca border) between 1909 and 1946, but it was not found by surveys during the 1990s and may be locally extinct (Wege and Long 1995, Stiles 1998). Since 1946, it has been recorded at Alto de los Galápagos (Valle del Cauca/Chocó border) (C. Acevedo<em> per </em>N. Gómez <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Farthing 2001), the Caramanta massif at Alto de Pisones (Risaralda), where it is common to abundant (Stiles 1998), and recently in Las Orquídeas National Park (Antioquia) (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009327		habitat	eng	The type-specimens were collected in humid, mossy cloud-forest between 2,040 and 2,195 m. At Alto de los Galápagos, it has been recorded between 1,750 and 2,100 m (Salaman and Stiles 1996, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Alto de Pisones, it inhabits dense, wet cloud-forest with numerous natural tree gaps breaking the canopy, on steep ridges between 1,600 and 1,800 m (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Stiles 1998<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is thought to be concentrated in March and April (Stiles 1998). It feeds primarily on fruit (stomachs of collected birds contained 70-90% fruit), but also insects when foraging in mixed-species flocks (Stiles 1998). <p></p>
106009327		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009327		threats	eng	Deforestation has been severe on Cerro Tatamá. On the Caramanta massif, the species occurs in a large forest block, which is effectively intact from 800-1,000 m up to 2,000+ m<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Wege and Long 1995, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, a proposed highway will run within 5-7 km of Alto de Pisiones, opening the area up to logging, mining and human settlement<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Furthermore, Alto de los Galápagos is on the Cartago-San José road (Wege and Long 1995). Although the region is inhabited by Embera Indians, further colonisation will inevitably lead to deforestation (Salaman and Stiles 1996, Stiles 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, through small-scale agriculture and subsistence activities. The presence of guerrillas in the area renders government action and research difficult (Stiles 1998, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106009328		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009329		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009330		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Río Abiseo National Park, San Martín. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to better determine its range between and beyond known localities. Determine the extent to which burning of páramo grassland affects this species. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <p></p>
106009330		distribution	eng	<em>Buthraupis aureodorsalis</em> is known from five areas within a restricted range on the Cordillera Central in San Martín, La Libertad and Huánuco, north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (<strong></strong>Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003). It presumably occurs in unexplored intervening regions, but has not been found in similar habitat further north in the Cordillera de Colán. It is an uncommon species, and was recorded only three times during 27 days of fieldwork in Río Abiseo National Park, San Martín. <p></p>
106009330		habitat	eng	It inhabits elfin forest (especially <em>Escallonia</em> and <em>Clusia</em>) at elevations of 3,000-3,700 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), particularly favouring large islands of forest surrounded by grassland. It tends to move around in pairs or small groups, foraging mainly in the middle storey, where it feeds on berries, fruit and insects. Brooding females have been collected in September, and juveniles and immatures have been taken in July, October and November. <p></p>
106009330		population	eng	The population estimate of 250-2,500 mature individuals is derived from G. Engblom (<i>in litt.</i> 2003). This is roughly equivalent to 370-3,800 individuals in total. It described as uncommon to fairly common by Schulenberg <i>et al.</i> (2007).
106009330		threats	eng	Elfin forests are vulnerable to grazing and fires spreading out of adjacent páramo grasslands, both of which inhibit forest regeneration and lead to a detrimental lowering of the treeline (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. The human population-density within the species's range is low (T.&#160;S.&#160;Schulenberg <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but its elfin-forest habitat is more seriously threatened than previously thought. Even in remote protected areas such as Abiseo National Park the forest is degraded by fires started to provide grazing areas for cattle; all five known sites suffer from this threat (Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009331		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from seven protected areas: Puracé National Park, Cauca, (which is burnt regularly), near and probably within Galeras Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Nariño, (where there is currently no burning of vegetation) (Strewe and Kreft 1999)<strong></strong>, Guandera Biological Reserve, Carchi (Cresswell <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Napo/Imbabura/Pichincha (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>, Sangay National Park, Morona-Santiago, Llanganates National Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P-Y. Henry <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> and Podocarpus National Park, Loja/Zamora-Chinchipe, (which has one of the few pristine timberline areas in the tropical Andes, because burning does not take place [Kessler and Herzog 1998]<strong></strong>). In Peru it is considered as Nationally Vulnerable (F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution. In particular,&#160; survey suitable habitat in Tabaconas Namballe national sanctuary, since it is not present in any protected area in Peru (F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2012).  Regulate the use of fire (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>, and prohibit the burning of páramo in national parks. Educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009331		distribution	eng	<em>Buthraupis wetmorei</em> occurs in the Andes from south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, through <strong>Ecuador</strong>, into north-west <strong>Peru</strong>. In Colombia, there are records from Puracé National Park and its environs, Cauca, and recently from Nariño (Strewe and Kreft 1999). It is restricted to the east Andes in Ecuador (Carchi, Napo, Morona-Santiago, Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe) (Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1997,  1998, J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and occurs on Cerro Chinguela, eastern Piura, Peru. It is generally considered rare or uncommon, but is fairly common at Cajanuma, Podocarpus National Park, which may protect a significant population. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the total population exceeds 5,000 birds, and it is inferred to be declining.<em> <p></p></em>
106009331		habitat	eng	It inhabits very humid elfin forest, scattered bushes, bamboo, giant grasses and dense brush, on the páramo-forest ecotone from 2,900 to 3,600 m, and possibly higher before human alteration of the treeline. <p></p>
106009331		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009331		threats	eng	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing for millennia, primarily through human use of fire (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. Regular burning of páramos adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the timberline by several hundred metres, thereby destroying large areas of habitat, and is a continuing threat (Kessler and Herzog 1998)<strong></strong>. In south-west Colombia, the proportion of timberline habitat remaining is estimated at less than 10%, and human pressure is increasing (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Temperate forest has been replaced with exotic pine plantations near the known site in Nariño (Strewe and Kreft 1999), and other threats include firewood-gathering and potato cultivation (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The area where the species occurs in Peru is being heavily deforested and burned for agriculture and cattle ranching; fragmentation is severe around cerro Chinguela (F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2012).   <p></p>
106009332		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in the upper río Nieva valley (Balchin and Toyne 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Cordillera del Cóndor. Survey foothill-forests in the region and determine whether they are threatened. Research the species's ecology. Designate a protected area in the Cordillera del Cóndor, and involve local people in the region's land-use management (O'Neill 1969)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009332		distribution	eng	<em>Wetmorethraupis sterrhopteron</em> is a poorly-known species of the Cordillera del Cóndor in Zamora-Chinchipe, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and north Amazonas, <strong>Peru</strong>. It occurs on the west slopes above the río Nangaritza in Ecuador (Balchin and Toyne 1998)<strong></strong>, and lower east slopes and foothills above the ríos Marañón and Cenepa in Peru (O'Neill 1969, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001, <strong></strong>Clements and Shany 2001)<strong></strong>. According to Aguaruna Indians, it also occurs in forests at the headwaters of the río Nieva, Amazonas (J. P. O'Neill <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>, well south-east of its known range. It appears common in suitable habitat in Peru (O'Neill 1969)<strong></strong>, but its abundance in Ecuador has not been estimated (<strong></strong>Marín <em>et al.</em> 1992, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997, Balchin and Toyne 1998)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009332		habitat	eng	It primarily occupies mature, humid <em>terra firme</em> forest and foothill-forest in the upper tropical zone, at 600-1,000 m, where forested slopes are neither steep nor wet. However, in 1998, four were seen feeding in <em>Cecropia</em> at c.450 m (<strong></strong>J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and it may occur more widely at this elevation. It also occurs in disturbed mature forest (<strong></strong>Marín <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, foraging in pairs or small groups of up to five, occasionally joining mixed-species flocks. Fruit and insects constitute its diet. <p></p>
106009332		population	eng	It is uncommon and local (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, N. Krabbe <em>in litt</em>. 2010). The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009332		threats	eng	Forest clearance, especially along new extensions of the road network, through the activities of settlers attracted to the region, is the only known threat. In areas of north Peru, the foothills have very rapidly been deforested. However, the Aguaruna Indian community is well organised and prevents immigration to their territory (B. P. Walker <em>per</em> C. Bushell <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. Most of the species's range lies within Aguaruna territory; thus, providing their agricultural methods are unchanged, foothill-forests should remain relatively intact (B. P. Walker <em>per</em> C. Bushell <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009334		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009335		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009337		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009339		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further studies in areas surrounding known sites to determine the full extent of the range. Repeat visits to historical sites to identify trends and rates of range contraction. Conduct studies to determine habitat requirements and levels of tolerance of secondary habitats. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106009339		distribution	eng	<em>Iridosornis porphyrocephala</em> occurs in the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (principally on the Pacific slope north to south Chocó, and at the north end of the Central Andes in Antioquia) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (where it is definitely known only from Carchi and Imbabura, with an uncertain record from Loja in the south) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001).  <em> <p></p></em>
106009339		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lower growth of humid mossy forest and forest borders, principally at 1,500-2,200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989) but has been recorded to 750 m in Cauca, and 2,700 m in Antioquia (Isler and Isler 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009339		threats	eng	It is threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation, largely the result of intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing and mining, with severe destruction in the core of its elevational range (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009340		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009342		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009347		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009348		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009349		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009350		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009351		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009352		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009353		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009354		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009355		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009357		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009358		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009359		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites in order to monitor population trends and rates of range contraction. Conduct further ecological studies to identify habitat requirements. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106009359		distribution	eng	<em>Euphonia chalybea</em> is fairly common, but local, in the Atlantic forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio de Janeiro south to Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (recently in Canindeyú, Alto Paraná, Caazapá and Itapuá, with historical records from Amambay), and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes and Misiones) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Hayes 1995, <strong></strong>Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998, J.&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <em> <p></p></em>
106009359		habitat	eng	This species occurs sparsely in lowland forest, forest edge and overgrown plantations to 500 m, and has been recorded feeding (perhaps predominantly) on cactus fruits (probably epiphytic) (Isler and Isler 1987, Sick 1993) and mistletoes (J.&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009359		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009359		threats	eng	This species has presumably declined substantially with the extensive loss of Atlantic forest to agriculture and mining, with current key threats from urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995, Fearnside 1996).  <p></p>
106009360		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009361		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009363		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009364		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009365		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009366		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009367		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009368		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009369		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009370		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009371		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009372		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009373		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009374		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009375		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009376		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009377		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009379		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009380		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009381		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recently recorded in the Ucumarí section of Los Nevados National Park, Yotoco Forest Reserve, Farallones de Cali National Park, Tambito Nature Reserve and Munchique National Park (Wege and Long 1995, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999). The northernmost site is within a proposed regional park (A.&#160;Cuervo <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Education and awareness activities within the western Andes have included local schools participating in a Bird Month Celebration and publication of a conservation magazine (Fierro-Calderón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey poorly-known areas of habitat, e.g. in Farallones de Cali National Park (L.&#160;Dávalos <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong>. Enforce conservation measures in protected areas, specifically in providing non-damaging alternatives to settlers in Munchique National Park and the Tambito region (L.&#160;Dávalos <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999, T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Research its ecological requirements and population size (Renjifo <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002). Use recent information to produce a regional management plan for the western Andes (Fierro-Calderón <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<p></p>
106009381		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorochrysa nitidissima</em> occurs in the west and north-central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío, Valle del Cauca and Cauca). There are records from only two sites in the central Andes since 1951: Ucumarí Regional Park, Risaralda, in the early 1990s (Wege and Long 1995), and the northernmost locality near Anorí, Antioquia, in 1999 (A.&#160;Cuervo <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1999)<strong></strong>. The great majority of modern records in the west Andes are from accessible sites in Valle del Cauca. It was formerly common, but is now infrequently recorded, although it remains fairly common locally, even in remnant forest fragments. <em> <p></p></em>
106009381		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid, mossy, montane forest and borders in the subtropical zone at 1,300-2,200 m, exceptionally as low as 1,140 m in the central Andes, and 900 m in the West Andes. In adjacent areas, it also occurs regularly in mature secondary forest and clearings with a few large trees left standing. The diet comprises insects, mainly taken when foraging with mixed-species flocks, and fruit. <p></p>
106009381		population	eng	Extrapolating recorded densities across the species's range (assuming 10% of its Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied) gives a preliminary population estimate of 21,970 individuals. As this is a rough estimate, it is best placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals. A more accurate population estimate is desirable.
106009381		threats	eng	Deforestation has been severe in many parts of its range, notably Valle del Cauca, Cerro Tatamá, along the Buenaventura-Cali and Buenaventura-Buga roads, and around Medellín (Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). However, large blocks of primary forest remain, e.g. in Farallones de Cali and Los Nevados national parks, and on the Caramanta Massif (Wege and Long 1995, Stiles 1998). The rapid expansion of the road network is opening up more remote parts of the species's range to logging, mining and human settlement (Salaman and Stiles 1996)<strong></strong>. Immigration will inevitably lead to deforestation (Stiles 1998)<strong></strong>, through small-scale agriculture and subsistence activities. <p></p>
106009382		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009383		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009384		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, but mostly in the buffer zone which is occupied by several small but expanding communities. Of the sites where it has been recorded recently in Guatemala, at least seven have legal protection status, including several private nature reserves. These reserves include coffee plantations and primary forest. By offering tourism services (including birdwatching), some of these reserves put a value to primary habitats, which benefits the local population economically <strong></strong>(K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007, Eisermann 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey habitat between known areas. Carry out further research into the species's life history and ecological requirements. Ensure effective habitat conservation in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. Designate a protected area on the south-west slope of Volcán Santa María. Promote habitat conservation and restoration in the altitudinal belt between 900 and 1,900 m in the IBAs of Tacaná-Tajumulco, Santiaguito Volcano, Atitlán, and El Triunfo <strong></strong>(Eisermann and Avendaño 2007b, Eisermann 2011, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). Improve management of protected areas to prevent illegal logging and forest fires. Set up certification schemes to encourage low intensity shade-grown coffee farming (including the replacement of non-native shade trees with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus aurea</span>), perhaps using the species as an emblem and indicator species, and linking this to ecotourism (Eisermann 2011, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a,b). Recruit landowners into schemes designed to encourage nest protection and link this to ecotourism (see Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). Lobby for legislation to protect the species from disturbance and habitat loss (see Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). <p></p>
106009384		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara cabanisi</em> occurs in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas of southern <strong>Mexico</strong> and south-western <strong>Guatemala </strong>(Heath and Long 1991, Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). The only recent records in Mexico are from El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. In Guatemala, it has been recorded on the southern slope of the Santa María volcano, at Dos Marías Reserve, on the Sierra Madre south of San Marcos, Tajumulco volcano, Atitlán volcano, in middle valley of Madre Vieja River north of Pochuta, Santo Tomás volcano, Lacandón volcano, in the valley of the Nicán river and Chicabal volcano <strong></strong>(Cooper 2003, Eisermann and Avendaño 2007a, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). Despite this restricted distribution, it is apparently locally common in these areas <strong></strong>(M. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Cooper 2003, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). Surveys carried out in Guatemala in 2008, employing distance sampling methodology, found an average density of 56 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (95% CI: 33-93 per km<sup>2</sup>) which, based on an estimate of 250 km<sup>2</sup> of broadleaf forest within the species's potential range at 900-1,900 m elevation, suggests that the population in Guatemala numbers 8,250-23,250 individuals (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). However, the densities used in this calculation were estimated from surveys at 1,400-1,900 m, where the species is more abundant than at 900-1,300 m, and the density estimates may have been affected by the patchy nature of forest in the survey areas (see Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). With this in mind, the total population estimate has been revised upwards but is conservatively estimated to include fewer than 20,000 mature individuals.<br/><p></p>
106009384		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid broadleaf evergreen forest at 1,000-1,700 m in Mexico, with most sightings between 1,250 m and 1,650 m, but it has been recorded from 860 m up to 1,900 m in Guatemala <strong></strong>(J. F. Hernandez <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a,b). It appears, however, to be most abundant above 1,400 m in Guatemala (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). It has been recorded in degraded and edge habitats, including coffee plantations adjacent to primary forest, where it has also been observed nesting <strong></strong>(K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a,b), although a comparison of encounter rates in primary broadleaf forest and coffee plantations indicates that the species is more abundant in primary forest (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). Despite on occasions being more visible in edge environments, it mostly forages in the upper strata and canopy of pristine forest, and may undertake local movements in response to the maturing syconia of <em>Ficus</em> trees <strong></strong>(J. F. Hernandez <em>in litt</em>. 1998). It feeds mainly on fruits and invertebrates (Eisermann 2011). The species breeds in the wet season, from April to September (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). It was previously reported to have a distinct nesting preference for <em>Ficus cookii </em><strong></strong>(Gómez de Silva 1997); however, nests have now been located in at least 23 different tree species, including a conifer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Neocupressus lusitanica</span>)<em></em>, cypress trees <em>Cupressus </em>sp.(3) and an <em>Inga</em> sp. used as shade trees in a coffee plantation, as well as non-native species <strong></strong>(K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007, Eisermann 2011, Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). Limited observations suggest that the incubation period lasts c.14 days, followed by a brooding period of c.17 days (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011b). It is highly social, and flocks of up to 26 birds have been recorded <strong></strong>(T. Gullick <em>per</em> M. Thompson <em>in litt</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106009384		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009384		threats	eng	Its altitudinal range coincides with the optimal land for coffee cultivation. More than one-third of Mexico's coffee is grown in Chiapas, and production has been centred on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre since the beginning of the 20th century. Although the species has been recorded in coffee plantations, it appears to be absent from the interior of intensive coffee plantations (Eisermann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011a). Agricultural land is expanding because new settlements in the mountains are legally leasing unprotected, national territory land. About 45% of the suitable habitat that remains in its potential range in Guatemala is unprotected (Eisermann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2011a). Pressure on the species's habitat is expected to increase, because of a rapidly growing human population (e.g. a 35% increase from 1994 to 2002) <strong></strong>(K. Eisermann <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p>
106009385		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009386		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009387		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It has been recorded in Dunas de Natal State Park (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Charles Darwin Ecological Refuge, Mata do Pau Ferro Ecological Park (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, Serra dos Cavalos UFPE and Tapacurá Ecological Stations, and Saltinho and Pedra Talhada Biological Reserves. Significant areas are being reforested at Pedra Talhada, where protection is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). The recently decreed Murici Ecological Station is still ineffectively implemented and forest loss continues through pasture encroachment and charcoal production (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Captive birds have been confiscated and released into reserves, but this can only succeed if the protection of such areas is improved. Forestation schemes being undertaken to create new-forested areas along rivers and on steep slopes may have positive impacts owing to the ability of the species to utilise second-growth habitat (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey sites without recent records, especially São Miguel dos Campos, Tapacurá, Saltinho and João Pessoa, and any other remnant habitat fragments.  Pursue conservation initiatives for the most important previously unreported populations, especially Usina Serra Grande, Mata da Macambira, Usina Utinga-Leao and Usina Santo Antonio (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of the Murici biological reserve. Enforce legal measures to prevent trade.  <p></p>
106009387		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara fastuosa</em> has been recorded at over 50 localities in Alagoas, Pernambuco and Paraíba, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, and has possibly been extirpated from several additional sites in these states. Surveys carried out from 1999 to 2001 located the species in a number of new sites (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Roda <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two additional localities in Rio Grande do Norte where the species was recently recorded (Capim Macio and Parque das Dunas Costeiras, and Baia Formosa) require more observations to eliminate the possibility of released cagebirds (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its range is consequentially larger than previously estimated, but it is still probably less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given the small area of severely fragmented Atlantic forest remaining (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009387		habitat	eng	It occurs in Atlantic forest and humid forest within interior Alagoas, Pernambuco and Paraíba (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the northernmost locality in Rio Grande do Norte is an area of cerrado known as <em>tabuleiro</em>, potentially broadening the species's known habitat preferences (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Nests are situated in dense mid-storey vegetation, usually in large bromeliads, indicating that it cannot use second growth without epiphytes (E. O. Willis <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages in the forest canopy and edge, but also occurs in 1-2 m high second growth (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, gardens and orchards with bromeliad-laden trees, and is often seen in mixed-species flocks (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. The diet includes seeds, fruit and small arthropods. It breeds in the austral spring and summer (October-March).  <p></p>
106009387		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009387		threats	eng	Heavy trapping for trade results from the high prices commanded by the species's exceptional plumage. There has been massive clearance of original Atlantic forest in north-east Brazil with just 2% remaining (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. None of the remaining forest fragments is larger than 4,000 ha, with most of this still subject to selective logging and poaching (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. For example, forest at Murici reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a fragmented 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in 1999 (<strong></strong>J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The site is severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations and further logging, with new roads evident in January 1999 (<strong></strong>J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106009388		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009390		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009391		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009392		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of known sites in order to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation or fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106009392		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara johannae</em> is rare to locally fairly common in the Pacific lowlands, from north Antioquia, <strong>Colombia</strong>, south through north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> to Los Ríos (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). It has been described as the least numerous Pacific lowland <em>Tangara</em> (Hilty and Brown 1986) but it is common in several areas in Nariño, Colombia (Salaman 1994, P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999).  <em> <p></p></em>
106009392		habitat	eng	This species occurs at the borders of wet forest and secondary woodland in coastal lowlands and foothills to 1,000 m (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong></strong>, but very rare above 800 m (P.&#160;G.&#160;W.&#160;Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009392		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009392		threats	eng	The Chocó forests inhabited by this species are threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation, largely as a result of intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation, with destruction most severe in its lowland habitats (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998).  <p></p>
106009393		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009394		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009395		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009396		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009397		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009398		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009399		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009400		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009401		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009402		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009403		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009404		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009405		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009406		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009407		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009408		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009409		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Small portions of this species's range occur in six protected areas, none of which is supported by effective protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to clarify the species's seasonal movements. Publish the recent record from Rio Grande do Sul and re-evaluate other records from the state. Enforce the protection of coastal areas in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. <p></p>
106009409		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara peruviana</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, in Espírito Santo (Argel-de-Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 1993,&#160; M. M. Argel-de-Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2000), Rio de Janeiro (as an austral winter visitor in April-September), São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina (no unequivocal records since the 1930s) and Rio Grande do Sul (G. A. Bencke <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Bencke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Rosa and Agne 2010). It is generally considered not rare within suitable habitat, with periodic local fluctuations in numbers owing to seasonal movements, at least in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Records from Pelotas in Rio Grande do Sul were thought to refer to the closely related <em>T. preciosa,</em> but well documented records<strong></strong> from the state confirm <span style="font-style: italic;">T. peruviana</span> (<strong></strong>G. A. Bencke <em>in litt.</em> 2000, Bencke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, Rosa and Agne 2010). However, records from Buenos Aires and Misiones, Argentina, can be more certainly attributed to <em>T. preciosa. <p></p></em>
106009409		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to coastal sand-plain forest and littoral scrub (restinga), but has also been found in secondary forest, these records perhaps relating to the presence of fruit-bearing plants, notably species of Melastomataceae (Moraes and Krul 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also visits gardens and orchards of houses close to forested areas (A. De Luca and P. Develey <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Faecal analyses show a predominance of fruit (67% by frequency) in the diet, with some insects and spiders (Moraes and Krul 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Seasonal displacements occur in Rio de Janeiro, where its arrival coincides with the ripening of aroeira <em>Schinus</em> fruit. It is also more common in São Paulo during the winter months, and scattered birds appear inland at this time (E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All records from Espírito Santo are from the austral winter (M. M. Argel-de-Oliveira <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009409		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009409		threats	eng	It is threatened by the rapid and widespread loss of restinga, largely to beachfront real-estate development and holiday centres. Suitable habitat in both Rio de Janeiro and Paraná is now largely destroyed (P. Martuscelli verbally 1994).<strong><sup></sup></strong> Although it occasionally appears in the illegal cage-bird trade, but this relatively minor threat could eventually compound the problem of habitat loss.  <p></p>
106009410		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009411		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009412		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The recent Bolivian report is from within Madidi National Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hennessey and Gomez 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess its range and population size. Survey the biota of valleys in the río Machariapo area (Parker and Bailey 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Research its ecology and habitat requirements. Conduct research to clarify pertinent threats. Carry out surveys to clarify its status in Bolivia. Grant protected status to additional occupied sites and areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106009412		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara meyerdeschauenseei</em> is relatively common at three sites in the arid area at the headwaters of the río Inambari in Puno, south-east <strong>Peru</strong> and in the Apolo area of northwestern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(Berg and Van Kleunen 2012). It has also been reported at Tokoaque, Madidi National Park, west <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Bolivia</strong> (Hennessey and Gomez 2003), although the humid forest habitat here is highly atypical for this species group and the presence of a population here is best treated as unconfirmed. Published sightings in dry forest along the río Machariapo within Madidi National Park (Parker and Bailey 1991)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, were later retracted<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hennessey and Gomez 2003).<em> <p></p></em>
106009412		habitat	eng	The semi-arid habitats in the area of the Peruvian records have already been heavily modified, with the original habitat types unknown<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hennessey and Gomez 2003). The recent Bolivian report was from humid Yungas forest, and seasonal movements between habitats have been postulated<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Hennessey and Gomez 2003). Records are from between 1,750 and 2,200 m, but it probably ranges beyond these limits. It is usually found singly, in pairs or groups of three or four (Naoki 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, foraging in fruiting trees and probably taking fallen fruit from the ground. It has been recorded taking a variety of fruit and arthropods (Naoki 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and probably breeds around November.  <p></p>
106009412		population	eng	The species is described as fairly common to locally common; its population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009412		threats	eng	Its usage of semi-open and edge habitats suggests that it may be relatively tolerant of habitat disturbance. However, recent suggestions that it prefers humid forest, or undergoes seasonal movements, need further investigation, and it cannot at present be considered secure. <p></p>
106009413		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009415		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009416		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009417		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009418		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009419		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009420		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009421		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor trends in habitat cover within the species's range to identify potential threats. Campaign against the completion of the planned Darién Pan-American Highway link.  <p></p>
106009421		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara fucosa</em> is fairly common in the region of east Darién (Cerro Pirre, Cerro Mali, Cerro Tacarcuna and the Serranía de Junguruda), <strong>Panama</strong> (Isler and Isler 1987, Ridgely and Gywnne 1989, G. R. Angehr <em>in litt.</em> 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>), with a further sight record of one bird near the ridge of Cerro Tacarcuna, north Chocó, <strong>Colombia </strong>(Pearman 1993)<sup></sup>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009421		habitat	eng	Most records of this species are from montane evergreen and elfin forests and edge habitats above 1,350 m, although it is known to occur down to 550 m (Isler and Isler 1987, Ridgely and Gywnne 1989), with a pair observed building a nest at c.940 m in the Río Sambú drainage of Darién province (Christian 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009421		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106009421		threats	eng	This species has a very small range and is therefore inherently at risk from any habitat loss or degradation, which is already occurring as a result of gold mining operations below this species's altitudinal range (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Completion of the Pan-American Highway link through Darién could be highly detrimental to this species (Wege 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009422		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009423		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009424		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009425		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Cerros del Sira was designated a Native Reserve in June 2001<strong> </strong>(Mee <em>et al. </em>2002).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of potentially suitable habitat within the surrounding area to determine the full extent of the range. Monitor habitat and population trends at Cerros del Sira to determine the level of threat. Provide local residents with land titles and the capacity to defend the forests on their land.  <p></p>
106009425		distribution	eng	<em>Tangara phillipsi</em> was discovered in 1969 and is restricted to the northern end of Cerros del Sira in Huánuco, east-central <strong>Peru</strong> (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is apparently fairly common within suitable habitat at the site (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <em> <p></p></em>
106009425		habitat	eng	This species occurs at elevations of 1,300-1,600 m in the canopy and borders of humid montane forest and cloud-forest (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is usually found 11-25 m above the ground, but three individuals have been mist-netted nearer the ground. An expedition in 2000 commonly encountered <em>Tangara phillipsi </em>from ridge-top scrub and isolated trees (3-10 m) within the moss-forest zone and the canopy of higher forest below ridge-tops (15-20 m)<strong> </strong>(Mee <em>et al. </em>2002). It<em> </em>occurred in mixed-species flocks of c.50 birds where it outnumbered other <em>Tangara </em>tanagers by 5:1<strong> </strong>(A. Mee <em>in litt. </em>2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009425		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009425		threats	eng	Threats include gold and copper mining and small-scale logging, which have been ongoing near the base of the Sira for some time<strong> </strong>(Mee <em>et al. </em>2002). Within the western 'boundary' of the Sira, by the Pachitea river, there is evidence that logging operations may be on the increase<strong> </strong>(Mee <em>et al. </em>2002). The local people are keen to prevent logging on their land but tend to lack land titles<strong> </strong>(A. Mee <em>in litt. </em>2001). However, the area visited in 2000 seems largely pristine<strong> </strong>(A. Mee <em>in litt. </em>2001, <strong></strong>Mee <em>et al. </em>2002).  <p></p>
106009426		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009427		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
106009427		distribution	eng	East slope of the Andes in extreme SE <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, N and C <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru</span> with a few records in Junin and Pasco and E slope of the Andes in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>. Occurs between 1,100-2700 m altitude (in Peru 1,100-2,200 m; in Ecuador 1,350-1,600 m and in Bolivia 1,200-2,700 m), but is most numerous in Bolivia between 1,600-1,900 m.
106009427		habitat	eng	Found in mid-elevation humid montane forest and forest borders, sometimes in adjacent secondary growth. Pairs forage with mixed-species flocks, especially with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Tangara spp</span>. in mid- or upper levels in trees and usually well hidden. Food is fruit and insects, obtained from leaves, bark and thin branches.
106009427		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009427		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
106009428		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009430		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009431		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009432		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in San Antonio de Tequendama Reserve (Wege and Long 1995), Cerro Quinini (Cundinamarca), Soata IBA (Boyaca), Parque Natural Tatama (Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011)  and the lower elevations of the Yariguies national park as well ProAves' El Paujil,&#160;Pauxi pauxi and&#160;Cerulean warbler reserves (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It has been recorded in Yotoco Forest Reserve (5.6 km<sup>2</sup>), but not by recent surveys (Silva Arias 1996, P.&#160;G.&#160;W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The Valle del Cauca localities are close to Farallones de Cali National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further field surveys to better assess its population and distribution, notably in the Serranía de las Quinchas (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but also in east Cundinamarca (Stiles 1992). Research its ecological requirements to determine the extent to which primary forest is necessary to maintain viable populations and understand its occurrence in some shade-tree plantations. Protect Laguna de Pedropalo, Cundinamarca, and its adjoining forest (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009432		distribution	eng	<em>Dacnis hartlaubi</em> has a restricted and disjunct distribution in all three Andean ranges in <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has been recorded from Valle de Cauca, Huila (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002), Quindío, Antioquia (Botero and Verhelst 2001)<strong></strong>, Risaralda (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002), Cundinamarca and Boyacá. The Serranía de las Quinchas, Boyacá, may hold a significant population (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999), but the only other post-1980 records are from several localities in the río Bogotá drainage, west-central Cundinamarca (although the east slopes of Cundinamarca where it was collected in 1912 are ornithologically poorly known [Stiles 1992]<strong></strong>), two sites in Támesis, Antioquia (Botero and Verhelst 2001)<strong></strong>, and one site in Risaralda (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is rare and likely to be declining. <p></p>
106009432		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lower montane forest and edge, especially shade coffee and cocoa plantations (especially where <em>Inga</em> spp. and <em>Cordia alliodora</em> are commonest) bordering patches of secondary vegetation in Antioquia (Botero and Verhelst 2001,)<strong></strong>, and clearings with scattered trees. On the west slope of the West Andes it has been recorded as low as 300&#160;m, but mostly occurs at 1,350-2,200&#160;m. Fruit and insects probably form the bulk of its diet (Stiles 1992). A male in breeding condition was collected in August in Cundinamarca. <p></p>
106009432		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size (e.g. the lower quartile of such estimates spans 1-3.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>) and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. The estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009432		threats	eng	There is continuing clearance of suitable humid forests for agriculture, coffee-growing and human settlement. In central-west Cundinamarca and on the upper slopes of the Cauca valley (Quindío and Valle del Cauca), centuries of cultivation have left only remnant forest patches (Wege and Long 1995, Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). Colonisation and conversion of the Andean slopes in the middle Magdalena valley to cultivated and pastural land reached a peak in the 1970s, probably affecting any subpopulations between west Cundinamarca and the Serranía de las Quinchas (itself the largest remaining block of wet forest in the region [Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999]). However, many areas have since been abandoned and become successional habitats (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999). The population in Valle del Cauca is bisected by the Cali-Buenaventura highway, and thus threatened by agricultural expansion (Salaman and Stiles 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009433		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009434		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009435		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009436		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. It has been recorded in Desengano, Intervales, Alto do Ribeira, Ilha do Cardoso and Serra do Tabuleiro State Parks, Itatiaia, Serra dos órgãos and Tijuca National Parks, Tinguá Biological Reserve, Ubatuba Experimental Station, Cananéia-Iguape-Peruíbe Environmental Protection Area, and Artex and Spitzkopf Ecological Reserves (Wege and Long 1995, do Rosário 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate seasonal movements. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of reserves in which it occurs. Implement and enforce a complete ban on the capture of wild birds. <p></p>
106009436		distribution	eng	<em>Dacnis nigripes</em> occurs very sparsely in coastal south-east <strong>Brazil,</strong> in Espírito Santo (four specimens in 1942<strong></strong>, and several recent records), Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná (five recent records), and northern Santa Catarina (recent records from three sites and two old specimens<strong></strong>) (do Rosário 1996, E. O. Willis and Y. Oniki <em>in litt</em>. 1999,&#160;<strong></strong>Whittaker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). A specimen from Minas Gerais is thought to be a labelling error, but it may possibly occur in the extreme south of the state.    <p></p>
106009436		habitat	eng	It has been found in primary and tall secondary lowland and montane Atlantic forest from sea-level to 1,700 m. It appears to move seasonally, or perhaps erratically, between parts of its range, probably the result of irregular wanderings in search of favourite food-plants. The diet comprises berries, seeds, insects and even eucalyptus nectar (R. Grantsau <em>in litt</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is often seen in association with mixed-species flocks, and birds may concentrate locally during certain periods. Breeding takes place from October to February (Whittaker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It nests in second growth adjacent to large tracts of Atlantic Forest, and nest trees tend to harbour large numbers of epiphytes, particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Usnea </span>(Usneaceae) which is a major component of nests (Whittaker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).  <p></p>
106009436		population	eng	Although uncommon, the species has been found in some of the largest protected expanses of Atlantic Forest and it is felt that it may have been unrecorded due to its resemblance to the much commoner Blue Dacnis <i>Dacnis cayana</i>. Given this new information, it seems unlikely that its population is as small as previously estimated. It is now considered to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 6,700 mature individuals.
106009436		threats	eng	It is threatened by widespread habitat loss throughout its range, and is also at risk from the (illegal) cage-bird trade, which prizes it for its rarity. Trapping may be facilitated by the periodic concentration of individuals. <p></p>
106009437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009438		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009439		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted action is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey all known and historical sites to determine current range and estimate rates of contraction and population decline. Conduct ecological studies to identify habitat associations and assess levels of tolerance of habitat disturbance. Protect areas of suitable habitat and safeguard against clearance. <p></p>
106009439		distribution	eng	<em>Dacnis viguieri</em> occurs in north-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (north Chocó, north-west Antioquia, south-west Córdoba) and east <strong>Panama</strong> (east Darién) (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Gywnne 1989, Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong>. Within this small range it is generally rare. The species is known from 44 specimens in Colombia, with all but four collected at Jurado, Chocó, on the Pacific coast at the base of Serranía de los Saltos (Fundación ProAves 2011)<strong></strong>. A recent record from Panama comes from Cana, at the foothills of Cerro Pirre, thus the species probably also occurs on the Colombian side of Cerro Tacarcuna (Fundación ProAves 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009439		habitat	eng	Although primarily a humid forest species, <em>D. viguieri</em> uses edge habitat and has been recorded in scrub (Hilty and Brown 1986, Isler and Isler 1987). It has been recorded most often in foothills up to 700 m, where it may be more numerous than in the flat coastal lowlands (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009439		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare'.
106009439		threats	eng	In the Urabá lowlands and the Sinú valley, most habitat has been converted to banana plantations and cattle ranches (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Fundación ProAves 2011)<strong></strong>, and more recently palm oil plantations (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong></strong>. This agricultural expansion has cleared the lowlands almost entirely and is encroaching on the foothills of the Western Andes and Serranía de Darien. In Panama, deforestation is on-going near El Real and is likely to be taking place in the Jaque valley (G. R. Angehr<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Some extensive, largely intact forests remain in Panama and Chocó, but these would be threatened by the completion of the Pan-American highway through Daríen (Wege 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009440		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Río Ñambí Community Nature Reserve, Colombia, and Biological Corridor Awacachi, Río Palenque Scientific Centre, Jatun Sacha Bilsa Reserve, Cayapas-Mataje, Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas ecological reserves, Gran Reserva Chachi, Canandé Reserve, and Silanche Reserve, Ecuador (Wege and Long 1995, K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999,&#160; R. Strewe <em>in litt</em>. 1999, J. Mew verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the tracts of forest that remain in west Nariño (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Clarify its ecological requirements (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Implement population monitoring programs<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Consolidate the Awacachi corridor to link the reserves Awá and Cotacachi-Cayapas (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Designate the Awá reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Sustainably manage the buffer zone to the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote reforestation with native tree species and mixed agro-forestry systems<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009440		distribution	eng	<em>Dacnis berlepschi</em> occurs in the Pacific lowlands and lower foothills of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nariño) and, especially, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha). In this part of the Chocó region, habitat, and thus the species's distribution, is now extremely fragmented. Despite numerous field studies, there have been very few recent Colombian records, where it has always been considered uncommon to rare. <p></p>
106009440		habitat	eng	This species inhabits humid and wet lowland and foothill-forest, treefalls, forest and river-edges, tall second growth and, to a lesser extent, traditional mixed-culture plantations from sea-level to 600m, and rarely or seasonally up to 1,200 m (K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Population densities are highest in mature and selectively logged primary forest<strong><sup></sup></strong>. After intensive logging it might be able to persist, at low densities, for several years in remaining fragments of natural vegetation<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it tends to rapidly disappear from such landscapes if natural forest succession is hindered by agricultural activities (e.g., pastures, oil palm plantations). It forages in the canopy, but sometimes much lower in young second growth close to forest edges, and regularly joins mixed-species flocks (K. S. Berg <em>in litt</em>. 1999,<strong></strong> P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on fruits and insects. In Esmeraldas, stub-tailed juveniles were observed and tape-recorded in August<strong><sup></sup></strong> at the border of a light gap within continuous forest, where the species evidently had nested<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Immature males were mist-netted in March and May<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but family groups with juveniles and immatures are most regularly observed in the dry season (June to November)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009440		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number 35,400-141,600 individuals, based on density data from extensive surveys in Esmeraldas (O. Jahn <I>in litt.</I> 2007, P. Mena Valenzuela <I>in litt.</I> 2007), extrapolated over the species's known range. This estimate is best placed precautionarily in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals, as much of the species's remaining habitat has been converted into sub-optimal secondary forest.
106009440		threats	eng	Logging in the Chocó has intensified since the mid-1970s (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997)<strong></strong>. In the late 1990s, primary forests in Nariño and within 60 km of San Lorenzo, Esmeraldas, were selectively logged, and then converted to oil palm plantations at a rapid rate (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998, Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999,&#160; P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Between 1998 and 2007 the area planted with African palms rose from only 3 km<sup>2</sup> to 225 km<sup>2</sup> (+900% per year)<strong><sup></sup></strong> with a further 275-315 km<sup>2</sup> due to be converted in the near future (J. Mew verbally 2000). Other agricultural activities are also on the rise, with an increase in area from 98 km<sup>2</sup> to 280 km<sup>2</sup> (+20.5% per year)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the last decade, annual deforestation rates of lowland evergreen forest were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest more than 38% in the same period<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two-thirds of known localities, albeit some in protected areas, are within this region, which is further affected by various mining concessions (J. Mew verbally 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Colonisation and land development are progressing through infrastructural improvement, particularly the expansion of road networks, and in turn are increasing the impact of logging, cattle-ranching, etc. (Salaman 1994, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996, <strong></strong><strong></strong>P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities have been exploited by large businesses, as it has become cheap and easy to buy land (Bowen-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In Ecuador, the Mache-Chindul and Cayapas-Mataje ecological reserves are increasingly affected by illegal logging, hunting, and other activities<strong></strong>. Since 2004, some indigenous communities within the Awá Ethnic Reserve have converted their forest into oil palm plantations<strong><sup></sup></strong>. International investment in the region has been lacking in concern for the environment (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106009441		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009442		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009443		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009444		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009445		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009446		distribution	eng	This species has a rather patchy distribution in the Andes of southern Ecuador (Azuay) and Peru (from Amazonas south to Cuzco and Arequipa) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989).
106009446		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shrubbery, low woodland including Polylepis/ Gynoxys groves and forest borders, from just below the timberline to well above it. It has been recorded from 3,000 to 4,000 m altitude (Ridgely and Tudor 1989), and is apparently confined to areas where Gynoxys shrubs are present (Isler and Isler 1987). It is usually encountered singly or in pairs, and forages almost entirely by gleaning from the undersides of Gynoxys leaves, feeding on small insects and sugary secretions produced either by the insects or by the leaves (Isler and Isler 1987). It has also been observed feeding on nectar (Isler and Isler 1987). The nest is a tiny cup placed in a tree; fledglings have been found in May and July (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).
106009446		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996). Where it occurs it can be extremely abundant (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990), with a record from Ancash of 'dozens' of individuals in an area of Gynox less than one hectare in size (Isler and Isler 1987).
106009446		threats	eng	The widespread destruction of montane shrub and fragmentation of Polylepis woodlands through uncontrolled use of fire, firewood-collection, intense grazing (particularly with sheep and cattle), unsound agricultural techniques and afforestation with exotic tree species (especially Eucalyptus) presumably threatens this species (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106009447		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009448		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009449		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>As well as Munchique and Cotacachi-Cayapas, it occurs in Farallones de Cali and Tatama (M. A. Echeverry-Galvis<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012) national parks, and Tambito and La Planada Nature Reserves, Colombia, and Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Ecuador (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey poorly-known cloud-forests, notably in Farallones de Cali National Park (Wege and Long 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Study its ecological requirements, population density and conservation status (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong>Lowen <em>et al</em>. 2000, M. S. Gregory <em>in litt</em>. 2001). Fund, support and enforce better protection of national parks, especially Munchique (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, and, in tandem, compensation of local people. Establish a monitoring program for the population in Risaralda, involving community based groups interested in bird conservation (Echeverry-Galvis &amp; Cordoba-Cordoba 2007). Study basic life-history in Munchique and Tatama, including juvenile dispersal, diet, and breeding season (M. A. Echeverry-Galvis<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).  <p></p>
106009449		distribution	eng	<em>Oreothraupis arremonops</em> has a patchy distribution on the Pacific slope of the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Antioquia, Valle del Cauca, Cauca, Nariño, Risaralda [Echeverry-Galvis and Córdoba-Córdoba 2007]) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Pichincha and Imbabura). In Ecuador, there are modern records from the Tandayapa area, Pichincha, and Cotacachi-Cayapas National Park, Imbabura (M. S. Gregory <em>in litt</em>. 2001), Los Cedros Protected Forest and Mindo (Ridgely and Greenfield 2006, Freile and Santander 2005). The population in Munchique National Park, Cauca, is estimated to number 1,000 mature individuals, probably the global stronghold (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Its apparent rarity may in part result from the inaccessibility of its very wet, often steep-sloped environment (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106009449		habitat	eng	This poorly-known species inhabits thick undergrowth in primary humid forest (mostly dense, wet, mossy cloud-forest) between 1,200 and 2,800 m altitude. In Cauca, it is most frequently observed between 2,300 and 2,500 m. It has been observed in areas with abundant <span style="font-style: italic;">Clusia </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Persea </span>sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Weinmannia pubescens</span> (Renjifo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Echeverry-Galvis and Córdoba-Córdoba 2007), as well as areas with <span style="font-style: italic;">Palicourea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Asplundia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Besleria</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Allopectus </span>(J. P. López-O <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>M. A. Echeverry-Galvis<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). It forages mainly in dense understory in groups of no more than six individuals (M. A. Echeverry-Galvis<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Juveniles with adults have been seen in June in Cauca, August in Risaralda (Echeverry-Galvis and Cordoba-Cordoba 2007), and November and December in Pichincha (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lowen and Benitez undated)<strong></strong>, where a nest with one egg has been found (also in November) (Greeney <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. The nest-site was in fairly disturbed forest (Greeney <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
106009449		population	eng	The species is described as very rare and local. Its population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009449		threats	eng	Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, notably the Cali-Buenaventura and Pasto-Tumaco highways, and extensive logging concessions have been the primary causes of habitat loss (Salaman 1994,&#160;Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996). Deforestation rates are accelerating within its range, primarily because of logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, coca cultivation and gold mining (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996). Montane forests are less threatened than those in the lowland Chocó region, but habitat loss is occurring, particularly below 2,000&#160;m altitude (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Wege and Long 1995, Salaman and Stiles 1996). Munchique is affected by human settlement, and part of the cloud-forest was illegally burnt during exceptionally dry weather in 1997, to make the land grazeable, but this is apparently only rarely a threat (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106009450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009451		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009452		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys of sites throughout the known range to determine distribution, abundance, population trends and movements. Campaign for the protection of remaining cerrado habitats. <p></p>
106009452		distribution	eng	<em>Charitospiza eucosma</em> occurs in north-east and central <strong>Brazil</strong> (central Piauí, south Maranhão and south-east Pará south through Goiás, west Bahia and central Minas Gerais to south-east Mato Grosso and central São Paulo) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Sick 1993), north-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Serranía de Huanchaca in Santa Cruz) (Killeen and Schulenberg 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (single records from Misiones in 1961 and, bizarrely, one recently collected in Tucumán<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[B. Schmidt and C. Milensky <em>in litt</em>. 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). It can be uncommon to fairly common, but has a very local and erratic occurrence (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106009452		habitat	eng	This species inhabits 'cerrado'<em> </em>and 'caatinga' habitats in lowlands (below 1,200 m). It has been observed invading recently burned areas (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Bates <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and may engage in local migrations or semi-nomadism in response to fire succession (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Parker and Willis 1997<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>).   <p></p>
106009452		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009452		threats	eng	Conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) has had a severe impact on its cerrado habitats in Brazil (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Caatinga habitats are less threatened, but still suffer from agricultural expansion and grazing. At least in Brazil, it is trapped for the cage-bird trade.  <p></p>
106009453		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected by law in Paraguay&#160;where it is considered Endangered on a national level (H. Del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It occurs in Brasília and Serra da Canastra National Parks (Brazil) (Forrester 1993, Silveira 1998), Laguna Blanca private nature reserve (H. Del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve and Isla Yacyreta Private Reserve (Paraguay) (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998, A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007) and Beni Biological Station (Bolivia) (Parker 1989, Brace <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the extensive gaps in its Brazilian distribution and suitable habitat in Paraguay (especially in the extensive southern grasslands) and Argentina. Secure additional private properties inside the Cerrado de Laguna Blanca IBA, Paraguay (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Assess its precise habitat requirements to develop suitable land-management practices and help focus surveys. Protect some of the key populations in Bolivia. <br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
106009453		distribution	eng	<em>Coryphaspiza melanotis</em> occurs in extreme south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (Madre de Dios), across north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni and La Paz [Armonía 1995]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) to <strong>Brazil</strong> (Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Goiás, Distrito Federal [Forrester 1993], Minas Gerais and São Paulo) and south through east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Itapúa, San Pedro and Canindeyú to Isla Yacreta, with a historical record from Caaguazú [Hayes 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007]) to north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes, Misiones, Chaco and Santa Fe [Chebez 2008]). There is an isolated population on Marajó Island in the mouth of the Amazon. It has recently become very local and rare, with a global stronghold in west Beni and adjacent La Paz (Parker 1989, Brace <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, possibly contiguous with populations in north Beni and Peru (Parker and Bailey 1991, Mitchell <em>et al</em>. 1997). In Brazil, it is known from four areas, but potentially notable populations occur in some large national parks. It has recently been recorded from only one site in Argentina (D. Finch <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and three in Paraguay (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, <strong></strong>Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong>H. del Castillo and R. P. Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000, A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007), where the stronghold appears to be Laguna Blanca, San Pedro<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007).<em> <p></p></em>
106009453		habitat	eng	In Bolivia and Brazil, it inhabits tall, sometimes seasonally wet, grasslands, to 1,200 m (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Brace <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Beni, immatures have been seen in heavily grazed grassland with numerous trees and bushes (Parker 1989), and areas of tussocky grass 50-125 cm tall with scrubby mounds (Mitchell <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Paraguay, it has been seen in <span style="font-style: italic;">campo sujo</span> comprising pristine tussocky grasses, with small areas of bare ground, scattered bushes and yata'i <em>Butia</em> sp. palms (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998). There is evidence that it tolerates some grassland burning (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, L. P. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, at least if the grass grows back to its full height (R. C. Brace <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is probably September-December (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996<strong>, </strong>Clay <em>et al.</em> 1998). <p></p>
106009453		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009453		threats	eng	Suitable grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997). By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered (Conservation International 1999)<strong></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950 (Cavalcanti 1999)<strong></strong>. Burning is a major problem in the Beni and fires started by ranch managers often get out of control. Although the species appears to show some tolerance to burning its preference for long grass habitats means this is presumably a significant threat (C. Hesse <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In Paraguay, the Laguna Blanca private nature reserve has failed to protect the species, which is threatened with the continuous conversion of natural grasslands into pastures with exotic grass species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>plantations. (H. del Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106009454		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009456		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009458		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009459		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009460		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009461		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009462		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009463		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009464		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009465		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009466		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009467		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009468		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009469		distribution	eng	This species occurs in south Chile (south Magellanes) and south Argentina (south Santa Cruz) to Tierra del Fuego, and on the Falkland Islands (S. Imberti in litt. 1999).  Although the mainland population is localised and perhaps declining (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz et al. 1996), on the Falklands it is thriving with 7,000-14,000 breeding pairs estimated in 1983-1992 (Woods and Woods 1997).
106009469		habitat	eng	On the mainland, this species is found in southern temperate dry grasslands of Festuca gracillima and Stipa species, pastures, agricultural land, and around settlements up to 580 m elevation. In the upland (300-400 m) fields of Santa Cruz, it seems common during the breeding season (S. Imberti in litt. 1999). However, its distribution is poorly understood. This may be a function of its possible nomadism, which requires investigation (J. Mazar Barnett in litt. 1999), or simply because of poor observer coverage away from known, accessible sites. In the Falklands, it is found in grass-heath communities, dominated by Cortadeira pilosa (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz et al. 1996).
106009469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009469		threats	eng	The widespread practice of early spring grassland burning in the Falklands presumably destroys many nests, and introduced predators are probably reducing and limiting the population (Woods and Woods 1997). It is not adversely affected by intensive grazing on the Falklands but this is cited as a major reason for its probable decline on the mainland (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009470		distribution	eng	This species is found in central and south Chile (north to Atacama) and south Argentina (north to west Neuquén), south to Tierra del Fuego (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). It formerly occurred on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) but there have been only three specimens collected and an unsubstantiated field sighting since the species was first recorded as 'common' in 1841 (Woods and Woods 1997). The species is known from seven protected areas: Copahue-Caviahue Provincial Park (M. Babarskas and J. Veiga pers. comm.); Lanín and Nahuel Huapi (Neuquén), Los Alerces (Chubut), Perito Moreno (Santa Cruz) and Tierra del Fuego National Parks in Argentina, and Magallanes National Reserve in Chile (Tabilo et al. 1996).
106009470		habitat	eng	This species is found in southern temperate grasslands, pastures, agricultural land and puna grassland at elevations up to 3,300 m (Stotz et al. 1996), descending to sea level during the winter or at any season when the higher altitudes are briefly covered by snow (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Breeding occurs mostly on ridges at or just above the timberline (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Intense grazing is rapidly degrading its preferred grassland habitats (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009471		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009472		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009473		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009474		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009475		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009476		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009477		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Gough is a nature reserve and World Heritage Site and is uninhabited apart from staff who run a meteorological station (Cooper and Ryan 1994)<strong></strong>. Territory mapping to investigate pair density in different habitats was conducted in 2000-2001, in addition to an assessment of the role of mice as nest predators (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004, Cuthbert and Hilton 2004)<strong></strong>. Further investigation of diet overlap with mice, and predation by mice was undertaken during 2003-2006. Following a  2006 review of the impacts of introduced rodents on Tristan da Cunha and  Gough a  feasibility study was published in 2008. The study recommended what research still needed to be  undertaken before an eradication effort should be attempted, and since 2008 researchers on the island have been conducting this  work.&#160; Activities have included investigating whether mice living in  caves and lava tunnels would be exposed to poison bait dropped by  helicopter (the answer seems to be yes), and how best to protect  sufficient numbers of the two endemic land birds (including Gough Bunting) from the risks of both primary and secondary non-target  poisoning. A draft operational plan for eradicating mice from Gough was prepared in 2010, setting out in detail a work plan and a timeframe for the eradication, using experience gained from other eradication projects such as the ongoing work on Macquarie Island (Torr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out regular surveys to monitor the population. Eradicate mice from Gough Island (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>. Minimise the risk of other alien species becoming established on the island, particularly any rat <em>Rattus</em> species (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009477		distribution	eng	<em>Rowettia goughensis</em> is endemic to Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong> in the South Atlantic Ocean. Evidence suggests that it was much more common in the 1920s than at present (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Modern population estimates have varied and may not accurately reflect population trends; there were thought to be c.200 pairs in 1972-1974 (Richardson 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (substantially lower than previous estimates), 1,500 pairs in 1991 (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, 400-500 pairs in 2000-1 (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and similar numbers in 2007 (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitoring indicated that the density of territorial pairs roughly halved between 1990 and 2007 (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>,  <p></p>
106009477		habitat	eng	It is most common in tussock-grassland, wet heath and fjeldmark up to 800 m, and occurs at lower densities in fern-bush and peatbogs (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs from September to December, and chicks fledge in November and December. Clutch size is usually two eggs. The female constructs the nest, which is an open cup constructed on or close to the ground, sheltered by overhanging vegetation or a rock. Both sexes are involved in raising chicks (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>. It feeds primarily on invertebrates (80% of foraging time), but also eats fruit (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>, grass seeds, and scavenges broken eggs and birds (Richardson 1984)<strong></strong>. It nests on the ground amongst or under vegetation, but mostly on steep slopes or cliffs, and usually lays two eggs, rarely one (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Different plumage types suggest that it takes at least three years to acquire full adult plumage (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009477		population	eng	The population was estimated at c.1000 individuals in 2007, roughly equivalent to 670 mature individuals.
106009477		threats	eng	The introduced house mouse <em>Mus musculus</em> poses the greatest threat through competition and predation. Mice are known to have substantially altered invertebrate populations on other sub-Antarctic islands and <em>R. goughensis</em> is much less abundant on Gough than other bunting species on nearby mouse-free islands (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>. Recent research from Gough Island has shown that mice are a significant predator of breeding seabirds (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>, thus the probability is that bunting nests are depredated. Buntings are found at low density in the lowlands where mice are abundant on Gough Island, and predation rates of dummy eggs are up to thirty times higher in these areas (Cuthbert and Hilton 2004)<strong></strong>. The proportion of juveniles in the population has declined from 50% to 20% over the last 15 years, suggesting that recruitment is too low to sustain the population (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008)<strong></strong>. The accidental introduction of the black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> from Tristan is a potential threat - a dead rat was discovered in a packing case in 1967, another was found on the Gough supply ship in 1974, and there was an unconfirmed rat sighting on the island in 1983 (Wace 1986)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009480		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009482		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009484		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in the Mejía Lagoons National Sanctuary, Peru. Landowners have agreed to preserve habitat in Ocucaje, the Yauca valley and at Mejía lagoons, Peru (O. González <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys of known sites, as well as potentially suitable surrounding areas, in order to monitor population trends and determine rates of range contraction. Conduct detailed ecological studies to determine whether it is genuinely tolerant of secondary habitats, particularly in the absence of adjacent primary habitat patches. Campaign for stronger enforcement of laws banning the cutting of <em>Prosopis</em> trees in Peru. Engage key landowners in the development of site management plans and sustainable development programmes (O. González <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Plant and encourage regeneration of trees to protect rivers in the dry valleys of coastal south Peru (T. Valqui <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a legal framework for the establishment of private reserves in Peru and their incorporation in the national protected areas system (O. González <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009484		distribution	eng	<em>Xenospingus concolor</em> occurs in 15 scattered river valleys or habitat patches on the Pacific slope of <strong>Peru</strong> (Lima, Ica, Arequipa and Moquagua) and north <strong>Chile</strong> (Tarapacá and Antofagasta) (Howell and Webb 1995b, O. González <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The range has contracted in Peru, and remaining populations are fragmented (O. Gonzalez <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with no recent records less than 70 km south of Lima city (Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Key populations in Peru are at Ocucaje (Ica), the Yauca valley and near the Mejia lagoons in the Tambo valley (both Arequipa) (O. González <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Chile, it is common in the Lluta and Azapa valleys (S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with several subpopulations exceeding 1,000 individuals, and it has colonised a new area in Antofagasta (Howell and Webb 1995b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, having not been seen in the province since 1944. Recent information suggests that it is probably more common than previously estimated, in Chile at least (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, so it has recently been reclassified as Near Threatened. The range extension south to Antofagasta may have been related to the planting of ornamental shade trees (Howell and Webb 1995b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009484		habitat	eng	It occurs in areas supporting growth of trees of the genus <em>Prosopis</em>, dense riparian thickets, and also uses olive groves and areas with <em>Arundo donax </em>and <em>Tessaria </em>(e.g. at Cañete valley). However, these habitats may only be used if remnant native habitat is also present in the surroundings (O. Gonzalez <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is found mostly at low elevations, but has been recorded to 1,900 m in Peru and to nearly 2,700 m in Chile. The diet consists of insects, seeds or fruit. Two nests have been found, one under construction in <em>Tessaria integrifolia</em> and <em>Baccharis</em> in December, and one recently abandoned in <em>Baccharis</em>, <em>Acacia macracantha</em> and introduced <em>Tamarix </em>in June (González 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009484		threats	eng	Intensive irrigation and cultivation (e.g. for cereals and cotton) have reduced riparian thickets to narrow and fragmented strips. Rapid declines could result from further changes in land-use at sites where it is common. Cutting of <em>Prosopis</em> trees in Ica is prohibited (O. González <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but illegal cutting continues in many areas (O. Gonzalez <em>in litt.</em> 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009485		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009486		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009487		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is listed as an endangered species in Peru. Local NGO Asociacion Ecosistemas Andinos (ECOAN) and American Bird Conservancy (ABC) have undertaken a project to determine the distribution of the species on the Marañón drainage and to find a priority area for the conservation of the species (Angulo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.<strong>  </strong> <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine this species's habitat requirements through the year. Survey suitable habitat within intervening areas, including both slopes of the Marañón valley north and south of Hacienda Limon and San Jeronimo, to determine the full range. Survey the Zona Reservada Chancay Baños to determine if this population still exists and if it occurs inside this protected area.   Assess the current state of habitat near Huancabamba. Ensure the integrity of known sites. Consider establishing protected areas around known sites. Make repeated surveys in order to determine population trends and examine the influence of any future habitat changes. Proposals for key sites to be protected are found in Angulo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008).<p></p>
106009487		distribution	eng	<em>Incaspiza ortizi</em> is very local, but not uncommon, with records from four sites in north-west <strong>Peru</strong>: Palamba, north of Huancabamba, extreme north-east Piura; La Esperanza, north-east of Santa Cruz, on the Pacific slope of central Cajamarca, and Hacienda Limón, east of Celendín, in the Marañón drainage, south-central Cajamarca (Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong></strong>. It was also recently found to the east of the Marañón near the town of Longotea, close to the border of Amazonas and La Libertad (F.<strong> </strong>Lambert and F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Angulo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. This discovery suggests that the range may be larger than currently thought (Angulo <em>et al.</em> 2008,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>F. Lambert <em>in litt</em>. 2007, F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
106009487		habitat	eng	It occurs at 1,800-2,600 m in arid montane scrub (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Near Huancabamba, it occurs on a single rocky hilltop covered by dense herbaceous scrub (averaging 1.5 m high), small <em>Acacia</em>, various cacti, and numerous terrestrial bromeliads. Hacienda Limón is characterised by open <em>Acacia</em> woodland, grass and thorny scrub, but no cacti or bromeliads, and it has been observed in dense, thorny hedgerows. It appears to be tolerant of habitat degradation, including logging and grazing, and commonly occurs in burnt areas (F.<strong> </strong>Lambert and F. Angulo <em>in litt</em>. 2006, F. Lambert <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It feeds on seeds, plant matter and insects. Breeding appears to last from at least May-July (October), with young observed in July-September. <p></p>
106009487		population	eng	Given that the species has been found at just four small sites, the population is thought unlikely to exceed 10,000 individuals, and it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009487		threats	eng	Slopes adjacent to Huancabamba have been extensively cleared for cultivation and pasture, and there appears to be no other suitable habitat in the vicinity. Consequently, if this hilltop were to be burnt, the northernmost population would surely be lost. However, further south, it survives on heavily disturbed, steep slopes, which appear unlikely to be usable to any greater degree (R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009489		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Make repeated surveys of the range to monitor population trends and identify key threats. Campaign for the protection of remaining native arid scrub habitats in the Marañón drainage. <p></p>
106009489		distribution	eng	<em>Incaspiza watkinsi</em> has a very restricted range in the central río Marañón drainage (north Cajamarca and adjacent Amazonas), west <strong>Peru</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). It is relatively common within suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106009489		habitat	eng	This species occurs in undisturbed arid lowland scrub at 350-900 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) and, despite tolerating some habitat degradation, has a particular association with terrestrial bromeliads (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <strong></strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, R. Webster and R. A. Rowlett <em>in litt.</em> 1998, J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009489		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009489		threats	eng	The Marañón drainage has been cultivated for many years and its native habitats have progressively deteriorated (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The spread of oil palm plantations and cattle ranching are serious threats within its limited range, and oil extraction is a potential future problem (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009490		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009491		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009492		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>High-altitude forests have been surveyed and conservation measures taken (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although they have yet to deliver any benefits to the species (H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in Huascarán National Park, Ancash, but habitat degradation continues, even within this reserve (Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine its distribution and population size (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996 (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially on the east slope of the Cordillera Blanca (W.-P. Vellinga <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the extent and degree of isolation/connectivity of <em>Polylepis</em>-<em>Gynoxys</em> in north-central Peru, and determine the effect of fragmentation on this species (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Improve and clarify the management plan for Huascarán National Park (Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, H. Lloyd <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106009492		distribution	eng	<em>Poospiza alticola</em> is restricted to the high Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (south Cajamarca, east La Libertad and east Ancash), where it is largely rare to uncommon (Clements and Shany 2001). Most reports are from the Cordillera Blanca, Ancash, where it is common at Morococha (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999, W.-P. Vellinga <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and within Huascarán National Park (Clements and Shany 2001, G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2001). High-altitude woodlands are now highly fragmented and diminishing (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Even in apparently optimal habitat, this species usually occurs at low densities (1-4 individuals per day have been recorded at several sites), and the population is probably very small (Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989). <p></p>
106009492		habitat	eng	It occupies shrubby forest and mixed <em>Polylepis</em>-<em>Gynoxys</em> woodland at 3,100-4,600&#160;m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), rarely to 2,900&#160;m (Clements and Shany 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in some areas it is apparently a <em>Gynoxys</em> (Compositae) specialist, or even dependent on the plant (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species's abundance is apparently not related to forest extent (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999), nor to the abundance of Tit-like Dacnis <em>Xenodacnis parina</em>, an apparent competitor. It feeds on sugary secretions (although this is disputed [G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999]) and insects from the undersides of <em>Gynoxys</em> leaves (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and from <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus<strong></strong></em> (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Breeding probably occurs in December-February. <p></p>
106009492		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009492		threats	eng	Cutting for firewood and a lack of regeneration, caused by burning and intensive grazing, are reducing mixed <em>Polylepis</em>-<em>Gynoxys</em> woodlands (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <em>Gynoxys</em> itself has been variously described as unpalatable, favoured for grazing (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and particularly vulnerable to grazing of shoots, which prevents regeneration (G. Servat <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Other factors include the change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming, and erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification, road construction and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (particularly the use of exotic tree species) (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
106009493		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009494		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009495		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009499		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been surveys of high-altitude forests and conservation measures proposed (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has been recorded within Huascarán National Park on the Cordillera Blanca, Ancash, but habitat degradation is continuing in the area (Frimer and Møller Nielsen 1989, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). Zárate forest has been proposed as part of a "Communal Ecological Reserve with high protection rank" (T. Valqui <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remnant forest areas that could hold populations of this species have been identified in the Río Supe-Ambar valley, at Chilete-Cospán (a large forest), Sunchubamba, Llaguén, Llagueda, Yanac and Huanchay-San Damián (Barrio 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgent need to conduct surveys to determine the range and abundance of this species, as well as assess rates of decline (Barrio 1995, H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Study the species's ecology to identify beneficial conservation measures. Effectively protect Zárate forest. Improve habitat protection by updating the managment plan for Huascarán National Park. <p></p>
106009499		distribution	eng	<em>Poospiza rubecula</em> has been found at a few scattered localities in west <strong>Peru</strong> (south Cajamarca, La Libertad, Ancash, Lima and Ica<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>[Clements and Shany 2001]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). It is very rare, occurring at low densities even at known sites, and the population is apparently very small. It breeds in the Zárate forest, Lima, where six birds have been recorded, which is more than at any other locality (Barrio 1995). <p></p>
106009499		habitat	eng	It is found at elevations of 2,350-3,800 m in composite scrub (especially <em>Eupatorium</em> and <em>Gynoxys</em>), woodland and dry scrub-forest adjacent to <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and, at Zárate forest, in bushy undergrowth in the upper parts of mixed, dry woodland (<em>Oreopanax</em>, <em>Myrcianthes</em> and <em>Escallonia</em> dominated) (Barrio 1995, Clements and Shany 2001). It forages for young leaf buds, berries and seeds. Immatures have been collected in January, April and May, whilst adults have also been observed feeding juveniles in July (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may undertake seasonal altitudinal movements (Barrio 1995, Begazo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009499		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106009499		threats	eng	Humans have utilised upland areas in Peru for thousands of years, but agricultural intensification, the change from camelid to more destructive livestock (goats, sheep and cattle), and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em>) are relatively new and highly significant detrimental factors (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. High-altitude habitats are greatly modified by livestock-grazing, with unpalatable and grazing-resistant species favoured, while other species of shrub are lost (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. Whether changes in the species-composition have an effect on <em>P. rubecula</em> is not known. The number of goats is rising in the species's range, and heavy grazing has severely limited tree regeneration at Zárate forest, a problem compounded by cutting for timber (Barrio 1995). Rates of habitat loss and degradation within the range have increased in recent years (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106009500		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         Research into the distribution, population size and ecological         requirements of the species is on-going (Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007). It occurs         in Tunari National Park (Wege and Long 1995), but local pressure is being         applied to have this status reduced to departmental park, which would         render its (already minimal) level of protection still less effective (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999).         A project within the park is reducing pressure on <em>Polylepis</em>         forest by providing glasshouses and gas stoves to local people, and         excluding cattle from the forest (B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 1999, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999),         although this may have now ceased (. S. K. Herzog <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Several         reforestation programmes have been implemented in hills around         Cochabamba (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Education and awareness-raising         programmes have commenced (Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007) and two local communities - Palcapampa and Ch’aqui Potrero - have begun to protecting this species as a result (Huanca 2011). Surveys of         high-altitude habitats have been <span class="GramE">conducted,         and suggestions for their conservation published (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Continue surveys of suitable habitat within the region, as well as         studies to assess the species's ecological requirements in detail (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007). Use the latest survey data to         calculate an up-to-date population estimate. Research potential impact         of pesticides on survival and productivity within agricultural habitat (Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007, Huanca-Llanos undated). Ensure the effective protection of         birds and habitats within Tunari National Park, and the Cochabamba         basin as a whole (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Improve land-use management by         segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996).         Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management         and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Survey all areas of         potential habitat (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Anon. 2007, Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007, Balderrama 2009). Consider         implementing a programme to plant a variety of native shrubs (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009).
106009500		distribution	eng	<em>Compsospiza garleppi</em> is principally restricted to the montane slopes surrounding Cochabamba city, <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Recent visits to most known localities revealed no more than 1-2 pairs per locality, except within Tunari National Park, where regular sightings continue, including over 20 seen in 1994 (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. It has also been reported near Totora, outside Carrasco National Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(S. Arias<em> per </em>J. Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Surveys of previously unvisited areas of habitat have been largely fruitless (Huanca-Llanos undated)<strong></strong>, although a new population was discovered outside the Tunari watershed, at Llallahuani, in the extreme north of Potosí department, in December 2005 <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Balderrama 2009)<strong></strong>. Surveys in November 2008 produced records from other locations in the north of Potosí department, namely La Porta and Sikiri (Balderrama 2009)<strong></strong>. Present distributional knowledge suggests that the population may number between several hundred and a few thousand individuals. <p></p>
106009500		habitat	eng	It is considered a mixed forest specialist, preferring areas slightly below the main <em>Polylepis</em> zone, particularly in valleys with scattered <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus</em>, and a variety of dense, thorny bushes (Huanca-Llanos undated)<strong></strong>. It also frequents mixed agricultural and forested land<strong></strong>, and can persist in agricultural areas provided that rich shrubby hedgerows remain . (Fjeldså <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007, Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys in unbroken dry <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and dense humid <em>Alnus</em> woodland did not yield any records, suggesting that the species prefers more open habitats (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. In general, survey data indicate that the species can tolerate small-scale anthropogenic habitat loss and alteration<strong></strong> and may even benefit from moderate levels of habitat fragmentation, although it is absent from areas in which all native vegetation has been cleared (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. It occurs primarily at 2,950-3,800 m, occasionally to 2,700 and 3,900 m. The diet is apparently mainly seeds, but insect parts have also been recorded, and they have been observed feeding on potatoes (Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, which they sometimes feed to their nestlings <strong></strong>(Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. It breeds during the rainy season, with breeding activity noted from January to April <strong></strong>(Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. The species nests in a variety of shrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gynoxis </span>sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Berberis </span>sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Baccharis </span>sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Polylepis subtusalbida</span>)<em></em>, and occasionally in bunchgrass (<em>Cortaderia</em> sp.) and ground bromeliads (<em>Puya</em> sp.), with data from four nests and two pairs with fledged young suggesting that it lays only a small clutch, perhaps usually one or two eggs, and produces one or two young per nest. Data from two nests suggest that the species incubates for c.14 days, followed by a fledging period of c.18 days (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009500		population	eng	The last known population estimate for this species was given by Collar et al. (1992) and estimated between 400 and 4,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 270-2,700 mature individuals. In the absence of more up-to-date information regarding the population size, Collar et al.'s (1992) estimate is still used; however, further study is required.
106009500		threats	eng	Settlement         and agricultural conversion have already had a dramatic effect on its habitats,         and further expansion threatens remaining fragments. The species's         preferred habitat, comprising areas of mixed woodland below the <em>Polylepis</em>         zone, is also the most suitable for conversion to agriculture (Huanca-Llanos <em>in litt</em> 2007).         Clearance also occurs for firewood collection, replacement with <em>Eucalyptus</em>,         and burning for pasture. Habitat loss is even a threat within Tunari         National Park (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Although         the species persists in moderately altered landscapes, it is lost from         areas in which all native vegetation is removed (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009), thus         uncontrolled and intensive habitat clearance and degradation are         serious threats. The species's use of human-altered and agricultural         landscapes renders it susceptible to disturbance and poisoning through         exposure to pesticides (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is also suspected to         suffer perhaps a low, but as yet unquantified, level of mortality         through indiscriminate persecution by children (Huanca <em>et al</em>. 2009).
106009501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A reserve holding some ravines inhabited by this species has been created at El Infiernillo, Tucumán (Vides-Almonacid and Cocimano 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this is at the upper limit of its altitudinal range (J.&#160;Gerwin <em>in litt</em>. 1999). There are recent records from Campo de los Alisos National Park, Tucumán (Gil 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Cordillera de Sama Biological Reserve, Tarija (Dupret 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to locate additional populations and assess population size. Assess the state and distribution of suitable habitat and subsequently implement protection measures. Officially declare the proposed Aconquija National Park. Undertake public awareness campaigns focusing on sustainable land-use and protection of streamside vegetation. <p></p>
106009501		distribution	eng	<em>Poospiza baeri</em> has been found at about 40 localities in the Sierra del Manchao and Sierra de Ambato, Catamarca, on the east slope of Sierra del Aconquija and Sierra de Medina, Tucumán, and in adjacent Salta, Jujuy and La Rioja, north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Di Giacomo 2005). There is one record from <strong>Bolivia</strong> of two individuals at Estancia Waykhu, Tarija, in December 1999 (Dupret 1999). The population was estimated at 180-200 birds, with only a few hundred hectares of suitable habitat available in 1985. There have been no estimates since more recent range extensions to the north and south (Pearman 2001)<strong></strong>, but the known population is still small. <p></p>
106009501		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense scrub in semi-humid to semi-arid, steep-sided ravines, gullies and stream shores with mesophytic shrubs. It occurs at 2,000-3,400&#160;m, but the altitudinal range is often narrow on any particular mountain range (M. Pearman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A mid winter record of a pair at 1200 m in La Rioja comes from the extreme south of the species range (Bodrati 2005); it is not clear whether this is a freak record or evidence that the species descends at high latitudes  in winter (M. Pearman <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is occasionally observed in adjacent grassy and rocky habitats (Gil 1996<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> Peris 1997)<strong></strong>, and may frequent forest edge or shrubbery with patches of grass and trees such as <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus</em> (Peris 1997, Vides-Almonacid and Cocimano 1998)<strong></strong>. In the late austral autumn and winter it joins mixed-species flocks in riverside scrub and <em>Salix</em> groves and gardens (especially during heavy snowfalls) (Peris 1997, Vides-Almonacid and Cocimano 1998)<strong></strong>. Nests with 2-3 eggs have been found in January and February (Peris 1997). A bird has been seen carrying a grasshopper (Peris 1997), and it probably feeds on seeds.<br/><p></p>
106009501		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009501		threats	eng	Human settlement in the region has brought goats and cattle, which have destroyed habitat in some ravines. Potato and strawberry plantations are expanding to areas increasingly close to its known distribution. The use of pesticides during the breeding season has affected other species in the region, and may have an impact if the practice is extended (Peris 1997). Fires in adjacent grasslands could spread into ravines. <p></p>
106009502		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009504		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009506		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Emas, Brasília, Serra do Cipó and Chapada dos Veadeiros National Parks, Peti Reserve, Serra do Brigadeiro State Park and Mangabeiras Park (Machado <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong>M. Bornschein <em>per</em> J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1999, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas with historical records and any additional habitat fragments. Determine its tolerance of degraded habitats across its range. Study to determine the likely causes of its scarcity. Protect known sites in west Minas Gerais. Reverse the aspects of government land reforms that encourage habitat loss. <p></p>
106009506		distribution	eng	<em>Poospiza cinerea</em> is scarce and local in interior <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are recent records from Minas Gerais (Machado <em>et al.</em> 1998, Simon <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lopes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010), Chapada dos Veadeiros, Emas, Alta Paraiso and Minaçu in Goiás, and near Brasília in Distrito Federal. It may have been extirpated in Mato Grosso (no records since 1904), Mato Grosso do Sul (one record in 1937) and São Paulo (none since 1901). There is evidence that this has always been a rather scarce bird, but the extent of habitat loss indicates suggests that it has probably declined significantly; however recent reports that it is frequent at a number of degraded sites may indicate that it is more numerous than previously believed. <p></p>
106009506		habitat	eng	It was previously thought to inhabit <span style="font-style: italic;">campo cerrado</span> grasslands and possibly open deciduous woodland but recent reports suggest that it favours degraded areas, including burnt areas of <span style="font-style: italic;">campo rupestre</span>, orchards, old pastures and abandoned mines (M. F. Vasconcelos <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, mostly at 600-1,400 m. It may be semi-nomadic in response to fire succession and is extending its range towards degraded areas in eastern Minas Gerais (M. F. Vasconcelos <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only breeding record was in September (A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009506		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009506		threats	eng	The combined effects of grazing, invasive grasses, annual burning and conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) (Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong> had heavily or moderately altered two-thirds of the Cerrado region by 1993 (Conservation International 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950 (Cavalcanti 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mining activities are reportedly affecting habitat in the south Cadeia do Espinhaço (M. F. Vasconcelos <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, recent information indicates that this species not only persists in, but may in fact favour, modified habitats such as degraded and burnt cerrado, orchards, old pastures and abandoned mines (M. F. Vasconcelos <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. In the Atlantic Forest region of eastern Minas Gerais the species appears to be extending its range as the amount of degraded habitat increases (M. F. Vasconcelos <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. Brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> has been recorded in the Serra do Cipó and will presumably increase with conversion to pastures (Simon <em>et al.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106009507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009510		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009511		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009512		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009513		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009514		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009519		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009520		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009521		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate and monitor populations on Cerro Duida in order to determine population trends and identify potential threats. Ensure the protection of reminaing native campo grasslands at the site. <p></p>
106009521		distribution	eng	<em>Emberizoides duidae</em> occurs on Cerro Duida in Amazonas, south <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Chapman 1929). It is very poorly known, but is thought to be stable due to the remote and inaccessible nature of its preferred grassland habitats.  <p></p>
106009521		habitat	eng	This species inhabits savanna grasslands at 1,000-2,040 m (Chapman 1929), and little is known of its ecology except that it occurs above the altitudinal range of it congener <span style="font-style: italic;">E. herbicola</span>.  <p></p>
106009521		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106009521		threats	eng	It is very poorly known but, owing to the largely inaccessible nature of the isolated Pantepui region, its habitat remains relatively undisturbed<strong></strong> (Huber and Alarcón 1988). However, the effects of a single catastrophic event, such as a major conflagration, could be serious, since tepui vegetation tends not to regrow but is replaced by bracken <em>Pteridium</em><strong></strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). Known only from a handful of specimens collected in 1928 and 1929 (Chapman 1929, Hilty 2003), it is considered nationally Data Deficient in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
106009522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009524		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other montane ranges in surrounding parts of southern and eastern Brazil in order to determine the full extent of the range. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and the extent of tolerance of agricultural habitat. Protect areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106009524		distribution	eng	<em>Embernagra longicauda</em> on the Serra do Espinhaco of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (interior central Bahia and Minas Gerais) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). It was also recently discovered in some isolated ranges in the surrounding region, including Serra da Mombuca, Minas Gerais and Serra do Caparo, Espirito Santo (Vasconcelos <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It could be more widespread in surrounding ranges than previously thought (Vasconcelos <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106009524		habitat	eng	This species inhabits campo grasslands at 1,300-2,100 m, although little is known of its ecology. It occurs locally in arid montane scrub, dry savanna and agricultural land with scattered palms and ground bromeliads.  <p></p>
106009524		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009524		threats	eng	Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found in this region in the 19th century, and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. Increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching is presumably the principal current threat (WWF/IUCN 1997, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998), but deforestation may be permitting it to expand its range southward (Machado <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
106009525		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number more than 50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.
106009526		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and regularly occurs in (at least) Tijuca, Serra dos Órgãos and Itatiaia National Parks, Serra do Mar, Desengano and Ilha do Cardoso State Parks, Ubatuba Experimental Station, Brazil (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. It has also been recorded in Serra das Lontras National Park, Serra Bonita Reserve, and Carlos Botelho, Serra do Mar and Serra do Caraça State Parks, Minas Gerais, and Serra da Cantareira, Intervales, and Curucutu State Parks, São Paulo (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>in litt. </em>2012). Argentine records are from Iguazú National Park and Esmeralda Provincial Park (Chebez 1994, Areta et al 2009, Savigny 2010). However, because the species follows bamboo flowerings, no population is adequately protected within a park (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a long-term study of bamboo specialist birds in Atlantic forest. Assess the distribution of suitable bamboo stands. Protect stands of even secondary forest outside reserves to facilitate its nomadic movements. Effectively protect existing reserves, especially against trappers during bamboo flowerings. Completely ban the capture of wild birds. Develop a CMS agreement for nomadic bamboo species. <p></p>
106009526		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila frontalis</em> has become very patchily distributed in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with a few records in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> and east <strong>Paraguay</strong>. In Brazil, it is most abundant in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, with records in Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo (Simon 2004)<strong></strong> and Paraná (Mitroszewski <em>et al. </em>2004<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Carrano <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong> and several recent records in Bahia from near Una Biological Reserve (A. C. De Luca <em>in litt. </em>2007), Serra das Lontras (Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005)<strong></strong>, Boa Nova (E. R. Luiz in <em>litt. </em>2007) and Serra Bonita private reserve in Camacan (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>. It is rarer in Santa Catarina (records in 1991 and 1992 [F. Olmos and P. Martuscelli <em>in litt</em>. 1995, do Rosário 1996], and 200 birds in flowering bamboo in a private forest in São José dos Campos in 2009 [L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>in litt. </em>2012]) and Rio Grande do Sul (no records since the 19th century). There are four records for Misiones, Argentina, none of them documented: Iguazú in 1978  (A. Tarak <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>Olrog 1979), 2004 (Savigny 2010) and 2008 (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), and Obraje Esmeralda in 1993 (E. Krauczuk <span style="font-style: italic;">per </span>Chebez 1994)<strong></strong>. The only record for Paraguay is a specimen collected at the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century. In Brazil, "hundreds" to "thousands" were noted at single sites in 1883, 1952 and 1985, and it is still periodically fairly common to common at several sites. However, it is not regularly recorded at any one site, and these large counts may represent a high proportion of the population. The population has been greatly reduced since the late 19th century, and it is now more frequently seen in cages than the wild.<em> <p></p></em>
106009526		habitat	eng	It is a nomadic bamboo specialist, inhabiting forest interior, borders, second growth and cultivated land adjacent to forest. Breeding has been recorded in the austral spring (September-October) when males are territorial and very vocal in or near bamboo flowerings. <p></p>
106009526		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009526		threats	eng	The rapid and continuing clearance of Atlantic forest has extended the intervals between major bamboo flowerings and nestings, and its nomadic habits suggest that existing reserves may afford inadequate protection. Persecution for the pet trade is severe, with lots of 100-200 birds recorded on sale at certain times in Rio de Janeiro. <p></p>
106009527		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and has occurred in Una and Tinguá Biological Reserves; Desengano, Serra do Mar, Ilha do Cardoso, Jacupiranga, Curucutu, Intervales, Cantareira, Ilha Bela, Pico Marumbi and Graciosa State Parks; Itatiaia National Park; Juréia-Itatins and Guaraguaçu Ecological Stations, Ubatuba Experimental Station and Serra Bonita private reserve, Bahia (Wege and Long 1995, E. Machado <em>in litt. </em>2007, L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In Paraguay, it has occurred in Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve (Madroño and Esquivel 1995)<strong></strong> and Caaguazú National Park (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996)<strong></strong> and, in Argentina, Iguazú National Park.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a long-term study of bamboo specialist birds in Atlantic forest to determine the movements of birds. Investigate which bamboo species are favoured, and assess the distribution of suitable bamboo stands. Protect stands of even secondary forest outside reserves to facilitate its nomadic movements. Effectively protect existing reserves, especially against trappers during bamboo flowerings. Completely ban the capture of wild birds. Develop a CMS agreement for nomadic bamboo species. <p></p>
106009527		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila falcirostris</em> is rare in the Atlantic forest of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil, recent records are concentrated in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, with  others in Bahia (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005, A. C. De Luca and P. Develey <em>in litt.</em> 2007]), Espírito Santo (1940, 2003-2004 [Simon 2004]<strong></strong> and undated), Minas Gerais (specimen from 1936), and Paraná (2001-2004 [Carrano <em>et al. </em>2004]<strong></strong> and a specimen from 1930). In Argentina, recent records come from Misiones: río Iguazú, río Paraná (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, in review, Krauczuk and Castía 2009, Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press) and the Yaboty Biosphere Reserve (La Grotteria and Alvarado 2012)<strong></strong>. The Paraguayan records are from Salto do Guaíra (1977) and Mbaracayú (1995) in Canindeyú, and Caaguazú in Caazapá (1995) (Madroño and Esquivel 1995, Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996). It has been considered locally common, with recent records in Argentina of hundreds of individuals during mast seeding of <span style="font-style: italic;">Guadua chacoensis</span> bamboo (A. Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012; Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in review). It is much rarer than the sympatric Buffy-fronted Seedeater <em>S. frontalis</em> (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <em></em><em>    <p></p></em>
106009527		habitat	eng	This nomadic bamboo specialist occurs mainly in the middle and higher strata of secondary or disturbed forest, forest borders and urban areas (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, in review, A. Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It has been observed in <em>Chusquea</em> and <em>Guadua</em> bamboo, and records in Argentina coincide with <em>Guadua</em> masting events (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It feeds primarily on bamboo seeds, turning to the seeds of other species and insects when the former are not available (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Argentina nesting occurred at the peak of the recent <span style="font-style: italic;">Guadua chacoensis</span> bamboo masting event, in <span style="font-style: italic;">G. chacoensis</span> stands with seeds (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in review, A. Bodrati<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). By the end of the masting event, there were many females feeding juveniles, and groups of juveniles feeding on the remaining bamboo seeds (Areta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in review, A. Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
106009527		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009527		threats	eng	The continuing clearance of Atlantic forest has extended the physical and temporal distances between bamboo flowerings and nestings, and its nomadic habits suggest that existing reserves may afford inadequate protection. It is relatively scarce in trade, but this is almost certainly a reflection of its rarity rather than a lack of demand. <p></p>
106009528		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009529		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009530		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009533		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009534		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009535		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009536		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009538		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009539		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A seven day survey in the Araguaia river floodplain in December 2008-2009 and a further survey in 2010 failed to find the species (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010)<sup></sup>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search <em>Sporophila</em> spp. flocks in Goiás and adjacent Mato Grosso, including the Pantanal do Rio das Mortes, Mato Grosso, areas along Ilha do Bananal, Tocantins, and perhaps northern Paraguay and eastern Bolivia. Carry out further wide-ranging surveys of the Araguaia Valley at different seasons to fully discount the possibility that <em>S. melanops</em> is either still extant or a valid taxon. Re-examine the type-specimen to fully establish the diagnostic characters and determine its moult stage, and examine specimens of <em>nigricollis</em> to determine whether any show some or all of the characters associated with <em>melanops</em><strong> </strong>(G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010). <p></p>
106009539		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila melanops</em> is known only from one adult male collected in October 1823. The specimen was taken at a lake 15 km north of Registro do Araguaia, on the east bank of the rio Araguaia in extreme west-central Goiás, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Searches along the floodplain of the Araguaia river, most recently in December 2008-January 2009 and July 2010 have not produced any sightings (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt. </em>2009, 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009539		habitat	eng	The type-specimen was obtained from a flock of other finches in presumably open habitat. It was in heavy moult.<p></p>
106009539		population	eng	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals), with no records since the collection of the type specimen in 1823.
106009539		threats	eng	None are known. Habitat destruction in the region is unlikely to have been sufficiently extensive to extirpate the species. However, the year-round distribution of the species is unknown and therefore deductions regarding threats are somewhat meaningless. <p></p>
106009540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009541		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009542		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009543		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009544		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009545		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Noel Kempff Mercado (three sites, Bolivia), Otuquis National Park (Bolivia) and Pantanal Matogrossense (Brazil) National Parks. In 1997, Noel Kempff Mercado was expanded westward and now protects more suitable habitat where the species may occur. Domestic animals have been removed from Flor de Oro (S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to elucidate the breeding and non-breeding ranges, and the pattern and nature of movements (S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999, Killeen and Schulenberg 1998, L.F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey the Paraguayan Pantanal (río Negro) and Otuquis National Park, Bolivia (H. del Castillo and R. Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remove domestic animals from Noel Kempff Mercado and Pantanal National Parks (Killeen and Schulenberg 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Manage areas beyond the boundaries of Noel Kempff Mercado (Killeen and Schulenberg 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Designate a protected area in the Campos do Encanto region (L.F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009545		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila nigrorufa</em> is currently known from eight sites in east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz) and three in adjacent west-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul) (Willis and Oniki 1990, S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999)<strong></strong>. Small numbers of <em>Sporophila</em> sp. at three additional sites in Mato Grosso probably refer to austral winter records of this species (Willis and Oniki 1990)<strong></strong>. The major breeding site is Flor de Oro in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Santa Cruz. Breeding and several flocks of up to 60-70 birds have been recorded in October-December and several hundred have been estimated in late May, but very few individuals have been found in July-October (S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999)<strong></strong>. A local density of two birds per km<sup>2</sup> was estimated at Los Fierros, Neol Kempff Mercado, based on numbers of adult males seen in August-September (Pearce-Higgins 1996)<strong></strong>. A population of around six pairs rearing 6-10 juveniles per year occurs near San Ignacio de Velasco, Santa Cruz, in the wet season (S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999)<strong></strong>. East of Vila Bela da Santaíssima Trinidade, Mato Grosso, 55 presumably breeding birds were counted in January 1988 (Willis and Oniki 1990)<strong></strong>, at least 100 non-breeding condition birds were present in July 1997 (L.F. Silveira <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, 100-200 in August 2007, and 100 in June 2008 (Kirwan and Areta 2009). There is an undocumented record of a bird seen in 2005 in Bolivia's Otuquis National Park from a boat on the río Negro (Bolivia/Paraguay border). If this record can be confirmed it may indicate that the species occurs across the river in the Río Negro National Park, Paraguay, although further surveys along the río Negro have failed to find the species (<strong></strong>H. del Castillo and R. Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2007; H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009545		habitat	eng	It breeds during the austral summer/wet season in seasonally flooded grassland with scattered bushes and trees, which are frequently clumped on decomposing termite mounds. The diet consists primarily of grass seeds. It may be nomadic and/or migratory since it seems to occur in some areas only in the dry season (Willis and Oniki 1990, S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and birds recorded near Concepción, Santa Cruz, were thought to be on passage (Davis 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>
106009545		population	eng	The population estimate of 1,000-2,499 individuals is derived from Willis &amp; Oniki (1990), Pearce-Higgins (1996), S. Davis in litt. (1995, 1999), and L. F. Silveira in litt. (1999). This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009545		threats	eng	The effects of extensive and continuing conversion of grassland habitats to agriculture are intensified by its possibly nomadic and/or migratory behaviour. Satellite images reveal that large areas in west Mato Grosso have been converted to agriculture (Killeen and Schulenberg 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding sites are presumably affected by cattle-grazing and trampling (S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. 1995, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009546		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009547		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009549		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct studies to identify habitat requirements and tolerance of agricultural habitats. Survey known historical locations to determine rates of population decline and range contraction. Monitor the magnitude of trade in this species through bird markets. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable grassland habitat at key sites.  <p></p>
106009549		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Sporophila</em><em> <span class="SpellE">ruficollis</em> occurs in <strong>Bolivia</strong> (<span class="SpellE">Beni,         Santa Cruz, La Paz and Tarija), south <strong>Brazil</strong> (records from south         <span class="SpellE">Mato <span class="SpellE">Grosso, south <span class="SpellE">Goiás, west Minas <span class="SpellE">Gerais,         west São Paulo and Rio Grande do <span class="SpellE">Sul), <strong>Paraguay         </strong>(south-east and even in Chaco), north <strong>Uruguay</strong> (Artigas and         Paysandú) and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (south to Tucumán, north Córdoba,         Santa Fe and rarely to north Buenos Aires) (<span class="SpellE">Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <span class="SpellE">Armonía 1995, R. P. Clay <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</span></em> 2000).         There has been a clear decline in north-east Argentina, where it is         also found in scrubbier habitats, not necessarily near water (<span class="SpellE">Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <span class="SpellE">Pearman and <span class="SpellE">Abadie 1995, A. S. Di <span class="SpellE">Giácomo <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </em>1999). It is fairly common to common in         north Bolivia (Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1997, Killeen and <span class="SpellE">Schulenberg 1998, R. C. Brace <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 1999), and has been found relatively         commonly on migration in <span class="SpellE">Concepcíon,         north-east Paraguay (R. P. Clay <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</em> 2000).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
106009549		habitat	eng	This species is locally common up to 1,200 m in grasslands and dry savannah.  <p></p>
106009549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009549		threats	eng	There         has been extensive conversion of grasslands for agriculture and <em>Eucalyptus</em>         and <span class="SpellE"><em>Pinus</em> spp. plantations, especially         in the south of its range. The <span class="GramE">use of pesticides and         annual burning on adjacent agricultural land have detrimental         effects on breeding sites (A. S. Di <span class="SpellE">Giácomo <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </em>1999). Habitat loss compounds         the threat from trade by concentrating birds in a few sites easily         accessible to trappers (<span class="SpellE">Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, A. S. Di <span class="SpellE">Giácomo <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </span></em>1999). </span></span>
106009550		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A CMS Memorandum of Understanding targeting this and other southern South American grassland species has recently been approved by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is legally protected in Brazil and Uruguay, and trapping is prohibited in Argentina and Uruguay, although this is not effectively enforced (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds at Mata Grande Biological Reserve, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Vizentin-Bugoni <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), Potrerillo de Santa Teresa Reserve, Uruguay (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Iberá Provincial Reserve, Argentina (Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Emas National Park, Brazil, is possibly an important wintering site, and it has also been recorded in Espinilho Ecological Park, Ibirapuitã and São Donato Biological Reserves and Itirapina Ecological Station (<strong></strong>E. Machado <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is protected by law in Paraguay and occurs in San Rafael National Park, within which two areas are protected by Guyra Paraguay, and Reserva Isla Yacyreta, where an ongoing monitoring scheme is studying threatened grassland birds (A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Migrating birds occur in several Paraguayan and Argentine reserves. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey south Paraguay for breeding populations. Develop an action plan for this and similar seedeaters. Protect key sites, especially Arroyo Capilla-Arroyo Sauzal-Puerto Boca, Argentina; and Bañado de los Indios and Bañado de India Muerta, in the Bañados del Este region of southeast Uruguay (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Remove incentives for afforesting grasslands. Enforce the prohibition of trapping and trade. List on CMS Appendix I. Elucidate its taxonomic status. <p></p>
106009550		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila palustris</em> breeds in <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes, Entre Ríos and possibly Buenos Aires), <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (50-100 birds in the río Uruguay basin and 400-600 in the south-east wetlands [A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and possibly south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong>. It winters in Brazil (Bahia [Souza 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, São Paulo, Paraná and probably in Tocantins and Santa Catarina) and perhaps north-east Paraguay, but there are very few records. Migrants are regularly recorded in east Paraguay (Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and north Argentina. It can occur at high densities, but is extremely local and has declined substantially (at least) in Argentina and (to a lesser extent) Uruguay (Pearman and Abadie 1995, A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent records in Paraguay all refer to single birds, although a record from southern Paraguay in 2005 indicated possible breeding and the species was present in San Rafael National Park through most of 2006 (A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009550		habitat	eng	It breeds during the austral summer in inundated grasslands and marshes, showing s strong preference for the latter (Di Giacomo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), where patches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum</span> spp. and areas of <span style="font-style: italic;">Andropogon lateralis</span> containing ripe seeds are favoured (Di Giacomo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). At other times, it inhabits various dry and wet grasslands.<p></p>
106009550		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009550		threats	eng	Heavy trapping pressure has extirpated the species from parts of Argentina and threatens populations in the río Uruguay basin (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Potential breeding sites are intensively grazed, and some have been completely trampled by cattle. Rapid afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp. (Pearman and Abadie 1995, World Bank 1995, Clay <em>et al</em>. in prep.) <strong><sup></sup></strong>(Di Giacomo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) is even affecting wet valley bottoms, regardless of poor tree growth (R. Davies verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pesticides and other chemicals are carried by drainage and run-off into marshes (Clay <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In south-east Uruguay, there has been extensive drainage for agriculture and this is continuing at a local scale (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mechanised agriculture, invasive grasses and annual burning additionally threaten winter and migration habitats (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In southern Paraguay,and perhaps parts of Uruguay and Argentina seasonally inundated grasslands and marshes where the species might have breeding populations are being converted to rice fields (A. J. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009551		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009552		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites to determine trends, as well as numbers appearing in the wild bird trade. Campaign for the protection of key native grasslands across the range. <p></p>
106009552		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila hypochroma</em> has an apparently disjunct range in north and east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, La Paz and Santa Cruz), south-west <strong>Brazil</strong> (Mato Grosso do Sul and Goiás), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Buenos Aires, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos and Formosa), <strong>Paraguay</strong> (throughout the east and south-east, and Presidente Hayes in Chaco) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Pearman and Abadie 1995<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Armonía 1995,&#160;Chebez <em>et al.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>) and <strong>Uruguay</strong> (in Paysandu and Artigas) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Breeding has been proven in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay (Pearman and Abadie 1995, Hayes 1995, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, R.&#160;P.&#160;Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Southern breeding populations migrate north to winter in Brazil (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, R.&#160;P.&#160;Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000) and possibly in Concepcíon, Paraguay (R.&#160;P.&#160;Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Populations in Bolivia are apparently sedentary, but there are no data from late autumn and early winter (Di Giácomo and Contreras 1998).<strong><sup></sup></strong><em> <p></p></em>
106009552		habitat	eng	It has been reported near marshes, seasonally flooded grasslands, pastures and savanna-like areas to 1,100 m, but breeding appears restricted to low, seasonally wet grasslands (Pearman and Abadie 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009552		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009552		threats	eng	Widespread destruction and modification of grasslands in central South America for mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-grazing and afforestation with non-native tree genera, and pressure from trappers suggest that the species is declining rapidly. However, it has been claimed that Argentine populations are expanding in range and number (Pearman and Abadie 1995)<strong></strong>, but this may be an artifact of improved observer awareness and knowledge.   <p></p>
106009553		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. A CMS Memorandum of Understanding targeting this and other southern South American grassland species has recently been approved by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Argentina, trapping is prohibited, and it breeds in El Palmar National Park (Pearman and Abadie 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds have only been recorded numerously at Emas National Park, Goiás (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Trapping is prohibited in Uruguay but illegal trade continues, especially along the Uruguay River basin (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is protected by law in Paraguay and occurs in San Rafael National Park, within which two areas are protected by Guyra Paraguay (A. B. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Emas and Ilha Grande National Parks, São Donato Biological Reserve, Itirapina Ecological Station (E. Machado <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Locate the most important breeding and wintering sites. Survey grasslands in Misiones, Ñeembucú and Itapúa, Paraguay, for breeding populations. Develop an action plan for this and similar seedeaters. Remove incentives for afforesting grasslands. Manage habitat in the Arroyo Sauzal area (Pearman and Abadie 1995). Establish a reserve network in the southern Paraguayan grasslands. Enforce the prohibition of trapping and trade (Pearman and Abadie 1995). <p></p>
106009553		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila cinnamomea</em> breeds in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (not uncommon in Corrientes but more local in Entre Ríos [Pearman and Abadie 1995, Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998]<strong></strong>), west and extreme south-east <strong>Uruguay</strong> (mostly Paysandú, Río Negro and Rocha, but also Artigas, Soriano and Treinta y Tres [A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 1999, 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), extreme south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Itapúa and Ñeembucú [R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Codesido and Fraga 2009]) and southernmost <strong>Brazil</strong> (west and south-central Rio Grande do Sul [Belton 1984-1985, <strong></strong>G. A. Bencke <em>in litt</em>. 2000]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). Migrants have been recorded in Argentina (Misiones, Formosa and Buenos Aires) (Chebez <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong> and throughout east Paraguay (including Presidente Hayes) (Hayes 1995, <strong></strong>Lowen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998,&#160;R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with presumed wintering birds in Brazil (Pará, Goiás, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Mato Grosso do Sul and Paraná) (Willis and Oniki 1988, Ridgely and Tudor 1989<strong><sup></sup></strong>) and perhaps north-east Paraguay. In 1969, there were c.100 males at Arroyo Barú and Arroyo Perucho Verna, Argentina, but only one singing male at Arroyo Barú in 1992 (Pearman and Abadie 1995). Surveys in 1991-1993 found no more than eight males at any site in Argentina (Pearman and Abadie 1995). In 1998, there were 23 males at Ñu Guazu, Paraguay (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> but only two were found here in November 2006 and the majority of records since 2004 relate to single birds (A. B. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009553		habitat	eng	It is a grassland species, favouring areas with tall, dense grasses (particularly <em>Paspalum</em>) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Pearman and Abadie 1995). At least in Uruguay, it inhabits drier sites than <em>S. palustris </em>and <em>S. zelichi</em>, which prefer periodically inundated areas (A. B. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 1997, 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009553		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009553		threats	eng	Heavy trapping pressure is compounded by extensive habitat conversion. Rapid afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp. (Clay <em>et al</em>. in prep.) (Pearman and Abadie 1995, World Bank 1995) is even affecting wet valley bottoms, regardless of subsequent poor tree growth (R. Davies verbally 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pesticides and other chemicals are carried by drainage and run-off directly into marshes (Clay <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<strong></strong>. Mechanised agriculture, invasive grasses and annual burning additionally threaten winter and migration habitats (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Parker and Willis 1997). In southern Paraguay seasonally inundated grasslands and marshes are being converted to rice fields and this already taken place in much of the Ñu Guazu area since the 1998 records (A. B. Lesterhuis <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009555		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine the full extent of the range, particularly during the non-breeding season. Determine its ecological requirements and the extent of tolerance of agricultural habitats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable grassland habitat at key sites. <p></p>
106009555		distribution	eng	<em>Sporophila melanogaster</em> occurs in west Minas Gerais and south Goiás, south to Rio Grande do Sul, in south-east <strong>Brazil. </strong>It is locally common in suitable habitats. <em> <p></p></em>
106009555		habitat	eng	This species is found in grassland habitats at 700-1,100 m and lower altitudes in the non-breeding season (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is locally common in tall southern temperate grasslands, freshwater marshes and scrub, and is seasonally numerous (at least November-March) as a breeder in the highlands of Santa Catarina and north-east Rio Grande do Sul (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). Although apparently an austral migrant to the north of its range, its non-breeding range is poorly known (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996).   <p></p>
106009555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009555		threats	eng	It is presumably threatened as a result of rapid destruction of its habitat by extensive cattle-ranching, agriculture, invasive grasses, wetland drainage and excessive pesticide use (da Silva 1995, Parker and Willis 1997).  <p></p>
106009558		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009559		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north and east Colombia (in humid Caribbean lowlands west to Córdoba and locally east of the Andes), where it may be expanding its range following deforestation (Stiles et al. 1999), Venezuela (not recorded from the north-west or from most of the llanos region), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Amazonian Brazil (south only to the Amazon), and north-east Peru (Loreto to Huánuco); it may persist in small numbers on Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago (ffrench 1992, Ridgely and Tudor 1989).
106009559		habitat	eng	The species inhabits freshwater marshes, riparian thickets and second-growth scrub, mostly below 500 m but it has been recorded to 700 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106009559		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996).
106009559		threats	eng	The principal threat is the depletion of local populations by bird trappers (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, R. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 2010, C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), although this is not considered a threat in Colombia (F. G. Stiles in litt. 1999).
106009560		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (Restall 2006).
106009561		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been recorded in Emas National Park, Brazil (A. Monteiro per F. Olmos <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2004, A. de Luca <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct studies to determine the taxonomic status of the distinct subspecies. Repeat surveys of known sites to determine rates of population decline. Monitor the abundance of this species in the wild bird trade. Regulate the capture of the species as a cagebird.  <p></p>
106009561		distribution	eng	<em>Oryzoborus maximiliani</em> has a very disjunct range on the Pacific slope and in south-east <strong>Colombia</strong>, in south-west and east <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and is very local in east <strong>Peru</strong>, north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (one locality), east <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana, </span>lower Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong> and east and south Brazil. It is very local and rare throughout its range (Restall <em>et al</em>. 2006), but can be common in suitable habitats, and has been noted to be fairly common in savannas near Trinidad in Beni department, Bolivia (F. Rheindt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).  <br/><p></p>
106009561		habitat	eng	This species is very local and patchily distributed. It occurs in riparian thickets, freshwater marshes and second-growth scrub to 1,100 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996). At least in Colombia, it can be locally very common, where it also frequents rice plantations (Hilty and Brown 1986)<strong></strong>. It has been noted to be fairly common in savanna habitat in Bolivia, including degraded areas by roads, as well as abandoned urban property (F. Rheindt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009561		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009561		threats	eng	The principal threat is the depletion of local populations by cage-bird trappers (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, <strong></strong><strong></strong>Olmos 1993, Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996), and this activity has caused it to vanish from most of its former Brazilian range. In fact, several long-term  Brazilian ornithologists have failed to find this species in the wild during the last 10 years and its remaining wild population must be very small.  The significant captive population in Brazil may be used for future reintroductions but the chances of that happening in the short-term are slim because the birds are very valuable, attaining high market prices. Habitat loss and degradation, as a result of conversion to agriculture and plantations, is also likely to contribute to declines.  <p></p>
106009562		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009565		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at known sites to determine population trends and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to determine precise habitat requirements and levels of tolerance of habitat degradation and fragmentation. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
106009565		distribution	eng	<em>Amaurospiza moesta</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Espírito Santo, south-east Minas Gerais, east São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, north Rio Grande do Sul, and Tocantins, with one historical record from south Maranhão), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindeyú, Caazapá, Itapúa and Alto Paraná) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) (Storer 1989, <strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1989<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1993, Sick 1993, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pacheco <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Brazil, it is relatively common in the Serra do Mar and Paraná (F. C. Straube <em>in litt.</em> 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but very local elsewhere (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). In Argentina, it is locally common, especially in the highlands (Benstead <em>et al.</em> 1993, J.&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>in litt.</em> 1999), but it is rare in Paraguay, even at the few sites where it has been recorded (Storer 1989, Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1993, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996,&#160;Madroño and Esquivel 1997).  <em> <p></p></em>
106009565		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and montane Atlantic forest up to 1,600 m. It is particularly found where there is extensive <em>Chusquea</em> or <em>Guadua</em> spp. bamboo stands (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996,&#160;Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996) but is possibly less dependent on bamboo flowerings than Temminck's Seedeater <em>Sporophila falcirostris</em> (F. C. Straube <em>in litt.</em> 1991, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009565		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009565		threats	eng	There are still extensive tracts of montane forest, particularly in São Paulo, but lowland Atlantic forest has been severely degraded and is now threatened by urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009566		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009567		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009568		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009569		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009570		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009572		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009573		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009574		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009575		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009577		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009578		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Loxigilla portoricensis</span> is confined to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Puerto Rico (to U.S.A.)</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">grandis</span> formerly occurred on St Kitts, St Kitts and Nevis, but it has not been recorded since 1880 and is now considered extinct (Bond 1956).
106009578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009579		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009581		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009583		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009584		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Guácharo National Parks. The latter was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong> </strong>(Gabaldón 1992). A programme of research into basic ecology and conservation needs is  being carried out at the Central University of Venezuela (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). It is likewise considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey El Guácharo National Park, Cumbres de San Bonifacio, Serranía de Turumiquire and Cerro Humo to assess its precise distribution and estimate populations<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe 2008). Assess its habitat requirements and tolerance to degradation and disturbance<strong> </strong>(Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe 2008). Increase the area of suitable habitats that have protected status, particularly in the Turimiquire Massif (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).  <p></p>
106009584		distribution	eng	<em>Diglossa venezuelensis</em> is restricted to two mountainous areas in  north-east <strong>Venezuela: </strong>the Turimiquire Massif  (both the Serranía de Turimiquire west of the San  Antonio valley, and the Cordillera de Caripe  to the east) on the borders of Anzoátegui, Monagas and Sucre, and the westernmost Paria Peninsula, Sucre<strong></strong>. Collections from the 1920s and 1930s suggest that it was once not uncommon, but there have been relatively few records since. Systematic surveys on Cerro Humo in 1990-1991   (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1992) and 1994 (Evans et al. 1994) failed to find the species, although it has been seen on Cerro Humo sporadically since then (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011); it has never been recorded elsewhere on the peninsula. Searches in the Cordillera de Caripe during the same period also proved fruitless (Colvee 1999). Since the 1990s it has only been recorded on five mountains: cerros El Guamal and Quiriquire ("Piedra 'e Mole'") in the in the  Serranía de Turimiquire (Azpúrua 2007), Cerro Negro and Cumbres de San Bonifacio in the Cordillera de Caripe (Boesman and Curson 1995, Azpúrua 2007) and cerro de Humo<strong></strong> on the Paria Peninsula  (C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).<br/><p></p>
106009584		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane, evergreen forest edge, secondary forest and second growth scrub<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995), at elevations of 1,525-2,450 m on the Cordillera de Caripe, and c.885 m on the Paria Peninsula. It may have specialised habitat requirements, associating with the ecotone between <em>Clusia</em>-dominated forest and herbaceous vegetation, which would explain its apparently restricted distribution on Cerro Negro. It may undertake some seasonal movements<strong></strong> <strong></strong>(J. Pérez-Emán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p>
106009584		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009584		threats	eng	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe, resulting in extensive degradation of forest. Even in El Guácharo National Park there is clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995). The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995). There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana and citrus plantations in the Turimiquire Massif, but extensive forest areas remain (Colvee 1999, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture since the mid- to late 1980s has resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. A proposed gas pipeline on the Paria Peninsula could have disastrous consequences for the species's habitat (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2003). A new paved road from Güiria to Macuro will almost certainly lead to increased habitat clearance (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2003).  <p></p>
106009585		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009586		conservation	eng	<strong></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><p> The species has been recorded in Paramillo and Munchique National Parks, Reserva Mesenia-Paramillo and Tatama National Park (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). &#160;</p>  <p><strong><span lang="EN-AU">Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><span lang="EN-AU"><br/> Determine the population size and trends at the sites with recent records. Survey the high peaks of the West Andes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>to determine the true extent of the range and overall population size of this species. Support, finance and enforce better conservation measures for the two national parks. Manage protected páramos by increasing the amount of time between fires (Koenen and Koenen 2000). Extend Las Orquídeas National Park into the páramo zone (Flórez<em> et al.</em> 2004).<br/></p><p></p>
106009586		distribution	eng	<em>Diglossa gloriosissima</em> is local and apparently scarce in the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Ridgely and Tudor 1989)<strong></strong>. Until recently it was known from three well-spaced localities in the West Andes of Colombia: Páramo Frontino and Cerro Paramillo, both in Antioquia, and Cerro Munchique, in Cauca (Moynihan 1979, <strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. The species went unreported for 40 years after a record from the páramo at Frontino in 1965 (Moynihan 1979), but there have been more recent reports from three localities. The first, from near Jardin, Antioquia, in October 2003 (Pulgarín <em>et al. </em>2005, Pulgarín and Munera 2006), was closely followed by records at the type locality (Flórez<em> et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, and 70 km further south at Farallones del Citará (Pulgarín <em>et al. </em>2005, <strong></strong>P. C. Pulgarín <em>in litt</em>. 2006), both in August 2004. At the latter site, three were netted and three others were seen in the field during three days of fieldwork (Pulgarín and Munera 2006). At the type locality, ten were observed and three collected during six days of fieldwork, and the species was described as locally common (Flórez<em> et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. It has since also been recorded at Tatama National Park, near Cerro Montezuma and Reserva Mesenia-Paramillo near Mesenia (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). The small number of sightings probably reflects the dearth of fieldwork at these sites and on high mountains between them (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996), with the exception of the relatively well-known Cerro Munchique, and likely reflects the lack of exploration and difficulties related to gaining access to the highlands of the western cordillera.<br/><p></p>
106009586		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>It occurs near the timberline at elevations of 3,000-3,800 m in semi-humid/humid montane scrub and elfin forest edge, apparently ranging only a few metres or tens of metres below the páramo edge (Moynihan 1979, Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It favours <em>Polylepis</em> spp. with other small trees such as <em>Escallonia</em> or <em>Baccharis</em>. (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Like most members of the genus, however, it does seem able to tolerate some habitat degradation and its population density is fairly high (Flórez<em> et al.</em> 2004). An apparent competitor is Black-throated Flowerpiercer <em>D. brunneiventris</em>, territories of the two species being mutually exclusive in the páramo at Frontino (Moynihan 1979).&#160;</p>    <p></p>
106009586		population	eng	The species is not uncommon in suitable habitat, within a very small range. A population estimate of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals seems appropriate, but this is provisional and requires confirmation. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106009586		threats	eng	Human settlement and extensive deforestation are threats near Cerro Paramillo. A communication facility, and associated military activity, near the top of Cerro Munchique and its timberline may have an impact (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Generally, the key threat to páramo/elfin forest habitats is livestock-grazing and fires set by tourists or to encourage the vegetation to shoot (Wege and Long 1995, Kessler and Herzog 1998,&#160; P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Koenen and Koenen 2000)<strong></strong>. A study in Ecuador found Black Flowerpiercer <em>D. humeralis</em> to be significantly more abundant in páramo that had been unburnt for eight years than in páramo burnt two months before counts (Koenen and Koenen 2000)<strong></strong>. It is not known whether <em>D. gloriosissima</em> uses the animal-pollinated flowers of herbs and shrubs in less-disturbed páramo (and largely replaced by grasses in frequently burnt páramos [Koenen and Koenen 2000]), but if so, it is likely to be significantly affected by frequent fires. Most areas where there species has recently been found are relatively inaccessible and are currently in protected (private or governmental) areas (P.<span lang="EN-AU"> Pulgarin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/>  <p></p>
106009587		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009588		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009589		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009590		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009591		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009592		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009593		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009595		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009597		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009598		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009600		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of forest reserves, such as La Sorcière and Edmond (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the species's current distribution and population, and use the results to design a conservation strategy. Curtail undergrowth clearing in plantations and other forested areas (Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009600		distribution	eng	<em>Melanospiza richardsoni</em> is endemic to <strong>St Lucia</strong> in the Lesser Antilles, where it is most numerous in the mountains (Bond 1979, Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Surveys in 1987 failed to find any large populations and noted that much apparently suitable habitat was unoccupied (Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although due to its broad habitat tolerance its range is probably not severely fragmented (H. Temple <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009600		habitat	eng	It exhibits considerable ecological flexibility, inhabiting rainforest, forest edge, secondary vegetation, plantations, shrubbery, semi-arid scrub and woodland, up to 800 m (Bond 1979, Trail and Baptista 1989, Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, it has a preference for dense undergrowth, which is naturally found in ravines within moist montane forest (Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds feed primarily on the ground on seeds, fruit and insects (Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded in April-June. <p></p>
106009600		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106009600		threats	eng	The clearing of undergrowth, particularly in timber plantations, renders areas completely unsuitable and is probably the major threat (Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced mongooses and rats may also predate eggs, nestlings and adults (Keith 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009602		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009603		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009604		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009606		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009607		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009608		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Galápagos islands, Ecuador, with breeding populations on Isabela, Santa Cruz, Santa Fé, Fernandina, Santiago, Floreana, Marchena, Pinta and Rábida (Castro and Phillips 1996, Stotz et al. 1996). It is extinct on Pinzón (Castro and Phillips 1996).
106009608		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland deciduous and montane evergreen forest, between 300 and 700 m altitude (Stotz et al. 1996). It feeds on the fruits of native plant species, and on insects for which it forages under leaves and excavates dead branches (Castro and Phillips 1996).
106009608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009609		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Galápagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. Although the park incorporates most of Floreana, it does not include the agricultural zone of the island, an area which was the prime habitat for Medium Tree-finch. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site (Jackson 1985)<strong></strong>. In December 2006, the Galápagos National Park began the eradication of goats and donkeys on Floreana which successful reduced their population to negligible numbers (J. O'Connor <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The Galápagos National Park places rat baiting stations around the Critically Endangered Galápagos Petrel breeding colony in the centre of Cerro Pajas, which may also reduce nest predation of Medium Tree-Finches in the immediate area (J. O'Connor <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Methods to control or eradicate <em>Philornis downsi </em>are currently being trialled by researchers and visiting scientists at the Charles Darwin Research Station (J. O'Connor <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Investigate methods to control or eradicate <em>Philornis downsi</em>. Continue to monitor the population size.  Extend the national park to incorporate the agricultural zone on Floreana. Continue and extend control measures against introduced species.  <p></p>
106009609		distribution	eng	<em>Camarhynchus pauper</em> is endemic to Floreana Island in the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, where has a small to moderate population in the highlands, and is uncommon to rare on the coast (Harris 1982,&#160; H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, J. O'Connor <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Recent estimates put the total population at not more than 1,660 individuals, and it has recently begun declining rapidly owing to the effects of the introduced dipterid parasite <em>Philornis downsi</em> (O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2010a, 2010b)<strong></strong>. Its largest population can be found around the base of the volcano Cerro Pajas, where its preferred nesting tree <em>Scalesia pedunculata</em> is dominant (O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2010a)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009609		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane evergreen and tropical deciduous forest, and <em>Scalesia</em>-zone humid scrub (Stotz <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> mainly at elevations of 300-400 m (O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2010a)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects, nectar, young buds and leaves, probing crevices in the bark of trees and searching under twigs and foliage (Castro and Phillips 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009609		population	eng	The maximum size of the population was estimated at 1,660 individuals in 2008. It is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals, equating to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009609		threats	eng	The most significant threat is from the introduced ectoparasite <em>Philornis downsi</em>, which occurs in finch nests on Floreana (Wiedenfeld <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and is responsible for 41% of nestling mortality (O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2010a, S. Kleindorfer <em>in litt. </em>2008). In 2004-2008 nesting success was extremely low in all years (4-8 % of all nests producing fledglings), 28% of nestlings were predated, and parasite intensity from <em>P. downsi</em> was second highest of any bird species studied so far on the Galápagos archipelago (O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2010a)<strong></strong>. It is thought to be at elevated risk from fly parasitism because its only extant habitat is adjacent to cleared agricultural land with fruiting trees which are favoured by the adult fly (S. Kleindorfer <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Floreana has a suite of introduced predators and herbivores including cattle, donkeys, pigs, cats, dogs and rats (Jackson 1985)<strong></strong>, and suffers from extensive habitat destruction and degradation as a result of agriculture (Cruz and Cruz 1996)<strong></strong>, habitat alteration by invasive plant species, and free-ranging domestic livestock (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. Avian pox (<em>Avipox</em> virus) occurs on the island and infects a significant proportion of individuals. Predator marks from invasive rodents increased threefold between 2004-2008, and tourist visitation to favoured <em>Scalesia</em> habitat<em> </em>has increased more than tenfold since 2004 (S. Kleindorfer <em>in litt. </em>2008). Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009610		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009611		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009612		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The habitat of this species is protected within the Galápagos National Park and, in 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site, although this was classified as threatened in 2007. An action plan was published 2010 (in English and Spanish) following a workshop in 2008. Predator control is ongoing as is study into the control of <em>Philornis downsi</em>, with a workshop on this specific subject held in early 2012<strong> </strong>(G. Young and B. Fessl <em>in litt. </em>2008, G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011, Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010). A study of breeding biology commenced in 1999 (Vargas 1999)<strong></strong> and a follow up study started in 2006. Blood samples are being analysed to investigate the genetic structure of the remaining population and to clarify whether hybridisation is occurring, although preliminary results for the latter are negative (H. Vargas and F. Cruz <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Preliminary results, however, do appear to indicate that the species is highly inbred (Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. A Darwin Initiative funded Mangrove Finch project coordinated by Galápagos National Park, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Charles Darwin Foundation began in 2007 (G. Young <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong> with the aim of clarifying the need and proceedings for a breeding or translocation project. Possible sites for reintroduction have been visited on Isabela and habitat suitability assessments undertaken. Remote mapping of mangrove has taken place throughout Isabela with the aim of locating suitable sites<strong></strong>, and captive trials have used Woodpecker Finch in order to train personnel and develop husbandry techniques that were then transferred to Mangrove Finch (G. Young and B. Fessl <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. The first trial translocation took place in May 2010 when nine wild-trapped birds were taken to Bahia Urbina (25 km south of Playa Tortuga Negra) following intense rat control at this site (Cunninghame <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Translocated birds proved hardy and, while able to find sufficient food and habitat at release site, may have returned to their source site (where one male was recorded after c.6 months). A conservation education programme has engaged local schoolchildren, and produced a film highlighting the species's importance. A course has been run for local guides (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011).     <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey for further populations. Establish yearly monitoring at Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black<strong></strong>. Continue control measures for rats, wasps, ants, cats and fire ants at Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black, and monitor effects on the population (Grant and Grant 1997)<strong></strong>. Further study the impact of <span style="font-style: italic;">Philornis downsi</span> on adults and nestlings, and develop effective control methods, which may include application of control agents directly into nests (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Study the impact of Galapagos Hawk <span style="font-style: italic;">Buteo galapagoensis</span>. Facilitate printing of the species action plan in Spanish and English (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Restore the Ramsar site at Vilamill. Establish translocation techniques to re-establish individuals at former sites following rat control, using head-started young birds less likely to return to their natal site (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009612		distribution	eng	<em>Camarhynchus heliobates</em> is restricted to the Galápagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Historically, it was known from at least six mangrove patches on east Fernandina and east, south and west Isabela (Vargas 1997)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys have failed to record the species on Fernandina, and it seems likely that it is now extinct as a breeding bird on the island - the last reported sighting may have been in 1971 (Grant and Grant 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1997 and 1998, surveys on Isabela found breeding populations in only two areas, Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black on the north-west coast of the island, with estimated populations of 37 and 21 pairs respectively (Grant and Grant 1997, Vargas 1997)<strong></strong>. Subsequent surveys have estimated the population at 36 and 16 pairs in 1999 (Vargas 1999)<strong></strong>, 24 and 14 pairs in 2007 (B. Fessl <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>, and perhaps the most thorough surveys to date recorded c.40 pairs in each in 2009 (Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Surveys in the fairly extensive mangroves on the south-east coast of Isabela found three to five territories which probably contained breeding birds, but further areas of potentially suitable habitat remain unsurveyed (Dvorak <em>et al.</em> 1997, Dvorak <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>. In 2008 several other historical sites were surveyed including Punta Espinoza (Fernandina), Bahia Elizabeth, Punta Moreno and Bahia Urbina, but the only site at which birds were located was Cartago Bay (Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010, G. Young and B. Fessl <em>in litt. </em>2008), from which the species is now thought extirpated, with no records from the area since 2009 (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009612		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense mangrove swamps, where it feeds on insects, larvae, spiders and some vegetable matter (Dvorak <em>et al.</em> 1997, Vargas 1997, Dvorak <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, <strong></strong>Fessl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).&#160; Its breeding season coincides with the beginning of heavy rainfalls, normally in December and January, and generally lasts until the end of the rainy season, around May, although successful nesting has been recorded as late as September (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011). Nests are placed in tall trees within patches of high mangroves that are often flooded at high tide, a habitat that is rare on the Galápagos (<strong></strong>Fessl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). Mangroves used by the species in the north-west appear to be structurally different from areas where it is absent suggesting it has subtle habitat preferences and suffers from habitat degradation<strong></strong> (Dvorak <em>et al</em>. 2004,&#160;<strong></strong>Fessl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It appears to favour mangrove with tall trees, relatively low canopy cover and abundant leaf litter and dead wood (Dvorak <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004,&#160;<strong></strong>Fessl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).  A separation of the mangroves from the sea seems to be crucial as this prevents the washing out of leaf litter etc., which represents the species's preferred feeding substrates (Dvorak <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004,&#160;<strong></strong>Fessl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). <p></p>
106009612		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 100-150 individuals, or possibly fewer, with some putting the population at 100 individuals at most (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). In light of this uncertainty, it is placed in the band 50-249 individuals, equating to 33-167 mature individuals, rounded here to 30-200 mature individuals.
106009612		threats	eng	This species is declining owing to predation and disease as a result of the presence of invasive species. <em>Rattus rattus</em> abundance is high at both breeding sites and is believed to be the major reason for the high nesting failure due to predation (70% in 2007) and low fledgling success (Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Other possible introduced predators include feral cats (especially important during the post-fledging phase), Smooth-billed Ani <em>Crotophaga ani</em> and fire ants <em>Solenopsis</em> spp., although fire ants seemed to have been successfully exterminated in 1997 (Grant and Grant 1997, Vargas 1997, 1999)<strong></strong>. The blood-sucking nest parasite <em>Philornis downsi</em> represents a significant threat, as it is present in all nests and infestation is high (with a mean of 42 parasites per nest). The first case of nesting mortality due to <em>Philornis </em>parasitisation was recorded in 2007, and this threat is becoming relatively more prominent as invasive rodents are now controlled (G. Young <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Avian pox may also represent a significant threat to the species, which may also be inherently susceptible to the effects of inbreeding (Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. Research has shown that the species favours structurally distinct mangroves and hence may be susceptible to human modification of this habitat, and it may be especially susceptible to sea level rise driven by climate change (D. Wiedenfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106009613		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009614		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Cocos Island is a national park.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the size of the population. Study the impact of introduced mammals, and factors that may affect the species's abundance. <p></p>
106009614		distribution	eng	<em>Pinaroloxias inornata</em> is endemic to Cocos Island, c.500 km from <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, where it is the most common landbird (Slud 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is abundant in the lowlands and sparser at higher altitude. <p></p>
106009614		habitat	eng	It occupies every available habitat on the island, including <em>Hibiscus</em> thickets along coasts, woodland, open country and closed-canopy forest (Smith and Sweatman 1976, Sherry 1985, Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and is common in disturbed vegetation (Slud 1967)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is a generalist (Smith and Sweatman 1976)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but individual birds usually specialise in one or a few of the various foraging techniques employed by the species as a whole (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting occurs throughout the year, but is mostly concentrated in January-May (Stiles and Skutch 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009614		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009614		threats	eng	Rats and cats are potential predators, and grazing by feral deer, pigs and goats degrades natural habitats on the island. There is also low-level disturbance from increasing tourism. However, none of these appears to have adverse affects.<strong></strong><p></p>
106009615		distribution	eng	This species breeds mainly in central USA, and winters nomadically from west Mexico to northern South America (Ecuador and Columbia east to French Guiana).
106009615		habitat	eng	It is found in open and semi-open areas, especially overgrown weedy fields and tallgrass prairie. It forms huge flocks in the winter, and up to 10-30% of the global population may occur in a single roost.
106009615		threats	eng	The species is heavily persecuted in its wintering grounds in Venezuela, where roosts are poisoned with toxic agrochemicals, including organophosphates which are applied by crop-duster planes. The concentrations of birds at these roosts means that the species is particularly susceptible to such threats. However, on its breeding grounds the species is tolerant of agricultural activities, and has the ability to move in response to drought.
106009616		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009617		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009625		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009626		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009627		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009628		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009629		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
106009629		distribution	eng	Extreme E <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, N &amp; C <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana, Suriname </span>(except SW), <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span> from Amapá  <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>south to E Pará (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2011) and west across S. Amazonian Brazil into the Madeira drainage (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).
106009629		habitat	eng	Found in the lower levels of pristine mature lowland humid forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">terre firme</span>, and seasonally flooded forest. Occasionally into subcanopy but does not appear to join mixed-species flocks. Recorded from sea level to 1000m. Occurs at low density and does not appear to adapt to human habitat modifications, though the species has been recorded in selectively logged forest (A. Lees <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Appar
106009629		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009629		threats	eng	Projected deforestation is the primary threat affecting this species (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). It requires near pristine forest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  1992) and so is especially sensitive to fragmentation and disturbance,  particularly as it is already rare and occurs at low densities. Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).
106009630		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009631		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009632		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009633		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009634		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009635		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009636		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009637		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009638		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009639		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009640		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009641		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed studies of habitat requirements and tolerance of disturbance. Repeat surveys of known sites in order to determine rates of range contraction and population decline. Effectively protect large areas of suitable forest at sites with a high density of <em>Podocarpus oleifolius</em>, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106009641		distribution	eng	<em>Saltator cinctus</em> is known from very few localities, but is found on both slopes of the central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong> (Quindío and Tolima [B.&#160;López-Lanús <em>in litt</em>. 1999]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and on the east slope in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Morona-Santiago, Loja and west Napo) and north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura, Cajamarca, Amazonas and Huánuco) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Renjifo 1991a<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). It is rare and local within this highly disjunct range. <em> <p></p></em>
106009641		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the canopy of montane evergreen and elfin forest, at 1,700-3,100 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed in dense stands of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo in Peru and Ecuador (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but recent records from Colombia (Renjifo 1991a)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Ecuador (Tobias and Williams 1996)<strong></strong> suggest a much stronger association with <em>Podocarpus oleifolius</em>, which tends to comprise a very small proportion of total primary forest (less than 10% in Alto Quindío, Colombia), and is very slow growing and heavily logged (Renjifo 1991a)<strong></strong>. In Ecuador, it undertakes non-seasonal movements, perhaps in response to changes in the availability of <em>Podocarpus</em> cones (Tobias and Williams 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This association consequently makes the status of <em>S. cinctus</em> extremely uncertain.  <p></p>
106009641		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009641		threats	eng	The principal <em>Podocarpus</em> forests of Ecuador are in Loja, the most deforested Andean province (Renjifo 1991a)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>; and the montane forests of the north Andes are generally under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining and logging (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only known localities in Colombia are on the most deforested cordillera.   <p></p>
106009642		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009643		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further studies to identify habitat requirements, particularly the extent of reliance on native tree species. Survey areas surrounding the known range to determine the full extent of the distribution. Monitor known sites to measure rates of population decline and identify threats. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat, including patches of native tree species, at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106009643		distribution	eng	<em>Saltator rufiventris</em> occurs in the east Andes of La Paz, Cochabamba, Potosí, Chuquisaca, Tarija, <strong>Bolivia</strong> and Jujuy and Salta in <strong>Argentina</strong>. It is very local outside Cochabamba, but increased field effort has resulted in discoveries at several new sites (Fjeldså and Mayer 1996, Pearman 1997,&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998a)<strong></strong>, and it is expected that further surveys will find it at new localities. It is common at some sites in Cochabamba and one area in La Paz (Pearman 1997, S.&#160;Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999), with the total population thought to exceed 10,000 birds (S.&#160;Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.  <em> <p></p></em>
106009643		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the temperate zone at 2,500-4,000 m in shrubby or open habitats (including agricultural land) with patches of scrub, <em>Polylepis</em> or <em>Alnus</em> woodland (Remsen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996,&#160;Pearman 1997,&#160;Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998a). It may be reliant on habitat patches comprising native tree species (S.&#160;Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009643		threats	eng	Scrub and native woodland patches are being fragmented and converted to agricultural and commercial forest land-uses within this species's range (Remsen <em>et al.</em> 1988, <strong></strong>Rocha and Quiroga 1996, Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998a, <strong></strong>T.&#160;Hjarsen <em>in litt</em>. 1999), probably resulting in some population declines.  <p></p>
106009644		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009645		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009646		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009647		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009653		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         The species is monitored, but no other specific actions are known. </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Tightly control any ongoing trade in the species. Develop an         appropriate management strategy to reverse population declines. Develop         a comprehensive conservation strategy including adaptive harvesting for         populations in the Caribbean and Latin America (<span class="SpellE">Iñigo-Elias 2006).
106009653		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Passerina</em><em> <span class="SpellE">ciris </em>occurs in two geographically <span class="SpellE">disjunct populations: a western population breeding         from northern <strong>Mexico</strong> to northern Texas, <strong>USA</strong>, and         wintering in south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>; and an eastern population         breeding along the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida (<strong>USA</strong>)         and wintering in southern Florida and the <strong>Caribbean</strong> (<span class="SpellE">Lowther <em>et al</em>. 1999).         The global population is estimated to be 3.6 million birds (Rich <em>et al</em>. 2003).         Populations have declined since the mid-1960s and the species has been         extirpated from parts of its range in south-west and east USA and         north-east Mexico (<span class="SpellE">Lowther <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sauer <em>et al</em>. 2003, NAS 2004, USFWS 2004).         Breeding Bird Survey data from the continental USA (and for five years         from north-east Mexico) indicates that the population has declined by         55% over the last 30 years (<span class="SpellE">Iñigo-Elias <em>et al</em>. 2002, Rich <em>et al</em>. 2003),         with the steepest declines in the eastern population.</span></span></span>
106009653		habitat	eng	The         western population breeds in scrub-brush habitat that remains largely         intact, and the eastern population inhabits coastal plain agricultural         land (<span class="SpellE">Lowther <em>et al</em>. 1999).
106009653		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <p></p>
106009653		threats	eng	Loss         and intensification of habitat through urban development, road building         and agricultural intensification, and capture for the <span class="SpellE">cagebird trade are the primary threats (<span class="SpellE">Lowther <em>et al</em>. 1999, <span class="SpellE">Iñigo-Elias <em>et al</em>. 2002, Phillips Lynch 2004), with part of the declines also being         attributed to brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbird. Trapping and         sale in local markets occurs in Mexico, Central America and the         Caribbean, and overseas to international markets in Europe, South         America and Asia (Ramos 1982, <span class="SpellE">Iñigo-Elias 1986, <span class="SpellE">Iñigo-Elias <em>et al</em>. 2002).</span></span>
106009654		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the species's population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Study the species's ecology, including habitat use. Investigate the impact of the Pan-American Highway and habitat degradation on the species. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.  <p></p>
106009654		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Passerina</em><em> <span class="SpellE">rositae</em> has small range in south-east Oaxaca (Isthmus         de Tehuantepec region west to the <span class="SpellE">Chivela, <span class="SpellE">Matías Romero and <span class="SpellE">Juchitán         areas) and extreme south-west Chiapas (La Trinidad), <strong>Mexico </strong></span><span class="SpellE">(Binford 1989, AOU 1998)<sup><span class="GramE"></sup>. It is locally fairly common to common in         suitable habitat (<span class="SpellE">Binford</span> 1989).</span></span>
106009654		habitat	eng	This         species inhabits swamp forest, denser portions of deciduous forest (<span class="SpellE">Binford 1989),         <span class="GramE">semi-humid deciduous gallery woodland and         forest edge in hilly areas at 150-800 m  (Howell and Webb 1995a).</span>
106009654		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009654		threats	eng	The         Pan-American Highway has fragmented habitat within this <span class="SpellE">species's restricted range (<span class="SpellE">Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998). Many         forests are now degraded or secondary, but whether this has had a         significant impact on this species is unclear.</span>
106009655		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009656		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Repeat surveys of occupied areas to determine population trends and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to identify precise habitat requirements and elucidate causes of declines. Effectively protect large areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
106009656		distribution	eng	<em>Porphyrospiza caerulescens</em> occurs in the interior of north-east and central <strong>Brazil</strong> (from south-east Pará and south Maranhão to Piauí, west Bahia, Tocantins, Goiás, Districto Federal, west and central Minas Gerais and south Mato Grosso), and east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, Santa Cruz and possibly Chuquisaca) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Sick 1993, Armonía 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is uncommon, patchily distributed and apparently declining. It has become very rare and local in Brazil but is apparently more numerous in Bolivia, where 5,000 individuals were estimated at Cerro San Simón, west Beni, in 1990 (Parker and Rocha 1991)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009656		habitat	eng	This species occurs at 600-1,100 m in <span style="font-style: italic;">campo cerrado</span>, and particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">campo rupestre</span><strong> </strong>(Parker and Rocha 1991, da Silva 1995, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996).  <p></p>
106009656		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009656		threats	eng	Conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pasture for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have severely impacted its habitat, particularly in Brazil (Parker and Willis 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Two thirds of <span style="font-style: italic;">cerrado </span>habitat had been extensively or significantly modified by 1993 (Conservation International 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with most destruction having occurred since 1950 (Cavalcanti 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009657		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009658		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009659		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009660		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009661		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009662		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009663		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009664		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009665		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Ensenada de Utría National Park is near the most recent site and one of the old specimen localities, but the closed-canopy forest there may not be favoured by the species (Strewe 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A number of natural biotic areas/anthropogenic reserves are located within its range (IUCN 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and could contribute to its protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to elucidate its distribution as a priority. Research its ecology, especially aspects related to conservation, such as precise habitat requirements. Ensure effective protection of the two currently known sites. Advocate conservation measures within natural biotic areas/anthropogenic reserves. <p></p>
106009665		distribution	eng	<em>Psarocolius cassini</em> is known from the foothills and lowlands around the serranías de los Saltos and de Baudó, Chocó, north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where four specimens were taken in 1858, 1940 and 1945. Until recently, the only sightings were from a nesting colony at the headwaters of the río Acandí in 1991 (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and north of Ensenada de Utría National Park in 1997 and 1999, when two and six individuals respectively were seen (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong>. However, two groups of 7-12 individuals were seen in the Siviru and Tipicay river basins, and 60 inactive nests documented (Fundación ProAves 2008).<span class="apple-style-span"> Its occurrence in the río Juradó valley has never been documented, and this area should not be considered a valid locality<strong></strong> (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<span class="apple-style-span"><strong></strong>. <p></p></span>
106009665		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid lowland forest and edge at 100-365&#160;m. It has been observed along rivers, and most recently on a sandy-soiled coastal plain (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may exhibit edaphic habitat specialisation and/or prefer primary forests with a naturally broken canopy, including very tall emergents in which feeding has been noted (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong>. Groups of 2-12 birds forage for fruit and insects in the canopy (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong> (Fundación ProAves 2008). Two individuals seen in 1997 associated with a flock of c.25 Chestnut-headed Oropendola <em>P. wagleri<strong></strong></em> (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong>. The breeding season is probably May-June (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recently, 60 inactive nests were found between 19 and 20 metres above the ground in peach palms Bactris gasipaes and Guazuma ulmifolia trees, located in a transitional habitat between mature forest and banana plantations, on the banks of the Tripicay river (Fundación ProAves 2008).<br/><p></p>
106009665		population	eng	The species is considered rare and localised, but it is also poorly known. The population is provisionally estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, but this requires confirmation. The estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, roudned here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009665		threats	eng	It is thought to prefer forests along rivers and coastal plains, which are traditionally the first areas to be deforested (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong>. The development programmes for the Pacific region involve greatly expanding the road network, promoting human immigration and settlement, logging, agricultural expansion and mining (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wege and Long 1995, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Strewe 1999)<strong></strong>. Conversion to oil palm plantations is a major current threat (C. Downing <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In the area north of Ensenada de Utría, a striking increase in logging (especially of large emergents), agricultural activity and road-building, notably the bridging of a large river, was noted between 1997 and 1999 (Strewe 1999)<strong></strong>. This species is also trapped for food and for the cagebird trade (Fundación ProAves 2008). Plans to create an interoceanic canal and complete the Pan-American highway across the Darién Gap have been halted, but if re-started this would have a severe impact on forests and birds in the region (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wege and Long 1995, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997). <p></p>
106009666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009667		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009669		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009670		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009671		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has now been confirmed to occur in Manu National Park (Tobias 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and in the Santuario Nacional Megantoni<strong> </strong> (Vriesendorp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and may also occur in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to clarify the species's range and population, especially in the headwater regions of the ríos Alto Manu, Serjali, Mishagua, Cashpajali, de las Piedras, Cujar, Alto Purús, Curanja and possibly into west Brazil<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004)<strong></strong>. Conduct further ecological research, particularly into habitat specialisations and the extent to which secondary or degraded habitats are tolerated<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).<p></p>
106009671		distribution	eng	<em>Cacicus koepckeae</em> was long known only from the type-locality, Balta, in Loreto, <strong>Peru</strong>. However, fieldwork in 1998 and 1999 discovered the species on the río Shihuaniro near its confluence with the lower río Urubamba, and on the latter's tributary the upper río Camisea, both Cusco<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). There were at least two possible sightings from Manu National Park, Madre de Dios, during the 1980s, but owing to the lack of subsequent records these were often disregarded (Tobias 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, in 2001, three groups were found near Cocha Cashu Biological Station (Tobias 2003), lending credence to the earlier Manu records. It was recently also discovered in the Santuario Nacional Megantoni (Vriesendorp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), together with an unconfirmed report from the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is thought to occur at intrinsically low densities, and is apparently highly local (Tobias 2003). <p></p>
106009671		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid forested lowlands and foothills at elevations of 300-575&#160;m<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All records are from river-margin habitats, including <em>Gymnerium</em> canebreaks and transitional forest on banks and islands<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). Long periods of time spent within high-ground, <em>terra firme</em> forest adjacent to the recent sites have provided no further records<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). It occurs along relatively narrow rivers, but apparently not lower parts of major rivers such as the río Urubamba<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). It is probably arboreal, with pairs or small groups moving steadily through the canopy of transitional forest<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). It has been seen foraging among clumps of seed pods, possibly for insects, and ignoring fruiting trees nearby<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). The type-specimen was one of a party of six birds that were seen bathing and drinking, and groups of four to six have been recorded elsewhere (Tobias 2003). <p></p>
106009671		population	eng	The species is considered rare and local, but it is probably fairly widespread. The population is provisionally estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, but this requires confirmation. The estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009671		threats	eng	It is apparently restricted to riverine habitats, and it may therefore be at heightened risk from actual and impending settlement and agricultural development. However, small-scale, low-impact farming may not adversely affect the species, and it has been heard calling from mosaics of forest and cultivated land around a village<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Gerhart 2004). The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt.</em> 2011).<p></p><p></p>
106009672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009676		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009677		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009681		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009682		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009683		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Icterus leucopteryx</span> occurs on <span style="font-weight: bold;">Jamaica</span> and the island of San Andrés, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">bairdi</span> of Grand Cayman, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cayman Islands (to U.K.)</span> was last recorded in 1967, and is now extinct (Bradley 2000).
106009683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009684		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009685		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009687		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009688		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009692		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as reasonably common.
106009696		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009698		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         There is a comprehensive programme to monitor the population and         breeding success (Gibbons <em>et al.</em> 1998, G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003), and in         2001 a new research programme into the causes of the continuing decline         was begun (<span class="SpellE"><em>Cotinga</em></span> 17 2002: 7). During 2003, preliminary tests of         management interventions were made, aimed at boosting reproductive         success (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). In June 1999, eight birds were taken to         Jersey Zoo to enable the development of husbandry techniques; initial         attempts at captive breeding proved successful (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003, Owen 2000) and captive birds are now also present         at several other locations in the UK, but there are currently no plans         to augment the wild population with birds from captive stock (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2007, 2008).         The Centre Hills has been designated a protected area and development         is not permitted within its marked boundaries (P. Atkinson <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span>.</em> 1998, 1999). A         Species Action Plan was published in 2005. Experimental rat control in         the Centre Hills commenced in 2006 and work to compare nest success in         an area with experimental rat control with nest success in adjacent         areas with high rat density was scheduled for 2008 (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2007, 2008).         A pig eradication programme is also planned for the island. </span></p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Continue the existing programme and research into the causes of the         decline. Develop potential management interventions to boost         reproductive success (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). Continue the close monitoring         of the population (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003). Investigate the reasons for the         high densities of nest predators in the Centre Hills (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003).         </span>
106009698		distribution	eng	This         species inhabits an extremely small area on <strong>Montserrat (to UK)</strong>         in the Lesser Antilles. By the early 1990s, it occurred throughout the three         main forested hill ranges on the island (the Centre, <span class="SpellE">Soufrière and South <span class="SpellE">Soufrière</span>         hills), but volcanic activity in 1995-1997 entirely destroyed         two-thirds of remaining habitat (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). Initially, only the         Centre Hills (c.14 km<sup>2</sup>) population was thought to have         survived the <span class="SpellE">pyroclastic</span> flows (although even         this area was heavily <span class="SpellE">ashed) (P. Atkinson <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span>.</em> 1998, 1999, Arendt <em>et al.</em> 1999),         but a remnant population was later discovered in a 1-2 km<sup>2</sup>         forest patch in the South <span class="SpellE">Soufrière hills,         just 1 km from the summit of the volcano (Bowden <em>et al</em>. 2001, <span class="SpellE"><em>Cotinga</em></span> 17 2002: 7). In         December 1997, the estimated population was c.4<span class="GramE">,000         birds (Arendt <em>et al.</em> 1999), but intensive monitoring between 1997-2003         indicated that the Centre Hills population declined by 40-50%, despite         reduced volcanic activity (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003, Hilton <em>et al</em>. 2003). In 2001, 2003 and         2006, further major volcanic eruptions caused heavy ash falls on large         areas of the Centre Hills, destroying several nests and curtailing         breeding (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003, <span class="SpellE"><em>Cotinga</em></span> 17 2002: 7, Anon 2006). Recent         evidence suggests that the downward fluctuation noted <span class="GramE">between 1997-2003 may have been reversed and the         population is recovering. In 2005 (post-recovery), using point-counts         calibrated by territory mapping and the Extent of Occurrence defined by         positive census records the population was estimated at 930-3,000         individuals in the Centre Hills (depending on method of extrapolation)         and 150-300 individuals in the South <span class="SpellE">Soufrière</span>         population (<span class="SpellE">Bierley <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Confidence limits remain relatively         wide, and the total population could conceivably be as low as 260 pairs         or as high as 1,190 pairs (<span class="SpellE">Bierley</span> <em>et al</em>. in prep.).
106009698		habitat	eng	It         occurs in most forest types between c.150-900 m, but reaches highest         densities in wetter, higher altitude forests, and is absent from areas         of very dry forest (Jaramillo and Burke 1999, G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). It is found in all <span class="SpellE">successional</span> stages, and sometimes at the edges of         cultivated areas and banana plantations but appears to be an obligate         forest species (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). Nesting occurs in March-August, but         the exact timing probably depends on the rainy season (P. Atkinson <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span>.</em> 1998, 1999, Jaramillo and Burke 1999). Nests are mainly suspended from the         leaves of <span class="SpellE"><em>Heliconia</em><em> <span class="SpellE">caribbaea</span></em>, although banana and other         broad-leaved trees are also used (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). Its clutch-size is         typically two or three. Unsuccessful pairs may attempt up to five         clutches; successful pairs can very rarely rear three broods per year (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003).         It forages at all levels, but particularly in the <span class="SpellE">understorey,         feeding mainly on insects, but occasionally also on fruit and possibly         nectar (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003).
106009698		population	eng	Bealey <I>et al</I>. (in prep.) estimate a total population within the range 460-590 pairs (260-1,190 95% CI) or 920-1,180 mature individuals, though based on 2004 survey data Hilton (2008) had previously estimated 5,200 individuals.
106009698		threats	eng	Volcanic         eruptions in 1995-1997 all but extirpated the species from the <span class="SpellE">Soufrière and South <span class="SpellE">Soufrière</span>         hills. Although volcanic activity was reduced in 1998-2000, the         population continued to decline (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003, Hilton <em>et al</em>. 2003).         Potential causes are low insect availability (<span class="SpellE">Marske</span> <em>et al</em>. 2007) and/or         chronic ill-health of birds resulting from ash fall on remaining         forest, and other unknown and indirect knock-on effects of volcanic         activity (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2000, 2003). Research into reproductive success, using         nest cameras, has also revealed high rates of nest predation by rats         and native Pearly-eyed Thrashers <span class="SpellE"><em>Margarops</em></span><em>         <span class="SpellE">fuscatus</em>, both of which occur at high but         fluctuating densities (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003, Bowden <em>et al</em>. 2001, <span class="SpellE"><em>Cotinga</em> 17 2002: 7).         In 2001 and 2003, drought appeared to cause reduced laying frequency         and clutch-size, and this may be an increasing problem now that that         species is confined to lower, drier areas (G. Hilton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2000, 2003).         Conversely, excessive rainfall can also have a negative impact. A feral         pig population is spreading fast and could cause serious damage to the         forest habitat if not eradicated. Having a <span class="SpellE">montane         distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range,         this species is also potentially susceptible to climate change (<span class="SpellE">BirdLife</span> International unpublished data).         Despite being previously proposed as a threat, there is no nest         parasitism by Shiny Cowbird because this species does not currently         occur on Montserrat (P. Atkinson <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</em> 1998, 1999), <em>contra</em> (<span class="SpellE">Raffaele</span> <em>et al.</em> 1998).
106009699		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         It is protected by domestic legislation (Jaramillo and Burke 1999). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Survey to assess and clarify the current status and distribution (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</em> 1998).         Assess the impact of brood-parasitism by <em>M. <span class="SpellE">bonariensis</span></em>,         and whether a control programme would be appropriate (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</span></em> 1998).         Avoid any further deforestation, as this is likely to result in <em>M. <span class="SpellE">bonariensis</em> range expansions (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span>.</em> 1998).         Initiate a public awareness campaign promoting <em>I. <span class="SpellE">bonana</em> as Martinique's only endemic bird (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</span></em> 1998).         </span>
106009699		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Icterus</em><em> <span class="SpellE">bonana</em> remains common in <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong>. Surveys found densities of 2.4 birds/ha in central Martinique (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</span></em> 1998),         and the population is likely to be above 10,000 individuals. It has         declined in recent years (<span class="SpellE">Bulens <em>et al.</em> 1994, P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</span></em> 1998),         but suggestions of a dramatic decline appear unfounded (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt.</em> 1998).         </span></span>
106009699		habitat	eng	It was originally present in most habitat-types below 700 m, from semi-arid woodland, forest edge and tree plantations to rainforest, but it has been suggested that dry forests and mangroves are the most important habitats. It forages primarily in the canopy for fruit, berries and a variety of insects, either alone, in pairs or in small family groups. Breeding has been recorded from December, but generally occurs in February-July. <p></p>
106009699		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009699		threats	eng	Deforestation         has facilitated the spread of the recently established Shiny Cowbird <span class="SpellE"><em>Molothrus</em><em> <span class="SpellE">bonariensis,         </em>this species <span class="SpellE">parasitises 75% of oriole         nests annually, but a recent decline in cowbird numbers has allowed a         slight population recovery (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Bulens</span> and A.&#160;Le <span class="SpellE">Dru <em>per</em> P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 1994). There are suggestions         that the native population of <span class="SpellE">Carib</span> Grackle <span class="SpellE"><em>Quiscalus</em><em> <span class="SpellE">lugubris</em>         has increased dramatically with concomitant increases in nest-predation (Jaramillo and Burke 1999),         but there is little or no evidence of either increases in the grackle         population or higher levels of predation (P.&#160;<span class="SpellE">Feldmann and P.&#160;Villard <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span>.</em> 1998).</span></span></span>
106009700		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the population and map its distribution. Study the effect of brood parasitism on the population. Study the relative effects of other threats on the population. Protect significant areas of native forest at appropriate altitude.   <p></p>
106009700		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Icterus</em><em> <span class="SpellE">laudabilis</em> is a scarce but still widespread endemic on<strong>         St Lucia</strong> in the Lesser Antilles (Keith 1997). It is thought         there may not be many more than 1,000 mature individuals (Temple <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </span></em>2005).
106009700		habitat	eng	It         inhabits coastal vegetation, dry scrub, edges of banana plantations,         plantation forest, secondary and primary forest up to 700 m (Keith 1997, <span class="SpellE">Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998).
106009700		population	eng	H. Temple (<em>in litt. </em>2005) estimated the population to be more than 1,000, though possibly not dramatically more. It is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106009700		threats	eng	Since         1935, it has become less numerous and more local, probably owing to a         combination of pesticide spraying, habitat loss, parasitism by Shiny         Cowbird<em> <span class="SpellE">Molothrus <span class="SpellE">bonariensis</span></em>         and harassment by Bare-eyed Thrush <em><span class="SpellE">Turdus         nudigenis</em> (Keith 1997, <span class="SpellE">Raffaele</span> <em>et al.</em> 1998).<strong> </strong>Rates         of brood parasitism may be particularly high, locally, perhaps 3/4 of         broods may be partially or exclusively made up of Shiny Cowbirds, but         it is not known what effect (if any) this is having on populations (H. Temple <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt. </em>2005).
106009701		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009703		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park extends over 800 km<sup>2</sup> and protects a notable population (Skutch 1996, C. Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. This is part of a system of protected areas comprising 40 or more legally designated forest reserves, some of which also protect the species (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the long-term security, and therefore value, of such reserves is uncertain because management and enforcement are weak, and habitat destruction is not restricted (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Funding is actively being sought for the conservation of Cockpit Country (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and there is an on-going, high profile public awareness campaign to prevent bauxite mining in Cockpit Country; Cockpit Country Stakeholders Group and Local Forest Management Committees are engaged in the process of voicing opposition to mining and having the area declared "closed to mining" by Minister's Discretion (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to improve knowledge of the species's status and ecology (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Design and implement management plans for all designated reserves where <em>N. nigerrimus</em> occurs (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Declare Cockpit Country "closed to mining" by ministerial decree. Enforce habitat protection laws in National Parks. Monitor known populations.  <p></p>
106009703		distribution	eng	<em>Nesopsar nigerrimus</em> is decidedly uncommon on <strong>Jamaica </strong>(BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><sup></sup>. It is widely distributed but local in Cockpit Country, the central hills (e.g. Worthy Park) and the Blue and John Crow Mountains (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009703		habitat	eng	Pairs occupy large territories in mature, wet to very wet montane, mist, elfin and limestone forests, and forest edge, with heavy epiphytic growth of bromeliads or <em>Phyllogonium</em> moss (Cruz 1978, Downer and Sutton 1990, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs at elevations of 510-2,200 m, with some birds moving to 210 m in the wet north-east (John Crow Mountains) outside the breeding season, but it is generally absent from slopes exposed to strong winds (Cruz 1978, Downer and Sutton 1990, BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998, C. Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The diet is animal food, especially insects, foraged for in the canopy among tree-ferns, epiphytes, moss-covered trunks and dead leaves (Cruz 1978, Skutch 1996, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, C. Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It is a bromeliad specialist, with c.60% of foraging records noted on this substrate (Cruz 1978)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009703		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009703		threats	eng	Habitat loss has been caused primarily by afforestation (mostly) with Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em>, coffee plantations, removal of trees for charcoal-burning, deliberate fires, small-scale farming and development (Cruz 1978, C. Levy <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and with ongoing habitat degradation parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> increases (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It may have suffered especially from the removal of mature trees, since these support the large tank bromeliads in which it forages (BirdLife Jamaica <em>in litt.</em> 1998, Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. However, the most significant current threat is bauxite mining in its stronghold in Cockpit Country (Koenig <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009704		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009708		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009711		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is currently classified in California as a Species of Special Concern and a Migratory Bird of Management Concern, categories which identify reduced populations but do not include the legal protections offered to species listed as threatened (Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong>. A conservation action plan for the species was published in 2007 (Tricolored Blackbird Working Group 2007). Measures have been taken at times to protect nesting colonies of the species, including purchasing portions of crops, or delaying harvest to avoid impacting nests during the active breeding season. These actions and participation by landowners resulted in the recruitment of an estimated 37,000 to 44,000 first-year adults to the 1994 and 1995 breeding seasons (Beedy and Hamilton 1999)<strong></strong> and benefited the population in 2003. However, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service take the position that crop purchases or reimbursements for delayed harvest are not a feasible long-term solution for the species' management on private agricultural lands (M. Bond <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Management guidelines have been produced (Beedy and Hamilton 1997, DeHaven 2000)<strong></strong>.<span> In 2008, an agreement was reached between Audubon California and a local  farmer to safeguard a single colony of c.80,000 birds by<span> d<span>elaying the harvest of&#160;65 ha of farmland in Tulare County, California<span> where the colony is  nesting (Anon. 2008).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain a viable, self-sustaining population throughout current geographic range. Avoid losses of colonies and their associated habitats and increase the breeding population on suitable public and private lands managed for this species. Enhance public awareness and support for protection of habitat and active colonies (Beedy and Hamilton 1997)<strong></strong>. Create low-risk nesting substrates such as marshes and blackberries within key dairy regions of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, to provide alternative nesting sites to grain silage fields, and monitor their use (DeHaven 2000)<strong></strong>. Delay harvesting or herbicide applications until after the colony completes the breeding cycle<strong> </strong>(Beedy and Hamilton 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Protect and enhance Toledo Pit (Tulare County), an important breeding site (DeHaven 2000)<strong></strong>. Conduct regular range-wide censuses to monitor population trends. Initiate mark-recapture and ratio-telemetry studies to determine demographic rates such as survival, reproduction, and population growth, and site fidelity as related to reproductive success<strong></strong>. Conduct studies of foraging ecology to determine key characteristics and possibilities to enhance foraging habitat. List the species as Endangered under federal law (M. Bond <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p></span></span>
106009711		distribution	eng	<em>Agelaius tricolor</em> is near-endemic to California, breeding mainly in the Central Valley and other points west of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, <strong>U.S.A.</strong> It has also been recorded in Oregon, west Nevada (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong>, Washington (Beedy and Hamilton 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, and extreme northwest Baja California (<strong>Mexico</strong>). It has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 113,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which has not contracted since the 1930s. Californian birds are thought to make up over 95% of the global population (Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  In 1934, systematic surveys estimated over 700,000 adults in just 8 Californian counties, and found breeding birds in 26 counties, including one colony containing over 200,000 nests (c.300,000 adults) covering 24 ha (Neff 1937)<strong></strong>. Studies in 1969-1972 reported an average of about 133,000 individuals/year in Central Valley, and estimated that the global population had declined by more than 50% since 1934 (DeHaven <em>et al.</em> 1975)<strong></strong>. Censuses conducted throughout California in 1994, 1997 and 2000 gave figures of 370,000, 233,000 and 162,000 individuals respectively <strong></strong>(Beedy and Hamilton 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong>, equating to a decline of 56% in six years. However, state-wide volunteer-based censuses conducted throughout California located 257,000 individuals attending 121 breeding colonies in 2005 (King <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2006)<strong></strong>, 394,858 in 180 sites in 32 counties in 2008 (<span style="">Kelsey 2008</span>) and 259,322 at 138 sites in 29 counties in 2011 (Kelsey 2011). These results suggest that recent declines may not have been as severe as previous estimates reported, but that steep declines (almost 35%) occurred between 2008 and 2011. These apparent declines may be due to discrepancies in survey methodology, but are likely to be partly caused by low reproductive success that has been documented in reports over the past three years (Meese 2008, 2009a, 2009b). The Christmas Bird Count has recorded the species regularly at 120 sites over a 39 year period, and that data suggests the population may be relatively stable (G. Butcher <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2006). This species has proven very difficult to sample, as confirmed by the considerable variation in population estimates. To clarify its status, a thorough, unbiased and consistent approach to sampling is needed in the future.  <p></p>
106009711		habitat	eng	It is a lowland species, but has bred to 1,300 m in the Klamath area (Oregon) and along the west side of the Sierras (Beedy and Hamilton 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It breeds in freshwater marshes with tall emergent vegetation, in upland habitats (especially thickets of non-native Himalayan blackberry <em>Rubus discolor</em>), and in silage fields (Jaramillo and Burke 1999, Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, with 50% of the birds in California during the 2008 statewide survey observed nesting in silage fields (Kelsey 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It forages in agricultural areas, particularly where livestock are present and grass is short, and shows a preference for roosting in marshes (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong>. An opportunistic forager, the species takes any locally abundant insect including grasshoppers (Orthoptera), beetles and weevils (Coleoptera), caddis fly larvae (Trichoptera), moth and butterfly larvae (Lepidoptera), dragonfly larvae (Odonata), and lakeshore midges (Diptera), as well as grains, snails, and small clams<strong> </strong>(Beedy and Hamilton 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Breeding typically occurs between April and July, when individuals congregate to form massive breeding colonies that are larger than those of any other extant North American landbird following the extinction of the Passenger Pigeon <em>Ectopistes migratorius </em>(Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Reproductive success is significantly higher in  non-native upland vegetation (primarily Himalayan blackberry) than it is in native wetland vegetation (cattail <em>Typha </em>spp.<em> </em>and bulrush <em>Scirpus </em>spp.), its predominant historic breeding habitat (Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. In silage fields, which hold a significant proportion of the breeding population (17% in 2000), reproductive success can be disastrously low, as harvesting can result in the loss of entire colonies with tens of thousands of nests (Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Although it can be found throughout the breeding range during winter, the species is nevertheless partly migratory, with large numbers of birds being seen along the central Californian coast in the winter even though few nest in this area in the summer (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106009711		population	eng	Rich et al (2003)
106009711		threats	eng	Loss of upland nesting habitat, combined with low reproductive success in native habitats and complete breeding failure in harvested agricultural fields, are the most likely causes of recent declines (Cook and Toft 2005)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Additionally, herbicide spraying and contaminated water are suspected to have caused complete breeding failure in several colonies (Beedy and Hamilton 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Historic declines may have occurred because of the loss of native wetlands (which have declined in area by over 95% since the arrival of Europeans), loss of grasslands and grasshoppers (a main component of the species's diet), hunting, and large-scale poisoning efforts to control crop depredation that continued until the 1960s (Neff 1937, DeHaven <em>et al.</em> 1975, Cook and Toft 2005). Predation by non-native Cattle Egret <span style="font-style: italic;">Bubulcus ibis</span> appears to be a significant threat in California (L. Cook <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <strong></strong>Some birds are shot in the rice-growing regions of northern Central Valley (L. Cook <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Losses of formerly productive foraging habitats to perennial, woody crops (primarily almonds and grapes) and to urbanisation are also serious threats. Because breeding success is so poor in native wetlands, protection of these habitats will not reverse population declines in the species: conservation measures must focus on agricultural land and upland habitats as well (DeHaven <em>et al.</em> 1975)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009712		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009714		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A programme installing artificial nests, monitoring reproduction and controlling populations of <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>, rats and nest-mites has operated since 1982 (USFWS 1996c,d)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Boquerón Commonwealth Forest is a stronghold for the species on the mainland (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to protect and manage the species and its habitat, including the provision of artificial nests and control of Shiny Cowbirds (USFWS 1996c,d)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the success of artificial nests (USFWS 1996c,d)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Integrate the conservation of this species with existing education schemes (USFWS 1996c,d)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009714		distribution	eng	<em>Agelaius xanthomus</em> was formerly widespread on <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, where it occurs in two forms. The race <em>monensis</em> is found throughout the offshore islands of Mona and Monito. The nominate race occurs on the mainland, but is now mostly restricted to south-west coastal areas. There is also a population in eastern coastal areas, but this has almost vanished, with no breeding records since 1986 (USFWS 1996c,d)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The south-west population declined by c.80% in 1975-1981 to a low of 300 individuals in 1982, but pre-reproductive season roost counts in 1985-1995 showed an average annual increase of 14% (USFWS 1996c,d); by 2011 there were 850 individuals, with an additional 60 at Salinas <strong></strong><strong></strong>(R. Miranda-Medina <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In early 1998, the total population was estimated at 1,250 individuals (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009714		habitat	eng	It formerly occurred in mangroves, pastures, coconut and palm-stands, cactus scrub, coastal cliffs, and rarely woodland, and has always been commonest near the coast (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Many birds now breed on offshore cays (Skutch 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages both terrestrially and in trees (Skutch 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, feeding on insects (especially moths and crickets), seeds and nectar (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds gather at communal feeding-sites, with large flocks forming during the non-breeding season (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nests are often built low in mangrove trees, or in large deciduous trees in pastures near to mangroves (Skutch 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with several nests being built in close proximity (Jaramillo and Burke 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Mona Island, nests are placed in crevices or on ledges on high, vertical sea-cliffs (Skutch 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Three clutches are usually laid per year (Skutch 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the breeding season is May-September. <p></p>
106009714		population	eng	Jaramillo and Burke (1999). <p></p>
106009714		threats	eng	Brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> has greatly reduced numbers and resulted in most birds breeding on offshore cays. Additional threats are the competition for nesting areas by Caribbean Martin <em>Progne dominicensis</em>, habitat loss clearance for agriculture, nest-predation by the Pearly-eyed Thrasher <em>Margarops fuscatus</em> and elevated mortality by introduced carnivores such as Indian Mongoose (<em>Herpestes </em><span style="font-style: italic;">auropunctatus</span>). <p></p>
106009715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009717		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009718		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009719		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian and Uruguayan law and from trapping in Argentina. Studies have clarified its distribution , numbers and habitat requirements (Tubaro <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1994, Tubaro and Gabelli 1999, Fernandez<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, Gabelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Azpiroz 2005)<strong></strong>. In northern Uruguay, educational visits to schools were carried out in association with surveying in 2003 (Azpiroz 2005)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Manage agricultural land to ensure that habitat loss does not exceed habitat gain. Survey south Córdoba and south-east San Luis to locate any remnant populations. Monitor the population. Assess the impact of inter-specific competition. Determine the threat posed by high nest failure rates owing to predation, trampling and brood parasitism by Shiny Cowbird<em>.</em>  <p></p>
106009719		distribution	eng	<em>Sturnella defilippii</em> was formerly common and widespread in east-central <strong>Argentina </strong>and <strong>Uruguay </strong>(Cotinga<em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1995, <strong></strong>Azpiroz 2005), but always rare in south <strong>Brazil</strong> (four winter records from Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul). Since 1900, its range has decreased by 90%, with most of this decline occurring between 1900 and 1950 (<strong></strong>Tubaro <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1994, Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1992-1993, the extent of occurrence in Argentina was estimated at 8,000 km<sup>2</sup>, the area of occupancy at 150 km<sup>2</sup> and the population at c.7,500 birds (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>, whilst in Uruguay  the breeding population was estimated at 78-90 pairs in the Arerunguá area (Azpiroz 2005)<strong></strong>. In 2004, a detailed study estimated the extent of occurrence in Argentina at 4,810 km<sup>2</sup>, and hence a range contraction of 30% within 10 years, although more intensive sampling revealed higher densities than previously estimated, with an area of occupancy of 512 km<sup>2</sup> and a minimum population size of 28,000 individuals (Gabelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)<strong></strong>. These are concentrated in south-west Buenos Aires and adjacent La Pampa, with records in Entre Ríos, San Luis, Córdoba and Corrientes (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999, R. Fraga <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106009719		habitat	eng	It inhabits natural grasslands (vegetation height of 29-45 cm), including land abandoned for 5-15 (or more) years (Tubaro <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1994)<strong></strong>. Some birds breed and winter in planted pastures and cultivated fields with a similar vegetation structure (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>. However, a study in Buenos Aires province found that 90% of reproductive groups were present in natural grasslands with high vegetation cover (Fernandez <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>. It can coexist with cattle, but apparently avoids planted pasture, as well as areas where grazing is more intensive and vegetation height is consequently lower (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs between mid-October and November, and 3-4 eggs are laid (Azpiroz 2005)<strong></strong>. The diet includes seeds, insects and shoots. There is some northwards movement in winter, but it is primarily resident (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009719		population	eng	The population is estimated to number over 28,000 individuals, based on recent estimates from studies in Argentina and Uruguay, the only known breeding areas.
106009719		threats	eng	Rapid and widespread conversion to cattle-ranching, arable and plantation agriculture are primarily responsible for long-term declines. It is now restricted to areas least suitable for agriculture , although the rate of grassland conversion within occupied areas continues to outstrip the rate of grassland regeneration by three to one (Gabelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)<strong></strong>. Other factors may interact with habitat loss, including high rates of nest predation (Cozzani <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>, although recent studies in Uruguay suggest that this may have only a limited effect (A. Azpiroz <em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007)<strong></strong>. Trampling by cattle (Gabelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)<strong></strong>, and brood parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> (Cozzani <em>et al.</em> 2004, Gabelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)<strong></strong> could also influence productivity, although parasitism appears to be rare (Cozzani <em>et al.</em> 2004, A. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007)<strong></strong>. Maintenance of moderate grazing regimes appears to favour the species (Zalba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Competition with Long-tailed Meadowlark <em>S. loyca</em> and White-browed Blackbird <em>Leistes superciliaris</em> could negatively influence this species (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>, although studies have found no evidence that presence of either species affects site selection (Gabelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004)<strong></strong>. Capture for trade is not currently extensive (Tubaro and Gabelli 1999)<strong></strong>, but, in 1988, over 100 birds were seen in local markets (Bertonatti and Tubaro 1993)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009724		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009725		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009726		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009727		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from a number of protected areas, including Las Orquídeas and Arrierito Antioqueño Bird Reserve (both in Antioquia), Cueva de los Guácharos (Huila), Las Tangaras Bird Reserve (Choco), Cordillera de los Pichachos (Caquetá) and Tatamá (Risaralda/Chocó/Valle del Cauca) National Parks, as well as Ucumarí Regional Park (Risaralda) (Wege and Long 1995, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002, Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011)<strong></strong>. It is reportedly common in La Forzosa Nature Reserve, Alto San Miguel Ecological Reserve, and La Romera and La Serrana Municipal Reserves (all Antioquia) (Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. New reserves gazetted for the protection of Yellow-eared Parrot <em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> in Antiquoia are also likely to harbour populations of this species (Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Captive birds were released from Santafé Zoo into the mountains around Medellín during 1997-1998 (A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The species has been the subject of research into aspects of its reproductive biology, breeding success and group formation, since 2006  (J. O. Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009, S. David-Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009, 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to assess the distribution of both the species and its habitat, particularly in Antioquia (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>, and the poorly known, but relatively intact, forests from Caquetá to Putumayo. Ensure protection of forest remnants in Antioquia (A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. Fund and improve the implementation and enforcement of conservation measures in protected areas (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Organise a campaign to stop trade in wild-caught birds (A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009727		distribution	eng	<em>Hypopyrrhus pyrohypogaster</em> is known from all three Andean ranges of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has been recorded in the West Andes from Cerro Tatamá north, in the Central Andes from Antioquia (many historical and a few modern sites), south locally to Putumayo (P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and in the south of the East Andes in south Huila and west Caquetá. During the 20th century, it was extirpated from much of its former range and, since 1980, has been recorded very locally in small numbers, although it is quite common in the mountains around Medellín and La Linda, Las Nubes and La Noque, Antioquia (Wege and Long 1995, A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999, <strong></strong> P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Recently, it has been found at a number of new sites, for example at Amalfi in department Antioquia (C. Downing <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009727		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy and borders of humid montane forest, including plantations of non-native trees, scrubby areas and old second growth, mostly at elevations of 800-2,400&#160;m. It is also often found in cleared areas, including pastures and along roads (C. Downing <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009, S. David-Rivera<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011). The species has been observed flying for distances of up to 500 m across  pastures between forests, and across valleys (Fundación ProAves de  Colombia 2011). It occurs in groups of up to 50  (C. Downing <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009), fewer when breeding (A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, foraging actively for fruit and insects. Nests have been found during January-April (Ochoa and Cuervo 1998, A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong> in the Central Andes of Antioquia, with records of breeding-condition birds, immatures and nestlings between March and August in other parts of Colombia. Cooperative breeding has been recorded  (Ochoa and Cuervo 1998, A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009727		population	eng	The population was previously estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals, based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. However, the species is being recorded at an increasing number of localities, suggesting that the population has been underestimated, and it is thought likely to exceed 2,500 individuals (S. David-Rivera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). On this basis, the population is now placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
106009727		threats	eng	The historical decline of this species is attributed to the extensive clearance of forest, principally through timber extraction and agricultural development, and remaining fragments are subject to continuing human pressure. Despite its tolerance of modified landscapes, the species is thought to  require the presence of mature forest, and much of its preferred  inter-montane subtropical forest habitat has been lost (possibly over  90%) in the Andes, and continues to decrease (Fundación ProAves de  Colombia 2011). Tatamá and Cueva de los Guácharos National Parks are affected by settlers, with extensive deforestation in the former, and opium production in the latter (Wege and Long 1995)<strong></strong>. However, increases in forest cover in some areas, e.g. Otun-Quimbaya reserve and Ucumari forest, have failed to result in population increases, suggesting that other factors may also be involved (C. Downing <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Brood parasitism, for example by Giant Cowbirds <span style="font-style: italic;">Molothrus oryzivorus</span>, could explain the local disappearance of the species in  some areas (O. H. Marín <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is sometimes persecuted as a maize crop-pest, and is trapped for the cage-bird trade (Betancur 1994, A. M. Cuervo <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009728		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009729		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Brazil, and occurs in Rio Doce State Park and Pedra Telhada Biological Reserve. Protection at Pedra Talhada is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities, but this species mostly occurs outside the reserve (A. Studer <em>per</em> A. Whittaker <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Rio Doce, it is regularly recorded only in a very small area between the park entrance and Lagoa Carioca (T. A. de Melo Júnior <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ecological studies and experiments on destroying <em>M.&#160;bonariensis</em> eggs are in progress at Pedra Talhada. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgent need to establish a protected area at Mato do Estado (S. Aline Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey known sites in Alagoas and Pernambuco. Re-examine museum collections of <em>G. chopi</em> to disclose additional specimens of this species and identify areas for surveys. Survey to elucidate the species's status at Rio Doce. Investigate protecting habitat near Pirapora. Study and control parasitism by <em>M. bonariensis</em>. <p></p>
106009729		distribution	eng	<em>Curaeus forbesi</em> is currently known from widely scattered sites in east and north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The largest numbers have been recorded at Pedra Talhada, Alagoas, where the breeding population was only c.150 birds in the early 1980s, and has subsequently declined. Elsewhere in Alagoas, there have been recent records from Usina Serra Grande and near Matriz de Camaragibe<strong> (</strong>Roda 2001), and Pedra Branca (near Murici) in 1989, as well as in sugar cane plantations and pastures adjacent to forest at Engenho Coimbro (Roda <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been recent records from Pernambuco at Usina Trapiche<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Roda 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and at Mata do Estado (including flocks of up to 70 [S. Aline Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2007]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), at São Vicente Ferrer and Engenho Água Azul in Timbaúba<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Roda 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The ornithological group Observadores de Aves de Pernambuco lists the species for a further nine localities in Pernambuco (http://users.hotlink.com.br/oapaves/imagens/Registro.pdf)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over 1,400 km to the south, it is known from three sites in Minas Gerais: the confluence of the rio Piracicaba and the rio Doce, where the highest number reported is c.40, near Pirapora<strong> (</strong>E. O. Willis <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and the borders of Parque Nacional Cavernas do Peruaçu<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite the discovery of new sites, the known range of this species is still thought to be very small and severely fragmented. <em> <p></p></em>
106009729		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest edge, adjacent marshy areas and sugarcane plantations. The diet includes fruit, insects and possibly nectar taken from the flowers of sugar cane<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(S. Aline Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in the rainy season, usually March-June. Nests are mainly situated in cultivated mango <em>Mangifera indica</em> trees. Mean clutch-size is 2.84 (1-4) and two clutches are laid per season. A 4-10 day delay between finishing nest construction and laying makes the species highly susceptible to brood-parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>. <p></p>
106009729		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009729		threats	eng	Widespread habitat destruction, particularly in north-east Brazil, has even reduced forest-edge areas. However, the species might be able to withstand the conversion of forests to sugarcane plantations to some degree. At Pedra Talhada, the recent decline is also attributed to brood-parasitism by <em>M. bonariensis</em>. In 1981-1986, 64% of studied nests were parasitised and, in 1987, this was 100%. It has been observed in trade and there is potential confusion with the valued <em>G. chopi</em>. <p></p>
106009730		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009731		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009732		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009733		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009734		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary protects 100 km<sup>2</sup> of forest at 2,200-3,900 m. The highest elevations of Serranía de los Yariguíes National Park remain largely inaccessible and fall within the new national park boundaries. Reserva Páramo La Floresta probably harbours at least 100 individuals (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). This species's ecology is being studied in Soatá (Cortes-Herrera and Hernandez-Jaramillo 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ascertain the status of birds and habitat throughout its former range, especially areas that have not been visited recently. Conduct studies to determine whether the species is dependent on oak forest throughout its range (Cortes-Herrera and Hernandez-Jaramillo 2007). Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Search for the species in other areas containing marshes adjacent to forest (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). <p></p>
106009734		distribution	eng	<em></em><em>Macroagelaius subalaris</em> occurs mainly along the west slope of the East Andes in <strong>Colombia. </strong><span lang="EN-AU">There are historical records from south-west Cundinamarca, north to the tip of the East Andes in Norte de Santander, where it also occurred on the west slope south to the upper Zulia valley<strong> </strong>(M. Alvarez and P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 1999), and it may have occurred throughout the east slope. However, the only recent records are from Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Santander, where it has been described as common (D. Uribe <em>per</em> L. M. Renjifo <em>in litt</em>. 1994) and Serranía de los Yariguíes (Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Its range has certainly contracted following complete deforestation in some areas. Surveys recorded the species in 22 localities (including one from which the species was historically known) from La Aguadita in Cundinamarca to Surata in Santander (Velásquez-Tibatá <em>et al</em>. 2005), although follow-up surveys found that many of these sites are being rapidly deforested and the species may have suffered local extinctions (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2011, 2012). In surveys of Serranía de los Yariguíes between 2003 and 2006, the species was recorded from three sites. At one of those sites, it was abundant; at the others it was observed less frequently (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>.2006, Donegan <em>et al</em>. 2007). Surveys in Yariguíes revealed high abundance in forest bordering a wetland, which may constitute an important habitat for the species (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). The Yariguíes mountains probably harbour a population of at least 800 individuals, and they are regarded as the core area for the remaining global population (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011).  <p></p>
106009734		habitat	eng	It inhabits subtropical and temperate forests at elevations of 2,100-2,900 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990,&#160;<strong> </strong>Jaramillo and Burke 1999, Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002, T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>.2012)<strong></strong>. Studies in the Cordillera Oriental have revealed that it has strongly specialised habitat requirements, being limited to humid oak (<em>Quercus humboltii</em>) forests (Cortes-Herrera and Hernandez-Jaramillo 2007)<strong></strong>. It is particularly abundant in forest and at forest edge near marshes, and the interface between forests and wetland areas appears to be an important habitat for the species (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011). Observations are invariably of small groups in the middle and upper strata, and breeding-condition birds have been collected in September (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990,&#160;<strong></strong>Jaramillo and Burke 1999). The species breeds co-operatively (Cadena <em>et al</em>. 2002)<strong></strong>, with colonies generally being located in either <em>Quercus humboltii </em>or <em>Escallonia pendula</em> trees (Cortes-Herrera and Hernandez-Jaramillo 2007) and a breeding season from June-August (O. Cortes-Herrera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It associates with mixed species frugivore flocks, and has been recorded in flocks of up to 30 individuals in the Yariguíes mountains (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>.2006). <p></p>
106009734		population	eng	Given that the species is apparently abundant at some sites and a minimum conservative estimate of 800 individuals has been provided for the Yariguíes population (Fundación ProAves de Colombia 2011; although it has been suggested that it could be as low as 150-200, O. Cortes-Herrera <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), it is likely that the total population lies between 1,000 and 2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009734		threats	eng	Since the 17th century, the west slope of the East Andes has been extensively logged, burned and cleared for conversion to agriculture (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This species's dependence on oaks <em>Quercus humboltii</em> make it highly susceptible to the effects of logging, cutting for firewood and grazing by cattle, which is thought to limit oak forest to marginal relict patches on steep and rocky areas (Cortes-Herrera and Hernandez-Jaramillo 2007). However, in some areas above 2,500 m, forest cover remains more extensive (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Landscape changes accelerated during the 20th century, especially after 1960, although in some areas habitat regeneration is beginning following the abandonment of marginal land (Stiles <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Deforestation is also taking place for mining operations, principally gold mining (O. Cortes <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pastures dominate the valley below Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce, but the forest is mostly intact from 1,950-2,200 m upwards. However, the lower tracts are still affected by selective logging. Landslides, following the loosening of soils after deforestation, present a threat to relict patches of forest on slopes (Cortes-Herrera and Hernandez-Jaramillo 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009735		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009736		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009740		distribution	eng	<em>Quiscalus palustris </em>had a small distribution in the Lerma marshlands, in the state of México, <strong>Mexico</strong> (<strong></strong>Dickerman 1965), and probably also in Xochimilco in the Valley of Mexico<strong> </strong>(Peterson 1998). It was last recorded in 1910<strong> </strong>(Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), and presumably became extinct soon after<strong> </strong>(Hardy 1967). <p></p>
106009740		habitat	eng	It inhabited tule-cattail and sedge filled marshes.  <p></p>
106009740		threats	eng	Its extinction was due to the draining of its habitat.  <p></p>
106009741		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).
106009743		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009744		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009745		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is not currently listed under the United States Endangered Species Act but there is an International Rusty Blackbird Technical Group set up to research trends, threats and actions for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Identify the reasons behind long-term declines. Devise suitable actions to reverse declines. Consider listing under US Endangered Species Act. Protect suitable habitat. <p></p>
106009745		distribution	eng	<em>Euphagus carolinus </em>has a large range, breeding across the boreal zone of North America from New England, through <strong>Canada</strong> to Alaska and winters widely across the south-eastern <strong>United States</strong>. The population was estimated at 2 million individuals based on data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey collected during the 1980s and 1990s. This figure is now likely to be a considerable overestimate as the species continues to decline. Estimates of the global  decline since 1966 vary between 85% and 99%. This ongoing decline follows a longer term decline that began prior to 1950. The reasons for this dramatic decline remain poorly understood.  <p></p>
106009745		habitat	eng	It breeds in boreal wetlands, primarily around ponds and streams within the boreal forest. It winters primarily in wooded wetlands and is not strongly associated with open agricultural habitats. <p></p>
106009745		population	eng	The population is estimated to number anywhere between 0.2-2 million individuals (R. Greenberg <I>in litt.</I> 2006).
106009745		threats	eng	The reasons behind current trends are poorly understood but several threats are suspected to be causing the declines. The destruction and conversion of boreal wetlands (predominantly in the southern boreal forests) is a significant threat to the species. Strip-mining for tar sands is expected to increase in the future, with up to 300,000 ha of Canada's boreal forest and wetland predicted to be directly affected over the next 30 to 50 years (Wells <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Other possible threats include boreal wetland drying and chemical change resulting from global climate change, depletion of available calcium resulting from acid precipitation, increase in methyl mercury, loss of wooded wetlands in the south-east U.S. winter range, and mortality associated with past and ongoing blackbird control efforts.<br/><p></p>
106009747		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009748		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009752		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
106009761		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The most extensive areas of suitable habitat occur within Lukwakwa Game Management Area. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out intensive surveys in the area of the type-locality, and further north and west, covering any slight variations in the structure of <em>Cryptosepalum </em>forest caused by water or topographical features, and paying special attention to mistletoes. Clarify taxonomic status.<em> </em> <p></p>
106009761		distribution	eng	<em>Pogoniulus makawai</em> is judged to be a rare, relict species which remains known only from the type-specimen, collected in 1964 at Mayau in north-western <strong>Zambia </strong>(Benson and Irwin 1965), despite repeated attempts to relocate the taxon (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Another possibility is that the type specimen was collected in riverine forest along the Mayau River, in which case the species may occupy a more restricted habitat (Collar and Fishpool 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Alternatively the type specimen was a straggler from somewhat different habitats in adjacent Angola (Collar and Fishpool 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The congener Yellow-rumped Tinkerbird <em>Pognolius bilineatus</em> occurs at the type locality of <em>makawai</em> on the limit of its range. Therefore, it is possible that <em>makawai</em> replaces it to the west in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Collar and Fishpool 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Although it has been treated as an aberrant <em>P. bilineatus </em>by many authorities, the case for its validity as a distinct species has recently been argued again (Collar and Fishpool 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a need for intensive surveys in the area of the type-locality, and further north and west, covering any slight variations in the structure of <em>Cryptosepalum </em>forest caused by water or topographical features, and paying special attention to mistletoes.<em> <p></p></em>
106009761		habitat	eng	It would seem to favour dense, evergreen <em>Cryptosepalum</em> thicket, dominated by <em>C. pseudotaxus</em>, and there are large areas of apparently suitable habitat in the relevant area of north-west Zambia and adjacent Angola. The voluminous bill of <em>makawai </em>suggests it may specialise on the berries of mistletoe as other tinkerbirds have been found to (Collar and Fishpool 2006)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009761		population	eng	This species is only known from its type specimen and as such no population estimates are available.
106009761		threats	eng	The <em>Cryptosepalum</em> thickets are sparsely populated by people outside the West Lunga National Park and are difficult to clear for agriculture, so its habitat would appear not to be threatened, although fire is a potential risk as it has affected nearby areas. <p></p>
106009763		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor potential threats to the species's habitat. Protect suitable habitat for the species. <p></p>
106009763		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus bangwaensis</em> is known from the Obudu Plateau, Mambilla Plateau and Gotel Mountains, <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Elgood <em>et al.</em> 1994), and from Mt Oku, Banso Mountains, Bamenda Highlands, Bamboutos Mountains, Bamileke Plateau, Mt Manenguba, the western part of the Adamawa highlands and Poli, <strong>Cameroon</strong> (Stuart 1986, Urban <em>et al</em> 1997). It is found between 2,000 and 2,900 m on Mt Oku, but must have declined there given the loss below 2,200 m of any kind of bush habitat (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Elsewhere, it is still common, or very common, for example, throughout scrubby <em>Maesa</em> forest in the crater of Mt Manenguba and its rims and in forest edge and bracken on the southern slopes (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and on the Mambilla Plateau between 1,700-2,300 m (Ash <em>et al.</em> 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, its range is relatively small and fragmented (Stuart 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009763		habitat	eng	It is a bird of dense undergrowth in small patches of montane forest, at forest edges, secondary growth and thickets under open-canopy forest (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It generally occurs at 1,600-2,300 m in Nigeria and 1,900-2,950 m in Cameroon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is presumed to feed on small invertebrates, which it forages for near the ground in thick cover. It nests in October-November, occasionally in March-April in Cameroon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009763		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally still common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106009763		threats	eng	This species is potentially threatened by habitat clearance (Stuart 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Factors that are thought likely to drive this within the species's range are small-holder cultivation and livestock farming, and small- and large-scale logging for timber.  <p></p>
106009769		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1998, Double and Outer Islands, off Spring Point, West Falkland, were acquired by Falklands Conservation (Woods 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and rat eradication started in 2000, covering these islands and two others, Top and Bottom Islands at Port William (R. Ingham <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In total, rats have now been eradicated from 22 islands (G. Munro <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Of the remaining islands within the range, 162 are known to have no introduced land predators, 75 have confirmed rats and/or mice present and a further 553 have not been surveyed (most of them are small or tiny islands) (N. Huin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/> A conservation action plan has been produced (Woods and Otley 2008). Continue surveys to monitor population trends. Conduct ecological studies in order to understand the necessary conditions for the species's conservation (Woods and Woods 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate rats from selected small islands covered with mature tussock-grass to encourage recolonisation (Woods and Woods 1997, <strong></strong>R. W. Woods <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106009769		distribution	eng	<em>Troglodytes cobbi</em> has a very scattered distribution in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>. Surveys in 1983/1984-1992/1993 indicated breeding on 12 offshore islands and islets, and estimated the total population at 1,300-2,400 pairs (Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong>. In later years, surveys indicated breeding on 35 islands (N. Huin <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, and estimated the total population at 4,500-8,000 pairs (R. W. Woods <em>in litt</em>. 1999, Woods 2000). Currently it is estimated to breed on 70 islands, half of which are smaller than 50 ha (Woods and Otley 2008). Most of the islands are in small groups, separated by up to 64 km of sea, and there is no evidence to suggest an interchange between these island populations (Woods 1993, Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong>. However, it is likely that dispersing immatures are able to cross small bays (R. W. Woods <em>in litt</em>. 1999). In 1983, sample plots on Kidney and Carcass Islands produced population densities of four territorial males per hectare in optimum habitat and two males per hectare in less suitable conditions (R. W. Woods <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <p></p>
106009769		habitat	eng	Optimum habitat is dense tussock-grassland, growing from the high-water mark behind boulder beaches with accumulated dead kelp in which invertebrates thrive. The species is also found in rushes and among rock outcrops up to 1.6&#160;km from coastal tussock on islands with no introduced predators. The nest is usually well-hidden in a gap amongst tussock stems or a tussock pedestal, or in a rock-crevice. Eggs are laid between early October and December, and there are probably two broods per season (Woods 1993, Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009769		population	eng	An estimate of 9,000-16,000 individuals is given by Woods (2000). In 2008 this estimate had remained unchanged at 9,000-16,000 individuals or 6,000 pairs (12,000 mature individuals).
106009769		threats	eng	The species is threatened by the potential introduction of mammalian predators to its breeding islands, especially rats (probably brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em>) because it feeds at ground-level in exactly the habitat used by foraging rats (R. W. Woods <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its present distribution is inversely related to the presence of such predators, whose impact may have increased with the historic destruction of its habitat (Woods 1993, Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rats and probably feral cats have destroyed entire populations (Woods and Woods 1997)<strong></strong>. Grazing pressure and uncontrolled fires are also potential threats (G. Munro <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p>
106009771		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Revisit Enggano Island to assess the species's status and determine whether habitat conversion has occurred. Conduct awareness programmes to discourage hunting. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
106009771		distribution	eng	<em>Otus enganensis</em> is endemic to Enggano Island, off south-west Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). Reports as to its status differ, from very rare to quite uncommon. <p></p>
106009771		habitat	eng	It is thought to occupy forest and wooded areas, and apparently feeds mainly on insects, spiders and other arthropods (König and Weick 2008). <p></p>
106009771		population	eng	With a range of not more than 200 km<SUP>2</SUP>, the population is very unlikely to exceed the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals and may fall some way below this. This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. This preliminary estimate requires clarification.
106009771		threats	eng	Habitat destruction on Enggano has, thus far, been minimal, but recent tentative proposals for agricultural development suggest the possibility for future radical change, and this may exert pressure on the small population of this species. <p></p>
106009772		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has recently been recorded in the Ruteng Nature Recreation Park, newly established to protect an important remnant tract of montane forest. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct extensive nocturnal surveys (using mist-netting <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">and use of vocalisations if available <strong></strong>[Hutchinson <em>et al</em>. 2007]<span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">), on mountains in the Ruteng massif, and also the ridge forests of Mata Wae Ndeo (north of the Tanjung Kerita Mese peninsula) to establish its range, status and ecological requirements. Identify, and propose for strict protection, an appropriate area of mid-altitude, semi-evergreen forest to conserve a range of upper-elevation endemic taxa. Implement active management of Ruteng Nature Recreation Park to protect this owl and its habitat, and upgrade forest adjacent to Rana Mese within this park to wildlife sanctuary status. <p></p></span>
106009772		distribution	eng	<em>Otus alfredi</em> is endemic to the island of Flores, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from just two localities in the western mountains (BirdLife International 2001). Originally collected on Gunung Repok in 1896 in the Todo mountains of south-west Flores, it was not seen again until 1994, when a single juvenile was mist-netted and collected at 1,400 m on the northern slopes of Poco Mandasawu in the Ruteng mountains, and an adult was mist-netted at Danau Ranamese at 1,200 m in the Ruteng mountains. It has since been seen again at Danau Ranamese in 1997, in 2005 (when its vocalisations were described), and in 2006 <strong></strong>(Eaton <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Local reports suggest it may also still occur on Gunung Repok, but information regarding its population is completely lacking. It has a tiny known range, and the puzzling lack of records for nearly a century may perhaps be because it is silent (but still present) in the dry season, when all attempts to locate it have been made. <p></p>
106009772		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest from 1,000 m to at least 1,400 m. If it survives on Gunung Repok, as villagers report, then it must either tolerate the highly degraded forest now present below 1,300 m around the type-locality, or occur above 1,500 m in stunted montane forest. One bird was observed perching 15 m up in the subcanopy. It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements. <p></p>
106009772		population	eng	The population is estimated to number in the low hundreds or the low thousands based on an analysis of historical and recent records and surveys. An estimate derived from density data from congeners, and data on the species's Extent of Occurrence, suggests the population numbers 250-2,499 mature individuals. This is roughly equivalent to 370-3,800 individuals in total.
106009772		threats	eng	Forest loss and fragmentation (chiefly as a result of shifting cultivation, dry season burn-off and road-building) is already extensive on Flores, with remaining forest tracts generally confined to steep-sided valleys and higher peaks. This species has a remarkably small known range, and most primary forest has been cleared or degraded in the mountains outside of Ruteng Nature Recreation Park. <p></p>
106009773		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Local successes include the Runtacocha Highland near Cuzco, where local people are reacting positively towards better environmental control. High-altitude habitats have been surveyed and conservation measures proposed (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>. The 1997 Bolivian record was within Madidi National Park, but <em>Polylepis</em> is threatened at the site (Valqui 2000)<strong></strong>. The Ilampu Valley is in the south-west corner of Cotapata National Park (Vogel and Davis 2002)<strong></strong>. Since 2004, there has been a <em>Polylepis</em> conservation programme working with local communities on the known sites for Royal Cinclodes. The project began with detailed mapping of <em>Polylepis </em>forest and key biodiversity areas within the nearly 100,000 acres of land owned by the Keara and Puina indigenous communities, and is now working to protect the forests in this area by implementing community-based conservation activities, including the establishment of communal greenhouses, plantations of native tree species for alternative firewood, and environmental education workshops in local schools and communities (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003, 2008, 2009)<strong></strong>; and providing more than 400 people with new technologies, such as fuel-efficient stoves that dramatically reduce the demand for <em>Polylepis </em>trees as firewood (ABC 2007)<strong></strong>. This work includes efforts by the Instituto de Ecologia, with the American Bird Conservancy (ABC) providing support (B. Skolnik<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. In Bolivia, research has been carried out to assess the feasibility of long-term <em>Polylepis</em> reforestation through studies into the germination and growth rate of <em>P. pepei</em> and the use of dendrochronology to date the frequency of destructive fires. As a result of this research, reforestation nurseries have been started ready for replanting. Work in local communities has involved sustainable income development through the support of textile trading and development of tourism infrastructure, along with improved medical provision (MacLeod 2009). As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions Programme a number of actions are being implemented through Species Guardian Isabel Gómez (Asociacion Armonía: BirdLife in Bolivia): research on the species's status and distribution has been carried out, including collating all known published and unpublished records as well as spatial modelling and on-the-ground surveys, followed by a second phase of fieldwork to study the species's reproductive biology, territory size, habitat use and movements; a socioeconomic study has been carried out for two local communities; a National Strategy for conservation of <em>Polylepis </em>forest has been developed; a workshop to determine human impacts on <em>Polylepis </em>forests and formulate the possible solutions at the regional level was held which involved the Vice-ministry of Biodiversity, Forestry Resources and Environment as well as members of local communities; and environmental education workshops have been held in three local schools to raise awareness of the birds that live in the <em>Polylepis </em>forest and importance of their conservation. Much of the work carried out in Bolivia between 2004 and 2009 was implemented in conjunction with the Threatened Birds of Bolivia Project, run in partnership by Asociacion Armonía and the University of Glasgow (MacLeod 2009)<strong></strong>. In the Cordillera Vilcanota (Peru), ECOAN, with the support of the ABC, has established nine private reserves on community-owned land totalling over 3,600 ha (D. Lebbin<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010, C. Aucca Chutas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. In addition, since 2004 fencing has been put in place to protect <em>Polylepis</em> sapplings from grazing cattle, and reforestation efforts have so far seen the planting of over 480,000 <em>Polylepis</em> trees and over 150,000 trees of other species since 2002, with some of the latter planted as alternative fuelwood resources. Almost 6,000 fuel-efficient ovens were supplied to 20 communities between 2002 and 2008. Further work has been carried out with local communities to improve people's health and encourage sustainable livelihoods through tourism, textile trading and improved livestock and pasture management. In 2010, a range-wide conservation plan for the species was being developed (D. Lebbin<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010).   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to survey remaining habitat in the relatively inaccessible Cordillera Vilcanota, to determine the species's distribution and investigate its ecology (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, G. Servat <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. Protect Yanacocha Forest and other <em>Polylepis</em> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota (G. Servat <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>. In the Cordillera Vilcanota, prioritise habitat restoration efforts at five localities - Mantanay, Pumahuanca, Abra Malaga, Yanacocha and Cancha-Cancha. Habitat restoration strategies should focus on patch size maintenance/enlargement, enhancement of within-patch habitat quality, and efforts to safeguard connectivity of suitable habitat. Management of habitat quality in remnant patches should focus on maintaining necessary conditions for resource partitioning amongst insectivorous guilds, which dominate the threatened <em>Polylepis</em> bird community. Improve traditional land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas. Expand <em>Polylepis</em> planting programmes and plant buffer zones below <em>Polylepis</em> woodland to provide an alternative firewood source. Evaluate conservation problems and socioeconomic issues. Encourage local people to develop land-use management and restoration schemes (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Establish private nature reserves in key sites. Encourage creation and participation of PES (Payment for Environmental Systems) schemes with local hotel owners/tour companies in Yanahuara/Urubamba. Encourage investment from a private company to finance a local sustainability programme (C. Aucca Chutas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009773		distribution	eng	<em>Cinclodes aricomae</em> occurs in the Andes of south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (Cuzco, Apurímac, Puno, Ayacucho and Junín) and adjacent La Paz, <strong>Bolivia</strong> (C. Aucca Chutas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.&#160; </span>2012). Historically, it was probably common, at least locally, and distributed along the entire Cordillera Real. Its scarce and patchy habitat now occupies c.10% of the estimated potential cover in Bolivia, and possibly less than 3% in large parts of Cuzco (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong></strong>, where natural habitat halved in extent during the 1980s. The majority of Peruvian records are from near Cuzco city, in Cuzco and Apurímac (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996), including the Cordillera Vilcanota (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>, with numbers estimated at 100-150 individuals in 1990 (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong></strong>. It was recently recorded in the Pariahuanca Valley, Junín, a significant northwesterly extension (D. Lane <em>in litt. </em>2008, Witt and Lane 2009)<strong></strong>. Surveys in three river valleys of the Cordillera Vilcanota in 2003-2005 confirmed the species's presence at only one of ten sites visited and estimated just two birds in 1.71 km<sup>2</sup> of <em>Polylepis</em> habitat (Lloyd 2008)<strong></strong>. A record in 1997, in the Cordillera Apolobamba, La Paz (Valqui 2000), was the first in Bolivia since 1876, but it has since been recorded in the Ilampu Valley in 2000 (Vogel and Davis 2002)<strong></strong> and near Sanja Pampa in 2003 (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2003, 2008, 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and subsequent surveys have found it at 14 localities in the country (J. Mobley<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>: eight in the Cordillera Apolobamba and six in the Cordillera la Paz, with the Bolivian population estimated at 50-100 individuals (D. Lebbin<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2010, J. Mobley<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, Gómez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. An international conservation plan for the species that was being drafted in 2010 estimates the population in Peru at 181 individuals, suggesting a total population of 231-281 individuals (D. Lebbin<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010). <p></p>
106009773		habitat	eng	It was thought to be confined to tiny, humid patches of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and montane scrub, mainly at 3,500-4,800 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>, but has recently been recorded in <em>Gynoxis</em> woodland in Junín (D. Lane <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. It forages, presumably for invertebrates, in moss, leaf-litter and decaying wood, descending temporarily to lower elevations during periods of snow (Engblom <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2002)<strong></strong>. The breeding season probably begins in December but, in the Cordillera Vilcanota, pairs are territorial during the austral winter (G. Servat <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1999)<strong></strong>, and have been seen carrying nesting material into a hole in a cliff face in September (H. Lloyd <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004)<strong></strong>. In Bolivia one individual was seen carrying nesting material and an active nest was observed in November (J. Mobley<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>, and fledglings and juveniles have been observed in January and March (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2003, 2008, 2009,&#160; J. Mobley<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A study of one nesting pair suggested that the care of juveniles is biparental (I. Gomez <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2003, 2008, 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009773		population	eng	A range-wide conservation plan for the species that was being drafted in 2010 estimates the total population at 231-281 individuals (D. Lebbin <em>in litt.</em> 2010), thus there are likely to be fewer than 250 mature individuals.
106009773		threats	eng	The main threats are the uncontrolled use of fire and heavy grazing, which combine to cause the degradation and loss of understorey moss cover, and prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). Cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal is locally destructive. <p></p>
106009774		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The efforts of conservationists<strong> </strong>resulted in the creation of the Murici Ecological Station in 2001, encompassing 6,116 ha. National and international efforts to ensure the effectiveness of this designation are on-going (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Frei Caneca is a private reserve protecting c.6 km<sup>2</sup> of forest (Anon 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; an additional 360 ha of adjacent forest have been purchased by Birdlife/SAVE Brazil (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other remnant patches of upland Atlantic forest in Alagoas (such as Usina Serra Grande) and Pernambuco, especially the BirdLife/SAVE Brasil forest, for this species. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Murici Ecological Station. Secure the long-term protected status and conservation of Mata do Estado. Investigate the expansion of Frei Caneca Private Reserve and BirdLife/SAVE Brazil forest area to include adjacent forest. Provide management infrastructure for the area purchased at Serra do Urubu. Implement environmental education programmes at Serra do Urubu and Murici Ecological Station. Conduct research into the species's ecology and breeding biology. <p></p>
106009774		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmotherula&#160;</em><em>snowi</em> has only ever been recorded in Alagoas and Pernambuco states, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was first discovered at Murici (Alagoas) in 1979, when an adult male and two adult females were collected. An additional juvenile male was collected in 1984, and subsequent records throughout the 1990s, in 2000 and in 2009 have only found the species in very small numbers (Whitney and Pacheco 1995, Whitney and Pacheco 1997, <strong></strong><strong></strong>J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999, F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2002). Recently, it has also been discovered in Pernambuco at Mata do Benedito (Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Roda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009)<strong></strong>, Mata do Estado (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2002, Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong> and Frei Caneca (Anon 2003). Although it has not yet been found in Pedra Dantes, the 360-ha forest patch adjacent to Frei Caneca, recently purchased by BirdLife/SAVE Brasil, it is expected to occur there (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007, Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Remaining habitat is very limited and severely fragmented. <p></p>
106009774		habitat	eng	It forages in pairs and small mixed-species flocks in the middle strata of upland semi-humid forest at 400-550 m (Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Birds range from 1.5 to 9 m above ground, keeping mostly at 5-8 m (Whitney and Pacheco 1997)<strong></strong>. Foraging flocks reportedly include White-flanked Antwren <em>M. axillaris</em> and a variety of other formicariids, although observers at Mata do Estado failed to locate it in mixed flocks (Roda <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. The diet consists of arthropods, including spiders, beetles, ants and cockroaches. Breeding probably occurs in February, and juveniles have been recorded in May. <p></p>
106009774		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 33-166 mature individuals, rounded here to 30-200 mature individuals.
106009774		threats	eng	Forest at Murici has been reduced from 70 km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s to 30 km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. In January 1999, new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>A. Whittaker <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The Frei Caneca private reserve and BirdLife/SAVE Brasil area are also still suffering from illegal charcoal exploitation (P. Develey <em>in litt. </em>2007). The massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas and Pernambuco has left few other sites likely to support populations of this species. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is also potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009775		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Small amounts of restinga habitat have been protected by three designated areas: the Jacarepiá and Massambaba State Reserves, and the Massambaba Environmental Protection Area. However, in April 2011, Rio de Janeiro created the 9,841 ha Costa do Sol State Park, encompassing six municipalities and protecting almost all of the species' range. Access to Ilha do Cabo Frio is restricted by the Brazilian navy, thereby providing some protection. Research into its ecology (in particular reproduction rates, home range and foraging behaviour) has been completed (T. Pongiluppi<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong> and a land ownership assessment has commenced, which should result in the creation of new public protected areas (S. F. Bruno <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Awareness campaigns include printing t-shirts and posters and arranging workshops directed at local school teachers (S. F. Bruno <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. In 2009, it was reported that a study was underway to investigate the occurrence of the species in the Núcleo Experimental de Iguaba Grande with the aim of assessing the minimum requirements for its survival, including its habitat requirements (Bruno and Brandes 2009)<strong></strong>. A Species Action Plan was published in 2010 (Alvarez<em> et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The removal of marmosets <em>Callithrix</em> spp. is on-going at Massambaba and in Área de Relevante Interesse Ecológico (ARIE) Formigueiro-do-litoral (Area of Relevant Ecological Interest - Restinga Antwren) (T. Pongiluppi<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to ascertain and monitor its status, especially in the Massambaba area. Ensure continued support for the protected areas where it occurs. Conduct impact assessments prior to real-estate projects. Continue environmental awareness campaigns in the area. Transform the Massambaba and Pau Basil Areas of Environmental Protection into biological reserves in order to increase restrictions on human activities and preserve crucial habitat (Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. A detailed conservation action plan is presented in Alvarez<em> et al</em>. (2010). <p></p>
106009775		distribution	eng	<em>Formicivora littoralis</em> occupies a highly restricted range around Cabo Frio in Rio de Janeiro state, <strong>Brazil</strong> (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992). The type-locality, near Arraial do Cabo, is a strip of dunes some 30 km long and up to 400 m wide. It was recorded at two locations on the northern edge of Lagoa de Araruama in 2003-2005 (Vecchi and Alves 2008)<strong></strong>. Surveys in 2005-2007 resulted in a new locality for the species, Praia de Tucuns (Armação dos Búzios municipality), extending the eastern limit of the species's known range by 5 km, although this likely represents an isolated population (Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2009). These surveys indicate that its range has been underestimated, and its Area of Occupancy has subsequently been estimated at 148 km<sup>2</sup> by Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2009). The species is found at high densities within suitable habitat and has been considered abundant on Ilha do Cabo Frio. Its population was recently estimated at c.2,500-3,800 individuals following the surveys in 2005-2007 (Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2009). The species is likely to be declining rapidly owing to habitat loss and degradation.<p></p>
106009775		habitat	eng	It occupies restinga (beach-scrub habitat, rich in cacti and bromeliads, growing on sand-dunes) and other scrub vegetation on coastal hillsides, and can persist in tiny areas of habitat around holiday homes (G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds usually forage in pairs, remaining close to the ground in dense thickets. Nests have been found in June, October and November on Ilha do Cabo Frio, and breeding would appear to be almost year-round, as judged from the state of the gonads of collected specimens. The nest is constructed from fibres attached to horizontal branch forks. The clutch-size is two with both sexes sharing parental duties.  <p></p>
106009775		population	eng	The total population was recently estimated at c.2,500-3,800 individuals, thus the number of mature individuals is precautionarily estimated to be in the range 1,000-2,499.
106009775		threats	eng	The species's range is within a major holiday development area, where suitable habitat is under pressure from clearance for real-estate projects and the increasing presence of squatters. The type-locality is severely threatened by the salt industry and the development of beachfront housing and high standard holiday resorts. An impending major resort development is likely to result in the destruction of most of the restinga fragment at Praia do Peró, which lies within the Pau Brasil Area of Environmental Protection (Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2009).  <p></p>
106009776		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106009777		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106009778		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in 11 protected areas (C. O. A. Gussoni <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), including Cananéia-Iguape-Peruíbe Environmental Protection Area; Ilha do Cardoso State Park, where there is little suitable habitat; Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station, including the recently added 10,000 ha Banhados de Iguape area<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(P. Develey and A. C. De Luca <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>, and Ilha do Superagüi National Park (Wege and Long 1995). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to ascertain and monitor its status. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of reserves where it occurs, especially in the south-west of Ilha Comprida.  <p></p>
106009778		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes kronei</em> occurs in coastal São Paulo (from the rio Ribeira floodplain south<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Willis and Oniki 1992)<strong></strong>, Parana, Santa Catarina and at two localities in extreme north-east Rio Grande do Sul (Bencke <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000, G. A. Bencke <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000<strong></strong><strong></strong>), <strong>Brazil</strong>. Recent fieldwork suggests that it is distributed throughout sandplain forest within its limited range, and that it can be locally not uncommon (Willis and Oniki 1992)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009778		habitat	eng	It inhabits woodland edge, second growth and scrubby woodlands in sandy coastal restingas and adjacent riverine forest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Willis and Oniki 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. At least in the breeding season, it apparently prefers swampy areas with standing water (Remold and Ramos Nieto 1995)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small insects by sallying and gleaning, sporadically associating with mixed-species flocks (Gussoni 2008). The diet consists mainly of arthropods, especially Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, with some fruit, mainly of <span style="font-style: italic;">Clusia criuva</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ternstroemia brasiliensis</span> (Gussoni 2008). Pairs seem to maintain small territories spaced 100-200 m from their neighbours<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Willis and Oniki 1992)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It breeds in the austral spring: nest building takes place in September and October<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>, and fledged young are observed being fed by their parents in November and December (Willis and Oniki 1992, Remold and Ramos Nieto 1995, Gussoni 2008)<strong></strong>. An oven-shaped nest, comprised of lichens and moss, has been described, situated 1.3&#160;m from the ground in a low bush. It contained two young  (Remold and Ramos Nieto 1995).<br/><p></p>
106009778		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009778		threats	eng	There is rapid and on-going clearance of suitable habitat for beachfront dwellings, notably on Ilha Comprida, and future pressure on restingas are likely to be great. Fires, started deliberately or accidentally, are also a threat. <p></p>
106009779		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Plains lie entirely within Nechisar National Park (Safford <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong> which, although still awaiting gazettement, has been operational since the early 1980s and, up until 1991, was one of the best protected areas in the country, with minimal human use of resources <strong></strong>(EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the situation has changed since then <strong></strong>(EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization had a programme to rehabilitate the National Parks of southern Ethiopia, including the resettlement elsewhere of illegal settlers, but this is no longer operational<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The management of the park was formerly handed over to the African Parks Foundation on 1 February 2005<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(www.africanparks-conservation.com)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As of June 2007, negotiations with adjacent communities for the gazettement of the park were still ongoing (www.africanparks-conservation.com)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct targeted searches for the species, ideally with aim of capturing an individual (Butchart 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out surveys to clarify the species's range and population size (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the species's ecological requirements (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Evaluate the status of the taxon using DNA techniques (Forero and Tella 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Gazette Nechisar National Park (A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. More directly involve Arba Minch town council and its two educational institutions in Park activities (EWNHS 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009779		distribution	eng	<em>Caprimulgus solala</em> is known from a single wing salvaged from a road corpse on the Nechisar Plains, southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, in 1990 (Safford <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. The status of the taxon is unknown, but it is unlikely to be widespread or common (Safford <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. It is precautionarily assumed to be restricted to the Nechisar Plains, an isolated area of probably remnant habitat with the potential for local endemism (S. Butchart <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Several individuals of a large, reddish-brown nightjar with white tail corners and prominent white wing panels were reported from the Nechisar Plains over three nights in April 2009 (Anon 2009), but full details have yet to be published.<br/><p></p>
106009779		habitat	eng	The dead individual was found by the side of a dirt road in a completely treeless area of the Plains, which are a gently undulating 270-km<sup>2</sup> area of natural (edaphic) short grassland on black-lava soil at 1,200&#160;m on the Rift Valley floor (Safford <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Plains are isolated by bushland from any similar short-grass habitat (Safford <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009779		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered unlikely to be widespread or common.
106009779		threats	eng	Heavy resource-use is threatening the future of Nechisar National Park, including excessive grazing by domestic livestock, rapid clearance of trees for fuel and construction material for the expanding town of Arba Minch nearby, and illegal fishing <strong></strong>(EWNHS 1996)<strong></strong>. Such resource use is being reduced in the park (www.africanparks-conservation.com)<strong></strong>. In 1998, a fire started by illegal settlers within the National Park caused considerable damage to an area of c.12 km<sup>2 </sup>(A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. <p></p>
106009780		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon (Baker 1997).
106009781		distribution	eng	This species was discovered in 1992 in the Maromiza Forest, close to the Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra in the central area of the eastern rain forest of Madagascar (Goodman et al. 1996). It has subsequently been found to be restricted to, but relatively widespread in, the eastern part of the island from Anjanaharibe-Sud in the north to Andohahela in the south, being recorded from eight localities including six nature reserves, although it may well occur in areas to the north and south of its currently known range (Goodman et al. 1996).
106009781		habitat	eng	The species would appear to prefer evergreen, humid rain forest between 900-2,100 m, but is found in primary forest, montane forest, along steep ridges, areas of bamboo and also in altered habitats including disturbed and degraded forest, exotic plantations next to native forest and forest fragments (Goodman et al. 1996, Morris and Hawkins 1998). In montane forest it favours areas dominated by Podocarpus, and in ridge-top sclerophyllous forest it favours areas where epiphytic moss and lichens are plentiful (Goodman et al. 1996). It inhabits the canopy and sub-canopy of trees and shrubs from 2-25 m but is found most often between 3-15 m, sally-gleaning insects from foliage, twigs and branches (Goodman et al. 1996). It has been recorded on numerous occasions in mixed species flocks (Goodman et al. 1996). The breeding season is October-December; one nest examined contained three eggs and family groups observed in November have comprised up to four individuals (Goodman et al. 1996). Records of the species in degraded and altered habitats indicate that it is tolerant of disturbance (Goodman et al. 1996).
106009781		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
106009781		threats	eng	The principal threat to the eastern humid forests is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, resulting in progressively more degraded regrowth and leading eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
106009782		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea pomarea </em>is known only from the type, collected on Maupiti, Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, by Blosseville in 1823<strong> </strong>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984). It presumably became extinct soon after, because it has not been recorded since.  <p></p>
106009782		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited forest at all altitudes.  <p></p>
106009782		threats	eng	The Society Islands have lost most of their original vegetation and their avifauna has suffered greatly through competition and predation from introduced species<strong> </strong>(Todd 1984); these factors are likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
106009783		distribution	eng	<em>Dromaius baudinianus</em> was endemic to Kangaroo Island, off South Australia, <strong>Australia</strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). Writing in 1837, Leigh reported that birds had not been seen for 10 years<strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1991).  <p></p>
106009783		habitat	eng	Peron, who visited the island in 1802-1803 with Baudin, wrote that the species inhabited "the innermost recesses of the woods", but would visit the shoreline in the afternoon<strong> </strong>(Howchin 1926).  <p></p>
106009783		threats	eng	The species was apparently systematically hunted to extinction by a settler<strong> </strong>(Howchin 1926), although habitat alteration by fire may also have contributed to its demise<strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1991). <p></p>
106009786		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009787		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are 20 protected areas in the Barisan Mountains, some of which lie within the current known range of this species. The recent records come from Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park and near Kerinci Seblat National Park. Also, one specimen was collected from within, or close to Kerinci Seblat National Park. Survey effort is likely to increase following the recent recording of its call: knowledge of ground-cuckoo calls has facilitated study of two other Asian species in the past. Efforts to protect habitat and promote tourism are being developed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Choose potential survey areas by identifying remaining habitat tracts in the Barisan Mountains, particularly near historical localities, and conducting village interviews. Conduct extensive surveys (utilising recent recordings of the species's call) to establish its true range, current distribution and population, and assess its habitat requirements, threats and conservation needs. Following surveys, review whether key populations are adequately represented within the existing protected-area network, and if not, advocate establishment of further strategic protected areas. Afford the species full protection under Indonesian law. <p></p>
106009787		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is only known from eight specimens and a recent series of sightings, the majority of which have come from the Barisan Mountains in the southern half of the island (BirdLife International 2001). Unrecorded since 1916, an individual was trapped and photographed in November 1997 at Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (BBS) (at 500 m) <strong></strong>(Zetra <em>et al.</em> 2002). Subsequent records comprise an unconfirmed sighting in 2000 in the Bukit Rimbang-Baling Wildlife Sanctuary from an area of hilly, open secondary forest with dense undergrowth at 700m <strong></strong>(Zetra <em>et al.</em> 2002), a bird photographed by a camera-trap near Kerinci Seblat National Park in 2006 <strong></strong>(Anon 2006, Dinata <em>et al.</em> 2008) and a bird caught and brought to conservationists in BBS in 2007 <strong></strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2010). Up to five birds have since been seen and heard in the wild near the site of the original trapped bird in BBS; at Way Titias, near Liwa, in central BBS, and another heard calling, and reported by hunters, in an area north of BBS <strong></strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2010). Very little is known about its population status. Its close relative, the Bornean Ground-cuckoo <em>C. radiatus</em>, is unobtrusive, which may partly account for the lack of records. However, it seems likely that it is rare and locally distributed. <p></p>
106009787		habitat	eng	Information noted on specimen labels reveals that it inhabits foothill and lower montane forest, with records from 300-1,400 m. All recent records are from 800-1,000 m <strong></strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2010). Brief habitat descriptions from collecting localities and the site of the recent sightings indicate that it occurs in primary or little-disturbed forest <strong></strong>(Anon 2006). All known sites appear to have a relatively dense understorey. It is a ground-dweller, apparently feeding on invertebrates, reptiles and small mammals on the forest floor (based on the range of prey captured and eaten by a captive bird in a semi-wild enclosure) <strong></strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2010). Other than this, there is no information on its ecology and behaviour. <p></p>
106009787		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106009787		threats	eng	Deforestation has been extensive on Sumatra and this is probably the main threat. At least two-thirds to four-fifths of original lowland forest cover and at least one-third of montane forest have been lost, primarily to agricultural encroachment by shifting cultivators, which is currently affecting large areas of lower montane forest, even within protected areas. At the type locality, Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900 m as early as 1917. In addition, being a ground-forager, it is possibly susceptible to bycatch through hunting by use of snares: a recent record was obtained when a bird was captured by a hunter, almost certainly in a snare set for Red Junglefowl <em>Gallus gallus </em><strong></strong>(N. Brickle <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008, 2010). <p></p>
106009788		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
106009789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
106009791		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Proposals for action have been put to governmental agencies but no action has yet been taken (Bornschein and Reinert 1997, Reinert 2001,&#160;Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007, Reinert <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect key sites, especially in Guaratuba Bay (Bencke <em>et al. </em>2006, Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct long-term population monitoring to ascertain trends. Clarify taxonomic status of Sao Paulo birds. <p></p>
106009791		distribution	eng	<em>Stymphalornis acutirostris</em> is known in a discrete area in coastal Paraná, Santa Catarina and Sao Paulo, southern <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was found in 1995 in a small marsh near Matinhos city, southern Paraná coast (Bornschein <em>et al.</em> 1995). Subsequent surveys have found the species at Antonina, Morretes, Paranaguá, Pontal do Paraná and Guaratuba municipalities in Paraná state, and at Garuva, Itapoá, Joinville, Araraquari, Balneário Barra do Sul, Guaramirim, São João do Itaperiú and Barra Velha municipalities in Santa Catarina state (Bornschein and Reinert 1997,&#160;Reinert 2001, Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007<strong><sup></sup></strong>). The taxonomic position of birds present at the Tiete river mouth, Sao Paulo requires clarification and it has been suggested that they may represent a separate species (Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007). The stronghold is Guaratuba Bay, where it is known in Ilha do Chapeu, Chapeuzinho and the lower thirds of the rios São João, Cubatão, São Joãozinho, Descoberto, Boguaçu, Preto, Parado and Alegre (Reinert 2001, Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007), which holds the largest subpopulation (more than 7,000 individuals) (Reinert 2001, Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007). All populations are restricted to small patches or narrow tracts of habitat (Reinert 2001, Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em> <p></p></em>
106009791		habitat	eng	It exclusively inhabits littoral marshes, dominated by <em>Scirpus californicus</em> with other marsh vegetation (especially Asteraceae and Poaceae) such as grasses and bushes. It also occurs in riverine marshes, flooded plains with herbaceous vegetation and transition areas to mangrove swamps and flooded lowland florests with herbaceous strata. Most localities are subject to periodic fluctuations in water-levels. It is mostly found in pairs in low, dense vegetation. It forages mostly below 60 cm and the diet appears to consist exclusively of arthropods (Reinert <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data.)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009791		population	eng	A total population of 17,700 individuals was estimated by Reinert <I>et al. </I>(2007), and so it is best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
106009791		threats	eng	Some patches of habitat, including the type-locality, are under constant human pressure and have been reduced by fires, allotments and landfills. Other threats include land acquisition, disturbance from boat traffic on rivers during the breeding season, erosion due to water traffic, sand extraction from river margins, invasive vegetation (especially <em>Brachiaria</em> spp.) and cattle-grazing (Bornschein <em>et al.</em> 1995,&#160;Bornschein and Reinert 1997,&#160;Reinert 2001, Reinert <em>et al.</em> 2007, Reinert <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data.)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species also could be affected by sea level rise, which could greatly reduce the area of suitable habitat (Reinert <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
106009792		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009793		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Chapada da Diamantina National Park but the latter does not provide <em>de facto </em>protection (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of potentially suitable habitat between Boa Nova and Chapada Diamantina. Assess the population in Chapada da Diamantina National Park. Research its ecological requirements. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Chapada da Diamantina and surrounding forests. Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest fragments near Boa Nova. <p></p>
106009793		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis </em><span style="font-style: italic;">whitneyi </span>was discovered in 1992 near Boa Nova, in the Serra da Ouricana, east Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong> (Pacheco and Gonzaga 1995). However, no more than 10 pairs have been found in the remnant forests of this <span style="font-style: italic;">serra </span>(Pacheco and Gonzaga 1995)<strong></strong>. It was subsequently found in three discrete areas of Chapada da Diamantina National Park in central Bahia (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999). Recently however, it has been discovered in a number of additional localities: Mata Escura; Fazenda Limoeiro (Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>; Serra Bonita, near Camacã; southern Chapada Diamantina (Parrini<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em><strong> </strong>1999)<strong></strong>; a forest belt 5 km wide running along the coast between Ituberá and Camamu (P. C. Lima <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong> and at Serra das Lontras in southern Bahia (<strong></strong>Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009793		habitat	eng	It occurs at elevations of 750-1,200&#160;m in montane Atlantic forest and apparently tolerates second growth and forest edge (Pacheco and Gonzaga 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It gleans for insects (mainly arthropods) in the dense undergrowth where there are high densities of vines and sometimes bamboo (Pacheco and Gonzaga 1995). <p></p>
106009793		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009793		threats	eng	In the Serra da Ouricana, forests have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pastureland and cultivation (Gonzaga and Pacheco 1995, Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 1995). Only a few privately-owned tracts of forest remain, and these are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading out of cultivated areas (Gonzaga and Pacheco 1995, Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. By 1999, the largest remaining patch of c.3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> had been largely destroyed and the long-term survival of this species in the area is highly questionable (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Illegal charcoal burning and forest clearance has been observed in Chapada da Diamantina National Park, where the sight of logging trucks is not uncommon (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999). <p></p>
106009794		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Chapada da Diamantina National Park but this does not provide <em>de facto </em>protection (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It is well-protected at Serra Bonita Private Reserve (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of potentially suitable habitat between Boa Nova and Chapada Diamantina. Assess the population in Chapada da Diamantina National Park. Research its ecological requirements. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Chapada da Diamantina and surrounding forests. Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest fragments near Boa Nova and in the Serra das Lontras. <p></p>
106009794		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes beckeri</em> is only known from seven localities in Bahia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999, Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005, Bencke <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> and two in Minas Gerais (Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2004, Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>. In 1992, it was discovered near Boa Nova in the Serra da Ouricana but no more than 10 pairs have been found in these remnant forest fragments<strong> </strong>(Gonzaga and Pacheco 1995). It has subsequently been found in two discrete areas of Chapada da Diamantina National Park in central Bahia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and at Serra das Lontras<strong> </strong>(Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005), and recently at Fazenda Duas Barras in Santa Maria do Salto municipality (Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2004) and at Mata da Balbina in Bandeira (Ribon <em>et al.</em> 2005), both in northeast Minas Gerais. Chapada da Diamantina clearly holds the bulk of the population, but it is also common in Serra Bonita Private Reserve and Amargosa, all in Bahia (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p>
106009794		habitat	eng	It occurs at 800-1,200&#160;m in montane Atlantic forest, perhaps favouring taller forests and mature secondary habitats<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Gonzaga and Pacheco 1995, Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It forages for arthropods in the canopy, where it is found in pairs or small family groups (Gonzaga and Pacheco 1995,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.<p></p>
106009794		population	eng	The species is likely to have a population exceeding 2,500 mature individuals (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), and so it is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009794		threats	eng	In the Serra da Ouricana, forests have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pastureland and cultivation. Only a few privately-owned tracts of forest remain, and these are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading out of cultivated areas (Gonzaga and Pacheco 1995,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong> </strong>Gonzaga <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1995). By 1999, the largest remaining patch of c.3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> had been largely destroyed and the long-term survival of this species in the area is highly questionable (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Illegal charcoal burning and forest clearance has been observed in Chapada da Diamantina National Park, where the sight of logging trucks is not uncommon<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Parrini <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009795		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect core areas of remaining habitat. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Attempt to obtain an accurate estimate of its population size and trends. Quantify extent of habitat losses. Establish new, community-owned or private protected areas as an alternative to loss of forest to commercial oil palm operations (Sharpe 1999).<br/><p></p>
106009795		distribution	eng	<em>Nyctiphrynus rosenbergi</em> occurs in west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Chocó, Valle, Nariño and possibly Cauca) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, north-west Pichincha and south-west Imbabura)<strong></strong> (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001) where it is relatively common but declining due to widespread habitat loss.<em> <p></p></em>
106009795		habitat	eng	It occurs in very humid lowland evergreen forest and edge, favouring treefalls and river edges, but also in adjacent secondary forest up to 900 m<strong></strong> (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009795		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009795		threats	eng	Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Chocó forests, and deforestation rates are accelerating<strong></strong> (Salaman 1994). Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all threaten its remaining forest habitat<strong></strong> (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). Large areas of its western Ecuadorian range are being purchased, denuded of forest and converted to industrial oil palm plantations (Sharpe 1999). <p></p>
106009800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009801		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Several reserves are in the process of being created within the species's range (<strong></strong>J. F. Pacheco <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to provide a better delimitation of its range and assess numbers. Research its precise ecological requirements. Designate reserves in the Serra das Lontras and the Serra Bonita that include areas with an extensive <span style="font-style: italic;">cabruca </span>canopy. Provide incentives for landowners to protect remaining forest. <p></p>
106009801		distribution	eng	<em>Acrobatornis fonsecai</em> is known from the cocoa-growing district of south-east Bahia and north-east Minas Gerais (Ribon <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>, between the rio Jequitinhonha and slightly to the north of the rio das Contas. Precise numbers are not known, but it occurs at numerous localities within this range and appears to be not uncommon. <p></p>
106009801		habitat	eng	It inhabits the canopy and subcanopy of <span style="font-style: italic;">cabruca </span>(extensive shade cocoa plantations, with native canopy species) within moist lowland forest up to 550 m. It is probably absent from coastal forests. Recorded food items include mainly Coleoptera and other insects. Breeding has been recorded between September and October. <p></p>
106009801		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009801		threats	eng	Virtually all forest below 400 m has been converted to cocoa plantations or completely cleared. The system of shaded cocoa plantations has secured the survival of a continuous canopy cover in places, but there is no forest regeneration owing to weeding of the understorey. During the 1990s, falls in the price of cocoa and the introduction of a fungal disease resulted in a downturn in cocoa production. Landowners have started to sell timber from the shading forests, and to shift production from cocoa to other crop-types or livestock-grazing. <p></p>
106009802		distribution	eng	<em>Ara tricolor </em>was endemic to mainland <strong>Cuba</strong>, and probably also the Isle of Pines<strong> </strong>(Walters 1995, Olson and Suárez 2008). There is no evidence for the historical existence of the species, or any other macaw, on Hispaniola (Olson 2005), where it has been erroneously suggested to occur (Wetherbee 1985). The last specimen was collected in 1864<strong> </strong>(Bangs and Zappey 1905), with the last reports in 1885<strong> </strong>(Lack 1976). At least 19 specimens<strong> </strong>(Moreno 1992) and three fossils (Olson and Suárez 2008) of the species exist. <p></p>
106009802		habitat	eng	It inhabited forest, requiring trees with large holes for nesting purposes. It probably fed mainly on hard palm seeds (Olson and Suárez 2008).<p></p>
106009802		threats	eng	Its extinction was caused by hunting for food and felling of nesting trees to capture young birds for pets<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989).  <p></p>
106009804		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor potential threats within its altitudinal range. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against future threats.  <p></p>
106009804		distribution	eng	<em>Aethopyga linaraborae</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is currently known from Mts Mayo, Puting Bato (Tagub) and Pasian in the eastern provinces of Davao del Norte and Davao Oriental. It is relatively common in suitable habitat within its altitudinal range; assuming that it occurs in all available remaining habitat above 1,200 m, its total range comprises 770 km<sup>2</sup>, but it is unlikely to be seriously threatened in the present or near future. <p></p>
106009804		habitat	eng	It occupies montane mossy forest from 970-2,000 m and above. Breeding appears to take place in May, but may happen at other times of year. <p></p>
106009804		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its very small total range (Cheke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).
106009804		threats	eng	As it occurs in rugged and inaccessible mountains that contain few commercial tree species and generally are too steep for agriculture it is unlikely to face significant threats at present. <p></p>
106009805		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from one protected area, Mt Kitanglad Natural Park, and older records derive from areas now within the Mt Apo Natural Park, Mt Malindang National Park, Mt Matutum Forest Reserve (proposed as a national park) and Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve. Basilan is ostensibly a national park, but lacks effective protection. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct fieldwork to assess abundance, elevational range and habitat requirements at key sites. Carry out surveys to assess whether the species is (still) present in poorly surveyed areas of Mindanao (e.g. Mts Hilong-hilong, Matutum, Mayo and Three Kings). Ensure the effective protection of remaining forest at (possible) key sites. <p></p>
106009805		distribution	eng	<em>Phapitreron brunneiceps</em> is endemic to the islands of Mindanao and Basilan in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from 10 localities on Mindanao and three on Basilan (Collar<strong> </strong><em>et al.</em> 1999). Since 1980, there have been records from five sites (including Bislig and Mt Kitanglad) on Mindanao. During bird surveys from 2005 to 2007 in Eastern Mindanao, it was encountered only twice: once at Mount Hilong-hilong (a single specimen was netted) and once at Mount Tagub-Kampalili, both in montane forests above 1,200 m <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). There is also a recent record from Zamboanga (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It has not been recorded on Basilan since 1937. Its status is considered at best uncommon and at worst extremely rare, although its unobtrusive nature coupled with problems of field separation from <em>P. amethystina</em> may partially impede an accurate assessment. <p></p>
106009805		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland, hill and lower montane forests up to 1,500 m, occupying a similar ecological niche to <em>P. amethystina</em>, and any factors separating the two species are not yet known. It is not clear if the species makes seasonal or altitudinal movements, but both are considered likely on a local scale. <p></p>
106009805		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009805		threats	eng	Deforestation, and intensive hunting are the main threats. Illegal logging is not as rampant at high elevations, because most trees are not commercially valuable <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In addition, high elevation mountains, at least in eastern Mindanao, are steep, thus they are not threatened by agriculture <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). However, mining is a present threat as there are current explorations in high elevation areas. For example, a proposed mineral reservation at the heart of the proposed Mount Tagub-Kampalili Protected Landscape (Davao Oriental and Compostela Valley Province) has been given clearance by communities and local government units <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Similar open-pit chromite and nickel mining reservations are also being proposed in areas along the eastern Mindanao mountains <strong></strong>(J. Ibanez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Just 29% of Mindanao remained forested in 1988 (now considered a considerable overestimate). Almost all forest below 1,200 m has been felled at Mt Kitanglad. On Basilan, logging operations in the 1960s, followed by clearance for agriculture and increased hunting, have undoubtedly affected the species, but security concerns have prevented surveys that could verify this (D. Allen<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).    <p></p>
106009807		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the Barotse floodplains in Zimbabwe (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and establish the identity of the plain-backed pipits that are reportedly commonly found on open savannas in the northern and central Kalahari. Carry out fieldwork in the Kimberley area and adjacent areas in southern Africa to attempt to determine its breeding range and the extent of its non-breeding range.  <p></p>
106009807		distribution	eng	<em>Anthus longicaudatus</em> is known from <strong>South Africa</strong>, but is presumed to be a migrant. It has also been recorded from <strong>Zambia </strong>and<strong> Botswana. </strong>It occurs in flocks of 10-40 individuals, sometimes in mixed flocks with resident pipits - Buffy Pipit <em>A. vaalensis</em>, African Pipit <em>A. cinnamomeus</em> and Long-billed Pipit <em>A. similis </em>- on playing fields in the town of Kimberley, and on surrounding farms (Liversidge 1996)<strong></strong>. It may breed further north on the Barotse floodplains in Zimbabwe (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, while there are reports that non-breeding flocks of a plain-backed pipit are commonly found on open savannas in the northern and central Kalahari during the wet season: these could be of the northern race of Plain-backed Pipit <em>A. leucophrys</em> or may relate to <em>A. longicaudatus</em><strong> </strong>(Harrison <em>et al.</em> 1997). Ornithologists in Kimberley and neighbouring regions, and further afield, should be on the alert for the occurrence of migratory or breeding individuals of this very poorly known species (Liversidge 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009807		habitat	eng	Its breeding habitat is unknown, but in the non-breeding season it occurs in short dry grassland including urban parks and playing fields (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its horizontal posture and exaggerated tail-wagging behaviour are distinctive (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009807		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
106009807		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
106009808		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Mahafaly plateau includes Tsimanampetsotsa Strict Reserve, the only protected area which holds the species (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The region around Hatokaliotsy has been identified as a site of special biodiversity interest (Nicoll and Langrand 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and warrants protected-area designation (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish population-density estimates in different habitats and degrees of forest degradation, especially in <em>Euphorbia</em> scrub around Tsimanampetsotsa and Hatokaliotsy and to the north of the main Toliara-Antananarivo road (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct research into the species's ecology, including interactions with sympatric species (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Carry out sample surveys of suitable habitat in its projected range, to confirm its presence/absence, especially south of Linta (Sim and Zefania 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor the clearance and degradation of <em>Euphorbia</em> scrub within the species's projected range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, including the region around Hatokaliotsy.  <p></p>
106009808		distribution	eng	<em>Calicalicus rufocarpalis</em> was described from two specimens collected in 1947 near Toliara, south-west <strong>Madagascar</strong> (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1997a). It was not seen again until photographed in 1992 and seen in July 1997, when about nine males were located in the same area, on the road between La Table and St Augustin in an area of suitable habitat covering c.30 km<sup>2</sup>, indicating a possible population of 30-100 pairs in the area (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further south, it is now known from Hatokaliotsy, Tsimanampetsotsa and other areas on the Mahafaly plateau, but its density appears to be relatively low (ZICOMA 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most recently its known range has been extended 50 km south, with several records at Linta and suitable habitat further south of this site (Sim and Zefania 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009808		habitat	eng	The species is found in dense <em>Euphorbia</em> scrub, where it forages in low, dense bushes, 2-3 m high, feeding on small insects, mostly by gleaning from leaves and branches and also by sally-gleaning (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Often in family groups, it may be difficult to find if not calling. <p></p>
106009808		population	eng	The population estimate of 250-999 mature individuals is based on an assessment by Hawkins <em>et al.</em> (1998) that 30-100 pairs occur at the site of rediscovery, and that it occurs at low density at additional sites to the south. This estimate equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
106009808		threats	eng	The species's known habitat is being patchily degraded by shrub clearance for charcoal and grazing by goats (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; localised timber extraction is also a problem at some sites (Sim and Zefania 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, much habitat remains intact because the soil is unsuitable for agriculture, and the area is inhabited predominantly by fishermen and goat-herders (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This situation could change rapidly, however, if immigrant agriculturalists with different agricultural techniques move to the area (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; population densities remain high in most of its scrubby habitat (Sim and Zefania 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009809		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>The remaining deciduous, dry, southern forest and scrubland has been identified as the vegetation type with the most outstanding need for additional reserves in Madagascar (Du Puy and Moat 1996).
106009809		distribution	eng	The species is largely restricted to south-western Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Ankapoky, Petriky, Tolagnaro and possibly Mandena (Schulenberg et al. 1993).
106009809		habitat	eng	The species was formerly considered a subspecies of Madagascar Brush-Warbler N. typica which is common and widespread in Madagascar (Schulenberg et al. 1993), but was proposed as a full species in 1993. It is restricted to arid areas from sea level to 500 m, typically in Euphorbia forest, low coastal scrub, degraded forest and the edges of lowland, evergreen, humid forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998). It is found alone or in pairs, feeding on insects (Langrand 1990). The nest is built close to the ground in a dense tuft of grass or bush; clutch size is two and nesting has been observed in August-February, peaking in October-December (Langrand 1990).
106009809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Sinclair and Langrand 1998).
106009810		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in areas with adequate vegetation cover (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106009814		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Mangere Island has been substantially re-vegetated (Aikman<em> et al. </em>2001, D. Houston and C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. An ecological and genetic research programme has investigated population dynamics, hybridisation and mate selection (H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Chan <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. During 1976-1999, hybrid birds and <em>C. n. chathamensis</em> individuals were culled from the population (Nixon 1994)<strong></strong>. In 1998, 40 hybrids and six <em>C. n. chathamensis</em> were killed, leaving c.10 hybrids and <em>C. n. chathamensis</em> after the operation (H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Surveys of the relative proportion of hybrids to Forbes-type phenotypes are carried out biennially (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.  Translocation into a predator-proof fenced area on Chatham Island is planned for 2017 (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete ecological, biological and genetic research, including the analysis and dissemination of results. Monitor trends in the extent and quality of forest habitats on Mangere Island. Restore forest habitats on Mangere Island to increase numbers and reduce hybridisation. Work towards the establishment of one or more further populations on Chatham Island (H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009814		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus forbesi</em> is restricted to Little Mangere and Mangere Islands in the Chatham Island group, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. By 1930, it was extinct on Mangere Island, but by 1973 it had recolonised and numbered 40 birds and a small number of hybrids with <em>C. n. chathamensis</em> (of which there were 12 on the island) (Higgins 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1996, two estimates indicated that the population on Mangere Island numbered 50-120 pure-bred birds. The Little Mangere Island population is poorly known due to few visits taking place (H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1999, the total population was estimated to be about 120 birds (Aikman<em> et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>, but surveys in 2003 estimated 900 individuals on Mangere Island (Aikman and Miskelly 2004, D. Houston and C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. A recent study estimated that over 50% of the parakeet population on Mangere Island consisted of hybrid individuals (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>, but this is expected to decrease owing to positive assortative mating (T. Greene <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012); the number of non-<span style="font-style: italic;">forbesi</span> phenotypes is approaching the 10% management threshold<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) (i.e. the number above which culling may be resumed as a management tool). Birds have been recorded visiting the south of Chatham Island, Pitt Island and Rangatira Island (Taylor 1998, D. Houston and C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008, T. Greene <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009814		habitat	eng	It appears to prefer dense, unbroken forest and scrub, whereas Red-crowned Parakeets <em>Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae</em> are more common in open habitats. It feeds on invertebrates, flowers, seeds, leaves, fruit, shoots and bark (Nixon 1994, Higgins 1999)<strong></strong>. It nests in natural crevices or hollows in dead or living trees (Higgins 1999)<strong></strong>, as well as abandoned petrel burrows and other holes in ground or under trees (T. Greene<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).  <br/><p></p>
106009814		population	eng	The population of <em>forbesi</em>-like phenotypes has increased dramatically on Mangere Island with best estimates placing the population at 800-1,000 individuals. A survey in 2011 assessed the phenotypes of concern to be at 10%, the trigger level for management action (D. Houston <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In terms of mature individuals, it is precautionarily retained in the band 50-249 pending further study.
106009814		threats	eng	It disappeared from Mangere Island owing to a combination of deforestation for pastoralism, decades of burning, the effects of introduced grazing mammals and predation by feral cats (Higgins 1999)<strong></strong>. The greatest present threat is hybridisation with <em>C. n. chathamensis</em> which, despite culling, continues to establish itself on Mangere Island (J. Kearvell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The previously high rate of hybridisation is believed to be the result of the then low population sizes of the two species (D. Houston and C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Levels of hybridisation have remained below 10% of the total Mangere Island parakeet population for the past decade, and so no management intervention has been necessary. <p></p>
106009815		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II (1981). Hawdon and Poulter valleys are located within Arthur's Pass National Park and the Hurunui South Branch is in Lake Sumner Conservation Park (<strong></strong>J. van Hal <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Monitoring and conservation of this species is problematic given the difficulty in separating it from <em>C. auriceps</em>. The Hurunui population is contained within a "mainland island" which aims to protect and restore two river valleys through integrated pest management, including minimising numbers of <em>M. erminea</em>. Monitoring of nests will verify whether this is allowing numbers to stabilise and expand. The Hawdon population received <em>M. erminea</em> control only during plague years, which occur, on average, every four years (J. Kearvell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. However, following the dramatic decline in the parakeet population after failure to effectively control predators, rat poisoning and stoat trapping are more extensive within the Hurunui "mainland island" (Keey 2004)<strong></strong>. All three valleys are now part of the "Operation Ark" initiative targeting rats and stoats in South Island beech forest sites. The control of <em>M. erminea </em>is now continuous, whereas control measures against rats are implemented when populations reach trigger points (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Every nest found is also individually protected with tin tree wraps (to prevent access by predators) and a circle of traps at the base of the nest tree (<strong></strong>J. van Hal <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Since 2003, the captive facility at Isaacs Construction Wildlife Centre, Peacock Springs (Christchurch), has released, in conjunction with Department of Conservation, a total of over 250 <em>C. malherbi </em>(J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Since 2005, individuals have been translocated to Chalky Island in Fiordland, which is free from predators (Duncan and van Hal 2004)<strong></strong>. The reintroduction of birds to Maud Island has been underway since 2007, and wild-bred birds are now nesting on the island. Translocations to Tuhua Island have been taking place since December 2009, and in early 2011 it was expected that all birds produced in the next captive breeding season would be released there to provide a sufficient founder population (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Translocations have also been carried out on Blumine  Island (J.  Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A second captive-breeding group is being set up at Mount Bruce, with only three birds as of early 2012 (J. Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A study has been initiated to assess the genetic diversity of the remnant mainland population, with the aim of ensuring that any new founder populations on islands are as genetically diverse as possible, and initial results should be available in late 2012. An analysis of breeding data is also due to be started. A comprehensive testing programme for Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) is currently underway on parrots throughout New Zealand (T. Greene <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Resurvey and disease screening of birds on Chalky Island in Fiordland was planned for August 2012.  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a technique to accurately monitor numbers. Continue to study the species's breeding biology and ecology. Stabilise and increase numbers in the mainland valley populations through predator control, and monitor effectiveness. Train people in the identification of the species (J. Kearvell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Following the success of translocations to Chalky Island and Maud Island, establish further populations on predator-free offshore islands. Closely monitor the threat from PBFD (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Continue research into methods of controlling introduced predators (J. Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009815		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus malherbi</em> is known from three valleys in the South Island of <strong>New Zealand</strong> which are all known to support small breeding populations: the South Branch Hurunui River valley, Hawdon River valley and the Poulter valley, North Canterbury. Birds were sighted in the North Branch of the Hurunui River valley in 2004 and 2005, and a lone male was seen in the Andrews valley in 2007 (J. Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A sighting of a single bird from the Eglington Valley, Southland (1990-1991) was reported. Unconfirmed sightings from three further valleys during the 1990s are known. In 1999-2000, the population crashed from perhaps 500-700 birds to a rough estimate of 100-200 as a result of ship rat irruptions in two successive summers (<strong></strong>J. van Hal <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009)<strong></strong>. The population has appeared to stabilise at low levels since then and may now be increasing owing largely to translocations. It was once present in the North, most of the South, and Stewart Islands. Range contraction is apparently on-going, with searches failing to find populations present in the 1960s and 1980s (Higgins 1999)<strong></strong>. Translocations to Chalky Island in Fiordland began in December 2005 and have proved successful, with birds breeding and the population expanding to utilise all corners of the island (Anon. 2007)<strong></strong>, with over 150 birds estimated in 2009 (<strong></strong>J. van Hal <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and 100-200 individuals in early 2011 (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. An apparent decline has recently been detected in the Chalky Island population, accompanied by an increase in <em>C. auriceps </em>(J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011), and in April 2012 there were thought to be not much over 50 mature individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. malherbi</span> (J. Kearvell<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Since 2007, translocations have also taken place on Maud Island, with successful breeding already recorded (T. Greene <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong> and perhaps over 50 birds in 2009 (<strong></strong>J. van Hal <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong> and 60-100 in early 2011 (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011), although in early 2012 there were thought to be fewer than 50 mature individuals, and perhaps as few as 30 mature individuals (J. Kearvell<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. In addition, translocations to Tuhua Island have been taking place since December 2009, with 63 birds released by March 2011 and signs of nesting first noted in February of that year (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>, and in 2012, with a population perhaps numbering over 100 birds (J. Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Translocations have now also been carried out on Blumine  Island in the Marlborough Sounds, where 51 birds were released in 2011/2012 (J. Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Overall, the global population may now number 388-663 individuals, with the mainland populations estimated to total 165-300 individuals and the island populations totalling 223-363 individuals in early 2011; however, accurate population estimates are hindered by difficulty in separating this species from sympatric <em>C. auriceps</em>, as well as their apparent rarity (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011, T. Greene <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The Hawdon River valley population may be slowly increasing, and the Poulter valley population is probably stable within a favoured core area, but decreasing beyond this; however, in the South Branch Hurunui River valley, the species is likely to be decreasing due to stochastic events in an already decimated population. Overall, the species's population may now be slowly increasing (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009815		habitat	eng	It is restricted to <em>Nothofagus </em>beech <em></em> forest, although it may not have been so historically. It requires mature trees with natural hollows or cavities for nesting. Monitoring has revealed that 80% of nests are in mature living trees, with the remaining 20% in dead trees (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Of those nests found in mature trees, 68% are in red beech <em>Nothofagus fusca</em>.<em> </em>Breeding is linked with the irregular seeding of <em>Nothofagus</em> when numbers can increase substantially. In mast years, many pairs will lay a second clutch, and some may lay a third clutch, with breeding continuing through the austral winter. First clutches may average more than eight eggs, with second clutches averaging over seven in 2011. A recent study on Maud Island has shown that birds form pairs at around seven years of age, and nest in a variety of natural cavities where beech is unavailable (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011, 2012)<strong></strong>. It feeds on seeds, fruits, leaves, flowers, buds and invertebrates (Kearvell 1999)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009815		population	eng	Although the population numbered several hundreds prior to 2000, a prolific increase in the population of rats and stoats within its restricted South Island range induced a rapid population decline and the total population has remained well below its previous levels. Successful translocations on two islands have boosted the population of this species to around 450 individuals, however it is uncertain what proportion of the 200+ now present on Chalky Island, Maud Island and Tuhua have bred successfully and can therefore be classified as mature individuals. Accordingly, the number of mature individuals is precautionarily retained as 50-249.
106009815		threats	eng	The impact of introduced predators, principally stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em> and rats <em>Rattus</em> spp., is likely to be the primary cause of decline (Higgins 1999)<strong></strong>, with recent population crashes being due to rat irruptions. The species's hole-nesting behaviour leads to a reduced ratio of females in the population due to predation of birds on the nest (Elliott <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Silviculture of beech forests aims to harvest trees at an age when few will be mature enough to develop suitable cavities, so sufficient nest holes are unlikely in managed beech forest (Kearwell 2002)<strong></strong>. The species forages in low-growing shrubs and such lower forest levels have been subject to heavy browsing by cattle, deer and possums, altering the forest structure (Duncan and van Hal 2004)<strong></strong>. The population on Chalky Island may suffer competition from <em>C. auriceps </em>(J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. Population growth in island populations, especially on Maud Island, may also be limited through predation by falcons (Falconidae), and displacement of a nesting pair by introduced Common Starlings <span style="font-style: italic;">Sturnus vulgaris</span> has now been documented in the Poulter valley, a threat that is likely to be minimal in its overall impact (J. Kearvell<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). In 2008, it was confirmed that native Red-crowned Parakeets <em>C. novaezelandiae</em> on Little Barrier Island were suffering from psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD). The virus has been sequenced and appears very similar to the strain found in Crimson Rosella <em>Platycercus elegans</em>, in which the disease is known to be endemic within the captive population. In 2009, some individuals of <em>C. malherbi</em> on Maud Island were showing some symptoms consistent with PBFD. In reaction, testing of the entire captive population has been undertaken, as well as more limited sampling of individuals in all three island populations, as well as other parrot species. Results indicate that antibodies for PBFD were detected in <em>C. malherbi</em> from both Maud Island and the captive-rearing unit; notably in the latter case antibodies were found in the <em>C. novaezelandiae</em> foster parents (J. Kearvell <em>in litt</em>. 2011), and the disease has now been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">C. auriceps</span> (J. Kearvell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
106009816		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The<strong> </strong>Gunung Sahendaruman "protection forest" nominally conserves some remaining habitat, although few measures have been taken to ensure its efficacy. Further forest is protected as watershed for a hydroelectric scheme in the Kentuhang valley. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties (local people, local government, forestry officials and timber companies). As a result, it was planned to reclassify the existing 4 km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Sahengbalira as a wildlife reserve, although this process was due to take 2-3 years. The Wildlife Conservation Society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding Gunung Sahengbalira (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A local resident and former bird guide is monitoring the loss of native forest for plantations of exotic tree species and trying to raise awareness of the threat this poses to <em>C. sanghirensis</em><strong></strong> (Sykes 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species in remaining forest patches on the island (e.g. Gunung Awu). Ensure effective protection of habitat on Gunung Sahendaruman. Support proposals for the rapid gazetting of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue education programmes emphasising the value of forest cover to water retention and the benefits of sound farming practices on already cleared slopes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island. Lobby against government initiatives that encourage the clearance of native forest for plantations of exotic tree species. <p></p>
106009816		distribution	eng	<em>Colluricincla sanghirensis</em> is endemic to the island of Sangihe, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was only known from one historical specimen collected in the late 19th century until its rediscovery in 1995. It occurs on the mountains Gunung Sahendaruman and Gunung Sahengbalira, where the total population is likely to be extremely low (possibly under 100 birds) given the tiny area of remaining habitat. In 2009, reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest loss (Sykes 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009816		habitat	eng	It is resident in lower montane forest between 600 m and 750 m, occurring singly, and perhaps more frequently in small groups, in the middle and upper forest storeys, and also in dense rattan undergrowth. One boulder-strewn slope where birds were observed in 1996 was dominated by huge ginger-like plants (possibly Zingiberaceae), and in an area with a high density of large <em>Pandanus </em>sp. palms. <p></p>
106009816		population	eng	The population size is likely to be extremely low (possibly fewer than 100 birds) given the tiny area of remaining habitat. It is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals, equating to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106009816		threats	eng	Original forest on Sangihe has been almost completely converted to agriculture. The largest habitat tract in which the species has been observed is a mere 225-340 ha in size, and is undergoing clearance by shifting cultivators in its lower reaches. In 2009, it was reported that new government initiatives to plant alien tree species were resulting in the clearance of native forest (Sykes 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At first, planting was restricted to areas below 500 m; however, more recent reports indicate that planting is now taking place at higher elevations, in areas at 700-900 m (Sykes 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009818		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Monitoring is intensive and nationally coordinated, and uses call-counts, specially-trained dogs searching for banded birds, and radio-tracking (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Key populations are managed by controlling predators by the use of trapping and poisoned baits (Robertson 1998), with leg-hold predator traps are raised above the ground to prevent accidental trapping (H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Kiwi aversion training for hunters' dogs is being trialled, although there is no evidence that this is a viable long-term solution (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). A programme of removing and incubating eggs and returning subadults once these are large enough to fend off predators has been developed since 1995 under the name Operation Nest Egg (ONE, or BNZONE as the funding has been provided by the Bank of New Zealand) (Colbourne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Pickard 2009, Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). A dedicated rearing facility was constructed at which 942 eggs received from the wild produced 475 young released back into the wild between 1995 and 2008 (Pickard 2009), with survival in captivity greatly improving during this time (Colbourne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Pickard 2009). BNZONE has been demonstrated to be the most effective tool for the species, resulting in a 12.5% annual population increase within managed sites, due to 83% chick survival (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). Due to the cost and need to locate nests this approach is only practical within areas up to 10,000 ha and should be used to turn around declines in the most threatened and restricted populations and subspecies (Colbourne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Many national and overseas captive populations are held (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intervals at the sites that are currently unmanaged, specifically for mustelids, rats, cats and dogs (Holzapfel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).  Clarify the taxonomy of the Okarito population. Conduct research into reasons for low productivity in the Okarito population. Evaluate islands for possible translocation of Okarito birds. Intensively manage the Okarito population, and at least one population of each regional taxon using the BNZONE programme to increase the population size (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Consider establishing a further population of Okarito birds in North Okarito Forest (B. Weeber <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. Undertake population modelling for all taxa. Investigate landscape-scale remote monitoring techniques for sparse populations (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Promote legislative and policy changes to protect populations and encourage high-quality advocacy at all levels (Robertson 1998, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. Educate and inform the public and encourage community involvement in Kiwi conservation (Robertson 1998, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009818		distribution	eng	<em>Apteryx mantelli</em> was once widespread throughout the North Islands and northern South Islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Remaining populations are isolated and fragmented. Birds are locally common in Northland, and mostly sparsely distributed in the Coromandel Peninsula, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne to the northern Ruahine Range, and from Tongariro to Taranaki. Stable populations are present on Little Barrier (c.1,000 birds), Kawau and Pounui Islands (Heather and Robertson 1997, H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Hybrids are present on Kapiti Island (H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The total population was estimated at 25,300 birds in 2008 (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), down from an estimated 35,000 (± c.25%) birds in 1996 (Robertson 2003)<strong></strong>. Numbers have probably declined by at least 90% since 1900, and are declining at 2.5% per annum in unmanaged mainland populations (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The previously estimated decline of 5.8% per annum (McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> is now thought to have been too pessimistic and based on a small sample size subject to several acute mortality events (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The total <span style="font-style: italic;">A. australis '</span>Okarito' population is thought to be 300 individuals (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) restricted to 10,000 ha of coastal podocarp-hardwood forest between the Okarito River and the Waiho River (Tennyson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <br/><p></p>
106009818		habitat	eng	It favours dense, subtropical and temperate forests, but is also found in shrublands, scrub, regenerating forest, exotic pine plantations and pasture (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong></strong>. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span> Invertebrates are the primary food (Heather and Robertson 1997)<strong></strong>. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Breeding</span> Clutch size is one or two (with single clutches more frequent in high-density populations [Ziesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011]) and there are up to three clutches in a year (Colbourne 2002, Ziesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The male carries out almost all of the incubation (Colbourne 2002), which is amongst the longest for any bird at between 74 and 84 days (Calder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1978). Laying was recorded in every month between June and November in a high-density population in 2007 (Ziesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It is long-lived, with generation time taken to be 10-15 years (H.&#160;A.&#160;Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. More chicks were found to hatch in reused nests than in previously unused burrows (Ziesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).<br/><p></p>
106009818		population	eng	In 1996, the total population was estimated to number 35,000 individuals. Holzapfel <i>et al.</i> (2008) estimated a total population of 8,000 individuals in the Northland population, 1,000 in the Coromandel population, and 8,000 in both the western and eastern North Island populations in 2008. Colbourne <i>et al. </i>(2005) reported that the Okarito population was at a minimum of c.160 individuals in 1995 and had increased to c.200 by 2000. It was estimated to have increased further to 300 individuals by 2008. The total population estimate is precautionarily retained as 35,000 individuals until these data are confirmed.
106009818		threats	eng	The most significant threat to the survival of the species is predation of adults by dogs and ferrets <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela furo </span>(Robertson 2010)<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>with predation of young kiwi by Stoat <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela erminea </span>and cats also affecting populations<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996, Basse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999, Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, Robertson 2010). Significant spikes of mortality can occur, for example, a single dog killed c.500 birds in six weeks (Taborsky 1988), and over 70 incidents of dogs killing kiwi in Northland occurred between 1990 and 1995 (Pierce and Sporle 1997). The smaller male kiwi may be at greater risk of predation by ferrets, resulting in a skewed sex ratio and reduced effective population size (Robertson 2010). In one population prior to management at least 94% of chicks died before reaching breeding age (McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. About half were killed by introduced predators, in particular, stoat <em>Mustela erminea </em>and cats (McLennan <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Juvenile kiwi become too large for stoats above about 800g, which takes about four months to achieve (McLennan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The clearance of habitat fragments continues to threaten small populations (Hutching 1995, Miller and Pierce 1995), but the rate of loss of native habitat has declined markedly and this is not currently considered a driver for population reductions (Robertson 2010)<strong></strong>. New avian diseases and pathogens are a potential threat, particularly with the importation of non-native but closely related ratites to New Zealand (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The Okarito population is at risk from stochastic events due to its small size and isolation and suffers from low fecundity (Holzapfel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). No recruitment was observed from 12 breeding attempts monitored in this population prior to any management intervention (Colbourne 2002). <br/><p></p>
106009819		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In 1998, 35 individuals were held in captivity (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, originating from seven males and three females caught in 1984 and 1990, but nearly all have now been released onto Codfish Island with only around 20 birds retained as an insurance population (<strong></strong>P. J. McClelland <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. <em>R. norvegicus</em> was successfully eradicated from Campbell Island by 2003 during the world's largest rat eradication programme (BBC 2003, Seddon and Maloney 2003, Gummer 2006b)<strong></strong>. Birds have been successfully reintroduced to Campbell from the temporary Codfish Island population (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Anon 2006, Gummer 2006a, 2006b, Potter 2006)<strong></strong>. A survey of Campbell Island was carried out in December 2008, confirming that the population had established itself (<strong></strong>P. J. McClelland <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. All released birds have been screened for disease, but have so far not shown any negative signs (<strong></strong>P. J. McClelland <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. A monitoring expedition to Campbell Island is intended for summer 2013 (P. McClelland <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Continue to track the fate of released birds. Maintain the wild population. Establish additional wild populations. Exclude <em>R. norvegicus</em> from Campbell. Monitor the health of birds in all sub-populations to ensure that they are not suffering from disease.<br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
106009819		distribution	eng	<em>Anas nesiotis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it had been confined to Dent Island, an offshore islet of Campbell Island, for many decades. It was first collected in 1886 from the sea near Campbell (just 3 km away from Dent and likely to have been a stronghold for the species), but was not discovered on Dent until 1975. In 1990, a survey of Dent estimated a population of 60-100 birds (Goudswaard 1991)<strong></strong>, and it is likely that no more than 25 breeding pairs were present in 1998 (Gummer and Williams 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1999 and 2000, 24 captive-bred birds were released on Codfish Island to create a temporary population, and egg-laying occurred in their first year (Gummer and Williams 1999, Gummer 2006b)<strong></strong>. Following the successful eradication of brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> from Campbell Island in 2001, birds were taken back from Codfish Island for release in 2004 (50), 2005 (55) and 2006 (54) (Potter 2006, P. J. McClelland <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, www.doc.govt.nz)<strong></strong>. The majority of birds released in 2004 were believed to have survived their first year on Campbell Island, and successful breeding was confirmed in 2006 when a brood of ducklings were seen in January, followed by sightings of a duckling, three juveniles and two nests containing eggs in February 2006 (Anon 2006)<strong></strong>. A survey in December 2008 confirmed that the species has established on the island (<strong></strong>P. J. McClelland <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>, and the total population (captive and wild) has climbed to more than 200 individuals (Potter 2006)<strong></strong>. The 2008 survey, along with opportunistic observations of breeding and dispersal activity (<strong></strong>P. J. McClelland <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>, suggests that the population now includes between 100 and 200 mature individuals. <p></p>
106009819		habitat	eng	It lives under thick, chest-high tussock (there are no pools or running water on Dent). It has been sighted over most of the island, but is probably more common below 100 m, and in damp areas. It has not been observed feeding on the island, but in captivity it feeds on amphipods, weevils, earthworms, seaweed and other insects. Birds released onto Codfish Island have been observed feeding on invertebrates in piles of rotting seaweed along the shore and foraging offshore at night (Gummer and Williams 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In captivity, females sometimes lay two clutches of between one and four eggs (Preddey 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reintroduced males on Campbell Island hold territories. Birds have dispersed into open upland areas, <em>Dracophyllum</em> forest, upstream habitats and coastal beaches (Gummer 2006a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009819		population	eng	Following a captive-breeding, reintroduction and translocation programme, the species is now thought to have exceeded 50 mature individuals for at least five years. Based on the numbers released, surveys and opportunistic observations of breeding and dispersal activity (P. McClelland <em>in litt.</em> 2011), the population probably includes between 100 and 200 mature individuals, equivalent to 150-300 individuals in total.
106009819		threats	eng	Brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> on Campbell (one of the densest field populations in the world) may have caused its disappearance from this island (Williams and Robertson 1996)<strong></strong>. The successful eradication of this invasive alien species in 2001 has allowed the reintroduction of teal from captive stock. However, accidental reintroduction of rats, severe weather events and the introduction of avian disease remain possible threats. Brown Skua <em>Catharacta lonnbergi</em>, Kelp Gull<em> Larus dominicanus</em>, and Northern Giant-petrel <em>Macronectes halli</em> are potential natural predators (<strong></strong>P. J. McClelland <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010, 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009820		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The highlands of the island are currently unprotected, but proposals have been made to protect them by extending the Réserve Marine de Nioumachoua (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation intend to carry out a feasbility study in late 2010/2011 to expand its forest management project from Anjouan to Moheli (H. Doulton <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Research the ecology of this species, to aid conservation plans. Create a reserve in the interior of the island to protect suitable habitat (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop an environmental education programme to increase local awareness. <p></p>
106009820		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Mohéli in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. It is relatively abundant - its density has been estimated at one individual/5 ha of near-primary forest (c.10 km<sup>2</sup>) and one individual per 10 ha of degraded forest, giving a total population in the order of 400 individuals (Lafontaine and Moulaert 1998, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is thought to be declining due to habitat destruction (R. Safford <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009820		habitat	eng	It is found in dense, humid forest, which remains only on the central mountain peak and its upper slopes (Lafontaine and Moulaert 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is common in intact forest, but less so in forest under-planted for agriculture (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been recently sighted in degraded forest, however it is not known whether this habitat can support a breeding population (C. Marsh <em>in litt. </em>2009)<sup></sup>. <p></p>
106009820		population	eng	The population density has been estimated at 1 individual / 5 ha of near-primary forest (c.10 km<sup>2</sup>) and 1 individual / 10 ha of degraded forest, giving a total population in the order of 400 individuals, roughly equivalent to 260 mature individuals.
106009820		threats	eng	By 1995, intact, dense, humid forest remained on only 5% of the island, owing primarily to conversion for subsistence agriculture (Lafontaine and Moulaert 1998, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, underplanting, clear-felling and cultivation, and abandonment of sparsely vegetated land, which is highly susceptible to erosion and landslides (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Invasive exotic plant species, such as jamrosa <em>Syzygium jambos</em>, <em>Lantana camara</em> and <em>Clidemia hirta</em>, are abundant in the forest and are degrading the native habitat (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting probably affects this species (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Introduced species including rats are common, and may compete with <em>O. moheliensis</em> for food or predate its nests (Safford 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Having a distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009822		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Targeted searches have resulted in some of the most recent records, but also a number of negative results from apparently suitable habitat (Herzog <em>et al</em>. 1999,&#160; S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. It is not currently known from any protected areas. Proposals have recently been made to protect the Machaca stronghold by developing a long-term conservation strategy working closely with the local community and involving local environmental education, sustainable development workshops, agricultural assessment and development, and the promotion of the area as a birdwatching attraction; with the eventual aim of protecting a core area as a reserve (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an improved estimate of the population. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Act to prevent further erosion and landslides below Inquisivi (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. Support the maintenance of traditional land-use and tenure systems that allow natural woodland habitats to persist (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish municipal or private reserves that ensure protection of the best remaining forest patches: despite the remoteness of the area, with the new road being built sustainable ethno-ecotourism could be a new source of income for local communities that protect forest patches (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
106009822		distribution	eng	<em>Cranioleuca henricae</em> occurs in dry valleys on the east slope of the Andes in west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Cochabamba and La Paz). The only viable populations known are in the río Cotacajes basin, with one below Inquisivi, La Paz, where it is common, one at Cotacajes, Cochabamba, where it is uncommon, and two recently discovered localities at Machaca and Cuti, both Cochabamba (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997, Herzog <em>et al</em>. 1999,&#160;S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007). However, a recent visit to Machaca identified only two suitable gulleys, each home to no more than 10 mature trees (F. Rheindt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A group of 3-4 birds was found in the gulley closest to town at about 2800m, but none were found at the more distant, higher gulley at c. 2950m, or in any of the low disturbed scrub that now covers the hillsides (F. Rheindt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Records of 1-2 individuals come from Churupampa and nearby Sorata in the río Consata basin Maijer and Fjeldså 1997, Lowen and Kennedy 1999)<strong></strong>, and Mecapaca in the upper río La Paz basin, La Paz (B. Hennessey<em> per </em>S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. A record of a <em>Cranioleuca</em> sp. in suitable habitat at Saila Pata in the río Cotacajes basin may be attributable to this species (N. Krabbe<em> per </em>S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Searches in the Consata basin (where very little suitable habitat remains) and in the lower río La Paz basin have not revealed further localities (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. One of the recently discovered populations is highly threatened by a road construction project which will make the area directly accessible from La Paz (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. Numbers are probably below 3,000 mature individuals, but are difficult to estimate because of the paucity of data (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009822		habitat	eng	It occurs in the understorey of dry, seasonally deciduous forest in rain-shadow valleys at c.1,800-3,300 m&#160; (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997, Herzog <em>et al</em>. 1999, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. Low, bushy vegetation in adjacent cleared areas may also be used, and one record was in a plantation of exotic <em>Cupressus</em> sp., but it has not been found in orchards or <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may depend on the presence of the epiphytic 'grey beard' bromeliad for nesting sites (Hennessey <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A possible juvenile and apparent pairs have been observed in January, while mixed-species feeding parties are joined in the dry season (the austral winter) (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997, Herzog <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009822		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, based on an assessment by S. K. Herzog (<I>in litt.</I> 1999) that numbers are probably below 3,000 mature individuals. This is broadly consistent with estimates based on the extent of its range and the density of other <I>Cranioleuca </I>and <I>Synallaxis</I> spinetails in the BirdLife Population Densities Database. It equates to a population size of 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
106009822		threats	eng	Much suitable habitat has long been destroyed or severely degraded (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>). Plantations of <em>Eucalyptus</em> in the Inquisivi-Quime area, combined with the destruction of native vegetation and high grazing pressure, have caused hydrological changes leading to massive soil erosion and severe landslides (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. The destruction of its stronghold by landslides is predicted by 2050, perhaps considerably sooner, unless action is taken (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. Dry woodlands in La Paz and Cochabamba are threatened by cutting for firewood, selective logging and poor regeneration because of grazing by goats and burning (Maijer and Fjeldså 1997, S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>). One of the two recently discovered populations in the río Cotacajes basin is highly threatened by a road construction project, which will make the area directly accessible from La Paz and make the forest vulnerable to exploitation for charcoal production for the La Paz market (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. The process of removing tree limbs for charcoal allows regeneration of the forest, but impacted trees hold less of the epiphytic "grey beard" bromeliad which is the specialized nesting site for the Bolivian Spinetail (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Although many older trees, together with the "grey beard" bromeliad remain at Machaca, pressure from overgrazing by cattle is restricting plant regeneration and is likely to have a negative impact on the forest ecosystem (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong>. The "grey beard" bromeliad may also be less abundant than in the past as a result of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus </span>plantations and agricultural plots above the valleys where it occurs disturbing water retention properties (S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   <p></p>
106009823		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to delimit its distribution and estimate numbers. Assess its precise ecological requirements. Assess the impact of existing threats upon the species. Ensure that some populations are adequately protected. <p></p>
106009823		distribution	eng	<em>Atlapetes melanops</em> occurs in a small area of the Cordillera Central, <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is restricted to five localities north and south of the río Mantaro, in Huancavelica and Junín. Since its discovery in 1996, individuals have been recorded at the following sites: Pariahuanca, Miotambo, the Lampa valley, Huachocollpa (Valqui and Fjeldså 1999)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and Río Punto (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2001). Specimen material is limited to one individual taken south-east of Huachocollpa (Valqui and Fjeldså 1999). <p></p>
106009823		habitat	eng	It is restricted to dry, open bushy areas, often with dense thickets in ravines, at 2,480-3,400&#160;m (an elevational zone that receives comparatively high seasonal rainfall) (Valqui and Fjeldså 1999). It has also been recorded in adjacent ecotones, e.g. near the edge of elfin forest, grading into humid montane forest. It occurs in groups of 1-3 individuals, foraging from the ground to the subcanopy of trees and shrubs, on epiphyte-covered or bare branches. Its diet appears to include insects and possibly seeds (Valqui and Fjeldså 1999). <p></p>
106009823		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009823		threats	eng	Habitat destruction at elevations suitable for this species has been ongoing for several thousand years, but is probably not increasing, as the human population of the region is in decline, owing to migration to larger towns and cities. Nonetheless, burning to maintain and increase available pasture prevents the regeneration of natural vegetation, except in steep, rocky areas and ravines (Valqui and Fjeldså 1999). <p></p>
106009825		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded in the small Río Ñambi and La Planada reserves in Nariño (Robbins and Stiles 1999). A management plan for Alto de Pisones is in preparation, which a local organisation hopes to execute despite political instablity in the area. Furthermore, the area may be gazetted within the proposed Caramanta National Park (Stiles 1998). Significant populations may occur in Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Imbabura), Los Cedros Biological Reserve (Esmeraldas/Imbabura) and Maquipucuna Reserve (Pichincha) in Ecuador  (Best <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, Robbins and Stiles 1999)<strong></strong>, and Farallones de Cali (Valle del Cauca) and Munchique National Parks (Cauca) in Colombia (Robbins and Stiles 1999). There are records in Ecuador from Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Tandayapa Private Reserve, Guajalito Private Reserve, Otonga Private Reserve and Buenaventura Private Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its population and distribution. Gazette Caramanta National Park. Complete and implement the management plan for Alto de Pisones. <p></p>
106009825		distribution	eng	<em>Glaucidium nubicola</em> occurs on the west slope of the west Andes of central and south <strong>Colombia</strong> and north <strong>Ecuador</strong>. From the northernmost known site, at Alto de Pisones in Risaralda, its range extends south along the Andes, with records in Valle del Cauca (one old specimen) and Nariño, Colombia, and Carchi (one site), Pichincha (three sites) and Cotopaxi (one site), Ecuador (Robbins and Stiles 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>, Freile <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. A tape-recording of a <em>Glaucidium</em> made at Buenaventura (El Oro) in 1985 has subsequently been identified as this species, representing a significant southward extension of its range in Ecuador (Freile <em>et al.</em> 2003). This record is likely to relate to an isolated population (Freile and Castro submitted). It may yet be found to occur from south-west Ecuador continuously to the northern tip of the Andes in Antioquia, Colombia (Robbins and Stiles 1999), although habitat in the intervening range is highly fragmented<strong></strong> (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004<em></em>). <p></p>
106009825		habitat	eng	It occurs in very humid, primary cloud-forest, invariably on steep slopes at altitudes of c.1,200-2,000 m<strong></strong> (Freile and Castro submitted). It probably breeds principally between February and June. Invertebrates (especially insects) and small vertebrates (including lizards and possibly birds) appear to be the major dietary components (Robbins and Stiles 1999). The species appears to be relatively tolerant of habitat loss,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>as it is found in secondary forest and at forest edges (Freile <em>et al.</em> 2003, R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>, but it is not thought to be tolerant of severe habitat degradation<strong></strong> (J. F. Freile <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2004, M. Tellkamp<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005).<br/><p></p>
106009825		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009825		threats	eng	The Chocó region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s (WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Robbins and Stiles 1999)<strong></strong>. When the type-specimen was collected, logging was progressing rapidly, and the area has almost certainly been completely deforested (Robbins and Stiles 1999). West Ecuador has already lost over 85% of forest cover in the Pacific lowland and slopes<strong> </strong>(Dodson and Gentry 1991). Infrastructural improvement in the Chocó, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, is resulting in increased logging, small-scale agriculture and gold mining<strong> </strong>(Salaman 1994,<strong> </strong>WWF and IUCN 1994-1997, Salaman and Stiles 1996, Robbins and Stiles 1999)<strong></strong>. There is intensive agricultural development, especially coca plantations and cattle-farming<strong> </strong>(Salaman 1994, WWF and IUCN 1994-1997)<strong></strong>. However, extremely high rainfall renders parts of its range fairly inhospitable, and timber extraction is probably the most significant threat (Robbins and Stiles 1999). <p></p>
106009826		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is well protected in Ecuador, by the Kapawi Ecological Reserve, whilst the Allapahuayo-Mishana Reserved Zone in Peru encompasses large areas of suitable habitat. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range to determine its true distribution and abundance. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status, particularly near Iquitos.  <p></p>
106009826		distribution	eng	<em>Herpsilochmus gentryi</em> occurs in the Marañón, Tigre, Corrientes, Pucacuro and Pastaza drainages in north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (Loreto) and east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Pastaza), where it is common at a moderate number of sites since its discovery in the mid-1990s. It was previously thought to occur only in two rare and patchy types of <em>terra firme </em>forest, growing on hill-top nutrient-poor soils, but a third type is apparently inhabited in Ecuador.  <p></p>
106009826		habitat	eng	It occurs in canopy and subcanopy of humid tropical forest up to 200 m. Apparently restricted to <em>terra firme </em>forest growing on nutrient-poor podzolic or quartzitic soils, as well as on high, dry ridgetops.  <p></p>
106009826		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common in general, being rare and local in Ecuador but locally fairly common in Peru.
106009826		threats	eng	In the Iquitos area, Peru, an increasing amount of its habitat is being cleared owing to human population growth. Much of the remainder of its range is remote and subject to little human pressure.  <p></p>
106009827		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
106009828		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Restall et al. 2006).
106009829		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest hummingbird in its restricted habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
106009830		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The type-locality is within Tapichalaca Biological Reserve, a 35 km<sup>2</sup> area purchased and managed following the species's discovery<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Sornoza Molina 2000, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It also occurs in the adjacent Podocarpus National Park<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but only along the southern border, where threats from human settlement and gold miners are most concentrated (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A revised management plan for the area has been devised, and a public awareness campaign highlighting the park's importance has been initiated (Snyder <em>et al.</em> 2000). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey, using tape-playback, to clarify its population and distribution. Research its ecology. <br/><p></p>
106009830		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria ridgelyi</em> was discovered in 1997 in southern <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Although its range has been estimated as Tapichalaca Biological Reserve environs, east and south-east to the Cordillera de Tzunantza and southern Cordillera del Condor, south-west to the río Isimanchi, and possibly further north and south<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, it is currently known only from Tapichalaca Biological Reserve (formerly Quebrada Honda Reserve), adjacent parts of Podocarpus National Park, Cerro Toledo, San Luis, rio Blanco and the Cordillera del Condor, <strong>Peru</strong> (Heinz <em>et al. </em>2005, O'Neill 2006). Initially, three specimens were taken and c.12 pairs observed (Koeppel 1998)<strong></strong>, but two further specimens have since been collected in both Ecuador and Peru and additional birds noted<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999, O'Neill 2006). It occurs at an estimated density of six pairs per km<sup>2</sup> at the type-locality<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but at lower densities elsewhere. Very little of the habitat between the known sites is high enough for the species and therefore unlikely to be occupied (R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is likely to have a very small population.    <p></p>
106009830		habitat	eng	It apparently inhabits the undergrowth of wet, montane evergreen forest, with bryophyte-clad, generally low trees and bamboo, within the subtropical zone, at 2,300-2,680 m <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. The birds seem to require the existence of a stream (which can be quite small, but must remain moist), and spend a large majority of their time very close to this (R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2012)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Radio telemetry indicates that birds have a large (20-40 hectares) home range (R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Evidence suggests that it breeds in October-November <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong> </strong>and a nest is described by Greeney and Juiña (2010). Stomach contents comprised invertebrate remains, including insects (beetles and ants) and their larvae, worms and millipedes<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009830		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
106009830		threats	eng	The Tapichalaca Biological Reserve is situated near a road that is frequently used for commercial transport, and a road-widening project in 2009-2010 probably affected two territories here (R. S. Ridgely <em>in litt.</em> 2012). Much of the range is threatened by logging and gold mining, including areas within Podocarpus National Park (Koeppel 1998)<strong></strong>. Forest degradation is ongoing at a slow rate throughout the region.  <p></p>
106009834		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The Norfolk Island National Park was declared in 1986, encompassing most of the main remaining stands of native trees on the island. Known and potential nest-sites are identified, monitored and protected, and introduced competitors using these sites are culled. Rat-proof nesting hollows are being installed in the national park. Over 600 chicks were banded during 1985-2007, most of which were bred and fledged from the national park's assisted wild breeding programme. The feasibility of an offshore breeding programme is being investigated. Rat baiting and cat trapping is occurring within park boundaries. Control measures for rats are budget-constrained (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> and limited to the protected area. Since 1992, responsible cat ownership has been encouraged, along with the promotion and subsidisation of neutering and assistance in containing cats and reducing their predatory behaviour (M. Christian<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. In 2006, a proposal was put forward to eradicate cats and all rodent species from the entire island, or at least significant areas, and prevent their reintroduction (Holdaway in prep.)<strong></strong>. Ideas included the use of an exclosure in which mammalian predators, and probably alien plants, would be eradicated and burrow-nesting seabirds translocated (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> in an effort to increase nutrient supplies and thus rehabilitate native plant communities. However, no such project has so far been implemented or funded. The use of predator-proof fencing by the national park will be important in protecting the park's wildlife, reducing the island's rat population and reducing the reliance of householders on cats for rodent control (M. Christian<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  The Norfolk Island Region Threatened Species Recovery Plan (Director of National Parks 2010) recommends a set of recovery measures required to reduce or remove threats to native species on the island. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>  <p>Monitor trends in population size and breeding success. Determine constraints on population growth and causes of breeding failure, and the effects of competition for nest hollows from Crimson Rosellas. Investigate effective methods for removing Crimson Rosellas given constraints on firearm use. Continue to identify, monitor and protect known and potential parrot nest sites, and destroy introduced competitors using these sites (particularly Crimson Rosellas) and/or install and maintain rat-proof nesting hollows in the National Park and on adjacent private land. Investigate feasibility of PCD immunisation.&#160; Eliminate mammalian predators from the entire island, or at least significant sections, and prevent reintroduction (Director of National Parks 2010). Close captive-breeding facility and establish a breeding population, possibly at Taronga Park Zoo. Reintroduce birds to Phillip Island following provision of sufficient suitable habitat. Investigate establishing a population on the mainland and possible reintroduction to Lord Howe Island. Encourage government action over the responsible ownership of cats (M. Christian<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Eliminate mammalian predators from the entire island, or at least significant sections, and prevent reintroduction (Director of National Parks 2010).</p><p></p>
106009834		distribution	eng	<p><em>Cyanoramphus cookii</em> is endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It was once found throughout the island, and estimated to number at least 190 pairs. It is now confined to the Norfolk Island National Park and adjacent forested areas and orchards (Hill 2002). In 1994, the declining population consisted of only four breeding females and 28-33 males. Conservation management measures have allowed the population to grow, and numbers were estimated at a possible 200-300 individuals in 2004, and 150-200 birds in 2008. However, recent observations of disappearance from places where it was once common, and evi­dence of cat predation (M. Christian, R. Ward and J. Forshaw pers. comm., in Garnett <em>et al. </em>2011) suggest the population may be declining again.</p><p></p>
106009834		habitat	eng	It is restricted to forest, but visits orchards to feed on soft fruit. It also feeds on seeds, other fruits, flowers and leaves of both native and introduced trees and shrubs. It usually nests in tree-hollows, mostly in ironwood <em>Nestegis apetala</em>.<br/><p></p>
106009834		population	eng	An extrapolation based on banding and likely survivorship suggested that in 2008 <em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></em>the species<em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> </em>had a population of 150–200 individuals (P. Olsen <em>in litt. </em>in<em> </em>Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011<em></em>), and a population of &gt;240 individuals was estimated in 2009 based on 13 pairs recorded at point counts (G. Dutson pers. obs.,<em> </em>in<em> </em>Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The number of mature individuals is uncertain but is likely to be &lt;250 (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011) and is placed here in the band 50-249 mature individuals.
106009834		threats	eng	Clearance of forests before 1950, for timber, agriculture and pasture, severely reduced suitable habitat. Since then, increasing weed invasion has dramatically altered the structure and composition of remaining native vegetation. The degradation of native plant communities has been linked with a reduction in the nutrient input to the island, caused by the decimation of formerly large populations of burrow-nesting seabirds by introduced mammalian predators (Holdaway in prep.)<strong></strong>. Though forest clearance has stopped, recovery requires new habitat to become available. Nest-site availability has been further reduced by competition with introduced Crimson Rosella <em>Platycercus elegans</em> and, to a lesser extent, Common Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris </em>and feral honey bees. Most known nest failures have resulted from predation by introduced black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em>. Feral cats are also thought to be significant predators and, although the level of predation is unquantified, anecdotal reports have been alarming (M. Christian<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. There is a high level of Psittacine Circoviral Disease (PCD) in the population, which has resulted in some mortality.<br/><p></p>
106009837		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A large area in Murici, Alagoas, is currently legally protected by the Brazilian government (F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2007). The species's strongholds are often on private reserves (L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2012). in Pernambuco, the site where the species was sighted in São José da Coroa Grande municipality, and the site named Água Azul are well-protected, the former being surrounded by many small and medium-sized forest fragments (G. Pereira <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Surveys were conducted in Alagoas and Pernambuco states in 2007 and 2008 (Dénes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, Seipke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). Local NGOs such as the IPMA (Instituto para a Preservação da Mata Atlântica) are working to create reserves in many privately-owned forest fragments in Alagoas and Pernambuco (F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently survey all forest patches larger than 10 ha in Pernambuco, Alagoas and neighbouring states (Seipke 2008). Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. Protect any remaining forest at São Miguel dos Campos. Conduct field and museum studies to clarify its taxonomic status including DNA analysis. Conduct additional surveys in forest fragments in Paraíba and Sergipe states to determine the species's occurrence therein, and in north-eastern Bahia, where it may also be present (L. F. Silveira and F. V. Dénes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
106009837		distribution	eng	<em>Leptodon forbesi</em> occurs in Pernambuco, where it is known from the type specimen taken in 1880 (Swann 1922, L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012) and recent records from Água Azul, Barreiros, Trapiche, and the municipalities of São José da Coroa Grande, Gravatá, Sirinhaém, and in the private reserve Frei Caneca in Jaqueira municipality (Pereira <em>et al. </em>2006, F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Dénes 2009, E. O. Willis <em>in litt.</em> 1999, G. Pereira <em>in litt.</em> 2010); and Alagoas, where it has recently been recorded from São Miguel dos Campos, São José da Laje, Serra Grande, Roteiro, Iguatebara and Murici<strong> </strong>(Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 1987, Dénes 2009, F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007), north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. A pair was recorded in the south of Sergipe in 2010, near Estância, and there are recent documented records of this species in Conde and Santa Rita, Paraíba (Sonntag 2010, 2011, 2012). The fact that the species was recorded in southern Sergipe, outside the traditionally recognised Pernambuco centre of endemism, suggests that it might also be present in nearby northeastern Bahia (F. V. Dénes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  It was recorded from 12 sites surveyed in 2007 (Dénes 2009), with a total estimate of 21 pairs logged. However, as survey effort focused on a small fraction of all forest fragments the global population can conservatively be estimated at c.50 pairs (F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). The extent of habitat loss indicates that there must have been significant declines in both numbers and range. Forest cover has been reduced to less than 1% of its former distribution within this species's range. The largest remaining forest fragments in Pernambuco and Alagoas are 45 km<sup>2</sup> and 30 km<sup>2</sup> respectively, suggesting the species is in a precarious position. Despite the threat of habitat loss, recent records (Dénes 2009) suggest that the species's range has previously been underestimated.  <p></p>
106009837		habitat	eng	It apparently inhabits humid forest at elevations up to c.600 m, but there are no data on its feeding or breeding ecology<strong> </strong> (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 1987, Bierregard 1994,&#160;<strong></strong>Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009837		population	eng	Recent survey work in Alagoas and Pernambuco states recorded 21 pairs and roughly estimated a total population of c.50 paris or 100 mature individuals (F. V. Dénes <em>in litt.</em> 2007). It is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals, equating to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
106009837		threats	eng	There has been massive deforestation in coastal Alagoas and Pernambuco, with most suitable habitat cleared or threatened. The two key sites in Alagoas are both under severe threat, with forest at Murici covering 70 km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, but less than 30 km<sup>2</sup> in 1999 (J. M. Goerck <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. Indiscriminate small-scale logging was still occurring at the site in 1992, and the area is further threatened by fires spreading from adjacent sugarcane plantations. Some forest persists at São Miguel dos Campos but it is still under pressure from logging and hunting (F. V. Dénes and L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). The current condition of forest at Água Azul is unknown. <p></p>
106009838		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. No other targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the species's local abundance, distribution and total population size. Research population trends in various parts of its range (Alba-Zúñiga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Study the species's ecology.<br/><p></p>
106009838		distribution	eng	<em>Megascops seductus</em> has a moderately small range in west-central <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is a fairly common resident in Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Morelas and Guerrero (Howell and Webb 1995a,<strong></strong> A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Significant areas of suitable habitat remain, and surveys are likely to find the species locally common at additional sites (A. G. Navarro <em>in litt</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009838		habitat	eng	It inhabits thorn-forest and arid open to semi-open areas with scattered trees, as well as secondary growth, at elevations of 600-1,500 m (Howell and Webb 1995a, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In a study in Sierra de Huautla Biosphere Reserve, conserved dry forest was the preferred habitat, followed by thorn forest, disturbed forest and agricultural systems, with fewest records in <span style="font-style: italic;">Gliricidia</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Caesalpina </span>forest (Alba-Zúñiga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Its diet is little known, but insects and small vertebrates have been recorded (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding has been noted in June (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<br/><p></p>
106009838		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <em>in litt.</em> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals. The population density in the Sierra de Huautla Biosphere Reserve was estimated to be 6.7 / km<sup>2</sup> during the dry season, suggesting that this species is moderately common here (Alba-Zúñiga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).
106009838		threats	eng	Available habitat appears to be in decline (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>. Agriculture is expanding in this species's range, especially for citrus plantations and cattle-ranching (Stattersfield <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
106009839		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. It is protected by law in Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay, and occurs in at least one protected area in Brazil, two in Uruguay, and two in Paraguay. Since birds are highly mobile, it is difficult to designate sufficiently large reserves to provide adequate protection (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An experimental reintroduction of seven birds from trade in Buenos Aires met with some success (Fraga 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A CMS Memorandum of Understanding targeting this and other southern South America grassland species has been recently approved by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess range and numbers in Brazil. Monitor populations in Paraguay and Argentina. Research rates of nest failure due to trampling and brood-parasitism. Develop an action plan considering the creation of a reserve network and awareness campaigns. Fence and protect traditional colony sites, where locally appropriate (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998). Enforce legislation on burning in Paraguay. Legislate for and enforce restrictions on trade. Investigate the role of fire in the ecology of this species, with a view to making management recommendations.<br/><p></p>
106009839		distribution	eng	<em>Xanthopsar flavus</em> has contracted its range in south <strong>Brazil</strong> (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), south <strong>Paraguay </strong>(Hayes 1995, <strong></strong>Ericson and Amarilla 1997, Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998, S. Centrón <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (Azpiroz 2000) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. There are now only local centres of abundance, but it was probably never abundant in Argentina (R. Fraga <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Breeding is often colonial, and only a small number of breeding sites have been discovered (Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. In Paraguay, the population in the Aguapey and Tacuary watersheds in Itapúa and Misiones is estimated as c.1,500 birds, and the overall Paraguayan population as 2,000-3,000 individuals (Clay <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. In Argentina, there are disjunct populations totalling 500-1,000 individuals in north-east Corrientes (possibly continuous with populations in west Rio Grande do Sul) and south-east Entre Ríos (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. In Uruguay, the main strongholds are in wetlands of the south and west, particularly at Bañados del Este (A. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It has disappeared from a number of historical sites in recent years, but has also been found in some new areas, including Salto and Durazno (A. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.    <p></p>
106009839		habitat	eng	In Entre Ríos, it occurs in agricultural land, breeding mainly in dry or upland terrain, with nests built in native herbaceous plants or introduced weeds (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998, R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000, Fraga 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Corrientes and Paraguay, however, breeding only occurs in dense marsh vegetation, characterised by <em>Eryngium, </em>although feeding has been observed in rice-fields and grazed areas (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000) (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998, Fraga 2005). In Brazil, its specific habitat is wetland surrounded by short grass,  and it requires bare ground for foraging, the latter often the result of  fire or trampling by cattle (Petry and Krüger 2010). Fire may be  necessary in maintaining the grasslands of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria </span>highlands (Petry and Krüger 2010). It may undertake irregular dispersive movements and can be highly mobile in the non-breeding season (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998). Breeding is generally colonial, although solitary nests have been found in Entre Ríos (Fraga 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong> as well as in Brazil and Uruguay (Azpiroz 2000)<strong></strong>. In Entre Ríos, breeding sites often fall within colonies of White-browed Blackbirds <em>Leistes superciliaris</em>. Breeding begins in September in Paraguay (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000) with eggs laid through to December, whilst in Uruguay and Argentina breeding has been reported in October-December (Azpiroz 2000<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Fraga 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, breeding is from December-January (Dias and Maurício 2002)<strong></strong>. During foraging, flocks follow Black-and-white Monjitas <span style="font-style: italic;">Xolmis dominicanus</span>, probably taking advantage of the sentinel behaviour of the latter (Krüger and Petry 2010).<br/><p></p>
106009839		population	eng	The population is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
106009839		threats	eng	It has declined owing to a number of human impacts on grasslands, including stock-raising, cultivation, pesticides, burning, pine and eucalypt plantations, drainage and settlement (Pearman and Abadie 1995)<strong></strong>. In strongholds at Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and Bañados del Este, Uruguay, the greatest threats are the damming of marshy valleys for irrigation (Dias and Maurício 2002<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>A. Azpiroz <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>, and high rates of nest failure owing to trampling by cattle (Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. It is trapped for the pet trade. Brood-parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> can be significant (Azpiroz 2000)<strong></strong>, particularly if populations are reduced by habitat loss (Fraga <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Paraguay, whole colonies have been destroyed by fire (R. P. Clay <em>in litt</em>. 1999, 2000). Conversion of marshes and seasonal inundated grasslands into rice fields is an increasing threat in southern Paraguay. Already six of the 11 IBAs supporting this species are affected by rice cultivation. A recent analysis carried out in the breeding range of the species in southern Paraguay revealed that almost 70% of the suitable breeding habitat is covered by rice fields (A. Lesterhuis &amp; H. del Castillo <em>in litt.</em> 2007, H. del Castillo <em>in litt</em>. 2012). However, the species persists in rice fields where natural vegetation is left along rivers, and there are wetlands where birds can nest (H. del Castillo&#160;<em>in litt</em>. 2012).  <strong></strong>  <p></p>
106009840		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Ensure that remaining tracts of <em>Polylepis</em> forest habitat within the range receive adequate protection, particularly in areas where connectivity between habitat patches can be maintained.   <p></p>
106009840		distribution	eng	<em>Leptasthenura yanacensis</em> is locally relatively common in <strong>Peru </strong>(from the Cordillera Blanca in Ancash and north Lima, on the east slope of the Andes in Cuzco and Puno), west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (from La Paz south to Tarija)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Maynard and Waterton 1998) and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy [Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998a<strong></strong>]<strong><sup></sup></strong> and Salta [Pearman 2001]<strong><sup></sup></strong>). <em> <p></p></em>
106009840		habitat	eng	In the semi-humid north of its range, it exclusively inhabits highly fragmented <em>Polylepis</em> woodland (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and in some localities it appears to be strongly tied to <em>Polylepis </em>groves (Pearman 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It may show a preference for the interior of forest fragments, shunning the edges particularly during the breeding season (Cahill and Matthysen 2007). In the more arid south, it also occurs in shrubbery and on steep rocky slopes with bunchgrass and low bushes (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998a). It occurs at 2,850-4,600 m (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990,&#160;Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Mazar Barnett <em>et al</em>. 1998a), occasionally to 5,200 m (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and remains at high altitude even during snowstorms (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
106009840		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009840		threats	eng	The main threats are heavy grazing by livestock and uncontrolled use of fire, which combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal occurs (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). The change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, and erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification and afforestation (especially with <em>Eucalyptus</em>) are contributory factors (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996). <p></p>
106009841		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Iguaçu National Park and Mata dos Godoy and Intervales State Parks, Brazil; Iguazú National Park in Argentina; and Estancia Itabó Private Nature Reserve, Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve and Caaguazú and San Rafael National Parks in Paraguay<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use habitat loss data from mapping to give estimate of declines. <p></p>
106009841		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes sylviolus</em> is scarce in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo and south Minas Gerais to Santa Catarina), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindeyú south to Itapúa) (Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991, Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996, Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998).<em> <p></p></em>
106009841		habitat	eng	It principally inhabits forest canopy in lowland Atlantic forest (below 300 m) (R. P. Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000), but is encountered in small groups at forest edge, and has been observed in palms and dead trees adjacent to forest<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Clay <em>et al</em>. 1998)<strong></strong>. At one site in Brazil, it has been recorded only in edges, secondary and selectively logged forest (Aleixo and Galetti 1997)<strong></strong>. Information on nesting is provided by Kirwan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010).<br/><p></p>
106009841		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
106009841		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitat<strong> </strong>(Fearnside 1996). Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p>
106009842		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Iguaçu and Serra da Canastra National Parks and Mata dos Godoy State Park, Brazil; Caaguazú, San Rafael and Ybycuí National Parks, Estancia Itabó Private Nature Reserve and Mbaracayú Forest Nature Reserve, Paraguay; and Iguazú National Park, Argentina. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect areas where the species occurs. Study its ecology and its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Use habitat loss data from mapping to give estimate of declines. <p></p>
106009842		distribution	eng	<em>Phylloscartes eximius</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Espírito Santo, central Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santa Catarina, north Rio Grande do Sul, south Mato Grosso do Sul), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) and east <strong>Paraguay </strong>(Canevari <em>et al.</em> 1991, Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is principally concentrated in the Paraná basin, having disappeared from São Paulo state (despite tracts of habitat remaining)<strong> </strong>(Willis and Oniki 1993), but more northerly populations were perhaps historically marginal (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. It is locally common in Paraguay and Argentina, but suggestions that it favours more open forest and may benefit from selective logging (Lowen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> are unfounded (R.&#160;P.&#160;Clay <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
106009842		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland and montane humid forest and forest borders, including forest dominated by <em>Araucaria</em>, to 1,800 m. <p></p>
106009842		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
106009842		threats	eng	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland habitats (Fearnside 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, montane Atlantic forest has suffered less habitat destruction than adjacent lowlands, and its occurrence at these higher altitudes suggests that large tracts of habitat remain. <p></p>
106009847		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law (and has been proposed as the national bird of Brazil). A campaign tackling bird trade in Bolivia may help curtail international trade (A. B. Hennessey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). A population is relatively well-protected in Tapajós National Park, and a remnant population may survive in Gurupi Biological Reserve. Jamari National Forest is poorly protected and suffers constant pressure from squatters, loggers and poachers<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 1999). Conservation of this species in reserves is problematic because of its apparent nomadism. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to discover new populations, especially in the south and west of its range. Ensure the <em>de facto </em>protection of Gurupi Biological Reserve. Maintain the integrity of Tapajós National Park. Protect and manage intervening areas to facilitate nomadic movements. Enforce legal restrictions on trade, especially in internal markets. <p></p>
106009847		distribution	eng	<em>Guaruba guarouba</em> is endemic to <strong>Brazil</strong>, where most records come from between the Tocantins, lower Xingú and Tapajós rivers in the Amazon Basin of Pará. There are additional records from adjacent north Maranhão, where populations survive around Gurupi and the Rio Capim (C. Yamashita <em>in litt.</em> 2000); Rondônia, where the species was recorded once at Jamari in 1989, but has not been seen subsequently despite surveys<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt.</em> 1999); Mato Grosso, where it was seen once at Alta Floresta in 1991<strong> </strong>(Low 1995c), and Amazonas, where the species was recorded in 2007 (Laranjeiras and Cohn-Haft 2009). It may always have been scarce, but overall numbers must have declined very considerably. <p></p>
106009847		habitat	eng	It is apparently nomadic in lowland humid forest. In the dry season, it frequents the canopy of tall "terra firme" (not flooded) forest but, in the breeding season, appears to inhabit clearings with few scattered trees. Tree-cavities are used for nesting and roosting. It feeds on fruit, berries, seeds and nuts and, seasonally, on crops (especially maize, which ripens immediately before fledging). Breeding generally occurs between December and April, but has been noted in October. Breeding is apparently communal, with several females contributing two or three eggs to each nest and several adults caring for the young. Up to nine young have been recorded in a nest in the wild, and up to 14 in captivity. <p></p>
106009847		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
106009847		threats	eng	Habitat destruction and fragmentation as a result of road construction, subsequent development and settlement, with accompanying illegal logging, is a threat in the east of its range. Selective logging of primary hardwoods removes suitable roosting and nesting cavities (Yamashita 2003).<strong></strong> It has been extensively trapped for trade, but this is no longer a major concern as trade is now usually within the substantial captive population, and does not have a significant impact on wild birds (L. F. Silveira <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009859		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara (110 km<sup>2</sup>) and Pulau Supiori (420 km<sup>2</sup>) Nature Reserves <strong></strong>(Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify and record the species's vocalisations to aid detection. Conduct surveys on both Biak and Supiori, using tape-playback of vocalisations, to establish its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat requirements. Investigate further its taxonomic status and relationship to other <em>Otus</em> species. Afford formal protection to key sites supporting the species, as appropriate. <p></p>
106009859		distribution	eng	<em>Otus beccarii</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939, Marshall 1978, Konig <em>et al</em>. 1999, Marks<em> et al.</em> 1999). Its status is unclear, as it is a nocturnal species with poorly-known calls and only recently considered to be a separate species. A survey of the island in 1973 found only one pair <strong></strong>(S. D. Ripley <em> in litt</em>. to Clark and Mikkola 1989), it was not recorded during three visits to Biak in the 1990s<strong></strong> (Gibbs 1993, Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b). One was heard in and around Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997 <strong></strong>(B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000) and two were heard one morning in 1995 <strong></strong>(M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000). However, more recently, visiting birders claim to have encountered the species regularly in remnant forest patches in southern Biak (K. D. Bishop <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
106009859		habitat	eng	It inhabits forest, including partially logged forest, up to at least 300 m <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, Marks<em> et al.</em> 1999, B. Beehler and S. van Balen <em>in litt</em>. 2000, M. Van Beirs <em>in litt.</em> 2000), and can be found in coastal swamp-forest bounded by heavily forested limestone cliffs <strong></strong>(Marshall 1978). It may be poorly tolerant of habitat degradation, as there have been no records from heavily logged or degraded forest. <p></p>
106009859		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
106009859		threats	eng	Large areas of forest on Biak have been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, particularly in the southern plains, and the remainder is under pressure <strong></strong>(Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000). Furthermore, forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation. <p></p>
139410077		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Brazil it is uncommon in Itatiatia National Park and Intervales State Park and rare in Serra dos Orgãos National Park and Chapada Diamantina National Park (possibly only non-breeding birds at the latter site.&#160;<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecology, migration and ablity to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats and attempt to establish reasons for its apparent decline.&#160; Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
139410077		distribution	eng	<em>Phibalura flavirostris</em> is found in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (from Bahia and central Minas Gerais south to Rio Grande do Sul; also in south Goiás, perhaps as an austral migrant), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, no records since 1977 until seen at several sites in 2004 and 2006, Bodrati and Cockle 2006, Bodrati <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindeyú, Alto Paraná, Guairá and possibly Itapúa, but only four records and none since 1977). It is apparently an austral migrant (at least to some extent), occurring in Rio Grande do Sul only during the austral summer (Snow 1982, Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong></strong>. It is locally uncommon in Itatiaia National Park, on the Rio de Janeiro/Minas Gerais border, at Intervales State Park, São Paulo, and at Caraça, Minas Gerais, but is generally rare and has apparently declined (Ridgely and Tudor 1994) for reasons that are unclear.&#160;<em> <p></p></em>
139410077		habitat	eng	<em></em>The species is not dependent on primary forest, apparently preferring forest borders, partially or lightly wooded areas, and clearings and gardens with scattered trees (where it often nests) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), from near sea level to 2,000 m. It is an altitudinal migrant, nesting in montane regions and descending during the austral winter (Snow 1982, Ridgely and Tudor 1994). <br/><p></p>
139410077		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
139410077		threats	eng	Extensive deforestation&#160;<em></em>has presumably had some impact, but its preference for forest borders, partially or lightly wooded areas, and clearings and gardens suggests that it can tolerate some habitat degradation. <br/><p></p>
139410085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong> <br/>Part of the range is within Madidi National Park, but it is currently designated as a management area (which permits agricultural activity including clearance by burning)<strong> </strong>(Bromfield <em>et al.</em> 2004). The current stronghold around Atén is outside the park boundary, was unprotected, but a conservation project run by BirdLife Partner Armonía has been underway since 2008, and in 2010 a 59 ha reserve was established for the species. Negotiations with landowners continue, with the hope of purchasing additional land. Work with local communities has so far included improvements to a local school, attempts to raise the profile of and engender local pride in the species, and the training of local high school students as research assistants.  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> <br/></span>Extend the area of nature reserve, and fence the boundary to prevent further cattle grazing and allow reforestation. Work with neighbouring landowners to manage fires to enable the restoration of savannah habitat. Purchase the protection rights for nesting trees, and fence these off as sanctuary areas. Plant trees to provide nesting habitat where appropriate. Continue awareness-raising activities in local communities, and involve local people in research and monitoring.<p></p>
139410085		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Phibalura boliviana</span>, which was formerly considered conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. flavirostris</span> and is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia</span>, went unrecorded<em> </em>for 98 years until its rediscovery at the edge of a small (2-4 km<sup>2</sup>) forest fragment near Pata, north-west of Apolo in Madidi National Park in September 2000<strong> </strong>(A. B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 2002). The total population has since been estimated to number 600-800 individuals (ABC 2011), with the majority (400-500 individuals, Hennessey 2010) in an area surrounding the town of Apolo, and the population stronghold thought to lie around the small village of Atén, just outside Madidi National Park. Loss of its moist high altitude savanna habitat has been extensive and is ongoing at a rapid rate; the species has disappeared from some former localities where habitat is now non-existent, and breeding success at remaining sites, many of them highly degraded, is low.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><em><p></p></em></span>
139410085		habitat	eng	It is known from the edge of moist forest fragments on a large intermontane plateau believed to originally have been covered with semi-humid forest with marshes in valley bottoms and savanna-like mountain ridge vegetation, but now highly degraded, heavily grazed and frequently burned with only fragments of moist forest remaining<strong> </strong>(Bromfield <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species has been found within an altitudinal range of 1,400-2,000 m, with breeding taking place from August to March; unusually among cotingas, the species is monogamous and incubation is by both parents (Avalos 2011).&#160;Unlike <em>P. flavirostris </em>the species does not appear to undertake seasonal movements (Hennessey 2011), but gathers in flocks in the non-breeding season (A. van Kleunen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It forages by flycatching in the forest canopy and eating fruits. It prefers to nest in trees along forest edges and even in isolated trees among savannah-type habitat, nesting in loose colonies of up to five pairs (A. van Kleunen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), but nests have also been found on barren, rocky ridge tops, which may indicate a lack of adequate nesting trees (ABC 2011).  <p></p><p></p>
139410085		population	eng	<p>The total population has been estimated to number 600-800 individuals by ABC (2011), which equates to c.400-530 mature individuals.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>
139410085		threats	eng	<p>Forest cover in the Apolo area has been drastically reduced over the past century and losses are continuing owing to large-scale clearance and burning for cattle ranching and agriculture. Habitat largely consists of highly eroded and degraded grazing land which is subject to annual burning<strong> </strong>(Bromfield <em>et al.</em> 2004). Wildfires are thought to reduce nesting success (Avalos 2010). Parts of the former range are now completely treeless and the species absent (B. Hennessey and A. van Kleunen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Land redistribution laws due to come into force in in the area in 2012-2013 may impact efforts to protect remaining habitat (B. Skolnik and F. Rheindt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Nesting success is low (c.20%, W. Ferrufino per. F. Rheindt <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), with predation by jays, presumably facilitated by habitat degradation, apparently a major cause of nest failure. Extreme weather such as thunderstorms with strong winds and hail may be another important cause of nest failure, as nests are built in exposed locations (W. Ferrufino per. A. van Kleunen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Such weather conditions may be becoming more frequent (A. van Kleunen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), and may be exacerbated by a lack of suitable nest sites leading to nesting in suboptimal locations.</p>  <p></p>
139461225		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out surveys, especially on Abaco, in order to refine the population estimate. Conduct regular surveys at selected sites to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Challenge detrimental development proposals and raise awareness of the importance of pine forest conservation. Protect areas of suitable habitat. Strengthen protection for habitat already covered by reserve designations. Incorporate management for the species's conservation into forestry plans.
139461225		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dendroica flavescens</span> has been split from <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dominica</span>, and <em></em><em></em> is endemic to Grand Bahama and Abaco (Great Abaco and Little Abaco) in the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bahamas</span> (McKay <em>et al</em>. 2010). Surveys in the pine forests of Grand Bahama have found the species to be patchily distributed and existing at low densities (Lloyd and Slater 2011), with relatively higher densities found in the central regions of Grand Bahama (W. K. Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Its population is thought to have declined since the onset of major logging of pine forests in the mid-20th century (W. K. Hayes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). There are estimated to be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals.
139461225		habitat	eng	It appears to be restricted to mature Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em> forest (McKay <em>et al</em>. 2010).
139461225		population	eng	There are estimated to be 900-1,000 km<sup>2</sup> of pine forest remaining on Grand Bahama and Abaco combined, although the remaining area of mature pine forest is apparently not known. <em>D. flavescens</em> has been estimated to occur at densities of 3.5-17.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a total population of 3,150-17,100 individuals, although more recent density estimates suggest a population of only 3,150-3,500 individuals (McKay <em>et al</em>. 2010 and references therein, W. K. Hayes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). On the basis of this information, the population is placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. With relevance to the sub-population structure, there are an estimated 600 km<sup>2</sup> of pine forest on Grand Bahama, although the effective area of suitable habitat may be 10-15% lower owing to the effects of recent storms (W. K. Hayes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). With the total area of pine forest being put at 900-1,000 km<sup>2</sup>, the implication is that Grand Bahama holds 51-67% of the total population. Following surveys in April 2007, Lloyd and Slater <em></em>(2011) estimated a population of 2,116 individuals (95% CI: 1,239-3,614) on Grand Bahama, based on a density of 3.6 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, although this does not account for non-territorial males and assumes a 1:1 sex ratio (J. Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Even at this density, it seems unlikely that either of the two island populations number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.
139461225		threats	eng	Its population is thought to have been reduced by the large-scale  logging of pine forests since the mid-20th century (W. K. Hayes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Some areas of pine forest, such as those in the vicinity of Freeport and Lucaya on Grand Bahama, have been fragmented by roads and residential developments (Lloyd and Slater 2011, W. K. Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), although the level of fragmentation may not be significant for the species (J. Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and their structure and composition have been altered by changing fire regimes, human activity and hurricanes (Lloyd and Slater 2011). Much forest west of Freeport has been lost to the effects of hurricanes, probably through seawater intrusion (W. K. Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Caribbean pine forests are at high risk of further development and renewed logging (McKay <em>et al</em>. 2010, White 2011). This situation is probably exacerbated by the presence of freshwater recharge and supply areas in the pine forests of Grand Bahama, coupled with the conversion of the Bahamas to a reverse osmosis water supply, suggesting that these areas may be prone to further development (W. K. Hayes <em>in litt</em>. 2011). The clearance of patches of pine forest for development projects would be expected to be detrimental to the species, especially if plans proceed in central Grand Bahama (J. Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The future loss of habitat to development would be exacerbated if timber extraction were to resume, as most forest on Grand Bahama is vulnerable to logging, including some areas designated as reserves. It has been suggested that around half of the existing suitable habitat on Grand Bahama may be at risk, although in effect virtually all of this is vulnerable to destruction or degradation through development and timber extraction in the future, and this may also be the case on Abaco (J. Lloyd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).
139462673		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>As a result of concerns about international trade, <em>P. e. princeps</em> was put on CITES Appendix I in 1975, and the remainder of the species was put on CITES Appendix II with all Psittaciformes in 1981 at the request of Switzerland and Liechtenstein. In 1994, the <em>P. e. princeps</em> CITES listing was removed due to lack of evidence that it is a valid subspecies. Due to concern about the effects of the large numbers of this species traded, it was the subject of a CITES significant trade review, in which it was listed as of "possible concern" (Inskipp <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong>. The Animals Committee of CITES recommended a two-year ban from January 2007 in Cameroon. For a further two countries - Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo - the Committee has recommended that quotas should be halved to 4,000 and 5,000 birds respectively. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure that proposed trade restrictions are implemented. Monitor wild populations to determine ongoing trends. Consider banning trade in Congo and DRC, as both countries are lacking the necessary capacity to manage it (H. Rainey<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
139462673		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacus erithacus</em> has been split into <span style="font-style: italic;">P. timneh </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. erithacus. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">P. erithacus </span>has a distribution extending from southeastern <strong></strong>Côte d'Ivoire<strong></strong> east through the moist lowland forests of West Africa to <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and thence in the Congo forests to just east of the Albertine Rift (up to the shores of Lake Victoria) in <strong>Uganda </strong>and <strong>Kenya</strong> and south to northern <strong>Angola </strong>(Juniper and Parr 1998), as well as on the islands of Principe (<span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sao Tomé and Principe</span>) and Bioko (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Equatorial Guinea</span>). Preliminary calculations based on forest cover and country-level population estimates (<strong></strong>Dändliker 1992a, 1992b, Collar 1997, <strong></strong>Fotso 1998b, JRC 2000)<strong></strong>, subtracting estimates for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. timneh</span>, suggest a global population of between 560,000 and 12.7 million individuals (Pilgrim <em>et al. </em>in prep.)<strong></strong>.  Population declines have been noted in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Burundi</span>, Cameroon, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ghana</span>, Kenya, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nigeria</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Rwanda</span>, São Tomé and Príncipe, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Togo</span>, Uganda and parts of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Congo </span>and the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Democratic Republic of the Congo</span><strong></strong>. In all of these declines, trapping for the wild bird trade has been implicated, with habitat loss also having significant impacts throughout West and East Africa. From 1982 to 2001, over 657,000 wild-caught individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span> (the vast majority <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus</span>) entered international trade (UNEP-WCMC 2003). Considering estimates for pre-export mortality, the number of birds extracted from the wild during this period may well have numbered over 1 million (A. Michels <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Cameroon accounted for 48% of exports from 1990-1996 (Waugh 2010), and estimates that c90% of trapped birds died before reaching Douala airport suggest, although quotas remained at 12,000, over 100,000 birds were being captured in Cameroon annually during this period (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt. </em>2012).<span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content"><span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content"></span>
139462673		habitat	eng	Although typically inhabiting dense forest, they are commonly observed at forest edges, clearings, gallery forest, mangroves, wooded savannah, cultivated areas, and even gardens (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>, but it is not clear whether these are self-sustaining populations. At least in West Africa, the species makes seasonal movements out of the driest parts of the range in the dry season. It is highly gregarious, forming large roosts at least historically containing up to 10,000 individuals (Juniper and Parr 1998). Feeding takes place in smaller groups of up to 30 birds and the diet consists of a variety of fruits and seeds, while the nest is in a tree cavity 10-30 m above ground  (Juniper and Parr 1998). Nesting is usually solitary, but can take place in loose colonies, for example in Principe, while the breeding season varies across the range  (Juniper and Parr 1998).<p></p>
139462673		population	eng	Gatter (1997) estimated two breeding pairs/ km<sup>2</sup> of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. timneh </span>in logged forest north of Zwedru, Liberia. McGowan (2001) provided similar estimates of nest densities in Nigeria of 0.5-2.1/km<sup>2</sup>, believing the higher end to be more accurate. This would indicate 4.2 breeding birds/km<sup>2</sup> plus non-breeding birds (the remaining 70-85% of the population, as estimated by Fotso (1998b), giving estimates of 4.9-6.0 birds/km<sup>2</sup>. These estimates are substantially higher than those of 0.3-0.5 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in good habitat in Guinea (<span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span>) and 0.9-2.2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (in evergreen forests) or 0.15-0.45 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (in semi-deciduous forests) in Ghana. Using these density estimates, the overall <em>P. timneh</em> population was estimated at 120,100-259,000 birds, and the West African population of <em>P. erithacus</em> at 40,000-100,000 birds, although central African populations of this subspecies are much larger. Using a global land cover classification, a digitised map of the species's range from Benson <em>et al.</em> (1988), and estimates of density 0.15-0.45 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in semi-deciduous forest (including deciduous forest) and 0.3-6.0 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in evergreen forest (including swamp forest and mangrove), supplemented by post-1995 published national estimates where available, an initial coarse assessment of the global population of this species (subtracting estimates for the now-split <span style="font-style: italic;">P. timneh</span>) is 0.56-12.7 million individuals.
139462673		threats	eng	It is one of the most popular avian pets in Europe, the United States,  and the Middle East due to its longevity and unparalleled ability to  mimic human speech and other sounds. Demand for wild birds is also  increasing in China, and increased presence of Chinese businesses in  central Africa (particularly for mining, oil and logging) may increase  illegal exports of this species (<strong></strong>F. Maisels <em>in litt.</em> 2006, H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. From 1982 to 2001, over 657,000 wild-caught individuals of both <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span> (the vast majority <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus</span>) entered international trade (UNEP-WCMC 2005). Considering estimates for pre-export mortality, the number of birds extracted from the wild during this period may well have numbered over 1 million (A. Michels <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In the late 1990s and early 2000s Cameroon exported an annual quota of 10,000 birds; estimates that c90% of trapped birds died before reaching Douala airport suggest that some 100,000 birds per year were being captured in Cameroon during that period (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt. </em>2012).  Official statistics give exports of 367,166 individuals from Cameroon in the period 1981-2005, and the country accounted for 48% of exports between 1990-1996 (Waugh 2010). Up to 10,000 wild-caught birds from the Democratic Republic of the Congo  are apparently imported into South Africa each year (S. Boyes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011). Because it concentrates in traditional roosting, drinking and mineral lick sites, it is especially vulnerable to trapping pressure. Habitat loss is undoubtedly having significant impacts, particularly throughout West and East Africa. In addition to capture for international trade, there is an active internal trade in live birds for pets and exhibition (McGowan 2001, Clemmons 2003, A. Michels <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The species is also hunted in parts of the range as bushmeat and to supply heads, legs and tail feathers for use as medicine or in black magic (Fotso 1998, McGowan 2001, Clemmons 2003, A. Michels <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <br/><br/><p></p>
139467000		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>The species is probably still extant in four protected areas, including three national parks; however, despite their designations, at least two of these national parks (Halimun-Salak and Mts Gede-Pangrango) suffer encroachment along their borders, resulting in habitat loss and degradation and trapping pressure, whilst Mt Merapi National Park has lost habitat to volcanic eruptions (van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Conduct range-wide surveys in order to generate an improved population estimate. Closely monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Protect the species by law, but manage awareness to avoid encouraging increased trapping pressure (van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Protect any remaining substantial fragments of suitable habitat not already covered by a designation. Increase and improve enforcement measures in protected areas within the species's range (see van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Consider a programme of recovering captive birds for release into the wild, where possible, or recuitment into a captive breeding programme  (van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). Intensify awareness-raising activities within and around protected areas to reduce trapping pressure and encroachment, and amongst the wider public to discourage trade in the species (see van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). List the species in international trade management agreements.
139467000		distribution	eng	<em>Cissa thalassina</em> is endemic to western Java, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia, </span>where there are few recent records and the species now appears to be very rare and localised (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011). Since 2001, the species has been recorded in only four protected areas: the national parks of Mt Merapi, Mts Halimun-Salak and Mts Gede-Pangrango/Megamendung, and South Parahyangan Protection Forest/Nature Reserve. In the 1990s, it was also recorded at Pembarisan Mts Protection Forest and Dieng Mts Protection Forest, with records earlier in the 20th century from Jampang Kulon (not protected), Mt Slamat Protection Forest and North Parahyangan Protection Forest/Nature Reserve (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011). The paucity of recent records implies that there are probably fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining, and the population is suspected to be in on-going decline.
139467000		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mainly foothill and montane forest at 500-2,000 m, occasionally ranging into lowland areas, and may be seen in adjacent cultivated areas and at the edge of forest (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011 and references therein). Its diet compromises mostly invertebrates and small vertebrate prey. Breeding appears to take place throughout the year, with a preference for the months with highest rainfall (October -April). Clutch size is one or two (van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011 and references therein).
139467000		population	eng	It appears to have an extremely small population, which is likely to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with each sub-population probably containing 50 mature individuals or fewer  (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011). It has also been suggested that the total population probably does not exceed 100 individuals and could number fewer than 50 individuals, as there may be only one or two dozen birds at each of up to four sites where the species was recorded from 2001 to 2011 and may still be extant (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011); however, surveys should be conducted to confirm whether this is the case.
139467000		threats	eng	On Java, most forest below 1,000 m, and in some areas up to 1,500 m, has been cleared, which is suspected to have caused serious declines in this species’s population (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011). Habitat and loss and degradation is driven primarily by agricultural expansion, logging and mining. Excessive trapping for the cage-bird trade is also thought to be a significant threat, although only relatively small numbers have ever been recorded in bird markets (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011 and references therein). Bird-catchers tend to specialise in particular species, suggesting that remnant populations are at increased risk of local extirpation through targeted trapping pressure (van Balen <em>et al</em>. 2011).
139471541		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although numbers in some parts of its range (accounting for most of the population) have received monitoring in recent decades, and it occurs in some protected areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Continue to monitor numbers in both its breeding and wintering range. Carry out research into the causes of the recently detected decline. Increase the area of breeding habitat that is protected. Tackle potential causes of mortality in wintering birds, such as drowning in fishing nets.
139471541		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanitta fusca</span> breeds in Scandinavia, from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Norway</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sweden</span>, into <span style="font-weight: bold;">Finland</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Estonia</span>, and western Siberian<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Russia</span> to the River Yenisey, and winters mostly in the Baltic Sea and along the coasts of Western Europe, including Estonia, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Poland</span>, Norway, Sweden, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Denmark</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">United Kingdom</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ireland</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Portugal </span>(Kear 2005), accounting for the vast majority of the global population (Delany and Scott 2006). An estimated 1,500 birds winter in the Black Sea and Caucasus (Delany and Scott 2006), and are thought to be from breeding populations in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkey</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Armenia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Georgia</span> and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkmenistan</span> (Kear 2005). Since surveys in 1992-1993, when the estimate of the north-west European wintering population<em></em> was updated to c.1 million birds, an apparent decline of c.60% (3.7% annually) has been detected in the Baltic Sea, with counts in 2007-2009 putting the wintering population at c.373,000 individuals, down from c.933,000 in 1992-1993 (Skov <em>et al</em>. 2011). This is believed to represent a real decline in the species's population, rather than a shift in its geographic distribution, as other data sets corroborate this negative trend. The breeding population in Finland is in decline (at a rate of c.30% over 10 years [<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> M. Ellermaa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]), with the breeding population along the Baltic coast having decreased by c.50% between 1986 and 2010 (Aleksi Lehikoinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). A long term decline has been noted in numbers passing Hanko Bird Observatory in autumn (at a rate of c.50% over 30 years), but this decline stopped in 1995 (M. Ellermaa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Similarly, numbers passing Vyborg (eastern Gulf of Finland) decreased from an average of 130 birds/hour in 1988-1994, to 55 birds/hour in 1995-1999, and 53 birds/hour in 2000-2008, although error margins may be considerable (J. Kontiokorpi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, A. Lehikoinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Numbers recorded at Söderskär Bird Observatory have also been decreasing since the 1980s (A. Lehikoinen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The breeding population in Estonia is also noted to have declined between 1970 and 1990 (M. Ellermaa <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Numbers breeding and moulting in Kandalaksha State Nature Reserve, north-western Russia, have declined four-fold since c.2002 (V. V. Bianki and I. A. Kharitonova <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p>  </p>
139471541		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is highly migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Madge and Burn 1988<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong> and breeds from mid-May onwards<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988) in solitary pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, occasionally nesting in association with gull or tern colonies<strong> </strong>(Kear 2005). Non-breeding birds spend the breeding season in flocks on open water<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). After breeding (from June onwards [Scott and Rose 1996]) the adults migrate to moulting sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(males travelling and moulting before the females)<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988), <strong></strong>where they become flightless for 3-4 weeks<strong></strong> (Scott and Rose 1996). When moulting and overwintering the species is highly sociable and can occur in large flocks (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> of several thousands of individuals<strong></strong> (Scott and Rose 1996), although it is more common in small scattered groups of c.100 individuals<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species mainly forages by diving and may feed at depths of 30-40 m during the winter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on wooded<strong><sup> </sup></strong>coastlines (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, small freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, pools and rivers<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998) in northern coniferous forests (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, wooded Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> and alpine zones (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, especially where there are boulder-covered or small rocky islands available for nesting with extensive herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and low trees <strong></strong>(Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005). <em>Non-breeding</em> The majority winter at sea on shallow inshore coastal waters (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, especially in estuaries or inlets where there are large mussel-beds<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also occur on freshwater lakes and estuaries during migration<strong> </strong>(Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, as well as crustaceans, worms, echinoderms<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), amphipods, isopods<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), small fish, and (in freshwater habitats) adult and larval insects<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species may also consume plant material on its breeding grounds<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. leaves and shoots)<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression positioned on the ground<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) in tall grass, among hummocks or under bushes<strong> </strong>(Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), usually within 100 m of open water (occasionally up to 2-3 km away)<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). The species usually nests in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005),<strong></strong> but it may form loose congregations (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (e.g. on islands [Kear 2005]) with neighbouring nests as close as 3 m apart <strong></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998), and will also nest in association with gull or tern colonies<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). It has been known to use artificial nestboxes<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988). <strong>Management information</strong> Experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species<strong></strong> (Nordstrom <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <p></p>
139471541		population	eng	Surveys in 2007-2009  put the wintering population in the Baltic Sea at c.373,000 individuals (Skov <em>et al</em>. 2011), with perhaps a few thousand wintering along coasts elsewhere in Europe, and another c.1,500 wintering in the Black Sea and Caucasus (Delany and Scott 2006). On this basis, the total number of mature individuals (probably around 2/3 of the total population) is estimated at c.250,000.
139471541		threats	eng	Moulting and wintering concentrations of this species are very susceptible to oil spills and other marine pollutants (Gorski <em>et al.</em> 1977, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005, UICN France 2011)<strong></strong> (an oil spill could destroy a large proportion of the global population if it occurred in a key moulting or wintering area<span style="font-weight: bold;"> [</span><strong></strong>Madge and Burn 1988]). The species is also susceptible to the effects of commercial exploitation of marine benthic organisms and shellfish<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), and is threatened by drowning in fishing nets <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005). It is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of the human exploitation of natural resources in the taiga and lower tundra regions of its breeding range<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), and by lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Armenia)<strong></strong> (Balian <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is susceptible to disturbance from tourism in remote coastal and freshwater habitats in its breeding range<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), as well as disturbance from wind farms (wind turbines)<strong></strong> (Garthe and Huppop 2004). The species suffers predation from American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> on islands<strong></strong> (Nordstrom <em>et al.</em> 2002) and is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong> </strong>(Melville and Shortridge 2006). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is a target of hunters in some areas (e.g. Bregnballe <em>et al</em>. 2006). <p></p>
139471543		habitat	eng	<strong></strong><strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is highly migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Madge and Burn 1988<span style="font-weight: bold;">)</span><strong></strong> and breeds from mid-May onwards<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988) in solitary pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, occasionally nesting in association with gull or tern colonies<strong> </strong>(Kear 2005). Non-breeding birds spend the breeding season in flocks on open water<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). After breeding (from June onwards [Scott and Rose 1996]) the adults migrate to moulting sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(males travelling and moulting before the females)<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988), <strong></strong>where they become flightless for 3-4 weeks<strong></strong>  (Scott and Rose 1996). When moulting and overwintering the species is  highly sociable and can occur in large flocks (Madge and Burn 1988,  Scott and Rose 1996)<strong></strong> of several thousands of individuals<strong></strong> (Scott and Rose 1996), although it is more common in small scattered groups of c.100 individuals<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species mainly forages by diving and may feed at depths of 30-40 m during the winter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on wooded<strong><sup> </sup></strong>coastlines (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, small freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, pools and rivers<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998) in northern coniferous forests (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>, wooded Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998)<strong></strong> and alpine zones (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005)<strong></strong>,  especially where there are boulder-covered or small rocky islands  available for nesting with extensive herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and  low trees <strong></strong>(Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005). <em>Non-breeding</em> The majority winter at sea on shallow inshore coastal waters (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong>, especially in estuaries or inlets where there are large mussel-beds<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also occur on freshwater lakes and estuaries during migration<strong> </strong>(Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, as well as crustaceans, worms, echinoderms<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), amphipods, isopods<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), small fish, and (in freshwater habitats) adult and larval insects<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species may also consume plant material on its breeding grounds<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. leaves and shoots)<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression positioned on the ground<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) in tall grass, among hummocks or under bushes<strong> </strong>(Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), usually within 100 m of open water (occasionally up to 2-3 km away)<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). The species usually nests in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005),<strong></strong> but it may form loose congregations (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992)<strong></strong> (e.g. on islands [Kear 2005]) with neighbouring nests as close as 3 m apart <strong></strong>(Snow and Perrins 1998), and will also nest in association with gull or tern colonies<strong></strong> (Kear 2005).<strong></strong> <p></p>
139471543		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at 600,000-1,000,000 individuals (Delany and Scott 2006), probably including c.400,000-700,000 mature individuals, on the basis that they account for around 2/3 of the population.
139471543		threats	eng	Moulting and wintering concentrations of this species are very susceptible to oil spills and other marine pollutants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005)<strong></strong> (an oil spill could destroy a large proportion of the global population if it occurred in a key moulting or wintering area<span style="font-weight: bold;"> [</span><strong></strong>Madge  and Burn 1988]). The species is also susceptible to the effects of  commercial exploitation of marine benthic organisms and shellfish<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), and is threatened by drowning in fishing nets <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em>  1992, Kear 2005). It is threatened by habitat degradation as a result  of the human exploitation of natural resources in the taiga and lower  tundra regions of its breeding range<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). It is susceptible to disturbance from tourism in remote coastal and freshwater habitats in its breeding range<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), as well as disturbance from wind farms (wind turbines)<strong></strong> (Garthe and Huppop 2004). The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong> </strong>(Melville and Shortridge 2006).<strong></strong><p></p>
139484939		population	eng	The species's global population size has not been quantified.
139484941		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although some of its habitat receives various levels of protection.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out wide-ranging surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Study the species's life history and habitat requirements. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives effective protection.
139484941		distribution	eng	<em>Myrmeciza palliata</em> occurs in northern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, being present on the northern slope of the Andes and in the Magdalena Valley, and ranges into north-western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003). Its distribution may be fairly patchy, and it is described as not common where it occurs (A. Cuervo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), although it has also been characterised as common in Serranía de las  Quinchas Regional Natural Park and Cuchilla del Minero Integrated Management District (O.  Cortes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
139484941		habitat	eng	It inhabits humid and wet forests, mostly in the foothills, where it is most numerous, but also ranges down into the lowlands and up into lower montane habitats in some areas (Hilty and Brown 1986, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003), occurring at 500-1,400 m (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The species is absent from the dryer and higher areas of the the Yariguies and Chicamocha/Suarez watersheds, and the dryer part of southern Perija (at the present day at least), and it seems to have only a limited tolerance of habitat fragmentation (T. Donegan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011).
139484941		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified.
139484941		threats	eng	<em></em>This species occupies a region that is subject to extensive land-use change. The middle and lower Magdalena valley has been extensively deforested since the 19th century for agriculture, and clearance of its foothills has been near total since the 1950s (Forero 1989). Deforestation in the Caribbean lowlands of Colombia has also been severe (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2009). In addition to clearance for agriculture, deforestation is being driven by gold mining in the Serranía de San Lucas (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2009).
139494910		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanitta nigra</span> breeds in <strong>Iceland</strong>, eastern Greenland (<strong>Denmark</strong>) and northern <strong>United Kingdom</strong>, across Scandinavia and northern parts of western and central <strong>Russia</strong> (e.g. Collinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It winters in the Baltic Sea, off the Atlantic coast of Europe and North Africa, south to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mauritania</span>, and in the western Mediterranean<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Delany and Scott 2006).<br/><p></p>
139494910		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and often travels considerable distances over land making brief stop-overs on inland waters<strong> </strong>(Madge and Burn 1988). It arrives on its breeding grounds between late-April and May and breeds from late-May onwards<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988) in highly dispersed<strong></strong> (Kear 2005) solitary pairs<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). After mating (from June onwards) males migrate long distances prior to their flightless moult, most travelling in small groups to inshore or offshore coastal waters<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988). Females and juveniles leave the breeding grounds in September<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988). The species is highly gregarious when not breeding<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988) with males forming large congregations during the flightless moulting period<strong></strong> (Kear 2005) and large flocks of several hundred to a thousand<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998) or occasionally over 100, 000 individuals occurring during winter<strong></strong> (Scott and Rose 1996). Non-breeders often oversummer on the wintering grounds<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on Arctic dwarf heath<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005) or boggy tundra on pools, small lakes, streams<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and slow-flowing rivers<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for freshwater habitats<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) with low banks<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), small islets<strong></strong> (Kear 2005) and high abundances of aquatic invertebrate and plant life positioned in swampy valleys<strong><sup> </sup></strong>or among mossy bogs<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), especially where suitable shrubs (e.g. willow or birch) and herbaceous vegetation are available for nesting cover<strong></strong> (Johnsgard 1978, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005). It generally avoids areas with steep slopes or wetlands enclosed by forest<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). <em>Non-breeding</em> Although the species may use freshwater lakes on migration<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005) the majority moult and overwinter at sea<strong></strong> (Kear 2005) on shallow inshore waters less than 20 m deep<strong></strong> (Kear 2005) (optimally 5-15 m)<strong></strong> (Scott and Rose 1996) with abundant benthic fauna<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), generally between 500 m and c.2 km from the shore<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, especially during the winter<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), although it occasionally takes other aquatic invertebrates such as crustaceans<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. barnacles and shrimps)<strong></strong> (Johnsgard 1978), worms<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), echinoderms, isopods, amphidods<strong></strong> (Kear 2005) and insects<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. midges and caddisflies)<strong></strong> as well as small fish<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and fish eggs<strong></strong> (Snow and Perrins 1998). On the breeding grounds the species may also consume plant matter<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) such as seeds, roots and tubers<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong></strong> (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape on the ground hidden amongst vegetation<strong></strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) close to water<strong></strong> (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005) or placed further away in dwarf heath<strong></strong> (Kear 2005).  <p></p>
139494910		population	eng	The total population has been estimated to number 1,600,000 individuals (Delany and Scott 2006), which probably includes c.1,070,000 mature individuals, assuming that they account for around 2/3 of the population.
139494910		threats	eng	The large concentrations of this species that occur during the moulting period and in winter are highly vulnerable to oil spills<strong> </strong>(Gorski <em>et al.</em> 1977, Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006), chronic oil pollution, human disturbance and the degradation of food resources as a result of oil exploration<strong></strong> (Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species also suffers disturbance from high-speed ferries<strong></strong> (Larsen and Laubek 2005) and populations wintering off the coasts of western Europe are threatened by offshore wind farms<strong></strong> (Kear 2005, Fox and Petersen 2006, Petersen 2006). The effects of commercial exploitation of benthic shellfish also poses a threat (through competition for food resources)<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), and the species's breeding habitats are threatened by eutrophication in some areas<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong></strong> (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in some areas (e.g. Bregnballe <em>et al.</em> 2006) and its eggs used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong></strong> (Gudmundsson 1979).  <p></p>
139535965		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
139536084		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
139540174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
139540930		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
139541085		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Asses the effect of hunting both inside and outside protected areas. Conduct local education programmes to discourage hunting. Enforce the protection afforded to the species's habitat through protected areas and protect additional large areas of forest in areas where it occurs. <p></p>
139541085		distribution	eng	<em>Argusianus argus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is recorded from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and south-west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Brunei </strong>(extirpated from many areas),<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(BirdLife International 2001). It is generally uncommon, although this species has probably not declined very rapidly because it ranges up to elevations where forest loss is less severe and occurs it in selectively logged sites. Densities recorded in south-western Sumatra ranged from 0.9 to 3.7 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (Winarni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <em></em><p></p>
139541085		habitat	eng	It occurs in tall, dry, lowland primary, secondary and logged forests, up to 1,300 m, but principally, below 900 m (BirdLife International 2001, Dinata <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is much sparser in deciduous forest and rare to absent from lowland peat swamp and white-sand heath forests. A recent study in Sumatra, utilising radio-tracking, habitat sampling, camera trapping and transect surveys found that territories averaged 14.5 ha, used mostly by resident males, who showed a preference for undisturbed forest (Winarni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Both sexes show a preference for intact forest with large trees and an open understorey. The species's diet includes fruits, seeds, flowers, leaf buds and invertebrates (Winarni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). <p></p>
139541085		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number more than 100,000 individuals.
139541085		threats	eng	Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia has been extensive (Kalimantan lost nearly 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997, and Sumatra lost almost 30% of its 1985 cover), because of a variety of factors, including the escalation of logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas, plus forest fires (particularly in 1997-1998). At present, less than 13% of Sumatra's original lowland forest cover remains (Winarni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Declines are compounded by trapping for the cage-bird industry. However, the species's use of secondary growth and higher elevations implies that it is not immediately threatened. The impacts of anthropogenic threats may be compounded by pressures from drought events, such as those linked to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (Winarni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
139546827		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 300,000-910,000 breeding pairs, equating to 900,000-2,730,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population
139554980		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).
160030001		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation measures are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor the population. Perform further research (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, especially on the reasons for its relative scarcity in the Wai`anae Mountains. Protect native habitats by law. Reforest cleared areas. <p></p>
160030001		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus flavus</em> is endemic to O`ahu in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It originally occurred throughout the island, but is now restricted to the two mountain ranges. In the Wai`anae Mountains, it is uncommon and sparsely distributed, mostly above 500 m elevation. In the southern and central Ko`olau Mountains, it is locally common, occurring from the summits occasionally down to 30 m in valleys, but it becomes increasingly rare northwards and is practically absent from the northern tip of the range (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 20,000-60,000 birds (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but surveys on O`ahu, unlike those on other Hawaiian islands, have not been systematic and these estimates may be too high (<strong></strong>R. Shallenberger <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Christmas bird counts indicate a population decline over the period 1958-1985 (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but more recent information indicates that the population may be stable and even increasing in some areas (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995, Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030001		habitat	eng	It has adapted relatively well to forests of non-native trees, but is most abundant in native forests, particularly where koa trees dominate (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests and forages in urban areas where enough trees grow (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Little is known about its diet, but it probably feeds primarily on small insects and other arthropods, taking nectar and fruit as secondary food sources (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<p></p>
160030001		population	eng	The population is estimated at 20,000-60,000 birds, roughly equivalent to 13,000-40,000 mature individuals, but surveys on O`ahu, unlike those on other Hawaiian islands, have not been systematic, and these estimates may be too high (R. Shallenberger <I>in litt.</I> 1999).
160030001		threats	eng	Feral ungulates and introduced predators are likely to have contributed to historical declines (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and to be continuing limiting factors. Diseases spread by introduced mosquitoes were probably also a major factor, but some populations have apparently developed some degree of resistance to avian malaria, and this may explain recent population increases in lowland areas (Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030002		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In 2007, a species recovery plan was produced with the goal of securing in the wild a combined protected population of 2,000 birds at 5-10 managed sites by 2010. Following a major audit of the recovery programme in 2000 the population has begun to increase. Over 200 birds are held in captivity. Although initial mainland releases totalling over 1,000 birds (Williams and Dumbell 1996)<strong></strong> failed, releases are now conducted in combination with intensive predator control and breeding populations appear to have become established in several locations (Heather and Robertson 1997, Hayes 2006, O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2007, Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>, and that the species's total population is entering a recovery phase (Hayes 2010, A. Booth<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). At least 139 individuals have now been released in a predator-controlled area of Fiordland on the South Island with the hope of establishing a population (Anon. 2011). Predator control, including that of Purple Gallinule (Pukeko), on Great Barrier Island has also led to stability in this population (Hayes 2010). Hazing fences on roads have been erected to force ducks to either fly or use culverts when passing between favoured feeding sites, these have met with success and are planned for more areas (Hayes 2006, Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. Habitat is being restored in Northland and Coromandel with the co-operation of local landowners, and some wetlands are grazed to create improved conditions for teal (Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. Research is on-going, focusing on management techniques and habitat requirements (Williams and Dumbell 1996)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to implement the species recovery plan. Continue to maintain a viable breeding population at a minimum of two locations on the North Island mainland. Continue measures to increase the population on Great Barrier Island. Continue predator control measures at key sites. Erect more hazing fences in areas where road mortality is greatest. Continue the captive breeding programme as a source of birds for translocations. Continue to encourage public support and involvement (Williams and Dumbell 1996)<strong></strong>. Conduct research into seasonal starvation events (A. Booth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Carry out studies into habitat use by the species. Conduct research into causes of declines.<br/><p></p>
160030002		distribution	eng	<em>Anas chlorotis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it was once widespread in the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands, but its range is now much reduced. The current strongholds are on Great Barrier Island, where there were 1,300-1,500 birds in the early 1990s, declining to little over 500 in the early 2000s and increasing to over 600 in 2004, and at Mimiwhangata and Teal Bay on the east coast of Northland where the population declined by 65% in the period between 1988 and 1999 to c.100 individuals in 2001 before increasing to nearly c.350 by 2007 (<strong></strong>Williams and Dumbell 1996,<strong></strong> M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong> </strong>Parrish and Williams 2001, Roxburgh 2005, S. Moore and P. Battley <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The re-introduced population in the northern Coromandel numbered c.500 individuals in early 2008, and is increasing. Its estimated Area of Occupancy is only c.300-500 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(Callaghan <em>et al.</em> in prep)<sup><strong></strong></sup>. After a study on Great Barrier Island indicated that the population was halving every 4.1 years  and could rapidly decline to extinction intensive management was initiated which has seen populations rising again (Ferreira and Taylor 2003, Roxburgh 2005, Hayes 2006, Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. Small islands where birds have previously been introduced and persisted for one to two decades may be too small for long-term survival, and some of these populations appear to be approaching extinction; however, the overall population trend is now positive (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Roxburgh 2005, Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. New populations have been established at Tawharanui, Cape Kidnappers and Tuhua Island (A. Booth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012); however, for the purposes of this assessment, the number of locations is treated as three, until the long-term outcomes of releases beyond Great Barrier Island, Northland and Coromandel can be judged with confidence.<em></em><br/><p></p>
160030002		habitat	eng	It formerly occurred in a wide range of habitats, including freshwater and coastal wetlands, and inland forests up to 800 m (Worthy 2002). It is now restricted to coastal streams, wetlands and dams in predominantly agricultural environments (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It nests in bowls of grass, always under dense, low vegetation, and usually lays six eggs. It feeds on terrestrial, freshwater and marine invertebrates and terrestrial and freshwater vegetation (Williams and Dumbell 1996, Moore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Peak breeding takes place between May and September, but can occur throughout the year (Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. Only the female incubates the eggs (Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030002		population	eng	Over 1,100 birds were estimated in 2005 at Great Barrier Island and Northland alone (with c.600 at each) (A. Booth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, N. Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and the population on Coromandel has been estimated at c.700 birds (N. Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), suggesting that the population numbers c.1,900 individuals, treated here as including c.1,300 mature individuals, based on the assumption that they account for around 2/3 of the total population.
160030002		threats	eng	Between the 1890s and 1930s, wetland drainage and severe hunting pressure (which continued in several areas despite legal protection in 1921) caused widespread local extinctions (Heather and Robertson 1997, Callaghan <em>et al.</em> in prep)<strong></strong>. Predation by the introduced mammalian predators, primarily cats, dogs, mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp. and possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em>, as well as the native Purple Gallinule <em>Porphyrio porphyrio </em>(locally known as Pukeko), were the primary cause of the modern decline (Heather and Robertson 1997, <strong></strong>Ferreira and Taylor 2003, Hayes 2006, Conner <em>et al. </em>2007, Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. Habitat modification, drought-induced habitat change, traffic-caused road deaths and especially predation continue to endanger remnant mainland populations (M. Williams <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Parrish and Williams 2001, Hayes 2006, O'Connor <em>et al. </em>2007, Sim and Roxburgh 2007)<strong></strong>. The threat of habitat loss to agriculture has diminished to some extent in recent years (N. Hayes <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
160030003		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been protected since 1966, with protection strengthened in 1974, leading to an increase in numbers (Cheke 1987c)<strong></strong>, and is protected by a 1989 Ministerial Decree. Ongoing public awareness campaigns and conservation action aim to stop poaching and to rescue and release poached birds (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Between 1997-2009 103 individuals were taken into care, many in a critical condition, of which 43 were successfully released back into the wild (Grondin &amp; Philippe&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011). Advice has been given on minimising secondary poisoning occurring as a result of rodent control. A Species Action Plan was published in 2011 (Grondin &amp; Philippe <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor its population trends. Continue developing public awareness campaigns to stop poaching and persecution. Protect remaining habitat. Ensure that rodent control methods minimise the risk of secondary poisoning (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Grondin &amp; Philippe&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011)<strong></strong>. Develop a strategy to decrease collisions with cables and wind turbines, and improve care of birds brought to SEOR care centre (V. Grondin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
160030003		distribution	eng	<em>Circus maillardi</em> is confined to <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>. Current population estimates range from less than 100 pairs to 125-130 (Bretagnolle <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, 130-170 pairs (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and 150 confirmed or probable pairs (Grondin &amp; Philippe<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2011)<strong></strong>. A population of around 130 pairs probably equates to a total population close to or exceeding 500 individuals (V. Bretagnolle<em> in litt.</em> 2007, estimated by Grondin &amp; Philippe<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(2011) at at least 564 individuals<strong></strong>. The range appears to have been stable from the late 1970s to the present (Bretagnolle <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>, and numbers were believd to be at least stable<strong> </strong>and probably increasing as a consequence of protection (Cheke 1987c, M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 2000, V. Bretagnolle<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. However, a decrease in population density was observed in some areas  between 2000 and 2010, while some areas were occupied in 2010 that  were unoccupied in 2000, making the overall trend difficult to determine (Grondin &amp; Philippe<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2011). Most suitable habitat is occupied, albeit with varying densities (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030003		habitat	eng	When breeding, it largely occupies indigenous and degraded forests (Clouet 1978, V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999, M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> - although rarely tall, dense forest - mostly between 300 and 700&#160;m. It forages in most habitats, but particularly in wooded and forested habitats (65%), as well as cultivated (sugarcane) fields and pastures (20%) and open grasslands and savannas (15%) (Bretagnolle <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Its original diet was probably entirely birds and insects, but now c.50% consists of introduced mammals such as rats, mice and tenrec <em>Tenrec ecaudatus </em>(Clouet 1978). Reptiles, particualrly Oriental garden lizard<em> Calotes versicolor</em>, are also commonly taken (V. Grondin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). It will also take carrion. Its fecundity is poor for a member of the <em>Circus</em> genus and is probably related to the lack of natural predators and low benefits of dispersion (Clouet 1978)<strong></strong>. The nest is built on the ground.<br/><p></p>
160030003		population	eng	Population estimates range from fewer than 100 pairs to 125-130 (Bretagnolle <em>et al. </em>2000), 130-170 pairs (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999), and most recently 564 adults recorded in 2009-2010, including c.150 confirmed or probable pairs, with the total number perhaps higher (Grondin&#160;&amp; Philippe<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2011) giving a range of 200-560 mature individuals.  <p></p>
160030003		threats	eng	Poaching (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and persecution (it is believed to be a predator of chickens and, formerly at least, was considered a bird of ill omen) (Jakubek <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong> continue, despite protective legislation, and together with secondary poisoning from rodenticides constitute the most serious current threats (Grondin &amp; Philippe<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2011). Increasing urbanisation and road construction bring disturbance further into the breeding habitat. Below 1,300 m, cultivation and urbanisation have eliminated native forest from all but the steepest of slopes. Cyclones, heavy rains and fires may possibly degrade remaining habitat (Bretagnolle <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong> that is already increasingly degraded by exotic plants (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 1991)<strong></strong>. Other possible threats include agricultural pesticide use, silvicultural management of some forests, collisions with electrical cables and wind turbines, and human hunting pressure on some prey species (e.g. larger birds)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Bretagnolle <em>et al.</em> 2000, Grondin &amp; Philippe 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160030004		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. Conservation efforts began in 1969, when the breeding population was first estimated on Antipodes. Many thousands of chicks have been banded, both on Antipodes and Adams Islands. Satellite tracking has identified foraging and non-breeding distribution (Walker and Elliot 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. By 1992, cattle and sheep had been eradicated from Campbell Island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves and, in 1998, were declared part of a World Heritage Site.     <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census total breeding population for 3-4 consecutive years at 10-year intervals. Monitor productivity, survival and recruitment. Check all birds for bands during censuses for survival and recruitment measures. Monitor new fisheries for bycatch. Continue to develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch. Eradicate pigs and cats from Auckland Island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Further investigate the impact that oceanographic changes in the Tasman Sea may be having on <em>D. a. gibsoni. </em>Obtain seabird bycatch information for distant-water pelagic fleets in the Pacific.     <p></p>
160030004		distribution	eng	<em>Diomedea antipodensis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, breeding on Antipodes Island (4,565 breeding pairs annually between 2007 and 2009 [ACAP 2009]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), the Auckland Islands group (Adams, Disappointment and Auckland), where four counts from 2006 to 2009 indicated a mean annual breeding population of 3,277 pairs (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Campbell Island (c.10 pairs [Gales 1998]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and Pitt Island in the Chatham Islands (one pair since 2004) (Miskelly et al. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total average annual breeding population of 8,050 pairs on all islands gives an estimated population of 44,500 mature individuals in 2009 (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Data from satellite tracking indicate that birds from the Auckland Islands forage mostly west of New Zealand over the Tasman Sea and south of Australia, while those from the Antipodes forage east of New Zealand in the South Pacific, as far as the coast of Chile, and have a larger overall range (Medway 1993, Taylor 2000, Walker and Elliot 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
160030004		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Eggs are laid between late December and late January on the Auckland Islands, and between early January and early February on the Antipodes Islands. Hatching takes place between March and April, and chicks fledge after nine months departing in mid-December to early March (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is biennial if chicks are successfully reared (Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Fledglings do not return earlier than the age of three years old, and the youngest age of first breeding is seven years for Antipodes Island birds and eight years old for Auckland Islands birds (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Between 1991 and 2004, average productivity was 74% on Antipodes Island and significantly lower (63%) on the Auckland Islands (Elliot and Walker 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Foraging was most concentrated over pelagic waters and deep shelf slope (up to 6000 m), with peaks of activity at 1000 m corresponding to seamounts and shelf breaks where productivity is high. Foraging trips are longer during incubation (7-13 days) than chick-rearing (average 4 days) (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeders and non-breeders have similar core foraging areas, though non-breeding juvenile males from the Antipodes Islands migrate east to the waters off Chile, and non-breeding juvenile males and females from the Auckland Islands forage westward to the south-eastern Indian Ocean (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests from the coastline inland, on ridges, slopes and plateaus, usually in open or patchy vegetation, such as tussock grassland or shrubs. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mostly on cephalopods and fish (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030004		population	eng	ACAP (2009). <p></p>
160030004		threats	eng	Between 1987 and 2003, this species was a significant bycatch in the longline tuna fishery in New Zealand waters. The capture of 58 birds in 2006 during a single fishing trip was a reminder that bycatch remains a threat, with significant mortality also occuring in the Chilean pelagic longline swordfish fishery (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Foraging areas of the species also overlaps with the Australian Eastern Tuna and Billfish fisheries, and with the Korean and Taiwanese fleets in the Central Pacific which mostly target albacore tuna. However, seabird bycatch information for these distant-water pelagic fleets is poor (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Female survival on the Auckland Islands is lower than for males (Walker and Elliot 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2005 and 2006, female annual survival was as low as 80%, eight percent below male survival. This may be because females disperse further north than the males (Walker <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, increasing their chance of interacting with longline fisheries in Australian and New Zealand waters. Recent studies indicate that increasing ocean temperature in the Tasman Sea could be having a negative impact on <em>D. a. gibsoni, </em>although this needs further investigation (Elliot and Walker <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong><em>. </em>Pigs may be responsible for the near extirpation of the species on Auckland Island, and probably still take eggs and chicks, while feral cats may also kill some chicks (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  Introduced house mice <em>Mus musclus</em> on the Antipodes Islands do not appear to pose a threat to the species (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030005		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. All populations are monitored periodically. Annual population data from Taiaroa Head is the most complete for any seabird species in New Zealand (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predator control at Taiaroa Head  during the breeding season results in comparatively high mean annual productivity (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong> (no predators recorded on Chatham Island colonies). Animal husbandry techniques have been developed from work with this colony. Feral cattle, rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby Island (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Taiaroa Head and Enderby Island are nature reserves.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to census Chatham populations annually using aerial photography. Continue intensive management of Taiaroa Head colony. Band further cohorts of chicks from all colonies. Obtain legal protection for Forty-Fours and Sisters Islands, and continued access for research (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.     <p></p>
160030005		distribution	eng	<em>Diomedea sanfordi</em> breeds on Forty-Fours, Big and Little Sister Islands (Chatham Islands), Taiaroa Head (Otago Peninsula, South Island) and Enderby Island (Auckland Islands), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The Chatham Islands population (99% of the total) is estimated at 6,500-7,000 pairs (Robertson<em> et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>, with c. 5,200-5,800 pairs breeding each year. Around 25 pairs breed each year at Taiaroa Head, including five hybrids (descended from cross with female Southern Royal Albatross <em>D. epomophora</em>). Two birds have hybridised on Enderby Island. During the breeding season adults typically forage over the Chatham Rise (<strong></strong>Nicholls <em>et al. </em>2002, BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. Non-breeding and juvenile birds undertake circumpolar traverses in the Southern Oceans (Robertson and Nicholls 2000)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and forage in the Humboldt Current and Patagonian Shelf, off the coasts of South America (Robertson<em> et al</em>. 2003, Nicholls <em>et al. </em>2005, Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. Low annual productivity has led to a projected population decline in this species. In 1985, a cyclonic storm hit the breeding sites on the Chatham Islands, reducing soil cover and destroying most vegetation (Robertson 1998)<strong></strong>. Nests were subsequently built with stones, or eggs laid on bare rock (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. As a result, mean annual productivity plummeted to 8% (1990-1996) on the Forty-Fours, and 18% over all three islands (Robertson 1998)<strong></strong>, due to egg breakage, high temperatures and flooding in temporary pools (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, though there has since been a partial recovery (Robertson<em> et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. By 2007, annual herb-field vegetation cover had recovered to about 70% of that recorded in the 1970s. The soil base is still minimal, but improving. While productivity has continued to improve, the mean annual chick production from 1995-2003 was still only 66% of the mean annual productivity per annum in the 1970s. It is estimated that for the 20 year period 1985-2005 there was a total 50-60% reduction in productivity for the species. However, it is clear from the annual chick production figures that the annual breeding population is becoming much more balanced than in the 1990s, when as much at 80-90% of the breeding population was attempting to breed annually (rather than the normal 60%).  In 2002, an end of egg-laying count was 5,800 pairs, with a probable 1700 pairs on sabbatical (after breeding in the previous season). This suggests that in spite of the extensive reduction in productivity over a 20-year period, the number of breeding pairs may have remained relatively stable (C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Additional data may lead to a review of threat status of this species. <p></p>
160030005		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Eggs are laid in October to December, hatching mostly between late January and early February, and chicks fledge in September-October. It is a biennial breeder, if chick rearing is successful. Juvenile birds start returning to the colony when 3 years old but the mean is 4 years of age. Age of first breeding can be as early as 6 years old, but it is usually 8 years of age. Satellite-tracking of breeding birds shows that they forage close to their breeding sites, over the shallow waters of the Chatham Rise out to the shelf slope (1,500 - 2,000 m deep). Failed breeders and non-breeding birds, including newly fledged juveniles, rapidly traverse the Pacific Ocean to the continental shelf and slope off Chile and the Patagonian Shelf. On the Patagonian Shelf, they are widespread 200-350 km offshore in waters &lt;200 m deep but extending to, and over, the shelf break to 1000 m depth between 36 and 49°S (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>Northern Royal Albatrosses usually nest on the flat summits of tiny islands with herb fields (G. A. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and grasses. The nest is typically a low mound of vegetation, mud, feathers, stone chips etc, on flat ground and slopes on islands and headlands. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on cephalopods and fish, but also salps, crustacea and carrion (Heather and Robertson 1997, Imber 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030005		population	eng	The largest population (99%) is on the Chatham Islands, with 1% of the population on Taiaroa Head, on the mainland of South Island, New Zealand. There has not been a successful run of annual photographs over the past 8 years to enable updated estimates of the breeding population of this biennial breeder (C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008). However, air photographic counts on the Chatham Islands in the 1970s (1972-1975)and 1990s (1989-1991) recorded a total of 6,500-7,000 total breeding pairs. The number of pairs breeding each year was estimated as 5,200 pairs, based on a count in 1995. This is equivalent to a total population of 17,000 mature individuals. A count in 2002 recorded 5,800 pairs on the Chatham Islands (counted at the end of egg laying), with a probable 1700 pairs on sabbatical after breeding in the previous season (C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008). However, since the estimate of 17,000 mature individuals is based on data from multiple years, this is the estimate used here. It roughly equates to 25,000-26,000 individuals in total. Around.25 pairs breed each year at Taiaroa Head, including five hybrids (descended from cross with female Southern Royal Albatross <em>D. epomophora</em>). Two individuals of <em>D. sanfordi</em>, both breeding with <em>D. epomophora</em> partners have been recorded on Enderby Island.
160030005		threats	eng	In 1985, a cyclonic storm hit the breeding sites on the Chathams, reducing soil cover and destroying most vegetation (Robertson 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, a reduction in mean eggshell thickness of 20% or more (at times of high nesting density), and an increased incidence of chicks dead in the shell have been recorded in the last 20 years, but do not appear to be caused by contaminants (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At Taiaroa Head, control of predators aims to reduce predation by introduced blowflies <em>Lucilia sericata</em>, stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and cats (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mortality due to longline and trawling fishing activities has been recorded (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the relatively high survival rates of adults and juveniles suggest that fisheries-related mortality is not a major threat to this species (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is a history of significant harvesting of <em>D. sanfordi</em> on the Chatham Islands by local residents. Harvesting of chicks may still occur, although now illegal, but this is likely to be limited in extent (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
160030006		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Long-term studies have been initiated in all main populations (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most islands are legally protected, but all Chatham colonies are on private land.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete an accurate census on Forty-Fours and Big Sister. Census all colonies for 2-4 consecutive years every 10 years, and Little Sister at least every five years. Develop and effectively implement mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch. Establish observer coverage on fisheries east of the North Island and the Chathams. Eradicate <em>G. australis </em> from Big Solander Island. Obtain legal protection for Forty-Fours and Sisters Islands, and continued access for research (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
160030006		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche bulleri</em> is endemic to<strong> New Zealand</strong>. There are colonies on the Snares (8,713 pairs) and Solander (4,912) Islands in the south (Sagar <em>et al.</em> 1999b, Sagar and Stahl 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Forty-Fours (c.14,500) and Big and Little Sister (2,150) Islands in the Chatham Island group (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and Rosemary Rock, Three Kings Islands (20 pairs) off North Island (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This totals approximately 30,500 breeding pairs. The Snares Islands population has almost doubled since 1969, but the rate of increase has slowed in the 1990s (Sagar <em>et al.</em> 1999b, Sagar and Stahl 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Solander Islands population appears to have remained relatively stable during 1985-1996, and has increased by around 18% during 1996-2002 (Sagar and Stahl 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Chatham Island population is thought to be stable (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Juveniles and non-breeding adults can disperse across the south Pacific Ocean to the west coast of South America (Stahl and Sagar 2000b, Taylor 2000, Spear <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
160030006		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Breeding is annual and colonial. On the Snares Islands most eggs are laid in January, hatch March to April and chicks fledge in August to September. Birds begin to return to colonies at least three years after fledging, and the average age of first breeding is 10-11 years. On the Chatham Islands, eggs are laid in October to November, hatch in January and the chicks fledge in June to July (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Little Sister, annual productivity 1994-1996 was 57-60%, and mean annual adult survival 1974-1995 was 93.5% (Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On the Snares, annual productivity 1995-98 was 70.8% (Sagar <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and mean annual adult survival increased from 92.0% in 1983-85 to 95.5% in 1992-97 (Sagar <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding and non-breeding adults forage between 40 and 50°S from Tasmania eastwards to the Chatham Rise (<strong></strong>Stahl <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stahl and Sagar 2000a, b, BirdLife International 2004, Sagar and Stahl 2005)<strong></strong>. Females from the Snares Islands tend to conduct longer, more distant foraging trips during pre-egg and brood guard periods of the breeding cycle, than males (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds usually forage individually but large numbers may gather to feed at concentrated food sources such as swarms of crustaceans, occasionally making surface plunges or shallow dives (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite tracking studies from the Snares and Solander Islands show that the distribution of the breeding birds varies with the stage of the breeding cycle. During incubation (Jan-Mar) birds range along the shelf slope off the east and west coasts of the South Island, New Zealand, and into the Tasman Sea; during the guard stage (Mar-Apr) birds are usually found along the shelf slope and shelf areas east and west of the southern New Zealand, and during the post-guard stage (May-Aug) birds occur along the shelf slopes of both coasts of the South Island. After breeding, birds of all ages (including fledglings) migrate to slopes off Chile and Peru (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>It breeds in a variety of habitats including grassy meadows, tussock-covered slopes and cliffs, scrub and under forest canopy (Marchant and Higgins 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mostly on fish, squid and tunicates, also octopuses and crustacea (West and Imber 1986, James and Stahl 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030006		population	eng	The estimated annual breeding population is 31,939 pairs, made up of 8,877 pairs on the Snares Islands, 4,912 pairs on the Solander Islands, 16,000 pairs on the Forty-Fours, 2,130 pairs on Big and Little Sister Islands in the Chatham Island group, and 20 pairs on Rosemary Rock, Three Kings Islands off North Island.
160030006		threats	eng	A severe storm in 1985 almost completely removed soil and vegetation from the Sisters and Forty-Fours Islands. Although <em>T. bulleri</em> seems unaffected, further habitat degradation could result in population decreases, as has been predicted for Northern Royal Albatross <em>Diomedea sanfordi </em>(Croxall and Gales 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is one of the more common bycatch species in the longline tuna fishery in New Zealand waters, where all birds caught are adults (Murray <em>et al. </em>1993, Bartle 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also caught by squid trawlers in low numbers despite the banning of net-sonde cables in 1992 (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recent data from Chile shows that <em>T. bulleri </em>is one of several species caught in the pelagic longline swordfish fishery (<strong></strong>ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em> was introduced to Big Solander and may take eggs and chicks (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
160030007		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. The species was first studied in the 1940s. Feral sheep were eradicated from the north of Campbell Island, where the nesting colonies are, in 1971, and then from the island itself in 1991. Research includes studies on population dynamics, colony distribution, biology, diet and foraging (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The islands are a national nature reserve, and part of a World Heritage Site, declared in 1998. Rats and cats were eradicated from Campbell in 2001, and an expedition in 2003 found no evidence of them persisting (P. Moore <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete ground census of colonies for three consecutive years every 10 years, and repeat photopoints at least every five years. Search intensively for banded birds in two consecutive years at five- year intervals. Complete research to clarify fisheries interactions. Further develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch in trawl and pelagic longline fisheries. <p></p>
160030007		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche impavida</em> breeds only on the northern and western coastline of Campbell Island (111 km<sup>2</sup>) and the tiny offshore islet, Jeanette Marie, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The total population was estimated to be 19,000-26,000 breeding pairs (Moore and Moffat 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the most recent censuses in 1995-1997 giving an estimate of 24,600 pairs (Moore 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Numbers decreased steeply between the 1970s and 1980s: one colony declined at a rate of 5.9% per year between 1966 and 1981, and 10.5% per year between 1981 and 1984. However, numbers have been either stable or increasing slightly since 1984 (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>,with a 1.8% increase recorded in selected colonies between 1992 and 1997 (Moore 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its non-breeding range is confined to southern Australian waters, the Tasman Sea and the south Pacific Ocean (Croxall and Gales 1998, Waugh <em>et al. </em>1999b)<strong></strong>. Breeding adults forage from South Island, New Zealand, and Chatham Rise southwards to the Ross Sea (Waugh <em>et al. </em>1999c, BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030007		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds annually and is present in colonies from April to May. Eggs are laid from late September to early October, hatching mostly in early December and chicks fledge from mid April to early May (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mean annual productivity was 66% between 1984 and 1994. Mean adult survivorship was 94.5% between 1984 and 1995. Birds return to land at age 5 (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and the average age of first breeding is 10 years (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds by surface-seizing and is probably capable of shallow dives (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>Campbell Albatross nests on ledges and steep slopes covered in low native grasses, tussocks and mud (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on fish, also on squid, crustaceans, gelatinous organisms and carrion (Cherel <em>et al. </em>1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The diet during the chick-rearing period is dominated by juvenile southern blue whiting <em>Micromesistius australis </em>(ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Satellite-tracking studies indicated that birds provisioning chicks predominantly foraged over neritic waters during trips lasting less than four days, with some long trips of 8-21 days over oceanic waters. The foraging range during short trips extended 150-640 km from the breeding colony, mainly over subantarctic waters within the 1,000 m depth contour on the Campbell Plateau. Longer trips extended up to 2,000 km from the colony, ranging from subtropical to Antarctic waters, but mainly to the Polar Frontal Zone or to the east of the Campbell Plateau. This plasticity in foraging behaviour is in contrast to the exclusively neritic feeding trips observed in <em>T. melanophrys</em> at some sites, though not others<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
160030007		population	eng	The breeding population is estimated to number 24,600 pairs, based on surveys from 1995-1997.
160030007		threats	eng	Large numbers have been caught by tuna longline vessels, mostly juveniles in New Zealand waters, but also adults in Australian waters (Heather and Robertson 1997, Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The population decline coincided with the development of a large-scale fishery that peaked in New Zealand waters during 1971-1983. The present gradual increase in numbers may be due to a substantial decline in fishing effort since 1984 (Waugh <em>et al.</em> 1999a)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, during 1988-1995, it still comprised 11% of all the seabirds killed on tuna longlines in New Zealand waters and returned for identification (Taylor 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and 13% of all banded birds caught in Australian waters (Gales <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also attracted to offal discarded from trawlers, and is regularly drowned in New Zealand trawl fisheries (Heather and Robertson 1997, Baird and Smith 2007)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030008		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The Association for the Protection of the Ouvéa Parakeet (ASPO) was created in 1993 with mostly local members. the ASPO initiatied a long-term study of the biology and ecology of the species as a basis for two recovery plans (1997-2002 and 2003-2008). Forest loss is being addressed through community awareness programmes and trials to mitigate habitat degradation and improve forest quality, particularly with regard to nest-sites. Ten guides are employed, who, amongst other duties, locate nests. Illegal trade is being successfully tackled by increased awareness and law enforcement. A captive-breeding programme has been discussed but not yet started. A translocation programme to restock the south of Uvea was initiated in 1998, and this population now stands at 82 individuals (Primot 1999)<strong></strong>. The need to control predators established on Uvea is being investigated and measures to minimise the chance of colonisation by rats are being strengthened (Robinet and Salas 1997, P. Primot <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Primot 2000, L. Verfaille <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. An updated Recovery Plan was produced in 2003, recommending amongst other things that the translocation program be cancelled, as the population is considered viable and will grow naturally; this Recovery plan has been accepted by the local native authorities (N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2003, Anon 2004)<strong></strong>. Uvea has been classified as an IBA, but a management plan and a protection programme involving communities still needs to be established (Spaggiari <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. SCO obtained funds from the British Birdwatching Fair  to build and test PCV artificial nests them after the failure of the wooden nest trails. ASPO staff destroyed or removed 187 bee colonies during 2002-2008 (L. Verfaille <em>in litt. </em>2007, Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. The continuous presence of local guides is believed to be effectively preventing nest poaching (Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue population monitoring (Primot 2000). Research interactions with <em>Trichoglossus&#160;haematodus.</em> Investigate non-usage of artificial nest-sites. Review and strengthen measures reducing the risk of rat colonisation. Assess progress and update plans for translocations. <span class="page_assessment_classScheme_content">Review and update all aspects of Action Plan. Maintain momentum of community and island awareness and involvement (Robinet and Salas 1997). Establish an IBA project on Uvea and fund a protection programme (N. Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003). <em><p></p></em>
160030008		distribution	eng	<em>Eunymphicus uvaeensis</em> is restricted to Uvea, <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, where most birds occur in c.20 km<sup>2</sup> of forest in the north, although c.60 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat remains (Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. Earlier population estimates have been alarmingly low, but populations in the north and south of the island are regularly surveyed  (six times since 1993) and data show a steady increase in both areas (L.  Verfaille <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The population has steadily increased from an estimated c.600 birds in 1993 (Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong> and 824 birds in 1999 (Primot 1999) to 2,090 birds in 2009 (Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010)<strong></strong>. Mean population density on Uvea has been estimated at 34 birds/ km<sup>2</sup>, with density being highest in the north, where it reaches 57 birds/ km<sup>2</sup> (Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). The introductions to the adjacent island of Lifu in 1925 and 1963 failed (Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030008		habitat	eng	It feeds in forest and on crops in adjacent cultivated land. It is restricted to areas of old-growth forest with nesting holes, but highest numbers occur close to gardens with papaya. An average of 2.9 eggs are laid in one or two clutches per year, of which 1.7 chicks fledge, but only 0.75 fledglings survive to 30 days (<strong></strong>Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1995,<strong></strong> Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1996<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Robinet and Salas 1999). <p></p>
160030008		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,090 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 3,100-3,200 individuals in total.
160030008		threats	eng	Primary forest has declined in extent by 30-50% in the last 30 years. There is an ongoing illicit pet trade, mostly for the domestic market (Primot 2000)<strong></strong>. Nesting holes are cut open to extract the nestlings, rendering them unsuitable for future breeding attempts and a lack of nesting sites is believed to be a limiting factor. However, the continuous presence of local guides is believed to be effectively preventing nest poaching (Barré <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The invasion of the island in 1996 by bees, which compete for tree holes, is a significant threat, with 10-16% of known nests being occupied by bees in 2000-2002 (N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2003). The native Brown Goshawk <em>Accipiter fasciatus,</em> and perhaps other predators, are believed to take many juveniles (Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1996, N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. Primot <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Robinet and Salas 1999)<strong></strong>. Suitable habitat is patchy and fragmented mainly as a result of coconut plantations, which do not afford protection from predation by <em>A. fasciatus</em> and so act as barriers to dispersal, possibly explaining the lack of recolonisation of suitable habitat in southern Uvea (Robinet <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Experimental egg-predation rates were four times higher on Lifu where Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>occurs (currently absent on Uvea) (Robinet <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Competition with the introduced Rainbow Lorikeet <em>Trichoglossus</em> <em>haematodus</em> is possible, however this species is restricted to open habitats and coconut plantations along the coast where Uvea parakeet does not breed and is therefore doubtful, except for introduced papaya which is favoured by both species (L. Verfaille <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160030009		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. Some surveys are planned to obtain more up-to-date data on the species within the next year (C. Filardi<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey other high mountains on Guadalcanal. Use mist-nets and tape-recordings to help locate it. Survey at lower altitudes on the southern watershed. Search for a more readily accessible population above Gold Ridge. Research basic population ecology and habitat requirements of closely related Makira Thrush <em>Z. margaretae</em>. Assess the threat from introduced mammals. If judged necessary, instigate control measures against introduced mammals. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat. <p></p>
160030009		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera turipavae</em> has been recorded just three times from the type locality on Guadalcanal in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where there appears to be c.100 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat. One specimen was taken in 1953 (Cain and Galbraith 1956)<strong></strong> and singles were seen in 1994 and 1997 (Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>. The 1994 and 1997 records were of singing birds but no others were heard during these visits, which totaled about 10 days in suitable habitat. All other Melanesian <em>Zoothera</em> thrushes appear to be locally common but may be patchily distributed (G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160030009		habitat	eng	The 1994 and 1997 birds were singing at 1,450-1,500 m at the altitudinal intergrade of montane and mossy forest, where it occurs with Island Thrush<em> Turdus poliocephalus </em>(Gibbs 1996, G.&#160;Dutson pers. obs. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is presumably a typical, largely terrestrial, ground thrush<em> Zoothera</em> sp. <p></p>
160030009		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160030009		threats	eng	Although it may occur above the altitudes of logging and other human causes of forest degradation, intensive logging on west Guadalcanal may have had a negative impact on the species's habitat as some of these operations occurred in hill forest habitats and have altered the hydrology of the area (C. Filardi<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). In addition, mining and prospecting activity has intensified in recent few years (C. Filardi<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). It may be affected by introduced mammalian predators, especially cats and rats which are relatively common at high altitudes on Guadalcanal (T. Leary<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2000)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160030013		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. On Tristan, a programme to eradicate cats was successful in the 1970s. Gough and Inaccessible are nature reserves and Gough is a World Heritage Site. Both islands are uninhabited, apart from a meteorological station on Gough (Cooper and Ryan 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite tracking to determine foraging areas during the breeding season was undertaken in 2000-2001 (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Censuses of large chicks and/or incubating adults were carried out during 1999-2003, and a monitoring protocol was devised (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite tracking of non-breeders, further monitoring and demographic work, and an investigation of mouse predation on chicks was initiated during 2003-2006. Initial results from a feasibility study into the removal of the mice appear promising, giving no significant obstacles to the undertaking of an eradication programme (BirdLife International 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Since 2007, birds have been marked with field-readable plastic leg rings, and by 2009, 650 individuals had been ringed (Goren and Ryan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Annually survey numbers and assess breeding success on Gough. Continue research of at-sea distribution and foraging behaviour, particularly of non-breeding birds. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations. Use decoys to assist re-establishment of birds on Tristan, and to attract birds to Long Ridge on Inaccessible (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Begin an eradication programme for mice on Gough Island as soon as possible.   <p></p>
160030013		distribution	eng	<em>Diomedea dabbenena</em> breeding populations are essentially restricted to Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha, <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>, having become extinct on Tristan (although birds were seen prospecting in 1999 [Ryan <em>et al. </em>2001]<strong></strong>), and in some years one pair breeds on Inaccessible Island (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2003, <strong></strong>R. Wanless <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Using consecutive annual accounts of incubating adults and a population model the population has been estimated at c1,700 breeding pairs, giving a total global population of 7,100 individuals (ACAP 2010)<strong></strong>. Recent counts suggest that the population on Gough has decreased by 28% over 46 years, whereas population modelling predicts annual decline rates of 2.9-5.3% (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2001, Wanless <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>, equivalent to declines of &gt;96% in three generations. Predation of chicks by mice has led to very low fledging success; during the last seven years it has averaged 32.4%, roughly half of other studied <em>Diomedea </em>colonies (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2003, <strong></strong>Cuthbert and Hilton 2004, Wanless <em>et al. </em>2007, R. Wanless <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  In January 2008, 1,764 adult albatrosses were incubating eggs on Gough but only 246 chicks survived to fledging (BirdLife International 2009)<strong></strong>. Outside the breeding season, it disperses to South Atlantic and South African waters (Goren and Ryan 2010)<strong></strong>, with numerous recent records from Brazilian waters (Neves <em>et al</em>. 2000, Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong></strong> and one from Australia (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2001)<strong></strong>, suggesting that birds may occasionally disperse into the Indian Ocean. This is supported by the recent record of a ringed individual washed up on the Indian Ocean coast of South Africa (Ryan 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030013		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>It is a colonial, biennially breeding species. Adults return in November and December, lay in January and the chicks fledge in November. Immature birds begin returning to their breeding colony at 3-7 years after fledging. Most <em>D. dabbenena </em>recruit in their natal colony, at a mean age of 10 years (range 4-20 years) (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The oldest recorded bird was at least 38 years old (Ryan 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It catches prey by surface-seizing, and the prevalence of a bioluminescent group of cephalopods in one dietary study suggests that <em>D. dabbenena </em>often feed at night (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. During the breeding season the length and range of foraging trips varies considerably, depending on the stage of the breeding cycle (BirdLife International 2004, Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests at 400-700 m (rarely to 300 m) (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999), primarily in wet heath where it is open enough for take-off and landings. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on cephalopods and fish (J. Cooper <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and probably follows ships and trawlers for offal and galley refuse. <p></p>
160030013		population	eng	Breeding populations are essentially restricted to Gough Island, with a single pair nesting intermittently on Inaccessible Island (ACAP 2009). The annual breeding population is currently estimated to be 1,698 pairs (2010), equivalent to a total population of 7,100 individuals for this biennially breeding species (RSPB unpublished data). This roughly equates to 4,700 mature individuals.
160030013		threats	eng	On Inaccessible Island, its decline was probably due to predation by feral pigs (now absent) and humans (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988, Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The failure to recover is unclear, but may be because young birds become entangled in thick vegetation (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1990, P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. On Tristan, its extirpation was probably the result of human exploitation (J. Cooper <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although predation by rats may have been a factor (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Gough, predation by the introduced house mouse <em>Mus musculus </em>causes very low breeding success and alone is sufficient to drive a population decline of over 50% over three generations (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cuthbert and Hilton 2004, Wanless <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An additional threat on Gough is peat slips caused by storms burying and killing nestlings and adults, although this is probably a very rare event (Ryan 1993)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The main threat comes from interactions with longline fisheries, with a high proportion of "Wandering" Albatross bycatch in southern Brazilian waters being of this species (Neves <em>et al</em>. 2000, Olmos <em>et al</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, including a few birds banded at Gough (Croxall and Gales 1998, J. Cooper <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been estimated that c.500 individuals of this species are killed every year by longliners (Goren and Ryan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Satellite tracking of breeding birds indicates considerable overlap between birds and areas of longline fishing (Cuthbert <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although due to lag times associated with albatross demography we are probably only now likely to start to pick up population trends associated with longline mortality (<strong></strong>R. Wanless <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Together, the dual threats of mice and bycatch give a worst-case scenario of extinction in roughly 30 years, although the true situation is likely a continued and severe decline (Wanless <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Having a distribution on relatively low-lying islands, this species is also potentially susceptible to climate change through sea-level rise and shifts in suitable climatic conditions (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030015		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies have been undertaken at Amsterdam Island. The Prince Edward Islands are a Special Nature Reserve. Vaccination has been tested, but cannot be carried out at a large scale (Weimerskirch 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2006, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission adopted a measure to require tuna longline fishing vessels to use a bird streamer line when fishing south of 30 degrees South. South Africa requires its longline vessels to use a range of mitigation measures.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor trends at breeding localities, notably Amsterdam, Prince Edward and Crozet Islands. Conduct further research to explore potential for controlling and limiting impact of disease. Conduct further studies of foraging range and interaction with fisheries. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms under auspices of CCAMLR, CMS and FAO.  <p></p>
160030015		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche carteri</em> breeds on Amsterdam, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, and St Paul Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) and on Prince Edward Island (<strong>South Africa</strong>). In addition, two breeding pairs were recorded on The Pyramid in 2007. Colonies on Amsterdam Island are estimated at c.27,000 pairs breeding per year in 2006 (Rolland <em>et al. <em>&#160;</em></em>2009). Elsewhere, there were an estimated 7,000 pairs on Prince Edward Island in 2009 (ACAP 2009), 7,030 pairs per year on Crozet Island (ACAP 2007), as well as 50 pairs on Kerguelen (Weimerskirch and Jouventin 1998) and six pairs on St Paul, giving a total of 41,086 pairs per year, equating to c.82,000 mature individuals, and perhaps more than 160,000 individuals of all age classes (Gales 1998). Colonies on Amsterdam Island declined on average by 58% at between 1982 and 1995. The lowest numbers were recorded in 1995, after which some colonies on the island increased or stabilised between 1996 and 2005. The overall trend on Amsterdam is a decline of over 30% between 1982-2006 (Rolland et al. 2009). The population on Prince Edward appears stable: in 2001-2002, 4,170 pairs were counted, representing 7,500 pairs in total once early breeding failures were taken into account (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, the figure for Prince Edward Island was recently revised down to 7,000 pairs in 2009 (ACAP 2009). &#160;Decline over three generations is estimated at 51%, assuming a continuing decline at Amsterdam Island and populations elsewhere remaining stable. Outside the breeding season, the species disperses throughout the southern Indian Ocean between 30-50 degrees South, and birds are frequently observed off southern Africa and south-western Australia, extending east to the Tasman Sea and north-eastern New Zealand (Harrison 1983).</span>  <em> <p></p></em>
160030015		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>It breeds annually, and breeding is either solitarily or in loose groups,. Eggs are laid in September-October and hatch in November-December. Chicks fledge in March-April. It catches prey by surface seizing and shallow diving (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on fish and squid, and less frequently on crustaceans (Cherel and Klages 1998, ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on slopes or cliffs, typically in bare, rocky areas but sometimes in tussock-grass and ferns (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Satellite-tracking of birds from Amsterdam Island has shown that breeding birds forage up to 1,500 km from the colony (Pinaud and Weimerskirch 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030015		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 41,580 pairs per year, equating to 83,160 mature individuals, and perhaps more than 160,000 individuals of all age classes, using the ratios presented by Gales (1998).
160030015		threats	eng	The Amsterdam population declined due to the outbreak of two diseases in the early 1980s (avian cholera and <em>Erysipelothrix rhusiopathidae</em>) that affect the chicks, and were thought to have be introduced to the island via poultry kept at the French military base. Death of up to 100% of chicks has been recorded in some colonies. The diseases mainly affect young chicks, but adults may also be affected (Weimerskirch 2004)<strong></strong>. Subsequent declines in numbers at certain colonies could be due to dispersal following failed breeding (Rolland et al. 2009)<strong></strong>. Interactions with longline fisheries could also account for observed decreases given that up to 600 may be killed annually, comprising mainly adults in the winter months and immatures during the summer fishing season (Gales 1998, Weimerskirch and Jouventin 1998)<strong></strong>. During the breeding season, it also comes into contact with tuna longliners in subtropical waters (Weimerskirch and Jouventin 1998)<strong></strong>,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and birds (mostly adult males) have been taken by Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> longliners in the vicinity of the Prince Edward Islands (Ryan and Boix-Hinzen 1999)<strong></strong>. However, more data is needed to assess whether longline bycatch is the cause of decline at Amsterdam Island and the Prince Edward Islands (Rolland et al. 2009)<strong></strong>. Yellow-nosed Albatross species<em> </em>are also killed in pelagic longline fisheries off southern Africa (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, and occasionally in South African trawl fisheries (<strong></strong>B. Watkins <em>in litt.</em> (2008)<strong></strong>. On Amsterdam Island, past habitat destruction by introduced cattle has degraded the breeding sites but fencing of cattle has reduced their impact in recent years (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030016		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Guácharo National Parks. The latter reserve was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong> </strong>(Gabaldón 1992). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey El Guácharo National Park, Serranía de Turimiquire and the Paria Peninsula, and other areas identified from aerial photographs, to assess its precise distribution and estimate populations (<strong></strong>C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J. P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999; <strong><sup></sup></strong>Sharpe 2008). Assess its habitat requirements and tolerance of disturbance and degradation (<strong></strong>C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J. P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999; <strong><sup></sup></strong>Sharpe 2008). Confirm the record from the Paria Peninsula (Sharpe 2008). Develop and promote alternative agricultural techniques for areas adjacent to protected areas (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995; <sup><strong></strong></sup>Sharpe 2008). There is a pressing need to protect the much reduced forests in the western portion of this species' range in the Serranía de Turimiquire (Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011).<p></p>
160030016		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllomyias urichi </em>occurs&#160; on the northern Cordillera de Caripe (on the borders of Anzoátegui, Sucre and Monagas) and the westernmost Paria Peninsula (Sucre) in north-east <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Kirwan and Sharpe 1999; Phelps and Phelps 1950; <strong></strong>Ridgely and Tudor 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In the Cordillera de Caripe, specimens have been taken from four localities (Phelps and Phelps 1950; Hilty 2003; Sharpe 2008)<strong></strong>, but there have been few recent sight records. On the Paria Peninsula, there is a recent record from Cerro Humo<strong></strong> (Kirwan and Sharpe 1999). <p></p>
160030016		habitat	eng	It appears to inhabit montane, humid forest, with all records at elevations of 800-1,100&#160;m <strong></strong>(C.&#160;J.&#160;Sharpe, J. P.&#160;Rodríguez and F.&#160;Rojas-Suárez <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030016		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
160030016		threats	eng	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe. The forests here have been reduced by 60% over the past 25 years (Sharpe 2008). Even in El Guácharo National Park there is clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995). The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995). There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana, and citrus plantations in the Serranía de Turimiquire, but extensive forested areas remain<strong> </strong>(Colvee 1999, Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011). On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco" since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. It is considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
160030018		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Attempts have been made by both international and national conservation organisations to secure the future of Khao Sam Roi Yot. To date these have been unsuccessful. The species was the focus of specific study on the Tonle Sap floodplain, the results of which revealed that it may not be immediately threatened in the area. It may benefit from Integrated Farming and Biodiversity Areas designed to retain semi-natural systems on the Tonle Sap floodplain. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitat in its breeding and wintering ranges to clarify its population size and distribution. Research migration ecology and map stopover sites. Demarcate and protect Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park and formulate and enact a management plan that incorporates ecological objectives with those of local people. Rehabilitate reed-swamps elsewhere in South-East Asia. Encourage Thailand to meet its Ramsar Convention commitments and integrate wetland conservation into land-use planning. Map the existing extent of tall grass habitats in Cambodia with a particular focus on the Tonle Sap inundation zone to enable an order of magnitude population estimate to be generated. <p></p>
160030018		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus tangorum</em> breeds in south-east <strong>Russia</strong> and north-east <strong>China,</strong> and winters in <strong>Thailand</strong> (mainly at Khao Sam Roi Yot), <strong>Cambodia </strong>and southern <strong>Laos</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It occurs as a scarce passage migrant in Hebei, Liaoning and Hong Kong in China, Pakxan wetlands in Lao (W. Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and in <strong>Vietnam</strong>. The Cambodian population was only discovered recently but appears to be a major stronghold for the species. There are now records from the Northern Plains (Clements <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>, from Mondulkiri Province close to the Vietnam border and from the Tonle Sap floodplain where it is locally common (Bird <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. The paucity of recent records for well-watched and increasingly heavily monitored and ringed sites (such as Mai Po in Hong Kong and Bung Boraphet in Thailand) suggest it is genuinely very scarce (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <br/><p></p>
160030018		habitat	eng	In China, it occurs in reedbeds and, in Hong Kong, has been recorded from reeds around overgrown fields and fishponds. At Khao Sam Roi Yot, it is largely confined to <em>Phragmites-</em>dominated reedbeds where it has been recorded at higher densities than any other site (Round and Rumsey 2003, Bird <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Recent observations in Cambodia have come from a variety of habitats, particularly tall grass stands (away from water) and sedge beds (both wet and dry), scrub-fringed lotus swamps, and heterogeneous scrub/grass mixes away from water (P. Davidson <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Importantly, the species occurs at similar densities in suitable human modified habitats as it does in natural tall grasslands on the Tonle Sap floodplain (Bird <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, it may be that large expanses of optimal habitat are required to sustain its presence within smaller (possibly suboptimal) habitat patches (P. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
160030018		population	eng	The global population estimate of 2,500-9,999 mature individuals is based on a detailed analysis of records by BirdLife International (2001), where it was concluded that the species must have a fairly small world population (i.e. fewer than 10,000). This estimate equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. The population in China has been estimated at 100-100,000 breeding pairs and 50-10,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160030018		threats	eng	The main threat on its breeding and wintering grounds is habitat loss, including the loss and degradation of <em>Phragmites</em> marsh in Thailand, such that there is now very little suitable habitat remaining in the entire country. At Khao Sam Roi Yot, freshwater marsh has suffered greatly from encroachment with plantations of casuarinas, eucalyptus and coconut palms, and the establishment of prawn farms with salt and brackish water. This situation is likely to continue. Elsewhere in the country, marshes are threatened by reclamation and urbanisation and no freshwater swamp habitat lies within any protected area. Habitat loss and degradation is continuing at Pakxan wetland, an important stopover site in Lao, where the tall emergent grasses favoured by the species are routinely removed by local people (W. Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). In Cambodia, the situation may be more promising as the species has been recorded in man-made headponds used for dry season rice cultivation, although its preference for tall dry grass habitat may render it susceptible to dry season burning which is extensive (Bird <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030021		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The type-locality is within the Chapada do Araripe Environmental Protection Area, which is adjacent to Araripe National Forest, but both are designated "sustainable use" and consequently fail to prevent exploitation or disturbance of habitat <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006)<strong></strong>. However, the owner of the land adjacent to the type-locality has decided to protect the remaining forest following the discovery of this species<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Coelho and Silva 1998, A. G. Coelho <em>in litt.</em> 1997, J. Mazar Barnett and G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Aquasis (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2012), a local NGO, are in discussions with another landowner concerning the protection of a further 60 ha on the Chapada do Araripe. The Conservation Leadership Programme (CLP) has supported the Conservation of the Araripe Manakin Project in the Chapada do Araripe region since 2004, conducted by Aquasis. In 2007, the project was granted a new award after several years of intensive research into the species's ecological requirements and conservation status, and the development of a conservation plan for the Araripe Manakin; the project team is now focusing on establishing a fully protected area in the Chapada do Araripe that encompasses the remaining moist forest habitat and other areas deemed suitable for habitat restoration <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006, Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. This process is on-going, and collaborations have been established with several local stakeholders to address various aspects of sustaining long-term conservation actions, including raising awareness and initiating habitat restoration (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Ministry of Environment representatives made a preliminary visit to the site in October 2011 (Aquasis <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The CLP was supporting the Araripe Manakin conservation project again in 2010, with the main objectives of establishing a visitor centre, facilitating and monitoring the process of establishing a fully protected area in the Chapada do Araripe, and encouraging and supporting the formation of local birdwatching groups (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. In addition to the local fire service and a specially trained fire brigade that responds to fires in conservation areas, a new fire brigade was being established in the municipality of Crato during 2010 to further increase the response capacity (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. The species conservation plan for <em>A. bokermanni</em> was revised in April 2010, together with ICMBio (a Brazilian environmental organisation), and the federal government is expected to publish a decree recognising its legality (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Aquasis (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2012) is involved in a number of local environmental discussion forums.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey similar habitats throughout north-east Brazil during September and October between 10h00 and 14h00 when male calling activity is at its peak<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Coelho and Silva 1998, Girão and Souto 2005, J. Mazar Barnett and G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 2000) to locate additional populations. The most thorough census yet of the species's known population is planned for 2012 (Aquasis <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Formally protect remaining habitat as a national wildlife refuge or national park. Provide incentives for landowners to establish a network of private reseves as a buffer zone<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Coelho and Silva 1998). Work with environmental and water management authorities to protect springs and streams along the slopes of the Chapada, and their associated gallery forests <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006)<strong></strong>. Conduct awareness campaigns in the Araripe region to engender pride in biodiversity and water resources, using the Araripe Manakin as symbol for the conservation of the entire Chapada<strong></strong> <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006). Promote and facilitate research on humid forest ecosystem services, as well as species composition and ecology, in order to support future conservation actions related to habitat recovery and restoration<strong> </strong>(Aquasis 2006, Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Minimise or eliminate disturbance and clearance of vegetation along watercourses during the species's nesting season<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Linhares <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030021		distribution	eng	This species was described in 1998 and has been recorded from three municipalities (Crato, Barbalha and Missao Velha), all on the north-eastern slope of the Chapada do Araripe, south Ceará, <strong>Brazil </strong>(Coelho and Silva 1998, <strong></strong>Aquasis 2006). Surveys conducted in 2005-2006 and 2010 have led to a population estimate of c.800 individuals, which is higher than previously thought <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006,  Aquasis <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011), within a remaining area of suitable habitat estimated at 28 km<sup>2</sup> <strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006). A total of 46 nests were located in 2004-2007 (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The discovery of the species at a new locality on the top of the Araripe plateau, in January 2012, suggests that its population size and distribution may be slightly greater than previously estimated (Aquasis <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2012).<br/><p></p>
160030021		habitat	eng	It inhabits the lower and middle strata of tall, second growth forest (especially where there is an abundance of vines), edge and adjacent clearings, preferring more humid areas of moist forest near springs and streams<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Coelho and Silva 1998, J. Mazar Barnett and G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. It reportedly feeds on small fruits of <em>Cordia</em> spp.<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Coelho and Silva 1998) and <em>Cecropia</em> spp., and a recently completed study has already identified 21 other plant species as part of its diet<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>(Linhares <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007; Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010). It typically occurs in pairs and breeds in November-April <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006)<strong></strong>; immature males have been found in March and January<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(J. Mazar Barnett and G. M. Kirwan <em>in litt.</em> 2000, J. Minns <em>in litt.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. Vocal activity among males is thought to peak between 10h00 and 14h00, and be at its highest during September and October, when rainfall is at its lowest; breeding follows during the wet season when c.76% of tree species bordering gallery forests occupied by Araripe Manakin are fruiting<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Girão and Souto 2005, K. V. <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>Linhares <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007). Until recently, all nests discovered had been in vegetation overhanging watercourses (K. V. Linhares <em style="font-style: italic;">in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, Linhares <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>, but the recent discovery of a new location in dense forest away from running water suggests this species may not be as reliant on springs and streams as was previously thought (Aquasis 2012). Surveys in 2004-2007 recorded 28 nests in 11 plant species belonging to eight families, most frequently Melastomataceae, Rubiaceae and Piperaceae<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Linhares <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Most of the plants used were shrubs (c.36%) or trees (c.46%), although few trees were in their adult phase (Linhares <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. A clutch of two eggs was observed being incubated solely by the female, while the male vocally defended the territory <strong></strong>(Albano and Girão 2009). <p></p>
160030021		population	eng	In 2006, population size was estimated at 800 individuals based on two consecutive years of auditive censuses. A census at the end of 2010, which visited 93% of the known water springs, represents the most comprehensive survey of the species ever, and resulted in an estimate of 779 individuals, suggesting that the species' population is more or less stable (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2011). It is placed in the band 250-999 individuals to account for uncertainty; this equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded here to 150-700 mature individuals.
160030021		threats	eng	Lowlands adjacent to the Chapada have been largely cleared for agriculture (especially banana, maize, beans and tomatoes), cattle raising and the construction of homes <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006)<strong></strong>. There are several recreational facilities along the slopes of the Chapada do Araripe. These include large open parks and swimming pools, which have involved deforestation in their development, particularly in areas where there is spring water. A large recreational water-park was built at the type-locality in 2000 <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006), but a small patch of habitat is being conserved there, and the species persists despite the disturbance (A. B. Hennessey<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Fires in 2004-2005 largely destroyed an area of forest known to contain seven active nests of the species. Another fire in September 2010 affected the same area, as well as other areas where the species is known to occur (Aquasis <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The springs that supply the streams which support the moist forest habitat of the Araripe Manakin have shown an average reduction of 75% in their outflow over the past hundred years, possibly due to deforestation on the slopes and plateau of the Chapada do Araripe, posing a long-term threat to the manakin's remaining habitat. Diversion, channeling and piping of the springs and streams are also reducing the area of available gallery forest habitat <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is not known to be trapped either by wildlife traders or by the local population for pets <strong></strong>(Aquasis 2006). <p></p>
160030022		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All remaining indigenous forest within the species's range is legally protected within Forest Reserves (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but this no longer confers much protection (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.&#160;J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Examine its taxonomic status in more detail. Initiate a campaign in Malawi to promote public awareness and support for forest conservation. Strengthen protection of remaining forest habitat (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct surveys to assess its population size and distribution. Establish a programme to monitor its population and habitat on a regular basis. <p></p>
160030022		distribution	eng	<em>Apalis flavigularis</em> is restricted to three massifs (Mt Mulanje, Mt Zomba, Mt Malosa) in south-east <strong>Malawi</strong>, east of the Nyasa-Shire Rift (Benson and Benson 1977)<strong></strong>. In 1983, it was considered common within its habitat (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested that it may occur on Mt Chiperone in adjacent Mozambique (Urban <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>, but there are no records from this vicinity (Benson 1950)<strong></strong> and the species does not occur on similar, smaller mountains in Malawi that are nearer the known range, implying that it is unlikely to occur there (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.&#160;J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000)<strong></strong>. In 2008 surveys estimated a minimum of 7,900 individuals in cedar forest on Mt Mulanje alone, suggesting that the total population on Mulanje is likely to exceed 10,000 individuals (Mzumara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The granting of a mining concession covering the  whole of Mt Mulanje, with exploratory drilling already taking place in late 2011, could however have disastrous implications for  the long-term survival of the species.<strong></strong><p></p>
160030022		habitat	eng	It is confined to the highest mountains in southern Malawi, spanning 1,000-2,400&#160;m on Mt Mulanje (moving as low as 600-700&#160;m during the non-breeding season, January-August) and 1,400-1,950&#160;m on Mt Zomba and Mt Malosa (Dowsett-Lemaire 1989)<strong></strong>. It occurs predominantly in evergreen (but also riparian) forest, and in nearby secondary growth and thickets (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R.&#160;J. Dowsett <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000), and was found to favour forest edge and occur in patches as small as 0.01 ha (Mzumara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011)<strong></strong>. It builds a domed nest of moss (Belcher 1925, Benson and Benson 1947)<strong></strong>. Clutch-size is 2-3 and egg-laying has been reported from October to December (Belcher 1925, Benson and Benson 1947)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
160030022		population	eng	The population is estimated at 2,320-4,408 individuals (10-19 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 232 km<sup>2 </sup>[45% EOO]), i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals. Density range from lower quartile to mean of four estimates for ten congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet.
160030022		threats	eng	The rapidly increasing human population in south-eastern Malawi, swelled by huge numbers of refugees during the last 20&#160;years (Babu and Hassan 1995)<strong></strong>, is posing a serious threat to the survival of mid-altitude forest in the lowest parts of its range - the lower slopes of Mt Mulanje, in particular, are steadily being deforested for agriculture and timber (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. In 1995-1996, severe fires destroyed some indigenous forest on Mt Zomba (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. Fires cause a proliferation of invasive plants, in particular <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus ellipticus</span>, on Mt Mulanje, however presence of the species was found to be positively correlated with <span style="font-style: italic;">R. ellipticus </span>by Mzumara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2011) so this may not present a significant threat. The Malawian president Bingu wa Mutharika granted a Japanese minerals company a concession covering the whole of Mount Mulanje to mine rare earths in 2011 (J. Bayliss <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012), and it was reported that Tuchila plateau had been clear-felled and exploratory drilling had begun in late 2011. It is uncertain whether the subsequent change in head of state following the death of the president in April 2012 will affect the mining concession. <br/><p></p>
160030023		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Chapada Diamantina National Park and Peruaçú Environmental Protection Area, but neither provide <em>de facto</em> protection (Parrini <em>et al</em>. 1999, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <strong> <strong><br/><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/></strong>Surveys are urgently required to delineate the full range of this species and identify the most suitable sites for protection. Conduct ecological studies to determine year-round habitat requirements. Improve the active protection of Chapada Diamantina National Park and Peruaçú Environmental Protection Area. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.   <strong><p></p></strong>
160030023		distribution	eng	<em>Arremon franciscanus</em> has a patchy distribution over a wide area of central Bahia and north Minas Gerais, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It seems to be uncommon to locally fairly common in suitable habitat. <em> <p></p></em>
160030023		habitat	eng	This species occurs in thick scrub 'caatinga', mainly in areas adjacent to patches of arboreal caatinga (Raposo 1997, Parrini <em>et al</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160030023		population	eng	The population size is thought to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 15,000 individuals in total.
160030023		threats	eng	The whole region in which caatinga habitats occur has suffered the impact of human settlement over a long period, and there has been extensive conversion to agriculture and cattle-ranching, and associated fires. The area around the type-locality is subject to a large irrigation scheme, which will possibly lead to habitat loss and fragmentation (Raposo 1997, J. Mazar Barnett <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
160030025		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES II.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations and breeding success in logged and unlogged forest throughout its range. Ensure the protection of a number of large areas of lowland forest on New Britain as part of a protected area network for the island. Monitor trends in the national and international trade of this species. Conduct awareness campaigns to discourage trapping of the species. Discourage the logging of trees with holes or other suitable nesting cavities.  <p></p>
160030025		distribution	eng	<em>Cacatua ophthalmica </em>is endemic to New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea, </strong>where it is widespread in suitable habitat. It is usually encountered in pairs, but birds may congregate in flocks of up to 40 individuals. Although the species may still appear to be relatively numerous, it is long-lived and declines in reproductive output due to deforestation may be masked.   <p></p>
160030025		habitat	eng	It inhabits tropical lowland rainforest up to an altitude of 1000 m. Although it occurs in disturbed forest including degraded forest and gardens, it presumably relies on intact forest with large trees for nesting (Dutson 2011).  <p></p>
160030025		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 10,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 15,000 individuals in total.
160030025		threats	eng	Rapid conversion of lowland forest to oil plantations over the last thirty years is likely to have caused a significant loss of breeding habitat. Although it is rare in the international trade, even limited trapping would be a cause for concern.  <p></p>
160030026		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All breeding sites are currently protected as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Natura 2000 network, with the unique exception of the colony of Punta Prima in Formentera, where new information has revealed that the prevailing colony (50 pp.) lays right outside the SPA (and the overlapping Important Bird Area, IBA) designated for this species. However, the management plans for the Balearic SPAs have not been yet implemented. Management plans are therefore limited to colonies covered by other figures of protection, such as the National Park of Cabrera and the Natural Park of Sa Dragonera. Rat eradication campaigns have been conducted at several colonies, including Cabrera archipelago and Dragonera Island, but less effort has been directed at the most concerning colonies where carnivores are present (e.g. Formentera and Menorca). At sea, the Spanish Government has started the process of SPA designation based on the inventory of marine IBAs conducted by SEO/BirdLife, which, once concluded, will provide protection to the main hotspots for the species in Spanish waters. So far, only a few small coastal sites have been designated as SPAs by the regional governments in Spain. Portugal already has an inventory of marine IBAs, but their designation as SPAs is still pending. Finally, France has also proposed a network of SPAs that include hotspots for the species. Management plans for all the marine SPAs are still pending. Action Plans for the species have been published<span style=""> at local, national or international level in 1991, 1999, 2004, and 2005 (Jones </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2008)</span>. A LIFE project for the species ran from 1991-2001 (Ruiz and Martí 2004), and Spain and Portugal had a joint LIFE project running from 2004-2008 aimed at identifying marine IBAs, including for this species (<span style=""><span style="">Ramírez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2008, Arcos </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2009). A number of actions are currently being implemented through Species Guardians SEO/BirdLife and SPEA as part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme. Moreover, research on the species is also being conducted by BirdLife partners in collaboration with several research centres, with funding from EC projects LIFE+ INDEMARES (Spain) and Interreg FAME (Portugal, Spain, France, UK and Ireland). Main initiatives include the assessment of bycatch through questionnaires to fishermen, observers on board fishing vessels and conducting of beached bird surveys; and the identification of hotspots at sea through boat surveys, coastal counts and tracking studies (breeding and non-breeding grounds).   </span><br/><strong style=""><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/><span style="">Control and eradicate introduced predators (with particular emphasis on carnivores) in breeding colonies identified to be at risk. Thoroughly study the problem of bycatch by long-line fishing and develop awareness campaigns directed at the fishing sector, in order to mitigate this threat, plus assess and implement the appropriate mitigation measures.&#160;Ensure effective protection for nesting sites and marine hotspots, and the implementation of monitoring schemes and management plans. Develop a rapid response plan for a potential oil spill close to main feeding and breeding areas. Raise awareness and stop human exploitation. Study sm</span><span style=""><span style="">all pelagic fish populations in the western Mediterranean and in the Bay of Biscay  to assess extent of over-exploitation and how this affects Balearic Shearwaters.</span><span style=""><span style=""> Assess the impact of pollutants and heavy metals on this species. Improve understanding of at-sea distribution, including during the non-breeding season.</span><span style=""></span><br/><p></p></span>
160030026		distribution	eng	<em>Puffinus mauretanicus</em> breeds in the Balearic Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. In 2009, the breeding population of the Balearic Shearwater was last estimated in 2009 at 3,193 breeding pair<span style="">s (Arcos 2011a). This figure is significantly larger than previous estimates of 2,000-2,400 pairs recorded in 2005 (Jones </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2008) but this is primarily due to increased survey effort (better prospecting of known breeding sites plus discovery of new sites) and does not reflect a genuine increase of the population. The islands of Mallorca have 900 pairs; Cabrera 449 pairs; Menorca 405 pairs; Ibiza 747 pairs and Formentera 692 pairs (Arcos 2011a). The world</span> population was until recently believed to number 8,000-10,000 individual<span style="">s (Louzao 2006a, </span>Wynn and Yésou 2007<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>), however recent winter at-sea surveys and counts from Gibraltar of post-breeding birds leaving the Mediterranean suggest the total population may in fact lie within in the range 20,000-30,000 individu<span style="">als (Arcos 2011b)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. This is supported by a count of at least 16,400 individuals off Valencia in December 2009 (Aleixos 2012)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. </span>Reasons for the discrepancy between breeding and non-breeding population estimates are unclear, but it is most likely that this species has a particularly large floating population of immatures and non-breeders. On Cabrera Island, 60% of the colonies have disappeared in the last few decades, while colonies on Formentera have experienced a strong decline in recent years, from more than 1,500 breeding pairs in the early 1990s to less than 1000 pairs in 2001 (Ruiz &amp; Martí 2004) and 692 pairs in 2003<span style="">-2006 (Arcos 2011a). Population viability analysis has shown that i</span>n the presence of environmental and demographic stochasticities, mean extinction time for the world population was estimated at 40.4 years, and mean growth rate showed a 7.4% decrease each year (Oro <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, this model was run using the earlier population estimate of c. 2,000 breeding pairs and so new analysis of extinction risk using the updated population estimate and improved demographic data is required. In winter, it occurs in the Balearic Sea and off the north-east Spanish coast with most of the population traditionally concentrated between Valencia and Catalonia from November to February, although recent data suggest that some birds remain in the Atlantic. For instance, in winter 2007/2008 significant numbers (with a peak count of 710 birds) remained off the coast of Brittany (<strong>France</strong>), perhaps in response to unusual sea surface temperatures (Plestan <em>et al. </em>2009)<strong></strong>. Some birds migrate north in summer to seas off the British Isles and the south of the Scandinavian Peninsu<span style="">la (</span><span style=""><span style="">Wynn </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2007). Numbers recorded in the traditional post-breeding quarters have declined since the mid-1990, with a corresponding increase in numbers along the coasts of northern France and south-west U.K (Wynn and Yésou 2007, Wynn </span><em style="">et al. </em><span style="">2007) (including an exceptional gathering of 4,600 in the Baie de Lannion, Brittany in August 2010) (D. Andrews </span><em style="">in litt. </em><span style="">2010).</span><p></p>
160030026		habitat	eng	It breeds on cliffs and small islets, is very philopatric, and lays only one egg. Adult birds do not commence bre<span style="">eding until their third year </span><span style=""><span style="">(Oro </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2004)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Breeding takes place between February and June</span><span style=""><span style=""> (Ruiz &amp; Martí 2004).<span style=""> When raising young, adult birds form concentrations on the east coast of Spain (Arcos and Oro 2002), </span>where they mostly inhabit the productive continental shelf and associated fronts where high prey concentrations occur around the Ebro Delta (Louzao <em style="">et al</em><span style="">. 2006b)</span><strong style=""></strong><span style="">. Most birds leave the Mediterranean for a post-breeding moult in the Atlantic coast of southwest Europe, mainly Portugal, northwest Spain and the Bay of Biscay (</span><span style=""><span style="">Ruiz and Martí 2004, Ramírez </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span><span style="">. 2008, Arcos</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> et al. </span><span style="">2009). </span><p></p></span></span>
160030026		population	eng	The breeding population was last estimated in 2009 at 3,193 breeding pairs (CMA 2010). However, winter at-sea surveys along the Iberian Shelf as part of the LIFE project to identify marine Important Bird Areas produced an estimate of 25,000-30,000 individuals (Arcos 2011b), and counts of &gt;18,000 birds past Gibraltar in May-July 2008 were extrapolated to a total of 20,000-25,000 individuals (Arroyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). These data are difficult to reconcile, but a precautionary estimate of 9,000-13,000 mature individuals is considered appropriate (Arcos 2011b, Arcos et al. 2011). This is roughly equivalent to 13,000-20,000 individuals in total.
160030026		threats	eng	This is a long-lived species and therefore immediate threats affect adult mortality rates. Adult survival is the main conservation concern, as this is unusually low for a Procellariiform (Oro et al. 2004). In accordance, the main threats identified are predation by introduced carnivores such as cats, martens and genets in the breeding colonies <span style="">(Arcos and Oro 2004, Ruiz and Martí 2004, Jones </span><em style="">et al.</em><span style=""> 2008, Arcos 2011a), and fisheries by-catch at sea (Arcos 2011a). The species's gregarious behaviour and its close association with fishing boats means that occasional "mass mortality" is likely to occur when long-line boats fish close to flocks (Arcos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), Increasing evidence on this has been compiled in the last few years, with events of up to a hundred or more birds caught in a single event, in occasions involving other fishing gear such as purse-seiners<span style=""> (ICES 2008, Louzao et al. 2011). Also due to the congregatory behaviour of the species, acute pollution events, such as oil spills, also pose a very serious threat, as a large number of casualties could result from a spill occurring in a congregation area (Ruiz and Martí 2004, Gutiérrez 2011). Other threats include: the reduction of prey due </span>to fishing overexploitation; a potential reduction in fishing discards (an alternative to the<span style=""> overexploited natural prey) and/or anthropogenic environmental change (Arcos 2011a); habitat degradation and disturbance in the breeding grounds; background pollution (Oro et al. 2008); the development of marine windfarms (Arcos 2011a); and human harvesting (nowadays a relict activity). Predation by peregrine falcons in the breeding colonies has also been recently reported (García 2009, Wynn et al. 2010), though thi</span>s should be considered as a factor of natural mortality that likely has little influence on the decline of the species. The gradual northward movement of the non-breeding population may be affecting adult survival, and this shift may be due to climate change or alterations in fish distributions as a result of fisheries' activities (Yésou 2003, Wynn and Yésou 2007). The recent demographic decline has not yet decreased the species's genetic variability, and connectivity found among colonies at least does not exacerbate the species's extinction risk (Genovart<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).<strong></strong> <p></p>
160030027		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Inaccessible is a nature reserve and, although Tristan Islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano, other access is restricted (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A repeat of the 1999 breeding bird census on Inaccessible was conducted in 2004. Ongoing studies will attempt to quantify the current level of bycatch in fisheries off southern Brazil. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeat surveys of the breeding population (Ryan 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via  intergovernmental mechanisms such as FAO, ACAP and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations including the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). Minimise the risk of colonisation by introduced species through strict controls of visits and promoting awareness of dangers of inter-island transfers (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nominate Inaccessible for World Heritage Site status (J. Cooper<em> in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate the possibility that the birds may nest at other sites than Inaccessible, particularly Tristan da Cunha. Instigate demographic studies. Investigate at-sea distribution and interaction with longline fisheries. <p></p>
160030027		distribution	eng	<em>Procellaria conspicillata </em>is essentially confined to the South Atlantic Ocean north of the South Polar Front, predominantly between 25-41°S (ACAP 2009). It breeds only on the high western plateau of Inaccessible Island, Tristan da Cunha, <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>. In 1949-1950, the population was estimated to be at least 100 pairs, probably considerably more (Rowan <em>et al.</em> 1951)<strong></strong>. In 1982-1983, it was estimated at c.1,000 pairs (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988, Ryan 1998)<strong></strong>. In 1999, 6,000-7,500 burrows were counted (c.60% occupied), but failures prior to this stage and the presence of non-breeders confound an accurate population estimate (Ryan and Moloney 2000)<strong></strong>. A repeat survey in 2004 counted 11,000-12,000 burrows, with 14,400 counted in 2009-2010 (Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Assuming an occupancy of 90% this suggests a breeding population of 20,000 individuals (Ryan <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. An extrapolation from snapshot censuses conducted in waters off Brazil in 1997-1999 suggested a total population of 38,000 ± 7,000 (Leandro Bugoni <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. This population increase over time is thought to have been initiated by the eradication of pigs from Inaccessible Island. Between 1999-2004, the species may have increased by up to 45% (Ryan <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong> but the toll taken by bycatch in longline fisheries is poorly understood. Most birds disperse to the waters off southern Brazil outside the breeding season, with small numbers recorded off the west coast of southern Africa. In the 19th century, it may have occurred throughout the Indian Ocean, possibly breeding at Amsterdam Island (French Southern Territories), and was also collected at sea off Australia (Enticott and O'Connell 1985, Ryan 1998)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030027		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong><em>Procellaria conspicillata </em>breeds annually and is active in colonies from September to March. Breeding phenology has not been well studied, but egg-laying commences in October, with hatching in December and the chicks fledge in March (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds in wet heath above 380 m (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Burrows are along the banks of river valleys (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988)<strong></strong> and in adjacent marshy areas (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on cephalopods, decapod crustaceans and small fish (Hagen 1952)<strong></strong>. A total of 121 food items (five fish and 116 cephalopods) were found in the diet of seven longline-caught birds off the coast of Brazil (Colabuono and Vooren 2007).    <p></p>
160030027		population	eng	14,400 nesting burrows were counted on Inaccessible Island in 2009-2010 (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2011). Assuming 90% occupancy, this equates to a breeding population of approximately 20,000 birds. The population is estimated at around 38,000; 7,000 individuals were present at sea off Brazil based on survey data from 1997-1999 (L. Bugoni <em>in litt.</em> 2006).
160030027		threats	eng	Feral pigs may have caused the apparent extirpation of <em>Procellaria</em> petrels from Amsterdam Island and may have had an impact on Inaccessible throughout most of the 19th and early 20th centuries (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988, Ryan 1998)<strong></strong>. Southern Skua <em>Catharacta antarctica</em> is a natural predator, particularly of fledglings (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, and there is a permanent risk of colonisation by mammalian predators, particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> from Tristan. The greatest threat comes from interactions with longline fisheries, given estimates of more than 200 killed annually off southern Brazil during the late 1980s and early 1990s (Ryan 1998)<strong></strong>, revised to c.700 annually more recently (Olmos <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong></strong>. However, according to a report by Projeto Albatroz observers recorded zero mortalities of spectacled petrel during nine trips on Brazilian longline vessels in 2005, and though it was the most common seabird off longline vessels in one study, its capture rate was one of the lowest (Bugoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)<strong></strong>. There may be high overlap in the distribution of this species and longline fishing effort off southern Brazil, and this is supported by recent satellite telemetry (L. Bugoni <em>in litt. </em>2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030028		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1997, feral cats were eradicated from Pitcairn, but subsequently re-introduced by residents. A programme to eradicate rats in 1997-1998 (Bell and Bell 1998)<strong></strong> was unsuccessful, although petrels were observed prospecting the island during a period of no cats and low rat numbers (G. Wragg <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. In the same year, rats were eradicated on Oeno and Ducie to increase the chance of another population becoming established there (Bell and Bell 1998)<strong></strong>. Several follow-up visits to Oeno and Ducie have not found any signs of rats (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2003)<strong></strong>. Following a feasibility study (Brooke and Towns 2008) a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island in August 2011 (J. Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A follow-up monitoring expedition is planned for 2013 to assess the success of the rat eradication. In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. A rudimentary monitoring protocol was established on Henderson in 2003 (M. de L. Brooke <em>in litt</em>. 2000, 2003)<strong></strong>.<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Periodically resurvey the species to establish and monitor any trends. Periodically check Oeno and Ducie for rats, and ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to the Pitcairn Islands.<p></p>
160030028		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma atrata</em> is known to breed only on Henderson Island, <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, but may have also bred on Pitcairn Island in the past and has apparently become extirpated from Ducie, also in the Pitcairn Islands (Brooke 1995a)<strong></strong>. It is likely to breed on other islands in the region too (Murphy and Pennoyer 1952)<strong></strong>, such as the Gambier and Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) (Murphy and Pennoyer 1952, Thibault and Bretagnolle 1999)<strong></strong>. In 1991-1992, the breeding population on Henderson was estimated at c.16,000 breeding pairs and it was suggested that the species could be undergoing a long-term decline (Brooke 1995a)<strong></strong>.  While its non-breeding range is not well known, it has been sighted at Easter Island (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt.</em>, 2011). <p></p>
160030028		habitat	eng	Like<em> P. heraldica</em> it may feed predominantly on cephalopods, also taking fish and crustaceans (<strong></strong>Imber <em>et al</em>. 1995)<strong></strong>. On Henderson, it nests exclusively on the plateau, scattered in the dense forest, though nearer to the coast than <em> P. heraldica </em>(Brooke 1995a, Brooke and Rowe 1996)<strong></strong>. Breeding success is low, with less than 20% of eggs yielding fledglings and failure mostly occurring at the early chick stage (Brooke 1995a)<strong></strong>. In other absence of other known colonies elsewhere, there is no source of immigrants to sustain the Henderson petrel population (Brooke 2010).  <p></p>
160030028		population	eng	Brooke (2004). <p></p> <p></p>
160030028		threats	eng	Predation by Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> is believed to be the main cause of chick mortality on Henderson, although predation by crabs <em>Coenobita</em> spp. is also a possibility (Brooke 1995a)<strong></strong>. In August 2011, a rat eradication operation was carried out on Henderson Island to eradicate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. exulans</span><em> </em>from the island (J. Hall <em>in litt</em>. 2012). If it ever bred on Pitcairn, it is likely to have been extirpated there because of predation by feral cats and introduced rats (Brooke 1995a)<strong></strong>. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: it is restricted to an island with a maximum altitude of 33 m (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030029		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The whole of Great Nicobar is a Biosphere Reserve, within which there are two National Parks, Campbell Bay and Galatea. Furthermore, designation of most of the Nicobar islands as tribal areas legally prohibits commercial exploitation of natural resources and settlement or ownership of land by non-tribals. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on Great Nicobar (and then Little Nicobar) using tape-playback to determine presence/absence, and where possible estimate densities of the species in various habitats across the islands. Carry out research into the impacts of potential threats to the species.<br/><p></p>
160030029		distribution	eng	<em>Otus alius</em> is known from two specimens collected at Campbell Bay on Great Nicobar  (BirdLife International 2001), and one bird trapped and photographed in March 2003 on Teressa Island (P. Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2005) in the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>. It may occur on other islands in the group, particularly Little Nicobar, and is perhaps restricted in range on Great Nicobar. The other more northerly islands of the group have been well surveyed without evidence of its presence. As threats to its presumed habitat of coastal forest have increased following the devastating 2004 tsunami the species may require uplisting on a precautionary basis based on predicted future declines in habitat.<em> </em><p></p>
160030029		habitat	eng	Virtually nothing is known of its ecology. The paratype was found in coastal forest (presumably at sea-level) c.1 km from the shore. It is thought likely to be a sedentary resident. Of the two birds collected, one individual was said to have eaten a spider and beetle, and the other had consumed a gecko (König and Weick 2008). <p></p>
160030029		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is considered likely to be rare.
160030029		threats	eng	Specific threats are unknown, but loss of coastal forest is a problem on Great Nicobar, owing to clearance and conversion for agriculture (particularly coconut, banana and cashew plantations and rice cultivation), road development projects (which threaten to fragment habitat blocks, particularly on Great Nicobar), and expansion of human settlements. The devastating tsunami of 26th December 2004 may have affected large parts of its breeding habitat, and the aftermath of the tsunami has exacerbated the existing pressures on coastal forest habitat, with many homeless people raising plantation crops to generate revenue and building houses in littoral forests <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The proposal to develop Great Nicobar as a free-trade port, a potentially major threat, appears unlikely to be realised in the near future <strong></strong>(K. Sivakumar <em>in litt.</em> 2005). <p></p>
160030030		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey suitable habitats in north Bolivia (S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct research into the species's ecology (S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Designate a protected area for the species (J. Hornbuckle <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030030		distribution	eng	<em>Hylopezus auricularis</em> is currently known from five sites in the lower río Beni drainage, north <strong>Bolivia.</strong> Four specimens were collected at Victoria, Pando, in 1937, one was observed between Lago Tumi Chucua and the río Beni in 1976, it was tape-recorded at Remanso on the río Madre de Dios in 1991 (S. Mayer <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong> and it was frequently seen near Riberalta, on the east bank of the río Beni, Beni, in 1994, where a specimen was collected in 1995 (Maijer 1998), with another three obtained at nearby Hamburgo in 1998 (Maillard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)<strong></strong>. A pair was observed foraging at a fifth locality near Las Piedras, between the río Beni and Puerto Gonzalo Moreno, Pando  in September 2001 (Maillard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
160030030		habitat	eng	The site near Riberalta is a matrix of clay-pits (for brick-making), grassy open spaces and low secondary forest, with this species apparently occurring in low-lying, muddy forest and thickets (Maijer 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Most records are from thickets adjacent to open areas, possibly because birds move from the interior to the forest edge to sing (Maijer 1998). <p></p>
160030030		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Its population may be considerably larger, if the species's range proves to be more expansive than first thought.
160030030		threats	eng	It has apparently adapted well to heavy habitat disturbance by humans (Maijer 1998). However, knowledge of its distribution and ecological requirements is very limited, and it cannot at present be considered secure (Maijer 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030031		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Attempt to establish its call then use playback to survey potentially suitable lowland riverine forest. <p></p>
160030031		distribution	eng	<em>Aegotheles tatei</em> of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> is known from four museum specimens and two field reports. Two specimens were taken in 1936 from Palmer Junction close to the Indonesian border, one in 1969 from Nunumai in the far south-east, one unlabelled from the 1920s. One was sighted in 1962 at Brown River west of Nunumai (Pratt 2000,<strong></strong> T.&#160;K. Pratt <em>in litt. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. A previously undescribed grey-morph bird was reported in 2003 along the Drimgas Road, c.17 km north of Kiunga in the Western Province (K. D. Bishop <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. If <em>tatei</em> proves to be absent from many suitable sites, it may be classified as threatened on the basis of a highly restricted range but given the difficulties of surveying owlet-nightjars, especially given that the call of <em>tatei</em> is unknown, its status is currently uncertain.<em> <p></p></em>
160030031		habitat	eng	All records are from lowland riverine rainforest at 30-80 m close to hills. <p></p>
160030031		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as possibly fairly common, although little known (Cleere 1998).
160030031		threats	eng	Lowland riverine rainforest has been extensively logged or cleared in New Guinea but large areas still remain intact. <p></p>
160030032		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There were two legal interventions regarding the Iraí dam. First, to postpone plans for the dam and counter irregularities in the environmental impact assessment and, second (following the discovery of this species), to abandon the construction of the dam or create a conservation unit. However, neither intervention was successful, and the dam has been constructed. The species occurs in <strong></strong> <span class="st">Serra do Cipó and Serra da Canastra <span class="st">National Parks and <span class="st">Cara<span class="st">ça private reserve<span class="st"> (Vasconcelos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Abandon the planned construction of dams that would flood areas where this species occurs. Cease drainage, fires and all sand extraction operations in such areas. Create further conservation units to protect the species. Survey similar habitat in Sao Paolo and Santa Catarina. Conduct detailed studies of the species's ecology.  <p></p></span></span>
160030032		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus iraiensis</em> was discovered in 1997, and is now known from 20 localities in Minas Gerais, Paraná, and Rio Grande do Sul in south-eastern <strong>Brazil</strong> (Vasconcelos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Mlíkovský 2009). It is likely to be found in Sao Paulo state, even though surveys have so far been unsuccessful (Vasconcelos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recent surveys at Banhado do Maçarico, Rio Grande do Sul state (the southernmost locality known for the species) found a density of about 0.5 individuals per hectare, which produced a population estimate of c.200 breeding pairs (400 individuals) (G. Mauricio <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). The species occupies small patches of habitat that are highly fragmented. It was considered common at the type-locality (but has since been extirpated) and rare to uncommon at other sites. Given ongoing threats, the population is likely to be declining rapidly.<strong></strong><p></p>
160030032		habitat	eng	It occurs in tall, dense grasslands (60-180&#160;cm tall) in the alluvial plains of watercourses, generally flanked by gallery forest. In the coastal plain of southernmost Brazil it is also present in peat swamp habitat. These grasslands are seasonally inundated and dominated by <em>Eleocharis</em> sp. and several other Cyperaceae and Poaceae. The species inhabits the dense vegetation nearest to the ground, and climbs up and down stems and bushes. Stomach contents included small arthropods and insects. It breeds during the late austral spring and possibly also in the summer. <p></p>
160030032		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160030032		threats	eng	The Iraí dam has already flooded the type-locality, and urbanisation, industrial development and road-building affect other sites in this vicinity. There is a proposal to construct three further dams to cope with the water demands of Curitiba. The grasslands of the region are being systematically drained owing to canalisation schemes for improved agricultural land and pasture. Subsurface sand extraction and the planting of <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees have altered the landscape and vegetation in several areas. The use of widespread burning is common practice on these lands, which changes the floral composition and promotes the spread of invasive species. <strong></strong><p></p>
160030034		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. There is much research activity in the breeding range and, increasingly, the Caribbean. Some important breeding areas and c.50% of sites in the Dominican Republic are actively protected (Rimmer <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but recent funding requests for management were turned down. Management and protection of existing reserves and parks is now inadequate (C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>. A predictive model has been developed and used to generate a population estimate for this species within New Hampshire (Hale 2006)<strong></strong>, and a more general model has been used to predict distribution in the north-eastern USA in order to inform and plan habitat management/alteration decisions (Lambert <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. New (and expansion of existing) ski-resorts are developed following environmental impact assessment, in a way that mitigates against habitat loss and disturbance (Anon 2006)<strong></strong>. One development established a fund for protecting the wintering grounds (Anon 2006).A conservation action plan has been produced for the species, with the overall goal of achieving a 25% population increase during the period 2011-2060 and no further net loss in distribution (IBTCG 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Clarify distribution and migration details (Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996, Rimmer 1996). Refine estimates of population size (Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Rimmer 1996), potentially by using an existing predictive model and applying it to new areas. Evaluate human impacts on breeding birds (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Clarify winter segregation (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. Develop strategies to maintain dense stands of regenerating balsam fir in Quebec. Develop management plans for existing, and designate new, reserves in the Dominican Republic (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, <strong></strong>Rimmer <em>et al.</em> 1999<strong><sup></sup></strong>). <p></p>
160030034		distribution	eng	<em>Catharus bicknelli</em> breeds patchily in south-east Quebec and the Maritime provinces, <strong>Canada</strong>, and eastern New York and northern New England, <strong>USA </strong>(Phillips 1991, Ouellet 1993, Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996). There are 20,000-50,000 adults in the USA&#160; (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>K. McFarland <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and 1,000-3,000 birds in the Maritime provinces (D. Busby <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>, but there have been local extinctions (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. It migrates along the coast to winter in the Caribbean (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. The stronghold is the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (especially the Sierra de Baoruco and Cordillera Central) and possibly <strong>Haiti</strong> (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Rimmer <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It may also winter in the Blue Mountains of <strong>Jamaica</strong>, and small numbers occur in <strong>Puerto Rico</strong> and <strong>Dominica</strong>. There are three records from <strong>Cuba</strong>, including one in the Sierra Maestra in 1999 (Garrido and Garcia Montaña 1975, C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999, G. Seutin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. The population is suspected to be in rapid decline overall. Population trend data show mixed results, but annual declines of 7-19% have been documented in parts of the species’s breeding range (IBTCG 2010). Surveys (conducted through the High Elevation Landbird Program) in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia recorded apparent declines of c.16%/year and 11%/year respectively between 2002 and 2010 (Campbell 2011). Results from the second Maritime Breeding Bird Atlas show a greater than 40% decline in the distribution of the species between 1999 and 2009 (COSEWIC 2009). The current population estimate for the species in Canada is between 40,570 and 49,258 birds (COSEWIC 2009), with global estimates of 95,000-126,000 birds (IBTCG 2010). <br/><br/><br/><p></p>
160030034		habitat	eng	It breeds in dense montane forests (above 900 m) of balsam fir <em>Abies balsamae</em> and red spruce <em>Picea rubens</em>, usually near the treeline (Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996, Rimmer 1996), but occupies less than 75% of available habitat (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. In Canada, it also inhabits regenerating clear-cuts and coastal areas with spruce-fir at low elevations (Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. In winter, it occurs in moist broadleaved and mixed pine-broadleaved montane forests and secondary woodlands (Rimmer 1996, <strong></strong>Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, Rimmer <em>et al.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It nests in June-July (present on breeding grounds May-September), sometimes with high failure rates (Rimmer 1996). It may sexually segregate in winter, with females in "poorer quality" habitats (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030034		population	eng	The current population estimate for the species in Canada is between  40,570 and 49,258 individuals (COSEWIC 2009), with global estimates of  95,000-126,000 individuals (IBTCG 2010), probably including c.63,300-84,000 mature individuals.
160030034		threats	eng	Acid precipitation may have damaged breeding habitat in the 1960s and 1970s (Phillips 1991, Rimmer 1996). Project climate change is expected to result in decreases in the extent of the species's breeding habitat (C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>K. McFarland <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Rodenhouse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Ski-resort, communication and wind-power developments potentially threaten local populations (Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong>Rimmer 1996). In Quebec, the widespread practice of thinning renders habitat unsuitable (G. Seutin <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Agricultural conversion, logging and charcoal production are rapidly clearing and fragmenting winter habitat (Atwood <em>et al.</em> 1996, <strong></strong> C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt.</em> 1998, 1999)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030035		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 1995 a working group was formed and, in 1998, a conservation plan identified over 200 actions (BLM 1999, J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. By 2004 over 95% of the population was covered by local working groups' conservation plans (J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. While the success of such local efforts may be controversial, hunting has ceased and significant gains have been made in land protection through conservation easements and land acquisitions (J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Current actions include lek enhancement, riparian area restoration, nest habitat treatments, improved livestock management, nest predator research, and education (J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Education measures include sponsored grouse viewing, information brochures and talks given in local schools and fairs (W. Martinson<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Radio-telemetry and graduate research is helping to determine winter habitat use, and lek sites have been protected (W. Martinson<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Hunting of the species has been stopped (C. Braun <em>in litt.</em> 2005, J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2005 state and federal employees drafted a 'Rangewide Plan' and have begun contact with local landowners to present voluntary conservation agreements (J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Restore and improve habitat, while continuing work to prevent further loss and fragmentation. Support its listing on the Endangered Species Act. Continue population monitoring at key sites. Conduct further ecological research, focussing on survival, dispersal and habitat use at different life stages. Encourage and facilitate the implementation of local and range-wide management plans. Reduce disturbance, especially at active leks. Investigate the possibility of using translocations to augment small populations. Continue work to raise awareness of key issues among stakeholders. <p></p>
160030035		distribution	eng	<em>Centrocercus minimus</em> is confined to the Gunnison basin in Gunnison and Saguache counties, south-west Colorado, with small, fragmented populations in Colorado and one in south-east Utah, <strong>USA </strong>(Storch 2000, Young <em>et al.</em> 2000,  K. Strom 2004)<sup></sup>. Historically, it presumably occurred in Arizona, Oklahoma and New Mexico (BLM 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but the occupied range is now less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>. The breeding population is less than 3,000 individuals (BLM 1999, Storch 2000, <strong></strong>Rich <em>et al. </em>2003, C. Braun <em>in litt.</em> 2005, J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been long-term declines in lek sites, numbers of males at leks and offspring (BLM 1999, J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Storch 2000, Young <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030035		habitat	eng	Various adjacent habitats are required in the 2,300 m intermontane basin (J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Storch 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. These differ seasonally and for age and sex classes (J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is totally reliant on sagebrush <em>Artemisia</em> spp. for seasonal cover and winter forage (Young <em>et al.</em> 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Lek sites have low vegetation with sparse shrubs, and are often surrounded by the big sagebrush-dominated plant communities required for nesting (BLM 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Broods are reared (May to autumn) in adjacent riparian plant communities and in mesic upland sites (BLM 1999, J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In winter, it associates with watercourses on southerly or westerly slopes and ridge tops where deep snow is less likely (BLM 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030035		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,700 mature individuals, roughly equating to 2,500-2,600 individuals in total (C. Braun <I>in litt. </I> 2005, J. R. Young <I>in litt. </I>2005).
160030035		threats	eng	Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation is resulting from conversion to roads, reservoirs, livestock-grazing, hay and other crops, real estate developments, powerlines, land treatments and increased deer populations (BLM 1999, J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Many winter sites are directly threatened and being enclosed by urbanisation (Storch 2000)<strong></strong>. Severely fragmented populations have low genetic variation and the recent reintroduction of the disease West Nile virus to the species's range is a concern (J. R. Young <em>in litt.</em> 1999, J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Inbreeding depression appears to be occurring due to the skewed mating system at leks: six of the seven extant populations now appear to be low enough to be suffering from this (Stiver <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Disturbance from scientific study and recreational birdwatchers may cause stress and reduced lek attendance and production (BLM 1999, C. Braun <em>in litt.</em> 2005, J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Severe winters and potentially droughts may represent survival bottlenecks (e.g. in 1984, less than 10% of sagebrush emerged above the snow [Storch 2000]<strong></strong>), as may other habitat factors influencing chick survival (J. R. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Calls to increase gas prospecting in areas of sagebrush habitat represent a potential future threat. <p></p>
160030037		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A project to improve land protection, determine the number of individuals in the study area and surroundings, improve ecological knowledge and increase national and local awareness commenced in 2010 (A. Kirkconnell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Activities were to include surveys, increasing the limits of the national park to include kite habitat, reintroducing native snails (food source for the kite), control of local pig population and talks with the community to prevent hunting and wood cutting (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess distribution and population (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Effectively protect remaining habitat (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect tree snails (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Conduct public awareness and education campaigns to help prevent persecution of the species (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997). Protect the species under Cuban law (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030037		distribution	eng	<em>Chondrohierax wilsonii</em> was formerly fairly widespread on <strong>Cuba</strong>, but is now confined to a tiny area in the east of the island between Moa and Baracoa, and possibly other parts of Holguín and Guantánamo provinces (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong> Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. It is Cuba's rarest raptor and is apparently on the verge of extinction (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. The only sightings of the past 40 years are of 1 - 3 birds seen  on a handful of occasions in Holguin and Guantánamo provinces, the most recent of which were two flying birds in Humboldt National Park in May 2010 (Kirkconnell and Begue 2010). <p></p>
160030037		habitat	eng	It is now confined to montane gallery forest (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where it feeds chiefly on tree snails <em>Polymita</em> and slugs in the understorey (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Historically, it inhabited xerophytic vegetation and montane forest (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997). <p></p>
160030037		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 50-249 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
160030037		threats	eng	The decline is mainly attributed to habitat destruction and alteration caused by logging and agricultural conversion. Farmers persecute the species because they (mistakenly) believe that it preys on poultry (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Harvesting has apparently reduced numbers of tree snails, and thereby food availability (Gálvez-Aguilera and Berovides-Alvarez 1997, Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030038		distribution	eng	This species is found from south-west Victoria to central Queensland in south-eastern Australia, mostly on the slopes and tablelands of the Great Dividing Range.
160030038		population	eng	The global population is estimated as numbering as many as 400,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160030038		threats	eng	Much of the species habitat has been cleared, with remaining fragments gradually becoming unsuitable as a result of competition with invasive species, predation of adults or young, alteration of vegetation structure through over-grazing, timber cutting, weed invasion, salinisation and other flow-on processes.
160030039		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160030043		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara and Pulau Supiori Nature Reserves, which cover substantial areas of lowland and hill forest on Biak and Supiori (<strong></strong>Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995).  A further reserve has been proposed for Numfor <strong></strong>(Diamond 1986). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys on all known islands of occurrence to assess fully its distribution and current population status. Devise a list of management recommendations, including ensuring adequate protection of nesting areas if different from non-breeding habitats. Assess habitat requirements and threats. Conduct research into its breeding biology.  Assess status of forest on Biak-Supiori. Prevent potential introduction of ground predators.<p></p>
160030043		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius geelvinkianus</em> is endemic to Biak-Supiori in Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and its satellite islands, Mios Korwar, Numfor, Manim and Mios Nu<strong></strong>m.  It is not clear whether one specimen, apparently from Manokwari on mainland Papua, represents a straggler from a nearby island or a mislabelled specimen<strong> </strong>(Jones <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1995).  Its population size is unknown, but is believed to be small and declining. It was formerly common on Biak (<strong></strong>Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939) and it was heard regularly during the course of field visits to Biak between 1983 and 1997 (<strong></strong><strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007), but only "small numbers" were seen during the 1990s on Owi (a satellite of Biak) and Supiori (Jones <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1995). It was recorded daily in and around Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997 (<strong></strong>S. van Balen and B. M. Beehler <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000), and is still seen regularly by visitors (S. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Overall, the population is thought to be in decline owing to a number of pressures on habitat within its range. <p></p>
160030043		habitat	eng	It is apparently shy and wary but has been recorded in primary forest, logged forest, secondary growth, dry scrub and scrub near a river. It is regularly seen in disturbed habitat (S. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). However, there is no information on its habitat preferences, general habits, diet or breeding biology, although these are probably broadly similar to other <em>Megapodius</em> species. It presumably builds nest-mounds or buries its eggs between decaying roots of trees (<strong></strong>Jones <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>1995). <p></p>
160030043		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160030043		threats	eng	Specific threats are undocumented, but are likely to include egg-collecting (although its widely spaced nest-mounds may reduce this risk (<strong></strong>S. van Balen and B. M. Beehler <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000), hunting (which is a documented threat to other species on the islands) and perhaps predation by introduced mammals (<strong></strong>Dekker and McGowan 1995).<strong> </strong> Much forest on Biak (particularly the southern plains) and Numfor has been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming; much of the remainder is under pressure (Bishop 1982, <strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996, D. Holmes <em>in litt.</em> 2000) although the north part of the island appears to be secure (S. van Balen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012)<strong></strong>. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation. <p></p>
160030044		distribution	eng	<I>Ortalis colombiana</I> is endemic to <B>Colombia</B>, where it has been extirpated from much of its range on the slopes above the Cauca Valley from northern Antioquia south to Cauca, and in the Magdalena Valley from Cundinamarca to Huila (Stotz <I>et al.</I> 1996). The remaining populations are restricted to fragmented pockets of humid forest, forest edge and scrubby woodland from 100 to 2,500 m altitude (Hilty and Brown 1986, Stotz <I>et al.</I> 1996). Despite this, the species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 120,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It is thought to breed in February (Stattersfield <I>et al.</I> 1998). Habitat within its range has been subject to extensive deforestation although some large areas of humid forest apparently still exist. The middle and lower Magdalena and Cauca valleys have been heavily deforested since the nineteenth century (for agriculture), and clearance of suitable foothills of the middle Magdalena valley has been almost total since the 1950s. The species occurs in the Bosque de Yotoco Reserve (Velasco-Abad in Strahl <I>et al.</I> 1997). The global population size has not been quantified, but although the species is described as 'rare' in at least parts of its range (Stotz <I>et al</I>. 1996), it is described as 'abundant' in protected areas in the Cauca Valley (Velasco-Abad in Strahl <I>et al.</I> 1997), and so it is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.  </P>
160030044		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but the taxon is described as localised.
160030051		conservation	eng	In the event of extensive habitat loss or modification in the species' range,  appropriate interventions should be made (e.g. impact assessments,  increased protection of key areas).
160030051		distribution	eng	This species is a single-island endemic restricted to Socotra, Yemen, where it is locally common and apparently extensively distributed throughout the island. In 1964 the species was found to inhabit plains at Ras Kharma and Kallansiya, and up to 1,400 m in the Hagghier (=Haghir) mountains (Forbes-Watson 1964). During a survey of eastern Socotra in 1993 (Porter and Martins 1996), 135 were recorded at 11 sites in eight days, principally below 150 m, although some were found up to 850 m on Jabal Jaaf (Kirwan et al. 1996).
160030051		habitat	eng	The species is found from sea level to c.800 m, although it has been recorded up to 1,400 m (Kirwan et al. 1996). It occurs in all types of scrub, most commonly in structurally distinctive Croton socotranus dominated associations, characterised by dense clusters of woody stems 1-2 m high, such as on the scarps of the northern edge of the Hamadiroh (=Hamaderoh) Plateau in east Socotra. This, and structurally similar vegetation, occurs patchily as understorey in areas where climax vegetation persists, such as at lower elevations on the northern foothills of the Hagghier (=Haghir) range and at Wadi Ayhaft (Dymond 1996). A pair have been recorded with three young in early January, and nesting behaviour and females ready to lay (deduced from collected birds) were also noted (Ogilvie-Grant and Forbes 1903). A nest discovered in February was a dome-shaped structure made from grass and lichen, with a side entrance, situated one metre above the ground in a bush (Ogilvie-Grant and Forbes 1903, confirmed by Forbes-Watson 1964).
160030051		population	eng	The total population has been estimated to be in excess of 5,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2006). Estimates of population densities were 27.5 and 3.9 individuals per km² in the coastal plain and foothills respectively (with no data from the highlands) (Davidson 1996).
160030051		threats	eng	Given the habitat requirements of the species, it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. A substantial proportion of climax vegetation on Socotra has been destroyed through intense grazing and by the cutting of wood for timber and fuel. However, traditional grazing regimes include regular patterns of seasonal elevational movements of stock, as well as a system of spatial rotation, which may favour the species. Increases in grazing density through improved water distribution may impact the species, as may the rapid development of tourist infrastructure in the coastal region (Van Damme and Bansfield 2011).
160030052		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Jos Plateau and its north and eastward extensions, in northern Nigeria (Payne 1998). There is a possible recent sighting of the species in the Mandara Mountains in north-east Nigeria near the Cameroon border, and northern Nigerian sightings of L. rubricata from Ririwai and Aliya may also refer to this species (Payne 1998). Another known site (Panshanu) is within the Magama Forest Reserve, where the vegetation is apparently little changed since 1968 (Payne 1998).
160030052		habitat	eng	The species is found in bushy and grassy rocky outcrops on the plateau and wooded, grassy inselbergs to the north and east, and is apparently restricted to areas above 900 m. It probably feeds on grass seeds (Clement et al. 1993, Payne 1998). It is parasitised by the Jos Plateau Indigobird Vidua maryae which is found within its range and mimics its song (Payne 1998).
160030052		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in at least parts of its range (Borrow and Demey 2001)
160030052		threats	eng	One site (Taboru) is intensely grazed and the remaining wooded vegetation is rapidly being removed for fences and firewood (Payne 1998), although there are plans to establish a conservation programme here (P. Hall in litt. 1999). However, habitat on the Jos Plateau is extensive and not at risk (P. Hall in litt. 1999).
160030053		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are plans to establish a conservation programme at Taboru (P. Hall <em>in litt.</em> 1999). A study of this species and <em>L. sanguinodorsalis</em> began in 2006 (J. Abalaka <em>in litt. </em>2007). <p></p><strong></strong>
160030053		distribution	eng	<I>Vidua maryae</I> was first discovered in 1968, but has only been considered a distinct species since 1995. It is endemic to the Jos Plateau and its north and eastward extensions, in northern <B>Nigeria</B>, where it is known from Panshanu, Taboru near Jos and Kagoro (Payne 1998), and has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 26,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers).  Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be stable; one site (Panshanu) is within the Magama Forest Reserve, where the vegetation is apparently little changed since 1968 (Payne 1998). It may be more common and widespread than records suggest, as it is difficult to identify outside the breeding season (J. Abalaka <I>in litt.</I> 2007, S. Hogberg <I>in litt</I>. 2007). Therefore, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
160030053		habitat	eng	It occupies the same habitat as the Rock Firefinch <I>Lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis</I>, bushy and grassy rocky outcrops on the plateau and wooded, grassy inselbergs to the north and east. The species is apparently restricted to areas above 900 m (Payne 1998). <I>V. maryae </I>mimics the songs of <I>L. sanguinodorsalis</I> and, whilst there are no direct observations of brood parasitism, their association as host and brood parasite is assumed, as in other species in which indigobird parasitism has been observed the indigobird male mimics the song of the host that is known to rear its young (P. Hall <I>in litt.</I> 1999).
160030053		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
160030053		threats	eng	The Jos Plateau has a high human population density and has consequently suffered from major agricultural expansion. Most of the original woodland vegetation has been lost, with the remainder restricted to inaccessible areas or river margins. One known site (Taboru) is intensely grazed and the remaining wooded vegetation is rapidly being removed for fences and firewood (Payne 1998).
160030054		distribution	eng	The species occurs from Huancavelica through Apurímac and Cuzco, with one record at Limbani in Puno, south Peru (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Garcia-Moreno and Fjeldså 1999).
160030054		habitat	eng	The species forages in pairs in the undergrowth of Podocarpus woodland and shrubbery, and fledgings have been reported in May (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).
160030054		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species has been described as common in at least parts of its range (J. Fjeldså verbally 2000).
160030054		threats	eng	Deforestation is a threat, as Podocarpus trees continue to be cut on the Nevada Ampay in Apurímac, north of Abancay (W.-P. Vellinga in litt. 1999). Large numbers of people visit this area at the weekend, some with slingshots, and disturbance is considerable (W.-P. Vellinga in litt. 1999). The Podocarpus forest in the Nevada Ampay is protected as the Ampay National Sanctuary, and reforestation is underway, but threats to the forest are yet to be alleviated (T. Valqui in litt. 1999, W.-P. Vellinga in litt. 1999). The Apurímac Reserve Zone also protects part of its range.
160030055		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys of the Cordillera Vilcabamba to monitor rates of habitat loss, as well as determine the stability of populations of this species. <p></p>
160030055		distribution	eng	<em>Atlapetes terborghi</em> has a very small range in the north Cordillera Vilcabamba, east-central Cuzco, <strong>Peru</strong> (García-Moreno and Fjeldså 1999).<em> <p></p></em>
160030055		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane evergreen forest, probably at 1,700-2,250 m, where there is a high (but irregular and broken) canopy and dense undergrowth<strong></strong> (Weske and Terborgh 1981).  <p></p>
160030055		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon.
160030055		threats	eng	The north Cordillera Vilcabamba is one of the most intact areas of Peru, mostly owing to a lack of human habitation<strong></strong> (J.&#160;Fjeldså verbally 2000), and populations of this species are presumably currently secure <p></p>
160030056		distribution	eng	This species is mainly found in the Cordillera Vilcabamba in central Cuzco, south Peru (García-Moreno and Fjeldså 1999). Surveys in neighbouring Apurímac would determine whether populations exist within the Apurímac Reserve Zone and Ampay National Sanctuary.
160030056		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the undergrowth of montane woodland between 2,500 and 3000m of altitude (Remsen and Graves 1995). It has been recorded singly, in pairs, and occasionally in mixed species flocks.
160030056		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in humid montane forest and shrubs (Clements and Shany 2001).
160030057		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Guam, snakes have been trapped at the main colony. Colonies have been censused regularly, nesting has been observed and foraging ranges mapped. On Rota, surveys have been conducted confirming that there is now sufficient insect prey to allow successful reintroduction.  On Saipan and Aguijan, colonies have been censused periodically and insecticide applied to kill cockroaches (G. Wiles <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. Rat control on Oahu has resumed but is being done less often than previously because access to the site has become more difficult (E. Vanderwerf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<strong></strong><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring all populations. On Saipan, eradicate the brown tree snake and limit cave disturbance.  On Guam, facilitate recolonisation of caves historically used by large colonies. On Rota, reintroduce birds (G. Wiles <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. On Guam and Saipan, eradicate or control dauber wasps and cave dwelling cockroaches, respectively.   On Oahu, control introduced black rats <span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span> near nesting tunnel entrance.<p></p>
160030057		distribution	eng	<em>Collocalia bartschi</em> is endemic to <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong> and the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, and was introduced to Oahu, Hawaiian Islands (USA) in the early 1960s. On Guam, it was very abundant but, from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, it underwent a precipitous decline (Jenkins 1983)<strong></strong>. In 1999, only three colonies remained, the largest holding c.700 birds (total population c.800) (G. Wiles<em> </em>unpublished data)<strong></strong>. A 2008 report by the U.S. Navy estimated that the population on Guam has increased to around 1,150 individuals (Grimm 2008). In the Northern Marianas, populations disappeared from Rota and Tinian in the 1970s, although, on Tinian, it was possibly only nomadic (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong>. In 1982, estimates were 9,120 on Saipan and 1,022 on uninhabited Aguijan (Engbring <em>et al.</em> 1982)<strong></strong> but, more recently, estimates are c.5,000 (five colonies) and 416 (seven colonies), respectively (J. Cruz <em>in litt. </em>2007, G. Wiles<em> </em>unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. On Oahu, it survives in a single known breeding colony in a small tunnel in the Ko`olau Mountains, although similar irrigation tunnels are common and thus other small colonies may exist (Chantler and Driessens 1995)<strong></strong>. Observations there in 1997 suggested a minimum of 17 breeding pairs (66 birds in total [Wiles<em> </em>and Woodside 1999])<strong></strong>, whilst monitoring during 2009-2010 recorded up to 50 nesting pairs (E. Vanderwerf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). The number of nesting pairs and fledglings on Oahu was lower in 2011 because rats invaded the nesting tunnel after rat control was interrupted (E. Vanderwerf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
160030057		habitat	eng	It feeds over coastal and interior forest and grassland (and formerly mangroves), capturing small insects in flight, preferring forest on Guam and Aguijan (G. Wiles<em> </em>unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds and roosts in colonies in caves that typically hold a few to 700 birds (G. Wiles<em> </em>unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nesting occurs year-round, but is greatest from late January to September or October. One egg is laid per clutch and pairs probably lay more than one clutch per year (G. Wiles<em> </em>unpublished data)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030057		population	eng	The population estimate of 3,200-3,500 individuals is derived from G. Wiles in litt. and Wiles &amp; Woodside (1999). This is roughly equivalent to 2,100-2,300 mature individuals.
160030057		threats	eng	The cause of the decline on Guam and the extinction on Rota may relate to loss of insect prey through pesticide-use (Kohley<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006)<strong></strong>. Currently, predation by brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis </em>is the primary limiting factor on Guam and interactions with introduced mud dauber wasps <em>Vespula</em> sp. may interfere with recovery (the additional weight of wasps nests causes swiftlet nests to fall from cave walls). On Saipan, exotic cockroaches (which damage and destroy nests by consuming nest material and swiftlet saliva gluing them to cave walls), predation by brown tree snake (which is in the process of becoming established on the island [Rodd and Savidge 2007]) and possible disturbance by humans and feral mammals are the main threats (Wiles<em> </em>and Woodside 1999, A. Saunders <em>in litt, </em>G. Wiles<em> </em>unpubl. data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030058		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is resident in the Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve and Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve.<strong></strong><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in Laos and Vietnam to determine its distribution, approximate population size and habitat requirements. Initiate and expand management, monitoring, training and education in Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve and gazette the adjoining Ngoc Lihn (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve. <p></p>
160030058		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax ngoclinhensis</em> was only described in 1999. It is only known from Mt Ngoc Linh and Mt Ngoc Boc (Eames 2001)<strong></strong> on the Kon Tum plateau of central <strong>Vietnam</strong>. At Mt Ngoc Linh it has been recorded from the Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve, and Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve. It has also been recorded from Kon Plong Forest Complex (Eames <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The population is unknown, but it may occur in the neighbouring Attapu and Se Kong provinces of Laos. <p></p>
160030058		habitat	eng	All observations have been between 2,000 and 2,200 m in the herb and shrub layers of primary, upper montane, evergreen forest. It is presumed to be resident. The holotype specimen had enlarged testes suggesting breeding activity in May. <p></p>
160030058		population	eng	Uncommon within a very small range, so placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals. This is a provisional estimate that requires confirmation.
160030058		threats	eng	In Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve, 13% of evergreen forest was lost between 1976 and 1995. Forest at Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve is threatened by clearance for agriculture, a process that is accelerating in response to natural population growth and settlement of migrants in the area. Trapping pressure is likely to accompany the conversion of habitat in this species's elevation range (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
160030060		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed in Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations and therefore EU import levels are monitored. The species occurs in Kateri Wildlife Sanctuary, West Timor. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution and ecological requirements, and its population size and trends, so that effective conservation measures can be developed and implemented. Monitor and regulate trapping and trade, devising and enforcing effective legislation. Establish appropriate protected areas to support viable populations. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
160030060		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is restricted to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, West Timor, and its outlying islands, Semau and Roti, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is widespread, but generally sparsely and patchily distributed. It is locally moderately common, being described as uncommon to abundant in Timor-Leste (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong> where recent surveys at two sites along the Laivai River located several groups of 30-50 birds within a few hectares in a short period at both sites, suggesting a likely population total in the thousands for the entire river region (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Local reports have suggested that flocks of hundreds to thousands may form (Mauro 2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030060		habitat	eng	It mainly frequents the extreme lowlands, sometimes ascending hills to around 700 m, where it regularly occurs as individuals or in small groups of three to five birds, occasionally mixed with other granivorous birds, and can form larger flocks with groups of 30-50 recently recorded (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forages on or near the ground in grassland, lightly wooded cattle-pasture, scrub, overgrown gardens, deciduous or degraded monsoon-forest and the margins of cultivation, and in Timor-Leste was found in <em>Eucalyptus alba</em> savanna, ricefields, severly degraded coastal shrublands and riparian woodland dominated by <em>Casuarina </em>(C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Considered a considerable rice predator in Timor-Leste (Trainor <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it has undoubtedly benefitted from land conversion to ricefields, allowing access to grains and water over long periods (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030060		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
160030060		threats	eng	Habitat destruction in West Timor and Timor-Leste has been extensive. Three recently identified IBAs contain much of the remaining tropical monsoon-forest in Timor-Leste (approximately 652 km<sup>2</sup>) (Trainor 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in and around seven unprotected patches that continue to decline in size due to intensive grazing and burning. Use of slingshots and throwing stones to disturb the species from ricefields is unlikely to cause serious mortality, although little is known of local hunting success (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Large numbers of birds are captured for the international cage-bird trade (e.g. over 4,000 imported by EU countries since 1997 [UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and this may be the key threat in the future. <p></p>
160030061		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. In October 1998, five days were spent on the island of Tagulandang, just south of and almost as large as Siau, but only a few hectares of forest were found to remain, all above 600 m. The Wildlife Conservation Society is providing financial and technical support to the North Sulawesi local NGO PALS to conduct extensive surveys of Siau Island to locate the species. If found, immediate conservation measures will be implemented (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the remaining forest on Siau and Tagulandang at different times of year, investigating any patch of trees, however remote the possibility of success may seem. In the event of its survival, initiate conservation measures at the site of rediscovery. <p></p>
160030061		distribution	eng	<em>Otus siaoensis</em> is only known from the holotype collected on the island of Siau, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>in 1866. Given the small size of this island, and its generally unvegetated volcanic upper reaches, the original population was probably always modest in size, and any surviving population must be tiny, given that little forest remains. There is some suggestion that the species might survive, on the basis of accounts given by local people; however, a recent survey of nocturnal birds in northern Sulawesi spent 32 days on Siau Island and failed to confirm that the species still occurs there. However, semi-structured interviews revealed that small owls do occur on the island and one unidentified call was heard. These reports remain unconfirmed (Hunowi 2006)<strong></strong>, but a recent sound recording is thought to relate to this species, and further searches are planned (N. Brickle <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2007, 2008, 2012)<strong></strong>. Several further searches in 2009 failed to locate the species, and the origin of an "owl-like" call recorded in several forest fragments remain uncertain (Sykes 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030061		habitat	eng	There are no ecological data, although it is reasonable to assume that the species is a forest dweller in common with its close congeners. A call thought to relate to this species has been heard in degraded forest on steep slopes (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
160030061		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals, based on analyses of recent searches and reports, the extent of habitat destruction within its range, and the conclusion that it seems likely that... any surviving population will prove minute.
160030061		threats	eng	Siau is currently experiencing rapid deforestation. In 1995, there was some lowland forest around Lake Kepetta in the south of the island, but this had been felled by 1998. In August 1998, the island was judged to have been largely converted to mixed plantation and scrub, but small patches of low trees survived. In October 1998, a five-day survey determined that only 50 ha of forest remained, all above 800 m on Gunung Tamata, in the centre of the island.<strong></strong><p></p>
160030062		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The<strong> </strong>Gunung Sahendaruman "protection forest" nominally conserves some remaining habitat, although few measures have been taken to ensure its efficacy. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties. As a result, plans are in progress to reclassify the existing 4 km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Sahengbalira as a wildlife reserve (with core areas as a strict nature reserve), although this process is likely to take 2-3 years. Furthermore, the Wildlife Conservation Society began four years of project work on Sangihe in 2007, which will provide opportunities for protecting remaining habitat and a basis for further work. The Wildlife Conservation Society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding Gunung Sahengbalira (N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys for the species in remaining forest patches on the island (e.g. Gunung Awu). Ensure effective protection of habitat on Gunung Sahendaruman. Support proposals for the rapid gazetting of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue conservation education programmes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island. <p></p>
160030062		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to Sangihe, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>where until 1996<strong> </strong>it was known from only a single historical specimen and was thus quite possibly already rare by the 19th century. It was seen twice in 1996 and sound-recorded once out of 148 point counts in 1999 (Riley 2002)<strong></strong> from one location (Gunung Sahendaruman and adjacent Sahengbalira). It is regarded as extremely rare and infrequently encountered in the remaining 8 km<sup>2</sup> of appropriate habitat. While there has been no population estimate, it is likely that fewer than 50 mature individuals survive. <p></p>
160030062		habitat	eng	It frequents the mid-storey to upper canopy of primary broadleaved ridgetop forest, often with a high density of <em>Pandanus</em> sp., where it gleans insects from leaves and presumably also forages on fruit. It appears to be strictly confined to altitudes between 750 m and 1,000 m. <p></p>
160030062		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals. This estimate was derived from analyses of recent records and area of remaining habitat (BirdLife International 2001).
160030062		threats	eng	Virtually<strong> </strong>the entire island of Sangihe has been deforested and converted to agriculture. The very small population of this species in the area of habitat remaining suggests that it is constrained by some unknown specialism or threat, potentially the requirement for large ranges in which to search for fruit, or perhaps the depredations of introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. Whatever the reason, the clear indication is that it is extremely vulnerable to continuing habitat loss at the lower fringes of forest. Government initiatives to plant exotic tree species, initially at lower altitudes, are now reportedly taking place at 700-900 m, further threatening the tiny remaining area of native forest (Sykes 2009)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030063		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species occurs within three protected areas: Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Gunung Ambang Strict Nature Reserve and Lore Lindu National Park. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish the calling periods of this species as a prerequisite to full surveys using playback, by which its true status and needs can be determined. Provide full support for the management and protection of protected areas where it is known to occur. Assess the threats to higher elevation forest on Sulawesi and take appropriate actions to conserve these areas. <p></p>
160030063		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox ios</em> is apparently restricted to the highlands of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001), where there have been at least five documented records since the collection of the type specimen<strong></strong><em></em> in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park in 1985, including four records from Gunung Ambang Strict Nature Reserve and one record from Lore Lindu National Park (Central Sulawesi) <strong></strong>(Mauro 2001, King 2005, Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The record from Lore Lindu National Park greatly extends its known range. <p></p>
160030063		habitat	eng	The six known records (including that of the type specimen) are from forest between 1,120 m and 1,700 m, and it is assumed that the species is sympatric with, but probably at higher elevations than, the Ochre-bellied Hawk-owl <em> N. ochracea</em> (Hutchinson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2006). Observations and comparison with owlet-nightjars (Aegothelidae) suggests that the species feeds predominantly on flying insects by conducting short sallies from exposed branches <strong></strong>(Hutchinson <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <p></p>
160030063		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160030063		threats	eng	Forest at middle elevations on Sulawesi is relatively intact at present. However, deforestation is having a major impact in many areas, and until it is demonstrated that the species occurs more widely than its current three localities, it is precautionary to regard it as at risk simply on the basis of its potentially restricted population. The drivers behind on-going deforestation are thought to be rural development and encroachment of settlements, agricultural expansion and logging pressure. Oil palm plantations are a major cause of deforestation in many parts of Indonesia. As a species of montane areas, it is potentially at risk from the effects of projected climate change on the distribution and extent of its habitats. <p></p>
160030064		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No measures have yet been taken. Although 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest has some form of protected status on Karakelang, 250 km<sup>2 </sup>as a Wildlife Reserve, there is, at present, no management of these sites <strong></strong>(Riley 2003).  Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been conducting fieldwork and conservation awareness programmes on the island. Introducing adequate protection measures to the newly gazetted Wildlife Reserve is the focus of a forthcoming four-year GEF project. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search other islands in the Talaud group (e.g. Salibabu and Kabaruan). Conduct comprehensive surveys of Karakelang within the Wildlife Reserve, to clarify its distribution, status, ecological requirements and attendant threats, and to identify appropriate areas wherein populations might be effectively protected.  Continue conservation awareness programmes to highlight the plight of this species and increase local support for its preservation. <p></p>
160030064		distribution	eng	<em>Gymnocrex talaudensis </em>is apparently endemic to Karakelang, in the Talaud Islands, north of Halmahera, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). According to local reports, it is widespread and fairly common on the island, but absent from others in the archipelago. Despite prolonged fieldwork, however, only one sighting has been made in the years following its discovery, and evidence suggests that it is either genuinely scarce or extremely elusive. <p></p>
160030064		habitat	eng	It appears to favour long wet grassland patches and rank vegetation at the edge of forest in the lowlands. Within 150 m of the site of its discovery there was littoral swamp-forest, small remnant patches of forest, two permanent marshy areas, several streams and wet roadside ditches with lush grass, suggesting that it prefers a mosaic of wetland habitats. Five records of calling birds in 2003 attributed to this species were all from primary riverine forest <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>Riley 2003).  The extent of its reliance on forest is unclear. <p></p>
160030064		population	eng	A population estimate of 1,000-2,499 individuals has been interpreted from information provided by F. R. Lambert (<I>in litt.</I> 2000), who cautioned that it would be best to assume that its total numbers are low. The subsequent lack of records despite survey work appears to confirm this suspicion. The estimate equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
160030064		threats	eng	In 1996, Karakelang still retained "a diversity and abundance of wetland habitats, in particular rank grasslands bordering forest". Meanwhile, land-use changes (e.g. agricultural development, transmigration), trapping for food and rat predation were not thought to represent significant problems for the species. Given the paucity of sightings, it may be numerically constrained and under unidentified threat (probably involving factors listed above). The Karakelang Wildlife Reserve, where it is likely that this species occurs, is threatened with clearance for agriculture, small-scale local logging, unsustainable hunting and commercial mineral and timber extraction, although mainly at low levels at present. <p></p>
160030066		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Maintain a register of inhabited beaches. Monitor population trends, especially where human disturbance is prevalant. If necessary, control the use of beaches by humans and their dogs, particularly during breeding. Determine the relationship between human disturbance and breeding success. <p></p>
160030066		distribution	eng	<em>Esacus giganteus</em> is widespread around coasts from the Andaman Islands, <strong>India</strong>, Mergui Archipelago, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, islands off peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> through <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, the <strong>Philippines,</strong> <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, <strong>New Caledonia (to France) </strong>and <strong>Australia</strong>. Its population in Australia may number c.5,000 birds and is probably stable (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its density in Australia may have decreased locally on islands and in areas of the mainland where there are high levels of human disturbance and coastal development, especially around inhabited islands of the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait, and the wet tropical coast (A. Freeman<em> in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite this, between the 1920s and 1970s the eastern part of the species's range appears to have extended south into New South Wales (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is very rare on and around Sumatra, Vanuatu and New Caledonia, where it has not been seen for six years (<strong></strong>N. Barre <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030066		habitat	eng	Pairs may be found on most beaches within its range; in Australia these include short stretches of muddy sand among mangroves, coralline sands on atolls and prime surf beaches (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Beaches associated with estuaries and mangroves are particularly favoured. Adults are sedentary, although the species has a tendency for wide-ranging vagrancy. It lays a single egg in a scrape in the sand at the landward edge of the beach, often using the same area repeatedly. It forages mainly in the intertidal zone on crustaceans and other invertebrates (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030066		population	eng	The population is thought to number c.5,000 individuals in Australia, 1,000 individuals in the Melanesian islands (G. Dutson <I>in litt.</I> 2002), and 10-20 individuals in New Caledonia. This totals at least 6,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 4,000 mature individuals.
160030066		threats	eng	The species appears to be threatened by extensive human disturbance of beach habitats in many areas (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is also thought to be sensitive to predation by introduced mammals. Much of the species's habitat in Australia, particularly on islands, is secure. This species occurs at low densities and occupies linear habitats, increasing the potential for local extinctions to become regional ones; however, its apparent range expansion southwards in eastern Australia suggests that such extinctions do not represent genetic barriers (Garnett and Crowley 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030069		distribution	eng	<em>Dromaius ater</em> was endemic to King Island in the Bass Strait, <strong>Australia</strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). Numerous skeletal remains have been found, but only one skin exists, collected by Baudin in 1802, and now in Paris<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (Jouanin 1959)</strong>. Its extinction must have followed shortly thereafter.  <p></p>
160030069		habitat	eng	It was reported to prefer the shady margins of lagoons and the shoreline<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Marchant and Higgins 1991).  <p></p>
160030069		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably a result of being hunted by sealers for food<strong> </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">(</strong>Marchant and Higgins 1991). <p></p>
160030071		distribution	eng	<em>Alopochen mauritianus </em>was endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Cheke 1987). Although the only specimens of the species are two carpometacarpii<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cowles 1987), it is known from numerous travellers' reports<strong></strong>. By 1693, the species was rare and, by 1698, it was extinct<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030071		habitat	eng	In 1681, it was noted<strong></strong> to be plentiful "in the woods or dry ponds" (Cheke 1987).  <p></p>
160030071		threats	eng	It was presumably heavily hunted because it was described as "not large, but fat and good".  <p></p>
160030072		distribution	eng	<em>Anas theodori</em> was endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, and is known from a number of explorers' accounts<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987), and bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987). Although in 1681, the "gray teal" was found in "great numbers" it was becoming rare by 1693, and was last mentioned as extant in 1696<strong></strong>. There are also numerous travellers' reports of <em>sarcelles</em> and <em>canards</em> from Réunion, and so presumably this or a similar species also occurred there, where they were extinct by 1710 at latest, although no bones have been found<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030072		habitat	eng	Reports indicate that it was found "on lakes and ponds in the woods".  <p></p>
160030072		threats	eng	It was presumably hunted to extinction.   <p></p>
160030073		distribution	eng	<em>Anas marecula</em> was endemic to Amsterdam Island, <strong>French Southern Territories</strong>. It is only known from bones "no more than a few hundred years old". A report of "a small brown duck, not much larger than a thrush" from Barrow's 1793 visit to the neighbouring St Paul Island presumably refers to the same or a similar species<strong> </strong>(Olson and Jouventin 1996). It is thought to have become extinct soon after the last report in 1793.  <p></p>
160030073		habitat	eng	It was flightless, and is likely to have inhabited small freshwater pools and lakes.   <p></p>
160030073		threats	eng	It was presumably hunted to extinction by whalers stopping off on the island<strong> </strong>(Olson and Jouventin 1996).  <p></p>
160030074		distribution	eng	<em>Upupa antaios</em> was a giant, flightless hoopoe, endemic to <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong> (Olson 1975b). It is known only from bones and is thought to have become extinct soon after the discovery of the island in 1502. <p></p>
160030074		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have been similar to the extant <em>Upupa </em>species.  <p></p>
160030074		threats	eng	The causes of extinction are unknown<strong> </strong>(Olson 1975b), but presumably it was hunted to extinction by people and introduced predators. <p></p>
160030075		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus ulietanus </em>is only known from two specimens from Raiatea, <strong>French Polynesia</strong> (Forshaw and Cooper 1989), collected on Cook's voyage in 1773, and now in Vienna and Tring<strong> </strong>(Knox and Walters 1994).  <p></p>
160030075		habitat	eng	It was presumably a forest species, as this was the native vegetation of all of the Society Islands<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989).  <p></p>
160030075		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably the result of the clearance of the islands' forests, hunting, or predation by introduced species<strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). <p></p>
160030076		distribution	eng	<em>Ara erythrocephala </em>was described by Gosse in 1847 as occurring in the mountains of Trelawny and St Anne's, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, based on a bird "procured by Mr White, proprietor of the Oxford Estate" (Rothschild 1905). It is thought to have become extinct in the early 19th century. <p></p>
160030076		habitat	eng	It was described by Gosse as occurring in the mountains, presumably in forest.  <p></p>
160030076		threats	eng	It was presumably hunted to extinction.  <p></p>
160030078		distribution	eng	<em>Ara gossei </em>is known only from the work of Gosse in 1847 based on "specimen shot about 1765, by Mr Odell" in the mountains of Hanover Parish, about 10 miles east of Lucea, <strong>Jamaica</strong> (Rothschild 1905).  <p></p>
160030078		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it is likely to have been typical of the genus.  <p></p>
160030078		threats	eng	It was presumably hunted to extinction around the end of the 18th century. <p></p>
160030079		distribution	eng	<em>Ara guadeloupensis </em>was described in detail by Du Tertre in 1654 and 1677, and by Labat in 1742, amongst others, but no specimens exist<strong></strong>. It was endemic to <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong> and <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong>.  It was rare by 1760<strong> </strong>(Clark 1905d), and presumably became extinct soon after. <p></p>
160030079		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have been typical of the genus.  <p></p>
160030079		threats	eng	Birds were heavily hunted and trapped and this is likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030080		distribution	eng	<em>Ara atwoodi </em>is known only from the writings of Atwood in 1791, and was endemic to <strong>Dominica</strong> (Clark 1908).  It is thought to have become extinct in the late 18th or early 19th century. <p></p>
160030080		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it is likely to have been typical of its genus.  <p></p>
160030080		threats	eng	Atwood notes that birds were captured both for food and pets<strong> </strong>(Clark 1908), and presumably this persecution led to their extinction.  <p></p>
160030081		distribution	eng	<em>Aratinga labati </em>is not known from any specimens, but was well described by Labat in 1724 from <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong> (Clark 1905b). Little is known of the species<strong> </strong>(Marien and Koopman 1955), but it must have declined to extinction in the second half of the 18th century. A suggestion that parakeets on Guadeloupe may have been escaped Cuban Parakeet <em>A. euops</em><strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989) is unlikely because the birds were not noted to have any red in the wing<strong> </strong>(Marien and Koopman 1955), unlike <em>A. euops</em><strong> </strong>(Forshaw and Cooper 1989). <p></p>
160030081		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it is likely to have nested in tree holes in forest and foraged over a wide area for fruit and seeds.  <p></p>
160030081		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to have led to its extinction.  <p></p>
160030082		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona violacea</em>, although not known from any specimens, was described in detail from <strong>Guadeloupe (to France) </strong>by, amongst others, Du Tertre in 1654 and 1667, Labat in 1742, and Brisson in 1760<strong></strong>. It was named by Gmelin in 1789<strong></strong>. In 1779  it was noted by Buffon to be very rare<strong> </strong>(Clark 1905e), and presumably became extinct soon after. <p></p>
160030082		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, but it is likely to have been a forest species.  <p></p>
160030082		threats	eng	It was heavily hunted, and this presumably caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030083		distribution	eng	<em>Amazona martinicana </em>was described from <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong> by Labat in 1742, and by Buffon in 1779, and named by Clark based on these descriptions<strong></strong>. Labat wrote that "the parrot is too common a bird for me to stop to give a description of it" (Clark 1905e), and so the species must have declined very rapidly to extinction in the latter half of the 18th century. <p></p>
160030083		habitat	eng	Nothing is known but it is likely to have been a forest species.  <p></p>
160030083		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030084		distribution	eng	<em>Chlorostilbon elegans</em>, described from a single specimen (in Tring) by Gould in 1860, was recently shown by Weller (1999) to be a valid species, presumably extinct, and possibly (by inference) from Jamaica or the north Bahamas<strong></strong>.<p></p>
160030084		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to be typical for the genus.  <p></p>
160030084		threats	eng	Reasons for its extinction are difficult to infer, though the extinction of its preferred food plants or habitat through deforestation, or predation by introduced mammals may be responsible.  <p></p>
160030085		distribution	eng	<em>Columba duboisi</em><em> </em>is based on Dubois' 1674 description of rusty-red pigeons from <strong>Réunion (to France) </strong>(Rothschild 1907).<p></p>
160030085		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have inhabited forest.  <p></p>
160030085		threats	eng	Hunting, and perhaps also introduced predators, are likely to have caused its rapid demise.  <p></p>
160030086		distribution	eng	<em>Gallicolumba norfolciensis</em>,<strong> </strong>from<strong> Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>, was painted by Hunter in 1790<strong> </strong>(Hindwood 1965) and described by Latham in 1801 based on this and on correspondence from 1788-1790<strong></strong>. Subfossil remains have subsequently been found and referred to this species<strong> </strong>(Higgins and Davies 1996).  <p></p>
160030086		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it may have been a forest dweller.  <p></p>
160030086		threats	eng	It presumably became extinct in about 1800, due to overhunting and predation by introduced cats and rats<strong> </strong>(Higgins and Davies 1996). <p></p>
160030087		distribution	eng	<em>Alectroenas rodericana </em>is known from subfossil bones from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong> (Cowles 1987),<strong> </strong>and descriptions from Leguat in 1708 and from Tafforet in 1726<strong></strong> . It presumably became extinct in the first half of the 18th century<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030087		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although it was probably simialr to other members of the genus.  <p></p>
160030087		threats	eng	The reasons for its extinction are probably hunting and the depredations of introduced rats.  <p></p>
160030088		distribution	eng	<em>Porphyrio coerulescens </em>was endemic to <strong>Réunion (to France) </strong>from where it was described as <em>oiseau bleu</em> by six early travellers<strong></strong>.  It is thought to have become extinct by around 1730<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030088		habitat	eng	It was reported to inhabit montane forest.  <p></p>
160030088		threats	eng	It was probably not flightless, but was nevertheless easily hunted, presumably leading to its extinction<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987).  <p></p>
160030089		distribution	eng	<em>Porphyrio kukwiedei</em> is known only from subfossil remains from <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. However, a passage from Verreaux and des Murs written in 1860 notes the presence of birds the size of turkeys in marshy areas, and so it is possible that the species survived into the 19th century<strong> </strong>(Balouet and Olson 1989). <p></p>
160030089		habitat	eng	It probably inhabited marshland.  <p></p>
160030089		threats	eng	Hunting and the depredations of introduced predators are likely to have driven it to extinction.  <p></p>
160030091		distribution	eng	<em>Nesoclopeus poecilopterus </em>is known from <span style="font-weight: bold;">Fiji</span>, with 12 19th century specimens from Vitu Levu and Ovalau<strong> </strong>(Taylor 1998), and reports from Taveuni<strong> </strong>(Blackburn 1971) in 1971 and Waisa, Vitu Levu, in 1973<strong> </strong>(Holyoak 1979), <strong></strong>. There have been no convincing recent reports from Ovalau or Taveuni which remain mongoose-free and where other rail species were recorded during field surveys and other fieldwork in 2002-2005, and so it seems very likely that <em>N. poecilopterus</em> is extinct<strong> </strong>(G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005).  <p></p>
160030091		habitat	eng	It formerly inhabited the forests of the interior.  <p></p>
160030091		threats	eng	Two other (non-endemic) rails have become extinct from the islands due to predation by introduced mongooses and cats, and so it seems very likely that this also caused the extinction of  <em>N. poecilopterus</em> (Collar <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <p></p>
160030092		distribution	eng	<em>Mundia elpenor </em>was endemic to<em> </em><strong>Ascension Island (to UK)</strong> from where it is known from numerous bones<strong> </strong>(Ashmole 1963), and Mundy's description and sketch from 1656<strong></strong>. Its extinction was probably caused by the introduction of rats to the island in the 18th century, although it may have survived until the introduction of cats in 1815<strong> </strong>(Olson 1973). <p></p>
160030092		habitat	eng	It presumably lived in the near-desert interior of the island, feeding primarily on Sooty Tern <em>Sterna fuscata</em> eggs<strong> </strong>(Olson 1973).  <p></p>
160030092		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably caused by the introduction of rats and cats<strong> </strong>(Olson 1973).  <p></p>
160030093		distribution	eng	<em>Atlantisia podarces</em> was described from fossils by Wetmore (1963) as a <strong>St Helena (to UK) </strong>endemic genus, <em>Aphanocrex</em><strong></strong>, but re-assigned to <em>Atlantisia</em> by Olson<strong></strong> (1973). It presumably became extinct soon after the discovery of the island in 1502<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030093		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.  <p></p>
160030093		threats	eng	It was large and flightless, and therefore probably hunted to extinction by humans and introduced predators.  <p></p>
160030094		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana nigra</em><em> </em>is known from two illustrations, one by Forster from Tahiti, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>from Cook's second voyage (1772-1775), and the other by Miller from 1784, and by subsequent descriptions by Latham and Gmelin<strong></strong>. It presumably became extinct soon after<strong> </strong>(Walters 1988). <p></p>
160030094		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.  <p></p>
160030094		threats	eng	Introduced predators are likely to have led to its demise.  <p></p>
160030095		distribution	eng	<em>Porzana astrictocarpus</em> is only known from fossils from <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong> (Olson 1975b). It is likely to have become extinct soon after the island was discovered in 1502<strong> </strong>(Olson 1973). <p></p>
160030095		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.  <p></p>
160030095		threats	eng	It was driven to extinction by introduced predators.  <p></p>
160030097		distribution	eng	<em>Fulica newtoni</em> is known from numerous travellers' reports<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987) and bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987) from <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>, and also probably occurred on <strong>Mauritius</strong> from where there were reports of <em>poule d'eau</em>, the contemporary name used for the birds on Réunion<strong></strong>. Birds were last reported on Réunion (by Dubois) in 1672, and on Mauritius (by Leguat) in 1693<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030097		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, but it is likely to have been typical of the genus.  <p></p>
160030097		threats	eng	They were presumably hunted to extinction, despite the fact that they were "not good to eat"<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987).  <p></p>
160030098		distribution	eng	<em>Prosobonia ellisi </em>is known only from two paintings (both in London), by Ellis and Webber, each based on a specimen (both now lost) collected by Anderson on Moorea, in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, during Cook's third voyage in 1777<strong> </strong>(Walters 1994).  <p></p>
160030098		habitat	eng	Like Tahitian Sandpiper <em>P. leucoptera</em>, it presumably lived along streams.  <p></p>
160030098		threats	eng	It was presumably driven to extinction by introduced rats in the late 18th century<strong> </strong>(Walters 1994). <p></p>
160030099		distribution	eng	<em>Nycticorax mauritianus </em>was described from seven fossil bones (of which only a coracoid and a tarsometatarsus are available today), from <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Cowles 1987). Leguat's description of "great flights of bitterns" in 1693<strong></strong> probably refers to this species, given that the only two other species of Ardeidae known from the island are Dimorphic Egret <em>Egretta dimorpha</em> and Green Heron <em>Butorides striatus</em><strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987), species which could in no way be described as "bitterns". <p></p>
160030099		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited freshwater wetlands.  <p></p>
160030099		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to have led to its extinction.  <p></p>
160030100		distribution	eng	Réunion Night-heron <em>Nycticorax duboisi</em> was endemic to <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong>, and is known only from an incomplete tibiotarsus collected by Bertrand Kervazo in the Grottes des Premiers Français in 1974. The only historical record of the species is Dubois' (1674) description of "bitterns or great egrets, large as big capons, but fat and good. They have grey plumage, each feather tipped with white, the neck and beak like a heron and the feet green, made like the feet of the "Poullets d'Inde"<strong></strong>. The specimens are deposited in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (Cowles 1994). <p></p>
160030100		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited freshwater wetlands.  <p></p>
160030100		threats	eng	It was said to be "good and fat", hunting is therefore likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030101		distribution	eng	<em>Nycticorax megacephalus </em>is known from a number of bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987), and from Leguat's 1708 and Tafforet's 1726 accounts<strong></strong>, from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong>. In 1761, Pingré specifically noted that there were no longer any <em>butors</em> on the island<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030101		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited freshwater wetlands.  <p></p>
160030101		threats	eng	Leguat mentioned that they were easily caught<strong> </strong>(Hachisuka 1953), although they were not quite flightless<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). This hunting presumably caused their extinction.  <p></p>
160030102		distribution	eng	<em>Threskiornis solitarius </em>is known from bones recently discovered on <strong>Réunion (to France)</strong> <strong></strong>(Mourer-Chauviré and Moutou 1987). It seems likely that the 'solitaire' known from numerous early accounts from Réunion<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cheke 1987) and Rodrigues, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mauritius</span>, was in fact this ibis<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Mourer-Chauviré <em>et al</em>. 1995), vindicating arguments for independent evolution of the Mascarene 'solitaires'<strong> </strong>(Storer 1970), in which case the last account is that of Abbé Gui Pingré (1763)<strong></strong> a French astronomer who visited Rodrigues in 1761 to observe the transit of Venus and reported the bird to be near extinction. He had been told by the Commander, Marlène de Puvigné, that it was found only in remote corners of the island. This statement was the last mention of the bird (Staub 1996).<p></p>
160030102		habitat	eng	It is likely to have inhabited freshwater wetlands.  <p></p>
160030102		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to have been the main cause of its demise.  <p></p>
160030103		distribution	eng	<em>Pterodroma rupinarum</em> was one of three petrel species known only from the fossil record of <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>. It presumably became extinct after the island was discovered in 1502<strong> </strong>(Olson 1975b). <p></p>
160030103		habitat	eng	It may have bred throughout the interior of the island. It is likely to have foraged over the sea.  <p></p>
160030103		threats	eng	It presumably became extinct due to predation by people and introduced comensal species.  <p></p>
160030104		distribution	eng	<em>Bulweria bifax</em> was a large petrel, known only from fossils and endemic to <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>. It probably became extinct shortly after the discovery of the  island in 1502<strong> </strong>(Olson 1975b). <p></p>
160030104		habitat	eng	It may have bred throughout the island and foraged over the open ocean.  <p></p>
160030104		threats	eng	Predation by people and introduced predators is likely to have driven it to extinction.  <p></p>
160030105		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species may have already benefited from rat-eradication programmes on offshore islands. In the summer of 2005-2006, four birds were captured, and attempts made to follow them to their breeding grounds with the aid of radio telemetry. This was unsuccessful, and further attempts to capture birds in November and December 2006 failed (<strong></strong>Anon. 2006, Stephenson 2006a,b)<strong></strong><strong></strong><strong></strong>. Three birds captured in October-November 2007 were not fitted with transmitters as they did not appear to be in breeding condition (Stephenson 2008)<strong></strong>. Location of the breeding grounds of this species is critical in determining population size and providing protection for the site, and searches are underway. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue on-going work to clarify the taxonomic position of this taxon. Carry out further surveys at sea in the vicinity of the recent observations and elsewhere, and continue searches for the breeding grounds, adopting a variety of suitable methods. If it is found to breed on an island with introduced predators, eradicate these as an urgent priority. <p></p>
160030105		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanites maorianus </em>was known only from putative fossil material (Holdaway 1999)<strong></strong>, and from three specimens collected in the 19th century, two from the East Coast of the North Island <strong>New Zealand </strong>(Bourne <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>, and one of unknown provenance, but suggested to be Banks Peninsula, South Island (Medway <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. However, one individual was observed and photographed off the Mercury Islands, North Island in January 2003 (Saville <em> et al.</em> 2003)<strong></strong>, and subsequently a flock of 10-20 was observed and photographed north of Little Barrier Island, North Island in November 2003 (Flood 2003)<strong></strong>. Since then birds have been observed in the Hauraki Gulf each summer (October to April) (<strong></strong>Gaskin and Baird 2005)<strong></strong>. It is thought to be a summer-breeding visitor to the Hauraki Gulf, although a nest site has yet to be found (<strong></strong>Gaskin and Baird 2005)<strong></strong>. Up to three were reported on pelagic trips off New South Wales, Australia in March and April 2010 (<strong></strong>Ramsay 2010)<strong></strong>. In 2005-2006, four birds were caught at sea, with DNA samples collected and transmitters attached, although this has not yet led to the discovery of breeding sites (Anon. 2006, Stephenson 2006a,b)<strong></strong>. A further three birds were caught and banded in late 2007 but these were not fitted with transmitters as they were not in breeding condition (Stephenson 2008)<strong></strong>. A review of previous petrel sightings and specimens suggests the New Zealand Storm-petrel may have been present in the Hauraki Gulf for at least the past four decades (Stephenson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030105		habitat	eng	The species seems to occupy warmer waters which move into the Hauraki Gulf during summer. It probably feeds on small crustaceans and plankton associated with this water, and it is readily attracted to chum slicks (<strong></strong>Gaskin and Baird 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The breeding season is possibly late November (egg-laying) through to May (fledging). It is thought to be migratory owing to its absence from Hauraki Gulf from June to September each year (<strong></strong>Gaskin and Baird 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030105		population	eng	The population is assumed to be tiny (fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals) based on the small number of records since 2003. Most have been of small numbers, but flocks of 10-20, 11 and 10-30 birds have been recorded.
160030105		threats	eng	No immediate threats are known, but the species could conceivably be impacted by introduced predators. <p></p>
160030106		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthornis melanocephala</span> was endemic to Chatham, Mangere and Little Mangere Islands, New Zealand (Greenway 1967). The last records were in 1906 from Little Mangere (Fleming 1939).   An expedition in 1938 hoping to rediscover the species found no trace of it (Tennyson and Martinson 2006).<p></p>
160030106		habitat	eng	It inhabited the islands' dense forest.  <p></p>
160030106		threats	eng	The reasons for its decline are obscure, but were probably a combination of habitat destruction, predation by introduced rats and cats<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967), and over-collection for the museum trade<strong> </strong>(Oliver 1955).  <p></p>
160030107		distribution	eng	<em>Turnagra tanagra</em> was endemic to the North Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Buller described them as common in the 1870s, but there were few specimens ever collected (specimens are only known to exist in Chicago, Tring, Philadelphia and Wellington), the last being from 1902<strong></strong>. Occasional sight records persisted until 1970<strong> </strong>(Tennyson and Martinson 2006).  <p></p>
160030107		habitat	eng	Very little is known, although it is likely to have required large tracts of primary native forest.  <p></p>
160030107		threats	eng	Presumably both habitat destruction and direct predation by people, cats and rats caused the species's extinction<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <p></p>
160030108		distribution	eng	<em>Chloridops kona </em>was endemic to Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong> (Stattersfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species was already very rare when discovered, being restricted to only about four square miles, and was last collected in 1894<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). The genus is known from fossils from Kaua`i, O`ahu and Maui<strong> </strong>(James and Olson 1991). <p></p>
160030108		habitat	eng	It inhabited naio forest on lava flows at 1,000-1,800 m, and fed on seeds (P.C. Banko and W.E. Banko 2009). <p></p>
160030108		threats	eng	Reasons for its extinction are unknown<strong> </strong>(Grant 1995), though habitat destruction and avian malaria are likely to have been responsible.  <p></p>
160030109		distribution	eng	<em>Porphyrio mantelli </em>was a flightless endemic to North Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, from where it is known from subfossils from a number of archeological sites<strong> </strong>(Williams 1960) and from one possible late 19th century record<strong> </strong>(Phillipps 1959).  <p></p>
160030109		habitat	eng	It inhabited high altitude alpine grasslands.  <p></p>
160030109		threats	eng	The decline of the species has generally been attributed to the increasing incursion of forest into the alpine grasslands through the Holocene<strong> </strong>(Mills <em>et al. </em>1984), although hunting by the Maori probably also played a significant role<strong> </strong>(Beauchamp and Worthy 1988). <p></p>
160030110		distribution	eng	<em>Nannococcyx psix</em> was described from <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong> from a single fragment of a humerus<strong></strong>.  It is likely to have become extinct in the 18th century<strong> </strong>(Olson 1975b). <p></p>
160030110		habitat	eng	It was presumably a small forest cuckoo, which would account for its scarcity in the fossil record.  <p></p>
160030110		threats	eng	Its extinction is likely to have occurred as a result of the deforestation of the island.  <p></p>
160030111		distribution	eng	<em>Lophopsittacus bensoni </em>was described from a lower mandible, palatine and tarsometatarsus found in caves near Port Louis, <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Holyoak 1973), and was almost certainly the small grey parrot described by numerous early writers<strong></strong>. In 1764, Cossigny noted that "the woods are full of parrots, either completely grey or completely green. One used to eat them a lot formerly, the grey especially"<strong></strong>, but this was the last mention of the species, and presumably it subsequently declined rapidly to extinction. There are also a number of reports of small grey parrots from Réunion which probably refer to this or a closely related species<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030111		habitat	eng	It inhabited the forest.  <p></p>
160030111		threats	eng	It was widely eaten and is likely to have become extinct through overhunting.  <p></p>
160030112		distribution	eng	<em>Lophopsittacus mauritianus </em>is known from numerous bones and travellers' reports and sketches from <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Cowles 1987). Hoffman, writing in 1680 based on observations in 1673-1675, gave the last definite reports of the species, and it had disappeared by 1693<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030112		habitat	eng	There is very little known, although it is likely to have been a forest species and its heavy bill indicates it specialised on large nuts.  <p></p>
160030112		threats	eng	Birds were large and were poor fliers, but not flightless (Holyoak 1971),<strong></strong> and consequently heavily hunted<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987) and this is likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030113		distribution	eng	<em>Necropsittacus rodericanus </em>is known from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong>, from several early travellers' reports (Cheke 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and a number of subfossil bones (Cowles 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pingré wrote the last report in 1763 based on observations from 1761 (Cheke 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and the species was presumably extinct soon after.  <p></p>
160030113		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have been a forest species.  <p></p>
160030113		threats	eng	Hunting is likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030114		distribution	eng	<em>Mascarenotus murivorus</em> was described by a number of early travellers (with the last being Tafforet in 1726) as endemic to Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius </strong>(Cheke 1987). The reports have been corroborated by the discovery of a number of bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987), but the species has only recently been assigned to a genus<strong> </strong>(Mourer-Chauviré <em>et al.</em> 1994).<p></p>
160030114		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have inhabited the island's forests.  <p></p>
160030114		threats	eng	Hunting, deforestation and predation by human commensals are likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030115		distribution	eng	<em>Mascarenotus sauzieri</em> is only known from subfossil bones from <strong>Mauritius</strong> (Mourer-Chauviré <em>et al. </em>1994), and was described and sketched by a number of early travellers<strong></strong>. Desjardins reported that it was fairly common even as late as the 1830s, but his 1837 reports were the last, and Clark specifically wrote that it was extinct in 1859<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030115		habitat	eng	Desjardins reported that it inhabited the island's woods.  <p></p>
160030115		threats	eng	Deforestation, and perhaps also hunting as well as predation by introduced mammals caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030116		distribution	eng	<em>Mascarenotus grucheti</em> is only known from fossils<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987) found on <strong>Réunion (to France) </strong>(Mourer-Chauviré <em>et al.</em> 1994), and presumably became extinct soon after the island's colonisation in the early 17th century.<p></p>
160030116		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, though it is likely to have been a forest species.  <p></p>
160030116		threats	eng	Hunting, deforestation and the depredations of introduced predators may all be implicated in its decline.  <p></p>
160030117		distribution	eng	<em>Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos </em>is known only from fossil remains from <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>, where it presumably became extinct following the island's colonisation in 1502<strong> </strong>(Olson 1976). The "small kind of blue dove" reported by Forster in the 1770s<strong> </strong>(Ashmole 1963) was Zebra Dove <em>Geopelia striata</em>, probably introduced to St Helena in the 16th century, and not <em>D. dekarchiskos</em><strong> </strong>(Olson 1976).    <p></p>
160030117		habitat	eng	Nothing is known.  <p></p>
160030117		threats	eng	Hunting and the depredations of introduced predators are likely to have caused its extinction.  <p></p>
160030118		distribution	eng	<em>Cabalus modestus </em>was endemic to Chatham, Mangere and Pitt Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It was first discovered on Mangere in 1871, and 26 specimens collected there are known from museum collections. It became extinct on the island between 1893 and 1895<strong> </strong>(Tennyson and Martinson 2006). The species is also known from 19th century bones from Chatham and Pitt Islands.  <p></p>
160030118		habitat	eng	It is likely to have occurred in scrubland and tussock grass.  <p></p>
160030118		threats	eng	Its extinction was presumably caused by predation by rats and cats (which were introduced in the 1890s), habitat destruction to provide sheep pasture (which destroyed all of the island's bush and tussock grass by 1900), and from grazing by goats and rabbits<strong> </strong>(Marchant and Higgins 1993). On Chatham and Pitt Islands Olson<strong> </strong>(1975c) has suggested that its extinction resulted from competition with the larger Dieffenbach's Rail <em>Gallirallus dieffenbachii</em> (also extinct), but the two species have been shown to have been sympatric on Mangere<strong> </strong>(Tennyson and Millener 1994).  <p></p>
160030119		distribution	eng	<em>Aphanapteryx bonasia </em>was endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong> from where it is known from a number of travellers' accounts and illustrations<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987), and from numerous bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987). It was mentioned to have become rare by Leguat in 1693, and there were no further reports, so the species is likely to have become extinct around 1700<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <strong> </strong> <p></p>
160030119		habitat	eng	It may have inhabited the islands' forests.  <p></p>
160030119		threats	eng	It was flightless and palatable and therefore was presumably hunted to extinction<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987), although introduced cats are also likely to have taken some birds.  <p></p>
160030120		distribution	eng	<em>Aphanapteryx leguati </em>was restricted to<em> </em>Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong> (Cheke 1987). It is known from a number of bones<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987), and from several travellers' reports, the last of which was that of Tafforet in 1726<strong></strong>. It presumably became extinct in the mid-18th century: Pingré reported that it was extinct in 1761<strong> </strong>(Cheke 1987). <p></p>
160030120		habitat	eng	It may have inhabited the islands' forests.  <p></p>
160030120		threats	eng	It was flightless and apparently excellent eating, and was therefore heavily hunted.  <p></p>
160030121		distribution	eng	<em>Caracara lutosa&#160;</em>was endemic to Isla Guadalupe, <strong>Mexico</strong>.  It is now extinct and was last recorded in 1903<strong> </strong>(Howell and Cade 1953). <p></p>
160030121		habitat	eng	It is likely to have occurred throughout the island in open habitats.  <p></p>
160030121		threats	eng	The island was once heavily vegetated, but grazing by goats has almost entirely denuded it<strong> </strong>(Jehl 1983). However, the primary cause of the species's decline was direct persecution by settlers<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Greenway 1967).  <p></p>
160030122		distribution	eng	<em>Bowdleria rufescens </em>was endemic to Pitt and Mangere Islands in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong> (Greenway 1967). It is thought to have gone extinct soon after the last specimen was taken in 1892 (Tennyson and Martinson 2006).  <p></p>
160030122		habitat	eng	It occupied low brushland.  <p></p>
160030122		threats	eng	It presumably declined to extinction due to habitat loss caused by burning and overgrazing by introduced goats and rabbits, and to predation by cats<strong> </strong>(Fleming 1939). <p></p>
160030123		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus obscurus</em> was endemic to Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong>. It was apparently not uncommon until 1895, but declined rapidly, with the last report being in 1940<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967).  <p></p>
160030123		habitat	eng	It inhabited mountain koa-`ohi`a forest (500-2,000 m).  <p></p>
160030123		threats	eng	Its extinction was probably because of deforestation and introduced disease-carrying mosquitoes which are prevalent in the lowlands<strong> </strong><em></em>(Collar <em>et al. </em>1994). <p></p>
160030128		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 71,000-320,000 breeding pairs, equating to 213,000-960,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 0.888-19.2 million individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
160030130		distribution	eng	This seabird is found on the northern coasts of the Pacific, from California (<B>USA</B>) in the east, round <B>Canada</B>, Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, <B>Russia</B> and South Kuril Islands (<B>Japan</B>) to the southern tip of Japan. It can also be found north of the Berings Sea (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160030130		habitat	eng	This marine species feeds in sheltered coastal waters, including inlets and bays on a diet of non-schooling fish captures over rocky substrated or kelp beds. The specific species caught is variable depending on locality. Laying occurs from May to July, with individuals normally forming small colonies although it is also sometimes solitary. Nests are formed on narrow cliff edges and sometimes in caves (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160030130		population	eng	There is no global   estimate, however, national population estimates include: &lt; c.100 breeding   pairs and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in China; c.100-10,000 breeding   pairs, c.50-1,000 individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering   individuals in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Japan   and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
160030131		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Subspecies <em>ridgwayi</em> is on CITES Appendix I (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Restoration efforts are attempting to conserve this population in Arizona (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Frequent vegetation disturbance (every 1-5 yr) from prescribed fire and/or mechanical disturbances is essential for maintaining abundant populations in forest habitats. Maintaining tree canopy cover at &lt;50% to create open, parkland conditions is essential. Burn 50-75% of understorey vegetation annually during late winter to early summer, in small, patchy mosaics. Research needs to be done in order to understand how to mitigate potential additive effects of hunting mortality (e.g. experiments that examine population productivity and recovery at various harvest regimes and densities). Optimal timing of prescribed fire for habitat management needs to be determined from field research and experimentation. Removal and reduction of mammalian predators during nesting may be useful if also conducted within the context of intensive habitat management. Improve understanding of the Mexican populations. <p></p>
160030131		distribution	eng	<em>Colinus virginianus</em> is resident throughout east North America (from south <strong>Mexico</strong> and west <strong>Guatemala</strong> through the <strong>USA</strong> to extreme southern <strong>Canada</strong>) (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994, Brennan 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Populations of subspecies <em>cubanensis</em> on <strong>Cuba</strong> and the <strong>Isle of Pines</strong> may be natural, but many introduced populations exist across the world (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994, Brennan 1999, Madge and McGowan 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has suffered a steady, long-term decline in most states in the USA (Brennan 1999, G. Butcher <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with the exception of Texas (Brennan 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Declines are greatest in the south-east (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994, Brennan 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Mexican populations are poorly known and some subspecies could be threatened (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
160030131		habitat	eng	It is found in early successional vegetation in a variety of habitats, created by disturbances from fire, agriculture and timber-harvesting (Brennan 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is principally a seed feeder but insects form an important component of the diet in summer (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It forms coveys of 8-20 birds occupying a home range of approximately 10 ha. <p></p>
160030131		population	eng	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004) <p></p>
160030131		threats	eng	Changes in agricultural land use (weed removal and herbicide use), forestry (high-density pine plantations), and lack of use of prescribed fire have resulted in widespread habitat fragmentation (Brennan 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Over 20,000,000 individuals were recently being killed annually by hunters in the USA (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; poor management of populations could result in declines. <p></p>
160030132		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030133		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very abundant regionally (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1999), while national population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in China; &lt; c.1,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000 individuals   on migration in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Japan and c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and   c.50-1,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
160030134		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
160030136		distribution	eng	The Nazca Booby is found in the eastern Pacific Ocean, from the Galapagos Islands<B>,</B> <B>Ecuador</B> in the south to islands off Baja California (<B>Mexico</B>) in the north.  </P>
160030136		habitat	eng	This species practices obligate siblicide.  </P>
160030136		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 30,000 individuals (C. Devenish <i>per</i> D. Diaz <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160030137		distribution	eng	Thayer's Gull is native to North America, breeding on Arctic islands <B>Canada</B> and wintering on the Pacific coast from south-east Alaska (<B>USA</B>) to north Baja California (<B>Mexico</B>) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
160030137		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species a long-distance migrant (Olsen and Larsson 2003) that migrates south and west after breeding (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003). It arrives on its wintering grounds between late-October and December and remains there until April (Alderfer 2006). The timing of breeding is inadequately known but laying has been recorded in early-June, with the species nesting in small colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of 20 to 200 pairs (Gaston 1991) often near nesting <I>Larus hyperboreus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is gregarious throughout the year (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003) and may occur in large flocks at favoured sites (Sibley 2003) during the winter (Olsen and Larsson 2003), although it usually occurs in small numbers amongst larger flocks of other gull species (Sibley 2003). It may also forage behind fishing boats with other species of gull (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Habitat</B> <I>Breeding</I> For breeding the species requires steep (Gaston 1991), coastal cliffs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003) up to 3 km inland (Gaston 1991) along Arctic shores and rocky islands (Godfrey 1979, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter the species frequents a variety of habitats surrounding coastal shores and estuaries (Alderfer 2006), often foraging around fishing harbours, refuse dumps and settlements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003). It may also occur on inland freshwater lakes (Godfrey 1979, Olsen and Larsson 2003), rivers (Godfrey 1979), flooded land and occasionally agricultural fields (Olsen and Larsson 2003) especially when on migration (Godfrey 1979). <B>Diet</B> <I>Breeding</I> Non-breeders are known to take refuse and offal from around settlements during the breeding season, but the diet of nesting pairs and nestlings is largely unknown (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <I>Non-breeding</I> During the winter the species takes fish, marine invertebrates and offal (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a cup (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) of grass or other available vegetation placed on a rocky cliff ledge (Godfrey 1979) usually on the coast (Godfrey 1979, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996, Olsen and Larsson 2003) or surrounding a near-coastal freshwater site (Godfrey 1979). The species shows a preference for large cliff ledges 920 cm<SUP>2</SUP> in area (on average), and often nests on cliffs below colonies of <I>Larus hyperboreus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
160030138		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to improve knowledge of the breeding and wintering grounds. Regularly monitor the population at important sites on both the breeding and wintering grounds. Ensure sufficient safeguards are put in place and inforced to prevent pollution in important parts of the at sea range. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in important breeding areas.  <p></p>
160030138		distribution	eng	<em>Brachyramphus perdix</em> breeds in <strong>Japan</strong> through the Sea of Okhotsk to the Kamchatka peninsula, <strong>Russia</strong>. It was split from Marbled Murrelet <em>B. marmoratus</em> (which breeds in California to the Aleutian Islands) in 1996 (Friesen <em>et al.</em> 1996)<strong></strong>. The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands (Konyukhov and Kitaysky 1995)<strong></strong>. In Japan, it is rare in eastern Hokkaido, but commoner on the Sea of Okhotsk coast, especially near the Shiretoko peninsula. There are few areas in Russia where the species is considered common: the lower Amur River area, particularly between Baydukov Island and Aleksandra Bay; near Magadan along the Khmitievsky Peninsula, Tauyskaya Bay, and the Koni Peninsula; and on the Kamchatka peninsula. It appears to be uncommon in the Primorye region and on Sakhalin island (where its distribution is patchy), and it is rare on the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk.  <p></p>
160030138		habitat	eng	It breeds in old-growth coniferous forests within 100 km of the coast, wintering in sheltered coastal waters.  <p></p>
160030138		population	eng	The global   population size has not been accurately quantified, however it is said to   number in the 'tens of thousands (Konyukhov &amp; Kitaysky 1995). The   population in Russia has been estimated at &lt; 100,000 breeding pairs and   &lt; 1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160030138		threats	eng	Like Marbled Murrelet, this species is under increasing threat from the logging of old growth forests which has accelerated in recent years, particularly on Sakhalin island and the Kamchatka peninsula. Intensive development of the oil industry has occurred on the Okhotsk and Bering Sea shelves, and this constitutes a further potential threat. <p></p>
160030140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160030141		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
160030142		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
160030143		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160030144		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160030145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'frequent' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030147		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160030148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout most of its range, although uncommon to rare at higher altitudes, in north-west Costa Rica and in northern Honduras (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030149		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030150		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030151		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030157		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common.
160030158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Raffaele et al. 1998).
160030159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in mountains and less common on the coast (Raffaele et al. 1998).
160030160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Raffaele et al. 1998).
160030161		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160030162		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pipilo maculatus</span> is distributed throughout western <span style="font-weight: bold;">U.S.A.</span> and extreme southwestern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Canada</span>, as well as patchily in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span> (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">consobrinus</span>, endemic to Mexico's Guadalupe Island, is considered extinct, having not been recorded since the late 1800s (Kaeding 1905).
160030163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).
160030165		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160030166		distribution	eng	<em>Hemignathus ellisianus</em> forms a complex of three subspecies, all of which are now considered extinct. The nominate was endemic the mountains of O'ahu, Hawaii, <strong>USA</strong> (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>Stattersfield <em>et al. </em>1998). It is known from only two specimens collected in 1837<strong> </strong>(Olson and James 1995), although there were undocumented reports in 1937 and 1940<strong> </strong>(Greenway 1967). <strong> </strong><em>H. e. lanaiensis </em>was found on Lana'i, Hawaii (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><strong></strong>Stattersfield <em>et al. </em>1998). It is known from only three specimens, collected in 1892<strong></strong>. In addition, fossil material allied to this taxon has been found on Moloka'i and Maui<strong></strong>. <em>H. e. stejnegeri</em> was found on Kaua'i, Hawaii<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Olson and James 1995, Stattersfield <em>et al. </em>1998)<strong></strong>. It survived for the longest of any of the three subspecies, in Kaua'i's Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve, but has not been recorded since 1969<strong></strong> despite intensive surveys in the region and is presumed extinct (Olson and James 1995, Gorresen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).   <p></p>
160030166		habitat	eng	It inhabited all forest up types above 200 m (Gorresen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), feeding on insects and nectar (Amante-Helweg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
160030166		threats	eng	All three subspecies are thought to have been driven to extinction by habitat destruction and disease<strong> </strong>(Collar <em>et al. </em>1994). Introduced predators and hurricane damage are likely to have also been important on Kaua'i (Woodworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
160030167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).
160030170		distribution	eng	The Grey-backed Storm-petrel has a circumpolar distribution in the subantarctic, breeding on islands from the <strong>Falkland Islands</strong> (<strong>Islas Malvinas</strong>) in the south-west Atlantic east to the Chatham Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>). Individuals can winter nearer to the continents, being found off the extreme southern coast of <strong>Argentina</strong>, and south-east <strong>Australia</strong> and Tasmania (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030170		habitat	eng	This marine species occurs in the cool waters of the subantarctic zone. It is generally found over the edge of the continental shelf and is apparently only eplagic during dispersal. Its diet comprises mainly of immature barnacles and other crustaceans, but also small squid and occasionally small fish. It catches prey mostly by pattering over the surface whilst in flight, but also by dipping and shallow plunging. It has been seen to attend trawlers and occasionally follows ships. Its breeding season starts in October or November, with individuals forming loose colonies on oceanic islands, creating burrows in vegetation or nesting in crevices in rocks (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030170		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to potentially number over 200,000 individuals.
160030171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030172		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160030173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and possibly not common (Cleere 1998).
160030176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030178		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
160030178		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hylexetastes brigidai</span> is endemic to Pará in south-east Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>. It ranges from Rio Xingu in the west to Rio Tocantins and Rio Araguaia in the east. It is known, rarely, from Tapajós National Park, and is more common at Caxiuanã National Forest (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
160030178		habitat	eng	<p>  </p><p>This species is mainly found in the "terra firme" forests (with no flooding) of lowland Amazonia, ascending to around 600 m in Serra dos Carajás. Whilst it prefers interior primary forest, it is known to occur at edges and selectively cut forest, and is tolerant of older secondary growth (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/></p>
160030178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known, although probably uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030178		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network, which is projected to cause the loss of a large proportion of habitat within its restricted range (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). In Santarem it occupies degraded landscapes and is reasonably common, so is likely to have some degree of tolerance (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
160030179		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.
160030179		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hylexetastes uniformis</span> is endemic to south Amazonia, and is generally uncommon to rare. In <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, its distribution is bounded by the Amazon River in the north, Rio Madeira in the west, the upper Rio Xingu in the east and south-west Mato Grosso in the south, where it is known to occur rarely near Alta Floresta. Its range extends into north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bolivia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
160030179		habitat	eng	This species is mainly found in the "terra firme" forests (with no flooding) of lowland Amazonia, with some also occurring in semi-deciduous woodland in the upper Rio Xingu. It avoids young secondary growth, but does occur in some older secondary habitats. Its diet generally consists of small arthropods, with small vertebrates occasionally taken when available. Breeding is poorly known, probably occurring during the dry season; it has been speculated that only one egg is laid and that the species has a low breeding success (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
160030179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known, although probably uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030179		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). Its intolerance of young secondary habitat makes it particularly susceptible to fragmentation and disturbance, and it has a patchy distribution (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
160030181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030184		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030190		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common around Bogota and fairly common in Chingaza National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160030198		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030200		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160030202		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030203		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Abiseo National Park, although there has been a serious loss of habitat at this site owing to the invasion of high altitude habitats by cattle. Deliberately started fires also still occur, but they have become less frequent in recent years (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to clarify its status, distribution and annual ecological requirements. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Regulate the use of fire (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. Educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160030203		distribution	eng	<em>Doliornis sclateri</em> occurs locally on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Peru</strong> at: Puerta del Monte (San Martín); Huicungo (3 localities, San Martín); near Tayabamba (La Libertad); near Buldiboyo (La Libertad); the Carpish Mountains (7 localities; Huánuco); Pozuco-Chaglla trail (2 localities, Pasco); and Maraynioc (Junín)<strong> </strong>(Jiguet <em>et al.</em> 2010). It may also occur in suitable intervening areas, but grazing and fire management may have rendered these unsuitable (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is apparently very rare within its habitat in Peru (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong>, but <em>Doliornis</em> cotingas are renowned for being difficult to detect, because they are relatively inactive and have soft, easily overlooked calls.  <p></p>
160030203		habitat	eng	Its principal habitat is the páramo/cloud-forest ecotone at 2,600-3,800 m (Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Complex unburnt, treeline habitat seems to be favoured, but is now rare, occurring only as small islands at most localities. Stomach content analysis has revealed a diet of fruit, berries, seeds and some invertebrate matter (Snow 1982)<strong></strong>. It remains poorly known ecologically, but it is likely that its requirements are similar to its congeners. <p></p>
160030203		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
160030203		threats	eng	The páramo/cloud-forest ecotone habitat favoured by this species has been seriously reduced and degraded throughout its range, owing to the use of fire to maintain pastureland. Sadly, pre-Columbian sustainable land use systems were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques during the colonial period<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> (</strong>Kessler and Herzog 1998). Such land management practices occur even inside protected areas in the region. Habitat losses in some areas have been estimated at 50% within the last 25 years (G. Engblom <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030204		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as uncommon to locally fairly common.
160030206		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030207		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160030208		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160030209		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160030210		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160030211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Newman 2000).
160030213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the western race s described as rare (Morris and Hawkins 1998).
160030214		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
160030221		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected by law and unauthorised entrance to both Raso and Branco is officially illegal, but there is no real control (C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 1991, the government declared Santa Luzia, Branco, Raso, Cima, Curral Velho and Baluarte as natural reserves (Nunes and Hazevoet 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the regulation of human activities has not been published and no wardening has been put in place (Nunes and Hazevoet 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Re-assess the population size to acquire an up-to-date estimate. Monitor the harvest of the species. Employ wardens in protected areas (Nunes and Hazevoet 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to control human activities and enforce existing legislation. Carry out an education programme to discourage the consumption of shearwaters (C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote and encourage the use of other sources of protein.  <p></p>
160030221		distribution	eng	<em>Calonectris edwardsii</em> is now considered a full species, having been split from Cory's Shearwater <em>C. diomedea </em>(Bretagnolle and Lequette 1990, Hazevoet 1995, Porter <em>et al</em>. 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is considered locally common in <strong>Cape Verde </strong>(Hazevoet 1995)<sup></sup>, with large numbers frequently seen off the island of Raso (P. Donald <em>in litt.</em> 2003, C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The largest colonies are on Brava, Branco and Raso. Breeding is sparse on Santiago and Sao Nicolau, has never been fully established on Santo Antão (where the species is recorded as 'common' and the populations on Sal and Boavista amount to a few pairs only) (C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The total population has been estimated to number c.10,000 pairs since 1988-1993 (Hazevoet 1995, Nunes and Hazevoet 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; Branco and Raso together hold the majority of the population, with 5,000-7,500 pairs estimated in 1988-1993 (Hazevoet 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030221		habitat	eng	Arriving at colonies in late February to March after an absence of some three months, the birds nest in hollows in cliffs and offshore rocks, and under large boulders (Murphy 1924, Hazevoet 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Egg-laying and incubation takes place from May to July, and the young fledge from late September to November. Its non-breeding pelagic range in the south Atlantic is poorly known (Hazevoet 1995)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030221		population	eng	The total population has been estimated to number c.10,000 pairs (c.20,000 mature individuals) since 1988-1993. This is equivalent to c.30,000 individuals in total.
160030221		threats	eng	The species has been harvested for a long time, mostly on Raso and Branco, probably for several centuries (Murphy 1924, P. Donald <em>in litt.</em> 2003, C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Eighty years ago, ornithologists recorded 'boat-loads' of this species being taken by fishermen for consumption (Murphy 1924)<strong></strong>. In 2001, at least 500 chicks were taken on Raso in a single day (P. Donald <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong></strong> and the remains of several thousand shearwaters have been found on Branco, which were probably accumulated over many years (C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Present-day harvests for food and bait have reached unprecedented levels and the threat this poses is augmented through motor-vessel use (C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong> by fishermen from Santo Antão and also from São Vicente (P. Donald <em>in litt.</em> 2003, C. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Currently, an estimated 5,000 chicks are taken from their nests on Raso and Branco each year (Nunes and Hazevoet 2001)<strong></strong>. The species may also suffer predation from introduced species such as cats (Nunes and Hazevoet 2001)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160030227		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the island to determine the species's true distribution and population status. Assess the species's ecological requirements and the extent to which it is threatened. Provide training to discourage poor land use practices.  <p></p>
160030227		distribution	eng	<span class="SpellE"><em>Dendroica</em><em> <span class="SpellE">subita</em> is endemic to Barbuda (<strong>Antigua and Barbuda</strong>)         where it is moderately common in western parts of the island (K. Lindsay <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2001).         For reasons unknown the warbler is less common on the eastern <span class="GramE">half, and even less so on the easternmost third (K. Lindsay <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2001).         </span>
160030227		habitat	eng	Exact         habitat needs are unknown (A. Haynes Sutton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2001) but assumed to be         subtropical/tropical dry <span class="SpellE"><span class="GramE">shrubland<span class="GramE"><strong><sup> </sup></strong>.</span></span>
160030227		population	eng	The global population is estimated at 1,000-2,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
160030227		threats	eng	Although         most current development is confined to the <span class="SpellE">Codrington         area, proposed unplanned housing development and poor land-use         practices (e.g. land clearance for agriculture, garbage dumping, and         unmanaged livestock) may be increasing threats (K. Lindsay <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</em>. 2001).         Natural habitats on the island are already much altered by free-ranging         grazing animals (A. Haynes Sutton <em>in <span class="SpellE">litt</span></em>. 2001).
160030228		population	eng	The total population of this species is thought to number more than 10,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to over 6,600 mature individuals.
160030229		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Since 2005 the Loro Parque Fundación has been supporting a long-term study on the species's ecology and threats, including installing nest cameras and radio-tracking individuals to determine breeding success and survival (Theuerkauf and Rouys 2005). A study is currently underway to estimate the species's area of occupancy and population size using distance sampling density data, records, and ecological niche modelling (Legault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.)   <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations at key sites. Ensure the protection of significant areas of forest to provide suitable trees for nesting. Research the impact of introduced predators. Protect important areas from nickel mining.<br/><p></p>
160030229		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus saisetti</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, where it occurs in scattered forests across the main island Grand Terre (Barré and Dutson 2000, Ekstrom <em> et al.</em> 2000, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. It has been observed from Colnett massif in the north to the extreme south of the Goro region but it is absent from the Ile des Pins (Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is most abundant in the centre of the chain (north of La Foa to Thio and Canala) and the southern tip of New Caledonia, and is scarce in the north (V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.    The species selects forests on ultramafic soils<span style=""> (Legault </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2011)</span><p></p>
160030229		habitat	eng	It has a scattered range, generally selecting rain forest <span style="">(Legault </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> 2011) an</span>d forest edges, especially for feedin<span style="">g (Legault </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span><span style=""> in press 2012) but is also reported to tolerate</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> niaouli </span><span style="">savanna, </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">maquis </span><span style="">scrub and humid forest to 1,500 m, although it is known</span> from fewer locations (Barré and Dutson 2000, Ekstrom <em> et al.</em> 2000, Dutson 2011)<strong></strong>. It is most abundant in <em>Gymnostoma</em> preforests and in wet forests from 400-800 m (Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt. </em>2007, <strong></strong>C. Meresse <em>in litt. </em>2009, Dutson 2011). The nesting period is October-April (J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt.  </span>2007). Co-operative breeding has been reported in this species (Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/> <br/><p></p>
160030229		population	eng	Data from over 2300 point counts at 82 massifs in New Caledonia collected during 2003-2006 suggest that this species has a similar population to Horned Parakeet Eunymphicus cornutus (around 8,000-10,000 birds) (V. Chartendrault and N. Barré <em>in litt.</em> 2007), and is therefore estimated to lie within the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.
160030229		threats	eng	It is only common in the south in sites at risk from nickel mining so may suffer significant habitat loss in the near future. As a hole-nester and ground-forager, it may be susceptible to predation by introduced mammalian predators, particularity Feral Cats<span style="font-style: italic;"> Felis catus </span>and possibly Black Rats<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rattus rattus</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> </span><span style="">(Gula </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al. </span><span style="">2010).</span><span style="font-style: italic; "> </span><span style="">Since the species breeds in remote areas and its nests are hard to find, poaching is unlikely to be a major threat (Pain </span><span style="font-style: italic; ">et al</span><span style="">. 2006). Pa</span>rticularly wet (La Niña) years have been shown to reduce breeding success (J. Theuerkauf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. in litt.  </span> 2011). A potential new threat may be the introduction of <span class="st">Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) which has been found in Rainbow Lorikeets on New Caledonia (J. Theuerkauf and A. Legault <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.  </span>2012).<br/><p></p>
160030230		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in Bolivia and Chapada dos Guimarães National Park in Brazil (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>, as well as Águas Emendadas Ecological Station, Brazil.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends at Estação Ecológica de Águas Emendadas. Effectively protect further areas of <em>cerrado</em> within its range. <p></p>
160030230		distribution	eng	<em>Suiriri islerorum </em>is resident in central and south-western <strong>Brazil </strong>(Maranhão,Tocantins, Mato Grosso, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul) and eastern <strong>Bolivia </strong>(Santa Cruz). It is rare to locally fairly common (e.g. in shrubby areas with much grass and scattered trees along the Agua Fria road near Chapada dos Guimar), with an average of 1-2 pairs/km in limited roadside surveys (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160030230		habitat	eng	It is a resident of <em>cerrado</em>, <em>campo cerrado</em> and <em>campo sujo</em>, reaching highest densities in moderately closed shrubby areas with a relatively high grass component and scattered 2-5 m tall trees  (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. It is known from 250-750 m but may ascend as high as 1,200 m (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>.<em> </em>It feeds on small arthropods and fruit, and forages in the middle and upper branches of trees, rarely descending near the ground (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004).The primary breeding and fledging period is thought to be October, but little is known about its breeding behaviour (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004).<em> <p></p></em>
160030230		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally fairly common.
160030230		threats	eng	The primary threat to <em>cerrado </em>habitat is habitat conversion for <em>Eucalyptus</em> and pine plantations, livestock farming and large-scale cultivation of soybeans, rice and other crops. Repeated annual burning during the dry season may be an additional threat and some areas may be threatened by urbanisation (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong>. Unexplained declines of 13% per year were noted in the adult population at Estação Ecológica de Águas Emendadas, Brazil between 2003 and 2007 at an apparently well-protected reserve of 100 km<sup>2</sup> which has suffered little modification (L. F. França &amp; M. A. Marini <em>in litt. </em>2008, França and Marini 2010)<strong></strong>. The decline may be due to low and variable breeding success (França and Marini 2009, 2010).<p></p>
160030231		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas, including Sumaco-Galeras, Podocarpus and Sangay National Parks in Ecuador (<strong></strong>del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2004; J. F. Freile<em> in litt</em>. 2009), and Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park in Peru<strong> </strong>(W.-P. Vellinga <em>in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey areas of potentially suitable habitat. Study its ecology and ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. Quantify rates of habitat loss within its potential range. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
160030231		distribution	eng	<em>Myiopagis olallai</em> is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes, where it has a highly disjunct range, with records and unconfirmed reports from sites in Napo, Sucumbíos, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces <strong></strong>in <strong>Ecuador</strong> (<strong></strong>T. Schulenberg <em>in litt. </em>2001, J. F. Freile<em> in litt</em>. 2009<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>D. F. Cisneros-Heredia<em> in litt</em>. 2010), and Apurímac and Pasco regions in <strong>Peru </strong>(Coopmans and Krabbe 2000, <strong></strong>W.-P. Vellinga <em>in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p>
160030231		habitat	eng	The species occurs mainly between 890 and 1,500 m within and at the edge of very humid to wet primary submontane forest<strong> </strong>(Coopmans and Krabbe 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030231		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Sucumbios, Ecuador.
160030231		threats	eng	Its habitat is being destroyed at an alarming rate in certain places along the eastern slope of the Andes. Outright forest clearance and less intensive habitat destruction and fragmentation may have resulted in the loss of around half of foothill forest cover in the species's range in Ecuador, where the rate of deforestation has increased since 2001<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. F. Cisneros-Heredia<em> in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is reported that unspecified development projects, which have already received approval, are likely to increase the future rate of forest loss in Ecuador<strong> </strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(D. F. Cisneros-Heredia<em> in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p>
160030232		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the recently created Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve (c.580 km<sup>2</sup>). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for this species (or close relatives) in sandy soil forests in the Tarapoto-Moyobamba region of Peru, and perhaps in eastern Ecuador and Colombia. Determine the extent of occupied or suitable habitat, and estimate the population size. Determine the extent to which current threats are impacting the species. Grant protection to additional occupied sites and areas of suitable habitat. Improve the protection of varillal habitat in the Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve. <p></p>
160030232		distribution	eng	<em>Zimmerius villarejoi</em> is known only from an extremely limited habitat type in the río Nanay drainage near Iquitos, Loreto, the lower río Mayo and middle río Huallaga, San Martín (J. Díaz <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), and a 1912 specimen taken from Moyobamba, San Martín, <strong>Peru</strong>.<br/><p></p>
160030232		habitat	eng	It is confined to 'varillal' habitat - poorly drained, 12-18 m tall forest on white sand soils. The species's distribution seems to coincide with that of two or three tree species. It is uncommon and very patchily distributed. The diet includes small arthropods and fruit, notably the berries of the mistletoe <em>Oryctanthus alveolatus</em>. <p></p>
160030232		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160030232		threats	eng	Most of the known range is within a protected area. However, the limited extent of appropriate varillal habitat, and the continuing extraction of trees for building materials and posts, means that much of the population is threatened or at least compromised. Outside the protected area, the few varillales in which the species is known to occur (on the upper Rio Nanay) are completely unprotected, and are currently being heavily exploited for timber and other products. <p></p>
160030233		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>However, La Reserva Natural La Forzosa, a fragment of pristine forest of 4.5 km<sup>2</sup> between 1,500 and 1,820 m, has been designated following an ornithological exploration of the area (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. 1,310 acres of forest were purchased by the American Bird Conservancy to be managed by FundaciónProAves as the Arrierito Antioqueño Bird Reserve in 2006 (Anon 2006/2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct detailed surveys to determine the extent of its distribution, population status, and genetic variation and exchange between the Amalfi and Anorí populations (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop a management plan for the species. Pursue the protection of remaining pre-montane forest fragments in the region, particularly those persisting in the Riachón river valley in Amalfi (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Control exploitation of palms and other forest resources. Encourage the local government to acquire land between 1,200 and 1,600 m for future protected areas. Encourage alternative technologies for the use of the land, and campaign to prevent the conversion of forests to pastures (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. There remains some large intact and potentially suitable subtropical forest areas in eastern and southeastern Antioquia. Conservation efforts in these areas may prove more practical and probably reveal healthy populations of this and other threatened species (<strong></strong>Salaman <em>in litt. </em>2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030233		distribution	eng	<em>Lipaugus weberi</em> is confined to a small area of forest (c.800 km<sup>2</sup>) on the northern slope of the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001), where it is known from at least five locations (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002), although this is likely to increase with the consideration of survey results published by Cuervo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008)<strong></strong>. The area lies between the Porce and Nechí river valleys, where it is presently known from four localities in the Municipality of Anorí (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001). The species is locally common at the known localities in Anorí, especially between 1,600 and 1,750 m&#160; (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It is much less common near Amalfi, presumably because the forests in this area have been subjected to exploitation for a longer period of time (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160030233		habitat	eng	It inhabits primary pre-montane, wet forest between 1,500 and 1,820 m (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been seen at forest borders and in secondary vegetation near mountain gorges, but not usually within secondary forest (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Birds occur singly within the midstorey to lower canopy, and are sometimes observed in mixed-species flocks in the higher levels of the canopy (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. It feeds on small to medium-sized berries and, occasionally, large invertebrates (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001). <p></p>
160030233		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 2,500 individuals (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and so is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
160030233		threats	eng	The Central Andes have undergone almost complete ecological change - surviving forested areas are now highly fragmented and isolated. Pre-montane forest cover is estimated to be 3-4% of its original extent (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the species is presumed to have been extirpated from a large part of its range (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Forest loss is driven by mining and agriculture, in particular coffee, plantain and cattle (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001, Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Moreover, current high rates of colonization will increase deforestation in the area. High acidity and poor soil drainage reduce vegetation succession and accentuate problems of soil erosion (Renjifo <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. Afforestation with exotic species is an increasing problem in the area (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001).      <p></p>
160030234		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. The governments of India, Nepal and Pakistan passed legislation in 2006 banning the manufacture and importation of diclofenac as a veterinary drug, with India passing further legislation in 2008 banning the manufacture, sale, distribution or use of veterinary diclofenac. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India in 2008 warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use' (BirdLife International 2008). In October 2010, the government of Bangladesh banned the production of diclofenac for use in cattle, and the distribution and sale of the drug were due to be outlawed during the first half of 2011 (M. M. H. Khan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2010). While these bans have been introduced and have led to a reduction of diclofenac within ungulate carcasses (the principal food source for vultures in South Asia) levels of diclofenac contamination still remain high and human forms of the drug are still sold for veterinary use (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011a,b ).&#160;&#160; Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are on-going and are showing signs of success with evidence for a decrease in diclofenac and an increase in the safe alternative (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011c ). An alternative drug, meloxicam, which is out of patent and manufactured in Asia has been tested on Gyps vultures with no ill-effects (Swan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Swarup <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007 ). Vulture restaurants are used as ecotourism attractions in parts of the species's range to raise awareness and fund supplementary feeding programmes and research - in Cambodia these are run by The Cambodia Vulture Conservation Project and a partnership between of national and international conservation NGOs (e.g. Masphal and Vorsak 2007, H. Rainey <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>. Birds have been satellite tagged in various parts of their range to improve understanding of their movements, foraging range, site fidelity etc., in order to develop suitable conservation strategies for the species (Ellis 2004)<strong></strong>. Socioeconomic surveys in Nepal have shown that local people are strongly in favour of vulture conservation because of the associated ecological services that they provide (Gautam and Baral 2003)<strong></strong>. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs (Bombay Natural History Society 2004)<strong></strong>. Captive breeding efforts began in 2006 when 18 Slender-billed Vultures were captured for the captive-breeding facility in Pinjore, India. The centre is part of a captive breeding programme established by the RSPB and Bombay Natural History Society. In April 2008, there were 28 birds at the three Indian breeding centres (Pain <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, increasing to 35 birds in 2009 (Bowden 2009)<strong></strong>. Two individuals bred in captivity for the first time in 2009 (Anon 2009)<strong></strong>. By November 2011, the total number in breeding centres affiliated to SAVE (Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction) was 47 birds (SAVE 2012). A website has been set up to allow researchers to contribute data on known colonies to identify founder individuals for captive breeding efforts that represent the full geographical spread of the species (M. Gilbert <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Captive breeding centres often receive vultures that have been found poisoned and then rehabilitated by rescue centres such as the Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation, Assam, which is run by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Wildlife Trust of India (Wildlife Trust of India 2009)<strong></strong>. Surveys utilising vulture restaurants were carried out in Myanmar in late 2006 and early 2007, accompanied by searches for nesting colonies, research into vulture deaths and investigation of possible diclofenac use in livestock (Eames 2007a). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify actions required to prevent extinction. Measure the frequency of diclofenac treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities in Myanmar that have been implemented in Cambodia. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other NSAIDs to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.   <p></p>
160030234		distribution	eng	<em>Gyps tenuirostris</em> is found in <strong>India</strong> north of, and including, the Gangetic plain, west to at least Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, south to southern West Bengal (and possibly northern Orissa), east through the plains of Assam, and through southern <strong>Nepal</strong>, and north and central <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It formerly occurred more widely in South-East Asia, but it is now thought to be extinct in Thailand and Malaysia, and the only recent records are from <strong>Cambodia</strong>, southern <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Considerable confusion over the taxonomy and identification of <em>Gyps </em>vultures has occurred, making it difficult to be sure of claims for this species. However, it appears to be allopatric or parapatric with Indian Vulture <em>G. indicus</em> where their ranges abut (or potentially do so) in northern India. It was once common, but in South-East Asia populations declined through the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century, and are now probably very small and restricted in distribution and limited mainly to Cambodia (where the first nests recorded in the country were recently found and surveys in 2008 recorded a total of 51 individuals at vulture 'restaurants' (H. Rainey <em>in litt. </em>2008<strong></strong><strong></strong>) and Myanmar (counts made at vulture restaurants suggest a population of c.21 individuals [Hla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010]). Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in the region is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures (Anon 2003, 2005). In India and Nepal, the species was common until very recently, but since the mid-1990s it has suffered a catastrophic decline of up to 96.8%, with a combined average decline in India of this species and <em>G. indicus</em> of over 16% annually between 2000 and 2007 (Prakash <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The species has also declined in Nepal, with recent surveys in the lowland districts of this country recording no birds (Chaudhary <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011 ). Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse (Green <em>et al</em>. 2004, Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a, <strong></strong>Shultz <em>et al</em>. 2004,<strong></strong> Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005).<strong></strong> This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses, leading to renal failure and causing visceral gout (Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a,b<strong></strong>; Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005, <strong></strong>Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Probably owing to the effects of diclofenac, breeding success in parts of its Indian range is reportedly low; of 14 nests found in Assam just four had chicks (Choudhury <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. Diclofenac is apparently entirely absent in Cambodia, adding greater importance to that remaining small population. Likewise, surveys conducted in Myanmar in late 2006 and early 2007 found no firm evidence of diclofenac use (Eames 2007a). Census data from Cambodia suggest that the population there may have been stable since 2004 at least (Eames 2007b).&#160;  <p></p>
160030234		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry open country and forested areas usually away from human habitation. In South-East Asia it was found in open and partly wooded country, generally in the lowlands. This species feeds almost entirely on carrion, scavenging at rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses, and at carcasses dumped in the fields and along rivers. It has only been recorded nesting in trees, usually large ones, usually at a height of 7-25 m, sometimes near villages but usually more remote. It is a solitary nester. While feeding, considerable mixed species aggregations can form, and regular communal roost sites are used. It is social and usually found in conspecific flocks, interacting with other vultures at carcasses. Movements are poorly known, and the degree of connectivity of apparently separate populations is not known. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services. They were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.<br/><p></p>
160030234		population	eng	Considerable confusion over the taxonomy and identification of Gyps vultures has occurred, making it difficult to be sure of the population size. It is considered likely to number 1,000-2,499 mature individuals, equating to 1,500-3,750 individuals in total.
160030234		threats	eng	By mid-2000, <em>Gyps</em> vultures were being found dead and dying in Nepal, Pakistan, and throughout India, and major declines and local extirpations were being reported. The anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac, used to treat domestic livestock, has been identified as the cause of mortality, with renal failure resulting in visceral gout in the vast majority of examined vultures (<strong></strong>Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a, <strong></strong>Shultz <em>et al</em>. 2004, <strong></strong>Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006).<strong></strong> Modelling has shown that to cause the observed rate of decline in <em>Gyps</em> vultures, just one in 760 livestock carcasses need contain diclofenac residues (Green <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>. Despite awareness programmes to educate locals about the association between diclofenac and vulture mortality, a survey in Nepal indicated that the vast majority of people still do not link diclofenac use to a decline in vulture populations (Anon 2009)<strong></strong>, potentially leading to a slower uptake of a vulture safe alternative drug (meloxicam). A second veterinary drug in use in India and Nepal, ketoprofen, has also recently been identified to be lethal toxic to the related Gyps species, and population modelling indicates residues of this drug are found in ungulate carcasses in India at sufficient concentrations to cause mortalities. It may be present in sufficient concentrations to also cause population declines (Naidoo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Other likely potential contributory factors are changes in human consumption and processing of dead livestock, avian malaria (Poharkar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), and poison and pesticide use, but these are probably of minor significance. In South-East Asia, the near-total disappearance of the species pre-dated the present crisis, and probably results from the collapse of large wild mammal populations and improved management of deceased livestock (Anon 2003), but persecution and poisoning is also thought to be a problem. In Cambodia vultures are still threatened by extremely low population densities of wild ungulates, a decline in the number of free-ranging domestic ungulates, felling of nesting trees for timber and accidental poisoning at carcasses laced with pesticides to kill stray dogs (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
160030235		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess the size of the population. Regularly monitor the population at selected sites across its range. Investigate its abundance in forest at different levels of perturbation. Protect significant areas of intact forest in the Nicobar islands. Fully investigate the possible impact of development programs and mitigate against their impacts.  <p></p>
160030235		distribution	eng	<em>Spilornis klossi </em>is endemic to the islands of Great Nicobar (including Pulo Kunji), Little Nicobar, Menchal, Pilo Milo and Treis in the South Nicobar island group, Nicobar islands, <strong>India</strong> (BirdLife International 2001, A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There is some confusion over records in 1993, when it was reported to be "probably one of the rarest raptors in the country" and "rarely seen in the Great Nicobar island", because this has not been the impression of other fieldworkers. Following surveys in 2009-2011, it has been described as uncommon (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
160030235		habitat	eng	It is found in mixed evergreen forest, and is seen most frequently in the canopy, but also occurs in grassland and regenerating habitats, from sea-level to 100 m (A. P. Zaibin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><br/><br/>Kamorta, Nancowry, Katchal and Tillangchong<br/><p></p>
160030235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
160030235		threats	eng	Increased settlement of the islands has led to increased pressure on natural resources, and planned development projects could severely affect the habitat of this species.  <p></p>
160030236		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The isolated ridge is currently unprotected. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search remaining peaks along the isolated ridge. Assess the size of its population. Gather more information on its ecology and life history. Seek protected status for the isolated ridge. <p></p>
160030236		distribution	eng	<em>Capito wallacei</em> is known only from an isolated, unnamed ridge system to the east of the Cordillera Azul, Ucayali Department, <strong>Peru</strong> (O'Neill <em>et al</em>. 2000). The ridge is on the east bank of the upper Río Cushabatay, 77 km west-north-west of Contamana in Loreto. The ridge is  long (&gt;50 km) and narrow (O'Neill <em>et al</em>. 2000) and, in spite of searches at suitable elevations in the adjacent Cordillera Azul, this species remains known only from Peak 1538 (D. Lane and T. S. Schulenberg <em>in litt</em>. 2000). It was found to be common, with up to eight individuals recorded daily (O'Neill <em>et al</em>. 2000). Thirteen specimens were collected from this mountain (O'Neill <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <p></p>
160030236		habitat	eng	The species is known only from on, or near, the summit of one mountain, where a relatively flat plateau is cloaked in cloud forest between 1,300 and 1,550 m (O'Neill <em>et al</em>. 2000, Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Epiphytes, especially bryopytes, bromeliads and orchids, cover most of the trunks and large branches of the short trees (10-20 m). The predominant trees near the summit are melastomes and clusias. The forest floor has a deep (up to 1 m) spongy cover of mosses intermixed with leaf litter and soil. The wet, epiphyte-covered montane forest changes abruptly to taller and drier subtropical forest below 1,250 m. <p></p>
160030236		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 250-999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160030236		threats	eng	There is little human habitation in the watershed, and none above 300 m. Only a small amount of hunting is conducted by infrequent visitors. However, deforestation is extensive on the west slope of the adjacent Cordillera Azul, especially in the drainage of the Río Biabo. <p></p>
160030237		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Few protected areas exist for this species but Una Biological Reserve, Monte Pascoal National Park and the Porto Seguro/Florestas Rio Doce SA Forest are important<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Secure the adequate protection of a number of sites for this species. <p></p>
160030237		distribution	eng	<em>Herpsilochmus pileatus </em>is known from 10 localities along the coast of southern Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong> (Whitney <em>et al</em>. 2000). It occurs from Baía de Todos Santos near Salvador in the north to the Trancoso area in the south (Whitney <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is apparently common/abundant in suitable habitat. <p></p>
160030237		habitat	eng	This species occupies forests, forest fragments, second growth, cabrucas and restinga vegetation. Forages by gleaning invertebrates from vegetation in the mid-storey and canopy. Sometimes sallies and hover-gleans<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003).   <p></p>
160030237		population	eng	Population estimate = 2.6-9.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 270 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 702-2,592, i.e. probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 as described as common in suitable habitat (density range from estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <p></p>
160030237		threats	eng	Coastal forests in southern Bahia have suffered tremendous reduction in size during the last few decades. Logging companies, pastures, and social pressure from native peoples and landless people movements are some of the factors that have contributed to the deforestation process. The species has a very limited range, and although common, remaining vegetation is still being destroyed. Planned large-scale tourist resort development along the coast of southern Bahia may also have a large negative impact<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003). Designated protected areas where the species could be safe are under threat themselves (J. F. Pacheco<em> in litt</em>. 2001).  <p></p>
160030238		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The type locality, Mount Kon Ka Kinh, was recently gazetted as a 41,710-ha nature reserve. If successfully established, it is believed that the future of this population of the species will be secure.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in central Vietnam and Laos to determine its distribution and population size. Study habitat requirements and determine its full altitudinal range. Initiate and expand management, monitoring, training and education in Kon Ka Kinh Nature Reserve.  <p></p>
160030238		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Garrulax konkakinhensis</span> was first discovered at Mount Kon Ka Kinh, one of the highest peaks in the Central Highlands of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vietnam</span>. Three specimens were collected there in April 1999, including one from a group of at least three individuals. There have subsequently been unpublished records from four locations within Kom Tum Province, including the Mang Canh Plateau in Kon Prong State Forest Enterprise (Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). It has also recently been recorded in Xe Sap in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Laos</span>, where it could be abundant (T. Gray<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
160030238		habitat	eng	The three specimens were collected between 1,600 and 1,700 m, in the undergrowth of primary upper montane evergreen forest, dominated by tree species from the families Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Theaceae, Ericaceae, Myrtaceae and Araliaceae. On Mount Kon Ka Kinh, from c.1,600 m to the summit (at 1,748 m), the forest canopy height was c.10-15 m, with 20-m trees in flatter areas of the summit plateau. The species has subsequently been recorded down to 1,200 m (Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press, T. Gray <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p>
160030238		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. This equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
160030238		threats	eng	The forests within Kon Ka Kinh Nature Reserve comprise a mosaic of primary and seral forest formations, and, on the evidence of shifting cultivation, indicate a long history of human utilisation. The forest around the type locality was being logged for large, emergent <em>Fokienia hodginsii</em> and in many places the canopy was broken and there were many clearings. Its presence in logged forest indicates some tolerance of disturbed habitat. Hydroelectric power dams and road construction may also be threats (S. Mahood <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
160030239		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Short sections of its habitat occur in several protected areas, but this is unlikely to afford much protection from dam development. Active conservation for this and other riverine wetland species will centre on holistic review and modification of proposals for large dams, and will necessitate international cooperation. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the total population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Encourage the completion of environmental impact assessments prior to dam construction along the Mekong River channel and ensure that recommendations are acted upon. Mitigate against any likely habitat loss that may result from dam construction. <p></p>
160030239		distribution	eng	<em>Motacilla samveasnae</em> is known, in the breeding season, from a substantial length of the River Mekong and several of its tributaries in <strong>Cambodia</strong>, extending upstream from Kampi into southern <strong>Laos</strong>, and there is a record from the non-breeding season in <strong>Thailand</strong>. The species was first recorded in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Vietnam</span> in 2002, where it is likely to be a resident breeder (Le Tron Trai and Craik 2008). In optimal habitat, linear densities may reach many pairs per kilometre, and its numbers are certainly healthy in Cambodia. <p></p>
160030239		habitat	eng	It breeds in riverine "channel mosaic" habitat, typically in broad, lowland rivers, where the streambed is exposed to provide rocky outcrops and bushland, gravel shoals and/or sandbars, tufted grasses and annual dicotyledons. It avoids wooded areas. It will regularly feed within bushes in the water, walking along branches and picking food items from these and from leaves. <p></p>
160030239		population	eng	A preliminary population estimate of 10,000-19,999 individuals assumes that the species's population is moderately small owing to its highly specialised habitat requirements and restricted distribution. This estimate equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
160030239		threats	eng	It is highly tolerant of human presence, and its habitat is not particularly vulnerable to human-induced changes. However, the many dams currently proposed for the Mekong, particularly those on sections where the river has a low gradient, have the potential to disrupt long stretches of its riverine range by flooding the river channel.  <p></p>
160030240		distribution	eng	<em>Mascarenachen kervazoi</em> is known only from subfossil bones collected by Bertrand Kervazo in the Grottes des Premiers Français on <strong>Réunion</strong> <strong>(to France)</strong> in 1974<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Cowles 1994). Nontekoe mentioned finding geese on the island when he visited in 1619, as did Dubois in 1671-2, but it was not to persist long and the species was specifically mentioned to have become extinct by Boucher in 1710 (Cheke 1987)<sup></sup>. The specimens are deposited in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1994). <p></p>
160030240		habitat	eng	It is thought to have inhabited freshwater pools and lakes.  <p></p>
160030240		threats	eng	As early as 1667 Martin recorded destruction of the wildfowl and habitat of the Etang de Saint-Paul, and similar processes are likely to have led to its extinction throughout the island.  <p></p>
160030245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common (Baker 1997), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160030246		population	eng	In Europe (which   covers &gt;95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated   to be 360,000-530,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,080,000-1,590,000   individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
160030247		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phylloscopus canariensis</span> is endemic to the Canary Islands, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>. There have been no recent records of the Lanzarote subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">exsul</span>, which is likely to be extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).
160030247		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 20,000-100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 60,000-300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
160030249		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 19,000-85,000 breeding pairs, equating to 57,000-255,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
160030251		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Examine <em>Acrocephalus </em>museum specimens to search for further examples of the species and to further elucidate its distribution and migration patterns. Obtain photographic evidence and, ideally, DNA from putative individuals. Examine the possibility of stable isotope analysis of any further individuals that are trapped, with the aim of discovering other breeding grounds. <p></p>
160030251		distribution	eng	<em>Acrocephalus orinus</em> was known until relatively recently from only from one specimen, collected in the Sutlej Valley near Rampoor, Himachal Pradesh, India in November 1867. In March 2006, one was trapped at Laem Phak Bia, Phatchaburi Province, south-west Thailand, 3,100 km from the type locality (Round <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, and soon afterwards a further museum specimen was located (taken in Uttar Pradesh, India in October 1869, and previously labelled as <em>A. dumetorum</em>) (<strong></strong>Anon 2007, Pearson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008)<strong></strong>. Subsequent searches have located additional museum specimens from Central Asia, India and Myanmar (Svensson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In April 2007 a bird apparently of this species was observed and photographed near Chintamani Kar Bird Sanctuary, Narendrapur, West Bengal, India (Round and Kennerley 2007)<strong></strong>. No other individuals were trapped at the site of the 2006 bird during 2000-2006 and the lack of records from this comparatively well-studied country suggest it is likely to be only an extreme vagrant to Thailand (Round <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  Fieldwork conducted in Badakshan province, north-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Afghanistan</span>, located a likely breeding population in 2008-2009 (Timmins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009, 2010). In spring 2009, a probable breeding population was also located in the Badakshan region of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Tajikistan</span> (Ayé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It may be a long-distance migrant like <em>A. dumetorum</em>, breeding in the Palearctic and wintering in southern Asia. It may be genuinely rare but it is possible a substantial population exists and has been overlooked due to its similarity to <em>A. concinens </em>and <em>A. dumetorum</em>. Its taxonomic status was uncertain for more than a century but was recently confirmed based on morphology and mtDNA evidence (Bensch and Pearson 2002)<strong></strong>. Given the lack of information, and the previous confusion over the status of this taxon, it is best treated presently as Data Deficient.<br/><br/><br/><p></p>
160030251		habitat	eng	The 2006 Thailand bird was trapped in area of grassy filter beds at a water treatment site in an area dominated by salt-pans but it is likely this record refers to a vagrant and thus may not be representative of its habitat preferences (Round <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. The sighting near Kolkata in April 2007 was of a bird feeding in tall bamboo. The likely breeding populations located in north-eastern Afghanistan and in Tajikistan were found in riparian bushland/woodland (Ayé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010, Timmins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<br/><p>&#160;</p><p></p>
160030251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably extremely rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).
160030251		threats	eng	Unknown. <p></p>
160030261		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>1,820 km<sup>2</sup> of forest at Abra Patricia and the upper río Mayo, San Martín, is classed as Bosque de Protección del Alto Mayo at the request of local leaders in Rioja, to protect the watershed of the Rio Mayo from logging (<strong></strong>Hornbuckle 1999b)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish a protected area containing areas of forest on the Cordillera de Colán. Survey areas of suitable habitat to locate further populations. Determine its ecological requirements, particularly its response to edge habitat creation. <p></p>
160030261		distribution	eng	<em>Poecilotriccus luluae</em> is known from six localities in north-east <strong>Peru</strong>: at Wicsocunga, near Lonya Grande, in the northernmost extension of the Cordillera Central (T. Mark <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>; two sites in the Cordillera de Colán (30 km east of Florida<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<strong></strong>Johnson and Jones 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and south-east of Bagua (<strong></strong>Davies <em>et al.</em> (1994)<strong></strong>); and three areas to the east in an unnamed range in the Eastern Andes (the García area north-east of Abra Patricia; 6 km south-east of Corosha; and 33 km north-east of Ingenio) (<strong></strong>Johnson and Jones 2001; <strong></strong>Davies <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<em> <p></p></em>
160030261		habitat	eng	It is found in montane forest at 1,800-2,900 m elevation, usually in or near bamboo thickets but also in shrubby second growth and forest  edge (<strong></strong>Johnson and Jones 2001; Davis 1986;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Hornbuckle 1999b; Schulenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It forages almost exclusively through sally-gleans, mostly to the undersurface of live leaves, and is nearly always encountered in pairs (Davis 1986)<strong></strong>. It has been reported as fairly common to the east of Abra Patricia<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span> (Davis 1986;<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Hornbuckle 1999b)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160030261		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
160030261		threats	eng	The remaining forests within the documented range of the species are being cleared for timber, agriculture and to secure land ownership, particularly rapidly on the Cordillera de Colán (where local people estimated that all remaining forest might be cleared in the ensuing decade). The forest near Abra Patricia is under increased threat since the road was rebuilt in 1998 (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the species may benefit from edge habitat created by timber clearing<strong> </strong>(D. Lane <em>in litt.</em> 2003).  <p></p>
160031001		habitat	eng	This species occupies dry to moist deciduous forest, frequenting thorn scrub, open woodland and some grassland areas with few trees.
160031001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'frequent' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031001		threats	eng	In parts of the range it is threatened by deforestation and hunting.
160031007		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Currently disturbance and access issues prevent studies on Pedra Branca and the Mewstone. These two sites are also internationally designated protected sites, being part of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (UNEP/CMS 2008).</span>  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Analysis of aerial census data and maintenance of current programme for Pedra Branca and the Mewstone (due to logistic difficulties demographic studies of populations on Pedra Branca and the Mewstone population are not feasible). Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline and trawl fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and FAO. Mewstone birds appear to travel more extensively than Albatross Island birds and are therefore exposed to interactions with a range of fishing fleets. <p></p>
160031007		distribution	eng	<p><em>Thalassarche</em> <em>cauta</em> is an endemic breeder in <strong>Australia</strong>,<strong><em> </em></strong>with colonies on three islands off Tasmania. Data submitted to ACAP estimated the total breeding population to be approximately 15,350 breeding pairs: Albatross Island (5,200 pairs), Pedra Branca (130-170 pairs) and the Mewstone (7,600-12,400 pairs). <em>T</em>. <em>cauta</em> was historically killed for the feather trade and the Albatross Island population was reduced to c.300 pairs in 1909</span>  (Johnstone <em>et al.</em> 1975, Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>. Since then, the population on Albatross Island has been slowly recovering (Brooke 2004)<strong></strong>, reaching approximately 25% of the pre-exploited population in 2004 (ACAP Species Assessment draft)<strong></strong>. The historical population size and trend of Mewstone and Pedra Branca are unknown. The population on Pedra Branca may have always been small but it appears competition for nesting space with Australasian Gannets <em>Morus serrator</em> may steadily be reducing the number of fledglings produced on the island each year. Chick production on Pedra Branca dropped from over 100 to 31 between 1993 and 2007, representing a decrease of approximately 9% a year (ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Understanding the at-sea distribution of <em>T. cauta</em> is confounded by its similar appearance to other 'shy-type' albatrosses, particularly <em>T. steadi </em>(Double <em>et al. </em>2003, ACAP 2006)<strong></strong><em>.</em> During the breeding season, adults are relatively sedentary and are concentrated around Tasmania and southern Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000, <strong></strong>Hedd <em>et al. </em>2001, BirdLife International 2004, Baker <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. However, juvenile birds from Mewstone (Tasmania) are known to migrate to South Africa (BirdLife International 2004, Baker <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. One banded bird from Albatross Island has been recovered in northern New Zealand (C.J.R. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>.<br/></p><p></p>
160031007		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Shy Albatross breeds annually in colonies. Eggs are mostly laid in the second half of September (Brooke 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. They hatch in December and chicks fledge mostly in April. Immature birds return to their breeding colony at least 3 years after fledging, mostly beginning breeding when at least 5 to 6 years old, nearly always in their natal colonies. <em>Thalassarche cauta</em> usually forage singly and have been observed taking prey from the surface or occasionally making surface plunges or shallow dives. However, a study using time-depth recorders revealed <em>T. cauta</em> commonly plunge-dive within 3 m of the surface and can swim down to over 7 metres (ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> Nests are a mound of soil, grass and roots, and are located on rock islands.<em> </em><strong>Diet </strong>The main foods are fish and cephlapods (Hedd and Gales 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with crustaceans and tunicates also forming a part of the diet. It is a ship-follower and fish processing discharge comprises a significant proportion of its diet. <p></p>
160031007		population	eng	The global population of Shy Albatross was estimated to be 12,000 to 19,000 pairs in 2009 (Alderman <em>et al</em>. 2011). Data submitted to ACAP estimated a total population of 15,350 pairs, made up of 5,200 pairs on Albatross Island (in 2010) (Alderman <em>et al.</em> 2011), 7,600-12,400 pairs on Mewstone (in 2005) (Alderman <em>et al.</em> 2011), and 130-170 pairs on Pedra Branca (in 2009) (Alderman <em>et al.</em> 2011). The number of mature individuals is therefore estimated at c.30,700. The global population including non-breeders is now estimated to be 60,000-70,000 individuals.  <p></p> <p></p>
160031007		threats	eng	Although 'shy-type' albatrosses, (thought largely to be <em>T. cauta</em>) comprised over 12% of seabirds caught by Japanese tuna longliners in Australian waters during 1989-1995 (up to 900 birds per year) (Gales <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, Japanese fishing effort ceased in 1997 and the current domestic effort is concentrated in northern waters where the likelihood of encountering albatrosses is much lower (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Currently, there is limited overlap between the distribution of adult Shy Albatrosses and Australian longline fishing effort (although the impact of trawl fisheries is unknown). However, juvenile birds from the Mewstone population are known to traverse the Indian Ocean and forage in waters off South Africa, which brings them into contact with several fisheries that pose a greater bycatch threat (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. At the small Pedra Branca colony, interaction with the Australasian Gannet <em>Morus serrator</em> (which is increasing across its range) is thought to be the primary cause of the observed rapid declines in the number of chicks produced each year at that colony, and extreme weather conditions may also reduce breeding success on the island (ACAP Species Assessment draft)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Avian pox virus has been recorded in chicks on Albatross Island (Tasmania) and has the potential to impact population trends through negative impacts to breeding success (R. Woods and R. Gales <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong> <p></p>
160031008		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. A five-year aerial survey program of the Disappointment Island population commenced in 2006-2007. The New Zealand Department of Conservation has recently contracted the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research to conduct demographic and tracking study of the Auckland Islands populations. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Census populations on all New Zealand islands. Conduct regular monitoring of a representative proportion of the population. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies and the interaction with longline and trawl fisheries (BirdLife International 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline and trawl fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and FAO. <p></p>
160031008		distribution	eng	<em>Thalassarche steadi</em> is endemic to offshore islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, with the breeding population estimated at approximately 95,000 pairs by ACAP (2009), although only c.77,000 pairs were estimated in 2011<strong>. </strong>Populations are distributed predominantly on Disappointment Island (91,500 pairs) <em></em>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>, Auckland (5,000 pairs) <em></em>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong> and Adams Islands (100 pairs) (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong> in the Auckland Island group, and Bollon's Island (c.100) (Tennyson <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> in the Antipodes Island group. The population is estimated to comprise approximately 300,000<strong></strong>. 'Shy' type albatrosses have been recorded in the south-west Atlantic for many years (White <em>et al.</em> 2002, Phalan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. Most of the birds recorded are immature, which has hindered specific identification. However, genetic evidence from a bird on South Georgia confirmed the species was <em>T. steadi </em>(Phalan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. In addition, tracking studies (Thompson and Sagar 2007)<strong></strong>, bird band recoveries (Robertson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong> and DNA-based identification of bycatch specimens (Abbott <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong> have confirmed that this species forages in Tasmania and Southern Africa/Namibia (Robertson <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong><em>,</em> and immature birds are thought to occur regularly throughout the South Atlantic and south-west Indian Ocean. <em> </em>The first tracking studies commenced on Auckland Island in 2006 and are ongoing (Thompson and Sagar 2007)<strong></strong>. Although global counts of <em>T. steadi</em> have increased from 75,000 breeding pairs in 1993 to a current estimate of 97,089 pairs, the estimates are not based on comparable methodologies and therefore population trends cannot be calculated. Counts since 2007 are comparable with those from 2011 and indicate a substantially declining population (117,197 pairs in 2007 and 77,005 pairs in 2011), but further data are needed to confirm whether this represents a genuine and extremely rapid decline. The need for accurate trend information is highlighted by the report of an estimated 8,000 albatrosses of this species killed annually as a result of longline and trawl fisheries <em></em>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160031008		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The White-capped Albatross breeds annually in colonies, though recent studies suggest it may breed biennially <em></em>(ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the breeding frequency and season for this species is poorly known (Petersen 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs are usually laid mid-November and hatch in February. Chicks are thought to fledge in mid-August, though a fledging period of June-July may be more likely. Some adults remain near the colonies year-round <em></em>(ACAP 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Colonies are generally located on rock islands. <strong>Diet </strong>The main foods include, fish, cephalopods, crustaceans and tunicates. It is a ship-follower and fish processing discharge comprises a significant proportion of its diet. Birds are generally surface feeders, but may undertake shallow surface dives. <p></p>
160031008		population	eng	The global estimated breeding population was approximately 77,145 pairs in 2011. This equates to 154,000 mature individuals, although there is a suggestion that this species might be a biennial breeder, in which case the number of adults would require recalculation.
160031008		threats	eng	The geographic range of <em>T. steadi</em> brings them into contact with a variety of longline and trawl fisheries in New Zealand, the high seas and off the coast of South Africa and Namibia (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Although <em>T. cauta</em> ('shy-type') comprised 15% of all seabirds returned from longlines in New Zealand waters during 1988-1997 (Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>, New Zealand demersal and pelagic longline fisheries are currently considered to have a relatively low impact<strong> </strong>on <em>T. steadi</em> populations (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  The Auckland Islands squid trawl fishery killed 2,300 adults in 1990 alone, most through collision with net monitor cables, which were phased out in 1992 (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000)<strong></strong>. However, birds are still killed by entanglement in nets and by collision with warp cables in trawl fisheries (Taylor 2000, Baker <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. This species is also the most frequently caught species in pelagic tuna longline operations off South Africa (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>. It is estimated that 7,000-11,000 <em>T. steadi</em> were killed in the South African pelagic longline fishery between 1998-2000 (Ryan <em>et al. </em>2002)<strong></strong>, and in 2005, an estimated 500-600 shy-type albatrosses were killed<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Petersen 2004)<strong></strong>. In the South African demersal trawl fishery, observer data from 2004-2005 produced an estimate of 7,700 shy type albatrosses killed annually. Subsequent DNA analysis indicated that these were all <em>T. steadi </em>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2005 and 2006, <em>T. steadi</em> spent 85% of their time in southern African trawl grounds <em></em>(ACAP 2009)<strong></strong>. Since the introduction of mandatory permit requirements in August 2006, whereby all vessels must deploy a bird streamer line, the bycatch rate has decreased but further data collection is required to establish a new catch estimate (Watkins et al 2006)<strong></strong>.  The impact of the large distant water fleets of Japan, Taiwan and Korea on <em>T. steadi</em> is largely unknown, but Japanese data from 2001-2002 indicate that at least 10% of recorded albatross mortalities were 'shy-type' albatrosses (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. It has been estimated that 8,200 White-capped Albatrosses are currently killed per annum, 75% of which are as a result of interactions with trawl fisheries in South African, Namibian and New Zealand waters (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>.  In the Uruguayan longline fleet operating in the southwest Atlantic Ocean, shy-type albatrosses (<span style="font-style: italic;">cauta</span>-type) made up 25% of all birds observed in association with vessels, mostly immatures. Five individuals caught as bycatch were confirmed as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. steadi</span>, but numbers caught were not sufficient to predict an overall bycatch level for the fleet (Jimenez <em>et al</em>. 2009). Commercial exploitation of squid or fish reserves in Bass Strait could pose a threat to the species in the future by direct competition for food. On Auckland Island, the nesting area was significantly reduced during 1972-1982 because of interference by pigs, and feral cats may also take small numbers of chicks (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000, Thompson and Sagar 2006)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160031027		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>Northern breeding populations of this species are highly migratory (Madge and Burn 1988) although populations in more temperate regions are sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or locally dispersive (Scott and Rose 1996). The species breeds from May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988) in single pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Once females have started incubating (Kear 2005b) (from June or early-July) (Scott and Rose 1996) males congregate (Kear 2005b) and undertake extensive moult migrations or remain near the breeding grounds (Madge and Burn 1988) to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996) (the females moult on the breeding grounds) (Madge and Burn 1988). After the post-breeding moult migratory populations of the species migrate south, the peak of the autumn migration occurring between October and November (Scott and Rose 1996). It returns to the breeding areas from late-February onwards (peaking March-April) (Scott and Rose 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species forms large concentrations, with large flocks of 30-40 and sometimes hundreds of individuals gathering at winter roosting sites (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Madge and Burn 1988). The species forages at night during the winter (especially during the hunting season) but forages by day during the breeding season (Kear 2005b). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> The species shows a preference for shallow (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b) permanent waters (Johnsgard 1978) in the breeding season (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998), especially those in the vicinity of woodlands with fairly dense herbaceous cover available nearby for nesting (Johnsgard 1978). Small freshwater lakes and shallow marshes with abundant emergent vegetation (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) are preferred to open water (Johnsgard 1978), as are small waterbodies forming part of a larger wetland, lake or river system, especially in the valleys of small forested rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). Other suitable habitats include small ponds, pools (Madge and Burn 1988, Snow and Perrins 1998), oxbow lakes, lagoons (Snow and Perrins 1998) and slow-flowing streams (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982, Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents similar habitats to those in which it breeds (Brown <I>et al.</I> 1982), including marsh and lake habitats and other sheltered waters with high productivity and abundant vegetation (Kear 2005b) as well as flooded fields and artificial waters (e.g. reservoirs) (Snow and Perrins 1998). During the winter the species also occurs along the coast (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Scott and Rose 1996) on saline (Snow and Perrins 1998) or brackish lagoons with abundant submergent vegetation (Kear 2005b), saltmarshes (Madge and Burn 1988), tidal creeks (Johnsgard 1978), intertidal mudflats (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005b), river deltas (Madge and Burn 1988), estuarine waters (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b) and even sheltered coastal bays (Madge and Burn 1988), although it does show a preference for marshes with mud flats for foraging rather than more saline or open-water habitats (Johnsgard 1978). <B>Diet </B><I>Breeding</I> In spring and summer the diet of the species consists predominantly of animal matter such as molluscs, worms, insects and crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <I>Non-breeding</I> During winter the species mainly takes the seeds of aquatic plants (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. emergent and submerged macrophytes) (Kear 2005b), grasses, sedges and agricultural grain (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (cereals and rice) (Kear 2005b). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is a hollow in the ground placed amongst dense vegetation (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or under bushes close to water (rarely more then 100 m away) (Kear 2005b). Neighbouring pairs may sometimes nest only 1 m apart although the species is not colonial (Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Management information </B>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha<SUP>1</SUP>, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species (Musil 2006). Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2004).
160031027		threats	eng	This species is threatened by lowland habitat loss and degradation (e.g. through wetland drainage) (Musil 2006) and by upland habitat loss due to afforestation and other land-use changes (Kear 2005b). The species suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (France) (Mondain-Monval<I> et al.</I> 2002) and from poisoning by white phosphorous ingestion (from firearms) in Alaska (Steele <I>et al.</I> 1997). It is also intensively hunted in its winter quarters (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). The species is threatened by disturbance from human recreational activities (Pease <I>et al.</I> 2005), hunting (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2004) and construction work (UK) (Burton <I>et al.</I> 2002). The species is susceptible to avian botulism (Rocke 2006) and avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet <I>et al. </I>2007) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for sport in North America (Baldassarre and Bolen 1994, Padding <I>et al.</I> 2006), Denmark (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006), France (Mondain-Monval <I>et al.</I> 2006) and Italy (Sorrenti <I>et al.</I> 2006), and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006). The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).
160031029		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005 (Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006, Swan <em>et al</em>. 2006<em></em>)<strong></strong>, although its sale has not been banned and it is likely to remain in widespread use for several years. Similar laws banning import and manufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India in 2008 warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'<strong> </strong>(BirdLife International 2008). In October 2010, the government of Bangladesh banned the production of diclofenac for use in cattle, and the distribution and sale of the drug were due to be outlawed there during the first half of 2011<strong> </strong>(M. M. H. Khan <em>in litt</em>. 2010). Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac, which has been tested on <em>Gyps </em>vultures with no ill-effects. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs<strong> </strong>(Bombay Natural History Society 2004) - ultimately at least 150 pairs of the three species should be held in captivity to ensure sufficient birds are available to re-establish wild colonies in the future <strong></strong>(<strong></strong>Lindsay 2008). Captive breeding efforts are ongoing and during 2008-2009 there were 71 individuals in captivity at two captive breeding centres in India<strong> </strong>(Pain <em>et al. </em>2008, Bowden 2009)<strong></strong>. In 2009, captive birds laid eggs, raising hopes that they will successfully breed in captivity in the near future<strong> </strong>(Bowden 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Measure the frequency of diclofenac treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.  <p></p>
160031029		distribution	eng	<em>Gyps indicus</em> breeds in south-east <strong>Pakistan</strong> and peninsular <strong>India</strong> south of the Gangetic plain, north to Delhi, east through Madhya Pradesh, south to the Nilgiris, and occasionally further south (Collar <em>et al.</em> 2001). It was common until very recently, but since the mid-1990s has suffered a catastrophic decline (over 97%) throughout its range. This was first noticed in Keoladeo National Park, India <strong></strong>(Prakash <em>et al. </em>2003), where counts of feeding birds fell from 816 birds in 1985-1986 to just 25 in 1998-1999. Just one tiny population in the Ramanagaram Hills of Karnataka is known to remain in inland southern India, and it is rare elsewhere within its former range (Prakash <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse (Green <em>et al</em>. 2004, Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a, Shultz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses leading to renal failure causing visceral gout (Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a,b; Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005, Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. It is now rare in Pakistan, and although a colony of 200-250 pairs was discovered in 2003 in Sindh Province <strong></strong>(A. A. Khan <em>in litt. </em>2003). In 2007, the total Indian population, based on extrapolations from road transects, was estimated at 45,000 individuals, with a combined average annual decline for this species and <em>G. tenuirostris </em>of over 16% during 2000-2007 <strong></strong>(Prakash <em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
160031029		habitat	eng	It is found in cities, towns and villages near cultivated areas, and in open and wooded areas. This species feeds almost entirely on carrion, and often associates with White-rumped Vulture <em>G. bengalensis</em> when scavenging at rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses. It nests almost exclusively in colonies on cliffs and ruins, although in one area, where cliffs are absent, it has been reported nesting in trees. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.  <p></p>
160031029		population	eng	A population estimate of c.45,000 mature individuals has been extrapolated from 2007 survey results published by Prakash <em>et al</em>. (2007), who recorded 337 individuals along 18,000 km of road transects. <p></p>
160031029		threats	eng	By mid-2000, <em>Gyps</em> vultures were being found dead and dying in Pakistan and throughout India, and major declines and local extirpations were being reported. The anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac, used to treat domestic livestock, has been identified as the cause of mortality, with renal failure resulting in visceral gout in the vast majority of examined vultures (Oaks <em>et al</em>. 2004a, Shultz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Swan <em>et al</em>. 2005, Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Modelling has shown that to cause the observed rate of decline in the species just one in 760 livestock carcasses need contain diclofenac residues <strong></strong>(Green <em>et al</em>. 2004). Despite awareness programmes to educate locals about the association between diclofenac and vulture mortality, a survey in Nepal indicated that the vast majority of people still do not link diclofenac use to a decline in vulture populations<strong> </strong>(Paudel 2008), potentially leading to a slower uptake of meloxicam (a safe alternative). A second veterinary drug in use in India, ketoprofen, has also recently been identified to be lethal to the species, and measurements of residue levels in ungulate carcasses in India indicates that concentrations are sufficient to cause vulture mortalities</span><strong> </strong>(Naidoo <em>et al.</em> 2009). Other likely contributory factors are changes in human consumption and processing of dead livestock (which have occurred in response to the collapse in vulture numbers), poison and pesticide use, and possibly avian malaria<strong> </strong>(Poharkar <em>et al.</em> 2009), but these are probably of minor significance.  <p></p>
160031036		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are recent records from a number of protected areas in India  including Keoladeo National Park, Kaziranga National Park, Corbett  National Park (W. Clark <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2003), Ranthambore Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (R. Naoroji <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.  2003). The only records from protected areas in Cambodia are from the  Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary and the Preah Vihear Protected Forest  (van Zalinge <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).  These reserves currently receive very little funding from government  sources but have been the subject of a long-running landscape  conservation project in cooperation between WCS and two government  agencies, which does not involve activities specific to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. hastata </span>but  does address the broader issues of habitat loss, habitat degradation  and widespread hunting. It has also been recorded from the Western Siem  Pang Important Bird Area, which is currently being proposed for  protection. Although the first confirmed breeding record from Cambodia  came from a site within a landscape that includes Bengal Florican  Conservation Areas and Community Forests, to date there have been no  records of Indian Spotted Eagle from within these particular protected  sites. <br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct national breeding surveys throughout its range to determine its numbers, distribution and status. Undertake research to establish its ecological requirements. Survey suitable habitat in Cambodia to assess its status there. Search for the species in other parts of Southeast Asia to ascertain whether it is present. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Protect nest sites in Cambodia and work with local communities to stop collection of wild birds.<br/><br/><p></p>
160031036		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Aquila hastata</span> appears to be a widespread species that has always been recorded at very low densities in the lowlands of the Indian subcontinent, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Pakistan</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nepal</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">India</span>, and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Myanmar </span>(Robson 2000, Parry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Rasmussen and Anderton 2005, Tordoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press), and may be extinct in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Bangladesh </span>(Robson 2008). Several sightings in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cambodia </span>(e.g. an individual in display flight in February 2007 [per P. D. Round<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2007] were regarded as almost certainly referring to this species, and its occurrence there was confirmed following the discovery of a captive bird in 2009 in a village in Kampong Thom Province (Handschuh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). This confirmed record and later confirmed photographic records indicate a wide, possibly patchy distribution within low-lying open deciduous dipterocarp forest mosaics across northern Cambodia (P. Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2003, Handschuh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011) However, no focussed survey has been conducted to date. This raises the possibility that the species may have occurred historically across other parts of Southeast Asia, although today it has almost certainly been extirpated from much of this area due to habitat loss, hence declines are inferred in the past.&#160; Ascertaining its true status and distribution is hampered by identification problems, and an unknown proportion of records of this species may actually relate to Greater Spotted Eagle <span style="font-style: italic;">A. clanga</span>. Photographic evidence is therefore usually required to accept sightings<br/><p></p>
160031036		habitat	eng	This species is a powerful predator that seizes its, mostly mammalian, prey from the ground whilst quartering over open areas within, or near, forest. It also preys on frogs and birds. It is a tree-nesting species, favouring open habitats such as low intensity agriculture, wetlands and open forest and forest clearings year-round (P. Davidson <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. It has only been recorded at low densities, but gaps in its known range may result partly from low observer coverage and difficulties in identifying the species. Its display flight includes switch-backing, wing-clapping and full loops (P. D. Round <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007).  <p></p>
160031036		population	eng	This species apparently occurs at very low density and nowhere is it common, so, despite its large range, the global population is believed to fall below 10,000 individuals. It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Improved knowledge of its status in Cambodia, where it was confirmed to occur following the discovery of a captive individual in 2009, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia, may necessitate an upwards revision of the population estimate in the future.
160031036		threats	eng	Although poorly known, this species is undoubtedly threatened by conversion and disturbance of forested habitats within its range. A number of other threats have had negative impacts on many raptor populations in Asia and further research into the threatening processes that may be affecting this species is required. <p></p>
160031043		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993).
160031051		distribution	eng	This species has a large global population estimated to be &gt;5,400,000-7,500,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002).
160031051		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory although some populations only migrate short distances (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It breeds from April to August (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) in solitary territorial pairs and after breeding it moves to moulting areas before migrating south to the wintering grounds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It is not a truly gregarious species (Snow and Perrins 1998) although it usually forages in small groups (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), occasionally also gathering in larger flocks of several hundred during migration or in the winter (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). The species is also generally crepuscular in its activities (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on fresh or brackish marshland with rich or tussocky vegetation (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) including grassy or marshy edges of lakes and rivers (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), marshy bogs and moors (Johnsgard 1981), marshy tundra, wet meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), peat bogs, fens, swamps (North America) (Johnsgard 1981) and swampy forest (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984). <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species frequents similar habitats to those it breeds in (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986, del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) including permanent and temporary swamps, the marshy edges of lakes and dams, flooded sedge and grassland (Grishanov 2006), also utilising more artificial habitats such as damp farmland (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) (e.g. cattle pastures, sugar-cane fields (Johnsgard 1981), rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996)), sewage farms (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and drainage ditches (Johnsgard 1981). The species may also move to more coastal areas such as the upper reaches of estuaries and coastal meadows (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) during periods of frost (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects, earthworms, small crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. isopods and amphipods) (Johnsgard 1981), small gastropods, spiders (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), small amphibians (Africa) (Grishanov 2006) and occasionally plant fibres, seeds and grit (Johnsgard 1981). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape (Snow and Perrins 1998) positioned on dry ground in marshes, fens, swamps and bogs (Johnsgard 1981) (e.g. on a mound or sedge tuft) (Flint <I>et al.</I> 1984) in the cover of grass, rushes, sedge or sphagnum moss (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species nests in solitary territorial pairs at densities of between 10 and 38 or up to 110 pairs per kilometre (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <strong>Management information</strong> Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterbird species diversity (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2004). The species is known to show increased hatching successes when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas (Jackson 2001). At a reserve in the UK management strategies such as reseeding grasslands to be dominated by rushes <em>Juncus </em>spp. and purple moor-grass <em>Molinia caerulea</em>, mechanical cutting and grazing, digging small scrapes and maintaining high water-levels succeeded in attracting an increased number of breeding pairs to the area (Holton and Allcorn 2006). The annual success of reproduction is estimated every year by wing surveys in Denmark since the 1970s and in France since the mid-1990s (Clausager 2006). Hunting bags are estimated every year in Denmark (Clausager 2006). <p></p>
160031051		population	eng	The global   population is estimated to number c.6,300,000-8,100,000 individuals (Wetlands   International 2006), while national population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs, c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and   c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in China; c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering individuals in Taiwan; c.1,000-10,000   individuals on migration and c.50-1,000 wintering individuals in Korea;   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration and c.1,000-10,000 wintering   individuals in Japan and c.10,000-1 million breeding pairs and &gt;c.1,000   individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
160031051		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat changes such as wetland drainage (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) and grassland improvement (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. through drainage, inorganic fertilising and reseeding) (Baines 1988). Important migratory stop-over habitats in the Kaliningrad region of Russia are also threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland and flood-plain drainage (for irrigation and water management), peat-extraction, reedbed mowing and burning, and abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub and reed overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). The species suffers from lead poisoning as a result of ingesting lead shot deposited on wetlands (Mateo <I>et al.</I> 1998, Mondain-Monval <I>et al.</I> 2002, Olivier 2006), suffers nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog <em>Erinaceus europaeus</em>) on islands (Jackson 2001), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the viurs (Melville and Shortridge 2006). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport (e.g. in Denmark) (Bregnballe <I>et al.</I> 2006).  <p></p>
160031070		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable sites. Study its ecological requirements. Effectively protect core areas of habitat within its suspected range. <p></p>
160031070		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrilia aurantiocephala</em> is known only from a few localities encompassing the Lower Madeira and Upper Tapajós rivers in Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong>. Given that the species is currently known only from two habitat types and from a relatively small area, the population is unlikely to be much larger than 10,000 individuals, and it is therefore considered to be Near Threatened. More records are likely to be forthcoming now that it has been formally recognised as a species, and these may clarify its exact status.<em> <p></p></em>
160031070		habitat	eng	Individuals have been seen in gallery forest and in 'campinarana' forest (on white-sand soils).  <p></p>
160031070		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 individuals, roughly equating to 6,700 mature individuals. This requires confirmation.
160031070		threats	eng	This region is under threat from logging (Gaban-Lima <em>et al.</em> 2002). <p></p>
160031087		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey work is required to ascertain the distribution and status of this poorly known owl. As a precaution, protect significant areas of suitable forest, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
160031087		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox sumbaensis </em>was formally described only recently, although the taxon has been known to ornithologists since the late 1980s (Olsen <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. It is currently very poorly known and has only been recorded from three localities on Sumba, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Linsley <em>et al.</em> 1998, Olsen <em>et al.</em> 2002, Benstead and Benstead<em> </em>in prep.). <p></p>
160031087		habitat	eng	It appears to be limited to small patches of primary, disturbed primary, secondary and degraded forest at 600-950 m on Sumba. Young offspring have been observed in November (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).  <p></p>
160031087		population	eng	This species is very poorly known but it is thought to be uncommon given that it escaped detection for many years and there are few records available. It is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals, equating to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals. This preliminary population estimate requires clarification.
160031087		threats	eng	It is undoubtedly at some risk from on-going habitat loss owing to logging and agricultural expansion. <p></p>
160031097		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and the most common swift in lowland Costa Rica (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160031100		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160031102		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160031106		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.<strong></strong>
160031106		distribution	eng	The subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened. It is endemic to Isla Escudo de Veraguas in the Caribbean, off the coast of Bocas del Toro, Panama (S. Olson per G. Graves in litt. 1996). It was glimpsed occasionally in March 1958, and five specimens were collected during five days in March 1962 (S. Olson per G. Graves in litt. 1996).
160031106		habitat	eng	The subspecies handleyi has been observed feeding on the flowers of low bushes in coastal areas (Wetmore 1968).
160031106		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 0.5-4.99 million individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008). The subspecies <i>handleyi</i> was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened, however more recent surveys have found the species to be abundant, albeit within an extremely small range (S. Olson per G. Graves <i>in litt.</i> 1996).
160031106		threats	eng	The small size of Isla Escudo de Veraguas makes the subspecies handleyi inherently susceptible to extinction. There are many potential threats, including hurricanes, fire, establishment of non-native species and development for tourism.
160031109		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160031112		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in South and Central America, from  Mexico south to Argentina.
160031112		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a range of habitat types from sea level to 3100 m, including lowland and montane humid forest and temperate woodland, semi-arid open woodland, plantations and clearings with trees; in Tobago (Trinidad and Tobago) found frequently in gardens and even sandy beaches and open pasture with large trees.  Feeds on fruit, invertebrates, small reptiles and mammals, and occasionally on small birds and nestlings (Snow 2001).
160031112		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 5,000,000-50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160031127		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Davison and Fook 1995, Robson 2000).
160031134		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range extending from northern Colombia to western Ecuador  and south-east Brazil through Bolivia, Venezuala, and Guyana.  The species is found in a number of protected areas.
160031134		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a variety of habitats, including scrub, pastures and arable fields, gallery forest, and urban areas, often (but not always) near water, mainly from sea level to 800 m, but locally to 2700 m in Ecuador and Peru. It benefits from moderate anthropogenic habitat alteration. It forages on the ground, feeding on termites, ants and other invertebrates (Remsen 2003).
160031134		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996), and 'very common' in some areas (Remsen 2003).
160031136		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160031137		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in the uplands of southern Peru, western Bolivia and north-west Argentina.
160031137		habitat	eng	The species inhabits southern temperate grassland and rocky puna grassland, and is sometimes found in Polylepis woodland with bunch-grass as ground cover, typically from 2000-4000 m but locally as low as 1800 m. It feeds on arthropods, gleaning food items from the ground or from clumps of grass, and it breeds during the austral spring and summer, laying a clutch of 2-3 eggs in a domed nest made of interwoven dried leaves and stems (Remsen 2003).
160031137		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031140		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the uplands of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia.
160031140		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane evergreen forest, preferring relatively open areas, between 700 and 3000 m (Remsen 2003).
160031140		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within Yasuni National Park, Ecuador (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031150		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil.
160031150		habitat	eng	The species main habitat is the understorey of lowland and foothill evergreen forest, although it sometimes frequents the understorey of deciduous or gallery forest; dense, tangled thickets are always preferred over more open areas. It feeds on a variety of arthropods, and also takes small lizards (Zimmer and Isler 2003).
160031150		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031151		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The establishment of the Zona Reservada Allpahuayo-Mishana in 1999, which includes much of the known range of <em>P. arenarum</em>, was a critical step in the protection of this species. This must be followed by the resources required to manage the area (Isler <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong> </strong>and enforce existing legislation.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect in practice as well as legally the areas of habitat in which it is found from destruction and heavy exploitation. Assess the full extent of this species range and population size.   <p></p>
160031151		distribution	eng	<em>Percnostola arenarum</em> is known only from Loreto in <strong>Peru</strong>, from the drainage of the Rio Nanay west to the Rio Tigre, including Nauta on the bank of the Rio Maranon between those two rivers (Isler <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Nauta specimen, at the Museum of Natural History, had previously been tentatively assigned to <em>P. rufifrons jensoni</em><strong> </strong>(Capparella <em>et al.</em> 1997). <p></p>
160031151		habitat	eng	<em>P. arenarum</em> is found in dense, stunted <em>terra firme</em> forest on white sandy soil (a habitat named 'varillal' by local people), with an understorey dominated by the saplings of white sand specialists. It appears to be restricted to this habitat type, although it was also found, albeit extremely locally, in a nutrient-poor habitat termed 'irapayal' comprising taller forest with a dense understorey of irapay palm, which grows on very old, weathered clay soils as well as sandy soils (Isler <em>et al.</em> 2001).   <p></p>
160031151		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
160031151		threats	eng	Based on current knowledge about this species, it has a very specialised habitat niche and a very small geographic range. The habitats in which it is found are subject to intense human activity in a region of rapid population growth. Varillal is heavily exploited for poles for building houses, and the leaves of the irapay palm are extensively harvested to make thatched roofs (Isler <em>et al.</em> 2001). The impact of these threats is exacerbated by the fact that the species has only been found in certain 'varillales', and even fewer 'irapayales', despite intense ornithological surveying (Isler <em>et al.</em> 2001). Despite protection, 200 people have entered the reserve (see Action) and carved out homesteads, illegal hunting occurs, and illegal road building and logging destroys habitat (J. Alonso Alvarez <em>in litt.</em> 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160031159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160031164		distribution	eng	This species has a large range from central Chile and western Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego.
160031164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "generally common to fairly common" in at least parts of its wide range (Krabbe and Schulenberg 2003).
160031176		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160031188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031191		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range in east Africa. Race alfredi, sometimes considered a separate species, is a restricted-range taxon and is found in the Tanzania-Malawi Mountains EBA. The species is present in numerous forest reserves and other protected areas (Fishpool and Tobias 2005).
160031191		habitat	eng	The species occupies lowland, mid-altitude and montane forest, riverine forest, thick bush and bamboo thickets from sea-level to 3000 m, where it feeds primarily on arthropods but also on fruit, usually foraging in the middle and upper strata. A noisy and conspicuous bird, it is often seen in small groups and mixed-species flocks (Fishpool and Tobias 2005).
160031191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031195		population	eng	Rich <I>et al</I>. (2004) estimated the global population to number 1,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 250,000-400,000 breeding pairs, equating to 750,000-1,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary revised estimate of the global population size is 3,130,000-24,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The population in Russia has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160031201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160031209		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species specific action is known to have been taken. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Identify the species's ecological requirements. Conduct a survey and extrapolate data for all rainforest on Amber Mountain to assess the species's population size (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Once a baseline population estimate has been obtained, continue to monitor its numbers. Protect the species's habitat on Amber Mountain.  <p></p>
160031209		distribution	eng	<em>Monticola erythronotus</em> is restricted to a single mountain, the Amber Mountain massif in northern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, and it probably has an extent of occurrence of less than 400 km<sup>2</sup>. The total population is estimated to number less than 5,000 individuals, which occur in a single block of forest on the upper slopes of one mountain, and may be declining, although so far there has been relatively low levels of habitat loss (F. Hawkins<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
160031209		habitat	eng	The species's ecology is poorly known. It inhabits mid-altitude and montane humid, evergreen forest from 800-1,300 m, and forages inconspicuously in the understorey and on the ground. The species nests in tree hollows or in crevices under overhangs (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031209		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number fewer than 5,000 individuals (F. Hawkins <I>in litt.</I> 2003), roughly equivalent to 3,300 mature individuals.
160031209		threats	eng	Presently, there are few threats to the species. Habitat destruction through commercial logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture are widespread threats in Madagascar and may ultimately threaten this species. The clearance of forest on Amber Mountain has so far been limited (F. Hawkins<em> in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160031211		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally common and uncommon in Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031216		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031217		distribution	eng	Subspecies S. e. sanghensis is currently only known from the Dzanga-Sangha Rainforest Reserve (3,359 km2) in the Sangha-Mbaèré Prefecture in south-western Central African Republic, where it is common on both sides of the Sangha River.  Its range may prove to extend into eastern Cameroon, northern Congo and north-western Democratic Republic of Congo (Beresford and Cracraft 1999). It was only collected in 1996 and 1998, and further studies are required to confirm its conservation requirements and distribution.
160031217		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the lower strata of primary forest, mature secondary forest and riparian forest.
160031217		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).
160031217		threats	eng	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction and predation by introduced species.
160031220		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common. Race frenata is described as uncommon in Eritrea and southern Ethiopia and locally common to abundant in the west, central and south-east highlands of Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031240		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local and uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).
160031241		distribution	eng	The subspecies A. p. kaboboensis (formerly considered a separate species) is known only from Mt Kabobo, west of Lake Tanganyika, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where suitable habitat covers no more than 2,000 km2.
160031241		habitat	eng	The species occurs in montane forest, gallery forest, edge habitats and secondary growth, at 1,600-3,400 m. It is generally found in pairs or small family parties, occasionally of 6-8, and feeds on insects and spiders (Urban  et al. 1997). The subspecies A. p. kaboboensis is found in the canopy of montane forest where it has been recorded between 1,600 and 2,480 m.
160031241		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031254		distribution	eng	This species occurs in four disjunct populations in central and East Africa. Subspecies chapini is a restricted range taxon found on the Lendu Plateau in the DR Congo where it is very rare or possibly extinct (Pearson 2006).
160031254		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to very rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031256		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,400,000-3,500,000 breeding pairs, equating to 4,200,000-10,500,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4,470,000-14,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
160031259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (Grimmet et al. 2000).
160031263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Morcombe 2000).
160031264		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/><p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>The following actions have been recommended in order to conserve remaining populations of G. m. hypoxantha: Conduct surveys on both islands to establish its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat requirements. Afford formal protection to further key sites, particularly mangrove habitats. Control logging on Supiori.
160031264		distribution	eng	This species is widespread in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea, including satellite islands, and in northern and north-east Australia. Subspecies G. m. hypoxantha (formerly treated as a separate species) is endemic to the twin-islands of Biak-Supiori in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), Indonesia. There are very few historical records of this form (Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939), and just four subsequent records: three records at Warafri, eastern Biak, in 1991-1994 (Gibbs 1993, P. Gregory, I. and R. Burrows in litt. 1994, N. Bostock in litt. 1999) and several records in and around Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997 (S. van Balen in litt. 2000). It was not recorded during three visits to the islands during the 1980s (K. D. Bishop in litt. 1987), nor three visits during the 1990s (Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b, M. Van Beirs in litt. 2000).
160031264		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mangroves and other riparian or littoral habitats in the lowlands.
160031264		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common in Papua New Guinea and locally quite common in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).
160031264		threats	eng	Whilst the species is not at imminent threat overall, the localised subspecies G. m. hypoxantha  is threatened as a result of habitat destruction on Biak (particularly the southern plains). Much of the forest cover has been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, and the remainder is under pressure (Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop in litt. 1996,D. Holmes in litt. 2000). Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which are likely to be safe from habitat degradation.
160031272		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, across the moist lowland forests of West and Central Africa. The subspecies smithii (previously recognised as a separate species) is endemic to the Gulf of Guinea island of Annobón (Equatorial Guinea).
160031272		habitat	eng	The species is found in moist lowland forests.
160031272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).
160031272		threats	eng	The subspecies smithii could be affected by clearance and modification of its habitat for fruit, oil-palm and sugarcane cultivation (BirdLife International 2000).
160031278		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two of the known sites are within protected areas - Labahe Natural Reserve and Wolong Biosphere Reserve. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>* Conduct surveys to establish its true distribution and status, especially on the Wawu Shan. *Campaign for protected area designation for the Wawu Shan. *List it as a protected species in China. <p></p>
160031278		distribution	eng	<em>Certhia tianquanensis</em> was previously thought to occupy a relatively small range in <span style="font-weight: bold;">China</span>, with records from just five clustered localities in the mountains west of Chengdu and Leshan: Labahe Natural Reserve, Tianquin County; Dayi County; Shuanghe town, Ebian County; Wawu Shan, Hongya County, and Wujipung, Wolong Biosphere Reserve (Anderson 2003, Martins <em>et al. </em>2003)<strong></strong>. However, it was recently discovered at Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve, some 200 km north of the previously known range (Rheindt 2004)<strong></strong>. Subsequently, the species was also confirmed to occur at nearby Taibaishan (B. Anderson <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, and also in the Quinling Mountains, Shaanxi (M. Rank <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. Within this small area, it is often regarded as uncommon and it may also be patchily distributed because it seems to be confined to stands of old conifers (Emei fir <em>Abies fabri</em>), but it has probably been much overlooked (Rheindt 2004)<strong></strong>. Still, the only certainly viable population exists at Wawu Shan (Yue-Hua Sun 2009).<p></p>
160031278		habitat	eng	This poorly-known treecreeper appears to be a relict species breeding in open stands of old-growth Emei fir (<em>Abies fabri</em>) at high altitude (2,500-2,830 m). It forages for invertebrates in the upper storey of large trees by creeping along branches and trunks. Appears to undertake localised altitudinal migrations in the winter (dropping down to at least 1,600 m). It nests in May and June, using cracks in the stems of dead firs (Yue-Hua Sun 2009).<br/><p></p>
160031278		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 700 mature individuals.
160031278		threats	eng	Intensive logging of primary coniferous forests in the last century, even at high altitudes in the mountains of western China, has seriously reduced the potential range of this species. The Wawu Shan table mountain has steep slopes which are inaccessible to lumberjacks in the absence of extensive road construction, but it is not yet formally protected, and there are plans to open up the regions for tourism by building a cable railway. <p></p>
160031280		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).
160031288		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the East African highlands, from Eritrea to north-east Tanzania. Subspecies kulalensis is restricted to Mt. Kulal, northern Kenya, and winifredae occurs in the South Pare Mountains, Tanzania.
160031288		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally common to abundant in much of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).
160031288		threats	eng	The species may be threatened to some extent by habitat destruction and fragmentation
160031291		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A feasibility study completed in 2006 revealed that Sarigan island (5km<sup>2</sup>) is a suitable site for a benign introduction (Martin and Kremer 2006)<strong></strong>, and so a conservation introduction plan was development and birds were transferred in Spring 2008 and 2009 as part of the Marianas Avian Conservation (MAC) Project<strong></strong> (Division of Fish and Wildlife<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2008).  Breeding of the introduced Sarigan population has been observed and the population appears to have increased, but the population is not yet thought to be self-sustaining (F. Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). A brown tree-snake barrier has been constructed at the port on Tinian to support interdiction efforts on the island (N. Hawley <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Breeding surveys are planned for Spring 2012.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Implement stringent measures such as traps and monitors to prevent the spread of <em>B. irregularis </em>onto Tinian, particularly around the airport and the harbour (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>. Avoid introduction of <em>B. irregularis</em> onto Aguijan. Control the spread of <em>B. irregularis </em>on Saipan. Continuously monitor the population on Saipan. Monitor the introduction of the species to Sarigan.   <p></p>
160031291		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops conspicillatus</em> is restricted to the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to U.S.A.) </strong>where it occurs on the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Aguijan. It is very abundant (it was the second most abundant breeding landbird caught in mist-nets during the TMAPS survey on Saipan in 2010 [Pyle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010]) and populations currently appear stable or increasing. On Saipan, the population was estimated to be 534,029 (95% CI: 427,858-650,667) birds in 2007, which was similar to estimates from 1982 and 1997 (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Surveys of Tinian and Aguijuan were conducted in 2008. The population on Tinian (225,360 [95% CI: 192,080-283,200]) appears stable while the population on Aguijan (3,388 [95% CI – 2,492-4,909]) increased from estimates in 1982 (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, in press, Amidon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, in prep). The population on Saipan is estimated to be more abundant in native limestone forest (c. 5,950 birds/km<sup>2</sup>) than in disturbed habitats (c. 4,000 birds/km<sup>2</sup>) (Craig 1996). The nominate subspecies, formerly found on Guam, was last recorded in 1983 and is now extinct (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><p></p>
160031291		habitat	eng	The species is found in a wide range of habitats from native limestone forest to scrubby secondary growth of disturbed habitats and even urban areas. It is less common in swordgrass savannah (Craig 1996)<strong></strong>. It commonly forages in large flocks in the upper canopy of native limestone forest, but also feeds in other habitats (Engbring <em>et al. </em>1982)<strong></strong>. Its food consists of insects, seeds, fruits, caterpillars and berries and it is not strongly nectarivorous (Engbring <em>et al. </em>1982)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. It seemingly competes for food with the larger, dominant Golden White-eye <em>Cleptornis marchei</em>,<em> </em>probably because of the extremely high densities (Craig 1996)<strong></strong>. Breeding occurs in January, February and August, October; though on Saipan there is a distinct peak in February/March (Craig 1996, Sachtleben 2005)<strong></strong>. It nests predominately in <em>Leucaena</em> <em>leucocephala</em> thickets (Sachtleben 2005)<strong></strong>. It is not territorial but birds remain in the home range (Craig 1996)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160031291		population	eng	The population was estimated to be 534,029 (95% CI: 427,858-650,667) individuals on Saipan in 2007 (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), 225,360 (95% CI: 192,080-283,200) individuals on Tinian and 3,388 (95% CI – 2,492-4,909) individuals on Aguijan in 2008 (Camp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press, Amidon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> in prep), giving an estimated global population of 620,000-940,000 individuals.<br/><p></p>
160031291		threats	eng	The biggest threat on Saipan comes from the brown tree snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Boiga irregularis </span>which may be in the process of becoming established there (Rodd and Savidge 2007). The snake has already caused the extinction of the nominate subspecies from Guam (Savidge 1987)<strong></strong> and unless it can be controlled, the Bridled White-eye population is likely to be extirpated rapidly, even though it is currently abundant. The proposed development of Tinian for military training (US Dept. of Defence 2007)<strong></strong> and tourism requires the importation of large amounts of building materials and increases the likelihood of accidental introduction of brown tree snake (J. Lepson <em>in litt. </em>1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>
160031300		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160031303		distribution	eng	The subspecies A. c. relicta (formerly considered a separate species) is restricted to the Pacific slope and in the interior of south-west Mexico, recorded from Jalisco, Colima, Morelos, and the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guererro and Oaxaca (Howell and Webb 1995a).
160031303		habitat	eng	The species is found in a variety of habitats from brushy woodland to evergreen forest at elevations of 1,200-2,500 m, but is essentially a bamboo specialist (Howell and Webb 1995a).
160031303		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008), thus it is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.
160031303		threats	eng	Much of its habitat is being cleared for large-scale agricultural expansion (notably maize, fruit and coffee: Navarro 1992, Stattersfield et al. 1998) and resulting fragmentation may have severe implications considering its apparently nomadic movements in search of bamboo (A. G. Navarro in litt. 1998).
160031308		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031317		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the south of its range (Clement 1999).
160031321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common (Clement 1999).
160031347		distribution	eng	The subspecies modestus (previously recognised as a separate species), is endemic to the island of Príncipe, São Tomé e Príncipe. Increased use of pesticides would reduce the abundance of its invertebrate prey and might lead to its disappearance from cultivated areas. The number of small farms on Príncipe is increasing as land is privatised, which is in turn leading to a reduction in tree cover. It is not known how this will affect the subspecies.
160031347		habitat	eng	Subspecies modestus is widespread in open and forested habitats, with the exception of primary forest on the central massif, and is commonest in open plantations and in edge habitats (Atkinson et al. 1991, J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne in litt. 2000).
160031347		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Hall and Moreau 1970, Roberts 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2001, Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002). The subspecies modestus (previously recognised as a separate species), was considered Near Threatened, although its population size is unknown numbers are assumed to be small.
160031347		threats	eng	The subspecies modestus could be adversely affected by an increase in the use of pesticides, which would reduce the abundance of its invertebrate prey and might lead to its disappearance from cultivated areas. The number of small farms on Príncipe is increasing as land is privatised, which is in turn leading to a reduction in tree cover. It is not known how this will affect the subspecies.
160031349		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is legally protected in Cuba. It occurs in a number of national parks, such as the Sierra de Bahoruco, Dominican Republic and La Bélen protected area near Najasa, Cuba (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>, although nesting has only infrequently recorded in La Bélen (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure the effective protection of habitat in national parks.  Discourage the clearance of native forest for agriculture.  Afford protection to the species and enforce this protection to discourage hunting.  Monitor the species and investigate the effect of hunting on populations. Survey to assess its current distribution and population (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. On Cuba, research the reasons for the species's decline, and take appropriate action (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Support efforts to create an ecological station at Najasa in order to implement conservation actions for this and other key species in collaboration with local communities and regional authorities (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
160031349		distribution	eng	<em>Corvus palmarum</em> constitutes two races, the nominate was formerly widespread in wooded areas from the lowlands to the mountains on Hispaniola (Garrido <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>; however it has decreased and is now localised although not uncommon (Madge and Burn 1993) in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, and only remains locally common in the Massif de la Selle (Madge and Burn 1993, Dávalos and Brooks 2001)<strong></strong> and in the northern pine belt of <strong>Haiti</strong> (<strong></strong>Latta <em>et al. </em>2006).  The <strong>Cuban </strong>race <em>minutus </em>has a very restricted range (Garrido <em>et al.</em> 1997, Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000)<strong></strong>. It is rare and local (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong></strong>, with the only recent records being from five 'municipios' south of Camagüey city in south-central Camagüey province (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007). In Najasa, it is locally quite common (Madge and Burn 1993, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>; although it has undergone historic declines (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998) surveys suggested that it remained stable between 2000-2006 (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007)<strong></strong>. Although it has also been recorded from Pinar del Rio provinces (La Manaja, Los Acostas and El Francisco), there has only been one (undocumented) report from this area within the last 50 years (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>. The species is historically known from Pan Valley, at Guajibon and in the Vinales Valley (Pinar del Rio province); Yaguaramas, near Cienfuegos; in the Trinidad Valley; and in the Sierra de Banao (Sancti Spiritus province) (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 2004)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160031349		habitat	eng	On Hispaniola, birds are usually seen in small to medium-sized groups, foraging on the ground or in trees for fruit, seeds, insects, snails and lizards (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong> and, in Haiti, it has even been recorded around local food markets (T. M. Brooks <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. However, on Cuba though it formerly inhabited wooded areas from the lowlands to the mountains (Bond 1979)<strong></strong> it is now known only from lowland cultivation with scattered groups of palm trees (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong></strong>. Nests are located in stands of tall palms (Madge and Burn 1993)<strong></strong>, with breeding from March-July (Raffaele <em>et al.</em> 1998, A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt.</em> 1999, Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000)<strong></strong>. It roosts communally, including with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nasicus</span> where the two occur together (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007).<p></p>
160031349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031349		threats	eng	On Hispaniola its decline is a result of widespread forest clearance for agriculture and probably also hunting for food (it is reputedly a delicacy) and sport (Madge and Burn 1993, Latta <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.  It is more abundant on Haiti where gun ownership is lower (Latta <em>et al. </em>2006)<strong></strong>. In Cuba, although partial clearance of dense forest may not have affected the species, the intensive clearance of Royal Palm (in which the species nests) for agriculture and livestock grazing may be causing declines and local extirpation, such as in Camagüey province (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007). Housing developments have replaced much suitable habitat, and human disturbance of breeding sites and foraging areas may present a further threat (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007). Competition with Cuban Crow <em>C. nasicus</em>, since habitat destruction has resulted in the overlap of their ranges, was thought to be a potential threat (A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 1998), but it has since been suggested that the two species occupy different niches (P. Regalado <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160031353		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as quite common.
160031354		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160031373		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The company responsible for the construction of the BR-010 are supporting a monitoring study<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Research continues to elucidate some aspects of the species's biology. Future research will measure the home range of the species and try to estimate the total population considering the range and suitable habitats<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In 2010, there were plans to radio-tag some individuals (R. T. Pinheiro<em> in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to ascertain the species's range, numbers, population trends and the threats it faces. In particular, survey existing Protected Areas within the species's range (Jalapão National Park, Jalapão State Park, Lageado State Park and Indigenous Reserve Craos) to confirm its presence.   <p></p>
160031373		distribution	eng	<em>Celeus obrieni </em>was rediscovered in October 2006 after a gap of 80 years since the type specimen was collected in 1926. It was refound during surveys near Goatins in Tocantins state<strong></strong> (Prado 2006), central <strong>Brazil</strong>, c.350 km from the type locality at Uruçui<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2006) in the state of Piauí. Repeat visits to the site of its rediscovery have identified eight individuals with a further four at a second site<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007), and a record has emerged from 2004 on the right bank of the Rio Tocantins, São Pedro da Água Branca municipality, Maranhão<strong></strong> (Santos and de Vasconcelos 2007). By 2007, at least 23 different individuals had been observed between São Pedro da Água Branca, Maranhão State in the north, the municipality of Dianópolis in Tocantins State in the south, Serra da Raposa in Maranhão State in the east, and the municipalities of Miracema do Tocantins, Pium and Miranorte in Tocantins State in the west<strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007, Advaldo Dias do Prado <em>in litt</em>. 2007,<strong></strong> Pinheiro and Dornas 2008)<strong></strong>. In 2009, it was recorded at two further sites in Maranhão, 200 km to the north (Santos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) and also at Rio Barreiro (General Carneiro), Mato Grosso (Dornas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011, xeno-canto.org). In July 2010, it was recorded on the east bank of the Rio Araguaia near Registro do Araguaia, Goiás, and was also reported from Lagoa da Confusão, Tocantins (G. M. Kirwan<em> in litt</em>. 2010). Three individuals have been identified in collections from the state of Goiás: two dating from 1967 and one from 1988 (Hidasi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Dornas <em>et al.</em> 2009). Subsequently, a pair was found in gallery forest on the left bank of the rio do Ouro, Porangatu municipality, in the north-west of the state in 2009 (Pacheco and Maciel 2009). A number of searches have failed to locate the species in the area where the type specimen was collected. Given that it went unrecorded for many years it was assumed to have a tiny population in an extremely small range. However, recent records have increased the Extent of Occurrence of this species to c.806,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it occurs discontinuously throughout this area (Advaldo Dias do Prado <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The population estimate has been revised upwards as a consequence. <p></p>
160031373		habitat	eng	The type specimen and a recently mist-netted bird were from <em>cerrado</em> woodland with open gallery forest and babaçu palm (Attalea speciosa) forest. Within this habitat it shows strong association with the bamboo <em>Gadua paniculata</em><strong> </strong>(P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007<strong></strong>, Pinheiro and Dornas 2008)<strong></strong>. The species appears to specialise in feeding on ants found on bamboo canes (B. Hennessey<em> in litt</em>. 2010, R. T. Pinheiro<em> in litt</em>. 2010). All recent records relate to sightings of single individuals or pairs/family groups. Other aspects of the species's habits are unknown and it seems to occupy markedly different habitat to its sister species, Rufous-headed Woodpecker <em>Celeus spectabilis</em>. <p></p>
160031373		population	eng	A number of recent records have extended the known range of this species and provoked an increase in the population estimate from the precautionary range of 50-249 mature individuals. The new estimate of 250-2,499 mature individuals may still be conservative, given the species's range, and further study is needed. It equates to roughly 350-4,000 individuals in total.
160031373		threats	eng	The main threats to the species are probably from habitat loss and degradation through fires, infrastructure development and conversion to soya crop<strong></strong> (F. Olmos <em>in litt</em>. 2006). In Tocantins, it has been reported that a major expansion in <em>Eucalyptus</em> cultivation will take place to meet demand for paper manufacturing, with more than 1 million hectares of <em>cerrado</em> expected to be converted to plantations (T. Dornas <em>in litt</em>. 2011). In addition to <em>Eucalyptus</em> and soybean, sugarcane is also a major crop in Tocantins (T. Dornas <em>in litt</em>. 2011). The species was recently rediscovered during surveys prior to the building of a new section of the Belém-Brasília highway (BR-010). The new road will facilitate access to the area and the expansion of soybean cultivation will probably follow. Preferred habitat (cerrados with bamboo patches), is frequently burned for cattle ranching; whether this practice destroys habitat or helps to maintain it remains poorly understood; however, in the short-term the extensive habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation that results is expected to have a negative effect on the species (B. Hennessey<em> in litt</em>. 2010). Only around 3% of this species's original habitat may remain (B. Hennessey<em> in litt</em>. 2010). A potential new threat is posed by the construction of dams for hydroelecticity (T. Dornas <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).   <br/><p></p>
160031378		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160031384		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160031389		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160031390		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to determine the population size, trends and distribution. Research the ecology of the species to increase understanding of potential threats, with particular emphasis on determining breeding site requirements, the magnitude of  competition with seabirds for nest sites, and the effect of nest predators on breeding productivity. <p></p>
160031390		distribution	eng	<em>Progne murphyi</em> is known from coastal west <strong>Peru </strong>and extreme northern <strong>Chile </strong>(Arica). It has a small range, within which it is uncommon and poorly known. There are recent records from San Damián in Ancash (<strong></strong>G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2004, D. Geale <em>in litt</em>. 2005,&#160;M. Ugarte-Lewis<em> in litt</em>. 2005), Mejía in Arequipa (T. E. Hoegsaas <em>in litt</em>. 2004, M. Ugarte-Lewis<em> in litt</em>. 2005), and the Chao and Corcovado islands (K. Balta<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong> (Peru), and from the Lluta and Azapa valleys (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2004)<strong></strong> in Chile. Birds are recorded in very small numbers, with the most populated sites being Chao and Corcovado islands (resident population of up to 40 individuals [K. Balta<em> in litt</em>. 2005]<strong></strong>). It was frequently recorded in Oct-Nov in the Lluta valley (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2004), but has not been seen since 2007 (A. Jaramillo <em>in litt</em>. 2012).&#160;<sup> </sup><em> <p></p></em>
160031390		habitat	eng	Very little is known of this species's biology and ecology. It was thought to nest in holes in cliffs, trees or buildings, but recently discovered colonies were typified by nests built on a substrate of saltpetre or on dry-stone walls. Nests are similar to those of Markham's Storm-petrel <em>Oceanodroma markhami</em> and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrel <em>O. tethys</em>, and the colony-holding islands have a low density of guano birds (K. Balta<em> in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species may undergo local post-breeding movements, as numbers in south Peru increase between January and April. <p></p>
160031390		population	eng	Sightings usually involve small numbers of individuals, and come from a very small number of sites. The population size is therefore expected to be low, and is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 mature individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 mature individuals.
160031390		threats	eng	No threats are known, but given the species's ecology, they could include competition for nest sites with seabirds, as well as impacts of nest predation on productivity. <p></p>
160031406		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160031414		distribution	eng	This species occurs on the lower eastern slope of the Andes in extreme western Venezuela (south-west Barinas and south-east Táchira), east Colombia (north Boyacá and apparently west Meta), east Ecuador, east Peru (Amazonas to Pasco, probably also further south), and west Bolivia (La Paz)5,6. Subspecies L. e. elegans is endemic to south-east Brazil, where it is known from Bahia2, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais1,4, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina11 and is likely to occur all along the forested belt of the Serra do Mar from southern Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina. Widespread destruction of forest within its altitudinal limits is being caused by peasant farmers and tea and coffee growers all along the east slope of the Andes10. Many of the foothill forests of the northern portion of the Andes are under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, the effects of which are intensified by road building and human colonisation9. In La Paz, Bolivia, large areas of its foothill forests have already been deforested by colonists from the altiplano for subsistence agriculture and the cultivation of cash crops such as coca and coffee10. In Brazil, extensive and ongoing deforestation is evident, which led subspecies L. e. elegans to be classified as Near Threatened when it was recognised as a separate species. However, much of the species's habitat in central Peru remains relatively intact, especially above 900 m10, and it occurs in a number of protected areas. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
160031414		habitat	eng	The species inhabits montane and lowland evergreen forest at elevations of 400-1,800 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996), but as low as 200 m in Venezuela (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978) and below 100 m on Ilha do Cardosa (Brazil). It is unknown why it does not extend much more widely into the lowlands, but its narrow range at the base of the East Andes may be related to a seasonal migration to higher altitudes, perhaps to breed (Snow 1982). In the Andes, breeding is thought to begin in late August to early September (Snow 1982), whereas in Brazil gonad data suggests breeding occurs in the austral spring and summer, though birds have also been recorded in moult at this time of the year. It frequents both canopy and understorey, at times associating with mixed-species flocks. The diet is reported to be mainly small insects, supplemented by pulpy fruit in season (Snow 1982).
160031414		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031414		threats	eng	Widespread destruction of forest within its altitudinal limits is being caused by peasant farmers and tea and coffee growers all along the east slope of the Andes (Collar et al. 1992). Many of the foothill forests of the northern portion of the Andes are under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, the effects of which are intensified by road building and human colonisation (Dinerstein et al. 1995). In La Paz, Bolivia, large areas of its foothill forests have already been deforested by colonists from the altiplano for subsistence agriculture and the cultivation of cash crops such as coca and coffee (Collar et al. 1992). In Brazil, extensive and ongoing deforestation is evident, which led subspecies L. e. elegans to be classified as Near Threatened when it was recognised as a separate species. However, much of the species's habitat in central Peru remains relatively intact, especially above 900 m (Collar et al. 1992), and it occurs in a number of protected areas.
160031501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Coastal sites are poorly protected in western Madagascar. New wetland conservation intiatives include this species as a conservation target (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The Aldabra atoll is a Special Reserve of the Republic of Seychelles, providing the strongest level of wildlife protection where the only permitted human activities are nature conservation and restricted ecotourism (Rocamora and Skerrett 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2005, the Malagasy Association Voronosy was created to protect the species in Bombetoka Bay by changing the attitude of villagers towards the bird and its habitat (Perschke 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. This has been carried out through posters, education in schools and notices warning against the taking of nestlings or felling of trees. Several projects to develop income-generating activities are underway. A boat will be used for fishing, eco-tourism trips and patrols to protect the species's breeding colonies. The protection measures resulted in an increase in the numbers of young birds in 2006 (Perschke 2006)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Preserve suitable habitat (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Protect nest sites from poaching. Enforce existing legislation. Generate awareness of this species's rarity and local significance through community awareness programmes (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monitor key breeding sites in Madagascar to provide accurate data on population trends through standardised monitoring methods and/or data sharing between organisations (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Investigate whether the species is in competition with egret species such as<em> Egretta dimorpha</em><strong> </strong>(R. Rabarisoa<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Carry out further research into feeding ecology, breeding biology, movements and survival (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.). Encourage income generation projects. <p></p>
160031501		distribution	eng	The specific status of <em>Threskiornis bernieri</em> as distinct from <em>T. aethiopicus </em>has been discussed for some time (Sibley and Monroe 1990, Lowe and Richards 1991<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span>Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993) and is now accepted<strong> </strong>(BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group 2003). Two races are known: <em>T .b. bernieri</em>, found in the saline coastal zone and inland fresh water zone of western <strong>Madagascar</strong> (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep., R. Rabarisoa<em> in litt.</em> 2007) (fewer than 2,500 [Delany and Scott 2002, F. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 2003]<strong> </strong>and possibly no more than 2,000 mature individuals [Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep., Perschke 2006<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong>Andrianarimisa 2006] and declining [Delany and Scott 2002,&#160;F. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.]), and <em>T. b. abbotti</em> on Aldabra, <strong>Seychelles</strong> (300-750 individuals [Rocamora and Skerrett 2001]<strong><sup></sup></strong>), giving a total population of 2,300-3,250 individuals. The species's decline in Madagascar is shown by surveys in 2005 and 2006, in which 24 of the 26 sites revisited after surveys in the previous 10 years showed drastic reductions (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.). However, the species's population increased at Bay de Baly between 2000 and 2004, and appeared stable at Mahavavy Delta between 2002 and 2005 (R. Rabarisoa<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031501		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is sedentary, showing no evidence of either dispersal or migration (Hancock <em>et al</em>. 1992)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding is colonial and often occurs in mixed heron colonies (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong>. Roosting also occurs colonially in groups of several dozen<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Langrand 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It sometimes feeds alone but more often in pairs or small groups (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. Breeding has been observed at the start of the rainy season in the months of November and December (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>The species is believed to be ecologically more restricted than its African counterpart, being largely confined to lowland habitats (mean altitude of 91 occupied sites: 14.9m asl  ± 3.81 SE, range 0 - 191 m asl [Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.]) in saline and brackish coastal zones, mainly mudflats, estuaries, mangroves and shallow brackish coastal lakes. During 2005 and 2006, 82.8% of birds surveyed and 69.2% of occupied sites surveyed or known from the literature were within 2 km of the coastline (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are also observations from inland rice fields and freshwater lakes within forested areas, such as the Manambolomaty complex (Tingay and Gilbert 1999,<em></em><strong> </strong>R. Rabarisoa<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds near to its foraging grounds (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong> and roosts on islets or in trees in the same area (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>.<strong> Diet  </strong>It feeds on worms, small crustaceans, snails, insects, spiders and various organic materials (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.). It will sometimes take small vertebrates including frogs, reptiles and young birds (Langrand 1990)<strong></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The clutch of two is laid in a small twig nest placed in a tree. It may also nest on the ground (Morris and Hawkins 1998)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <p></p>
160031501		population	eng	Population data for Madagascar and the Seychelles, from a number of sources, suggests a population range of 2,300-3,250 individuals, roughly equivalent to 1,500-2,200 mature individuals.
160031501		threats	eng	Over 70% of the species's population in Madagascar resides outside protected areas (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.). It is threatened in particular by the collection of eggs (F. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 2003, Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.), trapping of adults (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.) and taking of nestlings for food (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep., Perschke 2006)<strong></strong>, with drastic declines observed over widespread areas. It is fearless whilst nesting and roosting, making it an easy target for hunters (Andrianarimisa and Razafimanjato in prep.). Existing legislation on hunting is weak and ineffective. The species is also threatened by habitat loss and degradation, with important habitats affected by pollution, sedimentation and the encroachment of alluvial sands. Increased sedimentation results from increases in soil erosion caused by slash and burn cultivation, and these effects are most prevalent in southern Madagascar where the species's population is low. In addition, mangroves are threatened with destruction for charcoal production (Perschke 2006)<strong></strong>. It is possible that the species is in competition for food with egret species, such as the Dimorphic Egret <em>Egretta dimorpha</em><em></em><strong> </strong>(R. Rabarisoa<em> in litt.</em> 2007).  <p></p>
160031507		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally scarce over much of its range, rare and little known in China and locally common in Thailand, Laos and Vietnam (Madge and McGowan 2002).
160031508		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over much of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).
160031509		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031511		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor populations in the locations where it is known to occur.  Survey to discover additional populations. Protect forest at sites where it occurs.   <p></p>
160031511		distribution	eng	<em>Archboldia papuensis</em> is very patchily distributed in the Central Ranges of New Guinea, from the Weyland Mountains of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to the highlands provinces of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is generally rare but locally moderately common.  <em> <p></p></em>
160031511		habitat	eng	It inhabits high altitude forests, often with <em>Pandanus</em> on high frost-disturbed plateaus from 2,300-3,660 m, and rarely as low as 1,750 m (Beehler <em>et al.</em> 1986,<strong></strong> Coates 1990)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.   <p></p>
160031511		threats	eng	Subpopulation sizes and inter-site dispersal is unknown; it may be at risk of population fragmentation (A. Mack <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. It is threatened by logging on two mountains in its tiny range of only c.800 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in Papua New Guinea (Beehler 1985, Collar 1986),<strong></strong> but the larger Papuan populations are judged to be safe.  <p></p>
160031512		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There have been efforts to aid the recovery of the species, including the eradication of predators and translocation of founding populations to islands free of predators (Catedral and Brunton 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In 2004, a research project was initiated on Tiritiri Matangi Island to investigate the reproductive biology of the species and improve conservation practices (Catedral and Brunton 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The island also provides a place for education and public awareness campaigns.    <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Preserve areas of habitat important to remaining populations. Carry out research to determine the current population size and trends. Conduct research into the impact of introduced predators on populations. Carry out control measures on introduced predators, if appropriate. <p></p>
160031512		distribution	eng	<em>Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae </em>is known from <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it was historically extremely abundant on the mainland but is now effectively extinct (recent records are now believed to be cage escapes/releases or vagrants from offshore island populations). Populations currently exist on the Kermadec islands, Three Kings, some Hauraki Gulf islands, Kapiti Island, Stewart Island and surrounding islands, Chatham Islands, Snares, Antipodes Islands, and as a hybrid swarm (with Yellow-crowned Parakeet <em>C. auriceps</em>) on Auckland Islands. The races from Lord Howe Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">subflavescens</span>) and Macquarie Island (<span style="font-style: italic;">erythrotis</span>) went extinct at the end of the 19th century (Hindwood 1940, Taylor 1979). Past population estimates suggest the total population was in excess of 20,000 individuals, but historically the island populations were part of an effectively panmictic population. When the mainland linking populations became extinct, the island populations became isolated, and their effective population sizes are now much reduced. Declines are likely to be taking place on Stewart Island (by inference from measured declines of other species, owing to rat and cat predation), although any decline has been minimal (G. Harper<em> in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031512		habitat	eng	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including dense temperate rainforests, coastal forest, scrubland, forest edges and open areas. It usually only breeds in native vegetation, preferring larger trees, particularly <em>Metrosideros</em>, <em>Vitex</em>, <em>Nothofagus</em>, <em>Olearia </em>and <em>Plagianthus</em>. It nests in hollow limbs, holes or stumps of trees, but will also use holes in cliffs, holes or burrows in the ground, and holes and tunnels in tussocks, particularly where there are no trees or trees are small. It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on plant material but also on invertebrates, and will occasionally scavenge animal carrion. It prefers to feed in the canopy, but in open habitats feeds on the ground. Birds regularly move between islets in island groups, and can cross wide expanses of sea. <p></p>
160031512		population	eng	The population has been estimated to number 21,300-25,300 individuals (Higgins 1999), thus the number of mature individuals is put at 14,000-25,000. However, a more up-to-date estimate is required.  <p></p>
160031512		threats	eng	The species is adversely affected by forestry operations: clear-felling and burning have drastically reduced available habitat, and selective logging may reduce the number of trees with suitable nesting holes and foraging opportunities. Irruptions in the 19th century may have been caused by increased cultivation of crops by European settlers. It was hunted for food by Maori, and was formerly persecuted because birds damaged crops and gardens. It may suffer through competition for food or breeding sites with introduced species (such as the Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em>, Common Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em>, Eastern Rosella <em>Platycercus eximius</em>, Crimson Rosella <em>P. elegans</em>, common brushtail possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula </em>and honey bees <em>Apis mellifera</em>). Introduced predators such as cats, rats and stoats may also impact the species. An outbreak of beak-and-feather disease has been confirmed in the population on Little Barrier Island. This has the potential to cause significant mortality, although effects on the <span style="font-style: italic;">C. novaezelandiae</span> population have not yet been studied (Ortiz-Catedral <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><p></p>
160031514		distribution	eng	<em>Falco duboisi</em> is known only from subfossil bones collected by Bertrand Kervazo in the Grottes des Premiers Français on <strong>Réunion</strong> <strong>(to France)</strong> in 1974<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1994). The only historical record of small falcons is of the <em>emerillons</em> reported by Dubois in 1671-2 as distinct from <em>pieds jaunes</em> and <em>papangue</em>, both of which probably refer to Reunion Harrier <em>Circus maillardi</em><strong> </strong>(Cowles 1987). The specimens are deposited in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris<strong> </strong>(Cowles 1994).  <p></p>
160031514		habitat	eng	It is likely to have occurred in open habitat throughout the island.  <p></p>
160031514		threats	eng	Reasons for its extinction are unknown, but persecution and the depredations of introduced human commensals are implicated.  <p></p>
160031517		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in protected areas, including Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Datta 2009).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout its range in order to clarify current status. Repeat surveys and monitor populations at known sites in order to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction.  Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and tolerance of secondary habitats. Assess potential risk from hunting and trapping. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against logging and encroachment. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce hunting pressure.   <p></p>
160031517		distribution	eng	<em>Anorrhinus austeni </em>occurs in <strong>China</strong> (rare; recorded in southern Xishuangbanna, south Yunnan and south-east Tibet), <strong>India</strong> (a small population resident in the hills bordering the Brahmaputra valley), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (uncommon to locally common in the west, north and east), <strong>Thailand</strong> (generally uncommon in the centre and north), <strong>Laos</strong> (historically numerous, currently widespread and locally common but declining), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (rare to uncommon in Tonkin and Annam) and <strong>Cambodia</strong> (scarce).  <em> <p></p></em>
160031517		habitat	eng	This species inhabits evergreen broadleaved forest in foothills up to 1,000 m in India, 1,500 m in South-East Asia and 1,800 m in China. It is omnivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds and berries as well as arthropods, molluscs and small vertebrates. Active nests have been found in April and May, and the breeding season is thought likely to last from April until July. Whilst apparently able to breed in logged and degraded forest, nesting attempts in these habitats are often unsuccessful owing to human disturbance (Datta 2009).<br/><p></p>
160031517		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it has been described as locally common.
160031517		threats	eng	This species is threatened by forest loss through intensive shifting agriculture, widespread logging activities and road building, and because of high levels of hunting in many parts of its range (Datta 2009).   <p></p>
160031518		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys throughout the range in order to clarify current status. Repeat surveys and monitor populations at known sites in order to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction.  Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements and tolerance of secondary habitats. Assess potential risk from hunting and trapping. Grant protection to areas of suitable habitat to safeguard against logging and encroachment. Raise awareness of the species and its status in an effort to reduce potential hunting pressure.   <p></p>
160031518		distribution	eng	<em>Anorrhinus tickelli</em> is found in southern <strong>Myanmar </strong>(in mountainous areas of Tenasserim) and south-east <strong>Thailand </strong>(at Huai Kha Khaeng and historically south from Hue Nya Pla to Petchaburi River, with a recent sighting in Cumporn Province) (Kemp 1995). Generally uncommon, it is most abundant on the Thai side of the peninsula ridge, although it does not occur on the southern Thailand plains and has been described as 'endangered' elsewhere in the country. <em> </em><p></p>
160031518		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense evergreen and deciduous forest from foothills to 1,500 m, favouring the tallest primary forest, including stands of <em>Hopea odorata</em>.   <p></p>
160031518		population	eng	Data are urgently required on this species's population size. Given the dwindling area of suitable primary forest habitat within its range, its population size could be small. <p></p>
160031518		threats	eng	Forest loss has been prevalent throughout the range as a result of commercial and subsistence logging and agricultural conversion. Hunting and trapping may also be problems for this species.  <p></p>
160031520		distribution	eng	</P>
160031520		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in south-west China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160031521		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is present in Gunung Leuser, Bukit Tigapuluh and Bukit Barisan national parks (Verbelen 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to assess its current distribution and abundance, as well as identify population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
160031521		distribution	eng	<em>Trichastoma buettikoferi</em> is endemic to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it has been described as an uncommon (van Marle and Voous 1988)<strong></strong> and local resident throughout the mainland in lowlands and hills.  <p></p>
160031521		habitat	eng	This species occurs up to 800 m in the Gayo Highlands and 900 m in the Padang Highlands (van Marle and Voous 1988, MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993)<strong></strong>. It inhabits the undergrowth in primary forest, forest edge and degraded woodland, although will sometimes forage up vine-covered trees to the canopy, hunting insects (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Verbelen 2009)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160031521		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
160031521		threats	eng	Given the rapid rates of primary forest degradation and destruction in Sumatra, this species has been inferred to be undergoing a fairly rapid population decline. However, it has been observed in dense young re-growth (D. R. Wells <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2004)<strong></strong>, which suggests that it may be tolerant to some degree of habitat degradation. Future studies on the habitat preferences and population size of this species could lead to its reclassification.  <p></p>
160031522		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>On Tristan, a programme to eradicate cats was successful in the 1970s. Gough is a nature reserve and World Heritage Site and is uninhabited apart from the staff who run a meteorological station (Cooper and Ryan 1994)<strong></strong>. A repeatable monitoring protocol for the species was devised during 2000/1 (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong></strong>.  Following a   2006 review of the impacts of introduced rodents on  Tristan da Cunha and   Gough a  feasibility study was published in 2008.  The study  recommended what research still needed to be  undertaken  before an  eradication effort should be attempted, and since 2008  researchers on  the island have been conducting this  work.&#160; Activities  have included  investigating whether mice living in  caves and lava  tunnels would be  exposed to poison bait dropped by  helicopter (the  answer seems to be  yes), and how best to protect  sufficient numbers of  the two endemic  land birds (including Gough Moorhen) from the risks of  both primary and  secondary non-target  poisoning. A draft operational  plan for  eradicating mice from Gough was prepared in 2010, setting out  in detail a  work plan and a timeframe for the eradication, using  experience gained  from other eradication projects such as the ongoing  work on Macquarie  Island (Torr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Minimise the risk of the introduction of exotic flora and fauna, particularly mammalian predators, to Gough (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Repeat population monitoring at intervals of 5-10 years. <p></p>
160031522		distribution	eng	<em>Gallinula nesiotis </em>is found on Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong> in the South Atlantic Ocean. The nominate subspecies, endemic to Tristan, was driven extinct in the late-19th century (Nicoll 1906). In 1956, seven birds from the Gough population were reintroduced to Tristan, and this population remains on the island. In 1983, the Gough population was estimated at 2,000-3,000 pairs in 10-12 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat (Watkins and Furness 1986)<strong></strong>. This estimate has been recalculated as 4,250 pairs, based on the same pair density data but using new data on relative densities in different habitats and total habitat areas (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong></strong>. In 1984, the Tristan population was estimated at c.250 pairs and increasing. It is now distributed throughout the island, being scarce or absent only in the west (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031522		habitat	eng	On Gough, it is found near the coast, in boggy areas and close to streams, being most common in fern-bush, and somewhat less common in level areas of tussock grassland; it is very scarce or absent in wet heath (Watkins and Furness 1986, P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000, Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. On Tristan, where no tussock remains, it is found in fern-bush (P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on vegetable matter, seeds, invertebrates and carrion, and scavenges petrel carcasses. It also forages for invertebrates in abandoned and active albatross nests, petrel burrows, and will feed on garbage (Watkins and Furness 1986)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It breeds from September to March, on Gough peaking between October and December, and laying between two and five eggs (Watkins and Furness 1986, P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031522		population	eng	The total population is estimated at 9,000 mature individuals based on past survey data, including 4,250 pairs on Gough based on 1983 data, and 250 pairs on Tristan in 1984 (P. G. Ryan <i>in litt.</i> 2000). This is roughly equivalent to 13,000-14,000 individuals in total.
160031522		threats	eng	It is likely that <em>G. nesiotis</em> was extirpated from Tristan as a result of predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em><strong></strong>(P. G.  Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999), though this may have been in combination with feral cat and pig predation, habitat destruction and hunting by islanders (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000)<strong></strong>. The successful establishment of <em>G. nesiotis</em> on Tristan suggests that it is able to cope with current levels of predation by rats, but the greatest risk to the species is still the accidental introduction of this (or another) predator to its stronghold on Gough. Birds have been observed taking live House Mice <span style="font-style: italic;">Mus musculus </span>and scavenging mouse carcasses on Gough (Wanless and Wilson 2007), making it vital that any attempted mouse eradication using poisoned baits takes adequate measures to reduce the potential impact of secondary poisoning on moorhens .<br/><p></p>
160031524		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in many national parks and other protected areas throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).<strong></strong>
160031524		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160031525		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Urgently carry out surveys for this species throughout its range, visiting all known or suspected strongholds, to develop accurate population estimates. Establish monitoring program to determine population trends. Carry out research to determine the reasons for its small population and any declines. Carry out actions to reduce any threats to this species (e.g. control of nest predators). <p></p>
160031525		distribution	eng	<em>Progne modesta</em> occurs on the central and southern islands of the Galápagos Archipelago, <strong>Ecuador</strong> (on Fernandina, Isabela, Santiago, Pinzón, Daphne, Baltra and Seymour, Santa Cruz, Santa Fé, San Cristóbal, Española (no breeding recorded) and Floreana) (Turner and Rose 1989, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Castro and Phillips 1996)<strong></strong>. It has been described as uncommon (Turner and Rose 1989), and the population is likely to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, and may be lower than 600 individuals (D. Wiedenfield <em>in litt</em>. 2004, A. Tye <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. No more than 50 birds have been recorded at any one site (A. Tye <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong></strong>. The population is likely to have undergone a decline over the last 200 years (D. Wiedenfield <em>in litt</em>. 2004, A. Tye <em>in litt</em>. 2005), and this trend appears to continue, but current population trends are unconfirmed. <p></p>
160031525		habitat	eng	It frequents forested areas, mountain tops (up to 970 m), shore and coastal lagoons with mangroves, and feeds around houses on Isabela (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, recent information suggests that it is more restricted, with pairs or small groups seen around the highest peaks, but only occasionally in the lowlands (at sites with special characteristics, such as sheer sea cliffs) (A. Tye <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It nests between August and March, laying two or three white eggs in holes and crevices<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Castro and Phillips 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong> lined with feathers (Harris 1982)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds on insects caught in flight (Turner and Rose 1989,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Castro and Phillips 1996)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is not known to migrate (Turner and Rose 1989)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031525		population	eng	D. Wiedenfield (<em>in litt.</em> 2004) considers the population likely to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, and possibly even fewer than 200. A. Tye (<em>in litt.</em> 2005) estimates the population to number c.600 individuals. Wiedenfield and Jiménez-Uzcátegui (2008) consider it likely to number much fewer than 500 individuals. It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals here, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160031525		threats	eng	Little is known about the threats to this species. Past declines are likely to be due to introduced diseases and parasites, especially the parasitic botfly <em>Philornis downsi,</em> which occurs on all known breeding islands (Wiedenfeld <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and introduced nest predators (e.g. rats <em>Rattus</em>) (D. Wiedenfield <em>in litt</em>. 2004, A. Tye <em>in litt</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031536		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>All five known sites are protected as Forest Reserves or Proposed Reserves, administered by the Forestry Department <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Complete surveys for this species in other wet zone forests <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004), and smaller patches <strong></strong>(C. Kaluthota <em>in litt.</em> 2005). Protect any other sites where it is found. Continue research into the ecology of, and threats to, this species. Estimate its population size. <p></p>
160031536		distribution	eng	<em>Otus thilohoffmanni</em> is endemic to the wet zone of <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is known only from Kitugala, Sinharaja, Morapitiya-Runakanda, Kanneliya and Eratna-Gilimale, despite investigation of c.75% of suitable habitat <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004, U. Sirivardana<em> in litt.</em> 2006). It escaped detection until 1995 due to its unobtrusive and rather ventriloquial call. Fewer than 100 individuals have now been located in the five known sites <strong></strong>(U. Sirivardana<em> in litt.</em> 2006), but it is likely that others remain undetected <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004), and it may well occur at additional sites in the wet zone rainforests. On present knowledge the global population is believed to number c.200-250 individuals <strong></strong>(Warakagoda 2006), although given its elusive nature the true figure may be somewhat higher. <p></p>
160031536		habitat	eng	It occurs in larger areas of lowland rainforest, at 30-530 m altitude <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004). It appears to be generally rare, but locally common <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004), and pairs occupy large territories <strong></strong>(U. Sirivardana<em> in litt.</em> 2006). All locations where the bird has been found so far have been disturbed areas with tall, dense secondary growth <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004). For the two hours after dark, it hunts for prey in the undergrowth, later foraging higher; between the undergrowth and subcanopy <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004). During the day it roosts 1-2.5 m above the ground, sometimes in pairs within a territory and it will adopt a cryptic posture mimicking wood when threatened <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004, Warakagoda 2006). The breeding behaviour of this species is not yet known. <p></p>
160031536		population	eng	Extensive surveys have located 100 individuals and led to a global population estimate of 200-250 individuals. However, given the species's elusive nature and its ability to remain undiscovered for so long the true population size is likely to be somewhat higher. Therefore, it is probably best placed in the band 250-999 individuals. This equates to 167-666 mature individuals, rounded to 150-700 mature individuals here.
160031536		threats	eng	It has not been found in forest patches smaller than 8.2 km<sup>2</sup> in extent, indicating that it is sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation, which has been severe in Sri Lanka <strong></strong>(Warakagoda and Rasmussen 2004). Habitat loss is still continuing owing to pressure from settlement, encroachment on protected forests from subsistence logging and small-scale mining operations. <p></p>
160031537		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather common (Konig et al. 1999).
160031538		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant in its breeding range and locally rather common in Thailand during its non-breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160031539		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Calayan municipal council has passed Municipal Ordinance No. 84, which prohibits the capture, sale, possession and collection of the Calayan Rail (Española and Oliveros 2006)<strong></strong>. Conservation is already being promoted in the Babuyan islands, with environmental awareness being promoted in schools since 2001, and work is in progress to declare the islands of Calayan municipality and the surrounding waters a protected area. A consultative workshop themed "Conservation of the Calayan Islands' Natural Heritage" was held in October 2005 to identify key communication and education activities needed to raise local conservation awareness and cooperation (Española and Oliveros 2006)<strong></strong>. Community consultations in May 2006, with participation by local stakeholders, resulted in a conservation action plan that specifies measures to control slash-and-burn farming, provide livelihood assistance to locals, intensify information and education campaigns, establish a protected area or sanctuary, and strengthen enforcement of environmental laws (Española and Oliveros 2006)<strong></strong>. The Calayan Rail Project, conducted by Isla Biodiversity Conservation Inc. (ISLA), was promoted at the Philippine Bird Festival and has received additional media coverage (Española and Oliveros 2006)<strong></strong>. Since 2007, local stakeholders, mostly young people from Calayan, have been trained in rail survey methods and protocols (Oliveros and Layusa 2008). Awareness-raising campaigns have been conducted in primary and secondary schools, and posters and factsheets have been distributed to communities members and local government staff. An environmental law seminar has been held and the Calayan Environmental Council has been established to formulae policies and implement programmes (Oliveros and Layusa 2008). Consultations have also been held with stakeholders on the establishment of a wildlife sanctuary at Sitio Longog (ISLA Biodiversity Conservation 2008, Oliveros and Layusa 2008). In 2011, the Calayan municipal council passed an ordinance establishing the Calayan Wildlife Sanctuary, covering an area of 29 km<sup>2</sup> of forest in the island’s interior (Layusa<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Further research is needed to clarify the habitat requirements, range size and population size of the species. Promote the establishment of an environmental monitoring system. Conduct further community consultations and education campaigns. Set up a volunteer network for conservation activities. Develop capacity of local officials and community leaders in managing the recently-established wildlife sanctuary and in enforcing its rules and regulations.<br/><p></p>
160031539		distribution	eng	<em>Gallirallus calayanensis</em> is endemic to Calayan island in the Babuyan islands, northern <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was recorded and a specimen collected from Longog, Barangay Magsidel, in May 2004. It was found to be common within its preferred habitat (at an estimated density of one pair per 1-2 ha), and its population has been estimated at 100-200 pairs in the area surveyed. Follow-up surveys in 2005/2006 confirmed that the species is well distributed but localised across the island and recorded a total of 202 individuals from 471 playback stations (Española and Oliveros 2006)<strong></strong>. Surveys conducted since 2005 had detected an apparent decline of 14% in detectability by 2008; however, further data are required in order to more robustly analyse the population trend (Oliveros and Layusa 2008). The range-wide surveys of 2005/2006 estimated a total area of occupancy of 36.4 km<sup>2</sup> out of 73.6 km<sup>2</sup> total area surveyed.    <p></p>
160031539		habitat	eng	Initially thought to be restricted to primary and secondary forest on areas of coralline limestone that is permeated with sink-holes and caves, the species has since been regularly observed in non-limestone forest. Within this habitat it has even been recorded in degraded areas with young secondary growth of low trees. It is also seen in coconut plantations with thick fern undergrowth adjacent to forest. It appears to prefer areas near streams, but the strength of the association is unknown. It has not been recorded in other habitats on the island, including rice-fields or open clearings. The type specimen was collected at an altitude of 300 m. The species forages by pecking at the ground, occasionally overturning leaves, and appears to be flightless, or nearly so. At least one example of this species's nest has been recorded (Oliveros and Layusa 2011). It was located on the ground at the base of a fig tree, having been constructed with dried leaves and stems, and contained three eggs (Oliveros and Layusa 2011).<br/><p></p>
160031539		population	eng	Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004), estimated 100-200 pairs. It has since been found to be locally common, with an estimated area of occupancy of 36 km<sup>2</sup>. Latest estimates based on species distribution modelling and known  densities put the population size at 3,800–6,500 individuals (C. Layusa and C. Oliveros in litt. 2012), equating to 2,500-4,300 mature individuals.
160031539		threats	eng	In those parts of the island with forested coralline limestone outcrops, the soil is often very thin or absent, and hence unsuitable for agriculture. However, in areas surveyed during 2005/2006, an estimated 8.2 ha of primary forests have been converted to farmlands with 4.7 ha comprising newly cleared forests that are being prepared for slash-and-burn farming or kaingin (Española and Oliveros 2006). Some unregulated subsistence logging on the island is likely to remove suitable habitat (Española and Oliveros 2006). Analysis of satellite images from 1979 and 2006 showed an 8% decline in forest cover on Calayan Island, which could mean an 8-27% decline in the species’ range over this period (C. Layusa and C. Oliveros<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). The species seems tolerant of degraded habitat, and the human population of the area is very low. The species is occasionally caught in traps set for Red Junglefowl <span style="font-style: italic;">Gallus gallus</span>, but is not directly targeted. Following publicity about the species it was recorded in captivity and there are concerns that local trade may have a detrimental impact (Española and Oliveros 2006). Introduced predators such as dogs and cats are largely absent. However, the construction of a road around the periphery of the island is in progress. These roads may encourage the spread of settlements, and hence dogs, cats and rats, could threaten the species. The construction of roads crossing through the island’s forested interior started in 2006 but has been discontinued.&#160; Rails have been observed crossing some of these cleared paths during subsequent surveys (Oliveros<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). Plans for tourist developments are yet to materialise, but they may constitute a future threat (C. Española <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010).<br/><p></p>
160031540		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160031546		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
160031547		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from Rinjani National Park on Lombok. Work is underway to inform local people of the importance of this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure the survival of the species by securing further protected areas within its range. Reduce persecution and exploitation levels through local education programmes. Conduct further research on the species's population size, trends and range. Verify records from additional islands. Study movements and determine population structure. <p></p>
160031547		distribution	eng	<em>Spizaetus floris</em> is found in <strong>Indonesia</strong>, on the islands of Flores, Sumbawa and Lombok (on the borders of Rinjani National Park) as well as on two satellite islands, Satonda near Sumbawa and Rinca near Komodo (Gjershaug <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has recently been reported from Alor (P. Collaerts <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011, F. Verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and is apparently present throughout the island (F. Verbelen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Records from Paloe <strong></strong>(Verheijen 1961) and Komodo <strong></strong>(Coates and Bishop 1997) have not been verified. Its population size has been estimated at fewer than 100 pairs, based on the extent of suitable habitat and a territory size estimate of c.40 km<sup>2</sup> (Gjershaug <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>.  The lack of records obtained during fieldwork within its range suggest it occurs at low densities, supporting this population estimate. Population trends are not known, but it is assumed to be declining owing to on-going forest loss in the Lesser Sundas. <p></p>
160031547		habitat	eng	It is found in lowland and submontane forest up to 1,600 m, with the majority of observations being made in lowland rainforest. It has been sighted over cultivated areas, but always close to intact or semi-intact forest; these records may relate to dispersing, immature or floater individuals rather than breeding adults. These records of birds outside core habitat suggest that the species may be able to disperse across the relatively narrow straits between islands so mixing between island sub-populations is inferred. Evidence suggests that breeding takes place during the dry season. Display flight and copulation have been observed on Flores in June-July. A territory size of 40 km<sup>2 </sup>per pair has been estimated <strong></strong>(Gjershaug <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
160031547		population	eng	On the basis of distances between three neighbouring territories, the species's territory size was estimated at c.40km2. Given that it is primarily dependent on forest, this implies that the total population size for the species is probably less than 100 pairs or 200 mature individuals. It is estimated at 100-200 mature individuals, rouhgly equivalent to 150-300 individuals in total.
160031547		threats	eng	Habitat degradation and destruction are the most important threats to <em>S. floris</em>; records are infrequent and it has rarely been recorded during trips to several large forest tracts suggesting extreme low density and casting some doubt on the assertion that it may be able to survive in a partly cultivated landscape. Protected areas in its range are currently too small to ensure its long-term survival. Persecution, due to its habit of stealing chickens, and capture for the cagebird trade pose additional threats. <p></p>
160031548		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common, although rarer in Primary forest and commoner in secondary forest (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
160031549		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout it range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
160031605		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines.
160031605		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, forest edge, scrub and secondary growth from sea-level to 2000 m (Cheke et al. 2001).
160031605		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).
160031610		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Approximately 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest remains on Karakelang, within two protected areas. Although 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest has some form of protected status on Karakelang, 250 km<sup>2 </sup>as a Wildlife Reserve, there is, at present, no management of these sites. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been conducting fieldwork and conservation awareness programmes on the island. Introducing adequate protection measures to the newly gazetted Wildlife Reserve is the focus of a forthcoming four-year GEF project. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey neighbouring islands, in particular Salibabu (=Salebabu) and Kabaruang. Prevent illegal logging and hunting in the two protected areas within which this species occurs.  <p></p>
160031610		distribution	eng	<em>Amaurornis magnirostris</em> was only recently described, and is currently known only from Karakelang (=Karakelong) Island in the Talaud Archipelago, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is sympatric with<strong> </strong>Rufous-tailed Waterhen <em>A. moluccana </em><strong></strong>(Lambert 1998). The population is estimated at 2,350-9,560 individuals<strong> </strong>(Riley 2003). It may also occur on neighbouring islands, in particular Salibabu (=Salebabu) and Kabaruang<strong> </strong>(Lambert 1998), but less than 20 km<sup>2</sup> of forest occurs on these two islands, much of it degraded<strong> </strong>(Riley 2003). <p></p>
160031610		habitat	eng	It is a forest species, but also occurs at lower densities in rank vegetation, scrub, and overgrown plantations up to 3 km from the forest edge <strong></strong>(Lambert 1998, Riley 2003), and has been reported from wet swampy habitat (N. Dymond <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2009).<br/><p></p>
160031610		population	eng	Riley (2003) estimated the population to number 2,350-9,560 individuals, thus here it is placed in the band for 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This roughly equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160031610		threats	eng	Approximately 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest remains on Karakelang, within two protected areas, but there has been no management and these areas are threatened by agricultural encroachment, illegal logging, and fire <strong></strong>(Lambert 1998, Riley 2003). Rails are also trapped for food, but mainly outside forests<strong> </strong>(Riley 2003). Introduced rats, probably Ricefield Rat <em>Rattus argentiventer</em>, are present on Karakelang, and may also pose a threat <strong></strong>(Lambert 1998, Riley 2003)  <p></p>
160031612		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway<br/>The Flinders Ranges and Gawler Ranges National Parks protect significant parts of the range.<br/><br/></strong><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends at key sites. Research optimal fire regimes for the species. Assess the impact of predation by foxes. Actively manage fires to reduce overall extent and frequency. If appropriate continue and extend fox baiting (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
160031612		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>, where it is patchily distributed in southern South Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000, Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. merrotsyi</span> occurs in four subpopulations between Mt Neil in the north and Nelshaby in the south, and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. pedleri</span> has at least three subpopulations in the central and western Gawler Ranges (Higgins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The largest subpopulation, in the south-east of Flinders National Park, is estimated to number 1,000 pairs, with another c.3,000 individuals in three other subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. merrotsyi.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. pedleri</span> numbers c.900 mature individuals, thus the total global population size has been estimated at c.6,000 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). The nominate subspecies may no longer occur at the southern extremity of the range, and the species is inferred to be declining owing to an increase in the extent and frequency of fires within its range (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
160031612		habitat	eng	The species inhabits rocky hilltops, ridges and hillsides covered with clumps of spinifex <span style="font-style: italic;">Triodia</span> spp. tussock grassland and scattered shrubs.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. merrotsyi </span>recolonises 5–7 years after a fire and reaches peak densities 10–30 years after fire (G. Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span>, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). It forages mostly on the ground, eating seeds, fruits, insects and other invertebrates (Higgins<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001).
160031612		population	eng	The largest subpopulation, in the south-east of Flinders National Park,  is estimated to number 1,000 pairs, with another c.3,000 individuals in  three other subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. merrotsyi.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">A. m. pedleri</span>  numbers c.900 mature individuals, thus the total global population size  has been estimated at c.6,000 mature individuals (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011).
160031612		threats	eng	An increase in the frequency and extent of fires, both natural and anthropogenic, along with grazing, represent the most significant threats to the species (Higgins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A single fire event has the potential to eliminate a whole subpopulation (G. Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>., in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). The habitat of the southern subpopulation near Quorn is burned regularly to make it suitable for sheep grazing and much of the region is burned on average every ten years (Whisson 1999, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011). Predation by introduced Red Fox <span style="font-style: italic;">Vulpes vulpes</span> may be significant as intensive fox baiting over 20 years has resulted in comparatively high population densities in south-east of Flinders Ranges National Park (Carpenter 2004, in Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2011).
160031619		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to mountainous areas in northern and central Sumatra, Indonesia.
160031619		habitat	eng	The species is reported to be common in upper dipterocarp, lower montane and tall upper montane forest from 500-2,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
160031619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common, although poorly known (Madge and McGowan 2002).
160031619		threats	eng	The species is currently under limited threat from logging or development, and as such is thought unlikely to be suffering significant declines.
160031623		distribution	eng	This species is a long-distance migrant, having a relatively large breeding range in the taiga zone of Russia and north-eastern China and wintering in Indochina. It is considered to be locally common in suitable areas both in the breeding and non-breeding range (particularly in Thailand, Myanmar and northern Laos).
160031623		habitat	eng	The species breeds in thickets by streams and in clearings in taiga forest up to 1,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 2006). In the non-breeding season it is found in a variety of scrubby habitats in lowlands and foothills.
160031623		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at &lt; c.100,000 breeding pairs and   &lt; c.1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160031623		threats	eng	The species is considered unlikely to be imminently threatened by habitat loss.
160031624		distribution	eng	The species is restricted to mountainous regions in eastern and central Java and on Bali, Indonesia.
160031624		habitat	eng	The species occurs in bushy and open scrub habitats at forest edges, including cleared areas with scattered Causaria trees (del Hoyo et al. 2006.).
160031624		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread on volcanic slopes in central and eastern Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031625		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further searches at suitable altitude to rediscover a population. Determine its habitat requirements. Protect a significant area of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
160031625		distribution	eng	<em>Bradypterus timorensis</em> is endemic to the island of Timor, Lesser Sundas. It is only known from two specimens collected at 1,800 m on Gunung Mutis in West Timor, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, in 1932, and a sight record (August 1972) from forest at 1,800 m near to Same, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Timor-Leste</span> (Dickinson <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>. There have been a number of searches by competent observers, although it is likely to be very skulking and easily overlooked (F. Lambert <em>in litt. </em>2007, C. Trainor <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031625		habitat	eng	The type specimen was collected from the undergrowth of montane forest at 1,800 m (Dickinson <em>et al. </em>2000)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160031625		population	eng	This species is only known from two specimens and as such no population estimates are available.
160031625		threats	eng	Burning and grazing are probably reducing the extent of suitable habitat (C. Trainor <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160031631		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Following a Zoning Plan by the government of Yemen in 2000, c.75% of the island is protected in national parks and nature reserves (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong></strong>. The species's habitats are thus in theory well protected; no additional targeted actions are known. The introduced House Crow <span style="font-style: italic;">Corvus splendens </span>was successfully eradicated from Socotra in 2009 after its accidental introduction in 1994 (Suleiman and Taleb 2010).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to confirm the population size. Monitor population trends. Study the impacts of potential threats, especially the removal of young birds from nests. Discourage nest-raiding for the falconry trade (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong> through education campaigns. Enforce laws against the removal of biological material from the island, thereby reducing nest-raiding (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Ensure adequate management of existing protected areas on Socotra (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031631		distribution	eng	<em>Buteo socotraensis</em> was recently described, having been first collected in 1899, and has been assigned to species rank (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong></strong>. It is endemic to the island of Socotra, <strong>Yemen</strong>. Surveys carried out between 1999 and 2008 suggest that the population numbers fewer than 250 pairs, thus there are probably fewer than 500 mature individuals. There are insufficient data available to establish whether the species's status or population have changed since the first ornithological visits to Socotra in the 1880s (Porter and Kirwan 2010), thus the population is assumed to be stable in the absence of any evidence for trends or significant threats<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031631		habitat	eng	The species is a resident of foothills and plateaux, usually where there are deep ravines, from sea-level to at least 1,370 m, but is most common at 150-800 m (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is likely to require steep cliffs for nesting. Its diet almost certainly consists exclusively of reptiles, invertebrates and perhaps nestlings. Breeding takes place between September and May. Nests are constructed with twigs and located on a cliff-ledge or crevice, and are sometimes supported by vegetation. Recorded broods have usually numbered one to two nestlings, but one pair is recorded to have fledged three young (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031631		population	eng	Surveys carried out between 1999 and 2008 suggest that the population numbers fewer than 250 pairs, thus there are probably fewer than 500 mature individuals. It is placed in the band 250-999 individuals in total, with a mature population likely numbering between 250-500.
160031631		threats	eng	Young birds are occasionally taken from nests in the mistaken belief that they can be sold into the falconry trade; however, it is not known whether this has a significant impact on the species (Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong></strong>. The population may be limited by competition for nesting sites from other native cliff-nesting species, such as Egyptian Vulture <em>Neophron percnopterus</em>, Peregrine Falcon <em>Falco peregrinus</em> and Brown-necked Raven <em>Corvus ruficollis </em>(Porter and Kirwan 2010)<strong></strong>. <br/><p></p>
160031636		distribution	eng	This species occurs from northern India to Sri Lanka.
160031636		habitat	eng	This species inhabits open woodland, secondary growth, orchards, wooded gardens, coffee and pepper plantations and road edges, favouring relatively dry areas, from the lowland plains to 1,200 m. Its diet includes arthropods, fruit and nectar (Wells 2005).
160031636		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common and more common on slopes than at plains level (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031636		threats	eng	It has been suggested that trapping for the wild bird trade keeps many populations below their natural maximum density (Wells 2005).
160031637		distribution	eng	This species occurs in northern Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia).
160031637		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the canopy and edge of mature or well-regenerated montane moist forest, from 2200 m occasionally to as low as 550 m (Wells 2005). Relatively little is known about its diet or breeding ecology, although it is recorded as taking berries and dragonflies (Odonata), and nest-building was recorded in mid-November.
160031637		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031638		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Sumatra (Indonesia).
160031638		habitat	eng	This species occurs in the middle and upper strata of lowland evergreen forest, secondary forest, planatations and village orchards from 600-1000 m (Wells 2005).
160031638		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as previously common in Sumatra but poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031638		threats	eng	The species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction. It has been recorded recently in the European bird trade, but the scale of the threat posed by economic exploitation is unknown (Wells 2005).
160031639		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas across the region which are of increasing importance for it and other large raptors in West Africa. They currently cover just 0.85% of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso and Benin. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further coordinated surveys to establish population estimates and global trends for the species. Establish protection for remaining habitat where grazing and wood-cutting can be kept to a minimum. Investigate potential threats to this species across its range, in particular, the impact of trade on birds in West Africa. Confirm whether it occurs in Kenya. <p></p>
160031639		distribution	eng	<em>Circaetus beaudouini</em> occupies a relatively narrow band of sub-Saharan Africa, from <strong>Senegal, Gambia</strong> and south <strong>Mauritania</strong> in the west to southern <strong>Sudan </strong>and <strong>South Sudan</strong> in the east and south to <strong>Guinea,</strong> <strong>Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Nigeria,</strong> <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and <strong>Central African Republic.</strong> Recorded from <strong>Uganda</strong>, but its status is uncertain in Kenya (S. Thomsett <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Occurs at low density within its range, so its global population is not thought to exceed 10,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). It is known to have decreased by over 86-93% over the last 30-35 years based on comparative roadside counts conducted across its range between Senegal and <strong>Niger </strong>(Thiollay 2006)<strong></strong>.<strong><p></p></strong>
160031639		habitat	eng	It inhabits dry savannah but favours more open areas of grassland and even cultivated areas. It is a seasonal migrant, moving between the Sudan zone (and northern Guinea zone) in the dry season and the Sahel (and northern Sudan) zone in the rainy season, and is thinly distributed, territorial and generally solitary. <p></p>
160031639		population	eng	It occurs at low densities and survey data suggest there are a minimum of 1,000 individuals (J. M. Thiollay <em>in litt.</em> 2006), but in the context of the species's large range the population is better estimated at 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160031639		threats	eng	West African raptors have declined owing to a number of threats associated with a three-fold increase in the human population within the region over the past 30 years (Thiollay 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Habitat destruction has resulted from agricultural intensification, overgrazing, woodcutting (Thiollay 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> and major developments (G. Rondeau<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>, such as urbanisation. Woodcutting for fuelwood, timber and charcoal has caused conversion of woodland into shrubland (Thiollay 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Agricultural intensification has led to aerial and ground spraying of insecticides to control insect outbreaks (Thiollay 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. More specifically, the species is threatened by the spread of cotton fields and the associated use of organochlorine insecticides (G. Rondeau<em> in litt.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Insect swarms were previously an important source of food for raptors directly, or their prey. Livestock are virtually ubiquitous, especially in the Sahel where overgrazing is a major cause of desertification (Thiollay 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In addition, hunting has exacerbated the decline. <p></p>
160031642		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160031645		population	eng	There is little information on population size (del Hoyo et al. 1996).
160031659		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A number of small Special Protected Areas were established by the local government of Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province, and supported by German NGO ZGAP, French organisation CEPA, Leeds Castle, Chester Zoo and WWF-China, following the signing of several Memoranda of Understanding with the Wuyuan Forestry Bureau and local villages (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a)<strong></strong>. Conservation efforts are also supported by other donors and the Hong Kong Birdwatching Society (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a)<strong></strong>. A European studbook is maintained to co-ordinate the captive population held in zoos and private collections (144 birds at 25 institutions in April 2012 [L. Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]<strong></strong>), and the US captive zoo population (c.21 in April 2012 [L. Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012]<strong></strong>) is also managed. A small population is held in Hong Kong (L. Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012) and an unknown number of birds are held by private breeders, some of which will be included in the European studbook (R. Wilkinson and Y. Foulds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. An international studbook has now been approved for development (L. Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, R. Wilkinson and Y. Foulds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). There is uncertainty over the subspecific identity of captive birds, but this matter should be helped by taxonomic research into the relationship between <em>G. c. courtoisi</em>, <em>G. c. simaoensis</em> and <em>G. galbanus<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></em><strong></strong>(Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a). A Conservation Action Plan for the species was established in October 2007 and has been reviewed annually, with the latest review in April 2011 (R. Wilkinson and Y. Foulds <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Between 2000 and 2010, ten searches for the species were carried out in south-western China (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010b)<strong></strong>. Searches have taken place in counties bordering Wuyuan, north-east Jiangxi, and <em>G. c. simaoensis</em> has been searched for in the vicinity of the type locality in southern Yunnan. Awareness and education work was conducted in at least five local schools in summer 2009, establishing a bird monitoring group in each (He Fenqi <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>, and similar work was conducted in 2010-2011 (HKBWS 2011), as funded by the Ocean Park Conservation Fund.<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys in an attempt to identify the wintering range and any additional breeding sub-populations. Establish formal protection for the species against infrastructure development. Continue education work to raise awareness of the conservation status of this species, particularly in local schools in villages where breeding has been recorded (He Fenqi <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031659		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax courtoisi </em>is endemic to <strong>China</strong>. It occupies an extremely small known breeding range in Jiangxi Province. The entire known wild population, restricted to at least five fragmented sites during the breeding season, was thought to number around 200 individuals in 2006 (L. Gardner <em>in litt.</em> 2006, H. Fenqi <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2008; Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a)<strong></strong>, and was estimated at over 240 individuals in 2009 (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a,b)<strong></strong>, an increase that has occurred in line with the increasing number of active breeding sites that are monitored (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a)<strong></strong>. The estimate for 2010 was of more than 200 birds at six sites (Wilkinson and Gardner 2011), and a population of more than 250 individuals was estimated in 2011 (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Surveys in Wuyuan County over the past 10 years have located additional colonies, but it has been suggested that these represent colonies that have relocated after abandoning known sites, thus the current population estimate may account for virtually the entire wild population (R.Wilkinson and Y. Foulds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). In addition, there were c.170 individuals known in captivity in April 2012 (L. Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. The wintering grounds are not known with certainty, but are thought to be near to the breeding sites (R. Wilkinson <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008), as suggested by a record of at least four birds in Wuyuan County in October 2011 (<span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012)<strong></strong>. Current trends in the wild have not been estimated. The species had been unrecorded in the wild since specimens were collected in Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province in 1919 and near Simao, Yunnan Province in 1956. Then birds of Chinese origin arrived in captivity in Europe in 1988 (Wilkinson <em>et al.</em> 2004, Richardson 2005)<strong></strong>. Following this revelation, the species was rediscovered in Wuyuan County in 2000 (Yuan-Hua <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Three birds collected near 22°47' N and 100° 57' E at Simao, Yunnan, south-western China, belong to a separate subspecies <em>G. c. simaoensis</em> which has not been seen in the wild for ten years following heavy trapping pressure during 1988-1993 (He Fenqi 2007, R. Wilkinson <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong></strong>. A total of at least 10 searches conducted in Yunnan and Guangxi provinces by He Fenqi and colleagues in 2002, 2004 and 2005-2009 have not been successful in locating this population (Wilkinson and Gardner 2011). Most, if not all, of the captive population may have originated from south-western China and may thus represent <span style="font-style: italic;">simaoensis</span>, but further research is required to assess the validity of the two subspecies (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010c).&#160; <br/><p></p>
160031659		habitat	eng	It breeds in trees adjacent to villages and human habitation, also near rivers. This habitat has been termed <em>fung shui </em>wood and includes camphor and maple trees (Yu 2003)<strong></strong>. At one location it nests in shrubs close to human habitation. Most chicks appear to hatch in May, although some may hatch in early June (He Fenqi <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Nest guarding appears to be biparental, and juveniles have been observed to be fed by adults other than their parents (Wilkinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004)<strong></strong>. It forages in trees and on the ground in vocal groups, and its diet includes loquat fruit and dragonflies (He Fenqi <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031659		population	eng	A total wild population of more than 250 individuals was estimated in 2011 (He Fenqi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), but the number of mature individuals of this colonial and cooperative breeder is conservatively estimated at fewer than 250.
160031659		threats	eng	Evidence from interviews with bird-trappers, dealers and villagers in western Jiangxi implicates trapping for the bird trade as a major cause of the species's recent decline, with 400 birds reported to have been taken between 1987 and 1992, and trapping continuing until 1998 when a bird export ban reduced profitability (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a,b)<strong></strong>. The targeting of this species was driven by higher prices and trappers report moving on to other sites once they had wiped out local populations (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a)<strong></strong>. Road building developments have destroyed nesting and roosting habitat at more than one breeding site. Urban development and disturbance have also caused breeding site abandonment (Wilkinson and Gardner 2011). A local threat is that of nests inside schools being destroyed by students (He Fenqi <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. The birds receive no legal protection against developments such as resorts, which are being promoted in Wuyuan County. The species's non-breeding range is probably largely unprotected (Wilkinson and He Fenqi 2010a)<strong></strong>. The species's occurrence in human-modified habitats may make it more susceptible to native predators (R. Wirth<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012). Its very small population may now be prone to the loss of genetic diversity (R. Wilkinson and Y. Foulds <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
160031680		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A large protected area covering a representative range of habitats of Yamdena was proposed in 1995 (<strong></strong>Jepson 1995).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Prevent hunting and forest clearance within protected areas. Repeat surveys on the Tanimbar Islands to estimate the species's population size and assess its status. <p></p>
160031680		distribution	eng	<em>Megapodius tenimberensis</em> is endemic to the Tanimbar Islands in <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is sparsely distributed throughout the lowlands, and is thought to be declining owing to habitat loss and exploitation (Bishop and Brickle 1998).<strong></strong>  <p></p>
160031680		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary, old selectively logged and tall secondary, semi-evergreen forest.  <p></p>
160031680		population	eng	The global population is estimated as 1,000-10,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1994), roughly equivalent to 670-6,700 mature individuals.
160031680		threats	eng	This megapode is threatened by forest loss on the island of Yamdena. There is also evidence of hunting in the southern part of the island where forest clearance is most prevalent (<strong></strong>K. D. Bishop <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <p></p>
160031681		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it receives monitoring in parts of its range and occurs in some protected areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Improve monitoring surveys in order to obtain reliable baseline data and monitor future trends. Assess the significance of various threats. Tighten controls on marine pollution. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives protection.
160031681		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanitta americana</span> breeds in western Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>), Newfoundland (<strong>Canada</strong>) and far-eastern <strong>Russia </strong>(e.g. Collinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It winters at sea off north-east America, and in the Pacific on the coasts of North America, Russia, <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>Korea</strong> and eastern <strong>China </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). <p></p>
160031681		habitat	eng	<strong></strong>  <p><strong></strong>  </p><p><strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and often travels considerable distances over land making brief stop-overs on inland waters<strong> </strong>(Madge and Burn 1988). It arrives on its breeding grounds between late-April and May and breeds from late-May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988) in highly dispersed (Kear 2005) solitary pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). After mating (from June onwards) males migrate long distances prior to their flightless moult, most travelling in small groups to inshore or offshore coastal waters (Madge and Burn 1988). Females and juveniles leave the breeding grounds in September (Madge and Burn 1988). The species is highly gregarious when not breeding (Madge and Burn 1988) with males forming large congregations during the flightless moulting period (Kear 2005) and large flocks of several hundred to a thousand (Snow and Perrins 1998) or occasionally over 100,000 individuals occurring during winter (Scott and Rose 1996). Non-breeders often oversummer on the wintering grounds (Madge and Burn 1988). <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on Arctic dwarf heath (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005) or boggy tundra on pools, small lakes, streams (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and slow-flowing rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for freshwater habitats<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) with low banks (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), small islets (Kear 2005) and high abundances of aquatic invertebrate and plant life positioned in swampy valleys<strong><sup> </sup></strong>or among mossy bogs (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), especially where suitable shrubs (e.g. willow or birch) and herbaceous vegetation are available for nesting cover (Johnsgard 1978, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005). It generally avoids areas with steep slopes or wetlands enclosed by forest (Kear 2005). <em>Non-breeding</em> Although the species may use freshwater lakes on migration (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005) the majority moult and overwinter at sea (Kear 2005) on shallow inshore waters less than 20 m deep (Kear 2005) (optimally 5-15 m) (Scott and Rose 1996) with abundant benthic fauna (Kear 2005), generally between 500 m and c.2 km from the shore (Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, especially during the winter<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), although it occasionally takes other aquatic invertebrates such as crustaceans<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. barnacles and shrimps) (Johnsgard 1978), worms<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), echinoderms, isopods, amphidods (Kear 2005) and insects<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. midges and caddisflies) as well as small fish<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and fish eggs (Snow and Perrins 1998). On the breeding grounds the species may also consume plant matter<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) such as seeds, roots and tubers (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape on the ground hidden amongst vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) close to water (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005) or placed further away in dwarf heath (Kear 2005).</p>    <p></p>
160031681		population	eng	The total population is estimated to number c.530,000-830,000 individuals (Delany and Scott 2006), probably including c.350,000-560,000 mature individuals, on the basis that they probably account for around 2/3 of the population.
160031681		threats	eng	The large concentrations of this species that occur during the moulting period and in winter are highly vulnerable to oil spills<strong></strong>, chronic oil pollution, human disturbance and the degradation of food resources as a result of oil exploration<strong></strong> (Gorski <em>et al.</em> 1977, Nikolaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species also suffers disturbance from high-speed ferries<strong></strong> (Larsen and Laubek 2005). The effects of  commercial exploitation of benthic shellfish also poses a threat  (through competition for food resources)<strong></strong> (Kear 2005), and the species's breeding habitats are threatened by eutrophication in some areas<strong></strong> (Kear 2005). The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong></strong> (Melville and Shortridge 2006).<strong></strong><br/><p></p>
160031685		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in south-east India and Sri Lanka.
160031685		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a variety of open habitats, including scrub-covered rocky ground, fallow fields with bushy margins, bamboo thickets, forest edges and scrubby glades within open forest, up to a maximum altitude of 1500 m (de Juana et al. 2004).
160031685		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally common (de Juana et al. 2004).
160031687		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in central Myanmar.
160031687		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a variety of open habitats with scattered bushes and trees, including arable land and sandy fallow fields (de Juana et al. 2004).
160031687		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally common to very common (de Juana et al. 2004).
160031715		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it is known only from widely scattered localities on the Vogelkop and central ranges, and in the Tari area, although it may prove to be more widespread.
160031715		habitat	eng	The species inhabits upper montane forest typically between 2,000 m and 2,850 m, probably up to 3,450 m and locally as low as 1,200 m in Irian Jaya (Coates 1990). It is often shy and secretive, and may easily be missed. Its presence may be revealed by its song, a simple descending series of four to six pleasantly whistled, clear notes (Coates 1990).
160031715		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally common in the north-west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160031720		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Mayotte in the Comoros.
160031720		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Konig et al. 1999).
160031735		distribution	eng	This species breeds in Gansu and Qinghai provinces, China. Its wintering grounds are unknown but are likely to lie to the south given the harsh winter conditions in Gansu province.
160031735		habitat	eng	The species breeds in deciduous forest up to an altitude of 3,200 m.
160031735		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031735		threats	eng	Existing threats to the species have not yet been evaluated.
160031737		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in the Danum Valley Conservation Area and Sepilok Reserve <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.  <p></p>
160031737		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta ussheri</em> is confined to Sabah, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it has been described as locally common throughout its range <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003, F. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 2010). <p></p>
160031737		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense primary forest and secondary to heavily logged forest. It breeds from early February to August with a clutch of 2 eggs. Its diet comprised of insects, small snails and seeds from fruit, and it forages by probing the leaf litter and damp soil, sometimes foraging on logs.  <p></p>
160031737		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species has been described as common in logged and unlogged forest edges throughout its range (F. Lambert <i>in litt.</i> 2010).
160031737		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary and logged forest <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2003).  <p></p>
160031754		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031755		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in eastern China.
160031755		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest and secondary growth up to 1500 m (Robson 2000).
160031755		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160031756		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending from south-east China to north-east India and northern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.
160031756		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest, secondary growth and bamboo, breeding from 1,400-2,500 m but found as low as sea-level in the winter (Robson 2000).
160031756		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031757		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in eastern China and northern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.
160031757		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest and secondary growth, typically breeding from 1,750 up to at least 1,900 m, and wintering down to 450 m (Robson 2000).
160031757		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160031758		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending across the Himalayas of north-west Pakistan, northern India, southern China, Nepal and Bhutan.
160031758		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest, secondary growth and bamboo from 2,000-2,750 m (Robson 2000).
160031758		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031782		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common.
160031783		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely local.
160031785		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No species specific conservation measures have been put in place for this species, but it has been recorded in the Sinharaja Rainforest Sanctuary and several other national parks and forest reserves. Furthermore, a moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging, but encroachment continues. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Follow up on the first record of this species from the Intermediate Zone by conducting further survey work in remnant forest blocks in both the Wet Zone and Intermediate Zone that might support this species. Protect areas of lowland forest within the species's range. Enforce restrictions on logging and agricultural encroachment within wet zone forests. Generate density estimates to inform a revised population estimate for the species. <p></p>
160031785		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera imbricata</em> occurs in the Wet Zone of south-west <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sri Lanka</span>. Its population is thought to be moderately small as it is reportedly uncommon. <p></p>
160031785		habitat	eng	Resident in moist evergreen forest from 400-2,200 m within the "Wet Zone" of Sri Lanka. A recent record suggests the species also inhabits forest in the "intermediate zone". Also recorded from plantations, copses and parks (Collar 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031785		population	eng	While the population size has not been properly estimated, owing to the species restricted range and declines in the area of available habitat in preceeding decades, the population is thought to be moderately small, hence it is perhaps best placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
160031785		threats	eng	Deforestation leading to habitat fragmentation is the major threat to this species. Forest loss is driven by mining, clear-cutting, selective logging, subsistence use and agricultural encroachment. <p></p>
160031789		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the island of Seram in Indonesia.
160031789		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest and is reportedly common in lowland areas, including in secondary growth and around villages (Rasmussen et al. 2000).
160031789		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reportedly common in lowland areas on the island (Rasmussen et al. 2000).
160031789		threats	eng	The species is to some extent tolerant of habitat degradation but widespread forest clearance does pose a threat.
160031800		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, extending south-west across China from the Bo Hai gulf to the Himalayas, and possibly extending into northern Myanmar and north-east India (Reindt 2006).
160031800		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and secondary growth from 450-2300 m (Robson 2000).
160031800		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160031802		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A Togian Islands National Park was declared by the Ministry of Forestry in 2004, and includes over 250 km<sup>2</sup> of terrestrial habitat, including areas in which this species is known to occur. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to establish the full extent of the species's range and how large its current population is. Determine what threats to the species exist. <p></p>
160031802		distribution	eng	<em>Ninox burhani</em> has a very small range, being only known from the islands of Malenge, Togian and Batudaka in the Togian archipelago off central Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Verbelen and Demeulemeester 2010). Aural encounters believed to relate to this species on Waleabahi Island to the east imply it is widespread in moderate numbers throughout the archipelago. It may be declining but current trends have not yet been studied.  <p></p>
160031802		habitat	eng	A resident of lowland and hill forest, it has been recorded in scrubby woodland surrounded by evergreen forest and also in degraded forest, mixed gardens and sago swamp, at elevations from sea-level to 400 m (Verbelen and Demeulemeester 2010).  <p></p>
160031802		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals in total, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals (M. Indrawan <em>in litt.</em> 2006).
160031802		threats	eng	As the species is largely forest-dependent, continuing forest clearance for agriculture and logging represents a threat. <p></p>
160031805		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea fluxa</em> was endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was restricted to the small, uninhabited island of Eiao.<strong> </strong>Despite a number of searches in 1987 and since (Thibault and Meyer 2001), it has not been seen since 1977, and is considered to be extinct<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Thibault 1989, Cibois <em>et al</em>. 2004)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160031805		habitat	eng	It inhabited lowland dry forest.  <p></p>
160031805		threats	eng	Introduced predators including feral cats, Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and possibly black rat <em>R. rattus </em>were present on the island at the time of the species's demise, and may have contributed to declines. The introduction of Chestnut-breasted Munia <em>Lonchura castaneothorax</em> coincided with its extinction on the island, implying that an avian disease may have been transmitted to this population<strong> </strong>(Thibault 1989). Native low-elevation dry forest has drastically decreased due to intense grazing by sheep introduced c.1880<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984,<strong> </strong>Thibault and Meyer 2001), and<strong><sup> </sup></strong>this may have been an additional factor. <p></p>
160031806		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation measures underway</span><br/>A survey is planned for 2012 to follow-up on the sighting of the species in 2010 (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011, 2012).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation measures proposed</span><br/>Conduct surveys to locate any remaining populations and, if found, urgently assess action required for its recovery.
160031806		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea mira</em> was formerly endemic to the island of Ua Pou in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. The last record was in March 1985, when two birds in immature plumage were seen in Hakahetau valley<strong> </strong>(Thibault and Meyer 2001). It was not located during 1989, 1990 or during intensive searches in 1998 and 1999 (Anon. <strong></strong>1998, Thibault and Meyer 2001), and has been considered Extinct ever since. However, a bird matching the monarch's description was observed by a walker on the island in 2010. Follow-up surveys are planned for 2012 (P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2011); confirmation of the record would represent a remarkable rediscovery of a bird thought certain to be extinct.<br/><p></p>
160031806		habitat	eng	This mainly insectivorous species occurred in forested valleys at high elevations and in degraded forest at all altitudes (probably originally preferring lowland forests which are now destroyed).  <p></p>
160031806		population	eng	Any remaining population is presumed to be tiny.
160031806		threats	eng	All the Marquesas Islands have been devastated by intense grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and upland forest to relict forest patches. Introduced species are also likely to have played a role in the species's demise, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus. <p></p></em>
160031807		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea nukuhivae</em> was formerly endemic to the island of Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. It was considered not common in 1922 and rare in the 1930s, the last confirmed sightings. It was not seen in 1972 or 1975 despite several weeks of intensive searches. There were unconfirmed sightings in 1975 by two hunters of a passerine bird matching this species's description, but the species was not seen 1997 or 1999<strong> </strong><strong></strong>(Thibault and Meyer 2001) and is considered extinct. <em> <p></p></em>
160031807		habitat	eng	This mainly insectivorous species occurred in forested valleys at high elevations and in degraded forest at all altitudes (probably originally preferring lowland forests which are now destroyed).  <p></p>
160031807		threats	eng	All the Marquesas Islands have been devastated by intense grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and upland forest to relict forest patches. Introduced species are also likely to have played a role in the species's demise, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus.</em> <p></p>
160031808		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but it has been described as common in most of its range (Sangster and Rozendaal 2004).
160031809		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).
160031811		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation measures are currently known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to assess the population size and status of this species. Assess current agricultural impacts, and attempt to mitigate future plans. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <p></p>
160031811		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera leucolema</em> is endemic to the small island of Enggano, 100 km off the south-west coast of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it has been described as "common" (Collar 2004)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031811		habitat	eng	The species is forest-dependent, although it is not restricted to primary forest and is seen regularly in degraded forest areas (Verbelen 2009). There is little information on its breeding or ecology. <p></p>
160031811		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
160031811		threats	eng	Habitat destruction on Enggano has, thus far, been minimal, but recent tentative proposals for agricultural development suggest the possibility for future radical change, and this may exert pressure on the small population of this species. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is possible that this threat is also impacting this species (Collar 2004, N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. However, Verebelen (2009) considered it less likely than congeners to be targeted due to its "less than melodious song", and found no evidence or anecdote to suggest it is trapped. Further research is required to determine whether trapping really does pose a threat. <p></p>
160031812		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation measures are currently known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to assess the specific habitat requirements and overall population size of this species. Verify the appearance and taxonomic status of the taxon on Taliabu. Estimate the likely impact of forest loss on Taliabu using satellite imagery and remote sensing. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. Protect significant areas of forest on Peleng and Taliabu, in both strictly protected areas and community-led multiple use areas. <p></p>
160031812		distribution	eng	<em></em>This species is known from Peleng, in the Banggai Islands, and Taliabu, in the Sula Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Collar 2004). It has been described as "extremely scarce" on Taliabu (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031812		habitat	eng	It is known from lowland forest on Taliabu at 50-300 m altitude, including selectively logged and degraded forests with bamboo stands (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong></strong>. It is usually recorded alone or in pairs, foraging on arthropods or molluscs on the ground (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong></strong>. There is no information on breeding ecology. <p></p>
160031812		population	eng	There are no population size data for this species, but the size of the Extent of Occurrence, and data on the population densities of similar species, suggest that the population may number approximately 20,000-49,999 individuals.
160031812		threats	eng	Habitat destruction is a potential threat, but the species appears able to tolerate at least a degree of habitat degradation. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species (Collar 2004, N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160031813		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas but law enforcement within these is often poor and deforestation continues.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish current population trends. Increase capacity for law enforcement within protected areas. Establish new protected areas to conserve existing forest fragments. <p></p>
160031813		distribution	eng	<em>Myophonus castaneus</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra in <strong>Indonesia</strong> where it occurs in the foothills and mountains. It was recently split from Bornean Whistling-thrush <em>M. glaucinus</em> and Javan Whistling-thrush <em>M. borneensis</em>, formerly all lumped under Sunda Whistling-thrush <em>M. glaucinus</em>. The two other species are the only <em>Myophonus</em> endemic to their respective islands and are both widespread. <em>M. castaneus</em>, however, is scarce on Sumatra, apparently occupying a narrower niche, possibly owing to competition with Shiny Whistling-thrush <em>M. melanurus</em>. It is thought to be declining owing to habitat loss, as deforestation is widespread and continuing on Sumatra. <p></p>
160031813		habitat	eng	The species is found in hill and mountain forest between 400 and 1,500 m (van Marle and Voous 1988)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs in the subcanopy and middle-storey along watercourses and dry riverbeds (Collar 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160031813		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce everywhere within its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031813		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat to this species. At least a third of montane rainforest on Sumatra has already been lost, primarily as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging. These factors are affecting large areas of lower montane rainforest, even within protected areas. <p></p>
160031814		distribution	eng	This species is endemic Borneo, Indonesia and Malaysia.
160031814		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest from sea level to 2,400 m altitude, occasionally to 2,700 m on Mount Kinabalu (Clement and Hathway 2000, Collar 2004). It is most often found along gullies and streams (Collar 2004).
160031814		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160031814		threats	eng	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation.
160031915		distribution	eng	This species breeds in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, and is at least partly migratory, with records from Panama, Colombia, Suriname, Venezuela and French Guiana in the austral winter.
160031915		habitat	eng	The species' main habitats are lowland evergreen forest edge, secondary forest, and second-growth scrub (Chantler 1999).
160031915		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in its breeding range and less common in its wintering range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160031916		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the rarer South American swifts (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160031917		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in western Colombia and Ecuador.
160031917		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is presumed to be large given that it is described as fairly common to locally common in at least parts of its range, and appears to tolerate at least a degree of habitat degradation (Ridgeley and Greenfield 2001).
160031932		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in the 4.8 km<sup>2 </sup>Reserva Biológica de Saltinho. Approximately 240 km<sup>2</sup> of the remaining 1,900 km<sup>2</sup> of Pernambuco Atlantic Forest are protected within 52 reserves but these almost exclusively support small fragments. Legal restrictions exist to attempt to curb the rate of forest loss. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protection of remaining lowland forest fragments in the area is urgently needed, along with more effective law enforcement to prevent illegal deforestation. Further surveys are required to locate other populations outside the known range; erecting nest boxes in potentially suitable forest fragments should be considered<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2008) as well as using playback. <p></p>
160031932		distribution	eng	<em>Glaucidium mooreorum </em>was newly described from the Reserva Biológica de Saltinho (which covers just 4.8 km<sup>2</sup>) in Atlantic coastal forest in Pernambuco, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was tape-recorded in the same locality in November 1990. The species was also found in a 100 ha forest patch at Usina Trapiche (08 35'S, 35 07'W) in November 2001. It occupies a tiny and severely fragmented range. Playback surveys in lowland forests elsewhere in Pernambuco and Alagoas states since 2004 have failed to locate this species<strong> </strong>(S. A. Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2008), and there are no records from other well-surveyed forest sites in the region. Its population has not been estimated accurately but is assumed to be tiny based on the lack of records outside its tiny range and continuing deforestation within the area.<em> <p></p></em>
160031932		habitat	eng	It has been recorded in the canopy of old secondary forest where it was observed eating a cicada. An unconfirmed report suggests the species is vocal during the rainy months of April and May<strong> </strong>(S. A. Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2008). It has been recorded in forest up to 150 m but has not been found in other well-surveyed forests in the region at elevations between 400 and 600 m. <p></p>
160031932		population	eng	Playback surveys in lowland forests of Pernambuco and Alagoas states since 2004 have failed to locate this species (S. A. Roda <I>in litt.</I> 2006). Its known distribution is tiny and the extent of habitat in the region has been dramatically reduced, the remainder is severely fragmented. If it remains extant, its population is likely to number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
160031932		threats	eng	The Pernambuco Center where this species was described is by far the most modified region of Atlantic Forest having declined in extent from c.39,500 km<sup>2</sup> to c.1,900 km<sup>2</sup> by 2002. The remainder is severely fragmented and legal restrictions have proven inadequate in halting deforestation from fire and illegal logging. Some suitable habitat does remain at the type locality<strong> </strong>(S. A. Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2008). Hunting is also reported to pose a threat to this species. <p></p>
160031939		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia.
160031939		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common. Common in Manu National Park and Tampopata-Candamo Reserved Zone, Peru (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160031940		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from two protected areas: Munchique National Natural Park (where forest clearance still occurs) and Mirabilis-Swarovski Bird Reserve on Cerro Munchique, which encompasses the majority of the species's range and was formerly threatened by forest clearance but was purchased in 2004 by Fundación ProAves with the support of the American Bird Conservancy and Swarovski Optik (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring existing populations and survey new areas for additional subpopulations. Lobby the government to adequately protect known sites, which support this and other threatened species, by directing resources more effectively. Support local organisations seeking to protect key sites. <p></p>
160031940		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the western Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, and is found where the departments of Chocó, Antioquia and Risaralda meet, in Munchique massif (Valle de Cauca) (Kroodsma and Brewer 2005)<strong></strong>, in extreme eastern Chocó and south-west Antioquia department, and in extreme south-eastern Chocó near the town of El Cairo where a population of at least 5 individuals was discovered in 2008 (van Oosten and Cortes 2009)<strong></strong>. It appears to have very specific habitat requirements, being restricted to the Pacific slope of the very peaks of the highest mountains/ridges on the Western Cordillera. The Western Cordillera is the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's three Andean ranges<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. As a result this species's global area of occupancy is tiny. A total of 5-8 territorial pairs or males were registered along a 2-km transect (equating to 10-16 pairs per km<sup>2</sup>). This represents a much lower density than parapatric populations of Grey-breasted Wood-wren (c.10-14 territorial pairs per 2 km transect) (P. Saraman <em>in litt</em>. 2006, <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. Extrapolating the estimated population density across the known range gives a population estimate of 180-288 pairs (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2006). This extremely small population is likely to be declining owing to ongoing forest clearance. There have been many surveys of the high peaks along the Western Cordillera (both historically and in the past decade) that have failed to record this species, suggesting there are unlikely to be many undiscovered populations remaining (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2006).<em> <p></p></em>
160031940		habitat	eng	It is very specific in its habitat requirements, occurring in extremely wet, stunted cloud forest where it occurs in naturally disturbed forest with patchy successional habitat on steep slopes, typically preferring an extremely dense understorey smothered in epiphytes at forest borders, landslides and along stream gullies. This forest is characterised by almost continuous cloud or fog cover (Kroodsma and Brewer 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been recorded between 2,250 m and 2,640 m. It feeds on arthropods gleaned from near to the forest floor, typically below 2 m. It associates briefly with passing multi-species flocks (Kroodsma and Brewer 2005)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160031940		population	eng	Densities could be as high as 1 pair per 1-2 ha. Extrapolating the estimated population density to the Cauca and Antioquia area of occupancy - gives a global population as few as 180 pairs or as many as 288 pairs. Whilst this may prove to be overly conservative, it is based on the data available (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2006). It is thus best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equating to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160031940		threats	eng	Forest clearance affects this species directly, but it also leads to reduced cloud and fog cover and a general drying of the habitat. This allows congeners to colonise the areas where Munchique Wood-wrens currently occur in isolation<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Climate change has the potential to shift the elevation at which Munchique Wood-wren and Grey-breasted Wood-wren replace one another upwards, potentially reducing the possible range of the species<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. However, of more immediate concern, climate change is contributing to the increase in the severity of dry seasons in the region that have facilitated many human-induced fires in otherwise extremely wet forests (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). Human pressure in Munchique is escalating. Consequently, deforestation within Munchique National Park, until recently essentially pristine, is now a serious issue and has escalated at an alarming rate (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2008). <p></p>
160031943		distribution	eng	This species has a large range from north-east Colombia east to northern Brazil.
160031943		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common and especially common on Venezuelan llanos (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160031946		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, occurring from the coastal cordillera of Venezuela along the Andes south to south-east Peru and central Bolivia.
160031946		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as uncommon to fairly common, and locally common in at least parts of its wide range (Marantz et al. 2003).
160031952		distribution	eng	This little known species has a large range in the eastern slopes of the Andes, and western Amazon, from extreme south-east Ecuador to north-east Peru.
160031952		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is presumed to be large given its relatively wide range.
160031953		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia.
160031953		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout most of its extensive range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031954		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, occurring in south-east Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and north-east Argentina.
160031954		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is presumed to be large given its wide range.
160031964		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in the east Andes and adjacent lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
160031964		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Ecuador and locally frequent in Colombia (Restall et al. 2006).
160031967		distribution	eng	This species has a large range across boreal North America, and into the Rocky Mountains of the USA.
160031967		habitat	eng	The species inhabits mature conifer forests, particularly spruce Picea spp., and is somewhat irruptive, being found commonly where disturbance such as fire has caused local outbreaks of insects (Winkler et al. 1995).
160031967		threats	eng	Large-scale commercial logging and modern forestry management practices, including fire suppression and removal of dead or insect-infested trees, are likely to have led to declines of this species (Hutto 1995, Leonard 2001).
160031969		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Bolivia, south-west Brazil, and northern Paraguay.
160031969		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Remsen 2003).
160031983		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1992
160031986		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031987		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in Rio Abiseo National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031990		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Peru (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031991		distribution	eng	This recently described species has a restricted range in southern Ecuador and northern Peru.
160031991		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common in Ecuador; uncommon in Peru and numerous in Podocarpus National Park and in Tapichalaca Biological Reserve, in Ecuador (Krabbe and Schulenberg 2003).
160031992		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs in a protected area at Buenaventura where it is apparently rare and has declined in the past 12 years<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(L. Navarete <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct playback surveys in September and October in Buenaventura and within the species's altitudinal range at Azuay to monitor population numbers and trends. Encourage SE Guayas and El Oro banana companies to protect remaining forest within their catchments (P. Coopmans <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Establish protected areas within the species's range to help protect remaining forest fragments. <p></p>
160031992		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus robbinsi </em>occupies a small known range at Azuay and El Oro on the Pacific slope in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Its population size has not been estimated but it is reportedly rarer than El Oro Parakeet <em>Pyrhura orcesi</em><strong></strong> (R. Ridgely <em>in litt</em>. 2003), which occupies a very similar range and whose population has been estimated at less than 1,000 individuals and declining. The species is suspected to be declining rapidly based on estimates of habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. <p></p>
160031992		habitat	eng	It is a forest dependent species, occurring in the undergrowth of wet forest apparently favouring the most humid areas (Krabbe and Schulenberg 1997, Mery Juiña <em>in litt</em>. 2006). It has been recorded between 700 and 1,250 m above sea level (Krabbe and Schulenberg 1997). <p></p>
160031992		population	eng	This species occupies a similar range to El Oro Parakeet, the population of which has been estimated at 2,000 to 10,000 individuals in 2004 (BirdLife International 2004)<strong></strong>. Ecuadorian Tapaculo is more patchily distributed within this range and comparisons suggest that it is less common (R. Ridgely <em>in litt.</em> 2003). It is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equating to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. Population estimates for the El Oro Parakeet have since been revised downwards and it maybe necessary to revise the population estimate for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scytalopus robbinsi</span> in the future.
160031992		threats	eng	The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation within its small range. As a forest dependent species intolerant of significant habitat modification it is reportedly more susceptible to these threats than El Oro Parakeet <em>Pyrhura orcesi</em>, which occupies a very similar range and is considered to be Endangered. The main threats to remaining habitat are posed by intensification of agriculture, forest clearance for livestock and conversion to plantations. <p></p>
160031994		distribution	eng	This species has a moderately small range in the Andes of east-central Peru in southern Cordillera Vilcabamba.
160031994		habitat	eng	The species is not strongly dependent on forest, favouring Ichu grassland with heath bushes.
160031994		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031994		threats	eng	The species grassland habitat is under moderate pressure from burning but its rate of decline is not rapid and reportedly vast areas are inaccessible. Its habitat has changed little since Incan times. The species is recorded around houses and in disturbed areas so despite its small range it appears tolerant of some habitat modification and human pressures are not strong where it lives, though fires may continue to threaten its habitat.
160031995		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160031999		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon (Konig et al. 1999).
160032000		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160032001		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in coastal south-east Brazil, extending inland in Minas Gerais along the Rio Doce Valley.
160032001		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as fairly common in at least parts of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).
160032002		distribution	eng	This species was recently described from within the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre, Brazil. This large and relatively well protected area contains the sole known locality for this species, the Serra da Jaquirana, the easternmost of a series of narrow ridges in the Serra do Divisor, part of the Acre Arch. It may occur on physiognomically similar ridges within the Acre Arch perhaps extending to the continuous Aierra Contamana in Ucayali, Peru. Given that the species is conspicuous, the lack of records from structurally favourable "Amazon Caatinga" habitats c. 100 km east-southeast of the type locality suggests it is absent from that area.
160032002		habitat	eng	The species favours stunted ridge woodlands with a broken canopy and thick understorey growing on very thin soils.
160032002		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is believed to be common despite its restricted known range.
160032003		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in central and eastern Brazil.
160032003		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common throughout most of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).
160032004		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia; from extreme north Bolivia north-east to coastal Pará in Brazil.
160032004		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally fairly common in at least parts of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).
160032005		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in central and eastern Bolivia, and adjacent Brazil and northern Paraguay.
160032005		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common throughout its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032007		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in far western Amazonia, from south-east Colombia through eastern Ecuador to north-east Peru.
160032007		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160032014		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
160032101		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032103		distribution	eng	<em>Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi</em> was endemic to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where its remains have been found on the main Chatham Island and Pitt Island. Recent evidence, including a letter from Sigvard Jacob Dannefarerd to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild in 1895 describing the species's appearance, behaviour and Moriori hunting method, suggests that this species survived into at least the late 1800s.<strong> <p></p></strong>
160032103		habitat	eng	The species was flightless, stood approximately 40 cm tall and weighed an estimated 2 kg. It is thought to have been a ground-dwelling insectivore, also feeding on fern root and capable of preying on small ground-nesting species.  <p></p>
160032103		threats	eng	Its remains are frequently associated with middens of the islands' initial Polynesian inhabitants, the Moriori, indicating that hunting is likely to have caused its extinction. <p></p>
160032119		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
160032120		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in north-west Australia and uncommon in south-east Australia (Morcombe 2000).
160032122		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).
160032123		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (Gibbs et al. 2001).
160032124		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.<strong></strong>
160032124		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant on New Guinea and surrounding islands, abundant in northern Australia, common on Timor and Flores and rare on Bali,Sumbawa and Tasmania (del Hoyo et al. 1997).
160032124		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 100,388 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)
160032125		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare, although common on Tasmania (Morcombe 2000).
160032126		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ninox novaseelandiae</span> occurs on <span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Norfolk Island (to Australia)</span> and Tasmania, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The Lord Howe Island subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">albaria</span> went extinct during the 20th century (McAllan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).
160032126		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon in New Zealand (Konig et al. 1999).
160032127		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 1 million individuals (S. T. Garnett <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160032128		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-east Australia, in the Atherton region (Blakers et al. 1984), and on New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea).
160032128		habitat	eng	The species is found in upland rainforest above 200 m
160032128		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common, although often scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032128		threats	eng	Some of the species habitat in Australia has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat in Australia, but in other areas rainforest is rapidly expanding.
160032129		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032130		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).
160032138		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Restall 2006).
160032141		distribution	eng	The species has a large range, breeding across the tundra of Canada, Alaska (USA), and wintering in southern North America including Mexico, and formerly Japan.
160032141		population	eng	The global   population has been estimated to number c.920,000-1,400,000 individuals   (Wetlands International 2006), while the population in Russia is estimated at   &lt;c.100 breeding pairs and &lt;c.50 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160032141		threats	eng	Although hunting and other direct mortality takes a substantial toll, this species has increased its range and population since the 1940s (Mowbray et al. 2002).
160032142		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032145		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032146		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare in Ecuador and very local in Colombia (Restall et al. 2006).
160032148		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the islands of Java and Bali, Indonesia.
160032148		habitat	eng	This species is found in forest at 800-2,400 m altitude, slightly lower in parts of Bali (Clement and Hathway 2000). It is not as tied to water as Bornean Whistling-thrush M. borneensis or Chestnut-winged Whistling-thrush M. castaneus, occurring mostly on the ground, often on ridges and paths (Collar 2004).
160032148		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160032148		threats	eng	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation.
160032150		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Gunung Kelapat Muda Game Reserve presumably contains a population of this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to assess the full extent of occurrence of this species, its specific habitat requirements, and its overall population size. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. Effectively protect suitable forest within its range.  <p></p>
160032150		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera dumasi</em> is endemic to the island of Buru, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Little is known about the species, and although it has been described as "not uncommon" (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, there have been few recent records.<em> <p></p></em>
160032150		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense, lower montane moss-forest, most commonly at 725-1,500 m altitude. It has been suggested that the species is largely restricted to limited areas of level forest within this range (Collar 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but it has certainly been seen on steep slopes (F. Lambert <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds alone or in pairs on the ground in deep forest undergrowth (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eggs have been recorded in February, and young in early April (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032150		population	eng	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,700 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 34,400 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 20,000-49,999 individuals. <p></p>
160032150		threats	eng	Hill forest on Buru is considerably more secure than lowland forest, and indeed remains almost intact. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this is a threat to the species (Collar 2004, N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032151		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It was recorded in Manusela National Park in 1987 (Isherwood <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to assess the full extent of occurrence of this species, its specific habitat requirements, and its overall population size. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. Effectively protect Manusela National Park. <p></p>
160032151		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera joiceyi</em> is endemic to the island of Seram, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It has been described as "extremely rare" (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and there have been very few records (Isherwood <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, large areas of habitat on the island remain to be surveyed (Isherwood <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032151		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest at 800-1,280 m altitude (Isherwood <em>et al.</em> 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is possible that the species is restricted to limited areas of level forest within this range (Collar 2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, where deep leaf litter is able to accumulate. It feeds alone or in pairs on the ground in deep forest undergrowth (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There is no information about breeding. <p></p>
160032151		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 10,000-19,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 15,000-29,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 15,000-30,000 individuals.
160032151		threats	eng	Hill forest on Seram is considerably more secure than lowland forest, and indeed remains almost intact, with very low levels of human disturbance (Isherwood <em>et al.</em> 1997, N. Brickle<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species (Collar 2004, N. Brickle<em> in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032152		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species occurs within a number of protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. Monitor rates of forest loss. Further study its tolerance of forest degradation. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in areas where it occurs.  <p></p>
160032152		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera interpres</em> is found discontinuously from southern peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> and <strong>Malaysia</strong>, through Borneo (including <strong>Brunei Darussalam</strong>), Sumatra and Java, to Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores, in <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It may also be a rare resident on several of the south-west Sulu Islands and Basilan in the central-southern <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is described as "generally rare and scarce" (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong> throughout, and there are very few records from Sumatra and Kalimantan in particular, although it is probably under-recorded to some extent. It was formerly not uncommon in the Lesser Sundas and in Sabah (Malaysia), but is thought to have undergone a rapid decline in recent years owing to logging and trapping for the cage bird trade.<em> <p></p></em>
160032152		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland primary deciduous and evergreen forest, often with a dense understorey, but has also been found in partially degraded forest and forest fragments (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Usually forages for invertebrates on the ground, but occasionally seen in fruiting trees (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding takes place from April or May to about late July or August, but probably with regional variation (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Nest with 2-3 eggs placed up to 4 m above the ground (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032152		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common in the Lesser Sundas and Borneo, rare in Thailand and the Philippines and local and scarce in Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160032152		threats	eng	Significant habitat loss is ongoing throughout the lowland forest range of this species, and studies from Sabah indicate that it occurs at a much lower density in logged forest (D. Edwards <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. In recent years it has been very heavily exploited for the cage-bird trade, raising fears of its extirpation from some islands in Nusa Tenggara (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032153		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A number of protected areas occur within the range of this species on Sulawesi. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to assess the specific habitat requirements and overall population size of this species. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. Effectively protect forest within its range.  <p></p>
160032153		distribution	eng	<em>Zoothera erythronota</em> is restricted to Sulawesi and neighbouring Buton (race <em>erythronota</em>) and Kabaena (race <em>kabaena</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Robinson-Dean <em>et al.</em> 2002, Collar 2004). It is uncommon but easily overlooked on Buton, locally common on Kabaena (Robinson-Dean <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and generally uncommon on Sulawesi (although population estimates are often dramatically increased once mist-netting is undertaken). Although there is not enough information to accurately assess its population size, since it appears to be somewhat patchily distributed throughout its range - often absent from apparently suitable habitat - it may prove to be quite low. <p></p>
160032153		habitat	eng	It inhabits lowland forest below 1,000 m. It seems to strongly prefer primary forest on Sulawesi and Buton, but on Kabaena, it is found in a wide range of closed canopy habitats, including shady plantations, secondary forest and bamboo stands as well as native forest (Clement and Hathway 2000, Robinson-Dean <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong></strong>. It is usually recorded alone or in pairs on the ground (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. A nest was found in April in the fork of a low tree-stump (Clement and Hathway 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032153		population	eng	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 17,000 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 340,000 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 100,000-499,999 individuals, but population may prove to be much lower given its extremely patchy distribution. <p></p>
160032153		threats	eng	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades. Since it does not appear tolerant to habitat degradation through much of its range, its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. Fires in the long dry season are a threat to remaining forest (Robinson-Dean <em>et al.</em> 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species (Collar 2004, N. Brickle <em>in litt.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032154		distribution	eng	This species predominantly breeds across Siberia and the Himalayas, and winters in the northern Indian Subcontinent, northern south-east Asia, southern China, and southern Japan, but there are also some resident subspecies, including neilgherriensis in the hills of south-west India, and horsfieldi from Java to Sumbawa, Indonesia. Subspecies major was previously considered specifically distinct and Critically Endangered, with only c.58 breeding birds estimated to remain in 1996. It is confined to the islands of Amami-ooshima and Kakeroma-jima in the northern Nansei Shoto Islands, Japan.
160032154		habitat	eng	The taxonomy of the species has been in flux, and much more research and analysis is needed on variations in song and measurements to resolve this situation (Collar 2004).
160032154		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is variously described as "uncommon" to "fairly common" across much of its range (Clement and Hathway 2000), In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 25000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 75000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms &lt;5% of the global range.
160032154		threats	eng	Subspecies major is threatened by deforestation and invasive alien predators (BirdLife International 2000, Clement and Hathway 2000).
160032156		distribution	eng	This recently described raptor has a large range in two disjunct areas: in the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil; and in southern Amazonia from north-east Bolivia, north-east to Pará, Brazil.
160032156		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's overall population is presumed to be large given its wide range.
160032158		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather common (Konig et al. 1999).
160032159		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in the Guayana Shield region of South America.
160032159		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as "fairly common" in at least parts of its wide range (Hilty 2003).
160032160		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in South America.
160032160		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
160032161		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in south-west Costa Rica and western Panama.
160032161		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032162		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in south-central Colombia.
160032162		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce and local throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
160032163		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in eastern Brazil.
160032163		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032164		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common in humid foothills, although uncommon in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032166		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032167		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160032168		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and the far west of Brazil.
160032168		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid tropical forest, especially along rivers and on river islands, in lowland areas up to c.300 m (Winkler and Christie 2002).
160032168		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032169		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032170		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as locally common to fairly common.
160032171		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in montane forest borders and scrubs (Clements and Shany 2001).
160032172		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species continues to be a focus for research by the Colección Ornitológica Phelps (COP), and following the destruction of habitat at the type locality four organizations (the hydro-electric company Edelca, COP, Conservation International and the Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela) designed a two-year project to identify, locate and survey potential habitat (M. Lentino <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The spiny bamboo habitat from which the species was described is not only extremely challenging/dangerous to survey in, it also lies beneath the forest canopy and hence aerial survey methods cannot be used to detect habitat. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey potentially suitable spiny bamboo forest in the eastern reaches of the Llanos, between the Tigre and the Morichal Largo rivers (M. Lentino <em>in litt. </em>2010<strong></strong>). Survey potentially suitable spiny bamboo forest along the Caroní and Orinoco rivers in Venezuala and Colombia. Monitor the loss and degradation of potentially suitable habitat. Designate areas of potentially suitable habitat as protected.  <p></p>
160032172		distribution	eng	<em>Amaurospiza carrizalensis</em> was recently described following collection of the holotype on Isla Carrizal in the Río Caroní, <strong>Venezuela</strong>. Since then habitat at the type locality on the island has been destroyed in the development of Guri Dam. Surveys in late 2007 and 2008 recorded the species in seven areas in the lower Caroní basin (M. Lentino <em>in litt. </em>2008)<strong></strong>, and further fieldwork increased the number of known sites to fourteen (M. Lentino <em>in litt. </em>2010<strong></strong>). For the moment, it is assumed to have an extremely small population and to be declining as other potentially suitable habitat continues to be destroyed. However, the low number of records may be partly due to the difficulty in surveying its habitat, which as a result has rarely been explored. Some 2,482 km<sup>2</sup>  of suitable spiny bamboo habitat has been mapped (M. Lentino <em>in litt. </em>2010<strong></strong>).<p></p>
160032172		habitat	eng	It has been found in stands of spiny <em>Guadua latifolia</em> and <em>Ripidocladus</em> spp. bamboo forest, and at least four of the recent localities the birds were in or next to stands of <em>Guadua angustifolia</em><strong> </strong>(M. Lentino <em>in litt. </em>2008). Its bill shows some degree of specialisation for feeding (R. Restall <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. From stomach content analysis of collected specimens it is known to feed on weevil spp. which may be specific to its spiny forest habitat (R. Restall <em>in litt</em>. 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032172		population	eng	Although it has now been found at several localities since destruction of the type locality, the global population is nevertheless assumed to be tiny, with fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
160032172		threats	eng	Habitat at the type locality was all destroyed during the development of the Guri Dam, which subsequently flooded this location. This development also destroyed other potentially suitable habitat in this area. <br/><p></p>
160032173		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032174		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common at some locations, although generally poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160032175		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160032176		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
160032177		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in northern Amazonia, from south-east Colombia, eastern Ecuador, and north-east Peru east to Amapá, Brazil. It also occurs disjunctly in north-east Brazil.
160032177		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032178		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Amazonia, from south-east Colombia and southern Venezuela east to Pará, Brazil. It is also known from isolated areas in north-east Bolivia, and may well occur from here north to the rest of its range.
160032178		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032179		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia, and the east Andean slopes of Peru and north-east Bolivia.
160032179		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "fairly common to common" through most of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).
160032180		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in two disjunct areas: coastal eastern Brazil; and coastal north-east Brazil through southern Amazonia to the Andes of central and southern Peru and northern Bolivia.
160032180		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "locally fairly common" in at least parts of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).
160032181		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006).
160032181		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thamnophilus tenuepunctatus</span> has a large range on the east slopes of the Andes, and is generally considered uncommon to fairly common. The nominate subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tenuepunctatus </span>is endemic to north-central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span>, occurring in Norte de Santander, Cundinamarca and Meta departments. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">tenuifasciatus</span> occurs in Putumayo, south-central Colombia. This taxon is also found in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span>, ranging from Sucumbios southwards to north Zamora-Chinchipe. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">berlepschi</span> occurs in south Zamora-Chinchipe, and the regions of Amazonas, Cajamarca and San Martín in north-east <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peru </span>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
160032181		habitat	eng	This is primarily an understorey species of humid evergreen forest edges, preferring elevations of 500-1,700 m. It has also been known to occur in clearings, plantations, parks and gardens. It feeds mainly on insects and other arthropods. Little is known of the species's breeding (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).
160032181		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032181		threats	eng	The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Bird <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
160032182		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, from northern Mexico to western Panama.
160032182		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
160032183		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in eastern Brazil.
160032183		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "common" and occurring at high density in at least parts of its wide range (Remsen 2003).
160032185		distribution	eng	The race dissita was previously treated at the species level. It is endemic to Coiba Island (493 km2), Panama.
160032185		habitat	eng	The race dissita was previously treated at the species level. It is fairly common in dense undergrowth and vine tangles in forest and forest edge (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989).
160032185		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032185		threats	eng	The race dissita was previously treated at the species level, and was classified as Near Threatened. Its small range makes it vulnerable to predation by introduced species, and natural disasters such as hurricanes (Alvarez-Cordero et al. 1994).
160032186		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032187		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
160032188		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, from southern Mexico to western Ecuador and across much of Amazonia, including northern Bolivia, Brazil, and north-east Venezuela.
160032188		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
160032189		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
160032189		habitat	eng	The species occurs from 900 up to 3000 m in a range of habitats including scrubland, clearings and gardens; it is sometimes found in grasslands and humid forest edge, but rarely in mature forest. Andean populations make seasonal altitudinal migrations (Schuchmann 1999).
160032189		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032190		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine whether the species occurs on the Peninsula de Paria. Conserve remaining habitat within its restricted range. Research trends, population size and threats. <p></p>
160032190		distribution	eng	<em>Aglaiocercus berlepschi </em>occupies a restricted range in north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong> in the Turimiquire Massif&#160; (both in the Serranía de Turimiquire the west of the San Antonio valley and the Cordillera de Caripe to the east) on the borders of Sucre, Anzoategui and Monagas. It was formerly common in parts of its range (Hilty 2003, Sharpe and Lentino 2008) is locally fairly common in places (P. Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Sharpe and Lentino 2008, C. J. Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Extent of Occurrence has been estimated at 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Sharpe and Lentino 2008) and 4,200 km<sup>2</sup> (BirdLife International).<br/><p></p>
160032190		habitat	eng	It lives in humid to wet subtropical montane forest, borders and second growth from 1,450 m to 1,800 m (Hilty 2003, Sharpe and Lentino 2008). The species is thought to be less susceptible to removal of undergrowth from forest for coffee growing than other species (P. Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2006).However, its specific habitat requirements are almost unknown (J. Pérez-Emán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p>
160032190		population	eng	This species is locally fairly common in suitable habitat, and considered less vulnerable than others (such as Grey-headed Warbler <em>Basileuterus griseiceps</em>) to removal of undergrowth for coffee plantations (Boesman <em>in litt. </em>2006). Its population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 individuals, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, which is rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
160032190		threats	eng	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe, resulting in extensive degradation of forest. Clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995) are the main causes. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995). There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana and citrus plantations in many parts of the region (Colvee 1999), but extensive forest areas remain (Colvee 1999, Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco" (<em>Xanthosoma sagittifolium</em>), since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation  (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt</em>. 2003)<strong></strong>. Similar threats are present in the Macizo Montañoso del Turimiquire (J. Pérez-Emán <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is considered nationally Endangered in Venezuela (Sharpe 2008).<br/><p></p>
160032191		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, from south-east Panama through the Andes south to Ecuador.
160032191		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032192		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in the Andes of Peru and north-west Bolivia.
160032192		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160032193		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, extending from central Mexico south to Peru, and also into the Guianas.
160032193		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032194		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in south-east Brazil.
160032194		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032195		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in two disjunct areas: along the lower Amazon in Brazil; and from easternmost Colombia, through Venezuela to western Guyana and adjacent Brazil.
160032195		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160032196		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032197		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032199		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032200		distribution	eng	This species occurs from Venezuela east to the Guianas and up the Amazon River in Brazil to the confluence with the River Tapajos. It is considered rare in Venezuela and scarce to locally uncommon in Guyana, but remains common in Surinam and French Guiana.
160032200		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open areas, including heavily disturbed agricultural habitats, and is restricted to very low lying areas (below 50 m in Venezuela).
160032200		threats	eng	The species is trapped for the bird trade in many parts of its range (N. de Pracontal in litt. 2007, O. Ottema in litt. 2007).
160032201		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Restall 2006).
160032203		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In Brazil it is nominally protected in parts of Bahia (Estação Veracruz private reserve, and Descobrimento, Pau Brasil and Monte Pascoal national parks) (Cordeiro 2002)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Monte Pascoal faces an uncertain future as it has been invaded by Pataxó Indians who have extensively cleared their neighbouring area. Elsewhere the species is known from the Linhares-Sooretama reserves (Espirito Santo), Rio Doce State Park (Minas Gerais) and Tinguá Biological Reserve (Rio de Janeiro). In Venezuela it survives in several national parks (P. Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2006).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue monitoring this species in the field and in trade. Strengthen the protected area network within the Atlantic Forest of Brazil to conserve key sites. <p></p>
160032203		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura leucotis</em> has a disjunct distribution with widely separate subpopulations in Atlantic Forest of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil  </span>and in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela </span>. The two subpopulations appear to have different status making an accurate assessment of the species's global level of threat problematic. In Brazil it is restricted to lowland and foothill (up to 500 m) forest from Bahia south of the Jequitinhonha river, south to Espirito Santo, parts of eastern Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. The southernmost population now occurs in Serra do Tinguá (22°36'S, 43°27'W) (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998, Joseph 2000). In southern Bahia it has been recently found in only 4 of 30 surveyed areas, and seems associated with the now very reduced "matas de tabuleiro". In contrast, in Venezuela it is rather common in forested areas of the coastal cordillera (incl. NE Venezuela) (P. Boesman <em>in litt</em>. 2006). The species has declined significantly within its Brazilian range but faces fewer threats in Venezuela. The proposed taxonomic reallocation of the Venezuelan subpopulation <span style="font-style: italic;">P. l. emma</span> to belong with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. picta </span>would likely warrant reclassification of the remaining <span style="font-style: italic;">P. leucotis </span>in Brazil to a higher threat category.
160032203		habitat	eng	It occurs in Atlantic Forest in Brazil and foothill forest of the coastal Cordillera in Venezuela. <em>Pyrrhura</em> parakeets typically spend most time foraging (typically in groups) in the canopy and are reliant on their forest habitat. <p></p>
160032203		population	eng	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <p></p>
160032203		threats	eng	Forest clearance has been extensive in its Brazilian range, affecting most of the "matas de tabuleiro" in Bahia and Espirito Santo. <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>P. l. leucotis is fairly frequently confiscated in captivity, suggesting that this taxon is frequently harvested for trade (J. Gilardi <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><p></p></span></span>
160032204		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Brazilian official Red List<strong></strong> (C. Albano <em>in litt</em>. 2006). It occurs within the Baturité Mountains Environmental Protection Area, but this area is designated for sustainable use and has not traditionally been managed for conservation. Land management by a private landowner in the area has led to an increase in one small known population<strong></strong> (C. Albano <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Since 2007, the Brazilian NGO AQUASIS has been conducting two research projects: one sponsored by the Brazilian "Fundação O Boticário de Proteção à Natureza", surveying the Baturité Mountains to monitor its status and research its biology; and another sponsored by the Loro Parque Fundacion, searching for additional populations<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008). Surveys in historical sites and areas of potential habitat in 2007-2008 failed to locate the species, although there were strong indications from locals that it still occurred in the degraded Serra do Estevão, Quixada municipality, Ceará state<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008, Anon 2007), where it was indeed rediscovered in 2010 (Waugh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It may also persist at Serra Negra Biological Reserve, Pernambuco state, although a combination of marijuana cultivations and hostile local culture makes survey work in the latter area difficult<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008). At least 11 private reserves (RPPN) are in the process of being created in the Serra de Baturité<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008). A Loro Parque-sponsored nest box scheme is taking place, and so far 19 have been installed on sites with sympathetic landownders, with a view to eventually install 60<strong></strong> (Anon 2009). A large scale education and awareness campaign took place in the Serra de Baturité in 2008<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008), and a principal objective of AQUASIS is to promote it as a flagship species, work which is being supported by local NGO AGUA and ecotourism business Parque das Trilhas<strong></strong> (Anon 2009). AQUASIS also aims to build capacity for bird-watching and in the process develop awareness and create alternative livelihoods<strong></strong> (Anon 2009). It breeds well in captivity and populations are held both in Brazil and abroad. Provided these are well managed and coordinated they could be used for reintroductions. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys in similar areas to the Baturité Mountains in north-eastern Brazil, such as the serras de Aratanha, Maranguape and Machado, for the presence of addtional extant populations. Continue monitoring the known population in the Serra do Baturité. Improve conservation management practised in the Guaramiranga Ecological Park. Provide incentives for landowners to increase the network of private reserves in the Baturité Mountains. Monitor and control trade at local, national and international levels. Investigate the feasibility of using artificial nests to increase reproductive success. Continue to conduct awareness campaigns to promote the Grey-breasted Parakeet as a symbol for the conservation of the moist forests and associated biodiversity in the Baturité Mountains. Investigate ex situ conservation measures.  <p></p>
160032204		distribution	eng	This species is known historically from four areas in north-eastern <strong>Brazil</strong>, but currently from just two of these: the Serra do Baturité and Quixadá in Ceará<strong></strong> (C. Albano <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Waugh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). In Serra do Baturité  it seems to be very uncommon and to have been extirpated from several areas, but there are recent records of groups in the Baturité Mountains Environmental Protection Area; surveys on 2007 of half the remaining habitat at this site revealed c.80 individuals<strong> </strong>(C. Albano <em>in litt. </em>2007, 2008) and the population here is now estimated to be c.250 birds<strong></strong> (Waugh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). The forests of the Baturité Mountains have been greatly reduced to make room for shade and sun coffee and only 13% of the forest remained in 1996. The discovery in 2010 of a population of c.50 birds in Quixadá (Waugh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010) raises the known global population to c.300 birds. The species was formerly known from two other areas: the eastern slope of the Serra de Ibiapaba in Ceará, and the tiny Serra Negra in Pernambuco where it was very common in 1974, with flocks of 4-6 individuals regularly seen in the early 1980s, but there are no recent records. There are also unconfirmed reports from 1991 in Murici Ecological Station in Alagoas which possibly refer to released individuals; recent fieldwork there failed to locate the species. Its known range is very small, and the species has declined dramatically in the past, a trend which may be ongoing.   <p></p>
160032204		habitat	eng	It occurs in montane (above 500 m) humid forest enclaves in the otherwise semi-arid north-east Brazil. These wet 'sky islands' are known locally as 'brejos'. Humid forests grade into semi-deciduous forest and eventually dry, xeric caatingas in lower areas. The forests are restricted to upland granite or sandstone areas which receive up to four times the annual rainfall of lower altitudes. The humid forests atop the Baturité massif form a continuous canopy c.20 m tall, with some emergents. Birds feed on fruit and seeds in the canopy of humid and semi-deciduous forest. <p></p>
160032204		population	eng	Despite recent surveys in its historic range the species is now known from two areas: one largely denuded of suitable habitat, in the Serra do Baturité, and a private area 70 km south of this. The total number of recent sightings (resulting from six years of non-systematic observations) comprise five encounters from four localities. Therefore, the species is thought to have an extremely small population of 50-249 individuals. This equates to 33-166 mature individuals, rounded here to 30-200 mature individuals.
160032204		threats	eng	Habitat destruction has played a role in the species's decline with original forest cover now reduced to just 13%. Coffee plantations (especially where sun coffee is grown instead of shade coffee) are impacting upon the species's habitat. The principal threat, however, is believed to come from ongoing trapping for illegal local and national trade<strong></strong> (C. Albano <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Anon 2009). The species also occurs in the international cage bird trade. <p></p>
160032205		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the proposed Terra Ronca State Park but this is yet to be fully implemented, and Mata Grande National Forest<strong> </strong>(C. A. Bianchi <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2007). The flatlands of Terra Ronca State Park now appear to have been deforested, leaving fragments of forest only on karst limestone outcrops (Willis in litt. ). Other parts of the range are not protected. The species appears on the Brazilian Red List as Vulnerable and IBAMA (Brazilian Federal Agency for Environment) is about to create a "Small Parakeet Conservation Group" to comprise all <em>Pyrrhura</em> spp. and establish conservation efforts. Brasilia Zoological Garden started a captive breeding program in 2001 with 10 individuals but none survived after six years<strong> </strong>(C. A. Bianchi <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2007). Very few private aviculturists are known to keep the species in captivity<strong> </strong>(C. A. Bianchi <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2007).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine the extent of remaining habitat and current rates of deforestation. Closely monitor the species in trade in case demand increases.  <p></p>
160032205		distribution	eng	<em>Pyrrhura pfrimeri</em> is an endemic restricted to the narrow dry forest belt near the Serra Geral, in the states of Goiás and Tocantins (Silva 1995, Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998, Joseph 2000)<strong></strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It occupies a small range within which much of its forest habitat has been (and continues to be) logged (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, based on models of suitable habitat, its potential range may be twice its current extent of occurence (Marini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). Ongoing work suggests there may now be fewer than 50,000 individuals remaining<strong> </strong>(C. A. Bianchi <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2007), representing a decline of up to 75% from 1998 estimates of c. 162,000-202,500 birds (although the 1998 figure may have been an overestimate as habitat was already severely degraded in parts of the species's range [Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998]). <p></p>
160032205		habitat	eng	It is restricted to deciduous or semi-deciduous dry forest growing on limestone outcrops or limestone derived soils. This <em>caatinga</em> type habitat is an isolated island within surrounding <em>cerrado</em> savannah. <em>Caatinga</em> forest typically has a closed canopy and dense understorey with lianas and some cacti, particularly in disturbed areas. The species has been seen in recently fragmented forest patches (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998) but reportedly does not occur far from the forest edge. It feeds on flowers, fruits and seeds, sometimes on the ground and typically in groups. <p></p>
160032205		population	eng	The total population is estimated to lie within the band 20,000-49,999 individuals (C. A. Bianchi <I>in litt.</I> 2006, 2007). The species's population density has been estimated to be 11.7 individuals / km<sup>2</sup>.
160032205		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is deforestation driven by selective logging, fires and habitat conversion to pasture (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998). Dry forest in Goiás decreased from covering 15.8 % of the region in 1990 to only 5.8 % in 1999, and less than 1 % of the remaining fragments were larger than 100 ha<strong> </strong>(F. Olmos <em>in litt. </em>2007). There has been a 66% decrease in available habitat in the past 31 years, with a current annual deforestation rate of 2.1% (Bianchi 2010). Rapid deforestation is occurring within the species's range to create pasture and widespread burning to improve poor pasture is destroying dry forest habitat. Logging mainly targets durable woods that are commonly used to make fence poles, and cement companies are beginning to target areas of limestone outcrops<strong> </strong>(C. A. Bianchi <em>in litt</em>. 2006, 2007). The species is rarely recorded in trade or exotic bird collections but this poses a potential threat (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998). Population pressure will increase as its range lies close to the capital city, Brasilia (Olmos <em>et al</em>. 1998). <p></p>
160032208		distribution	eng	This species is found in the Americas, breeding along the Pacific coast from California (<B>USA</B>) to <B>Chile</B> and along the Atlantic coast from South Carolina (USA) through the West Indies to <B>Venezuela</B>, ranging as far as <B>Canada</B> and Tierra del Fuego (Chile) in the non-breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160032208		habitat	eng	This species inhabits shallow inshore waters, estuaries and bays, avoiding the open sea. Its diet is comprised mostly of fish, causing great congregations in areas with abundant prey. Prey species include sardines and anchovies, but has been seem to take shrimps and carrion, and even nestling egrets. It regularly feeds by plunge-diving and is often the victim of kleptoparasites. The timing of breeding varies depending on latitude, breeding in spring in the extreme north of its range compared to all year round in the tropics. Brown Pelicans are colonial, with some colonies being maintained over several years. It mostly nests on the ground, sometimes on cliffs and less often in small trees or bushes. Movements and migrations depend on local conditions (e.g. northern populations migrate south) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160032208		population	eng	(Wetlands International 2006)
160032213		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is protected within reserves in many areas throughout its extensive range, for instance in Cordillera Azul, Apurímac (Peru), and Beni (Bolivia).<strong></strong>
160032213		distribution	eng	The species occurs in the Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
160032213		habitat	eng	The species is found predominantly in wet and humid montane forests (couldforest and elfin forest), and to a lesser extent in forest-edge, bushy second growth, open bushy terrain along streams and humid grassy slopes, from 1800-3200 m (Schuchman 1999). It forages in the low and middle strata, feeding on nectar and insects.
160032213		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032214		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
160032232		distribution	eng	This species breeds in Spain and north-west Africa; it winters in West Africa.
160032232		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (BirdLife International 2004). For example, the Spanish population is estimated at 5,200 pairs while it is described as 'rather common' within much of its North African range (Svensson 2006).
160032233		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia).
160032233		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open forest, woodland, scrub and savanna, and over rainforest, from sea-level to 1950 m (Thiollay 1994).
160032233		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large, even though the species is described as well distributed but scarce (Coates 1985).
160032235		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).
160032239		population	eng	There is little recent information on this species's population size. It was formerly regarded as widespread and common over much of its non-breeding range in India and Pakistan, though irregular to rare in the rest of its range.
160032242		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range in the Americas. It occurs from Alaska (USA) and Canada south to Panama, and populations are also found in the West Indies, in hills and mountains from Venezuala and Colombia through Ecuador and Peru to western Bolivia, and from southern Brazil through Uruguay and Paraguay to south-east Bolivia and northern Argentina.
160032242		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a wide variety of habitats, depending on the region, including boreal coniferous forests, temperate deciduous woodland, tropical and subtropical cloud forest, gallery forest and semi-open savanna woodland, from sea level to 2,700 m. Outside the breeding season, North American birds can be found in almost any terrain, including urban areas with trees.
160032242		population	eng	(Rich et al. 2004)
160032242		threats	eng	Habitat alteration, especially removal of forest, is thought to affect some populations.
160032243		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda, and Minziro Forest, Tanzania.
160032243		habitat	eng	This species inhabits moist primary and logged forest, typically near to water. It feeds on ants and small insects, and some seeds.
160032243		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and relatively little known (Clement 1999).
160032244		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to determine current range and population. Asses the extent and impact of habitat loss on populations. If appropriate, protect habitat at important sites.  <p></p>
160032244		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchostruthus louisae </em>is endemic to <strong>Somalia </strong>where it is restricted to mountains from near the Ethiopian border east to the western foothills of Jebel Hantara. In the 1930s it was considered fairly common in Mt Wagar and Golis Mountains (12 collected in two weeks), but there are very few recent records. It is likely to have declined, but trends could, in part, reflect the almost total lack of observer coverage within the species's range.  <p></p>
160032244		habitat	eng	It inhabits rocky ground with scattered thorn bushes and giant euphorbias <em>Euphorbia abessinica</em>, on whose fruit it is said to feed. It occurs singly, in pairs or small groups.  <p></p>
160032244		population	eng	The species is poorly known, but Kirwin and Greive (2007) suggest its population numbers fewer than 10,000 individuals. It is placed in the population band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals, equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160032244		threats	eng	It may be declining, perhaps as a result of habitat loss (particularly in the western part of its range), but poor rainfall in recent years may be more important, although there were good rains in 2005-2006 (J. Miskell <em>in litt.</em> 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032245		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range, extending from Colombia in the north to Argentina in the south, and from the Andes to the Atlantic coast.
160032245		habitat	eng	The species typically inhabits cerros, cliffs, rocky outcrops, canyon walls, landslides and steep banks bordered by secondary or mature forest, as well as similar man-made habitats such as cuttings, bridges and quarries, although it is also found in drier, more sparsely wooded areas in Bolivia and uses ledges and building facades in Brazil. It feeds on insects, which it hawks for in spectacular, long aerial sallies, swooping like a swallow (Fitzpatrick 2004).
160032245		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032248		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending from Mexico to north-east Argentina and from the Pacific to the Atlantic in South America.
160032248		habitat	eng	The species primarily inhabits humid and evergreen forest in the lowlands and foothills to 2000m, although generally below 1300 m, and is found less frequently in gallery and deciduous forest, and occasionally in mangroves. It is mainly insectivorous, although other invertebrates and small vertebrates are also taken (Marantz et al. 2003).
160032248		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032248		threats	eng	The species is considered highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation and human disturbance in at least parts of its range, and is likely to have suffered declines owing to deforestation (Marantz et al. 2003).
160032249		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending from Guatemala to Brazil.
160032249		habitat	eng	The species chiefly inhabits humid lowland forest, although habitat preferences vary geographically, and in some areas it can also be found in semi-deciduous and gallery forests, palm swamps, cerrado woodland, mature mangroves, clearings with scattered trees and plantations. It is most abundant below 900 m, although it occurs in small numbers at high altitudes, locally to 2400 m in Venezuela. It feeds primarily on arthropods, but also on small vertebrates, taken by gleaning, pecking or probing into bark crevices, dead leaves, clumps of moss or knotholes. It is a regular associate of mixed-species flocks frequenting the mid-levels and subcanopy (Marantz et al. 2003).
160032249		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032250		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032251		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032252		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, extending from the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia across the Amazon basin to the east coast of Brazil and the Guianas.
160032252		habitat	eng	The species inhabits tropical lowland and montane evergreen forest, where it forages mainly in the subcanopy, gleaning arthropods from dead leaves. It frequently associates with mixed-species flocks (Remsen 2003).
160032252		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032253		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, occurring in parts of north-eastern India, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.
160032253		habitat	eng	The species is a partial migrant, moving from breeding grounds in foothill and montane areas into lowlands and coastal plains during the non-breeding period. It is found in a variety of scrub and open woodland habitats, including margins of terraced cultivation and tea plantations (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032253		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite numerous in north-eastern India, common in parts of China and locally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032254		habitat	eng	<strong></strong>  <p><strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is highly migratory (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Madge and Burn 1988<strong>)</strong> and breeds from mid-May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988) in solitary pairs or loose groups (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005), occasionally nesting in association with gull or tern colonies<strong> </strong>(Kear 2005). Non-breeding birds spend the breeding season in flocks on open water (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). After breeding (from June onwards [Scott and Rose 1996]) the adults migrate to moulting sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(males travelling and moulting before the females) (Madge and Burn 1988), where they become flightless for 3-4 weeks (Scott and Rose 1996). When moulting and overwintering the species is highly sociable and can occur in large flocks (Madge and Burn 1988, Scott and Rose 1996) of several thousands of individuals (Scott and Rose 1996), although it is more common in small scattered groups of c.100 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species mainly forages by diving and may feed at depths of 30-40 m during the winter (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on wooded<strong><sup> </sup></strong>coastlines (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005), small freshwater lakes (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005), pools and rivers (Snow and Perrins 1998) in northern coniferous forests (Johnsgard 1978, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005), wooded Arctic tundra (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998) and alpine zones (Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005), especially where there are boulder-covered or small rocky islands available for nesting with extensive herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and low trees (Johnsgard 1978, Kear 2005). <em>Non-breeding</em> The majority winter at sea on shallow inshore coastal waters (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), especially in estuaries or inlets where there are large mussel-beds (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also occur on freshwater lakes and estuaries during migration<strong> </strong>(Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, as well as crustaceans, worms, echinoderms<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992), amphipods, isopods (Kear 2005), small fish, and (in freshwater habitats) adult and larval insects<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species may also consume plant material on its breeding grounds (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. leaves and shoots) (Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984). <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression positioned on the ground<strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) in tall grass, among hummocks or under bushes<strong> </strong>(Flint <em>et al.</em> 1984), usually within 100 m of open water (occasionally up to 2-3 km away) (Kear 2005). The species usually nests in solitary pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005), but it may form loose congregations (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992) (e.g. on islands [Kear 2005]) with neighbouring nests as close as 3 m apart (Snow and Perrins 1998), and will also nest in association with gull or tern colonies (Kear 2005).</p>  <p></p>
160032254		population	eng	There is apparently no reliable estimate of this species's total population, and further research is needed.
160032254		threats	eng	<p>Moulting and wintering concentrations of this species are very susceptible to oil spills and other marine pollutants (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005) (an oil spill could destroy a large proportion of the global population if it occurred in a key moulting or wintering area<strong> [</strong>Madge and Burn 1988]). The species is also susceptible to the effects of commercial exploitation of marine benthic organisms and shellfish (Kear 2005), and is threatened by drowning in fishing nets (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1992, Kear 2005). It is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of the human exploitation of natural resources in the taiga and lower tundra regions of its breeding range (Kear 2005). It is susceptible to disturbance from tourism in remote coastal and freshwater habitats in its breeding range (Kear 2005), as well as disturbance from wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004). The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong> </strong>(Melville and Shortridge 2006).<br/></p>  <p></p>
160032255		distribution	eng	This species breeds in Mexico, although it is sometimes found in the extreme south of the USA outside the June-August breeding season. Subspecies graysoni, sometimes considered a separate species, is range-restricted, found only in the north-west Mexico Pacific Slope EBA.
160032255		habitat	eng	This species inhabits arid to semi-humid deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, thorn-forest, inland riparian woodland and edge, plantations and gardens, where it tends to forage on the ground for fruit (Collar 2005). It typically occurs from sea level to 1500 m, although a feral population exists in Mexico City at 2200-2500 m.
160032255		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160032257		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 8400-13000 breeding pairs, equating to 25200-39000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 51400-156000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
160032259		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, which extends from east Sudan and Ethiopia south to South Africa.
160032259		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open areas of savannah and steppe, deserts, and clearings in woodland (Thiollay 1994).
160032259		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in some areas and common in others (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).
160032260		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to the Philippines.
160032260		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, forest edge, scrub and secondary growth from sea-level to 2000 m (Cheke et al. 2001).
160032260		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).
160032261		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending from southern China to Java (Indonesia). It occurs in a number of protected areas.
160032261		habitat	eng	This species favours humid forest edge and secondary growth, and is also found in evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland forest, peatswamp-forest, well-grown secondary forest and nearby mixed orchards, from the lowland plains to 1,800 m (Wells 2005).
160032261		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as relatively common throughout much of its range, although scarce in Singapore and rather rare in Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032262		distribution	eng	Turdus nigriceps occurs as two subspecies: nigriceps in the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina; and subalaris in eastern Paraguay, Brazil and northern Argentina.
160032262		habitat	eng	This species is found in the canopy and borders of subtropical humid forest, and in secondary woodland and eucalyptus plantations with native undergrowth, where it tends to be found in dense shrubbery along streams and in wooded ravines (Collar 2005). Subspecies nigriceps occurs mainly from 500-2000 m, locally to 2550 m in Bolivia, whereas subalaris is found in lower areas from sea-level to 1000 m and inhabits araucaria groves, gardens with scattered large trees and park-like areas in addition to the aforementioned habitat types (Collar 2005).
160032262		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032262		threats	eng	The nominate subspecies is suspected to have been affected to some degree by the extensive deforestation of recent decades (Collar 2005).
160032263		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range extending across Central and South America from Costa Rica to south-east Brazil. It inhabits humid tropical and subtropical evergreen forest, sometimes venturing into forest adge and mature secondary growth, from 475-1850 m. It occurs in many protected areas within its large range, including at least three national parks in Brazil (Fitzpatrick 2004).
160032263		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid tropical and subtropical evergreen forest, sometimes venturing into forest adge and mature secondary growth, from 475-1850 m. It feeds on arthropods and small berries, typically foraging in the middle and upper strata (Fitzpatrick 2004).
160032263		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032264		distribution	eng	The species has a moderately large range extending across eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, southern China and north-western Laos and Vietnam. The northern and western limits of its range are poorly known (Reindt 2006).
160032264		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen and pine forest from 900-2550 m, possibly making altitundinal migrations to as low as 50 m in the winter. It breeds in February to May, building a ball- or dome-shaped nest on or near the ground (Robson 2000).
160032264		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range, although very common in Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032265		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending across south-east China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and possibly north-east Myanmar (Reindt 2006).
160032265		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen and pine forest from 900-2550 m, possibly making altitundinal migrations to as low as 50 m in the winter. It breeds in February to May, building a ball- or dome-shaped nest on or near the ground (Robson 2000).
160032265		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160032266		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending from northern India, Nepal and southern China south to Sri Lanka and Indonesia.
160032266		habitat	eng	This species inhabits lowland tropical moist forest, swamp forest, overgrown tree plantations, secondary jungle, mangroves and forest clearings, from sea-level to 1500 m in Thailand, but more usually to 500-600 m. It tends to prefer undergrowth and shady ravines, where it forages on the ground and in the lower strata for arthropods, also taking worms and berries (Collar 2005).
160032266		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Robson 2000).
160032266		threats	eng	This species is exploited for the cage-bird trade and has declined to near-extinction in some countries within its range (Collar 2005).
160032267		distribution	eng	This species has a large, apparently disjunct range in eastern China. The southern limits of its range are poorly known (Reindt 2006).
160032267		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest up to 2550 m, usually breeding above 1,500. The breeding season is February to June, when a clutch of 4-5 eggs is laid in a ball-shaped nest built in a recess in a bank, tree-trunk or stump (Robson 2000).
160032267		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160032268		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in south-east China, possibly extending east into northern Vietnam (Reindt 2006).
160032268		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2006), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration (Brazil 2009).
160032269		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, extending from north-west India to southern Vietnam. It inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest up to 2,550 m, usually breeding above 1,500 m.
160032269		habitat	eng	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest up to 2550 m, usually breeding above 1,500. The breeding season is February to June, when a clutch of 4-5 eggs is laid in a ball-shaped nest built in a recess in a bank, tree-trunk or stump (Robson 2000).
160032269		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032270		distribution	eng	This species has a large range along the west coast of Australia and on New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Subspecies multipunctata, sometimes treated as a separate species, is a restricted-range taxon, being found only in a substantial area of rainforest in north-east Queensland (Australia), between Shiptons Flat (south of Cooktown), south to Bluewater range (north of Townsville), and inland to Mt Carbine, Atherton and Ravenshoe. Its range may extend to south of Townsville, to Mt Elliott.
160032270		habitat	eng	In Australia, it prefers deep, wet gully forest dominated by eucalypts, occurring in drier forest only when hunting; in New Guinea it occurs in lowland and montane rainforest and Araucaria pine forest, emerging into subalpine grassland and alpine boulderfields and ridges at altitudes of up to 4000 m to hunt (Bruce 1999).
160032270		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably rare (Konig et al. 1999). Subspecies multipunctata, a restricted-range taxon, has been estimated to number 2,000 breeding pairs (Higgins 1999).
160032270		threats	eng	Some of subspecies multipunctata habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains (Garnett 1992), and all logging has now stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.
160032271		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos.
160032271		habitat	eng	The species inhabits a variety of open habitats with scattered bushes and trees, including cultivation, as well as forest edges and bamboo thickets, to 900 m (de Juana et al. 2004).
160032271		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as widespread and locally common throughout range (de Juana et al. 2004).
160032272		distribution	eng	This species has a large, discontinuous range across western, central and southern Australia.
160032272		habitat	eng	The species occupies a range of open and semi-open habitats in arid and semi-arid zones, often in association with spinifex Triodia (Higgins et al. 2001).
160032272		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032273		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia.
160032273		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a range of habitats from sea-level to 1,800 m, including lowland and montane rainforest, swamp forest, mangroves, and more arid bushy or wooded country near the coast. It is typically more frequent at lower altitudes, and seems to adapt well to secondary scrub (Jones et al. 1995).
160032273		population	eng	The species has a large global population estimated to number 100,000-1,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
160032274		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in eastern Australia.
160032274		habitat	eng	The species occurs in subtropical and temperate rainforests and adjacent wet sclerophyll forests, tending to prefer areas with a dense canopy and an accumulation of leaf-litter on the ground (Higgins and Peter 2002).
160032274		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the north of its range, becoming rarer towards the south (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032275		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Intensive trapping campaigns were performed from 2008 to 2011 and indicate that <em>R. rattus</em> is still absent from Ua H<span style="">uka (Faulquier </span><em>et al.</em><span style=""> 2008, Faulquier </span><em>et al.</em><span style=""> 2009a,b, Champeau </span><em>et al. </em><span style="">2010, Champeau </span><em>et al. </em><span style="">2011). </span>&#160;In 2009, biosecurity measures were implemented on Ua Huka (rat bait-stations were installed on the 3 wharves of the island) in order to prevent the establishment of the Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus </em><span style="">and these actions continue to be maintained (Faulquier </span><em>et al.</em><span style=""> 2009a,b, Champeau </span><em>et al. </em><span style="">2010, Champeau </span><em>et al. </em><span style="">2011). </span><br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>On Ua Huka, resurvey the population to ascertain any trends. Take precautions to prevent the establishment of <em>R. rattus</em> (including continuing to maintain rat bait-stations). Continue to survey for black rat <em>R. rattus </em>(P. Raust <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong> and assess any other threats. On Teuaua, attempt to eradicate <em>R. rattus</em> again.<br/><p></p>
160032275		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea iphis</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>.<strong> </strong>It is restricted to Ua Huka, where several hundred pairs were estimated in 1975 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, and 500-1,250 in 1998, at a mean density of 2-5 pairs/ha (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160032275		habitat	eng	On Ua Huka (c.30% forested), breeding birds were found from 30 m to 650 m (non-breeders to 840 m) in all native low- to mid-elevation moist and wet forest in the south and locally in lowland dry forest (with <em>Pisonia grandis</em>) on the eastern coast (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>. It forages in dense brush, gleaning insects from branches or hawking them in dark, shaded areas beneath brush-covered canopy (Pratt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032275		population	eng	Several hundred pairs were estimated in 1975 by Holyoak and Thibault (1984), and 500-1,250 pairs were estimated in 1998, at a mean density of 2-5 pairs/ha (Thibault and Meyer 2001). <p></p>
160032275		threats	eng	On Ua Huka, there are no current threats, although Pacific rats <em>Rattus exulans</em> have always been present. In 1998 the Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> was thought to be present (Thibault and Meyer 2000) on an adjacent islet (Teuaua) but was subsequently found to be absent <span style="">(Faulquier </span><em>et al.</em><span style=""> 2008). </span>Habitat degradation by cyclones is a minor cause for concern. Although overgrazing by feral goats and cattle is a problem in some forested areas in the centre of the island, the valley habitat remains in good condition and so overgrazing is not currently thought to be a threat.<p></p><p></p>
160032276		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Mohotani has been protected since 1968. However, the banning of hunting has resulted in serious degradation by an increasing population of feral sheep (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong>. Preparation of a management plan, involving people from nearby islands (sheep hunters and wood carvers) has begun (<strong></strong>P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Consider possibilites of translocation. On Mohotani, eliminate or control feral sheep if socially acceptable (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. If it is not possible to reduce sheep numbers, fence part of the island to prevent grazing and allow habitat regeneration/restoration (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Eradicate cats (SPREP 1999)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Take precautions to prevent invasion by black rat <em>R. rattus</em>. Eradicate <em>B. virginianus </em>and <em>A. tristis</em>.   <p></p>
160032276		distribution	eng	<em>Pomarea mendozae</em> was formerly widespread in the central Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, occurring as two subspecies on three islands. On Hiva Oa, the now-extinct nominate <em>mendozae</em> was common in 1921 and 1922, and was last seen in March 1975, when only one individual was seen despite several weekly field searches. It was not seen in 1990, 1996 or in 2000 (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>, and two recent records of single birds (Anon. 1999)<strong></strong> are considered erroneous<strong></strong>. The subspecies also occurred on Tahuata. It was apparently common in 1922 but it was not found in 1975 or 1990 (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>. The species survives only on Mohotani, where the population of subspecies <em>motanensis</em> was estimated at 200-350 pairs in 1975 (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong></strong> and, although only 80-125 pairs in 2000, it was considered stable at 4-5 pairs/10 ha in <em>Pisonia</em> forest (the apparent difference being due to discrepancies in estimates of island size and forest-cover) (Thibault and Meyer 2001)<strong></strong>. In 2006, the island was revisited and the population appeared to be healthy (<strong></strong>P. Raust <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. In 2007, 50 individuals were observed during a survey of the island, roughly corresponding with earlier estimates by Thibault and Meyer (2001) and indicating that the population is stable (A. Gouni and Y. Allanic via P. Raust <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<br/><p></p>
160032276		habitat	eng	This mainly insectivorous species occurred in forested valleys at high elevations and in degraded forest at all altitudes (probably originally preferring lowland forests which are now destroyed). On Mohotani, it is found in dry forest with <em>Pisonia grandis </em>(Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Adults apparently prefer areas of dense, luxuriant vegetation while immatures often frequent shrubby vegetation in dry areas (Holyoak and Thibault 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032276		population	eng	The population was estimated at 80-125 pairs in 2000, with  4-5 pairs/10 ha in <em>Pisonia</em> forest (Thibault and Meyer 2001) i.e. 160-250 mature individuals.  <p></p>
160032276		threats	eng	On Mohotani, feral cats<span style="font-style: italic;"> Felis catus</span> are a threat and, to a lesser extent, Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em>, as well as intense grazing by feral sheep (Seitre and Seitre 1991, 1992)<strong></strong>. All the Marquesas Islands have been devastated by intense grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and upland forest to relict forest patches. On all islands, introduced species have been a threat, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and (which is not present on Mohotani), on Hiva Oa, introduced birds such as the predatory Great Horned Owl <em>Bubo virginianus</em> and the very competitive Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis.  <p></p></em>
160032278		distribution	eng	This species occurs throughout Australia and has a large range.
160032278		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open forest, woodland, scrub and savanna, from sea-level to 1500 m (Thiollay 1994).
160032278		population	eng	(Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001)
160032279		distribution	eng	This species occurs in north-east India, north-west Myanmar and eastern Bangladesh.
160032279		habitat	eng	This species is typically found in open areas with tall grass and scattered trees and bushes, and is also reported from forest edge and heavily cut-over secondary forest, from c. 800 to at least 1,800 m (Long et al. 1994).
160032279		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally not uncommon, although scarce and local in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032280		distribution	eng	This species occurs across the Indian subcontinent and South-East Asia.
160032280		habitat	eng	This species inhabits deciduous woodland, evergreen broadleaf forest, forest edge, secondary growth (including bamboo), wooded stands in coffee and tea estates and wooded gardens, from plains level to 1,200 m (locally to 1,800 m in Sri Lanka). It tends to be found in the canopy where it forages, often acrobatically, for arthropods, fruits and nectar (Wells 2005).
160032280		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to fairly common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032280		threats	eng	Some populations may be depressed by heavy harvesting for the cage-bird trade (Wells 2005).
160032281		distribution	eng	This species has a large range extending from north-east Pakistan eastwards along the Himalayan chain to Bhutan and north-east India. It winters in the plains in the Calcutta area, Bihar, east Madhya Pradesh and the north Eastern Ghats.
160032281		habitat	eng	The species is generally scarce but locally common in conifer, deciduous and warm temperate evergreen forest in lush undergrowth and bamboo, wintering in open forest (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005), breeding from 1,000-3,800 m but wintering as low as 250 m (Grimmett et al. 1998).
160032281		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant, although scarce in some parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032282		distribution	eng	This species has a large range in northern India, southern Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and western Myanmar.
160032282		habitat	eng	The species inhabits open grassland and fields in plains, generally (but not necessarily) with scattered bushes and trees, where it is largely terrestrial (de Juana et al. 2004).
160032282		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as widespread and locally common (de Juana et al. 2004).
160032283		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032284		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032285		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032302		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to reveal the upper and lower elevational limits of its range. Protect significant areas of high elevation forest in the form of community conservation areas. Research the effects of introduced predators on the species.  <p></p>
160032302		distribution	eng	<em>Cettia haddeni</em> is endemic to the island of Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It has only recently been described, although its existence has long been known to local inhabitants (<strong></strong>Lecroy and Barker 2006)<strong></strong>. Since 1972, ornithologists have been aware of its presence, but only through voice (<strong></strong>Lecroy and Barker 2006)<strong></strong>. Years of civil war prevented fieldwork in the 1990s and it was not until 2000 that the first individual was mist-netted (<strong></strong>Lecroy and Barker 2006)<strong></strong>. A further two were caught within a few months and it appeared to be fairly widespread and not uncommon in suitable habitat (<strong></strong>Lecroy and Barker 2006)<strong></strong>. However, others have found it to be absent from the highest altitudes and it may therefore only occur within a relatively narrow altitudinal band (B. Beehler <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032302		habitat	eng	It inhabits montane forest at 700-1,500 m. Reported to forage mostly on the ground, sometimes in association with Island Thrush <em>Turdus poliocephalus</em> (Dutson 2011).<p></p>
160032302		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).
160032302		threats	eng	No specific threats are known; however, it is probably threatened by small scale clearance of forest for agriculture and also from predation by introduced black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>and feral cats.  <p></p>
160032304		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Regular monitoring is, or will be, undertaken on Tristan da Cunha, Gough, Amsterdam and St Paul Islands (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004, Cuthbert and Sommer 2004)<strong></strong>. Several ecological and demographic studies have been undertaken (<strong></strong>Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998, Guinard <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Many islands with breeding colonies are reserves. An International Species Action Plan and a series of Regional Action Plans have been developed (BirdLife International 2010).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue or start to monitor all populations to assess trends. Conduct long-term demographic studies to understand the causes of current decline (BirdLife International 2010). Conduct research into spatial and temporal links between population trends, sea surface temperature and primary productivity (BirdLife International 2010). Conduct studies to assess interactions with commercial fisheries (Ryan and Cooper 1991). Study the potential impacts of climate change. Assess the threat from introduced predators.<br/><p></p>
160032304		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Eudyptes moseleyi</span> is found in the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean. It has a restricted breeding range, occurring on just seven islands with a total land area of 250 km<sup>2</sup>. The majority are found on Gough Island and islands in the Tristan da Cunha group (<span style="font-weight: bold;">St Helena to UK</span>), with 83,000 pairs on Middle Island (2009), 64,700 pairs on Gough (2006), 25,000 pairs on Nightingale (2009), 54,000 pairs on Inaccessible (2009) and 6,700 pairs on Tristan (2009) (BirdLife International 2010, BirdLife International 2012). The rest of the population is found in the India Ocean with 24,890 pairs on Amsterdam Island and 9,023 pairs on St Paul Island (<span style="font-weight: bold;">French Southern Territories</span>). Early records indicate that millions of penguins used to occur on both Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. Approximately 2 million pairs (98%) were lost from Gough Island between 1955 and 2006 and Tristan da Cunha is thought to have held hundreds of thousands of pairs in the 1870s, which were reduced to around 5,000 pairs by 1955 (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The breeding colonies on Amsterdam and St Paul Islands have reduced in size by 40% (Guinard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Population modelling, based on those breeding sites that have been accurately surveyed, indicates that over the past 37 years (= 3 generations) the number of Northern Rockhopper Penguins has declined by 57% (Birdlife International 2010).<br/><p></p>
160032304		habitat	eng	Adults arrive at the breeding colonies in late July and August. Nests are located in a variety of habitats ranging from open boulder-strewn beaches on Gough Island to among stands of tussock grass (mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina arundinacea</span>) on Nightingale and Inaccessible islands (Cuthbert 2012). They feed mainly on krill. Other prey items include other crustaceans, squid, octopus and fish (Williams 1995).<br/><p></p>
160032304		population	eng	The population is estimated at around 265,000 breeding pairs (Birdlife International 2010, BirdLife International 2012). The majority are found on Gough Island and islands in the Tristan da Cunha group (St Helena to UK), with 83,000 pairs on Middle Island (2009), 64,700 pairs on Gough (2006), 25,000 pairs on Nightingale (2009), 54,000 pairs on Inaccessible (2009) and 6,700 pairs on Tristan (2009) (BirdLife International 2010, BirdLife International 2012). The rest of the population is found in the India Ocean with 24,890 pairs on Amsterdam Island (1993) and 9,023 pairs on St Paul Island (1993) (French Southern Territories). Several populations have experienced major long-term population crashes. Approximately 2 million pairs (98%) were lost from Gough Island between 1955 and 2006 and Tristan da Cunha is thought to have held hundreds of thousands of pairs in the 1870s, which were reduced to around 5,000 pairs by 1955 (Cuthbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The breeding colonies on Amsterdam and St Paul Islands have reduced in size by 40% (Guinard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Population modelling, based on those breeding sites that have been accurately surveyed, indicates that over the past 37 years (= 3 generations) the number of Northern Rockhopper Penguins has declined by 57% (Birdlife International 2010).
160032304		threats	eng	Egg collection was common at some colonies until the 1950s, such as on Tristan da Cunha, and may continue on Nightingale, perhaps causing decreases (Richardson 1984, P. G. Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999). Penguins were taken historically as bait for use in crab pots at a number of sites, including at St Paul (Indian Ocean) and Tristan da Cunha. The only reported cases of major predation by invasive species are feral pigs on Tristan and Inaccessible (where pigs were eradicated in 1873 and 1930, respectively). Domestic and feral dogs were also reported to be a problem on Tristan da Cunha (BirdLife International 2010). Food supplies may be affected by squid fisheries, climate change and shifts in marine food webs (Cunningham and Moors 1994, Guinard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, Hilton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Increasing disturbance and pollution results from ecotourism and fishing (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Driftnet fishing and rock-lobster fisheries have caused significant mortality (Ryan and Cooper 1991, P. G. Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 1999). One possible ‘top-down’ effect on the eudyptid penguins is competition with pinnipeds–especially subantarctic fur seals <em>Arctocephalus tropicalis</em> (Barlow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). In early 2011, a cargo ship ran aground on Nightingale Island. The resultant oil spill reached Inaccessible Island and Tristan more than 30km away. Early indications are that the impact on the breeding population has not been as severe as initially feared (BirdLife International 2012). <br/><p></p>
160032307		distribution	eng	This species occurs in southern and central Tanzania and extreme north-western Malawi, where it is patchily distributed in montane areas.
160032307		habitat	eng	The species is found in evergreen forests at 540-2,160 m, moving to miombo woodlands and other wooded areas in lower foothills in the non-breeding season. It is also known to persist in degraded forest and small forest patches (Fjeldså et al. 2006).
160032307		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often highly abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032309		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2002), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032310		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
160032311		distribution	eng	This species is endemic to Taiwan.
160032311		habitat	eng	This species is found at 850-2,300 m elevation, in the lower to mid-strata of primary oak, fir and cedar forest, as well as open secondary growth and scrub. It is occasionally found in fields. It may be entirely dependent on primary or closed-canopy forest during the breeding season (L. Severinghaus in litt. 2007).
160032311		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as sparse to fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032312		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Known from Kerinici Seblat National Park. The species currently receives no legal protection within Indonesia. Captive breeding of this species has been successful on a small scale in the UK, and attempts at establishing a second ex situ captive breeding population in Java, Indonesia, are in progress (C. R. Shepherd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Review the species's status in trade and consider listing under CITES. Support measures to regulate the cage bird industry nationally in Indonesia and internationally. Surveys are urgently required to determine whether additional sub-populations still persist within the historical range. The species is currently only protected due to lack of a harvest and trade quota being established for it, and the absence of trapping permits being granted. Grant full legal protection for the species under Indonesian law.<p></p>
160032312		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Garrulax bicolor</span> was originally distributed along the length of the montane spine of Sumatra, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Indonesia</span>, from Aceh in the north to Lampung in the south (van Marle and Voous 1988), and was reportedly common. Recent evidence suggests that it has undergone a considerable decline. It is known to be present at a small number of sites scattered across Sumatra, including Bukit Barisan Selantan National Park, Danau Ranau (South Sumatra) (R. Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> C. R. Shepherd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), Batang Toru (North Sumatra) and Ulu Masen (Aceh) (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007), and a single locality in Kerinci Seblat National Park (S. Högberg <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2006), although recent surveys there have failed to find it (N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007). A small group of three birds was camera trapped in Batang Toru (G. Fredriksson <span style="font-style: italic;">per</span> C. R. Shepherd <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is frequently seen in local wild bird markets (e.g. in Jambi and Medan in 2007 [Shepherd 2007, N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2007]), along with imported specimens of its sister species, the White-crested Laughingthrush <span style="font-style: italic;">G. leucolophus</span> (Shepherd 2006, 2007). It is also frequently seen in the larger bird markets in Jakarta, Java (Shepherd 2007). Local traders and hunters report that it has become rarer (Shepherd 2007, 2011, N. Brickle <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2007).<br/><p></p>
160032312		habitat	eng	This species is known from montane forest (with unsubstantiated reports of a lowland population in Berbak Game Reserve, Jambi). It lives in flocks in the middle and lower storeys of forest sometimes coming to the ground. <p></p>
160032312		population	eng	The species was reportedly common and widespread in 1988 but is now known from only one location (J. C. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2006, F. R. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 2006) and is rare in bird markets trading wild caught birds. Local traders report that the species is now rare. For these reasons it is believed to have a small population and is placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160032312		threats	eng	The principal threat to this species is believed to be illegal trade for the cage bird industry at a national and possibly international level (Shepherd 2006, 2007, 2011)<strong></strong>. This species has reportedly become rare and as a result is rarely caught by local traders. It is now vastly outnumbered in bird markets on Sumatra by its continental sister species, the White-crested Laughingthrush <em>G. leucolophus</em>. The vast majority of this trade is illegal and unregulated (Shepherd 2007, 2011)<strong></strong>. It may also have declined owing to deforestation within its range. <p></p>
160032313		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor trends in habitat loss. Research its tolerance of degraded habitats. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community managed multiple use areas.  <p></p>
160032313		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax ferrarius</em> has an inexplicably small range in Cardamom mountains, south-west <strong>Cambodia</strong>. It is often considered scarce to uncommon, but in parts of its range (such as Mount Aural), and perhaps especially at higher elevations, it can be fairly common (<strong></strong>J. Eaton <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032313		habitat	eng	It occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest, from 800 to at least 1,250 m.  It forages in small groups, often in mixed species foraging aggregations.  <p></p>
160032313		population	eng	The population is preliminarily estimated to number at least 10,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to 15,000 individuals in total. This requires confirmation.
160032313		threats	eng	Though its tolerance of habitat degradation is poorly known, it is likely to be in decline owing to logging and conversion of forest to agriculture, particularly coffee.  <p></p>
160032314		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032315		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to scarce, although locally fairly common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032316		distribution	eng	This species occurs within the Dal Lat Plateau EBA in southern Annam, Vietnam.
160032316		habitat	eng	This species occurs in secondary forest, edge habitats and undergrowth, even in cultivated habitats adjacent to forest patches (J. Eames in litt. 2007, R. Craik in litt. 2007). It occurs singly, in pairs or in small groups, but apparently never in large groups like other members of the genus (J. Eames in litt. 2007, R. Craik in litt. 2007).
160032316		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032316		threats	eng	The species is evidently tolerant of habitat degradation, and is therefore unlikely to be at imminent risk from habitat loss.
160032317		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively prevent the import of <em>G. canorum. </em>Actively discourage the release of <em>G. canorum. </em>Monitor the proportion of pure <em>G. taewanus </em>in the population. Research its habitat requirements and tolerance of degraded habitats. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at sites where it is known to occur.  <p></p>
160032317		distribution	eng	<em>Garrulax taewanus </em>is endemic to <strong>Taiwan </strong>(to China), where it is fairly common. It was recently split from the widespread Chinese Hwamei <em>G. canorum</em>. There is uncertainty regarding the population size, with estimates ranging from 1,000 (Y. Cheng-te <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong> to over 10,000 (S. Chan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> individuals.  <p></p>
160032317		habitat	eng	It occurs in secondary vegetation in foothill and submontane <em>Ficus - Machilus </em>and <em>Machilus - Castanopsis </em>zones, to 1,200 m. It forages for insects and small seeds singly, in pairs or small groups in the understory. It breeds between March and August.  <p></p>
160032317		population	eng	The global population is estimated to number more than 10,000 individuals (Simba Chan <em>in litt</em> 2007), roughly equivalent to c.6,700 mature individuals.
160032317		threats	eng	The primary threat is genetic swamping through hybridisation with the introduced Chinese Hwanmei <em>G. canorum</em>, which is illegally imported as a cage bird, due to its beautiful song. Birds which have lost their vocal capacity are released, and a recent study found that 20% of hwamei in a wild state in Taiwan are hybrids (Y. Cheng-te <em>in litt. </em>2007, S. Chan <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Since it is a lowland species habitat loss for agriculture and infrastructure development poses an additional threat.  <p></p>
160032318		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032319		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032320		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a wide variety of submontane and montane forest habitats, including secondary growth and scrub (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032320		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare in Yunnan, China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032321		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032322		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032323		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in eastern Bhutan and Bangladesh, but common in western Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032324		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at sea level and increasingly common with elevation (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in China has been estimated at c.100-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032325		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032326		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032327		distribution	eng	This species occurs in the Batak Highlands and south-central Barisan range of Sumatra, Indonesia.  It is present in Gunung Leuser and Kerinci Seblat National Parks. It is relatively common at Gunung Kerinci.
160032327		habitat	eng	This species is found on the floor and in the understorey of lower montane oak-laurel forest at 1,200-2,850 m.
160032327		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but although the species is described as very rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007), it is possible that the very few records result from low observer coverage within the altitudinal range of the species, rather than genuine rarity (N. Brickle in litt. 2007, J. Eaton in litt. 2007).
160032327		threats	eng	A considerable area of montane forest remains on Sumatra, and this species is unlikely to be at serious risk from habitat loss.
160032328		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve, Mu Cang Chai Species and Habitat Conservation Area and Van Ban Nature Reserve, which evidently provide very limited protection (Eames and Mahood 2011, J. Pilgrim <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. No targeted actions are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to determine the current status at Van Ban Nature Reserve. Survey new areas of suitable habitat to acquire improved knowledge of its distribution. Carry out surveys to confirm habitat requirements and determine if it can tolerate dense secondary regrowth. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within its range. Improve the management of existing protected areas. Increase the area of suitable habitat that receives robust protection. <br/><p></p>
160032328		distribution	eng	<em>Rimator pasquieri</em> has a very limited range, being restricted to the Hoang Lien Mountains in West Tonkin, northern <strong>Vietnam </strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Nine specimens have been collected, all from Mount Fansipan (located in Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve), from which there are also recent records (Eames and Mahood 2011)<strong></strong>. It has also been recorded in recent years at Mu Cang Chai Species and Habitat Conservation Area (Yen Bai Province) and Van Ban Nature Reserve (Lao Cai Province) (Eames and Mahood 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160032328		habitat	eng	It inhabits submontane and montane forest habitats, including broadleaf evergreen forest, secondary growth and bamboo stands, at c.1,220-2,500 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It appears to strongly favour areas of forest with an undergrowth dominated by dwarf bamboo of the genus <em>Arundinaria</em><strong> </strong>(Eames and Mahood 2011). Nothing is known of the species's diet, but it has been observed to skulk on the forest floor and in undergrowth, where it rummages amongst fallen leaves (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007, Eames and Mahood 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032328		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce within its tiny range.
160032328		threats	eng	The species is threatened by on-going forest clearance (Eames and Mahood 2011), although it occurs in secondary growth (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and may tolerate some forms of habitat degradation and disturbance. Cardamom cultivation has increased markedly in north-western Vietnam since c.2006 (J. Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011) and is perhaps the most important threat to the species (Eames and Mahood 2011). Cardamom cultivation involves the removal of natural undergrowth (dense <span style="font-style: italic;">Arundinaria</span> sp. bamboo) from intact forest and is equally prevalent within and outside protected areas, with the apparent support or tacit acceptance of authorities (Eames and Mahood 2011, J. Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). The resulting understorey of cardamom is much simpler in structure than bamboo and is thought to be unsuitable for the species. All recent records have been from locations with a dense understory of <span style="font-style: italic;">Arundinaria </span>sp. bamboo and surveys have thus far failed to find it in cardamom plots. Cardamom cultivation is so widespread that it is reportedly now almost impossible to find undisturbed evergreen forest undergrowth in Hoang Lien Son and Van Ban Nature Reserves (Eames and Mahood 2011, J. Pilgrim <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011). Cardamom cultivation has recently spread to Mu Cang Chai Species and Habitat Conservation Area, where it was previously uneconomic owing to access constraints. The construction of two new roads that will allow access to this site from the north and the south is on-going and in addition to encouraging cardamom cultivation, these roads will facilitate illegal logging and forest loss. These roads will service four proposed hydroelectric power schemes (at least one of which has been approved for construction) which will inundate land adjacent to the site; the associated work crews and the staff that serve them are likely to be resident in the area for many years, leading to additional forest loss (Eames and Mahood 2011). Large areas of unprotected montane forest adjacent to this site in Son La Province have been destroyed since c.2001 and all remaining forest there will be lost by c.2015.<br/><p></p>
160032330		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032331		distribution	eng	This species occurs in east Arunachal Pradesh, India, north and east Myanmar, north-west and west Yunnan, China, and west Thailand.
160032331		habitat	eng	This species is found in thick undergrowth of broadleaved evergreen forest, wet luxuriant ravines and damp gullies, including in secondary and degraded forests, at 1,400-2,800 m in SE Asia and 1,200-3,000 m in China.
160032331		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Myanmar and generally rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032331		threats	eng	This species is unlikely to be at serious risk from habitat loss owing to its wide altitudinal range and tolerance of forest degradation (J. Eames in litt. 2007, B. Anderson in litt. 2007).
160032332		distribution	eng	This species occurs in Mizoram (Lushai Hills), India and the Chin Hills of Myanmar.
160032332		habitat	eng	This species is found in the understorey of broadleaved evergreen forest, forest edge, secondary growth, scrub, fern clumps, bamboo thickets, and tangles of grass and scrub on steep slopes near forest, at 1,300-2,800 m.
160032332		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032332		threats	eng	Given its broad altitudinal range and tolerance of degraded habitats, this species is unlikely to be at imminent risk from habitat loss.
160032333		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Fan Si Pan National Park (Vietnam) and may occur in Cenwanglaoshan Nature Reserve (China) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No targeted actions are known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys at known sites to obtain a total population estimate. Search for the species at new sites. Monitor land-use changes in the species's range. Increase the area of suitable habitat in its range that has protected status. <p></p>
160032333		distribution	eng	<em>Spelaeornis kinneari </em>occurs in the Fan Si Pan Mountains in West Tonkin, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and has more recently been found in south-eastern Yunnan and north-western Guanxi, <strong>China</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007). <p></p>
160032333		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the understorey of broadleaf evergreen forest and overgrown forest gaps at 1,600-2,500 m in Vietnam, with probable records at 1,400-1,600 m in China (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Its diet is unknown, but the species forages close to the ground like its congeners and it probably feeds on small invertebrates (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032333		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although rare in China.
160032333		threats	eng	The main threat to this species is deforestation, which is driven in large part by the expansion of agriculture, with a particular threat coming from the spread of intensive cardamom cultivation (J. Pilgrim<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>, which the species may not tolerate. Cardamom growing in north-western Vietnam has increased markedly during the last five years (J. Pilgrim<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032334		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and its tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor trends in habitat loss. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-managed multiple use areas. <p></p>
160032334		distribution	eng	<em>Spenocichla roberti </em>occurs in north-east <strong>India</strong> from eastern Arunachal Pradesh south to Assam, Nagaland and north Manipur, north <strong>Myanmar</strong> and adjacent <strong>China</strong> (western Yunnan). Although it appears to be rare throughout, this impression is at least partly exaggerated because of the infrequency with which its range is visited by ornithologists.  <p></p>
160032334		habitat	eng	It occurs in evergreen forest with large trees and bamboo on the edge of dense jungle, at 300-2,010 m. It occurs in small parties and feeds on insects, particularly woodlice and boring beetles. It breeds in May-June; its nest is a pad of moss.  <p></p>
160032334		population	eng	The population size is preliminarily estimated to fall into the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160032334		threats	eng	While the high altitudes favoured by this species are relatively free from habitat loss, shifting cultivation and logging are nevertheless reducing forest cover, at least in north-east India and north Myanmar.  <p></p>
160032335		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to locate important populations. Effectively protect forest at known sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded habitats.  <p></p>
160032335		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris pygmaeus </em>is endemic to the islands of Samar and Leyte in the Easter Visayas, the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It was formerly considered conspecific with <em>S. planteni</em>, and unlike that species, there are few recent records. Although this may reflect the relative paucity of ornithological study within its range rather than its relative rarity, it does appear to be uncommon to rare.  <p></p>
160032335		habitat	eng	It occupies primary forest, adjacent second growth and trees in cultivated areas; at 100-1,100 m. It feeds on insects and small fruit. It breeds during April-May.  <p></p>
160032335		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
160032335		threats	eng	Despite its tolerance of some habitat degradation, it is probably still threatened by logging and clearance of forest for agriculture. <p></p>
160032336		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across most of its range and abundant in the lowlands of Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032337		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from Mount Apo and Mount Kitanglad National Parks.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Determine its tolerance of logged and degraded forest. Effectively protect forest at key sites.  <p></p>
160032337		distribution	eng	<em>Micromacronus sordidus</em> is endemic to the island of Mindanao, the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It was previously considered conspecific with the Visayan Miniature-babbler <em>M. leytensis</em>, and although it slightly better known than that species, there are few recent records. However, it is tiny and unobtrusive and therefore may be more common than currently thought.  <p></p>
160032337		habitat	eng	It occurs in the undergrowth and canopy of montane broadleaf evergreen forest and forest edge at 600-1670 m. It has been recorded in small, active, noisy groups; often associating with other species.  <p></p>
160032337		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
160032337		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by logging and clearance of forest for agriculture. Its tolerance to forest degradation is not known.  <p></p>
160032338		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is present in Thuong Da Nhim and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserves and Bi Doup - Nui Ba National Park on the Da Lat Plateau.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and its tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor trends in habitat loss. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community managed multiple use areas. Investigate the taxonomic status of <em>C. l. hoae</em>.  <p></p>
160032338		distribution	eng	<em>Cutia legalleni</em> occurs as two races within a small range in south-east Asian. <em>C. l. hoae</em> occurs on the Kon Tum Plateau in the eastern part of south <strong>Laos</strong> and central Annam in <strong>Vietnam</strong>, whilst <em>C. l. legalleni</em> is confined to the Da Lat Plateau in South Annam, Vietnam. Although it is locally common, it has a small and disjunct range.  <p></p>
160032338		habitat	eng	It occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest, mixed broadleaved and pine forest, and sometimes pure pine forest (but usually when close to broadleaved forest). Although it may use secondary growth or logged primary forest it probably has an association with primary forest. Typically seen in the canopy and sub-canopy of primary forest, travelling either in pairs or groups of up to 10 birds feeding amongst epiphytes or moss covered branches and around bowls in large trees (J. C. Eames <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032338		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
160032338		threats	eng	Forest within its range is threatened by logging and by conversion to coffee. <p></p>
160032339		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of forest types at elevations from 500-1,800 m, and is found in secondary growth, scrub and grassland (del Hoyo et al. 2007), suggesting that it is unlikely to be affected by habitat loss.
160032339		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032340		distribution	eng	This species is confined to southern Annam, Vietnam, where it is recorded from the Southern Vietnamese Lowlands, Da Lat Plateau and Kon Tum Plateau Endemic Bird Areas.
160032340		habitat	eng	This species is found in the understorey of broadleaved evergreen forest, secondary growth, and forest edge at 1,510-2,100 m elevation. It has also been found in lowland semi-evergreen forest, lowland evergreen forest and lower montane forest, with records from elevations down to 50 m in the northern part of the range (del Hoyo et al. 2007). It is known to persist in forests that have been logged, burnt and suffered defoliant spraying during the Vietnam War. It occurs in early successional stages of re-growth and may occur in higher densities in second growth than primary growth (J. Eames in litt. 2007).
160032340		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032340		threats	eng	Although its habitats are at risk from forest conversion to cashew and to coffee, this species' tolerance of degraded habitats and wide altitudinal range suggest that it is not at immediate threat.
160032341		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032342		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally common in China and Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032343		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007), while the population in Taiwan has been estimated at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs (Brazil 2009).
160032344		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common across its range and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032345		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in China, generally common in its South-East Asian range, although uncommon in Vietnam. In Chu Yang Sin, the population is estimated to be 2,640 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032346		distribution	eng	This species is reported to make irruptive winter movements in parts of the range, particularly in <B>China</B>, and therefore may fluctuate in abundance on a local scale.   </P>
160032346		habitat	eng	This species is reported to make irruptive winter movements in parts of its range, particularly in China, and therefore may fluctuate in abundance on a local scale. It is found in hill and submontane forest habitats, and is known to tolerate secondary and degraded forests (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032346		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest Yuhina in south China, and generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2007). Brazil (2009) estimates the population in China at c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs.
160032347		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Chu Yang Sin National Park, Bi Doup-Nui Ba National Park and around Tuyen Lam Lake.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor trends in habitat loss. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-managed multiple use areas.  <p></p>
160032347		distribution	eng	<em>Paradoxornis margaritae</em> is confined to the Da Lat Plateua in South Annam,<strong> Vietnam</strong>, and adjacent Mondulkiri, <strong>Cambodia</strong>. It is considered locally common to uncommon within its very small range.  <p></p>
160032347		habitat	eng	It occurs in primary and secondary forest and at the forest edge, and occasionally feeds in nearby plantations and agricultural areas. It is most often observed in large flocks moving through the forest canopy.  <p></p>
160032347		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
160032347		threats	eng	Although it has a broad tolerance of habitat degradation, forest within its very small range is being rapidly converted to coffee plantations.  <p></p>
160032348		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species has been described from within the Bugun community forest area adjacent to Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary. Between them, Eaglenest and Sessa sanctuaries protect a microcosm of the wider Kameng protected area. The type locality and surrounding areas have been proposed as a community reserve, which is a new category of protected area in India in which local communities play a significant role in partnership with the forest department (R. Athreya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to improve understanding of the species's range, population and ecology. Appraise potential threats to this species. Ensure that habitats within the Kameng protected area remain safe, particularly by opposing planned road developments that threaten to impact habitat integrity at the only known location. <p></p>
160032348		distribution	eng	<em>Liocichla bugunorum</em> was described from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>. Since the original sighting, the species has also been sighted near Bomdila (C. Bonpo <em>in litt</em>. 2011) and during May-June 2009, at least six breeding territories were recorded in a small area of Lama Camp in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (Grewal 2009, S. Dalvi and P. Alstrom<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2012). There are only three known localities at present, although analysis of the distribution of apparently suitable habitat suggests it could range further east in central and eastern Arunachal Pradesh and also into neighbouring Bhutan and China (Peterson and Papes 2006)<strong></strong>. However, a survey of other suitable areas surrounding the type locality failed to record this species (R. Athreya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Given its striking plumage and distinctive vocalisations it is unlikely that the species could have escaped detection for so long if it were relatively common and widespread.<br/><p></p>
160032348		habitat	eng	Little is known about this species, although all sightings have occurred on heavily disturbed hillsides over 2,000 m and among dense scrub, small trees (Anon 2006) and bamboo (C. Bonpo <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2011)<strong></strong>. Other <em>Liocichla spp</em>. occur in evergreen primary and some secondary habitats, typically singly or in pairs. They tend to be unobtrusive. The area where this species has been recorded is part of a wider area of contiguous closed canopy forest.  <p></p>
160032348		population	eng	This is a poorly known species and no population estimates are available.
160032348		threats	eng	Little is known, but the species has been recorded from logged forest which may well be sub-optimal habitat, as surveys of similar habitat surrounding known localities were fruitless (Anon 2006)<strong></strong>. Logging for fuel wood and timber continues at one of the two known localities for the species, as local Bugun people rely heavily on local timber for fuel and construction. A proposal for the development of a new road through the area has stalled, although improvements to the existing track are still planned (R. Athreya <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Increasing tourism could pose a long term threat if it remains unregulated. <p></p>
160032349		distribution	eng	This species occurs within the Himalayan range in Pakistan, north-western India, Nepal, and Bhutan, as well as in montane areas across western China and in extreme northern Myanmar.
160032349		habitat	eng	This species primarily inhabits high-altitude coniferous forests, as well as mixed conifer forests and birch stands. During the breeding season it is generally found at 3,000-4,200 m elevation, moving marginally lower in non-breeding periods.
160032349		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common.
160032350		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it is considered very rare to common.
160032351		distribution	eng	This South American species is represented by three distinct forms occurring in parapatry: (1) S. s. suiriri to the southwest in the Chaco/Pampas; (2) S. s. affinis located centrally in the Cerrado/southern Amazonia; and (3) S. s. bahiae to the northeast in the Caatinga.
160032351		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032351		threats	eng	The species is threatened by widespread habitat conversion to pine and eucalyptus plantations and soy-bean and rice crops as well as habitat clearance for livestock farming (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160032352		distribution	eng	This species has a large range from Mexico and Central America to Amazonia and south into Argentina.
160032352		population	eng	(Rich et al. 2004)
160032353		distribution	eng	This species was recently described from Colombia where it is found in the northern half of the Cordillera Central in the Colombian Andes in Antioquia, Caldas and Risaralda Departments.
160032353		habitat	eng	The species is found in cloudforest at 1,420-2,130.
160032353		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in remnants of unspoilt habitat (Restall et al. 2006).
160032353		threats	eng	Within the species former range an estimated 63% of forest cover has been lost, a decline which has occurred over centuries. However, it is unlikely that it will decline by a further 30% during the coming decade.
160032354		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is known from the Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve. However, forest within this reserve continues to be degraded and cleared. The species's stronghold, Serranía de las Minas, is unprotected, but a joint partnership between the national parks authority and Fundación ProAves aims to establish a protected area here. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct further surveys to confirm the species presence on the East Andes side of the valley. Provide further protection against forest clearance within the existing Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve. Continue lobbying for Important Bird Area status for the area and the establishment of a protected area at Serranía de las Minas. <p></p>
160032354		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus rodriguezi</em> was recently described from the head of the Magdalena Valley on the east slope of the Cordillera Central mountains of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known from two locations, the Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve, San Agustín municipality, Huila department, and Serranía de las Minas, a ridge 15 km SSE of Finca Merenberg. It was hypothesised that the species may <em>Scytalopus rodriguezi</em> was recently described from the head of the Magdalena Valley on the east slope of the Cordillera Central mountains of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known from two locations, the Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve, San Agustín municipality, Huila department, and Serranía de las Minas, a ridge 15 km SSE of Finca Merenberg. It was hypothesised that the species may also occur on the East Andes side of the valley; this seems to be supported by the recent re-examination of a museum specimen collected at La Palma, Huila, which is consistent with <em>rodriguezi</em> based on plumage and biometrics<strong> </strong>(T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2006). The species's range is believed to be very small, with its stronghold centred on Serranía de las Minas. Much habitat at suitable elevations has already been cleared with an estimated 169 km<sup>2</sup> remaining and deforestation continues, suggesting that the species may be declining rapidly. Several records of a <em>Scytalopus</em> species in the Serranía de los Yariguíes are thought to relate to either a new population of this species (representing a 600 km northward range extension), or an undescribed species or subspecies of tapaculo<strong></strong><strong></strong> (T. Donegan <em>in litt</em>. 2007,<strong></strong> D. Willis <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <p></p>
160032354		habitat	eng	It inhabits dense understorey of primary humid forest at elevations of 2,000-2,300 m. It is frequently heard but rarely seen. Individuals move inconspicuously within 50 cm of or on the ground. It feeds on small insects. <p></p>
160032354		population	eng	The population is estimated to be in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals in total, equating to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 individuals.
160032354		threats	eng	Deforestation is the principal threat to the species, at least in the short term. Selective logging, forest clearance to create pasture, and habitat degradation owing to trampling by free roaming livestock are the main drivers of its decline. Clearance in places of hundreds of mature oak and other hardwoods has drastically changed the forest physiognomy. <p></p>
160032355		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The entire known population occurs within the boundaries of the recently established Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana. There is now increased awareness of the bird in villages surrounding its known range. It has been adopted as the official bird of Iquitos ('La Perlita de Iquitos') and an Iquitos Gnatcatcher festival has been held (Shany <em>et al. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Despite significant effort, no new individuals were located in 2009 (Shany <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Twenty-nine privately owned properties totalling 480 ha within the eastern section Peru's Allpahuayo Mishana National Reserve were donated in December 2010 to SERNANP, the government agency that administers national protected areas. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Attempt to purchase any further private property within the Allpahuayo-Mishana reserve known to hold Iquitos Gnatcatchers or in appropriate habitat. Conduct natural history research (especially foraging flock dynamics, microhabitat requirements, and breeding behaviour) to improve survey methods and protection actions. Conduct further surveys for the species in suitable habitat during its vocal period (when there is increased detectability) (A. B. Hennessey <em>in litt</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Enforce protection of remaining habitat within the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana. Review the possibility of purchasing adjacent disturbed properties outside of reserve with reforestation plan and buffer zone. <p></p>
160032355		distribution	eng	This species has recently been described from the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana just west of Iquitos, Department of Loreto, <strong>Peru</strong>. Surveys of available habitat within the reserve have only located 15 pairs. Since its discovery, the species has apparently become more difficult to locate each year. <strong> <p></p></strong>
160032355		habitat	eng	It is rare within white-sand forest with a canopy height of 15-30 m, and is consistently found in tall, humid <em>varillal</em> forest. The species is most vocal during September-December (Shany <em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
160032355		population	eng	The population estimate of 50-249 mature individuals is derived from Whitney and Alvarez (2006) and Alvarez (<span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2006). This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
160032355		threats	eng	Available habitat continues to be threatened by clearance for agriculture (facilitated by government incentives to encourage colonisation of land surrounding Iquitos) and logging of forest within a national reserve, for construction, fuelwood and charcoal. <p></p>
160032356		distribution	eng	This species has a large range from Brazil south of the Amazon to eastern Peru and northern Argentina and Uruguay.
160032356		habitat	eng	This species occurs in open forests, woodlands and some human modified habitats.
160032356		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032357		distribution	eng	This poorly known species has a large range from northern Colombia to north-west and central-eastern Venzuela.
160032357		habitat	eng	The species occurs in open forests, woodlands often in hilly terrain, and in some human modified habitats including suburban parks.
160032357		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Cleere 1998).
160032358		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the Lesser Antilles.
160032358		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (Raffaele et al. 1998).
160032359		distribution	eng	This species is confined to the island of Barbados.
160032359		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but within its very small range it is described as common.
160032360		distribution	eng	This species occupies three separate areas in southern Brazil and adjacent north-eastern Argentina.
160032360		habitat	eng	The species occurs in forest and forest edge habitats, apparently more numerous in second-growth and disturbed forests.
160032360		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified.
160032361		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, which spreads from northern Canada to California across the internal western United States and Canada.
160032361		habitat	eng	The species occurs in a variety of pine and fir forest habitats from sea level to 3,600 m close to the tree line.
160032361		population	eng	(Rich et al. 2004)
160032362		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, which spreads from northern Canada to California across the Pacific states of the United States and Canada.
160032362		habitat	eng	This species occurs in a variety of pine and fir forest habitats from sea level to 3,600 m close to the tree line. Its populations apparently fluctuate more markedly than inland populations of Dusky Grouse D. fuliginosus owing to more regular disturbance of its habitat providing an open canopy which leads to a boom in numbers that gradually declines once the canopy grows anew.
160032362		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common in most of its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).
160032364		distribution	eng	This species is found in the USA and Canada. The nominate subspecies breweri occurs in the arid intermountain west of the USA (stretching north into south-east Alberta and south-west Saskatchewan, Canada) (Rotenberry 1999, Byers et al. 1995).  Further north it is replaced by the subspecies S. b. taverneri (Rotenberry 1999, Byers et al. 1995), which occurs into south-eastern Alaska.
160032364		habitat	eng	This species breeds on sagebrush flats and other open scrubby areas.  It winters from just south of the breeding range in south-western USA to central Mexico (Rotenberry 1999, Byers et al. 1995), though the wintering grounds of S.b. taverneri remain largely unknown.
160032364		threats	eng	Habitat loss has accelerated owing to the invasion of exotic plants, particularly cheatgrass Bromus tectorum, which has increased fire frequency and altered post-fire successional pathways (Rotenberry 1998).
160032366		distribution	eng	This species is widespread, breeding in the Himalayas from northern Pakistan through Nepal and northern India to South-East Asia, southern China, Taiwan and Hainan (Payne 2005). Birds migrate through South-East Asia and winter in Indonesia and the Philippines.
160032366		habitat	eng	The species lives in a range of forest types at high densities of c.1 calling male per km2 on the breeding grounds (Payne 2005).
160032366		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but is thought to be large as the species is described as 'common and widespread' in at least parts of its range (Payne 2005).
160032367		distribution	eng	This species has an extremely large range, breeding from Finland in the west to Japan and northern Siberia in the East. During winter, birds occur throughout Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and in northern and eastern Australia.
160032367		habitat	eng	The species lives in a range of forest types.
160032367		population	eng	The global   population size has not been quantified, though in Europe, the breeding   population is estimated to number 250,000-500,000 breeding pairs, equating to   750,000-1,500,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), with Europe   forming &lt;5% of the global range. National population estimates include:   c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration   in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and c.1,000-10,000 individuals on   migration in Taiwan; c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals   on migration in Korea; c.100-100,000 breeding pairs and c.50-10,000   individuals on migration in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs and   c.1,000-10,000 individuals on migration in Russia (Brazil 2009).
160032368		distribution	eng	This species is a widespread resident of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, the Lesser Sundas, Borneo and Seram.
160032368		habitat	eng	The species lives in a range of forest types.
160032368		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but is thought to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Payne 2005).
160032369		distribution	eng	<em>Caloenas maculata</em> is known only from one surviving specimen in the Merseyside County Museums, and one lost specimen, collected between 1783 and 1823. The providence of the specimens is unknown, but it seems most likely to have been a Pacific species, given the main area of activity of its collectors. Its short, rounded wings suggest it evolved on a small predator-free island. It was possibly the bird described by the people of Tahiti in 1928 as being speckled green and white. It is likely to have been almost extinct before European exploration of the Pacific began.  <p></p>
160032369		habitat	eng	Nothing is known, although given its colouration it is likely to have been a forest dweller.  <p></p>
160032369		threats	eng	Although purely speculation, it is not unreasonable to assume that hunting for food and perhaps predation by human commensals were responsible for its extinction.  <p></p>
160032371		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the mountains of Peninsular Malaysia.
160032371		habitat	eng	The species occurs in the upper dipterocarp zone, as well as in montane evergreen forest and tall upper montane forest.
160032371		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as sparsely distributed (Madge and McGowan 2002).
160032371		threats	eng	As a result of the inacessability of much of its range the species is thought unlikely to be affected by habitat loss, although further studies are required in order to determine whether any population declines are occurring.
160032372		distribution	eng	This species breeds in North Africa, south-east Europe, parts of the Arabian Peninsula and central Asia; it winters south of the Sahara to East Africa.
160032372		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in much of its range and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006), with estimates of 130,000-160,000 pairs in Europe and 1,500,000 pairs in Turkey (Svensson 2006).
160032374		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032375		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to establish distribution and densities in various forest habitats and altitudes. Develop a monitoring programme. Protect sites which are found to be important for the species as part of a forest conservation plan for the Santa Cruz Islands.  <p></p>
160032375		distribution	eng	<em>Clytorhynchus sanctaecrucis</em> is endemic to Nendo in the Santa Cruz Islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands </strong>(Pratt<em> et al</em>. (1987). It is known from two specimens taken in 1927 and two pairs seen in 2004 (Dutson<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong>, other short surveys have failed to find the species, though these did not reach hill forest in interior Nendo (<strong></strong>Mayr 1933a, Gibbs 1996, G. Dutson pers. obs. 1997, <strong></strong><strong></strong>T. Leary<em> in litt</em>. 2000<strong></strong>)<strong></strong>.<strong> </strong>In 1927, the Whitney expedition recorded just these two birds in seven days on Nendo. In 2004, two pairs were seen on a 10 km transect through suitable forest above Luselo (Dutson<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong>. Local reports suggest that it is an uncommon species of old-growth forest and none have been seen on other visits by several observers to degraded forest close to the town of Lata (Dutson<em> </em>2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032375		habitat	eng	It is known from rainforest near the summit of the island (550 m) and at about 80 m (Dutson<em>&#160;</em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has not been recorded in degraded forest and local reports suggest that it is only found deep in forest, perhaps usually beside streams (Dutson<em>&#160;</em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Pairs have been seen foraging at all levels, including on the ground, but otherwise behave as other shrikebills (Dutson<em>&#160;</em>2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160032375		population	eng	The species is only currently known at one site, although suspected to occur at over 10. The population is estimated to number 1,000-2,499 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. The estimate equates to 1,500-3,749 individuals in total, rounded here to 1,500-4,000 individuals.
160032375		threats	eng	The lack of records from the degraded forest close to Lata suggest that it could be threatened by logging. Nendo's forests are currently suffering only a little degradation from slowly expanding agriculture and harvesting timber for local use. The susceptibility of birds on these islands to invasive alien species such as black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>is unknown.  <p></p>
160032376		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey throughout its historic range to determine current range and population size. Asses the extent and impact of habitat loss on populations. Attempt to determine why it is more abundant in parts of its range. If appropriate, protect habitat at important sites.  <p></p>
160032376		distribution	eng	<em>Rhynchostruthus percivali </em> occurs in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong>. It is generally scarce and difficult to locate even at known sites (with the exception perhaps of Yemen [R. Porter <strong style="font-weight: normal;">in litt. 2006]</strong>), with an approximate population estimate of c.3,000 pairs (i.e. c.9,000 individuals including juveniles and non-breeders), comprising 500 pairs in Saudi Arabia, 500 pairs in Oman (although this may be optimistic J. Atkins <em>in litt. </em>2006<strong><sup></sup></strong>), and c.2,000 pairs in Yemen (Kirwin and Grieve 2007, M. Jennings <em>in litt. </em>2006:  information from Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia). There have not been any records in the region between Aden and Mukallah since 1950, despite better observer coverage, suggesting that it is very rare there or possibly that the range has contracted (M. Jennings <em>in litt. </em>2006:  information from Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia).  <p></p>
160032376		habitat	eng	It inhabits high-altitude scrub-covered rocky terrain with <em>Euphorbia </em>and <em>Acacia, Juniperus </em>woodland, and <em>Anogeissus/Compiphora </em>woods in Yemen, and steep-sided valleys and seaward facing slopes with luxuriant tree growth of <em>Adansonia digitata</em>, <em>Comiphora habessinica</em> and shrub euphorbias in Oman <strong></strong>(Fry and Keith (2004)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on fruit and seeds (<strong></strong>Fry and Keith 2004).  <p></p>
160032376		population	eng	It is generally scarce and difficult to locate even at known sites, with the exception perhaps of Yemen (R. Porter <i>in litt.</i> 2006). Its population is approximately estimated to number c.3,000 pairs, i.e. c.6,000 mature individuals and c.9,000 individuals including juveniles and non-breeders. This comprises 500 pairs in Saudi Arabia; 500 pairs in Oman, although this may be optimistic (J. Atkins <i>in litt.</i> 2006), and c.2,000 pairs in Yemen (M. Jennings <i>in litt.</i> 2006).
160032376		threats	eng	It may be threatened by habitat degradation, due to over-grazing and clearance for agriculture.  <p></p>
160032384		distribution	eng	This species breeds in north-east Turkey, Armenia, northern Iran east to southern Tadjikistan, Afghanistan and extreme west Pakistan. During the non-breeding season it is found across the Arabian Peninsula, southern Iraq, Iran, eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west India.
160032384		habitat	eng	This species breeds on arid rocky slopes and screes from 1,200 m to 4,000 m. In winter it is found down to sea level in dry steppe, rocky hill slopes and semi-desert. Breeding density varies from 10-20 pairs/km2 on rocky hillsides up to 20-70 pairs/km2 on river terraces and the sides of large gorges in southern Tadjikistan.
160032384		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly rare, although scarce to locally common in Afghanistan and Pakistan and locally common in Oman (del Hoyo et al. 2005).
160032404		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>This species is known from three natural reserves on Hainan, although their effectiveness in terms of protecting the population is uncertain; at least one, Ba Wang Ling, is probably not effective (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct a population census to assess the true population size, and develop monitoring techniques to establish populations trends. Assess the extent of habitat loss and hunting on the island, and develop measures to mitigate both threats. Establish further protected areas and ensure effective enforcement within their boundaries. Enforce regulations within current protected areas. Raise awareness for the current conservation status of the species. <p></p>
160032404		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polyplectron katsumatae</span> is endemic to the island of Hainan, <strong>China</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994, Madge and McGowan 2002, Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008, Collar 2009)<strong></strong>. As a result of habitat loss and hunting, both its range and population have dramatically declined since the 1950s, with the remaining population fragmented into small, partially isolated subpopulations (Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. The total population was estimated at 2,700 individuals in 1990, and at only 300 individuals in 2000 (Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Although the latter is probably an underestimate of the true population size, the population is likely to have declined rapidly owing to habitat loss and hunting (Liang Wei  <em>in litt.</em> 2010, Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032404		habitat	eng	This species inhabits dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests from 600-1200 m, and can also survive in secondary habitats, but presumably only in mature secondary habitat (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994, Madge and McGowan 2002)<strong></strong><strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032404		population	eng	The population was estimated at 300 individuals in 2000. However, this is considered to be an underestimate (Liang Wei <em>in litt.</em> 2010, Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Based on an estimated population of 2,700 individuals in 1990, and assuming the population has declined at 50-79% over the past 15 years (three generations), the population is best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals. However, further surveys are urgently required to assess the true population size.
160032404		threats	eng	Habitat loss and hunting appear to have caused declines since the 1950s, and continue to be significant threats to the species (Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008, Liang Wei  <em>in litt.</em> 2010, Zhang Zhengwang <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. By the 1980s only c.10% of Hainan remained forested (Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008). <p></p>
160032422		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out targeted surveys to obtain a population estimate. Monitor the population and the extent and condition of the species's habitats. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected. Conduct further research into the species's ecology and life history. <p></p>
160032422		distribution	eng	<em>Rigidipenna inexpectata</em> is endemic to the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, having been recorded on Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel and San Jorge, and recently reported from Buka (Hadden 2004,<strong></strong> Cleere <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032422		habitat	eng	The species is found in primary forest, secondary growth and gardens, from sea-level to at least 700 m (Cleere <em>et al</em>. 2007, G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It probably feeds mainly on large insects (Holyoak 2001)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. One nest was found in the horizontal fork of a branch in the canopy of a tall tree, c.25 m from the ground, and was a shallow structure built with sticks (Schodde 1977 in Cleere <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032422		population	eng	The species's population size has not been formally estimated, but, given the paucity of records, a realistic preliminary estimate may be of 2,500-9,999 individuals (G . Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2011). This equates to 1,667-6,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 1,500-7,000 mature individuals.
160032422		threats	eng	It probably experiences some habitat loss and degradation through clearing for agriculture and timber extraction, but the population is not thought to be in rapid decline (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The annual rate of forest loss on the Solomon Islands was 0.24% in 1990-2005 and 0.25% in 2005-2010, equating to a loss of c.4.8% over 20 years (FAO 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Furthermore, the species has been recorded in altered habitats such as logged forest, regrowth and gardens (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032423		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 64000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 192000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1000000-6000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.  </P>
160032427		population	eng	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 10000-20000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000-60000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).
160032428		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,300,000-6,700,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,900,000-20,100,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10,500,000-26,800,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
160032432		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There are a number of forest reserves in the Rubeho mountains, Ukaguru mountains, Uluguru mountains, and covering the Wota forest. These reserves provide some protection, but management effectiveness is low (N. Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the extent and impact of logging and habitat degradation on populations. Improve management of the Forest Reserves where the species occurs.<br/><p></p>
160032432		distribution	eng	<em>Sheppardia aurantiithorax</em> is endemic to <strong>Tanzania</strong>, where it is restricted to montane forest at 1,660-2,400 m in the Rubeho highland, the small Wota forest in the Wota Mountains, north-west of the Rubehos, the Ukaguru Mountains (<strong></strong>Beresford <em>et al. </em>2004)<strong></strong> and Mt Kiboriani (Fjeldså <em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span></em>2010). There is also one record from 400 m altitude just north-east of the Uluguru Mountains, although this is thought to involve a rare case of straggling outside the breeding season (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2012)<strong></strong>. Though it was first mist-netted in 1989 it was only described in 2004 (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. It is considered fairly common within its narrow altitudinal range (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160032432		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of montane moist plateau forest between 1,660 m and 2,400 m (Fjeldså <em></em><em>et al. </em>2010)<strong></strong>. It tolerates some habitat degradation (J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032432		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common.
160032432		threats	eng	Though its range includes one of the largest intact blocks of forest in the Eastern Arc Mountains, logging of large trees and clearance of forest for agriculture are still a threat and forest is very degraded and patchy in parts of its small range (N. Baker <em>in litt. </em>2006, J. Fjeldså <em>in litt. </em>2007, Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Hall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)<strong></strong>. Cannabis cultivation in this remote area occurs on a fairly large scale due to the remoteness of the location (N. Baker <em>in litt. </em>2006)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032433		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out searches to rediscover a population of the species. Determine its tolerance of logged and degraded forest. Effectively protect forest at key sites.  <p></p>
160032433		distribution	eng	<em>Micromacronus leytensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs only on Samar, Biliran and Leyte in the Eastern Visayas. It was previously considered conspecific with the Mindanao Miniature-babbler <em>M. sordidus</em>, and like that species it is tiny and unobtrusive and therefore may be more common than currently thought. However, there are no recent records.  <p></p>
160032433		habitat	eng	It occurs in the undergrowth and canopy of montane broadleaf evergreen forest and forest edge; the only published elevation is 500 m. It has been recorded in small, active, noisy groups; often associating with other species.  <p></p>
160032433		threats	eng	It is probably threatened by logging and clearance of forest for agriculture. Its tolerance to forest degradation is not known.  <p></p>
160032434		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>In the context of J. h. insularis, Guadalupe is designated as a biosphere reserve (S. N. G. Howell  in litt. 1998), but historically there has been little active management (Mirsky 1976. 5. Stattersfield et al. 1998). Nearly 35,000 goats were removed in 1970 and 1971, but in the late 1990s numbers were still estimated at 10,000 individuals (Stattersfield et al. 1998). There is apparently governmental interest in eradicating introduced predators and herbivores (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999), and non-governmental organisations in the region are developing the capacity to undertake eradication programmes on such large islands (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999). There is potential for the removal of these introduced species by 2010 (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999).<p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>The following measures have been proposed for the conservation of J. h. insularis: Eradicate goats and cats from the island (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999). Survey to provide a more recent assessment of the population size and remaining habitat.
160032434		distribution	eng	The subspecies insularis is endemic to Guadalupe Island, 280 km west of Baja California, Mexico, where it was once common and among the island's most abundant birds. It is now patchily distributed in the north of the island.
160032434		threats	eng	As a whole, the species is not under immediate threat, but the subspecies J. h. insularis has been threatened by extremely intense grazing by goats. The largest tract of remnant cypress forest on Guadalupe Island was c.3 km long in 1971, but only c.1 km by 1988. Smaller forest patches presumably experience similar intense grazing, leading to a total lack of regeneration. Feral cats were common in 1988 and presumably prey upon this species.  Numbers have increased in recent years owing to habitat management and the culling of goats.
160032435		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is protected by law and is recorded from several protected areas including Tomaniivi and Ravilevu Nature Reserves, the Sovi Basin and the Garrick Memorial Park (D. Watling<em> in litt</em>. 2000, V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. BirdLife Fiji is working towards establishing three new PAs (Natewa Peninsula and two sites in Kadavu) with an effective monitoring framework (V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.   <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop a monitoring programme for forest birds as declines in population and the initiation of threat processes could well be going unnoticed (SPREP 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Develop in-country training in survey techniques (SPREP 2000)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. Survey populations on all five islands. Determine population densities in various forest habitats and altitudes. Monitor populations at well-known sites, e.g. Nausori Highlands. Advocate creation of community-based forest conservation reserves. Initiate management in gazetted nature reserves (D. Watling<em> in litt</em>. 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.    <p></p>
160032435		distribution	eng	<em>Clytorhynchus nigrogularis</em> is found on Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taveuni, Kadavu and Ovalau in <strong>Fiji </strong>(Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987)<strong></strong>. It has been described as fairly common in suitable habitat, but is likely to be rarer than commonly reported because it is usually misidentified and occurs at low population densities (G. Dutson pers. obs. 2000, Watling 2000)<strong></strong>. Recent surveys have generated much more data on this species, showing it to be widespread but at low population densities: c.1 bird/km<sup>2</sup> on average and it is fairly common at the Garrick and Tomaniivi reserves; one or two can be heard most days in the central hills from Nausori Highlands to Nadrau and Monosavu. The species was recorded at 55% of the sites surveyed (19/34 sites) which were pre-selected to be the densest, wettest old-growth forest. Very few were recorded in logged or degraded forest. The total population is likely to be in the range of 2,500-9,999 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>. The species is likely to be declining at the same rate as forest loss and degradation, which is estimated to be about 0.5-0.8 % per year (Claasen 1991)<strong></strong>. There are very few recent records from Vanua Levu, Taveuni, Kadavu or Ovalau. <p></p>
160032435		habitat	eng	It occurs up to 1,200 m in dense, mature, wet forests (Pratt<em> et al</em>. 1987)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has also been reported from mangroves and dense bush (Clunie 1984)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, however, it appears to be absent from extensive areas of degraded forest without scattered remnants of old-growth forest, and has a patchy distribution, probably being more common in mountains (G. Dutson pers. obs. 2000, D. Watling verbally 2000, G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2005)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160032435		population	eng	Recent surveys on Fiji recorded an average of 0.1 birds/hour (a total of 49 birds) equating to 1 bird/km<sup>2</sup>, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked. The species was recorded at 55% of the sites surveyed (19/34 sites) which were pre-selected to be the densest wettest old-growth forest. Very few were recorded in logged or degraded forest. If it assumed to occur in 50% of the forest, which covers about 40% of the species's Fijian EOO (c.17,500 km<sup>2</sup>), the total population is likely to be in the range of 2,500-9,999 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005). This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160032435		threats	eng	The main threat is the continuing habitat loss and deterioration from logging and mahogany plantations, with only c.50% of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu remaining forested (Watling 2000)<strong></strong>. However, according to the Department of Forestry, the logging rate is slowing, and there is only one active logging operation on Vanua Levu (V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>. Government priorities regarding Protected Areas in Fiji are undefined and so these areas are under threat, for example in the Sovi Basin Protected Area where the possibility of mining in the area is being explored (V. Masibalavu <em>in litt. </em>2012).<br/><p></p>
160032436		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032437		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032438		conservation	eng	<b>Conservation Actions Underway</b><br/>None is known.<p/><b>Conservation Actions Proposed</b><br/>There is an urgent need to carry out further surveys to determine whether this species is genuinely rare, or is in fact more widely distributed and previously overlooked. Studies of its habitat associations and tolerance of secondary and degraded habitats are also urgently needed.
160032438		distribution	eng	This extremely poorly known species occurs only on the island of Luzon, Philippines. Until very recently, the only record involved the type specimen, taken in 1894 at 1,800 m in the mountains of Lepanto, north-western Luzon. However, in 2000 the species was rediscovered at Bay-yo, near Mt Polis, where up to five singing individuals were recorded from 850-1,300 m (Dickinson et al. 2000). It was also recently found to be common in rough grasslands above 1,200 m around Sagada (D. Allen in litt. 2007), close to Mt Polis. It is  highly unobtrusive, and better knowledge of its vocalisations may reveal it to be more widespread and common within the Cordillera Central of northern Luzon, as considerable areas of potentially suitable habitat exist in surrounding areas (S. Harrap in litt. 2007).
160032438		habitat	eng	Little is known of the habitat requirements and ecology of this species, but all records come from steep grassy valleys in mountainous areas, from 800-1,800 m (del Hoyo et al. 2006). It appears to be limited to drier areas, and has been found in areas both with and without stands of pine (S. Harrap in litt. 2007).
160032438		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon, although very elusive (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032438		threats	eng	Lack of information on precise habitat requirements makes it difficult to assess threats, but burning and overgrazing of montane dry grasslands could potentially be affecting the area and quality of habitat available. Forest clearence could, however, be leading to increases in the area of suitable habitat.
160032439		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5700000-11000000 breeding pairs, equating to 17100000-33000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 34900000-132000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.
160032440		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in suitable habitat in the Himalayas, uncommon in Nepal, very rare in north-east India, not uncommon in Myanmar, uncommon in Thailand and very rare in north-west Vietnam (Harrap and Quinn 1996).
160032441		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
160032442		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).
160032443		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032444		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and its tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor trends in habitat loss. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-managed multiple use areas. <p></p>
160032444		distribution	eng	<em>Spenocichla humei</em> occurs in extreme eastern <strong>Nepal</strong>, where it is a rare winter visitor or possibly resident, Sikkim and north-west Bengal, <strong>India</strong>, east to <strong>Bhutan</strong> (two recent records) and north-east Arunachal Pradesh, India. <p></p>
160032444		habitat	eng	It inhabits the understorey of broadleaf evergreen forest and bamboo at 900-1,950 m, favouring westward facing slopes in Bhutan. It occupies lower elevations only during the winter. It occurs in small parties and feeds on insects, particularly woodlice and boring beetles. <p></p>
160032444		population	eng	The population is preliminarily suspected to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, although this requires study.<p></p>
160032444		threats	eng	While the high altitudes favoured by this species are relatively free from habitat loss, shifting cultivation and logging are nevertheless reducing forest cover, at least in Bhutan and north-east India.  <p></p>
160032445		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local, possibly even extinct in Pakistan; common and widespread in Nepal, abundant in Bhutan, frequent to very rare in India, fairly common to locally common in China and locally uncommon in Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032446		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common in its South-East Asian range and apparently rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032447		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032448		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032449		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032450		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although extinct in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032453		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032454		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032455		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032456		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None are known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Study its ecological requirements and its tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor trends in habitat loss in its small range. Protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community-managed multiple use areas. <p></p>
160032456		distribution	eng	<em>Spelaeornis chocolatinus</em> has a very restricted range in Nagaland and north Manipur, north-east <strong>India</strong>. It has been considered scarce, but appears to be at least locally common; for instance, above Khonoma Village 25 were recorded in one day in 2007 (J. Eaton <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160032456		habitat	eng	It is found at 1,200-3,100 m in montane broadleaved evergreen forest with undergrowth of bracken, ferns or <em>Strobilanthes</em>, on steep hillsides broken with rocks and large boulders covered with rich vegetation and green moss, thick, low, often thorny bushes, briars and dwarf bamboo, especially at the edge of evergreen forest and in clearings, often in dense undergrowth near water. <p></p>
160032456		population	eng	The population is preliminarily suspected to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals; however, this requires study.<br/><p></p>
160032456		threats	eng	Although it is not strictly dependent on forest, it is likely to be declining as a result of logging and clearance of forest for small-scale agriculture.  <p></p>
160032457		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Effectively protect forest at known sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded habitats.  <p></p>
160032457		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris plateni</em> is endemic to the island of Mindanao, the <strong>Philippines</strong>, it was formerly considered conspecific with <em>S. pygmaeus</em>. It has been recorded from a number of sites including: Kalambogan, Malabang, Mt Malindang, Mt Piapayungan, Mt Agtuuganon, Mt Apo, Mt Matutum, plus Mt Hilong-hilong, Mt Kitanglad, Cabanglasan, Bukidnon, Tu-od and Na-awan, Misamis Oriental, Mt Lamut, Bislig at PICOP and Lake Sebu. It appears to be uncommon to rare throughout its range.  <p></p>
160032457		habitat	eng	It occupies primary forest, adjacent secondary growth and trees in cultivated areas; at 100-1,100 m. It feeds on insects and small fruit. It breeds during March-May.  <p></p>
160032457		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
160032457		threats	eng	Despite its tolerance of some habitat degradation, it is probably still threatened by logging and clearance of forest for agriculture. <p></p>
160032458		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032459		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to fairly local (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032460		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032461		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in central and eastern Nepal and Bhutan, locally common in north-eastern India, generally common throughout its South-East Asian range, locally common to abundant in Myanmar and uncommon to rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032462		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032463		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across its range and very common in Laos. In Chu Yang Sin, the population is estimated to be 28,190 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032464		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032465		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not very common in Bhutan, locally common in India, China and Myanmar and fairly common in the Himalayan foothills (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032466		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032467		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032468		population	eng	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)
160032469		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the two formally split races have been described as uncommon to local (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 2009).  </P>
160032470		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032471		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032472		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Regular monitoring is undertaken on the Falklands, Marion, and Campbell Islands (<strong></strong>Cuthbert and Sommer 2004, <strong></strong>Cuthbert and Sommer in press)<strong></strong>. Several ecological and demographic studies have been undertaken (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998, <strong></strong>Guinard <em>et al.</em> 1998)<strong></strong>. Marion islands with breeding colonies are reserves. Research has attempted to determine the cause of historic declines using stable isotope analysis of museum skins (<strong></strong>G. Hilton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<strong></strong>. An International Species Action Plan and a series of Regional Action Plans have been developed (BirdLife International 2010).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue or start to monitor all populations, in order to assess trends (Guinard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998, BirdLife International 2010). Conduct long-term demographic studies to understand the causes of the current decline (BirdLife International 2010). Conduct research into spatial and temporal links between population trends, sea-surface temperature and primary productivity (BirdLife International 2010). Investigate the possible impact of oil exploitation (Guinard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Conduct studies to assess interactions with commercial fisheries (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Study the potential impacts of climate change. Assess the threat from introduced predators. Reduce disturbance from ecotourism through the use of codes of conduct.<br/><p></p>
160032472		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Eudyptes chrysocome </span>breeds on islands located in the South Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, ranging from 46º S in the South Atlantic Ocean and South Indian Oceans to Macquarie Island at 54ºS in the Southern Ocean.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The species occurs as two subspecies. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. c. chrysocome </span>breeds on the <span style="font-weight: bold;">Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</span>, at 55 distinct breeding colonies (total of 210,418 breeding pairs in 2005), and a number of offshore islands in southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Argentina </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Chile</span> (Isla de los Estados: 173,793 pairs in 1998, Isla Pinguino: 501 pairs in 2007, Isla Ildefonso: 86,400 pairs in 2006, Diego Ramirez: 132,721 pairs in 2002, Isla Noir: 158,200 pairs in 2005, Isla Barnevelt: 10,800 pairs in 1992, Cape Horn: 600 pairs in 1992, Isla Terhalten: 1,000 pairs in 2005 and Isla Buenaventura: 500 pairs in 1992 [Shiavini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, BirdLife International 2010]). Subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. c. filholi</span> breeds on Prince Edward: 38,000 pairs in 2008/2009 and Marion Islands: 42,000 pairs in 2008/2009 (<span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span>) (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), Crozet Islands: 152,800 pairs in 1982, Kerguelen Islands: 85,500 pairs in 1985 (<span style="font-weight: bold;">French Southern Territories</span>), Heard Island: 10,000 pairs in 1987 (Heard and McDonald Islands [to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>]), Macquarie Island: 37,500 pairs in 2007 (Australia) and Campbell: 51,000 pairs in 1986, Auckland and Antipodes Islands (<span style="font-weight: bold;">New Zealand</span>). Other than the populations in Chile and Argentina, which may have increased (Oeler<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008), all other subpopulations have undergone severe declines (Ellis<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1998): for example, approximately 1.5 million pairs are estimated to have been lost from Campbell Island (94% of the original total) between 1942 and 1986 (Cunningham and Moors 1994, Huin 2007), and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) population fell by around 1.4 million pairs between 1932 and 2005 (87% of the original total) (Pütz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Several other sites appear to have suffered severe declines (of more than 40%) between the 1970s and the 1990s: Marion Island (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Antipodes Islands and Auckland Islands (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Population modelling, based on those breeding sites that have been accurately surveyed, indicates that over the past 37 years (three generations) the number of Southern Rockhopper Penguins has declined by 34% (BirdLife International 2010).
160032472		habitat	eng	This species returns to its breeding colonies in October, which range from sea-level sites to cliff-tops, and sometimes inland. Two eggs are laid and incubated during November and December for 32-34 days. In February, the chicks fledge and depart the colony (BirdLife International 2010). At most breeding sites, only one chick is fledged by each successful pair. However, there is some evidence that it is not unusual for those in the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) to raise two chicks (Clausen and Pütz 2002). They are opportunistic feeders, preying on a variety of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Williams 1995)<strong></strong>.   <p></p>
160032472		population	eng	The population is estimated at just over 1.23 million pairs (Birdlife International 2010). The Falkland Islands (Malvinas), with 55 distinct breeding colonies, had a total of 210,418 breeding pairs in 2005. Isla de los Estados (Argentina) had 173,793 in 1998. In Chile, there are large colonies on Isla Diego Ramirez (132,721 pairs in 2002), Isla Noir (158,200 pairs in 2005) and Isla Ildefonso (86,400 pairs in 2006). In the Indian Ocean there are populations on the Prince Edward Islands (80,000 pairs in 2008/2009 [Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009]) (South Africa), Crozet Islands (152,800 pairs in 1982), Kerguelen Islands (85,500 pairs in 1985) (French Southern Territories) and Heard Island (10,000 pairs in 1987) (Heard and McDonald Islands [to Australia]). There are also significant populations on Campbell Island (51,000 pairs in 1986) (New Zealand) and Macquarie (37,500 pairs in 2007) (Australia) (BirdLife International 2010). Several populations have experienced major long-term population crashes. Approximately 1.5 million pairs are estimated to have been lost from Campbell Island (94% of the original total) between 1942 and 1986 (Cunningham and Moors 1994), and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) population fell by around 1.4 million pairs between 1932 and 2005 (87% of the original total) (Pütz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Several other sites appear to have suffered severe declines. Between 1994/1995 and 2008/2009, numbers at Marion Island decreased by about 70%, from 160,000 pairs to 42 000 pairs (Crawford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Population modelling, based on those breeding sites that have been accurately surveyed, indicates that over the past 37 years (three generations) the number of Southern Rockhopper Penguins has declined by 34% (BirdLife International 2010).<br/><br/><br/><br/>   <p></p>  <p></p>
160032472		threats	eng	It is not yet clear what is driving current population declines. Egg collection was common at some colonies until the 1950s, such as in the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), but is now prohibited. Penguins were taken historically as bait for use in crab pots at a number of sites, including some Chilean islands (Ryan and Cooper 1991, P. G. Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 1999). The disappearance of the colony on Isla Recalada in Chile indicates that human depredation, in this case the collection of zoological specimens and as bait for crab pots (Oehler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), is still a serious threat to colonies where sites are not well protected and are accessible. The number of birds taken in recent years from other Chilean colonies is less than 500 individuals per year (BirdLife International 2010). At some sites, introduced grazing animals have caused significant vegetation loss and at Macquarie Island, overgrazing by rabbits has led to serious landslips. The effect of grazing by goats and deer at Isla de los Estados is not known and should be investigated. There are very few records of disease outbreaks, although few colonies are visited regularly. Avian cholera has caused deaths of a small number of adults and chicks at Campbell Island in 1985/86 (de Lisle<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1990). The massive mortality event on the Falklands in 2002/2003 was due to a Harmful Algal Bloom (Uhart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The number of Southern Rockhopper Penguins affected by oil pollution is currently not thought to be as great as in the past, when 40,000 Magellanic Penguins <span style="font-style: italic;">Spheniscus magellanicus</span> were estimated to be contaminated annually in Argentina (Gandini<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1994). In Patagonian coastal waters, hydrocarbon exploitation is a threat (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Other important factors include interactions with fisheries, the effects of climate change, for example in causing a drop in primary productivity that reduces prey availability or causing bottom-up food web shifts that reduce prey availability, top-down changes in food web structure leading to increased inter-specific competition and top-down changes in food web structure leading to increased secondary predation. For example, one possible ‘top-down’ effect on the eudyptid penguins is competition with (and predation by) rapidly increasing pinniped—especially fur seal—populations (Barlow <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/><p></p>
160032473		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in a number of protected areas.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys in forest at different degrees of perturbation to determine the effects of logging and habitat fragmentation on populations. Protect large areas of forest at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas. <p></p>
160032473		distribution	eng	<em>Parmoptila rubrifrons,</em> which was formerly considered conspecific with Jameson's Antpecker <em>P. jamesoni, </em>appears to have a rather fragmented range in West Africa, with isolated sub-populations occurring in <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Côte d'Ivoire</strong> and <strong>Ghana</strong>. There is also a single record of two individuals obtained at Misséni, southwest Mali (Fry and Keith 2004). It is uncommon in Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire)<strong></strong>, in Gola Forest (Sierra Leone) (E. Klop <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong> and in a number of protected areas in Ghana (Subri River Forest Reserve, Kakum National Park, Ankasa National Park and Tano Offin Forest Reserve) (A. Augustus <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>, although it seems to be fairly common in Liberia<strong></strong>. Its unobtrusive habits may mean that it is often overlooked, but mist-netting data indicates that it is genuinely scarce (<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032473		habitat	eng	It occurs in lowland tropical moist forest, and shows a preference for primary forest (<strong></strong>H. Rainey <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160032473		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and relatively little known (Clement 1999).
160032473		threats	eng	Its range is already fragmented, and ongoing logging and clearance of forest for agriculture are likely to drive population declines.  <p></p>
160032474		distribution	eng	This species is restricted to the island of Socotra.
160032474		population	eng	Kirwan and Grieve (2007).
160032474		threats	eng	This species's habitats do not appear to be under any threat at present.
160032475		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2100-7000 breeding pairs, equating to 6300-21000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is
160032476		population	eng	Estimate includes totals for 'Himantopus melanurus'.
160032478		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Monitor trends in destruction of suitable habitat. Protect significant areas of suitable habitat, particularly in its strongholds.  <p></p>
160032478		distribution	eng	<em>Buteogallus gundlachii</em> is endemic to <strong>Cuba</strong>, Isla de Pinos and several larger cays where it is generally relatively uncommon and quite localised (Wiley and Garrido 2005)<strong></strong>. However, within optimal areas it can be quite common, such as in the northern cays (Romano, Paredon Grande, Coco) and in the Zapata Swamp (A. Mitchell <em>in litt. </em>2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032478		habitat	eng	It is an inhabitant of mangrove swamps and the banks of large rivers. It feeds predominantly on crabs.  <p></p>
160032478		population	eng	The population is estimated to number at least 10,000 mature individuals, roughly equivalent to 15,000 individuals in total.
160032478		threats	eng	It is suspected to be declining as its specialised habitat is being drained and degraded (Wiley and Garrido 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there is little data on population trends.  <p></p>
160032481		habitat	eng	The species occurs in lowland and submontane broadleaved forests, particularly in sloping areas.
160032481		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Restall et al. 2006).
160032482		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032483		habitat	eng	This species occurs in forest edge habitats, including degraded forests, secondary habitat and open woodland (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).
160032483		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).
160032483		threats	eng	The habitats used by this species are relatively secure across large parts of its range.
160032484		distribution	eng	This species is found in south eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, north-eastern Peru and adjacent parts of Brazil.
160032484		habitat	eng	This species is found in scrub, forest edge, deciduous and secondary forest and other open degraded habitats, from lowlands up to 1,500 m.
160032484		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Restall 2006).
160032484		threats	eng	The species is unlikely to be affected by habitat loss. In some parts of its range it is likely to be targeted by trappers for the pet trade.
160032485		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Baker 1997).
160032488		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'common' throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2008).
160032489		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Minimise the risk of introduction of exotic animal or plant taxa, including soil pathogens that could affect important plant species, by strict controls on visits, and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032489		distribution	eng	<em>Nesospiza questi</em> occurs on Nightingale Island, and the smaller nearby Middle and Stoltenhoff Islands, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK), </strong>in the South Atlantic Ocean (Ryan 2008)<strong></strong>. Numbers on Middle and Stoltenhoff are unlikely to exceed 500 pairs (Ryan 1992)<strong></strong>. The population on Nightingale Island is likely to be c.4,000 pairs (Ryan 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032489		habitat	eng	This species is abundant throughout Nightingale and fairly common on the adjacent islets, from the rocky shoreline to the highest peaks, but is most abundant in tussock grassland and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scirpus</span>-domianted areas in the centre of Nightingale Island (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011, P. G. Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012). Breeding is poorly-known but takes place from November-January and the nest is an open cup built low down in dense sedge or grasses (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011). The diet consists mainly of seeds and berries, but also some invertebrates (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
160032489		population	eng	Whilst numbers on Middle and Stoltenhoff are unlikely to exceed 500 pairs, the population on Nightingale island is likely to be c.4,000 pairs, giving an overall estimate of 9,000 mature individuals, roughly equating to 13,000-14,000 individuals in total.
160032489		threats	eng	Visits to Nightingale can now be made by islanders via at least two RIBS as well as the fishery patrol vessel and the crayfish vessel operating in Tristan waters (P. G. Ryan <em>in </em><span class="spelle"><em>litt.</em> 2012). This species is thus permanently at risk from the accidental introduction of mammalian predators which could prey on eggs, chicks and nesting birds. <br/><p></p>
160032496		population	eng	The global population size is unknown owing to recent taxonomic splits.
160032497		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2008).
160032500		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>None is known. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to determine the precise habitat requirements of this species, as well as its response to disturbance and fragmentation. Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
160032500		distribution	eng	<em>Strophocincla fairbanki </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats of southern Kerala and southern Tamil Nadu, <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally common in suitable montane habitats (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It occurs in four distinct areas, with the Ashambu Hills potentially holding the largest population (J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032500		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds between December and June. Nest building, incubation and nestling feeding is conducted by both sexes, with a clutch of two eggs. It forages in parties of 6 to 14 individuals (sometimes in groups of up to 30) in undergrowth and in low bushes, occasionally descending  to the ground to search among leaf litter. <strong>Habitat </strong>It can be found in thickets lining streams through tea and cardamom plantations, scrub and secondary forest, occasionally in gardens, and on the edges of broadleaf evergreen forests. Its range apparently coincides with the occurence of wild raspberry. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on insects, berries and fruit, including brambles (<em>Rubus</em>), <em>Maesa</em>, <em>Luvunga</em>, and <em>Trema</em><strong> </strong>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).  <p></p>
160032500		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).
160032500		threats	eng	An increasing human population has led to growing illegal encroachment into Western Ghat forests. Livestock grazing, together with the harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes, are likely to have a negative effect on this species. Furthermore, hydroelectric power development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<strong></strong>. These factors require monitoring as, left uncontrolled, they will threaten the area's endemic avifauna. Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (Praveen J. <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032501		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mukurti National Park in Tamil Nadu and a rather small part of its range is encompassed by the upper reaches of the Silent Valley National Park, Kerala. Some sholas in the Upper Nilgiris are afforded partial protection as reserve forests and are included in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, although these receive considerably less protection than national parks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There have been some moves to stop further conversion of natural forests and grasslands into plantations in Tamil Nadu. A new protected area in the Muthikulam-Elival-Palamala Range, Muthikkulam Wildlife Sanctuary, has been proposed. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Support extension of the boundaries of Mukurti National Park. Campaign for a moratorium on conversion of remaining natural forests to plantations in the Nilgiris. Promote community-based conservation initiatives focusing on restoration of natural habitats in the Nilgiris, including protection of undergrowth and shrubs in existing old plantations. Initiate conservation awareness programmes in the Nilgiris. Designate suitable parts of the Muthikulam-Elival-Palamala Range as protected areas. <p></p>
160032501		distribution	eng	<em>Strophocincla cachinnans</em> is endemic to the north-west Tamil Nadu, north-east Kerala and south-west Karnataka in southern <strong>India</strong>. <em>S. c. cachinnans </em>is predominantly found in the Nilgiri Hills, and a smaller disjunct population (200-250 individuals) was recently discovered in the Elival-Muthikkulam-Palamala range of Palakkad-Siruvani Hills, Kerala (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007, Nameer <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <em>S. c. jerdoni</em> is restricted to high elevations in the districts of Wayanad (Kerala) and Coorg (Karnataka), possibly being found at only six fragmented locations (J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2007, 2010)<strong></strong>. It was generally common or abundant across its range at the start of the 20th century, while recent observations clearly indicate it to be locally common, but otherwise uncommon or rare. One record from Munnar (south of the Palghat Gap) is now considered erroneous (J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2007, 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032501		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Nesting occurs between January and July with a clutch of two or three eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It is a sedentary resident, inhabiting dense undergrowth and moist, shady lower storey vegetation of evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, especially densely wooded ravines and hollows ("sholas") and forest edge, always above 1,200 m, but generally higher than 1,600 m. It also occurs in gardens, patches of natural scrub, and hill guava trees <em>Rhodomyrtus tomentosa</em> in Kerala, and is absent or uncommon in <em>Eucalyptus</em>, tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations. Population densities are high in intact forest, but are roughly halved in disturbed forest (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on invertebrates, nectar, flowers, fruits and berries (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032501		population	eng	The population is estimated to number 2,500-9,999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records, descriptions of abundance and range size. This is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size, and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated Extent of Occurrence is likely to be occupied. This estimate is equivalent to 3,750-14,999 individuals, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160032501		threats	eng	Large-scale conversion of forest into plantations, reservoirs, crops and human settlements are the main threats. Commercial plantations of tea, <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Acacia</em> have been increasing in area across its range. Between 1961 and 1988, 47% of evergreen/semi-evergreen forest was lost in the Kerala portion of the Western Ghats, whilst there were increases in plantation and deciduous forest cover of 6% and 7.5% respectively (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. The indiscriminate use of inorganic pesticides may also be a problem (Zarri 2005). Having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpublished data)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032502		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mukurti and Silent Valley national parks, Aralam and Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuaries and Bhadra Tiger Reserve (J. Praveen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012).<p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Campaign for a moratorium on conversion of remaining natural forests to plantations in the Nilgiris. Promote community-based conservation initiatives focusing on restoration of natural habitats in the Nilgiris, including protection of undergrowth and shrubs in existing old plantations. Initiate conservation-awareness programmes in the Nilgiris. <p></p>
160032502		distribution	eng	<em>Myiomela major</em> is restricted to the Nilgiri Hills and South Wayanad Hills, Kerala, and to three peaks in south-west Karnataka, including the Baba Budan Hills, in southern <strong>India</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2010, <strong></strong>V. V. Robin <em>in litt.</em> 2010, 2012). Although the species is described as moderately common, its range is highly restricted and declining due to habitat destruction (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005, del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032502		habitat	eng	This sedentary species can be found in the undergrowth of "shola" (sheltered woods) from 900-2,100 m, but more typically between 1,000 and 1,500 m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>R. Vijayan <em>in litt.</em> 2010). It breeds in April and May, laying a clutch of 2-3 eggs. It is secretive and shy, creeping through vegetation and around fallen timber, presumably foraging for small insects (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032502		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but evidence suggests that it is moderately common within suitable habitat.
160032502		threats	eng	As reported for other species in the Western Ghats, an increasing human population has led to increased illegal encroachment into forests. Harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products is likely to have a negative impact on this species, and it suffers some effects of livestock grazing (V. V. Robin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). Furthermore, hydroelectric power development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas. Between 1961 and 1988, 47% of evergreen/semi-evergreen forest was lost in the Kerala portion of the Western Ghats, as a result of clearance for plantations, cash-crops (e.g. tea), reservoirs and human settlements (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Furthermore, having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (BirdLife International unpubl. data)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032503		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted actions are known, but the species occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range, including Indira Gandhi, Kurinjimala, Neyyar, Peppara, Meghamalai and Kanyakumari wildlife sanctuaries;   Eravikulam, Anamudi Shola, Pampadum Shola and Mathikettan Shola national parks, and Periyar and Kalakkad-Mundanthurai tiger reserves (J. Praveen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct ecological studies to clarify the habitat requirements of this species, as well as its response to disturbance and fragmentation. Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Protect areas of suitable habitat.  <p></p>
160032503		distribution	eng	<em>Myiomela albiventris </em>is found in southern Kerala and western Tamila Nadu, southern <strong>India</strong>, with three strongholds located in the Palni and Annamalai hills, Pandalam Hills and Ashambu (Agasthyamalai) Hills (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2010, <strong></strong>V. V. Robin <em>in litt.</em> 2010, 2012)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. Surveys suggest that it is locally common at Kodaikanal in the Palni Hills, perhaps being the third most common passerine, and a five year mark-recapture study showed it to be the most common understorey bird in Grasshills National Park (V. V. Robin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), but it may be much scarcer in other suitable areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032503		habitat	eng	This species is found between 1,000 and 2,200 m in streamside vegetation and wet areas of undergrowth within "sholas" (forest patches) and densely wooded ravines. It is also found in much lower numbers in wattle (<em>Eucalyptus</em>) and old pine plantations contiguous with sholas, and has been recorded in gardens. Its breeding season stretches from March until July, but most activity occurs in April and May. There is no information on its diet, but it presumably feeds on small insects and other invertebrates. It is a sedentary species, though some altitudinal movement is suspected (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032503		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. Evidence suggests that it is locally common in the Palni Hills, and it is the most common understorey bird at Grasshills National Park (V. V. Robin <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2012), but it may be much scarcer in other apparently suitable areas.
160032503		threats	eng	As reported for other species in the area, an increasing human population has led to growing illegal encroachment into Western Ghat forests. Livestock grazing, together with the harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes, are likely to have a negative influence on this species. Furthermore, hydroelectric power development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas. Between 1961 and 1988, 47% of evergreen/semi-evergreen forest was lost in the Kerala portion of the Western Ghats, as a result of clearance for plantations, cash-crops (e.g. tea), reservoirs and human settlements (V. V. Robin <em>in litt.</em> 2010). The clearance and degradation of areas of suitable habitat for firewood for local tea factories is a newly identified threat amongst tea plantations west of Munnar, Kerala and is likely to be a serious threat in areas with many tea factories (J. Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2011). Furthermore, having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range, this species is potentially susceptible to climate change (J. Praveen <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>.<br/>    <p></p>
160032504		population	eng	Partners in Flight estimate the total population to number 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (A. Panjabi <i>in litt.</i> 2008).
160032505		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified.
160032509		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>There is an ongoing conservation plan involving local authorities, community leaders, Ministry of Environment, The Hummingbird Conservancy, Ecohabitats foundation and local residents.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further studies to determine status and population size. Develop a Species Action Plan. Continue and extend local conservation and education initiatives. Work towards the creation of a protected area in the Serraníadel Pinche.  <p></p>
160032509		distribution	eng	<em>Eriocnemis isabellae </em>has been recently described from Cauca Department, south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it occurs in a tiny area of the Serranía del Pinche<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Diago <em>et al. </em>2007). Three birds (one male and two females) were mist-netted in 2005 and a total of six further males were caught in 2006<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Diago <em>et al. </em>2007). The global population has not been quantified but is presumably very small given that the area of suitable habitat is thought to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is suspected to be decreasing as elfin forest habitat is converted for agriculture and illegal coca plantations. <p></p>
160032509		habitat	eng	It inhabits the cloud and temperate forest zone, within which the species appears to be associated with elfin forest on steep slopes along mountain ridges<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Diago <em>et al. </em>2007). Elfin forest at the type locality averages 6-8 m in height with frequent natural clearings and is found at around 2,600-2,900 m<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Diago <em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
160032509		population	eng	The population has not been quantified, but it is presumably very small given that the area of suitable habitat is thought to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.
160032509		threats	eng	The primary threat is the shifting of the agricultural border towards remaining primary forests, causing a loss of vegetation cover, contamination of watersheds and soil degradation<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Diago <em>et al. </em>2007). Illegal coca cultivation is a major threat due to the lack of governmental presence, with 8.3 % of potentially suitable habitat reportedly damaged annually by coca cultivation. The potential completion of a road from El Estrecho in the PatíaValley to Guapi on the Pacific coast would hold serious implications for Serraníadel Pinche<strong> </strong>(Cortés-Diago <em>et al. </em>2007). <p></p>
160032510		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Surveys were conducted in 2007 and 2008<strong></strong> to search for the species, though these proved unsuccessful (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Explore various hypotheses discussing its potential distribution and target searches based upon these possibilities. <p></p>
160032510		distribution	eng	This species has been recently described based upon three specimens collected at a Universidad de la Salle retreat called La Lana, vereda Llano de Ovejas, near San Pedro de los Milagros, Antioquia, <strong>Colombia</strong>. Two of the specimens are undated, but the third was collected in 1971. Fieldwork in 2007 and 2008 (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2008) failed to detect the species close to the labelled type locality; there are no known extant populations. While there is hope that it persists at the type locality, if it does it must be rare. Rapid assessment surveys in the Northern Andes have typically recorded over 90% of resident birds at survey sites, and fieldwork at La Lana did record two other <em>Atlapetes</em> species, both of which were also recognised by local people; no-one recognised photographs of the <em>A. blancae</em> specimens. It is plausible that the species occurs nearby, but not at the type locality; several specimens of <em>A. schistaceus</em> are labelled from La Lana, but the species was only recorded away from the site where it was rare at 2,800 m. Alternatively <em>A. blancae</em> may be locally extinct on the Llano de Ovejas given the extent of recent deforestation and the presence of <em>A. latinuchus</em> in all secondary and forest edge habitats. <p></p>
160032510		habitat	eng	The species was collected on the Llano de Ovejas, a small plateau at 2,400-2,800 m. It probably occurred in forest, which has largely been denuded in this area. Several congeners occur in the region of the type locality; with two species <em>A. schistaceus</em> and <em>A. latinuchus</em> apparently occurring sympatrically. These species may be partly separated by altitudinal range with <em>schistaceus</em> only found at 2,800 m at the site, and a third species <em>A. albinucha</em> occurring at lower elevations. <p></p>
160032510		population	eng	The species is only known from three specimens; the most recent date of collection was in 1971. Recent searches in 2007 and 2008 have failed to identify an extant population, which would likely number fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals.
160032510		threats	eng	Forest habitats at the type locality have been converted to pasture for milk production and commercial flower growing.  <p></p>
160032511		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Two Peruvian sites, Pakitza and Playa Bonita are within the Manu Biosphere Zone (Lane <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Several surveys have targeted and identified this species, improving knowledge of its global distribution. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Confirm the species's distribution by checking additional <em>Guadua</em> sites that may support it. Study its ecology assessing whether there is a relationship between presence and bamboo patch size/patch maturity. Map the potential impact of development projects within its range to assess future population declines and identify key sites for conservation/mitigation. <p></p>
160032511		distribution	eng	<em>Cnipodectes superrufus</em> has been recently described from an area of southwestern Amazonia bordering Madre de Dios, <strong>Peru</strong>, Acre, <strong>Brazil</strong> and Pando, <strong>Bolivia</strong> (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2008). Its range has been estimated at c. 89,000 km<sup>2</sup> corresponding to the area of <em>Guadua</em> bamboo dominated habitats; though it appears to be absent from some apparently suitable habitats (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2008). Field surveys have found the species is the rarest of the bamboo specialists within the region (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is a generally scarce species, and based on the extent of potentially suitable habitat it is thought possible that the global population is fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its habitat is threatened by clearance for development projects, but <em>Guadua</em> may actually increase in area because it can proliferate on deforested land. However, the twistwing is usually recorded in large mature stands of bamboo and is rarely found in young <em>Guadua</em> regrowth, thus a decline is suspected (<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032511		habitat	eng	The species is a <em>Guadua</em> bamboo specialist, and its apparent absence from some well-studied sites suggests that it may only occur in larger patches (Lane <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. Its density within suitable habitat is not known; it is apparently the scarcest of the bamboo specialists within its range, but comparatively little ornithological work has been conducted in the region allowing the possibility that it may be found to be relatively common (Lane <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species has been observed perched 1-3 m above the ground from where it sallies after arthropods. Both <em>Cnipodectes</em> spp. perform regular wing raises; the purpose of this behaviour is unknown (Lane <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong><strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032511		population	eng	The precise distribution and population density of this newly described species are not known, so no accurate population estimate is available. However, while Guadua bamboo habitat is widespread within its range, it appears to show a prefence for larger patches, it is usually recorded in mature patches rather than regrowth, and it appears to be scarce throughout its range. Therefore, the species is precautionarily suspected to have a global population of <10,000 mature individuals, placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals.
160032511		threats	eng	Preliminary evidence suggests that the species shows a preference for larger patches of mature <em>Guadua</em> bamboo. This habitat is threatened within the species range by development projects such as the Trans Oceanica Highway and the available area of mature bamboo stands is likely to decrease. The highway's construction is likely to open the region to further deforestation for cattle ranching and biofuels in the future. <p></p>
160032512		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/> None is known. </p>  <p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><u></u></p>  <p>Expand the protected area network to effectively protect IBAs. Effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas, utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation. Conservation on private lands, through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture, is also essential (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006). Campaign against proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes.</p>
160032512		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypocnemis cantator </span>occurs in the Guyana Shield of northern South America, and is generally fairly common. It is distribution just reaches extreme east-central <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>, where it is found in north-western Bolívar (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). It ranges from there through <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Suriname</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guyana </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">French Guiana</span>, being especially frequent in the latter two, to north-east Amazonian <span style="font-weight: bold;">Brazil</span>, where it ranges from the lower Rio Negro eastwards to Amapá (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Restall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).
160032512		habitat	eng	This is an understorey and middle storey species of forest edges in "terra firme" forest (with no flooding), transitional forest and "várzea" (seasonally flooded forest), as well as some tall secondary woodland. It prefers lowlands, ranging up to 1,300 m in Guyana (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).
160032512		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <p></p>
160032512		threats	eng	<p>The primary threat to this species is accelerating deforestation in the Amazon basin as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production, facilitated by expansion of the road network (Soares-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2006, Bird <em>et al.</em> 2011). It is thought likely to be particularly susceptible to forest fragmentation (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2011). Proposed changes to the Brazilian Forest Code reduce the percentage of land a private landowner is legally required to maintain as forest (including, critically, a reduction in the width of forest buffers alongside perennial steams) and include an amnesty for landowners who deforested before July 2008 (who would subsequently be absolved of the need to reforest illegally cleared land) (Bird <em>et al. </em>2011).</p>
160032513		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032514		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032515		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032516		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032517		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032518		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).  </P>
160032520		population	eng	Rich <I>et al. </I>(2004).  </P>
160032521		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).    </P>
160032522		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).  </P>
160032523		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).
160032528		population	eng	The population is estimated to number fewer than 20,000 individuals by Wetlands International, and so is placed in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals here. This equates to 6,667-13,333 mature individuals, rounded here to 6,000-15,000 mature individuals.
160032529		distribution	eng	This species is known only from the island of Vanikoro, situated 118 km from the main Santa Cruz Islands, <B>Solomon Islands</B>. Based upon reported densities the population probably numbers in the tens of thousands, and while there have been no repeat counts to assess population trends it is assumed to be stable.  </P>
160032529		habitat	eng	The species is apparently commonest in lowland coastal forest including secondary growth and in hill forest above 350 m. It was the commonest species above 700 m where 21 individuals were recorded in an area of 1.5 ha. The species gleans arthropods from tree leaves and branches and feeds on small fruits.  </P>
160032529		population	eng	The species was common above 700 m on Vanikoro where it was recorded at a density of 25 individuals in 1.5 ha, but it was much less common in the lowlands. Vanikoro has a total area of 173 km2, much of which remains forested. Crude interpretation of this data suggests the population can be cautiously estimated to fall within the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
160032529		threats	eng	The species appears to be tolerant to some degree of forest degradation and is unlikely to be detrimentally impacted by logging in the near future. The most plausible threat is posed by introduced species, but it apparently coexists with introduced rats <I>Rattus</I> spp. and other invasives are unlikely to colonise the island owing to the current lack of commercial traffic.  </P>
160032530		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (&lt;10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be &gt;10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure), and has been described as 'uncommon to locally common' (del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>2007)..  </P>
160032531		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).  </P>
160032537		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Study the ecology of the species. Identify and assess threats. <p></p>
160032537		distribution	eng	<em>Passer hemileucus</em> is found on the island of Abd al Kuri, Socotra Archipelago, <strong>Yemen</strong> (Kirwan 2008). Birds were found to be fairly common in the main settlement; however, most of the island lacks suitable habitat and the population has been estimated at fewer than 1,000 individuals (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032537		habitat	eng	A flock of roughly 100 birds was sighted scavenging amongst refuse. Individuals are thought to roost in vegetation in the foothills of limestone mountains (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. Its diet is thought to include the seeds of grasses and small plants, and water is obtained almost totally from its diet (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032537		population	eng	The population has been estimated at
160032537		threats	eng	No threats are known. <p></p>
160032544		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Both breeding islets are designated under European legislation as Special Protection Areas and are assigned a full-time warden based on Graciosa (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Recent work to reduce interspecific competition for nest cavities with rabbits and other larger procellariiform species through the installation of nest boxes has met with considerable success, leading to a large increase in annual productivity (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Nest boxes had higher productivity than natural nest sites, probably due to the greater degree of protection they provided from inclement weather and interspecific competition for nest space (Bried<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Data from a MRR ringing study is being analysed, with preliminary results suggesting annual survival is high (F. Jiguet <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Obtain an up-to-date population census. Continue constructing artificial nest-sites. Consider (re-)introducing the species to other islets in the Azores, reducing the potential impact of rodents being introduced to one of the current breeding islets. Monitor the breeding islets for rodent introductions. Assess predation by other potential predators including gulls and reptiles (particularly Madeira Lizard <span style="font-style: italic;">Teira</span> dugesii).<br/><p></p>
160032544		distribution	eng	<em>Oceanodroma monteiroi</em> breeds on two islets off the island of Graciosa in the Azores, <strong>Portugal</strong>. Breeding is suspected on further islets (including some stacks off Flores and Corvo island) in the Azores, but proof is still lacking (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008, J. Bried <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>.&#160; It is thought to remain in the vicinity of the Azores during the non-breeding season, a suggestion which is supported by the analysis of carbon isotopes (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Although unlikely to occur eslewhere, identification amongst Madeiran Storm-petrel <span style="font-style: italic;">O. castro</span> is difficult (W. Bourne<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt. </span>2012). The total population size was estimated at 250-300 pairs in 1999 (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Accounts from the 16th and 17th centuries of a small black and white seabird, which appear to match the breeding cycle of this species, indicate that it may have once been far more abundant (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>, however there are no recent trend data.<em> <p></p></em>
160032544		habitat	eng	This species breeds during the 'hot season'; females lay eggs between early May (perhaps late April) and early July, incubating a single egg until as late as early August, with the first chicks hatching in early June and the latest chicks fledging in early October (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Its diet is poorly known, but thought to consist of small fish and squid, and it generally feeds on prey of a higher tropic level than <em>O. castro</em> (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>.<br/><strong> <p></p></strong>
160032544		population	eng	The population was estimated at 300 pairs in 1999 (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008). Although this estimate is now a decade old, the population is not thought to have declined since, and may have actually increased, particularly in response to the installation of artificial nest boxes on Praia islet. Thus, the population is best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals. This equates to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160032544		threats	eng	Threats include high predation rates by Long-eared Owls <em>Asio otus</em> that are resident in the Azores; up to 40 adults are killed in some seasons (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Both breeding islets are currently free of ground predators, but their close proximity to Graciosa and the large numbers of visitors to one islet in the summer means that the introduction of rodents is a continuing threat (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. Both islets lie within 2 km of the main shipping route for large passenger ferries and container ships docking on Graciosa. A cargo ship containing livestock ran aground on one of the breeding islets in 2000, leading to concerns over pollution and rodents escaping ashore (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032547		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is present in Nonggang National Nature Reserve (Zhou Fang and Jiang Aiwu 2008, Jiang Aiwu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), Bangliang Nature Reserve (established in 2008), where it is thought to be very rare (Jiang Aiwu<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2011), and Chunxiu Nature Reserve (Zhou Fang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). These three reserves are estimated to harbour c.1,300 individuals of this species (Zhou Fang <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Establish a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Monitor rates of habitat fragmentation and degradation within the species's range. Study the ecology of the species, particularly its ability to persist in other habitats. Identify, assess and mitigate threats. Ensure that existing protected areas within its range are effectively managed. Increase the area of suitable habitat that is protected.&#160; <p></p>
160032547		distribution	eng	<em>Stachyris nonggangensis</em> was described in 2008 from the Nonggang Natural Reserve, <strong>China </strong>(Zhou Fang and Jiang Aiwu 2008, Jiang Aiwu 2009). It appears to occupy a limited distribution in the Sino-Vietnamese border region in southwest Guangxi, China, and adjacent Vietnam (Zhou Fang and Jiang Aiwu 2008, Jiang Aiwu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>)<strong></strong>, although its presence in Vietnam is yet to be confirmed. Suitable habitat may extend into Yunnan Province (Zhou Fang and Jiang Aiwu 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032547		habitat	eng	This species occupies limestone karst seasonal rainforest. Extensive observational and netting surveys in forest in the non-limestone mountains of the Sino-Vietnamese border areas of south Guangxi since 2004 failed to record the species, indicating that it has very specific habitat requirements. Individuals have been seen foraging in gaps between two rocks by turning over fallen leaves, apparently preying on insects and other arthropods. Single-species flocks have been observed in winter (Zhou Fang and Jiang Aiwu 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032547		population	eng	Extensive surveys conducted since 2008 have resulted in an estimate of 1,000-2,000 mature individuals, all in one subpopulation (Zhou Fang <em>et al</em>. <em>in litt</em>. 2010), with an estimate of 1,300 individuals in three reserves (Nonggang, Bangliang and Chunxiu) (Zhou Fang<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt</span>. 2012), but the extent of suitable habitat implies that there are probably more than 2,500 mature individuals in total.
160032547		threats	eng	Its habitat has been fragmented by agricultural expansion and road-building (Jiang Aiwu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011), and is subject to on-going selective logging, driven at least partly by charcoal production<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Zhou Fang and Jiang Aiwu 2008, Jiang Aiwu <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2011)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160032550		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).  </P>
160032551		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified.
160032552		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be elusive but locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995; del Hoyo <I>et al. </I>2007).  </P>
160032553		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is present in the Quezon and Mount Isarog National Parks (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish its ability to persist in degraded habitats. Identify and assess threats. Ensure that the Quezon and Mount Isarog National Parks are effectively protected. <p></p>
160032553		distribution	eng	<em>Robsonius sorsogonensis</em> is found in southern Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is considered uncommon, although numbers may be higher than is suggested by field observations owing to its secretive habits. The population is suspected to be declining owing to habitat destruction (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032553		habitat	eng	This species inhabits broadleaf evergreen forest, forest edge, secondary growth, and can be found in the vicinity of limestone rocks and outcrops and amongst moss-covered rocks and boulders. It ranges from the lowlands to 1,000 m, presumably feeding upon many types of invertebrates by foraging in the leaf litter. Breeding occurs from February to August, laying a clutch of two eggs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032553		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified. It has been described as uncommon, although it may be more common than suggested by field observations owing to its secretive habits (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).
160032553		threats	eng	Habitat loss within its range has been, and continues to be extensive (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007), presumably driven primarily by agricultural expansion and timber extraction<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032554		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).
160032555		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common but patchy in occurrence (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 2007).  </P>
160032556		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has a large global population estimated to be 640,000-3,100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002).
160032556		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersive movements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Populations breeding in the Palearctic are highly migratory (Hancock and Kushlan 1984) whereas others are only sedentary (such as <I>E. g. dimorpha </I>on Madagascar), nomadic (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) or partially migratory (Hancock and Kushlan 1984). The timing of breeding varies geographically (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) although, in general, European and north Asian populations breed in spring and summer (March to July) and the breeding of tropical populations coincides with periods of high rainfall (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species usually nests in colonies sometimes of thousands of pairs and often with other species (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). Some populations also breed solitarily or in small single-species groups of under 100 pairs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). When not breeding the species commonly feeds solitarily or in loose flocks during the day (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Habitat</B> It inhabits fresh, brackish or saline wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and shows a preference for shallow waters (10-15 cm deep) in open, unvegetated sites where water levels and dissolved oxygen levels fluctuate daily, tidally or seasonally, and where fish are concentrated in pools or at the water's surface (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Habitats frequented include the margins of shallow lakes, rivers, streams and pools, open swamps and marshes, flooded meadows, rafts of floating water hyacinth <I>Eichornia</I> spp. on African lakes (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), flood-plains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992), lagoons, irrigation canals, aquaculture ponds (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), saltpans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and rice fields (which are especially important in areas with few remaining natural wetland habitats) (Hancock and Kushlan 1984, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species also occupies dry fields, inland savannas and cattle pastures (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) and some populations are almost entirely coastal, inhabiting rocky or sandy shores, reefs, estuaries, mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves and tidal creeks (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Diet</B> It is a highly opportunistic feeder (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), taking mainly small fish under 20 g in weight and less than 10 cm long (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (averaging 4 cm) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), aquatic and terrestrial insects (e.g. beetles, dragonfly larvae, mole crickets and crickets) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) and crustaceans (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (e.g. <I>Palaemonetes</I> spp., amphipods, phylopods, crabs and exotic species of crayfish) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) as well as amphibians, molluscs (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992) (snails and bivalves) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005), spiders, worms, reptiles and small birds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Breeding site</B> The species may nest on the ground in protected sites (Kushlan and Hancock 2005) or up to 20 m high on rocks, in reedbeds, bushes, trees or mangroves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). It usually nests in single- or mixed-species colonies where nests may be placed 1-4 m apart (sometimes less than 1 m apart) (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). It may feed up to 7-13 km away from breeding colonies during the breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992). <B>Management information</B> An artificial island nesting site created in the Camargue, France succeeded in attracting nesting pairs to the area (Hafner 2000). A study in north-west Italy suggests that existing nesting sites should be protected and that breeding habitats should be actively managed in order to maintain suitable habitat characteristics (Fasola and Alieri 1992). The creation of a network of new nesting sites spaced at 4-10 km in relation to available foraging habitats in zones currently without suitable nesting sites is also recommended (Fasola and Alieri 1992).
160032556		population	eng	Totals for <I>E. g. garzetta </I>and <I>E. g. dimorpha </I>from Wetlands International (2006) added together.    </P>
160032556		threats	eng	The species is threatened by wetland degradation and loss through drainage for agriculture (e.g. rice-farming and fishing), changes in current management practices (e.g. of rice-farming) and contamination from agricultural and industrial operations (Kushlan and Hancock 2005). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Ellis <I>et al.</I> 2004, Melville and Shortridge 2006), and it previously suffered from hunting for the plume trade (although this is no longer a threat) (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1992, Kushlan and Hancock 2005). Nesting colonies of <I>E. g. dimorpha</I> are depredated by villagers in Madagascar (Langrand 1990).
160032558		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>In 2001 a project was initiated by the Threatened Bird Network and Australasian Wader Studies Group to improve knowledge of the species (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Recovery actions implemented as part of this study include the development of a database of records and an assessment of habitat preferences (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2005, C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Birds Australia has been conducting annual surveys of the species since 2001 (S. Garnett <em> in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Protect and manage principal breeding and wintering sites and, as a precautionary measure, identify and protect any additional habitat used by the species in the last 10 years. Develop guidelines, in consultation with landholders, for the management of suitable wetlands. Initiate control programs for feral animals, and erect fencing to prevent grazing and trampling of wetlands by cattle, at suitable wetlands. Rehabilitate selected wetlands that were formerly used for breeding. Undertake further research to determine movements and improve knowledge of habitat preferences. Monitor the population at the landscape scale using, to begin with, the Atlas of Australian Birds, and determine the breeding range. Encourage participation of community groups and other relevant bodies in the recovery effort. <p></p>
160032558		distribution	eng	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Rostratula australis</span> has been recorded in wetlands in all states of <span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span>. It is more common in eastern Australia, where it has been recorded at scattered locations throughout much of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and south-eastern South Australia (C. Jones<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2009). The Murray-Darling Basin appears to be a particular stronghold (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It has been recorded less frequently at a smaller number of more scattered locations farther west in South Australia, the Northern Territory and Western Australia (C. Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). However, the relevant importance of northern and southern habitats are still subject to debate (S. Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). The population was previously thought to number 5,000 individuals, though it is now believed highly unlikely that the population exceeds 2,500 and it may number between 1,000 and 1,500 individuals (S. Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). Analysis of data from Birds Australia confirms that the species has been in decline. Although the precise rate is difficult to establish due to different survey methods, the cryptic nature of the species, and the lack of extensive surveys in the arid zone of northern Australia, a population decline of &gt;30% is estimated for the past 26 years (3 generations) (Garnett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2011). <br/><p></p>
160032558		habitat	eng	<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">Behaviour </span>Occasional records from remote places indicate that the species can move long distances and may be dispersive or migratory, and a north-south migration has been postulated (S. Garnett<span style="font-style: italic;"> in litt.</span> 2009, R. Jaensch <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> 2009). It is generally thought to be crepuscular, but may be nocturnal. Individuals are usually seen singly, but it may be seen in pairs and also occasionally in flocks. It breeds between August and February in southern Australia, and breeding occurs earlier in northern Australia. The female may be polyandrous, with the male incubating the clutch of 3-4 eggs and rearing chicks (Marchant and Higgins 1993). <span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat </span>This species occupies terrestrial shallow freshwater wetlands, and occasionally brackish wetlands, including lakes, swamps, saltmarsh and claypans. Ephemeral, recently flooded wetlands appear to be especially important (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010). It will also occupy modified habitats including sewage farms, dams, bores and irrigation schemes. It constructs nests among tall vegetation, frequently on small muddy islands, but also sometimes on the shore of wetlands (Marchant and Higgins 1993). <span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet </span>It feeds on vegetation, seeds, insects, worms, molluscs, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Marchant and Higgins 1993).<br/><p></p>
160032558		population	eng	Based on results of surveys between 2001 and 2009 conducted by Birds Australia, it is thought that the population is highly unlikely to exceed 2,500 individuals and is more likely to be between 1,000 and 1,500 individuals (S. Garnett <em>in litt.</em> 2009), hence the population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. This equates to 667-1,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 600-1,700 mature individuals.
160032558		threats	eng	The primary reason for the decline of this species is the loss of its wetland habitats. The two major causes of this loss have been the drainage of wetlands and the diversion of water to agriculture and reservoirs. It is estimated that since European settlement, approximately 50% of wetlands in Australia have been converted for other uses, with losses being even greater in some regions of the country (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Substantial declines in the reporting rate of the species in the Murray-Darling Basin coincided with major changes in the management of water resources, including the diversion of large volumes of water to irrigated agriculture (Lane and Rogers 2000)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The replacement of endemic wetland vegetation by invasive weeds may also render habitats less suitable or even totally unsuitable for the species (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Grazing and associated trampling of wetland vegetation by cattle may also be a threat to the snipe in certain regions, particularly where grazing tends to become concentrated around wetlands in the dry season (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Predation by feral animals has been suggested as a threat, though there is no evidence that it is a cause of recent declines (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>.  <p></p>
160032576		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but it has been described (when considered conspecific with <i>Z. chrysops</i>) as fairly common to common.
160032577		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032578		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).  </P>
160032579		distribution	eng	<I>Oceanodroma castro</I> breeds in the eastern Atlantic from the Berlengas Islands and the Azores (<B>Portugal</B>), down to Ascension Island and Saint Helena (<B>St Helena to UK</B>), and in the Pacific off eastern <B>Japan</B>, on Kauai, Hawaii (<B>USA</B>) and on the Galapagos Islands (<B>Ecuador</B>) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160032579		habitat	eng	This marine species is highly pelagic, occuring in warm waters and rarely approaching land except near colonies. It feeds mostly on planktonic crustaceans, fish and squid but will also feed on human refuse. It mainly feeds in the day on the wing by pattering, dipping and also by surface-seizing. Its breeding season varies locally in colonies on undisturbed islets, in flat areas near the sea or inland on cliffs (del Hoyo et al. 1992)
160032579		population	eng	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 150,000 individuals.  </P>
160032580		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> This species is partially migratory or nomadic, making short migratory movements in China, India and Japan, and irregular seasonal short-distance movements in Africa corresponding to feeding- and breeding-habitat requirements (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The timing of breeding varies geographically although the species is known to breed during or immediately after the rains in Africa (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). It usually nests and forages in solitary pairs, although nests may be grouped together in wetlands (due to its polyandrous mating system) and it is occasionally observed in small parties or larger groups of up to 100 individuals during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). The species is crepuscular (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and roosts in cover by day and night singly or in groups of up to 3 individuals (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). <B>Habitat</B> The species shows a preference for recently flooded areas in shallow lowland freshwater temporary or permanent wetlands (Marchant and Higgins 1993) in the tropics and subtropics, its patterns of habitat use being governed by the rains (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). Suitable habitats include extensive swamps and marshes (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986), reedbeds, overgrown rice-fields (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), inundated or waterlogged grassland and saltmarsh (Marchant and Higgins 1993), the muddy margins of pools, freshwater lakes with grassy islets, sewage pools, reservoirs, mudflats overgrown with marsh grass and mangroves (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), and thickly vegetated banks of slow-flowing rivers (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986). It requires emergent vegetation in shallow water for nesting (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) and occasionally forages on open grassland adjacent to wetlands (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Diet</B> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of insects (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) (e.g. crickets and grasshoppers) (Urban <I>et al</I>. 1986), snails, earthworms, crustaceans and seeds (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996). <B>Breeding site</B> The nest is a shallow cup (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996) in a mound of vegetation (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986) on the ground (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996), concealed amongst thick emergent vegetation in shallow water (Hayman <I>et al.</I> 1986). Alternatively nests may be placed in more open environments such as on dense mat of floating water-weed (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 1996).
160032580		population	eng	Previous estimate of 36,000 - 1,000,000 (Wetlands International, 2006) revised, decreasing the population minimum by 5,000 individuals representing the newly-split species <I>R. australis</I>.  </P>
160032580		threats	eng	Rostratula benghalensis (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into R. benghalensis and R. australis following Christidis and Boles (2008).  </P>
160032581		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although it occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><strong><br/>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct repeated surveys across the species's range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the species's range.<br/><p></p>
160032581		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta granatina</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, Myanmar (no records this century), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> (formerly), Kalimantan and north Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (BirdLife International 2001). It is locally common in suitable habitat. <p></p>
160032581		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds between March and August, laying a clutch of two eggs. <strong>Habitat </strong>It is mainly found in dense lowland evergreen forest up to 600 m. It is also recorded from secondary and heavily logged forest, particularly in swampy areas, provided that dense understory growth and some canopy cover remains. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is comprised mainly of insects, including ants, beetles, wood grubs and cockroaches. It also feeds on small snails and seeds from fruit <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). <p></p>
160032581		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to locally common' in Peninsular Malaysia, 'rare' in Thailand, extinct in Singapore, 'scarce' in Sumatra and 'widely distributed to locally common' in Borneo (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). <p></p>
160032581		threats	eng	Rates of forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands have been extremely rapid, owing partly to the escalation of illegal logging and land conversion, with deliberate targeting of all remaining stands of valuable timber including those inside protected areas. Forest fires have also had a damaging effect (particularly in 1997-1998). The magnitude of these threats may be allayed by this species's tolerance of secondary and logged forest.  <p></p>
160032582		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is thought to be present in the Phou Hinpoun and Hin Namno National Protected Areas (Woxvold <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to establish the range and population size  <p></p>
160032582		distribution	eng	<em>Pycnonotus hualon</em> is known from Savannakhet province, <strong>Laos</strong>, although there is strong evidence that the species is also present in Bolikhamxai and Khammouan province (J. Pilgrim <em>in litt.</em> 2009, Woxvold <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
160032582		habitat	eng	This species occupies the middle and upper levels of karst outcrops, where soil is almost absent and vegetation is dominated by small deciduous trees and shrubs. It is thought to feed on fruits and berries (Woxvold <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
160032582		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but based on observations the species appears to be locally common.
160032582		threats	eng	This species may be undergoing a slight decline due to quarrying, hunting and habitat degradation due to livestock grazing and firewood collection (Woxvold <em>et al.</em> 2009). <p></p>
160032585		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is present in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish its ability to persist in degraded habitats. Identify and assess threats. Ensure that the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is effectively protected <p></p>
160032585		distribution	eng	<em>Robsonius rabori</em> is found in northern Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is considered uncommon, although tape playback indicates it may be widely overlooked (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007) and <strong></strong>it has been described as fairly common around Adams in northwest Luzon and at Mt. Cagua in northeast Luzon (P. Hosner <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The population is thought to be declining owing to habitat destruction (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007, R. Hutchinson <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032585		habitat	eng	This species is found in lowland forest and secondary growth from sea-level to 1,300 m. It presumably feeds on invertebrates, and has been observed walking across the forest floor searching for prey in the leaf litter, sometimes in pairs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007, J. C. Gonzalez <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. It is often encountered in the vicinity of small streams (D. Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). Very little is known about its breeding habitats. Its nest is a large dome made of dry sticks, branches and leaves (Sánchez-González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).<p></p>
160032585		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, although it has been described as uncommon. However, it may be more common than suggested by field observations owing to its secretive habits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007). <p></p>
160032585		threats	eng	Logging within its elevational range has been described as extensive (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032586		population	eng	The global population size is unknown due to recent taxonomic splits.
160032587		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'common' throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2008).  </P>
160032588		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and often common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).  </P>
160032591		population	eng	The population is estimated at 4,000,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001).  </P>
160032593		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).  </P>
160032594		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).  </P>
160032595		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Baker 1997).  </P>
160032596		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant, although closely associated with human habitation (Madge and Burn 1993).  </P>
160032597		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common or locally common in throughout much of South-East Asia, very common in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia and common in Borneo and Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2006).  </P>
160032598		population	eng	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare in Nepal and north-east India (del Hoyo et al. 2006).
160032599		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (del Hoyo et al. 2006).  </P>
160032600		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A fraction of the species's known range is protected by the Marimbu/Iraquara State Environmental Protection Area and the Chapada Diamantina National Park, which was designated in 1985 (Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Survey the region to search for new localities and to obtain a population estimate. Monitor the population. Monitor the extent and condition of habitat. Increase the area of occupied and suitable habitat that is protected. Carry out measures to reduce the incidence and impacts of fires. Encourage ecotourism around this species and link this to local livelihoods. <p></p>
160032600		distribution	eng	<em>Formicivora grantsaui</em> is known only from the Serra do Sincorá in the Espinhaço Range, Diamantina region, Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong> (Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 2007). It was first collected in 1965 at Igatu, but was not described as a new species because there was a lack of other specimens and supporting biological data. After a number of independent observations of a possibly new taxon of antwren in the region, it was observed and tape recorded in January 1997, prompting a return to the area to collect specimens in 1999. Additional data and specimens were collected during a targeted expedition in November 2002. It is so far known from four localities: Morro do Pai Inácio, rio Ribeirão valley, Vale do Paty and near Igatu, and the valley of the rio Cumbuca and other sites around the town of Mucugê (Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is described as locally common<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C. Albano <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032600		habitat	eng	The species inhabits scrubby vegetation (<em>campos rupestres</em>)<em> </em>around rocky outcrops, on the slopes of stream valleys or high plateaus and at exposed ridges, at 850-1,100 m  (Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 2007). Like its congeners, it almost certainly feeds primarily on invertebrates. <p></p>
160032600		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified and further research is required.
160032600		threats	eng	The protection of part of the species's range has allowed the recovery of vegetation from mining activities and direct exploitation; however, the species's habitat remains potentially affected by fires (Gonzaga <em>et al</em>. 2007), which can be serious<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(C. Albano <em>in litt</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, although further study is required to assess their impacts on the species itself. <p></p>
160032601		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' in most of its range, 'uncommon' to 'locally common' in western Africa, and 'rather local' in eastern Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2004).  </P>
160032603		distribution	eng	<em>Larus cachinnans</em> can be found in eastern Europe, the Middle East, north-west Africa and central Asia. It is resident in much of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. It also seasonally breeds from the Black Sea, across the north of the Caspian Sea to eastern <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, and on the central Asian steppes. Wintering grounds include the coast of south-west Asia (breeders from the steppes), the north-west coast of Africa, and around the Arabian Peninsula up to north-west <strong>India<sup>1</sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032603		habitat	eng	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory, though some colonies aroundthe Black and Caspian Sea may be resident (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). Post-breeding movements to wintering areas occur from July to November, with the return migration occurring from mid-February to mid-June (Olsen and Larsson 2003). The species breeds from mid-March to April (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), although the exact timing varies geographically (Olsen and Larsson 2003). It breeds colonially in groups of up to 8,000 pairs, and may nest in monospecific clusters within mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, congregating around ports, harbours and refuse dumps (le Grand <em>et al</em>. 1984). <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species nests near lakes surrounded by reedbeds (Olsen and Larsson 2003) in steppe and semi-desert (Central Asia) (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), reservoirs, rivers (de Juana 1984), and on grassy or shrubby river islands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), also forming colonies on sea cliffs (de Juana 1984), rocky and sandy offshore islands, rocky coasts (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), sandy beaches, spits (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), sand-dunes, and salt-pans (Snow and Perrins 1998), and foraging in intertidal zones (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) and in brackish coastal marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is more common along the coast (e.g. at harbours and ports) and in other marine habitats (though seldom far from land). During this season it also forages in cultivated fields (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003) and along rivers, and is especially common at refuse dumps (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of fish, invertebrates (including insects, molluscs (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and crabs (Munilla 1997)), reptiles, small mammals (e.g. voles (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) and ground squirrels (Snow and Perrins 1998)), refuse, offal, and bird eggs and chicks (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996) (e.g. of petrels and shearwaters) (le Grand <em>et al</em>. 1984). <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is constructed of nearby vegetation, feathers, debris and old carcasses, and is preferably positioned close to or under bushes (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), or on rocky and sandy islands, beaches, spits, sea cliffs, grassy or shrubby river islands (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996), and occasionally on high ground hundreds of metres from water (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species breeds colonially in monospecific or mixed-species groups, with pairs usually nesting a few metres apart (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <p></p>
160032603		population	eng	Global population size is unknown owing to recent taxonomic splits. <p></p>
160032603		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to oil pollution (James 1984, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1996). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport in Ukraine (Rudenko 2006).  <p></p>
160032604		distribution	eng	<I>Larus michahellis</I> can be found in Europe, the Middle East and north Africa. It is resident in much of southern Europe, on the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea, on the Azores and Madeira, <B>Portugal</B>, and on the Canary Islands. <B>Spain</B>. Wintering grounds include the coast of south-west Asia (breeders from the steppes), most of the European coast up to <B>Denmark </B>and the coast of Africa from <B>Western Sahara</B> through tho the eastern Mediterranean (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
160032604		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Populations may be dispersive or sedentary (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). Post-breeding movements to wintering areas occur from July to November, with the return migration occurring from mid-February to mid-June (Olsen and Larsson 2003). The species breeds from mid-March to April (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), although the exact timing varies geographically (Olsen and Larsson 2003). It breeds colonially in groups of up to 8,000 pairs, and may nest in monospecific clusters within mixed-species colonies (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, congregating around ports, harbours and refuse dumps (le Grand <I>et al</I>. 1984). <B>Habitat </B><I>Breeding</I> During the breeding season the species nests near lakes surrounded by reedbeds (Olsen and Larsson 2003), pastures (Madeira) (le Grand <I>et al</I>. 1984), reservoirs, rivers (de Juana 1984), and on grassy or shrubby river islands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), also forming colonies on sea cliffs (de Juana 1984), rocky and sandy offshore islands, rocky coasts (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), sandy beaches, spits (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), sand-dunes, and salt-pans (Snow and Perrins 1998), and foraging in intertidal zones (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and in brackish coastal marshes (Snow and Perrins 1998). <I>Non-breeding</I> Outside of the breeding season the species is more common along the coast (e.g. at harbours and ports) and in other marine habitats (though seldom far from land). During this season it also forages in cultivated fields (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998, Olsen and Larsson 2003) and along rivers, and is especially common at refuse dumps (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). <B>Diet</B> Its diet consists of fish, invertebrates (including insects, molluscs (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and crabs (Munilla 1997)), reptiles, small mammals (e.g. voles (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) and ground squirrels (Snow and Perrins 1998)), refuse, offal, and bird eggs and chicks (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996) (e.g. of petrels and shearwaters) (le Grand <I>et al</I>. 1984). <B>Breeding site </B>The nest is constructed of nearby vegetation, feathers, debris and old carcasses, and is preferably positioned close to or under bushes (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), or on rocky and sandy islands, beaches, spits, sea cliffs, grassy or shrubby river islands (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), and occasionally on high ground hundreds of metres from water (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species breeds colonially in monospecific or mixed-species groups, with pairs usually nesting a few metres apart (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996).
160032604		population	eng	The global population size is unknown owing to recent taxonomic splits.  </P>
160032604		threats	eng	This species is vulnerable to oil pollution (James 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), and is killed by longlines (fishing lines) in the Mediterranean Sea and Macaronesia (Cooper 2003). It suffers from habitat destruction and disturbance from tourism at breeding sites in the Spanish Mediterranean (le Grand <I>et al</I>. 1984, de Juana 1984), and many colonies are regularly robbed of eggs by local communities (James 1984, de Juana 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996). The species was also persecuted in the past (adults were shot and nests destroyed) due to its predation on Mediterranean Gull <I>Larus melanocephalus</I> (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), culled in the Spanish Mediterranean (to protect Audouin's Gull <I>Larus audouinii</I>) (James 1984, del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 1996), and controlled by poisoning due to its predation on White-faced Storm-petrel <I>Pelagodroma marina</I> (le Grand <I>et al</I>. 1984). Culling of the species still occurs in the Mediterranean region, resulting in decreases in breeding colony size (mainly due to emigration rather than actual population decrease) (Bosch <I>et al.</I> 2000). <B>Utilisation</B> The species is hunted for sport in Ukraine (Rudenko 2006).
160032606		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Inaccessible is a nature reserve and, although Tristan Islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano, other access is restricted (Cooper <em>et. al.</em> 1995)<strong></strong>. A management plan for the island was published in 2001 (Ryan &amp; Glass 2001)<em></em><strong></strong>. Inaccessible was added to the Gough Island World Heritage Site in the early 2000s. New Zealand flax has been removed from coastal and plateau areas and is now confined to c.300 m of cliffs around the Waterfall (P. G. Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2012).  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Minimise the risk of introduction of exotic animal or plant taxa to any of the islands by strict controls on visits and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>. Complete eradication of remaining New Zealand flax from Inaccessible (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>. Evaluate the possible reintroduction of birds to Tristan da Cunha in the long term (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999)<strong></strong>.<br/><p></p>
160032606		distribution	eng	<em>Nesospiza acunhae</em> occurs on Inaccessible Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK) </strong>in the South Atlantic Ocean (Ryan 2008)<strong></strong>. It became extinct on the main island of Tristan da Cunha before the end of the 19th century (Fraser and Briggs 1992)<strong></strong>. It is abundant, especially on coastal tussock, with an estimated total population of 23,400 mature individuals comprising three distinctive colour morphs and a large number of 'hybrids' between these morphs (Ryan 2008)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032606		habitat	eng	On Inaccessible, the upland form occurs primarily in fern-bush and wet heath between 300-600 m and has a brighter yellow/green coloration than the lowland form, which is found mainly in tussock-grassland on the coastal slopes (Ryan 2008). It is probable that the variation in plumage between the forms is due to dietary differences (Ryan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994), with 'bright' birds feeding more extensively on carotenoid-rich fruits of <em>Nertera</em> than 'dull' ones, which feed predominantly on flowers and seedheads of <em>Spartina</em> species.   <p></p>
160032606		population	eng	The species is abundant on Inaccessible Island, especially in coastal tussock, with the total population estimated at 23,400 mature individuals (Ryan 2008). <p></p>
160032606		threats	eng	Despite its name, Inaccessible is now more accessible to islanders via a fisheries patrol vessel and several rigid inflatables based at Tristan (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2012). This species is thus permanently at risk from the accidental introduction of mammalian predators which could prey on eggs, chicks and nesting birds. Another threat is the invasion of the introduced New Zealand flax <em>Phormium tenax</em> into areas of <em>Phylica</em><strong> </strong>(P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999) resulting in the possible degradation of its habitat, but ongoing control measures started in 2004 have reduced this risk. The large-billed coastal form <em>N. a. dunnei</em> could be threatened by reduced fruit loads on <em>Phylica</em> trees infested by an introduced scale bug and associated sooty moulds.   <p></p>
160032607		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation actions are currently known for the species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Minimise the risk of introduction of exotic animal or plant taxa, including soil pathogens that could affect important plant species, by strict controls on visits, and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2010)<strong></strong>. Eradicate New Zealand flax from Nightingale (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2010)<strong></strong>.  <p></p>
160032607		distribution	eng	<em>Nesospiza wilkinsi</em> is restricted to Nightingale Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong>, in the South Atlantic Ocean (Ryan 2008)<strong></strong>. It rare on the island and may number between 50 and 100 pairs (Ryan 1992, P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2010)<strong></strong>, with other estimates suggesting fewer than 120 birds (Ryan 2008)<strong></strong>. The total population has probably always been small (Fraser and Briggs 1992)<strong></strong>, but may have increased slightly since the 1950s.  <p></p>
160032607		habitat	eng	It is largely restricted to areas which support some <em>Phylica arborea</em> trees, but also regularly occurs in tussock-grassland. The breeding season is from December to February, with nests located in clumps of vegetation near ground-level.<p></p>
160032607		population	eng	The population is currently thought to be around 100 pairs (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 2009), hence a population band of 50-249 mature individuals seems appropriate. <p></p>
160032607		threats	eng	<p>Visits to Nightingale can now be made by islanders via at least two RIBs as well as the fishery patrol vessel and the crayfish vessel operating in Tristan waters (P. G. Ryan <em>in </em><span class="spelle"><em>litt.</em> 2012). This species is thus permanently at risk from the accidental introduction of mammalian predators which could prey on eggs, chicks and nesting birds. Another threat is the invasion of the introduced New Zealand flax <em>Phormium </em><span class="spelle"><em>tenax</em> into areas of <em>Phylica</em><span class="spelle">, but initial clearing in 2004 and ongoing follow-up operations have largely eliminated this threat (P. G. Ryan <span style="font-style: italic; ">in litt. </span>2012)<span class="spelle"><span class="spelle"><span class="spelle">. It may be benefiting from the cessation of wood cutting by Tristan islanders visiting Nightingale, resulting in some <em>Phylica</em> regeneration, but there are reports that an alien scale insect (common on Tristan and locally common on Inaccessible) is also on Nightingale, which may have significant impacts on fruit production (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt. </em>2012). On Inaccessible, heavily infested trees have much lower fruit loads than healthy trees. Another potential threat <span class="spelle">is a black fungus-like growth which has previously from Tristan to Inaccessible, though there is currently no evidence of its presence on Nightingale. It is also potentially threatened by catastrophic weather events and the effects of climate change: strong winds blow down large swathes of <em>Phylica</em> (as happened in 2001), potentially affecting the habitat quite significantly <span class="spelle"><span class="spelle"><span class="spelle">(P. G. Ryan <em>in litt. </em>2012)</span><span class="spelle"><span class="spelle"><span class="spelle">.</span></span></span></span></span></p><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"><span class="SpellE"></span></span>
160032608		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).  </P>
160032609		distribution	eng	<I>Otus rutilus</I> is endemic to Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 1999).
160032609		habitat	eng	<B>Habitat </B>The species inhabits a variety of habitats, ranging from primary and secondary moist forest and drier forest to thickets, humid bush country and urban parks, from sea-level to 2000 m (Marks et al. 1999).<B>
160032609		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather common (Konig et al. 1999).  </P>
160032610		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000000-29000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-87000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73500000-348000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. <p></p>
160032615		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 46,000,000-91,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 138,000,000-273,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 282,000,000-1,090,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia and (for the subspecies minor) c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia and (for the subspecies cinereus) c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan (Brazil 2009).
160032615		threats	eng	Increased spring temperatures are resulting in a mismatch between food availability and offspring requirements leading to lowered reproductive success in at least some populations (Visser et al. 1998, Visser et al. 2006).
160032616		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,000,000-6,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 9,000,000-18,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 18,400,000-72,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. National population estimates include: c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in China; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Korea; c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Japan and c.10,000-100,000 breeding pairs in Russia (Brazil 2009).
160032617		population	eng	It is abundant on Socotra, where its population has been estimated at c.250,000 individuals (del Hoyo <I>et al.</I> 2009).  </P>
160032618		distribution	eng	<I>Passer motitensis</I> is resident in Angola, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Namibia (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160032618		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Its breeding season extends from September to February laying two broods of 3-6 eggs. Nests are built by both sexes, and chick care is also biparental. It is less gregarious than most sparrows, usually being found in pairs and occasionally small flocks. <B>Habitat </B>Frequents dry <I>Acacia</I> savanna, and is not associated with man. <B>Diet</B> Its diet includes seeds of grass and cultivated cereals. Nestling diet is animal food, including caterpillards.   </P>
160032618		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'locally common' to 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al., 2009).  </P>
160032619		distribution	eng	<I>Passer shelleyi</I> is a resident breeder of south-eastern Sudan, north-eastern Uganda, western Kenya, southern and eastern Ethiopia, and north-west Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160032619		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour </B>This species breeds in small colonies between September and November, and March and June. Nests are built by both sexes, and the female lays a clutch of 3-6 eggs (mean of 4). <B>Habitat</B> It is found mainly in open grassy savanna with trees at 1000 - 1700 m, but is also found in semi-desert and ligh woodland. Also found in a limited extent in cultivated land and in the vicinity of habitations, though it does penetrate into villages and does no associate with humans. <B>Diet </B>Little information, but presumably feeds on seeds and isnects.  </P>
160032619		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in Ethiopia, fairly common in Uganda, rare in Kenya and uncommon to rare elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160032620		distribution	eng	<I>Passer cordofanicus </I>is endemic to eastern Chad and western Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160032620		habitat	eng	<B>Behaviour</B> Breeding occurs between June and September in Chad, and September and November in Sudan. Lays a clutch of 3-5 eggs. <B>Habitat </B>Found in arid country, usually near villages and surrounding cultivated land.<B> Diet </B>Little information, but presumed to feed mainly on grains and seed (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160032620		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2009).
160032621		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not common (Clement 1999).
160032622		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Passer zarudnyi</span> is restricted to <span style="font-weight: bold;">Turkmenistan </span>and <span style="font-weight: bold;">Uzbekistan</span>,  although it formerly also occurred in eastern Iran. This poorly-known,  recently-split species appears to be scarce and patchily distributed  within its range.
160032622		habitat	eng	It is confined to bare, rocky areas with sparse trees and bushes, and appears rare and unpredictable in its movements (del Hoyo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).
160032622		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not common (Clement 1999).
160032626		population	eng	The population is estimated to number between 0.8-1.6 million individuals.
160032631		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Forest on Mt Palaupau is protected as a watershed (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. No other targeted actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to assess the population size. Study the species's ecology and life history. Monitor population trends. Monitor the extent and condition of suitable habitat. Increase the area of remaining forest that is afforded protection. Assess the feasibility and effectiveness of forest restoration, especially in the south of the island. Initiate education and awareness campaigns to raise the species's profile and instil pride in local people. <p></p>
160032631		distribution	eng	<em>Dicrurus menagei</em> is endemic to the island of Tablas in the <strong>Philippines</strong> (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009). By 1997 it was considered probably extinct; however, observations since 1998 have confirmed that the species is extant, albeit rare (Allen 2006)<strong></strong>. The population size has not been quantified, but it has been surmised that there could be fewer than 50 pairs remaining (D. Allen<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. The most recent sightings are from 2010 and 2011 (R. Hutchinson <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).<br/><p></p>
160032631		habitat	eng	The species inhabits relatively mature closed-canopy forest, with occasional records from the edge of clearings, although it is absent from open areas (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It has been observed in the mid-canopy of tall trees, often near streams. It is insectivorous, catching prey by hawking and foraging amongst leaves and on trunks. The species's nest is described as a small cup made of thin twigs and vegetation fibres, coarsely woven into a three-quarters sphere and suspended from slender branches amongst foliage in the outer part of a tall tree, high above a stream (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032631		population	eng	The species does not occur at high density even within the little remaining forest cover on Tablas: the global population may possibly number fewer than 50 pairs, and is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals (D. Allen <em>in litt.</em> 2011). This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
160032631		threats	eng	Evidence suggests that extensive forest clearance has taken place on Tablas since the beginning of the 20th century, with a substantial proportion of the island now used for cultivation and livestock-rearing (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Rice fields are common in lowland areas, while rough pasture and coconut plantations are found in the hills. A few forests remain, mainly in the north of the island, with the largest areas around and between Mt Palaupau and Mt Progreso. Remnants of original forest over 10 m tall are present only around the summit and south-eastern slopes of Mt Palaupau, where forest is maintained as a watershed for nearby settlements (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. There are reportedly very few registered forest patches that exceed 100 ha, and apparently a complete lack of mature forest in the south of the island (Allen 2006, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Small-scale logging is reported to still be a threat (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, implying that suitable habitat continues to be lost, but the rate of loss is probably no longer rapid (D. Allen<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032642		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known for the species, though it does occur in four protected areas in Bolivia<strong> </strong>(Herzog <em>et al.</em> 2008). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish ecological requirements. Identify and assess threats. Preserve an area of suitable habitat. Conduct further surveys for this species within its altitudinal range. <p></p>
160032642		distribution	eng	<em>Phyllomyias weedeni</em> has only been recently described, and is known from the lower Yungas of <strong>Bolivia</strong> and <strong>Peru</strong>. In Bolivia, it is known from three localities in La Paz department, one locality in Beni department, and a further locality in Cochabamba department. In Peru, it is known from Puno department, 1-1.5 km from the Bolivian border.<em> </em>A full population survey has yet to be carried out, however its population is thought to number far fewer than 10,000 mature individuals based on its low density and patchy distribution<strong> </strong>(Herzog <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032642		habitat	eng	This species inhabits the upper canopy of evergreen Andean foothill and lower montane forest. It has been observed in mosaics of shade-coffee plantations and remnant forest patches, although it is not known whether this habitat can sustain a viable population. Little is known about its behaviour. It has almost always been observed in pairs, except in early March in southeast Peru. Foraging appears to comprise of short aerial sallies to catch flying insects<strong> </strong>(Herzog <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032642		population	eng	The population has been estimated at well below 10,000 mature individuals based on low density and patchy distribution, hence the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals seems appropriate. This equates to 3,750-14,999 individuals in total, rounded here to 3,500-15,000 individuals. More accurate surveys are required to precisely quantify the population size.
160032642		threats	eng	Its habitat is thought to be declining owing to large-scale conversion of forest habitat to subsistence farming<strong> </strong>(Herzog <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032643		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).  </P>
160032647		population	eng	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 210000-420000 breeding pairs, equating to 630000-1260000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population  </P>
160032648		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).  </P>
160032649		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032650		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032651		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032652		distribution	eng	This species ranges widely in tropical waters, being found in every ocean on or off nearly every coast except the eastern Atlantic, northern Indian Ocean and the central-eastern Pacific (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160032652		habitat	eng	This strictly marine species can normally be found over pelagic waters, preferring deeper waters than other boobies. It feeds on large species of shoaling fish, especially flying fish, but will also take large squid.<B> </B>Its breeding season depends on locality, forming small to medium-sized colonies of variable densities on rocky islands offshore. Nests are preferably built on cliff ledges, but a variety of other sites are used (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
160032652		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032653		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).  </P>
160032654		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The Togian Islands have been declared a national park (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish ecological requirements. Identify and assess threats. <p></p>
160032654		distribution	eng	<em>Zosterops somadikartai </em>is native to the Togian Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Its population size has not been quantified owing to its recent discovery, but is has been described as uncommon and localised, and the population is suspected to be declining owing to habitat destruction (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008, Indrawan <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032654		habitat	eng	This species has been recorded in low bushes near mangroves, gardens, coconut groves, secondary shrub, and in logged-over forest from sea level to 100 m (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008, Indrawan <em>et al.</em> 2008, D. Indrawan <em>in litt.</em> 2010)<strong></strong>. It typically roosts in shrubs which are 5-15 m tall. Its diet is comprised of insects, including caterpillars, which are gleaned from branches and beneath leaves. It forages in pairs or small flocks of up to five individuals, often visiting dense, low shrubs (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008, Indrawan <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032654		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified but is has been described as uncommon and localised.
160032654		threats	eng	The extent and quality of suitable habitat on the Togian Islands is likely to be decreasing owing to conversion and overexploitation of resources (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008, Indrawan <em>et al.</em> 2008)<strong></strong><strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032655		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species's range is partly protected by Chapada Diamantina National Park, Marimbu/Iraquara State Environmental Protection Area, and possibly Morro do Chapu State Park. Forest clearance is reported to be ongoing in the national park (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to find new locations and obtain a population estimate. Monitor population trends. Monitor the extent and condition of suitable habitat. Promote sustainable ecotourism practices. Protect more forest fragments in the species's known range, perhaps partly through encouragement of private reserve designation (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007). Provide alternatives to local people to reduce pressure on habitats. <p></p>
160032655		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus diamantinensis</em> was described following fieldwork, conducted in 2006, and subsequent analyses of specimens, vocalisations and mitochondrial DNA (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007). It is known only from the Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong> (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007). <p></p>
160032655		habitat	eng	The species inhabits both mature forest and secondary growth (<em>capoeira</em>), on terrain varying from steep to almost flat, at 850-1,600 m (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007)<strong></strong>. It is often found in low <em>capoeira</em> dominated by the fern <em>Pteridium aquilinum</em>. It may infrequently visit adjacent shrubby <em>campo rupestre </em>vegetation. It favours patches of dense vegetation such as bamboo stands, masses of dead fern leaves and fallen stems. The species has been observed to move around at ground level and in the lower vegetation strata, up to 2 m above the ground (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007). <p></p>
160032655		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified and further research is required.
160032655		threats	eng	Its habitat is threatened by clearance for agriculture, primarily the cultivation of coffee and bananas, as well as cutting for both subsistence and industrial scale charcoal production and frequent wildfires originally set to improve pasture or clear vegetation for shifting agriculture (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007, R. Belmonte-Lopes and M. R. Bornschein <em>in litt</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. The remaining forest fragments in the Chapada Diamantina are described as very disturbed. Large-scale governmental projects and unsustainable ecotourism are also listed as threats (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007). The species's ability to persist in both young and old secondary growth, including regenerating logged forest (Bornschein<em> et al</em>. 2007) indicates some tolerance of habitat degradation and disturbance. <p></p>
160032657		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common and rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).  </P>
160032662		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (&lt;10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be &gt;10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).  </P>
160032663		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it was described as common and widespread when considered conspecific with <i>C. fuscus</i> and <i>C. albidiventris</i>.
160032664		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified; it was described as common and widespread when considered conspecific with <i>C. fuscus</i> and <i>C. albiventris</i>.
160032666		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032667		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032668		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032669		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified.
160032671		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (&lt;10,000 mature   individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be &gt;10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).
160032672		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032673		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032674		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032675		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032676		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).
160032677		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The sole protected area in the species's range, which covers only a small fraction, is the El Dorado Bird Reserve (Krabbe 2008, Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, protecting c.420 ha of suitable habitat that contains c.40 <em>A. rufipectus</em> territories (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. An expansion of the reserve by c.100 ha in 2010 aimed to encompass an area of primary closed-canopy forest for this species (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate. Monitor population trends. Monitor trends in the extent and condition of habitat. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. <p></p>
160032677		distribution	eng	<em>Automolus rufipectus</em> has been split from <em>A. rubiginosus</em> following research into its vocalisations (Krabbe 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is endemic to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in north-eastern <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is found mainly on the northern and north-western slopes (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032677		habitat	eng	The species inhabits humid subtropical primary forest and secondary habitats with dense undergrowth (Krabbe 2008, Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, which form transitional habitats between the dry <em>Acacia</em> scrub of the lowlands and more humid forest above 2,100 m (Krabbe 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It occurs principally at 1,100-1,800 m (Krabbe 2008, Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, with occasional records ranging from 700 to 2,100 m (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong></strong>. It has been observed to forage on the ground or within 0.5 m of the ground, often rummaging among large dead leaves, and also examining decaying wood (Krabbe 2008)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It likely feeds on invertebrates and small vertebrates such as frogs and lizards (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species nests in steep embankments (Krabbe 2008, Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032677		population	eng	The population size has not been directly quantified and further research is required. The species was described as rare to locally fairly common when considered conspecific with <i>A. rubiginosus</i>.
160032677		threats	eng	Large areas of habitat around Pueblo Viejo have been destroyed by fires, but considerable expanses of forest and scrub still occur between Pueblo Viejo and the San Lorenzo ridge (Krabbe 2008)<strong></strong>. Closed-canopy subtropical forest in the species's range is described as extremely fragmented owing mainly to clearance for coffee cultivation and pasture (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, although the species shows a preference for closed-canopy forest (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it has been recorded in heavily disturbed areas (Krabbe 2008)<strong></strong> and occupies overgrown coffee plantations (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, demonstrating some tolerance of habitat degradation and disturbance. Secondary habitats, as well as primary forest, remain threatened by clearance, as driven by high coffee and land prices (Fundación ProAves in press)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032678		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Search for the species on suitable river islands between the known locations. Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate. Monitor population trends. Monitor the condition of suitable habitat in its potential range. Designate occupied islands as protected areas. Put forward best practice guidelines to limit the impact of tourism on unprotected islands. Study the effects of changes in water flow caused by dams. <p></p>
160032678		distribution	eng	<em>Synallaxis beverlyae</em> was discovered in 1998 on a small island in the Río Orinoco in south-western <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Hilty and Ascanio 2009). The species has since been found on other islands and banks of the main channel of the Río Orinoco in Venezuela (Hilty and Ascanio 2009) and <strong>Colombia </strong>(Donegan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<sup></sup>. The type locality is c.22 km south of Puerto Ayacucho, with the species subsequently being found on at least two islands in the delta of the Río Orinoco (Hilty and Ascanio 2009) and reported from the Colombian side of the river<strong> </strong>(Donegan <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The species is suspected to occur on other islands between the currently known locations. <p></p>
160032678		habitat	eng	The species is so far only known to inhabit successional vegetation on permanent and semi-permanent river islands (Hilty and Ascanio 2009)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The vegetation on such islands typically consists of some taller and stunted trees with dense woody and herbaceous shrubs and vines, and in some cases tall grass. It forages at ground level up to c.3 m (Hilty and Ascanio 2009). <p></p>
160032678		population	eng	The species's population has not been quantified and further study is required.
160032678		threats	eng	There are currently no known major threats to the species, although its habitat is likely to be affected by subsistence-level cultivation on river islands during low-water seasons, as well as the localised clearance of vegetation to accommodate increasing tourism to sandy islands (Hilty and Ascanio 2009). Dams, such as that on the Caño Mánamo, change water flow; however, research is required to document the effects of such changes on river islands and their ecology (Hilty and Ascanio 2009). <p></p>
160032679		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).  </P>
160032680		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (&lt;10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be &gt;10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).  </P>
160032682		population	eng	The population is suspected to lie within the band 500,000-4,999,999 individuals (Partners in Flight, A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)  </P>
160032683		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in India and Bangladesh, although uncommon in the western Ghats and fairly common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998)  </P>
160032685		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of the species's tiny known range is well protected by the Colibrí del Sol Bird Reserve (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. The only other protected area on the Páramo de Frontino massif is the Reserva Forestal Protectora Urrao-Abriaquí, which may not offer adequate protection (Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is suspected to occur in other protected areas in the northern region of the Western Andes<strong><sup></sup></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010). The species is now the subject of ongoing research<strong> </strong>(Fundación ProAves in press). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out further surveys to assess the population size and improve knowledge of its distribution. Monitor population trends. Monitor the extent and condition of habitat in the species's potential range. Increase the area of protected forest in the species's potential range. <p></p>
160032685		distribution	eng	<em>Grallaria fenwickorum</em> was recently described from the Páramo de Frontino massif in the Western Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010, Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010). It is known only from the Colibrí del Sol Bird Reserve and immediate area. The known population numbers only 24 territories; however, an extrapolation of habitat preferences across the reserve and adjacent suitable habitat, based on contour maps of the eastern and south-eastern slopes of the Páramo del Sol massif, gives an estimated known range size of 5.8 km<sup>2</sup> and thus a cautious estimate of between 57-156 territories (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Each territory refers to a singing adult male, so this figure does not necessarily translate to an estimate of the number of pairs (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The total range of <em>G. fenwickorum </em>is suspected to exceed that which is currently known (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010); however, surveys in suitable areas have failed to locate the species (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Its Extent of Occurrence (EOO), over which it is probably extant, has been estimated at c.80 km<sup>2</sup> by BirdLife International. <p></p>
160032685		habitat	eng	This species appears to be restricted to primary and secondary oak-dominated montane forest at 2,500-3,300 m (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010) on the less humid east-facing or sheltered valleys of the Western Andes (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested that the species could range lower in elevation, below 2,500 m (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010); however, the majority of humid montane forest below that elevation on the eastern slope of the Western Andes has been cleared (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It inhabits the forest understorey and its territories are largely restricted to <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo thickets (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The stomach contents of specimens contained insects, mostly beetle (Coleoptera) remains, but they have been observed to take worms (Annelida) both in natural situations and at a feeding station (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010, <strong></strong>Fundación ProAves in press). Breeding is probably concentrated during the first half of the year<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010). <p></p>
160032685		population	eng	The known population numbers only 24 territories; however, an extrapolation of habitat preferences across the reserve and adjacent suitable areas, based on contour maps of the eastern and south-eastern slopes of the Páramo del Sol massif, gives an estimated known range size of 5.8 km2 and thus a cautious estimate of 57-156 territories. Each territory refers to a singing adult male, so this figure does not necessarily translate to an estimate of the number of pairs, and hence there are estimated to be fewer than 250 mature individuals, with the population placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals. This equates to 75-374 individuals in total, rounded here to 70-400 individuals.
160032685		threats	eng	The species's habitat is threatened by on-going moderate levels of deforestation for pasture and cultivation, and is potentially threatened by mineral extraction (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong></strong><strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010), which has so far been limited by local political instability<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but has seen a recent increase in interest as public order has improved<strong> </strong> (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. The threat of forest conversion is exacerbated by the largely private ownership of land in the Páramo de Sol massif and the low level of habitat protection in the region<strong> </strong> (Barrera <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. Forests in the region are also affected by timber extraction and hunting<strong></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(Carantón-Ayala and Certuche-Cubillos 2010). <p></p>
160032686		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032687		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Restall et al. 2006).
160032688		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but the species has been described as 'common' at both low and higher elevations (Garrido et al. 2005).  </P>
160032689		conservation	eng	<p><strong>Conservation         Actions Underway</strong><br/>         The species is the subject of ongoing research (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011). </p>         <strong>Conservation         Actions Proposed</strong><br/>         Study habitat use by the species throughout the year and in relation to         its life history. Carry out further survey work to         confirm the population size. Monitor population trends. Initiate a         citizen science programme focussed on the species and involving local         schools. Protect coppiced habitats and encourage the         practice to increase the extent of such habitats. Plant         disease-resistant cultivars of coconut palm on North Andros to replace         those already lost (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011). Examine the feasibility of translocating the species to Abaco, from which it has been extirpated (Price <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011).
160032689		distribution	eng	<em>Icterus         northropi</em> was recently split from <em>I. dominicensis</em>         following studies into the morphology, life history, vocalisations and         genetics of the <em>dominicensis </em>group (Price and Hayes 2009, Sturge <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009). It is         endemic to the Andros group in <strong>The Bahamas</strong>, including North         Andros, South Andros and Mangrove Cay. It formerly occurred on Abaco,         but disappeared for unknown reasons in the early 1990s (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011).         In 1997, a "liberal" estimate was put forward of 150-300 individuals on         North Andros and South Andros (Price and Hayes 2009); however, more recent surveys         recorded a total of 81 individuals on North Andros, 22 on Mangrove Cay,         and 24 on South Andros. Assuming 50-100%         detectability, total numbers are estimated at 127-254 (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011).         These surveys did not extend to the interior (pine forest) and western         side (mangrove) of Andros; however, the species is thought to be rare         in these habitats (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2005, M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011, W. K. Hayes<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011). Habitat on Wood Cay may be         suitable, but other cays within and around Andros are thought likely to         be too small to support populations. Initial results of a genetic study         suggest that the species has one subpopulation, as there is some         movement between islands (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011).
160032689		habitat	eng	This         species inhabits open forests and edge habitats and relies heavily on         palms (Jaramillo and Burke 1999). Indeed, the planting of coconut palms in         residential areas has allowed the species to spread into human         settlements. It also relies on coppiced broadleaved woodland, including         areas of mixed pine and coppice (Currie <em>et al.</em> 2005, M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011). It feeds         primarily on insects and fruit (Jaramillo and Burke 1999). The species nests in palms (Price <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011), in         May and June (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).
160032689		population	eng	The global population has been estimated at c.140-260 individuals based on recent breeding season surveys. This is roughly equivalent to 93-180 mature individuals.
160032689		threats	eng	Perhaps         the two most significant threats are brood parasitism by the Shiny         Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>, which arrived in the 1990s, and         lethal yellowing, which has destroyed entire communities of coconut         palm within the last five years, such as that of Staniard Creek, which has suffered 97% mortality. In 2009, the species was completely         absent from this settlement, where they were formerly common. Lethal         yellowing appears not to have reached South Andros or Mangrove Cay, as         they had very healthy palm populations in 2009, and there appears to be         a much higher density of orioles on these islands than         on North Andros (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011). The cowbird population does not         appear to be increasing (W. K. Hayes<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011). On South Andros, the         coppiced habitats that the species favours are threatened by major road         and agricultural developments (M. Price <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010, 2011, W. K. Hayes<em> in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2011). Additional         potential threats include forest fires, logging, introduced diseases,         invasive species (in particular rats and feral cats), and the potential         effects of climate change in terms of sea-level rise and changes in         habitat distributions (Price and Hayes 2009).
160032690		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as common to locally very common.
160032691		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been quantified, but it is described as fairly common to common.
160032693		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but the taxon is considered fairly common to common.
160032694		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a total population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor the clearance and degradation of favoured habitats. Quantify the impact of nest predation by rats. Carry out control measures against rats. Protect tracts of forest occupied by the species. <p></p>
160032694		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus olivaceofuscus</em> is endemic to São Tomé, <strong>São Tomé e Príncipe</strong>. It is widely distributed at low densities (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong></strong>, being found in most habitats with tree cover (Dallimer <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong> and, although its population size has not been estimated, it is thought to number more than 2,500 individuals (R. Faustino de Lima <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032694		habitat	eng	The species inhabits primary and secondary forest up to 2,024 m (Atkinson <em>et al.</em> 1991, Christy and Clarke 1998)<strong></strong>. It prefers lowland habitats, and also occupies cocoa plantations with <em>Erythrina</em> shade trees, orchards, gardens and coffee plantations, as well as dry woodland in savanna and cloudforest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005, Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates and fruit. Breeding takes place from the end of July until January, with a peak between October and December. The nest, in which two eggs are laid, is a bulky cup of mixed dry plant matter and mud, usually situated 0.5-4 m above the ground in dense vegetation (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>2005)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032694		population	eng	The species's population size has not been estimated, but it is thought to number more than 2,500 individuals (R. Faustino de Lima <em>in litt</em>. 2010). <p></p>
160032694		threats	eng	The area of remaining primary forest is small and could be vulnerable to destruction and degradation in the future. On-going changes in land use are driven largely by a growing human population and foreign investment in agricultural projects such as the expansion of oil palm cultivation (R. Faustino de Lima <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. The removal of shade trees in cocoa plantations is a local threat (del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts of São Tomé are increasing access to previously remote areas (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000)<strong></strong>. As such, habitat loss and degradation are becoming increasingly serious threats (R. Faustino de Lima <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. Many nests are destroyed by brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus </em>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005)<strong></strong>. It also suffers an unquantified level of mortality through persecution by children who commonly target the species with slingshots (R. Faustino de Lima <em>in litt</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2010)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032695		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Most of the remaining primary forest on Príncipe is protected by Parque Natural d'Obô do Príncipe (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As part of the management plan for protected areas, currently being drafted by the government and ECOFAC (an EU-funded conservation programme for the forests of Central Africa), the species was chosen as one of a suite of indicator species that will be monitored through regular surveys in order to assess the effectiveness of the protected areas for biodiversity conservation (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor habitat trends. Adopt <em>T. xanthorhynchus</em> as a flagship species for conservation on Príncipe (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Study the potential threat of hunting pressure. Initiate education and awareness-raising campaigns to reduce any hunting pressure. Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods to reduce reliance on the harvesting of non-timber forest products (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032695		distribution	eng	<em>Turdus xanthorhynchus</em> is endemic to the island of Príncipe, <strong>São Tomé e Principe</strong><sup> </sup>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005). The taxon was discovered in 1901 (<strong></strong>Clement and Hathway 2000, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. After an absence of records since the 1920s, it was rediscovered in 1997, and has since been found to be common in the remaining forest in the centre and south of the island (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005, Jones and Tye 2006, Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is now considered a separate species rather than a subspecies of <em>T. olivaceofuscus </em>(Melo <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Following a survey of Príncipe in 2007, a population estimate of 364 individuals (95% CI: 186-887) was put forward (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, the authors consider this to be an overestimate because the species does not occupy all areas of primary forest and the data may have been biased by the species's habit of readily approaching humans, thus it is estimated that there are fewer than 250 mature individuals (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032695		habitat	eng	The species has been recorded in primary forest from the lowlands to c.800 m at least, although most birds occur above 400 m (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on invertebrates and fruit (<strong></strong>Clement and Hathway 2000, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Breeding by <em>T. olivaceofuscus</em> prior to the recent taxonomic change was described as taking place from the end of July through to January, with a peak in October-December (<strong></strong>Clement and Hathway 2000, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Its nest is a bulky cup of mixed dry vegetation and mud, covered externally with dead leaves, moss and twigs and it  usually lays a clutch of two eggs (<strong></strong>Clement and Hathway 2000, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032695		population	eng	Data collected during a survey of Príncipe in 2007 were used to derive a population estimate of 364 individuals (with a 95% confidence interval of 186-887). However, the authors consider this to be an overestimate because the species does not occupy all areas of primary forest and the data may have been biased by the species's confiding nature, thus it is estimated that there are fewer than 250 mature individuals.
160032695		threats	eng	There is evidence that deforestation since human colonisation in the 1500s (Jones and Tye 2006)<strong><sup></sup></strong> would have caused dramatic declines in this species (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Deforestation is still a threat, but much reduced by the recent protection of the majority of primary forest on Príncipe (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. It is speculated that, as the species is very tame (<strong></strong>Clement and Hathway 2000, Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, it may suffer some mortality through opportunistic hunting (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. However, there is only circumstantial evidence from the comparison of survey data and interviews with local people that it is disappearing from areas of forest frequently used by people (Dallimer <em>et al</em>. 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. As a species that is restricted to one small island, it is potentially threatened by the introduction of alien species. <p></p>
160032696		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Rat control in 1996-2008 resulted in a 25% increase in survival of breeding females and a 100% increase in reproductive success, stabilising studied populations (VanderWerf and Smith 2002, VanderWerf 2009). Further rat control is currently taking place at other populations, but efficacy has been variable (VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011b). Critical habitat has been designated on O`ahu (USFWS 2001). Captive breeding has been suggested (E. VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>1999). Recent research has shown that nesting height of Oahu Elepaios is increasing through evolution by selection from rat predation, which has lead to an overall increase in nest success in at least one population (VanderWerf in press).  <br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends. Closely monitor the extent and quality of habitat. Conduct research into disease resistance (VanderWerf 2009). Implement further measures to control introduced rats (VanderWerf 2009). Protect forest from fires and development (USFWS 2006)<strong></strong>. Investigate whether nesting height is increasing in other parts of the island.<p></p>
160032696		distribution	eng	<em>Chasiempis ibidis</em> is endemic to O`ahu in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) (VanderWerf <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. It had an estimated population of 1,973birds in 1992-2000, restricted to c.55 km<sup>2</sup> in the Ko`olau and Wai`anae mountains, and including six isolated populations of 50-500 birds and several others of 10 or fewer (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 1997, VanderWerf 1998, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. This is only 25% of the range occupied in c.1975, and less than 4% of the presumed prehistoric range (VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The breeding population was estimated to be smaller, at c.1,770 birds, owing to a male-biased sex-ratio (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001, USFWS 2006). The  genetically effective population size may be even lower because of the  fragmented distribution (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. The species has continued to decline over much of its range, particularly in the Wai`anae mountains, where only 300 birds were found in 2006-2010  (VanderWerf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2011a). Surveys are underway in the Koolau Mountains to provide a complete update of current status (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt.</em> 2012)<strong></strong>.<p></p>
160032696		habitat	eng	The species is most abundant in mesic forest in valleys (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>, preferring mixed-species forest with a tall canopy and well-developed understorey, at 200-800 m (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is less common in drier forest (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032696		population	eng	The breeding population was estimated at 1,768 mature individuals following surveys conducted in the 1990s (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001), and is placed between 1,500-2,000 mature individuals here, roughly equivalent to 2,200-3,000 individuals in total.
160032696		threats	eng	Habitat loss to development has been extensive, with 56% of its former range zoned for agricultural or urban development (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. Diseases such as avian pox and malaria, spread by mosquitoes, are a problem throughout its range, increasing mortality of adults by c.10-25%, and possibly preventing birds from nesting (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Malaria prevalence in the species has been recorded at 87%, with 36% of birds showing signs of avian pox (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. High prevalence of mosquito-borne diseases and local declines in the species's population are associated with high rainfall (USFWS 2006, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. Nest-predation by black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> is the most serious current problem (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 1997, VanderWerf 1998, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001, VanderWerf 2009)<strong></strong>, leading to a male-biased sex ratio (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001)<strong></strong>. Fires are known to destroy key habitat and promote the spread of alien plants on O`ahu (USFWS 2006)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032697		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>The species is monitored to a limited extent (M. Gorresen<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong> and there are several protected areas within its range. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor the population. Monitor actual and potential threats, particularly diseases. <p></p>
160032697		distribution	eng	<em>Chasiempis sclateri</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) (VanderWerf <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. It had an estimated population of nearly 40,000 individuals in 1968-1973, apparently reduced by c. 50% in the 1990s (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995)<strong></strong>, although this apparent decrease may be due to differences in methodology, rather than a genuine population decrease. The species now appears to be recovering well, with an increase of 13% in the mean density recorded on the Akala`i Plateau  and Kôke`e region between 2000 and 2008, resulting in an estimated population size of 28,506 individuals (95% CI: 14,256-36,666) in 2008 (M. Gorresen<em> in litt. </em>2011).<p></p>
160032697		habitat	eng	The species is most abundant in wet to mesic montane forest, also occurring in mesic woodland at lower densities. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032697		population	eng	Surveys in the Alaka`i Plateau and Kôke`e region in 2008 yielded a population estimate of 28,506 individuals (95% CI: 14,256-36,666) (M. Gorresen <em>in litt.</em> 2011), thus the population is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals.
160032697		threats	eng	In 1992, Hurricane Iniki drastically reduced all populations (Pratt 1994)<strong></strong>. Although the species is recovering well (M. Gorresen<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>, it remains vulnerable to future catastrophic events such as hurricanes. Diseases, such as avian pox and malaria, spread by mosquitoes, are a problem at low and middle elevations, increasing mortality and possibly preventing birds from nesting (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999, USFWS 2001, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. High prevalence of mosquito-borne diseases and local declines in the species's population are associated with high rainfall (USFWS 2006, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. The species is increasing despite the potentially negative impacts of introduced species, with cats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Felis catus</span>) and rats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus spp</span>.) being potential predators, and ungulates and alien plant species causing habitat degradation. It remains susceptible, however, to the consequences of further introductions. <p></p>
160032698		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>For <em>bryani,</em> the removal of goats and sheep from Mauna Kea has been <a style="mso-comment-reference:E_1;mso-comment-date:20120418T1401">attempted</a>, but ungulate numbers have not declined sufficiently to allow regeneration and so habitat degradation is continuing. Cats were controlled (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999)<strong></strong>, but this has now ceased due to an end in funding (T. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Habitat restoration and reforestation at mid and high elevations on Hawai`i is expected to benefit <em>sandwichensis</em> and<em> ridgwayi</em><strong> </strong>(T. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> 2007). Fencing is underway on Mauna Kea to protect Palila <em>Loxioides&#160;bailleui </em>critical habitat by excluding ungulates, and this also should benefit the Hawaii Elepaio.  <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Continue to monitor population trends in all subspecies. Monitor the extent and condition of habitat for all subspecies. For <em>bryani,</em> improve fire management, improve control of mammalian predators and herbivores, and reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve. For all areas, reduce spread of non-native plants such as strawberry guava <span style="font-style: italic;">Psidium cattleianum</span>, bushcurrant <span style="font-style: italic;">Miconia calvescens</span> and Christmasberry <span style="font-style: italic;">Schinus terebinthifolius</span>.<p></p>
160032698		distribution	eng	<em>Chasiempis sandwichensis</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) (VanderWerf <em>et al</em>. 2009)<strong></strong>. There are three recognised subspecies, but variation in appearance is clinal and there is broad overlap (VanderWerf 2011): <em>C. s. bryani</em> had an estimated population of c.2,500 birds in 1983, and may be declining; the other two subspecies had populations estimated at c.63,000 for <em>C. s. sandwichensis</em> and c.150,000 for <em>C. s. ridgwayi</em> in 1976-1979 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. Surveys in the Central Windward region of Hawai`i from 1977 to 2003 indicate that the species is stable at most high elevation areas and declining at some low elevations (Gorresen <em>et al.</em> 2005)<strong></strong>, and there is also evidence of a decline in the Ka`u region between 1976 and 2005 (Tweed<em> et al.</em> 2007)<strong></strong>. Its disappearance from Pohakuloa Training Area  was recently noted (VanderWerf 2011), and declines have been detected in high elevation mamane-naio forests (E. VanderWerf<em> in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032698		habitat	eng	Subspecies <em>bryani</em> occupies arid, mostly high-altitude mamane and mamane-naio woodland, whilst <em>sandwichensis</em> occurs in mesic habitats on western and south-western slopes, and <em>ridgwayi</em> is restricted to wet, eastern slopes (Pratt 1980, Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986, VanderWerf 1998)<strong></strong>. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>. <p></p>
160032698		population	eng	Population estimates for each subspecies are as follows: <em>bryani</em> c.2,500 birds in 1983; <em>sandwichensis </em>c.63,000 birds in 1983; and <em>ridgwayi</em> c.150,000 birds in 1976-1979 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986), giving a total population estimate of c.216,000 individuals. <p></p>
160032698		threats	eng	The habitat of <em>bryani</em> has been heavily browsed by feral ungulates and introduced grasses suppress regeneration and potentially increase the risk of fire (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986)<strong></strong>.  Diseases, such as avian pox and malaria, spread by mosquitoes, are a problem at low and middle elevations, increasing mortality and possibly preventing birds from nesting (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. High prevalence in mosquito-borne diseases and local declines in the species's population are associated with high rainfall (VanderWerf 2001b, Gorresen <em>et al.</em> 2005, VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2006)<strong></strong>. It has been suggested that the species may also suffer increased mortality associated with infection by chewing lice (Phthiraptera) (Freed <em>et al</em>. 2008).  It remains vulnerable to future catastrophic events such as hurricanes (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 2012)<br/><p></p>
160032699		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but the taxon is considered local to common.
160032700		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified, but the species has been described as 'local' (del Hoyo et al. 2001).  </P>
160032701		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>It is formally  protected by Paria Peninsula and El Guácharo National Parks. The latter  reserve was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong> </strong>(Gabaldón  1992). The Turimiquire massif is a Protective Zone, but in practice the  legal status is not enforced.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Develop alternative agricultural techniques for areas adjacent to Paria  Peninsula National Park (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995, Sharpe 2008).
160032701		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Grallaricula cumanensis</span> is endemic to the mountains of north-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Venezuela</span>. It occurs disjunctly on the Paria Peninsula, Sucre   (ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">pariae</span>), and in the  Turimiquire Massif (both the Serranía de Turimiquire west of the San  Antonio valley, and the Cordillera de Caripe  to the east) on the  borders of Sucre, Anzoategui and Monagas  (ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">cumanensis</span>).
160032701		habitat	eng	In the Serranía de Turimiquire, it is known from 1,000-1,850&#160;m. On Cerro  Humo, it occurs at 1,100-1,200&#160;m and, on Cerro El Olvido, at 600-885&#160;m.  It inhabits the understorey (up to 2'3 m from the ground) of montane humid  forest, where there is extensive epiphytic growth.
160032701		threats	eng	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture in the Turimiquire Massif and the Paria Peninsula. Swidden agriculture and commercial coffee cultivation occur within strict protected areas: even in El Guácharo National Park there is  clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong> </strong>(Boesman  and Curson 1995, Sharpe 2008). The slopes of Cerro Negro  are largely bare with the more obvious forest patches actually  shade-coffee plantations<strong> </strong>(Boesman and Curson 1995).  There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana, and citrus plantations in  the Turimiquire Massif, but extensive forested areas remain<strong> </strong>(Colvee 1999, Sharpe <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>.  2011). On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture since the mid-  to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest  degradation.
160032702		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>Some areas of forest in its range are afforded protection in designated sites such as Floresta Nacional de Altamira and Jamanxin National Park (Piacentini <em>et al</em>. 2009). No other targeted actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate and improved knowledge of the species's distribution. Monitor population trends. Monitor the extent and condition of habitat in its range. Increase the area of forest in the Teles Pires, Tapajós and Xingu watersheds that is protected. <p></p>
160032702		distribution	eng	<em>Phaethornis aethopyga</em> is recognised as a valid species following a study into aspects of the population's plumage, distribution and behaviour that found strong evidence against its treatment as a hybrid (Piacentini <em>et al</em>. 2009). This species is endemic to <strong>Brazil</strong>, known only from the vicinity of the Teles Pires, Tapajós and Xingu rivers, south of the Amazon (Piacentini <em>et al</em>. 2009). <p></p>
160032702		habitat	eng	The species is mostly restricted to primary forest, although tolerant of areas being logged or affected by one fire event<strong></strong> (A. Lees <em>in litt</em>. 2011), with one lek observed in heavily disturbed <em>terra firme</em> forest (Piacentini <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is nectivorous and, like other hummingbirds, probably supplements this diet with invertebrates such as flying insects and spiders. <p></p>
160032702		population	eng	The population size of this species has not been directly estimated and further research is required. It was described as common to fairly common when considered conspecific with <em>P. longuemareus</em>.
160032702		threats	eng	Within the species's range, habitat destruction and fragmentation as a result of conversion to pasture, road construction and subsequent development and settlement, accompanied by illegal logging, are significant threats, with the Novo Progresso area currently experiencing one of the highest rates of deforestation in the Amazon<strong></strong> (F. Olmos<em> in litt</em>. 2007).<strong> </strong>Current plans to pave the BR 163 Cuiabá-Santarém road are expected to bring even greater habitat destruction, opening up soya markets in the Mato Grosso for rapid transfer to Santarém, unless strong government action is taken (A. Lees <em>in litt. </em>2007). Observations of <em>P. aethopyga</em> in disturbed habitats (Piacentini <em>et al</em>. 2009<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span><strong></strong> A. Lees <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong> suggests that, like many hummingbird species, it tolerates some level of habitat degradation; however, forest fragmentation may lead to the loss of lekking sites, and outright forest clearance is assumed to be catastrophic. <p></p>
160032703		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).  </P>
160032704		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>A small patch (c.1.4 km<sup>2</sup>) of suitable habitat at Páramo de Frontino is effectively protected by Colibrí del Sol Bird Reserve (Fundación ProAves 2011)<strong></strong>. Paramillo National Park supposedly protects Páramo de Paramillo; however in reality it is ineffective, with no attempts to control ongoing high deforestation rates ongoing inside the park (Fundación ProAves 2011). <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate. Search for the species at areas of <em>páramo</em> near the known locations. Monitor population trends. Monitor the extent and condition of suitable habitat. Improve the protection of Paramillo National Park. Increase the area of protected habitat at Páramo de Frontino. <p></p>
160032704		distribution	eng	<em>Scytalopus canus</em> was first described by Chapman in 1915 (Krabbe and Cadena 2010)<strong><sup></sup></strong>, but was subsumed into <em>S. magellanicus</em> until a taxonomic study was published in 1997 (Krabbe and Schulenberg 1997)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. Subsequently <em>S. opacus</em> was treated as a subspecies of <em>S. canus</em> owing to a lack of recorded vocalisations for <em>S. canus</em>; however, a recent analysis of vocal and genetic differences supports their treatment as separate species (Krabbe and Cadena 2010). <em>S. canus </em>is so far only known from Páramo de Paramillo and Páramo de Frontino (Páramo del Sol) in the Western Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Krabbe and Cadena 2010, Fundación ProAves 2011). <p></p>
160032704		habitat	eng	The species inhabits vegetation at the timberline in the transition zone between <em>páramo</em> grasslands and forest, including scrub, stunted trees and <em>Polylepis</em> woodland (Krabbe and Cadena 2010,  (Fundación ProAves 2011). It forages on moss-covered trunks, along branches in dense scrub and on the ground for small invertebrates and berries (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003)<strong><sup></sup></strong>. <p></p>
160032704		population	eng	The population has been estimated to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, although this may be overly conservative given the species's range size. It is placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals, equivalent to 375-1,499 individuals in total, rounded here to 350-1,500 individuals.
160032704		threats	eng	Deforestation continues to affect the timberline ecotone in the species's range (Fundación ProAves 2011). Its habitats are also threatened by fires. In January 2010, a fire accidentally started by hikers destroyed an area of suitable habitat at Páramo de Frontino. Its ability to adapt to regenerating forest (Fundación ProAves <em>in litt</em>. 2011)<strong></strong> may limit the impacts of these threats. As a high elevation species it is potentially threatened by the effects of climate change, which may influence the frequency and severity of fires and droughts and could alter the extent of suitable habitats (Fundación ProAves 2011). <p></p>
160032705		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032706		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <I>et al</I>. 1996).  </P>
160032707		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).
160032708		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. erithacus</span>, prior to the split of <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span>, was put on CITES Appendix II with all Psittaciformes in 1981 at the request of Switzerland and Liechtenstein. Due to concern about the effects of the large numbers of this species traded, it was the subject of a CITES significant trade review, in which it was listed as of "possible concern"<strong></strong> (Inskipp <em>et al.</em> 1988). The Animals Committee of CITES imposed a two-year ban from January 2007 on exports of <em>timneh </em>from four West African countries (Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea), and the importation of wild-caught birds into the EU was prohibited in 2007 (Anon 2011). In 2009 Guinea exported 720 <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span>, despite having a quota of 0 (Anon 2011). Legal trade as monitored by CITES may represent only a small proportion of the total numbers captured from the wild. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. A PhD study assessing distribution, abundance and impacts of trade and habitat loss for <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh </span>was due to begin in 2011 (Anon 2011).<br/><p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Ensure that proposed trade restrictions are implemented. Monitor wild populations to determine ongoing trends. <p></p>
160032708		distribution	eng	<em>Psittacus timneh</em>, which was formerly considered conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. erithacus</span>, is endemic to the western parts of the moist Upper Guinea forests and bordering savannas of West Africa, from <strong>Guinea-Bissau</strong> east through <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sierra Leone</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liberia </span>and southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mali </span>east to at least 70&#160;km east of the Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire. Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia are thought to hold the largest populations, which were estimated at 54,000-130,000 and 50,000-100,000 individuals respectively by Dändliker (1992), who gave a total population estimate of c.120,000-259,000 individuals in 1992. It appears to have disappeared completely from the forests on and near Mt Nimba in Nimba County, Liberia; surveys between 2008-2011 in the East Nimba Nature Reserve and nearby forest failed to find the species, and no there was no indication from locals that they have been present in recent times (B. Phalan and F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt. </em>2012). The species was surprisingly scarce in the Nimba area as early as the 1970s (Colston &amp; Curry-Lindahl 1986). Gatter (1997) estimated c.1,400 birds smuggled from Cote d’Ivoire annually between 1981-1984, over 99% being <em>P. timneh</em>. In the Gola Forest area in Sierra Leone it persists but never seems to have been particularly abundant, with groups rarely reaching double figures (J. Lindsell and F. Dowsett-Lemaire <em>in litt. </em>2012). Trapping for the wild bird trade and high rates of forest habitat loss are presumed to be driving rapid declines throughout the range.<br/><p></p>
160032708		habitat	eng	Although typically inhabiting dense forest, they are commonly observed  at forest edges, clearings, gallery forest, mangroves, wooded savannah,  cultivated areas, and even gardens (Juniper and Parr 1998)<strong></strong>,  but it is not clear whether these are self-sustaining populations. May make seasonal movements out of the  driest parts of the range in the dry season.<p></p>
160032708		population	eng	<p>Based on the estimated density of the species and <em>P. erithacus</em> in Ghana and Guinea, Dändliker (1992) calculated population estimates for Côte d'Ivoire (54,000-130,000 individuals), Liberia (50,000-100,000), Sierra Leone (11,000-18,000), Guinea (5,000-10,000) and Guinea-Bissau (100-1,000). These estimates have been used as the basis for setting export quotas in the past. Assuming any population in southern Mali to be insignificant, this gives a total estimate of c.120,000-259,000 individuals in 1992, which may now be lower if the species is declining rapidly. Gatter (1997) estimated significantly higher density of two breeding pairs / km<sup>2</sup> in logged forest north of Zwedru, Liberia, however, thus the likely total population remains highly uncertain. The population is placed in the band 100,000-499,999 mature individuals in the absence of further data.</p><p></p>
160032708		threats	eng	The species has been heavily traded: during 1994-2003, over 359,000  wild-caught individuals (combined total of <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span>, the majority <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus</span>) were reportedly exported from range states  (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, October 2005)<strong></strong>.  Together with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. erithacus</span>, it is one of the most popular avian pets in Europe, the United States,  and the Middle East due to its longevity and unparalleled ability to  mimic human speech and other sounds. While there has been some domestic demand within range states, most  impacts seem to be due to international trade, probably owing to the  high value of this species<strong></strong>. The Animals Committee of CITES imposed a two-year ban from January 2007 on exports of <em>timneh </em>from  four West African countries (Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone and  Guinea), and the importation of wild-caught birds into the EU was  prohibited in 2007, leading to a fall in exports of <span style="font-style: italic;">erithacus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span>, but the number of exportations rose once again in 2008 and 2009 (Anon 2011). In 2009 Guinea exported 720 <span style="font-style: italic;">timneh</span>,  despite having a quota of zero (Anon 2011). Legal trade as monitored by  CITES may represent only a proportion of the total numbers  captured from the wild. Habitat loss is undoubtedly having significant impacts throughout the range. Allport (1991) estimated that c.77% of the Upper Guinea EBA forest cover had been lost at the time of that study. Regional forest loss has continued since that date at a high rate (H. Rainey <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt. </span>2010). In Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, preferred species of nesting trees are also preferred timber species (Clemmons 2003).  <p></p>
160032709		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon and rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).  </P>
160032710		conservation	eng	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Underway</span><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, although the level of protection afforded to these areas varies considerably.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Actions Proposed</span><br/>Carry out an analysis of existing records and conduct surveys to study the species's range and population size. Monitor habitat trends across its range. Conduct research into the species's ecology, habitat requirements and tolerance of habitat fragmentation and degradation. Increase the total area of suitable habitat in the species's range that is protected. Improve the effectiveness of protected area management where necessary.
160032710		distribution	eng	<span style="font-style: italic;">Merops mentalis</span> is found in West Africa, occurring in <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sierra Leone</span>, south-eastern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Guinea</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Liberia</span>, <span style="font-weight: bold;">Côte d’Ivoire</span>, southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Ghana</span>, southern <span style="font-weight: bold;">Nigeria</span> and western <span style="font-weight: bold;">Cameroon</span> (Borrow and Demey 2001, 2004). Despite being widespread, the species generally exists at low densities, even in protected areas (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
160032710		habitat	eng	The species shows some dependence on mature forest, being observed in clearings and along the edges of primary forest and old secondary forest (Borrow and Demey 2001, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001), although it may also feed over agricultural land where a few large trees (alive or dead) remain standing (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2001, F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It appears to prefer evergreen and semi-evergreen forest with a broken canopy and small clearings, also frequenting the edges of forest by roads and swamps (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012, J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012), but it is clearly reliant on areas of intact forest, and is generally not found amongst tree crops and farmbush (J. Lindsell <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). It is usually seen in pairs or small family groups (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012).
160032710		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon and rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).
160032710		threats	eng	This species occurs in a region known for rapid and on-going deforestation. Large remnant tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and small-holder agriculture (Fauna and Flora International 2000). Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragments that are under intense pressure for logging and conversion to agriculture (Fauna and Flora International 2000). Forest in some reserves is being destroyed for teak plantations and cultivation, as well as through illegal logging (e.g. Opro River, Afram Headwaters, Tano Ofin and Atewa Range, Ghana) (F. Dowsett-Lemaire <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span>. 2012). The species's tolerance of some forest degradation and fragmentation implies that it is not undergoing a severe decline.
160032711		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo <I>et al</I>. 2003).  </P>
160032712		conservation	eng	<strong>Conservation Actions Underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its large range, including Khao Nor Chuchi Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), Taman Negara National Park (Malaysia) and Way Kambas National Park (Sumatra) <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003). No other targeted conservation actions are known for this species. <p></p><strong>Conservation Actions Proposed</strong><br/>Carry out surveys to obtain a population estimate and monitor population trends. Monitor trends in the extent and condition of habitat. Reduce trapping pressure through education and awareness campaigns. Provide alternative livelihoods to bird-trappers. Increase the area of suitable primary forest that receives active protection. <p></p>
160032712		distribution	eng	<em>Pitta irena</em> is found in Peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> and <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>and Sumatra,<strong> Indonesia </strong>(Lambert and Woodcock 1996, Rheindt and Eaton 2010). It is described as locally common, although now rare in Thailand and decidedly local in Sumatra <strong></strong>(Lambert and Woodcock 1996). <p></p>
160032712		habitat	eng	The species inhabits lowland floodplain forest, but is also found at higher elevations, perhaps up to c.1,500 m<strong></strong> (Lambert and Woodcock 1996, del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003, Rheindt and Eaton 2010). Indeed, it appears to rely to a large extent on lowland evergreen forest and swamp forest <strong></strong>(Yong Ding Li  <em>in litt</em>. 2011). It favours the interior of primary forest, but is also found in secondary forest <strong></strong>(Lambert and Woodcock 1996), although observations suggest that it does not persist well in altered habitats <strong></strong>(Yong Ding Li  <em>in litt</em>. 2011). Its diet probably comprises invertebrates and berries, which it forages for on the ground and in understorey vegetation. Breeding probably takes place throughout the year <strong></strong>(Lambert and Woodcock 1996). <p></p>
160032712		population	eng	The population size has not been quantified and further research is required.
160032712		threats	eng	Despite some apparent tolerance of habitat alteration, it is threatened by forest loss and degradation, presumably driven by timber extraction and agricultural expansion, as well as capture for the illegal bird trade either through trapping or nest-raiding <strong></strong>(Lambert and Woodcock 1996). It is now considered rare in Thailand, where the majority lowland forest has been logged <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003). A similar situation exists in Malaysia, where it has virtually disappeared from Panti Forest Reserve since 1994 <strong></strong>(del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2003, Yong Ding Li  <em>in litt</em>. 2011). <p></p>
160032713		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).
160032715		population	eng	A combined population estimate of 150,000-1,100,000 individuals was given for <em>A. p. poecilorhyncha</em> and <em>A. p. haringtoni </em>by Miyabayashi and Mundkhur (1999), prior to the recent taxonomic change. <p></p>
160032718		distribution	eng	This species has a large range, occurring from Trinidad and north-east Venezuela to French Guiana.  </P>
160032718		population	eng	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz <I>et al</I>. 1996).  </P>
160032719		population	eng	The population is estimated at 100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees and Christie. 2001). <p></p>
